bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Problem
Authors: Rohling Eelco J.
Published: October 2021

This chapter frames the problem of climate change. It opens with a brief overview of Earth’s energy balance and the greenhouse effect and then outlines the root causes of the problem along with key controls in the climate system that determine its responses. This is followed by an introduction of spatial variability and fluctuations through time in the expressions of climate change, which are key to understanding regional impacts. Such geographic and temporal variations do not invalidate the existence of the global average temperature increase, but merely cause fluctuations around the global average. Finally, the chapter shows that achieving the Paris Agreement’s 1.5°C warming limit will require the removal of 260–1030 billion tons of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The low-end estimate applies to best-case scenarios and the high-end estimate to scenarios where business-as-usual (as in the past two decades) emissions are allowed until 2030 or beyond.
“And He Ate Jim Crow”
Authors: Wills Vanessa
Published: October 2021

Why do racist oppression and capitalist exploitation often seem so inescapable and intractable? To describe and explain adequately the persistence of racist ideology, to specify its role in the maintenance of racial capitalism, and to imagine the conditions of its abolition, we must understand racist ideology as a form of false consciousness. False consciousness gets things “right” at the level of appearance, but it mistakes that appearance for a “deep” or essential truth. This chapter articulates a novel, positive account of first-order false consciousness, which occurs in the case of false beliefs about the world that are sustained and superficially justified by objective social arrangements, and of second-order false consciousness, which occurs in the case of false beliefs about how one has come to hold the beliefs that one does. To dismantle racist ideology requires political movements that craft theoretical interventions highlighting the inessentiality and contingency of despised racial groups’ oppressed status, as well as practical interventions aimed at directly undermining the oppressive conditions that are reflected in racist beliefs about the “naturalness” or “appropriateness” of these groups’ degraded status.
Embodying (In)justice and Embodied Truths
Authors: Krieger Nancy
Published: October 2021

Chapter 2 discusses application of ecosocial theory to analyze the health impacts of Jim Crow and its legal abolition, racialized and economic breast cancer inequities involving the breast cancer estrogen receptor, and the joint health impacts of physical and social hazards at work (including racism, sexism, and heterosexism) and relationship hazards (involving unsafe sex and violence). It also uses ecosocial theory to develop and apply measures of structural injustice, including historical redlining (1930s US government policies imposing racial residential segregation) and contemporary racialized economic segregation. The chapter additionally explains the construct of “emergent embodied phenotypes” and the different types of histories involved in disease processes: societal, individual (lifecourse), pathological/cellular, and evolutionary. It concludes by providing selected examples of how others, in diverse disciplines and settings worldwide, have employed the ecosocial theory of disease distribution to conceptualize and analyze embodiment of (in)justice across a wide range of exposures and outcomes.
Attention
Authors: Lidor Ronnie , Ziv Gal
Published: October 2021

The performance of motor skills is linked with paying attention to the task at hand and/or to relevant cues associated with the environment where the individual/team is performing. This chapter focuses on two major concepts of attention that have been studied extensively in the literature of sport and exercise psychology: attentional instructions (internal and external) and visual attention. It provides an updated overview of the research findings on these two concepts and identifies five questions associated with attention and skilled performance that have the potential to advance theory, methodology, and applied interventions. Among these questions are: Can an internal focus of attention be preferable at times to an external one? What are the neural correlates of attentional and visual processes in sport? What is actually known about the ecological validity of the attentional instructions/visual attention field training?
Choking Under Pressure
Authors: Mesagno Christopher , Ehrlenspiel Felix , Wergin V. Vanessa , Gröpel Peter
Published: October 2021

