bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Advanced Analysis Identifies Greater Efficiency for Testing BOPs in Deep Water
Authors: Franklin C. Mark , Vargo Richard F. , Sathuvalli U. B. , Payne Mike
Published: April 2006

Pressure testing blowout preventers (BOPs) with synthetic-based mud (SBM) requires lengthy testing times resulting from pressure/volume/temperature (PVT) influences associated with SBM. PVT influences are especially pronounced indeep water and high-pressure test environments.

A project was initiated in an effort to better understand the mechanics that transpired during BOP testing. The primary objective was to demonstrate that the pressure decline was quantified by the fluid-PVT behavior, mechanical influences and thermodynamics of pressurization, and subsequent cool down. The secondary objective was to demonstrate that the pressure decline resulting froma leak could be reliably and efficiently detected with high-resolution pressure data.

It was theorized that the gradual decay of pressure during the shut-in phase was a result of the heat added to the system during pressurization. To pursue this investigation, real-time PVT data were gathered at the cementing-unit (CU)suction and discharge while testing the BOP. In addition, pressure/temperature(P/T) gauges were placed in the drillstring—one at the drill floor, one at the midpoint between the drill floor and the BOP, and one above the BOP stack. The gauges confirmed significant heat up as the system was pressured up for each test. The pressure decreased as the system cooled back toward the ambient temperature. Modeling techniques were developed to understand the system response.

This paper presents salient aspects of data acquisition, data interpretation, and modeling techniques. Results demonstrate the potential to significantly impact the industry, with respect to safety, time, and costs for BOP testing.
Enhanced Biodegradation of Azo Dyes Using an Integrated Elemental Iron‐Activated Sludge System: II. Effects of Physical–Chemical Parameters
Authors: Saxe Jennie Perey , Lubenow Brian L. , Chiu Pei C. , Huang Chin‐Pao , Cha Daniel K.
Published: April 2006

As part of a study to evaluate an integrated zero‐valent iron (Fe0)‐biological oxidation process for treating azo dye wastewaters, we conducted batch and column experiments with the azo dye orange G to assess the effects of solution conditions on the performance of iron pretreatment. The influence of iron type and surface area, solution pH, dissolved inorganic salts, and phosphate ion on the reduction (decolorization) of orange G solution were examined. In batch experiments, increased iron surface area, decreased pH, and chloride and sulfate salts enhanced dye decolorization, whereas high pH (9.9) and phosphate concentrations (>3 mg/L PO4‐P) inhibited dye reduction. Results from batch experiments were confirmed in column experiments. An increase in temperature from 22 to 35°C resulted in a near doubling of the reduction rate constant in a column study. The abiotic reduction results illustrate the feasibility and potential limitations of an integrated iron column, activated sludge treatment process for wastewaters containing azo dyes.
Evaluation of Disinfection Techniques in the Treatment of Advanced Primary Treated Wastewater for Ciudad Juárez, México
Authors: Carrasco Leirad , Turner Charles D.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of alternative disinfection techniques at the bench‐scale level using wastewater from Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, as model feed. This paper presents findings on the effectiveness of UV radiation, peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as disinfectants for advanced primary treatment (APT) plant effluent.    Wastewater samples for bench‐scale testing were collected from an agua negra (“black water”) ditch that is part of the combined sewer system in Ciudad Juarez. Bench‐scale simulations of the APT process used in Ciudad Juarez were run using a jar test apparatus and aluminum sulfate [Al2(SO4)3] as the coagulant. Jar test effluent from the bench system was used for disinfection testing. The Mexican discharge quality standard for total coliforms is 10 000/100 mL. Ultraviolet radiation met this standard at a dose of 47.5 mW‐s/cm2. Ultraviolet disinfection proved reliable and effective despite the presence of suspended solids, and UV dose effectiveness expressed as a total coliforms survival ratio was best explained by a linear regression model. The ClO2 dose ranged from 10 to 20 mg/L and was only effective under ambient temperature conditions found during the winter months; PAA disinfection never met Mexican standards. Chlorine disinfection was effective at a dose range of 8 to 10 mg/L on samples collected at low temperature conditions. Since the completion of this research, Ciudad Juarez has discontinued the use of chlorine disinfection because of its high cost and ineffectiveness.
The Digestibility of Waste Activated Sludges
Authors: Park Chul , Abu‐Orf Mohammad M. , Novak John T.
Published: April 2006

