bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
Authors: Morton Matthew , Montgomery Paul
Published: February 2012

In strengthening social work’s ability to improve lives and communities, experimental design can play a critical role in helping stakeholders better understand what works in achieving positive impacts. Experimental design studies aim to test whether a specific “intervention” (or “treatment”) causes change in specific outcomes. Experiments test for this cause-and-effect relationship by exposing a group of research participants to the intervention and observing for any differences in changes of behavior between the intervention group and another group that does not receive the intervention. The group that does not receive the intervention is typically called a “control” or “comparison” group. Notably some literature reserves the term “experimental design” for studies in which participants are randomly assigned to intervention or control groups. Other literature, however, defines the term more broadly to include what some would classify as “quasi-experimental” or “nonrandomized” trials in which an intervention is applied to one group in order to detect changes but assignment to groups occurs through a method of selection other than randomization. This bibliography will consider experimental design in the broader context of both randomized and nonrandomized trials, but it will also supply references that clarify the special ability of randomized controlled trials to reduce bias and strengthen the credibility of experimental findings that guarantee causality. The field of experimental design includes considerable diversity with respect to specific methods, applications, and perspectives. This bibliography aims to organize some of the foremost texts and papers concerning experimental design to provide readers with (a) useful introductions to experimental design and basic principles, (b) practical references for specific audiences or topics of interest, and (c) a rounded tour of the views and debates surrounding experimental design.
Economic Evaluation
Authors: Francis Jennifer , Netten Ann
Published: February 2012

In a weak economic climate, politicians and local government decision makers cannot afford to ignore value-for-money considerations in the provision of publicly funded welfare. They must choose the most efficient intervention to maximize the overall societal benefit available from these scarce resources. Therefore, the effectiveness of an intervention alone is insufficient evidence on which to base decisions: the costs of an intervention might outweigh its benefits, or an alternative intervention might achieve the same outcome for a lower cost. Analysis of the benefits and costs of an intervention or service is known as economic evaluation. The development of approaches to economic evaluation for decision making is far more advanced in the field of health care than it is in social welfare. Important differences between social services and health care in the organization and provision of services mean that the methodology of health economics cannot simply be transferred. A different approach to economic evaluation in social services is required so that the evidence can be used reliably to inform decision making at policy and practice levels. This entry introduces the reader to different types of economic evaluation and explains some of the important features of social services that require a distinct approach to the application of economic evaluation methods. Finally, the entry outlines some of the ways that social work professionals can contribute to and draw on evidence from analysis of the costs and benefits of social services.
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
Authors: Bledsoe Sarah
Published: February 2012

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a focused, practical, and proven time-limited intervention designed originally for the treatment of outpatients with non-psychotic depression. In the 1970s, Gerald Klerman and Myrna Weissman sought to compare psychotherapy systematically to pharmacotherapy for the treatment of depression. IPT was originally developed as a manualized intervention that could be reliably delivered by many clinicians and evaluated in clinical trials. IPT grew from the theoretical work of Harry Stack Sullivan and Adolf Meyer, emphasizing the interpersonal nature and psychosocial antecedents of mental disorder, as well as from several empirical studies demonstrating the links between interpersonal stresses and the onset of depression. IPT views the onset of depression as typically occurring in a social and interpersonal context and addresses both the symptoms and the interpersonal life of the patient through a focus on four interpersonal problem areas: grief (complicated bereavement), role disputes, role transitions, and interpersonal deficits (paucity of attachments). The two goals of IPT—to reduce depressive symptoms and help the patient better deal with people and life situations associated with the onset of the current episode of depression—are addressed by assisting the patient to understand depression as an illness and to reduce symptoms by learning new social skills and strengthening or building positive social support networks. IPT’s success in a series of randomized clinical trials led to its expansion to treat a variety of depressive subtypes and other psychiatric syndromes. IPT has since demonstrated efficacy under controlled research conditions for the treatment of a variety of disorders, and the efficacy of IPT as an acute and maintenance treatment for major depression has been well established. IPT has been adapted for the treatment of other mood and non-mood disorders and comorbid conditions, such as depressed HIV-positive outpatients, adolescent depression, dysthymic disorder, depression in pregnant and postpartum women, group format, and bipolar disorder.
Agriculture
Authors: Borowski Oded
Published: February 2012

Agriculture is the cultivation of the soil for the production of food and other useful and valuable growth from the land, including products of fields, gardens, and orchards. Its practice includes all activities, installations, and tools used by the farmer in connection with the cultivation, caring for the land, and the plants, and the production of all foodstuffs and by-products. In biblical times, agriculture was the main source of livelihood, followed by animal husbandry. Practiced by villagers and to a certain extent by city dwellers as well, the influence of agriculture on many facets of daily life was very strong. Echoes can be discerned not only in the economy but also in religious beliefs and practice, customs and law, and social behavior as well.
Colossians
Authors: Sumney Jerry L.
Published: February 2012

