bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Predicting AID off-targets: A step forward
Authors: Reynaud Claude-Agnès , Weill Jean-Claude
Published: February 2018

In this issue of JEM, Álvarez-Prado et al. (https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20171738) designed a DNA capture library allowing them to identify 275 genes targeted by AID in mouse germinal center B cells. Using the molecular features of these genes to feed a machine-learning algorithm, they determined that high-density RNA PolII and Spt5 binding—found in 2.3% of the genes—are the best predictors of AID specificity.
Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement in Social Work Research and Evaluation
Authors: Tran Thanh , Nguyen Tam , Chan Keith
Published: February 2018

Given the demographic changes and the reality of cultural diversity in the United States and other parts of the world today, social work researchers are increasingly aware of the need to conduct cross-cultural research and evaluation, whether for hypothesis testing or for outcome evaluation. This book’s aims are twofold: to provide an overview of issues and techniques relevant to the development of cross-cultural measures and to provide readers with a step-by-step approach to the assessment of cross-cultural equivalence of measurement properties. There is no discussion of statistical theory and principles underlying the statistical techniques presented in this book. Rather, this book is concerned with applied theories and principles of cross-cultural research, and draws information from existing work in the social sciences, public domain secondary data, and primary data from the author’s research. In this second edition, several changes have been made throughout the book and a new chapter on item response theory has been added. The chapter on developing new cross-cultural instrument has also been expanded with a concrete example.
Adopting or Adapting Existing Instruments
Authors: Tran Thanh V. , Nguyen Tam , Chan Keith
Published: February 2018

Cross-cultural translation is one of the major tasks in cross-cultural research. The task of translation becomes more challenging when an instrument is translated into two or more target languages simultaneously, especially with the translation of special constructs. This chapter (1) reviews existing cross-cultural translation approaches and offers the reader with practical guidelines; (2) presents a multilevel translation process encompassing back translation, expert evaluation, cognitive interviews, focus group evaluation, and field evaluation; and (3) offers a guide for best practices in selecting translators to perform cross-cultural translation.
Assessing and Testing Cross-Cultural Measurement Equivalence
Authors: Tran Thanh V. , Nguyen Tam , Chan Keith
Published: February 2018

A cross-cultural comparison can be misleading for two reasons: (1) comparison is made using different attributes and (2) comparison is made using different scale units. This chapter illustrates multiple statistical approaches to evaluating the cross-cultural equivalence of the research instruments: data distribution of the items of the research instrument, the patterns of responses of each item, the corrected item–total correlation, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and reliability analysis using the parallel test and tau-equivalence test. Equivalence is the fundamental issue in cross-cultural research and evaluation.
Item Response Theory in Cross-Cultural Measurement
Authors: Tran Thanh V. , Nguyen Tam , Chan Keith
Published: February 2018

Item response theory (IRT) is a modern measurement theory that, as its name implies, focuses mainly at the item level as opposed to the test level. The underlying principle of IRT is that a relationship exists between an individual’s ability and how the individual responds to items on a test. IRT offers item-level details not provided through classical approaches. The aims of this chapter are to (1) provide a brief overview of IRT, (2) demonstrate the basic features of IRT using existing data, and (3) walk the reader through the key steps in conducting IRT analysis using IRTPRO®. IRT has also increasingly been used to develop, shorten, and refine psychosocial instruments.
After Digital
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

We are surrounded by digital computers. They do many things well that humans do not and have transformed our lives. But all computers are not the same. Although digital computers dominate today’s world, alternative ways to “compute” might be better and more efficient than digital computation when mechanically performing those tasks, important to humans, that we think of as “cognition.” Cognition, after all, was originally developed to work with our own specific biological hardware. Digital computers require elaborate detailed instructions to work; they are flexible but not simple. Analog computers are designed to do specific tasks. They can be simple but not flexible. Hardware matters. The book discusses two classic kinds of computer, digital and analog, and gives examples of their history, functions, and limitations. The author suggest that when brain “hardware,” with its associated brain “software” work together, it could form a computer architecture that would be useful for the efficient performance of cognitive tasks. This book discusses the essentials of brain hardware—in particular, the cerebral cortex, where cognition lives—and how cortical structure can influence the form taken by the computational operations underlying cognition. Topics include association, understanding complex systems through analogy, formation of abstractions, and the biology of number and its use in arithmetic and mathematics. The author introduces novel “brain-like” control mechanisms: active associative search and traveling waves. There is discussion on computing across scales of organization from single neurons to brain regions containing millions of neurons.
The Past of the Future of Computation
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

