bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Elastic Modulus Determination of Transgenic Aspen Using a Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer in Static Bending Mode
Authors: Horvath Balazs , Peszlen Ilona , Peralta Perry , Horvath Laszlo , Kasal Bohumil , Li Laigeng
Published: October 2013

The applicability of a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA) in determining the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of 2.5-year-old transgenic aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) was investigated. Fifty sample trees with diameters ranging from 8 to 14 mm were harvested from the greenhouse. The trees were from one wild-type group and three transgenic groups. DMA was used in static bending mode to determine the MOE of samples soaked in two different plasticizers: water and ethylene glycol. In addition, dynamic MOE by a nondestructive method and static MOE by a micromechanical test were determined. Results showed that DMA measurements were accurate in showing significant differences between the genetic groups. Although notably higher MOE values were obtained for dynamic MOE and static MOE compared with the DMA measurements, the trend of elastic moduli change across the genetic groups was the same for all three methods.
An Assessment of the Impacts of a Domestic Phytosanitary Treatment Regulation for Wood Packaging Material Manufacturers
Authors: Hassler Curt C. , Grushecky Shawn , Slahor Jeffrey J. , Turk Philip
Published: October 2013

The results of a mail survey undertaken in mid-2008 to determine the response of wood packaging material (WPM) manufacturers to a universal treatment requirement, similar to ISPM 15 “Guidelines for Regulating Wood Packaging Material in International Trade,” are described. Reactions to a universal requirement were positive (nearly 60% in favor), with larger companies tending to be more positive. Less than 9 percent of respondents indicated they would cease WPM manufacturing. Impacts on pallet pricing were most prevalent at or in excess of $1.00 per unit, with nearly two-thirds of respondents indicating that their customers would accept the true cost of treatment. While only 36 percent would like to see the universal requirement implemented sooner rather than later, these companies were heavily involved in custom heat-treating services and are therefore anticipating the associated marketplace opportunities. The accompanying capital investment in new or additional heat-treating equipment would benefit equipment manufacturers. As the process to create and implement a universal treatment requirement in the United States evolves, policymakers should take into account the current state of the economy, and the WPM industry in particular, and how a change of this magnitude would impact the businesses comprising this industry sector.
Increased Yield in Sawmills by Applying Alternate Rotation and Lateral Positioning
Authors: Lundahl Carl G. , Grönlund Anders
Published: October 2013

Modern sawmills are increasingly like process industries, running continuously with very large volumes flowing through the process every second. This fact makes it vital for every company to utilize its equipment and raw material as effectively as possible to maximize yield and value. The objective of this simulated breakdown study was to analyze the potential to increase volume yield in Swedish sawmills. While the commonly used horns-down position performs well on an average basis, the results show that the optimal rotation position for an individual log is most often found at another position.

Results from extended simulations show that the average volume yield can be increased further by applying the optimal combination of rotation and parallel positioning in cant and deal saw. An increase in average volume yield by 4.5 percentage points (8.6%) would enable a typical Swedish sawmill to produce a further 17,300 m3 of boards per year and thereby increase potential annual income by US$3.7 million per year. This optimization concept requires a preevaluation of every log in order to define the optimal combination of settings.

Some of these procedures must be performed online within a split second to accommodate production speed demands. Modern technology such as industrial x-ray in combination with traceability methods, multivariate models, breakdown simulation software, and high-performance computers enables evaluation and optimization of every log online at full production speed. Sawing machines will need development in order to be able to perform optimization online without loss of production capacity.
Accelerated Drying of Plantation Grown Eucalyptus cloeziana and Eucalyptus pellita Sawn Timber
Authors: Redman Adam L. , McGavin Robert L.
Published: October 2013

The objective of this study was to gain an understanding for drying sawn timber produced from fast-grown, well-managed Queensland hardwood plantations using accelerated drying methods. Due to limited resources, this was a preliminary study and further work will be required to optimize schedules for industrial implementation. Three conventional kiln trials, including two for 38-mm-thick, 19-year-old plantation Gympie messmate (Eucalyptus cloeziana F. Muell.) and one for 25-mm-thick, 15-year-old plantation red mahogany (Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell.), and two vacuum kiln drying trials, one each for 38- and 25-mm-thick Gympie messmate, were conducted. Measurements of final cross-sectional moisture content, moisture content gradient, residual drying stress, and internal and surface checking were used to quantify dried quality. Drying schedules were chosen based on either existing published schedules or, in the case of the vacuum drying trials, existing schedules for species with similar wood density and dying degrade properties, or manipulated schedules based on the results of trials conducted during this study. The findings indicate that both species can be dried using conventional drying techniques with acceptable grade quality in approximately 75 percent of the drying time that industry is currently achieving when drying native forest timber of the same species. The vacuum drying time was 60 percent less than conventional drying for 38-mm-thick, 19-year-old Gympie messmate, although drying quality needs improving. The findings have shown that through careful schedule manipulation and adjustment, the grade quality can be optimized to suit the desired expectation. Additional research is required to further optimize the schedules to ensure acceptable grade qualities can be reliably achieved across all drying criteria and exploit opportunities to reduce drying times further.
Microwave Surface Modification of Pinus radiata Peeler Cores: Technical and Cost Analyses
Authors: Sugiyanto Krisdianto , Vinden Peter , Torgovnikov Grigory , Przewloka Simon
Published: October 2013