Colossians is often seen as a letter on the edge of the transition from Pauline to post-Pauline thought, being identified as either the last authentic letter or the first written in Paul’s name after his death. The debate about authorship continues, with over half the field finding it to be pseudonymous. Colossians’ Christology is among the most exalted in the New Testament. The preformed liturgical piece of 1:15–20 has received more attention from interpreters than any other text or topic in Colossians. This liturgy identifies Christ as God’s agent in creation and as the one who subdues all hostile powers and reconciles all things to God. This understanding of Christ is the central affirmation that supports the argument of Colossians against a teaching that contends that those who do not have visionary experiences are not forgiven of their sins. Colossians uses its Christology to assure its readers of their salvation. The identity of the opponents is also a topic of continuing debate. Questions include whether the opposed teaching comes from inside the church or from outside, whether it is related to Judaism or a different religion or philosophy, and whether it encourages the worship of angelic beings. The answers given to such questions shape the way interpreters perceive the letter’s argument and theology. Colossians presents Paul as the one who cares for the readers enough to suffer for them and as the faithful proclaimer of the true gospel to which the readers must adhere to receive and retain their salvation. This description of Paul intends to convince the readers to listen to Paul’s voice in this letter rather than the other teachers. The ethical instructions in this letter serve an important role in its theological argument. Thus they demonstrate that such instructions are not simply added with little thought about the occasion or argument of the letter. Since Colossians contains the first appearance of the household code form, this literary form and its implications for the development of ethics in the early church remains a topic of discussion in relation to this letter.
Demons
Authors: Goff Matthew , Jurgens Blake , Olsen Emily
Published: February 2012

The term “demon” is used to describe a wide variety of spiritual beings. The word derives from the Greek term daimōn, which refers to all sorts of beings, by no means only ones that are evil. The conventional definition of “demon,” however, is that it refers to malignant supernatural entities who seek to harm humans. A rich mythology of such creatures is found throughout the ancient world. They were understood to cause a variety of problems that people face in everyday life, such as disease and problems in childbirth. For this reason magical practices, including incantation spells and use of amulets, constitute important evidence for the study of demons. There is a rich lore regarding demons in the ancient Near East. The evidence, however, is surprisingly sparse for such figures in the Hebrew Bible. A resurgence of interest in demons occurred in Early Judaism. Jewish traditions about demons from this era not only inform conceptions of evil spirits in later periods of Judaism, but also comprise an important part of the Jewish heritage of Christianity, which is evident in both the New Testament and subsequent Christian literature.
Ecclesiastes/Qohelet
Authors: Sandoval Timothy J. , Hayes Marcus
Published: February 2012

As Carol Newsom remarks in her review of scholarship on Ecclesiastes (Qohelet), in discussions of the history of research on this book it is almost impossible to resist quoting two of its most famous verses: “Of making many books there is no end” and “There is nothing new under the sun.” The huge number of publications that seek to interpret Qohelet verify the truth of the first statement. The second statement is also largely true, as scholars often rehearse and offer variations on lines of interpretation that have been well established for decades or even centuries. This is so whether the investigators are discussing anew Qohelet’s late dating in the Hellenistic period, and the nature of the text’s language that supports such a dating, or the influence of Greek philosophy on the sage and the likewise clear influence of ancient Near Eastern texts, or the book’s generally unorthodox flavor but very orthodox-sounding conclusion. Yet from ancient times, the enigmatic, multivalent text of Qohelet has never failed to evoke a range of responses that escape neat and simple categorization, so that there has, in fact, always been something at least relatively new in Qohelet scholarship, whether it be yet another proposal about Qohelet’s literary structure or the contention that Qohelet is best viewed as a “preacher of joy” rather than a gloomy pessimist or cynic. Although most studies of Qohelet are undertaken in the traditional historical-critical vein that has dominated modern biblical scholarship for most of the last two centuries, in the last decade or so there have been a number of studies that, although obviously informed by historical critical scholarship, have attempted to move beyond those categories with “new” forms of analysis. These (post)modern studies, published mostly in English, tend to emphasize hermeneutical issues, the role of readers, and the literary-rhetorical features of the text. They also tend to undertake what is sometimes called synchronic rather than diachronic analysis. Whatever label one chooses to apply to these works, they reflect a broader trend in biblical studies that welcomes newer and diverse approaches, methods, and questions. For scholars with sympathy to such approaches, it is perhaps only surprising that, with a few significant exceptions, serious study of Qohelet in this vein only began in the late 1990s. Indeed, Qohelet, which perhaps more than any other biblical book has defied scholarly attempts to wrest singular meaning from its pages, almost calls out for such analysis.
Feminist Scholarship on the Old Testament
Authors: Scholz Susanne
Published: February 2012