Laboratory digestion studies using waste activated sludges (WAS) were conducted to compare the digestion performance between anaerobic and aerobic processes. Nine samples of WAS from seven wastewater treatment plants were collected and batch‐digested under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions for 30 days at 25 °C. The cation content of wastewater (both floc and solution phases) and solution biopolymer (protein and polysaccharide) was measured before and after digestion and compared with volatile solids destruction data. The study revealed that each digestion process was associated with a distinct biopolymer fraction, which accounted for differences in volatile solids reduction under anaerobic and aerobic conditions. The anaerobic digestion data showed strong correlations between soluble protein generation, ammonium production, percent volatile solids reduction, and floc iron (Fe). These data suggest that the amount of volatile solids destroyed by anaerobic digestion depends on the Fe content of floc. In aerobic digestion, polysaccharide accumulated in solution along with calcium and magnesium. For aerobic digestion, correlations between divalent cation release and the production of inorganic nitrogen were found. This implies that divalent cation‐bound biopolymer, thought to be lectin‐like protein, was the primary organic fraction degraded under aerobic conditions. The results of the study show that the cation content in wastewater is an important indicator of the material that will digest under anaerobic or aerobic conditions and that some of the volatile solids will digest only under either anaerobic or aerobic conditions. Water Environ. Res.,
Chromium (III) Removal by Supported Liquid Membranes: A Comparison Among D2HEPA, DNNSA, and a Novel Extractant as Carriers
Authors: Buonomenna M.G. , Oranges T. , Molinari R. , Drioli E.
Published: April 2006

A facilitated transport study in supported liquid membranes (SLM) using the extraction reagents di‐2‐ethylexilfosphoric acid (D2HEPA), dinonylnaftalene sulfuric acid (DNNSA), and a novel complexing agent, trimethyl cis,cis‐1,3,5‐tripropyl‐1,3,5 cyclohexenetricarboxilic acid (TTCHTCA) as carriers has been carried out. Organic solvents with different dielectric constants as diluents have been used to obtain the highest extraction and transport values. The results obtained have shown that, by using different organic phases (carrier and/or diluent), SLMs with different ion flux and transport ability can be obtained.    The carrier concentration in the membrane and the chromium (III) [Cr(III)] ions concentration in aqueous phase have been varied to see the effect on transport of Cr(III) ions across the membrane. For the carriers D2HEPA and TTCHTCA, the transport of Cr(III), both in batch and in recirculation operation mode, has been studied. Very good results in terms of flux and transport have been obtained using TTCHTCA.
Pretreatment of Sludge with Microwaves for Pathogen Destruction and Improved Anaerobic Digestion Performance
Authors: Hong Seung M. , Park Jae K. , Teeradej N. , Lee Y. O. , Cho Y. K. , Park C. H.
Published: April 2006

A new way of generating Class A sludge using microwaves was evaluated through a series of laboratory‐scale experiments. Microwaves provide rapid and uniform heating throughout the material. Other benefits of microwave treatment include instant and accurate control and selective and concentrated heating on materials, such as sludge, that have a high dielectric loss factor. Sludge was irradiated with 2450‐MHz microwaves, and fecal coliforms were counted. Fecal coliforms were not detected at 65°C for primary sludge and anaerobic digester sludge and at 85°C for waste activated sludge when sludge was irradiated with 2450‐MHz microwaves. During the bench‐scale anaerobic digester operation, the highest average log reduction of fecal coliforms was achieved by the anaerobic digester fed with microwave‐pretreated sludge (≥2.66 log removal). The anaerobic digester fed with microwave‐irradiated sludge was more efficient in inactivation of fecal coliforms than the other two digesters fed with raw sludge and externally heated sludge, respectively. It took more than three hydraulic retention times for a bench‐scale mesophilic anaerobic digester to meet Class A sludge requirements after feeding microwave‐irradiated sludge. Class A sludge can be produced consistently with a continuously fed mesophilic anaerobic digester if sludge is pretreated with microwaves to reach 65°C.
Chromate Removal by an Iron Sorbent: Mechanism and Modeling
Authors: Smith Edward , Ghiassi Kaveh
Published: April 2006

A solution containing chromate was treated using waste shot‐blast fines recovered from surface finishing operations in a cast‐iron foundry as a sorbent in batch and fixed‐bed modes. Equilibrium experiments for initial chromate concentrations of 5 to 10 ppm produced a pH‐adsorption edge that exhibits removal of chromium (Cr) over a broad pH range, with adsorption capacities that compare favorably to those reported for other adsorbents such as activated carbon and commercial iron oxides. Surface complexation modeling of adsorption equilibria suggests the formation of monodentate, inner‐sphere complexes with chromate (CrO4 2−) and bichromate (HCrO4 −). Adsorption of Cr(VI) at iron oxy‐hydroxide sites appears to be the primary mechanism of chromium removal at neutral pH. At lower pH values (for example, pH 4), reduction to Cr(III) is assumed to contribute to the increasing removal as a function of decrease in pH. There is also evidence to support the formation of Cr(III)–iron (Fe)(III) coprecipitate following Cr(VI) reduction by dissolved Fe(II). Using equilibrium constants for the two surface complexation reactions evaluated from a triple‐layer model description of the oxide‐water interface, chromate removal in a short fixed bed of fines was simulated using a dual mass‐transfer kinetic model. Rate coefficients determined from model calibration of the short column were used to predict experimental breakthrough curves in columns with empty bed contact times (EBCTs) up to four times the short column. For an influent chromium concentration and pH of 5 ppm and 7.0, respectively, a solid‐phase loading capacity of 9.5 ± 0.3 mg/g was achieved at exhaustion. Predictive model runs indicate that, for this case, an EBCT of 2.0 to 2.5 minutes is optimum for achieving a target effluent concentration of less than or equal to 0.05 mg/L chromium as Cr(VI).
Changes in Japanese Commerce in the Tokugawa Period
Authors: Crawcour E. S.
Published: April 2006

