bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Relationship Between Crime and Opioid Use⋆
Authors: HAMMERSLEY RICHARD , FORSYTH ALASDAIR , MORRISON VALERIE , DAVIES JOHN B.
Published: January 2006

Accepting that opioid use and crime are associated and develop together, amongst opioid‐using criminals the need for opioids may cause crime on a day‐to‐day basis or both may tend to be determined by some other set of factors. Previous studies have either failed to allow for such other factors, or have failed to compare opioid users to adequate control groups. From interviews with 151 Scottish prisoners and non‐prisoners, divided into five drug‐using groups: (1) alcohol only; (2) cannabis and alcohol; (3) other drugs but not opioids; (4) moderate opioids; (5) heavy opioids, data were obtained on drug use frequency, crime frequency and a variety of other variables. It was found that: (1) there were no differences between incarcerated and non‐incarcerated opioid users, in fact incarceration had no substantial effects on other variables; (2) heavy opioid users committed crimes significantly more frequently than did moderate opioid users, non‐opioid poly drug users, cannabis users or alcohol users. But, moderate opioid users did not commit crimes significantly more frequently than did the other groups; (3) other drugs were related to crime. Polydrug use (including cannabis use) was more related to theft and delinquency than was opioid use. Alcohol use was related to fraud; (4) there were larger explanations of crime than opioid use—criminal experience and polydrug use—and crime was a better explanation of opioid use variance than opioid use was of crime. It is concluded that need for opioids did not simply cause crime. Rather, crime and opioid use tended to influence each other. However, this relationship was not special to opioids but, depending on historical circumstances, could—and to some extent does—apply to any drug. In consequence, society's treatment of drug‐using criminals needs to deal with drug use and crime together.
An Epidemic of Opium Dependence Among Asian Refugees in Minnesota: characteristics and causes
Authors: Westermeyer Joseph , Lyfoung Touxa , Neider John
Published: January 2006

After several decades absence, opium smoking has reappeared in the U.S. Introduced by Indochinese refugees in the early 1980's, it has spread to several regions of the country. In this report the characteristics of refugee opium addicts is described. In addition, the factors contributing to a fertile situation for opium addiction are presented. Finally, implications of these findings and remedial recommendations are suggested.
Measuring the Heaviness of Smoking: using self‐reported time to the first cigarette of the day and number of cigarettes smoked per day
Authors: HEATHERTON TODD F. , KOZLOWSKI LYNN T. , FRECKER RICHARD C. , RICKERT WILLIAM , ROBINSON JACK
Published: January 2006

Two simple self‐report measures have been used to assess the heaviness of smoking,‘number of cigarettes per day’(CPD) and‘time to the first cigarette of the day’(TTF). Little attention, however, has been given to the precise method of scoring this information. Using biochemical indicators of heaviness of smoking (alveolar carbon monoxide and cotinine), we explore the optimum data transformations for regression analysis and categorical analysis. We suggest a four category scoring scheme for both time to the first cigarette of the day (5, 6–30, 31–60 and 61 + mm) and average daily consumption of cigarettes (1–10, 11–20, 21–30, 31 + cigarettes) as the most powerful and practical categorical scoring of these variables. Due to possible ceiling effects on biochemical measures, we suggest using logarithmic transformations of CPD or TTF for regression or correlation analyses.
Cross‐cultural Study of Alcohol Behaviour Among Singapore College Students
Authors: HONG ONG TECK , ISRALOWITZ RICHARD E.
Published: January 2006

To test the hypothesis that Singapore Indian college students would experience higher rates of drinking problem behaviour than their Chinese counterparts, the Engs and Hanson questionnaire was administered to 767 Chinese and 185 Indian undergraduate students. The significant differences in drinking problems found between Indian and Chinese students were interpreted as reflected a higher level of anomie among the Indians in terms of their drinking norms. Singapore Indian students' alcohol‐related problem behaviours, however, are considerably less than those found in college students from western countries.
Reasons for Smoking and Severity of Residual Nicotine Withdrawal Symptoms When Using Nicotine Chewing Gum
Authors: NIAURA RAYMOND , GOLDSTEIN MICHAEL G. , WARD KENNETH D. , ABRAMS DAVID B.
Published: January 2006

Prior to smoking cessation treatment using nicotine chewing gum, 65 smokers completed the Horn Reasons for Smoking Test, the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire and were assessed on measures of smoking history including saliva cotinine concentration. These measures were used to predict severity of residual nicotine withdrawal symptoms and urges to smoke assessed on a daily basis during the first 2 weeks of attempted abstinence. Univariate analyses indicated that smoking for reasons of handling, craving and to cope with negative affect correlated positively with both residual withdrawal symptoms and urges during the first week. Smoking for reasons of stimulation and habit were also correlated positively with residual withdrawal, and smoking for pleasure correlated with urges to smoke. After controlling for concurrent level of nicotine gum use, analyses suggested that only smoking for reasons of stimulation predicted residual withdrawal. Urges to smoke were positively related to level of smoking during treatment and also to smoking for reasons of craving and handling. Thus, it appears that individual differences in reasons for smoking influence severity of residual nicotine withdrawal symptoms and urges to smoke while chewing nicotine gum. The findings for stimulation smoking and withdrawal are discussed in terms of the reinforcing properties of nicotine with different routes of administration.
Towards Freedom: treatment approaches to drug dependence at TTK Hospital
Authors: CHERIAN R. R.
Published: January 2006