Feminist scholarship on the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible has its historical roots in various women’s movements throughout the ages, especially in the first women’s movement of the 19th century. It became a systematic academic endeavor only in the 1970s, when the second feminist movement took hold in societies in Western and Northern countries such as in the United States. It was then, in the 1970s, that feminist scholars with formal academic credentials in the fields of biblical, theological, and religious studies grounded their scholarship in the demands, challenges, and insights of the second feminist movement. This movement gained strength, prominence, and power during the civil rights movement of the 1960s and came to define itself as the continuation of the first women’s movement of the 19th century, when feminists fought for women’s suffrage, often in conjunction with the abolitionist movement. With the reemergence of feminist voices in the 1970s, after almost seventy years of silence, repression, and forgetfulness, women no longer lacked academic, intellectual, and scholarly credentials, unlike earlier generations of feminists who had faced systematic exclusion from social, political, economic, religious, and educational institutions. Now, for the first time in Western societies, feminist Hebrew Bible scholars examined, deconstructed, and reconstructed androcentric assumptions, biases, and perspectives in biblical literature and the various histories of interpretation. They used the standard scholarly tools, procedures, and methodologies practiced in the academic field of biblical studies. Importantly, feminist scholars placed women, gender, and sexualities in the center of their exegetical work. The field in the early 21st century includes feminist exegetes from around the globe who connect gender analysis with other social categories such as race, class, and geopolitical location. Since the early 1970s, then, feminist scholarship on the Old Testament / Hebrew Bible has produced new ways of thinking about, learning from, and reading the sacred texts of Christianity and Judaism and the extensive histories of interpretation.
Paul
Authors: Sumney Jerry L.
Published: February 2012

Paul is one of the most important figures in the earliest church. Although he was not a follower during the ministry of Jesus, he came to be recognized as an apostle. Seemingly the most successful missionary of the church during its first few decades, his converts were mostly non-Jews. He was not the first to admit gentiles into the church, but his work among them and his understanding of how they participate as full members permanently shape the history of the church. Paul is also the author of the earliest extant writings from the church. He begins writing his letters to churches approximately twenty years before the earliest of the canonical Gospels was composed. He is, then, a valuable source of information about the situation and beliefs of the earliest churches. Pauline studies have experienced several important shifts since the middle of the 20th century, even as the work of F. C. Baur continues to exert extraordinary influence. The groundbreaking work of E. P. Sanders on 1st-century Judaism has affected nearly every aspect of Pauline studies. Sanders’s view of Judaism supported new discussions about Paul’s theology, particularly some growing doubts about identifying justification by faith as its center. J. C. Beker’s emphasis on the contextual nature of Paul’s theologizing and the importance of eschatology for Paul began a move to examine the theology of each letter individually before producing a theology of the whole corpus. Sanders’s work also made room for a reexamination of the relationship between Paul’s churches and the synagogue, with most scholars seeing a closer relationship than had been hypothesized previously. Other developments in Pauline studies include the recognition of a closer relationship between Paul’s theology and his ethical instructions. Studies of ancient letters discovered since the 1920s opened ways to analyze the structure and categorize Paul’s writings by comparing them with contemporaneous materials. New methodologies were also introduced, particularly in understanding the social and cultural context of the letters. Methods from anthropology and postcolonial studies have shifted understandings of Paul’s stance with respect to Greco-Roman culture and the Roman Empire, such that he is often seen to possess a more countercultural stance. The rise of narrative theology contributed to a new interest in investigating the way Paul uses Israel’s Scriptures in his argumentation. Finally, there has been a renewed interest in a rhetorical analysis of Paul’s letters, with some scholars using ancient rhetorical categories; others, the “new rhetoric”; and still others devising distinctive methodologies.
Biblical Theology in the Old Testament
Authors: Perdue Leo G. , McDonald Joseph
Published: February 2012