The development of commerce and the rise of a merchant class in Tokugawa Japan have deservedly received considerable attention from both Japanese and Western scholars. In Japan that interest would seem to have been prompted by the problem of the rôle of the pre-Restoration merchant class in the development of the modern capitalist Japanese economy. The study of this problem was characterized by a long controversy in which the Tokugawa merchants were depicted as either “progressive” or “feudalistic,” depending on the historical philosophy of the participants. The argument was conducted at a high level of generality and on both sides within frameworks derived from the leading European (mainly German) schools of economic history. For some time neither side seems to have doubted the applicability of these frameworks to Japan's experience, but the controversy did eventually lead to valuable detailed studies of Tokugawa commerce and to attempts to interpret Japan's economic development in its own terms. Among the first to do this were the members of the so-called “Kyoto School” under Professor E. Honjō.
Thai-American Relations in World War II
Authors: Martin James V.
Published: April 2006

World War II brought a degree of complexity and intensity to Thai-American relations that contrasted sharply with their quiet uneventfulness in the era preceding it. Before the war, Thai relations with the United States had been friendly, but not close since Thailand was within the British financial and commercial sphere of influence. The factors chiefly responsible for altering diese former relations were the emergence of Thai nationalism in association with Japanese imperialism and the eclipse of Western power in eastern Asia during World War II.
On the Road: A Maharashtrian Pilgrimage
Authors: Karve I.
Published: April 2006

People impatient to get out were pushing me from behind; people anxious to get in pulled me out. Somehow I landed on my feet on the dusty platform. I gathered the few packages and made my way out of the railway station through a crowd. The reasons for the crowds became clear: today was the day of the weekly market, and the “god” on his journey had reached this town to make a day's halt. My guide and I picked our way through heaps of millet and wheat and rice, through pots and pans, through bales of cloth and saris, toys and hand-mirrors, vegetables and sweets—everything displayed on both sides of the road. Farther on, there were amusements—the revolving cradles and merry-go-rounds, gramophones shrilling loudly, a snake-charmer, a troupe of tight-rope dancers.
The Meiji Constitution in Practice: The First Diet
Authors: Akita George
Published: April 2006

The problem of historical explanation is presently engaging the deep interest of philosophers of history. Accepting the view that writing history partakes of the artistic in that the same material may be used, with controls, to support different conclusions, we will attempt to reevaluate certain premises on the early nature of parliamentary government under the Meiji Constitution. To facilitate the discussion, however, we should first present the traditional views on the development of parliamentary government prior to and soon after the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution.
Communication Channels and Functional Literacy in the Philippine Barrio
Authors: de Young John E. , Hunt Chester L.
Published: April 2006

In the struggle for the allegiance of the uncommitted masses of Asia and Africa, the West has been prone to rely on the instruments of mass communication and community organization which have been effective in other areas. This approach is expensive but relatively simple since pamphlets, radio programs, and movie shorts may be produced and placed in distribution channels with a minimum of manpower. Country-wide organizations are often led by men sympathetic to the Western viewpoint who will commit their organizations to participate in information programs. For mass media, this approach assumes both exposure and the ability to understand the message conveyed by the media. Similarly, the effort to work with formal community organizations is based on the premise that such organizations really occupy an influential position in the local community.
The Content of Cultural Continuity in India
Authors: Brown W. Norman
Published: April 2006

One of the problems recurring in the Buddhist Pali Texts is the question of what it is that transmigrates. Buddhism accepts as axiomatic the doctrine of rebirth, a process of “renewal of becomings” until the attainment of complete knowledge, whereupon the process terminates. At the same time, the Pali texts are committed to the doctrine that there is no soul. The two doctrines, held simultaneously, presented a difficulty of which the Buddhist monks were well aware. If there is no soul, no Ego, no self, and yet rebirth is a fact, what is reborn?
The Great Tradition and the Little in the Perspective of Sinhalese Buddhism
Authors: Obeyesekere Gananath
Published: April 2006

Our central assumption in the foregoing analysis is that cultures are integrated; therefore, the view that peasant cultures are compounded of empirically and conceptually separable great and little traditions is unfounded. We recognize the utility of the terms “great tradition” and “great community”; these abstractions are useful for describing the intellectual thought and interests of civilizations, and groups of individuals who promote and further these interests. The little tradition by contrast, we agree with Dumont and Pocock, is thewholeculture of the little community or peasant society. Peasant cultures are “wholes”; but we agree with Redfield that they are not isolates. Peasant cultures or little traditions are linked with the great tradition through a common cultural idiom, which establishes channels of communication between the two traditions and sets up standards of mutual reference and influence. There are common sets of concepts and a common terminology. Though the substantive content of the terminology and the emphases given may be different in each tradition, there is a core of shared meanings associated with the terminology which facilitates movement between the two traditions. This is because the common idiom is derived historically from a great tradition, though refashioned to fit the peasant world view. The common idiom not only links the little tradition with the great, but also links the little traditions with one another. This represents an important aspect of the cultural unity of a civilization: a shared commonality of meanings which define the central values of the people and constitute their governing ethos.
Chang Hsüeh-liang and the Japanese
Authors: Iriye Akira
Published: April 2006