Radiata pine (Pinus radiata) peeler cores are classified as a by-product of plywood manufacture and have the potential for development as value-added solid wood products. This article outlines technical and cost analyses of microwave surface modification of radiata pine peeler cores along with the methodology, including measurements of temperature distribution and of preservative uptake and distribution following microwave heating. After microwave treatment, the highest temperatures are observed on the surfaces of the peeler cores. A gradual decrease in temperature is noted with depth within the timber. Chromated copper arsenate uptake after pressure impregnation ranges between 94 and 314 liters/m3. This uptake is three to nine times higher than that of control timber (no microwave treatment). Cost analyses focus on the microwave treatment of peeler cores and indicate that microwave modification costs range from US$0.95 to US$1.23 for one peeler core (i.e., US$29 to US$37 per m3), depending upon electricity charges and the number of working shifts employed.
Effect of Incorporating Chinese Poplar in Wood Chips on Fiber Refining
Authors: Hua Jun , Chen Guangwei , Shi Sheldon Q.
Published: October 2013

Poplar is a fast-growing, short-rotation species that has become a feedstock for pulping and for different composite wood products, such as fiberboard and particleboard. Because of the short rotation, unique characteristics, such as high content of juvenile wood, are present. The objective of this research was to investigate the effects that incorporating poplar in wood chips has on the resultant fiber quality and on fiber-refining energy consumption. Two different quantities of Chinese poplar (Populus lasiocarpa Oliv.) chips were separately mixed into wood chips consisting of a mixture of larch (Larix Mill.) and Masson pine (Pinus massoniana Lamb.). The mixed wood chips went through the refining process in a local medium-density fiberboard mill and refining parameters/conditions, energy consumption, and fiber size were examined at the production site. The results showed that the incorporation of poplar played a favorable role in terms of the fiber size and energy consumption. The higher the poplar content, the better the fiber quality and the lower the energy consumption during refining.
Kenaf Bast Fiber Bundle–Reinforced Unsaturated Polyester Composites. II: Water Resistance and Composite Mechanical Properties Improvement
Authors: Du Yicheng , Zhang Jilei , Wang Chuji , Lacy Thomas E. , Xue Yibin , Toghiani Hossein , Horstemeyer Mark F. , Pittman Charles U.
Published: October 2013

Water resistance properties of kenaf bast fiber bundle (KBFB)–reinforced composites with either unsaturated polyester (UPE) or vinyl ester (VE) matrices, developed in previous research, were studied. The effects of styrene content in UPE resin on the neat UPE resin tensile properties and molding pressure on composite flexural properties were evaluated. The effect of laser and plasma radiation on fiber-matrix interfacial shear strengths was studied. The composites exhibited high water uptake during short- and long-term water immersion. Encapsulation by surface coating and edge sealing improved composite water resistance. Statistical analyses indicated that molding pressures of 5 to 7 MPa were preferable to achieve the maximum composite mechanical properties, and 37.6 percent (wt/wt) styrene in the UPE resin gave the highest UPE matrix tensile properties in the studied range. Laser and plasma radiation of the KBFBs significantly improved fiber-matrix interfacial bonding.
Characterizing Variability of Commercial Oriented Strandboard: Bending Properties
Authors: Jin Juwan , Dai Chunping
Published: October 2013

To characterize the variation in bending modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR), two commercial oriented strandboard (OSB) products were selected. Master panels from multiopening, large hot presses were cut into standard panels of 1,220 by 2,440 mm, and then a total of 3,420 bending specimens were prepared in a continuous order and tested. The variations in bending properties were compared in terms of coefficient of variation (CV) and property differences both between and within master panels. The differences were evaluated by conducting analysis of variance and least significant difference tests. The correlation between MOE and MOR was also investigated. The results showed that the thicker OSB had less variation in bending properties than the thinner product. The variation of MOE (CV = 12% to 16%) was lower than that of MOR (CV = 20% to 22%). Although no significant differences were found in bending MOE and MOR between master panels, significant variations were noted in MOE and MOR within master panels. The differences in MOE and MOR between standard panels varied from 4 to 11 percent, and those along and across the forming line could vary from 8 to 17 percent and from 33 to 59 percent, respectively. The results suggest that product uniformity needs to be improved both along and across the forming line to lower production cost and improve product performance. The relationship between MOE and MOR was linear, with R2 around 0.7.
Evaluation of Shear Strength of Japanese Wood Species as a Function of Surface Roughness
Authors: Shida Satoshi , Hiziroglu Salim
Published: October 2013

