bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Simulative Performance Test for Hot Mix Asphalt Using Asphalt Pavement Analyzer
Authors: Kandhal PS , Cooley LA
Published: February 2006

Permanent deformation, or rutting, has been and continues to be a problem in the performance of hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements. This paper presents a summary of work conducted under National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 9-17. This research project was undertaken to evaluate the Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) to determine its suitability as a general method of predicting rut potential. There was a need to identify test conditions within the APA that produced results most related to field rutting performance. Ten HMA mixes of known field rutting performance were tested within a full factorial experiment designed to determine the combination of testing conditions for the APA that best predicts field rutting. The experimental plan consisted of different specimen types (beam and cylinder), air void contents in compacted test specimen (4 and 7 %), hose diameters (25 and 38 mm), and test temperatures (high temperature of standard PG grade based upon climate and 6°C higher temperature). Based upon the test results and analysis, a tentative standard method of test was developed and recommended. A standard practice for establishing maximum specified rut depth for APA by highway agencies has also been recommended.
Fatigue Strength in Presence of Inhomogeneities: Influence of Constraint
Authors: Beretta S , Carboni M , Madia M
Published: February 2006

The effect of defects on the entity of the fatigue limit is nowadays well known and is demonstrated to be equivalent to the nonpropagating condition of short cracks. The influence of constraint at the defect tip has been addressed in the present paper considering a mild steel whose mechanical behavior has been experimentally determined together with the propagation threshold values for long cracks. The activity has first dealt with the determination of the Kitagawa diagram by means of fatigue limit tests using specimens containing micro-notches with different shapes (drilled holes and narrow slits). Experimental results showed a significant influence of the defect shape on the fatigue limit and thresholds. In order to understand the reasons, defects have then been analyzed by elasto-plastic FEM analyses. Computational results have confirmed a significant difference in the global constraint factor at the crack tip between round and narrow defects.
Creep Crack Growth Analysis of Welded Joints for High Cr Heat Resisting Steel
Authors: Tabuchi M , Hongo H , Watanabe T , Yokobori AT
Published: February 2006

The creep strength of weldment for high Cr ferritic steels decreases due to Type IV damages in the heat affected zone during long-term services at high temperatures. It is important to predict initiation and growth of creep voids and cracks in weldment. This paper clarified the Type IV crack initiation and growth properties in fine-grained HAZ of weldments for tungsten strengthened high Cr steels. On the basis of experimental results, the computational simulation for Type IV crack growth behavior was conducted. The effect of multiaxial stress condition on vacancy diffusion and crack initiation was discussed.
An Investigation of Regression Rate of the Melting Interface for Iron Burning in Normal Gravity and Reduced Gravity
Authors: Ward NR , Suvorovs T , Steinberg TA
Published: February 2006

This paper investigates the causes of increased regression rates of the melting interface for metals burning in reduced gravity. Promoted ignition tests have been conducted for 3.2-mm diameter iron rods during a transition from normal gravity to reduced gravity. Immediately upon transition to a reduced-gravity environment, a change in regression rate of the melting interface was evident. The rate was consistently 1.75 times higher in reduced gravity than in normal gravity. The sudden increase in regression rate of the melting interface indicates that it is due to a change in the geometry of the molten ball, rather than higher temperatures. A one-dimensional, steady state heat transfer model was developed, correlating regression rate of the melting interface to surface area of the solid/liquid interface. Evidence is presented suggesting that (a) the solid/liquid interface adopts a “dome” shape in reduced gravity, and (b) that this causes an increase in regression rate of the melting interface directly proportional to the increase in surface area of the solid/liquid interface.
The Adiabatic Compression Test for Type Approval of Components — History and Final Test Protocol
Authors: Barthélémy H
Published: February 2006

This paper explains why this test was proposed for the qualification of oxygen compatible equipment such as valves, regulators, and flexible hoses. This was done to avoid the repetition of accidents or incidents reported by the industry in high pressure equipment. In addition, this paper explains how this test method was developed and improved over the years and how harmonization was reached in the various Standards. Finally, a proposal for future work is outlined.
Functional Characterization of the Putative Aspergillus nidulans Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase Homolog PrpA
Authors: Semighini Camile P , Savoldi Marcela , Goldman Gustavo H , Harris Steven D
Published: March 2006

POLY(ADP-RIBOSE) polymerase (PARP) is a highly conserved enzyme involved in multiple aspects of animal and plant cell physiology. For example, PARP is thought to be intimately involved in the early signaling events that trigger the DNA damage response. However, the genetic dissection of PARP function has been hindered by the presence of multiple homologs in most animal and plant species. Here, we present the first functional characterization of a putative PARP homolog (PrpA) in a microbial system (Aspergillus nidulans). PrpA belongs to a group of PARP homologs that includes representatives from filamentous fungi and protists. The genetic analysis of prpA demonstrates that it is an essential gene whose role in the DNA damage response is sensitive to gene dosage. Notably, temporal patterns of prpA expression and PrpA–GFP nuclear localization suggest that PrpA acts early in the A. nidulans DNA damage response. Additional studies implicate PrpA in farnesol-induced cell death and in the initiation of asexual development. Collectively, our results provide a gateway for probing the diverse functions of PARP in a sophisticated microbial genetic system.
Ideologies of Authority
Authors: Walker J. H.
Published: March 2006

