bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Financial Assistance for the Acquisition of Shares
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

This is a practical guide to the subject of financial assistance for the acquisition of shares, in which the authors give a detailed analysis of the current legislation and a critical review of the relevant case law. Financial assistance is a complex, technical and highly regulated aspect of company law, and mistakes have serious civil consequences and criminal sanctions. This book assists practitioners with the interpretation of this difficult area of law and allows them to advise with confidence. Financial assistance is one of the most challenging areas of company law. It is renowned for causing practical difficulties and for the risk involved of giving advice on this area. This book seeks to interpret the position of financial assistance by close reference to the statutory material and abundant case law. Part I deals with the derivation of the legislation and sets out the legislation verbatim with a commentary thereon. Part II contains further analysis of the component parts of the prohibition on the giving of financial assistance. Part III offers factual and critical analysis of some of the most significant cases on this area of the law. The relevant cases will also be cited in Part I and II.
Financial Assistance and the Companies Act 1981
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

The statutory prohibition on the provision of financial assistance by a company for the acquisition of its shares was recast completely by sections 42 to 44 (inclusive) of the Companies Act 1981. The Companies Act 1981 received the Royal Assent on 30 October 1981. This legislation joined the Companies Act 1948 and three additional Companies Acts of 1967, 1976, and 1980 as the legislation governing companies.
Exemption for Solvent Private Companies—Sections 155–158 of the Companies Act 1985
Authors: Roberts Catherine
Published: November 2023

Solvent private companies only are exempted from the prohibitions set out in section 151 of the Companies Act 1985 provided there is due and proper compliance with the provisions of sections 155 to 158 (inclusive) of that Act. The impact of these important sections is to provide a statutory regime for private companies to follow in order to be free of the prohibitions set out in section 151 of the 1985 Act. The legislation sets out a precise procedure and timetable which must be followed. This procedure is popularly referred to as the ‘whitewash’ procedure. The directors of a company play a vital role in the process. Their opinion concerning the financial position of the company is subject to the scrutiny of the company’s auditors, and approval of the members is generally required by way of a special resolution. In addition, provision is made for some degree of protection for minority shareholders.
Antitrust Law in China, Korea and Vietnam
Authors: Furse Mark
Published: November 2023

Following China’s entry into the WTO in September 2001, it has been keen to establish itself among trading parties as a market economy. In recent years it has become one of the largest trading nations in the world, and is a source of substantial inward investment. In recognition of these developments, the government has undertaken a major overhaul and modernisation of its competition law, superseding the outdated and disparate provisions previously in place, with new legislation in 2007. China’s near neighbours, Vietnam and South Korea, likewise have vibrant economies and have had strong trading relationships with the west for many years. This book is the first to cover the practical implications of the developments in competition law in these countries. It is aimed at practising lawyers and company advisors, giving a clear description of the new antitrust law in China, the established antitrust law in Taiwan and Korea, and the underdeveloped law in Vietnam. It also considers developments in Hong Kong, which is in the process of introducing a general law of antitrust. The first part of the book gives a concise introduction to antitrust laws and policies in the jurisdictions covered, as well as an introduction to standards in antitrust law for those new to the area. China, Taiwan, Korea and Vietnam each have five chapters devoted to discussion of the regime in general, its institutional shape, the substantive laws relating to agreements, dominant or monopoly firm conduct, merger control and procedures. The relevant legislation is explained and the principles clarified by references to guidelines, practice and relevant decisions and cases. In the case of Hong Kong a single chapter discusses the proposals brought forward by the legislature. Particular attention is paid to the extent to which antitrust laws in each jurisdiction may be applied to parties who are not citizens in those jurisdictions. This book is invaluable to lawyers advising clients engaging in international trade and commerce with and within these territories, and besides giving a clear explanation of the position of the law, it also contains translations of the core relevant legislation for each of the jurisdictions. Academics specialising in international competition law will find this a concise and informative text for consultation.
Writing Critical Management Studies
Authors: Parker Martin
Published: November 2023

CMS is still a new baby in academic terms. Newer even than business ethics. At the time of writing it is probably approaching its tenth birthday, a birthday which might be commonly dated with the publication of Alvesson’s and Will- mott’s Critical Management Studies in 1992. Since then, the title has become a term—even a ‘brand’ (P. Thompson 2001)—and it is now possible to identify yourself as someone who does CMS, as opposed to managerial studies of business, the latter including most of business ethics. In making such an identity claim, and hence claim to be a member of the CMS community too, the author will be saying something about his or her political sympathies— broad left, pro-feminist, anti-imperialist, environmentally concerned and so on—as well as usually expressing a certain distrust for conventional positivist formulations of knowledge within the social sciences.
Arbitration of International Business Disputes
Authors: Park William W
Published: November 2023

