bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Understanding the motivational effects of procedural and informational justice in feedback processes
Authors: Roberson Quinetta M. , Stewart Marcus M.
Published: July 2006

Building upon traditional feedback models, this study examined the role of fair treatment in feedback contexts. Structural equation modelling using data from 236 undergraduate students highlighted perceived accuracy as a mediator in the credibility‐motivation relationship as well as a relationship between accuracy and perceptions of procedural and informational justice. In addition, the results showed that the motivating effects of feedback accuracy partially occurred through procedural justice perceptions. Tests of an alternative model also demonstrated the interactive effects of credibility and accuracy on justice perceptions. Overall, this study provides insight into the role of fairness in appraisal processes, as well as how fairness might enhance recipients' reactions to appraisal and, subsequently, the effectiveness of appraisal systems.
Of two minds: Sceptic‐proponent collaboration within parapsychology
Authors: Schlitz Marilyn , Wiseman Richard , Watt Caroline , Radin Dean
Published: July 2006

The first author, a proponent of evidence for psychic ability, and the second, a sceptic, have been conducting a systematic programme of collaborative sceptic‐proponent research in parapsychology. This has involved carrying out joint experiments in which each investigator individually attempted to mentally influence the electrodermal activity of participants at a distant location. The first two collaborations obtained evidence of ‘experimenter effects’, that is, experiments conducted by the proponent obtained significant results but those conducted by the sceptic did not. This paper describes a new collaborative study that attempted to replicate our previous findings and explore potential explanations for past results. The new study failed to replicate our previous findings. The paper investigates whether the results obtained in our initial studies may have been caused by a genuine psychic effect, and this third experiment failed to replicate this finding because some aspect of the study disrupted the production of that effect, or whether the results from our first two studies represented chance findings or undetected subtle artifacts, and the results obtained in the present study accurately reflect the absence of a remote detection of staring effect. The implications of this work are discussed, along with the benefits of conducting collaborative work for resolving disagreements in other controversial areas of psychology.
Cognitive processes in children's reading and attention: The role of working memory, divided attention, and response inhibition
Authors: Savage Robert , Cornish Kim , Manly Tom , Hollis Chris
Published: July 2006

Children experiencing attention difficulties have documented cognitive deficits in working memory (WM), response inhibition and dual tasks. Recent evidence suggests however that these same cognitive processes are also closely associated with reading acquisition. This paper therefore explores whether these variables predicted attention difficulties or reading among 123 children with and without significant attention problems sampled from the school population. Children were screened using current WM and attention task measures. Three factors explained variance in WM and attention tasks. Response inhibition tasks loaded mainly with central executive measures, but a dual processing task loaded with the visual‐spatial WM measures. Phonological loop measures loaded independently of attention measures. After controls for age, IQ and attention‐group membership, phonological loop and ‘central processing’ measures both predicted reading ability. A ‘visual memory/dual‐task’ factor predicted attention group membership after controls for age, IQ and reading ability. Results thus suggest that some of the processes previously assumed to be predictive of attention problems may reflect processes involved in reading acquisition. Visual memory and dual‐task functioning are, however, purer indices of cognitive difficulty in children experiencing attention problems.
A bias for social information in human cultural transmission
Authors: Mesoudi Alex , Whiten Andrew , Dunbar Robin
Published: July 2006

Evolutionary theories concerning the origins of human intelligence suggest that cultural transmission might be biased toward social over non‐social information. This was tested by passing social and non‐social information along multiple chains of participants. Experiment 1 found that gossip, defined as information about intense third‐party social relationships, was transmitted with siginificantly greater accuracy and in significantly greater quantity than equivalent non‐social information concerning individual behaviour or the physical environment. Experiment 2 replicated this finding controlling for narrative coherence, and additionally found that information concerning everyday non‐gossip social interactions was transmitted just as well as the intense gossip interactions. It was therefore concluded that human cultural transmission is biased toward information concerning social interactions over equivalent non‐social information.
Book Review
Authors: NAG SONALI
Published: July 2006

The science of reading: A handbook

Edited by Margaret J. Snowling and Charles Hulme, Oxford: Blackwell. 2005. Pp 661, Hbk £99.99, ISBN 1405114886
Application of a chronic illness model as a means of understanding pre‐operative psychological adjustment in coronary artery bypass graft patients
Authors: Oxlad Melissa , Wade Tracey D.
Published: July 2006

Objectives. To increase understanding of the factors associated with pre‐operative psychological adjustment in coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) patients by assessing the utility of a chronic illness model developed by Scharloo, Kaptein, Weinman, Willems, and Rooijmans (2000).

Design. A cross‐sectional design was employed.

Method. Elective CABG patients (N = 119) completed self‐report measures of illness representation, self‐rated health, social support, coping methods, and pre‐operative adjustment (depression and post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology) an average of 30 days prior to surgery. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to assess the mediational relationships proposed by the chronic illness model.