In this specially commissioned BJA series experienced clinicians give their personal and frontline views as to how the practical business of treating people with substance problems is best handled.
Primary Health Care and the Addictions: where to start and where to go*
Authors: POLLAK BENNO
Published: January 2006

The development of community services for problem drinkers is briefly traced over the last 40 years. The numbers of drinkers in need of advice and treatment far exceeds the available resources. Family practice would be an ideal place in which to further primary care and prevention but lack of time, knowledge and motivation for probing into patients' drinking habits detract from the potential. A pilot study of opportunistic screening in general practice is described whereby a yellow label affixed to a patient's medical record card registers the average weekly alcohol intake. In a sample of 400 patients, 16% were high or intermediate risk drinkers. Each high risk drinker presented with a medical condition which could, in either aetiology or management, be related to high consumption. By discussing this, patients were often motivated to drink less or abstain. Various suggestions are made how better medical training and education could improve the diagnosis and treatment of drinking problems.
Class A Drug Users: prevalence and characteristics in Greater Nottingham
Authors: GIGGS JOHN , BEAN PHILIP , WHYNES DAVID , WILKINSON CHRISTINE
Published: January 2006

This paper reports on the prevalence of known Class A drug use in Greater Nottingham, a large urbanized area with a population of 472,285 in 1981. Use of a multi‐agency enumeration technique identified only 170 users during 1985–86, giving an annual prevalence of 0.45 per 1000 of the adult population. The rates for opioid use and injected amphetamine use were 0.27 and 0.14 per 1000. Geographical analysis of the intra‐urban residential distributions of the drug users identified statistically significant variations with the greatest concentrations occurring in the inner city residential areas, in neighbourhoods fringing major surburban shopping centres, and several council estates. Ecological analysis established statistically significant links between drug use and multiple deprivation, adult unemployment and crime.
Urine Screening for Abused Drugs in New Admissions to a VA Hospital
Authors: McMILLAN D. E. , NEWTON J. E. O. , CANNON D. J. , METZER W.S. , PAIGE S. R. , SUMMERS B. N. , FODY E. P.
Published: January 2006

The urine samples from two groups of Veteran's Administration patients newly admitted to general psychiatry units were screened in 1985 and in 1987–88 for abused drugs. The results were compared Kith urine samples from controls with similar age distributions admitted to an alcohol and drug abuse unit or to medical‐surgical units. About 40% of all newly admitted patients were positive for one or more controlled drugs, but there were no significant differences among patient groups in the percentage of urine samples positive for these drugs. Marijuana and benzodiazepines were delected frequently in all patient groups and often in combination, although opiates also were frequently detected in the urine samples from the medical‐surgical patients. There was a clear decrease in drug‐positive samples with age in all patient groups, much of which could be accounted for by decreased marijuana detection.
Changes in the Psychological Defence System as a Function of Alcohol Intoxication in Men
Authors: GUSTAFSON R. , KÄLLMÉN H.
Published: January 2006

Social drinking young men participated in an experiment exploring whether acute alcohol intoxication affects the characteristics of the psychological defence structure. It was found that a moderate alcohol dose (1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight) increased the overall level of defence activity compared to a sober Control group and as measured by the Defence Mechanism Test. This increase was mainly due to a significant increase in the defence mechanism Isolation. Gender differences in this respect and the implications of this shift in the defence structure for the understanding of intoxicated behavior and motives for drinking were discussed.
Gamblers' Self‐Perceptions of the Determinants of Impaired Control
Authors: CORLESS TONY , DICKERSON MARK
Published: January 2006

Impaired control occupies a focal position in the medical model perspective of pathological gambling and is central to the concept of addictive processes generally. Nonetheless there have been few studies on self‐control in gambling behaviour. A questionnaire was developed to measure subjectively assessed self‐control in poker machine players. This Self‐Control Scale comprised a framework adopted from Cameron (1985) distinguishing between (i) the likelihood of starting a session and continuing a session, and (ii) internal and external determinants. The Scale and a descriptive questionnaire on demographics and actual gambling behaviour was administered to 26 problem gamblers and 40 players of different levels of involvement. The results indicated that the Scale had acceptable internal consistency and validity. The Scale effectively discriminated between problem and non‐problem players. The differences on specific items between low‐frequency, high‐frequency and problem groups were incorporated into a hypothetical developmental progression. Negative emotions such as frustration and depression and the belief in chasing (Lesieur, 1979, 1984) were perceived to be the most significant determinants of impaired control problem gamblers.
Antenatal Urinary Screening for Drugs of Addiction: usefulness of sideroom testing?
Authors: CONDIE R. G. , BROWN S. S. , AKHTER M. I. , SHEEHAN T. M. T. , PORTER LYN
Published: January 2006

