bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Understanding Children in Crisis: The Developmental Ecological Framework
Authors: Mohr Wanda K
Published: November 2023

More than three decades of empirical investigations have highlighted the enormous complexities involved in studying and intervening with children who have been traumatized and who are in crisis. As a result, child trauma and its outcomes can no longer be viewed in terms of simple cause-effect relationships. There is increasing recognition that any traumatic event, such as child maltreatment, is a heterogeneous phenomenon that varies with respect to type, frequency, severity, and chronicity (Manly, Cicchetti, & Barnett, 1994). In addition, the impact of these traumatic events is linked to the child’s age and developmental status (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993).
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Reaction
Authors: Esser June A
Published: November 2023

The task of this chapter is to explain posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and posttraumatic stress reaction (PTSR), as well as to offer useful interventions for youth exposed to catastrophic events. In responding to the catastrophe, the helper must realize that PTSD and PTSR are only two of many possibilities that may manifest in the young person. PTSD and PTSR are diagnostic terms used in clinical and psychological settings.
Genetic Polymorphism and Evolution
Authors: Nei Masatoshi , Kumar Sudhir
Published: November 2023

Most natural populations of organisms contain a large amount of genetic variation. In sexually reproducing or outbreeding organisms, any pair of individuals is genetically different except identical twins. When a ge netic locus is identifiable at the protein level, the locus often contains two or more alleles within a population. Existence of two or more alleles with substantial relative frequencies in a population (usually more than 1%) is called genetic polymorphism. Genetic polymorphism at a locus is generated by mutations such as nucleotide substitution, insertions/ deletions, gene conversion, and interallelic recombination. However, most of these new mutations are eliminated from the population by genetic drift or purifying selection, and only a minority of them are incorporated into the population by chance, positive selection, or overdominant selection, as mentioned in chapter . The main subject of population genetics is to study the generation and maintenance of genetic polymorphism and to understand the mechanisms of evolution at the population level.
Wharton’s Women
Authors: Banta Martha
Published: November 2023

This could well be the heading Edith Wharton might attach to her own “Historical Guide.” As someone in Wharton’s 1925 novel, The Mother’s Recompense, observes about plans for a proposed wedding, “with the cut of everything changing every six months, there’s no use in ordering a huge trousseau . . . whatever people say, it is more satisfactory to get the latest models on the spot” (NW, 697). This is the situation that numbs the heart of the heroine, Kate Clephane, the woman most affected by “the latest models” for marriage whose cut seems to be “changing every six months.”

Look in vain for a Whartonian guide to laws regarding woman’s suffrage, to references to women entering male-bound professions, or to the rise of female enrollments into institutions of higher learning. Those markers by which women defined their march through history between the 1840s and 1930s are absent from Wharton’s pages. Her life and writings offer excellent notations on the ways in which women are affected by historical events, material changes, and shifts in social and legal matters, but her true subject is Time, not History.
The Argument for Judicial Review
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

I address two fundamental questions in this book: the question of the approach to constitutional interpretation the Supreme Court should follow, and the question of the nature of the role the Court should playhow large or active, or how small or passive-in bringing the interpreted Constitution to bear in resolving constitutional conflicts. Neither question would arise but for the practice of judicial review, which involves, centrally, the Court interpreting the Constitution in the course of resolving constitutional conflicts. In this chapter, I inquire into the legitimacy of judicial review. I do so not because the legitimacy of the practice is at issue in the United States today; judicial review seems to enjoy virtually consensual support in contemporary American society.I I do so because it is useful to explain why a practice that yields persistent controversy about constitutional interpretation and proper judicial role not merely enjoys our support but merits it. Moreover, as I explain in chapter 3, the argument for judicial review-the particular argument I make in this chapter-bears strongly on the argument I make in chapter 3 for the approach to constitutional interpretation that should inform the practice of judicial review. As I said in chapter 1, the question of the legitimacy of the practice of judicial review and the question of the approach to constitutional interpretation that should inform the practice are inextricably linked. As this and the next chapter illustrate, one’s response to the first question is an essential determinant of one’s response to the second.
Origi Does Not Entail Minimalism, II: The Indeterminacy of Morality
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

An originalist approach to the interpretation of the constitutional text does not entail a minimalist judicial role-a role in which the exercise of judicial discretion is negligible-because, as I explained in the preceding chapter, (1) there is often more than one plausible conclusion to the inquiry into the original meaning of a constitutional provision, more than one conclusion an originalistjudge can plausibly reach; in that sense, the historical inquiry constitutive of the originalist approach is often indeterminate; and (2) according to at least one of those conclusions the directive represented by the provision as originally understood is often relatively indeterminate in the context of the conflicts, or of many of them, to which it is relevant. In the preceding chapter, I asked what an originalist judge is likely to do when confronted by the indeterminacy of constitutional history-the indeterminacy of historical inquiry into original meaning. Now the question is what an originalist judge is likely to do when confronted by the indeterminacy of constitutional morality-the indeterminacy of a constitutional directive.
George Bird Grinnell And The “Vanishing” Plains Indian Cultures
Authors: Smith Sherry L
Published: November 2023

