bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Evolution and Implications of the U.S. Food Security Act of 1985
Authors: Spitze R.G.F.
Published: January 2020

The Food Security Act of 1985 sets the United States (U.S.) policy course for the five years, 1986–1990, in the areas of farm product prices and farmer incomes, agricultural production, food aid, and trade in agricultural products. It is clearly an evolution of past policy, deeply rooted in the institutional processes of participatory policymaking. The Act will have important implications for not only domestic producers, consumers, agribusinesses, and taxpayers, but alto product agricultural exporters and importers around the world. Just as it was substantially, affected by the current loss of export markets and the economic crisis in the U.S. agricultural sector, its implementation and impacts will be affected in the future by the unpredictable weather, macroeconomic conditions around the world, and international trading policies. This article examines the development of the policy embodied in the Act and analyzes its primary economic implications.

Although most provisions of the U.S. agricultural price and income policy that had evolved over the past half century were continued, important changes were made. The resulting policy closely mirrored the preferences revealed from research concerning farmers and leaders of national agricultural and food interest groups. Primary changes from the previous 1981 Act were: lengthening the duration to five years; substantial lowering of the minimum price support levels; permitting a gradual decline in the minimum target prices; providing for a whole dairy herd buyout program; establishing export enhancement initiatives through credit, promotion, and export payment‐in‐kind (PIK); and initiating major efforts to increase farmland conservation and withdrawal of fragile lands from production.

Likely implications of the new Act include: (1) lower product prices for agricultural producers around the world, and also farmer incomes if there is no income protection from national policies; (2) a similar but a less proportionate impact on consumers; (3) a substantial burden on the U.S. Treasury, and possibly those of the other nations as well, depending upon the type of policies followed; and (4) likely intensification in the immediate future of the economic conflicts and negotiations between major agricultural trading nations of the world.

Research played a vital role in the development of the U.S. 1985 Act. Given the turbulent, uncertain, and important nature of the agricultural and food sector in the world, research is challenged to provide more and better knowledge for future policymaking.
Spatial Organization of Marketing Facilities in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Oilseeds in Sudan
Authors: Baldwin E. Dean , Babiker Babiker I. , Larson Donald W.
Published: January 2020

Little attention has been devoted to the study of spatial organization of marketing facilities in developing countries, even though such studies would be most useful for a wide range of marketing problems. The results of such studies could be valuable to private and public decision‐makers in developing countries whose policies and decisions determine the number, size and location of marketing facilities. The spatial organization model developed in this paper for application to the oilseeds industry in Sudan demonstrates the relevance of this research technique for developing country studies of marketing facilities. A linear programming transshipment model is utilized to determine the optimal spatial organization of oilseeds in Sudan when the costs of oilseed assembly, processing and distribution of oil and cake to final destinations are considered simultaneously. The optimal spatial organization of oilseed processing plants was determined for six alternative solutions. Model results indicate that the optimal organization of processing plants would be obtained with fewer and larger plants, resulting in lower transportation costs.
Labour‐Related Structural Trends in South African Maize Production
Authors: Van Zyl J. , Vink N. , Fényes T.I.
Published: January 2020

The substitution of capital goods, including new technology, for land and labour has played an important role and has influenced the structure of Sout African agriculture.

Farm labour‐related trends in the summer rainfall grain‐producing area of South Africa are considered. The amount of labour used, the remuneration of labour, the substitution of capital for labour and productivity trends are analyzed. Growth rates were obtained by fitting exponential functions with time as independent variable. The decline in the number of farm employees per 1000 hectares under cultivation since 1970 probably resulted from mechanization and thus capital‐labour substitution in maize production, especially in harvesting. Tax concessions on new capital improvements, the subsidization of agriculture in general and the increasing rate of urbanization contributed to this trend.

The scarcity of capital relative to unskilled labour, which has been reinforced by policy measures favouring capital intensity (capital formation has increased by 4.0% per annum between 1950 and 1980, compared with an increase of 0.71% per annum in the number of farm employees in the same period); this implies that corrective policy changes are required to improve the present distorted situation.

This will enable the commercial agricultural sector of South Africa to play a more meaningful role in the socio‐economic development of the whole subcontinent.
Wheat and Maize Price Policies in Hungary: Tradeoffs between Foreign Exchange and Government Revenue
Authors: Braverman Avishay , Hammer Jeffrey S. , Morduch Jonathan J.
Published: January 2020

This paper reports on a methodology designed to examine the effects of selected agricultural policies in Hungary. The purpose of the paper is twofold. The first is to explain the methodology, dubbed multi‐market analysis in previous work, which is implemented on personal computers to support discussions on policy reforms.

