bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PROBLEMS FACED BY SINGAPORE ENTREPRENEURS IN THE FIELD OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Authors: Goh Erin , Tan Wee-Liang
Published: November 2004

Biotechnology is one of the fields highlighted by the Economic Committee as an area of high value-added technology which could be developed in Singapore. The recommendation of the Economic Committee was that the venture capital industry be developed to aid in attracting young foreign technological firms to Singapore. Biotechnology includes the areas of pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food processing and agro-technology.

A number of local biotechnology businesses have sprung up. This is an interesting phenomenon since biotechnology is difficult ground for small firms to be engaged in. It is usually associated with a long lag time between the development and the actual introduction of the product into the market-place, a need for large sums to be invested in research, and a short product life span, amongst other disadvantages.

In an environment where enterprise is only currently being encouraged and entrepreneurship being nurtured, one would not have expected local entrepreneurs to venture into biotechnology. It would therefore be of interest to examine these businesses to see if there are any unique problems that they face by operating in Singapore.

This paper proposes to examine the problems encountered by these local firms. Some of the problems ascertained through interviews with local firms concern financing and government funding, and availability of trained staff.
ITPRENEURSHIP AND TOTAL LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AT YCH IN SINGAPORE
Authors: PALVIA SHAILENDRA C. , NEO BOON-SIONG
Published: November 2004

How can small businesses succeed in this age of large corporations, global competition, and the need for large investments in Information Technology? According to conventional wisdom, it should be pretty hard, if not impossible. Companies with visionary and ENTREPRENEURIAL leaders can do it by committing to provide the best possible services to the customers consistently. And do you do that without investing in IT in this information age?

This case illustrates the success story of YCH since its inception in 1955 as a relatively unknown transport company to one of the most prominent companies in the ASEAN region today. YCH has accomplished this feat by innovatively using its resources and talents. One of these is the use of an innovative IT architecture for its various business operations. The case of YCH Logistics company demonstrates that small businesses can not only invest in IT, but they can use IT for competitive advantage. Furthermore, they can achieve this by not buying a single mainframe or a mini computer. YCH company was one of the three proud winners of the prestigious IT awards by the National Computer Board of Singapore in 1992. This case provides a brief history of the company including the major turning points; and describes its business segments and the evolving role of IT to support and augment the business operations. It also describes the innovative and modular IT architecture adopted by its small, young and ambitious IT team.
LEARNING: KEY TO LEVERAGING THE VALUE OF A FRANCHISE
Authors: PHAN PHILLIP H , BUTLER JOHN E , LEE SOO HOON
Published: November 2004

The organizational learning dynamics inherent in the franchise relationship provide the primary focus for this research. By encoding knowledge of the skills needed to suceed within the contractual arrangement, the franchisor can short cut the learning process for the franchisee. Once the franchising arrangement is established, both franchisees and franchisors have vested interest in maintaining high levels of organizational learning. In this research a model is presented that incorporates these learning dynamics, and relates them to entrepreneurial returns.

Using a sample of heavy-duty truck franchisees, the relationship between different types of organizational learning and performance are explored. The results indicate that the franchising contract may actually act to limit the returns to the franchise relationship. Instead, it may encourage the franchisee to direct their learning efforts to skew returns in their favor. Successful franchisees were found to systematically value the franchise contractual and non-contractual information content more than less successful franchisees.
THE MARKET PLACE: A COMPUTER BASED NETWORK FOR GLOBAL MARKETING
Authors: CONRATH DAVID W
Published: November 2004

This paper is the second in a series about the MarketPlace, a computer-based network designed to facilitate the involvement of small and medium sized businesses in international trade. The MarketPlace provides a means for identifying and contacting people with whom one would like to do business. Using the system’s software and database a firm could specify requirements or state its capabilities, negotiate contracts and obtain support services (e.g. arranging shipping, customs clearance and financing) that would enable them to undertake trade that would otherwise seem out of reach. The first paper focused on research issues. This one, while mentioning certain problems that must be resolved before such a system can become operational, contains a number of suggestions about the features that the initial MarketPlace ought to possess. These range from product/service specification and language issues to the technology that ought to be used and the potential sources of revenue that would be available to the operators of the MarketPlace.
MEASUREMENT OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN SMALL BUSINESS: A TWO-FACTOR APPROACH
Authors: KELMAR JOHN H
Published: November 2004

This paper proposes that the measurement of success and failure in small business does not present itself as a continuum, as implied by many of the papers published in the area of small business research.

In addressing the criteria which has been expressed as indicative of small business failure it has often been assumed that the elimination of these aspects will henceforth create a successful small business. Similarly, if a small business fails to address those issues which are indicative of success, then it is often purported to be heading toward failure.

