bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Iran and Iran–Contra
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter tells the story of individuals within the US governing establishment who supplied Iran with weapons and diverted the profits to finance the Contras in Nicaragua, an activity that the US Congress had specifically outlawed. It recognizes the Iran–Contra scandal as the latest example of a long-running, disastrous strain in US foreign policy. The chapter explains that Washington’s opportunistic relationship with Iran stretches back to 1953, when the CIA played a part in terminating Iranian democracy with what it regarded as its wayward tendencies. It emphasizes how Iran, together with Israel, at first comprised a building block of US power in the volatile Middle East. Things came unstuck with the fall of the shah and the seizure of the Tehran US embassy staff as hostages by Islamic militants.
Existential Issues, 1990–7
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter reviews how the CIA continued to operate throughout the 1990s and supply assessments based on hard-won information that policymakers in Washington were at liberty to heed. It mentions the CIA’s ability to monitor Saddam Hussein’s armed forces, although the agency had no means of penetrating the political establishment in Baghdad. It also details how the CIA warned President George H. W. Bush about the possibility of Iraqi aggression toward Kuwait. The chapter reviews the role of the CIA in the Balkan crisis. It outlines the campaigns, led by Senator Daniel Moynihan, to abolish the CIA and advance the principle of transparency. It assesses attempts to remove the glass ceiling and achieve a more representative workforce, and shows how a return of public confidence allowed the CIA to survive the end of the Cold War.
Battling al-Qaeda with Assassination and Torture
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter details how the CIA resorted to torture and assassination in a routine manner during the administration of President George W. Bush. It recounts how the 9/11 attacks brought the CIA to the forefront of the campaign to deal with a far-flung panoply of terrorism. It also talks about Operation Greystone, which the Bush administration had launched after 9/11 and which was intended to down bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders. It mentions how President Bush authorized the CIA to achieve and exploit the isolation of captured al-Qaeda suspects in black sites or secret interrogation camps. The chapter points out how the issue of torture became a domestic political issue.
Back to Work
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses Thomas P. Bossert, who was the guest for a virtual seminar organized via Zoom by the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C. Bossert had been President Donald Trump’s original selection as homeland security adviser. It points out how Bossert conveyed his concern about the state of American preparedness and called the nation’s network of nineteen spy agencies a “screwed-up system”. The chapter highlights the need for the CIA of a change in regime and return to political stability, and discusses the contributions of President Biden to that end. It looks at an intelligence report released in March 2021 which confirmed that Russia tried to discredit Joe Biden and his son Hunter in the course of the 2020 campaign and spread false rumors about the election being stolen through ballot rigging.
‘The Great Surrender Made’
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the role played by Anglicans in shaping the culture of Remembrance in Great Britain, the Dominions, and the United States in the formative years after the First World War. In doing so, it highlights the defining role of the King James Bible and the 1662 Book of Common Prayer in the idiom of Remembrance, questioning assumptions as to its innately ‘secular’ quality. It also illustrates Anglican influence on the work of the Imperial War Graves Commission and how this was accompanied by the phenomenon of post-war Anglican ‘pilgrimage’ to the battlefields of 1914 to 1918. Besides considering the significance of the practical demands and iconography of Remembrance and memorialization, it also examines the political overtones of Anglican-sponsored Remembrance, especially its quest for social harmony and its affirmation of loyalty to the Empire. The chapter explores the inter-war multiplication of regimental chapels in the cathedrals and major churches of England and Wales, their place in the vaunted regimental system of the British Army, and their potency as symbols of Anglican identification with the service and sacrifice of local communities. The chapter concludes with a consideration of how these tendencies persisted after 1945, especially with the creation of the Battle of Britain Memorial Chapel in Westminster Abbey and in the imperatives which drove the transformation of St Clement Danes in London into the Central Church of the Royal Air Force in the 1950s.
Afterword
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This Afterword offers some reflections on the legacy of the issues raised in this book, and especially their implications for the Church of England, the still-established mother Church of the Anglican Communion, as the twenty-first century unfolds. Against the background of the Church’s waning influence and membership, it considers the evolution of just war theory in Anglican circles since 1945 and the effects of political shifts among its clergy, the post-colonial dynamics of the Anglican Communion, and the civilianization of Church and society around the turn of the twenty-first century. After surveying responses in the Church of England to more recent conflicts, it concludes by reflecting on the future of Remembrance in the Church of England and the manner in which the Church’s role in past conflicts is widely perceived and understood.
The Woman President
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Too much attention is paid to the absence of women leaders around the world rather than their presence, leaving a gap in our understanding of the difference women leaders make on the lives of fellow women. With women leaders an under-studied group and with the law profoundly important in advancing women’s rights, The Woman President brings together these two domains to become the first-ever comparative study of women’s leadership and the law. It offers the legal and political science scholarship new ways for understanding the impact of female presidential leadership on women’s everyday lives by analysing the legal legacies of four women presidents: Corazon Aquino (1986–1992), Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010), Megawati Sukarnoputri (2001–2004) and Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga (1994–2005). The book relies on aninnovative methodology, which includes the use of new the Gender Legislative Index. The findings challenge and expand our understanding of what constitutes a woman’s issue, bringing within its analysis labour law reform, democracy, anti-corruption, poverty-alleviation and pro-peace interventions, alongside more oft-considered terrain such as gender-based violence, reproductive rights, gender equality quotas and women’s rights at work. This book also offers important insights into the institutional and social mechanisms that enable women leaders to lead for women, including women’s movements, women legislators, women bureaucrats and global networks of women presidents and prime ministers. The Woman President offers new tools and sharpens old ones to provide an essential comparative contribution to our knowledge about the dynamics and impact of female presidencies, drawing from the realities of the Asia region.
Analysing the Legal Legacies of Women Leaders
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2 lays out the key elements of the framework that underpins this study of women leaders and the law. First, the law and legal systems are presented as one of the major levers in the advancement of women’s rights. A three-pronged definition of what constitutes a ‘legal legacy’ is offered. Second, the chapter identifies the considerations behind the selection of three South and Southeast Asian countries for this comparative study. The geographic patterns in women executive’s participation, shared histories of colonial rule and their gendered impact, and a dynamic of highly influential religious actors, help explain the choice of Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka as three nations on which to base The Woman President’s assessment of the footprint of female presidents on the law. This framework is completed with the complex task of defining ‘women’s interests’ or ‘women’s issues’ in a way that seeks to challenge the monolithic notion of ‘women’ and bring within this book a diversity of women’s movements and activists, from conservative to radical.
How Presidents Shape the Law
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Key distinctions exist between presidential, semi-presidential and parliamentary systems. Despite these, and the additional differences in how each of these political systems operate in practice at the national level, there have been a breadth of scholarly efforts to quantify executive power, particularly within presidential systems. Chapter 3 explores the sharp criticisms directed to some of these dominant methodologies and why challenges emerge when we attempt to quantify and aggregate what are, in practice, distinct uses of executive power. In exchange, this chapter offers a taxonomy for understanding how president’s influence legislative outcomes. Applying this taxonomy, the chapter elaborates on the concrete powers that the four presidents exercised over the law in Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka as well as at different moments in history. In order to do this, the analysis brings to the discussion such issues as electoral promises, the importance of the State of the Nation Address (SONA) and how other formal political institutions were engaged, such as women’s machinery. Brief notes are made regarding presidents and their cabinet appointments, applying a particular gender lens.
The Instrumentalization of Gender By, For and Against the Woman President
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

