bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Uso de las redes sociales digitales en empresas hoteleras en la ciudad de Tijuana, Baja California
Authors: Miranda Zavala Ana María , Cruz Estrada Isaac
Published: May 2019

El presente artículo tiene como objetivo identificar los elementos en las redes sociales que intervienen en la decisión de hospedarse en los hoteles de cuatro y cinco estrellas de la ciudad de Tijuana, Baja California, México, así mismo la revisión de las características y contenidos de las redes sociales de este sector. Reconociendo la importancia que representa las redes sociales como medio de comunicación con los clientes, de tal manera que las empresas hoteleras deben de incrementar la eficiencia de estas herramientas, con la finalidad de encontrar algunas áreas de oportunidad, que ha pasado por alto la empresa. De este modo se caracterizaron los atributos que los huéspedes de los hoteles consideran esenciales y que hacen que el turista incremente su confianza en la utilización de estos medios. Para la obtención de los resultados del presente estudio se realizó un análisis cualitativo y cuantitativo de las redes sociales de 16 hoteles de cuatro y cinco estrellas de la ciudad de Tijuana, Baja california. registrados en la Secretaría de Turismo del Estado (SECTURE) y la Asociación de Hoteles del Noroeste (ASHONO) para identificar la manera en que llevan a cabo su estrategia de marketing a través de estos medios.
European Stockholding: is there a gender gap?
Authors: Vivel-Búa Milagros , Fernández-López Sara , Rey-Ares Lucía
Published: May 2019

This research analyzes the individual determinants of the decision to participate in the stock market in eight European countries - France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom, on a sample of 6,036 individuals, aged between 18-65 years. The data used in the empirical analysis comes from the study “The EU Market for Consumer Long Term Retail Saving Vehicles. Comparative Analysis of Products, Market Structure, Costs, Distribution Systems and Consumer Saving Patterns”, carried out by the European Commission in 2007. The main focus of this paper consists of analyzing the potential gender gap in stock market participation while it includes socioeconomic variables that have already been studied in the prior financial literature focused on other countries, as well as behavioral determinants that have not been analyzed in depth so far. The results highlight that stock market participation in the countries above mentioned. Issues positively related to this research involves: peoples age, being male, having university studies, income, influence of financial advice and willingness to risk; and a negatively related issue is seeking of financial advice and general trust. Besides, it is important the existence of institutional country factors that influence the investors’ attitudes toward stockholding.
Los impactos del anclaje territorial en el Modelo de Negocios: Caso empresa ENO en Francia
Authors: Persais Éric , Cuevas Moreno Ricardo
Published: May 2019

Este artículo tiene por objetivo estudiar el impacto del anclaje territorial sobre el modelo de negocios. Para ese propósito se utilizó el método de estudio de caso único, el cual permite comprender la riqueza del contenido de la actividad de una empresa francesa del sector de aparatos domésticos no eléctricos. El análisis está basado en el modelo recursos, competencias, oferta y valor (RCOV). Este pone en evidencia cómo la decisión de la empresa de anclarse en un territorio afecta esos aspectos, produciendo al mismo tiempo un aprendizaje organizacional. Así, la gerencia debe gestionar continuamente el equilibrio entre la eficiencia económica y las consecuencias extraeconómicas, cumpliendo simultáneamente su vocación de generar ganancia e impactar favorablemente el territorio que la alberga.
El consumo promedio y la rotación como efectos generadores de las ventas en restaurantes de la ciudad de Quito, Ecuador
Authors: Díaz Duque Pablo , Burbano Argoti Camila Alejandra , Salazar-Duque Diego
Published: May 2019

Uno de los principales procesos en un restaurante es aquel relacionado con la gestión de venta, desde que se ofrece un producto hasta que un cliente lo consume, para esto existen elementos que el cliente no los percibe y que intervienen en la decisión de repetir la compra; para ello es necesario conocer, por parte del administrador, qué elementos influyen en este proceso. Para este estudio se ha planteado establecer si existe relación entre el consumo promedio y la rotación como elementos orientadores de la preferencia de un cliente y del nivel de ventas del establecimiento identificando los factores que influyen en el cliente durante la toma de decisiones;  esto contribuye a establecer estrategias para elevar el nivel de ingresos, considerando a la rotación y al consumo promedio como variables diferenciadoras de la gestión de establecimientos.
Estrategia de negocios para exportar productos agrícolas desde Costa Rica
Authors: Espinach Rueda Monserrat
Published: May 2019

