bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Best Management Practices for Water Resources
Authors: Almasri Mohammad N. , Kaluarachchi Jagath J.
Published: July 2005

There is growing consciousness that water resources are susceptible to contamination from domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastes. The quality of water has become a major issue since the detection of many hazardous‐waste sites in the late 1970s. Sources of water contamination are widespread and include accidental spills, landfills, storage tanks, pipelines, agricultural activities, and many other sources. Of these sources, agriculture‐related activities produce nonpoint source pollution in small to large watersheds, especially due to nitrogen in fertilizers and various carcinogenic substances found in pesticides. Best management practices (BMPs) developed to protect the quality of water resources in agriculturally dominated areas are improvements in agricultural practices and land use patterns. Improving agricultural practices focuses on tillage practices, crop rotation, rational fertilizer and manure applications and timing, vegetation cover, and irrigation management. Land use changes include reevaluation of land use distribution and changes in the land use in areas that are vulnerable to contamination. BMPs for water resources are affordable, practical, and effective methods for minimizing the movement of contaminants from the ground surface to groundwater or surface waterbodies. BMPs assure sustainable use of water resources while minimizing the economic and social negative consequences. Due to its high mobility, nitrate is the primary nitrogen species lost from soils by leaching. Groundwater contamination by nitrate has been confirmed all over the world. Agricultural activities are the main source of nitrate pollution of groundwater resources. This study focuses on the development of BMPs to protect groundwater resources from nitrate pollution due to agriculture.
Landfill
Authors: Philp Jim
Published: July 2005

All countries rely to a greater or lesser degree on landfilling to dispose of the huge quantities of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated. For example, the United Kingdom has traditionally relied very heavily on landfilling of MSW as it has a relatively poor recycling infrastructure compared with some other European countries. The United Kingdom produces roughly 28 million tons of MSW per annum, of which about 80% is landfilled. Only some 12% is recycled and about 8% incinerated with energy recovery. Moreover, the amount of waste being generated is growing some 3–4% per annum.

Globally, landfilling has had a checkered history, and poor practice in design and operation of landfills has led to serious environmental problems. With regard to the threats to water bodies, the production of landfill leachate is by far the most significant. Liquid leachate develops at a site when its water holding capacity is exceeded. If the site is unlined, the leachate makes its way off‐site to groundwater or to a surface water body and can cause drastic water pollution.
Molecular Biology Tools for Monitoring Biodiversity in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Authors: Ciric Lena , Whiteley Andy , Philp Jim
Published: July 2005

The group of organisms most directly associated with wastewater treatment is bacteria. They dominate all other groups, both in numbers and biomass, and lead to mineralization and elimination of organic and inorganic compounds (1). Therefore, it seems a natural progression to study the biodiversity and ecology of these organisms in relation to wastewater treatment.
Waste Treatment in Fish Farms
Authors: Brinker Alexander , Bergheim Asbjorn
Published: July 2005

The removal of waste from aquaculture facilities presents both technical and management problems. Aquaculture effluents are generally very diluted and expensive to treat, and effluent loads are themselves a potential resource that should be recycled rather than wasted.

A multitude of technologies are available for the treatment and recycling of fish farm wastes. General information is provided on various methods for treating aquacultural effluents, ranging from the traditional to the technologically sophisticated and innovative. The suitability of the various treatments for different types of aquaculture, including intensive and to some extent semi‐intensive fish farms, is addressed. The potentials and limitations of the different techniques with respect to variable farm characteristics are discussed.
Radioactive Waste
Authors: Crocker James
Published: July 2005

Radioactive contamination as it relates to drinking water and other water sources is explained. Radioactivity may come from natural or manmade sources. Natural processes include production of tritium in Earth's upper atmosphere and transport to the ground via rainwater. When Earth's crust was formed, other radionuclides were formed, including uranium, strontium, and radium. Manmade sources of radioactivity potentially include water effluent from nuclear facilities, medical sources, and nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons testing. Specific regulations used in the United States and general guidelines from the World Health Organization governing radioactive release limits are listed. Specific radionuclides of concern in water sources include uranium, radium, radon, strontium, and tritium. Treatment technologies to remove these contaminants to acceptable release limits are outlined. Treatment technologies ordinarily used for drinking water treatment remove most of the radioactive contamination in water sources, if such contamination is present. These technologies include membrane filtration processes, such as reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and electrodialysis; air stripping, carried out in tray towers, bubble columns, or packed columns; chemical precipitation; lime softening; ion exchange; and activated carbon treatment.
Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment
Authors: Hulshoff Pol Look
Published: July 2005

Anaerobic digestion is a natural process in which different microorganisms of the biological kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea work together to convert organic compounds through a variety of intermediates into biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide and small amounts of hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen. This ancient process, brought about by living species long before the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere, is presently gaining an increased interest because of its potential in the treatment of solid organic waste, sludge, and wastewater.
Nitrification in the Activated Sludge Process
Authors: Gerardi Michael H.
Published: July 2005