The sex and gender of The Woman President is a constant subject of political debate. Presidents Aquino, Kumaratunga, Macapagal Arroyo and Megawati were not immune to the gendered crossfire that conditioned the contexts in which all four women led. Yet gender cannot only be understood in negative terms: women leaders enjoy distinct and unique opportunities to positively avail themselves of gendered norms to advance their rise and leadership when compared to their male counterparts. Chapter 5 revisits the gender of female presidents, presented here as a double-edged sword. While the four women made distinct ‘use’ of male associations for political gain, they too had extensive connections with fellow women that, to a degree, paralleled the networks and connections of male politicians. Status as elite women is a common mark of female executive power, but these marks of privilege, at times, undermined their leaderships’ legitimacy. While women have historically risen on an image of piety and incorruptibility, the framing of political agendas around socially beneficially outcomes created heightened expectations of a scrupulous leadership which proved difficult to meet. The tail-end of the chapter considers the gendered expectations on the shoulders of women leaders to leader for women. We are left with a sense that the international women’s rights standards used to assess the footprint of the four women leaders are neither too onerous nor too radical when we consider the woman leader’s gender as both an obstacle and an asset.
Leading for Women
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

History apportions little credit to Presidents Aquino, Kumaratunga, Macapagal Arroyo and Megawati for the advancement of fellow women. In contrast, Chapter 6 focuses on the positive legislative footprint of the four women leaders on women’s lives. A study of what is sometimes referred to as ‘women-friendly’ policies and legislation or ‘women’s issues and interests’ requires an acknowledgement that women are not a monolithic category. Hence the first part of this chapter identifies what constitutes ‘women’s interests’. It does so by situating the four leaders in the broader landscape of global and national women’s rights advocacy. Subsequently, each leader is studied in turn, starting with their inherited ‘gender machinery’ before exploring how the woman president brought legislative change in favour of women. The chapter navigates across a range of women’s issues often considered core to women’s rights: gender-based violence, women’s reproductive rights and women’s rights at work, including non-discrimination and maternity leave. The chapter demonstrates the notable degree to which the four women presidents played a role in the enactment of legislation that filled a significant gap in the domestic legal landscape.
Roadblocks for Women
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

