bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Johnson David Martel
Published: November 2023

Aristotle’s theory of soul presupposed that the distinction between plants and animals was clear, obvious, and exhaustive. According to this theory, all living things were possessed of “vegetative souls,” which allowed them to grow, reproduce, and be nourished. Only in the case of a few, fairly complicated organisms-that is, animals-were there also “sensitive” souls, which rendered them capable of moving and perceiving. Fewer creatures stillnamely, human beings at the top of the pyramid of life-had “rational souls” in addition to souls of the other two sorts, by virtue of which they were able to think and reason. When I was a student of philosophy at Yale in the 1960s, all this struck me as quaint and almost certainly mistaken. But at least it seemed to encapsulate one important and genuine division among living things. Thus, it came as a surprise when I learned that the university administration planned to close the Botany and Zoology departments and transfer all associated staff to a single, combined department to be called something like Life Sciences. One of my roommates at the time was a biologist. When I asked him about this administrative change, he assured me it was not primarily a cost-cutting measure, nor a piece of empire-building on the part of politically ambitious individuals. Instead, he claimed it was a natural, even inevitable development out of certain facts that scientists had discovered in the relatively recent past.
Exploiting Temporal Continuity in Qualitative Spatial Calculi
Authors: Cohn A G , Gotts N M , Cui Z , Randell D A , Bennett B , Gooday J M
Published: November 2023

Artificial Intelligence (Al) must secure rigorously derived formal theories that support our everyday understanding of properties of space and time if intelligent autonomous machines are eventually to be produced. Without such a foundation, we have no means to verify whether any program will function correctly, or indeed, safely. Over the last decade temporal logics have been extensively and successfully used as formal tools in both AI and software engineering-see for example, Galton (1987). Logics describing space have not been developed and exploited to the same degree, although there has been more interest recently. Our research assumes that it is desirable to do this in order to place future applications of spatial reasoning on a sound foundation. Spatial logics also have uses in software engineering-in the visualization and animation of pro grams (Kahn and Saraswat, 1990).
Aristotelian Spatial Dynamics in the Age of Geographic Information Systems
Authors: Couclelis Helen
Published: November 2023

Some few people are born without any sense of time. As consequence, their sense of place becomes heightened to an excruciating degree. They lie in tall grass and are questioned by poets and painters from all over the world. These time-deaf are beseeched to describe the precise placement of trees in the spring, the shape of snow in the Alps, the angle of sun on a church, the position of rivers, the location of moss, the pattern of birds in a flock. Yet the time-deaf are unable to speak what they know. For speech needs a sequence of words, spoken in time.
Longitudinal Analysis of Migration and Mobility Spatial Behavior in Explicitly Temporal Contexts
Authors: Odland John
Published: November 2023

A spatial and temporal framework is a prerequisite for analyzing migration and mobility behavior because these behaviors are defined by occupation of a set of locations in some temporal sequence and can only be recognized by keeping track of the locations of individuals over time. Investigations of migration and residential mobility have typically focused on one aspect of this spatial-temporal sequencing: the relocation events that move individuals from one place to an other. These are either migration events that involve the relocation of individuals between relatively distant communities or the relocation of a household to new housing within a community. Explanations of the two kinds of relocation events typically differ, with migration decisions often explained in terms of labor force participation and changes of housing treated as consumption decisions, but re search in both areas has usually centered on the events that move individuals or households from one location to another. Some recent developments in mobility research have shifted the emphasis toward explicitly longitudinal approaches in which migration and mobility behavior are analyzed in terms of sequences of be havior in space and time, which constitute locational histories for individuals. These histories provide continuous records of the whereabouts of individuals for some period of time, including the dates of relocation events, the lengths of the intervening sojourns, and information about the sequencing of relocation behavior; as well as information about the histories of other variables, such as individuals’ employment histories and marital histories.
The Psychosemantic Approach to Political Psychology: Mapping Russian Political Thought
Authors: Petrenko Victor F , Mitina Olga V
Published: November 2023

How can we understand Russian political thought? What can we learn from the weltering array of newly created political parties, strident groups with demands that range from a return to the monarchy to the return of the Stalinists, and a myriad of critical problems that modern Russians face? As political psychologists and other scholars and observers of the political scene in other parts of the world already know, there are no easy answers to complex questions about how and why masses of people think or act as they do.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Historical Context and Evolution
Authors: Kramer Teresa L , Green Bonnie L
Published: November 2023

