bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Conditions of Accumulation of Petroleum in the Earth
Authors: Day David T.
Published: June 2014

In 1897 I published a proposed explanation for the variation in color andspecific gravity of Pennsylvania oils. A resume of this subject was alsopresented at the First International Petroleum Congress, in Paris, in 1990.Since that time much experimental work bearing upon this explanation has beencarried on by me, in the United States Geological Survey, and under mydirection, by Dr. J. Elliott Gilpin, Marshall P. Cram, and O. E. Bransky, atthe Johns Hopkins University. The experimental results thus accumulated seem tothrow considerable additional light upon the variations in color and specificgravity of petroleum, as found in different parts of the world, and also uponthe variations in chemical composition. Therefore, it seems as if a summary ofthe evidence thus obtained might be of value to those members of the Institutewho are interested in the examination of oil- fields. The summary is herepresented for that purpose.

The phenomenon has often been observed in many oil-fields that oils of different color, specific gravity, and chemical composition may be foundwithin short distances of each other. A conspicuous example of this is the occurrence at Jennings, Welsh, and Anse la Butte, La., of petroleum chemicallysomewhat similar to Russian petroleum; that is, characterized by the presenceof naphthenes. Another characteristic is the presence of considerablepercentages of asphaltic compounds, sufficient in quantity to disguise the presence of' solid paraffin wax, and perhaps also to render that paraffin waxmore soluble in the oil than it would be were not these asphaltic compoundspresent. At Belle Isle, La., only 40 miles from Anse la Butte, petroleum isfound unusually light in color, about that of sauterne wine. This petroleum ispractically free from sulphur, very much lighter in specific gravity than theother oils, free from asphalt, and shows abundantly the presence of paraffinwax in solution. At first glance the oils seem to be entirely different, butchemical examination shows them to be as closely related to Russian oils as arethose from Texas, and markedly different from the oils of theparaffin-hydrocarbon series found in Pennsylvania.

Other instances are noted of similar variations in oils within short distances, especially in Mexico, as well as in California, Wyoming, Oklahoma, Texas, andelsewhere. The oils usually, however, contain some characteristics in common, which would indicate that one oil has been derived from the other. Inendeavoring to express such a genetic relationship, it has been supposed thatthe dark oils have been derived from the lighter ones by evaporation andoxidation.

AIME 041–24
Present Conditions in the California Oil-Fields
Authors: Requa Mark L.
Published: June 2014

During the two past years California has developed a new and importantoil-field: I refer to Midway. This field produced the famous Lake View gusher, which is credited with a total production in excess of 8,000,000 barrels. Fortunately for the oil industry of the State, this well is not a thing of the past, and nothing save agreat crater-like opening marks its location. The pipe is entirely work away and gone; and it is a matter of serious doubt ifthere can be anything done that will cause the well to produce again. Fortunately, also, there have been no other wells inthat field or elsewhere throughout the State that in any way compared with the Lake View. Midway is noted for large wells, of from 500 to 2,000 barrels production; but the decline is rapid, and a few months serve to bring the output down to a fewhundred barrels.

In the oil-territory heretofore blocked out as proved and probable, therehave been, during the year, many changes. Some areas which were expected to be fairly productive have apparently failed;others, more strictly ?wild-cat?, have come in; while in some of the older fields there are properties which are beginning toshow evident signs of exhaustion. The total area of proved territory will therefore probably suffer but small increase, when balances are struck off. The increase of new area has come from extensions of the Midway field, the development of a fieldin Lost Hills and Belridge, and extensions of the Fullerton-Whittier field in southern California. In these laterdevelopments, down to date, the fresh area absolutely proved is not much in excess of 3,000 acres. Recent developments in Coalingaindicate the possible extension of that field to the south, but at great depth. Coalinga is still the most northerly field ofany consequence in the State. The Kettleman Hills have hitherto brought in nothing, although a depth exceeding 3,500 ft.has been reached. Much of the territory proved within the year is extremely deep and expensive to develop and operate.

This, however, is not true as regards a narrow strip in the Lost Hills andthe proved tract ill the Belridge fields, located respectively 26 and 13 miles NW. and N. of McKittrick. In these fieldsit is claimed that at depths varying from 600 to 1,200 ft., 200- to 500-barrel wells are the rule, producing oil of 23"gravity and higher. So far as can be foreseen at the moment, this territory is the most disturbing factor in the State, asregards the future price of oil. It is yet too early to predict with accuracy the possibilities of these two fields, andespecially of the Belridge territory, but that there is oil underlying the locality at comparatively shallow depths, admits ofno question. Thickness of sand, saturation, area proved, and sundry other factors necessary to be determined before anyestimate can be made, are as yet not obtainable.

AIME 042–61
Possible Oil and Gas Fields in the Cretaceous Beds of Alabama
Authors: Hager Dorsey
Published: June 2014

The possibility of oil and gas production in Alabama has been littleconsidered as yet. Gas and some oil have been found in northwestern Alabama, near Birmingham, in the Pennsylvanian beds, but the oil and gas possibilitiesin the Cretaceous beds are not generally appreciated. The recent activity of oil companies in that State has attracted much attention, and in this paper themain structural and the general stratigraphic features are described. Fourfavorable areas are outlined. These contain folds of major interest. There areother favorable areas which have not been mapped.

