bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The concrete whole–concrete part model pro et contra
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins with discussions of Aquinas's rejection of the substance-accident analogy for the hypostatic union, and his use of the analogy of concrete whole and concrete part to help understand the hypostatic union. It looks at some medieval responses to Aquinas's account. Aquinas's opponents all draw attention to the inapplicability of the whole-part model, on the grounds that it will not yield the appropriate sort of whole — namely, a person with irreducibly two natures: natures that are not themselves parts of some third sort of thing or nature. It also considers some possible origins of Aquinas's theory.
The Ratio Terminandi Essence or Personal Property?
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines a question that only received serious attention in the years after Aquinas's death: in virtue of which of its properties — that is, the essence or the personal property — is it possible for a divine person to be incarnate? The issue is just to do with the feature of the divine person that allows it to sustain (to exemplify) human nature. The property in virtue of which it is possible for a divine person to have a human nature is referred to as a divine person's S-property. The question, then, is whether the S-property is the Son's essence (or a property itself had in virtue of his essence), or the Son's personal property (or a property itself had in virtue of his personal property).
The historical background
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the definition of subsistence — what it is for an individual nature to subsist. Given that the human nature is an individual substance, or substance-like thing, we do not need a complete account of subsistence in order to avoid Nestorianism (the claim that there are two persons in Christ, divine and human, such that the divine person is not properly speaking the subject of any human properties) — where a complete account of subsistence is a complete list of conditions individually necessary and jointly sufficient for subsistence. All we need is a way of blocking the subsistence of the assumed human nature. It is shown that the elements of this were clearly in place by the mid-12th century. In other words, all we need to avoid Nestorianism is that the Word is the (ultimate) subject of human attributes.
Esse Theories of Subsistence
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

According to Aquinas, Henry of Ghent, and Giles of Rome, esse is the mark of subsistence. Giles is unequivocal in positing esse as the solution to the subsistence problem: a subsistent nature can be distinguished from a non-subsistent nature in terms of the addition of esse. Henry of Ghent most probably accepts something like this too. But the position in Aquinas is more complex. This chapter argues that, while esse is unequivocally the mark of subsistence for Aquinas, Aquinas is unclear whether he sees esse as something that, along with a nature, irreducibly belongs to a suppositum, such that the nature and the esse might be thought of as in some sense parts of the suppositum, or whether he sees esse as something that under the right circumstances could belong to a nature — namely, to a nature that subsists. Strictly speaking, only the second of these views generates a subsistence problem. The first of these two views is Aquinas's ‘official’ one, the view that he adopts in every ex professo discussion of the essential differences between natures and supposita. But Aquinas certainly talks in the second sort of way too. It is argued that his ambivalence here ties in precisely with an ambiguity in his presentation of the composition between essence and esse.
Conclusion
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts to highlight one way in which the medievals are in a much stronger position than some of their more modern critics in trying to locate a Christology in the context of the scriptural data about Jesus. It considers possible reasons, both theological and philosophical, for wanting to adopt this sort of medieval view. It also considers which of the various medieval opinions have most to offer the contemporary theologian, and what the consequences of this view may be.
Liberalism: The Unexpected Enemy
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes the significant rise in sympathy for women's suffrage amongst Conservatives from the 1880s. It explains how far Conservative suffragism is in common with Liberal suffragists, and to what extent did they develop a distinctively Conservative rationale for women's enfranchisement. Conservatives argued that over the years women had demonstrated a far more genuine demand for the vote than the unenfranchised men; this would justify incorporating them into a bill as a counter-weight to the additional working-class males. The advantages for the Conservatives in a compromise of this kind had been demonstrated in 1885 in the deal between the Tory-dominated House of Lords and the Liberal government. By 1914 the Conservative members appeared to have become at least as pro-suffrage as their Liberal counterparts.
The Failure of Anti-Suffragism
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes the fluctuations in Liberal support for women's suffrage. After the initial, and largely Liberal, launch of the suffrage campaign in the 1860s, a number of supporters who had been attracted to the cause, partly by sheer respect for John Stuart Mill, retracted, and, as a result, the debate over votes for women became an argument within the ranks of Liberalism. What made the relationship between Liberalism and suffragism so complicated were the inconclusive attempts by Liberals to weigh the significance of the growing support for the cause expressed by Conservatives; in the process questions of principle became entangled with considerations of party advantage. The prolonged confrontation between the government and the suffragists had not been wholly barren of results. It established that votes for women could not be treated as a question of principle but had to be translated into a form acceptable to the governing party.
Japan's Fiscal Crisis
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

