bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The nutritional value of invertebrates with emphasis on ants and termites as food for mammals
Authors: Redford Kent H. , Dorea Jose G.
Published: August 2009

Water, ash, total nitrogen and fat contents were determined for the worker and soldier castes of nine species of central Brazilian termites. These values were then compared with those from other species of termites, ants and 22 other species of terrestrial invertebrates. In comparison with most other invertebrates, termite workers and soldiers tend to be high in ash, low in fat and about equal in water and nitrogen. In contrast, alate ants and termites and most larval or pupal insects have much higher percentages of fat. It is pointed out that most protein and total energy values for arthropods are of limited use because the assays used incorporate the nitrogen present in the indigestible chitin exoskeleton.

It is concluded that most invertebrate‐eating mammals choose prey based on availability and other aspects of prey biology and not on gross nutritional factors. The problems associated with eating ants and termites are discussed and include low nutritional value of prey, small prey size and forms of defense relying on the sociality of the prey.
Physiological convergence amongst ant‐eating and termite‐eating mammals
Authors: McNab Brian K.
Published: August 2009

Ant‐ and termite‐eating are among the few food habits common to monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. Data are reported on the rate of metabolism and temperature regulation of 14 species of mammals having these food habits, including two monotremes, one marsupial and 11 eutherians. Small mammals with these habits have comparatively high body temperatures and high basal rates of metabolism, but ant‐ and termite‐eaters that weigh more than 1 kg generally have low body temperatures and low basal rates of metabolism. The higher basal rates in small species ensure effective temperature regulation. Low body temperatures in large species principally result from low rates of metabolism. Rates of metabolism are low in these mammals because they use a food that has a limited availability and a low energy density, the density being further decreased in large species by the ingestion of non‐nutritive material during feeding. Burrowing habits in some large species also contribute to low rates of metabolism. The combination of body size, food habits, and presence or absence of burrowing behaviour can account for all but about 6% of the range in basal rate in ant‐ and termite‐eaters. Ants and termites, because of their locally clumped distributions, permit a larger mass in terrestrial predators than do other invertebrate prey. The reason why so many “primitive” mammals feed on ants and termites is that, once evolved, mammals with these habits are nearly impossible to displace ecologically, because much of ecological replacement is associated with high rates of reproduction, which are themselves correlated with high rates of metabolism in eutherians. Consequently, the ecological replacement of ant‐ and termite‐eaters is inhibited, because this food habit does not permit high rates of metabolism, except at small masses.
Fatigue fracture of mother‐of‐pearl and its significance for predatory techniques
Authors: Currey J. D. , Brear K.
Published: August 2009

Specimens of nacre from the pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera were loaded in bending to various fractions of the load needed to cause fracture. For a small number of cycles, less than about 1000, no changes in compliance or strength were found if the load was less than about 60% of the load necessary to cause failure. Above this fraction the compliance increased, the strength usually decreased but occasionally increased.

We conclude that, because the loading of a shell by a predator is likely to be far less controlled than loading by a machine, causing a shell to break by fatigue fracture is unlikely to be a tactic employed by a predator, though it may happen fortuitously.
Social functions of the sub‐caudal scent gland secretion of the European badger Metes metes (Carnivora: Mustelidae)
Authors: Gorman M. L. , Kruuk H. , Leitch A.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes aspects of the biological function of the sub‐caudal scent gland of the European badger. Chemical analyses of the secretion reveal that it contains information potentially useful in allowing individual identity and group membership. There is no evidence that the secretion contains information on the sex of its producer.
The reproductive strategy of a barb, Barbus anoplus (Pisces: Cyprinidae), colonizing a man‐made lake in South Africa
Authors: Cambray J. A. , Bruton M.N.
Published: August 2009

The barb, Barbus anoplus. successfully colonized the marginal habitat of the newly created Lake le Roux on the Orange River system in South Africa. Early maturity and a high reproductive effort facilitated this success. It is suggested that the reproductive strategy which evolved in a seasonally fluctuating riverine environment was advantageous to a species colonizing a newly created man‐made lake.
Impact of winter nutrition on reproduction in captive Mountain hares (Lepus timidus) (Mammalia: Lagomorpha)
Authors: Pehrson2 A. , Lindlöf B.
Published: August 2009

During winter‐time, two groups of captive female Mountain hares were fed food of high and normal quality respectively, in order to study the impact of winter nutrition on reproduction the following summer.

On average, the animals fed on high quality food increased their weight 19.2% from December to April, while the corresponding figure for the other group was 7.1%. Neither the size of the first, nor the second litter of the year differed between the two feeding regimes.

In the first litter, the leverets from the females fed high quality food had significantly higher birth weights (149.5±24.4 g) than the leverets from the normally fed females (108.5±25.6 g). The second litter of the year showed no such differences.

Gestation time was similar for the two groups and showed small fluctuations around a mean value of 51 days. Juvenile growth rate amounted to an average of slightly below 30 g per day during the first 2–3 months.