A partir de la experiencia de la autora, en más de diez años comercializando productos agrícolas a mercados de Europa, Estados Unidos y Canadá, añadido a la experiencia de seis años impartiendo cursos en la Escuela de Administración de la Universidad Estatal a Distancia de Costa Rica, se ha detectado una necesidad del estudiante, futuro administrador, de conocer sobre comercialización internacional desde la perspectiva del exportador. Utilizando una metodología cualitativa, se detallan los supuestos de la realidad percibida por la autora, respaldada con revisión bibliográfica que fundamente la teoría presentada. Bosquejando los elementos que dificultan a las empresas agrícolas expandirse a mercados externos, se propone como objetivo principal determinar la mejor estrategia a seguir para exportar productos agrícolas perecederos con la finalidad de presentar al futuro administrador-exportador un legado de conocimiento de la forma correcta de accionar en la planificación de los negocios internacionales agrícolas de Costa Rica.
First record of the genus Trichocorixa (Hemiptera: Corixidae) and of T. reticulata (Guérin-Ménéville) in Costa Rica
Authors: Herrera Madrigal Federico
Published: May 2019

ABSTRACT: The presence in Costa Ricaof the genus Trichocorixa and of the species T. reticulata, not previously-reported for the country, is confirmed. KEYWORDS: Heteroptera, Nepomorpha, Water boatman, Central America, Costa Rica
Baseline atmospheric corrosion in the Geothermal Plant Las Pailas, Guanacaste, Costa Rica.
Authors: Rodríguez Yáñez Javier
Published: May 2019

During the construction of the Las Pailas geothermal plant, atmospheric corrosion was evaluated for 5 years. Atmospheric monitoring and gravimetric analysis with low alloy steel (ASTM A36), were done according to ISO 9223 and its associated procedure. There were low values of pollution by chlorides and sulfates, around 5 mg m-2 día-1 and without important levels of acid rain, despite the proximity of an active volcano, which indicates an atmosphere of “rural type”. TDH’s level was 60 %, initial corrosion speed was 40 μm year-1, and this estabilized after 3 years in 20 µm year-1, with protective oxides. The accumulated corrosion estimated by the model meet ISO Corroag of ISO 9226. The Matlab model produced a best adjustment exponential model with a time dependence factor of 0,89.
A Focus on an Atypical Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
Authors: JE Diatewa
Published: May 2019

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a multifocal demyelinating inflammatory disease. It mainly affects the white matter of the central nervous system. It occurs aft er an infection or vaccination. In sub - Saharan Africa, its data among adults are almost non - existent in literature. We report the first case of atypical post - infectious ADEM, followed - up from December 2017 to December 2018 at neurology unit of medicine dep artment of Makélékélé hospital in Brazzaville (Congo). ADEM is atypical because of the following peculiarities: diagnostic (medullary lesion which is exclusively cervical and associated with Guillain - Barré syndrome), therapeutic (therapy associating cyclop hosphamide with corticoids) and outcome (monophasic outcome influenced by a concomitant lesion of the peripheral nervous system; outcome favourable over 10 months).
Pengaruh Kompetensi Sumber Daya Manusia dan Pemanfaatan Teknologi Informasi terhadap Kualitas Laporan Keuangan
Authors: Zubaidi Nabila , Cahyono Dwi , Maharani Astrid
Published: May 2019

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh kompetensi sumber daya manusia dan penggunaan teknologi informasi pada kualitas laporan keuangan (studi kasus di Dinas Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Situbondo dan Biro Layanan Informasi dan Komunikasi). Sampel dalam penelitian ini adalah karyawan / karyawan & karyawan pengguna teknologi informasi di tiga bank syariah situbondo, yang berjumlah 99 orang. Metode analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode analisis regresi linier berganda. Uji hipotesis yang digunakan adalah uji t, uji F dan koefisien determinasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Kompetensi SDM berpengaruh terhadap Kualitas Laporan Keuangan di Kantor Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Situbondo dan Biro Layanan Informasi dan Komunikasi. Pemanfaatan Teknologi Informasi mempengaruhi Kualitas Laporan Keuangan di Kantor Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Situbondo dan Biro Layanan Informasi dan Komunikasi.
The Effect of Work Stress and Satisfaction of Collector Performance in PT Federal International Finance Singaraja Branch Office
Authors: Krisna Heryanda Komang
Published: May 2019