There are two reduced forms of nitrogen that are of concern to wastewater treatment plant operators and state and federal regulatory agencies. These forms contain hydrogen and consist of nonionized ammonia or ammonia (NH
3
) and ionized ammonia or ammonium ion (NH
4
+
). Although ammonia and ammonium ions are both present in wastewater, the amount of each is dependent on the pH of the wastewater.
Sewerage Odors—How to Control
Authors: Striebig Bradley A.
Published: July 2005

Odors result from the perception of chemicals by the olfactory system. The response to odorants present in the air depends on the odor concentration, intensity, persistence, and character. Most sewerage odors are formed under anaerobic conditions; typical odorants include hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, ammonia, amines, and volatile fatty acids.

The concentration of organic materials and nutrients in the sewerage, sulfate concentrations, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and residence time in the sewer system affect odor emissions. Control methods may be designed to prevent odors or control them from exhausted air. Oxygen and other chemical additives have been employed to reduce odors from sewers and wastewater treatment facilities. The additives reduce hydrogen sulfide emissions by chemical oxidation, microbial inhibition of sulfate reduction, precipitation, and pH control.

If odor prevention is not cost‐effective, various odor control technologies are capable of removing odorous compounds exhausted from confined sources. The most common technologies for treating sewer‐related odors are carbon adsorption, biofiltration, absorption, ozonation, and thermal oxidation. The cost associated with the control technologies, both capital and operational costs, must be considered. Research, experience, and comprehensive testing programs are important for determining the most cost‐effective odor control methods.
Ultrafiltration—Complexation in Wastewater Treatment
Authors: Molinari Raffaele , Argurio Pietro
Published: July 2005

A process for removal of ions from wastewaters by using water soluble polymers such as polyetilenimine (PEI), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyacrylic acid sodium salt (PAASS) and poly(dimethylamine–co–epichlorohydrin–co–ethylenediamine) (PDEHED) as chelating agents and the Cu
2+
ion as model in combination with ultrafiltration membranes (PAUF process), is described.

The tests on the complexing agents, to establish the binding capacity and the best operating conditions of the process, showed that complexation conditions depend on pH: indeed, copper ion is complexed by PEI, PAA, PAASS and PDEHED at pHs higher than 6, 4.6, 4.6 and 8, respectively. The decomplexation reactions took place at pH < 3. Binding capacity was 0.333 mg Cu
2+
/mg polymer for PEI, PAA and PAASS. For the chelating agent PDEHED the ratio was 2. Ultrafiltration tests were realized at two transmembrane pressures (2 and 4 bar), by using five different membranes, to make a comparison of polymers and membranes performances, as flux and rejection. UF tests showed that the PAA polymer and the PAN membrane GKSS HV2/T can be used when the objective of the purification process is to decrease the metal concentration not lower than a certain value that is accepted for water reuse or fixed by law for water discharge. The polymer PDEHED is useful if the objective of wastewater treatment is to obtain a complete copper removal.

The described work shows: i) the importance to use optimal chemical conditions to obtain a maximum binding capacity of the polymer; ii) the role of different types of UF membranes in order to employ the PAUF process in metal ions removal from various types of wastewaters.
Aqueous Reactions of Specific Organic Compounds with Ozone
Authors: Duncan James B.
Published: July 2005

Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen and exists as a pale‐blue gas (O3) with a pungent odor. It is very reactive chemically and decomposes without difficulty (2O3 → 3O2). Ozone is used for

Disinfection and for taste and odor control

Control of excessive color

Oxidation of iron and manganese

Oxidation of organics

Flocculation aid

Does not form trihalomethanes (THMs)

Ozone‐induced oxidations in aqueous environments can generally be described in the sequence of reactions; usually these reactions are highly selective and demonstrate slow kinetics, on the order of minutes. Part of the ozone will decompose before reaction with solutes leading to free radicals. Among the free radicals, the hydroxyl radical is one of the most reactive oxidants, which can easily oxidize all types of organic contaminants along with several inorganic solutes. Ozone is reactive with alkene and alkyne bonds and is strongly influenced by electron density at the site(s) of attack. Reactions of ozone with aromatics substituted with electron donor groups (OH, CH3, and NH2) are exacerbated. However, aromatics substituted with electron withdrawing groups (COOH and NO2) are retarded.
Water Hammer: Quantitative Causes and Effects
Authors: Ponnuswami Rathnavel
Published: July 2005

Water hammer
can be defined as a transitory increase in pressure in a water system when there is a sudden change of direction or velocity of the water. Water hammer may also be known by names like shockwave effect or hydraulic shock.

