bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Number of Parties As a Function of Heterogeneity and Electoral System
Authors: TAAGEPERA REIN
Published: March 2007

What determines the number of parties in a national assembly? Previous work has emphasized either sociopolitical heterogeneity or electoral system permissiveness, or brought them together on an empirical basis. Here an equation is developed that satisfies two theoretical boundary conditions and expresses the effective number of assembly parties ( N) in terms of both the number of politicized issue dimensions ( I) and effective magnitude ( M) of electoral system: N = I.6 M.15 + 1. Actually, depending on circumstances, any of the three variables could become the dependent one, affected by the two others. Empirical evidence is presented, based on Lijphart's (1984) data on 22 stable regimes.
Cultural Contributions to Explaining Institutional Form, Political Change, and Rational Decisions
Authors: LOCKHART CHARLES
Published: March 2007

Relying on culture as an important explanatory variable is regarded with skepticism by many contemporary political scientists. Yet, doubts about culture's usefulness rest in large part on false perceptions of various sorts. These misunderstandings relegate an important explanatory variable to the social science scrap heap. Accordingly, the author engages in three tasks. First, selected prominent arguments for culture's lack of explanatory usefulness are discussed. Second, it is demonstrated how at least one conceptualization of culture, Mary Douglas and Aaron Wildavsky's grid-group theory, overcomes aspects of these difficulties and contributes to explaining institutional form and political change. Third, it is argued that grid-group theory contributes significantly to both institutional analysis and rational choice theory. Grid-group theory augments each of these latter two approaches and, more important, reveals complementary aspects, linking these modes of analysis together as mutually supportive elements of a more inclusive explanatory scheme.
Public Opinion, Elections and Foreign Policy: US Foreign Policy toward the Soviet Union, 1968-88
Authors: HALLENBERG JAN
Published: March 2007

The question of how the domestic political context of democratic countries affects their foreign policies has received increasing interest in political science research during the last few years. In this article, the interrelationships between public opinion and public statements by presidential candidates are studied for the US presidential elections from 1968 through to 1988. The issues covered are the explanations of Soviet foreign policy and the prescriptions for US policy responses, here collectively called the image of the Soviet Union, which are offered by the two (in two cases three) main contenders for the presidency. It is found that there is a tendency for the main thrust of the debate on relations with the Soviet Union to shift from one election to the next, no matter what the Soviet Union has done between the elections. This shift can be summarized as a movement from a `hawkish' approach to a `dove-like' one. In particular, presidential candidates who ran for re-election changed their message from the first election to the next. The hypothesis that presidential candidates adjusted their images of the Soviet Union directly to the views of the public as expressed in opinion surveys did not receive confirmation, however.
Identity Formation in the Barents Euro-Arctic Region
Authors: HØNNELAND GEIR
Published: March 2007

The Barents Euro-Arctic Region was established in 1993 to further security objectives in the European North. In order to reach the superior goal of maintaining stability in the area, it is a declared aim to create an identity region with people from all parts of it conceiving of themselves as `us' as opposed to `them' outside. The common history of the populations in the area as well as their similar geographical frame of reference are emphasized as forces capable of enhancing such a process. In this article, various narratives concerning the possibility of creating a common northern identity across the former Iron Curtain are presented. Pending more extensive empirical evaluations of the identity formation efforts, a preliminary conclusion would be that the new northern identity is characterized above all by contrasts and paradoxes. While the Barents Region project has profoundly changed the lives of a whole group of young Russians — here called `the Barents generation' — great numbers of people in the region probably have not even heard of it. Furthermore, a new contrasting between East and West seems to be underway.
Service
Authors: Powers Thomas F.
Published: March 2007

Our perceptions of service reflect the concerns of an aristocratic age that has passed, at least in this country. The author argues that we must develop a theoretical frame of reference to inform evolving practice in this rapidly changing field.
Japanese Investment in U.S. Hotels and Resorts
Authors: Burritt M. Chase
Published: March 2007

During the 1 980s, Japanese investors set records by purchasing U.S. hotel properties and chains for ever-increasing prices. Among the noteworthy acquisitions were the Hotel Bel-Air in Los Angeles (purchased for $1.2 million per room) and Inter-Continental Hotels (at a total cost of over $1 billion). Although the great land rush of the 1 980s will probably not be repeated, the causes underlying the Japanese investment in North America still exist. The United States still offers opportunities for favorable investment returns (albeit at greater risk than in the past) for Japanese investors, who still have substantial capital. Hotels and resorts will continue to be particularly attractive targets for Japanese investors.
Incentive-Travel Marketing
Authors: Mehta Subhash C. , Loh James C.M. , Mehta Sanjay S.
Published: March 2007

