bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Type and frequency of praise as determinants of favorability of self‐image: An experiment in a field setting1
Authors: Baron Reuben M. , Bass Alan R. , Vietze Peter M.
Published: April 2006

Summary

An experiment was conducted in a skills training center with a sample of 28 Black female trainees The effects of variations in type (person‐ vs. achievement‐oriented) and frequency (75% vs. 25%) of praise were ascertained on favorableness of selfimage and task performance. It was found that, in general, lower frequencies of praise produced more positive self‐evaluations than high frequencies of praise, and that person‐oriented praise was more effective than achievement‐oriented praise in enhancing self‐evaluation A significant interaction found for “myself as male friends see me” demonstrated that (a) at a 75 percent frequency of reinforcement, person‐oriented praise was significantly more effective than performance‐oriented praise, and (b) performance‐focused praise delivered at a 25 percent frequency enhanced subjects' self‐image significantly more than performance‐oriented praise given at a 75 percent level. No significant effects were found for the accuracy‐type tasks (work recognition, visual perceptiveness) On the task which involved a simple, speeded response (manual dexterity) there were significant effects (a) achievement‐oriented praise was more effective than person‐oriented praise, (b) a significant interaction between type and frequency of praise occurred, indicating that performance‐oriented praise is most effective when given at a 25 percent level
The effects of four outcome schedules on persistence, liking for the task, and attributions of causality1
Authors: Chaikin Alan L.
Published: April 2006

Summary

Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four schedules of outcomes on a problem solving task ascending, descending, constant success, and constant failure As predicted by White's theory of competence motivation, constant success subjects showed a sharp drop in desire to persist over time, interpreted as satiation of competence motivation Ascending subjects showed significantly more persistence than constant success subjects, with descending and constant failure subjects falling between these two conditions No differences on the final measure were found among conditions for liking for the task and attributions of causality, although significant differences between ascending and descending subjects were obtained on the difference scores, with ascending subjects showing more positive change than descending m liking and internal causality, from the first to the second measure
Locus of control of reinforcement and responsiveness to social influence1
Authors: Doctor Ronald M.
Published: April 2006

Summary

In this study, the “control of reinforcement” dimension was used to generate differential predictions about subject responsiveness to subtle social influence and experimenter effectiveness in producing change in verbal behavior As predicted, “external” control subjects, selectively reinforced in a sentence construction task, evidenced significantly greater performance gains than “internal” subjects When reports of awareness were used to further subdivide subjects, it was found that aware externals accounted for the conditioning effect whereas aware internals, unaware subjects, and controls were comparable and showed essentially no change in performance These differences were interpreted as being due to the internal's resistiveness to subtle forms of influence. The anticipated experimenter effect was nonsignificant Consideration of the control of reinforcement dimension as an important determinant of responsiveness to social influence in certain situations was emphasized
Naive psychology and the attributional model of achievement
Authors: Falbo Toni , Beck Robert C.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Open‐ended explanations for the success and failure outcomes of others were obtained from (N= 226) undergraduates. Only 23% of the 2,495 explanations generated by these naive psychologists could be readily categorized as one of the four causal elements of the Weiner model of achievement attributions. An individual difference model of multidimensional scaling of the explanations for success and failure was performed separately. Because the explanations for success and failure were generally asymmetrical, the three dimensions of success explanations had little resemblance to the three dimensions of failure explanations. The success dimensions were labelled Achievement Orientation, Vitality, and Mastery. The failure dimensions were labelled Insufficient Energy, Poor Work Attitude, und Lack Ability.
Helping is not enough: Recipient's reactions to aid as a function of positive and negative information about the self
Authors: Nadler Arie , Altman Avram , Fisher Jeffrey D.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

