bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of webcams on multimodal interactive learning
Authors: Codreanu Tatiana , Celik Christelle Combe
Published: February 2013

This paper describes the multimodal pedagogical communication of two groups of online teachers; trainee tutors (second year students of the Master of Arts in Teaching French as a Foreign Language at the University Lumière-Lyon 2) and experienced teachers based in different locations (France, Spain and Finland). They all taught French as a Foreign Language to a group of students from UC Berkeley in 2010. They participated in a project using a desktop videoconferencing platform (VISU1) designed for delivering online courses. The study focuses on the webcam's effects on teaching and learning and tries to answer the following question: how does multimodal interaction affect interactive learning? Our hypothesis is that experienced teachers channel information through the webcam more efficiently and effectively in order to engage learners in knowledge construction. This paper presents the results of research based on an empirical method of collecting ecological data.
Understanding the online informal learning of English as a complex dynamic system: an emic approach
Authors: Sockett Geoffrey
Published: February 2013

Research into the online informal learning of English has already shown it to be a widespread phenomenon involving a range of comprehension and production activities such as viewing original version television series, listening to music on demand and social networking with other English users.

Dynamic systems theory provides a suitable framework within which to study informal learning because it emphasises the unique range of resources, strategies and relationships which contribute to non-linear language development for each learner.

While research into the impact of these activities for language development has yielded some data regarding vocabulary gains and improvements in fluency and comprehension skills, the mechanisms at work in such language development have proved difficult to study because of the private nature of most online informal learning. In this study, an emic approach is adopted, involving a group of students experienced in second language acquisition research, who used blogs to report on their own online informal learning of English over a three-month period. Extensive examples from these blogs are used to build up a picture of the learning processes at work, within a framework suggested by the literature of complex dynamic systems. These results allow conclusions to be drawn regarding the way in which these processes are used by informal learners in different phases of real communicative tasks.
Sources of Variability of Resting Cerebral Blood Flow in Healthy Subjects: A Study Using 133Xe SPECT Measurements
Authors: Henriksen Otto M , Kruuse Christina , Olesen Jes , Jensen Lars T , Larsson Henrik BW , Birk Steffen , Hansen Jakob M , Wienecke Troels , Rostrup Egill
Published: February 2013

Measurements of cerebral blood flow (CBF) show large variability among healthy subjects. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relative effect of established factors influencing CBF on the variability of resting CBF. We retrospectively analyzed spontaneous variability in 430 CBF measurements acquired in 152 healthy, young subjects using 133Xe single-photon emission computed tomography. Cerebral blood flow was correlated positively with both end-tidal expiratory PCO2 (PETCO2) and female gender and inversely with hematocrit (Hct). Between- and within-subject CO2 reactivity was not significantly different. Including PETCO2, Hct and gender in the model reduced between-subject and within-subject variance by 14% and 13.5%, respectively. Withinsubject variability was mainly influenced by PETCO2 and between-subject variability mostly by Hct, whereas gender appeared to be of little added value when Hct was also accounted for. The present study confirms large between-subject variability in CBF measurements and that gender, Hct, and PETCO2 explain only a small part of this variability. This implies that a large fraction of CBF variability may be due to unknown factors such as differences in neuron density or metabolism that could be subject for further studies.
Pore morphologies and diffusion within hydrated polyelectrolyte membranes: Homogeneous vs heterogeneous and random side chain attachment
Authors: Dorenbos G. , Morohoshi K.
Published: February 2013

Using dissipative particle dynamics pore morphologies within model ionomer membranes are simulated. The ionomers are composed of hydrophobic backbones and side chains that are end-linked with a hydrophilic acid containing site. The separation distance between successive branching points is bi-modal, being alternating short (distance x) and long (distance y). The dependence of morphology on ion exchange capacity and separation distance is investigated. Phase separated morphologies were calculated at a water content of 16 vol. %. An increase of side chain density results in a decreasing size of the water containing pores, distance between them and decreasing Bragg spacing. For fixed side chain density, an increase in difference between the longer and shorter separation distance (y − x) results in a larger Bragg spacing. Monte Carlo calculations demonstrate that a large majority of the water is contained within a percolating network that allows for long-range diffusion. Diffusion constants vary drastically with architecture: Diffusion is fastest for architectures for which the side chains are highly non-uniformly distributed (y ≫ x). For architectures with the same side chain density, the tracer diffusion constants increase linearly with increase of the asymmetry ratio y/x (y > x). This is caused by the cooperative action of those terminal acidic sites that are topologically close together, allowing them to arrange pair wise along the pore walls and make the pores larger. We verified that for polymer architectures that mimick Nafion1200 similar trends are obtained, resulting in increased H2O, O2, and H2 permeation for statistical side chain distribution as compared to a uniform distribution of side chains. This trend is most pronounced for H2O and less pronounced for H2.
Effects of band non-parabolicity on cavity modes in photonic crystals
Authors: Lue N.-Y. , Chen Y.-S. , Wei H.-S. , Wu G. Y.
Published: February 2013