Hand axes, language, and computers are tools that increase our ability to deal with the world. Computing is a cognitive tool and comes in several kinds: digital, analog, and brain-like. An analog telephone connects two telephones with a wire. Talking causes a current to flow on the wire. In a digital telephone the voltage is converted into groups of ones or zeros and sent at high speed from one telephone to the other. An analog telephone requires one simple step. A digital telephone requires several million discrete steps per second. Digital telephones work because the hardware has gotten much faster. Yet brains constructed of slow devices and using a few watts of power are competitive for many cognitive tasks. The important question is not why machines are becoming so smart but why humans are still so good. Artificial intelligence is missing something important probably based on hardware differences.
Computing Hardware
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

Chapter 2 presents a kind of computation currently unfamiliar to most, the analog computer. Fifty years ago, they were considered viable competitors to the newer digital computer. Analog computers compute by the use of physical analogs, using, for example, voltages, currents, or shaft positions to represent numbers. They compute using the device properties, not logic. Examples include the balance, a simple device known for millennia; the “Antikythera mechanism,” a complex astronomical calculator from the first century BC; the slide rule; the US Navy’s Mark I fire control computer used for much of the 20th century to aim naval gunfire; and electronic analog computers built in large numbers after World War II. Analog computers can have advantages in ruggedness, simplicity, and reliability but lack the flexibility of digital computers.
Computing Hardware
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

Digital computers are built from hardware of great simplicity. First, they are built from devices with two states: on or off, one or zero, high voltage or low voltage, or logical TRUE or FALSE. Second, the devices are connected with extremely fine connections, currently on the order of size of a large virus. Their utility, value, and perceived extreme complexity lie in the software controlling them. Different devices have been used to build computers: relays, vacuum tubes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Theoretically, all can run the same software, only slower or faster. More exotic technologies have not proved commercially viable. Digital computer hardware has increased in power by roughly a factor of 2 every 2 years for five decades, an observation called Moore’s Law. Engineering problems with very small devices, such as quantum effects, heat, and difficulty of fabrication, are increasing and may soon end Moore’s Law.
An Engineer’s Introduction to Neuroscience
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

When building something, it is essential to know the hardware. This chapter contains key things to know about the active components of the brain: nerve cells (aka neurons). Neurons have severe performance limitations. Problems include high energy consumption, mechanical and physiological sensitivity, unreliability, limited connectivity, and difficulty in wiring neurons together. Neurons are at least a million times slower to “compute” than a modern electronic device. This slow speed cannot be avoided because the neuron has to deal with high electrical capacity and resistance and slow conduction times to move information from neuron to neuron. A specialization called the action potential serves as a long-distance communications mechanism. However, the neuron also has major virtues including the ability to integrate, communicate, and process information from multiple sources, and it acts like a tiny electrochemical analog computer.
Return to Cognitive Science
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

Is ambiguity unavoidable? It is found in vision and everywhere in language. Semantic nets for disambiguation are realized in George Miller’s WordNet, a practical project helping disambiguate search strings using contextual disambiguation. Simple association using traditional passive memory is boring compared to complex association using active memory with multiple associative links active at the same time to perform a clearly defined task. A “mixer” is used to recognize items from a list, and generalization of the mixer is used for disambiguation. The chapter also discusses artificial intelligence, both its origins and currently ignored questions: Are biological intelligence and machine intelligence the same thing? Can digital computers really mimic in digital software a largely analog brain? The important question is not why machines are becoming so smart but why humans are still so good. Artificial intelligence is missing something important probably based on hardware differences.
Loose Ends
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

This chapter presents some ideas about Ersatz Brain Theory, which generalizes models presented in the book. It is based on three equal components: computation, cognition, and neuroscience. In the Ersatz Brain, the basic computing elements are locally interconnected groups of neurons, for example, cortical columns, and not single neurons. Columns are more powerful than neurons alone because of the potential for selectivity and reliability. A “network of networks” modular architecture is formed from interconnected groups. Response selection emerges from the stability properties of dynamical systems. Traveling waves and interference patterns also grow naturally out of dynamics and local connections. The resulting systems operate using similar rules at multiple spatial scales for different levels of integration.
The Near Future
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

Digital computing has transformed our civilization. Eventually, both computer professionals and regular users will interact with a computer as they would with another human of equivalent or greater intelligence but with a better grasp of fine detail. However, computer pathologies will increase with increasing power and ubiquity. Unintended consequences will occur from the intrinsic unreliability of hugely complex systems. The most sinister danger in the near future of computing is from humans: malware, hacking, theft, attacks. Modern lessons can be learned from the past history of computer attacks, such as the decoding of the Enigma codes during World War II. Individual greed leads to crime, but much worse results follow when major states become involved in computer-based crimes, as they are now starting to do. Optimistic futures of computing assume benign co-operators doing good works, but the power to do evil may win in the long run.
Apotheosis
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: February 2018