Using Singapore as an example of a potential destination, the authors explore the complexities of attracting the incentive-travel market. Selling travel packages to corporations that in turn use them to reward or inspire employees is extremely lucrative when properly donemore profitable than meetings business, for example. Providing a desirable destination, being creative, and offering unique programs are the keys to attracting first time incentive customers; delivering what you promise, flawless service, well-trained employees, and follow-up calls are the keys to ensuring repeat business. Pick a market segment and concentrate in that area; don't try to serve a variety of markets or you'll dilute your ability to do well. Government agencies can help in promoting the destination and easing restrictive regulations that may interfere with program ideas.
Hotels and Travel Agents
Authors: Schulz Christopher
Published: March 2007

Travel agents book more than 90 percent of airline tickets but are responsible for only 25 percent of hotel reservations. Although there is some negative history to overcome, hotel companies and travel agents are coming to recognize the advantages of collaboration over competition. With the advent of new computer-based distribution systems, travel agents can negotiate with hotel clients for volume contracts, recommend hotels to individual travelers, and consult with corporate travel planners. The partnership is mutually beneficial: travel agents constitute a large and relatively inexpensive labor force for the hotel industry, and booking hotel reservations helps to bolster travel agents' bottom lines as airline fare wars have meant lower commissions.
Motivating Hotel Employees
Authors: Simons Tony , Enz Cathy A.
Published: March 2007

To learn what hotel employees want out of their jobs, the authors asked 278 workers at 12 hotels in the U.S. and Canada to rank the following ten work factors: good wages, tactful discipline, job security, interesting work, feeling of being "in on things," sympathetic help with personal problems, opportunities for advancement and development, good working conditions, personal loyalty to employees, and appreciation for work accomplishments. Overall, hotel employees reported that the three things they most wanted from their employers were: (1) good wages, (2) job security, and (3) opportunities for advancement and development. There were differences among the hotel workers, however, based on their age and the area in which they worked. While all respondents ranked good wages as the single most important job factor, younger employees reported opportunities for development and interesting work as the second and third most-wanted job factors. In contrast, employees over 30 reported job security and working conditions as the second and third most-important job factors. The top-three job factors for F&B servers were good wages, developmental opportunities, and job security. Front-office employees gave similar emphasis to wages and opportunity, but placed appreciation in the third spot, followed by job security. Human-resources, accounting, and sales and marketing employees tended to emphasize interesting work and opportunities for advancement more than the other groups.
Keeping It Legal
Authors: Enghagen Linda K. , Wilson Robert H.
Published: March 2007

The common-law duty that requires innkeepers to accept the public as guests (in the absence of having a basis for a rightful refusal) protects minors, young adults, and all other guests from inappropriate discrimination. Nevertheless, carefully crafted and executed rules and policies can protect hotels from many of the problems typically experienced with young guests while preserving the valuable business generated from this market segment. Two general principles should provide the underpinning of any policy addressing the basis of rightfully refusing accommodations to minors and young adults. First, as a matter of common-law doctrine, it is unlawful to deny minors and young adults accommodations by virtue of their age alone. Second, notwithstanding this general rule of law, there are a number of reasons an innkeeper may lawfully deny accommodations to members of these groups. An innkeeper may lawfully refuse a guest when the guest: (1) lacks the ability to pay, (2) is of objectionable character, (3) is behaving improperly, or (4) when the hotel has an objective basis to conclude that improper behavior will occur (for example, if there is reason to believe that the room will be used for a party or that alcohol will be served to minor guests).
Scripts: Precursor of Consumer Expectations
Authors: Shoemaker Stowe
Published: March 2007

One foundation of customer satisfaction is customer expectations. Those expectations can be regarded as ingredients in a script, or a series of actions that a customer regards as necessary or appropriate to a service transaction. Variations from the script can be a source of dissatisfaction if the dissonant actions are considered important by the customer. Service providers who seek to change elements of their service package would do well to educate customers in advance about those changes, so that the customers can include them in their script expectations. For instance, hoteliers' implementation of automatic check-in machines is a radical departure from the current script for checking into a hotel. While most customers may regard the use of those machines as an improvement, others may be bewildered or outright anxious. Research related in this article found that one way to focus consumers on learning new elements of a script is to present them with an obstacle but not a solution-or a solution but not an obstacle-so that the customer must make the inference about the connection between the two.
Resort Ecotourism: A Master Plan for Experience Management
Authors: Ayala Hana
Published: March 2007

