bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MULTIPLE‐CHOICE QUESTIONS AND STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS1
Authors: Alker Henry A. , Carlson Julia A. , Hermann Margaret G.
Published: August 2014

Multiple‐choice aptitude and achievement questions have been criticized for penalizing the highly able student while rewarding the less able one. This paper reviews previous attempts to examine this criticism and presents original research designed to expand the ways of testing the critics' proposal. The research explored relationships between performance on multiple‐choice questions and characteristics which the critics suggest differentiate students who are rewarded from those who are penalized. The Ss were 108 undergraduate males. The characteristics examined were: creativity, nonconformity, ability to recognize ambiguity, preference for complexity, and test‐wiseness. Analyses of the data for the total group of Ss and for various sub‐groups supported some, but not all, of the critics' claims and suggested the need for reformulating arguments concerning multiple‐choice assessment.
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA IN GRADUATE BUSINESS STUDY: PARTS I AND II–DEVELOPMENT OF RATING SCALES, BACKGROUND DATA FORM AND THE PILOT STUDY1
Authors: Hilton Thomas L. , Kendall Lorne M. , Sprecher Thomas B.
Published: August 2014

Is grade average alone a sufficient criterion of student attainment or should other student attributes be measured to supplement grades as criteria, especially in selecting biographical predictors?

A five‐year study was undertaken in which criterion rating scales were developed embodying dimensions, other than grades, judged by faculty to be relevant to performance in graduate study in business and to later career progress. After extensive consultation with a nationwide panel of faculty members, the scales were defined and anchored by specific examples of behavioral incidents. In addition, a comprehensive biographical questionnaire was prepared.

A pilot study in two graduate business schools showed the technique to be promising, although very demanding of the faculty judges. The research staff's experience in developing the scales is discussed, as well as the implications of the procedure.
BAYESIAN INFERENCE AND THE CLASSICAL TEST THEORY MODEL I. RELIABILITY AND TRUE SCORES1
Authors: Novick Melvin R. , Jackson Paul H. , Thayer Dorothy T.
Published: August 2014

A general one‐way analysis of variance components with unequal replication numbers is used to provide unbiased estimates of the true and error score variance of classical test theory. The inadequacy of the ANOVA theory is noted and the foundations for a Bayesian approach are detailed. The choice of prior distribution is discussed and a justification for the Tiao‐Tan prior is found in the particular context of the “n‐split” technique. The posterior distributions of reliability, error score variance, observed score variance and true score variance are presented with some extensions of the original work of Tiao and Tan. Special attention is given to simple approximations that are available in important cases and also to the problems that arise when the ANOVA estimate of true score variance is negative. Bayesian methods derived by Box and Tiao and by Lindley are studied numerically in relation to the problem of estimating true score. Each is found to be useful and the advantages and disadvantages of each are discussed and related to the classical test‐theoretic methods, Finally, some general relationships between Bayesian inference and classical test theory are discussed.
A FOUR VALUE PERSONNEL DECISION MODEL: REMEDIAL PLACEMENT1
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

The personnel decision principally treated in this paper is that of remedial placement. The decision made with respect to candidates is to accept or reject, and performances by candidates are evaluated as pass or fail. A criterion and a selection variable were assumed, and the problem is to choose a cutting score on the selection variable such that the value of acceptance decision‐outcome combinations is at an optimum. Optimization conditions are given in general functional notation and for normal surfaces. Numerical examples are given for three philosophies of evaluating pass and fail outcomes and for three levels of college course difficulties.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS OF RATINGS OF SOME DEVIANT ENGLISH SENTENCES
Authors: Danks Joseph H. , Lewis Charles
Published: August 2014

The comprehension of deviant sentences, a not infrequent demand in natural situations, is dependent on several linguistic variables. Grammaticalness (G), meaningfulness (M), and familiarity (F) are three variables which are potentially such. In order to study the effect of violating these variables upon Ss' responses to deviant sentences, 85 deviant and 15 correct sentences were assigned to eight groups representing all combinations of two values (“correct” or “deviant”) on these three variables. The 100 sentences were given to four equal groups of Ss (total N = 112), who rated each sentence from 0 to 10 on the basis of either grammaticalness (G*), meaningfulness (M*), familiarity (F*), or ordinariness (O*). The data of the first three groups were then combined into an 84 by 100 matrix. A principal components analysis was performed on the cross‐product matrix with a varimax rotation. Four interpretable factors emerged, accounting for 89% of the variability. Factor I was a general comprehensibility factor in the factor loadings, related to changes in all three variables. However, the familiarity Ss scored highest on Factor I. Factors II and III represented G‐G* and M‐M*, respectively, in both factor loadings and factor scores. Factor IV corresponded to the F variable in the factor loadings, but was uninterpretable for the factor scores.
SOCIAL CLASS AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE ATTACHMENT AND PLAY BEHAVIOR OF THE YEAR‐OLD INFANT1
Authors: Messer Stanley B. , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

