bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Research into Communicative Language Teaching
Authors: Mitchell Rosamond
Published: October 2009

The problems of research into communicative language teaching are a special case of the problems facing research into any kind of foreign language pedagogy. They also overlap to a considerable degree with those facing any research in teaching, regardless of subject matter. This article reviews a range of research approaches which have been, or might be, used in researching various dimensions of communicative language teaching. It draws on the general literature on educational research methods to some extent, and on the general language pedagogy research literature, as well as on the growing body of research literature on communicative language teaching. This is not an exhaustive survey, however; instead, a limited number of studies are chosen for discussion so as to exemplify the major research problems and approaches.
Materials for Communicative Language Teaching and Learning
Authors: Rossner Richard
Published: October 2009

Surprisingly little has been written on the role of materials and the uses that teachers may make of them. General books in this area include Madsen and Bowen (1978), Cunningswoth (1984), and Sheldon (in press). The only references which particularly consider communicative langauge teaching are Grewer, Moston, and Sexton (1981), which incorprates a theoretically motivated taxonomy as well as much practical discussion, and apattison (1987), which is a practical handbook with materials in English, French, and German.
Foreword
Authors: Kaplan Robert B.
Published: October 2009

This tenth volume of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (ARAL) concerns itself with a survey of applied linguistics broadly, as this series did in volume I and volume V. The changes which have occurred in the field generally over the past decade are impressive; indeed, a volume such as this one would have been quite impossible ten years ago. Some of the topics covered in this volume are ones to which this series has repeatedly returned—e.g., language planning, language-in-education planning, bilingualism; others are unique to this volume—e.g., language and aging, and still others represent sub-fields which have been treated previously but which have expanded significantly in the years since volume I was published—e.g., second-language acquisition, language testing.
Language Planning: Corpus Planning
Authors: Baldauf Richard B.
Published: October 2009

Beginning with the framework established by Haugen (1983) as a basis for this review, corpus planning can be defined as those aspects of language planning which are primarily linguistic and hence internal to language. Some of these aspects related to language are: 1) orthographic innovation, including design, harmonization, change of script, and spelling reform; 2) pronunciation; 3) changes in language structure; 4) vocabulary expansion; 5) simplification of registers; 6) style, and 7) the preparation of language material (Bamgbose 1989). Jernudd (1988) provides a more detailed discussion of these linguistic aspects of language planning. Although the creation of these language related materials often requires intense linguistic activity, the focus of this review is not on linguistic description, but rather on historical and sociolinguistic studies which illuminate corpus planning processes. These processes can be divided into two categories: those related to the establishment ofnorms, and those related to the extension of thelinguistic functionsof language. In his revised model, Haugen labels the former category,Codificationor standardization procedures, and the latter,Elaborationor the functional development of language. These categories form the two major sections for this review.
The Spoken Language
Authors: Yule George
Published: October 2009

The investigation of aspects of the spoken language from a pedagogical perspective in recent years has tended, with a few exceptions, to be indirect and typically subordinate to considerations of other topics such as acquisition processes, cognitive constraints on learning, cross-cultural factors, and many others. At the same time, there has been a broad movement in language teaching away from organizing courses in terms of discrete skills such as speaking or listening and towards more holistic or integrated classroom experiences for learners. There is no reason to suspect that these trends will be reversed in the early 1990s and, with the exception of those specifically involved in remediation, language teachers will be less likely to find themselves being prompted to “teach the spoken language” than to “create learner-centered, acquisition-rich environments” which will have listening and speaking activities as incidental processes rather than as objectives. While acknowledging this trend, I would like to survey, albeit selectively, some of the areas where speaking and listening activities relevant to the classroom have been the subject of recent investigation and evaluate some of the claims concerning what might be beneficial or not. In the three sections which follow, I shall review current thinking on: 1) the spoken language as a formal system, focusing on pronunciation, 2) the spoken language as a medium of information transfer (that is, in its transactional function), and 3) the spoken language as a medium of interpersonal exchange (that is, in its interactional function).
Classroom Research in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: van Lier Leo
Published: October 2009

In a sad final chapter of A House at Pooh Corner, Christopher Robin has to desert his friends of the Hundred Aker Wood in order to go to school. The mysterious world of the classroom is just barely alluded to as a vaguely ominous place where it is not possible to do Nothing, the favorite activity of all healthy inhabitants of the wood.
The Influence of Print on Social and Cultural Change
Authors: Kaufer David S. , Carley Kathleen M.
Published: October 2009

Tracing the sociocultural influence of any technology is fraught with problems. First, many of the influences cited are likely to be too large and diffuse to be tested under experimental conditions in the laboratory. Second, the technology is likely to be, at most, an accessory to many other influencing factors rather than a singular cause. Third, insofar as the technology can be isolated as a factor of influence, the direction of the influence is often two way. The technology may cause changes in sociocultural states, but existing sociocultural states are also likely to result in the technology being used and evolved in unanticipated ways.
The Production and Consumption of Text
Authors: Sussex Ronald
Published: October 2009

