bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Simulated plant population responses to small‐scale disturbances in semi‐arid shrublands
Authors: Wiegand Thorsten , Dean W. Richard J. , Milton Suzanne J.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. We used a spatially explicit simulation model to examine the impact of small‐scale disturbance (created by the digging of aardvarks, Orycteropus afer, and bat‐eared foxes, Otocyon megalotis or as a management action) on the temporal and spatial dynamics of a typical Karoo shrub plant community, and to gather insight into the interplay between disturbance structure and population dynamics. Establishment, growth, mortality, seed dispersal and competitive interactions were modelled over long time‐scales in annual time‐steps under the influence of stochastic and unpredictable rainfall.

Three disturbance regimes were included, varying the type, rate and size of the small‐scale disturbances. The impact of a disturbance regime on long‐term community dynamics depends on complex interactions between disturbance characteristics and life‐history attributes of component species. Plant density decreased with overall disturbance rates; this effect was independent of the type of disturbance. A given type and rate of disturbance did not influence all species within a guild (e.g. colonizer species) in the same way. The reason for these differences was that species responded not only to the disturbance but to changes in competition intensity from other species and changes in their reproductive potential relative to other species as well. Such interactions resulted in a sequential change in dominant species within guilds as disturbance rates increased. An increase in the overall disturbance rate did not always produce the trend in evenness expected from the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, but was influenced by the relative abundance of different types of disturbance.
Chemical and mechanical defense against herbivory in two sympatric species of desert Acacia
Authors: Rohner Christoph , Ward David
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Most African Acacia trees occur in semi‐arid savannas, but some species grow in deserts at the periphery of their range in northern Africa and the Middle East. We studied Acacia raddiana and A. tortilis in the southern Negev desert of Israel. According to the resource availability hypothesis, plants in poor habitats invest heavily into anti‐herbivore defense because losses to browsers are costly when growth rates are low. Few plants invest simultaneously in different categories of defense. This suggests that trade‐offs exist, although little is known about how individuals allocate resources to defence in natural populations. In a field experiment, we studied chemical and mechanical defences as a response to differential browsing for more than 10 yr. Both Acacia species increased spinescence but there was no clear response in the production of total polyphenols, condensed tannins, and protein‐precipitating tannins (only A. raddiana may increase secondary compounds under very high browsing levels). There was an age effect in spinescence but not in secondary compounds for both species, with younger trees investing more into anti‐herbivore defense than older individuals. We were unable to find negative correlations between traits of chemical and mechanical defense. We conclude that inducibility and age effects suggest a cost for mechanical but not necessarily for chemical defense. Contrary to the predictions of the resource availability hypothesis, concentrations of secondary compounds were not higher in this desert environment than in savannas.
New Evidence on the Province of Asia
Authors: Habicht Christian
Published: May 2006

In this paper the text of a new inscription from Ephesus will be presented and discussed. The fragmented stone on which it is written was brought by a workman to the excavation office in spring 1969. It is not known where exactly it was found, although D. Knibbe has suggested privately that it was originally set up in the Agora.

Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Ephesus Inventory No. 3653. Fragment of a large slab of white marble, broken on top and at the bottom. The left margin is partly preserved, the right margin almost entirely. There are mouldings on both sides. The hollow in the form of a semicircle at the right margin originates in all probability from re-use of the stone.

Height 75 cm. Width 68·5. Thickness 12·5. The height of the letters is 1·0, the distance between the lines 0·6 cm. The writing is in two columns which are separated from each other by a vertical scratch. This was made after the left column had already been engraved, as can be seen from the small detour in 1 19. Plate I. For the establishment of the text I have been able to use a large-scale photograph and the latex squeeze provided by the Austrian Archaeological Institute.
Analytic Ideals
Authors: Solecki Sławomir
Published: May 2006

§1. Introduction. Ideals and filters of subsets of natural numbers have been studied by set theorists and topologists for a long time. There is a vast literature concerning various kinds of ultrafilters (or, dually, maximal ideals). There is also a substantial interest in nicely definable (Borel, analytic) ideals—these by old results of Sierpiński are very far from being maximal— and the structure of such ideals will concern us in this announcement. In addition to being interesting in their own right, Borel and analytic ideals occur naturally in the investigations of compact subsets of the space of all Baire class 1 functions on a Polish space (Rosenthal compacta), see [12, 18]. Also, certain objects associated with such ideals are of considerable interest and were quite extensively studied by several authors. Let us list here three examples; in all three of themIstands for an analytic or Borel ideal.

