bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Boas, Franz
Authors: Pickren Wade E.
Published: October 2013

Franz Boas was born in Germany in 1858 and died in New York in 1942. He was a broadly trained scientist with a doctorate in physics and post‐doctoral experience in geography.
Bourguignon, Erika
Authors: Rich Grant J.
Published: October 2013

Erika Bourguignon was born in Vienna, Austria on February 18, 1924. One of her childhood homes was literally around the corner from
No. 19 Bergasse
, where an elderly Sigmund Freud lived.
Brewer, Marilynn B
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Marilynn Brewer (b. 1942) grew up in Chicago, Illinois, and received her doctoral degree in social psychology from Northwestern University in 1968.
Brislin, Richard W
Authors: MacMab Brent , Rosenblatt Valerie
Published: October 2013

Richard W. Brislin is Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaíi at Manoa. He is a distinguished scholar and educator in the areas of cross‐cultural psychology, management, training, and communication.
Categorization
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Categorization is a universal psychological process involving the creation of groups of objects, people, or entities, based on common characteristics. Even when stimuli differ from one another in gradual ways (e.g., along a continuum), people naturally tend to divide them into categories. Although some categories (e.g., colors, emotional expressions, geometric shapes), like the process of categorization, may be universal, the way people group many other things differs across cultures. Categories may include such groupings as stereotypes (categorizing people based on perceived common characteristics) or concepts (categorizing objects based on common attributes).
Cheung, Fanny Mui‐Ching
Authors: Agler Lin‐Miao L.
Published: October 2013

Growing up in a traditional Chinese family in Hong Kong, Fanny Mui‐Ching Cheung obtained her undergraduate degree at the University of California Berkeley and her Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Minnesota. Soon after completing her doctoral studies, Cheung returned to Hong Kong in the 1970s and became actively involved in promoting psychological education and Chinese mental health. Additionally, she has advocated for the rights of women and the disabled in Hong Kong.
Church, A. Timothy
Authors: Navarro Atoy M.
Published: October 2013

Austin Timothy Church is an American psychologist, acknowledged as one of the leading scholars in cross‐cultural and indigenous psychology, especially in the area of culture and personality. Born in Illinois on November 1, 1948, he is the second child of Ralph Edwin Church Jr. and Janet Richardson. Church finished his primary education at Grant School, middle school education at Urban Middle School, and secondary education at North High School, all in Wisconsin. He earned his B.Sc. degree in mathematics at Lafayette College in 1970 and M.Sc. degree in computer science, with minor emphasis in psychology, at the University of Wisconsin in 1976. He then served as research assistant in the Psychometric Methods Program at the University of Minnesota, where he later worked as instructor in the department of psychology and subsequently received the Ph.D. in psychology in 1985.
Code Frame Switching
Authors: Nguyen Angela‐Minh TuD.
Published: October 2013

Code‐switching is the shifting between two or more languages within a sentence or conversation by bi‐ or multilingual individuals. Examples include interjecting a Cantonese phrase into an English statement or alternating between French and Dutch sentences during a verbal exchange.
Cognitive Psychology
Authors: Holfeld Brett , Hill, Kyle , Richard Ferraro F.
Published: October 2013

Cognition encompasses all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering. What you are doing (reading and learning this explanation) is a type of cognition. A key issue to consider when discussing cognition is whether all human beings share similar cognitive processes. For example, do certain racial groups, ethnicities, or cultures have more or less developed cognitive processes and abilities than other groups? This is a very important question, yet neglected by many of the early psychologists who relied on the assumption of universality of cognitive processes.
Cognitive Development – Piagetian Stages
Authors: Molitor Adriana
Published: October 2013

The prolific work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is credited for launching the field of cognitive development and for providing the roots of contemporary developmental inquiry into specific cognitive subfields. Perhaps the most renowned aspect of Piaget's theoretical perspective is his characterization of intellectual development as occurring in a fixed sequence of four qualitatively distinct stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational). Research across a wide range of cultures has replicated many of Piaget's observations and claims regarding behavioral features of these proposed stages, particularly those in very early childhood; however, research has also convincingly challenged some of his interpretations and propositions. Following decades of studies that can trace their inspiration back to Piaget, modern scholars have largely abandoned a traditional Piagetian account of comprehensive, stage‐based cognitive transformations in favor of domain‐specific theories that address conceptual advances in particular knowledge areas.
Cognitive Dissonance
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Theory of cognitive dissonance suggests that people have a need for cognitive consistency and that inconsistency between two cognitions or between cognition and behavior elicits aversive feelings of dissonance, which in turn promote actions aimed at reducing these feelings. The extent to which dissonance occurs varies as a function of the importance of the conflict, the time and effort involved in resolving the inconsistency, the individual's confidence in the cognition, and the long‐term consequences of not resolving the conflict. Individuals who are likely to adopt new ideas are more likely to experience dissonance because they lack the psychological reinforcement that late adopters have available to them. Also, men are more likely (than women) to experience dissonance, as are younger people. According to Festinger, dissonance reduction can be achieved by (a) changing one's attitudes, (b) changing one's behavior, (c) searching for consonant information, or (d) trivializing the importance of the inconsistency.
Cognitive Map
Authors: Caswell James , M. Kennison Shelia
Published: October 2013