Despite numerous portrayals in classic literature of humankind’s psychic struggle over the effects of war, murder, rape, disasters, plagues, and so forth, clinicians and researchers have only recently begun to name, describe, study, and treat post-trauma phenomena. The earliest clinical observations on the effects of trauma were recorded by Charcot, Freud, and Breuer. In Studies on Hysteria, Breuer and Freud (1956) offered the following definition: “In traumatic neurosis the operative cause of illness is not the trifling psychical injury but the effect of fright-the psychical trauma Any experience which calls up distressing affects-such as those of fright, anxiety, shame or physical pain may operate as a trauma of this kind” (pp.5-6, as cited by Krystal,1978). As the reader will see, the term traumatic neurosis initially provided the theoretical framework for the study of post-traumatic symptomatology. Eventually, as this area of study progressed, the term neurosis was seen as inadequate, as well as biased toward psychoanalytic thinking, and was therefore replaced-first by terminology specific to the type of trauma and then by the current nosology of post-traumatic stress disorder (Scrignar, 1984).
Strangers in the Homeland: Ethnopsychological Problems of Forced Immigrants in Russia
Authors: Soldatova Galina U
Published: November 2023

They came to the Soviet Union/Russia because they had no choice refugees from war-torn areas who fled to save their lives, criminals of conscience who came seeking political asylum, and forced deportees who had decided they must leave the place they had known as home. Unwilling immigrants have flooded into the Soviet Union/Russia in the last several years. First, they faced the traumatic events that caused them to leave their homelands, and now they face a new set of serious adjustment problems that include the need to adapt to an unfamiliar culture, uncertainty about their future, poverty and financial dependence, and the humiliation of having to ask for aid from relatives, strangers, and the government bureaucracy.
Comrrwnalities of Suicide
Authors: Shneidman Edwin S
Published: November 2023

Like food for a starving person or new clothes for a liberated concentration camp prisoner, new ideas create new hope. This is true for both the suicidal person and the therapist. For me, the new idea was that all suicidal patients-—hat is, all the committed suicidal people I have studied over the years, independent of their different psychological needs—exhibited a certain set of psychological characteristics. In the cauldron of thought, I boiled these down to 10 commonalities of suicide.
Return to Armageddon
Authors: Powaski Ronald E
Published: November 2023

When the Cold War ended, the world let out a collective sigh of relief as the fear of nuclear confrontation between superpowers appeared to vanish overnight. As we approach the new millennium, however, the proliferation of nuclear weapons to ever more belligerent countries and factions raises alarming new concerns about the threat of nuclear war. In Return to Armageddon, Ronald Powaski assesses the dangers that beset us as we enter an increasingly unstable political world. With the START I and II treaties, completed by George Bush in 1991 and 1993 respectively, and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), signed by Bill Clinton in 1996, it seemed as if the nuclear clock had been successfully turned back to a safer hour. But Powaski shows that there is much less reason for optimism than we may like to think. Continued U.S.-Russian cooperation can no longer be assured. To make matters worse, Russia has not ratified the START II Treaty and the U.S. Senate has failed to approve the CTBT. Perhaps even more ominously, the effort to prevent the acquisition of nuclear weapons by nonweapon states is threatened by nuclear tests conducted by India and Pakistan. The nuclear club is growing and its most recent members are increasingly hostile. Indeed, it is becoming ever more difficult to keep track of the expertise and material needed to build nuclear weapons, which almost certainly will find their way into terrorist hands. Accessible, authoritative, and provocative, Return to Armageddon provides both a comprehensive account of the arms control process and a startling reappraisal of the nuclear threat that refuses to go away.
Clinton, START II, and the ABM Treaty
Authors: Powaski Ronald E
Published: November 2023

Unlike Ronald Reagan, William Jefferson Clinton entered the White House determined to reduce the number of nuclear weapons. He also promised to go much farther than the Bush administration in ending the nuclear arms race. He indicated that his administration would continue to reduce the risks of vertical nuclear proliferation by giving the start i and start ii treaties high priority.
Clinton and Counterproliferation
Authors: Powaski Ronald E
Published: November 2023

Throughout his presidential campaign, President Clinton made the elimination of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons—as well as the ballistic missiles that could deliver them—a top priority of his administration. Perhaps the most important counterproliferation program of the Clinton administration was the effort to gain international support for the indefinite extension of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. With 181 parties in 1995, the NPT had entered into force in 1970 but was scheduled to expire in 1995 if not renewed. The administration argued that indefinite extension of the npt was essential for global and regional stability, for preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, and for facilitating and regulating cooperation among states in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.1
The Black Book
Authors: Lemke Sieglinde
Published: November 2023

It is an insult to the great Caucasian race, the father of all the arts and sciences, to compare it to that black and kinky race which lived in a state of black and ignorant savagery until the white race seized it and lifted it to its present position. The African with his love of color, warmth, rhythm and the whole sensuous life, might, if emotionally liberated, do interesting things to a “Nordic” stock, so bustling and busy, so preoccupied with “doing things” in the external world, as almost to forget, sometimes, that it has any senses. And it would be one of fate’s quaint but no means impossible revenges if the Negro’s real contribution to American life should be in the field of art.
The Asymmetry of Facial Actions Is Inconsistent with Models of Hemispheric Specialization
Authors: Hager Joseph C , Ekman Paul
Published: November 2023

