bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Resolution
Authors: Feil Naomi
Published: March 2007

This article proposes that disoriented very old people enter a new life stage with a new life task. In extremely old age, a person must confront what is here called "resolution versus vegetation." Behavior among disoriented old people often is dismissed as dementia or disease. But it is the behavior of people in conflict, dealing with an old-age task that might have been avoided had other stages of life been better managed. Recognizing this new task that lies ahead can lead to better diagnosis and therapy. It also helps us face our own aging by better dealing with earlier life tasks. I began working with disoriented very old nursing home residents (aged 80+) in 1963, trying to orient them to "reality." I soon found that reality orientation was unrealistic for them. They ignored me and retreated inward, moving even more to their past. In 1967, I began to move with them. I no longer expected them to conform to my standards of behavior or to accomplish middle-age life tasks. By validating them-acknowledging the truth of their feelings-I discovered that they restore the past to resolve past conflicts. They must justify having lived. They must make peace. As naturally as the adolescent rebels for identity, the disoriented old clean house before death. They express bottled-up feelings at last. When validated, they feel happier and often return to present reality relating to others in present time. Validation is a combination of empathy, touch, eye contact, mirroring body movements, matching voice and rhythms, picking up cues about feelings and putting them into words, accepting without judging, and genuine, total listening.
The Integrated Personality
Authors: Behrends Rebecca Smith
Published: March 2007

Central to Seeman's (1959) theory of personality integration is the basic contention that the integrated individual has the ability to make available a maximum amount of information on which to base his or her behavior. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, theory and research in personality integration are reviewed ih light of this central concept. Second, the construct of maximal information usage as it is defined in Seeman's theory is integrated with the same notion as it has appeared in three different areas of psychology, corresponding to three of the components of personality originally delineated by Seeman: the cognitive, interpersonal, and physiological subsystems. The integration of this diverse body of literature is undertaken to increase our understanding of the manner in which the integrated person functions vis-a-vis these three components of personality. For each subsystem, specific recommendations are made for additional empirical research designed to address the theoretical issues that have been raised.
International Tension-Reduction Through the Person-Centered Approach
Authors: Solomon Lawrence N.
Published: March 2007

The conference in Rust (Austria) on the "Central American Challenge" represented an experimental application, by Carl Rogers and his associates, of the person-centered approach to conflict resolution in an international context. Despite several limiting factors, the outcome of the meeting allows for a cautious optimism regarding the application of this approach to dispute resolution at all levels: intercultural, interracial, and international.
The Near-Death Experience
Authors: Groth-Marnat Gary
Published: March 2007

History and research on near-death experiences are reviewed and evaluated under five categories: frequency, measurement, patterns, aftereffects, and explanations. Major findings, inconsistencies, and controversies are summarized. Recommendations for future research are made, and the problems encountered when researching near-death experiences are discussed.
Norms in Conflict and Confusion
Authors: Michael Donald N. , Anderson Waltertruett
Published: March 2007

Political conflict involves the conflict of norms, yet resolution of political conflict requires that the disputants share some norms about conflict resolution. This presents a problem at the global level, where no such shared normative framework exists. The world is increasingly interconnected, yet the peoples of the world continue to embrace ideas of separateness that are reinforced by their various normative systems. Six major "stories"-worldviews or paradigms-compete in the current postmodern world: the Western-style mystique of progress, Christian fundamentalism, Islamic fundamentalism, Marxist revolutionary ideology, Green politics, and the "new paradigm." Each is in conflict with other normative systems, and none is adequate to serve as the normative framework for a global society. Whether or not such a society emerges will depend on the development of an ability to deal with information-not only data and concepts, but also "meta-information" about the uses and limitations of information. Whatever the norms of a global information culture, its emergence will be accompanied by a protracted period of conflict and great stress for individuals and institutions of governance. Humanistic psychology, although not the keeper of a "new paradigm," may contribute to our understanding of this historical moment and of the human need to find and create social meaning.
War Myths
Authors: Zur Ofer
Published: March 2007

This article critically explores three beliefs or myths about war. (1) There have always been wars because war is part of human nature. (2) Decent people are basically peaceful and seek to avoid war because it is evil. (3) War is a male institution that carries no appeal for women. Each myth is explored in the following ways: The existence of the myth is documented; its importance and implications are discussed; the scientific and theoretical foundations of the myth are described; the foundations of the myth are critically challenged; and new knowledge about the belief is discussed in light of its importance and its relevance for our current nuclear reality. Because these myths reflect a belief system and are ultimately linked to attitudes and behavior, they can operate in the society to perpetuate warfare. By better understanding the myths about war we will be better able to secure a peaceful future.
The Psychologist as Mythologist
Authors: Lukoff David
Published: March 2007

