bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Meningkatkan Daya Guna Penelitian melalui Pembangunan Pusat Inovasi Bisnis di Perguruan Tinggi
Authors: Masyhuri Masyhuri
Published: September 2020

Sebaagai akibat dari kemajuan pembangunan, jumlah perguruan tinggi makin lama makin banyak, demikian pula jumlah mahasiswa makin lama makin besar, sehingga jumlah lulusannya makin besar pula.
Jadara University Students’ Attitudes towards the Use of Microsoft Teams in Learning English as a Foreign Language
Authors: Rababah Luqman
Published: September 2020

This qualitative study aimed at investigating students’ attitudes towards the use of Microsoft Teams in their learning. The study has adopted a qualitative research design to determine attitudes of EFL students towards the use of Microsoft Teams in leaning. Six EFL students were chosen and interviewed using a focus group interview. Three positive themes emerged from students’ responses namely, convenience, time efficiency, and shared learning resources. And two negative themes were noted as well including technical problems and difficulties in doing certain types of exercises. This study also recommends a comparative study between traditional and virtual learning and teaching.
El cuidador, el rechazo y la pérdida del trasplante renal en niños y adolescentes
Authors: Restrepo-Marulanda Luz Viviana , Salazar-Maya Ángela María
Published: September 2020

Objetivo: interpretar las categorías: cuidador; “el rechazo” y “la pérdida del trasplante”, del estudio Trayectoria del paciente pediátrico con trasplante renal, desde la perspectiva del cuidador. Materiales y métodos: investigación cualitativa exploratoria, descriptiva; se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a 14 cuidadoras.  Para el análisis se usaron las herramientas de la teoría fundamentada. por medio de la codificación abierta, axial y selectiva. Resultados: la mayoría de las cuidadoras familiares, fueron sus madres, mayores de 30 años, La categoría cuidador la conforman las subcategorías: conformación del grupo familiar y el reconociendo el cuidador. La categoría   El rechazo y la pérdida del trasplante, está conformada por las subcategorías presentando rechazo y buscando las causas del rechazo, manejando las complicaciones y los sentimientos que genera el rechazo.  Si bien es cierto que existen personas que intervienen en el cuidado, específicamente familiares, también lo es, que debe existir un cuidador que esté siempre a cargo del niño. Por esto, el cuidador es la persona que conoce todo el proceso, es el apoyo, el eje, de él depende todo, el que siempre debe estar ahí, así el niño crezca. El rechazo y la perdida de trasplante lo ven como una complicación del proceso y describen sus posibles causas, como las manejan y los sentimientos que genera. Conclusión. Gran parte del éxito del trasplante se le atribuye al cuidador, pues es quien cuida permanentemente del niño y quien guía los cuidados,  la condición de ser niños les otorga total dependencia del cuidador familiar.
Metodologías para el fortalecimiento de líneas en grupos de investigación académicos o empresariales
Authors: Rodríguez Rojas Yuber Liliana , Luque Clavijo Ana María , Castro Rojas Martha Lucía
Published: September 2020

Introducción. La disponibilidad de grandes volúmenes de datos ha hecho que la toma de decisiones, tanto académicas como empresariales, sea compleja, por lo que es necesario simplificar estos procesos para decidir efectivamente. Objetivo. Este artículo presenta los resultados de una investigación que buscó identificar las metodologías usadas para el fortalecimiento de líneas en centros o grupos de investigación académicos o empresariales. Materiales y métodos. Para ello, se efectuó una revisión sistemática exploratoria en Scopus, Ebsco, Science Direct y Scielo. Se encontraron 146 artículos de los cuales se incorporaron en el análisis 35. Resultados. Se detectaron tres tendencias en las metodologías a saber: 1) el enfoque cuantitativo muestra metodologías vinculadas hacia el uso de la bibliometría, la cienciometría y la minería de textos, 2) en el enfoque cualitativo se identificaron análisis documentales, de saberes o percepciones frente a la gestión de la innovación y el desarrollo, vistas desde la academia y desde el sector real y 3) en el enfoque mixto se identificaron estudios de perfiles del capital humano, sistema formal de Hilbert para una lógica proposicional clásica, simulación cualitativasociológica, revisión intermedia (métrica y pares), entrevistas y encuestas a empresas y técnica Delphi. Conclusión. Se concluye que el uso de enfoques cuantitativos, cualitativos o mixtos son pertinentes de acuerdo con el área de interés del centro o grupo de investigación; además, para los países desarrollados, este tema se encuentra aparentemente superado puesto que no se evidenció producción académica reciente al respecto, mientras que para los países en vías de desarrollo, existe un interés actual, en particular en lo relacionado con aspectos de inversión y su retorno.
El Capital humano y estructural a través de lógica difusa 2
Authors: Franco López Jorge Ariel , Uribe Andrea , Monsalve Juan C.
Published: September 2020

