bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nautical Astronomy and the Mercator Principle
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

Arising from my recent note on short-method nautical astronomical tables, Dr. G. D. Raasveldt of The Netherlands has commented on an elegant solution to the general nautical astronomical problem developed in 1884 by Captain (later Commandant) Emile Guyou of the French Navy. Guyou's method is, indeed, ingenious: it affords an extremely brief solution to the problems of computing hour angle and azimuth given the three sides of the astronomical or PZX triangle. Moreover, by its principles all problems in nautical astronomy may be solved by means of one single-entry table. Sines and cosines, tangents and cotangents, secants and cosecants, versines and haversines—natural and logarithmic—are all made redundant for this purpose by a table whose function is, in general, limited to mercator sailing. This is the common ‘Meridional Parts Table for the Sphere’.
Route Finding by Desert Aborigines in Australia
Authors: Lewis David
Published: November 2009

How do Aborigines find their way across the arid wastes of Central Australia? Certainly their feats of practical orientation and tracking are legendary. Are their methods in any way analogous to the non-instrumental arts still surviving in parts of the insular Pacific? (Lewis, 1972). In 1972 the professor of Pacific History at the Australian National University generously extended to Central Australia the accepted bounds of Oceania, to allow me to travel the Simpson Desert with Antikarinya tracker Wintinna Mick in an attempt to find answers to these questions. Subsequently, in 1973 and 1974, a grant from the Australian Institute for Aboriginal Studies and a Visiting Fellowship in Anthropology from the A.N.U. enabled me to extend the investigation into the Western Desert, under the tutelage of men most of whom had spent their youth as nomadic stone age hunters. What they taught me makes up the bulk of this paper and provides some sort of answers to our opening questions.
The Operational Status of NAVSTAR/GPS
Authors: Lassiter Edward M. , Parkinson Bradford
Published: November 2009

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that will provide extremely accurate three-dimensional position fixes and timing information to properly equipped users anywhere on or near the Earth. The system will be available continuously regardless of weather conditions and will find extensive utilization in improved weapons delivery accuracies, range instrumentation, &c. Furthermore it will provide an ultimate saving in the number and cost of navigation and position-fixing systems currently employed or projected. It is a Joint Service programme managed by the U.S.A.F. with deputies from the Navy, Army and Marines and the Defense Mapping Agency. The system concept evolved from U.S.A.F. and Navy studies initiated in the mid-1960s. Current programme plans call for the deployment of six satellites in 1977 to permit demonstration and evaluation tests over the continental United States. The system will then be expanded through the deployment of additional satellites into an operational 24-satellite system.
Global Radio Navigation
Authors: Beukers John M.
Published: November 2009

In the very near future there is a good chance of being able to navigate around the world using one or more of the radio navigation aids currently being implemented. Navigators the world over have long dreamt of a reliable, global, all weather navigational tool and this is now within their grasp. This paper discusses some of the administrative tasks that must be accomplished to make the navigator's dream come true. There are a multitude of radio navigational aids, so many in fact that the U.S. Government has become critical of the technical and user community for the proliferation of these systems. However for global radio navigation the field is narrowed considerably, there being only five contenders.
‘Two Centuries of Navigation’: Development of Marine Traffic Engineering in Japan
Authors: Fujii Yahei
Published: November 2009

Marine traffic engineering is a new field of navigation study with a history ranging over some fifteen years. The first traffic survey fully deserving of the name was carried out by Yamaguchi et al in 1963 in Japan; more than 30 surveys a year are nowadays being carried out with the cooperation of the Maritime Safety Agency, the Japanese Association for Preventing Sea Casualties and the Marine Traffic Engineering Research Group. The number of papers on the subject in the Journal of the Japanese Institute of Navigation has increased correspondingly. Table I gives a breakdown of theoretical studies of marine traffic engineering. A general account of Japanese activity in these fields has been published in different papers in the Journal of Navigation, London, and emphasis in this paper is based on activities since 1970.
The Role of Lighting in Aids to Marine Navigation
Authors: Reynolds L. G.
Published: November 2009

This paper by the Principal Scientific Officer of Trinity House was presented at an Institute meeting in London on 28 April 1976 with Mrs. Mary Pera in the Chair.

Mr. Reynolds describes the use of lights to convey positional and other information by the assignment of characteristics of rhythm and colour and discusses the problems of visual discrimination, the choice of light intensities and the effect of atmospheric conditions on the ranges of lights. He also describes the new buoyage system and other moves towards international agreement. A paper on the IALA system by the Hydro-grapher of the Navy appears at p. 94.