If the velocity of water flowing in a pipe is suddenly checked, the energy given up by the water will be utilized in compressing the water itself. This pressure energy is transferred to the pipe wall and this leads to the setup of shock waves in the system. These shock waves travel backward (with a speed similar to the speed of sound), until encountering a solid obstacle (the valve), and crash into the obstacle back and forth repeatedly. This repeated crashing produces an undesirable sound and may lead to rupture of valves and pipes.
Assassinations
Authors: Holey Erika
Published: July 2005

A small number of assassinations have been attempted using biological or toxin weapons in the past, with varying success. Four historical cases are reviewed.
A
um
S
hinrikyo and the
A
leph
Authors: Sugishima Masaaki
Published: July 2005

The Aum Shinrikyo, which perpetrated the Tokyo sarin incident, pursued and attempted to deliver biological weapons on a number of occasions. Agents of primary interest were
Bacillus anthracis
and botulinum toxin. The Aum experience with these and other agents demonstrated the difficulties inherent in attaining a biological weapons capability, particularly in the successful acquisition of deadly pathogens or toxins and the development of effective means of delivery.
B
aader‐
M
einhof
G
ang
Authors: McAdams David
Published: July 2005

In the 1980s, reports surfaced that the West German Red Army Faction, the second generation of the Baader‐Meinhof Gang, had sought to acquire biological weapons. Coinciding with these claims came reports in both German and French newspapers that French Police has raided a Paris RAF safe house in October, 1980, and discovered vials containing Clostridium botulinum (the bacteria for producing botulinum toxin,) and a basic biological laboratory. All further investigations into the incidents and those persons reportedly involved in the case have turned up nothing, which suggests that the incident was fabricated and never occurred.
Bioterrorist Attack, Stages, and Aftermath
Authors: Zilinskas Raymond A.
Published: July 2005

A biological emergency essentially comprises three overlapping stages. In the preattack stage, a terrorist acts to acquire a biological weapon with the intent of using it against a target population in order to gain some perceived benefit. In the attack stage, the terrorist activates the deployed biological weapon. In the attack management stage, casualty presentation, triage, treatment, epidemiological and police investigation, and possibly quarantine occur. A detailed discussion of each stage is provided.
Botulinum Toxin
Authors: Arnon Stephen S.
Published: July 2005

Botulinum toxin is one of six Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Class A agents considered to be of primary concern to public health and national security. It is the most lethal natural substance known to man, and has been extensively pursued by both state and terrorist biological weapons programs. Both a toxoid and antitoxin exist, and efforts are underway to improve such preventive and therapeutic modalities. Rapid, ultrasensitive, and specific detection and diagnostic tests for botulinum toxin, now under development, are very much needed.
C
uba
Authors: Zilinskas Raymond A. , Rodriguez Silvana , Baker Michelle
Published: July 2005

This article is divided into two sections. The first considers Cuba's history of terrorist support and examines the United States' accusations regarding current terrorist relations. The U.S. concern is with Cuba's efforts to cultivate relations with Iran, Syria, and Libya, countries known to support terrorism. The second section reviews Cuba's biotechnological capability and how it might relate to the potential development of biological weapons. Cuba does posses powerful capability in biotechnology, which could lead to the preparation of biological weapons. Possibilities of this occurring are discussed.
Delivery Methodologies
Authors: Pilch Richard F.
Published: July 2005

The delivery of a biological agent is generally based on whether it is contagious, such as smallpox orYersinia pestis, or noncontagious such as botulinum toxin orBacillus anthracis. Contagious agents usually require comparatively low‐tech delivery systems that begin with a small group or individual infection. Noncontagious agents can be delivered using multiple methods, including injection, contaminated water, food, or beverages, or dissemination by aerosol. All of these methods are discussed.
Department of Homeland Security
Authors: Mitchell Jennifer
Published: July 2005

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS), created following the attacks of September 11th, plays a significant role in protecting the U.S. from bioterrorism. Three directorates within DHS are charged with preventing attacks against America utilizing biological agents. Moreover, DHS recently implemented multiple initiatives aimed at thwarting an attack, including Project Bioshield, which provides biological agent countermeasures such as drugs and vaccines. It is the hope of DHS that with these initiatives, and cooperation with 22 federal, state, and local agencies, acts of bioterrorism can be prevented in the United States.
Detection of Biological Agents
Authors: Casagrande Rocco , Kosal Margaret E.
Published: July 2005

Early detection of a biological attack could enable the preparedness community to treat the exposed and protect the unexposed to significantly reduce the number and severity of casualties. Methods to detect a bioterrorist attack can either focus on the detection of clouds that could potentially be biological aerosols or rely on more sophisticated techniques that probe a given sample for particular biological agents, distinguishing harmful microbes from nonpathogenic ones. Alternatively, an early warning that a biological attack has occurred could be accomplished by monitoring patterns in such data as hospital records, tollbooth receipts, or animal deaths.
Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses
Authors: Berger Stephen A.
Published: July 2005

