bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Older People and Climate Change
Authors: Oven Katie , Wistow Jonathan , Curtis Sarah
Published: April 2019

Vulnerability to extreme weather events reflects the type, severity, and duration of the exposure, in addition to the attributes that make individuals and physical and social infrastructures susceptible to damage. Older populations are a demographic group likely to be at risk, despite their considerable capacity for adaptation and resilience. The vulnerability (and resilience) of older people significantly depends on the types and strengths of connections across complex systems of health and social care, upon which a substantial proportion of older people depend. In many areas of the world, there is growing emphasis on strategies to recognize, sustain, and strengthen this “nexus” of critical connections. This chapter considers people and climate change in a Western European context using illustrations from research in England, which focuses on the impacts of extreme weather events on the built infrastructure supporting older people’s health and social care delivery.
Resilience to Climate Change in Uganda
Authors: Lwasa Shuaib , Ford James D. , Berrang-Ford Lea , Namanya Didacus B. , Buyinza Ambrose , Nabaasa Benon
Published: April 2019

In Uganda, the Karamojong Pastoralist and Batwa forest pygmy communities are disproportionately affected by the increasing frequency and magnitude of climate change impacts. Though these communities have long-standing traditional systems to adapt to a changing climate, policymakers and researchers often disregard the adaptations. Programs in the Karamoja region aim to make pastoralism more resilient to climate change, but most ignore pastoralism’s resilience to climate variability and instead focus on changing livestock systems, reducing livestock numbers, adopting crop growing, and diversifying to other economic activities. On the other hand, Batwa forest pygmies have long adapted to climate change in tropical forests by integrating their health systems to the ecosystem. This chapter maps out the policy implications of resilience building in poor communities marginalized by public policy. Gaps, constraints, and opportunities are discussed, in addition to lessons from existing community adaptations that build resilience to climate change.
The Indigenous Climate–Food–Health Nexus
Authors: Harper Sherilee L. , Berrang-Ford Lea , Carcamo Cesar , Cunsolo Ashlee , Edge Victoria L. , Ford James D. , Llanos Alejandro , Lwasa Shuaib , Namanya Didacus B.
Published: April 2019

The health impacts of climate change are not evenly distributed among the global population. Indigenous peoples are expected to bear a disproportionate burden of the climate-related health impacts given their close relationship with and dependence on the local environment for subsistence and food security, as well as existing gradients in health and colonial legacies. To understand how climate change affects indigenous peoples’ health vis-à-vis food systems, this chapter profiles research conducted in partnership with three indigenous populations: Inuit in the Canadian Arctic, Batwa from the Ugandan Impenetrable Forest, and Shawi in the Peruvian Amazon. Drawing from data captured in cohort surveys, focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and a variety of participatory methods, this chapter characterizes climate-sensitive food-related health outcomes in each region. Finally, it examines the critical role of indigenous knowledge, equity, and research in health-related climate change adaptation.
Framing Gifts
Authors: Seligman Adam B. , Weller Robert P.
Published: April 2019

This chapter begins by discussing the long social scientific arguments over the nature of the gift. We proceed to analyze several cases of gift-giving to show how understanding the different ways of counting as the same help clarify both the literature and the social worlds created by giving, receiving, and giving again. We argue that gift-giving is not just crucial to the constitution of society but that the ways this is achieved differ when they are grounded as memory, mimesis, or metaphor. The chapter considers different kinds of gifts, from charity to beggars, to handing down family heirlooms, to a range of Chinese practices from drinking to vote-buying.
Memory, Metaphor, and a Double Bind
Authors: Seligman Adam B. , Weller Robert P.
Published: April 2019

Chapter 6 analyzes the workings of memory and metaphor as Jewish and Christian civilizational tropes. It focuses on the role of blood in both traditions to explicate the different understandings of past, present, and future within Judaism and Christianity. The analysis ranges from ancient to modern times and from religiously constituted communities to membership in the modern nation-state. The chapter ends with an exploration of the particular “double bind” aspect of Judeo-Christian relations that has plagued both right from their inception. This double bind is just one example of a much broader problem of living with differences that cannot be simply reconciled, but which we can learn to accept by recognizing the relevance of the grounds of memory, mimesis, and metaphor.
Conclusion
Authors: Seligman Adam B. , Weller Robert P.
Published: April 2019

The conclusion explains the challenges and opportunities of developing empathy out of the various ways of counting as the same. It explores the pervasive metaphor of citizenship in today’s world and how this has exacerbated our indifference to those we count as other. It argues that we need to free ourselves from any dogmatic insistence on the singular interpretation of our shared life as memory, mimesis, or metaphor. Rather, we must accept the possibility of constant play and movement among all three grounds of sameness. As social beings, we need to remember that counting as the same always includes the possibility that we can count sameness in a new way.
Global Landscape and Local Contexts for Stakeholder Consultation
Authors: Hertel Shareen
Published: April 2019