Lighting is used in various ways in maritime applications. For operations at night in vessels, in harbours or on drilling platforms general lighting is necessary; such lights may also be of value in indicating a hazard or suggesting a route to be followed but are not expressly intended for that purpose. Fixed lights in vessels are arranged in a spatial pattern and employ colour to give indications of the presence and aspect of the vessel to other vessels. Indirect lighting is also sometimes used, as in the floodlighting of lighthouse towers to reduce bird deaths by collision.
Marine Radar Beacons
Authors: Harrison A.
Published: November 2009

In this paper the author sketches the historical development of radar beacons: the different types are classified in relation to code and frequency employed and the benefits and drawbacks of more recently proposed types of beacon are discussed.

The paper was presented at a Marine Electronics Symposium sponsored by the Society of Electronic and Radio Technicians at the University of Southampton in July 1976.

The military use of responder beacons before 1945 led to secondary radar systems, such as Rebecca-Eureka, Oboe, and IFF, giving facilities for target location at long range with an accuracy and identification not available from a primary radar system. The desirability of these advantages in civilian systems was recognized but the absence of military urgency and considerations of cost led to delay. Although responder beacons became an essential part of the Air Traffic Control System, extension into the marine field did not succeed until the U.K. Ministry of Transport Safety of Navigation Committee set up a Technical Committee and Working Party in 1962 to investigate the conditions governing the marine installation of responder beacons as a navigational aid. This committee recommended that responder beacons (alternatively called racons) should be set up to an agreed specification at selected sites around the UK coast, to become the first civil marine navigational racon system. The co-operation of the Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment, Trinity House, and Kelvin Hughes made possible the installation and operation of three racons—on the Liverpool Bar LV, the Kish LV, and St. Abb's Head LH—to provide operational experience on which the committee's recommendations were based, followed by the setting up of the complete system.
I—The Economics of Sail
Authors: Couper A. D.
Published: November 2009

It is probable that within the next ten years marine transport technologists will be faced with some difficult choices in relation to ship propulsion for an era of high fuel prices. They will have to consider (i) the continuation of conventional power driven vessels with greatly improved engines, or low speed operations; (2) the development of high speed nuclear powered ships; and, (3) the use of sail. Whether the latter will be adopted to any significant extent for ocean transport will depend on the oil supply situation in the 1980s and 90s; developments in ships' engines; and, more importantly, the philosophy then prevailing relating to the conservation of the world's non-renewable resources.
II—Reducing the Running Costs at Sea
Authors: Mudie Colin
Published: November 2009

There are a number of ways of reducing the running cost of existing ships by making use of power sources which are freely available to them in their environment. This paper first of all considers briefly some possibilities other than wind power and then discusses the use of wind as an auxiliary source of propulsion in power driven ships.

Ocean Currents. Ship navigators of course already make considerable use of ocean currents when planning economical voyages. However a number of rafting voyages made for various reasons in the last few years point to the possibility of sending bulk cargoes at slow speeds across some parts of the seas carried principally by the currents. The principal problem is perhaps the pure financial one of taking the capital value of the cargo out of circulation for the time involved in such transportation.
VIII—Some Reflections on the Optimal Use of Wind Power
Authors: Mudie Colin
Published: November 2009

It is difficult, somehow, to be completely convinced that the world's fuel supplies are about to dry up leaving us in a state of nature with modern technology marooned hard and fast up the proverbial creek. The end of the world itself has been prophesied at regular intervals since the beginning of time and has not yet come to pass. Again, throughout recorded history mankind, with only minor hiccups, has somehow always managed to go forward technically and never backwards. It is difficult somehow not to relax into a comfortable state of Micawberism and to reckon that something is bound to turn up in the fifty or so years we seem to have left to buoy us all up again and carry forward the kind of civilization we all take for granted. It is not surprising therefore that some basic air of unreality tends to cling around any discussion on a return to the use of wind power for propelling ships. It must be the first time ever that mankind has seriously discussed a return to an outdated and largely dead major technology.
Flight Decks for Future Civil Transport Aircraft
Authors: Bateman L. F.
Published: November 2009

This paper, by the Assistant Chief Electro-dynamic Engineer of the British Aircraft Corporation, was originally presented at the Annual General Technical Meeting of the Guild of Air Pilots and Navigators in September 1976.

This paper discusses a programme being carried out jointly by the British Aircraft Corporation and Hawker Siddeley Aviation into the design of flight decks for civil transport aircraft scheduled to enter service in the 1980s. The flight decks of today have evolved as a result of experience gained since manned flight began; it would be foolhardy to ignore this background and in applying new technology care must be exercised in preserving, as far as possible, conventions and practices which have long been established.
Royal Air Force Assessment Flights
Authors: Broughton D. W.
Published: November 2009

The Royal Air Force has no operational aircraft fitted with Omega but the author was closely associated with two assessments of the system planned and flown by R.A.F. navigators. Both series of flights used the Marconi Elliott AD 1800 equipment. The first flights were from Boscombe Down in mid-1973; the second series, arranged by the Department of Air Warfare at the R.A.F. College, Cranwell consisted of two flights over the North Pole in September 1976.
Flight Experience with Omega
Authors: Bradley R. H. N.
Published: November 2009

