bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fighting against infection: vaccination and public health
Authors: Fullick William
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on vaccination, which may be one of the most successful aspects of public health programmes worldwide. Vaccinations work by introducing the body to a dead or weakened version of a pathogen. This allows the T and B memory cells of the adaptive immune system to store the 'memory' of these specific antigens, allowing the immune system to quickly respond if the host meets the same pathogen again in the future. Herd immunity helps to reduce the spread of infectious disease through a community. The more individuals are immunized, the harder it becomes for a disease to spread to people who are still vulnerable to it. Some basic public health measures—such as street cleaners and spittoons—have existed for a long time, but it is only relatively recently that governments and health organizations have started to track the spread and cause of infectious diseases.
Infection prevention and control
Authors: Morgan Sheila , Ford Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses infection prevention and control, which has always been a major priority within any healthcare environment. As an increasing range of organisms are causing outbreaks of infection, the importance of infection prevention and control has never been greater. Infection prevention and control can be simply defined as the attempt to stop the spread of an infectious agent (bacterial, fungal, or viral) from contaminating or infecting another individual. The chapter then looks at methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, more commonly known as MRSA. It considers MRSA screening, as well as the isolation and detection of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) strains. The chapter also covers the surveillance of pathogens, the importance of Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) in hospital environments, Gram-negative outbreaks, and other resistance screening and media.
Clinical mycology
Authors: Law Derek
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates clinical mycology, which is the study of human infections caused by fungi. Mycology is a small but growing part of clinical microbiology, and the laboratory practitioner must be aware of fungal diseases commonly encountered in the laboratory. Fungi are being more commonly isolated, often as a result of more patients with underlying conditions such as diabetes, as these facilitate proliferation of yeasts in particular. In addition, more patients are immunocompromised, and in this patient group fungal infections are more common and more life threatening. The chapter begins by differentiating between bacteria and fungi. Bacteria are simple prokaryotic cells; fungi are more complex and are classed as eukaryotic, like human cells. The chapter then considers the infections of the skin, nails, and hair; Candida infections of the mucosa; and invasive fungal infections. It also looks at antifungal susceptibility testing and the role of the reference laboratory.
Conservation, Ecology, and Science
Authors: Gilbert Francis , Gilbert Hilary
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the relationship between conservation, ecology, and science. The big problem facing human beings, and all other organisms on the planet, is that the ecological footprint of humans—the area of biologically productive land needed per person per year to sustain their lifestyles—exceeds the ability of the Earth to support it. This environmental crisis will drive many species to extinction. The extent to which these extinctions matter depends on what the species actually do in ecosystems. The chapter then looks at the importance of biodiversity. Apart from dealing with living evolving organisms that are individually different, there are other important aspects of ecology (and hence conservation) as a science. Some of these are: that it involves the hierarchical structure of nature; that it involves huge changes of scale; and that there are many different kinds of explanations for the same thing.
Indigenous People and Conservation
Authors: Gilbert Francis , Gilbert Hilary
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses the role of human beings in the environments of yesterday. Since they first evolved, humans have both modified and been part of the environment. Evidence that hunter-gatherers lived 'in harmony with nature' and that urban humans are uniquely destructive is poor. Attitudes towards nature were universally animistic in hunter-gatherers, but changed in urban humans, who usually thought of nature as a threat and as dangerous. In Western thought, the Romantic movement produced the idea of conservation as a way of keeping 'pristine' nature as a spiritual resource for humans. Studies of modern indigenous peoples show that they often have mechanisms for sustaining their environment that can easily be lost when Western-style development arrives.
Conservation Strategies
Authors: Gilbert Francis , Gilbert Hilary
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores different conservation strategies and the important debate on the best way to conserve ecosystems. Nature protectionists insist that people-free Protected Areas are the only proven method while social conservationists insist that the sustainable use of wildlife with social justice for local people is the only long-term solution. Evidence shows that five elements need to be present for marine Protected Areas to be effective, including the engagement of local people. Global international conservation has the right priorities, but enacting them is hard; for example, the plan for UK conservation calls for a wildlife-friendly landscape, with a large expansion in reserve area and connectedness, together with more effective management. There is not necessarily any conflict between biodiversity conservation, agricultural production, and human wellbeing. The trick is to find the win-win-win solution.