A cognitive map is a hypothetical mental representation of a physical space used for navigation. This representation includes routes, paths, environmental relationships, locations of cultural significance, and other information relevant to navigation. A cognitive map is formed by integrating perceptual information about the space it represents. Cognitive maps are generally considered part of long‐term memory; however, when one uses a cognitive map, working memory is involved. A cognitive map typically involves three elements: 1) an object must be identified and made distinct from other objects; 2) there must be structure such that objects relate to other objects (e.g., spatially); and 3) the objects used must have meaning to the individual forming the cognitive map.
Cognitive Style
Authors: Ponce‐Garcia Elisabeth , Kennison Shelia M.
Published: October 2013

Cognitive style is a person's habitual, prevalent, or preferred way of thinking. Thinking may involve perceiving information, processing information, and applying information. The term cognitive style is used to refer to a person's habitual way of learning or teaching. The term cognitive style is synonymous withthinking styleas are the termsdecision‐making style,problem‐solving style,learning style,mind style,perceptual style, andconceptual tempo. Cognitive style differs from intellectual ability. Cognitive style refers to one's manner of performing, whereas intellectual ability refers to one's level of performance. Researchers believe that an individual's cognitive style is consistent over time; however, it may vary across situational contexts. For example, an individual may use one cognitive style the majority of the time, but use a different cognitive style to solve a particular problem or to handle a social situation.
Color Categorization
Authors: Lillo Julio A. , Moreira Humberto
Published: October 2013

In a very famous experiment conducted by Isaac Newton, a white sunbeam turned into a rainbow after crossing an optical prism. Such a result can be described alternatively in physical or perceptual terms. In physical terms, the light leaving the prism, usually projected on a screen, undergoes a systematic change in wavelength. For example, the light on the upper part of the screen can be of 400 nanometers (nm), in a lower part it can be 450 nm, in a still lower part, 500 nm, and so on. On the other hand, in a perceptual description, we could say that different parts of the screen appear with different colors (hues). Specifically, the area receiving 400 nm light is seen as violet, but at 450 nm it will be seen as blue, and as green at 500 nm.
Commons Dilemma
Authors: Pope Jay W.
Published: October 2013

The commons dilemma is a social dilemma in which individuals in a group each make decisions out of self‐interest, eventually causing unintended harm to the entire group. As such, the commons dilemma can be categorized as a
social trap
, defined by Myers (2009, p. 485) as “a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self‐interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.” An often used example of the commons dilemma is when individuals within a group each consume more than necessary amounts of a limited, valued, and shared natural resource (e.g., water, oil, coal) faster than the resource is able to be replenished. This results in rapid depletion and, eventually, the possible extinction of the resource, resulting in long‐term harm to the group.
Communication Channels
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle
Published: October 2013

Communication channels are the ways through which individuals communicate with each other. These communication channels can be labeled as visual channels, which include face‐to‐face communication and webcam conversation; vocal channels, which include phone conversation and voice mail; and synchronicity, which is the ability to respond in real time, such as through instant messaging (see Figure 1). Researchers have proposed that the various communication channels influence the group decision‐making process and are exhibited differently across cultures.
Communication
Authors: Gregerson Mary
Published: October 2013

Communication is the process of transmitting information. Cross‐cultural communication emphasizes the importance of context to the integrity of transmitted information and overcoming potential barriers to maintaining that integrity. Basic communication theory, both for individuals and for mass communications, assists understanding of these barriers and means to protect against and overcome them.
Conservation
Authors: Kaji Akiko
Published: October 2013

Conservation in developmental psychology refers to the cognitive ability to understand the preservation of characteristics of a material object when that object is manipulated. Piaget stated that children seven or eight years of age understand the conservation of a substance; for example, a change in the shape of a lump of clay does not alter the total volume of the clay. Children appear to grasp the concept of the conservation of weight at age nine or 10, and the conservation of volume (e.g., measurement of displaced water when an object is immersed) at 11 or 12.
Construct Equivalence
Authors: Chen Fang Fang
Published: October 2013

