bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Advancing Alpha: Measuring Reliability With Confidence
Authors: Iacobucci Dawn , Duhachek Adam
Published: January 2004

In this research, we present the inferential statistics for Cronbach's coefficient alpha. This index of reliability is extremely important in consumer research. The estimation of alpha and its confidence intervals are described and an analytical demonstration illustrates the effects on these statistics of their components, including the number of items, the item intercorrelations, and sample size. SAS and SPSS programs are offered for easy implementation. We conclude with a prescription that every time a researcher reports a coefficient alpha, the confidence interval for alpha should accompany the alpha estimate.
Social, Personality, Clinical, and Health Psychology Tributaries: The Merging of a Scholarly “River of Dreams”
Authors: Snyder C. R. , Tennen Howard , Affleck Glenn , Cheavens Jen
Published: January 2004

Results of a survey from the contents of six 1998 journals in social, clinical, personality, and health psychology allow one to conclude that interface research in these fields is grounded in theory, focuses more on understanding weaknesses than strengths, has personality variables playing major roles, and often involves correlation-based studies using related self-report variables. It is also suggested that promising future interface research would include the psychological predictors of medical outcomes, stress-related growth, enhancing psychotherapy outcomes, and the effects of social comparisons, as well as a methodological paradigm that involves the analyses of multilevel daily processes. The article closes with exhortations for enhancing the viability and potential impact of interface research.
Plan 9 From Cyberspace: The Implications of the Internet for Personality and Social Psychology
Authors: McKenna Katelyn Y. A. , Bargh John A.
Published: January 2004

Just as with most other communication breakthroughs before it, the initial media and popular reaction to the Internet has been largely negative, if not apocalyptic. For example, it has been described as “awash in pornography”, and more recently as making people “sad and lonely.” Yet, counter to the initial and widely publi cized claim that Internet use causes depression and social isolation, the body of ev idence (even in the initial study on which the claim was based) is mainly to the con trary. More than this, however, it is argued that like the telephone and television before it, the Internet by itself is not a main effect cause of anything, and that psy chology must move beyond this notion to an informed analysis of how social iden tity, social interaction, and relationship formation may be different on the Internet than in real life. Four major differences and their implications for self and identity, social interaction, and relationships are identified: one's greater anonymity, the greatly reduced importance of physical appearance and physical distance as “gating features” to relationship development, and one's greater control over the time and pace of interactions. Existing research is reviewed along these lines and some promising directions for future research are described.
Complementarity Theory: Why Human Social Capacities Evolved to Require Cultural Complements
Authors: Fiske Alan Page
Published: January 2004

This article introduces complementarity theory, which explains the psychology of cultural diversity as a product of evolved social proclivities that enable—and require—people to coordinate action in culture-specific ways. The theory presents evolutionary processes and psychological mechanisms that may account for the cultural variability of social coordination devices such as language, relational models, rituals, moral interpretations of misfortune, taboos, religion, marriage, and descent systems. Human fitness and well-being depend on social coordination characterized by complementarity among the participants' actions. This complementarity is based primarily on coordination devices derived from the conjunction of cultural paradigms and specific, highly structured, evolved proclivities. The proclivities have no adaptive value without the paradigms, and the paradigms have no meaning without the proclivities. They are coadapted to function together. Operating in conjunction with each other, proclivities and paradigms jointly define the generative structures for meaningful coordination of social interaction in each particular culture.
Effect of Private Self-Awareness on Negative Affect and Self-Referent Attribution: A Quantitative Review
Authors: Fejfar Michele C. , Hoyle Rick H.
Published: January 2004

A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the effect of private self-awareness on negative affect and attributions of responsibility to the self. Results of studies manipulating self-awareness using stimuli such as a mirror and studies employing the private subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) as a measure of self-consciousness were summarized and compared. A small effect size was found for the effect of private self-awareness for both negative affect and self-referent attribution; the effect was equivalent across mirror and self-report operationalizations of private self-awareness. Moderator analyses revealed that these effects were stronger for women, particularly for studies that used the self-report operationalization and those that investigated self-referent attribution.
Ingroup Bias and Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Aberson Christopher L. , Healy Michael , Romero Victoria
Published: January 2004

