bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dietary change and adolescent growth among the Bundi (Gende‐speaking) people of Papua New Guinea
Authors: Zemel Babette , Jenkins Carol
Published: June 2005

In the 1960's, the Bundi had a pattern of slow growth, delayed maturation, and small adult body size due to malnutrition. Since then, improved transportation, wage income, cash cropping, and migration have changed dietary patterns for the Bundi. The purpose of our study was to assess the effects of this general increase in protein and energy intakes on adolescent growth. The data were collected in 1984. Subscapular skinfold thicknesses among rural Bundi children measured in 1984 and 1967 confirm that nutritional status has improved, although current means for height and weight are still below the NCHS 5th percentile.

Rural Bundi measure in 1984 were compared to the 1967 data for differences in height and weight. For both sexes, there were increases in growth status and/or the tempo of growth in height and weight. Urban‐ rural comparisons further contrast the effects of improved nutrition. For males and females, significant differences between urban and rural groups are found mainly in the age range of the adolescent growth spurt. These findings suggest earlier maturation of urban adolescents.

Although interpretation of cross‐sectional growth data cannot be conclusive, these results suggest that the tempo of growth is the best indicator of nutritional status during adolescenc.
Seasonality and weight gain during the first year of life
Authors: Pollitt Ernesto , Arthur James
Published: June 2005

A comparison is made between weight increments at 0–3, 4–6, 7–9, and 10–12 months of life between infants born in the fall, winter, spring, and summer seasons in Sui Lin, Taiwan. The focus of the study is on (1) whether in a tropical region the effects of seasonality on weight gain interact with the developmental stage of the infant and (2) whether these interactions are partly regulated by the growth history of the infant. The main hypothesis is that the highest growth velocities will occur in the dry, cold months of the year (fall and winter) and the lowest velocities will occur in the hot, rainy months (spring and summer). The highest and lowest mean birth weights were recorded in the spring and summer seasons, respectively. Season had no effect on weight gain during 0–3 months; on the other hand, birth weight and length were significantly related to weight gain during this 0–3 month period. In the last two seasons of the first year, the highest weight increments occurred in the fall and the lowest occurred in the spring and summer. At the end of the 12 months of life there were no weight differences between cohorts.
Variation in body size and shape among South American Indians
Authors: Stinson Sara
Published: June 2005

Available information on mean adult male and female height, weight, sitting height, and relative sitting height for 62 groups is used to examine the relationship between anthropometric measurements and climate, geographical location, and linguistic affiliation among South American Indians. Results of correlation analysis indicate that height increases from the north to the south of the continent and is significantly negatively correlated with precipitation but is not significantly correlated with most measures of temperature. Only in females is weight significantly correlated with any of the location or climatic variables. Sitting height is correlated with both temperature and precipitation, while relative sitting height is more strongly correlated with temperature, and the direction of the correlation indicates that groups living in colder areas have relatively shorter legs. The interpretation of the correlations for sitting height and relative sitting height is complicated by the fact that the correlations of these measurements change when only the low‐altitude groups in the data set are considered. There are no significant differences in male height between linguistic stocks when the analysis is limited to those stocks represented by at least five groups. In general, there appears to be more patterning in body size and shape variation in South America than there is in terms of genetic variation. The correlations between anthropometric measurements and climate in South America differ in some ways from those observed for other areas of the world.
Effects of maternal drinking, smoking, size, and parity on parent‐offspring birth weight correlations
Authors: Little Ruth E.
Published: June 2005

Parent‐offspring birth weight correlations are presented by sex of parent and infant. They range from .14 to .16, except for the mother‐daughter correlation, which is .32. This pattern of parent‐offspring correlations varies when the parity of the infant, the size of the mother, and the mother's drinking and smoking status are considered. All parent‐offspring correlations are higher when the infant is parity 2 or more. The mother‐daughter correlations are significantly higher than mother‐son correlations when the mother is above average in usual weight, height, or pregnancy weight gain. When the mother smoked before conception, all birth weight correlations except mother‐daughter are essentially zero. The mother‐son correlation is also very small if the mother was a regular drinker, independent of her smoking status. The complex relationships in this sample demonstrate that interactions with environmental variables must be taken into account in studies of familial aggregation of human birth weight.
Isonymic analysis of post‐famine relationships in the Ards Peninsula, N.E. Ireland: Effects of geographical and politico‐religious boundaries
Authors: Smith M. T. , Williams W. R. , McHugh J. J. , Bittles A. H.
Published: June 2005

During and in the decades after the Irish Famine of 1846 to 1851, the population of the Ards Peninsula, Co. Down, both declined in numbers and changed in its composition. In 1863 the surnames of all resident householders were collected as part of a national valuation. These data have been used to calculate random isonymy values between civil parishes and the resultant matrix plotted by nonmetric multidimensional scaling. The results revealed both a major geographical barrier to gene flow, and politico‐religious boundaries in existence since the early 17th century. The inter‐relationships between random isonymy, geographical distance, and religious denominational frequencies within the peninsula were investigated by multiple regression analysis. While geographical influences predominated over short and long distances, in the intermediate distance range religion played the dominant role. The net effect of these subdivisions, in combination with famine‐associated population losses, would have been to reduce local effective population sizes significantly, thus enhancing the potential for genetic drift and random inbreeding.
A GAUSS program for computing an index of tracking from longitudinal observations
Authors: Schneiderman Emet D. , Kowalski Charles J. , Have Thomas R. Ten
Published: June 2005