Chapter 3 maps the scope of contemporary corporate stakeholder engagement practices across multiple regions and industrial sectors by analyzing data on 7,000 companies in the public database of the Business and Human Rights Resource Centre (BHRRC). The chapter describes the process by which the author and a team of research assistants coded over 11,000 units of BHRRC data using new techniques not previously available to researchers working with this same data source. In addition, this chapter lays out the field methodology central to the qualitative case studies in subsequent chapters. It lays out a rationale for case selection (i.e., of two manufacturing communities in the Dominican Republic where collegiate apparel is produced) and a description of the qualitative interview process that provides the basis for assessing local perceptions of the prospects for stakeholder consultation.
Policy Implications of Changes in Stakeholder Consultation
Authors: Hertel Shareen
Published: April 2019

Chapter 6 assesses the prospects for policy reform in the business and human rights field, pointing to the emergence of a worker-driven social responsibility (WSR) model distinct from conventional multi-stakeholder initiatives (MSI). The chapter compares the two approaches, analyzes their relative strengths, and argues for pragmatic yet bold new approaches to addressing human rights violations and community members’ right to remedy in the context of light manufacturing. The chapter draws on original participant observation data from a 2017 international conference on these themes, along with primary and secondary source data on emerging methods of community engagement underway in key business sectors within the United States, Bangladesh, and several other settings. It helps place the Dominican cases and the large-N data explored in other chapters in a broader policy framework, drawing special insights from systems engineering theory on problem-solving in failure-prone settings.
Epilogue
Authors: Hertel Shareen
Published: April 2019

The epilogue summarizes the main findings of the book and explores their broader implications for political science theory, public policy, and corporate supply chain management. It highlights the need for a broad range of data on stakeholder dialogue, from historical to quantitative to qualitative (such as the trend analysis derived from Business and Human Rights Resource Centre data, and the insights of community members gathered through interviews in manufacturing towns, respectively). The epilogue foregrounds our fragile connections along the global supply chain and reiterates the need for innovative approaches to community engagement in settings where the risks of economic rights failure are high but the rewards of more just and equitable development are potentially deep.
Introduction
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

The introduction sets up the motivation for and organization of the book by looking at the relation between infinity and life that Leibniz presupposes in his distinction between natural and artificial machines (drawn in his “New System of the Nature and Communication of Substance,” 1695). The author observes that infinity serves Leibniz as a mark of living beings, which calls for an investigation of the way he uses infinity in his philosophy. Why does Leibniz use infinity and life so extensively in his metaphysics, and why does their conjunction play such an important role in his philosophy? The author surveys the background against which infinity comes to play an important role in the life sciences. He suggests that Leibniz attempts nothing less than a re-enchantment of a world that, in his view, had been left disenchanted by Descartes and Spinoza.
Introducing the Main Characters
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

This first chapter introduces the central concepts and distinctions that Leibniz uses in articulating his view of infinity. In other words, the author introduces the main players in this book. These include: Leibniz’s rejection of infinite number; his distinction between infinite being and infinite number; degrees of infinity; the distinction between actual and potential infinity; indivisibility; his syncategorematic approach to infinite terms; his distinction between infinite number and infinite series; the law of the series; and the distinction between primitive force and derivative force. The chapter’s aim is to present at the outset some of the terminology and concepts used in the book in order to present Leibniz’s approach to infinity—that is, to clarify the major resources needed in order to present his complex views. At the same time, this serves as a sketch of (what the author takes to be) Leibniz’s approach to infinity.
Leibniz Reads Spinoza
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

Having argued in chapter 2 that Leibniz was preoccupied with the difference between the notion of infinite number and that of the infinite being, in this chapter the author examines Spinoza’s solution to a similar problem. The gist of “Spinoza’s solution” is to distinguish between various kinds of infinity and, in particular, between one that applies to substance and one that applies to numbers, seen as auxiliaries of the imagination. Leibniz, the author argues, accepts this kind of approach and adapts it to his own purposes. Leibniz recasts Spinoza’s distinctions between different types of infinity (A 6.3:282; LLC 114–15) in terms of degrees of infinity. These degrees are (1) Omnia (absolute infinity), which applies to God alone; (2) Omnia sui generis, or maximum in its own kind; and (3) Infinitum tantum, or mere infinity, which applies to numbers and other entia rationis (in a syncategorematic sense).
Animate and Inanimate Things, Natural and Artificial Machines
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

