bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What Is School Refusal Behavior?
Authors: Kearney Christopher A
Published: November 2023

“Jonathan has missed the last week of school! I can’t seem to get him out of bed in the morning. I feel so frustrated. What can I do?” “Ashlee has a lot of trouble going to school in the morning. She cries a lot and just seems so unhappy. This is so stressful for all of us. How can we help our daughter?” “I just found out that Reggie has been skipping some classes at school. I can’t believe it! Why is he doing this? What happens now?” “Will just seems to mope around, especially on Sunday nights. He’s always asking us to put him in home schooling. I’m so confused. Should I teach him at
Different Types of School Refusal Behavior
Authors: Kearney Christopher A
Published: November 2023

In chapter 1 we discussed different kinds of problems that kids may have when attending school. In chis chapter, we begin to solve these problems by first: Keeping track of, and recording, your child’s attendance, level of dis­ tress, and morning behavior problems Finding out exactly why your child is having trouble attending school so we know which chapters (3 through 6) apply most to you Tracking and Recording Your Child’s School Refusal Behavior One of the most important things I will ask you to do is keep track of your child’s attendance problems. In particular, I will ask you to keep track of your child’s actual time in school, level of distress, and morning behavior problems. For the methods in chis book to work, you must keep track of your child’s behavior every day. I ask you to do this for several reasons-knowing about your child’s attendance problems each day will help you, your spouse/partner, your child, and school officials to: Become more aware of your child’s actual time in school, level of dis­ tress, and morning behavior problems See how your child’s behavior changes during the week
Children Who Refuse School for Attention
Authors: Kearney Christopher A
Published: November 2023

Sam is an 8-year-old boy who has problems attending school because he would much rather be with his mother at home. Sam often refuses to go to school in the morning, although his mom (Emily) can sometimes get him to go into the school building. Sam says he likes school but often misses his mother. Whenever he is at school, Sam tries to call Emily and has even run out of the school building twice to try to go home. Lately, Emily has been eating lunch with Sam in the school cafeteria to get him to go to school with lessfuss. This chapter will be more helpful to you if your child matches Sam’s situation or if one or more of the following is true: Your child is refusing school only to get attention from you or significant others. Your child wants you to attend school with him. Your family’s morning routine is chaotic.
Children Who Refuse School to Do Fun Things Outside School
Authors: Kearney Christopher A
Published: November 2023

Maya is a r6-year-old girl who has been skipping afternoon classes to hang out with her friends outside of school. Although Maya does go to school in the morning, she often meets up with her friends Callie and Nita in the middle of the day for lunch. Many times the teens eat lunch off the school campus and then “ditch” the rest of the day to go to a focal mall or spend time at Callie’s house. Maya is not distressed about school but complains sometimes that school is boring. She tried to hide her absences from her parents, but the principal recently informed Maya’s mother that her daughter has now missed at least seven afternoons of school.
Issues in the Diagnosis and Assessment of Mood Disorders in Minorities
Authors: Marin Humberto , Escobar Javier I
Published: November 2023

The diagnosis and assessment of mental disorders in minority groups in the United States is gaining relevance as issues such as ‘‘health disparities’’ come to the forefront. In this process, the traditional (‘‘colonial’’) view of minority is being gradually replaced by a new perspective that values cultural identities and advocates the implementation of culturally relevant interventions for groups outside mainstream American culture.
Treatment Modalities and Culture
Authors: Westermeyer Joseph J
Published: November 2023

Culture can affect treatment modalities in numerous ways. If people in a society understand a treatment modality and accept its application, they are more likely to accept and comply with the treatment. If the treatment is not familiar, or conflicts with cultural notions regarding treatment, acceptance and adherence will suffer (Moore& Boehnlein, 1991, p. 1029). Culturalfamiliarity and approvalserve as a critical first step toward family acceptance, societal access to and availability of the modality, and the support of other societal institutions for the modality. Society endorses treatment alternatives through such institutions as education, religion, health care, health law, industrial production, and courts.
The Scientific Status of Complementary and Alternative Medicines for Mood Disorders:A Review
Authors: Barry Declan T , Beitel Mark
Published: November 2023