Arbitration of International Business Disputes: Studies in Law and Practice is a collection of articles by William W. Park, one of the leading scholars in international commercial arbitration. The book is a coherent and focused collection of his most significant and timeless articles on business dispute arbitration. The essays address some of the most controversial and interesting questions that have arisen in cross-border business dispute resolution over the past 25 years, particularly in relation to trade, finance and investment disputes. In this rapidly growing and evolving area of law, many of these debates have recurred over several decades and remain subject to radically different views. Examples of the issues examined by Professor Park are the proper role of national arbitration statutes, investment arbitration under free trade agreements, and the balance between fixed rules and arbitral discretion. The book is structured around three themes: arbitration's legal framework; the organisation and conduct of arbitral proceedings, which focuses on the tensions between fairness and efficiency, and substantive norms; and a comparison of the application of arbitration as applied to various specific fields such as finance, intellectual property and taxation. The original articles have been thoroughly revised and updated to provide a contemporary perspective, while the collection is prefaced by a major new article, Procedural Evolution in Business Arbitration:, which draws together the key themes. The foreword has been written by Gabrielle Kaufmann-Kohler, former President of the Swiss Arbitration Association. The book will appeal to serious arbitration practitioners and academics alike.
Calculating the Compensatory Award: Pensions
Authors: Korn Anthony , Sethi Mohinderpal
Published: November 2023

In one sense pension loss is no different from other monetary losses that flow from a dismissal or an act of discrimination. But it deserves special treatment not only because pension loss may be one of the Claimant ‘s most financially material losses but also because defining and assessing such loss is not always straightforward. The right to recover compensation for loss of pension following an unfair dismissal was established as long ago as 1974 by the NIRC in Copson v Eversure Accessories Ltd[1974] IRLR 247. It is now a well-established component of the compensatory award.
Calculating the Compensatory Award: Loss of Statutory Rights
Authors: Korn Anthony , Sethi Mohinderpal
Published: November 2023

The final head of compensation established by Norton Tool Co Ltd v Tewson[1973] 1 All ER 183 is compensation for loss of statutory rights such as the temporary loss of the right to claim unfair dismissal, redundancy, or maternity leave in future employment owing to the need to requalify for these rights. This head is somewhat inconsistent with the general principle that compensation should only be awarded for financial loss and it would appear from the EAT ‘s decision in Harvey v The Institute of the Motor Industry (No. 2)[1995] IRLR 416, that industrial tribunals will not err in law if they fail to make such an award or fail to give reasons for not making such an award, though the latter must be open to doubt (Meek v City of Birmingham[1987] IRLR 250).
Ex Gratia Payments and Other Deductions
Authors: Korn Anthony , Sethi Mohinderpal
Published: November 2023

The primary purpose of the statutory provisions is to prevent employees from receiving both a basic award and a redundancy payment. However, where an employee receives an enhanced redundancy payment, i.e., a payment over and above the statutory maximum, this may be set off against the compensatory award, but this applies only where redundancy is found to be the true reason for dismissal (Boorman v Allmakes Ltd[1995] IRLR 553). The relevant statutory provisions are examined in greater detail below.
Tribunal Procedures
Authors: Korn Anthony , Sethi Mohinderpal
Published: November 2023

The Employment Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/1861), which came into force on 1 October 2004, mark the start of a new era in employment tribunal procedures. It is perhaps fair to say that the Employment Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2001 (SI 2001/1171), and in Scotland (SI 2001/1170), already represented a move away from the previous more informal approach towards giving greater importance to the efficient management of the tribunal system.
Regulation Through Authorisation, Requirement, And Approval
Authors: Russen Jonathan
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the manner in which the FSA controls those operating within the financial services market in fulfilment of the statutory objectives set out in the Introduction to this book, by ensuring that appropriate standards of conduct and behaviour are met. In Financial Services Authority v Fradley, Arden LJ explained the system of authorisation as follows: The FSMA is a portmanteau statute dealing with all kinds of investment activity, not just activities in traditional investments such as securities. The former system of self-regulation in specific areas has been abolished.
Introduction
Authors: Ashton John
Published: November 2023