George Bird Grinnell and Charles Erskine Scott wood were contemporaries whose lives spanned the same decades. Both ventured west of the Mississippi River in the 1870s, when many Anglo-Americans still considered the West to be “wild,” and there encountered Indians as friends and enemies. In encouraging their countrymen to understand and sympathize with Indians, they both championed the distinctions of Indians’ cultures while simultaneously insisting on their shared humanity.
The Experimental Acidification of Little Rock Lake
Authors: Frost* Thomas M , Fischer Janet M , Brezonik Patrick L , Gonzalez Mária J , Kratz Timothy K , Watras Carl J , Webster Katherine E
Published: November 2023

Large-scale manipulations have proven to be highly effective in developing a basic understanding of the functioning of ecosystems and in evaluating how they are affected by human-generated stresses (Schindler 1990, Carpenter and Kitchell 1993, Frost and Blood 1996). Consequently, large-scale manipulations are highly relevant to environmental policy and management (Carpenter et al. 1995), and they avoid the problems of extrapolating results from small scale experiments that do not incorporate all components of the ecosystem (Schindler 1998). Although replication of the stress treatment is often impossible owing to costs or politics, the importance of unmanipulated reference ecosystems is recognized widely (Carpenter et al. 1995). We added such a whole-ecosystem experiment to the repertoire of the North Temperate Lakes Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) program with the experimental acidification of Little Rock Lake near the Center for Limnology’s Trout Lake Station in northern Wisconsin (Fig. 1.5, top). The experiment allowed us to assess the effects of acidification on aquatic ecosystems by speeding up a process that normally occurs slowly from acid rain.
Origin, Operation, Evolution, and Challenges
Authors: Magnuson John J , Benson Barbara J , Kratz Timothy K , Armstrong David E , Bowser Carl J , Colby Alison C C , Meinke Timothy W , Montz Pamela K , Webster Katherine E
Published: November 2023

The objectives, scope, and realization of the Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Program of the National Science Foundation (NSF) evolved as the activities played out at the various sites through the 1980s and 1990s and into the twenty-first century. At the onset of the program, each site had its own historical perspective and a core of individual participants who responded to NSF’s challenge to initiate long-term, site-based ecological research. Here we describe and discuss the origin, operation, history, evolution, and challenges of the LTER program from the perspective of the North Temperate Lakes site. This is our view of what happened and how the ecological science community set out in new directions, adapted, and evolved (Magnuson et al. 1984, Kratz et al. 1986, Magnuson and Bowser 1990, Magnuson et al. 1997a). We hope that this autobiographical history of science will be useful in understanding consequences of the multidirectional interactions among the researchers at the North Temperate Lakes, investigators at other LTER sites, and the National Science Foundation.
Language and Identity Politics In Canada
Authors: Schmid Carol L
Published: November 2023

This chapter analyzes the politics of identity and language relations between Quebec and the rest of Canada. Is the United States likely to face the same problems as Canada? Does accommodation to languages other than English mean that separatist demands are likely, as the representative of U.S. English insinuates? Or do many Americans, as well as the members of U.S. English, misunderstand the Quebec case, as Lemco indicates? Seymour Martin Lipset (1990), in Continental Divide, argues that national behaviors—including language relations—can only be understood comparatively, for those who know only one country, know neither well. In order to understand language relations in the United States, it is important to discover the differences and occasional similarities between Canada and the United States.
The Politics of Language In The Late Twentieth Century
Authors: Schmid Carol L
Published: November 2023

The Ebonics debate, the discussion about Puerto Rican statehood, and the bilingual controversy in California have challenged long-held beliefs about the melting pot and symbolize the changing meaning of language and cultural pluralism in the United States. These three significant issues, often misunderstood, have served to polarize the American public. In the late 1990s, non-English and non-standard English become a substitute for a political agenda far beyond language itself. The English-Only movement gained widespread political momentum, often with racial overtones. An America Online poll about Ebonics drew thousands of responses (“Hooked on Ebonics:” 1997). Many of the comments were racially motivated. Language differences became a new symbol for racial intolerance. U.S. English, the nation’s largest English-Only lobby, testified before Congress on Puerto Rican statehood.
When Atypical Development and Typical Development Cross Paths
Authors: Siegel Bryna
Published: November 2023

Where and when do things start to go wrong developmentally for the child with autism? When is it chat the “signal” which is sent out to the child-is received differently from the way it is received by other children? When is it chat the child first looks at something, hears something, touches something, but the information that he gets is somehow different from what other children understand from chat same experience?