Commercial pools discovered in this area would have the advantage of beingnear tidewater. Mobile, Ala., on the Gulf of Mexico, would be the logical sitefor refineries and shipping facilities. A pipe line could readily be laid tothat city from the Hatchitigbee and the Jackson areas. The logical outlet forthe Geneva and the Gordon areas would be Panama City, Fla., on the Gulf ofMexico.

Topography

The whole of the area under consideration lies in the Gulf coastal plain andslopes gently to the southwest and west. The elevations vary from 200 to 400ft. (60 to 121 m.) above sea level. The streams have sunk their channels intothis gently sloping plain, the main drainage flowing south or southwest intothe Gulf of Mexico. Between the streams are found remnants of this plain, constituting the hills of the area. The relief varies from a few feet up to 150ft. in certain parts. The country is generally covered by timber.

Stratigraphy

The thickness in the generalized sections presented must be consideredlargely as estimates, especially the thicknesses of the underlying Cretaceousbeds, as no wells have been drilled deep enough to give good type sections. TheCretaceous sections mentioned were secured at the outcrop and in water wells atshallow depths. Away from the old shoreline of the Cretaceous, it is verylikely that the beds thicken southward.

The comparative relations in Table 3 show the general correlation of theLouisiana and the Alabama formations.

AIME 059–46
Principles and Problems of Oil Prospecting in the Gulf Coast Country
Authors: Matteson W.G.
Published: June 2014

Introduction

(a) Extent of the Gulf Coastal Plain

The Gulf Coastal plain of the southern United States is that area bordering forit large part the Gulf of Mexico and extending inland and northward to the main interior highland region. It is more or less V-shaped andincludes the States of Florida, extreme southern Alabama, all of Mississippi and Louisiana, the eastern and southern half of Arkansas, and the eastern, southeastern, and southern portions of Texas. While thecontents of this paper apply to the Gulf Coastal plain in general, they areintended to refer more specifically to that portion of the plain includedbetween the 90th and 97th meridians, and the 29th and 33d parallels, an area, that may be described geographically as comprising western Mississippi, all ofLouisiana, part of eastern and all of south-eastern Texas. It is within thisarea that numerous and prolific oil, pools have been developed during the last17 years.

(b) History of the Important Gulf Coast Oil Pools

Oil in commercial quantities was first found in the Gulf States atCorsicana, Tex., when, in 1896, a well was drilled into a sand, at 1030 ft. (313.9 m.) and came in at 22 bbl. daily production. Forty-seven wellsfollowed quickly thereafter, so that in 1897 this small pool had a yearlyproduction of 60,000 barrels.

Attention was first drawn to the Gulf Coastal region as a prolific source ofpetroleum, when, on Jan. 10, 1901, after several previous unsuccessful attemptsby other operators, Captain A. F. Lucas brought in Lucas No.1 at Spindletop, Tex., with an estimated initial flow of 40,000 to 75,000 bbl. daily, from asand at 1120 to 1139 ft. (341 to 347 m.). Although the productive area of thispool covers only 250 acres (101 ha.), it has yielded approximately 45,000,000bbl. of petroleum.

The Lucas well was epochal in that it demonstrated beyond question thepossibilities of the so-called salt domes as favorable reservoirs for theaccumulation of oil. Although the value of the professional petroleum geologistin locating favorable drilling territory had not been recognized at that time, operators with a keen sense of judgment and practicalturn of mind began an active investigation for salt domes.

Several, which had been recognized for some time, were leased and an activedrilling campaign instituted. Previous to the Lucas discovery, Savage Brothersattempted to develop the Sour Lake field, where several shallow wells weredrilled in 1894–95. The results of these tests were not stronglyencouraging.

AIME 059–47
Geology of Oil Fields of North Central Texas
Authors: Hager Dorsey
Published: June 2014

North Central Texas has recently become a center of interest for the oil menof America. The bringing in of the McClosky well at Ranger, Eastland County, and the shallow pool at Brownwood, Brown County, in 1917, has stimulatedinterest in this area to fever pitch. Oil men from all over the United Statesare now investing there. The area of present interest is shown by theaccompanying map (Fig. 1).

The money spent in leases runs into millions of dollars. It is no exaggerationto say that a strip of country 200 miles (321 km.) long and 125 miles (201 km.)wide, comprising some 15,000,000 acres (6,070,310 ha.), has been leasedpractically solid at a cost for rentals and bonuses of at least $1 per acre.The test holes contracted for will certainly number 400, at a cost of at least $5,000,000. From what has been done in the past six months, $20,000,000 atleast will be spent. To pay returns on this amount of money, new production tothe extent of at least 12,000,000 bbl. must be obtained. At present, theproduction from new fields will not average over 5000 bbl. per day; three wellsat Ranger are producing 3000 bbl.; 250 wells at Brownwood produce 1000 bbl.;and the Gray well, Coleman County, is as yet an unknown factor.

