bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Projective unification in weakly transitive and weakly symmetric modal logics
Authors: Kostrzycka Zofia
Published: December 2021

We prove that $\textbf {K4}^{\textbf {n+}}\textbf {B}^{\textbf {k+}}$ has projective unification, for any $k,n\geq 1$. It means, in particular, that any weakly transitive and weakly symmetric modal logic is unitary. Some consequences of projective unification concerning structural completeness and passive rules are provided.
Environmental health methods
Authors: Chen Chien-Jen , You San-Lin
Published: December 2021

Both host and environmental factors are involved in the development of human diseases. Environmental causes of disease include physical, chemical, biological, behavioural, and social factors. Consistent findings in both observational and interventional studies at aggregate and individual levels provide strong evidence of causation between human diseases and environmental agents. They are illustrated by the elucidation of the pleiotropic health effects of arsenic in drinking water and the multifactorial aetiology of hepatocellular carcinoma caused by viral hepatitis. Molecular and genomic biomarkers are used to explore the time-dependent host–environment interaction in the natural history of human diseases. They include dosimetry of exposure to environmental agents; the health outcomes at molecular, cellular, and histological levels; and the genetic and acquired susceptibility. Risk calculators combining multiple biomarkers are developed for the prediction of long-term disease risk. Global partnerships need to be strengthened to achieve interrelated goals of human health, environmental sustainability, and socioeconomic development.
Exile and Diaspora in the Bible
Authors: Berlin Adele
Published: December 2021

This essay focuses on biblical views of exile as portrayed in historiographic narrative and in prophetic and poetic literature. It considers the pre-exilic idea that exile is a punishment for unfaithfulness to God and the broader postexilic concept of the ongoing exile as a way to describe the Jewish condition in the restored Judah. Drawing on Mesopotamian documents as well as on the Bible, it constructs a picture of Jewish life in the Babylonian exile and discusses the diaspora stories of Esther and Daniel, where Jews preserved their ethnic identity and flourished. In the Bible, exile transcended the historical deportations and became an important element in postexilic Jewish identity.
Turning to Jerusalem from the Exile
Authors: Langer Ruth
Published: December 2021

Until modern, liberal Jews revised it, the consciousness of living in diaspora, in exile from the ideal Jewish life in the Land of Israel, permeated Jewish liturgy. This trope only intensified as the exile grew longer. The prayers, some recited multiple times a day, shaped Jewish diaspora identity into one yearning for its ancient home. The various forms of modern Judaism have negotiated this heritage, with some revising the prayers, either to express positive understandings of the diaspora or to integrate the new realities of Jewish life in the land of Israel. At the other end of the spectrum, others have considered the diaspora and exile to persist so long as they live in the pre-messianic world, even if geographically in the land itself.
Babylonia: A Diaspora Center
Authors: Herman Geoffrey
Published: December 2021

This chapter plots out the emergence of a diaspora center in Babylonia, beginning in the late Biblical era and continuing through late antiquity, as it grew into probably the foremost community in the Jewish world by the early Middle Ages. It outlines the geographical settlement of the region and the development of a Babylonian Jewish self-consciousness and self-confidence. Among the key factors in this achievement was the constant and close economic and intellectual contact between Babylonia and Palestine. Although Babylonia and Palestine were, for the most part, ruled by separate empires, often in conflict with one another, the Jews, and significantly the rabbis in both places, maintained close contact. The importance of Babylonia within the Sasanian Empire, and subsequently within the Abbasid caliphate, both economically and militarily, also contributed to the development and preeminence of the region in global terms.
The Jewish Diaspora in Christian Thinking
Authors: Garroway Joshua D.
Published: December 2021

This chapter summarizes the most important historical developments in Christian thinking about the Jewish diaspora, from antiquity to the present. It considers the apocalyptic Jewish perspectives of Jesus and Paul, the rise of adversus judaeos literature, Augustine’s innovative witness doctrine, and the fate of that doctrine in Catholic thinking up until its ostensible elimination during the papacy of John Paul II. In its examination of Protestantism, the article pays particular attention to developments in the Reformed traditions, especially the restorationist aspirations in the seventeenth century and the more recent rise of Christian Zionism.
Jews and Diaspora in the Medieval Islamic Middle East
Authors: Krakowski Eve
Published: December 2021

The formation of the Islamic Middle East between the seventh and tenth centuries connected Jews living across a vast geographic region and encouraged them to organize themselves as members of a single diaspora community, even when they shared no recent place of origin. This chapter examines that shift, focusing especially on the rise, fall, and aftermath of a diaspora system centered on the ge’onim and other Jewish religious leaders in Baghdad and Jerusalem, which flourished among elite medieval Jews in the late Abbasid period and immediately after (from the later ninth to the twelfth centuries), profoundly affecting the history of Judaism even after the system’s demise.
Did German Jews Remain German Jews Once They Left Their Homeland?
Authors: Kaplan Marion
Published: December 2021