This chapter reviews current choking under pressure (“choking”) literature while offering questions to advance theory, methodology, and interventions. Although definitions of choking are elusive, psychological predictors helpful, and theoretical explanations existent, there is limited understanding of the (neuro)physiological underpinnings of choking. By using mobile recording devices, the assessment of (neuro)physiological and neuromuscular activity under pressure could shed light on choking mechanisms. Choking interventions are aimed at either promoting task-relevant attention or familiarizing performers with pressure, which improve performance under pressure but vary in their effectiveness. Thus, choking interventions could be tailored to specific sports and/or personalities. Choking can also influence an entire team, referred to as collective sport team collapse. Social factors appear to play a key role, indicating that team collapse is more than the simultaneous choking of individuals. We offer questions to advance this burgeoning field but caution that further research is needed before considering team interventions.
Mind-Body Interaction in Sport Psychophysiology
Authors: Bertollo Maurizio , Berchicci Marika , di Fronso Selenia
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines the state of the art on the psychophysiological mechanisms underpinning mind-body interaction in sport, highlighting the unknown on the brain-heart relationship by means of five major questions. Specifically, the answer to the first methodological question provides basic information on the measures used in sport psychophysiology to quantify brain and heart activities, including their relationship. The following theoretical questions focus on the psychophysiological states underpinning performance optimization (i.e., arousal, emotions, cognitive processing) and on the psychophysiology of interoception and neuromuscular fatigue. Finally, the applied questions would suggest interventions integrating brain-heart and neuro-visceral-cognitive measurements to optimize performance. Overall, sport psychophysiology allows developing new training to achieve peak performance, based on the deep understanding of the underneath processing. Within this framework, available data suggest that the strong bidirectional communication between brain and heart modulates optimal performance.
Athlete Leadership
Authors: Loughead Todd M. , Munroe-Chandler Krista J. , Boisvert, and Katherine E. Hirsch Matthieu M.
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on the emerging area of athlete leadership. The chapter examines the theories, methodologies, and interventions that have been used to study athlete leadership. Athlete leadership is defined as an athlete who occupies a formal or informal leadership role within the team and influences team members to achieve a common goal. When leadership is viewed from this perspective, all athletes have the opportunity to engage and provide leadership to their teammates. Researchers have applied various theories to understand and explain athlete leadership. At present, there is no gold-standard measure of athlete leadership behaviors that has been specifically developed to examine this construct. Further, there are only a handful of published articles that report on the development of athlete leadership. Consequently, the goal of this chapter is to highlight the opportunities that exist in the area of athlete leadership from theoretical, methodological, and applied perspectives.
Exercise and Aging
Authors: Audiffren Michel , André Nathalie
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on the bidirectional relationship between chronic exercise and cognitive health in the elderly. Five major questions that need to be addressed during the next decade are identified. The first question concerns the real contribution of several plausible mechanisms to the positive effect of chronic exercise on cognitive aging. The second question examines the moderating effect of the individual and exercise on the size of the positive effect of chronic exercise on cognitive aging. The third question concerns the weak predictive power of health models of behavioral change in older adults and the need to propose a new model. The fourth question discusses the necessity to better identify the cognitive functions playing a crucial role in the behavior change process in the elderly and develop exercise programs that solicit these functions. The fifth question concerns the test of the complete virtuous circle between exercise and cognition.
Youth Sport
Authors: Gould Daniel , Mignano Michael
Published: October 2021

Exemplary sport psychological studies on youth sports are highlighted in an effort to demonstrate the state of the art relative to conducting youth sport psychological research. Five key questions for moving the field forward are then discussed. These include (a) How can the professionalization of youth sports be curbed? (b) Does youth sport participation influence long-term physical activity and health-enhancing behaviors of participants? (c) Does youth sport participation influence the mental health of children and youth? (d) What does effective coaching look like for children of different ages and in different sport contexts? and (e) When, under what conditions, and how are life skills developed in youth sports and do these life skills transfer beyond sport? In addition to delineating each of these questions, the rationale for why each is important to address is conveyed as well as recommendations for the best ways to address the question moving forward.
Fatigue, Overtraining, and Burnout
Authors: Eklund Robert C , DeFreese J. D.
Published: October 2021

This chapter overviews fatigue, overtraining, and burnout from multiple theoretical perspectives with an emphasis on historical, contemporary, and future milestones/directions. Two theory-based questions are (a) Is there a theoretical conceptualization that characterizes and differentiates fatigue, overtraining, and burnout? and (b) Does recovery science represent a useful conceptual model to guide the next decade of topical research? One methodology-driven question is (c) What prospective research designs represent a scientifically efficacious and ethical way to investigate the development of fatigue, overtraining, and burnout concomitantly in athletes? Two applied intervention-related questions are (d) What interventions are best suited to prevent maladaptive responses to the sport experience including (unrelenting) fatigue, overtraining syndrome, and athlete burnout? and (e) How will novel theory-based intervention strategies be effectively evaluated to ensure their efficacy, safety, and effectiveness in athlete populations? Overall, this chapter presents a roadmap for future work in these areas.
Moral Behavior and Doping
Authors: Barkoukis Vassilis , Elbe Anne-Marie
Published: October 2021