According to Leibniz, the nested structure ad infinitum is the main intrinsic difference between a natural machine, which is God’s creation, and an artificial machine, which is a work of human art. The distinction turns on this: unlike an artificial machine, a natural machine remains a machine in the least of its parts. The author argues that Leibniz’s view of living beings turns on his peculiar usage of infinity in this context. He presents Leibniz’s response to Descartes’s attempt to use the distinction between artificial and natural machines in his reductive program and then develops both a structural and a functional reading of Leibniz’s notion of a natural machine. The author suggests that both readings (structural and functional) are not only compatible but also complementary, such that both illuminate Leibniz’s definition of a natural machine as a machine remaining a machine in the least of its parts.
Living Mirrors and Mites
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines Leibniz’s comment on fragment 22 of Pascal’s Pensées in the Port Royal Edition (currently Lafuma §199). Leibniz responds to Pascal’s employment of the infinitely large and infinitely small, and to the way he uses infinity to describe living beings, through the example of a mite (ciron). In contrast, Leibniz invokes the image of a living mirror (miroir vivant). The author argues that, in spite of superficial similarities, Leibniz’s use of infinity to define living beings stands in stark contrast to Pascal’s use of infinity, in that it stresses unity and harmony rather than divisibility and disparity. Leibniz’s use of infinity through the notion of a living mirror suggests that each individual forms an integral part of a well-connected and harmonious system. While Pascal uses infinity to highlight our alienation and incomprehension of the world, for Leibniz, infinity serves instead as a mark of unity, connectedness, and belonging.
Created Things as Infinite and Limited
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

The chapter starts with Leibniz’s characterization of God, the most perfect Being, as infinite in a hypercategorematic sense—i.e. a being beyond any determination. In contrast to this, creatures are determinate beings; they are determinate and thus limited and particular expressions of the divine essence. However, for Leibniz, creatures are also infinite; thus, creatures are seen as infinite and limited. This leads to taking creatures to be infinite in kind, in distinction from the absolute and hypercategorematic infinity of God. The author presents three lines of argument to substantiate this point: (1) understanding creatures as entailing a particular sequence of perfections and imperfections; (2) understanding creatures under the rubric of an intermediate degree of infinity and perfection that, in 1676, Leibniz calls maximum or infinite in kind; and (3) observing that primitive force, a defining feature of created substance, may be seen as infinite in a metaphysical sense.
Monads at the Bottom, Monads at the Top, Monads All Over
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

This chapter contests a widely accepted reading of the role monads play as the most fundamental elements of reality. Garber (2009) argues that simple monads—seen as mindlike atoms without parts and extension—replace the corporeal substance of Leibniz’s middle period. The author argues that, for Leibniz, monads function not only as building blocks at the bottom level of composition (for aggregates) but also at the top as grounding the unity, and hence the being of complete substances and organic unities. Since Leibniz sees organic unities as natural machines with a nested structure that develops ad infinitum, and since he likens monads to living beings, this would imply that the use of the concept “monad” holds not only at the bottom and not only at the top but also in the entire range in between.
Life and Force
Authors: Nachtomy Ohad
Published: April 2019

This chapter highlights an important analogy between life and force. Just as Leibniz invokes force to account for the phenomena of motion in physics, in his life sciences he invokes the soul (or anima or entelechy) that must be presupposed as the ground for the phenomena of life. Indeed, Leibniz’s motivation in invoking the notion of a natural machine is precisely to limit the extension of mechanical philosophy and draw a line between living and nonliving things. This distinction does not turn primarily on physiological grounds but, rather, involves metaphysical considerations. Likewise, both the notion of force and the source of life, according to the author, must be understood metaphysically. In both cases, these metaphysical principles are supposed to be compatible with a mechanical explanation of the phenomena of life. Nevertheless, the principle of life is a metaphysical principle that cannot be observed; only its consequences, the phenomena of life, are observable.
The Historical Neighborhood and Its Decline
Authors: Talen Emily
Published: April 2019

This chapter reviews what is known about how neighborhoods were laid out and experienced, before the city was fundamentally restructured by technological and social changes emerging out of the 19th century. To what degree was the neighborhood ever identifiable, serviced, diverse, and connected? Counteracting the often more ambiguous contemporary understanding of neighborhood requires drawing on a broad historical and global perspective. Interconnection, localized identity, human scale, adjacency, access, the need for a graspable spatial unit to belong to—these are the regularities of urban experience that establish a more durable foundation for the traditional concept of neighborhood. Historical examples of neighborhood are important precisely because neighborhood form emerged as a regular feature of urban experience all over the globe, despite profound differences in urbanization processes.
Neighborhoods and Segregation
Authors: Talen Emily
Published: April 2019