The present research investigated the effects of experimentally induced positive and negative feedback about the self on the recipient's subsequent reactions to aid. In line with a consistency prediction, subjects given positive feedback who later received aid had lower mood ratings and less favorable self‐evaluations than those who were given positive feedback but no subsequent help. Conversely, subjects given negative feedback who later received aid had higher mood ratings and more positive self‐evaluations than those who were given negative feedback but no subsequent help. Subjects' evaluations of another individual were characterized by aid main effects, which indicate that an other who helped was evaluated more favorably than an other who did not help. The conceptual and applied implications of these results are discussed.
The effect of debriefing on laboratory induced helplessness: An attributional analysis1
Authors: Tennen Howard , Gillen Robert
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Debriefing was assessed as means of reversing helplessness deficits through reattribution. Fifty‐five subjects listened to escapable or inescapable tones. One inescapable group, prior to anagrams, was debriefed regarding noise uncontrollability. A second inescapable group was administered anagrams by a different experimenter. While exposure to inescapable noise led to performance deficits, switching experimenters obviated these deficits. Debriefing actually facilitated anagram performance. All inescapable subjects—debriefed or not—attributed their lack of control on the noise task to experimenter interference, casting some doubt on reattribution as an explanation of debriefing's effects. Results were discussed in terms of the reformulated learned helplessness model and the ethical implications of debriefing in learned helplessness research.
Inferential rules in the learning and recall of patterns of sentiments1
Authors: Crockett Walter H.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Subjects learned one of four patterns of like‐dislike relations between members of four‐person structures. They then recalled the learned structure after an interval of fifteen minutes, one week, or four weeks. One pattern of relations was balanced, one could be balanced by changing only one pair of relations, and the other two were totally unbalanced. There was clear evidence that the balance assumptions were employed in learning; for unbalanced structures, there was some evidence of the use of positivity and of source/target generalization. Subjects recalled the balanced structure more accurately than the unbalanced ones, especially over the longest time interval. However, unbalanced structures were not converted in memory to balanced ones.
Death anxiety, dissent, and competence
Authors: Alexander Irving E. , Costanzo Philip R.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

A total of 64 male undergraduates were administered a multistage interview which was structured to assess (a) their level of overtly expressed death anxiety, (b) covert (GSR) arousal to death stimuli, (c) self‐perceived competence, and (d) agreement with or dissent from life threatening national policies. The analyses that followed were concerned with examining the relationships among these variables. In previous studies of this kind it had been typically found that (1) self‐perceived competence and magnitude of expressed death concern are inversely related and (2) overt expressions of death concern and covert physiological arousal to death cues are inversely related. Psychodynamic formulations centering on the ego‐defensive nature of inhibited expressions of death anxiety have been cited to explain these past data. The current investigation proposed that the magnitude of expressed death concern would bear an inverse relationship to both felt competence and covert death arousal only when the level of overt concern was not contingent upon the individual's attitudes concerning the imminence of real life threatening circumstances in the environment. The rationale behind these predictions inheres in the notion that the neurotic components of strongly expressed death anxiety derive from its lack of anchoring in “real” external threats. Conversely, the expression of low death fear can only be regarded as “defensive” when real threats are perceived and acknowledged. The obtained results strongly support this rationale and the discussion centers on the impact of social conditions on psychodynamic processes.
Ingratiation tactics channeled by target values and threat capability1
Authors: Michener H. Andrew , Plazewski Joseph G. , Vaske Jerry J.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Several hypotheses concerning the use of ingratiation tactics were tested in a paradigm where subjects believed that monetary rewards were contingent on a favorable evaluation from a supervisor. Manipulated variables in the 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design were (a) the nature of the supervisor's values (i.e., efficiency vs. sociability), (b) the level of threats issued by the supervisor (no threat vs. high threat), and (c) the extent to which the subjects were dependent on the supervisor's evaluation (low dependency vs. high dependency). The dependent variables were the extent to which the subjects used the ingratiation tactics of other‐enhancement (flattery) and selective self‐presentation. Findings indicate that the manipulation of the supervisor's values affected the form of other‐enhancement used by subjects; more flattery in terms of efficiency occurred in the efficiency values condition, while more flattery in terms of sociability occurred in the sociability values condition. The supervisor's values also affected self‐presentation; subjects claimed to hold efficiency ideals when the supervisor held efficiency values, but (in line with earlier findings) they did not claim to hold sociability ideals when the supervisor held sociability values. The manipulation of threats issued by the supervisor had a significant effect on the subjects' use of other‐enhancement with respect to the target's sociability, but it had no effect on other ingratiation measures. Finally, the manipulation of dependency had no effect on other‐enhancement, but it did produce a surprising “modesty effect” on self‐presentation. Subjects presented themselves as both less efficient and less sociable under high dependency than under low. These findings are discussed in the light of previous research on ingratiation tactics.
Coping behavior and locus of control in children1
Authors: Rothbaum Fred , Wolfer John , Visintainer Madelon
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Several investigators report a distinction between inward (withdrawn, somaticizing, fearful) behavior and outward (antisocial, hostile, aggressive) behavior. The present study was designed to clarify the relationship between type of coping behavior and locus of control (i.e., the attribution of causality to internal vs. external factors) for children aged 4 to 12 years. Two locus of control (LOC) instruments were administered—the Nowicki‐Strickland and a new measure which distinguished between LOC for desirable and undesirable events. Measures of coping behavior were completed by parents. Results indicated that the new LOC scale related to type of coping behavior: external LOC children tended to have a greater proportion of inward behavior. Furthermore, desirable‐event items were better able to distinguish between inward and outward behavior than were undesirable‐event items. The Nowicki‐Strickland scale was significantly correlated with the new scale, but not with coping behavior. Replication of the findings was obtained in a subsequent study. Discussion centered on the relationship between generalized perceptions of control and situationally manipulated perceptions of control, and differences between perceptions of control involved in inward and outward behavior.
Person concepts: The effect of target familiarity and descriptive purpose on the process of describing others1
Authors: Fiske Susan T. , Cox Martha G.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