The objective of this study was to evaluate shear strength characteristics of four commonly used Japanese species, namely, Japanese cedar-sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don), Japanese cypress-hinoki (Chamaecyparis obusta Endl.), false arborvitae-hiba (Thuobsis dolabrate Sieb. et Zucc.), and Japanese larch-karamatsu (Larix leptlepis Gordon), as function of their surface quality. Samples with radial and tangential grain orientations from each species were prepared using a planer and sanded with one of the sandpapers with 80-, 120-, and 240-grit size. A stylus type of equipment was employed to determine surface roughness of each sample before they were bonded in radial and tangential pairs using polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive at a spread rate of 260 g/m2. None of the samples showed any superiority from each other in terms of their surface quality based on three parameters: average roughness (Ra), mean peak-to-valley height (Rz), and maximum roughness (Rmax). Average roughness value of both tangential and radial surfaces of the samples sanded with 80-grit sandpaper resulted in significant differences from those of the control samples. The highest shear strength value was 96.1 kg/cm2 for the radial karamatsu samples sanded with 80-grit sandpaper followed by tangential hinoki samples with the value of 79.6 kg/cm2. In general, the samples finished with 80-grit sandpaper resulted in higher shear strength values than the others tested in this work. It appears that stylus-type equipment can be used to evaluate surface quality of such solid wood samples. Based on the results of this study, sanding of the samples with 80-grit sandpaper improved overall shear strength of the specimens by developing a better glue line between two pieces.
An Activity-Based Costing Method for Sawmilling
Authors: Korpunen Heikki , Mochan Shaun , Uusitalo Jori
Published: October 2013

The production cost of lumber is a key factor when determining the price of logs at a sawmill gate. Some of the production costs are also manageable elements in price setting. There is a lack of exact knowledge of how the costs really act when some factor of production varies. This study introduces an activity-based costing (ABC) method for a large-scale sawmill that produces approximately 200,000 m3 of sawn lumber annually. Production processes were identified and their cost structures were analyzed in detail. The identified processes were log receiving, unloading and log sorting, log debarking, sawing and edging, green sorting and stickering, drying, quality sorting, and packing and storing with shipping. Resources, activities, and cost drivers were defined for each process. Sensitivity and applicability of the costing model were analyzed with two case studies in a virtual sawmill. Results indicate that the sawing pattern is an important variable in the production cost formation: a 16 percent decrement in the volume of sawn lumber led to a 4.5 percent cost reduction with the same log distribution. The findings of this study support the ABC method being a useful tool in controlling cost at a sawmill and a cost structure of a sawmill having an effect on the logistic chain of timber procurement.
ROMI-3.1 Least-Cost Lumber Grade Mix Solver Using Open Source Statistical Software
Authors: Buck Rebecca A. , Buehlmann Urs , Thomas R. Edward
Published: October 2013

The least-cost lumber grade mix solution has been a topic of interest to both industry and academia for many years due to its potential to help wood processing operations reduce costs. A least-cost lumber grade mix solver is a rough mill decision support system that describes the lumber grade or grade mix needed to minimize raw material or total production cost (raw materials plus processing cost). Because raw material costs in typical rough mills comprise 40 to 70 percent of total rough mill manufacturing expenses, the least-cost lumber grade mix problem, as it is referred to, is important.

An existing second-order polynomial least-cost lumber grade mix model integrated into the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service's rough mill simulator, ROMI-3.0, which uses SAS 8.2 for statistical calculations, was used for the research described in this article. For this existing model, the USDA Forest Service purchased a SAS server license to allow free use of the software to least-cost lumber grade mix users via the Internet. Several issues around this rather involved setup necessitated the search for an alternative, local solution for the statistical computations. The open source statistical package R 2.7.2 was tested to see if it is an equivalent replacement for SAS 8.2. Comparisons of the SAS-based and a newly developed R-based least-cost lumber grade mix solver indicate no statistically significant difference between the two decision support systems. Therefore, the new R-based least-cost lumber grade mix solver was incorporated into ROMI-3.0. Thus, rough mill operators now have a new version of ROMI-3.0 with the integrated least-cost lumber grade mix solver at their disposal that does not require their computers to communicate with an outside server.
Various Factors and Propagation Trends of Stress Waves in Cross Sections of Euphrates Poplar
Authors: Liang Shanqing , Fu Feng , Lin Lanying , Hu Nana
Published: October 2013

