bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
APB differentially affects the cone contributions to the
zebrafish ERG
Authors: SASZIK SHANNON , ALEXANDER AMBER , LAWRENCE TIMOTHY , BILOTTA JOSEPH
Published: December 2002

APB (DL-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid) has been found to
affect the retinal processing of many vertebrate species as
evidenced by the suppression of the b-wave component
of the electroretinogram (ERG). The present study examined the
effects of APB on the cone contributions to the ERG response
of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). ERG responses were
obtained from light-adapted adult zebrafish following intravitreal
injection of either saline alone or saline with various
concentrations of APB ranging from 10 μm to 500 μM.
Visual stimuli were 200-ms flashes of various wavelengths and
irradiances. Spectral sensitivity functions were calculated
from the irradiance versus response amplitude functions of the
a-, b-, and d-wave components of
the ERG response. Saline had no effects on the ERG response.
However, APB had differential effects on the sensitivity of
the b- and d-wave components. The effects
of APB on the b-wave component were most apparent in
the ultraviolet and short-wavelength portions (320–440
nm) of the spectral sensitivity function, although the
b-wave was not completely eliminated at these wavelengths.
APB-treated subjects were found to possess the same cone mechanisms
(L-M and M-S) in the middle- and long-wavelength areas of the
spectrum as saline injected subjects, although absolute sensitivity
was lower for the APB-injected subjects. Spectral sensitivity
based on the d-wave response was affected by APB but
only in the short-wavelength region. All results appear to be
independent of the APB dose. These results support the notion
that glutamate receptors play a specific role in zebrafish visual
processing. In addition, the effects of APB support recent
anatomical evidence that the zebrafish retina may possess different
types of glutamate receptors.
Cholecystokinin-like immunoreactive amacrine cells in the
rat retina
Authors: FIRTH SALLY I. , VARELA CAROLINA , DE LA VILLA PEDRO , MARSHAK DAVID W.
Published: December 2002

High levels of endogenous cholecystokinin (CCK) are present
in the rat retina (Eskay & Beinfeld, 1982), but the cellular
localization and physiological actions of CCK in the rat retina
are uncertain. The goals of this study were to characterize
the cells containing CCK, identify cell types that interact
with CCK cells, and investigate the effects of CCK on rod bipolar
cells. Rat retinas were labeled with antibody to gastrin-CCK
(gCCK) using standard immunofluorescence techniques. Patch-clamp
methods were used to record from dissociated rod bipolar cells
from rats and mice. Gastrin-CCK immunoreactive (-IR) axons were
evenly distributed throughout the retina in stratum 5 of the
inner plexiform layer of the rat retina. However, the gCCK-IR
somata were only detected in the ganglion cell layer in the
peripheral retina. The gCCK-IR cells contained glutamate
decarboxylase, and some of them also contained immunoreactive
substance P. Labeled axons contacted PKC-IR rod bipolar cells,
and recoverin-IR ON-cone bipolar cells. CCK-octapeptide inhibits
GABAC but not GABAA mediated currents
in dissociated rod bipolar cells.
Distribution of protein kinase C isoforms in the cat retina
Authors: FYK-KOLODZIEJ BOZENA , CAI WENHUI , POURCHO ROBERTA G.
Published: December 2002

Immunocytochemical localization was carried out for five isoforms
of protein kinase C (PKC) in the cat retina. In common with
other mammalian species, PKCα was found in rod bipolar cells.
Staining was also seen in a small population of cone bipolar
cells with axon terminals ramifying near the middle of the inner
plexiform layer (IPL). PKCβI was localized to rod bipolar
cells, one class of cone bipolar cell, and numerous amacrine
and displaced amacrine cells. Staining for PKCβII was seen
in three types of cone bipolar cells as well as in amacrine
and ganglion cells. Immunoreactivity for both PKCε and PKCζ
was found in rod bipolar cells; PKCε was also seen in a
population of cone bipolar cells and a few amacrine and ganglion
cells whereas PKCζ was found in all ganglion cells.
Double-label immunofluorescence studies showed that dendrites
of the two PKCβII-positive OFF-cone bipolar cells exhibit
immmunoreactivity for the kainate-selective glutamate receptor
GluR5. The third PKCβII cone bipolar is an ON-type cell
and did not stain for GluR5. The retinal distribution of these
isoforms of PKC is consistent with a role in modulation of various
aspects of neurotransmission including synaptic vesicle release
and regulation of receptor molecules.
AMPA glutamate receptor subunit 2 in normal and visually
deprived macaque visual cortex
Authors: WONG-RILEY MARGARET T.T. , JACOBS PAULETTE
Published: December 2002