We are most grateful to Dr Olav Hjeljord and Dr Jonathan Reynolds for valuable criticism of the manuscript. Dr Reynolds also kindly checked the language for us.
Dietary separation in three species of shrew inhabiting water‐cress beds
Authors: Churchfield Sara
Published: August 2009

The diets of three species of shrew (Neomys fodiens, Sorex araneus and S. minutus) living sympatrically in an area of water‐cress beds were investigated over a two‐year period by faecal analysis of live‐trapped animals. Thirty‐eight different prey types were identified in the diet of N. fodiens, 25 in the diet of S. araneus and 18 in S. minutus. The most important prey items of N. fodiens in all months were freshwater crustaceans and cased trichopteran larvae. Other important items were terrestrial gastropods, coleopterans and dipterans. Neomys fodiens foraged underwater throughout the year and 33–67% of its prey were of aquatic origin. Major prey items of S. araneus throughout the year were lumbricids, terrestrial gastropods and coleopterans. Araneids, isopods and coleopterans were the dominant dietary items of S. minutus. All terrestrial prey items were taken in greater proportions by S. araneus and S. minutus than by N. fodiens, excepting lumbricids which were never eaten by S. minutus. Dietary overlap was greatest between S. araneus and S. minutus at 57%, followed by N. fodiens and S. araneus (44%) and least similar were N. fodiens and S. minutus (36%).
Partitioning of the space in tussocks of the sedge, Carex distorts, during winter, by a spider community
Authors: Kessler A. , Vermeulen J. W. C. , Wapenaar P.
Published: August 2009

In the flat parts of a coastal plain on the Dutch Wadden island of Schiermonnikoog, the entire spider fauna aggregates in plant tussocks (Carex distans L.) at the onset of winter. Spiders are known predators of other spiders, therefore we expected an avoidance of predation by spatial separation of the species. The sedge tussocks were divided into several zones, each of which was sampled for spiders. Spatial separation on a macroscale (between tussocks) as well as on a microscale (inside tussocks) was demonstrated.
The cranial morphology of the fossorial lizard genus Dibamus with a consideration of its phylogenetic relationships*
Authors: Rieppel Olivier
Published: August 2009

The structure of the skull and jaw adductor musculature of Dibamus novaeguineae is described in detail and compared to other squamates. Some functional consequences of miniaturization of the head are discussed. It is concluded that Dibamus shares the greatest number of derived characters with the Acontinae, a monophyletic group of fossorial lizards currently classified as a subfamily of the Scincidae, but which might deserve classification at a family rank. Dibamus is also shown to share some derived characters with the Amphisbaenia and a few with the Serpentes. However, no close relationship between Dibamus and any member of the Gekkota is indicated.
The gobiid fishes of temperate Macaronesia (eastern Atlantic)
Authors: Miller P.J.
Published: August 2009

Eight species of gobiid fishes have been recorded from the islands comprising temperate Macaronesia (Azores, Canaries, Madeira and Salvages), These are (iohius niger L., G. auralus Risso, G. gasteveni Miller, G. paganellus L., Lesueurigobius heterojaseiatus Maul, Mauligobius maderensis (Valenciennes) and Thorogobius ephinppiatus (Lowe), with L. suerii (Risso) remaining unconfirmed. The identification, records, characteristics, and habitat of these species in the Macaronesian islands are considered. The genus Mauligobius Miller is fully defined and the type‐species, Gobius maderensis Valenciennes, endemic to Madeira and the Canaries, described in detail. The transfer of the little‐known West African Gobius nigri Günther to Mauligobius is suggested. Phylogenetic discussion of Mauligobius, in relation to Atlantic‐Mediterranean and Ponto‐Caspian forms, indicates its position as the sister group to Gobius. The modern Macaronesian gobiid fauna seems to be derived from the warm‐temperate eastern Atlantic‐Mediterranean marine province. The presumed absence of M. maderensis from the Azores, and the pattern of meristic variation in Gobius paganellus, support the view that the continental rise islands do not have a direct faunal interrelationship with the Azores, and that common possession of Atlantic‐Mediterranean species reflects supply from the same outside source rather than by interchange. The likelihood of finding more gobiid species in Macaronesia is noted. A model of speciation in Mauligobius. in relation to hydrographic events, is suggested.

Appendix 1 summarizes features of marking and head lateral‐line system useful for distinguishing juvenile G. paganellus and M. maderensis. Appendix 11 provides a redescription of the holotype of Gobius nigri. and a discussion of geographical occurrence, habitat, and affinities for this species.
Growth and allometry of external morphology in Darwin's finches (Geospiza) on Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos
Authors: Boag P. T.
Published: August 2009

Seven widely used avian external morphological measurements were examined, mainly in Geospiza fortis and G. scandens on Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos. Geospiza grow more slowly than other “finches”, and smaller Geospiza species grow relatively more slowly than larger Geospiza. Weight, wing chord and tarsus grow quickly, while bill characters grow more slowly. This pattern of relative growth (dynamic allometry) is reversed in the static allometry of adults, where bill characters, particularly bill depth in G. fortis, display strong, positive allometry with respect to weight, wing and tarsus. Static allometric patterns help explain differences in the size, shape and relative variability of different characters in adults, as well as the results of multivariate analyses such as principal components or canonical variates. Several different multivariate techniques arrange five Geospiza populations in a consistent two‐dimensional morphological space, with a major axis of overall “body‐size”, and a minor axi of “bill‐pointedeness”. An alternative analysis of dynamic and static allometry is also provided, based on multivariate techniques.
The ultrastructure of leucocytes in carp (Cyprinus carpio)
Authors: Cenini P.
Published: August 2009