This article discusses three ways that psychologists are mythologists. First, psychologists are mythmakers when taking the role of psychotherapists. The revised life-story narrative or personal mythology that they coauthor with the patient during therapy often contains elements of classic myths. Second, psychologists function as comparative mythologists when we unravel the psychological and spiritual wisdom woven into ancient and traditional myths. Third, psychologists are mythic researchers, as evidenced by MacAdams's empirical research that used Greek myths to study personal identity. Yet, the graduate education of psychologists rarely incorporates training in mythologies and their meanings. This oversight is being addressed at Saybrook Institute and a few other alternative graduate psychology schools.
From Spiritual Emergency to Spiritual Problem: the Transpersonal Roots of the New DSM-IV Category
Authors: Lukoff David , Lu Francis , Turner Robert
Published: March 2007

Religious or Spiritual Problem is a new diagnostic category (Code V62.89) in the 1994 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Although the acceptance of this new category was based on a proposal documenting the extensive literature on the frequent occurrence of religious and spiritual issues in clinical practice, the impetus for the proposal came from transpersonal clinicians whose initial focus was on spiritual emergencies-forms of distress associated with spiritual practices and experiences. The proposal grew out of the work of the Spiritual Emergence Network to increase the competence of mental health professionals in sensitivity to such spiritual issues. This article describes the rationale for this new category, the history of the proposal, transpersonal perspectives on spiritual emergency, types of religious and spiritual problems, differential diagnostic issues, psychotherapeutic approaches, and the likely increase in number of persons seeking therapy for spiritual problems. It also presents the preliminary findings from a database of religious and spiritual problems.
Anthropos and Existence: Gnostic Parallels in the Early Wrtings of Rollo May
Authors: Martinez Thomas J.
Published: March 2007

A case is made for the influence of archetypal structures on May's preexistential orientation. Early theological, anthropological, and depth psychological affiliations are also considered. It is suggested that May's initial attempts at founding a "science of humanity" and his first conception of the self emerge from these early affiliations and reveal an affinity for Gnostic speculation on Anthropos. This concept has been interpreted by Elaine Pagels, Carl Jung, and others to indicate humanity or self: the archetypal spiritual essence of the human being. The above thinkers additionally suggest that the Gnostics were not only passionate religious scholars interested in redemption, via knowledge of the heart, but also early depth psychologists and humanitarians. It is argued that many Gnostic concepts are inherently existential and that certain Gnostic conceptualizations of existence illuminate May's foundational theoretical assertions. The archetype of Anthropos is thus formative for May's development as a humanist, psychoanalyst, and existentially oriented depth psychologist.
Flight into Health: A New Interpretation
Authors: Frick Willard B.
Published: March 2007

Although its origin remains a mystery, the term flight into health has been part of the psychotherapeutic lexicon for more than half a century. Historically, the term has been used as an interpretative label, suggesting that patients who responded “too quickly” to therapeutic intervention were actually engaging in escape tactics. According to this view, rapid responses to therapy were attempts to avoid the pain and anxiety of further exploration and self-disclosure. This article reviews the literature, explores the issues, and presents a radically different view: That most flight into health phenomena actually represent positive and genuine expressions of emerging health and are not self-deceptive pseudosuccesses, as tra-ditionally interpreted. To provide theoretical support for this posi-tion and to explain the phenomenal results often achieved in short-term therapy, the author draws upon the theoretical work of Andras Angyal and his concept of the ambiguous Gestalt. Two relevant case studies are presented.
Democracy Among the Aristocrats: Participation of Members in the Affairs of the AEU (Australian Section) 1900-1972
Authors: Sheridan T.
Published: March 2007

This paper considers the ability and willingness of members of Australia's largest metal union to participate in their union's affairs. The AEU's democratic international constitution, its strong craft tradition and Australia's particular industrial structure all had important influences on participation. A dichotomy exists between (1) participation in the "official" union structure and (2) the traditional eagerness of craftsmen members to act unofficially and quite inde pendently "on the job". Voting figures recorded at Branch meetings provide some guide to participation in the "official" structure. Long run trends, regional variations and the paradoxical effect of government intervention in AEU elections are observed. Finally, some of the implications for participation of the existence of "unfinancial" members are considered.
To Work or Not to Work— the Case of Women
Authors: Fuller Don
Published: March 2007

