bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sapphire in the sand
Authors: Ulfstrand Staffan
Published: November 2023

In a mokoro—a canoe made by hollowing out the thick trunk of the sausage tree (Kigelia africana)—I glide silently over the still waters somewhere in the Okavango Delta. My guide and gondolier, Royal, a man who during half a century has learned every winding rivulet in this gigantic aquatic labyrinth, steers and poles the mokoro through the delta. The atmosphere brings to mind the Sixth day, or more exactly, the time between Genesis1:26 and 1:27, the siesta hours just before the completion of what we can hope was a carefully considered decision to complete the fauna with one more species, namely, us.
Baboon thoughts
Authors: Ulfstrand Staffan
Published: November 2023

The sun sets quickly in the tropics; the transition from bright daylight to complete darkness takes only a few minutes. An orange-yellow sun floated some distance above the horizon in the west as we drove along the gravel road to the frail raft that would transport us across the Nile; however, the clock indicated that sunset would soon be upon us. We hurried onto the small raft, tied down our Land Rover, and with the help of a winch, transported it across the river. This short crossing landed us in Murchison Falls National Park in western Uganda.
Humans—marked for life
Authors: Ulfstrand Staffan
Published: November 2023

All life on earth has a common origin, and from this perspective, all living things are related. Human origins, just as those of all other species, go back to the origin of life approximately 4 billion years ago. Many of our most significant refinements of construction are much older than the human species. Moreover, these refinements evolved by natural selection in a very different world. Our feet, stomachs, kidneys, and brains are firmly characterized by what has occurred during these millions of years of evolutionary history.
Tree-based metrics
Authors: Semple Charles , Steel Mike
Published: November 2023

Up to this point, we have regarded the edges of an X-tree 𝒯 as just a pair of vertices. However, it also makes sense in certain applications to regard each edge of 𝒯 as an interval of a certain length. Adopting this view induces a ‘distance’ between all pairs of elements x and y of X. This distance is the sum of the weights on the edges in the path joining x and y. In evolutionary biology, such a distance might measure the time two species have been separated from their most recent common ancestor.
Hospital, Hospice or Home?
Authors: Lee Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

You may have a strong feeling from the outset about where you would like to be cared for, particularly towards the end. Or you may never have thought about it, or realized that you might have a choice. At the beginning of a terminal illness most patients say that they would prefer to die at home rather than in hospital. Towards the end of their illness about half say hospital or hospice. So some patients change their minds, usually in the direction of hospital and hospice. Being allowed to change your mind is very important.
Using the Internet to communicate
Authors: McKenzie Bruce C
Published: November 2023

The Internet can facilitate communication with colleagues at international, national, and local levels. Using e-mail or the Web can have disadvantages as well as advantages.

UK healthcare institutions are realizing the potential of the Internet to communicate information to large groups of health professionals in a timely and cost-effective manner. The Internet also promotes flow of information from the ‘bottom up’.

Some hospitals publish information about their services (e.g. waiting times) on Web sites accessible to local colleagues in primary care. Patient-specific information is not generally communicated via the Internet at present.
Using the Internet for publishing and commerce
Authors: McKenzie Bruce C
Published: November 2023

The Internet offers rapid publication; ‘live’ cross-reference links; and greater inter- action between journals and their readers.

Most journals presently replicate some or all of their content onto Web pages and add a search engine; others are using the Internet to improve traditional publishing practices, devising new ways of delivering content with additional features.

The peer-review process is revolutionized by unlimited publication space; greater interactivity between editors, authors, and reviewers making peer review an ongoing process of comment and revision (rather than a one-off event); and the possibility of an openness that offers greater accountability and higher standards of ethical behaviour.
Teaching in the clinical setting
Authors: Hartley Sarah , Gill Deborah , Carter Frances , Walters Kate , Bryant Pauline
Published: November 2023

Armed with your lesson plan and toolkit of teaching skills, delivering your teaching session should not seem too daunting. There are a multitude of potential settings in which you can deliver your teaching, from a lecture hall to a domiciliary visit. All these teaching settings can be divided into two key types: those in the ‘service setting’ where you carry on with your clinical work simultaneously and those where you have ‘protected time’ with your students.
Evaluating teaching and learning
Authors: Hartley Sarah , Gill Deborah , Carter Frances , Walters Kate , Bryant Pauline
Published: November 2023

After extensive preparation, and using your wide range of teaching skills, you have delivered what you consider to be several excellent teaching sessions. The students seemed happy enough, and you felt pleased afterwards. Still, you have some doubts. As a reflective teacher, you ask yourself how good they really were.
Some thoughts on Part I: the usefulness of the body clock
Authors: Waterhouse J M , Minors D S , Waterhouse M E , Reilly T , Atkinson G
Published: November 2023