The relationship between object and person perception is explored in free‐response person descriptions. A taxonomy which applies to both person and object descriptions, that is, a theoretically extensible taxonomy, potentially provides theoretical continuities across areas of perception. Evidence for the taxonomy's validity, or psychological meaningfulness, comes from differential usage of its components in (1) describing familiar and stranger target persons, (2) for physical versus indepth descriptive purposes, and (3) over the stages of the descriptive output. Descriptions of friends focus relatively more on personality traits and personal origins, while descriptions of strangers focus on context. Physical descriptions not surprisingly emphasize appearance, while indepth descriptions include mostly personality traits, as well as observable behaviors, appearance terms, and relationship descriptors. Differential usage of the components over stages of the description reveals that descriptions usually begin with appearance and later include typical behaviors and personality terms. Relationship labels, when used, occur at the beginning. Parallels with object description are discussed, and structural implications for concept storage are explored.
Generalized and specific expectancies: Sequential mediators of interpersonal behavior1
Authors: Russell J. Curtis , Gowaty Frank H. , Harland David A. , Martin Robin P.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Two experiments confirmed sequential mediation of social interaction by investigating the effects of generalized expectancies on specific expectancies and the effects of specific expectancies on performance. Both experiments used a simulated tutoring task in which the subject took the role of tutor while a confederate took the role of student. In Experiment 1 subjects combined generalized expectancies about the effectiveness of certain tutoring responses with specific situational information to produce specific expectancies about the results of the tutoring responses under the experimental circumstances. Experiment 2 replicated this finding and showed that specific expectancies of the relative effectiveness of different responses influenced which response was performed more. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive motivation theory and social learning theory.
Effects of degree of interpersonal similarity on physical distance and self‐reported attraction: A comparison of uniqueness and reinforcement theory predictions
Authors: Snyder C. R. , Endelman Janet R.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

The apparently divergent similarity‐attraction findings of the reinforcement theory and uniqueness theory researchers were investigated by exposing male (N = 45) and female (N = 45) subjects to conditions of slight, moderate, or high similarity relative to one comparison other. Similarity was manipulated by means of a bogus personality and attitude inventory. For the self‐report measures, results consistent with reinforcement theory were obtained in that greater self‐reported attraction to the partner was linearly related to increased similarity. Additionally, interpersonal distance was curvilinearly related to similarity. This distancing pattern reflected the fact that moderate similarity subjects positioned themselves relatively closer to the other person's chair than the slight or high similarity subjects. The physical distance results support the uniqueness theory notion that high similarity may have some aversive properties. The discrepancy between the physical distance and self‐report results is discussed in terms of an implicit causal theory that subjects may have about interpersonal similarity (i.e., greater similarity is good).
Sex differences in instructions to “be creative” on divergent and nondivergent test scores
Authors: Katz Albert N. , Poag John R.
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Harrington (1975) found that both the magnitude and meaning of male subject scores on the Alternate Uses Test were altered by explicit instructions to “be creative,” and argued for the necessity of such instructions, plus qualitative scoring criteria, in the employment of tests of creativity. The present study elaborated upon this study by including female subjects, more than one test of divergent thinking and a test of nondivergent thinking. Instructions to be creative increased the proportion of creative responses output for both males and females, and sharpened correlations with Adjective Check List personality scales. Instructions did not alter performance on the nondivergent test. These results were interpreted to mean the instructions elicited strategies particularly relevant to divergent thinking and ruled out nonspecific effects such as those due to motivation. A reliable sex‐difference in ideational fluency was also observed: instructions to be creative facilitated the total number of responses output for the male subjects. This supports a hypothesis that the instructions disambiguate I he test situation differently for men and women, suggesting the need to isolate individual conceptions of creativity in order to maximize test performance.
Facial attractiveness and vocal likeability as determinants of nonverbal sending skills1
Authors: Larrance Deborah T. , Zuckerman Miron
Published: April 2006