Hemorrhagic fever viruses are categorized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as Class A biological agents, agents of primary concern in terms of both public health and national security. Hemorrhagic fevers cause severe morbidity and mortality, and treatment options are extremely limited. Former biological weapons programs of both the United States and Soviet Union are known to have investigated hemorrhagic fever viruses for offensive application, and the terrorist group Aum Shinrikyo is believed to have pursued the study of Ebola virus for its own weapons program. The biological weapons potential of and defense against the major hemorrhagic fever viruses are discussed.
Hizballah
Authors: Cranmer Skyler John
Published: July 2005

Hizballah means the Party of God. Its ideology is based on a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam. The group has an extensive governmental structure that consists of political, military/terrorist, economic, and humanitarian branches. Its primary state affiliation is with Iran. Iran carries much influence with the group. Hizballah receives financial aid, training, weapons, and explosives, and political and diplomatic support from Iran. The Lebanese government also considers Hizballah as important to its society and offers the group protection.

Hisballah may have ties with other terrorist organizations. It is an active group that poses an immediate threat to Western entities in the Middle East (Israel in particular) and has global reach.
I
ran
Authors: Heath Benjamin D.
Published: July 2005

In 2002, President George W. Bush announced that he considered Iran, along with Iraq and North Korea as countries that threatened the global interests of the United States. He declared these three countries as the “Axis of Evil.” Iran was considered deserving of this designation because of its weapons of mass destruction programs and its support of terrorist groups. Some fear that Iran will combine its interests with other groups to uses their resources against their enemies. In order to understand the allegations and possibilities of terrorist use of biology, it is necessary to understand the difference between rhetoric and solid evidence. This article attempts to do this. Iran has traditionally maintained an advanced biotechnology program. Iran's official stance is that biological weapons is one of complete abhorrence. Iran has hosted mock inspections for future inspections and is a party to every relevant international arms control agreement. However there are still fears that Iran could arm such groups as Hizballah with biological weapons. There has been no evidence that Iran would transfer weapons to terrorist groups because such a transfer would eliminate control over the weapon. This article concludes that the threat Iran poses in the realm of bioterrorism remains negligible.
I
raq
Authors: Klein Robyn W. , Oppenheimer Andy
Published: July 2005

This article consists of two sections. The first considers Iraq's history of terrorist support and examines the current status of terrorism in postwar Iraq. Saddam Hussein's open and ambiguous ties to Mujahedun‐E‐Khalq, the Palestinian terror organizations, Ansar Al‐Islam, Al‐Qua'ida, and the Kurdistan Workers' Party are discussed. The second part of the article reviews Iraq's former offensive biological weapons program in order to ascertain what capabilities might have been made available to supported terrorist groups. To date, no evidence demonstrating that this type of transfer actually took place during Saddam Hussein's regime has been published.
J
oint
T
ask
F
orce
C
ivil
S
upport
Authors: Baker Michelle
Published: July 2005

The Joint Task Force Support Civil Support (JTF‐CS) is a newly created standing unit designed to coordinate disaster management response with the Department of Defense and FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) now a part of the Department of Homeland Security. The JTF‐CS is positioned to play an integral role in supporting civilian forces by providing logistical and technical support following a biological, chemical, nuclear, radiological, or high yield explosive attack.

In order to fulfill its directive to provide a comprehensive and timely disaster managements JFS has developed a consequence management doctrine, performs training and exercises simulating emergency situations and identifies logistical requirements that must be met to complete its assignment. Although it has yet to demonstrate its full capabilities, training exercises have displayed the value of coordination and cooperation of civilian and military agencies when an incident occurs
L
awrence
L
ivermore
N
ational
L
aboratory
Authors: Fitch J. Patrick
Published: July 2005

The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Chemical and Biological National Security Program provide science, technology, and integrated systems for chemical and biological security. Its approach is to develop field systems that dramatically improve the nation's capabilities to prevent, prepare for, detect, and respond to terrorist use of biological or chemical weapons. This article gives details on the Laboratory's programs.

Areas include decontamination, restoration, modeling and prediction, instrumentation, and applied science.
L
iberation
T
igers of
T
amil
E
elam
Authors: Abhayaratne Praveen
Published: July 2005

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) is widely recognized as one of the world's most ferocious terrorist organizations. The group is especially notorious for its ability to strike at will and its advanced military and organizational adaptability. The LTTE has functioned as a guerrilla force, terrorist organization, conventional army, political body, and governing authority. It has conducted the highest number of suicide attacks in the world and has claimed the lives of two heads of states and countless others. The LTTE claims to be the sole representative of the Tamil people in their struggle for independence from the Sinhalese‐dominated government in Sri Lanka. Although there are a few documented cases of LTTE's usage and threats to use biological and chemical agents, the group's current claim to be a legitimate governing authority makes it unlikely that they will pursue such weapons in the future.
L
ibya
Authors: Karch Michelle
Published: July 2005

