bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
European Tort Law: Five Key Questions for Debate
Authors: Giliker Paula
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Recent years have seen the publication of the Principles of European Tort Law, the principles on Non-Contractual Liability Arising out of Damage Caused to Another, and in 2008, the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR) containing principles, definitions, and model rules not only on the law of contract but also the law of tort or delict. Although primarily academic exercises, these publications raise the possibility of the introduction of some form of harmonized European tort law as a practical reality. This article will not examine the substance of these texts but will instead focus more generally on a number of fundamental questions that require consideration prior to any possible move toward harmonization. Despite the lively debate in the context of European contract law, less attention has been given to the potential operational difficulties facing any future harmonization of the law of tort or delict, which, it is submitted, require particular attention in the light of its inclusion in the DCFR. This article will therefore highlight the need for a broader debate if these projects are to form the basis of any future instrument.
Farewell to Windscheid? Legal Concepts Present and Absent from the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR)
Authors: Vaquer Antoni
Published: April 2022

ABSTRACT: Bernhard Windscheid stood at the summit of the German pandectist school. He produced the very influential Lehrbuch des Pandektenrechts, which condensed the works of the authors belonging to the school, and took part in the commission charged with the redaction of the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch. The jurisprudence of concepts that developed the pandectist school created a series of legal concepts such as Rechtsgeschäft, subkektive Rechte, Anspruch, which were incorporated successfully into the German BGB – legal concepts that later spread in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and even The Netherlands.

The Draft Common Frame of Reference (CFR) includes an Annex containing a glossary of legal terms that are used in the black letter rules. Article I-1:108 states that the definitions in the Annex ‘apply for all the purposes of these rules unless the context otherwise requires’ and warns that ‘where a word is defined, other grammatical forms of the word have a corresponding meaning’. The purpose of this paper was twofold. On the one hand, the paper discusses how much of the concepts elaborated by the pandectist school remains in the Draft CFR. The reason is that it is solemnly stated that ‘[a]n attempt has been made to find, wherever possible, descriptive language which can be readily translated without carrying unwanted baggage with it’. Since the conclusion is that most of the concepts elaborated by the German doctrine can be found in the Draft CFR, the second purpose is to analyse the consistency of the use of the concepts in the black letter rules.
The Constitutional Momentum of European Contract Law On the Interpretation of the DCFR in Light of Fundamental Rights
Authors: Mak Chantal
Published: April 2022

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a constitutional analysis of the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR) that has been prepared by a network of European legal scholars. The central question is to what extent the DCFR reflects fundamental values shared by the Member States. In order to answer this question, this paper analyses the relevant DCFR provisions in the light of fundamental rights, such as those laid down in national Constitutions and international treaties. Comparative remarks are made on the effects of fundamental rights in the national contract laws of various Member States (the Netherlands, Germany, England, and Italy), since the DCFR provisions that refer to fundamental rights correspond to some typical cases (or Fallgruppen) of fundamental rights application that have arisen in these countries. The structure of the analysis accordingly follows three main categories: the interpretation of the rules of contract law, non-discrimination in contractual relationships, and the validity of the contract. Attention is paid to direct and indirect effects of fundamental rights in European contract law cases as well as to the legal-political implications of these effects. On the basis of the comparative analysis, finally, it is submitted that choices will have to be made regarding the extent to which legislators and judges have to take into account the values expressed in these rights and, importantly, which form should be given to the provisions of a Common Frame of Reference in order to reach the highest possible level of protection of these values in contract law throughout Europe. Only then will the further harmonisation of European contract law truly contribute to the establishment of a European Constitution.
Albania: Reform of Consumer Protection Law
Authors: Parapatits Felicitas
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The Republic of Albania ranks as a potential candidate country of the European Union. In order to become a candidate country, Albania agreed to ensure that its existing laws and future legislation shall be gradually made compatible with the acquis communautaire. In 2008, the Albanian legislator made an attempt to fulfil this obligation in the field of consumer law replacing the old Consumer Protection Act (CPA) 2003 by the new CPA 2008, which aims at a full implementation of the European directives on consumer protection law. The CPA 2008 constitutes a great improvement to the legal situation in Albania and marks an important step towards European Union accession. Nevertheless, the CPA 2008 did not implement all the directives to a full extent. Moreover, the relationship between the specific provisions on consumer protection in the CPA 2008 and the more general provisions on contract law in the Albanian Civil Code is not clear. This article first provides an outline of the past developments and recent regulations on consumer protection law in Albania and then illustrates the need of further harmonization between the CPA and the Albanian Civil Code.