In the future, perhaps all styles of computation will coalesce, each compensating for the weaknesses of the others. Humans are wary of intelligence in other species for good reason, for example, Neanderthals. “The Singularity” is when all things change due to exponentially increasing machine intelligence: machines will get more intelligent and start to design themselves, causing an explosive increase in machine intelligence until, “Ultimately, the entire universe will become saturated with our intelligence. This is the destiny of the universe.” Depending on the starting point, there may be many solutions to intelligence in the Singularity, a kind of machine polytheism, but it may be that waiting without commitment and without confining, inaccurate concepts is better. A more likely future is symbiosis, where machines and humans become indispensable to each other.
A new approach for interpreting Random Forest models and its application to the biology of ageing
Authors: Fabris Fabio , Doherty Aoife , Palmer Daniel , de Magalhães João Pedro , Freitas Alex A
Published: February 2018

Motivation

This work uses the Random Forest (RF) classification algorithm to predict if a gene is over-expressed, under-expressed or has no change in expression with age in the brain. RFs have high predictive power, and RF models can be interpreted using a feature (variable) importance measure. However, current feature importance measures evaluate a feature as a whole (all feature values). We show that, for a popular type of biological data (Gene Ontology-based), usually only one value of a feature is particularly important for classification and the interpretation of the RF model. Hence, we propose a new algorithm for identifying the most important and most informative feature values in an RF model.

Results

The new feature importance measure identified highly relevant Gene Ontology terms for the aforementioned gene classification task, producing a feature ranking that is much more informative to biologists than an alternative, state-of-the-art feature importance measure.

Availability and implementation

The dataset and source codes used in this paper are available as ‘Supplementary Material’ and the description of the data can be found at: https://fabiofabris.github.io/bioinfo2018/web/.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Risk Factors for Human Papillomavirus Infection and Abnormal Cervical Cytology Among Perinatally Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected and Uninfected Asian Youth
Authors: Sohn Annette H , Kerr Stephen J , Hansudewechakul Rawiwan , Gatechompol Sivaporn , Chokephaibulkit Kulkanya , Dang Hanh Le Dung , Tran Dan Ngoc Hanh , Achalapong Jullapong , Teeratakulpisarn Nipat , Chalermchockcharoenkit Amphan , Thamkhantho Manopchai , Pankam Tippawan , Singtoroj Thida , Termrungruanglert Wichai , Chaithongwongwatthana Surasith , Phanuphak Nittaya ,   HPV in Adolescents Study, Gatechompol Sivaporn , Kerr Stephen , Ruengpanyathip Chavalun , Chokephaibulkit Kulkanya , Thamkhantho Manopchai , Chalermchockcharoenkit Amphan , Sricharoenchai Sirintip , Hansudewechakul Rawiwan , Achalapong Jullapong , Wanchaitanawong Vanichaya , Hanh Dang Le Dunh , Dung Dang Ngoc Yen , Thang Tran Dang , Tran Dan Ngoc Hanh , Truong Khanh Huu , Chaithongwongwatthana Surasith , Termrungruanglert Wichai , Triratanachat Surang , Sirivichayakul Sunee , Palefsky Joel M , Phanuphak Nittaya , Teeratakulpisarn Nipat , Pankam Tippawan , Sohn Annette , Ross Jeremy , Singtoroj Thida , Pongchaisit Waropart , Kosaphan Kamonrat
Published: February 2018

Background

Infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) may be higher in perinatally human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected (PHIV) than HIV-uninfected (HU) adolescents because of long-standing immune deficiency.

Methods

PHIV and HU females aged 12–24 years in Thailand and Vietnam were matched by age group and lifetime sexual partners. At enrollment, blood, cervical, vaginal, anal, and oral samples were obtained for HPV-related testing. The Wilcoxon and Fisher exact tests were used for univariate and logistic regression for multivariate analyses.

Results

Ninety-three PHIV and 99 HU adolescents (median age 19 [18–20] years) were enrolled (June 2013–July 2015). Among PHIV, 94% were currently receiving antiretroviral therapy, median CD4 count was 593 (392–808) cells/mm3, and 62% had a viral load <40 copies/mL. Across anogenital compartments, PHIV had higher rates of any HPV detected (80% vs 60%; P = .003) and any HR-HPV (60% vs 43%, P = .02). Higher proportions of PHIV had abnormal Pap smears (eg, atypical squamous cells of unknown significance [ASC-US], 12% vs 14%; low-grade squamous intraepithelial neoplastic lesions, 19% vs 1%). After adjusting for ever being pregnant and asymptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STI) at enrollment, PHIV were more likely to have HR-HPV than HU (odds ratio, 2.02; 95% confidence interval, 1.09–3.77; P = .03).