However, at Ranger there is every indication of developing a good pool coveringfrom 1500 to 2000 acres (607 to 809 ha.), more or less, but the wells are deep,3400 to 3800 ft. (1036 to 1158 m.), and cost $35,000 to $40,000 to drill. Largewells are necessary to pay for such expensive holes. As new wells are drilled, the gas pressure will be lowered rapidly, and large production need not beexpected. For those oil men who expect a second Cushing or an Eldorado, Rangerholds little of promise.

At Brownwood, Brown County, there are some 250 shallow wells (depths from 200to 350 ft.) averaging 4 to 7 bbl. per day. There is a chance of an extensiveproducing area for these shallow sands to the southwest, and the opening ofseveral thousand acres of shallow oil territory, and also some promise ofdeeper oil horizons in the Ranger horizon, but probably all under 2500ft.

At present, the lease brokers and speculators, and only a handful of oil men, have made any money. More fields must be developed, and it is more particularlywith these possibilities that this paper deals. Lack of water for drillingpurposes has undoubtedly held back development so far this year; this part ofTexas has had a drought for two years and there is an actual scarcity ofwater.

AIME 061–47
Economic and Geologic Conditions Pertaining to Occurrence of Oil in North Argentine-Bolivian Field of South America
Authors: Herold Stanley C.
Published: June 2014

Considerable interest has been shown, during recent years, in thepossibilities of developing oil fields in the South American Republics, nowthat the exhaustion of our present fields can be seen in the not very distantfuture. The demand for fuel oil and its products has been increasing far morerapidly than our increment of production during the last few years. Increase ofconsumption has been largely curtailed by the lack of sufficient supply. Themain factors that have contributed to our previous neglect of the southernfields have been as follows:Lack of sufficient demand for the product.Competition with producing fields, having large production, low cost, andbetter geographical position, such as Tampico, Mexico.Greater interest in home fields with ready market at hand.Our ignorance of southern economic and geologic conditions, due to thedistance between those areas and our financial centers.Economic conditions in the southern countries, necessitating high costs ofexploration and exploitation of the fields.Our lack of understanding of the business methods of the LatinAmerican.

It must be borne in mind that the oil-development work done to the present timein South America has, with one exception, been undertaken upon lands whichpossessed direct evidence of oil in seepages or asphaltic deposits, occurringeither immediately upon the lands or in their close vicinity. The developmentof oil fields in South America is therefore in the pioneer stage. It is not atall improbable that ?hidden fields? will be uncovered in future work, as hasoccurred notably in the mid-continental field of this country within recentyears.

AIME 061–49
Water Troubles in Mid-Continent Oil Fields, and their Remedies
Authors: Hager Dorsey , McPherson G.W.
Published: June 2014

The rapid increase of water troubles in the Mid-Continent oil fields iscausing much alarm. Troubles occur at Towanda, Eldorado, Augusta, Cushing, Blackwell, and Healdton, although they had not been acute in the Mid-Continentfield until about two years ago, when the unusual conditions in the deeper oilfields were first encountered. California faced the same situation, but, thanksto aggressive measures, has largely overcome the dangers.

The following analysis of water trouble may throw some light on the subject andbe of assistance in solving the problems involved.

Water Troubles Classified

The presence of water in large quantities in oil sands has the following results:Diminishes oil production.Diminishes casing-head gasoline production:By curtailing the gas flow.By making the use of vacuum pumps unsuccessful.Increases lifting costs:By making it necessary to pump large quantities of water, which requires afast motion and long stroke (third hole).By requiring the use of compressors for air lift.By causing break-downs and delays due to the high speed necessary to pumpwater.By making it necessary to treat ?cut? or emulsified oil.

Oil production is seriously curtailed by the presence of large quantities ofwater. Lease records show that wells are shut down 40 to 60 per cent of thepumping time where serious water trouble occurs. While a small quantity of saltwater may cut the paraffin and keep the oil moving, several hundred feet, or ahole full of water, effectually ?kills? the oil and gas. The quick return ofwells to production, once the water is shut off, shows how wells have beenaffected.

AIME 061–51
Losses of Crude Oil in Steel and Earthen Storage
Authors: Bradley O.U.
Published: June 2014

The extent of losses, due to evaporation, sediment, and water, in crude oilstored in steel tanks, is a very interesting question, and particularly so atthis time, when every reasonable measure should be employed to eliminate allpossible losses of this important natural product. Available information onthis subject is incomplete; e.g., during the development of the Cushing Field, considerable surplus oil was stored in steel tanks, but from time to time, owing to changes in weather, some losses by evaporation and short storage roomon the leases, these tanks were topped out, thus rendering inaccurate anysystem designed to determine the average rate of evaporation or other losses ofthe oil over a given period. Furthermore, the losses, as shown by the recordsat the time, as a result of hasty gages, failed to take into account thetemperature and gravity of the oil. Losses may be classified roughly asoccurring from evaporation, presence of sediment and water, and leakage. Thecoefficient of expansion and contraction of crude oil, in relation totemperature conditions, is of material importance; also, the rate ofevaporation is dependent upon the gravity of the oil, as the escape of thelighter hydrocarbons in fresh Cushing oil, of from 40 to 42 gravity, on a warmday is considerable, and from available records of temporary storage, it issafe to assume that a loss of 1 to 1? per cent. in volume will easily occur inlight crude oil of Cushing grade over a period of 6 months, including thesummer season. The presence of sediment, water, and other impurities, in theoil will also cause more or less deterioration in quality, particularly whenthe fresh production is run direct from the gage tanks, or from the wells onthe lease to steel storage, as is often the case when an oil field is beingrapidly developed. The bad oil will settle to the bottom of the tanks and maybe determined by thiefing and running a centrifuge test on the sample. Theamount of water in the oil depends entirely on the conditions under which it isproduced. Sometimes in large producing wells, with heavy gas pressure, somewater may come in with the oil, particularly if the well has been drilled tothe top of a water sand. Under these conditions, cut oil is often produced, which, if not settled out, is carried over into the steel tanks.

