bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Group 13 elements
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the essential aspects of the chemistry of the Group 14 elements which are of fundamental importance in industry and nature. This group includes carbon and silicon, both nonmetals; germanium, a metalloid; tin and lead, both metals, and the recently discovered radioactive flerovium. The chapter discusses diamond and graphite as well as other forms of carbon. It also looks at hydrides, compounds with halogen, compounds of carbon with oxygen and sulfur, and simple compounds of silicon with oxygen. Then it looks at oxides of germanium, tin, and lead. Furthermore, it tackles compounds with nitrogen. The scope of the discussion also covers carbides, silicides, extended silicon-oxygen compounds, organosilicon and organogermanium compounds, and organometallic compounds.
The Group 18 elements
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the Group 18 elements, which is the final group in the p block. These seven elements: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, and oganesson are so unreactive that they form only a very limited range of compounds. They have been called rare gases and inert gases and are currently called the noble gases. The chapter explores the limited chemistry of these elements: their occurrence, recovery, and uses. It also concentrates in particular on the well-characterized compounds of xenon, as this element forms a surprisingly wide range of compounds with hydrogen, oxygen, and the halogens. The chapter explores the synthesis and structure of xenon fluorides, as well as their reactions. Next, it looks at xenon-oxygen compounds, xenon insertion compounds, organoxenon compounds, and coordination compounds, among others.
d-Metal complexes: electronic structure and properties
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at the d-Metal complexes, which play an important role in inorganic chemistry. It tackles the nature of ligand metal bonding in terms of two theoretical models. The chapter begins with the simple but useful crystal field theory, which is based on an electrostatic model of the bonding before considering the more sophisticated ligand field theory. Both theories invoke a parameter, the ligand field splitting parameter, to explain spectroscopic and magnetic properties. Furthermore, the chapter explores the electronic spectra of complexes and see how ligand field theory allows the interpretation of energies and intensities of electronic transitions. The scope of the discussion includes cooperative magnetism and spin-crossover complexes.
Coordination chemistry: reactions of complexes
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses evidence and experiments that are used in the analysis of the reaction pathways of metal complexes. It considers ligand exchange reactions and describes how reaction mechanisms are classified. The discussion also covers ligand substitution in square planar complexes and octahedral complexes. The chapter explores the steps by which the reactions take place and the details of the formation of the transition state. These concepts are then used to describe the mechanisms of the redox reactions of complexes. The chapter explains the inner-sphere and outer-sphere mechanisms. Lastly, it tackles photochemical reactions, introducing the concepts of prompt and delayed reactions, the d-d and charge-transfer reactions, and transitions in metal-metal bonded systems.
Biological inorganic chemistry
Authors: Weller Mark , Rourke Jonathan , Overton Tina , Armstrong Fraser
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the natural roles of different elements in biological systems and the various and extraordinarily subtle ways in which each one is exploited. It starts with a discussion on the physical structure of cells and the inorganic composition of living organisms. The chapter then describes how different elements are taken up selectively by different cells and intracellular compartments. It also explains acid-base catalysis, oxygen atom transfer by molybdenum and tungsten enzymes, and the nitrogen cycle, among others. The chapter concludes by emphasizing that biological metals and metalloproteins have important futures in medicine, energy production, green synthesis, and nanotechnology.
The Molecular Laboratory
Authors: Hing Sandra , Warford Anthony
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the molecular laboratory. It explores the optimal molecular laboratory design, which includes considerations such as a designated sample reception area, sample processing area, and pre- and post-PCR area, as well as a dedicated quiet office area. Additionally, the chapter highlights the significance of maintaining laboratory accreditation and a quality management system. It notes the process of validation and verification of laboratory tests and procedures. The chapter then considers the best practice for external quality assessment (EQA), operation, and organization in line with meeting accreditation standards. The chapter also highlights the need for diagnostic molecular testing in line with an understanding of cellular pathway perturbations in disease alongside the emergence of therapies that target specific elements.
