bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reproductive Health of Adolescent Girls Who Carry the FMR1 Premutation
Authors: De Caro John J. , Dominguez Celia , Sherman Stephanie L.
Published: June 2008

The fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene, located on the X chromosome, is characterized by a dynamic CGG repeat expansion in the 5′ untranslated region. It has long been known that female carriers of the FMR1 premutation allele (55–199 CGG) are at risk for passing the FMR1 full mutation (≥200 repeats) to their offspring, which results in a common form of mental retardation known as fragile X syndrome. The FMR1 premutation allele, however, also places female carriers at significantly increased risk for prematurely diminished ovarian function, which we refer to as fragile X–associated primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI). Although of particular concern for younger women, to date, studies of FXPOI have been restricted to women ≥18 years of age and have not specifically addressed ovarian reserve and menstrual cycle characteristics among adolescent carriers. We discuss the expected reproductive phenotype among FMR1 premutation carriers during adolescence, the associated health considerations based on our current understanding of FXPOI, and the directions for future studies.
Menstrual Cycle and Bone Health in Adolescents
Authors: Cromer Barbara A.
Published: June 2008

The intriguing notion of the menstrual cycle's having an acute impact on bone metabolism is examined as an expression of estrogen changes manifest as fluctuations in calcium‐regulating hormones or biomarkers of bone formation/resorption. The effects of estrogen, progesterone, androgens, and follicle‐stimulating hormones on bone health are also reviewed here. To date, the balance of evidence suggests that the menstrual cycle may exert a significant effect on bone metabolism. Further research needs to be conducted, however, to define these hormonal relationships.
Influence of the Work Function of Chemically Modified Indium–Tin–Oxide Electrodes on the Open-circuit Voltage of Heterojunction Photovoltaic Cells
Authors: Sarangerel Khayankhyarvaa , Ganzorig Chimed , Fujihira Masamichi , Sakomura Masaru , Ueda Kazuyoshi
Published: June 2008

To understand the origin of the open-circuit voltage of heterojunction photovoltaic (HJ-PV) cells with small-molecular-weight organic thin films, HJ-PV cells with ITO/donor (20 nm)/fullerene (40 nm)/bathocuproine (10 nm)/Al were studied using three kinds of donors and four types ITOs with different work functions.
Photoreduction of 1,2-Diarylcyclopropanes by Hydroxide Ion
Authors: Yoshimi Yasuharu , Wada Naohisa , Sasamoto Koichi , Itou Tatsuya , Hatanaka Minoru
Published: June 2008

The photoreduction of 1,2-diarylcyclopropanes 1 by NaOH yielded the corresponding 1,3-diarylpropanes 2 in i-PrOH. The efficiency of the photoreduction was dependent on the electron deficiency of 1 and the excitation wavelength, solvent, and additive. This is a rare example of a cyclopropane serving as an electron acceptor to afford a reduction product.
Extended Pummerer Reaction of Arylketene Dithioacetal Monoxides with Aromatic Compounds by Means of Trifluoromethanesulfonic Anhydride
Authors: Yoshida Suguru , Yorimitsu Hideki , Oshima Koichiro
Published: June 2008

Extended Pummerer reaction of arylketene dithioacetal monoxides with aromatic compounds by means of trifluoromethanesulfonic anhydride proceeded in moderate to good yields. In the case of intramolecular cyclization of (2-arylphenyl)ketene dithioacetal monoxides, phenanthrenes were obtained via ring-closure and skeletal rearrangement.
Continuous Supercritical Low-temperature Methanol Synthesis with n-Butane as a Supercritical Fluid
Authors: Reubroycharoen Prasert , Bao Jun , Zhang Yi , Tsubaki Noritatsu
Published: June 2008

A process of supercritical low-temperature methanol synthesis from syngas containing CO2 was carried out at 443 K and 60 bar. The 2-butanol and n-butane was used as catalytic solvent and supercritical medium, respectively. The results showed that the total carbon conversion, especially the CO2 conversion of the methanol synthesis was increased significantly under the supercritical condition.
Iron Salt-cataltzed Multipoint Alkylation of Pyrrole with Vinyl Ketones
Authors: Kawatsura Motoi , Fujiwara Masamune , Uehara Hiroyuki , Nomura Shun , Hayase Shuichi , Itoh Toshiyuki
Published: June 2008

Pyrrole reacted with vinyl ketones in the presence of 3 mol % of iron(II) tetrafluoroborate or alumina-supported iron(III) perchlorate to give multipoint-alkylated products in good yield. Most notably, 4,5-dialkylated 2-acetylpyrrole was obtained in good yield when 2-acetylpyrrole was allowed to react with an excess amount of vinyl ketones.
High Electroconductivity of Wood Char Obtained by Iron-catalyzed Carbonization
Authors: Suzuki Tsutomu , Matsuzaki Hiroshi , Suzuki Kyoko , Saito Yukie , Yasui Sei-ichi , Okazaki Noriyasu , Yamada Tetsuo
Published: June 2008