In recent years, mental health professionals, medical providers, patients, and the general public have demonstrated much interest in using complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) to treat a variety of physical and psychiatric problems and disorders, including depression (Astin, 1998; Barnes, Powell– Griner, McFann, & Nahin, 2004; Eisenberg, Davis, Ettner, Appel, Wilkey, Van Rompay, et al., 1998; Kessler, Soukup, Davis, Foster, Wilkey, Van Rompay, et al., 2001b; McLennan, Wilson, & Taylor, 1996; Rhee, Garg, & Hershey, 2004; Unu¨ tzer, Klap, Sturm, Young, Marmon, Shatkin, et al., 2000). This chapter discusses issues related to CAM use and depression, including efficacy and safety. It reviews in detail specific CAMs that have been empirically examined for the treatment of depression (one example from each of the five classifications of CAMs designated by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine [NCCAM]) and offers CAM practice recommendations for clinicians and providers who work with depressed patients.
Models for the Delivery of Care
Authors: Kilbourne Amy M
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses effective treatment models for managing mood disorders across diverse populations and settings. In addition, the multilevel barriers in translating effective treatment models for mood disorders into real-world settings for vulnerable populations are discussed. A framework to implement treatment models for mood disorders across diverse populations is proposed based on chronic care management principles, as well as innovative strategies that target the multilevel barriers in translating treatment models across different health care settings based on community involvement.
Psychopharmacology and Culture
Authors: Sajatovic Martha , Fuller Matthew A
Published: November 2023

Modern psychopharmacology, the science of drug or medication treatment for mental disorders, was ushered in by such groundbreaking developments in the treatment of mood disorders as tricyclic and SSRI antidepressants for depression, and lithium, anticonvulsant compounds, and atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of bipolar disorder. However, although these developments in psychopharmacology have led to substantial improvements in health outcomes for many individuals suffering from mood disorders, in other cases biological or social factors may lead to differing or even suboptimal medication response in some populations. The relationship between psychopharmacology and culture is complex and still not entirely understood.
Legal and Ethical Issues in Research Relating to Mood Disorders
Authors: Loue Sana
Published: November 2023

Significant legal and ethical issues exist in the context of research with participants who have been diagnosed with mood disorders. Many of these issues relate to the informed consent process, such as the capacity of the prospective research participant to provide or withhold his or her consent to participation, the ability of the individual to understand the information that is provided to him or her by the research team, the designation of a surrogate for consent to participate and the standard to be used by the surrogate in providing or withholding that consent, and the standard by which to assess and balance the risks and benefits that may result from participation. The resolution of these issues in a specific context may be rendered even more difficult as individuals with mood disorders age and develop additional conditions that may impact their ability to understand and process information, such as stroke, dementia, hearing loss, and vision loss, and/or encounter circumstances, such as placement in a nursing home or an assisted living situation, that reduce their actual or perceived ability to participate in research free of coercion or duress.

Conducting research with individuals suffering from mood disorders is critical if we are to improve our understanding of the epidemiology of mood disorders, our ability to assess individuals’ capabilities, and our ability to develop and implement more effective and supportive interventions.
Training the Next Generation of Health Care Professionals:Awareness and Appreciation of Cultural Issues in Mental Health
Authors: Kramer Elizabeth J , Resendez Cynthia I , Ahmed Iqbal
Published: November 2023

Differential population growth throughout the world, and widespread migration, both voluntary and involuntary, make it essential that health care providers be keenly aware of cultural and ethnic issues relating to the patients they serve, regardless of where they practice. For example, according to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2006, ethnic minority individuals comprise about 33% of the U.S. population, and 12.5% of those people are immigrants (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006b). These individuals experience mental health problems at rates similar to those of whites and they need to be appropriately addressed in a culturally competent manner. By 2020, depression, which frequently is not recognized and not treated (Simon & Von Korff, 1995) is expected to be the second leading cause of death and disability, and is anticipated to impose the greatest burden of ill health worldwide (Murray & Lopez, 1997). Prior to the NESARC there was a paucity of data on the prevalence of mood and other mental health disorders in ethnic minority patients. The NESARC, which was large enough to include all the major ethnic groups, found an overall 12 month DSM-IV prevalence of major depressive disorder of 5.3% and a lifetime prevalence of 13.2% Those rates are summarized by race/ethnicity in Table 15.1.
A Concert of Power
Authors: Lind Michael
Published: November 2023

Like proponents of other strategies, most American isolationists favor U.S. hegemony in North America. However, for isolationists U.S. hegemony in the North American quarter-sphere is the beginning and end of American strategy, not the basis of a policy of U.S. intervention in power politics beyond North America. An isolationist America would foreswear the use of force and diplomacy to influence geopolitical outcomes in other parts of the world.
American Strategy in the Asian Century
Authors: Lind Michael
Published: November 2023

Admiral and Eunuch are Unlikely Synonyms. But Cheng Ho was both. One of thousands of eunuchs trusted by the Ming Emperor Yung-Lo because he could have no ambitions for his children, Admiral Cheng Ho (1371–1435) led the Chinese Navy on seven expeditions to the “Western Oceans” between 1405 and 1433. His treasure ships, each five times the size of one of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama’s vessels, brought back tribute from lands along the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf.
The American Way of Military Strategy
Authors: Lind Michael
Published: November 2023

