bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Who Will Go Out and Play? Parental and Psychological Influences on Children’s Attraction to Physical Activity
Authors: Brustad Robert J.
Published: August 2016

Identifying social and psychological influences affecting children’s attitudes about physical activity is an important step in understanding individual differences in children’s activity involvement. This study examined the influence of parental socialization and children’s psychological characteristics upon attraction to physical activity. Fourth-grade children (N=81) completed questionnaires assessing perceived physical competence and attraction to physical activity. Parents also completed questionnaires assessing their physical activity orientations and level of encouragement of their child’s physical activity. A proposed model linking four sets of social and psychological variables was tested through path analysis. The results generally supported the hypothesized model and suggested that parental physical activity orientations, parental encouragement levels, children’s gender, and children’s perceived physical competence are important influences upon children’s attraction to physical activity.
Sources of Enjoyment for Youth Sport Athletes
Authors: Scanlan Tara K. , Carpenter Paul J. , Lobel Marci , Simons Jeffery P.
Published: August 2016

The positive emotion of enjoyment has been shown to be an important ingredient to motivation in youth and elite sport. This article first summarizes the progress made to date in developing and measuring the enjoyment construct, and in understanding its sources and motivational consequences. Then a field study is presented that focuses on sources of enjoyment in a large youth sample (N=1,342) that is diverse image, ethnicity, and gender. Factor analytic and multiple regression techniques were used to determine categories and predictors of sport enjoyment. The significant sources of enjoyment for these participants were greater effort and mastery, positive team interactions and support, and positive coach support and satisfaction with the players’ seasonal performance. These findings accounted for 47% of the variance in sport enjoyment and shed light on the predictors of this important affect for a diverse group of athletes.
Stress and the Young Athlete: The Child’s Perspective
Authors: Gould Daniel , Wilson Charles Gene , Tuffey Suzan , Lochbaum Marc
Published: August 2016

This article examines psychological stress in children’s sports by presenting results from a panel discussion held with four young athletes ranging in age from 11 to 16 years. The discussion focused on stress and its sources, consequences, and how to cope. Results validated existing research on youth sports stress by showing that most young athletes are not placed under excessive stress. Rather, certain children in specific situations experience high levels of competitive state anxiety. Consistent with previous research, the stress of sports competition was also found to be no more anxiety provoking than other childhood evaluative activities. Future research directions identified from the panel’s responses included the need to identify strategies for coping with stress and ways of teaching these to young athletes, as well as ways to educate parents and coaches on how to improve communication skills. Finally, based on the panel’s remarks, practical implications for facilitating the youth sport experience are discussed.
Maximal Oxygen Uptake and Daily Physical Activity in 7- to 12-Year-Old Boys
Authors: Al-Hazzaa Hazzaa M. , Sulaiman Mohammed A.
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the relationship between maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) and daily physical activity in a group of 7- to 12-year-old boys. V̇O2max was assessed through the incremental treadmill test using an open circuit system. Physical activity level was obtained from heart rate telemetry outside of school time for 8 hrs during weekdays and during 40 min of physical education classes. The findings indicated that the absolute value of V̇O2max increased with age, while relative to body weight it remained almost the same across age, with a mean of 48.4 ml · kg−1 · min−1. Moreover, heart rate telemetry showed that the boys spent a limited amount of time on activities that raise the heart rate to a level above 160 bpm (an average of 1.9%). In addition, V̇O2max was found to be significantly related to the percentage of time spent at activity levels at or above a heart rate of 140 bpm, but not with activity levels at or above a heart rate of 160 bpm.
Beliefs and Information Sources of High School Athletes Regarding Muscle Development
Authors: Marquart Leonard , Sobal Jeffery
Published: August 2016

This study examined the beliefs and sources of information regarding muscle development among 742 high school athletes in one rural county. About 40% of the athletes stated that muscle development was very important and 50% said it was somewhat important. Most of them recognized the dangers of steroids but still thought these were important in muscle development. A majority also thought nutritional and genetic factors were important. Physicians were seen as providing the most accurate information about muscle development, followed by coaches and trainers. Understanding the athletes’ beliefs and information sources about muscle development may be useful in dispelling misconceptions and providing education on the topic.
Physiological Determinants of Sprint Swimming Performance in Children and Young Adults
Authors: Klika Riggs J. , Thorland William G.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to identify physiological determinants of sprint (91.4 m) swimming velocity that discriminated between performance levels in male children (n = 12, age = 10.26 ± 1.00) and in young adult (n = 16, age = 19.78 ± 1.61) competitors. Independent variables included stature, arm length, body mass, body density, body fat, muscularity, leg power, and measures taken during swimming, which included arm stroke force, leg kick force, peak oxygen consumption rate, stroke rate, and stroke efficiency. Discriminant analysis revealed that in the children, higher levels of leg-kick force, peak VO2, stroke efficiency, and muscularity were the most potent variables contributing to the classification of the faster swimmers. In the young adults, higher levels of stroke efficiency, body density, and muscularity, served as the significant discriminators of the faster swimmers. When compared across age groups, these results indicated that substantial differences in stroke efficiency and muscularity significantly accounted for higher performance in these children versus young adult sprint swimmers.
Impact of Enhanced Physical Education on Muscle Strength of the Prepubescent Child
Authors: Shephard Roy J. , Lavallée Hughes
Published: August 2016