In the present study approximately 15 boy and 15 girl infants, Caucasian and from a lower socioeconomic background, were seen in a free play situation exactly replicating the Goldberg and Lewis (1969) study. Social class and sex differences were explored in attachment behavior to mother and play behavior. Social class differences in vocalization were observed which suggested that the linguistic deficiency usually reported for the lower class is visible by one year of age. Sex differences in attachment behavior were again observed and indicated that across different social classes one‐year‐old girls show more attachment behavior than boys.
THE ESTIMATION OF MANY PARAMETERS
Authors: Lindley D. V.
Published: August 2014

This paper is concerned with estimation problems where there are several parameters all of the same type–for example, a set of means. It often happens that the knowledge of the parameters is exchangeable in the sense of de Finetti. This prior knowledge can be used to obtain estimates alternative to the usual ones. The particular problem studied here is the familiar analysis between and within groups. New estimates of the group means are obtained, and when the assumption of equality of variances within groups is omitted, new estimates of the individual variances are also derived.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE FOR JUNIOR COLLEGES IN TERMS OF ROTATED FACTORS
Authors: Modu Christopher C.
Published: August 2014

This report describes the dimensions of a Satisfaction Questionnaire administered to junior college students during the experimental phases of the Comparative Guidance and Placement Program of the College Entrance Examination Board. Apart from investigating the stability of their factor structure, the scales were correlated with college grades to determine whether they measure something other than grades. The results produced relatively homogeneous scales indicative of the extent of a student's satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his English courses, Mathematics courses and Major Field and whether he had switched to a lower or more advanced section in English or Mathematics. The scales were also found to bear no relationship with college grades.
BLACK STUDENTS AT PREDOMINANTLY WHITE COLLEGES: A RESEARCH DESCRIPTION1
Authors: Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

How do the background characteristics> activities, goals, and perceptions of black students at predominantly white colleges differ from their white counterparts? In an attempt to answer these questions, research results from several sources were combined in this report. Emphasized in particular were findings from the “Questionnaire on Student and College Characteristics” (QSCC). A sample of 249 black students at 83 traditionally‐white institutions had responded to the QSCC in 1968. The similarities and differences between this group of black students and a matched group of white students are discussed and related to other research evidence.
A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF SOME REDUCED‐RANK REGRESSION PROCEDURES1
Authors: Browne Michael W.
Published: August 2014

Properties of some currently used reduced‐rank regression procedures are investigated. Difficulties associated with the selection of a predictor subset on the basis of the calibration sample are discussed. It is shown that the largest principal components regression procedure of Horst [1941] and Burket [1964] may be regarded as a means for obtaining estimates of regression weights under the assumption of the formal factor analysis model. The use of alternative weighting procedures in principal components regression is discussed. It is pointed out that a factor analysis regression procedure suggested by Horst [1941] may be used in conjunction with the maximum likelihood factor analytic solution to provide maximum likelihood estimates of the regression weights under the assumption of the formal factor analysis model. A superficially different procedure proposed by Scott [1966] is shown to be equivalent to this factor analysis regression procedure. Some properties of factor analysis regression using a maximum likelihood solution are given. A description is given of a series of artificial experiments which was carried out to throw light on some properties of the reduced‐rank regression procedures. Implications of the results are discussed.
BAYESIAN INFERENCE AND THE CLASSICAL TEST THEORY MODEL II. VALIDITY AND PREDICTION1
Authors: Jackson Paul H. , Novick Melvin R. , Thayer Dorothy T.
Published: August 2014

The feasibility and efficacy of a Bayesian method, due to Lindley, for estimating regressions in m groups is studied by application to data from the Law School Admissions Test program and the Comparative Guidance program. Easily computable asymptotic solutions to the Lindley equations are provided and shown to approximate well the full Bayesian solution in some situations. Numerical investigations are described that lead to the adoption of efficient starting values and an efficient sequencing for the iterative solution of the Lindley equations. The advantages of the Bayesian method over more conventional procedures are discussed. Difficulties encountered by Lindley in the statement of one of his assumptions of independence are investigated and a resolution is found. The validities of other assumptions are checked. Problems arising in the extension of Lindley's method to the multiple correlation case are discussed and some insight is gained through the use of principal component methods.
ESTIMATION AND HYPOTHESIS‐TESTING FOR A GENERALIZED FACTOR ANALYSIS BASED ON RESIDUAL COVARIANCE MATRICES OF PRESCRIBED STRUCTURE1
Authors: McDonald R. P.
Published: August 2014

In a generalized factor model based on residual covariance matrices of prescribed structure, maximum likelihood estimates of the model parameters, and a likelihood‐ratio test of the number of major factors postulated, are obtained as the obvious generalized counterparts of the corresponding quantities in the classical common factor model, with the exception that there does not seem to be a suitable counterpart to Jöreskog's treatment of the problem of improper solutions in the classical case.
NOTE ON THE SCORING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE SPEAKING AND WRITING FLUENCY TESTS1
Authors: Carroll John B.
Published: August 2014