The inventions of writing and printing constitute the first two revolutions in information recording and transmission. The current development of electronic management of text, somewhat prefigured by Remington and the typewriter, consitutes a third revolution. This article deals with the current state of play in text production and consumption in the specific context of electronic text production and comsumption.
Corpus-Based Investigations of Language Use
Authors: Biber Douglas , Conrad Susan , Reppen Randi
Published: October 2009

On a basic level, there are two main areas of study within linguistics: language structure and language use. Language practioners as well as theoreticians must be concerned with both areas; that is, they need a full understanding of the structural resources available in a language as well as analyses of what speakers and writers actually do with those resources. Investigations of a representative text corpus—a principled collection of texts stored on computer—provide important insights into both of these domains and open new avenues of inquiry.
Distance Instruction
Authors: Layne Patsy P. , Lepeintre Suzanne
Published: October 2009

Advances in media technology have made it technically possible to meet pressing worldwide demands for language and literacy training by means of distance instruction. Knowledge gained from a substantial body of experience in distance instruction is available to guide educators in combining technology with effective pedagogical programs. Each medium and each associated technology has unique capabilities and limitations and all media have been applied to distance instruction in varying combinations and with varying degrees of success. Most recently, computers and electronic networking, with their capabilities and their limitations, are making an impact on language instruction (Susser 1993, Warschauer, Turbee and Roberts 1994). Lessons learned from past experience in distance instruction are applicable to new technologies. A common reason for failure has been allowing a fascination with a new media technology to obscure the need for sound pedagogical design; a second reason has been a failure to consider socioeconomic factors (Schramm, Nelson, and Betham 1981).
Language and Media
Authors: Geis Michael L.
Published: October 2009

There are a number of linguistic issues that arise in connection with mass media, including the relationship between media and language attitudes, the role of language in the news, and the role of language in advertising. In the last three years, there has been active scholarship in each of these areas. In what follows, there is a brief discussion of developments in each of these areas and an annotated bibliography.
Language and Translation: Translating and Interpreting as a Profession
Authors: Bühler Hildegund
Published: October 2009

Interlingual and intercultural communication in the form of oral and written translation is as old as mankind. Only in the past 40 years has it achieved recognition as a profession on an international scale: the Fédéeration Internationale dee Traduoteurs (FIT), which today embraces 49 national associations, was founded in 1953; the Association Internationale des Interprètes de Conférence (AIIC) came into being in the same year. Many countries began to offer both academic training and degrees to future professionals in the field; the Institute for Translator and Interpreter Training at the University of Vienna, for instance, celebrated its 40th anniversary a few years ago (cf., Festschrift 1983).
Current Developments and Future Prospects
Authors: Swales John M.
Published: October 2009

As the previous chapters in this volume have made amply clear, the last few years have seen a considerable increase in work related to our understanding of the roles, forms, and processes of professional communication and of the complex of forces that give rise to those roles, forms, and processes. The reasons for this upsurge of interest are doubtless manifold. Some are related to administrators' felt needs to keep “channels of communication open” in the face of exponential information growth and the increasing bureaucratlzation of many professions. One consequence of this is that lines of research funding are obtainable relatively easily for communication studies in such areas as scientific research, medicine, business, law, and military affairs.
Introduction
Authors: Kaplan Robert B.
Published: October 2009

This fifth volume of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (ARAL) returns essentially to the broad review of Applied Linguistics with which the series opened in 1980. It is the conception of the Editorial Directors that the broad field of Applied Linguistics changes rapidly enough to justify a more general survey every four or five years. It has become the practice of the Editorial Directors to publish more targeted volumes in the intervening years; thus, while the first volume of ARAL attempted a broad coverage (i.e., Bilingualism, Pidginization and Creolization, Structural-Cognitive Pedagogical Approaches, Notional/Functional Approaches, Computer-Assisted Instruction, Psycholinguistlcs, Error Analysis, Language Testing, Sign Language, and Sociolinguistics), volumes II, III, and IV were more narrowly focused-i.e., respectively on Language and Language-in- Education Policy, Written Discourse, and Literacy. This volume attempts again a broad coverage of the whole field.
Functional Approaches in Language Pedagogy
Authors: Quinn T. J.
Published: October 2009

In a retrospective survey, it is helpful to use the wisdom of hindsight to impose neat categories and descriptive labels on the movement of professional ideas. The past is thus made to make much more sense than when it was the present. In terms of language pedagogy, the years surveyed in ARAL I (the late seventies) might be characterized as the era of the functional/notional syllabus. If one is seeking a similar global label to characterize the period since then, one might well speak of the return of methodology
Recent Developments in Computer Aided Instruction
Authors: Purcell Edward T.
Published: October 2009