Making the most of lectures
Authors: Overton Tina , Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes lectures as a prominent and important feature of all undergraduate chemistry courses, stressing that being able to make the most of them is an important skill. It considers different types of lectures, as these can vary greatly in terms of their style, goals, and the experiences they offer. The chapter describes lecture sessions whose main purpose is to help students engage with new chemistry content. It also talks about the traditional didactic lecture, where the lecturer delivers content from the front of the room, perhaps speaking to a pre-prepared set of slides or writing on a whiteboard. The flipped lecture, in contrast, is an approach where the lecturer gives information to the students in the lecture and the students carry out practice questions or homework in their own time. The chapter gives advice on how to prepare before lectures; how to listen, make notes, and engage with activities during lectures; and how to follow-up after lectures.
Making the most of group work
Authors: Overton Tina , Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the process of collaborative or group work. There is a wealth of evidence that material learned through group work is retained better than material learned through formal teaching methods. Group work is very common as a part of laboratory classes, where students may typically have to work in pairs or threes in order to be able to complete an experiment. The chapter also explains problem-based learning (PBL), wherein students are assigned a real-life problem scenario and are expected to work together in groups to find a solution. The chapter describes that the PBL cycle is repeated several times during an activity, and this process can extend over several weeks. The chapter notes that it is essential that the group works effectively for a successful outcome. It points out one of the key features of group work, and relates this to organization and the dynamics of interaction of the group.
Writing practical and project reports
Authors: Overton Tina , Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights the necessity for students to communicate findings to other people, noting that this is done in a number of ways in the scientific community and that the most common way is through presentations at scientific meetings and published reports. It focuses on the preparation of high-quality reports, emphasizing that the skills of accurate recording, analysis, interpretation, and presentation are highly valued by employers. It also discusses fundamental aspects of data presentation, excluding the processes of experimental design or data analysis. The chapter uses the undergraduate investigation of the hardness of tap water by analysing concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions using a complexometric titration as an example to contextualize the discussion. The chapter suggests that, when reading research papers, it is a good exercise to not just concentrate on the scientific content, but to also pay attention to the way in which the science is presented.
Avoiding plagiarism
Authors: Overton Tina , Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the common issue of plagiarism, beginning with a definition of what plagiarism is. It looks at some of the reasons students give for committing plagiarism in their work and outlines a method for avoiding plagiarism. It also highlights some of the many good reasons for making sure students do not plagiarize and describes forms of plagiarism that occur in the context of written assignments and practical reports. The chapter explores the possibility of plagiarizing any form of communication and stresses the study skills required to avoid plagiarism in writing, which are essential for success in every area of academic work. It investigates the increasingly common problem of plagiarism in universities, which is partly due to the internet and copying and pasting text.
Getting the most out of exams
Authors: Overton Tina , Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the skills needed for exams and those needed for the days leading up to exams. It emphasizes that it is very unusual to be able to walk into an exam room feeling completely prepared, as exams are, by their very nature, an unknown quantity. It also gives advice on needing to be realistic and knowing that, at some point, one needs to stop preparing for the exam: some last-minute work is helpful, but other types of last-minute work may be detrimental. The chapter emphasizes that last-minute cramming is the wrong sort of last-minute work, noting that the time would be much better spent going over things that the student is already familiar with. It describes last-minute cramming as counterproductive.
Career skills
Authors: Overton Tina , Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on recognizing and articulating transferable skills. It explains how broader skills and capabilities enable a student to secure employment or get the most out of their future, whatever that may be. It also notes the importance of having something that can give students an edge in a climate where there are many more graduates than graduate-level positions. The chapter outlines the specific aspects of securing employment and considers networking, looking for jobs, preparing CVs, surviving interviews and assessment centres, and sources of support. It begins with networking, which is becoming increasingly important in securing employment as many vacancies are filled by word of mouth and through networking rather than through formal channels.
Introducing the f-elements
Authors: Aspinall Helen C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the f-elements: lanthanoids and actinoids. All of the lanthanoid elements (apart from Pm) occur naturally in greater abundance than either iodine or mercury, but they always occur as mixtures in their ores. This is due to the great similarity in their properties. All of the actinoids are radioactive, and only uranium and thorium occur naturally to any significant extent. The characteristic feature of lanthanoids and actinoids includes the progressive filling of the 4f and 5f-orbitals respectively. The f-orbitals of the lanthanoids and the later actinoids behave as core orbitals and do not take part in bonding; however, the greater radial extent of the 5f-orbitals of the early actinoids means that they can contribute to bonding. The chapter then looks at the metallic and ionic radii of both Ln and An.