In countries such as West Germany and Italy, high levels of unemployment are being associated with severe and antagonistic forms of social aggression. While this does not appear to be the case at present within Australia, there are signs evident of social tensions and strains existing between population groups competing for employment opportunities. This paper investigates the decision of women to join the labour force and attempts to assess the validity of "popular" arguments that women should be discouraged from working in favour of the unemployed youth. The results of this investigation suggest that the labour force participation of females is positively associated with factors such as (1) family income, (2) the age and presence of dependent children and (3) the number of years of schooling. Married women enter the labour force for reasons other than "need" and attempts to increase the level of employment of one population group at the expense of another are likely to fail.
Police Industrial Dispute Resolution Processes and Their Implications for Militancy
Authors: Swanton Bruce , Page Robert W.
Published: March 2007

The study notes the present high level of police industrial militancy. Industrial dispute resolution processes available to police are reviewed in each jurisdiction with a view to judging the nature of their impact on militancy. Two basic styles for resolution exist: collective bargaining and arbitration. Collective bargaining is seen as being the preferred method of resolution where situations are favour able to its use. Arbitration is practised in one of two basic forms; through the Industrial Commissions and through the Tribunals. Industrial Commissions provide the greater flexibility. There appears to be a trend to arbitration in the resolution of disputes as employers assume a tougher negotiating posture. The study shows that the forms of arbitration utilised are limited. Greater employee satisfaction may be expected to accrue from the utilisation of a greater variety of arbitration styles and increased liaison. Improved industrial relations would hopefully reduce the number of industrial grievances occurring in the first instance. The authors conclude that, in general terms, dispute resolution pro cesses are less effective than they might be—the most urgent areas for reform being the provision of arbitration for disputes of a non-economic nature and ways of improving employees' commitment to all arbitration outcomes and not only to those which grant their demands.
Justice Staples and the Politics of Australian Industrial Arbitration
Authors: Kitay Jim , Mccarthy Paul
Published: March 2007

A full explanation of the difficulties experienced by Justice Staples during his career on the former Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission requires an understanding of the political relationship between the tribunal and its client parties and other branches of the state. It is argued that during times of political and industrial uncertainty there are strong pressures on industrial tribunals to operate in a flexible, opportunistic manner. Staples, however, based a number of his decisions on legal, social and industrial principles that he considered just and proper for the discharge of his office, but which conflicted with the interests of unions, employers, governments and even other members of the commission. His reliance on the principle of judicial autonomy did not deter his opponents from seeking to discipline and finally remove him from the bench. This incident was but the most recent of a number of similar episodes this century, which raises as yet unanswered questions about the extent to which industrial tribunals are and should be free from external intervention.
South African Experiences with Identity and Community Conflicts
Authors: Bremner Davin
Published: March 2007

This article compares and contrasts two conflict interventions conducted during the difficult and dangerous period of political transition in South Africa in the early 1990s. Politicized ethnic violence was dividing black African communities, threatening the ongoing national negotiation process and the transition to democracy. In the Thokoza township east of Johannesburg, the structures and methods of the South African Peace Accord were unsuccessfully employed in an effort to prevent or mitigate ongoing violence. At the same time, in the Meadowlands section of Soweto, west of Johannesburg, a combination of processes grounded in alternative assumptions and methods allowed the community to take first responsibility for its own conflict handling and peacekeeping functions, ultimately transforming the local situation into a stable and nonviolent one. A case of using `action research' as an alternative strategy for engaging conflicted parties in dialogue and problem-solving, when they profess unwillingness to be involved in more explicit peace processes, is described and explored. The article suggests, among other things, that in a situation of community conflict a labor mediation framework which regards the parties to the conflict as necessarily adversarial, and intervener behavior that reinforces the perception of adversariality, is not ideal for creating safe spaces for dialogue, or for allowing a sense of shared community identity to prevail over ethnic, political, or other divisive influences.
Survival of Rationalism between Hostility and Economic Growth
Authors: Özyildirim Süheyla , Criss Nur Bi̇lge
Published: March 2007