Data from French speaking and writing fluency tests are analyzed to support the suggestion that scoring formulas should reflect two components of performance: (1) quantity of correct response, and (2) relative quality of response. This may require nonlinear combinations of raw scores, usually, formulas involving ratios or products.
EFFECT OF LABELS ON MEMORY IN THE ABSENCE OF REHEARSAL1
Authors: Ward William C. , Legant Patricia
Published: August 2014

Nursery school children were shown two pictures and then asked to pick those they had seen from an array of 10 possibilities. Half the subjects labeled the pictures as they were shown; the remaining half observed without labeling. For all subjects there was a 20‐second delay between presentation and recall, during which the tester conversed with the child to prevent rehearsal. Subjects who labeled showed recall superior to that of subjects who did not, indicating that the facilitating effect of labels in short‐term memory is not solely attributable either to an increased tendency to rehearse or to the strengthening of a “primary” memory trace.
ON STOCHASTIC APPROXIMATION
Authors: Wolff Hans
Published: August 2014

This paper deals with a stochastic process for the approximation of the root of a regression equation. This process was first suggested by Robbins and Monro [1].

The main result here is a necessary and sufficient condition on the iteration coefficients for convergence of the process (convergence with probability one and convergence in the quadratic mean).
ATTENTION AND VERBAL LABELING BEHAVIOR: A STUDY IN THE MEASUREMENT OF INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS1
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

This study was interested in determining whether (1) novelty produces greater or less attention than familiarity and incongruity, and (2) if children's labeling behavior was related to their attentive behavior. Using 3‐ to 5‐year‐old children, the results indicate that attention, at least for the stimuli presented, is an increasing function from familiar to incongruous to novel. Moreover, Ss' speed and accuracy of labeling was related to their attentive behavior with familiar stimuli producing mostly correct labels with short latencies while incongruous or novel stimuli produced mostly incorrect or no labels with long latencies. These results were discussed in relationship to the concept of novelty.
CULTURAL VALUES AND THE RISKY SHIFT: A CROSS‐CULTURAL TEST IN UGANDA AND THE UNITED STATES1
Authors: Carlson Julia A. , Davis Clive M.
Published: August 2014

To investigate the hypothesis that the “risky shift” is a function of a cultural value favoring risk, group and individual decisions of Ugandan and U. S. students were compared on two tasks: the choice dilemmas devised by Kogan and Wallach and the actual‐consequence situation of Wallach, Kogan, and Bern. On both tasks the individual decisions of the Ugandans were more conservative, supporting the premise that Ugandan students are less favorably disposed to risk taking than are the U. S. students. For the Ugandan sample, group discussions produced no evidence of a risky shift. For the U. S. sample, there was evidence of a risky shift, but not to the extent reported by other investigators. The results were interpreted as consistent with the cultural‐value hypothesis; some reservations were discussed.
A NOTE ON CONJOINT MEASUREMENT WITH RESTRICTED SOLVABILITY1
Authors: Holman Eric W.
Published: August 2014

Additive two‐factor conjoint measurement is derived from axioms that do not include unrestricted solvability or a condition on interlocked standard sequences.
FACTORIAL INVARIANCE OF A BIOGRAPHICAL INVENTORY FOR ADOLESCENTS: A COMPARISON OF LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS‐SECTIONAL RESULTS
Authors: Freeberg Norman E. , Rock Donald A.
Published: August 2014

Several indices of factorial consistency were applied to a biographical inventory administered to a longitudinal sample of 2070 students in the 7th, 9th and 11th grades. Results were compared with those of a prior cross‐sectional study at the same grade levels. Comparisons of dimensional change over the three grades, for the cross‐sectional and longitudinal sample, showed general similarities in the number of major factors extracted, their designations and the variance accounted for. However, there were marked differences between the samples in their factor intercorrelations and the developmental changes shown in factor “presence.” A transition effect associated with the factor pattern of the 9th grade was found only in the longitudinal sample. The importance of identifying the extent of factorial invariance for measures used in studying patterns of behavioral development is discussed.
COLLEGE ENVIRONMENTS AND STUDENT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Authors: Centra John A. , Rock Donald
Published: August 2014

