bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Corporate Communication
Authors: Cornelissen Joep P.
Published: September 2017

Perhaps the best way to define corporate communication is to look at the way in which the function developed in companies. Until the 1980s, professionals responsible for communication within their organizations had used the term → “public relations” to describe communication with stakeholders (a term still used in academic circles across the world). This public relations (PR) function, which was tactical in most companies, largely consisted of communication to the press. When other stakeholders, internal and external to the company, started to demand more information from the company, communication professionals within organizations subsequently started to look at communication as being more than just PR. The roots of the new corporate communication function started to take hold. This new function came to incorporate a whole range of specialized disciplines including → corporate design (→ Design), corporate → advertising, employee or internal communication, issues and crisis management (→ Issue Management; Crisis Communication), → media relations, investor relations, change communication, and → public affairs. An important characteristic of the new function was that it consolidated a range of communication disciplines and expertise into a single corporate communication or corporate affairs department. This department has a single mandate that is focused on the organization as a whole and on the important task of how an organization is presented to all its key stakeholders, both internal and external (→ Stakeholder Theory).
Credibility of Content
Authors: Rouner Donna
Published: September 2017

Credibility of messages, studied in the communication, psychology, sociology, political science, and other literatures, is generally defined as a collection of attributes of messages that make the message content or their senders valued relative to the information imparted. The attributes generally refer to either the sources of the messages' content or the authenticity of their meaning. Perceived source or message credibility, then, is generally defined as a message recipient's recognition and holding of evaluative information about these messages and their sources (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Crisis Communication
Authors: Coombs W. Timothy
Published: September 2017

The topic of crisis communication has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers in → public relations, → corporate communication, → marketing, and management. The ever‐growing body of research is both a blessing and a curse. There is a large amount of information, which is good. However, the insights are scattered throughout a myriad of books and journals, making it difficult for crisis managers to uncover. In addition, there are some serious shortcomings in the literature.
Cuba: Media System
Authors: Wilke Jürgen
Published: September 2017

With nearly 111,000 square kilometers Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean Sea. It is located only 180 kilometers off Florida on the American continent. Since 1976 the
República de Cuba
has been subdivided into 14 provinces of almost equal size and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The total population is 11.3 million; 2.2 million live in the capital Havana. The official language is Spanish.
Cultivation Theory
Authors: Morgan Michael
Published: September 2017

Cultivation theory, developed by → George Gerbner and his colleagues, proposes that television viewing makes an independent contribution to audience members' conceptions of social reality. The central hypothesis guiding cultivation research is that the more time people spend watching television, the more their beliefs and assumptions about life and society will be congruent with the most stable and repetitive messages found in television's dramatic entertainment programs.
Cultural Appropriation
Authors: Bredin Marian
Published: September 2017

Cultural appropriation describes the use and exploitation by a majority or dominant group, of cultural knowledge or expressions originally produced by a minority or dominated group. It is applied to media and popular communication when ideas, images, sounds, and narratives produced by one group are appropriated for personal, professional, or commercial gain by members of a more powerful social group. Linked to colonial histories, racist discourses, and disparate access to power and resources, cultural appropriation can occur within and across specific national communities and within a range of popular communication practices (→ Communication Inequality).
Curriculum Studies
Authors: Darling Ann L.
Published: September 2017

Questions and discussion about the most appropriate goals for and organization of educational experiences in communication drive the area of curriculum studies. Curriculum studies are projects that examine the content, structure, and organization of communication curricula. These projects have focused on each level of educational endeavor from the elementary school classroom to the graduate seminar at a research university. Perhaps because formal degree programs in communication are rare outside of US universities, most of the work reviewed in the area of curriculum studies has been done by US scholars focusing on US curriculum issues.
Cyberfeminism
Authors: Sundén Jenny
Published: September 2017

Cyberfeminism as feminist theory and practice has grown out of an emergent use of digital media and new communication technologies. The concept was used for the first time by Australian artists' group VNS Matrix in their
Cyberfeminist manifesto for the 21st century
(1991), and soon after by British cultural theorist Sadie Plant. Cyberfeminism refers to a wide range of feminist practices, ranging from high theory to political techno‐art, science fiction writing, game design, and activism. Cyberfeminist projects can usually be mapped in relation to two intersecting axes, one running between “theoretical” and “practice‐based” cyberfeminism, the other between “third wave” and “second wave” feminism.
Creative Facility
Authors: Greene John O.
Published: September 2017