What advantage do animals and plants gain by possessing a body clock, since it can be argued that they respond to the rhythms in their environment anyway? (That, after all, is what is meant by the external cause of a daily rhythm.) What would be the disadvantage if there were no clock and a plant moved its leaves only in response to the sun? Or if the shore-dwelling creature left its burrow in the mud to forage only in response to the tide coming in? Or if the diurnal or nocturnal animal’s response to sunrise and sunset were only a direct one? What is the advantage of a body clock to us humans, who can, anyway, respond to changes in posture and water content of the body and to changes in environmental temperature?
Prenatal events that influence schizophrenia
Authors: Susser Ezra , Ospler Mark G
Published: November 2023

The past decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in research on hypothesized fetal origins of schizophrenia. Much of this research has been motivated by the ‘neurodevelopmental hypothesis’ articulated during the 1980s. This theory proposed that the developing brain is vulnerable to genetic and environmental insults that yield subtle alterations in structure and function and elevate the risk of psychosis later in life (Murray and Lewis 1987, Waddington et al. 1999, Weinberger 1987).
Cognitive functioning before or at the onset of the first episode
Authors: Reichenberg Abraham , Davidson Michael
Published: November 2023

A great deal of speculation and research has been devoted to determining whether a relationship exists between intellectual performance and schizophrenia. Since Kraepelin (1919) it has been recognized that deterioration in intellectual performance is a characteristic of schizophrenia patients. Bleuler (1950) described deterioration in school performance as a premorbid or prodromal sign in schizophrenia. However, despite decades of research, the developmental course of intellectual functioning in schizophrenia has been widely debated.
Treatment of schizophrenia at the first episode
Authors: Robinson Delbert G
Published: November 2023

Why focus upon treatment of the initial phase of schizophrenia ? Treatment studies with first-episode patients are of interest for clinical reasons and also for our understanding of the actions of antipsychotic medications. The most basic clinical need for first episode treatment studies arises from the fact that first-episode patients by definition do not have an established response to treatment. Thus, treatment recommendations to first-episode patients and their families must be based upon research findings and not, as is the case with multi-episode patients, the patient’s past individual response to treatment.
C*-Algebra Basics
Authors: Evans David E , Kawahigashi Yasuyuki
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the fundamental structure of C*-algebras. In Section 2.2 we look at the most basic non-commutative building blocks, the matrix algebras, and in Section 2.3 their states described through density matrices.
The Ising Model
Authors: Evans David E , Kawahigashi Yasuyuki
Published: November 2023

Statistical mechanics aims to study the global properties of classical or quantum systems, which may have a large number of building blocks and interactions, through a small number of global concepts such as volume, temperature, equilibrium states, critical exponents. We may be particularly interested in critical phenomena and phase transition such as a liquid/gas transition or a change in magnetic properties. Consider for example a metal bar suspended in a magnetic field. Apart from diamagnetic effects (where currents are induced by Lenz’s law to oppose the field) there may be a (greater) opposite paramagnetic effect (as in aluminium) where there is a permanent magnetic moment present in the material which the field tends to line up.
Subfactors and Bimodules
Authors: Evans David E , Kawahigashi Yasuyuki
Published: November 2023

V. F. R. Jones initiated subfactor theory in (Jones 1983) and it has since revolutionized the theory of von Neumann algebras. Furthermore, the discovery of the Jones polynomial, a link invariant, in (Jones 1985) has revealed a truly surprising relation between the operator algebra theory and low-dimensional topology and strengthened links with mathematical physics. We will deal with some of the progress which has been made in this theory in the last decade. In this chapter, we start with the subfactor theory from today’s viewpoint based on bimodules. A bimodule in our setting is a Hilbert space with left and right actions of two von Neumann algebras. The importance of bimodule theory in von Neumann algebras was first emphasized by A. Cannes in his unpublished manuscript on correspondences, and a detailed study of the bimodule theory was given by S. Popa in his unpublished manuscript ‘Correspondences’. It was A. Ocneanu who first realized the importance of bimodules in the Jones theory of subfactors in (Ocneanu 1988), and he obtained several fundamental theorems in the theory, but unfortunately his results have been scattered among his several informal notes and unpublished manuscripts. We will present the basic theory in this chapter as a preliminary to the remainder of this book.
Commuting Squares Of II1 Factors
Authors: Evans David E , Kawahigashi Yasuyuki
Published: November 2023

We will study a certain type of commuting squares of Hi factors in connection to topology, physics, and problems of ordinary subfactors. In Section 14.2, we introduce a notion of bi-commuting square and study its basic properties. Section 14.3 deals with the intertwining Yang-Baxter equation and the triple sequence of string algebras. We show several examples of commuting squares of II1 factors arising from RCFT in Section 14.4. We discuss an analogue of the coset construction in RCFT in Section 14.5. As a concrete application of the general machinery, we study the GHJ subfactor introduced in Section 11.6 in the last section of this chapter.
Helmholtz: combinational tones and consonance
Authors: Fowler David
Published: November 2023