Electronic structure, magnetism, and spectroscopy
Authors: Aspinall Helen C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses electronic structure, magnetism, and spectroscopy. The majority of f-element atoms and ions have unpaired f-electrons, and many of the unique properties of the elements and their compounds arise from the way in which these electrons interact with each other. The chapter shows how Hund's rules can be used to work out the most stable arrangement of electrons in the atoms/ions, and how this information can be summarized in a term symbol. It then looks at magnetic properties of the ions and at the effect of paramagnetism on NMR spectra of f-element complexes. Finally, the chapter considers electronic absorption spectroscopy and lanthanoid luminescence. Magnetism and luminescence are fundamental to some of the most important applications of the lanthanoids.
Introduction to haematology
Authors: Moore Gary , Knight Gavin , Blann Andrew , Henley Alexis
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces haematology, which is the science of the study of blood. The chapter looks at its relation to other disciplines in pathology. It discusses haematology in the wider aspects of health care, and it outlines how haematologists relate to colleagues working in other disciplines within pathology, in hospitals, and with the professional bodies. It also explains the key aspects of the science of haematology and the role of the scientist in the haematology laboratory and in the provision of health care. The chapter describes the haematology laboratory in a healthcare setting, which is concerned with diagnosing and monitoring the management of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs. It clarifies that blood is a dynamic and crucial fluid that provides molecular and cellular transport and many regulatory functions.
An introduction to classification systems: myeloid neoplasms
Authors: Knight Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines a range of haematological neoplasms, such as leukaemias, which are recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO). It explains how haematological neoplasms can be subdivided into myeloid or lymphoid lineages and then subdivided further according to various cellular, molecular, genetic, and clinical features. It also describes the common translocations identified in haematological neoplasms and their role in classification. The chapter explores the molecular mechanisms underpinning the development and behaviour of selected haematological neoplasms. It compares and contrasts the disease entities classified as myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), recognizing the importance of MDS/MPN overlap conditions.
Case studies in haematology
Authors: Blann Andrew , Knight Gavin , Moore Gary
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews case studies that imply that haematology and its diseases encompass many different themes, not only red cells, white cells, or haemostasis alone. It presents three cases that bring together many of the diverse characteristics of haematology and demonstrates how its different aspects interact in defining a diagnosis and supporting clinical management. The first case study focuses on a morbidly obese 62-year-old woman that has an artificial hip joint on the left and an artificial knee joint on the right, which caused her to be 90% bed-bound with a persistent fever. The second case study is about a 43-year-old male employed as a steel worker, who complains about sore throat, fever, muscular aches, pains, and a general feeling of being tired all the time. The last case study includes a 49-year-old man who works as a warehouse supervisor that complains about a sharp, low back pain that has been present since he had an accident, a series of headaches, and a feeling of being more tired than usual.
Atomic structure and properties
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on atoms, which are of fundamental importance in chemistry as all matter is made up from atoms and ions that are derived from them. Understanding the structure of the atom is key to appreciating how bonds are formed, as much of chemistry is concerned with the making and breaking of bonds. The chapter describes experiments that helped determine the structure of the atom and the charge on the electron and experiments that have helped show wave–particle duality of photons and electrons. The chapter illustrates how to interconvert frequency and wavelength for electromagnetic radiation, and calculate the energy associated with photons from their frequency and the frequencies of the lines in the atomic spectrum of hydrogen. It also explains the concept of quantization, the origins of emission spectra and absorption spectra, and the calculation of the wavelength of an object based on its mass and velocity.
Molecular spectroscopy
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on molecular spectroscopy, which uses the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter to obtain information about molecules. Molecular spectroscopy includes a range of techniques and methods that can reveal a wealth of information about molecules and their reactions. The chapter explores the basic principles of molecular spectroscopy in terms of the quantization of molecular energy and transitions between molecular energy levels when matter interacts with radiation. It demonstrates how to use the Beer–Lambert law to find the absorbance of the solution and hence the ratio of the intensities of the transmitted and incident radiation, or to find the molar absorption coefficient, depending on what data are available. It also highlights the type of molecular transition associated with radiation of a particular energy in the electromagnetic spectrum and outlines how molecular spectra can be measured.