Recent reports have suggested that asymmetries in facial expressions result from cerebral hemispheric specialization. A summary of these theoretical models is contained in table 2.1. These models differ in two important respects: whether emotional or nonemotional neural processes are involved, and whether specialization of the right, the left, or both hemispheres underlies asymmetry. This report evaluates these issues.
Genuine, Suppressed, and Faked Facial Behavior during Exacerbation of Chronic Low Back Pain
Authors: Craig Kenneth D , Hyde Susan A , Patrick Christopher J
Published: November 2023

Facial activity during painful events has attracted attention as a source of diagnostic information in adults (Craig & Prkachin, 1983; Grunau, Johnston, & Craig, 1990; Keefe, Bradley, & Crisson, 1990; LeResche & Dworkin, 1984; Prkachin & Mercer, 1989) and children (Grunau & Craig, 1987; Grunau et al., 1990; Izard, Heubner, Resser, McGinness, & Dougherty, 1980). There also is evidence that facial grimaces of pain determine the reactions of observers in the natural social environment (Craig, Grunau, & Aquan-Assee, 1988; Kleck et al., 1976; Lanzetta, Cartwright-Smith, & Kleck, 1976; Patrick, Craig, & Prkachin, 1986; Prkachin, Currie, & Craig, 1983). Thus, understanding the facial display of pain has considerable importance for understanding both clinical decision making and spontaneous social behavior.
Facial Expression in Affective Disorders
Authors: Ekman Paul , Matsumoto David , Friesen Wallace V
Published: November 2023

Recent progress in the study of facial expressions of emotion in normal individuals could have relevance to clinical investigations of depression. Universal facial expressions of emotion have been identified (Ekman, 1982a; Izard, 1971; Fridlund, Ekman, & Oster, 1987; Ekman & Friesen, 1986) for seven emotions-anger, contempt, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, and happiness-that can be objectively and reliably distinguished one from another (Ekman, 1982b). Whether a disturbance in emotion is seen as a symptom (Beck, 1967; Abramson, Garber, Edwards, & Seligman, 1978) or as central in the etiology (Izard, 1977; Tomkins, 1963) of depression, the precise measurement of facial expressions of emotion could be useful in clinical investigations and perhaps also in the treatment of depression and other affective disorders. Specifying which of the seven emotions are evident in facial expressions, their relative strength, and any repetitive sequences of these emotional expressions might help to refine diagnosis, could be of aid in monitoring response to treatment, and might help to predict the like lihood of subsequent improvement or relapse.
The Significance of Behavioral Ecology for Conservation Biology
Authors: Caro Tim
Published: November 2023

Imagine that you are a beginning graduate student or professor interested in topics in both behavioral ecology and conservation biology. You want to apply the principles and methods in behavioral ecology to the conservation of species and habitats. What should you study? How can you make a meaningful contribution that will last for 5, perhaps 10 years? More specifically, is it really sensible to ask if a species’ mating system can affect its survival chances, or whether patterns of sex allocation might influence the success of a reintroduction program, or if territorial behavior affects plans to bolster wild populations?
Ecological Indicators of Risk for Primates, as Judged By Species’ Susceptibility to Logging
Authors: Harcourt Alexander
Published: November 2023

Most primate species live in tropical forests. Tropical forests are not only disappearing fast, but disappearing at an increasing rate, at an average of more than 2.5% annually in some countries, thus giving a time to total forest disappearance in some countries of well under a century (Myers, 1984; Barnes, 1990; Skole and Tucker, 1993; Harcourt, 1995a; World Resources Institute, 1996). Primates are therefore disappearing fast: some species number fewer than l(K)O individuals (Mittermeier and Cheney, 1987). The question addressed here is how might we, as biologists, identify those species that are most at risk? Some conservationists have suggested that measures of human impact on a region are a better indicator of the future than are biological measures of what is happening (Brown, 1981; Western, 1982; Weber, 1987; Leader-Williams and Alban, 1988; Peres and Terborgh, 1995; see also Harrison, 1987), However, while analysis of human impact can inform us of the fate of a whole ecosystem, it might be less applicable to predicting the future of individual species within a region.
Contributions of Behavioral Studies to Captive Management and Breeding of Rare and Endangered Mammals
Authors: Wielebnowski Nadja
Published: November 2023