Tracking can be defined as the tendency of individuals or collections of individuals to stay within a particular course of growth over time relative to other individuals. Thus, tracking describes stability in growth patterns. This paper outlines a statistical procedure for examining tracking in a single sample of measurements made on humans or other animals. This nonparametric procedure, based on Cohen's (1960) kappa statistic, is suitable for equally or unequally spaced serial data that is complete and is appropriate for questions concerning growth as well as other time‐dependent phenomena. It is a conceptually simple longitudinal method that affords insight regarding the predictability of growth within a population. For example, by tracking, one can ask if young children who are in the lowest height for age category are likely to end up in that category at an older age. A user‐friendly GAUSS program is provided that generates overall as well as individual and track‐specific statistics. High‐resolution graphic representations of the data are also generated by the program. Examples are presented, including a tracking analysis of Guatemalan Indian children using quartiles.
Maternal O2 transport and fetal growth in Colorado, Peru, and Tibet high‐altitude residents
Authors: Moore Lorna Grindlay
Published: June 2005

Human populations have lived at high altitudes for lengths of time which are likely to be shortest in Colorado, intermediate in Peru, and longest in Tibet. We hypothesized that the longest‐resident high‐altitude populations have beccome better adapted than shorter‐resident groups as a result of superior abilities to transport and/or utilize O2. Because birth weights are reduced at high altitude and decreased birth weight is associated with increased infant mortality, our criterion for assessing adaptation was preservation of birth weights close to values associated with the lowest mortality risk. Colorado (3,100 m) and Peru (4,300 m) birth weights averaged 3,186±70 g and 2,920±90 g respectively. A sample of 15 births from Tibet (3,658 m) weighed 3,307±110 g which was more than their altitude counterparts and close to sea‐level norms. Pregnancy increased maternal ventilation at all three study sites. In Peru, the resultant elevation in arterial O2 saturation offset the pregnancy‐induced fall in hemoglobin concentration to preserve arterial O2 content at nonpregnant levels. Arterial O2 content decreased slightly in Colorado and more markedly in Tibet in the pregnant compared to the nonpregnant state. The Colorado and Peru women with the greatest rise in ventilation and ventilatory sensitivity to hypoxia produced the heaviest birthweight infants, suggesting that maternal arterial oxygenation was an important determinant of fetal growth. The pregnant women in Tibet did not have higher levels of arterial O2 content than the pregnant Colorado or Peru women nor did maternal arterial O2 content relate to birth weight in Tibet. Infant birth weight in Tibet tended to be correlated with the ratio of uterine artery to common iliac artery mean flow velocity, suggesting that redistribution of lower‐extremity blood flow to favor the uterine circulation may have acted to augment uterine O2 delivery in the Tibet women. Thus, the limited data available suggested that the Tibetans may be better adapted as judged by less fetal growth retardation and may utilize maternal O2 transport mechanisms not reliant upon increased arterial O2 content.
Variation in hemoglobin concentration among samples of high‐altitude natives in the Andes and the Himalayas
Authors: Beall Cynthia M. , Brittenham Gary M. , Macuaga Francisco , Barragan Mario
Published: June 2005

This paper presents data on hemoglobin concentration in a rural Andean sample at 3,800–3,900 m and incorporates them into a review intended to evaluate possible sources of the range of variation in mean hemoglobin concentration among samples obtained at high altitude. Between 3,400 and 4,000 m, rural Himalayan highlanders average 1.4 gm/dl lower mean hemoglobin concentration than rural Andean highlanders. With respect to potential causes of anemia, it is concluded that the relatively low values of rural Himalyan populations are not explicable by lower hypoxic stress or different techniques of obtaining and analyzing blood samples and are probably not explicable by nutritional deficiency and disease. With respect to potential causes of polycythemia within Andean populations, it is concluded that the somewhat higher values of some mining and urban samples of Andean higlanders may not be due to the mining occupation per se but may be due partly to the inclusion of European and mestizo (with at most 500 years of high‐altitude ancestry) along with Amerindian highlanders (with millenia of high‐altitude ancestry) as well as to the inclusion of highlanders living well above their own habitual altitudes of residence. The Andean polycythemia is probably not due to obesity, high androgen levels, or frequent intermittent hypoxemia during sleep. The effect of heavy smoking cannot be evaluated. Further work on hematological adaptation to high altitude must pay special attention to sample characteristics.
Ethnic variation in the size of infant at birth
Authors: Schumacher Laurie B. , Pawson Ivan G. , Green James R. , Partridge J. Colin , Kretchmer Norman
Published: June 2005