1. The partial order induced byIonP(ω):X ≥IYiffX \ Y ϵ I([16]) and the partial order (I, ⊂)([18]).

2. Boolean algebras of the formP(ω)/Iand their automorphisms ([6, 5, 19, 20]).

3. The equivalence relation associated withI:XEIYiffX Δ ϵ I([4, 14, 15,9]).

In Section 4, we will have an opportunity to state some consequences of our results for equivalence relations as in 3.
Gödel's Path from the Incompleteness Theorems (1931) To Phenomenology (1961)
Authors: Tieszen Richard
Published: May 2006

In a lecture manuscript written around 1961 (Gödel *1961/?), Gödel describes a philosophical path from the incompleteness theorems to Husserl's phenomenology. It is known that Gödel began to study Husserl's work in 1959 and that he continued to do so for many years. During the 1960s, for example, he recommended the sixth investigation of Husserl'sLogical Investigationsto several logicians for its treatment of categorial intuition (Wang 1997, p. 164). While Gödel may not have been satisfied with what he was able to obtain from philosophy and Husserl's phenomenology, he nonetheless continued to recommend Husserl's work to logicians as late as the 1970s. In this paper I present and discuss the kinds of arguments that led Gödel to the work of Husserl. Among other things, this should help to shed additional light on Gödel's philosophical and scientific ideas and to show to what extent these ideas can be viewed as part of a unified philosophical outlook. Some of the arguments that led Gödel to Husserl's work are only hinted at in Gödel's 1961 paper, but they are developed in much more detail in Gödel's earlier philosophical papers (see especially 1934, *193?, 1944, 1947, *1951, *1953/59). In particular, I focus on arguments concerning Hilbert's program and an early version of Carnap's program.

§1. Some ideas from phenomenology. Since Husserl's work is not generally known to mathematical logicians, it may be helpful to mention briefly a few details about his background.
Incompleteness, Mechanism, and Optimism
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: May 2006

§1. Overview. Philosophers and mathematicians have drawn lots of conclusions from Gödel's incompleteness theorems, and related results from mathematical logic. Languages, minds, and machines figure prominently in the discussion. Gödel's theorems surely tell us something about these important matters. But what?

A descriptive title for this paper would be “Gödel, Lucas, Penrose, Turing, Feferman, Dummett, mechanism, optimism, reflection, and indefinite extensibility”. Adding “God and the Devil” would probably be redundant. Despite the breath-taking, whirlwind tour, I have the modest aim of forging connections between different parts of this literature and clearing up some confusions, together with the less modest aim of not introducing any more confusions.

I propose to focus on three spheres within the literature on incompleteness. The first, and primary, one concerns arguments that Gödel's theorem refutes the mechanistic thesis that the human mind is, or can be accurately modeled as, a digital computer or a Turing machine. The most famous instance is the much reprinted J. R. Lucas [18]. To summarize, suppose that a mechanist provides plans for a machine,M, and claims that the output ofMconsists of all and only the arithmetic truths that a human (like Lucas), or the totality of human mathematicians, will ever or can ever know. We assume that the output ofMis consistent.
Applications of Nonstandard Analysis in Additive Number Theory
Authors: Jin Renling
Published: May 2006

This paper reports recent progress in applying nonstandard analysis to additive number theory, especially to problems involving upper Banach density.
Tarski's System of Geometry
Authors: Tarski Alfred , Givant Steven
Published: May 2006

This paper is an edited form of a letter written by the two authors (in the name of Tarski) to Wolfram Schwabhäuser around 1978. It contains extended remarks about Tarski's system of foundations for Euclidean geometry, in particular its distinctive features, its historical evolution, the history of specific axioms, the questions of independence of axioms and primitive notions, and versions of the system suitable for the development of 1-dimensional geometry.
Church's Problem Revisited
Authors: Kupferman Orna , Vardi Moshe Y.
Published: May 2006

In program synthesis, we transform a specification into a system that is guaranteed to satisfy the specification. When the system is open, then at each moment it reads input signals and writes output signals, which depend on the input signals and the history of the computation so far. The specification considers all possible input sequences. Thus, if the specification is linear, it should hold in every computation generated by the interaction, and if the specification is branching, it should hold in the tree that embodies all possible input sequences.

Often, the system cannot read all the input signals generated by its environment. For example, in a distributed setting, it might be that each process can read input signals of only part of the underlying processes. Then, we should transform a specification into a system whose output depends only on the readable parts of the input signals and the history of the computation. This is called synthesis with incomplete information. In this work we solve the problem of synthesis with incomplete information in its full generality. We consider linear and branching settings with complete and incomplete information. We claim that alternation is a suitable and helpful mechanism for coping with incomplete information. Using alternating tree automata, we show that incomplete information does not make the synthesis problem more complex, in both the linear and the branching paradigm. In particular, we prove that independently of the presence of incomplete information, the synthesis problems for CTL and CTL*. are complete for EXPTIME and 2EXPTIME, respectively.
Gap Forcing: Generalizing the Lévy-Solovay Theorem
Authors: Hamkins Joel David
Published: May 2006

The Lévy-Solovay Theorem[8] limits the kind of large cardinal embeddings that can exist in a small forcing extension. Here I announce a generalization of this theorem to a broad new class of forcing notions. One consequence is that many of the forcing iterations most commonly found in the large cardinal literature create no new weakly compact cardinals, measurable cardinals, strong cardinals, Woodin cardinals, strongly compact cardinals, supercompact cardinals, almost huge cardinals, huge cardinals, and so on.
19th Century Logic Between Philosophy and Mathematics
Authors: Peckhaus Volker
Published: May 2006

The history of modern logic is usually written as the history of mathematical or, more general, symbolic logic. As such it was created by mathematicians. Not regarding its anticipations in Scholastic logic and in the rationalistic era, its continuous development began with George Boole's The Mathematical Analysis of Logic of 1847, and it became a mathematical subdiscipline in the early 20th century. This style of presentation cuts off one eminent line of development, the philosophical development of logic, although logic is evidently one of the basic disciplines of philosophy. One needs only to recall some of the standard 19th century definitions of logic as, e.g., the art and science of reasoning (Whateley) or as giving the normative rules of correct reasoning (Herbart).

