bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Kantian Perspectives on Private Law
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: November 2020

This chapter articulates the Kantian approach to private law. It begins by explaining the aims and ambitions of Kantian legal philosophy more generally and, in particular, introducing the Kantian idea that a particular form of thought is appropriate to a particular domain of inquiry or conduct. The chapter situates the Kantian view within a broad natural law tradition. For the part of that tradition that Immanuel Kant develops, the moral structure of natural law is animated by a conception of personal interaction that is so familiar as to be almost invisible. Despite its centrality to both morality and law, in the absence of legal institutions, this natural law is inadequate to its own principles. It requires legal institutions to render it fully determinate in its application consistent with everyone’s independence. It also requires public institutions of adjudication. The chapter further looks at Kant’s “division” of private rights, distinguishing first between the innate right that everyone has simply in virtue of being human and acquired rights that require an affirmative act to establish them. It then goes through the Kantian division of the titles of private right, situating them in relation to the distinction between persons and things. Finally, the chapter articulates the Kantian account of what might be called the naïve theory of remedies—that is, that the remedy is an imperfect continuation of the right that was violated.
Luxury in Emerging Markets
Authors: Atwal Glyn , Bryson Douglas , Kuehlwein J. P.
Published: November 2020

The complexity of luxury- and prestige-brand consumer behaviour combined with the relevance of “new prestige” has created a novel paradigm for luxury-brand strategies in emerging markets. As the luxury market in many emerging markets continues to grow, and in some cases approaches maturity, executives will need to consider appropriate tactics in order to achieve a sustainable advantage with luxury and prestige brands. With a focus on India, this chapter consequently applies the following principles of prestige brand building: (1) mission incomparable, (2) longing versus belonging, (3) from myth to meaning, (4) the product as manifestation, (5) living the dream, (6) unselling, and (7) never-ending growth. Examples include local and international brands with varying degrees of “luxuriousness”. Insights will provide luxury executives the option of using the principles of modern prestige branding to build the future of their brand on a robust foundation.
Consumers, Counterfeiters, and Luxury Goods
Authors: Gistri Giacomo
Published: November 2020

Counterfeit goods are perceived to be a substantial threat to various industries, especially those in the luxury sector, and the globalisation of trade and communication has offered incomparable opportunities for criminals to engage in such illicit trade. Demand for counterfeit products/brands has grown immensely in terms of variety, market size, geographical dispersion, and sophistication. To contain the proliferation of counterfeits and the relative negative impact on society, a deeper understanding of consumer behaviour is needed. An updated literature review on counterfeiting from the demand side, particularly analysing determinants of consumers’ buying decisions and counterfeit product consumption habits, provides such an understanding. Considering that fake products have no context without the originals’ existence, contributions highlighted here adopt a joint perspective in analysing the phenomenon, especially in the consumption domain. An examination of the actual counterfeit supply chain rounds out our view.
The Ethical Challenges of Political Science Field Experiments
Authors: Desposato Scott
Published: November 2020

Perhaps the most dramatic change in political science over the last since the 1990’s has been the sudden and exponential growth in experimental research. From an obscure methodology used only by a few subfields, experimental designs are now widely and frequently used in all parts of political science. This change has brought with it a new series of ethical challenges, some echoing earlier ethical problems but many new and unique to this discipline. In this chapter, the author identifies the new challenges and emerging debates involving experimental political science. The greatest current controversies involve field experiments that are conducted without the consent of subjects or affected bystanders. The author considers the ethical issues involved as well as the opinions of subjects and scholars about experiments conducted without consent.
Gothic Writing in Bohemia and Moravia
Authors: Pátková Hana
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the development and use of Gothic scripst and writing practices in Bohemia and Moravia during the late medieval period, with a focus on the role of monastic orders, the Cathedral chapters, and the court. Foreign imports and their influence on local developments are discussed, as is the rise of professional scribes working outside religious institutions, and the role of Universities and their students in book production.
Gothic Script in Germany
Authors: Pfändtner Karl-Georg
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the use of Gothic script in Germany, examining the transition from Carolingian to Gothic script, and provides descriptions of early Gothic minuscule, Textura (Textualis Formata), Textualis, Cursive, Bastarda, Fraktur, Kurrent, and documentary and commercial scripts.
Theological Texts
Authors: Smith Lesley
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys manuscripts of medieval Latin theology from the late eleventh century to the late thirteenth, and discusses the shift from monastic study of theology to its more academic study by scholars and mendicant friars. The changed needs of the new readers led to significant alterations in the layout, size, shape, and contents of theological manuscripts, most of the changes reflecting the need for quick reference rather than meditation.
Punctuation
Authors: Coulson Frank T.
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides a brief survey of the history of punctuation of Latin texts, and functions as a guide to the use of punctuation marks in Latin manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Punctuation in medieval manuscripts is quite variable, some scripts, such as Beneventan, having their own unique punctuation systems. During the Carolingian period, a new system of punctuation (known as positurae) began to be developed; it was later supplemented by the work of Humanist scholars.
The Abbey of St. Gall
Authors: Grotans Anna A.
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the history of the Abbey of St. Gall, on the shores of Lake Constance, from its founding in the seventh century by Gallus to its cultural highpoints from the Carolingian period through the eleventh century. The library’s great treasures, including manuscripts of the fourth or fifth century, the famous Irish books, important Middle High German texts, are mentioned, and the as is the dispersal of St. Gall books at various periods. The ninth- and tenth-century St. Gall school is discussed, as are the Old High German studies of the monks, the music school, and some of the abbeys important writers (Notker, Ekkehard, Walahfrid).
Stages in Diplomatic Production
Authors: Guyotjeannin Olivier
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines administrative documents of the Middle Ages and the major scholarly studies of them. It surveys the number of preserved documents and the problems surrounding the lack of documents in different periods and places. The author discusses the role and influence of the Church in the increased production and preservation of documents beginning in the eleventh century, leading to an enormous increase in the production of documents during the last three centuries of the Middle Ages.
Uncial Script
Authors: Babcock Robert G.
Published: November 2020

