bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Microclima, produção e composição do mosto da ‘Syrah’ cultivada sob cobertura de plástico
Authors:   Instituto Agronômico de Campinas, Pedro Júnior Mário José , Hernandes José Luiz , Santos Antonio Odair , Lino Antonio Carlos Loureiro
Published: August 2019

Foi feita a caracterização do microclima do vinhedo, das variáveis de produção das videiras e das propriedades físico-químicas do mosto da uva para vinho ‘Syrah’ cultivada com cobertura e sem cobertura de plástico impermeável (ráfia). As videiras foram sustentadas em Y e manejadas em regime de safra de inverno na região produtora de uvas de Louveira, SP. Durante o período da maturação das uvas foram feitas determinações, na altura dos cachos, da radiação solar e da temperatura do ar. Na colheita foram determinadas as variáveis fitotécnicas (número de ramos, número de cachos, massa dos cachos e produtividade) e físico-químicas do mosto (teor de sólidos solúveis, acidez total, teor de ácido tartárico, antocianinas, polifenóis totais e taninos). Os valores de temperatura máxima do ar foram superiores nas videiras sob cobertura de plástico em comparação às cultivadas a céu aberto enquanto a radiação solar foi mais elevada na condição sem cobertura. A produtividade e o teor de sólidos solúveis totais foram mais elevados para as videiras sob cobertura de plástico. Não foi observada influência da cobertura de plástico impermeável nos teores de antocianina, polifenóis totais e taninos das uvas.
Consommation de substances psychoactives et orientation sexuelle
Authors: Velter Annie , Saurel-Cubizolles Marie-Josèphe , Lhomond Brigitte
Published: August 2019

Objectif

Étudier les différences dans la fréquence de consommation d’alcool et de drogues selon l’orientation sexuelle chez les hommes et les femmes.

Méthode

L’Enquête Presse Gays et Lesbiennes 2011 est une enquête transversale autoadministrée basée sur le volontariat, disponible sur des sites Internet gays et lesbiens. Les répondant(e)s âgés de 18 ans ou plus, résidant en France et ayant eu des rapports sexuels au cours de leur vie, ont été retenus pour cette analyse. La consommation d’alcool est décrite par la fréquence de consommation dans les douze derniers mois, le nombre de verres par jour et la fréquence de consommation de six verres ou plus au cours d’une même occasion. La consommation de cannabis, d’ecstasy ou de cocaïne est décrite par l’usage de ces substances une fois ou plus au cours des douze derniers mois. Les analyses ont comparé, pour chaque sexe, l’orientation sexuelle définie par l’auto-identification et le sexe des partenaires. L’auto-identification en tant que « bisexuel(le) » ou « gay/lesbienne » était disponible pour 2 675 femmes et 8 725 hommes ; l’information sur le sexe des partenaires au cours de la vie pour 2 747 femmes et 9 001 hommes et celle sur le sexe des partenaires des douze derniers mois pour 2 871 femmes et 8 974 hommes.

Résultats

Alors que des variations sociodémographiques et de biographie sexuelle importantes sont observées selon l’auto-identification, la consommation de substances varie moins selon l’auto-identification que selon le sexe des partenaires, pour les femmes comme pour les hommes. Les répondant(e)s qui ont eu des partenaires des deux sexes déclaraient des consommations plus importantes d’alcool et de drogues.

Les éléments du mode de vie, de détresse psychologique ou de discrimination ne permettent pas d’expliquer ces différences de consommation selon le sexe des partenaires.

Conclusion

Comprendre ce qui sous-tend ces consommations reste un enjeu majeur de santé publique.
L’oralité dans Allah Superstar : représentations, tensions, traduction
Authors: Mével Pierre-Alexis
Published: August 2019

Cet article se penche sur la manière dont le français des banlieues – une variété linguistique très largement orale – est utilisé à des fins narratives et esthétiques dans le roman de Y. B.Allah Superstar, et suggère des pistes pour sa traduction en anglais. On répondra aux questions suivantes : comment l’oralité est-elle représentée à l’écrit dans le roman? Quels sont les ramifications idéologiques et les enjeux de la traduction de ces caractéristiques orales du discours écrit? Le romanAllah Superstar, de par sa narration inhabituelle, écrit comme s’il était la transcription d’un numéro destand-up, propose un champ d’études idéal pour la représentation de l’oralité et de sa traduction. Le narrateur utilise de nombreux traits caractéristiques du français dits des banlieues, ce qui soulève des problèmes idéologiques tant l’utilisation d’une variété non standard de manière aussi systématique est inhabituelle à l’écrit, et étire les possibilités de la langue et la subvertit. L’analyse de l’oralité dans le roman de Y. B. permet d’illustrer la tension inhérente à la banlieue et à sa littérature : prise entre la variété standard de la langue et les conventions de l’écrit d’un côté, et la nécessité d’en repousser les limites pour exprimer une forme de différence de l’autre, l’auteur puise dans les ressources linguistiques non standard et en étire les codes et les normes pour donner naissance à un étrangement qui soulève des enjeux importants pour le processus traductionnel. On fournira des pistes pour la manière d’approcher la traduction de cette banlieue, à la fois proche et lointaine, et du roman de Y. B. et de la voix de son narrateur qui oscille entre familiarité et étrangeté.
Benchmarking protocols for the metagenomic analysis of stream biofilm viromes
Authors: Bekliz Meriem , Brandani Jade , Bourquin Massimo , Battin Tom , Peter Hannes
Published: August 2019