Isomerism and stereochemistry
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores different types of isomerism in organic compounds and shows how the spatial arrangements of atoms in molecules determine their stereochemistry, and hence their shape. An understanding of stereochemistry will prove invaluable in the study of the reactions of functional groups — and it is crucial to the molecular machinery of life itself. The chapter discusses the conformational isomers and the factors that influence the conformation of organic molecules, such as ethane, butane, cyclohexane, and substituted cyclohexanes. It shows how to recognize enantiomers and assign the configuration of chiral centres as R or S using the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog sequence rules and how to convert a hashed–wedged line structure into a Fischer projection. The difference between diastereomers and enantiomers is also covered.
Carboxylic acids and derivatives
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Holman John , Lancaster Simon , Overton Tina , Parsons Andrew , Pilling Gwen , Price Gareth
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on carboxylic acids and derivatives, which are a large family of compounds that have similar structures as they all contain a C=O bond joined to an electronegative atom, typically oxygen, nitrogen, or a halogen atom. Esters, acid anhydrides, amides, and acyl chlorides are called carboxylic acid derivatives because they can be prepared from carboxylic acids. The chapter describes a general mechanism for a nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction and explains why carboxylic acid derivatives react with nucleophiles in substitution reactions rather than addition reactions. It discusses keto–enol tautomerism in carboxylic acid derivatives and the factors that influence the stability of keto and enol forms. It also shows how to predict the structure of a product derived from a nucleophilic acyl substitution, an α-substitution, or a carbonyl–carbonyl condensation reaction of a carboxylic acid derivative.
Entropy
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter shows how the entropy of an isolated system increases in a spontaneous process. The concept of entropy lies behind the reason why any chemical or physical process has a tendency to occur. It is therefore central to understanding the web of chemical processes that take place in living organisms. To that end, the chapter discusses the direction of spontaneous change and how to identify the reason why some processes are spontaneous and others are not. Next, the chapter explains the relationship between entropy and the Second Law of thermodynamics, which states that ‘the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase’. Absolute entropies and the Third Law of thermodynamics are also considered.
The response of equilibria to the conditions
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the response of equilibria to various conditions. It introduces Le Chatelier's principle: ‘When a system at equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance, the composition of the system tends to adjust so as to minimize the effect of the disturbance’. The chapter shows that by exploring how the standard reaction Gibbs energy depends on the conditions, we can infer how the equilibrium constant responds. One influence that can be dismissed at the outset is the role of catalysts, which in a biochemical context means the role of enzymes. The chapter pays particular attention to the effects of pressure and temperature. It reveals that when a gas-phase reaction at equilibrium is compressed, the composition tends to adjust so as to reduce the number of molecules in the gas phase. Additionally, the chapter shows how changes in temperature, such as those brought about by certain infections, affect biological processes.
Coupled reactions in biochemistry
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores coupled reactions. A spontaneous reaction may be able to drive forward a non-spontaneous reaction. In cells, every reaction is a part of a wider network of reactions and transmembrane transport processes. Here, inspection of metabolic pathways often reveals steps that can be considered to be a coupling between an energetically unfavourable process and an energetically favourable process. To better study these concepts, the chapter presents two case studies. The first involves the function of adenosine triphosphate, ATP (Atlas N3), which is to drive endergonic, energetically unfavourable processes such as protein synthesis, muscle contraction, and vision by the process of parallel coupling. The second concerns the oxidation of glucose and sequentially coupled reactions.
Reaction rates
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter defines the rate of a reaction and indicates how it is measured. Life is sustained by a network of reactions occurring at different rates. These rates are not fixed but respond to the needs of the cell or organism. The chapter explains that many reaction rates are found to be proportional to the concentrations of the reactants and in some cases the products. This recognition leads to the concepts of ‘rate law’, an expression for the rate in terms of the concentrations, and ‘rate constant’, a characteristic of the reaction. One aspect of discovering the rate law is to be able to classify reactions into different kinetic types, with the same type of reaction showing similar behaviour. To conclude, the chapter presents a case study on measuring the kinetics of protein folding.