The impact of ethnicity and other maternal factors (BMI, parity, glucose tolerance, gestational age) on the size of the infant at birth was investigated in a relatively low socioeconomic status, multi‐ethnic population at San Francisco General Hospital. A sample of 2,069 infants born to mothers of black, non‐Hispanic white, Hispanic, and Chinese descent and whose mothers had received prenatal care at San Francisco General Hospital were studied. Maternal size, pregnancy history, and blood glucose were determined prenatally at 26–28 weeks gestation. Anthropometry was performed on the infant within 72 hours of birth. Black and Chinese infants were the lightest in weight, while Hispanic infants were the heaviest. When correction was made for maternal factors black infants were shown to be significantly (P < .05) lighter in birth weight than non‐Hispanic white, Chinese, or Hispanic infants. Black infants were also significantly shorter in birth length and smaller in chest circumference. Chinese infants had significantly (P < .05) greater adiposity, as indicated by the sum of skinfold measurements, than both black and Hispanic infants. These findings are relevant to current practices in neonatal growth categories which are determined solely by birth weight and do not account for variations in body composition. Comparisons with a relatively higher socioeconomic status sample from Kaiser‐Permanente Hospital (Oakland) shows a similar prevalence of low birth weight among blacks. These results support other results that ethnicity is a major independent influence on the weight of the newborn.
Altitude and growth among the sherpas of the eastern Himalayas
Authors: Gupta Ranjan , Basu Amitabha
Published: June 2005

The results of the anthropometric survey of Sherpa children of both sexes (n = 478) from high‐ and low‐altitude areas in the eastern Himalayas are presented. The study reveals that growth is slower both more prolonged in the high‐altitude Sherpas compared with growth at low altitude and that Sherpa children are the smallest of all the high‐altitude populations considered here. Sexual dimorphism is not well defined during the earlier age periods. Our skinfold thickness data from the low‐altitude Sherpas corroborate the centripetal distribution of fat found elsewhere.
Adiposity and age of menarche in Hispanic women
Authors: Ness Roberta
Published: June 2005

Women with increased adiposity have been shown to have earlier menarche. However, the association between menarche and body fat distribution has been controversial. The present study examined relationships between several anthropometric data and age at menarche in 2,494 women aged 25 to 74 years from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Early menarche was similarly related to adiposity as measured by body mass index (BMI), skinfolds representative of central adiposity (subscapular and iliac), and skinfolds representative of peripheral adiposity (triceps and calf). These relationships persisted after controlling for a variety of influences such as socioeconomic status; they were consistent in all three ethnic groups studied, but were significant only in Puerto Rican women. Ratios of central/peripheral skinfold measures were not associated with menarche. These analyses describe the relationship between early maturation and overall adiposity in three distinct Hispanic groups and reject a specific association between menarche and central body fat distribution.
The reliability of recalled estimates of menarcheal age in a sample of older women
Authors: Madrigal Lorena
Published: June 2005

The accuracy of recalled age at first menses has been questioned, particularly if subjects are relatively old. This paper illustrates the use of a statistical technique that quantifies the reliability of recalled age at menarche based on re‐interview of a small (15–20) subsample of subjects. Menarcheal age collected with the retrospective method in a sample of 108 females, 50 years of age and older, from Limón, Costa Rica, is reliable.
Relationship between population density and rates of injury mortality in New York State (exclusive of New York City), 1978–1982
Authors: Relethford John H. , Mahoney Martin C.
Published: June 2005

The relationship between population density and rates of mortality from unintentional and intentional injuries is examined using mortality data from New York State (exclusive of New York City), 1978–1982. Records for 26,118 individuals with an underlying cause of death due to injury were assigned to population density quintiles based on residence of decedent at time of death. Mortality rates for each population density quintile were examined separately by sex and for 11 causes of injury death. Overall, injury mortality is highest in the most rural and most urban populations. For both sexes, there is an inverse relationship between mortality from motor vehicle incidents and population density, and a positive relationship between homicide and population density. Male mortality from unintentional poisoning deaths shows a positive relationship with population density. Male mortality from fires shows a U‐shaped relatinship with population density, with the highest mortality in the most rural and most urban populations. The relationships observed here between injury mortality and population density are most likely due to concomitant variation with aspects of the physical and cultural environments, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and individual risk behaviors.
Age at menarche and an analysis of secular trends in menarcheal age of South African urban and rural black females
Authors: Cameron N. , Kgamphe J. S. , Levin Z.
Published: June 2005

Age at menarche was estimated using status quo techniques on a sample of 230 rural South African females aged 11 to 17 years. Mean age of menarche was 14.03 years (SD = 1.25 years). Compared with contemporary rural and well‐off urban samples, these females experienced menarche 0.6 years earlier than did the rural sample and 0.8 years later than the well‐off urban group. Data from 11 previously reported studies of menarcheal age in urban and rural girls were analyzed with these data to determine the existence and magnitude of secular trends and whether rates differed between urban and rural environments. Regression analysis demonstrated a clear secular trend in both urban and rural females since 1943. Menarcheal age decreased at a rate of 0.34, 0.73, and 0.46 years per decade for rural, urban, and combined groups, respectively. The decline in menarcheal age over the last 40 years is thought to be due to improving socioeconomic conditions, but differences between urban and rural groups remain. Within rural groups there appears to be considerable variation in menarcheal age.
Somatic comparisons: Baiga and Gond males of Madhya Pradesh, India
Authors: Nath Surinder , French Karen E. , Spurgeon John H.
Published: June 2005