Viruses drive microbial diversity, function and evolution and influence important biogeochemical cycles in aquatic ecosystems. Despite their relevance, we currently lack an understanding of their potential impacts on stream biofilm structure and function. This is surprising given the critical role of biofilms for stream ecosystem processes. Currently, the study of viruses in stream biofilms is hindered by the lack of an optimized protocol for their extraction, concentration and purification. Here, we evaluate a range of methods to separate viral particles from stream biofilms, and to concentrate and purify them prior to DNA extraction and metagenome sequencing. Based on epifluorescence microscopy counts of viral-like particles (VLP) and DNA yields, we optimize a protocol including treatment with tetrasodium pyrophosphate and ultra-sonication to disintegrate biofilms, tangential-flow filtration to extract and concentrate VLP, followed by ultracentrifugation in a sucrose density gradient to isolate VLP from the biofilm slurry. Viromes derived from biofilms sampled from three different streams were dominated by Siphoviridae, Myoviridae and Podoviridae and provide first insights into the viral diversity of stream biofilms. Our protocol optimization provides an important step towards a better understanding of the ecological role of viruses in stream biofilms.
Stochastic cell-cycle entry and cell-state-dependent fate outputs of injury-reactivated tectal radial glia in zebrafish
Authors: Yu Shuguang , He Jie
Published: August 2019

Gliosis defined as reactive changes of resident glia is the primary response of the central nervous system (CNS) to trauma. The proliferation and fate controls of injury-reactivated glia are essential but remain largely unexplored. In zebrafish optic tectum, we found that stab injury drove a subset of radial glia (RG) into the cell cycle, and surprisingly, proliferative RG responding to sequential injuries of the same site were distinct but overlapping, which was in agreement with stochastic cell-cycle entry. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis and functional assays further revealed the involvement of Notch/Delta lateral inhibition in this stochastic cell-cycle entry. Furthermore, the long-term clonal analysis showed that proliferative RG were largely gliogenic. Notch inhibition of reactive RG, not dormant and proliferative RG, resulted in an increased production of neurons, which were short-lived. Our findings gain new insights into the proliferation and fate controls of injury-reactivated CNS glia in zebrafish.
Visual search characteristics of precise map reading by orienteers
Authors: Liu Yang
Published: August 2019

This article compares the differences in eye movements between orienteers of different skill levels on map information searches and explores the visual search patterns of orienteers during precise map reading so as to explore the cognitive characteristics of orienteers’ visual search. We recruited 44 orienteers at different skill levels (experts, advanced beginners, and novices), and recorded their behavioral responses and eye movement data when reading maps of different complexities. We found that the complexity of map (complex vs. simple) affects the quality of orienteers’ route planning during precise map reading. Specifically, when observing complex maps, orienteers of higher competency tend to have a better quality of route planning (i.e., a shorter route planning time, a longer gaze time, and a more concentrate distribution of gazes). Expert orienteers demonstrated obvious cognitive advantages in the ability to find key information. We also found that in the stage of route planning, expert orienteers and advanced beginners first pay attention to the checkpoint description table. The expert group extracted information faster, and their attention was more concentrated, whereas the novice group paid less attention to the checkpoint description table, and their gaze was scattered. We found that experts regarded the information in the checkpoint description table as the key to the problem and they give priority to this area in route decision making. These results advance our understanding of professional knowledge and problem solving in orienteering.
Paraquat-induced Thrombotic Microangiopathy: The Pathophysiology in Hyperacute Paraquat Poisoning Deaths
Authors: Daisley Jr H , Rampersad A , Acco O , Meyers D
Published: August 2019

This paper described the pathophysiology of suicide deaths from paraquat poisoning which occurred in patients who died in fewer than 24 hours after ingesting paraquat. These deaths were referred to as hyperacute paraquat poisoning deaths. Thrombotic microangiopathy was the predominant pathological finding in all these cases and was evident in the brain, lung, heart, kidneys and in all organs and tissues examined. Of note, diffuse alveolar capillary thrombosis occurred, causing damage to alveolar walls, including those in subpleural locations, resulting in focal visceral pleural rupture leading to pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum in these cases, thus giving rise to yet another mechanism of pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum in paraquat toxicity. Thrombotic microangiopathy is the major pathological mechanism that underlies paraquat poisoning and has not hitherto been reported.
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Model for Prioritizing Alternative Strategies for Malaria Control
Authors: Simon Joel , Adamu Ali , Abdulkadir Ahmed , Henry Akpensuen Shiaondo
Published: August 2019

Aim: “This study Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Model for Malaria Control” was aimed at using analytical hierarchy process model to prioritize alternative strategies for malaria control.