The second is to examine wheat and maize policies in Hungary. While the model is constructed to focus on these policies, it will also be possible to outline ways to use the model to address other problems.
The U.S. Demand for Imported and Domestically Produced Foods: An Investigation of Intertemporal and Substitution Effects
Authors: Isard Peter , Lowrey Barbara , Swamy P.A.V.B. , Conway Roger
Published: January 2020

This article extends the literature on time series estimation of U.S. consumer demand by presenting a coherent theoretical structure with a multi‐period planning horizon for consumer choice and a more general treatment of the aggregation problem that allows the possibility that consumers' tastes change over time and vary across individuals. Based on our theoretical model, an econometric model is used to obtain estimates in a multi‐period context of U.S. demand for imported foods and domestically produced foods. The hypothesis that current purchases depend on expected future prices is supported by the empirical results for imported foods.
What do Agricultural Income and Productivity Measurements Really Mean?
Authors: Schmitt Günther H.
Published: January 2020

Statistical data on labour productivity and income in agriculture reveal large discrepancies between various EC member states, both with respect to their absolute levels and in relation to non‐farm productivity and income in the respective countries. Insofar as they appear to reflect the failure of markets in allocating agricultural resources efficiently, and seem to be inconsistent with conventional wisdom concerning structural adjustment of agriculture, however, it can be seen that those data are misleading to a large extent. Based on a simple model of optimal time allocation between farm and non‐farm activities of members of farm households, it is demonstrated that farm labour productivity and income must be different according to differences in the relation of farm to non‐farm labour supply. The implications concerning international, interregional, intersectoral and intertemporal comparisons of income and productivity are discussed as well as the relevance of market failure in agriculture.
The Calculation of Returns to Research in Distorted Markets
Authors: Oehmke James F.
Published: January 2020

Most of the empirical literature calculating rates of return to publicly sponsored research assumes that research is the only relevant government intervention. For most countries this assumption is untenable. This paper shows that improperly measuring government induced market distortions can severely bias research rate of return calculations. If the interaction between successful research and other government interventions increases the cost of the other interventions, then neglecting market distortions unambigously increases the calculated rate of return.

Three examples of government induced distortions show that the magnitude of the upward bias in calculated rates of return can be extremely large ‐ in some cases more than 100 percentage points. A normative implication is that governments should account for interactions between research and price interventions when determining research support levels. A positive implication is that existing government research funding patterns are more readily explainable as reasonable behavior by a government that accounts for these interactions.
International Supply Response
Authors: Peterson Willis
Published: January 2020

Long‐run aggregate agricultural supply elasticities obtained from conventional supply functions fitted to time series data tend to be relatively inelastic in the range of 0.1 to 0.4. I argue that these estimates substantially understate the true long‐run supply response in agriculture. Because of the lack of international input price data, implicit output/input price ratios are estimated from a production function assuming profit maximization. The estimation of an aggregate supply function utilizing these price ratios yields long run aggregate supply elasticities in the range of 0.90 to 1.19. These figures are substantially larger than those obtained from conventional supply functions fitted to time series data, but correspond closely to estimates reported in an earlier crosscountry study that used different price data for different points in time. The results imply that policies which distort domestic and/or world market prices of agricultural products cause greater output distortions in both the DCs and LDCs than are predicted by the small supply elasticities obtained from conventional supply estimation.
Agricultural Supply Response: A Survey
Authors: Rao J. Mohan
Published: January 2020

This paper surveys the literature on agricultural supply response to prices in developing countries. Empirical estimates of elasticities depend both on the methodology adopted and on country‐specific factors relating to technology, economic structure and macro constraints. The paper seeks to establish some general conclusions on supply responsiveness within these limitations. Supply response to output prices at the aggregate and at the crop levels is considered first. Crop‐specific acreage elasticities range between zero and 0.8 in the short run while long‐run elasticities tend to be higher — between 0.3 and 1.2. Yield elasticities are smaller and less stable than acreage elasticities. Clearly, inter‐crop pricing can be relied upon to effect shifts in the commodity composition of agricultural output. Evidence also suggests that supply elasticities vary systematically with such factors as price and yield risks, multiple‐cropping, the importance of the crop, farm incomes, farm size, tenancy and literacy. The most controversial and important aspect of supply response is the effect on aggregate agricultural output of agriculture's terms of trade. Conventional time‐series estimates range from 0.1 to 0.3. A major cross‐country study reports an aggregate elasticity as high as 1.66. It is argued that cross‐country estimates are apt to exaggerate aggregate responsiveness while time‐series studies underestimate it somewhat. For LDCs, a tentative range of 0.4 to 0.5 seems plausible. Hence, the distributive effects of the terms of trade are likely to be more significant than the allocative effects. Asian evidence shows that only a third of the inter‐country differences in fertilizer use can be attributed to fertilizer price policies. Provided new technologies and infrastructure are in place, fertilizer subsidies can help in technology diffusion and in overcoming credit constraints. The choice between price supports and input subsidies will depend on a variety of country‐ or situation‐specific factors. Nevertheless, a significant general factor favoring price supports is that they can more easily be coupled with price stabilization goals than input subsidies. Though sparse, the available evidence on the response of marketed surplus suggests that price policy is not a reliable instrument for regulating inter‐sectoral trade.
Effect of Sugar Price Policy on U.S. Imports of Processed Sugar‐containing Foods
Authors: Jabara Cathy L.
Published: January 2020

