bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Newspaper Reports about Good Governance
Authors: Goebel Zane
Published: April 2020

This chapter further examines civil servants’ life worlds through reference to a few hundred stories published in a local Indonesian newspaper between June 2003 and January 2004. It argues that we can observe some of the semiotic reflexes of ongoing social, political, and economic change by looking at how media representations about the deviant practices of a handful of local civil servants became reconfigured as a widespread practice via subsequent representations. In particular, it focuses on how imitation, the use of universal select deictics, the erasure of particular selective deictics, and the quotation of authoritative voices enregistered the “mass-mediated chronotopic identity” of the deviant Indonesian civil servant.
Art & Science in the Choral Rehearsal
Authors: Paul Sharon J.
Published: April 2020

In recent decades, cognitive neuroscience research has increased our understanding of how the brain learns, retains, and recalls information. At the same time, social psychology researchers have developed insights into group dynamics, exploring what motivates individuals in a group to give their full effort, or conversely, what might instead inspire them to become freeloaders. This book explores the idea that choral conductors who better understand how the brain learns, and how individuals within groups function, can lead more efficient, productive, and enjoyable rehearsals. Armed with this knowledge, conductors can create rehearsal techniques which take advantage of certain fundamental brain and social psychology principles. Through such approaches, singers will become increasingly engaged physically and mentally in the rehearsal process. This book draws from a range of scientific studies to suggest and encourage effective, evidence-based techniques, and can help serve to reset and inspire new approaches toward teaching. Each chapter outlines exercises and creative ideas for conductors and music teachers, including the importance of embedding problem solving into rehearsal, the use of multiple entry points for newly acquired information, techniques to encourage an emotional connection to the music, and ways to incorporate writing exercises into rehearsal. Additional topics include brain-compatible teaching strategies to complement thorough score study, the science behind motivation, the role imagination plays in teaching, the psychology of rehearsal, and conducting tips and advice. All of these brain-friendly strategies serve to encourage singers’ active participation in rehearsals, with the goal of motivating beautiful, inspired, and memorable performances.
Conducting Tips
Authors: Paul Sharon J.
Published: April 2020

Since efficient and communicative gesture enhances good rehearsal technique, this chapter presents twelve conducting tips to encourage an extensive and varied gestural vocabulary, with the goal of eliciting a full range of expressive responses from singers. Additionally, the chapter explores implications for conductors of the “chameleon effect,” the tendency of people to unintentionally mimic the behaviors and expressions of others. From postural alignment to the shape of their lip position, research has shown that singers will unknowingly imitate a conductor’s physical behaviors. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the pros and cons of conducting concerts completely from memory.
Epilogue 1
Authors: Dirksen Rebecca
Published: April 2020

In mid-February 2016, mere days after Michel Martelly stepped down from the presidency, an advertisement began circulating online in Kompa Magazine announcing Sweet Micky’s appearance on May 19, 2016, at the Café Iguana in Miami. The publicity enthuses, “The President of Kompa [sic] is back!” Online poster Neg Timid assessed the situation:...
Social Pedagogy and Socio-educational Work with Young People
Authors: Úcar Xavier
Published: April 2020

The literature on social pedagogy has highlighted the difficulty for those in English-speaking contexts to gain a precise picture of social pedagogy due to its relatively recent incorporation into social work in English-speaking countries, where pedagogy has always referred to teaching–learning processes. In this chapter, social pedagogy is introduced as a theoretical and methodological perspective to work with people of any age, but specifically with the young. The theoretical traditions of social pedagogy in Europe and the diverse ways to professionalize in different countries are presented first. Next, the chapter analyzes the current characterization of social pedagogy and the main issues still pending. The chapter concludes by presenting the principals of social pedagogy when working with youngsters.
Socio-educational Youth Policies in Europe
Authors: Soler-Masó Pere
Published: April 2020

This chapter examines what consideration young people in Europe deserve and some of the sociological data that characterize this group, highlighting the existence of a growing inequality among this segment of the population. The chapter presents an approach to evolving youth policy across Europe and outlines the most relevant actions promoted by the European Union, including those that have been the subject of debate or controversy. Finally, the chapter addresses the role of social pedagogy in youth policies. Youth work is viewed as an eminently educational endeavor, and the chapter highlights the importance of socio-educational policies in all youth policies, insofar as they offer opportunities for young people to develop as individuals and provide tools for them to shape their place in society, become autonomous, and contribute to advancing the community.
Ethics and Professional Deontology in Socio-educational Youth Work
Authors: Vilar Martín Jesús , Bargalló Gisela Riberas
Published: April 2020

