bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
NOTE ON THE VALIDITY OF THE POWER LAW
Authors: Mashhour Madjid
Published: May 2008

On the basis of previous experimental findings, it is argued that the power law is not based on a true (subjective) ratio scale, but on a quasi‐ratio scale. Hence, and in spite of the results of the cross‐modality matching, the validity of the power law, as well as the validity of models and equations in which a subjective scale is involved, is doubted. It is further indicated that the validity of Brown's law can, under special conditions, be tested by the relation between subjective variables of velocity, length and time. Finally, the relation between the power law and Luce's theorem is discussed briefly.
EFFECT OF REWARD AND PUNISHMENT ON VISUAL PERCEPTION OF FIGURE–GROUND
Authors: Saugstad Per
Published: May 2008

Eight experiments, based on the original design of Schafer & Murphy (1943) for study of the development of the figure—ground relationship, are examined and the results found to be contradictory. The definition given of the perception of the figure–ground relationship is judged to be inadequate and ascribed to an unwillingness of behavioristically oriented psychologists to analyze the term perception with reference to perceptual experience.
NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TESTS OF Q FACTOR ISOLATES IN THE PREDICTION OF CLINICAL CLASSES
Authors: Holley Jasper Wilson , Fällström Kerstin
Published: May 2008

The present paper describes two related methods of evaluating items for purposes of test construction intended to yield measures of Q‐factor isolates. The principle procedure is based on the use of correlations between the items and the Q‐factor loadings. Empirical studies are cited demonstrating the internal consistency and factorial stability of the constructed tests. Evidence of ‘qualitative similarity’ between the tests and their Q‐factor equivalents is also provided.
SALTNESS, SWEETNESS, AND PREFERENCE: A study of quantitative relations in individual subjects
Authors: Ekman Gösta , Åkesson Caj
Published: May 2008

Individual scales were constructed for saltness and preference in an experiment with eight subjects and for sweetness and preference in a second experiment with seven of these subjects. It was found (1) that power functions described the individual relations between sodium chloride and sucrose concentration, on the one hand, and the subjective variables of saltness and sweetness, on the other hand, (2) that the exponents exceeded 1 but varied greatly between subjects, and (3) that there was a great variation over individuals with regard to the form of the saltness/preference and the sweetness/preference relations.
ADAPTATION EFFECTS AND AFTER EFFECTS OF MOVING PATTERNS VIEWED IN THE PERIPHERY OF THE VISUAL FIELD
Authors: Cohen Ronald L.
Published: May 2008

Different patterns of figures moving behind a window were viewed by subjects while fixating a point 8.5–11° visual angle NW of the display. With prolonged viewing and small figures, the motion appeared to stop completely. With moving figures which stretched the whole way across the field, perpendicular to the direction of motion, a pulsating or wave motion was experienced. A reduction in the number of moving figures was also reported with all the patterns. When the stimulus motion was stopped, the expected after effect of motion in the opposite direction was usually experienced, although in many cases the stopping of the stimulus motion led to an immediate disappearance of the stimulus figures.
PREDICTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Björkman Mats
Published: May 2008

Ecological ‘dimensions’ along which psychologists choose their experimental environments are surveyed in terms of the following characteristics: nominal‐quantitative stimuli, determinism‐probabilism, number of stimuli per event, event and causality, repetition of stimuli. A distal distinction between predictive and descriptive responses is suggested and perceptual learning is discussed with this classification as background. It is argued that cognitive mapping of ecological relationships is an indispensable mediator as far as predictive behavior is concerned. The dependence of experimental learning on ecological properties of the learning material is stressed.
PERFORMANCE ON MEASUREMENT AND PSEUDOMEASUREMENT TASKS BY FIVE‐ TO SEVEN‐YEAR‐OLD CHILDREN
Authors: Smedslund Jan
Published: May 2008

Subjects trained by a non‐verbal reinforcement method to select the longer one of a pair of sticks were given two genuine measurement (G) and two pseudomeasurement (P) tests. The first P‐test involved the use of two measuring sticks, clearly different in length, and the second test addition or subtraction of a piece of the measuring stick between measurements. A single factor seemed to generate much of the performance in all four tests, suggesting that, since the P‐tasks had to be solved by means of non‐transitive inferences, the G‐tasks were solved in the same way. It is concluded that non‐verbal reinforcement methods may not yield a valid diagnosis of transitivity.
MICROANALYSIS OF CONCRETE REASONING III
Authors: Smedslund Jan
Published: May 2008

The weaknesses and merits of a Piagetean and an information‐processing point of view are briefly discussed. It is concluded that a detailed diagnosis of the actual psychological processes is necessary before one can decide upon the usefulness of alternative formal models. The high inter‐ and intra‐individual variability makes it necessary to base the analyses on the asymptotic performance level of individual subjects. Response latency may be a very sensitive measure of complexity.
VISUAL PERCEPTION OF CAPITAL LETTERS
Authors: Künnapas Teodor
Published: May 2008

