bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Occurrence and impact of suspected delirium in hospitalized elderly patients
Authors: Cavalieri Thomas A. , Forman Lloyd J. , Galski Thomas , Dinsmore Steven , Kay Patricia A.J. , Pomerantz Sherry
Published: October 2018

The records of 95 consecutive people older than 65 years and admitted to a community hospital were retrospectively reviewed to determine the prevalence of undiagnosed delirium in hospitalized elderly patients. Chart review focused on identification of patients with documented diagnosed delirium according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, third edition, revised (DSM-III-R) criteria and patients with unrecognized delirium. Unrecognized delirium was considered present when information contained in a patient's chart met some or all criteria for delirium as described in DSM-III-R, but the physician's progress notes failed to indicate delirium as a diagnosed clinical entity. The prevalence of diagnosed delirium was 2%. Thirty-six percent of the patients were suspected of having unrecognized delirium. The mean length of hospital stay and the rate of mortality were significantly higher for patients with suspected delirium than for nondelirious patients. The findings of this study suggest that unrecognized delirium in the hospitalized elderly may occur frequently and is associated with an increased length of hospital stay and increased mortality.
Adult Arnold-Chiari malformation: a postpartum case presentation
Authors: Toffol. Gilbert J. , O’Reilly, Siobhan A.
Published: October 2018

Adult Arnold-Chiari malformation, also known as Chiari malformation type I, typically occurs in women during early adulthood and can be a cause of unexplained headaches, as well as associated syringomyelocele. In this unique case report, a 32-yearold, postpartum woman with posturally induced headache from Chiari malformation type I had symptoms occur for the first time during pregnancy. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain confirmed the diagnosis and is the neuroimaging study of choice in such cases. Neurosurgical decompression, when performed early, is highly successful in symptomatic individuals.
Transitional cell carcinoma of the distal portion of ureter protruding into the sigmoid conduit six years after cystoprostatectomy
Authors: Finkelstein Leonard H. , Elisco Anthony
Published: October 2018

Bladder tumors develop after the diagnosis of upper urinary tract carcinoma in approximately 20% of cases, whereas the incidence of upper urinary tract tumor after the diagnosis of bladder cancer is low, approximately 2%. In a 64-year-old man who had undergone cystoprostatectomy treatment of bladder carcinoma 6 years previously, with the sigmoid conduit used for supravesicle diversion, a transitional cell carcinoma that developed in the conduit was not revealed with intravenous pyelography at regular follow-up intervals. The patient had only hematuria. After an obstructed left kidney, left ureteral stricture, and a filling defect in the conduit were observed radiologically and biopsy revealed a transitional cell cacinoma at the ureterosigmoid junction, the patient underwent left nephroureterectomy, partial resection of a third of the sigmoid conduit, and right ureteral reimplantation. The occurrence of upper urinary tract carcinoma after treatment of bladder cancer should be considered even in light of intravenous pyelography that shows no abnormality; and when such carcinomas occur in this situation, disease involving the conduit should be ruled out.
Smoking cessation: A clinical study of the transdermal nicotine patch
Authors: Winters Frank D. , Smith Troy M.
Published: October 2018

Although cigarette smoking is a declining trend in the United States, the amount of cigarettes consumed by the American public is the same today as in 1964. The role of cigarette smoking in many disease processes is publicly well known, and smoking cessation has been proved to reduce risk for some diseases, but the various methods of cessation are often met with a high rate of treatment failure or relapse. In this study, the short-term efficacy of nicotine-replacement therapy by way of the transdermal patch system was evaluated in 110 patients in a family practice setting. Patches were tapered from 21 mg of nicotine to 14 mg to 7 mg, each for 30 days. Subjects wore one patch for every 24 hours and were instructed not to smoke. Telephone follow-up was used at 2 to 3 weeks to check smoking status and inquire for side effects, and further follow-up of those who had completed the 3-month program was initiated 6 months after the program began. Nineteen patients never filled the prescription, and six were lost to follow-up. Of the 85 who finished the program, 35% were still not smoking at 6 months after the study began. The other 65% had relapsed. Side effects were mild and were mainly related to skin irritation at the patch site and abnormal dreams. Combinations of this cessation method with physician counseling and other behavioral methods should improve the success rate of this encouraging treatment.
Changes in presence of a segmental dysfunction pattern associated with hypertension: Part 2. A long-term longitudinal study
Authors: Johnston William L. , Kelso Albert F.
Published: October 2018