In recent years, socio-educational professions have experienced a qualitative leap in the development of their epistemological, scientific, and technical foundations. One important aspect of this is a reflection on the ethical dimension of their activities. This chapter first considers the linkage between the Convention on the Rights of the Child, ethics, and social education. It then explores the difficulties that professionals encounter when incorporating their ethical commitment into their working practice, and it seeks to show that although the proliferation of declarative documents in the form of deontological codes may be of value in defining a unitary position, these documents do not constitute an effective approach to the real situations of moral conflict in which socio-educational professionals find themselves in their day-to-day practice. Finally, the chapter proposes a number of operational criteria and training proposals with a view to constructing applied ethics in work with adolescents and young people.
The Challenges of Social Inclusion for Young People with Intellectual Disabilities
Authors: Pallisera Maria , Fullana Judit
Published: April 2020

Despite the progress that has been made regarding their rights, people with intellectual disabilities still experience many difficulties with regard to social inclusion. This chapter analyzes the main challenges currently facing social pedagogy as both a discipline and a practice that must contribute to strengthening social inclusion processes for young people with intellectual disabilities. Based on different international research projects that have collected the views of young people with intellectual disabilities regarding difficulties and barriers they encounter in relation to their inclusion in education, work, the community, and in building their life pathways (emancipation and living with a partner), this chapter reflects on the role of social organizations, professionals, and the university with regard to working toward the inclusion of these young people and the implications this has for social pedagogy.
Association with Focus
Authors: Devine A. M. , Stephens Laurence D.
Published: April 2020

This chapter analyses the semantics of focus as it associates with a range of expressions including adverbial quantifiers, emotives, comparatives and superlatives, cardinals, exclusives, additives and negatives. Association with focus is treated as a grammatical rule and not as primarily due to contextual reasoning.
Water Security and Human Rights
Authors: Larson Rhett B.
Published: April 2020

There is a growing movement in both international human rights law and within domestic national constitutions to recognize water as a human right. In this movement, the human right to water is almost exclusively formulated as a positive right—an obligation on the government to provide a minimum quantity and quality of affordable water. However, this formulation can be interpreted and implemented in ways that frustrate goals of water sustainability, because water may be underpriced as a human right. This chapter describes the history and evolution of the human right to water and proposes reforms to encourage its sustainable implementation.
Emerging Principles of Practice Research
Authors: Michael Austin , Carnochan Sarah
Published: April 2020

Chapter 8 summarizes the core practice research principles identified in Practice Research in the Human Services: A University-Agency Partnership Model. The first set of principles relates to learning from the experiences of others, and includes understanding the context of practice research, the role of persistent communications, and the process of disseminating results. The second set of principles focuses on knowing how to implement practice research by utilizing specialized skills, balancing the dynamics of practice and research, and engaging in collaborative teamwork. The third set of principles relates to managing complexities by coping with the tensions and ongoing change associated with practice research, responding to negative findings, and engaging service users. The last set of principles focuses on the process of sharing practice research with the practitioners who are most able to integrate it into their practice. The chapter concludes with a discussion of rigor, relevance, and theory in practice research.
Phonology-extrinsic timing: Support for an alternative approach I
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

This chapter presents evidence that challenges models in which phonological representations are temporal in nature, and where timing mechanisms are phonology-specific and intrinsic to the phonology. For example, evidence for separate representations of 1) movement targets vs. other parts of movement, and 2) spatial vs. temporal aspects, is difficult to account for in phonology-intrinsic timing approaches, where all parts of movement are determined by the same, spatiotemporal phonological representation. In the AP/TD phonology-intrinsic-timing approach, surface time is not represented, specified, or tracked, but instead emerges from the phonological system. Evidence that speakers do in fact represent surface time motivates the consideration of a phonology-extrinsic-timing-based approach. This evidence comes from actors’ interactions with perceived events, and also from speech: 1) constraints on the amounts of structure-related lengthening to maintain phonological length contrasts in quantity languages, and 2) different articulatory strategies for producing a given duration pattern. Finally, evidence for general-purpose timekeeping mechanisms in speech and non-speech movements is discussed.
Evidence for an alternative approach to speech production, with three model components
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

Evidence presented in previous chapters suggests consideration of an alternative to the coupled-oscillator approach to modeling human speech planning and production processes. One alternative approach is based on the symbolic phonemic representations of Generative Phonology. This approach requires a separate mechanism to translate these symbolic representations into the quantitative context-appropriate specifications that can produce the surface form of an utterance. To date models of this type have not included comprehensive versions of components that complete this symbol-to-quantification translation process. This chapter reviews the evidence that supports a three-component model of this process, with an abstract symbolic Phonological Planning Component to specify the goals of the utterance at the level of contrastive feature cues; a Phonetic Planning Component to translate these goals into acoustic targets with their articulatory realizations; and a Motor-Sensory Implementation Component to track and adjust the articulatory movements which create the vocal-tract configurations that realize these goals. Development of such a three-component model would allow direct comparison with performance of the oscillator-based AP/TD model.
A sketch of a Phonology-Extrinsic-Timing-Based Three-Component model of speech production
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