We include the effect of band non-parabolicity on photonic defect states within the Wannier theory, which improves the quadratic approximation adopted by Painter et al. [Phys. Rev. B 68, 035214 (2003)] for large-size defects, as well as extends the theory to a wider range of defect size. A 2D hexagonal photonic crystal is considered, and analyzed for the origin and degree of non-parabolicity in the 1st TE band around J-point, and for the effect of non-parabolicity on acceptor type cavity modes. The non-parabolicity is shown to derive primarily from the inherent anisotropy of band dispersion around the point. Overall, with the inclusion of non-parabolicity, (i) mode degeneracy is lowered, (ii) the “binding energy” of a cavity mode is increased, and (iii) the cut-off of defect size for a given cavity mode is reduced, by as much as 35% in certain cases, in comparison with that calculated without the non-parabolicity. A simple “overall effective mass” picture is provided for the understanding of non-parabolicity effects.
Computational analysis of the quadrupole contribution in the second-harmonic generation spectroscopy for the water/vapor interface
Authors: Shiratori Kazuya , Yamaguchi Shoichi , Tahara Tahei , Morita Akihiro
Published: February 2013

Second-order susceptibility for water/vapor interface is calculated theoretically using molecular dynamics simulation, which considers both the dipole and quadrupole contributions. We find that the nonresonant second harmonic generation (SHG) signal is dominated by the quadrupole contribution from the bulk. We also elucidate the fact that the nonresonant susceptibility tends to be negative in general, irrespective of the molecular orientation. The present argument for SHG is commonly applicable to the nonresonant vibrational sum-frequency generation (SFG) spectra, and should be valid for other liquid interfaces.
Frequency dependence and frequency control of microbubble streaming flows
Authors: Wang Cheng , Rallabandi Bhargav , Hilgenfeldt Sascha
Published: February 2013

Steady streaming from oscillating microbubbles is a powerful actuating mechanism in microfluidics, enjoying increased use due to its simplicity of manufacture, ease of integration, low heat generation, and unprecedented control over the flow field and particle transport. As the streaming flow patterns are caused by oscillations of microbubbles in contact with walls of the set-up, an understanding of the bubble dynamics is crucial. Here we experimentally characterize the oscillation modes and the frequency response spectrum of such cylindrical bubbles, driven by a pressure variation resulting from ultrasound in the range of 1 kHz \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}\begin{document}$\mbox{\ \raisebox {-.9ex}{\stackrel{\textstyle <}{\sim }}\ }f\mbox{\ \raisebox {-.9ex}{\stackrel{\textstyle <}{\sim }}\ }$\end{document}≲f≲ 100 kHz. We find that (i) the appearance of 2D streaming flow patterns is governed by the relative amplitudes of bubble azimuthal surface modes (normalized by the volume response), (ii) distinct, robust resonance patterns occur independent of details of the set-up, and (iii) the position and width of the resonance peaks can be understood using an asymptotic theory approach. This theory describes, for the first time, the shape oscillations of a pinned cylindrical bubble at a wall and gives insight into necessary mode couplings that shape the response spectrum. Having thus correlated relative mode strengths and observed flow patterns, we demonstrate that the performance of a bubble micromixer can be optimized by making use of such flow variations when modulating the driving frequency.
Numerical simulation of stimulated emission and lasing in dye doped cholesteric liquid crystal films
Authors: Penninck L. , Beeckman J. , De Visschere P. , Neyts K.
Published: February 2013

Dye-doped chiral-nematic liquid crystal lasers have great potential as small size, low-cost, widely tunable lasers. We present a numerical model for stimulated emission and lasing in liquid crystal films based on thin film optics. The gain threshold is modelled and the results are confirmed experimentally. The effect of the orientation of dye molecules and the matching of the photonic bandgap to the dye spectrum on the threshold for lasing is discussed.
The role of oxide interlayers in back reflector configurations for amorphous silicon solar cells
Authors: Demontis V. , Sanna C. , Melskens J. , Santbergen R. , Smets A. H. M. , Damiano A. , Zeman M.
Published: February 2013

Thin oxide interlayers are commonly added to the back reflector of thin-film silicon solar cells to increase their current. To gain more insight in the enhancement mechanism, we tested different back reflector designs consisting of aluminium-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Al) and/or hydrogenated silicon oxide (SiOx:H) interlayers with different metals (silver, aluminium, and chromium) in standard p-i-n a-Si:H solar cells. We use a unique inverse modeling approach to show that in most back reflectors the internal metal reflectance is lower than expected theoretically. However, the metal reflectance is increased by the addition of an oxide interlayer. Our experiments demonstrate that SiOx:H forms an interesting alternative interlayer because unlike the more commonly used ZnO:Al it can be deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition and it does not reduce the fill factor. The largest efficiency enhancement is obtained with a double interlayer of SiOx:H and ZnO:Al.
Exchange bias in manganite/SrRuO3 superlattices
Authors: Ziese M. , Bern F. , Vrejoiu I.
Published: February 2013