This chapter provides an overview of the moral issues related to doping behavior, posing key questions that may guide future research. Questions raised pertain to whether doping is an immoral behavior or an ethical issue as well as to theory development to effectively understand the link between moral factors and doping behavior. A third question investigates the role of the athlete’s entourage in defining the moral atmosphere and ethical climate that can be associated with the decision to dope. In addition, an important question is how best to measure doping attitudes, susceptibility, prevalence, and related moral factors. The answer to this question would improve the measurement tools used in morality-related doping research. In terms of practical implications, an important question involves the effectiveness, content, delivery mode, and target groups of moral-based interventions for doping prevention.
Ethics
Authors: Watson II Jack C. , Harris Brandonn S. , Byrd Megan
Published: October 2021

The study of ethics in sport, exercise, and performance psychology (SEPP) has traditionally focused upon the provision of practical suggestions to help practitioners avoid ethical issues. These suggestions stem from reviews of SEPP ethical standards that have been derived from the parent field of psychology. This area of study has been primarily nonempirically based. Therefore, the primary suggestion of this chapter is for the development of a more empirically based study of ethics. There is a need to empirically understand the structural issues that are commonly associated with ethical concerns, the common ethical beliefs and behaviors of practitioners, and the methods used by practitioners to make ethical decisions. The authors propose research questions to be of vital importance to the study of ethics in SEPP.
Epilogue
Authors: Kwan SanSan
Published: October 2021

The epilogue returns to a reflection upon the ethics and politics of interculturalism. At the moment of the book’s final drafting, in late 2020, we confront old/new examples of racism and xenophobia, overlaid by a deadly global pandemic. Writing on the morning of the November 4, 2020 US presidential election, the author considers the fractious contemporary moment and the disappointments of a less than definitive denunciation of Donald Trump. In the face of this, the author wonders whether intercultural duets can really overcome such intense divisiveness. At the same time, she argues, the rapid transmissibility of Covid-19 should be further demonstration of the importance of collective responsibility, and the suffering caused by lockdowns should further remind us of the vital importance of intercorporeal togetherness. Finally, the author returns to her personal experience with loss to underscore the interlacing themes of the book: love and mourning, difference and empathy. If the wages of dying is love, she argues, then by all means, let’s dance.
Subjective Perceptions of Cognitive Costs
Authors: Hess Thomas M.
Published: October 2021

Engagement in demanding cognitive activities is associated with brain health, maintained levels of ability, and reduced probability of dementia. Given these important consequences, a critical issue concerns identifying those factors that affect the probability of older adults engaging in such beneficial activities. Selective engagement theory argues that aging-related normative increases in the costs of expending cognitive resources negatively impact the motivation to engage in demanding activities. Given that costs are at the heart of this perspective, it is imperative to understand their nature. This chapter considers both the objective (e.g., energy expenditure) and subjective (e.g., perceptions of task demands) aspects of costs, with a more detailed focus on the latter. Of particular interest is the impact of aging attitudes and stereotypes, and the extent to which their modification can positively impact perceived costs and, subsequently, the motivation to engage in cognitively stimulating and beneficial activities.
Cognitive Plasticity Induced in Older Adults by Cognitive Training, Physical Exercise, and Combined Interventions
Authors: Ballesteros Soledad
Published: October 2021

Verbal abilities, general knowledge, and implicit memory are maintained with age, but processing speed, working memory, and episodic memory that depend on the prefrontal cortex and the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, are not. The failure of these abilities compromises independent living and a prolonged working life. However, functional brain reorganization and compensatory mechanisms allow older adults to maintain successful task performance. Physical exercise and cognitive training have potential for preventing cognitive decline. The question is whether the combination of both trainings produces synergetic effects. This chapter summarizes the study protocol of an ongoing multidomain versus single-domain randomized controlled trial aimed at investigating the short- and long-term effects of combining cognitive video game training with physical exercise, compared to cognitive training and physical training alone, on executive control and memory in older adults, two abilities that decline with aging, in comparison with the performance of an active-control group.
Islam, Modernity, and the Question of Religious Heterodoxy
Authors: Saeed Sadia
Published: October 2021