This book traces the origins and development of Japan's recent fiscal crisis. In a detailed analysis of the institutions, structures, and processes of central government, the book explains how decisions were made about how much to spend and on what in the central budget and the Fiscal and Investment Loan Programme—the so-called ‘second budget’. This book shows who and what won and lost and why, explains the informal policy and behavioural rules-of-the-game by which the conduct of the main players was regulated, and compares Japan's fiscal performance with the UK and other G7 countries. It challenges the orthodoxy that a dominant and dominating Ministry of Finance (MOF) implemented tough policies of retrenchment in the 1980s. The appearance of fiscal discipline was not matched by the reality of too much spending, too few revenues, and heavy borrowing. The MOF not only failed to restore a balanced budget, it was unable to achieve most of its short and long-term fiscal objectives during the last quarter of the 20th century. Unravelling the complexity and opacity of the budgetary system, the book shows how MOF officials exploited it to foster an illusion of control. Through adroit manipulation of off-budget sources, and by fiscal sleight-of-hand, the MOF was able to deliver an expanding supply of budget benefits to the ruling Liberal Democratic party, and the means to finance the growth and maintenance of a ‘Public Works State’.
Budget Objectives and Policies
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The Ministry of Finance reacted to the emergence of the fiscal crisis in 1975 by prescribing three related policy aims: to devise and implement a strategy to change the structure of Japan's tax system so as to provide a more stable and productive source of revenue; to constrain the growth of public spending; and to reduce and, if possible, eliminate the fiscal deficit, and with it the rising costs of government debt. Over the following twenty-five years, those aims were translated into specific short and medium-term policy objectives, refined and adjusted contingently to accord with conjunctural changes in the economy and the polity. This chapter explains the origins and evolution of those objectives, and describes the formulation of policies, and the process of ‘policy succession’, to achieve them. The fiscal reconstruction of 1976–87, fiscal consolidation of 1987–91, fiscal reform in 1996–98, and fiscal explosion in 1998–2000 are discussed.
Rules-of-the-Game: Managing Relations with the Spending Ministries
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the rules-of-the-game that governed the Japanese Ministry of Finance's (MOF) relationships with the Spending Ministries and Agencies, and what norms of behaviour guided Budget Bureau officials in their interactions with opposite numbers. First, there were the general bureaucratic norms or universal principles that guided bureaucratic conduct, embedded historically in the institution of bureaucracy. Second, within the general contours described by such norms were those that distinguished the behaviour of MOF officials from those in other ministries and agencies, the distinctive habits and customs of work, and standard operating procedures. Third, within the contours of those ministry norms, and the more universal bureaucratic ones, were the specific norms of behaviour, which guided and regulated the conduct of officials in the Budget Bureau compared with their colleagues in, say, the Tax Bureau or (until 1998) the Banking Bureau and Securities Bureau.
Capital Flows to Developing Countries and the Reform of the International Financial System
Authors: Akyüz Yilmaz , Cornford Andrew
Published: October 2011

A great many features of the current international financial system have a significant bearing on international capital flows. Thus, proposed reforms of this system can generally be expected to affect the scale and character of these flows. The survey in this chapter concerns policies which have been at the centre of discussion since the East Asian crisis of 1997 but even so it is not comprehensive. This chapter reviews major features of developing countries' experience of external financing since the 1960s, paying special attention to shifts in the relative importance of private capital inflows and to their volatility. It contains a schematic account of the features of financial instability and crises, which is intended to serve as a backdrop for the policy discussion which follows and covers a selection of the policies. The policies in question include actions to be taken at both national and international levels as well as combinations of the two.
Capturing Customer Value: Pricing and Selling
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the task of assessing the value of the offer and looks at how to capture this value. Price setting is one of the most complicated of all the marketing activities. In practice, it is best described as art based on science. The science of pricing focuses on using research to understand the price sensitivity of individuals and the price elasticity of markets. The art of pricing focuses on setting sensible pricing objectives, understanding the interactions of price with other elements of the marketing mix, and predicting competitor reactions to price changes. Linking both art and science is the management of pricing, the management of pricing involves working with the organization's accountants to understand costs and contribution margins, developing a pricing policy, and making sure that the key performance indicators (KPIs) of people who have authority for the organization's prices are aligned with the organization's pricing objectives.
Counting
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter studies those properties of numbers that depend not on the algebraic operations but on the order in which they are arranged. It starts by setting up the terminology for talking about and classifying relations of order. Beyond that the objective is to complete the unfinished business of the last chapter by defining an ordering on the natural numbers and showing how this ordering enables us to use the natural numbers in counting finite sets. Skolem's paradox is also mentioned in this chapter.
Lines
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter characterizes the ordering properties of the rational and real lines and to prove within ZU the existence of sets which satisfy these characterizations. The question of how points on these lines can be added or multiplied, and how they can be used to measure quantities, is set on one side to be dealt with in the following chapter.
Ordinals
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