As one military analyst has observed, in all of these debates “the American style of warfare amounts to a way of battle more than a way of war.” Any attempt to define an enduring American way of war in terms of particular tactics is doomed, not only by the diversity of situations in which the U.S. military is deployed, but also by ever-changing technology, which replaced the cavalry with tanks in the twentieth century and may replace piloted aircraft with pilotless drones in the twenty-first.
The American Way of Trade
Authors: Lind Michael
Published: November 2023

One Aircraft Every Five Minutes. That is what the United States produced in 1943 and 1944. In 1939 the United States had produced only 5,856 aircraft. After the United States mobilized its economy in World War II, the total rose to 85,898 aircraft per year in 1943 before reaching a peak of 96,318 in 1944. By contrast, Germany produced only 24,807 aircraft in 1943 and 39,807 in 1944; Japan’s totals were 16,693 and 28,180. On D-Day, June 6, 1944, against the 12,837 aircraft of the Allies, the Germans could deploy only 319.
Pioneers
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

The two papers in this section, “Damned Liars and Expert Witnesses” by Paul Meier, and “Statisticians, Econometricians, and Adversary Proceedings” by Franklin M. Fisher, reflect the experiences of two pioneers in presenting statistical evidence in court. The cases they discuss are different, and yet the circumstances they describe haven’t changed much in the intervening years. It’sitting to start this book with the words of two masters of the trade.
Discrimination In Employment
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

Federal law (U.S. Code, Title 29, Chapter 14 § 626) forbids discrimination against people 40 years of age and older with respect to employment decisions. Under the doctrine of adverse impact, statistics can be used to establish a prima facie case of discrimination. Under this doctrine it is not necessary to prove that the employer had discriminatory intent, but only to show that his actions had the actual effect of disadvantaging a disproportionate number of people of protected age or race. See United States v. Hazlewood School District, 443 U.S. 299 (1977) (race discrimination) and Geller v. Markham, 635 F.2d 1027 (2d Cir. 1980). To overcome such a prima facie showing, an employer can demonstrate a nondiscriminatory business reason for the decisions.
Racial Steering
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

Racial discrimination may occur in many ways. Blatant refusal to provide goods, services, employment, or housing on grounds of race is most familiar, but many more subtle forms of discrimination are common.

Racial steering is one such subtle form of racial discrimination involving housing. Racial steering typically occurs as real estate agents and brokers act to preserve and encourage patterns of racial segregation. When an individual or family comes seeking housing, an agent may illegally offer only options in a neighborhood already dominated by the individual’s or family’s race. The customer is not offered housing in neighborhoods dominated by other races. Racial steering violates section 1982 of the Civil Rights Act of 1966 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.
Juries in Death Penalty Cases
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

This article considers a question of current legal interest: whether the present jury selection procedure used in cases in which capital punishment is a possibility is biased against the defense. Section 1 gives the legal background of the question addressed here. Section 2 describes two major studies on jurors in capital cases that were recently presented to the California Supreme Court in Hovey v. Superior Court (1980): the Fitzgerald and Ellsworth (1984) work on the attitudes of jurors favoring either the defense or the prosecution, and the Cowan, Thompson, and Ellsworth (1984) experiment on juror behavior. The response of the California Supreme Court in Hovey is then discussed.
Electronic Draw Poker
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

This section records the history of one of my earliest adventures as an expert witness. Pennsylvania has made it illegal to possess a “gambling device,” de;ned as a machine you have to pay to play, that gives you a reward for winning, and in which chance, not skill, drives the outcome.

Thus a slot machine, into which you put money to play, gives you money if you win, and whose outcome is determined solely by chance, is a gambling device per se (i.e., in and of itself). By contrast, a deck of cards could be used for gambling, but could be used solely for amusement, and hence is not a gambling device per se.

The issue in this case was whether a certain kind of draw poker machine was a gambling device per se (and hence could be seized by the State Police on sight), or was a gambling device only if it was used for gambling (which would require further evidence). This question boiled down to a discussion of skill versus chance.
Tax Audits
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

A government has the right to “audit,” i.e., examine the books and financial records of its taxpayers to determine whether enough tax has been paid. But or an auditor to examine each and every record among thousands or millions available is neither efficient nor possible. Hence sampling of some kind is an obviously desirable strategy. The result, when applied to a tax audit, is a probability distribution for the amount owed. However, it is not clear how much the payment should be in such a circumstance.
Vote Tampering
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

In a democracy, the integrity of the voting system is crucial to the maintenance of public con; dence in the outcome. While each system of voting has vulnerabilities, paper ballots are particularly vulnerable. In this case, it was alleged that certain ballot boxes were tampered with between the count on election night and a later recount.