Creative facility concerns individual differences in the capacity for fluent production of unique, appropriate verbalizations. That is, there are people who seem particularly adept at coming up with novel spoken responses – people who are said to be “quick witted” or “glib;” who have a “snappy comeback,” or can “think on their feet.” This individual‐difference variable is thought to be at least somewhat temporally stable and cross‐situational (although certainly there are various factors that impact its manifestation in particular circumstances; → Individual Differences and Information Processing; Information Processing).
China Central Television, Foreign Language Program of
Authors: Jirik John , Li Xiaoping
Published: September 2017

China Central Television (CCTV) is the national broadcaster of the People's Republic of China (PRC) (→ China Central Television Channel 9 (CCTV‐9); China: Media System). In 2010, CCTV broadcast globally to target markets via satellite and cable in Arabic, Chinese (Mandarin), English, French, Russian, and Spanish (→ Satellite Television; Cable Television). CCTV's non‐English and non‐Chinese foreign language services are closely related to each other and to the original foreign language service in English. That service was launched in 1986 as
English News
, a daily bulletin translated from CCTV's national nightly news,
Xinwen Lianbo
(Liu 2006). For the next eighteen years, the English language service was CCTV's only non‐Chinese broadcast intended for foreigners. However, an ambitious government project launched in 2001 to promote the global image of the People's Republic of China (PRC) resulted in an expansion of CCTV's overseas broadcasts. CCTV launched a joint French and Spanish service on October 1, 2004. The broadcaster split that service into separate French and Spanish channels on October 1, 2007. CCTV added an Arabic channel on July 25, 2009, and launched its Russian service on September 10, 2009. CCTV‐F (French), CCTV‐E (Spanish), CCTV

(Arabic) and CCTV

(Russian) are based on a common programming template originally derived from CCTV‐9 (English, now broadcast as CCTV‐News). The shared template resulted from the common origins of the services within CCTV's Overseas Service Center (OSC), which also ran a Mandarin language broadcast oriented to Chinese and Chinese speakers abroad. Senior personnel for these channels primarily were drawn from within the ranks of administrators, journalists, and technicians already working at the OSC. As of November 2010, all of CCTV's foreign language overseas channels had a rotation of Chinese and foreign news anchors and program hosts, the latter from the following countries: Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia (Arabic); Australia, Canada, Malaysia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Zimbabwe (English); Belgium, France (French); Belarus, Russia, Ukraine (Russian); and Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Spain (Spanish).
Deception in Discourse
Authors: Galasiński Dariusz
Published: September 2017

The “truth‐bias,” the expectation that, normally, one tells the truth, is proposed to be the cornerstone of humanity (Bok 1978). Yet, it is the skill of displacement – speaking of things which are not present – and thus also the ability to deceive that is the basis of human language (Aitchison 1996). A society of truthfulness, to highlight the downside of truth‐telling, would be a society of hurtfulness. The discursive status of an act of deception has been the subject of some considerable debate. It focuses upon questions: (1) What is the act of deception? (2) What are its kinds? (3) What is its discursive and social status?
Deceptive Message Production
Authors: Burgoon Judee K. , Hamel Lauren M.
Published: September 2017

Deceit is part and parcel of daily life. It not only frequents news headlines in conjunction with political chicanery, corporate scandals, campus cheating, telemarketing scams, identity theft, online predators, and terrorist plots but also permeates the fabric of everyday conversation (→ Deception in Discourse). People who complete diaries of their communication report 20 to 33 percent of their interactions include some form of deceit and they average two lies per day (DePaulo et al. 1996; Hancock et al. 2004). Biologically, deception is regarded as adaptive, as a part of natural selection that improves chances of survival for animals that are most successful at it. Thus, deceit is not limited to humans. Other species have developed very sophisticated forms of deception ranging from camouflage and mimicry to misdirection, bluffing, and hiding of resources.
Delivery and Rhetoric
Authors: Onsberg Merete
Published: September 2017

As rhetoric originally was closely tied to the oral presentation of a speech, delivery, understood as the best management of voice and body, was naturally of interest to the art. Thus, in the traditional rhetorical system, the so‐called rhetorical
canon
, delivery made up the fifth and last part (Greek
hypokrisis
, Latin
actio
or
pronuntiatio
) (→ Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman).
Delphi Studies
Authors: Wehmeier Stefan
Published: September 2017

The main objective of Delphi studies is to collect expert knowledge for decision‐making. In Delphi studies experts' ideas and opinions are systematically surveyed. The data are gathered through a series of questionnaires interspersed with controlled and anonymous feedback (Häder & Häder 2000). The goal of most Delphi studies is to create a group consensus in future tasks. Although the method originates from the
modus operandi
of the Greek oracle at Delphi, it is a young research method. The modern Delphi was a spin‐off from defense research conducted by the Rand Corporation in the early 1950s at the beginning of the Cold War (Gordon & Helmer 1964). The authors wanted to “obtain the most reliable consensus of opinion of a group of experts” (Linstone & Turoff 1975, 10).
Desensitization
Authors: Rudy Rena M. , Linz Daniel G.
Published: September 2017