In 1969, Mu'ammar Al‐Qadhdhfi overthrew the monarchy of Libya and established a dictatorship. Libya then embraced a foreign policy of hostility towards the West and turned towards terrorist groups for assistance due in part to an ineffective conventional force and a much needed defense against Islamic militants and dissident groups opposed to the regime. Libya is currently one of the seven state sponsors of terrorism designated by the U.S. Department of State and is suspected of having an offensive biological program. In 2003, negotiations between American and British official resulted in the disclosure of the state's unconventional weapons capabilities, which included dual‐use biological research, development and production facilities, but no biological weapons per se
Marine Algal Toxins
Authors: Poli Mark A.
Published: July 2005

Marine biotoxins should not be overlooked as potential agents of food bioterrorism. Because they occur naturally in fresh and otherwise wholesome seafood products, possess no visual or olfactory clues to their presence, and are impervious to typical cooking temperatures, they can be a difficult problem to identify. Toxic foodstuffs are easily acquired and, in theory, need only be inserted into the food supply at the desired location downstream of any regulatory testing. Six major seafood intoxication syndromes, along with their bioterrorism implications, are discussed in this entry.
Marine Corps Chemical and Biological Incident Response Force
Authors: Runyon Jennifer
Published: July 2005

The mission of the Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (CBIRF) is to either forward‐deploy or respond to a credible threat of chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear terrorism, or a high‐yield explosive incident. The CBIRF is composed of an Initial Response Force (IRF) and a Follow‐on Force (FOF). The IRF maintains a 24‐hour readiness posture, and can deploy via ground transportation within one hour of notification and by air within four hours.
M
au‐
M
au
Authors:   Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database Staff
Published: July 2005

Media reporting of bioterrorism has been mostly frenzied and inaccurate on account of lack of scientific understanding. Unlike bombs, microbes, used in biological attacks, are microscopic and silent and take time to act. In addition to consulting experts, news organizations should decide in advance of a crisis, to draw up a protocol or road map, spelling out how attacks should be covered and what questions or sensitivities should be considered before a story is printed. This alone can increase public awareness without spreading panic.
M
innesota
P
atriots
C
ouncil
Authors: Pate Jason
Published: July 2005

In 1995, four Minnesota men were the first to be tried and convicted under the United States Anti‐terrorism Act of 1989. Douglas Baker, Leroy Wheeler, Dennis Henderson, and Richard Olrich acquired ricin as part of an alleged plot to kill local deputy sheriffs.

The four men were members of a radical tax‐protesting militia named the Minnesota Patriots Council
M
inutemen: Case Studies
Authors:   Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database Staff
Published: July 2005

The 1960's right‐wing California militia group, the Minutemen, strived to defend the United Sates in what it believed to be inevitable communist takeover. Its founder, Robert DePugh, made numerous threats to use chemical and biological weapons to further their goals. The group apparently developed a plan to spread biological agents through the United States. This plan nor any of DePugh's weapons of mass destruction threats were ever pursued in any active sense.
N
orth
A
merican
M
ilitia
Authors:   Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database Staff
Published: July 2005

In 1998, Randy Graham, of Springfield, Bradford Metcalf of Olivet, and Kenneth Carter of Battle Creek, Michigan, all members of the North American Militia, were implicated in a series of plots against government officials. Searches of their homes and belongings by law enforcement uncovered, in addition to conventional weapons, a tape for instructions on the preparation of ricin. The men were convicted on charges unrelated to biological weapons.
O
ffice
I
nternational
des
E
pizooties: World Organization for Animal Health
Authors: Woodford Michael
Published: July 2005

The Office International des Epizooties (OIE) is an international governmental organization with 162 Member Countries. Its mission is: to inform governments on the existence of animal diseases, changes in distribution, and means of controlling them; to coordinate international research on animal disease surveillance and control; and to examine regulations with a view to harmonization among the member nations. The organization of OIE is discussed. The OIE is an observatory for animal health and a key mission is to inform veterinary services on the appearance and course of epizooties.

This article presents the list of classifications of disease as prepared by OIE. Information is classified by severity of effects. Working groups of the OIE review progress in their subject field and contribute to the organization of scientific meetings, seminars, workshops, and training course The OIE maintains permanent relationships with numerous organizations, for example, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Poupard James A.
Published: July 2005

The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries play and important role in providing anti‐infective drugs, vaccines, and biologicals (products such as immunodilators interferons, and monoclonal antibodies). The biologicals are often produced in facilities similar to vaccine production lines since they are usually derived from tissue cultures or modified organisms. Research, development, and production programs initiated by the pharmaceutical industry will play a key role in providing new therapeutic agents for use against bioterrorist attacks. The industry will be an important element in determining future policies in regard to bioterrorism.
Psychological and Social Sequelae of Bioterrorism
Authors: Ackerman Gary
Published: July 2005