An evaluation of a leader’s legacy naturally results in both ticks and crosses. Chapter 7 focuses on the negative legislative footprint. It begins by considering the socio-cultural parameters that, to varying degrees, shaped the decision-making of Presidents Aquino, Kumaratunga, Macapagal Arroyo and Megawati and the environments in which they led. With this context in mind, key issues are studied to act as a litmus test about the gendered expectations and impact of women leaders. Specifically, the chapter explores calls for law reform to advance women’s reproductive health and women’s representation in politics, revealing the extent to which women’s sexual and reproductive health rights were a political bargaining chip across the three countries. What emerges is a sense that leaders often blocked or hindered reform and much desired changes for women were not delivered. Simultaenously, this chapter considers what are often ‘undue’ expectations that are shouldered by women leaders. We see a tendency post-tenure to give limited credit to women executives for the passage of the gender-responsive laws, on the one hand, but to show little hesitation to lay blame, almost entirely, on the Woman President for failed attempts at law reform.
Relativity Principles and Theories from Galileo to Einstein
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

Motion is always relative to something. Is this thing a concrete body like the earth, is it an abstract space, or is it an imagined frame? Do the laws of physics depend on the choice of reference? Is there a choice for which the laws are simplest? Is this choice unique? Is there a physical cause for the choice made? These questions traverse the history of modern physics from Galileo to Einstein. The answers involved Galilean relativity, Newton’s absolute space, the purely relational concepts of Descartes, Leibniz, and Mach, and many forgotten uses of relativity principles in mechanics, optics, and electrodynamics―until the relativity theories of Poincaré, Einstein, Minkowski, and Laue radically redefined space and time to satisfy universal kinds of relativity. Accordingly, this book retraces the emergence of relativity principles in early modern mechanics, documents their constructive use in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century mechanics, optics, and electrodynamics, and gives a well-rooted account of the genesis of special and general relativity in the early twentieth century. As an exercise in long-term history, it demonstrates the connectivity of issues and approaches across several centuries, despite enormous changes in context and culture. As an account of the genesis of relativity theories, it brings unprecedented clarity and fullness by broadening the spectrum of resources on which the principal actors drew.
THE SPACE–TIME–INERTIA TANGLE
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

Newton introduced the absolute space and time for which his laws of motion are valid. At the same time, he derived relativity theorems that made it impossible to distinguish empirically between absolute space and a space in uniform translation. Huygens privately rejected Newton’s absolute space and replaced it with a class of operationally defined inertial frames. Leibniz departed even further from Newton by making space a purely relative concept, concerning the order of coexistence of things. Most later authors endorsed Newton’s concept or applied it uncritically. A first exception is Kant, who replaced Newton’s absolute space with a class of a priori equivalent spaces, all belonging to the same “external intuition.” In the nineteenth century, a few critics of the foundations of mechanics reinvented Huygens’s concept and one of them, Streintz, came close to the modern idea of a Galilean space–time. In contrast, Mach rejected the inertial frames and traced mechanical inertia to an effect of remote masses.
THE ELECTRODYNAMICS OF MOVING BODIES
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

Electrodynamics early implied the relative motion of bodies through Faraday’s induction phenomenon. Faraday’s rules and the German theories of electrodynamics all assumed the full relativity of electrodynamic phenomena in their very foundation. In contrast, the Maxwellian field theories implied effects of the motion of bodies with respect to the ether. Maxwell, Hertz, and Heaviside retrieved the relativity of induction by assuming the complete drag of ether by matter, against Fresnel. They still imagined effects of motion through the ether, for instance, a diminished repulsion for charges traveling together through the ether. Toward the end of the century, Lorentz reconciled the electromagnetic field theory with optical relativity by having atoms, ions, and electrons freely move through a stationary ether. He relied on transformations that formally related the states of an electrodynamic system carried by the earth through the ether to the state of the same system at rest in the ether.
POINCARÉ’S RELATIVITY THEORY
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

While lecturing at the Sorbonne, Poincaré compared the competing ether theories and gauged them according to their compatibility with the principle of relativity and the principle of reaction. He decided that the ether, having been the object of so many conflicting theories, was not as substantial as ordinary matter and therefore could not be detected through ether-drift experiments. He thus was the first author to assert the strict validity of the relativity principle in optics and electrodynamics. Toward the end of the century, he deplored that Lorentz’s theory violated the principle of reaction and satisfied the relativity principle only in an artificial and partial manner. In 1900, he interpreted Lorentz’s transformed states, including the local time, as the states measured by moving observers. In 1905, he gave the exact Lorentz transformations as the formal expression of the relativity postulate. He constructed the electron and the gravitational force so as to respect this symmetry.
THE RELATIVITY THEORY OF EINSTEIN, MINKOWSKI, AND LAUE
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