Introducción. La gestión del conocimiento como proceso innovador y clave para organizaciones inteligentes permitió llevar su aplicación a centros de investigación de educación superior, basados en el capital intelectual (CI), como eje fundamental en la creación de activos intangibles, haciendo uso del modelo Intellectus, el cual enfatiza como componentes del CI: el Capital Humano (CH), Estructural (CE) y Relacional (CR). Objetivo. Desarrollar una metodología en la medición del CH y CE para centros de investigación. Materiales y métodos. Haciendo uso de la técnica de lógica difusa 2 y el toolbox Matlab®, se generaron algoritmos para obtener una herramienta inteligente. Para su validación, el modelo se aplicó al grupo de investigaciones de Ciencias Administrativas del Instituto Tecnológico Metropolitano de Medellín. Mediante la técnica Delfi, seis expertos dictaminaron que las variables decisivas a evaluar son, del CH: valores y aptitudes, actitudes, y conocimiento; del CE organizativo: aprendizaje organizativo y del CE tecnológico: I+D. La información se obtuvo de la aplicación en 16 investigadores en un formato con 54 preguntas, medidas en escala de Likert. Resultados. Con lógica difusa 2 se logró una base de reglas que, junto al tipo de reducción Karnik-Mendel, permitieron la toma de decisiones sobre las variables, a través de la superficie de control. Conclusión. La combinación entre capacidades y esfuerzo, I+D aporta mayor valor. La relación actitudes con aprendizaje organizativo es significativa, aunque no prioritaria en la generación de valor y la generación de valor, entre las variables valores y aptitudes, con aprendizaje organizativo, no es significativa.
The Biographical approach of Duccio Demetrio
Authors: Siciliani José María , Barros Tao Hernando , Cuesta Rivas Joao
Published: September 2020

The article examines the narrative thinking of Duccio Demetrio, founder of the Libera università dell’autobiografia, based in Anghiari, Italy. The paradoxical nature of autobiographical writing is studied as a cure for oneself, highlighting the theoretical affiliations that this narrative exercise involves. Then pedagogical reasons arise for which, according to Duccio Demetrio, autobiography especially is convenient as a pedagogical way in adult education. So two essential aspects of the narrative proposal of this intellectual and Italian pedagogue are highlighted: epistemological and pedagogical.
La Verdad como criterio fundamental de reparación a las víctimas en la justicia transicional colombiana
Authors: Loaiza Alzate Yeni Alexandra
Published: September 2020

La verdad es considerada un elemento crucial en la reconciliación de las partes en conflicto, por lo que se describe como un acto de justicia en sí mismo. Pues la exposición pública y oficial de la verdad, facilita el perdón y olvido de las víctimas. Asimismo, la reparación a las víctimas abarca una amplia gama de mecanismos legales y políticos diseñados para subsanar las violaciones masivas a los derechos humanos durante un conflicto armado. Por ello es la verdad la que lleva a una reparación transformadora que incorpora dimensiones políticas, económicas y legales. La reconstrucción de este debate sobre la implementación de la justicia transicional en Colombia, a partir de la verdad, muestra que es un proceso dinámico y contradictorio que se inserta en un régimen que tradicionalmente se ha caracterizado por serias ambigüedades. Por tanto, no es fácil definir fácilmente el proceso de justicia transicional y sus resultados en materia de reparación en el país. No obstante, es importante señalar estas características y extraer las lecciones sobre este proceso.
Numerical solution for time period of simple pendulum with large angle
Authors: Abdulkareem Sarkew , Akgül Ali , Jalal Viyan , Faraj Bawar , Abdulla Omed
Published: September 2020

In this study, the numerical solution of the ordinary kind of differential equation for a simple pendulum with large-angle of oscillation was introduced to obtain the time period. The analytical solution is obtained in terms of elliptic functions, and numerical solution of the problem was achieved by using two numerical quadrature methods, namely, Simpson?s 3/8 and Boole?s method. The period of a simple pendulum with large angle is presented. A comparison has been carried out between the analytical solution and the numerical integration results. In the case of error analysis, absolute and relative errors of the problem have been presented. A numerical algorithm has been developed by MATLAB software 2013R and used for analyzing the result. It is established that the results of the comparison guaranty the ability and the accuracy of the present method.
Affine rotation surfaces of elliptic type in Affine 3-space
Authors: Es Hasan
Published: September 2020