The relationship between U.S. and world sugar prices, and U.S. import demand for four categories of sugar‐containing products is examined. Results from econometric estimation indicate that U.S. intervention in the sugar market has helped to increase U.S. imports of some sugar‐containing products, but that increased disposable income has played a more important role. Although some developing countries have benefitted from U.S. sugar policy by increasing their exports of sugar‐containing products to the United States, U.S. sugar policy has helped imports from developed countries proportionately more than those from developing countries as a whole.
Development Assistance and Exports: The Case of the United States
Authors: Cummings Ralph W. , Dalrymple Dana G.
Published: January 2020

The relationship of development assistance and exports has been a controversial subject in recent years. U.S. public organizations feel that development assistance, particularly for research, while intended primarily and immediately to encourage economic development in low‐income nations, will also help increase the effective demand for agricultural exports. Some commodity‐oriented U.S. farm groups, on the other hand, see assistance primarily in terms of leading to increased competition for exports of their product. They would have the U.S.A. provide less international support for agricultural development and they have had some influence. While there has been considerable debate on the subject, this has not yet resulted in the development of an enlightened national policy. The paper attempts to sort out the facts and perceptions that have led to this situation and to provide some policy suggestions. Two important needs are for: (a) greater public understanding, and (b) strengthened domestic research and improved linkages between domestic and international research activities. Paradoxically, the latter point tends to be overlooked by some of the farm groups but is essential if the U.S. is to remain competitive in what is likely to become a more open international market in the future.
Role of Tractors, Tubewells and Plant Breeding in Increasing Cropping Intensity in Pakistan's Punjab
Authors: Tetlay Khaleel , Byerlee Derek , Ahmad Zulfiqar
Published: January 2020

Cropping intensity in the cotton‐wheat areas of Pakistan's Punjab is well below its potential, and also significantly lower than in neighbouring areas of India's Punjab. Analysis of annual cropping intensity indicates that access to irrigation water is the major factor explaining differences in cropping intensity in a cross‐section of farmers. Ownership of a tractor plays a lesser role in increasing cropping intensity, although official credit policy has emphasized tractorization over investments in tubewells. Analysis of season‐specific cropping intensity also indicates that lack of appropriate varieties for double cropping also constrain cropping intensity. It is estimated that cropping intensity could be increased by at least 30% through policies directed at improving water supplies and by promoting research on earlier varieties of cotton, maize and oilseeds.
Influence of Trade Policies on Price Integration in the World Beef Market
Authors: Dries Mark A. , Unnevehr Laurian J.
Published: January 2020

The article develops three hypotheses about how policy interventions in major trading nations influence price integration in the world beef market. Simple correlation coefficients, tests for significant differences between coefficients, and Granger causality tests are used to test the hypotheses. First, segmentation between prices in Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)‐free and FMD‐endemic countries is found, but it is much less than previously assumed. Second, European Community policies that closed the E.C. import market have isolated prices in the E.C. from other markets. These policies also led to greater integration among prices in FMD‐free and FMD‐endemic market segments by forcing exporters from both segments to compete directly in new import markets. Third, the U.S.A. is found to be the price leader in world beef markets, due not only to market size, but also to U.S. policies that allow transmission of price information from the U.S. market to the world market but not vice versa.
Empirically Testing the Law of One Price in an International Commodity Market: A Rational Expectations Application to the Natural Rubber Market
Authors: Goodwin Barry K.
Published: January 2020

The Law of One Price (LOP) is an important ingredient in theories of international trade and exchange rate determination. An important shortcoming of the existing empirical literature is that parity is typically assumed to hold contemporaneously. This overlooks the fact that international commodity arbitrage takes place over time as well as across spatially separated markets. Recognizing this fact, we expect to see parity holding for expected prices. A model which incorporates the expectations of commodity arbitragers is constructed and used to test the LOP in the natural rubber market. Results indicate that the inclusion of expectations may be of value when considering the LOP.
Peasant farmer behavior and cereal technologies: Stochastic programming analysis in Niger
Authors: Adesina Akinwumi A. , Sanders John H.
Published: January 2020