Place and the Duration of the Study: The study was carried out in Bauchi State, Nigeria from May, 2017 to June, 2019.

Methodology: The study used primary and secondary data. The secondary data were the identified alternatives strategies for malaria control and the criteria for evaluating these strategies obtained from malaria control journals and World Health Organization report. The criteria and malaria control strategies were used as input for developing a 9-point scale used in a questionnaire to obtained responses from the Experts in scoring the pairwise comparison of the criteria and the alternatives. Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) model was used to develop the pairwise comparison matrices from the Experts opinions. Computations were carried out with the help of computer software, business performance management Singapore (BPMSG-AHP ONLINE).

Results:The result of the analysis shows that the use of insecticide treated nets was ranked the best strategy for malaria control (AHP score 0.348). Based on the findings of this paper, it is recommended that the use of treated mosquito net should be given much attention in controlling malaria in Nigeria.

Conclusion:We therefore conclude that in a multi -criteria decision making situation, AHP is a powerful tool to assists decision makers.
Functional and structural characterization of HspB1/Hsp27 from Chinese hamster ovary cells
Authors: Sha Eiryo , Nakamura Manami , Ankai Kazuya , Yamamoto Yohei Y. , Oka Toshihiko , Yohda Masafumi
Published: August 2019

Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) endow cells with stress tolerance. Of the various sHsps in mammals, HspB1, also known as Hsp27, is the most ubiquitous. To examine the structure and function of HspB1, we expressed, purified, and characterized HspB1 from Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) ovary cells (CgHspB1). CgHspB1 forms a large oligomeric structure. We observed a monodisperse 16‐mer with an elongated sphere, but this is affected by changes in various conditions, including temperature. Under dilute conditions, CgHspB1 dissociates into small oligomers at elevated temperatures. The dissociated conformers interacted with the gel filtration column through hydrophobic interactions. In contrast, dissociation of the oligomer was not observed by small‐angle X‐ray scattering at 55 °C. The result partially coincides with the results of size exclusion chromatography, showing that dissociation did not occur at high protein concentrations. However, a significant structural change in the oligomeric conformations appears to occur between room and higher temperatures. Reflecting their status as homeotherms, mammalian sHsps are regulated by phosphorylation. A phosphorylation mimic mutant of CgHspB1 with the replacement of Ser15 to Asp exhibited relatively lower oligomer stability and greater protective ability against thermal aggregation than the wild‐type protein. The result clearly shows a correlation between oligomer dissociation and chaperone activity.
A
nthony,
C
asey
Authors: Miller Brooke
Published: August 2019

Casey Anthony's daughter Caylee was missing for a month before the child's body was discovered, leading to Anthony's arrest and prosecution for the child's murder. The trial was covered live by a variety of national news networks with public sentiment leaning toward Anthony's guilt both during and after her trial. Anthony was ultimately convicted on four counts of providing false information to police. She was acquitted in the murder of her daughter, resulting in widespread media outrage.
Best Practices for Women in Corrections
Authors: Parker Jaclyn B.
Published: August 2019

In recent decades, the number of females involved in the criminal justice system has increased dramatically. With this increase, we see a shift toward researching female criminality in an attempt to determine “what works” for justice‐involved females. A strong push away from the “one size fits all” treatment regime, and toward gender‐responsive strategies that recognize the vastly different pathways to female criminality, as well as the vastly different needs women in the justice system require in treatment has made solid ground in the literature, painting a new picture for “what works” for which offenders.
B
radwell,
M
yra
Authors: Kavish Daniel Ryan
Published: August 2019

Myra Bradwell was the individual at the heart of the historic
Bradwell v. Illinois
court case. In 1873, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the state of Illinois had the right to exclude Bradwell from practicing law because she was a woman. She would eventually be allowed to practice law and be acknowledged as the first practicing American female attorney. She was also a major figure in the woman's suffrage movement and historically connected to other major historical personalities such as Susan B. Anthony and Mary Todd Lincoln. Myra Bradwell remains a prominent figure for those studying law and society.
Bullying
Authors: Deakin Jo
Published: August 2019

Bullying and, more recently, cyberbullying encompass a wide range of actions intended to cause physical or emotional harm to the victim(s), typically over a period of time. Bullying is characterized by a power imbalance between the perpetrator and the victim and its effects can be significant and widespread. It is the focus of a significant body of research as well as policy and practice literature.
Call Girls
Authors: Wallace Samantha Ashley
Published: August 2019