A meta-analysis examined the relation between self-esteem and ingroup bias. The project focused on effects of ingroup bias strategy and measurement of self-esteem. Results indicated that high-self-esteem individuals exhibited more ingroup bias than did low-self-esteem individuals. Bias strategy and self-esteem measurement moderated this relation. When using “direct” ingroup bias strategies, high-self-esteem individuals showed more bias than did low-self-esteem individuals. When using “indirect” strategies, groups exhibited comparable amounts of bias. Results were comparable for collective and personal self-esteem measures. Examination of specific collective measures indicated that self-esteem defined by the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) did not predict differences in ingroup bias, whereas group identification measures did predict differences in ingroup bias. Results are interpreted as indicating that both high and low-self-esteem individuals exhibit ingroup bias; however, expression of ingroup bias by individuals with low self-esteem is constrained by situational factors. Furthermore, individual-level factors such as personal self-esteem may be useful in predicting collective enhancement.
The Emotional Side of Prejudice: The Attribution of Secondary Emotions to Ingroups and Outgroups
Authors: Leyens Jacques-Philippe , Paladino Paola M. , Rodriguez-Torres Ramon , Vaes Jeroen , Demoulin Stéphanie , Rodriguez-Perez Armando , Gaunt Ruth
Published: January 2004

If people favor their ingroup, are especially concerned with their own group, and attribute different essences to different groups, it follows that their essence must be superior to the essence of other groups. Intelligence, language, and certain emotions are all considered to be distinctive elements of human nature or essence. The role of inteligence and language in discrimination, prejudice, and racism has already been largely investigated, and this article focuses on attributed emotions. Specifically, we investigate the idea that secondary emotions are typically human characteristics, and as such, they should be especially associated with and attributed to the ingroup. Seondary emotions may even be denied to outgroups. These differential associations and attributions of specifically human emotions to ingroups versus outgroups should affect intergroup relations. Results from several initial experiments are summarized that support our reasoning. This emotional approach to prejudice and racism is contrasted with more classic, cognitive perspectives.
Three Kinds of Opinion Comparison: The Triadic Model
Authors: Suls Jerry , Martin René , Wheeler Ladd
Published: January 2004

This article introduces the triadic model, which proposes that the social comparison of opinion is best considered in terms of 3 different evaluative questions: preference assessment (i.e., “Do I like X?”), belief assessment (i.e., “Is X correct?”), and preference prediction (i.e., “Will I like X?”). Each evaluative question is associated with a different comparison dynamic. The triadic model proposes that comparisons with persons similar in related attributes have special importance for preference assessment. For belief assessment, comparisons with persons of more advantaged status (or “expert”) are most meaningful, although comparison targets also should hold certain basic values in common (the “similar expert”). Finally, in preference prediction, the most meaningful comparisons are with a person who has already experienced X (a proxy) and who exhibits either consistency (but not necessarily similarity) in related attributes or past preferences. Prior research and 4 new studies are described that support the theory.
Arousal, Capacity, and Intense Indoctrination
Authors: Baron Robert S.
Published: January 2004

This article considers the process of intense indoctrination, specifying procedural conditions, internal states, mechanisms of social influence, and key output behaviors associated with extremely manipulative and coercive programs of attitude and value change. Most descriptions of intense indoctrination point out that emotional arousal and stress are integral features of such programs of systematic persuasion. This article focuses on the hypothesis that this arousal, coupled with other features of the indoctrination process, compromise the attentional capacity of indoctrinees and that this impairment of attentional capacity increases the impact of several social influence mechanisms in such settings. The research evidence relevant to this hypothesis is reviewed.
A Rose by Any Name? The Values Construct
Authors: Rohan Meg J.
Published: January 2004

Definitional inconsistency has been epidemic in values theory and research. An abbreviated review of values-related theory and research is provided, and 5 aspects of the values construct that may have contributed to this inconsistency and the resulting lack of synthesis are discussed. A proposal for the process by which value priorities influence attitudinal and behavioral decisions also is outlined. Attitudinal and behavioral decisions are shown to be traceable to personal value priorities, although the link is indirect. The importance of 4 constructs in this process is highlighted. In the past, personal value systems, social value systems, worldviews, and ideologies each may have been given the generic label values.
Looking in on the Children: Using Developmental Psychology as a Tool for Hypothesis Testing and Model Building in Social Psychology
Authors: Pomerantz Eva M. , Newman Leonard S.
Published: January 2004

The aim of this article is to illustrate how developmental psychology may be used as a tool for hypothesis testing and model building in social psychology. To this end, 5 conceptual themes and I methodological theme linking developmental psychology to social psychology are outlined. Emphasis is put on the potential of each theme to provide insight into the processes underlying the phenomena studied by social psychologists. Examples of how the themes have been used in the past or might be used in the future to inform hypothesis testing and model building in specific areas are provided.
Preconscious and Postconscious Processes Underlying Construct Accessibility Effects: An Extended Search Model
Authors: Ford Thomas E. , Thompson Erik P.
Published: January 2004