Conclusions

Perinatal HIV infection was associated with a higher risk of HR-HPV and abnormal cervical cytology. Our results underscore the need for HPV vaccination for PHIV adolescents and for prevention and screening programs for HPV and other STIs.
Distributed deep learning networks among institutions for medical imaging
Authors: Chang Ken , Balachandar Niranjan , Lam Carson , Yi Darvin , Brown James , Beers Andrew , Rosen Bruce , Rubin Daniel L , Kalpathy-Cramer Jayashree
Published: February 2018

Objective

Deep learning has become a promising approach for automated support for clinical diagnosis. When medical data samples are limited, collaboration among multiple institutions is necessary to achieve high algorithm performance. However, sharing patient data often has limitations due to technical, legal, or ethical concerns. In this study, we propose methods of distributing deep learning models as an attractive alternative to sharing patient data.

Methods

We simulate the distribution of deep learning models across 4 institutions using various training heuristics and compare the results with a deep learning model trained on centrally hosted patient data. The training heuristics investigated include ensembling single institution models, single weight transfer, and cyclical weight transfer. We evaluated these approaches for image classification in 3 independent image collections (retinal fundus photos, mammography, and ImageNet).

Results

We find that cyclical weight transfer resulted in a performance that was comparable to that of centrally hosted patient data. We also found that there is an improvement in the performance of cyclical weight transfer heuristic with a high frequency of weight transfer.

Conclusions

We show that distributing deep learning models is an effective alternative to sharing patient data. This finding has implications for any collaborative deep learning study.
What Next? Policy Solutions and Research Directions
Authors: Gao Qin
Published: February 2018

Chapter 9 proposes policy solutions to help improve Dibao’s performance and suggests future research directions. With regard to Dibao’s policy design, improvements can be made to set higher assistance standards, raise benefit levels, broaden its population coverage, and revise its very stigmatizing means-testing procedures. Dibao’s implementation can be improved by offering more public education on Dibao, building a more professional team of administrators, and greater involvement in and collaboration with the non-governmental sector. Dibao’s performance can also be improved by better coordination with other social welfare programs and fit within the broader social benefit system. The monitoring and evaluation of Dibao can benefit from more rigorous, better coordinated, longitudinal research studies examining multidimensional outcomes and joint efforts by interdisciplinary scholars, government officials, and international organizations.
Disappointed Hopes?
Authors: Corder J. Kevin , Wolbrecht Christina
Published: February 2018

How did the first female voters use their ballots? Focusing on the presidential election of 1924—in which Progressive Robert M. La Follette secured 17% of the vote—this chapter examines the expectation that women would be particularly likely to support candidates associated with the Progressive movement. Employing new strategies to estimate women’s vote choice using aggregate data, the findings show that female voters were not uniquely likely to support the Progressive candidate. Rather, in a small number of Republican-dominated midwestern states, female voters were more Republican than men, and men were more Progressive than women, in their voting choices. As a result, the presence of female voters actually stabilized the electorate, reinforcing the Republican advantage in most states and dampening the Progressive surge in the Midwest in particular. The conclusion places these findings in the broader perspective of the nearly one hundred years of female electoral participation that has followed.
The Evolution of Women’s (and Men’s) Partisan Attachments
Authors: Ondercin Heather L.
Published: February 2018

This chapter examines how women’s and men’s attachments with the two major political parties in the United States have evolved since the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. The chapter contends that over time gender has become increasingly important in influencing both men’s and women’s partisan attachments. Along with identifying the similarities and differences between men and women in partisan attachments, this chapter examines the unity and disunity of women’s partisan attachments, drawing on historical analyses to understand men’s and women’s partisanship attachments immediately after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment when systematic quantitative data are unavailable. The text then explores the partisan attachments of men and women between 1950 and 2012 using an extensive collection of Gallup surveys from this time period. Differences based on generation, education, race, and region are also examined.
From Seneca to Shelby
Authors: Montoya Celeste
Published: February 2018

One hundred years after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, the ability of women—all women—to effectively exercise the right to vote is far from guaranteed. This chapter provides a broad overview of women’s voting rights that emphasizes the intersections of gender and race starting with the woman’s suffrage movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and moving to the recent attacks on voting rights and the potential intersectional implications they might have. This analysis takes what are often treated as two separate narratives of voting rights, one about gender and the other about race, and identifies the intersectional interventions that have or might be made in order to create a more inclusive and continuous account of women’s voting rights.
American Mothers of Nonviolence
Authors: Gallo-Cruz Selina
Published: February 2018