Construct equivalence means that the psychological construct in cross‐cultural comparisons has the same meaning across cultural groups. With a measured construct, it implies that the theoretical meaning of the construct is adequately represented in the instrument. Lack of construct equivalence, that is, construct bias, can arise from a variety of sources. In general, it is likely to occur when researchers from various cultures use definitions of a concept that do not fully overlap or a construct that is simply imported from one cultural setting to another. In other words, construct bias occurs when the construct measured is not identical across cultural groups. For example, the Chinese concept of “friend” refers to someone who is very close psychologically and can be counted on when needed, and the relationship is expected to last long. The Western concept of “friend” may include friends, close friends, short‐time friends, long‐time friends, and acqaintances. Therefore, the Chinese concept of “friend” is more equivalent to a narrower Western concept – “long‐time close friend.”
Contact Hypothesis
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

The contact hypothesis is the notion that contact between groups may reduce tension between them. Psychologist Gordon stated that people would understand and appreciate members of other groups when their contact met four criteria: (a) equal status (i.e., the two parties are peers); (b) the contact is meaningful; (c) the contact is institutionally supported; and (d) the groups have common values and goals. The contact hypothesis was the product of Allport's work with racial prejudice, and he reasoned that if prejudice were the result of social ignorance, meaningful contact with diverse other people should serve to reduce it.
Context Variable
Authors: J. Zagumny Matthew
Published: October 2013

A context variable in research design generally refers to a variable that is tied to the specific context (i.e., setting, procedure, environment, participants) of a research study. An example of a common context variable present in most social/behavioral research occurs when research participants select the studies they wish to participate in or when researchers select participants in a biased (non‐random) manner. Context variables are variables that, “operationalize meaningful dimensions of culture.”. These variables can be participant level, such as demographics like age or gender, or cultural level variables like values or attitudes. One example of the varying level of pertinent context variables in research is offered. He examined inductive reasoning among secondary school children in four different cultural groups (Zambian, Dutch, Turkish, and Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands). The study involved context variables at both the individual level, such as the education level of the students' parents, and the school level, including the instructional technology available to teachers.
Control
Authors: Misra Girishwar
Published: October 2013

Control signifies the experience of causing an outcome to happen. Supposed to be an inherent tendency, it refers to competence or effectance, and implies the experience of agency and mastery. Researchers have proposed an array of control concepts such as desire for control, action control, control motive, and locus of control. Other closely related concepts are locus of control, self‐efficacy, personal causation, self‐determination and causality orientation, attribution, learned helplessness, and perceived competence. Most emphasize the capabilities of self to impact environment to achieve desired goals across the lifespan. They are embedded in a partitioning of the world into categories of self and other, and their aim is to enhance the powers of an independent, autonomous, and isolated self.
Cooperation
Authors: Zagumny Matthew J.
Published: October 2013

The colloquial definition of cooperation is “an act or instance of working or acting together for a common purpose or benefit; joint action” and it is similarly conceptualized in the cross‐cultural psychology literature. Thus, cooperation includes both behavioral and instrumental components. The behavioral component is that people are working or acting together, while the instrumental component involves a common purpose or benefit for those involved. Therefore, cooperation is an occurrence involving two or more people who share an activity for the purpose of achieving a goal that benefits all of those involved. Cooperation is often defined within a goal structure that includes: 1) cooperation, in which achieving one's goals is dependent on other people achieving their goals; 2) competition, which requires that to achieve one's goals, others must not achieve their goals; and 3) individualism, in which attaining one's goals is not dependent on whether others attain their goals. In the research literature, cooperation and competitiveness are typically conceptualized as polar opposites, with the defining dimension being the level of collectiveness that actions and goals have for those involved. Cooperation is defined by high levels of collectiveness in action and purpose while competition is defined by low levels (or absence) of collectiveness.
Counseling
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Counseling is an activity involving two parties, one seeking help for a troubling situation, unsettling feeling, or stressful experience, and the other providing interactive listening, insightful feedback, emotional attentiveness, reflective questions, personal support, and practical guidance.
Cross‐Cultural Psychology
Authors: Silvestri Mark M. , Buskist William
Published: October 2013

Cross‐cultural psychology encompasses three broad goals: understanding behavior that is universal regardless of culture, understanding how culture shapes behavior, and understanding psychological commonalities across cultures. Overall, the underlying theme of cross‐cultural psychology is the examination of behavior across culture, and how these behaviors may be manifested as a function of culture. In any given study, researchers may examine participants from different cultures, and then compare their behavior with respect to a particular criterion or outcome. Culture may be considered an independent variable, such that manipulation of cultural variables allows researchers to determine how culture impacts specific behavior. Although the emphasis is on cultural comparisons, cross‐cultural psychology research utilizes methodology and experimental designs based primarily on traditional Western psychology.
Cross‐Cultural Comparison
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K.
Published: October 2013