In this article we first review research relevant to current models of assimilation and contrast effects. Second, we introduce a new theoretical model that specifies how preconscious and postconscious processes jointly contribute to the occurrence of assimilation and contrast effects. Furthermore, a central tenet of our model is that the perceiver's information-processing goals (expediency and accuracy goals) regulate these preconscious and postconscious processes, and they thus play an important role in moderating the magnitude of assimilation and contrast effects. We propose that our new theoretical model provides a parsimonious account for existing findings and derives a number of novel hypotheses to be tested by empirical research.
The Distinctiveness Principle: Identity, Meaning, and the Bounds of Cultural Relativity
Authors: Vignoles Vivian L. , Chryssochoou Xenia , Breakwell Glynis M.
Published: January 2004

Extending theories of distinctiveness motivation in identity (Breakwell, 1987; Brewer, 1991; Snyder & Fromkin, 1980), we discuss the precise role of distinctiveness in identity processes and the cross-cultural generality of the distinctiveness principle. We argue that (a) within Western cultures, distinctiveness is necessaryfor the construction of meaning within identity, and (b) the distinctiveness principle is not incompatible with non-Western cultural systems. We propose a distinction among three sources of distinctiveness: position, difference, and separateness, with different implications for identity and behavior. These sources coexist within cultures, on both individual and group levels of selfrepresentation, but they may be emphasized differently according to culture and context.
The Dynamic Nature of Cultural Identity Throughout Cultural Transitions: Why Home Is Not So Sweet
Authors: Sussman Nan M.
Published: January 2004

This article describes the social psychological process that underlies the cultural transition of sojourners. Herein the empirical and theoretical literature on cultural transitions (and in particular cultural repatriation and the relevant literature on self-concept and identity) is analyzed, critiqued, and synthesized in an attempt to understand the near ubiquitous distress experienced during repatriation. The relation among self-concept, cultural identity, and cultural transitions is explored, and in light of the paucity of comprehensive repatriation models, a new predictive model is proposed that explicates these relations. Shifts in cultural identity are classified as subtractive, additive, affirmative, or intercultural, and research directions are suggested.
Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality Assessment
Authors: Cervone Daniel , Shadel William G. , Jencius Simon
Published: January 2004

This article presents a social-cognitive theory of personality assessment. We articulate the implications of social-cognitive theories of personality for the question of what constitutes an assessment of personality structure and behavioral dispositions. The theory consists of 5 social-cognitive principles of assessment. Personality assessments should (a) distinguish the task of assessing internal personality structures and dynamics from that of assessing overt behavioral tendencies, (b) attend to personality systems that function as personal determinants of action, (c) treat measures of separate psychological and physiological systems as conceptually distinct, (d) employ assessments that are sensitive to the unique qualities of the individual, and (e) assess persons in context. These principles are illustrated through a review of recent research. Social-cognitive theory is distinguished from an alternative theory of personality structure and assessment, 5-factor theory, by articulating the strategies of scientific explanation, conceptions of personality structure and dispositions, and the assessment practices that differentiate the approaches.
Subtyping and Subgrouping: Processes for the Prevention and Promotion of Stereotype Change
Authors: Richards Zoeë , Hewstone Miles
Published: January 2004

Two processes of stereotyping, subtyping and subgrouping, are compared. Subtyping occurs when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype. The more recently defined process of subgrouping refers to the perceiver's organization of information in terms of clusters of individuals based on their similarities and differences; subgroups can include confirmers and disconfirmers. We consider how subtypes and subgroups are defined, operationalized, and measured, their consequences for stereotype change, and the role of typicality. It is concluded that the clearest difference between subtyping and subgrouping is in terms of their consequences (subtyping leads to the preservation and subgrouping to differentiation of the stereotype). There are, however, some similarities between the processes, and attention is drawn to whatfuture research is required, both to deepen our knowledge of each process and clarify their distinction.
On a Folk Theory of Society: Children, Evolution, and Mental Representations of Social Groups
Authors: Hirschfeld Lawrence A.
Published: January 2004

Representing and reasoning about the social universe is a major task for the young child, one that almost certainly involves specialized knowledge structures. Individuals in interaction are fundamental elements of sociality, and, unsurprisingly, evolution has prepared children with special-purpose mechanisms for drawing attention to and processing information about persons. Social aggregates are also fundamental elements of human sociality, yet we know much less about the child's grasp of them and the institutions that mediate among them. One reason for this lacuna is that researchers have typically framed children's social knowledge according to how adultlike (or not) that understanding is. This article proposes that it may be more productive to approach children's social knowledge from the perspective of the child herself or himself. Arguably, even quite young children deploy lay theories of society that emerge from a special-purpose endogenous module for identifying and reasoning about human aggregates.
Children's Lay Theories About Ingroups and Outgroups: Reconceptualizing Research on Prejudice
Authors: Cameron Jessica A. , Alvarez Jeannette M. , Ruble Diane N. , Fuligni Andrew J.
Published: January 2004