In 1980 Frank Otto wrote the last entry for this series on computer aided instruction (CAI). A great deal has happened in the field since then. This brief paper will discuss several trends and issues that have recently become clear and attempt to describe the state of the field at present. The reader should be forewarned, however, that the situation is changing very rapidly, sometimes daily, and that what is true as of this writing may not be true tomorrow. The entire field of computers is changing very rapidly.
Stylistics
Authors: Carter Ronald A.
Published: October 2009

An essentially interdisciplinary activity, like many areas of applied linguistics, the most immediately contingent area to stylistics remains that of literary studies, although recent years have witnessed extension into other domains such as lexicography and teaching English as a Foreign Language. This survey is divided into five main sections but, given the interrelatedness of the areas, there will be inevitable overlaps as well as potential cases for sub-categorization. The sections are: 1) Linguistic stylistics 2) Literary stylistics 3) Style and discourse A) Pedagogical stylistics 5) Stylistics and the foreign language learner.
Text Linguistics and New Applications
Authors: de Beaugrande Robert
Published: October 2009

In its early stages, “text linguistics” was a sufficiently compact and localized enterprise that describing it would not have seemed inordinately difficult. Today, however, text linguistics has attained such prominence that it formed the largest contingent at the last International Congress of Linguists in Berlin in 1987. This rise has been accompanied by a widening of scope, a profusion of models, theories, and terms, and a diversification of the phenomena it is intended to capture or designate. The very term “text linguistics” may seem too narrow, and wider alternatives have been proposed, such as “text studies,” “text science,” “textology,” and above all “discourse analysis.” Similarly, some scholars have proposed that text linguistics be incorporated into a broader domain, such as semiotics/semiology, ethnography/enthnomethodology, communications, cognitive science, and so forth.
Discourse Analysis and Grammar Instruction
Authors: Celce-Murcia Marianne
Published: October 2009

Only relatively recently has discourse analysis begun to have an impact on how English grammer (i.e., the rules of morphology and syntax) is taught to non-native speakers of English. In fact, a majority of teachers of English to speakers of other languages still conceive of grammer, and thus teach grammer, as a sentence-level phenomenon (if and when they teach it). This state-of-affairs reflects a rather counterproductive view of grammer since, as Bolinger (1968; 1977) has long argued, there are relatively few rules of English grammer that are completely context-free.
The Psychology of Reading: Evolutionary and Revolutionary Developments
Authors: Stanovich Keith E.
Published: October 2009

The scope of this review must be restricted in several ways. First the focus is on reading specifically. Although reading is but a component of the language activities called literacy, it must certainly be at the heart of whatever concept of literacy is adopted (Venezky, Wagner and Ciliberti 1990).
Adult Literacy Development
Authors: Crandall JoAnn (Jodi)
Published: October 2009

The 1980s experienced a worldwide increase in interest in adult literacy, culminating in the designation of 1990 as International Literacy Year by the United Nations, and the setting of a variety of international and national goals for the reduction or eradication of adult illiteracy by the year 2000. While attention to adult illiteracy resembles a pendulum, a number of factors have contributed to the current heightened awareness of this problem as well as interest in working toward its solution.
Literacy in South America
Authors: Hornberger Nancy H.
Published: October 2009

Literacy in South America must be understood against the backdrop of the linguistic diversity there. Of the fourteen nations and territories of South America, only Uruguay and the Falkland Islands are monolingual, in Spanish and English respectively. Every other country encompasses from 7 to 200 languages within its borders.
Language and Literacy in the Maghreb
Authors: Ezzaki Abdelkader , Wagner Daniel A.
Published: October 2009

The history of literacy in the Maghreb (Arabic, “west”) spans several millennia. Strategically located in the Northwest of Africa and on the Southern shores of the Mediterranean, the Maghreb has been a crossroads where several civilizations mingled and interacted: The Greeks, the Phonecians, the Romans, the Arabs, and more recently the Turks and the Western Europeans have all affected, to varying degrees, the history, culture, language, and literacy of the region (Al-khatib-Boujibar 1984).
Literacy in Francophone Africa
Authors: Kokora Pascal D.
Published: October 2009

The ability to communicate, to understand a commonly available body of facts and reach a consensus for policy development and action depends on a literate society. Those who cannot read are unable to participate in the democratic process. They impose a growing social and economic burden on the literate (ANPA 1989:1).
The Diffusion of Innovation in Language Teaching
Authors: Markee Numa
Published: October 2009

The last two decades in applied linguistics—which roughly coincide with the evolution of the communicative approach in language teaching—have seen the development of a number of language teaching innovations, including the notional/functional syllabus, the process syllabus, the Natural Approach, the procedural syllabus, and task-based language teaching. All of these proposals have contributed in important ways to an understanding of theoretical issues related to designing innovative language syllabuses. But it is only rather recently that applied linguists have begun to investigate the problems associated with implementing these innovations.
Innovation in Curriculum Planning and Program Development
Authors: White Ron V.
Published: October 2009

Following definitions by Havelock and Huberman (1978) and Nicholls (1983), innovation can be defined as a deliberate effort, perceived as new and intended to bring about improvement. As such, innovation is distinguished from change which is any difference that occurs between Time one and Time two. What is crucial in innovation is that it is change involving human intervention.