This chapter undertakes a comparative and historical inquiry to address the role of sharia in shaping concrete state responses toward managing “heterodox” religious communities across time and space. The aim of this inquiry is, first, to undertake a critique of civilizational analyses that seek to capture supposedly essential features of Muslim societies, and second, to underscore the marginal role of sharia in adjudicating issues related to religious heterodoxy in both early modern empires and modern Muslim states. It analyzes, first, how Muslim rulers in two early modern Muslim empires, Safavid Iran and Mughal India, dealt with the same heterodox group, the Nuqtavi Sufi order. Next, it focuses on how two contemporary Muslim-majority states that emerged from these empires, Iran and Pakistan, have sought to regulate and discipline “heretical” groups in their midst—Baha’is in Iran and the Ahmadiyya in Pakistan. The analysis opens space for formulating alternative accounts of transitions to modernity that are not beholden to teleological Eurocentric notions that normalize notions of unredeemable and non-usable pasts and always-already open and progressive futures.
Conflict, Secularism, and Toleration
Authors: Mehta Uday S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter is organized around a contrast between two views relating to religious diversity and toleration and the differing logics implicit in them. The first is that of M. K. Gandhi, in which religious diversity and toleration was taken to be a given feature of the fluid historical, social, and normative texture of India. It therefore did not take toleration as requiring a special intervention. In contrast, the second takes diversity as given, which necessarily tends toward conflict, and hence toward anarchy and ultimately death. The first takes religious identities and diversity as given; the second is reliant on the functioning of the state, because it has to mediate between the contending claims of identity.
The Limits of Pluralism
Authors: John Mathew
Published: October 2021

Religious freedom as understood in Indian constitutional practice is explicitly defined in terms of the power that the state will exercise over religion. In itself this is not an exceptional exercise of state power even in secular liberal democracies, as it is the state that ultimately draws and polices the line between religion and the state. However, in the Indian case it will be argued that defining religious freedom through essential practices violates social intuitions about religiosity and religious pluralism even as it might be motivated by entirely legitimate aims, such as upending practices like untouchability. Making explicit this hypothesis, the chapter will also argue that “essential practice” plays an important role in structuring India’s constitutional compact and makes unavailable many of the structures of everyday life that make pluralism viable.
Drawing the Line
Authors: Matthes Erich Hatala
Published: October 2021

What should we do, think, and feel when artists whom we love do terrible things? Recent years have been punctuated by revelations and reminders that popular artists (musicians, directors, actors, comedians, painters) have committed a range of morally condemnable acts. How should we respond to the immorality of great artists? Does it affect the aesthetic quality of the work these artists have produced? Is it morally permissible for us to engage with or enjoy that work? Should such work even be available for consumption, or should it be “canceled”? In short, can we separate the art from the artist? Drawing the Line argues that it doesn’t matter whether we can separate the art from the artist, because we shouldn’t. Taking both art and morality seriously requires grappling with them together. Recognizing the moral and aesthetic relationships between art and artist is essential to determining when and where we should draw the line when good artists do bad things.
Reforming the Art World
Authors: Matthes Erich Hatala
Published: October 2021

In recent years, there have been increasing calls, fueled by social media, to boycott or remove the work of artists who act immorally, and to shun those who continue to engage with their work. After first characterizing the features of this “cancel culture” with respect to the arts, the chapter argues that efforts to erase particular artists from public life, while often understandable, can be counterproductive. The problem is that the unstructured public does not generally offer a reliable mechanism for accountability, so even when cancel culture gets it right, it doesn’t help to change or build institutions that offer the kind of accountability that would help to prevent future abuses. The chapter argues instead that efforts to confront the moral problems of the art world are best pursued through the reform of art world institutions (e.g., museums, media companies, publishing houses, etc.).
Problems of False Consciousness
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2021

The second chapter takes up the harder case of false consciousness. It first attempts to show how the more limited methodology of its predecessor relates both to the three historical examples and to the long sweep of human ethical practice. Drawing on an account of the evolution of moral life (presented in The Ethical Project), it argues for the primacy of practices to address moral issues (to provide patterns for conduct). Ethical life emerges only when there are alternative ways for people to live, when the question “How to live?” acquires a significance. Ideals of the self provide answers to that question. False consciousness (in one important sense) arises when such ideals are denied to some groups of people.
Progress, Regress, and Power
Authors: Neiman Susan
Published: October 2021

While admiring Philip Kitcher’s commitment to setting out an account of moral progress, I fear his approach is too cognitive, best suited for those already committed to honest moral inquiry. Kitcher argues that moral progress is made as knowledge progresses and stereotypes about, for instance, Africans, women, and gay people begin to crumble. But we also need an account of how those who are committed to oppressive power structures suppress—both deliberately and unconsciously—and knowledge of the humanity of those who are oppressed.
Progress as the Dynamics of Crisis
Authors: Jaeggi Rahel
Published: October 2021

While deeply sympathetic to the idea of progress as a problem-solving and nonteleological process, this commentary takes issue with the slightly harmonistic and cognitivistic character of the process. What seems to get insufficient consideration in Philip Kitcher’s approach are the power-driven structural and functional obstacles to progress. Moral progress in terms of problem-solving, then, is not an innocent attempt to move from ignorance to knowledge and take over the other’s perspective. Rather, moral progress depends on a broader social context and is triggered by the manifold dynamics of social change; it is brought about by social struggles that react to more or less deeply seated structural contradictions, dysfunctionalities, and crises of the respective social order.
The Fight for Climate after COVID-19
Authors: Hill Alice C.
Published: October 2021