The Nationalist unification of China was nominally completed on December 29, 1928. On that day Manchuria, under the leadership of Chang Hsüeh-liang, accepted and hoisted the Revolutionary flag. Historians have tended to emphasize the role of nationalism in the union of the Three Eastern Provinces with the Kuomintang domain after the death of Chang Tso-lin on June 4, 1928. According to the general view, Chang Hsüeh-liang, having grown up in the period of the May Fourth Movement, shared many of the national aspirations of the younger generation, and desired to stop civil warfare in China and assist the Kuomintang in the policy of unification. Moreover, he is represented as being violently hostile to Japan, suspicious of the Japanese in the killing of his father, and determined to put forth every effort to bring Manchuria and Nationalist China together, so that the unified nation could resist the ambitions of its imperialistic neighbor. Japan, under the “positive policy” of the Tanaka ministry, is pictured as attempting to keep the Three Eastern Provinces separate from the Nationalist South; to delay, if not halt, an eventual union.
Eurasian Dilemma in Indonesia
Authors: Van Der Veur Paul W.
Published: April 2006

To be forced to make a choice of nationality following a revolutionary upheaval is a trying experience. It becomes traumatic when one is, or feels oneself to be, part of the “privileged class” in a plural society in which the “natives” are about to achieve supreme political power. The Eurasians of Indonesia are a group of mixed descent closely tied to the land of their birth, but culturally and politically oriented to a society thousands of miles away along the shores of the North Sea. F. H. de Hoog, charismatic chairman of the powerful Eurasian League from 1928 to 1939, referred to the Eurasians as the “vanguard” of the Dutch population in the Netherlands. He emphasized that Eurasians were imbued with Dutch culture and would stand or fall with Dutch rule.1 In 1949, the “vanguard” was cut off.
Some Fundamental Issues in the History of Chinese Painting
Authors: Loehr Max
Published: April 2006

The history of Chinese painting is a relatively new discipline. None of us who work in that discipline can as yet rely on a binding tradition, accepted methods, or even on established facts of historical significance. It is possible for several critics to arrive at surprisingly contradictory judgments about one and the same work, or sequence of works, or about the meaning of the same evidence. Our judgments, naturally, will change; the work adjudged will not. We have to come to terms with it in the end. Coming to terms, however, does not mean a compromise between opposed views or viewers. It means that the right understanding of the work or sequence in question will sooner or later prevail—that is, the right understanding of the work as a historical monument. But how is this understanding achieved? It is this seemingly simple question, the basic problem facing the historian, that I shall discuss.
Muslim Legislators in India: Profile of a Minority Élite
Authors: Wright Theodore P.
Published: April 2006

Some attention has been paid in recent years to the sociological analysis of political élites in the “new nations” of Africa and Asia with a view to understanding better their political behavior. W. H. Morris-Jones and Myron Weiner have both considered the characteristics of some of the politicians in post-independence India. But little has been done on the leadership of minority groups.

In many cases (eg., the Armenians, Copts, and Maronites in the Middle East, the Parsis in India, and the Chinese in Southeast Asia), the members of religious and linguistic minorities adapted more rapidly to modern ways than the majorities among whom they lived. Although the former sometimes enjoyed privileged status as go betweens for the European colonial rulers, they were also among the first to absorb the Western concept of nationalism. They even provided some of the early leadership for nationalist movements, until the mobilization of broader and lower levels of the population around neo-traditional religious symbols began to exclude them from the national self-definition.
Notes on Water Utilization and Rule in the Sakya Domain–Tibet
Authors: Ekvall Robert B. , Downs James F.
Published: April 2006

Since the Communist Chinese take-over of Tibet, climaxed by the Tibetan revolt and the subsequent flight of the Dalai Lama, increased interest in that land and its culture has called attention to the meagerness of information concerning details of Tibetan daily life, economy, and politics. In a series of interviews widi members of the Sakya ruling house undertaken by the authors, it has been possible to secure considerable data concerning die administration of what is perhaps Tibet's most ambitious irrigation project, and the role the Sakya government played in that administration.
What Social Science Can Do for Chinese Studies
Authors: Freedman Maurice
Published: April 2006

I Am the joker in the pack—not simply for the obvious reason that I am not an American, but also, and much more significantly, because I have no right to sit on a platform with people learned in Sinology. That I have been invited to join them says a great deal about American broadmindedness and something too about the underdeveloped state of Chinese studies in my own country. But in a way my disabilities qualify me: I am doubly an outsider (maybe that was why I was asked) and can therefore be relied on to be biased. Prejudice is a condition for argument.
A Note on Historical Periodicals of Twentieth-Century China
Authors: Yu Ping-Kuen
Published: April 2006