A disk specimen prepared from char obtained by carbonizing 3 wt % iron-loaded larch at 850 °C was superior and comparable to those from acetylene black and Ketjenblack, respectively, in electroconductivity. Subsequent soaking of the wood char in a diluted acid for removal of the metal led to improvement in the quality to surpass the level of Ketjenblack. Also, the carbonization with 3 wt % iron at 850 °C was more effective than that with 2 wt % nickel at 900 °C for enhancing the conductivity. The more favorable catalysis of iron can be elucidated by the formation of finer nanocarbon particles with higher mesoporosity to compensate for the less crystallinity.
Iron(II) Chloride-mediated Addition of Dialkylmagnesium to Carbonyl Compounds
Authors: Sada Mutsumi , Matsubara Seijiro
Published: June 2008

Addition reactions to carbonyl compounds with a complex reagent, prepared from organomagnesium and iron(II) chloride, were examined. The reagent works as effective nucleophile to an easily enolizable ketone such as β-tetralone; it also added to keto ester chemoselectively.
A case of colovesical fistula presenting as non-gonococcal urethritis
Authors: Hotonu O E O , Chandraskaran P , Chauhan M
Published: June 2008

Summary

We report an unusual case of a male patient with a colovesical fistula secondary to diverticulitis presenting in the genitourinary medicine clinic as non-gonococcal urethritis.
Being seen within 48 hours – what do patients think?
Authors: Handy Pauline , White Jill , Sankar K N
Published: June 2008

Summary

A questionnaire survey of 1000 patients was carried out to determine the proportion of patients attending a large genitourinary medicine department in Newcastle upon Tyne who wish to be seen within 48 hours. The Department of Health target for patients offered an appointment within 48 hours is 100%. Its target for the proportion of patients seen within 48 hours is 95%. Patients were surveyed to ascertain their preference about waiting times for appointments within the clinic. In total, only 33% stated that they wished always to be seen within the government's target of 48 hours.
Patient-delivered partner therapy in the UK: what do patients think?
Authors: Shivasankar Sivapatham , Challenor Rachel , Ekanayaka Ratna
Published: June 2008

Summary

The aim of this study was to determine the proportion of genitourinary (GU) medicine patients attending a mixed urban/rural clinic who would welcome patient-delivered partner therapy (PDPT) as a partner management option. Five hundred patients completed the questionnaire. Acceptability of traditional partner referral was 87% (435), partner referral with infection specific guidance was 82% (411) and PDPT was 81% (405). Significantly fewer patients, 71% (354) would find a partner home sampling kit acceptable and provider referral was the least popular option at 23% (117). PDPT is not used in the UK mainly due to concerns of health professionals regarding the legal status of PDPT and the lack of UK evidence. The outcome of the Medical Research Council randomized controlled trial on accelerated partner therapy (which fits in with General Medical Council advice on remote prescribing) is eagerly awaited as professionals would welcome evidence-based guidance and our study suggests that patients are willing to consider this form of partner management as an additional treatment option.
Genital piercing in association with gonorrhoea, chlamydia and warts
Authors: Hounsfield Victoria , Davies Stephen C
Published: June 2008

Summary

A 26-year-old heterosexual man presented with urethral discharge and penile oedema, two days after having a Reverse Prince Albert penile ring replaced. Clinically, he also had genital warts at the piercing tract openings. Investigations revealed positive chlamydial and gonococcal infection of the urethra. The gonococcal isolate was found to be highly resistant to antibiotics and the genotype matched an isolate only once previously recorded in the international database. We discuss how the genital piercing might have affected this patient's multiple infections, the possible contribution of genital piercing to the penile oedema, as well as potential anatomical spread of warts associated with a genital piercing.
Management of survivors of sexual assault within genitourinary medicine
Authors: Forbes K M , Day M , Vaze U , Sampson K , Forster G
Published: June 2008

Summary

Survivors of sexual assault can access treatment and care within genitourinary (GU) medicine services by attending walk-in, booked or a dedicated clinic. Haven Whitechapel the local Sexual Assault Referral Centre (SARC) provides a forensic and aftercare service. A team was set up to ensure efficient communication and clear referral pathways between the centres. This service was audited after eight months of joint working. A retrospective case note review of women attending between August and March 2007 was undertaken. Sixty-nine women were referred to the dedicated clinic. Vaginal rape was reported by 80% of the women. Offer of forensic medical examination documented in 71% presenting within the forensic timeframe. Emergency contraception was offered to 75% of the women. HIV-acquisition risk was documented in 70%. Seventy-eight percent had a sexually transmitted infection screen at their first visit. An HIV test was done to 41% of the women; all were found to be negative. Sixty-two percent women attended follow-up. GU medicine staff should receive specific training in sexual assault. We recommend that GU medicine services and SARC work in partnership to improve the care of victims of sexual assault who access general GU medicine services.
UK National Audit of Chlamydial Infection Management in Sexual Health Clinics. Case notes audit: demography, diagnosis and treatment
Authors: McClean Hugo , Carne Chris , Bunting Paul , Bhaduri Sumit , Fernandes Arnold , Dhar Jyoti , Estreich Steve , Daniels David
Published: June 2008