Résumé: L’Albanie est un potentiel pays candidat à l’Union européenne. Afin de devenir un pays candidat, l’Albanie a accepté de rendre sa législation, présente et future, compatible avec l’acquis communautaire. En 2008, le législateur albanais tenta de remplir cette obligation en matière de protection des consommateurs, en remplaçant l’ancienne loi sur la protection des consommateurs (datant de 2003) par une nouvelle législation visant à transposer complètement les directives européennes sur la protection des consommateurs. La loi sur la protection des consommateurs de 2008 est un pas important en direction d’une adhésion à l’Union européenne. Néanmoins, elle n’a pas transposé l’ensemble des directives dans toute leur étendue. Cet article donne dans un premier temps un aperçu des développements passés et des réglementations récentes en matière de protection des consommateurs en Albanie. Il démontre ensuite le besoin d’une plus grande harmonisation entre la loi sur la protection des consommateurs de 2008 et le Code civil albanais.
The Effect of the EC Treaty in Private Law: On Direct and Indirect Horizontal Effects of Primary Community Law
Authors: Hartkamp Arthur
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The Treaty establishing the European Community (and its successor, the Functioning of the European Union (FEU) Treaty) nearly exclusively contains rules of a public law character. However, some of its central provisions have also acquired significance for private law, because the Court of Justice has interpreted them in such a way that they have become directly applicable to relationships between individuals, in the sense that they create subjective rights and obligations between them. Put in another way, those provisions now produce a direct horizontal effect in private law relationships. Direct horizontal effect must be distinguished from indirect horizontal effect. Unfortunately, in legal literature, these concepts do not have a clear and commonly accepted meaning. This article tries to bring some clarity by proposing a specific definition of horizontal direct effect and explaining the differences with some other types of effect in relationships between individuals, in particular the review (in disputes between individuals) of the compatibility of national legislation with EU law, the concept of ‘positive obligations’, and the concept of harmonious interpretation. The discussion takes place against the background of some well-known cases, such as Defrenne, Walrave, Delhaize, Schmidberger, and (AG Poiares Maduro’s opinion in) Viking.
The COMPR of Germany and France: Epoch-Making in the Unification of Law
Authors: Fötschl Andreas
Published: April 2022

Abstract: France and Germany adopted a Common Matrimonial Property Regime in January 2010. Spouses can elect to have the new regime applied which combines French and German principles of matrimonial property. It is open for access to all the Member States of the European Union. The new regime can be relevant even in States that have not chosen to adopt it, when the parties could have opted for French or German law and preferred to choose the new regime. This bilateral cooperation in family law could be followed by further initiatives, as well in other fields of law.

Résumé: La France et l’Allemagne ont conclu, en janvier 2010, un traité sur le régime matrimonial de la participation aux acquêts. Le nouveau régime est optionnel et devrait combiner des principes français et allemands de droit des régimes matrimoniaux. Les autres Etats de l’Union européenne sont invités à adhérer à la convention. Les époux des Etats non-adhérents ou d’autres Etats pourront aussi choisir le nouveau régime, si le droit international privé applicable leur permet d’opter pour le droit français ou le droit allemand. Cette coopération bilatérale en droit de famille pourrait suivie par de nouvelles initiatives dans d’autres branches du droit.

Zusammenfassung: Frankreich und Deutschland haben im Januar 2010 ein gemeinsames Regime für das Ehegüterrecht beschlossen. Das neue Regime kann von den Ehegatten gewählt werden und soll französische und deutsche Grundsätze des Ehegü-terrechts verbinden. Das neue Regime steht Mitgliedsstaaten der Europäischen Union zum Beitritt offen. Auch ohne Beitritt und für andere Staaten kann das neue Regime Bedeutung erlangen, wenn die Parteien französisches oder deutsches Recht wählen konnten und für das neue Regime optiert haben. Dieser bilateralen Zusammenarbeit im Familienrecht könnten weitere Kooperationen auch in anderen Rechtsbereichen folgen.
Un aperçu du droit chinois des contrats
Authors: Herbots Jacques
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This essay presents the current situation of Contract Law in the People’s Republic of China. First, it demonstrates why, before the end of the Qing Dynasty, no Chinese statute on contracts existed. It then sketches the introduction of a Civil Code in the Kuomintang period, as well as the situation in the first decades of the People’s Republic and the genesis of the Contract Act of 15 March 1999. This Act, in anticipation of a Civil Code, encompasses common Contract Law. It consists of two parts: the provisions on contractual obligations on the one hand and those on specific contracts on the other. This essay briefly deals with a number of important notions (such as the freedom of contract, good faith, public policy, nullities, rescission, force majeure, etc.). This indicates that Contract Law in China belongs to the German Legal Family, with some inroads of international uniform law. The paper devotes some attention to the problem of translation into Chinese of Western legal notions. The Common Law has had virtually no influence on the Law of 15 March 1999. Comparative law teaches us that we therefore should be cautious with English language treatises on the Chinese Act. Finally, the paper suggests that the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party, and possibly also Confucian doctrine, may provide the law of contracts with an autonomous character.