The simple and general principles of induction are powerful tools for proving things about the natural numbers. This chapter investigates ways in which they can be generalized to apply to a very much wider class of ordered sets than the subsets of ω. The basis of this study is the observation that a version of induction can be applied to any ordered set with a property called well-ordering. The strategy is to apply much the same techniques to the study of isomorphism between well-ordered sets used in Chapter 9 to investigate equinumerosity between sets. Just as that work led to an arithmetic of cardinals, what this chapter does is lead to an arithmetic of ordinals.
Hume's Enlightenment Tract
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

This book studies David Hume's Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. The Enquiry has, contrary to its author's expressed wishes, long lived in the shadow of its predecessor, A Treatise of Human Nature. This book presents the Enquiry in a fresh light, and aims to raise it to its rightful position in Hume's work and in the history of philosophy. It argues that the Enquiry is not, as so often assumed, a mere collection of watered-down extracts from the earlier work. It is, rather, a coherent work with a unified argument; and, when this argument is grasped as a whole, the Enquiry shows itself to be the best introduction to the lineaments of its author's general philosophy. This book offers a careful guide through the argument and structure of the work. It shows how the central sections of the Enquiry offer a critique of the dogmatic empiricisms of the ancient world (Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Aristotelianism), and set in place an alternative conception of human powers based on the sceptical principles of habit and probability. These principles are then put to work, to rule out philosophy's metaphysical ambitions and their consequences: religious systems and their attendant conception of human beings as semi-divine rational animals. Hume's scepticism, experimentalism, and naturalism are thus shown to be different aspects of the one unified philosophy — a sceptical version of the Enlightenment vision.
Radicalism and Liberty
Authors: Biagini E. F.
Published: October 2011

This chapter consists of two parts. The first surveys the meanings and implications of liberty for Victorian radicals, and explores the relationship between popular and intellectual radicalism. The second examines some of the internal tensions and inconsistencies in late-Victorian radicalism, focusing on Joseph Chamberlain's response to imperial emergencies in Africa and Ireland. These highlighted questions would continue to confront radicals in the 20th century: in international affairs, the tension between the rhetoric of peace and international law and the practice of unilateralism; in domestic politics, the tension between parliamentary centralism and the claims of national separatism.
Intensional Transitives
Authors: Forbes Graeme
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the semantics of intensional transitive verbs (itv's) ‘Fear’ is transitive, or has a standard transitive use, since it has a standard use in which it takes a direct object (it also has a standard use in which it takes a clausal complement, either finite, as in ‘fear that the door is open’, or non-finite, as in ‘fear to open the door’). And ‘fear’ is intensional, or at any rate not extensional. This chapter classifies itv's and exhibits some problematic aspects of their behaviour.
Introduction
Authors: Beall JC
Published: October 2011

This book presents and defends what it calls logical pluralism, the view that there is more than one genuine deductive consequence relation, and that this plurality arises not merely because there are different languages, but rather arises even within the kinds of claims expressed in any one language. First, it sets logical consequence in its historical context, explains why it is important, and clarifies what is assumed to be the settled core of this notion. It defines logical pluralism and indicates the type of arguments that it takes to support the position. Concrete examples of the various consequence relations endorsed by qua pluralists are given.
A Brief History of Quantification
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter reviews the history of the concept of quantification, beginning with Aristotle. These glimpses from the history of ideas are used as occasions to introduce a number of semantic and methodological issues related to quantification and quantifiers. The focus is on the distinction between categorematic and syncategorematic terms, a distinction closely tied to the issue of the meaning or significance of the quantifier expressions themselves (not just the sentences containing them), and interestingly related to several modern themes. The chapter also looks at the emergence of modern logic at the end of the 19th century and the modern model-theoretic perspective, where the truth conditions of quantified sentences in formal languages are relative to interpretations or models. The role of the universe of quantification as well as the subtle mechanisms by which natural languages are able to restrict that universe are discussed.
Symmetry and Other Relational Properties of Type 〈1, 1〉 Quantifiers
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