Summary

The case notes of cases of genital chlamydial infection were audited against the UK National Guideline. This was the first web-based and the largest national audit to date, with 193 clinics in all UK Regions contributing data. About half of all cases had no symptoms, with about one-third attending for routine or asymptomatic screens; suggesting significant provision of screening by clinics that might be managed differently to reduce workload. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) are now well established for chlamydial detection in UK clinics, with 93% of cases having genital NAATs. Azithromycin is now more commonly used than doxycycline (54% vs. 37%). Of 26 pregnant women, 20 were treated with azithromycin, suggesting that most prescribers treating pregnant women consider that erythromycin is not an adequate alternative to azithromycin. Most women had NAATs obtained from sites recommended by the Guideline, with 93% of women who had genital NAATs having these from the cervix or vulvovaginal area.
Interaction Between Shelf Layout and Marketing Effectiveness and Its Impact on Optimizing Shelf Arrangements
Authors: van Nierop Erjen , Fok Dennis , Franses Philip Hans
Published: June 2008

In this paper, we propose and operationalize a new method for optimizing shelf arrangements. We show that there are important dependencies between the layout of the shelf and stock-keeping unit (SKU) sales and marketing effectiveness. The importance of these dependencies is further shown by the substantive profit gains we obtain with our proposed shelf optimization approach. The basis of our model is a standard sales equation that explains sales using item-specific marketing effect parameters and intercepts. In a Hierarchical Bayes (HB) fashion, we augment this model with a second layer that relates the effect parameters to shelf and SKU descriptors. We also take into account potential endogeneity of facings. After estimating the parameters of the two-level model using Bayesian methodology, we carefully investigate the dependencies of SKU sales and SKU marketing effectiveness on the shelf layout. Next, we search for the shelf arrangement that maximizes the expected total profit using simulated annealing (SA). We appear to be able to increase profits for all the stores analyzed, and our approach appears to outperform well-known rules of thumb.
The Existence of Low-End Firms May Help High-End Firms
Authors: Ishibashi Ikuo , Matsushima Noriaki
Published: June 2008

Two models of competition between high-end and low-end products benefiting the high-end firms are presented. One is a quantity competition model, and the other is a price competition model with product differentiation. The key factor is the existence of two heterogeneous consumer groups: those who demand only high-end (name-brand) products and those who care little whether products are high or low end. We show that, under certain conditions, the profits of firms in the high-end market are larger when there are firms producing low-end products than when there are not. The existence of price-sensitive consumers who care little about product quality intensifies competition among the high-end firms. The existence of low-end firms functions as a credible threat, which induces the high-end firms not to overproduce because price-sensitive consumers buy products from the low-end firms. The result provides a new theoretical mechanism concerning the profitability and pricing of national brand firms after the entry of private labels. It has an implication for pricing and marketing strategies: Established firms should not decrease their prices after the entry of nonestablished firms.
The costs and benefits of acting as a research site
Authors: Clark Tom , Sinclair Ruth
Published: June 2008

Children’s Services Departments (CSDs) that are willing to host research projects are invaluable to the ongoing development of a reliable and useable evidence bank within social care. However, little attention has been paid to the costs and benefits that CSDs experience as a result of their participation. Using a mixed methods design, this small-scale exploratory study sought to examine the experiences of CSDs when hosting research by exploring issues of research governance, the benefits of participation, the costs of participation and feedback from research. While the costs of engagement, in terms of staff hours and organisational planning, were recognised to be unavoidable, they were not regarded by interviewees as significant if they were offset by real benefits. Potential benefits identified include: assisting with service development; raising the profile of research and research mindedness; and staff development. Such benefits were reported to have been achieved by closer involvement with management in the planning of projects, greater interaction with staff during the research and increasing the effectiveness of feedback strategies.
Evidence and policy networks: the UK debate about sex offender community notification
Authors: Jung Tobias , Nutley Sandra M.
Published: June 2008