This chapter addresses the social history and geographical extent of the German-Jewish diaspora during the two major periods of migration: the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It asks what drove Jews to leave Germany during both eras and analyzes their integration and that of their children into the new societies. Focusing on religious, linguistic, organizational, and employment patterns, the chapter also addresses the tensions within these immigrant communities between adapting to their new environments and retaining the literature, music, and culture of their German-Jewish heritage.
Jews in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Authors: Teter Magda
Published: December 2021

One of the hallmarks of modern diaspora studies is the dichotomy of a “homeland” and “hostland” in relation to a diasporic group. The history of Jews in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth complicates these contemporary categories. The multi-ethnic and multi-cultural Commonwealth was a homeland for Polish Jews. They formed an integral part of its social, cultural, and economic fabric, even as they identified and were identified as Jews. In a pre-modern world, with legal structures grounded in distinct estates, identities were also inscribed in law. Jewish judicial and communal autonomy was a product of the Jews’ legal status. In Poland-Lithuania, Jewish autonomy developed mimicking the governing structures of the Commonwealth itself. Polish Jews were, thus, a part of a larger real and imagined Jewish community whose homeland was Poland.
Philanthropy and the Jewish Diaspora in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Segev Zohar
Published: December 2021

The rise of nationalism in Europe, the mass migration to the United States, and the dramatic transformations in the world following World War I were accompanied by an ongoing deterioration in the position of East European Jewry and led to changes in the patterns of governance in the Jewish world. The importance of the organizations addressed in this chapter transcended their philanthropic and political activity in France, Britain, Germany, and America. This manifested in the international nature of their activity, their power to shape the various Jewish communities, and the sense of international Jewish solidarity that they nurtured through their very existence. These Jewish organizations endeavored to create a Jewish nationalism that played down elements of territorial concentration and political sovereignty, opposed the concept of rejection of the diaspora, and emphasized the moral components of Judaism.
“A Land for a People, Not a People for a Land”
Authors: Alroey Gur
Published: December 2021

Territorialist ideology emerged together with Zionist ideology. From the moment Leon Pinsker wrote in his Auto-Emancipation that “the goal of our present endeavors must be not the Holy Land, but a land of our own,” there were those in Jewish society who clung to the idea of “a land of our own” and wanted to set up some independent autonomous entity outside of the Land of Israel. This chapter traces territorial ideology from its ideational beginnings in the 1880s, through its conversion into an organized ideology and a political force in the Jewish world of the early twentieth century to its decline in the 1950s.
Iconography and Social Practice in the Domestic Sphere
Authors: Costa Silvana
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the role of images in the Roman domestic sphere, focusing on the contribution of paintings, mosaics, and other forms of representation to the construction of the Roman house as a place of self-representation and social interaction. Images were essential to the purposes of both shaping the environmental quality of domestic spaces and informing visitors about their character, function, and the behavior that was required from them. The case study of an apparently minor genre of Roman wall painting, that of still-life pictures (i.e., images of food and silverware), allows in-depth discussion of how the choice and understanding of subject matters depended on and relied upon shared mechanisms of recognition, as well as a tight semantics of meanings, values, and habits.
Images and Interpretation of “the Other” in Roman Social Practice
Authors: Trentin Lisa
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the representation and interpretation of “the Other” in Roman social practices. Employing a selection of images, representing ethnically and physically diverse citizens and noncitizens, Romans and non-Romans, surviving on a range of media from both public and private display contexts across the empire, new questions are raised to expand our understanding of diversity and difference in the Roman world. In Roman art, images of “Others” served an important role in the construction of Roman identity, underlining tensions in the representation and categorization of bodies and belonging. Emphasis is placed on viewers and viewing contexts, considering the cosmopolitan milieu of the cities and peoples under Roman rule.
Funerary Imagery and Iconography
Authors: Gee Regina
Published: December 2021

This chapter looks at Roman funerary imagery across a range of visual materials, including sarcophagi, ash chests, frescoes, mosaic, and stucco relief, with an emphasis on the expression of the existential value of a human life. It considers the diverse range of iconography that speaks to the emotions and perceptions around death as they relate to the ideas of loss, separation, and transformation. The representations cannot be interpreted in light of a single phenomenological, associative, or interpretive reception, but collectively they explore themes of mourning, pain of separation, and hoped-for reunion. Areas of consideration include commemorative portraits, the exploration of permeability and the limen between the worlds of the living and the dead, divine guides, travel through the Underworld, and the potential for images of suffering to comfort through viewer empathy or heal, in the Aristotelian sense, by means of a cathartic purge.
Late Roman Iconography and Style
Authors: McFadden Susanna
Published: December 2021