A question that has teased the minds of musicians and listeners ever since Greek times is: why is there an association between musical sounds and simple whole number ratios? What explanation can there be for the Pythagorean insight that consonances seem to relate to small whole numbers and their ratios? Plato in the fourth century BC wrote of the need to ‘investigate which numbers are concordant and which are not, and why each are so’.
Ringing the changes: bells and mathematics
Authors: Roaf Dermot , White Arthur
Published: November 2023

When clocks were rare and watches unknown, people needed to be summoned by bells to come to church—large bells make a lot of noise and can call people from long distances. While there may no longer be this time-keeping need, church bells are still in regular use, now often functioning as a musical instrument played by a team, with what turns out to be a strong mathematical aspect to the music.
Modelling Turbulent Transport in Complex Flows: Physical Challenges, Numerical Implementation and Predictive Performance
Authors: Leschziner M A , Lien F-S
Published: November 2023

Amongst the many obstacles which the computational fluid dynamicist faces in his quest for quantitative accuracy when modelling practical flows, turbulence and its multi-faceted manifestations must surely be regarded as being the most challenging. There are some, though not many, practical flows in which turbulence only plays a peripheral role: the principal operational parameters of a slender compressor-cascade blade and an aerofoil operating in their “design conditions” will not be greatly affected by the thin turbulent boundary layers developing on their surfaces, although even here the drag and losses will depend sensitively on the structure of the boundary layers, especially when the oncoming stream is highly turbulent and sheared. The practically more interesting and challenging flow conditions arise, however, when the aerofoil and blade operate close to or beyond stall - as is shown in Fig. 1 - in which case turbulence transport is a key contributor to the balance of processes dictating the structure of the flow, the lift, the drag and the losses. Indeed, for the example of the aerofoil, the turbulence structure will govern the dependence of the maximum lift and stall on the angle of incidence - an issue of particular importance to the operation of high-lift configurations of the type shown in Fig. 2.
A Streamline Based Approach to the Adaptation of Unstructured Grids for Viscous Flow Simulation
Authors: Marchant M J , Weatherill N P
Published: November 2023

The early development of techniques for viscous flow simulations has largely been constructed for use on structured grids([l], [2], [3]). However, more recently, unstructured grid generation techniques, such as the advancing front technique ([4], [5]) and the Delaunay triangulation approach ([6], [7],[8]), have shown the flexibility and efficiency for discretizing the domain around complex configurations. Unfortunately, these techniques do not, in general, generate triangles and tetrahedra with high aspect ratios which retain the smoothness and regularity required for viscous flow simulation. The use of unit aspect ratio elements is too computationally expensive for viscous dominated flows where length scales within boundary layers are very small.
Unstructured Mesh CFD Analysis Tools for Design
Authors: Stoufllet B
Published: November 2023

The aim of this paper is to present recent efforts in constantly investigating new improvements to remedy deficiencies of numerical methods on one hand and secondly in assuring their insertion as analysis algorithms in a numerical shape optimization procedure. As nowadays flow analysis is carried out over quite complex configurations solving the Navier-Stokes equations with a high degree of confidence, some optimum shape design approaches based on advanced CFD tools (still limited to simple 2D or 3D configurations in inviscid flows) have proved to be effective design procedures ([l], [3], [4]).
High-Lift Navier-Stokes Computations on Unstructured Grids using a Differential Reynolds Stress Model
Authors: Cantariti F J-J , Johnston L J
Published: November 2023

In Computational Fluid Dynamics, the accurate prediction of the viscous flow development around two-dimensional multi-element aerofoils remains a difficult task. Indeed, such flows include viscous, compressibility and flow curvature effects. Also, the geometric complexity associated with closely-coupled multi-element aerofoils makes it difficult to generate the required computational grids if a structured approach is taken. However, this difficulty can be alleviated through the use of unstructured methods, as shown for example by Mavriplis and Martinelli [4]. With the above as background, and following the work of Johnston and Stolcis [2], the present paper describes a computational method where the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations are solved using a cell-centred, finite-volume spatial discretisation on unstructured grids. These equations are advanced in time to a steady-state solution using an explicit, time-marching scheme. A differential Reynolds stress model (DRSM) is adopted here to close the set of governing mean-flow equations. It is expected that a second moment closure model will improve the accuracy of the predictions, especially around maximum lift conditions, compared to eddy-viscosity based turbulence models.
A High-order Iterative Implicit-explicit Hybrid Scheme for 2-D Hydrodynamics 1
Authors: Dai W , Woodward P R
Published: November 2023