The short-term portion of this study (part 1) showed an association between somatic dysfunction and the regulation of blood pressure. To study long-term relationships, follow-up examinations were made of 61 subjects studied 3 to 10 years earlier. They were heterogeneous Family Practice Clinic patients with a mean age of 45 years. By methods used in part 1 and in our previous studies of systemic interactions, palpatory examination was done to support presence or absence of a C6T2T6 pattern of segmental motion dysfunctions, and blood pressure status was established by the medical history. The C6T2T6 pattern persisted in 16 of 16 subjects with grade 2 or greater hypertension and 4 of 9 normotensive subjects who had shown the pattern initially. At follow-up, the pattern first appeared in 7 subjects who had hypertension previously diagnosed and who remained hypertensive; the pattern disappeared in 5 normotensive subjects who remained normotensive. The C6T2T6 pattern's longterm persistence in hypertensive subjects and changes in its presence corresponding to the subjects' hypertensive status indicate an important relationship between this pattern of segmental motion dysfunctions and disturbances in regulation of blood pressure.
Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Richard Owen and monotreme oviparity.
Authors: Nicol Stewart
Published: October 2018

Most biologists, particularly Australian biologists, are aware that the initial description and attempts to classify the echidna and platypus were surrounded by controversy. Fewer are aware of the important roles played by two eminent scientists, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in Paris and Richard Owen in London, in the debate as to whether the platypus and echidna were really mammals, and whether they laid eggs. Geoffroy argued that they were egg-laying but could not possibly lactate; Owen argued that they lactated but could not possibly lay eggs. Because of these and many other aspects of their biology, monotremes featured prominently in debates about classification of animals and the transmutation of species, and involved many important scientists of the time. These arguments can only be understood in the context of the development of science in the late eighteenth and the nineteenth century, and how that was influenced by the social context. Early ideas of evolution, or transformism, were attractive to radical thinkers, whereas social conservatives were anxious to show that the boundaries between types of animals, just like the boundaries between social classes, were erected by God and could not be crossed.
Role of the tightly bound quinone for the oxygen reaction of cytochrome bo3 oxidase from Escherichia coli
Authors: Melin Frédéric , Sabuncu Sinan , Choi Sylvia K. , Leprince Agathe , Gennis Robert B. , Hellwig Petra
Published: October 2018

The coupling of the reaction of a tightly bound ubiquinone with the reduction of O2 in cytochrome bo3 of Escherichia coli was investigated. In the absence of the quinone, a strongly diminished rate of electrocatalytic reduction of oxygen is detected, which can be restored by adding quinones. The correlation of previous EPR data with the electrocatalytic study on mutations in the binding site at positions, Q101, D75, F93, H98, I102 and R71 reveal that the stabilization of the radical is not necessary for the oxygen reaction. The Q101 and F93 variants exhibit both well‐defined catalytic i–V curves, whereas D75H, H98F, I102W and R71H exhibit broad i–V curves with large hysteresis pointing toward a strong alteration in their catalytic activity.
Acclimatization
Authors: Leonard William R.
Published: October 2018

The process of acclimatization allows for humans to physiologically adapt to a wide range of environmental stressors over the course of their lifetime. These adaptive responses maintain the body's normal biological function (homeostasis) in the face of ecological challenges. Acclimatization to cold stress involves increasing the efficiency of metabolic heat production and more effectively delivering warm blood to the extremities of the body. Indigenous Arctic populations show enhanced metabolic responses to cold. These populations have elevated basal metabolic rates (BMR) and maintain higher peripheral temperatures in response to cold challenges. In contrast, acclimatization to tropical environments involves enhancing the capacity to dissipate metabolic heat. Indigenous tropical populations maintain thermal homeostasis with much lower sweat rates than their nonindigenous counterparts. Their lower body weights and more linear physiques promote greater heat loss through passive, nonsweating mechanisms. Tropical populations also show reduced BMRs. Acclimatization to high‐altitude hypoxia involves increasing the uptake and delivery of oxygen to the body. Native high‐altitude populations have enlarged chests and lungs, and greater ability to transfer oxygen from the lungs into the bloodstream. Additionally, they have increased hemoglobin levels, allowing for greater oxygen‐carrying capacity in the bloodstream.
Age estimation (skeleton)
Authors: Boldsen Jesper L. , Milner George R.
Published: October 2018

Age estimation from bones and teeth is an essential part of bioarchaeological and medicolegal investigations. Accuracy is better for juveniles than adults because methods are largely based on developmental and senescent changes, respectively. Long‐standing problems include a need for quantitative procedures for combining information on age‐related changes in different anatomical structures, generating estimates based on the mix of characteristics found in specific skeletons, and incorporating a proper prior distribution. For adults, standard procedures yield biased estimates, especially for the elderly. Progress is being made to resolve all these problems, so the outlook is optimistic.
American Association of Physical Anthropologists
Authors: Little Michael A.
Published: October 2018