Data were collected during 1987 on 84 Baiga and 146 Gond males, ages 7 years to 18 years, living in rural regions of Madhya Pradesh State (India). Comparisons are made between Baiga and Gond males for 11 measures of body size, one measure of body form, and the body mass index (BMI). Somatic comparisons (standing height, body weight, and skelic index) were made at 5 ages with earlier samples of rural Indian males. Across all ages Gond males exceed their Baiga peers in standing height, sitting height, shoulder width, and body weight. Skelic index values (lower limb height expressed relative to sitting height) are similar for both ethnic groups through late childhood, but thereafter values are higher for Baiga males. Through age 15 years, Gond males exceed other rural Indian males from various tribes in standing height and body weight; lower limb height expressed relative to sitting height is highest for Baiga males.
Influence of chronic sublethal cyanide on body weight in neonatal swine: Implications for humans consuming cassava (Manihot esculenta)
Authors: Linda Fatimah , Jackson Collier
Published: June 2005

The consumption of CN−containing foods (particularly cassava) is pervasive among millions of humans throughout the tropics, yet very little is known about the long‐term implications of this dietary pattern on growth. In this study Liberian (West African) levels of dietary cyanide (CN−) intakes were replicated in juvenile swine for 24 weeks to quantify the effects of specified, chronic, sublethal doses of this metabolic poison on body weight. Twelve female and male littermates were partitioned into a control (Ø mg CN−) and 3 treatment groups (1.2, 0.7, or 0.4 mg CN−per kg body weight per day). CN−treatments depressed absolute weight gain in a dose‐dependent manner with significant differences apparent as early as week 12. Thyroid hormones T3and T4and fasting blood glucose values were evaluated at 6‐week intervals. T3levels were ostensibly suppressed and blood glucose values elevated with increasing CN−ingestion. Serum thiocyanate (SCN−), the major metabolite of sublethal CN−ingestion, was positively correlated with CN−intake loads (r = 0.83,P< 0.01). Hypothesized physiological foundations for these observations and theoretical implications for human growth are elaborated.
Malawi maternal and child nutrition study: Study design and anthropometric characteristics of children and adults
Authors: Pelletier David L. , Low Jan W. , Msukwa Louis A. H.
Published: June 2005

The Malawi Maternal and Child Nutrition (MMCN) Study is a three‐year longitudinal investigation of some of the determinants and consequences of protein‐energy malnutrition in a rural African population. This paper describes the anthropometric characteristics of children and adults based on the baseline census conducted in the 89 villages included in the MMCN Study. Mean length‐for‐age of Malawian children (birth‐60 months) is very low (Z‐score = −2.21) and, unlike most other populations, continues to decline with advancing age. Weight‐for‐length is more nearly normal (mean Z‐score = −0.21) but shows the same age‐related decline between birth and 18 months (and subsequent return to normal levels) as that seen in many other developing countries. This age pattern is also reflected in upper arm anthropometry, notably estimated arm fat area. Length‐for‐age and weight‐for‐age of children is associated with birthweight in the 40% of children having health cards, but body composition indicators do not show the same consistent association with birthweight at all ages. Adult men and women have very low skinfold thicknesses relative to U.S. blacks (50–60% of U.S. medians at the triceps and subscapular sites). Estimated upper arm cross‐sectional muscle (plus bone) area for Malawian men averages 74% of U.S. white values, while that for women averages 100% of U.S. white values.
Sex differentials in unintentional injury mortality in relation to age at death
Authors: Relethford John H.
Published: June 2005

Sex differentials in unintentional injury mortality were examined using death records for New York State residents that died as the result of an unintentional injury between the years 1984 and 1988 (n = 22,547). Male/female ratios were computed for nine age groups and for the four leading causes of unintentional injury death: motor vehicle incidents, falls, fire, and drowning. Male mortality is significantly higher than female mortality for all causes (P < 0.05). The age‐specific pattern of mortality varies among the four causes of death examined, but the age‐specific pattern of male/female mortality ratios is consistent among all four causes. All four leading causes of unintentional injury death show a peak in relative male risk in young adulthood (usually between 15 and 24 years of age). This common peak may reflect increased risk associated behaviors of young males, including alcohol. Two causes of death, motor vehicle incidents and fire, show a second peak in relative male risk among the elderly (75+ years), perhaps reflecting sex differences in alcohol and tobacco use.
Longitudinal analysis of deciduous tooth emergence in Indonesian children. I. Life table methodology
Authors: Holman Darryl J. , Jones Robert E.
Published: June 2005