The second edition of any book must be both the same as and different from the first. Too many changes and you have a different book, too few and you have no right to speak of a second edition at all. In this new edition I have dropped the whole of the previous Part I, which took up well over 100 pages, and replaced it with a completely reworked introduction. The previous ‘Questions and Answers’ has been omitted because it was really little more than a ground-clearing exercise. It offered a history of the questions addressed to the Gospel during two centuries of critical scholarship and assessed the situation at the close of the 1980s. Since then there has been no major advance in Johannine studies, but of course a great deal has been written, much of it good, some of it awful. Any detailed assessment of this subsequent work would in my view be of little help in setting the scene for the new edition of my own book. This introduction there-fore simply restates the aims of the book, taking account of certain developments and alterations in my views.
Solid state lasers
Authors: Henderson B , Imbusch G F
Published: November 2023

The word laser is an acronym meaning light 1mplification by timulated mission of adiation. The importance of the spontaneous and stimulated emission processes first introduced by Einstein have already been stressed in Chapter 4. Amplification of electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region was proposed independently by workers in the USA and the USSR during 1953--55. Subsequently Townes and Schawlow (1958) discussed the very precise practical conditions required to obtain amplification of the stimulated emission process in the optical region. They also discussed a number of schemes for operational lasers in both gaseous and solid media. Indeed these workers first suggested the use of the fluorescent lines emitted by Cr3+ in ruby. Schawlow believed that because stimulated emission in the R1- line terminated on the ground state, laser action at this wavelength would be difficult to achieve, and so Schawlow and Devlin (1961) demonstrated that laser action can be obtained from N1- and Nz-lines in ruby. which are associated with exchange-coupled pairs of Cr3+ ions. However, the prize of producing the first operational laser went to Maiman (1960), who demonstrated R1-line laser action in ruby by using the very high excitation intensities from a xenon flash lamp. Maiman’s laser, therefore, operated in the pulsed mode. Since the ruby laser involves the sharp R1-line it is essentially a single-frequency device. Lasers based on emission from rare-earth ions e.g. Nd·1 “, Ho3 •· etc., are also restricted to single-frequency output. In contrast the outputs from dye lasers are tunable over wide wavelength ranges. Early in the history of the laser Johnson et al. (1963, 1964, 1966) observed laser action in the broad phonon-assisted emission bands from transition metal ions in ionic crystals, indicating the potential of such materials for tunable solid state lasers. Commercial development of tunable solid state lasers, however, awaited exploitation of the colour centre laser by Burleigh Instruments and the alexandrite laser (8eAl204: Cr3 +) by Allied Chemicals.
Clinical Negligence: A Practitioner’s Handbook
Authors: Cameron Cecily , QC Elizabeth-Anne Gumbel
Published: November 2023

This new text is a comprehensive guide to investigating and litigating clinical negligence claims, written by two leading practitioners in the field. Aimed particularly at practitioners who are looking to develop their practice in this complex and often emotive area, the book provides a general overview of the law relating to clinical negligence, and focuses on the practical aspects of running a claim. Structured chronologically, the book looks first at the relevant law of negligence and limitation, then at key preliminary matters, including exploring complaints and disciplinary procedures, the possibility of early settlement, risk analysis, limitation, and costs. It goes on to provide detailed guidance on the investigation process as to whether a claim is viable, and to cover every aspect of clinical negligence litigation, from the pre-action protocol and issuing proceedings, to managing witnesses and expert evidence, damages, and trial. Practical, user-friendly guidance is included throughout the text on client care, maintaining effective relationships between solicitors and counsel, case management, and procedure. The book details the particular considerations and difficulties that apply to clinical negligence that distinguish it from other personal injury litigation, such as the development of the law of negligence in the field, the technical complexity of the evidence, and risk analysis. It also describes the external organisations that provide the context to the area, and the business considerations that must be understood if the work is to be undertaken profitably, including guidance on funding (Legal Services Commission, private and Conditional Fee Agreement) and insurance. Specific issues of difficulty, such as the differences between public and private sector defendants, are covered in full, and there are sections on particularly complex topics that can arise in practice such as fatal cases, hospital-acquired infections, and cost of upbringing cases. The text is complemented by a useful precedents section, which is organised in a thematic way to ensure ease of reference. Co-written by a solicitor and a barrister, the book benefits from their differing perspectives and experiences of the litigation process, which ensures that all crucial elements of case preparation and presentation, and the relevant law and practice, is covered in a clear and logical way. Clinical Negligence: A Practitioner’s Handbook will be invaluable to junior solicitors and barristers working in the field, practitioners with a working knowledge of personal injury law who are beginning to develop a clinical negligence practice, medical professionals with an interest in medico-legal issues, and relevant legal and voluntary sector organisations.
Solvation thermodynamics
Authors: Ben-Naim Arieh
Published: November 2023