The first analyses done on the data were exploratory and informal, but indicated that vote tampering was likely and showed which precincts were likely to have been the subjects of the tampering. The courts, basically using evidence speci;c to the ballots, found suf;cient tampering to reverse the outcome of the election, in the same precincts. Finally, the paper shows an elaborate model of all the races decided in that election, again showing a high probability of vote tampering, again in the suspect precincts. Thus all three methods, although quite different, come essentially to the same conclusion.
Patent Misconduct
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

This case concerns alleged misconduct by an inventor, adding material to his notebook after it was witnessed in an effort to mislead the Patent Of;ce about when he thought of the added material. The issue boils down to whether the added text lies above or below the witness line on the page.

To support the allegation of inequitable conduct, the defendant measured the concentration of 13 trace elements on the raw paper, the text, the witness line, and the intersection between the text and witness lines. Finding that the intersections were more similar to the text than to the witness line, they proposed that therefore the text lies on top of the witness line, so it was added later, thus supporting the claim of inequitable conduct.
A Very Brief Introduction to English Law
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

The final two cases examined in this book are from England. Much of English law is like U.S. law, because until 1776 the original 13 states were English colonies. There are, however, important differences.

Sovereignty in England is undivided. Thus there is no analog in England of the relationship between the U.S. federal government and the states. Additionally, there is no written constitution. Legal rights are therefore principally protected by precedent cases.
Presenting Bayesian Analysis to the Jury
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

This case, also from England, concerns an experiment, conducted by Peter Donnelly, to introduce Bayes Theorem to a jury in an interactive manner. The ;rst item here is an account by him of his experiences. Also included are two court decisions that have the consequence of invalidating such an interactive approach. But the courts also verge on rejecting probabilistic evidence entirely.
From Goal Activation to Action: How Does Preference and Use of Knowledge Intervene?
Authors: Markman Arthur B , Brendl C Miguel , Kim Kyungil
Published: November 2023

The folk psychology of action is fairly straightforward. An agent selects a goal it wants to accomplish. It seeks actions and objects that will allow the agent to bring about the goal. Th e items (e.g., objects, people,and activities) that the agent represents as instrumental for satisfying the goal are called goal-related items. Th ese items should be valuable to the agent. Items that block goal satisfaction are called goal- conflicting items.
Flexibility in the Development of Action
Authors: Adolph Karen E , Joh Amy S , Franchak John M , Ishak Shaziela , Gill Simone V
Published: November 2023

This chapter has two major aims. The first is to describe flexibility in motor action. Balance and locomotion in infants are used as a test case for understanding three aspects of behavioral flexibility— adaptive motor decisions, modification of ongoing activity, and new means to achieve a goal. The second aim is to illuminate the links between flexibility and development.
Consciousness as a Troubleshooting Device? The Role of Consciousness in Goal Pursuit
Authors: Bongers Karin C A , Dijksterhuis Ap
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on the role of consciousness in goal-directed behavior. It begins by reviewing evidence that goals can be activated outside awareness and run to completion without the person being aware. It then reviews literature concerning evaluation processes in conscious goal pursuit and explores whether people are indeed able to detect success and failure to attain unconsciously activated goals. It is argued that failure renders goal-related constructs highly accessible. In turn, this heightened accessibility of goal-related constructs can ultimately lead to conscious awareness of the goal. Evidence is presented that supports the idea that people start to think consciously about unconsciously activated goals when progress is problematic. The chapter ends with a discussion of whether conscious goal related thoughts serve a regulatory function.
A Cultural Geography
Authors: Gregg Gary S
Published: November 2023

When I wrote Self Representation about the life narratives of young Americans, I assumed my readers shared my respondents’ culture and easily would grasp what it meant when one described herself as a New Age–type person and another said he’d once tried to style himself after the Beat writers. I didn’t hesitate to use familiar cultural terms, describing one respondent as living a counterculture lifestyle and another as narrating a Pygmalion-like life story. Even while I was emphasizing the role of culture in shaping my respondents’ identities, I never recognized the way every step in my interpretations depended on the cultural understandings I presumed respondent, writer, and reader all shared. This book cannot rest on that presumption and presents daunting difficulties about how to provide enough background on North African culture for readers to understand my respondents’ words and evaluate my interpretations of them.
Graph Theory
Authors: Johnston William , McAllister Alex M
Published: November 2023

Graph theory is the area of mathematics that grapples with the notion of connectedness among objects. Viewed from the proper perspective, our world is filled with many different relationships from the large-scale to the microscopic, from the concrete to the more abstract. Airline routes and interstates connect cities, bridges connect land masses, and wires connect computer circuits. There are relationships among family members, friends, business associates, countries, and corporations. Many aspects of our society are improved by analyzing and optimizing such connections. On a more personal level, navigating our way through daily life often involves understanding social relationships.