Résumé: Cet article porte sur le droit des contrats de la République Populaire de Chine, offrant tout d’abord une perspective historique précédant la genèse de la Loi sur les contrats de 1999. Sont passées en revue des notions juridiques centrales telles que la liberté contractuelle, la bonne foi, l’ordre public, les nullités, et la force majeure. L’auteur constate que le droit des contrats chinois puise son inspiration dans la tradition juridique allemande, le droit anglo-américain n’ayant que peu d’influence.
Selecting the Best Instrument for European Contract Law
Authors: Keirse Anne , Van Der Heijden Marie-José
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Currently, the process of the Europeanization of private law is highlighted by a Green Paper on European Contract Law and the successive publication of a feasibility study. In these documents, the European Commission calls on all stakeholders to participate in the ongoing debate about the future of contract law. This article aims to contribute to this discussion on the search for the best instrument for European contract law. First, the purposes of the Green Paper are briefly outlined. Second, the several policy options presented by the European Commission are evaluated and the arguments for and against are considered. Third, we argue what option(s) should be preferred. Fourth, we refer to some crucial issues that need to be addressed before implementing a new model of European contract law. These relate to the formal and substantive scope of the instrument, as well as its incorporation in the current legal and social context. The present article provides a contribution to the ongoing debate that is likely to continue for several years to come.

Résumé: Le processus d'européanisation du droit privé est actuellement mis en évidence grâce au Livre Vert sur le droit européen des contrats, suivi de la publication d'une Etude de faisabilité. Dans ces documents, la Commission européenne prie tous les intéressés de participer au débat sur l'avenir du droit des contrats. Le présent article a pour but de participer à la discussion sur la recherche du meilleur instrument juridique à utiliser en droit européen des contrats. Nous expliquons tout d'abord brièvement quells sont les objectifs du Livre Vert. Nous évaluons ensuite les différents choix de politique présentés par la Commission européenne et prenons en considération les arguments pour et contre. En troisième lieu, nous expliquons quelle(s) option(s) devrait (devraient) être préférées. Quatrièmement, nous nous référons à quelques points de discussion cruciaux qui doivent être abordés avant d'introduire un nouveau modèle de droit européen des contrats. Ceci concerne la portée formelle et substantielle de l'instrument, son incorporation dans le contexte actuel légal et social. Le présent article est une contribution au débat actuel, lequel semble devoir se prolonger encore pendant plusieurs années.
Towards a European System of Property Law
Authors: Moreno Héctor Simón
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The European Commission is in favour of harmonizing European private law since 2003 but taking as a starting point the law of contracts. The process has culminated in the Draft of the Common Frame of Reference (DCFR), which is based mainly on the work carried out before by the Study Group of the European Civil Code and the Acquis Group. This Draft is purely academic and contains provisions relating to property rights over movables (including ownership, possession, trust, and security interests), being outside of its scope the property rights over immovables. Although it is true that contract law is the cornerstone to achieve an internal market, property rights are also of the utmost importance and equally necessary to achieve this goal, as has been demonstrated with the eurohypothec (foreseen in the Basic Guidelines for a Eurohypothec of 2005) according to two separate studies of the London School of Economics in 2005 and Oliver and Wyman in 2003. The actions of the European Union in the field of property rights have been isolated and uncoordinated, without being integrated in a global action plan, which would have offered internal coherence. For these reasons, the present paper tries to propose the basis for a European system of property law, with feasible regulation of property rights, which would allow community freedoms to be achieved in the European Union.

Résumé: La Commission européenne est favorable à l'harmonisation européenne du droit privé depuis 2003, mais en prenant comme point de départ du droit des contrats. Ce processus a abouti dans le projet de Cadre Commun de Référence, qui est principalement basé sur des travaux antérieurs effectués par le Study Group of the European Civil Code et le Acquis Group. Ce projet est purement académique et contient des dispositions relatives aux droits réels sur les biens immeubles (compris la propriété, la possession, le trust et les droits réels de garantie), laissant en dehors les droits réels sur les biens immeubles. Bien que le droit des contrats est la pierre angulaire pour atteindre un marché intérieur, les droits réels sont également très importants et tout aussi nécessaire pour atteindre cet objectif, comme a montré eurohypothec (contenues dans les Basic Guidelines for a Eurohypothec, 2005) selon deux études réalisées par la London School of Economics en 2005 et Oliver & Wyman en 2003. Les actions de l'Union Européenne dans le domaine des droits réels ont été isolées et non coordonnées, sans être intégrés dans un plan d'action global qui offre une plus grande cohérence interne. Pour ces raisons, le présent travail essaye établir des fondations pour un système européen de la propriété, avec une réglementation des droits réels qui permet obtenir les libertés communautaires dans l'Union Européenne.
B2B Information Duties in the Feasibility Study: Analysis of Article 23
Authors: De Boeck Annick
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The Acquis contains numerous provisions requiring specific pre-contractual information on goods and services delivered to consumers. It had no such rule for the transactions between businesses. Shaping a new general duty of information seems to be a difficult and delicate issue as in some Member States the 'caveat emptor' rule takes a central place. However, the choice for a generalization of the duty, also in business-to-business (B2B) relations, was already made in the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR). Article 23 of the Feasibility Study couches the pre-contractual information duty of the supplier in his relation to another business in a positive obligation to provide information on the main characteristics of the goods or services supplied. Although contracts between businesses need to operate in a climate of great contractual freedom and the pre-contractual period must be seen as the playgroud of this freedom, this article concludes that the proposed pre-contractual information duty of Article 23 is justifiable due to a very well-balanced conception that makes it particulary fit when a small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) trades with a larger firm. Although some minor remarks can be made, especially the fact that the list of circumstances to be taken into account when judging the existence and, in our opinion also, the extent of the duty of information is not restrictive can be approved.
Swiss Report
Authors: Fötschl Andreas
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The complexity of transnational sources is rather not as such treated in Swiss judgments or Swiss legal writing. It is rather debated in connection with particular problems of specific conflicting conventions. A more theoretical debate about the complexity of transnational sources seems only to be found in private international Law or in branches strongly affiliated to this field of law. Different techniques and strategies are developed to handle the problem. It is sometimes suggested to extend these techniques to other (or all) fields of law. Nonetheless, in how far this would be appropriate seems to be a rather untreated question.