The focus of this study is the way in which elites and the people they rule engage to create, resist or amend ideologies of power and perceptions of legitimacy. It examines as a detailed case study the differences in the ways in which the first and second Rajahs of Sarawak, James and Charles Brooke, responded to the ritual concerns of the people they sought and claimed to govern, and the consequences of those differences for the manner in which they attempted to accumulate and enact authority.
Oxygen Uptake and Involvement of Superoxide Radicals upon Photolysis of Ketones in Air‐saturated Aqueous Alcohol, Formate, Amine or Ascorbic Acid Solutions
Authors: Görner Helmut
Published: February 2006

The photolysis of acetophenone, benzophenone, 4‐carboxy‐benzophenone and benzil was studied in air‐saturated aqueous solution in the presence of alcohols. The overall reaction is an oxidation of 2‐propanol to acetone. The quantum yield of oxygen uptake (φ‐O2) increases with increasing 2‐propanol concentration up to 0.9. The photoreaction can also be initiated by quenching of the ketone triplet state by ascorbic acid, formate or an amine e.g. triethylamine. Subsequent reactions of the involved radicals with oxygen yield the super‐oxide radical and eventually hydrogen peroxide. For the ketones in the presence of 3–30 mM ascorbic acid or triethylamine φ‐O2= 0.3–0.9. The specific properties of ketones, including 4‐methoxyacetophenone and 2‐acetonaphthone, the radicals involved and the pH and concentration dependences of φ‐O2 are discussed.
Bolbophorus Infections in Cultured Fathead Minnow
Authors: Mitchell Andrew J. , Goodwin Andrew E. , Levy Michael G.
Published: February 2006

Bolbophorus trematodes in fish recently gained national attention because B. damnificus infections have caused major losses of commercially raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. We report the presence of a mixed infection (B. damnificus and Bolbophorus sp.) in fathead minnow Pimephales promelas. Of the 10 trematodes identified by Bolbophorus spp.−specific polymerase chain reaction assays, 9 were Bolbophorus sp. and 1 was B. damnificus. This is the first report of a natural infection of B. damnificus in a nonictalurid host. In fathead minnow, the prodiplostomula examined histologically were surrounded by thin-walled cysts; rarely, the cysts were accompanied by an inflammatory reaction that consisted primarily of macrophages.
Effects of Tricaine Methanesulfonate, Hypno, Metomidate, Quinaldine, and Salt on Plasma Cortisol Levels following Acute Stress in Threespot Gourami Trichogaster trichopterus
Authors: Crosby Tina C. , Hill Jeffrey E. , Watson Craig A. , Yanong Roy P. E. , Strange Richard
Published: February 2006

Blood plasma cortisol concentration is an indicator of stress in fish, and anesthetics may serve to ameliorate stress and reduce the cortisol response. Previous studies have concentrated on cold- and warmwater species; little information exists for tropical fishes. Mortalities are increased after handling stress of threespot gourami Trichogaster trichopterus (Osphronemidae), a commonly cultured tropical ornamental fish. Plasma cortisol levels were evaluated in threespot gourami after a handling stressor and treatment with one of four anesthetics—tricaine methanesulfonate (TMS; 60 mg/L), metomidate (0.8 mg/L), quinaldine (5 mg/L), and Hypno (0.14 mg/L)—or salt (NaCl; 3 g/L). Fish in all anesthetic treatments had significantly lower cortisol levels than either salt-treated fish or the untreated controls. Therefore, the use of such anesthetics should be beneficial in reducing handling stress. Based on our data, further studies refining the use of anesthetics, particularly metomidate and quinaldine, with tropical ornamental species are warranted. Although salt did not reduce cortisol, it is beneficial as an osmoregulatory aid; therefore, future studies should investigate combination treatments of an anesthetic with salt.
Evaluation of Winter Severity on Growth of Young‐of‐the‐Year Atlantic Salmon
Authors: Murphy Margaret H. , Connerton Michael J. , Stewart Donald J.
Published: February 2006