In this paper, we classify affine rotation surfaces of elliptic type in affine 3-space satisfying some algebraic equations regarding the co-ordinate functions and the Laplacian operators in relation the first and the second affine fundamental forms of affine rotation surfaces of elliptic type. We also give explicit forms of these surfaces.
The Commenda
Authors: Harris Ron
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the characteristics of the commenda, its origins, and its migration. The commenda was much more than a simple profit-sharing contract. It was a complex cluster of contracts that was not likely to have been invented casually and endemically. The chapter provides a survey of the migration of the commenda, which creates the discrete bodies of literature that discuss the appearances of the commenda in various regions of Eurasia. It talks about how the commenda is not an employment or a loan contract as the payoffs are not determined ex ante but rather ex post. It is an equity investment. The traveler does not receive a predetermined wage or interest but rather a share in the profits.
Merchant Networks
Authors: Harris Ron
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides three microstudies on real-life examples of merchant networks in operation. The first microstudy is the Cairo-based Jewish merchants' network, whose records from the tenth through twelfth centuries were preserved in the Geniza and represents, in its India segments, a simple and thin network. Next is the Armenian network centered in New Julfa from the seventeenth through eighteenth centuries that represents the epitome of the merchant network in its most sophisticated, elaborated, and expanded form. Finally, the Sephardic Jewish network based in Livorno in the eighteenth century that exemplifies the marginalization of the network in the shadow of the corporation. The three microstudies provide a taste of some episodes in the rise and decline of merchant networks.
The Chaos of War
Authors: Teller Adam
Published: September 2020

This chapter details how the Polish nobility and the Jews fled from the Khmelnytsky uprising, which took many forms, depending on the circumstances. The uprising began in early 1648 with the fomenting of unrest in the Cossack heartland of Zaporizhia, particularly the region of the lower Dniepr River. The trouble soon spread to more northerly regions of left-bank Ukraine, causing panic among the Polish nobles settled there, who began to flee, calling for a military invasion to put an end to the unrest. This was not a very urbanized region, so formal Jewish communities were few and far between. Most of the Jews there lived as one- or two-family units in villages where they leased and ran taverns. As the violence began to take its toll, many of them decided to flee too, making for the larger and well-fortified towns to the west of the Dniepr River. The chapter then recounts the “ethnic cleansing” and religious violence the Jews faced.
Resolution
Authors: Teller Adam
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses how the Polish–Lithuanian Jewry found some way of dealing with the refugee issue. The best solutions seem to have been found on the local level. In individual communities, Jewish refugees were taken into private homes and the communal monopoly over economic activity in the town was also relaxed to allow them to work. Jewish women seem to have played important roles in refugee society, both during their flight and on their return home. When it came to reconstituting their and their families' lives in the wake of the uprising, the refugee women were active not only in their economic activity but also in bringing non-Jewish murderers to justice. Meanwhile, efforts to bring back converts were only partially successful: a royal order was obtained permitting Jews who had converted to Orthodox Christianity to return, but it did not help converts to Catholicism, and the policy of welcoming back returning converts, particularly women, was not universally adopted.
The Jews in the Land of Israel and the Spread of Sabbatheanism
Authors: Teller Adam
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains that alongside the pidyon shevuyim network, there existed another economic and religious system covering the entire Jewish world that was focused on the eastern Mediterranean. This was the philanthropic network dedicated to supporting Jewish settlement in the Land of Israel. Though its goals were different, it overlapped with the pidyon shevuyim network: most communities collected money for both causes, sometimes even combining them into a single fund. The two systems thus acted in parallel, always in tension, and sometimes even in competition with each other. To understand this phenomenon and its broad significance for the Jewish world in both philanthropic and religious terms, the chapter looks at the issue of raising money for the Jews in the early modern Land of Israel. It also considers the spread of Sabbatheanism.
Introduction
Authors: Teller Adam
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the Polish–Lithuanian Jews' flight westward after 1648. Three major issues underlie the discussion as a whole. First is the nature of Jewish solidarity in those years and the fate of the Jewish refugees outside Poland–Lithuania when the religious imperative to ransom captives was not a relevant issue. Second is the policies adopted by the states of the Holy Roman Empire toward the refugees and their impact on the refugees themselves as they tried to rebuild their lives on German lands. Third is the new social and cultural formations created by the encounter of “eastern” and “western” Ashkenazim in the wake of the refugee crisis and their consequences for the development of German Jewry in both the short and long term.
Starting New Lives
Authors: Teller Adam
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores how Jewish refugees dealt with the problems involved in starting their lives afresh in the Holy Roman Empire—a dynamic and creative process whose effects were felt well beyond their immediate circle. A key issue the refugees faced in the empire was their feelings of strangeness and sometimes even alienation. Many retained warm feelings toward their previous home, and the foreign environment in which they found themselves was hard to come to terms with. The refugees' feeling of strangeness was also a result of cultural and religious difference within Jewish society. Even when they did find a place to settle down in, the refugees did not always feel at home. However, there may have been deeper issues at work. There were those who ascribed their difficulties directly to their refugee experiences. The chapter then focuses on Jewish economic activity. Most refugees seem to have found themselves in one of two professions: trade, often just peddling, or some form of religious occupation, from the lowly jobs of teachers or slaughterers to highly prestigious rabbinical posts.
Conservatives vs. Managers
Authors: Delton Jennifer A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter highlights the fissures among and between corporate capitalists and conservatives in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s, businessmen and journalists alike regarded the National Association of Manufacturers' (NAM) ideological “backwardness” as a hindrance to business's interests and unrepresentative of the business community. Partly, this was about corporate liberals criticizing NAM to highlight their own enlightened and reasonable moderation. But mostly, this criticism was fairly earned by a group of “ultraconservatives,” whose control of the purse strings and ties to far-right groups like the John Birch Society were increasingly at odds with NAM's internationalism, professional goals, and membership quandaries—areas overseen by NAM staff. It would be wrong to call the NAM staff “liberal,” but its outlook was more pragmatic, more influenced by business and management schools, and less committed to “rugged individualism” than that of NAM's conservative leaders. The tensions created by ultraconservatives would lead to a restructuring of NAM that sidelined the “old guard” and gave NAM its first full-time paid president and a more pragmatic, issues-based approach to its work.
“Morally Wrecked” in British Burma, 1870s–1890s
Authors: Kim Diana S.
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on Burma in the 1870s. It traces a twenty-year process through which the British colonial state came to define a crisis of “moral wreckage” caused by opium and introduced an opium monopoly, while enacting an unprecedented ban on Burmese opium consumption in 1894. The chapter argues that the ideas and everyday work of on-site officials guided British Burma's reforms by constructing an official problem of “moral wreckage” that posited opium consumption as causing the ruin of 11 percent of the indigenous Burmese population. This specific narrative and number had a distinctive genealogy within the bureaucracy, which the chapter traces using a diverse range of records that capture the multilevel nature of paperwork that administrators generated across the colony's jail and prisons, as well as departments for excise, customs, public health, and finance relating to opium. It thus shows how these actors haphazardly produced a particular strand of colonial knowledge that claimed privileged authenticity based on direct observation and physical proximity that guided the introduction of the 1894 Burma Amendment to the 1878 All India Opium Act and the creation of opium consumer registries.
Introduction
Authors: El Shamsy Ahmed
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides a brief overview of the transformation of the Arabo-Islamic intellectual tradition that accompanied the adoption of printing in the Middle East. It brings to light the stories of the hitherto mostly invisible individuals who effected this transformation. Their motivations, goals, and approaches were diverse. All had to contend with the formidable challenges posed by centuries of cultural neglect of the classical literature: locating and obtaining manuscripts in the absence of catalogs, piecing together complete works out of scattered fragments, deciphering texts in spite of errors and damage, and understanding their meaning without recourse to adequate reference material. Their painstaking, frequently solitary, and often innovative efforts opened up the narrow postclassical manuscript tradition into a broad literature of printed, primarily classical works—the literature that today can be considered the essential canon of Islamic texts.
Postclassical Book Culture
Authors: El Shamsy Ahmed
Published: September 2020