Deciduous tooth emergence was investigated in a sample of 468 children from central Java. The subjects were examined every 35 days for up to 2 years. Statistics on the timing of emergence for each tooth were derived from actuarial life table estimates, and male and female survivorship curves of tooth emergence were compared for statistical sex differences. Javanese children exhibited delayed emergence compared to other populations. No overall pattern of sexual dimorphism was detected, although upper first molars emerged significantly earlier in females. A comparison of emergence sequence polymorphisms between Javanese, Finnish, and Japanese children revealed that the i1‐i2‐m1‐c‐m2 sequence is most common in all three populations, but each shows a uniquely higher proportion of one or more less common polymorphisms.
Heterogeneity among populations for familial aggregation of blood pressure
Authors: Rice Treva , Province Michael A. , Keller Jacob B. , Bouchard Claude , Higgins Millicent W. , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

A simple model of familial aggregation was applied to age–sex corrected systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure data from two separate studies: The Québec Family Study and the Tecumseh Community Health Study. Examination of the familial correlations suggested heterogeneity across studies in all DBP correlations, but for SBP only spouse correlations were higher in Québec. Fitting the path model to the data revealed that the only source of heterogeneity for SBP was in spouse resemblance (u), which was significant in Québec but could be dropped from the model in Tecumseh. For SBP, no further heterogeneity was detected, with the vertical transmission being compatible with (but not evidence for) purely polygenic inheritance (i.e., τf = τm = 1/2). Familiality estimates (t2) for SBP were quite high (nearly 40%), and extra sibling resemblance was significant. For DBP, heterogeneity was detected in all parameters of the model except for spouse resemblance. Common sibship environmental effects (b) were of little importance in Tecumseh but were highly significant in Québec. Vertical transmission from mothers (τm) could be fixed at 1/2 in Tecumseh but was only about half as large in Québec, and familiality estimates were higher in Québec (nearly 60%) than in Tecumseh (about 25%). One source of the heterogeneity for SBP was due to cohabitation, which positively impacted on sibling correlations. The source of the sample heterogeneity in DBP may be through environmental factors which have a smaller impact in Tecumseh than in Québec, although genetic heterogeneity could not be ruled out. Differences in the study designs, as well as differences in the two populations, could account for the heterogeneity detected.
Fatness and fat pattering in 12–17‐year‐old youth from the Chandigarh zone of Northwest India
Authors: Johnston Francis E. , Sanjeev  , Jit Indar , Indech Gary D.
Published: June 2005

Fatness and fat patterning were studied in a sample of 502 youth, 12–17 years of age, of high and low socioeconomic status (SES) from the Chandigarh Zone of northwest India. Fatness estimates were based on six skinfolds, while fat patterning was analyzed through the centripetal fat and waist/hip ratios, and through principal components of skinfolds. In all analyses, fat patterns were adjusted for general body fatness. Upper SES subjects were larger and fatter than lower SES subjects of the same age and sex. As expected, females displayed higher fatness levels than males, a more peripheral distribution of body fat, and lower body patterning of trunk fat. Lower SES was associated with a centripetal, rather than a peripheral, fat pattern. After correction for amount of fat, there were no differences between SES groups in the waist/hip ratio, within‐sex. Compared to U.S. youth of a similar age range, Indian subjects displayed higher BMI‐adjusted centripetal fat and waist/hip ratios. Lower SES was associated with reduced body fatness along with a centralized pattern of fat deposition, which could reflect a greater mobilization of peripheral fat to meet the metabolic demands of growth. While there was some suggestion of an ethnic effect in the two ratios, this could not be demonstrated with confidence.
Changes in age at menarche in Germany: Evidence for a continuing decline
Authors: Ostersehlt Dörte , Danker‐Hopfe Heidi
Published: June 2005

Since there are no recent data on secular changes in growth and maturation of girls from West Germany, two cross‐sectional studies with equal design have been carried out in Bremerhaven, North Germany, in 1979/80 and 1989. The present paper presents the results of an analysis of changes in age at menarche based on status quo data from school girls (1979/80: 2,796; 1989: 2,223) aged between 10.0 and 18.5 years. Probit analyses show a reduction over the 10‐year period from 13.30 ± 1.19 to 13.01 ± 1.21 years, while logit analyses, which fit the empirical data slightly better, show a reduction from 13.29 ± 1.21 to 13.00 ± 1.24 years.
A new perspective on fluctuating odontometric asymmetry in South African Negroes
Authors: Groeneveld H. T. , Kieser Julius A.
Published: June 2005

The present communication introduces a novel statistical method by means of which fluctuating odontometric asymmetry may be broken up into two components: shape and size. This method is then applied to the odontometric data of 106 urban South African Negroes in order to test the postulate that there might be a difference between the levels of shape and size asymmetry. The data show that both components are present. Additionally, it is shown that there are no arcadal differences in the magnitudes of size or shape asymmetry. However, size asymmetry predominates in the anterior dental segment of the maxilla while shape asymmetry predominates in the posterior segment. In contrast, shape is the dominant component of asymmetry in the anterior mandibular teeth while size asymmetry predominates in the postcanine teeth. The present analysis does not show shape to be a superior measure of environmental stress compared to size asymmetry.
The normal menopause transition
Authors: McKinlay Sonja M. , Brambilla Donald J. , Posner Jennifer G.
Published: June 2005