This study aimed at determining the effect of (1) job stress and job satisfaction toward collector's performance, (2) job stress toward collector's job satisfaction, (3) job stress toward collector's performance, and (4) job satisfaction toward collector's performance at PT. Federal International Finance Singaraja Branch Office. The design of this study was causal quantitative. The populations of this study were 40 people. Data were collected by questionnaire, and analyzed by path analysis. The results showed that: (1) job stress and job satisfaction had significant effect toward collector's performance (2) job stress had a negative and significant effect toward collector job satisfaction, (3) job stress had a negative and significant effect toward collector's performance, and (4) job satisfaction had a positive and significant effect toward collector's performance at PT. Federal International Finance in Singaraja
The Debate about Guilds
Authors: Ogilvie Sheilagh
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter provides a brief history of guilds and an overview of the debate surrounding them. The effects of guilds on economy and society have always attracted controversy. Contemporaries held strong views about them, with guild members and their political allies extolling their virtues, while customers, employees, and competitors lamented their misdeeds. Modern scholars are also deeply divided on guilds. Some claim that guilds were so widespread and long-lived that they must have generated economic benefits. Other scholars take a darker view. Guilds, they hold, were in a position to extract benefits for their own members by acting as cartels, exploiting consumers; rationing access to human capital investment; stifling innovation; bribing governments for favours; harming outsiders such as women, Jews, and the poor; and redistributing resources to their members at the expense of the wider economy.
Guilds and Governments
Authors: Ogilvie Sheilagh
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines how a guild got privileges over particular economic activities. Though guilds are sometimes called private-order institutions, in practice they were recognized by the public authorities. They enjoyed legal entitlements and coercive power, in return for which they channelled favours to political elites, so much so that the French controller-general described guild affairs in 1776 as “one of the most abundant sources of profits for the people of the Palace.” Guilds thus provide an excellent context for investigating how social networks deploy social capital to shape government action. Guilds gave people practising a particular occupation an institutional mechanism enabling them to exercise more effective political pressure than they could by acting independently as individuals.
Entry Barriers
Authors: Ogilvie Sheilagh
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how guilds defined and enforced entitlement. A first entitlement sought by any guild was to decide who could practise certain economic activities. Every guild aimed to secure the exclusive right for its members to do specific kinds of work in a particular place. A guild also secured the right to decide who could gain admission to the guild “mysteries.” To enforce these privileges, guilds erected an elaborate array of entry barriers, making admission costly or impossible for any applicant who could not satisfy conditions relating to citizenship, ethnicity, religion, occupation, wealth, property, fees, marriage, age, legitimate birth, parental occupation, ancestral “purity,” reputation, or approval by existing guild members. By limiting the number of practitioners, guilds sought, in the words of the Burgdorf shoemakers' guild in 1785, “to create a better and surer livelihood for the remainder.”
Market Manipulation
Authors: Ogilvie Sheilagh
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at the many ways guilds limited competition in order that their members might have a more comfortable living, at the expense of customers, employees, rivals, and the wider economy. A guild controlled not only who could legally practise an occupation, but what he could do once he got in. The guilds' major preoccupation in these collectively agreed regulations was to manipulate markets in what their members produced and in the inputs they used to produce it. As the sole legitimate practitioners of a particular occupation, it made sense for guild masters to use their guilds to restrict internal rivalry and external competition that might push down prices and push up costs. The guilds had first to suppress outsiders who sold the same wares “much more cheaply,” and then to set minimum selling prices for guild members, “so they might have a comfortable living by doing so.”
Human Capital Investment
Authors: Ogilvie Sheilagh
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how guilds dealt with human capital investment, a second sphere in which markets are often thought to fail. Many guilds imposed comprehensive training requirements, as in the case of the seventeenth-century Toledo silk-twisters who justified their exclusive legal privileges on the grounds that “the art of silk is useful and has many secrets; because of the quality and secrets of the said art, no matter how deft a man may be, he cannot master them except through long practice and the passage of time.” The chapter then looks at the externalities and information asymmetries which could cause markets in human capital investment to fail, and the ways in which guilds regulated training in pre-industrial crafts and services.
Innovation
Authors: Ogilvie Sheilagh
Published: May 2019

This chapter addresses how guilds dealt with technological innovation. Innovation is a final sphere in which market failures are widespread in premodern economies, as in modern ones. On the one hand, contemporaries frequently complained that guilds blocked new techniques and practices. On the other hand, guilds were in a position to generate cartel rents, and this might have encouraged their members to incur the costs of invention. Guilds might also have encouraged diffusion of technological knowledge through compulsory apprenticeship, mandatory travelling by journeymen, or the spatial clustering of practitioners. Guilds could also affect innovation unintentionally by things they did for other reasons. Guilds thus provide a rich context for investigating the role of different institutional mechanisms in encouraging the invention and diffusion of innovations.
The Virosphere
Authors: Solé Ricard , Elena Santiago F.
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents an introduction to viruses. Viruses have played a major role not only in evolutionary history but also in recent history. They have shaped human genomes and physiological features, they can be deadly or good, and they can change so fast and affect so many cellular pathways that mounting evidence supports a picture of evolution largely dependent on the driving force provided by these entities. Some viruses' names have become popular in the media because of their terrifying impact through deadly pandemic events. Among them are the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and the Ebola virus (EBOV). The remainder of the chapter discusses the expanding viral universe, structural and genetic diversity of viruses, and growth in the importance and understanding of ecological and evolutionary impact of viruses over the last century.
Epidemics
Authors: Solé Ricard , Elena Santiago F.
Published: May 2019