This article explores the role and use of evidence by actors involved in the policy debate on sex offender community notification in the summer of 2000. It examines what was considered as evidence, how it was used and by which actors. It highlights the wide and fluid nature of evidence and the rapidity with which it can infuse policy debates. Although evidence was used strategically and tactically by most actors, the policy debate was well informed. Overall, the relationship between evidence and policy that emerges is a far cry from the ‘two communities’ view of evidence providers and evidence users.
Appreciating cannabis: the paradox of evidence in evidence-based policy making
Authors: Monaghan Mark
Published: June 2008

This article explores evidence utilisation in a politicised policy area. Using recent debates in UK drug classification as a case study, it suggests that the relationship between evidence in policy in such areas is frequently conceived in linear terms, where policies are ultimately either evidence-based or evidence-free. Such perspectives, however, restrict the role of evidence to policy outcomes. Drawing on ideas from political science and elsewhere, a more nuanced role of evidence is advocated, which locates utilisation in the process of policy making. This moves beyond zero-sum conceptualisations hitherto highlighted that are, it is claimed, premised on a paradoxical logic.
Emotional reactions of anger and shame to the norm violation characterizing episodes of interpersonal harm
Authors: Kam Chester Chun‐Seng , Bond Michael Harris
Published: June 2008

Norms are the socially shared restraints by which human behaviour is regulated. When applied to events involving interpersonal harm, the perceived level of norm violation by a perpetrator will lead to a target's emotional reactions of both anger and shame, with such processes mediated by the target's judgments of his or her loss of face arising from the episode, the perpetrator's intent to harm, and the blame ascribed to the perpetrator. Structural equation modelling (SEM) confirmed this set of linkages with targets of harm from both Hong Kong and the United States reporting on a harmful exchange in their own life, suggesting the generalizability of this model in disparate cultural contexts.
The Penrose hypothesis in 2004: Patient and prisoner numbers are positively correlated in low‐and‐middle income countries but are unrelated in high‐income countries
Authors: Large Matthew M. , Nielssen Olav.
Published: June 2008

Objective. To examine the relationship between the numbers of psychiatric hospital beds and prisoners using recent statistics.

Design. An analysis of published data from 158 countries.

Methods. Multiple linear regression techniques were used to examine the relationship between per capita measures of income and numbers of psychiatric hospital beds and the dependant variable of per capita prison populations, in high and low‐and‐middle‐income countries.

Results. Prison and psychiatric populations were positively correlated in low‐and‐middle‐income countries. There was no relationship between the number of psychiatric hospital beds and prison populations in high‐income countries.

Conclusions. In low‐and‐middle income countries the association between prison and psychiatric hospital populations may depend on the ability of governments to pay for custodial institutions as well as differences in cultural attitudes towards abnormal and criminal behaviour. In high‐income (HI) countries psychiatric and prison populations are not related and probably determined by separate social and political factors.
Tissue Distribution of Human AKR1C3 and Rat Homolog in the Adult Genitourinary System
Authors: Azzarello Joseph , Fung Kar-Ming , Lin Hsueh-Kung
Published: June 2008

Human aldo-keto reductase (AKR) 1C3 (type 2 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/type 5 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase) catalyzes androgen, estrogen, and prostaglandin metabolism. AKR1C3 is therefore implicated in regulating ligand access to the androgen receptor, estrogen receptor, and peroxisome proliferator activating receptor γ in hormone target tissues. Recent reports on close relationships between ARK1C3 and various cancers including breast and prostate cancers implicate the involvement of AKR1C3 in cancer development or progression. We previously described the characterization of an isoform-specific monoclonal antibody against AKR1C3 that does not cross-react with related, >86% sequence identity, human AKR1C1, AKR1C2, or AKR1C4, human aldehyde reductase AKR1A1, or rat 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C9). In this study, a clone of murine monoclonal antibody raised against AKR1C3 was identified and characterized for its recognition of rat homolog. Tissue distribution of human AKR1C3 and its rat homolog in adult genitourinary systems including kidney, bladder, prostate, and testis was studied by IHC. A strong immunoreactivity was detected not only in classically hormone-associated tissues such as prostate and testis but also in non—hormone-associated tissues such as kidney and bladder in humans and rats. The distribution of these two enzymes was comparable but not identical between the two species. These features warrant future studies of AKR1C3 in both hormone- and non—hormone-associated tissues and identification of the rodent homolog for establishing animal models.
Risk, Human Error, and System Resilience: Fundamental Ideas
Authors: Sheridan Thomas B.
Published: June 2008

Objective: I review and critique basic ideas of both traditional error/risk analysis and the newer and contrasting paradigm of resilience engineering. Background: Analysis of human error has matured and been applied over the past 50 years by human factors engineers, whereas the resilience engineering paradigm is relatively new. Method: Fundamental ideas and examples of human factors applications of each approach are presented and contrasted. Results: Probabilistic risk analysis provides mathematical rigor in generalizing on past error events to identify system vulnerabilities, but prediction is problematical because (a) error definition is arbitrary, and thus it is difficult to infer valid probabilities of human error to input to quantitative models, and (b) future accident conditions are likely to be quite different from those of past accidents. The new resilience engineering paradigm, in contrast, is oriented toward organizational process and is concerned with anticipating, mitigating, and preparing for graceful recovery from future events. Conclusion: Resilience engineering complements traditional error analysis but has yet to provide useful quantification and operational methods. Application: A best safety strategy is to use both approaches.
Myths and Realities of Electronics Maintenance
Authors: Harris Douglas H.
Published: June 2008