Glutamate and its various receptors are known to play an important
role in excitatory synaptic transmission throughout the CNS,
including the primary visual cortex. Among subunits of the AMPA
receptors (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic
acid), subunit 2 (GluR2) is of special significance because
it controls their Ca2+ permeability. In the past,
this subunit has been studied mostly in conjunction with other
AMPA subunits. The present study sought to determine if GluR2
alone has a distinct laminar distribution in the normal macaque
visual cortex, and if its pattern correlated with that of
cytochrome oxidase (CO) under normal and monocularly deprived
conditions. In the normal adult cortex, GluR2 immunoreactivity
(ir) had a patchy distribution in layers II/III, in register
with CO-rich puffs. GluR2-ir highlighted the upper border of
layer II, the lower border of layer IV (previously termed
IVCβdark) and, most prominently, layer VI. Labeled
neurons were primarily of the pyramidal type present in the
upper border and lower half of layer VI, layers II/III, and
scattered in layers V and upper IVB. Labeled nonpyramidal cells
were large in layer IVB and small in IVCβdark.
Notably, the bulk of CO-rich layers IVC and IVA had very low
levels of GluR2-ir. At fetal day 13, however, GluR2 labeling
showed a honeycomb-like pattern in layer IVA not found in the
adult. A fragment of GluR2 cDNA was generated from
a human cDNA library, and in situ hybridization revealed
an expression pattern similar to that of GluR2 proteins. After
1–4 weeks of monocular impulse blockade with tetrodotoxin
(TTX), alternating rows of strong and weak GluR2-ir in layers
VI and II/III appeared in register with CO-labeled dark and
light ocular dominance columns in layer IVC and puffs in II/III,
respectively. Our results indicate that various cortical layers
are differentially influenced by glutamate. The bulk of the
major geniculate-recipient layers IVC and IVA have low levels
of GluR2, presumably favoring synaptic transmission via
Ca2+-permeable glutamate receptors. GluR2 plays a
more important role in supragranular and infragranular layers,
where the initial geniculate signals are further modified and
are transmitted to other cortical and subcortical centers. The
maintenance of GluR2 in these output layers is governed by visual
input and neuronal activity, as monocular impulse blockade induced
a down-regulation of this subunit in deprived ocular dominance
columns.
Retinal ganglion cells projecting to the optic tectum and
visual thalamus of lizards
Authors: MARTINEZ-MARCOS ALINO , LANUZA ENRIQUE , MARTINEZ-GARCIA FERNANDO
Published: December 2002

Retinal ganglion cells projecting to the optic tectum and visual
thalamus have been investigated in the lizard, Podarcis
hispanica. Injections of biotinylated dextran-amine in
the optic tectum reveal seven morphological cell varieties
including one displaced ganglion cell type. Injections in the
visual thalamus yield similar ganglion cell classes plus four
giant ganglion cells, including two displaced ganglion cell
types. The present study constitutes the first comparison of
tectal versus thalamic ganglion cell types in reptiles. The
situation found in lizards is similar to that reported in mammals
and birds where some cell types projecting to the thalamus are
larger than those projecting to the mesencephalic roof. The
presence of giant retino-thalamic ganglion cells with specific
dendritic arborizations in sublaminae A and B of the inner
plexiform layer suggests that parts of the visual thalamus of
lizards could be implicated in movement detection, a role that
might be played by the ventral lateral geniculate nucleus, which
is involved in our tracer injections.
Feedback from V1 and inhibition from beyond the classical
receptive field modulates the responses of neurons in the primate
lateral geniculate nucleus
Authors: WEBB BEN S. , TINSLEY CHRIS J. , BARRACLOUGH NICK E. , EASTON ALEXANDER , PARKER AMANDA , DERRINGTON ANDREW M.
Published: December 2002

It is well established that the responses of neurons in the
lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) can be modulated by feedback
from visual cortex, but it is still unclear how cortico-geniculate
afferents regulate the flow of visual information to the cortex
in the primate. Here we report the effects, on the gain of LGN
neurons, of differentially stimulating the extraclassical receptive
field, with feedback from the striate cortex intact or inactivated
in the marmoset monkey, Callithrix jacchus. A horizontally
oriented grating of optimal size, spatial frequency, and temporal
frequency was presented to the classical receptive field. The
grating varied in contrast (range: 0–1) from trial to
trial, and was presented alone, or surrounded by a grating of
the same or orthogonal orientation, contained within either
a larger annular field, or flanks oriented either horizontally
or vertically. V1 was ablated to inactivate cortico-geniculate
feedback. The maximum firing rate of LGN neurons was greater
with V1 intact, but was reduced by visually stimulating beyond
the classical receptive field. Large horizontal or vertical
annular gratings were most effective in reducing the maximum
firing rate of LGN neurons. Magnocellular neurons were most
susceptible to this inhibition from beyond the classical receptive
field. Extraclassical inhibition was less effective with V1
ablated. We conclude that inhibition from beyond the classical
receptive field reduces the excitatory influence of V1 in the
LGN. The net balance between cortico-geniculate excitation and
inhibition from beyond the classical receptive field is one
mechanism by which signals relayed from the retina to V1 are
controlled.
Circadian rhythms of dopamine in mouse retina: The role of
melatonin
Authors: DOYLE SUSAN E. , GRACE MICHAEL S. , McIVOR WILSON , MENAKER MICHAEL
Published: December 2002