The quantitative similarity of nine capital letters was studied (1) by the direct multidimensional ratio scaling method and (2) by the method of similarity analysis. Three factors, ‘E’, ‘O’ and T, were found. Factor loadings were nearly identical in both methods. A previously proposed equation did not describe the relation between subjective similarity and angular separation of percept vectors.
THE EFFECT OF PRIOR AGGRESSIVE OR SEXUAL AROUSAL ON SUBSEQUENT AGGRESSIVE OR SEXUAL REACTIONS IN MALE MICE
Authors: Lagerspetz Kirsti , Hautojärvi Sirkka
Published: May 2008

Previous aggressive behaviour towards a male mouse was found to decrease sexual behaviour of inexperienced male mice towards a female in heat, mainly due to aggressive behaviour occurring in the sexual situation. Sexual behaviour decreased the aggression displayed in a subsequent encounter with a male. Instead, homosexual behaviour occurred in the situation with the male. After either sexual or aggressive behaviour had been practised, it was no longer influenced by practice of the other activity. Inhibition of aggressive behaviour by successive defeats did not affect sexual performance.
STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF A NEW DRUG (DIETHYLPROPION)
Authors: Jonsson Carl‐Otto , Sjöberg Lennart , Ek Stig , Vallbo Sven
Published: May 2008

In a ‘triple blind’ study on 30 subjects, 50 mg diethylpropion was compared with 10 mg dexamphetamine, 50 mg phenmetrazine, 250 mg caffeine, and placebo. The effects were measured in 5 subjective variables at 40 minutes intervals up to 4 hours. Clear trends were obtained in ‘happiness’, ‘alertness’ and ‘pleasantness’. Peak effects were seen at about two hours, but in pleasantness the effects of phenmetrazine were increased even after that time. The demonstrated effects were discussed in relation to data on abuse of diethylpropion and phenmetrazine.
NOTE ON RATIO ESTIMATION
Authors: Künnapas Teodor
Published: May 2008

Analysis of the individual matrices of ratio estimates, obtained in four experiments, show (1) that the subjective range of scales depends on the individual ‘level of estimation’, and (2) that the relation between scales representing low and intermediate level of estimation is a power function and the relation between the scales from high and intermediate levels is a logarithmic function.
CATECHOLAMINE EXCRETION, PERFORMANCE, AND SUBJECTIVE STRESS
Authors: Pátkai Paula , Frankenhaeuser Marianne , Rissler Anita , Björkvall Christer
Published: May 2008

Psycho‐endocrine relations were explored in 52 students exposed to moderately stressful psychological tests demanding selective attention. Subjects with high excretion rates of adrenaline performed better during the entire stress session than did subjects with low adrenaline excretion. The level of subjective stress increased consistently throughout the session in subjects with low excretion rates of adrenaline, while it remained relatively constant in subjects with high adrenaline excretion. No consistent relationship could be demonstrated between noradrenaline excretion and the psychological variables. Possible effects on the catecholamine‐excretion patterns of factors such as severity and duration of the stress are discussed.
PERCEIVED INTENSITY OF ODOR AS A FUNCTION OF TIME OF ADAPTATION
Authors: Ekman Gösta , Berglund Birgitta , Berglund Ulf , Lindvall Thomas
Published: May 2008

The perceived intensity of odor under conditions of constant stimulation with hydrogen sulphide was investigated in two experiments. A two‐step scaling method, involving cross‐modality matching and numerical scaling of the matching continuum, was used for measuring intensity of odor. Perceptual intensity was found to decrease exponentially with increase of time of stimulation. Preliminary data concerning the subsequent recovery phase were also obtained.
FIELD EFFECTS AND TWO‐DIMENSIONAL FORM PERCEPTION
Authors: Eriksson E. Sture
Published: May 2008

The perceived shape of circles and ellipses as influenced by surrounding figures has been studied under monocular conditions. The data show systematic field effects of a complex character. An effort was made to apply the potential theory in Newtonian physics to the perception. The conclusion drawn was that the force function which monotonically decreases with distance is a valid model for the description of simultaneous effects, but is too simple a model for an adequate description of the data concerning after‐effects. A model based on a more complex function was tested, which gave a better fit. The existence of methodological artefacts concerning the identity matching method due to after‐effects is indicated.
FEEDBACK FUNCTIONS IN TEACHING MACHINES
Authors: Ahlström Karl‐Georg , Amcoff Sven
Published: May 2008

The efficiencies of two ways of providing feedback in teaching machines were studied. The task was to learn paired associates by choosing one alternative out of three to match a stimulus. Feedback was provided in one machine by immediately presenting a new item in the case of a correct response. In the other machine the correct associates were shown for 2 sec. after a correct choice had been made. The latter method was superior. The results are discussed in relation to theories concerning the effects of exposure time on rate of learning.
TWO‐DIMENSIONAL FIELD EFFECTS AND STATIC SLANT PERCEPTION
Authors: Eriksson E. Sture
Published: May 2008

Eriksson, E. S. Two‐dimensional field effects and static slant perception. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9, 19–32.—The model for two‐dimensional field effects as developed in a previous article makes possible certain predictions concerning perceived shape which, taken together with the subjective slant principle, result in predictions of the perceived slant of a circle or a surface composed of circles. Data were obtained which agreed with these predictions, showing that the geometrical shape slant invariance hypothesis is an inadequate model for depth perception. Some implications for gradient theory, Helmholtzian theories and Gestalt theory are discussed.
THE DIMENSIONALITY PARADOX IN COMPARATIVE JUDGMENT: A RESOLUTION
Authors: Sjöberg Lennart
Published: May 2008

Sjöberg, L. The dimensionality paradox in comparative judgment: a resolution. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9, 97–108. — It has often been possible to erect unidimensional scales although stimuli have been clearly multidimensional. This fact is surprising since one expects the multidimensional structure to be reflected in data. It is suggested that this structure might be recovered from dispersions of comparative judgments. The suggestion is shown to be valid on three sets of paired comparison data. Implications for uni‐ and multidimensional scaling are discussed.
FACTOR ANALYSES OF QUESTIONNAIRES OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHOOL WORK
Authors: Werdelin Ingvar
Published: May 2008

Werdelin, I. Factor analyses of questionnaires of attitudes towards school work. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, g, 117–128.—Two studies were carried out. (I) A questionnaire of 35 items was given to 178 boys and 238 girls in the ninth grade of American high schools. (2) A questionnaire of 52 items was given to 405 boys and 405 girls in the seventh grade of Swedish elementary schools. Factor analysis revealed a large number of factors. Some of these measured preference for a certain school subject, others attitudes towards school work across the domain of subjects. One measuring emotional reaction to school work and the individual subjects is particularly important. Two factors, which measured attitudes towards teachers and classmates, were found to be independent of factors measuring attitudes towards school work.
COLOR THRESHOLD MEASUREMENTS IN SCOTOPIC VISION: Test‐stimulation varied
Authors: Stabell Ulf , Stabell Bjørn
Published: May 2008

Stabell, U. & Stabell, B. Color threshold measurements in scotopic vision. II. Test‐stimulation varied. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9, 129–132.—The color threshold curve generally coincides with the dark adaptation curve of the rods, irrespectively of test‐stimulation variation, confirming the assumption that a threshold response of rods may initiate a color‐related process. Variation of color threshold intensity is thus assumed to reflect variation of rod threshold intensity.
ACQUISITION OF AN AVOIDANCE REACTION TO LIGHT IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA
Authors: Bergström Sten R.
Published: May 2008

Bergström, S. R. Acquisition of an avoidance reaction to light in the Protozoa Tetrahymena. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9, 220–224.—A culture of Tetra‐hymena, dividing synchronously after exposure to an alternating heat treatment, was exposed to a series of light and electric shocks paired. Samples of this culture were drawn after 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, and 31 exposures to the stimulus combination and were then placed in a partially lighted chamber. With an increasing number of stimulus presentations, the proportions of the samples found in the lighted parts decreased, while they remained roughly constant in control samples which had received either shocks or light or neither of the two stimuli.
WORD GENERATION: A REPLICATION
Authors: Rommetveit Ragnar , Kleiven Jo
Published: May 2008

Rommetveit, R. & Kleiven, J. Word generation: a replication. Scand J. Psychol., 1968, g, 277–81.–Binocular rivalry was examined in a word perception task with printed Norwegian stimulus material. Two types of resolution—choice of one image only or combination of both images—were again observed. The letter pair r/g tended to be seen as r only, g only, rg, or gr, depending upon which resolution yielded a word. Perceptual strategy was thus apparently determined in part by a superordinate search for word meaning. Fully confident generations of words from monocular non‐word strings were not obtained very often.a
MEANINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND UNIVERSALS: TOWARDS A PSYCHOLOGY OF MAN
Authors: Smedslund Jan
Published: May 2008

Smedslund, J. Meanings, implications and universals: towards a psychology of man. Scand. J. Psychof., 1969, 10, 1–15.‐S‐R psychology ignores the nonlawful regions between stimulus and meaning, and between intention and response. Psychology is defined: the science of phenomena as they exist for the individual person. The data in psychology: the public meanings of a person's acts, i.e. the meanings shared by all members of the person's community. Mental processes are related by implication rather than causation. Logic is a precondition for efficient mental functioning. Concepts with purely logical connotations (universals) are necessary for all higher mental functioning. No general psychological theory can perhaps exist, only development of already existing a priori conceptual schemata (common sense) and of diagnostic techniques.
AMOUNT OF INDUCED AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOUR TO LIGHT IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA AS A FUNCTION OF TIME AFTER TRAINING AND CELL FISSION
Authors: Bergström Sten R.
Published: May 2008

Bergström, S. R. Amount of induced avoidance behaviour to light in the Protozoa Tetrahymena as a function of time after training and cell fission. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 16–20.—Two cultures of Tetrahymena, dividing synchronously after exposure to an alternating heat treatment, were exposed to series of light and electric shocks paired. After 20 and 30 exposures resp. to the stimulus combination, samples of these cultures were drawn every 18 min and placed in a partially lighted chamber. In samples drawn shortly after training, an essentially smaller proportion was found in the light, in comparison with control samples, which had received either shocks or light or neither of the two stimuli. In later samples, this proportion increased until it approached level of control samples. The course of the increase was not influenced by intervening synchronous cell division.
FACTORIAL INVARIANCE OF PERSONALITY RATINGS
Authors: Kuusinen Jorma
Published: May 2008

Kuusinen, J. Factorial invariance of personality ratings. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 33–44—Three studies employing the same set of 33 personality rating scales are described. (I) Five factor structures of the scales, derived from ratings of five groups of stimuli, were compared. (2) One subject rated different personality concepts three times at one week's intervals. (3) 12 individual factor structures were compared to the factor structure computed from peer ratings of a group of 39 subjects. Results: (a) the factor structure of the scales was largely independent of stimuli, (b) the structure for an individual was stable, (c) the group structure represented the individual's structure, (d) differences between group and the individual structure and between individuals were negligible.
THE LOCUS OF VISUAL AFTER‐IMAGES
Authors: Kolehmainen Kyösti , Tuomisaari Raija
Published: May 2008

Kolehmainen, K. & Tuomisaari, R. The locus of visual after‐images. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 45–48.—Three bright spots of light aligned horizontally were presented, so that the distances between them were equal. Two adjacent lights were flashed on simultaneously and the third one somewhat later. The subjects reported the distance between the midmost light and the light which appeared later to be longer than the distance between the simultaneous lights (the ‘tau‐effect’). As to the after‐images, however, the intervening distances were judged equal. The results are, accordingly, suggestive of a peripheral basis of the after‐images.
TRANSITION FROM ROD TO CONE VISION I. Simultaneous contrast
Authors: Stabell Bjørn
Published: May 2008

Stabell, B. Transition from rod to cone vision. I. Simultaneous contrast. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 61–64.—Above the specific threshold, color quality depended on the test filter, while at lower intensities the same color was observed irrespectively of the test filter used, confirming the assumption that colors within the photochromatic interval are triggered by rod activity. The lawful relation between rise of specific threshold and increase of rod sensitivity was not found under the condition of simultaneous contrast.
ON THE DETERMINATION OF VARIANCE ATTRIBUTABLE TO PREVIOUSLY ISOLATED FACTORS
Authors: Holley Jasper W. , Elmgren John
Published: May 2008

Holley, J. W. & Elmgren, J. On the determination of variance attributable to previously isolated factors. Scand.J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 74–80.—The paper describes a method for extracting variance which can be attributed to factors which have been isolated previously. An illustration is given, using hypothetical data.
THE SPLIT LEVEL PROBLEM AS RELATED TO THE TASK OF EVALUATING ITEMS IN THE CLINICAL AREA
Authors: Holley Jasper W. , Hansson Kjell
Published: May 2008

Holley, J. W. & Hansson, K. The split level problem as related to the task of evaluating items in the clinical area. Scand.J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 124–128—It is pointed out that correlational values can be distorted in item evaluation when the proportions of persons in the criterion groups are variant. The use of a ‘K ratio’ is suggested as a possible solution to be applied under restrictive conditions.
ON SPATIAL SUMMATION IN THE TACTUAL SENSE A psychophysical and neurophysiological study
Authors: Franzén Ove
Published: May 2008

Franzén, O. On spatial summation in the tactual sense. A psychophysical and neurophysiological study. Scand. 1. Psychol., 1969,10, 193–208.—Individual magnitude estimation scales of apparent intensity of a 300 c/s vibration applied to the volar aspect of the finger‐tip as a function of displacement and the number of fingers stimulated were obtained. Spatial summation seems to take place with a lawful increase in perceived intensity as two and three adjacent sensory channels are excited at the same time. Median nerve compound action potentials following electrical stimulation of the index and middle fingers were recorded. A mathematical model is presented to describe and predict spatial summation. The results are interpreted in terms of funneling action of nervous tissue.
PROJECTED AFTERIMAGES AND COGNITIVE MATURITY
Authors: Ruuth Egil , Smith Gudmund J. W.
Published: May 2008

Ruuth, E. & Smith, G. J. W. Projected afterimages and cognitive maturity. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 209–214—The hypothesis that projected afterimages will remain size‐constant if they are not isolated by the observer as subjective phenomena is tested in a group of 20 children classified with respect to cognitive maturity. The less mature children, still mainly in the preoperational stage, are more resistant to size‐increase with increasing projection distance and also report more positive hues. Tney apparently confuse their afterimages with real objects and thus fail to objectivize.
VISUO‐PERCEPTIVE AND VISUO‐MOTOR PERFORMANCE OF CHILDREN WITH READING DISABILITIES
Authors: Nielsen Helle H. , Ringe Kirsten
Published: May 2008

Nielsen, H. H. & Ringe, K. Visuo‐perceptive and visuo‐motor performance of children with reading disabilities. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 225–231.—Twenty 9–10‐year‐old children with reading disability were compared with twenty normal readers on Frostig Test of Visual Perception, Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test and Goodenough Draw‐a‐Person Test. Contrary to prediction, the results showed more similarity than difference in performance level between the two groups, only the Bender Test discriminating significantly (p<0.05). It was concluded that impaired visual perception and visuo‐motor dysfunction did not seem important correlates of reading disability.
STUDIES IN VISUAL PERCEPTION OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACES AND ROOMS: II. Judgments of open and closed space by category rating and magnitude estimation
Authors: Gärling Tommy
Published: May 2008

Gärling, T. Studies in visual perception of architectural spaces and rooms. II. Judgments of open and closed space by category rating and magnitude estimation. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 257–268.—In one experiment, colour photographs of architectural spaces were employed as stimuli and judged with respect to open and closed space. Category scales of open and closed were complementary, magnitude scales were reciprocal. Judged open space correlated positively and judged closed space negatively with physical size of actual spaces. In another experiment, judged size was found to be directly related to judged open space and inversely related to judged closed space. Furthermore, open and closed space judged in situ correlated to a significant degree with corresponding judgments from photographs.
CHANGE IN AFTERIMAGE AND SPIRAL AFTEREFFECT SERIALS DUE TO ANXIETY CAUSED BY SUBLIMINAL THREAT
Authors: Andersson Alf L. , Fries Ingrid , Smith Gudmund J. W.
Published: May 2008

Experiments with projected negative afterimages and with the aftereffects of a rotating spiral were performed serially (repeated stimulus presentation). In the middle of the sequences the experimental groups were subjected to subliminal threat by means of a metacontrast technique. The effects of threat on the latter part of the sequences were according to predictions and differed markedly from the results in control groups.
APPARENT PROPERTIES OF INSPECTION FIGURES AS DETERMINERS OF FIGURAL AFTER‐EFFECTS
Authors: Kolehmainen Kyösti , Cronhjort Ritva
Published: May 2008

Figural after‐effects (FAE) were studied using the Hering, the Ehrenstein, and the Orbisson illusion, patterns in two ways. In one condition, the total pattern was used as inspection figure (IF), and that part of the pattern in which the illusion normally appears, as test figure (TF). The resulting FAE was in a direction opposite to that of the illusion. In the second condition, the illusion producing part of the total pattern served as IF, and the illusion suffering part as TF. This produced an after‐effect, the direction of which was the same as that of the illusion.
THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY JUDGMENTS: COMMENTS ON KUUSINEN'S PAPER AND FURTHER EVIDENCE
Authors: Hamilton David L.
Published: May 2008

Kuusinen (1969) compared the factor structures of individual subjects' ratings of their peers with the structure of peer ratings made by a group of subjects. He concluded that the group structure adequately represented the individual structures and that inter‐individual differences were unimportant. This conclusion is challenged in the present paper. It is argued that the between‐subject differences in Kuusinen's results were too pronounced to be dismissed as negligible. Data are also presented from a study in which subjects made personality ratings of stereotypic role figures. The factor structure underlying each subject's ratings was determined and compared with that of each other subject. The degree of congruence between the factor structures of pairs of subjects varied and in general only moderate convergence was observed. Implications of these individual differences for the concept of implicit personality theories were discussed.
TACTILE STIMULATION AND PERCEPTION OF THE VERTICAL
Authors: Nyborg Helmuth
Published: May 2008

NYBORG, H. Tactile stimulation and perception of the vertical. I. Effects of diffuse vs. specific tactile stimulation. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 1–13. – It was found that tactile stimulation influenced perception of verticality. Perception of verticality was tested by means of Rod‐and‐Frame Test, standard procedure. During tilted standing, subjects were exposed to diffuse tactile stimulation (DBR) or specific tactile stimulation (SBR) by means of a specially built apparatus. On the average, subjects scored closer to the physical vertical during SBR than during DBR.
THE EFFECT OF THREAT‐ AND TASK‐ORIENTED ATTITUDE UPON PERFORMANCE UNDER STRESS
Authors: Bergström Bengt , Arnberg Peter
Published: May 2008

BERGSTRÖM, B. & ARNBERG, P. The effect of threat‐ and task‐oriented attitude upon performance under stress. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 14–20. – Tracking performance and arousal level were studied on 30 army conscripts who were threatened with electric shocks. It was hypothesized that subjects with experimentally induced threat‐oriented (‘despair’) attitude would degrade performance as a function of arousal, and that task‐oriented (‘confidence’) attitude would retain normal performance under high arousal. The results showed that performance deteriorated more under conditions of despair, but that the arousal‐performance relation conformed to the activation theory in both conditions.
VISUAL AND TACTUAL EXPLORATION IN RATS REARED IN DIFFERENT DEGREES OF VISUAL AND TACTUAL STIMULATION
Authors: Nielsen Thomas C.
Published: May 2008

NIELSEN, T. C. Visual and tactual exploration in rats reared in different degrees of visual and tactual stimulation. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 53–61. – Four groups of eight rats each were reared in the four possible combinations of high and low visual and high and low tactual stimulation. Early tactual enrichment increased later tactual exploration regardless of visual stimulation. Visual enrichment did not influence exploration in the tactual enrichment groups, but in the tactual deprivation groups it seemed to produce more visual and less tactual exploration. The most deprived group exhibited a high locomotor activity which could not be explained in terms of an increased tendency to explore.
PSYCHOPHYSICAL INVARIANTS OF ACHROMATIC COLOURVISION. V
Authors: Lie Ivar
Published: May 2008

LIE, I. Psychophysical invariants of achromatic colour vision. V. Brightness as a function of inducing field luminance. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 61–64.– Brightness (the dim‐bright dimension) of achromatic colour was investigated as a function of surrounding field luminance. It was found that brightness of a test area was relatively independent of luminance level of the surrounding area until the luminance of the latter had passed well beyond that of the test area. With further increase of surrounding luminance, the brightness of the test area increased rapidly.
FAILURE TO CONDITION TETRAHYMENA
Authors: Applewhite Philip B. , Gardner Frank , Foley Diane , Clendenin Michael
Published: May 2008