Discussions of late Roman style and iconography sometimes tend to emphasize the liminality of visual culture in late antiquity; monuments representative of the period such as the Arch of Constantine are neither fully “classical” nor “medieval” in their form and content; hence, the instinct to compare its style and iconography with that of the past or future monuments is hard to resist. The result of this lure to dichotomize is often a focus on what a late Roman work of art is not, rather than what it is (i.e., how an artwork or monument functions in its contemporary moment). This chapter therefore presents the wall paintings from the late third- to early fourth-century domus underneath the Church of Ss. Giovanni e Paolo on the Caelian Hill in Rome as a case study of a particular moment in late Roman visuality so as to better understand how engagements with iconography and style in the context of the late Roman home activate “modern” meanings and experiences.
Iconography and Imagery between Rome and the Provinces
Authors: Lepinski Sarah , Rousseau Vanessa
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines iconography and imagery in the Roman provinces with a particular focus on decorative media in domestic contexts in the eastern Roman provinces. Specifically, we investigate how decorative ensembles in second- and third-century ce Roman-era houses, and the interplay of imagery in multiple media, further inform our comprehension of how domestic visual vocabularies from distinct cultural and social contexts in the eastern provinces might express both local and Roman identity at Ephesus and Zeugma. The chapter begins with highlighting historiographic and methodological practices and structures inherent in the study of iconography in the Roman provinces and emphasizing issues at play within these structures, such as chronology, geography, cultural continuities, and relationships between center and periphery. We further outline some of the challenges of studying and interpreting domestic ensembles (as opposed to singular monuments), which, to a degree, parallels the broader challenges in making sense of Roman imagery and iconography, including problems in establishing linear progressions and the compartmentalization by media and specialization.
Studying the Gang through Critical Ethnography
Authors: Brotherton David C.
Published: December 2021

This chapter outlines what is entailed in studying gangs through a critical ethnographic approach. A critical ethnography of the gang seeks to humanize the research subjects while fully exploring the environmental contexts of such groups as their members make their lives through their multiple identities, practices, social obligations, and relationships. This basic reconceptualization of these social actors emphasizes their agency, structured conditions, and history. Such a method of inquiry puts a premium on the reflexive approach of the researcher who is always struggling to develop a critical theory of the gang against the pathological paradigms of mainstream criminology through its methods of empiricism and positivism.
Drug Users
Authors: Page J. Bryan
Published: December 2021

This chapter outlines some of the history and key attributes of ethnographies of drug users. Long before the invention of writing, human beings began noticing that other human beings behaved oddly when they consumed certain materials. In some cases, the observers imitated the consumption that they saw, and the behavior spread. Eventually, protoethnographers such as Herodotus and Bernardino de Sahagún wrote extensively about what they saw (and heard) about the consumption of drug plants and preparations among people outside their personal cultural experience. Until the fifth century before the common era (500 bce), however, only oral history stories described what people from distinct cultural backgrounds consumed to the point of intoxication. Formal ethnography, as defined by the relatively young disciplines of anthropology and sociology, emerged just before the twentieth century, and it gradually proved its worth as a strategy for understanding human life in its highly varied cultural manifestations. As ethnography became an increasingly apt tool for the study of human cultural life, some ethnographers used it to advantage in comprehending practices of drug users in terms of political economic context, psychopharmacological impact, interpersonal relations, and health risk. Ethnography of drug use has become an indispensable component in scientific efforts to understand drug use, mitigate its impact, and prevent its spread.
Cross-Modality and Embodiment of Tempo and Timing
Authors: Timmers Renee
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the insights that research into cross-modal correspondences and multisensory integration offer to our understanding and investigation of tempo and timing in music performance. As tempo and timing are generated through action, actions and sensory modalities are coupled in performance and form a multimodal unit of intention. This coupled intention is likely to demonstrate characteristics of cross-modal correspondences, linking movement and sound. Testable properties predictions are offered by research into cross-modal correspondences that have so far mainly found confirmation in controlled perceptual experiments. For example, fast tempo is predicted to be linked to smaller movement that is higher in space. Confirmation in the context of performance is complicated by interacting associations with intentions related to e.g. dynamics and energy, which can be addressed through appropriate experimental manipulation. This avenue of research highlights the close association between action and cross-modality, conceiving action as a source of cross-modal correspondences as well as indicating the cross-modal basis of actions. For timing and tempo concepts, action and cross-modality offer concrete and embodied modalities of expression.
‘Making, Not Filling Time’
Authors: Schuiling Floris
Published: December 2021