This chapter concerns the postclassical book culture. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the continuing loss of manuscripts to Europe and the dire state of endowed libraries in the Arabic-speaking world meant that the full breadth of the Arabo-Islamic classical heritage was slipping progressively further out of reach of Muslim scholars. The weakening and dissolution of the traditional institutions dedicated to the systematic preservation of books left literary reproduction largely at the mercy of the market: copyists would reproduce books only if there was demand for them. But scholars in this period showed surprisingly little interest in older, classical works. The reason for this lack of interest lay in a scholarly culture that rested on the twin pillars of textual scholasticism and epistemological esotericism.
A New Generation of Book Lovers
Authors: El Shamsy Ahmed
Published: September 2020

This chapter traces the emergence of a new generation of scholars in Egypt. In the early years of its adoption, printing by and large reproduced the existing textual canon. But major societal changes were afoot, and soon the technology of print began to be used to publish very different kinds of works, works that had been forgotten and even almost lost. In Egypt, the agents of this wave of nontraditional book printing and editing represented a new class of intellectuals: elite bibliophiles and scholars who had at most one foot in the old scholarly tradition and the other in the structures and discourses of the rapidly modernizing Egyptian state. This new class of scribal intellectuals inaugurated a culture that valorized high-level Arabic, rare manuscripts, and philological accuracy.
Conclusion
Authors: El Shamsy Ahmed
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter tracks the developments in Arabo-Islamic print culture beginning in the mid-twentieth century. It remarks on some features of postclassical thought which were common enough to mark the era's scholarship in distinct and recognizable ways. It is likely that they contributed, together with the decline of educational institutions and libraries, to the decreasing availability of classical works in the Arabic-speaking world, which further constrained intellectual production by reducing the resources at scholars' disposal. In their righteous zeal, the reformists may well have exaggerated the intellectual weaknesses of their age, but the sincerity of the feeling of liberation and optimism with which they reached into the classical tradition for tonics for present maladies should not be doubted. From there, the chapter turns to more contemporary times and the major technological strides which herald a new renaissance for classical literature.
Inclusion and Exclusion in Hiring
Authors: Pedulla David S.
Published: September 2020