The catastrophic risks of pandemics and climate change carry deep uncertainty as to when they will occur, how they will unfold, and how much damage they will do. The most important question is how these risks can be faced to minimize them most. This book draws on the troubled and uneven COVID-19 experience to illustrate the critical need to ramp up resilience rapidly and effectively on a global scale. It exposes parallels between the underutilized measures that governments should have taken to contain the spread of COVID-19—such as early action, cross-border planning, and bolstering emergency preparation—and the steps leaders can take now to mitigate the impacts of climate change. Through practical analyses of current policy and thoughtful guidance for successful climate adaptation, the book reveals that, just as society has transformed itself to meet the challenge of coronavirus, so too will the thinking and policies need to be adapted to combat the ever-increasing threat of climate change.
Plan Across Borders
Authors: Hill Alice C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter looks at promising regional cooperation efforts to de-escalate tensions heightened by climate change. Tackling problems like pandemics or climate change within the framework of traditional jurisdictional boundaries means that policymakers continue to treat these challenges like matters of domestic or local concern, rather than the transboundary threats that they are. Breaking down these barriers requires deep focus on cross-border solutions. For example, the climate change problem of “too little and too much water” demands transboundary consideration of evolving conditions in river basins and ocean fisheries. Risk reduction efforts that stretch across regions also offer good avenues for building disaster preparedness, including stockpiling, creating insurance risk pools, setting up systems for regional climate forecasting and early warning, and re-energizing multilateralism. Likewise, the most urgent transborder challenge of all, climate-induced migration, calls for ever greater global cooperation—not less.
Conclusion
Authors: Hill Alice C.
Published: October 2021

This concluding chapter explains that even if the world's nations succeed in pulling the hand brake on carbon emissions, we can no longer afford to ignore the climate change impacts already pummeling the planet. Increasingly, the academic literature has called for “transformational change” to solve the climate crisis. To address the fundamental challenge of preparing for climate change, namely that the past is no longer a safe guide for the future, governments, in collaboration with affected stakeholders, should assist communities, businesses, and households in planning for a world where physical impacts will rapidly intensify. This requires developing climate-resilient building codes and standards, crafting land-use policies that remove people from harm's way, and prioritizing nature-based solutions, such as mangrove forests and salt marshes to buffer sea-level rise. These decisions lie at the heart of adaptation.
Introduction
Authors: Carlson Matt , Robinson Sue , Lewis Seth C.
Published: October 2021

This introductory chapter begins by calling for a decentering of journalism in favor of a broader view of the complex political communication environment that has accompanied the proliferation of digital media channels. In this environment, journalism is engaged with other social actors in a struggle for the right to provide truthful accounts. At issue is the very relevance of journalism as an epistemic authority. These shifts in the media culture are not a passing moment but rather a confluence of enduring factors that need to be confronted. This informational context can be understood by examining how anti-institutional movements, such as populism, rely on denigrating journalism. This chapter argues that journalism theory and practice benefit from this broader contextual view. It ends by providing an outline of the book.
The Trump Campaign
Authors: Carlson Matt , Robinson Sue , Lewis Seth C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines how the institutional trappings of political journalism allowed Trump to benefit from out-of-proportion coverage, particularly in the primary stages of the 2016 presidential contest. As the campaign progressed, press-bashing became a political performance that was an indelible part of Trump’s electoral success. Trump turned to political rallies and social media to communicate directly to voters, outside of journalist-controlled channels. In these ways, Trump makes clear how a confluence of long-simmering cultural factors comes to demand newfound attention to the symbolic decentralization of journalism in contemporary life. More broadly, his success lays bare discontinuities among institutions, communities, and citizens; challenges of ubiquitous polarization; and growing animosity for any “other”—all of which lead to questions about the relevance of mainstream journalism.
Introduction
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

This chapter reflects on the author’s and others’ encounters with racism and the angry responses to it. The chapter then turns to the philosophy literature to see how scholars have attempted to make sense of political emotions like compassion, as well as anger. Noting how anger is distinctly an issue of concern and worry for scholars, the chapter provides introductory comments as to why this concern is unwarranted. The chapter then goes on to explain the motivations, aims, and methodology for the book in general, and the argument for anger in particular. It then challenges readers to begin the journey of theorizing emotions differently.
Painting in Broad Strokes
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