In this study, selected aspects of the college environment were related to student academic achievement at 27 small liberal arts colleges. Academic achievement was measured by senior students' scores on the Area Tests of the Graduate Record Examination; the Scholastic Aptitude Test (Verbal and Mathematics) scores of these same students prior to college entrance were used as a control measure for differences in initial aptitude. The colleges' social and academic environment were assessed through students' perceptions and included five scales describing the extent of faculty‐student interaction, student activism, curriculum flexibility, academic challenge, and the colleges' cultural facilities. All but the Activism scale were related to student over or underachievement on one or more of the three Area Tests (Humanities, Natural Science, Social Science). In particular, students at colleges with high scores on the Faculty‐Student Interaction scale more often overachieved on two of the criteria tests, while students at colleges with low scores on this scale underachieved on all three of the tests. The results suggest that certain student‐described college environmental features are related to academic achievement, although replication with another group of colleges would be desirable.
A COST/EFFECTIVENESS MODEL FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS1
Authors: Badran Yehia
Published: August 2014

Most decision problems are ones in which a choice between multiple‐objective alternatives has to be made. The central difficulty of such decision problems lies in finding single decision criteria which combine the decision‐maker's objectives and interests in an acceptable way. In this paper a general procedure for the construction of such single decision criteria is presented. This general procedure is then applied to the construction of a decision criterion for the “two‐objective” decision problem: which pupils, if any, should be enrolled in which educational programs when one is interested in the programs' cost and effectiveness? The use of the resulting decision model is illustrated in detail.
RESEARCH IN CHILD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF DEVELOPMENTAL, PSYCHOLOGY
Authors: Santostefano Sebastiano , Baker A. Harvey
Published: August 2014

Since the many broader developmental propositions common to the theories of Piaget, Werner, and psychoanalytic ego psychology are not available in the usual research report, the present paper starts by defining a number of them to provide an outline of the conceptual framework which these three developmental theories share. This framework delineates the limits of the literature survey which follows. Four main lines of investigation are then reviewed, each dealing with questions and hypotheses derived from one or more of the propositions and each suggested by an examination of the literature. These are: studies dealing with innately given behavioral and structural organs and modes of functioning; differentiation‐integration and levels of organization; multiple modes and stages of development; and the adaptive process. Following this literature review, a concluding section considers some implications of the biodevelopmental research reported to date for the understanding of child psychopathology.
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF A MULTIPLE‐LOOK CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION MODEL
Authors: Cotton John W.
Published: August 2014

The behavior of focus samples central to the multiple‐look model of Trabasso and Bower (1968) is examined by three methods. First, exact probabilities of success conditional upon a certain brief history of stimulation are determined. Second, possible states of the organism during the experiment are defined and a transition matrix for those states determined, permitting prediction over all possible numbers of trials. Third, Fisher's generalizations and corrections of the Trabasso and Bower focus sample theory are examined. A general solution for the conditional probability of success is derived from Fisher's equation for the probability of n successes between any two errors. One very strong implication of the theory is given in Section 5.
A METHOD FOR ASSESSING PRIMARY GRADE CHILDREN'S EXPECTATIONS OF SCHOOL1
Authors: Koslin Sandra Cohen , Amarel Marianne , Ames Nancy
Published: August 2014

An assessment of children's perceptions and expectations concerning the school was attempted, using a structured interview. One hundred thirty two first‐ and second‐grade children drawn from three schools with differential racial composition were asked a series of 10 questions related to life in the classroom. The questions were asked under two conditions; in one the children were referred to a series of sketches depicting classroom events, in the other no sketches were shown. The interviews were repeated after one month to assess the stability of the responses. The results yielded data on substantive questions as: what pupil behaviors teachers value, what teacher behaviors children value, etc. The responses differentiated between the schools from which the subjects were drawn, reflecting their racial composition.
EDUCATING DISADVANTAGED URBAN CHILDREN IN SUBURBAN SCHOOLS: AN EVALUATION1
Authors: Zdep S. M.
Published: August 2014

A one‐year experimental program that transported a total of 38 “volunteer” disadvantaged city children to schools in a nearby suburban community was evaluated in grades 1 and 2. Twenty‐six of the 38 children were in a total of 12 different classes at these two grade levels. At the conclusion of the program, transported first graders displayed significantly higher average gains than did counterparts who remained in the city school in reading, mathematics, and listening skills. Among second graders, achievement mean gains for the transported group did not differ significantly from those of the counterpart group. Suburban children in classes containing city youngsters displayed no measured detrimental effects on achievement, when compared to similar classes without city children. In general, year‐end affective measures indicated that most groups of students preferred integrated classes that were mostly white, and they also felt these classes were among the smartest.
COMPARISON OF THREE METHODS OF ASSESSING COLLEGE ENVIRONMENTS1
Authors: Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

Three methods of assessing the college environment—student perceptions, student self‐reports, and objective institutional data—were compared by use of multimethod factor analysis, a new technique which removes method variance by focusing on correlations between rather than within methods of measurement. A total of 53 college variables for 103 institutions were analyzed. The factors derived from the multimethod analysis were more specific and more free of method variance than those obtained in a principal axis factor analysis; the first four factors in both analyses, however, were similar in content, suggesting that these dimensions appear to be valid descriptions of how 4‐year institutions differ from each other rather than differences related to methods of assessment. Convergent and discriminant validity for variables measured by more than one method were also examined and discussed.
A THEORETICAL STUDY OF THE MEASUREMENT EFFECTIVENESS OF FLEXILEVEL TESTS*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