AIME 061–56
A Foreign Oil Supply for the United States
Authors: Smith George Otis
Published: June 2014

Twelve years ago, the Director of the United States Geological Surveyaddressed to the Secretary of the Interior a letter calling attention to thegovernment's need for liquid fuel for naval use and pointing out that the rateof increase in demand was more rapid than the increase in production. Thisletter, in a way, inaugurated the policy of public oil-land withdrawals, whichwas well founded in its primary purpose of protecting the oil industry andhighly desirable in its immediate effect of checking the over-development ofthat day in California. Unfortunately, however, through delays in legislation, this policy may be regarded now as having outlived both its intent and itsusefulness. In 1908, the country's production of oil was 178,500,000 bbl., andthere was a surplus above consumption of more than 20,000,000 bbl. available togo into storage. In 1918, 10 years later, the oil wells of the United Statesyielded 356,000,000 bbl. - nearly twice the yield of 1908 - but to meet thedemands of the increased consumption more than 24,000,000 bbl. had to be drawnfrom storage.

Nor is this all of the brief comparison. In 1918, our excess of imports overexports of crude petroleum was nearly 33,000,000 bbl. whereas in 1908 weexported 3,500,000 bbl., which was net, as we had not begun to import Mexicanoil. In this period, the annual fuel-oil consumption of the railroads alone hasincreased from 16,871,000 to 36,714,000 bbl.; the annual gasoline productionfrom 540,000,000 gal. to 3,500,000,000 gal. This record may be taken not onlyas justifying the earlier appeal for Federal action, but as warrantingdeliberate attention to the oil problem of today.

Need of Future Supply

The position of the United States in regard to oil can best be characterized asprecarious. Using more than one-third of a billion barrels a year, we aredrawing not only from the underground pools but also from storage, and both ofthese supplies are limited.

AIME 065–13
Geology of Cement Oil Field
Authors: Clapp Frederick G.
Published: June 2014

Although many oil fields have been, and still are being, discovered inOklahoma, the geology and structure of most of them have not become familiar tothe general public because of the delay in securing government geologicalsurveys and the reluctance of oil companies and other interested parties togive out their ?inside information.? Therefore, until official surveys areavailable, it behooves us to publish geological results as soon as possible.Fortunately the writer has been authorized by the Cement Field Oil Co. topublish his data on the Cement field, Caddo County, at this time.

Locality and Description

The Cement field is situated in the part of Oklahoma known generally untilrecently, as "Healdton fields," and lies 60 mi. (96 km.) northwest ofthe Healdton field proper. Like the Healdton field, it forms an approximateellipse, trending northwest and southeast through the village of Cement on theSt. Louis-San Francisco Railroad, on which it is reached in 2? hours fromOklahoma City.

In its geological structure, the field constitutes an anticline over 13 mi. (21km.) long and from 1 to 3 mi. wide; the point of greatest width being not farfrom its intersection by the above-named railroad. The major axis trends north75? west from the village of Cement; but eastward appears deflected (if fieldinterpretations are correct) to about south 45? east. About 5 mi. south lies anapproximately parallel syncline, which may be conveniently called the Cyrilsyncline, the south and west boundaries of which may be distant many miles, butforming a closed basin south of the Cement anticline. The position of theoffsetting synclinal axis, which is believed to lie north and east of Cement, has not been discovered.

Topography

In the southwest part of the state, nearly all maps of Oklahoma show twomountain areas - Arbuckle and Wichita - which are conspicuous geological andtopographic landmarks. In addition, some maps show a third, and smaller, range, named the Keechi Hills, in the vicinity of Cement.

AIME 065–19
Petroliferous Rocks in Serra da Baliza
Authors: De Oliveira Euzebio P.
Published: June 2014

One of a recent batch of samples from the Serra da Baliza, in the state ofParana, Brazil, contained asphalt and a dark heavy oil; and workmen on therailway from Porto Uniao to Uruguay discovered asphalt coming from eruptivesthat outcrop along the Rio de Peixe. The occurrence of asphalt in the triassiceruptives of southern Brazil, however, has been known a long time, according toDr. Gonzaga de Campos.

It is generally believed that the Botucatu sandstone is always a hard vitrifiedrock, from the metamorphic action of the overflowing eruptive contacts. In thisregion, however, the contact metamorphism is almost nil; the sandstone isslightly hardened in a narrow zone about 20 to 30 cm. wide. In many places, thesandstone is so friable as to be easily reduced to sand, which is used inmortar for building in Guarapuava and Palmas. South and west from Porto Uniao, this bench of sandstone is about 50 m. thick, and is capped by a heavy bed ofbasic eruptives, many of which are amygdaloids.