The rate laws of single-step reactions
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter develops the concept of rate law and shows how it may be used to express how the concentration of a reactant or product changes with time. It focuses on simple one-step reactions in which reactants turn directly into products. The composition of a reaction mixture changes as the reaction proceeds towards equilibrium, with the reactant concentrations decreasing and the product concentrations increasing. An integrated rate law is an expression for the time dependence of the concentration of a reactant or product in a chemical reaction. The chapter also establishes an important relation between kinetic concepts, the rate constants for the forward and reverse reactions, and a thermodynamic concept, the equilibrium constant.
The rate laws of multi-step reactions
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the consequences of an overall reaction taking place through a sequence of elementary steps, each with a characteristic rate law. The overall rate laws are in general too difficult to solve other than by numerical methods, but two simplifications, the ‘steady-state approximation’ and the existence of a ‘pre-equilibrium’, enable the general features of networks of reactions to be established. The steady-state approximation assumes that after the intermediates have started to form, and during the major part of the reaction, their concentrations remain nearly constant and close to zero. In a pre-equilibrium the reactants and products of an early step of a reaction mechanism are supposed to have reached equilibrium. The chapter also presents a case study on the kinetics of protein unfolding.
The principles of quantum theory
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter lays out the principles of quantum theory. Quantum theory emerged when experimental results on matter and radiation were found to diverge from the predictions of classical mechanics. It was found that particles had the properties of waves, and that waves had the properties of particles. That duality is taken into account by the Schrödinger equation and the introduction of a wavefunction. One of the great upsets of classical physics is embodied in the uncertainty principle, which expresses the impossibility of the simultaneous specification of certain pairs of properties. One consequence of duality is the extension of microscopy and diffraction to beyond the electromagnetic spectrum.
Molecular interactions
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores molecular interactions, showing how these can be expressed in terms of the electrostatic interactions between arrays of point charges. It begins by recognizing that molecules may have partial charges on their atoms which interact electrostatically. There are some advantages in recognizing that partial charges exist as dipoles, and to use the electrostatic interactions as dipolar. Those dipoles need not be permanent, but might be induced by nearby charges or result from transient fluctuations in electron density. The chapter also takes a look at hydrogen bonding and steric repulsion. Finally, it provides a case study on molecular recognition in biology and pharmacology.
Cooperative scattering: X-Ray diffraction
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the information that is obtained from electromagnetic radiation scattered by individual molecules. This scattering a result of the interaction between the electric field vector of the radiation and the electrons in the molecule. Careful analysis of the angular distribution of intensities can be interpreted in terms of the molar mass of the macromolecules responsible for the scattering. Their size and shape can be assessed by decreasing the wavelength of the radiation and using X-rays instead of visible light. Neutron scattering also provides information, but as it is a result of nuclear forces, isotopic substitution can add to the information that can be obtained.
Communications in laboratory medicine
Authors: Glencross Hedley , Lavender Georgina
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights the importance of adequate communication skills within the clinical laboratory and how communications by laboratory personnel can affect the perceptions of users of the service they provide. Effective communication within a clinical laboratory, between its staff and a variety of external people and organizations, is necessary. This is because biomedical scientists who work as part of a laboratory team, must follow local policy and procedures, and comply with legislation, and are involved in a process that provides essential information contributing to patient care. Indeed, biomedical scientists must conform to current legislation, such as the Data Protection, Freedom of Information, and Human Tissue Acts, and be aware of the consequences of their actions if inappropriate records are kept and audit trails are not maintained. Biomedical scientists must also ensure that all work carried out within laboratory medicine has appropriate consent and that confidentiality is always maintained.
Preparing and measuring reagents
Authors: Graham Ian
Published: September 2023

This chapter details the process of preparing and measuring reagents, which are essential and fundamental skills for all biomedical scientists. The use of balances for weighing and pipettors and other volume measurement methods for volume delivery are key techniques in the production of solutions and their dilution. For correct operation, balances must be appropriately sited and calibrated. Burettes, pipettes, and volumetric flasks provide high levels of accuracy if used correctly. However, pipettors are the volume measurement tool of choice for highly accurate and precise work. They use disposable tips for convenience, require calibration, and, being precision instruments, must be used with care. The chapter then looks at molar concentrations and alternative ways of expressing concentration.
