bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A HYDRODYNAMICALLY EFFECTIVE HORIZONTAL OIL BOOM
Authors: Wilcox J. D.
Published: January 2013

Conventional vertical barrier booms are ineffective in currents in excess of approximately 0.7 knots when placed at right angles to the current. The PACE boom is a horizontal boom that is effective in medium to fast currents and has successfully been tested on the St. Lawrence River in currents of 2.5 knots.

It is a hydrodynamically effective horizontal oil boom that utilizes the natural forces of flowing water to contain spilled oil and/or direct it for recovery. A section of boom consists of two parallel flotation devices each 15 m in length and joined by a suspended segment of netting fastened to a fabric through which water passes but not oil. In operation, interconnected sections of boom are placed across the current in such a manner that surface oil flows under the first flotation device, up through the netting, and over the fabric where it is trapped against the second flotation device. A tangential flow produced between the floats carries the oil across the current to a recovery area.
ANALYSIS OF OIL SPILL ACCIDENTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS
Authors: Beyaert Bruce
Published: January 2013

Environmental impact statements (EISs) are often required under the National Environmental Policy Act or similar state laws for proposed activities such as petroleum exploration and production or for new oil transportation facilities such as marine terminals and pipelines. One of the critical concerns which must be properly addressed in an EIS for such activities or facilities is the risk of an accidental oil spill and the environmental impact which would result.

This paper describes a comprehensive approach to analysis of oil spill accidents in such EISs. It identifies sources of relevant data and technical information while also pointing out areas where knowledge is incomplete. Techniques are recommended for determining the probability and size of a spill, the fate of the oil, and the resulting environmental impacts. The paper is intended to serve as a useful guide for those preparing or reviewing EISs for proposed large projects which involve appreciable oil spill risks.
THE DESIGN AND DEMONSTRATION OF A REMOTELY-CONTROLLED HIGH-SEAS OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM
Authors: Neal R.W. , Bianchi R.A. , Johanson E.E.
Published: January 2013

The results of a program carried out by JBF Scientific Corporation for the American Petroleum Institute are presented. The object of the program was to demonstrate and test a spilled-oil recovery system under offshore conditions.

A unique feature of the system is a complete remote control capability. The operator may be located on board a much larger support vessel where the sea conditions do not reduce his effectiveness. By a hard-wire umbilical, he can remotely operate all systems of the skimmer including steering, propulsion, collection belt, and oil transfer pump. Collected oil may be pumped from the skimmer to the support vessel when the skimmer's capacity of 1,000 gallons has been exceeded.

The skimmer was designed and built in accordance with the Coast Guard's Tank Vessel Regulations. It is certified to handle Class flammable liquids.

The tests successfully demonstrated the recovery of oil in sea state 3 using a relatively small unmanned skimmer in remote control. Results of these tests, along with photographs and design information, are presented in the paper. Along with the paper, a documentary film of the test program will be presented at the conference.
OIL CONTAMINATED BEACH CLEANUP
Authors: Der James J. , Ghormley Edward L.
Published: January 2013

A review of representative oil spill incidents supplemented by personal and telephone interviews with persons involved in beach cleanup operations as on-scene coordinators or as cleanup operators has been made to evaluate methods suitable for future operations. The selection of procedure and equipment for beach cleanup was found to depend on the amount of oil, the characteristics of the oil as it hits the beach, and the type of beach contaminated. The slope of the beach, indicative of the material the beach is composed of, is related to appropriate methods and equipment that may be most effectively used to decontaminate the beach material. A scheme for classifying the type of beach contamination was devised. The most effective beach cleanup procedures and equipment have been identified and tabulated in terms of selected beach classifications. Recommendations for future work to remove deficiencies of existing techniques are included.
REVIEW OF U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY RESEARCH IN OIL-WATER SEPARATION TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Freestone Frank J. , Tabakin Richard B.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has sponsored two separate research contracts in the field of oil-water separation for the fiscal year 1974.

One project, with Pollution Abatement Research, Inc., of Dallas, Texas, concerns the development of a chemically assisted, back-washable coalescer with chemically assisted backwash solids scrubber. This device is designed for use on offshore oil production platforms, although it has a wide potential of applicability. Preliminary tests made with large-volume samples of produced water from an offshore oil production platform yielded very promising results with less than 10 ppm produced oil in the effluent water.

The second project, with the Ben Holt Company of Pasadena, California, is to develop a new concept of adsorption of oil-contaminated water onto a regenerable coked surface. The project is aimed at chemically stabilized emulsions and dissolved oils. A bench-scale device has been built, and testing has proven the feasibility of the concept.