As the number of ecotourists grows, an emphasis on "contextual access" should replace the emphasis on physical access. A skillful interpretation of a natural or cultural phenomenon can add value to tourists' experiences. The ecoresort master plan presented here endorses the building of resorts as self-contained developments in the sense that they follow a "green" model through resource conservation, recycling, and energy efficiency. Beyond that, the plan calls for a resort that is an integral part of the management of the heritage resources that are outside the resort but within reach of it through views and excursions. The ecoresort master plan emphasizes the dual role of interpretation as a mediator of the ecotourism experience and as a means of minimizing any ecological and cultural disturbance resulting from the resort's presence. By "layering" the experience, a resort provides travelers with a choice regarding the intensity of their destination experience. Resorts can also coordinate their programs to create an ecoresort portfolio that generates a flow of multidestination ecotourism.
Launching the Revenue Rocket
Authors: Cross Robert G.
Published: March 2007

Revenue management (RM) is the application of disciplined tactics that predict consumer behavior at the micromarket level and optimize product availability and price to maximize revenue growth. While the application of RM principles depends on each company's competitive situation, the process is similar for all firms. Each firm should examine the applicability of RM to its situation, and specifically if its market is characterized by vagaries of demand, a perishable product (e.g., hotel rooms, restaurant meals), and strong competition. The firm's management should use data-analysis techniques to estimate untapped revenue potential. This estimate involves analyzing all available data to uncover hidden revenue potential through the computerized emulation of actual business environments and control processes. Finally, the firm should quantify the benefits of revenue management. Those responsible for managing revenue should be given express control over all revenue-generating functions, and top management should allow those revenue managers the leeway to make constant and rapid changes in the price and product mix. In the final analysis, revenue management allows a firm to create new time-based products on the spot, as customer demand for those products becomes apparent.
Collecting and Using Employee Feedback
Authors: Chung Beth G.
Published: March 2007

This study demonstrates how systematically gathered employee feedback can be a vital source of information for managers. For example, employees have useful knowledge about the characteristics of your guests, the kinds of people who should be hired, the type of training those new hires need, and how best to reward employees. The procedure involves using focus groups (comprising employees who are representative of the entire employee population) to develop items for a survey questionnaire. The survey itself may be narrowly focused (e.g., dealing only with guest services) or broad in scope. In turn that questionnaire is administered to all employees at the property. The results can then be used to revise and improve those aspects of the operation that were covered by the survey questions. The management of a service organization (an insurance company) that used this procedure learned that it was in the main supporting its employees in achieving ten top customer-service actions. The top three is customer expectations, as judged by employees, were: customers expect their calls to be answered immediately; customers expect employees to does things when they say they will; and customers expect accurate information about available rates. With that knowledge, the organization was abler tire to adjust its human-resources practices to ensure efficient delivery of le; those services most desired by customers.
Recruitment and Retention of Managers
Authors: Dermody Margot B. , Holloway Russell
Published: March 2007

The competition for talented management trainees has never been keener, but the lodging industry seems to be at a disadvantage compared to other businesses that can offer more-regular hours, and often higher starting pay. A management-career package is a strategic framework to offset the lodging industry's initial disadvantages and help trainees enjoy the long-term rewards of a hospitality-management career. Developed from focus-group input and individual interviews with human-resources professionals, the management-career package seeks to integrate the trainee into the lodging business by forging personal ties and offering rapid escalation in job knowledge and responsibility. The key concepts underlying a management-career package include training opportunity, contact with upper management, mentoring, recognition and awards, increasing responsibility, and integration into the management culture. In addition, the hotel industry must acknowledge trainees' personal and family needs.
Counseling Centers of the 1990s
Authors: Guinee James P. , Ness M. Ernest
Published: March 2007

Stone and Archer, in a prominent article, identified a variety of challenges that college and university counseling centers would face in the 1990s. They offered 43 recommendations, grouped by six counseling center functions, that centers could adopt to meet the challenges. Sixty-seven counseling center directors completed a survey designed to assess the extent to which Stone and Archer’s recommendations had been heeded in the 5-year period from 1990-1991 to 1995-1996. Significant positive increases ( p < .001) in adherence were obtained for 23 recommendations (53.5%) with some change found in each one of the six counseling center functions. The survey results suggest that counseling centers actively responded to the many challenges they encountered in the first half of the decade.
Western Models of Counseling and Psychotherapy within Turkey
Authors: Mocan-Aydin Gül
Published: March 2007