Peasant farmers in Sahelian West Africa adjust to rainfall uncertainties in the agricultural season by making decisions sequentially as a function of the evolving rainfall patterns. Understanding such flexibilities in farmer decision‐making is central to technology introduction. This paper determines how sequential decision‐making under weather uncertainty affects the adoption and farm‐level effects of cereal technologies in Niger. The study also draws policy implications for a price floor to arrest the substantial fall in cereal prices in good rainfall years when farmers have more grains to sell. The methodology used is Discrete Stochastic Programming. This paper shows that the ability of peasant farmers to adapt cropping and resource‐management strategies to the rainfall patterns is the basis for their survival in this high‐risk environment. Model results show that by (a) carrying a portfolio mix of varieties of varying maturities, and (b) making sequential decisions based upon rainfall expectations, farmers can adapt to the production uncertainties. Breeding programs should therefore be diversified to develop not only early‐maturing cultivars, but also improved intermediate and long‐season varieties.
Econometric analysis of expected price formation
Authors: Tada Minoru
Published: January 2020

The current report analyses the process of producers' expected price formation through the estimation of supply functions, using vegetables and green tea in Japan as an example.

At first, theoretical analysis shows that the factors which transform the producers' expected price formation from the lagged expectation to the rational expectation are as follows: decrease in information price, increase in managerial ability and/or organizational innovation, rightward shift of supply curve, and increase in price elasticity in supply curve.

Second, supply functions are estimated by using the price expectation formation which include the rational expectation and the lagged expectation as its extreme form.

Consequently, producers' price expectations were found to approach the rational expectations in the case of Chinese cabbage, lettuce and green tea, whose supply curves show high price elasticities, and whose producers' organizations gather price information and monitor the production more than other crops taken in this paper.
The West Bank olive market
Authors: El‐Jafari Mahmoud
Published: January 2020

An econometric model of the West Bank olive subsector was constructed for the period 1968‐85, to provide a means of assessing the technical and behavioural forces that regulate the supply of and demand for green olives. A system of demand‐and‐supply equations was estimated using the two‐stage least‐squares (2SLS) procedures. Farm prices of green olives were found to be significantly related to quantity and per‐head food expenditures. A reduced‐form solution to the structural model was derived to test the forecasting ability of the model to predict the endogenous variables when the exogenous variables are given. The model was used to determine the allocation of the West Bank olives which could maximize returns to growers. The model should be both a useful tool for policy makers and of practical value to decision makers in the olive industry.
Citrus blackfly in Florida: Eradication or bio‐control?
Authors: Tefertiller Kenneth R. , McKee Vernon C. , Perry Vernon G.
Published: January 2020

The citrus blackfly (CBF) invaded south Florida in January 1976. It was considered by scientists to be a major threat to the Florida citrus industry located in the central part of the state. The CBF was successfully contained in a 1000 square mile tri‐county quarantined area surrounding Ft. Lauderdale for several months before breaking out to an area near the commercial citrus production area.

During this time federal and state research agencies were evaluating a bio‐control approach involving two tiny wasps which were introduced in south Florida in 1976 by the United States Department of Agriculture. By late 1978 it had become clear to most of the leading scientists and some of the industry leaders that the spray program for eradication was failing and that research showed conclusively that the bio‐control agents (two wasps) could be a permanent solution to the problem.

After considerable deliberation, research administrators announced on 18 January 1979 that they were convinced that the CBF was under bio‐control and was no longer a threat to the citrus industry. Although there was some resistance to giving up the concept of eradication with a spray program, it was announced on 8 March 1979, that the regulatory agencies would abandon the initial goal of eradication for a containment program and in August 1979 all spray programs were terminated.

The bio‐control agents have successfully kept the CBF under bio‐control for 10 years. It was a low‐cost, environmentally sound solution of a serious threat to the Florida citrus industry.

The decision to support a bio‐control program was approved (although perceived by some to be risky in 1979) and resulted in millions of dollars in savings to the people of Florida. Furthermore, since the bio‐control agents continue to be well established in Florida at low levels, the state can be assured it will not be invaded again by CBF.