The influence upon muscle strength of 1 h/day of required physical education was tested in 546 prepubescent children over a 5-year period. Experimental students began the program in Grade 1, with immediately preceding and succeeding classes serving as controls. Annual measurements showed a linear increase of limb circumferences with stature (H), but strength increased more rapidly than H2. Strength data showed gender effects (M > F) at all ages and environmental effects (rural > urban) in older children (10–12 years). Experimental students were stronger in 19 of 42 comparisons. Girths were greater in girls (7 of 18 comparisons) and in the rural environment (4 of 18 comparisons), but were unaffected by the experimental intervention. Bone diameters were greater in the boys (16 of 18 comparisons) and in the urban environment (2 of IS comparisons). Daily required physical education leads to small increases of isometric strength without significant increments of limb dimensions.
Serum Testosterone Is Not Related to Peak V̇O2 and Submaximal Blood Lactate Responses in 12- to 16-Year-Old Males
Authors: Welsman Joanne R. , Armstrong Neil , Kirby Brian J.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to investigate the influence of sexual maturity on peak V̇O2 and blood lactate responses to exercise using serum testosterone levels as an objective measure of maturity. Testosterone levels were determined in venous blood samples obtained from 12- to 16-year-old males (n = 50). Peak V̇O2 and percentage of peak V̇O2 at blood lactate levels of 2.5 and 4.0 mmol·L−1 were determined during incremental treadmill running. Standard multiple regression revealed that body mass, age, and height explained 74% of the variance in peak V̇O2 scores. The addition of serum testosterone to the equation failed to produce a significant increase in the explained variance. Correlation coefficients between testosterone and the lactate variables were not significant (p > .05). These findings do not support the hypothesis that hormonal changes per se during sexual maturation play an important role in the development of peak V̇O2 and blood lactate responses to exercise.
Pubertal Development of Young Association Football Players: A Longitudinal Study
Authors: Bell William
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the pubertal characteristics of a group of specialist association football (soccer) players (N = 22) between the ages of 12.3 and 15.3 years. Pubertal status was assessed by direct observation of pubic hair (PH), and peak height velocity (PHV) was assessed using graphic procedures. The ages at which the various stages of PH were reached did not differ between playing positions or between players as a whole and the control group. The length of the interval between sequential stages of PH was about a year and between PH2 and PH5 was 2.5 years. Correlations between the age at PHV and each of the pubertal stages were generally high. It was concluded that the influence of participation in competitive association football had no significant effect on the attainment and progress of pubertal development beyond that expected by normal growth.
Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents with a Disability: Methodology and Effects of Age and Gender
Authors: Longmuir Patricia E. , Bar-Or Oded
Published: August 2016

To date, very little published information has been available on the physical activity participation of disabled youth. A questionnaire, which was modified from the Canada Fitness Survey, was distributed by mail to physically disabled, sensory impaired, and chronically ill children and adolescents in Ontario, Canada. Nine hundred eighty-seven responses were collected from subjects 6 to 20 years of age, with a response rate of 58%. Twenty-nine percent of physically challenged youth were found to be sedentary, and 39% were active. Activity levels were significantly related to age (p < .01), with a marked decline in the second decade of life. Activity levels were not significantly influenced by gender, but the data suggest that girls have lower activity levels and a faster and earlier decline in activity than boys. Overall, the data collected provide baseline information on the role of physical activity in the lives of Ontario youth with physical disabilities, sensory impairments, and chronic illnesses.
Age-Related Differences in Throwing Techniques Used by the Catcher in Baseball
Authors: Sakurai Shinji , Elliott Bruce , Grove J. Robert
Published: August 2016

Three-dimensional (3-D) high speed photography was used to record the overarm throwing actions of five open-age, four 18-year-old, six 16-year- old, and six 14-year-old high-performance baseball catchers. The direct linear transformation method was used for 3-D space reconstruction from 2-D images of the catchers throwing from home plate to second base recorded using two phase-locked cameras operating at a nominal rate of 200 Hz. Selected physical capacity measures were also recorded and correlated with ball release speed. In general, anthropometric and strength measures significantly increased through the 14-year-old to open-age classifications, while a range of correlation coefficients from .50 to .84 was recorded between these physical capacities and ball speed at release. While many aspects of the kinematic data at release were similar, the key factors of release angle and release speed varied for the different age groups.
Stair Climbing in Young Boys: A Longitudinal Study
Authors: Williams Kathleen , Williams Lavon , Strohmeyer H. Scott
Published: August 2016

