bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On necessary conditions for verbal irony comprehension
Authors: Colston Herbert L.
Published: October 2007

The conditions for verbal irony comprehension implicitly or directly claimed as necessary by all of the recent philosophic, linguistic and psycholinguistic theories of verbal irony (Clark and Gerrig 1984; Kreuz and Glucksberg 1989; Kumon-Nakamura, Glucksberg and Brown 1995; Sperber and Wilson 1981, 1986) were experimentally tested. Allusion to a violation of expectations, predictions, desires, preferences, social norms, etc., was confirmed as a necessary condition, but pragmatic insincerity was not. Pragmatically sincere comments can be comprehended ironically. A revised set of conditions was proposed, involving intentional violation of Gricean conversational maxims and the portrayal of a contrast between expectations and reality. A cautionary note was made, however, regarding the viability of a single account of verbal irony comprehension.
Tensions Between Discourse Structure and Conceptual Semantics
Authors: Nuyts Jan
Published: October 2007

Starting from an investigation of the information structure (specifically, the possibilities for focalization) of some major epistemic expression forms — modal adverbs and adjectives, mental state predicates, and modal auxiliaries — in Dutch and German (also with reference to English), this paper aims to show how the syntactic structure of these expression types is shaped (also diachronically) by the interaction (or, often, counteraction) of two major functional forces, viz. their conceptual semantics and their (usual) informational status in discourse. The investigation is primarily based on data drawn from corpora of Dutch and German spoken and written language.
Passive and grammaticalization in Hausa
Authors: Abdoulaye Mahamane Laoualy
Published: October 2007

Hausa uses a (...)LH-u verbal morphology to derive (i) typical passive forms with an optional intensive/completive meaning, and (ii) some non-passive verbs with an obligatory intensive meaning and which are based on intransitive verbs. After a detailed description of the two forms, I propose that originally, the (...)LH-u morphology was only applied to intransitive middle verbs to derive intensive forms. Later however, the (...)LH-u morphology was grammaticalized and applied to transitive verbs to derive passive forms. I will show that the Hausa passive has continued its grammaticalization process, weakening its intensive and stative semantics, and allowing non-patient nominals to be passive subjects. This analysis implies that previously, Hausa had no passive, and this fits with the general situation in Chadic languages where indeed passive is a rare construction.
Time and truth
Authors: Detges Ulrich
Published: October 2007

This paper is concerned with the “invisible hand” behind the polygenetic pathways of semantic change in grammaticalization. A comparison between Old English habban + Past Participle and Spanish tener + Past Participle brings to light specific discourse strategies which speakers use resultatives for. On the basis of this analysis, the paper re-examines the problem of explaining the shift from non-temporal to temporal meaning. It is argued that this shift is brought about by some very basic discourse strategies which are strong motives for repeated meaning change in the same direction.
Gapping in Classical Greek prose
Authors: Gaeta Livio , Luraghi Silvia
Published: October 2007

The order of gapping has repeatedly been connected with the basic word order of a language. Such a view is inadequate for free word order languages, such as Classical Greek. Classical Greek allows both right- and leftward gapping; besides, some cases of bi-directional gapping are also attested. All types of gapping can occur both with VO and with OV order. The preference for rightward gapping, rather than pointing toward a certain basic word order, appears to be connected with general properties of human processing capacities, while the order of gapping of each specific occurrence can be shown to be pragmatically motivated.
On the non-existence of blue-yellow and red-green color terms
Authors: Bailey Ashlee C.
Published: October 2007

A component of the universal evolution model of color terms is that blue-yellow and red-green color terms should not exist in the world’s languages. This is because such terms would confound opponent colors (Hering 1920, Hurvich & Jameson 1955). However, some relativist scholars, namely Saunders and van Brakel (1997) and McNeill (1972), maintain that some languages do have such terms. This paper considers these claims and shows that they are unfounded: Either an alleged blue-yellow term is actually a yellow-green-blue term; one or more basic color terms have undergone semantic extension; a term’s basic meaning is ‘pale or faded’; or the data were not properly analyzed.
Functional theories of island phenomena
Authors: Shimojo Mitsuaki
Published: October 2007

This paper examines island effects in Japanese in four extraction types — relativization, topicalization, postposing, and wh-question formation — in terms of the “aboutness” condition claimed by Haig (1996). The condition is supported for relativization and topicalization; however, further specification is necessary for postposing and wh-question formation. It is also demonstrated that the proposed construction-specific conditions are all related to the same cognitive theory of island phenomena (Deane 1991), which reflects the mechanism of attention and short-term memory. The cognitive description thus provides insights as to why there are island effects in a putative “island-free” language.
Word order variation in Isthmus Mixe
Authors: Dieterman Julia
Published: October 2007

In the face of evidence of considerable word order variation in Mixe languages, this article posits a basic word order of SOV for Isthmus Mixe, analyzing the language as having an inverse voice category that partially explains the observed surface word order variation. Using functional criteria established for voice distinctions by Givón (1994), it is shown that the Object is higher in topicality than the Subject in inverse-transitive clauses, as attested by ellipsis of the Subject and by topicality measures of Referential Distance and Topic Persistence. When inverse-clause word orders are separated out from direct-clause word orders, and when discourse considerations are taken into account, the basic SOV order of the Isthmus Mixe direct clause becomes apparent.
Cognitive and interactional motivations for the intonation unit
Authors: Park Joseph Sung-Yul
Published: October 2007