The study of solvation thermodynamics has a very long history. Almost any experiment carried out in a solution necessarily involves solvation. Prior to the 1970s there were several quantities referred to as standard Gibbs energies of solution (or hydration, when the solvent is water). All of these were defined in terms of a process of transferring of a solute from a specified standard state in the gaseous phase into some other standard state in the liquid phase. It was not at all clear which of these quantities is truly a measure of the Gibbs energy of interaction between the solute and the solvent. It is no wonder that Lewis and Randall (1961) have written on this matter: “Of all the applications of thermodynamics to chemistry, none has in the past presented greater difficulty, or been subject to more misunderstanding.” Traditionally, solvation was studied within the context of thermodynamics. In this context, it could be studied only in the limit of very dilute solution, i.e., in the concentration range when Henry’s law is obeyed.
Local composition and preferential solvation
Authors: Ben-Naim Arieh
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we discuss an important application of the Kirkwood–Buff integrals. We first define the local composition around any molecule in the mixture. Comparison of the local with the global composition leads to the concept of preferential solvation (PS). After defining the local composition and preferential solvation, we turn to discuss these quantities in more detail: first, in three-component systems and later in two-component systems. This “order” of systems is not accidental. The concept of PS was first defined and studied only in three-component systems: a solute sdiluted in a two-component solvent. It is only in such systems that the concept of PS could have been defined within the traditional approach to solvation †. However, with the new concept of solvation, as defined in section 7.2, one can define and study the PS in the entire range of compositions of two-component systems. In the last section of this chapter, we present a few representative examples of systems for which a complete local characterization is available. These examples should convince the reader that local characterization of mixture is not only equivalent to its global characterization, but also offers an alternative and more informative view of the mixture in terms of the local properties around each species in the mixture. We also present here a brief discussion of two difficult but important systems: electrolyte and protein solutions. It is hoped that these brief comments will encourage newcomers into the field to further study these topics of vital importance.
Security After The Enterprise Act
Authors: Stevens Robert
Published: November 2023

After the developments of the last three years, secured lenders may be forgiven for feeling that they have been subject to a ‘double whammy’ from Parliament and the courts. One of the consequences of the Enterprise Act 2002 was that floating charges within its scope became less attractive forms of security. For the lender who wishes to take security, the pressing question is what alternatives to the floating charge are available in order to avoid some of the consequences of the Act? The decision of the House of Lords in Re Spectrum Plus Ltd has placed serious limits on the ability of secured lenders to use flxed security either as an alternative to, or in conjunction with the floating charge.
Should we Redistribute in Insolvency?
Authors: Armour John
Published: November 2023

The House of Lords’ decision in Re Spectrum Plus concerned the appropriate characterization of a security over book debts as a flxed or floating charge. The question matters primarily because a floating charge is subordinated by statute to various other claims in the insolvency of the debtor, whereas a flxed charge is not. This chapter uses the example of the floating charge to argue that such statutory redistribution between claimants in corporate insolvency is generally undesirable.
Romania
Authors: Virtopeanu Cristina , Radu Alina
Published: November 2023

There are no provisions under the securities legislation or guidelines from the NSC making distinction between offering to enter into arrangements arising out of pre-existing relationships or contacting new clients. Providing financial investment services related to derivative contracts traded on regulated markets within Romania shall trigger licensing requirements from Romanian authorities, except for the case when such activities shall be provided by entities authorized in an EU member state based upon the single passport principle. Insurance services—According to the Insurance Regulatory Act, insurance/re-insurance companies and insurance/re-insurance intermediaries authorized in the EU/EEA which provide their services on the Romanian insurance market based on the single passport principle, are allowed to advertise their products or services in Romania provided the general legal provisions applicable in the advertising field are observed. The insurance regulations do not make any distinction between offering to enter into arrangements arising out of pre-existing relationships and offerings to new clients.
Brunei Darussalam
Authors: Abdul’Ali Muhd Jamil Abas bin , Co Davidson
Published: November 2023

The principal regulatory authority that regulates banking, insurance, and securities activities in Brunei Darussalam is the Ministry of Finance. The main enforcement powers that the relevant authorities have include powers to call for relevant information and/or documents, investigate or appoint other professionals to investigate and make reports, and/ or suspend or revoke licences, impose additional or varied conditions, and bring charges in a court of law. The authors are not aware of any proposed changes at the time of writing.
Indonesia
Authors: Ginting Daniel
Published: November 2023