In the paper the relationship between the philosophical and the mathematical development of logic will be discussed. Answers to the following questions will be provided:

1. What were the reasons for the philosophers' lack of interest in formal logic?

2. What were the reasons for the mathematicians' interest in logic?

3. What did “logic reform” mean in the 19th century? Were the systems of mathematical logic initially regarded as contributions to a reform of logic?

4. Was mathematical logic regarded as art, as science or as both?
The Syllogism's Final Solution
Authors: Russinoff I. Susan
Published: May 2006

In 1883, while a student of C. S. Peirce at Johns Hopkins University, Christine Ladd-Franklin published a paper titled On the Algebra of Logic, in which she develops an elegant and powerful test for the validity of syllogisms that constitutes the most significant advance in syllogistic logic in two thousand years. Sadly, her work has been all but forgotten by logicians and historians of logic. Ladd-Franklin's achievement has been overlooked, partly because it has been overshadowed by the work of other logicians of the nineteenth century renaissance in logic, but probably also because she was a woman. Though neglected, the significance of her contribution to the field of symbolic logic has not been diminished by subsequent achievements of others.

In this paper, I bring to light the important work of Ladd-Franklin so that she is justly credited with having solved a problem over two millennia old. First, I give a brief survey of the history of syllogistic logic. In the second section, I discuss the logical systems called “algebras of logic”. I then outline Ladd-Franklin's algebra of logic, discussing how it differs from others, and explain her test for the validity of the syllogism, both in her symbolic language and the more familiar language of modern logic. Finally I present a rigorous proof of her theorem. Ladd-Franklin developed her algebra of logic before the methods necessary for a rigorous proof were available to her. Thus, I do now what she could not have done then.
I.—Clay Disks from Tarentum
Authors: P. G.
Published: May 2006

Among the objects brought from Tarentum by the Rev. G. J. Chester are certain disks of clay of some interest, though not of artistic value. They are circular and flat or cheese-like in form, with a diameter of 3½ to 3¾ inches, and a thickness of about ¾ of an inch. The inscriptions are impressed in the clay by means of a stamp, and run thus:

The order in date is that followed in the list. No. 1 is oldest, and the shape of the м seems to indicate that it may date from the fourth century B.C.; the other three are probably not earlier than the third century. Later they can scarcely be, for after that time the obol gave way to the Roman denarius and sestertius as a measure of value at Tarentum.
The Aeschylean Treatment of Myth and Legend
Authors: Campbell Lewis
Published: May 2006

It is the part of sound criticism to beware of rashly assuming tendencies of any kind in dramatic poetry. The imaginative act of realising situation and character requires no end beyond itself. The faculty is satisfied with its own mere exercise; which may be as widely varied as the fables on which it works, or as human experience itself. If in single dramatists we find certain limitations, or an apparent preference for a particular class of subjects, we must not rush to hasty conclusions, but should distinguish as far as possible between accidental and essential differences, the former depending on the subject-matter which either chance or popularity threw in the artist's way, as jealousy for example in the Spanish drama, the latter resulting from the colour of his own thoughts, and his individual attitude (as an artist) towards the universe and towards mankind.

The power of Aeschylus as a mere dramatist is so great, that the neglect of such precautions is, if possible, more than usually disastrous to the study of him; while on the other hand, they are more than ever necessary in his case, because certain important tendencies, both of the man and of the age, are so apparent in him. In attempting, therefore, to characterise some of these underlying motives, it is necessary to warn the reader at the outset against expecting anything like a complete description or survey. Such motives are very far from accounting for that complex phenomenon, the Aeschylean drama. At most they do but constitute one of several factors that have worked together with the supreme dramatic instinct in the creation of it. Nor shall we be tempted by any theory into the error of supposing that the same motives are to be traced everywhere. Variety is the chief note of the highest invention, and though few chords remain to us of the Aeschylean lyre, they are suggestive of a widely ranging plectrum.—Readers of the Eumenides or of the Prometheus, however, cannot help surmising an intention of the poet standing behind his creation.
On the Gold and Silver Mines of Siphnos
Authors: Bent J. Theodore
Published: May 2006