This chapter reviews the final, and most significant, debate about the neighborhood: its association with social segregation. Many have argued that the delineation of neighborhood is by definition a form of exclusion, and that if neighborhoods weren’t identified in the first place, there would be less emphasis on social sorting and who is “in” and “out” of the neighborhood. There is no denying that the neighborhood, especially the planned neighborhood unit, was and is associated with segregation, sometimes explicitly. Proposed resolutions of this debate are (a) to make neighborhood-scale social diversity an explicit policy goal and (b) to look for ways to successfully integrate smaller, more homogeneous neighborhoods set within larger, heterogeneous districts. In both cases, it is again the physically defined neighborhood rather than the socially differentiated neighborhood that provides an identity through which diversity can be embraced.
The Missing Martyrs
Authors: Kurzman Charles
Published: April 2019

Why are there so few Muslim terrorists? With more than a billion Muslims in the world—many of whom supposedly hate the West and ardently desire martyrdom—why don’t we see terrorist attacks every day? Where are the missing martyrs? Such questions may seem counterintuitive, in light of the death and devastation that terrorists have wrought around the world. But the scale of violence, outside of several civil war zones, has been far lower than the waves of attacks that the world feared in the wake of 9/11. Terrorists’ own publications complain about the failure of Muslims to join their cause. This book draws on government sources, public opinion surveys, election results, and in-depth interviews with Muslims in the Middle East and around the world to examine barriers to terrorist recruitment, including “radical sheik,” liberal Islam, revolutionary rivalries, and an inelastic demand for US foreign policy. This revised edition, updated to include the self-proclaimed “Islamic State,” concludes that fear of terrorism should be brought into alignment with the actual level of threat, and that government policies and public opinion should be based on evidence rather than alarmist hyperbole.
Radical Sheik
Authors: Kurzman Charles
Published: April 2019

In 1970, the American author Tom Wolfe coined a phrase to describe nonrevolutionary people who claim to support revolutionary causes: “radical chic.” This chapter applies the pun “radical sheik” to Muslims who considered al-Qaida and the self-proclaimed Islamic State to be anti-imperialist heroes, but did not actually support revolutionary violence. The more that the revolutionaries targeted Muslims, in an attempt to polarize society and drag the masses into battle, the less popular the revolutionaries became. Instead, Muslims turned in much larger numbers to the revolutionaries’ religious competitors, such as apolitical pietism, liberal Islam, and nonrevolutionary Islamism, all of which denounced terrorism.
Thoroughly Modern Mujahidin
Authors: Kurzman Charles
Published: April 2019

The self-proclaimed Islamic State is scornful of modern values, but it is still a thoroughly modern phenomenon. Like al-Qaida, its recruits are largely modern-educated. It adopts the latest technologies for recruitment and data-driven military strategies, and it created bureaucratic institutions in the territories under its control. These characteristics set it apart from the Taliban, whose militants have little modern education. Yet another set of Islamic revolutionaries are nationalist groups such as Hamas and Hizbullah that seek to build modern nation-states. Tensions among these groups form potential fissures that continually concern the terrorists, and that their opponents should work to exploit.
Liberal Islam versus Revolutionary Islamism
Authors: Kurzman Charles
Published: April 2019

Liberal Islamic movements represent a significant challenge for revolutionary Islamists, who loathe them for it. Rooted in 19th century Islamic reformism, liberal ideals such as democracy and peaceful coexistence are more popular among Muslims than theocracy and terrorism, according to survey data, election results, and mass mobilizations over the past generation. The mainstream position in many Muslim communities is a combination of cultural conservatism and political liberalism—apprehensive about many aspects of Western liberalism, but staunchly opposed to revolutionary violence. In many Muslim-majority countries, adherents of liberal Islam find themselves under attack both by Islamist revolutionaries and by authoritarian regimes.
Co-Enrollment in Toowong, Australia
Authors: Baker Michelle , Miller Cameron , Fletcher Elizabeth , Gamin Caroline , Carty Breda
Published: April 2019

In 2001, the first co-enrollment program for deaf children in Australia commenced at Toowong State School in Brisbane, Queensland. The impetus for the program came from the Deaf community and parents advocating for sign language to be used with their deaf children in an environment that provided access to the mainstream. Models of educating deaf children around the world were examined and co-enrollment was chosen as the model of operation to deliver a sign bilingual program that would best meet the needs of deaf students. The journey has been one of incredible learning for deaf and hearing children, their families, school staff, and the Queensland education system. With the changing landscape of deaf education, the impact of early detection and technology (including cochlear implants), and the introduction of a new national curriculum and all it entails, this evolving inner-city school continues to meet the unique needs of its students.
Learning Together by Deaf and Hearing Students in a Japanese Primary School
Authors: Torigoe Takashi
Published: April 2019