Objective: The author presents and discusses discoveries and developments contributing to enhanced electronics maintenance performance. Background: This body of research is viewed from the vantage point of Nick Bond's 1970 Ely Award—winning article in Human Factors, “Some Persistent Myths About Military Electronics Maintenance.” Method: Bond identified a set of myths and summarized research that not only produced information and techniques leading to demonstrably improved maintenance performance but also exploded many unfounded beliefs that were commonly held before the research had been conducted and the findings disseminated. Results: The period from 1964 through 1986, as reflected by publications in the journal, was a productive period of research that led to greater understanding of human factors in electronics maintenance and to numerous advances that contributed, ultimately, to more effective maintenance performance. Conclusion: Technological advances, combined with what we learned about maintenance performance, have substantially reduced the maintenance burden and enhanced the maintenance of electronic systems. Application: Some of the principal lessons learned from this research on electronics maintenance apply to understanding the effects of equipment complexity, providing an optimal role for automation, designing more appropriate on-the-job training, and enhancing troubleshooting skills.
Human Factors in the 1990s: Sealing Transition Cracks
Authors: Howell William C.
Published: June 2008

This is an account of my 8-year tour as Human Factors editor during the last decade of the past century. I accepted this appointment with the understanding that the journal, although highly successful, was entering a period of transition during which problems were surfacing that would require some strategic redirection. Together with Human Factors and Ergonomics Society staff and my editorial board, which in addition to peer review I relied on heavily for advice on journal policy, we effected a number of changes. In this article, I review those changes along with the issues they were designed to address and the reasoning behind each. It remains for the reader to judge whether the net effect of these changes has been for the better.
Multiple Resources and Mental Workload
Authors: Wickens Christopher D.
Published: June 2008

Objective: The objective is to lay out the rationale for multiple resource theory and the particular 4-D multiple resource model, as well as to show how the model is useful both as a design tool and as a means of predicting multitask workload overload. Background: I describe the discoveries and developments regarding multiple resource theory that have emerged over the past 50 years that contribute to performance and workload prediction. Method: The article presents a history of the multiple resource concept, a computational version of the multiple resource model applied to multitask driving simulation data, and the relation of multiple resources to workload. Results: Research revealed the importance of the four dimensions in accounting for task interference and the association of resources with brain structure. Multiple resource models yielded high correlations between model predictions and data. Lower correlations also identified the existence of additional resources. Conclusion: The model was shown to be partially relevant to the concept of mental workload, with greatest relevance to performance breakdowns related to dual-task overload. Future challenges are identified. Application: The most important application of the multiple resource model is to recommend design changes when conditions of multitask resource overload exist.
Situation Awareness: Review of Mica Endsley's 1995 Articles on Situation Awareness Theory and Measurement
Authors: Wickens Christopher D.
Published: June 2008

Objective: This article summarizes two articles by Endsley on situation awareness (SA) and presents the influence of the concept on subsequent practice and theory of human factors. Background: In her articles, Endsley integrated and consolidated existing research done in the prior decade. Method: I carefully examined and integrated subsequent articles on the SA topic written by Endsley and by others. Results: This integration revealed that SA has been applied to areas of training, error analysis, design, selection, teamwork, and automation. Some key issues related to automation and SA are reviewed in detail. Conclusion: Situation awareness is a viable and important construct that still possesses some controversy over measurement issues. Application: Ways in which human factors practitioners have used the SA construct and numerous citations are provided to assist designers.
Situation Awareness: Understanding Dynamic Environments
Authors: Durso Francis T. , Sethumadhavan Arathi
Published: June 2008

Objective: We present a snapshot of the work on situation awareness, which involves operators' comprehension of the dynamic situation that they are monitoring or controlling. Background: Although human factors has always been concerned with helping the operator in his or her work environment, research exploded in the mid-1990s on one relevant construct, situation awareness. Method: We discuss how a distinction present years ago, the product of comprehension versus the process of comprehension, not only continues today but characterizes different research directions. Research on situation awareness has benefited and can continue to benefit from an analogy to the better understood comprehension of narrative and expository text, although such an analogy between text and dynamic environments will ultimately have limits. Results: Situation awareness as a notion that organizes and focuses research efforts has rightfully spread to research in virtually every industrial domain, and it is an essential part of work on automation and design. Conclusion: Work on situation awareness has had a ubiquitous influence on cognitive engineering and has even pushed the envelope of basic cognitive psychology into dynamic domains. Application: Considering situation awareness is also important in cognitive ergonomic issues relevant to training, teamwork, and the design of new human-technical systems.
Human Factors and Education: Evolution and Contributions
Authors: Stone Nancy J.
Published: June 2008