When on a visit to this island last winter, I felt much curiosity about the almost legendary gold and silver mines of Siphnos, which in former ages made the inhabitants so rich, and which enabled them to build their ‘Prytaneum and white-browed Agora.’ The story of these mines we owe to Herodotus, and as the veracity of the statements of this historian, so far as Orientalism is concerned, is being sorely impugned just now, it will be satisfactory to find that on Hellenic subjects he does not entirely draw on his imagination. He tells us that the Siphniotes were the richest of all the islanders, owing to the gold and silver mines which existed there, but that they were mean in their donations to the oracle at Delphi, and hence the Pythian oracle prophesied ill for them. ‘When in Siphnos there shall be a white Prytaneum, and a white-browed Agora, then will they have need of a shrewd man to protect them from the wooden troop and red herald.’ When the Samian fugitives came and sacked their town, the Siphniotes recognized too late the purport of this warning, for the Samiotes came in boats painted with red paint, doubtless with the miltos or red paint, mines of which still exist in the neighbouring island of Keos.
Sarapis standing on a Xanthian Marble in the British Museum
Authors: Michaelis Ad.
Published: May 2006

Among the Xanthian monuments brought over from Lycia under the direction of Sir Charles Fellows, in 1844, there is a square block of white marble, the only printed notice of which to my knowledge is to be found in the old ‘Synopsis of the contents of the British Museum,’ Lycian Saloon, no. 173: ‘Monument found in a Roman bath; on one side are Plutus and Tyche standing, full face; on the other is a Persian shooting arrows in a cave, in which are an ox, a stork, a dog, a boar, a lizard, grasshopper, and fox.’ (Comp. Vaux, Handbook, p. 162.) As to the locality, my friend George Scharf, Fellows' companion in that journey, informs me from his diary that the monument was disinterred on the Roman acropolis, in January 1844. The building, situated at the foot of a polygonal wall, the chief ornament of which was a mosaic pavement including a standing figure of Leda with the swan beside her, was ‘a house, palace, or bath.’ I am of opinion that the contents of the reliefs are not particularly favourable to the supposition of a bath.

The marble which is now placed in the new Lycian Room, no. 103, merits a greater interest than it seems to have met with hitherto. Plate LVIII. shows the two faces; the back view is on a slightly smaller scale than the front. Broken at the foot, the remainder has a height of 0·74 m. at the front, and of 0·81 at the back; width of each face 0·79. The sides as well as the top being but roughly cut, it is evident that the block was originally let into a wall or some other architectural construction.
Τραπεζώ and Κοσμώ in the Frieze of the Parthenon
Authors: Waldstein Charles
Published: May 2006

The discovery two years ago of the small terra-cotta here figured, found in a grave in the outer Kerameikos of Athens, seems to me of some interest, especially because of its bearing upon one of the figures from the central slab of the frieze of the Parthenon. This possible relation to the scene there depicted appears to me so manifest that it requires but a few words of comment. The figure is here given in its actual dimensions (Fig., p. 144) and is a terra-cotta which, judging from its style, probably belongs to the first half of the fifth century B.C. There are traces of archaic conventionality, and yet, in the head as well as in the folding of the drapery, there is a freedom which points towards the greater art of the fifth century. It is very likely that the subject represented is the same as in one of the figures carrying what was supposed to be a chair (though it has been doubted) in the slab containing the priestess of Athene with her two female attendants. This terra-cotta is thus of some value in fixing the action of one of these attendants. The object carried on her head may be a small table, but it certainly seems more probable that it is a chair with a cushion.

Miss Jane Harrison in a recent note in the Classical Review quotes from my essay on the Art of Pheidias a passage referring to the discussion as to the interpretation of the scene depicted on the central slab of the Eastern frieze, in which I adduce ‘a vase-painting of Exekias as evidence that the scenes depicted on this slab are not typical of any sacred religious function, but belong to the sphere of every-day life.’ Though in the passage referred to by her I must have laid myself open to misunderstanding, her interpretation of my meaning, as I shall be able to show, does certainly not convey the drift of the essay in question. But I do not regret this misunderstanding, inasmuch as it has enabled Miss Harrison to point out a connection that may exist between Harpocration's explanation of the word τραπεζοφόρος and the possible interpretation of one of these female attendants on the priestess in the Parthenon frieze. Miss Harrison thus proposes to call the two attendants Τραπεζώ and Κοσμώ. For, according to Istros (and his authority is confirmed by a third century inscription in which there is undoubted mention of ἱέρεια and τράπεζα) there were functionaries in the sacred ritual to whom these names were given.
The Trial Scene in Iliad XVIII
Authors: Leaf Walter
Published: May 2006

There are probably no twelve consecutive lines in the Homeric poems which have been obscured by so many explanations as Iliad xviii. 497—508. The interpretation which I propose to give has possibly been anticipated piece-meal, but I have not come across any case in which it has been presented as a whole. Still it is a matter of common courtesy only that one should begin by offering apologies to the unknown previous expositor, if he should after all prove to exist.

For convenience of reference it will be best to begin by setting out the passage at length.