Leucocytes from anterior kidney, middle kidney, spleen, thymus and peripheral blood of Common carp were examined. Lymphocytes were found to have a similar fine structure to that of mammals. Thrombocytes had a similar appearance to lymphocytes, but the former were sometimes distinguishable by vesicles in series and/or microtubules below the plasma membrane. Blast cells, monocytes and clearly identifiable plasma cells were also seen. Neutrophils had varying proportions of at least two types of granules, which often presented inclusions. Owing to their different granules, eosinophils and basophils were morphologically distinguishable, but differentiated cells with equal proportions of the two types of granules were also seen. In addition, cells of uncertain nature, possessing rod‐shaped granules, were observed. The different leucocyte types showed the same morphology in the different lymphoid organs and in peripheral blood, although they were present in different proportions.
The behavioural and structural aspects of grooming and related activities in euglossine bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Authors: Kimsey Lynn Siri
Published: August 2009

The movements and structures involved in grooming, resin and pollen manipulation, and collection of aromatic material are described for members of the tribe Euglossini. These bees typically groom with each leg while hanging by their mandibles, working from the head backwards. Collection and transfer of aromatic material is described after re‐evaluation using fluorescent powder. Resin collection involves asynchronous ipsilateral transfer of the resin to the hindtibia. Pollen collection, in contrast, involves synchronous ipsilateral transfer. Areas of the body that are not groomed are illustrated, and the various plants and animals that exploit these regions discussed. The similarities between the behaviours of euglossines and bumblebees supports the idea that they are closely related.
Multivariate patterns of geographic variation between the island and mainland populations of the Eastern grass snake (Natrix natrix natrix)
Authors: Thorpe R. S.
Published: August 2009

The substantial racial variation between the mainland and island populations of the Eastern grass snake (Natrix natrix natrix) is analysed by a range of multivariate methods, including principal component and canonical analysis. These techniques reveal a complex pattern of geographic variation which include sharp transition zones, gradual clines, a wide range of divergence of island populations and greater divergence per distance in the south than in the north. These patterns relate to the phylogenesis of this “incipient” species, and its post‐Pleistocene range expansion as presented here and elsewhere. These racial patterns do not generally relate to physiographic features, conventional subspecies or CURRENT physical or biotic factors.
The use of the tongue and hyoid apparatus during feeding in lizards (Ctenosaura similisandTupinambis nigropunctatus)
Authors: Smith Kathleen K.
Published: August 2009

The use of the tongue and hyoid is examined in cineradiographic and electromyographic investigations of feeding in two species of lizards,Ctenosaura similis(Iguanidae) andTupinambis nigropunctatus(Teiidae). In both animals food is transported through the oral cavity by regular cycles of the tongue. Tongue movements correlate with jaw and hyoid movement. Similarities between the two animals in the use of the tongue in food transport, lapping, pharyngeal packing, and pharyngeal emptying are detailed. Mechanisms of tongue protrusion are examined and it is shown that the tongue inTupinambisis relatively more protrusible than inCtenosaura.This difference is complementary with data on the greater reliance ofTupinambison the tongue as a sensory organ.Tupinambisfurther differs fromCtenosaurain possessing a greater mobility of the hyoid. In many features of tongue use in food transport, lizards resemble mammals, supporting postulations of a basic pattern of intra‐oral food transport. However, whether this pattern can be attributed to convergence or a common, primitive neural pattern of control cannot be distinguished. Lizards lack two major characteristics of mammalian food transport: regular masticatory cycles and an internal swallowing mechanism.
The biology and functional morphology of Clavagella australis (Bivalvia: Anomalodesmata)
Authors: Morton Brian
Published: August 2009

The biology and functional morphology of the unusual boring anomalodesmatan bivalve Clavagella (Dacosta) australis (Clavagellacea) is described. The animal occupies a borehole in calcareous (including coral) rocks to which it cements itself by the left shell valve. Radial mantle glands developed in the middle folds of the siphonal tip produce the glue but also stick sand grains to the periostracum to camouflage the siphons. The right valve is free. The shell is somewhat inequilateral in form, the adductors large and slightly heteromyarian. The pallial retractor muscles are also large so that the ventral mantle is very thick. Because mantle fusion involves inner, middle and inner surfaces of the outer folds (type C), the periostracum is continuous so that shell and mantle are almost completely, except for the siphonal orifices and the pedal gape, enclosed in periostracum. The simple sunken primary ligament comprising inner ligament layer only and located between chondrophores is flanked anteriorly and posteriorly by fused periostracum, assisting, in the absence of teeth, in hinge alignment.

