bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paper 4: Electrification of the London Midland Main Line from Euston
Authors: Emerson A. H.
Published: June 2010

The paper describes the lines on the London Midland Region of British Railways now electrified at 25 kV, 50-cycles, single-phase a.c.

After discussing the commercial and other factors affecting the decision to electrify, the equipment is briefly described, followed by a more detailed account of the planning and execution of the installation work and the creation of the maintenance organization.

The difficulties which have arisen with the equipment and the way in which they have been overcome or are being tackled are then described.

The paper concludes by discussing factors which may influence the prospects of future a.c. electrification in this country.
Paper 9: Technical Limitations of Conventional Railways
Authors: Sykes W. J. A.
Published: June 2010

The running of passenger trains in regular service at speeds up to 100 mile/h is now of common occurrence on a number of railway systems. Above this speed it is necessary to use specially prepared tracks maintained to the highest possible standards at very considerable cost in terms of money, special equipment and time. It is possible to identify three broad classes of modern high-speed railway: (1) where the occasional high-speed train runs in between lower speed services; (2) where the best has been done with an existing railway to make it suitable for a high-speed train service; and (3) specially constructed lines. In all cases there are certain limitations on the acceleration effects to which the passenger may be subjected.

Stopping from the highest speeds requires braking distances such that current ideas and requirements on emergency braking become meaningless. High standards of mental and physical soundness are required of drivers: even so, the driver's reaction to lineside signals is too slow, and external control of train speed by lineside detection systems will be required, linked inductively to regulating equipment on the train.

Provided that a suitable line of route is available there appears at present to be no precise engineering limitation to the attainment of the highest speeds on rail which will intervene before a cost ceiling is reached at which further increases cannot be justified. There may also be a limit to the rate at which passengers can contemplate changes of scenery.
Paper 1: Mechanical Handling of Freight Traffic
Authors: Wilcock H.
Published: June 2010

This paper refers to the wide range of commodities now carried by the railways and deals in particular with those handling problems which require consideration. The development of bulk handling in trains of largest size and operating between fixed points has permitted considerable advance in modern handling techniques, particularly in loading and unloading of the materials carried. Bulk transport of cars and car bodies is also extending rapidly.

The alternative methods of handling containers and the problems facing the railways in catering for home transport and yet being compatible with other forms of transport are referred to. European and world practices in the field of ‘containerization’ are included, and the paper is illustrated with a number of photographs and drawings.
Paper 8: Principles and Practice of Train Performance Applied to London Transport's Victoria Line
Authors: Catling D. T.
Published: June 2010

This paper describes how London Transport endeavours to evaluate the optimum train performance characteristics necessary to meet the peak service requirements for a given line at minimum total cost to itself and hence to the passenger.

The basic factors affecting train performance on a subway system are outlined, and the practical limits to the attainment of ideal performance are described in detail, with particular reference to maximum acceleration, and the high additional energy costs of increasing maximum speed to save time on short runs.

A detailed examination is then made for the Victoria Line service, using a digital computer to assess the net effects on capital and running costs of progressively increasing the proportion of motored axles on the Victoria Line trains, and determining whether the consequent improvements in performance are sufficient to operate the same service with fewer trains. It is concluded that for present London Transport conditions the proportion of driving axles cannot be increased beyond the present figure of 50 per cent without increasing total costs, and this is of considerable interest to London Transport in relation to the more heavily motored formations favoured by many Continental and American subways.

It is shown that appreciable energy savings can be realized on the Victoria Line by the use of the coasting control feature of the Automatic Train Operation scheme and by the incorporation of the ‘hump station’ principle first used on the Central London Tube in 1900.

A comparison is made of the merits of using the hump station principle on a hypothetical new tube line and/or increasing the proportion of driving axles, and it is concluded that the use of even a limited degree of gravity assistance will enable both rolling stock and energy to be saved for a given service, with no increase in the proportion of motored axles.
Paper 6: Application of the Linear Induction Motor to High-Speed Transport
Authors: Barwell F. T. , Laithwaite E. R.
Published: June 2010

High-speed ground transport (150 m/s) to be effective over limited distances also requires high acceleration. Were the power required to overcome air resistance and achieve adequate acceleration provided by conventional means, bulk and mass would be excessive. The linear induction motor offers considerable advantage at high speeds, it is not limited by centrifugal force and is independent of adhesion. A high overhead rating is possible as heat is left behind in the reaction rail.

Output of a double-sided machine may be expected to reach 7 lb/in2 (44 500 N/m2) of effective pole face and the system is equally effective in braking.

The principle of operation is described.