‘The people were gathered in the place of assembly, and there had sprung up a strife; two men were striving about the price of a man slain. The one averred that he had paid in full, and made declaration thereof to the people, but the other refused to accept aught; and both were desirous to take an issue at the hand of a daysman; and the people were shouting for both, taking part for either side. And the heralds were restraining the people, and the elders sate on polished stones in the holy circle, and in their hands they held the clear-voiced heralds' staves. With these they rose up and gave sentence in turn; and in their midst lay two talents of gold to give to him among them that spake the justest doom.’
Recently Discovered Archaic Sculptures
Authors: Gardner Ernest A.
Published: May 2006

The last year has been most fruitful of results to the archæologist. Excavations on many Greek sites have supplied abundant material for new work and speculation. But important as may be the gains to other branches of archæology, none are so brilliant as those that have so greatly increased our knowledge of the early history of Greek sculpture. It must be many years before archæologists are agreed on the exact position and import of the new statues in relation to the early history of art; longer still before all that those statues can teach us shall have been learnt. In the present paper no attempt can be made to criticise and discuss fully the many difficult questions to which their discovery has given rise— much less to assign finally to each of them its place in the history of religion and sculpture. Many of the early chapters of that history must be reconsidered and in part rewritten before all the statues we now possess find their due place in a recognised and unbroken series of monuments of various ages and of various local schools. Meanwhile it may be well to indicate the directions in which the influence of our newly-acquired knowledge is likely to be felt, and to endeavour to estimate the meaning and the importance of the new material that the science of archæology has acquired.
Excavations in Greece, 1886—1887
Authors: Penrose F. C.
Published: May 2006

The following list enumerates the chief places in Greece where archaeological investigations are now, or have very recently been carried on, namely, Athens, Piræus, Eleusis, Oropus, Thoricus, Sicyon, Mycenæ, Ptoos, Elateia, Orchomenos, Dimini near Volo, and in the islands of Delos, Thasos, and Cephalonia, to which Tiryns, Olympia, and Epidaurus should be added, although at these places, for the present, the works have been discontinued. There is also the expectation that the French examination of Delphi will be shortly resumed.

In Athens very important results have been obtained. First in interest is the ancient temple on the Acropolis which, although some of its foundations were visible even in 1845, has been practically discovered and the discovery energetically followed up by Dr. Dörpfeld. The position of the temple is shown on the sketchplan (fig. 1) which accompanies this paper. A careful plan of the site and the foundations, and a description, has been contributed by Dr. Dörpfeld to the Mittheilungen in the first part for 1887 (see p. 337, and plate). A plan of the restored temple is given by him in the Antike Denkmaeler of the Kaiserlich Deutsch. Archaeol. Institut, band 1, 1887.
The North Doorway of the Erechtheum
Authors: Schultz Robt. Weir , Gardner E. A.
Published: May 2006

While engaged recently on a careful analysis of the architectural detail of the Erechtheum, I chanced to observe certain peculiarities in connection with the north doorway which, as far as I am aware, have not been previously commented on, and which may be of sufficient importance to warrant my bringing them forward.

The date of the north doorway of the Erechtheum has been generally accepted as contemporary with that of the rest of the building, at least I have not found any published evidence which calls it in question: this of course excludes the thin inner linings which are supposed to have been added by the Christians when they turned the temple into a church. My investigations have led me to the conclusion that none of the original doorway is in situ, that the main jambs are of a period not far removed from the time of the building but not contemporary, and that the lintel, brackets and cornice are still later insertions. I shall endeavour in the following paper to state my reasons for these assumptions, and it may help us to follow them more clearly if we commence by observing the various parts which go to make up the composition of the doorway as it now stands.
I. The Ruins at Hissarlik: II. Their Relation to the Iliad
Authors: Jebb R. C.
Published: May 2006

Unanimous recognition has justly been accorded to the rare energy and devotion by which Dr. Schliemann has achieved his enterprise of excavating the mound of Hissarlik, once the acropolis of the historic Greek Ilium. Whatever views may be held as to the origin of the older remains, or their significance in relation to the epic of Troy, there is only one opinion as to the interesting and valuable nature of the service which the sustained enthusiasm of the explorer has rendered to the study of antiquity.

The problem of Hissarlik involves two separate issues. It is the omission to distinguish these which, more than anything else, has impeded a clear view. The first issue is:—What are the ruins that have been found at Hissarlik?
Herakles Epitrapezios
Authors: Murray A. S.
Published: May 2006

While excavating in the ruins of the palace of Sennacherib at Koujounjik in 1880 Mr. Rassam found a small figure of Herakles sculptured in calcareous stone, and inscribed on the front of the plinth with a dedication by a certain Sarapiodoros (Σαραπιόδωρος Ἀρτεμιδώρου—κατ᾿ εὐχήν), and on one side of the plinth with the name of the artist Diogenes (Διογένης ἐποίει). The letters are painted red. The figure is now in the British Museum. Its height is 1 ft. 9 in.