This chapter delves into the effects of each type of employment experience—part-time work, temporary agency employment, skills underutilization, and long-term unemployment. These are compared to full-time, standard employment on applicants' likelihood of receiving a callback for a job. As the chapter shows, the effects are largely contingent. First, they are contingent on the type of employment history. Each type of employment experience—part-time work versus temporary agency employment, for instance—does not result in the same treatment from hiring professionals. Second, the consequences of a particular employment experience are contingent on the race and gender of the worker. Indeed, it is difficult to isolate the effect of a given employment history from the way it is refracted through a worker's social group membership.
Eating Exotica
Authors: Bian He
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the marginal literati authors whose knowledge of exotica drew from both official sources and the marketplace. It shows how Qing China entered the nineteenth century with not one but many competing claims to knowledge that would trigger a new round of negotiation over pharmaceutical objecthood in the modern era. For someone residing in an urban center with ready access to the marketplace, exotic objects were not just something one might have heard of or read about, but tangible specimens to collect, examine, and (in many cases) ingest. This chapter thus follows one author’s journey through the Qing world of goods to shed light on new directions in the bencao tradition. To conclude, the chapter discusses the political significance of this vernacular sphere of knowledge and the double-edged meaning of curiosity.
Ascertaining Social Fact
Authors: Ghosh Arunabh
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the theoretical and ideological justification of socialist statistical work. It also provides an assessment of Soviet technical aid and introduces the Soviet statistical experts who were instrumental in helping organize statistical activity in the People's Republic of China (PRC). The chapter first uncovers and understands the socialist critique of statistics and, second, analyzes the role of the Soviet statistical experts who spent time in China and who were instrumental in the rise of socialist statistics to a position of epistemological and administrative dominance. It provides a discussion of the 1950s (or, more accurately, the years after 1945) as a period when the imperative to ascertain social fact took on added urgency throughout the world. There existed, however, competing approaches to ascertaining social fact. The chapter thus moves on to the rise of socialist statistics, in particular its rise in the Soviet Union (USSR), and contrasts it with other approaches to statistics. It then explores the Soviet experts who spent extended periods of time in the PRC, examining the variety of ways—teaching, translation of textbooks, and consultation—by which their expertise was mobilized by the Chinese as it sought to disseminate a correct understanding and implementation of socialist statistics.
Staging Friendship at the Barbed-Wire Fence
Authors: Urbansky Sören
Published: September 2020

This chapter deals with the late 1940s and the 1950s, a period that is generally perceived as a honeymoon between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, albeit one marred by the seeds of future conflict. Though the social and economic fallout of World War II was certainly felt in the borderlands, many things had changed for the better compared to the years leading up to 1945. There was no longer the threat of war to tyrannize the local population and transform the borderland areas into highly militarized zones. On the Soviet bank of the Argun, the siege mentality against enemies from within, the dull hatred of anything and anyone foreign, cultivated in the Soviet Far East and in other regions of the Soviet Union since in the 1930s, gradually withered. Under Nikita Khrushchev, who succeeded Stalin in power, people in the Soviet borderland no longer feared deportation, imprisonment, and other repressions dealt out by their own government as much.
Invisible Enemies across the Frozen River
Authors: Urbansky Sören
Published: September 2020