Haemopoietic Diseases 2: Lymphoproliferative Disorders
Authors: Catherwood Mark , Mills Ken
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses lymphoproliferative disorders. It notes the WHO classification criteria used for lymphoid neoplasms. Lymphoproliferative disorders, also known as non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL), are a large group of clonal lymphoid tumours and haematological malignancies characterized by a broad range of morphological, immunophenotypic, and clinical features with unknown aetiology. The chapter considers the laboratory techniques utilized to investigate lymphoid neoplasms. It also highlights the role of immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor gene rearrangements in lymphoid neoplasms and clonality detection. Moreover, the chapter outlines the laboratory techniques for identifying common cytogenetic abnormalities linked with lymphoid neoplasms. Finally, the chapter provides an outlook on the possible role of next-generation sequencing for the diagnosis and monitoring of lymphoid neoplasms.
Applications of the molecular partition function
Authors: Maczek Andrew , Meijer Anthony
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores how to use the molecular partition function to calculate internal energy and entropy. It highlights the link between the molecular partition function and thermodynamics. Additionally, the chapter notes the relation of β to temperature. It explains the link between the statistical weight of the predominant configuration and thermodynamic entropy. The chapter uses equation diagrams to explain modifications on molecular and internal energies. As the chapter shows, the spacing between successive energy states does not change on heating and stays at a constant volume, which is a defining condition for the internal energy. Thus, an infinitesimal reversible change in a system linked to an infinitesimal flow of heat produces a change in entropy.
Heat capacity and Third Law entropy: two case studies
Authors: Maczek Andrew , Meijer Anthony
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on case studies which look at heat capacity and Third Law entropy. It also discusses heat capacity as a function of temperature in with the overall heat capacity is the sum of individual contributions from each energy mode. Next, the chapter looks more closely at Third Law entropy and spectroscopic entropy by using equation diagrams related to change in terms of temperature. The chapter also includes the equation of residual entropy. Additionally, the chapter highlights how statistical thermodynamics is used to understand the temperature variation of heat capacity of simple diatomic molecules and more complex polyatomic species and to give a theoretical value for absolute entropies.
Organic Structure and Bonding
Authors: Mann Alastair
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the modern periodic table, which shows the existence of over one hundred elements, and while each of them is unique in its own way it is fair to say that carbon is the most unique of them all. Indeed, one of the traditional branches of chemistry—organic chemistry—is essentially the chemistry of compounds based on this one element. The chapter explores how carbon is able to become a part of such a diverse range of organic compounds and considers how to rationalize the bonding, structure and, with particular relevance to pharmacy, the shapes of organic molecules. The chapter examines the types of forces and interactions that occur between molecules, as opposed to the covalent bonds which hold them together. It looks at the idea of reaction mechanisms, which predicts how such compounds will react in the presence of others.
Inorganic Chemistry in Pharmacy
Authors: Hall Geoff
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyzes individual inorganic elements that are organized into the alkali and alkaline earth metals, transition metals, zinc and iron, and the precious metals, silver, gold, and platinum, and the lanthanide metals. The non-metals studied here are phosphorus and sulfur. The chapter cites other elements which are important to drug development, drug action, and delivery. The chapter analyzes the chemical properties of an element and its biological function and refers to transition metal ions which are found in biological systems and precious metals which are found in drugs. It identifies various phosphorus and sulfur-containing functional groups in drug molecules and highlights the role of these functional groups for either the formulation of the drug into a medicine or the biological action of the drug.
Proteins and Enzymes
Authors: White Alex , Burrell Helen
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about proteins. These make up a highly important class of macromolecules in biochemistry and are considered to be biopolymers constructed from amino acid monomers. Compared with nucleic acids, proteins have varied and complex three-dimensional structures, due in part to the greater variety of monomers used to construct them. The chapter describes the unique three-dimensional structure of protein which is directly related to the function it performs. The chapter covers the detail of the structures, citing a myriad of functions in cells and organelles, such as antibodies, collagen, membrane-bound receptors, and enzymes. Enzymes and receptors are of particular importance to pharmacy as many drugs interact with them to bring about their therapeutic activity.
Carbohydrates and Carbohydrate Metabolism
Authors: White Alex , Burrell Helen
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on carbohydrates, which are molecules composed almost exclusively of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrate monomers are called monosaccharides and are found throughout nature. The chapter explains how carbohydrates are synthesized in plants during the process of photosynthesis, with their carbon atoms being obtained from atmospheric carbon dioxide. The chapter considers carbohydrates as the main fuel source in human bodies and they are divided into two groups: simple sugars and complex carbohydrates. Simple sugars like glucose are metabolized directly via glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, whereas complex carbohydrates like starch and glycogen are first broken down into simple sugars.