This chapter describes a project to introduce co-enrollment practices for deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) pupils in a Japanese regular primary school. This project consisted of three parts: (1) instruction of sign language to the DHH pupils, (2) instruction of sign language to the teachers and hearing pupils, and (3) sign language interpretation in regular classrooms. The focus was on the challenges of sign language interpretation. The results showed that the multiple flows of information and overhearing others’ speech in the classrooms provided challenging conditions for sign language interpretation. New ways of communication and interaction (actually introducing a new culture) and the presence of deaf adults were needed to establish full participation by DHH pupils in the co-enrollment classrooms. The possible future of practices concerning the inclusion of DHH children is discussed.
Include to Grow: Prospects for Bilingual and Bicultural Education for Both Deaf and Hearing Students
Authors: Gregorio Lucrezia Di , Campana Vincenzina , Lavecchia Maria , Rinaldi Pasquale
Published: April 2019

Deaf children in Italy are provided with different types of schooling. Few public schools offer a bilingual curriculum for deaf and hearing students that involves consistent use of Italian and Italian Sign Language (LIS) within the classroom and in which LIS is taught as a subject. One of these schools, the Tommaso Silvestri Primary School, located in Rome, Italy, is discussed in this chapter. In particular, the way in which the program is organized and how it supports deaf and hearing students in cognition, learning, and social interaction will be described. Methodological aspects and the role of technology in enhancing learning processes will be also discussed. This kind of bimodal bilingual co-enrollment program is very useful for deaf students and constitutes a unique opportunity for hearing classmates, giving them the opportunity to experience innovative learning environments and to consider deafness as a status rather than as a limitation.
The Best of Both Worlds: A Co-Enrollment Program for DHH Children in the Netherlands
Authors: Klerk Annet de , Hermans Daan , Wauters Loes , de Laat Lilian , de Kroon Francien , Knoors Harry
Published: April 2019

In 2013, a co-enrollment program was initiated through a collaboration between Kentalis Talent, a special school for deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children, and OBS de Bolster, a mainstream school. This co-enrollment program is based on the experiences and research results of the former Twinschool program, a co-enrollment program that existed from 2003 to 2013 and was initiated by Kentalis Talent. Currently, 27 DHH children are enrolled in seven different classes. This chapter will focus on (1) the history and organization of the co-enrollment program in terms of the different professionals who are structurally involved; (2) DHH children’s school achievements, speech and language development, well-being, and social development; (3) the variety of didactic approaches (e.g., preteaching, co-teaching, interpreting) that are used in the co-enrollment program to try to ensure that DHH children have optimal access to the teachers’ instruction and, more broadly, to classroom communication; and (4) teachers’ experiences with these collaborative didactic approaches, focusing on the implications of the co-enrollment program on their daily practices.
Four Co-Enrollment Programs in Madrid: Differences and Similarities
Authors: Pérez Mar , de la Fuente Begoña , Alonso Pilar , Echeita Gerardo
Published: April 2019

This chapter describes and analyzes the developmental process followed by four schools with sign bilingual and co-enrollment education in Madrid, Spain. We compare and contrast the four schools’ socioeconomic contexts, the type of facility (private schools and those funded by the state), the school culture, and the methodologies used. Readers will be able to see how we respond with equity to the diversity of students in the classroom. This chapter reflects upon the challenges associated with an inclusive pedagogy for all, including deaf students, among others. Three focus groups were held during the school year 2016–2017. Groups were made up of the management teams of the four schools and focused on two areas: the co-teaching dynamic and the quantity and quality of languages used.
Introduction
Authors: George Carol V. R.
Published: April 2019

