bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transition from diagenesis to metamorphism in a calcareous tectonic unit of the Iberian Variscan belt (central massif of the Picos de Europa, NW Spain)
Authors: BASTIDA FERNANDO , BLANCO-FERRERA SILVIA , GARCÍA-LÓPEZ SUSANA , SANZ-LÓPEZ JAVIER , LUZ VALÍN M.
Published: October 2004

Transition from diagenesis to metamorphism has been characterized in the central part of the Picos de Europa unit (Cantabrian Zone) by conodont colour alteration index (CAI), complemented with Kübler index (KI) data. This unit essentially comprises Carboniferous limestone. The study leads us to deduce two successive tectonothermal events. The first event generated a pattern with palaeotemperatures increasing towards the Pisuerga–Carrión unit, located south of the Picos de Europa unit. The present pattern is the result of an original dip to the north of the isothermal surfaces and the subsequent rising of the Picos de Europa unit along the frontal ramp of a deep Alpine thrust. This episode is interpreted as related to an extensional tectonic regime that occurred close to the Carboniferous–Permian boundary. The second event, which gave rise to thermal anomalies in the pattern of the first episode, was the result of hydrothermal processes in which fluid movement was facilitated by a dense network of fractures in the area close to the eastern section of the studied region. These processes gave rise to numerous mineralizations and have been related to a Permian extensional tectonic regime.
THOMAS CROMWELL AND WILLIAM MARSHALL'S PROTESTANT BOOKS
Authors: UNDERWOOD WILLIAM
Published: October 2004

Thomas Cromwell's association with various writers has long been noted, but how these authors' writings might reflect his personal religious beliefs has not been closely studied. An examination of one such author, William Marshall, and of his work, reveals not only that Cromwell was likely a Lutheran, but that he used the press to promote doctrinal Protestantism in England. Through Marshall, Cromwell sponsored English translations of doctrinally radical texts by Martin Luther, Joachim von Watt, and Martin Bucer. And when these books got Marshall into trouble, Cromwell protected him. The picture that emerges substantiates John Foxe's description of Cromwell as a ‘valiant soldier and captain of Christ’, but also the charge made in his bill of attainder, that he had circulated heretical books.
ANGER AND THE NEGOTIATION OF RELATIONSHIPS IN EARLY MODERN ENGLAND
Authors: POLLOCK LINDA A.
Published: October 2004

This article, through a detailed examination of the private papers of the English landed elite, argues for the important place of anger in early modern society. It investigates the verbal expression of rage, from irritation to fury, in men and women: why it was aroused, how it was articulated, its effects, and in what circumstances anger was regarded as a legitimate response. Anger was a forceful invitation to renegotiate unsatisfactory aspects of relationships. It spotlighted deficiencies in duty, unacceptable conduct, disrespect, broken promises, and frustrated expectations. The article also challenges the prevailing approach to the history of emotions and suggests that we move from a model of linear repression to one of situated experience. Rather than postulating the gradual suppression of unacceptable emotions, historians should examine the conventions governing the expression of emotions in context, as well as the many perspectives on what was acceptable behaviour and what was not. Focusing on the situated use of emotions brings to light the different emotional mentality of the seventeenth century which linked emotions in unfamiliar ways. It also enables to us to uncover the interaction of emotions and how individuals engaged in daily life with cultural scripts, as well as bringing us closer to unravelling the emotional system of early modern England.
WHAT WERE COMMONWEALTH PRINCIPLES?
Authors: SCOTT JONATHAN
Published: October 2004

The historiography of English republicanism is dominated by the concept of classical republicanism. Its greatest shortcoming has been neglect of that subject's religious dimension. The consequent need is not simply to recover the radical protestant republican religious agenda. It is to explain why, when classical republicanism came to England, it did so in the moral service of a religious revolution. One context for the answer lay in Christian humanism. Another was the reformation, both magisterial and radical. Both informed the practical identity of the republican experiment as an attempted reformation of manners. So did the rational Greek moral philosophy, as indebted to Plato as to Aristotle, common to certain humanist and Christian political languages. In addition many of the themes of republican writing reflect the struggle by a traditional society to respond to unsettling forces, not only of political and religious, but also social and economic, change. Drawing upon all of these contexts, republican writers attempted to oppose not only private interest politics, embodied by monarchy or tyranny, on behalf of the public interested virtues of a self-governing civic community. This was part of a more general critique of private interest society; a republican attempt, from pride, greed, poverty, and inequality, to go beyond the word ‘commonwealth’ and reconstitute what Milton called ‘the solid thing’.
THE DUBLIN SOCIETY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY IRISH POLITICAL THOUGHT
Authors: LIVESEY JAMES
Published: October 2004

Through an analysis of the debate between Charles Davenant in England, and Arthur Dobbs, Thomas Prior, and Samuel Madden in Ireland, it establishes that the founders saw the society as a response to Ireland's dependent status in the emerging British empire. The Dublin Society distinguished itself from other improving societies in the British Isles because it explicitly represented a new principle of sociality. The article describes the cultural origins of that principle arguing that a diverse set of groups converged on the ideal of association as a new form of order. The article concludes with a consideration of Madden's understanding, derived from his commitment to improving associations, that Irish national life was best understood as the pursuit of happiness rather than justice or virtue.
THE CHARACTER OF PITT THE YOUNGER AND PARTY POLITICS, 1830–1860
Authors: LEDGER-LOMAS MICHAEL
Published: October 2004