The American Association of Physical Anthropologists (AAPA) is an active and successful professional society that has been growing in membership and visibility since its beginning in 1930. It is both the largest and the oldest professional society of physical/biological anthropologists in the world. With the exception of the World War II years, the AAPA has met each year since 1930, and its journal, the
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
will have its 100th anniversary in 2018. Fiftieth‐anniversary and 75th anniversary reviews of physical anthropology and the AAPA provide overviews at these earlier time junctures.
Ancestry (forensic applications)
Authors: Hefner Joseph T. , Spradley M. Katherine
Published: October 2018

Ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology traditionally relied on outdated criteria seemingly never intended to capture the full range of human variability. Instead, the methodological approaches and atheoretical concerns focused almost exclusively on typological aspects of “race” through cranial measurements and extreme trait values of morphological characters supposedly linked explicitly to one population over another. Intimately tied to the old typology of racial classification, the forensic application of ancestry estimation generally focused only on three groups. Craniometric and macromorphoscopic trait analyses now rely on robust classification statistics and a multigroup approach. While many practitioners continue to rely on a three‐group model, recent decline in the acceptance of this model by forensic anthropologists is leading to new research focusing on multigroup classifications and a more refined acknowledgment of the great diversity within and among human groups. Assumptions about the three‐group model's utility in forensic anthropology have consequences for forensic anthropology and ancestry estimation studies. Undetected and/or undocumented differences within and between groups beyond the three‐group model have an important bearing on forensic anthropological research, and, concomitantly, forensic anthropological casework. This manuscript explores the growing body of research on evidence‐based methods with more potential to accurately and precisely estimate ancestry in a biologically meaningful manner.
Anthropological genetics
Authors: Crawford Michael H.
Published: October 2018

Anthropological genetics is a synthetic discipline that applies the methodologies of genetics and theories of evolution to questions posed by biological anthropologists. These questions involve: (1) human origins, particularly as viewed through the lenses of molecular genetics; (2) the actions of the forces of human evolution—such as natural selection, gene flow, mutations, and genetic drift; (3) reconstruction of the human diaspora—out of Africa and the settlement of the world; (4) patterns of human genetic variation and their causes; and (5) biocultural interactions involving the creation of complex phenotypes such as morphological characteristics (stature and other anthropometric traits, skin color, dentition, and dermatoglyphics), chronic diseases (essential hypertension, diabetes mellitus, heart disease), and behavioral traits (such as novelty‐seeking behavior, alcoholism, and intelligence).
Anthropometry
Authors: Wilson Warren
Published: October 2018

Anthropometry provides one of the most portable, least‐invasive measures of health and has long been used by biological anthropologists to document patterns of human well‐being. In addition, these simple measures are predictive of an individual's future well‐being. It is known that genes strongly influence growth, but their effect is mediated by environmental factors such as diet, disease, and psychosocial stress. As such, anthropometry provides an excellent proxy measure of the environment in which one lives. Anthropometric data are inexpensive to collect and analyze. Anthropometry is not limited to contemporary populations. This tool has been used by anthropologists to track changes in health over long periods of time and to better understand the environmental challenges faced by our ancestors.
Arboreal locomotion
Authors: Hunt Kevin D.
Published: October 2018

Primates are arboreal mammals, superbly adapted to life in the trees, and capable of moving confidently on even small, unstable supports. Many are capable of spectacular leaps between tree canopies. While each species has its own locomotor specializations, primate locomotion can be divided into five basic categories: (1) vertical clingers and leapers—the distinctive locomotion of which is a push‐off from a vertical support; these species typically have long hindlimbs; (2) slow climbers—primates that utilize an inverted suspensory cautious walking; they have fore‐ and hindlimbs of equal length and mobile wrists. Both vertical clingers and leapers and slow climbers tend to be small; (3) quadrupedal scramblers and clingers—clawed primates convergent on squirrels; among the tiniest of primates; (4) generalized arboreal quadrupeds—above‐branch walkers and leapers; these are medium‐sized primates; and (5) suspensory primates—larger primates that utilize brachiation and other under‐branch suspensory locomotion to move both within and between tree crowns.
Ardipithecus
Authors: Hawks John
Published: October 2018

Ardipithecusis a biological genus of fossil hominoids known from the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene of Ethiopia. The genus includes two species,Ardipithecus ramidusandArdipithecus kadabba, which extend across a time range from 4.3 million to 5.8 million years ago.Ardipithecus ramidusis well documented across much of its anatomy, in part due to the “Ardi” ARA‐VP‐6/500 partial skeleton from Aramis, Ethiopia. The known anatomical features ofArdipithecusinclude a number of derived similarities shared with hominin genera such asAustralopithecusandHomo, and suggest thatArdipithecusmay itself belong to the hominin tribe. The paleoecology ofArdipithecushas been a subject of intense interest because of its relevance to the early evolution of bipedal locomotion, but the present evidence does not clearly distinguish the environmental context of this hominoid or its phylogenetic relationship with the hominins.
A
rdrey,
R
obert
Authors: Weidman Nadine
Published: October 2018