This chapter explores the historical relationship between and dynamics among feminists and nonviolent activists in the United States, surveying three waves of feminist nonviolent mobilization and interrogating the contributions to and erasure of feminist thinking from popular nonviolence histories. The US feminist and nonviolence movements were born of the same social heart among early, nonviolent abolitionists. It was from the experience of marginalization among nonviolent women abolitionists that the US suffrage movement was born, and again, following women’s activism in the civil rights and antiwar movements, second-wave feminism. The chapter examines and discusses (1) a double-standard of gendered effectiveness and invisibility among nonviolent movements, (2) a radical-feminist challenge to patriarchal tendencies in nonviolent organizing, and (3) the feminist-led transformation from a nonviolence that glorifies “self-sacrifice” to a nonviolence that values self-protection, preservation, and health in the realization of collective social justice.
Neuroexistentialism
Authors: Flanagan Owen , Caruso Gregg D.
Published: February 2018

Neuroexistentialism is a recent expression of existential anxiety over the nature of persons. Unlike previous existentialisms, neuroexistentialism is not caused by a problem with ecclesiastical authority, as was the existentialism represented by Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, and Nietzsche, nor by the shock of coming face to face with the moral horror of nation state actors and their citizens, as in the mid-century existentialism of Sartre and Camus. Rather, neuroexistentialism is caused by the rise of the scientific authority of the human sciences and a resultant clash between the scientific and the humanistic image of persons. Flanagan and Caruso explain what neuroexistentialism is and how it is related to two earlier existentialisms and they spell out how neuroexistentialism makes particularly vivid the clash between the humanistic and the scientific image of persons. They conclude by providing a brief summary of the chapters to follow.
The Neuroscience of Purpose, Meaning, and Morals
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: February 2018

In Chapter 5, Edmund T. Rolls builds on evidence and theories he developed elsewhere about the neural base of emotions and explores what they can tell us about purpose, meaning, and morals. He argues that meaning can be achieved by neural representations not only if these representations have mutual information with objects and events in the world, but also by virtue of the goals of the “selfish” genes and of the individual reasoner. This, he proposes, provides a means for even symbolic representations to be grounded in the world. He concludes by arguing that morals can be considered as principles that are underpinned by (the sometimes different) biological goals specified by the genes and by the reasoning (rational) system. Given that what is “natural” does not correspond to what is “right,” he argues that these conflicts within and between individuals can be addressed by a social contract.
Relational Authenticity
Authors: Gallagher Shaun , Morgan Ben , Rokotnitz Naomi
Published: February 2018

In Chapter 8, the authors explore the notion of relational authenticity, arguing that to understand existential authenticity we must not return to the individuality celebrated by classical existentialism nor look for a reductionist explanation in terms of neuronal patterns or mental representations that would simply opt for a more severe methodological individualism and a conception of authenticity confined to proper brain processes. Rather, they propose, we should look for a fuller picture of authenticity in what they call the “4Es”—the embodied, embedded, enactive, and extended conception of mind. They argue that one requires the 4Es to maintain the 4Ms—mind, meaning, morals, and modality—in the face of reductionistic tendencies in neurophilosophy. The 4E approach, they contend, gives due consideration to the importance of the brain, taken as part of the brain-body-environment system, incorporating neuroscience and integrating phenomenological-existentialist conceptions that emphasize embodiment and the social environment.
The Neuroscientific Non-Challenge to Meaning, Morals, and Purpose
Authors: Morse Stephen J.
Published: February 2018

Stephen J. Morse argues that neuroscience raises no new challenges for the existence, source, and content of meaning, morals, and purpose in human life, nor for the robust conceptions of agency and autonomy underpinning law and responsibility. Proponents of revolutionizing the law and legal system make two arguments. The first appeals to determinism and the person as a “victim of neuronal circumstances” (VNC) or “just a pack of neurons” (PON). The second defend “hard incompatibilism. ” Morse reviews the law’s psychology, concept of personhood, and criteria for criminal responsibility, arguing that neither determinism nor VNC/PON are new to neuroscience and neither justifies revolutionary abandonment of moral and legal concepts and practices evolved over centuries in both common law and civil law countries. He argues that, although the metaphysical premises for responsibility or jettisoning it cannot be decisively resolved, the hard incompatibilist vision is not normatively desirable even if achievable.
Introduction
Authors: Epstein William M.
Published: February 2018

The Introduction argues against the possibilities that power in the United States has been usurped by illegitimate elites or an autonomous federal government, or that pluralism has been seriously compromised. American decision making is democratic but populist rather than elitist, and defined by its embedded romantic notions in rejection of pragmatism. The Introduction lays out the proposition that policy making in the United States is determined by a broad democratic consensus. In spite of episodic pitfalls and threats to democratic processes, mass preferences prevail in policy making rather than the far more common assumption that conspiracies of illegitimate elites rule the nation. Democratic consent is formed more through an ecology of detached roles than through coherent and objective consideration.
The Food Stamp Program
Authors: Epstein William M.
Published: February 2018