Type ‹1, 1› quantifiers are (on each universe) binary relations between sets, and it is natural to inquire how quantirelation denotations behave in terms of ordinary relational properties. This chapter focuses primarily on one such property: symmetry. It turns out that symmetric determiners are very common in natural languages, and such determiners are particularly well-behaved. For example, a symmetric determiner can be seen to denote a property of the intersection of the restriction and the scope, which in turn explains why such expressions often go well in predicate position too. Moreover, symmetry has been advanced as the major factor in explaining which determiners are acceptable in existential-there sentences. This chapter also analyses the semantics of such sentences, including a comparative study of various attempts at explaining acceptability that have been proposed in the literature. It also presents a number of different characterisations of symmetric quantifiers. In particular, it shows that extension for a type ‹1› quantifier amounts to the symmetry of its relativisation.
Possessive Quantifiers
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses possessive and exceptive expressions that can be seen as determiners. Possessive determiners constitute a major form of possessive expressions in English and Swedish, whereas they do not occur in, for example, Italian or French, which instead predominantly use a postnominal (prepositional) form. The quantifiers denoted by such expressions are examined: their properties and the mechanisms by which they become the interpretations of simple or complex possessive and exceptive determiners. The extent to which the grammatical number of the noun following a possessive determiner influences interpretation is considered. Even if the universal reading of possessives is often the default, sometimes existential and other readings are used as well. After mentioning certain compound noun-like possessive constructions, the concept of narrowing is examined. A much discussed characteristic of possessives, the freedom in how the ‘possessor’ relation is fixed, is also analysed. The monotonicity behavior, including smoothness of possessives, is also addressed.
A Pledge Redeemed, 1785–1786
Authors: Lock F.P.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the activities and career of British politician Edmund Burke during the period from 1785 to 1786. Burke was elected and assumed office as a Member of Parliament in August 1785. During this period he spoke mostly about Indian issues. After the Treaty of Versailles in 1783, Burke rarely had occasion to speak in Parliament on American affairs. And in February 1786 he failed to attend the debate on Duke Richmond's proposed dockyard fortifications.
Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790
Authors: Lock F.P.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the success of British politician Edmund Burke's book Reflections on the Revolution in France. The book, begun as a pamphlet in reply to Richard Price's sermon, outgrew its original purpose and came to embody Burke's most considered and profound thoughts about politics. However, the book remained a riposte to Price and firmly embedded in the events of 1789–90. This chapter suggests that the retention of the deep marks of the book's origins is characteristic of Burke because he was averse to political theory and never wrote a systematic treatise on politics.
Sublime and Minute, 1796–1797
Authors: Lock F.P.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the career and activities of British politician Edmund Burke during the period from 1796 to 1797. During this time of inactivity from politics, Burke spent his time helping the poor children in Beaconsfield, England. His main project was an educational institution aimed at alleviating the plight of the children of those émigres serving or killed in the British Émigres Corps. The proposal was opposed by some of his opponents and this led Burke to write Thoughts and Details on Scarcity.
Frontiers and National Identities in Central-European History
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on the historical background of frontiers and national identities in Central Europe. It suggests that these terms originated in various kinds of physical barriers or markers that divided territories in Central Europe. It explores how the so-called traditional or historic frontiers eventually took on broader functions and affected people on both sides of the border, and also how this process was redirected in the early modern age by a rival tendency to establish ahistorical frontiers.
Empire and Kingdoms: Hungary and Bohemia in the Monarchy, 1741–1871
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on the relationship between Hungary and Bohemia during the period from 1741 to 1871. It provides a chronological background starting with the state-building process when Hungary and Bohemia went their markedly different ways but interacted significantly with each other at the cultural and political centre. This essay suggests that the effective cooperation between Bohemian and Hungarian peripheries against the Austrian centre is one of the great might-have-beens in the history of Central Europe.
From Confederation to Compromise: The Austrian Experiment, 1849–67
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on the domestic political and cultural presuppositions of Austria's governmental experiment following the revolutionary events of 1848–49. It argues that this absolutism suffered not only from alienating too many ancestral supporters of the dynasty, but also from mixing ideologies. The focus on the maintenance of established Austrian priorities was inconsistent with the new goals of a German national kind given that the experiment was heavily influenced from other parts of Germany.
Central Europe: The History of An Idea
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay on the history of Central Europe. It suggests that full recognition of the need for a region called Central Europe coincided with the final exclusion of Austria from Germany and that the notion of Mitteleuropa was generally considered with a more or less German national tinge. It was only with the events of the 1980s that Central Europe gained new life as a political ideal and its cultural associations were revived.
Postema on Law's Autonomy and Public Practical Reasons: A Critical Comment
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2011