Nature of Rocks

Dr. Geo. P. Merrill, after studying the triassic eruptives collected by theCoal Commission, reached the conclusion that "All these rocks are oftypical basalt-diabases, not in any essential different other than instructure. An interesting mineralogical phase is its paucity in olivine, whichin many cases is completely lacking."

Professor Russak, who carefully studied these rocks and their accessoryminerals, decided that in the dikes they are granular (diabase) and that in thelava sheets, porphyritic (augite-porphyrite or melaphyre), and that the latterpass evidently to normal diabases and are always typical of effusive rocks. Theexamination of many slides from dikes and sheets leads us to adopt the opinionof Professor Russak; the rocks of the dikes are of ophitic structure, whilethat of the sheets show a great variety of structure and may vary from almostgranular to basaltic. The great paucity in olivine had been noted by Russak, who classes as melaphyres, the porphyritic triassic rocks in Brazil whichcontain olivine.

AIME 065–26
Application of Law of Equal Expectations to Oil Production in California
Authors: Beal Carl H. , Nolan E.D.
Published: June 2014

In February, 1918, the conclusion was published by Lewis and Beal ?thatwells of equal output on the average will produce equal amounts of oil in thefuture, regardless of the ages of the wells.? This conclusion was based uponthe study of data collected principally in Oklahoma and was not known at thattime to be true for other oil fields. An abundance of statistical proof waslater collected by the senior author of the present paper, which showed thatthe conclusion was undoubtedly well founded and that it applied to other fieldsas well. Accordingly, it was later restated as the ?law of equal expectations?as follows: ?If two wells under similar conditions produce equal amounts duringany given year, the amounts they will produce thereafter, on the average, willbe approximately equal, regardless of their relative ages.?

Although only scanty data from the California oil fields were available at thetime this publication was prepared, sufficient information was analyzed uponwhich to base the insert on Fig. 80, which showed beyond a doubt that the lawheld at least for a part of the Midway oil field in California. Recently theauthors have collected more complete data in California, and it is the purposeof this paper to explain the method used in demonstrating the truth of the lawand, in addition, to give several methods by which curves constructed inaccordance with this law can be used in a practical way with ease andaccuracy.

AIME 065–30
Composition of Petroleum and Its Relation to Industrial Use
Authors: Mabery Charles F.
Published: June 2014

So far as the elementary composition of petroleum is known, it may bebriefly stated. Petroleum consists principally of a few series of hydrocarbons, with admixtures of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen derivatives in comparativelyminute proportions, which may be regarded as impurities to be removed in thepreparation of commercial products. But as each series is represented by manyhomologs, in the aggregate, crude petroleum is an extremely complex mixture ofhydrocarbons and their derivatives.

Hydrocarbons of greater density contained in the portions of petroleum thatcannot be distilled without decomposition doubtless have less hydrogen than isrepresented by these formulas. Since to every hydrocarbon there is a definitetemperature, even in vacuum, at which its constituent carbon and hydrogen atomsfall apart, and since for the heavier bodies this temperature is not much above360? C. in vacuum, it is evident that some other method than distillation mustbe devised for their separation if anything further is to be learned concerningtheir individual constitution.

Classification of Petroleums

There is such a wide variation in the composition of petroleum from differentfields, it would seem possible to make a classification on this basis were itnot that no single variety is entirely free from hydrocarbons contained inothers. Such a classification has been suggested of the exceptionally purePennsylvania petroleum, the sulfur oil from Trenton limestone and othersources, the California oil with its large amount of nitrogen (quinoline)derivatives, and the Russian oil, composed chiefly of the naphthenehydrocarbons.

AIME 065–45
Colombian Oil Fields
Authors: Huntley L.G. , Mason Shirley
Published: June 2014

The Colombian highlands consist of three parallel mountain ranges (Fig. 1)called respectively the eastern, central, and western cordillera of the Andes.A segment of the range that forms the backbone of the Isthmus of Panama alsoextends into Colombia, along the Pacific coast, as far southward as the mouthof the San Juan River.

These four mountain ranges furnish the key to the varying climaticconditions and vegetation of the country. The river valleys are hot and coveredwith dense tropical growth. This is also generally true of the coastal plain, although in the northern portion there are some fairly open stretches wherecattle are raised and even small districts where semi-arid conditions prevail.The population of this heavily wooded wet lowland depends almost entirely onriver transportation for all intercourse.

The elevated mountainous plateaus of the three ranges are more open and moregenerally cultivated; all traffic is by means of horses, mules, and the burro.The canoe and river-steamer transportation systems of the valleys are connectedwith the highland system of trails and roads by short cross trails and the fewshort railroads of the country. As these cross trails must pass through theintermediate foot-hill region, where the heavy rainfall reaches its maximum, they are exceedingly bad and the life of pack animals is short. The oildevelopment of the Magdalena River valley is in this intermediate region, between the river and the sierras, north of Bogota.

Geology Stratigraphy

The predominant sedimentary formations in Colombia are those of Tertiary age.They form the floor of the Magdalena River valley and the coastal plain thatborders the Caribbean Sea: this is also true of the southern part of the narrowcoastal belt of the Pacific coast.