During the last two decades, Godunov schemes for hydrodynamics have been well developed. Godunov schemes may be second order accurate in time, but are explicit. A time step in an explicit scheme is restricted by the largest of Courant numbers, which cannot be larger than unity for a stable calculation. Implicit-explicit hybrid schemes are particularly useful when a flow attains very different wave speeds, either in different regions or at different instants, and when time accuracy is important, at least in some parts of simulation domains.
Dynamic Solid/Fluid Interaction using a Navier-Stokes Method for Deforming Grids
Authors: Hoffren J
Published: November 2023

Navier-Stokes solvers for steady flows are nowadays well-established and applicable to practical problems. However, a large number of important flow problems is characterized by time-dependent behaviour. The development of computers is making time-accurate Navier-Stokes calculations practical, and research in the field is active. Often, the unsteady cases involve a deforming flow domain as an additional complication. If the deformation of the geometry depends on the flow, a method capable of modelling dynamic solid/fluid interactions is required to simulate the case.
Computation of Nearly Shockless Transonic Flows
Authors: Kuz’;min A G , Livanskaya S I
Published: November 2023

As is well known, a local supersonic region (LSR) forms on the upper surface of a wing if the subsonic freestream Mach number is sufficiently high. There exist shockless airfoil configurations which provide shock-free deceleration of the supersonic flow to the subsonic velocity. In the 1970s a few methods for designing shockless airfoils were proposed [13).
High Resolution of the 2-D Navier-Stokes Equations by the Interpolating Matrix Method
Authors: Louaked M , Hanich L , Nguyen K D
Published: November 2023

The interpolation matrix method (IMM) is a finite difference method to resolve multi-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations in a generalized curvilinear coordinate system [3]. It is well known that the total variation diminishing (TVD) schemes have several outstanding advantages included monotocity preserving, low dissipation. These schemes have achieved great success in modelling compressible flow with strong shock waves.
Reliable Error Control for Adaptive Computations of the Compressible Euler Equations
Authors: Mackenzie J , Süli E
Published: November 2023

One of the major challenges today in the field of computational fluid dynamics is the efficient numerical solution of partial differential equations for complex multi-dimensional flows. The main aim of recent intensive research in this area is the construction of reliable and robust algorithms which can deliver solutions with guaranteed error control.
Development of an Implicit Finite Volume Scheme for the Computation of Unsteady Flow Fields on Unstructured Moving Grids
Authors: Meister A
Published: November 2023

An implicit finite volume approximation of the Navier-Stokes equations governing compressible, viscous flow in the presence of moving boundaries will be described. The method is incorporated in the DLR-r-Code, uses a box-type discretisation and works on general conforming triangulations. The discretisation of the convective fluxes is accomplished by means of an approximate Riemann solver used with linear ENO recovery while the diffusive fluxes are discretised in a central manner. The AUSMDV scheme developed by Liou and Wada [5] is chosen as the Riemann solver in an implicit formulation in the presence of moving grids for the first time.
Solving a Hyperbolic Two-phase Flow Model with Flow-dependent Slip Relation
Authors: Romate J E , Meiring W J
Published: November 2023

The difficulty of developing robust solvers for two-phase flow models lies partly in the fact that the mathematical models for such flows are highly phenomenological in nature. These models usually have only a small range of applicability, and are also subject to change as insight changes in the course of investigations. Furthermore, they tend to be complex, making theoretical investigations difficult. In this paper we want to consider numerical methods for solving one class of twophase models. These models describe the gas/liquid flow in a long tube where the flow behaviour perpendicular to the tube axis is averaged, so that the model is essentially one-dimensional, in the direction of the axis. The model consists of equations for the conservation of mass for each of the phases and the conservation of momentum of the mixture. In addition, an equation is supplied which relates the velocities of the two phases at any point, the slip relation. The averaging of the flow perpendicular to the axis shows up in the slip relation, which therefore may have a different shape for each of the flow regimes of interest.
A Little Bit of Chaos
Authors: Bills Chris , Bills Liz
Published: November 2023

You may have seen pictures something like this before. They are often called ‘fractals’ or ‘chaos theory’ pictures. Figure 1 shows two Julia sets and Fig. 2 is the Mandelbrot set. Both are named after mathematicians who were among the first to work on them. Gaston Julia was born in 1893 and died in 1978. He did his first work on the sets now known as Julia sets in 1916 when he was recovering in hospital. He had been injured as a result of the First World War. The Mandelbrot set is named after Benoit Mandelbrot who is still working as a mathematician today. It was first produced in 1979, so compared with most of the mathematics you learn about in school it is a very recent discovery. These sets have been studied by mathematicians interested in Chaos because they are very complex images resulting from very simple calculations. Another chapter in this book, ‘Discrete Mathematics and its Application to Ecology’, introduces you to another aspect of Chaos. In this chapter we intend to show you the basic ideas behind Julia sets and the Mandelbrot set. To do that we will have to start with some things which seem to have nothing to do with these pictures.
How can organizations prevent illness deception among employees?
Authors: Baron Charles , Poole Jon
Published: November 2023