Both dopamine and melatonin are important for the regulation
of retinal rhythmicity, and substantial evidence suggests that
these two substances are mutually inhibitory factors that act
as chemical analogs of day and night. A circadian oscillator
in the mammalian retina regulates melatonin synthesis. Here
we show a circadian rhythm of retinal dopamine content in the
mouse retina, and examine the role of melatonin in its control.
Using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), we measured
levels of dopamine and its two major metabolites,
3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid
(HVA), in retinas of C3H+/+ mice (which make melatonin) and
C57BL/6J mice that are genetically incapable of melatonin
synthesis. In a light/dark cycle both strains of mice exhibited
daily rhythms of retinal dopamine, DOPAC, and HVA content. However,
after 10 days in constant darkness (DD), a circadian rhythm
in dopamine levels was present in C3H, but not in C57 mice.
C57 mice given ten daily injections of melatonin in DD exhibited
a robust circadian rhythm of retinal dopamine content whereas
no such rhythm was present in saline-injected controls. Our
results demonstrate that (1) a circadian clock generates rhythms
of dopamine content in the C3H mouse retina, (2) mice lacking
melatonin also lack circadian rhythms of dopamine content, and
(3) dopamine rhythms can be generated in these mice by cyclic
administration of exogenous melatonin. Our results also indicate
that circadian rhythms of retinal dopamine depend upon the rhythmic
presence of melatonin, but that cyclic light can drive dopamine
rhythms in the absence of melatonin.
Dynamic changes in the receptive fields of L1-type horizontal
cells in the retina of the turtle Mauremys caspica
Authors: BORNSTEIN O. , TWIG G. , BENDA J. , WEILER R. , PERLMAN I.
Published: December 2002

The resistances of the horizontal cell syncytium in the vertebrate
retina are modulated in a time-dependent fashion during light
stimulation. Therefore, the spatial properties of horizontal
cells are expected to change with time after the illumination
conditions are altered. This study was designed to investigate
time- and intensity-dependent changes in the receptive-field
properties of L1-type horizontal cells in the turtle Mauremys
caspica. Photoresponses were elicited by monochromatic
(650 nm) light stimuli of 2-s duration covering retinal spots
of different radii. The length constants were derived from the
relationships between amplitude and spot radius that were
constructed for different time intervals after onset of the
light stimulus. For a given stimulus intensity, the length constant
transiently increased to a peak value and then slowly recovered
to a plateau level. When the length constant was compared to
the amplitude of the response to full-field illumination for
the entire duration of the light stimulus, an ellipse-like curve
was obtained indicating that for a given membrane potential,
two different values of the length constant could be obtained.
Dopamine considerably reduced the size of the receptive fields
but did not affect the time-dependent changes in the length
constant. These results indicate that changes in the membrane
resistance underlie short-term modulation of the receptive-field
properties of turtle L1-type horizontal cells after onset of
a light stimulus.
Expression of MARCKS mRNA in lateral geniculate nucleus and
visual cortex of normal and monocularly deprived macaque monkeys
Authors: HIGO NORIYUKI , OISHI TAKAO , YAMASHITA AKIKO , MATSUDA KEIJI , HAYASHI MOTOHARU
Published: December 2002

We performed a nonradioactive in situ hybridization
histochemistry (ISH) study of the lateral geniculate nucleus
(LGN) and the primary visual area (area 17) of the macaque monkey
to investigate mRNA expression of the myristoylated alanine-rich
C-kinase substrate (MARCKS), a major protein kinase C (PKC)
substrate. In the LGN, intense hybridization signals were observed
in both magnocellular neurons (layers 1 and 2) and parvocellular
neurons (layers 3 to 6). Double labeling using ISH and
immunofluorescence revealed that MARCKS mRNA was coexpressed
with the α-subunit of type II calcium/calmodulin-dependent
protein kinase, indicating that MARCKS mRNA is also expressed
in koniocellular neurons in the LGN. GABA-immunoreactive neurons
in the LGN did not contain MARCKS mRNA, indicating that MARCKS
mRNA is not expressed in inhibitory interneurons. The signals
were generally weak in area 17, and intense signals were restricted
to large neurons in layers IVB, V, and VI. GABA-immunoreactive
neurons in layers II–VI of area 17 did not contain MARCKS
mRNA. Double-label ISH revealed that MARCKS mRNA was coexpressed
with mRNA of GAP-43, another PKC substrate, in neurons of both
the LGN and area 17. To determine whether the expression of
MARCKS mRNA is regulated by retinal activity, we performed ISH
in the LGN and area 17 of monkeys deprived of monocular visual
input by tetrodotoxin. After monocular deprivation for 5 to
30 days, MARCKS mRNA was down-regulated in the LGN, but not
in area 17. These results suggest that MARCKS mediates the
activity-dependent changes in the excitatory relay neurons in
the LGN.
Contrast adaptation in retinal and cortical evoked potentials:
No adaptation to low spatial frequencies
Authors: HEINRICH THOMAS STEPHAN , BACH MICHAEL
Published: December 2002