Call girls
are high status sex workers who often work in nonpublic areas. Call girls have higher levels of personal agency, control over profitable encounters, and lower rates of exposure to violence and exploitation, when compared to other types of sex workers. The term
call girl
is outdated, as this type of sex worker does not have to be female or contacted by phone.
Clemency and Commutation for Women Who Kill
Authors: Pavioni Erin N.
Published: August 2019

Less than 1% of all executions in the United States involve women. The majority of female defendants have their sentences reduced through clemency or commutation. The power to award clemency or commutation is restricted to its grantor and there are no formal procedures in place to regulate its usage; therefore, a leniency has historically been given to females facing capital punishment.
Clinton, Hillary Rodham
Authors: Van Brown Bethany L.
Published: August 2019

Hillary Rodham Clinton is an American politician, and was US Senator from 2001 to 2009. When she was elected to the US Senate in 2001, she was the first American First Lady ever to win a public office seat. When her husband became president, she was the first First Lady to hold a postgraduate degree and to have her own professional career upon entering the White House. She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House. Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female Senator from the state, and the only First Lady ever to have sought elected office. During her tenure as Secretary of State, Clinton used her position and platform to move women's rights and human rights to the center of political rhetoric and policy‐making debates. Clinton ran for the Democratic nomination in the 2008 presidential election and won more primaries and delegates than any other female candidate in American history. Her life of political activity prepared her for the Democratic nomination for president of the United States in the 2016 presidential election. Though she won the popular vote, she lost the electoral vote to Donald Trump.
C
orston Report
Authors: Finer Louise
Published: August 2019

The Corston Report was commissioned as a review of provisions for women with vulnerabilities within the UK criminal justice system. Authored by Baroness Jean Corston and published in March 2007, the report identified institutional misunderstanding of the things that matter to women in prison, and shocking levels of unmet needs. It called for a radical change in the treatment of all women in the criminal justice system. Though the structural changes proposed in the report have not been implemented, it has influenced a number of areas of prison policy directed at women. It remains an influential and authoritative report within the UK and beyond.
Craig v. Boren
Authors: Gonzalez Arleen C.
Published: August 2019

In 1976, inCraig v. Boren,the U.S. Supreme Court solidified the use of an intermediate test in determining the constitutionality of statutes that drew distinctions based on sex. Application of an intermediate test under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment required that the government bear the burden of proving that a statute that differentiated on the basis of sex had a substantial relation to an important government interest.
Date Rape Drugs
Authors: Perkins Wendy
Published: August 2019

“Date rape drugs” is a term for substances that are used to make a person more vulnerable to sexual assault. The most common substance used during a sexual assault is alcohol. Prescription drugs and illegal street drugs can also be used to make a person more vulnerable to sexual assault. These substances impair memory and judgment and make prosecuting cases of sexual assault difficult.
D
avis,
A
ngela
Authors: Bing Robert L.
Published: August 2019

This entry explores the life and times of Angela Davis, who grew up in Birmingham, Alabama, during the period of Jim Crow. Davis attended high school in New York, where she was exposed to communism and socialism. She attended Brandeis University while traveling internationally. After her return, she joined the Communist Party and also became a member of the Black Panthers. She was charged with conspiracy and murder when guns used by the Soledad Brothers were registered in her name. Davis was later acquitted. Today, she continues to be actively involved in the struggle against arbitrary justice and the prison industrial complex.
Durenv.Missouri
Authors: Cintron Myrna
Published: August 2019

The male defendant in this case claimed that a state law, which allowed the exclusion of women from jury duty, violated his constitutional right that a jury of his peers be selected from a fair cross‐section of the community. The defendant proved that the jury selection process used systematically excluded a distinctive group in the community (women). The US Supreme Court reversed the lower state court's decision and remanded the case for judgment.
Effects of Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Reid Joan A.
Published: August 2019

Child sexual abuse (CSA) generates a wide range of lasting consequences encompassing physical injuries, psychological harm, and social impairments. CSA has been consistently linked to entanglement in criminal environments and the criminal justice system. Whereas national studies indicate that 1 in 4 girls experience CSA, the majority of female youths in the juvenile justice (JJ) system have a history of CSA. Further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms driving the link between CSA and delinquency.
Families and Female Offending
Authors: De Coster Stacy
Published: August 2019

Traditional theories of offending offer gender‐neutral explanations for how families influence delinquency and crime. However, empirical evidence indicates that many of the family concepts and processes – emotional bonds with parents, direct supervision, family stresses, social learning – identified in traditional theories operate differently for females than for males. The most promising advances within each criminological paradigm – control, learning, and strain – draw on feminist theories to incorporate family variables – power arrangements, sexual and physical abuse, and gender socialization within families – that prove germane for understanding female offending.
Fear, Gender, and Victimization
Authors: Britto Sarah , Stoddart Dahlia
Published: August 2019