This article examines the interaction of country pairs who have historically been and are potentially hostile. Hostility is described as a function of arms stocks versus bilateral trade. Armament intensifies the current level of hostility whereas trade reduces the possibility of militarized disputes. We argue that welfare-maximizing decisionmakers have to seek methods other than accumulation of arms to increase the security of their nations, and we highlight the strategic nature of trade in overcoming enmity. Rational governments, who consider bilateral trade as a factor that reduces the level of enmity, allocate resources more efficiently between arms imports and consumer goods. The model predicts that understanding the use of trade as a diplomatic tool will lead the economy to grow significantly. The model is designed as a non-cooperative dynamic game and solved numerically using an adaptive learning algorithm called a genetic algorithm.
Violence Against Civilians in Civil Wars: Looting or Terror?
Authors: AZAM JEAN-PAUL , HOEFFLER ANKE
Published: March 2007

This article analyses the motives of violence against civilians during internal wars. It is suggested that soldiers may terrorize civilians because they need the loot to augment their resources while the rest of the time is engaged in fighting proper. An alternative hypothesis suggests that terrorizing the civilian population plays a direct military role. The displacement of large fractions of the civilian population reduces the fighting efficiency of the enemy, as they cannot hide as easily and obtain less support. These two alternative hypotheses are investigated in a simple two-stage game-theoretic model. At stage 1, the government and the rebels simultaneously decide on the level of forces engaged in violence against civilians before they choose the level of forces that they engage in the fighting proper at stage 2. There are two types of sub-game perfect equilibria in this model: there is a pure fighting equilibrium in which no violence against civilians takes place and a pure terror equilibrium. In the latter equilibrium, it is shown that terror substitutes for fighting if the government can afford it. Predictions of the model are tested using African refugee data. In accordance with the theoretical model, the refugee population displays strong positive serial correlation, and after controlling for war, overseas development assistance has a positive impact on the outflow of refugees. Thus, the results support the hypothesis that violence against civilians is motivated by military objectives and suggest that donor funding to governments at war should be cut if the protection of civilians is regarded as more important than the fate of the fighters.
Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community
Authors: MACK ANDREW
Published: March 2007

This article argues that the academic conflict research community has far less impact on the policy community than the importance of its work deserves. This is so for a number of reasons. First, the scholarly and policy communities communicate badly - the former rarely seeking to make their work more accessible to the latter. This is particularly true of the work of the econometricians, which few in the policy community understand. Second, the still-dominant realist academic security studies community continues to focus on interstate wars, while tending to ignore the 90% plus of armed conflicts that take place within, not between, states. Realist theories are, moreover, largely irrelevant to the task of explaining civil wars. Third, few policymakers recognize that probabilistic theories cannot be refuted by one or several counter-examples, leading them to reject important findings for the wrong reasons. Fourth, the conflict datasets used by quantitative researchers have no official standing, are often incommensurate, are unavoidably inaccurate and ignore key measures of violent conflict. Fifth, while there is some consensus with respect to findings on the causes of civil war, there are also fundamental disagreements. Little effort appears to have been made to resolve the differences. Policymakers have neither the time nor the expertise to choose between competing explanations themselves. Sixth, while there is growing consensus that the causes of civil strife are to be found in the interrelationships between development, governance and security, divisions of labour between academic disciplines and between departments in both governments and international institutions constrain both interdisciplinary and interdepartmental collaboration. The article concludes with a number of recommendations to improve the policy impact of conflict research.
Review Essay : Only One Quarrel with Kenneth Boulding
Authors: Galtung Johan
Published: March 2007

In 1977, Kenneth Boulding had twelve quarrels with Johan Galtung. Ten years later, reviewing Boulding's two recent books, The World as a Total System and Human Betterment, Galtung has only one quarrel with Boulding. That quarrel concerns the notion of structural violence.
Getting Access to the Victims: Role and Activities of the ICRC
Authors: Blondel Jean-Luc
Published: March 2007

In fulfilling its humanitarian obligations, the ICRC is often faced with political, technical and financial obstacles. Since its foundation in 1863, it has none the less been able gradually to develop its protection and assistance activities for the victims of armed conflicts: the wounded and sick in the field, prisoners of war, civilians in occupied territories and all those affected by hostilities. For several years now, it has also visited political detainees, providing strict conditions are met (repeated visits and interviews without witnesses, access to all detainees in all places of detention). Moreover, in its large-scale relief operations the ICRC insists on being allowed to make on-site assessments of the needs of conflict victims and to carry out all distribution operations itself It closely monitors the implementation of international humanitarian law, but cannot replace States in settling the political differences underlying the conflicts.
The Nature and Meanings of Nonviolent Direct Action: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Bond Douglas G.
Published: March 2007