Various factors and propagation trends of stress waves in cross sections of wood need study to improve accuracy in the quality evaluation of wood and decay detection in standing trees. In this study, a Fakopp Microsecond Timer was used to measure the stress wave transmission time of Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica Oliv.). Velocity was calculated to find the trend and make wavefront maps of stress waves. Results indicated that stress waves travel fastest in the radial direction and that velocity decreased as the angle between the two sensors increased. Velocity also increased as the number of annual rings increased. At the same time, the velocity in normal wood was higher than it was in tension wood, and it gradually increased in normal wood as the radial distance increased from pith to bark. Different influences on the stress wave propagation in wood were found when holes were made in the center of a cross section. Velocity showed little change with the increase in hole diameter when the angle between impacting and receiving sensors was 90°. At 180°, velocity was affected by hole diameter and rapidly decreased. Successful simulated wavefront maps of stress waves in cross sections of sound, hole, crack, and decay wood using two-dimensional contours were made. Three-dimensional maps were also reconstructed using Kriging interpolation and showed high similarity between cross sections.
Effect of Treatment Pressure on Treatment Quality and Bending Properties of Red Pine Lumber
Authors: Lebow Patricia , Lebow Stan , Nelson William
Published: October 2013

Although higher treatment pressures have the potential to improve preservative penetration, higher pressures may possibly result in greater reduction in mechanical properties. The present study evaluated the effect of treatment pressure on the treatment quality and mechanical properties of red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) lumber. End-matched sections of red pine lumber were treated with an ethanolamine copper preservative at pressures of 1,207 kPa (175 psi), 1,379 kPa (200 psi), or 1,551 kPa (225 psi). Preservative uptake and penetration were measured, and small clear specimens were subsequently cut from the specimens for evaluation of bending properties. The average percentage of sapwood penetration increased slightly with increasing pressure, and this difference was statistically significant between the 1,207-kPa (175-psi) and 1,551-kPa (225-psi) pressures. In comparison to untreated specimens, treatment at all pressures caused small reductions in modulus of rupture and work to maximum load. However, there were no significant differences in bending properties between the pressures evaluated, indicating that higher pressures can be used without additional sacrifice of wood properties. These treatments were conducted at ambient temperature, and the findings do not necessarily apply to treatments conducted at elevated temperatures.
Color and Dimensional Stability of Oil Heat-Treated Radiata Pinewood after Accelerated UV Weathering
Authors: Dubey Manoj Kumar , Pang Shusheng , Walker John
Published: October 2013

Pinus radiata specimens at a moisture content of 10 to 12 percent were heat treated at temperatures of 160°C, 180°C, and 210°C in commercial-grade raw linseed oil. The end-matched treated and untreated wood was exposed to an accelerated UV weathering environment for 2,100 hours using UV radiation and intermittent water spray. Changes in color and dimensional stability properties of the oil heat-treated wood were examined after (1) heat treatment and (2) accelerated UV weathering. The results show that the oil heat-treated wood turned darker and was more dimensionally stable. After oil heat treatment, the color of both the surfaces was uniform. Although color was darker on the surface than at the core, this contrast decreased with increasing treatment temperature. After the accelerated weathering test, the oil heat-treated wood retained its dimensional stability and color better than the untreated wood. No surface checks were observed in weathered treated wood, and volumetric swelling was also less compared with the untreated wood. Similarly, no color fading was observed in wood treated at 160°C and 180°C, while slight fading was noted for specimens treated at 210°C.
Optimizing Manufacturing Conditions for Durable Composite Panels with Eastern White Cedar and Aspen Strands
Authors: Yang Dian-Qing , Wang Xiang-Ming , Wan Hui
Published: October 2013

This study aimed to optimize manufacturing conditions when utilizing eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) to increase the durability of structural panels with aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) strands in terms of resistance to mold and decay. Panels of three layers using eastern white cedar strands in two face layers and aspen in a core layer were made under different species ratios, temperatures, and pressing conditions. The physical and mechanical properties as well as mold and decay resistances of the panels were tested according to standard methods. Panels with white cedar strands in surfaces and aspen strands in the core at a ratio of 25:50:25 and pressed at 240°C for 180 seconds had the best mechanical and physical properties. Aspen panels with white cedar strands in surfaces at a ratio of 15:70:15 had similar internal bond (IB) and thickness swelling values, lower water absorption (WA), and higher modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) compared with pure-aspen control panels. When the white cedar strand proportion in the two surface layers was increased from 15 to 25 percent, IB strength and WA of panels decreased, whereas MOR and MOE increased. Panels with white cedar strands in surfaces at a ratio of 15:70:15 had little infection from molds on the two surface layers but a moderate infection rate on all four sides. In terms of mold and decay resistance, panels made with 25 percent white cedar strands in surfaces performed better than those with 15 percent.
Effect of Strain Rate on Flexural Properties of Wood Plastic Composite Sheet Pile
Authors: Tamrakar Sandeep , Lopez-Anido Roberto A.
Published: October 2013