Latin Uncial script, which was favored for use in Christian texts between the fourth and eigth centuries, is a majuscule script with a predominantly rounded appearance. From the ninth century onward, Uncial continued to be used as a display script. The greatest number of examples of Uncial script come from Italy, which is represented in all of the periods when the script was in use; other regional varieties of Uncial exist from North Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, France, and England. Uncial was also employed as a display script in manuscripts copied in minuscule scripts.
The Visigothic Script
Authors: Alturo i Perucho Jesús
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the Visigothic script, the “national” hand used in the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania from the eighth century to the thirteenth. Attention is particularly paid to the various names scholars have used for this script, the important centers of production, the genesis and development of regional variations of it, and the orthography and abbreviations peculiar to Visigothic.
Scriptoria and Libraries
Authors: Nebbiai Donatella
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the relationship between scriptoria and libraries during the Middle Ages, from the monastic houses of the early Middle Ages through the changes wrought by the universities and schools after the eleventh century. The author discusses the location of libraries and book collections within monasteries, private libraries and book collectors of the Carolingian period, the role of changing reading habits on the housing of books, the production of library booklists, the function of books withing the Mendicant orders.
Assessment Centers
Authors: Collins Lynn Gracin , Hartog Sandra B.
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses the application of assessment centers as a management development strategy for adult learning and describes how innovations in technology and other tools can elevate the traditional assessment center design to allow for a comprehensive blended-learning approach that adds to the fidelity and impact of the assessment center experience. Effective training and development programs can enhance a company’s ability to prepare its workforce and, thereby, to achieve business results such as profitability, growth and expansion, and successful competition. Drawing on best practices and including client case studies and suggested directions for future practice, the chapter offers guidelines for designing and implementing an assessment center.
Not-Minster? Australia’s Bespoke System of Government
Authors: Grube Dennis C.
Published: November 2020

Australia’s system of government has inherited traditions from both sides of the Atlantic. The institutions of a representative parliamentary democracy of the British type sit side by side with an American-style senate and a federal structure that shares power between the states and the Commonwealth. How to accurately describe and categorize these arrangements has vexed scholars for much of the past century. Is it a Westminster system, a Washminster system, or something else entirely? This chapter suggests that these arguments over categorization flounder because the Australian model is in fact unique—a bespoke creation that reflects all the individual aspects of Australia’s history and approach to democracy.
Opposition Parties and Political Change in Zimbabwe
Authors: LeBas Adrienne
Published: November 2020

This chapter argues that the performance of Zimbabwean opposition parties in elections is chiefly determined by dynamics internal to these parties. The key determinant internal factor is opposition parties’ ability to develop and sustain effective mobilizing structures. Zimbabwe’s current main opposition party, the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), stands out in this regard because it has, historically, appropriated the mobilizing structures of other organizations, such as trade unions, followed (however inconsistently) inclusive internal democracy procedures and constructed a highly partisan identity that prevents defections to the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) party. Taken together, the chapter argues that these internal factors have enabled the MDC to maintain considerable broad-based national appeal for approximately two decades, a quality that most opposition parties since independence have lacked. The chapter’s argument about the efficacy of mobilizing structures, partisan behaviours and incomplete tenets of internal democracy, is a corrective to explanations of Zimbabwean politics that overemphasize the significance of ZANU-PF’s election rigging strategies, in determining the success of opposition parties.
Enacting Social Change Through Buddhist Meditation
Authors: Gleig Ann
Published: November 2020