To be efficient the current which is ‘in phase’ with the applied voltage must be made as large as possible compared with the magnetizing current, operation must be at low values of slip and the surface speed of the travelling field should be high. Thus a quantity known as the ‘goodness’ of a machine may be described by the expression

where μ0 is permeability of free space; ρr is surface resistivity of rotor; p, pole pitch; g, total effective air gap in the magnetic circuit; and Vs is surface speed of travelling field = synchronous speed of vehicle.

Because of the simplicity of the construction, g is necessarily larger than would be the case for a conventional machine and ρr is less favourable. However, these can be compensated for by increasing p with a suitable adjustment of frequency and the effect of the term Vs is such that the linear motor becomes better the higher the speed at which it is required to operate.

Tests on a linear motor at Gorton are described and some of the mechanical problems of applying linear propulsion to railways are discussed.
Paper 7: Mechanical Stresses in Pistons, Gudgeon Pins, and Connecting Rods
Authors: Lawton B. , Crutcher D. E. G.
Published: June 2010

The paper deals with some experimental and theoretical developments in piston, gudgeon pin, and connecting-rod stress analysis. Stresses induced by mechanical loads have been measured experimentally in rigs using resistance strain gauge techniques; and with two- and three-dimensional photoelastic models. Theoretical methods have been devised to predict mechanically induced stresses on a basis which permits direct comparison with rig results.
Paper 10: Crankshaft Forging: An Evaluation of Continuous Grain Flow
Authors: Hunt R. J. H. , Russell J. E.
Published: June 2010

Crankshaft manufacture has always demanded the combination of a high degree of practical skill with technical knowledge. The first part of this paper deals with the actual practice of forging. It describes the changes in technique which have taken place to meet the amended requirements of designers. The production of crankshaft forgings by the Continuous Grain Flow (C.G.F.) process is described and comparison is made with similar forgings made by other methods.

The second part deals with the metallurgical problems associated with crankshaft production, showing why Continuous Grain Flow crankshafts are superior. It includes a description of the test programme undertaken by the British Internal Combustion Engine Research Institute which attempts to evaluate this superiority and gives some of the results obtained from this test programme.
Paper 8: Torsional Oscillations in Distributor Fuel Injection Pump Drives
Authors: Glikin P. E.
Published: June 2010

Torsional oscillations generally occur in the drive to a fuel injection pump and, depending on the drive arrangement and the conditions of operation, the maximum dynamic torque in the drive can be considerably in excess of the pumping torque. It is necessary to allow for this effect in the design of the engine, drive, and pump components.

In this paper the methods of measuring the dynamic torque in the drive shaft and the instantaneous acceleration of the rotor of a distributor pump are described. Results of tests on two typical drive arrrangements, both on an engine and on a test machine, are then shown. A theoretical study is made of the drive system with backlash, and the results are compared with experimental values.

It is shown that backlash in the drive can lead to high instantaneous torques and large torque reversals. A design of drive which eliminates backlash is described, and tests carried out on it confirm that the expected improvement is obtained.
Paper 7: Properties of Synovial Fluid
Authors: Davies D. V.
Published: June 2010

Synovial fluid functions both as a lubricant and as a nutritive medium in joints. Its chemical composition suggests that it is a dialysate of blood plasma with the addition of the mucosubstance, hyaluronic acid. In addition the fluid contains a small cellular component. The quantities of some of the chemical components are apparently anomalous and need explanation. The hyaluronic acid, probably combined with a small amount of protein, is believed to be secreted by the cells lining the joint cavity, the synovial cells.

The volume and naked eye appearance of the fluid vary from joint to joint in the same species and in the same joint from species to species. The volume of fluid that can be aspirated from normal human joints is too small for most chemical and physical investigations and recourse must be made to fluids from the larger domestic animals and to pathological human fluids.

The most characteristic property of the fluid is its viscosity. This has been investigated using the Weissenberg rheogoniometer. This allows of a study of the viscosity and elasticity of the fluids at different shear rates. Results on fluid from both normal animal joints and pathological human joints will be presented. Their relevance in joint lubrication will be discussed.
Paper 3: Materials and the Design of Artificial Weight-Bearing Joints
Authors: Neale M. J.
Published: June 2010

In this paper the choice of design and materials for artificial human joints is considered as an engineering design problem, and some possible solutions which result from this approach are discussed.

Various types of plain bearing design are examined and the use of flexible connecting members is suggested as an alternative possibility.

It is considered that the plain bearing designs must be based on the requirement that they should operate with a full fluid film of synovial fluid, and possible designs and materials are discussed from this point of view.

The effect of fixation problems on the total design is also examined, and designs which appear to offer a rational solution are proposed.