China is known for a long and outstanding tradition of historical writing, but it has been only in this century that an examination of history has developed in periodicals. The earliest of these periodicals was Hsin-min Ts'ung-pao, which was published in 1902 in Yokohama, under the chief editorship of Liang Ch'i-ch'ao. Since that time, there have been numerous other periodicals, the most recent being Wen Shih, first published in October 1962, in Peking. Little effort seems to have been made to study the development of these historical journals. There have been many discussions of Chinese historiography, by Ku Chieh-kang, Chin Yü-fu, Wei Ying-ch'i, Teng Ssu-yü, and J. Gray, to name a few, but these scholars have largely overlooked periodical writings.
Dual Organization in Central Ceylon? or The Goddess on the Tree-top
Authors: Yalman Nur
Published: April 2006

In this paper I am concerned with an examination of symbolic and social dual organization. Does “dual organization” refer to those rare social systems in which the total community is in one way or another bisected into two definable “groups” which have certain formal relations with each other? Or, alternatively, can we speak of “dual organization” when the society is not so divided, or when the social divisions are obscure, but where there is a symbolic system in which binary categories are prominent? And furthermore, just what is the relationship between dualism as a symbolic order, which appears quite widespread, and dualism as bisected social structure, which has rarely been satisfactorily analyzed ?
The Malayo-Muslim World of Singapore at the Close of the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Roff William R.
Published: April 2006

Much attention has been devoted, by scholars and others, to the dramatic growth of Singapore in the latter part of the nineteenth century, as a great commercial entrepôt, as a flourishing city of tens of thousands of Chinese migrants, and as the maritime focus of two economic empires, the British and the Dutch. The direction and the intensity of this interest are, of course, understandable, but it has done much to obscure the role of Singapore as a focus also for the cultural and economic energies of the Malaysian world which existed alongside but in many ways separate from the world created by the West. While the comparison cannot be pressed too far, Singapore in the nineteenth century may be likened to Malacca in the fifteenth, in its role as metropolis for an area that embraced the whole Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, from Kedah and Acheh to the Celebes. Island trade in Malaysian or Arab hands, Indonesian migration to the Peninsula, the pilgrimage to Mecca and its subsidiary activities in the fields of Islamic teaching and publication, brought together in Singapore a great variety of Malaysian and Muslim peoples from differing social and economic background but sharing a lingua franca and important elements of a common culture, and often freed from the more hampering restraints of traditional social systems. Urban life has in all places and times been an important breeding ground for new ideas and new ways, and to this general pattern Singapore at the close of the nineteenth century conforms.
Comments on the ‘Chinese Studies and the Disciplines’ Symposium (See JAS, Aug., 1964): A Lone Cheer for Sinology
Authors: Twitchett Denis
Published: April 2006

I enter this controversy from a somewhat curious position: I began life as a psysical geographer, graduated in the high tradition of European Sinology, work in the field of economic history, and administer a department of languages and literatures. I suppose I might be said to have a foot firmly in each world, and to be qualified to make a plea for the unity of Chinese studies. Additionally, the circumstances of British university teaching force my colleagues and myself to face this problem continually, since our undergraduates specialize in Chinese studies to the exclusion of all else, and we are forced in our teaching to attempt a broad coverage of both the humanities and the social disciplines, to give our students a reasonably broad academic education oriented around China.
Chinese Studies and the Disciplines — the Twins Shall Meet
Authors: Hsiao Kung-Chuan
Published: April 2006

Chinese studies (alias Sinology) and die disciplines came, in the final analysis, from the same parentage: the desire to know. They are intellectual twins which, nurtured in divergent circumstances and showing dissimilar traits, are thus “fraternal” rather than “identical”. Academe has always been nursery and playground for the disciplines. In the early days, those who served as Sinology's amahs were mostly non-academic people. Uncommitted to die established disciplines and frankly amateurish in approach, they all but bastardized Sinology in the eyes of the more strait-laced among the governesses of the disciplines. For a time, some of the latter were hardly aware of the underprivileged twin's existence.
The Origins of the Korean Communist Movement (II)
Authors: Scalapino Robert A. , Lee Chong-Sik
Published: April 2006

In the summer of 1921, the Communist world was preparing for the first major conference of Far Eastern peoples. This conference was originally scheduled for Irkutsk in the late summer or early fall of that year. It was intended as a sequel to the Baku Conference of September 1920, which had been attended mainly by delegates from the Middle East. But it was also planned as the Soviet answer to the Washington Conference, as is well known. Competition between the Soviet Union and the United States for the support of the Asian people can be dated from this time, although initially Moscow was much more aware of this fact than Washington.
The Vote and the Transfer of Power: A study of the Bengal General Election, 1912–1913.
Authors: Broomfield J. H.
Published: April 2006