Young Einstein developed an electrodynamics of moving bodies similar to Lorentz’s, including ideas for testing the effects of the ether wind. He eventually gave up and assumed the exact validity of the relativity principle: he required the expression of physical laws to be the same in every inertial frame. He first tried and failed to achieve this by making the velocity of light depend on the velocity of the source. In 1905, he reconciled the relativity principle with the constancy of the velocity of light by redefining time through optical synchronization. From these premises he derived now familiar results of special relativity, including the equivalence between mass and energy. In 1907, Minkowski reinterpreted Einstein’s theory in a new four-space of events equipped with a powerful tensor algebra. His work seduced the electron theorists, who had been supporting Abraham’s purely electromagnetic electron. Max Laue used it to construct a relativistic continuum dynamics.
FROM RIEMANN TO RICCI
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

In the 1820s Gauss characterized the intrinsic geometry of a surface through a metric formula and the associated curvature. Riemann later generalized these notions to a manifold of arbitrary dimensions and gave the general expression of the intrinsic curvature, without proof. Dedekind, Christoffel, and Lipschitz struggled to reconstruct the missing calculations, mostly in the algebraic context of the equivalence of two (quadratic) differential forms. The end result was Ricci-Curbastro’s “absolute differential calculus,” which contained the basic apparatus of modern differential calculus on a manifold. The geometric interpretation came after general relativity, when Levi-Civita explained Riemann’s curvature tensor through a new concept of parallel displacement. Riemann’s geometry went beyond the synthetic non-Euclidean geometries earlier proposed by Bolyai and Lobachevsky. There was frequent speculation, especially from astronomers, that the new geometries may apply to the physical world. Riemann and Clifford even conceived that space curvature might express the presence of matter.
Contextual Emergence in Condensed-Matter Physics
Authors: Bishop Robert C. , Silberstein Michael , Pexton Mark
Published: August 2022

In Chapter 5 it is argued that condensed-matter physics (CMP) offers demonstrably many-bodied and multiscale/intrascale examples of the contextual emergence pattern. Most notably, we have many-bodied systems with long-range entanglements operating under various multiscale constraints and stability conditions. This chapter is devoted to CMP because it offers a powerful and, in many ways, unique multiscale glimpse into the inherently relational nature of reality and the role of contexts as fundamental.
Contextual Emergence in Biology and Neuroscience
Authors: Bishop Robert C. , Silberstein Michael , Pexton Mark
Published: August 2022

The focus of this Chapter 6 is biology and neuroscience. We see that the same pattern of contextual emergence arises in these domains. The chapter begins by digging into systems biology (Section 6.2), and then turns to neuroscience and cognitive science (Section 6.3). In these areas, multiscale contexts and contextual emergence play key roles in all the phenomena. The chapter concludes with some briefer examples from biology and ecology that illustrate the broadness of the contextual emergence pattern.
What Happened to the Soviet University?
Authors: Chankseliani Maia
Published: August 2022

This monograph explores how one of the largest geopolitical changes of the twentieth century—the dissolution of the Soviet Union—triggered and inspired the reconfiguration of the Soviet university. The reader is invited to engage in a historical and sociological sensemaking of radical and incremental changes affecting 69 former Soviet universities since the early 1990s. The monograph departs from traditional deficit-oriented, internalist explanations of change and illustrates how global flows of ideas, people, and finances have impacted higher education transformations in this region. It also identifies areas of persistence. The processes of marketisation, internationalisation, and academic liberation are analysed to show that universities have maintained certain traditions while adopting and internalising new ways of fulfilling their education and research functions. Soviet universities have survived chaotic processes of post-Soviet transformations and have self-stabilised with time. Most of them remain flagship institutions with large numbers of students and relatively high research productivity. At the same time, the majority of these universities operate in a top-down, one-man management environment with limited institutional autonomy and academic freedom. As the homes of intellectuals, universities represent a duality of opportunity and threat. Universities can nurture collective possibilities, imagining and bringing about a different future. At the same time, or perhaps because of this, the probability is high that universities will continue to be perceived as threats to governments with authoritarian inclinations. One message to take away from this monograph is that the time is ripe for former Soviet universities to loosen their last remaining chains.
Seeing Things in Poetry
Authors: Whidden Seth
Published: August 2022