This chapter illustrates connections between meditation and social change, distinguishing assimilative and radical currents recognizable in the adoption of meditation as a tool of social stability and social transformation, especially within a North American context. The assimilative approach rests on the assumption that individual meditation practice will naturally lead to social transformation. It underlies the incorporation of meditation into established public institutions such as schools, hospitals, and the political arena. The radical current shifts focus from individual practice to structural change and collective liberation and is most visible in progressive social activist communities, which have adopted meditation as a strategy of self-care and a creative tool of protest. Both radical and assimilative currents have roots in the modernization of Buddhism that began during colonialism, which has led to the de-contextualization of meditation from its traditional religious matrix and its re-contextualization in various new matrices including ones primarily geared toward social transformation and justice.
The Radical Left
Authors: Katsourides Yiannos
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines both the turbulent history and the contemporary experience of the Greek radical Left, that is, SYRIZA, focusing particularly on its incumbent period (post-2015). In the course of examination it explores a range of relevant issues: the social and political developments in Greece and the EU; the structure of political opportunities that facilitated the rise of SYRIZA in government; the government–opposition dynamics and the way they affected the party’s trajectory; and the agent itself, that is, SYRIZA, with its multiple internal contradictions. The analysis of SYRIZA highlights a number of strategic issues that all Left parties face once they become significant political actors, issues that unavoidably touch on their ideological identity and the type of party they embrace. The overall findings of the analysis suggest that SYRIZA’s incumbency revealed the inconsistencies between its pre-electoral promises and post-electoral performance. Despite its vocal opposition to neo-liberalism, SYRIZA has practised a (soft) neo-liberal austerity policy, which not only contradicts its ideological profile and pre-electoral pledges, but also refutes the party’s history and past political practice. Unable to preserve its radicalism, the party seems trapped in populist practices and symbolic politics. Analysis also reveals similarities with previous PASOK incumbencies particularly of the early era (1974–81).
Political Culture
Authors: Vasilopoulou Sofia , Halikiopoulou Daphne
Published: November 2020

Greek political culture has been characterized by a tension between, on the one hand, modern institutions and the participant values these have instilled, and on the other hand, the traditional/parochial values of the past. This chapter aims to explain the ways in which the participant and parochial elements of Greek political culture have interacted with reference to four dimensions of political culture, including types of engagement, citizenship, and political equality, solidarity, and the politics of consensus, and finally social structures of co-operation. While the Greek political system proved surprisingly resilient during the post-dictatorship era, and Greece’s membership of the European Union entailed a process of Europeanization, the 2008 eurozone crisis exposed its inherent tensions and systemic weaknesses, revealing its propensity for instability, extremism, and illiberalism. At the same time, however, the fragmentation of the party system and the entry of a few new political personnel have also facilitated the possibility for some reforms in the areas of human rights, minority policies, Church–State relations, and foreign policy. This suggests that political culture has also evolved, illustrating that, while as the literature argues, political cultures shape democratic institutions and to a great extent determine their stability, at the same time institutions also shape political cultures.
Civil Society
Authors: Huliaras Asteris
Published: November 2020

In the post-1974 era Greek society suffered from low levels of civic engagement, associational density, and volunteering. Non-governmental and civil society organizations were relatively few and poorly organized, relying mostly on state and European Union funds. This, in turn, compromised their autonomy and diminished their capacity to act as a check on state power. However, Greek civil society has been changing since the early 1990s. Several new NGOs have appeared, focusing mainly on environmental issues, their activities have been strengthened and widened, and people have been devoting more time and money to social activism. There are several reasons that explain this development: apart from wider cultural shifts, an important factor has been that political parties have loosened their grip on the associational sphere, leaving more space for voluntary organizations. The change of stance of a significant part of the Greek Left, which previously regarded NGOs with suspicion, was crucial. The receding welfare state in the last decade encouraged civic engagement and mobilized citizens. The number of volunteers increased, new organizations were formed, and older ones became more active in providing social services to impoverished Greeks and migrants. Importantly, the new forms of activism and engagement that are on the rise are not linked to the state. The crisis seems to have strengthened Greek civil society: the dependency on EU and state funds of previous years that had constrained NGO independence and autonomy may at last have started to wane.
Costas Simitis
Authors: Diamandouros P. Nikiforos
Published: November 2020