Wood plastic composite (WPC) materials are being developed for load-bearing structural applications; therefore, the strain rate-dependent mechanical properties of WPC materials need to be characterized. Extruded WPC Z-section sheet piles composed of 46 percent wood flour, 41 percent polypropylene, and additives were investigated. ASTM D6109 was adopted for assessing flexural properties of plastic lumber in a four-point loading configuration. Coupons were cut from the flanges of the sheet pile section and conditioned for 2 weeks at 21°C and 65 percent relative humidity. The flexural tests were conducted at three different strain rates: 0.55, 1.0, and 5.5 percent per minute. The mode of failure was in tension in the middle third of the bending span. It was found that the mean apparent modulus of elasticity (MOE) increased with the strain rate; e.g., the MOE increased 9.5 percent when the strain rate was increased from 1.0 to 5.5 percent per minute. The variations in mean strain at failure with the strain rate were not statistically significant based on analysis of variance testing. The variation in flexural MOE with the strain rate was compared with the published tensile and compressive MOE values for the same material. The effect of strain rate on the flexural MOE of the polypropylene WPC material was also correlated with the published results for WPC materials with other polymer matrices (high-density polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride). The strain rate effects in the MOE of the WPC material was predicted based on a viscoelastic standard solid model calibrated with the coupon level data.
Smoked Wood as an Alternative for Wood Protection against Termites
Authors: Hadi Yusuf Sudo , Nurhayati T. , Jasni J. , Yamamoto H. , Kamiya N.
Published: October 2013

Mindi wood (Melia azedarach) and sugi wood (Cryptomeria japonica) were smoked for 15 days using mangium wood (Acacia mangium), and for comparison purposes, wood preserved with 5 percent borax, polystyrened wood, and untreated control wood were prepared. All of the wood specimens were tested for resistance to (1) subterranean termites (Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren) in the laboratory, (2) dry wood termites (Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light) in the laboratory, and (3) subterranean termites in the field or via in-ground tests. The results showed that (1) mindi wood was more resistant than sugi wood to subterranean termite and dry wood termite attacks; (2) with regard to the Indonesian termite test standard, smoke treatment increased wood resistance to termite attacks, matching the highest resistance class of subterranean termites and dry wood termites; and (3) mindi wood offered equal resistance compared with polystyrened wood and wood preserved with borax, but in terms of the in-ground test, the smoke treatment did not affect wood resistance to termite attack, presumably because of leaching that occurred during the exposure test.
Checking of Profiled Southern Pine and Pacific Silver Fir Deck Boards
Authors: Evans Philip D. , Cullis Ian , Morris Paul I.
Published: October 2013

This study tests the hypothesis that the effectiveness of surface profiling at reducing the checking of deck boards exposed to weathering varies with wood species and profile type. Southern pine (Pinus sp.) and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) deck boards were machined to produce three different types of surface profiles: flat (control), ribbed (V-shaped grooves), and rippled (U-shaped grooves). Boards were exposed to accelerated weathering for 5 days, and the number and sizes of checks that developed in boards were quantified. Surface profiling reduced the total number and total width of checks in both Pacific silver fir and southern pine deck board specimens, but it had a greater effect at reducing checking in Pacific silver fir than in southern pine. The ribbed profile, in particular, was much more effective at reducing checking of Pacific silver fir than it was at reducing the checking of southern pine. Therefore, we conclude that the effectiveness of surface profiling at reducing checking of deck boards depends on wood species and the type of profile machined into wood surfaces. Checks developed in the grooves between the ribs of profiled boards and appeared to be constrained from becoming wider to a greater extent than becoming longer. Therefore, we conclude that the beneficial effect of profiling on the appearance of boards arises because checks are much narrower than those on flat boards and are located in the grooves, where they are difficult to see.
Long-Term Performance of Engineered Wood Flooring with Oriented Strand Board Substrate
Authors: Bouffard Jean-François , Blanchet Pierre , Barbuta Costel
Published: October 2013

Plywood is widely used as a substrate in engineered wood flooring (EWF) construction. While the Canadian EWF industry largely relies on Baltic birch plywood (BBP), the development of an alternative substrate is clearly desirable.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the long-term performance of EWF made with an oriented strand board (OSB) substrate designed to deliver a higher than normal internal bond. Three-layer OSB panels were made from a mixture of 90 percent aspen (Populus tremuloides) and 10 percent paper birch (Betula papyrifera). Three adhesive configurations were used in the manufacture of specialty OSB panels: 100 percent liquid phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin, a mixture of 60 percent liquid PF resin and 40 percent powder PF resin, and 100 percent polydiphenylmethane diisocyanate (pMDI) resin. The performance of these three specialty OSB products was studied. Five types of substrate were used in the manufacture of EWF: BBP, sheathing OSB, and the three specialty OSBs. A polyurethane adhesive was selected to bond the surface layers to the substrates. The result of this experimental study indicated no significant difference between the long-term performance of the OSB substrate made with pMDI resin and that of the BBP substrate.
Synthesis of Carbon-Encapsulated Metal Nanoparticles from Wood Char
Authors: Du Yicheng , Wang Chuji , Toghiani Hossein , Cai Zhiyong , Liu Xiaojian , Zhang Jilei , Yan Qiangu
Published: October 2013