Studies involving cross‐cultural comparisons can be classified according to theirunit of analysisinto country‐level (or culture‐level) studies, individual‐level studies, and multi‐level studies.
Cross‐Cultural Competence in Clinical Supervision
Authors: Wong Lilian C. J. , Wong Paul T. P.
Published: October 2013

A noticeable trend in the clinical supervision literature is the greater attention paid to cross‐cultural supervision as a result of increasing cultural diversity of counseling students and clients. Recently, multicultural competence has been bench‐marked as one of the core areas for professional psychology and clinical supervision. Multicultural counseling competence does not necessarily mean multicultural supervision competence, because the supervision situation is more complex, including three possible types of cross‐cultural relationships between supervisor, supervisee, and client. have developed a Multicultural Supervision Competencies Questionnaire (MSCQ) which includes four subscales: attitudes, knowledge, skills, and supervisor‐supervisee relationship (Table 1).
Cross‐Ethnicity Effect (Face Recognition)
Authors: Stepanova Elena V.
Published: October 2013

The
cross‐ethnicity
effect or
own‐ethnicity effect
, also commonly referred to as the
cross‐race effect
or
own‐race effect
, generally refers to a tendency for people to recognize/identify more accurately faces of their ethnic group than members of other ethnic groups. It has been established across various ethnic and racial groups and appears to be very robust. For example, this effect has been found in European Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, White Europeans, Black Africans, Asians, and individuals of Middle Eastern, Israeli Jewish, Hispanic, and Canadian First Nation origins. Most of the research has been conducted with individuals of African (Black) and European (White) descent. This phenomenon has been well established in experimental settings as well as in field studies, and documented across various age groups, including children as young as three‐ to five‐year olds. Developmental research has suggested that even infants as young as nine‐month olds are capable of discriminating between own‐race faces, but not between other‐race faces.
Cultunit
Authors: Goldstein Susan B.
Published: October 2013

Defined
cultunit
or
culture‐bearing unit
as “People who are domestic speakers of a common distinct language and who belong either to the same state or the same contact group.” Naroll's concept of
cultunit
is perhaps the most detailed and comprehensive effort to address the question of how to define and identify a group of people with a shared culture; or, as expressed by biologist Ralph Gerard in a seminar attended by Naroll, “Exactly where is the skin of a culture?”
Cultural Anthropology
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Driscoll Elizabeth G.
Published: October 2013

Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology that deals with the social and cultural aspects of humanity. It specializes in exploring the roots of group customs, heritages, and traditions. It is a purposeful study of the cultural variations and similarities among societies and also what it means to be human within the context of a particular culture. Cultural anthropology encompasses the scientific study of the development of human cultures based on ethnographic, linguistic, kinship, ethnologic, and psychosocial information. It deals with human cultures, especially with respect to social structure, habits, law, politics, religion, magic, art, trade, industry, symbols, communal bonding, and organization.
Cultural Attribution Fallacy
Authors: Yoo Seung Hee
Published: October 2013

Cultural attribution fallacy occurs when researchers make cultural interpretations about differences found between countries without empirical justification. The most widely used cultural interpretation involves the cultural dimension Individualism‐Collectivism (IC). For example, if a researcher assumes, without linking differences to IC, that two countries differ on a psychological process because one country is an individualistic culture and the other is a collectivistic culture, the researcher is making a cultural attribution fallacy. This tendency is problematic because although the observed differences may well have occurred because of differences in IC, it may also be the case that the differences occurred because of other factors.
Cultural Cognition
Authors: Ng Reuben
Published: October 2013

Cultural cognition proposes that individual cultural predispositions influence the perception of risk, and appraisal of related facts. The Cultural Cognition hypothesis is predicated on the psychometric perspective and cultural theory of risk perception, and seeks to integrate them.
Cultural Identity
Authors: Chakkarath Pradeep
Published: October 2013