This chapter presents the outline of a model of speech-production planning, based on symbolic phonology and the specification of surface-timing patterns using general-purpose timekeeping mechanisms. This phonology-extrinsic-timing-based, three-component (XT/3C) model includes a Phonological Planning Component, to set and prioritize the goals for an utterance; a Phonetic Planning Component, to quantitatively specify the acoustic targets and the movements to achieve them; and a Motor-Sensory Implementation component, to track the planned movements and adjust them to ensure that the targets are reached on time. This approach addresses some of the gaps in earlier speech-production models based on abstract symbolic phonology, by proposing a mechanism for the specification of context-appropriate surface phonetic variation, including timing. In this way it provides an alternative to the Task-Dynamics-based approach embodied in Articulatory Phonology.
Republicanism, Virtuous and Corrupt
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: April 2020

This chapter focuses on Niccolò Machiavelli’s analysis of social strife, institutional change, and political leadership in the Florentine Histories, demonstrating that the work continues to affirm the radical, democratic republicanism that the author expressed in works such as the Discourses and even The
Prince. The chapter argues that the Florentine Histories continues to exhibit Machiavelli’s populist, democratic proclivities that favour empowerment of the common people over wealthy elites within republics. Moreover, it demonstrates that the Histories functions as an exercise in silent comparative constitutionalism; a tacit analysis through which Machiavelli demonstrates how, in ancient Rome, civic discord and political leadership produced admirable constitutional reforms that were conducive to civic virtue, but how, in medieval Florence, social conflict and elite prerogative generated deficient institutional innovations that facilitated civic corruption.
Milton and the Problem of Belief
Authors: Kahn Victoria
Published: April 2020

This chapter explores the tension in John Milton’s Paradise Lost, Paradise Regain’d, and Samson Agonistes between the work of poetry and the work of faith. In Paradise Losts Milton conceives of faith on the analogy of poetry, insofar as both require a work of interpretation and construction, one aligned with the theological and legal notion of equity. But Milton’s 1671 volume, including Paradise Regain’d and Samson Agonistes, is the poet’s most powerful meditation on the dilemmas of faith. These poems question the notion of sacred truth precisely because they privilege the activity of interpreting the biblical text over the text itself. One implication of this argument is that God himself might be an artifact or construct of the human imagination.
The Seigneurial Transformation
Authors: Fiore Alessio
Published: April 2020

The aim of this book is to discuss the transformation of the fabric of power in the kingdom of Italy in the period between the late eleventh century and the early twelfth century. The study analyses the major socio-political change of this period, the crisis of royal and public structures and the development of seigneurial powers, using as a standpoint the structures of power over men and land, and the discourses about the exercise of local power. The analysis is conducted over a broad geographical space (central and northern Italy), focusing on a few decades around year 1100, showing a sharp and relatively rapid reshaping of the structures of local power. The period appears as a phase of crisis and closure in the sphere of political discourses. The outbreak of civil wars in the 1080s (connected with the ‘investiture crisis’) imply a reconfiguration of the matrix of power, in turn expressed in a transformation both of the instruments of local political communications and of the practices of power. The reshaping of documentary landscape mirrors the transformation of socio-political landscape: the fragmentation of power and the importance of local frameworks goes hand in hand with a forceful investment by political actors in legitimizing discourses, which find their reference point within these localized setups. Legitimization is sought not through the relationship with the kingdom, but rather through the relations with peers and subjects. From this perspective the Italian case can offer fresh insights into the problematique of ‘feudal revolution’ in European countrysides.
Custom
Authors: Fiore Alessio
Published: April 2020

References to ‘bonus usus’ and other terms denoting ‘good custom’ are more common in a rural than an urban context from 1100 onwards. Much attention is devoted to oaths and oath swearers (sacramentales), who appear to have been mainly chosen by signori rather than by local communities, and their role in dispute settlement. Socially oath swearers appear to be members of the upper-middle stratum of village society, the same group that later supplied the consuls of the thirteenth-century rural commune. Collective memory appears to stretch back 40–70 years at which time-frame customs acquired sufficient antiquity to be considered immutable. The act of recalling customs in a public assembly (placitum) served to reinforce community identity and delineate the parameters of seigneurial intervention in local society (rights, privileges, dues). Discussion moves on to the inter-relationship between written and oral custom and the meaning of the term malus usus which together with its antonym bonus usus is seen as key to unlocking the content of political discourse in the countryside. The sense of malus usus is of novelty, lack of precedent, absence of consensus. Interestingly the author shows that what was once perceived as bonus usus could at a later date and in different circumstances be seen as malus usus.
Quantum Optomechanics: from Gravitational Wave Detectors to Macroscopic Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Chen Yanbei
Published: April 2020