Recent studies have examined the self‐fulfilling effects of the physical attractiveness stereotype on a person's development of social skills. The potential of vocal qualities to have similar effects has not been investigated. The present study examined the relation of attractiveness (as judged from the face) and likeability of the person (as judged from the voice) to a specific social skill—the ability to send nonverbal cues of emotion. It was found that facial attractiveness and vocal likeability increased sending accuracy of facial and vocal cues respectively, particularly for pleasant affects. The greater accuracy of facially attractive senders tended to be especially emphasized for posed (as compared to spontaneous) expressions, indicating that their superiority reflected a controllable skill. The need for further research in the tradition of “what is (vocally) likeable is good” was noted.
Impressions of high and low Machiavellian men1
Authors: Cherulnik Paul D. , Way James H. , Ames Susan , Hutto Doris B.
Published: April 2006

Naive judges viewed brief, silent videotape excerpts or photographs of 18 men who had been classified as high or low in Machiavellianism. They were asked either to identify each stimulus person as high or low, or to choose from a list of trait adjectives those which best described each. Stimulus persons were identified accurately. The traits which were chosen to describe them were consistent with the characterizations of high and low Machiavellians in the research literature. Neither judgment appears to have been based on a single, observable aspect of the stimulus persons' appearance or behavior. It is concluded that practitioners of interpersonal strategies like Machiavellianism can communicate elaborate, self‐serving impressions to others.
Promoting leadership behaviors in low performance‐self‐esteem women in task‐oriented mixed‐sex dyads1
Authors: Stake Jayne E.
Published: April 2006

Methods for promoting leadership behaviors in low performance‐self‐esteem women were explored in two studies. Female undergraduates were paired with male peers who had either very similar or much higher scores on the Performance‐Self‐Esteem Scale. The mixed‐sex dyads in Study 1 were given either no leader, chance‐based leader, or ability‐based leader instructions. Study 2 included only the latter two conditions and allowed subjects preparation time between leader appointment and the dyadic interaction. All leader appointments were given to the female dyad member. Members' influence was measured by verbal interaction counts, decision outcome scores, and members' ratings. Both leader conditions were successful in promoting female leadership behavior in Study 2, as measured by verbal interactions, but neither was successful in Study 1. Results indicated that Study 2 females exercised a helpful leadership style and that Study 2 males were satisfied with their partners' role in the interaction.
The relationship between cooperative, competitive, and individualistic attitudes and differentiated aspects of self‐esteem1
Authors: Norem‐Hebeisen Ardyth A. , Johnson David W.
Published: April 2006

Four studies to clarify the relationship between attitudes toward styles of social interdependence and ways of deriving self‐esteem were conducted among 821 white, middle‐class, secondary school students in a midwest suburban community. Correlations between attitudes toward three styles of interdependence and four ways of deriving self‐esteem indicate distinctive and theoretically predictable patterns of relationship. Students who indicate a cathexis for cooperative relationships report patterns of higher self‐esteem related to freedom of personal expressiveness and feelings of personal well‐being; students indicating a cathexis for competitive or individualized patterns of interdependence report greater vulnerability on dimensions of self‐esteem reflecting sensitivity to experiences of success, approval, and support of others. The magnitudes of correlations between a global measure of personal worth and attitudes toward the three types of interdependence reflect the extent to which positive social reinforcement is available in these settings. Specific correlations that reflect these findings are significant, p < .01.
Nonverbal concomitants of enacted emotional intensity and positivity: Visual and vocal behavior1
Authors: Kimble Charles E. , Forte Robert A. , Yoshikawa Joyce C.
Published: April 2006

This study focused on how emotional expressions are implied through visual and vocal behaviors. The roles of proportion gaze, glance duration, and vocal loudness in expressing emotional positivity and intensity were examined. Emotional positivity, emotional intensity, and target of the communication were manipulated in a mixed design. Forty‐eight female subjects performed a liking or an anger message to a man and to a camera with strong and weak intensity. Videotaped responses were analyzed. Strong emotional intensity conditions evoked more direct gaze regardless of the message positivity or the target of the emotional expression. Longer glances and louder speech were associated with only intense negative emotional expression regardless of the target of the expression. The proportion gaze data support the view that eye contact serves as an intensifier of affective expression. Methodological considerations and questions about generalizability are discussed.
Reports of the sources of self‐knowledge1
Authors: Schoeneman Thomas J.
Published: April 2006