Cultural identity is a key term and major research topic of psychologists who adopt culturally sensitive approaches like cross‐cultural, cultural, and indigenous psychology. However, the meaning of the concept is unclear due to the fact that neither of the component concepts “culture” and “identity” has been defined consistently in the history of ideas or the history of science. As is well known, definitions of “culture” abound and vary from discipline to discipline. Similarly, in anthropology, philosophy, sociology, and psychology, “identity” is used interchangeably with terms like “self” or “person” and overlaps with terms like “personality,” “personhood,” “selfhood,” “individuality,” and even aspects of “autonomy.” Although these conceptual ambiguities need to be further examined, based on current research the following broad understanding of cultural identity or the
cultural self
can be suggested: If identity is seen as the sum total of psychological experience (e.g., sensations, thoughts, feelings, motives), which forms our understanding of our place, role, and meaning in the world, then cultural identity can be conceived of as the result of our co‐constructive interactions with the meanings, beliefs, thinking styles, practices, and traditions that are implicit in our social environment and considered essential for our perception of our place, role, and meaning in a given culture in comparison to other cultures. Thus, people often attribute their feelings and behavior as well as that of other individuals or groups to their respective cultural identity.
Cultural Ingroup Advantage Hypothesis
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Although emotion recognition in facial expressions is universal, there is evidence for a cultural ingroup advantage in emotion recognition. This refers to the tendency for individuals to more accurately recognize emotional expressions produced by members of their own culture rather than those produced by another. Researchers arguing for the existence of this effect have suggested that it occurs because of “emotion dialects” – culturally‐derived, minor variants of emotional expressions. Presumably, people are more accurate when judging such expressions because those expressions are differentially used in their culture. For instance, raising an eyebrow could be a sign of skepticism in one culture. If people of that culture judged expressions of people raising an eyebrow, they are likely to respond that the expression was one of skepticism. People from another culture, however, may not, because the expression may not be used in that culture, or it may have a different meaning in that culture.
Cultural Intelligence
Authors: Ng Reuben
Published: October 2013

Defined cultural intelligence (also known as cultural quotient; CQ) as an individual's capability to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings. CQ was proposed as a counter to typical one‐size‐fits‐all cultural training programs that assume similar cultural background and experiences in potential expatriates. In contrast, the CQ framework diagnoses one's cultural competence through the Cultural Intelligence Scale, and provides customized training.
Cultural Measurement Equivalence
Authors: Trimble Joseph E. , Vaughn Lanen
Published: October 2013

In cross‐cultural research, understanding and interpreting the influence of varying individual perspectives on psychosocial scales and standardized tests is the subject of much discussion. Many cross‐cultural psychologists further contend, “comparing elements from differing societies leads to inadmissible distortions of reality”. Comparative research, on ethnic and cultural levels, is burdened with these concerns of incomparability. Often, due to the frequency with which a scale is used, many have assumed the metric is equal between groups. These assumptions fuel findings that may be not only unjustified but also invalid. Sensitivity toward issues of cultural measurement equivalence has not been thoroughly cultivated throughout psychological discourse. By addressing these matters of cultural equivalence, we may dispel inaccurate notions regarding cultural research.
Culture and Personality School
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J. I.
Published: October 2013

Psychological anthropology has moved away from cross‐cultural study of modal personality and such topics as child rearing and has become less interested in psychoanalytic perspectives in comparative psychology. But the contemporary interest in finding common ground between the two disciplines goes back to the general notion of collective meaning structures, norms, and values influencing individuals’ beliefs and actions – to the era when anthropologists saw personality types as the product of cultural socialization. To comprehend the Culture and Personality School it is necessary to go back to the shifts in the meanings of the concepts of culture and personality.
Culture Shock
Authors: Goldstein Susan B.
Published: October 2013

Since the early 1970s, the term
culture shock
has been central to discussions of the sojourner experience. It has become a fundamental concept in cross‐cultural training, as well as in the scholarship and practice of anthropology, cross‐cultural psychology, and intercultural communication. The term
culture shock
may have been first used publicly by Cora Dubois in a 1951 speech to the Institute of International Education in which she described the cross‐cultural adjustment experiences of anthropologists engaged in fieldwork. She credited fellow anthropologist Ruth Benedict with originating the term. Kalvero Oberg first applied the term more generally to all individuals who travel across cultures. In a 1960 article, Oberg defined culture shock as “precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse”. His use of the term may have shaped early perceptions of culture shock as stigmatizing in that he presented it as a form of pathology to be avoided. For example, in a 1954 speech on culture shock to the Women's Club of Rio de Janeiro, Oberg used such disease‐related terms as “malady,” “afflicted,” “ailment,” “pain,” and “cure” to describe the process of adjusting to an unfamiliar culture.
Culture
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Scholars and laypersons alike use the words
culture
,
race
,
nationality
, and
ethnicity
interchangeably, as if they were all terms denoting the same concepts. They are not. Clearly, we use the word culture in many different ways in everyday language and discourse. Culture can be used to describe activities or behaviors, refer to the heritage or tradition of a group, describe rules and norms, describe learning or problem solving, define the organization of a group, or refer to the origins of a group. Culture can refer to: general characteristics; food and clothing; housing and technology; economy and transportation; individual and family activities; community and government; welfare, religion, and science; and sex and the life cycle. Thus, the concept of culture is used to describe and explain a broad range of activities, behaviors, events, and structures in our lives. It is used in many different ways because it touches on so many aspects of life.
Danziger, Kurt
Authors: Brock Adrian C.
Published: October 2013