The magnetization processes in Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3/SrRuO3 and La0.7Sr0.3MnO3/SrRuO3 superlattices were studied. In both superlattices the ferromagnetic layers are antiferromagnetically coupled across the interfaces. Whereas superlattice La0.7Sr0.3MnO3/SrRuO3 showed a three-step magnetization reversal mechanism for all temperatures, superlattice Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3/SrRuO3 had a compensation point with a two-step below and a three-step reversal mechanism above the compensation temperature. Exchange-bias and coercive fields, the vertical magnetization shift as well as the minor loop opening were measured as a function of the cooling field. Main findings were a change of the exchange-bias field from negative to positive values for increasing cooling fields in the two-step reversal regime and from negative values to zero for increasing cooling fields in the three-step reversal regime. Exchange-bias training occurs mostly within the first magnetization cycle. The data are consistent with the formation of interfacial domain walls.
Nonlinear mixing of ultrasonic coda waves with lower frequency-swept pump waves for a global detection of defects in multiple scattering media
Authors: Zhang Y. , Tournat V. , Abraham O. , Durand O. , Letourneur S. , Le Duff A. , Lascoup B.
Published: February 2013

An ultrasonic method providing for an efficient global detection of defects in complex media (multiple scattering or reverberating media) is reported herein; this method is based on the nonlinear acoustic mixing of coda waves (stemming from multiple scattering) with lower frequency-swept pump waves. Such a nonlinear mixing step is made possible by the presence of nonlinear scatterers, such as cracks and delamination, yet remains absent when the waves are scattered only by linear scatterers, as is the case in a complex but defect-free medium. A global inspection is achieved thanks to the use of wide-band coda and pump signals, which ensure the excitation of many resonances along with a homogeneous acoustic energy distribution in the medium. We introduce the existing sensitivity tools developed for Coda Wave Interferometry in extracting the pump amplitude-dependent parameters of the coda waves associated with effective nonlinear parameters of the medium. By comparing results at two damage levels, these effective nonlinear parameters are shown to be correlated with crack presence in glass samples. The mechanisms potentially responsible for the observed amplitude dependence on the tested elastic parameters and waveform modification are discussed.
Experimental observation of the behaviour of cogenerated dusty plasma using a bipolar pulsed direct current power supply
Authors: Sarkar Sanjib , Bose M. , Pramanik J. , Mukherjee S.
Published: February 2013

We have experimentally observed the behaviour of cogenerated dusts in unmagnetized plasma produced using a bipolar pulsed dc power supply. In this experiment, the dust particles have been generated through sputtering of graphite cathode and were stratified between two electrodes. This stratification of dust clouds has obtained at a typical range of plasma parameters, namely, 650 V (peak-to-peak) with 0.2 mbar pressure. In above condition, we detected the Taylor-like instability at the interface of two dusty clouds with different densities. A very less dust density (void like) region inside the lesser dust density portion is also noted. Again, it has been observed that a self excited dust density wave propagates towards the higher density dust fluid inside the system as well as a stationary band structure of thin multiple layers of dust particles when we apply a higher voltage (750 V peak-to-peak). The wavelength, phase velocity, and frequency of the excited wave have also been estimated.
Band alignment between Ta2O5 and metals for resistive random access memory electrodes engineering
Authors: Zhuo V. Y.-Q. , Jiang Y. , Li M. H. , Chua E. K. , Zhang Z. , Pan J. S. , Zhao R. , Shi L. P. , Chong T. C. , Robertson J.
Published: February 2013

Band alignment of resistive random access memory (RRAM) switching material Ta2O5 and different metal electrode materials was examined using high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Schottky and hole barrier heights at the interface between electrode and Ta2O5 were obtained, where the electrodes consist of materials with low to high work function (Φm,vac from 4.06 to 5.93 eV). Effective metal work functions were extracted to study the Fermi level pinning effect and to discuss the dominant conduction mechanism. An accurate band alignment between electrodes and Ta2O5 is obtained and can be used for RRAM electrode engineering and conduction mechanism study.
Dynamical Casimir effect in a Josephson metamaterial
Authors: Lähteenmäki Pasi , Paraoanu G. S. , Hassel Juha , Hakonen Pertti J.
Published: February 2013