Media desensitization is a reduction in emotional, physiological, cognitive, and/or behavioral reactivity resulting from extensive media exposure. Communication researchers have primarily used the term “desensitization” to label the effects of repeated media violence exposure on violence tolerance, meaning both a decrease in empathy and concern and also an increase in callousness toward victims of violence (→ Violence as Media Content, Effects of; Violence as Media Content, Effects on Children of).
Development Communication
Authors: Wilkins Karin Gwinn
Published: September 2017

Development communication refers to a process of strategic intervention toward social change, initiated and engaged by organizations and communities. Development itself encompasses participatory and intentional strategies designed to benefit the public good, whether in terms of material, political, or social needs. While the more broadly defined field of development communication incorporates mediated as well as interpersonal channels, more particular approaches of media development specifically include mediated technologies, such as television, radio, and computer systems.
Development Discourse
Authors: Chae Young‐Gil
Published: September 2017

Development discourse refers to the process of articulating knowledge and power through which particular concepts, theories, and practices for social change are created and reproduced (Escobar 1995; 1999; 2000; Crush 1996). Historically, the approach to development in terms of discourse has evolved out of debates on → modernization and Marxist dependency theory rooted in social evolutionism (→ Dependency Theories). Departing from the linear models of social progress, this approach to development seeks to articulate the processes and meanings of more nuanced social control and challenges. Epistemological premises are grounded in poststructuralist concepts asserting language and discourse of development as systematically organizing power through the subjectivity of social actors and their actions (→ Power and Discourse).
Diffusion of Information and Innovation
Authors: Dearing James W. , Kim Do Kyun
Published: September 2017

Diffusion
is a multifaceted perspective about social change in which people, innovations, and the media environment affect how rapidly change occurs. Scholars dating back at least to the German social philosopher Georg Simmel and the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde theorized about imitative behavior at the level of small groups and within communities, and the relation between these micro‐level processes to macro‐level social change. In the 100 years since, researchers have tended to conceptualize diffusion either at the macro sociological level of sector, system, national, or state change (Dearing et al. 2006), the social psychological or communicative level of local relationships and how those linkages affect adoption patterns as in the classic studies by Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) and by Rogers and Kincaid (1981), or the psychological level of how individuals perceive innovations in the form of a codified set of pros and cons (Manning et al. 1995). Beginning in the 1960s, diffusion concepts have been operationalized and used to purposively spread pro‐social innovations through → development communication in Colombia, Pakistan, Brazil, Nigeria, India, Finland, Korea, Tanzania, Bolivia, and Vietnam (see, e.g., Puska et al. 1986). Diffusion research has been conducted in single countries, comparatively across countries, and by tracing innovations across countries (Greenhalgh et al. 2004).
Digital Imagery
Authors: Messaris Paul
Published: September 2017

Two distinct processes can give rise to digital images. On the one hand, they can be created entirely by computer, as → animations or as single computer‐generated images. On the other hand, they can be produced photographically, through digital cameras and camcorders, or through the digital scanning of photographs originally recorded on celluloid (→ Photography). When a real visual scene is photographed digitally, the scene's pattern of light and color is translated into a rectangular grid of pictorial elements, known as pixels. Variations in brightness or color from one pixel to another are recorded in terms of discrete, fixed units – hence, “digitally” – instead of the continuous gradations employed by analog media.
Digital Media, History of
Authors: Chun Wendy Hui Kyong , Soderman Braxton
Published: September 2017

Digital media, also known as “new media,” comprise content created, disseminated, and/or stored using digital computers or mobile devices (video games, blogs, e‐books, etc.), as well as their physical embodiment (hard drives, DVDs, flash memory sticks, etc.). Digital media are often defined in contrast to “analog media,” new media in contrast to “mass media.” In terms of the former differentiation, whereas analog systems of transcription record continuous signals of information in their original form (e.g., a strip of celluloid film used to chemically capture actual waves of light), digital systems of encoding break this continuous signal into discrete units and typically represent this information as binary code, i.e., a series of 1s and 0s stored on and manipulated by a computer (→ Digitization and Media Convergence). In terms of the latter distinction, whereas mass media are often defined by the centralization of production and distribution of content to a large audience (i.e., one media message disseminated to many receivers and a relatively homogenous audience), through the use of digital technologies “new media” are defined by networks of dispersed media production and reception (i.e., many media messages spread across different media forms and delivered to distinct niches of reception; Lister et al. 2003). The history of digital media documents the move of computers from glorified calculators to devices that are transforming human communications, entertainment, and creative production, linking digital media to earlier interactive machines and media.
Direct‐to‐Consumer Advertising
Authors: Verhoef Peter C. , Hoekstra Janny C.
Published: September 2017