The quantum measurement process connects the quantum world and the classical world. The phrase ‘quantum measurement’ can have two meanings: measurement of a weak classical force, with the impact of quatum fluctuations on the measurement sensitivity, and the quantum mechanics of macroscopic objects: to try to prepare, manipulate and characterize the quantum state of a macroscopic quantum object through quantum measurement. Quantum noise leads to the Standard Quantum Limit (SQL), which provides the magnitude in which we must consider both measurement precision and measurement-induced back-action. The beginning of the chapter will be devoted to this thread of thought. The free-mass SQL actually provides a benchmark for the ‘quantum-ness’ of the system. We will show that a sub-SQL device can be used to prepare nearly pure quantum states and mechanical entanglement, as well as non-Gaussian quantum states that have no classical counterparts.
Dynamic and Multimode Electromechanics
Authors: Lehnert Konrad W.
Published: April 2020

These notes discuss electromechanical devices in the quantum regime, a topic closely related to cavity optomechanics. Both cavity optomechanics and quantum electromechanics have their roots in gravitational-wave detection. As such, most of their applications are associated with ultrasensitive sensing. In contrast, these notes deal with an emerging application of quantum electromechanics: signal processing. Such applications are a natural consequence of shrinking the mechanical elements from the metre-scale resonators used in gravitational wave detectors to the micron scale, where quantum effects are more evident. Indeed, MEMS are a crucial technology for classical information processing and modern wireless communication. The advent of quantum information processing, particularly with superconducting circuits, means that there is now a need for analogue signal processing functions operating at microwave frequencies and in the quantum regime. Electromechanical devices have now entered this regime as they can store, amplify, squeeze, entangle, temporally shape, and frequency convert microwave signals.
Wage Theft as a Legal Concept
Authors: Green Sarah
Published: April 2020

This chapter analyses the fraud offence from the perspective of ‘wage theft’. The social concept of a ‘wage theft’ encompasses a wide range of dishonest or ‘sharp’ practices: false labelling of individuals as ‘self-employed’ and hence outside the scope of the National Minimum Wage framework, failure to pay holiday pay, unlawful deductions, and an absence of transparency in relation to wage entitlements. It is linked to wider public concerns about the effective enforcement of the statutory minimum wage regime. The chapter then examines whether the social concept of ‘wage theft’ maps onto the legal definition of ‘theft’ in section 1 of the Theft Act 1968. It argues the legal label of theft is ill-suited to the constellation of practices associated with the social label of ‘wage theft’. This is because of the disjunction between the proprietary status of ‘wages’ and the offence elements of theft in English law. In short, unpaid wages will often not count as ‘property belonging to another’ at the time of the dishonest appropriation by the employer, hence there is a difficulty with identifying a complete and coincident mens rea and actus reus.
The Preventive Role of the Criminal Law in Employment Relations
Authors: Collins Jennifer , Ashworth Andrew
Published: April 2020

This chapter assesses the range of preventive interventions in labour market regulation. In relation to preventive orders in labour market enforcement, the chapter queries whether there are good reasons to resort to criminal law in situations where civil enforcement mechanisms might be improved. This also raises uncomfortable questions of a government that has presided over onerous tribunal fees impeding access to justice, and the pursuit of deregulation of labour standards and restriction of trade unions. The chapter considers whether the enforcement crisis is being produced by ‘bad’ employers or by the political choices of our elected representatives. The most effective form of prevention would be worker-protective labour law, supported by access to justice and strong trade unions. Preventive criminal law is a response to an avoidable crisis that has been brought about by specific political choices. Nevertheless, the penetration of these preventive orders into labour law fits with the more general expansion of preventive criminal measures in different spheres of social life.
The Medical Professional as Special before the Criminal Law
Authors: Ost Suzanne
Published: April 2020

This chapter explores the position of medical professionals, primarily doctors, in criminal law. In certain respects, doctors appear to have an unusually privileged position under English criminal law. However, doctors are also particularly exposed to the risk of very serious criminal liability, such as in respect of gross negligence manslaughter. While one would be unlikely to identify doctors with the precariat, as one might be inclined to do with care workers, doctors are also working under intense pressures in circumstances of austerity. In this way, the personalizing dynamic of criminal liability deflects attention away from the economic context to medical mistakes and errors of judgement. In these situations, the chapter suggests that the structural dimension might be better captured through forms of organizational liability for employers. This reflects the proposal from Chapter 8 on criminal liability for workplace harassment. Overall,the chapter offers a critical reflection on whether it is appropriate that the medical profession continues to be a relatively autonomous category of personal work relations that is dealt with in a unique way by the criminal law. .
Workplace Safety and Criminalization
Authors: Almond Paul
Published: April 2020