Robert Ardrey (1908–80) was an American playwright and movie scriptwriter whose interests at midlife turned to paleoanthropology and ethology. He wrote four bestselling books in the 1960s and 1970s that introduced to a wide popular audience the idea that human beings possess an instinct for aggression, an instinct shared with other animals and inherited from protohuman ancestors.
Art and symbol
Authors: Sterling Kathleen
Published: October 2018

Art and symbolic production are important aspects of human behavior and may distinguish our species from other hominin species. The capacity for symbolic behavior has implications for aspects of human cognition such as abstract thinking and memory. Visual arts are the most represented archaeologically, including painting, drawing, engraving, and sculpting. Chronology, recording, and interpretation are the central, but difficult, approaches to the study of art and symbol in the human past.
Behavioral and cognitive research in primates
Authors: Egelkamp Crystal L. , Hopper Lydia M.
Published: October 2018

When trying to understand the behavior and cognition of nonhuman primates, primatologists have to interpret the decision making of nonverbal species and quantify (indirect) behavioral responses as metrics for cognitive processes. To develop a full picture most likely requires input from both wild and captive settings, and combining such data with robust analytical and modeling tools can further heighten primatologists' understanding of primate cognition and behavior. Researchers have learned much about the behavior and cognitive abilities of primates; primates undergo cognitive senescence, understand the intentions of another, can collaborate to work together, mentally map their surroundings, and create and plan to use tools. With nearly 50 percent of all primate species facing the risk of extinction, primatologists are now using tools such as genetics and endocrinology to understand how factors like habitat loss, disease, and anthropogenic pressures such as climate change affect the behavior of primates.
Behavioral sampling
Authors: Lewis Rebecca J.
Published: October 2018

Various methods are available for researchers interested in studying primate behavior. The appropriate choice depends on the aim of the study, the observation conditions, the technology used, and how the data will be analyzed, as well as the impact the study will have on the animals. The importance of a well‐thought‐out protocol cannot be overstated.
B
iegert,
J
osef
Authors: Schmutz Hans‐Konrad
Published: October 2018

Josef Biegert (1921–89) was an eminent anthropologist and primatologist at the University of Zürich. Born in Germany, he received his MD from the Goethe University, Frankfurt, in 1947. After several years of research in classical anthropology at Tübingen University, he entered the Anthropological Institute of the University of Zürich, known at that time as an important center of comparative primatology. He succeeded his mentor, A. H. Schultz, as director of the institute in 1962. During his tenure, Biegert published important metric and nonmetric studies in comparative primatology. Until his retirement in 1988, he edited the journal
Folia Primatologica
.
Biological corridors
Authors: Laurance Susan G. W.
Published: October 2018

Maintaining population and habitat connectivity across fragmented landscapes will be important for the future of the world's biological diversity. Biological corridors are linear habitat features designed to link similar habitats across a modified landscape. Their successful function in moving wildlife will depend on both the habitat quality and species' requirements. Early recognition of the value of corridors in long‐term conservation planning is fundamental for their success as it ensures the inclusion of remnant habitats in landscape.
B
lumenbach,
J
ohann
F
riedrich
Authors: Caspari Rachel
Published: October 2018

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) was a German physician, anatomist, physiologist, and natural historian, who spent most of his professional life on the medical faculty at the University of Göttingen. Highly respected in his own time, he had a profound influence on the history of anthropology and is often considered the “father of physical anthropology.” His racial classification and the science it inspired had a lasting and often negative impact, whereas, paradoxically, his views on race and human variation were very progressive for his time. His concept of
Bildungstrieb
(formative force) had a major impact on late‐eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century biology, influencing embryological debates into the twentieth century.
Body composition
Authors: Wells Jonathan C. K.
Published: October 2018

Humans vary substantially in the magnitude of fat‐free mass and fat mass, both within and across populations. These two traits change with age, during growth as well as after adulthood, and also differ between the sexes. A proportion of variability in body composition can be attributed to genetic factors, but diverse ecological stresses during the life course also contribute, and human body composition is undergoing major secular trends. Geographical patterns in body composition variability appear to derive from a range of stresses related to factors such as climate, pathogens, energy insecurity, and economic development. However, most data still relate to the body mass index, a marker of nutritional status rather than of body composition, hence accurate data on the global variability of human body composition and on secular trends therein remain lacking.
Brain growth
Authors: Leonard William R.
Published: October 2018