A flexilevel test is found to be inferior to a peaked conventional test for measuring examinees in the middle of the ability range, superior for examinees at the extremes. Throughout the entire range of ability, a flexilevel test is much superior to any conventional test that attempts to provide accurate measurement at both extremes.
ERRORS OF INFERENCE DUE TO ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT1,2
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Werts Charles E.
Published: August 2014

Failure to consider errors of measurement when using partial correlation or analysis of covariance techniques can result in erroneous conclusions. Certain aspects of this problem are discussed and particular attention is given to issues raised in a recent article by Brewer, Campbell, and Crano.
FINDING POINTS OF VIEW IN JUDGMENT DATA
Authors: Pennell Roger
Published: August 2014

It is argued that many investigators utilize the Tucker and Messick (1963) Model with no intention of looking for individual differences or, after utilizing the model, draw improper inferences. An example is given illustrating the difficulties which result from improper use of the model. Several proper methods are outlined.
ON LEAST SQUARES FITTING NONLINEAR SUBMODELS1
Authors: Bechtel Gordon G.
Published: August 2014

Three simplifying conditions are given for obtaining least squares (LS) estimates for a nonlinear submodel of a linear model. If these are satisfied, and if the subset of nonlinear parameters may be LS fit to the corresponding LS estimates of the linear model, then one attains the desired LS estimates for the entire submodel. Two illustrative analyses employing this method are given, each involving an Eckart‐Young (LS) decomposition of a matrix of linear LS estimates. In each case the factors provide an LS fit of the nonlinear submodel to the original data. The minimum error sum of squares for this fit is the error sum of squares for the corresponding linear model plus a function of the eigenvalues involved in the factorization. An Eckart‐Young factorization, however, is only a special case of an LS decomposition of LS estimates. The present method is more generally applicable (under the three simplifying conditions) whenever any LS procedure may be found for fitting certain parameters of a nonlinear submodel to the corresponding LS estimates of a linear model.
FACTOR ANALYSIS BY GENERALIZED LEAST SQUARES
Authors: Jo̎reskog Karl G. , Goldberger Arthur S.
Published: August 2014

Aitkin's generalized least squares (GLS) principle, with the inverse of the observed variance‐covariance matrix as a weight matrix, is applied to estimate the factor analysis model in the exploratory (unrestricted) case. It is shown that the GLS estimates are scale free and asymptotically efficient. The estimates are computed by a rapidly converging Newton‐Raphson procedure. A new technique is used to deal with Heywood cases effectively.
A STUDY OF SPEEDEDNESS AS A SOURCE OF TEST BIAS
Authors: Evans Franklin R. , Reilly Richard
Published: August 2014

Specially constructed “speeded” and “unspeeded” forms of a Reading Comprehension test were administered to regular center and fee‐free center LSAT candidates in an effort to determine: (1) if the test was more speeded for fee‐free candidates, and (2) if reducing the amount of speededness was more beneficial to fee‐free candidates. Results of the analyses show: (1) the test is somewhat more speeded for fee‐free candidates than for regular candidates, (2) reducing the amount of speededness produces higher scores for both regular (22 scaled score points) and fee‐free (33 scaled score points) center candidates, and (3) reducing speededness is not more beneficial (in terms of increasing the number of items answered correctly) to fee‐free than to regular center candidates.

Lower KR‐20 reliability was observed under speeded conditions in the fee‐free sample and is discussed.
IDENTIFICATION OF SUB‐SKILLS OF READING COMPREHENSION BY MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FACTOR ANALYSIS1
Authors: Spearritt Donald
Published: August 2014

Differing interpretations have been made of the results obtained by Davis in a large‐scale study of the mental skills involved in reading comprehension among twelfth grade students. On the basis of a uniqueness analysis and a varimax‐rotated principal components analysis, Davis maintained that five of his eight postulated skills were experimentally distinguishable. A refactorization of Davis's data by R. L. Thorndike suggested that except for word knowledge, the reading skills were not separately distinguishable. The present study consists of a further refactorization of Davis's data, taking more advantage of their factor analytic design possibilities, and employing the more comprehensive procedures now available for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Word knowledge and three other skills were shown to be separately distinguishable, but the latter three skills were very highly correlated and thus could be predominantly measuring a single basic ability.
SIGNIFICANCE TEST FOR A PARTIAL CORRELATION CORRECTED FOR ATTENUATION*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

Correction for attenuation is important for partial correlations because not even the sign of the partial between true scores can be inferred safely from the partial between observed (fallible) scores. Methods for inferring the corrected partial are discussed. Unfortunately, the corrected partial will sometimes have an overwhelming sampling error. A significance test is developed that largely circumvents this problem in those cases where it is enough to infer just the sign of the partial between true scores.
A QUICK METHOD FOR DETERMINING TEST BIAS
Authors: Echternacht Gary
Published: August 2014