This paper presents analyses from a comprehensive prospective cohort study of mid‐aged women [the Massachusetts Women's Health Study (MWHS)], with numbers sufficient to provide stable estimates of parameters in the normal menopause transition. Three questions are addressed: what are the natural menopause transitions and when do they occur; what factors affect the transitions; and what signs and/or symptoms accompany the transitions? The data were obtained primarily from 5 years of follow‐up of 2,570 women in Massachusetts who were aged 44–55 years as of January 1, 1982. Prospective study of the cohort consisted of six telephone contacts (T1–T6) at 9 month intervals with excellent retention. A subset of the full cohort was defined that consisted of women who were premenopausal (rather than perimenopausal) at baseline (To) (n = 1,178). Confirming prior reports, the age at natural menopause occurred at 51.3 years with a highly significant median difference (1.8 years) between current smokers and non‐smokers. The new analyses reported here on median age at inception of perimenopause (47.5 years) and factors affecting it are consistent with findings for age at last menstrual period. Smokers tend to have not only an earlier but also shorter perimenopause. The length of the perimenopausal transition, estimated at about 3.5 years, has not been previously reported. The relationship between menopause transitions and symptom reporting appears to be transitory, with reporting rates showing an increase in the perimenopause and a compensatory decrease in postmenopause. The implications of combined hormone replacement therapy for future research on menopause in industrial societies is discussed in relation to these findings.
Continuing bone expansion and increasing bone loss over a two‐decade period in men and women from a total community sample
Authors: Garn Stanley M. , Sullivan Timothy V. , Decker Sally A. , Larkin Frances A. , Hawthorne Victor M.
Published: June 2005

As shown in 744 adult men and women aged 30–49 at entry and followed for 21.4 ± 0.9 years there is continuing subperiosteal expansion in both sexes as well as continuing and increasing endosteal surface resorption. In this longitudinal study, bone loss (as shown by medullary cavity expansion) begins by the 5th decade and increases thereafter. The smaller gains at the outer bone surface are essentially independent of the larger losses at the inner (endosteal) surface and neither functionally nor causally related. Though bone loss and net bone loss is nearly as great in men as in women, absolutely speaking, two‐decade bone loss constitutes a larger percentage of the initially smaller bone mass in the female. In both sexes subperiosteal apposition (delta TA) and endosteal resorption (delta MA) are bone‐size dependent though in diametrically opposite directions. These trends in two‐decade bone change are not affected by smoking behavior, alcoholic beverage usage, antihypertensive usage, or early menopausal age. Similarly, the long‐term bone changes prove to be independent of energy and mineral intakes and to long‐term changes in calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and vitamin D intake. Though dietary intakes do not predict long‐term bone changes, the amount of tissue bone present at entry is highly correlated (> 0.93) with tissue bone 21.4 years later in men and women alike. Accordingly, only a small amount of intraindividual cortical variance in the later years still remains to be explained by life‐style, dietary, medication, and error variables.
Craniofacial asymmetry in Bedouin adults
Authors: Hershkovitz I. , Ring B. , Kobyliansky E.
Published: June 2005

The directional and fluctuating asymmetry characteristics of the human skull with reference to demographic and genetic parameters are presented. In addition, the discriminatory ability (in sex, age, and tribal origin) of asymmetry variables was evaluated against a battery of conventional metric measures. Regarding directional asymmetry (DA), the results show that the calvarium exhibits a clear right‐sided “excess” and the basal region a left‐sided “excess.” The DA of traits of the face appears ambiguous. Age and sex evidently have no bearing on DA, whereas tribal origin does. In fluctuating asymmetry (FA), the effect of age is negligible; sex is a factor, albeit to a minor extent. The facial region manifests the highest mean FA value and the calvarium the lowest. The more a skull deviates metrically from the population mean, the higher the mean FA value. FA and DA measures show a relatively low intercorrelation (<0.20). Comparison of the discriminatory ability (F = 1, F = 4) of asymmetry vs. metric measures shows that the former are better classifiers of tribal affiliation, whereas the latter discriminate better between the sexes.
The Raymond Pearl memorial lecture, 1990: Nutrition research in human biology: Changing perspectives and interpretations
Authors: Beaton George H.
Published: June 2005

This paper addresses emerging concepts in the interpretation of anthropometric and dietary data. In the area of anthropometry, it argues the need for conceptualizations and constructs that recognize (1) the existence of a finite age range in which failing to grow is an active process followed by conversion to a state of having failed to grow; (2) the specific and nonspecific nature of anthropometric indices depending upon what is being marked; (3) the implication of secular trends in the interpretation of anthropometry; and (4) the need to move between consideration of individuals and populations. The implications of these for interpretation are illustrated. In the area of interpretation of dietary data, the main issues addressed relate to the conceptualization of needs of individuals and the aggregate needs of a population in the definition, description, and interpretation of “requirements.” In both areas, the core issue is the need for constructs that help address and interpret variability—variability of growth, variability of environmental constraints, variability of intake, and variability of needs and responses.
Comparative variability and interval correlation in linear growth of Hong Kong and Sudanese infants
Authors: Brush G. , Harrison G. A. , Baber F. M. , Zumrawi F. Y.
Published: June 2005