Improvisation and notation are frequently opposed in terms of transience versus permanence, an opposition that reflects broader Eurocentric ideas of orality and literacy. Confronting such binary distinctions, Schuiling describes the use of notation by three groups of improvising musicians, showing how notations mediate their understanding of time. This forms the basis of a critique of Alfred Schütz’s influential account of social interaction in musical performance. Schuiling argues that Schütz’s distinction of an ‘inner time’ of music and an ‘outer time’ mapped by the score remains tied to a work-centred musical ontology, and fails to attend to the making of time in the course of performance. Drawing on his fieldwork, Schuiling reconsiders the work of Maurice Halbwachs, the primary target of Schütz’s argument. Rather than understanding music as an object of inner contemplation, Halbwachs provides a view of music and temporality as a way of opening up to the world.
Politicking Musical Time
Authors: Stover Chris
Published: December 2021

Beginning with four irreducibly interrelated themes—that musical time is active, performative, relational, and political—this chapter develops a theory of musical time as an ongoing nexus of events that unfold between performing, listening, and sonorous bodies. It examines the temporal implications of how these different body categories relate affectively, how they co-constitute one another, and how musicking contexts are enacted through their intra-action. The theoretical framework draws upon Jacques Rancière’s conception of political enunciations or enactments and Gilles Deleuze’s three syntheses of time, reading these two conceptual apparatuses productively through one another.
Competition Policy in South Africa
Authors: Mncube Liberty , Theron Nicola
Published: December 2021

Abstract: The 1998 Competition Act heralded a new era of active competition enforcement in South Africa. Since then, South Africa has developed a robust and admirable competition system. To some extent, the enforcement of competition law has contributed to an increase in more affordable goods and services. Furthermore, it has contributed to creating a market environment that encourages economic participation by all South Africans, increases the competitiveness of South African firms, and facilitates inclusive economic development. However, the South African economy remains highly concentrated, strategic barriers to entry protect incumbents, and the spread of ownership and economic participation remain skewed. The competition system has not delivered on all of its promises to address South Africa’s problems. This chapter provides a critical review of many of the developments that helped shape and mature the competition system into one of the most outstanding and path-breaking in the developing world. It also offers reflections on current challenges and opportunities.
State-Owned Enterprises in South Africa
Authors: Swilling Mark , Callaghan Nina
Published: December 2021

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) have the ability to shape industrial policy, the potential to transform economies by investing in the provision of basic services and stimulate new industries. It is fair to deduce that how these entities are deployed is a critical indicator of a state’s directionality. This chapter traces how SOEs reflect South Africa’s evolving political economy, from a racist national capitalism, an indecisive developmental state, through a decade of state capture, to a weak strategic vision of how they can drive national economic development. The chapter highlights the obduracy of the mineral-energy complex and its enclave nature that lends itself to corrupted governance and assigning SOEs conflicted mandates for social and economic development. The current crisis of South Africa’s SOEs is a signifier of political leadership that has made a series of ideological missteps amidst a legacy of rent-seeking behaviours that began during the apartheid era, and continued into the post-1994 era.
Gender and Work in South Africa
Authors: Casale Daniela , Posel Dorrit , Mosomi Jacqueline
Published: December 2021

Abstract: This chapter provides an overview of women’s participation in the post-apartheid South African economy. It documents rising labour-force participation among women, as well as an increase in the share of total and high-skilled employment held by women. However, it also highlights some of the persistent challenges, among them that women’s labour-force participation, access to (high-skilled) employment, and earnings remain well below men’s using the most recent labour force data available. A key constraint to women’s success in the labour market is the additional responsibility they face in the home. The chapter uses data from various sources to show that women retain primary responsibility for the household and the provision of care in South Africa. Finally, attention is drawn to how the Covid-19 crisis has not only exposed the value of this unpaid labour to society, but also the difficulty of performing this work alongside the demands of paid work.
The Economics of Health in South Africa
Authors: Burger Ronelle , Ngwenya Mosima
Published: December 2021

The remnants of the colonial and apartheid era are evident in the South African health system’s persistently higher levels of injury, mental health problems, disease and mortality amongst the poor and marginalized—mediated through a wide range of social determinants including environmental health factors such as hygiene, access to clean water, clean air and adequate sanitation, violent crime and trauma, occupational risk, alcohol abuse and tobacco dependence. Due to such structural factors, children of poor parents have lower levels of cognitive development, are more likely to be stunted and a greater share die young. The legacy also persists via severe inequalities in the resourcing of health providers across districts and provinces and also between the public and private sector. Additionally, there is evidence of inefficient resource allocation and inefficient use of resources in both sectors, which further diminishes the health sector’s ability to meet the needs of its population.
Financialization in South Africa
Authors: Karwowski Ewa
Published: December 2021