Many of the questions that challenge and motivate mathematicians who study graph theory are rooted in visual representations of our world. For example, we might wonder, “What is the best route from Cincinnati, Ohio to Nashville, Tennessee?” The road map in figure 6.1 can help us answer this question. When considering this map, we should keep in mind that “best” can have many different meanings, including least distance, least time, or most picturesque. Perhaps you can think of some other criterion; for example, having a close friend in Lexington, Kentucky might influence your choice of routes.
Complex Analysis
Authors: Johnston William , McAllister Alex M
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the elegant and useful mathematics of complex-valued functions. The underlying characterization of a single-valued complex function is the same as for a real-valued function—every (complex number) input is mapped to a unique (complex number) output. In the same way as for real functions, the set of all possible inputs is called the domain of the function and the set of all possible outputs is the range. As we defined in chapter 3, the field of complex numbers contains the reals as a proper subset; we will see that C is two-dimensional, whereas the set of reals is one-dimensional. Because of this increase in dimensionality, the resulting functional behavior is much more intricate for complex functions than for real-valued ones. As a result, the study of complex functions is a rich, interesting field of endeavor, containing many beautiful and sometimes surprising mathematical phenomena.
Setting the Foundation for Dual Recovery
Authors: Daley Dennis C , Douaihy Antoine
Published: November 2023

Deana is recovering from recurrent major depression and heroin addiction. She has been in a psychiatric hospital once and completed two addiction rehabilitation programs. Deana struggled with low motivation and negative attitudes about taking medications for depression, attitudes that had prevented her from benefiting from treatment. Until recently, she focused mainly on her addiction and struggled with acceptance of her mood disorder. Now she is finally getting the help she needs because of a change in her attitude.
Medications in Dual Recovery
Authors: Daley Dennis C , Douaihy Antoine
Published: November 2023

Medications are used to treat the acute symptoms and prevent relapse and recurrence of an episode of depression or bipolar illness.1–10 In addition, treatment goals with medications include a full return of functioning. Antidepressants and mood stabilizers, the medications commonly used to treat depression or bipolar illness, do not produce dependence and have no potential for abuse. They are safe for individuals in recovery from alcoholism or drug dependence. Depression is no longer attributed simply to too little neurochemicals such as serotonin or norepinephrine. Instead, depression is associated with a dysregulation of neurochemical firing patterns. Antidepressants treat specific symptoms of depression such as depressed mood, sadness, fatigue and suicidality, and they also regulate the altered brain chemistry that may contribute to these symptoms.
Working With Your Family
Authors: Daley Dennis C , Douaihy Antoine
Published: November 2023

Discussions with people in your support network put you in a position to identify problems early. Small problems can be caught and dealt with before they Rates of addiction, depression, or bipolar disorder are higher among first-degree relatives (siblings or children) than among the general population.1,2 For example, up to 1% of the general population will have bipolar illness, whereas up to 10% of first-degree relatives will have this illness. Major depression is about three times higher among first-degree relatives than among the general population. Rates of addiction are also higher among relatives of individuals with an addiction than among the general population. For example, a study of alcoholics and their siblings found that almost 50% of brothers and 25% of sisters of the alcoholic also met criteria for alcoholism at some point in their lives; these rates are about 2–4 times higher than the rates of alcoholism found in the general population.
Beyond Rationality
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Ken Hammond has spent over a half-century analysing judgment and decision-making. His long-time focus has been on the dichotomy between judgment theories of correspondence (working to achieve empirical accuracy) and coherence (aiming for rationality and consistency) and the political consequences that can come from not understanding which of these theories people are following. In Beyond Rationality Hammond sums up his work and illustrates it with penetrating case studies on topics such as why Kennedy and Khruschev misunderstood each other, Colin Powell's misjudgments, the modes of thought on the Supreme Court, and much, much more. Hammond has changed the way academics think about decision making; with this book, he aims to show a larger audience why mistaken judgments happen, how to make better decisions, and how to understand the thought modes operating in the political process.
Combating Uncertainty
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