Kurt Danziger (b. 1926) is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at York University in Toronto, Canada. He is a Fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) and the Royal Society of Canada. He received the CPA Education and Training Award in 1994, having played a major role in establishing the graduate program in history and theory of psychology at York University.
Darwin, Charles R
Authors: Simanke Richard Theisen , de Freitas Araujo Saulo
Published: October 2013

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, in 1809, and died in his house near the village of Donne (then part of the county of Kent), where he had lived, researched and written during the last 40 years of his life. Before becoming interested in natural history, Darwin had unenthusiastically studied medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland (1825–1828). After that, he moved to Cambridge to follow an education preparatory to the Anglican religious ministry (1828–1831). His personal and academic contacts with the geologist Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873) and the botanist John Henslow (1796–1861) enhanced his previous amateurish interest in natural history. Through a recommendation of the latter, Darwin obtained a position on the exploratory and scientific expedition of theHMS Beaglearound the world, at first as a personal companion of the commander, Captain Robert FitzRoy (1805–1865).
Dasen, Pierre R
Authors: Brisset Camille
Published: October 2013

Pierre Dasen (b. 1942) is a pioneer in cross‐cultural developmental psychology. He started his studies in developmental psychology at the University of Geneva, and after being an assistant to Jean Piaget from 1965 to 1967, he earned a Ph.D. in 1971 from the Australian National University, under the supervision of Gavin Seagrim.
Death Anxiety
Authors: Gire James T.
Published: October 2013

One of the few certainties in life is that once you are born, you are bound to die. This certainty does not make death a welcome thought, however. Thus, the most common response to the thought of one's death, or the death of other loved ones, is fear. Some researchers on this topic have suggested that the fear of death is a major motivator of much behavior, and can influence such behavior in both positive and negative ways. On the positive side, this viewpoint suggests that people who are afraid of dying tend to do whatever it takes to ensure that they stay alive. Staying alive contributes to the continuity and socialization of the species because people so driven are more likely to want to have children and to raise them according to their society's acceptable standards. However, the same death anxiety can become a destructive force and could even result in both physical and mental problems. High levels of death anxiety in older adults are associated with lower ego integrity and more physical and psychological problems relative to individuals with low death anxiety. Death anxiety is a multifaceted construct that is difficult to define but has been conceptualized to include: fear of death of oneself; fear of death of others; fear of dying of self; and fear of the dying of others.
Dialectical Thinking
Authors: Howe Katie , Goodman David M.
Published: October 2013

Dialectical thinking represents a method and approach to understanding causality and truth construction that eschews linear, unidimensional, and insulating discourses and ideologies. Inherent in dialectical thinking is a fundamental recognition that truth is not monadic, but relational. Truth, rationality, and subjectivity are defined by their positioning in relationship to alternative positions (e.g., “master/slave,” “male/female,” “immanence/transcendence”). Truth and rationality are emergent from the interaction and interface of difference. Conflicts and contradictions are viewed, in dialectical thinking, as the source of phenomena rather than depending on a static and logically coherent base. Truth emerges from dynamic interchange and through the construction and deconstruction of dualisms and position points.
Disaster Mental Health
Authors: Priya Kumar Ravi
Published: October 2013

A disaster is said to occur when a hazard (an event or physical condition with potential to cause loss of life, property, or environment) is realized and the losses incurred exceed the ability of the society to cope using its own resources. It is not just the disastrous event, but also its spiralling sociocultural and political consequences that can be traumatizing for the survivors.
Discrimination
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Dasgupta Deepta
Published: October 2013

Discrimination refers to the differential treatment of people as a function of their group membership. Because many people may experience discrimination over the course of their lives, discrimination is an extremely relevant topic within psychology. This entry defines discrimination, explains its causes and consequences, and describes discrimination in the context of cross‐cultural psychology.
Doob, Leonard W
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Leonard W. Doob, born in New York on March 3, 1909, was one of the world's leading students of the psychology of propaganda and of conflict resolution. Following a B.A. at Dartmouth College (1929) and an M.A. at Duke University (1930), Doob studied at the University of Frankfurt in Germany, where his interest in news propaganda led to a dissertation on the topic and a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1934. Beginning in 1935 he had a distinguished career at Yale University until his retirement in 1977, and subsequently continued as Sterling Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Yale.
Douglas, Mary
Authors: Ng Reuben
Published: October 2013