The zero-point energy stored in the modes of an electromagnetic cavity has experimentally detectable effects, giving rise to an attractive interaction between the opposite walls, the static Casimir effect. A dynamical version of this effect was predicted to occur when the vacuum energy is changed either by moving the walls of the cavity or by changing the index of refraction, resulting in the conversion of vacuum fluctuations into real photons. Here, we demonstrate the dynamical Casimir effect using a Josephson metamaterial embedded in a microwave cavity at 5.4 GHz. We modulate the effective length of the cavity by flux-biasing the metamaterial based on superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), which results in variation of a few percentage points in the speed of light. We extract the full 4 × 4 covariance matrix of the emitted microwave radiation, demonstrating that photons at frequencies symmetrical with respect to half of the modulation frequency are generated in pairs. At large detunings of the cavity from half of the modulation frequency, we find power spectra that clearly show the theoretically predicted hallmark of the Casimir effect: a bimodal, “sparrow-tail” structure. The observed substantial photon flux cannot be assigned to parametric amplification of thermal fluctuations; its creation is a direct consequence of the noncommutativity structure of quantum field theory.
Direct activation of full-length proapoptotic BAK
Authors: Leshchiner Elizaveta S. , Braun Craig R. , Bird Gregory H. , Walensky Loren D.
Published: February 2013

Proapoptotic B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) antagonist/killer (BAK) and BCL-2–associated X (BAX) form toxic mitochondrial pores in response to cellular stress. Whereas BAX resides predominantly in the cytosol, BAK is constitutively localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane. Select BCL-2 homology domain 3 (BH3) helices activate BAX directly by engaging an α1/α6 trigger site. The inability to express full-length BAK has hampered full dissection of its activation mechanism. Here, we report the production of full-length, monomeric BAK by mutagenesis-based solubilization of its C-terminal α-helical surface. Recombinant BAK autotranslocates to mitochondria but only releases cytochrome
c
upon BH3 triggering. A direct activation mechanism was explicitly demonstrated using a liposomal system that recapitulates BAK-mediated release upon addition of BH3 ligands. Photoreactive BH3 helices mapped both triggering and autointeractions to the canonical BH3-binding pocket of BAK, whereas the same ligands crosslinked to the α1/α6 site of BAX. Thus, activation of both BAK and BAX is initiated by direct BH3–interaction but at distinct trigger sites. These structural and biochemical insights provide opportunities for developing proapoptotic agents that activate the death pathway through direct but differential engagement of BAK and BAX.
In vivo optical trapping indicates kinesin’s stall force is reduced by dynein during intracellular transport
Authors: Blehm Benjamin H. , Schroer Trina A. , Trybus Kathleen M. , Chemla Yann R. , Selvin Paul R.
Published: February 2013

Kinesin and dynein are fundamental components of intracellular transport, but their interactions when simultaneously present on cargos are unknown. We built an optical trap that can be calibrated in vivo during data acquisition for each individual cargo to measure forces in living cells. Comparing directional stall forces in vivo and in vitro, we found evidence that cytoplasmic dynein is active during minus- and plus-end directed motion, whereas kinesin is only active in the plus direction. In vivo, we found outward (∼plus-end) stall forces range from 2 to 7 pN, which is significantly less than the 5- to 7-pN stall force measured in vitro for single kinesin molecules. In vitro measurements on beads with kinesin-1 and dynein bound revealed a similar distribution, implying that an interaction between opposite polarity motors causes this difference. Finally, inward (∼minus-end) stalls in vivo were 2–3 pN, which is higher than the 1.1-pN stall force of a single dynein, implying multiple active dynein.
Imagining the Diaspora in the New Millennium Comedies of Iranian Cinema
Authors: Pak-Shiraz Nacim
Published: February 2013

This article examines the genre of comedy in Iranian cinema and explores the various influences on its development and growth. It demonstrates how the roots of recent comedies can be traced back to pre-Revolution commercial cinema (known as filmfarsi) as well as the traditional Iranian comic theatre of taqlid. In particular, it focuses on the depictions of the Iranian diaspora in these comedies. The Iranian diaspora has been imagined and represented frequently in modern Persian culture, often satirically and humorously. More recently, Iranian comedies have provided a new space to imagine, define, criticize and redeem the Iranian diaspora.
Nationalism and political competition in Central Europe: The case of Poland
Authors: Vermeersch Peter
Published: February 2013

To explain nationalist politics in Poland, researchers and observers have sometimes speculated about the dispositions of the electorate, popular sentiments, public fears for the loss of sovereignty, the people's historically ingrained preference for nationalist rhetoric, and their feelings of discontent about the economy. This article argues that hypotheses about the existence of nationalist sentiments within the electorate have tended to eclipse an important question about the main producers of nationalist rhetoric: Why do certain mainstream parties at certain points in time decide to frame their program as nationalist, even when there is no objective reality that seems conducive to the creation of great public concern about typically nationalist issues? This article explores this question by looking at various campaigns for Polish parliamentary elections since 1997. My argument is that when seeking to explain the motivations behind major campaign turns toward nationalism we should not merely understand them as responses to voter sentiment and voting behavior. Instead, we should see them as crucially driven by the transactional logic of inter-party competition in a party system that is in constant flux.
“Republika Srpska will have a referendum”: The rhetorical politics of Milorad Dodik
Authors: Toal Gerard
Published: February 2013