Origins of Drug Molecules
Authors: Snape Tim
Published: September 2023

This chapter recounts how human ancestors chewed tree bark and drank herbal tea to relieve their illnesses, whereas today people are more likely to visit the doctor and take prescribed medication. Modern medication generally appears in tablet or capsule form, and the active ingredient will have first appeared in pure form on a chemist's bench. The chapter addresses the origins of active ingredients and discusses some of today's drugs which are still derived from tree bark and herbal teas, and others from more sustainable biological sources, such as moulds and soil bacteria. The chapter describes the structures of natural products based on their complexity and emphasizes that fully synthetic drugs are usually a lot simpler than natural products. Despite the structural complexity of natural products, they can be used by chemists as a source of inspiration for the development of new drugs to the preparation of novel compounds for patent protection.
Body Plans
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter tackles the growth and forms of living organisms which depend on physical and mathematical imperatives and are shaped by the pressures of evolution. It notes that the diversity of organisms is due to differences in habitats, sizes, and shapes. Multicellular organisms develop by the replication and differentiation of cells. Furthermore, cells vary in their capacity for differentiation between organisms and at different stages of life. While plant structures emerge at fixed points, complex animals have originated from a bilaterian ancestor evolved in two distinct branches according to whether the blastopore forms the mouth or anus. The chapter illustrates that organisms representing virtually all forms of eukaryotic life develop hard body materials.
Movement, Locomotion, and Migration
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the reasons for the movement, locomotion, and migration of individual organisms across the planet. Complex free-living organisms may respond to changes in their immediate surroundings by actively determining where to position themselves and for how long. Some organisms preferred other locations for breeding and feeding, and many undertake movements from one location to another on a seasonal basis for either reasons of protection, production, or resource availability. The chapter examines the concept of plant dispersal as part of the reproductive process. Meanwhile, animal movement depends on the active transfer of metabolically generated kinetic energy to the surface.
Communities
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers the extent of species interactions and biodiversity metrics. It defines ecological communities as collections of individuals belonging to multiple different species that co-occur in a specific geographical location. Ecological interaction can be typically divided into four main groups: predation, competition, parasitism, and commensalism. Either of the interactions can occur as the result of basic biology or the specific behaviour of the species involved. Over time, ecological communities can change through community-level processes, such as predator–prey cycles or ecological succession. The chapter also considers species diversity metrics which combine information on species richness and the relative number of individuals in each species.
Challenges
Authors: Scott Jon , Cameron Gus , Goodenough Anne , Hawkins Dawn , Koenig Jenny , Luck Martin , Papachristodoulou Despo , Snape Alison , Yeoman Kay , Goodwin Mark
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines key threats to ecosystems. It explains how threats can be loosely grouped into abiotic, biotic, and anthropogenic categories based on the origin of the threat. Due to the complex and dynamic nature of the environment, natural abiotic processes and changes in biotic conditions can result in profound consequences. The chapter acknowledges the ecosystem threat brought by the growing human population growth as a result of emissions, habitat loss, and the introduction of non-native species. The chapter cites how extinction processes are often linked together in a downward spiral and this is called an extinction vortex. This vortex is driven by either environmental degradation or genetic degradation.
The cell cycle
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the cell cycle, which encompasses a series of highly coordinated processes that ensure cell duplication in a precise and timely manner. In eukaryotes, cyclin–Cdks (cyclin-dependent kinases) promote not only the processes that take place during a particular cell cycle phase, but also how cyclin–Cdks activate the next phase and extinguish the previous one. Regulatory pathways called checkpoints are superimposed on the cyclin–Cdk machinery and inhibit cell cycle progression in the presence of damage or certain types of errors in the cell. The multiple levels of regulation illustrate the importance of carrying out cell cycle processes with utmost accuracy. Indeed, failure to do so can result in cancer. Bacteria are more diverse in terms of their cell cycle schemes. The major regulatory steps in many bacteria are initiation of DNA replication, which is often coupled to chromosome segregation, and cell division.