This implied success-failure continuum often does not appear to exist, and the preferred approach is that a “Two-Factor Theory of Small Business Performance” tends to be more indicative of the true nature of the research findings. This concept presupposes that the opposite of success is non-success, and the opposite of failure is non-failure, as shown by comparing the results of published material in the field of small business.
AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE ORGANISATION LIFE CYCLE MODEL FOR SMALL BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT AND SURVIVAL IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC
Authors: YUSUF ATTAHIR
Published: November 2004

Four general stages appear to be common in the organisational life-cycle of small businesses in Papua New Guinea (PNG): Formation, Early Growth, Later Growth and Maturity. Owner/managers confront different set of problems as the life-cycle of their businesses progressed inevitably shifting their operational and management priorities, degree of involvement in running the business, and the scope of management. External environmental problems appear predominant over the life-cycle particularly in the formation and survival stages. Internal problems predominate the late growth and maturity stages. Planning emerged as the biggest problem of small businesses in PNG. At the formation stages, developing a viable business plan for the sourcing of funds and establishing a direction for the business was the major planning problem. Marketing planning problems were more prevalent in the growth stages, and financial planning problems appeared at both the formation and maturity stages. Other problems, such as poor customer contact and weak and fragmented market, spanned the life cycle stages. The organisational life-cycle concept was shown to be adaptable across cultures but problems at different stages of the organisational life-cycle differed across cultures and level of economic development of nations.
Abdominal adipose tissue cytokine gene expression: relationship to obesity and metabolic risk factors
Authors: You Tongjian , Yang Rongze , Lyles Mary F. , Gong Dawei , Nicklas Barbara J.
Published: November 2004

Adipose tissue is a major source of inflammatory and thrombotic cytokines. This study investigated the relationship of abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue cytokine gene expression to body composition, fat distribution, and metabolic risk during obesity. We determined body composition, abdominal fat distribution, plasma lipids, and abdominal subcutaneous fat gene expression of leptin, TNF-α, IL-6, PAI-1, and adiponectin in 20 obese, middle-aged women (BMI, 32.7 ± 0.8 kg/m2; age, 57 ± 1 yr). A subset of these women without diabetes ( n = 15) also underwent an OGTT. In all women, visceral fat volume was negatively related to leptin ( r = −0.46, P < 0.05) and tended to be negatively related to adiponectin ( r = −0.38, P = 0.09) gene expression. Among the nondiabetic women, fasting insulin ( r = 0.69, P < 0.01), 2-h insulin ( r = 0.56, P < 0.05), and HOMA index ( r = 0.59, P < 0.05) correlated positively with TNF-α gene expression; fasting insulin ( r = 0.54, P < 0.05) was positively related to, and 2-h insulin ( r = 0.49, P = 0.06) tended to be positively related to, IL-6 gene expression; and glucose area ( r = −0.56, P < 0.05) was negatively related to, and insulin area ( r = −0.49, P = 0.06) tended to be negatively related to, adiponectin gene expression. Also, adiponectin gene expression was significantly lower in women with vs. without the metabolic syndrome (adiponectin-β-actin ratio, 2.26 ± 0.46 vs. 3.31 ± 0.33, P < 0.05). We conclude that abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue expression of inflammatory cytokines is a potential mechanism linking obesity with its metabolic comorbidities.
In Vivo Cardiac Gene Transfer of Kv4.3 Abrogates the Hypertrophic Response in Rats After Aortic Stenosis
Authors: Lebeche Djamel , Kaprielian Roger , del Monte Federica , Tomaselli Gordon , Gwathmey Judith K. , Schwartz Arnold , Hajjar Roger J.
Published: November 2004

Background—

Prolongation of the action potential duration (APD) and decreased transient outward K
+
current (
I
to
) have been consistently observed in cardiac hypertrophy. The relation between electrical remodeling and cardiac hypertrophy in vivo is unknown.

Methods and Results—

We studied rat hearts subjected to pressure overload by surgical ascending aortic stenosis (AS) and simultaneously infected these hearts with an adenovirus carrying either the Kv4.3 gene (
Ad.Kv4.3
) or the β-galactosidase gene (
Ad.β-gal
).
I
to
density was reduced and APD
50
was prolonged (
P
<0.05) in AS rats compared with sham rats. Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 expressions were decreased by 58% and 51%, respectively (
P
<0.05). AS rats infected with
Ad.β-gal
developed cardiac hypertrophy compared with sham rats, as assessed by cellular capacitance and heart weight–body weight ratio. Associated with the development of cardiac hypertrophy, the expression of calcineurin and its downstream transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) c1 was persistently increased by 47% and 36%, respectively (
P
<0.05) in AS myocytes infected with
Ad.β-gal
compared with sham myocytes. In vivo gene transfer of
Kv4.3
in AS rats was shown to increase Kv4.3 expression, increase
I
to
density, and shorten APD
50
by 1.6-fold, 5.3-fold, and 3.6-fold, respectively (
P
<0.05). Furthermore, AS rats infected with
Ad.Kv4.3
showed significant reductions in calcineurin and NFAT expression. (
P
<0.05).

Conclusions—

Downregulation of
I
to
, APD prolongation, and cardiac hypertrophy occur early after AS, and in vivo gene transfer of Kv4.3 can restore these electrical parameters and abrogate the hypertrophic response via the calcineurin pathway.
Childhood Adiposity as a Predictor of Cardiac Mass in Adulthood
Authors: Li Xiangrong , Li Shengxu , Ulusoy Eralp , Chen Wei , Srinivasan Sathanur R. , Berenson Gerald S.
Published: November 2004

Background—

The association between left ventricular hypertrophy, an independent predictor of cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality, and CV risk factors has been well documented in childhood and in adulthood. However, information on the relationship between left ventricular mass (LVM) in adults and longitudinal measurements of CV risk factors from childhood to adulthood is limited.