AIME 068–70
Petroleum Reserves of the West Indies
Authors: Redfield Arthur H.
Published: June 2014

The West Indies are the summits of a submerged mountain chain, thecontinuation of which must be sought in the mountains of central Honduras. InHaiti, the chain divides, one branch passing through Jamaica and the otherthrough Cuba, the Cayman Islands, and the Misteriosa bank.

Suess divides the West Indies into three zones: The first zone is entirelyof volcanic origin and includes many recent volcanic cones. It includes thearcuate string of islands, which extends from Saba and St. Kitts to theGrenadines and Grenada. The western half of Guadeloupe belongs to this group.The second zone consists of a geanticline, of which the sedimentary rocks rangefrom the Jurassic to the Quaternary, but consist chiefly of Lower Tertiarysediments. In the west it is broad, including the whole of the GreaterAntilles; but in the east it is restricted to a narrow belt, which includes theVirgin Islands (except Anegada), Anguilla, St. Bartholomew, Antigua, theeastern part of Guadeloupe and part of Barbados. The islands that compose thethird zone are flat and low. Like the second, this zone is broad in the westand narrow in the east; it includes the Bahamas, Anegada, Sombrero, Barbuda, and part of Barbados. Geologically, Florida and the plain of Yucatan may beregarded as belonging to it.

Trinidad and Tobago, though geographically adjacent to the Lesser Antilles, arc geologically a detached part of the South American continent. Thecrystalline complexes of northern Trinidad and of Barbados are a continuation, en echelon, of the crystalline axis of the promontory of Paria. The foldedCretaceous and Tertiary of the central and southern parts of Trinidad representa continuation of the folded sediments of the Paria district of Venezuela.

AIME 068–77
Smackover Oil Field, Ouachita and Union Counties, Ark.
Authors: Schneider H.G.
Published: June 2014

The Smackover oil and gas field lies in Ouachita and Union Counties, Ark., in the south-central part of the state, in T.15 and 16S., R.15, 16, and 17W. Itis 10 miles north of El Dorado, the principal business and railroad center inthe south-central part of the state, and extends from the town of Smackover inall directions. Productive territory having an aggregate area of nearly 55 sq.mi. has been developed. It extends 6 miles from north to south and 12 milesfrom east to west. The field may be divided into two parts: the east district, which includes the area east of the town of Smackover, and the west district, which includes the area west of the town of Smackover. In relation to theneighboring productive fields of Arkansas, the Smackover field is 9 miles northof the E1 Dorado oil and gas field, 8 miles slightly west of north of the EastEl Dorado oil and gas field, and 16 miles east of the Stephens oil field.

Smackover was discovered in May, 1922, when the Oil Operators Trust drilledwell No.1 on the J. T. Murphy farm, in the southeast quarter of sec. 8, T.16S., R.15W. This well is located almost on the top of the Norphlet dome and wasdrilled to the Nacatoch sand. It had an initial open flow volume of 30,000,000cu. ft. of dry gas per day, and a rock pressure of 950 lb. per sq. in. In July,1922, the V. K. F. Co. completed the first oil well in sec. 29, T.15S., R.15W., on the north side of the Norphlet dome, and 3 miles north of the first gaswell. This well started the active development of the north and northwest sidesof the dome.

The field was extended westwards, when oil was discovered in the Nacatoch sand, during October, 1922, in sec. 4, T.16S., R.16W., 5? miles west of the originalgas well.

AIME 070–57
Centrifuging Petroleum-refinery Emulsions
Authors: Ayres Eugene E.
Published: June 2014

The centrifuge has come into general use in the oil fields and in theestablishments where lubricating and fuel oils are used. Probably centrifugalmachinery will be found more useful in the refinery when the operators are morefamiliar with the principles of modern centrifugation and when centrifugalengineers better understand the refinery emulsion problems.

It is not generally realized that centrifugal force and gravity have twodistinct functions: First, subsidence wherein the suspended globules arebrought into contact; second, coalescence (when this is possible) by rupturingthe films around the globules. In the case of a water-in-oil emulsion, anexercise of the former function alone would yield:oil, free, or as free asdesired, from water; anda concentrated water-in-oil emulsion-concentratedin the sense that it contains a relatively large percentage of the internalphase. An exercise of both functions will yield:water-free oil andoil-free water.

Centrifugal force is much better than gravity for subsidence because, in thecase of industrial emulsions where the suspended globules are visible under amicroscope, subsidence is directly proportional to the force applied.

Centrifugal force is only slightly better than gravity for coalescence. Aminute trace of a proper reagent will immediately do more to nullify theinterfacial surface tension opposing coalescence than an indefinite applicationof the highest attainable centrifugal force. No mathematical analysis has beenmade to explain the failure of high centrifugal force to induce a decidedlymore rapid and more complete coalescence than is obtained by gravity.

The adjustment of the centrifuge rotor depends more on the extent ofcoalescence that is desired or is possible than on any other factor. One reasonfor this dependence is to be found in the curious relation between the specificgravity and the hydrostatic pressure of emulsions.