Financialization has become a popular concept across the social sciences, usually defined as the increasing role of financial motives, financial markets, financial actors, and financial institutions in the operation of the domestic and international economies. Financialization researchers highlight the detrimental consequences of an excessively large and powerful financial sector on economy and society. In South Africa, financialization has been shaped by its colonial and apartheid past, especially the strong links of South African corporations and banks to the international financial centre of London. Low growth and investment, an outcome of the finance-led accumulation regime, have also resulted in the continuity of extreme inequality and high levels of unemployment. In the Global South, financialization mainly affects emerging economies since they possess relatively developed financial markets in comparison to poorer countries. South Africa is the only African economy for which there is a substantial financialization literature. In comparison to other emerging economies, South Africa is relatively strongly financialized as stock market capitalization is extremely high, making Johannesburg one of the top financial centres in the Global South. Furthermore, financial inflows into the country are comparatively large, JSE-listed companies are well integrated into global value chains and household debt is high.
Southern African Regional Value Chains and Integration
Authors: das Nair Reena
Published: December 2021

Despite the changing face of global trade towards greater ‘south-south’ trade, the development of regional value chains (RVCs) and the record of intra-regional trade and integration in Southern Africa has been poor. This chapter unpacks the nuances that affect participation, investment, and upgrading in RVCs in Southern Africa, drawing lessons from selected agro-processing and food retail value chains. The lack of a clear regional development vision is evident in how these value chains have developed in practice, with limited value-addition outside South Africa, even where there is potential for it. Regional integration in Southern Africa has been fairly weak against stated targets, and the development of RVCs can push forward the regional integration agenda. This requires tailored and coordinated investments across public and private sectors, and targeted policy interventions at a value chain level, with an appreciation of political economy dynamics and the role that South African firms with market power play in shaping value-chain outcomes in the region.
South Africa’s Economic Role in Africa
Authors: Soko Mills , Qobo Mzukisi
Published: December 2021

South Africa’s expansion into Africa since the dawn of democracy has mostly been a product of a series of deliberate domestic and foreign policy decisions implemented by successive post-apartheid governments. By prioritizing the ‘African Agenda’, South Africa has sought to harness its representation at the helm of continental institutions into meaningful foreign policy outcomes, including economic diplomacy objectives. South Africa has largely succeeded in fulfilling the goals outlined in its foreign policy and in the ‘African Agenda’. Nonetheless its actions, especially in the context of the enactment of the Protocol on Trade in the Southern African region, has also undermined the economic interests of its regional neighbours. The extent to which South Africa will be able to sustain its foreign policy performance in Africa in the future will depend on how far it weighs its domestic policy pressures with its continental obligations, on how it responds to and accommodates the economic concerns of its regional neighbours, and on how it manages African perceptions of the country.
Quintilian in Late Antiquity
Authors: Schneider Catherine
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides a complete survey of the reception of Quintilian in late Antiquity. A brief note on the general literature and research tools available for the study of this vast topic, and on the key testimonies from the fourth until the seventh century, highlighting Quintilian’s fame as teacher of rhetoric and author of the Institutio and the Declamationes, is followed by a discussion of the influence of the Institutio on Christian education and on Christian thought, notably on Jerome, Lactantius, Hilary of Poitiers, Tyconius, Orosius, and Cassiodorus. Quintilian’s importance for the history of grammar is difficult to determine, but similarities between the grammatical chapters of the Institutio and the grammatical treatises of late Antiquity suggest that there may have been some direct influence. Donatus never cites Quintilian, while other grammarians such as Priscian, Diomedes, and Rufinus occasionally mention him or clearly make use of the Institutio. The influence of the Institutio on the so-called Minor Latin Rhetoricians is difficult to prove, but it is clear that the summaries, compilations, specialized monographs, and commentaries which form the substance of the rhetorical tradition in late Antiquity define themselves in one way or another by their relation to the Institutio. There was also some influence of the Institutio on the encyclopaedists Martianus Capella, Cassiodorus, and Isidorus. It was also in late Antiquity that the collections of Major Declamations and Minor Declamations were ascribed to Quintilian.
Quintilian in the United States of America
Authors: Katula Richard A. , Wiese Cleve
Published: December 2021