By definition, one of the core objectives of terrorism is to impact a broader population than the immediate victims of attack by causing fear, anxiety, and social disruption. Bioterrorism in particular encompasses several features that can serve to amplify these effects; indeed, this is one of the very reasons why terrorists might find this form of attack attractive. The psychological casualties of any terrorism incident involving unconventional weapons are also likely to outnumber the physical casualties, which could complicate response efforts. Even a small‐scale bioterrorist event with limited direct casualties will likely impact millions, as seen during the 2001 “anthrax mail attacks.” Therefore, one cannot overlook the psychological and social consequences of a bioterrorist event in any discussion about preparation or defense against bioterrorism.
Rajneeshees
Authors: Carus W. Seth
Published: July 2005

In 1984, the religious cult, the Rajneeshees, employed the biological agentSalmonella typhimuriumagainst the inhabitants of The Dalles, a small town in Oregon. Public Health officials estimated that 751 people became sick because of the attack. No one died, but four dozen people were hospitalized.
Ricin and Abrin
Authors: Poli Mark A.
Published: July 2005

Ricin and abrin are plant‐derived protein toxins that are potent inhibitors of cellular protein synthesis. Although never used as such, ricin was included in the biological weapons programs of several countries, including the United States, during the first half of the twentieth century. Both toxins are now causing concerns as potential agents of bioterrorism. The sources, toxicity, mechanisms of action, and detection of these toxins are briefly discussed.
RISE
: A Case Study
Authors: Carus W. Seth
Published: July 2005

In January 1972, the Chicago, Illinois police arrested two college students on the basis that the two were about to contaminate the Chicago water system with
Salmonella typhi
, the organism that causes typhoid fever. The two students, Steven Pera and Allen C. Schwander were students at Mayfair College. They had vague ecological concerns and this led them to organize a terror group which they called RISE.
S
andia
N
ational
L
aboratories
Authors: Harrison Lauren
Published: July 2005

Sandia National Laboratories is a government‐owned, contract‐operated facility currently managed by Lockheed Martin. The laboratories are involved in research and development projects ranging from biosciences to homeland security and defense. Sandia's mission is to help the nation secure a peaceful and free world through technology. Sandia maintains capabilities in the a range of areas, and has contributed significantly to homeland security in the nuclear, biological, and chemical domain including work to ensure the safety of the U.S. nuclear weapons stockpile as well as to monitor energy and critical infrastructure. Sandia's major association with antiterrorism and counterterrorism is a result of the growing need to develop technology to protect nuclear facilities.
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins
Authors: Poli Mark A.
Published: July 2005

Many cases of human foodborne illness throughout the world are caused by enterotoxins produced by various strains of
Staphylococcus aureus.
While oral exposure to these toxins commonly results in the traditional food‐poisoning symptomatology, nonenteric exposure can cause much more serious, even life‐threatening sequelae. From the standpoint of biological warfare and biological terrorism, staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) is considered the serotype of greatest import. It is a versatile agent, as it can be an effective incapacitant, when inhaled in very low doses. At slightly higher doses, it can be lethal. The toxicity, mechanism of action, and detection of these agents are briefly discussed.
TOPOFF
Authors: Abhayaratne Praveen
Published: July 2005

Mandated by the U. S. Congress to evaluate the nation's crisis and consequence management under duress, the Department of Justice engaged key emergency management personnel to prepare senior government officials to respond to an actual terrorist attack involving weapons of mass destruction, gauge preparedness, and identify areas in need of improvement. The exercise, know as TOPOFF (top officials), was a national level, multiagency, multijurisdictional, no notice simulation addressing three fictional events in three major cities: a chemical event in Portsmouth, New Hampshire; a radiological event in Washington, D. C.; and a biological weapons attack in Denver, Colorado. This article provides an overview of TOPOFF with specific attention paid to the biological weapons scenario. Key observations and lessons learned are noted.
TOPOFF
2
Authors: Abhayaratne Praveen
Published: July 2005

Building on the lessons of the first TOPOFF exercise held in May 2000, TOPOFF 2 was designed to test local, state and federal agency response capabilities to a combination of natural disasters and terrorism incidents while incorporating new management policies. The exercise was held in King County, Seattle and Pierce County in Washington, in Chicago, Illinois, and Ottawa Canada. It was the most comprehensive response simulation conducted in North America to‐date. Final data and evaluations have not yet been released. This article presents information on exercise participants, scenarios, and observations as inclusive as present information allows
Prevention and Treatment of Biological Weapons‐Related Infection and Disease
Authors: Setlak Paul
Published: July 2005

The use of biological weapons against man is a recognized threat, especially after the dispersal of anthrax in fall 2001 and the continued risk from terrorist organizations throughout the world. In light of this threat, it is crucial to differentiate and analyze the various therapeutic approaches for prevention and treatment of biological weapons‐related infection and disease. There are three main categories of pharmaceuticals that can be utilized to treat casualties brought on by biological weapon agents. These include the antibiotics, antivirals and vaccines and toxoids. Consistent research on an unprecedented scale is being emphasized in the area of biodefense at numerous locations, such as the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH). As a result, therapeutic information in the context of biological weapons is constantly evolving and expanding. Therefore, it is important to maintain a working knowledge of the field and keep abreast of changes, research and updates in such therapeutics relating to prevention and treatment of biological weapon agents.
U
nited
K
ingdom: Bioterrorism Defense
Authors: Pearson Graham S.
Published: July 2005