The importance of captive breeding as a viable tool for conservation of rare and endangered species has been emphasized by zoos, aquariums, and other captive facilities since the early 1970s. Zoos have repeatedly been portrayed as future “arks” for endangered species (Durrell, 1975; Martin, 1975; Brambell, 1977; Soule et al., 1986; Durrell and Mallinson, 1987; Luoma, 1987; Tudge, 1991; DeBlieu, 1994; Gibbons et al., 1994; Rabb, 1994). In concordance with this perspective, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has adopted a policy endorsing captive breeding as an important supportive intervention to avoid the loss of many species (IUCN, 1987). The policy calls for the establishment of captive-breeding programs and self-sustaining captive populations (i.e., populations that are viable in captivity without further genetic influx from the wild) before a species is reduced to critically low numbers in the wild. Captive-breeding programs are to be coordinated internationally according to genetic and demographic principles. The ultimate goal of captive breeding programs is the maintenance and/or reestablishment of viable populations in the wild (IUCN, 1987).
Animal Breeding Systems, Hunter Selectivity, and Consumptive Use in Wildlife Conservation
Authors: Greene Correigh , Umbanhowar James , Mangel Marc , Caro Tim
Published: November 2023

Wild animal and plant populations are protected from development and agriculture in a number of ways, ranging from strict nature reserves and national parks that are managed for wilderness protection and nonconsumptive recreation, to multiple-use areas from which species or products are extracted (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991). In the face of the growing human population, much of the world’s animal and plant diversity will in the future be found within protected areas, so the efficacy with which different forms of protection conserve biodiversity is now of central concern (Meffe and Carroll, 1997). In the long term, we will need to determine whether wildlife populations protected in national parks suffer less attrition than those protected in multiple-use areas and which types of multiple-use areas are best.
Indigenous Hunting in the Neotropics: Conservation or Optimal Foraging?
Authors: Alvard Michael
Published: November 2023

Much work of conservationists arises from the desire to balance individuals’ needs with the long-term goal of conserving biological diversity. One result is that solutions often include persuading people to behave in ways that are contrary to their own short-term self-interest. This conflict is apparent in the context of subsistence or traditional peoples and their use of species and habitats that conservation biologists consider threatened or endangered. Some conservationists view native peoples as allies whose goals are essentially isomorphic with their own (e.g., Alcorn, 1993), while others consider native people to be at least part of the problem (Redford and Stearman, 1993). There is no question that people and their use of natural resources are the ultimate cause of the conservation dilemma. It is human activity that leads to the destruction of ecosystems, the extinction of species, and the loss of biodiversity. A corollary to this truth is the implication that “natural” (not influenced by human action) processes that lead to extinction, habitat loss, or loss of biodiversity are an acceptable part of the way nature works (e.g., predation by nonhuman predators). The standard view of humans as despoilers of nature, however, is often reserved for industrial and postindustrial societies (Oelschlaeger, 1991; Budianski, 1995).
The Korowai People
Authors: Enk Gerrit J Van , Vries Lourens De
Published: November 2023

The Korowai are a Papuan people living in the Kecamatan (subdistrict) Kouh of the district Merauke of the Indonesian province Irian Jaya, in the area between the upper Becking and Eilanden rivers (see figure 1—1) and east of the headwaters of the Becking River.
Kinship Terminology
Authors: Enk Gerrit J Van , Vries Lourens De
Published: November 2023

Korowai kinship nouns are a class of nouns with two characteristics. First, they have plural forms, whereas other Korowai nouns do not have plural forms. Second, they can be glossed in terms of the English nouns for relationships in the nuclear family (‘father/mother, son/daughter, brother/ sister, husband/wife’).1

This use of genealogical glosses needs to be qualified. First, not all meanings of kinship terms can be glossed genealogically (see Bean 1981). The Korowai term ni ‘mother’, for example, is also used in the following ways: ‘wife’, ‘woman’, ‘Mrs.’, part of the proper names of females, and part of the expression for ‘coward’. Some of such nonkinship uses in Korowai are described below, Nonkinship expressions. Second, the status of the genealogical glosses is suspect because their use is based on the questionable assumption that the words for ‘mother’ and similar terms in all languages share a cross-cultural genealogical component of meaning (see Schneider 1984).
Korowai Texts
Authors: Enk Gerrit J Van , Vries Lourens De
Published: November 2023

The texts in this chapter function as evidence for the grammatical statements in this book but also as illustrations of discourse patterns and of genres within the oral tradition. Furthermore, the texts are selected for the way in which they are windows to aspects of Korowai culture.

There are nine texts in this chapter. The texts were produced by six different speakers, all from different clans, including one female narrator. Four texts are narratives from the oral tradition, one text is an exposition on the procedure followed when pigs are sacrificed, three texts are real-life stories, and one text is a song.
Development of Locomotion and Endothermy in Altricial and Precocial Birds
Authors: Hohtola Esa , Visser G Henk
Published: November 2023

Temperature and function are intimately interrelated in the skeletal muscle of developing chicks and nestlings. On the one hand, while precocial chicks usually have better control of body temperature than altricial nestlings, tissue temperatures in both groups are labile enough to significantly influence muscle tension, speed, power, and locomotory coordination. On the other hand, muscles are responsible for thermoregulatory heat production, mainly in the form of shivering thermogenesis, invoked to counteract heat loss during cold exposure. Both the temperature dependency of muscle function and muscle thermogenesis are differentially modified by the altricial and precocial modes of development. These complicated interactions constitute an intriguing and informative area of developmental research.
Internal Constraints on Growth in Birds
Authors: Ricklefs Robert E , Starck J Matthias , Konarzewski Marek
Published: November 2023