College students reported about the sources of their self‐knowledge in questionnaire (N=118) and interview N= 42) sessions by generating self‐descriptive adjectives, specifying ad libitum how they knew they fit the chosen descriptors (reports the investigator later rated as mentioning self‐observation, social feedback, and social comparison processes), and formally ranking the importance of the three sources of self‐knowledge. Self‐observation appeared in subjects' reports more frequently than feedback from others or social comparison by a proportion of about 7:2:1; average rankings of importance followed the same order. Results were quite similar for both sets of subjects. Two mechanisms that could account for the observed results receive consideration: motivational bias involving self‐presentation, and information‐processing errors due to focus of attention and the underuse of consensus information.
Presidential greatness and performance: Can we predict leadership in the White House?1
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: April 2006

Two related questions regarding presidential leadership are addressed. First, what are the principal determinants of the rated greatness of American presidents? Second, can presidential performance be predicted using preelection biographical variables? Reliable measures of greatness and performance were operationalized for the 38 presidents of the United States, along with numerous potential predictors suggested by past literature on leadership, achieved eminence, and presidential popularity and greatness. About 75% of the variance in presidential greatness can be predicted using administration duration, number of war years, unsuccessful assassination attempts, scandals, and prepresidential publication record. Family background, personal characteristics, education, occupation, and political experiences provided few if any viable predictors of presidential performance, although succession to office through the vice‐presidency exerted a rather general negative impact.
Cognitive style and literary regression A study of student writers1
Authors: Joffe Judith A. , Peterson Christopher
Published: April 2006

Forty undergraduates, from either beginning or advanced writing classes, and classified as either abstract or concrete thinkers from responses to the “This I Believe” test, provided two works of prose fiction, which were coded for the use of regression techniques. As predicted, abstract thinkers with advanced training were most likely to employ regression. The relations among abstract cognitive style, creative writing training, and literary regression are discussed.
The “consistency” controversy and the accuracy of personality judgments
Authors: Funder David C.
Published: April 2006

Areas of clear and acknowledged disagreement in the personality literature's “consistency controversy” are surprisingly difficult to pin down. The present essay suggests that one basic and real disagreement nowadays is the admissability of subjective judgments of personality as data: Personologists are willing to use them, and situationists are not. Situationists generally regard judgments as so influenced by error as to be essentially unusable, and instead prefer direct measurements of specific behaviors. The relative uses and limitations of global judgments and specific measures are considered. It is concluded that any position that judgments reflect “nothing but” error is untenable. It is further concluded that each sort of data has distinct uses and limitations, provides a check on the other, and is indispensable.
Self‐knowledge: An expanded view
Authors: Markus Hazel
Published: April 2006

This paper argues for a more extensive study of self‐knowledge. From the cognitive perspective, self‐knowedge is a critical component of personality. Until quite recently, however, the study of self‐knowledge has been narrowly conceived, focusing primarily on how individuals describe their roles and characteristic behaviors. Yet individuals also have knowledge about their preferences and values, their goals and motives, and their rules and strategies for regulating behavior. These dynamic aspects of self‐knowledge are significant because they can be importantly revealing of future behavior. The content and organization of self‐knowledge is important first because it indicates which domains of behavior are regarded as the most self‐relevant. It is in these domains that the strongest links between personality and behavior will be observed. Second, self‐knowledge cognitively represents desired and undesired states for the self, as well as specific ideas about how to realize or avoid these states. It thus indicates the likely course of behavior in self‐relevant domains. A number of recent research efforts can be intepreted as explorations of self‐knowledge. These are briefly reviewed and integrated to provide a general outline for an expanded view of self‐knowledge.
In search of personality traits: A multimethod analysis of naturally occurring prosocial and dominance behavior
Authors: Small Stephen A. , Zeldin R. Shepherd , Savin‐Williams Ritch C.
Published: April 2006

Naturally occurring prosocial and dominance behaviors were observed via multiple methods in four groups of adolescents. Individuals varied considerably in their frequency of prosocial and dominance behaviors, regardless of the method employed. These interindividual differences were maintained across situations and over time. The data are consistent with a trait conceptualization of dominance and prosocial behavior. The strength of the present findings suggest that personality researchers need to employ research strategies which extensively observe individuals in the contexts in which they live.
Self‐disclosure and liking: An integration theory approach
Authors: McAllister Hunter A. , Bregman Norman J.
Published: April 2006

Integration theory models predict that sequences increasing or decreasing in intimacy should have less impact on attraction than constant intimate or nonintimate disclosures. Male and female subjects (N= 159) conversed with a videotaped confederate. Each confederate relayed six disclosures in one of five intimacy sequences: increasing, constant high, decreasing, constant low, and random. The confederate either had a choice of topics and sequence or they were imposed. Substantial support was found for integration theory models. The constant high disclosers by choice were liked more than their no‐choice controls and the constant low disclosers by choice were disliked more than their no‐choice controls. The mixed sequences (increasing, decreasing, and random) produced no significant differences.
A procedural note on the measurement of broad dispositions
Authors: Epstein Seymour
Published: April 2006