This longitudinal investigation examined the shift from use of a marking time to an alternating stepping pattern by young children. A set of twin males was videotaped between ages 37 and 46 months climbing stairs of 3.8-17.8 cm height. One boy began to alternate consistently on the highest steps at 41 months, the other at 46 months. Anthropometries (leg lengths) and a measure of foot overshoot (maximum height of the foot over the stair) were used to investigate the timing of the shift for the 2 boys. Magnitude of overshoot decreased with age and with increased use of the more advanced pattern. Immature balance and an initial need to visually guide the foot to the next step may be important factors in the timing of the pattern shift.
1-Mile Run Performance and Body Mass Index in Hispanic Youth: Passing Rates for the Fitnessgram
Authors: Weiller Karen H. , Jackson Allen W. , Meyer Rhonda D.
Published: August 2016

Previous research has reported that Hispanic youth were significantly higher in skinfolds and body mass index (BMI) when contrasted to national reference data or comparison groups of white youth. The present study sought to determine the passing percentage for a sample of Hispanic youth for the BMI and the 1-mile run (OMR) using the Fitnessgram standards. The sample included 722 children, ages 7 to 14 years. The Hispanic youth’s passing percentages for the OMR compare favorably with the National Children and Youth Fitness Studies. The BMI results indicate the passing percentages are lower for the Hispanic, which is in agreement with past reports on body composition in Hispanic youth. Using the Fitnessgram standards, these data indicate the cardiovascular endurance of Hispanic youth may be similar to or better than the general population of children in the U.S. A higher rate of unhealthy body composition may be present, which would warrant targeted interventions for Hispanic children.
The Reliability and Variability of Running Economy in 7-, 8-, and 9-Year-Old Children
Authors: Rogers Danette M. , Turley Kenneth R. , Kujawa Kathleen I. , Harper Kevin M. , Wilmore Jack H.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to examine the reliability and variability of running economy in 7-, 8-, and 9-year-old boys and girls. Forty-two children (21 boys and 21 girls) participated in two submaximal treadmill tests to determine running economy at two absolute work rates (5 mph and 6 mph). Reliability and variability were determined for oxygen consumption (V̇O2), heart rate (HR), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), stride frequency, and stride length. With the exception of RER and V̇O2 relative to body surface area, reliability estimates were moderate to high (.80 to .94). Mean variability of all responses were similar to those reported for adults, however, the range of intraindividual variability was slightly greater. These results indicate that two submaximal measurements result in higher reliability estimates than a single test and may therefore provide a more appropriate description of a child’s running economy.
Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents: Consensus Statement
Authors: Sallis James F. , Patrick Kevin
Published: August 2016

The International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents convened to review the effects of physical activity on the health of adolescents, to establish age-appropriate physical activity guidelines, and to consider how these guidelines might be implemented in primary health care settings. Thirty-four invited experts and representatives of scientific, medical, and governmental organizations established two main guidelines. First, all adolescents should be physically active daily or nearly every day as part of their lifestyles. Second, adolescents should engage in three or more sessions per week of activities that last 20 min or more and that require moderate to vigorous levels of exertion. Available data suggest that the vast majority of U.S. adolescents meet the first guideline, but only about two thirds of boys and one half of girls meet the second guideline. Physical activity has important effects on the health of adolescents, and the promotion of regular physical activity should be a priority for physicians and other health professionals.
Physical Activity and Skeletal Health in Adolescents
Authors: Bailey Donald A. , Martin Alan D.
Published: August 2016

A considerable amount of research into osteoporosis has focused on the management and treatment of bone loss in later life. More recently, a limited amount of research has been directed toward the development of an optimal level of peak bone mass during the adolescent and early adult years. While genetics is a major determinant of bone status, there is considerable evidence that physical activity is an important nonhereditary factor. Studies on adults suggest that the positive effect of physical activity on bone is modest in the short term but may be quite powerful with more intense activity that overloads the muscular system for a longer time period. In children, however, our knowledge about the long-term effects of physical activity on bone accretion is incomplete. This paper presents a review of the pediatric literature dealing with the relationship of physical activity to bone mineral density status in the adolescent population.
Physical Activity and Blood Pressure in Adolescents
Authors: Alpert Bruce S. , Wilmore Jack H.
Published: August 2016

This paper reviewed the available research literature to determine the role of exercise training in reducing resting blood pressure in adolescents. Similar to the adult population, there is little evidence to support the efficacy of exercise training for reducing resting blood pressure in normotensive adolescents, although several studies reported small decreases in either or both systolic and diastolic pressure. In hypertensive adolescents, aerobic-type exercise training consistently reduced both systolic and diastolic pressure, but seldom to completely normal levels. Resistance training has not been studied as extensively, but may be of some benefit. It is recommended that chronic aerobic and strength activities be part of an overall health maintenance program.
Epidemiology of Sports and Recreation Injuries among Adolescents
Authors: Macera Caroline A. , Wooten Wilma
Published: August 2016