The problem of test bias has been a growing concern in recent years. Of the several available methods for determining test bias, probably the most effective means involves collecting criterion information. This data collection process often provides a considerable barrier to the researcher, especially for the small test user and for someone who needs an immediate solution to a test bias question. This paper presents a method for identifying and analyzing the nature of test bias. This method is intended as only a preliminary analysis prior to, or concurrently to, a criterion data collection process.
TRAIT INTERRELATIONS IN IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES AND QUESTIONNAIRE DATA1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Jacobs Paul I. , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

This study's aim was to assess the validity of naive subjects' implicit personality theories, the correspondence among the theories, and the influence of social desirability on them. High school girls classified the items from the MMPI Psychopathic Deviate scale into clusters representing different traits. These clusters agreed closely with the factors obtained in previous factor analyses of self‐reports to these items and were highly similar for individual subjects. Desirability was substantially related to the clusters but generally did not mediate their correspondence with the factors or each other. These results indicate that the lay theories possessed validity as well as communality, and that desirability had a distinct but limited involvement with the theories.
ANCHORED SCALING AND EQUATING: OLD CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS AND NEW METHODS
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

This paper describes several situations in which generalization of statistical results is not possible by representative sampling but which is attempted using corrections for selection of groups. The situations include hiring, admissions, differential classification, guidance, test score equating, and test score scaling. Evidence of inaccuracies of the assumptions underlying the corrections is adduced. The Pearson equations which rest on these assumptions, are mentioned as a basis of scaling and equating procedures in existence, an alternative approach is suggested, and its application to anchored equating, vertical equating, scaling, and equating with mixed essay and objective material is described. The alternative approach consists of a principle for choosing objective functions whose optimization would lead to a selection of conversion constants for equating. The principle is that equal equating test scores should be associated with equal reported scores on the average. Constrained optimizations are suggested where policy considerations so indicate.
PERSONALISM AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION1
Authors: Potter David A.
Published: August 2014

Attribution theory predicts that actions seen as specifically directed toward a person have greater impact than those not so directed. It was hypothesized that agreement between self‐evaluation and another's evaluation increases personalism of received evaluations, increasing both impact and tendency to reciprocate liking or disliking. In a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design, 66 subjects received a high or low score on two tests of social insight. Each subject then received evaluations, supposedly from another subject, indicating (1) the partner estimated the subject's social insight as well above or below average, and (2) the partner liked the subject very much or disliked him moderately. Liking for the partner was the dependent variable. Results supported the experimental hypothesis; a significant (p < .001) three‐way interaction effect was observed.
EFFECTS OF PRENOMINAL ADJECTIVE ORDERING ON CHILDREN'S LATENCIES AND ERRORS IN AN IMMEDIATE SENTENCE RECALL TASK12
Authors: Freedle Roy , Hall William S.
Published: August 2014

Thirty‐four children ranging in age from 2,6 to 6,1 (median age 4,3) were presented with sentences for imitation which either violated or honored a prenominal adjective ordering rule which requires that size adjectives must precede color adjectives. Two response measures were evaluated in terms of these sentence types: latency to begin a sentence imitation and recall errors. For both the older and younger subjects, latencies following adjective order violations were significantly longer than following correct adjective order. This was argued to provide evidence for the existence of a perceptual strategy in noun phrase segmentation which occurs at the time the sentence is comprehended. The recall error measure indicated that a different strategy is reflected in the output phase of a sentence imitation task: this strategy was called a shift‐to‐grammatical‐output. Older subjects were found to employ this latter strategy whereas the younger subjects did not employ it. These results were interpreted both in terms of Bever's developmental theory of prenominal adjective ordering acquisition and the empirical work of Martin and Molfese. Finally, these results were related to a more general developmental theory suggested by a pragmatic communication interpretation of adjective ordering due to the work of Danks, Glucksberg, and Schwenk.
PERSONALITY RESEARCH FORM: FACTOR STRUCTURE AND RESPONSE STYLE INVOLVEMENT1
Authors: Strieker Lawrence J.
Published: August 2014

The aims of this study were (a) to explore the factor structure of the Personality Research Form (PRF) and (b) to examine the inventory's relations with response styles. In general, the PRF content scales correlated moderately with each other and with measures of acquiescence, social desirability, and defensiveness response biases. Six oblique factors, identified as conscientiousness, hostility, ascendance, dependence, imagination, and carefreeness, were found in a principal axis analysis of the content scales. The stylistic measures' estimated loadings on these factors were scattered and moderate. Several factors were similar to the categorization of scales in the PRF manual as well as the factors previously obtained by Edwards, Abbott, and Klockars.
ESTIMATION OF LATENT ABILITY AND ITEM PARAMETERS WHEN THERE ARE OMITTED RESPONSES*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