The success of the CBF bio‐control program engendered an increased credibility in this approach to management of other foreign pests. Increased emphasis on bio‐control research will lead to more applications in Florida as well as worldwide with benefits of cost saving and reductions to environmental degradation.
Modelling to support animal health control
Authors: Dijkhuizen A.A. , Renkema J.A. , Stelwagen J.
Published: January 2020

Animal Health Economics is a relatively new subject, being developed to provide a quantitative insight into the economic effect of disease and disease control in livestock. Research in this field is focussed on both the further development of a more solid scientific framework of concepts and methods and its applications in quantitative model calculations. Three issues are especially of interest: (a) the losses of disease, (b) the profitability of preventive measures, and (c) the replacement decision of individual affected animals. All three issues concern complex problems, which have to be studied under imperfect veterinary knowledge and under a high degree of uncertainty. In this paper the basic economic framework and its applications in the underlying field are discussed and illustrated.
On‐farm computers for farm management in Sweden: potentials and problems
Authors: Öhlmér Bo
Published: January 2020

The potential uses of on‐farm computers in management and the problems in these uses are analyzed. The analysis is based on a study of present uses of on‐farm computers in Sweden. The results are compared with experiences from other countries.

On‐farm computer owners use almost the same management methods as before the computer investment. The main difference is that they used to hire service organizations to do some of the management tasks and now they are doing it by themselves with the aid of the computer. Thus, the on‐farm computer owners have to have the same knowledge level as the service agents and advisers.

The use of on‐farm computers has so far affected the processing and storage of data for farm management purposes. A potential next step is communication of data from external computer systems at suppliers, customers, advisers and other farmers as well as automated data capture within the farm. One hindrance for this development is the lack of standardization of data and concept definitions. If this potential was realized the marginal costs of data and information would decrease. It would be profitable to use more information in the farm management, i.e. to develop the farm management functions. When farmers develop their management methods they will need still more knowledge. Service agents and advisers would have to change from doing management tasks for farmers to teaching farmers how to do these tasks and supporting farmers in the interpretation and analysis of information.
Concept and implementation of an integrated decision support system (IDSS) for capital‐intensive farming
Authors: Wagner P. , Kuhlmann F.
Published: January 2020

During the evolutionary process of developing software for management tasks, the need for integration became more and more obvious. This paper discusses how integrated information processing can be accomplished to support the managerial functions. Based on the concepts of control theory principal schemes of comparison possibilities and deviation analysis are shown. The philosophy behind the design of an integrated decision support system (IDSS), the on‐farm implementation, and the integration problems of hardware and software are discussed. The applied IDSS consists of several planning and controlling models. These models and the linkages between them are described in detail.
Impact and implications of price policy and land degradation on agricultural growth in developing countries
Authors: Zhao Fengkun , Hitzhusen Fred , Chern Wen S.
Published: January 2020

In many developing countries, a high proportion of the population resides and works in rural areas. Agriculture is the dominant sector in rural areas and has the greatest concentration of poverty: landless workers, small tenant farmers, and small farm owners. Thus, any development strategy that is directed towards increasing employment and alleviating a country's hunger must concentrate on sustainable agricultural growth.

Historically, economic development in most countries has been based on exploitation of natural resources, particularly land resources. Soil erosion and land degradation have been serious worldwide. Due to reasons such as high population pressure on land and limited fossil energy supplies, land degradation is generally more serious in the developing world. Empirical studies show that soil erosion and degradation of agricultural land not only decrease the land productivity but they can also result in major downstream or off‐site damage which may be several times that of on‐site damage.

In promoting industrialization, governments of many developing countries adopt a package of price and other policies that reduce agricultural production incentives and encourage a flow of resources out of agriculture. Increasing evidence shows that these policies cause a substantial efficiency or social welfare loss, and a great loss in foreign exchange earnings. In addition, a World Bank study on the effect of price distortions on economic growth rates concluded that neither rich resource endowments, nor a high stage of economic development, nor privatization are able to make up the adverse effects caused by high price distortions.

This analysis is primarily concerned with identifying the factors that determine the agricultural production growth rate and in testing the effects these factors have on agricultural growth in developing countries. Specifically, this study involves statistical estimation of an aggregate agricultural growth function based on cross‐country data for 28 developing countries. Special attention is devoted to land degradation and agricultural pricing policy, and to the policy implications resulting from the effects these variables have on agricultural and food production growth.