It has often been pointed out “we live in a sea of bacteria” (or viruses). But for those of us who are concerned with how we think, it would be equally appropriate to say “we live in a sea of uncertainty,” for it is uncertainty that envelops our (almost) every judgment. All that is very general, but the pains of uncertainty can be very specific, and in retrospect very uncomfortable indeed. The report of the 9/11 Commission states that although in 1941 the United States “had excellent intelligence that a Japanese attack was coming... these were the days of ‘excruciating uncertainty.’ “
The Strategy of Seeking Correspondence Competence
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

The first strategy to consider is the oldest one: using information for the purpose of making empirically accurate judgments about the natural world. As a result of natural selection, human beings are good at these natural judgments. For example, we are good at judging that this tree is very tall and hard to climb, this animal is further away than that one but is larger, and that mountain, although it looks smaller than this one, is larger but further away. Indeed, our ability to use visual perceptions to make empirically accurate judgments under good conditions is astonishingly good, although we can be fooled under peculiar conditions.
The Coherence Strategy: Trying to Be Rational
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Although we can be quite confident that we have possessed correspondence competence for millions of years, when coherence competence emerged is another matter. We certainly could have gotten along quite well without a coherent set of thoughts for the million years we lived as hominids. There was little or nothing in the natural environment that demanded a coherent judgment strategy from hominids and their immediate successors—no algebra, no Cartesian coordinates, and little if any social organization to demand coherent judgments, so far as we know.
Intuition: Seeking Empirical Accuracy the Easy Way
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Intuition has always been a mysterious process because it is an unconscious process of integrating information. Because it is unconscious, that is, because you are unaware of how you do it, and therefore can’t explain it, the process remains mysterious. That is a critical feature of intuition. To many people its mystery suggests it’s a very powerful form of cognition, but to many others it means that intuition deserves no credence at all.
Analysis: Seeking Empirical Accuracy the Hard Way
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

The slow, hard, highly defensible way to reach a judgment—whether in the correspondence or coherence strategy—is to be analytical. Analysis is hard because it demands that you know how to reason and that you know how to be explicit about your reasoning so that you can defend that reasoning, in terms of both logic and substantive knowledge. In short, you have to think, slowly and carefully: this is not intuition; it is its opposite.
Introduction
Authors: Apple Robin F , Lock James , Peebles Rebecka
Published: November 2023

If you are currently considering any form of weight loss surgery, it is likely that you have been thinking about your decision for some time. Certainly, it is a decision that warrants much thoughtful consideration. Hopefully this book will help you with various aspects of your decision-making process. Perhaps you began to think about weight loss surgery after a conversation with your primary care physician, who was concerned about specific obesirrelated health problems, such as heart disease, hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes, or sleep apnea.
Conclusion Can We Be Delivered from Extraordinary Human Evil?
Authors: Waller James
Published: November 2023

Is there any hope that the twentieth century’s “Age of Genocide” will be replaced by a twenty-first century that ushers in an increase in cooperative, caring, nonviolent relations between countries and the people in them? Unfortunately, most futurists and scholars in genocide studies think not. Current trends suggest that there will be escalating conditions of extreme hardship, even disaster, in many parts of the world throughout the twenty-first century. These trends include a combination of environmental damage, loss of agricultural lands, dwindling of food and fuel resources, and a doubling of population to between 8.5 and 9.5 billion by 2025. Disconcertingly, the most volatile areas of social instability, mainly in the Third World, are the very places where much of the genocide since 1945 already has taken place.
Introduction
Authors: Wilcox Rand R
Published: November 2023

At its simplest level, statistics involves the description and summary of events. How many home runs did Babe Ruth hit? What is the average rainfall in Seattle? But from a scientific point of view, it has come to mean much more. Broadly defined, it is the science, technology and art of extracting information from observational data, with an emphasis on solving real world problems.
Graphical Summaries Of Data And Some Related Issues
Authors: Wilcox Rand R
Published: November 2023

This chapter covers some of the more basic methods for graphically summarizing data and it comments on some related issues. Included are some modern insights regarding when these graphical methods perform well, and when and why they might be unsatisfactory. A few comments about more modern methods are provided.
Hypothesis Testing
Authors: Wilcox Rand R
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter described confidence intervals, which provide a fundamental strategy for making inferences about population measures of location such as the population mean μ and the population median. About a century after Laplace’s ground breaking work on sampling distributions, a new set of tools was developed for making inferences about parameters that adds perspective and which are routinely used when attempting to understand data.
Correlation And Regression
Authors: Wilcox Rand R
Published: November 2023