This review summarizes information on the rate of injury among adolescents who participate in specific sports or recreational activities. Injury-related mortality is high among adolescents, accounting for over 75% of the deaths occurring among those between 15 and 19 years of age, with about 5% of these deaths attributed to sports injuries. Several difficulties were encountered in conducting this review. There was no standard definition for injury, resulting in widely diverse operational definitions. The underlying denominator and time period used to obtain rates also varied widely. In spite of these difficulties, several sports were identified as particularly dangerous due to the nature of the injury: football for males and gymnastics for females. Consistent injury definitions and larger prospective studies are needed to confirm these rates and to identify risk factors.
Descriptive Epidemiology of Physical Activity in Adolescents
Authors: Pate Russell R. , Long Barbara J. , Heath Greg
Published: August 2016

This paper reviews the descriptive epidemiology of physical activity in adolescents. Large population-based studies were reviewed, along with smaller studies using objective monitoring of physical activity. Estimates showed that adolescents engage in physical activity of any intensity for a mean of one hour per day. Approximately two thirds of males and one quarter of females participate in moderate to vigorous activity for 20 min 3 or more days per week. Activity levels decline with increasing age across adolescence, and this decrease is more marked in females than in males. Comparison of these data to physical activity guidelines for adolescents suggests the vast majority are meeting the guideline of accumulating physical activity. However, a substantial number of males, and the majority of females, are not meeting the guideline for moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Comparison of Isometric Test Procedures to Assess Muscular Strength in Elementary School Girls
Authors: Seagraves Frank E. , Horvat Michael
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to compare isometric test procedures (make vs. break tests by muscle groups) with elementary school girls, ages 9–11, using hand-held dynamometry. Fifty subjects in Grades 3 and 4 performed three trials on four muscle groups using each testing procedure following a preliminary session to allow familiarity with the instrumentation, test procedures, and test positions. Retest measurements were taken in 5–7 days with the order of the test procedures counterbalanced. Four 2 × 2 (Side × Test Condition) AM0VAs, with repeated measures on each-factor, were used to analyze the data. Significant Side × Test Condition interaction effects were evident for knee extension, elbow flexion, and shoulder abduction. Except for the knee extension, the break test produced higher values than the make test in all muscle groups, which is in agreement with previous investigations.
The Reliability and Validity of the 20-Meter Shuttle Test as a Predictor of Peak Oxygen Uptake in Edinburgh School Children, Age 13 to 14 Years
Authors: McVeigh Susan K. , Payne Andrew C. , Scott Shona
Published: August 2016

This study examined the reliability and validity of the 20-meter shuttle test as a predictor of peak VO2 in Edinburgh school children. Thirty-three children (15 boys, 18 girls) performed three shuttle tests and three laboratory treadmill tests of peak VO2. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the prediction of peak VO2 (ml·kg−1·min−1) from shuttle run performance was improved by including skinfold thickness measurements in the prediction models, particularly with the female group. Predictive power was greatest for females when using maximal shuttle speed (kmhr−1) best of three repeat tests and triceps skinfold thickness (mm) (R2 = .85, SEE = 2.4), and for males when using maximal shuttle speed (km·hr−1) best of three repeat tests and the sum of the triceps and subscapular skinfolds (R2 = .68, SEE = 3.23). When using shuttle run performance to predict peak VO2 (ml·kg−1·min−1) in children of this age group, body composition measures must be included in the equation.
Bone Mineral and Muscle Strength Characteristics in Children with Turner Syndrome
Authors: Dent Jennifer M. , Blimkie Cameron J.R. , Webber Colin E. , McMillan Angus B. , Hanning Rhona M.
Published: August 2016

Absolute total body (TB) and regional spine (RS) bone mineral content (BMC) measured by dual photon absorptiometry were lower (p < .05) in Turner syndrome (TS) girls compared to a cohort of younger (by 2 years) but taller and heavier prepubertal girls. Maximal voluntary strength (MVC) of the elbow flexors, knee extensors, and plantar flexors were also consistently and, in most cases, significantly lower in TS girls. Differences between groups in absolute bone mineral and muscle strength disappeared, however, when normalized for skeletal cross-sectional area (areal density) and for the product of muscle cross-sectional area and estimated moment arm, respectively. Maximal voluntary strength and body mass correlated moderately strongly with the bone mineral measures, but only body mass contributed significantly to the variance in total body and regional spine bone mineral measures. Bone mineral and muscle strength appear appropriate for body size and for skeletal and muscle morphology in young TS girls.
Exercise-Heat Tolerance of Children and Adolescents
Authors: Armstrong Lawrence E. , Maresh Carl M.
Published: August 2016