Since human agency is involved, innovation can be viewed from many angles: individual, social, organizational, political, technological, and historical. Not surprisingly, much attention has been given to the technological aspects of innovation, among which can be included language pedagogy.
Foreword
Authors: Grabe William
Published: October 2009

This volume of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics returns to a topic first covered in Volume Two (1982). In the time-span between thematic volumes on Language Policy and Planning (LPP), major changes have evolved in the field and recent world events have led practitioners to rethink many issues and concerns related to language policy and planning. In the early 1980s, many LPP discussions centered around various national case studies of language policy and planning; indeed, the stress on policy, as separate from planning, was not often emphasized. The focus on non-national level planning was also not as common as the national-level focus.
Language Policy and Planning in Western European Countries
Authors: Beardsmore Hugo Baetens
Published: October 2009

The recent events promoting European integration have far-reaching consequences for language management. Such management may form an explicit part of policy, though often it is reflected implicitly in interventions dealing with other aspects of social and political organization. This article will highlight both explicit and implicit language planning issues at the European level, the latter being more theresultof policy interventions rather than deliberate attempts to manipulate language usage. Given constraints on space, it is impossible to handle more specific language planning issues at national or regional levels except as illustrations.
Language Policy and Planning in Mexico: Indigenous Language Policy
Authors: Patthey-Chavez G. G.
Published: October 2009

Mexico's multilingual and multicultural character predates European contact. In its long history, it has generated many communicative challenges as well as interesting language planning efforts to deal with them (Heath 1972). Most recently, official acknowledgments of Mexico's multicultural and multilingual character are raising a series of complex language planning and policy issues even as they are leading to important constitutional and material gains on the part of indigenous Mexicans.
Australia as a Multilingual Nation
Authors: Pauwels Anne
Published: October 2009

For the benefit of readers unfamiliar with Australia's multilingual situation, the following statistics on language are provided, all derived from the 1976 Australian Census, the most recent one to provide detailed information on language use.l

A wealth of languages is represented in Australia: depending on what is considered a language and what a dialect, the number of languages present in Australia is estimated at around 150 for the Aboriginal languages (100 of which are threatened by extinction) and between 75 and 100 for the immigrant languages.
Linguistic Minorities and Bilingual Communities: Australia
Authors: Baldauf Richard B.
Published: October 2009

Over the last few years many statements have been made indicating that a variety of groups and organizations recognize and support multilingualism and multiculturalism in Australia. It is less clear at a policy level, however, how these ‘;ism’ can or should be maintained. Smolicz (1983) has argued in a variety of forums that language is a ‘core’ value for many cultural groups. If language is lost or destroyed, these cultures become de-activated and form sub-cultural variants on the majority culture.
Linguistic Minorities and Bilingual Communities in the Philippines
Authors: Sibayan Bonifacio P.
Published: October 2009

Up to the present the term to use in referring to linguistic or cultural minorities of the Philippines has not been settled. In the 1903 Census of the Philippines, the population was divided into Christians and non-Christians, the Christians being considered civilized while the non- Christians who composed the minorities were referred to as wild [sic]. In the 1918 Census, the anthropologist Beyer (1921) classified the minorities into pygmies, Malays, and Indonesians. By the time the 1939 Census was taken, however, the main identification of the inhabitants was in terms of their languages or ethnic groups.
Bilingual Communities: National/Regional Profiles and Verbal Repertoires of Southeast Asia/Sameo
Authors: Tay Mary W.J.
Published: October 2009

In this paper, Southeast Asia is defined as the region made up of: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. It is a region of great diversity. Each country has its own characteristic heterogeneity in ethnicity, culture, and language. There is also marked contrast in size; compare tiny Singapore (area: 618 sq. km.; population: 2.5 million) with Indonesia, the world's largest archipelago (area: 2 million sq. km. [actually 3,000 islands having that total area]; population: 146.7 million). Nonetheless, the identity of the region is recognizable, for it has certain common diagnostic features of multilingualism which distinguish it from other bilingual communities such as those in Europe and America.
Research Directions and Implications
Authors: Tucker G. Richard
Published: October 2009