Using a minimal, consensual definition of nonviolence, and drawing from the case listing by Sharp (1973), this study factor analyses 72 actual cases of nonviolent direct action. Fifty-nine variables are employed that measure characteristics of the actors and objects (e.g. their number, organization, leadership, etc.), the situation (e.g. the political system, population, wealth, etc. of the country in which the case took place), the action (e.g. any training, the techniques used by both actor and object, etc.) and the outcomes, in terms of associated violence and success in realization of objectives. Twelve nearly orthogonal first-order dimensions were interpreted, while six second-order factors were also examined in both the R and Q matrices. Nondemocratic conditions emerged as the single largest contribution to the patterns. Based on the delineation of characteristic (R) and case (Q) groupings, typologies of nonviolence and nonviolent direct action advocates were offered. In addition, three hypothetical perspectives on nonviolence were noted as the discussion shifted from a focus on (nonviolent) methods to (democratic) processes of conflict resolution.
The State, the Military and War
Authors: Galtung Johan
Published: March 2007

Ekkehardt Krippendorff walks the high road of peace research. His book, State and War, is a contribution to the grand task of abolishing war as an institution. He argues that states and the military are twins, created for the same purpose: breeding war and violence against each other's and their own subject populations. This review presents Krippendorff's arguments and extends them, showing how the two ahistorical conclusions that would seem to emerge from such reasoning - namely the anarchist and the pacifist conclusions - can be avoided.
Conflict Resolution, Ethnonationalism and the Middle East Impasse
Authors: Heraclides Alexis
Published: March 2007

The intractable Middle East conflict is examined from the prism of `ethnic' conflict resolution. The resolution of conflicts between states and ethnonationalist movements (placed under fourteen different headings) is distinguished into `denial' solutions and `acceptance' solutions - policies that accept the other side as a people apart and as an interlocuteur valable. Denial policies are by definition non-negotiable. They need to be enforced. As a result, they are unlikely to resolve conflicts that are basically ethnic, such as the one of the Middle East, particularly under present circumstances of world-wide ethnic assertiveness. Only acceptance solutions may lead to a process of conflict resolution through negotiations between the two main parties concerned, in this case the State of Israel and the PLO. To the extent that states and ethnonationalist movements are implacably irredentist, they cannot present the other side to a conflict with other than non-negotiable denial policies. Ten problems are identified as instrumental for the Middle East impasse and suggestions are made as to how they can be settled. They are the objective (zero-sum) conflict of interest, conflict attitudes, the domestic factor, the positive functions of the conflict, ethnonationalism, the asymmetry between state and revolutionary movement, the role of the superpowers, the religious-cultural dimension, regional expansionism and the regional arms race.
Formal and Quasi-Mediators in International Disputes: An Exploratory Analysis
Authors: Kriesberg Louis
Published: March 2007

The distinction is made between mediating services provided to ameliorate international conflicts and who provides the services. The services may be provided by a person, group, or organization playing the role of a mediator, or by a quasi-mediator, a social entity not so designated, who may even be a member of one of the adversaries. The paper examines the kind of contribution social units providing mediating services, but playing different roles, can and do make towards de-escalating international conflicts. The implications of this distinction are examined for various stages of conflict de-escalation: preparing for negotiations, starting them, conducting them, reaching mutual accommodative agreements and sustaining them. Evidence is drawn from cases of mediation conducted officially and non-officially, especially in the US-Soviet and Arab-Israeli conflicts. Certain kinds of mediating actions can be especially well provided by one kind of provider compared to another and the effectiveness of different actions also varies with the stage of the conflict in which the mediating service is conducted.
Warfare-Welfare Expenditure Substitutions in Latin America, 1953-87
Authors: APOSTOLAKIS BOBBY E.
Published: March 2007

The use of any resource has an opportunity cost in the alternative instances that are foregone; it is a common thesis though that some burdens are more burdensome than others. Frequently, the net effect of defense spending calls for a careful investigation. In the relevant literature, the suspected trade-off between military spending and social needs is not entirely inexplicable. This study presents an overall view and an empirical testing of the alleged trade-off between defense and other public needs (health, education, social security, and public works) in nineteen Latin American nations during the period 1953-87. Via three alternative econometric specifications based on time-series data, we conclude that, overwhelmingly, military expenses crowd out the potential allocations for social upgrading. We, also, find a positive link only in the defense-public works spending. In its majority, therefore, the warfare-welfare (guns vs. butter) trade-off in that region of the world is confirmed. The pattern of these 35 years strongly suggests that Latin American arms buying is based, as it has traditionally been, on perceived service needs, motives of national or personal sovereignty, and occasionally on the potential for conflicts with neighbors rather than on any other threat of aggression.
Peace Dividends: The Exclusion of Military Contractors from Investment Portfolios
Authors: Cowton Christopher J.
Published: March 2007