Studies of how newborns scan a mother’s face show relatively random inspection of its features, with the baby’s eyes wandering to the shape of the mother’s face as well as its interior features. However by four months, it is normal for infants to have locked on to the eyes and mouth as the centers of the “action” on Mom’s face.
Autistic Learning Disabilities Defined: How Strengths Compensate for Weaknesses and Form Autism
Authors: Siegel Bryna
Published: November 2023

An analysis of autistic learning disabilities is meant to assist in the move from observations made during diagnostic or psycho-educational assessment to specific teaching strategies. The concept of autistic learning disabilities provides a method for systematically examining how different symptoms of the autistic spectrum disorders have a direct impact on how the child with autism learns. The concept of autistic learning disabilities is based on understanding how receiving and processing information can be different for a child with autism compared to a typically developing child. It is a developmentally based method for looking at learning in the autistic spectrum disorders.

In the preceding chapter, we discussed the origins of the kinds of learning difficulties that are experienced by children with autistic spectrum disorders. Some of these difficulties were defined as innate difficulties or deficits. This means that these are conditions that the child with autism probably had from birth, or around the time of birth.
Mainstreaming That Works: Too Accommodating, or Really Including?
Authors: Siegel Bryna
Published: November 2023

Two main approaches for teaching children with autism have been described so far. Both the ABNDTT approach innovated by Lovaas and the TEACCH approach innovated by Schopler are in widespread use in therapy and education programs seeking primarily to address the specific learning needs of children with autism. Not all children with autism, however, are in autism-specific programs. Not all children with autism are treated with just one modality. Not all children with autism are in special education.

In chapter 14 there will be discussion of curricula and treatment programs that involve combining different methods, such as classes that contain both DTT and TEACCH instruction units, or children home-based programs that are combined with special education. Other children are in general special-education classes with a variety of resource and therapy services.
Thoreau, Manhood, and Race
Authors: Nelson Dana D
Published: November 2023

In this opening passages of Walden’s first chapter Thoreau sets up his arguments about “Economy” through a complex of images desperate man (laboring men), mastered man (slaves), and premitive, or natural, man (the Indian basket-weaver). Readers generally take these “men” as figures for timeless truths-and they do so for good reason. Thoreau consistently pushes such images toward general, or representative, rather than specific meaning. The direction of his opening reflections is resonantly symbolic in these pages, where even apparently locally drawn images (such as the Indian basket-weaver) point the way toward larger, universal truths for our modern world.
Bibliographical Essay
Authors: Cain William E
Published: November 2023

For the study of Thoreau’s writings, Raymond R. Borst’s David Thoreau: A Descriptive Bibliography (1982) is an excellent resource. It presents a comprehensive list of Thoreau’s publications as well as the title pages of first editions and other illustrations. For a list and description of Thoreau’s papers and manuscripts in private and public collections, see William L. Howarth’s The Literary Manuscripts of Henry David Thoreau (1974).
Analogy
Authors: Turner Mark
Published: November 2023

REASONING by analogy is a basic topic in social science, commonly recognized as playing a principal role in law, politics, economics, policy making, cultural development, discovery, judgment, choice, and persuasion. It is also a basic topic in cognitive science. Lately, cognitive science has been gathering evidence that our folk theory of how analogy works is wrong, just as our folk theories of how language, vision, categorization, imagination, and memory work are wrong. In this chapter, I will explore what cognitive science might have to say to social scientists about the conception, analysis, and use of analogy in social science. I begin with an example where many billions of dollars were at stake in how an analogy was constructed.
Leaping a few orders of magnitude: the optical maser
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

THE MASER GOT PHYSICISTS THINKING about stimulated emission. No longer was it a physical curiosity of purely academic interest. It was a effect that could generate and amplify microwaves. The maser’s microwave emission was confined to a very narrow range of frequencies, making it very attractive for spectroscopy and atomic clocks. As a device that amplified stimulated emission, it was a step on the road to the laser.
The outsider’s invention: the laser
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

TOWNES MAY HAVE UNDERESTIMATED Gordon Gould, but Gould harbored no delusions about Townes. Gould had already been thinking about an optical version of the maser, and he knew that Townes would be formidable competition. Yet Townes’s interest also validated Gould’s intuition that the idea was important. Gould sometimes put off unpleasant tasks, but his conversation with Townes pushed him to action.
A spreading interest in the laser idea
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