Carbon-encapsulated metal nanoparticles were synthesized by thermal treatment of wood char, with or without transition metal ions pre-impregnated, at 900°C to 1,100°C. Nanoparticles with concentric multilayer shells were observed. The nanoparticles were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. The EDX spectrum showed that carbon was the dominant element in the shells. TEM and XRD analysis indicated that the generated carbon shells had structures similar to that of graphite with an average interplanar distance of 0.34 nm. The effects of temperature and pre-impregnation of metal ions on the yield of carbon-encapsulated metal nanoparticles were studied.
Investigations of the Molecular Interactions of Soy-Based Adhesives
Authors: Allen Anthony J. , Marcinko Joseph J. , Wagler Todd A. , Sosnowick A. Joseph
Published: October 2013

Formaldehyde-free wood adhesives based on combinations of soy flour and polyamidoamine-epichlorohydrin (PAE) resins are being used commercially. This combination has been shown to provide enhanced strength and water resistance compared with traditional soy-based adhesives. This study was undertaken to better understand the molecular interactions between a PAE resin and the various components of soy flour. PAE resins are cationic, water-soluble, thermosetting resins that contain high levels of azetidinium functionality. The main components of soy flour are protein (~50%), polysaccharides (15% to 25%), and soluble sugars (10% to 15%). Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (SSNMR) was used to study the molecular interactions occurring between soy flour components and a PAE resin. In these initial studies the efficiency of spin diffusion was observed and related to morphological differences between formulations comprising different ratios of PAE resin and soy flour. The thermal transitions of these adhesive formulations were explored using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
Branding in the North American Wood Fiber–Plastic Composite Industry
Authors: Stank Jonathan J. , Smith Paul M.
Published: October 2013

The North American wood fiber–plastic composite (WPC) industry has experienced significant growth since its inception in the early 1990s. Consumer demand for durable, low-maintenance, chemical-free outdoor building materials led to 23 WPC producers with 95 total brands of decking, railing, and fencing and a multitude of other WPC products in 2008. These products are differentiated on a myriad of product and service attributes and are defined by branded offerings in the North American marketplace. This study investigates the number of brands, brand name development, and brand strategy benefits in the North American WPC industry in 2008. Data were collected via secondary sources and semistructured interviews with WPC brand managers (response rate = 14 of 23 [61%], representing an estimated 88% of WPC industry sales). Findings indicate that WPC manufacturers utilize a wide array of internal and external resources when developing brand names and perceive branding as an important marketing tool. Product identification and differentiation were the highest rated benefits of a firm's brand strategy, and the proliferation of brand names is largely a result of the proliferation of manufacturers and their desire to differentiate product offerings. This research will help business-to-business marketers of wood-based building materials better understand the strategic considerations of branding differentiated products.
Development of Low-Density Wooden Molding Mat Using Bicomponent Fibers
Authors: Fukuta Satoshi , Nishizawa Miyoko , Ohta Yukinobu , Takasu Yasuo , Mori Tatsunori , Yamasaki Mariko , Sasaki Yasutoshi
Published: October 2013

We attempted to use wood shavings in their raw curled flake form as a base material in a mat to be used primarily as a heat-insulating/acoustic material in houses. The molding succeeded in producing a low-density (0.03 to 0.08 g/cm3) wooden molding mat with bicomponent fibers as the binding component. After evaluating self-support and form retention, the inclusion of kenaf bast fiber was found to improve formability. Self-support and form retention were found with a combination including 5 percent bicomponent fiber. For examining the molding process, a relatively simple method of using a dust collector with an air blower that is used in carpentry allowed spreading of various fibrous materials and homogeneous mixing of the ingredients. Thermoforming could be achieved over a short time by using a heat-through dryer.
Kenaf Bast Fiber Bundle–Reinforced Unsaturated Polyester Composites. IV: Effects of Fiber Loadings and Aspect Ratios on Composite Tensile Properties
Authors: Du Yicheng , Zhang Jilei , Yu Jaesang , Lacy Thomas E. , Xue Yibin , Toghiani Hossein , Horstemeyer Mark F. , Pittman Charles U.
Published: October 2013

Mechanically retted short kenaf bast fiber bundle (KBFB)–reinforced unsaturated polyester (UPE) composites were fabricated. The effects of fiber loadings and aspect ratios on composite tensile properties were evaluated experimentally and theoretically. Tensile properties of KBFBs and the neat cured UPE were determined, and kenaf-UPE shear bonding strengths were measured. These measured properties were used to predict the tensile properties of the short KBFB-reinforced UPE composites using classical models in micromechanics. Theoretical tensile moduli predicted by Halpin–Tsai, Mori–Tanaka, and Self-Consistent models were in good agreement with experimental results. Theoretical tensile strengths predicted by the Kelly–Tyson model correlated well with experimental results at high fiber aspect ratios. Both composite tensile moduli and strengths increased consistently with increasing fiber loadings up to 75 percent (vol/vol).
Effect of Density on the Properties of Oriented Strandboard Web Stock Used in Wood I-Joists
Authors: Grandmont Jean-Frédéric , Cloutier Alain , Gendron Guy , Desjardins Richard
Published: October 2013