Results. Five 3‐variable mediational chains were assessed. In all instances, the results conformed to the relationships suggested by the chronic illness model where the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables was reduced when the mediator variable was controlled. However, a significant reduction of this relationship was found in three of the five chains examined. The most rigorous support for the model occurred, where increased use of avoidance coping mediated the relationship between poorer self‐rated health and increased PTSD symptomatology, and also where increased use of avoidance coping partially mediated the relationship between a more negative illness representation and increased PTSD symptomatology, and poorer self‐rated health and increased depression.

Conclusions. The chronic illness model of Scharloo and colleagues shows potential in explaining pre‐operative adjustment in CABG patients. Longitudinal examination of the model is recommended.
A validity and reliability study of the coping self‐efficacy scale
Authors: Chesney Margaret A. , Neilands Torsten B. , Chambers Donald B. , Taylor Jonelle M. , Folkman Susan
Published: July 2006

Objectives. Investigate the psychometric characteristics of the coping self‐efficacy (CSE) scale, a 26‐item measure of one's confidence in performing coping behaviors when faced with life challenges.

Design. Data came from two randomized clinical trials (N1 = 149, N2 = 199) evaluating a theory‐based Coping Effectiveness Training (CET) intervention in reducing psychological distress and increasing positive mood in persons coping with chronic illness.

Methods. The 348 participants were HIV‐seropositive men with depressed mood who have sex with men. Participants were randomly assigned to intervention and comparison conditions and assessed pre‐ and post‐intervention. Outcome variables included the CSE scale, ways of coping, and measures of social support and psychological distress and well‐being.

Results. Exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) revealed a 13‐item reduced form of the CSE scale with three factors: Use problem‐focused coping (6 items, α = .91), stop unpleasant emotions and thoughts (4 items, α = .91), and get support from friends and family (3 items, α = .80). Internal consistency and test–retest reliability are strong for all three factors. Concurrent validity analyses showed these factors assess self‐efficacy for different types of coping. Predictive validity analyses showed that residualized change scores in using problem‐ and emotion‐focused coping skills were predictive of reduced psychological distress and increased psychological well‐being over time.

Conclusions. The CSE scale provides a measure of a person's perceived ability to cope effectively with life challenges, as well as a way to assess changes in CSE over time in intervention research.
Connective Tissue Growth Factor in Serum as a New Candidate Test for Assessment of Hepatic Fibrosis
Authors: Gressner Axel M , Yagmur Eray , Lahme Birgit , Gressner Olav , Stanzel Sven
Published: July 2006

Background: No reliable, cost-effective serum test is available for assessment of liver fibrogenesis, the most serious complication of chronic inflammatory liver diseases (CLD). In sera of patients with CLD, we determined the concentration of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), a secreted downstream mediator of the potent fibrogenic cytokine transforming growth factor β (TGF-β).

Patients and Methods: We studied 83 patients with CLD (17 with chronic hepatitis, 16 with histologically proven fibrosis, and 50 with cirrhosis) and 74 healthy individuals. Serum CTGF was measured by use of a sandwich immunoassay.

Results: The mean concentration of CTGF was highest in the fibrosis group (5.2-fold) and in the chronic viral hepatitis group (4.3-fold) but lower in those patients with fully developed cirrhosis. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) of CTGF for fibrosis vs control was 0.955 (95% confidence interval, 0.890–0.987). The CTGF/platelet ratio increased the detection limit for cirrhosis from 84% to 92% and the specificity from 85% to 87.5% (cutoff for CTGF was 364 μg/L, ratio 2.05).

Conclusion: CTGF in serum is a candidate marker of ongoing fibrogenesis in chronic liver diseases.
Cysteine cathepsins and caspases in silicosis
Authors: Lalmanach Gilles , Diot Elisabeth , Godat Emmanuel , Lecaille Fabien , Hervé-Grépinet Virginie
Published: July 2006

Silicosis is an occupational pneumoconiosis caused by inhalation of crystalline silica. It leads to the formation of fibrohyalin nodes that result in progressive fibrosis. Alternatively, emphysema may occur, with abnormal destruction of collagen fibres in the advanced stages. Although the pathophysiological mechanisms remain unclear, it has been established that the lung responds to silica by massive enrolment of alveolar macrophages, triggering an inflammatory cascade of reactions. An imbalance in the expression of lung proteases and their inhibitors is implicated in extracellular matrix remodelling and basement membrane disruption. Moreover, exposure to silica can initiate apoptotic cell death of macrophages. This review summarises the current knowledge on cysteine cathepsins that have been ignored so far during silicosis and outlines the recent progress on cellular pathways leading to silica-induced caspase activation, which have been partly delineated.
Modeling the 3D structure of wheat subtilisin/chymotrypsin inhibitor (WSCI). Probing the reactive site with two susceptible proteinases by time-course analysis and molecular dynamics simulations
Authors: Facchiano Angelo M. , Costantini Susan , Di Maro Antimo , Panichi Daniela , Chambery Angela , Parente Augusto , Di Gennaro Simone , Poerio Elia
Published: July 2006