Contrast adaptation occurs in both the retina and the cortex.
Defining its spatial dependence is crucial for understanding
its potential roles. We thus asked to what degree contrast
adaptation depends on spatial frequency, including
cross-adaptation. Measuring the pattern electroretinogram (PERG)
and the visual evoked potential (VEP) allowed separating retinal
and cortical contributions. In ten subjects we recorded
simultaneous PERGs and VEPs. Test stimuli were sinusoidal gratings
of 98% contrast with spatial frequencies of 0.5 or 5.0 cpd,
phase reversing at 17 reversals/s. Adaptation was controlled
by prolonged presentation of these test stimuli or homogenous
gray fields of the same luminance. When adaptation and test
frequency were identical, we observed significant contrast
adaptation only at 5 cpd: an amplitude reduction in the PERG
(−22%) and VEP (−58%), and an effective reduction
of latency in the PERG (−0.95 ms). When adapting at 5
cpd and testing at 0.5 cpd, the opposite effect was observed:
enhancement of VEP amplitude by +26% and increase in effective
PERG latency by +1.35 ms. When adapting at 0.5 cpd and testing
at 5 cpd, there was no significant amplitude change in PERG
and VEP, but a small effective PERG latency increase of +0.65
ms. The 0.5-cpd channel was not adapted by spatial frequencies
of 0.5 cpd. The adaptability of the 5-cpd channel may mediate
improved detail recognition after prolonged blur. The existence
of both adaptable and nonadaptable mechanisms in the retina
allows for the possibility that by comparing the adaptational
state of spatial-frequency channels the retina can discern between
overall low contrast and defocus in emmetropization control.
On the velocity tuning of area 18 complex cell responses
to moving textures
Authors: VAJDA ILDIKÓ , LANKHEET MARTIN J.M. , van LEEUWEN TESSA M. , van de GRIND WIM A.
Published: December 2002

Unlike simple cells, complex cells of area 18 give a directionally
selective response to motion of random textures, indicating
that they may play a special role in motion detection. We therefore
investigated how texture motion, and especially its velocity,
is represented by area 18 complex cells. Do these cells have
separable spatial and temporal tunings or are these nonseparable?
To answer this question, we measured responses to moving random
pixel arrays as a function of both pixel size and velocity,
for a set of 63 directionally selective complex cells. Complex
cells generally responded to a fairly wide range of pixel sizes
and velocities. Variations in pixel size of the random pixel
array only caused minor changes in the cells' preferred
velocity. For nearly all cells the data much better fitted a model
in which pixel size and velocity act separately, than a model in
which pixel size and velocity interact so as to keep temporal-frequency
sensitivity constant. Our conclusion is that the studied population
of special complex cells in area 18 are true motion detectors, rather
than temporal-frequency tuned neurons.
Axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells after optic
nerve pre-lesions and attachment of normal or pre-degenerated
peripheral nerve grafts
Authors: YOU SI-WEI , BEDI KULDIP S. , YIP HENRY K. , SO KWOK-FAI
Published: December 2002

Axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) into a
normal or pre-degenerated peripheral nerve graft after an optic
nerve pre-lesion was investigated. A pre-lesion performed 1–2
weeks before a second lesion has been shown to enhance axonal
regeneration in peripheral nerves (PN) but not in optic nerves
(ON) in mammals. The lack of such a beneficial pre-lesion effect
may be due to the long delay (1–6 weeks) between the two
lesions since RGCs and their axons degenerate rapidly 1–2
weeks following axotomy in adult rodents. The present study
examined the effects of the proximal and distal ON pre-lesions
with a shortened delay (0–8 days) on axonal regeneration
of RGCs through a normal or pre-degenerated PN graft. The ON
of adult hamsters was transected intraorbitally at 2 mm (proximal
lesion) or intracranially at 7 mm (distal lesion) from the optic
disc. The pre-lesioned ON was re-transected at 0.5 mm from the
disc after 0, 1, 2, 4, or 8 days and a normal or a pre-degenerated
PN graft was attached onto the ocular stump. The number of RGCs
regenerating their injured axons into the PN graft was estimated
by retrograde labeling with FluoroGold 4 weeks after grafting.
The number of regenerating RGCs decreased significantly when
the delay-time increased in animals with both the ON pre-lesions
(proximal or distal) compared to control animals without an
ON pre-lesion. The proximal ON pre-lesion significantly reduced
the number of regenerating RGCs after a delay of 8 days in
comparison with the distal lesion. However, this adverse effect
can be overcome, to some degree, by a pre-degenerated PN graft
applied 2, 4, or 8 days after the distal ON pre-lesion enhanced
more RGCs to regenerate than the normal PN graft. Thus, in order
to obtain the highest number of regenerating RGCs, a
pre-degenerated PN should be grafted immediately after an ON
lesion.
The representation of the ipsilateral eye in nucleus isthmi
of the leopard frog, Rana pipiens
Authors: WINKOWSKI DANIEL E. , GRUBERG EDWARD R.
Published: December 2002

