bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introducing thearchitectus
Authors: Oksanish John
Published: December 2019

Vitruvius prioritizes the ideal architectus over the ars architectonica and thus also restricts access to the body of architecture. The architectus embodies architecture, but he becomes complete only through a “well-rounded” course of training in various disciplines, which Vitruvius likens to a corpus. This encyclios disciplina has recalled the artes liberales for many readers, who imagine that Vitruvius invokes these disciplines to “elevate” architecture or indeed Vitruvius himself. Yet it is also clear that architecture was already viewed as intellectually meticulous. By creating an asymmetry between his training (multidisciplinary but moderate) and his influence (extending even to the products of all other arts), Vitruvius creates a gap reminiscent of a similar disparity that characterizes the ideal orator in Cicero’s De oratore. Vitruvius recreates the ebb and flow of De oratore in order to put architecture in competition with the oratory as the best sort of civic knowledge. Of special importance is that both Vitruvius and Cicero demur on whether their disciplines were true “arts,” recalling the principal objection leveled by Socrates against rhetoric in Gorgias. Cicero effectively sidesteps these issues by negating the possibility of a Roman ars oratoris and by insisting instead on oratory’s embodiment. Vitruvius’s architectus also becomes a distinctively Roman master of signs and representation, precisely because he embodies architecture. Vitruvius’s account ultimately differs from that of Cicero, however. Whereas the orator’s attention to decorum proved his suitability as an ambitious leader in the interest of the republican civitas, the training of the architectus ultimately ensures that he will faithfully (but not obsequiously) serve the princeps.
Quizzes, Tests, and Assessments
Authors: Hansen Bethanie L.
Published: December 2019

This chapter introduces quizzes, tests, and assessments for online music appreciation courses. Some challenges are discussed, which include the fact that assessments employed in live face-to-face teaching do not easily transfer to the online setting due to management and security concerns, and assumptions that must be made about online testing. Guidelines are provided to align assessments with course objectives and use sound methods of test design. Essential elements of online assessment design are also included to guide educators on implementation strategies and areas where caution should be exercised. Readers will find sample test and quiz questions to illustrate. The chapter ends with a brief summary of important points and an infographic designed to visually highlight best practices and things to avoid in both assumptions and design of online music appreciation quizzes, tests, and assessments.
Preparing the Online Classroom
Authors: Hansen Bethanie L.
Published: December 2019

In the fourth section, Preparing, Teaching, and Ending the Course, readers will be guided through all aspects of online teaching chronologically, from preparing the classroom prior to the first day through posting final course grades. The teaching chapter focuses on the community of inquiry and clear teacher presence, and strategies are presented with which to meet the needs of students in diverse circumstances. Special attention is given to routines, efficiency strategies, and tips for working with students in various circumstances. A brief discussion of various learning management systems and organizational strategies is included to guide educators in their work for multiple institutions or in multiple online formats.
Overview
Authors: Kayama Misa , Haight Wendy L. , Ku May-Lee , Cho Minhae , Lee Hee Yun
Published: December 2019

Chapter 1 introduces a cross-cultural study of the common and culturally nuanced perspectives of experienced educators from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and the U.S. on how they support the development of elementary school–age children exposed to stigmatization associated with disabilities. The authors present a cultural developmental model of disability and stigmatization focusing on children’s emerging cultural selves. They also describe the theoretical perspective guiding their inquiry, developmental cultural psychology, including the concept of universalism without uniformity. Next, the chapter presents the book’s methodological approach, which is cross-cultural and includes the deliberate integration of insider and outsider perspectives on cultural contexts and disability. Finally, the authors provide an overview and roadmap to the book.
Educational Policy and Practice Contexts
Authors: Kayama Misa , Haight Wendy L. , Ku May-Lee , Cho Minhae , Lee Hee Yun
Published: December 2019

Chapter 3 lays the groundwork for understanding how educators incorporate national special education policies into their local, culturally based practices. It examines national disability policies and services in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and the U.S. Special education policies in all four nations have been influenced by the contemporary, international trend of inclusive education. Yet the ways in which policymakers and educators have responded to such international initiatives, which reinforce the individual rights of children with disabilities, vary cross-culturally. Such variation partly reflects culturally based differences in how the relative risks of disability labels and the benefits of specialized support are weighted, especially for these children whose functioning is at the border of “typical development” and “having disabilities.”
Neurointerventions and Crime Prevention
Authors: Ryberg Jesper
Published: December 2019

This chapter explains what motivates an ethical discussion of the use of neurointerventions as an instrument of crime prevention. Moreover, it critically discusses a number of possible objections to the ethical discussion of the use of neurointerventions on offenders. For instance: Are considerations of neurointerventions unacceptably hypothetical? Do they derail the discussion of what really matters in crime prevention? Finally, it provides an overview of the various topics that are considered in the ensuing chapters.
Neurointerventions and the Lesson from History
Authors: Ryberg Jesper
Published: December 2019