Representative Government was an institution dear to the hearts of nineteenth-century Englishmen. It was their pride and, they affirmed, the source of their national strength that they lived under this form of constitution. They were eager that others, especially their colonies, should enjoy its benefits. There were few obstacles in the way of the establishment of representative institutions in the white colonies: the land was different but the people were the same. But in India neither the land nor the people resembled those of England. Nonetheless, the British determined to train an educated, Westernized elite which would make possible the establishment of representative institutions there.
Ōkubo Toshimichi: His Political and Economic Policies in Early Meiji Japan
Authors: Brown Sidney Devere
Published: April 2006

Ōkubo Toshimichi (1830–1878) emerged as the dominant figure of the Meiji oligarchy in November 1873. He retained that uneasy position until his death under his assassins' swords on May 14, 1878. During the four and one-half year interval Ōkubo served Japan well, although the fact of his assassination and public reaction to it revealed that he was anything but a popular figure in his lifetime. As Home Minister (Naimukyō) during most of that period, he advanced the process of political centralization substantially and channelled state energies and resources into economic development. Authoritarian political techniques inherited from the feudal past enabled him to force the pace of modernization for his country.
Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China Part II
Authors: Skinner G. William
Published: April 2006

In A.D. 1227, during the Southern Sung, the four hsien on the peninsula in Chekiang which is dominated by Ningpo supported twenty-six rural markets; six and a half centuries later, during the Kuang-hsü reign, there were approximately 170 rural markets in the same territory. Chin-t'ang hsien, Szechwan, had four rural markets at the beginning of the K'ang-hsi reign in 1662; by 1875 the number had increased to thirteen and by 1921 to thirty-two. Rural markets in Yen-shan hsien, Hopei, rose from twenty-three in 1868 to thirty-seven in 1916. By what principles and in accordance with what patterns do markets thus proliferate on the landscape?
China's First Five-year Plan: Industrialization Under the Warlords as Reflected in the Policies of Yen Hsi-Shan in Shansi Province, 1930–1937
Authors: Gillin Donald G.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this article is to demonstrate that under at least one of the so-called “warlords” or military rulers who governed China during the 1930's, there occurred political, social, and, above all, economic changes of the utmost importance. These changes took place in the northwestern province of Shansi, where, beginning in 1932, the warlord Yen Hsi-shan undertook to modernize the underdeveloped economy of his domain by carrying out a “provincial Ten-Year Plan of Economic Reconstruction,” or Shan-hsi sheng-cheng shih-nien chien-she chi-hua. I have chosen to call Yen's scheme for promoting economic growth in Shansi “China's First Five-Year Plan,” since in addition to being cut short by the Japanese occupation of Shansi only five years after its inception, it was inspired by the success of Russia's first five-year plan. Throughout the 1930's, Yen and his supporters repeatedly lavished praise on the Soviet Union for its spectacular accomplishments in the field of industrial development and advocated adopting Russian methods in order to achieve similar results in China. Notwithstanding his hatred of the Chinese Communists, who invaded Shansi in the winter of 1936, Yen continued to praise the Soviet economy throughout the 1930'5, holding it up as a model for China and for Shansi. “The Soviet Union accomplishes in one year what it takes other countries five years to achieve,” he remarked.
Elite Groups in a South Indian District: 1788–1858
Authors: Frykenberg Robert Eric
Published: April 2006

In old Guntur District, as in other districts of South India, several different elite groups, arranged within a highly complex and segmented social order, were interlocked with corresponding elements of the political hierarchy. Each group was associated in one way or another with its own stratum in district government and, at times, with seeral different strata, from die Collector's Office at the top to the village at the bottom. Operating at its own level or in its own area of the district, each group was linked vertically with allied superior and subordinate groups and was often in conflict with another group of comparable and therefore competitive rank and function. Such a pattern of group relationships was further complicated by die fact that it was constantly changing. My purpose here is to look at the positions of diese elite groups in relation to each other and in relation to the administrative structure of one district, and to show how these groups behaved within a changing political system and how traditional processes of power continued under die “rule” of die East India Company.
Brahmins and Shamans in Pahari Religion
Authors: Berreman Gerald D.
Published: April 2006

The roles of various castes (jatis) in Hindu religious activities have been of interest to many students of rural Indian society. As a result, we are quite familiar with the patterns of ceremonial activity of Brahmin priests and of other participants in Brahmanical ritual such as temple keepers of various castes, barbers, carpenters, musicians, etc. (Dube, 1955; Opler and Singh, 1948; Planalp, 1956; Srinivas, 1952). Many of these patterns of religious participation are described and prescribed in the Sanskritic literature of Hinduism, and so fall within the “great tradition” of Hinduism (Redfield, 1956).
Religious Anxiety and Hindu Fate
Authors: Kolenda Pauline Mahar
Published: April 2006

How do ordinary people of India adapt themselves to the Hindu theory of karma and rebirth? It is said that these concepts justify and reconcile Hindus to the inequalities of the caste system and that they result in fatalism and “other-worldiness.” These, in turn, are said to obstruct interest in modernization and progress. Although hypotheses such as these have been formulated by students of Hindu texts (Singer, 1961; Weber, 1958; Schweitzer, 1936), there have been few investigations of the living contexts within which Hindu philosophical ideas operate.
Particularization and Generalization as Processes in Ritual and Culture
Authors: Opler Morris E.
Published: April 2006