The retina of the leopard frog projects topographically to
the superficial neuropil of the entire contralateral tectum.
In the rostromedial neuropil of the tectum, there is a map of
the binocular region of the visual field seen from the ipsilateral
eye that is in register with the map of the binocular region
of the visual field seen from the contralateral eye. The
ipsilateral eye projects indirectly to the tectum through nucleus
isthmi (n. isthmi), a midbrain tegmental structure. N. isthmi
receives input from the ipsilateral optic tectum and sends
projections bilaterally that cover both tectal lobes. Previous
workers have not been able to find visual activity from the
ipsilateral eye in the caudolateral optic tectum, representing
the monocular visual field of the contralateral eye. We show
electrophysiologically that across the entire extent of n. isthmi
there are two superimposed maps, one map representing the entire
visual field of the contralateral eye, the other map representing
the binocular visual field of the ipsilateral eye. We also studied
the behavioral consequences of localized lesions to n. isthmi
and compared them to the behavioral consequences of localized
lesions to the optic tectum representing equivalent areas of
the visual field. Lesions to the optic tectum produce scotomas
in the corresponding portion of the visual field. Lesions to
n. isthmi, even medial n. isthmi representing the superior visual
field, lead to scotomas in the temporal-most portion of the
contralateral ground level visual field. Thus, the representation
of visual space in n. isthmi is not a simple copy of the tectal
representation of visual space.
Localization of kainate receptors to the presynaptic active
zone of the rod photoreceptor in primate retina
Authors: HARVEY D.M. , CALKINS D.J.
Published: December 2002

Visual information is encoded at the photoreceptor synapse
by modulation of the tonic release of glutamate from one or
more electron-dense ribbons. This release is highest in the
dark, when photoreceptors are depolarized, and decreases in
grades when photoreceptors hyperpolarize with increasing light.
Functional diversity between neurons postsynaptic at the synaptic
ribbon arises in part from differential expression of both
metabotropic (G-protein-gated) and ionotropic (ligand-gated)
glutamate receptor. In the brain, different subunits also modulate
the presynaptic active zone. In hippocampus, ionotropic kainate
receptors localize to the presynaptic membrane of glutamatergic
axon terminals and facilitate depolarization of the synapse
(e.g. Lauri et al., 2001). Such facilitation may be helpful
in the retina, where consistent depolarization of the photoreceptor
axon terminal is necessary to maintain glutamate release in
the dark. We investigated whether such a mechanism could be
present in primate retina by using electron microscopy to examine
the localization of the kainate subunits GluR6/7 at the rod
axon terminal, where only a single ribbon synapse mediates
glutamate release. We scored 54 rod axon terminals whose
postsynaptic space contained one or more GluR6/7-labeled processes
and traced these processes through serial sections to determine
their identity. Of 68 labeled processes, 63% originated from
narrow “fingers” of cytoplasm extending from the
presynaptic axon terminal into the postsynaptic cleft. Each
rod terminal typically inserts 4–6 presynaptic fingers,
and we scored several instances where multiple fingers contained
label. Such consistency suggests that each presynaptic finger
expresses GluR6/7. The physiological properties of kainate
receptors and the geometry of the rod axon terminal suggest
that presynaptic GluR6/7 could provide a steady inward current
to maintain consistent depolarization of the rod synapse in
the long intervals between photons in the dark.
Writing good Southerne: Local and supralocal norms in the
Plumpton letter collection
Authors: Moore Colette
Published: December 2002

The relatively recent application of sociolinguistic methodology
to the study of language history offers techniques for approaching
regional and social variation and change in earlier stages of
English. This article focuses on changes in written norms in
the history of English, examining several morphosyntactic variables
that were in flux in England in the 15th and 16th centuries:
the third person present singular verb endings, the third person
plural be, and the Northern Present-Tense Rule for
third person plural verbs. These variables are significant because
each of them presents two competing forms in the north of England
in the Early Modern period: a local form and a supralocal form.
The present analysis, after examining the correlation between
the linguistic variables and gender and social function, concludes
that the results may be understood through a conflict model
in which variants supralocalize to accommodate the demands of
alternative linguistic markets.
Phonological variation in American Sign Language: The case
of 1 handshape
Authors: Bayley Robert , Lucas Ceil , Rose Mary
Published: December 2002

This article examines variation in American Sign Language (ASL)
signs produced with a 1 handshape, which include signs of nearly
all grammatical classes. Multivariate analysis of more than
5,000 tokens, extracted from informal conversations among more
than 200 signers in seven different regions of the United States,
indicates that variation in the form of these signs is conditioned
by multiple linguistic and social factors. Significant factor
groups include grammatical function and features of the preceding
and following segments, as well as a range of social constraints
including age, regional origin, and language background. Two
findings are especially notable. First, although the results
for preceding and following segment effects show evidence of
progressive and regressive assimilation, grammatical function
is the first-order linguistic constraint on the use of two of
the three main variants. Second, signers in all regions of the
United States show similar patterns of variation, thus providing
evidence that ASL signers constitute a single “speech”
community.
It's not or isn't it? Using large
corpora to determine the influences on contraction strategies
Authors: Yaeger-Dror Malcah , Hall-Lew Lauren , Deckert Sharon
Published: December 2002

In analyzing not-negation variation in English it
becomes clear that specific strategies are used for prosodic
emphasis and reduction of not in different social
situations, and that contraction strategies vary independently
of prosodic reduction. This article focuses on the factors
influencing contraction strategies that are clearly dialect
related and attempts to tease out those factors that are related
to register and speaker stance. First, we review background
information critical to an adequate analysis of
not-negation and not-contraction. We then
describe the corpora chosen for the present study, the research
methods employed in the analysis, and the results of the analysis.
The variable under analysis is the choice between uncontracted
and not-contracted forms and between
not-contracted and Aux-contracted forms in well-formed
declarative sentences, for verbs which permit both. We end with
some suggestions for corpus composition that will enable meaningful
comparisons between social situations and between speakers,
or characters, within one corpus. As researchers we can assure
that future corpora will permit increasingly inclusive and
interesting comparative studies; we close with some suggestions
for those who wish to carry out studies.
Generative metrics and Old French octosyllabic verse
Authors: Noyer Rolf
Published: December 2002