Under the Banking Law and its implementing regulation, any party engaged in banking activities (which are defined to include deposit taking and the use of such deposits for lending) must obtain a licence from Bank Indonesia. A lending activity, however, would be treated as a general commercial transaction that does not require specific licensing from Bank Indonesia. In practice, there are many cross-border lending transactions from foreign lenders to Indonesian borrowers. Bank Indonesia imposes limits on the percentage of a bank’s total capital which may be extended to afflliated or non-afflliated customers. A bank may not extend credit in excess of 10% of its capital to afflliates, 20% of its capital to its non-afflliated individual borrowers, and 25% of its capital to a non-afflliated group of borrowers.
The Language Of Physics
Authors: Cullerne John P , Machacek Anton
Published: November 2023

This book introduces physics to a first year undergraduate in the language of mathematics. As such it aims to give a mathematical foundation to the physics taught pre-university, as well as extending it to the skills and disciplines approached during a first degree course in physical science or engineering. It bridges two gaps in modern education—between the level of difficulty in pre-university study and undergraduate study, and between mathematics and physics. Many of the concepts are revised or introduced in the course of ‘workshop’ questions which are an integral part of the text. Fully explained solutions to these workshops are given as a substantial appendix to the book. The student will be enabled to study classical mechanics in terms of vector calculus, fields in terms of line and surface integrals, oscillations and waves in terms of complex exponentials and so on. As far as we are aware, this book is unique in its aim, its content, and its approach.
Circuits
Authors: Cullerne John P , Machacek Anton
Published: November 2023

When asked at the dawn of the 20th century why Britain produced so many world leading physicists, the Nobel laureate and Cavendish Professor J.J. Thomson replied that it was because no science was taught in British schools. Understanding an electric circuit is hardly as conceptually groundbreaking or fundamentally fascinating as more exotic topics such as quantum mechanics, particle physics or astrophysics. However, the humble electric circuit is important to the engineers or physicists for two main reasons. First of all, they spend much of their time using and designing electronic circuits to do their measuring and experimental control. Without measurement, there is no science; and in a modern paper mill, hospital, refinery, nuclear reactor, airliner or laboratory, most of the measurements are made electronically. Second, a good understanding of electric circuits is not easy to achieve, but serves as an excellent exercise for the mind – which is then much more adept at tackling other problems (just like Thomson ‘s school studies in Latin and Greek). In fact when engineers are trying to understand a completely new system, they may often draw analogies between the parts of the system and the components of an electric circuit. Once they have solved the circuit using their electrical knowledge, they have solved the other system too. Electric circuits, with all their connections, serve as excellent analogies for a vast number of linked or connected systems.
Image and Audience
Authors: Bradley Richard
Published: November 2023

There have been many accounts of prehistoric ‘art’, but nearly all of them begin by assuming that the concept is a useful one. In this extensively illustrated study, Richard Bradley asks why ancient objects were created and when and how they were used. He considers how the first definitions of prehistoric artworks were made, and the ways in which they might be related to practices in the visual arts today. Extended case studies of two immensely popular and much-visited sites illustrate his argument: one considers the megalithic tombs of Western Europe, whilst the other investigates the decorated metalwork and rock carvings of Bronze Age Scandinavia.
Does the world need more Canada? The politics of the Canadian model in constitutional politics and political theory
Authors: Choudhry Sujit
Published: November 2023

In the past two decades, numerous political theorists have taken up the question of how constitutional design should respond to ethnic, national, and linguistic division. Just as important as that question is the way in which these theorists have responded to it. Some, rather than deriving constitutional strategies and models from abstract principles of political morality, have turned to real-life examples to buttress their proposed solutions. This is hardly surprising, since political theorists write about urgent problems to which they hope to offer principled solutions that actually work. However, in the subsidiary literature concerned with the accommodation of minority nationalism, the models on offer are often much more complex, consisting of a large number of constitutional instruments meant to operate as a whole. It is precisely in this context—and as just such a model— that Canada has attained considerable prominence.
Ethnic identity and democratic institutions: A dynamic perspective
Authors: Pildes Richard H
Published: November 2023

The most urgent problem in the design of democratic institutions today is how best to design such institutions in the midst of seemingly profound internal heterogeneity, conflict, and group differences. In different parts of the world, the relevant differences can be religious, racial, linguistic, tribal, cultural, regional, or perhaps of other forms (as a shorthand, “ethnic differences”). This problem is central, not only to newly forming democracies over the last generation but also to more established democracies, as various groups more assertively press claims for political recognition, representation, and influence. We ought to understand this issue, better than we have thus far, as lying at the intersection of democratic theory and democratic institutional design on the one hand, and questions about the nature of individual rationality and rational choice concerning ethnic group “identities”, on the other.
Ecological Tax Reform And Emissions Trading—Can They Work Together In Practice? An Empirical Analysis For Germany
Authors: Schlegelmilch1 Kai , Bunse2 Maike
Published: November 2023