The rationale for the development of each of these devices is presented along with detailed information concerning test results of each device.
ACCUMULATION, RELEASE, AND DISTRIBUTION OF BENZO[A]PYRENEC14 IN THE CLAM RANGIA CUNEATA
Authors: Neff Jerry M. , Anderson Jack W.
Published: January 2013

Groups of estuarine clams, Rangia cuneata, were exposed for 24 hours to synthetic seawater containing in solution 0.0305 ppm benzo[a] pyrene-C14. In two experimental exposures, average total concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (BAP) in the clam tissues were 7.2 ppm and 5.7 ppm, approximately 200 times above the ambient level. The majority of the radioactivity was localized in the viscera which contains the digestive system, gonads, and heart. The other tissues analyzed, the mantle, gills, adductor muscle, and foot, each contained 3–16% of the radioactivity. When returned to isotope-free seawater, the clams immediately began to release the accumulated BAP. After 30 days only 0.07 ppm BAP remained in the tissues. BAP could not be detected (limits of detection, 0.01 ppm) in clams maintained in isotope-free seawater for 58 days. During depuration, the distribution of radioactivity in the tissues remained relatively constant. The viscera contained most of the activity at all sampling times.
LONG-TERM CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF A PERSISTENT OIL SPILL FOLLOWING THE GROUNDING OF THE GENERAL M. C. MEIGS
Authors: Clark Robert C. , Finley John S. , Patten Benjamin G. , DeNike Edward E.
Published: January 2013

Petroleum hydrocarbon uptake patterns and observations of plant and animal populations of an intertidal community exposed continually since January 1972 to small quantities of a Navy Special Fuel Oil residue from the grounded unmanned troopship General M. C. Meigs were obtained by an interagency team of oceanographers, biologists, chemists, and engineers. Although the tar-ball-like character of the released oil served to limit its coverage, specific members of the intertidal community showed effects of the persistence of the spill. This report describes the long-term observations and analyses made since the grounding of the 622-foot military transport on a rich and productive intertidal regime.
EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTAL CRUDE OIL SPILLS ON TAIGA AND TUNDRA VEGETATION OF THE CANADIAN ARCTIC
Authors: Hutchinson T.C. , Freedman W.
Published: January 2013

Summer and winter crude oil spills have been made on tundra and taiga sites in arctic Canada. The short- and long-term effects of these spills have been recorded, to date, over a 3-year period. Spills were made by even surface spraying and by high intensity point spills. The vegetation present prior to such spills was carefully recorded. All surface spills had a devastating effect on above-ground vegetation. Species did, however, differ markedly in both their ability to survive an oil spill and their ability to recover. Many species, especially lichens, mosses, and liverworts, were killed outright. Some woody and dwarf shrubs were able to produce new, healthy shoots within a few weeks of initial defoliation. The reduced production of storage material, as a result of foliage (and photosynthetic) loss, caused markedly increased plant losses by winter-killing factors. Flowering and reproduction were severely reduced, even in the third summer following a spill. Winter spills had significantly less effect than summer spills. Permafrost was little affected, despite changes in the site energy budgets. Damage appeared greater in exposed taiga sites than on the tundra. Some species, such as black spruce, died throughout a 3-year period, emphasizing the necessity for long-term studies for accurate assessment.
CHEVRON MAIN PASS BLOCK 41 OIL SPILL: CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Authors: McAuliffe Clayton D. , Smalley Alfred E. , Groover Robert D. , Welsh W. Marvin , Pickle W. Stewart , Jones George E.
Published: January 2013

During a three-week period in 1970 an estimated 65,000 barrels of 34° API gravity crude oil were discharged from the Chevron Main Pass Block 41C Platform, 11 miles east of the Mississippi River Delta. Two thousand barrels of chemical dispersants were sprayed on the platform and surrounding water surface. It is estimated that between 25–30% of the oil evaporated during the first 24 hours, 10–20% was recovered from the water surface, less than 1% dissolved, and less than 1% of the oil was identified in sediments within a 5-mile radius of the platform. The remaining oil emulsified and dispersed to undetectable levels, biodegraded, or photooxidized. The highest measured concentrations in water at the platform and at 1 mile were: oil-in-water emulsion, 70 to 1 ppm; dissolved hydrocarbons, 0.2 to 0.001 ppm; dispersant 1–3 to unmeasurable (<0.2ppm). Total extractable organic matter was highest in sediments near the Mississippi River Delta and in the inland bays. Spilled oil, identified in bottom sediments by gas chromatography, showed rapid weathering after 1 week to 1 month and at the end of 1 year was reduced to a few percent of the amount after the spill. Spilled oil was not found in the sediment below 1.5 inches. Over 550 species of benthic organisms were identified in 233 benthic samples. The number of species and number of individuals of benthic organisms showed low values in some samples near the platform. However, seasonal variations, bottom sediment type, and possibly other environmental parameters made it impossible to determine whether these locations had been affected by the spilled oil. There was no correlation of number of species, number of individuals, or other biological parameters with the hydrocarbon content of the sediments for samples from within a 10-mile radius of the platform. This lack of correlation suggests lack of significant effect of oil on benthic organisms. Extensive trawl samples showed no alteration in the annual life cycle of commercially important shrimp. Blue crabs were observed throughout the area, and the number of species of fish collected were comparable to a prior survey.
TRAINING A CLEANUP RESPONSE TEAM
Authors: Tibbetts A.M.
Published: January 2013

The training of a spilled oil cleanup response team is not an enormous, out-of-control, expensive, or excessively time-consuming undertaking. It requires five steps which, if carefully worked out and agreed to by the parties involved, can be done in four to eight hours per man. It can be completed in approximately three months for a team numbering 300 persons (less time for a smaller team).