While the intonation unit (IU) has been characterized as a cognitive unit in earlier research, recent studies have revealed its interactional aspects as well. Using data from spoken Korean, this study presents evidence which shows that the IU is motivated both cognitively and interactionally, and proposes an interpretation of the IU that incorporates both of these bases, arguing that the IU serves as an interactional resource that speakers and listeners may rely on in organizing their talk, while it is the cognitive nature of the IU itself that allows the IU to serve as such a resource.
On the non-canonical double nominative construction in Japanese
Authors: Kuno Susumu , Johnson Yuki
Published: October 2007

Japanese has two types of double nominative constructions — the first exemplified by sentences such as Taroo ga otoosan ga sinda “Taro — (his) father has died,” and the second by sentences such as Taroo ga eigo ga yoku dekiru “Taro can (speak) English well.” Kuno (1973a, b) claimed that the first is a double-subject construction, while the second is a subject–object construction. This analysis has recently been challenged by Shibatani (2001a, b, c), who claims that these double-nominative constructions are both double-subject constructions. This paper presents arguments against Shibatani’s double-subject analysis, and in support of the “Ga for Object Marking” analysis for the second construction.
Halkomelem psych applicatives
Authors: Gerdts Donna B. , Kiyosawa Kaoru
Published: October 2007

In Halkomelem, the relational applicative suffix ‑me‘ is suffixed to an intransitive psychological predicate to form a transitive construction where the experiencer is the subject and the stimulus is the object. We detail the morphosyntactic properties of psych applicatives and contrast them with other constructions formed on the same predicates. A brief look at other languages reveals that psych applicatives are relatively rare in languages of the world but robustly attested in Salish languages.
Antipassive Constructions in the Maya Glyphic Texts
Authors: Lacadena Alfonso
Published: October 2007

The Classic Maya hieroglyphic texts of the Southern Lowlands provide morphological and syntactic evidence for antipassive constructions. Two sets of signs, wa/wi and ni, are involved in the relevant spellings, probably rendering suffixes of the shape -(V)w and -(V)n. These two suffixes are related to attested Tzeltalan and Ch’olan antipassive suffixes, and they have ancestors reconstructible for proto-Greater Tzeltalan. Other Mayan languages outside Greater Tzeltalan also have cognate -(V)w and -(V)n antipassive suffixes. The proto-Mayan ancestors have been reconstructed as *-(V)w and *-(V)n (Smith-Stark 1978) or *-(o)w ~ *-(a)w and *-o-an ~ *-an (Kaufman 1986).
Spelling Shinzwani
Authors: Joseph Ottenheimer Harriet
Published: October 2007

This paper surveys the history of dictionary construction and orthographic choice in the Comoros — a former French colony in the Indian Ocean — with special reference to issues of literacy, identity, and politics. Evidence ranging from 16th century wordlists to contemporary bilingual/bidirectional dictionaries, as well as colonial, missionary, and scholarly approaches to lexicography and orthography in the Comoros, are examined and compared. While Arabic-influenced writing systems have a long history in the Comoros, the experiences of colonialism and independence in the 20th century introduced French- and phonemically-influenced systems. As the Comoros move into the 21st century, linguists and ethnographers are attempting to assist with questions of standardization, literacy, and dictionary construction. The situation remains fluid, with considerations of tradition, modernity, nationalism, and representation to be taken into account. This paper seeks to address the complex interrelationships between orthographic choice and ethnic identity in the Comoros, with special reference to the development of the first bilingual/bidirectional Shinzwani-English dictionary.
Phat Lines
Authors: Olivo Warren
Published: October 2007

This paper focuses on the spelling conventions used in a corpus of written rap music lyrics intended for public consumption. The non-standard spellings evident in this corpus are used deliberately for various purposes, one of which is to graphically represent the phonological and syntactic features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE). This use of non-standard orthography can be seen as a way for the writer to demonstrate a positive evaluation of the non-standard speech forms that characterize rap music performances. Other non-standard spellings bear no relation to the grammar or phonology of AAVE. However, through the use of processes such as “inversion”, these non-standard spellings invoke alternative meanings while simultaneously calling attention to the arbitrariness of dominant spelling conventions. It is argued that, overall, the non-standard spelling conventions employed in rap music lyrics function to create and sustain hip-hop culture as an “anti-society”.
Discourse stance
Authors: Berman Ruth A. , Ragnarsdóttir Hrafnhildur , Strömqvist Sven
Published: October 2007

The aim of this article is to integrate findings reported in the preceding articles in this collection, employing a global discourse perspective labeled discourse stance. The paper attempts to clarify what is meant by this notion, and how it can contribute to the evaluation of text construction along the major variables of our project: target Language (Dutch, English, French etc.), Age (developmental level and schooling), Modality (writing vs. speech), and Genre (personal experience narratives vs. expository discussion). We propose a general conceptual framework for characterizing discourse stance as a basis for an empirically testable potential model of this key aspect of text construction and discourse analysis. Unlike the cross-linguistically data-based studies reported in the rest of this collection, which involve quantitative as well as well as qualitative analyses, this concluding article presents selected pieces of text from our sample to serve as case studies that illustrate our general line of reasoning, rather than to test specific hypotheses.
Mirror-image discrimination among nonliterate, monoliterate, and biliterate Tamil subjects
Authors: Pederson Eric
Published: October 2007