There are many ways in which opposition to, or distaste for, the production of armaments and other equipment used for military purposes can be expressed. The purpose of this paper is to introduce to the peace studies literature the possibility that such views can find expression in the construction of equity investment portfolios. In particular, the paper examines the relative importance of military contracting as one area of possible concern to `ethical' or `socially responsible' investors in Britain. First, it is found that virtually all the managed investment funds marketed to British investors as possessing ethical characteristics make some exclusion on the basis of involvement in military contracting. The various ways in which military contracting is defined by the funds are outlined and discussed. The second substantive section of the paper then examines the attitudes of 125 users of an ethical information service and finds that military contracting is one of the highest ranked categories, but that the concern is primarily with the supply of non-civilian rather than civilian items. The discussion then briefly considers: experience in, and prospects for, other countries; further possible definitions of unacceptable military contractors; and some of the implications for the composition of equity portfolios.
Military Spending in Sub-Saharan Africa: Some Evidence for 1967-85
Authors: Dunne J. Paul , Mohammed Nadir A. L.
Published: March 2007

This article is a contribution to the debate on the determinants and economic effects of military expenditure in less-developed economies. Recent empirical work has suggested that there is much to be gained from analysing groups of relatively homogeneous countries, and to this end it focuses on a sample of thirteen Sub-Saharan African countries over the period from 1967 to 1985. The econometric analysis uses data for the group of countries as a whole, a cross-sectional analysis of the country averages, and an analysis of the pooled country data. As regards the determinants of military spending, the results suggest that economic factors play an important role in determining the level of military burden across countries and over time for the sample as a whole. When the data are pooled, strategic factors such as wars, the size of the army and inertia become important. In a time-series analysis, military expenditure is also found to have a negative effect on economic development for the countries as a whole, through its negative indirect effects on human resource accumulation, investment allocations and the balance of payments. While this result is not found across countries, or when the data are pooled, the results still imply that there is no significant positive effect of military burden on economic growth. Together, these results show the value of attempting to capture both time-series and cross-sectional effects when analysing the determinants and economic effects of military spending and the value of dealing with relatively homogeneous groups of countries.
Intervention Across Bisecting Borders
Authors: Roy A. Bikash
Published: March 2007

Case studies of the 1828-9 and 1877-8 Russian interventions in Turkey-in-Europe and of the 1947-8 and 1965 Pakistani interventions in Kashmir show that revisionist states which intervene in communal strife across nation-bisecting borders do so at considerable cost to their power/security interests despite minimal opportunity for offsetting or lasting gains at the expense of the target state. These interventions cannot be attributed to miscalculation, as revisionist state leaders are aware of external constraints that limit the possible gains while heightening the risks of intervention. This is contrary to both traditional realist and neorealist theory. The finding is important because it explicitly demonstrates that nationalism and domestic politics are of causal importance in some classes of war that realist theory does not explain. Nationalism influences intervention via a three-stage process in which communal/ethnic strife in the target state diffuses across the bisecting border, then mobilizes public opinion and non-state actors in the revisionist state; finally, it pressures state leaders to adopt hardline policies at odds with their own past policies towards the target state. This process model reveals a more complex nexus between domestic and international politics than conventional second-image models allow for.
The Study of Appeasement in International Relations: Polemics, Paradigms, and Problems
Authors: Dimuccio Ralph B. A.
Published: March 2007

Research in a variety of fields has provided a perspective on policies of appeasement that differs significantly from the simplistic images underlying commonly held foreign policy attitudes. Nevertheless, most journalists, politicians, pundits and even many prominent students of international relations have virtually ignored serious scholarship on the subject of appeasement, relying instead on the highly negative view that emerged after the failed British effort to avert war in the late 1930s. This essay critically analyzes major scholarly contributions in the study of appeasement and divides this research into three general approaches: orthodox/realist; behavioral/utility; and liberal/exchange. While all three shed light on factors that contribute to the inception of strategies of appeasement, the liberal/exchange approach - by far the least developed or known of the three - possesses the most potential for offering a nuanced explanation. More generally, this review seeks to establish a basis for a critical analysis not only of the journalistic dogma that has attached to such cases as Bosnia, China, and North Korea, but also of the policies themselves.
Neoidealism and the Democratic Peace
Authors: Henderson Errol A.
Published: March 2007