This chapter argues that the contribution of criminalization to better health and safety in workplaces has been limited by certain contextual features of this regulatory method. It focuses on the role of criminal law in the health and safety legislation and the corporate manslaughter offence. In particular, this chapter argues that criminal law interventions are gravitationally oriented towards individualized notions of fault, capacity, choice, and responsibility. Once the liability enquiry is structured in this highly personalized way, the regulatory capacities of the criminal law to secure effective and enduring structural change is limited. Thus, it remains an open question whether the criminal law can accommodate approaches to responsibility that are more attuned to structures, cultures, and organizational norms.
The Quick UDP Internet Connection (QUIC) and Transport Layer Security 1.3 Standards
Authors: Harcourt Alison , Christou George , Simpson Seamus
Published: April 2020

Chapter 4 examines the effect of Snowden on security protocols. For twenty years, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and its successor Transport Layer Security (TLS) provided security for Internet traffic. However, the TLS 1.2 protocol developed in 2008 suffered from a series of implementation and security issues. The 2013 Snowden revelations sent shock waves through the engineering community. The extent of the targeting of protocol vulnerabilities by security agencies had been greatly underestimated by the IETF. By 2016, Cisco, Fortinet, and Juniper revealed that the National Security Agency (NSA) had successfully targeted its firewalls for years. However, stasis within the IETF barred upgrade to TLS 1.3. The chapter analyses the emergence and contestation of potential solutions to TLS and how the parallel development of the QUIC protocol by Google opened a window of opportunity to enhance security. The agreement on TLS 1.3 in March 2018 was supported by digital rights groups.
Political Drift and Forum Shifts
Authors: Harcourt Alison , Christou George , Simpson Seamus
Published: April 2020

This chapter explains one of the most important components of the web: the development and standardization of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and DOM (Document Object Model) which are used for creating web pages and applications. In 1994, Tim Berners-Lee established the World Wide Web consortium (W3C) to work on HTML development. In 1995, the W3C decided to introduce a new standard, WHTML 2.0. However, it was incompatible with the older HTML/WHTML versions. This led to the establishment of Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG) which worked externally to the W3C. WHATWG developed HTML5 which was adopted by the major browser developers Google, Opera, Mozilla, IBM, Microsoft, and Apple. For this reason, the W3C decided to work on HTML5, leading to a joint WHATWG/W3C working group. This chapter explains the development of HTML and WHATWG’s Living Standard with explanation of ongoing splits and agreements between the two fora. It explains how this division of labour led to W3C focus on the main areas of web architecture, the semantic web, the web of devices, payments applications, and web and television (TV) standards. This has led to the spillover of work to the W3C from the national sphere, notably in the development of copyright protection for TV streaming.
Protocols and State Surveillance
Authors: Harcourt Alison , Christou George , Simpson Seamus
Published: April 2020

This chapter discusses how SDOs have mitigated the targeting of protocol vulnerabilities by security agencies. It begins with protocols identified by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). In this context, the chapter explains legal measures underpinning state surveillance such as the 2018 renewal of Section 702 of the US Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). The latter part of the chapter looks at the action of states with development of government positions in the United Kingdom and United States, most notably against the company Huawei. It examines the position of the engineering community and technology companies in relation to these conditions.
Walk through the problem, as on the Konigsberg bridges
Authors: D'Agostino Susan
Published: April 2020

“Walk through the problem, as on the Konigsberg bridges” offers an introduction to the mathematical subfield of graph theory, including its origin in Konigsberg, Prussia—now Kaliningrad, Russia. When townspeople were unable to identify a path that started in one place, crossed all seven of their city’s bridges once, and returned to the same place, they enlisted the help of mathematician Leonard Euler. In response, Euler developed a “geometry of position”—now known as “graph theory”—which concerned not distance, measurements, or angles, but arrangement. The discussion is supplemented with numerous hand-drawn sketches and mention of real-life applications of graph theory in technology, disease modeling, neuroscience, and social media. Mathematics students and enthusiasts are encouraged to “walk through” their own problems in mathematics and life. At the chapter’s end, readers may check their understanding by working on a problem. A solution is provided.
Untangle problems, with knot theory
Authors: D'Agostino Susan
Published: April 2020