Regulation of translation
Authors: Craig Nancy L , Green Rachel , Greider Carol , Storz Gisela , Wolberger Cynthia , Cohen-Fix Orna
Published: September 2023

This chapter illustrates the regulation of translation. Translation initiation can be globally affected through the modification of core translational factors in eukaryotes. Both bacterial and eukaryotic organisms respond to amino acid limitation by shutting down overall protein synthesis, although the mechanisms differ. Initiation of specific bacterial mRNAs can be regulated through obstruction of the Shine–Dalgarno sequence by intrinsic RNA structure, metabolites, small RNAs, or proteins. Eukaryotic initiation is most often regulated through interactions of various factors (proteins and RNAs) with the 3' UTR (untranslated region) of the transcript. Meanwhile, translation elongation can be regulated either globally or gene-specifically. Viral systems have evolved ingenious mechanisms for slowing down host protein synthesis so that their own proteins can be more efficiently synthesized.
Mass Spectrometry
Authors: McCullagh James , Oldham Neil
Published: September 2023

Mass Spectrometry firstly introduces this topic. The next chapter looks at methods of ionization. Chapter 3 covers methods of mass analysis. The next chapter looks at resolution, accurate mass, and sensitivity. Then the text turns to look at tandem mass spectrometry. It also offers an interpretation of mass spectra and separation techniques and qualifications. Finally, the text looks at mass spectrometry applications.
Methods of ionization
Authors: McCullagh James , Oldham Neil
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the most common ionization techniques in mass spectrometry (MS), demonstrating the process of forming positively or negatively charged ions from analyte molecules. It mentions how ions can be electrically or magnetically manipulated inside the high vacuum of a mass spectrometer to facilitate mass measurement. It also highlights different mechanisms of ion formation, basic ion-source designs, their relative performances, and areas of application. The chapter explores the development of MS as a pre-eminent analytical technique, including its applications in modern physical, biological, and medical sciences. These have been driven by the development of new ionization methods. It covers ionization methods that are distinguished by the physical characteristics of the ionization process, such as desorption ionization and atmospheric pressure ionization.
Batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
Authors: Browne Wesley R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. It shows that batteries and fuel cells are sources of direct current in relation to Galvanic cells. The chapter then lists the general issues and characteristics of the battery and considers ideal fuel cell design. It also looks into the polarization and thermodynamics of batteries and fuel cells. In addition, the chapter discusses electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and presents the related experiments and equations. It explores the impedance spectrum of a resistor and capacitor as well. As the chapter shows, Warburg impedance arises because of the limitations imposed by the mass transfer of redox active species to and from the electrode.
Introduction: why biologists need chemistry
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This introductory chapter provides an overview of why biologists need chemistry. Chemistry explores life at the level of atoms and molecules; it is really all about understanding how atoms interact to form larger, more complicated substances, how these substances react with each other to form new substances, and how these substances behave. Biology then looks at how these substances behave when they are combined on a larger scale—the scale of cells, tissues, organisms, populations, or ecosystems. An understanding of life on a chemical scale provides invaluable insights that help in building a richer understanding of life at the larger scale of biology. Nothing captures this notion better than water, which has some unusual physical and chemical properties. This chapter examines water as an example of how chemical interactions can shape the biological world. The chapter then looks at the essential concepts that unify chemistry and biology, before considering the language of chemistry and quantitative reasoning.
Compounds and chemical bonding: bringing atoms together
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines compounds and chemical bonding. A compound is a substance that comprises atoms of more than one element. Chemical bonds hold the components of a compound together and are formed by the redistribution of valence electrons between atoms. According to the octet rule, valence electrons are redistributed so that atoms achieve full valence shells that typically contain eight electrons. The chapter then differentiates between the two types of chemical bond: ionic and covalent. An ionic bond forms when one or more electrons are totally transferred from one atom to another to generate an ionic compound. A covalent bond, however, forms when one or more pairs of electrons are shared between atoms to generate a covalent compound. The chapter looks at polarized bonds, in which electrons are shared unequally between two nuclei, and discusses how valency describes the number of chemical bonds an atom of a given element can participate in. It also describes chemical bonding in terms of atomic and molecular orbitals before discussing aromatic compounds and polyatomic ionic compounds.
Functional groups: adding function to the framework of life
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses functional groups, which enhance the physical and chemical properties of organic compounds. Members of the same family of organic compound possess the same functional groups, and exhibit similar physical and chemical properties. Functional groups may increase the water solubility of the molecules to which they are attached and the extent of molecular interactions they experience. The chapter notes how alkyl groups above a certain size override the effect of an attached functional group, causing a relative decrease in solubility and melting and boiling points. The chapter then looks at organic compounds with oxygen-based functional groups, including the hydroxyl group, alkoxy group, carbonyl group, carboxyl group, and ester group. It also considers organic compounds with nitrogen-based functional groups, including the amino group and the amide group. Finally, the chapter studies the sulfur-based functional group known as the thiol group.