Based on a pilot study of 400 samples at our Antenatal Clinic (which yielded 3.5% positives when assessed for amphetamines, cannabinoids and opiates) 600 consecutive patients attending Antenatal Booking Clinic had urine samples tested in the sideroom for amphetamines, barbiturates, cocaine metabolites, methadone and opiates using the Syva EMIT ETS apparatus. Positive samples were checked in the West Midlands Regional Laboratory for Toxicology, initially by EMIT‐dau on a second ETS instrument and then by thin layer and gas chromatography. Two per cent produced a total of 14 positive EMIT results. Cocaine metabolites and methandone were not detected. Four specimens could not be confirmed as positive. In one sample, amphetamine‐like compounds were isolated but not identified. Positive identification was made in the remaining seven specimens (two cannabinoid, two pseudoephedrine, one pseudoephedrine plus dihydrocodeine and two dihydrocodeine). There was a serious problem of false positive results observed in the initial sideroom testing. The value of sideroom testing for drugs of abuse was assessed in relation to the technical problems and to the small rate of drug positive samples.
The Tension Reduction Hypothesis revisited: an alcohol expectancy perspective
Authors: YOUNG ROSS McD. , OEI TIAN P. S. , KNIGHT ROBERT G.
Published: January 2006

The tension reduction hypothesis has been historically and cross‐culturally a predominant explanation of alcohol's effects. However, its validation has been inconsistent. One speculative reason for this inconsistency is a failure to control for preheld alcohol expectancies. Past research may have confounded results due to studying populations mixed regarding their expectations of alcohol's tension reducing effects. Only two studies could be found which have comprehensively attempted to control for tension reduction expectancies, both supporting a modified tension reduction hypothesis which does not offer tension reduction as the only explanation of drinking behaviour. The interaction of pharmacology, expectancy, gender role and situation suggest that tension reduction is of major importance in understanding the drinking of many, but not all, individuals. This is consistent with recent ‘metatheories’ of alcohol use which emphasize the complexity and multiplicity of alcohol's effects. Future theoretical and clinical implications of the revised tension reduction hypothesis and expectancies are briefly discussed.
Types of life events and the onset of alcohol dependence
Authors: GORMAN D. M. , PETERS T. J.
Published: January 2006

Data concerning the occurrence of life events in the year before onset of alcohol dependence were collected front 23 patients recruited from a district general hospital. Both male and female alcohol dependent cases reported significantly more severe life events in the year preceding onset of the disorder than did members of a community comparison group over the same 12‐month period. Events were also classified according to the dimensions of loss’ and ‘danger’, and ‘independence’. The study suggests that individuals may enter the initial stages of alcohol dependence in response to stressful life events.
Maintained controlled drinking following severe alcohol dependence—a case study
Authors: BOOTH P. G.
Published: January 2006

A case study is presented of a 10‐year follow‐up of a 46‐year‐old alcohol dependent client who chose a goal of controlled drinking on discharge from an ATU. Despite the severity of his problem, the data collected throughout the 10 year period from a variety of sources indicate that he has been successful in maintaining his goal. Variables are suggested which might have been influential in this particular individual's outcome.
Comparison of 7‐day retrospective and prospective alcohol consumption diaries in a female population in Perth, Western Australia—methodological issues
Authors: CORTI BILLIE , BINNS COLIN W. , HOWAT PETER A. , BLAZE‐TEMPLE DEBRA , LO SING KAI
Published: January 2006

The summer alcohol consumption of women living in metropolitan Penh was measured using both a retrospective and prospective diary. Overall, 1356 women fully completed both the retrospective and prospective alcohol consumption diaries. The prospective diary yielded a significantly higher level (9%) of consumption (p < 0.00001) compared with the retrospective diary. Although there was no significant difference in the percentage of women drinking at harmful levels (>280 g absolute alcohol per week) between the two diary methods, there did appear to be an important percentage difference (1.9% versus 2.8%) suggesting that the prospective diary did detect a larger percentage of women at risk. This would be both practically and statistically significant in large populations. The heavier the drinker the greater the variability in reported consumption between the two diary weeks. However, it is interesting to note that the direction of the variation depended on which diary was used as the base for classifying women as different types of drinkers. Women who drank at hazardous (140–280 g per week) or harmful (>280 g) levels during the retrospective diary week reported a lower level of consumption during the prospective diary week. Conversely women who drank at hazardous or harmful levels during the prospective diary week reported a lower level of consumption during the retrospective diary week. Possible explanations for these findings are explored and methodological considerations for future studies are discussed.
Hispanic drinking in the US: thinking in new directions
Authors: Caetano Raul
Published: January 2006