The overall results of this study show that price distortions in the economy and land degradation had statistically significant negative impacts while the change in arable and permanent land was positively related to the growth of agricultural production and food production in 28 developing countries from 1971 to 1980. These results emphasize the importance of ‘getting prices right’ and implementation of sustainable land and water management practices if future growth in food and agricultural output is to be realized and sustained in developing countries.
Changes of the rice distribution and the functions of the food control system in Japan
Authors: Mishima Tokuzo
Published: January 2020

Japan's Food Control System was established in 1942 during World War II in order to cope with the shortage of food. The system has been maintained in order to secure a stable supply of rice, a staple food and key crop in the country. The functions and roles of this system change gradually according to fluctuations in the rice market. Since the establishment of the ‘voluntary rice‐marketing system’ in 1969, Japan's marketed rice has been classified into the following three types: (1) Government‐marketed rice (GM rice): the government purchases from rice growers and sells to wholesalers. (2) Voluntarily marketed rice (VM rice): rice assemblers' organizations sell directly to wholesalers. (3) Freely marketed rice (FM rice) which is an illegal practice. Recent trends have witnessed decreased sales of GM rice and increases in the sales of VM and FM rice, thus resulting in the weakening of government control of the rice supply.

The goods markets for VM rice instituted in 1990 introduced to a greater degree the market mechanism of price controls for rice. At the same time, the government's control of rice distribution was relaxed to allow new access to rice dealers and to promote free trade between sellers and buyers. Although the Food Control System in Japan has changed significantly, it will be retained since it protects the rice supply and paddy field agricultural system.
A continuing evolution in U.S. agricultural and food policy ‐ The 1990 Act
Authors: Spitze R.G.F.
Published: January 2020

This paper reports the results of a study of the economic content and the decision‐making process of the recently adopted U.S. 1990 agricultural and food policy. It is the most comprehensive policy of its type. It represents the broadest participation of private individuals and interests groups, and will affect the economy of not only the United States, but also the ***economies of trading countries around the world.

The study examines the economic conditions leading up to the policy, a theoretical foundation of public policy determinants, the role of economic analysis in that policy development, the provisions of the Act compared with the previous policy, and its extensive economic implications. Results of the study support features of a conceptual framework for economic policy of a participatory government. The study also reveals the unique policy process of the United States and the provisions of its price and income policy for the food and agricultural sector.

Finally, this article identifies the interrelations between the 1990 policy and on‐going GATT negotiations, the emerging importance of environmental and food quality issues in agricultural and food policy, and sources for further study of this Act.
Incorporating risk in the economic analysis of agronomic trials: fertilizer use on barley in Syria
Authors: Mazid Ahmed , Bailey Elizabeth
Published: January 2020

In the drier areas of Syria yields of barley, the principal crop, are low. Due to the variability in rainfall, fertilizer use is perceived as risky. Barley‐fertilizer trials have been conducted on farmer's fields over a period of four years to investigate whether the large yield response to fertilizer observed on research sites could be achieved under farmers' conditions. Data were pooled across years and sites and response functions estimated.

Simple optimization analysis shows that economic optimum fertilizer rates vary considerably with rainfall and relative prices. Historical rainfall data are combined with the estimated response functions, and stochastic dominance analysis is used to compare the riskiness of fertilizer treatments in terms of net benefits and benefit‐cost ratios. Results show that, given the estimated expected rainfall in barley producing areas, fertilizer use, especially at low levels, may not be as risky as has been believed. Extensions of the methodology to include other environmental variables, or to target recommendations, are discussed.
Effects of adjustment of the green drachma to its current exchange rate
Authors: Baltas Nicholas C.
Published: January 2020

Between 1981 and 1988, the drachma has devalued by 62.5% against the ECU. Until mid‐1985 any devaluation of the drachma was followed by a corresponding devaluation of the ‘green drachma‘. After that period, the green rate either remained unchanged or changed by a substantially smaller percentage, resulting in farmers' income loss and consumers' gain.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the welfare effects on production/producer, consumption/consumer and budgetary flows from and to FEOGA assuming that an adjustment of the green drachma to its current exchange rate was realized. For this purpose partial analysis methodology is employed.

The main findings are that, following a simultaneous adjustment of both rates, the gains to producers and in exchange flows more than make up for the corresponding consumers' losses for all products except beef.
Application of stochastic dominance criteria to evaluate bean production strategies in Central Province, Zambia
Authors: Bezuneh Mesfin
Published: January 2020

Beans are the most important relish crop in the farming systems of Serenje District in Central Province, Zambia. Both leaves and dried beans are major food sources for home consumption, and dried beans have a commercial value in the system. Given this dual role, increasing bean yields would improve family nutrition as well as economic returns to capital and labor invested. However, low levels of production have been recorded over the years due to the use of local bean varieties, low fertility, and inadequate pest control. As a result, on‐farm research on beans was carried out for four years to identify bean varieties and management strategies that would result in higher yields and economic returns.