The first chapter is devoted to challenging readers to resist looking at anger as a one-dimensional, negative emotion by seeing anger in its variations. The text claims that once we see anger’s varieties, we are better able to determine which are useful and useless in the struggle against racism. The chapter discusses five variations of political anger in the realm of racial injustice: rogue rage, wipe rage, narcissistic rage, ressentiment rage, and Lordean rage. The variation that is defended in this chapter and in the rest of the book is Lordean rage—an account of anger that I develop and is inspired by the work of poet and scholar Audre Lorde. The chapter also explores more advantages of seeing anger in its variations.
Fitting Fury, Rightful Rage
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

Chapter 2 argues that Lordean rage is an appropriate response to racial injustice and is more likely to correctly represent racial injustice than the other variations of rage. The chapter claims that this apt and correct Lordean rage is morally and politically valuable because it not only registers racial injustice but it appreciates justice. Lordean rage says that racial justice is worth having. It also not only marks disvalue, but it is a way to respond to the value that racial minorities in the United States have. The chapter also explores ways to escape strategic traps set by others to make the outraged doubt their anger and give it up.
The End of Rage?
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

The book concludes with a personal reflection on Audre Lorde’s “Power”—a poem that describes the murder of a black boy by the police in 1973. Recognizing the poem’s motivation and message, this chapter compares it with the motivation for writing this book and the lessons Lorde provides for our current racial moment. Using Lorde’s brief biography and an intellectual history of some of her key works, the chapter reflects on racial domination as well as keys to surviving and responding to it. The chapter ends with a summary of why anger is essential to antiracist struggle, as well as how we can make sure that it continues to be through management and cultivation.
The Proof Paradigm
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 1, the author explains the emergence of the Proof Paradigm as a paradigm for knowledge and rational belief in ancient Greece. The Proof Paradigm’s model for knowledge and rational belief was mathematical proofs. He explains how Aristotle’s syllogistic logic solved a crisis for the Proof Paradigm. He identifies five presuppositions about rational belief that are part of the Proof Paradigm: (1) infallibilism, (2) deductivism, (3) inferentialism, (4) first premises, and (5) access-internalism. He claims that any one of these five presuppositions can seriously compromise an epistemology. He identifies three pathologies that can usually be traced to one or more presuppositions of the Proof Paradigm: (1) self-refuting claims, (2) self-undermining claims, and (3) explanation-impairing framework substitutions. The author briefly describes what an epistemology would be like that rejected all five presuppositions of the Proof Paradigm.
The End of the Proof Paradigm?
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 3, the author reviews the history of propositions once thought to be analytic or synthetic a priori that later turned out to be false. He uses the story of Russell’s famous letter to Frege to argue that the Proof Paradigm does not apply to rational belief in any domain, not even in logic and mathematics. And he reviews some of the important conclusions Kuhn draws about paradigm changes in his Structure of Scientific Revolutions and uses the work of Piaget to reinterpret Kuhn’s conclusions. The author uses the examples in this chapter as clues for constructing a new kind of epistemology that could explain the rationality of paradigm changes in science. Also, in this chapter, he begins his explanation of his version of equilibrium reasoning.
Internally Inconsistent, Self-Refuting, and Self-Undermining Views
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 8, the author articulates two more principles of epistemic irrationality, one that applies to self-refuting views and one that applies to self-undermining views. A self-refuting view is one that says, or in an indirect way communicates, “I am not true nor approximately true nor true enough.” A self-undermining view is one that says, or in an indirect way communicates, “It is not epistemically rational to believe me to be true or approximately true or true enough.” The author uses Grice’s idea of a conversation implicature and the Apel-Habermas idea of a performative contradiction to explain and formulate three presuppositions of making an argument and uses them to explain why any arguments for a behaviorist or eliminative materialist position are self-undermining. He then proposes an Epistemic Anthropic Principle: when scientists present arguments for a scientific theory, the theory must be compatible with the possibility of making rational arguments for it.
Clarifications and Objections
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 13, the author makes two clarifications and responds to seven objections. The two clarifications concern (1) the relation between his theory and reliabilism and (2) reasons for denying that probabilistic sensitivity to fundamental epistemic principles is a form of a priori knowledge or belief. The seven objections are (1) the Habermasian objection that it is a mistake for the author to offer a substantive theory of epistemic rationality because there is a complete account that is purely procedural, (2) Machery’s objection from experimental philosophy that experimental evidence provides defeaters for the use of modal intuitions in philosophical theorizing, (3) that the author’s commitment to experience itself being the evidence for rational belief is unscientific, (4) that the author’s theory makes human beings the standard for rationality in the universe, (5) that the author’s account is viciously circular, (6) that the author’s theory fails to satisfy BonJour’s metajustificatory requirement, and (7) that the author’s own form of argument can be turned against him.
Judicial Selection
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