Until recently, alcohol research with US Hispanics had focused on deviant drinking and alcoholism, suggesting that these phenomena resulted from stress due to socioeconomic disadvantage or acculturation, or ‘machismo”. These explanations, however, are too simple to account for the complexity of drinking behavior and alcohol problems among this ethnic group. Recent research suggests that a full understanding of these problems will only be achieved by taking into account the sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics of US Hispanics as well as the culture and history that characterizes their life in the US.
What happens to drug misusers? A medium‐term follow‐up of subjects new to treatment
Authors: OPPENHEIMER EDNA , SHEEHAN MARGARET , TAYLOR COLIN
Published: January 2006

In a 2.5–5 year follow‐up study of 150 drug misusers who were new to treatment at three London Drug Treatment agencies, a 77% follow‐up rate was obtained. High rates of self‐reported abstinence from opiates and other drugs were found. Some 37% of those followed‐up were totally drug free at follow‐up. Seventy‐one per cent were living in the community and of those 73% were opiate free and 35% were totally drug free. Only 18% had injected in the 4 weeks prior to follow‐up. Thirteen per cent were in prison and 12% were resident in a therapeutic community. Being told about the dangers of HIV had persuaded some people to give up using drugs.
An analysis of the abstinence violation effect in a sample of illicit drug users
Authors: BIRKE SIMON A. , EDELMANN ROBERT J. , DAVIS PAUL E.
Published: January 2006

Studies using samples of alcoholics and cigarette smokers show that the occurrence of the abstinence violation effect predicts the likelihood of a full‐blown relapse following an initial slip from voluntary abstinence. The present study investigated this process in a sample of 31 illicit drug users. The attributional styles of abstainers and relapsers were examined in addition to the types of initial slip situations for the relapse group. No significant differences were found in attributional styles, although relative to the relapse group there was a tendency for abstainers to score higher on intemality and stability of attribution for negative events, but lower on globality. Both negative affect and interpersonal conflict, but not social pressure, were found to be important precipitants for relapse. Demographic differences between the groups are discussed in addition to the implications of the results for models of relapse, prediction of relapse and cognitive therapy in relapse prevention.
Discordance of physiological and biochemical response to smoking and to psychological stress
Authors: POMERLEAU CYNTHIA S. , POMERLEAU OVIDE F. , MCPHEE KATHLEEN , MORRELL ERIC M.
Published: January 2006

Both smoking and psychological stress produce marked effects upon cardiovascular function, and several studies have demonstrated that in combination they produce additive or potentiating effects. More recently, it has been reported that individuals strongly reactive to psychological stress are also strongly reactive to nicotine. In an attempt to replicate and extend those findings, we examined reactivity to smoking and competitive mental arithmetic across several physiological and biochemical variables. Despite stable responding across mental arithmetic trials, we were unable to demonstrate significant correlations between reactivity to smoking and to a psychological stressor. We further observed that anxiety level, when low, was a poor predictor of desire to smoke and of withdrawal, whereas higher anxiety levels were more tightly linked to these measures. These findings have implications for the iDentification of individuals at risk of cardiovascular disease as well as for the design of smoking treatment and relapse prevention programs.
The Drug Advisory Service of England and Wales—the first 2 years
Authors: STRANG JOHN , YOUNG ANNETTE
Published: January 2006

An historical account is presented of the introduction and subsequent work of the Drug Advisory Service (DAS) of England and Wales since 1986. Data are presented from an analysis of the recommendations contained within the first 11 reports. The structural and operational strengths and weaknesses of the present approach are considered, and alternative approaches which might constitute constructive modifications or supplements to the present system are discussed.
Combining insights from epidemiological and ethnographic data to investigate substance use in Truk, Federated States of Micronesia
Authors: MARSHALL MAC
Published: January 2006

There has been a recent concern in medical anthropology to combine quantitative epidemiological survey methods with qualitative ethnographic fieldwork methods as a means for drawing on the strengths of both approaches. This article shows the advantages of doing this by examining data on substance use and abuse from Truk, Federated States of Micronesia. Ethnographic research in 1976 based solely on qualitative methods is compared with a second study by the same investigator on the same island 9 years later that combined ethnographic fieldwork with an epidemiological general population survey of substance use by 1000 adults. The survey data were found to support many of the ethnographic conclusions, provide some new information not revealed by use of the qualitative methods and call into question a few interpretations of Trukese drinking based on qualitative data alone. This buttresses the argument that these methods are complementary, provide a cross‐check on one another and yield more information when used together than either does by itself.
Cultural background and drinking patterns in problem drinkers in Northern Norway
Authors: LARSEN SVEIN , NERGÅRD RAGNHILD
Published: January 2006