While analysts hail the democratic peace as an empirical vindication of neoidealist precepts of world politics, actually it is inconsistent with them. Neoidealism focuses on the role of international regimes - not shared political regime type - in reducing the probability of interstate conflict. In this article, I suggest a more consistent neoidealist conceptualization of the stability among democratic dyads. Focusing on the postwar era, I maintain that a combination of factors, including bipolarity, nuclear deterrence, alliance membership, and trade links, contributed to the formation of an international security regime among the major power democracies and their minor power democratic allies. Further, I maintain that the presence of this international regime and not simply joint democracy allowed for the postwar stability among democratic dyads. While democracy may have been associated with the creation of a security regime at the behest of the Western democracies led by the USA, the expansion and maintenance of this regime (and its conflict dampening attributes) are rooted, to a greater extent, in the interplay of alliance-aggregation and security externalities of trade. This argument is consistent with neoidealist precepts and by focusing on the role of security regimes it contributes to the neoidealist research program.
Russia: Systemic Transformation or Federal Collapse?
Authors: Herd Graeme P.
Published: March 2007

Most scholars have argued that the Russian Federation, having survived the turbulence of 1992-93, has slowly developed a durable and sustainable modus operandi. This article argues for the opposite. It notes that the constituent parts of the federation gradually secured greater constitutional and political legitimacy throughout Yeltsin's second-term presidency, even to the extent of regionalizing some federal military structures. They entered into economic alliances with newly privatized companies, created independent communication and information networks and, to a more limited extent, developed foreign economic policies. Although this drift towards growing regional autonomy was kept more or less in check by the centre's ability to contain the wilder excesses of regional governors, the 1998 `August Meltdown' disrupted the balance between centripetal and centrifugal forces within the federation by dramatically weakening the centre's power. As a consequence, the federal system of governance is disintegrating not by design but by default. Following an analysis of the extent to which federal transformation has occurred during 1998, the article charts the likely future trajectory of this process. It argues that as the centre is largely unable to combat the crisis, Russia will either become a very weak federation dominated by large regional blocs, or a confederation. The article concludes by suggesting that Russia's systemic transformation will affect our perceptions of security within the region and that this has important implications for Western policymakers.
A Macro-Level Model of School Disorder
Authors: WELSH WAYNE N. , STOKES ROBERT , GREENE JACK R.
Published: March 2007

Drawing on school climate theory and social disorganization theory, this article examines the influence of major institutional and community factors on disorder in Philadelphia public schools. Using U.S. census data, school district data, and police data, the authors examined the following predictors of disorder in 43 middle schools: community poverty and residential stability, community crime, school size, and school stability. Community was conceptualized in two ways: local (the census tract around the school) and imported (aggregated measures from the census tracts in which students actually reside). Previous studies have failed to make this distinction when assessing community-level influences on school disorder. The authors used path analysis to examine direct and indirect relationships between community characteristics (poverty, residential stability, crime rates), school size, school stability (a factor score based on student attendance and turnover), and school disorder (a factor score based on school incident data and dismissal rates). The local community model fit the data better than the imported model: The communities immediately surrounding schools have a stronger influence on school disorder than the communities from which students are drawn. Community poverty exerted strong indirect effects on school disorder in both models. The effects of community variables on school disorder were strongly mediated by school stability, illustrating that analyses of institutional processes have much to add to the explanation of school disorder.
Building on the Foundation of General Strain Theory: Specifying the Types of Strain Most Likely to Lead to Crime and Delinquency
Authors: AGNEW ROBERT
Published: March 2007

General strain theory (GST) is usually tested by examining the effect of strain on crime. Researchers, however, have little guidance when it comes to selecting among the many hundreds of types of strain and have trouble explaining why only some of them are related to crime. This article builds on GST by describing the characteristics of strainful events and conditions that influence their relationship to crime. Strains are said to be most likely to result in crime when they (1) are seen as unjust, (2) are seen as high in magnitude, (3) are associated with low social control, and (4) create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping. Drawing on these characteristics, it is predicted that some types of strain will not be related to crime, including types that have dominated the research on strain theory, and that others will be related to crime, including types that have been neglected by empirical researchers.
Boys, Blisters, and Behavior
Authors: Hackler James C.
Published: March 2007