Marketing communication is often equated with mass advertising using media such as television, radio, and print (→ Marketing; Advertising; Television; Radio). This is often referred to as above‐the‐line advertising. Besides these media, organizations can also use more directly targeted media, which include direct mail, telephone, email, etc. (→ Electronic Mail). This is referred to as below‐the‐line advertising or direct‐to‐consumer advertising. Remarkably, spending on below‐the‐line advertising more than doubles spending on above‐the‐line advertising in the US (V12 Group & Winterberry Group 2006). Moreover, below‐the‐line advertising spending has increased by 7.5 percent per year, while spending on above‐the‐line advertising increases at a lower rate of 5.5 percent per year. These figures emphasize the importance of below‐the‐line advertising.
Directives
Authors: Fitch Kristine
Published: September 2017

Directives were described by Searle (1975) as one of five basic
speech acts
. In his approach, taken from linguistic philosophy (→ Linguistic Pragmatics), speech acts were defined by a particular fit between words (propositional content) and the world. Directives are the class of speech acts that attempt to fit the world to the words; they are attempts by a speaker to get a hearer to do something. The class of directives as Searle proposed it encompassed a wide range of action verbs in English – command, request, plead, invite, permit, and many others – without distinguishing among them in any way. He left aside such issues as the fact that words for directives would vary across languages, that contextual variables such as magnitude of the desired action and relationship between speaker and hearer would affect which kind of directive might be used, and the varied responses hearers might have to directives. The basic definition of directives as attempts to get people to do things does, however, lend itself to a connection with compliance gaining and persuasion in the field of communication (see Fitch 1994).
Disability and Communication
Authors: Bouchard Ryan Ellen , Bajorek Selina , Anas Ann P.
Published: September 2017

Specific communication disabilities affect the ability to understand and produce language. The most common hearing disabilities are congenital deafness and age‐related hearing impairments. The primary causes for difficulties with the production of spoken language are traumatic brain injury, stroke, and dementia (Alzheimer's and related diseases). Of additional relevance is the impact of visual impairment on reading and writing and on following nonverbal cues in conversation. Disability of any type creates psychosocial issues associated with personal and social adjustment, identity, and interactions with others.
Disclosure in Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Petronio Sandra
Published: September 2017

Disclosure, as a type of interpersonal communication, means revealing private information that individuals believe they own and have a right to control. Disclosure builds romantic and friendship relationships, although there is a possibility of disclosing too much information, or telling information when a relational partner is not ready to hear the disclosure, thus hampering relational growth. Therefore we know that disclosure has both a positive outcome and the potential to have unwanted outcomes for interpersonal relationships (→ Interpersonal Communication).
Discourse Comprehension
Authors: Ellis Donald G.
Published: September 2017

Discourse comprehension is the act of interpreting a written or spoken message by integrating the incoming information into the memory or knowledge structures of the interpreter. As such it involves social and pragmatic knowledge as well as grammatical and logical knowledge.
Discriminant Analysis
Authors: Fahr Andreas
Published: September 2017

The main aim of discriminant function analysis is to predict group membership of an object or a person by using as few characteristics (or set of predictors) as possible. Additionally, discriminant analysis is used to classify elements according to their characteristic properties (→ Statistics, Descriptive). So if you know the answers a subject might give to a crucial set of questions and/or the scores that subject might achieve on an important set of characteristics, discriminant analysis enables you to predict whether the subject is or will likely be a voter or nonvoter, buyer or nonbuyer, college dropout or graduate, researcher or lecturer, master or servant, winner or loser, television viewer or nonviewer, opinion‐leader or follower, etc.
Discursive Psychology
Authors: Te Molder Hedwig
Published: September 2017

Discursive psychology examines how psychological issues are made relevant and put to use in everyday talk. Unlike traditional psychological perspectives, discursive psychology does not approach the question of what psychology comprises and explains from an analyst's perspective. Instead, the focus is on how psychological characteristics are made available, ascribed, and resisted by people
themselves
, as part of the social actions performed in and through talk.
Disney
Authors: Wasko Janet
Published: September 2017

Though the Walt Disney Company began as an independent production company producing → cartoons distributed by other companies, the company has developed into one of the largest entertainment conglomerates in the world (→ Media Conglomerates).
Disney
Authors: Wasko Janet
Published: September 2017