A Greek sculptor of the name of Diogenes is known only, so far as I am aware, in the one instance cited by Pliny, in speaking of the sculptural decorations of the Pantheon of Agrippa in Rome, among which he mentions Caryatides ‘in columnis,’ whatever that may mean. These Caryatides by Diogenes the Athenian were much admired. But if Brunn is right, as he appears to be in identifying the statue of this kind in the Vatican Museum as a survivor from the Pantheon, he is evidently right also in concluding that Diogenes had merely made very careful copies from the Caryatides of the Erechtheum. Even a careful copyist was perhaps rare to find in the time of Agrippa. Our Diogenes was no doubt also a copyist, but apparently not a very careful one. For this among other reasons he cannot well be identified with his Athenian namesake. If our Diogenes had been an Athenian he would have said so on the plinth unless he had sculptured his Herakles in Athens where there would have been no occasion to say it.
The Pergamene Frieze: Its Relation to Literature and Tradition
Authors: Farnell L. R.
Published: May 2006

The frieze of the Pergamene altar, on which the battle between the gods and giants is represented, however its artistic work may be judged, will always hold henceforth an important place in the history of Greek art. The main outlines of its subject, the broad marks of its style, have already been made known in England through descriptions and photographs. A slight knowledge of the frieze will show one at once a mass of elaborate detail, which finds its place there because the artists have endeavoured to express in their work the various traditions which have grown up around the myth. We have therefore to deal here with a learned and reflective art; and to search out its full meaning is to ask how it stands in relation to the earlier tradition. When one looks at the forms which these enemies of the gods are here made to assume, one remarks instantly the distinction between those who are rendered with full human shape, and those whose bodies are a combination—often motley enough—of animal forms appearing side by side with the human. Now it is with this distinction that the whole history of the development of the tradition is concerned—and it is my aim to show that the Pergamene work reproduces the elements which an analysis of the myth discloses. The earth-born giants may have been regarded under three different aspects—as autochthones, a primeval race of men, or a race anterior to men, (2) as daemones, or beings that belonged to the worship of a primitive people, (3) as allegorical figures, as personifications of certain physical forces, certain powers in the natural world hostile to man. It is obvious that these ideas need not be distinct, and that by a fusion of the last two the giant may appear as a daemon whose being is rooted in certain elementary operations of nature. But one may ask the question—and the answer intimately touches the Pergamene frieze—whether, whenever the giants appear either in literature or art, there is always one and the same original conception in the background, or whether the one and the other of the above-mentioned ideas is prominent at different times and in different places?
Exploration of the Boeotian Orchomenus
Authors: Schliemann Heinrich
Published: May 2006

The traveller from Athens who desires to visit the Boeotian Orchomenus proceeds thither on the turnpike-road by way of Eleusis, Thebes, and Lebadeia. He leaves Athens by descending the Hermes Street, turning to the right nearly opposite to the Theseum, and passing on the left the magnificent ancient funeral monuments at the Hagia-Trias as well as the Dipylum, and other vast ruins brought to light in the adjoining excavations. He soon passes to his left the Botanical Garden, enters (18 minutes) the vast plantations of olive trees, and sees at a distance of half a mile to his right the hill of Colonos, which has been rendered celebrated by Sophocles, and on which are the sepulchres of Charles Lenormant and Karl Otfried Müller. In the grove he successively passes three arms of the river Kephissus, which are nearly always dry; among the olive trees there are several to which the famous Athenian botanist, Th. von Heldreich, ascribes an age of more than 1,500 years. It is probable that for some distance from its issue from the olive grove (20 minutes) the present road is identical with the ancient sacred road, for we see there the little chapel of St. George, apparently on the site of a temple on the ancient roadside; a number of excavated rock-cut tombs, which border the road, can leave almost no doubt in this respect. But at the foot of the conical hill of Poikilus, at the entrance of the defile (20 minutes), the sacred road appears to have turned to the right, whilst the modern way turns to the left. The defile is bordered on the right by Mount Icarus, on the left by Mount Corydallus (that is, lark, Alauda cristata), which latter is crowned by a tower and ruined walls. On the left, in entering the defile, we see in an excavation foundations of large stones, which mark the famous sepulchre of the Hetaera Pythionike, excavated in 1855 by General Vassoignes. This monument, which is described by Pausanias as the most remarkable and most magnificent of all ancient Greek tombs, was—according to him—erected by the Macedonian Harpalos in honour of Pythionike, with whom he had fallen so deeply in love that he had made her his lawful wife.
The Pentathlon
Authors: Myers Ernest
Published: May 2006

Professor Gardner's article on this highly interesting subject in the last number of the Journal of Hellenic Studies gives so excellent a summary of its data, and reasons upon these data so judiciously, that the few remarks I venture to offer here are intended to be supplementary much rather than critical.