AIME 070–61
Evaporation Loss of Petroleum - Theories and Their Application
Authors: Wiggins J.H.
Published: June 2014

Granting that about 600,000,000 bbl. of light oil will be produced in theUnited States this year and taking the Bureau of Mines' statement that 7? percent. of the total crude production will be lost before the finished gasolineis shipped from the refinery, the volumetric evaporation will be 45,000,000bbl. of the cream of the gasoline. This is a conservative figure and isequivalent to 1,890,000,000 gal. The real value of this liquid is at least 150per cent. of the value of an equal volume of motor fuel. At only 10 c. pergal., the value lost is $189,000,000; at 15 c. per gal. the loss is $283,000,000.

If 750,000,000 bbl. of light and heavy oil are produced here this year andthe average price per barrel is $1.333, the gross return to producers will be$1,000,000,000 and the net returns about $200,000,000, if the cost ofproduction is only $1 per barrel. Thus, the evaporation bill is about 20 percent. of the gross income and is equal to the net income of the crude-oilproducers.

Two other comparisons with popular phases of the petroleum industry willhelp give an adequate conception of the evaporation problem. These are: cost ofpreventing evaporation compared to cost of cracked gasoline and volume ofgasoline evaporated compared to volume of gasoline manufactured from naturalgas.

When gasoline is manufactured from heavy oils by the cracking process, thereare two important divisions of the total cost of the product: the manufacturingcost, such as plant cost, operation, maintenance, etc., and the cost of thebarrel of heavy oil, from which the cracked gasoline is made. In preventingevaporation loss the cost first mentioned enters into the total cost, but thesecond cost is eliminated; that is, no charge is necessary for stock from whichto manufacture the saving. A detailed analysis of these two costs on a largescale shows that the net income from a dollar spent in preventing evaporationloss from the lease through the refinery is twice the net income from a dollarspent in cracking.

AIME 070–62
Effect of Back Pressure on Wells in Brock Field
Authors: Lovejoy J.M.
Published: June 2014

Various estimates have been made as to the percentage of oil left in a fieldafter the wells have become so small that it is no longer practical to producethem. Engineers have given the matter much study and can substantiate theirfigures by data taken from fields from the Appalachians to California. Theaverage oil sand has a porosity of about 20 per cent., which gives a capacityper acre-foot of approximately 1500 bbl. The sand thickness in Oklahoma poolsaverages 20 ft. With 20 per cent. porosity and a 20-ft. sand thickness, thecapacity per acre is 30,000 bbl., yet these pools will seldom yield more than5000 bbl. to the acre.

These figures support the theory that at least 50 per cent. of the oilremains in a sand after all known methods to recover it have been used.Certainly we can never recover all the oil, unless in years to come oil becomesso rare and yet so necessary that the price will justify sinking shafts intothe abandoned fields and regular mining methods of drifting and stoping.However, with improved methods of production and conservation of the naturalagencies of expulsion, we should be able to increase recovery. It is with thisin mind that this paper, relating to the effect of back pressure on wells, ispresented.

Except in the fields where production is caused by hydrostatic pressure, thechief agency for getting oil out of the sand into the hole is the gas thatoccurs with the oil. After the pressure has declined, probably gravity also isa factor, but not an important one. With a given amount of oil in a sand and agiven amount of gas occurring with the oil, the ratio of gas volume per barrelof oil is the key to the ultimate recovery from that sand. Our efforts shouldbe along lines that will lower this ratio and make the gas, the agency given usby nature, do its work better and yield more of the oil, of which it is apart.

AIME 070–64
Oil and Gas Leases
Authors: Greenslade Rush
Published: June 2014

The oil and gas lease is the basic contract of the oil and gas industry; itis the foundation stone upon which the producing industry, particularly, isbased. As the industry is precarious and highly speculative, the foundationcontract should be of the utmost integrity and certainty. But right there ananomaly exists; the oil and gas lease is the most obscure, most uncertain, doubtful contract in the realm of law today. That is a condition that must beconsidered when taking oil and gas leases, and when buying, selling, andholding them.

It may fairly be asked why should this industry rest upon so insecure afoundation. Why should not the oil industry rest upon the contract that is thebasis of all industry, the warranty deed? There are many contributing reasons, but the principal one is business expediency.

The Anglo-Saxon idea of ownership of land is that every land owner owns fromthe center of the earth to the sky - all that is above and all that is below -consequently the oil and gas are owned by the person who owns the surface. Thatidea is not exactly true with reference to oil and gas, for many states haveadopted the doctrine that oil and gas are like wild animals; they are fugaciousand migratory and belong to the man that traps them. But, except for thatdoctrine, we believe that oil and gas are owned by the owner of the surface, wherein we differ from the Latin-American countries where the mineral rightsare owned by the government.

The United States was settled largely by homesteading. The owners of landwere, in the main, farmers, who did not have the means or the faith to drillfor oil or gas. The operators or speculators did not want to buy the land onthe mere possibility of finding oil; hence a compromise resulted by which theland owner gave the speculator or the operator what he called an oil and gaslease, or a right to go upon his land and drill for oil and gas.