The origins of modern Old Testament theology may be traced to the late 18th century, when German Enlightenment scholar Johann Gabler rejected the prevailing view that the role of the Bible was to set forth divine truths for the discipline of church dogmatics to arrange in systematic order. Instead, Gabler tried to mediate between biblical theology as a historical exercise whose object was to reconstruct the history of Israelite religious ideas and biblical theology as a tool of systematic theology whose goal was to address modern situations by means of the salient, universal ideas of the Bible. This distinction, which allowed for the differentiation between ancient belief and modern faith, held sway in biblical theology until the late 20th century (Classical Old Testament Theologies). Recently, however, some of the foundations of this approach, such as the primacy of human reason as a source of knowledge and the unquestioned dominance of the historical-critical model of biblical interpretation, have been badly eroded. Gabler’s dichotomy that had reigned so long began to dissolve, and the two areas started to entwine in a common enterprise. History came to be at least partially eclipsed in Old Testament theologies that emphasized the role of creation, and some canonical approaches displaced it almost entirely (The Transition from History to Creation and Canon). This trend has only accelerated with the rise of a variety of newer methods, such as feminist, liberation, and postcolonial strategies, that grow from traditionally underrepresented cultural contexts (New Approaches to Old Testament Theologies). While theology has always reflected the changing cultures and geographies of scholars, their ethnic identities, and their different worldviews, this has been explicitly acknowledged only recently. In an irreversible move, we have passed beyond the heady days of the search for a single biblical theology. Now numerous approaches and descriptions flood the field of Old Testament theology. This rich variety, reflective of the diversity of human communities and cultures, can provide new insights into what it means to be human.
Romans
Authors: Reasoner Mark
Published: February 2012

Placed first among Paul’s letters in the canon, Romans is often considered to be the most influential and comprehensive of these letters. While Melanchthon’s description of Romans as a compendium of Christian theology has now been superseded by an emphasis on the letter’s occasional nature, all are still agreed that the letter has tremendous scope, since it deals with such profound questions as the human condition before and after the law; death; faith; the identity and future of God’s chosen people, the Jews; and Christian existence in society and within the church. This letter’s Pauline authorship has never been questioned. Those who recognize only seven New Testament letters as undisputedly authored by Paul consider Romans to be the last one written, representing Paul’s mature and most comprehensive thought. Besides the doctrinal discussions that this letter triggers in every generation, attention has been paid more recently to the letter’s attitude toward Roman imperialism, the philosophical significance of the letter’s universal vision of humanity and its messianic view of time, and the posture toward Judaism that Paul takes in this letter. Each of these issues carries implications for how church leaders understand Christian theology and pastoral care. Therefore, much of the literature on Romans combines, to a greater or lesser extent, the interests of historical scholarship with more theological interests in using Romans for contemporary life. Thus, readers of Romans should always consult more than one secondary source when investigating this letter. Readers interested in the historical scholarship should be aware of the confessional or normative Christian orientation of much of the literature. An attempt is made in this article to locate specific orientations in some of the selected entries.
Thessalonians
Authors: Ascough Richard
Published: February 2012

The two letters written to the Christian group at the city of Thessalonica occupy the thirteenth and fourteenth places in the canon of the New Testament; they are eighth and ninth in the sequence of Paul’s letters. There is little doubt that Paul wrote 1 Thessalonians, and many scholars consider it to be one of his earliest letters. In contrast, the authenticity of 2 Thessalonians is much contested, with scholars split between ascribing it to Paul and ascribing it to a later writer using Paul’s name. On the other hand, the textual integrity of 2 Thessalonians is secure, while 1 Thessalonians is argued by some to be a combination of two or more letters, or at the very least, they suggest, it contains a nonauthentic interpolation at 2:13–16. The primary aim of 1 Thessalonians is to encourage Jesus’ believers to continue to progress in their faith, and Paul addresses some practical concerns to that effect: sexual morality, community relationships, and Jesus’ return. In 2 Thessalonians the emphasis lies on addressing fear and anxiety over the return of Jesus and some problematic behavior within the group.
Adam and Eve
Authors: Schearing Linda
Published: February 2012

The figures of Adam and Eve are ubiquitous in Western civilization. Their story is a story of origins. But stories of origins are never just about the past. Readers and listeners mine them for clues about life, human nature, and God. From gender roles to genetic engineering—all have fallen under the purview of Genesis 2–3. Oddly, neither the Hebrew Bible nor the New Testament gives much space to Adam and Eve. The Hebrew term for “man” occurs with the definite article in Genesis 2:7 and means “the earthling,” for out of the “earth” he was taken. It is not really until Genesis 5 that the term signifies a proper name: “Adam.” Moreover, the female character in Genesis 2–3 is simply called “woman” until Genesis 3:20 where she is named “Eve” by the man. Outside of the narratives found in Genesis 2:4b–3:25, the birth of their sons in Genesis 4, and the genealogy in Genesis 5:1–5, the Hebrew Bible barely mentions this first couple. Key passages in the New Testament that refer to Adam are Romans 5:12–21; 1 Corinthians 15:21–22, 45–49; and 1 Timothy 2:13–14. Key references to Eve can be found in 1 Corinthians 11:3 and 1 Timothy 2:11–15. Yet in spite of this lack of literary development in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, Adam and Eve’s story evoked a frenzy of interpretation. Over more than two thousand years and across three world religions, the “meaning” of their story has challenged readers, sparked debates among theologians, and inspired poets, writers, and artists.
Ethical Consequentialism
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: February 2012