The major steps are:A printed organization chart of the response team showing all job titles and who relates to whom.A formal and detailed job description of each job.A series of 10–15 action objectives for each man assigned to each job to reach during his training session and after the training session on his own.A four-hour or two four-hour seminars for each job where all objectives are met and accomplished by every participant. Each participant should use all required training tools and techniques including projectors, pictures, models, chalkboard, actual cleanup equipment, radios, personal experience, etc.A call out and a practice session where all members of the team practice their skills in the field.
AN EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILL: THE DISTRIBUTION OF AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN THE WATER, SEDIMENT, AND ANIMAL TISSUES WITHIN A SHRIMP POND
Authors: Cox Bruce A. , Anderson Jack W. , Parker Jack C.
Published: January 2013

A common practice in the mariculture of shrimp on the Texas coast is the application of fuel oil on the surface of the pond. This thin oil layer serves to eliminate large aquatic insects which are predators of the small juvenile shrimp. Ordinarily, a common diesel fuel is used and it is removed from the pond after one day's treatment. In this experimental spill study, a high aromatic (38%) #2 fuel oil was utilized in higher quantity than normal and the residue was not removed. Mortalities of juvenile shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) and other invertebrates associated with the pond were recorded over a period of 96 hours following the oil treatment. A peak in the level of mortality occurred 48 hours after the spill, coinciding with the peak in the concentration of naphthalenes (naphthalene, methylnaphthalenes in the tissues of caged and free swimming organisms occurred at the point (48 hours) at which the concentration of these compounds was maximal in the water column. The concentration of naphthalenes in the sediment reached a peak approximately 12 days after the maximum peak in the tissues and water.

While the pond water and sediments studied contained measureable levels of naphthalenes, the shrimp and clams (Rangia cuneata) were shown to release a major portion of accumulated naphthalenes by day 96. Oysters and sediment measured at this same time interval showed levels between 3 and 6 parts per million (ppm) total naphthalenes. Shrimp, clams, and oysters taken to the laboratory 38 days after the spill released naphthalenes to background or near background levels. The data compiled in this study were compared to the findings of various field and laboratory investigations.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF RESOURCE SENSITIVITY MAPS FOR OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES
Authors: Hum Suling
Published: January 2013

In an environmental emergency, immediate resource location and sensitivity information is necessary to provide for optimal protection and for establishing priorities for the deployment of protective equipment and forces. To efficiently expedite resource protection and alerting procedures, land-foreshore status and access points must be available immediately to the decision makers. Regular channels of communictions are not dependable enough to ensure the availability of this information to them.

This paper discusses the development and use of resource sensitivity maps. The maps contain sufficient details of biological resources, current land and water uses, present access and land status, tide-current data and wind patterns to enhance initial decision-making until more detailed information systems are available and on line. The maps cover certain coastal areas of the Province of British Columbia (Canada) and were developed by the Environmental Protection Service (Pacific Region) of Environment Canada with much cooperation from numerous other agencies.
OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING FOR BIOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS
Authors: Lindstedt-Siva June
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response plans should be tailored to fit the environment in which they will be used. This involves examining physical processes so that the fate of spilled oil may be predicted, and identifying sites that are particularly vulnerable to oil spill damage, i.e., biologically sensitive areas. If these things are known about a region, spill response plans can be designed to prevent oil from entering these sensitive areas. As a consequence, environmental damage can be minimized when biological protection, as well as physical cleanup is made a primary goal in any spill response plan. Clean Seas, Inc., an oil spill cooperative in Santa Barbara is implementing such a spill response plan designed to protect identified biologically sensitive areas in the Santa Barbara Channel. Protection systems are adpated to fit each site, and the plan is practiced through regular drills. This type of planning decreases the number of decisions that must be made after a spill occurs; thereby reducing both the reaction time and environmental damage.
A BAD DAY AT BUNKER POINT
Authors: Marcus E.
Published: January 2013

The first phase of a four-part program by Gulf Trading and Transportation Company (GT&T) to improve existing oil spill policies and procedures was completed recently. This phase, known as the “Bad Day at Bunker Point” seminars, utilizes multimedia, role-playing exercises designed to sensitize key ship personnel and terminal managers to the problems and responsibilities of doing business in today's world. Other phases in the GT&T program include visits by the safety and environmental inspection team to all of the company's 60 major terminals to evaluate operational procedures and equipment and to recommend needed changes and updating. Later, the inspection team will make periodic, but unscheduled, spot-checks of these terminals to make sure previous recommendations have been carried out and to insure that contingency plans are changed as technology improves. The final element of the program is establishment of a “fast-response team” made up of representatives of marine operations, engineering, public relations, environmental, legal, insurance and personnel departments to assist terminal personnel in the event of a major oil spill.
HIATUSPORT—AN ON-SCENE COORDINATOR ROLE-PLAYING EXERCISE1
Authors: Kangeter Edward B.
Published: January 2013