This paper reflects nearly three years experience of flying with Omega and suggests that in an Omega with doppler fit the necessity for the continuous compass feed can be turned to advantage by using Omega to measure and display the accuracy of the feed, which can then be applied as a system tracking correction to the doppler. The equipment we have been evaluating is a prototype Marconi Elliott AD 1800 comprising a receiver and computer in a 1 ATR black box in the avionics bay, a control display unit on the navigator's desk and an aerial input from the ADF 2 sense aerial, via a pre-amplifier and splitter that allows Omega continual use of the aerial; the ADF 2 shared access to it as required. In three years we have effectively had one hardware failure per year. These were a timing card fault, a 10 V power supply failure and a sticking ‘INSERT’ button. All these faults were detectable pre-flight; we have had no inflight equipment failures.
Navigation in the Gulf of Suez
Authors: Rashad Refaat
Published: November 2009

The need to improve and regulate navigation in the Gulf of Suez became urgent when the Suez Canal was reopened in June 1975, and urgency increased with the number and size of ships passing through the Canal. In 1975 the Suez Canal Authority embarked on a three-phase development operation over a period of six years; the first phase, completed in 1976, allowed the passage of vessels having draughts of up to 38 ft, while the final phase, initially due for completion in 1981 but later extended to 1983, will allow the transit of vessels having draughts of up to 68 ft.
The Presentation of Information in Combat Aircraft
Authors: Salmon L. T. J.
Published: November 2009

The prime purpose of the navigation system in a combat aircraft is to determine the relative positions of aircraft and target with sufficient accuracy to enable a weapon to be released. In practice the actual system installed in the aircraft is a compromise solution, which depends on three factors, namely, the mission to be flown, the type of aircraft and the navigation phases through which the aircraft flies while performing the mission. Broadly speaking there are two types of navigation phase; these will be termed macronavigation and micronavigation. Macronavigation is concerned with the navigation of an aircraft to some pre-determined point on the Earth's surface while micronavigation is the final, highly accurate navigation phase required for weapon release. Micronavigation can be further sub-divided into static and dynamic micronavigation; static when the target and the coordinate system within which it exists are fixed, and dynamic when the target moves within a coordinate system which is defined by the attacking aircraft.
Information on Board Ship
Authors: Wright A. J.
Published: November 2009

In this paper the ship is treated as an information handling and processing system with a variety of information sources, sinks and processing areas both internal and external. Information flows and is processed in a variety of patterns depending on a number of variables. These include the proximity of other ships, the shore or the sea bed, the state of the weather, whether it is day or night and whether the ship is at sea or in port.

The author wishes to thank the Science Research Council for help in funding this study and also many industries and organizations for their assistance.
Weather Forecasting for Small Craft
Authors: Watts Alan
Published: November 2009

From a weather forecasting viewpoint the situation of the sailing yacht at sea is unique. The yacht is small and entirely dependent on one meteorological element, wind, for its motive power. It is a device where an increase in that power increases the safety factor of speed by a very small margin while at the same time it increases the danger factor to a much larger degree. This is mainly because the increase in wind speed is accompanied by wave building and the latter increases with wind speed, time and, very dangerously, with approach to the shallow water that must often be traversed before safety is gained. It is not only wind speed that puts yachts in danger, but the combination of wind speed and attendant seaway. However seaway is not an element predicted in weather forecasts; it is a branch of seamanship left entirely to the skipper on the spot.
See and Be Seen
Authors: Hayman Bernard
Published: November 2009

The purpose of a navigation light is to show presence, aspect and occupation: can you see it—can he see it—do you both know what you are seeing?

Radiation is measured by ‘luminous flux’; the unit of which is the ‘lumen’, but that is not what we need to know. We need ‘luminous intensity’, the amount of light emitted in one particular direction and normally called the candlepower, the unit for which is the ‘candela’. Figure 1 shows how brilliance, in candela, affects range. For the purposes of Imco calculations a transmissivity factor of 0·8 is used; K = 0·74 corresponds to the Iala standard and 0·9 to the old ‘dear dark night’ standard used for oil lanterns. A sailing yacht has also to consider voltage drop and Fig. 2 shows how a lead acid battery while being charged might produce 14 volts, giving a 10 W bulb a brilliance of 22 cd, whereas the same battery not being charged might give as little as 9 cd.
Yachts and Traffic Separation Schemes
Authors: Emden R. K. N.
Published: November 2009