Though the Walt Disney Company began as an independent production company producing → cartoons distributed by other companies, the company has developed into one of the largest entertainment conglomerates in the world (→ Media Conglomerates).
Distance Education
Authors: Allen Terre H.
Published: September 2017

Distance education refers to teaching and learning that occurs when students and teachers are in different physical and/or geographic locations. Although many people believe that distance education is a recent development made possible by the → Internet, it actually began in the late 1800s. Distance education has its roots in correspondence courses, which began around 1870. In fact, the first home study division of an American university was established in 1882 at the University of Chicago. Home study programs flourished in the early 1900s, and the National University Extension Associated established a Correspondence Study Division in 1915. Correspondence programs provided written educational materials leading to the completion of programs, certification, and college degrees to students via mail services. Generally, early distance education programs were targeted toward adults living in rural areas who did not have access to education otherwise.
Documentary Film, History of
Authors: Chanan Michael
Published: September 2017

While scholars of early film have been much preoccupied with the emergence of storytelling and narrative (→ Storytelling and Narration), the dominant mode of early → cinema, beginning with the first films of the Lumières in 1895, was the actuality, or what might be called “documentary before documentary” (→ Cinematography; Cinematography, History of). An instinct for what Siegfried Kracauer (1960) called “the seizure of physical reality” produced a huge variety of images that, despite their brief and fragmentary character, were not without ideological implications, since they generally reproduced social → stereotypes unthinkingly and frequently projected and enhanced the iconic imagery of state power and authority. Cinema was born in the “civilized” countries of Europe and North America, and these early films also traded on exotic imagery from every corner of the world, which not surprisingly reflected the colonial ideology of the day. The French at this time used the term
documentaire
for what in English was called the “travelogue,” which emerged before World War I as one of the most popular proto‐documentary genres, along with the wonders of science and expedition films (→ Film Genres). However, the recent rediscovery in Britain of the Mitchell & Kenyon films reminds us that turning the camera on your own community was also a fundamental propensity.
Discourse, Deliberative
Authors: Guttman Nurit
Published: September 2017

Definitions of deliberative discourse vary, but it is generally characterized as a unique type of public discussion that is rooted in deliberative democratic theory and involves a distinct process of learning about and considering issues from different perspectives. It entails an open, coercion‐free, and egalitarian process. Ideally, it takes place through a relatively long discussion process to enable the participants to engage in a careful examination of relevant issues, and to learn about a variety of views and considerations. It usually is intended to produce reasoned, well‐informed opinions or recommendations with policy implications (Gastil 2000; → Deliberativeness in Political Communication; Public Opinion; Public Sphere).
E‐Democracy
Authors: Zittel Thomas
Published: September 2017

The concept of electronic democracy has intellectual as well as technological roots. Its intellectual roots are anchored in normative democratic theory and in the idea of participatory democracy (→ Participatory Communication). Technologically, it is rooted in dramatic changes in media technology that amount to a revolution in the field of communication (→ Communication Technology and Democracy).
Editorial
Authors: Pfetsch Barbara
Published: September 2017

The term “editorial” in the mass media refers to a format designed to express the outlet's or a particular author's commentary or political position most openly and legitimately. In editorials the different media outlets establish a particular ideological profile that distinguishes them from their competitors and binds to them certain segments of the audience. Editorials must be seen in contrast to news reporting, which insists on being factual, objective, and impartial, thereby reflecting the world by describing it (→ news; Objectivity in Reporting). The purpose of editorials is related to the more persuasive and evaluative functions of media performance. The newspaper, radio, or television program here seeks to express its distinctive view on issues of public concern, aiming to advise, evaluate, commend, rebuke, and imagine the world as it wishes it to be.
Educational Communication
Authors: Rubin Rebecca B.
Published: September 2017

Educational communication is an umbrella term that encompasses all speaking, listening, and relational constructs and concepts that relate to learning. In the past, researchers have been interested in characteristics of teachers that enhance or hinder learning; student characteristics that increase or inhibit learning; teaching strategies that augment learning; how best to give criticism of student writing and speeches; how best to evaluate student work; how public speaking is best taught; and what should be taught in speech communication and media curricula (Staton‐Spicer & Wulff 1984). More recent work has expanded to the effects of media on children, child development processes, and the use of pedagogical methods and newer technologies to facilitate classroom or distance education (Waldeck et al. 2001). This entry includes discussion of some of the major and fairly consistent lines of research and findings that have emerged over the years.
Educational Media
Authors: Fisch Shalom M.
Published: September 2017