There is increasing evidence to show that in certain circumstances employees will deceive their employers about their health so as to avoid work or for financial gain by way of sick pay, early pensions, injury awards or litigation. In the process, doctors may also be deceived and inadvertently collude with the patient. Examples are provided of policies and procedures which should help to prevent or reduce the likelihood of illness deception by employees.
Misrepresentation of pain and facial expressi
Authors: Craig Kenneth D , Hill Marilyn
Published: November 2023

A realistic human intuitive expectation that others will endeavour to optimize available opportunities usually leads to careful monitoring of their credibility. Consistent with this general social propensity, clinicians, and others are prepared to question the veracity of patient representations of being in pain. A high incidence of personal experience with pain and opportunities to observe others in pain appears to lead to good training in the role of being in pain when people are motivated to dissimulate pain. Personal, social, and economic pressures can also lead people to suppress evidence of pain, often leading to failure to secure needed medical care. Patients voluntarily faking or suppressing pain displays are generally quite successful in misleading observers.
An introduction to stroke
Authors: Markus Hugh S
Published: November 2023

The genetics of stroke is still in its infancy. However a considerable amount is known about the epidemiology of stroke and the role of conventional risk factors. A knowledge of this area is essential in planning genetic studies, particularly when the study of gene–environment interactions are planned. A brief review of this area follows.
Polygenic ischaemic stroke including new genetic and statistical approaches
Authors: Hassan Ahamad , Markus Hugh S
Published: November 2023

Although the monogenic disorders are an important recognized cause of stroke, they comprise less than 1 per cent of all cases. In the vast majority of individuals, stroke is sporadic.
The socio-economic burden of influenza: costs of illness and ‘willingness to pay’ in a publicly funded health care system
Authors: Mangtani Punam
Published: November 2023

Epidemic or seasonal influenza poses a serious health risk to those persons who are elderly and frail. Effective vaccines exist which provide important reductions in morbidity (Govaert et al. 1994) as well as hospitalizations and mortality (Mangtani et al. 2004). In the UK, vaccination against influenza is recommended to all persons with certain underlying diseases, such as lung and heart disease. In 2000, the policy for influenza vaccination was changed to include all persons over the age of 65. A study to determine the socio-economic burden of influenza was carried out at that time. This was part of an economic and epidemiologic evaluation of influenza and pneumococcal vaccination in adults.
Disentangling value: assessing the benefits of containing antimicrobial resistance
Authors: Coast Joanna
Published: November 2023

Resistance to antimicrobials is increasing rapidly, undermining the ability to treat many infectious diseases successfully (Cox et al. 1995; Davey et al. 1996). Concern about resistance has led to the evaluation of interventions designed to tackle the problem, but conceptual difficulties associated with valuing benefits have received little attention. A ‘standard evaluation’, in which an epidemiological assessment of the likely impact on health of avoiding the development or transmission of resistance is followed by asking individuals to value these different health impacts, may considerably undervalue the full benefits associated with its control as it concentrates only upon use value. For most commodities, use value predominates given that value in consumption is the main benefit. For preventing the emergence or transmission of antimicrobial resistance, use value and externality value (health benefits conferred on others) cannot be disentangled and, together, will be equivalent to the value of the health gained as a result of the policy. In practice, this is difficult to assess because of the problem of measuring the differential impact on health of resistant organisms compared with susceptible organisms. Option value is a potentially important source of benefit as individuals may attach value to the existence of antimicrobial treatments in addition to the expected value in consumption, because it provides the option to consume the commodity in the future. Estimating option value may be difficult because of the potential interaction between time preference and option value. The importance of these different sources of value is largely unknown, and this chapter discusses the conceptual problems in identifying and measuring these aspects of value, considering the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Global governance of international public health: the role of international regulatory cooperation
Authors: Kumaranayake Lilani
Published: November 2023