Postema's article discusses a central jurisprudential idea, which he calls the autonomy thesis. In its general form it is shared by many writers who otherwise support divergent accounts of the nature of law. This chapter examines whether Postema's criticism of the autonomy thesis reveals weaknesses in the author's own account of the nature of law.
Indigenous Subjects
Authors: Curthoys Ann
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the subjectivity of the Indigenous people in Australia at the interface of colonial contact. Unlike other imperial experiences of Britain, in Australia the status of Indigenous people was highly ambiguous from the outset. For the Aborigines, the British Empire not only brought the threat of destruction but also furnished the tools for adaptation. One historian has argued that Aboriginal people were regarded as both British subjects entitled to the protection of British law and a subjected people who posed an ever-present threat to colonial authority.
Empire, State, Nation
Authors: Hirst John
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the central issue of governance and the formation of the Australian State. It argues that 19th-century liberalism and the mythological version of British history provided the foundations of the Australian polity even before it achieved self-government in the 1850s. It contends that the unravelling of Empire and Britishness since the 1960s has left a legacy of British institutions, grafted onto Australian experience but without the history and myth to explain and sustain them.
‘In History’s Page’: Identity and Myth
Authors: Meaney Neville
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the ways Australians evoked a British past as a corollary to their sense of themselves as an offshoot of the British race. It identifies three distinct phases in the evolution of Australia’s British history. These include the early colonial era typified by liberal republicanism, the Glorious Revolution, and the great reform movements of the 19th century. This chapter also discusses the changes in the conception of Australia’s Empire and the emergence of race patriotism and social Darwinism.
Epilogue: After Empire
Authors: Schreuder Deryck M. , Ward Stuart
Published: October 2011

This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on Australia’s Empire and its collapse. The findings reveal that Australia was not significantly affected by the imperial decline in the 1940s and the 1950s, and the eventual decolonization starting in the early 1960s. It argues that there are a number of compelling reasons why the British Empire, which had been so fundamental to the Australian outlook, could be eclipsed within a short period of time without so much as a public demonstration.
Introduction
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter starts by reflecting discursively on the foundations of practical reason, and its significance for our knowledge of human nature. Practical reasoning, in its primary form — deliberating — is already an action, but it is also the actuation of a natural capacity. When it issues in free choice, it is also self-shaping. But above all, it is an engagement with reasons for action, and these are articulated in principles directing us to intelligible goods. These are good for me and anyone like me: all human persons. Hume's denial that action can ever be motivated ultimately by reasons, Kant's oversight of all basic reasons and first principles save one, and neo-scholastic premature appeals to human nature or to subrational inclinations can all be surmounted. The Introduction goes beyond any of the chapters in its discussion of efforts by Sen and Nussbaum to identify human capabilities and functions, and its critique of Chappell's resistance to counting marriage a basic human good.
Self-Refutation Revisited
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter reviews the course of the argument of Chapter 3 in Volume II of this text, underlines its focus on asserting, differentiates it from Mackie's ‘commitment’ analysis, and defends it against objections published by Matthew Kramer. The chapter also objects to the use of, or appeal to, self-refutation by Lonergan in Insight.
Moral Absolutes in Aristotle and Aquinas
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter gives a brief but fundamental discussion of the common thesis (here studied as expounded by Leo Strauss and W. F. R. Hardie) that Aristotle did not acknowledge exceptionless negative moral norms. Marshalling the evidence against this interpretation accompanies a refutation of interpretations of Aquinas that would have him, too, deny the exceptionlessness of all negative moral norms such as those excluding the intended killing of innocents, lying, or adultery. Greater or lesser evil involved in alternative choices cannot be rationally identified prior to moral judgments. Utilitarianism, including its two-level forms (Sidgwick, Hare) analogous to Strauss's ‘Averroism’, is thus not a rational alternative to an ethics which includes absolute respect for basic human goods.
Introduction
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter seeks to clarify and vindicate some main elements in the structure of human freedom, including its immateriality inseparably conjoined with materiality (as is manifested by words, whose material marks and sounds are freighted with meaning transmissible across space and time. Acknowledging freedom adequately involves rejecting Leibniz's ‘principle of sufficient reason’ and relying instead on rationality norms. Persons are substances of a rational nature. Groups are not substances but relationships of persons in virtue of a shared plan (purpose and coordinated action to pursue it), picked out in proposals for action. The conditions for sharing in a large, e.g., political community, need careful attention, as does the material substrate of human existence. Intention is a distinct reality, as the great variety of ways of referring to it testifies.
Personal Identity in Aquinas and Shakespeare
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