This chapter argues that the rift between Beijing and Moscow had a lasting influence on the situation along the border, with direct and indirect consequences for those living in the area. The two communist regimes, armed to the teeth, confronted one another on the border with even more weaponry and soldiers than had been assembled during the Japanese–Soviet arms race in the 1930s. Propaganda campaigns resuscitated old motifs of infiltration, sabotage, espionage, and disinformation, imbuing the border with new legitimacy as a space of enmity. The conflict was, of course, not just about winning or losing the hearts and minds of the people. Though no major war broke out, the war scare affected the security, economy, and demography in the border regions of Hulunbeir and Transbaikalia, and its concomitant outpouring of nationalism altered how the local populace in the divided Argun borderland perceived the border and its adjoining states.
Conclusion
Authors: Urbansky Sören
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter reveals that, despite a proliferation of cross-border human mobility in the post-Cold War era that largely stems from tourism and trade (and is not to be confused with immigration) there continues to be a considerable indifference and prejudice on both sides. Even today not every visitor and border resident commutes freely back and forth between the two Argun banks, as the Cossacks and nomads did one hundred years ago. Absent an economic interest and still suspicious about the alien neighbor, many people would simply rather stay at home. The psychological alienation on a personal level, regardless of the close physical proximity, derives from decades of military confrontation, population exchange, and two very different systems of values and beliefs formed in the schools and by the media of two closed but very distinct countries. These legacies will have a lasting impact on the future of the border region, no matter how diplomatic relations, bilateral trade balances, or border management policies between China and Russia develop in the years to come.
Introduction
Authors: Lingel Jessa
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter is a brief overview on craigslist and its impact on digital culture. Most people think of craigslist as a simple-looking site with a few basic functions, but in terms of the platform's value to digital culture, craigslist is both popular and multifaceted. Craigslist is the nineteenth most visited website in the United States, and hosts tens of thousands of exchanges every day. Craigslist is at once a marketplace, a job hub, and a message board. To cover the complexity of such a platform, this chapter also presents the book's approach to telling the story of craigslist: through a discussion of craigslist's historical and legal context, user accounts of everyday successes and failures, and by thinking about craigslist's design and policies.
From Sex Workers to Data Hacks
Authors: Lingel Jessa
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes two key strands of legal arguments that craigslist has repeatedly—and, for the most part, successfully—made: first, that websites cannot be held responsible for the behaviour or activities of its users, and second, that a platform's data should be protected from third parties, particularly tech companies looking to make new products. Craigslist's legal battles present a complicated picture of its politics. On the one hand, the company has shown a commitment to freedom of expression and user agency. On the other, craigslist has quashed experimentation and creativity when it comes to other parties trying to use its data, even for projects that do not compete commercially with the platform. These legal battles show what happens when craigslist's politics run up against legal complaints, exposing the platform's view of responsibility, or what it owes to its users.
Craigslist, the Secondary Market, and Politics of Value
Authors: Lingel Jessa
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on craigslist's role as a secondary marketplace for used goods, meaning a market that operates outside of formal businesses and vendors. Drawing on interviews with users, the chapter describes motivations for using craigslist to buy and sell used goods. These reasons range from community building and limiting waste to economizing and entrepreneurialism. Interviews also revealed different ideas of value that emerge in secondary markets, meaning both the monetary value that has to be decided on when there is no vendor acting as a middleman, and the social value attached to pre-owned goods. The chapter then looks at the “mash-up catalogs” of craigslist, meaning the digital accounts dedicated to archiving craigslist exchanges. Using over one hundred accounts from Tumblr, YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook, the chapter analyzes these efforts to document craigslist as an entry point for theorizing the social lives of craigslist's things. The politics of buying and selling incorporate a range of economic, environmental, and social motivations, with negotiations of value that can alternately re-create and critique mainstream markets.
Craigslist’s People Problems
Authors: Lingel Jessa
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the problems that are created and solved as people connect with, sell to, exploit, and protect one another on craigslist. It draws on interviews with craigslist users and a scrape of craigslist's help forum to analyze the ways that people negotiate violations of platform policies. For the most part craigslist transactions go smoothly, but moments of success and failure are important to understanding the politics of everyday online life. When things go right, it is because formal and tacit policies are in place, and because a steady stream of users are working anonymously and without pay to enforce rules and norms. When things go wrong, however, the chapter reveals the limits of policies around community moderation. Interviews and the craigslist help forum has provided a better understanding of how users connect through and negotiate craigslist's policies around community moderation and flagging. In particular, the chapter focuses on craigslist's commitment to user anonymity, which can alternately be seen as a tool for privacy or a threatening way of being online.
Religion as Spirituality
Authors: McNally Michael D.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the failure in the courts of Native appeals to religious freedom protections for sacred lands, and it extends the previous chapter's analysis of the reception of Native claims to religion as religion. Where a religious claim conforms to the subjective, interior spirituality that has become naturalized in the United States, it has worked reasonably well in the courts. This is emphatically not the case where claims involve religious relationships with, uses of, and obligations to, land. The chapter explains how courts reason their way out of taking steps to protect Native American religious freedom when sacred places are threatened, a puzzling matter in that courts consistently acknowledge the sincerity of the religious beliefs and practices associated with those sacred places. Along the way the chapter develops a fuller sense of the workings of the discourse of Native American spirituality as it comes to control judicial comprehension of Native religious freedom claims.
Religion as Peoplehood
Authors: McNally Michael D.
Published: September 2020