It has been argued that epidemics have played a major role in human history. For example, the arrival of the British in Australia triggered a deadly wave of smallpox infections, with the estimated death of half of the indigenous Australians. The same virus wiped out the population of Easter Island, and measles eliminated a third of the inhabitants of Fiji. New threats have also emerged as human populations explode and pressure on ecosystems crosses sustainability thresholds. In order to understand how to deal with epidemics and eradicate them, there is a need to first understand how they spread. This chapter begins with a discussion of epidemic modeling, specifically the SIS model. It then covers the SIS model in space and graphs, modeling HIV-1 transmission, and halting viruses in scale-free networks.
Less of the Same: Online Local News
Authors: Hindman Matthew
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines online local news within the top one hundred U.S. television markets using comScore panel data that track a quarter of a million Internet users across more than a million World Wide Web domains. It identifies and analyzes 1,074 local online news and information sources across these one hundred markets, studying their audience reach, traffic, and affiliation (or lack thereof) with traditional media. The breadth and the market-level granularity of the comScore data makes this study the most comprehensive look to date at Internet-based local news. The portrait that emerges contradicts claims that new online outlets are adding significantly to local news diversity. The chapter argues that local news on the Web is fundamentally about consuming less news from the same old-media sources. It also looks at concentration in local online news markets, and conducts a census of Internet-only local news sites that reach more than a minimum threshold of traffic.
Introduction
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter demonstrates how Turkey's performance in economic growth and human development has been a little above but close to developing-country and world averages. Turkey's political system was opened to greater participation and competition after World War II with the transition to a multiparty system which gave greater voice and power to average citizens. Turkey's formal economic institutions and economic policies also experienced a great deal of change during the last two centuries. The chapter shows that many of these institutional changes were designed to and did lead to increases in per capita income and improvements in human development. The latter part of the chapter provides an overview of the book.
Reforms and Deficits: Ottoman Response to European Challenges
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the Ottoman reforms as well as the efforts to finance them. The Ottoman government, faced with the challenges from provincial notables and independence movements that were gaining momentum in the Balkans, on the one hand, and the growing military and economic power of Western Europe, on the other, began to implement a series of reforms in the early decades of the nineteenth century. These reforms and the opening of the economy began to transform the political and economic institutions very rapidly. The chapter shows the social and economic roots of modern Turkey thus need to be sought, first and foremost, in the changes that took place during the nineteenth century.
Opening to Foreign Trade and Investment
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes the economic consequences of the reforms and the opening of the economy to international trade and investment. The reform efforts of the Ottoman government had important implications for the economy throughout the nineteenth century. For political support against external and internal threats as well as support for the reform process itself, the government often turned to western European states. The recurring financial needs of the central government only added to this search for external support. The chapter examines the basic trends in international trade and European direct investment in Turkey and then turns to the changing patterns of production, the growing commercialization of agriculture, and the decline in crafts-based manufacturing activities.
Inward-Oriented Development after World War II
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers global and national political developments and examines how they led to changes in economic policies and institutions, as well as the consequences of these changes. After World War II, Turkey moved closer to the West and toward a multiparty political system. The shift to a more competitive political system brought about a shift toward an economic strategy based on agriculture as favored by the great majority of the population who earned their living from agriculture. While the state-led industrialization of the 1930s began to be abandoned as early as 1947, the new strategy was fully adopted by the Democrat Party government that came to power after the elections in 1950.
Neoliberal Policies and Globalization
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter shows that, while obstacles to international capital movements were removed in many countries, the obstacles in the way of international labor movements remained in place. At the same time, legal and technological changes weakened the labor unions and more generally the bargaining capacity of labor in many countries. As a result, the benefits of economic growth in the new era were distributed unequally between capital and labor. In addition, the Asian crisis at the end of the 1990s created difficulties for many developing countries and demonstrated the risks associated with financial globalization. Furthermore, the global economic crisis that began in 2008 led to a sharp decline in output followed by slow recovery in the developed countries.
Ethics without Normativity and Politics without Historicity
Authors: Benhabib Seyla
Published: May 2019