Comparative modeling and time-course hydrolysis experiments have been applied to investigate two enzyme-inhibitor complexes formed between the wheat subtilisin-chymotrypsin inhibitor (WSCI) and two susceptible proteinases. WSCI represents the first case of a wheat protein inhibitor active against animal chymotrypsins and bacterial subtilisins. The model was created using as template structure that of the CI-2A inhibitor from barley (PDB code: 2CI2), which shares 87% sequence identity with WSCI. Under these conditions of high similarity, the comparative modeling approach can be successfully applied. We predicted the WSCI 3D model and used it to investigate enzyme-inhibitor complex systems. Experimental observations indicated that chymotrypsin, but not subtilisin, in addition to cleavage at the primary reactive site Met48-Glu49, is able to hydrolyze a second peptide bond between Phe58 and Val59. Here, we report on cleavage of the peptide bond at the inhibitor's reactive site (Met48-Glu49) determined using time-course hydrolysis experiments; the same event was investigated for both subtilisin/WSCI and chymotrypsin/WSCI complexes using molecular dynamics simulations. The molecular details of the initial inhibitor-enzyme interactions, as well as of the changes observed during the simulations, allow us to speculate on the different fates of the two WSCI-proteinase complexes.
A critical examination of the use of language analysis interviews in asylum proceedings: a case study of a West African seeking asylum in The Netherlands
Authors: Corcoran Chris
Published: July 2006

This article presents an argument against the use of language analysis interviews in asylum proceedings whenever the case involves questions of dialect, sociolect, closely related languages or distinguishing between languages which are both used in the applicant's claimed speech community. I examine a language analysis interview's interactional constraints and the asylum seeker's response to these constraints. I argues the asylum seeker misreads them as an indication he is participating in a gatekeeping type of interview. Through an examination of the anti-immigrant sentiments in Rotterdam and the defining cultural categories of creole identity in Sierra Leone, I attempt to make sense of his interpretations and subsequent linguistic choies. This exposition is presented as an example of how an asylum seeker's activity constructed response poses problems for the reliability of linguistic identification.
Common-sense beliefs, recognition and the identification of familiar and unfamiliar speakers from verbal and non-linguistic vocalizations
Authors: Yarmey Daniel
Published: July 2006

Listeners first listened to tape-recorded speech samples of words and non-linguistic vocalizations to decide whether each came from a familiar or an unfamiliar speaker. If a vocalization was judged as being uttered by a familiar speaker, listeners were asked to identify, if possible, the individual by name. Listeners were instructed not to guess. Confidence-accuracy scores in judgements and identification also were assessed. A separate group of participants attempted to predict the accuracy of performance of the listeners for each of the utterances made by the familiar and unfamiliar speakers. Tokens of some utterances, namely the words hello and help me and the sounds of laughter and clearing the throat, allowed equally good performance on the familiar/unfamiliar decision whether their source was a familiar or an unfamiliar speaker. For other vocalizations (moan, cough, grunt and sigh) listeners were better at detecting unfamiliar speakers than at recognizing familiar speakers. Those utterances judged to be made by familiar speakers led to correct identifications approximately 50 percent of the time on hearing the words hello and help me, and laughter. All other utterances led to less than 30 percent correct speaker identifications. For those unfamiliar speakers who were falsely recognized as familiar, listeners falsely identified by name between 22 and 30 percent of the vocalizations. Few of the confidence-accuracy relationships were significant. Laypersons’ common-sense beliefs for speaker identification were generally unrealistic.
The early formation of the skull in extant and Paleozoic amphibians
Authors: Schoch Rainer R.
Published: July 2006

Understanding of evolutionary changes in the vertebrate skull is greatly influenced by the knowledge of ontogeny. Extant amphibians are an outstanding example in this field, because their life cycles are complex and have been intensively studied. At the same time, fossil material of Paleozoic amphibians has become available that sheds light on the ontogeny of a long-extinct clade, prompting comparison with recent forms. In this paper, the formation of the skull of a Paleozoic amphibian (the branchiosaurid temnospondylApateon) is analyzed in comparison with that of an extant salamander (the hynobiidRanodon). Both temporal patterns (sequence of ossification) and spatial patterns (morphological changes) are described. The general results are that (1) the sequence of ossification is similar in many aspects, and (2) most dermal bones share fundamental similarities in morphogenesis, although sometimes the morphological result in adults may differ conspicuously.

The comparison reveals that the parasphenoid, premaxillae, maxillae, frontals, parietals, squamosals, and prefrontals are strikingly similar in their mode of growth. In particular, the appearance of the earliest primordia and the subsequent stages of morphological transformation are almost identical. The development of the pterygoids and nasals is different in the earliest stages, but the ontogenetic trajectories converge in later stages. InRanodonand other transforming urodeles, the pterygoids and vomers experience extensive resorption during metamorphic climax, whereas in branchiosaurids the morphology of this region remains stable throughout ontogeny.