TO MANY THOUGHTFUL Americans in the closing years of the twentieth century, the statistical evidence on the health of the culture speaks of a giant, fatal cancer, steadily and inexorably destroying the quality of life that was familiar and comfortable to anyone born before the Korean War. The data, regularly published in the press as if to titillate morbid sensibilities, confirm that one’s personal experience with social disruption is general: Marriages and families increasingly fragile; children of all ages appear more at risk; the elderly live longer, hollower lives; ethnic groups battle each other for an even smaller part of the national pie; women and men weary of ever understanding each other; and national resources and prestige decline as the business community grows paralyzed from competition, complacency, and cultural pollution. There are people in middle life to whom it seems difficult to remember a brighter day, when life promised hope, a future of meaningful connections, and children had a right to large dreams. Who could think positively about the future?...
“More Than a Magazine”
Authors: George Carol V. R.
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how Norman Vincent Peale disseminated his gospel using the “Guideposts” magazine, which used the motto, “More than a magazine.” Founded in 1944 by Peale, “Guideposts” gave Pealeism a public identity that was easily understood. Politically, early “Guideposts” found a home for the potentially antinomian message of positive thinking within Cold War conservatism. Its editorial philosophy reflected Peale’s civic and religious priorities, best summarized as the ideas of Americanism, free enterprise, and practical Christianity. The chapter shows how “Guideposts” emerged from Peale’s practical Christianity and political conservatism and how it fared in the 1940s. It also discusses the strategies adopted by Peale to build a new image for “Guideposts” and concludes by explaining how the magazine evolved from a political broadside of the Cold War to achieve a more enduring cultural status along the lines of “The Reader’s Digest” and “National Geographic.”
The Third Disestablishment
Authors: George Carol V. R.
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how Norman Vincent Peale’s personal ministry grew during the time of what is known as the “third disestablishment” of Protestantism. From 1960 until his 1984 retirement from Marble Collegiate Church, Peale focused primarily on enlarging the ministry of the Foundation for Christian Living. His hybrid message of conservative politics and harmonial New Thought theology was ideally positioned to win supporters on the New Age left and the evangelical right. The chapter first considers Peale’s crisis theology and how he integrated his concept of positive thinking with holistic medicine before discussing his self-appointed ministry to America’s businessmen, his work as “God’s Salesman,” his message of practical Christianity, what he thought of the clergy, and his life after retiring from Marble Church.
Epilogue
Authors: George Carol V. R.
Published: April 2019

TO CONSIDER THE future of Pealeism beyond the lifetime of its creator pushes the boundaries of historical inquiry. Peale ensured that the agency most closely tied to his identity, the Foundation for Christian Living—or more appropriately the Peale Center for Christian Living—was prepared to continue the line of succession with his son-in-law and daughter in charge. Without the constant replenishment of its literary tradition by Peale himself their work was cut out for them. The national network of people and preacher that became the Phenomenon of Pealeism was held together by Peale’s image, surely, but more important, it was sustained by the appeal of his unique message to a substantial segment of mass culture....
Aspect
Authors: Fonteyn Lauren
Published: April 2019

Moving from referential semantics to aspectual semantics, this chapter investigates the differences between nominal and verbal gerunds in terms of their aspectual potential. After presenting an overview of the semantic classifications adopted in studies of verbal aspect, a corpus study indicates that compared to verbal gerunds, nominal gerunds prefer a temporally bounded, “completed” or “holistic” construal (e.g. It happened after [the falling of the Berlin Wall]) over ongoing or “sequential” construal (e.g. She is working on [writing her first book] vs. She is working on [the writing of her first book]). These findings are discussed in light of the proposed categorical status of nominal and verbal gerunds.
The Lands in Between
Authors: Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: April 2019

Russia’s hybrid war on the West has begun to afflict Western politics in ways that are remarkably similar to its effects on the “lands in between,” small, vulnerable countries in Europe situated in between Russia and the European Union. While many in the West are only beginning to understand how hybrid war affects politics at home, Russia’s meddling in the 2016 US presidential elections and subsequent elections in Europe brought to the fore problems that front-line states had been dealing with for years. Their experiences hold important lessons. This book, written by a US expert on Europe with wide experience in the UK, France, Czechia, Poland, and Russia, shows how this conflict has deepened political polarization in the lands in between, forcing countries to face a “civilizational choice” between Russia and the European Union. Russia’s hybrid warfare techniques are designed to divide countries through funding extremist parties, spreading disinformation, and threatening military force. Meanwhile, the European Union has not backed down in its drive to create a “Europe whole and free,” composed of modern democracies integrated in the EU market. While countries are faced with a stark choice, paradoxically, the political leaders who rise to the top are not those who chart a clear direction for their countries, but cynical power brokers who find ways to profit from both sides. For Western readers, grasping this new politics of polarization and power brokers is necessary to understand our new politics of hybrid war.
The Lands In Between
Authors: Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: April 2019