Women experience higher levels of crime fear than men, despite having lower victimization rates as reported in official data sources. This apparent inconsistency is called the sex‐fear paradox in the fear of crime literature. Three explanations for this phenomenon have been posited: (1) women's heightened fear relative to men's fear is “irrational,” (2) official data sources do not capture the majority of interpersonal violence victimization experienced by women and this victimization leads to higher levels of crime fear for women, and (3) for women, rape is a “master offense” and perceptually related to many other crimes. This “shadow of sexual assault” increases women's fear for all crimes. A growing body of research in the area is consistent with the interpersonal violence victimization and the shadow of sexual assault explanations.
Female Desistance from Offending
Authors: Liu Siyu
Published: August 2019

The study of desistance is closely connected to the advancement in the scholarship of the age–crime relationship. Females with early onset may present a more drastic decline from offending after the peak years compared to their male counterparts. Female offenders share many similar correlates of desistance with the male group, but they also differ in how their life circumstances motivate and impact desistance. This process is also characterized by a presence of cognitive change. However, empirical evidence suggests that the magnitude and scale of these effects, such as that of marriage and childbearing, may differ by sex. Female offenders are found to be more affected by these life events, resulting in a higher desistance rate.
Female Inmates and Mental Health
Authors: Hayden Elizabeth M. , Richards Tara N.
Published: August 2019

The increased number of women involved in the criminal justice system has raised concerns about female inmates with mental health needs. Data shows that female inmates experience mental health issues at much higher rates than male inmates, but are not given treatment that recognizes their unique experience as females. Female inmates with mental illness tend to have histories of trauma and are likely to have co‐occurring substance abuse disorders. This entry provides an overview of the prevalence of mental health issues among female inmates, recommendations for carrying out gender‐specific mental health treatment in the criminal justice system, and a brief summary of promising treatments that are already in place to address the mental health needs of female inmates.
Female Offenders and Reentry
Authors: O'brien Patricia
Published: August 2019

Research has recognized that the process of community reentry after release from prison is an essential component of correctional outcomes for offenders. Recent findings have identified that failure in reentry or recidivism has drastically contributed to the numbers of women reincarcerated, thus requiring more attention to practices in both preparations for reentry and community‐based support and supervision. This entry provides an overview of the findings in research and illustrates the need for the corrections field to build on these findings for improved outcomes.
Female Offenders and Violent Crime
Authors: Hurley Martha Henderson
Published: August 2019

Female offenders comprise 7% of the US prisoner population. Many of the women who are incarcerated in state correctional facilities are incarcerated as a result of committing violent criminal offenses. Current debate exists over whether the increase in violent crime is a result of more females committing violent crime or shifts in criminal justice policies. Several scholars now assert that the trends are a result of correctional policy. It is also important to understand that females who commit violent crime have different characteristics from their male counterparts.
Female Offenders with Mental Illness
Authors: Rosinski Amanda
Published: August 2019

Female offenders have a higher exposure to risk factors of mental illness than male offenders. Because of this high exposure, female offenders with mental illness are overrepresented in correctional settings. The most prevalent diagnoses among female offenders with mental illness are serious mental illnesses, posttraumatic stress disorder, and substance use disorder. The overrepresentation of female offenders with mental illness in correctional facilities places the burden of mental health treatment on correctional institutions. It is recommended that treatment be empirically supported, gender‐based, and trauma‐focused. Effective treatment will avoid retraumatization and revictimization, as well as consider the multifaceted context of female offenders' lives. Successful mental health treatment for female offenders with mental illness may decrease their risk of recidivism.
Female Perpetrators of Domestic Violence
Authors: Bell Keith
Published: August 2019

Although accounts of women's suffering at the hands of male partners is abundant throughout history, little or no attention has been paid to male victims of intimate violence at the hands of female partners. This entry addresses the historical bias, theoretical undertones, and statistics associated with female‐perpetrated domestic and intimate partner violence. The data will show that men do fall prey to female abusers, and because stereotypes exist within the general public, clinicians, emergency professions, and the criminal justice system, men often lack the resources to overcome or seek help from their abusers.
Female Probation Officers
Authors: Zettler Haley R.
Published: August 2019

Female probation officers have traditionally experienced their careers differently than their male counterparts, with only a recently growing representation in the field. Historically, female probation officers were valued for their maternal characteristics and were tasked with supervising female and juvenile offenders. However, today female probation officers have been more fully integrated into the probation workforce. As a result, it is necessary to evaluate whether the female probation officer experience is different than the male experience. While there is a limited body of knowledge examining the impact of being a female probation officer, overall the evidence suggests that female probation officers are a unique group of criminal justice workers. The research indicates that female probation officers may have different perceptions, decision‐making patterns, experiences with job stress and satisfaction, and fear of victimization. Further research is needed to examine how being a female probation officer may impact both offender and officer outcomes.
Female Sexual Predators
Authors: Mogavero Melanie Clark
Published: August 2019