Methods and Results—

LVM was obtained with 2D M-mode echocardiography in a community-based sample of 467 young adults (71% white and 29% black) aged 20 to 38 years who were examined an average of 6 times for CV risk factors from childhood to adulthood. The average follow-up period was 21.5 years. The cumulative burden of each risk factor was calculated as the area under the curve for each individual. Compared with whites, blacks had greater LVM (indexed to height
2.7
;
P
<0.05). In multiple regression analyses, adiposity (measured as body mass index) in childhood, adiposity and systolic blood pressure in adulthood, and the cumulative burden of adiposity and systolic blood pressure from childhood to adulthood were significant predictors of LVM index in young adults.

Conclusions—

These observations, by showing that adiposity beginning in childhood is a consistent predictor of LVM in young adults, underscore the importance of obesity in the development of left ventricular hypertrophy and the need for early prevention.
Evaluation of Concentric Left Ventricular Geometry in Humans
Authors: de Simone Giovanni , Daniels Stephen R. , Kimball Thomas R. , Roman Mary J. , Romano Carmela , Chinali Marcello , Galderisi Maurizio , Devereux Richard B.
Published: November 2004

There might be limitations in identifying concentric left ventricular (LV) geometry by ratio of diastolic posterior wall thickness (WT
p
) to cavity radius, defined as relative wall thickness (RWT
p
). This study has been designed to evaluate age effects on RWT
p
. WT
p
, mean of septal thickness and WT
p
(WT
m
), and cavity radius were cross-sectionally evaluated in 766 1- to 85-year-old, normotensive, nonobese subjects and 331 hypertensive Italians (used as a test series). RWT
p
≥0.43 defined “traditional” concentric LV geometry. The ratios WT
m
/radius (RWT
m
) and RWT
p
increased by 0.005 and 0.006 per year of age in the age stratum up to 17 years and by 0.002 in the older age stratum (18 years or older; all
P
<0.0001). Thus, RWT
m
and RWT
p
were normalized to average age in both age strata (10 and 46 years) by age-specific regression coefficients. The 90th and 95th percentiles of age-normalized RWT
p
or RWT
m
were 0.40 and 0.42 or 0.41 and 0.43, respectively, in adults and 0.36 and 0.39 or 0.36 and 0.38, respectively in young subjects. In hypertensive subjects, traditional RWT
p
cutoff identified 74 subjects (22%) with concentric LV geometry; by 95th or 90th normal percentiles, normalized RWT
m
identified 112 (34%), or 149 (45%) subjects with concentric LV geometry, and normalized RWT
p
29% and 39%, respectively (all
P
<0.0001 versus unadjusted RWT
p
). Thus, prevalence of concentric LV geometry increases with age-normalized RWT. Accordingly, we suggest that concentric LV hypertrophy be defined by coexistence of high LV mass with age-normalized RWT
m
>0.41 or RWT
p
>0.40. Further studies are required to establish prognostic implications of our findings.
The System of International Legal Cooperation in Criminal Matters in Russia: Council of Europe Conventions in the Field of Penal Law and Their Implementation in Russia
Authors: Norros Merja
Published: November 2004

The two most important Council of Europe conventions in the penal field—the Convention on Extradition and the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters—entered into force with respect to the Russian Federation in March 2000. The present article examines whether these conventions are fully implemented in Russia. Four research problems are identifi ed: (1) What kind of obligations have the European Conventions established for the contracting parties? (2) How is the fulfi llment of these obligations monitored by the Council of Europe and the member states? (3) How are the criteria for adequate international legal cooperation fulfi lled by Russia? and 4) Is cooperation with Russia different from cooperation with other countries and how could this cooperation be improved? The present article includes an empirical part, which provides statistics on requests for judicial assistance. The method is comparative. Altogether forty-one criteria have been formulated in order to evaluate systems for judicial cooperation. These criteria are organized into three groups, dealing respectively with: (i) legislative; (ii) institutional; and (iii) human resources aspects. The article stresses the signifi cance of the Committee of Experts on the Operation of European Conventions in the Penal field (PC-OC) in ensuring unanimous interpretation of the conventions. For the first time, the new Russian Criminal Procedure Code (2001) includes provisions on international cooperation, which are therefore carefully analyzed. The writer concludes that most of the main provisions of the European conventions have been implemented in Russian legislation. There are, however, some legislative gaps, i.e., concerning provisions on the searching, freezing, and confi scation of proceeds derived from criminal activity on the basis of a foreign request. In addition, some problems remain in administrative structures, such as five central authorities instead of one. Finally, the information and training concerning conventions is not (yet) suffi cient thereby resulting in certain practical difficulties.
Livestock Revolution in India: Its Impact and Policy Response
Authors: Khan Akram A. , Bidabadi Farhad Shirani
Published: November 2004