The evolution of large human brain size has had important implications for the biology of our species. Humans achieve their large brain sizes through a growth pattern that is distinct from that of other primates. In humans, very rapid brain growth that is typical of the fetal period is extended through the first year of postnatal life. The rapid growth in brain size contributes to very high daily energy requirements during infancy and early childhood. Recent studies of human brain growth and energy needs show that over half of a newborn's resting energy budget is allocated to the brain. Energy demands of the brain peak at about age five years (65% of basal energy expenditure), and decline to 20–25 percent of basal metabolism in adulthood. To accommodate these high metabolic demands, human infants are born with high levels of body fat and continue to gain fat during the first year of life. In addition, breast milk is a rich source of energy and fatty acids that are essential for brain development. Regulation of body growth during childhood also helps to compensate for the high energy demands of the brain.
B
roca,
P
aul
P
ierre
Authors: Holloway Ralph L.
Published: October 2018

Paul Broca (1824–80) was a French neuroanatomist, neurosurgeon, and anthropologist, famous for having established lesions of parts of the third inferior convolution (“Broca's Area”) as underlying certain forms of aphasia. Broca also helped found formal journals and societies of anthropology and was an avid collector of cranial and endocranial measurements.
B
rues,
A
lice
M.
Authors: Sandford Mary K.
Published: October 2018

Alice M. Brues (1913–2007), a pioneer in biological anthropology, contributed to the fields of human genetics and variation, anthropometry, biomechanics, paleopathology, bioarchaeology, forensic anthropology, and computer simulation of evolutionary processes. Several of her publications are extolled as classics. She taught gross anatomy at the University of Oklahoma Medical School from 1946 to 1965, until recruited by the Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado at Boulder. She worked there until her retirement in 1984. To honor her vast achievements as a foremother of the field, the American Association of Physical Anthropology named Brues one of three inaugural recipients of the Charles R. Darwin Lifetime Achievement Award in 1993. She died in 2007 in Louisville, Colorado.
Buettner‐Janusch,John
Authors: Sussman† Robert W.
Published: October 2018

John Buettner‐Janusch (1924–92), a biochemical geneticist and cytogeneticist, was one of the most prestigious physical anthropologists of his time. He served on the faculties of Yale University, Duke University, and New York University, and as the co‐founder and director of the Duke University Primate Facility. His numerous writings include the textbookOrigins of Man(1966), an instant classic in physical anthropology. His research focused on karyotype differences among lemur species and genetic variation in primate populations, and he was one of the first to apply protein electrophoresis to the analysis of genetic variation in natural animal populations.
Burial and ritual
Authors: Stutz Aaron Jonas , Stutz Liv Nilsson
Published: October 2018

Inhumation—more commonly referred to as burial—is one of the most common mortuary ritual treatments, viewed across the diversity of human cultures and throughout recent prehistoric and historical periods. Mortuary treatments are the techniques by which members of human societies ritually handle the bodily remains of the dead, as the living stage a meaningful transition to cope with the social and emotional impacts of death and loss (Nilsson Stutz 2003). Primary burial—that is, inhumation of the whole cadaver—can leave particularly recognizable taphonomic signatures, and thus, it may be reliably distinguished from unintentional disturbance and mixing (Duday 2009; Nilsson Stutz 2003). As such, Pleistocene‐age burial features provide evidence of the evolution of human ritualized behaviors. A comparative evolutionary perspective on human ritual can also clarify unique derived features of sociality, complex cognition, symbolism, language, and extended life history strategies in the hominins.
C
amper,
P
etrus
Authors: Antón Susan C.
Published: October 2018

Petrus Camper (1722–89) was a Dutch anatomist, artist, and surgeon who made many contributions to anatomical knowledge and surgical practice. On the basis of his own dissections of humans and primates, he differentiated Asian and African apes from one another, described the anatomy of the inguinal region (“Camper's fascia” is named for him), and made a close study of the source of pigment in human skin. He was a monogenist, considering the anatomical evidence to support a single origin of all humans. However, he is best and most infamously remembered for his “facial angle,” a geometric explanation of the relationship between the face and the cranial vault, which was posthumously retooled as a quantitative means of racial differentiation and classification. There is, however, good evidence that this was the antithesis of Camper's original intent.
Canine reduction
Authors: Greenfield Leonard O.
Published: October 2018

It has taken more than a century to develop the current explanation for human canine reduction. Darwin proposed that the adoption of handheld weapons relaxed the selection for their use as weapons, but this failed to explain the retention of the tooth. A positive selection model, that canines were retained because they had assumed an incisal function, has been supported by the fossil record showing that the earliest humans (4.4–6.0 million years ago) used their canines as incisors. However, in these species, the hands were not capable of manufacturing and wielding weapons, thus falsifying Darwin's theory. The current relaxed selection theory is that increased dependence on cooperative behaviors reduced within‐troop violence.
Catarrhine origins
Authors: Harrison Terry
Published: October 2018