The first of this chapter's nine sections gives a fresh account of the four kinds of order and intellectual discipline, focusing on the four irreducibly distinct explanations of the reality called (since the late 17th century) ‘personal identity’. The second locates the roles of bodiliness and choice in establishing that identity, in the philosophical analyses of Aquinas and the understanding of human existence, nature, and personality conveyed by Shakespeare. Locke's rival understanding and account is described and critiqued. The third section analyses nature, inclinations, character, and honour in All's Well that Ends Well, and the fourth section reflects on self-consciousness and commitment (including conversion) in that play and in Richard III and in Aquinas's remarkable teaching about one's earliest morally significant choices. The fifth section looks at commitment and identity in marriage, as seen in All's Well and the poem Phoenix and Turtle. All's Well is also the principal source for the following section's consideration of humiliation and identity, the seventh section's consideration of repentance and identity, and the eight's consideration of personal maturity and decay. The last section returns to the relevance of the four orders and summarizes the results of the investigation.
Cosmopolis, Nation States, and Families
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a fragment of a 2008 essay, whose other parts are in Volume I as Chapter 5 and Volume V as Chapter 8. This chapter asks why it can be right to discriminate between persons at the national border, allowing citizens in and keeping all or many others (would-be immigrants) out. Why did Rawls decline to apply his ‘difference principle’ in favour of the worst-off people in the world (as a cosmopolitan ethics demands), rather than in our community (nation state)? The arguments of Rawls and John Paul II about the grounds and value of national identity are examined. A final section argues that analogous considerations apply to families, and therefore also to marriage, which is a basic human good.
Intentions and Objects
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter offers a fundamental examination of the identification of acts for (and prior to) moral evaluation, conducted through a close study of Aquinas. The meaning of ‘object’ and ‘intention’ is stabilized. Aquinas's differences not only with Abelard (intentionalism) but also with Peter Lombard (physicalism) are explained. The neo-scholastic version of Aquinas's analysis of deliberation towards choice and action is critiqued. Many texts from the untranslated Commentary on the Sentences by Aquinas are set out and translated. Intention and side effect are distinguished, as are action (in generemoris) and behaviour (in generenaturae).
Intention and Side Effects
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

With a focus on English criminal law, particularly in terms of murder, as expounded at the highest level in recent decades, this chapter distinguishes in detail between intention and desire, and intention and foresight (or so-called ‘oblique intention’). The views of theorists such as Hobbes and Glanville Williams are critiqued. Various cases, actual and hypothetical, are considered in detail. Destroying a plane in order to kill a passenger is distinguished from destroying it to get cargo insurance moneys. Elizabeth Anscombe's discussion of ‘double effect’ and of the trapped cave-explorers is refuted. A reform of the definition of murder is proposed. An attempt is made to show why intention maters so much. An endnote considers operations to separate conjoined twins.
When Most People Begin
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

With the possible exception of identical twins, people begin at their conception — neither earlier nor later. The counter-position of Aquinas, and the counter-arguments of Joseph Donceel and Norman Ford, are unacceptable. The facts about twinning are further evidence of the conceptual difficulty of articulating a position such as Ford's, in which thousands of supposedly distinct individuals are taken to form one at a stage selected only because of size or bodily orientation. But sometimes a genetically human zygote lacks the epigenetic primordia for developing a brain and such a zygote is not a human being.
On Producing Human Embryos
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