Growth in length of children during the first 10 months of life in Hong Kong and Khartoum is compared in terms of levels of between‐child variability and length and increment correlations. In Khartoum, all measures of variability are strikingly greater, and correlational patterns differ strikingly from those in Hong Kong. Growth in Hong Kong can be explained largely in terms of a mixture of genetic determination and short‐term homeostatic cycles. Such a model does not fit the Khartoum data where there is evidence of at least one additional and different systematic force. This appears to arise from infants who are long at birth being handicapped in their subsequent increment by early weaning, but may also involve widespread catch‐up growth from birth. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Predictive accuracy of bioelectrical impedance equations corrected for fat‐free body size
Authors: Wilson Wendy L. , Heyward Vivian H. , Cook Kelly L. , Hicks Virginia L. , Jenkins Kathy A. , Quatrochi Joseph A. , Colville Bette C.
Published: June 2005

This study examined whether the predictive accuracy of age‐specific bioelectrical impedance (BIA) equations was improved when estimated fat‐free body (FEBBIA) was corrected for the influence of FFB size on whole body resistance (WBR) and residual errors of prediction for 152 women, ages 20–72 years. The criterion measure of FFB (FFBHD) was obtained from hydrostatic weighing at residual volume (RV). FFBBIA was predicted from age‐specific equations. Each subject's FFBBIA was then adjusted for the relationship between FFB and residual scores using the Lohman et al. (1990) correction factor (Lohman TG, Going SB, Hewitt MJ, Williams DP [1990] Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22:S109 [abstract]): FFBADJ = (mean FFB reference sample – FFBBIA) × 0.18 + FFBBIA. Sample reference means were 45.0, 45.3, and 38.8 kg, respectively, for women 20–29 years, 30–49 years, and 50–70 years of age. The predictive accuracy of the unadjusted (FFBBIA) and adjusted (FFBADJ) BIA estimates was analyzed for the total sample and each age group. For the total sample, r2, standard error of estimate (SEE), and root mean square error (RMSE) were, respectively, 0.82, 2.5 kg, and 2.5 kg for FFBBIA. Corresponding values for FFBADJ were, respectively, 0.81, 2.5 kg, and 2.6 kg. Across age groups, r2s ranged from 0.66–0.88, and the SEEs and RMSEs were between 2.0 kg–2.8 kg. The relationship between FFBHD and residual scores (ry,res) was significant (P < 0.05) for all age groups. The ry,res for FFBBIA ranged from 0.37–0.41. For FFBADJ, the ry,res was higher (0.62–0.75). Thus, the overall predictive accuracy and systematic prediction error of the age‐specific BIA equations were not improved by adjusting BIA estimates for the relationship between FFB size and residual scores. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Monitoring the dynamics of social stratification: Statural variation among polish conscripts in 1976 and 1986
Authors: Bielicki Tadeusz , Malina Robert M. , Waliszko Hanna
Published: June 2005

The effects of three factors in the social environment on variation in stature were evaluated in two large samples of 19‐year‐old Polish conscripts, one examined in 1976 (birth cohort 1957) another in 1986 (birth cohort 1967). The factors were: A) population size of the locality of the conscript's habitation, B) occupational‐educational status (OES) of the father, and C) size of the conscript's sibship. In each cohort, stature decreased monotonically with decreasing population size, decreasing paternal OES and increasing sibship size, each factor exerting a significant influence on stature even after the influences of the other two were partialled‐out by analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures. However, the order of the strenght of the influences has changed from B > C > A in 1976 to C > B = A in 1986. The most notable change was the decline in the importance of factor B. The condition of being a peasant's son depressed stature less in 1986 than in 1976, but the stature‐depressing effect of the condition of being a rural dweller, as well as that of coming from a large family, has not diminished. Overall, secular gains in stature among groups lowest on the statural and social scale in 1976 have been more intense than among those highest on these scales, which resulted in an attenuation of some social contrasts in stature from 1976 to 1986. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
PC program for comparing tracking indices in several independent groups
Authors: Schneiderman Emet D. , Willis Stephen M. , Kowalski Charles J. , Ten Have Thomas R.
Published: June 2005

A method for computing a measure of tracking based on Cohen's kappa statistic for one‐sample longitudinal data sets was previously described and implemented. This paper shows how one may test the equality of several kappas, each computed from an independent longitudinal sample. Thus, it is possible to formally compare groups of individuals with regard to stability in growth (or adaptive) patterns. Relative assessments of predictability in growth outcomes in different populations can be made with this approach. Also, when a common value of kappa is not contradicted by the data, a method to estimate this value and obtain a confidence interval for it is shown. A menu‐driven GAUSS program for carrying out the procedure is described and made available. The method and program are illustrated with three samples of Guatemalan children. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
PC program for obtaining orthogonal polynomial regression coefficients for use in longitudinal data analysis
Authors: Ten Have Thomas R. , Kowalski Charles J. , Schneiderman Emet D.
Published: June 2005