This article deals with the selection of items in a self‐report test that measures a broad trait. There is an inherent conflict between selecting items that maximize internal consistency and ones that contribute to breadth. Alternative procedures, including criterion keying, combining homogeneous subscales, and construction of scales with divergent items with modest relations to the whole scale scores, were discussed. Although not included among recommended procedures by modern test theory, the latter approach has much to recommend it under appropriate circumstances. The discussion of psychometric principles was generalized to the person‐situation debate.
High and low self‐monitoring individuals: Their decoding skills and empathic expression
Authors: Mill Janice
Published: April 2006

An investigation was conducted into the relation between self‐monitoring and the ability to interpret vocal expression and to communicate empathy in a dyadic interaction. In the first part of the study, participants who had completed Snyder's Self‐Monitoring (SM) Scale were tested for their ability to interpret the intended meaning in 20 recorded sentences in which the speaker, by changing voice Intonation, inflection, and affective presentation, conveyed a particular meaning to each sentence (Inferred Meanings Test). In the second part of the study, each participant was asked to submit a 3‐minute segment of an audio tape that best demonstrated his or her empathic expression in a dyadic interaction. The tapes were transcribed and raters judged each transcript for the participant's verbal expression of empathy and genuineness. The results showed a significant positive relation between self‐monitoring and the ability to decode vocal cues correctly. This finding appears to support the claim that high self‐monitoring individuals are better able than are low self‐monitoring individuals to interpret the vocal expression of others. When self‐monitoring scores were correlated with the ratings of the participants’ tapes for empathy/genuineness, a significant inverse relation was found. Thus, high self‐monitoring individuals appeared less able to impress raters as being genuinely empathic. The results of the study are discussed in the context of self‐monitoring and its relation to the ability to interpret others’ emotional expression as well as the relation of self‐monitoring to empathic processes.
Some general laws of human emotion: Interrelationships between intensities of desire, expectation, and emotional feeling
Authors: Price Donald D. , Barrell James J.
Published: April 2006

Two experiments were performed to determine how desires and expectations interact to influence the intensities of emotional feelings. The first experiment required participants to respond to their imagined intensities of desire and expectation in two hypothetical situations, (1) anticipating different probabilities of receiving money (2) anticipating the possibility of different durations of continuous rain combined with different probabilities of rain occurring. Participants responded by producing line lengths to desire and feeling, a form of cross‐modality matching. Feeling intensity but not desire intensity increased as a negatively accelerating power function of expectation for the positive approach goal of receiving money (F =KE0.5) and both desire and feeling were negatively accelerating power functions of the hypothetical amount of money presented (F=K$4; D=K$4). Feeling intensity but not desire intensity increased as a positively accelerating function of expectation for the negative avoidance goal of anticipating different amounts of rain (F=KE1.9) and both desire and feeling were negatively accelerating functions of amount of rain (F=KR0.9; D=KR0.9).

The second experiment required participants to make visual analogue scale responses to desire, expectation, and emotional feeling intensities in ordinary life situations. Similar to Experiment 1, feeling intensity but not desire intensity increased as a negatively accelerating function of expectation for positive approach goals (F=KE0.6) and as a positively accelerating function of expectation for negative avoidance goals (F=KE2.0). Functional interrelationships found in both experiments were fit to the general equations F=K1D+K2DE0.5 for positive approach goals and F=K1D+K2DE2.0 for negative avoidance goals. Both equations have the same general form and indicate that desire and expectation have a multiplicative interaction with respect to their influence on emotional feeling intensity. Both functions
Developmental trends in the appraisal of anxiety‐provoking situations
Authors: Stattin Håkan
Published: April 2006

Empirical results on the appraisal of anxiety‐provoking situations are integrated with general findings on perceptual and cognitive growth. It was hypothesized that younger teenagers would appraise relations between anxiety‐provoking situations on the basis of manifest and perceptually salient characteristics of the situations more so than would older teenagers, whereas the latter group would view relations predominantly on the basis of latent, anticipatory qualities. The hypothesis was tested with a similarity rating method designed to enable subjects to rate similarity between situations both from manifest and latent situation characteristics. The results supported the hypothesis. Implications of results for stability of cross‐situational behavior was discussed.
Desire for control, locus of control, and proneness to depression
Authors: Burger Jerry M.
Published: April 2006