This article examines the current usage of Western counseling and psychotherapeutic models with a special emphasis on the local realities of Turkish culture. It explores the applicability of the Western counseling models and reviews the current status of the application of the Western models along with the related practices in Turkish clinical and nonclinical settings. The role of the Turkish counselor within the cultural context is stressed. Implications for the multicultural counselors are discussed, and some recommendations for a culturally relevant model are proposed.
Reflections on Feminist Identity Development
Authors: Hansen Nancy Downing
Published: March 2007

One of the original authors of the feminist identity model reflects on the 16 subsequent years of work in the field as described in this major contribution. The original model is clarified and measurement issues are examined, particularly in relation to the Synthesis and Active Commitment subscales. The author also evaluates existing research and provides suggestions for future research.
Counseling Psychologists and Schools
Authors: Vondracek Fred W. , Porfeli Erik J.
Published: March 2007

The articles in this major contribution on counseling psychology in schools demonstrate that developmental-contextualism is a metatheoretical framework that is relevant and useful for the work of counseling psychologists. The actual utility of the framework depends on the user’s having a clear understanding of its basic constructs and underlying assumptions, as well as avoiding some common misconceptions. Counseling psychologists are urged to acquire a good working knowledge of developmental-contextualism and of recent theoretical advances in the developmental-contextual framework, specifically the developmental systems theory of D. H. Ford and Lerner and the motivational systems theory of M. E. Ford.
The Preservice Training and Supervision of Consultants
Authors: Brown Duane
Published: March 2007

According to surveys conducted over the past 10 years, counseling psychologists are increasingly involved in consultation roles. Strangely, the professional counseling psychology literature has virtually ignored the development of consultation skills. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the issues and problems in developing consultation skills and outline a supervisory model that can be employed by practicum and internship supervisors interested in developing consultation skills. The reciprocal relationships model that is presented is rooted in social learning theory. It attempts to explain the relationship among cognitions, behavioral, and environmental variables in the supervisory process. Specific recommendations are made for remedying particular problems that may arise during the course of supervision.
Systematic Training of Graduate-Level Counselors
Authors: Baker Stanley B. , Daniels Thomas G. , Greeley Ann T.
Published: March 2007

This study reviews research on Carkhuff's Human Resource Training/Human Resource Development (HRT/HRD), Kagan 's Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR), and Ivey's Microcounseling (MC) programs, in all of which the trainees were graduate-level counselors. Both narrative and meta-analytic reviewing approaches were used. What has been accomplished thus far in each program is summed up, and future directions for training and research are suggested. All three programs were found effective overall with the meta-analysis categorizing the effects of HRT/HRD as large, of IPR as small, and of MC as a medium. Beyond overall effects; the narrative and meta-analytic reviews tended to focus on different variables, calling reviewer and reader attention to differing concerns and recommendations. It was concluded that there is more work to be accomplished with all three training programs when used with graduate-level counselors, and both methods of research integration should be understood for what they do and do not offer and used accordingly.
Asian American Preferences for Counselor Characteristics:
Authors: Atkinson Donald R. , Wampold Bruce E. , Lowe Susana M. , Matthews Linda , Ahn Hyun-Nie
Published: March 2007

This study used the same paired comparison format used in four earlier studies to survey ethnic minority preferences for counselor characteristics. However, in the current study, a statistical procedure designed specifically for paired comparison data that provides a powerful test of the relationship between preferences for counselor characteristics and selected within-group variables was used to analyze Asian American preferences for counselor characteristics. Similar attitudes and values was found to be the most preferred counselor characteristic for both personal and career problems. Also, preferences for counselor characteristics were found to be related to type of problem (personal or career), participant level of acculturation, and participant sex. Implications for future practice and research are discussed
Invisibility Syndrome and Racial Identity Development in Psychotherapy and Counseling African American Men
Authors: Franklin Anderson J.
Published: March 2007

Success in counseling African American men is discussed in terms of an invisibility syndrome and the role played by their racial identity development. Invisibility is considered a psychological experience wherein the person feels that his or her personal identity and ability are undermined by racism in a myriad of interpersonal circumstances. A therapy case is used to explain how this experience helps determine Black men’s perspective on cross-racial interpersonal encounters and supports racial identity development as fundamental to their personal identity and as a buffer against racism. Awareness of the dynamic interface between racism, invisibility, and racial identity development can help the counseling process and effectiveness of our interventions with African American men. Discussion of a therapeutic support group is used as an example.
Randomized Experiments in Criminal Justice Policy: Prospects and Problems
Authors: Weisburd David
Published: March 2007