In considering the implications for yachtsmen, cruisers as well as racers, of the new Collision Regulations which came into force on 15 July 1977, it is worth recording that Imco-recommended traffic separation schemes were first published in 1967 and that there are now nearly one hundred schemes throughout the world, about ten of which are within the normal cruising grounds of British based yachts. On 1 September 1972 the British government introduced legislation making compliance with the recommendations mandatory for all United Kingdom registered vessels. Ten other countries have followed suit but a significant exception, at least as far as yachting is concerned, has been France. However from 15 July 1977, under Rule 10 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, compliance is required of all vessels. The word ‘vessel’ is defined in new Rule 3 as including ‘…every description of watercraft…’.
The London Years of Felipe Bauzá: Spanish Hydrographer in Exile, 1823–34
Authors: Lamb Ursula
Published: November 2009

I am very pleased to be with you on this occasion which gathers annually the friends and admirers of Professor Eva G. R. Taylor to honour her memory. My presence here reflects the globe-circling impact her work continues to have, as more and more people from many disciplines rely on her varied contributions. As for the distance of the echo to her work, I qualify, coming from close to half way around the globe, or from Long. 110° 58′ 08″ west of Greenwich. I have elected to talk about Felipe Bauzá who, on an autumn day of 1823, presented himself to the Royal Geographical Society here in London, some way north and east from his birthplace, Palma de Mallorca, and his port of departure, Gibraltar. For he was one of the Spanish liberals with a price on his head under orders of that treacherous puppet of the Holy Alliance, Ferdinand VII.
The Optimum Speed of Ships
Authors: Alderton P. M.
Published: November 2009

This paper was presented at a meeting of the Institute in London on 18 February 1981 with Dr J. F. Kemp in the Chair. Captain Alderton discusses a variety of criteria for assessing economic optimal speeds and shows how sensitive these optima are to such constraints as port time, voyage distance and bunker costs.

The expression ‘optimum’ is frequently used very loosely and one often finds that the factor under consideration is only being optimized with reference to some, not all, of its dependent variables. A truly optimum speed for a ship can only be achieved by considering:

(i) What speeds the ship can actually achieve, taking into account various mechanical constraints, the state of the hull (fouling), the draft and the effect of the weather.

(ii) What speeds we would like the ship to achieve taking into account the costs, the profits and the pressure of schedules.
Calculators for Marine Navigation
Authors: d'Oliveira Basil
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was presented at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute in London on 18 March 1981 with Dr J. F. Kemp in the Chair, outlines the scope for using modern programmable hand-held calculators at sea, discusses the functions and facilities required for navigation and describes some of the models now available.

For many years the basic instruments for navigation have been the compass, chart, sextant, log and chronometer; an advanced scientific calculator should now be added to the list. Indeed, this type of calculator should form part of the personal navigation equipment of every navigator—marine or air, military or civil—because the way to get the best out of a machine is to have one of your own; you will seldom get the best out of any machine which is shared.
Services for Yachtsmen
Authors: Halliwell H. R. W.
Published: November 2009

It is seven years since the Hydrographic Department published charts for yachtsmen only. Our policy since then, dictated by the pressure on our resources, has been to suit Admiralty charts and publications as far as possible to the needs of all sorts of user; but we hope that we will be able in a few years to re-enter the field of yachtsmen's publications. It is interesting to see how other hydrographic offices have tackled the problem. In April 1977 members of the International Hydrographic Organization discussed special charts for small craft use; a summary of the prepared statements appeared in the International Hydrographic Bulletin in September. The charts concerned are mainly large-scale inshore ones rather than passage charts.
The Use of Charts with Advanced Navigation Systems
Authors: Vickers J. , Hansford R. F.
Published: November 2009

Decca have undertaken a study for the Department of Industry of possible integrated navigation systems for use in merchant ships, particularly VLCCs, and also the development and supply of an advanced navigation information system for offshore patrol vessels which uses many of the techniques proposed in the earlier civil study. This computer system provides for the integration of various data sources including radar, the processing of the data and display; a prominent item is the Admiralty chart.
Approximate transmission conditions through a rough thin layer: The case of periodic roughness
Authors: CIUPERCA I. S. , JAI M. , POIGNARD C.
Published: November 2009

We study the behaviour of the steady-state voltage potentials in a material composed of a two-dimensional object surrounded by a rough thin layer and embedded in an ambient medium. The roughness of the layer is supposed to be ϵ-periodic, ϵ being the magnitude of the mean thickness of the layer. For ϵ tending to zero, we determine approximate transmission conditions in order to replace the rough thin layer by these conditions on the boundary of the interior material. This paper extends the previous works (Poignard, 2009,Math. Meth. Appl. Sci., vol. 32, pp. 435–453; Poignardet al., 2008,IEEE Trans. Magnet., vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 1154–1157) of the third author, which deal with smooth thin layers.
What is Cultural Modernity? A General View and a South African Perspective from Rose Cottage Cave
Authors: Wadley Lyn
Published: November 2009