It is concluded that for bearing engineers to make any major contribution to the design problem requires more information on the variation of joint load in both magnitude and direction in relation to the timing of joint movement.

Research into the performance of plastic on plastic bearings is also desirable with more information on which plastic materials are biologically acceptable.
Paper 12: Modes of Lubrication in Human Joints
Authors: Dowson D.
Published: June 2010

The various lubrication regimes encountered in engineering are listed and the basic characteristics of each regime described. This survey covers hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic, mixed, and boundary lubrication conditions.

The geometric, kinematic, and loading conditions in human joints are examined, and the basic properties of synovial fluid and articular cartilage, as the lubricant and bearing material respectively, noted. An assessment of the hydrodynamic, boundary, weeping, and elastohydrodynamic modes of operation which have been proposed as explanations of the performance of human joints is presented.
Paper 9: Problems of Acetabular Fixation in Total Hip Replacement
Authors: Wilson J. N.
Published: June 2010

The need for complete joint replacement in the surgical treatment of osteo-arthritis of the hip is becoming more apparent following the unpredictable results of other forms of arthroplasty where only one or other side of the joint is replaced. The introduction of total hip prosthesis poses the problem of fixation of the acetabular component. Charnley's contribution in using acrylic cement to grout in the stem of the femoral component has largely solved the fixation on this side of the joint. It is not so easy to apply the same principle to the acetabular part of the prosthesis. No fixation, long-screw fixation, and straight-pin fixation have not proved satisfactory. It remains to be seen whether the present method used by McKee and Charnley, of a press fit into cement, will prove the test of time. In the early stages of development of the Stanmore hip joint various forms of acetabular fixation were considered. It was finally decided that an adequate hold could only be obtained by three-point fixation, using diverging nails inserted into the three primary bony components of the acetabulum. This principle has been maintained in the later models, but by using cement for grouting the nails, it has been possible to simplify the prosthesis and discard some of the complicated instruments required for the insertion. A brief description of the surgical technique will be given.
Research Report 7: A Laboratory Experiment on Total Hip Prosthesis
Authors: Poli A.
Published: June 2010

A simple mechanical device for testing weight-bearing resistance of total hip prosthesis has been developed. Head and cotyle are submitted to movement very close to that of natural hips of a man walking at 6 km/h.

Stainless steel femoral heads have been tested against artificial cotyles made of three different materials: Nylonplast A, Teflon and Delrin. Among the three, Delrin proved the most resistant and safest material for building the cotyle when a steel femoral head is used.
Paper 4: Opening, Carding and Spinning Preparation Machines
Authors: Catling H.
Published: June 2010

There are no serious bearing problems in opening and carding machines. Except for the high-speed beaters and cylinders, occasionally-oiled plain journals were long regarded as adequate despite the fact that many of them operated under boundary lubrication conditions. Stable hydrodynamic film conditions were maintained in beater and cylinder bearings and some simple form of lubricant reservoir was usually provided. In recent years the introduction of shift working and high machine utilization factors have led to a demand for machines requiring a minimum of attention. This demand is being met by the use of prepacked, sealed ball or roller bearings at all points.

Perhaps the most serious and intractable bearing problem in the whole field of textile machinery manufacture is encountered in drawframes and speedframes. For uniformity of the drawing action by which the fibres are straightened and finally attenuated to form a roving, it is necessary for all the drafting rollers to rotate perfectly smoothly. Unfortunately the loading conditions and the rotational speeds of some of the rollers are such that there is often a high liability to the occurrence of spontaneous stick–slip torsional vibrations. In other cases there is an incipient liability to stick–slip vibration and quite small gearing faults, of the appropriate frequency, are sufficient to precipitate high amplitude oscillations.

At the frequencies commonly observed the non-uniformity of the drawing action introduces into the sliver or roving a periodic disturbance of a wavelength so short that it is not readily apparent in the delivery from the affected machine. Subsequent drafting, however, increases the wavelength and the ultimate yarn exhibits appreciable variations in mass per unit length and in twist distribution. As these variations are strictly periodic they form objectionable interference patterns when used as weft in either woven or knitted cloths. New machine designs and the use of new types of bearings have largely solved these problems and at the same time greatly increased operating speeds.

The comber, too, has been intensively developed during the past ten years and a number of lubrication and wear problems have required attention.
Paper 8: The Fundamentals of Lubrication Processes
Authors: Dowson D. , Robertson J. A.
Published: June 2010

The authors outline the fundamental aspects of lubrication conditions and distinguish between hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic, and boundary lubrication. The discussion is concerned with the physics rather than the mathematics. The important lubricant properties and the role of bearing geometry are considered.