The consensus from the developmental literature examining children's intergroup attitudes has been that children as young as 3 years of age exhibit racial prejudice. We suggest, however, that as much of the developmental research has confounded ingroup positivity and outgroup negativity, it becomes difficult to determine whether young children are displaying ingroup bias or outgroup derogation. Furthermore, it appears that young children are not demonstrating hostility toward outgroups; studies that have separately assessed evaluations toward the ingroup and outgroup demonstrate that rather than evaluating the outgroup negatively, young children are demonstrating a positivity bias toward their ingroup. We propose, therefore, that young children are primarily utilizing a perceptually based lay theory that does not necessitate outgroup derogation. We argue, however, that children's lay theories are subject to social structural conditions and specific social transitions, and hence, can lead to the development of prejudice.
Evolution of Parental Caregiving
Authors: Bell David C.
Published: January 2004

Parental caregiving consists of a set of behaviors that has evolved to a high level among mammals and has been most developed among humans. In this article, I propose an evolutionary model of 4 changes (3 of them neurobiological) leading to caregiving. Two of the changes, including the emergence of a dyadic preference bond, occurred first among the reptile precursors to mammals. The dyadic preference bond is hypothesized to have preceded and facilitated the emergence of mammalian species through the subsequent emergence of mammary glands and live births. Somewhat later, the dyadic preference bond began to evolve into the complex, multifaceted parental caregiving system in humans. The evolutionary model of caregiving suggests a need to expand attention beyond cognitions, which are of major importance in humans as mechanisms of planning and implementing strategies, to include at least some emotional processes located in older parts of the brain that appear to follow a different, emotional logic. The model identifies a neurobiological basis for the emotional attraction of parent to child and the motivation to nurture. Further research is needed to translate these neurobiological processes into psychological models of caregiving.
Is There a Gender Difference in Strength of Sex Drive? Theoretical Views, Conceptual Distinctions, and a Review of Relevant Evidence
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Catanese Kathleen R. , Vohs Kathleen D.
Published: January 2004

The sex drive refers to the strength of sexual motivation. Across many different studies and measures, men have been shown to have more frequent and more intense sexual desires than women, as reflected in spontaneous thoughts about sex, frequency and variety of sexual fantasies, desired frequency of intercourse, desired number of partners, masturbation, liking for various sexual practices, willingness to forego sex, initiating versus refusing sex, making sacrifices for sex, and other measures. No contrary findings (indicating stronger sexual motivation among women) were found. Hence we conclude that the male sex drive is stronger than the female sex drive. The gender difference in sex drive should not be generalized to other constructs such as sexual or orgasmic capacity, enjoyment of sex, or extrinsically motivated sex.
Contributions of Psychophysiology to Research on Adult Attachment: Review and Recommendations
Authors: Diamond Lisa M.
Published: January 2004

Despite the increasing use of psychophysiological measures to investigate social and interpersonal phenomena, few studies of adult romantic attachment have taken advantage of this approach. In this article I argue for a biologically-specific, theory-based integration of psychophysiological measures into adult attachment research. This approach would help elucidate the normative psychobiological properties of the attachment system, which have received little study in humans. Specifically, it would allow researchers to test targeted hypotheses regarding affect and arousal regulation in attachment relationships. I provide a general introduction to 2 biological systems that hold particular promise for adult attachment research: the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the endocrine system. I highlight the relevance of these systems for attachment phenomena and review findings from selected social psychophysiological research. I conclude by outlining a tentative theoretical model of the psychobiology of adult attachment and identifying specific directions for future research.
Age and Birth Cohort Differences in Self-Esteem: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis
Authors: Twenge Jean M. , Campbell W. Keith
Published: January 2004

A meta-analytic review finds that college students' self-esteem increased substantially between 1968 and 1994 when measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). Children's scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) show a curvilinear pattern over time, decreasing from 1965 to 1979 and increasing from 1980 to 1993. Children's SEI scores are directly correlated with social statistics (e.g., divorce rate, unemployment) for the corresponding years. Analyses for age differences find that SEI scores decrease slightly during the transition from elementary school to junior high and then rise progressively through high school and college. RSE scores increase steadily with age. Results are discussed in terms of the antecedents of self-esteem, including social acceptance, competencies, and the culture of self-worth.
Sex Differences in Coping Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review and an Examination of Relative Coping
Authors: Tamres Lisa K. , Janicki Denise , Helgeson Vicki S.
Published: January 2004