Quintilian is alive and well in the United States of America. He has been a central figure in American rhetorical theory and/or practice since approximately 1730. With Aristotle and Cicero, Quintilian is one of the three figures comprising the ‘Classical School’ of rhetoric. His influence has sometimes been so foundational as to be easily overlooked. Often viewed as more of a synthesizer than an innovator in the history of rhetoric, Quintilian’s unique contribution to America is the comprehensive educational system laid out in his monumental Institutio Oratoria. This chapter traces Quintilian’s influence through the various periods of American education, showing it rising and falling with the particular needs of the times, but always remaining true to its emphasis on the holistic process of character development and its rejection of a rigid code of rules for writing and speaking. In the twenty-first century, Quintilian’s central idea in his Institutio holds true: that rhetorical training is a central aspect in the forming of minds for citizenship in a democracy such as the United States of America.
The Structure and Contents of the Institutio oratoria
Authors: Murphy James J.
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers an introduction to the Institutio oratoria for a general readership. A brief synopsis of each of the twelve books of the Institutio is followed by some observations on the structure and contents of the work. The prefatory letter to Trypho shows that Quintilian wrote the work for his friend Marcus Vitorius Marcellus and his son, and later decided to send it for publication to Trypho. Though written in segments, the work was carefully planned in its entirety at the outset, but it was not intended as an exhaustive treatment of the subject matter. Quintilian probably used writing tablets before a scribe transferred the text to papyrus rolls. Quintilian used different methods for treating his subject, according to whether he wrote as a veteran teacher, as an experienced legal pleader, or as a historian and theorist of rhetoric. He aimed at a varied group of audiences: teachers of rhetoric, their pupils, and the educated elite of Rome.
The Deterrence and Prevention of Cyber Conflict
Authors: Cornish Paul
Published: December 2021

For all its apparent complexity, deterrence is built upon a relatively straightforward premise: that fear of adverse consequences can serve to prevent unacceptable behaviour. In traditional deterrence theory, particularly that which matured during the Cold War, prevention could be achieved both by fear of punishment and by fear of failure: by punitive measures that would be undertaken in response to a transgression and intended to inflict some pain, damage, or loss upon the transgressor; or by a denial posture intended to impress upon an adversary that the complexities of the defences will be technologically insurmountable and/or the costs of doing so unbearably high. Fresh thinking is required to make deterrence relevant to the cyber era. The challenges of cyber warfare are described here as the ‘four zeros’: ‘zero day’ vulnerability to novel malware; ‘zero source’ or non-attribution of an attack; ‘zero effect’ or covert, non-detectable attack; and ‘zero intent’ or lack of clarity as to an adversary’s intentions. These challenges can be met by allowing deterrence to function in different ways as circumstances allow or require: punitive, constructive, and protective deterrence.
Personal Protection
Authors: Clemente Dave
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the basics of personal cybersecurity and good ‘cyber hygiene’. It analyses the trade-offs inherent in cybersecurity, looks at methods of conducting a risk assessment, and reveals the potential impacts of poor security choices. It offers a range of practical security recommendations applicable to informed readers who may not be subject matter experts, and who wish to manage their personal cyber risks more effectively.
Cybersecurity, Multilateral Export Control, and Standard Setting Arrangements
Authors: Korzak Elaine
Published: December 2021

This chapter focuses on two trade mechanisms and their role in pursuing the policy imperatives of promoting international trade in information and communication technologies (ICTs) while seeking to mitigate cybersecurity risks. The first mechanism, international standard setting and certification efforts, aims to facilitate international trade by providing benchmarks and assurances for security features. In contrast, the second mechanism, international export controls, explicitly seeks to restrict the trade in certain ICT goods for national and international security purposes. The chapter begins by introducing the concepts of standards and certification, and surveying the landscape of cybersecurity standard setting before providing a discussion of the major intergovernmental certification scheme, the Common Criteria Recognition Arrangement. It then looks at the Wassenaar Arrangement and examines its recent experience in bringing two types of technologies, intellectual property (IP) surveillance systems and intrusion software, under the purview of export controls.
Global Trade and Cybersecurity
Authors: Gady Franz-Stefan , Austin Greg
Published: December 2021

Trade in information and communications technologies (ICTs) is a new currency of international power. On the one hand, this commerce boosts national prosperity and the global economy. On the other hand, it puts capabilities for harm into the hands of potential malicious actors or political adversaries. States are scrambling to introduce new security control mechanisms through a variety of laws, regulations, and policies. These practices will have mixed results, not least because some of the more threatening elements of the trade relate to software products and even the results of basic scientific research that cannot be tracked as easily as physical goods. Enforcement of trade restrictions in this area will remain problematic. Even so, states are looking to undertake economic sanctions in this area to retaliate for the malicious behaviour in cyberspace of other states (or of criminals operating with impunity from the territory of other states). The corporate sector has emerged as an independent actor in these interstate controversies, and they have been joined by scientists and civil society activists, all pressing for a more liberal and open approach. While the unilateralist trend seems to have the upper hand for now, common interests and the imperatives of trade may force new collaborative behaviours among states.
Semi-Formal Diplomacy
Authors: Inkster Nigel
Published: December 2021