Molecular biology techniques
Authors: Wang Qiuyu , Ahmed Nessar , Smith Chris
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines molecular biology, which is generally concerned with the structures, functions, and interactions of the two major groups of macromolecules, the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, and proteins. Nucleic acids can be purified from organisms using a variety of techniques. Restriction endonucleases (REs) can digest the isolated DNA into smaller-sized fragments suitable for analysis and for use in a number of techniques of clinical interest. Molecular biology techniques are used in biomedical science and they rely on the complementary binding of nucleic acids to provide a convenient way of recognizing and isolating specific base sequences within fragments of DNA or RNA molecules include the sequencing of isolated DNA, Southern and Northern blotting, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), the cloning of DNA by recombination and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technologies, and DNA microarray analysis. The chapter then looks at CRISPR–Cas9, which is a quick and efficient method for editing genes.
Laboratory automation
Authors: James Tim
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates laboratory automation, which is a multi-disciplinary strategy to research, develop, optimize and capitalize on technologies in the laboratory that enable new and improved processes and products. All clinical laboratories utilize automation albeit to a variable extent, dependent on the discipline and requirements of the service. The application of this automation has produced improvements in efficiency and effectiveness of testing and improved consistency of analysis. Pre- and post-analytical processes such as centrifugation, decapping, and recapping of specimen tubes, aliquoting, archiving, and storage of samples can be integrated into a single automated process by using tracking systems. Ultimately, automation is prevalent well beyond the highly automated biomedical science areas, and many microbiology, histology, cytology, and blood transfusion laboratories have a range of automated instrumentation.
Point-of-care testing
Authors: Still Jan , Petley Lynda , McDowell Garry
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on point-of-care testing (POCT), which is the provision of a diagnostic pathology testing service outside the traditional clinical laboratory setting and physically closer to the patient. This type of testing may be carried out by healthcare professionals in the ward, clinic, or general practitioner (GP) surgery; by high street pharmacists; or by the patients themselves. Modern POCT now consists of a variety of devices from simple hand-held meters and test kits to more sophisticated portable and bench top analysers. The chapter then introduces the basic concept of rapid testing. It illustrates how POCT is governed and regulated, describing the requirements for a well-managed, reliable POCT service, and how such a service can be established and maintained. The chapter also discusses the training and competence of POCT practitioners, and highlights the dangers associated with a lack of or poor-quality training.
Hormones and development
Authors: Hinson Joy , Raven Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines hormones and development. In mammals, including humans, hormones are essential for the development of a male phenotype. The female phenotype is the default and it is the presence of male hormones that overrides the default and allows the baby to become phenotypically male. Much of our understanding of normal sexual development comes from investigating situations where this process goes wrong. In other vertebrates, gender determination is more complex and can be affected by factors such as temperature and social hierarchy. The chapter then considers the role of thyroid hormone in development. Hormones control metamorphosis in vertebrates and insects. Lastly, the chapter also looks at endocrine disrupting chemicals. Many natural and man-made products contain chemicals which are similar to hormones and can interfere with normal hormonal processes. It is increasingly recognized that these chemicals have damaging effects.
Hormones and behaviour
Authors: Hinson Joy , Raven Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses hormones and behaviour. It begins by looking at the mammalian hypothalamic hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin, which have counterparts in all vertebrates. All of these variations appear to have originated from a single gene, duplicated and copied forwards or backwards, and with individual changes in some amino acid positions. Many hormones have effects on behaviour in addition to their better-known effects on the body. Oxytocin affects a variety of complex behaviours, including maternal bonding, attachment, trust, empathy, and eating behaviour. In addition, several different hormones interact to control appetite and food intake: ghrelin stimulates hunger and increases food intake; leptin inhibits hunger and regulates fat stores; glucagon-like peptide (GLP), insulin, and oxytocin all work to stop you from eating when you are full. Oxytocin also works to control food preferences. Meanwhile, testosterone determines male behaviour; the absence of testosterone determines female behaviour.