A variety of factors will converge during the latter part of the 1980s which lend urgency to the need to continue to implement a series of research agendas within the broad domain of bilingualism. Among these, changes in demographic patterns with the resultant movement of peoples across national, political, or linguistic boundaries; pressures toward universal primary (and secondary) education—particularly in ethnolinguistically heterogeneous developing countries, and pressures for improved foreign language education in industrialized countries—particularly in the United States—will lead us to want to examine thoroughly the array of factors associated with second language teaching or learning and with the personal and social correlates and consequences of bilinguality or language attrition.
The Economics of Multilingualism: Overview and Analytical Framework
Authors: Grin François , Vaillancourt François
Published: October 2009

The purpose of this paper is to introduce noneconomists to the economics of multilingualism. This area of research is relatively little known among economists, and until recent years, few of its methods and results had been published in the journals usually read by language specialists, although sociolinguists and applied linguists had for many years been pointing out the importance of economic dimensions in their research field. It is therefore useful to begin with a brief review of the literature which, owing to limitations of space, does not report specific results, but lists the major issues that have been examined to date. More extensive surveys are available in Vaillancourt (1985a) and Grin (1994c; 1996e).
Language Management, Official Bilingualism, and Multiculturalism in Canada
Authors: Carey Stephen
Published: October 2009

In addressing Canadian language management and planning in terms of bilingualism and multiculturalism, it is essential to contextualize these topics within the recent historical policy events and periods of change. This history includes the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism of 1965, the Official Languages Act of 1969, official bilingualism and multiculturalism since 1971, the Canadian Multiculturalism Act of 1988, the growing importance of the Asia-Pacific region for Canada during the 1990's, and the increased probability of Quebec's separation. The above stages of evolution have taken place during an era which has seen the growing dominance of English internationally in all spheres of academia, economics, and communication technology, and an equally rapid decline of French internationally in these same spheres (Carey 1991; 1996).
Community perceptions of four protected areas in the Northern portion of the Cerrado hotspot, Brazil
Authors: FERREIRA MARIANA NAPOLITANO E , FREIRE NATÁLIA COSTA
Published: October 2009

Establishing effective networks of protected areas (PAs) is one of the major goals of conservation strategies worldwide. However, the success of PAs in promoting biodiversity conservation depends on their integration to local and regional contexts, reducing and mitigating human impacts originating from buffer zones. Community perceptions affect interactions between residents and PAs, and thereby conservation effectiveness. Research at Tocantins state (northern Brazilian Cerrado), aimed to analyse local community perceptions of four PAs, discussing how different factors may influence these. Perceptions were assessed through standardized interviews applied to PA employees and 275 local inhabitants. There was modest community participation in PA establishment and management. Residents were aware of the PAs’ existence, but were unfamiliar with their goals. Length of residency and occupation of inhabitants influenced their PA perceptions, shaping different people-park relations in each of the four studied PAs. Involvement of local residents in PA planning and management represents a central strategy to strengthen local support for PAs over the long term. In those areas that still have settlements inside their boundaries, community relocation should follow a careful participatory process to avoid significant changes in local perceptions and attitudes towards these PAs, crucial for conserving Brazilian biodiversity.
Trimethoprim resistance in commensal bacteria isolated from farm animals
Authors: Amyes S. G. B.
Published: October 2009

Trimethoprim resistance was examined in faecal bacteria obtained from chickens, sheep, cattle and pigs. The incidence of trimethoprim resistance in porcine strains was 17% (157/922) and, whereas 15·8% (146/922) of these bacteria were highly resistant, only 4% (37/922) of the isolates possessed trimethoprim resistance plasmids. Highly resistant porcine strains were obtained from 44% of the pig farms (41/93) but transferable trimethoprim resistance was found in isolates from 11% (10/93) of the farms. There was an association between the carriage of trimethoprim resistance plasmids and certain farms. Most of the resistance plasmids were not identical with those found in human clinical bacteria but one porcine plasmid was the same as the most ubiquitous trimethoprim resistance plasmid in Edinburgh.
Frozen raspberries and hepatitis A
Authors: Reid T. M. S. , Robinson H. G.
Published: October 2009

An outbreak of 24 cases of hepatitis A in Aberdeen was traced to a large hotel in the city by epidemiological investigation. Food-specific questioning of those affected, their fellow diners and hotel staff, coupled with serological studies, implicated raspberry mousse prepared from frozen raspberries as the source of the infection. The raspberries were probably contaminated at the time of picking.
Changes in the virulence of myxoma virus strains in Britain
Authors: Ross J. , Sanders M. F.
Published: October 2009

National surveys of the virulence of field strains of myxoma virus were carried out in 1975 (128 virus strains) and in 1981 (123 strains), using the virulence testing method employed in a similar survey in 1962. Results showed that the virulence of field strains had increased between 1962 and 1975, and again between 1975 and 1981. The increases in virulence are thought to be a result of the development of resistance to myxomatosis in wild rabbit populations. The effects of the changes in virulence and resistance are discussed.
Possible windborne spread of myxomatosis to England in 1953
Authors: Sellers R. F.
Published: October 2009