First, as to the ἃλμα, or Long Jump. Mr. Gardner says: ῾ ὑπὲρ τὰ ἐσκαμμένα πηδᾶν was proverbial for describing a long leap. What were these ἐσκαμμένα? The scholiast to Pindar (Nem. v. 34) says that after every leap a fork was drawn across to mark its length, so that he who leaps beyond all marks distances his rivals. This seems the natural explanation of the phrase.’ Now the scholiast's words are, ἡ δὲ μεταφορὰ ἀπὸ τῶν πεντάθλων, οἷς σκάμματα σκάπτονται ὅταν ἅλλωνται· ἐκείνων γὰρ κατὰ τὸν ἀγῶνα πηδώντων ὑποσκάπτεται βόθρος ἑκάστου τὸ ἅλμα δεικνύς. Might not the last words, especially taken in conjunction with the ὑπὸ of the compound verb, mean, ‘showing where each was to jump to’ (or ‘where each expected to jump to’), and thus agree with the explanation, also referred to by Mr. Gardner, that the ἐσκαμμένα were marked before the leaps were taken?
Contributions to the History of Southern Aeolis
Authors: Ramsay W. M.
Published: May 2006

Asia Minor, interposed like a bridge between Europe and Asia, has been from time immemorial a battlefield between the Eastern and Western races. Across this bridge the arts, civilisation, and religion of the East had passed into Greece; and back over the same bridge they strove to pass beautified and elevated from Greece into Asia. The progress of the world has had its centre and motive power in the never-ceasing collision of Eastern and Western thought, which was thus produced in Asia Minor. One episode in the long conflict has been chosen by Herodotus as the subject of his prose epic: but the struggle did not stop at the point he thought. It has not yet ended, though it has long ceased to be of central importance in the world's history. For centuries after he wrote Greek influence continued to spread, unhindered, further and further into Asia: but as the Roman empire decayed, the East again became the stronger, and Asia Minor has continued under its undisputed influence almost up to the present day. Now the tide has again turned, and one can trace along the western coast the gradual extinction of the Oriental element. It does not retreat, it is not driven back by war: it simply dies out by a slow yet sure decay. It is the aim of this set of papers to throw some light on one stage in this contest, a stage probably the least known of all, the first attempts of the Greek element to establish itself in the country round the Hermus. Tradition has preserved to us little information about the first Greek settlements. The customary division into Aeolic, Ionic, and Doric colonists is not a sufficient one. Strabo clearly implies that there was a double Aeolic immigration when he says (p. 622) that Cyme founded thirty cities, and that it was not the first Aeolic settlement; in another passage (p. 582) he makes the northern colonists proceed by land through Thrace, the southern direct by sea to Cyme. I hope by an examination of the country and the situations, never as yet determined, of the minor towns, to add a little to the history of this Southern Aeolic immigration, in its first burst of prosperity, through the time when it was almost overwhelmed in the Lydian and Persian empires and was barely maintained by the strength of the Athenian confederacy, till it was finally merged in the stronger tide of Greek influence that set in with the victory of Alexander. More is known of Myrina, and still more of Cyme, than of any of the other towns: but both are omitted here, because it may be expected that considerable light will be thrown on the history of both by the excavations conducted on their sites by the French School of Athens. Till their results are published, it would be a waste of time to write of either city.
Recent Discoveries of Tarentine Terra-Cottas
Authors: Evans Arthur J.
Published: May 2006

There are few sites in the Hellenic World that in recent years have been so prolific of discoveries as that of Tarentum. The scheme so earnestly taken up by the Italian Government for converting the half-forgotten nest of fishermen and olive proprietors into a great Mediterranean arsenal, bids fair to restore Taranto to some measure at least of the importance which her unique position secured to her in ancient days. The mediæval citys hut up within the limits of its peninsular site, the Akropolis of the ancient Tarentum, blocking the passage from the inner to the outer sea, is again enlarging its borders, and a new quarter—the Borgo Nuovo—is rising on the mainland to the east where lay the Agora of the great Doric city. The inner sea—the Mar Piccolo—the Limên of Tarentum, at present laid out in gardens for the ‘sea-fruit’ which supplies the Naples market, is already being deepened in its south-eastern bay to form a secure and unassailable harbour, and the leviathans of the new Italian navy will henceforth anchor in the same historic port whence Hannibal transferred the Tarentine galleys adry to the outer sea.
Notes on the Collection of Ancient Marbles in the possession of Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart
Authors: Waldstein Charles
Published: May 2006

I have been asked to add a few notes on the collection of ancient monuments of which specimens are published on Plates LXXI. and C. These marbles were formerly in the possession of Mr. George McLeay, who, while residing in India, deposited them in the South Kensington Museum, where Professor Michaelis saw them. Most of them have already been described by Michaelis in his Ancient Marbles in Great Britain pp. 481 seq. Mr. McLeay had a house at Smyrna, and it was in Asia Minor, chiefly at Smyrna and in its neighbourhood, that he collected his antiquities. They have since been presented by him to Sir Charles Nicholson, who has placed them in his house, The Grange, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.