Overwinter growth of young‐of‐the‐year (age‐0) Atlantic salmon Salmo salar was studied during two winters in central New York streams. We hypothesized that longer and colder winters would negatively influence the growth of age‐0 Atlantic salmon. Further, we predicted that Atlantic salmon growth and survival would be positively correlated with their size before the winter period. Four cages were placed in streams at three sites in the winters of 2000 and 2001, with six individually marked Atlantic salmon per cage. One cage was retrieved monthly at each site and the weight, length, and energy density of each fish were measured to calculate growth rate and condition factor. All fish survived the winter experiment irrespective of starting size. Mean energy density of fish at the conclusion of each experiment was positively related to fish weight at the start. Winter conditions were different between years, stream temperatures being colder in 2000 than in 2001 (overall winter mean [SD], 0.71°C [2.487°C] versus 1.93°C [2.87°C]), accompanied by less variable temperatures, lower discharge, and more ice cover. Growth rates were negative during both winters, weight loss being significantly greater in the year with warmer, more variable temperatures. Growth rates were also significantly different between months, weight loss being greater in December and January and less (or replaced by positive growth) by the end of the winters (March). Mean energy density of salmon increased during the colder winter of 2000 but declined in 2001. Based on the observations in the current study, lower threshold temperatures for feeding activity may be even lower than previously reported, possibly near 0°C. We discuss the energetic implications of variable winter conditions on age‐0 Atlantic salmon.
Use of the Average and Fluctuating Velocity Components for Estimation of Volitional Rainbow Trout Density
Authors: Smith David L. , Brannon Ernest L. , Shafii Bahman , Odeh Mufeed
Published: February 2006

The relationship between discharge and fish density in streams is commonly accepted to be curvilinear, progressing from low discharge and low fish density to a peak and then declining to high discharge and low fish density. Discharge is related to water velocity; in general, as discharge increases velocity increases. Habitat complexity is an important aspect of salmonid ecology; more complex habitats support higher fish densities. Habitat complexity also influences the flow of water through the process of flow separation and turbulence production. More complex habitats generally exhibit higher levels of turbulence even though both may have similar average velocities. We tested whether the physical link between habitat complexity and turbulence was correlated with fish density. Turbulent kinetic energy and average velocity for three different levels of discharge and habitat complexity were measured in a flume. Turbulent kinetic energy was found to predict fish density, whereas average velocity did not. We concluded that the physical link between habitat complexity and turbulence production correlates with fish density and that turbulent kinetic energy captures the combined effect of discharge and cover, whereas average downstream velocity only measures the effect of changes in channel discharge.
Growth and Behavioral Consequences of Introgression of a Domesticated Aquaculture Genotype into a Native Strain of Coho Salmon
Authors: Tymchuk Wendy E. , Biagi Carlo , Withler Ruth , Devlin Robert H.
Published: February 2006

Selective breeding for enhanced growth in Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. and other fish typically involves use of the largest mature individuals to breed for future generations of aquaculture broodstock. Owing to an altered selection regime, faster‐growing fish may not be as adapted to the natural environment as wild fish. To increase understanding of the genetic changes underlying selection for enhanced growth that results in phenotypic differentiation of farmed from wild Pacific salmon, multiple generations of pure and hybrid families were generated for coho salmon O. kisutch, including pure farm (D), pure native (Ch; a natural strain propagated by wild and hatchery production), F1 and F2 hybrids, and F1 × wild backcross (BCh) genotypes. The family groups were reared in the laboratory under controlled conditions as (1) individual genotypic groups, (2) mixed groups under culture conditions, and (3) mixed groups under enriched (seminatural) conditions. The growth of the fish was tracked until smoltification. There was a significant genotype effect on growth performance (mass and length), with rankings as follows: D > F2 > F1 > BCh > Ch. This ranking remained the same in all three rearing environments. Behavioral differences were observed among the families, the fast‐growing domesticated families showing a reduced antipredator response relative to the slow‐growing wild families. Expression of the phenotypic differences in the hybrids and backcrosses, together with the results from a joint‐scale analysis on line means, suggests that additive genetic effects contribute significantly to the divergence between the fast‐ and slow‐growing strains. As phenotypic differences between strains are largely a consequence of additive gene action, the phenotypic effects of domestication are largely diluted within two generations of backcrossing to wild salmon. Knowledge of the genetic changes responsible for altered growth rates is crucial to our ability to predict the consequences of introgression of domestic strains into wild populations of salmon.
Excessive Rapid Palatal Expansion with Latham Appliance for Distal Repositioning of Protruded Premaxilla in Bilateral Cleft Lip and Alveolus
Authors: Fukuyama Eiji , Omura Susumu , Fujita Kiyohide , Soma Kunimichi , Torikai Katsuyuki
Published: February 2006

Objective:

This article reports a case of bilateral cleft lip and alveolus (BCLA) for which excessive rapid palatal expansion with a Latham appliance was performed for preoperative alignment of the protruded premaxilla. Postoperative changes of maxillary width were investigated with serial plaster casts.

Patient and Results:

A 3-month-old girl presented with complete BCLA in which the premaxilla was markedly protruded. Preoperative alignment of the protruded premaxilla with a Latham appliance was planned to facilitate primary lip repair. The appliance was placed when the patient was 4.5 months old. The necessary palatal expansion was estimated to be 7.0 mm in order to move the premaxilla backward into the ideal position. After palatal expansion and posterior repositioning of the protruded premaxilla, the primary operation, including cheiloplasty and gingivoperiosteoplasty, was performed when the patient was 7 months old. Excessive maxillary expansion might be a cause of transverse maxillomandibular discrepancy. Measurement with serial plaster casts demonstrated that maxillary widths increased from 42.3 mm pretreatment to 49.0 mm after orthopedic treatment but relapsed markedly to 43.5 mm at 3 months after the primary operation. Therefore, the net change of maxillary widths was only 1.2 mm. After alignment of the protruded premaxilla, tension-free soft tissue repairs were performed, and a harmonious alveolar arch was obtained without change in maxillary width.