“Hiatusport” is an exercise utilized by the U.S. Coast Guard as the culmination of training for on-scene coordinators (OSC) and staff. Emphasis is placed on management of information and resources to achieve response goals established for the federal government by the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. In addition to the primary task of spill cleanup, significant public relations problems involving the press, political figures, and private citizens interject the pressure-cooker atmosphere of the on-scene command post during a major spill. For the problem, students are divided into groups and assume roles such as OSC and public relations coordinator. After a briefing on the opening situation, the first group occupies the “command post” and begins playing the exercise. Each of the four one-hour segments has specific objectives (e.g., evaluate spiller's action to determine if a federal response is appropriate). At the conclusion of each segment, a critique is conducted using a predetermined list of discussion points. The “Hiatusport” technique provides definite insights adaptable for use in other training programs.
OIL SPILL LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION (“SUPERFUND”)
Authors: Reynolds James J.
Published: January 2013

The subjects under consideration are the liability imposed upon shippers, producers, refiners, and other handlers of oil, and the compensation monies available to persons damaged from oil spills. The liability and compensation system in existence today is one that provides little or no coverage in some instances, adequate coverage in some instances, and double coverage in still other instances. It has been correctly described as a “patchwork.”

In the past three years, concerted efforts have been made by industry, government, and environmentalists to legislate improvements to the system. An attempt to enact a comprehensive oil spill liability and compensation law made substantial progress in the last Congress. This paper reviews the system as it now exists, the problems caused by the existing system, the proposed legislative changes, and the status of the legislation today.
MONITORING OIL CONTENT IN SHIPBOARD WASTE WATER DISCHARGES BY USE OF A MULTI-PHASED DYE TRANSFER PROCESS
Authors: Ricci Roy J. , Kelley Anne M.
Published: January 2013

In order to meet the monitoring requirements to control the oil content in ship waste water discharges, the United States Navy has developed a new methodology for measuring oil in water over the range of 1-200 ppm. This new technique offers an instrument which is reliable, low-cost, small in physical size, and accurate even in the presence of solids, detergents, and other contaminants while relatively independent of the type of oil. A portable shipboard unit employing this technique has been designed and constructed and is currently under evaluation by the U.S. Navy. The multiphasic oil-in-water measurement process offers significant advantages in reliability and operational simplicity and points the way to hardware development in two classes: (1) a hand-portable, semi-automatic system for field or occasional shipboard use; and (2) a fully-automatic and continuous monitoring system capable of telemetering contamination information at preset alarm levels.
A LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHIC FLUORESCENCE TECHNIQUE FOR ESTIMATING CRUDE OIL IN WATER, SEDIMENT, AND BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
Authors: Miles D. Howard , Coign Mary Jane , Brown Lewis R.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents a method for the rapid detection of crude oil in the presence of large amounts of biological material. The method involves the use of high pressure liquid chromatography with chloroform as the solvent, an excitation wavelength of 403 nm, and an emission wavelength in the range of 418 nm. Of the five crude oils employed in this investigation, Saudi Arabian crude oil was the least responsive to the above technique and yet is still detectable in quantities of less than 1 µg.

Reproducibility studies indicated that the percent error of repetitive injections of Saudi Arabian crude oil samples was 1.3%. Repetitive injections of spiked shrimp samples gave a percent error of 3.7%. This is excellent reproducibility for residue-type samples which undergo a number of manipulations during workup. Thus, this method is selective, sensitive, reproducible, and affords a rapid analysis.
THE COAST GUARD'S FORENSIC OIL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Authors: Clow James C.
Published: January 2013

The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), as amended in 1972, tasks the Coast Guard with development of “procedures and techniques to be employed in identifying…. oil and hazardous substances….” In carrying out this portion of the service's environmental mandate, the Coast Guard Research and Development Center has developed first generation laboratory and field systems for the forensic identification and classification of oil spills. The laboratory system utilizes four independent analytical techniques (infrared and fluorescence spectroscopy, gas and thin-layer chromatography) to match spill samples with suspected sources, while the field system utilizes two analytical techniques (fluorescence spectroscopy and thin-layer chromatography). The field system is designed to give each Captain of the Port or Marine Safety Office the capability to rapidly identify the source of the majority of oil spills, or in more difficult cases to provide sufficient information to justify the collection of additional samples for more detailed analysis by the laboratory system.
ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE OIL SPILLS FROM TANKERS, OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT, AND ONSHORE PIPELINES
Authors: Beyer A. H. , Painter L. J.
Published: January 2013

This paper summarizes historical spill statistics and describes techniques and equations that can be used to predict possible future oil spillage from marine tankers, offshore petroleum development facilities, and cross-country pipelines. These techniques would be expected to provide worst-case estimates because they do not account for continuing improvements in technology, operating procedures and safety measures.