IT TOOK TIME FOR THE APPEAL of the laser to spread. In early 1959, the laser was the kind of far-out research project that belonged at ARPA, Bell Labs, or a university. It looked good on paper, but lots of things that look good on paper never work. The laser was still in the basic research stage. The real action and the serious money were in the development of microwave masers.
The siren call of the laser
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

THE SIREN CALL OF THE LASER continued to spread through the little world of physics in the latter part of 1959. Scientists instinctively sniff the intellectual winds for hot new ideas in their fields. Ted Maiman had picked up on the laser scent quickly because he had just completed his last project successfully. Trying to build a laser was a tempting idea for those wanting a change, because they were finishing old projects, starting new jobs, or simply getting bored or frustrated with old lines of research that had yielded few results. Many talked about the idea. A few, like Nicolaas Bloembergen, looked closely and resisted the temptation because they knew they couldn’t win the race. And some big industrial labs began venturing into the laser race in a serious way.
The critical question of efficiency
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

THE NOVEMBER 1959 ISSUE of The Review of Scientific Instruments carried Wieder’s description of his ruby light source, where he wrote that the output he observed “corresponded to photon efficiency of 1%.” Ted Maiman thought that low energy-transfer efficiency in ruby was the biggest roadblock to making a laser. The chromium atoms in ruby strongly absorbed visible light in two broad bands, blue and violet light centered at about 0.42 micrometers, and green and yellow light centered near 0.55 micrometer. Yet Wieder’s paper said that only about 1 percent of the photons that a ruby crystal absorbed at those wavelengths excited chromium atoms to emit red light.
An idea simpler in theory than in practice
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

AS MAIMAN QUIETLY WORKED ON RUBY, optimism about prospects for making some kind of laser was spreading beyond the inner circle of researchers, managers, and project sponsors. The leading industry magazine Electronics listed the laser among hot new concepts in its March 11, 1960, issue. “Working infrared and optical masers for communications and radar-like purposes are expected within two years. A wide variety of solids, liquids and gases are being investigated.” Yet the laser wasn’t headline news. It was buried on the fifth of six pages of a preview of an Institute of Radio Engineers convention in a magazine written for electronic engineers. The prediction also was carefully qualified by adding the weasel words “are expected” to the optimistic projections that had emerged after the Shawanga Lodge meeting.
An unexpected struggle for acceptance
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

THE HARD PART SHOULD HAVE BEEN OVER. After nine months of intense effort, Maiman had reached his goal. With data in hand, Maiman sat down to write a paper reporting his evidence for the ruby laser. The laser race was too tight to wait for arrival of better ruby crystals. His manuscript passed swiftly through the Hughes chain of command, but the company’s patent department didn’t see anything worth filing—later costing Hughes any shot at overseas patents. On June 22, 1960, Maiman air-mailed it to Physical Review Letters, the country’s leading journal for reporting hot research in physics.
Assessment of Nutrient Uptake, Metabolite Production, and Enzyme Activity
Authors: Gardner David K , Lane Michelle
Published: November 2023

The ability to measure the uptake and production of substrates by single embryos is an important tool for understanding how embryos control metabolism and embryo production. Little is known about the control of metabolism in the mammalian embryo com- pared to somatic cells or embryos from marine species or Xenopus. One of the main reasons for this is that the small amounts of material in the early embryo make measurement technically difficult. In recent years microfluorometric techniques have been developed that are capable of quantitatively analyzing the nutrient uptake and metabolite release from single cells. These techniques are based on miniaturizations of conventional methods of enzymatic analysis and can therefore be adapted to measure a great variety of metabolites (1–3) (Figure 8.1). An advantage of these procedures over the radiolabel procedures described in Chapter 9 is that they are totally noninvasive. Thus, microfluorometric techniques have the potential to be used as viability assays for mammalian embryos (2).
Metabolic Pathway Activity
Authors: Rieger Don
Published: November 2023

The early development of the mammalian embryo is directed by its inherent genetic programming and affected by its environment. Both the genetic program and the environment act as stimuli to the early embryo to induce developmental responses, initially in its intracellular biochemical activity, and ultimately in cell division, differentiation, and function. Techniques for manipulating gene expression and development, such as gene transfer, cloning, IVF, ICSI, and culture, similarly act as stimuli to induce the desired biochemical and developmental responses.
Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization for Detection of Aneuploidy in Single Human Blastomeres for Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
Authors: Wilton Leeanda
Published: November 2023