Female sexual predators are a subtype of female sex offenders marked by personal and offense characteristics. Official records indicate that sexual offending among female perpetrators is rare. However, this is likely attributable to a lack of reporting due to the misconceptions about male and female sexuality. Research on sexual offending among female perpetrators has noted common characteristics, trends, and predatory‐type behaviors. Such findings hope to alter some of the stereotypes and misconceptions about female sexuality and reduce stigma and shame among victims in order to encourage them to report such crimes.
Females and the Police Academy
Authors: Kringen Anne Li
Published: August 2019

The experience of females in police academies has been shaped by multiple factors. The history of women in policing, the emphasis of physical training during the academy, and a pervasion of masculinity within academy culture result in unique experiences for female recruits. Underlying these experiences is an overemphasis of the importance of masculinity and a denigration of other values. This cultural view is formally reinforced in academy training and informally reinforced by the culture of police academies. Some evidence suggests that police academies may propagate an institutionalized message that devalues female recruits. Other research suggests that the initial acculturation process during training may result in differential rates of attrition for female recruits.
Fictional Portrayals of Females in Crime and Justice Books
Authors: Garcia Venessa
Published: August 2019

There has been little research on fictional portrayals of crime and justice within books and even less on females. However, just as we find in other forms of media, fictional portrayals of females in crime and justice books have focused on women's sexuality, mental condition, or their vulnerability and naiveté.
F
leiss,
H
eidi
Authors: Kavish Daniel Ryan
Published: August 2019

Heidi Fleiss is a woman from the United States infamously known as the “Hollywood Madam.” She created and oversaw a prostitution ring in Los Angeles, California. Just as notorious as Heidi Fleiss was her “black book,” which reportedly contained the names and information of many famous and wealthy clients. Fleiss was convicted of tax evasion in 1996, served her time in a Dublin, California, federal correctional institution, and was released to a halfway house late in 1998. After her release, Fleiss took advantage of the publicity that her trial generated and became a popular media personality.
Gender and Crime in Border Areas
Authors: Camarillo Omar
Published: August 2019

The notion of crime along the border area has garnered much attention by the media, politicians, and the public. The focus has been on security and preventing contraband and the illegal movement of people from one country to another. This entry explores the area of gender and crime along border areas. It examines how women are used voluntarily and involuntarily as drug mules by drug trafficking organizations and how they are becoming visible in leadership roles. Additionally, it examines how women are used voluntarily and involuntarily in human trafficking operations by transnational criminal organizations through forced labor, the sex trade, and prospects of opportunity.
Gender and International Human Rights Issues
Authors: Nadj Daniela
Published: August 2019

There have been important legal developments in the field of gender and international human rights over the last three decades. US radical feminists first drew attention to the systematic nature of gender‐based discrimination in the private and public spheres compounded with the patriarchal nature of the law as impediments to women's access to equality and justice in the 1970s. Constructions of sexuality began to be seen as crucial to women's oppression and not just a side effect of patriarchy. International human rights mechanisms and institutions eventually caught up with the debate starting in the early 1990s, largely as a result of the armed conflicts in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. Different spaces, such as conflict, political violence, and economic deprivation, which characterize much of the female experience became topics of concern for feminist scholars of all stripes, who began to utilize the law as a tool of recognition for the discrimination faced by women in the everyday sphere, and in the theater of war. Today the use of the term “gender” is ubiquitous in international human rights law showing how far its recognition as a standalone category has traveled.
Gender and Community Corrections Experience
Authors: Opsal Tara , Alexander Kellie
Published: August 2019

Women make up a larger percentage of probation and parole populations because they are more likely to commit property and drug crimes and have a less extensive criminal history. Notably, though, reflecting the trends under mass incarceration and the punitive turn, more women are now under the supervision of community corrections programming. Scholars and practitioners highlight a variety of shortcomings with these forms of surveillance and supervision including androcentric programming as well as the structural challenges women experience in meeting the technical conditions set forth in their supervision agreements.
Gender, Stigma, and Social Control
Authors: Fundack Ashley
Published: August 2019

For several decades, mainstream criminology has been dominated by societal and cultural perspectives. This entry investigates the relationship between gender and stigma on women and girls in society and how social control contributes to these stigmas. It explores the impact of the social stigmas and individual perceptions and behaviors that are influenced by social controls. Are women and girls prone to conforming to these stigmas? Theoretical framework and research findings are applied and discussed in relation to gender and stigma effects on involvement with deviance.
General Strain Theory and Female Offending
Authors: Trent Carol L.
Published: August 2019