Omitted items cannot properly be treated as wrong when estimating ability and item parameters. A convenient method for utilizing the information provided by omissions is presented. Some theoretical and considerable empirical justification is adduced for the estimates obtained by both old and new methods.
AN ACCOUNTABILITY DESIGN FOR SCHOOL SYSTEMS1
Authors: Forehand Garlie A. , Marco Gary L. , McDonald Frederick J. , Murphy Richard T. , Quirk Thomas J.
Published: August 2014

A comprehensive plan for accountability in elementary and secondary schools is described. The primary purpose of the accountability system is to promote student development. During the first phase of accountability, an assessment is made of student performance. Results can be expressed in terms of both the percentage of students scoring below minimum performance standards and the Student Development Index, a deviation measure of performance based on longitudinal student data. In the diagnostic phase a systematic study of process variables is initiated to identify those process variables that should become the focus of corrective action plans. Corrective action must then be taken. Suggestions for implementing the accountability system are also presented.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT AND ALUMNI RATINGS OF TEACHERS
Authors: Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

Student and alumni ratings for 23 teachers were found to correlate .75 (somewhat less for teachers rated only by graduates of their department). This substantial agreement between current students and alumni (of five years) regarding who have been effective or ineffective teachers suggests that student ratings are fairly permanent and do, at least in part, reflect overall, long‐term effects of instruction.
ON THE STABILITY OF ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS: THE WEXLER PHENOMENON
Authors: Jennrich Robert I.
Published: August 2014

The formulas which give the standard errors of factor loading estimates while available and computable are complicated and our understanding of them is limited. A nontechnical description of their behavior under favorable and unfavorable conditions is given. Of particular interest is their behavior in the presence of singularities arising from equal eigenvalues and undefined rotation.
STUDIES OF SINGLE SAMPLES AND WHOLE POPULATIONS
Authors: Hall Charles E.
Published: August 2014

This paper revives an old statistic, the point biserial correlation, reviews some of the generalizations of it and shows how these correlations are useful for studying the characteristics of observations in single samples or whole populations.

The distinctions between analysis of variance techniques and complex point serial correlation analyses are examined in considerable detail.

In any practical sense there are few, if any, distinctions between analysis of variance and serial correlation when only one characteristic is involved in only one sample. When there is more than one characteristic or more than one sample or both, the distinctions between analysis of variance and serial correlation become great, changing the source of estimates of population variance and of estimates of error variance.
GRADING PRACTICES IN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOLS
Authors: Pinchak Barbara Moretti , Breland Hunter M.
Published: August 2014

During the spring of 1972, 1069 schools participated in a survey of U. S. high schools. Of those schools reporting information on their grading practices, 68% indicated that only letter grades were used, 16% indicated that only percentage grades were used, 4% used some other system (such as pass‐fail), and 9% used a combination of systems. (3% did not give complete information.) The meaning of grades within systems varied considerably. Percentage grades, in particular, showed the lack of a standard, with some being assigned as many as 8 equivalent letter grades. Conversely, some letter grades were assigned as many as 20 equivalent percentage grades. The most interesting finding of the survey of grading practices, however, relates to trends in grading. This survey suggests that there is less experimentation with alternative marking systems than might be expected.
UNRAVELING LORD'S PARADOX: THE APPROPRIATE USE OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS IN QUASI‐EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Authors: O'Connor Edward F.
Published: August 2014

Lord's paradox is a demonstration that the adjustment for pretest differences in preexisting experimental groups depends on assumptions about what the data would have been under circumstances other than those which actually occurred. Different assumptions may lead to conflicting estimates of the treatment effect. In the absence of random assignment, it is often difficult to justify the choice of a particular set of assumptions. The problem is discussed in terms of confounding and specification error, and a procedure is suggested by which a researcher can test his choice of assumptions. The procedure consists in demonstrating that the pretest differences can be explained entirely in terms of a few known variables. It Is assumed that all variables are measured without error, although the approach can be modified for fallible variables.
STUDENT POINTS OF VIEW IN RATINGS OF COLLEGE INSTRUCTION
Authors: Centra John A. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

This study investigated student points of view in their ratings of specific courses and instructors by analyzing student responses within each of three classes separately, and then sought to generalize the results further by additional analyses with 300 students randomly selected from 402 classes in five colleges. Different points of view were found for student ratings of course examinations, textbooks and supplementary readings, and class discussions. These various points of view were moderately related to such student characteristics as grades and sex, although not in all three of the classes studied. This last point underscores the importance of the context (i.e., the particular course) in understanding or interpreting the meaning of student ratings.
SOCIAL CONFORMITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION1
Authors: Witkin Herman A. , Price‐Williams Douglass , Bertini Mario , Christiansen Björn , Oltman Philip K. , Ramirez Manuel , van Meel Jacques
Published: August 2014