The idea of using mass media for educational purposes is by no means a new one. Books, songs, games: all of these are forms of media that have served as effective educational tools for centuries. In the case of electronic media, however, many discussions of the media's impact on children focus only on negative effects, such as the influences of violent media (→ Violence as Media Content, Effects of). However, such discussions do not, by any means, comprise the entire range of media effects. Just as negative media content can give rise to negative effects, positive media content can – and does – give rise to positive effects as well.
Educational Media Content
Authors: Bryant Jennings
Published: September 2017

Educational media content refers to mediated messages designed to teach or provide opportunities for learning. The nature of mediated education varies greatly, ranging from formal curriculum‐based message systems designed for classroom consumption to informal or pro‐social media messages with the potential for producing incidental learning or pro‐social change.
Educational Television, Children's Responses to
Authors: Bryant Jennings , Fondren Wes
Published: September 2017

If commercial success and global presence are valid indicators of acceptance, then it can be said that children around the world have embraced educational television programming. By its fortieth anniversary in 2009, the educational program → Sesame Street was broadcast in 140 countries. This included 18 international co‐productions to utilize local expertise and accommodate for varying educational and cultural goals. Viacom's educational and entertainment network for children, Nickelodeon, continued to experience subscriber increases, reaching approximately 214 million households worldwide in 2009.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Authors: O'Keefe Daniel J.
Published: September 2017

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of → Persuasion, developed by Richard Petty, John Cacioppo, and their collaborators, is an example of a “dual process” approach to persuasion (another example is Chaiken's heuristic‐systematic model, HSM). The ELM suggests that important variations in the nature of persuasion are a function of the likelihood that receivers will engage in elaboration of (that is, thinking about) information relevant to the persuasive issue. Depending on the degree of elaboration, two different kinds of persuasion process can be engaged – one involving systematic thinking and the other involving cognitive shortcuts. Different factors influence persuasive outcomes depending on which process is activated.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Authors: O'Keefe Daniel J.
Published: September 2017

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of → persuasion, developed by Richard Petty, John Cacioppo, and their collaborators, is an example of a “dual‐process” approach to persuasion (another example is Chaiken's heuristic‐systematic model, HSM). The ELM suggests that important variations in the nature of persuasion are a function of the likelihood that receivers will engage in elaboration of (that is, thinking about) information relevant to the persuasive issue. Depending on the degree of elaboration, two different kinds of persuasion process can be engaged – one involving systematic thinking and the other involving cognitive shortcuts. Different factors influence persuasive outcomes depending on which process is activated.
Election Polls and Forecasts
Authors: Petersen Thomas
Published: September 2017

The history of survey research is inseparably entwined with the development of election polling. As early as 1904, social scientists completed the first quantitative study focusing on the constituency of the Social Democratic Party in Germany. The breakthrough of the representative survey method in the year 1936 was brought about by the spectacularly successful election forecasts published by researchers George Gallup, Elmo Roper, and Archibald Crossley prior to the US presidential elections of that same year (→ Election Surveys). From the start, election forecasts contributed significantly to both public acceptance of modern survey research and new methodological advances, since they offered researchers the rare opportunity to prove the efficacy of the representative survey method (→ Survey).
Elections and Media, History of
Authors: Wahl‐Jorgensen Karin
Published: September 2017

In mass democracies, where it is impossible for candidates to meet most voters in person, political campaigning has always relied centrally on mass media. Since the beginnings of democracy, vast resources have been committed to campaign communications, motivated by the “widespread belief that media coverage matters to the outcome of elections” (Franklin 2004, 8). Friedenberg (1997), in his history of political consultants in the US, traced mediated campaigns back to colonial elections of the mid‐1700s. He suggested that the first “media blitz” in a political campaign took place during the failed presidential bid of Thomas Jefferson in 1796, in which the campaign manager flooded the targeted state of Pennsylvania “with thousands of political handbills and over 30,000 sample ballots” in an election where only 12,000 Pennsylvanians voted (Friedenberg 1997, 4).
Electronic Mail
Authors: Hassan Robert , Jethani Suneel
Published: September 2017

Since the 1970s, electronic mail (email) has changed from being a rudimentary method of text‐based communication between a very few computer users in military research establishments, universities, and commercial telecommunications labs, to become a highly sophisticated and widespread medium for communication. The growth of email has not only helped underpin the rise of the → Internet as a primary communicative technology of the early twenty‐first century, but also been an important contributor to the ongoing expansion of the “network society” more generally (Castells 1996). Today, email has become a basic means of communication in the everyday life of hundreds of millions of people in the developed and developing economies of the world, linking and expanding their social, cultural, political, and economic realms in ways that continue to be unforeseen and innovative; bringing new issues, problems, and opportunities to the processes of institutions and to individual lives, which are increasingly shaped by digital technologies.
Emotion and Communication in Organizations
Authors: Tracy Sarah J.
Published: September 2017