Agnew's general strain theory (GST) broadens the scope of classic strain theories by recognizing both additional sources of strain and the range of mechanisms that individuals may apply to adapt to stressors. In an elaboration of GST, Broidy and Agnew posit that the differences in male and female offending can be explained by the types of strain experienced and gender‐specific responses to these strains. A number of studies have tested Broidy and Agnew's gendered strain theory with mixed results.
Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War and Additional Protocol
Authors: Kent Andrea Kay
Published: August 2019

The Geneva Conventions of 1949 together form one of the key pieces of international humanitarian law. This four‐part, multinational treaty consolidated and expanded upon key provisions for the conduct of war. In an important expansion of the international humanitarian law, the Fourth Geneva Convention extends protections from the consequences of war to civilian populations and noncombatants. To address the evolving nature of armed conflicts, two protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions were added on June 8, 1977. As a corollary to the Convention IV, the Additional Protocols I and II reiterate and expand on the provisions set forward in Convention IV for protections of victims of international (Protocol I) and non‐international (Protocol II) armed conflicts.
Girls and Juvenile Courts
Authors: Childs Kristina K.
Published: August 2019

This entry provides an overview of the issues facing girls referred and processed in US juvenile courts. These issues include: (1) the higher rates of juvenile court referrals for status and minor offenses compared to serious or violent offenses; (2) the identified differences in the needs of girls compared to boys referred to the juvenile court; (3) inconsistent evidence of gender biases in judicial decision making; (4) potential gender inequity in the accuracy and usefulness of risk assessment instruments; and (5) a lack of gender‐responsive interventions available to judicial decision makers. The critical impact that these issues can have on the long‐term experience of girls involved in the juvenile justice system, as well as the intersection of these issues, is also discussed.
Girls, Sexuality, and Corrections
Authors: Panfil Vanessa R.
Published: August 2019

The juvenile justice system has long sought to control girls' sexuality, both by incarcerating them for sexual activity and by regulating their sexual behavior while incarcerated. From Progressive Era efforts to preserve social purity and uphold Victorian ideals, to persistent concerns about girls' same‐sex sexual behavior while in juvenile facilities, to contemporary challenges facing lesbian and bisexual girls in the juvenile justice system, the pressing issues remain quite similar in nature.
Giving Birth Behind Bars
Authors: Amendola Karen L.
Published: August 2019

The rate of incarceration for females in the United States continues to rise – almost twice as rapidly as that of males. Incarcerated females in US jails and prisons face many challenges given their histories of higher rates of domestic‐abuse victimization, sexual assault, substance abuse, and posttraumatic stress disorder. For females who enter jails/prisons pregnant as well as those who deliver during their period of incarceration, the challenges and risks are even greater. Despite physical and psychological problems associated with “shackling,” as well as international standards, federal law and many state laws, this process remains in effect in many facilities potentially risking the health and well‐being of mothers and their unborn children. Prenatal care and alternatives to incarceration vary substantially across jurisdictions and in many cases are very limited, if available at all. Rigorous program evaluations are greatly needed, as is other research to examine this vulnerable population.
G
riswold
v.
Connecticut
Authors: Petlakh Ksenia
Published: August 2019

Griswold v. Connecticut
(1965) is a landmark case in the United States that recognized privacy as a constitutional right. The case involved Estelle Griswold and Dr. C. Lee Buxton, who were convicted of violating a statute that prohibited the dissemination of contraception and information on contraception. Although Connecticut's Supreme Court upheld the conviction, certiorari was granted and the United States Supreme Court held that the statute was unconstitutional.
Hearst, Patty
Authors: Scott Lori
Published: August 2019

Patty Hearst, an American newspaper heiress, was kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army in 1974. Her crimes as well as her eventual trial call into question issues of Stockholm syndrome and brainwashing as well as nuances of class, race, and gender in relation to sentencing.
History of Women in Corrections
Authors: Mathew Mathai Vairamon
Published: August 2019

There has been a profound change in the involvement of women within the US criminal justice system. Women form about 5% of prison inmates and most of them are held in prisons that house only women. Women are the fastest‐growing population of inmates within state and federal prisons. The number of women in prison who were sentenced to more than one year increased by 1,900 offenders (up 2%) in 2014 from 104,300 in 2013 to 106,200. A prominent reason for the increase in women's incarceration resides in the stringent prosecution of drug‐related offenses – possession, distribution, and forgery/uttering for drugs. The majority of women in prison (67%) come from minority ethnic backgrounds. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, more than a third of females sentenced to more than one year were incarcerated for violent offenses; property offenses and drug offenses were the next most prevalent offenses.
Homelessness and Female Drug and Alcohol Addiction
Authors: Garland Tammy S.
Published: August 2019