Exercise-heat tolerance (EHT) in children is influenced by many physiological factors, including sweat gland activity, cardiac output, exercise economy, ability to acclimate to heat, and maturation of organ systems. It is generally believed that children cannot tolerate hot environments as well as adults, although some children exhibit EHT that is superior to that of adults. There has been no research showing large exercise-induced differences between the core body temperatures of children versus adults, but differences in the time to onset of syncope and fatigue have been observed. This suggests that the greatest risk of heat illness for children is heat exhaustion (i.e., cardiovascular instability) and not heat stroke (i.e., hyperthermia). Therefore this review (a) examines the conclusions of previous studies to clarify misinterpretations of data, and (b) identifies research questions that require future study.
Iron and Hematological Status among Adolescent Athletes Tracked through Puberty
Authors: Willows Noreen D. , Grimston Susan K. , Smith David J. , Hanley David A.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed change in hematological status among physically active children as they progressed through puberty. Values for serum ferritin, hemoglobin, and hematocrit at all stages of puberty were within the normal range of reference values. Significant changes in serum ferritin were not detected in the different pubertal stages, although serum ferritin was highest in prepubertal boys and girls. There were no significant differences in marginal or deficient iron stores between the sexes at any pubertal stage, suggesting that gender was not predisposing for iron deficiency; however, girls had a greater overall incidence for both measures. With more children under consideration, these trends may have reached significance. Boys in TS4 and TS5 had higher hemoglobin and hematocrit compared with earlier stages of puberty, and compared with girls at the same stages of puberty. This can be explained by testosterone production in boys. Among girls, pubertal progression had no significant effect on hemoglobin or hematocrit. In the absence of controls, there was no direct evidence that involvement in sports had an adverse effect on iron status.
The Influence of Perceived Social Approval on Moral Development in Youth Sport
Authors: Stuart Moira E. , Ebbeck Vicki
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the influence of perceived social approval on moral development in youth sport. The sample consisted of 249 youth basketball players ranging in age from 9 to 15 years. A questionnaire was administered to the players during a team practice session near the end of a 10-week competitive season. Perceptions of significant other (mother, father, coach, teammates) approval of antisocial behavior served as the predictor variables; moral development components (judgment, reason, intent, behavior) served as the criterion variables. Canonical correlation analyses revealed significant overall relationships for both younger children (Grades 4 and 5) and adolescents (Grades 7 and 8). For younger children, lower perceptions of social approval were associated with a higher ability to judge a situation as a moral problem and the intent to exhibit moral behavior. For adolescents, perceived social approval was inversely related to reason, prosocial behavior, and particularly the judgment of a moral problem and the intent to exhibit moral behavior. These findings are discussed in terms of the importance of continuing to understand the influence of significant others on moral development in youth sport.
Gender Differences in Fundamental Movement Patterns, Motor Performances, and Strength Measurements of Prepubertal Children
Authors: Raudsepp Lennart , Pääsuke Mati
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the gender differences in kinematics of running at maximal speed and overhand throwing, motor performances, and muscle strength in prepubertal children. Sixty 8-year-old children (33 boys and 27 girls) participated in this study. There were no sex differences with respect to the running kinematics, but in overhand throwing kinematics, motor performances, and muscle strength the boys surpassed the girls significantly (p < .05). However, in sit and reach and balance the girls surpassed the boys. Nonsignificant correlations (r = .20–.40) were found between the majority of variables. These results indicate gender differences in overhand throwing kinematics, motor performances, and muscle strength in prepubertal children.
Moral Reasoning of High School Student Athletes and General Students: An Empirical Study versus Personal Testimony
Authors: Beller Jennifer M. , Stoll Sharon Kay
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to analyze cognitive moral reasoning of high school student athletes and their nonathlete peers (n = 1,330). Students were evaluated with the Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory in the Sport Milieu. Nonathletes (NA) scored significantly higher (M = 67.75, SEM = 0.39) compared to team sport (TS) athletes (M = 62.10, SEM = 0.40). Females scored significantly higher (M = 68.78, SEM = 0.34) than males (M = 60.97, SEM = 0.38). Female NA (M = 69.54, SEM = 0.33) and female TS athletes (M = 67.50, SEM = 0.35) scored significantly different compared to male TS athletes (M = 59.21, SEM = 0.42). This study supports cognitive research data of collegiate athlete populations. Interscholastic athletes reason from a less consistent, impartial, and reflective moral reasoning than do nonathletes.
Violence and High School Sports Participation
Authors: Levin David S. , Smith Edward A. , Caldwell Linda L. , Kimbrough Jennifer
Published: August 2016

This study sought to examine whether athletes are more violent, delinquent, or both than their nonathlete classmates. Survey data from 2,436 high school students indicated no significant differences for violent or delinquent behaviors between athletes and nonathletes. However, analysis of the data by the type of sport indicated noncontact sport athletes were less likely to engage in various violent and delinquent behaviors than were contact sport athletes and nonathletes. These relationships were found for both males and females. Noncontact sports may provide some protective effect with regards to violence and delinquency that contact sports do not.
Comparison of Upper Body Power in Adolescent Wrestlers and Basketball Players
Authors: Mayhew Jerry L. , Bemben Michael G. , Rohrs Donna M. , Piper Fontaine C. , Willman Michael K.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to compare the measurement of upper body power between male (n = 36) and female (n = 23) adolescent wrestlers and basketball players using the seated shot put (SSP) and a bench press power test (BPP). Boys were significantly different from girls on all physical and performance measures except age. The two SSP tests were significantly related to the two BPP tests in boys, but not in girls. Both SSP tests were significantly related to body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) in boys, but not in girls. Removing the effect of body mass or FFM reduced the relationships of both SSP tests with both BPP tests. BPP output was more dependent on age, height, and body mass in boys than in girls. The SSP may be measuring a different component of upper body power than a BPP test in either male or female adolescent athletes.
The Relationship among Television Watching, Physical Activity, and Body Composition of 5- or 6-Year-Old Children
Authors: DuRant Robert H. , Thompson William O. , Johnson Maribeth , Baranowski Tom
Published: August 2016