Self-assembly
Authors: Beer Paul D. , Barendt Timothy A. , Lim Jason Y. C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the process of self-assembly, which is the reversible association of molecules and/or ions to form larger and more complex supramolecular structures. The fact that each building block (neutral or charged) has been pre-programmed with the chemical information needed for this process to occur spontaneously is key. Therefore, synthetic effort is focused on the rational design of these building blocks, e.g. the preparation of ligands with the required donor atom geometry, since, in theory, the desired structure will be formed relatively easily as a single, stable structure in the final convergent step. The chapter begins by looking at metal cation self-assembly. It focuses on transition metal-directed self-assembly where metal–ligand coordinate (dative covalent) bond strength and kinetic lability can be tuned by ligand variation and choice of metal. The chapter then presents neutral and anion self-assembly.
Introduction
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter aims to provide a foundation in the molecular biology of cancer and to demonstrate the conceptual process that is being pursued in order to design more specific cancer drugs. It discusses the translation of the knowledge of molecular pathways into clinically important therapies, then introduces a foundation in the cell and molecular biology of cancer. The chapter also reviews the terminology of cancer and the mechanisms of cellular processes. The chapter then shifts to look at the intricacies of cell function and the molecular pathways that underlie the process of carcinogenesis, whereby a normal cell is transformed into a cancer cell. It ultimately considers cancer cells in the context of the entire body.
Growth factor signaling and oncogenes
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on one of the fundamental characteristics of cells: their ability to self-reproduce. It stresses that the process of cell division (also known as cell proliferation or cell growth) must be carefully regulated, and DNA replication must be precisely coordinated in order to maintain the integrity of the genome for each cell generation. The chapter then moves to explicate the process of transferring a signal across a cell called signal transduction. It demonstrates the four types of proteins involved in the transduction of a growth factor signal: growth factors, growth factor receptors, intracellular signal transducers, and nuclear transcription factors, which elicit the mitogenic effect through the regulation of gene expression. Towards the end, the chapter identifies a common thread in many growth factor signal transduction pathways: many growth factor receptors are tyrosine kinases. It then reviews some examples of signal transducers.
Apoptosis
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins with a description of apoptosis. It defines apoptosis as a type of “cell suicide” that is intrinsic to the cell. It is an active process requiring the expression of genetically encoded proteins that every cell is capable of executing. The chapter then chronicles the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis and examines specific mutations that affect the apoptotic pathway and play a role in carcinogenesis. It also investigates how mutations in the apoptotic pathway can lead to resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs. Next, the chapter presents strategies for the design of new cancer therapeutics that target apoptosis. It also studies how caspases play a central role in apoptosis.
Angiogenesis
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the process of forming new blood vessels from pre-existing ones by the growth and migration of endothelial cells — angiogenesis. It argues that this process is common during embryogenesis, although it rarely occurs in the adult. The chapter then shows why angiogenesis is essential for most tumors with respect to cancer. It explains the angiogenic switch and the mechanisms of angiogenic sprouting. Sprouting of pre-existing vessels requires major reorganization involving destabilization of the mature vessel, proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, and maturation. It is regulated by the interaction of soluble mediators and their cognate receptors. The chapter then presents the other means of tumor neovascularization and elaborates on anti-angiogenic therapy. It then looks at vascular targeting by vascular disrupting agents.
Tumor immunology and immunotherapy
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses tumor suppression and tumor promotion mechanisms of the immune system. It notes that the immune system is a network of cells, signals, and organs that helps protect against dangerous pathogens and cancer. The chapter then emphasizes that the immune system plays a dual role in cancer: it has both anti-tumor and pro-tumor effects. On one hand, immune cells can recognize and eliminate tumor cells, including the killing of virus-infected cells. On the other hand, the immune system may exert selective pressure that shapes the antigens displayed by the tumor cells, leading to evasion of the immune system and cancer promotion. The chapter then describes the regulatory mechanisms that are used to control the immune response and factors that play a role in immune evasion. It then concludes by reporting exciting applications of this knowledge towards developing cancer immunotherapies, therapies that are demonstrating unprecedented results.
Strategies and tools for research and clinical development
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter recalls the goal of cancer research: to reveal fundamental mechanisms of cancer biology in order to produce preventative and therapeutic agents. The chapter addresses both strategies and tools of research and drug development. It starts with a description of the scientific method used to uncover the fundamentals of the role of extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) in cancer. This chapter shows how simple observation can lead to the understanding of how the genomes of cancer cells can change and how this knowledge is revealing clinical implications and candidate targets for a new class of therapeutics. The chapter also describes several select experimental methods and tools that have wide applications. Finally, the chapter pays attention to the use of the CRISPR-Cas9 system — one of the newest additions to the tools for investigating cancer genes. It also considers candidate drugs and some aspects of clinical trial design.