The lands in between Russia and the European Union are caught between their historic vulnerability to Russian military, economic, and cultural influence and their aspirations of prosperity through European integration. As powerful external partners vie for influence in the lands in between, their intensifying conflict has had serious political implications. Every election in the lands in between seems to present voters with a “civilizational choice” between the European Union or the Soviet Union 2.0. Parties and voters tend to line up on one side or the other. Paradoxically, however, the main beneficiaries of this deep polarization have been politicians who refuse to choose sides. Instead, many of the top power brokers in the lands in between, including presidents, prime ministers, and leading oligarchs, have found ways to profit from the patronage of both sides, elevating their own personal fortunes in the process.
Religious Enlightenment and Awakening
Authors: Kloes Andrew
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how a distinctive historical consciousness informed how awakened Protestants understood their religious beliefs and activities. An intrinsic problem that is common to the historical study of all strongly partisan movements in the history of Protestantism is understanding the mentality, or worldview, of those who desired to see religious changes. To understand the Awakening movement, there is a need to understand what the Protestant activists wanted to awaken. This chapter answers this question by considering two competing interpretations of the history of modern Protestantism that appeared within the Protestant churches of Germany before and during the Awakening. The former of these narratives perceived changes in faith and theology as signs that Christianity was progressively advancing through the providential enlightenment of the church. The latter regarded these same changes as a falling away from the forms of faith and theology that were taught by the Bible.
War and Chance
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2019

War and Chance analyzes the logic, psychology, and politics of assessing uncertainty in international affairs. It explains how the most important kinds of uncertainty in international politics are inherently subjective, and yet how scholars, practitioners, and pundits can still debate these issues in clear and structured ways. Altogether, the book shows how foreign policy analysts can assess uncertainty in a manner that is theoretically coherent, empirically meaningful, politically defensible, practically useful, and sometimes logically necessary for making sound choices. Each of these claims contradicts widespread skepticism about the value of probabilistic reasoning in international politics, and shows how placing greater emphasis on assessing uncertainty can improve nearly any kind of foreign policy analysis or decision. The book substantiates this argument by examining critical episodes in the history of U.S. national security policy, such as strategic planning in Vietnam, assessments of Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction programs, and the search for Osama bin Laden. The book also draws on a diverse range of quantitative evidence, including a database containing nearly one million geopolitical forecasts and experimental studies involving hundreds of national security professionals.
Introduction
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2019

This chapter describes widespread skepticism regarding the value of assessing uncertainty in international politics. “Agnostics” argue that assessments of uncertainty in international politics are too unreliable to be useful for shaping major foreign policy decisions. “Rejectionists” argue that attempting to assess uncertainty in international politics can be counterproductive, surrounding foreign policy analyses with illusions of rigor or exposing foreign policy analysts to excessive criticism. “Cynics” claim that foreign policy analysts and decision makers have self-interested motives to avoid assessing uncertainty. The chapter explains how these ideas lead many scholars, practitioners, and pundits to avoid holding careful debates about the risks surrounding major foreign policy choices. The chapter describes how this aversion to probabilistic reasoning appears in several high-profile cases, such as President Kennedy’s decision to authorize the Bay of Pigs invasion and President Obama’s decision to raid Osama bin Laden’s compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan.
Subjective Probability and International Politics
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2019

This chapter explores the theoretical foundations of assessing uncertainty in international politics. It begins by explaining that virtually all important assessments of uncertainty in international politics are inherently subjective. The chapter’s second section explains how it is possible to believe that these subjective judgments are meaningless, but that this argument carries logical implications that no foreign policy analyst could accept. The chapter’s third section demonstrates that, conditional on believing that assessments of subjective probability contain any meaningful insight, it is always possible to express that insight in clear and structured ways, including through the use of numeric percentages. The chapter shows how its theoretical framework can help to resolve difficult analytic problems, focusing in particular on debates among U.S. intelligence analysts about the chances that Osama bin Laden was living in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in the spring of 2011.
The Value of Precision in Probability Assessment
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2019

This chapter analyzes a database containing nearly one million geopolitical forecasts. These data show that foreign policy analysts are surprisingly effective at estimating subjective probabilities. Fine-grained distinctions in probability estimates convey meaningful information about world politics, not arbitrary detail. By extension, the chapter shows that common qualitative expressions of uncertainty (including expressions currently recommended for use in intelligence analysis and military planning) systematically degrade the value of foreign policy discourse. The ability of foreign policy analysts to achieve “returns to precision” in probability assessment does not appear to depend on easy questions, short time horizons, or special cognitive attributes. Instead, the value of precision in probability assessment appears to be a generalizable skill that foreign policy analysts can cultivate through training, effort, and experience.
Analysis and Decision
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2019

This chapter explains how decision makers can incorporate assessments of uncertainty into high-stakes foreign policy choices. It begins by describing a simple analytic tool called break-even analysis, with which leaders can use explicit probability assessments as a point of leverage for determining whether or not a risky decision is worthwhile. The chapter then explains how transparent probabilistic reasoning is especially important for assessing strategic progress. In some cases, it can actually be impossible to make rigorous judgments about the extent to which foreign policies are making acceptable progress without assessing subjective probabilities in detail. This argument departs from a large body of existing scholarship on learning in international politics that assumes leaders can use a straightforward logic of trial and error to determine how they should update their strategic perceptions over time. The chapter provides examples of these dynamics drawn from the U.S. occupation of Iraq.
Placing Probability Front and Center in Foreign Policy Discourse
Authors: Friedman Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2019