Considering the visual elements of prose poetry, both in some formal qualities and in how visual aspects are portrayed and perceived in the time and space of Baudelaire’s poetic prose, this chapter explores the longstanding and conflictual relationship between poetry and the visual: one of the key themes of Baudelaire’s poetic imaginary, one that defines both poetic form and the process for other writers of the period. The encounter between the poetic and the visual (as well as the limitations of the senses more generally) is played out in “Le Fou et la Vénus,” as well as in the broader context of Baudelaire’s writing on sculpture and visual arts. The senses’ relationship to art is problematized and brought to the fore in a discussion of the thematic of Time, and how our experience of poetry exists, for better or worse, within it, in the space between what can be seen and what can be expressed.
The Dialect of Modernity
Authors: Whidden Seth
Published: August 2022

With its analysis of licentious poetry, the figure of the prostitute, and the hypocrisy inherent to societal notions of gallantry which permeated literary language of the mid-nineteenth century, this chapter considers the extent to which modernity sought to shock and disrupt as a very condition of its being. Such aspects layers of the modern lexicon are key elements to the contradiction present in the very notion of the modern prose poem. By listening to elements that had heretofore remained inaudible and by situating visual cues within the broader context of the tension between sights and sounds, we gain access to additional layers and dimensions that contribute to the coexistence that is inherent to Baudelaire’s poetic prose.
Epilogue
Authors: Whidden Seth
Published: August 2022

This closing chapter looks at the prose poem in the nineteenth century, after Baudelaire, through a few brief textual analyses that shed light on the early years of Baudelaire’s enduring influence. It specifically considers the link between the posthumous publication of Baudelaire’s prose poems and Arthur Rimbaud’s poetic innovations, in which Rimbaud’s formal innovations push far beyond Baudelaire’s prose poetry. This Epilogue also poses a new question about the very role of poetry: as an essential manner of negotiating a modern world in a way which defies linearity, and any kind of clear delimitation between prose writing and poetry as distinct forms. The relationship between form and modernity is more intricately linked than before in Rimbaud’s poetry, and the poetic enterprise remains as essential as ever.
Legitimacy in Global Governance
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This opening chapter sets the stage for the book. It first elaborates the motivation of the study in terms of the need to understand levels, patterns, and sources of citizen and elite legitimacy beliefs toward global governance, including in particular possible gaps between public and elite opinion in this regard. Next, the chapter reviews the state of existing knowledge on the subject and thereby identifies the distinctive empirical, theoretical, and methodological contributions of the book. The chapter then sets out the study’s theoretical approach and research design, followed by a summary of main results and their implications for research and politics. The introductory chapter finishes with a plan for the rest of the book.
Explaining Legitimacy Beliefs in Global Governance
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents the book’s theory of elite and citizen legitimacy beliefs toward global governance, and the gap between the two. It elaborates the study’s individual-level theoretical approach, as well as the four explanations that focus respectively on socioeconomic status, political values, geographical identification, and domestic institutional trust. For each explanatory logic, the chapter spells out expectations about citizen and elite legitimacy beliefs, as well as the gap in elite–citizen legitimacy. The final section of the chapter operationalizes each of the four logics in terms of a pair of indicators.
Explaining Elite Legitimacy Beliefs
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines possible individual-level explanations of elite legitimacy beliefs, in terms of socioeconomic status, political values, geographical identification, and domestic institutional trust. It also investigates how elites’ professional characteristics (i.e., sector, issue focus, work orientation, and experience with international organizations) are related to confidence in international organizations. Regression analyses find that, overall, domestic institutional trust most consistently relates to elite legitimacy beliefs toward international organizations, followed by socioeconomic status, political values, and geographical identification. The applicability of these four explanations for elite opinion varies across international organizations and countries, which suggests that organizational and country contexts matter for the explanatory power of the individual-level logics. Professional characteristics are also found to shape elite legitimacy beliefs toward global governance to some degree.
Patterns of Legitimacy Crises in 32 International Organizations
Authors: Sommerer Thomas , Agné Hans , Zelli Fariborz , Bes Bart
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a large-N analysis of legitimacy crises in international organizations (IOs). It introduces a quantitative measure of legitimacy crisis based on media coverage of elite criticisms and mass protests in leading global newswires. This measure captures historical peaks in legitimacy challenges from different legitimacy audiences over time. The analysis of 32 global and regional IOs between 1985 and 2020 reveals that many, but not all, IOs in the underlying sample have undergone some form of legitimacy crisis. One third of the IOs in this sample have not experienced anything that comes close to a legitimacy crisis, and many others only face relatively weak or unique challenges. The descriptive analysis identifies a concentration of legitimacy crises between 1995 and 2005 while some IOs experienced the worst crisis after 2015, like the EU in the aftermath of the Brexit referendum, the G20 with clashes in Hamburg in 2017, and the World Health Organization during the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter also reveals a large variation in legitimacy crises at the level of their constitutive audiences, from state to nonstate actors, from geographical or organizational insiders to outsiders, from social elite members to protesters at street level.
The Legitimacy Crises of the WTO and the UNFCCC
Authors: Sommerer Thomas , Agné Hans , Zelli Fariborz , Bes Bart
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides an in-depth analysis to show how legitimacy crises unfold in two particular cases: the international trade regime, with the World Trade Organization (WTO) at its core, and the international climate regime, built upon the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The analysis confirms the crisis years identified in Chapter 3 for both international organizations (IOs). In addition, it identifies additional crises and establishes connections between some crisis years, grouping some of them together into longer crisis periods—for the WTO from 1998 to 1999 and between 2001 and 2005, for the UNFCCC from 2000 to 2001 and in 2009. The chapter finds that all four crises share various properties that were established in the conceptualization in Chapter 2: They are dominated by constituent audiences and a high degree of normative depth, and, with one exception, a high degree of social breadth, i.e., they are spanning various state and nonstate, elite, and mass audiences. These complementary findings confirm the methodological approach, i.e., that the intensity of legitimacy crises—and their potential to affect an IO’s capacity to rule—is best assessed by a combination of methods.
Conclusion
Authors: Sommerer Thomas , Agné Hans , Zelli Fariborz , Bes Bart
Published: August 2022