“Untangle problems, with knot theory” offers a basic introduction to the mathematical subfield of knot theory, including the classification of knots by crossing numbers. A mathematical knot is a closed loop that may or may not be tangled. Two knots are considered the same if one may be manipulated into the other using easy-to-understand techniques. Readers learn to identify knots by crossing numbers and encounter numerous hand-drawn sketches of knots, including the trivial knot, trefoil knot, figure-eight knot, and more. Mathematics students and enthusiasts are encouraged to employ knot theory methods for untangling problems in mathematics or life by asking whether they have encountered the problem before. At the chapter’s end, readers may check their understanding by working on a problem. A solution is provided.
Proceed at your own pace, because of terminal velocity
Authors: D'Agostino Susan
Published: April 2020

“Proceed at your own pace, because of terminal velocity” offers a short introduction to the mathematics behind terminal velocity—the speed at which the force of air resistance equals the force of gravity on that object. The discussion is illustrated with hand-drawn sketches. Mathematics students and enthusiasts are encouraged to find their own metaphorical terminal velocity in mathematical and life pursuits—the moment at which the force of resistance they encounter matches the force they are able to expend. At the chapter’s end, readers may check their understanding by working on a problem. A solution is provided.
Appreciate the process, by taking a random walk
Authors: D'Agostino Susan
Published: April 2020

“Appreciate the process, by taking a random walk” offers a basic introduction to random walks—a mathematical formalization for a path as an object wanders away from a starting point—with a particular focus on biased random walks, including a real-life example of a random walk of an E. coli bacterium. The discussion is illustrated with hand-drawn sketches. Mathematics students and enthusiasts are encouraged to build in a productive bias in mathematical and life pursuits. At the chapter’s end, readers may check their understanding by working on a problem. A solution is provided.
Go outside your realm of experience, on a hypercube
Authors: D'Agostino Susan
Published: April 2020

“Go outside your realm of experience, on a hypercube” explains how and why mathematicians conceive of cubes in many dimensions, including a four-dimensional hypercube. Einstein’s special theory of relativity and the mathematics of string theory—a subfield of physics that seeks to understand the structure of the universe—both require more than the three dimensions with which we are familiar. The discussion, which focuses on how to make a four-dimensional hypercube, is enhanced with numerous hand-drawn sketches. Mathematics students and enthusiasts are encouraged to go outside their realm of experience in both mathematical and life pursuits. At the chapter’s end, readers may check their understanding by working on a problem. A solution is provided.
Relativity in Categories 7, Topics, and Sophistical Refutations
Authors: Duncombe Matthew
Published: April 2020

Aristotle discusses relatives in the Categories, Topics, and Sophistical Refutations. This chapter begins to argue that Aristotle adapted Plato’s ideas about relativity into an Aristotelian framework. In the Categories, Aristotle defines relatives (6a36–b10) then discusses four hallmarks of the class of relatives: contrariety (6b15–18), scalability (6b19–27), reciprocity (6b28–7b14), and simultaneity (7b15–8a12). This chapter clarifies what these hallmarks are and shows how constitutive relativity is involved in the hallmarks. The chapter goes on to discuss how Aristotle treats the idea that relatives can fall into genus and species structures and how Aristotle treats the definition of relatives.
Victorian Fictions of Computational Creativity
Authors: Ward Megan
Published: April 2020

In designing his foundational test of AI, Alan Turing refers to Ada’s Lovelace’s Victorian pronouncement that a machine cannot be intelligent because it only does what it is programmed to do. This idea continues to shape the field of computational creativity as the ‘Lovelace objection’. This chapter, however, argues that the term is a misnomer; Lovelace actually proposes a much more nuanced understanding of human–machine collaboration. Returning to Lovelace’s 1843 essays, I situate them within broader Victorian debates about originality in literary realism, especially in relation to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope’s fictional uses of ‘mechanicity’. This chapter hopes to intervene in contemporary discussions of computational creativity, which continue to invoke the Lovelace objection as a means to focus on a human-centred definition of ‘creativity’. Seeing computational creativity as the outgrowth of a long history of human–machine originality may open up the field to that history’s creative symbiosis.
Theories as Fictions
Authors: French Steven
Published: April 2020

An alternative and well-known option when it comes to the ontological status of theories is to understand them as fictions. Here again there is ‘trading’ between the philosophy of art and the philosophy of science as Walton’s account of fiction in terms of ‘make-believe’ is typically deployed in this regard. As before, the role of the imagination is crucial and in this case the issue of accommodating the heuristic processes involved can be more straightforwardly dealt with than in the case of theories conceived of as ‘abstract artefacts’. Nevertheless, it is not clear that this view of theories as fictions can embrace all the different kinds of models and theories deployed in science and it too incurs certain costs. Despite its attractive features, then, and given that an even less costly account is available, this view should also be rejected.
Contexts
Authors: Moriarty Michael
Published: April 2020