In November, 1949, I witnessed the ritual events of the tenth day of the month of Muharram in a village of north India inhabited by Muslims of the Shiah sect. According to Shiah tradition, on this day of the year in 680 A.D., Husain, the grandson of Mohammed, sacrificed his life in the battle of Kerbela rather than swear allegiance to one whom he did not consider fit to be caliph and a successor to the Prophet. To mark the occasion, the villagers had gathered to recount the heroic resistance offered by Husain and his tiny band of seventy-two persons against fearful odds to preserve their religion and honor. Tazias (colored paper representations of the tombs of Husain and his brother Husan) were placed under a canopy, and a tall, grey-bearded elder read a long narrative poem describing the tragic struggle. His voice broke and tears streamed down his face as he detailed the acts of sacrifice and devotion performed by Husain and his followers and as he pictured the suffering of the women and children when enemy forces cut them off from water and supplies. His account was punctuated by cries of grief and distress from the audience.
Economic Progress in Southeast Asia
Authors: Paauw Douglas S.
Published: April 2006

Since the end of World War II, Southeast Asian economies have grown at widely diverging rates. Consistent and relatively rapid growth has occurred only in the Philippines; in that country rehabilitation from World War II was completed relatively early and the economy has gone on to provide gains in per capita real income, though at a falling rate. In Thailand and Malaya, rehabilitation and growth have occurred, but progress has been unsteady. In Burma, Indonesia, and the Indo-Chinese countries of Laos, Cambodia, and Viet Nam progress has taken die form primarily of restoring prewar levels of per capita production; it is unlikely that gains above prewar levels have been achieved.
The Roy-Lenin Debate on Colonial Policy: a New Interpretation
Authors: Haithcox John P.
Published: April 2006

Before the opening of the Second World Congress of the Communist International (July 19–August 7, 1920) [which met on the first day in Petrograd but subsequently in Moscow], Lenin prepared a draft thesis on the national and colonial question. M. N. Roy, a young Bengali attending his first international Communist gathering, eagerly responded to Lenin's request for criticisms. As a result, Lenin invited him to write an alternative thesis. Both theses were modified as a result of discussions within the National and Colonial Commission, and both were subsequently adopted by the Congress. After his encounter with Lenin, Roy rose rapidly in the Comintern hierarchy. In 1922 he was elected a candidate member of the Executive Committee of the Communist International (ECCI), and a full voting member in 1924. He became a member of the Presidium in 1924. It was in the year 1926, however, that Roy attained the peak of his influence in the Comintern. In February of that year he was appointed to the editorial staff of theCommunist International, and in the following December he was reelected to the Presidium and joined the Political Secretariat of the ECCI. At the time of the Seventh Plenum of the ECCI (November 12–December 16, 1926), Roy became Secretary of the Chinese Commission, a post he held jointly with Petrov, and a member of the Agrarian Commission. The Plenum, convened for the purpose of considering the China problem, adopted a thesis on the question and Roy was sent to China as a representative of the Comintern to carry it out. Following the events in China in 1927, Roy's influence declined precipitately, though he was not formally expelled until December, 1929.
Social Mobility among Businessmen in a Taiwanese Town
Authors: Eberhard Wolfram
Published: April 2006

One of the weaknesses of comparative studies of the development of an entrepreneurial class is the lack of detailed data. Often such studies make use of census data which indicate the growth of this class in general but fail to show clearly the origins of new entrepreneurs. Available case studies, on the other hand, do not cover enough ground thus precluding generalizations.
The Function of Landrent under the Cultivation System in Java
Authors: van Niel Robert
Published: April 2006

The introduction and operation of the cultivation (culture) system in Java were closely tied to the collection of landrent. Reinsma has noted this clearly and succinctly in his contention diat “the landrent served as the lever for making use of an important part of the labor and land of the people.” Yet die closeness of this relationship has frequently been overlooked. An all-too-frequent impression today is that landrent was superseded by a requirement to cultivate ground. The fact that landrent continued to be collected is regarded as an abuse of the system, a sort of double taxation. As a result, a certain confusion about how landrent functioned within the cultivation system now pervades the thinking on die subject. This confusion is especially apparent in die English-language histories dealing with the system, but is by no means limited to these. The fundamental source of confusion can be traced back to the writings and pronouncements of Johannes van den Bosch, the man who conceived and breathed life into the cultivation system during his years in Java from 1830 to 1834.
The Satsuma-Ryukyu Trade and the Tokugawa Seclusion Policy
Authors: Sakai Robert K.
Published: April 2006

The Shimazu daimyo of Satsuma-han maintained indirect contact with the China mainland throughout most of the Tokugawa period. This contact was possible despite the seclusion policy of the Tokugawa government which prohibited Japanese from going abroad and the policy of the Ming dynasty which would not allow Chinese to trade with Japanese. The link between Satsuma and China was die Ryukyu kingdom. Through the Ryukyu Islanders, the Shimazu daimyo obtained valuable Chinese commodities which were then sold for a profit to other parts of Japan. This commercial activity was a breach in the shogun's monopoly of foreign trade, which was supposed to be confined to the single port of Nagasaki.
Southeast Asian Society: Dual or Multiple
Authors: Higgins Benjamin
Published: April 2006

It is now ten years since I wrote my own initial critique of the theory of sociological dualism presented by J. H. Boeke. In the intervening decade, all of us who are concerned with the problem of economic development and cultural change have, I trust, learned more about the nature of the phenomenon and hence the reopening of discussion by Professor Manning Nash at this time is very welcome. I should like to deal first with his main theme, and then with a few details of his paper.