Résumé: La complexité des sources transnationales en général n'est pas traitée comme un problème en soi par la jurisprudence ou la doctrine suisse. Ce problème est plutôt abordé dans le cadre de conflits de conventions particulières relevant de tous les domaines du droit. Une discussion, principalement théorique, n'est conduite que dans le droit international privé suisse ou dans des domaines du droit qui lui sont étroitement liés. Dans ce cadre, différentes approches et techniques sont développées pour résoudre ce problème. Il est aussi proposé, par quelques auteurs, de transférer ces approches et techniques à d'autres domaines du droit, voire à tous. Mais la question de savoir si ces approches et techniques sont réellement adaptées aux autres domaines du droit n'est pas traitée ici.

Zusammenfassung: Die Vielschichtigkeit der transnationalen Quellen in ihrer Allgemeinheit wird in der Schweizer Rechtsprechung und Lehre eher nicht als eigenständiges Problem diskutiert. Diese Komplexität wird aber in Zusammenhang mit Konflikten ganz bestimmter Konventionen aus allen möglichen Rechtsbereichen behandelt. Eine Diskussion, die stärker theoretische Züge zeigt, wird soweit ersichtlich nur im Schweizer Internationalen Privatrecht geführt oder in Rechtsbereichen, die mit diesem in engem Zusammenhang stehen. Es werden hier unterschiedliche Lösungsansätze und Techniken entwickelt, um das Problem zu lösen und es wird auch eine Ausweitung vorgeschlagen. Aber ob diese Techniken und Ansätze tatsächlich für eine Ausdehnung auf andere (oder alle) Rechtsgebiete geeignet sind, scheint eher nicht in seiner ganzen Breite behandelt worden zu sein.
Full Harmonization in European Private Law: A Two-Track Concept
Authors: Mak Vanessa
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article seeks to elaborate a new understanding of full harmonization in European private law as a two-track concept. The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) applies it in two different ways, namely in a 'result-oriented' or in a 'basis of liability' manner. Connecting them to private law theory, these distinctly different approaches bring to mind a famous dichotomy between common law and civil law systems on the way in which they perceive the relation between rights, wrongs, and remedies. The article proposes that a new understanding of the CJEU's legal reasoning in light of private law theory can provide new insights for lawmaking in European private law.

Résumé: Le présent article tente d'élaborer une nouvelle approche d'une pleine harmonisation en droit privé européen, sous forme d'un concept à deux orientations. La Cour de Justice de l'Union européenne (CJUE) l'applique de deux manières différentes, à savoir d'une manière 'visant au résultat' ou d'une manière recherchant 'la base de la responsabilité'. En les rattachant à la théorie du droit privé, ces approaches distinctement différentes rappellent la fameuse dichotomie entre les systèmes du common law et du droit civil dans leur perception de la relation entre droits, fautes et réparations. Cet article propose qu'une nouvelle compréhension du raisonnement juridique de la CJUE, à la lumière d'une théorie de droit privé, puisse fournir de nouvelles perspectives pour une élaboration du droit en droit privé européen.

Zusammenfassung: Der vorliegende Beitrag versucht, ein neues Verständnis von Vollharmonisierung im Europäischen Privatrecht als zweigleisiges Konzept zu entwickeln. Der Europäische Gerichtshof (EuGH) wendet das Europäische Privatrecht in zwei unterschiedlichen Weisen an, einer 'result-oriented' und in einem 'basis of liability manner'. Verbindet man diese mit der Theorie des Privatrechts, erinnern die sich deutlich unterscheidenden Ansätze in der Art und Weise, wie sie die Beziehung zwischen Recht, Rechtsverletzung und Rechtsbehelfen auffassen, an die berühmte Dichotomie von common law und civil law Rechtssystemen. Der Beitrag eruiert, dass ein neues Verständnis der rechtlichen Argumentationsführung des EuGH im Lichte der Privatrechtstheorie neue Erkenntnisse für die Rechtsgestaltung im Europäischen Privatrecht bieten kann.
Conquering the Legal World: The Use of English in Foreign Courts
Authors: Bisping Christopher
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article discusses the initiatives to allow the use of English in German and French courts. The difficulties arising out of such initiatives are highlighted and the aims evaluated. The article illustrates how, at present, such proposals suffer from insufficient English language translations of statutes and highlights the legal and practical obstacles. The article demonstrates that language is not the primary reason why parties do not chose Germany or France as place of litigation and concludes that therefore the initiatives will not bring about the desired effect.

Résumé: Cet article discute les initiatives pour permettre l'utilisation de l'anglais dans les tribunaux allemands et français. Les difficultés découlant de ces initiatives sont mises en évidence et les objectifs évalués. L'article montre comment, à l'heure actuelle, de telles propositions souffrent d'insuffisance de traductions des lois en langue anglaise, et souligne les obstacles juridiques et pratiques. L'article démontre que la langue n'est pas la raison principale pour laquelle les parties n'ont pas choisi l'Allemagne ou la France comme lieu de litige, et conclut donc que les initiatives n'auront pas l'effet désiré.

Zusammenfassung: Dieser Artikel diskutiert die Initiativen bezüglich der Zulassung von englischer Sprache in deutschen und französischen Gerichten. Die Schwierigkeiten, die diese Initiativen hervorrufen, werden hervorgehoben, und ihre Zielsetzung bewertet. Der Artikel zeigt auf, dass derzeit die Vorschläge darunter leiden, dass keine hinreichende Übersetzung von Gesetzen in englischer Sprache vorliegt, und weist auf die rechtlichen und praktischen Hürden der Initiativen hin. Der Artikel zeigt, dass Sprache nicht der vorrangige Grund dafür ist, dass die Parteien nicht Deutschland oder Frankreich als Gerichtsstand wählen, und schlussfolgert, dass die Initiativen aus diesem Grund nicht den erwünschten Erfolg haben werden.
Much Ado about Cookies: The European Debate on the New Provisions of the ePrivacy Directive regarding Cookies
Authors: Luzak Joasia
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The fear of losing the privacy of internet users' personal data and of unfair data processing practices may lead to internet users staying off the internet and, therefore, not participating in online transactions. The European Commission wants to encourage internet users to conclude more online cross-border transactions that would strengthen the internal market. As a result, new provisions of the ePrivacy Directive regarding cookies aim to ensure the right to online privacy and to protect internet users from unfair data processing practices. Whether these goals will be reached depends on the character of the adopted provisions, i.e., whether they actually ensure the right to online privacy of internet users. Furthermore, proper and uniform implementation of these provisions by the Member States is needed in order to improve internet users' confidence that they receive the same level of protection of their right to online privacy across borders. This paper assesses the feasibility of these provisions contributing to the increased confidence of internet users in concluding online transactions, taking into account the implementation measures adopted by two Member States, the Netherlands and the UK, as well as consumer behaviour research findings.

Résumé: La crainte de compromettre la confidentialité des données personnelles des utilisateurs d'internet, ainsi que de l'exploitation déloyale de ces données pourrait dissuader les utilisateurs à utiliser internet et, par conséquence, à éviter de réaliser des transactions en ligne. La Commission européenne souhaite d'encourager les internautes à effectuer davantage de transactions transfrontalières afin de renfoncer le marché intérieur. Ainsi, les nouvelles dispositions de la directive Vie Privée ou ePrivacy au regard des cookies visent à garantir le droit à la vie privée en ligne et à protéger les internautes de l'exploitation déloyale de leurs données personnelles. La réalisation de ces objectifs dépend du caractère des dispositions prises, à savoir verifier si celles-ci préservent vraiment le droit à la vie privée des internautes. En outre, la mise en œuvre rigoureuse et uniforme de ces dispositions par les États Membres est nécessaire dans le but d'en rassurer les internautes garantissant les mêmes critères de confidentialité et de protection de leurs données personnelles en ligne au-delà des frontières. Cette étude vise à évaluer l'efficacité de ces dispositions à renforcer la confiance des internautes lorsqu'ils réalisent des transactions en ligne, compte tenu des mesures adoptées par deux États Membres, les Pays-Bas et le Royaume-Uni, ainsi que des conclusions basées sur le comportement des consommateurs.
The Impact of Primary EU Law on Private Law Relationships: Horizontal Direct Effect under the Free Movement of Goods and Services
Authors: Verbruggen Paul
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article examines the basis on which the Court of Justice of the European Union draws a distinction between the free movement of goods (Art. 28 et seq. of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)) and services (Art. 56 et seq. TFEU) as regards their capacity to have horizontal direct effect, that is, be able to create, modify, or extinguish rights and obligations between private parties. It argues that this Court's position to deny horizontal direct effect to the freedom of goods, but award it to the freedom of services, is conceptually unclear and dents theuniform interpretation of EU free movement law. In particular, it is argued that the judge-made distinction between the freedoms of goods and services should be revisited in the light of the reality of today's business relationships and supply chains. Modern trends of the 'servitisation of products' and 'commodification of services' signify that trade in goods and the provision of services are intimately linked and mutually complementary. While the Court has recognized this interdependence in its case law, it fails to follow up on the consequences this has for its case law on the horizontal direct effect of the freedom of goods and services.