Molecular shape and structure: life in three dimensions
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the factors that influence the shape and structure of atoms and molecules, asking what it is that gives different chemical substances their particular three-dimensional shapes. The bond length is the distance between two covalently bonded atoms; the atomic radius is half the distance between two covalently bonded atoms of the same element. As the number of electrons shared by two atoms increases—as we move from atoms being joined by single to double to triple bonds—the bond length decreases. The bond angle is the angle between two bonds that are joined by a central atom. Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory allows the prediction of the arrangement of valence electron pairs around a central atom. The chapter then looks at the geometry of atoms in larger molecules, before considering hybridization and bond rotation, which both place limitations on molecular shape.
Reaction mechanisms: the chemical changes that drive the chemistry of life
Authors: Crowe Jonathan , Bradshaw Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines four key reaction mechanisms: substitution, addition, elimination, and condensation. During substitution, an atom or group of atoms from one reactant is substituted for an atom or group of atoms on a second reactant molecule. Substitution may be electrophilic or nucleophilic, depending on the nature of the molecule that changes as a result of the reaction. During an addition reaction, two molecules combine in such a way that the product contains all the atoms of both reactants. By contrast, during an elimination reaction, a reactant loses some of its component atoms; these atoms form one or more new compounds. Elimination may proceed via a two-step E1 mechanism, or a one-step E2 mechanism. Finally, during a condensation reaction, two reactants combine to form a single product; a further molecule is eliminated during the reaction, which forms an additional product. The chapter then considers hydrolysis reactions and how biochemical reactions exemplify the reaction mechanisms discussed earlier in the chapter.
Study and Communication Skills for the Biosciences
Authors: Johnson Stuart , Scott Jon
Published: September 2023

Study and Communication Skills for the Biosciences starts off by asking: why are study and communication skills important? It looks at using feedback, making the most of lectures, and working with different information sources. It wards against plagiarism and talks about how to avoid it. It looks at writing essays and choosing an appropriate writing style. Practical report writing is also covered. The text examines the different skills needed for working in groups, tutorials, and presenting. It ends with a detailed analysis of how to get the most out of revision and exams, and how to become employable.
Choosing the right writing style
Authors: Stuart Johnson , Jon Scott
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at conventions of writing style, such as the use of the passive form and an impersonal, rather than personal, expression. Writing for scientific purposes is often very different from the styles of writing used for other forms of communication, as it normally requires the use of a formal, impersonal style. It is important to use words accurately and to avoid slang, informal phrases, and generalities. To that end, this chapter discusses voice, sentences and phrases, punctuation, paragraphs, abbreviations, and illustrations. It has also revised some of the principles of basic grammar and construction. Finally, this chapter highlights the importance of referencing.
Getting the most out of revision
Authors: Stuart Johnson , Jon Scott
Published: September 2023

This chapter concerns revision. Effective revision makes the material being tested easier to understand, remember, and apply. As such, this chapter emphasizes that getting organised with revision, with a clear timeline leading up to the exam, is a crucial first step in revising effectively and can reduce the amount of stress that exams cause. Furthermore, the chapter demonstrates that making the revision an active, rather than passive, process will make it both more interesting and more effective. Not losing sight of the ‘big picture’ in terms of how detail fits into an overall structure is also important, as is practicing outputting the information the student has been learning to ensure that it can be applied to specific exam questions.
Stereospecific and stereoselective reactions
Authors: Robinson Michael J.T.
Published: September 2023

This chapter displays a number of ways in which the terms stereospecific and stereoselective have been used by some chemists. It contends that a reaction is stereospecific if two stereoisomeric reactants give distinct stereoisomeric products. In contrast, a reaction is stereoselective if stereoisomeric products are formed in unequal amounts irrespective of any stereoisomerism in the reactant(s). The chapter uses stereospecific to describe reactions in which the stereochemical outcome is determined by the orbitals of the functional group(s) necessarily involved in the reaction. The chapter then shifts to focus on the polar reactions for carbon. It demonstrates its classification, namely: substitutions, additions, and eliminations to better understand its context in organic molecules. Towards the end, the chapter describes the concepts of radical and pericyclic reactions.