This chapter takes its point of departure from the fact that the idea of using neurointervention as an instrument of crime prevention carries a very dark prehistory. However, the history of the use of various types of treatment methods over the last century plays a somewhat unclarified role in the modern neuroethical debate. Some theorists seem almost to believe that the use of neurointerventions constitutes an entire novel ethical issue. Other theorists are much more explicit about the historical precedent but direct attention to how such treatment has previously been administered without devoting much effort to clarify the present relevance of past experiences. Both approaches are unsatisfactory. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to consider the moral significance of the sordid prehistory of neurointerventions for the present ethical discussion of the use of such treatment in crime preventive.
The Other Format Wars: Cartridges, Cassettes, and Making Home Work
Authors: Hughes Kit
Published: December 2019

Chapter 4 (keyword: time-shifting) outlines industrial users’ contributions to the development of videocassettes before “the” format wars between VHS and Betamax. It argues that the key terms for cassettes were not simply “Whatever. Whenever,” but “Whenever. Whomever. Wherever.” Rather than promise freedom from the broadcast schedule, this triadic promise of flexibility responded to industrial concerns with employee management in an era when the temporal demands on worker time were becoming more complex (whenever), when workforces were becoming more diverse (whomever), and when companies were growing more expansive (wherever). Tracing the pursuit of whenever-whomever-wherever as a management strategy through a series of three case studies—8mm cartridge projectors (1961–1970s), CBS’s EVR (1960–1971), and Sony’s U-matic (1961–1980s)—this chapter also reveals how businesses drew on workers’ pleasurable associations with domestic television and transformed the home into an exhibition site for corporate communications—in both instances, intensifying claims to employees’ nonworking time.
Intimate Eruptions and the Embodied Montage
Authors: Parreñas Shimizu Celine
Published: December 2019

This chapter considers when the masters and servants in two films perform multiple roles, in what the author calls the “embodied montage,” where they establish character among their choices of self, and where roles come together or eclipse each other. In a sense, they perform the very process of identity: losing and finding oneself. These gaps in their performances cause “intimate eruptions” that create small openings in the fabric of mastery and servitude. In these films, mastery demands a certain order that both masters and servants do not always adhere to. Behaviors do not necessarily match the expected roles. As a result, physical and psychic eruptions occur at both expected and unexpected sites: through sensory experiences, the deployment of violence by enemies and allies, and the looming threat of madness and suicide as the only way out of patriarchal sadism. Ultimately, what they learn from intimate eruptions is the possibility of new ethical relations.
Parenting Musically and Musical Parenting
Authors: Koops Lisa Huisman
Published: December 2019

Chapter 1 introduces the ideas that form the theoretical frameworks used in this book. There are two interlocking pairs of concepts. First, parenting musically~musical parenting addresses the intention or goal of parental actions and decisions surrounding their family and music. Second, practical musicking~relational musicking expands Small’s (1998) framework of musicking to consider the primary purpose of the musicking: “practical musicking” is musicking to accomplish a set goal, and “relational musicking” is musicking to develop social and emotional connections. This chapter introduces the eight Cleveland-area families who participated in a year of fieldwork as part of this project and summarizes the research process.
Conscious and Intuitive Parenting With Music at Home
Authors: Koops Lisa Huisman
Published: December 2019

Within the sphere of the home and car, the families in this study expressed and demonstrated a broad range of parenting musically and musical parenting behaviors, approaches, and perceptions that were marked by varying degrees of intentionality on the part of parents. Some parents very carefully chose to expose their children to a varied listening diet or use music to reset the mood in the home; others were seemingly unaware of the many musical elements in their daily routines until they started discussing specifics during interviews. This chapter argues that by heightening one’s awareness of the musical moments at home and in the car, parents may increase their enjoyment of family musicking and recognize the multifaceted values of it.
Hopes and Dreams
Authors: Koops Lisa Huisman
Published: December 2019

This chapter presents portraits of the eight families’ hopes and dreams for their children. The general and musical hopes and dreams were often intertwined. The family profiles in this chapter show a wide range of aspirations as well as approaches to reaching those goals, but one unifying thread is the importance of parents, children, and teachers sharing awareness of the family motivations. This chapter argues that clarifying parents’ hopes and dreams for their children’s musicking is essential to finding the right balance of parenting musically and musical parenting; it is also valuable for school music teachers and private lesson teachers to take time to know families’ motivations for participation in music.
Justice and the Excluded, Part 2
Authors: Blake Michael
Published: December 2019