A demand-driven revolution in livestock consumption and production is taking place in many developing countries, impacting on nutrition, health, the environment, and national and international agricultural marketing and research systems. This Livestock Revolution is most evident in China, India and Brazil because of the sheer size of these countries. While China and Brazil have a dominant role in meat production as part of this Livestock Revolution, the revolution will not be limited to China and Brazil, and extends beyond the meat market. The example of India is a case in point. The near doubling of aggregate milk consumption as food in India between the early 1980s and the late 1990s suggests that the Livestock Revolution goes beyond meat production and consumption. Now the critical question for economic managers and planners in countries such as India is no longer whether the Livestock Revolution is manifest in the country or not, but to what extent poor people and smallholders can play a significant part in this enterprise. This article charts the development of the Indian Livestock Revolution and assesses the potential impact of industrialization of livestock production on small farmers especially. It is argued that intensive livestock farming may not be appropriate for India on a number of grounds. There is a risk that the Livestock Revolution, similar to the Green Revolution, will polarize the inequality between rich and poor. Decisive action needs to be taken to ensure that the poor benefit from such developments, and some policy recommendations are made to address such concerns.
Practical Management of Patients With Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer Treated With Gefitinib
Authors: Shah Neelam T. , Kris Mark G. , Pao William , Tyson Leslie B. , Pizzo Barbara M. , Heinemann Murk-Hein , Ben-Porat Leah , Sachs Dana L. , Heelan Robert T. , Miller Vincent A.
Published: November 2004

Purpose

The use of gefitinib, the first drug approved to inhibit the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase, is indicated in patients with non–small-cell lung cancer with tumors progressive after chemotherapy. The unique mechanism of action of this agent leads to distinctive patterns of response and toxicity in persons with lung cancer. Many of the principles of management relevant to gefitinib are distinct from those with conventional cytotoxic drugs. To meet this need, we present practical guidelines on the use of gefitinib in patients with non–small-cell lung cancer.

Methods

This article reviews gefitinib’s indications, dosing, response phenomena, and patterns of relapse in individuals with radiographic response.

Results

We present our recommendations for the management of rash and diarrhea caused by this agent.

Conclusion

This information can guide practitioners and help them inform their patients about what to expect when they receive gefitinib.
A Multitargeted, Metronomic, and Maximum-Tolerated Dose “Chemo-Switch” Regimen is Antiangiogenic, Producing Objective Responses and Survival Benefit in a Mouse Model of Cancer
Authors: Pietras Kristian , Hanahan Douglas
Published: November 2004

Purpose

A transgenic mouse model has revealed parameters of the angiogenic switch during multistep tumorigenesis of pancreatic islets, and demonstrated efficacy of antiangiogenic therapies. Pericytes have been revealed as functionally important for tumor neovasculature, using kinase inhibitors targeting their platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs). Additionally, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) inhibitors and metronomic chemotherapy show modest benefit against early- but not late-stage disease.

Materials and Methods

Seeking to improve efficacy against otherwise intractable end-stage pancreatic islet tumors, two receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors, imatinib and SU11248, were used to disrupt PDGFR-mediated pericyte support of tumor endothelial cells in concert with maximum-tolerated dose (MTD) or metronomic chemotherapy and/or VEGFR inhibition.

Results

Imatinib, despite equivocal efficacy as monotherapy, reduced pericyte coverage of tumor vessels and enhanced efficacy in combination with metronomic chemotherapy or VEGFR inhibition. A regimen involving all three was even better. MTD using cyclophosphamide caused transitory regression, but then rapid regrowth, in contrast to metronomic cyclophosphamide plus imatinib, which produced stable disease. The MTD regimen elicited apoptosis of tumor cells but not endothelial cells, whereas the other regimens increased endothelial cell apoptosis concordant with efficacy. A “chemo-switch” protocol, involving sequential MTD and then metronomic chemotherapy, overlaid with multitargeted inhibition of PDGFR and VEGFR, gave complete responses and unprecedented survival advantage in this model.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates a potentially tractable clinical strategy in a stringent preclinical model, wherein standard-of-care chemotherapy is followed by a novel maintenance regimen: PDFGR is targeted to disrupt pericyte support, while metronomic chemotherapy and/or VEGFR inhibitors target consequently sensitized endothelial cells, collectively destabilizing pre-existing tumor vasculature and inhibiting ongoing angiogenesis.
BOOK NOTICES
Authors: Mason O. T.
Published: November 2004

Twenty‐second Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Dixon Roland B.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Life and Culture of the Hupa. By Pliny Earle Goddard.

Hupa Texts. By Pliny Earle Goddard.
Book Reviews
Authors: Starr Frederick
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Im Afrikaniscken Urwald. By Franz Thonner.

Von Kongo zum Ubangi. By Franz Thonner.
BOOK REVIEWS: NORTH AMERICA
Authors: Skinner Alanson
Published: November 2004

A Prehistoric Iroquoian Site. A. C. Parker.

A Contact Period Seneca Site. A. C. Parker.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Setzler Frank M.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

NORTH AMERICA: Ancient Aztalan. S. A. Barrett.