The impact of numerical chromosome errors, or aneuploidies, on fetal development is well documented. Approximately 60% of spontaneously aborted fetuses are aneuploid (1, 2), demonstrating the lethality of the condition. Aneuploidies of the sex chromosomes can be viable, such as X0 (Turner’s syndrome) and XXY (Klinefelter’s syndrome) and some, like XXX or XYY, have an essentially normal phenotype. However, autosomal aneuploidies are almost always lethal; the notable exception to this is trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome). Most of our knowledge of the effect of aneuploidies comes from analysis of spontaneously aborted conceptuses, but for many years there has been great interest in studying the chromosomal complement of early embryos before implantation. Initial studies using traditional karyotyping techniques were problematic because of the limited number of cells available and the difficulties in obtaining nuclei in metaphase (3, 4), which is essential for karyotypic analysis.
Characterization of Novel Genes during Early Development by Application of Differential Display RT-PCR
Authors: Natale D R , Watson A J
Published: November 2023

The introduction and development of genomics and proteomics during the past decade have significantly changed the way in which biomedical, agricultural, and biological research is conducted. Genomics and proteomics, which represent the identification and sequencing of genes and the systematic analysis and documentation of proteins in a biological sample, have been recently combined to give rise to functional genomics. Functional genomics encompasses assigning function to genes identified by genomics as well as investigating the organization and control of genetic pathways and the modification of their resulting proteins. This approach is breaking down the distinction be- tween classic areas of study such as biochemistry, genetics, and physiology and bringing aspects of each field together to advance the understanding of biological systems. In this chapter we address the genomics aspect of functional genomics and its application to mammalian preimplantation-stage embryos by introducing and discussing methods designed to investigate and identify “new” genes involved in preimplantation development.
Hastening Through Space and Time
Authors: Zee A
Published: November 2023

Einstein was led by his daydream to enunciate the following principle: In a small enough region of space, the physical effects of a gravitational field as perceived by an observer are indistinguishable from the physical effects reported by another observer accelerating at a constant rate in the absence of a gravitational field.
The Music of Strings
Authors: Zee A
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1984, my wife and I drove across the country with our children, stopping at various physics centers along the way, much like migratory wildebeests seeking out watering holes. At Aspen, Colorado, we stopped for a month. There, amid the splendors of the Rocky Mountains, physicists gather every summer to discuss the latest sense and nonsense. The atmosphere at Aspen always has been rather relaxed: The physics chitchat is mixed in with volleyball and picnics and hikes and music and the local scene, such as it is.
Final Commentary
Authors: Goldstone Robert L , Johansen Mark K
Published: November 2023

Scientists studying adult concept learning are typically careful to analyze the entire pattern of responses given across all of the trials of an experiment. Oftentimes the early trials are the most diagnostic because categorization accuracy quickly reaches an asymptote. We take some pride in tackling the hard problem of accounting for adaptive processes that account for category learning, unlike many psychophysicists, who simply throw out the first 1,000 trials because steady-state performance has not yet been reached. However, lest we grow too smug, the chapters of this book provide a great service by reminding us that even though we analyze the very first trial of our experiment, we are still studying conceptual change that occurs almost imperceptibly close to the asymptote. By the time that our 20-year-old subjects come to our laboratories, they have learned the majority of the concepts that they will ever learn and virtually all of their truly foundational concepts. Relatively brief laboratory training suffices to teach students the rule “circle above square” (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956), a particular configuration of nine dots (Posner & Keele, 1968), or a new fact such as that grebes are birds, but this rapid learning is only possible because it builds upon a longer and more profound process by which concepts such as Above (chap. 3), bird (chap. 10), animal (chaps. 5,14), and animacy (chaps. 7, 13) are learned.
Stress, Rhythm, and Paralanguage
Authors: Wennerstrom Ann
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter, I described a system of intonation in which meaningful tone components were associated with text based on the context of the discourse. In this chapter, we will see how that intonation system interacts with other systems of prosody. Fundamental to the association between intonation and text are the stress patterns of words because pitch accents link to stressed syllables. To understand stress, one must also understand the role of rhythm as an organizing force in language. Rhythm provides an underlying hierarchical structure upon which stress is built, while intonation components are associated with the high points of these rhythmic hierarchies. There is even evidence that rhythm is maintained across intonation boundaries and from one speaker to the next. Thus, although the assignment of stress is itself fairly mechanical, rhythm, or the alignment of stressed syllables in time, is an important resource in discourse interaction.
Metamorphosis From Birth to Medical School
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