This chapter draws on both parts of the book to better understand the research problem identified at the outset: why is it that crises of legitimacy in multilateral governance, despite the benefits for any organization of having legitimacy, sometimes do not affect the targeted organizations or—contrary to received predictions—even strengthen their capacity to rule? It synthesizes the main contributions across chapters and highlights how they address existing gaps in research on legitimacy in global governance. The chapter revisits the theoretical contribution that helps to understand how crises affect the strength of multilateral institutions in both positive and negative ways. The chapter then moves on to broader implications of these results beyond the empirical confines of this study, pertaining to the problems in both politics and political science that the study was designed to address. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for existing literature, future research opportunities, and political debates on the liberal world order, human challenges in global politics, and the proper role of legitimacy, as analyzed in this research field, in political discourses and practice.
Michał Kalecki on International Equilibrium and Full Employment
Authors: Osiatyński Jerzy
Published: August 2022

This chapter reviews Kalecki’s ideas on the problem of equilibrium in the balance of payments while pursuing the policy of achieving and maintaining full employment. In 1943 the respective American and British plans to establish an International Stabilization Fund and an International Clearing Union known, after the names of their main authors, as the White and the Keynes plans respectively, were published. The essence of Kalecki’s extension of Keynes’s plan is examined here, as well as Kalecki’s practical experience, a few years later, in the context of his supervision of the United Nations reports on full employment policies pursued by individual UN member countries and on their balance of trade positions.
The Keynes Plan and the White Plan at Bretton Woods
Authors: Clarke Peter
Published: August 2022

The chapter explores the context in which a Keynes plan, and then a rival White plan had originated from 1941 onwards; and how to understand why Keynes contrived to agree on the proposals that became the agenda for Bretton Woods in 1944. For this represented a dilution, or even a betrayal, of the Keynes plan in the form in which it had originally been presented and discussed. In this context, it can be seen that much in the Keynes plan that had initially attracted Kalecki’s sympathetic attention in 1943 had meanwhile been subsumed or subverted within an agreed compromise that was closer to the American White plan. And the responsibility for this reorientation lay with Keynes himself, now acting not as an economist so much as an emissary of the increasingly beleaguered British Government, with its dependence on American support ever more evident.
Prebisch’s Critique of Bretton Woods Plans
Authors: Pérez Caldentey Esteban , Vernengo Matías
Published: August 2022