Consequentialism ties moral evaluation to the value of consequences or outcomes. In contemporary moral philosophy, consequentialism is typically contrasted with deontology and virtue ethics. Different consequentialists offer different accounts of value, but all give a prominent place to the promotion of human well-being. Consequentialism can evaluate acts, rules, motives, or political institutions. This entry focuses on contemporary consequentialism, but also explores its roots in classical utilitarianism.
Phenomenology
Authors: Gallagher Shaun
Published: February 2012

Phenomenology is a philosophical tradition originating in the 20th century with the work of Edmund Husserl (b. 1859–d. 1938) and continued in authors such as Martin Heidegger (b. 1889–d. 1976), Jean-Paul Sartre (b. 1905–d. 1980), and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (b. 1908–d. 1961). It begins, in Husserl, with a descriptive analysis of consciousness proposed as the transcendental foundation for all other sciences. Husserl provides specific accounts of the central concepts of phenomenology, for example, intentionality, temporality, perception, and intersubjectivity. In later phenomenological philosophers this approach is extended to include more hermeneutical and existential issues, with emphasis on themes such as embodiment, being-in-the-world, and action. As a broad philosophical movement that includes developed views on topics from consciousness and intentionality to time, space, science, and art and that finds applications in multiple fields, including the behavioral, social, and cognitive sciences, medicine, and psychiatry, it is difficult to capture its full scope in a short and selective list of bibliographic starting points.
Theory of Reference
Authors: Geirsson Heimir
Published: February 2012

Reference and issues surrounding reference have played a large role in analytic philosophy. The basic question is simple: How do referring terms connect to the world? When I utter, “Mark Twain is the author of Huckleberry Finn,” then I manage to refer to Mark Twain, and when I utter “Water is wet,” then I refer to H2O. What is the underlying mechanism that is at work when the words pick out the object and the kind?
The Mapping and Spatial Analysis of Crime
Authors: Reid Shannon E. , Tita George , Valasik Matthew
Published: February 2012

The mapping and spatial analysis of crime covers a broad range of techniques and has been used to explore a variety of topics. In its most basic form, crime mapping is the use of Geographic Information System (GIS) to visualize and organize spatial data for more formal statistical analysis. Spatial analysis can be employed in both an exploratory and well as a more confirmatory manner with the primary purpose of identifying how certain community or ecological factors (such as population characteristics or the built environment) influence the spatial patterns of crime. Two topics of particular interest include examining for evidence of the diffusion of crime and in evaluating the effectiveness of geographically targeted crime reduction strategies. Crime mapping can also be used to visualize and analyze the movement or target selection patterns of criminals. Mapping software allows for the creation of electronic pin-maps and by spatially organizing the data, GIS increases the analytical value of these maps. Crime mapping allows researchers and practitioners to explore crime patterns, offender mobility, and serial offenses over time and space. Within the context of local policing, crime mapping provides the visualization of crime clusters by types of crimes, thereby validating the street knowledge of patrol officers. Crime mapping can be used for allocating resources (patrol, specialized enforcement) and also to inform how the concerns of local citizens are being addressed. The citations listed below highlight the interdisciplinary nature of both the study of crime and the development of the methods used in spatial analysis. They exemplify the growing prominence that spatial analysis has in understanding where crime occurs.
Italian Visitors
Authors: Fletcher Stella
Published: February 2012