The children spent the day at grandfather Galton’s mansion, Duddeston, now and then dashing into the library to clamber onto a chair near the speaking tube to shout down to the servants in the pantry,“Mama had a baby and it was a Boy!” Little Frank, as his family called him, was born around 9 P.M. on February r6, 1822. His sister Adele later wrote her brother that their mother “had been taken ill at eight o’clock.”3 Dr. Joseph Hodgson was called and Adele was awoken by Dr. Hodgson around midnight to learn that she had a little brother. She fell back to sleep to find the next morning that he was “such a red little thing.”4 Francis was the last of Tertius and Violetta Galton’s nine children (Table 2-r), two of whom died in infancy.5 His brothers Erasmus and Darwin were six and eight years older while the youngest of his four sisters, Emma, was n years his senior. Like Emma, the other girls, Adele, Lucy, and Elizabeth, were crazy about him. Emma recalled that he “was the pet of us all, and my mother was obliged to hang up her watch, that each sister might nurse the child for a quarter of an hour and then give him up to the next.”6 Galton’s nursery was in Adele’s room. Delly, a frail creature with a spinal curvature that frequently forced her to lie on her back on a board, saw to his early education.
A Poll Degree from Cambridge
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

In October 1840 Tertius and his son went up to Trinity College, Cambridge. With blessing of Henry VIII who dedicated it to “the Holy and Undivided Trinity” the venerable college was formed by fusing King’s Hall, founded in 1317 by Edward II, and Michaelhouse, established in 1324 by his Chancellor of the Exchequer, Hervey de Stanton. 2 Trinity, like King’s, would fly the royal standard, but, unlike King’s or any other college, the Crown appointed its master. The college endowment provided support for its fellows and a complement of 60 fellows and 60 scholars plus pensioners (students) who paid their own way were authorized. The statutes stipulated that the master and fellows must take Holy Orders and remain celibate, but exceptions were soon made for the master and marriage became the custom. The unfortunate fellows, however, were consigned to celibacy until 1882 with the marriage penalty being forfeiture of the fellowship.
South Africa
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

Francis Galton was 27 in 1849 when the idea of a South African expedition came to him. Except for North Africa, parts of West Africa, and the southern rim of the continent, extending eastward from the Cape of Good Hope, little was known about this vast land mass. Galton learned that David Livingstone, a young Scottish medical missionary, had travelled far north in South Africa past the Kalahari Desert to a lake called Ngami. Since “the well-watered districts beyond this desert could now be reached by wagon from the Cape,” he “felt keenly desirous of taking advantage of this new opening, and inquired much of those who had recently returned from South Africa concerning the conditions and requirements of travel there.”
Making Peace with Jonker Afrikaner
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

on August 20, 1850, the Foam rounded Pelican Point, a fingerlike sandspit forming the western rim ofWalfisch Bay, so named by the Dutch for the humpback whales that were abundant there in breeding season. The schooner edged in gingerly for no proper nautical charts of the bay existed and the explorers glimpsed a desolate, sandy beach dancing giddily in the mirage. They anchored about a mile offshore as nightfall approached. On the east side of Pelican Point a shallow lagoon teemed with fish that were often stranded at low tide, becoming prey for the local natives who speared them on the tips of gemsbok horns affixed to slender sticks. Walfisch Bay was home to immense numbers of geese, ducks, countless flocks of sand­ pipers, myriads of flamingos, white pelicans, and several species of cormorants. American and British whalers frequented the bay and British ships, collecting guano on the small island of lchabo to the south, provisioned there. Although fresh water was absent near the beach, it was available three miles inland and supported abundant pasturage. Some enterprising individuals from Cape Town had established a facility for salting and curing beef, and they furnished cattle to guano traders and to Cape Town and contracted with the British Government to supply the island of St. Helena with livestock.
Hereditary Talent and Character
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

For Francis Galton, approaching middle age, the publication of Dar­ win’s On the Origin of Species in 1859 “made a marked epoch in my own mental development, as it did in human thought generally.” He “devoured its contents and assimilated them as fast as they were devoured, a fact which may be ascribed to an hereditary bent of mind that both its illustrious author and myself have inherited from our common grandfather, Dr. Erasmus D arwin.” Galton was encouraged to investigate topics that had long interested him, which “clustered round the central topics of Heredity and the possible improvement of the Human Race.” From the outset Galton seemed to have been convinced that nature, and not nurture, determined human ability, but how was he to show it? He hit upon a fairly simple device, the pedigree, one that would remain an analytical mainstay for the rest of his life. He reasoned that if ability was determined by nature, a great man’s closest male relatives were the most likely to exhibit exceptional qualities, with ability diluting out with hereditary distance. Women were omitted in his analysis because his Victorian mindset viewed notable achievement as principally a male prerogative. This had certainly been true in Great Britain and elsewhere until that time, largely because opportunities for female advancement beyond the home were virtually absent.
Gemmules, Rabbits, Germs, and Stirps
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