Growth rate constants in birds of similar body mass may vary by a factor of as much as 10 (Ricklefs 1968, 1973, 1979a; see also chapters IO and 17). We presume that differences in growth rate among species represent adaptations to different sets of environmental factors and that observed growth rates are close to optima compared to other potential phenotypes available to populations. Furthermore, we presume that growth rates represent compromises that place opposing selective factors and internal constraints in balance. A basic premise of life-history theory is that the range of possible phenotypes is contrained by certain structural and physiological limits of the organism; these limits establish conflicts between different functions and requirements. In the case of growing birds, constraint and compromise may occur at three principal levels (Ricklefs 1969c, 1979a), each of which has different implications for the evolutionary diversification of growth rates in birds.
Avian Growth Rate Data Set
Authors: Starck J Matthias , Ricklefs Robert E
Published: November 2023

Data of growth are of size over time. Measuring growth as the time from hatching to , as the ratio of size devided by hatchling size, as the daily size increment, or similar may be approprite if one is interested in particular growth phenomena within a species. However, the size of various body parts and age are highly correlated, and any comparison among species may be by such a correlation. The most strightforward approach to overcome such problems is to fit data to equations with a few interpretable parameters. A detailed discussion of a mathematical description of growth, types of analyses, curve fitting, and statistical inferences about growth parameters is given in Ricklefs (1983).
Commerce and colonization
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

Dutch commercial rivalry with England became intense by the middle of the seventeenth century, and it ultimately led to the English conquest of New Netherland in 1664. consequently, it h s often been assumed that their rivalry also shaped the foremost features of North American commerce and colonization by Dutch merchants from the very outset of the century. Not quite so. Anglo-Dutch competition was keen, to be sure; and it sharpened in 1609–10 when Henry Hudson, a subject of King James I, signed a contract with the Dutch East India Company to seek a northeasterly route to the Orient. Nevertheless, the Dutch and English nations• were both Protestant, relatively small, .and cautiously feeling their way in foreign affairs in the early 16oos. They had more in common with each other than they did with the two superpowers of the day, Spain and France: both Catholic, imperious, and hungering to swallow up smaller neighbors. The Dutch bestowed their bitterest hatred upon the Spanish. By more than mere accident, the brief truce between Spain and the northern Netherlands (1609–21) coincided exactly with Henry Hudson’s great voyage of discovery in 1609 and the chartering of the Dutch West India Company in 1621. These two events, more than any others, made possible the settlement of New Netherland, and they occurred because of the Dutch desire to best their former Iberian overlords.
The Anglo-Dutch Proprietary
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

Historians have long regarded the year 1664 as pivotal in New York’s history—the most significant, perhaps, between 1609 and 1776. The colony did, after all, change hands and colors, just as the claws of the Atlantic sand crab—ordinarily orange, blue, and white—become imperial red when captured and boiled. New Netherland did pass from a Dutch company’s property to an English duke’s proprietary; and there were inhabitants who changed their coloration more willingly and less painfully than the sand crab. Carel van Brugge, for example, became Charles Bridge; and doughty Dutch farmers began to adopt surnames, following the English custom. Pieter Claessen had been so named simply because his father’s name was Claes (Nicholas); but soon after the conquest of 1664 he became Pieter Claessen Wyckoff. The phenomenon, copied from the English, was not uncommon.

Despite the discontinuities and very real changes that occurred after the conquest, however, too much has been made of them.
Politics and The Perils of Instability
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

Between 1665 and 1682 a penumbra of protest had spread gradually over New York, merely darkening in some areas, menacing in others. The sources of protest varied from one time, place, and issue to another; but the common denominators, the heaviest portion of that penumbra, were plain enough: lack of a provincial assembly and the accompanying sense of arbitrary government; an omnipresence of economic monopolies and privileges for special interests; resentment of taxation and the collection of customs duties.