Public health has emerged as a critical issue globally. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency virus (AIDS) pandemic is devastating many countries, reducing life expectancy and rolling back decades of economic progress (UNAIDS 2004). Other infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria are growing as global public health threats (World Health Organization 2004). The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic demonstrated the extent of global interconnectedness and the need for rapid responses. New public health regimes, such as the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFATM), are leveraging and distributing large flows of funding (Brugha et al. 2004). Global civil society, including international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), play a significant role in delivering public health services and advocacy, raising issues related to accountability and transparency (Kumaranayake and Lake 2002; Spar and Dail 2002; Spiro 2002; Wapner 2002). The severity and extent of the disease burden have resulted in greater scrutiny of national and international governance of public health as well as increasing involvement of international law (Fidler 2002). A key focus has been on the Trade Related-aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement that has been very controversial with respect to its application to pharmaceuticals (Reichman 2000; Dreyfuss 2001; Correa 2002; Sykes 2002; thorn 2002).
Natura facit saltum: the roots of quantum physics
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

Discrete features in the description of some natural phenomena date back to Greek atomists’ speculations on the existence of smallest parts of matter. The concept of continuity first entered science about a century later, with Aristotle’s definition: ‘Things are said to be continuous whenever there is one and the same limit of both wherein they overlap and which they possess in common.’ As examples of things continuous he mentioned lines, surfaces, solids, motions, time, and place. The most significant use tow hich he put his principle of continuity was in the area of biology, however.
Student days
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

The preceding two chapters were meant to be a sketch of the status of physics at about the time Bohr began his university studies. To set the stage for his activities from then on, we must consider in addition how teaching of and research in physics had developed in Denmark up to the beginning of the twentieth century. An appreciation of those local conditions, to be given in this section, is quite important not just in regard to Bohr’s student days but, even more so, in order to understand how very much Bohr changed the state of affairs within the decade following the completion of his university studies.
Bohr, father of the atom
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

One of the sessions at the spring 1963 meeting of the American Physical Society was devoted to memories of Niels Bohr. Jens Rud Nielsen, a long time friend, spoke of his early recollections. ‘When I think of Bohr as he appeared nearly fifty years ago, the speed with which he moved comes to mind. He would come into the yard, pushing his bicycle, faster than anybody else. He was an incessant worker and seemed always to be in a hurry. Serenity and pipe smoking came much later.’
‘It was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair’
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

Mathematics plays a many-splendored role in physics, from the coding of experimental results in terms of numbers to the formulation of physical laws in terms of equations. We do not know why the language of mathematics has been so effective in formulating those laws in their most succinct form. Nor can we foretell whether this will forever continue to be true. ‘The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of mathematics for the formulation of the laws of physics is a wonderful gift which we neither understand nor deserve. We should be grateful for it and hope that it will remain valid in future research.’
‘A modern Viking who comes on a great errand’
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

Having traced the growth of Niels Bohr’s physics up to 1925, roughly the midpoint of his life, I write next of the growths of his family, of his stature in the international world of science, and of his institute up to that time.I have already mentioned the arrival of the Bohr’s first son, Christian, in 1916. Five more sons followed, Hans Henrik (born in 1918), Erik (1920), Aage Niels (1922), Ernest David (1924, named after both Rutherford and Niels’ maternal grandfather), and Harald (1928).
‘Then the whole picture changes completely’: the discovery of quantum mechanics
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

The thirteenth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, published in 1926, contains three supplementary volumes ‘covering recent years’. These include an entry ‘Atom’ written by Bohr, dealing largely with the theory of the periodic system, actually a rather primitive version that did not yet include spin. Bohr also mentioned briefly a new theory dating from July 1925, Heisenberg’s quantum mechanics, ‘which constitutes a bold departure from the classical way of describing natural phenomena ⃛It has in particular allowed the Balmer formula to be derived.’ In his contribution Bohr continued to treat atoms with more than one electron in terms of the old quantum theory, however, since ‘the methods of quantum mechanics have not yet been applied to [this] problem’. Another entry, by Charles Barkla, also refers to quantum mechanics: ‘A new theory ⃛ has been formulated by Heisenberg which, whether fruitful or not, promises to put quantum mechanics in much more logical form. Its physical significance, however, is not apparent.’
How Bohr orchestrated experimental progress in the 1930s, in physics and in biology
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

The events described in the previous two chapters, progress in theoretical nuclear physics (Chapter 15), and the advent of new particles (Chapter 16), do not by any means exhaust the advances at the frontiers of physics during the 1930s. There were also important developments in experimental physics techniques which gave new impetus not only to physics but also to biology. The present chapter deals with the resulting achievements in Copenha gen in both these areas.
Killing in Scotland
Authors: Lovegrove Roger
Published: November 2023

In considering the extent of Man’s deliberate attempts to eliminate many species of our wildlife, no chapter of that story is more firmly etched in the national consciousness than the appalling destruction that was carried out in Scotland across relatively recent generations. The killing of some of the larger predators had been going on since the seventeenth century, but the wholesale persecution of a wider range of birds and mammals started no further back than 200 years or so, some 300 years after serious campaigns in England and Wales. Because the slaughter in Scotland occurred on such a scale, took place in the more recent past, and resulted in the loss of some species, it is relevant to examine it first, before considering the much longer history of organized killing in England and Wales.
The Return of the Natives
Authors: Lovegrove Roger
Published: November 2023