This chapter engages with arguments provided in defense of a state’s right to exclude. It considers four such arguments. Two of these begin with the consideration of human goods and how they are distributed; arguments from the distribution of territory, and the importance of solidarity, are engaged with here. Two other arguments begin with rights and how these rights might serve to ground the right to exclude. The rights discussed here are the right to property and the right of freedom of association. All of these methods, I argue, have some power, but none places the moral emphasis where it ought to be in the consideration of the right to exclude.
Justice, Jurisdiction, and Migration
Authors: Blake Michael
Published: December 2019

This chapter introduces the book’s positive account of the right to exclude. It grounds it in the limited and presumptive right to be free from being charged with the defense of another’s basic rights—when those rights are adequately protected in her country of origin. The chapter provides an argument for this jurisdictional ground, while showing that it is consonant with both the structure of international human rights law and consistent with the nature of states as political entities. This ground, moreover, is shown to be incapable of defending the sorts of exclusion found in political practice—which opens up the possibility of using that ground to criticize existing practices. The chapter ends by considering three forms of objection—the objections from expulsion, from reproduction, and from liberty—and shows how the jurisdictional method defended can overcome these concerns.
Migration and Mercy
Authors: Blake Michael
Published: December 2019

This chapter differentiates between positive and negative forms of mercy, and then applies the virtue of mercy to some aspects of migration policy. It demonstrates that mercy provides a reason to defend migration policies that allow claims of affinity. It can also have a role to play in defending the right to remain for those undocumented migrants who cannot make claims of right to continued residence. It can, finally, also provide some reason to defend the right to spousal unification, by taking the marital relationship not as unique in itself but as a potential site for the operation of the virtue of mercy. The chapter concludes by offering some brief reflections about the future of migration and the continuing relevance of mercy in that future.
Learning on “The Longest Street in the World”
Authors: Moland Naomi A.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 2, “Learning on the Longest Street in the World,” explains the history of the international versions of Sesame Street. In the early 1970s, Sesame Workshop began working with local teams around the world to create “co-productions” of Sesame Street that are tailored to local contexts. The international network—which has grown to more than thirty co-productions viewed in over 150 countries—provides a fascinating example of a media program that is both global and local. Chapter 2 also describes how Sesame Square came to Nigeria and discusses the program’s focus on helping northern children, who were believed to be the most susceptible to recruitment by Boko Haram. It describes the details of the Sesame Square project: the goals of the program; the people involved; the steps of the production process; and the episode content. It also includes numerous examples from other Sesame co-productions to compare with Sesame Square.
Imagining the Nigerian Audience
Authors: Moland Naomi A.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 3, “Imagining the Nigerian Audience,” describes some Sesame Square creators’ beliefs that their audience—particularly their northern Muslim audience—is intolerant, uneducated, repressive of girls, and “backward.” These imaginings replicated prior discourses in Nigeria (and prior media initiatives) that aimed to “civilize” and “modernize” people. Creators faced a fundamental conundrum of multicultural education: How can educators respect cultural differences while simultaneously trying to change the attitudes and behaviors of their target audiences? It was more difficult for creators to maintain positive views of their target audience when they had evidence that northerners do indeed have lower education levels, and some northerners are waging a violent insurgency. This chapter explores whether it is possible to be culturally sensitive without “othering” a target audience. It supports the first overarching argument of the book—that multicultural education and efforts to be “culturally sensitive” can ironically end up reproducing stereotypes.
Conclusion
Authors: Moland Naomi A.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 7, “Conclusion: Multiculturalism in a Multicultural World,” discusses the implications of the book’s findings for our understandings of multiculturalism, nation-building, and counterterrorism in Nigeria and in societies around the world. Nations with risk factors similar to those of Nigeria—such as deep demographic divisions, state fragility, and escalating conflict—may not have the luxury to “celebrate diversity.” As more countries around the world are facing challenges from religious extremism and terrorism, many are questioning the feasibility of multicultural approaches. In nations experiencing ongoing conflict, multicultural educators may need to recalibrate the balance between celebrating diversity and promoting unity, focusing more on commonalities between groups. This chapter explores other approaches that may at least help to mitigate the potential negative outcomes of multicultural education. More broadly, it concludes that peacebuilding approaches—including soft power media and education interventions—must be tailored to the particular contexts in which they are implemented.
Priorities at the Bedside
Authors: Miljeteig Ingrid , Melkie Addisu , Defaye Frehiwot Berhane , Dessie Ermias , Onarheim Kristine Husøy
Published: December 2019