Information compiled from the literature on world-wide tanker casualty spills during 1969–972 indicates that such spills can be expected to occur within 50 miles of land an average of once in every 1,000 vessel port-calls or about once in every 50 vessel-years of operation. The average size of these casualty spills (within 50 miles of land) is 7,100 bbl and the average spill rate is about 87 bpmb (bbl per million bbl) transported.

Oil spill data from the U.S. Geological Survey are presented for outer continental shelf (OCS) petroleum development operations during 1966–1975. This information indicates an average spill rate from all causes (pipeline accidents, blowouts, fires, etc.) of about 72 bpmb produced.

Oil industry cross-country pipeline spill data for Western Europe (1968–1974) and Canada (1965–1972) show that 1.1 to 1.5 spills can be expected from all causes per year per 1,000 miles of pipeline. The mean spill rate (obtained for Western Europe only) was 3.6 bpmb of throughput.
HACKENSACK ESTUARY OIL SPILL: CUTTING OIL-SOAKED MARSH GRASS AS AN INNOVATIVE DAMAGE CONTROL TECHNIQUE
Authors: Mattson Chester P. , Vallarlo Nicholas C. , Smith Donald J. , Anisfield Susan , Potera George
Published: January 2013

On May 26, 1976, a two million gallon oil spill, originating at a riverside bank farm in Jersey City, New Jersey, struck the Hackensack River estuary. Booms failed and the oil moved upriver, coating shores, marshes, creek banks, bulkheads, marinas, and the Sawmill Creek Wildlife Management Area. On-going hydrology research in velocity and water distribution patterns provided for predictability of slick movement. Search for corrective measures and the advice of a network of scientists led to implementation of an innovative grass-cutting technology. Analysis from the current five month oerspective indicates the advisability of a quickly-implemented cutting operation where tidal flushing is poor, and the high potential for natural cleansing where oil has reached low-lying, well-washed marsh areas.
A DISTRIBUTED REUSABLE-SORBENT OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM
Authors: Shaw Sidney H. , Dorrler J. Stephen
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the design, fabrication and test of a prototype system for the recovery of spilled oil from the surface of river, estuarine and harbor waters. The system uses an open cell polyurethane foam, in the form of small cubes, to absorb the floating oil. The system is highly mobile and is capable of being transported in two pickup trucks.

The sorbent is distributed onto the oil slick by means of a pneumatic broadcaster. An inclined, open wire-mesh belt conveyor is used to remove the saturated sorbent from the water. The recovered oil and water are removed from the sorbent by squeezing in a converging belt press, or regenerator. After regeneration, the foam is reapplied to the oil slick. The foam is capable of being reused for more than 100 cycles.

Tests of the system, using both diesel fuel and lubricating oil, were conducted at the Environmental Protection Agency's OHMSETT test tank. The sweep speeds ranged up to five knots in both calm water and in waves. System throughput efficiencies ranged from 45% to nearly 100%. Oil collection rates of up to 2,300 gal/hour were achieved. The oil content of the recovered liquid varied from 38% to 79%.
DISCOVERY, CONTAINMENT AND RECOVERY OF A JET FUEL STORAGE TANK LEAK: A CASE HISTORY
Authors: Talts Andres , Bauer John , Martin Calvin , Reeves Douglas
Published: January 2013

In October 1975, product accountability suggested the loss of approximately 83,000 gallons of JP-4 from a newly cleaned 3.3 million gallon above ground storage tank at a U.S. government-owned fuel terminal. There was no visible evidence of a leak; however, a soil investigation confirmed the presence and extent of the fuel loss. Fuel was found within the porous ground at the water table 7-to-14 ft below the surface. Quick response permitted the use of a construction site well point system to contain the leak within the tank farm by drawdown and reversal of the water table gradient. Recovery of product was accomplished by diverting the pump discharge through the dike drainage system to the terminal oil/water separator. Approximately 21,000 gallons of fuel were recovered in a one month period. High system costs and declining flow and fuel recovery rates resulted in attempts to use different systems. A large diameter excavation and a new well point system failed to recover additional fuel; it was lost to evaporation or bound within the soil for bacterial degradation. It is recommended that spill plans for terminals in areas with porous soil should include provisions for containment and recovery of potential leaks and spills from within the ground.
A FIELD EVALUATION OF OIL SPILL RECOVERY DEVICES
Authors: Solsberg Laurence B.
Published: January 2013

During the past three years, the Research and Development Division of the Environmental Emergency Branch of Environment Canada has undertaken the field evaluation of 10 generic classes of commercially-available oil skimmers. Included in this program was the examination of three prototype machines developed in Canada. The field trials were designed to allow for the assessment of the skimmers in actual operating conditions in both summer and winter environments. In this regard, three petroleum types–bunker, crude and diesel oil—were used in testing the mechanical devices under study in the coastal harbours of Halifax, Vancouver and Victoria and in the St. Lawrence River at Quebec City.

