bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Context effects on intergroup discrimination: In‐group bias as a function of experimenter's provenance
Authors: Marques José M. , Yzerbyt Vincent Y. , Rijsman John B.
Published: June 2011

Two studies investigated the joint effect of in‐group identification and experimenter's membership status on the overt emergence of in‐group bias. In Expt 1, 117 male Belgian undergraduates were asked to describe Belgian vs. North African students of their university. As predicted, the evaluative meaning of the descriptions, as a function of the experimenter's provenance, showed an in‐group bias when the experimenter was an ‘outsider’ as opposed to when he was an ‘insider’. In Expt 2, 50 female undergraduates were first asked to report their identification with each of four groups. Experimenter's Provenance was then manipulated in the same way as in Expt 1 and the subjects were asked to allocate money to the groups. It was predicted and found that subjects would show stronger in‐group bias when comparing an in‐group to an out‐group in the outsider condition than in the insider condition, and that no differences in favouritism would arise when comparisons concerned out‐groups only. The general conclusion of the two experiments is that overt manifestations of in‐group favouritism are an additive function of in‐group identification and search for social coordination with the experimenter on in‐group superiority, the latter aspect being stronger when the experimenter is perceived as an outsider (i.e. someone with whom social coordination is not taken for granted) relative to the subject's real‐life membership category. Some implications are drawn with respect to the minimal group paradigm.
In and out of context: Influences of facial expression and context information on emotion attributions
Authors: Wallbott Harald G.
Published: June 2011

Studies intended to evaluate the relative importance of person information (facial expression) and context information (situation evoking an emotion) in determining emotion attributions of observers have so far, with a few exceptions, used static stimulus presentation (photographs and/or verbal descriptions). Here an attempt is made to study emotion inference processes by using dynamic presentation of stimuli (video). Sixty judges were confronted with 60 video clips depicting an emotional situation followed by an emotional facial expression of an actor/actress in reaction to this situation. These clips were selected from films and TV shows. Three groups of 20 judges each watched (i) only the first takes of the clips depicting an emotion‐arousing situation, or (ii) only the second takes of the clips presenting the emotional facial expressions, or (iii) combinations of both takes depicting the emotion‐arousing situation followed by the facial expression. Their task was to judge the emotion(s) expressed by the person in the given situation. Results indicate that context information dominated person information in determining emotion attributions. Furthermore, differences were found with respect to the relative discrepancy or consonance of clips (situation information was more important to judges in discrepant compared with consonant clips) and differences due to gender of the actors (when watching actresses, person information dominated judgements; when watching actors, situation information was dominant). Results are discussed with respect to possible differences between static and dynamic stimulus presentation and with respect to the general process of inferring emotions.
Aggressive behaviour of children aged 6–11: Gender differences and their magnitude
Authors: Archer John , Pearson Norma A. , Westeman Karin E.
Published: June 2011

A total of 72 boys and 72 girls, of six age groups from 6 to 11 years, was observed in the school classroom over eight 5‐minute periods, under conditions of low structure, non‐directive teaching; aggressive and other categories of behaviour were recorded. There were no overall gender differences in aggression, but boys showed significantly more physical aggression than girls (overall effect size d = 0.36), whereas girls showed significantly more verbal aggression than boys (overall effect size d = 0.66). The physical aggression difference was variable both in direction and magnitude across the age categories and included a large reversal at 9 years. Boys' higher levels of physical aggression were not associated with higher levels of activity or more time spent in social interactions. The gender difference in verbal aggression was consistent in direction and magnitude across age categories, but in the opposite direction to the majority of previous findings. There were no gender differences in other categories of verbal behaviour.
The control of social role bias: Effects of question preparation and subsequent feedback in a quiz game
Authors: Hui C. Harry , Ip Kim‐ching
Published: June 2011

An experiment was conducted to investigate factors that may affect people's tendency to underestimate situational determinants of behaviours when forming impressions of self and others. Subjects were randomly designated as questioners or contestants in a quiz game, which had been used to demonstrate a ‘questioner superiority effect’ as a result of situational underestimation (Ross, Amabile & Steinmetz, 1977). While the questioners were composing challenging questions for use in the quiz game, contestants either prepared questions of the same sort as a ‘warm‐up’ exercise, or did something unrelated to the game. After the quiz one‐third of the contestants were told that the questions used were actually not composed by the questioner but were supplied by the experimenter. Another third were given false feedback about themselves and their partner on a written general knowledge test. The rest were not given any information. Results showed that the question preparation task did not reduce the questioner superiority effect. It was drastically undercut, however, when false feedback was given.
The ethnic hierarchy in The Netherlands: Social distance and social representation
Authors: Hraba Joseph , Hagendoorn Louk , Hagendoorn Roeland
Published: June 2011