Out-of-pocket health expenditure is a barrier to accessing basic health care. It imposes major financial burdens, which may drive patients and their families into poverty, which again can aggravate their health conditions. This chapter offers a glimpse into real-life dilemmas and decisions by presenting Ethiopian families’ and health workers’ narratives and experiences of catastrophic health expenditures. The aim is to provide a nuanced understanding of the lived experiences of the people behind the numbers. The chapter draws on material from multiple fieldwork experiences in Ethiopia, from the authors’ experiences as health workers in Ethiopia, and from a national survey of Ethiopian physicians. This material shows how overarching global and national priorities influences families’ and health workers’ allocation decisions. Bringing out the actual dilemmas people face can supplement and inform our understanding of the more theoretical and methodological chapters in this book.
Extended Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Authors: Verguet Stéphane , Tolla Mieraf Taddesse , Memirie Solomon Tessema , Jamison Dean T.
Published: December 2019

Health policies such as public finance of health interventions (e.g., vaccines, drug treatments) entail consequences in multiple domains. Fundamentally, health policies increase the uptake of interventions and hence lead to health benefits. However, in addition, health policies can generate distributional benefits, including, for example, the enhancement of equity (e.g., equalization of health among individuals), and non-health benefits, including, for instance, the prevention of medical impoverishment—or the provision of financial risk protection. This chapter details how the methodology of extended cost-effectiveness analysis (ECEA) can be used to evaluate the benefits of public policy in both the health and non-health (e.g., financial protection) domains and their distributional implications, which is of particular usefulness in the context of identifying efficient pathways for universal health coverage and tracking progress towards achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.
Inequality in Survival
Authors: Jamison Dean T. , Jamison Julian C. , Norheim Ole F. , Verguet Stéphane
Published: December 2019

Although inequality in survival is highly correlated with life expectancy, the authors believe that this form of health inequality should be better understood and that inequality in survival could be another useful summary measure of population health. It is also a motivation for assigning priority to the worse-off in priority-setting. Inequality in survival has previously been assessed by standard economic measures of income inequality, such as the Gini coefficient and Atkinson’s index. This chapter characterizes a new measure of inequality that is motivated by the geometry of survival curves rather than the distribution of income. The rectangularity index (r-index) is the fraction of total life expectancy contributed by individuals with above- average life expectancy, where 0 represents perfect equality (i.e., a rectangular survival curve where everyone dies at the same age). Analogously to questions asked in the income literature, the authors sought to determine whether global inequality in survival was increasing or decreasing. Using life tables from the United Nations Population Division, the authors found that inequality in life expectancy between countries and interindividual inequality in survival within most countries were decreasing. However, some countries still experienced high inequality and others even had periods with rising inequality. Overall, substantial reduction in inequality in survival was found within and between countries. The relevance for priority-setting is that while policies to reduce premature mortality will both improve life expectancy and reduce inequality in survival, there remains potential for additional inequality reduction.
The Unfinished Business of Eighteenth-Century European Lexicography
Authors: Considine John
Published: December 2019

This chapter reviews the development and publication of dictionaries in Europe in the eighteenth century, covering advances in continental lexicography that had significant influence on the dictionaries that evolved in the nineteenth century and beyond. Dictionaries of Germanic and Romance languages; Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; and other world languages all abounded at the time. The remarkable lexicographical activity of the eighteenth century is evidenced by the vigour, high quality, and proliferation of the more prominent and scholarly dictionaries of the period discussed. The developments which took place at this level had their effect at humbler levels too, Considine argues, as the makers of modest dictionaries abridged, or drew more or less explicitly from, the flagship dictionaries of national and classical languages. But all this activity still left a number of challenges to be addressed by nineteenth-century lexicographers. Considine divides these into three groups: questions of the structure and contents of the dictionary entry; questions of the scope of the dictionary wordlist; and larger questions about the sorts of information which dictionaries should offer. In covering these three types of challenges in the course of his chapter, Considine delves into crucial issues that affected the formation of the dictionary genre and that continue to be discussed in lexicography today.
A Nineteenth-Century Garment Throughout
Authors: Ogilvie Sarah
Published: December 2019

Ogilvie discusses how the OED represents a key development in ‘modern’ lexicography based on how it was envisioned, compiled, and executed. The chapter provides background on the state of philology throughout the seventy-year process of compiling the OED, and documents the roles played by some of the primary figures who influenced and shaped the dictionary’s development. The central features characterizing the OED’s production, Ogilvie argues, were the editors’ application of historical principles to each entry; the favouring of descriptive over prescriptive methods; the attempt to provide thorough coverage of the English lexicon; and the use of collaborative compilation practices. Ogilvie also places the OED into the context of comparative philology and lexicography, and considers the intersection of nationalism, national identity, and the codification of the English language.
The Invention of the Modern Dictionary
Authors: Sokolowski Peter
Published: December 2019