We used meta-analysis to examine recent studies of sex differences in coping. Women were more likely than men to engage in most coping strategies. The strongest effects showed that women were more likely to use strategies that involved verbal expressions to others or the self—to seek emotional support, ruminate about problems, and use positive self-talk. These sex differences were consistent across studies, supporting a dispositional level hypothesis. Other sex differences were dependent on the nature of the stressor, supporting role constraint theory. We also examined whether stressor appraisal (i.e., women's tendencies to appraise stressors as more severe) accountedfor sex differences in coping. We found some support for this idea. To circumvent this issue, we provide some data on relative coping. These data demonstrate that sex differences in relative coping are more in line with our intuitions about the differences in the ways men and women cope with distress.
Social Psychology: Who We Are and What We Do
Authors: Tesser Abraham , Bau Jinn Jopp
Published: January 2004

The author index of the Handbook of Social Psychology (Gilbert, Fiske & Lindzey, 1998) and of Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Processes (Higgins & Kruglanski, 1996) served as the basis for identifying and describing some of the people constructing social psychology in the 1990s. Over 10,000 names are mentioned, but relatively few are mentioned several times. The 106 contributors who were mentioned mostfrequently are identified and described. They are mostly men about 20 years beyond the PhD. The select set of institutions at which they work and from which they obtained their degrees are also identified. Similarities among contributors were calculated on the basis of the proximity of their mentions in the handbooks. An analysis of those similarities yielded eight “contributor factors”: social cognition, attitudes, motivated attribution, self, interpersonal influence, intergroup relations and stereo-types, culture and evolution, and interpersonal relationships.
Social Identity Complexity
Authors: Roccas Sonia , Brewer Marilynn B.
Published: January 2004

In this article, we introduce the concept of social identity complexity—a new theoretical construct that refers to an individual's subjective representation of the interrelationships among his or her multiple group identities. Social identity complexity reflects the degree of overlap perceived to exist between groups of which a person is simultaneously a member When the overlap of multiple ingroups is perceived to be high, the individual maintains a relatively simplified identity structure whereby memberships in different groups converge to form a single ingroup identification. When a person acknowledges, and accepts, that memberships in multiple ingroups are not fully convergent or overlapping, the associated identity structure is both more inclusive and more complex. In this article, we define the concept of social identity complexity and discuss its possible antecedents and consequences. Results from initial studies support the prediction that social identity complexity is affected by stress and is related to personal value priorities and to tolerance of outgroup members.
Residual Effects of Past on Later Behavior: Habituation and Reasoned Action Perspectives
Authors: Ajzen Icek
Published: January 2004

The frequency with which a behavior has been performed in the past is found to account for variance in later behavior independent of intentions. This often taken as evidence for habituation of behavior and as complementing the reasoned mode of operation assumed by such models as the theory of planned behavior. In this article, I question the idea that the residual effect of past on later behavior can be attributed to habituation. The habituation perspective cannot account for residual effects in the prediction of low-opportunity behaviors performed in unstable contexts, no accepted independent measure of habit is available, and empirical tests of them habituation hypothesis have so far met with little success. A review of existing evidence suggests that the residual impact of past behavior is attenuated when measures of intention and behavior are compatible and vanishes when intentions are strong and well formed, expectations are implementation have been developed.
On the Verifiability of Evolutionary Psychological Theories: An Analysis of the Psychology of Scientific Persuasion
Authors: Conway Lucian Gideon , Schaller Mark
Published: January 2004

Evolutionary psychological theories have engendered much skepticism in the modern scientific climate. Why? We argue that, although sometimes couched in the language of unfalsifiability, the skepticism results primarily from the perception that evolutionary theories are less verifiable than traditional psychological theories. It is more difficult to be convinced of the veracity of an evolutionary psychological theory because an additional layer of inference must be logically traversed: One not only has to be persuaded that a particular model of contemporary psychological processes uniquely predicts observed phenomena, one must also be persuaded that a model of deeply historical processes uniquely predicts the model of psychological processes. This analysis of the psychology of scientific persuasion yields a number of specific suggestions for the development, testing, and discussion of evolutionary psychological theories.
Beyond the Empiricist/Constructionist Divide in Social Psychology
Authors: Gergen Kenneth J.
Published: January 2004

Jost and Kruglanski (this issue) offer a compelling vision of the professional gains to be derived from a thoroughgoing rapprochement between constructionist and experimental inquiry in social psychology. They effectively establish grounds for dialogue of great importance to the future of the field. While I concur with much that they propose, I would like to make an important distinction between the foundational premises that guide these differing endeavors and the ongoing practices of inquiry. By addressing the ungrounded character of both empiricist and constructionist metatheory, we are better able to explore the pragmatic consequences of the various forms of theory, methods, and politics invited by experimental and constructionist approaches.
Integrating Experimental and Social Constructivist Social Psychology: Some of Us Are Already Doing It
Authors: Pratto Felicia
Published: January 2004