Chapter 8 describes and evaluates the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP (food stamps). It demonstrates its serious shortcomings and interprets the program as an expression of mass values. The food stamp program in the United States remains as it always was: convoluted, inadequate, and frequently unfair, even after more than half a century of priority concern from a number of presidents, as well as congressional attention recorded in thousands of pages of panels, investigations, hearings, and reports. For all its wealth, it is not clear that the United States has ensured access for its citizens to “a nutritionally adequate low-cost diet.” Yet its design embodies the assumptions of policy romanticism unreasonably insisting on self-reliance.
On the Emotional A Priori
Authors: Furtak Rick Anthony
Published: February 2018

Emotions ought to be understood as an epistemically indispensable mode of experience, because they involve our living bodies in the recognition of what is meaningful within our world of concern. How it is that we have a “world of concern” in the first place, in which things are felt to be significant? Dispositional affective states serve as grounding conditions for the episodes of emotion that arise in particular contexts. Once we care about something, we are liable to have a variety of discrete emotions about it: and it is only if we have some degree of concern for something that we are liable to be moved. The emotional a priori frames our affective involvements and allows us to be receptive to whatever significance our lives might contain. We should therefore not assume that we could easily be conscious of the world around us without love, care, or interest.
Of Friends and Foes
Authors: Crescenzi Mark
Published: February 2018

Reputations abound in world politics, but we know little about how reputations form and evolve: namely, how do countries form reputations? Do these reputations affect interstate politics in the global arena? In this book, Crescenzi develops a theory of reputation dynamics to help identify when reputations form in ways that affect world politics, both in the realms of international conflict and cooperation. A reputation for honoring one’s obligations in a treaty, for example, canmake a state a more attractive ally; on the other hand, a reputation for war and conflict can triggermore of the same, leading to a cycle of violence that exacerbates security challenges. These processes of cooperation and conflict are linked by a common use of the information held in each state’s reputation. In each case, states use reputational information in an attempt to resolve the uncertainty they face when crafting foreign policy decisions. Crescenzi usesablendof historical andempirical analysis to show how reputations matter in world politics, demonstrating that over time and across the globe, reputations for conflict exacerbate crises, while reputations for cooperation and reliability make future cooperation more likely.
Introduction
Authors: Mordden Ethan
Published: February 2018

It’s about more than the musical Chicago, actually. Because there is an entire Chicago saga—a play, a silent film, a talkie, and only then the musical, followed by a revival that turned a mere Broadway success into a global phenomenon, leading to a Best Picture movie musical....
The First Movie
Authors: Mordden Ethan
Published: February 2018

This chapter explores the background and production history behind Cecil B. DeMille’s adaptation of Watkins’ play. Chicago was a story that Hollywood had wanted to film, and it particularly attracted Cecil B. DeMille, because he liked to amuse his public by mating wicked doings with farce: exactly as Chicago did. However, DeMille did not share Watkins’ didactic fervor. Rather she used Chicago as a Breughelesque hellscape where, just outside the courtroom windows, the population raged with lawbreaking fever. What DeMille saw in the play was something so latent Watkins herself had not used it: the tale of a troubled marriage. In other words: of a decent and loving guy married to a sociopath.
Fosse & Verdon and Kander & Ebb
Authors: Mordden Ethan
Published: February 2018

This chapter chronicles the rise of Gwen Verdon and Bob Fosse as well as John Kander and Fred Ebb in the theatre industry. Their careers reveal how much the musical was transforming itself by the late 1940s, and how comfortably it moved between musical comedy and the musical play, uncovering ways of aligning them in innovative mutations. Moreover, the musical had come to amalgamate the responsibilities of director and choreographer and make the rise of the naturalistic actor not only possible but necessary. In a way, one could say that a Chicago musical was unthinkable until the liberation of Fosse and Verdon and the evolution of Kander and Ebb, out of musical comedy into the commentative show. Like Show Boat, Oklahoma!, and West Side Story, Chicago is an exhibition piece in the development of the elite yet populist and idealistic yet subversive national art form, the musical.
Scales and Key
Authors: Temperley David
Published: February 2018

Rock is generally assumed to be “tonal,” meaning that every song has a tonal center around which other pitches are organized. A wide variety of scale structures have been proposed for rock; the current chapter takes a corpus-based approach to this issue. It is proposed that rock as a whole uses a global scale containing all twelve scale degrees except for flat-2 and sharp-4—the “supermode.” Individual songs tend to use subsets of this scale; most often these subsets are “compact,” containing a set of adjacent scale degrees on the line of fifths. Further analysis shows that scales in rock songs reflect something like the major/minor distinction of classical music, but with significant differences. The identification of key in rock seems to rely on the distribution of pitch classes, the emphasis of melodic tones, and the metrical placement of harmonies.
Harmony
Authors: Temperley David
Published: February 2018