William Pitt the Younger died in 1806 but had a long afterlife in political argument. Historians have argued that a reactionary cult of Pitt in early nineteenth-century toryism died with Catholic emancipation, but this article suggests that invocation of Pitt's character was more widespread and durable, because linked to the assertion and defence of party identities. Whig hostility to Pitt remained strong even in the middle of the nineteenth century. Lord John Russell attacked his character flaws to celebrate the continued vigour and distinctness of Foxite political culture within the Liberal party. Conversely, use of Pitt in argument about what the tory party should be like did not end with reform. In the 1830s, traditional celebration of Pitt as a stern opponent of revolutionary agitation survived within a supposedly moderate conservatism. In Peel's second administration, arguments about whether Pitt had been firm or flexible, liberal or intransigent, reflected and added to disputes about how much religious and economic liberalism Peel should endorse. It was schism between Peelites and protectionists, the article suggests, which broke the clear link between celebration of Pitt's character and one party, allowing a more wide-ranging, because less politically charged, appreciation of Pitt to develop.
RICHARD WAGNER AND THE POLITICS OF MUSIC-DRAMA
Authors: BERRY MARK
Published: October 2004

This article outlines Richard Wagner's conception of music-drama during the period in which he formulated his intentions for composition of the epic Ring of the Nibelung. Attempting to renew rather than to restore the communal, political nature of Attic tragedy, he wished to transform that model from celebration of the Athenian political order into a savage critique of the contemporary political order, indeed into an incitement to and celebration of revolution. Wagner was determined to restore the dignity of art, a dignity he believed to have been lost in the pursuit of base, commercial considerations; but this determination should not be confused with the idea of art for art's sake. Instead, he wished to renew art in a socialist, even communist, sense as the paradigm of free, productive activity. The direct revolutionary experience of participation in the Dresden uprising of 1849 bolstered his conviction of the necessity of such a transformation. With his magnum opus, Wagner wrote, he intended to ‘make clear to the men of the Revolution the meaning of that Revolution, in its noblest sense’.
THE LABOUR PARTY AND THE CAPITALIST FIRM, c. 1950–1970
Authors: TOMLINSON JIM
Published: October 2004

One of the most profound challenges facing the Labour party in the post-war period was its ability to understand and make policy to reform the private sector. Before the Attlee government, Labour had little to say on this issue, but that government's experience exposed the dangerous ‘vacuum’ this involved. In the 1950s the nature of the capitalist firm ranked alongside the alleged ‘embourgoisement’ of the working class as an issue framing Labour's ideological and policy debate. The centrality of this issue reflected the fact that understanding the firm was inextricably linked to a raft of broader arguments within the Left about the nature of modern capitalism. The benign view of the corporation that flowed from the revisionist wing of the party was challenged by the ‘declinist’ politics of the 1960s, and in office after 1964 Labour pursued a modernizing agenda which centrally involved seeking to shape the behaviour of the private sector in order to deliver the higher economic growth that Labour so much desired. The failure of this growth to materialize led to great disillusion across the party about the policies pursued by the Wilson government, and this in turn led to a fundamental rethink of policy that was to underpin the radical agenda of the party in the 1970s.
A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE CONSUMER
Authors: KROEN SHERYL
Published: October 2004

This article examines the relationship between the consumer and the citizen from the eighteenth century to the present in Europe and the United States. Part I highlights the political narrative underlying the opposition between courtly consumption (absolutism) and the inconspicuous consumption of the middling sorts, and explores early formulations of the relationship between consumption and democracy. Part II looks at the first half of the nineteenth century, defined by the opposition between consumers (coded feminine, and as ‘despised’) and citizens (coded masculine, and as ‘restrained’). Part III goes from the 1860s to the 1930s. American historians have emphasized the positive political agency of consumers in this period, and their contribution to the notion of social citizenship. This article emphasizes the less democratic aspects of consumer politics, and the contributions of anti-liberal movements on the extreme left and right to a stronger tradition of social citizenship in Europe. Part IV takes Lizabeth Cohen's claim that a ‘Consumers' Republic' was forged in the US in the post-war period, and casts the Marshall Plan and the Cold War as the context that gave rise to an international negotiation over the relationship between consumption and democracy that continues to the present.
TOWARDS A NEW MORAL HISTORY OF THE VIETNAM WAR?
Authors: OLIVER KENDRICK
Published: October 2004