In Danziger & Pederson 1998, the suggestion was made that the discrimination of left/right mirror images from non-reflected images in a part/whole judgment task correlates not just with degree of literacy, but also with the nature of the script in wich the subject is literate. This follow-up study directly addresses this hypothesis by comparing acceptance/rejection responses and the reaction time of these responses among Tamil speakers who were coded for type of literacy (nonliterate, literate only with Tamil script, literate with Tamil and Roman script). There was a reliable difference between the monoliterate and biliterate speakers in that biliterate Tamils were far more likely to reject mirror images than monoliterate Tamils. The critical difference between the monoliterates and biliterates is taken to be whether a graphemic distinction (i.e. a distinction which is symbolically meaningful) between left/right reflections has been acquired.
A novel subset of putative stem/progenitor CD34+Oct-4+ cells is the major target for SARS coronavirus in human lung
Authors: Chen Yongxiong , Chan Vera Sau-Fong , Zheng Bojian , Chan Kelvin Yuen-Kwong , Xu Xiaoning , To Leo Yuk-Fai , Huang Fang-Ping , Khoo Ui-Soon , Lin Chen-Lung Steve
Published: October 2007

Identification of the nature of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-infected cells is crucial toward understanding the pathogenesis. Using multicolor colocalization techniques, we previously reported that SARS+ cells in the lung of fatally infected patients expressed the only known functional receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, and also a binding receptor, liver/lymph node–specific ICAM-3–grabbing non-integrin (CD209L). In this study, we show that SARS-infected cells also express the stem/progenitor cell markers CD34 and Oct-4, and do not express cytokeratin or surfactant. These putative lung stem/progenitor cells can also be identified in some non-SARS individuals and can be infected by SARS-coronavirus ex vivo. Infection of these cells may contribute to the loss of lung repair capacity that leads to respiratory failure as clinically observed.
First Report of a Phytoplasma Associated with Witches'-Broom of the Giant Coral Tree (Erythrina poeppigiana, Fabaceae) in Costa Rica
Authors: Saborío-R. G. , Villalobos W. , Rivera C.
Published: October 2007

The giant coral tree (Erythrina poeppigiana, Fabaceae) is a common shade tree in coffee plantations in Costa Rica. Coral trees are pruned to decrease fungal infections and increase nitrogen fixation. Recently, severe shoot proliferation, internodes shortening, and leaf reduction were observed in pruned shade trees in the south of San José Province, Costa Rica. Leaf samples from 10 symptomatic E. poeppigiana trees were collected. Also, two samples from symptomless coral trees were collected from areas free of witches'-broom. Total DNA was extracted from 0.5 g of petiole tissue from all samples with the plant extraction mini kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany) with a modified protocol (2) and assayed by nested PCR with phytoplasma universal rDNA primers (P1/P7) (1) and R16F2n/R16R2 (3). All symptomatic trees tested positive for phytoplasmas by PCR, yielding the expected 1.2-kb band. DNA from the symptomless trees was not amplified by PCR. The restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses (HaeIII, AluI, RsaI, BfaI, HpaII, KpnI, HhaI, and MseI) and the sequence of the 1.2-kb PCR fragment (GenBank Accession No. DQ485305) revealed that the phytoplasma associated with coral tree witches'-broom belongs to the aster yellows phytoplasma group (16SrI) (4). To our knowledge, this is the first report of a phytoplasma belonging to the aster yellow group causing witches'-broom in the Erythrina genus.

References: (1) S. Deng and C. Hiruki. J. Microbiol. Methods 14:53, 1991. (2) M. J. Green et al. Plant Dis. 83:482, 1999. (3) D. E. Gundersen and I. M. Lee. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 35:144, 1996. (4) I. M Lee et al. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.48:1153, 1998.
First Report of Horse Chestnut Powdery Mildew Caused by Erysiphe flexuosa in Castilla y León, Spain
Authors: Campelo M. P. , Lorenzana A. , Marcos M. F.
Published: October 2007

Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) is an important ornamental tree in many gardens in Castilla y León (northern Spain). During the summer and autumn of 2005 and 2006, disease signs resembling powdery mildew were observed in Condesa de Sagasta Boulevard and Quevedo Botanical Garden in León. Whitish fungal growth was visible macroscopically on the upper and lower leaf surfaces of both young and old leaves and petioles. The disease reduced tree attractiveness and could cause important aesthetic damage in the parks. Five symptomatic trees older than 30 years were observed in each park, and 10 leaves per tree were collected. Microscopic examinations of the leaf surfaces revealed ectophytic, hyaline hyphae with lobed appresoria, solitary or in pairs. Conidia were barrel to broadly subglobose and ranged from 23 to 37 μm long and 8 to 16 μm wide. They were produced singly on two- or three-celled conidiophores. Chasmothecia were produced in abundance, mostly on the lower leaf surface. They were globose, 120 to 160 μm in diameter, dark brown, and bore two types of appendages; long and flexuous with simple hook-like apices or short, simple, tapered, and rough walled. The long appendages measured 87 to 182 μm and the shorter ones measured 12 to 32 μm. Chasmothecia contained three to five asci, each developing six to eight hyaline, round, and single-celled ascospores when matured. Pathogenicity was confirmed on Aesculus sp. branches by healthy leaves being inoculated by touching them with powdery mildew-infected leaves. Noninoculated leaves served as controls. The appearance of colonies in the infected leaves was observed 15 days after the inoculation, but not in the controls. The pathogen was identified as Erysiphe flexuosa (Peck) U. Braun & S. Takamatsu, a North American powdery mildew. It has been recently introduced in Europe (1) and is now present in a number of countries (2). To our knowledge, this is the first report of E. flexuosa in this region of Spain.