I concur with Jost and Kruglanski (this issue) that the rift between social constructivist and experimental social psychology is bigger than it need be. I do so by showing that many social-psychological theories predict why we have the rift that we do. I use this method to point out that self-reflexivity is possible and desirable. This is especially the case when we try to consider how our own political and historical context influences our work. I give examples from my teaching of social psychology, and of contemporary research that has been informed by both social constructivist criticisms and by knowledge of experimental methods.
An Adaptive Connectionist Model of Cognitive Dissonance
Authors: van Overwalle Frank , Jordens Karen
Published: January 2004

This article proposes an adaptive connectionist model that implements an attributional account of cognitive dissonance. The model represents an attitude as the connection between the attitude object and behavioral-affective outcomes. Dissonance arises when circumstantial constraints induce a mismatch between the model's (mental) prediction and discrepant behavior or affect. Reduction of dissonance by attitude change is accomplished through long-lasting changes in the connection weights using the error-correcting delta learning algorithm. The model can explain both the typical effects predicted by dissonance theory as well as some atypical effects (i.e., reinforcement effect), using this principle of weight changes and by giving a prominent role to affective experiences. The model was implemented in a standard feedforward connectionist network. Computer simulations showed an adequate fit with several classical dissonance paradigms (inhibition, initiation, forced compliance, free choice, & misattribution), as well as novel studies that underscore the role of affect. A comparison with an earlier constraint satisfaction approach (Shultz & Lepper, 1996) indicates that the feedforward implementation provides a similar fit with these shortcomings of this previous model.
Goals, Standards, and the Self: Reference Values Serving Different Functions
Authors: Boldero Jennifer , Francis Jill
Published: January 2004

We examine reference values used in self-regulation research and identify two functions they fulfill: a standard function and a goal function. The standard function occurs when a reference value represents a desired state for the self in the present whereas the goal function occurs when a reference value represents a desired state for the self in the future. We argue that different factors influence the emotional, motivational, and behavioral outcomes of these functions. The magnitude of any discrepancy with a “standard” is important, whereas for a “goal,” the rate of discrepancy reduction, relative to an “expected” rate, is important. A review of the empirical literature supports these propositions. Consequently, we propose that future research should in-corporate our distinction between these two functions.
The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice
Authors: Blair Irene V.
Published: January 2004

The present article reviews evidence for the malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. In contrast to assumptions that such responses are fixed and inescapable, it is shown that automatic stereotypes and prejudice are influenced by, (a) self- and social motives, (b) specific strategies, (c) the perceiver's focus of attention, and (d) the configuration of stimulus cues. In addition, group members' individual characteristics are shown to influence the extent to which (global) stereotypes and prejudice are automatically activated. This evidence has significant implications for conceptions of automaticity, models of stereotyping and prejudice, and attitude representation. The review concludes with the description of an initial model of early social information processing.
Emotional Gestalts: Appraisal, Change, and the Dynamics of Affect
Authors: Thagard Paul , Nerb Josef
Published: January 2004

This article interprets emotional change as a transition in a complex dynamical system. We argue that the appropriate kind of dynamical system is one that extends recent work on how neural networks can perform parallel constraint satisfaction. Parallel processes that integrate both cognitive and affective constraints can give rise to states that we call emotional gestalts, and transitions can be understood as emotional gestalt shifts. We describe computational models that simulate such phenomena in ways that show how dynamical and gestalt metaphors can be given a concrete realization.
Stereotype Change in a Recurrent Network
Authors: Queller Sarah
Published: January 2004

Stereotype change is simulated in a distributed recurrent network. Although it operates using iterative application of simple learning rules as each new group member is presented, the network can nonetheless mimic both bookkeeping (Rothbart, 1981) and subtyping (Brewer, 1981; Taylor, 1981) patterns of results. It produces these effects through learning of reliable covariations between counterstereotypic units. Advantages and disadvantages of using a distributed recurrent network to model the representation of stereotypes are discussed. Key among the advantages are those relevant to the dynamic nature of these models.
Personality as a Dynamical System: Emergence of Stability and Distinctiveness from Intra and Interpersonal Interactions
Authors: Shoda Yuichi , LeeTiernan Scott , Mischel Walter
Published: January 2004