The chapter seeks to analyse and assess Costas Simitis’s leadership and management style, which it conceptualizes as the product of three structural parameters. First, Simitis’s status, throughout his career in Greek politics, as a minority within PASOK, the party he helped co-found, and his clear refusal to identify with the values of the ‘underdog’ cultural tradition, to which the majority of the party and, indeed, Greek society adhered. Second, his steadfast adherence to the principles of the minoritarian reformist cultural tradition, which identifies deeply with the values of the European Enlightenment and of European liberalism, and his privileging a positive sum conceptualization of politics, a decided preference for the search for dialogue, rational argument, consensus, and compromise, as well as a strong commitment to the primacy of the rule of law and for institution-building. Third, the search for a paradigm shift in the modus operandi of the Greek political system, such that would make these values guiding principles of the logic informing Greek democracy and enable it to align itself more firmly with the traditions of European social democracy. The chapter concludes by identifying five major legacies linked to Simitis’s leadership and management style as prime minister: (a) first and foremost, securing Greece’s entry into the eurozone, (b) introducing an alternative approach to Greek politics; (c) emphasizing institution building; (d) privileging civility and fairness in interacting with colleagues and opponents alike; and (e) demonstrating the importance of human agency in the conduct of politics.
Development of the microbiome-gut-brain axis and its effect on behavior
Authors: Knickmeyer Rebecca C.
Published: November 2020

Humans coexist in a mutualistic relationship with the gut microbiota, a complex ecologic community of commensal, symbiotic, and pathogenic microorganisms inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract. This chapter reviews evidence from both human and animal studies that the composition of this community influences development of the host brain. Infancy represents a critical period in the establishment of the gut microbiome and early alterations in microbial colonization may have long-term effects on mental health. Several mechanisms through which the microbiota could affect brain development are discussed including 1) activation of the peripheral immune system, 2) production of neuroactive metabolites, and 3) processing of nutrients and environmental chemicals. The chapter concludes with a discussion of whether modulation of the gut microbiota represents a tractable strategy for treating or preventing complex neurodevelopmental disorders.
The Middle Classes
Authors: Föllmer Moritz
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the history of the middle classes in Weimar Germany from social, political, and cultural perspectives. Divisions—between industrialists and master artisans; conservatives, liberals, and left-wingers; Protestants, Catholics, and Jews; modernists and anti-modernists—were by no means new. But they were exacerbated during the First World War and in the subsequent period of rapid shifts and drastic ruptures. Occupational interests diverged, depending on how the respective groups were affected by the democratic transformation of 1918/19 and the hyperinflation that peaked in 1923. As a result, many members of the middle classes turned resentfully against the republic. Still, we should be wary of adopting the ubiquitous rhetoric of decline, for studies of associational life have amounted to a rather different picture of confidence and renewal. This middle-class renewal was initially not anti-democratic per se. But it increasingly defined itself against the perceived threat of socialist revolution and, by the mid-1920s, began to fuel the rise of the extreme right. That said, the middle classes in Weimar Germany should not be seen solely in a political perspective. They exhibited remarkably diverse consumer choices and cultural activities, although it was precisely this diversity that the extreme right targeted with considerable success.
The Political Economy of Development Banking
Authors: Di John Jonathan
Published: November 2020

Because protectionism is now less relevant for supporting learning and innovation, development banking has assumed a greater role in industrial policy. This chapter presents the economic reasoning as to why state-sponsored development banking corrects market failures and creates productive capacities. Drawing on case studies, it explores how development banking enhances firm capacities to learn and innovate while also enhancing the technical capacity of state bureaucracy to design and monitor state support of industrial policy. The chapter makes an original contribution, discussing why and how economies that encourage or mobilize diversified sources of long-run finance (rather than relying on one state-owned development bank) enhance the effectiveness of their industrial policies. Finally, it examines one of the world’s largest and well-run national development banks, the Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES). This case study is useful for emphasizing the broader political economy and macroeconomic context in which national development banking takes place.
Industrial Policy and Gender Inclusivity
Authors: Seguino Stephanie
Published: November 2020

The economics of development and structural change highlight the importance of industrialization as a means for countries to move from poverty to higher living standards and well-being. Industrial policy—that is, an articulated path to industrialization and the production of higher valued-added goods and services—is a means to achieve that goal. A key question is how to make industrial policy gender-inclusive. This chapter begins by identifying gender disparities that have emerged in the process of structural change and industrial upgrading. The early stages of industrialization in developing countries witnessed the feminization of industrial employment, but this has been followed by de-feminization as economies industrially upgrade. That exclusion has costly effects on the success of industrial policies by limiting the talent pool. The costs of social reproduction are disproportionately borne by women and, if not addressed, can limit the potential for industrial policies to achieve their goals. The chapter concludes by identifying mechanisms to induce and incentivize gender inclusion in employment and social reproduction.
Macro-Policy, Labour Markets, and Industrial Policy
Authors: Storm Servaas
Published: November 2020