One of the most common goals in applied research is trying to determine whether two variables are dependent, and if they are dependent, trying to understand the nature of the association. Is there an association between aggression in the home and the cognitive functioning of children living in the home? If yes, how might we describe it in an effective manner? Is there an association between breast cancer rates and exposure to solar radiation? What is the association between weight gain in infants and the amount of ozone in the air? This chapter describes the most commonly used tools for answering these type of questions. As usual, we provide a description of the mechanics and the underlying assumptions associated with conventional methods. Then we describe situations where these techniques perform well and where they can be highly inaccurate. Many modern tools have been designed for dealing with practical problems associated with the basic methods described here, but complete details go well beyond the scope of this book. However, a brief outline is provided of how a few modern methods deal with practical problems.
Comparing Two Groups
Authors: Wilcox Rand R
Published: November 2023

Chapters 6 and 7 described how to make inferences about the population mean, and other measures of location, associated with a single population of individuals or things. This chapter extends these methods to situations where the goal is to compare two groups. For example, Table 2.1 reports data from a study on changes in cholesterol levels when participants take an experimental drug. But of fundamental interest is how the changes compare to individuals who receive a placebo instead. Example 4 in section 6.2 described an experiment on the effect of ozone on weight gain among rats. The two groups in this study consisted of rats living in an ozone environment and ones that lived in an ozone-free environment.
Comparing More Than Two Groups
Authors: Wilcox Rand R
Published: November 2023

Chapter 9 described methods for comparing two groups, but quite often more than two groups are of interest. For example, a researcher might have four methods for treating schizophrenia, in which case there is the issue of whether the choice of method makes a difference. As another example, several drugs might be used to control high blood pressure.
Declining Amphibian Populations and the Biodiversity Crisis
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

Conservation biologists, ecologists, and evolutionary biologists focus on the world’s biodiversity. Biodiversity is a buzzword, but what does it really mean? Introduced a couple of decades ago, the term has since taken on numerous definitions, some more biological than political, some more political than biological. To most nonbiologists and many biologists, biodiversity means the number of kinds of living organisms, or species richness. In this sense, an area with 800 species of butter3ies has higher biodiversity than an area with 100 species.

The concept is much more than simply number of species, however. Reed Noss and Allen Cooperrider, leading conservation biologists and independent consultants, offered the following working de.nition of biodiversity: “Biodiversity is the variety of life and its processes. It includes the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting.” Thus, loss of biodiversity is more than the loss of species. It is also the loss of genetic and ecosystem diversity, the alteration of structure, and the disruption of ecological and evolutionary processes.
Rallying Around The Issue of Amphibian Declines
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

Although amphibian populations declined or disappeared before and during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, it was not until the First World Congress of Herpetology, held in Canterbury, England, in September 1989, that investigators began to suspect the extent of the losses. Almost 1400 delegates from 60 countries attended this congress. Participants presented a few papers addressing declines, but informal conversations in staircases, halls, meeting rooms, and pubs crystallized awareness of the bigger problem. Herpetologist after herpetologist shared stories of losing his or her study populations. Many were shocked to discover their stories were not unique. Amphibian populations 3uctuate widely, so many of us had assumed that it was just a matter of time until weather conditions improved and “our” animals would bounce back. No need to panic; no need to publish about declines or disappearances. Just wait it out.

That is also what one of us (MLC) had assumed. Marty, then at the University of Florida, had recently lost her study populations of golden toads (Bufo periglenes) and harlequin frogs (Atelopus varius) from Monteverde, Costa Rica.
Contaminants, Global Change, and Emerging Infectious Diseases
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

In the late 1980s and 1990s, we were hearing reports of some amphibian species going extinct in only a few years; the search for the answer to the question, Why are they gone? was becoming paramount. But as we have seen already, the reality in science, as in any good detective novel, is complicated.

In the last chapter, we learned that historical explanations point to such causes as competition with exotic, introduced species or predation by the same; harvesting of wild animals for food or pets; and changes in land use. These mechanisms accounted for most of the damage to amphibian populations for much of the 20th century, and even today. These historical causes also typically leave clues—some as obvious as the mark of a chainsaw— from which an investigation can begin.

However, at least some of the amphibian declines and extinctions in the late 20th century left few, if any, clues. Animals went missing in national parks and nature reserves, where obvious causes such as habitat destruction did not apply; somehow, habitat protection, historically the best way to ensure a species’ survival, was failing to safeguard some amphibians.
Unraveling The Mystery
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

We ended the last chapter with a brief description of an emerging disease caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a pathogen associated with many amphibian population declines around the world. Whether Bd is the direct and only cause of certain declines, whether it acts only when catalyzed by or associated with some other environmental factor, or whether it comes into play only when amphibians are stressed will be discussed in chapter 7. The answer differs among species and geographical locations.