APPLEWHITE, PH. B., GARDNER, F., FOLEY, D. & CLENDENIN, M. Failure to condition Tetrahymena. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 65–67.–Experiments were performed in attempts to condition Tetrahymena to light‐shock. Negative results were obtained.
THE EFFECTS OF CONFLICT AND STRESS ON SEXUAL AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN MALE MICE
Authors: Lagerspetz Kirsti , Hyvarinen Sirkka
Published: May 2008

LAGERSPETZ, K. & HYVARINEN, S. The effects of conflict and stress on sexual and aggressive behaviour in male mice. Scand. J. Psychol., 1071, 12, 119–127. –A conflict consisting in a conditioned response performed in order to drink, coupled with electric shocks, did not affect aggressive and sexual behaviour in a neutral environment. Conditioning only or shocks only also did not have any effects. When tested in the shuttle box, the groups showed differences in behaviour. A generally higher level of activation was shown by the experimental groups. The results are discussed in terms of the concept of ‘experimental neurosis’.
INTERINDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SIMILARITY ESTIMATES OF PAINTINGS
Authors: Künnapas Teodor , Norman Mary
Published: May 2008

KÜNNAPAS, T. & NORMAN, M. Intel‐individual differences in similarity estimates of paintings. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 161–167.–Nine paintings by Cézanne were studied by the method of multidimensional similarity analysis. Three different groups of painters, students, and art school pupils participated in three experiments. Three factors were found: Factor I is called ‘Complex horizontally arranged motive’; Factor II, ‘Vertical central figure’; and Factor III, ‘Central figure without background’. Comparison of different groups showed (1) that for paintings with the greatest loading in one of these factors no differences were obtained, (2) that differences between the groups are smallest in Factor I and greatest in Factor III, (3) that differences between the painters and students are greater than those between the painters and pupils, or between the pupils and the students, and (4) that interindividual differences between the groups are due, at least partly, to the formal artistic aspect which is most dominant in painters, in lower degree in pupils, and very little in students.
THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING IN CRAWLING ON THE MOTOR AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS
Authors: Lagerspetz Kirsti , Nygåkd Margaretha , Strandvik Christina
Published: May 2008

LAGERSPETZ, K., NYGÅHD, M. & STRANDVIK, C. The effects of training in crawling on the motor and mental development of infants. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971 12, 192–197.–Eleven infants under the age of 1 year were trained in creeping for 15 minutes daily for 3 weeks, while 11 children, who served as controls, spent the corresponding times with the experimenters without training. The experimental group learned to creep significantly earlier, and transfer effects on other locomotor development were observed. Even effects on factors other than motor developmental were obtained. A training experiment with a pair of monozygotic twins is also reported.
THE EFFECTIVENESS AND TRANSFER VALUE OF TWO METHODS OF CONCEPT LEARNING
Authors: Werdelin I. , Bondesson E. , Larsson G.‐B.
Published: May 2008

WERDELIN, I., BONDESSON, E. & LARSSON, G.‐B. The effectiveness and transfer value of two methods of concept learning. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 198–204.–Two methods of learning are compared as to their effectiveness and transfer value, the “direction method”, where principles are presented and exemplified, and the “discovery method”, where the learner discovers the principles from examples. In an experiment with 12a pupils in grade five it was found that the direction method was superior to the discovery method in these learning situations, that the methods are differently effective with different materials, and that experience with one of the methods may transfer to the ability to learn new materials with either method. The connections between concept, method and previous experience are very complex, however.
EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION AND FEEDBACK ON COGNITIVE CONFLICT
Authors: Brehmer Berndt
Published: May 2008

BREHMER, B. Effects of communication and feedback on cognitive conflict. Scand. J. Psychol., 12, 205–216.–The effects of communication and feedback upon policy similarity and policy consistency in cognitive conflict were studied in a 2×2×5 factorial experiment with communication (present/ absent), feedback (present/absent) and blocks of trials as the factors. Communication increased policy similarity and agreement, but feedback had no effect. Both subjects with linear and subjects with nonlinear policies gave up more of their initial policy in the communication condition, but only the nonlinear subjects managed to utilize communication to acquire new policies. In all conditions, including the condition without feedback and communication, the nonlinear subjects' policies were less consistent than those of the linear subjects. This suggests that nonlinear policies may be less stable than linear policies.
TOLERANCE FOR EXPERIMENTALLY INDUCED PAIN AS RELATED TO PERSONALITY
Authors: Schalling Daisy
Published: May 2008

SCHALLING, D. Tolerance for experimentally induced pain as related to personality. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 271–281.–Relations between responses to noxious electrical stimulation (pain thresholds and tolerance levels) and personality variables were studied in a group of z6 students. Method of stimulation increase was found to be an important factor. When continuous stimulation increase was applied, the pain measures were significantly related only to scores in the Solidity scale of the Marke‐Nyman Temperament inventory, low Solidity (extravert‐impulsive) subjects showing high pain tolerance. When stimulation was increased in discrete steps (shocks), the pain measures were significantly related to scores in neuroticism‐psychasthenia and extraversion scales, psychasthenic subjects being less and extravert subjects more tolerant of the stimulation. These results are consistently in the expected directions and are well in line with the implications of the personality concepts. Pain thresholds and tolerance levels were significantly correlated and showed similar patterns of correlation with the personality variables.
STRUCTURE IN SIMILARITY MATRICES
Authors: Waern Yvonne
Published: May 2008