This discussion of modern views on lubrication is perfectly general but operating conditions encountered in textile machinery are considered so that the various types of lubrication in practice can be identified.
Paper 1: Metallurgical Aspects of Wear
Authors: Scott D.
Published: June 2010

Progress in wear prevention can be aided by a clearer understanding of the failure mechanisms and their controlling factors. Metallurgical aspects, which affect the choice of materials, and metallographic changes brought about by service conditions can influence the basic mechanisms. Topography and structure can affect the frictional and wear behaviour of materials, so a careful study of the surfaces involved and the structure of surface layers is necessary to assess changes due to relative motion, lubricant and environmental effects. Various types of wear such as scuffing, abrasion, fretting, and pitting are described; the mechanisms of failure and the metallurgical factors involved are discussed and illustrated. Metallurgical methods of reducing wear by surface treatments such as carburizing, nitriding, and hard facing are described. Methods of controlling wear by surface treatments which lubricate such as phosphating, soft nitriding and solid film are discussed.
Paper 1: The Chartered Engineer in the Manufacturing Industry
Authors: Stuchbery A. L.
Published: June 2010

This paper sets out the increasing need for broadly based training and engineering practice in the whole spectrum of modern industry.

It indicates the breadth of requirements required: first, in the design of the product itself, both for functional and production suitability; secondly, that needed for the physical arrangements for manufacture; thirdly, that required in the complex business of administration and control of production, and finally, that required for the effective sale and distribution of the product.

It underlines the need that the basic training will ensure adequate sympathy and interplay in these fields and that specialization should be in ultimate practices rather than basic training.

It deals with the dual responsibilities of the academic and industrial sides of education and the necessity for the effective means by which the industrial part of training can be validated with the same authority as can be achieved in the academic field.

It concludes with the plea that every effort must be made during the period of training to encourage those who may be gifted in the fields of innovation and change, whether these be inventions of mechanical contrivances, or the development of new methods and means in production or management.
Paper 5: The Chartered Engineer of the Future
Authors: Thring M. W.
Published: June 2010

Since the Chartered Engineer can make a major contribution to all the most important problems of the regulation of civilization, it follows that he has a tremendous responsibility to society to study these problems and devote as much as possible of his skill in original engineering to their solution. It is suggested that in the future every engineer will take a Hippocratic oath on becoming chartered. It also follows that the C.E.I. must have, in the future, a very great responsibility for working out national and international policy on engineering developments.

There are a number of major problems which urgently need consideration by qualified engineers on a national basis.

The Chartered Engineer of the future will be trained for this responsibility by developing his natural inventiveness and showing him how to make the inventive leap by teaching him the application of the laws of science to inventive problems and by teaching the knowledge of reality through the hands (creative design). The engineer will be trained on how to think about and understand his social responsibility. The C.E.I. will take a number of active steps to upgrade the status of engineering in the schools, including the setting up of a special grade of Fellowship.

The Chartered Engineer of the future will decide what to invent and develop by his understanding both of the needs of humanity and their economic solution.
Paper 2: Training in Engineering Practice in an Engineering Firm of Medium Size
Authors: Finnigan J. , Woodward R. A. C.
Published: June 2010

The authors describe their approach to the training of potential professional engineers in an engineering firm of medium size manufacturing power plant, gearing, and hydraulic machinery. Facilities of design, manufacturing, research, installation and service, and marketing and selling departments are available. The training is controlled by a full-time Training Supervisor who is a professional engineer and a member of the company's training staff.

After briefly referring to the recruiting and selection activities, the different training paths are described, which include two-year graduate courses and ‘thick’ and ‘thin’ sandwich courses. The training programme has three phases. The first covers basic workshop and manufacturing technology, the second covers general mechanical and organization training; and the third caters for specialist departments or directed objective training. Training Department activities, together with projects, industrial log books, and departmental reports, are described and discussed. Ideas about examination of industrial training and relationships with college or university tutors are constructively criticized.

The need for adequate supervision, assistance of professional engineers, flexibility of approach, and a desire to try experiments are emphasized.
Paper 3: Training in Engineering Practice: The View of the Engineering Industry Training Board
Authors: Metcalfe F.
Published: June 2010

The Engineering Industry Training Board is concerned with training at all levels in the engineering industry, and expects to make its recommendations for the training of professional mechanical engineers in 1967. The paper will indicate the lines upon which the Technologist Training Policy Committee of the Board has been thinking.