NORTH AMERICA: The Excavation of the Ross Mound Group I. Philleo Nash.

NORTH AMERICA: The Red Cedar River Variant of the Wisconsin Hopewell Culture. L. R. Cooper.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Gayton A. H.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

MISCELLANEOUS: Tales of the North American Indians. Stith Thompson.

MISCELLANEOUS: Motif‐Index of Folk‐Literature. Vol. I: A‐C; II: D‐E. Stith Thompson.
Book Review
Authors: Herskovits Melville J.
Published: November 2004

AFRICA: Die Baja, ein Negerstamm im Mittleren Sudan.

AFRICA: Die Nyamwezi: Gesellschaft und Weltbild. Wilhelm Blohm.
Book Reviews
Authors: Eggan Fred
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA: Die Dualistische Kultur in Amerika. A. W. Nieuwenhuis.

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA: Clan and Moiety in Native America. Roland L. Olson.
Book Reviews
Authors: Steward Julian H.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA: Wintu Ethnography. Cora Du Bois

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA: Sinkyone Notes. Gladys Ayer Nomland.

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA: Varia Anthropologica.
BOOK REVIEW
Authors: Provinse John H.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

An Historical Legend of the Zapotecs. Paul Radin.

Aboriginal Population of Northwestern Mexico. Carl Sauer.
Book Reviews
Authors: Bennett Wendell C.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

MEXICO, CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA: Archaeology of Santa Maria, Colombia. The Tairona Culture, Part II, Section 1: Objects of Stone, Shell, Bone and Metal. J. Alden Mason.

MEXICO, CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA: Archaeology of South America. J. Eric Thompson.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Lowie Robert H.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

El Engaño de las Razas. Fernando Ortiz

Theory and Practice in Historical Study; A Report of the Committee on Historiography.
Book Reviews
Authors: Thompson J. Eric S.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

MIDDLE AMERICA: Historia tolteca‐chichimeca. Liber in lingua nahuall manuscriptus pictorisque ornatus.… (Corpus codicum americanorum medii aevi, Vol. 1. Edited by Ernst Mengin. Published by Einar Munksgaard. Folio, 41 pp., 104 pls. Dan. Kr. 400 bound; Dan Kr. 370 with paper wrappers. Copenhagen, 1942.)

MIDDLE AMERICA: Unos annales históricos de la nación mexicana. Manuscrit mexicain No. 22. Manuscrit mexicain No. 22 bis. … (Corpus codicum americanorum medii aevi, Vol. 2. Edited by Ernst Mengin. Published by Einar Munksgaard. Folio, 16 pp., 102 pls. Dan. Kr. 400 bound; Dan. Kr. 370 with paper wrappers. Copenhagen, 1945.)
RECENT TRENDS IN SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY
Authors: SHIMKIN D. B.
Published: November 2004

Trudy Instituta Etnografiyi im. N. N. Miklukho‐Maklaya (Memoirs of the Institute of Ethnography named for N. N. Miklukho‐Maklay) t. I (1947), pp. 284; t. II (1947), pp. 316 Akademiya Nauk Soyuza SSR.

Sovietskaya Etnografiya (Soviet Ethnography) 1948, Nos. 1 pp. 260; 2, pp. 256; 3, pp. 216; 4, pp. 228. Akademiya Nauk SSR.

Sovietskaya Arkheologiya (Soviet Archeology) t. VIII (1946), pp. 320; t. IX (1947), pp. 330. Akademiya Nauk SSR. Institut Istoriyi Material'noi Kul'tury im. N. Ya. Marra (Institute for the History of Material Culture named for N. Ya. Marr).
Book Reviews
Authors: Ackerknecht Erwin H.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Ethnology and Ethnography: Das religioese Weltbild einer fruehen Kultur. Adolf E. Jensen.

Ethnology and Ethnography: Mythos una Kult bei den Naturvoelkern. Adolf E. Jensen.
Book Review
Authors: Belshaw Cyril S.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Adams, Harold S., George M. Foster and Paul S. Taylor (Consultants).

Carley, Verna A. and Eimer A. Starch. (Consultants). Report on Community Development Programs in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Bolivia, and Peru. Introduction by Louis S. Miniclier.
Book Reviews
Authors: Tschopik Harry
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

PRIMITIVE ART: Ancient Arts of the Andes. Wendell C. Bennett

PRIMITIVE ART: 32 Masterworks of Andean Art. Preface by René D'Harnoncourt
Book Reviews
Authors: Dodge Ernest S.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

PRIMITIVE ART: Art of the South Pacific Islands. Paul S. Wingert

PRIMITIVE ART: Oceanic Art. Frederich Hewicker and Herbert Tischner
Book Reviews
Authors: Guldbeck Per Ernst
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

PRIMITIVE ART: The Folk Arts of Norway. Janice S. Stewart

PRIMITIVE ART: Norway: Paintings From The Stave Churches. Preface by Roar Hauglid. Introduction by Louis Grodecki
Book Reviews
Authors: Bruner Edward M.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

ETHNOLOGY: Being a Palauan. H. G. Barnett

ETHNOLOGY: Bunyaro: An African Kingdom. John Beattie

ETHNOLOGY: The Tiwi of North Australia. C. W. M. Hart and Arnold R. Pilling

ETHNOLOGY: The Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains. E. Adamson Hoebel

ETHNOLOGY: Tepoztlán: Village in Mexico. Oscar Lewis
Book Reviews
Authors: Ikawa Fumiko
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura. Masao Gamo (Ed.) Tokyo: Chuokoron Sha.

Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin. Kazuko Tsurumi. Tokyo: Chuo‐koron Sha.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Kelley Gerald
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Dravidian Borrowings from Indo‐Aryan. M. B. Emeneau and T. Burrow.

Brahui and Comparative Dravidian Grammar. M. B. Emeneau.
Book Reviews
Authors: Graves Theodore D.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Culture and Personality. Victor Barnouw

Personality and Social Systems. Neil J. Smelser and William T. Smelser (eds.)
GENERAL AND ETHNOLOGY: The Door in the Wall. Oliver La Farge
Authors: Laughlin Robert M.
Published: November 2004

Book Reviews
Franz Boas and the Culture Concept in Historical Perspective1
Authors: STOCKING GEORGE W.
Published: November 2004

It has been argued that Franz Boas contributed little to the emergence of the culture concept in anthropology and in fact hindered its growth. In the context of an earlier re‐evaluation of the role of E. B. Tylor, it is argued here that in the work of Boas the concept was in fact provided with much of the basis of its modern anthropological meaning. In developing his argument against racial mental differences, Boas proceeded by showing that the behavior of all men, regardless of race or cultural stage, was determined by a traditional body of habitual behavior patterns passed on through what we would now call enculturative processes and buttressed by ethically tainted secondary rationalizations. The behavioral significance of the older humanist‐evolutionist idea of culture was thus inverted, and the basis laid for the notion of culture as a primary determinant of behavior.

The fundamental concepts … in any of the disciplines of science are always left indeterminate at first and are only explained to begin with by reference to the realm of phenomena from which they were derived; it is only by means of a progressive analysis of the material of observation that they can be made clear and can find a significant and consistent meaning.

Sigmund Freud (as quoted by Kroeber and Kluckhohn 1952:42)

… this attachment to inherited names appears much stronger as soon as we consider realities of a less material order. That is because the transformations in such cases almost always take place too slowly to be perceptible to the very men affected by them. They feel no need to change the label, because the change of content escapes them.

Marc Bloch (1961:159)
Milpas and Milperos: Implications for Prehistoric Times1
Authors: Reina Ruben E.
Published: November 2004

It has been stated that shifting agriculture among the Maya of the Classic Period could have been expected to produce an adequate supply of maize to support their complex civilization, and that its collapse could not have been due to the inadequacies of the method of production. This article presents a study of the contemporary milpa system among descendants of the Itzá of Petén, Guatemala: first, a description of the basic Maya approach to the elements of nature; second, their sociological accommodations; third, economic factors; and fourth, the conclusions and implications for Maya cultural history. If the case at hand is relevant, food shortages were involved in the economic and social collapse of many independent religious centers of the Southern Lowland Maya. I do not question the potentials of the environment for greater or more constant food supply. My emphasis is rather on the sociocultural response to the environment, which continues to direct their agricultural activities.
Tuareg Kinship1
Authors: MURPHY ROBERT F.
Published: November 2004

The assumption that a positive congruence exists between social structure and kinship terminology is questioned, and an alternate hypothesis offered that kinship terms may be a contradiction of the social system and a transformation of it on the cultural level. Tuareg kinship terminology is analyzed in relationship to the social system, and a discontinuity is found between the Iroquois terminology and kingroup endogamy, including a preference for all forms of cousin marriage. These data indicate that a relationship between the structure of interaction and the informants' verbal model of the kinship system does exist, but that the kin terms negate and reorder the social system rather than affirm it.
Book Reviews
Authors: Lamb Sydney M.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Noam Chomsky.

Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Noam Chomsky.
Children and Conduct in a Ladino Community of Chiapas, Mexico1
Authors: HOTCHKISS JOHN C.
Published: November 2004

While running errands, children in a Ladino town of Chiapas, Mexico, perform roles that are integral to the system of community conduct. They obtain information for use by adults (spying) and enter encounters that might endanger an adult's self‐respect (“face‐work”). The adults' concern for secrecy and personal privacy provides the basis for these strategic uses of children. The relation between the maintenance of reputation and the protection of self in a small‐town setting makes this role for children understandable.
Agricultural Organization, Social Structure, and Values in Italy: Amoral Familism Reconsidered1
Authors: SILVERMAN SYDEL F.
Published: November 2004

The ethos of “amoral familism,” which was suggested by Banfield as an explanation of political behavior in a Southern Italian community, may be restated as a summary of several significant features of Southern Italian social structure. However, Banfield's argument must be reversed: the ethos is a consequence rather than the basis of these social characteristics; they, in turn, have their foundation in the agricultural system. In order to identify those conditions of agricultural organization and social structure that shape “amoral familism” and related values, two areas of Italy, the Center and the Deep South, are contrasted.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Meighan Clement W.
Published: November 2004

Book reviewed in this article:

Virgin‐Kayenta Cultural Relationships. C. Melvin Aikens.