Boring is probably a chemical process, a secretion from the inner surface of the anterior mantle being discharged onto the burrow wall from the pedal gape. The calcium carbonate eroded in this way is possibly used to partially line the burrow. The distal siphonal tube, however, is secreted from siphonal glands discharging from the tip of the siphons.

In most other anatomical respects Clavagella is typical of the Anomalodesmata, the ctenidia and labial palps for example being of characteristic form. The statocysts, however, are unusual in that the statolith comprises a large number of small, diamond‐shaped crystals that stimulate statocyst cilia. C. australis appears to be dioecious, whereas most other anomalodesmatans are simultaneous hermaphrodites.

Clavagella may be linked to a pholadomyacean ancestor and most closely resembles members of the infaunal Latemulidae. It represents an evolutionary line that has adopted first a nestling then a boring mode of life. It seems probable that the more specialized infaunally buried clavagellids with both valves incorporated into the adventitious tube are derived from a nestling/boring ancestor.
A comparison of adaptations to running, pushing and burrowing in some adult Coleoptera: especially Carabidae
Authors: Evans M. E. G. , Forsythe T. G.
Published: August 2009

A wide range of compromises between maximum speed attained and pushing force exerted are exhibited by various Coleoptera. Some structural and functional parameters are quoted for two beetles at the extreme ends of this range: the rapid tiger beetle Cicindelu cumpestris and the powerful dung beetle Geotrupes stercorarius. Additionally, maximum sprint speeds and pushing forces were obtained for 105 species selected from 22 families of beetles. To compare the relative speed (uR) and relative force (FR) abilities of different sized species, a simple means of scaling was used in which uR= u/W0'33 (where u is the maximum sprint speed, and W the weight of a beetle) and FR= F/W0'67 (where F is the maximum forçe exerted by the beetle. measured by pulling). The best speed/force adapted species lay along a limiting front where uR a FR and u. F/W.k = 1 (where k is a constant). This gave a measure of the locomotory capability of a beetle in terms of I, the index of speed/force specialization. The specialists exhibited an index close to 1·0, but that of most beetles tested lay between 1·0 and 0·01. The Carabidae was analysed more closely as it contains many locomotor specialists. It was possible to define three structural/functional groups which showed different combinations of running and pushing abilities. The possible evolutionary relationships of these habit groups was discussed, and some speed and force comparisons were made between beetles and some other terrestrial arthropods.
The valve morphology of Cullochhiton uchutinus (Mollusca: Polyplacophora: Ischnochitonidae)
Authors: Baxter J. M. , Jones A. M.
Published: August 2009

The valves of Callochiton achatinus comprise four layers which are penetrated by channels carrying extensions of the mantle epithelium known as aesthetes. Three patterns of dorsal sculpturing within defined areas of the various valves are described and these are related to the different types of aesthete channel which perforate the respective areas. The processes involved in valve growth are described and related to the arrangement of the many holes penetrating the eave tissue.
The validity of horn ring counts to determine the age of Scottish feral goats (Capra (domestic))
Authors: Bullock David J. , Pickerinc Simon P.
Published: August 2009

The use of horn ring counts to age species in the tribes Caprini and Rupricaprini (Bovidae) has been well documented. Few studies have, however, tested the validity of the method. This paper compares the number of horn rings with age in years for individually known Scottish feral goats (Capra (domestic)). For all age‐sex classes, except females older than two years, the number of horn rings corresponded exactly to the age in years. The discrepancies amongst older females were attributed to difficulties in counting their horn rings due to the small size of the horn and wear.
Stride lengths and stride frequencies of primates
Authors: Alexander R. McN. , Maloiy G. M. O.
Published: August 2009

Stride lengths and stride frequencies of primates have been observed or collected from the literature. Data for Galago, various monkeys and apes, and man have been collected. The quadrupedal primates take longer strides, at any particular speed, than would be predicted for non‐primates. When they gallop they use lower stride frequencies than non‐primates of equal mass.
Eimeviu (Protozoa: Coccidia) in wild populations of some British rodents
Authors: Ball S. J. , Lewis D. C.
Published: August 2009

Four species of wild rodents from the British Isles, Myocustor coypus (the Coypu), Apodemus sylvaticus (the Wood mouse). Mus musculus (the House mouse) and Clethrionomys glureolus (the Bank vole) were examined during 1918 and 1919 for the presence of coccidian parasites of the genus Eimeriu. From an examination of 852 faecal samples a total of 14 species of Eimeriu was found. Species identification was based mainly on the morphology of the sporulated oocyst. The number of host species examined and the overall prevalence of infection were as follows: 252 M. coypus (45·6% infected), 471 A. sylvaticus 56·5%), 59 M. musculus (42·4%) and 70 C. glureolus (22·9%). The results are compared with previous surveys and discussed in the light of the general knowledge concerning coccidial infections. The present work showed that prevalence of infection in the wild rodents studied may be influenced by the age, weight and sex of the host, and by season.
Octopus joubini (Mollusca: Cephalopoda): a detailed study of growth through the full life cycle in a closed seawater system
Authors: Forsythe John W.
Published: August 2009

Twenty individual pygmy octopuses, Octopus joubini, were reared at 25°C from hatching to maturity on a quantified diet of live crabs in closed (recirculating) natural seawater systems. At 24 week intervals the animals were narcotized, weighed and measured. There was 85% survival to sexual maturity.