Both Old French meters and their Modern French descendants
are usually thought to lack the internal binary constituent
structure of, say, English or German iambic verse. In this article,
however, an underlying iambic structure for the Old French
octosyllable is established through quantitative analysis of
a large corpus of texts written from c. 975 to 1180 (42 distinct
works, including over 22,000 lines). Because no texts conform
absolutely to the grammar of English iambic verse (Halle &
Keyser, 1971; Kiparsky, 1977), certain measures are proposed
for the degree to which a sample deviates from the iambic pattern;
these values are then compared with the (chance) deviation of
normal Old French prose. A significant correlation emerges between
these measures and date of composition, author, and genre: early
texts are almost perfectly iambic, and late 12th-century texts
approach, but do not reach, chance levels. It is concluded that
the grammar of meter used by Old French authors underwent a
gradual change during the 12th century, a change comparable
to more familiar phonological and syntactic changes.
Processing the world piece by piece: Iconicity, lexical
insertion, and possessives in Nigerian Arabic codeswitching
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: December 2002

Nigerian Arabic has two structures for coding N +
N relations: one in which the properties of
the possessed noun are severely constrained and one in which
the possessed and possessor nouns allow a full complement of
modifiers. Similar to the methodology of Poplack and her
collaborators (e.g., Sankoff, Poplack, & Vanniarajan, 1990),
a normative distribution of nouns in the two possessive structures
is established based on a corpus of monolingual (non-codeswitched)
Nigerian Arabic texts. In a corpus of codeswitched texts, the
distribution of English lexical insertions is found to deviate
markedly from these normative patterns. The notion of iconicity
is invoked to explain the skewed insertional patterns. It is
hypothesized on the basis of various psycholinguistic studies
that insertions from English are harder to access than are native
lexemes. To compensate for slower access time, speakers match
these insertions with the possessive structure that requires
a minimal amount of manipulation for rapid embedding. This,
it is shown, is the less iconic of the two possessive
constructions. What emerges is a distinctive pattern of possessives
characteristic of codeswitched Nigerian Arabic. After briefly
testing the iconicity hypothesis against insertional patterns
in Hausa and Standard Arabic, two other languages well attested
in the codeswitched corpus, the question is addressed as to
whether the codeswitched variety represents a code unto itself.
Weak vowels in modern RP: An acoustic study of
happy-tensing and kit/schwa shift
Authors: Fabricius Anne
Published: December 2002

Several changes in consonant and vowel pronunciations in younger
generations of native speakers of Received Pronunciation (RP)
are currently the object of research interest. In order to further
an empirically grounded description of changes in RP, the present
study examines variation in weak vowels. Patterns of variation
in word-final open weak syllables (happy, city)
as well as in past and present/plural suffixes (waited,
changes) are investigated acoustically in the interview
speech of eight young (born in the late 1970s) speakers of modern
RP. The data show variation in happy vowels for some
speakers according to phonetic environment, a phenomenon which
deserves further study. kit/schwa variation in the
inflectional suffixes studied here shows a tendency to maintain
kit-like values. Overall, the study indicates that
acoustic analysis of such weak vowels can provide interesting
data on variation.
Editorial: Prevention and intervention science: Contributions to developmental theory
Authors: CICCHETTI DANTE , HINSHAW STEPHEN P.
Published: December 2002

In a chapter on the historical roots of the discipline of developmental psychopathology, Cicchetti (1990) predicted that this then-emerging field would, among other integrative functions, help to bridge the gap between basic and applied research and between theoretical and clinical efforts for children, adolescents, and adults (see also Cicchetti & Toth, 1991, 1992, 1998). Despite this hopeful assertion, in the dozen years since its appearance, there has not been a complete closing of the gap (which, at worst, can resemble a chasm).
Can prevention trials test theories of etiology?
Authors: HOWE GEORGE W. , REISS DAVID , YUH JONGIL
Published: December 2002

This paper addresses the issue of whether prevention research methods, particularly those involving randomized prevention trials, can be used to test theories concerning the etiology of psychopathology. Based on recent empirical and theoretical work in developmental psychopathology, three aspects of etiologic theory are discussed: risk and protective mechanisms, the integration of environmental and genetic factors, and patterns of developmental progression in psychopathology across the life span. It is suggested that integration of prevention trial methods with methods from passive correlational designs, behavioral genetics, and longitudinal studies allows for unique opportunities to test hypotheses about etiology. Empirical literature on the development and prevention of internalizing disorders, particularly depression, is presented to support this argument. Limitations of prevention trials for testing theory are also reviewed.
Randomized clinical trials, developmental theory, and antisocial youth: Guidelines for research
Authors: CLINGEMPEEL W. GLENN , HENGGELER SCOTT W.
Published: December 2002