This chapter talks about how the announcement that Judith Butler was awarded the Adorno Prize of the city of Frankfurt led to an intense controversy that engulfed officials of the German-Jewish and Israeli communities, members of academia, journalists, and public intellectuals. At issue was whether, given her support of the Israel Global Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions Movement (BDS), Butler should have been honored in the name of a Jewish-German refugee and one of the revered founders of the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School. Nonetheless, Butler's achievement is to retrieve ethical imperatives toward a vision of cohabitation by reviving Jewish memories of exile and persecution, in that she reexamines long-forgotten distinctions between cultural and political Zionism.
Isaiah Berlin
Authors: Benhabib Seyla
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes Isaiah Berlin's work, stating that the relationship of liberalism to Berlin's value pluralism remains fraught, as does the question whether value pluralism can avoid relativism. Notably, Judith Shklar and Berlin admired each other and shared a skeptical temperament as well as a dedication to the study of the history of ideas as the indispensable method of pursuing political philosophy in their time. Neither shared Hannah Arendt's conviction that the legacy of failed revolutions could only be countered by the activist civic republicanism of self-governing communities. The chapter also contextualizes the varying views of Berlin's work and persona through the prism of Max Weber's doctrine of value pluralism.
Introduction: Loose Texts, Loose Women
Authors: Knust Jennifer , Wasserman Tommy
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter provides a background of the pericope adulterae—the episode involving Jesus and a woman caught in adultery. The pericope adulterae boasts a long, complex history of reception and transmission, which, at least early on, placed it on the margins of Christian interpretation. Today the story is so widely known, so widely quoted, and so often alluded to in art, literature, film, and public discourse of all sorts that “throwing stones” serves as a cliché. Even so, the textual instability of the episode has not been forgotten, especially by biblical scholars, who continue to debate the implications of its unusual past. By now, most scholars have concluded that the pericope was not original to the Gospel; rather, it was added by a well-meaning interpolator at some later date, after the Gospel of John was already circulating.
Telling Stories in Church
Authors: Knust Jennifer , Wasserman Tommy
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the divergent liturgical history of the pericope adulterae. Assigned to the third Saturday of Lent in Rome, the story gained even greater prominence in Latin contexts, particularly during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Carolingian biblical reform preserved and promulgated the Roman stational liturgy, Jerome's Vulgate, and also the pericope adulterae, which was featured in an imperial-sponsored homiliary and depicted in luxurious copies of the Gospels. The story was comparatively peripheral in Byzantine contexts, yet it was incorporated in this context as well. Featured as a lection on the feast days of female sinner saints and read in penitential contexts, the story was readily accepted within earlier traditions about repentant prostitutes and the mercy Christ extends. Liturgical reading guaranteed that the pericope would be remembered in both contexts, albeit differently.
Concluding Reflections: An Enduring Memory
Authors: Knust Jennifer , Wasserman Tommy
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter argues that the history of the pericope adulterae reveals as much about the changing priorities of scribes, editors, and scholars as it does about an “initial text” of John. Local liturgical habits also had a tremendous impact on what could survive as an “authentic” gospel memory. The study's survey of the evidence shows that the story was interpolated into a Greek copy of John in the West, probably during the first half of the third century, and with great care; that the Johannine pericope was then gradually but decisively brought into texts, liturgy, and art in Greek and Latin, albeit at different rates; and thus that the story was not actively suppressed on theological grounds, either in its initial version or in its Johannine forms, despite the custom among some Byzantine scribes and scholars of identifying the passage as spurious.
The Miraculous Flying House of Loreto
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

In 1295, a house fell from the evening sky onto an Italian coastal road by the Adriatic Sea. Inside, awestruck locals encountered the Virgin Mary, who explained that this humble mud-brick structure was her original residence newly arrived from Nazareth. To keep it from the hands of Muslim invaders, angels had flown it to Loreto, stopping three times along the way. This story of the house of Loreto has been read as an allegory of how Catholicism spread peacefully around the world by dropping miraculously from the heavens. This book calls that interpretation into question by examining historical accounts of the movement of the Holy House across the Mediterranean in the thirteenth century and the Atlantic in the seventeenth century. These records indicate vast and voluntary involvement in the project of formulating a branch of Catholic devotion. The book surveys the efforts of European Jesuits, Slavic migrants, and indigenous peoples in Baja California, Canada, and Peru. These individuals contributed to the expansion of Catholicism by acting as unofficial authors, inadvertent pilgrims, unlicensed architects, unacknowledged artists, and unsolicited cataloguers of Loreto. Their participation in portaging Mary's house challenges traditional views of Christianity as a prepackaged European export, and instead suggests that Christianity is the cumulative product of thousands of self-appointed editors. The book also demonstrates how miracle narratives can be treated seriously as historical sources that preserve traces of real events. Drawing on rich archival materials, the book illustrates how global Catholicism proliferated through independent initiatives of untrained laymen.
Introduction
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter begins with the story of a small, well-traveled house that fell from the sky into the middle of a road leading to the town of Recanati, in Italy's Marche region, 2 December 1295. The house came to be known as “Loreto” for the owner of the land, Laureta. The chapter then sets out the book's purpose, which is to show the myriad human hands behind the Holy House's emergence on the Italian and global scene. Movers ranged beyond French, Spanish, Portuguese, and central European Jesuits to include Monquí pilgrims from Baja California, Moxos house builders in Bolivia, Huron female mission leaders in Canada, Inka procession organizers in Peru, Slavic migrants in the Adriatic basin, and German atlas makers, among others. The experiences of these individuals who got bundled into the history of Loreto turn Loreto's founding parable on its head.
Deconstructing a Miracle
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