Much of longitudinal data analysis begins with dimensionality reduction, i.e., the replacement of the T observations x1, x2, …, xT on an individual taken at times t1, t2, …, tT (not necessarily equally spaced) by a smaller number, P, of parameters which are then used to describe and compare growth processes. We focus on the class of polynomial growth curve models for one‐sample data matrices in which the P regression coefficients are estimated by an equation of the form \documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}$ \hat \tau = ({\rm W'W}) $\end{document} 1W′x and consider the choice of the design matrix W. The case in favor of using orthogonal polynomials to comprise the elements of W and provide a PC program, written in GAUSS, for obtaining them is presented. This program can be used instead of existing tables of orthogonal polynomials in the case of equally spaced time points, and to avoid laborious hand‐computation to obtain them when the time points are not equally spaced. The program also computes the corresponding orthogonal polynomial regression coefficients \documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}$ \hat \alpha = (\Phi '\Phi)^{ - 1} \Phi '{\rm x} $\end{document}, where Φ consists of orthogonal polynomials, which may then be input into other programs for subsequent analysis, e.g., to compare the growth profiles of several groups of individuals. Examples of the use of the program are given. Information on obtaining a copy of the program is provided in Appendix A. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Dietary and nutrient intakes of 25 Ningerum (New Guinea) adult males at two times of the year
Authors: Ulijaszek Stanley J.
Published: June 2005

In nutritional studies of traditional societies, it is often assumed that dietary intakes are sufficiently homogeneous for dietary studies of short duration to be adequate for accurate assessment of group nutrient intake. The present study examines this assumption by considering food and nutrient intakes of 25 adult males in rural Papua New Guinea (PNG). Five‐day weighed dietary intakes were carried out on each individual twice, with a 6‐month interval between measurements. The two measurements corresponded to the times of year when the climate was wet and wetter. Energy intakes, at 167 and 169 kJ/kg body weight, were within the range of values reported by other authors for adult males in PNG. Intakes of protein, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and calcium were low, while intakes of iron and vitamins A and C were above WHO (FAO/WHO, 1974) recommended daily allowances. Energy and nutrient intakes did not vary between the two times of year, with two exceptions: vitamin C and iron. Intakes of foods and food types varied between wet and wetter times, however. Within‐ and between‐subject coefficients of variation of intakes of energy and six nutrients were used to calculate sample sizes needed to obtain estimates of group intakes at different levels of reliability and number of days of dietary measurement. This varied with the nutrient under consideration and the time of year. At a given level of reliability, accurate estimates of carbohydrate intake could be obtained with smaller sample sizes and/or number of days of observation than for energy, protein, and vitamin C intakes. Longer periods or larger samples would have been needed for the estimation of group vitamin A, fat, and calcium intakes. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Body fat by dual photon absorptiometry: Comparisons with traditional methods in Asians, blacks, and whites
Authors: Wang Jack , Russell Mary , Mazariegos Manolo , Burastero Santiago , Thornton John , Lichtman Steven , Heymsfield Steven B. , Pierson Richard N.
Published: June 2005

Measurement of body fat by dual photon absorptiometry (FatDPA) is based on the physical principles of differential attenuation of discrete photons by fat and other soft tissue components. The three traditional methods of measuring fat are indirect, in that they depend on measuring the fat free mass (FFM) based on the assumed constancy of water, potassium, and density in the FFM. Comparison of FatDPA with fat measured by each of the indirect methods discloses systematic differences which shed light on the nature of the constancy assumptions. The purpose of this report is to study the effects of sex, age, and fatness, as well as race, on the traditional methods for estimating body fat%. In Asians (99 m, 109 f), blacks (64 m, 48 f), and whites (166 m, 212 f), 18 to 94 years, with body mass indices of 16 to 36 kg/m2, body fat measured by DPA was compared with fat by three traditional methods: total body potassium (TBK; 40K counting), total body water (TBW; HTO dilution), and underwater weighing (UWW). DPA showed the highest overall correlation with TBW and the lowest with UWW, among the three traditional methods. Asians showed the lowest correlations between FatDPA and FatUWW. On average, FatTBK was higher, while FatUWW was lower than FatDPA. The differences between FatDPA and FatOTHER by the three traditional methods were correlated with age with a negative slope in all groups, the steepest slope being for FatDPA – FatTBK in blacks. Correlations with fatness showed positive slopes for FatDPA – FatTBW and – FatUWW but not for – FatTBK. FatDPA could become a criterion method for body fat, particularly in the young, old or ill, where traditional “constants” become unreliable, if calibration can be accomplished throughout the range of subject size. Ethnicity, age, sex, and fatness as well as illness are potent variables affecting the composition of the FFM; direct measurements of fat are preferable, to avoid artifacts resulting from using indirect methods. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.