The catarrhines are a group of anthropoid primates comprising the Old World monkeys, apes, and humans. The earliest record of fossil catarrhines, the propliopithecoids, comes from the Early Oligocene of Egypt (29–32 million years ago (mya)). The parapithecoids and oligopithecids from the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene (29–39 mya) of Afro‐Arabia have previously been regarded as early catarrhines, but they are best identified as stem anthropoids that originated prior to the divergence of platyrrhines and catarrhines. The pliopithecoids are a diverse group of stem catarrhines widely distributed throughout Eurasia during the Miocene (18–7 mya). They are more derived than the propliopithecoids and represent the sister taxon of all other catarrhines.Saadaniusfrom the Late Oligocene of Saudi Arabia (28–29 mya) is the earliest catarrhine with a fully developed tube‐like ectotympanic, and this feature helps placeSaadaniusas the sister taxon to crown catarrhines. The dendropithecoids are a group of advanced stem catarrhines from the Miocene of East Africa (18–14 mya) that are more closely related to crown catarrhines than are the propliopithecoids, pliopithecoids, and saadanioids. The earliest fossil evidence of crown catarrhines comes from the Late Oligocene (25 mya) of Tanzania.
Chromosome
Authors: Klegarth Amy R. , Eisenberg Dan T. A.
Published: October 2018

Chromosomes are condensed, packaged DNA‐containing genes and noncoding regions located in the nucleus of cells and some organelles. Chromosome number and ploidy varies widely between organisms, but mammals typically have haploid gametes and diploid somatic cells. Genetically unique gametes are produced each generation via recombination of chromosomes which occurs predominately during meiosis. Changes in chromosome number and structure within species are often linked to disease phenotypes, whereas nondetrimental changes may delineate species boundaries. Despite sharing a large proportion of our genomes, nonhuman primates and human chromosome structure is highly varied between species. A chromosomal rearrangement separates other great apes from humans by one chromosome pair. Sex‐linked chromosomes (Y‐ and mitochondrial) have been especially integral to the study of human and primate evolution and migration. Studies of chromosomes have rapidly expanded as new sequencing technologies have emerged.
C
oon,
C
arleton
Authors: Cartmill Matt , Shipman Pat
Published: October 2018

Carleton S. Coon (1904–1981) was a 20th‐century American anthropologist who made significant contributions to archaeology, paleoanthropology, North African ethnography, and the study of modern human variation. Coon is best known for a controversial 1962 book in which he argued that the human species is divisible into precisely five primary races, which have remained largely separate since the mid‐Pleistocene and which evolved from
Homo erectus
into
H. sapiens
in parallel at widely separated times.
Cooperative breeding
Authors: Digby Leslie
Published: October 2018

Cooperative breeding is a social system in which group members help raise dependent young that are not their own, often delaying their own reproduction. This system of altruistic infant care has long raised questions about how a seemingly maladaptive system could evolve. Benefits to the infants and breeding females include increased infant survival and shorter interbirth intervals. Benefits to helpers may include increased inclusive fitness and experience in caring for young. Cooperative breeding is thought to be rare in primates, restricted to the callitrichines (marmosets and tamarins), where helpers are considered critical for infant survival. Recently, the term cooperative breeding has also been applied to primate species that show allomaternal care, even in the absence of reproductive suppression. Cooperative breeding has also become a potential model for the evolution of human breeding patterns, reflecting the extraordinary level of altruistic and cooperative behaviors that characterize our species.
Cranial morphology (human)
Authors: Pietrusewsky Michael
Published: October 2018

Human cranial morphology, the study of the size and shape of the human skull, has a long history in biological anthropology, with applications to the subfields of paleoanthropology, bioarchaeology, and forensic anthropology. These subfields have evolved from descriptive and historical sciences, preoccupied with racial classification, to studies based on modern evolutionary principles using advanced quantitative methods. Two main classes of cranial morphology (or variation) include cranial measurements (craniometry) and cranial nonmetric traits. The demonstration of a genetic component and the selective neutrality for both categories of variation have made them ideal for investigating biological relationships of past groups (biodistance studies) and a broad array of research questions in bioarchaeology, paleoanthropology, and forensic case work. The two main methods for recording cranial size and shape are traditional caliper‐based measurements and more recent coordinate landmark data used in geometric morphometrics (GM). Multivariate statistical procedures, such as stepwise discriminant function (canonical) analysis and Mahalanobis distance, are used to analyze craniometric data. GM methods are used to analyze coordinate data. The mean measure of divergence (MMD) statistic is used to analyze cranial nonmetric data in biological distance studies. Model‐free and model‐bound approaches are used for investigating the history and structure of past populations.
Skull morphology (primate)
Authors: Taylor Andrea B.
Published: October 2018