Paramagnetism – part II Compounds of the transition elements
Authors: Orchard A. F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with transition metals. These form an enormous variety of compounds and display a remarkable diversity of magnetic properties. It looks at paramagnetic phases and subtle aspects of paramagnetic behaviour, which provides a rich source of information about electronic structure. It also recounts the crucial role of the contemplation of paramagnetic properties in the development of ideas concerning the electronic structures of transition metal compounds, which formed the basis of the ligand field theory. The chapter discusses the importance of magnetic measurements of susceptibility and the EPR spectrum in the characterization of a newly synthesized compound. It mentions the 5-fold degeneracy of the d-orbitals characteristic of spherical symmetry. This, it states, is unsustainable in compounds of the transition elements due to the discriminating effects of the ligand environment.
Foundations of Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Winter Mark J. , Andrew John E.
Published: September 2023

Foundations of Inorganic Chemistry starts with an introductory section which covers atomic structure and bonding. The second section is about the periodic table. The third section covers s- and p-block elements. This section examines group trends in physical and chemical properties, periodic and group trends, acids, bases, pH, oxides, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, phosphates, and carbonates. The final section is about d-block elements. This section includes discussion on complexes, ligands, EDTA titration, redox processes, metal complexes, and catalysis.
Hydrogen
Authors: Winter Mark J. , Andrew John E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates hydrogen, which is by far the most abundant element in the universe and all the other chemical elements are made from it. Without hydrogen there would be no water to drink, and DNA molecules would not form the double-helix structure that allows our genetic code to be copied and passed on to future generations. Hydrogen can form a positive ion like the metals of Group 1 but, since it is one electron short of a noble gas configuration, it can also form a negative ion and a single covalent bond, like the halogens of Group 17. Hydrogen forms compounds with many other elements but the properties of these hydrides vary considerably. The chapter then considers the self-ionization behaviour of water, which may be regarded as an acid—base reaction. It also looks at sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
s-Block elements
Authors: Winter Mark J. , Andrew John E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on s-block elements, which are elements with atoms whose last electron occupies an s sublevel orbital. Disregarding hydrogen and helium, all the elements with their outermost electrons in an s sublevel are metals. The elements of Group 1 are known as alkali metals, while those of Group 2 are the alkaline earth metals. Many foods contain compounds of these elements and many of these ‘minerals’ are essential for health; they also have several commercially important uses. Although sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium are quite abundant in nature, they are never found in their free state as the metals are too reactive. The chapter then looks at the structure of the elements, explaining atomization energy; periodic trends down the s-block elements; and the standard electrode potential. It also considers the typical reactions of the s-block elements; the compounds of the alkali and alkaline earth metals; and lithium chloride.
The panorama of life
Authors: Lesk Arthur M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the basic sizes, contents, and organizing principles of simple and complex genomes. A single gene coding for a particular protein corresponds to a sequence of nucleotides. In cells, genes may appear on either strand of DNA. Bacterial protein-coding genes are continuous regions of DNA, while in eukaryotes, the nucleotide sequences that encode amino acid sequences of proteins are organized in a more complex manner. The chapter then looks at proteomics and transcriptomics. It considers how the genomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ systematically, before exploring the variety of transcribed RNA molecules encoded in the human genome. The chapter then highlights the power of DNA sequences in studying human history, including inference of human migration patterns, and as records of plant and animal domestication. It also assesses the power of comparative genomics to identify features responsible for differences between species.
Curves and graphs
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses curves and graphs. The relationship between two quantities, generically called x and y, is often best understood when displayed in the form of a graph. That is when linked pairs of x and y values are plotted as distinct points on a piece of paper, and joined together to form a curve. The chapter first looks at straight lines before considering parabolas. Both the straight line and the parabola are special cases of a family of curves known as polynomials. The similarity between them is more obvious from the algebraic form of the equation that defines them. Then, the chapter then studies powers, roots, and logarithms; circles; and ellipses.
Differentiation
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter investigates differentiation, starting with a discussion of gradients and derivatives. While the intersections of the curve with the x and y axes may be of interest, it is often more important to know the slope at any given point; that is, how quickly y increases, or decreases, as x changes, and vice versa. The chapter notes that Tthis issue is at the heart of the topic of differentiation. It also highlights that Oone of the most fundamental properties of derivatives is their linearity. The chapter thenThen, the chapter looks at exponentials and logarithms, products and quotients, functions of functions, and the concepts of maxima and minima. It also compares between implicit and logarithmic differentiation.