In theory, experimental designs provide the most reliable method to establish a relationship between interventions and outcomes. However, in practice, randomized experiments have remained a much less common choice for criminal justice evaluators than have nonexperimental methods. This article focuses on factors that have traditionally inhibited the use of randomized experiments as a tool for developing criminal justice policy. In this context, the main ethical, political, and practical barriers that face experimenters are described. General principles for identifying circumstances less or more amenable for developing randomized experiments are also defined. In concluding, it is argued that experiments are possible in many circumstances and can provide a powerful tool for developing criminal justice policy.
A Role for Victims in Offender Reentry
Authors: Herman Susan , Wasserman Cressida
Published: March 2007

The current scale of offender reentry creates unprecedented challenges for those, including victims, who have an interest in the successful reintegration of offenders into the community. Current problem-solving approaches emphasize the need for continuity between in-custody and postrelease programs and the importance of partnerships and collaborations in supervision and support for offenders. These developments offer increasing opportunities to victims and victims organizations because their experience and knowledge are often directly relevant to reentry issues. Increased victim involvement in the planning, management, and implementation of reentry policies and programs can contribute positively to better informed decisions and the achievement of reentry goals.
Controversies Surrounding the Rape Kit Exam in the 1980s: Issues and Alternatives
Authors: Martin Patricia Yancey , DiNitto Diana , Maxwell Sharon , Norton Diane Blum
Published: March 2007

Based on a study of 130 organizations in Florida that deal with survivors of sexual assault, controversies that surround the “rape kit exam”—medical examination for purposes of evidence collection—are identified and discussed. After an overview of the rape kit examination and typical sites and personnel for performing it, the article focuses on issues relative to the exam including the following: (1) evidence that should be collected and why; (2) hospitals as friends or foes; and (3) who can and/or should perform the exam and why. The article concludes with recommendations for improving services to survivors of sexual assault relative to the rape kit exam. Among these are suggestions for standardizing the rape kit and protocol across legal jurisdictions, ceasing routine plucking of victims' public hairs, removal of the site for the exams from hospital emergency departments or creation of separate sections of the department for the sole use of rape victims, simplification and reduction of hospital admitting and record-keeping procedures, centralization of the exam for given geographic areas, specialization of staff who perform the exam, and utilization of trained nurse examiners in place of physicians for conducting the exam.
Structure and Activities of Rape Crisis Centers in the Early 1980s
Authors: Gornick Janet , Burt Martha R. , Pittman Karen J.
Published: March 2007

Using data from a nationally representative sample of 50 rape crisis centers, this article investigates the range of center types, services offered, staffing, involvement in community networks, funding and affiliation with criminal justice, counseling, and human services agencies. The evolution of the rape crisis center from the few prototype centers opened in 1972 to the many different models existing today is traced. The most important finding is that rape crisis centers today do not fall neatly into types. Rather, they have developed to fit their communities, making choices about whom to serve, where to locate a service, how to work with other agencies in the community, how, when, and where to do community education, and how to establish financial security. A decision about one such dimension does not necessarily predict what the decision will be about the other dimensions.
The Penal Dilemma and its Emerging Solution
Authors: Conrad John P.
Published: March 2007

The deterioration of American corrections under the pressure of increased felony commitments may be corrected with the introduction of intensive supervision for the two aims of keeping offenders out of prison in the first place, and taking them out as soon as it can safely be done in the second place. The pilot programs for these purposes now under way in Georgia and Alabama are described. They offer realistic prospects for a wide-ranging renovation of American penology. They deserve emulation wherever prison overcrowding is a major concern.
National Evaluation of Objective Prison Classification Systems: The Current State of the Art
Authors: Buchanan Robert A. , Whitlow Karen L. , Austin James
Published: March 2007

This article summarizes the first national evaluation of objective prison classification systems. Conducted by Correctional Services Group, Inc., this study focused on the development and implementation activities of correctional agencies having objective systems and analyzed the effectiveness of three representative systems. Although a majority of agencies view objective systems as important management tools, the study found that inadequate planning and validation hindered many developmental efforts. An examination of three specific systems found that although individual classification scoring items evidenced only modest correlations with prison misconduct, the instruments as a whole demonstrated a capacity to classify according to risk. The article concludes with suggested guidelines for developing, implementing, and revising objective prison classification systems.
Policing Houston: Reducing Fear and Improving Service
Authors: Brown Lee P. , Wycoff Mary Ann
Published: March 2007

In 1983-1984, the Houston Police Department tested five strategies designed to reduce fear among citizens living in test neighborhoods. This article reports the process by which the programs were designed and implemented, the research methodology used to evaluate them, and the effects of the programs on citizen fear and other attitudes. It also examines the effects of the programs on the officers who designed and implemented them, and reports on the use the Houston department currently is making of the information produced by the evaluation.
The Uses of Criminology, the Rehabilitative Ideal, and Justice
Authors: Polk Kenneth , Gibbons Don C.
Published: March 2007