Since the miraculous flying house first surfaced, people have applied historical methods to better understand it. But these attempts have fallen short at explaining three hallmarks of the Loreto devotion: its movement (journeys), its grafting onto new venerated objects (pairings), and its lasting appeal (due in part to people's continued real, lived experiences). This chapter presents a basic background and descriptions of key features of Loreto's devotion. It focuses on questions such as: What are the possible avenues that have been explored by those keen to crack past mysteries like Loreto's flying house? How do particular choices of focus constrain understanding? How do the ways that people describe an event contribute to that event's staying power? These questions are broached and answered in the surveys of both deconstructive methods and reconstructive counterapproaches.
Accidental Pilgrims
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes how some Catholic pilgrims tried to reconcile the Jesuit official advice of mental self-discipline with their first intense encounters with the Madonna of Loreto. The pilgrims' stories involve both contemplative quests for spiritual improvement and transformative run-ins with the material manifestations of Catholicism. Yet they flip the order recommended by Richeòme of contemplation first and real world next. The first pilgrims considered are the Jesuits who loom large behind the good-pilgrimage rubrics of this time period. Then, the Jesuit template for pilgrimage is tested against the reported experiences of two non-Jesuit travelers to Loreto, Nicolà Albani and Pierre Chaumonot.
Counters, Namers, and Processers
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