Industrialized nations use more natural resources than the Earth can provide in the longer term. Fossil fuels are particularly scarce and in limited supply. At the same time, greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise, fostering climate change because the capacity of the Earth’s atmosphere to absorb them has been exhausted. In tackling this global challenge, one highly promising measure is the use of economic instruments to increase the price of conventional energy, provide incentives for more efficient energy use, and promote greater use of renewables. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provides a global framework for the use of economic instruments at international level. As a signatory, the European Union (EU) has agreed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 8 per cent. Using a target sharing3 approach, EU Member States have each set national reduction goals; Germany has committed to reducing emissions of all six greenhouse gases defined in the Kyoto Protocol by 21 per cent in the period 2008 to 2012, compared with the figures for the base year. The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) supports the fulfilment of the commitments arising from the Kyoto Protocol. The scheme provides for an initial three-year and subsequent five-year trading period. The first (2005–07) and the second (2008–12) trading period cover only CO2 emissions and are limited to specific industry sectors.
Reconsidering Crowding Out Of Intrinsic Motivation From Financial Incentives: The Case Of Conservation On Private Lands
Authors: Stern1 Stephanie
Published: November 2023

There has been a dramatic growth in the use of tax and financial incentives to reduce environmental harms from individuals. In the United States, incentivebased regulation has provided financial support to landowners for habitat management, created tax credits for early purchasers of hybrid vehicles, rewarded consumers who return bottles, and conferred significant tax savings on landowners who donate development rights in their land.2 The strong political resistance to the regulation of individual consumers makes incentives an appealing method, particularly for encouraging transitions to new behaviours. Environmentalists have expressed misgivings, however, that financial compensation will reduce motivation and subsequent voluntary action, limit the internalization of pro-environmental social norms, and inappropriately commodify the environment.3 Scholars have noted that market strategies imply a licence to pollute4 and incentive payments ‘may conflict with general conservation obligations that we want society to internalize’.5 Other commentators have observed that market-based strategies make the environment an ‘ordinary commodity’.6 In particular, environmentalists are concerned that individuals who receive short-term compensation or incentives will be reluctant to act later in time or in different circumstances where incentives are not available.7 This charge is troubling for proponents of environmental incentives. If incentives undermine motivation to engage voluntarily in conservation practices or harm environmental attitudes generally, incentives may indeed be counter-productive.
Extra Strength Sewer Surcharges In Ontario: Do They Really Reduce Contaminant Loadings?1
2
Authors: Donnan3 Jack , Balasuriya4 Gunawardana , Havet5 Ines
Published: November 2023

Different charge schemes have been developed and implemented by environmental management agencies in Canada and the United States to help manage or curtail environmental pollution.6 Municipal sewer authorities throughout North America have applied extra-strength sewer surcharges (ESSSs) for many years through extra-strength sewer surcharge agreements (ESSAs). Where an ESSA has been established with a commercial or industrial sewer user, surcharges are imposed on sewage discharges which exceed contaminant limits that are set in the by-laws of the municipality. Municipalities typically levy charges for water and sewer utility use either through property taxes or direct billing. Water and sewer charges typically include one or more of the following: Despite the fact that water and sewer systems are physically connected and operationally interdependent, they are usually operated by two separate agencies in most medium to large municipalities. This can result in challenges in planning andcoordinationofcapacitiesandintheefficientpricingofservices.7 Nevertheless, municipalities have achieved centralized billing of water and sewer charges.
Towards Commonality? Policy Approaches to Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research in Europe
Authors: Isasi Rosario M , Knoppers* Bartha M
Published: November 2023

The heterogeneity of European approaches to embryo and stem cell research policy is a reflection of the continent’ s diverse socio-cultural, religious, economic, and historical contexts. The peculiarities of national institutional frameworks and the role of stakeholders constitute additional factors that influence policy development.
Morality Provisions in Law Concerning the Commercialization of Human Embryos and Stem Cells
Authors: Viens* A M
Published: November 2023

The aim of establishing a consistent and unified approach in law concerning the ethics of commercializing human embryos and their derivative parts, products, or related technologies remains incomplete within the European Union. An examination of legislation, jurisprudence, and policy documents concerning the governance and regulation of biotechnology innovation reveals a lack of substantive and coherent moral justification concerning how and which * A M Viens, PhD candidate, School of Law, Queen Mary, University of London.
Introduction to Nanoscience
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