Conclusion:

These results indicate that this method is useful for preoperative management of BCLA with protruded premaxilla.
Stress–strain behaviour of high-strength concrete columns confined by low-volumetric ratio rectangular ties
Authors: Hong K.-N. , Akiyama M. , Yi S.-T. , Suzuki M.
Published: February 2006

Available test results and stress–strain models for poorly confined high-strength columns, more specifically for columns with a tie volumetric ratio smaller than 2·0%, are scarce. This paper presents test results loaded in the axial direction for square reinforced concrete (RC) columns confined by various volumetric ratio lateral ties including low volumetric ratio. Test variables include concrete compressive strength, tie yield strength, tie arrangement type and tie volumetric ratio. Local strains are measured using strain gauges bonded to an acryl rod. For square RC columns confined by lateral ties, the confinement effect was improved by changing tie arrangement type from type A to type B. A method to compute the stress in lateral ties at the concrete peak strength is proposed, as well as a new stress–strain model for the confined concrete. The model shows good agreement with stress–strain relationships established experimentally over a wide range of confinement parameters.
A new methodology for repairing and strengthening RC members in seismic regions
Authors: Kotsovos G. M. , Zeris C. , Pavlović M. N.
Published: February 2006

The work described in this paper is concerned with the application of the method of the compressive force path (CFP) to the strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) structures designed for seismic action (the initial design of the member(s) covers both CFP design and design to current Eurocodes). Carbon fibre-reinforced polymer sheets are used for this purpose. Eight column specimens were tested under the combined action of a constant axial force and monotonic or cyclic lateral displacement. The eight columns were tested in groups of two, each group having one specimen strengthened initially and then tested to failure, while the second specimen was tested without strengthening, and was repaired and strengthened before testing it to failure. The tests showed that the strengthening procedure based on the CFP fully satisfied the performance requirements of current code provisions for strength and ductility irrespective of whether the initial design followed Eurocodes or the CFP methodology. Moreover, all strengthened (or repaired and strengthened) specimens had stiffnesses similar to those of their virgin counterparts.
Effect of concrete strength on biaxial bending moment
Authors: Shin S.-W. , Bahn B.-Y. , Yoo S.-H.
Published: February 2006

This paper evaluates the ultimate strength of high-strength concrete (HSC) columns subjected to both axial load and biaxial bending. Fifteen square section (200 × 200 mm) columns with concrete compressive strength of 34, 57 and 64 MPa, respectively, were axially loaded with bi-directional eccentricities. The loading point was at an angle of 0°, 22·5° and 45° and the distances of eccentricity were determined to induce tension, balanced and compression failures, respectively. Test results were compared with the results of nonlinear analysis on P–M interaction curves and load contours. It was observed that, as concrete strength increases from 34 to 57 MPa, the concrete strength has a minor effect on the biaxial moment strength of reinforced columns, but as concrete strength increases up to 64 MPa, the concrete strength has a significant influence on biaxial flexural strength. This observed result is complementary when compared with the load contour method of ACI, in which biaxial bending design constants of columns are limited to concrete compressive strength of 41 MPa and estimate the effect of concrete strength to be minor.
Modelling of chloride-binding isotherm by multi-species approach in cement mortars submitted to migration test
Authors: Amiri O. , Friedmann H. , Aït-Mokhtar A.
Published: February 2006

Based on a multi-species approach, a new model for evaluating free chloride content in cementitious materials is proposed. To validate the model, migration tests were carried out on cement mortars with several NaCl concentrations. The total chloride was measured with the potentiometric method. The subtraction of the free chloride from total chloride results in bound chloride. Thus, a chloride-binding isotherm is obtained. First, it is shown that free chloride depends on the concentration of anions and cations contained in the pore solution. Second, the chloride-binding isotherm obtained (linear isotherm) shows that the interactions between chloride and hydrated products of the tested mortars are stronger than those (non-linear isotherm) quantified by the method based on water extracting. Finally, the electrical current is shown to be dependent on the binding phenomenon during the unsteady state. In fact, in a steady state, the sites that can react with chlorides are saturated; hence the binding isotherms do not affect the transport process.
Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Elderly Latinos Affected by Depression: Implications for Outreach and Service Provision
Authors: Brennan Mark , Vega Marlena , Garcia Israel , Abad Antonio , Friedman Michael B.
Published: March 2006