The theory and practice of referenda played an important role in the break-up of Yugoslavia, especially in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH), where two divisive referenda preceded the Bosnian War of 1992-1995. After the failure of constitutional reforms in April 2006, Milorad Dodik, then Republika Srpska's prime minister, suggested that Republika Srpska had the right to hold its own referendum, with separation from Bosnia an unstated (yet soon openly discussed) aspiration. This paper presents an account of the emergence of Republika Srpska referendum discourse and how it was articulated by Milorad Dodik to establish his SNSD party as the dominant force in Republika Srpska. It documents the dialogical context and rhetorical gambits used by Dodik to articulate the discourse, tracing how it evolved in response to regional events and elections. The paper concludes by considering the limits of interpreting Dodik as a demagogue and of a discourse-centered approach to political rhetoric.
Comments on Gerard Toal's “‘Republika Srpska will have a referendum’: The rhetorical politics of Milorad Dodik”
Authors: Majstorović Danijela
Published: February 2013

Writing about the rhetoric of Milorad Dodik, one certainly has to bear in mind his beginnings, especially as a 1998 RS prime minister whom Albright (1998) called a “breath of fresh air” and someone “determined to peacebuilding, reconciliation and connection of democratic alternative” in Bosnia and Herzegovina (henceforth BiH). Dodik's early rhetoric that brought him to power abounded in phrases such as “economic progress,” “debt return,” and “opening to the world,” while some media reports referred to him as the “America-supported man who occasionally attended Ambassador Miller's secret dinners” (Dani, 22 September 2000) (Majstorovic et al. 2010). In 1998, Dodik attended donors’ conferences and was given significant support to pursue the reforms he started, including normalization of relations with the BiH Federation and Croatia. In 1998, his results secured him between $400 million and $600 million in aid money (Beta, 13 May 1998).
Practical Aspects of Theoretical Reasoning
Authors: Harman Gilbert
Published: February 2013

This article distinguishes between two uses of the term “logic”: as referring either to the theory of implication or to the theory of reasoning, which are quite distinct. Reasoning is a process that can modify intentions and beliefs. To a first approximation, theoretical reasoning is concerned with what to believe and practical reasoning is concerned with what to intend to do. Practical reasoning differs from theoretical reasoning in allowing arbitrary decisions and a certain sort of wishful thinking. Practical considerations are relevant to whether to engage in theoretical inquiry into a given question, the extent of time and other resources to devote to such inquiry, and whether and when to end such inquiry. Simplicity and conservatism play a role in theoretical reasoning that can be given a practical justification without allowing wishful thinking into theoretical reasoning, a justification that can also be given a nonpractical interpretation.
Independence in Latin America
Authors: Adelman Jeremy
Published: February 2013

This article bridges the colonial and the national period in a discussion of the independence movements. This topic, part of foundational narratives in the region, once represented the core of Latin American history. The shift to structural and socioeconomic analysis after the 1960s led to a period neglect of a topic that came to be considered too Whiggish and celebratory or, at best, not particularly consequential. But a renewed interest in political history and, more recently, the expectation of several bicentenaries in 2010, have brought a new crop of studies of the emancipation process. By following historians' changing attitudes on the theme, the article also tells us much about the intellectual climate in Latin America during the last half century.
Postcolonial Brazil
Authors: Weinstein Barbara
Published: February 2013

This article is a portal into the rapidly expanding historiography of modern Brazil. It highlights the major nodes of discussion and debate among historians of Brazil over the last two decades, and describes how these debates have been shaped by broader shifts in the historical profession. Two themes frame this survey of the new historiographical trends for postcolonial Brazil. One is the impact of the linguistic or cultural turn on that historiography. Slower to have an impact in the Brazilian historiography were the writings of the Subaltern Studies scholars and postcolonial theorists.
The Historiography of Latin American Families
Authors: Milanich Nara
Published: February 2013

This article describes the methods and frameworks that historians have been used to examine Latin American families. It goes on to sketch some of their findings, and speculate about the reasons why family has become marginalized as a category of historical inquiry. It tacks back and forth between scholarship written in the vein of family history and work that addresses such issues as domesticity and patriarchy but does not necessarily take family as its central analytic concern. If one query running through the discussion concerns the extent to which family history endures as a recognizable historiographical enterprise, a second and perhaps more trenchant question is whether it should exist as such. The article argues that family history has much to contribute to our understanding of Latin America's past and present, and concludes by identifying several areas for future inquiry.
Resilience in Development
Authors: Masten Ann S. , Cutuli J. J. , Herbers Janette E. , Reed Marie-Gabrielle J.
Published: February 2013