It is a sad indictment of the past abuse of wildlife in Britain, that one of the priorities for wildlife conservation in the twenty-first century has to be the recovery of species that were deliberately eliminated in previous centuries. One or two such species, for example Sea Eagle and Goshawk, were completely exterminated while a much longer list of others—Wild Cat, Polecat, Hen Harrier, Red Kite et al.—were eliminated from most of the country and driven to remote corners where they hovered on the very edge of extinction. The Red Kite is perhaps the extreme example because the population at its lowest was reduced to no more than a dozen or so individual birds.
Vermin control and wildlife management: where next?
Authors: Lovegrove Roger
Published: November 2023

There was never an issue about controlling undesired wildlife in the era of the Tudors, Stuarts, and Hanoverians; vermin was what vermin was, and should be killed by whatever means were most effective. There was no question of right or wrong, even when rays of enlightenment started to lance the traditional views as the years passed. Moreover there was little thought that individual species— Hedgehog, Otter, Chough, or Kite—might actually disappear, despite the fact that some of the formerly widespread mammals, such as Pine Marten, were already rare in lowland parts of southern Britain. Several bird species certainly disappeared, but these were mainly wetland ones, lost due to the drainage of fens, open waters, and marshes. The only ones to disappear through direct persecution were the largest birds of prey—Osprey, Sea Eagle, and Golden Eagle— and some had probably already gone from wide areas of England and Wales well before the Tudors came to power. So, however energetic the varied levels of persecution in this era, it was prosecuted untrammelled by concerns for morals, public attitudes, legal constraint, or thoughts of extinction.
Prenatal testing: preconception to 9 weeks
Authors: Crespigny Lachlan De , Chervenak Frank
Published: November 2023

Prenatal tests are usually offered after 9 weeks. Before this, it is too early to test for abnormalities. Ultrasound scans are not usually done in the first 2 months of pregnancy, except for complications, such as bleeding or pain. An early scan can very accurately determine the age of your pregnancy—this can be important when planning prenatal tests. Think about prenatal testing You and your partner may wish to explore your feelings about it before you become pregnant, rather than to discover you have major differences afterwards.
Introduction
Authors: Tong Howell
Published: November 2023

In our endeavours to understand the changing world around us, observations of one kind or another are frequently made sequentially over time. The record of sunspots is a classic example, which may be traced as far back as 28 BC (see e.g: Needham 1959, p. 435). Let us tentatively call such records time series. Possibly the most important objective in our study of a time series is to help to uncover the dynamical law governing its generation. Obviously, a complete uncovering of the law demands a complete understanding of the underlying physics, chemistry, biology, etc. When the underlying theory is nonexistent or far from being complete, and we are presented with not much more than the data themselves, we may adopt the following paradigm.
An introduction to dynamical systems
Authors: Tong Howell
Published: November 2023

As soon as we leave the relatively straightforward world of linearity, we are faced with an infinitude of possible choices of the generic models. Nature is full of surprises and awareness of its infinite variety is an accumulative learning process, which is itself non-linear. It seems therefore that there will always be the necessity of different approaches to non-linear time series model building. One of the basic objectives of this volume is the quest for a deeper understanding of cyclical phenomena which manifest themselves in the form of cyclical time series. Historically, the development of time series analysis is, in many ways, related to this quest. We need only mention Schuster’s periodogram (1898, 1906), Yule’s autoregressive models (1927), and the modern industry of spectral analysis (see e.g. Childers 1978 and Priestley 1981). In particular, it is interesting to recall that the papers by Schuster (1906) and Yule (1927) were devoted to the analysis of the cyclical sunspot numbers.
Upper bounds
Authors: Barbour A D , Holst Lars , Janson Svante
Published: November 2023

It has already been shown in (1.1.23) in the Introduction how to use the Stein–Chen method for sums of independent random variables. In Section 2.3, the upper bounds so far derived are applied to dissociated indicator random variables. Dissociation is a rather natural generalization of independence to arrays rather than sequences, introduced by McGinley and Sibson (1975), which has widespread practical application. The structure is well suited for analysis using the local approach, enabling more or less convenient upper bounds to be easily derived. More detailed analysis, for independent and dissociated random variables, is also feasible: further results are presented in Chapter 9.
Random permutations
Authors: Barbour A D , Holst Lars , Janson Svante
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we investigate some quantities based on random permutations (σ1, σ2, ... , σn) drawn from the uniform distribution over all permutations of 1, 2, ... , n. As a simple typical example of the type of random variable we study, consider the number of fixed points W in a random permutation.
Appendix. Asymptotic theory
Authors: Longford Nicholas T
Published: November 2023