The implications of conceptualizing personality as a cognitive-affective processing system that functions as a parallel constraint satisfaction network are explored. Computer simulations show that from dynamic interactions among the units in such a network, a set of stable attractor states and functionally equivalent groups of situations emerge, such that IF exposed to situation group X, THEN the system settles in attractor Y. This conceptualization explicitly models the effect of situations on a given individual, and therefore can also be used to model the function of interpersonal systems. We demonstrate this possibility by modeling dyadic systems in which one partner's behavior becomes the situational input into the other partner's personality system, and vice versa. The results indicate that each member of the dyad will, in general, exhibit new attractor states. This suggests that the thoughts, affects, and behaviors that an individual typically experiences are a function not of that individual's personality system alone, but rather a function of the interpersonal system of which the individual is a part. Just as individuals have distinctive and stable IF-THEN signatures, so do interpersonal relationships. Understanding the structure of the cognitive-affective processing system of each relationship partner also should enable predictions of their distincitve relational signatures as emergent properties of the interpersonal system that develops.
A General Systems Theory of Marriage: Nonlinear Difference Equation Modeling of Marital Interaction
Authors: Gottman John , Swanson Catherine , Swanson Kristin
Published: January 2004

This article describes a new mathematical approach for modeling the prediction of divorce or marital stability from marital interaction using nonlinear difference equations. The approach is quite general for modeling social interaction, and can be applied to any time series data generated over time for two individuals. We pursued a balance model in selecting the dependent variables of this modeling. Both the mathematical methods and the theoretical gains obtained when using this approach are reviewed.
Beyond Geography: Cooperation with Persistent Links in the Absence of Clustered Neighborhoods
Authors: Axelrod Robert , Ford Gerald R. , Riolo Rick L. , Cohen Michael D.
Published: January 2004

Electronic communication allows interactions to take place over great distances. We build an agent-based model to explore whether networks that do not rely on geographic proximity can support cooperation as well as local interactions can. Adaptive agents play a four-move Prisoner's Dilemma game, where an agent's strategy specifies the probability of cooperating on the first move, and the probability of cooperating contingent on the partner's previous choice. After playing with four others, an agent adjusts its strategy so that more successful strategies are better represented in the succeeding round. The surprising result is that if the pattern of interactions is selected at random, but is persistent over time, cooperation emerges just as strongly as it does when interactions are geographically local. This has implications for both research on social dynamics, and for the prospects for building social capital in the modern age.
Dynamical Evolutionary Psychology: Mapping the Domains of the New Interactionist Paradigm
Authors: Kenrick Douglas T. , Maner Jon K. , Butner Jon , Li Norman P. , Becker D. Vaughn , Schaller Mark
Published: January 2004

Dynamical systems and evolutionary theories have both been proposed as integrative approaches to psychology. These approaches are typically applied to different sets of questions. Dynamical systems models address the properties of psychological systems as they emerge and change over time; evolutionary models address the specific functions and contents of psychological structures. New insights can be achieved by integrating these two paradigms, and we propose a framework to begin doing so. The framework specifies a set of six evolutionarily fundamental social goals that place predictable constraints on emergent processes within and between individuals, influencing their dynamics over the short-term, and across developmental and evolutionary time scales. These social goals also predictably influence the dynamic emergence and change of cultural norms. This framework has heuristic as well as integrative potential, generating novel hypotheses within a number of unexplored areas atpsychology's interface with the other biological and social sciences.
Virtual Personalities: A Neural Network Model of Personality
Authors: Read Stephen J. , Miller Lynn C.
Published: January 2004

A neural network model of personality is presented. The model has two goal systems: an approach system (BAS) and an avoidance system (BIS), as well as a system that governs the level of disinhibition/constraint (IS) in the two goal systems and the behavior system. Furthermore, within both goal systems, agentic and communal goals are specified. By tweaking the parameters of this system (e.g., chronic activation of goals, sensitivity of systems), and randomly or systematically varying situational arrays, distinct patterns of “behavior” by Virtual Personalities (VPs) across “situations” emerge that fit with classic distinctions (e.g., Big 5, temperaments). Various simulations demonstrate that VPs provide an exciting vehicle for integrating disparate approaches to personality to better understand the dynamics, situational responsiveness, and consistency of persons in situations.
The Dynamics of Self-Evaluation
Authors: Vallacher Robin R. , Nowak Andrzej , Froehlich Michael , Rockloff Matthew
Published: January 2004