There has long been a necessity in the United Kingdom (UK) to be able to respond to outbreaks of disease that may affect humans, animals, or plants. The response to bioterrorism is primarily based upon the capability to respond to terrorist incidents and upon the capability to respond to such outbreaks. The United Kingdom's integrated approach to a major emergency provides the background to the examination of the effectiveness of that approach in preparedness to counter deliberate releases of biological materials.
Water Supply: Vulnerability and Attack Specifics
Authors: Burrows W. Dickinson , Birkmire Sara Renner
Published: July 2005

Though hardly credible as weapons of mass casualties when applied to community water supplies, biological warfare (BW) agents can sicken and even kill many people when the agent is applied to potable water distribution systems close to targeted populations. An effective defense will require improved detection and monitoring capabilities, better knowledge of infectivity or toxicity of individual agents, as well as their environmental stability, upgraded water treatment technologies, and vigilance.
Weapons of Mass Destruction
C
ivil
S
upport
T
eams
Authors: Harrison Lauren
Published: July 2005

In response to the bombing in Oklahoma City in 1995 and the sarin attack in the subway in Tokyo, Congress commenced discussions of the creation of a group of teams that could respond quickly to weapons of mass destruction attacks in the U.S. President Clinton announced a plan to establish the Civil Support Team. Congress subsequently approved a total of 32 teams. As of 2003 all 32 teams are authorized and 27 teams have been certified as operational under the Department of Defense requirements.
Brucellosis (BrucellaSpp.)
Authors: Richey E. J. , Harrell C. Dix
Published: July 2005

Brucellosis in humans can be caused byBrucella abortus(a disease of cattle),Brucella melitenis(a disease of goats),Brucella susi(generally a disease of pigs), andBrucella canis(generally a disease of dogs). At least three species have been considered in the context of biological weapons. Iraq's former biological weapons program may have usedB. melitensisin an offensive capacity. This article focuses onB. abortusas, a representative cause of brucellosis due to its pertinence in the realm of agricultural biosecurity as well as human and animal bioterrorism. Other species ofBrucellacan be expected to act in a similar fashion, but not all of the information supplied here applies to all forms of the disease.
Typhus, Epidemic (

R
ickettsia prowazekii

)
Authors: Eremeeva Marina E. , Dasch Gregory A.
Published: July 2005

Classic epidemic louse‐borne typhus is also known as historic typhus or European typhus; jail, war, camp, or ship fever; Flechfieber (German); typhus exanthematique (French); and tifus exantematico or tabardillo (Spanish). The word “typhus” has a Greek origin meaning cloudy or misty, and is applied to typhus disease because of the lethargic state of mind that occurs in its victims. The history of typhus is largely the history of men in battle. Typhus has been credited with deciding the outcome of more battles than all of the world's generals' best‐laid strategies.
Morphological features, distribution and compartmental organization of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced‐diaphorase interneurons in the human striatum
Authors: Bernácer Javier , Prensa Lucía , Giménez‐Amaya José Manuel
Published: July 2005

Striatal nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced‐diaphorase (NADPH‐d)‐positive (+) cells are one of the major classes of striatal interneurons. The present study analyzes their somatodendritic morphology, distribution pattern, and compartmental organization in the caudate nucleus (CN) and putamen (Put) of nine normal human brains. The following striatal territories are examined: 1) the precommissural head of the CN; 2) the postcommissural head of the CN; 3) the body of the CN; 4) the gyrus of the CN; 5) the tail of the CN; 6) the precommissural Put; and 7) the postcommissural Put. Three morphologically distinct types of NADPH‐d+ neurons were found in each of these territories. The two most common NADPH‐d+ neurons displayed an ovoid or triangular perikaryon from which several thick primary dendrites emerged, although much less numerous, bipolar‐shaped NADPH‐d+ cells were also observed. The highest density of NADPH‐d+ neurons was found in the gyrus of the CN, followed by the body of the CN, tail of the CN, postcommissural head of the CN, postcommissural Put, precommissural head of the CN, and precommissural Put. The matrix was the striatal compartment with the densest NADPH‐d+ neuronal population. Some of these cells also occurred in the center and peripheral regions of the striosomes located in the head of the CN and in the Put. In the body and gyrus of the CN, the striosomes were largely devoid of these striatal interneurons. Knowledge of the density and distribution of these interneurons should advance our understanding of the organization of the normal human striatum and help to evaluate the effects of neurodegenerative processes on cell density. J. Comp. Neurol. 489:311–327, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Morphologic evidence that neurokinin B modulates gonadotropin‐releasing hormone secretion via neurokinin 3 receptors in the rat median eminence
Authors: Krajewski Sally J. , Anderson Miranda J. , Iles‐Shih Lulu , Chen Kyung J. , Urbanski Henryk F. , Rance Naomi E.
Published: July 2005