Latinos are one of the fastest growing segments of the older population and are known to have a high prevalence of depression, as well as a greater likelihood of risk factors for this condition such as poor comorbid physical health, distressed economic circumstances, and social isolation that leads to a de facto homebound status. Thus, long-term care providers are likely to encounter increasing numbers of older Latinos suffering from depression in both community and institutional settings. This article discusses current empirical and conceptual studies on mental health issues facing older Latinos, as well as outreach, clinical practice, and policy recommendations for working with this population.
EFFECTS OF CANDY AND SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT, INSTRUCTIONS, AND REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE LEANING ON THE MODIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SMILING1
Authors: Hopkins B. L.
Published: March 2006

Two retarded boys exhibited abnormally low rates of smiling. In Exp. I, the frequency of a boy's smiling was first increased with candy reinforcement, but the frequency of the response did not decrease when candy reinforcement was terminated. When the subject wore a sign designed to make social interactions contingent on not‐smiling, the frequency of smiling decreased. The sign was then changed to make social interactions contingent on smiling and the rate of smiling increased. In Exp. II, a second boy initially never smiled. Establishment of a contingency for candy reinforcement did not increase this zero response rate. Instructing the child to smile initially increased smiling, but the instructions then became progressively more ineffective. Candy reinforcement increased the rate of smiling to a normal range, but the rate of the response promptly decreased when this reinforcement was discontinued. Continuous candy reinforcement was again employed to increase the response rate and then progressively leaner schedules of variable‐ratio candy reinforcement were employed. Consequently, the rate of smiling did not decrease when candy reinforcement was again eliminated. Subsequently, signs were employed to regulate social interactions and the rate of smiling was shown to be controlled by these interactions serving as reinforcers.
A METHOD TO INTEGRATE DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPERIMENTAL FIELD STUDIES AT THE LEVEL OF DATA AND EMPIRICAL CONCEPTS1
Authors: Bijou Sidney W. , Peterson Robert F. , Ault Marion H.
Published: March 2006

It is the thesis of this paper that data from descriptive and experimental field studies can be interrelated at the level of data and empirical concepts if both sets are derived from frequency‐of‐occurrence measures. The methodology proposed for a descriptive field study is predicated on three assumptions: (1) The primary data of psychology are the observable interactions of a biological organism and environmental events, past and present. (2) Theoretical concepts and laws are derived from empirical concepts and laws, which in turn are derived from the raw data. (3) Descriptive field studies describe interactions between behavioral and environmental events; experimental field studies provide information on their functional relationships. The ingredients of a descriptive field investigation using frequency measures consist of: (1) specifying in objective terms the situation in which the study is conducted, (2) defining and recording behavioral and environmental events in observable terms, and (3) measuring observer reliability. Field descriptive studies following the procedures suggested here would reveal interesting new relationships in the usual ecological settings and would also provide provocative cues for experimental studies. On the other hand, field‐experimental studies using frequency measures would probably yield findings that would suggest the need for describing new interactions in specific natural situations.
BEHAVIORAL ENGINEERING: THE REDUCTION OF SMOKING BEHAVIOR BY A CONDITIONING APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE1
Authors: Azrin N. H. , Powell J.
Published: March 2006

Recent findings from animal conditioning studies have revealed methods of reducing responses to a very low level with a minimum of aversive by‐products. These findings were incorporated into the design of a cigarette case that automatically locked itself for a period of time after a cigarette was removed from it. The next cigarette could be taken at the end of the interval, which was signalled by distinctive stimuli. Five heavy smokers were allowed to become accustomed to using the case. Then, the duration for which the case was locked was gradually increased over a period of weeks to about 1 hr. Smoking gradually decreased to the target level of about one‐half of a package of cigarettes per day. Control procedures showed that specific features of the apparatus were responsible for the reduction of smoking. The results indicated that this apparatus was sufficiently effective, convenient, and acceptable to smokers to constitute a practical procedure for reducing smoking to the level considered medically safe. The procedure may also have potential for reducing other habit‐forming or addictive behaviors.
THE USE OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT IN CONDITIONING ATTENDING BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Walker Hill M. , Buckley Nancy K.
Published: March 2006

Individual conditioning techniques were applied in a controlled setting to increase attending behavior of an underachieving 9‐yr‐old male subject. The procedure involved: (1) determining a stable response pattern, (2) introducing a treatment variable to establish a high rate of task‐attending behavior, (3) measuring the effect of withdrawal of the treatment variable after attaining criterion performance, and (4) transferring control to the classroom. The interval of attending behavior required for reinforcement was systematically increased from 30 sec to 600 sec as the behavior came under experimental control. Manipulating the reinforcing contingencies measurably changed the proportion of attending behavior and the frequency and duration of non‐attending events. Once the behaviors were under experimental control, procedures were established to program generalization and to maintain the behavior outside the experimental setting.
THE EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT ON THE MODIFICATION, MAINTENANCE, AND GENERALIZATION OF SOCIAL RESPONSES OF MENTAL PATIENTS1
Authors: Kale R. J. , Kaye J. H. , Whelan P. A. , Hopkins B. L.
Published: March 2006