Nanoscience is not physics, chemistry, engineering or biology. It is all of them, and it is time for a text that integrates the disciplines. This is such a text, aimed at advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students in the sciences. The consequences of smallness and quantum behaviour are well known and described Richard Feynman's visionary essay 'There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom' (which is reproduced in this book). Another, critical, but thus far neglected, aspect of nanoscience is the complexity of nanostructures. Hundreds, thousands or hundreds of thousands of atoms make up systems that are complex enough to show what is fashionably called 'emergent behaviour'. Quite new phenomena arise from rare configurations of the system. Examples are the Kramer's theory of reactions (Chapter 3), the Marcus theory of electron transfer (Chapter 8), and enzyme catalysis, molecular motors, and fluctuations in gene expression and splicing, all covered in the final Chapter on Nanobiology. The book is divided into three parts. Part I (The Basics) is a self-contained introduction to quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics and chemical kinetics, calling on no more than basic college calculus. A conceptual approach and an array of examples and conceptual problems will allow even those without the mathematical tools to grasp much of what is important. Part II (The Tools) covers microscopy, single molecule manipulation and measurement, nanofabrication and self-assembly. Part III (Applications) covers electrons in nanostructures, molecular electronics, nano-materials and nanobiology. Each chapter starts with a survey of the required basics, but ends by making contact with current research literature.
Röntgen’s X Rays (1895)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1833, Michael Faraday did his research on the conduction of electricity through a liquid, which was a solution of some salt in water. Two metal plates, called electrodes, were immersed into the liquid and connected to a battery. The electrode connected to the positive pole of the battery was called anode, the other cathode. In such a set-up an electric current flows and, at the same time, substance is deposited at the electrodes. The latter process is called electrolysis. As an example, if the liquid is a solution of silver nitrate, then silver is deposited at the cathode. The mass deposited is proportional to the electric charge passed through the liquid. The transport of electricity and of material obviously is due to charged matter. As the atomic hypothesis gained support, this charged matter was conceived to consist of positively or negatively charged atoms or molecules called ions. The smallest possible charge of an ion was obtained by dividing Faraday’s constant, i.e., the total charge needed to transport one mole of chemically monovalent substance, silver in our example, by Avogadro’s constant, namely, the number of atoms (or molecules) per mole. This charge was called the atom of electricity by Helmholtz in 1881 and electron by Stoney in 1891. We now call it the elementary charge, since the term electron was soon used to designate a fundamental particle (see Episode 4).
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays (1899)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1899 a young New Zealander, Ernest Rutherford [1,2], appeared on the scene of radioactivity research, which he was to dominate for the next decades. He had studied at Canterbury College, Christchurch, which was part of the University of New Zealand and performed important research work on the detection of electromagnetic waves. In 1894, he won the prestigious 1851 Exhibition Science Scholarship and went to Cambridge to work under J. J. Thomson. Together with Thomson he began to study the effect of X rays on gases. They described in detail how X rays in a gas produce pairs of ions with opposite charge and thus make the gas a conductor. They found quite different behaviours for the positive and negative ions. After the electron had been detected, Thomson quickly made it clear that the negative ions were, in general, electrons. This pioneering work on the ionization of gases helped Rutherford to become an expert in the detection of radioactivity in which ionization plays a key role.
The Transmutation of Elements (1902)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Ernest Rutherford had found that thorium produces a radioactive gas, which he called emanation and which decays with a half-life of about one minute (see Episode 8). In his further studies he discovered that the wall of a vessel, which had contained emanation, showed radioactivity even after the emanation had decayed [1]. He called this phenomenon excited radioactivity and the new substance an active deposit. Rutherford measured eleven hours as half-life of the active deposit, to be compared to one minute for the emanation. In the summer of 1900 a young scientist, Frederick Soddy , came from Oxford to McGill University to become Demonstrator in Chemistry there. Rutherford, who, with his new gas and deposit, could do with the help of a chemist, was glad that Soddy agreed to do research work with him.
Einstein’s Light-Quantum Hypothesis (1905)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

There can be no doubt that Einstein [1–3] is still the most widely known scientist of all time. He entered the scientific stage in 1905, the year in which he published several papers of utmost importance and the year in which he obtained his doctor’s degree. In the first of these papers, he proposed the light quantum, which for his whole life he considered to be his most daring idea.
Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment (1910)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Millikan [1,2] was the first American-born Noble laureate. He also was the best known and most influential American physicist between the two world wars. In text books, his name is mostly related to the oil-drop experiment for measuring the elementary electric charge e. Millikan was born in Iowa as son of a minister. He studied at Oberlin College and Columbia University where he obtained a Ph.D. in physics in 1895. After a year in Europe, where he attended lectures in Jena, Paris and Berlin and did research work in Göttingen under Nernst, Millikan became assistant and later professor at the Ryerson Laboratory of the University of Chicago which was led by the great Michelson. In the next decade, Millikan did some research on radioactivity and also on the photoelectric effect. But his main activity was teaching and writing textbooks for both university and high-school students. In 1907, together with his graduate student Begeman , he began with measurements of the elementary charge. Let us shortly review the state of the art for the determination of that quantity at the time.
Tracks of Single Particles in Wilson’s Cloud Chamber (1911)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