Growth rates were highest during the first four weeks of exponential growth. Beyond four weeks, growth rates steadily declined and growth became logarithmic in form. Female octopuses grew slightly faster than males and attained a larger size at maturity. The length‐weight relationship showed male Octopus joubini to weigh more than females at a given mantle length. This species displays slight allometric growth resulting in changing body proportions through the life cycle. Relative food intake is highest at hatching and decreases with age. Mean gross growth efficiency over the life span was approximately 40%.
The response of prey to Stoat (Mustela erminea) scent
Authors: Gorman Martyn L.
Published: August 2009

Microtus agrestis and Orcadian Microtus arvalis avoid stoat scent and show a reduction in activity when surrounded by it. Such responses probably are adaptive and decrease the chances of an individual suffering predation. Since M. arvalis has been isolated from stoats on Orkney for several millenia the response is innate.

For reasons unknown Apodemus sylvaticus does not respond to stoat scent.
Density‐dependent pup mortality in the Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus gazellu at South Georgia
Authors: Doidge D. W. , Croxall J. P. , Baker J. R.
Published: August 2009

The extent and causes of pup mortality in the Antarctic fur seal, Arctocephalus gazella, were investigated at sites of high and low density at South Georgia. Mortality was greater at the high density site, (17—31% of annual pup production) than at the low density site (36%). The main causes of death, starvation and skull injury, occur more frequently at the high density site. Most starvation was caused by failure of the mother‐pup bond to form, often caused by disturbance induced by the activities of breeding bulls. In some seasons starvation of older pups may be influenced by reduced food availability but this was usually of minor importance. Injury to the skull resulted from bites inflicted by females either accidently during birth or when pups tried to suck from females other than their mother. Trampling of young pups by bulls was probably responsible for the appreciable incidence of ruptured livers. Infectious disease and drowning played minor roles in pup mortality. Pups born late in the season suffered disproportionately greater mortality which may relate to female age and condition. Food availability (both during and prior to the breeding season) and weather are likely to account for year to year variation in pup mortality rates but the basic rate is primarily determined by breeding density. Further population increase and colonization of new beaches is expected until food resources during the summer, or more probably the winter, become limiting.
Body weight, gonad development and moult in the Tawny owl (Strix alum)
Authors: Hirons G. J. M. , Hardy A. R. , Stanley P. I.
Published: August 2009

Gonad development, moult and seasonal changes in body weight and composition in the Tawny owl Strix aluco were studied by examining the carcasses of 369 owls (mostly road casualties) supplemented by 112 weights of live birds. In breeding females laying was preceded by the accumulation of fat and to a lesser extent protein which meant that they weighed more at this time (February/March) than at any other. Females declined in weight after laying but were still heavy during incubation. In contrast, males and non‐breeding females did not increase in weight before the start of the breeding season. Juveniles reached or even exceeded adult weight well before independence due to the deposition of fat. Even after the exclusion of diseased or contaminated individuals, 9·4% of the birds examined were identified as starving; most of these were in the autumn and were probably newly‐independent young wandering in search of territories. In both sexes gonad maturation was of brief duration coinciding with the period (mid‐March to mid‐April) in which eggs are normally laid. Ovarian growth was biphasic. In the three months prior to the breeding season ovarian condition in different birds was positively correlated with body weight and it appeared that the largest ovarian follicles of females in poor condition failed to attain the size from which rapid growth to final ovulation occurs. in males testis size in the breeding season was correlated with pectoral muscle weight (an index to protein condition) but not body weight. The majority of adults commenced wing moult in June. The average duration of primary moult was estimated to be 77 days. Healthy birds replaced the primaries of both wings at the same rate but most diseased birds moulted asymmetrically and/or out of season. First‐year birds renewed their body feathers between September and November. In the Tawny owl territory establishment, breeding and moult are temporally separated.
Distribution of the bridled form of the Common guillemot Uria aalge in the North Atlantic
Authors: Birkhead T. R.
Published: August 2009

This study documents the fourth survey (198 1–1982) of bridled guillemots and provides the most complete information yet available on the distribution of the bridled form of the Common guillemot. The distribution has remained largely unchanged since the last survey (1959‐60), although marked changes have occurred at a few colonies. Sea surface temperature “explains” only 35% of the variance in the proportion of bridled guillemots. Minimum air temperatures during the breeding season are much more closely correlated with bridling and “explain” 60% of the variance. No relationship exists between sea temperatures and the proportion of bridled guillemots in wintering areas. The distribution of bridled guillemots may represent the slow, southward spread of the bridled form. Alternatively, selection may favour the bridled form in cooler areas. There is insufficient evidence to distinguish between these two hypotheses, but if selection is important, the correlations with environmental factors suggests that it operates during the breeding season rather than at other times.
Resource partitioning among the fishes of rainforest streams in Sri Lanka
Authors: Moyle Peter B. , Senayake F. Ranil
Published: August 2009