Social greeting responses of three withdrawn, chronic schizophrenics were experimentally modified. Initially, none of the subjects spoke to an experimenter. Prompts and cigarette reinforcement were employed to produce increases in the rates of greetings. Then, the prompts were faded so that the greetings came under the control of the presence of the experimenter. Reversal and subsequent reinforcement procedures were employed to demonstrate that the responses were controlled by their consequences. Next, the schedule of cigarette reinforcement was leaned out so that greetings continued to occur in the absence of cigarette reinforcement. However, low or zero rates of greetings occurred in the presence of a second experimenter. Five new experimenters employed the prompting, fading, reinforcement, and schedule‐leaning procedures. Subsequently, all subjects emitted appropriately high rates of greetings in the presence of the second experimenter. Without further application of the experimental procedures, greetings were still occurring in the presence of both the first and second experimenters almost three months later.
EFFECTS OF GROUP CONTINGENT EVENTS UPON CLASSROOM NOISE1
Authors: Schmidt Gilbert W. , Ulrich Roger E.
Published: March 2006

The first study investigated a group control procedure for suppression of excessive sound‐intensity levels in a regular public school classroom. Reinforcement consisted of a 2‐min addition to the class gym period and a 2‐min break after maintenance of an unbroken 10‐min quiet period as monitored on a decibel meter. Transgressions of the sound limit (42 decibels) resulted in a delay of reinforcement by the resetting of the timer to the full 10‐min interval. The results indicated that these procedures were highly effective in suppression and control of sound intensities. The second experiment utilized a similar procedure coupled with a procedure of eliminating out‐of‐seat behavior. Experiment III studied the effects of Exp. II procedures on a single student's out‐of‐seat behavior rate. All procedures were found effective.
SETTING GENERALITY: SOME SPECIFIC AND GENERAL EFFECTS OF CHILD BEHAVIOR THERAPY1
Authors: Wahler Robert G.
Published: March 2006

The present study attempted to assess experimentally, functional relationships between home and school settings. Two children, both considered deviant in their homes and in their schools, were observed in both settings. The observations revealed that the children's deviant behaviors at home were quite similar to their deviant behaviors at school. Contingency operations were then performed in the children's homes. Results showed that the children's behavior changed predictably in the homes and remained at baseline level in school.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL RESPONSES IN TWO SEVERELY RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Whitman Thomas L. , Mercurio J. R. , Caponigri Vicki
Published: March 2006

The effect of reinforcement dependent on the social responses of two severely retarded withdrawn children was investigated. During 30 training sessions (30 min each) food and praise were administered dependent upon the children's mutual participation in a ball‐rolling and block‐passing task. Both children showed a progressive increase in social interaction in a non‐training situation during this reinforcement period. After the reinforcement procedures were removed, social behavior decreased markedly. Response generalization to children not involved in training occurred.
THE USE OF A TOKEN SYSTEM IN PROJECT HEAD START1
Authors: Miller L. Keith , Schneider Richard
Published: March 2006

The present experiment sought to develop a practical and effective method for teaching the beginning elements of hand‐writing in a Head Start program. The method consisted of reinforcing responses to a writing program by giving the children access to a variety of activities normally available in the pre‐school classroom. Tokens were presented for correct responses. The children then used the tokens to select reinforcers, such as snacks and access to a variety of play activities. In an experimental evaluation of the token system, it was found that responding was maintained as long as access to the reinforcing activities was contingent upon responding. When reinforcement was no longer contingent upon responding, virtually no responding occurred. Informal observations suggested that the token system had several unanticipated effects: the children's vocabulary and ability to understand instructions improved; a favorable attitude toward school developed; and their ability to play cooperatively with other children increased. It was concluded that the token system is a practical and effective method for teaching beginning writing skills and that it has other desirable, if unanticipated, effects.
TRAINING GENERATIVE VERB USAGE BY IMITATION AND REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES1
Authors: Schumaker Jean , Sherman James A.
Published: March 2006

Three retarded children were trained, using imitation and reinforcement procedures, to produce past and present tense forms of verbs in response to verbal requests. Two types of experimental sessions were arranged: training sessions and probe sessions. During training sessions, a child was trained to produce one verb in both the past and the present tense. Then, in a probe session, the generalization of this training was tested by presenting to the child a series of untrained verbs interspersed with previously trained verbs. Responses to untrained verbs were never reinforced. Training sessions alternated with probe sessions throughout a multiple baseline design involving four classes of verb inflections as the baselines. The results showed that, as past and present tense forms of verbs within an inflectional class were trained, the children correctly produced past and present tense forms of untrained verbs within this class. When verbs from two or more classes were trained, the children correctly produced the verb tenses from each of these classes. Thus, the imitation and reinforcement procedures were effective in teaching generative use of verb inflections.
RECEPTIVE TRAINING OF ADJECTIVAL INFLECTIONS IN MENTAL RETARDATES1
Authors: Baer Donald M. , Guess Doug
Published: March 2006