The primate skull is a complex bony structure that serves a variety of functions, including feeding, respiration, and communication. Features that distinguish the primate skull from that of most other mammals include orbital convergence and orbital frontation, the presence of a postorbital bar, and an increase in cranial base flexion along with a decrease in the cranial base angle. Within the Primate order, there is remarkable diversity in skull size and shape and a variety of hypotheses have been advanced to explain this diversity, including evolutionary changes in activity pattern, brain size, feeding behavior, and diet. In addition to traditional comparative studies of skull morphology, many of these hypotheses are now being tested experimentally, on primate as well as non‐primate animal models, using more sophisticated methods of data acquisition and analysis.
Cross‐sectional geometry
Authors: Cowgill Libby
Published: October 2018

Cross‐sectional geometry is a biomechanical technique that quantifies bone's functional adaptation to loading by measuring the amount and distribution of material in a bone cross‐section. From this, conclusions can be drawn about habitual activities and activity levels in past populations and fossil specimens. Levels of long bone cross‐sectional strength can be influenced by a variety of internal and external factors, including activity patterns, body mass, terrain, ontogeny, and genetic background.
Cultural primatology
Authors: Koops Kathelijne , Schuppli Caroline , van Schaik Carel P.
Published: October 2018

Cultural primatology focuses on the study of culture in nonhuman primates. Culture is defined as innovations that are spread and maintained between and within generations by social learning. The principal method used to establish the presence of culture in nature is the “method of exclusion.” It states that cultural processes can be inferred if a behavior has high prevalence at some sites but is absent at others, while genetic or ecological processes can be ruled out. Using this method, cultural variation was found in various primate species. A second approach to the study of animal cultures focuses on the process of social learning. In order for culture to be maintained, contact between generations and some form of oblique or horizontal transmission must exist. Culture can evolve, and complex cumulative human culture was built on a foundation similar to primate culture.
Deforestation
Authors: Boyle Sarah A.
Published: October 2018

Deforestation is a global issue, and is prevalent throughout the geographic range of many primate species. Although deforestation has occurred for tens of thousands of years, deforestation in the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries was primarily driven by agricultural crop expansion, cattle farming, fire, logging, mining for gas, oil, or minerals, transportation, and urban development. Many primate species range in areas that have been heavily deforested, or areas that are under current deforestation threat. As a result, some primate populations have experienced severe population declines, and some forests are now primarily empty of nonhuman primates and other wildlife. In Uganda, Madagascar, and the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, deforestation has been ongoing for several decades, and as a result the remaining forest is often patchily distributed in small forest fragments. However, very recent deforestation in Brazil, Paraguay, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Indonesia may critically impact primate conservation in the near future.
Demography in primatology
Authors: Erb Wendy M.
Published: October 2018

Demography is the science of populations. Demographic research utilizes the survival and reproductive rates of a population to calculate parameters such as life expectancy and generation time, with the ultimate goal of documenting and projecting rates of population growth or decline, while providing insights into their underlying causes. Demographers utilize an analytical toolbox that allows them to model population viabilities, estimate selection strength on life history, and compare patterns across taxa. Demography has important implications for evolutionary theory, as well as practical applications for the conservation and management of endangered primate populations.
Dental biology/ anthropology
Authors: Guatelli‐Steinberg Debbie
Published: October 2018

Dental remains are often found at fossil, archaeological, and forensic sites, as they are small and hard and therefore resist damage. Two of the hard tissues of teeth, enamel and dentine, preserve incremental growth markings that reflect circadian (short‐period) and infradian (long‐period) rhythms. These markings provide paleoanthropologists, bioarchaeologists, and forensic anthropologists with a wealth of information about growth and development. They also allow precise estimates of age at death in the remains of individuals who died when their teeth were still forming. Understanding the formation and basic biology of enamel and dentine is the key to unlocking this anthropological information from teeth.
Dental development (primate)
Authors: Dirks Wendy
Published: October 2018

The chronology of dental development is correlated with life history stages in primates. The primates follow “Schultz' rule.” In those species with faster life histories the permanent successor teeth erupt later than the permanent molars, and in those with slower life histories the successor teeth erupt relatively earlier. This prolongs the length of time that the molars are able to process food. The age at eruption of the first molar is correlated with the age at weaning; and the last tooth to erupt with the age at first reproduction. Different groups of primates have developed different life histories and a different chronology and pace of dental development. Knowledge of the chronology of dental development in a primate species provides a means of aging individuals and developing models for understanding life history evolution.
Diet, evolution of
Authors: Schoeninger Margaret
Published: October 2018

Stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen has revolutionized our approach and understanding of the evolution of human diet. A baseline comparison across extant nonhuman primates reveals that all of them depend on C3plants in forests, forest patches, and woodlands except for short periods throughout the year, in marginal regions or where maize fields exist. Even large‐bodied hominoids that could theoretically rely on hard‐to‐digest C4plants do not do so. Some Plio‐Pleistocene hominins, however, apparently relied heavily on C4plants, although other species probably ate mostly C3foods, assuming they rely on extensive cecal–colon microbial fermentation. Neanderthals seem less carnivorous when we compare their bone collagen nitrogen isotope ratios with those of recent human populations, including recent human foragers who also fall at or near the top of their local trophic system. Finally, the introduction of maize into North America is shown to be more sporadic and temporally variable than previously assumed.
Dietary reconstruction from bones and teeth
Authors: Reitsema Laurie J.
Published: October 2018