This chapter extends the discussion of “Religion as Peoplehood” beyond the very real limits of federal Indian law. It explores the possibilities and drawbacks of increasing appeals to Indigenous rights under international human rights law. The possibilities of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples are quite rich, as are its implementation apparatus for protecting Native religions under Indigenous rights. However, without having to define them as such, the approach is slow to grow domestic legal teeth in the United States. Its incremental development as authoritative law can, as this chapter shows, be strengthened by making clearer associations with U.S. religious freedom law.
Non-Academic Philosophia
Authors: Moore Christopher
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses non-academic uses of philosophia in the fourth century BCE, which provides the background against which one can understand Heraclides' use of the term. It shows how philosophia became a discipline in Plato's Academy only by understanding how the term philosophia was being used elsewhere. The key context comes from the educators Alcidamas, Isocrates, and the author of the Dissoi Logoi. The chapter shows that there is less reason to say that these educators competed over “ownership” of the term philosophos (even if at times they may have) or its true and universal meaning than that they gave varying retrospective reconstructions of the term's usage, differing, for example, in the relative emphases they give to practical teaching over the defensibility of research outcomes. To the extent that the academic view of philosophia “won,” this is not because that view was truer or more convincing, but because the Academy instigated a continued discipline that called itself philosophia more than Alcidamas or Isocrates did, neither of whom appear to have had success or interest in developing the sort of well-populated discipline crucial for maintaining a name.
Plato’s Saving of the Appearances
Authors: Moore Christopher
Published: September 2020

This chapter confronts the use of philosophia by Heraclides' teacher, Plato. It shows that across his dialogues, Plato treats philosophia as a term in common parlance, and thus that he is, in effect, saving the appearances (of Thucydides and Gorgias, among others) when he presents it as conversations that conduce to virtue and flourishing. The dialogues dramatize or narrate just those conversations. Plato does provide something new, but it is not a new “meaning” of philosophia. It is, rather, a new explanation for the possibility that philosophia-style conversations could actually conduce to their end, human happiness. The epistemological and metaphysical considerations mooted in the dialogues concerning knowledge and universals do not determine what philosophia is (namely, conversations) but how philosophia could actually work (namely, by getting clearer about what is really true). Given how unappealing philosophia has been made out to be, a proponent needs to vindicate this apparently lazy pursuit. The Academy, an institution devoted to this pursuit, needed a defense. Yet, in most of Plato's dialogues, philosophia still refers to person-to-person interactions, not to anything beyond those conversations; philosophia is not yet a discipline, a historically extended, increasingly distributed, and impersonal, concerted enterprise.
Introduction
Authors: Mitra Durba
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter traces the history of the concept of the sexually deviant female in colonial India. It first takes a look at how the figure of the prostitute appears across different archives from colonial India and within analyses of Indian social life. The chapter then shows how colonial studies on the nature of Indian society were to become the empirical basis for universalist theories of comparative societies. Indeed, the colonial state in India was, at its inception, an experiment in new forms of scientific and social scientific practices that were to influence state practices and the formation of disciplinary knowledge in the colony and metropole. At the heart of these sciences of society was a concern about structuring, tracing, and mapping the social world of colonial India through the assessment of women's sexuality. These histories reveal the way key debates about gender, caste, communal difference, and social hierarchy in India became objects of social scientific analysis through the description and evaluation of female sexuality. And, as the chapter shows, this social scientific imaginary had extraordinary reach.
Circularity
Authors: Mitra Durba
Published: September 2020

This chapter offer glimpses of how women appear in forensic medical descriptions as sexually deviant bodies—often disembodied, always empirically verifiable. It analyzes medico-legal accounts of abortion, descriptions that overlapped with the forensic assessment of rape, virginity testing, and infanticide. Different authorities, including coroners, medical doctors, policemen, state administrators, and social commentators, utilized a circular form of reasoning where anatomical description was united with a speculative sociology of Indian women's sexuality, and then read back onto the body to discern the meaning of the anatomical violence on the body. These case studies of the body utilized typological categories that link women's social status to their sexual behavior. Over the course of individual case studies, social typologies were read back onto parts of women's bodies to comprehend the meaning of physical evidence. This circularity appears in legal medicine as a natural form of reasoning: a logic that seamlessly united anatomical descriptions of sexualized bodies with the ethno-scientific assessment of social identity.
Hypothesis Testing
Authors: Stillwell John
Published: September 2020

This chapter prepares the reader's mind for reverse mathematics. As its name suggests, reverse mathematics seeks not theorems but the right axioms to prove theorems already known. Reverse mathematics began as a technical field of mathematical logic, but its main ideas have precedents in the ancient field of geometry and the early twentieth-century field of set theory. In geometry, the parallel axiom is the right axiom to prove many theorems of Euclidean geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem. Set theory offers a more modern example: base theory called ZF, a theorem that ZF cannot prove (the well-ordering theorem) and the “right axiom” for proving it—the axiom of choice. From these and similar examples one can guess at a base theory for analysis, and the “right axioms” for proving some of its well-known theorems.
Signal Recovery Beyond Linear Estimates
Authors: Stillwell John
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains why Σ‎0
1 formulas of Peano arithmetic (PA) capture all computably enumerable sets, as claimed by Alonzo Church's thesis from the previous chapter. This allows us to capture “computable analysis” in the language of PA, since computable sets and functions are definable in terms of computable enumerability. To justify the claim that Σ‎0
1 = “computably enumerable,” this chapter makes a thorough analysis of the concept of computation. It takes a precise, but intuitively natural, concept of computation and translates it into the language of PA. The chapter demonstrates that the translation is indeed Σ‎0
1, but with a slightly different (though equivalent) definition of Σ‎0
1.
Eisenstein Cohomology for GL and the Special Values of Rankin-Selberg L-Functions
Authors: Raghuram Anantharam , Harder Günter
Published: September 2020