A generalized discrimination of /er/ and /est/ suffixes as labels for stimuli exemplifying comparative or superlative relationships was established in three institutionalized retardates through differential reinforcement. The subjects were first taught correct pointing in response to opposite adjectives (e.g., “big—small”) presented as labels for simple visual stimuli, and then taught each of the comparatives, or each of the superlatives possible for those opposites (e.g., “big—bigger” and “small—smaller”, or “big—biggest” and “small‐smallest”). As training proceeded, novel combinations of the training stimuli were presented as unreinforced probes to display any developing generalization of the training. As training of comparative discrimination proceeded, correct pointing response to comparative probes was high, but correct response to superlative probes was low. When training of superlative discriminations replaced training of comparatives, correct response to superlative probes increased, and correct response to comparative probes remained high.
A NOTE ON A SIMPLE PROCEDURE FOR REDISTRIBUTING A TEACHER'S STUDENT CONTACTS1
Authors: Sanders Richard M. , Hanson Paul J.
Published: March 2006

A class of twelve third‐grade students in a rural school of two grades per teacher was observed to determine the frequency of student‐teacher contacts for each student. Requiring each child to go to a play area when he completed his work resulted in changing the distribution of these contacts so that the better students used fewer teacher contacts. In addition, the number of completed assignments of all students increased and data are presented which imply that the poorer students of the class received more of the teacher's available time than previously. The application of this procedure to special pupil populations would probably be very useful. A number of advantages and limitations of the procedure are described.
A COMPARISON OF PROCEDURES FOR ELIMINATING SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR OF RETARDED ADOLESCENTS1
Authors: Corte Henry E. , Wolf Montrose M. , Locke Bill J.
Published: March 2006

An attempt was made to eliminate the self‐injurious behaviors of four institutionalized, profoundly retarded adolescents. Some of the behaviors studied were: face‐slapping, face‐banging, hair‐pulling, face‐scratching, and finger‐biting. Three remediative approaches to self‐injurious behavior were compared. Elimination of all social consequences of the self‐injurious behavior was not effective with the two subjects with whom it was attempted. The same two subjects were exposed to a procedure involving reinforcement of non‐self‐injurious behavior which was ineffective under no food deprivation and was effective with one of the two subjects under mild food deprivation. Electric‐shock punishment eliminated the self‐injurious behaviors of all four subjects with whom it was attempted. The results suggested that punishment was more effective than differential reinforcement of non‐self‐injurious behavior which, in turn, was more effective than extinction through elimination of social consequences. However, the effects of the punishment were usually specific to the setting in which it was administered. In order to eliminate the self‐injurious behaviors of severely retarded children, it is apparently necessary to carry out the treatment in many of the settings in which it occurs.
REDUCTION OF DANGEROUSLY AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR IN A SEVERELY RETARDED RESIDENT THROUGH A COMBINATION OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES1
Authors: Vukelich Ron , Hake D. F.
Published: March 2006

A severely retarded resident was released from a timeout chair only occasionally for brief periods of time. Under the timeout contingency alone, the subject made a choke response within minutes of being released. Attention, such as hugs, smiles, and candy was then increased, first by providing it non‐contingently and continuously as long as there were no aggressive responses and then, by making it contingent upon incompatible responses. Under conditions of timeout plus increased attention, choking decreased abruptly. Grabbing responses, which increased when choking was reduced, were also reduced under conditions of timeout plus attention. Unrestrained time was gradually increased and all extra attention, i.e., more scheduled attention than provided other residents, was gradually withdrawn. When the resident was unrestrained all day and all extra attention was withdrawn, grabs and, to a lesser extent, chokes increased. Both were again reduced to a manageable level by scheduling several brief periods of attention each day. Hence, the program resulted in quick reductions that endured when the program was largely withdrawn. The changes in aggressive responding as a function of the presence and absence of extra attention suggest the importance of extra “positive reinforcement” in programs based upon positive reinforcement procedures and dealing with retarded residents for whom positive reinforcers may be scarce.
OPERANT MEASUREMENT OF SUBJECTIVE VISUAL ACUITY IN NON‐VERBAL CHILDREN1
Authors: Macht Joel
Published: March 2006

The present experiment sought to develop a reliable procedure for measuring visual acuity in non‐verbal retarded children. Five non‐verbal retarded children and two literate adults were examined. The two adults were included in the experiment so that verbal communication with them could validate certain assumptions regarding the experimental procedures. By utilizing a lever press as the criterion response signifying a visual discrimination and employing the Snellen “E” discriminanda, a reliable subjective measure was obtained, not unlike those measures taken from verbal adults. Contrary to several antecedent procedures, a relatively precise measurement of subjective acuity was shown to be obtainable from non‐verbal retarded children. Additionally, the procedure was successful in evaluating the effectiveness of prosthetic lenses previously prescribed for two of the children.
MODIFICATION OF ARTICULATION ERRORS OF PRE‐DELINQUENTS BY THEIR PEERS1,2
Authors: Bailey Jon S. , Timbers Gary D. , Phillips Elery L. , Wolf Montrose M.
Published: March 2006