This chapter gives a brief account of Pascal’s life and of the scientific and religious contexts of his work. It discusses his social milieu, with its characteristic ethos, and points to the importance of the civil war known as the Fronde for his thinking about politics. It describes his scientific formation and his rejection of Aristotelian orthodoxy in favour of the new science propounded by Descartes. Pascal’s religious thought was deeply influenced by the Augustinian theology of Cornelius Jansenius, the development of which is placed in its historical context and the key tenets of which are summarized here. A brief history is given of the Jansenist movement in France, centred on the nunnery at Port-Royal and on the community that grew around it.
Happiness
Authors: Moriarty Michael
Published: April 2020

Pascal argues that the fundamental driver of human activity in general is the search for happiness. Philosophy (in particular Stoicism) cannot achieve this goal. Pascal’s views are compared and contrasted with those of Aristotle: like Aristotle, Pascal thinks that all people seek happiness; but, unlike Aristotle, he conceives happiness in terms of pleasure and does not identify it with the supreme good; the supreme good is God, and happiness would consist in being united with him. Our relentless search for a happiness that experience tells us is unattainable is a mark of the residual sense of loss that has afflicted us since the Fall; only God can fill our fundamental emptiness. A true religion (supposing there is one) must both account for the contradictions of human nature and offer a prospect of happiness through union with God. Pascal’s conception of happiness is contrasted with Bertrand Russell’s thoroughly secular account. Bernard Williams’s argument that immortality would be undesirable is also considered.
Transition
Authors: Moriarty Michael
Published: April 2020

The Pensées section ‘Transition from the knowledge of man to the knowledge of God’ is not so much concerned to propel an argument forward as to deepen insights already arrived at in earlier sections. Pascal stresses the radical contingency of the human condition, as manifested in our subjection to custom. He invites the reader to consider the two infinites: we are imperceptibly small in the vastness of the universe, yet there are imperceptible creatures in relation to whom we are colossal. Our fundamental nature is incomprehensible either in dualist or in non-dualist terms. There is a gulf between conscious humanity (the ‘thinking reed’) and unconscious matter. Our distinctive attribute is the power of thought, and we must cultivate this if we are to respond appropriately to our condition.
True and False Religions
Authors: Moriarty Michael
Published: April 2020

Pascal is requiring his seeker to make a choice between Christianity and other religions. He argues that Christianity perfectly fits the blueprint of a possible true religion. He dismisses the claims of Islam. He emphasizes the difference between a purely philosophical theism and the knowledge of God through Christ. This knowledge is furnished by the Bible, which combines literal and figurative discourse in ways he links to his conception of the hidden God; the figurative reading allows him also to proclaim the essential continuity between Judaism and Christianity. Pascal’s arguments for accepting the divine origin of Christianity are briefly discussed: more generally, it is shown (in the light of Newman’s reading of them) that they are to be regarded as cumulative, mutually reinforcing; and that they are intended to produce conviction only in a reader already predisposed to accept them.
‘Inhabited Solitudes’
Authors: Leask Nigel
Published: April 2020

Resisting a standard reading of William Gilpin as ‘appropriating’ Scottish landscape from a privileged metropolitan perspective, I discover a more radical and environmentally sensitive potential in Gilpin’s texts on the picturesque, developed in the writings of John Stoddart, and empowering for women tourists like Sarah Murray and Dorothy Wordsworth. As the literary masterpiece of all the texts studied here, Dorothy Wordsworth’s Recollections  of a Tour in Scotland made a decisive break with the Pennantian tour as a ‘knowledge genre’ by developing a gendered version of her brother’s poetics of ‘emotion recollected in tranquility’. Her gift for natural description is linked to the picturesque tradition, and briefly compared with Coleridge’s extraordinary Highland Tour notebooks. Read in tandem with her less ambitious second Highland tour of 1822, Recollections also presents a lively and sympathetic account of a plebeian Gaelic world in a moment of historical crisis.
The German Diaspora in the Empire
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos
Published: April 2020

By 1914 German-speakers had settled in all parts of the Empire. They are conceptualized as a constituent element of the developing ‘Angloworld’. In the absence of a substantial German Empire, they were attracted by the British Empire’s global trading opportunities, developing industry, expansive land resources, and employment opportunities in both urban and rural settings. Many were skilled and, in combination with their ‘whiteness’, predominantly Protestant beliefs, and existing Anglo-German dynastic connections, they were received positively. In the immediate pre-war years, however, Anglo-German political and economic rivalries had a detrimental effect on host–minority relationships. German-speakers were increasingly perceived as competitors. The diasporic nationalism of German ethnic spokesmen aggravated tensions. The ground was prepared for tensions to erupt worldwide after 1914.
Global Germanophobia during Wartime
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos
Published: April 2020