In consequence, a series of serious shifts began to occur in 1683: changes in the colony’s constitutional arrangements, in its economic circumstances, and in its relationship to the world without—the French and Indians, neighboring colonies, and government at “home.” These changes and attendant frustrations only served to deepen the voices of discontent between 1683 and 1688 and foretold the fiercest perils of instability for the period 1689-91. Just as protracted rainstorms precede a hurricane, so the politics of unrest preceded rebellion. Skies darkened, spirits were dampened, and inhabitants expected the worst. Their very fears, it turned out, hurried the whirlwind along and made it all the more tumultuous.
Political Changes and Constitutional Challenges
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

Although New York’s economy underwent a striking period of growth from 1713 until 1728, its polity changed even more dramatically between the early 1720s and about 1740. Why so? First, because of major changes in personnel. Some of the leading figures in provincial politics for more than a generation past gave up the ghost (Peter Schuyler in 1724, Robert Livingston and Abraham de Peyster in 1728) and were replaced by younger men who were prominent for decades to come. Moreover, Hunter and Burnet, the able pair who governed between 1710 and 1728, were succeeded by less skillful politicians: Montgomerie, Cosby, and Clarke (1728–43). In consequence, the governor’s office suffered a significant decline in quality, dignity, and effectiveness. Whereas Hunter had been astute, detached, and respected, William Burnet managed to alienate some of the colony’s most powerful economic interests. Nevertheless, Burnet was at least intelligent, vigorous, and a champion of imperial needs as against the particularistic schemes of New York’s fur traders. By contrast, John Montgomerie had few principles or convictions and readily sacrificed those few for political expediency. Cosby was inexperienced, ill informed, and temperamentally unsuited for the office. And the nominal appointee between 1737 and 1741, Lord De La Warr, was an absentee; so the colony had to be run by a partially compromised deputy.
Heaving Up Jonah
Authors: Lankton Larry
Published: November 2023

People, possessions, provisions—all had to be transported up to the Keweenaw Peninsula and then distributed to the new settlements dedicated to copper mining. Besides the small stuff of life, early settlers moved in the tools of mining: explosives, sledgehammers, drill steels, wheelbarrows, wagons, and even steam engines and boilers. Then, of course, they also had to move out the object of their efforts: the copper.

At first, no portion of any journey was easy: not the water part and, especially, not the overland part. A region so laced with swamps and dense forests that it blocked the path of lone travelers on foot could not be expected to easily yield up tons and tons of copper to distant markets. Internal improvements to water and overland transportation—undertaken over several decades by various levels of government, by the mining companies themselves, and by other entrepreneurs—supported the growth of a new industry, while benefiting settlers in their everyday lives.
Tasks At Hand
Authors: Lankton Larry
Published: November 2023

The Keweenaw mining frontier was in the business of making itself over, of making itself into a more habitable and hospitable place. If it didn’t take all kinds, it surely took many kinds of people to transform a wilderness into a frontier and then into a suitable home for an industrial society dedicated to copper mining. Frontier society had many niches that needed filling as it matured, and diverse peoples came to fill those niches and round the place out.

As society rooted in, a growing force of workers—first nearly all men, but then women and children, too—toiled at different tasks in many different environments. They worked in the woods or under the ground. They labored in stamp mills or stores, in offices or houses. They harvested ice off frozen lakes or ladled molten copper through furnace doors.
Saints and Scholars
Authors: Lankton Larry
Published: November 2023

Along the Keweenaw’s mineral range, the fates of mining companies, churches, and schools were inextricably intertwined. Where the mine showed the promise of profitability, the population swelled, the number of families increased, and building a school and church became a priority. If the company suddenly went bust after a few years of operation, then its failure brought down attendant social institutions that had just started to root in. Families moved out. Local schools and churches collapsed. On the other hand, if the company settled in for a long run of profitable mining, the churches, schools, and other social institutions operating on its margins grew larger and more varied over time.

After laboring hard for six days of the week, some workers caroused on the seventh, but many others chose to worship. The church was an important part of many peoples’ lives, one that served their spiritual needs while offering a refuge from daily trials and tribulations. Settlers migrated from faraway places to a very different world on this northern frontier. The church provided them with an opportunity to reconnect with fellow countrymen and to reestablish important religious traditions. But churches had to adapt to frontier conditions, and worshipers had to accommodate changed circumstances. New comers to Lake Superior could emulate but never duplicate their earlier religious experiences.
Oceanic Ecosystems and Pelagic Fisheries
Authors: McClanahan T R
Published: November 2023

Most of us view the ocean as strangers who can only visit for a short time before returning to our more solid and airy homes. But ours is largely a wet and salty planet where life has had its greatest success, in terms of phyletic biological diversity and its persistence over geologic time, in the ocean. Many of the plant and animal forms we presently find in the ocean failed to produce the more recent landinvading relatives - which may explain the “extra-terrestrial” feeling divers who visit coral reef or seagrass ecosystems experience. But, for many, such as fishermen, the ocean is their work place, and understanding the various intricacies of life on the seafloor or the patterns of waves, currents and tides may be critical to their successful resource use and their personal survival. East Africa and Africans have had a long relationship with the Indian Ocean not only as a means of transport to and from the web of commercial sea-faring routes that have long connected Indian Ocean and Red Sea inhabitants, but also as an important resource for food and other commercial products. These natural and commercial resources, their distribution, the ecological basis of their production, and their use by humans are themes of the following discussion.
Savanna Ecosystems
Authors: Gichohi Helen , Gakahu Chris , Mwangi Evans
Published: November 2023