It was hypothesized that drinking patterns, treatment goals and psycho‐social consequences of drinking (as measured by the MAST) would be different in Saami (‘Lapp’) and Norwegian in‐patient problem drinkers, due to differences in cultural background. Drinking patterns and treatment goals differed significantly, implying that Saami clients demonstrated a more periodic drinking pattern and, to a smaller extent, tended to prefer total abstinence or a large reduction in alcohol consumption as their treatment goal compared to Norwegian clients. Furthermore, the Saami clients obtained significantly lower scores on the MAST than the Norwegian clients. No differences in degree of physical dependence and self‐reported alcohol consumption were observed. These findings indicate that the drinking culture in the two groups is different. Furthermore, the results imply that the MAST yields different problem scores in Saami and Norwegian clients, probably due to differences in ways of living in the two ethnic groups.
Providing health care for drug users?
Authors: DATT NEELAM , FEINMANN CHARLOTTE
Published: January 2006

In this specially commissioned BJA series experienced clinicians will be giving their personal and frontline views as to how the practical business of treating people with substance problems is best handled.

The majority of drug users neglect their health and have limited access to primary and preventative health care services. A health care team was developed in an attempt to provide health care for drug users, to prevent the spread of HIV and provide health education to the drug users. The health problems were related to injecting drugs, comprising abscesses, peripheral neuropathy and poor peripheral circulation. A high level of past infection with hepatitis B virus was noted, indicating the need for hepatitis B vaccination for drug users.
Serum levels of methadone in maintenance clients who persist in illicit drug use
Authors: BELL JAMES , BOWRON PETER , LEWIS JOHN , BATEY ROBERT
Published: January 2006

This study examined pharmacological factors contributing to persisting drug abuse by methadone maintenance clients. Three groups of clients, drawn from one treatment programme, were studied: persistent heroin users, persistent benzodiazepine users, and control subjects who were not using illicit drugs in addition to methadone. Persistent abusers mostly had high trough serum methadone levels, and their ongoing drug use appears to reflect a preference for a different drug effect rather than inadequate methadone dose. Several clients did have the expectation that methadone should prevent them from using other drugs; such expectations may diminish the effectiveness of treatment.
Alcohol consumption, problem drinking and antisocial behaviour in a sample of college students
Authors: WEST ROBERT , DRUMMOND COLIN , EAMES KATE
Published: January 2006

A total of 125 male and 145 female students completed a written questionnaire (response rate 68%) on their consumption levels and patterns, problem drinking and vandalism and assaults associated with drinking. Prevalence of heavy drinking was broadly similar to that found in other college student samples in the UK with 25.6% of male students and 14.5% of female students drinking more than their safe limits of 35 and 21 units per week respectively. Six percent of male and one percent of female students exceeded the problem drinking threshold on the MAST. Twenty percent of the male students and 6% of the females admitted having caused at least some damage to property after having been drinking in the past 12 months. Four percent of males and 5% of females admitted ‘minor’ assaults. Fifty percent of males and 36% of females had witnessed damage to property and 19% of males and 10% of females had experienced some kind of assault. Vandalism and assaults were positively and independently associated with higher levels of consumption, reasons for drinking and patterns of drinking; in particular morning drinking appeared to play a role. Taking amount of drinking into account, males were more likely to commit acts of vandalism but females were more likely to commit assaults. The results reveal that alcohol‐related, anti‐social behaviour among students is a significant problem and that, while heavy drinking per se plays a role, other factors are also important.
Employment and drinking in early adulthood: a longitudinal perspective
Authors: POWER C. , ESTAUGH V.
Published: January 2006

The relationship between drinking and employment was examined in a large, national representative longitudinal sample of young adults in Britain. Teenage drinking did not emerge as a strong influence upon subsequent employment experience: few associations were significant for either sex. However, early employment experiences did appear to be relevant to drinking in young adults, since unemployment of six months or more in total was significantly associated with heavier drinking in men (odds ratio=1.38, CI 1.14–1.64). Respondents ratings of overall job satisfaction were not generally associated with either previous drinking or with that in early adulthood.
The effect of alcohol consumption on recency discrimination ability: an early screening test for alcohol‐induced cognitive impairment
Authors: ALDERDICE FIONA A. , DAVIDSON ROBIN
Published: January 2006

In this short study the relationship between recency discrimination ability and a measure of alcohol intake was examined using a series of regression analyses. Semi‐partial correlations were extracted in order to evaluate which variables (level of alcohol consumption, age and IQ) best predicted recency discrimination performance on both verbal and non‐verbal tasks. Results showed that while IQ best predicted performance on the verbal task both IQ and alcohol intake were significant predictors on the non‐verbal task. The results are discussed in relation to current findings and the continuity hypothesis.
Drug problems and patterns of service use amongst illicit drug users in Edinburgh
Authors: MORRISON VALERIE , PLANT MARTIN
Published: January 2006