AIME 070–67
Increasing Production by Shooting
Authors: Hill H.B.
Published: June 2014

The rate of production and the ultimate recovery of oil have been materiallyincreased by the systematic and careful shooting of wells in the west Red Riveroil field, Texas-Oklahoma boundary. Although shooting of oil wells to increaseproduction is probably the oldest and most widely used method of stimulatingproduction, little precise information is available regarding the conditionsinvolved and the results obtained.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the shooting of 25 wells on oneproperty and the results obtained. Seven of the wells were shot twice and threeof them three times, making a total of 38 shots. As separate production recordswere kept for each well, it is possible to study the results of shooting with agreat deal of satisfaction and confidence.

Location of Property

The west Red River oil field in the Burkburnett district is approximatelyeight miles west of the town of Burkburnett, Texas. The wells underconsideration are located in the bed of the Red River between the medial lineand the south bank of that river. (See Fig. 1.)

Engineering Work

Complete and accurage data are essential in working out the subsurfaceconditions of an oil field. The value of cross sections based on welllocations, derrick floor elevations, and the drilling records, is entirelydependent upon the accuracy, care and skill with which these fundamental dataare taken and recorded. As the property titles and equities involved have beenadjusted only within the last few months after years of litigation, it has beenimperative to keep a separate account for each well from the start ofoperations. Therefore, the results of shooting individual wells can be shownwith unusual accuracy.

Two sets of cross-sections, one north-south and the other east-west, weredrawn so that each well appeared on at least two cross-sections and wascorrelated in four directions. Correlation and structural contours were made onthe top of the oil sand. It was especially desired to locate the top of thesand as accurately as possible in order to determine the proper place for theshots and also to study the effects of shooting in different parts of thesand.
Shutting-in of the Rangely Gas Well
Authors: Holmes J.A.
Published: June 2014

Shutting-in the Rangely gas well was an interesting problem because of thehigh rock pressure and the volume of gas developed, as well as the difficultiesencountered. After nearly a week's open flow, the rock pressure was 1275 lb., which corresponds with a 2950 ft. hydrostatic head. The volume of gas wasbetween 45,000,000 and 50,000,000 cu. ft. per day.

The Rangeley oil field, which now has a daily production of 100 bbl. ofshale oil from shallow depth, lies approximately 100 miles north and 30 mileswest of Grand Junction, Colo.; not far from the Utah line. The well we areconsidering was drilled on the apex of a large clearly defined structural inthe SE.1/4 sec. 30, T. 2 S., R. 102 W., and entered the gas sand at 2954 ft. onMarch 2, 1925.

The condition of the well at the time the gas was encountered was as follows:

20 ft. of 20-in. conductor cemented with ten sacks at 40 ft.

The 1572-in. casing was pulled when the 12 1/2-in. was cemented.

1166 ft. of 12 1/2-in. casing, cemented with fifteen sacks.

2531 ft. of 10-in. casing, cemented with ten sacks; neither the 121/2-in. nor the 10-in. casing shut off water but they were cemented forprotection.

2938 ft. of 8 1/4-in. 36–1b. casing, hanging on a spider in the collar with aforged-steel, high-pressure bradenhead between it and the 10-in. casing. An 81/4-in. drilling, or master, gate and a control head were in place on the 81/4-in. casing, and all was in readiness for the bringing in of the well.

The top of the gas sand was encountered at 2954 ft., where there was a flowof between 2,000,000 and 5,000,000 cu. ft., which increased gradually until adepth of 2958 ft. was reached. The flow then encountered blew the drillingtools up into the 8 1/4-in. casing and bridged, or blocked, the casing with awad of drilling line at approximately 1450 ft. from the surface. The drillingline was also parted at this point; a string of fishing tools, with a centerspear, was run in on the remainder of the drilling line. The tools took hold ofthe mass of wire line at 1450 ft. but on attempting to bull-rope the toolsfree, the bridge was released and the fishing tools, together with the cable towhich they were attached, were blown through the crown block of the derrickwith terrific force. The rig top and crown block were considerably damaged bythe flying tools.
Advances in Drilling and Production Methods
Authors: Boyd Robert R.
Published: June 2014

The year 1926 has seen few radical changes or developments in methods ofdrilling and handling oil wells, but it has been a year of steady progress anddevelopment in deep drilling and production methods.

Probably the outstanding development of the year was recognition by thedirectors of the American Petroleum Institute of the importance of natural gasin the production of oil, and the Institute directors' resolutions in December,1926, regarding regulation of gas production with oil by state legislation.This matter is extremely important and will receive the attention of theindustry in 1927.

Advances in Drilling Equipment

The history of the progress of deep well drilling is the solution ofproblems as they have confronted the operator. As the prospects for deeperproduction have become apparent, methods of penetrating the earth to greaterdepths have been devised.

Rotary Equipment

Improvements in the construction and in the methods of operation of rotarydrilling equipment have practically caused elimination of cable tools inCalifornia for all but shallow work. The rotary drill, from 1910 when it beganto be a practical factor in California, has been making steady advances, firstdisplacing cable tools for drilling to the oil sands in proved fields and laterdisplacing the cable-tool outfit entirely. With the perfection of machinery fortaking core samples of the formation penetrated, the rotary drill has becomegenerally used for wild-cat work, continuous coring being practiced whendesirable.