This chapter assesses semi-official diplomacy in the cyber domain. It begins by describing Track 2 and Track 1.5 diplomacy. Track 2 diplomacy consists of a broad spectrum of activities ranging from academic conferences designed to address specific conflict-related diplomatic issues to much more generic people-to-people contacts designed to create a climate of greater mutual understanding. Meanwhile, Track 1.5 diplomacy seeks to leverage the strengths of both Track 1 and Track 2 diplomacy. It became clear from an early stage that the United States, Russia, and China were in a position to determine the strategic evolution of the cyber domain due to their status as global geo-political actors, their advanced cyber capabilities, their possession of nuclear weapons, and their differences in values and ideology. Russia was the first to make a move towards semi-official diplomacy. Whereas Russia has taken a leading role in international negotiations on cyber governance and cybersecurity, China has arguably become more consequential in terms of how its relationship with the United States will shape the normative culture of the cyber domain. The chapter then considers other examples of semi-official diplomacy as well as prospects for further semi-official diplomacy in the cyber domain.
‘Cybersecurity’ and ‘Development’
Authors: Unwin Tim
Published: December 2021

The links between cybersecurity and international development are crucially important, especially for the world’s poorest and most marginalized countries and people. Yet, they have rarely been explored in detail, and all too often international initiatives designed to support development have paid insufficient attention to cybersecurity issues. In large part, this is because the communities of expertise in the two fields are often distinct and separate, speak different languages, have different interests, and are physically located in different organizations and places. Cybersecurity tends to be the domain of computer scientists, security agencies, telecommunication ministries, the private sector, and foreign policy organizations, whereas international development is largely the field of social scientists, development specialists, aid ministries, civil society, and humanitarian organizations. This separation is true of most bilateral and multilateral donors, and, as a result technology-supported aid initiatives frequently ignore fundamentally important issues around digital security. This chapter provides an overview of the intersections between the two, why they are important, and what can be done to improve integration between them in the interests of reducing inequalities and poverty.
Making Sense of Cybersecurity in Emerging Technology Areas
Authors: Vishik Claire , Huth Michael , John Lawrence , Balduccini Marcello
Published: December 2021

Shortening technology development cycles in information and communication technology (ICT) make it imperative to anticipate the emergence and evolution of new computing technologies and ecosystems. A wide range of questions must be answered to ensure that new technology environments are viable, including the examination of usability, efficiency, usage models, security, and privacy. These contextual aspects of new technologies are essential for their adoption. They are also important to understanding the potential of new types of cybercrime and requirements for the development of mitigation techniques. However, we lack methodologies to model and predict the features of the evolving ICT ecosystems, and the requirements their evolution places on legal systems and regulatory frameworks. The absence of such models is a significant obstacle to creating consistent approaches necessary to forecast both the technology development and the trends in cybercrime. The chapter discusses which potential methodologies could be used for forecasting cybersecurity concerns in disruptive technology areas and trends in cybercrime in complex environments. It proposes that a unified approach should be developed for predicting cybersecurity effects of innovative technologies and trends in cybercrime. It first examines concepts associated with emerging technologies and their impact on cybersecurity. It then looks at approaches to modelling and analysis already developed in adjacent spaces, with a focus on knowledge representation and risk engineering, and analyses representative examples to illustrate the benefits these approaches can bring.
Managing Risk
Authors: Corbeil Alexander , Rohozinski Rafal
Published: December 2021

The Internet and social media platforms are disrupting societies and politics on a global level. While these technologies have had immense benefit, facilitating individual empowerment and establishing the data economy, they have also helped to mainstream terrorism, hate, and anti-democratic beliefs. These forces will continue to disrupt traditional democratic politics and contribute to the breakdown of societal cohesion. Regulations that ensure the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms are now a necessary element in the establishment of a new social contract for the digital age. Stakeholders must work to reimpose gatekeeper functions that the Internet has swept away, in turn limiting the ability of dangerous marginal views to influence the mainstream. However, in doing so, these same stakeholders must ensure that their efforts do not result in an Orwellian future that leaves citizens less secure and less empowered.
The Construction of States and Societies in the Sahel
Authors: Olivier de Sardan Jean-Pierre
Published: December 2021