Sokolowski details the revision process that shaped the development of Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language (1828), the foundation of a nearly uninterrupted chain of dictionaries over almost two centuries. He discusses the role of collaboration, lexicographical scholarship, and the commercial considerations involved in the various updates to the dictionary, as well as the ‘War of the Dictionaries’, which forced Webster’s (under the purview of the Merriams) to evolve in order to conquer the market. The revisions following Webster’s death—and the innovations that accompanied them, which include many of the elements that distinguish today’s dictionaries from their pre-1864 forebears—have kept the name of Noah Webster associated with dictionaries to this day, while subverting the very notion of individual authorship for such a significant work of intellectual labour.
Lexicography of the Entrenched Empire
Authors: Saarela Mårten Söderblom
Published: December 2019

Lexicography in China under the rule of the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644–1911) was intimately tied up with empire. The Qing Empire was plurilingual; with the support of the Chinese elite, dominated by scholar-officials from the lower Yangtze region, the Manchu khans ruled as Confucian emperors, at the same time safeguarding a place for their own language in the polity. In this context, the bilingual elite undertook various lexicographical projects aspiring to greater integration of the empire’s main languages: Manchu and Chinese. Within this context, Mårten Söderblom Saarela addresses Banihûn’s and Pu-gong’s Qing-Han wenhai (Manchu–Chinese Literary Ocean), a reworking of an eighteenth-century poetic Chinese dictionary. He compares this bilingual project to an unfinished Chinese–French dictionary inspired by the same source. At a time of linguistic and social change in China, Banihûn and Pu-gong aspired to further integrate the empire’s two literary languages and thereby to provide a resource for lettered bannermen such as themselves and to maintain what they knew to be the fragile equilibrium of relations between these languages.
Terrorist Propaganda After the Islamic State
Authors: Gill Paul , Braddock Kurt , Zolghadriha Sanaz , Rottweiler Bettina , Cushenbery Lily D.
Published: December 2019

Tactical and technological innovations of one terrorist group often cross-pollinate into other groups with wildly different ideologies and from geographically diverse combat theaters. The aim of this chapter is thus to examine the potential imitation/emulation dynamics that extremist groups (both jihadist and other) might enter following the “success” of the propaganda produced by the Islamic State (IS). The chapter looks at two aspects of this problem: first, to what extent did IS innovate or imitate while producing its propaganda, and, second, how likely is it that IS’s propaganda will constitute a source of imitation for today’s and tomorrow’s violent groups? Drawing on what organizational psychology, business management, communications science, and terrorism studies say regarding creativity and innovation, the chapter highlights the drivers of IS’s innovation and thereby considers the likelihood of their being replicated elsewhere.
Introduction
Authors: Wehrey Frederic , Boukhars Anouar
Published: December 2019

The countries of the Maghreb—Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya—have witnessed a broad spectrum of transformations and challenges since the Arab uprisings of 2011. Among these has been a dramatic shift in state-society relations; economic challenges; fragmentation, mobilization, and contestation from varying population segments; and an opening of social and political space to Islamists. While much scholarly attention has been focused on Islamists linked to the Muslim Brotherhood and to jihadists like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, the broader movement of the literalist and austere variant of Islam known as Salafism remains understudied. This volume aims to correct this gap by situating Salafism, in all of its expressions, within the national contexts of the Maghreb.
Defining Salafism
Authors: Wehrey Frederic , Boukhars Anouar
Published: December 2019

Salafism is a diverse and dynamic current within Islam that promotes itself as the purest, most authentic form of Islam, marked by an emulation of the prophet Muhammad’s contemporary companions, their followers, and the next two generations. Despite its pretentions to literalism and universalism, Salafism as a lived reality often incorporates local social contexts and customs. Scholars of Salafism have roughly divided the movement into quietists, who eschew politics in favor of scholarship and proselytization;, politicos, who engage in politics through various mediums; and violent jihadists. Yet as this volume shows, these divisions are increasingly blurred and do not account for Salafism’s increasing dynamism on matters of creed and practice. The growth of Salafism is due to a multitude of socioeconomic and political factors, to include a strong moral critique of the existing order and a certitude of virtue that is comforting in times of upheaval.
Managing Salafism in Tunisia
Authors: Wehrey Frederic , Boukhars Anouar
Published: December 2019

This chapter charts the complex relationship between the changing nature of state power and management of religious activism in Tunisia. In particular, it provides insight into a unique situation in the Arab world where, for the first time, jihadist ideologies and democratic experience intermingled, arousing greater passions, hopes, and fears. For a brief moment, Tunisia became the theater to test the political and ideational impact of democratization on antisystemic groups with jihadist ideological visions. The chapter examines the novelty of this case and provides insights on the factors that affected and mediated jihadist interactions with both the Islamist Ennahda-led government and other groups with opposing moral and ideological stances. Such an analysis of intrajihadi dynamics, jihadi-regime dynamics, and intergroup dynamics with other social and political actors helps elucidate the choice of strategies that jihadists adopted and how those choices were deeply affected by their own internal contradictions and ambiguities.
Conclusion
Authors: Wehrey Frederic , Boukhars Anouar
Published: December 2019