Debates on industrialization and industrial policy have historically had a supply-side bias: development planners focused on strengthening inter-industry linkages, mobilizing savings to finance investment, and the accumulation of technological knowledge. Aggregate demand was expected to accommodate and even facilitate the structural change brought about by the industrialization process. However, botched industrialization experiences in South East Asia, Latin America, and Africa demonstrate that failures to manage demand in ways supportive of industrial policy can slow or even derail industrialization. We use an open-economy growth model of a late industrializing economy, featuring cumulative causation and a (long-run) balance-of-payments constraint, to investigate conflicts and complementarities between macroeconomic and industrial policies. We identify key macro mechanisms that undermine industrialization processes—and highlight macro policies in support of industrial diversification, structural change, and upgrading. We close by arguing that from a macro point of view, the widely held claim that labour laws are a ‘luxury’ developing countries cannot afford, is wrong. Labour regulation and higher real wage growth, when given adequate macroeconomic policy support, can be made to further industrialization.
The Theory and Practice of Industrial Policy
Authors: Oqubay Arkebe
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews the theory and practice of industrial policy, focusing on three key themes. First, it presents industrial policy as a vehicle by which manufacturing (and other dynamic and high-productivity services and agricultural activities that share technological and linkage spillovers) drives structural change. It also underlines the strategic role of exports, especially as a source of international learning and relaxing balance-of-payment constraints. Second, it examines industrial policy as a conduit of technological catch-up, and emphasizes the centrality of technological learning and the development of technological and innovation capabilities for economic catch-up and sustained economic growth. Finally, it reviews the origins, the dynamic and adaptive nature of industrial policies, and the unevenness and variations in policy design and outcomes. The chapter draws primarily from structural development economics and evolutionary economics, and includes a wider scan of the literature. It provides the groundwork for subsequent chapters that examine theoretical perspectives and connections, and experiences from advanced, emerging, and developing countries.
Diverse Tools of Industrial Policy in Korea
Authors: Lee Keun
Published: November 2020

The chapter presents a Schumpeterian and capability-based view of industrial policy, reflecting upon its practices in Korea over the last several decades. Given that it is typical for many developing countries to suffer from capability failure, industrial policy should go beyond correcting market failure and aim at overcoming capability failure. It is not about picking winners but about picking good students and allowing them time to learn and build capabilities until they are able to compete with incumbent firms from developed countries. This chapter discusses specific industrial policy tools practised in Korea at different stages of its development: tariffs to protect infant industry; technology import licensing to promote building of absorptive capacity; entry control guaranteeing rents for fixed and R&D investment; and public‒private joint R&D to break into higher-end products and sectors. While these tools look different in their concrete contents, they all allow some rents for the targeted sectors, which can be used to pay for building production capabilities in the case of tariffs or technology licensing in the 1970s, investment capabilities in entry control in the 1980s, and technological (R&D) capabilities in the case of public‒private joint R&D in the 1990s.
Radical Perspectives on Industrial Policy
Authors: Ashman Sam , Newman Susan , Tregenna Fiona
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys, evaluates, and develops radical perspectives on industrial policy. We examine the differences between mainstream and heterodox approaches to economic and industrial development, and we look at the similarities and differences between structuralist and Marxist approaches. We argue that Marx’s concern is not with sectors but with value and the overall circuit of capital. Radical industrial policy foregrounds class and capitalism, and integrates a distinctive conception of the state. We argue further that radical industrial policy operates at two levels, the analytical and the prescriptive, and we use the climate crisis to illustrate our argument. Radical industrial policy has broad objectives, including fundamentally altering productive structures and dynamics towards labour-centred development. Finally, we briefly survey some experiences of radical industrial policy, loosely dividing them between statist, co-operative, and participatory planning approaches. We also reflect on the limits of industrial policy, especially under globalized and financialized capitalism.
The Bronze-Casting Revolution and the Ritual Vessel Set
Authors: Xu Hong , Liu Yu
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes bronze-casting technology, noting that the Erlitou phase is transitional rather than representative of the beginning of bronze-casting. Through analysis of the samples of bronze, slag and mold, the study focuses on production techniques and the evolution of the composition of bronzes, beginning with an initial high copper content to a bronze alloy that gradually stabilizes. Evidence for a bronze workshop, how bronze is melted, and the lack of smelting are reviewed, noting that the source of copper, tin, and lead still needs further study. The formation of the independent Chinese bronze-working tradition appears in the use of the piece-mold casting process. This technical process and philosophical construct, are very different from the technical tradition of ancient Mesopotamia or in the ancient Egyptian region where designs were made after the bronze wares were formed. Bronze production during the Erlitou period shows a high level of organization, indicating that this phase of working bronze follows an earlier and probably longer period of development.
Early and Middle Shang Periods
Authors: Song Guoding
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes the archaeological data documenting early and middle Shang cities and sites (Figure 1). The early Shang cities include Zhengzhou Shang City, Yanshi Shang City, Yuanqu Shang City, Panlongcheng Shang City, Dongxiafeng Shang City, Fucheng Shang City, and Wangjinglou Shang City, while the middle Shang cities and sites include Huanbei Shang City, Xiaoshuangqiao Shang site, and sites in the Xingtai area of Hebei Province. Primary archaeological data regarding each of the Shang cities is introduced and followed by an analysis of the principal archaeological remains from each, as represented by city layouts, rammed-earth city walls, palaces, and craft workshops as well as burial areas and common residential areas within each city.
Western Zhou Government and Society
Authors: Vogt Paul Nicholas
Published: November 2020