Diets of past humans and nonhuman primates may be reconstructed on the basis of evidence from bones and teeth. Tooth wear, craniofacial morphology, oral health, biochemical signatures, and paleopathology all offer different, complementary lines of evidence into past diets that differ in their specificity and directness. Different dietary indicators reflect aspects of foods' texture, macronutrient composition, relative proportions, and nutritional adequacy, and sometimes reveal specific ingredients in the diet. With knowledge of past diet, aspects of evolution, subsistence, and inequality among extinct and ancient populations may be understood.
East African fossil record
Authors: McGechie Faye , Ward Carol V.
Published: October 2018

For almost a century East Africa has been a prime location for paleoanthropological research. Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania all share an extensive record of not only fossil hominins but other primates, mammals, reptiles, birds, and fish. This range of paleontological material aids in answering questions relevant to human origins and paleoenvironments. Geologically, eastern Africa offers pristine conditions for the preservation of fossils due to the stratigraphic layers of fluvial and lacustrine sediments fixed between volcanic ashes that are easily datable. Some of the major finds in paleoanthropology in the past century have been in East Africa and have included the most extensive record ofAustralopithecus, earliestHomo, and earliestHomo sapiens. Work continues in this region of Africa, as some of the most active field sites as well as newly surveyed regions still produce impressive assemblages of fossils, filling the slowly closing gaps in the human fossil record.
Energetics
Authors: Bender Richard L.
Published: October 2018

Energetics is the study of how organisms obtain and use energy from the environment. Humans obtain energy by consuming plants and other animals and use that energy to support growth, physical activity, bodily maintenance, survival, and reproduction. Foods differ markedly in energy density, that is, the energy available per unit weight. Human energy intake depends not only on the types of foods available in different environments but also on economic and sociocultural constraints that may limit access to food. Energy expenditure is driven by the physiological need to maintain organ function (the basal metabolic rate) as well as by physical activity, a highly variable factor that is also influenced by the demands of work and caregiving. For females, gestation and lactation are especially costly aspects of energy expenditure. Insufficient energy intake, even at low magnitudes, can rapidly lead to negative impacts on the capacity to work and to reproduce. Important anthropological questions regarding human energetics include how natural selection shapes the physiological and behavioral allocation of energy throughout the life cycle and how patterns of energy intake and energy expenditure vary both within and between populations.
Growth, environmental influences on
Authors: Tanner Susan
Published: October 2018

Variation in body size and shape is one of the many ways that humans and other animals adapt to environments. Understanding how this variation is related to the environment requires an understanding of how growth is influenced by environmental factors including food and nutrition, disease, stress, and ecological conditions. Recent research drawing on life‐history theory also shows that suboptimal conditions for growth can have lasting implications across the lifespan.
Epigenetics
Authors: Clausing Elizabeth S. , Non Amy L.
Published: October 2018

Epigenetics can be defined as the study of heritable modifications to DNA that can alter expression of a gene. Typically, epigenetics includes the study of DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNAs. Biological anthropologists have a growing interest in epigenetics research because it adds a new layer of complexity to human variation. Epigenetic processes can be influenced by many environmental factors of interest to anthropologists, including nutrition, psychosocial stress, and environmental toxicants or pathogens. Epigenetic marks can change within a person's lifetime, particularly in early childhood, providing a mechanism for rapid adaptation to short‐term environmental changes within the life of an organism. Epigenetic marks also have the potential to be transmitted across generations, allowing for the possibility of intergenerational transmission of health disparities. Study of epigenetic processes can also provide insight into the evolution of nonhuman primates, as well as ancient environmental exposures through analysis of ancient DNA methylation.
Ethics in bioarchaeology and forensics
Authors: Lambert Patricia M.
Published: October 2018

Ethics in bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology relate primarily to principles guiding the proper, respectful, and legal handling of human remains in the conduct of anthropological research. Laws, regulations, policies, and/or professional codes of ethics provide the rules and guidelines that specify how human remains and the information obtained from them should be treated in different global settings. In the United States, legislation pertaining to human remains includes the Archaeological Resources Protection Act and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, one focused on the ethic of preservation and the other on Native American Rights in the disposition of ancestral remains. Like many other professional organizations engaged in human subjects research, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists has developed a code of ethics to help its global membership navigate the complex ethical issues that can arise in this research, guidelines that pertain to studies of both the living and the dead.