Mary Douglas was born on March 25, 1921 in San Remo, Italy and died May 16, 2007 in London, England. One of the most influential British social anthropologists, Douglas was author of more than 300 published works, including 15 books, and her ideas have garnered a wide following. As an indication, her 15 books generated more than 200 reviews in fields from management to medicine. For her contributions to social science and society, Douglas was elected to the British Academy in 1989, and awarded the
Commander of the Order of the British Empire
(CBE; 1992) and
Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire
(KBE; 2007). The latter conferred the title “Dame.”
Drenth, Pieter
Authors: van Hoorn Willem
Published: October 2013

Pieter Drenth was born on March 8, 1935 at Appelscha, the Netherlands. The major part of his academic career has been connected to the VU University at Amsterdam. At this university he studied psychology from 1953 to 1958 and received his Ph.D. in 1960. The subject of his doctoral study wasA psychological investigation into the motives of vocational choice. In 1962 Drenth was appointed as lecturer and in 1967 full professor in work and organizational psychology and psychodiagnostics. In 2006 he officially retired from his alma mater. His unusual talent for managing academic institutions culminated in his role as Vice Chancellor of the VU (1983–1987) and the highly acclaimed Presidency of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) from 1990 to 1996. In recognition of these academic achievements and other social service he was recognized as Royal Commander in the Order of Orange‐Nassau. Drenth received honorary doctorates, from the University of Ghent, Belgium (1981) and from the University René Descartes, Paris, France in 1996. He has supervised 40 Ph.D. dissertations. Drenth has worked in two main fields in cross‐cultural psychology: 1) cross‐cultural testing; and 2) comparative international research in organizational psychology.
Dual Inheritance Theory
Authors: Vauclair Christin‐Melanie , Fischer Ronald
Published: October 2013

Dual Inheritance Theory, or gene‐culture co‐evolution theory, proposes that human behavior is shaped by both biological and sociocultural inheritance systems with their own selective mechanisms and forms of transmission. Biological inheritance is shaped by the information contained in genes. Genetic evolution follows Darwinian laws of natural selection. Genetic mutations that provide an adaptive advantage for carriers in a specific environment are more likely to be passed on to future generations. To the extent that the environment remains stable, these traits then can eventually change the population's genetic makeup regarding this specific trait. This view has been dominant in biology and evolutionary psychology to explain behavioral diversity.
Emic‐Etic Approach
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Lambert Kimberly
Published: October 2013

Emic
and
etic
have been used in various fields such as linguistics, social science, research methods, and cross‐cultural psychology. Emic and etic were originally coined in 1954 by the linguist Kenneth L. Pike, from (phon)emic and (phon)etic respectively, to refer to two complementary ways of analyzing behavioral data. then adapted the use of emic‐etic to cross‐cultural psychology. Subsequently, researchers engaged in cross‐cultural psychological work have employed these two epistemologies, and scholars use these two different approaches to the study of human systems, psychology, and cultural differences.
Everyday Cognition
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle
Published: October 2013

Culture can impact the way an individual processes cognitive stimuli.
Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Gharib Afshin
Published: October 2013

Evolutionary psychology applies evolutionary theory to explain aspects of human thought and behavior. Evolutionary psychology begins with a few important assumptions: 1) the human mind is the product of a long evolutionary history; 2) for much of that history, our species lived in an environment (hunter‐gatherer groups on the savannas of Africa) very different from the environments most of us find ourselves in today; 3) therefore our minds have evolved as adaptations for survival in that ancestral environment (called the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness, or EEA); and 4) the mind is composed of many separate “modules,” each evolved to solve specific problems important in our EEA. These modules include mental processes for finding and keeping mates, competing with rivals, finding food, and other evolutionarily important skills.
Experiment
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

The word
experiment
has a specific meaning in psychological research that it does not have in some other disciplines. Psychologists consider a research study to be an experiment when the investigator can control assignment of participants to groups, as opposed to using existing characteristics of participants (e.g., ethnicity of the person) as the criterion for inclusion in a group. In addition, in an experiment, the researcher manipulates an independent variable, creating at least two groups in order to see whether an outcome measure, a dependent variable, changes as a function of the manipulation. In some sciences (e.g., astronomy), an experiment is any research project involving data collection.
Experimenter Effects
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