The first state constitutions used appointments to select judges. The only debate was whether to delegate the responsibility to the legislature, as most did, or to the governor, as some did. Consistent with the state practices, the US Constitution adopted an appointment power, which vested nomination in the president and confirmation in the Senate. While the federal approach has remained intact since 1789, the state approaches have not. After the rise of Jacksonian populism, most states shifted to various forms of elections for judges. This chapter covers judicial selection, the rise of judicial elections in the states, and the impact of different selection systems on judicial review. It reveals the people’s increasing desire to retain control over the people who govern them, including their judges. Judicial review and judicial selection are inseparable. The more a court engages in the former, the more scrutiny it can expect in the latter, whether that scrutiny is tied to debates over the next election/appointment or to debates about changing the selection and tenure methods.
One Chief Executive or Many?
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter compares the unitary executive at the federal level with the plural executive at the state level. The fifty state constitutions and the United States Constitution share a “surface similarity” in describing the authority of their chief executives: They both vest executive power in a governor or president. But in practice, there are many differences. At the national level, the US Constitution places all executive authority in one president who controls the executive-branch officers through the singular authority to choose all cabinet members. What’s called a unitary executive largely is one, given the president’s authority to hire and fire these executive branch officers. Contrast the state side. In response to the states’ colonial experiences with a monarch, many of the first state constitutions created weak executive branches. All but one of the original state constitutions also mandated that the governor work alongside an executive council. In many states, constitutional executive offices—secretary, treasurer, auditor—are often chosen by the legislature. The rise of the state attorneys general as a source of local and national power offers one illustration of the salience of the plural executive.
Methods for Investigating Causal Cognition
Authors: Woodward James
Published: October 2021

This chapter critically discusses several methods for investigating causal cognition, including the intuition-driven, case judgment methods employed in traditional armchair philosophy, experimental philosophy approaches, and those employed in experimental psychology. It is argued that appeals to intuition should not be understood as sources of information about the metaphysics of causation (what causation “is”) or about “our concept” of causation; instead when they are a reliable source of information, intuitions tell us about patterns of causal reasoning and judgment shared by the intuiter and others. In this respect, intuition can provide some of the same kind of information as is provided by empirical psychology. However, while intuition is sometimes a reliable source of information about how people judge, it is often not a reliable source of information about why they judge as they do—experiment or causal modeling is required for the latter. This chapter also discusses various possible goals for a theory of causal cognition, including explaining why subjects are successful to the extent that they are.
Invariance Applied
Authors: Woodward James
Published: October 2021

This chapter applies the ideas about invariance from Chapter 5 to the analysis (both normative and descriptive) of various aspects of commonsense cause reasoning. The focus is mainly on one particular kind of invariance—invariance under changes in background conditions, here called insensitivity. This is used to cast light on causal judgments involving omissions and examples involving double prevention (in which the occurrence of c prevents the occurrence of e, which had it occurred, would have prevented the occurrence of f, with the result that f occurs). It is argued that causal claims regarding omissions and double prevention relations differ normatively depending on the invariance of the relations involved and that this is also reflected in the judgments that people make about such claims.
Proportionality
Authors: Woodward James
Published: October 2021

This chapter discusses, again from both a normative and a descriptive perspective, issues having to do with the role of proportionality in causal judgment. In my treatment, proportionality has to do, roughly, with the extent to which a cause is characterized in such a way that the variation in the effect is captured by variation in the cause. Proportionality was introduced into philosophical discussion by Yablo; this chapter retains the underlying idea of his proposal but reformulates it in order to respond to various philosophical criticisms. It is argued that, so understood, proportionality has a natural normative rationale and that there is experimental evidence that ordinary subjects judge in accord with it. Several different formulations of proportionality are explored and contrasted.
Innovation and Inequality
Authors: Mossberger Karen , Tolbert Caroline J. , LaCombe Scott J.
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the need to understand the role of broadband use in inequalities and outcomes across communities in the United States. Research on rising place-based inequality has not accounted for differences in technology use and how it affects communities. Prior work on broadband is incomplete, measuring whether broadband is available but not the extent to which local residents are able to afford or use the technology. This chapter draws on nearly two decades of new data on broadband subscriptions for counties and metros, from 2000 to 2017, and explores the idea of inclusive broadband use in communities as a form of digital human capital promoting local economic development and prosperity.
Metros
Authors: Mossberger Karen , Tolbert Caroline J. , LaCombe Scott J. , Gracey Kellen
Published: October 2021