Resumé: L'effet direct horizontal d'une norme consiste en la possibilité pour celle-ci de créer, modifier ou faire disparaître des droits ou obligations entre personnes privées. Si la Cour de justice de l'Union européenne l'admet en matière de libre circulation des services (Article 56 et suivantes TFUE), elle la refuse en revanche pour les biens (Article 28 et suivants TFUE). Cette contribution défend l'idée selon laquelle une telle distinction est conceptuellement équivoque et va à l'encontre de l'exigence d'interprétation uniforme des dispositions de l'Union relatives à la libre circulation. Il apparaît en particulier que cette distinction prétorienne entre biens et services devrait être repensée à la lumière de la réalité d'aujourd'hui en matière de relations commerciales et de chaîne logistique. Les tendances actuelles de 'servicisation des produits' et de 'chosification des services' témoignent de la relation étroite et complémentaire entre biens et services. Alors que la Cour a reconnu cette interdépendance dans sa jurisprudence, elle n'en a pas tiré les conséquences en matière d'effet direct horizontal des dispositions relatives à la libre circulation des biens et des services.
Unforeseen Circumstances, Hardship, Impossibility and Force Majeure under German Contract Law
Authors: Weller Marc-Philippe , Ridder Philip
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The sanctity of contracts is a fundamental principle of private law. However, it can be overcome in cases of impossibility, force majeure, hardship or unforeseen circumstances. This article analyses the way German Contract Law deals with such situations. It focuses on the two main provisions of section 275(2) and section 313 German Civil Code, pointing out and comparing their respective requirements and legal consequences. Emphasis is also placed on the historic origins of the German doctrine of the 'foundation of transaction' (Lehre von der Geschäftsgrundlage).

Résumé: Pacta sunt servanda est un principe fondamental du droit privé (cf. Art. 1134 du Code civil français). Néanmoins, il peut être surmonté dans le cas de circonstances exceptionnelles dites de force majeure, d'impossibilité ou dans la situation d'une perturbation du « fondement du contrat ». L'article examine les deux stipulations principales, les paragraphes 275 (2) et 313 du Code Civil Allemand, en mettant en relief d'une façon comparative leurs conditions respectives ainsi que leurs suites légitimes. En plus, il accentue les origines historiques de la doctrine du « fondement du contrat » (Lehre von der Geschäftsgrundlage).

Zusammenfassung: Pacta sunt servanda ist ein fundamentaler Grundsatz des Vertragsrechts. Allerdings erfährt er Durchbrechungen in den Fällen der Unmöglichkeit, der höheren Gewalt und der Störung der Geschäftsgrundlage. Der Beitrag untersucht die beiden Hauptvorschriften § 275 (2) und § 313 BGB, wobei ihre jeweiligen Tatbestandsvoraussetzungen sowie die dazugehörigen Rechtsfolgen herausgearbeitet und gegenübergestellt werden. Beleuchtet werden auch die historischen Grundlagen der Lehre von der Geschäftsgrundlage.
The Consumer Interest and Data Protection under EU Competition Law: The Case of the Retail Financial Services Sector
Authors: Ferretti Federico
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The legitimacy or illegitimacy of information exchanges among competitors remains a contemporary debate under EU competition law and policy. This article revisits the issue in the retail financial services sector for the peculiar problems that it may pose for consumers. It analyses and reflects on the relevant case law and guidance offered by the competent authorities, providing a new perspective on the inevitable interaction between EU competition law, the interest of consumers and their protection, and personal data protection. It suggests that the current state under competition law is unsatisfactory for being short-sighted and that the EU judiciary and policymakers should take a holistic approach encompassing consumer protection and fundamental rights.

Resumé: La légitimité ou l'illégitimité des échanges d'informations entre concurrents reste un débat d'actualité en politique européenne et droit européen de la concurrence. Cet article réexamine le sujet dans le secteur des services financiers de détail pour les problèmes particuliers qu'il peut poser aux consommateurs. Il décrit et analyse la jurisprudence pertinente et l'orientation offerte par les autorités compétentes, fournissant une nouvelle perspective sur l'inévitable interaction entre le droit européen de la concurrence, l'intérêt des consommateurs et leur protection et la protection des données personnelles. Il suggère que la situation actuelle en droit de la concurrence n'est pas satisfaisante car elle manque de vision et que les décideurs du pouvoir judiciaire et politique européen devraient choisir une approche globale comprenant la protection du consommateur et les droits fondamentaux.

Zusammenfassung: Die Legitimität oder Illegitimität von Informationsaustausch zwischen Wettbewerbern bleibt eine andauernde Debatte in EU-Wettbewerbsrecht und -Politik. Der vorliegende Beitrag greift diese Thematik im Hinblick auf den Finanzdienstleistungssektor und bezüglich der besonderen Probleme, die dort für Verbraucher entstehen können, auf. Er analysiert und reflektiert die relevante Rechtsprechung sowie die von den zuständigen Behörden gegebenen Leitlinien und bietet dabei eine neue Perspektive auf die unvermeidbare Interaktion zwischen EU-Wettbewerbsrecht, Verbraucherinteressen und -schutz sowie dem Schutz personenbezogener Daten. Er kommt zu dem Ergebnis, dass der derzeitige Status im Wettbewerbsrecht wegen seiner Kurzsichtigkeit unbefriedigend ist und dass die Entscheidungsträger in EU-Justiz und -Politik einen ganzheitlichen Ansatz, Verbraucherschutz und Grundrechte umspannend, verfolgen sollten.
The Transposition of the Consumer Rights Directive into UK Law: Implementing a Maximum Harmonization Directive
Authors: Giliker Paula
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article examines the transposition of the Consumer Rights Directive 2011/83/EU into UK law. At face value, the UK has complied with the Directive, adopting and publishing it by 13 December 2013 and providing that its provisions shall apply to contracts concluded after 13 June 2014, as required by Article 28. Indeed, Article 19 of the CRD (extra fees charged to consumers on payment) was introduced a year before the date anticipated in the Directive. It will be argued, however, that despite such positive indicia and the fact that the CRD is primarily a maximum harmonization directive, a number of strategic decisions have been made, notably by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) charged with responsibility for transposing the CRD into UK law, which reveal an underlying and ongoing suspicion of EU intervention into domestic contract law. The article thus argues that directives, whether maximum or minimum harmonization in nature, will always be vulnerable to policy choices at national level due to the discretion awarded to Member States in the transposition process.