References: (1) N. Ale-Agha et al. Cryptogam. Mycol. 21:89, 2000. (2) K. Zimmermannová-Pastirčáková et al. Schlechtendalia 8:39, 2002.
First Report of Damping-Off of Swiss Chard Caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG-4 HG I and Binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-A in China
Authors: Yang G. H. , Conner R. L. , Chen Y. Y.
Published: October 2007

During July, 2003, damping-off of Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. cicla L.) was observed in a seedling (approximately 1 month after germination) field (approximately 2 ha) in Yuanmou County in the Cuxiong District of Yunnan, China. More than 80% of the seedlings showed symptoms of the disease. Symptoms on newly emerged plants consisted of wilting, a brown necrosis of the lower taproot, and eventual death of seedlings. Among the 15 isolates of Rhizoctonia spp. isolated from Swiss chard with damping-off symptoms, 12 isolates of Rhizoctonia solani with dark brown sclerotia on potato dextrose agar (PDA) anastomosed with tester isolates of each subgroup AG-4 HG I, AG-4 HG II, and AG-4 HG III, giving a C2 hyphal fusion (1) reaction at a high frequency. The other three binucleate Rhizoctonia spp. (BNR) isolates whose mycelia were white with floccose aerial hyphae on PDA anastomosed freely with two BNR AG-A tester isolates producing a C2 hyphal reaction. The 5.8S rDNA-ITS of a single isolate of R. solani and a single isolate of BNR was sequenced. The sequence of the AG-4 isolate (GenBank Accession No. EF679777) exhibited 99 to 100% homology with isolates of R. solani AG-4, subgroup 4HG I (GenBank Accession No. AY154307). The sequence from the AG-A isolate (GenBank Accession No. EF679778) exhibited 98% homology with BNR AG-A (GenBank Accession Nos. AB000040 and AF354092). Swiss chard (cv. Baijin) seedlings (approximately 5 cm high) were planted in potting soil at a density of one seedling per vinyl pot (8 cm diameter, 9 cm high). Two isolates each of R. solani and BNR were used in pathogenicity testing. Each seedling was inoculated in the root zone with approximately 7 g of artificially infested soil. Control plants were inoculated with autoclaved soil. The experiments were conducted three times, each time with three replicates, in a greenhouse with a photoperiod of 16 h of light and 8 of h dark at 30 and 16°C, respectively. After 7 days, disease severity was measured based on a scale in which 0 = no symptom; 1 = small lesions on seedlings, no blight; 2 = leaves blight, no stem blight; 3 = stem blight; and 4 = plant dead. The two AG-4 and two of AG-A isolates were pathogenic on the Swiss chard seedlings and caused damping-off symptoms with a disease index 1.7 to 4.0, and there were no significant differences (P = 0.05) among them. We reisolated and confirmed the presence of R. solani and BNR AG-A from diseased plants. AG-3 isolates were reported to cause the damping-off of Swiss chard in the United States (2). To our knowledge, this is the first report of damping-off of Swiss chard caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG-4 HG I and BNR AG-A.

References: (1) D. E. Carling. Page 37 in: Grouping in Rhizoctonia solani by Hyphal Anastomosis Reaction. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordecht, the Netherlands, 1996. (2) S. T. Koike and K. V. Subbarao. Plant Dis. 83:695, 1999.
First Report of Anthracnose Caused by Colletotrichum acutatum on Strawberry in the Czech Republic
Authors: Novotný D. , Křížková I. , Krátká J. , Salava J.
Published: October 2007