It is impossible to know how many non-Italians paid visits to Italy between the fourteenth and the seventeenth century or how many Italians visited states beyond the peninsula during the same period. It is equally impossible to say that such travels must have been of a minimum or maximum duration to count as “visits.” The pilgrim was perhaps the archetypal visitor, and the greatest quantity of pilgrim traffic was generated by jubilees or holy years, which were celebrated in Rome in 1300, 1350, 1390, 1400, 1423, 1450, 1475, 1500, 1525, 1550, 1575, 1600, 1625, and 1650, but clerics, diplomats, scholars, artists, soldiers, and merchants also had cause to travel, to pay visits, and to record what they saw and whom they met. The most obvious change in the course of the period was the decline in pilgrim traffic as a consequence of the Reformation and the gradual emergence of what became known as the grand tour, but the schism also resulted in a changed international profile among the clerical communities of Rome’s national colleges and elite households. In this bibliography visitors to and from Italy are not divided by their motives for travel but in terms of their geographical origins and destinations. After considering reference resources (see Reference Resources) that can be used to research the lives and works of the relevant individuals, the bibliography traces an arc from Byzantium and beyond (see Byzantium and Beyond), through eastern Europe (see Eastern Europe), the German-speaking lands (see German-Speaking Lands), the Low Countries (see Low Countries), the British Isles (see British Isles), France (see France), and Iberia (see Iberia). In most cases, primary and secondary sources are considered together, but in the case of the British Isles (British Isles) and France (France) the sheer quantity of material means that the selection of works has been divided into primary sources and studies.
Women and the Visual Arts
Authors: Musacchio Jacqueline Marie
Published: February 2012

The relationship between women and art in the Renaissance and Reformation across Europe is still a relatively new area of study, and recent scholarship indicates considerable interest in all aspects of it. Women’s engagement with the arts might be categorized into three broad themes: women as artists, patrons, and subjects. This is perhaps the best way to look at this phenomenon, and a great many art historians, cultural historians, and other scholars have used these themes to structure their inquiries. Within these three themes, however, it is important to note that the women in question were almost always of the middle and upper classes, and they lived in urban settings; these were the women who, via familial wealth or, in some cases, their own resources, could afford encounters with art. Much of the scholarship on this topic has been biased toward cities on the Italian peninsula, where contextual research on economic, political, and social conditions provides a strong foundation across the chronological span. But new work on the Dutch Republic and Tudor and Stuart England, as well as occasional studies in other countries and eras, indicates that this burgeoning field will only become more popular in the near future.
Ludovico Ariosto
Authors: Looney Dennis
Published: February 2012

Ludovico Ariosto (b. 1474–d. 1533), whose work links 15th-century humanism with the vernacular classicism that burgeoned later in the 16th century, is a crucial figure in the development of Italian Renaissance literary culture. An accomplished Neo-Latin poet whose earliest letter is a request for books on Platonism from the Venetian publisher Aldus Manutius (1498), Ariosto used his considerable knowledge of classical Latin literature to forge a literary corpus that blends ancient literary models with medieval ones to create an impressive example of vernacular classicism. No less than his contemporary Michelangelo Buonarroti did for art, Ariosto took the literary revival of Antiquity to new heights. Accordingly, Ariosto can be seen as a forerunner of Miguel de Cervantes and other vernacular prose artists whose critical recapitulations of medieval chivalric fiction under the influence of classical works and classicizing authors like Ariosto eventually led to the birth of the novel. For modern readers who are accustomed to the conventions of modern fiction, at times Ariosto sounds strangely familiar, even postmodern.
Iconology and Iconography
Authors: Taylor Paul
Published: February 2012

The words “iconology” and “iconography” are often confused, and they have never been given definitions accepted by all iconographers and iconologists. Panofsky 1955 (cited under General Overviews) defines “iconography” as the study of subject matter in the visual arts and “iconology” as an attempt to analyze the significance of that subject matter within the culture that produced it. This definition was prescriptive rather than descriptive, and many art historians before Erwin Panofsky who would have called themselves “iconographers” were engaged in investigations that Panofsky would have termed “iconological.” Another source of semantic disagreement has arisen from the perceived overinterpretations of Panofsky and his school, which have led some art historians to reject the word “iconology.” It seems useful, nevertheless, to keep a distinction between iconography and iconology, since it draws attention to a fundamental distinction between the study of words and the study of images. While iconology corresponds to the historical criticism of texts in literary studies, iconography has no obvious counterpart outside histories of the visual. At the same time, in art historical practice iconography and iconology feed into each other, as the literature surveyed in this article shows.
Mary Ward
Authors: Mondelli Victoria
Published: February 2012