Having explained Prebisch’s proposal for a national autonomous monetary policy, and his dismissal from the Central Bank of Argentina just as the new international monetary plans were being developed, this chapter centres on Prebisch’s critique of Keynes’s and White’s international monetary plans. This critique touches on the question of monetary autonomy that Prebisch considered was necessary for developing countries to industrialise. Next, the chapter focuses on Prebisch’s preferred option, Williams’s ‘key currency proposal’, and highlights the existing similarities between Kalecki’s views on the international monetary plans and the changes needed to transform these into a workable alternative with those by Prebisch.
The Rise and Fall of the Bretton Woods Systems and the Re-Emergence of Private Debt in Developing Economies
Authors: Levy-Orlik Noemi
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that the Bretton Woods system was dysfunctional because it required private financial capital to be inactive and rested on one national currency, originating in the economy of the United States, needed to run external deficits to provide worldwide liquidity. Fixed exchange rates, although adjustable, failed to guarantee enough liquidity for international trade or financial stability. Long-term loans were insufficient to finance the economic growth and development of backward regions. Thus, the multilateral system failed, and beggar-thy-neighbour practices reappeared, along with an unregulated financial market (Eurodollar market), which planted the seeds that destabilized the international financial system at the beginning of the 1970s. This was the genesis of a new international financial order that internationalized and even globalized domestic economic structures, spreading financial and economic instability.
The Incomparable Monsignor
Authors: Heilbron J.L.
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses Monsignor Francesco Bianchini’s birth in Verona and his education in Bologna, Padua, and Rome. It mentions how Bianchini emerged well-trained in the Jesuit humanistic curriculum and Galilean science. He was a diplomat by nature and necessity and his ambitions were moderate, as were his means, namely his parents, Gaspare and Cornelia, that were Venetian subjects of the merchant class. The chapter describes the Bianchini family that lived at the Ponte delle Navi, a bridge over the Adige close to the church of San Fermo Maggiore. Bianchini’s nephew and first biographer, Alessandro Mazzoleni, mentioned singular piety as the first among his uncle’s character traits.
A Galilean Education
Authors: Heilbron J.L.
Published: August 2022

“A Galilean Education” centers on Bianchini’s training first at the Jesuit College in Bologna, then in the Galilean school of Geminiano Montanari in Padua, and finally in the eclectic metropolitan science practiced at Giovanni Giustino Ciampini’s Physico-Mathematical Academy in Rome. The chapter develops Bianchini’s character as a scholar, humanist, diplomat, and pious but not bigoted Catholic. As the eldest son of a family of modest means, he had to prepare early in life for an independent career. At first his ambitions centered on a post in the Vatican Library, but important patronage from the Ottoboni family, procured through an uncle, enabled him to do much better when Pietro Ottoboni became Pope Alexander VIII.
Jacobite Adventures
Authors: Heilbron J.L.
Published: August 2022

After spectacular defeat while attempting to take Britain by force in 1715, James III moved from France to Italy. With papal support, he established a court first at Urbino and then in Rome; Bianchini frequently attended him in both places. The pope, still Clement XI, urged James to marry and produce a second generation of claimants to the thrones of his ancestors. The search for an eligible bride willing to risk her chances with a king without a kingdom was long and difficult; finally, Charles Wogan, an Irish mixture of d’Artagnan and Cyrano de Bergerac, located a suitable princess in the form of Jan Sobieski’s granddaughter and Clement’s goddaughter, Maria Clementina Sobieski. Her rescue by Wogan from a castle in which she was imprisoned at the request of the new king of England, George I, who wanted to prevent the marriage, gained James a consort, Wogan the citizenship of Rome, and Bianchini a perfect model of Catholic feminine virtue. New medallions were embedded in the floor of Santa Maria degli Angeli in honor of the royal couple. The marriage was not a happy one. Bianchini took Clementina’s part and was cut off from the Jacobite court.
Digging into History
Authors: Heilbron J.L.
Published: August 2022

“Digging into History” describes Bianchini’s wide-ranging work in archaeology and early church history during the years between Clement XI’s death in 1721 and his own in 1729. His major achievements were an investigation of a newly exposed columbarium with niches containing urns filled with the ashes of the slaves and free servants of Livia, the wife of Emperor Augustus, and a fanciful reconstruction of the palace of Domitian inspired by finds on the Palatine hill. From inscriptions he took from the urns, Bianchini analyzed the house-hold duties of Livia’s servants and so threw light on the social life of the palace. From ruins excavated as he watched and principles of symmetry he ascribed to Vitruvius, Bianchini designed Domitian’s palace as if it were one for an emperor of his own time. While thus over-engaged, he found time to deposit his great learning about early church history in annotations to the collection of lives of the popes compiled in the 8th century by Anastasius Bibliothecarius.
From Mars to Venus
Authors: Heilbron J.L.
Published: August 2022

Bianchini the historian and archeologist was still Bianchini the astronomer. “From Mars to Venus” centers on his major projects of the 1720s: the trigonometric measurement of a meridian of longitude from Rome to Rimini and a study of the motion and surface of the planet Venus. The meridian anchored an accurate map of the papal states; the mapping of Venus secured nothing at all, since its surface is not visible to the naked eye. Such was Bianchini’s stature, however, that for a century and a half astronomers kept seeking the elusive markings he reported. The lavish volume describing his extensive inquiries about Venus was underwritten by a new royal patron, João V of Portugal. The chapter also describes Bianchini’s collaboration with the colorful Count Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli and the observatory of the institute the count established in Bologna, a byproduct of which was the commission by Pope Clement of the famous paintings of astronomical motifs by Donato Creti.
Expanding the Scope of Law and Literature - Unpacking Cultural-Legal Issues
Authors: Olson Greta
Published: August 2022