This chapter introduces the state structure and social organization of the Western Zhou period as it is today understood through paleographical, archaeological, and textual sources. Considering the role that the Western Zhou kingdom played in the history of political thought in China, the chapter addresses the classic images of Western Zhou society and governance that have been shaped by ideological constructs, both ancient and modern, as well as how recent work and discoveries have complicated those images. It considers the theoretical underpinnings of Western Zhou kingship, social organization, resource management, and military administration, and, introducing a few of the regional (theoretical) sub-states of the Western Zhou kingdom, it addresses how the practical implementation of those concepts may have varied from time to time and place to place.
Historiography, Thought, and Intellectual Development during the Springs and Autumns Period
Authors: Pines Yuri
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the historiography and political thought of the Springs and Autumns period. It analyzes major historical texts from the period—the Springs and Autumns Annals (Chunqiu) and the Zuo zhuan—addressing their nature, audience, and (especially in the case of the Zuo zhuan) the nature of their primary sources. The multiplicity of genres in the Springs and Autumns period historiography is contrasted with the proliferation of didactic anecdotes as major building blocks of historical knowledge during the subsequent Warring States period. The second part of the chapter explores major aspects of the Springs and Autumns period’s political thought as reflected in the Zuo zhuan. The marked aristocratic nature of this thought is contrasted with major trends of the subsequent Warring States period. The discussion focuses on the views of multistate order, concepts of rulership and ruler-minister relations, and views of social hierarchy and the importance of the ritual system.
The Neolithic Revolution in the South ca. 7/6000–2000 bce: Majiabang, Hemudu, Daxi, and Songze Cultures
Authors: Fang Xiangming
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes the Neolithic revolution in the south from ca. 7/6000–2000 bce. The cultures it discusses include the Majiabang, Hemudu, Daxi, and Songze, primarily located in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangzi River Delta. Key phenomena explored in this chapter include rice cultivation; use of the stone plowshare; advanced wood technology; column architecture; surrounding dry trench settlement; high man-made platform altars; advanced crafts of painting, sculpting, and engraving; cosmological double bird symbolization (images of moonlight and sunlight); and other light and fertility symbols (rotating sun symbol with birds).
Chu Religion and Art
Authors: Major John S. , Childs-Johnson Elizabeth
Published: November 2020

Although the origins of Chu are still unclear, by the Western Zhou period Chu was known as a polity in the mid–Han River Valley, participating in the Zhou multistate system and evolving culturally with formalized religious practices and matchless artistic expression. The Chu kings were culturally conservative yet highly innovative, abiding by Shang and Western Zhou religious and ritual norms. Cosmological and shamanic systems of belief pervade Chu texts such as the Chuci (Elegies of Chu) and the Shanhaijing (Classic of mountains and seas) as well as works of art. It is evident that the cosmological deity Taiyi (Great Undifferentiated Unity) of Chu is directly related to the concept of immortality and metamorphosis and to the antler-bearing wooden figures (interpreted as guardians or guides for the soul) found in Chu tombs. Chu artisanship, in addition, gives birth to the earliest Sinitic narrative scenes of ritual and otherworldly subjects, such as hunting, feasting, and warfare in this world as well as the liminal world of the afterlife. Chu was not only culturally distinctive but a major part of the larger Sinitic world.
The Jade Age Revisited, ca. 3500–2000 bce
Authors: Childs-Johnson Elizabeth
Published: November 2020