Colletotrichum acutatum J. H. Simmond is the causal agent of anthracnose rot and strawberry blackspot. This pathogen is listed by the EPPO as a regulated (formerly quarantined) organism for all European countries and is widely distributed throughout Europe (e.g., the United Kingdom, France, and Germany) (2). In the autumn of 2005, typical symptoms of anthracnose caused by C. acutatum (circular, dark, and sunken spots on fruit, dark, sunken lesions on petioles, and withering of the leaf, buds, and flowers) were repeatedly observed on field-grown strawberry plants in the Mělník Region of central Bohemia and Břeclav Region in southern Moravia, Czech Republic. Strawberry fruits and petioles showing typical symptoms were surface sterilized (30 s in 70% ethanol, 1 min in 10% NaOCl, and 15 s in 70% ethanol), rinsed in sterile water, dissected under aseptic conditions, and plated on 2% malt extract agar or placed in wet chambers and incubated at room temperature (18 to 20°C) for 10 days. All isolated strains were independently identified by morphological characteristics, plate-trapped antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (PTA-ELISA) (1), and PCR with the C. acutatum-specific primers ITS4 and CaInt2 (3). Morphological studies of C. acutatum were carried out on potato dextrose agar (4). The colonies were white, cream, grayish, or rose-orange before sporulation and the colony reverse was cream to orange with brown spots. The mycelial growth rate was 7.5 mm per day at 25°C. The conidia were one-celled, hyaline, cylindrical, 11.3 to 19.7 × 3.6 to 5.5 μm, and the majority of conidia were pointed at either or both ends. The appresoria were brown, globose to ellipsoidal, 5.0 to 7.5 × 5.0 to 6.2 μm, and the sclerotia were absent. Ten strawberry plants with green fruits of each cultivar Elsanta and Kama were sprayed with 500 ml of suspension of C. acutatum conidia (104 conidia per ml). This test was carried out in the glasshouse under quarantine conditions at 20 to 25°C. C. acutatum caused withering of the flowers or dark brown spots on green fruits on five plants of cv. Elsanta and on four plants of cv. Kama after a 6-week incubation period. Isolation and identification of the pathogen from the diseased tissues were done as described above. C. acutatum was reisolated from three fruits, four leaf blades, and four petioles from five plants of cv. Elsanta and four fruits, four leaf blades, and two petioles from four plants of cv. Kama. The fungus was not reisolated from the control strawberry plants. In three cases, the pathogen was detected in the crown of plants of cv. Elsanta by PCR and ELISA.

References: (1) Anonymous. OEPP/EPPO Bull. 34:155, 2004. (2) I. M. Smith and L. M. F. Charles, eds. Distribution Maps of Quarantine Pests for the European Union and for the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, 1998. (3) S. Sreenivasaprasad et al. Plant Pathol. 45:650, 1996. (4) P. Talhinhas et al. Phytopathology 92:986, 2002.
First Report of Armillaria Butt Rot Caused by Armillaria mellea on Phoenix canariensis in Italy
Authors: Grasso F. M. , Pane A. , Cacciola S. O.
Published: October 2007

During 2006, in a garden in the Mount Etna Piedmont, eastern Sicily (Italy), a 40-year-old specimen of Canary Island date palm (Phoenix canariensis hort. ex Chabaud) with a trunk circumference at breast height of 220 cm showed a rotted lesion with a viscous, brown ooze at the stem base and root initials. The lesion extended to approximately one-third of the trunk circumference. Trunk excavation exposed a wet rot of internal tissues, a cream-colored mycelial mat, and a mushroom-like smell. Although the rot spread inward (approximately 25 cm deep) with decay of nonlignified ground tissues and blackening of wood fibers, the palm did not show symptoms on the canopy. Conversely, ferns, apricot, and cedar trees growing at the same site had died from Armillaria rot over the last 10 years (2). In late autumn, clumps of honey mushroom-like sphorophores with a prominent annulus encircling the stalk formed at the base of the trunk. The spore print of the basidiocarp was light cream. The morphology of 100 basidiospores was determined microscopically. The basidiospores were smooth, elliptical, hyaline, and measured 7 to 9.5 × 5 to 7 μm. The fungus was isolated from diseased tissues on selective benomyl-dichloran medium (3) and was transferred to 2% malt extract agar where it formed ribbon-shaped, fast-growing, and profusely branching rhizomorphs. Armillaria mellea (Vahl.) P. Kumm. was identified on the basis of cultural and morphological characteristics. Identification was confirmed by electrophoresis of mycelial proteins and isozymes in polyacrylamide and starch slab gels (1,2). The electrophoretic patterns of the isolate from P. canariensis were identical to those of reference isolates of A. mellea from grapevine and fern isolated previously at the same site (2). The pathogenicity of the A. mellea isolate from palm (A-palm5) was tested on 20 3-year-old potted seedlings of P. canariensis grown in a greenhouse at 24 ± 4°C. Seedlings were inoculated with wood pieces of holly oak (Quercus ilex L.) colonized by the fungus (two pieces for each seedling) (4). Ten noninoculated plants served as controls. After 12 months, mycelial fans colonizing the root initials, the base of the stem, and the leaf stalks were observed on 14 inoculated seedlings. Although only four infected seedlings showed decline symptoms, the fungus was reisolated from all inoculated plants. No infections were observed in control plants. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Armillaria butt rot on a palm in Europe.

References: (1) M. Bragaloni et al. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:147, 1997. (2) S. Grasso et al. Plant Dis. 84:592, 2000. (3) T. C. Harrington et al. Armillaria. Page 81 in: Methods for Research on Soilborne Phytopathogenic Fungi. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1992. (4) R. Metaliaj et al. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 45:3, 2006.
Quantitative Aspects of the Spread of Asian Soybean Rust in the Southeastern United States, 2005 to 2006
Authors: Christiano R. S. C. , Scherm H.
Published: October 2007