In the sequence of cranial ossifications, the early appearance of the premaxilla and tooth-bearing elements of the palate characterize both genera, but the maxilla forms much later inRanodon.The ectopterygoid, absent in all salamanders, is the last palatal element to appear in branchiosaurids. In the skull roof, the parietals, frontals, and squamosals are the first bones to form in both groups. Conversely, the circumorbital elements and tabular are among the last ossifications in branchiosaurids, and the prefrontal and lacrimal (the only circumorbital bones present in salamanders) form within the same interval in urodele ontogeny. The septomaxilla is the last dermal element to ossify in both groups. Comparison with caecilians and anurans indicates that salamanders are much more similar to Paleozoic branchiosaurids than to other extant lissamphibians. A major difference between salamanders and branchiosaurids is that the morphology of the latter is much less affected by developmental perturbations, such as larval specializations and metamorphosis.
Heisenberg-type ferromagnetic films with a sandwich structure
Authors: Kecer Ján , Ilkovič Vladimír
Published: July 2006

Green’s function theory is applied to an alternating two-element multilayer ferromagnetic film. The Hamiltonian is based on the Heisenberg model with a second-order uniaxial single-ion anisotropy and with the interaction between the layer in the interfaces. Magnetization and the phase transition in such system are derived for several sets of material parameters.
Handling and Restraint
Authors: Donovan John , Brown Patricia
Published: July 2006

For the safety of the handler and the animal, proper methods for handling and restraining laboratory animals should be followed. Improper handling can result in increased stress and injury to the animal. In addition, the handler risks injury from bite wounds or scratches inflicted when the animal becomes fearful or anxious. By using sure, direct movements with a determined attitude, the animal can be easily handled and restrained. Animals can be restrained either manually or in a plastic restrainer. The protocols in this unit describe handling and manual restraint of mice, rats, hamsters, and rabbits. Alternate protocols describe restraint using the plastic restrainer.
Euthanasia
Authors: Donovan John , Brown Patricia
Published: July 2006

Euthanasia of laboratory animals must be performed by trained personnel using appropriate techniques, equipment, and reagents in order to effect a death that is humane and satisfies research requirements. Acceptable methods of euthanasia are painless or minimize distress, and are quick and easy to perform, safe for those performing the procedure, and efficient and economic. They are aesthetically acceptable and are done in the absence of other animals. In addition, these methods do not result in gross histological or histochemical changes that would adversely affect research results. This unit offers protocols for euthanasia employing carbon dioxide asphyxiation (see Basic Protocol 1), pentobarbital overdose (see Basic Protocol 2), exsanguination, and cervical dislocation for the mouse, rat, hamster, and rabbit.
Recycling, Metals
Authors: Richardson H. Wayne , Makar Harry V. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: July 2006

The methods of recycle for various nonferrous metals of economic importance are detailed. Principal metals are aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc, although cobalt, nickel, tin, and precious metals such as gold, silver, and palladium are also recycled. Types and sources of scrap and waste metal are given. Much recyclable material arises from discarded automobile parts, beverage cans, and industrial metal industry wastes. Factors that influence the decision to recycle by pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical means are discussed. These processes are described, including the types of furnaces employed for smelting operations and the extractants used for solvent extraction systems. Recycling of nonferrous metals is heavily dependent on the economics of using secondary metal feed rather than ore. The role of waste management is also considered.

Ferrous scrap recycling is a principal worldwide activity. The primary consumers of ferrous scrap are steel mills and iron and steel foundries. These depend on scrap for a large fraction of their iron‐based raw materials. The U.S. is the leading exporter of ferrous scrap. It exported about 10.9 × 10
6
 t in 2004.

The several sources and types or grades of ferrous scrap are presented including descriptions of supply, demand, and exports. Primary uses of ferrous scrap are discussed. Concerns about residual elements from both environmental and product quality point of view are discussed. Standards and environmental regulations are reported. Recycling of ferrous scrap is dependent on iron and steel industry processes and demands. Low residual scrap is preferred.
Vanadium and Vanadium Alloys
Authors: Baroch Edmund F. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: July 2006

Vanadium is widely distributed throughout the earth but in low abundance. Trace amounts of vanadium have been found in meteorites and seawater, and it has been identified in the spectrum of many stars, including the earth’s sun. The occurrence of vanadium in oak and beech trees and some forms of aquatic sea life indicates its biological importance. Physical properties, chemical properties, manufacture, fabrication, economic aspects, health and safety factors, and uses are thoroughly discussed.
Dendrimers
Authors: Svenson Sönke
Published: July 2006

Dendritic polymers (dendrimers) are synthesized in a layer‐by‐layer fashion around a core molecule. Depending on the number of chemical functionalities and the shape of the core, dendrimers of various shapes and complexities can be produced with very low polydispersity. The high level of control over the architecture of dendrimers, their size, shape, branching length and density, and their surface functionality, makes these compounds ideal materials in medical and technical applications, such as drug delivery, gene transfection, imaging, luminescence, quantum dot stabilization, catalysis and waste remediation. The active agents may either be encapsulated into the interior of the dendrimers or they can be chemically attached or physically adsorbed onto the dendrimer surface, with the option to tailor the properties of the dendritic carrier to the specific needs of the active material in its specific applications. Surface modified dendrimers themselves may act as nanodrugs against tumors, bacteria, and viruses. Recent successes in simplifying the synthesis of dendrimers, such as the “lego” and “click” approaches, have provided a vastly expanded variety of dendritic compounds, while at the same time reducing the cost of their production.
Searching WormBase for Information about Caenorhabditis elegans
Authors: Schwarz Erich M. , Sternberg Paul W.
Published: July 2006