Intellectual developments since the mid-1960s have served to assist the efforts of those responsible for American policy in the Vietnam war subsequently to empty the history of that conflict of ethical critique. This article argues for the necessity of ethically informed historical enquiry and, with respect to Vietnam, proposes that there now exists the best opportunity for a generation for scholars to construct a fresh and credible moral history of the war. Increasingly, we have access to the perspectives of the ‘other side/s’: the revolution in the south, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam regime in Hanoi, the People's Republic of China, and the USSR. An examination of the motivations and interactions of these parties, combined with the continuing exegesis of American policy debates, makes clear just how critical concerns (and failures) of ethics were to the development of the conflict. In particular, it clarifies the manner in which US leaders abdicated responsibility in exaggerating the relatively limited strategic challenge that they faced in south-east Asia. Vietnam was not a ‘necessary war’; nor can the decision to fight it – given its predictable consequences for south Vietnamese civilians and American soldiers alike – simply be explained away through the discourse of the honest ‘mistake’.
LABOURING THE POINT
Authors: ROBBINS KEITH
Published: October 2004

The Lancashire working classes, c. 1880–1930. By Trevor Griffiths. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Pp. viii+390. ISBN 0-19-924738-2. £55.00.

Labour in crisis: the second Labour government, 1929–1931. By Neil Riddell. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999. Pp. xi+267. ISBN 0-7190-5084-7. £45.00.

Classes and cultures: England, 1918–1951. By Ross McKibbin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Pp. xiii+324. ISBN 0-19-820853-3. £18.99.

The Labour party in Wales, 1900–2000. Edited by Duncan Tanner, Chris Williams, and Deian Hopkin. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000. Pp. xiii+324. ISBN 0-7083-1586-0. £35.00.

Labour's first century. Edited by Duncan Tanner, Pat Thane, and Nick Tiratsoo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Pp. x+418. ISBN 0-521-65184-0. £25.00.

Red Flag and Union Jack: Englishness, patriotism and the British Left, 1881–1924. By Paul Ward. Woodbridge: Royal Historical Society/Boydell Press, 1998. Pp. viii+232. ISBN 0-86193-239-0. £35.00.

Austerity in Britain: rationing, controls and consumption, 1939–1955. By Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Pp. xiii+286. ISBN 0-19-820453-1. £40.00.

Publishers and historians have been unable to resist the opportunity provided by one hundred years of ‘Labour’ to subject the history of the party to fresh scrutiny. Centenary history, however, must rest upon an assumption of continuity. In this case, it is assumed that there is a clear line of descent from the Labour Representation Committee formed in February 1900 to the ‘New Labour’ of the present. There is nothing improper about writing the history of a political party on this basis. Yet, as with other social movements, it is no vast discovery to observe that parties change through time as circumstances and conditions change. The accompanying rhetoric, however, has often skated over such disconcerting realities. When Labour celebrated its half-century, for example, its rise was presented by its chroniclers as a ‘forward march’ in which were enrolled ‘those of all ages and all classes’ who were not afraid to fight for the progress of mankind. Mr Attlee, in his foreword to the volume by Francis Williams, put the matter somewhat differently. Labour's story, he claimed, was very characteristic of Britain. It recorded ‘the triumph of reasonableness and practicality over doctrinaire impossibilism’. It was to be only a decade later, however, that various contemporary observers asked themselves whether the ‘tide of history’ had turned against the party. In the 1970s and 1980s, indeed, commentators and academic writers almost invariably reached for words like ‘crisis’ or ‘decay’ as they contemplated its fate. It looked, indeed, as though the ‘forward march’ might be going nowhere.
Reconstructing Education from the Bottom up: SNCC's 1964 Mississippi Summer Project and African American Culture
Authors: STREET JOE
Published: October 2004

On 30 December 1963, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's (SNCC) executive committee approved Bob Moses' proposal for a summer voter registration project involving hundreds of white volunteers. Initially intended to highlight the brutality inherent in Mississippi's culture and to register large numbers of disfranchised black voters, the plans expanded to include more long term and holistic methods of addressing civil rights that encompassed what SNCC and its sister organizations in Mississippi called “educational and social” programmes. As freedom schools co-ordinator Liz Fusco asserted, this represented an acceptance that what could be done in Mississippi,
could be deeper, more fundamental, more far-reaching, more revolutionary than voter registration alone … [It was] a decision to enter into every phase of the lives of the people of Mississippi … a decision to set the people free for politics in the only way that people really can become free, and that is totally.
Freedom schools were central to SNCC's programme. Both institutions emphasized that knowledge of one's culture was crucial to the individual. In the case of the freedom schools, students would be encouraged to think freely and develop their own ideas about a free society. Charles Cobb, who conceived the idea of the freedom schools, envisaged the schools to be places “where the students could freely ask questions about all those things, political as well as academic, which troubled and excited them.”
To Ensure Domestic Tranquility: The FBI, COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE and Political Discourse, 1964–1971
Authors: DRABBLE JOHN
Published: October 2004