The regional dynamics of soybean rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi, in six southeastern states (Florida, Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia) in 2005 and 2006 were analyzed based on disease records collected as part of U.S. Department of Agriculture's soybean rust surveillance and monitoring program. The season-long rate of temporal disease progress averaged ≈0.5 new cases day–1 and was higher in nonsentinel soybean (Glycine max) plots than in sentinel soybean plots and kudzu (Pueraria lobata) plots. Despite the early detection of rust on kudzu in January and/or February each year (representing the final phase of the previous year's epidemic), the disease developed slowly during the spring and early summer on this host species and did not enter its exponential phase until late August, more than 1 month after it did so on soybean. On soybean, cases occurred very sporadically before the beginning of July, after which their number increased rapidly. Thus, while kudzu likely provides the initial inoculum for epidemics on soybean, the rapid increase in disease prevalence on kudzu toward the end of the season appears to be driven by inoculum produced on soybean. Of 112 soybean cases with growth stage data, only one occurred during vegetative crop development while ≈75% occurred at stage R6 (full seed) or higher. The median nearest-neighbor distance of spread among cases was ≈70 km in both years, with 10% of the distances each being below ≈30 km and above ≈200 km. Considering only the epidemic on soybean, the disease expanded at an average rate of 8.8 and 10.4 km day–1 in 2005 and 2006, respectively. These rates are at the lower range of those reported for the annual spread of tobacco blue mold from the Caribbean Basin through the southeastern United States. Regional spread of soybean rust may be limited by the slow disease progress on kudzu during the first half of the year combined with the short period available for disease establishment on soybean during the vulnerable phase of host reproductive development, although low inoculum availability in 2005 and dry conditions in 2006 also may have reduced epidemic potential.
The Elasticity of the Epidemic Growth Rate to Observed Weather Patterns with an Application to Yellow Rust
Authors: van den Berg F. , van den Bosch F.
Published: October 2007

We extend a previously developed method that quantifies the sensitivity of the exponential epidemic growth rate, r, to weather changes, through a pathogen's life cycle components (basic reproduction number, latent period, and mean and standard deviation of the spore production curve). Here a method is developed to study the elasticities of the system and subsequently the model is linked to observed weather patterns. This enables a direct comparison between the effects of different weather variables (temperature, surface wetness duration, and light quantity) under realistic weather scenarios. The three sites studied represent areas within the United Kingdom with contrasting climates. Yellow rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis, on winter wheat is studied as a key application. Our results show that temperature and more importantly changes in temperature through their effect on pathogen reproduction have the largest effect on r. The long latent period at low winter temperatures is not a key component in the epidemic development, which is contrary to general beliefs. The results combined with long term average yellow rust severity patterns show that it is winter survival and not summer survival that controls the eventual disease severity. The results also show that within the current United Kingdom spraying regime on wheat crops against yellow rust, the first spray should mainly affect the basic reproduction number, i.e., should be a protectant spray, whereas the second spray should also affect the latent period, i.e., should also have curative action.
Effects of metabolic rate on protein evolution
Authors: Gillooly James F , McCoy Michael W , Allen Andrew P
Published: October 2007

Since the modern evolutionary synthesis was first proposed early in the twentieth century, attention has focused on assessing the relative contribution of mutation versus natural selection on protein evolution. Here we test a model that yields general quantitative predictions on rates of protein evolution by combining principles of individual energetics with Kimura's neutral theory. The model successfully predicts much of the heterogeneity in rates of protein evolution for diverse eukaryotes (i.e. fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals) from different thermal environments. Data also show that the ratio of non-synonymous to synonymous nucleotide substitution is independent of body size, and thus presumably of effective population size. These findings indicate that rates of protein evolution are largely controlled by mutation rates, which in turn are strongly influenced by individual metabolic rate.
Drag coefficient of a sphere in a non-stationary flow: new results
Authors: Jourdan G , Houas L , Igra O , Estivalezes J.-L , Devals C , Meshkov E.E
Published: October 2007

The drag coefficient of a sphere placed in a non-stationary flow is studied experimentally over a wide range of Reynolds numbers in subsonic and supersonic flows. Experiments were conducted in a shock tube where the investigated balls were suspended, far from all the tube walls, on a very thin wire taken from a spider web. During each experiment, many shadowgraph photos were taken to enable an accurate construction of the sphere's trajectory. Based on the sphere's trajectory, its drag coefficient was evaluated. It was shown that a large difference exists between the sphere drag coefficient in steady and non-steady flows. In the investigated range of Reynolds numbers, the difference exceeds 50%. Based on the obtained results, a correlation for the non-stationary drag coefficient of a sphere is given. This correlation can be used safely in simulating two-phase flows composed of small spherical particles immersed in a gaseous medium.
Functional significance of an unusual chela dimorphism in a marine decapod: specialization as a weapon?
Authors: Claverie Thomas , Smith I. Philip
Published: October 2007

The squat lobster
Munida rugosa
has an unusual chela dimorphism exhibited mainly by large males. Some individuals have ‘arched’ chelae in which there is a gap between the dactylus and the pollex when closed, and others have a ‘straight’ morphology in which the dactylus and pollex oppose along most of their length. Geometric morphometric analysis indicated that, compared with males, the arched morphology does not develop fully in females, so further investigation was confined to males. In males, the distal part of the chela was similar in both the forms and seemed to be adapted to hold and shred prey items. Both morphologies had a major cylindrical tooth on the inner proximal part of the dactylus, but the arched morphology had a higher and wider propodus, a greater major tooth–pollex distance and a greater force generation than the straight morphology. The findings suggest that the arched chela morphology in
M. rugosa
is a sexually selected trait adapted to inflict puncture wounds on opponents during agonistic interactions. The arched morphology, therefore, appears to have evolved in males by means of sexual selection because it enhanced the function of the chela as a weapon, while retaining functionality for feeding.
Forward and backward second-order Pavlovian conditioning in honeybees
Authors: Hussaini Syed Abid , Komischke Bernhard , Menzel Randolf , Lachnit Harald
Published: October 2007