Today, there is a threatening divide between state and societies in Sahelian countries. Societies have become increasingly diversified and are permeated by growing divisions. In contrast, the states are relatively standardized. They are partly a legacy of the colonial legacy of the despotic state, but they also developed some original traits—for example, a very specific bureaucratic culture and a quasi-private monopolization by a business-oriented political elite. In a context of aid dependency and elite capture, Sahelian states are today confronted with widespread distrust on the part of their citizens and a serious crisis in relation to the delivery of state services. The social divide, the bias of development aid, the weakness of the political elites, and the failure of electoral democracy have paved the way for the rise of anti-Western and anti-state Islamic fundamentalism, and for politico-religious and politico-ethnic entrepreneurs.
Land Use Change and Climate-Smart Agriculture in the Sahel
Authors: Cotillon Suzanne , Tappan Gray , Reij Chris
Published: December 2021

In the 1970s and 1980s, the Sahel experienced recurrent drought and famine. Farmers and their development partners reacted to this crisis by developing climate-smart agricultural practices and changes in land use, including water-harvesting techniques to restore degraded land to productivity. In several densely populated parts of the Sahel, farmers began to protect and manage woody species that regenerated naturally on their farmland. Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is a foundational practice that produces multiple benefits, such as maintaining or improving soil fertility, which raises crop yields, and increasing the production of tree-based fodder, fruit, and firewood. In Niger’s Maradi and Zinder Regions alone, farmers have applied FMNR practices on 4.2 million hectares. The findings presented in this chapter suggest that the future of agriculture in the Sahel will be largely determined by whether low-income smallholder farmers will manage to improve soil fertility, which will depend on maintaining substantial densities of on-farm trees thus increasing tree cover.
Senegala
Authors: Brossier Marie
Published: December 2021

Senegal has a history of representative politics dating from the nineteenth century, and has experienced political stability since independence in 1960. Progressive political liberalization since the 1980s has occurred without coups or national conferences, making the country an outlier in the region. However, despite two peaceful transitions of power in 2000 and 2012, Senegal’s politics have also been continuously marred by autocratic behavior and periodic limitations on civil liberties. As such, Senegal remains a “patrimonial democracy.” The country’s social and generational inequalities have been exacerbated by mismanagement of resource reallocation by the state, as well as by its dependence on international aid and remittances. The worrisome socioeconomic situation has sparked migration but also bolstered the engagement of younger generations, with social movements increasingly active in the public arena and more women participating in politics. In addition, religious diversification and greater religious pluralism have increasingly challenged the historically central role of Islam, and especially the Sufi orders, in politics.
Civil Society and Political Order in the Sahel
Authors: Loada Augustin
Published: December 2021

Like elsewhere in Africa, civil society in its current forms re-emerged in the Sahelian countries with political liberalization and the transition from authoritarian rule to democratic systems. This chapter surveys the emergence and the forms of civil society, and analyzes its roles and practices in relation to the efforts to create and maintain political order. Sahelian civil societies in each country have struggled to develop, to maintain their autonomy, and to participate in the construction of new political orders, in the face of the authoritarian impulses of powerholders to domesticate and control them. Civil society is called on to play an important role in promoting, defending, and protecting the principles and values of democracy and social justice in the face of states’ efforts to establish stable political order. The chapter explores the many factors shaping its ability to do so in the Sahel.
Security Provision and Counterterrorism in the Sahel
Authors: Barrios Cristina
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the politics of security provision and counterterrorism in the Sahel, in light of the main security challenges facing the region: poverty and structural food insecurity, economic and social grievances, organized crime, protracted crisis derived from territorial and ethnic competition, and terrorism and violent radicalization. It emphasizes the concept of human security against the current background of international policies and academic analysis that favors realpolitik, and it focuses on the characteristics of the contemporary state in this part of Africa to explain both the security challenges and the provision of security. The fragility of institutions and the authoritarian trends observed in Sahelian states affect their capacity and legitimacy. The chapter discusses these two aspects in detail, hinting at paths for security sector reform both by the countries and by regional initiatives such as the G5 Sahel.
Islamic Intellectual Traditions in the Sahel
Authors: Seesemann Rüdiger
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers an analysis of Islamic scholarly culture and intellectual currents in the Sahel through the lens of different conceptions of Islamic knowledge. It discusses three epistemological patterns called traditionalist, reformist, and Islamist and links them to broader intellectual developments within Islam. In the traditionalist paradigm, knowledge practices are rooted in classical Islamic notions of character formation, described as a habitus that can only be attained through internalization and personal connection to a master. In the reformist paradigm, which largely corresponds to “Salafi” or “Wahhabi” epistemology, the primacy of the textual evidence supersedes the authority of the master. The Islamist paradigm pursues a new epistemological approach that seeks to fuse Islamic and “Western” knowledge. The chapter indicates how the different epistemologies intersect with broader worldviews and highlights the ways in which “Salafi” or “Wahhabi” epistemology connects to jihadist action in the Sahel in the early twenty-first century.