Speaking generally, most authors agreed that all bodily and some mental qualities were inherited by brutes, but they refused to believe the same of man. Moreover, the­ ologians made a sharp distinction between the body and mind of man, on purely dogmatic grounds.
Fingerprints
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

Francis Galton’s interest in personal identification led him from composite photography, to the comparison of facial features (a life-long interest), and finally to fingerprints. On May 25, 1888, Galton presented a Friday Evening Discourse at the Royal Institution entitled “Personal Identification and Description” that dwelt on these interests. Standing before his audience resplendent in their evening finery, he began: “It is strange that we should not have acquired more power of describing form and personal features than we actually possess.” He illustrated the problem with a pair of con­ tour lines that failed to superimpose (Fig. 17-1). His goal was to determine the least discernible difference between two such lines. This could be done by drawing other contour lines between them until one finally superimposed with one of the original lines. By giving each of the intermediate contours a number, the “grades of unlikeness” between the two original contours could be determined. Realizing he was separating a continuum into discrete units, Galton imposed specific limits. The contours, now defined as human profiles (Fig. 17-1), might be sorted into classes, “gradually building up a well-selected standard collection.” Later he returned to this subject, demonstrating his mechanical selector, a kind of analog of the punchcard system, which one could use to enter quantitative comparisons of facial profiles.
The Birth of Biometrics
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright
Published: November 2023

While personal identification and psychology represented one prong of Galton’s research agenda, the second involved the detailed analysis of the data he had obtained from his Anthropometric Laboratory and the development of statistical methods for its treatment. On the basis of this research Galton in 1888 completed his two most influential scientific works: a book, Natural Inheritance, and a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society describing the concept of correlation. Louisa remarked in her diary that while they enjoyed glorious weather at Vichy in early September 1888, “Frank was busy about his Book, ‘Natural Inheritance’ correcting Proofs and I led a quiet life, as suited the cure, taking the waters and we did so enjoy the fresh morning air.” That slim volume pulled together in one place all of Galton’s thoughts on heredity plus the results of applying his biometric methods to the copious data from the Anthropometric Laboratory.
Introduction
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

This Book explores Paths on the mathematical seashore. Paths are the accumulated footprints of those who came before. There are many paths to choose from—some leading to minor curiosities and others leading to important mathematical goals. In this book, I intend to point out a few paths that I believe are both curious and important—paths with mainstream destinations.
Six-Minute Calculus
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

Paraphrasing Plato-nay, contradicting him Jacobi could be expressing the new central role of the real number system in mathematics that came about at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Euclidean geometry gave way to mathematical analysis-the calculus and its higher ramifications-as the principal mathematical tool for understanding the world. Plato’s view of a perfect universe gave way to the modem view a universe of endless detail and complexity that is understood only in various special contexts and only partially. The calculus was born in the latter half of the seventeenth century and became a confident young adult by the beginning of the eighteenth. Calculus could thrive when mathematicians finally grasped the real number system. Their use of the number system was pragmatic-the rigorous foundations came late in the nineteenth century. Newton preferred geometry; nevertheless, his work led to mathematics in which the arithmetic of the real numbers held, and continues to hold, the dominant position. Newton showed us a universe that runs numerically instead of geometrically.
The Theory of Life
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter described biologists’ failure to measure species consistently, and how that persistent failure suggests a way to broaden our search for information that will help resolve the species problem. But still, even with an expanded search, the resolution of the species problem must lie within the domain of biology, the science of life. Even as we take a cue from investigators of human language and cognition, and allow our thoughts and speech to be included within the scope of our questioning, we must still recognize that imagination and language are processes of life and are just as biological as any other of our behaviors. Just as evolution has given rise to the diversity we see among organisms, so too has it given rise to the human capacities for imagination and language that we use to ponder the causes of biological diversity. This broad view of biology is not idle inclusivity. In this chapter, I begin a very basic description of life, and our understanding of it. In subsequent chapters, that description grows to include the causes of biological diversity and of our language about that diversity, and finally it will grow to where we have an understanding of the causes of the species problem. I recognize that some biologists would rather not search within human limitations for answers to the species problem, and this is one reason for stressing that we are not leaving the bounds of biology. But the more important reason is that the causes of biological diversity, and the causes of our limitations in assessing diversity, are mechanistically connected in the details of how evolution works.
The Cause of the Species Problem
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