Some results are presented from a continuing prospective study of patterns of illicit drug use in the community. A study group of 115 illicit drug users in Edinburgh were contacted by a non‐random method known as ‘snowballing’. These were interviewed using a standardized schedule that related to over 200 variables. The use of drugs services are discussed and it is noted that reasons for making contact with such services are complex and not directly associated with any one factor. Extent of illicit substance use and adverse consequences experienced as a result of illicit substance use, are seen to be associated with agency contact, although it is suggested that many other reasons such as social pressure have a role to play. Some individuals, including opiate users, reported that their drug use had not led to any adverse consequences, others had experienced a variety of adverse consequences yet had had no contact with a drugs agency. The implications of these results are discussed.
Consistency of alcohol self‐report measures in a male young offender population
Authors: McMURRAN MARY , HOLLIN CLIVE R. , BOWEN ANGHARAD
Published: January 2006

The consistency among a number of measures of self‐report of alcohol consumption in imprisoned male young offenders was studied by asking 56 young offenders to report, based on a ‘typical week’, how many days they had consumed alcohol, how many days they were drunk and how much alcohol they had consumed. They were asked to rate their confidence in the accuracy of their self‐report and to complete the short EPQ‐R, which contains a Lie Scale. Results show that self‐report in this population is reliable over time and that different indices of alcohol consumption correlate significantly with each other. Young offenders report a moderate degree of confidence in their accuracy of self‐report and the mean EPQ‐R Lie Scale score is within 1 standard deviation of the norm for a comparable sample.
Licit and illicit drug policies: a typology
Authors: WARNER Kenneth E. , CITRIN TOBY , PICKETT GEORGE , RABE BARRY G. , WAGENAAR ALEXANDER , STRYKER JEFF
Published: January 2006

To foster comparison of policy interventions across the various categories of licit and illicit drugs, we develop a typology of policies intended to address drug abuse problems. The principal dimensions of the typology are policy type and intervention channel. While the typology has important limitations, as a mechanism to organize information and stimulate thought it holds the potential to improve understanding of commonalities and distinctions among policies applying to widely discrepant drug problems, both within and across cultures. As such, it could contribute to the development of more effective approaches to grappling with a diverse set of drug policy issues.
Statistical control in research on alcohol and tobacco: an example from research on alcohol and mortality
Authors: KOZLOWSKI LYNN T. , FERRENCE ROBERTA G.
Published: January 2006

Many of the major studies of deaths related to alcohol use report evidence for a U‐shaped relationship between mortality and consumption, with abstainers having higher mortality than moderate drinkers. Some have suggested that this indicates a protective effect of moderate drinking; others have argued that pre‐existing health problems and demographic and lifestyle differences explain the finding. In this report, we present evidence that the U‐shaped function is largely an artefact of inadequate controls for smoking and drinking intake and history. Never smoking abstainers die at about the same rate as never smoking moderate drinkers. We stress the importance of using precise measures of drug use history and drug use status and make the point that, given the strong interaction between smoking and drinking, controlling for smoking may produce misleading results.
Being positive: drug injectors' experiences of HIV infection
Authors: McKEGANEY NEIL
Published: January 2006

There is a growing concern within Britain, Europe and North America that injecting drug users may pose the greatest risk of transmit‐ting HIV infection to the wider heterosexual non‐drug injecting population. However, we know very little about the reactions of injecting drug users to the knowledge of being HIV positive and thus are hampered in our attempts at estimating the actual risks such individuals pose to others. This paper is based upon interviews with 26 seropositive injecting drug users and examines their experiences in relation to the following areas: (1) hearing the news; (2) communicating the diagnosis to others; (3) current drug use and sexual behaviour, and (4) perceptions of the future. It is shown that injecting drug users have a wide range of responses in relation to each of these areas and while the implications for their care and counselling are drawn out it is suggested that the fact of this variability undermines any single approach to patient or client management.
Assisted natural recovery from alcohol problems: effects of a self‐help manual with and without supplementary telephone contact
Authors: HEATHER NICK , KISSOON‐SINGH JEAN , FENTON GEORGE W.
Published: January 2006

One hundred and seven problem drinkers responding to a newspaper advertisement were randomly assigned to groups receiving: (1) a general advice and information booklet; (2) a behaviourally‐based self‐help manual; (3) in addition to the manual, an opportunity to make progress reports to a telephone answering service; and (4) in addition to the manual, an opportunity to make telephoned progress reports to an interviewer. Eighty‐seven (81.3%) respondents were successfully followed‐up and collateral information was available for 54 (61.1%) of these. Results showed a higher proportion drinking above recommended limits at six months follow‐up in the control group (78%) than in the groups receiving the manual (53%). There were no significant differences due to presence or type of telephone contact and poor use was made of the opportunity for telephone contact. Findings justify the widespread promotion of self‐help materials as a means of assisting the natural recovery process among problem drinkers.
Alcoholism and drug abuse—some legal issues for employers
Authors: HOWARD GILLIAN
Published: January 2006