Second-order conditioning (SOC) is the association of a neutral stimulus with another stimulus that had previously been combined with an unconditioned stimulus (US). We used classical conditioning of the proboscis extension response (PER) in honeybees (Apis mellifera) with odors (CS) and sugar (US). Previous SOC experiments in bees were inconclusive, and, therefore, we attempted to demonstrate SOC in the following three experiments: (Experiment 1) After differential conditioning (pairing odor A with US and presenting odor B without US), the bees experienced two pairs of partially overlapping odors, either a new odor C followed by a previously reinforced odor A (C-A) or a new odor C followed by a previously nonreinforced odor B (C-B). (Experiment 2) After differential conditioning, bees were presented with C-A or A-C. (Experiment 3) Bees were first presented with C-A or A-C before differential conditioning and were tested with odor C. We observed: (Experiment 1) 40% of the bees showed PER to the C-A presentation, but only 20% showed PER to the C-B presentation. (Experiment 2) 40% of the bees showed PER to the C-A presentation, while only 20% showed PER to the reversed sequence A-C. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that a previously reinforced odor can be a secondary reinforcer for excitatory SOC only with forward-pairing. (Experiment 3) PER toward C was lower (15%) in bees presented with A-C than with C-A (25%). This showed that backward SOC is not as effective as forward SOC. These results help to delineate different conditions that are critical for the phenomenon of SOC.
Glucocorticoid administration into the dorsal stratium facilitates memory consolidation of inhibitory avoidance training but not of the context or footshock components
Authors: Medina Andrea C. , Charles Jonathan R. , Espinoza-González Verónica , Sánchez-Resendis Oscar , Prado-Alcalá Roberto A. , Roozendaal Benno , Quirarte Gina L.
Published: October 2007

It is well established that glucocorticoid administration into a variety of brain regions facilitates memory consolidation of fear-conditioning tasks, including inhibitory avoidance. The present findings indicate that the natural glucocorticoid corticosterone administered into the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus) of male Wistar rats produced dose- and time-dependent enhancement of inhibitory avoidance memory consolidation. However, as assessed with a modified inhibitory avoidance procedure that took place on two sequential days to separate context training from footshock training, corticosterone administration into the dorsal striatum did not enhance memory of either the contextual or aversively motivational aspects of the task.
Quantitative tests of primary homology
Authors: Agnarsson Ingi , Coddington Jonathan A.
Published: October 2007

In systematic biology homology hypotheses are typically based on points of similarity and tested using congruence, of which the two stages have come to be distinguished as “primary” versus “secondary” homology. Primary homology is often regarded as prior to logical test, being a kind of background assumption or prior knowledge. Similarity can, however, be tested by more detailed studies that corroborate or weaken previous homology hypotheses before the test of congruence is applied. Indeed testing similarity is the only way to test the homology of characters, as congruence only tests their states. Traditional homology criteria include topology, special similarity, function, ontogeny and step‐counting (for example, transformation in one step versus two via loss and gain). Here we present a method to compare quantitatively the ability of such criteria, and competing homology schema, to explain morphological observations. We apply the method to a classic and difficult problem in the homology of male spider genital sclerites. For this test case topology performed better than special similarity or function. Primary homologies founded on topology resulted in hypotheses that were globally more parsimonious than those based on other criteria, and therefore yielded a more coherent and congruent nomenclature of palpal sclerites in theridiid spiders than prior attempts. Finally, we question whether primary homology should be insulated as “prior knowledge” from the usual issues and demands that quantitative phylogenetic analyses pose, such as weighting and global versus local optima.

© The Willi Hennig Society 2007.
Progress in understanding and managing natural killer‐cell malignancies
Authors: Oshimi Kazuo
Published: October 2007

The World Health Organization classification of haematolymphoid tumours recognizes three categories of natural killer (NK)‐cell neoplasms: blastic NK‐cell lymphoma, aggressive NK‐cell leukaemia, and extranodal NK/T‐cell lymphoma, nasal‐type. Recent studies indicate that CD4+CD56+ blastic NK‐cell lymphoma is of plasmacytoid dendritic cell origin, and true tumours of precursor NK‐cell origin may be present mainly in the CD4−CD56+ subset. Myeloid/NK‐cell precursor acute leukaemia may also develop from precursor NK cells. However, because the developmental pathway of normal NK cells is not well understood, tumours of precursor NK‐cell origin are not clearly identified. Among mature NK‐cell tumours, extranodal NK/T‐cell lymphoma is relatively common in Asia and Latin America. In localized disease, chemoradiotherapy seems to be promising, and in advanced disease, new combination chemotherapies are under active investigation. Aggressive NK‐cell leukaemia is rare and has a poor prognosis. Because NK‐cell neoplasms are rare and difficult to manage, rigorous studies are required for their understanding and management.
Can the extremely female‐biased sex ratio of the social spider mites be explained by Hamilton’s local mate competition model?
Authors: SATO YUKIE , SAITO YUTAKA
Published: October 2007

Abstract1. Extremely female‐biased sex ratios are known in the social spider mite species,Stigmaeopsis longusandS. miscanthi. Whether Hamilton’s local mate competition (LMC) theory can explain such sex ratios was investigated.