Donald R. Cressey was a humanistic, liberal criminologist who was committed to the ideals and goals of science. Although he was first and foremost concerned with the advancement of basic criminological knowledge, he also endeavored to spell out some of the positive uses to which that knowledge might be put, particularly in his commentaries on the implications of the theory of differential association for correctional intervention and practice. He took a dim view of recent trends in criminology in which some have turned away from the basic task of pursuit of knowledge and toward advocacy of policies of terror directed at offenders and potential lawbreakers.
Delinquency, Childhood Violence, and the Development of Alcoholism in Women
Authors: Miller Brenda A. , Downs William R. , Gondoli Dawn M.
Published: March 2007

The interrelationships of delinquent activities and their consequences on the development of alcoholism in women were examined. Interview data were analyzed from a sample of 45 alcoholic women selected from local treatment agencies and Alcoholics Anonymous groups and 40 nonalcoholic women selected randomly from a household population to form the comparison group. Delinquent activity included status offenses such as running away and cutting classes, as well as more serious offenses, including fighting, stealing, and driving offenses. Official involvement as a juvenile was also assessed. Alcoholic women were significantly more likely than the random sample of women to report stealing, legal interventions, running away, and fighting. Multivariate analyses indicated that both stealing and legal interventions were important predictors of alcoholism problems in women, even when family background and childhood experiences, such as childhood sexual abuse and father-to-child violence were considered.
A Critical Look at the Idea of Boot Camp as a Correctional Reform
Authors: Morash Merry , Rucker Lila
Published: March 2007

There is growing interest in modeling a military boot camp experience in correctional settings. Prior research on the history of military approaches in correctional settings and military basic training and on the images of masculinity that are encouraged in correctional boot camps raises questions about the efficacy of the correctional boot camp reform. The military model may set the stage for abuse of power and encourage increased aggression by both staff and offenders. Research does not provide indications that there will be beneficial effects. The potential for negative outcomes has clear implications for the design and evaluation of correctional boot camps.
Sometimes a Crime: Illegal Immigration and Hong Kong
Authors: Vagg Jon
Published: March 2007

This article deals with the policies controlling migration from China to the British colony of Hong Kong. Immigrants have been responded to in different ways by the Hong Kong authorities, and often there has been a significant gap between legal provisions and policy implementation. The author argues that the primary determinants of the treatment of illegal immigrants in Hong Kong have been the economy and labor market, the fear of social unrest, and British foreign policy toward China. It is also pointed out that Hong Kong policies toward illegal immigrants have been used as political negotiating points by the Chinese authorities.
Client Management Classification and Prediction of Probation Outcome
Authors: Harris Patricia M.
Published: March 2007

This article compares the predictive accuracy of a traditional, objective probation risk assessment instrument with the considerably more subjective, interview-based Client Management Classification (CMC) System, a tool with no previously noted applications to the prediction of risk. Subjects of the study were probationers under supervision in Austin, Texas. Results indicated that the CMC performed far more satisfactorily than did the traditional instrument. The CMC was found to be particularly successful in minimizing false positives (i.e., probationers incorrectly predicted to be high risks). The results suggest that offender risk assessment instruments of a national scope are possible. Implications for assessment and probation supervision practices are considered.
A Comparison of Programming for Women and Men in U.S. Prisons in the 1980s
Authors: Morash Merry , Haarr Robin N. , Rucker Lila
Published: March 2007

This article examines programming for women in U.S. prisons in the 1980s, a decade marked by an increased number of incarcerated women and by court pressure to correct biases in programming. Data from a census of facilities and a sample of inmates reveal that regardless of gender, the prison experience does little to overcome marginalization from the workforce and leaves many who have history of drug abuse, or who are parents, untouched by relevant programming. Moreover, gender stereotypes shape the nature of the work and vocational training, and women disproportionately receive psychotropic drugs for mental health treatment.
Impact of Community Policing on Police Personnel: A Quasi-Experimental Test
Authors: Rosenbaum Dennis P. , Yeh Sandy , Wilkinson Deanna L.
Published: March 2007