Three specific areas of the law concern employers faced with problems of addiction at the workplace. At common law an employer may be guilty of negligence where a person has suffered personal injuries or economic loss as a result of an act of negligence committed in the course of employment by an employee. An example would be an employee with a serious addiction to alcohol or drugs who caused an accident in the company car whilst on company business. Employers may also be guilty of a criminal offence for breach of a statutory duty. One such duly is to have a ‘safe system of work’. Other statutory rights guarantee employees a right not to be unfairly dismissed and this includes employees with addiction problems. Lastly, employers must be careful not to break the contract of employment if, for example, an employee with an addiction problem were to be suspended from duty or have his company car withdrawn, even if this was a temporary measure only.
The prevalence of minor psychopathology in opioid users seeking treatment
Authors: SWIFT WENDY , WILLIAMS GERRY , NEILL OLWYN , GRENYER BRIN
Published: January 2006

Studies have consistently reported a relationship between psychopathology and opioid use, with the former cited as a powerful predictor of treatment outcome. Scores on the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ–28), a non‐diagnostic measure of minor psychopathology, were obtained from the randomly selected files of 150 opioid users presenting for treatment at an inner city drug advisory service. Approximately 61% of the sample qualified as ‘cases’, indicating some degree of psychological and social dysfunction. Clients with current legal charges had lower test scores than those without pending legal action, while GHQ scores were unrelated to the remaining 10 demographic and drug use variables investigated. The prevalence of minor psychopathology reported in this sample has implications for the provision of appropriate and effective interventions, and points to the further investigation of the GHQ as a tool in the assessment of psychological dysfunction in this population.
Drug research: a comparison of ongoing research and perceived research priorities
Authors: REDMAN SELINA , WEBB GLORIA R. , OAK STEPHANIE , SANSON‐FISHER ROBERT W.
Published: January 2006

Since drug abuse results in high costs to the community, it is vital that research funding be allocated in a way which ensures a maximum improvement in health for the money spent. This study explores the extent to which current research into drug and alcohol abuse in Australia reflects perceived research priorities. Two hundred and seventy–four ongoing research projects into drug and alcohol misuse were identified. Researchers currently working in this area were surveyed to ascertain perceived research priorities in terms of the drug studied, the type of data collected and the setting in which the study occurred. A comparison of ongoing projects with perceived research priorities indicated considerable discrepancies. Fewer intervention projects and more studies in laboratory and clinical settings were being undertaken than was perceived as desirable by the researchers. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for strategies for distributing research funds.
Coherence of the dependence syndrome in cocaine users
Authors: BRYANT KENDALL J. , ROUNSAVILLE BRUCE J. , BABOR THOMAS F.
Published: January 2006

The method of diagnosing drug dependence introduced in DSM‐III‐R is largely untested for drugs other than alcohol. Cocaine, unlike alcohol, lacks clearly identifiable withdrawal symptoms, yet is also considered highly addictive. Can criteria derived from the dependence syndrome concept be generally applied to treatment seeking cocaine users? To evaluate the coherence of the dependence syndrome elements for cocaine, factor analysis models are applied to the nine dichotomous DSM‐III‐R drug‐dependence criteria derived from structured clinical interviews with 399 cocaine users. A single factor model, in which both the centrality and severity of each criteria were assessed, adequately describes the criteria and supports the coherence of the dependence syndrome concept for cocaine. Pre‐occupation was the most central criterion in defining cocaine dependence. However, avoiding withdrawal through the use of other drugs measured the most severe level of drug dependence. Inability to stop using the tolerance were only minimally related to the measurement of cocaine dependence.
Social and cultural preconditions of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and factors associated with the strength of AA
Authors: MÄKELÄ KLAUS
Published: January 2006

In 1986, AA activities (a minimum of five groups) typically occurred in non‐socialist, non‐Islamic countries with a GNP per capita above US$ 1000. From 1965 to 1986, the share of English speaking and Scandinavian countries of all AA groups diminished, and the share of Central and Southern European, and particularly of Latin America, increased. Correlation analysis of countries fulfilling the typical preconditions of AA indicates changes in the relationships of AA to social background factors. In 1965, AA was strongest in the wealthiest countries, but no such correlation was observed in 1986. The rate of growth of AA has been higher in Roman Catholic countries. Wine consumption is negatively and beer consumption positively correlated to the strength of AA. Cross‐sectional strength of AA is not related to spirits consumption, but its rate of growth has been higher in countries where spirits are consumed. The first wave of diffusion brought AA to the Anglo‐Saxon and Protestant world. The second wave covered American and European Catholic countries, and bridgeheads have been established in newly industrialized nations. Still, AA remains a phenomenon of developed and wealthy societies.
Estimating hidden populations: a new method of calculating the prevalence of drug‐injecting and non‐injecting female street prostitution
Authors: BLOOR MICHAEL , LEYLAND ALASTAIR , BARNARD MARINA , McKEGANEY NEIL
Published: January 2006