Great herds of wildebeest, big cats, the great tuskers and the all but extinct rhino are the images that epitomize the savannas of Africa. The savannas of Africa are occupied by the earth’s’ richest and most spectacular large mammal fauna, a sizable proportion of which is found in East Africa. The diverse topography and geology, and the spatial and temporal variability in climate in eastern and southern Africa have created a mosaic of distinct vegetation types that were accompanied by parallel broad ungulate radiations. Wildlife of the African savannas remained relatively intact when most similar large mammals became extinct on other continents (see Chapter 2). Nonetheless, other pressures have recently come to bear on these populations, reducing them to small remnants of more impressive herds that existed several decades ago. Tremendous pressure from a burgeoning human population, a growing demand for agricultural land and heavy poaching have severely reduced the numbers of many wildlife species, particularly elephants, rhinos and major carnivores. The moist savanna ecosystems which constitute areas of higher agricultural potential have been settled and the dry semi-arid zones, where much of the wildlife now occurs, are currently under similar threats. Habitat fragmentation and habitat changes induced by the removal of traditional human agencies (fire, grazing) also continue to affect the savanna’s wildlife populations.
Riverine Forests
Authors: Medley Kimberly E , Hughes Francine M R
Published: November 2023

‘Riverine forest’ is an ecosystem that exhibits a composition, structure, and function dependent on the river processes of erosion, sediment transport, flooding inundation, and alluvial deposition (6). Other terms such as ‘floodplain’, ‘riparian’, ‘gallery,’ ‘fringing,’ and ‘alluvial’ are synonymous with the term ‘riverine’, but may be used in reference to a particular section along a river course as it flows from the highlands to the delta. Some terms refer to specific ecosystems such as the ‘igapo’ and ‘varzea’ forests along the Amazon (40). In all situations, the physical dynamics of the river strongly influence the biotic dynamics of the ecosystem. ‘Forests’ within the riverine environment are dominated by trees, which may range in height from 3 to 35 meters. If one views the system from above, at the landscape scale, riverine forests most often exist as linear patches in a mosaic of other natural communities and human land uses. Understanding the relationships among all these communities is very much a part of studying the riverine forest ecosystem and its conservation.
A Vision of the Future
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

At first glance, communicating through optical fibers seems simpler than imaging. You only need a single fiber to carry a light signal between two points. Yet anyone who looked closely at the idea in the late 1950s saw a much different picture. The first and most obvious problem was transparency. Larry Curtiss, Will Hicks, and the engineers who worked with them had made tremendous progress, but their clearest bundles carried images only a few yards or meters.
“The Only Thing Left Is Optical Fibers” (1960–1966)
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

Lacking the immense resources of AT&T, Standard Telecommunication Lab- oratories looked at many ideas, investigated some, and seriously pursued only the few most promising concepts. Periodically, research managers faced the tough job of weeding out the losers. In the early 1960s, STL essentially abandoned the millimeter waveguide.
Three Generations in Five Years (1975–1983)
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

As Bell Labs carefully prepared its Atlanta field trial in the summer of 1975, lightning struck a two-way radio antenna used by the Dorset police in southern England. The current surge destroyed the communication system at the department’s eastern division control room in Bournemouth.3 To keep in touch with roaming officers, the police had to park a patrol car atop a nearby hill to relay signals to other cars.
Framing and Designing the Cost Effectiveness Analysis
Authors: Torrance G W , Siegel J E , Luce B R
Published: November 2023

Before undertaking a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), the analyst must decide on an overall approach to the study and on specific aspects of the study design. The early conceptualization and planning steps are essential for focusing the study on relevant research questions, maintaining the focus of the study as it progresses, and avoiding analytical pitfalls midway through an analysis. In this chapter, we discuss framing and designing the cost-effectiveness analysis. Framing a study involves making a series of decisions that collectively define and describe the study to be undertaken. Designing the study involves planning the approach to the analysis, including determining the types of data to be used and the means for incorporating these data into the CEA.
Medical Antitrust Reform: Arrow, Coase, and the Changing Structure of the Firm
Authors: Hammer Peter J
Published: November 2023

The collapse of national health care reform has refocused attention on private markets as the primary force shaping the medical industry. The past two decades have witnessed a blizzard of entrepreneurial activity, marking fundamental changes in the way health care is financed and delivered. Physicians are forming new and larger groups. Hospitals are buying physician practices. Insurance companies are creating managed care networks that provide medical services. At the same time, an increasing number of health care providers are marketing their services on a prepaid basis in direct competition with traditional insurance companies. While it is sometimes difficult to move beyond the flood of various organizational acronyms, it is useful to make an economic distinction between integration and consolidation in medical markets. The dominant theme is integration: the creation of health plans that combine in a single entity (bound either by common ownership or contractual relations) the components of physician services, hospital services, and medical insurance. But also increasingly important is horizontal consolidation: collaborative arrangements within component parts, such as a merger between two hospitals, the formation of a new or larger physician group, or the combination of managed care plans and insurance companies.
Rural Commodity Regimes: A Primer
Authors: Henderson George L
Published: November 2023