Pre‐delinquent peers in Achievement Place (a community based family style rehabilitation program based on a token economy) were given points (token reinforcement) to modify the articulation errors of two boys. In Experiment I, using a multiple baseline experimental design, error words involving the /l/, /r/, /th/, and /ting/ sounds were successfully treated by both a group of peers and by individual peers. Also, generalization occurred to words that were not trained. The speech correction procedure used by the peers involved a number of variables including modelling, peer approval, contingent points, and feedback. The individual role of each of these variables was not experimentally analyzed, but it was demonstrated that peers could function as speech therapists without instructions, feedback, or the presence of an adult. It was also found that payment of points to peers for detecting correct articulations produced closer agreement with the experimenter than when they were paid points for finding incorrect articulations. The results were replicated in a second experiment with another subject who had similar articulation errors. In addition, the second experiment showed that peer speech correction procedures resulted in some generalization to the correct use of target words in sentences and significant improvements on standard tests of articulation.
THE EFFECTS OF RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE TRAINING ON ARTICULATION1
Authors: Mann Ronald A. , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

The present study attempted to assess one condition of language exposure that might be operative in a normal environment, and experimentally determine its relevance to the acquisition of productive speech. The results demonstrated that the development of receptive language skills can be functionally related to productive speech. Specifically, the data indicated that exposure to words that have stimulus control over a subject's nonverbal pointing behavior can facilitate later articulation of those same words. Thus, this study draws attention to the fact that at least some classes of operants, in this case verbal, can be affected not only by their consequences, but by not obviously related antecedent events as well.
REINFORCEMENT AND GENERALIZATION OF PRODUCTIVE PLURAL ALLOMORPHS IN TWO RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Sailor Wayne
Published: March 2006

Morphological dictates of English usage call for the unvoiced allomorph /‐s/ to form the plural of singular nouns with unvoiced endings (e.g., cups). Conversely, the voiced allomorph /‐z/ is required to form the plural of nouns with voiced endings (e.g., tree). The study sought to determine the extent to which differential reinforcement could control the acquisition of plural allomorphs in two retarded subjects. In Condition 1, one subject was trained with reinforcement procedures on a list of words calling for the /‐s/ allomorph. She was then given unreinforced probe items to determine the extent of generalization to words calling for the /‐z/ allomorph. In Condition 2, the procedures were reversed and this subject was trained on a /‐z/ list and probed for generalization of /‐z/ to words calling for /‐s/. A second subject was exposed to the same conditions in the opposite order. The results for the two subjects lent unequivocal support for the hypothesis of generalized training effects. It was concluded that appropriate usage of the linguistic response class “plurals” is susceptible to generalized training effects of differential reinforcement.
THE EFFECTS OF ACCESS TO A PLAYROOM ON THE RATE AND QUALITY OF PRINTING AND WRITING OF FIRST AND SECOND‐GRADE STUDENTS1
Authors: Hopkins B. L. , Schutte R. C. , Garton Kathleen L.
Published: March 2006

The major dependent variable was the rate at which first and second‐grade students printed or wrote daily copying assignments. Data were also taken on the percentage of letters scored as errors according to a set of scoring criteria. Initially, these data were collected during a baseline condition in which each child returned to his seat as soon as his completed work had been scored, to wait for the rest of the class to finish their assignments. When the children were allowed to go to a playroom after their papers had been scored, there was a reliable increase in the mean printing or writing rates. Subsequent introductions of the baseline and playroom conditions replicated the relative effectiveness of access to the playroom to produce higher work rates. Finally, the total amount of time allowed for children to complete their assignments and then play was progressively reduced from 50 to 35 minutes. A progressive increase in work rates was correlated with these changes. Throughout the experiment, there was considerable variability in the mean number of letters scored as errors but there was a clear trend towards fewer errors.
THE TREATMENT OF “ANXIETY‐DEPRESSION” VIA POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT AND RESPONSE COST1
Authors: Reisinger James John
Published: March 2006

A target behavior program, structured within a token economy project, was implemented to modify the behavior of an institutionalized patient who exhibited excessive rates of crying and no smiling responses. To affect both responses concurrently, token costs were made contingent upon crying and token payments and/or social reinforcements were provided for smiling. The results indicated both the feasibility of eliminating “anxiety‐depression” within an institutional environment and the efficacy of the treatment procedures 14 months after discharge.
TRAINING PROFOUNDLY RETARDED CHILDREN TO STOP CRAWLING1
Authors: O'Brien F. , Azrin N. H. , Bugle C.
Published: March 2006

Many profoundly retarded children continue to crawl even though they can walk. Crawling and walking were viewed as two alternative response modes, both reinforced by movement. Children choose the one mode that is easier and faster for them. A training program was designed to increase the ease and speed of walking relative to that of crawling, and consisted of restraint‐for‐crawling and priming‐of‐walking. With the program, four retarded children reduced crawling and began to walk instead. When training was discontinued, two children with moderate walking impairment continued to walk rather than crawl. Two children with severe impairment of walking, however, required the occasional use of the restraint procedure to maintain walking as the dominant mode of locomotion. The program was easily administered, required little time, and was effective for all four children.