It is not intended to lay down a rigid set of recommendations, but rather to establish a framework within which a variety of approaches can be made to meet the needs of different individuals and different sections of the industry. Reference is made to the need for induction courses, training in engineering practice, design appreciation, objective training, and an understanding of works organization and systems. A number of techniques of training, such as project work, group studies, student log books, and the use of industrial tutors, are discussed.
Paper 6: Engineering Science Courses
Authors: Shercliff J. A.
Published: June 2010

Courses of an Engineering Science type available in the U.K. are surveyed and classified, including those which run alongside specialized engineering courses. Some of the courses enable even the decision between engineering and mathematics or physics to be postponed by students.

The arguments for Engineering Science courses are reviewed, considering the needs of both the individual and industry. Some of the problems of organizing Engineering Science courses are explored.
Paper 12: Post-Graduate Technological Block Courses in a University Environment
Authors: Tuplin W. A. , Meyer M. L.
Published: June 2010

Recent Government-sponsored reports have criticized the majority of existing post-graduate courses because they do not sufficiently serve the needs of industry, and have suggested encouragement for new trends in these courses. Differences in academic and industrial understanding of proper post-graduate standing and activities may have contributed to existing difficulties, and classification of the courses in accordance with the stages in the careers of technologists to be enrolled and with intended changes in such careers may help to clarify the position.

Educational differences between ‘fundamentals-centred’ and ‘job-centred’ courses are pointed out and the less familiar pattern of job-centred courses is described and exemplified by the courses run by the Postgraduate Department of Applied Mechanics at Sheffield University for the last 15 years.

Over these years the number of students enrolled in each session to the courses of the department has risen from 10 to more than 250, the number of sponsoring employers from 10 to a total of 380, the number of visiting lecturers from industry and research establishments to about 80 in each session, and 40 per cent of the research work done in the department has been on problems suggested by industrial students and their sponsors. The courses of the department, therefore, are clearly accepted as meeting some of the requirements of the mechanical engineering industry. Arrangement and organization of the courses are described, and the results of a survey of past students' opinion and of their use of the instruction are presented.
Paper 4: Development of High-Pressure Boiler Feed Pumps in Britain during the Last Decade
Authors: Arkless G. F.
Published: June 2010

This paper traces the evolution of the high-pressure feed pump in this country over the last decade, concentrating on its application in land-based, steam power plant.

The influence of the choice of feed system and the effect of mounting feed water flow rates, pressure, and temperature on the design of the feed pump is discussed.

Advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of driving a feed pump are enumerated and attention given to the reasons for the adoption of higher running speeds, and the means whereby high-speed pumps have been accommodated in view of their higher net positive suction head requirements.

Material selection and component design is also considered in the light of the changing requirements brought about by larger size, more onerous operating conditions, and higher running speed. Glands, axial thrust balancing devices, impeller mountings, controls, and high-pressure joints, are each briefly discussed.
Paper 1: Feed-Water Regulation on 500-Mw Units
Authors: Beechey M. A. , Pluck M. R.
Published: June 2010

The plant features involved in the regulation of feed water on 500-MW units currently being installed by the C.E.G.B. are outlined and the control requirements relating to this regulation considered. Methods of meeting these requirements in the units to be installed at Fawley Generating Station are described and the operation of the control scheme during the start-up and shut-down of the unit is also covered.
Paper 6: Water Treatment for Modern Boiler Plant in the Paper Industry
Authors: Bonner E. J.
Published: June 2010

The problems confronting the chemist in control of water treatment for an industrial boiler plant are very complex and dictated to a great extent by the pattern of plant operation. An interesting field of study is presented, particularly where the plant is modern in design and very extensive in the service it provides.

The author has concerned himself principally with the problems of water supply and treatment at Aylesford Mills, as these are very typical of those which occur in other large industrial undertakings.

Details are given of the feed water treatment plant for the medium- and high-pressure boilers, consisting of primary sedimentation units using lime, ferrous sulphate, and alum as chemical additives, followed by a filtration stage. This section of the plant is followed by a dual system comprising three base-exchange softener units and a fully automatic demineralization plant. The interesting features of fully automatic regeneration of the demineralization plant are discussed, together with the author's experience in operating this plant.

Emphasis is placed on high standards of feed water treatment and the principles of the system adopted. Sodium sulphite and tannin are added as chemical deoxidants on medium-pressure plant. Hydrazine, together with a neutralizing amine, are used on the high-pressure boiler installation.

The author concludes the paper with comments on the subject of boiler corrosion.
Paper 9: Operational Experience with Steam Evaporators and De-Aerators
Authors: Signer J. U. , Pache J. J.
Published: June 2010

The authors review the operating experience of evaporators and de-aerators used in power stations of the South of Scotland Electricity Board over the last 45 years.