The fish assemblage typical of small rainforest streams of Sri Lanka was investigated to see if the fishes were characterized by a high degree of specialization, expected of equilibrium communities, or if they were relatively unspecialized, expected of more stochastic (non‐equilibrium) communities. Morphological features, habitats, microhabitats and diets of the 20 most abundant fish species were measured. The fishes included 11 Cyprinidae (including seven Barbus spp. and two Rasbara spp.), two Gobiidae, two Channidae, and one species each in the Cobitidae, Cyprinodontidae, Belontidae, Belonidae, and Mastacembelidae. Microhabitats were determined by measuring (for 6760 fish) water column depth, distance of fish from bottom, mean water column velocity, water velocity at fish, and substrate. Morphologically, the species showed a high degree of specialization, especially in structures related to feeding. Although several species were habitat generalists, most species occurred in distinct habitats. Within habitats, microhabitat overlap among co‐occuring species was low, particularly in relation to position in the water column. Principal component analysis of the microhabitat measurements produced three new variables. Most species not clearly segregated by the overlap analysis showed segregation on the new variables. Fishes not segregated by habitat or microhabitat tended to show low dietary overlaps. Specialization in feeding habits was more pronounced among the Sri Lankan fishes than noted for fishes in small rainforest streams elsewhere, in part because of the greater reliance of the Sri Lanka fishes on autochthonous foods. Overall, the fish assemblage had the characteristics expected of an equilibrium (deterministic) assemblage.
Taxonomy and natural history of some fossorial rodents of Patagonia, southern Argentina
Authors: Pearson Oliver P.
Published: August 2009

Habits and taxonomy of species of the following genera are discussed: Aconaemys, Ctenomys, Chelemys, Geoxus, and Notiomys. In degree of adaptation to a burrowing mode of life, these five Patagonian genera fall between Thomomys bottae and Microtus californicus. Sympatry occurs frequently among most of the Patagonian genera, a condition permitted by dietary, size and habitat differences. The two studied species of Ctenomys remain allopatric, as well as the two species of Aconaemys.

New specimens of Notiomys edwardsii confirm the uniqueness of that genus. Chelemys and Geoxus are considered to be generically distinct. Chelemys angustus is an Akodon, and Chelemyscus fossor is a composite of Chelemyscus macronyx (skin) and Euneomys (skull). Two distinct species of Aconaemys are recognized; one of them is described as new.
A mathematical model for the mechanical properties of scallop shells
Authors: Pennington B. J. , Currey J. D.
Published: August 2009

The mechanical behaviour of one or both shell valves of five species of pectinacean and one anomiacean was determined using strain gauge rosettes attached to the inner surfaces of the valves. A multiple linear regression analysis accounted for over 64% of the total vanance in tensile shell compliance. The important shell architectural variables were thickness, corrugation and, much less important, convexity and shell length. Calculation showed that in general corrugation of the shell was easily the cheapest way of producing stiffness, in terms of the amount of shell material required. Suggestions are offered as to why not all scallops are scalloped.
Age determination and body growth of the Common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia(Mammalia)
Authors: Wilson V. J. , Schmidt J. L. , Hanks J.
Published: August 2009

Age determination in the Common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia was investigated by analysis of tooth eruption and replacement sequence, incremental lines of tooth cementum and tooth wear in a unique collection of 48 known‐age skulls, and also by analysis by post‐natal body growth in known‐age duiker. In both the mandible and maxilla, permanent molariform teeth were fully erupted and in wear by 26 months of age. There was little variation in the age of eruption and replacement of all molariform teeth, making this a particularly useful feature of the duiker for age determination purposes. In contrast, the variability in eruption of the incisiforms, coupled with the difficulty in distinguishing deciduous incisiforms from the permanent counterparts, placed an unexpected limitation on the use of these teeth. Although the apparent linear relationship between tooth attrition and age has potential for further investigation as an age determination technique, the cementum annuli were not correlated with chronological age. Theoretical Von Bertalanffy equations were used to analyse body growth with age. It was concluded that because the asymptote of growth was reached at such an early age, and because there is so much individual variation in growth, body growth, including horn growth, is of very limited value for age determination. Female duiker were significantly larger than males.
Mortality and morbidity in Grey seal pups (Halichoerus grypus). Studies on its causes, effects of environment, the nature and sources of infectious agents and the immunological status of pups
Authors: Baker J. R.
Published: August 2009

Grey seal pup mortality was studied on three islands in the Outer Hebrides; North Rona, an inland breeding colony; Ceann Ear in the Monach archipelago, a sand beach breeding group; and Shillay in the Sound of Harris where both types of environment are represented. The overall mortality rates were broadly similar, ranging from 14.3 to 23.2%, but the primary causes of death varied greatly in importance on the different islands. On North Rona starvation and infection were the major causes of mortality and on the Monach Isles washing off and starvation were the two principal causes of loss. On the inland sites on Shillay infections were the major cause of death, whereas on the beaches starvation was the single most important cause of mortality. Some data on morbidity, principally due to conjunctivitis and infected wounds, are presented. Infectious agents, mainly various species of Streptococci and Corynebacterium, were found to be island‐specific to some degree. The adult seals, rather than other aspects of the environment, were found to carry the pathogens involved and seal pups were found to be immunologically deficient.
The population ecology of small rodents in Pennine woodlands
Authors: Gibson D. St C. , Delany M. J.
Published: August 2009

Apodemus sylvaticus and Clethrionomys glareolus populations were studed in two mixed woodlands in the Pennine Hills; one was at the altitude of 400 m (Malham) and the other at 160 m (Coniston Cold). The former was studied for three years (1977–80) and the latter for one year (1979–80). At Malham 703 rodents were caught in the live trapping programme representing 4219 captures in 37,108 trap nights; the corresponding figures for Coniston were 259 animals, 1165 captures and 5400 trap nights.