Agostinho de Santa Maria (1642–1728), a Descalced Augustinian friar from Portugal, spent the last three decades of his life taking inventory of sites dedicated to Mary. Jesuits such as Wilhelm Gumppenberg, Francisco de Florencia, and António Cordeiro also produced encyclopedic compilations of Marian sanctuaries across the world. Their projects suggest that mission names counted in the early modern period because they were actually counted. This chapter begins with counters including the Santa Maria, Gumppenberg, de Florencia, and Cordeiro. This assortment of atlas makers, inventory compilers, and biographers shows the diversity and quantity of individuals engaged in the counting project of the seventeenth century. It was these counters who fixed and publicized the notion that the spread of Loreto was collective and intentional. The chapter then turns to some of the namers featured by the above writers. Finally, it examines Jesuit records that point to the Inka of Cuzco and the Monquí of California, whose processions in honor of Loreto brought the name currency and freshness.
Reconstructing Catholic Expansion
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It begins by recapitulating the three entry points for analysis that have been tested in this book: beginning with anchoring ideals, looking for actual patterns, and finding late expressions. These strategies have been applied here to historically examine miraculous data to determine what happened in the remote past. Now they will be brought to bear to reconstruct Loreto's origins. Taken seriously as historical proof, the prototype miracle of Loreto illuminates how Catholicism moved and continues to move. The chapter concludes by comparing the construction of Loreto's mythohistory and today's Wikipedia entries, which is illuminating both for the similarities and differences that rise to the fore.
The Case of the Constable’s Nose
Authors: De Rohit
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the litigation over the imposition of a draconian Prohibition regime on Bombay. The Prohibition laws in Bombay and other provinces, brought in to enforce Article 47 of the Constitution, were among the earliest attempts by the postcolonial state to regulate the everyday life of its citizens. The Prohibition policy was a critical aspect of the attempt of the state to fashion a postcolonial identity for itself by freeing its citizens from what it called the foreign practice of drinking. However, it relied on the mechanisms of the colonial state for its implementation, opening up questions about state involvement in private life and the role of the police in a democracy. Given that the majority of litigants were Parsis (Indian Zoroastrians), a community with strong links to the liquor trade, the chapter also considers the emerging idea of public interest and the relationship between liberty, property, and community identity.
The Reformation of Belief
Authors: Shagan Ethan H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the controversy behind Luther's suggestion that belief in the existence of God was exceptional rather than ubiquitous. Luther made the starkest and most rarefied variety of belief the only one that counted: all others were mere simulacra, the debased epistemology of the world, so that people who lacked the full benefits of faith did not really believe that God is. The result was a topography of Europe's religious landscape as unrecognizable to Luther's first auditors as it is to modern historians: Luther argued that Christian belief was vanishingly rare in European society, belonging only to a small minority within a seething mass of infidels.
The Invention of the Unbeliever
Authors: Shagan Ethan H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes how generations of scholars have trawled through several materials for evidence of “real” atheism, with limited success. More recently, a number of scholars have demonstrated that early modern atheism was a coherent concept with its own contours and meanings rather than simply a derogatory slur. As seen before, the Reformation and Counter-Reformation collaborated to transform belief into a principle of exclusion, making belief hard. The effect of this confessional logic is the discovery that a supposedly Christian society was in fact populated by legions of unbelievers. The chapter shows how the invention of the unbeliever was both a major component of the sixteenth-century revolution in belief and an important reason on why that revolution failed.
The Unbearable Weight of Believing
Authors: Shagan Ethan H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter details how the tale of Francesco Spiera represents a crack in the facade of Reformation belief and an early warning sign that belief could not support the vast new weight that both Catholics and Protestants had placed upon it. The crisis of belief that beset Europe in the later sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the harvest of what the confessional project of belief had sowed. Protestants and Catholics alike had conspired to make belief hard. Rebelling against the debased epistemology of the world, they determined that only particular doctrines, and only particular ways of holding those doctrines, and only particular sources of assurance of those doctrines, constituted Christian belief.
Enlightened Belief
Authors: Shagan Ethan H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter investigates how Descartes' decision to submit the Church's dogma to the judgment of his own mind was not contingent but absolutely central. His argument for God's existence was not simply one example from a list of things he could prove rationally, but rather was the wellspring of all argument, the fundamental theorem that allowed him to establish secure knowledge in other fields. The whole ground of judgment, for Descartes, was the mind's capacity to discover a truth external to itself; only after independently proving that God exists could he believe anything else. Moreover, for Descartes, complex acts of ratiocination must necessarily precede belief, and the individual reasoning person must believe for themselves if belief is to have any meaning.
The Enigma of Newton’s Alchemy
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses studies on Newton's alchemy. By the time of his death in 1727, Newton had already become an icon of reason in an age of light, recognized for discovering the laws governing gravitational attraction, unveiling the secrets of the visible spectrum, and laying the foundations for the branch of mathematics known today as calculus. However, during the very years when Newton was discovering the hidden structure of the spectrum, he was also conducting private chymical research to find the “inimaginably small portion” of active material that governed growth and change in the natural world, or as Newton says, nature's “secret fire,” and the “material soule of all matter.” The chapter also sets out the book's purpose and provides an overview of the subsequent chapters.
Early Modern Alchemical Theory
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter argues that Newton's belief that metals are not only produced within the earth but also undergo a process of decay, leading to a cycle of subterranean generation and corruption, finds its origin in the close connection between alchemy and mining that developed in central Europe during the early modern period. Alchemy itself acquired a distinct, hylozoic cast that the aurific art had largely lacked in the European Middle Ages. Despite a common scholarly view that holds alchemy to have been uniformly vitalistic, the early modern emphasis on the cyclical life and death of metals was not a monolithic feature of the discipline across the whole of its history, but rather a gift of the miners and metallurgists who worked in shafts and galleries that exhibited to them the marvels of the underground world. The chapter concludes by describing sources used by Newton, such as his favorite chymical writer, Eirenaeus Philalethes, and the pseudonymous early modern author masked beneath the visage of the fourteenth-century scrivener Nicolas Flamel.
Toward a General Theory of Vegetability and Mechanism
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on Newton's treatise, Of Natures obvious laws & processes in vegetation. The treatise begins with a detailed consideration of the similarities and differences between mineral generation and that of animals and vegetables, then passes to a quite original theory of the different methods by which nature produces two common products, sea salt and niter, incidentally invoking the aerial niter theory of Sendivogius. After this, Newton presents his view that the earth is itself a living creature and uses its respiration to account for gravity, leading him into an intricate discussion of different “airs” as well as the relationship of even more subtle materials, namely, ether and the “body” of light. From here he launches into a discussion of God and attempts to improve on the proofs that René Descartes had supplied for the existence of the divinity. In the final paragraphs of the text, Newton returns to the theme of generation and employs the principle of vegetability to distinguish between the growth and activity imparted by nature from the more superficial processes of mechanism.
The Shadow of a Noble Experiment
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter deals with Newton's experimental notebooks, containing dated chymical laboratory records from 1678 to 1696. Beyond the glassware and ceramic implements described in these experimental notebooks, the most obvious feature of his laboratory would have been the charcoal-burning furnace or furnaces located there. Like many contemporary chymists, Newton regularly performed his experiments at the high temperatures required for metallurgical operations. It is by means of these “Vulcanian implements” along with the apparatus referred to piecemeal in his experimental notebooks, that Newton managed to produce such exotic desiderata as “liquor of antimony,” “the net,” and “sophic sal ammoniac”. The chapter also considers Newton's instructions for making these and other material precursors to the philosophers' stone.
Extracting Our Venus
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses Newton's attempt to purify his antimonial sublimate of copper vitriol from excess antimony and sal ammoniac to obtain a material that he calls “our Venus.” The project of “extracting our Venus” can be tracked from its origins up until February 1695/6, the last date in CU Add. 3973. It is possible that Newton's goal was to arrive not merely at a salt of copper in the modern sense, where the metal combines with other elements to yield a compound, but rather in the traditional alchemical sense whereby the copper is decomposed and its internal, constituent salt is released. Whether “our Venus” meant an internal constituent of the metal copper, or rather a compound of the metal, Newton spent years of effort trying to arrive at the substance in pure form.
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, Alchemical Collaborator
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses Newton's collaborative chymical project with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier in 1693. By examining Fatio's hitherto unstudied letter to Newton from the summer of 1693 in conjunction with Newton's manuscript “Three Mysterious Fires”, the chapter shows that the latter text represents the fruit of an elaborate set of procedures devised by Newton in conjunction with Fatio. These processes were related to another set of operations from Newton that Fatio recapitulates in the aforementioned 1693 letter. The procedures that Fatio quotes from Newton provide an important key for understanding both Keynes 58 and the laboratory notebooks. In a word, they are simplified procedures for making such important desiderata as the caduceus of Mercury and the scythe of Saturn, Decknamen that arise in the records of Newton's experimentation and reading notes.
The Warden of the Mint and His Alchemical Associates
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