Water sources used and their effect on evaporators are covered, together with the purity of the water achieved and the requirements for the various generating cycles. The type of evaporators available) their steam heating supply and delivery of the purified water to the system is discussed, together with some of the problems.

A review of the de-aerators, their integration into the various feed cycles and heating supply arrangements is made. The level of de-aeration obtainable is considered. Operating problems, both on base load and on two shifting, are discussed especially in connection with oxygen content and metal pick-up in feed systems related to boiler corrosion.

Future possible operational requirements are outlined.
Paper 7: Field Experiences with Combustion Equipment for Boilers, with Particular Reference to Safety Measures
Authors: Grant W.
Published: June 2010

The paper is set in a background of boiler commissioning for customers in power generating, industrial, marine, petro-chemical and oil-refining companies in Britain and overseas.

Some of the problems encountered during the commissioning of a diversity of units employing solid fuel, oil fuels, naphtha, gas fuel firing, either singly or in combination, are discussed, and actual case histories detailed.

The paper embraces difficulties experienced with the ignition of fuels, the control of flame shape, air distribution to burners, layout of fuel supply lines, safety circuits, and the necessity for close collaboration between the customer and the designer during the tender and contract stages, in order to avoid loss of availability, resulting from delays in commissioning or subsequent damage to equipment.
Paper 3: Electrostatic Precipitation for Large Boilers
Authors: Watkins E. R. , Darby K.
Published: June 2010

The paper begins with a brief description of the principles of electrical precipitation and continues with a section on mechanical and electrical design which covers casings, collector systems, discharge systems, rapping systems, insulators, rectifiers both mechanical and static, ‘sectionalization’ of precipitators, hoppers, and automatic control. A third section on operation covers points to be observed during commissioning, bringing boilers on load, and action in case of faults. The final section on maintenance deals with temporary action for short shut-down periods to eliminate faults that have occurred in operation and with long-term maintenance during boiler outage periods.
Paper 23: Vapour Lubrication in Friction and Low-Speed Metal Cutting
Authors: Rowe G. W. , Smart E. F.
Published: June 2010

An experimental study of metal cutting in a vacuum and of the influence of atmospheric gases and lubricating vapours is described. A lathe equipped with a vacuum chamber is used with a calibrated tool-bar.

Experiments have been conducted with mild steel, copper, and aluminium. Oxygen is shown to have a strong influence on the cutting of mild steel, and it is suggested that this is attributable to the reduction of adhesion between tool and chip, especially to the limitation of the size of the built-up edge. The cutting force is thereby greatly diminished. Copper and aluminium do not show built-up edge formation, and it is found that the cutting force in vacuum does not differ greatly from that in air. This is explained on the supposition that a relatively strong adsorbed oxygen layer on the free chip surface impedes dislocation movement at the shear plane, and counteracts the effect of reduced adhesion at the tool face. The results suggest that the cutting force for aluminium at low speeds with 18° rake tool is actually slightly higher in air than in vacuum.

This explanation is supported by high-temperature cutting results on copper and a test with degassed and oxygen-saturated cutting fluid.
Paper 6: A Thermohydrodynamic Analysis of Journal Bearings
Authors: Dowson D. , March C. N.
Published: June 2010

A thermohydrodynamic analysis is discussed which takes account of the general nature of the experimental observations in work which forms part of a programme of research designed to develop an improved understanding of better design procedures for journal bearings. The analysis considers compatible solutions of the Reynolds, energy, and heat conduction equations for two-dimensional conditions. It is shown that the solutions are in reasonable agreement with experimental findings.

The two-dimensional solutions of the Reynolds and energy equations take full account of the variation of lubricant properties along and across the film. A very simple and approximate representation is used to estimate the temperature distribution in the bush, but the solutions present a reasonable estimate of bush and shaft temperatures.

The ‘thermohydrodynamic’ or ‘heat conduction’ solution to journal bearing problems will provide intermediate, and it is hoped more realistic, results between the extreme ‘isothermal’ and ‘adiabatic’ conditions.
Paper 1: The Conference: Its Plan and Purpose
Authors: Barwell F. T.
Published: June 2010

The rate of development of the subject has been so rapid that it has become difficult for any individual to be conversant with all its implications. Nevertheless, if the benefits of current research are to be realized in practice, some means must be found for presenting the essential data in an assimilable form.

The history of the subject is briefly commented on and doubt is expressed regarding the adequacy of the rate of application of new knowledge to industrial problems.

Full appreciation of even the simplest bearing situation requires knowledge of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, material science and metrology and the multi-disciplinary aspects of tribology are emphasized. The introduction of tribology into engineering courses should not therefore impose too great a burden on the student because it depends on fundamentals already understood.