An exploration of the harmonic language of rock is presented, relying heavily on corpus data. Chords in rock are overwhelmingly root-position major and minor triads. The commonly-used triads are those within the “supermode”—a global scale containing all scale degrees except flat-2 and sharp-4. With regard to harmonic progression, rock shows an almost equal frequency of “classical” harmonic motions (descending fifths and thirds, ascending seconds) and “anti-classical” ones (ascending fifths and thirds, descending seconds). “Flat-side” chords (bVII, bIII, bVI) tend to cluster together, as do “sharp-side” chords (ii, vi, iii), suggesting something like the major/minor organization of common-practice music, though it is much more of a continuum in rock. Other topics addressed include common harmonic patterns, linear and common-tone logic, cadences, tonicization, and pedal points.
Ajami Literacies of West Africa
Authors: Ngom Fallou
Published: February 2018

Wherever there have been significant numbers of Muslims outside of Arabia, there has been some Ajami literacy. This is because Ajami results from the spread of Islam and its accompanying Arabic script. Just as the Latin script was adapted for some languages when Christianity was adopted by many cultures, Islam also introduced the Arabic script to sub-Saharan Africa and was modified to write numerous African languages. The techniques used in contemporary Ajami writings are ancient. The Arabic script itself is believed to have resulted from analogous techniques applied to the ancient Aramaic script. This chapter shows how dual literacies in Arabic and Ajami have spread in West Africa as the result of the expansion of Islam and its Quranic education system, proselytizing, and the circulation of people and texts.
Population Movements, Language Contact, Linguistic Diversity, Etc.
Authors: Mufwene Salikoko S.
Published: February 2018

This chapter argues that languages move with people for various reasons, including nomadism, long-distance trade, colonization, exile and refuge, and deportations. While not necessarily mutually exclusive, these categories enable a better understanding of the differential evolution of languages at home and in the diasporas, owing to differing population structures and other ecological conditions resulting from different kinds of migrations within, into, and out of Africa in particular. In contrast with the fragility of its languages in the diaspora, the continent has been remarkable for the resilience of its indigenous vernaculars relative to the prestigious European colonial languages and the urban varieties that European colonization generated. This resilience is due to the division of labor in communicative functions as well as to stagnation of African economies, both of which have sustained multilingualism through socioeconomic and cultural segregation. From this theoretical foundation, the chapter then engages with the previous contributions to the volume.
Injustice Itself
Authors: Ackerly Brooke A.
Published: February 2018

Chapter 2 defines injustice itself and argues that political responsibility requires taking on injustice itself. Injustice itself entails complex causality, power inequalities, normalization, and the social epistemologies of injustice. Complex causality means that taking responsibility for injustice itself cannot require that we first understand how we are connected to an injustice and all of the factors contributing to it. Relatively powerful actors can exploit power inequalities causing domination, economic or physical exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, violence, and oppression. Normalization is when social, economic, and political habits can render the consequence of these so familiar that their unjustness is invisible. Even when these consequences are observed, social epistemologies can function like normalization at the cognitive level—creating shared understandings of how to interpret those consequences such that they are not assessed as matters of injustice. These points are illustrated drawing on research on gender, environment, and climate change in addition to the garment industry.
The Theoretical (Ir)relevance of the Unknowns of Injustice Itself
Authors: Ackerly Brooke A.
Published: February 2018

Just responsibility expects that we take political responsibility for injustice itself because there is injustice itself, and not because we know and understand all of its dimensions. Relying on the cognitive and voluntary conditions generally required by moral and legal philosophy for assigning or taking personal responsibility is a politically conservative approach to injustice. Due to the complexities of politics, injustice itself entails unforeseen and unforeseeable interaction effects and contingencies. Due to the social epistemologies developed in chapter 2, individually and in groups we have cognitive limitations in perceiving certain forms of injustice. Likewise, the voluntary condition imposes an inappropriate political limitation on considerations of the complex relations of actions and interacting forces affecting injustice itself. Just responsibility requires other approaches to identifying and taking responsibility for injustice itself. These are set out in the chapter.
Concepts in Cancer Epidemiology and Etiology
Authors: Lagiou Pagona , Trichopoulos Dimitrios , Adami Hans-Olov
Published: February 2018