We conceptualize self-concept as a self-organizing dynamical system and investigate implications of this perspective for the dynamic and fixed-point attractor tendencies of self-evaluative thought. Participants who differed in self-concept valence (self-esteem) and coherence (self-certainty, self-stability) engaged in verbal self-reflection for several minutes, then used a computer mouse to track the moment-to-moment self-evaluation expressed in their recorded narrative. Prior to self-reflection, participants recalled positive or negative past actions (positive vs. negative priming), or did not recall past actions (no priming). Priming affected overall self-evaluation (i.e., greatest positivity under positive priming), but only early in the narrative. The effects of self-concept, in contrast, became stronger over time. Self-esteem affected overall self-evaluation, whereas self-certainty and self-stability affected the dynamic properties (e.g., rate of movement between self-evaluative states) and attractor tendencies of self-evaluation. Discussion centers on the interplay between structure and dynamics in the self-system.
Dynamical Patterns in Bipolar Depression
Authors: Johnson Sheri L. , Nowak Andrzej
Published: January 2004

We examined dynamical patterns in the course of bipolar depression. We interviewed 55 individuals with bipolar I disorder using Modified Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (MHRSD) for at least 20 months. Using a recently developed methodology, we categorized the level of instability and the nature of attractor patterns for each individual. Instability was related to the lifetime severity of depression as well as suicidality during the follow-up period. Individuals varied from 0 to 2 in the number of attractors. Relatively few individuals displayed only one attractor that fell within a depressive range; the most common patterns were instability and two attractors. Limitations and implications of these results are discussed.
The Logic of Social Sharing: An Evolutionary Game Analysis of Adaptive Norm Development
Authors: Kameda Tatsuya , Takezawa Masanori , Hastie Reid
Published: January 2004

Although norms can potentially serve useful constructs to understand human minds, being fundamentally social in evolutionary as well as cultural senses, there are as yet no useful psychological theories of adaptive norm development. This article provides an illustrative model about how a norm emerges in a society. We focus on the “communal-sharing norm” in primordial societies, a norm designating uncertain resources as common properties to be shared with other members. Based on anthropologicalfindings, we develop a theory about how the communal-sharing norm emerges and is maintained. Then, using evolutionary computer simulations, we test several hypotheses about the conditions under which the norm will dominate social resource sharing. We further test behavioral implications of the norm, demonstrating that uncertainty involved in resource acquisition is a key factor that triggers the psychology of sharing even in highly industrialized societies. Finally, we discuss the importance of norm construct for analyzing the dynamic relation between minds and society.
The Existential Function of Close Relationships: Introducing Death Into the Science of Love
Authors: Mikulincer Mario , Florian Victor , Hirschberger Gilad
Published: January 2004

Originally, terror management theory proposed two psychological mechanisms in dealing with the terror of death awareness-cultural worldview validation and self-esteem enhancement. In this article, we would like to promote the idea of close relationships as an additional death-anxiety buffering mechanism and review a growing body of empirical data that support this contention. Based on a comprehensive analysis of the sociocultural and personal functions of close relationships, we formulate two basic hypotheses that have received empirical support in a series of experimental studies. First, death reminders heighten the motivation to form and maintain close relationships. Second, the maintenance of close relationships provides a symbolic shield against the terror of death, whereas the breaking of close relationships results in an upsurge of death awareness. In addition, we present empirical evidence supporting the possibility that close relationships function as a related yet separate mechanism from the self-esteem and cultural worldview defenses.
Intergroup Conflict: Individual, Group, and Collective Interests
Authors: Bornstein Gary
Published: January 2004

Intergroup conflicts generally involve conflicts of interests within the competing groups as well. This article outlines a taxonomy of games, called team games, which incorporates the intragroup and intergroup levels of conflict. Its aims are to provide a coherent framework for analyzing the prototypical problems of cooperation and competition that arise within and between groups, and to review an extensive research program that has used this framework to study individual and group behavior in the laboratory. Depending on the game's payoff structure, contradictions or conflicts are created among the rational choices at the individual, group, and collective levels—a generalization of the contradiction between individual and collective rationality occurring in the traditional mixed-motive games. These contradictions are studied so as to identify the theoretical and behavioral conditions that determine which level of rationality prevails.
From Adaptive Emotion to Dysfunction: An Attachment Perspective on Social Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Vertue Frances M.
Published: January 2004

In this article, existing theories of social anxiety are integrated within the framework of attachment theory, in particular, by means of the causal mechanism of internal working models of self and others. These models guide beliefs and expectations about social relationships and, thereby, contribute to social anxiety. They also contain, procedural knowledge about the skills needed to initiate and maintain social relationships. A reconceptualization of social skill as the ability to regulate others' emotions and, thereby, their behavior is presented. It is suggested that deficits (real or imagined) in the ability to affect others' emotional states, and, thereby; achieve interpersonal goals, contribute to social anxiety. The integrated model is evaluated by a number of theory-goodness criteria, and directions for future research are discussed.