Metropolitan regions are the backbone of the national economy, and while some metros boast robust economic environments, others have languished or are struggling to regain their footing after years of disinvestment. With broadband subscription data for the 50 largest metros for 2000–2017, this chapter provides strong support for the causal power of broadband to shape local opportunity. Using measures from the Brookings Metro Monitor, the chapter finds evidence that broadband subscriptions significantly predict prosperity over years and across multiple models. Broadband use also decreases unemployment and is related to measures of growth. Metros where broadband is combined with more millennials or higher levels of information technology employment fare best, though the significance of information technology employment has decreased over time.
States
Authors: Mossberger Karen , Tolbert Caroline J. , LaCombe Scott J.
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines how information access affects policy innovation in the states, which set the laws and context for local economies. Information has been viewed as a resource for the adoption of new policy ideas and programs, and broadband subscriptions are a measure of digital information access for policymakers, interest groups, and the public. This chapter assesses the effects of broadband subscription growth for all 50 states over the 17-year period. To measure the spread of new state policies, the State Policy Innovation and Diffusion Database (Boehmke et al. 2019) of thousands of policy adoptions from 1980 to 2016 is used. State governments have been the focus of research on policy innovation and diffusion because of their potential for promoting experimentation and change in the American federal system. This chapter demonstrates that inclusive information access through broadband is a resource for state innovation.
Choosing the Future
Authors: Mossberger Karen , Tolbert Caroline J. , LaCombe Scott J.
Published: October 2021

Together these chapters demonstrate that broadband adoption supports innovation at different scales, from the state policy context to local economies. Broadband subscriptions matter for prosperity, growth, income, employment, and innovation. They magnify the effects of education, information technology employment, and millennial populations in the most successful communities, but also offer benefits for places even in the absence of these other local advantages. This chapter summarizes findings throughout the book, explores county variation in broadband subscriptions for low-income residents, and examines how geography and local factors influence broadband challenges such as availability, reliability, speed, affordability, skills, and collaboration for building digital human capital. Future research is needed to explore the impacts of broadband in diverse policy areas and for specific uses, such as the commercial domain name websites that are discussed as an example. The chapter ends with recommendations for policy and research for promoting widespread broadband use, inclusive innovation, and a future with opportunity for all.
The Work of Forgetting
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 5, on the work of forgetting, explores how memory has a certain need for forgetting. Especially cognizant of forgetfulness of self, the chapter engages forgetting forward (extension) and backward (distention) through images of Paul the runner, Lot’s wife, and the eagle of forgetting. As in chapter 4 on the work of remembering, the “self” reemerges as constituted in the whole, uncovering its Christological identity in the practice of forgetting together. Forgetting complements remembering at the heart of the work of memory, or participation in the life of Christ through the pushes and pulls of distended temporal life. Chapter 5 is the second of a two-chapter binary: the work of remembering (chapter 4) and the work of forgetting.
Psalm 50 in Augustine’s Life and Death
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

The final chapter suggests the personal consequences of the work of memory by rereading Psalm 50 throughout Augustine’s preaching and with an eye to his death. In light of this cross-corpus reading of Psalm 50, Augustine’s deathbed remembering by the pasting up of psalm texts of penitence should at least be suggestive of the need to revisit the trope of the aged bishop with a diminished optimism on the human spirit. Rather, here the early Augustine’s questions about memory and becoming reach their conclusion. The work of memory will have shown that remembering and forgetting in Christ ground the participatory actions wherein hope becomes reality in Christ.
The Event and Democracy
Authors: Banerjee Mukulika
Published: October 2021

Chapter 1 examines the significance of India’s constitution as both a democracy and a republic and the force of B. R. Ambedkar’s ideas on the necessity for “democracy in social life” alongside the institutions of formal democracy. It is the first study that draws attention to India’s credentials as a republic as a way of understanding its democracy. The chapter introduces the site of this study and the linkages between agrarian and democratic values. Methodologically, it shows the importance of using the approaches of the Manchester School in India (hitherto unexplored) and the value this adds to our definition of what constitutes “the political.” Here, “the political” contains both agonistic and competitive tendencies on the one hand, but also reparative and cooperative impulsions. The methodology of this book, of studying electoral and non-electoral social life alongside each other, and the four key “events” of the book are also explained.