Since the 2011 Arab uprisings, Salafism has adapted to new shifts in Maghrebi state-society relations and the marginalization of key population segments and regions. In tandem, changing fortunes of other streams of Islamism and Islamic practice have provided Salafism new opportunities for growth and politicization. The imperative socioeconomic relevance has meant that Salafis in all the Maghreb cases have deployed and reinterpreted traditional Salafi precepts in unique and surprising ways. The result has been a blurring of the lines between quietism and politicos—and sometimes the lines between Salafis and non-Salafist groups like the Brotherhood. Ultimately, Salafism in the Maghreb must be seen as a portal onto the frustrations of an increasingly young population who are drawn to the movement as a moral critique against entrenched orders that have either failed them or no longer address their needs.
Historical Roots of US Press Freedoms and Failures
Authors: Pickard Victor
Published: December 2019

Chapter 1 historicizes the journalism crisis, showing that in the United States commercial news media institutions have always been in crisis. The chapter first summarizes the history of the US press and its freedoms under the First Amendment of the US Constitution and sketches out continuities in US press history in terms of democratic theory, market failure, and reform efforts. It goes on to outline a long unbroken tradition of radical media criticism and ongoing attempts to rein in the commercial excesses of US journalism. Finally, the chapter underscores the US press system’s structural contradictions that have rendered it prone to crisis.
Monopoly Control over Digital Infrastructures
Authors: Pickard Victor
Published: December 2019

Chapter 4 brings into focus various structural threats to journalism, including monopoly control over media infrastructures, the loss of public interest protections, digital divides, and the “Facebook problem.” It examines how monopolies—from platforms to traditional conglomerates and broadband cartels—threaten the entire news media system. The chapter goes on to provide an overview of why media policy matters for journalism and how different ownership structures affect media content. It then concludes with an in-depth discussion of Facebook’s relationship to journalism and the different schools of thought on how we should rein in monopolies.
Not Isolating Isolation
Authors: Resnik Judith
Published: December 2019

This chapter explores the distinctive features of solitary confinement and the ways in which isolation is endemic in the structure of U.S. prisons. It analyze the expansion of solitary confinement, the debate about the lawfulness of the practice in the federal courts, and recent data on the widespread use of solitary confinement in state and federal prison systems. The U.S. Supreme Court has not prohibited the practice but has licensed courts to inquire about whether a particular version imposes an “atypical and significant hardship” on an individual. If such a showing is made, then prisons must provide some procedural buffers against arbitrary placements. Nation-wide data demonstrate that more than 60,000 individuals were, as of 2018, placed in cells for 15 days or more for 22 hours or more. Almost 4,000 people have been so confined for three years or more. Solitary confinement is thus all too “typical” a facet of prison life. Its commonplace occurrence ought not insulate solitary confinement from the conclusion that it is an illicitly cruel practice that debilitates individuals. The complexity of ending solitary confinement terms not only from its widespread use but also from the ways in which U.S. prisons are committed to many practices that are isolating and disabling of individuals.
Sharing Experiences of Solitary Confinement—Prisoners and Staff
Authors: King Robert , Canales Dolores , Morris Jack , Sosa Armondo
Published: December 2019

A critical aspect of the movement against solitary confinement is the activism, testimony, stories and reflections of prisoners who have been subjected to these torturous conditions. This chapter includes essays by three former prisoners who spent years in solitary confinement are important activists in the campaign to end this form of torture. Each describe the various ways that their solitary confinement seriously harmed and damaged them and the mechanisms they used to cope with and survive the experience. It is not possible to truly understand the horror and torture of solitary confinement without hearing from those who suffered from it. Finally, the chapter concludes with an essay from a prison guard, who concludes that not only does solitary confinement harm the prisoners, but also injures those who have to work in these dehumanizing conditions. He describes how the working life of line correctional officials improved once Colorado instituted its reforms.
The Management of High-Security Prisoners
Authors: Coyle Andrew
Published: December 2019

This chapter deals with the vexed question, ‘If not solitary confinement, then what?’. The author describes his personal quest to find an answer this question throughout a professional lifetime during which he spent over two decades in the United Kingdom managing high security prisons where he tried to balance the obligations, on the one hand, to maintain security, safety and good order in each prison while, on the other hand, dealing in a decent and human manner with men who had the potential to be violent and dangerous. He recounts his early observations in the United States and Canada on the beginnings of what were to become ‘supermax’ and ‘administrative segregation’. Having spent a further two decades in academia researching this subject at an international level, he links his earlier experiences in North America with recent involvement in court cases in Canada and the United States. He concludes by laying out a series of operational principles which, if properly applied, are likely to lead to a dramatic reduction and eventually to the elimination of the use of solitary confinement.
Resisting Supermax
Authors: Bennett Jamie
Published: December 2019