It has become something of a truism that after the 1840s, California’ s development was radically foreshortened-“telescopic,” as Carey McWilliams has said (1976). From mining to livestock and grain ranches, to irrigated specialty cropping-in a matter of decades it seems that rural California reinvented itself several times over without ever looking back. In reality, these production regimes, the very stuff of California’ s rise to national prominence, were monetarily and otherwise connected. The crisis of the mining economy in the Sierra foothills in the 1870s, for example, was in part resolved as a massive shift to wheat in the Central Valley, just as profits from the grain economy were pumped into Southern California’ s struggling ranch lands and then surfaced as fabulously productive orange orchards. Around each of these transitions, each resolution of crisis, arose a new labor system, a new built environment, a new production apparatus, and widening division of labor (including California’ s highest-grossing industries in the early twentieth century-sugar refining, flour milling, meatpacking, canning, and packing).1 California was a virtual laboratory for successive rounds of investment, disinvestment, and reinvestment of capital, far surpassing any place west of Chicago and its hinterland (cf. Cronon 1991).2 Boosted by the periodic migration of new money, California’ s surplus values not only circulated in place, allowing single commodity sectors to prosper, but were switched from one sector to another in an intensifying brew of rural commodity production and innovation.
Nature and Fictitious Capital: The Circulation of Money Capital
Authors: Henderson George L
Published: November 2023

Capitalism and Nature: The Agrarian Nexus

There is seemingly no lack of evidence for the agrarian turn of post-Gold Rush capitalism. It is writ in the state’s changing occupational structure-hence, the precipitous decline in the number of miners and preponderant increase in the number of farmers in the 1870s. It is woven in the fabric of industrial growththus, four of the top five industries by the turn of the twentieth century were processors of farm products like sugar beets, beef, grains, fruits, and vegetables (Cleland and Hardy 1929). And it is embedded in the social and spatial division of labor-as discussed in the previous chapter, a widening production matrix joined together an assortment of commodities validated through complex chains of inputs and outputs: the production of boilers that fueled machine shops and metal works, which in turn furnished product for plows and threshers, which in turn allowed more labor-efficient grain production, which stoked the growth of mills that filled the hulls of ships, and so on.
Realty Redux: Landscapes of Boom and Bust in Southern California
Authors: Henderson George L
Published: November 2023

“Southern California” did not always exist. It was defined in the acts of regional capital accumulation and intensified real estate sales. Charles Nordhoff, for example, did not know about “Southern California” when he published one of California’s most popular guidebooks of the post-Civil War era, California: For Health, Pleasure, and Residence (1874). To this New York newspaper editor lured west by the Southern Pacific Railroad (see Starr 1985), Southern California was simply whatever lay south of San Francisco. Not that this was negligible. “In fact,” Nordhoff reported, it was “the Italy of this continent; its equal climate, its protection from cold by mountain ranges, its rich soil and healthfulness, give it a place alone among its sister States” (Nordhoff 1874: 172). Nordhoff extolled the “shrewd” citrus growers around Los Angeles, but his definition of the region also included the Salinas Valley, well to the north, and the San Joaquin Valley, isolated from Los Angeles by a rugged stretch of mountains.
Berenson
Authors: Prausnitz Frederik
Published: November 2023

Nestled comfortably into the wooded hills above Florence, the village of Settignano served as the municipal hub for a number of large private estates with their villas and mansion houses, some newly built and fashionably ornate, others ancient but crumbling with style. The most notable of these was the Villa I Tatti, home of Bernard Berenson, eminent art critic, collector, connoisseur, and writer on Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture. Here, during the first quarter of the century, he housed his celebrated art collection, assembled a great library, and improved the imposing grounds. Upon his death in 1959 he would leave the villa and its fifty thousand books to his alma mater, Harvard University, as the nucleus of an institute of humanistic studies.
Home
Authors: Prausnitz Frederik
Published: November 2023

They were a remarkable lot, musicians and artists, whose number almost disappeared in the flood of refugees from Europe seeking shelter and a new start in America. Unlike most earlier immigrants, many of those who arrived in New York had lived prosperous and secure lives in their own country and were driven by a powerful determination to remake their new surroundings in the image of the ones they had left behind. Roger Sessions, returning to the land of his forefathers, was ready to do his bit.
Family, Friends, and Montezuma
Authors: Prausnitz Frederik
Published: November 2023

The old order was passing, and the health and fitness of the aging matriarch in Hadley became a matter of concern for a family once accustomed to deferring to her authority. The letter from Sessions’ sister, Hannah (Nan), addresses intimate concerns: their mother’s uncertain health, her future financial maintenance, the eventual disposition of family property.