Storage of symbolic information outside the human brain is accepted here as the first undisputed evidence for cultural modernity. In the hunter-gatherer context of the Stone Age this storage could include artwork, rapidly changing artefact styles and organized spatial layout of campsites. Modern human behaviour in this context is distinguished by a symbolic use of space and material culture to define social relationships, including significant groupings based on attributes such as kinship, gender, age or skill. Symbolism maintains, negotiates, legitimizes and transmits such relationships. It is argued here that artefacts are not inherently imbued with symbolism and that modern human culture cannot be automatically inferred from inventories of archaeologically recovered material culture. Evidence for the out-of-brain storage of symbolism in southern African sites first appears in the final phase of the Middle Stone Age at about 40,000 years ago.
Microsimulation of pension reforms: behavioural versus nonbehavioural approach
Authors: BORELLA MARGHERITA , MOSCAROLA FLAVIA CODA
Published: November 2009

We analyse the impact of various pension regimes, as shaped by recent Italian reforms, on retirement age, adequacy issues, and redistribution. We add to the literature on microsimulation by accounting for individuals' reactions to financial incentives when deciding to retire. We find that shifting from a generous defined benefit (DB) system to an actuarially fair notional defined contribution (NDC) system induces individuals, particularly men, to postpone retirement. Voluntary postponement of retirement would grant employees a replacement rate comparable to that obtained in the pre-reform DB regime, while the self-employed experience a substantial reduction in their replacement rate.
Liberal internationalism: from ideology to empirical theory – and back again
Authors: Jahn Beate
Published: November 2009

This article shows that Andrew Moravcsik’s ‘nonideological’ formulation of a liberal theory of international relations is itself deeply ideological – both in terms of his own criteria and in terms of a broader conception of ideology. The source of this outcome lies in Moravcsik’s mistaken conception of ideology. While ideological knowledge is indeed particular rather than general, it shares this feature with all political knowledge. In the political sphere, it is therefore not general knowledge that transcends the limits of ideology but rather an explicit engagement with these limits. A nonideological study of liberalism would thus require an historical account of the origins and development of liberalism in the context of its struggle with internal and external competitors. While such a study would not constitute a liberal theory of international relations in general, it would provide a general theory of liberal international relations – and would thus be highly relevant in the context of a liberal world order.
It takes all types: social psychology, trust, and the international relations paradigm in our minds
Authors: Rathbun Brian C.
Published: November 2009

The insights of social psychology are not thoroughly integrated into international relations theory, yet social psychology has much to offer. Social psychology provides a conceptualization of a number of varieties of trust – moralistic, strategic, and generalized – and their opposites that implicitly drive the logic of major works of international relations. It also reveals the empirical presence of a number of different types of trusters who make different assumptions about the trustworthiness of others and consequently show markedly different propensities towards cooperation. The rough correspondence between these different ‘social orientations’ and the logics of the three approaches of structural realism, neoliberal institutionalism, and constructivism suggest that individuals carry a crude paradigm in their minds. Metatheoretically, the implication for international relations theory is that scholars capture a part but not the totality of world politics, the behavior of those who trust (or do not trust) in a particular way that matches the logic of their paradigms. Theoretically it suggests a research agenda at multiple levels of analysis, utilizing all of the types of trust and trusters. I review the work of others that offers some preliminary evidence for its plausibility, suggest some hypotheses of my own, and address potential theoretical objections.
Victim identity and respect for human dignity: a terminological analysis
Authors: Meredith Valerie M.
Published: November 2009

The use of the term ‘victim’ as an identity can have different implications, depending on who is using it, claiming it, rejecting it or attributing it to others. Its negative connotations may have an impact on the person or persons concerned. This implies that the term should be used with some care and insight. The article analyses the use and function of the word ‘victim’ at different levels in the work and actions of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Noting the extent to which the term is or is not used with caution, it points to the evolution in awareness from a certain institutional discourse to the current careful wording displayed in research and publications. The article stresses the importance of aid workers being able to recognize the potential and active identity of a person beyond the institutional label as ‘victim’, as this constitutes an important step in respecting that person's human dignity.
Facilitating humanitarian assistance in international humanitarian and human rights law
Authors: Barber Rebecca
Published: November 2009

In 2008, 260 humanitarian aid workers were killed or injured in violent attacks. Such attacks and other restrictions substantially limit the ability of humanitarian aid agencies to provide assistance to those in need, meaning that millions of people around the world are denied the basic food, water, shelter and sanitation necessary for survival. Using the humanitarian crises in Darfur and Somalia as examples, this paper considers the legal obligation of state and non-state actors to consent to and facilitate humanitarian assistance. It is shown that the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, as well as customary international law, require that states consent to and facilitate humanitarian assistance which is impartial in character and conducted without adverse distinction, where failure to do so may lead to starvation or otherwise threaten the survival of a civilian population. This paper considers whether this obligation has been further expanded by the development of customary international law in recent years, as well as by international human rights law, to the point that states now have an obligation to accept and to facilitate humanitarian assistance in both international and non-international armed conflicts, even where the denial of such assistance does not necessarily threaten the survival of a civilian population.
A sense of self-perceived collective victimhood in intractable conflicts
Authors: Bar-Tal Daniel , Chernyak-Hai Lily , Schori Noa , Gundar Ayelet
Published: November 2009