The main emphasis of the paper, as indeed of the Conference, is on the application of research results to design. An attempt is made to classify the duty to be performed by a bearing and then to show that the form taken by the solution flows logically therefrom. Protection from hostile environments is emphasized as being probably the most important requirement for satisfactory performance.

The paper concludes with the prediction that the general advance in technology will continue to make demands for an advance in knowledge in the field of tribology.
Paper 2: Education in Lubrication and Wear and Its Conceptual Integration into Machine Design
Authors: Blok H.
Published: June 2010

The paper points out why the rationalization of education in lubrication and wear, through its conceptual integration in machine design, is indispensable for the future development of machinery and, therefore, for that of national economies.

The paper is mainly devoted to outlining a philosophy of approach in education, based on broad unifying principles and concepts that are tangible to those having to apply them, i.e. the designers of machinery. By means of this philosophy one may achieve the conceptual integration of education in lubrication and wear into machine design. The philosophy also meets the demand for organizing the bewildering store of present-day knowledge on lubrication and wear, both of a fundamental and an empirical nature.

The ensuing classification of the various states of lubrication and the types of mechanical wear rests mainly on the distinction between ‘conformal’ and ‘counterformal’ rubbing surfaces. This distinction runs broadly parallel to, amongst other things, the nature of contact, the potentialities for achieving full fluid-film lubrication, and the flash temperatures obtaining.

The unifying principle most typical of the field of lubrication and wear is that of contact inhibition, which reflects itself in the design principle of the protective layer. Much importance is attached also to principles that are not specific to lubrication and wear, but are generally applicable to the design of machinery. Such principles are exemplified by that of the optimal grouping of functions to be fulfilled and by the even more universal principle of the so-called ‘comparison of scales’.

Last but not least, the present philosophy of unified approach may well lend itself, at least in essence, to rationalizing education in the much wider field of mechanical engineering in general.
Paper 6: Review of Published Data and Their Application to the Design of Large Bearings for Steam Turbines
Authors: Ramsden P.
Published: June 2010

The recent published literature on aspects of large bearing design is reviewed. The needs of the designer of steam turbo-generator bearings are examined, criteria of design suggested, and areas where information is lacking are specified.
Paper 9: Gas Bearings: Journal and Thrust
Authors: Gross W. A.
Published: June 2010

The applications and design of gas bearings are described. The fundamental theory and selected experimental confirmation are presented to supplement the comparatively few available routine design procedures.
Paper 12: Worm Gearing: A Review of Published Data and Their Application
Authors: Walker Philip
Published: June 2010

The approach to effective lubrication of worm gears has changed very little during the past thirty years but the advances made in lubrication technology have produced much improved conventional and synthetic lubricants. Their qualities are discussed and guidance given on selection,
Paper 13: Bevel and Hypoid Gear Surface Durability: Pitting and Scuffing
Authors: Coleman W.
Published: June 2010

This paper presents formulae and charts to show the effects of various parameters on pitting, scuffing and sliding. It also includes results of laboratory and field tests.
Paper 14: Rolling Contact Failure Control through Lubrication
Authors: Tallian T. E.
Published: June 2010

Lubrication in rolling contacts serves primarily to control failure and must be engineered for that purpose.

Four classes of failure are defined in rolling contact mechanisms: wear (mild wear and smearing, involving metal transfer); plastic flow (cold or due to overheating); fatigue (spalling and surface distress); and bulk failure modes occurring away from the contact areas.

Generalized ‘stress fields’ leading to rolling contact failure are defined as mechanical, thermal and (possibly) chemical ‘stresses’. The severity parameters of these stress fields are developed and illustrated by typical relationships based on Hertzian assumptions and are progressively refined through the stepwise inclusion of tractive surface forces, plasticity, elastohydrodynamics, and of effects of surface micro-topography (boundary lubrication) and material inhomogeneities. Effects of lubrication on these severity parameters are identified.

Experimental and theoretical findings on the detailed failure mechanism are used to derive failure criteria, including lubrication effects, for each failure mode. Methods are presented on this basis for the control of failures.
Paper 15: Cams and Friction Drives
Authors: Naylor H.
Published: June 2010

The mechanism of lubrication of cam-follower systems and of rolling contact friction drives is essentially elastohydrodynamic. Existing knowledge of the design criteria to be satisfied by and the major forms of failure—fatigue pitting and scuffing—encountered in these mechanisms is discussed in the light of elastohydrodynamic theory. Examples of the successful application of the theory are reviewed. The role of development testing in rigs and in full-scale equipment is considered and the conclusions reached from such testing briefly summarized.