Mary Ward (b. 1585–d. 1645), founder of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary [IBVM], one of the first institutions created for the advanced education of women, was born to a family of recusant Catholics of gentry standing in Yorkshire, England, in 1585, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Endowed with an excellent education, Ward determined to advance the Catholic cause by developing schools on the Jesuit model that would make a classical education available to women—an ambition that could not be successfully pursued in Protestant England. In 1609, Ward gathered a group of young Catholic Englishwomen who accompanied her to Saint-Omer (modern France) where, in the vicinity of the Jesuit college already existing there, she founded the first house of her institute, complete with a boarding school for English girls and a day-school for local girls. This first foundation she expanded into a European network of schools headed by lay female teachers—the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The first foundations of the Institute were at Saint-Omer (modern France), Liège (Belgium), Cologne and Trier (Rhineland/Germany), Rome, Naples, and Perugia (Italy), Munich (Bavaria/Germany), Vienna (Austria), and Pressburg (Bratislava /Slovakia); eventually some three hundred were constituted, with some schools enrolling as many as five hundred students. Initially, Ward’s institute was encouraged by highly placed officials within the Catholic Church. From the 1620s, however, the institute aroused the suspicions and perhaps the jealousy of other prelates, whose hostility led to its formal suppression, in 1631, by Pope Urban VIII. The institute was denounced for its proposed Jesuit-like hierarchy, its mission to proselytize among heretics and the infidel, and its desire to be both a female religious order and remain unenclosed after the Council of Trent had demanded the full enclosure of women in religious orders. That decision was soon rescinded, and the institute and its offshoots were reaffirmed and its global extension encouraged. But the association of Ward herself with the IBVM was disallowed: in 1749, Pope Benedict XIV issued the decree Quamvis iusto, which prohibited the institute from acknowledging Mary Ward as its founder; in 1909, that ban was lifted. A century later, in 2009, Mary Ward was recognized as venerable by the Catholic Church on account of her “heroic virtue.” The cause for her canonization began in 1929 and remains active. This entry considers works about Ward’s life and mission and places her in the context of contemporary women’s reform movements, English recusancy, and the development of schooling for girls.
Lucrezia Tornabuoni
Authors: Milligan Gerry
Published: February 2012

In Florence, a city where there was no princely court to provide titles of authority to women and at a time when women were frequently kept from the public sphere of men, Lucrezia Tornabuoni (b. 1425–d. 1482) exercised an impressive influence over the politics and culture around her. Her parents were members of two of the oldest and most powerful Florentine families, the Tornabuoni and Guicciardini, and with her marriage to the eldest son of Cosimo de’ Medici, she was destined to become the prima donna of the city. Her family network would, in fact, serve as her source of influence: she was sister to the banker Giovanni Tornabuoni, wife of Piero de’ Medici, the de facto head of the Republic, mother of Lorenzo “the Magnificent,” and grandmother of future popes Leo X and Clement VII. Lucrezia would act as close advisor to her brother, husband, and children as well as overseeing the education of many of her grandchildren. Her influence extended beyond expected roles of domestic management, and in Tornabuoni’s case specifically, her activities would include that of landowner, business woman, patron, political emissary, and poet. She collected rents on properties owned in Pisa, remodeled and managed thermal baths at Bagno a Morbo, traveled to Rome to interview her son’s prospective bride, managed a dowry charity for poor girls, and ran the daily affairs of the Medici household while her husband was often ill. These experiences, all of which demonstrate remarkable intelligence and character, inform her poetic works. Her writings are almost exclusively religious in nature. She versified books of both the Old and New Testaments as well as composed several lauds that were set to music. In her more narrative works, she frequently tackles the difficult question of how to be a Christian woman in a world of commerce and war, not surprising for a woman who succeeded in performing piety as well as demonstrating sharp business acumen. Furthermore, she was beloved by her people, even in a time when Medici relations were often tense. When Lucrezia Tornabuoni died, her eulogist praised her for advising magistrates as well as the humble. He also praised that her political decisions had been more “prudent” than those of her son, the ruler of Florence, Lorenzo de’ Medici, and perhaps it is the words of her son Lorenzo that are most telling: after his mother’s death, he wrote the duchess of Ferrara to say that he had lost not just a mother but his only refuge and relief.
Constitutions
Authors: Edling Max
Published: February 2012

The age of Atlantic revolutions was also an age of constitution making. From Chile to Russia, from Norway to Malta, political reformers were everywhere busy writing new constitutions. An incomplete list includes more than six hundred constitutional propositions put forward by political reformers in the half century between 1775 and 1825. Yet it is only in the United States that constitutions have become an important field of historical investigation. As a result, the literature on constitutional history in the age of revolution is almost exclusively devoted to constitutional developments in the United States and the American colonies. Elsewhere, constitutional history is a dormant field. Robert Palmer placed constitutional developments at the center of his Age of Democratic Revolution, a work that was crucial to the evolution of Atlantic history, and there is no question that there was much exchange of constitutional documents around the Atlantic rim. Yet as a subfield of historical scholarship, Atlantic constitutional history can hardly be said to exist. One reason may be that the dividends from such investigations are difficult to determine. The adoption of a constitution says little about the evolution of constitutionalism, that is, the principle that legitimate political action is bounded by constitutional law. In most countries other than the United States, constitutionalism was established only long after the period that is conventionally covered by Atlantic history. Nevertheless, it is possible to perceive three fields of constitutional history that have a bearing on Atlantic history: Imperial history, the international history of the American founding, and the influence of U.S. constitutional principles abroad. This bibliography does not aim to furnish the means for comparative constitutional history; instead it provides an introduction to these three areas of inquiry and to the enormous literature on U.S. constitutional history.
Nation, Nationhood, and Nationalism
Authors: Bradburn Douglas
Published: February 2012