Objective: The major contributions of human factors to education are highlighted. Background: Over the past 50 years, the education of human factors specialists has evolved, as well as the application of human factors and ergonomic knowledge to education. Method: Human factors and ergonomics professional documentation and literature were reviewed to identify major events relevant to human factors education or the application of human factors to education. Results: Human factors education has evolved from training in experimental psychology to highly specialized accredited human factors programs and a number of undergraduate programs, leading to program accreditation and the certification of professionals. In addition, human factors specialists have applied their knowledge to human factors education and, more recently, to educational systems in general. The greatest focus has been on technology such as multimedia. Others have evaluated the design of the physical environment, focusing primarily on seating. The research also often targets undergraduate or graduate education. Therefore, it has been proposed that a greater focus is needed at the K—12 educational level, especially given the advancement and implementation of technology in the classroom. Conclusion: Human factors and ergonomic expertise can benefit the educational system. Yet, there is a need to constantly evaluate the benefits of new technology in the classroom as well as the environmental design aspects of the educational environment while considering learners of different age groups, ethnicities, and sexes. Application: Better application of human factors and ergonomics to the learning environment could enhance the educational experience for all learners.
Human Factors Contributions to Knowledge Elicitation
Authors: Hoffman Robert R.
Published: June 2008

Objective: The objective of this article is to lay out contributions of human factors to knowledge elicitation (KE) methodology. Background: The background is historical, dating to about 1985, and involves the convergence of expert systems with applied psychology and cognitive psychology. Method: The method is a literature review, focusing on past issues of Human Factors. Results: Human factors researchers have contributed significantly to KE methodology. However, KE methodology “belongs to” a number of communities of practice and has applications that transcend individual disciplines. Conclusion: Knowledge elicitation, thought of as a kind of cognitive task analysis, grows in importance with the increasing use of information technology to form complex sociotechnical work systems and the increasing importance of expertise to knowledge-based organizations. Application: I discuss some open issues for further research and methodological investigation.
Macroergonomics: Work System Analysis and Design
Authors: Kleiner Brian M.
Published: June 2008

Objective: Our goal was to briefly describe how macroergonomics was developed to fill a void in human factors and ergonomics. Background: A study commissioned by the Human Factors Society in 1978 resulted in the formalization of a new subdiscipline of human factors, called organizational design and management, which eventually was coined macroergonomics.Method: Differentiators of macroergonomics are presented along with methods adapted from other domains as well as unique methods. Results: Based on laboratory and field studies conducted at multiple universities, government facilities, and industries, work system factors can be manipulated in the laboratory and studied in the field successfully. Also, case studies in academia, industry, and government demonstrate 60% to 90% performance impact and positive qualitative changes such as culture change. Conclusion: Macroergonomics offers a perspective as well as methods and tools for more successful human factors and ergonomics design, development, intervention, and implementation. Application: Human factors engineers or psychologists and ergonomists can use the perspective of macroergonomics to achieve better results or can expand their involvement of macroergonomics through the use of methods and tools.
Discoveries and Developments in Human-Computer Interaction
Authors: Boehm-Davis Deborah A.
Published: June 2008

Objective: This paper describes contributions made to the science and practice of human-computer interaction (HCI), primarily through Human Factors and the society's annual proceedings. Background: Research in HCI began to appear in publications associated with the Society around 1980 and has continued through the present. Method: A search of the literature appearing in either the journal or the proceedings was done to identify the specific contributions made by researchers in this area. Results: More than 2,300 papers were identified, some comparing the actual or predicted performance of a new device, display format, or computer-based system with an existing or alternative system. Other work describes methods for evaluating systems performance. Conclusion: This work has had a tremendous impact, particularly the work of Fitts, Smith and Mosier, and Virzi. Application: Work on HCI has contributed to (a) current national and international guidelines, (b) the development of user interface management systems, (c) the provision of guidance as to where best to invest resources when evaluating computing systems, and (d) the prediction of human performance using those systems.
Review of a Pivotal Human Factors Article: “Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse”
Authors: Lee John D.
Published: June 2008