Emotional communication is central to many jobs (→ emotion). Stockbrokers express aggression, nurses communicate care, and emotions such as shame, pride, and fear are central in organizational evaluation. Nonetheless, organization studies have traditionally written out emotion, treating it as a private issue, a barrier to effectiveness, or something that should be controlled (→ Organizational Communication). Early research suggested that organizations were and should be rational, scientific entities (→ Bureaucracy and Communication). In this paradigm, if emotions were examined, they were measured as variables of job satisfaction, morale, or commitment. Furthermore, emotions have traditionally been subjugated to the private, personal, feminine sphere (→ Feminist and Gender Studies).
Entertainment Content and Reality Perception
Authors: Weimann Gabriel
Published: September 2017

Our perceptions of reality may often rely on mass mediated images. Walter Lippmann's classical work,Public Opinion, first published in 1922, highlighted the possibility that factual features of the world often have little relation to the perception and beliefs that people entertain about the world (→ Lippmann, Walter). Lippmann (1922) argued that the press's depiction of events was often spurious; the images it created were misleading, distorted, and shaped false “pictures in our heads” of the “world outside.” Although Lippmann never formulated his ideas in terms of a model or theory of reconstructed realities, his notion of the reliance of the public on the often distorted presentation of reality in the media should be acknowledged as such. Lippmann made the important distinction between the real environment and the pseudo‐environment, sketched and delivered by the mass media. However, although Lippmann had vision concerning the differences between reality and perceptions of reality, he could not anticipate the emergence of the electronic media and the ever‐growing role of the new media in shaping “the pictures in our heads.” As radio, and then television, cable, and satellite technologies, and then the Internet, appeared, the world shrank to a global village, exposed to the flow of mass‐produced news and entertainment, and the notion of a mediated world became more realistic and powerful. Consequently, a common focus of communication research has been the public's perceptions of reality as based on mass mediated contents and images (Eveland 2002) (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality). Social reality perceptions, or the “pictures in our head,” are best defined as individuals' conceptions of the world. They include perceptions of others' opinions and behavior, social indicators such as crime, wealth, careers, professions, sex roles and more (→ Reality and Media Reality).
Environment and Social Interaction
Authors: Patterson Miles L.
Published: September 2017

Every face‐to‐face interaction occurs in a specific location. Although it is typically assumed that the course of particular interactions is a product of the individuals involved and their relationships to one another, the surrounding environment has important effects at both the macro‐ and micro‐levels.
Environmental Communication
Authors: Griffin Robert J. , Dunwoody Sharon
Published: September 2017

“Environmental communication” refers to communication about the natural environment and ecosystem, commonly focusing on the relationships that human beings and their institutions have with the nonhuman natural environment. Much of this communication, historically, has been generated by concern about various environmental problems and issues (global warming, energy, smog, extinction of species, land uses, population growth, water quality, to name but a handful). Some messages, such as Rachel Carson's popular and controversial
Silent spring
in the early 1960s, which revealed the deleterious side‐effects of pesticides, have been credited with spurring public concern and major policy changes. However, there has also been a prevalent thread in literature and storytelling in many cultures that urges people, often through descriptive imagery, to appreciate beauty and harmony in nature (or, in some cases, to fear nature). Sometimes, of course, nature description has also been a vehicle for teaching social and ethical values and ecological principles and for alerting people to environmental issues (e.g., Henry David Thoreau's
Walden
and Aldo Leopold's
A sand county almanac
).
Ethics in Journalism
Authors: Christians Clifford G.
Published: September 2017

Journalism ethics is a branch of applied philosophy of moral values and rules. Beginning with moral issues in medicine, the field expanded since the mid‐twentieth century to include such professions as law, business, journalism, and engineering. Applied ethics has developed over the decades from merely describing actual moral behavior to establishing principles that guide decision‐making. Journalism ethics retains an interest in the concrete, everyday challenges of professional practice, but considers it crucial to integrate those principles as well.
Ethnic Journalism
Authors: Lazarte‐Morales Anahí
Published: September 2017

Ethnic journalism is the practice of journalism by, for, and about ethnic groups. Because ethnicity is a historical and relational construction (Jackson & Garner 1998), the interplay of power and difference is central to the ways scholarly research defines ethnic media. Ethnic journalism relates to how difference is recreated and connected to the social, political, and economic participation of ethnic groups. Ethnicity is a membership formulated around a shared history, religion, cultural ancestry, geographical region, race, or language, which generates a sense of belonging among particular groups. By this definition, all news media are ethnic. What sets ethnic journalism apart as a distinct category is the involvement of ethnically differentiated groups living within a dominant culture. The literature on ethnic media and journalism maintains conceptualizations of ethnicity marked by contexts of disenfranchisement and limited access to media production (→ Access to the Media).
Ethnographic Film
Authors: Ruby Jay
Published: September 2017