Nationalism reflects the desire of “nations” for a system of government that secures their interests and fundamental character. Nationalism has also come to mean an expression of identity that glorifies, or at least invokes, a deep and abiding connection between individuals of the “nation” that informs, complements, and often transcends other identities rooted in religious belief and affiliation, class imperatives, gender roles, and regional affinities. The real sticking point in much of the literature relates to how one defines a “nation” and how early “true” nationalism can be said to exist. Originally nations were assumed to be self-evident. Nations were a people sharing a common immutable ethnicity, which dated to the mists of time and could be seen by their shared language, history, bloodline, culture, character, habits, and manners. It was not necessary that these national peoples had an independent existence as a state, but there was a growing assumption that the nation was the people, the people were ultimately sovereign, and therefore nations should have their own state—a vision which had a certain efflorescence in the late 18th century in the Americas and Europe, a perspective that dominated the transformations of Europe after World War I, and an agenda that gave succor to numerous anti-imperial movements throughout the world in the 20th century. More recently, as the study of nationalism has exploded—it is a concept seriously studied by sociologists, anthropologists, political scientists, historians, philosophers, and critical theorists—most theorists of nationalism have argued for the manufactured and “modern” quality of all national identity, that nations are “constructed” and “imagined” out of a very diverse collection of polities and that nationalism is a fairly recent phenomenon that dates to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, although debate continues on this historical narrative. While nationalism remains a major concern of contemporary politics in the world, and thus spawns a massive scholarly literature, this bibliography will confine itself (with the exception of some major theoretical approaches) to studies of nationalism in the history of the Atlantic world before the mid-19th century.
Glorious Revolution
Authors: De Krey Gary S.
Published: February 2012

The Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 has long been a well-known historical landmark. The Whig interpretation of the revolution, which was epitomized in the work of the great Victorian historian Thomas B. Macaulay, was largely responsible for this familiarity. Macaulay and writers who followed him saw the revolution as a constitutional milestone. They maintained that Whig leaders committed to parliamentary government took the initiative in the Convention of 1689 (an irregular meeting of Parliament) in ousting a despotic and Catholic James II in favor of his Protestant son-in-law and daughter, William III (also stadtholder of the Netherlands) and Mary II. This largely bloodless revolution at Westminster, which promoted Parliament at the expense of the crown, also secured Protestantism by maintaining the privileged position of the established Anglican Church and by extending toleration to Protestant dissenters who preferred to remain outside the religious establishment. Moreover, according to the Whig view, the revolution protected property and personal rights from arbitrary taxation and royal interference. Whig interpreters also utilized the contractual thought of John Locke, whose Two Treatises of Government was published in 1689, to vest the revolution with a liberal ethos. By the third quarter of the twentieth century, however, this comfortable construction of the revolution was disintegrating. Marxists and some historians dismissed 1688–1689 as an inconsequential alteration in the monarchy. Specialists found fault with particular aspects of the Whig interpretation. Some scholars sought to rehabilitate James II, especially in light of his religious toleration. Other historians emphasized the ideological compromises involved in an event that owed as much to royalist Tories as to their Whig partisan opponents. Since its tercentenary in 1988–1989, however, the revolution has again been interpreted as a watershed in all three British kingdoms, and it has also increasingly been understood as an event with both a European and a global importance. William III led his new kingdoms into warfare against the France of Louis XIV, which transformed England into the preeminent imperial and commercial power of the eighteenth century. The English revolution was also accompanied by an easing of press regulations that encouraged both political publications of all kinds and partisanship. The Scottish and the Irish revolutions, neither of which was bloodless, also had momentous consequences, stimulating parliamentary assertiveness in both kingdoms, contributing to the union of Scotland with England in 1707, and marginalizing both Irish Catholics and Scottish Episcopalians. In the North American colonies the revolution helped confirm the position of colonial assemblies and reaffirmed Anglo-American anti-Catholicism. As the Glorious Revolution has acquired new dimensions as a British, European, Atlantic, and global event, some elements of the Whig interpretation have also retained a place in scholarly interpretation, albeit in more nuanced form.