The link between homelessness and drug and alcohol abuse has been well documented within the literature as substance abuse is noted as being a leading contributor to homelessness. However, the issue of homelessness and female drug and alcohol abuse has been relatively ignored. While a large number of all homeless individuals suffer from drug and alcohol addiction, substance abuse among women and girls places them at a heightened risk.
Homicide, Suicide, and Domestic Violence
Authors: Mizrachi Dory A. , Troshynski Emily I.
Published: August 2019

Domestic violence is among one of the most underreported crimes in the United States. Yet, national and international estimates suggest that approximately one in three girls/women will experience domestic violence in their lifetime. Research also demonstrates that this form of gendered violence is commonplace in the lives of millions of women and that it has deleterious effects on survivors, including suicide attempts, completed suicides, and homicide‐suicides. These phenomena are summarized in this entry, including prevalence and incidence rates, risk factors associated with each, and judicial responses.
Hoyt
v.
Florida
Authors: Cintron Myrna
Published: August 2019

In
Hoyt v. Florida
(1961) a state law that automatically exempted women from jury duty and did not place them on jury lists was challenged by the female defendant who was convicted by an all‐male jury. The US Supreme Court decided that the state law did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause and that states could exempt women from jury duty unless they themselves requested to serve. The decision was overturned in
Taylor v. Louisiana
(1975).
Human Trafficking for Labor
Authors: Kosloski Anna E. , Swantkoski Alyssa
Published: August 2019

Worldwide, more than half of all human trafficking victims are engaged in forced labor. Such conditions often include long work days, with little or no pay, and repeated exposure to dangerous working conditions. This entry outlines the definition of labor trafficking, gives examples of such exploitation, points to health consequences, and offers brief critical comment on the role that globalization plays in perpetuating such exploitative practices in both the United States and around the world.
International Crime Victimization Survey
Authors: McGrath Shelly A.
Published: August 2019

The International Crime Victimization Survey is a comprehensive victimization survey that has been standardized for cross‐national comparison. The survey includes data collected from more than 80 countries between 1989 and 2010. The main focus of this survey is criminal victimization and perceptions of crime. The survey allows for researchers to understand victimization, fear of crime, perceptions of police, as well as sociodemographic measures cross‐nationally. There are many strengths to the survey along with some limitations. Prior research has utilized the ICVS to gain a better understanding of victimization and crime trends across nations.
Kingston Prison
Authors: Pereira Colby
Published: August 2019

The Kingston Prison for Women (P4W) was a maximum security prison in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Opening in 1934 and closing in 2000, the prison was the site of turmoil, famous inmates, and controversy. The P4W was home to the infamous night raid, frequent violence, a total of eight suicides (six were First Nation), unethical psychological tests, LSD administration, and the notorious Karla Homolka. In 2008, the prison was purchased by Queen's University and is considered to be a Kingston Heritage Site. The P4W is one example of the female prison experience and provides insight into the abuse and unethical treatment inflicted on female prisoners in Canada.
Klaas, Polly
Authors: Kafonek Katherine
Published: August 2019

Polly Klaas (1981–1993) was kidnapped from her bedroom, sexually abused, and murdered when she was 12 years old. Her investigation was the first missing child investigation to utilize technology in search efforts. Polly's death influenced the passage of California's Three Strikes law and statewide AMBER Alert™ system for missing children. The tragic death helped establish a standard law enforcement response to child abduction that had not previously existed and revolutionized community efforts in searching for missing children.
Latina/Hispanic Females and Victimization
Authors: Reitzel John David
Published: August 2019

Current census demographic trends project that the Latina/Hispanic female population will double by the year 2050. Given the significance of gender and ethnicity as key correlates of victimization, their increasing presence in American civic life suggests that Latina/Hispanic females face a heightened risk of victimization for many crime types. Empirical studies of victimization regarding Latina/Hispanic females tend to focus on serious sexual violence between known offenders and victims or studies that measure comparative differences between Latina/Hispanic females and females of other racial or ethnic groups across a variety of victimization types.
Manson Family
Authors: Bryson Jeff
Published: August 2019

The Manson Family is best known for its charismatic leader, Charles Manson, and the women who murdered for him, the Manson girls. The Family has been labeled a cult among criminologists and mental health professionals due to the manipulative tactics used by Manson. The case of the Manson girls highlights the issue of women who commit crimes under the influence of a controlling male.
My Lai Massacre
Authors: Cox Matthew Christopher
Published: August 2019

The My Lai Massacre is one of the gravest violations of criminal law ever committed by a US military soldier. Over 100 innocent civilians, including women and infants, were murdered at the hands of Army First Lieutenant William Calley Jr. and his subordinates. The situation presents an extreme example of the dichotomy between obedience to orders and obedience to international and criminal law. Calley was ultimately convicted of his crimes in a military court. His sentence was reduced from life in prison to 10 years' confinement. He was the only person held criminally responsible for the murder of civilians in My Lai, Vietnam.