An evaluation was conducted to estimate the effects of a well-funded community policing demonstration program in Joliet, Illinois. Using a nonequivalent pretest-posttest control group design, changes in officers' perceptions and behaviors were examined over a 2-year period, during which time they were exposed to new training programs, organizational restructuring, and problem-solving activities. The results showed few changes in officers' perceptions of management practices or job satisfaction, but documented positive gains in attitudes and knowledge about community policing and some street-level behaviors. Alternative explanations for the results are discussed.
Three Strikes as a Public Policy: The Convergence of the New Penology and the McDonaldization of Punishment
Authors: Shichor David
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes the theoretical principles of the recently legislated “three strikes and you're out” laws. In many respects, these are related to the “new penology” that shifted the focus of criminological and penological interest from the individual offender toward the control of aggregates. Furthermore, the analysis relates the three-strikes measures to the cultural model of the “McDonaldization” of society in which the principles of the fast-food restaurant dominate many aspects of American society. These principles include efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control mainly by non-human technology. The analysis in this article, which focuses especially on the three-strikes law in California, suggests that three-strikes laws can be viewed as a part of the McDonaldization trend.
The Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: Reexamining Recidivism Over the Long Term
Authors: Winner Lawrence , Lanza-Kaduce Lonn , Bishop Donna M. , Frazier Charles E.
Published: March 2007

A long-term recidivism study was conducted in Florida on matched pairs of juveniles, where one subject in each pair had been transferred to the adult system in 1987 and the other had not. Rearrest information on the pairs from their release from sanctions through November 1994 was used to determine the probabilities of rearrest and the times to rearrest of transfers and nontransfers, adjusting for time at risk. Transfer diminished the rearrest chances for property felons, an advantage that was offset by an enhanced probability of rearrest among transfers for other offense categories. Survival analysis showed that transfers were rearrested more quickly and were rearrested more times on average.
Youth Gang Homicides: A Literature Review
Authors: Howell James C.
Published: March 2007

This literature review aims to help fill the information void regarding youth gang homicide by summarizing data and results of empirical studies. Information on the topic is summarized in five areas. First, the growth in youth gang homicides is assessed. Second, distinguishing characteristics of gang homicides are reviewed. Third, studies of the relationship between youth gang homicides and drug trafficking are examined. Fourth, promising programs and intervention strategies are reviewed. Program and policy implications are discussed in the final section. Youth gang homicides can be prevented and reduced.
The Re-Naturalization of Society? Environmental Challenges for Sociology
Authors: Lidskog Rolf
Published: March 2007

The sociological discipline, as it came to be constructed from the late 19th century and onwards, deliberately concentrated on human societies, giving little attention to biophysical nature, which is a precondition for its existence and development. Today, sociologists claim that modern environmental problems constitute a challenge to the classical sociological understanding. We have a tension between `environmental realism', which argues that sociologists need to include biophysical facts in their analysis to be able to create knowledge concerning environmental issues, and `environmental constructivism', which argues that sociology should only deal with social facts. By critically discussing these two positions, this article seeks to elaborate a position that alleviates the dichotomy between them.
Determinants of Medical Employment in Urban Mexico: Ascription, Achievement and Context
Authors: Frenk Julio , Knaul Felicia , Vázquez-Segovia Luis A. , Nigenda Gustavo
Published: March 2007

This study examines unemployment and underemployment of physicians in urban Mexico. The framework is relevant to countries with substantial increases in physician supply. Based on surveys from 1986 and 1993, the study analyses physician performance in the labour market as a function of ascription (social origin and gender), achievement (quality of medical education and specialization) and contextual variables (policy environments). By comparing two points in time, the article examines the impact of policies. The study reveals persistently high open unemployment, qualitative underemployment (that is, working outside medicine) and quantitative underemployment (that is, working in medical activities but with low productivity and remuneration). Improvements over time can be in part attributed to policies to control the supply of physicians. The growing proportion of female doctors presents challenges, since they are more likely to be unemployed or underemployed. The article concludes that health systems must strive to reduce the perverse effects of unbalanced labour markets in order to avoid reproducing rather than correcting social inequalities. Corrective policies regarding physician supply can be effective. The professional opportunities available to female doctors deserve attention.
The Future of the Social Sciences in the 21st Century - A Comment
Authors: Allardt Erik
Published: March 2007

Sociology is a multi-purposive field of study. There are inbuilt dualisms in the questions that can be asked about the basic principles of sociological inquiry. One such dualism exists between a positivistic-individualist-structuralist vision on the one hand, and an interpretative-communal-cultural vision on the other. A second kind of dualism can be found in the tensions between an actor-oriented and an institution-oriented perspective. A third type of dualism is found in the contradictory claims for disciplinary identity and for interdisciplinarity. Such polar oppositions may be combined but the tensions between them cannot be removed.
Popular Epidemiology Revisited
Authors: Brown Phil
Published: March 2007