Between September 1964 and April 1971, the Federal Bureau of Investigation conducted a domestic covert action program named COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE. This counterintelligence program endeavored to discredit, disrupt, and vitiate the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist vigilante organizations. While historians are quite familiar with the FBI's efforts to nurture anticommunism and to discredit civil rights and leftist movements, the FBI's role in discrediting KKK groups in the American South during the late 1960s has not been systematically assessed. This article provides an analysis of the first aspect of this three-pronged attack. It describes how the FBI secretly coordinated efforts to discredit Klan organizations before local Southern communities that continued to tolerate vigilante violence. Intelligence information on Klan activities, provided discretely by the FBI to liberal Southern journalists, politicians and other molders of public opinion, helped those white Southerners who were opposed to Ku Klux Klan activity to transform their private dismay into public rebuke and criminal prosecutions. The article also analyzes corresponding COINTELPRO operations that discredited Ku Klux Klan leaders before rank-and-file Klan members. FBI agents and their clandestine informants circulated discrediting information about KKK leaders among rank and file Klan members, inculcating disillusionment among Klansmen and prompting resignations from Klan organizations.
UNINTENDED PREGNANCY AND WOMEN’S PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING IN INDONESIA
Authors: HARDEE KAREN , EGGLESTON ELIZABETH , WONG EMELITA L. , IRWANTO  , HULL TERENCE H.
Published: October 2004

Few studies have examined the impact of unintended pregnancy on women in developing countries. This paper examines the impact of unintended pregnancy on Indonesian women’s psychological well-being. It is hypothesized that experiencing unintended pregnancy is associated with lower psychological well-being and that use of family planning and small family size are associated with higher levels of psychological well-being. Data are drawn from a 1996 survey of 796 women aged 15–49 from two Indonesian provinces, Lampung and South Sumatra. This article focuses on the 71% of women (n=562) who answered all 41 survey items related to psychological well-being. In cluster analysis, women grouped into three clusters, differentiated by their scores on four scales of well-being established through factor analysis (general negative feelings, satisfaction with relationships, satisfaction with economic/family/personal conditions, and negative feelings regarding domestic issues). Women in cluster 3 were characterized mainly by their high level of psychological well-being. Women in cluster 1 had the lowest level of well-being, and women in cluster 2 were in the middle. Multinomial logistic regression was used to assess jointly the effect of unintended pregnancy, contraceptive use, number of children and other factors on a woman’s level of psychological well-being. Unintended pregnancy was associated with lower levels of psychological well-being and contraceptive use was associated with higher levels of psychological well-being, while number of children was not associated with level of well-being. Women who had experienced an unintended pregnancy were less likely to be in the high psychosocial well-being cluster versus both the medium and low clusters. In addition, women using contraception were more likely to be classified in the high than in the low or medium well-being clusters.
ABO BLOOD GROUPS AND COMPLETED REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF RURAL HARYANAVI COUPLES: ANALYSING MEASURES OF SELECTION INTENSITIES
Authors: SHARMA KRISHAN , KAPOOR RAJNI
Published: October 2004

The possible differential effects of ABO blood group materno-paternal (fetal) incompatibility on completed reproductive performance were investigated on a sample of 100 couples (100 fathers and 100 mothers) from three villages in the Jind district of Haryana state, India. The average number of live births per mating couple was slightly higher for the incompatible matings (5·32) than the compatible ones (5·05). This advantage was offset by higher postnatal mortality in the former. Consequently, the average number of living children in the compatible matings (4·64) was higher than in the incompatible ones (4·18). With reference to individual ABO matings, the index of relative fertility (Irf) was the highest in A×AB followed by B×A type of incompatible matings. No decrease in live births in O×A and O×B incompatible matings was observed compared with their reciprocal compatible ones, i.e. A×O and B×O matings, as has been hypothesized in previous studies. The total pregnancy wastage was substantially higher in ABO-incompatible matings (24·59%) than compatible matings (8·45%). About 71% of the postnatal deaths took place within one year of the birth in the case of incompatible matings compared with 50% in the case of compatible matings. The study supports the hypothesis that selection is operative at the ABO locus as revealed by the measures of selection intensity. The loss of fitness in the present sample was associated with differential mortality. There were no differences in the proportions of average number of male live births in the compatible (0·55) and incompatible matings (0·58). However, in the individual mating types, there was some evidence of higher or lower proportions of male live births.
POPULATION INCREASES IN OBESITY APPEAR TO BE PARTLY DUE TO GENETICS
Authors: ELLIS LEE , HAMAN DAN
Published: October 2004

Studies have documented substantial increases in obesity throughout most of the industrialized world in recent decades. The majority of explanations for these increases have centred around environmental factors such as the increasing availability of high-fat, high-carbohydrate foods and sedentary lifestyles. This study sought to determine if genetic factors might be contributing to the increases in the proportions of North Americans who are obese and overweight. The body mass index (BMI) for a large sample of two generations of United States and Canadian subjects was correlated with family fertility indicators. Small but highly significant positive correlations were found between the BMIs of family members and their reproduction rates, especially in the case of women. For instance, mothers in the sample (most of whom were born in the 1940s and 50s) who were in the normal or below normal range had an average of 4·3 siblings and 3·2 children, compared with 4·8 siblings and 3·5 children for mothers who were overweight or obese. When combined with evidence from twin and adoption studies indicating that genes make substantial contributions to obesity, this study suggests that recent increases in obesity are partially the result of overweight and obese women having more children than is true for average and underweight women. It is speculated that improvements in medical treatments for conditions associated with obesity – particularly diabetes and heart disease – are making it possible for overweight women to live longer and to be more fertile than was true historically.
FEMALE STERILIZATION IN LATIN AMERICA: CROSS-NATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Authors: LEITE IÚRI DA COSTA , GUPTA NEERU , RODRIGUES ROBERTO DO NASCIMENTO
Published: October 2004

Fertility levels have dropped substantially in Latin America in recent decades, fuelled by increased contraceptive use and notably a method mix skewed towards female sterilization. This study examined choice of female sterilization in four Latin American countries: Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic and Peru. Data were drawn from national Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in 1995–1996. Discrete-time hazard models were used on the five-year calendar modules of women’s reproductive histories to consider the effects of a number of sociodemographic and contextual determinants as they pertained to status at the moment of the event. The results revealed that the likelihood of a woman’s having undergone contraceptive sterilization was increasing over time in Brazil and Peru, suggesting that the potential for future growth of this method remains strong. A consistent pattern of increased probability of sterilization with higher education was seen across all countries, seemingly dispelling certain controversial claims that the procedure may have been disproportionately performed on the poor. At the same time, the multilevel analytical approach pointed to significant cluster-level random effects, suggesting that there were additional unmeasured contextual influences on women’s propensity to choose sterilization.
THE EFFECTS OF OUTREACH ON PERCEIVED QUALITY OF CARE IN TWO RURAL AREAS OF BANGLADESH
Authors: HOSSAIN MIAN B. , KHUDA BARKAT-E , PHILLIPS JAMES F.
Published: October 2004

The 1994 Cairo Conference on Population and Development consensus called for actions that will make family planning programmes oriented to the needs and concerns of women that are served. This paper, based on data from Bangladesh, presents an illustrative analysis of how an outreach programme can be evaluated by this criterion. A scale for perceived service quality is developed from five indicators of desirable characteristics of services. Regression methods are used to assess the impact of outreach service encounters on the perceived quality scale. Econometric methods are used to adjust for endogeneity that arises from the selectivity of outreach encounters and the selective service exposure of contraceptive users. Results show that increasing contact with outreach workers increases client satisfaction with the overall quality of the Bangladesh family planning programme.
THE RISK OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT MORTALITY AMONG VULNERABLE POPULATIONS IN RIO DE JANEIRO, BRAZIL
Authors: IYER S. , MONTEIRO M. F. G.
Published: October 2004

This study investigated the importance of socioeconomic factors such as education, income, religion, family structure and residence in explaining the increased risk of mortality among vulnerable populations aged less than 20 years in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Data used were from the 1991 Brazilian Demographic Census and comprised 121,060 women aged 15–49 residing in Rio de Janeiro. Two alternative statistical methods were used to calculate the risk of death: the widely used Brass method (an indirect estimate which assesses population risks) and a case-control study (which assesses individual risks). The study also focused on the importance of indicators of human and social capital, the lack of which may explain the higher risk of death among children and adolescents. Lack of education was found to be a major determinant of mortality at young ages. Residence in a favela (shantytown), families in which mothers were the head of the family, and a lower median level of income were found to be significant determinants of mortality among vulnerable populations in Brazil. However, religion was not found to be as important a predictor of high mortality.
RECENT TRENDS AND COMPONENTS OF CHANGE IN FERTILITY IN NEPAL
Authors: RETHERFORD ROBERT D. , THAPA SHYAM
Published: October 2004

The objectives of this article are, first, to provide improved estimates of recent fertility levels and trends in Nepal and, second, to analyse the components of fertility change. The analysis is based on data from Nepal’s 1996 and 2001 Demographic and Health Surveys. Total fertility rates (TFR) are derived by the own-children method. They incorporate additional adjustments to compensate for displacement of births, and they are compared with estimates derived by the birth-history method. Fertility is estimated not only for the whole country but also by urban/rural residence and by woman’s education. The own-children estimates for the whole country indicate that the TFR declined from 4·96 to 4·69 births per woman between the 3-year period preceding the 1996 survey and the 3-year period preceding the 2001 survey. About three-quarters of the decline stems from reductions in age-specific marital fertility rates and about one-quarter from changes in age-specific proportions currently married. Further decomposition of the decline in marital fertility, as measured by births per currently married woman during the 5-year period before each survey, indicates that almost half of the decline in marital fertility is accounted for by changes in population composition by ecological region, development region, urban/rural residence, education, age at first cohabitation with husband, time elapsed since first cohabitation, number of living children at the start of the 5-year period and media exposure. With these variables controlled, another one-third of the decline is accounted for by increase in the proportion sterilized at the start of the 5-year period before each survey.
PARENTAL PERCEPTIONS OF COSTS AND BENEFITS OF CHILDREN AS CORRELATES OF FERTILITY IN KUWAIT
Authors: SHAH NASRA M. , NATHANSON CONSTANCE A.
Published: October 2004

Kuwait is a high fertility country where the average number of desired children still exceeds 5. However, fertility behaviour is beginning to show a noticeable change and the current TFR is about 4·2 children. In order to understand the decline in fertility, the impact of perceived benefits and costs of children on Kuwaiti women’s desired and achieved fertility is analysed. Data from a nationally representative survey of Kuwaiti households held in 1999 are used. Bivariate analyses show that the mean desired number of children is significantly higher among those who rank higher on the perceived value of children, and lower among those who are concerned about the cost of raising children. Achieved fertility (children ever born) shows a similar pattern. In the multivariate analysis, however, large family values emerge as the only significant predictor of (higher) desired as well as achieved fertility, net of the respondent’s demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. The sociocultural, economic and political contexts that shape the mother’s perceptions of the benefits and costs of children are analysed and it is concluded that the need for children as social and national capital is currently the most important driving force behind fertility desires and behaviour.
Episcopal Tombs in Early Modern England
Authors: SHERLOCK PETER
Published: October 2004

The Reformation simultaneously transformed the identity and role of bishops in the Church of England, and the function of monuments to the dead. This article considers the extent to which tombs of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century bishops represented a set of episcopal ideals distinct from those conveyed by the monuments of earlier bishops on the one hand and contemporary laity and clergy on the other. It argues that in death bishops were increasingly undifferentiated from other groups such as the gentry in the dress, posture, location and inscriptions of their monuments. As a result of the inherent tension between tradition and reform which surrounded both bishops and tombs, episcopal monuments were unsuccessful as a means of enhancing the status or preserving the memory and teachings of their subjects in the wake of the Reformation.
Reconstructing Clerical Careers: The Experience of the Clergy of the Church of England Database
Authors: BURNS ARTHUR , FINCHAM KENNETH , TAYLOR STEPHEN
Published: October 2004

The Clergy of the Church of England Database, a project funded by the AHRB, began work in 1999 with the aim of constructing a relational database covering all clerical careers in the Church of England between 1540 and 1835. This article outlines the methodology and scope of the project before discussing some of the intellectual problems posed by the task of constructing a database that reflects the complexities of an irrational, pre-bureaucratic organisation. It also offers an insight into the potential of the completed database as a tool for investigating the largest profession of the early modern period.
The Evolution of Judicial Autonomy in Argentina: Establishing the Rule of Law in an Ultrapresidential System
Authors: BILL CHAVEZ REBECCA
Published: October 2004

This article uses a diachronic study of Argentina to explain how the nascent democracies of Latin America build the rule of law. The changing relationship between Argentina's executive and judicial branches demonstrates that the construction of the rule of law is not a linear process. There have been periods of regression away from, as well as progress towards, the rule of law. This article uses party competition to explain Argentina's varying levels of judicial independence. The rule of law results from a balance of power between at least two political parties, neither of which has monolithic control, meaning that no highly disciplined party sustains control of both the executive and legislative branches. Competitive politics creates a climate in which an autonomous judiciary can emerge.
The Principle of Consent in Latin and Anglo-American Independence
Authors: CARLOS CHIARAMONTE JOSÉ
Published: October 2004

This commentary aimed originally to compare the function of the principle of consent in Latin and Anglo-American history. Yet, as it developed, I could no longer ignore the reasons behind the neglect of the close links between the principle of consent and the law of nature and nations. I grew increasingly interested in a comparison between this and another equally interesting anomaly emerging from it: the limitations nationalism has imposed on historians in studying their national histories. The end result has been to use my original subject as a means to reflect on some of the presuppositions that can limit historical research.
Typification and emendation of Seirophora Poelt to include species segregated from Teloschistes Norman
Authors: FRÖDÉN Patrik , LASSEN Per
Published: October 2004

The type material of Physciamagara Kremp., which is the type species of Seirophora Poelt (Teloschistaceae), is shown to be heterogeneous. It is a mixture of Teloschistesvillosus (Ach.) Norman and Ramalinamaciformis (Delile) Bory. Physciamagara Kremp. is typified on the T. villosus-part. Teloschistes species with multiseriate hairs, spores with short septa, thick and strongly conglutinated cortex hyphae with thick walls, lacking cilia or rhizines, and which have a mainly northern hemispheric distribution, are transferred to Seirophora. The following new combinations are made: Seirophora aurantiaca (R. Br.) Frödén, Seirophora austroarabica (Sipman) Frödén, Seirophora californica (Sipman) Frödén, Seirophora contortuplicata (Ach.) Frödén, Seirophora lacunosa (Rupr.) Frödén, Seirophora scorigena (Mont.) Frödén, Seirophora stenophylla (Tav.) Frödén, and Seirophora villosa (Ach.) Frödén.
Bacteria, algae, and phycobionts: maintaining useful concepts and terminology
Authors: SANDERS William B.
Published: October 2004

The assertion that the blue-greens (‘cyanobacteria’) are bacteria and not algae has led to alternative concepts for both of the latter terms. Bacteria is now often used to designate the prokaryote kingdom, that includes the blue-greens, while in other contexts it means specifically those prokaryotes that are not blue-greens. The term algae, on the other hand, has no biosystematic implications; it encompasses many phylogenetically independent lineages characterized by oxygen-evolving photosynthesis. The algal status of the blue-greens is therefore not compromised by their classification among the bacteria. Current lichenological terminology, however, reflects the view that the blue-greens are not algae, thereby diverging from the concept of algae employed in phycology. The purpose and utility of terms that group organisms according to structural, functional and ecological criteria are insufficiently appreciated. These concepts do not compete with phylogenetic/biosystematic classifications, but rather complement them.
Lichen carbon gain under tropical conditions: water relations and CO2 exchange of Lobariaceae species of a lower montane rainforest in Panama
Authors: LANGE Otto L. , BÜDEL Burkhard , MEYER Angelika , ZELLNER Hans , ZOTZ Gerhard
Published: October 2004

Diel (24-h) time courses of microclimate, water relations, and CO2 exchange were measured under quasi-natural conditions at a forest edge in a lower montane, tropical rainforest in Panama for six Lobariaceae (Lobaria crenulata, L. dissecta, Pseudocyphellaria aurata, P. intricata, Sticta sublimbata, S. weigelii). Responses to experimentally controlled water content (WC), photosynthetic photon fluence rate (PPFR), and temperature were studied in most detail with P. aurata.

Photosynthesis was well adapted to high temperatures, and all species exhibited ‘shade plant’ characteristics with low light compensation points and low light saturation. Lobaria and Pseudocyphellaria species suffered from a strong depression of net photosynthesis (NP) at suprasaturating WC; suprasaturation depression was less in cyphellate Sticta species.

Photosynthetic capacity correlated with thallus nitrogen concentration, and maximal NP rates of the cyanobacterial Sticta species was 4 to 5 times higher than that of the green algal Lobaria species. However, high rates of NP were uncommon and brief events under natural conditions; the different environmental factors were rarely optimal simultaneously. Similar to earlier observations with other rainforest lichens, NP ceased during the period of highest irradiation on most days due to desiccation. During moist periods low light often limited carbon fixation, and high thallus hydration was often detrimental to NP. In spite of these limitations the maximal daily integrated net photosynthetic carbon income (ΣNP) was quite high especially for the Sticta species [17·3 and 24·1 mgC (gC)−1 day−1 for S. sublimbata and S. weigelii, respectively]. High nocturnal carbon loss, due to high night temperatures and continuous hydration, resulted in frequent negative diel carbon balances (ΣC) in all species. The average nocturnal carbon loss amounted to 83 and 70% ΣNP for P. aurata and P. intricata, respectively and to 64 and 59% of ΣNP for S. sublimbata and S. weigelii, respectively. Their average diel ΣC was as high as 3·7 and 5·3 mgC (gC)−1 day−1. In contrast, ΣC was much lower for the other species, it amounted to only 0·18 mgC (gC)−1 day−1 for L. crenulata. Thus, the Sticta species stood out amongst the species studied for their most successful adaptation of photosynthetic productivity to the habitat conditions in the lower montane rainforest.
New species and new records of Xanthoparmelia (lichenized Ascomycota, Parmeliaceae) from eastern Australia
Authors: ELIX John A.
Published: October 2004

Eight new species of Xanthoparmelia (Parmeliaceae) are described from eastern Australia: X. biloelensis Elix, X. fracticollis Elix, X. kosciuszkoensis Elix, X. nerrigensis Elix, X. paratasmanica Elix, X. rankinensis Elix, X. remanella Elix and X. stuartioides Elix. In addition, a further ten new state records of Xanthoparmelia are reported from eastern Australia.
Molecular studies on Punctelia species of the Iberian Peninsula, with an emphasis on specimens newly colonizing Madrid
Authors: CRESPO Ana , DIVAKAR Pradeep K. , ARGÜELLO Arturo , GASCA Concepción , HAWKSWORTH David L.
Published: October 2004

The first molecular phylogenetic study on a range of Punctelia species is reported, focussing on specimens growing in the Iberian Peninsula. Material of seven species was included in the analysis. Forty sequences were generated from nuITS and mtSSU rDNA in 20 specimens, and the resultant majority rule consensus tree from the combined analyses shows four major clades. Punctelia ulophylla is confirmed as a distinct species, P. reddenda is basal to P. borreri, and P. perreticulata groups with P. subrudecta. Samples identified as P. rudecta from the Canary Islands and China occupy different basal positions; the complex merits further study. Punctelia borreri and P. subrudecta are mainly coastal in the Iberian Peninsula, but are now reported from the central plateau for the first time; newly colonizing thalli have been found in a park in Madrid which is regularly spray-watered and where sulphur dioxide levels have fallen over the last two decades.
Rhizocarpon anaperum new to Svalbard
Authors: Ihlen Per G. , Fryday Alan M.
Published: October 2004

While studying the taxonomy of the non-yellow species of Rhizocarpon DC., with hyaline and muriform ascospores, in the Nordic countries (Ihlen 2004), some specimens of Rhizocarpon from the Svalbard archipelago were also examined. Among this material, we discovered six specimens of Rhizocarpon anaperum (Vain.) Vain. that had been labelled “R. obscuratum”. As R. anaperum is not listed in the recent checklist from Svalbard (Elvebakk & Hertel 1996) or, to our knowledge, in any other paper dealing with the lichen flora of Svalbard, it is here reported new to this archipelago.
Kirkia heterobranchiata, a new genus and species of extratubular brooding sabellid (Polychaeta: Sabellidae) from São Paulo, Brazil
Authors: de M. Nogueira João M. , López Eduardo , Rossi Maíra C.S.
Published: October 2004

A new genus and species of sabellid polychaete from an organically enriched beach in São Sebastião, State of São Paulo, is described. Kirkia heterobranchiata is unique among sabellids for brooding the embryos on the dorsalmost pair of radioles, which exhibits several modifications for this purpose, rather than on ventral radioles. Morphologically, K. heterobranchiata is most closely related to Perkinsiana riwo, here referred to as the new genus, as suggested by phylogenetic analysis. The new genus is characterized by the shape of the lips (dorsal lips roughly triangular, broader than long; ventral lips lower, ventrally fused and distally rounded), by the absence of both radiolar and pinnular appendages, by having uncini with very short handles in both the thorax and abdomen, and by the ability to brood embryos in cocoons attached to the branchial crown.
Mouthpart and digestive tract structure in four talitrid amphipods from a translittoral series in Tasmania
Authors: Johnston Matthew D. , Johnston Danielle J. , Richardson Alastair M.M.
Published: October 2004

Structural adaptations of the mouthparts and digestive tract of four talitrid amphipods were examined in relation to diet, habitat and phylogeny. The species differed in their habitat relative to the shoreline and also in their diet: a 5-dentate ‘sandrunner’, Talorchestia species II (a mid to low shore intertidal diatom feeder), a 5-dentate sandhopper, Talorchestia marmorata (a strandline kelp feeder); a 4-dentate sandhopper, Talorchestia species I (extreme high shore, feeding on spinifex grasses), and a 4-dentate landhopper, Keratroides vulgaris (forest leaf litter, litter feeding). Gross structural characteristics of the mouthparts were similar among all three Talorchestia species reflecting their phylogenetic relatedness. Increased setation and minor structural differences among the Talorchestia species could be attributed to dietary differences, reflecting the zones across the shoreline that they inhabit. Mouthparts of K. vulgaris were elongate, with markedly different setation to the Talorchestia species, reflecting its more distant phylogenetic position and its diet of decaying leaf litter. Digestive tract structure was more conserved among all species due to their phylogenetic relatedness. The gross digestive structure conformed to the general plan exhibited by most gammaridean amphipods. However, an additional pair of lateral pyloric caeca was evident in all species, the function of which is uncertain.
Effectiveness of alternative organic solvents in field preservation of whole barnacles for PCR analyses
Authors: Lee P.L.M. , Beynon C.M.
Published: October 2004

There are few reports of non-cryogenic preservation methods for marine invertebrates, so potable alcohol and acetone-based nail varnish remover (NVR) are for the first time evaluated against absolute ethanol as short-term preservatives of whole barnacles. Performance of ethanol and NVR-preserved material was comparable, but potable alcohol was significantly worse. These results are of practical importance for fieldwork in remote areas where laboratory chemicals are unattainable but potable alcohol or NVR are locally available. Of these, acetone-based NVR would be the solvent of preference.
Diet and prey selection dynamics of Cancer polyodon in three different habitat types in Tongoy Bay, Chile
Authors: León Rafael I. , Stotz Wolfgang B.
Published: October 2004

Feeding dynamics of Cancer polyodon was studied, by comparing the diets of three size-classes of the crab to environmental abundance of prey species in three habitats in Tongoy Bay, Chile (30°S). In the sea grass and sand–gravel habitats cannibalism was observed, the small C. polydon being actively selected as the main prey in spite of their lower abundance compared with other crustaceans. In the mud habitat the scallop Argopecten purpuratus was the most important prey, being actively selected although occurring at low relative abundance. Cancer polyodon showed plasticity in feeding habits, adapting to differential prey availability, but always selecting certain species independently of their abundance in each habitat. Accessibility, more than the abundance of the prey, seem to be the main factors influencing prey selection.
Diet and feeding biology of Haminoea orbygniana (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Cephalaspidea)
Authors: Malaquias Manuel António E. , Condinho Silvia , Cervera Juan L. , Sprung Martin
Published: October 2004

The diet and functional biology of the digestive system of the cephalaspidean gastropod Haminoea orbygniana was investigated by gut content analysis of animals collected in the Ria Formosa, a coastal lagoon in southern Portugal. The results show that this species is herbivorous, stenophagic and probably non-selective, feeding mainly on diatoms (67·61%) and occasionally on vegetal detritus (4·16%) and Foraminifera (0·04%), but also including sand grains as an important part of the gut contents (28·34%). The role of the gizzard plates in the fragmentation of diatom frustules was demonstrated and is discussed. Data reveal that this process, although possibly important for the digestion and assimilation of food, seems not to be crucial. The role of sand as an additional food source and as an accessory tool complementary to the gizzard plates is discussed. A general review of the diet within the family Haminoeidae is presented, with all recent work indicating that they feed on diatoms and green algae.