This follow-up investigation examined the relationship among observed time of television watching, physical activity, and body composition in 5- to 6-year-old children previously studied 2 years ago. Activity level on school and nonschool days was measured with the Children’s Activity Rating Scale. Television watching time was assessed by direct observation, and body composition was measured with the body mass index, skinfold thicknesses, and waist/hip ratio. Television watching behavior, which increased from the earlier study, was not associated with body composition. Physical activity was lower during television watching than nontelevision watching time.
Validity and Reliability of the 1/2-Mile Run-Walk as an Indicator of Aerobic Fitness in Children with Mental Retardation
Authors: Fernhall Bo , Pitetti Ken , Stubbs Nancy , Stadler Louis
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between VO2max and the 1/2-mile run-walk and the reliability of each in children with mental retardation (MR). Twenty-three children (13 boys, 10 girls) with mild or moderate MR participated in the study. Two maximal treadmill protocols with metabolic measurements and two 1/2-mile run-walk trials were randomly conducted on separate days. There was no difference between Trial 1 and Trial 2 for VO2max (28.2 vs. 29.6 ml · kg−1 · min−1), maximal heart rate (175 vs. 177 bpm), or run-walk time (7.2 vs. 7.1 min). The test-retest correlations were r = .90 for VO2max, r = .81 for maximal heart rate, and r = .96 for the 1/2-mile run-walk (p < .05). The correlation between VO2max and the 1/2-mile run-walk was r = −.60 (p < .05). Adding body mass index to the model improved R to .67 (SEE = 7.3). The 1/2-mile run-walk was a reliable test, but had questionable validity as an indicator of aerobic capacity in children with mild and moderate MR.
Registration of Children in a Physical Activity Program: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior
Authors: Atsalakis Mihalis , Sleap Mike
Published: August 2016

Community physical activity programs are a means by which children may be provided with appropriate physical activity, although it is not yet known how children register in these programs. In this research, registration of young children in community physical activity programs was assumed to be a product of decisions made by their parents. The purpose of the research was to explore the usefulness of the theory of planned behavior in predicting registration of children in a community physical activity program from decisions made by their parents. A simple random sample of 400 first-grade elementary school children resident in Heraklion, Crete, was selected. Their parents completed a questionnaire corresponding to the framework of the theory of planned behavior. It was concluded that the theory of planned behavior is valid in predicting the defined behavior.
Maximal Aerobic Speed and Running Time to Exhaustion for Children 6 to 17 Years Old
Authors: Berthoin Serge , Baquet Georges , Mantéca Fabienne , Lensel-Corbeil Ghislaine , Gerbeaux Michel
Published: August 2016

A cross-sectional design was used to study the associations among sex, age, maximal aerobic speed (MAS), and running time to exhaustion at 100% of MAS (Tlim). The subjects were 1,448 schoolchildren (685 males and 763 females) ages 6 to 17 years. The MAS of males increased significantly (p < .001) from 6 (9.0 ± 0.8 km · h−1) to 17 years (14.1 ± 1.6 km · h−1). The MAS of females increased significantly (p < .001) from 6 (8.7 ± 0.6 km · h−1) to 12 years (10.7 ± 1.2 km · h−1), then remained relatively constant at approximately 11 km · h−1 between 12 and 17 years. Tlim increased significantly from 6 to 13 years for males and from 6 to 11 years for females, then remained relatively constant around 350 s for both males and females.
Physiological and Perceptual Responses to Graded Treadmill and Cycle Exercise in Male Children
Authors: Duncan Glen E. , Mahon Anthony D. , Gay Julie A. , Sherwood Jennifer J.
Published: August 2016