Waern, Y. Structure in similarity matrices. A graphic approach. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 5–16.—The present paper proposes a simple method for representing the structure inherent in the similarity matrix, i.e. a graphic representation. The traditional multidimensional scaling methods are compared with each other and with the graphic representation with regard to representation, interpretation and assumptions concerning the subject's performance. The graph gives a topological representation and the derivation of the graph from the similarity matrix may be made so as to reduce the demands on the subjects somewhat. As to interpretation, the graph is able to reveal dimensions, clusters, and hierarchies. Compared with some multidimensional scaling it gives very similar interpretations.
FREE RECALL OF REPEATED WORDS AS A FUNCTION OF INTRALIST VARIABILITY
Authors: Wright J. M. von
Published: May 2008

von Wright J. M. Free recall of repeated words as a function of intralist variability. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 39–42.—Five “critical” words were repeated 4 times each in constant positions within lists of 80 items. The number of different filler words, and the order of the repeated filler words, was varied between lists. In free recall tests total recall was approximately constant, but the recall of the critical words was significantly better the greater the variation in the intralist context of these words, especially the greater the number of different filler words. The results are interpreted in terms of the encoding variability hypothesis.
STAGES IN CONCEPT LEARNING
Authors: Stenild Mariane
Published: May 2008

Stenild M. Stages in concept learning. Scand.J Psychol., 1972, 13, 98–108. —In an experimental test of Rommetveit's theory of concept learning (1960) as a three‐stage process, his stimulus figures were presented for three groups of children in a passive receiving, an active instrumental, and an active verbal procedure, respectively. The result supported Rommetveit's stage two and three in concept learning, but not his description of stage one representing an intuitive conceptual sorting of stimuli. A new formulation of stage one is made according to which even at this stage the conceptual sorting occurs intentionally.
REWARD SIZE AND GAME PLAYING BEHAVIOR
Authors: Shaw Jerry I.
Published: May 2008

Shaw J. Reward size and game playing behavior. Scand, J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 121–132.—The results of studies dealing with the effects of heightened incentives in game playing situations present a complicated pattern of findings ranging from those favoring cooperation, through those indicating no relation, to those favoring competition. A critical review of these studies is made followed by attempts to reconcile the divergent findings. These include: (a) Gallo's (1968b) index of average payoff per trial, and (b) Oskamp & Kleinke's (1970) notion that large rewards may induce individualistic behavior. Suggestions are made for further research on reward size as related to (a) noneconomic rewards, (b) matrix structure, (c) reward pattern, (d) multichoice methodologies, and (e) parametric values.
FEEDFORWARD AND FEEDBACK AS DETERMINERS OF KNOWLEDGE AND POLICY: NOTES ON A NEGLECTED ISSUE
Authors: Björkman Mats
Published: May 2008

Björkman M. Feedforward and feedback as determiners of knowledge and policy: notes on a neglected issue. Scand. J. Psychol. 1972, 13, 152–158.—Studies of cognitive learning should distinguish between acquisition of knowledge and policy formation. Two learning operators, feedforward, that is, task information by instructions, and feedback must also be taken into account. This double aim requires experimenters to analyze and relate two sets of data: subjective estimates about the task learned and predictions of outcomes. A broader approach is thus needed with a focus on how policy is related to knowledge, how these processes depend on feedback and feedfonvard and how the latter two interact in producing knowledge and policy.
ON THE PROBLEM OF SELECTION IN ICONIC MEMORY
Authors: Wright J. M. von
Published: May 2008

von Wright J. M. On the problem of selection in iconic memory. Scad J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 159–171.—Conditions determining the selection of items in iconic memory were analysed. The accuracy of partial reports and the strategies adopted by the subjects varied regularly as a function of the mode of report as well as of the subject's uncertainty about the type of response he would be asked to make. By varying these factors, the apparently conflicting results of previous studies could be fairly well replicated. In optimal conditions, selection by simple physical characteristics was efficient whereas selection by class (letterslnumbers) remained difficult. Similar results were obtained when precue and postcue conditions were compared. The role of output interference and of the subjects' encoding and response strategies are discussed.
POLICY CONFLICT AS A FUNCTION OF POLICY SIMILARITY AND POLICY COMPLEXITY
Authors: Brehmer Berndt
Published: May 2008

Brehmer B. Policy conflict as a function of policy similarity and policy complexity. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 208–221.—The experiment tests the hypotheses, derived from the results of earlier studies on policy conflict, that subjects with similar policies will decrease their agreement in a policy conflict situation, and that subjects with cognitively complex policies will decrease their agreement more than subjects with cognitively simple policies. The results support the hypotheses, and show that the decrease in agreement is due to the decrease in policy consistency which, in turn, is due to the manner in which the subjects change their policies in the conflict situation.
A MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING APPROACH TO THE PERCEPTION OF ART. I
Authors: Goude Gunnar
Published: May 2008