This paper outlines a new method we have developed for estimating the prevalence of streetworking prostitution and the proportions of female street‐working prostitutes who are injecting drug users. This method is based on the capture/recapture approach and involves distinguishing new fieldwork contacts from repeat field work contacts. The size of the overall population can be modelled from records of the increasing ratio of repeat to new fieldwork contacts. The method may have a relevance beyond a concern with prostitution and drug injecting, and may be of value in estimating other hidden populations.
Utility of subjective‐effects measurements in assessing abuse liability of drugs in humans
Authors: FISCHMAN MARIAN W. , FOLTIN RICHARD W.
Published: January 2006

Estimates of the likelihood that a drug will be abused have generally been based on the subjective effects engendered by that drug. With the development of standardized subjective effects questionnaires in the 1960s and 1970s, researchers have been able to carefully evaluate self‐reported effects of drugs, generally making measures before and repeatedly after administration of a single dose of drug. The use of multiple doses under controlled laboratory conditions in which physiological measures are also taken, and both the investigator and the subject are blind to the dose administered, has been suggested as most likely to yield useful data about the abuse liability of a test compound. Although questions remain about the specific subjective effects measures to be used, there has been general agreement among researchers in this area that scores on scales from the Profile of Mood States, Addiction Research Center Inventory, and Visual Analog Scales which include measures of “high” or liking' all provide predictive utility. The addition of a measure of actual drug‐taking to this predictive model appears to provide important information about the conditions under which these two behaviors (self‐reported effects and drug self‐administration) vary, and strengthens the model substantially.
Performance and physiological measures in abuse liability evaluation
Authors: ROACHE JOHN D.
Published: January 2006

Abuse liability testing involves an evaluation of the likelihood of drug self‐use and also an evaluation of the harmful effects of drug use. This paper reviews the rationale and utility of examining performance and physiological measures in clinical abuse liability evaluation. It is concluded that there are three important reasons to employ such measures in abuse liability studies: (1) to serve as a reference point to allow for between drug and across measure comparisons; (2) to directly quantify dose‐response functions on multiple dimensions of drug effect and thus evaluate the overall profile of effects; and (3) to provide information on the likelihood that drug use will produce harmful effects. The review illustrates each of these purposes and briefly summarises conclusions from previous studies employing performance and physiological measures in the abuse liability evaluation of sedatives, stimulants, and opioids.
The relationship between stressful life situations and changes in alcohol consumption in a general population sample
Authors: ROMELSJÖ ANDERS , LAZARUS NANCY B. , KAPLAN GEORGE A. , COHEN RICHARD D.
Published: January 2006

Studies on the relationship between stressful life situations and alcohol consumption have almost exclusively been based on retrospective information from clinical populations. We conducted multiple regression analyses of the relationship between presumed stressful life conditions in 1965, life events during 1966–73 and psychosocial factors and amount of increase or decrease in alcohol consumption from 1965 to 1974 adjusting for age, alcohol consumption, education and health status in 1965. Data from surveys in 1965 and in 1974 in a general population sample of 4,864 subjects from Alameda County, California were used. The magnitude of the associations between the presumed stressful life situations and amount of change was generally low, although a few were statistically significant. However, among those aged 65 years and above, and especially among men, some of the associations were strong, but imprecise due to the low number of subjects in those ages. While a number of variables were associated with increase or decrease in alcohol consumption, the R2‐values indicated that these variables explained little of the variation over time in alcohol consumption. Thus, people in general seem to cope with stressful life situations by means, other than a longstanding increase in alcohol consumption.
The sharing of injecting equipment among drug users attending prescribing clinics and those using needle‐exchanges
Authors: KLEE HILARY , FAUGIER JEAN , HAYES CATH , MORRIS JULIE
Published: January 2006

Three groups of injecting drug‐users were defined in terms of their experience of methadone treatment: treatment for periods longer than 6 months, treatment for shorter periods, and no treatment. Methadone treatment and the use of needle exchanges were related in subsequent analysis to the sharing of injecting equipment. Comparisons between groups were made on other variables believed to be associated with sharing. Significant differences were observed between treatment groups in the recency of sharing and in the use of needle‐exchanges. Age and length of drug use were important factors in sharing, which was least prevalent among older respondents in long‐term treatment. Regular use of needle‐exchanges was associated with the passing on of used equipment to others. Subsequent analysis of regular users suggested respondents in long‐term treatment were less likely to pass on their equipment than those in the other two groups.
Tobacco epidemic or bonanza? The global connection
Authors: ARAYA RICARDO I. , LARANJEIRA RONALDO
Published: January 2006

There seems to be ample agreement that tobacco is an addictive harmful substance. The smoking epidemic is most noticeably affecting third world countries but the developed world despite overoptimistic predictions is still far from safe. Profits derived mainly from tobacco trading in poor countries are being used to target vulnerable groups in more developed countries. The fight against smoking in developing countries is hindered by many internal and external factors. The socioeconomic situation is so desperate that governments are prepared to hand over the health of their people as pan of payment. Some developed countries have consistently applied double standards to dealing with harmful drugs, not only ignoring the smoking epidemic affecting less developed countries but also actively protecting and encouraging its spreading. The fight against drugs, including smoking, badly needs a real proof of commitment from these countries.