A sense of self-perceived collective victimhood emerges as a major theme in the ethos of conflict of societies involved in intractable conflict and is a fundamental part of the collective memory of the conflict. This sense is defined as a mindset shared by group members that results from a perceived intentional harm with severe consequences, inflicted on the collective by another group. This harm is viewed as undeserved, unjust and immoral, and one that the group could not prevent. The article analyses the nature of the self-perceived collective sense of victimhood in the conflict, its antecedents, the functions that it fulfils for the society and the consequences that result from this view.
The war dead and their gravesites
Authors: Petrig Anna
Published: November 2009

International humanitarian law (IHL) contains various provisions pertaining to the dead in armed conflicts and their burial places. This article provides an overview of the various substantive obligations with regard to persons having lost their lives in armed conflicts and their gravesites. The temporal scope of application of these provisions – namely whether they apply in times of peace – will also be analysed. Finally, the reasons why IHL as in force today is applicable to questions concerning the dead and their gravesites will be considered.
Various mechanisms and approaches for implementing international humanitarian law and protecting and assisting war victims
Authors: Pfanner Toni
Published: November 2009

This article presents an overview of the various mechanisms to improve the situation of people affected by armed conflict. Some are anchored in international humanitarian law, but numerous actors are increasingly contributing to its implementation outside the original framework established for that purpose. Human rights monitoring bodies, the diverse organs and agencies of the United Nations and regional organizations, and governmental and non-governmental organizations are seeking to address situations of armed conflict. However, humanitarian action unattached to any political agenda and combining protection and assistance is often the only remedy for the plight of the victims of armed conflicts.
Determining scintillation effects on GPS receivers
Authors: Strangeways Hal J.
Published: November 2009

Although formulae are available to determine tracking jitter (variance of the phase tracking error at the output of the Global Navigation Satellite Systems receiver phase‐locked loop) resulting from scintillation for GPS/SBAS C/A code processing and semicodeless GPS L1 and L2 Y‐code, these require input of the spectral parameters p (inverse power law of the phase power spectral density (PSD)) and T (spectral strength of the phase PSD at 1 Hz) which will not generally be available. It would certainly be more convenient if tracking jitter could be determined just from scintillation indices (S4 and σϕ) enabling determination when spectral parameters are not readily available and permitting tracking jitter for all the simultaneously observed satellites to be easily determined and used in a scintillation mitigation scheme. The main difficulty is that the Fresnel frequency, fF, which is an important feature of the amplitude PSD, should be known. Here a method is proposed which uses both scintillation indices (σϕ and S4) to give an additional relation to find both p and T. This makes use of the known general fading frequency behavior of the PSD spectrum which is different between amplitude and phase scintillation. This difference is exploited, utilizing approximate models of the PSD for both amplitude and phase, to define equations that can be solved for p and T for any given fF. Even when fF is not known, it is shown that by taking account of the range of physically realistic values of fF, the tracking jitter can generally be determined to a reasonable degree of accuracy.
South Pacific mantle plumes imaged by seismic observation on islands and seafloor
Authors: Suetsugu D. , Isse T. , Tanaka S. , Obayashi M. , Shiobara H. , Sugioka H. , Kanazawa T. , Fukao Y. , Barruol G. , Reymond D.
Published: November 2009

The South Pacific region is characterized by a broadly elevated seafloor known as the South Pacific superswell. This region has a concentration of midplate volcanoes that experienced massive eruptions in the mid‐Cretaceous period (90–120 Ma). These characteristics suggest the presence of a large‐scale mantle plume beneath the South Pacific, called the South Pacific superplume. The geometry, origin depth, temperature, and composition of the superplume remain controversial, however, mainly due to the lack of seismological data that documents the mantle structure beneath the South Pacific. Seismic stations are sparse in the area due to its remote ocean environment. To obtain a better seismic image of the superplume, we deployed temporary broadband seismographs on oceanic islands and the seafloor in the South Pacific, which made possible the highest spatial resolution that has ever been achieved for the mantle structure beneath the region. The seismic image obtained from this new seismic data indicates that large‐scale low‐velocity anomalies (on the order of 1000 km in diameter), indicative of the superplume, are located from the bottom of the mantle to a depth of 1000 km, and small‐scale low‐velocity anomalies (on the order of 100 km in diameter) are present above it. A comparison of the seismic image with recent mantle convection studies based upon laboratory and numerical experiments suggests that the superplume may be a hot and chemically distinct mantle dome, and that the small‐scale anomalies may be narrow plumes generated from the top of the dome. This model may explain various characteristics of hot spots in the South Pacific, such as the seafloor swell, short‐lived hot spot chains, and the periodicity of massive eruptions.
Ultramafic impact melt sheet beneath the South Pole–Aitken basin on the Moon
Authors: Nakamura Ryosuke , Matsunaga Tsuneo , Ogawa Yoshiko , Yamamoto Satoru , Hiroi Takahiro , Saiki Kazuto , Hirata Naru , Arai Tomoko , Kitazato Kohei , Takeda Hiroshi , Sugihara Takamitsu , Kodama Shinsuke , Ohtake Makiko , Haruyama Junichi , Yokota Yasuhiro
Published: November 2009