Goude G. A multidimensional scaling approach to the perception of art. I. Scand. J. Psyckol., 1972, 13, 258–271.—‐Five experiments with similarity estimation and ratio estimation of experiences of art (paintings) were used for testing a similarity model for multidimensional scaling. A multidimensional analysis gave five interpreted factors. Graphical estimations were compared with numerical estimations. Results from naive observers were related to results from a specialist group.
Knowledge and choice of strategy in a complex learning task
Authors: LINDAHL MAJ‐BRITT
Published: May 2008

Lindahl, Maj‐Britt. Knowledge and choice of strategy in a complex learning task. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 39–43.‐Correlations between relevant knowledge as documented in matriculation marks and adopted strategy in a problem solving/concept learning task were found to be conditional upon task variables (164 subjects). The conditionality implied that a perceptually loaded strategy was preferred to a conceptually or knowledge loaded one as long as there existed in the task easily discriminable, recurring environmental contingencies of a type that it presupposed. The phenomenon was integrated into a pretheoretical description of the learning process, where knowledge was thought to affect (1) the individual's formulation of the problem to himself, and (2) his attempts at solution‐more the more these involved a search of missing informative elements in his conceptual rather than in his perceptual field.
Policy conflict and policy change as a function of task characteristics 1. The effects of cue validity and function form
Authors: BREHMER BERNDT , KOSTRON LUBOMIR
Published: May 2008

Brehmer, B. & Kostron, L. Policy conflict and policy change as a function of task characteristics. I. The effects of cue validity and function form. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 44–55.‐Policy conflict and policy change in the “lens model” interpersonal conflict paradigm were studied as a function of the distribution of cue validities in a two‐cue task with one linear and one nonlinear cue. Agreement was higher in the conditions where the linear cue was more valid than the nonlinear cue than in the conditions where the nonlinear cue was more valid than the linear cue. This was primarily due to the fact that the subjects' policies were more consistent in predominantly linear conditions. The amount of policy change in the various conditions suggested that the subjects' behavior was the result of a compromise between conflict reduction and task adaptation.
Validity of a group measure of individual associative domains
Authors: FLEKKØY KJELL
Published: May 2008

FlekkØy, K. Validity of a group measure of individual associative domains. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 96–98.‐Number of different responses given to a stimulus word by a group of subjects in a single‐word free‐association situation (D) has been presumed to be a measure of the magnitude of the associative potential connected with the stimulus word in the individual subject. The study compares D with mean number of different responses given to each stimulus word in a continued association situation (m), and finds no significant correlation (r=‐0.04), which is interpreted to mean that D is not a valid measure of individual associative domains.
Awareness, conditioning, and information processing in complex learning situations
Authors: LINDAHL MAJ‐BRITT
Published: May 2008

Lindahl, Maj‐Britt. Awareness, conditioning, and information processing in complex learning situations. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 121–130.‐Learning without awareness was studied with a method involving three phases for each of 2. 10 subjects: (1) a problem solving phase, (2) a phase of applying the solution found in (1), and (3) a test phase. In (2) the solution was applied to the classification of 50 successively presented instances. These were in one condition sampled so that a perceptually easily discriminable basis of classification obtained that was different from and redundant to the one of the solution of phase (1). The results of the test phase showed that this redundant basis of classification influenced the performance of the subjects in this condition despite unawareness of it according to verbal reports. The phenomenon was interpreted as a case of learning without awareness, describable in conditioning terms, that influenced performance. The limitations of this type of learning were discussed, and its relationship to an aware information processing type of learning was outlined.
Similarity ratings and dimension analyses of auditory rhythm patterns. 1
Authors: GABRIELSSON ALF
Published: May 2008

Gabrielsson, A. Similarity ratings and dimension analyses of auditory rhythm patterns. I. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 138–160.MdashTen experiments on experience of monophonic rhythm patterns are described. The rhythm stimuli, performed on drum or piano, were presented in pairs for similarity ratings and verbal descriptions. The similarity ratings were analyzed according to a recent model for individual differences in multidimensional scaling (INDSCAL). The obtained dimensions were interpreted as “meter”, “rapidity”, “tempo”, “uniformityvariation” or “simplicity‐complexity”, “forward movement”, “length”, “accent on first beat” and dimensions related to the duration pattern of the sound events. There was a marked inter‐individual variation with regard to the subjects' weights for the different dimensions.
Interrelations of verbal and nonverbal measures used in experimental aesthetics
Authors: BERLYNE D. E.
Published: May 2008

Berlyne, D. E. Interrelations of verbal and non‐verbal measures used in experimental aesthetics. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 177–184.MdashIn Experiment I, 40 miscellaneous visual patterns were rated on 12 scales. Factor analysis of correlations over patterns indicates three factors, provisionally labeled Complexity‐Uncertainty. Hedonic Value, and Cortical Arousal. Factor loadings and significant differences among estimated factor scores are discussed with special reference to (1) relations with Osgood's dimensions (2) scales indicative of pleasure and discomfort and (3) scales indicative of arousal. Experiment II measured looking time. Relations between this measure and verbal judgments are examined.