This chapter focuses not on the supermax itself, although a brief description is offered as a comparator, but instead on articulating alternative forms of imprisonment for those prisoners considered to be dangerous and therefore to be held in conditions of high security. The chapter argues that alternatives to the globalized brand of the supermax can be found in localized and often historically established practices. While such practices are imperfect and limited in scale, they do contain elements of good practice worthy of our attention when countering a flawed and inhumane system of imprisonment. Rather than suggesting a reinvention of the prison, the author argues that alternatives can be uncovered in the rediscovery of more humane and effective penal practices that have often continued to flourish in niches of prison systems, but may now be brought into the light and encouraged to reach full bloom. In particular the author points out the rejection of the supermax approach in England and Wales and explores alternatives that have taken root in its place.
Reflections on North Dakota’s Sustained Solitary Confinement Reform
Authors: Bertsch Leann K.
Published: December 2019

As director of the North Dakota Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (ND DOCR), I have overseen its adult, juvenile, and community corrections services for the past thirteen years. This chapter will focus on the broader systems reforms that were implemented prior to solitary confinement reform at the ND DOCR, why it was necessary to change the way we use solitary confinement or restrictive housing, the specific changes we made within the unit, how we improved transitions from the unit, the challenges associated with this work, and the successes we have seen as a result of the reforms.
The “Humpty-Dumpty” Problem in the Study of Development
Authors: Oakes Lisa M. , Rakison David H.
Published: December 2019

This goal of this chapter is to describe how developmentalists have suffered from the humpty-dumpty problem; that is, there has been a focus on individual developmental achievements in isolation. The study of development in pieces provides an incomplete understanding of change because abilities, skills, and knowledge do not develop in isolation. Rather every development reflects interactions between and across different aspects of processing, different mechanisms, and a variety of abilities. Put another way, the development of any ability (e.g., searching for hidden objects, uttering the first word, taking a step) involves the whole child. The chapter proposes that a complete and coherent understanding of development will only emerge from a consideration of how changes in one domain influence or determine cumulative changes in other domains.
The Role of Constraints in Development
Authors: Oakes Lisa M. , Rakison David H.
Published: December 2019

One potential problem with the development cascades approach is that it appears to be unconstrained. However, as discussed in this chapter, constraints in development can be broadly defined. Constraints have typically been conceived of as either innate and present at birth or acquired through experience. This chapter argues instead that developmental cascades are influenced profoundly by different kinds of constraints that do not have a single foundation. Constraints can be structural (e.g., originating from the structure of the child’s nervous system and body), a function of the physical or social environment, or the result of accumulated knowledge and experience. These constraints, it is argued, occur at multiple levels of processing and change over time, both of which contribute to developmental cascades and are the product of cascades.
1780–1820 Southey’s New Star Chamber: Literature, Revolution, and Romantic-Era Libel
Authors: Keymer Thomas
Published: December 2019

Phases of high political tension during the Romantic period, notably under Pitt after the French Revolution and under Liverpool following the Napoleonic Wars, indicate the ongoing importance, and sometimes the severity, of press control between 1780 and 1820. But control was becoming more difficult in practice, and the consequences for poetry and other literary genres are sometimes overstated at a time when the overwhelming priority for the authorities was cheap (or worse, free) radical print. This chapter surveys key cases of prosecution and/or pillorying across the period (Daniel Isaac Eaton, Walter Cox, William Hone, William Cobbett), and argues that the writers now central to the Romantic canon were relatively unaffected. The striking exception is Robert Southey, whose incendiary Wat Tyler, which embarrassingly emerged at the height of Southey’s Tory pomp two decades later, is newly contextualized and interpreted.
The Theology of the Scottish Protestant Missionary Movement
Authors: Stanley Brian
Published: December 2019

In any survey of influential British missionary thinkers, Scottish names would occupy a prominent place. The Scottish contribution was not confined to those who served with the missions of the Presbyterian churches: some influential Scottish missionaries served with English societies, and some were not even Presbyterians. Nevertheless, five generalizations can be offered: (1) Scots Presbyterians opted to do mission through ecclesiastical structures, rather than through voluntary societies. (2) Scottish Presbyterian missions aimed to bring the entire life of Christian communities under the rule of Christ. (3) Scottish missionaries tended to insist that education was integral to the missionary task. (4) Scottish missionaries trained in the early nineteenth century drew deeply from the Scottish Enlightenment. (5) From the late nineteenth century, Scottish (like English) missionary theology was affected by philosophical idealism, though the mid-twentieth-century ascendancy of Barthianism may have helped to sustain the Scottish missionary movement in the turbulent post-war environment.
Theology and Ecumenism after Edinburgh 1910
Authors: Finlayson Marlene
Published: December 2019