Numerical simulation of structural member behavior requires knowledge of mechanical properties. This study proposes a methodology to obtain reliable mechanical properties of the oriented strandboard (OSB) web of I-joists, including variability. OSB panel samples were scanned by X-ray densitometry to measure in-plane density variation. Specimens were cut from predefined homogeneous density areas in three different orientations (parallel, perpendicular, and diagonal to the strong axis) to measure three basic elastic properties required for an elastic model of the OSB web of I-joists: modulus of elasticity (MOE) parallel and perpendicular to the panel's strong axis and shear modulus (G). Given the required small specimen size, shear modulus was determined using a combination of in-plane tensile MOEs, including MOE at 45°. Results showed a strong relationship between OSB density and small-scale mechanical properties: coefficients of determination (R2) varied between 0.57 and 0.79. This provided information on I-joist OSB web mechanical properties as a function of density for input into a numerical model. Properties showed considerable variability in the 600 to 900 kg/m3 density range, with a 207 percent increase in tensile modulus of elasticity in the parallel direction, 187 percent in the perpendicular direction, and 172 percent at 45°. The mechanics-based OSB shear modulus equation used proved to be reliable.
Co-Composting of Steam-Pressed Scrim Lumber Process Water
Authors: Mangum Lauren , Borazjani H. , Diehl S. V. , Prewitt M. L. , Seale R. D. , Sloan R. C.
Published: October 2013

Steam-pressed scrim lumber (SPSL) involves crushing small diameter trees into mats that are coated with adhesive and pressed into boards. Water from the crushing process contains a high biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total suspended solids (TSS). This water must be remediated before it can be discharged into public water systems. A 6-month study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of co-composting of the process water with wood waste and chicken manure as a method of remediation. Wood waste from the SPSL pilot facility in Shuqualak, Mississippi, was ground into small particles. This material was composted using four treatments: with or without added manure plus deionized (DI) water or process water to adjust moisture content. The compost end products for all treatments were evaluated for relative toxicity, weight loss, maturity, and suitability as a container substrate to grow plants. Additional testing determined the toxicity of compost leachate and evaluated the effects on germination rates of sensitive plant species. Co-composting successfully reduced the bulk and toxicity for all treatments. Treatments containing manure and process water showed over 90 percent emergence rate of sensitive seeds by Day 90. The manure amendments were comparable to the commercial greenhouse substrate in growth. Thus, a bio-based value-added medium that is nontoxic and suitable for potting mix was produced from SPCL wastes, remediating the process waste.
Changes in Thermal Energy with Moisture Content for Representative Wood Pellet Fuels in the Northeast
Authors: Rice Robert W.
Published: October 2013

Gross heating values for densified wood residues made in the northeastern United States are shown as a function of moisture content (MC). As expected, the trend is clear, and the fuel values decrease sharply as MC increases. What is also clear is that storage time and storage conditions are important considerations for those using pellet fuels as an energy source. Typically, large quantities of pellets are purchased and stored for months before use. Moist storage conditions or long storage times could substantially change the quantity of pellets required to heat a structure.
Effects of a Partial Hydrolysis on the Stiffness and Mass Loss of Three Southern Hardwoods
Authors: McConnell T. Eric , Shi Sheldon Q.
Published: October 2013

Red oak, sweetgum, and yellow-poplar lumber was machined into 3 by 15 by 150-mm (tangential by radial by longitudinal) miniature beams. Moisture content was determined from a subset for calculating the ovendry weight of test samples prior to treatment. Samples were weighed, water saturated, and subjected to a partial hydrolysis at 150°C for 30 minutes in 1 percent sulfuric acid, water, or 1 percent sodium hydroxide solutions. Untreated controls were also used. The beams were ovendried to a constant weight, and then the modulus of elasticity, density, and mass loss (ML) were determined. Modulus of elasticity values were corrected to eliminate density variation by calculating the specific modulus of elasticity (SM) for property comparisons. The species and treatments interacted to significantly affect SM. Sweetgum produced a lower SM in all treatments, and the water treatment consistently reduced SM. The species and treatment factors acted independently of one another with respect to ML. Sweetgum lost significantly more mass than the other species, likely because of corresponding reductions in holocellulose. An acid treatment produced the greatest ML.
Laminated Crossarms Made from Decommissioned Chromated Copper Arsenate–Treated Utility Pole Wood. Part II: Preservative Retention, Glue-Line Shear, and Delamination
Authors: Piao Cheng , Gibson Mark , Shupe Todd F. , Nipper W. Allen
Published: October 2013