This study examined the role of socialization experiences in the development of psychological differentiation. In each of three countries (Holland, Italy, Mexico) two villages were selected as presenting a contrasting picture with regard to degree of emphasis on conformity to family, religious and political authority. It was hypothesized that within the pair of villages in each country children from the village which stressed social conformity would tend to be more field dependent and show other signs of less developed differentiation than children from the village in which social conformity was less emphasized. In each of the six villages approximately 100 children (boys and girls, aged 9‐11 and 13‐15) were studied. Differentiation was assessed by a battery of tests of field‐dependence‐independence and the figure‐drawing test. In every comparison of mean test scores between pairs of villages, in each of the three countries, children from the village in which social conformity was stressed obtained scores reflecting less differentiated functioning. Village differences were significant for every measure of differentiation in all three countries. Additional analyses of the data from the tests of differentiation and other tests used yielded results essentially consistent with findings from previous studies.
AGE CHANGES IN SIZE‐VALUE PHENOMENA*
Authors: Baker A. Harvey , Rierdan Jill , Wapner Seymour
Published: August 2014

Although replicable size‐value phenomena have been observed, no consensus obtains regarding their explanation. Toward assessing the tenability of contending formulations, subclasses of size‐value phenomena were defined, ontogenetic predictions for these subclasses were extrapolated from three different formulations, and these different predictions were tested in two ontogenetic studies. The findings support an explanation of sire‐value phenomena in terms of the role of schemata.
EPISTEMIC STYLES, INDIVIDUALITY, AND WORLD‐VIEW12
Authors: Royce Joseph R.
Published: August 2014

Individual epistemic styles (i.e., ways of knowing) of rationalism, empiricism, and metaphorism are seen as higher order personality integrators which are the primary determinants of individual differences in world‐view. More specifically, variations in epistemic style hierarchies and their corresponding cognitive profiles reflect variations in cognitive (i.e., both abilities and styles) strengths and weaknesses. If rationalism, for example, is dominant in the hierarchy, this means the resulting world‐view is based on an essentially thinking cognitive structure. Similarly, if we are considering a case of ultra‐empiricism or metaphorism we have examples of perceptual or symbolic dominance respectively. This means the resulting world‐view is based primarily on the processes of perceiving or symbolizing, even though some cognitions of the total set emerge from the processes of thinking as well. Thus, all world‐views are encapsulated (i.e., less than the totality of reality). The precise form encapsulation takes depends primarily upon one's psycho‐epistemological profile.
INFANT INTELLIGENCE TESTS: THEIR USE AND MISUSE1
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Data from a variety of infant intelligence test scores make clear that it is not possible to consider (1) that infant intelligence is a measurable, stable and unitary construct, (2) that there is a general g factor easily discernible in infancy, (3) that there is stability of scores both within and across scales, or (4) that there is predictability across age. These facts are discussed for their implications for models of intelligence, the use of intelligence tests in infancy, and finally intervention programs. It is concluded that the implicit model of general intelligence rests upon its function for society rather than its scientific merit. An alternative model of infant development is offered which is related to the acquisition of specific skills, the learning of which is dependent upon the match between the subject and the nature of the learning experience.
STIMULUS INTENSITY MODULATION: A PERCEPTUAL‐COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LIFE STYLE IN THE ELDERLY1
Authors: Mishara Brian L. , Baker A. Harvey
Published: August 2014

Gerontological research and theory have largely ignored individual differences and been remarkably unconcerned about the possibility that individuality in processes reflected in perceptual‐cognitive style may mediate differences in important domains of attitudes and behaviors in the elderly. It was here hypothesized that various aspects of life‐style (including engagement) reflect the postulated dimension of modulation (i.e., augmenting vs. reducing) of stimulus intensity. Using the Kinesthetic Aftereffects (KAE) task as the index of stimulus intensity modulation (SIM), a consistent pattern of significant relationships was found between KAE and varied aspects of life style, including the behaviors studied by Engagement Theorists. These findings support the formulation that in the elderly, SIM, as indexed by KAE, can predict individual differences in various aspects of life style. Implications for aging, and the construct of “engagement,” are discussed.
SELECTING THE “BEST” REGRESSION WHEN FACED WITH MISSING OBSERVATIONS
Authors: Rubin Donald B.
Published: August 2014

The sample multiple correlation coefficient is often used to select a subset of independent variables that “best” predicts a dependent variable, Y. If the data are partially missing, the choice of best predictors often should reflect not only how correlated the predictors are with Y but also how likely they are to be observed. Thus, an independent variable that is highly correlated with Y but also is difficult to record (i.e., is often missing) may not be as useful a predictor of Y as a less correlated but easily recorded independent variable. A generalization of the multiple correlation coefficient is defined which is appropriate when there are missing values but is identical to the multiple correlation coefficient when there are no missing values. An example of its use is presented.