Professor Nash shows the usual reluctance of the cultural anthropologist to generalize; he is unwilling to “deal with anything as complex, heterogeneous, and refractory as Southeast Asia as a whole.” The really interesting question, however, is surely how general tiie phenomena of dualistic society, multiple society, technological dualism, and underdevelopment are, and what the relationships are among them. Being less inhibited than Professor Nash, let me say at once that in my view technological dualism appears in all countries which can be regarded as underdeveloped. By this I mean that all such countries have two clearly distinguishable sectors, one with a capital-intensive and modern technology with high levels of man-year productivity, consisting of large scale manufacturing, plantation agriculture, mining, and the services associated with these; and die other, the “traditional” sector, consisting of peasant agriculture, small scale manufacturing and handicrafts, and the services connected with these.
Perspective Requires Two Points of Vision
Authors: Pye Lucian W.
Published: April 2006

AS hard as I try, I cannot comfortably arrive at the conclusion that Manning Nash's concept of “multiple society” is really in conflict with Boeke's and Furnivall's notion of the “dual society.” The two concepts deal with somewhat different problems and thus they tend to highlight different phenomena. I must quickly add, however, that if either or both concepts are treated in a diffuse and fuzzy manner—and I believe that this has frequently been the fate of the “dual society” concept—then they may seem to overlap and conflict. And in the spirit of the Editor's search for controversy and drama, I will cooperate to the extent of saying that between Manning Nash's formula and the vague, general, and almost sentimentalized way in which the dual society concept has been used, I would put my support fully behind Nash. In short, if both are to be loosely used, I suspect that Nash's concept will prove to cover a broader range of reality and yield more rewarding insights than imprecise use of the dual society concept; and in this sense it is to be hoped that a valuable secondary consequence of Nash's effort will be to expose the weak and irrelevant ways in which the dual society concept has been used.
The “False Edict” of 1849
Authors: Nolde John J.
Published: April 2006

The immediate purpose of this study is to describe an interesting and rather bizarre episode in nineteenth century Chinese-British relations. It concerns the so-called “Canton City Question” of the 1840's, and I hope to show that the traditional accounts of this incident may have been misleading and, in some cases, inaccurate.
Documentary Sources of Tokugawa Economic and Social History
Authors: Crawcour Sydney
Published: April 2006

Despite the recurrent ravages of fire and earthquake and the devastation of the Pacific War, a sizeable volume of documentary material survives from Japan's Tokugawa period (1603–1868). Although its government archives may not be as large as those of the older centralized states of western Europe, the written record of the daily life of the Japanese people compares favourably with that of any other people over the same period. Several factors have counterbalanced Japan's unusually high incidence of natural calamities. At the time, literacy was more widespread than in most other countries and paper was plentiful and reasonably cheap. The “Tokugawa system” was effectively designed to reduce social, occupational, and geographic mobility to a minimum, so that, particularly in rural areas, a given family occupied the same station and fulfilled the same role for a long period. To a lesser extent, this was true even of commercial families. The popular idea of the impermanence of trade as a vocation was true only relative to the ideally almost immutable situation in agriculture. Strangely enough, it was the daimyo, members of the highest class, who, at least in the earlier period, were most mobile. Because of the continuity of family roles over long periods, records of, say, the late seventeenth century still had some relevance for descendants in the mid-nineteenth century, and so they tended to be preserved. Particularly in cities and towns, the rapid changes associated with the breakup of the Tokugawa system were undoubtedly accompanied by the loss of many records.
Aspects of Traditional Chinese Biography
Authors: Nivison David S.
Published: April 2006

Any historian approaching the subject of traditional Chinese biography may be confident of at least one fact: he will be overwhelmed. The sheer volume of this material available in the Chinese sources is exceedingly large.

In discussing Chinese historical writing, it is customary to point first to the chengshih, the so-called “standard histories,” dealing with all of Chinese history down to 1644. There are twenty-five histories, all bulky, in this “official” group. All contain large collections of biographies, elaborately sorted out: loyal officials, villainous officials, imperial concubines, writers, hermits, virtuous wives, and filial sons. In the History of the Ming Dynasty, that portion which is biographical in nature runs to 197 out of a total of 332 chapters–in actual pages about sixty percent of the whole. We encounter the same phenomenon outside of the “standard histories”–in local histories, for example, of which there may be several for one small district. All of this material I shall call “historical biography.”