Corn, Cucurbits and Cotton from Glen Canyon. Hugh C. Cutler.

Glen Canyon: A Summary. Jesse D. Jennings.

Archaeological Excavations in Lower Glen Canyon, Utah, 1959–1960. Paul V. Long, Jr.
The Utility of the Equilibrium Model in the Study of Social Change*,1
Authors: GLUCKMAN MAX
Published: November 2004

There has been considerable criticism of the use of the equilibrium model by social anthropologists. The argument of this paper is that much of this criticism is due to a misunderstanding arising because though all social life exists in time, and all processes in time involve changes, we have to define several different kinds of “time” as well as distinctive types of “change.” It is contended that each type of social institution, or cultural pattern, has a particular kind of time scale in its very structure. Thus the structure of a family system can only be analyzed in four generations, and in subsistence systems perhaps only in five to six generations. Other institutions have other built‐in time scales. It is proposed to call the time scale of an institution its structural duration. One important way of studying an institution is to analyze its structural duration. In an analysis of this kind, the emphasis is on the manner in which the institution would operate through time if internal contradictions or external intruding events did not interfere with its passage through its structural duration. Therefore an analysis of the structural duration of an institution is necessarily in an equilibrium model. Many studies have taken this form, but have been misread as if they were dealing with what happened in actual historical time. It is argued that since changes are of several kinds in a suggested range, from repetitive or recurrent changes of personnel through limited structural changes to radical structural changes, it is possible to assess what kinds of changes are occurring only by examining them within the structural durations of institutions, held steady as a first step in analysis as if in actual equilibrium. But this provides only a heuristic scheme in which to handle the observations; it is not a theory giving us a set of interdependent propositions. More and more actual changes may be fed in as the analysis tries to cope with greater ranges of reality. The argument is illustrated with examples from studies of several social spheres. There is also a discussion of how the method enables the analyst to analyze observations collected over a limited period of time in terms of a much longer period in order to assess the types of change that are occurring.
Evolution of Primate Vocal‐Auditory Communication Systems1
Authors: REYNOLDS PETER CARLTON
Published: November 2004

One way of tracing the evolution of language is to (1) reduce language to its structural components or design‐features, (2) discover to what extent these design‐features are present in the communication of nonhuman primates, and (3) attempt to establish the brain structures that mediate linguistic behavior in man and the extent to which such structures can mediate similar behavior in nonhuman primates. It is also important to delineate those anatomical mechanisms that are prerequisites for language from those that are later adaptations. Human peculiarities of the auditory system, vocal tract, and motor system are better explained as the result of feedback from an evolving linguistic code than as necessary prerequisites for language. The abilities to engage in sequential behavior and to form nonlimbic, cross‐modal associations are more likely to be linguistic preadaptations. The faculty of immediate memory also influences communication systems by setting constraints on sequential codes. The structure of the communicative code and the behavioral capacities of the mediating organism together determine the semantic characteristics of the code. Sign systems, when classified by their semantic properties, can be closed, semiopen, open, nominal open, subject‐predicate open, and relational open. Given human limitations, a complex sequential code is necessary if the information load is to be increased.
Origin of Large Households and Duolocal Residence in Central Japan1
Authors: BEFU HARUMI
Published: November 2004

Until about seventy‐five years ago there existed a small number of communities in central Japan where, with the exception of the household head who married virilocally, man and wife lived separately for life with their consanguines in households averaging fifteen members. Examination of hypotheses offered by various scholars to explain the large household size and the duolocal residence finds them wanting. It is suggested instead that the twin conditions of the absence of branching (brought about by demographic stagnation) and the necessity of maintaining a large household containing many collaterals (necessitated by certain productive and consumptive requirements) produced conditions in which coresidence of collateral spouses in a household was maladapted; that the existing prevalence of duopatrilocal residence in this area provided a readily available base from which to proceed to a permanent duolocal system; and that the historically antecedent dozoku structure, with its strong emphasis on patrilineally transmitted authority, would have worked to prevent the household head from adopting duolocal residence along with other men.
The “Psychological Reality” of American‐English Kinship Terms: An Information‐Processing Approach1
Authors: SANDAY PEGGY R.
Published: November 2004

This research applies the information‐processing theory of human thinking to an analysis of the psychological reality of American‐English kinship terms. A general model in terms of cognitive structure and process is presented, its theoretical development closely tied to experimental testing. Two tasks involving the manipulation of terms of reference were administered to a sample chosen on the basis of subcultural affiliation; from the resulting data inferences are drawn about how kinship terms are structured in memory. Finally a classification of cognitive structure is presented and compared to the componential model of the componential analyst.
Metaphors of Hierarchy in a Mayan Ritual
Authors: ROSALDO RENATO I.
Published: November 2004