The design of effective interventions for antisocial adolescents has been greatly influenced by research-based developmental theories. However, randomized clinical trials (RCTs) demonstrating effectiveness of these treatments have contributed minimally to alterations and refinements of these theories. In this article, nine guidelines for research that may enhance the contributions of RCTs to developmental theory are proposed: (1) use mediational analyses to test and refine theories of change; (2) use moderator analyses to test differential pathways to change; (3) assess change processes separately for different types of antisocial behavior; (4) use constructive and dismantling designs to isolate effects of intervention components on targeted mediators and outcomes; (5) assess the time-sensitive nature of change mechanisms with theoretically relevant spacing of multiple assessments and long-term follow-ups; (6) expand the nomological net of developmental theories by assessing intervention effects on nontargeted constructs; (7) use RCTs to disentangle direction of effects questions in developmental theories; (8) conduct secondary analyses of RCTs to assess extra-treatment influences on antisocial behavior; and (9) assess the generalizability of mediator and moderator effects. Use of these guidelines may promote a recursive and iterative relationship between RCTs and theory building. Improved developmental theories may yield more effective interventions, and theory-testing interventions may engender more comprehensive and better informed theories.
What violence prevention research can tell us about developmental psychopathology
Authors: TOLAN PATRICK H. , GORMAN–SMITH DEBORAH
Published: December 2002

This article reviews major issues of a developmental psychopathology understanding of youth violence and related insights gained from violence prevention efforts to date. Based in a perspective that emphasizes three areas of knowledge, epidemiology, risk factors and models, and developmental trajectories, findings are reviewed that help clarify theoretical propositions about the developmental patterns, influences, and pathways related to youth violence. Extant research is able to support several major contentions of basic developmental psychopathology theories of youth violence. Support is most robust for risk factors central to prevailing models of the development of youth violence. In addition to noting current knowledge contributions, the review suggests areas of needed additional analytic progress and theoretical extension to refine knowledge and expand understanding of the development of violence risk and its prevention.
Interventions as tests of family systems theories: Marital and family relationships in children's development and psychopathology
Authors: COWAN PHILIP A. , COWAN CAROLYN PAPE
Published: December 2002

This paper addresses the role of family-based studies of preventive and therapeutic interventions in our understanding of normal development and psychopathology. The emphasis is on interventions designed to improve parent–child and/or marital relationships as a way of facilitating development and reducing psychopathology in children and adolescents. Intervention designs provide the gold standard for testing causal hypotheses. We begin by discussing the complexity of validating these hypotheses and the implications of the shift from a traditional emphasis on theories of etiology to developmental psychopathology's newer paradigm describing risks → pathways → outcomes. We summarize correlational studies that document the fact that difficult and ineffective parent–child and marital relationships function as risk factors for children's cognitive, social, and emotional problems in childhood and adolescence. We then review prevention studies and therapy evaluation studies that establish some specific parenting and marital variables as causal risk factors with respect to these outcomes. Our discussion focuses on what intervention studies have revealed so far and suggests an agenda for further research.
Intervention research, theoretical mechanisms, and causal processes related to externalizing behavior patterns
Authors: HINSHAW STEPHEN P.
Published: December 2002

Intervention research with children and adolescents has suffered from a dearth of relevant theoretical grounding and from the lack of a reciprocal “feedback” mechanism by which clinical trials can inform relevant theorizing and conceptualization. There are hopeful signs, however, of increasing confluence between clinical efforts and theoretical models. Indeed, the key issue I discuss is how intervention studies can yield information about developmental and clinical theory as well as mechanisms related to psychopathology. Specific research examples in the field, particularly those emanating from the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (MTA study), reveal that probes of moderator and mediator variables can clearly enhance our knowledge of relevant processes and mechanisms. In fact, recent MTA findings have relevance for models of genetic and epigenetic influence on symptomatology related to attentional deficits and hyperactivity. It would be overzealous, however, to make premature claims regarding etiologic variables from intervention research, as treatment studies typically address variables that are causally far “downstream” from primary causal factors and most clinical trials have statistical power that is barely sufficient for main outcome questions, much less mediational linkages. Overall, the field has severely underutilized experimental intervention research to subserve the dual ends of improving the lives of youth and advancing theoretical conceptualization regarding development and psychopathology.
Interventions for foster parents: Implications for developmental theory
Authors: DOZIER MARY , ALBUS KATHLEEN , FISHER PHILIP A. , SEPULVEDA SANDRA
Published: December 2002

All children who enter foster care have experienced disruptions in their relationships with caregivers, and many have experienced maltreatment. Studying the effects of these adverse early experiences can inform developmental theory. In particular, insight can be provided regarding sensitive periods in the development of attachment and self-regulatory capabilities. The quality of surrogate caregivers varies as a function of both the intervention services provided and foster parent characteristics. Studying the effects of foster parent quality can suggest which aspects of child functioning are more or less canalized at various developmental periods. This paper considers salient developmental issues of infancy, preschool years, middle childhood, and adolescence and examines ways in which these issues may present special difficulties for foster children. Across development, foster care is associated with difficulties regulating behaviors, emotions, and physiology. Thus, conditions associated with foster care placement (e.g., disruptions in care, maltreatment) appear to affect very basic and fundamental regulatory processes. Interventions have been designed that target developmentally specific manifestations of regulatory difficulties. Although the literature regarding evidence-based interventions for foster parents is quite limited, preliminary findings provide some evidence that nurturing, responsive care can serve to partially remediate early deficits. These findings suggest that stable and nonfrightening care is essential for normal development. Nonetheless, even in the case of quite adverse early experience that results in problematic child outcomes, there is some evidence that the development of many systems remains relatively plastic.
Where education and mental health meet: Developmental prevention and early intervention in schools
Authors: NOAM GIL G. , HERMANN CORINNA A.
Published: December 2002