Résumé: Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht die Umsetzung der Verbraucherrechterichtlinie 2011/83/EU in britisches Recht. Großbritannien hat dabei auf dem Papier die Anforderungen der Richtlinie erfüllt, indem ihre Regelungen mit der Vorgabe, dass sie, wie von Art. 28 gefordert, auf nach dem 13. Juni 2014 geschlossenen Verträge Anwendung finden, umgesetzt und am 13. Dezember 2013 veröffentlicht wurden. Tatsächlich wurde Art. 19 der Verbraucherrechterichtlinie (zusätzliche Entgelte für die Nutzung von Zahlungsmittel) ein Jahr vor dem von der Richtlinie vorgesehenen Datum eingeführt. Trotz dieser positiven Anzeichen und der Tatsache, dass die Verbraucherrechterichtlinie in erster Linie eine vollharmonisierende Richtlinie ist, wird im Beitrag aufgezeigt, dass eine Reihe von strategischen Entscheidungen insbesondere vom für die Umsetzung der Richtlinie in das britische Recht verantwortlichen Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) gemacht wurden, die eine grundlegende und andauernde Skepsis gegen EU-Interventionen im Bereich des nationalen Privatrechts erkennen lassen. So wird weiter argumentiert, dass, unabhängig von ihrer maximal- oder minimalharmonisierenden Natur, Richtlinien, wegen des den Mitgliedsstaaten zustehenden Ermessensspielraums im Umsetzungsprozess, immer durch politische Entscheidungen auf nationalem Level angreifbar sein werden.
Damages for the Loss Caused by a Cartel: The Causal Link
Authors: Stuyck Jules
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In Case C-557/12 Kone, the Court of Justice rules that Article 101 TFEU (prohibition of restrictive agreements) opposes to legislation of a Member State (Austria), which categorically excludes any civil liability of undertakings belonging to a cartel for loss, resulting from the fact that an undertaking not party to the cartel sets its prices higher than would otherwise have been expected under competitive conditions (so-called 'umbrella pricing').
Enforcing Consumer Rights through ADR at the Detriment of Consumer Law
Authors: Loos Marco B.M.
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) is seen by the European legislator as a key instrument for the enforcement of consumer rights. To further ADR, the EU has adopted the ADR Directive, which was to be implemented by the Member States by 9 July 2015. This article shows that the Directive has shortcomings precisely where it is thought to provide solutions to existing problems with ADR. In addition, it is argued that while the current regulation of ADR may further the individual enforcement of EU consumer rights, it may also hinder the development of EU consumer law. To counteract this, it is suggested that a preliminary reference procedure is introduced for ADR entities at either the European or the national level.

Résumé: Le reglement extrajudiciaire des litiges (REL) est considere par le legislateur europeen comme un instrument cle pour la mise en oeuvre des droits des consommateurs. C’est dans cet ordre d’idees que l’UE a adopte la Directive sur le reglement extrajudiciaire des litiges qui devait etre transposee dans les ordres juridiques nationaux avant le 9 juillet 2015. Le but de cet article est de montrer que la Directive presente des lacunes sur des points auxquels elle etait precisement censee offrir des solutions, a savoir les problemes existants de resolution extrajudiciaire des litiges. Par ailleurs, l’article soutient que, alors qu’elle peut renforcer la mise en oeuvre des droits individuels des consommateurs, la reglementation actuelle de la resolution extrajudiciaire des litiges peut egalement constituer un obstacle au developpement du droit europeen de la consommation. Dans le but de limiter ce risque, l’article suggere l’introduction d’une procedure de renvoi prejudiciel concernant les entites de REL soit au niveau europeen soit au niveau national.
Different Types of Trust from an Ownership Aspect
Authors: Sándor István
Published: April 2022

The Anglo-Saxon legal institution of a trust is generally regarded as unique because of the simultaneous existence of a legal and equitable title. Legal systems based on Roman law recognize only the unity of ownership, which acts as the chief impediment to the introduction of trusts. Legislators in civil law and mixed jurisdiction countries discovered the relevant advantages of trusts in the economy and in the private sphere, therefore they tried to create similar institutions that could fulfil the same function.