I feel that I owe what success I have achieved inmy scientific work mainly to my good fortune in beginning my experiments on clouds just at the right time – a few months before Röntgen made his great discovery. And my choice of a subject to work upon was not due to any forethought on my own part nor to any good advice received, but just to the fact that in the autumn of 1894 I spent a few weeks on a cloudy Scottish hill-top – the top of Ben Nevis. Morning after morning I saw the sun rise above a sea of clouds and the shadow of the hill on the clouds below surrounded by gorgeous coloured rings. The beauty of what I saw made me fall in love with clouds and I made up my mind to make experiments to learn more about them. Working in J. J. Thomson’s laboratory during the years when X-rays and radio-activity were discovered, I could not help being interested in ions – and with ions and clouds I have worked ever since.
Hess Finds Cosmic Radiation (1912)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

As early as 1785 Coulomb , to whom we owe the law governing electrostatic forces, found that an electrically charged body gradually loses its charge even if it is very well insulated. It was found out that this effect is due to a small electric conductivity of the air. After Becquerel had observed that this conductivity increased when radioactive material was present, it became generally accepted that the radiation emitted by that material created pairs of positive and negative ions in the air and that the conductivity of the air was caused by radioactive substances in the earth and possibly in the air itself. If that was so, then the conductivity of atmospheric air should decrease with rising distance from the surface of the earth.
Sommerfeld – Spatial Quantization and Fine Structure (1916)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1906 Röntgen, who was then professor of physics at the University of Munich, saw to it that the chair of Theoretical Physics, left vacant by Boltzmann who had moved to Vienna, was offered to Sommerfeld . (Before, it had been offered to Lorentz, who, however, had preferred to stay in Leiden.) Sommerfeld [1–3] was an accomplished mathematician. Earlier in his career he had been assistant to Klein , the eminent mathematician in Göttingen. Besides the main lecture courses Sommerfeld used to offer lectures on special topics on which he was currently working. In the winter semester 1914/15 his topic was the Bohr model. He extended it considerably and was able to find a number of new results which were published [4,5] early in 1916.
Matter Waves Proposed by de Broglie (1923)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

We have seen that it took about two decades to fully realize that light or, generally, electromagnetic radiation has both wave and particle properties. The final proof came with the discovery of the Compton effect (Episode 31). Even Compton himself needed years before he saw that the particle picture of radiation was unavoidable in view of the experimental evidence. Still in the year of Compton’s publications, Louis de Broglie [1] on purely theoretical grounds proposed that the particle–wave duality not only holds for radiation but also for material particles, i.e., for particles with a rest mass such as the electron.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Bohr’s Complementarity (1927)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In his memoirs Heisenberg reports on his first encounter with Einstein in April 1926. He had been invited to present his work on quantum mechanics in the prestigious Berlin colloquium and after the talk they walked together to Einstein’s apartment. Einstein began the conversation by criticizing Heisenberg’s postulate that quantum mechanics must be based exclusively on quantities which are in principle observable (Episode 37). Astonished, Heisenberg remarked that he thought, just that had been Einstein’s approach in special relativity when giving up the concept of absolute time, Einstein replied [1]: ‘Probably I did use this kind of reasoning, but it is nonsense all the same [… ] In reality the opposite happens. It is the theory which decides what we can observe.’
The Band Model of Conductors and Semiconductors (1928–31)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1927, when he was twenty-five, Heisenberg was appointed full professor of theoretical physics at the University of Leipzig and soon established a very productive group. His first doctoral student was Bloch , whom we met briefly already as a student in Zurich (Episode 39). Following an advice by Debye, who himself had moved to Leipzig, Bloch [1] had arrived for the winter semester 1927/28. On Heisenberg’s suggestion he thought about a subject for his thesis over the Christmas break and concluded that he would like to reformulate an important theorem, obtained by Ehrenfest in the ‘old quantum theory’, in the framework of the new quantum mechanics. But he was told by Heisenberg [2]: ‘Yes, one might do that, but I think you had better leave such things to the learned gentlemen in Göttingen’, alluding to the group of Born, who, as we have seen, was originally a mathematician. Instead, Heisenberg suggested something ‘more down to earth, such as, for example, ferromagnetism or the conductivity of metals’.