WormBase is the major public biological database for the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. It is meant to be useful to any biologist who wants to use C. elegans, whatever his or her specialty. WormBase contains information about the genomic sequence of C. elegans, its genes and their products, and its higher‐level traits such as gene expression patterns and neuronal connectivity. WormBase also contains genomic sequences and gene structures of C. briggsae and C. remanei, two closely related worms. These data are interconnected, so that a search beginning with one object (such as a gene) can be directed to related objects of a different type (e.g., the DNA sequence of the gene or the cells in which the gene is active). One can also perform searches for complex data sets. The WormBase developers group actively invites suggestions for improvements from the database users. WormBase's source code and underlying database are freely available for local installation and modification.
Polyimides
Authors: Bryant Robert G.
Published: July 2006

Polyimides are a class of high performance polymers that contain an imide group, defined as an sp3nitrogen bonded to two adjacent carbonyls. This imide structure is most commonly found as part of a five‐ or six‐membered ring. Aromatic polyimides are noted for their mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and dielectric strength. They exist as thermoplastics and thermosets and are available in many formats. Polyimides are used as hot melt adhesives, matrix resins for composites, dielectric films, photoimageable coatings, flex circuits, foams, wire insulation, thin‐walled tubing, molding resins, and high performance bushings and seals. Products that compete with polyimides for niche applications include aerospace epoxies (Dow, Ciba, and Shell), cyanate resins (Dow), polysulfones (Solvay), filled polycarbonates and polyesters (Dow, Amoco, and GE), polybenzimidazoles (Hoechst‐Celanese), and some highTg‐filled phenolics. Although polyimides command a premium price, their versatility, reliability, and demonstrated performance makes them suitable use in high performance applications where failure and replacement costs are high.
The Importance of Prognosis in Cancer Medicine
Authors: Mackillop William J.
Published: July 2006

Prognostic judgment remains an essential element of modern, medical practice. It meets patients' needs for information about the future that they can use to plan their lives, and it provides a basis for rational medical decisions. In the future, the importance of prognosis in oncology is likely to increase as new predictors of the prognosis permit increasingly accurate predictions of the outcomes of treatment. Over the last 30 years, advances in clinical epidemiology have greatly improved the practice of oncology; we understand much better today how to establish the “generalizability” of clinical observations. In future, however, the challenge will be to increase the “particularizability” of medical knowledge in such a way that the individual characteristics of the patient and the tumor are appropriately factored into treatment decisions. This will require characterizing patients, not only in terms of the diagnostic group to which they belong, but also in terms of all those individual characteristics that may influence the outcome of treatment. Hence, the importance of continuing to study prognostic factors in oncology, and learning to use them correctly.
Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Larynx Cancer
Authors: Bourhis Jean
Published: July 2006

Cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx occur with a yearly incidence of around 500,000 new cases. They are frequent in developed countries, about equally in North America and the European Community where they have a particularly high incidence in France. Most of these cancers are squamous‐cell carcinomas (SCCs) occurring in rather debilitated patients after a long history of tobacco consumption and alcohol abuse. The vast majority of patients are males aged around 50 years, but there is a tendency to an increasing incidence in females and young adults. In addition, the sociocultural profile of patients suffering from head and neck SCC is often poor. In general, SCCs of the head and neck often proliferate rapidly, are locally aggressive, and carry a high tendency to metastasize to cervical lymph nodes. In presentations with very large lymph nodes, or when lymph nodes are very numerous, the possibility of distant metastasis increases significantly. This natural history explains why that these SCCs are most often diagnosed at an advanced stage, requiring combined therapies. The outcome for this patient population is poor for several reasons: the risk of failure for the index tumor; the risk of developing subsequent SCCs along the upper aerodigestive tract, esophagus, and lung; and the frequency of intercurrent diseases. The risks from comorbity and second cancers arise almost exclusively from the common etiologic association with alcohol and tobacco abuse. SCCs of the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx are a major public health problem. Apart from large campaigns against tobacco use and alcohol abuse and information that may encourage earlier diagnosis, efforts should be made to assess prognostic factors capable of predicting both outcome and the response to various treatments. In turn, this should help select appropriate therapeutic protocols.
Paranasal Sinus Cancer
Authors: Waldron John N.
Published: July 2006

Malignant disease arising in the maxillary, ethmoid, frontal, or sphenoid sinuses, collectively known as the paranasal sinuses, is rare. Paranasal sinus cancer represents less than 5% of all head and neck malignancy, which in turn comprises less than 10% of malignancy overall. The majority of paranasal sinus cancers arise within the maxillary sinus (70–80%) followed by the ethmoid sinus (10–20%). Because of this, much of the literature (including the present chapter) focuses on data derived from description of tumors arising at these two sites. Cancers arising in the sphenoid or frontal sinuses are extremely rare. The outcome of patients presenting with paranasal sinus cancer is generally poor, with most centers reporting 5‐year survival rates in the range of 30–40%.