At Malham, both species were relatively numerous through spring and summer of 1977 (Apodemus 10–30/ha, Clethrionomys 6–23/ha). In later years, Apodemus had troughs from March to June (0.5–8.0/ha) and peaks from September to November (13–24/ha); Clethrionomys remained at low densities throughout this period with only, in two months, populations attaining more than 6/ha. At Coniston, Apodemus attained a density of 38.6/ha in October and Cleihrionomys 32.7/ha in August.

Monthly sex ratios did not significantly differ from unity. Length of residence of Apodemus first caught (at Malham) in March‐June and October‐December did not exceed six and 16 months, respectively. Clethrionomys resided up to one year although over 80% disappeared by three months. Adult mice and voles increased their mean weight from late winter to reach maxima between April and June. The lightest animals were found from October to December.

Most Juvenile mice were born between April and October. Testes were small from October to December, increased in size in January and were descended from March to October. At Malham, the months when females were pregnant varied annually, viz. 1977, April‐November; 1978, March‐September; 1979, May‐October. At Coniston breeding started earlier. Clethrionomys at Malham had a short breeding season with no pregnancies observed before June, and the first juveniles typically occurring in July (the exception being when breeding probably occurred in the winter of 1976–1977). Breeding terminated in September‐October. At Coniston it extended from April to October. Annual net production of the two species combined ranged from 9.62 MJ/ha/year to 5.02 MJ/ha/year at Malham. The Coniston figure was 17.62 MJ/ha/year.

The results are discussed in relation to other woodland populations where climate is less harsh and the growing season appreciably longer.
Growth rates of Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus gazella pups at South Georgia
Authors: Doidge D. W. , Croxall J. P. , Ricketts C.
Published: August 2009

Large numbers of pups of the Antarctic fur seal were weighed at regular intervals through their rearing period in six seasons between 1972 and 1981 at South Georgia. Growth rates and birth and weaning weights were estimated from linear regressions of mean weight on mean age. Female pups had significantly lower growth rates and weaning weights than males, but higher variances for all growth parameters. This may reflect the importance to males of polygynous species of attaining high body weight. Except for an inverse relation between growth rate and birth weight there were no systematic relationships between growth parameters. Seasonal differences in growth rates were substantial and there was no indication that the continuing rapid population increase was affecting pup growth rates. The use of these data in detecting seasonal variations in local food availability is discussed. Preliminary estimates of the energy costs of pup rearing indicate that pup existence metabolism consumes c. 80% and mass gain to weaning only c. 15% of the energy provided by the female.
Changes in thyroid function and gonadotrophin activity during sexual development in ducks Anas sp. (Aves: Anatidae)
Authors: Klandorf H. , Harvey S.
Published: August 2009

Age‐related changes in plasma iodohormone concentrations in male and female Aylesbury and Khaki Campbell ducklings were determined between the second week after hatching and sexual maturity.

In both sexes and strains the concentration of total thyroxine (T4) and the free thyroxine index (FT41) were low during the first 6–8 weeks after hatching. A marked increase in the T4 and FT41 occurred when the ducklings were nine weeks old; T4 progressively increased over the following four weeks and remained high thereafter. The T4 concentration in both sexes was directly related to age.

Concentrations of total tri‐iodothyronine (T3) were more variable than T4 but were highest before sexual maturation and inversely age‐related. An age‐related decline in free tri‐iodothyronine index (FT31) was observed during the first nine weeks.

The possibility that these maturational changes in thyroid function may reflect changes in gonadal activity was assessed by measuring the concentration of luteinizing hormone (LH) in the same plasma samples. Although plasma LH increased with age, in all cases the increase occurred after changes in the thyroid hormones were observed. Moreover, the maturational pattern of LH was related to sex and strain whereas thyroid function was unaffected by sex or strain.

These results demonstrate reciprocal changes in plasma T3 and T4 levels in ducks during sexual development, although the stimuli responsible and physiological significance are uncertain.
Symmetry and precision of control of strength in limb bones of birds
Authors: Alexander R. McN. , Brandwood A. , Currey J. D. , Jayes A. S.
Published: August 2009

The symmetry of the mechanical properties of paired long bones gives an idea of the precision of formation of animal skeletons. We report results of tests on gulls (Larus fuscus), pigeons (Columba livia), and battery hens (Gallus gallus). The gulls show much greater symmetry than the other birds, and indeed greater symmetry than any of the animals reported in the literature, which are all domesticated.