The Spectral Profiler onboard the Japanese lunar explorer Kaguya conducted the first hyperspectral survey around the South Pole‐Aitken basin (SPA) on the Moon that is one of the largest impact structures in the Solar System. The radiative transfer modeling revealed that fresh crater central peaks inside SPA are commonly composed of an ultramafic assemblage dominated by Magnesium rich orthopyroxene, suggesting a homogeneous layer buried under SPA. The extensive ultramafic layer could be a relic of a gigantic impact melt pool produced by the SPA‐forming impact. The preponderance of orthopyroxene could have resulted from significant fractional crystallization of the lunar magma ocean prior to the onset of plagioclase floatation.
Aspect sensitivity considerations in determining day‐to‐night variations in meteor trail durations
Authors: Malhotra Akshay , Mathews John D. , Ray Kimberly
Published: November 2009

Recently there has been an interest in the day‐to‐night variations in the duration of non‐specular meteor trails or Range Spread Trail Echoes (RSTE). The reported differences between the day and night durations of meteor trails have been used to arrive at conclusions on the role played by background plasma concentration and background electric field and/or winds in the formation and evolution of RSTEs in general. However, the work done to‐date does not account for the aspect sensitivity of meteor trails. We present the duration distribution of meteor trails — the most comprehensive study yet on RSTE durations — considering the aspect sensitivity of these trails. In contrast to the previous reports, the day‐night trail durations are statistically similar in our observations. These results stress the importance of considering aspect sensitivity while performing any such study and how a failure to do so might result in misleading results and conclusions.
Simulation of the color ratio associated with the backscattering of radiation by ice particles at the wavelengths of 0.532 and 1.064 μm
Authors: Bi Lei , Yang Ping , Kattawar George W. , Baum Bryan A. , Hu Yong X. , Winker David M. , Brock R. Scott , Lu Jun Q.
Published: November 2009

This study explores a simulation of ice cloud optical properties similar to those observed using the Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP), a dual‐wavelength (0.532 and 1.064 μm) lidar. The goal is to better understand the sensitivity of the color ratio (the ratio of the backscatter coefficients at the wavelengths of 1.064 and 0.532 μm) to ice particle habit. The single‐scattering properties of randomly oriented hexagonal ice particles are simulated from the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method for particles with size parameters less than 50, and from an improved geometric optics method (IGOM) for particles with larger size parameters (a quantity proportional to the ratio of the particle characteristic dimension to the incident wavelength). Based on the assumption that ice particles are hexagonal particles, the color ratio values are found to be less than unity with a peak value near 0.7 for columns and 0.8 for plates. If spherical ice particles are assumed, the color ratio values can be larger than unity and may even approach 2 for many size distributions. The deviation in the value of the color ratio from unity is due to different distributions of size parameters for the two wavelengths, and to smaller single‐scattering albedo values for large particles at 1.064 μm than at 0.532 μm. The present simulations of the color ratio for hexagonal columns are qualitatively consistent with measurements from a ground‐based lidar, located at Hampton University in Hampton, Virginia, which peak near 0.88, but the two results differ quantitatively by 10–20 percent.
A study on stratospheric gravity waves generated by Typhoon Ewiniar: Numerical simulations and satellite observations
Authors: Kim So‐Young , Chun Hye‐Yeong , Wu Dong L.
Published: November 2009

Characteristics of stratospheric gravity waves generated by Typhoon Ewiniar (2006) are investigated using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, high‐resolution European Center for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) analysis data, and the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) observations. In the numerical simulations, convective forcing in the troposphere shows nearly isotropic features, which propagate in various directions with a maximum in the typhoon‐moving direction. However, stratospheric gravity waves are anisotropic since only the wave components that satisfy the vertical propagation condition of gravity waves can reach the upper stratosphere. The lower stratospheric background winds play the key role in filtering the wave spectrum generated by the typhoon. During the mature stage of the typhoon, stratospheric waves propagate mainly eastward with significant power in the northeastward and southeastward directions. During the decaying stage of the typhoon, northeastward propagating waves are dominant due to fast movement of the typhoon in the same direction after landfall. The modeled wave patterns are also found in the AIRS and ECMWF data sets at similar locations, directions, wavelengths, and timing, although the wave amplitude differs among the three data sets. This is likely due to different typhoon intensities and the distributions of convective forcing in each data set, owing to different spatial resolution as well as limitations in the model physics.
Regional CO2 and latent heat surface fluxes in the Southern Great Plains: Measurements, modeling, and scaling
Authors: Riley W. J. , Biraud S. C. , Torn M. S. , Fischer M. L. , Billesbach D. P. , Berry J. A.
Published: November 2009