Resilience in human development is defined in relation to positive adaptation in the context of significant adversity, emphasizing a developmental systems approach. A brief history and glossary on the central concepts of resilience research in developmental science are provided, and the fundamental models and strategies guiding the research are described. Major findings of the first four decades of research are summarized in terms of protective and promotive factors consistently associated with resilience in diverse situations and populations of young people. These factors—such as self-regulation skills, good parenting, community resources, and effective schools—suggest that resilience arises from ordinary protective processes, common but powerful, that protect human development under diverse conditions. The greatest threats posed to children may be adversities that damage or undermine these basic human protective systems. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed, highlighting three strategies of fostering resilience, focused on reducing risk, building strengths or assets, and mobilizing adaptive systems that protect and restore positive human development. The concluding section outlines future directions of resilience research and its applications, including rapidly growing efforts to integrate research and prevention efforts across disciplines, from genetics to ecology, and across level of analysis, from molecules to media.
Positive Psychology for Children and Adolescents: Development, Prevention, and Promotion
Authors: Kirschman Keri J. Brown , Johnson Rebecca J. , Bender Jade A. , Roberts Michael C.
Published: February 2013

The goal of this chapter is to inform the reader of the unique facets of childhood as they relate to the research and application of positive psychology, provide reference to exemplary work in this area, and identify research needs for the future. Researchers have noted the need, particularly when working with children and adolescents, to examine strengths and positive aspects of development rather than focusing solely on psychopathology and other possible negative outcomes. Positive psychology offers such an approach. This chapter reviews current research in hope, optimism, benefit finding, and quality of life in children and adolescents, highlighting measurement issues and notable interventions for each of these concepts. Developmental considerations, prevention and promotion, and settings for the delivery of positive psychology to children and adolescents are discussed. Despite the development in positive psychology measurement and intervention for children, much more research is needed in this area. Future exploration of the interrelatedness among hope, optimism, growth finding, and other positive psychology variables is needed. There are many youth programs and interventions that have a positive psychology orientation; however, methodologically sound, systematic research planned a priori is needed. Thus, interventions and evaluations of programs to promote hope or optimism in children and adolescents are prime areas for future work.
Emotional Creativity: Toward “Spiritualizing the Passions”
Authors: Averill James R.
Published: February 2013

Emotional states are typically viewed negatively: Our fears, angers, and sorrows seem to outweigh our joys and pleasures. Yet, it is hard to imagine life without ostensibly negative emotions. The solution, Nietzsche suggested, is to spiritualize the passions, the negative as well as the positive. And what might that entail? Whatever else, spiritualizing the passions requires creativity. In this chapter, we explore how standard criteria for creativity (novelty, effectiveness, and authenticity) apply to emotional as well as to intellectual and artistic responses. In a similar vein, we show how characteristics commonly associated with spiritual experiences (meaning, vitality, and connectedness) apply to emotionally creative responses. Finally, data are presented that relate individual differences in emotional creativity to a spiritualization of the passions, at the high end of the creativity continuum; and to its opposite, a despiritualization of the passions (neurosis), at the low end.
Mindfulness Versus Positive Evaluation
Authors: Langer Ellen J.
Published: February 2013

Mindfulness is a flexible state of mind that is characterized by openness to novelty, sensitivity to context, and engagement with the present moment. In this chapter, mindfulness is proposed to be a critical factor in determining individual performance and shaping our learning experiences. In particular, mindfulness appears to be crucial in helping us deal with the inevitable uncertainties in our lives and environments. The role that mindfulness plays in shaping evaluations, both positive and negative, is also discussed. Finally, it is suggested that the mindful individual is likely to choose to be positive and will experience both the advantages of positivity and the advantages of perceived control for well-being.
Courage
Authors: Pury Cynthia L. S. , Lopez Shane J.
Published: February 2013

Courage is the well-praised but little-researched virtue of voluntarily facing personal risk to pursue worthy goals. This chapter reviews research on courage and its relationship to fear, morally relevant internal states, efficacy, character development, social influence, altruism, self-regulation, and gender differences, as well as potential measures of courage and applications. The development of additional performance measures of courageous behavior is needed to inform models of courageous behavior, and, ultimately, courage-related interventions.
Humility
Authors: Tangney June Price
Published: February 2013

Although humility is commonly equated with a sense of unworthiness and low self-regard, true humility is a rich, multifaceted construct that is characterized by an accurate assessment of one's characteristics, an ability to acknowledge limitations, and a “forgetting of the self.” In this chapter, I describe current conceptions of humility, discuss the challenges in its measurement, and review the scant empirical work addressing it directly and indirectly. I will also discuss briefly interventions for enhancing humility.
Positive Schools
Authors: Huebner E. Scott , Gilman Rich , Reschly Amy L. , Hall Russell
Published: February 2013