Although focused on cloning, this chapter considers the reality and nature of the early human conceptus however conceived, and considers the moral significance of arranging conception otherwise than as supervening on sexual (particularly marital) intercourse (whether by ‘ordinary’ IVF or by cloning). R. G. Edwards's witnessing to the reality and human individuality of the one-cell zygote/embryo is quoted. Terminological expedients such as ‘therapeutic’ as distinct from ‘reproductive’ cloning are shown to be unacceptable. IVF and cloning involve production, and this makes the act a kind of enslaving, even when otherwise well intentioned.
Introduction
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter discusses the ‘positivist’ ambition to consider law simply as a kind of social fact to be described, and the corresponding ‘social-fact sources thesis’. Any such description, if general, must consider human needs. Accurately describing law's sources displays the many evaluative considerations of need and desirability that contribute to a legally sound identification of the law's content and authority. Normative/evaluative legal theory can do — with greater explanatory (as well as justificatory) power — all that a would-be value-free general theory of law can. The relation between law and morality cannot be considered without asking what morality requires in complex society. The Introduction's second section relates Part Two's eleven chapters to those themes. The third section, on legal reasoning, puts Dworkin's ‘one right answer’ thesis into the context of legal system as not momentary, and discusses the problem of lawless judging. The final section identifies the two senses of ‘legal system’, relating them to the author's work on constitutional transitions and to the legally important distinction between statements and propositions.
Reason and Authority inLaw's Empire
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter offers a detailed assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of Dworkin's principal work in legal theory. His resolute adoption of the internal point of view is a great virtue. His transposition of his analysis into the frame of interpretation is less successful, and plagued with fundamental ambiguities about what interpretation is. His claims about the semantic sting are thoroughly inaccurate, certainly in relation to Hart and to the natural law tradition. His thesis about the one right answer in hard cases fails on its own terms. His theory of authority and legitimacy is very thinly developed.
Secularism's Practical Meaning
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter distinguishes various types of secularization from secularism and commends Plato's analysis of secularism's main forms. An argument to the existence of God from the data of practical reason is sketched, and an idea of natural religion is identified along with its inevitable disengagement from its historic matrix, paganism. Secularized (secularist) Christian thought is critiqued, along with materialist misconstruals of human dignity, philosophical denials of causality as a block against arguments for divine causality, judicial denials of substantive values and the attempts to rationalize and extend those denials in the 1996 ‘Philosophers' Brief’ of Dworkin, Rawls, Nagel, and others for euthanasia or assisted suicide, and finally consequentialism (attractive to secularists for more than one kind of reason). An adequate understanding of the hope offered by authentic revelation is needed for an adequate response to secularism.
Grace and Humility
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a 1992 university sermon on the grace of humility, expounding Germain Grisez's fresh understanding of that virtue as the particular gift enabling one to orient oneself and one's actions in harmony with an awareness that every good thing one has and does and achieves is a sheer gift. This account is developed by comparison with Plato's understanding of divine causality and human action, by reflection on the relation of human action to the divinely given heavenly kingdom. Plato's image of the divine puppet-master must be corrected, and can be, in light of the revelation of the world's real history as the building up of the Kingdom.
Nuclear Deterrence and the End of Christendom
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter summarizes the main arguments in Finnis, Boyle, and Grisez, Nuclear Deterrence, Morality and Realism (OUP 1987). No policy of nuclear deterrence of enemies equipped with comparable capabilities can fail to include the threat to ‘city swap’ (destroy enemy cities with their inhabitants in the course of a military exchange) and of ‘final retaliation’ (to destroy much or all that the enemy values, especially the lives of its citizens, in the event that we have nothing much left to lose), and it is not possible for such a policy to be put in place as a scheme of deterrence without some people intending, albeit conditionally, that these threats to kill innocents be carried out. So such a policy cannot be morally justified. The chapter is prefaced by reflections on Maritain's thesis that the temporal vocation of the Christian requires a comprehensive aim such as the concrete historical ideal of building a new or better Christendom. An endnote considers the arguments of Sir Michael Quinlan, architect of the contemporary British nuclear deterrent, the position of the US Bishops in 1983 and 1988, and the position of Israel.
The ‘Consistent Ethic of Life’
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter gives a very detailed assessment of the many pronouncements in which Cardinal Joseph Bernardin articulated or envisaged (in 1983–1986) a ‘consistent ethic of life’ and proposed that Catholic bishops should seek to foster a consensus among Catholics and across society not only by publicly commending the principles of Catholic teaching across the entire spectrum of ‘life’ and ‘quality of life’ issues (genetics, abortion, war, capital punishment, euthanasia, pornography, hunger, homelessness, unemployment, and education), but also by publicly commending policies for appropriately applying those principles right across that spectrum. The chapter tries philosophically to clarify the principles of a consistent ethic of killing, against the challenge of a proportionalist (consequentialist) theological ethic and various denials of the personhood of certain classes of human individuals. The negative norm against infanticide is compared with the affirmative norm ‘feed the hungry’, to bring out the difficulties voters and others confront in relation to latter. The bad side effects of episcopal proposals of policies are considered.
1 Complicating the Story: Religion and Gender in Historical Writing on British and American Anti-Slavery
Authors: Turley David
Published: October 2011