An analysis of the meteorological conditions showed that the first outbreaks of myxomatosis in S.E.England in 1953 could have resulted from wind carriage of insects infected with myxoma virus from northern France. South-easterly winds on the night 11–12 August would have carried the insects 120–160 km from the Départements of Nord, Pas de Calais and Somme across the English Channel to near Edenbridge, Kent. The flight would have taken 6·5–8·5 h at wind speeds of 15–22 km h−1. On the night 11–12 August, temperatures increased with height (inversion) up to 500 m; at ground level temperature was around 19 °C and at 500 m was 25 °C. Insects would have travelled up to the top of the inversion arriving on 12 August as the inversion declined. Two or possibly three generations of infection would have taken place before the disease was seen around the middle of September 1953. The most likely insect was the mosquito Anopheles atroparvus which breeds along the coastal marshes of England and northern France and which has been shown experimentally and in the field to transmit myxoma virus mechanically.
Mite fauna of dust from passenger trains in Glasgow
Authors: Colloff M. J.
Published: October 2009

The mite fauna of dust from cloth-covered seats of four passenger trains and bedding from a British Rail linen store in Glasgow was investigated; 22 samples containing 4488 mg of dust from a total surface area of 5·5 m2 were taken. Sixteen samples were positive for mites and 33 specimens belonging to 10 species were found. The most common species were Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Trouessart), Glycyphagus domesticus (De Geer), G. destructor (Schrank) and Euroglyphus maynei (Cooreman). The species composition bore considerable resemblance to that of house dust (although the density of mites was far lower) and the mites have probably been transported from homes via clothing and pets. Only five intact specimens, which may have been alive at the time of sampling, were found. The dust from trains consisted mostly of particles of soot. Very few skin scales, the food source of house dust mites, were detected. The small numbers of intact mites found and the absence of an identifiable food source make it unlikely that permanent populations of mites survive in upholstered seats on trains.
Experimental infection of badgers (Meles meles) withMycobacterium bovis
Authors: Pritchard D. G. , Stuart Fiona A. , Brewer Jacky I. , Mahmood K. H.
Published: October 2009

The intradermal inoculation of four badgers with small numbers ofMycobacterium bovisresulted in localized lesions with ulceration which slowly healed by 5 months after inoculation. Lesions of generalized tuberculosis were seen in three badgers, one of which died at 17 months post-inoculation and in the remaining two killed 22 months post-inoculation. In the fourth badger lesions were confined to the draining lymph node of the inoculation site butM. boviswas isolated from the liver. Monthly clinical sampling of faeces, urine, tracheal aspirate and inoculation site exudates detected only the excretion ofM. bovisfrom the inoculation site of one badger. There were marked seasonal variations in body weight but significant weight loss was observed during the second year in all four badgers, particularly prior to death. Four badgers inoculated intratracheally with a similar inoculum ofM. bovisand another two control badgers showed no evidence of infection withM. bovis.
Characterization ofStreptococcus zooepidemicus(Lancefield group C) from human and selected animal infections
Authors: Barnham Michael , Cole Graham , Efstratiou Androulla , Tagg John R. , Skjold Stephen A.
Published: October 2009

We assembled an international collection of strains from sporadic and epidemic human infection withStreptococcus zooepidemicus(Lancefield group C) for laboratory study. Cultural and physiological characteristics of the isolates were determined, including biotyping with the API 20 STREP test kit and susceptibility testing with penicillin, erythromycin and tetracycline. The strains were examined for bacteriocin production and sensitivity and typed with a specially developed group-C streptococcal bacteriophage system incorporating a panel of 14 phages. Results of these tests gave useful discrimination between many of the strains: differences were shown between each of the major outbreak strains, including those complicated by post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.

Serious group C streptococcal infection may be caused byS. zooepidemicusand isolates should be identified to species level; the application of a typing scheme such as this may help to distinguish epidemiological patterns of infection.
Detection of tetanus toxoid antibodies in human sera in New Zealand by ELISA
Authors: Lau R. C. H.
Published: October 2009

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) incorporating the sensitive biotin-streptavidin system was developed to detect IgG antibodies to tetanus toxoid in human serum. Serum samples obtained from 557 normal persons aged 1–65 years from different areas in New Zealand were tested. The proportion of those immune ranged from 60–93% in males, and from 46–86% in females. In the 1–9 years age group 85% were immune. The indirect ELISA is suitable for serological surveys as it is simple to perform, economical and reproducible.
Campylobacter jejuniin dairy cows and raw milk
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Beckett P.
Published: October 2009

Twelve herds of dairy cows were examined by rectal swabbing for the presence ofCampylobacter jejuni. Ten herds were positive with the incidence of colonized animals ranging from 10 to 72% of those tested. With the exception of the two negative herds where mains water only was consumed, all animals drank from rivers or streams when grazing. There was no relationship between total and coliform counts and the presence ofC.jejuniin raw milk. However, milk from one farm that consistently gave positive results had significantly higherEscherichia colicounts than other samples.
Isolations of salmonellas from humans and foods in the Manchester area: 1981–1985
Authors: Barrell R. A. E.
Published: October 2009

Isolations of salmonellas from humans and food products are recorded for the period 1981–5 and an attempt has been made to investigate the relationship between serotypes isolated from humans and those from meat products.