Our current understanding of the chytrid scenario results from more than a decade’s worth of “detective work” by scientists worldwide. These scientists have diverse expertise, from ecology to pathology. They have used various methodologies, including empirical work and .field observations of amphibians, laboratory and field experiments, rigorous hypothesis testing, and searching for correlations between factors. Each scientist built on previous work by others, either expanding a line of investigation or proposing alternative ideas.
Amphibian Chytrid Fungus as a Cause of Declines and Extinctions
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

In ecology or conservation biology textbooks, infectious disease is usually discussed as a stressor that can cause a population to decrease but eventually recover, or perhaps stabilize at a smaller size after an epidemic. Rarely is infectious disease discussed as a primary cause of extinction. A well known exception is chestnut blight in the northeastern United States: An introduced fungus eliminated American chestnuts as major forest trees in urban and native landscapes, although even in this case the species did not become extinct. American chestnuts can still be found, but the species is no longer a dominant canopy tree.

The chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is regularly associated with amphibian declines and extinctions.
New Approaches to Doing Science and Conservation
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

Late in the 20th century, the historical and modern forces that cause population declines and extinctions converged on amphibian species in ways that accelerated population and species losses in frogs and salamanders. As mentioned in chapter 1, recent analyses by Kim Roelants and colleagues at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and by Malcolm McCallum at Texas A&M University reached similar conclusions using different methods: The late 20th century extinction rate for amphibians is between 200 and 2700 times greater than the extinction rate for the class Amphibia over the last 350 million years. The fact that amphibians disappeared in protected areas such as nature reserves, which by definition humans “reserve” for protecting species and conserving biodiversity, drew the world’s attention to the general importance of explaining these losses, because they signaled that habitat restrictions alone could not protect amphibians, or, probably, other organisms. Cornelia Dean, a reporter for the New York Times, wrote: “Conservation organizations that work to preserve biologically rich landscapes are confronting a painful realization: In an era of climate change, many of their efforts may be insufficient or beside the point.” At least for amphibians, “conservation as usual” was not working, which raised the general question: What constitutes a nature reserve at the start of the 21st century? In some cases, a reserve of last resort is a zoo, aquarium, or other conservation facility—but more about that possibility in the next chapter.
School Refusal Behavior: Definition and Description
Authors: Kearney Christopher A
Published: November 2023

Reggie missed the last week of school and cannot seem to get out of bed in the morning. He often cries about having to go to school and seems quite unhappy when there. Reggie mopes around on school nights, especially Sunday nights, and always seems to have stomachaches or headaches before school.
Interventions for Positively Reinforced School Refusal Behavior
Authors: Kearney Christopher A
Published: November 2023

Eevie is a 7-year-old girl who often refuses school because she wants to stay home with a parent. She commonly screams on the playground before school, wrapping herself tightly around her mother’s legs or running back to the car. Eevie does attend class if a parent is in the school building, so Eevie’s mother has taken a leave of absence from work to serve as a parent volunteer at her daughter’s elementary school. Eevie also insists that her mother eat lunch with her in the school cafeteria and that her mother be at her classroom at exactly 3:15 p.m. to take her home. Eevie also commonly refuses to attend play dates or birthday parties if one of her parents cannot be there.
Computing Minds
Authors: Edelman Shimon
Published: November 2023

The Arguments i outlined in the preceding chapter suggest that minds are best explained in computational terms. To persuade you that the quest for such an explanation is worth our while, I must now show that the chain of explanatory reasoning connecting the proposed theory of the mind to computation is sound, and that the concept of computation itself is solid and intuitive enough to anchor that reasoning in the bedrock of empirical knowledge and, indeed, common sense. The three successive links in the chain of explanation that I am setting out to forge can be conveniently cast in the form of three tightly interwoven observations, as illustrated in Figure 2.1 on the next page. I propose to explain the nature of minds in terms of the function of brains, brain function in terms of computation, and computation itself in terms of principled manipulation of representations. The opening observation — “minds are what brains do” (a quip by Marvin Minsky, a co-founder of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory) — leads naturally to the next question: “what is it that brains do?”
The Astonishing Hypothesis
Authors: Edelman Shimon
Published: November 2023

A mind is a terrible thing to explain. Francis Crick wrote in 1994 that the hypothesis that the mind can be understood in terms of the brain — the central idea in McCulloch’s EXPERIMENTAL EPISTEMOLOGY project — was still “so alien to the ideas of most people today that it can truly be called astonishing”: The Astonishing Hypothesis is that “You,” your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of personal identity and free will, are in fact no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules.