bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of feed iodine concentrations and milk processing on iodine concentrations of cows’ milk and dairy products, and potential impact on iodine intake in Swiss adults
Authors: van der Reijden Olivia L. , Galetti Valeria , Herter-Aeberli Isabelle , Zimmermann Michael B. , Zeder Christophe , Krzystek Adam , Haldimann Max , Barmaz Andrea , Kreuzer Michael , Berard Joel , Schlegel Patrick
Published: June 2019

The contribution of milk and dairy products to daily iodine intake is high but variable in many industrialised countries. Factors that affect iodine concentrations in milk and dairy products are only poorly understood. Our aim was to: (1) assess the effect of feed iodine concentration on milk iodine by supplementing five groups of five cows each with one of five dosages from 0–2 mg iodine/kg DM; (2) quantify iodine losses during manufacturing of cheese and yogurt from milk with varying iodine concentrations and assess the effect of cellar-ripening; and (3) systematically measure iodine partitioning during heat treatment and skimming of milk. Milk iodine reached a near-steady state after 3 weeks of feeding. Median milk iodine (17–302 μg/l for 0–2 mg iodine/kg DM) increased linearly with feed iodine (R20·96;P< 0·001). At curd separation, 75–84 % of iodine was lost in whey. Dairy iodine increased linearly with milk iodine (semi-hard cheese:R20·95;P< 0·001; fresh cheese and yogurt:R21·00;P< 0·001), and cellar-ripening had no effect. Heat treatment had no significant effect, whereas skimming increased (P< 0·001) milk iodine concentration by only 1–2 μg/l. Mean daily intake of dairy products by Swiss adults is estimated at 213 g, which would contribute 13–52 % of the adults’ RDA for iodine if cow feed is supplemented with 0·5–2 mg iodine/kg DM. Thus, modulation of feed iodine levels can help achieve desirable iodine concentrations in milk and dairy products, and thereby optimise their contribution to human iodine nutrition to avoid both deficiency and excess.
An ideal-theoretic approach to Keller maps
Authors: Miranda-Neto Cleto B.
Published: June 2019

A self-map F of an affine space ${\bf A}_k^n $ over a field k is said to be a Keller map if F is given by polynomials F1, …, Fn ∈ k[X1, …, Xn] whose Jacobian determinant lies in $k\setminus \{0\}$. We consider char(k) = 0 and assume, as we may, that the Fis vanish at the origin. In this note, we prove that if F is Keller then its base ideal IF = 〈F1, …, Fn〉 is radical (a finite intersection of maximal ideals in this case). We then conjecture that IF = 〈X1, …, Xn〉, which we show to be equivalent to the classical Jacobian Conjecture. In addition, among other remarks, we observe that every complex Keller map admits a well-defined multidimensional global residue function.
IV.—Description of a New Species of Starfish from the Devonian of Great Inglebourne, Harberton, South Devon
Authors: Woodward Henry
Published: June 2019

Probably no part of England has received more careful attention from geologists than Devonshire, both North and South, but although the lists of fossils are large, the fossils themselves are often very difficult to determine, owing to the cleavage and metamorphism to which the rocks containing them have been subjected.
I.—Contributions to the Palæontology of the Yorkshire Oolites
Authors: Hudleston Wilfrid H.
Published: June 2019

This widely-spread, and, on the whole, well-marked species, has been in so many cases, as it appears to me, confounded with Alaria bispinosa, that it would be a task of no small difficulty to trace out the mistakes that have arisen in consequence. The imperfect figures of Phillips have, no doubt, been the principal cause of thus confounding the two species. Deslongchamps queried the identification, but yet was inclined to adopt it. Morris and Lycett seem to have had no doubt on the subject. “Having had the advantage of examining a large number of specimens, comprising every variety both in form and stage of growth, we feel no hesitation in uniting the two species here indicated.” It is extremely probable that the Great Oolite specimens of Alaria trifida present varietal differences from the Oxfordian types, and they may also in some cases have assumed forms having only one lateral digitation; but higher up in the Jurassic rocks they seem to be very fairly separable for such a genus as Alaria, which is so prone to effect changes in its shell. Such was doubtless the opinion of Morris, who quotes Al. bispinosa from the Lower Calc. Grit and Kel. Rock, whilst Al. trifida is quoted as a distinct species from the Oxford Clay and Kel. Rock of Yorkshire, the Great Oolite form being referred to a variety.
IV.—Some Definitions in Dynamical Geology
Authors: McGee W. J.
Published: June 2019

In view of the active discussion of the problems of earth-movement and mountain-growth now current, certain fundamental definitions, growing out of the discrimination of processes commonly confounded but really distinct, seem to be timely.

The various processes with which the geologist has to deal fall naturally into two principal and antagonistic categories and five subordinate and supplemental categories; and each category, great and small, comprises two antagonistic classes of movements or agencies.
On the Practice and Powers of Assurance Companies in regard to the Investment of their Life Assurance Funds
Authors: Mackenzie A. G.
Published: June 2019

The subject of Life Assurance Investments does not seem to have been discussed for a long time at the meetings of the Institute. Two valuable and instructive papers, bearing the honoured names of Mr. Samuel Brown and Mr. Arthur H. Bailey, were read to the Institute respectively on 25 January 1858 (J.I.A., vii, 241) and 24 February 1862 (J.I.A., x, 142), but they appear to be the only contributions of importance, dealing with the question in its entirety, to be found in the Journal. Notwithstanding the lapse of time which has taken place since the latter date, the principles of investment as defined by these two distinguished authorities are still very generally applicable to present needs; and the articles themselves have lost none of their charm for the student of life assurance finance, characterized as they are by soundness of judgment and by felicity of expression.
On the Theory of Inverse Probabilities
Authors: Makeham William Matthew
Published: June 2019

In his great work, the Théorie Analytique des Probabilités (which may he supposed to embody the author's latest and most matured views respecting that abstruse and difficult subject), Laplace reduces the fundamental principles of the whole doctrine of probabilities (both direct and inverse) to four comprehensive propositions. The four “Principes” of Laplace are extremely well adapted to show how important is the part, in that doctrine, which belongs to the indirect or inverse branch of it; and I know of no means better calculated to throw light upon the subject of this article than the course which I propose in the present section to follow, namely, to illustrate each “Principe” by an example relating to a coin falling head a certain number of times in succession.
Formulas and Tables of Values for Life Interests and Reversions
Authors: Nightingale H. Ethelston
Published: June 2019

It is with some reluctance that I venture to address the Institute on the subject of Reversionary Interests, a topic already exhaustively discussed by several members of great experience.

The chief motive which induces me to take this course is the desire to attract further attention to the advantages derived from the method of calculation originally adopted by Mr. Jellicoe (J.I.A., ii, 159) and subsequently laid under contribution by Mr. Bunyon (J.I.A., xviii, 32). This plan of operation, by means of which almost any formula may be derived from one general expression, was recommended by Mr. Bunyon for the following reasons:

(1). The exceptional facility with which any required formula can be written down.

(2). The great advantage secured by keeping the component parts of the formula clearly before the computer; thereby enabling him to modify the several parts without difficulty, in order to suit the case in question.

For instance, allowance may have to be made for loss of interest owing to delay in recovering the capital, and in re-investment of the same. A suitable premium may be necessary to cover a special assurance. Different rates of interest may be desired in possession and in reversion, convertible half-yearly or quarterly. In short, the actual conditions of a problem can be adhered to in the closest possible manner.
An Attempt to measure the Extra Risk arising from a Consumptive Family History when the Life proposed for Assurance is physically Sound and Healthy
Authors: Manly Henry William
Published: June 2019

It has been said that there is nothing so delusive as figures. especially in the form of statistics; and to a very large extent this is true. There is a real science of statistics which very few are acquainted with; and the consequence is that enormous labour is often expended on the collection of “Facts” which are not only useless but misleading. So-called “Facts” are often used as a crushing answer to some statement which may be perfectly true; and sometimes with effect, simply because the materials are not at hand to measure correctly the value of the statistics used. The most common offence is that of attempting to draw general conclusions from partial or imperfect observations. For instance, what is the value of the statistics of a coroner respecting the proportion of children murdered, out of the number which come under his observation, when the millions who do not come under his observation are not taken into consideration? Yet such statistics were gravely used to prove that two millions of people insured their children's lives with a view to murdering them, and that therefore such insurances ought to be suppressed. If any weight were to be attached to such statistics we might have it gravely stated, on the evidence of a coroner, that nearly every one died a sudden or violent death.
On a system of Bonus Distribution considered in relation to the Office Premiums and modes of Valuation
Authors: Rothery Howard J.
Published: June 2019

It has frequently been insisted upon that in the financial management of a life assurance company the scales of premiums, the method of valuation, and the mode of distribution of surplus should be considered together, and not independently of one another. Many instances could be given of unfairness in the treatment of the members of different classes and ages due to a want of recognition of this principle. It is, of course, impossible, in the practical management of a life office, that abstract justice should be administered as between the various policyholders; but as the system of charging uniform premiums for all ages at entry has given way to that of graduating the premiums according to the age of the life assured, so it may be possible and politic from time to time to find means of making the payments of the assured still more accurately conform to the exact value of the benefits they are to receive.
On Family Annuities
Authors: King George
Published: June 2019

A very important and difficult element in some of the State insurance schemes which have lately been put forward is, the provision of a small annuity to each child of a deceased father until that child attains the age of, say, 12 or 14 years. These may, not inappropriately, be called “family annuities”, and the object of the present paper is to investigate how the premiums for such family annuities may be calculated.
The Enfranchisement of Leaseholds, and the Taxation of Ground Rents, Chief Rents and kindred Charges on Land in England and Wales
Authors: Kyd Thomas , Tarn Arthur Wyndham
Published: June 2019

The realm of England was claimed by the Conqueror and his successors on the throne. On the theory of possession by conquest, the feudal system of tenure was built and developed. The Sovereign granted land to his soldiers and favourites, or left it in possession of the ancient holders, at his own pleasure. In return, those who enjoyed the property undertook various obligations to the lord paramount, such as military services. The grants were at first made for the lifetime of the holders; but ere long the rights and duties were extended to the succeeding heirs. Landowners holding thus of the king conveyed portions of their estates to their retainers, in return for services to be rendered. These services were usually either of a military or an agricultural character. With the advance of time, the progress of civilization, and the development of the arts of peace, the latter mode of compensation for the use of land gradually superseded the former; and after the Restoration the feudal burdens were abrogated by law. Since the abolition of these uncertain incidents of land tenure, the obligations subsisting among the holders of the several rights and interests pertaining to lands and tenements have been reducible to a money standard, with at least an approximation to justice and accuracy.
On the Progress of Profit in a Life Assurance Fund
Authors: Searle Thomas J.
Published: June 2019

The principal difference between the accounts of an insurance ecompany and those of an ordinary trader lies in the fact that the trader buys before he sells, while the insurance company sells before it buys, that is to say, the insurance company first receives the money on any transaction, and afterwards pays out. From this it arises that the trader keeps account of his liabilities by book-keeping and ascertains his assets by taking stock, while the insurance company keeps account of its assets by book-keeping and ascertains its liabilities by taking stock. There are certain classes of trade, chiefly brokerage, where there is either no stock, or a stock not needing stock-taking, in which the trader can keep account both of his liabilities and of his assets by book-keeping, and has thus a far better knowledge than he otherwise would of the sources and the progress of his profits. The purpose of this paper is to suggest that an insurance company, including even a life office, may keep accounts of both assets and liabilities by book-keeping methods, and may thus have clear information as to the sources and progress of its profits.
Contingent Reversions, Reversionary Life Interests, and Life Interests in Possession
Authors: Paterson William Brockie
Published: June 2019

It has been, I believe, considered an axiom that payment of Life Assurance premiums should be made in advance, or in other words, that under any sound system of Life Assurance, the premiums paid must never be less than the value of the risk incurred from the outset upon the basis of calculation adopted, and this appears as a fundamental principle in all the published formulas for the determination of the values of any interests involving Life Assurance. The methods that are described in the following pages necessitate a departure from the existing practice in this respect, and it is therefore essential, in the first place, to justify so important a change.
Some of the Modern Developments of the Life Assurance System
Authors: Newbatt Benjamin
Published: June 2019

The subject upon which, at the suggestion of your Council, I have undertaken to address you to-night is “Some of the Modern Developments of the Life Assurance System”, including under this heading not only those which most of us will regard as improvements, but others which some among us may consider mere excrescences and eccentricities. The subject, as I have found somewhat to my cost, is a very large one, needing for its full elucidation an enormous mass of detail, which, were your patience equal to its due exposition, would not, I think, bring with it any corresponding pleasure or profit. I propose, therefore, to treat the subject on somewhat broader lines, in which I shall use details only so far as they may illustrate principles.
On the Tabulation of the facts extracted from the Records of a Life Office for the purpose of investigating its Mortality Experience
Authors: Sprague T. B.
Published: June 2019

In the course of an investigation I have lately made, into the rate of mortality that has prevailed among the female lives insured in the Scottish Equitable Life Assurance Society, I have tried various methods of arranging the facts furnisht by the books of the office; and I think it may be useful to persons engaged in similar investigations, if I describe these methods, and state the conclusions at which I have arrived as to the best course of procedure.
Notes on the Use of Scales of Premium reduced in anticipation of future Bonuses
Authors: Hardy G. F.
Published: June 2019

The idea of reducing the ordinary with-profit premiums in anticipation of such future bonuses as past experience shows may be safely reckoned upon, is not a modern one. The adoption of such tables has, however, become more common in recent years; and since their use involves the consideration of various practical points of importance—such as the basis upon which the reductions should be computed, the reserves and surrender-values attaching to the policies, the course to be pursued when the profits exceed or fall short of their anticipated amount, and the manner in which the calculations are affected by changes in the rate of interest and mortality—the subject appears to be one well suitable for discussion by this Institute.
Some Remarks on the Mortality among Persons with Consumptive Family History
Authors: Westergaard Harald
Published: June 2019

One of the most interesting questions in mortality statistics is that of hereditary influences, but very little light has hitherto been thrown on this subject. What effect will the good or bad health of the present generation have on that of the future one? In which way will nature eliminate the fatal germs of a family disposition? Will they disappear through a gradual dying out of the persons with such a disposition, or will they in the course of time grow less dangerous till at last they have lost entirely their original character? All these questions have hitherto been left almost unanswered in spite of the great scientific and economic interest attached to them.
On an Investigation of the Mortality and Marriage Experience of the Widows' Funds of the Scottish Banks
Authors: Hewat Archibald , Chatham James
Published: June 2019

Having on several occasions been employed to investigate and report upon the Widows' Funds of certain Banks in Scotland, and having found no available tables specially suited to work of that kind, Mr. Hewat had, like other actuaries, to fall back upon existing tables which have been considered more or less appropriate and presumably safe enough for the purpose in view. Not being quite satisfied that these tables are sufficiently reliable for use in the actuarial investigations of these increasingly important Funds, and holding the opinion that the actuary, like other skilled workmen, should never allow his work to suffer for want of a proper instrument or tool, he resolved to emulate the intelligent and enterprising workman in other professions—the surgeon and the engineer, for example—and manufacture an instrument specially adapted to the particular class of work in hand.
On a method of Computing the Temporary Deductions to be made from the Sums Assured, upon Rated-up Lives, in lieu of Extra Premium
Authors: Hardy George F.
Published: June 2019

The general subject of extra risks, and the special method of meeting such risks by making temporary deductions from the sum assured in lieu of charging an extra premium, have been more than once under discussion at this Institute. The latter problem in particular was somewhat exhaustively considered upon the occasion of a paper by the late Mr. Sunderland, “On a Method frequently adopted of treating Under-Average Lives for Assurance purposes, &c.” (J.I.A., xxix, 419).
The employment of interpolation in statistics
Authors: Westergaard Harald
Published: June 2019

[After some interesting preliminary remarks on the subject of statistics generally, and the utility of interpolation in their preparation, Professor Westergaard points out that in vital statistics the enumeration of the population at each year of age is seldom wanted, and, in fact, owing to the well known exaggeration in census returns of the numbers living at decennial ages, an adjustment is generally needed. He then proceeds:] The decennial reports by the English Registrar-General of births, deaths and marriages, contain full materials for the study of the mortality of professional men. The report published in 1875 gives a very detailed classification of ages, but it is not so with the next decennial report, which divides the ages into five periods only—15–20, 20–25, 25–45, 45–65, 65 and upwards.
On some methods of grouping Policies for the Purpose of Valuation
Authors: Schooling Frederick
Published: June 2019

In dealing with the valuation of a large number of policies, the method of grouping is of very great importance, and although there is probably nothing new in any of the suggested methods, I venture to hope that a discussion of this subject will be of some utility.
Some Remarks on the Valuation of Endowment Assurances in groups
Authors: Lidstone George J.
Published: June 2019

One of the most striking features in the history of Life Assurance business during the past few years is the marked increase—both absolute and proportional—which has been shown in the number and amount of policies effected under the Endowment Assurance plan. There is every reason to expect that this increase will continue, and that ere long Endowment Assurances will divide honours with whole life policies as regards importance in the periodical valuations. It is consequently very desirable so to improve the methods of valuing such policies as to minimize the amount of labour involved, and it will become more and more necessary to abandon methods which answered very well so long as Endowment Assurances were looked upon as “Special Policies”, but which are extremely cumbersome when applied to a large mass of contracts. The shorter methods that have hitherto been suggested, though admirably adapted for use in test or check valuations, involve an error which many actuaries will consider too appreciable to be neglected, more especially as the approximate methods nearly always bring out a reserve which is smaller than the true reserve, and it accordingly becomes desirable to seek some process that will be free from this objection.
On the Compound Survivorship Annuity
Authors: Hardy George F.
Published: June 2019

The following is a method of obtaining an approximate value of the annuity , based on the assumption that the mortality follows Makeham's formula. The numerical results will be found sufficiently close for practical purposes.
On the Mortality of the British Navy and Army, as shown by the Official Reports
Authors: McLauchlan James J.
Published: June 2019

The Annual Reports of the Registrar-General for England contain each year, tables giving information as to the mortality in the Navy and Army for a long series of years. My object in undertaking this paper was to compare the actual death-rates, as shown in these tables, with the rates prevailing among assured lives, with a view to ascertaining the extra mortality to which persons serving in the Navy and Army are subject. I subsequently found it desirable to extend the scope of the paper so as to include an examination of the recent mortality of the Navy, as shown by the Statistical Reports of the Health of the Navy, and of the Army, as shown by the Reports of the Army Medical Department.
On some of the Practical Questions raised during the Discussion that followed the reading of my Paper printed in the “Journal” (vol. xxvii, p.362); and on a Further Use for my Tables in applying Profits to making Annual Premiums cease at an Earlier Age than fixed in the Policy
Authors: Manly Henry William
Published: June 2019

I believe there was a general concensus of opinion that the discussion which followed the reading of my paper at the sessional meeting of the Institute on 17 December 1888 (J.I.A., xxvii, 362) as an eminently practical one, and that another evening might usefully be devoted to a further discussion of many of the questions which were then raised.

With the object, therefore, of starting the discussion again, I propose to examine, in a general way, some of the views which were then expressed; and to better carry out that object, I shall consider the subject under four heads. (1) Whether, in the formula , Px, should be the pure premium according to the mortality table and rate of interest used in the valuation, or some other value. (2) Whether d should be taken at the rate of interest used in the valuation, or at some other rate. (3) To what extent special refinements can be introduced, and how far they may be neglected in practice. (4) The superiority of ray tables for practical use over other methods.
On the Construction and Use of the combined Marriage and Mortality Tables for Widowers
Authors: Chatham James
Published: June 2019

As the marriage rate among widowers depends not only on their age, but also upon the length of time for which they have been widowers, it was necessary to form the combined marriage and mortality table for widowers on principles analogous to those adopted by Mr. Sprague in the construction of his Select Life Tables, where the rate of mortality among assured lives for each age at entry was, after the lapse of five or a less number of years, joined on to the HM(5) rate of mortality. The first step, therefore, was to form a combined marriage and mortality table for chronic widowers—that is to say, those among whom the marriage rate has reached its ultimate magnitude; in other words, to find (wl)x, the number of widowers alive and still unmarried at any age, and number marrying, (wm)x, and dying, (wd)x, in the following year.
On Mr. Woolhouse's Formula for the Adjustment of Tables
Authors: Higham Charles Daniel
Published: June 2019

Though between the graphic method on the one hand, and Mr. Higham's on the other, the formula used by Mr. Woolhouse in graduating the Institute Tables seems to have lost something of its pre-eminence, it may be convenient to have on record a general expression for it, correct to third differences, derived as on pages 341 and 350 of the twenty-third volume of the Journal.
History of Life Assurance in the United Kingdom
Authors: Walford Cornelius
Published: June 2019

The state of the law in respect to Joint-Stock Companies, and associations for business purposes generally, remained in the same unsatisfactory condition which I have described in the previous section down to this time. Those great Insurance Associations, with millions of capital subscribed, in many cases, by the merchant princes of the land, for purposes admittedly the most beneficent, were simple partnerships, almost without legal recognition, except for purposes tending to their detriment or destruction. They could be attacked or pulled down by legal process readily enough; but they could only protect themselves against fraud, or recover their just debts by the most cumbersome of processes. What they had a right to expect, as institutions designed to aid largely in the accumulation of national wealth, was protection in carrying out their laudable designs; but of this they had not a vestige. Not only was every holder of stock in a proprietary company primarily and personally liable to his last shilling for the engagements of the partnership, but every policy-holder in a mutual society, being a member of, and therefore a partner in such society, was equally liable for all its engagements.
A Proposal for the Amendment of the Law relating to the Assignment of Policies of Life Assurance
Authors: Higham Charles Daniel
Published: June 2019

“The Institute has now fairly started on its new career of usefulness as an incorporated society.” Usefulness, then, in the admirable words of the Council on the 5th June last, is to be the ruling principle of the Institute's new and corporate life, as few, who are acquainted with what has been done with hut small opportunity, will deny it has been of its action in the past. But for its usefulness to be thorough, the Institute must be concerned with both the theoretical and practical sides of our profession in all its branches—recollecting as well its commercial basis as its mathematical speculations, considering its connection with medical and legal specialties, collecting data, comparing methods, proving uncertainties, destroying chimæras, teaching students and testing their acquirements, not to mention accumulating a library for reference and instruction—always advancing, suggesting, restraining, reforming.
Art. XVI.—Description of an old Persian Commentary on the Ḳur'án
Authors: Browne Edward G.
Published: June 2019

The collection of Persian manuscripts preserved in the Cambridge University Library is, compared with the collections of the British Museum or the Bodleian, sadly insignificant both in extent and value. The total number of volumes which it comprises scarcely exceeds 300, and of these only a small proportion is of any conspicuous worth or interest. Some few, however, there are which deserve to be made known to Orientalists, and amongst these is the manuscript which forms the subject of the present notice.
Relationships between soil seed bank composition and standing vegetation along chronosequences in a tropical dry forest in north-eastern Brazil
Authors: Gomes Fernanda Melo , Oliveira Clemir Candeia de , Rocha Miranda Roberta da , Costa Rafael Carvalho da , Loiola Maria Iracema Bezerra
Published: June 2019

To better understand the role of seed banks in ecological succession of dry forests, we compared similarities between vegetation and seed banks and assessed the relative contributions of seed dispersal and persistence in chronosequences in the Brazilian semi-arid region. To sample the standing vegetation and the seed bank, we collected data in three sites with three successional ages in each one (5 y, 25 y and 45 y). A total of 180 soil samples (three sites × three successional ages × 10 plots × two components) were collected. The composition of the seed bank was assessed by the seedling emergence method. Of 166 species identified in the standing vegetation, only 50 (30.1%) were also present in the seed bank, resulting in low similarity (Jaccard index = 0.02–0.21) and reflecting the rarity of woody species and the dominance of annuals (71% of richness). The relative importance of seed persistence and seed dispersal to seed banks composition were balanced in most cases (difference was not rejected in four out six comparisons). Those results suggest that seed banks in tropical dry forests are largely the result of high dispersal rates and the persistence of allochthonous annual species that contribute to decoupling seed bank and vegetation composition.
Within-Party Sex Gaps in Expenditure Preferences among Flemish Local Politicians
Authors: Slegten Caroline , Heyndels Bruno
Published: June 2019

The sex gap in politics is widely documented: women tend to support left-wing parties more than men do. Evidence of this observation was recently supplemented by the identification of a within-party sex gap: within parties, female voters and politicians tend to take more left-wing positions. While this research typically limits itself to one policy area or one political party, we provide more broad-based evidence of within-party sex gaps among Flemish local politicians by covering a broad set of policy domains and six political parties. Our focus is on expenditure preferences. Analyzing stated preferences of 1,055 council members, we find that—across parties—female politicians have more leftist preferences than their male colleagues in six out of eight policy domains. Crucially, sex differences also occur within parties. We identify significant within-party sex gaps in four out of eight policy domains. Female representatives express preferences that are more left wing than their male colleagues with respect to public spending on crime, culture, and welfare. For environmental spending, they take a more right-wing position.
Exploring the “continuous combat function” concept in armed conflicts: Time for an extended application?
Authors: Henry Sabrina
Published: June 2019

This paper focuses on the “continuous combat function” concept and proposes to extend its application. First, the article will demonstrate that the continuous combat function concept should be extended to certain members of organized armed groups in cases where those groups do not belong to any of the parties to an international armed conflict and whose actions do not reach the level of intensity required for a separate non-international armed conflict (NIAC) to exist. Secondly, the paper will look at the extension of this concept in order to determine individual membership in State armed forces in the context of a NIAC, while arguing that the notion of “armed forces” should be interpreted differently depending of the nature of the conflict, be it international or non-international.
Congrès international d'hygiène
Authors: D'Espine
Published: June 2019

Vous m'avez prié de vous donner, pour le Bulletin, un compte rendu de ma visite au congrès de Londres, auquel vous m'aviez envoyé comme délégué du Comité international. Quoique les sujets traités au congrès d'hygiène cette année ne se rapportent pas direclement à l'œuvre de la Croix-Rouge, et que, par conséquent, je ne veuille point ici vous donner un résumé des nombreuses communications faites au congrès, je suis heureux de saisir cette occasion pour remercier M. John Furley, champion zélé et bien connu de notre œuvre, pour la réception si gracieuse dont j'ai été l'objet et que je reporte toute entiere an Comité international que je représentais.
On the Rate of Mortality found to prevail among Residents in India, being Subscribers and the Male and Female nominees of Subscribers to the Uncovenanted Service Family Pension Fund, between the years 1837–1872
Authors: Finlaison Alexander John
Published: June 2019

The rate of mortality experienced by residents in India will supply an answer to an enquiry of the highest interest in an actuarial sense. The enquiry may even be considered of national importance so long as our countrymen seek their fortunes in a region where the effects of the climate on their prospects of health and longevity continue to be regarded as uncertain and hazardous.
On the Practice of the Eagle Company with regard to the Assurance of Lives classed as Unsound, and on the Rates of Mortality prevailing amongst the Lives so classed, assured during the Sixty-three Years ending 30 June 1871
Authors: Humphreys George
Published: June 2019

Many years having elapsed since the Eagle Insurance Company first undertook to issue policies of assurance upon unsound lives, and some doubts having arisen as to the way in which the funds of the Society had been affected by such transactions, the Directors decided that a thorough investigation should be made into the business connected therewith, with the view of obtaining not only a record of the past, but also, if possible, of establishing a guide for the future, and I now have the pleasure, with their permission, of making public the results of that investigation.
On the method of comparing the Expected with the Actual Experience of a Life Insurance Company, as regards the number of Deaths and amount of Claims
Authors: Low George M.
Published: June 2019

The business of Life Assurance is founded on the principle that the number of deaths which will occur among a large number of persons in a given time is not a matter dependent entirely on what is called chance; but is subject to a law of average so uniform in its operations, and so trustworthy as to its results, as to be capable of forming the basis of calculations on which the shareholder may stake his capital, and the assured the welfare of those for whom it is his duty to provide. Proceeding on this principle, tables of mortality have been constructed,—from data collected at different places and under a variety of circumstances, and tabulated and adjusted with various degrees of accuracy,—which show, out of a given number of persons born, the number who survive each year of age, and the number who die at each age from year to year. From such tables, companies transacting the business of assurance calculate the rates of contribution to be required from their clients; and on the sufficiency of the rate of mortality founded on in any instance depends, of course, the sufficiency of the premiums which the company is to receive in consideration of its risks. It is therefore of great consequence that the company should ascertain from time to time how the rate of mortality actually experienced compares with that indicated by the table on which the calculations are founded, in order that there may be proper grounds for being satisfied that the basis is a correct one. For it is not sufficient that the mortality table founded on should be known to represent faithfully the death-rate prevailing among the general population, or even among assured lives generally.
On Rates of Mortality and their Causes. (Continued from page 61.)
Authors: Lazarus W.
Published: June 2019

We are so accustomed, even when we do not aim at scientific exactness, to regard every phenomenon as produced by causes,—as the resultant of forces,—that we cannot help looking on what we call “life” as the effect of certain definite forces, and on death as the consequence of the extinction of those forces. But when we thus contrast life and death, we must always bear in mind not only that what we call “life” is a condition which presents itself under circumstances of unexhaustable variety, but that in all probability quite as many differences in its manifestation entirely elude our observation. Given the effect, we reason as to the cause; when the effects are different, we infer that either the causes are different, or the conditions on which the effect depends. But if the differences are so numerous that we can scarcely find two cases exactly alike, we can draw no conclusion either as to the causes or as to the conditions. Since in no single case can we recognize the various conditions under which the cause of life works, we cannot hope to decide how the effect is connected with the conditions and how with the causes. Death too is a phenomenon as to which we have not the least idea why it happens; whether because the vital force in the individual has sunk below a certain degree which is necessary for the maintenance of life, or whether as a result of wholly different forces. On this point we scarcely know more than that the possibility of organic life depends upon certain conditions, that it can exist so long as these conditions remain within limits more or less wide, and that a transgression of the limits causes death. We do not, however, know exactly what these conditions are, and still less do we know the limits within which human life can exist; and if we reflect how complicated are the circumstances to be taken into account, we can scarcely hope to see these relations settled for some time to come. It is further to be observed that life, being regarded as the effect of a force, and death as its extinction, there must be a gradual transition from the one to the other.
On the Scientific Application of Data to the purpose of deducing Rates of Premium for Fire Insurance
Authors: Walford Cornelius
Published: June 2019

It may at first sight appear strange that while life insurance more especially, and some other branches of insurance at least theoretically, are based upon exact statistical details, fire insurance has never attained to anything like such scientific exactitude. But it will be remembered that, in its first inception, fire insurance was to be a State or municipal institution, wherein it is customary for the insured to pay a certain nominal rate at the time of entering into the contract; and at the end of the financial year the cost of insurance, as measured by the losses and expenses, is ascertained in the aggregate, and an assessment made over the whole property of the town or district for the balance. Under these conditions, the ascertainment of an exact rate in advance is not necessary. Then, again, many of the early fire offices were based upon the “contribution plan.” Here also a nominal payment is made in advance, or annually, and a call or assessment is made either annually or on the happening of any serious calamity. Here too the necessity for exact rates did not arise.
Remarks on a Problem in Life Contingencies
Authors: Gray Peter
Published: June 2019

A survivorship annuity of £100, payable half-yearly till death, on (26) after (32), is to be paid for by an annual premium, returnable if (26) die before (32). Required the annual premium, which shall give to the grantor a profit of 15 per-cent ; the rates of mortality and interest assumed as those which will actually obtain, being Carlisle 4 per-cent.
The Pure Premium Method of Valuation
Authors: Bailey Arthur Hutcheson
Published: June 2019

Often as the method of estimating the liabilities of life assurance companies has been discussed by the Institute, there seem to me to be some reasons why it will not be entirely useless to devote another evening to the subject. The Act of 1870 has now been sufficiently long in force that, with one or two exceptions, all the existing companies have furnished the particulars required by the 5th and 6th schedules, which give, in considerable detail, the methods and results of their valuations. A tolerably minute examination of these documents, as they have from time to time appeared, has satisfied me that much difference of practice still exists even among those who would consider themselves in agreement on the main principles; and the 105th number of the Journal contains a paper by Mr. McCandlish, which, being an address ex cathedrâ to the Edinburgh students from the President of the Actuarial Society, may have an authority to which, as it seems to me, some of its doctrines are hardly entitled, and which therefore should not pass altogether unchallenged.
Address to the Members of the Actuarial Society of Edinburgh, 1st November 1877
Authors: Thomson Spencer C.
Published: June 2019

Perhaps the most important lesson many of you can learn—one that is frequently lost sight of by persons who are solely or mainly engaged in theoretical studies—is that the researches which you are pursuing, by the aid of a variety of complicated symbols, are, after all, not merely elaborate mathematical puzzles to be solved principally for the purpose of awakening or sharpening the intellect, but have, for you at least, an eminently practical aim as well, and are insisted on as part of the education of an Actuary, with a view to their serving as the framework on which, when afterwards called upon, he must be prepared to base actual business transactions involving large sums of money, or, it may be, to lay down principles for the regulation in all its various details of a life assurance office.
On the Expenses and Selection as affecting the Pure Premium Method of Valuation
Authors: Sorley James
Published: June 2019

Although much has been written in recent years on the comparative merits of different methods of valuation, I am not aware that any attempt has yet been made to ascertain the ultimate bearing on the Pure Premium Method, of the facts that have been recently brought forward as to the pressure of the expenses and the effects of selection in an assurance company. Speaking generally, it will, I think, be found that proposals to diminish the pure premium reserve on account of the necessarily heavy expenses of new business, have been made without reference to the mortality profit that may be expected to arise from the recent selection of the lives, and vice versa. This being the case, it occurred to me that it might be of considerable practical interest to make an investigation in which effect would be given to the influence both of expenses and of selection, for it would enable us to estimate how far the one neutralized the other. In order to render the inquiry more clear, however, it will be well to begin by considering each separately.
On a Question in Probabilities
Authors: Woolhouse W.S.B. , Cayley  , Sprague T.B.
Published: June 2019

Mr. Artemas Martin has solicited my opinion in regard to the following problem, the true solutions of which have, he informs me, been much discussed in America. I give, first of all, Mr. Martin's solution, and append thereto my own remarks in regard to the accuracy, or otherwise, of the solution.
On the Construction of a Combined Marriage and Mortality Table from Observations made as to the Rates of Marriage and Mortality among any body of Men; and on the Calculation of the Values of Annuities and Assurances that depend on the Contingency of Marriage as well as Death, and their application to determine the Rate of Premium for an Insurance against the Contingency of a Bachelor of a given age leaving Issue: illustrated by various Tables calculated from the experience of the British Peerage families
Authors: Sprague T.B.
Published: June 2019

In valuing interests that involv the probabilitys ov marryge and ov leaving issue, we require to hav the means ov ansering such questions as the folloing among others. What is the probability that a bachelor ov a givn age wil (1) marry, or (2) die unmarryd, in an asignd year from the present time? or (3) be alive and stil unmarryd after the laps ov a givn number ov years ? In ordinary life contingency calculations, the corresponding questions as to the probabilitys ov life and deth ar anserd by means ov the figurs containd in the familiar mortality tabl (formerly cald a tabl ov mortality, but by Dr. Farr a life tabl); and the great practical convenience ov that tabl sugests that, when we hav to deal with chances ov marryge as wel as ov deth, we shoud at the outset construct on analogos principls a combined marryge and mortality tabl.
On the subject of Extra Risks, considered in relation to a Hypothetical Table of Mortality based on the HM Table
Authors: Ryan Gerald H.
Published: June 2019

In the course of an investigation that was recently being made into the rate of mortality prevailing among a body of assured lives subject to extra risks, it occurred to me that it would be advisable. if possible, to procure some standard of comparison in addition to the ordinary mortality tables at present in use, it being apparent that the rate of mortality in question would depart too markedly from the existing tables for them to serve as any criterion. Several modes of forming hypothetical tables exhibiting features similar to those characterizing the actual observations—namely, an increased rate of mortality, especially heavy at the earlier ages—suggested themselves to me; but the difficulty of fixing the degree in which they should differ from the table on which they were to be based, and the arbitrary nature of the assumptions it was necessary to make, were obstacles I was unable to remove in a satisfactory manner. Finally, influenced, among other considerations, by the practice in vogue with Life Assurance companies of the present day, I selected the basis explained in the following article, and deduced a table of mortality from the HM 3 per-cent whole-life pure-premium increased at each age by the net addition of 01.