This chapter defines positive schools as ones in which students experience predominantly positive subjective well-being in the form of positive emotions and positive attitudes toward school (i.e., school satisfaction). Following a definition of positive subjective well-being, measurement issues are discussed. Subsequently, research on the correlates of positive school satisfaction is discussed, including presumed antecedents and consequences of individual differences in school satisfaction among children of elementary and secondary school age. Key features of positive schools are identified and several examples of empirically validated, school-based intervention programs that influence students' subjective well-being are given. Finally, implications for future research are discussed.
Happiness, Resilience, and Positive Growth Following Physical Disability: Issues for Understanding, Research, and Therapeutic Intervention
Authors: Dunn Dana S. , Uswatte Gitendra , Elliott Timothy R.
Published: February 2013

Do well-being and happiness change following acquired physical disability? The onset of physical disability occurs due to trauma or disease, either of which can mean a reduction in function (e.g., activities of daily living) or the literal loss of a body part (e.g., limb amputation). Restricted mobility, activity, or physical loss can have psychological consequences, so that some individuals report a variety of depressive symptoms and problem behaviors following disability onset. Yet many people with disabilities do not suffer from depression or behavioral difficulties; rather, they adjust to their circumstances reasonably well. Following the onset of disability and subsequent rehabilitation, then, many individuals report relatively favorable levels of subjective well-being (SWB) and happiness, and that they take pleasure in daily life, including work, play, and interactions with family and friends. The focus of this chapter is those individuals who exhibit positive reactions to living with disability. We hope that products and insights from their positive responses can develop new or revised existing therapies to promote the health and well-being of others, the goal of rehabilitation psychology. Our discussion is grounded in the theoretical and empirical perspectives of positive psychology; the constructive, person-situation focus of rehabilitation psychology; and the approaches emerging from the synergy of both research areas. Positive psychology emphasizes three complementary foci: subjective states, individual processes, and the creation and maintenance of positive social institutions. Against the backdrop of acquired physical disability, we consider the first two foci by examining happiness and then resiliency and positive growth. We then consider the implications of our review for future research and therapy.
The Promise of Sustainable Happiness
Authors: Boehm Julia K. , Lyubomirsky Sonja
Published: February 2013

From ancient history to recent times, philosophers, writers, self-help gurus, and now scientists have taken up the challenge of how to foster greater happiness. This chapter discusses why some people are happier than others, focusing on the distinctive ways that happy and unhappy individuals construe themselves and others, respond to social comparisons, make decisions, and self-reflect. We suggest that, despite several barriers to increased well-being, less happy people can strive successfully to be happier by learning a variety of effortful strategies and practicing them with determination and commitment. The sustainable happiness model (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005 ) provides a theoretical framework for experimental intervention research on how to increase and maintain happiness. According to this model, three factors contribute to an individual's chronic happiness level: (a) the set point, (b) life circumstances, and (c) intentional activities, or effortful acts that are naturally variable and episodic. Such activities, which include committing acts of kindness, expressing gratitude or optimism, and savoring joyful life events, represent the most promising route to sustaining enhanced happiness. We describe a half-dozen randomized controlled interventions testing the efficacy of each of these activities in raising and maintaining well-being, as well as the mediators and moderators underlying their effects. Future researchers must endeavor not only to learn which particular practices make people happier, but how and why they do so.
The Contribution of Developmental Models Toward Understanding Gene-to-Behavior Mapping: The Case of Williams Syndrome
Authors: Elsabbagh Mayada , Karmiloff-Smith Annette
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the ways in which research findings about the genetic, developmental, neuroanatomical, and behavioral characteristics of persons with Williams syndrome (WS) are incorporated into theoretical models of gene—environment interactions, and it critically evaluates the rationale and assumptions of each approach. It demonstrates that, despite the wealth of findings from research into WS, developmental questions concerning the link of genes to behavioral outcomes are yet to be resolved. The chapter discusses three approaches to the neurocognitive study of WS, including neuropsychological approaches; bridging gene, brain, and cognition; and developmental approaches. Differences in objectives, assumptions, hypotheses, and consequently, the in methodology of these approaches are addressed. The analysis will focus on how these approaches apply to WS as an illustration of their broader applicability to special populations in general.
Understanding the Development of Attention in Persons with Intellectual Disability: Challenging the Myths
Authors: Iarocci Grace , Porporino Mafalda , Enns James T. , Burack Jacob A.
Published: February 2013