The pieces are in place, and we can now join the results of the backdoor approach to species, as biological entities, with the results of our backdoor approach to categories in language. By starting with the theory of life, we have built a model of how evolution gives rise to groups of DNAs and organisms that share in competition, and thus also share in genetic drift and adaptation. This idea of evolutionary groups corresponds closely to a major theme that is common to various definitions of species, which is that a species is an entity within which the forces of evolution occur. We have also explored the existence of categories, Particularly the difficulties that arise if categories are taken as literally real, outside of ourselves. For pragmatic scientists, natural kinds and other categories are different from entities, and are not real in the way that entities are, though they do exist in the minds of those who devise and use them. The psychological investigation of categories have revealed that the mind wields a natural kind by drawing on some kind of internal representation of a typical, central member. Finally, anthropologists and psychologists have shown that people do this for kinds of organisms as well. Whatever else species are, they are quintessential natural kinds and they exist as categories in our minds, complete with prototypes.
Systematics
Authors: Hey Jody
Published: November 2023

The species problem does not burden all biologists equally. The primary sufferers are those who study species and must deal with trying to connect our categories of organisms to real evolutionary groups. These issues are especially acute for many in the sub discipline of systematics. Before Darwin, and for quite a long time after as well, systematics was concerned simply with the classification of organisms. In the absence of biological principals, the field was a “specialized, rather narrow branch of biology, on the whole empirical and lacking in unifying principles” (Huxley 1940, 1), more like art than science (Stevens 1990). But as Huxley foresaw, it has grown with increasing knowledge of evolutionary processes. Today, systematists are concerned not only with devising categories of organisms and with the placement of organisms within those categories (identification), but they are also devoted to figuring out the evolutionary history of kinds of organisms. The two tasks, categorizing and history estimation, seem on the surface to be a natural fit for one another. In both, systematists are dealing with the similarities and differences among organisms. They use these patterns to identify kinds of organisms, and they also use them to develop branching models of the evolutionary relationships among those kinds. But in systematics, more than any other sector of biology, we find a severe clash between categories and an understanding of evolutionary processes.
Membrane Ion Channels and Ion Currents
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K
Published: November 2023

The electrical activity of nerve cells-indeed of all cells-depends on the movement of charge, carried by small inorganic ions, across the plasma membrane. The phenomena described in Chapter 3, the membrane potential, the firing of action potentials, and the grouping of action potentials in complex temporal patterns, all arise from such transmembrane ion flow. In addition, modulation of the endogenous electrical activity by external stimuli involves changes in transmembrane ion flow. But how is it that ions can move across the plasma membrane at all? The lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane is an excellent electrical insulator and is largely impermeable to charged species (Fig. 3-1). It requires an enormous amount of energy to move an ion through the hydrophobic interior of the bilayer, and accordingly the cell must make special provision to allow transmembrane ion current to flow.
Diversity in the Structure and Function of Ion Channels
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K
Published: November 2023

Thus far we have been discussing the axonal membrane as if it had only two kinds of ion currents, a voltage—dependent potassium current that is responsible for the axon’s electrical activity (or rather its lack of activity) at rest, and a voltage-dependent sodium current that underlies the large and rapid membrane depolarization during the action potential. Although the work of Hodgkin and Huxley demonstrated that these two currents could provide a reasonably accurate picture of the electrical activity of the squid giant axon, it is now evident that there is a considerable diversity of ion currents in axons, and even greater diversity in neuronal cell bodies and dendrites.
Neuronal Growth and Trophic Factors
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K
Published: November 2023

It is safe to say that we are only beginning to understand the multiplicity of signals that determine whether a cell will differentiate into a neuron, and whether it survives or dies before development is complete. The previous chapter briefly covered some of the major events that occur during development of a neuron. We saw that the neural inducers, together with the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) play a key role in the early steps of making a nervous system. The growth factors epidermal growth factor (EGF) and /3-fibroblast growth factor (/3-FGF) are required for the proliferation of some of the cells that will eventually become components of the brain. Clearly, the real picture is much more complex. In any part of the brain, there are many different types of neurons, with different morphologies, diverse patterns of synaptic connections, and different electrical properties. These cells coexist with other cell types such as glia or sensory cells. The resultant properties of any specific mature neuron result from its exposure during development to the action of many different external factors, including those secreted by cells far away and those on the surface of neighboring cells. This chapter will cover some more of the molecules that act on developing neurons and their precursors.
The Bias of Technology
Authors: Feenberg Andrew
Published: November 2023

Instrumentalist theory of technology in both its Marxist and non-Marxist forms shares the commonsense assumption that the subjects of action-for example, the worker or the state-can be defined independently of their means. But in reality subjects and means are dialectically intertwined: the carpenter and the hammer appear accidentally related only so long as one does not consider carpentry as a vocation shaping the carpenter through a relation to the tools of the trade. The army is not merely accidentally related to its weapons, but is structured around the activities they support. Similarly, the school does not “use” its teachers or their knowledge as means to its educational goals, but is constituted qua actor by these “means.” In these cases of collective action, the agent is its means of action viewed from another angle.