Two personality constructs, desire for control and locus of control, were related to depression among college students. Measures of levels of depression, desire for control, and locus of control were taken from subjects. Approximately six months later 71% of these subjects returned a questionnaire concerning their experiences with depression during that six‐month period. It was found that locus of control scores, particularly the extent to which subjects perceived that their lives were controlled by chance, were significantly related to the depression levels. It was also found that high desire for control subjects who held external perceptions of control were most likely to seek nonprofessional help for depression. In addition, high desire for control subjects who perceived their lives as generally controlled by chance were most likely to have suicidal thoughts. The results are interpreted in terms of a general style that may promote a proneness to depression for certain individuals.
Trait and situational attributions in a naturalistic setting: Familiarity, liking, and attribution validity
Authors: Kerber Kenneth W. , Singleton Royce
Published: April 2006

Student dormitory advisors (n = 16) made trait/situation attributions to themselves and also identified three friends and three acquaintances. Friends (n = 41) and acquaintances (n = 43) then made attributions to themselves along with attributions and familiarity ratings of the advisors who identified them. The actor‐observer effect was obtained for situational but not for trait attributions, both when advisors' self‐attributions were compared to attributions made about them by friends and acquaintances (common target) and when the latter's self attributions were compared to their target attributions (common rater). Among friends and acquaintances, target familiarity was positively related to trait attributions and was negatively related to uncertainty attributions. Also, familiarity was positively related to the validity of situational but not of trait attributions. It was concluded that familiarity appears to influence the process of attribution, but differentially for dispositional vs. situational attributions and for actor‐observer differences vs. observer variations in attributions. Moreover, increased information about the actor as a result of greater familiarity may lead to both more accurate and more favorable attributions.
Correspondence between personality trait ratings and behavioral events
Authors: Gormly John
Published: April 2006

To investigate the validity of the trait, Energetic, two studies were conducted in which trait ratings of Energetic and objective measures of performance were recorded. The first study used naive raters (N= 55) who observed pairs of subjects perform in a laboratory setting. There was 84% agreement (p < .001) among the raters as to which person was more Energetic, and people rated as more Energetic performed more energetically on the objectively measured tasks (p < .001). The second study used peer ratings of Energetic and objective measures of energetic behavior in a laboratory setting. There was high agreement among the peers in ratings of Energetic, r = .95 (N = 30) and r = .93 (N = 31) for two groups. Nine men from the upper‐quartile and nine men from the lower‐quartile of the Energetic scores were tested in the laboratory and were given a structured interview regarding their physical activities. The correlation between peer ratings and laboratory performance was .56 and between peer ratings and the interview data, .64. The results support the position that trait ratings can be valid indicators of regularities in behavior. The procedures used in these studies could be a generally useful model for investigations of the validity of trait ratings.
Setting limits on children's behavior: The differential effects of controlling vs. informational styles on intrinsic motivation and creativity
Authors: Koestner Richard , Ryan Richard M. , Bernieri Frank , Holt Kathleen
Published: April 2006

The imposition of external constraints on an activity has frequently been shown to undermine intrinsic motivation. Given that limits must often be set upon peoples' activities, especially in parenting and education, the present study addressed the question of whether limits can be set without undermining intrinsic motivation for the activity being limited. Using cognitive evaluation theory, contrasting limit setting styles of either a controlling or informational nature, or no limits, were placed upon forty‐four first‐ and second‐grade children engaged in a painting activity. The intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, creativity, and quality of artistic production were expected to be decreased by controlling limits relative to informational and no‐limits, which were not expected to differ from each other. The results provided substantial support for these predictions, suggesting that limits can be set without undermining intrinsic motivation if they are informational in nature. Support was also found for the consensual assessment of creativity method recently developed by Amabile (1982a). Results of the study are discussed along with the general relation between creativity and intrinsic motivation.
Relative preference and adaptiveness of behavioral blame for observers of rape victims
Authors: Karuza Jurgis , Carey Thomas O.
Published: April 2006

Observers viewed one of nine dramatized videotaped interviews of a rape victim describing her rape. Information in the interview varied the prudence of the victim's behavior (careful, careless, no information provided) and the respectability of her character (good, bad, no information provided). Behavioral blame was significantly greater than characterological blame when the victim was careless or when no information was provided about behavior, regardless of the victim's character. When the behavior was careful, behavioral blame was equal in magnitude to characterological blame. In no case was characterological blame preferred. The adaptive value of behavioral blame for preserving a belief in a controllable and meaningful world was examined using a hierarchical multiple regression. After removing the effects of the prebeliefs of the subjects and the independent variable manipulations, only behavioral blame was significantly related to the maintenance of adaptive beliefs. Implications of the adaptive value of behavioral blame are discussed along with the importance of distinguishing observers' behavioral and characterological blaming strategies in the victimization literature.
Categorical goal hierarchies and classification of human motives
Authors: Wicker Frank W. , Lambert Frank B. , Richardson Frank C. , Kahler Joseph
Published: April 2006