This chapter reviews central concepts in epidemiology, which apply also to cancer epidemiology. It examines cohort and case-control studies, with reference also to studies of genetic epidemiology, it considers the impact of chance and systematic errors, and it traces the process of causal reasoning. It attempts to convey that the sometimes esoteric theory of modern epidemiology can be condensed to a few central issues, namely (1) how to quantify and understand the impact of chance; (2) how to best harvest information on exposures and outcomes from a source population by using a cohort design, a case–control design, or variants thereof; (3) how to achieve valid results by minimizing the impact of confounding and bias, and; (4) how to address the central issue of causality in a structured way. A glossary at the end of the chapter provides a summary of definitions.
Cancer of the Liver and Biliary Tract
Authors: Bamia Christina , Stuver Sherri , Mucci Lorelei
Published: February 2018

Primary liver cancer is one of the most commonly occurring cancers globally, and is the second most common cause of cancer death worldwide. There are two major histologic forms of primary liver cancer: hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma. It is a rapidly and almost uniformly fatal disease, yet there is already sufficient knowledge about its major risk factors, many of which are modifiable, to make primary prevention effective. Primary liver cancer is one of the first common human cancer that was found to have an infectious etiology, with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) for HCC, and parasitic liver flukes for cholangiocarcinoma. Obesity is emerging as an important risk factor, particularly in Western countries, where primary liver cancer rates appear to be increasing over time. A number of additional risk factors and potential preventive factors are considered in this chapter.
Cancer of the Lung, Larynx, and Pleura
Authors: Malhotra Jyoti , Boffetta Paolo , Mucci Lorelei
Published: February 2018

Lung cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer among men in most countries, and is the primary cause of cancer death in men and women. Its epidemic increase in incidence began in the first half of the twentieth century, paralleling the uptake of cigarette smoking that occurred 20 years before. A series of landmark studies beginning in 1950 established tobacco as the primary cause of lung cancer. Current smokers have a 10- to 20-fold higher lung cancer risk compared to never smokers. Important for prevention, former smokers substantially reduce this excess risk 5 years after smoking cessation. Exposure to secondhand smoke, a well-established risk factor for lung cancer, has a 20%–25% higher risk for those exposed. There are several occupational exposures associated with lung cancer, including asbestos. Despite the success in defining lung cancer’s etiology, this highly preventable disease remains among the most common and most lethal cancers globally.
Thyroid Cancer
Authors: la Vecchia Carlo , Bosetti Cristina , Adami Hans-Olov
Published: February 2018

While thyroid cancer incidence has globally increased over the last few decades, mortality has been steadily declining. This is essentially due to increased diagnosis of papillary thyroid cancer, due to the widespread use of ultrasound scan. Thyroid cancer is one of the few neoplasms more common in women than in men. Familial and genetic factors account for 5% to 15% of papillary or follicular neoplasms, and the association is even stronger for medullary carcinomas. Thyroid cancer risk is strongly related to benign thyroid diseases, particularly nodules and adenomas and goiter. The other major recognized risk factor is ionizing radiation, in particular iodine 131. Aspects of diet related to thyroid cancer risk include iodine deficiency—particularly for follicular thyroid cancer. However, fish and cruciferous vegetables are not consistently related to thyroid cancer risk. Tobacco and alcohol do not materially influence thyroid cancer risk, whereas overweight/obesity and adult height might increase risk.
Hodgkin Lymphoma
Authors: Hjalgrim Henrik , Melbye Mads , Lagiou Pagona
Published: February 2018

The descriptive epidemiology of Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) has demonstrated marked variation by age, sex, social class, and time, strongly suggesting both a role of environmental factors and the existence of etiologically diverse HL subtypes. There is increasing evidence that Epstein Barr virus (EBV)–positive and EBV-negative classical HLs define two variants with separate etiologies. The risk for both increases with family history, whereas immune dysfunction and infectious mononucleosis have been implicated in EBV-positive HL risk only. Despite being the less common of the two, the natural history of EBV-positive HL is currently the best understood, both with respect to how EBV may contribute to malignant cell transformation and in relation to constitutional and environmental risk factors. Meanwhile, the understanding of the natural history of EBV-negative HL is meager. Future research for EBV-negative HL is expected to focus on its presumed infectious etiology, for which there are currently no strong candidates.
The Problem of Luck
Authors: Franklin Christopher Evan
Published: February 2018

According to the Luck Argument, so far from indeterminism being necessary for free will, indeterminism is actually incompatible with it. This chapter distinguishes four formulations of the Luck Argument and argues that none of them succeeds in showing that the indeterminism in minimal event-causal libertarianism even so much as diminishes control. In response to the No Causation and Explanatory formulations, it is argued that each makes a false assumption about the nature of indeterminism: the former assuming that undetermined events cannot be caused and the latter that undetermined events cannot be contrastively explained. In response to the Ensurance and Rollback formulations, it is argued that each formulation makes a false assumption about the location of indeterminism: each assumes that indeterminism is located in the causal process between basic and nonbasic. Once these false assumptions are identified, the apparent force of the Luck Argument evaporates.