The coefficient of friction in the contact is an important factor in the operation of rolling contact friction drives and its variation with operating conditions is complex. Knowledge of the frictional behaviour of elastohydrodynamic contacts is not complete; the present position is reviewed.
Paper 16: Solid Friction and Boundary Lubrication
Authors: Tabor D.
Published: June 2010

During the last decade considerable progress has been made in our understanding of the contact between solid surfaces. Earlier work emphasized the plastic deformation and more recent work the elastic deformation of the surface asperities. However, when sliding occurs combined normal and tangential stresses in the contact zone greatly enhance the plastic régime.

Broadly speaking, recent work supports the earlier view that friction is attributable to adhesion at the points of real contact and to the ploughing or tearing of one surface by asperities on the other. In high vacuum the surface films normally present can be removed either by heating or by repeated rubbing. As a result the adhesion, friction and wear can rise to very high values. However, even under very clean conditions some metallic pairs appear to show relatively weak adhesion. With non-metals similar processes occur but with brittle solids they are complicated by surface and sub-surface cracking. Here crystal orientation can be very important. With polymeric solids, where strength properties are rate and temperature dependent, marked variations in friction with speed and temperature are often observed. The more rigid the polymer the smaller the effect. In the field as a whole little work has been carried out on the interaction between the adhesion and the ploughing mechanisms.

In the field of lubrication it is now apparent that a considerable amount of what was formerly termed boundary lubrication was probably elastohydrodynamic. However, recent studies show that elastohydrodynamic films can operate under more severe conditions if small quantities of surfactants are added. These do not affect the viscous properties of the lubricant but form protective surface films of molecular dimensions. During the last decade little work has been carried out on the formation, structure and strength properties of these boundary films. It remains an area of great importance.
Paper 17: Basic Mechanisms of Wear
Authors: Hirst W.
Published: June 2010

This review deals with the wear of conforming and non-conforming surfaces, both lubricated and dry. It covers the scuffing, pitting and mild wear of lubricated surfaces, the range of wear rates in dry conditions, the patterns of wear and the main causes of severe wear.
Paper 18: Physical Properties of Fluid Lubricants: Rheological and Viscoelastic Behaviour
Authors: Lamb J.
Published: June 2010

In order to predict the behaviour of lubricating fluids which are to be operated under elastohydrodynamic conditions, the designer requires to know the rheological properties of the lubricant at the pressure, temperature, and rate of shear encountered in practice.

A review is given of the available evidence aimed at establishing a formal connection between the rate of shear behaviour and that observed under alternating shear stress. It is shown that the viscoelastic properties of liquids in oscillatory shear can be successfully predicted on the basis of a new phenomenological model and that complete results are available from oscillatory experiments. Possible correlation of these results with rate of shear behaviour is suggested.
Paper 24: Plastics and Rubbers in Machine Design
Authors: Salomon G.
Published: June 2010

The principal materials used are briefly discussed. A general approach becomes possible through a description of their ‘mechanical spectrum’. Friction of polymers depends mainly on their viscoelastic response. Wear of plastics is also closely related to their ultimate properties, but that of conventional rubbers is complicated by the superposition of chemical changes. Polymers and compounded materials can corrode and abrade even hard metals. The designer of bearings has still to rely on qualitative information; recent work on materials for gears, however, has yielded useful design data.
Paper 26: The Role of Seals and Packings in the Exclusion of Contaminants
Authors: Jagger E. T.
Published: June 2010

Because of the very large number of individual types of seal, they are first classified into simple groups on a logical basis. It is shown that the principles of operation are common to all types of seal in a group and a discussion of these basic principles leads to the formulation of requirements for the exclusion of contaminants. Contaminants likewise are grouped in sections and the sealing methods appropriate to each section are described. In conclusion, reference is made to the design compromise in which technical requirements must be weighed against space and cost limitations.
Paper 28: Bearings for Nuclear Engineering
Authors: Heath H. H.
Published: June 2010

Problems affecting the use of bearings and lubricants in nuclear reactors are discussed and the present state of research and development reviewed. Some comments on design practice and procedures are included.
Paper 29: Cold Environments
Authors: Tantam D. H.
Published: June 2010

A brief examination of the effect of low temperatures on the physical and mechanical properties of engineering materials and cryogenic fluids is used to indicate their influence on the generation and removal of heat at the rubbing surface. A résumé is given of the techniques which have been used in practical applications including typical plain and roller bearing designs. The importance of safety and operational considerations is emphasized. A survey of advanced systems, particularly those associated with extremely low temperatures, is concluded by a prediction of new techniques which might be explored in the future.