Physiological and perceptual responses at ventilatory threshold (VT) and V̇O2 peak were examined in 10 male children (10.2 ± 1.3 yrs) during graded treadmill and cycle exercise. Treadmill V̇O2peak (57.9 ± 6.7 ml · kg−1 · min−1) was higher (p < .05) than the cycle (51.7 ± 7.7 ml · kg−1 · min−1). Ventilation and heart rate (HR) were higher (p < .05) on the treadmill, while respiratory exchange ratio (RER), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), capillary blood lactate, and test duration were similar between tests. The V̇O2 at VT was higher (p < .05) on the treadmill (36.7 ± 4.6 ml · kg−1 · min−1) than the cycle (32.5 ± 4.4 ml · kg−1 · min−1). When VT was expressed as a percentage of V̇O2 peak, there was no difference (p > .05) between tests. The RPE at VT, HR at VT, and VT expressed as a percentage of HRpeak were also similar (p > .05) between tests. Similar to V̇O2 peak, the V̇O2 at VT is dependent on the mode of exercise. However, when VT is expressed as a percentage of V̇O2 peak, it is independent of testing modality. The RPE at VT appears to be linked to a percentage of V̇O2 peak rather than an absolute V̇O2.
Physical Activity, Fitness, and Adiposity of Prepubertal Girls
Authors: Raudsepp Lennart , Jürimäe Toivo
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between physical activity and physical fitness and adiposity in a sample of 77 girls, aged 10–11 years. Physical activity was assessed by 7-day physical activity recall by which children reported how much time they spent on low and moderate-to-vigorous physical activities. Physical fitness was measured by EUROFIT test battery. Adiposity was estimated by sum of five skinfolds. The main finding of the study was that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and adiposity were significant predictors (with 16–34% accounted variance) of physical fitness tests where the body mass affects performance. Indicators of physical activity and adiposity were not significantly related with fitness items requiring muscular strength, balance, flexibility, and speed of limb movement. Furthermore, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and aerobic fitness predicted 22% of variance in adiposity in girls.
Exercise Regulation during Cycle Ergometry Using the Children’s Effort Rating Table (CERT) and Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scales
Authors: Lamb Kevin L.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the validity and reliability of the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale and the Children’s Effort Rating Table (CERT) as methods of regulating exercise intensity during discontinuous cycle ergometry. Sixty-four school children (ages 9–10) were randomly assigned to one of two groups, RPE or CERT, and received two trials 7 days apart. On both occasions, subjects produced 4 × 4-min scale-specific exercise intensities—3, 5, 7, and 9 (CERT) or 8, 12, 15, and 18 (RPE)—interspersed with 2-min rest periods. Analyses yielded significant (p < .01) correlations between perceived effort levels and objective measures: r = .47 to .61 (heart rate) and r = .59 to .75 (power output). Intraclass correlations indicated satisfactory overall repeatability of the produced exercise intensities (R > .70), but some notable inconsistencies were observed. The usefulness of effort perception scales among preadolescent children is presently rather limited, probably due to a number of confounding factors that need to be systematically addressed.
Is Running Economy Different between Adults and Children?
Authors: Maliszewski Ann F. , Freedson Patty S.
Published: August 2016

In this study, running economy differences between boys and men at a common speed (ABS = 9.6 kph) and at a relative speed adjusted for body size (REL = 3.71 leg lengths per second) were examined. The caloric cost relative to mass was significantly higher for the boys for ABS (men = .17, boys = .20), but not for REL (both .19). The relative heart rate (%HRmax) and ventilatory equivalent were higher for the boys at ABS, but not at REL. Boys had significantly higher stride frequencies in both conditions. Stride length/leg length was greater for boys during ABS, and for men during REL. Respiratory exchange ratios (RERs) were not different at ABS (men = .94, boys = .96), but during REL, boys had a significantly lower RER (.93 vs. .98). Running economy differences between adults and children are reduced when speeds are adjusted relative to body size. This model may be useful for identifying developmentally based differences in the physiology and biomechanics associated with exercise.
Predictors of Self-Esteem with Youth Basketball Players
Authors: Ebbeck Vicki , Stuart Moira E.
Published: August 2016

This investigation examined the extent to which perceptions of competence and importance predicted self-esteem. Players (N = 214) from three grade levels (3–4, 5–6, 7–8) completed questionnaires that assessed perceived basketball competence, as well as each player’s perception of how important it was to himself, his parents, his coach, and his team to be good at basketball. Three nonstepwise multiple regression analyses revealed that the set of predictor variables accounted for 20–28% of the variance in self-esteem across grade levels. The individual predictor variables significantly related to self-esteem were perceived competence and perceived parent importance for Grades 3–4, perceived competence for Grades 5–6, and perceived competence and perceived team importance for Grades 7–8. Perceived competence, however, consistently contributed most substantively to the prediction of self-esteem. These findings are discussed in relation to earlier studies and existing conceptual frameworks.
Effects of an 18-Month Endurance Run Training Program on Maximal Aerobic Power in 4- to 6-Year-Old Girls
Authors: Yoshizawa Shigehiro , Honda Hiroko , Nakamura Naka , Itoh Kiyohide , Watanabe Nobuo
Published: August 2016