The implications of these findings for Alexander's (1981) theory of safety factors are discussed. We conclude that, in the wild, variability of load is much more important in the evolution of strength than variability of strength due to imprecise control of growth.
Consensus research priorities for cerebral palsy: a Delphi survey of consumers, researchers, and clinicians
Authors: MCINTYRE SARAH , NOVAK IONA , CUSICK ANNE
Published: August 2009

Aim  Research funds for cerebral palsy are scarce and competition for them is strong. This study aimed to identify questions for future research that were agreed to be a high priority.

Method  An expert panel of consumers, researchers, and clinicians was assembled (n=127) and surveyed using a Delphi survey comprising three rounds. In round I, participants identified three important research topics. Three parallel surveys were constructed: (1) consumers; (2) intervention researchers and clinicians; and (3) aetiology and prevention researchers. In rounds II and III, participants rated priorities using a seven‐point Likert scale. Questions reaching consensus were itemized and those not reaching consensus were discarded.

Results  Consumers identified questions in the themes of prevention/cure, quality of life/community participation, and service provision/intervention. Intervention researchers/clinicians identified questions in the themes of effective outcomes and effective research/services. Aetiology and prevention researchers identified questions in the themes of infection/inflammation, focus on timing, haematology, research tools, neuroregeneration, and genetics. Fifty per cent of the consumers’ priorities were also identified by professionals.

Interpretation  Research priorities change as evidence is established. Phase II of this project is to develop a web portal with international collaboration. As evidence builds for one research question, it will be added to the web portal and unanswered questions will become the priority.
Does preterm birth affect global and configural processing differently?
Authors: SANTOS ANDREIA , DURET MARIE , MANCINI JOSETTE , BUSUTTIL MURIEL , DERUELLE CHRISTINE
Published: August 2009

Aim  We investigated whether preterm birth affects later visuocognitive function and, in particular, whether it affects global and configural perceptual processing differently.

Method  We compared the performance of 21 healthy preterm children (8 females, 13 males; mean age 7y 8mo, SD 8mo; mean gestational age 29.3wks, SD 1.9; mean birthweight 1186.5g, SD 377.2) with that of a matched term comparison group (8 females, 13 males; mean age 7y 11mo, SD 1y 1mo; mean gestational age >37wks; mean birthweight >2500g) in two perceptual tasks pinpointing differences between local and global and between local and configural processing.

Results  There was no difference between preterm and term children’s global processing, as both groups showed a bias towards global information (preterm: t[1,20]=2.6, p=0.01; comparison group: t[1,20]=3.0, p=0.01). By contrast, no such typical pattern of performance was found for configural processing as, unlike the comparison group (t[1,20]=7.1, p<0.001), preterm children preferentially relied on local rather than on configural information (t[1,20]=−15.4, p<0.001).

Interpretation  These findings suggest that preterm birth may have a greater influence on the development of later perceptual skills than originally envisaged. We discuss the results according to the current and dominant view of the visual system.
Cognitive outcome following unilateral arterial ischaemic stroke in childhood: effects of age at stroke and lesion location
Authors: WESTMACOTT ROBYN , ASKALAN RAND , MACGREGOR DAUNE , ANDERSON PETER , DEVEBER GABRIELLE
Published: August 2009

Aim  Plasticity in the developing brain is a controversial issue. Although language and motor function often recover remarkably well following early brain injury, recent evidence suggests that damage to the developing brain results in significant long‐term neuropsychological impairment. Our aim was to investigate the relationship among age at injury, lesion location and intellectual outcome.

Method  Using age‐appropriate Wechsler scales of intellectual ability, we explored this issue by evaluating a large group (n=145) of children (89 males, 56 females) who experienced unilateral arterial ischaemic stroke during the perinatal period (diagnosed mean 73d, SD 29d), between the ages of 1 month and 5 years (mean 2y 10mo, SD 1y 9mo), or between the ages of 6 and 16 years (mean 11y 1mo SD 3y 6mo). The mean age at assessment was 8 years (SD 3y 10mo) in the perinatal group, 7 years 5 months (SD 2y 9mo) in the 1 month to 5 years group, and 12 years 5 months (SD 3y 9mo) in the 6 to 16 years group. The mean time interval between stroke and assessment was 8 years (SD 18d) for perinatal, 4 years 6 months (SD 1y 5mo) for 1 month to 5 years, and 1 year 4 months (SD 2y 9mo) for 6 to 16 years. The relationship between age at stroke and lesion location (subcortical, cortical, or combined) as it pertains to cognitive outcome was also examined.

Results  Measures of overall intelligence, verbal ability, working memory, and processing speed were significantly lower in children who had had a stroke than in the normative sample (all z>2.5, all p<0.01). The perinatal group performed more poorly than the other two groups on most cognitive measures, regardless of lesion location. The combined lesion location group performed more poorly than those with damage to either cortical or subcortical areas alone. Further investigation revealed different periods of peak vulnerability for subcortical lesions (perinatal) and cortical lesions (1mo–5y).

Interpretation  Lesion location modulates the relationship between age at stroke and cognitive outcome.