The predominant serotypes isolated from humans were Salmonella typhimuriunu S. enterilidis and S. virchow. S. typhimurium was commonly isolated from a range of meat products. S. derby was one of the most common serotypes isolated from tripe and sausages but was relatively uncommon in humans.

Salmonellas were found in < 0·5% of most cooked meat products apart from tripe and udder (3·2%) and pet foods (12·4%). Isolations from raw meats ranged from 3 % for pork to 28% for poultry.

Incidents of salmonella infection in humans in Manchester increased between 1981 and 1984 but decreased during 1985.
Assessment of an enzyme immunoassay for the detection of salmonellas in foods and animal feeding stuffs
Authors: Todd Lynne S. , Roberts Diane , Bartholomew Barbara A. , Gilbert R. J.
Published: October 2009

TheSalmonellaBio-EnzaBead Screening Kit, in its modified form with both the MOPC 467 and the 6H4 antibodies, was used for the detection of salmonellas in naturally contaminated foods and animal feeding stuffs in parallel with a traditional cultural procedure.

Initial results showed an 82% agreement between the enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and cultural methods when using the criterion recommended by the manufacturer as a cut-off for all types of foods. By adjusting the cut-off for each type of food, the number of EIA positive, culture negative samples was reduced although the number of EIA negative, culture positive samples increased. The EIA may be more sensitive than the cultural methods as in many cases the EIA positive, culture negative results could be real positives which were not detected by the cultural methods.

The screening kit provides a simple and convenient method for the detection of salmonella in foods and feeds and a presumptive positive result can be reported within 48 h. The advantages and disadvantages of the method are discussed.
Effect of time in lairage on caecal and carcass salmonella contamination of slaughter pigs
Authors: Morgan I. R. , Krautil F. L. , Craven J. A.
Published: October 2009

A longitudinal study of the effect of time spent in lairage on salmonellas in the caecum and on the skin surface of 450 slaughter pigs from a single producer was conducted. Pigs were tested in 6 groups at 2 abattoirs, with one-third of a group being slaughtered after 18 h, one-third after 42 h and one-third after 66 h spent in lairage. The salmonella isolation rate from caeca and carcass surfaces increased significantly with increasing time spent in lairage. Salmonellas were isolated from the caeca of 18·5% of pigs held less than 24 h in lairage, 24·1% of pigs held a further 24 h and 47·7% of pigs held for 66 h in lairage before slaughter. The salmonella isolation rates from carcasses were 9·3%, 12·8% and 27·3% for the same groups. Thirteen salmonella serotypes were isolated from the caecal contents and carcasses over the 6 weeks of the trial. One abattoir had a higher salmonella isolation rate from pigs than the other and this was probably related to lairage management. It appeared that lairage is an important factor in the manipulation of the salmonella contamination of pig carcasses.
A modification of bile salts brilliant green agar for isolation of motileAeromonasfrom foods and environmental specimens
Authors: Nishikawa Yoshikazu , Kishi Teruhiko
Published: October 2009

Aeromonashas recently been recognized as an important enteropathogen. In faecal specimens the organism is readily identified and differentiated from coliforms by the positive oxidase reaction. However, few media have proved useful for foods and environmental specimens. Bile salts brilliant green starch agar (BBGS) was studied for this purpose by testing artificially contaminated foods as well as natural potential sources. The results indicate the suitability of the medium for the isolation ofAeromonasfrom foods and from environmental sources.
Mycoplasma californicummastitis in ewes as an experimental model for antibiotic treatment
Authors: Ball H. J. , Logan E. F. , Campbell J. N.
Published: October 2009

A strain ofMycoplasma californicumsuccessfully infected an experimentally inoculated ovine mammary gland causing a severe mastitis. The condition lasted for about 25 days, and resulted in atrophy and loss of milk production in the gland. Four experimentally infected ewes, treated over a 3-day period with various regimes of the antibiotics oxytetracycline or tylosin during the acute stage of infection, successfully eliminated the infection. Two others similarly treated with combined intramammary and intramuscular tiamulin or with intramammary Bay Vp2674, did not eliminate the infection; but another ewe treated with intramuscular as well as intramammary Bay Vp2674, did resolve the infection. The two ewes that were unsuccessfully treated with antibiotics at the acute stage did respond to tylosin or oxytetracycline at a later stage of infection. Measurement of antibiotic concentrations demonstrated that the persistence of inhibitory levels in the milk varied between the antibiotics and were influenced by the extent of parenteral treatment.
Does chloramphenicol remain the drug of choice for typhoid?
Authors: Rowe B. , Threlfall E. J. , Ward L. R.
Published: October 2009