Objective: This paper considers the influence of “Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse” and examines how it relates to the evolving issue of human-automation interaction. Background: Automation presents important practical challenges that can dramatically affect satisfaction, performance, and safety; philosophical challenges also arise as automation changes the nature of work and human cognition. Method: Papers cited by and citing “Humans and Automation” were reviewed to identify enduring and emerging themes in human-automation research. Results: “Humans and Automation” emerges as an important node in the network of automation-related papers, citing many and being cited by many recent influential automation-related papers. In their article, Parasuraman and Riley (1997) integrated previous research and identified differing expectations across designers, managers, and operators regarding the need to support operators as a source of automation problems. They also foresaw and inspired research that addresses problems of overreliance and underreliance on automation. Conclusion: This pivotal article and associated research show that even though automation seems to relieve people of tasks, automation requires more, not less, attention to training, interface design, and interaction design. The original article also alludes to the emergence of vicious cycles and dysfunctional meta-control. These problems reflect the coevolution of automation and humans, in which both adapt to the responses of the other. Application: Understanding this coevolution has important philosophical implications for the nature of human cognition and practical implications for satisfaction, performance, and safety.
Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work and Is Stressful
Authors: Warm Joel S. , Parasuraman Raja , Matthews Gerald
Published: June 2008

Objective: We describe major discoveries and developments in vigilance research. Background: Vigilance tasks have typically been viewed as undemanding assignments requiring little mental effort. The vigilance decrement function has also been considered to result from a decline in arousal brought about by understimulation. Methods: Recent research in vigilance is reviewed in four areas: studies of task type, perceived mental workload during vigilance, neural measures of resource demand in vigilance, and studies of task-induced stress. Results: Experiments comparing successive and simultaneous vigilance tasks support an attentional resource theory of vigilance. Subjective reports also show that the workload of vigilance is high and sensitive to factors that increase processing demands. Neuroimaging studies using transcranial Doppler sonography provide strong, independent evidence for resource changes linked to performance decrement in vigilance tasks. Finally, physiological and subjective reports confirm that vigilance tasks reduce task engagement and increase distress and that these changes rise with increased task difficulty. Conclusions: Converging evidence using behavioral, neural, and subjective measures shows that vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful. Application: This research applies to most human-machine systems that require human monitoring, particularly those involving automated subsystems.
Aging and Human Performance
Authors: Charness Neil
Published: June 2008

Objectives: I identify major theoretical and practical contributions to aging and human performance as reflected primarily in the pages of Human Factors.Background: Populations worldwide are aging. True experimental work on aging is not possible because age levels cannot be manipulated. Sophisticated theoretical frameworks and modeling techniques are required to reach valid inferences about age effects and age changes. Method: Citation analysis was used to identify articles in Human Factors dealing with age or aging and to rank them for citation impact. Results: Special issues on aging were followed by increased publication rates for articles on age or aging, particularly in the 1990s. Most-cited articles deal primarily with age and driving. Conclusions: Applied contributions rely on improved measurement of performance and on methodological advances, including simulation and modeling. Design changes that provide environmental support for declining cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor abilities can serve as a powerful intervention for maintaining and improving older adult performance. Training is also a robust way to improve performance at both the basic ability level and the level of task performance. Human factors specialists can improve quality of life for an aging population. Applications: Guidelines for older users are now being developed by standards bodies and are implemented in domains such as Web design. Much of the focus of human factors research has been on improving efficiency in the performance of aging adults in the workforce, but reducing errors and increasing comfort and satisfaction in health-related activities should receive greater attention.
Human Factors in Industrial Systems: 40 Years On
Authors: Drury Colin G.
Published: June 2008

Objective: I evaluate the contribution of a pioneering Human Factors special issue on human factors in industrial systems. Background: Papers on the content of the journal's first 10 years showed that industrial human factors/ergonomics (HF/E) in 1969 was quite a rarity in the journal and the society. Method: The 12 papers in the special issue are reviewed briefly and show a wide range of topics, including traditional industrial engineering, physical HF/E, and more mainstream applications of HF/E in this domain similar to those in military and aerospace domains. The evaluation is through citations, later journal content, society technical group membership, and specific influences of Harris's own paper in the issue. Results: The expected direct citation influence of this special issue was not found: Citation counts were in line with all papers in Human Factors. However, other journals have been founded in North America that serve industrial HF/E and provide an outlet for more papers per year than Human Factors. In addition, the industrial domain is well represented in the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Finally, Harris's paper has been influential in the specific area of HF/E in inspection. Conclusions: Industrial HF/E is now more accepted within the HF/E community, although largely in the physical ergonomics subspecialty. Application: There is now evidence of use of HF/E techniques more broadly in industry, including service as well manufacturing enterprises.
Humans: Still Vital After All These Years of Automation
Authors: Parasuraman Raja , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: June 2008