As with any rare disease, the task of reliably identifying and validating independent prognostic factors for paranasal sinus cancer is complicated by the lack of prospectively collected data and the variability of data reported in the retrospective literature that spans many decades, with most series containing relatively small numbers of patients. Reports frequently describe patients with a wide range of tumor extent and histology treated with variable treatment approaches. Outcomes are often analyzed and reported with respect to different endpoints. Prognostication and empiric management recommendations are regularly based on conclusions drawn from the comparison of inhomogeneous treatment groups. In this chapter we attempt to identify prognostic factors that are supported by currently available data and, of equal importance, those that do not enjoy this support.
Skin Cancer
Authors: Poulsen Michael
Published: July 2006

The great majority of skin cancers will be cured and this has resulted in a certain degree of complacency in its management. Despite the overall favorable outlook there remains a subset of patients who remain at higher risk of relapse and indeed may even succumb to the disease. There are many prognostic factors known, but the relationships between these variables are complex and it is difficult to differentiate the independent variables from the dependent ones.

In contrast to the low recurrence rate, the risk of subsequent skin cancer elsewhere is about 50% at 5 years. The factors, which are prognostic for recurrence, are not the same as the factors, that predict for further skin cancer. Fair skin, male gender, high accumulation of solar exposure, and multiple previous basal cell carcinoma (BCC) or squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) predict for further skin cancers.

The major types of nonmelanomatous skin cancer (NMSC) to be considered in this chapter are BCC, SCC and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC).
Prostate Cancer
Authors: Denis Louis Jean , Warde Padraig R.
Published: July 2006

Prostate cancer became an endemic disease in the Western world mainly because of the aging of the population. The peak age incidence hovers around 70. The introduction of prostatic‐specific antigen (PSA) assay for the diagnosis of prostate cancer resulted in a considerable shift in the detection of disease toward earlier stages that are potentially curable. In countries where PSA is widely used for the detection of prostate cancer, up to 75% of patients present with localized disease. This has given great expectations to patients and their physicians. However, conclusive proof that mortality is decreasing due to population screening is still lacking. The problem is enhanced by the heterogeneous behavior of the prostate.

The International Union Against Cancer (UICC) TNM (tumor, nodules, metastasis) classification of malignant tumors is the means by which the prognosis of most solid cancers can be staged and defined at diagnosis. However, the TNM system does not include all relevant prognostic parameters in prostate cancer, especially the PSA. There is a need to evaluate prognostic factors not only at diagnosis but also after treatment. The need to fine‐tune the staging process in early prostate cancer drives the search for better prognostic markers. Needed measures to predict the outcome and support treatment decisions at diagnosis include biologic, pathologic, genetic, molecular, and other nonanatomic prognostic factors. Prognosis could be enhanced further using a neural network methodology, especially for an analysis of risk for each patient. However, despite efforts and hopes, no superior marker to the anatomic disease, extent, histologic grade, on PSA is available today.

Within the scope of this chapter, we will present prognostic factors relevant for the treatment and outcomes in localized and advanced prostate cancer according to relationship to the tumor, the host, and the environment. A relevance‐based subdivision into essential, additional, and promising prognostic factors is also presented.
Germ Cell Testis Tumors
Authors: Chung Peter W. , Schmoll Hans‐Joachim
Published: July 2006

Prognostic factors are of major importance for the treatment and cure of patients with testicular cancer. The histologic type, seminoma versus nonseminomatous germ‐cell tumors (NSGCT) and the (TNM) stage constitute the fundamental prognostic factors that govern clinical practice. For early stages, prognostic factors are the critical determinants for the decisions about treatment. They don't necessarily predict the survival, which is greater than 98% independent of treatment strategy, but for the risk of relapse with different treatment options. In advanced stages, prognostic factors indicate the chance of survival following chemotherapy, either first‐line or salvage. In this chapter, the different prognostic factors, relevant for decision making in early and late stage germ‐cell testis tumors, are discussed.
Renal Cell Cancer
Authors: Ghysel Christophe , Joniau Steven , van Poppel Hendrik
Published: July 2006

A significant problem for clinicians who treat cancer is the application of the known determinants of disease outcome to the individual patient. The clinical course can be affected by the inherent properties of the tumor, the host‐related factors, and the treatment applied. Renal‐cell carcinoma (RCC) has the reputation of an individual unpredictable outcome with rare cases of spontaneous tumor regression and extended survival despite the presence of metastases. This unpredictable outcome is determined by the genotypic biological behavior and the tumor‐host interaction. Refinement of our ability to predict the outcome should facilitate the rational choice of treatment alternatives and provide more reliability in the interaction with the patient. In case of RCC the absence of other effective treatment modalities besides surgery, renders these considerations even more important.
Bladder Cancer
Authors: Sylvester Richard J. , van der Meijden Adrian P.M.
Published: July 2006

Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder is the second most common malignancy of the genitourinary tract, and the second most common cause of death among all genitourinary tumors, the 11th most common cancer on a worldwide basis, accounting for 3–4% of all malignancies. Annually, about 220,000 new cases are being diagnosed; three‐fourths of these patients are men and a disproportional (two‐thirds) number of cases occur in developed countries.