Conventional actions denoting differences in rank are considered a central part of a Mayan ritual honoring a local saint and provide the basis for the formal analysis presented here. The ritual elements—acts drawn from daily etiquette and other ritual contexts—are combined in a way consistent with classic theories of ritual. While providing the basis for a formal argument, ways of designating rank order are not treated as “empty ritual”: they pose a moral problem for the participants that contributes to the meaning of the ritual itself.
On the Modesty of Women in Arab Muslim Villages: A Study in the Accommodation of Traditions1
Authors: ANTOUN RICHARD T.
Published: November 2004

The modesty code constitutes a fundamental pattern in Middle Eastern culture, found at the level of both its great tradition (Islamic law and Quranic ethics) and its little tradition (village custom and belief). The peculiar conditions of peasant life, however, make conformity to the code difficult and require accommodation at the level of both action and thought. It is the accommodation at the two analytically separate levels of thought and action and the interrelationship between these accommodations, rather than the search for the historical origins of discrete cultural traits, that should constitute the focus for studies relating the great and little traditions. This study demonstrates that accommodation in thought (Redfield's “social organization of tradition”) is intimately related to the success of achieving accommodation in action between particular groups in critical situations (Firth's “social organization” at large). It also demonstrates that the persistence and the pervasiveness of the modesty code in Middle Eastern culture can be explained only by a combination of structural, psychological, and historical factors.
Elite Groups in Peasant Communities: A Comparison of Three Middle Eastern Villages1
Authors: GOLDBERG HARVEY
Published: November 2004

This paper explores various factors that influence the rigidity of stratification in three Middle Eastern village communities. Analyses of a Lebanese community and a Turkish community have suggested eight factors that influence, both positively and negatively, the rigidity of stratification. These factors concern (1) symbol systems of elite unity, (2) religious legitimation, (3) norms of recruitment to elite status, (4) education and literacy, (5) elite endogamy, (6) inheritance patterns, (7) effects of prestige on participation in agricultural labor, and (8) control of administrative positions. A community of Tripolitanian immigrants in Israel is examined in the light of these factors. This comparison suggests yet another factor, viz., the degree of elite orientation to the outside world as compared to the nonelite. This factor is crucial in understanding the intergenerational perpetuation of elite status in the Israeli community.
Impact of Christianity on the Uraon of the Chainpur Belt in Chotanagpur: An Analysis of Its Cultural Processes
Authors: SAHAY KESHARI N.
Published: November 2004

This study considers the impact of Christianity on the tribal culture of the Uraon and points to the existence of five cultural processes: oscillation, scrutinization, combination, indigenization, and retroversion, which are loosely associated with progressive phases of Christianization. Each of these processes is discussed in detail, with a description of how the initially stable culture of the converts become unstable and finally regains stability as succeeding generations blend the new ideas with the old, rationalizing and readopting many old beliefs and practices that were initially abandoned. It is further suggested that the set of processes discussed here might have wide applicability in the study of the impact of Christianity on native peoples.
Social Identity and Expressive Symbols: The Meaning of an Initiation Ritual1
Authors: MERTEN GARY SCHWARTZ DON
Published: November 2004

This paper examines the relationship between expressive symbols and the identity transformations implicit in adolescent initiation rituals. Previous work views these rites as a means of insuring role commitment; they enable a society to motivate its members to willingly accept adult role obligations essential to its survival. On the other hand, our analysis of high school sorority initiation rites in an urban community suggests that they confirm the initiate's new social identity in a way that strengthens the moral categories that define the local status system. In contrast to those who argue that these sorts of rituals promote community solidarity, we maintain that they support the ideology of the dominant groups in a local status hierarchy.
Le Rôti et le Bouilli: Lévi‐Strauss Theory of Cannibalism1
Authors: SHANKMAN PAUL
Published: November 2004

In a recent article entitled “The Culinary Triangle,” Lévi‐Strauss contends that an analysis of cooking as a language will reveal certain structural oppositions in society. He predicts that the practice of cannibalism, which employs various modes of cooking, will also reveal such oppositions. An examination of Lévi‐Strauss' argument and a test of his predictions indicate that, owing to theoretical and methodological weaknesses, his ideas on how best to serve our fellow man will be of little use to either cannibals or anthropologists.
The Early History of Syphilis: A Reappraisal
Authors: CROSBY ALFRED W.
Published: November 2004

The historical record and examination of disinterred human bones indicate that venereal syphilis is very old in America but did not appear in the Old World until about 1500. Traditionally it has been believed that the disease was brought to the Old World by Columbus in the 1490s. The most popular alternative hypothesis at present is that venereal syphilis is really only one facet of a disease—treponematosis, appearing as yaws in the tropics, nonvenereal syphilis in the Middle East, pinta in Mexico, etc.—that is present wherever man has settled and has been his unshakable companion for thousands of years in all the continents. Unfortunately, the latter, or Unitarian, theory has no more claim to validity than the Columbian. The diseases mentioned are similar but we cannot be sure that they are all really the same. And the testimony of the sixteenth‐century Spaniards, who knew Columbus and his men, that syphilis was an American import cannot be easily brushed aside. The hypothesis of this paper is that treponematosis, originally a single disease, evolved into several related but distinct maladies as man spread through the world and that venereal syphilis is the variant that developed in the remote cul‐de‐sac of America, from which it probably was indeed introduced to Europe with the return of Columbus.