2. Significant changes of the progeny sex ratios in the direction predicted by the LMC model were found in both species when the foundress number changed. Therefore, LMC can partly explain the skewed sex ratios in these species.

3. When the foundress number increased, the progeny sex ratio was still female biased and significantly different from the prediction of the LMC model for haplodiploidy. Relatedness between foundresses could not fully explain the female‐biased sex ratios. Therefore, these results suggest that there are factors other than LMC skewing the sex ratios of these species toward female.
Serial monodomy in ants: an antipredator strategy?
Authors: McGLYNN TERRENCE P.
Published: October 2007

Abstract 1. The term serial monodomy is used to describe a life‐history phenomenon in social insects. Serially monodomous colonies maintain multiple nests for their exclusive use, but only occupy one nest at a time.

2. The hypothesis that colony odours mediate nest relocation decisions was tested in the serially monodomous species Aphaenogaster araneoides from Central America. Odour extracts of colony members were created using a non‐polar solvent.

3. Colonies strongly avoided reoccupying nests treated with colony odour extracts, while control colonies often returned to nests subjected to solvent‐only control. Behavioural observations indicated that A. araneoides colonies are capable of detecting army ant (Eciton burchellii) raids up to 1.4 m from the raiding front, with several seconds to evacuate nests.

4. It is proposed that the function of serial monodomy in A. araneoides is the reduction of nest odour to enhance detection of predaceous army ants. Serial monodomy may be a widespread but undocumented mode of nesting where army ants occur in tropical and subtropical climates.
Field mating rate of female meadow grasshoppers, Chorthippus parallelus, estimated from sperm counts
Authors: REINHARDT KLAUS , KÖHLER GÜNTER , WEBB STEVE , CHILDS DYLAN
Published: October 2007

Abstract 1. Female mating frequency is an important life‐history component in many insect species. It has been suggested that its laboratory measurement may frequently represent an overestimation of the natural situation because laboratory females have little opportunity to avoid matings. Here, numbers of sperm stored by field‐collected females are investigated in order to address whether this method is suitable for estimating field mating frequencies.

2. Data on sperm numbers stored by females and their estimated age based on mandible abrasion were fitted to a simple mechanistic model to obtain estimates of: (i) remating interval; (ii) ejaculate size, and (iii) the rate of sperm loss from the female sperm store. Females were calculated to remate every 5.9–7.0 days. By contrast, sperm numbers of field‐collected females did not exceed ejaculate size, which would have resulted in the false conclusion that females mate only once.

3. In the laboratory, females first mated when aged 4–11 days and remated approximately every 2.6 days. Because females are not restricted by mate encounters under these conditions, this confirms the notion that female mating rates are likely to be lower in the field than in the laboratory. Such reduced field mating rates should be taken into account when predicting ecological or evolutionary parameters based on laboratory observed mating rates.
A molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water: how large are the ranges of macro‐stygobionts?
Authors: TRONTELJ PETER , DOUADY CHRISTOPHE J. , FIŠER CENE , GIBERT JANINE , GORIČKI ŠPELA , LEFÉBURE TRISTAN , SKET BORIS , ZAKŠEK VALERIJA
Published: October 2007

1. Various groundwater habitats have exceptionally high levels of endemism caused by strong hydrographical isolation and low dispersal abilities of their inhabitants. More than 10% of macro‐stygobiotic species nevertheless occupy relatively large ranges, measuring from some hundred to over 2000 km in length. These species represent a challenge because their distributions disregard hydrographical boundaries, and their means to disperse and maintain long‐term gene flow are unknown.

2. Based on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences, we examined the phylogeographic structure of six formally recognised stygobiotic species (Niphargus virei,N. rhenorhodanensis,Troglocaris anophthalmus,T. hercegovinensis,Spelaeocaris pretneri,Proteus anguinus) and searched for cryptic lineage diversity in a genus‐wide phylogeny ofNiphargus. Using tree‐based criteria as well as comparative divergence measures, we identified cryptic lineages, which may tentatively be equated with cryptic species.

3. Fourteen analysed nominal stygobiotic species with large ranges emerged as highly diversified, splitting into 51 tentative cryptic lineages. The degree of divergence was within the range or larger than the divergence of other related pairs of sister species. A substantial part (94%) of the cryptic lineages had ranges <200 km in length. One half of them were recorded at single sites only. The largest range recorded was that of a crypticN. vireilineage (700 km), while none of the very large traditional ranges (e.g.Niphargus aquilex– 2300 km,N. tauri– 1900 km) could be corroborated.

4. These data suggest that small ranges of macro‐stygobionts are the rule, and ranges over 200 km are extremely rare.

5. The implications of this result for groundwater biodiversity assessment and conservation include a considerable increase in overall diversity at the regional and continental scale and a strong decrease in faunal similarities among regions, coupled with greater endemism.