The aim of this study is to present a view and a comparative law analysis of the trust-like devices of civil law and mixed jurisdictions, with special emphasis on the regulation of trust property. The comparison will take into account characteristics such as ownership of the trust fund, asset partitioning, the nature of the parties involved in the legal relationship, and the possibility of tracing. The functionality of institutions in civil law countries is more or less adequate to serve the purposes of a trust, but several important details and relevant differences should be highlighted.
Retention of Title or the Transfer of Ownership in a Slideway: Ownership in Adultery?
Authors: Gruyaert Dorothy , Sagaert Vincent
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This analysis takes different view on retention of title than the traditional one. While, traditionally one looks into the protection of the seller and how the latter can be extended or increased, this contribution takes the perspective of the buyer under title retention. Contrary to the general idea, he is already protected on a certain level – which also has proprietary features – before the payment of the full purchase price. Ownership does not pass at one, precise moment but seems to glide from the seller to the buyer in a gradual manner. The moment at which ‘ownership crosses the Rubicon’ is not easy to identify. This not only raises questions on a practical level with regard to the available remedies, but also touches upon the most fundamental issues of property law, such as the standardization of property rights and the exclusivity as essential feature of ownership.
Personalizing EU Private Law: From Disclosures to Nudges and Mandates
Authors: Hacker Philipp
Published: April 2022

Abstract: A key problem in EU private law is actor heterogeneity. While special rules exist for certain subgroups of actors, for example consumers or retail investors, the members of these legal categories still exhibit vast differences in behaviour, degrees of rationality, vulnerability, and economic endowment. Therefore, private law stands much to gain from tailoring its regulatory apparatus to the individual addressees. This article draws on behavioural economics and Big Data analytics to develop a comprehensive framework for the personalization of EU private law across different regulatory tools such as disclosures, nudges, and mandates. Hitherto, in market settings, data mining techniques have almost exclusively been used by tech-savvy companies. The time seems ripe for lawmakers to use digital technologies in order to take European market regulation one step further. By harnessing Big Data techniques, laws can be tailored to individual characteristics of addressees; the relevant parameters could then be stored and updated in a ‘legal blockchain’. Through the use of different metrics and pseudonymization, the right to privacy, a key feature of European law in the digital age, can ultimately be respected. The article shows how laws can be personalized in a variety of different settings. Examples range from the salience and complexity of disclosures in consumer and investment law, to default caps on overdraft charges, debiasing optimism bias, and usury laws. Finally, it is argued that personalization can inspire a novel theory of legal categories which transcends the traditional, status-based dichotomies of, for example, ‘consumer-seller’ or ‘retail-professional investor’. By providing a tool for making empirical distinctions, which affect the impact of laws, legally relevant, personalization thus ultimately serves equality before the law.
Ensuring Data Protection by Private Law Contract Monitoring: A Legal and Value-Based Approach
Authors: Hulstijn Joris
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Current legal frameworks for data protection are based on public law. They have a number of flaws. The notion of informed consent does not work in practice. Public legislation only covers the protection of personal data, but it doesn’t cover data about groups and it doesn’t cover conditions on usage of data for certain purposes. Moreover, in order to function in practice, businesses need to adopt these conditions as part of privacy policies and processes such as audits and impact assessments. Supervision by means of public entities is limited as regulatory agencies have little capacity. This gives private actors room for designing tools to protect their personal data. In this article, we will therefore suggest to utilize private law instruments for data protection. By incorporating conditions on usage of sensitive data in contracts and by setting up platforms for monitoring contract fulfilment, end users can be empowered to take enforcement into their own hands. We will propose a platform for assisting users in drafting contracts that take data protection into account, and for monitoring contract fulfilment. Feasibility of the proposal is illustrated by an application scenario, the sports tracker app.

 

Résumé: Les cadres juridiques actuels en matière de protection des données sont basés sur le droit public. Ils ont plusieurs inconvénients. La notion de ‘consentement éclairé’ ne fonctionnne pas dans la pratique. La législation de droit public couvre seulement la protection de données personnelles, mais ne couvre pas les données concernant des groupes et ne couvre pas non plus les conditions de l’usage de données dans certains buts. De plus, afin de fonctionner dans la pratique, les entreprises doivent adopter ces conditions comme faisant partie de politiques de protection de la vie privée et de méthodes telles que audits et évaluations d’impact. Le contrôle exercé par des organismes publics est limité car les agences de réglementation ont peu de pouvoirs. Ceci offre la possibilité aux acteurs privés de créer des outils permettant de protéger leurs données personnelles. Par conséquent nous proposons dans cet article d’utilizer des instruments de droit privé pour la protection des données. En incorporant des conditions concernant l’usage de données sensibles dans des contrats et en mettant en place des plateformes permettant de surveiller l’exécution du contrat, l’utilisateur final peut être habilité à se charger lui-même de l’exécution. Nous proposons une plateforme qui aide les utilisateurs à rédiger des contrats qui prennent en compte la protection des données et surveillent l’exécution du contrat. La faisabilité de la proposition est illustrée par un modèle d’application, l’application Sports Tracker.