Recent studies suggest that arcuate neurokinin B (NKB) neurons play a role in the regulation of gonadotropin secretion, but there is little information on the relationship between these neurons and the hypothalamic reproductive axis. In the present study, dual‐label fluorescent immunohistochemistry was used to visualize the relationship between gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons and either proNKB or NK3 receptor (NK3R) immunoreactivity. Immunocytochemistry was also combined with i.p. injections of the fluorescent retrograde tracer aminostilbamidine to determine whether arcuate neuroendocrine neurons expressed either proNKB or NK3R. A dense interweaving and close apposition of GnRH and proNKB‐immunoreactive (ir) fibers was observed within the rat median eminence, where GnRH axons expressed NK3R immunoreactivity. These data provide morphological evidence that NKB neurons could influence GnRH secretion via interaction with NK3R in the rat median eminence. Colocalization of GnRH and NK3R was also identified in fiber tracts converging within the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis. In contrast, only a small number (16%) of GnRH‐ir somata exhibited NK3R staining. ProNKB and NK3R‐ir somata were identified within the arcuate nucleus, but none of these neurons were labeled by aminostilbamidine. Thus, we found no evidence that arcuate NKB neurons project to the primary capillary plexus of the portal system. Arcuate neuroendocrine neurons, however, were surrounded and closely apposed by proNKB‐ir puncta and fibers. These data suggest that NKB neurons could indirectly influence anterior pituitary function by inputs to arcuate neuroendocrine neurons, but through a receptor other than NK3R. Our results provide an anatomic framework for putative interactions between NKB neurons and the hypothalamic reproductive axis. J. Comp. Neurol. 489:372–386, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Diversity of ganglion cells in the mouse retina: Unsupervised morphological classification and its limits
Authors: Kong Jee‐Hyun , Fish Daniel R. , Rockhill Rebecca L. , Masland Richard H.
Published: July 2005

The dendritic structures of retinal ganglion cells in the mouse retina were visualized by particle‐mediated transfer of DiI, microinjection of Lucifer yellow, or visualization of green fluorescent protein expressed in a transgenic strain. The cells were imaged in three dimensions and the morphologies of a series of 219 cells were analyzed quantitatively. A total of 26 parameters were studied and automated cluster analysis was carried out using the k‐means methods. An effective clustering, judged by silhouette analysis, was achieved using three parameters: level of stratification, extent of the dendritic field, and density of branching. An 11‐cluster solution is illustrated. The cells within each cluster are visibly similar along morphological dimensions other than those used statistically to form the clusters. They could often be matched to ganglion cell types defined by previous studies. For reasons that are discussed, however, this classification must remain provisional. Some steps toward more definitive methods of unsupervised classification are pointed out. J. Comp. Neurol. 489:293–310, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Characterization of somatostatin‐ and cholecystokinin‐immunoreactive periglomerular cells in the rat olfactory bulb
Authors: Gutièrrez‐Mecinas María , Crespo Carlos , Blasco‐Ibáñez José Miguel , Gracia‐Llanes Francisco Javier , Marqués‐Marí Ana Isabel , Martínez‐Guijarro Francisco José
Published: July 2005

Periglomerular cells (PG) are interneurons of the olfactory bulb (OB) that modulate the first synaptic relay of the olfactory information from the olfactory nerve to the dendrites of the bulbar principal cells. Previous investigations have pointed to the heterogeneity of these interneurons and have demonstrated the presence of two different types of PG. In the rat OB, type 1 PG receive synaptic contacts from the olfactory axons and are γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA)‐ergic, whereas type 2 PG do not receive synaptic contacts from the olfactory axons and are GABA immunonegative. In this study, we analyze and characterize neurochemically a group of PG that has not been previously classified either as type 1 or type 2. These PG are immunoreactive for the neuropeptides somatostatin (SOM) or cholecystokinin (CCK). By using double immunocytochemistry, we demonstrate that neither the SOM‐ nor the CCK‐immunoreactive PG contain GABA immunoreactivity, which is a neurochemical feature of type 1 PG. Moreover, they do not contain the calcium‐binding proteins calbindin D‐28k and calretinin, which are neurochemical markers of the type 2 PG. Electron microscopy demonstrates that the dendrites of the SOM‐ and CCK‐containing PG are distributed in the synaptic and sensory subcompartments of the glomerular neuropil and receive synaptic contacts from the olfactory axons. Therefore, they should be included in the type 1 group rather than in the type 2. Altogether, these data indicate that the SOM‐ and the CCK‐containing PG may constitute a group of GABA‐immunonegative type 1 PG that has not been previously described. These results further extend the high degree of complexity of the glomerular circuitry. J. Comp. Neurol. 489:467–479, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.