This chapter focuses on the attentional abilities of the persons with specific etiologies. It begins with an extensive review of the literature on attention in persons with the most common organic forms of intellectual disability. It then summarizes the results of a survey of studies on attention in Down syndrome, fragile X, and Williams syndrome, and discusses the implications of these findings for future research in the area. The chapter proposes to apply a framework for understanding developmental change and stability in selective attention, a framework that initially emerged in the course of understanding the role of attention in automobile driving and was later applied to the development of attention over the typical human lifespan.
Short-term Memory and Working Memory in Mental Retardation
Authors: Jarrold Christopher , Brock Jon
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of the range of working memory impairments associated with learning disability, and the possible consequences of such deficits. In doing so, it raises a number of questions, notably: Are there aspects of short-term or working memory that are particularly vulnerable to mental retardation? Are there any syndrome-specific patterns of working memory impairments? And, how might these relate to educational outcomes and other aspects of cognitive and linguistic development? To properly interpret findings from studies involving individuals with mental retardation, the chapter begins by raising a number of general methodological points about the assessment of working memory, and by emphasizing the theoretical distinction between working memory and short-term memory.
Executive Function Across Syndromes Associated with Intellectual Disabilities: A Developmental Perspective
Authors: Russo Natalie , Dawkins Tamara , Huizinga Mariëtte , Burack Jacob A.
Published: February 2013

Executive function (EF) is a general construct used to represent brain functions related to the conscious control of thought and action. This chapter reviews literature that supports the notion of a componential view of EF, as some disorders were associated with developmentally appropriate performance on some areas of EF, but not others. For example, individuals with Down syndrome were as able as developmentally matched peers in areas related to working memory and inhibition, but were clearly impaired in their abilities to switch flexibly between mental sets. This sparing of certain areas (in relation to developmental level) is inconsistent with the notion of a unitary view, which would imply that difficulty in one area of EF would mean difficulty in all areas of EF. Although the findings reviewed here still leave open the question of whether some combination of unitary and componential views is correct, the chapter provides evidence to suggest that a purely unitary view is unlikely.
Musical Ability and Developmental Disorders
Authors: Bhatara Anjali K. , Quintin Eve-Marie , Levitin Daniel J.
Published: February 2013

This chapter begins by discussing the link between intelligence and musical ability. It then presents the currently available data on the musical abilities and behaviors of individuals with Williams syndrome (WS), Down syndrome (DS), fragile X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis complex, and Rett syndrome. Evidence to date suggests that individuals with developmental disorders such as WS, tuberous sclerosis complex, and possibly DS, have musical abilities that are relatively spared as compared to their other cognitive and perceptual deficits. Musical appreciation and enjoyment does not seem to be dependent on cognitive faculties, and can be useful as a means of establishing communication and influencing behavior, even in individuals with severe mental retardation.
Brain-based Methods in the Study of Developmental Disabilities: Examples from Event-related Potentials and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research
Authors: Key Alexandra P.F. , Thornton-Wells Tricia A.
Published: February 2013

Numerous technologies are available for studying the brain basis of developmental disabilities, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. These include electroencephalography (EEG), event-related potentials (ERP), magnetoencephalography (MEG), near-infrared optical tomography (NIROT), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRspect). This chapter focuses on two technologies—ERP and MRI—which are increasingly being used in research on developmental disabilities. It discusses how each methodology works and what kinds of research questions each is well suited to answer. It illustrates the application of these methods in four specific genetic disorders: Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, Williams syndrome, and fragile X syndrome. Finally, the chapter discusses gaps in current research, issues of experimental design, and suggests directions for future studies.
Literacy Development in Childhood, Adolescence, and Young Adulthood in Persons with Down Syndrome
Authors: Kay-Raining Bird Elizabeth , Chapman Robin S.
Published: February 2013

Literacy enriches and expands opportunities for participation in activities in the home, school, work and community. There are many economic, social, and cultural benefits to being literate (Robinson-Pant, 2005). For example, individuals with more advanced literacy skills are more frequently employed, earn higher wages, and are more likely to be promoted (Johnson, 2000). Furthermore, they tend to have increased self-esteem, greater empowerment, and expanded recreational opportunities. Becoming literate presumably has the same advantages for individuals with Down syndrome (DS) as it would for any other person in a literate society. With changing policies and demographics, the literacy potential of individuals with DS is only now becoming understood and may well be underestimated in the early literature in this area. In this chapter, we review the literature on the literacy abilities of individuals with DS and make recommendations for future research.
Dyadic Interaction Between Mothers and Children with Down Syndrome or Williams Syndrome: Empirical Evidence and Emerging Agendas
Authors: Hauser-Cram Penny , Howell-Moneta Angela N. , Young Jessica Mercer
Published: February 2013

This chapter highlights the theoretical foundations that have guided research on mother—child interaction. It discusses the physical and behavioral characteristics of children with Down syndrome (DS) that influence their social interactions, then reviews research findings on mother—child interaction in these dyads. It discusses research conducted during the past decade since the review in the last Handbook of Mental Retardation (Marfo, Dedrick, & Barbour, 1998) and proposes an agenda for future research. The chapter also describes the behaviors and processes related to Williams syndrome that are likely to be relevant to mother—child interaction. It proposes a research agenda that both builds on and is distinct from that related to children with DS.