Fatio was not the only chymist with whom Newton collaborated in his maturity. After his move to London in 1696, Newton was evidently approached by the obscure “Captain Hylliard,” who wrote a brief alchemical manifesto that the now famous intellectual and Mint official copied. This chapter provides an extensive analysis of the episode with Hylliard and describes Newton's extended collaboration with the Dutch distiller William Yworth, which also took place after Newton's move to London. Beyond casting new light on the processes behind Yworth's Processus mysterii magni and linking them to Newton's late florilegia, the chapter also uses a recently discovered manuscript in the Royal Society archives to show that the document actually contains the record of a live interview between Newton and Yworth.
Public and Private
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter shows that Newton developed a theory of refraction based on the chymical principle sulfur, which he described in the first edition Opticks (1704). It also finds that the seeds of this theory extend back to Newton's 1675 Hypothesis of Light, where he explicitly abandons the Sendivogian theory of an aerial niter that he had affirmed in Of Natures obvious laws. Newton replaced the aerial niter, which had accounted for phenomena ranging from combustion and respiration to the fertilization of the earth, with a growing reliance on sulfur. Although he had reasons of his own for making this shift, Newton was also influenced by parallel developments in European chymistry, a field that was rapidly moving toward what would eventually be known as phlogiston theory.
The Ghost of Sendivogius
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter builds on Newton's increasing interest in sulfur, placing his theories in the context of developments within the chymical community of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. It provides a new look at Newton's developing ideas about affinity and his role in the eighteenth-century development of affinity tables, the graphic representations of selective attractions by materials that cause those with less affinity to precipitate. Newton's attribution of refractive power to the sulfur content of illuminated materials justifies the view that he held a chymical theory of light. Nor did this fact escape his successors. In the years directly before the Chemical Revolution of the late eighteenth century, European chymists tried to push Newton's chymistry of light further by attaching his linkage of refractivity and sulfur to the phlogiston theory championed by Georg Ernst Stahl.
Social Welfare Policy, Living Standards, and Self-Help, 1861–1908
Authors: Boyer George R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the Crusade Against Outrelief and its effects on working-class behavior. The increased use of the workhouse caused a sharp decline in the share of the population receiving poor relief. The crusade ended the use of the Poor Law to assist those temporarily in need during economic dislocations—after 1870 there is no hint of the trade cycle in aggregate statistics on numbers receiving relief, as there should have been in a modern social insurance regime with its “automatic stabilizers.” As such, working-class self-help increased greatly after 1870, so that by the beginning of the twentieth century most skilled workers had some protection against negative income shocks. However, the situation was different for the low-skilled, most of whom had little savings and remained quite vulnerable to unexpected income loss.