We have derived the standard errors for the estimated parameters in a random coefficient model from the inverse of the information matrix. This approach is justified in a variety of methods by reference to results from asymptotic theory.
Graphical Modelling
Authors: Edwards D
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to provide a non-technical overview of graphical modelling. Independence graphs with both lines (undirected edges) and arrows (directed edges) are described, together with associated models in duding both discrete and continuous variables. Some discussion of causal inference is also given. Graphical modelling is a variant of statistical modelling that uses graphs to display models. From a historical perspective, the origins of the approach lie partly in path analysis, as introduced by Wright (1921), and partly in statistical physics, in work of Gibbs (1902). In contrast to most other types of statistical graphics, the graphs do not display data, but rather an interpretation of the data, in the form of a model. For example, Fig. 7.1 shows a model with three variables, longevity (length of life), sex and occupation. Edges connect sex and longevity, and sex and occupation, but not occupation and longevity.
Introduction and background
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

This monograph is about the ecology and population dynamics of a group of cattle and goat herders in the northern Kalahari Desert of the Ngami land District of Botswana (see Fig. 1.1). Although the Herero arrived in this region less than a century ago as destitute refugees, these staunchly traditional Bantu speakers have established themselves as a prominent and prosperous tribe in a pocket of the Kalahari previously occupied almost exclusively by !Kung-speaking foragers. Their rise to economic prominence in Botswana has been accompanied by dramatic decreases in mortality and increases in fertility, and a resurgence of tribal ethnicity.
Mortality after early childhood
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

This chapter is a description of mortality rates after childhood among the Herero. The system of year names described in Chapter 1 and our informants’ knowledge of family history allowed us to ascertain years of birth and death of many parents, grandparents, and siblings of people whom we interviewed. Using new methods for computing life tables from incomplete lifetimes, we are able to describe adult mortality with a precision that is not ordinarily attainable in anthropological demography. We will give life tables separately for males and females for the years before 1966, which we will call the early period, and for 1966 through 1986, the recent period.
Measures of fertility, past and present
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

Anthropologists and biologists have traditionally been interested in the fertility of populations because the rate of reproduction is one of the two variables that determines how fast they grow, and this in turn reflects success at competition in their environment. The goal of finding a relationship between subsistence regime and the fertility and mortality of groups has been at the core of much population research in anthropology. Interactions among subsistence system, mortality, and fertility may determine the evolutionary trajectories of groups. During our early history as hunter-gatherers, populations grew slowly, with rates of fertility only marginally offsetting mortality. When humans began adopting agriculture, population growth apparently increased. Disagreement over whether the population expansion was caused by increased fertility or decreased mortality associated with food production and the concomitant sedentary life-style is the subject of a lively debate (Cohen 1989). Because it is believed that we lived in small bands through much of our history, studies of small populations have been particularly relevant to understanding this issue.
Causes of the fertility transition
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

Demographers have been aware of substantial fertility variation in African census and survey data for several decades. Coale (1968) observed a ‘high fertility ridge’ and a low fertility region in population data from the 1950s and early 1960s.
Some Studies of Social Causes of and Cultural Response to Disease
Authors: Lewis G
Published: November 2023

The premiss of this book is an obvious truth—that disease depends on both biological and social facts. It may be obvious but it can be extremely hard to unravel the exact connections. The term ‘disease’ covers a multitude of conditions. Malaria, multiple sclerosis, hernia, and heart failure have little in common except that they are all examples of what doctors may be expected to deal with as medical matters. Ideas about illness are diverse and there are many kinds of disease.
The anxious patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Fear is an emotion understood by most people. When we are fearful we usually have a good idea of what is making us feel scared. We have some understanding of the physical symptoms and can also understand our behaviour. Anxiety, which may produce an almost identical physiological and behavioural reaction, is often not understood. An individual may either not be able to identify a ‘threat’, or they may realize that their reaction to a perceived threat is irrational or exaggerated. To fill this gap in understanding, individuals may make sense of what is happening by concluding that they have a serious physical illness or that they are on the verge of losing control and are about to become seriously mentally ill.
The problem drinker
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Approximately 90% of the population drink alcohol regularly. Between 1950 and 1970, sales of alcohol doubled and the price of alcoholic drinks in real terms has been falling. It has been estimated that alcohol is responsible for 28 000 deaths in England and Wales each year, and one-third of motorists killed on the road are above the legal alcohol Emit.
The forgetful and confused patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

The major mental illnesses of the elderly are dementia, delirium and depression. Although it is important to distinguish between these three disorders, there is often an overlap which may muddy the diagnostic waters. Approximately 5% of the population over 65 has dementia. Key epidemiological facts are shown in Table 5.1 (overleaf).