It's important to underline that a distinction between superficial bladder cancer (stages Ta, T1, Tis) and invasive bladder cancer (stages T2–T4) must be taken into account due to the different prognosis and treatment approaches. As a matter of fact, bladder cancer is a heterogeneous disease with considerable variations of its natural history with 5‐year survival rates ranging from 97% to 98% of a single, well‐differentiated, and small papillary tumor to less than 10% of an invasive bladder cancer extending throughout the bladder wall with distant metastases. Among superficial bladder cancer, tumor recurrence after initial therapy varies from 30% in patients with a solitary papillary tumor to more than 90% in patients with multiple tumors. Intense research efforts are being made to identify and characterize the different types of bladder cancer and their variable biological potential. The desire to predict which superficial bladder cancer will recur or progress to invasive cancer, and which invasive bladder cancer will metastatize has spurred the development of a variety of potential prognostic factors.

In this chapter we provide a contemporary review of such prognostic factors with a particular emphasis to the reliable or potential use in the clinical practice.
Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
Authors: Sleijfer Stefan , Verweij Jaap
Published: July 2006

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) belong to the group of soft‐tissue sarcomas. It was found that GISTs frequently overexpress the c‐kit receptor. The recognition that GIST tumor growth was driven by activated c‐kit or PDGFRA prompted the search for treatments that target these two receptors. Assessment of patients presenting with GIST should include a complete history, inventory of comedication, and physical and laboratory examination. Imaging with contrast enhanced computerized tomography (CT) of thorax and abdomen is required. Tissue biopsy is mandatory to assess diagnosis. The most important factor predicting response and overall survival following imatinib treatment is the mutational status of the genes encoding c‐kit and PDGFRA. The advent of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib, which was highly effective in advanced disease, was therefore a major breakthrough, particularly as other effective treatment options for advanced disease were not available. Studies examining imatinib as adjuvant treatment after complete resection in certain risk groups are underway. Controversy exists about the exact relevance of the presence of a
c‐kit
mutation and the precise mutational site in the
c‐kit
gene. GIST is one of the best examples of a tumor type in which advances in molecular biology have resulted in considerable improvements in the understanding of the pathogenesis, and consequently, in the treatment and clinical outcome of GIST patients.
Multiple Myeloma
Authors: San Miguel Jesús , Gutiérrez Norma C.
Published: July 2006

The outcome of multiple myeloma patients is highly heterogeneous with a survival ranging from a few months to more than ten years. This heterogeneity relates to specific characteristics of the tumor itself and of the host. A high proportion of myelomatous plasma cells (PC) in the bone marrow (BM), a diffuse pattern of BM infiltration and the presence of circulating PC reflect a high tumor burden, but their prognostic influence is modest. The main reason for studying prognostic factors is the identification of risk groups in order to adapt patient treatment according to the expected outcome. An important cohort of prognostic factors is those that reflect specific characteristics of myelomatous PC and include morphology, immunophenotyping, cytogenetics, oncogenes, multidrug resistance, and the proliferative activity of PC. Immature/plasmablastic morphology is associated with poor outcome. Cytogenetics is emerging as one of the most important prognostic tools for MM. The investigation of cytogenetic changes (either by karyotyping or FISH) should be used in all newly diagnosed MM patients. The development and progression of MM implies a multistep process of oncogenic events. The p53 and K‐ras mutations or c‐myc overexpression are associated with progressive disease and relapse. In the coming years, an improved staging system incorporating cytogenetics and S‐phase analyses will be developed. A better understanding of the biology of MM has provided the framework for the development of new drugs that target not only the myeloma cells, but also the microenvironment.
RAGGED SEEDLING2 is required for expression of KANADI2 and REVOLUTA homologues in the maize shoot apex
Authors: Henderson David C. , Zhang Xiaolan , Brooks Lionel , Scanlon Michael J.
Published: July 2006