The Introduction presents an overview of the methodologies that belong to an expanded Law and Literature. The book argues for recasting Law and Literature as an analysis of the relationships between legality and affect. “Legality” encompasses all kinds of expressions of the legal, such as those in sound, images, sculpture, narrative, and metaphor, as well as actual legal texts and processes. “Affect” cues in the need to consider people’s subjective relationships to what they think of as law-full—what they experience through the reporting of isolated legal issues, exchanges on social media, and in relation to fictionalized representations of law. One result of Law and Literature’s having reached a level of maturation and proliferation is the need to articulate methods. These include a model of how subjective legal identities are created, a model for analyzing instances of popular legality, theories of law and affect, and cultural narratologies of law.
Law Has Gone Pop
Authors: Olson Greta
Published: August 2022

Chapter II plays on the title of Richard Sherwin’s influential book to argue against the idea that popular media distorts legal processes and to embrace the importance of popular legality in everyday understandings of law. The chapter proposes a tripartite model for performing media analysis. This model acknowledges the terms of production including the political and economic settings in which texts arise. It addresses formal elements such as sound and moving images, and examines conditions under which audiences interact with texts. This model of interpretation can also be applied to literary texts, meant in the traditional sense of plays, poems, and prose literary works. The case studies demonstrate that it is necessary to perform culturally specific and medially literate analyses. Comparative case studies of women judge shows and single-women lawyer dramedies exhibit the particularity of the U.S. American and German legal cultures to which they respond.
The Turn to Passion in Law and Literature
Authors: Olson Greta
Published: August 2022

Chapter III is speculative. It reflects on the turn to affect in critical legal studies as a larger paradigmatic move away from representationalism. It discusses genealogies of affect theory and points out how Law and Affect work strongly differs from discussions of law and emotion. The chapter deals with the difficult history of Rechtsgefühle (passionate feelings about law) in Germany, one interpretation of which was used to justify Nazi law, and other permutations of which have been used to argue that Nazi crimes can never cease to be punishable, or to critique legally supported geocapitalism. The chapter asks how jural persons might be treated, or “felt,” within a Law and Affect framework. The recent emphasis on affect presents a major challenge to the way practitioners have learnt to conduct Law and Literature work through narrative and linguistics-based analysis.
Law and Literature as Legal Pluralism
Authors: Olson Greta
Published: August 2022

Chapter IV argues that Law and Literature is not solely a U.S. invention, but that any number of pre-1970 Law and Literature(s) preceded it, even if they were not called Law and Literature. The chapter moves from the discussion of individual legal subjectivities in Chapter II to the analysis of how group legal identities are produced, using cultural narrative studies but expanding on this method with an attention to affect, metaphor and media. The chapter demonstrates the specificity of individual Law and Literature(s) and recognizes Law and Literature’s capacity to make legal interventions using aesthetic means. Sections on the German territories in the Vormärz period, on African American literature and the arts of Black Lives Matter, and on pro- and anti-refugee art forms in Germany highlight specific uses of the aesthetic to query and critique the law.
Crackling Noise
Authors: Zapperi Stefano
Published: August 2022

Crackling noise refers to an intermittent series of pulses of broadly distributed amplitude and duration that is observed in different contexts from the crumpling of a sheet of paper to the flow of fluids in porous media. Studying crackling noise is interesting because it reflects key microscopic processes inside the material, with each crackle in the noise corresponding to an internal avalanche event. A distinct statistical feature of crackling noise is the presence of power law distributed noise pulses and long-range correlations which are the hallmarks of critical phenomena. Hence, the physics of complex non-equilibrium disordered systems provides the natural theoretical framework to tackle crackling noise. The present book reviews the statistical properties of crackling noise, providing an introduction to the main theoretical concepts needed to interpret them. The book also contains a detailed discussion of several examples of crackling noise in materials, including fracture, plasticity, ferromagnetism, superconductivity, granular flow and fluid flow in porous media. A final chapter discusses the relevance of avalanche behavior for biological systems.
Scaling Features of Crackling Noise
Authors: Zapperi Stefano
Published: August 2022

In this chapter, we discuss the statistical properties of crackling noise using a simple sandpile model as an illustration. We recall some basic concepts related to the theory of phase transitions and critical phenomena and then show how they can be applied to the description of avalanche phenomena. In this context, we discuss critical exponents, scaling relations and universal scaling functions. We discuss the spectral properties of crackling noise and show how they can be related to the scaling of the avalanches. Finally, we discuss the effect of driving rate and background noise on the avalanche statistics.