In this paper, the results of the four years on‐farm research were analyzed using stochastic dominance efficiency criteria in order to determine the most risk‐efficient production management strategies. The result indicated that the Brazilian bean variety Carioca, when used in combination with fertilizer and insecticide, performed best for the traditional and small‐scale farmers in Serenje District who are usually highly averse to risk.
Effects of international shocks and domestic macroeconomic policies upon Brazilian agriculture
Authors: Barros Geraldo S.A. Camargo
Published: January 2020

An identified vector‐autoregressive model is used to analyze the transmission of external commodity shocks to the Brazilian economy. The effects of the interaction between domestic macroeconomic (monetary and exchange rate) policies and external shocks to agricultural commodity (raw material and food) prices and crude oil price upon domestic (agriculture/industry) terms of trade are estimated.
Impacts of feed ingredient subsidy removal and concurrent trade liberalization in Tunisia
Authors: Kristjanson Patricia , Tyner Wallace E.
Published: January 2020

This article summarizes findings from a recent agricultural policy study examining the impacts of trade liberalization and removal of feed ingredient subsidies in Tunisia. A linear programming model was used to simulate private sector response to these policy changes. Increased feedgrain prices result from subsidy removal but effects are lessened if subsidy removal is coupled with trade liberalization. Induced long‐term effects are improved efficiency in production of feedgrains, feedgrain substitutes, and livestock.
Gini's coefficient of mean difference as a measure of adoption speed: theoretical issues and empirical evidence from India
Authors: Jansen Hans G.P.
Published: January 2020

This paper represents a variant on the empirical analysis of technological adoption by Griliches. It follows up on previous research regarding the potential of the Gini coefficient of mean difference as a distribution‐free measure of adoption speed. A formal proof is supplied for the derivation of an empirically workable definition of the Gini. Data regarding the uptake of high‐yielding wheat varieties in India are used to compare the performance of the Gini relative to that of the logistic and Weibull adoption speed coefficients. The results suggest that, for the purpose of ex‐post analyses of monotonically increasing adoption processes, use of the Gini in measuring adoption speed can result in a better explanation of aggregate adoption behavior.
Willingness to pay for pST‐treated pork
Authors: Elnagheeb Abdelmoneim H. , Florkowski Wojciech J. , Huang Chung‐Liang , Halbrendt Catherine
Published: January 2020

The progress in porcine somatotropin (pST) application justified an assessment of consumer acceptance of pST‐treated pork. A survey of the Atlanta metropolitan area, USA, collected information about consumer attitudes toward lean pork produced with biotechno‐logically developed pST. A qualitative dependent variable model was used to identify socioeconomic consumer characteristics influencing the willingness to pay for lean pork. The model was modified to account for the selectivity bias of the sample data.

Results indicate that frequent pork consumers were willing to pay more for lean pork produced using pST in contrast to respondents who frequently ate beef, were older, and had relatively high income.

Probabilities associated with the willingness to pay a specific premium were calculated. In general, the average respondent was willing to pay an additional 18¢ per kg of lean pork produced using pST.
Improvement strategies for farming systems in the Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia
Authors: Emana Bezabih , Storck Harmen
Published: January 2020

Eleven distinct farming systems were distinguished, based on selected indicators and locations. The indicators involve the resource basis, cropping pattern and intensity, and the major activities including off‐farm work. Statistical tests were used to verify the differences. Accounting for the given constraints and for the interdependences of the system's components, strategies are developed to improve their poor economic performance.

A linear programming model is used to evaluate the effects on farm performance of (a) reallocating the existing farm resources, and (b) introduction of improved technologies. The type of relationship among the elements of the farming system determines the overall outcome of any improvement effort. Groundnut and livestock production are highly competitive. A package of technological innovations is needed to achieve a major improvement on the smallest farms.
Resource allocation and productivity of cereal state farms in Ethiopia
Authors: Mirotchie Mesfin , Taylor Daniel B.
Published: January 2020

Using a translog production function, cereal production on state farms in Ethiopia between 1980 and 1985 was analyzed. The farms were found to be operating at constant returns to scale. Manual labor was under‐utilized, while machinery and other modern inputs were over‐utilized. Elasticities of substitution between labor and these over‐utilized inputs were low.
Efficiency of small‐scale farmers in Ethiopia: a case study in the Baso and Warana sub‐district
Authors: Belete Abenet , Dillon John L. , Anderson Frank M.
Published: January 2020

The objective of this study is to explore the possibilities of improving production and income on small farms through better allocation of resources. It pertains to the area that represents the low potential cereal crops zone (LPCZ) of Ethiopian highlands in the Shoa region. The basic primary data were drawn from 50 randomly selected farms in the area, and secondary data were obtained from ILCA. LP and MOTAD are used as analytical tools. The results of the study indicates a substantial potential for increasing net farm cash incomes by efficient allocation of available resources under current level of technology.