In the present study, 8 young girls participated as the experimental group and another 8 as the control group in a study of the effect of training on maximal aerobic power. The experimental group practiced a 915-m endurance run 6 days per week. Both groups underwent treadmill tests to check the training effect every 6 months. After 18 months, the experimental group was significantly superior to the control group in maximal aerobic power. The training program brought about this effect in only 12 months. The increased maximal oxygen uptake was mainly due to the increase of stroke volume rather than to the improvement of maximal arteriovenous oxygen content difference. There were seasonal cycles in the change of the endurance run performance: longer times in spring to summer and fall to winter and shortened times in summer to fall and winter to spring.
Physical Activity with Moderate to Vigorous Intensity in Preschool and First-Grade Schoolchildren
Authors: Sallo Maarike , Silla Raiot
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to study the pattern of habitual physical activity (HPA) and to assess the time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in kindergarten and first-grade schoolchildren. In 54 children, HPA was studied during 4 consecutive days by whole-day heart rate (HR) monitoring. MVPA was defined on the basis of HR threshold above 139 beats per minute. Sustained periods of MVPA of 20 or more minutes were observed only in 20% of boys and 17% of girls. However, the pattern of HPA of all children contained 1-min, and 2- to 4-min periods of MVPA, and 80% of boys and 90% of girls had 5- to 9-min sustained periods of MVPA. It can be concluded that in 4- to 8-year-old children, HPA is characterized by an intermittent pattern without prolonged periods of MVPA.
Influence of Peak Strain on Lumbar Bone Mineral Density: An Analysis of 15-Year Physical Activity in Young Males and Females
Authors: Groothausen Jitske , Siemer Hanneke , Kemper Han C.G. , Twisk Jos , Welten Desiree C.
Published: August 2016

In 83 males and 99 females, the relation between peak strain physical activity (PSPA) from 13 to 27 years and lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD) at age 27 was studied. Physical activity was measured longitudinally by an interview six times between ages 13 and 27. Peak strain scores based on ground reaction forces were developed to quantify all registrated activities for peak strain. LBMD was determined once at age 27. Four PSPA periods were considered: the teenage period (13–17 years), the period between 13 and 21 years, the adult period (21–27 years), and the total period (13–27 years). In multiple linear regression analyses, with body weight and gender as covariates, PSPA appeared to be a significant positive predictor for LBMD at age 27 in both males and females for all analyzed periods. The explained variance of PSPA for LBMD was the highest (25%) for the total period and the lowest (8%) for the teenage period.
Congenital Heart Disease: Cardiac Performance and Adaptations to Exercise
Authors: Paridon Stephen M.
Published: August 2016

Over the past two decades, improvements in diagnostic and surgical techniques have dramatically altered the outlook for children with congenital heart defects. Even with complex lesions, most of these children are now surviving to an age were issues of exercise and sports participation must be considered. In this review, the various factors that affect cardiovascular performance during exercise are examined in terms of how they relate to different types of congenital heart defects. The effect of anatomy, myocardial stress, and associated noncardiac abnormalities are discussed. Exercise performance in the major classes of cardiac defects and factors limiting performance in these classes are reviewed.
Convergent Validity of the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents
Authors: Kowalski Kent C. , Crocker Peter R.E. , Kowalski Nanette P.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the convergent validity of the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A). The PAQ-A is a modified version for high school students of the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQC). The PAQ-A is a 7-day recall used to assess general physical activity levels during the school year. Eighty-five high school students in Grades 8 through 12 filled out the PAQ-A and other physical activity measures. The PAQ-A was moderately related to an activity rating (r = .73), the Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (r = .57), a Caltrac motion sensor (r = .33), and the 7-day physical activity recall interview (r = .59). The results of this study support the convergent validity of the PAQ-A as a measure of general physical activity level for high school students.
Maturation, Gender, and Video Game Playing Are Related to Physical Activity Intensity in Adolescents: The Muscatine Study
Authors: Janz Kathleen F. , Mahoney Larry T.
Published: August 2016

This study examined average daily physical activity and discrete activity intensities in 102 adolescents (age M = 15 yr). Dependent physical activity variables were constructed from minute-by-minute movement counts measured during 4 consecutive days of accelerometry. Independent variables included gender, sexual maturation, TV viewing, and video playing. The stability of 4 days of activity measures ranged from R = .66 to 30. Video game playing was inversely associated with average daily movement for boys (r = −.38) and girls (r = −.55). Boys at all levels of sexual maturation had higher levels of activity than girls. Late and postpubertal boys and girls were more sedentary, had lower levels of vigorous activity, and lower levels of average daily movement than boys and girls in midpuberty.
Examination of a Hazing Workshop Intervention for Intercollegiate Sport Club Athletes
Authors: Capretto Anthony D. , Keeler Linda A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of an interactive, educational workshop on hazing knowledge, intentions to haze and intentions to prevent hazing. Components of the workshop included discussion on hazing definitions, prevalence, causes, consequences, and prevention. Nineteen sport club officers at a midsize university served as the intervention group and a convenience sample of 44 sport club student-athletes served as a control group. Hazing knowledge increased among workshop attendees and workshop attendees had greater hazing knowledge before and after the intervention in comparison with the control group who received no intervention. However, intentions to haze and the intentions to prevent hazing did not differ among groups. The intervention group increased their knowledge of where to report hazing acts and attitudes toward alternative activities to hazing. Recommendations for future research and hazing interventions for administrators are provided.