The book’s concluding chapter explores practical opportunities for improving assessments of uncertainty in foreign policy debates. It focuses on the value of creating norms that place probabilistic reasoning front and center in foreign policy debates. There are three main ways to pursue this goal: foreign policy organizations can improve formal analytic standards for assessing uncertainty; decision makers can actively encourage foreign policy analysts to assess uncertainty in clear and structured ways; and critics can press their opponents to describe the uncertainty that surrounds controversial policy proposals. This last dynamic is especially important, because it shows that the goal of improving assessments of uncertainty in international politics is not just an issue for government officials; it is also a matter of how scholars, journalists, and pundits can raise the standards of public discourse.
The Popular Vote and Misfires in the Electoral College
Authors: Alexander Robert M.
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines the relationship among the electoral vote, the popular vote, and legitimacy in presidential elections. The Framers sought a process that preserved federalism and yielded candidates with broad appeal across the country. Forty percent of all presidential contests can be classified as hairbreadth elections (decided by less than 75,000 votes). Twenty percent of all elections have been decided by just 10,000 votes. On six occasions, the candidate winning the popular vote failed to win the Electoral College vote. These so-called misfire elections have occurred in two of the last five campaigns and have the potential to occur with greater frequency given changing demographics. The divergence between the Electoral College vote and the popular vote represents a potential challenge to legitimacy for incoming presidents. Specific attention is devoted to how misfire elections may have affected the agenda of incoming presidents.
Nature and Natures
Authors: Jorgensen Larry M.
Published: April 2019

This chapter formulates Leibniz’s naturalizing claims: what it is for a theory to be a natural theory. Three things will be emphasized: (a) Leibniz’s focus on individual natures, (b) Leibniz’s appeal to “rules of the good and beautiful,” and (c) the representational nature of individual substances, building the “rules of the good and beautiful” into the individual, active natures. This allows for a robust natural theory that is informed by the good, and, hence, final causes will form a part of the overall natural theory. This chapter also considers how to define the scope of Leibniz’s natural theory. It is initially unclear how Leibniz can avoid either (1) extending his natural theory to include God’s actions (hence, natural philosophy extends to theology) or, on the other hand, (2) identifying the boundaries of his natural philosophy in an ad hoc way. This chapter argues that Leibniz does avoid these two landmines.
Naturalizing Constraints
Authors: Jorgensen Larry M.
Published: April 2019

This chapter introduces a methodological approach to naturalism––a way of structuring one’s theory to ensure that the overall naturalizing goal is met. The primary theoretical constraint is the principle of continuity. This chapter explores the genesis of the principle of continuity in Leibniz’s early work in physics. Leibniz’s work in 1676 on a theory of motion allowed for certain kinds of leaps. But even before his full endorsement of the principle of continuity, Leibniz rejects the kinds of leaps that violate the principle of sufficient reason. As Leibniz’s thinking develops between 1676 and 1686, Leibniz becomes much more confident that “nature never makes leaps,” and he develops what he will later call the principle of continuity. Tracing his thinking in these years will illuminate the grounds and implications of the principle of continuity.
Looking Forward
Authors: Jorgensen Larry M.
Published: April 2019

This chapter considers the dynamics of perception––their tendencies to move and change into different perceptions. The most general term for the mental “principle of change,” for Leibniz, is appetite. The details of Leibniz’s theory of appetite lead to four problems: (1) the problem of unsuccessful striving, (2) the problem of the apparent good, (3) the problem of the change for the worse, and (4) the problem of discontinuous kinds. This chapter argues that Leibniz has resources to resolve these four problems within a naturalized dynamics of perception. This chapter outlines Leibniz’s naturalized theory of appetite and then considers the nature of causation and teleology in appetite. The four challenges are then taken up to show that a fully naturalized theory of appetite can avoid the problems.
To Whom the Rules Apply
Authors: Himma Kenneth Einar
Published: April 2019

This chapter is concerned with two arguments for the claim that the norms of an institutional normative system with moral criteria of validity are incapable of guiding behavior (the Guidance Arguments). The problem, on this line of reasoning, is that neither a rule of recognition that validates norms on the basis of moral merit nor a norm that is valid in virtue of moral merit can properly guide the people they must be able to guide to perform law’s conceptual function. This chapter thus challenges the Guidance Arguments. It argues that the guidance function of law does not imply that every legal norm must be capable of guiding or informing the behavior of every person. It implies only that every legal norm must be capable of guiding or informing the behavior of every person whose behavior it governs.