Objective: The authors discuss empirical studies of human-automation interaction and their implications for automation design. Background: Automation is prevalent in safety-critical systems and increasingly in everyday life. Many studies of human performance in automated systems have been conducted over the past 30 years. Methods: Developments in three areas are examined: levels and stages of automation, reliance on and compliance with automation, and adaptive automation. Results: Automation applied to information analysis or decision-making functions leads to differential system performance benefits and costs that must be considered in choosing appropriate levels and stages of automation. Human user dependence on automated alerts and advisories reflects two components of operator trust, reliance and compliance, which are in turn determined by the threshold designers use to balance automation misses and false alarms. Finally, adaptive automation can provide additional benefits in balancing workload and maintaining the user's situation awareness, although more research is required to identify when adaptation should be user controlled or system driven. Conclusions: The past three decades of empirical research on humans and automation has provided a strong science base that can be used to guide the design of automated systems. Application: This research can be applied to most current and future automated systems.
The Split Keyboard: An Ergonomics Success Story
Authors: Rempel David
Published: June 2008

Objective: The author reviews the paper by Kroemer (1972) on the design of the split geometry keyboard and the subsequent 35 years of research on the topic. Background: It was first suggested in the 1920s that arm strain in the typist could be reduced by splitting the keyboard into two halves and inclining the two halves laterally. The first systematic research on the split keyboard was conducted by Kroemer in the 1960s and published in his 1972 article. Methods: The literature on split geometry keyboards was identified, and the progression of the research was reviewed. Results: The Kroemer article marked the beginning of a prolonged, worldwide research effort to determine whether and how the split keyboard design might improve comfort and prevent pain in keyboard users. Conclusions: In the early 1990s, split keyboard designs began to be broadly commercially available. Clear evidence of a health benefit of the split keyboards emerged in the late 1990s. By 2006, a split keyboard was the number one—selling keyboard, of all keyboards sold, in the U.S. retail market. Application: The history of research on this topic, the challenges to changing the conventional design, and the broader acceptance of the split design are a success story with lessons for all of us.
Cognitive Architectures: Choreographing the Dance of Mental Operations With the Task Environment
Authors: Gray Wayne D.
Published: June 2008

Objective: In this article, I present the ideas and trends that have given rise to the use of cognitive architectures in human factors and provide a cognitive engineering—oriented taxonomy of these architectures and a snapshot of their use for cognitive engineering. Background: Architectures of cognition have had a long history in human factors but a brief past. The long history entails a 50-year preamble, whereas the explosion of work in the current decade reflects the brief past. Understanding this history is key to understanding the current and future prospects for applying cognitive science theory to human factors practice. Method: The review defines three formative eras in cognitive engineering research: the 1950s, 1980s, and now. Results: In the first era, the fledging fields of cognitive science and human factors emphasized characteristics of the dancer, the limited capacity or bounded rationality view of the mind, and the ballroom, the task environment. The second era emphasized the dance (i.e., the dynamic interaction between mental operations and task environment). The third era has seen the rise of cognitive architectures as tools for choreographing the dance of mental operations within the complex environments posed by human factors practice. Conclusions: Hybrid architectures present the best vector for introducing cognitive science theories into a renewed engineering-based human factors. Application: The taxonomy provided in this article may provide guidance on when and whether to apply a cognitive science or a hybrid architecture to a human factors issue.
Investigating Mode Errors on Automated Flight Decks: Illustrating the Problem-Driven, Cumulative, and Interdisciplinary Nature of Human Factors Research
Authors: Sarter Nadine
Published: June 2008

Objective: The goal of this article is to illustrate the problem-driven, cumulative, and highly interdisciplinary nature of human factors research by providing a brief overview of the work on mode errors on modern flight decks over the past two decades. Background: Mode errors on modern flight decks were first reported in the late 1980s. Poor feedback, inadequate mental models of the automation, and the high degree of coupling and complexity of flight deck systems were identified as main contributors to these breakdowns in human-automation interaction. Various improvements of design, training, and procedures were proposed to address these issues. Methods: The author describes when and why the problem of mode errors surfaced, summarizes complementary research activities that helped identify and understand the contributing factors to mode errors, and describes some countermeasures that have been developed in recent years. Results: This brief review illustrates how one particular human factors problem in the aviation domain enabled various disciplines and methodological approaches to contribute to a better understanding of, as well as provide better support for, effective human-automation coordination. Conclusion: Converging operations and interdisciplinary collaboration over an extended period of time are hallmarks of successful human factors research. Application: The reported body of research can serve as a model for future research and as a teaching tool for students in this field of work.
Systematics of (p, n) reaction cross-section
Authors: Broeders C. H. M. , Konobeyev A. Y.
Published: June 2008

Semi-empirical systematics of the (p, n) reaction cross-section was obtained at incident proton energies 7.5 MeV, 12.4 MeV and 24.8 MeV. Systematics is based on analytical formulas derived using the pre-equilibrium exciton model, evaporation model and semi-empirical mass formula Parameters of systematics were fitted to the data obtained from the analysis of available measured (p, n) reaction cross-section.