It is commonly assumed that an ethnographic film is any documentary about nonwestern cultures. There is scholarly debate about its parameters. Some suggest all film is ethnographic (Heider 1976), while others restrict the term to films produced by anthropologists (Ruby 2000). There are no up‐to‐date histories of ethnographic film. The scholarly literature in the field is concerned with assumed dilemmas between science and art; questions of → accuracy, fairness, and objectivity (→ Objectivity in Reporting); the relationship between written and visual anthropology; and collaborations between filmmakers and anthropologists (see Banks & Morphy 1997; Crawford & Turton 1992; De Heusch 1962/1988; MacDougall 1998; and the journals
Visual Anthropology
and
Visual Anthropology Review
). The common definition will guide the discussion that follows.
Ethnography of Communication
Authors: Carbaugh Donal
Published: September 2017

What are the means of communication used by people when they conduct their everyday lives; and what meanings does this communication have for them? These are central questions guiding the ethnography of communication. The ethnography of communication is an approach, a perspective, and a method to and in the study of culturally distinctive means and meanings of communication. The approach has been used to produce hundreds of research reports about locally patterned practices of communication, and has focused attention primarily on the situated uses of language. It has also been productively applied to various other means and media of communication including oral and printed literature, broadcast media, writing systems, various gestural dynamics, silence, visual signs, the Internet, and so on.
European Union: Communication Law
Authors: Schejter Amit M.
Published: September 2017

The European Union (EU) is a unique supranational entity that has adopted an innovative approach to the challenges posed by its distinctive structure, by the convergence of communications technologies, and by the introduction of free market economics. In the process of transforming into a powerful union that preserves the sovereignty of its members, the EU has embraced the free flow of cross‐border communications, market‐oriented policies, each member state's unique cultural identity, and the need to create a European cultural identity.
Experiment, Laboratory
Authors: Weaver James B.
Published: September 2017

Research utilizing experimentation (→ Experimental Design) is undertaken in a variety of contexts and settings. Decisions concerning the circumstances under which to conduct an experiment typically reflect a combination of considerations including the nature of the research question (→ Hypothesis), the availability of research resources, and the researcher's interest in balancing concerns about the → validity and the → generalizability of subsequent findings. Overwhelmingly, the most common setting for experimentation in communication is thelaboratory.
Experiment, Natural
Authors: Weaver James B.
Published: September 2017

Our understanding of several communication phenomena has benefited extensively from informative reports of “natural” experiments. Natural experiments are infrequently detailed in the social and behavioral sciences, however, because they result only when naturally arising circumstances make it possible to separate and examine typically confounded phenomena. Like field experiments (→ Experiment, Field), natural experiments occur in venues where the researcher has limited control over environmental or situational conditions. Distinctive in the natural experiment, moreover, randomization is impossible and the researcher exercises no influence over the independent variable (→ Experiment, Laboratory). That is, the independent variable is not manipulated but rather varies (often presence vs absence) due to a naturally occurring event or situation.
Exposure to Film
Authors: Schramm Holger
Published: September 2017

One of the most challenging tasks in research on media exposure is quantifying the amount of film viewing. Currently, people watch films via a variety of media, such as → television, VCR (→ Video), DVD player, computer and → Internet, and → cinema. For some of these media, it is difficult, if not impossible, to track the number of viewings. Especially when it comes to international comparisons, reliable numbers are often rare due to heterogeneous measurement systems. Nevertheless, we can obtain some valuable information from nonacademic sources about disparities in film exposure between different countries.
Eye Behavior
Authors: Knapp Mark L.
Published: September 2017

People use their eyes during social interaction in three primary ways: looking in the direction of the other person's face, often referred to as
gaze
; looking away from their partner's face or
gaze aversion
; and
mutual gaze
, in which both interactants look in the direction of the other's face and eye area at the same time. Human beings engage in relatively little direct eye‐to‐eye contact. For humans and other animal species, eye behavior plays an important role in survival, reproduction, and building/maintaining social and role relationships. Being watched is as important as watching others. As the target of another's eye gaze, a person's performance is infused with significance – in either positive or negative ways. Because of its importance to human interaction, people are sensitive to the absence of gaze when it is expected and its presence when it is not. We often perceive eye‐to‐eye contact when the eyes are actually tracking many points around the area of the eyes.