Characterizing net ecosystem exchanges (NEE) of CO2 and sensible and latent heat fluxes in heterogeneous landscapes is difficult, yet critical given expected changes in climate and land use. We report here a measurement and modeling study designed to improve our understanding of surface to atmosphere gas exchanges under very heterogeneous land cover in the mostly agricultural U.S. Southern Great Plains (SGP). We combined three years of site‐level, eddy covariance measurements in several of the dominant land cover types with regional‐scale climate data from the distributed Mesonet stations and Next Generation Weather Radar precipitation measurements to calibrate a land surface model of trace gas and energy exchanges (isotope‐enabled land surface model (ISOLSM)). Yearly variations in vegetation cover distributions were estimated from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer normalized difference vegetation index and compared to regional and subregional vegetation cover type estimates from the U.S. Department of Agriculture census. We first applied ISOLSM at a 250 m spatial scale to account for vegetation cover type and leaf area variations that occur on hundred meter scales. Because of computational constraints, we developed a subsampling scheme within 10 km “macrocells” to perform these high‐resolution simulations. We estimate that the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility SGP region net CO2 exchange with the local atmosphere was −240, −340, and −270 gC m−2 yr−1 (positive toward the atmosphere) in 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively, with large seasonal variations. We also performed simulations using two scaling approaches at resolutions of 10, 30, 60, and 90 km. The scaling approach applied in current land surface models led to regional NEE biases of up to 50 and 20% in weekly and annual estimates, respectively. An important factor in causing these biases was the complex leaf area index (LAI) distribution within cover types. Biases in predicted weekly average regional latent heat fluxes were smaller than for NEE, but larger than for either ecosystem respiration or assimilation alone. However, spatial and diurnal variations of hundreds of W m−2 in latent heat fluxes were common. We conclude that, in this heterogeneous system, characterizing vegetation cover type and LAI at the scale of spatial variation are necessary for accurate estimates of bottom‐up, regional NEE and surface energy fluxes.
Localization of ribosomes and translation initiation factors to talin/β3‐integrin‐enriched adhesion complexes in spreading and migrating mammalian cells
Authors: Willett Mark , Pollard Hilary J. , Vlasak Markete , Morley Simon J.
Published: November 2009

Background information. The spatial localization of translation can facilitate the enrichment of proteins at their sites of function while also ensuring that proteins are expressed in the proximity of their cognate binding partners.

Results. Using human embryonic lung fibroblasts and employing confocal imaging and biochemical fractionation techniques, we show that ribosomes, translation initiation factors and specific RNA‐binding proteins localize to nascent focal complexes along the distal edge of migrating lamellipodia. 40S ribosomal subunits appear to associate preferentially with β3 integrin in focal adhesions at the leading edges of spreading cells, with this association strongly augmented by a synergistic effect of cell engagement with a mixture of extracellular matrix proteins. However, both ribosome and initiation factor localizations do not require de novo protein synthesis.

Conclusions. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that repression, complex post‐transcriptional regulation and modulation of mRNA stability could potentially be taking place along the distal edge of migrating lamellipodia.
Deliquescence and efflorescence of small particles
Authors: McGraw Robert , Lewis Ernie R.
Published: November 2009

We examine size-dependent deliquescence/efflorescence phase transformation for particles down to several nanometers in size. Thermodynamic properties of inorganic salt particles, coated with aqueous solution layers of varying thickness and surrounded by vapor, are analyzed. A thin layer criterion (TLC) is introduced to define a limiting deliquescence relative humidity (RHD) for small particles. This requires: (1) equality of chemical potentials between salt in an undissolved core, and thin adsorbed solution layer, and (2) equality of chemical potentials between water in the thin layer and vapor phase. The usual bulk deliquescence conditions are recovered in the limit of large dry particle size. Nanosize particles are found to deliquesce at relative humidity just below the RHD on crossing a nucleation barrier, located at a critical solution layer thickness. This barrier vanishes precisely at the RHD defined by the TLC. Concepts and methods from nucleation theory including the kinetic potential, self-consistent nucleation theory, nucleation theorems, and the Gibbs dividing surface provide theoretical foundation and point to unifying features of small particle deliquescence/efflorescence processes. These include common thermodynamic area constructions, useful for interpretation of small particle water uptake measurements, and a common free-energy surface, with constant RH cross sections describing deliquescence and efflorescence related through the nucleation theorem.