The Opporiunities for Youth Project utilized a work program in combination with teaching machines and other experimental variables in an attempt to modify the self concepts of boys living in low income areas. The theoretical rationale guiding the pro gram assumed that a boy's perception of how others expected him to behave would be the crucial variable in changing self concept and behavior. Although there is some indication that the use of teaching machines may have had an impact and that Negro boys may have responded to the program better than Caucasian boys, the overall findings show that the program had little if any impact. These results suggest that projects designed to modify individual behavior through employment programs may be somewhat futile unless they can also bring about changes in the larger social system surrounding boys in low income areas.
Some Cognitive Dimensions of Interpersonal Behavior in Adolescent Delinquent Boys
Authors: Shore Milton F. , Massimo Joseph L. , Moran Janet K.
Published: March 2007

Analyses of thematic stories applied to selected pictures by delinquent and nondelinquent adolescent boys reveal that the delinquents apparently are more concerned with interpersonal relationships. This concern is primarily hostile (either moving against or protecting oneself from people). Delinquents also rarely see authority figures as passively cooperative. This suggests that delinquents may develop a cognitive awareness and sensi tivity to people with many adaptive aspects. This may reflect the object hunger and desire for relationships, hostility and fear of such relationships, and the intense need to manipulate others in order to obtain gratification, all of which have been found to be delinquent characteristics.
Police Organization and Future Research
Authors: Tifft Larry L. , Bordua David J.
Published: March 2007

Recent changes in a "post-bureaucratic" direction indicate that police departments have reached a new stage in development as attempts to counter the effects of reform bureaucratization result in new ways of crossing organizational boundaries. Our current research on police supervision indicates the dependency of police behavior on extra-organizational processes. Organizational change and research results both point toward the establishment of re search districts which can experiment with widely varied ways of organizing and carrying out police work. Within the research district context, several more specific research questions are sug gested.
Economic Analyses of the Deterrent Effect of Punishment: A Review
Authors: Palmer Jan
Published: March 2007

Whether or not the threat of punishment deters crime is one of the oldest and most controversial issues in criminal justice. The purpose of this article is to familiarize other social scientists with the theoretical models, data sets, and statistical methods used by economists who have analyzed the effect of the threat of punishment on criminal behavior.
Juvenile Restitution as a Sole Sanction or Condition of Probation: an Empirical Analysis
Authors: Schneider Peter R. , Griffith William R. , Schneider Anne L.
Published: March 2007

Judges frequently require that offenders, as a condition of probation, make restitution to their victims. Less frequently, restitution is ordered as a sole sanction, with no additional penalties or requirements. This paper, based on data from more than 10,000 juvenile court cases involving restitution, com pares the outcomes of cases in which offenders were sentenced to restitution as a condition of probation with those in which offenders were ordered to make restitution as a sole sanction. The data indicate that youths receiving restitu tion as a sole sanction are more likely to complete the order successfully and less likely to commit new offenses while under the jurisdiction of the restitution project.
Ratio-Level Multidimensional Scaling: a Method for Measuring Juvenile Offenders' World Views
Authors: Gillham James
Published: March 2007

Ratio-level multidimensional scaling (RMDS) is intended for precise measurement of the change-or, at least, differences-in the concepts constituting aggregates' world views. Such measurement consists of three consecutive phases: selecting key concepts in these world views, devising and administering the questionnaire, and reducing and analyzing the data. This paper illustrates the use of RMDS for comparing world views, as well as for planning and evaluating treatments.
Block Crime and Fear: Defensible Space, Local Social Ties, and Territorial Functioning
Authors: TAYLOR RALPH B. , GOTTFREDSON STEPHEN D. , BROWER SIDNEY
Published: March 2007

Why do some blocks have more crime, or their residents have higher fear levels, than other blocks? In an effort to answer this question we proposed a model that incorporated physical defensible space features, local social ties, and territorial functioning. The model was tested using data from a multistage, stratified sample of 687 Baltimore households on 63 blocks. At each household, surveys were completed and on-site physical features were photographed and subsequently rated. Records of police activity on each block were also obtained. Our model explained significant portions of crimes of violence to persons (18%) and block fear (37%). It was also able to predict a significant amount (13%) of the variation in individual-level fear. At the block level: defensible space features dampened crime and fear but not as strongly as expected; and local social ties dampened crime and fear directly, and indirectly via an enhancement of territorial functioning. A model predicting individual fear levels, controlling for block context, was also supported. Our successful modeling of block dynamics suggests that these entities may profitably be treated as small-scale social units or groups. The pattern of findings has also confirmed suggestions made by others that physical factors alone cannot be relied on to preserve local order and feelings of security. Finally, the block-level linkages between local social ties and territorial attitudes clarify how territorial attitudes reflect, and may contribute to, the development of group-based norms regarding appropriate behaviors in on-block settings.