Results indicate that for contained spills, a sorbent rope system, a hydro-adjustable weir and oleophilic disc skimmer exhibited relatively higher oil recovery rates. A sloping weir device with oil/water separation capability was determined to be effective in a current situation over a range of sea states. For an uncontained slick or situation which would otherwise require the use of a mobile skimmer, an inverted oleophilic endless belt appeared to be the most versatile device tested. Other skimmers tested were determined to be effective for the recovery of specific oil types in more narrowly-defined conditions.
ARCTIC OFFSHORE OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES WITH EMPHASIS ON AN OIL AND GAS BLOWOUT IN THE SOUTHERN BEAUFORT SEA1
Authors: Thornton D. E. , Ross S. L. , Logan W. J. , Ross C. W.
Published: January 2013

A summary is presented of a review of arctic offshore oilspill countermeasures which was prepared by Environment Canada as one of the 33 projects comprising the government/oil industry-funded Beaufort Sea Environmental Program, initiated in 1974 to assess the potential impact of exploratory drilling for oil from drillships in the southeastern Beaufort Sea in 1976. Preliminary findings also are included from a study utilizing ice-movement data to predict the fate of oil from an underwater oil and gas blowout in the Beaufort Sea ice transition zone between the stationary landfast ice and moving polar pack. From field work on ice porosity in 1976, it is surmised that most oil discharged under multi-year ice will likely migrate to the ice surface within one year during the summer and early fall months. An outline is given of arctic offshore oil spill countermeasures projects which have been initiated to develop efficient methods of combusting oil on ice; to evaluate the effectiveness, fate and effects of dispersants in cold sea water; to develop effective dispersant deployment methods in ice-infested waters; and to generate innovative ideas for containing oil from underwater blowouts.
HYDRODYNAMICS OF A DIVERSIONARY BOOM
Authors: McCracken W. E. , Freestone F. J.
Published: January 2013

The failure of booms to contain oil in currents above 0.5 meters per second (m/s) when deployed in a containment mode appears to be well established. A method suggested to surmount this limitation is to use the boom in a diversionary mode with the intent to move the oil into regions of low currents where containment and removal can be accomplished. Previous tests with booms deployed in a diversionary mode have shown that oil droplets are entrained in a flow under the booms at lower current than theory predicted. Failure of a boom to control oil was shown to occur over approximately one-third of the length of the boom, near the trailing end.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sponsored a test program at their Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) to study the near-field hydrodynamics of a diversionary boom. Three dimensional flow fields were first examined visually using dye and oil droplets with an underwater video system designed and built as part of the program. Turbulence intensity was measured with a single-axis, hot-film anemometry probe.
USE OF FLOATING DEFLECTORS FOR OIL SPILL CONTROL IN FAST FLOWING WATERS
Authors: Eryuzlu N. E. , Hausser R.
Published: January 2013

Although oil booms of various types now are available, it is well established that they are ineffective when the spill occurs in fast flowing waters. A system was developed to control an oil spill under such circumstances. The principle employed is to deflect the oil from where the spill takes place into a portion of the river where the currents are slower and the oil could be collected by conventional means. This is achieved by a system of floating deflectors comprising a series of hydrofoils mounted on a horizontal frame anchored to the shore. The interaction of the hydro dynamic forces on the hydrofoils creates an equilibrium state at which the system floats at an angle with the main current. At this equilibrium state the deflectors induce a controlled spiral circulation which deflects the surface currents and spilled oil in a selected direction. Experiments were conducted in a straight flume to study the characteristics of hydrofoils used as deflectors. The general location of the several oil refineries around Montreal-East was selected for testing the practical application of the proposed method on a model of the St. Lawrence River. Results show that in the majority of cases without deflectors only about 40% to 50% of the oil would go in the north arm of the river, whereas with the deflectors this can increase to about 90%. Presently, preparations are being made for a prototype testing program to be conducted near Montreal-East on the St. Lawrence River.
COMBINED SKIMMER-BARRIER HIGH SEAS OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM1
Authors: Milgram Jerome H. , Griffiths Richard A.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the development of an oil recovery system to be used in conjunction with the U.S. Coast Guard's high seas oil containment barriers. The system was tested at the EPA's OHMSETT facility in 1975. Its oil recovery capability was shown to be good, with promise for yet better recovery when used on a large spill. Operational practicality was demonstrated in sea trials during May 1976, when the barrier was string towed, catenary towed, and moored in a tidal current.

Because of the difficulty of handling large or complicated equipment in offshore conditions, a major design criterion was that the system be as simple as possible. Weir skimmers are particularly simple, but collection of more oil than water or air requires that the weirs follow the vertical motion of the waves. Simplicity and efficiency were achieved by utilizing the wave-following ability of the Coast Guard barrier design. Weirs were built into six struts at the center of a length of barrier, so that barrier deployment results in simultaneous skimmer deployment. To recover oil, it is only necessary to attach pump hoses to the barrier. Three double-acting diaphragm pumps are used. These self-priming pumps were specifically designed to pass any debris that can enter through the three-inch diameter suction hoses. Hydraulic drive was chosen so the pumps could be powered by the Coast Guard's ADAPTS diesel-engine-driven hydraulic power units.
THE CONCENTRATIONS OF OIL IN SEA WATER RESULTING FROM NATURAL AND CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISPERSION OF OIL SLICKS
Authors: Cormack D. , Nichols J.A.
Published: January 2013

Results are presented on the factors relating to the dissipation of oil spills at sea, including evaporation, emulsion formation, spreading, and natural dispersion into the water column.