How was early twentieth-century Protestant Christianity, so prone to division, able to initiate and sustain a movement that sought Christian unity? What was the significance for the movement of the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh 1910? What was the effect of the First World War on the newly emerging ecumenical movement? These questions provide the main themes of this chapter. It describes and assesses the impact of the voluntary movements that had been influenced by the Evangelical Awakening; the revivalism of the 1880s; the development of a Kingdom of God theology; and the missionary movement’s goal of evangelizing the world in a generation. It also describes the major contributions of John R. Mott, Joseph H. Oldham, and David S. Cairns in the first two decades of the twentieth century, when the churches had reached a watershed in their relations.
From Idealism to Personalism
Authors: Hood Adam
Published: December 2019

This chapter looks at the work of John Caird, John Oman, and John Macmurray as thinkers who tried to reformulate Christian belief in the light of the intellectual challenges that emerged to Christianity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Caird’s apologetic aimed to reshape Christianity in the light of Hegel. Oman tried to relieve the tension between freedom—intellectual, moral, and aesthetic—and religious belief. Macmurray elucidated the importance of Christianity through its suggested connection to the sustenance of personal forms of existence and of community. The chapter offers brief evaluations of each writer and concludes that they shared a common allegiance to broad themes arising within British idealism, not least their view of God as immanent in experience.
John Baillie and Donald Baillie
Authors: Newlands George M.
Published: December 2019

John and Donald Baillie were theologians and churchmen in the Scottish Reformed tradition, active and widely influential in Britain and America in the first half of the twentieth century. Together with American colleagues Reinhold Niebuhr and Pitney Van Dusen they developed what they regarded as a liberal orthodox theology, mediating between Barthian theology and more distinctively liberal traditions. Characteristic works included John Baillie’s Gifford Lectures, The Sense of the Presence of God, Donald Baillie’s God Was in Christ, and perhaps most significantly John Baillie’s A Diary of Private Prayer, which sold millions of copies and is still in print. Both were much involved with ecumenical issues and in the World Council of Churches.
The Influence of Barth in Scotland
Authors: Nimmo Paul T.
Published: December 2019

This chapter investigates the influence of the Swiss pastor and academic Karl Barth (1886–1968) upon three important Scottish theologians active in the twentieth century: John McConnachie (1875–1948), H. R. Mackintosh (1870–1936), and T. F. Torrance (1913–2007). Each of these thinkers bears a measure of responsibility for Barth becoming a central conversation partner for theology in Scotland from 1930 onwards, although each had a rather different relationship to his work. This chapter exposits the influence of Barth upon each theologian in detail, attending to their significant publications on Barth as well as to wider contextual factors. It concludes by offering one possible reason for the different influences of Barth upon each of their work and a brief reflection upon the ongoing influence of Barth in Scotland.
Modern Christology
Authors: Fergusson David
Published: December 2019

Three Scottish theologians contributed major works on Christology during the twentieth century. H. R. Mackintosh, Donald M. Baillie, and John Macquarrie belong to an Enlightenment tradition that was critical of Chalcedonianism while resolutely seeking to re-express its governing intention. While remaining in contact with the catholic traditions of the church, each sought to reinterpret these under the conditions of modernity. In doing so, their work manifests an intense devotional commitment to Jesus while simultaneously wrestling with problems that continue to beset contemporary articulations of Christ’s person and work. This chapter traces their work in context as it tackles problems of metaphysical entanglement, historical criticism of the gospels, and religious pluralism. Similarities and differences are considered, and the critical reception of their work is assessed.
The Dissemination of Scottish Theology
Authors: Riches John
Published: December 2019

This chapter outlines the history of the Scottish family firm of publishers T&T Clark, which for nearly 200 years made a significant contribution to the development of an historical and critical approach to theological study. This was chiefly effected through a series of publications of mostly German-speaking works of theology and biblical studies. It is suggested that these were principally of a mediating kind, seeking to achieve a complementarity between forms of confessional Protestant belief and theology on the one hand and historical and philosophical studies on the other. This reached a climax in the early twentieth century with the publication of major works by Ritschl and Schleiermacher. Thereafter the firm’s publishing programme became more influenced by confessional forms of theology, particularly through its translation of Karl Barth’s Church Dogmatics. Its legacy, however, remains not only in the form of Barth but of Schleiermacher and historical critical studies of the Bible.