The goal of research is to identify predictable relations among variables. In experimental research, investigators seek causal connections; in correlational research, psychologists examine non‐causal associations. One phenomenon that can obscure actual relations among variables is experimenter effect, in which the researcher's intentional or inadvertent behaviors influence research participants. When the researcher's behavior influences participants, the validity of the data diminishes. Although psychologists use the term
experimenter
effects (or experimenter bias), the phenomenon can also occur in non‐experimental research designs.
Extreme Response Style
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Extreme response style (ERS) is the tendency to respond to questions on a Likert‐type scale by using response options on the ends of the continuum. ERS can involve either negative or positive responses, depending on the tendency to select either very low or very high values or points. Its obverse is middle (or middling) response style (MRS).
Eysenck, Hans Jürgen
Authors: Maynard Donna‐Maria
Published: October 2013

Hans Eysenck was born March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany to Eduard and Ruth Eysenck (stage name Helga Molander), who were actors. He died in London in 1997 at the age of 81. Following his parents’ divorce, Eysenck was raised by his maternal grandmother, eventually leaving Germany at age 18 when the Nazis came to power; as an active Jewish sympathizer, his life was in danger. He spent a year at the University of Dijon studying literature and history, and then moved on to England where, after taking prerequisite courses at Pitman College, he enrolled at the University of London. He completed the Ph.D. in 1940, working under the supervision of educational psychologist Sir Cyril Burt.
False Uniqueness Effect
Authors: Pope Jay W.
Published: October 2013

The false uniqueness effect refers to a tendency for people to underestimate the similarity and overestimate the distinctiveness of personal attributes and variables, compared to the general population. The distortions exhibited by the false uniqueness effect can reveal both positive and negative biases about the person making the estimates. For example, a man who is clinically depressed may not be aware that many other people experience grief and sadness throughout their lives, and thus may feel that his own suffering is more severe than the suffering of others. In contrast, some students with high grade averages may overestimate the extent to which their scholastic achievements qualify them for admission to a competitive university, because they are not aware of the many equally qualified applicants applying to the same institution.
Field Independence
Authors: Hood Kristina , Belgrave Faye Z.
Published: October 2013

Field independence is a cognitive style that is characterized by an analytic cognitive orientation. An analytic cognitive orientation is a way of thinking that involves rule‐based categorization of objects, a narrow focus in visual attention, attributional bias toward internal causation, and the use of formal logic in reasoning. This type of thinking is usually contrasted with holistic cognition. Holistic cognition is characterized by thematic and group‐based categorization of objects, a focus on contextual information and relationships in visual attention, and an attributional bias toward external causes. Field independence is also associated with preferences for individualist problem‐solving, formal rule‐based logic reasoning, and individual responsibility. People who are field independent tend to perceive items from the external world as discrete objects.
Figurative Cultures
Authors: Dutch Susan E.
Published: October 2013

The term
figurative
, as it pertains to culture, was first used by Margaret Mead to describe the process of cultures preparing for the future and adapting to change. According to Mead, how this process transpires varies with the rate of cultural change. Because cultures may change either imperceptibly, moderately quickly, or extremely rapidly, three types of cultures are proposed: postfigurative, cofigurative and prefigurative, respectively. In all cases, three generations (children, parents, and grandparents) are assumed to be needed to learn to adapt to environmental variations; however, which generation provides the model for dealing with the future will differ as the pace of cultural change escalates.
Focus Group
Authors: Gondim Sonia Maria Guedes , de Freitas Araujo Saulo
Published: October 2013

Focus group research is a method in which a setting is created for social interaction among four to twelve people, with the purpose of discussing a particular topic, guided by a moderator. It is included in the category of group interviews, although it is distinguished by the interviewer‐interviewee relationship, the structuring of the procedures, and the directiveness of moderator style. Having great popularity in the marketing area since the 1950s, only in the last 20 years has its popularity increased more broadly in the social sciences. despite a few books and articles on focus group methodology having been published in the 1980s, the number of empirical articles grew mainly beginning in the 1990s, when the publication level surpassed 200 annually and expanded into diverse areas.
Formal Operations
Authors: Thompson Dennis , Aysan Ferda
Published: October 2013

In his early work Jean Piaget (1896–1980) concentrated on cognitive development during infancy and childhood. It was not until the publication of
The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence
that he discussed in detail cognitive development during adolescence and the stage known as formal operations. At that time he maintained that the stages of cognitive development were invariant in sequence and universal. Only one other work was devoted to formal operations, which was published many years later in the journal
Human Development
. For Piaget formal operations includes abstract reasoning, and the ability to see multiple possibilities when solving a problem. When a child enters formal operations, which Piaget originally argued begins at about age 11 years, thought also becomes increasingly logical and flexible.