For Ekofisk oil, 20% evaporates in about 7.5 hours and, while emulsion formation is as rapid as for Kuwait crude, the resulting viscosity is low and insufficient to allow interference with the natural spreading and dispersion rates. Spreading has two components. One is controlled by surface tension-viscous drag forces and the other is wind-induced. Together they contribute to the two dimensional dissipation of the oil so that subsequent oil concentrations in the sea are of necessity, low. These concentrations were measured for naturally dispersing and chemically dispersed slicks. The chemically-dispersed slicks were of two kinds. One was previously weathered for three hours, the other was of controlled thickness and was dispersed immediately upon being laid. Resulting concentrations of oil in the sea are low and of short duration compared with those required to give observable effects in laboratory toxicity studies.

No significant deleterious effects were found to result from the dispersion of oil slicks at sea using low toxicity dispersant chemicals; also it was noted that, in any case, substantial quantities of oil can be expected to enter the sea before oil recovery operations can be mounted.
SOME RECENT OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF SELF-MIX CHEMICAL DISPERSANTS
Authors: Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

There has been an increasing awareness of the utility of conventional chemical dispersants in general, and self-mix dispersants in particular as a viable means to minimize damage from oil spills. This paper will update the use of, and activity regarding the self-mix dispersant as noted in applications over the past two years. In addition, those aspects that are still little understood are discussed.

Specifically, uniformly sized, dispersed oil droplets of approximately 1 micron diameter are formed by the diffusion action of self-mix chemical dispersants. The droplet size influences the dilution rate of the spilled oil in field applications, and data to support this are presented. The results of laboratory bioassays performed with these much smaller dispersed oil droplets, as opposed to larger droplets formed with mechanical mixing, can be misinterpreted since the increased rate of dilution afforded by smaller droplet size is not replicated.

In addition to the vital dilution study results, this paper also presents evidence to clarify several popular misconceptions regarding chemical dispersants. For example, it is explained that the apparent synergistic effects between oil and dispersant do not indicate that chemical dispersants release toxic substances from the oil into the water. Data is also presented which shows that dispersants do not cause the oil to sink.
TECHNIQUES FOR MIXING DISPERSANT-TREATED OIL SLICKS INTO THE WATER
Authors: Smith Gary F. , McCracken W.E.
Published: January 2013

The effective use of dispersants requires the addition of mixing energy to the oil slick after the application of the dispersant chemicals. This U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sponsored project was conducted at their OHMSETT testing facility to test the relative effectiveness of four devices for adding mixing energy to an oil slick under varied conditions. The four devices were: a five-bar gate, two fire-hose streams, a modified five-bar gate, and a small outboard motorboat. Tow speeds, wave conditions, and oil/water interfacial tension were varied. Underwater photography was used to record the depth of penetration of the oil droplets caused by the mixing devices at each test condition.
CLEANING AGENTS FOR OILED WILDLIFE
Authors: Berkner Alice B. , Smith David C. , Williams Anne Stairs
Published: January 2013

Attempts to save oiled wildlife cannot be successful unless appropriate treatment is given. One of the more critical areas of rehabilitation is the selection and correct use of a suitable cleaning agent. The advantages and limitations of detergents and solvents are discussed with respect to the types of wildlife affected, the types of oil involved, and the available equipment and facilities. Seven commercial detergents out of 22 tested are ranked in order of their effectiveness in removing eight specific types of oil. Optimal concentrations and available toxicity data are also given. Solvents that have been successfully used are listed along with other solvents that appear promising on the basis of their composition and physical parameters. Further evaluations of cleaning agents and additional basic research are still needed.
NEW YORK HARBOR OIL DRIFT PREDICTION MODEL
Authors: Kollmeyer R. C. , Thompson Cadet M. E.
Published: January 2013

An operational predictive oil slick movement model is developed and applied to New York Harbor. This computer simulation employs hourly tidal currents for all stages of the tide as input data, combined with river flow and continuous wind data to predict oil slick movement. Slick spreading and transport is accomplished using a conservative form of the diffusion/advection equation. The shape of the slick as well as its possible separation into multiple slicks due to current divergence is predicted. Time steps on the order of three minutes and grid spacing of 200 meters allow short term, small scale slick position and shape predictions to facilitate quick response for location of sites for containment or cleanup activities. Hindcasting features allow for possible source location of the initial spill.
THE FATE OF PETROLEUM IN A SOIL ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Cresswell L. W.
Published: January 2013