This chapter traces historical writing on British and American anti-slavery through three phases encompassing writing by participants, the generations of twentieth century professional historians (including a distinct tradition of African American writing) and, most substantially, the period from the 1970s displaying the impact of the development of feminism on historical writing. It treats the themes of religion and gender both separately and together, especially in the section on feminism, as religion is represented as a major mode through which women moderated their engagement with anti-slavery. The Chapter notes both similarities and differences in the historiographical significance given to gender in relation to religion: British scholars focusing on the importance of class formation; Americans on race and female culture.
Desuetude and Obsolescence of Treaties
Authors: Kohen Marcelo G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter addresses the topics of desuetude and obsolescence of treaties. These grounds for the termination of treaties were not included in the Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties neither at the behest of the International Law Commission nor during the Vienna Conferences. It analyses whether the failure to include these grounds of termination in the Vienna Conventions is justified. It concludes that the Vienna Conventions rightly did not include desuetude, which does not find a place in international law. In contrast, obsolescence of treaties is a ground for the termination of treaties that exists outside the regime of the Vienna Conventions, and it applies when a change in the legal framework of a treaty renders whole or part of the treaty inapplicable.
Acute sleep restriction effects on emotion responses in 30‐ to 36‐month‐old children
Authors: BERGER REBECCA H. , MILLER ALISON L. , SEIFER RONALD , CARES STEPHANIE R. , LEBOURGEOIS MONIQUE K.
Published: October 2011

Early childhood is a period of dramatic change in sleep and emotion processing, as well as a time when disturbance in both domains are first detected. Although sleep is recognized as central in emotion processing and psychopathology, the great majority of experimental data have been collected in adults. We examined the effects of acute sleep restriction (nap deprivation) on toddlers’ emotion expression. Ten healthy children (seven females; 30–36 months old) followed a strict sleep schedule (≥12.5 h time in bed per 24‐h) for 5 days, before each of two randomly assigned afternoon emotion assessments following Nap and No‐Nap conditions (resulting in an 11‐day protocol). Children viewed emotion‐eliciting pictures (five positive, three neutral, three negative) and completed puzzles (one solvable, one unsolvable). Children’s faces were video‐recorded, and emotion displays were coded. When sleep restricted, children displayed less confusion in response to neutral pictures, more negativity to neutral and negative pictures, and less positivity to positive pictures. Sleep restriction also resulted in a 34% reduction in positive emotion responses (solvable puzzle), as well as a 31% increase in negative emotion responses and a 39% decrease in confused responses (unsolvable puzzle). These findings suggest sleep is a key factor in how young children respond to their world. When sleep restricted, toddlers are neither able to take full advantage of positive experiences nor are they as adaptive in challenging contexts. If insufficient sleep consistently ‘taxes’ young children’s emotion responses, they may not manage emotion regulation challenges effectively, potentially placing them at risk for future emotional/behavioral problems.
Non‐esterified fatty acid dynamics during oral glucose tolerance test in women with former gestational diabetes
Authors: Tura A. , Pacini G. , Winhofer Y. , Bozkurt L. , Di Benedetto G. , Morbiducci U. , Roden M. , Kautzky‐Willer A.
Published: October 2011

Diabet. Med. 29, 351–358 (2012)

Aims  Women with former gestational diabetes are at increased risk of Type 2 diabetes, which likely relates to hyperlipidaemia and ectopic lipid storage, mainly in the liver. Here, we examined the response of non‐esterified fatty acid dynamics to oral glucose loading (oral glucose tolerance test).

Methods  We studied women with former gestational diabetes with normal glucose tolerance (n = 60) or impaired glucose metabolism (n = 12) and compared them with healthy women after normal pregnancy (control subjects, n = 15). During a 3‐h oral glucose tolerance test, glucose, insulin and non‐esterified fatty acid were frequently measured to compute the area under the non‐esterified fatty acid curve and parameters of β‐cell function and insulin sensitivity. Through mathematical modelling, we assessed insulin sensitivity of lipolysis inhibition and the fractional non‐esterified fatty acid turnover rate. We also measured some serum liver enzymes.

Results  Women with former gestational diabetes were slightly older and had greater body mass than control subjects. Subjects with impaired glucose metabolism had lower oral glucose insulin sensitivity, but higher fasting insulin and area under the non‐esterified fatty acid curve, which inversely related to oral glucose insulin sensitivity and independently determined mean glycaemia. Model‐derived non‐esterified fatty acid parameters were lower in subjects with impaired glucose metabolism than in control subjects, particularly sensitivity of non‐esterified fatty acid inhibition to insulin (2.50 ± 0.52 vs. 1.06 ± 0.20·10−2 ml/μU). Also, subjects with impaired glucose metabolism had higher liver transaminases. However, all non‐esterified fatty acid parameters showed only modest inverse correlation with liver transaminases.

Conclusions  Despite greater insulinaemia, circulating non‐esterified fatty acids are higher in women with former gestational diabetes than in control subjects, which likely results from reduced sensitivity of lipolysis inhibition to insulin. This parameter may serve as indicator of an early metabolic derangement in this population at risk for diabetes.