This book studies the cohomology of locally symmetric spaces for GL(N) where the cohomology groups are with coefficients in a local system attached to a finite-dimensional algebraic representation of GL(N). The image of the global cohomology in the cohomology of the Borel–Serre boundary is called Eisenstein cohomology, since at a transcendental level the cohomology classes may be described in terms of Eisenstein series and induced representations. However, because the groups are sheaf-theoretically defined, one can control their rationality and even integrality properties. A celebrated theorem by Langlands describes the constant term of an Eisenstein series in terms of automorphic L-functions. A cohomological interpretation of this theorem in terms of maps in Eisenstein cohomology allows the authors to study the rationality properties of the special values of Rankin–Selberg L-functions for GL(n) × GL(m), where n + m = N. The book carries through the entire program with an eye toward generalizations. The book should be of interest to advanced graduate students and researchers interested in number theory, automorphic forms, representation theory, and the cohomology of arithmetic groups.
The Rise of Legal Coptic and the Byzantine State
Authors: Fournet Jean-Luc
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the rise of legal Coptic. The proliferation of legal and administrative documents in Coptic is not surprising after the Arab-Muslims severed the link between Egypt and the Greek-speaking Byzantine state. From then on, nothing prevented the more visible use of Coptic in society. The chapter also explores the legal acts in Coptic prior to the Arab Conquest. Rather than going over them one by one, it seeks to present this corpus according to several criteria, that is, their type, the transaction that they enact, their writer, and their provenance. The chapter then addresses whether it is possible that the ascendance of legal documentation in Coptic fits more generally within the context of the decline of Greek and more broadly of Hellenism.
Institutional Constraints and the Enforcement of Racialized Social Pressure
Authors: White Ismail K. , Laird Chryl N.
Published: September 2020

This chapter takes up black social institutions as central locations where in-group political norms are defined and propagated. It outlines a basic history of black social institutions, including how their creation was a direct response to the denial of access to white spaces. The importance of these institutions as sites for in-group political discourse and the enforcement of norms are noted. These institutions are places where blacks are reminded of group expectations. Using survey data, the chapter demonstrates the frequency with which blacks Americans interact within black institutions. The analysis shows that black institutions continue to be centers for daily engagement, reinforcing black social ties. The chapter then turns to another lab-in-the-field experiment to directly test the power of black institutions to facilitate racialized social constraint.
Han Feizi
Authors: Goldin Paul R.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines Han Feizi. This text was named after Han Fei, a prolific philosopher who was executed on trumped-up charges in 233 BC. Although Han Fei is probably responsible for the lion's share of the extant Han Feizi, this does not permit readers to identify the philosophy of Han Fei himself with the philosophy (or philosophies) advanced in the Han Feizi, as though these were necessarily the same thing. The case of Han Fei and the Han Feizi is more complex because Han Fei was slippery. What Han Fei said varied with his expected audience, a point that scholarship has not always accounted for. Most of his chapters are addressed to kings; at least one, “The Difficulties of Persuasion” (“Shuinan”), is addressed to ministers; and for many chapters one can only guess at the intended audience.
Just Hierarchy
Authors: Bell Daniel , Pei Wang
Published: September 2020

All complex and large-scale societies are organized along certain hierarchies, but the concept of hierarchy has become almost taboo in the modern world. This book contends that this stigma is a mistake. In fact, as the book shows, it is neither possible nor advisable to do away with social hierarchies. The book ask which forms of hierarchy are justified and how these can serve morally desirable goals. It looks at ways of promoting just forms of hierarchy while minimizing the influence of unjust ones, such as those based on race, sex, or caste. Which hierarchical relations are morally justified and why? The book argues that it depends on the nature of the social relation and context. Different hierarchical principles ought to govern different kinds of social relations: what justifies hierarchy among intimates is different from what justifies hierarchy among citizens, countries, humans and animals, and humans and intelligent machines. Morally justified hierarchies can and should govern different spheres of our social lives, though these will be very different from the unjust hierarchies that have governed us in the past. The book examines how hierarchical social relations can have a useful purpose, not only in personal domains but also in larger political realms.