To explore a structural approach to motivation based on hierarchies of goal inclusion, 231 subjects in two studies rated the valence of 46 or 56 general goals, and ratings were subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis and factor analysis. Factors over all subjects were labeled Interpersonal Concern, Competitive Ambition, Exploration‐play, Balanced Success, Economic Status, and Intellectual Orientation. Cluster analyses produced corresponding clusters, as well as Security, Personal Growth, Transpersonal Orientation, and Tranquility Seeking, arranged in hierarchies of class inclusion, culminating in a broad goal dichotomy described as Individual Striving vs. Harmony Seeking. The paper explicates a type of hierarchical interdependency among motives which supplements interdependencies implied by motivation theories, and suggests an alternative to the assumption of some fixed number of “basic” motives. It gives descriptive data on very broad motivation categories which influence self‐reports of goal importance and which relate to prior classifications of motivation, personality, and social behavior.
The measurement of masculinity and femininity: Engendering categorical realities
Authors: Morawski J G
Published: April 2006

The study of gender attributes, masculinity and femininity, has comprised a major research program in twentieth‐century psychology Historical examination reveals that this research program has produced not cumulative discovery but a pattern of repetition and reification Researchers have repeatedly attempted to ensure the reality of masculinity and femininity, and have even introduced methodological techniques that privilege their observational statements on that reality Similar patterns have occurred in the case of androgyny research, despite expectations that the androgyny construct would remedy the shortcomings of masculinity and femininity concepts When analyzed in historical context, these gender concepts are found to share ethnopsychological origins—roots in social practices and prescriptions Contextual analysis also provides telling details about researchers normative interests If we choose to terminate such fruitless ventures and to generate novel understandings of the social world, then we must undertake critical self‐appraisal and adopt a new metatheoretical grounding
Self‐focused attention, self‐esteem, and the experience of state depression
Authors: Brockner Joel , Hjelle Larry , Plant Robert W
Published: April 2006

The present experiment explored the effect of self‐focused attention and self‐esteem on self‐reported state depression Subjects completed a self‐esteem scale before taking part in an exercise designed to induce either strong feelings of temporary depression (strong condition) or very mild feelings of temporary depression (weak condition) Before rating their mood, subjects waited for a short period either in the presence or absence of a mirror A significant Depression Manipulation × Mirror‐No Mirror interaction effect emerged Subjects who waited in the presence of the mirror reported feeling more depressed in the strong condition and less depressed in the weak condition, relative to those who waited in the absence of the mirror Moreover, this interaction effect was mainly attributable to the low self‐esteem participants, rather than to the medium or high self‐esteem individuals Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed
Intrinsic motivation and the effects of self‐consciousness, self‐awareness, and ego‐involvement: An investigation of internally controlling styles
Authors: Plant Robert W , Ryan Richard M
Published: April 2006

This study explored the relationships among dispositional self‐consciousness, situationally induced‐states of self‐awareness, ego‐involvement, and intrinsic motivation Cognitive evaluation theory, as applied to both the interpersonal and intrapersonal spheres, was used as the basis for making predictions about the effects of various types of self‐focus Public self‐consciousness, social anxiety, video surveillance and mirror manipulations of self‐awareness, and induced ego‐involvement were predicted and found to have negative effects on intrinsic motivation since all were hypothesized to involve controlling forms of regulation In contrast, dispositional private self‐consciousness and a no‐self‐focus condition were both found to be unrelated to intrinsic motivation The relationship among these constructs and manipulations was discussed in the context of both Carver and Scheier's (1981) control theory and Deci and Ryan's (1985) motivation theory
Predicting reactions to everyday events from measures of self‐esteem
Authors: Stake Jayne E
Published: April 2006

The responses of 47 women and 43 men to everyday social and achievement events were gathered for a three‐week time period Subjects' self‐ratings of competence and performance following achievement events were positively related to their scores on the Performance‐Self‐Esteem Scale (PSES) More positive and consistent relationships between subjects' responses and PSES scores were found among subjects scoring low on a social self‐esteem measure (SSES) than among subjects scoring high on the SSES Similarly, SSES level was positively related to subjects' responses to social events only among subjects scoring low on the PSES The importance of using sets of specific self‐esteem measures for exploring subjects' reactions to everyday events is discussed