This chapter provides the immediate global background to the internment of Germans in the British Empire during the Great War by explaining how this process formed part of a wider attack upon this minority not just within the Empire, but also in states either at war or about to enter war with Germany. The chapter argues that incarceration formed part of a wider policy of persecuting German minorities driven by a hostile public opinion which led to legislation to control the activities of this minority, whether through preventing German language use or by closing down German clubs. At the same time, property confiscation, born from pre-war economic animosity, became a key policy against German minorities. At the end of the war the solution to the presence of Germans within the Empire consisted of deportation, a process that had begun in the earlier stages of the conflict.
South Africa
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos
Published: April 2020

In South Africa, inhumane camp conditions during the Boer War (1899–1902) had been detrimental to Britain’s standing in the world. The chapter argues that the relatively humane conditions in First World War camps were the result of a learning process. The chapter outlines public marginalization and rioting against German-owned premises in urban centres across South Africa. The internment process was first conducted through a number of temporary holding stations and, from the end of 1914, concentration and consolidation in the permanent camp, Fort Napier in Pietermaritzburg. Between September 1914 and summer 1915 the camp also held a number of deported men, women, and children from Lüderitzbucht, German Southwest Africa. Generally, women and children were not interned but suffered in equal terms because of public Germanophobia and precarious circumstances after the internment of the breadwinner. The chapter argues for a gendered perspective on internment which looks beyond the barbed wire.
Knockaloe
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos
Published: April 2020

This chapter looks at the lynchpin in the entire imperial incarceration system in the form of Knockaloe on the Isle of Man, which became by far the largest camp in the whole Empire as well as the longest lasting, surviving from November 1914 until November 1919. Its administration involved a series of Whitehall departments and the government of the island while immediate responsibility fell to the camp commandant. At its height Knockaloe held over 20,000 prisoners. While the majority lived in Britain before 1914, a significant number came from overseas, especially those captured in British ports and in West Africa. The prisoners faced various problems including separation from families and a lack of proper employment, which could lead to barbed-wire disease. But Knockaloe became a true prison camp society with some of the richest social activities anywhere in the Empire because of the sheer number of people interned here.
The Physics of Vision in Kepler, Descartes, and Milton
Authors: Webster Erin
Published: April 2020

This chapter provides a new intellectual context for John Milton’s treatment of light and vision in Paradise Lost (1667) by locating Milton’s poem within the framework of seventeenth-century optical theory. It does so by examining the parallels and distinctions between the role played by light in Milton’s model of vision and models proposed by Johannes Kepler and René Descartes. The main argument of the chapter is that Milton adopts Kepler’s theory of the retinal image, which posits that the human eye operates according to the mechanical principles of a camera obscura. But where Kepler and Descartes use the analogy of the camera obscura to explain the properties of light as it relates to vision, Milton uses it to express the fragility of vision within this new model. Speaking from a position of blindness, Milton’s narrator explores the theological and epistemological implications of having light at ‘one entrance quite shut out’, thereby being ‘presented with a Universal blanc’ (PL 3.48–50) in the place of the retinal projection screen.
Explaining the Criminalization of Atrocities
Authors: Berlin Mark S.
Published: April 2020

This chapter presents a theory explaining why states criminalize atrocity offenses in national law. It identifies and theorizes two different pathways to criminalization: targeted legislation and wholesale criminal code reform. These two pathways result from the efforts of different actors with different motivations, and thus represent distinct behavioral logics. Drawing on research on commitment to human rights norms, this chapter argues that criminalization through targeted legislation reflects policymakers’ preferences over the use of violent abuse. Following Simmons, this explanation is referred to as the “rational expression thesis.” In contrast, criminalization though criminal code reform reflects the views of technocratic criminal code drafters over what features they deem to be important for a “modern” code. The book refers to this as the “technocratic legal borrowing thesis,” and it is the main focus of this chapter. The chapter draws on comparative law scholarship and research on professional communities in policymaking to argue that large-scale legal reform processes are a unique and potent opportunity for international legal norms to be incorporated into domestic institutions. It theorizes how these processes empower technocratic legal experts and motivate them to seek out emblematically “modern” norms. This pursuit leads experts to borrow legal ideas from their regional peers and leading transnational professional associations, and in the post-World War II era, such sources have often favored atrocity criminalization. In turn, the depoliticizing context of technocratic modernization helps paint atrocity provisions as merely technical features of a “modern” code, thus reducing government scrutiny of them and facilitating their ultimate approval.