Late Neolithic–period China went through what I have identified is a Jade Age, from ca. 3500–2000 bce. The era involved three key successive yet overlapping chronological cultures, including the Hongshan of the northeast, Liangzhu of the southeast, and Longshan of greater China. Jade was the material par excellence that was exploited as a symbol of economic, social, and religious power. Exploiting jade and its concomitant symbols stimulated advances that led to the flowering of civilization and China’s earliest dynasties. This chapter explores how, in contrast to other late Neolithic cultures, jade-working cultures achieved advances in socio-political life.
Newton and Chronology
Authors: Schilt Cornelis J.
Published: November 2020

This article details Isaac Newton’s studies of chronology, which resulted in the posthumously published Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended. In the Chronology, Newton employed methods from genealogy and astronomy to provide a much-contracted history of the Mediterranean world that fitted into the time allowed for by Scripture. Originally a single treatise, “Theologiae Gentilis Origines Philosophicae,” discussing the Egyptian origins of star worship and how all ancient mythology could be mapped onto Noah and his progeny, it soon evolved into a multi-chapter work, the “Originals,” which included chapters like “The Original of Religions” and “The Original of Monarchies.” Together with chapters on the history of the monarchies that reigned over Babylon during the Jewish Exile, the “Originals” became the Chronology; but its editorial history demonstrates how Newton’s interest in chronology was motivated by his desire to correctly interpret the apocalyptic prophecies in Scripture.
Citizenship and Gender on the American and Canadian Home Fronts during the First and Second World Wars
Authors: Jensen Kimberly
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes the impact and consequences of the First and Second World Wars for the home fronts of Canada and the United States, with a particular focus on the definitions of and challenges to gendered systems of citizenship. Many Americans and Canadians actively claimed an expanded citizenship as a reward for their wartime service. However, that service brought imperatives for loyalty and national security that resulted in severe restrictions on civil liberties and citizenship in the name of national security during and after these conflicts. In the First World War, both nations designed programs and propaganda to define citizenship in the narrow confines of “100% Americanism” and “Canadian nationalism” at the expense of diversity and dissent, and they reflected notions of traditional gender roles and suspicion of those who did not follow such prescriptions. Gendered wartime citizenship in Canada and the United States during both world wars related directly to the home-front conceptions of armed conflict and war.
Gender, Peace, and the New Politics of Humanitarianism in the First Half of the Twentieth Century
Authors: Sluga Glenda
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the changing ideas of peace and their connections with the longer history of humanitarianism in the first half of the twentieth century, using gender as an analytical focus. In particular, it explores the international and internationalist contexts of the emerging peace movement and international humanitarianism and their changing character; the gender dimensions of peace-thinking and policies, especially in the context of the League of Nations and the United Nations; and the ways in which feminism was a significant influence on the development of these two international bodies, even as women were sidelined in their operations. In the first half of the twentieth century, these international, intergovernmental organizations had as their central rationale the taming of warfare. The chapter analyzes the extent to which, in each case, they contributed to the institutionalization of new gendered international norms of pacifist and humanitarian activism.
Gender, Wars of Globalization, and Humanitarian Interventions since the End of the Cold War
Authors: Williams Kristen P.
Published: November 2020

The collapse of the Soviet Union, peaceful revolutions in central and Eastern Europe that ended communist rule, and the reunification of Germany marked the end of the Cold War. Different than originally hoped, this did not usher in a new period of peace and stability around the world. Instead, three decades since the emergence of this new era in world politics, conflicts continue to afflict the international community, predominantly in the form of intrastate, or civil, wars (although interstate wars are also present). Exploring the most recent history of gender, military, and war, this chapter examines to what extent the current era of globalization comes with new types of wars, changes in modes of waging war, and humanitarian intervention and how they are related to gender.
Society, Mass Warfare, and Gender in Europe during and after the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Authors: Forrest Alan
Published: November 2020

The period of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars between 1792 and 1815 was characterized by mass warfare on an unprecedented scale. All the belligerent states used large armies that were principally composed of volunteers, militias, and conscripts and were increasingly mobilized by patriotic and nationalist rhetoric. But warfare on this scale did not depend only on the military; it also required the mobilization of society to provide material war support, medical care, and war charity. Civilians played a significant role in these wars. They were the victims of war violence and were also a target for economic warfare. This chapter explores the implications of this new form of mass warfare for women and for the gender order. After discussing the major changes in the political and military order and their consequences for the waging of war during this period, the chapter examines the costs of the new forms of mass warfare for society and explores the different forms of encounter between soldiers and civilians. The final section looks at the variety of ways in which women contributed to the war effort.
West Africa
Authors: Insoll Timothy
Published: November 2020