The anatomy of ragged seedling2‐R (rgd2‐R) leaves is disorganized along the adaxial/abaxial axis. Mutant leaves often exhibit radial morphology but unlike similar mutants, rgd2‐R radial leaves have no reduction of adaxial or abaxial identity. Previously, we proposed that RGD2 does not establish adaxial or abaxial fate but performs a signaling function during primordial leaf development. Here we describe genetic and molecular tests of our model for RGD2 function. Genetic analyses explored the phenotypic effects of rgd2‐R on maize leaf mutations disrupting mediolateral and/or dorsiventral development. In situ hybridization and qRT‐PCR analyses reveal that rgd2‐R mutants show reduced accumulation of adaxial and abaxial molecular markers in the maize shoot apex. These data contribute to a revised model whereby RGD2 is required for normal accumulation of leaf patterning transcripts in the developing shoot. Molecular and genetic analyses suggest that RGD2 and LEAF BLADELESS1 share overlapping functions affecting shoot development in maize. genesis 44:372–382, 2006. Published 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
CD45 is required for type I IFN production by dendritic cells
Authors: Montoya Maria , Dawes Ritu , Reid Delyth , Lee Lian Ni , Piercy Jenny , Borrow Persephone , Tchilian Elma Z. , Beverley Peter C. L.
Published: July 2006

CD45 is a leukocyte tyrosine phosphatase, essential for normal immune responses. We have studied the function of splenic dendritic cells of CD45+/+, CD45–/–, CD45RABC and CD45RO transgenic mice. We show that there are increased numbers of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in CD45–/– mice. DC of all mice are capable of responding to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection by up‐regulation of MHC and costimulatory molecules. DC of CD45–/– mice have an impaired capacity to produce type I interferons in response to LCMV infection in vivo. These data indicate that lack of CD45 expression in DC has a profound effect on their function. This is largely restored by CD45RABC or CD45RO transgenes.
Apoptosis resistance in ulcerative colitis: High expression of decoy receptors by lamina propria T cells
Authors: Fayad Raja , Brand Marc I. , Stone David , Keshavarzian Ali , Qiao Liang
Published: July 2006

Intestinal mucosa is constantly exposed to normal environmental antigens. A significant number of intestinal mucosal T cells are being deleted through apoptosis. In contrast, T cells from inflamed mucosa of ulcerative colitis patients did not undergo apoptosis. In this study, we determined whether the apoptosis of normal mucosal T cells was induced by antigen receptor stimulation and further determined pathways that mediated the apoptosis. Freshly isolated lamina propria T cells were stimulated with CD3 mAb and apoptosis was determined by Annexin V staining. Normal mucosal T cells underwent apoptosis upon CD3 mAb stimulation whereas the T cells from inflamed mucosa did not. The apoptosis in normal T cells was blocked by TRAIL‐R1:Fc and an inhibiting CD95 antibody. Interestingly, decoy receptor (DcR)1, DcR2, and DcR3 that compete with death receptor (DR)4/5 and CD95 were highly expressed by the T cells from inflamed mucosa, but much lower by T cells from normal mucosa. Our data suggest that normal mucosal T cells are constantly deleted in response to environmental antigens mediated through DR4/5 and CD95 pathways and mucosal T cells from ulcerative colitis resist to undergoing apoptosis due to highly expression of DcR1, DcR2, and DcR3.
IFN‐α‐conditioned dendritic cells are highly efficient in inducing cross‐priming CD8+ T cells against exogenous viral antigens
Authors: Lapenta Caterina , Santini Stefano M. , Spada Massimo , Donati Simona , Urbani Francesca , Accapezzato Daniele , Franceschini Debora , Andreotti Mauro , Barnaba Vincenzo , Belardelli Filippo
Published: July 2006

Dendritic cells (DC) generated after a short‐term exposure of monocytes to IFN‐α and GM‐CSF (IFN‐DC) are highly effective in inducing cross‐priming of CD8+ T cells against viral antigens. We have investigated the mechanisms responsible for the special attitude of these DC and compared their activity with that of reference DC. Antigen uptake and endosomal processing capabilities were similar for IFN‐DC and IL‐4‐derived DC. Both DC types efficiently cross‐presented soluble HCV NS3 protein to the specific CD8+ T cell clone, even though IFN‐DC were superior in cross‐presenting low amounts of viral antigens. Moreover, when DC were pulsed with inactivated HIV‐1 and injected into hu‐PBL‐SCID mice, the generation of virus‐specific CD8+ T cells was markedly higher in animals immunized with IFN‐DC than in mice immunized with CD40L‐matured IL‐4‐DC. Of interest, in experiments with purified CD8+ T cells, IFN‐DC were superior with respect to CD40L‐matured IL‐4‐DC in inducing in vitro cross‐priming of HIV‐specific CD8+ T cells. This property correlated with enhanced potential to express the specific subunits of the IL‐23 and IL‐27 cytokines. These results suggest that IFN‐DC are directly licensed for an efficient CD8+ T cell priming by mechanisms likely involving enhanced antigen presentation and special attitude to produce IL‐12 family cytokines.
Determination of free glycerol in biodiesel
Authors: Hájek Martin , Skopal František , Machek Jaroslav
Published: July 2006

Within the biodiesel production process, glycerol arises as a side product. This free glycerol is included also in biodiesel in small amounts. Several methods are known to determine it. Some of them are based on gas chromatography (GC). In this paper, a new method is introduced that is based on the extraction of free glycerol into water and its subsequent determination in water solution by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with refractometric detection. Comparison of the GC and HPLC methods showed that they led to the same results. The new method is reliable and comparatively fast for the determination of free glycerol in biodiesel.