The study further revealed that small‐scale farmers in the study area operate at a relatively higher risk under the existing situation than would be the case under an‐optimal situation. Thus, small‐scale farmers should allocate resources optimally not only to increase cash income but also to reduce risk.
Tactical responses to seasonal conditions in whole‐farm planning in Western Australia
Authors: Kingwell Ross S. , Pannell David J. , Robinson Stephen D.
Published: January 2020

In dryland agricultural systems, efficient farm management requires a degree of flexibility according to variations in climate from year to year. Tactical adjustments to the mix of farm enterprises can capitalize on good growing conditions and minimise losses under poor growing conditions. In this paper, a discrete stochastic programming model of dryland wheat‐sheep farms in Western Australia is used to identify optimal tactical adjustments to climate and to calculate the value of these tactical adjustments. The model, MUDAS, includes nine discrete season types with a wide range of options for tactical adjustments in each. In the standard model, optimal tactical responses increase expected net cash surplus by approximately 22% relative to a fixed or inflexible strategy. In most season types, changes to the long term farm strategy are made on less than 10% of the farm area, although in some seasons over 25% of the farm can require adjustments to the enterprise selected. The benefits of flexibility are not evenly distributed across different season types but occur predominantly in the best and worst seasons. The magnitude of benefits is affected differently by different commodity prices. Benefits of flexibility are due to capitalizing on knowledge about the greater volatility of profits from cropping than from livestock production. Deterministic models and even stochastic models which don't include activities for tactical adjustments miss this key feature of the system.
Estimating feed utilisation matrices using a cost function approach
Authors: Peeters Ludo , Surry Yves
Published: January 2020

In this paper a multiple‐output cost function framework is proposed to construct national feed balances or feed utilisation matrices (FUMs). The framework is applied to the Belgian compound feed industry. For estimation purposes a Symmetrie Generalised McFadden (SGM) cost function is selected. The cost function is estimated using readily available time‐series data for the period 1962–88. Unlike previous studies based on duality theory, this study exploits the properties of nonjointness in animal feed production to establish a complete FUM. The allocation of feed ingredients among different livestock categories as well as the composition of various compound feeds are identified. Also own‐ and cross‐price elasticities of demand for feed ingredients by type of livestock are reported.
Advanced breakeven analysis of agricultural enterprise budgets
Authors: Dillon Carl R.
Published: January 2020

Advanced conceptual techniques for breakeven analysis of agricultural enterprise budgets are developed and applied. Breakeven points of a single agricultural enterprise, breakeven points between enterprises, and elasticities of breakeven points between enterprises are defined and mathematically derived. Breakeven equations were reduced to computational formulas for several budget components: output price, yield, input price, input requirement, variable cost, fixed cost, and total cost. Application of the advanced breakeven techniques provide evidence that both rice and wheat production seem especially desirable for the Arkansas Delta region in light of a fluctuating economic environment.
Demand for red meat, poultry, and fish in Morocco: an almost ideal demand system
Authors: Mdafri Abdellah , Brorsen B. Wade
Published: January 2020

There is a paucity of data and basic research needed for policy analysis in Morocco. Subjective estimates for elasticities are currently used in making policy recommendations. An Almost Ideal Demand System model is used to estimate demand elasticities for beef, mutton, poultry, and fish in Morocco. Mutton is shown to be a luxury good reflecting Moroccans' preference for mutton. Demand is shown to be more elastic than has been assumed in some past policy analyses.
Maize acreage response under differential prices in the Republic of Benin, West Africa
Authors: Honfoga Barthelemy G.
Published: January 2020

Price response of maize acreage in Benin was estimated with a particular emphasis on whether the prices were producer prices in rural markets or retail prices in urban markets. A second difference between prices was examined through a price adjustment model which takes into account the distortions caused by local units on maize price when one is concerned with the pricing system in the private marketing network relating rural and urban areas. Urban market price specification appeared to be the most relevant statistically in explaining acreage decisions in Mono province. Price elasticity of acreage was 0.445 in this area while its value, around 0.10, was not significant for Benin as a whole. The use of adjusted urban prices enabled an increase of 5.6% of the elasticity in Mono province.

The urban vs. rural difference was apparent, but the coefficients of the price variable were not significant in equations with rural prices. The latter were not as reliable as those of the urban market of Dantokpa (in Cotonou city) collected by the Institute of Statistics (INSAE) and the GTZ project.