Thermodynamics
Authors: Jenkins Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

Before tackling surface thermodynamics, it is sensible to begin by asking just what we actually mean when we refer to the ‘surface’ of a substance. Once this rather crucial point is clarified, much of the necessary conceptual framework turns out to be closely analogous...
Techniques
Authors: Jenkins Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

In this chapter we review a variety of specialised techniques commonly applied to surface systems. Most are routinely conducted in ultra-high vacuum environments, for reasons we shall address shortly, but a few methods suitable for ambient-pressure gaseous or liquid environments are also included. An...
Structure
Authors: Norman Nicholas C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses some recent developments in terms of bonding, looking at the involvement of d orbitals in hybridization. Recent work by Matthias Wuttig has introduced the term and idea of metavalent bonding and makes the claim that this should be considered as a new type of bonding distinct from covalent, metallic, or ionic. Wuttig's proposal focuses principally on the properties of compounds such as GeSe, GeTe, SnSe, SnTe, PbSe, and PbTe, although it is by no means restricted to this group. Wuttig refers to these materials as 'metavalent solids' or 'incipient metals', and focuses on their properties which are distinct not just from metals and from covalently bonded solids but also from metalloid materials. The chapter then looks at the application of some of the various theories and models discussed in the previous chapters.
Technologies for Mammalian Synthetic Biology
Authors: Nelson Leonard J. , Elfick Alistair
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses methods by which DNA can be edited, written, and constructed, including the challenges faced in authoring DNA. It shows how the function of DNA instructions can be lost over time and how practitioners are seeking to protect DNA from corruption. It also analyses the aspiration of synthetic biology to create or improve function in biological systems by considering them as a type of material from which to design. The chapter talks about the engineering approach to synthetic biology which centres around the Design–Build–Test cycle as its key notion and aims for the optimization of each step towards a degree of predictability which allows a single orbit of that cycle to deliver a best design. The chapter also explains that the key underpinning technological tool that enables synthetic biology is the ability to produce genetic devices by modifying or creating DNA code.
The Ethics of Synthetic Biology
Authors: Obree David
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about the importance of ethics in the development of synthetic biology and explains why the ethics of synthetic biology differs from the ethics of analytic biology. It identifies the key areas of ethical concern in synthetic biology. It also reviews the ethical responsibility of scientists and governments to engage with and inform the public. The chapter addresses awkward questions that need to be asked about the purpose and limits of the technology and hypothetical benefits which must be assessed and balanced against possible harms. It looks at the potential for deliberate or accidental misuse of synthetic biology which has to be anticipated and suggests that existing beliefs, such as that the natural is always good, need to be critically interrogated.
Protein Structure
Authors: Lesk Arthur
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the basic chemistry of proteins and illustrates some of the salient features of their three-dimensional structures. The principles of construction and design of proteins start with amino acids and builds up to complete structures. Amino acids form peptide bonds, to create a polymer chain. Each amino acid within a polypeptide chain contains a sidechain. The sequences of sidechains—dictated primarily by the DNA sequences of the genes—determine the three-dimensional structures and, thereby, the functions of proteins. In addition to the polypeptide chain, many proteins may contain atomic ions, have small organic molecules, or undergo covalent post-translational modifications. The chapter then looks at protein folding and denaturation. Most proteins form native states, folding into a compact three-dimensional structure dictated by the amino-acid sequence. In contrast, the denatured state arises when conditions of temperature or solvent break up the native state. Finally, the chapter considers protein structures, protein families, and protein interactions.
Protein Evolution
Authors: Lesk Arthur
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on protein evolution, which proceeds through generation of variation by mutations in DNA—gene frequencies in populations can change either by selection of favourable variants, or non-selective drift. There are two components of protein evolution. The first is divergence of amino-acid sequences within domains. ‘Mixing and matching’ of different combinations of domains is another important mechanism of divergence of protein structure and function. Gene duplication also facilitates divergence, as one copy can continue to provide an essential function while the other can develop a novel function. In addition to changes in amino-acid sequences of individual proteins, important differences between species depend on changes in regulation, either at the protein level or in control of transcription. The chapter then looks at directed evolution and computational protein design.