Integration
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates integration, starting with a discussion of areas and integrals. It explains that Itntegration deals with the 'area under a curve', which; this is intimately linked with the important questions of the average and cumulative behaviour of y, over some range in x. Although an integral is defined as the limiting form of a summation, it is usually evaluated by noting that 'integration is the reverse of differentiation'. The chapter clarifies that, Jjust as for the case of derivatives, one of the most fundamental properties of integrals is their linearity. The chapterIt then looks at inspection and substitution, partial fractions, integration by parts, and the reduction formula. Finally, the chapter examines symmetry, tables, and numerical integration.
Matrices
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes matrices. The simplest definition of a matrix is that it is a rectangular array of numbers, usually enclosed in large round brackets. Depending on their size (or shape), and the properties of their elements, matrices are often given qualifying names. Two properties of matrices which are frequently met in practice is that they are real and symmetric. The former means that the elements are not complex numbers; the second, which implicitly assumes a square matrix, means that the matrix remains the same if its rows and columns are interchanged. The chapter then looks at matrix arithmetic, determinants of matrices, inverse matrices, linear simultaneous equations, transformations, eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and diagonalization.
Line integrals
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies line integrals. It notes that the result of a line integral is, in general, dependent on the path followed from start to finish. The exception to this is when the integrand is an exact differential, and then the line integral is independent of the route taken and a complicated path can be replaced by a simpler one to facilitate the calculation. The chapter also explains that exact differentials are related to conservative fields (or forces) and state functions. For example, the change in the gravitational potential energy of an object depends only on the difference in its height and not on any other characteristics of the motion. Similarly, in thermodynamics, the value of a function-of-state depends literally on the state (temperature, pressure, volume, etc.) of the system and not on how it got there.
Ordinary differential equations
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews ordinary differential equations (ODEs), which involve only normal differentials of y(x), that is, dy/dx and its derivatives. The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative of y that appears in it. When applied to differential equations, the concept of linearity means that y and its derivatives are raised to no power higher than the first. Equations where this is not true are called non-linear. The degree of a differential equation is the power to which the highest derivative (of y) is raised, but the chapter only deals with those of the first. The chapter begins by looking at first-order linear ODEs before considering second-order linear ODEs.
Partial differential equations
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses partial differential equations (PDEs). It begins by presenting elementary cases of PDEs, which highlights that PDEs give rise to 'functions of integration', in contrast to ordinary differential equations (ODEs), which have 'constants of integration'. The chapter then focuses on one method of solving PDEs: the separation of variables. The power of the technique lies in its ability to reduce a PDE to an equivalent set of ODEs. On a practical note, the choice of the constant used and the subsequent order in which the boundary conditions are implemented plays an important part in facilitating a successful outcome. In this context, the recommended preliminary diagram is helpful because it suggests that the solution of the PDE will be a decaying function in the x direction and an oscillatory one in y.
Fourier series and transforms
Authors: Sivia D.S. , Rhodes J.L. , Rawlings S.G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines Fourier series and transforms. Previous chapters show how Taylor series could be used to mimic an arbitrary function by a simple low-order polynomial in the neighbourhood of a particular point. An alternative approximation is provided by a Fourier series, which is appropriate when the curve of interest is periodic. The general characteristics of the Fourier series, with its high-frequency oscillatory behaviour when sharp features are involved, means that a term-by-term differentiation is an extremely ill-advised operation. The chapter then looks at the Fourier integral. It also considers the auto-correlation function of Fourier transforms, which provides information on the distribution of the distances between various parts of the structures in f(x).
Cell differentiation and stem cells
Authors: Wolpert Lewis , Tickle Cheryll , Arias Alfonso Martinez , Lawrence Peter , Locke James
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into cell differentiation and stem cells. It notes the link between gene expression and cell differentiation by addressing how referencing extracellular signals having have a key role in differentiation, as they by triggering intracellular signalling pathways that impact gene expression. Cell differentiation leads to distinguishable cell types, such as blood cells, nerve cells, and muscle cells. In addition, the chapter looks into the properties of mammalian embryonic stem cells. It mentions the degree of plasticity resulting after cell differentiation. The chapter then discusses how human stem cells cultured in vitro can also give rise to organoids that are used for drug testing and studying disease.