Information generated from Conoco studies of waste oil biodegradation in the soil environment could have direct application in the clean up of residual oil left after an accidental spill. The studies, which included the tilling of oil into the upper 6-8 in of topsoil followed by addition of commercial fertilizer as nutrients, resulted in oil degradation of up to 56% after 41 months of exposure for initial oil concentrations in the soil of 4%-8%. Annual degradation rates of 7-16 gm oil/kg soil found in these studies for a soil environment compare favorably with those rates for biodegradation studies found in the literature using shake flask systems. No adverse environmental effects have resulted to date from the oil-in-soil biodegradation studies. The oil appears to stay bound tightly in the layer of soil where it was originally applied, and healthy appearing crops of wheat have been grown in the oily soil plots.
EFFECTS OF DRILL MUD ON SEDIMENT CLEARING RATES OF CERTAIN HERMATYPIC CORALS
Authors: Thompson Jack H. , Bright Thomas J.
Published: January 2013

The hermatypic corals Diploria strigosa, Montastrea annularis and Montastrea cavernosa were subjected to large uniform doses of four sediments; used whole drill mud, barite, aquagel and calcium carbonate (a sediment occurring naturally on coral reefs). The rates at which each species cleared itself of the sediment covers were measured in square millimeters per hour. No corals were able to remove the used whole drill mud, but all could rid themselves effectively of the other three sediments. Diploria strigosa exhibited a generally faster clearing rate than the other two species, but there was no difference in the rates at which any one species cleared itself of either barite, aquagel or calcium carbonate. It is suspected that the dramatic effect of used whole mud, which also caused mortality, was due to dissolved chemical components which we have yet to identify.
THE EFFECTS OF PELAGIC HYDROCARBONS ON THE ROCKY INTERTIDAL FLORA AND FAUNA OF BERMUDA
Authors: Maynard Nancy G. , Gebelein Conrad D. , Zsolnay Adam
Published: January 2013

Over the past decade, the islands of Bermuda have been exposed to an increasing influx of floating pelagic hydrocarbons (“tar balls”). Large quantities of the pelagic tar become stranded on the rocks in the intertidal zone. Tar coverage on the rocks is controlled by the slope of the shore, with the maximum amount accumulating on gently sloping or flat shores. The tar is deposited almost exclusively in the splash zone, and, therefore, the only animals directly affected by the attached tar are those who inhabit and/or feed in this zone. Chemical analyses show that the snails, Nodilittorina tuberculatus and Tectarius muricatus, which live in the splash zone, have the highest hydrocarbon content in body tissue of all animals analyzed. In contrast, all animals sampled from immediately adjacent tide pools contained no petrogenic hydrocarbons.

The most abundant life in the intertidal zone is concentrated below this splash zone area of tar accumulation. With few exceptions, the animals from this zone have demonstrated low or zero levels of petrogenic hydrocarbons in the body tissue. The presence of tar on the rocks does not appear to adversely affect reproductive potential, size frequency or abundance of the animals in this intertidal region below the splash zone. The microscopic and macroscopic algae produce very large amounts of biogenic hydrocarbon material. In addition, however, some algal samples from sites of heavy tar accumulation contained high levels of petrogenic hydrocarbons.
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF TWO EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILLS IN AN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
Authors: Bieri Rudolf H. , Stamoudis Vassilios C. , Cueman M. Kent
Published: January 2013

The fate of fresh and artificially weathered South Louisiana crude oil was investigated in large-scale experimental oil spills. The oil, originally introduced to the surface of a creek bounded by walls of transite (but open at subtidal level to allow communication with surrounding waters), was distributed by tidal action over a marsh of Spartina alterniflora. Samples of surface film, water, organic detritus, sediment, fish (Fundulus heteroclitus), oyster (Crassostrea Virginica), and clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) were collected over long periods and subjected to detailed chemical analysis by gas chromatography and computerized low resolution GC-MS techniques. Results are presented for water and Fundulus.

Maximum concentrations of individual aromatic compounds found in fish were similar for both oils. This maximum occurred six hours after the spill for weathered crude, and 76 hours after the spill for fresh crude for all aromatic compounds except naphthalene and the methylnaphthalenes. Uptake appeared to be non-specific. In all cases investigated, hydrocarbon concentrations in animal tissue reached a maximum and then decreased to levels below measurability (<10 ppb). In the interpretation of the data, a distinction is made between environmental residence times observed in natural systems and the biological residence times measured in laboratory experiments.
A CONTINUOUS FLOW BIOASSAY SYSTEM FOR THE EXPOSURE OF MARINE ORGANISMS TO OIL
Authors: Hyland Jeffrey L. , Rogerson Peter F. , Gardner George R.
Published: January 2013

A continuous flow-through bioassay system is described for exposing marine test organisms and their various life stages to oil. The apparatus consists of two principal stages—one for administering the water-accommodated fractions of oil (WAF) and the second for administering “whole” oil fractions (WF), including the soluble as well as nonsoluble fractions. The oil-contaminated effluent from the system first passes through a chamber to skim off separated oil and finally through a filter which lowers the oil concentration to below one part per million (1 ppm). Short-term lethal and chronic sublethal bioassays of several months duration were conducted in the system and are summarized briefly herein. Biological effects observed during bioassays have ranged from lethal toxicity at oil concentrations of approximately 10 parts per million (ppm) to sublethal behavioral modifications at approximately 10 parts per billion (ppb).