Laminated utility pole crossarms constitute one of the potential industrial products that can be produced from decommissioned wood utility poles. A previous report evaluated the mechanical properties of laminated utility pole crossarms made from decommissioned chromated copper arsenate (CCA)–treated southern pine (Pinus spp.) utility pole wood, untreated virgin wood, and a mixture of virgin wood and decommissioned utility pole wood. In particular, the bending strength, stiffness, and acoustic properties were assessed after pentachlorophenol (penta) retreatment. This study evaluated CCA and penta retention, glue-line shear, and glue-line delamination of the laminated crossarms. The results of this study show that, after penta retreatment, penta retention increased in correlation to the presence of increasing numbers of treated wood plies in the beams. All the laminated crossarms met the minimum shear strength requirement of 8.60 MPa, which is specified in American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard D2559. Most of the laminated crossarms (22 of 24) showed a delamination average of less than 5 percent. However, none of the beams met the individual glue-line delamination requirement (1%) of ASTM Standard D2559. More glue-line delamination was found between two utility pole wood plies and between a utility pole wood ply and a virgin wood ply than between two virgin wood plies. Delamination could be a concern for utility pole wood laminated crossarms to be used in an adverse environment. A better gluing system is needed to improve the delamination performance of utility pole wood laminated beams for exterior applications.
Econometric Analysis of China's Plywood Market
Authors: Wan Minli , Toppinen Anne , Hänninen Riitta
Published: October 2013

China's primary wood-processing industry and wood-consuming sectors have experienced rapid growth in recent years. Plywood is the most important primary wood product in China in terms of consumption, production, and exports. One of China's most important export destinations is the United States, to which China exports not only plywood but also wood in the form of furniture. In this article, we analyze the development of China's plywood industry since the 1990s; provide an overview of the demand, supply, and exports of Chinese plywood; and present the results of econometric models. The Engle–Granger error-correction model was applied to an analysis of annual time-series data from 1993 to 2007. The results suggest that most of the growth in China's plywood demand was primarily driven by the growth in consumer income, while an increase in product price had only a small negative effect. In contrast, an increase in raw material price had a significant negative impact, but end-use sector activity had no significant effect on China's plywood supply. During the same period, the growth in China's plywood exports was due to consumer income growth in the US market. Knowledge of the elasticities and findings presented here can serve as a useful reference for foreign and domestic wood product companies that plan their investments, as well as government agencies and public authorities that plan economic and forest policies.
Improved Methods for Achieving Traceability of Tree and Log Identities in Timber Processing Studies
Authors: Blackburn David , Harwood Christopher , Innes Trevor , Williams Dean
Published: October 2013

We successfully tracked the identities of more than 550 selected 13-year-old trees from a Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) progeny trial through tree felling, harvesting of butt logs, and sawmill processing to finished sawn boards using a two-stage approach. To track log identity from the standing tree to the log yard, we used a numbered under-bark wooden identification plug, glued into a hole drilled in the trunk prior to harvesting. To track tree identity for individual sawn boards, log-end templates with corresponding tree identification numbers were glued to the log ends before milling. Materials and methods used withstood harvesting and debarking, log transportation, milling, air and kiln drying, steam reconditioning, and final machining. A second study confirmed the success of the under-bark plug method to successfully track 548 selected standing trees through harvesting and transportation to the mill.
Supply Chain Measures of Performance for Wood Products Manufacturing
Authors: Espinoza Omar , Bond Brian H. , Kline Earl
Published: October 2013

This article reports the results from a supply chain study in which a performance measurement system for a wood products value stream was developed. We build on findings from a previous study in which the need for supply chain metrics of performance was identified. A five-step method to develop performance measures is suggested as an improvement alternative. Examples of specific metrics for quality and time performance are provided. This approach facilitates collaboration between supply chain partners and provides information that allows a more efficient focus on improvement projects. Supply chain measures of performance are important for seeing beyond a single entity and aligning strategy in the supply chain. Companies that want to integrate their suppliers and customers in their improvement efforts can benefit from the information presented here, because a common set of performance measures is essential in evaluating progress toward a goal.
Learning through Service: Wood in Design and Engineering
Authors: McConnell T. Eric , Stuart William B. , Grace Laura A.
Published: October 2013

“Wood in Design and Engineering” is a new course at Mississippi State University that is specifically designed to demonstrate how the philosophies and functions of all three departments in the College of Forest Resources interact with regard to the resource, material, and utilization of wood and forest products, while making a tangible contribution to both the university and the community. The course brings together undergraduate and graduate students from all three departments and uses hands-on methods of teaching concepts and interrelationships, ideas often discussed but rarely encountered in the overall context of forestry, wood science, and wildlife biology. A recent group project was to design and construct a cutaway of a 19th century joiner shop and two display cases based upon variations of the trestle table to showcase antique woodworking tools for the “Treasures from the Vault” exhibition at Mississippi State. Personal projects included tables, bows, settles, desks, memorial crosses, and turkey calls, among others. The students gained a greater appreciation about forestry, forest products, markets, wood, woodworking, teamwork, safety, and themselves.