Choosing the right test and graph
Authors: Hawkins Dawn
Published: September 2023

This chapter details the process of choosing the right test and graph for analysing bioscience data. There are four main reasons for producing graphs: to understand the data; to explore the data for potential patterns; to assess whether the data conform to the assumptions of a particular analysis; and to help communicate the results. The rules for choosing the right graph are less hard and fast than those for choosing the right test. When using graphs for communication, the bottom line is that the graph should communicate the pattern in the data fairly and clearly. The chapter considers frequency distributions, pie charts, boxplots, errorplots, scatterplots, and line graphs. The chapter also explains when to choose null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) and which test to use, differentiating between tests of frequencies, tests of relationship, and tests of difference. Finally, it demonstrates how to use SPSS to produce four useful graph types.
Genome-wide mutant screens
Authors: Meneely Philip
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into genome-wide mutant screens which are used to identify the mutant phenotype for every gene in a genome regardless of its possible biological function. Two methods have been used for screening: the deletion of genes by targeted homologous recombination and the disruption of a gene's expression by RNA interference. The chapter points out that CRISPR has been applied on genome-wide mutant screens, and explains how genome-wide mutant screens determine unsuspected functions for numerous additional genes. The chapter adds how genome-wide screens are becoming the method of choice for looking for mutant phenotypes for many biological processes in various organisms.
Data Handling and Analysis
Authors: Blann Andrew D.
Published: September 2023

Data Handling starts off with an analysis of information in the biomedical sciences. It then considers handling quantities which encompasses mass, volume, and concentration. It moves on to obtaining and verifying data. Next, it looks at presenting data in graphic form. Another chapter considers quality, audit, and good laboratory practice. The next three chapters are about research, setting the scene, the analysis of modest data sets, and large data sets. Finally, the text ends with an examination of communication methods.
Biodiversity
Authors: Bosker Thijs , Cieraad Ellen , Trimbos Krijn
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at biodiversity, the variety of life on Earth. It underscores that biodiversity is currently being lost at an alarming rate, pointing out that extinction rates are estimated to be 100- to 1000-fold higher than natural extinction levels. The chapter also discusses the five key threats to global biodiversity: habitat fragmentation, the introduction of invasive species, pollution, climate change, and the overexploitation of ecosystems. Then it examines how agriculture impacts other animals and plants. It describes the strategies of land sparing and land sharing, as well as the concept of rewilding. The chapter concludes with a discussion on biodiversity conservation efforts in agriculture such as agri-environmental schemes and nature-inclusive agriculture.
Pollution
Authors: Bosker Thijs , Vijver Martina G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how food systems are related to environmental pollution. It highlights that pollution from food production is often diffuse, which makes both prevention and removal difficult. It starts with a brief historical background on public perceptions of environmental pollution and relates this to a shift in environmental awareness among the general public. The chapter introduces key concepts related to environmental pollution such as xenobiotic compounds, contaminants, pollutants, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification. Underscoring that humans have been using increased quantities of agrochemicals since the Green Revolution, the chapter looks at the effects of the application of artificial fertilizers and pesticides on the environment and non-target organisms.
Water
Authors: Hudson Paul F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the impacts of agriculture on freshwater resources, which are essential to human sustenance and sustainable food production. It explains how freshwater is distributed and how excessive pumping of groundwater from aquifers to support irrigation drives land subsidence which in turn increases flood risk and coastal erosion. Furthermore, it discusses how humans have shaped their landscape to have access to water. The chapter also looks at how dams impact rivers and biodiversity by degrading habitat variability and the storage of large volumes of river sediment, and mentions the trend of dam removal in Europe and North America. The discussion also covers the concept of environmental flows that are embedded in modern integrated approaches to river basin management.
Food Aid
Authors: Archambault Caroline , Ehrhardt David
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on food aid and all voluntary transfers aimed directly at reducing the food insecurity of a particular population. It discusses the five key ways of providing food aid, which are supplementary feeding or providing in-kind food to specific populations; food stamps or providing vouchers for food to eligible populations; food-for-work or exchanging in-kind food for labour; food banks or food distribution points run by civil society organizations; and food sharing which is sharing of food or money within social networks. Furthermore, the chapter looks at the challenges to food aid efficacy such as targeting, conditionalities that serve the donors' interests, and spoiler behaviour by middlemen.