Most of these monuments belong to the Roman period of Greek art in Asia Minor. There can be no doubt that the interest attaching to such works will grow with the development and systematisation of the study of archaeology. For we may reasonably hope that, as our power to fix in time and to distinguish with accuracy the broader characteristic points of distinction between Greek and Graeco-Roman art grows, we shall not halt at this stage, but shall advance still further in successful endeavours to establish more detailed distinctions of time and even locality within these broader divisions.
The Bell and the Trumpet
Authors: Verrall A. W.
Published: May 2006

The bell, as is well known, plays in Hellenic life a very limited part. From prose authors, describing the actual facts of life, οἷς χρώμεθ', οἷς ξύνεσμεν—to use a phrase of Aristophanes closely connected with this topic—we hear of κώδωνες or bells, in two functionsonly, I think. They are the attribute of the crier, and of the sentinel on the wall. The first use of them was familiar enough to create a proverb διαπράσσεσθαί τι ὡς κώδωνα ἐξαψάμενος, ‘to do a thing like a crier with a bell tied to him,’ i.e. ostentatiously, a proverb roughly corresponding to our ‘be one's own trumpeter,’ which the lexicon cites with it. Of the second use, which, we may observe, was confined, for anything that appears to the contrary, to times of special apprehension, we have a well-known example in the last chapter of the fourth book of Thucydides. Brasidas, in the course of his brilliant campaign ἐπὶ Θρᾴκης, made a daring though unsuccessful attempt to convert the instrument of precaution into an occasion of surprise by scaling part of the wall of Potidaea at the very moment when a sentinel watching it had gone to the end of his beat ‘to pass the bell’ to the next man.
Pyxis:—Herakles and Geryon
Authors: Smith Cecil
Published: May 2006

The vase which is the subject of the present memoir is a pyxis or small round box of a light yellow clay with a smooth surface, decorated with designs in a blackish brown, which is here and there varied with a patch of purple laid upon the black, or with a detail occasionally incised. It was acquired by the British Museum in 1865, and forms one of a set of eighteen which were ‘guaranteed’ as having been found at Phaleron near Athens.

The lid is decorated with a circular frieze of animals, representing five lions or panthers; the most important representation, however, is that upon the body of the vase, which is encircled with a single frieze of figures, consisting of four lions, a bull (recognisable by the shape of its hoof and its horn), and a group which is obviously a rendering of the well-known myth of Herakles and Geryon—beside Geryon is a further group of three bulls.
Inscriptions from Eastern Asia Minor
Authors: Yorke V. W.
Published: May 2006

The following inscriptions are some of the epigraphical results of three journeys in Eastern Asia Minor. The first two of these, in which Prof. W. M. Ramsay, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, the Rev. A. C. Headlam, and Mr. J. A. R. Munro took part, were made in the summers of 1890 and 1891, the third, which was organised by Mr. Hogarth and in which I took part myself, was made in the summer of 1894. The geographical results of these expeditions have been published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society in the form of a paper by Messrs. Hogarth and Munro, entitled ‘Modern and Ancient Roads in Eastern Asia Minor’ (R.G.S. Suppl. Papers, iii. pp. 643–739) and a paper by myself ‘A Journey in the valley of the Upper Euphrates’ (Geographical Journal, viii. pp. 318–335 and 453–474).
Some Portraits of the Flavian Age
Authors: Crowfoot J. W.
Published: May 2006

Every large museum contains some portraits, which can with certainty be assigned to the Flavian period: a layman indeed can recognize the ladies of this age by the high and ugly coiffure then fashionable, but the majority of these are quite second-rate works. Not even the glamour of an imperial name will awaken much interest in such. But there are a few others really of superlative excellence which are consequently, as the commoner chronological sign-posts are wanting, assigned in most catalogues to whatever period the individual writer regards as the ‘best period’ of Roman art. Three or four of them I have ventured to select and I have added notes upon one or two others, which help to explain the group and justify further the date to which I assign them. No doubt the list could be extended considerably, but a few will perhaps suffice as a beginning, if they are typical of the best which the age could produce.
The Cults of Olbia (Part II.)
Authors: Hirst G. M.
Published: May 2006

Neither literature nor coins bear any witness to the cult of Aphrodite at Olbia, but we have an inscription which is of the highest interest.

[᾿Αφρο]δίτηι Εὐπλοίαι

[Ποσ]ιδεος Ποσιδείου

χαριστήριον

This inscription is of the first century after Christ; Posideos the son of Posideos is no doubt the same individual who dedicated offerings at Neapolis to Zeus Atabyrios, Athene Lindia, and ᾿ Αχιλλεῖ νήσου [μεδέοντι] Boeckh conjectures him to have been a Rhodian, no doubt because of the dedications to Athene Lindia and Zeus Atabyrios, and also because Aphrodite Euploia was worshipped at Cnidus.
The Country Cart of Ancient Greece
Authors: Lorimer H. L.
Published: May 2006

The vase painting reproduced in Fig. 1 is taken from a large red figured pyxis in the National Museum at Athens. Both lid and body are decorated with wedding scenes, which will be described in detail below (see p. 150); we are here more particularly concerned with the group on the body, in which the bridal pair are represented as driving to their new home. They are seated in a low cart drawn by two horses; the bride appears to be sitting in front of her husband, but is probably meant to be by his side. The horses are led by a young man, whose exomis and pointed cap mark him as a servant. The attempt to render the cart in a realistic manner has involved the artist in great difficulties. The two wheels, which are of the ordinary four-spoked type, are supposed to be seen in perspective, but they are drawn as if they were both on the same side of the cart, the one over-lapping the other.