The concept of popular epidemiology is updated by examining it as a form of citizen science and a type of social movement. As a citizen science, popular epidemiology is a lay way of knowing that is based in part on an appropriation of expert knowledge by non-experts. As a social movement, popular epidemiology is a mobilization of citizens around the goal of identifying and ameliorating environmental stressors and local illness patterns. The updated concept of popular epidemiology shows the important influences of the environmental justice movement and of critical epidemiology among professional epidemiologists. Case study materials are provided to illustrate arguments.
The Role and Future of State Educational Coalitions
Authors: Usdan Michael D.
Published: March 2007

As the tax crisis at the local level intensifies, there will be increasing pressure for additional state support for education. The success which educational interests will have in competing with other services for resources will be in no small measure contingent upon their effectiveness in mobilizing themselves politically. In this paper the author analyzes the role and future of educational coalitions which play such a pivotal role in the increasingly visible politics of education at the state level.
A Research and Development Adoption Model
Authors: Hull Ronald E.
Published: March 2007

This article is devoted to an elaboration of the adoption phase of Clark and Guba's R and D model. A brief discussion of the normative structures of organizations and organizational boundary permeability provides the rationale for a set of suggested procedures for adoption of innovations at the school building level.
Rational Decision-Making in Education: Some Concerns
Authors: Sharples Brian
Published: March 2007

In recent years there has been a tendency to emphasize the use of economic analysis in decision-making. While such approaches have a number of distinct advantages, there do exist certain disadvantages of which the administrator should be aware. This article examines some of the organizational dysfunctions that can result from an over dependence on the "rational-economic" decision-making approach.
An Empirical Analysis on Propensity for Teachers to Strike
Authors: Bruno James E. , Nelken Ira
Published: March 2007

Teacher militarism and the manifestation of this militarism in the form of teacher strikes is perhaps the single most important problem facing school officials. This study directs attention at the propensity of teachers to strike and examines, using a logit model, how this propensity can be affected by certain decision variables.
The Professional Development of Principals: Innovations and Opportunities
Authors: Peterson Kent
Published: March 2007

This article articulates the importance of professional development programs as complementary to preservice preparation. While on-the-job inservice programs offer preservice administrators a glimpse of the requirements for the position, they do not offer ample time to learn everything about the job prior to practicing. This article offers information about sources of professional development including universities, professional associations, governmental agencies, and not-for-profit organizations. Each source is analyzed, including the focus of the program, its purpose, curriculum, instructional strategies, location, internal coherence and integration of technology. The article also provides examples of exemplary programs offered by each source.
Toward an Integrative Theory of Power and Educational Organizations
Authors: Muth Rodney
Published: March 2007

On the assumption that power is central to social life, a power model is proposed and tested. The model is designed to address the problem of conceptual clarity in power studies and to provide an integrative mechanism for explaining divergent outcomes of power acts. Three studies that support the efficacy of the model suggest that the model has considerable heuristic and empirical potential.
State Educational Governance Patterns
Authors: McGivney Joseph H.
Published: March 2007

Several attempts to present a theory of the state politics of education have led to mixed results. These past attempts at theorizing about or modeling in the literature are reviewed and synthesized in a reconstructed framework based on the theoretical underpinnings of Tonnies and Weber. The developed framework also integrates and explains several studies that have here to fore been viewed as in conflict.
Resistance to Planned Change and the Sacred in School Cultures
Authors: Corbett H. Dickson , Firestone William A. , Rossman Gretchen B.
Published: March 2007

Norms embedded in a school's culture vary according to their alterability and their capacity to establish meaning for professional identity. Staff tend to be unable to imagine satisfactorily performirg their roles if some condition or event interferes with adhering to the expectations for behavior that reside at the core of their professional purpose. Metaphorically labeling such norms as "sacred," this article argues that challenges to the sacred are greeted immediately with forthright resistance and subsequently if the threat continues with the creation of a culture of opposition. Data from three case studies of high schools are used to support the argument and to provide examples of what is meant by sacred norms.
Invidiousness and Inviolability in Public Education Finance
Authors: Verstegen Deborah A.
Published: March 2007

Conceptions of equity that serve as a basis for resource allocation policies in education have long been the focus of public debate, scholarship, and litigation. This article reviews the struggle between the public policy goals of local control (liberty) and equal opportunity (equality) as the guiding rationale for conceptions of equity. It then discusses and analyzes resource allocation policies proposed to bridge the contradictions embedded within these differing perspectives. Finally, it considers the emergent construct of adequacy, together with the legal ramifications of the foregoing analysis. It is argued that inviolability should be the basis for conceptions of equity that guide resource allocation policies but that invidiousness persists. This is so because the quality of a child's education remains a function of the wealth of his or her parents and neighbors and this is a direct result of how states finance education.