West Africa is a vast and environmentally diverse region. Its diversity is reflected in its archaeological record, including the Islamic and trans-Saharan trade-associated components. This chapter reviews relevant archaeological research across West Africa through adopting a primarily chronological approach. The indigenous origins of the great medieval empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai are highlighted and their participation in long-distance trans-Saharan networks explored. The major Sahelian trade centers such as Koumbi-Saleh, Essouk-Tadmekka, and Gao are considered, as are entrepot further south that were linked with Muslim merchant groups such as the Mande, agents who connected Sahel to savannah to forest. The commodities of long-distance trade are evaluated in detail, and the extent to which archaeology indicates the networks stretched far into West Africa without necessarily being accompanied by Islamization is appraised. Finally, the limited archaeological research undertaken on the jihads of the 19th century is presented and the “state” of research examined by way of conclusion.
Central Sudan
Authors: Magnavita Carlos , Sule Abubakar Sani
Published: November 2020

In view of the paucity of research, the Islamic archaeology of the Central Sudan and Sahel remains one of the less well known of the African continent. While this also applies to the material legacy of the past six centuries, it is particularly sites and remains from the early period of Islamic influence in the region that are virtually unexplored. The earliest and most expressive elements of the archaeology of Islam in the Central Sudan and Sahel are elite sites related to powerful indigenous states: Kanem-Borno around Lake Chad and the Hausa city-states to the west. In view of their pivotal role in the introduction and propagation of the new religion and culture, the archaeology of those states is particularly significant when addressing the theme. Taking into account the current absence of a comprehensive body of archaeological evidence, this chapter relies on historical knowledge and interpretation as background to discussing a range of archaeological sites, structures, and features that are relevant material expressions of the impact of early and late Arab-Islamic influence in the region. The authors conclude by emphasizing the still untapped, enormous potential of research on the archaeology of Islam in the Central Sudan and Sahel.
South Asia
Authors: Shokoohy Mehrdad , Shokoohy Natalie H.
Published: November 2020

In South Asian archaeology, Buddhist and Hindu sites and monuments dominate, while Muslim ones, with the exception of a few grand edifices, have never been given the priority they deserve. In India, there has been little significant excavation of any Muslim sites, but during the British period the major ones were gradually identified, some of the better-preserved monuments were restored, while the ruins, if regarded as significant, were cleared of debris and rudimentary efforts made to preserve the standing remains. After Partition, the Archaeological Survey of India continued to maintain Muslim sites such as those in Delhi; the forts and monuments of Bidar, Bijapur, Daulatabad, and Gulbarga in the Deccan; scattered remains in Gaur and Pandua (the site of Laknautī, the Muslim capital of Bengal); and the monuments in Jaunpur (Uttar Pradesh) and Sasaram in Bihar. The monuments of Ahmadabad and some other towns of Gujarat have been more extensively studied. Whatever has been undertaken in the way of fresh exploration in North and South India has been mainly by independent scholars and experts. In Pakistan, some excavation has been carried out in the early Muslim sites, including at Banbhore, the site of the ancient port of Daibul, and at Brahmanābād, the site of al-Manṣūra, the seat of the Arab governor of Sind, both dating from the first and second century of the Hijra. In Bangladesh, the historic sites already restored before Partition have been maintained, but funds and resources to carry out fresh excavations or restoration are lacking. Much is left for present and future archaeologists to explore.
Asia
Authors: Insoll Timothy
Published: November 2020

The extent of Islamic archaeological research in Asia varies regionally. The reasons for this include different research interests as well as political factors. Varied research themes are also found and are considered including urbanism, land and maritime trade, and Islamization processes. The preservation of Islamic archaeological heritage is also a significant issue.
Hartree–Fock–Bogoliubov theory for odd-mass nuclei with a time-odd constraint and application to deformed halo nuclei
Authors: Kasuya Haruki , Yoshida Kenichi
Published: November 2020

We show that the lowest-energy solution of the Hartree–Fock–Bogoliubov (HFB) equation has even particle-number parity as long as the time-reversal symmetry is conserved in the HFB Hamiltonian without null eigenvalues. Based on this finding, we give a rigorous foundation for a method for solving the HFB equation to describe the ground state of odd-mass nuclei by employing a time-reversal antisymmetric constraint operator to the Hamiltonian, where one obtains directly the ground state as a self-consistent solution of the cranked-HFB-type equation. Numerical analysis is performed for the neutron-rich Mg isotopes with a reasonable choice for the operator, and it is demonstrated that the anomalous increase in the matter radius of $^{37}$Mg is well described when the last neutron occupies a low-angular-momentum orbital in the framework of the nuclear energy density functional method, revealing the deformed halo structure.