Of 2356 strains ofSalmonella typhiisolated in Britain in the 8-year period 1978–85, 2345 (99·53%) were sensitive to all antibiotics tested and 11 (0·47%) were chloramphenicol-resistant; chloramphenicol resistance was plasmid-mediated in 6 strains. It is concluded that chloramphenicol remains a satisfactory first-line choice of drug for tyrphoid fever in Britain.
The effect of selective decontamination of the digestive tract with the addition of systemic cefotaxime on the aerobic faecal flora of mice
Authors: Speekenbrink A. B. J. , Alcock S. R. , Forrester J. , Parrott D. M. V.
Published: October 2009

The administration per-orally to mice of the non-absorbable antibiotics polymyxin E, tobramycin and amphotericin B resulted in the elimination of detectable aerobic gram-negative rods from the faecal flora without affecting the total viable aerobic count. The addition of parental cefotaxime to the regime caused a fall in the number of aerobic lactobacilli and an increase in the number of enterococci. The rise was associated with the translocation of viable enterococci to the mesenteric lymph nodes and the spleen. The changes induced by cefotaxime were reversed when the antibiotic was withdrawn. Following withdrawal of all antibiotics the total aerobic faecal flora increased to above normal levels, but there was no associated diarrhoea. Attempts to implant exogenous enterobacteria into the digestive tract resulted in only low level colonization both in treated mice and in control mice. These results may have implications for the use of this antibiotic regime for selective decontamination of the digestive tract in humans, particularly those who are immunocompromised.
Studies on heat inactivation of hepatitis A virus with special reference to shellfish: Part 1. Procedures for infection and recovery of virus from laboratory-maintained cockles
Authors: Millard Judith , Appleton Hazel , Parry J. V.
Published: October 2009

The consumption of bi-valve mollusean shellfish has been associated with outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis and hepatitis A. Investigations were undertaken to determine the heat inactivation conditions necessary to render shellfish such as cockles safe for the consumer. Conditions for the laboratory maintenance of live cockles are described. In preliminary experiments either poliovirus (106TCID50/ml seawater) or hepatitis A virus (HAV) (approx. 104RFU/ml seawater) was introduced into the shellfish tank. Following 48 h filter feeding, virus was recovered from cockles using an adsorption-elution extraction procedure. Titres of virus recovered ranged from 104to 105TCID50/ml of shellfish extract for poliovirus and from 103to 105RFU/ml of shellfish extract for HAV. Active ingestion of the virus from the seawater was demonstrated by recovering virus from within cockle guts. To quantify recovered HAV, end-point dilutions and an adaptation of a radioimmunofocus assay (RIFA) were compared. The tests were of similar sensitivity but the RIFA has the advantage of being relatively rapid, shortening the time taken to complete an experiment by as much as 4 weeks.
The vertical transmission of salmonellas and formic acid treatment of chicken feed: A possible strategy for control
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Lanning D. G.
Published: October 2009

The treatment of feed given to laying hens with 0·5% formic acid reduced significantly the isolation rate of salmonellas and was associated with a reduction in the incidence of infection in newly hatched chicks. These improvements were not sustained until slaughter, however, as growing birds acquired salmonellas, probably from feed which was not acid treated. The data indicate that formic acid treatment of chicken food could have important benefits for the public health.
Clostridium difficileinfection in patients with haematological malignant disease: Risk factors, faecal toxins and pathogenic strains
Authors: Heard S. R. , Wren B. , Barnett M. J. , Thomas J. M. , Tabaqchali S.
Published: October 2009

Two hundred and forty-eight patients from shared oncology and general medical wards were prospectively studied over a 6-month period for carriage ofClostridium difficileduring an outbreak of clinical disease with an epidemic strain of the organism. Risk factors for infection were assessed. Acute leukaemia and/or its treatment were identified as significantly increasing the risk of infection.

The relationship between the type ofC. difficileisolated (as defined by a typing system based on the incorporation of [35S]methionine into bacterial proteins followed by gel electrophoresis), the presence of faecal toxins A and B and clinical symptoms were analysed. Carriage of the epidemic strain, type X, had a significant association with symptoms amongst oncology patients, with two thirds of these patients having detectable faecal toxin A and one third detectable faecal toxin B. During an outbreak ofC. difficile-associated disease, typing the organism and assaying for both faecal toxins in symptomatic patients may be of benefit in determining which patients require specific, urgent treatment.