There is growing recognition that traditional strategies, such as pullout special education programs and on-site casework and guidance, are no longer sufficient to address the staggering needs of a growing number of troubled children entering U.S. schools. This paper introduces a school-based prevention and intervention method for young adolescents called Responsive Advocacy for Life and Learning in Youth (RALLY). Prevention practitioners, a new role developed by the program, work in classrooms and after-school settings to provide nonstigmatizing support to students. Using a three-tiered prevention model, practitioners integrate a mental health and educational focus to foster students' academic, social, and emotional success. The intervention involves all children of an age cohort in middle schools. The practitioners are developmental specialists who create relationships with youth, teachers, and families in high-risk environments and serve triage functions to existing community and health care institutions. The RALLY intervention builds on normative developmental and developmental psychopathology theory, especially a risk and resilience framework. The paper describes the principles behind the practice and how the work in this field has created innovations in theory and a new impetus for research.
A longitudinal–experimental approach to testing theories of antisocial behavior development
Authors: LACOURSE ERIC , CÔTÉ SYLVANA , NAGIN DANIEL S. , VITARO FRANK , BRENDGEN MARA , TREMBLAY RICHARD E.
Published: December 2002

A longitudinal study with a nested preventive intervention was used to test five hypotheses generated from developmental theories of antisocial behavior. The longitudinal study followed 909 boys from their kindergarten year up to 17 years of age. The randomized multimodal preventive intervention targeted a subsample of boys who were rated disruptive by their kindergarten teacher. Semiparametric analyses of developmental trajectories for self-reported physical aggression, vandalism, and theft identified more types of trajectories than expected from recent theoretical models. Also, these trajectories did not confirm theoretical models, which suggest a general increase of antisocial behavior during adolescence. The majority of boys were on either a low-level antisocial behavior trajectory or a declining trajectory. Less than 6% appeared to follow a trajectory of chronic antisocial behavior. Comparisons between disruptive and nondisruptive kindergarten boys confirmed the hypothesis that disruptive preschool children are at higher risk of following trajectories of frequent antisocial behavior. Comparisons between treated and untreated disruptive boys confirmed that an intensive preventive intervention between 7 and 9 years of age, which included parent training and social skills training, could change the long-term developmental trajectories of physical aggression, vandalism, and theft for disruptive kindergarten boys in low socioeconomic areas. The results suggest that trajectories of violent behavior can be deflected by interventions that do not specifically target the physiological deficits that are often hypothesized to be a causal factor. The value of longitudinal–experimental studies from early childhood onward is discussed.
Pragmatism in modeling peer influence: Dynamics, outcomes, and change processes
Authors: DISHION THOMAS J. , BULLOCK BERNADETTE MARIE , GRANIC ISABELA
Published: December 2002

This paper reviews the model-building approach to developmental psychopathology as it applies to understanding the influence of peers on adolescent problem behavior. Considerable longitudinal evidence suggests that deviant peer involvement is prognostic of escalations in various forms of problem behavior, including substance use, delinquent behavior, and violence. Most convincing, however, are data from randomized intervention trials that show alarming iatrogenic effects for aggregating high-risk peers. This paper shows that intervention research can also clarify the role of parents in reducing deviant peer involvement. Results from a 4-year prevention trial are reported for a community sample of multiethnic middle school youth. Random assignment to family-centered services in a school Family Resource center produced reduced growth in deviant peer involvement. The extensiveness of the parenting intervention was correlated with reduced growth in deviant peer involvement, especially among high-risk youth. Findings are discussed with respect to developmental theory and the design of future intervention trials that clarify the role of adults in structuring the emerging adolescents' world of peers.
SPIRALS, ROPES, AND FEATHERS
Authors: Stone Andrea J.
Published: December 2002

Rubber had important utilitarian, symbolic, and ritual roles
in ancient Mesoamerica. Among the latter is the use of rubber
balls as burnt offerings. This paper examines characteristic
iconographic manifestations of rubber-ball offerings in
Mesoamerican art. One of these, the spiral, seen in the Postclassic
Maya codices, is shown to have had greater temporal and geographic
distribution than previously thought. Another is the Standard
Rubber Offering, a widespread motif in Mesoamerican art that
links rubber balls to feathers and rope bindings. In considering
why rubber balls were shown bound in rope, the paper examines
the physical properties of natural rubber. Understanding the
iconographic nuances of rubber balls as ritual offerings sheds
new light on the symbolism of rubber balls in ballgame scenes
and allows identification of certain images as rubber balls
that were previously unrecognized.