The aim of this paper is to put research on social distance towards ethnic minorities in The Netherlands in the context of theory on social representations. Two aspects of social distance are distinguished: one is the amount of social distance towards ethnic minorities, and the other is an ethnic hierarchy of minorities in social distance. In two surveys of 291 and 304 university and secondary school students, it was found that the respondents' social distance reactions towards ethnic groups formed hierarchical cumulative scales indicating a consensual ethnic hierarchy. In these hierarchies, European groups were placed on top, followed by colonial and then Islamic groups at the bottom. The ethnic distinctions contained in this hierarchy, however, varied across respondents, contexts of application and type of representatives of the out‐groups. It is concluded that the ethnic hierarchy found is a social representation with strong dynamic overtones, a finding that is consistent with recent revisions of social representation theory.
The Protestant work ethic and the Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Quilley Ruth
Published: June 2011

Although previous research has not always found a clear relationship between personality variables and cooperative vs. competitive behaviour on experimental games, this study set out to investigate the relationship between Protestant work ethic (PWE) beliefs and game play. The Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) was presented in one of two formats (conventional matrix or business simulation) and played by pairs of high, low or mixed scorers on the PWE. As predicted, the business simulation elicited more competitive responses than the conventional matrix. Furthermore, high PWE scorers tended to be more competitive than low PWE scorers. Results are discussed in terms of PWE beliefs and behaviours.
Framing of information: Its influence upon decisions of doctors and patients
Authors: Marteau Theresa M.
Published: June 2011

Prospect theory postulates that decisions are influenced not only by probability and value of possible outcomes, but also by the manner in which these probabilities are presented. Variations in the presentation of the same information, in several areas of care, are considered to determine their influence upon health decisions of both doctors and patients. Three health‐related predicaments involving varying levels of risk are presented either in a positive or a negative frame and were given to 74 medical students who stated whether they would advise a patient or be prepared themselves to undergo one of three medical procedures. The influence of framing upon these decisions was evident both when subjects responded as patients and as doctors, but its influence was bounded by the level of risk and the type of health decision. These findings raise questions concerning how probabilistic information should be presented to both patients and doctors to counteract the effect of framing upon their decisions.
An investigation of the role of affective and moral evaluations in the purposeful behaviour model of attitude
Authors: Bagozzi Richard P.
Published: June 2011

Two studies were conducted to investigate the antecedents of attitudes in the purposeful behaviour model. Study 1 demonstrated that distinct affective and moral evaluations exist towards at least some everyday behaviours. Giving blood, in particular, produced the most unambiguous evidence for distinct evaluations according to certain theoretical and empirical criteria. This behaviour was then chosen as the focal action for inquiry in study 2. A 2 (high vs. low affect) × 2 (high vs. low moral) × 2 (high vs. low involvement) experiment was conducted to examine the conditions under which affective and moral evaluations have linear additive or interaction effects on attitudes. The findings show that a person's resistance towards giving under high involvement conditions is overcome only when affective and moral pressures are both favourable. Under low involvement, avoidance is minimal no matter what the levels of affective and moral pressures. By examining the antecedents of attitude, this study complements an earlier study on attitude formation by Bagozzi (1986) and in so doing deepens the construct validity of the purposeful behaviour model of attitude.
Self‐involvement, intention certainty and attitude—intention consistency
Authors: Nederhof Anton J.
Published: June 2011

The relationship of two qualities of the attitude structure, namely self‐involvement and intention certainty, with the consistency of the attitude—intention, subjective norm‐intention and direct experience—intention relations was investigated. Self‐involvement exerted a moderating effect upon the direct experience—intention and the subjective norm—intention relations, but not on the attitude—intention relation. Although some earlier research used direct experience as an indicator of self‐involvement, it was shown that, as hypothesized, the two variables correlate only modestly. Certainty about intention was, as hypothesized, connected with higher consistency between intentions on the one hand and attitudes, subjective norms and direct experience on the other hand.
Gender identity‐related meanings of personal possessions
Authors: Dittmar Helga
Published: June 2011

This study explores the types of personal possessions women and men consider important and the meanings they attach to them. Twenty female and 20 male subjects listed their five most treasured possessions and then described in an open‐ended format the reasons why they considered each of these important. The data, which were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively, confirmed the expectation that women and men do not differ greatly in terms of the types of possessions they see as important. The results support the two general hypotheses that (a) men tend to see possessions as important mainly because of their instrumental, pragmatic and self‐referent features, whereas (b) women regard possessions as important not only because of their use‐related aspects but equally because they symbolize interpersonal integration and emotional attachment. The findings are discussed with reference to a functional/self‐oriented vs. symbolic/other‐oriented continuum of the meanings of personal possessions as reflections of gender identity.
Gender reference terms: Separating the women from the girls*
Authors: Kitto Joanna
Published: June 2011

Feminist writers have claimed that the linguistic habit of referring to an adult woman as ‘girl’ is one means by which the ‘childlike’ characteristics associated with the female sex role are perpetuated (Lakoff, 1975). This experiment looked at whether the connotations attached to the terms ‘girl’ or ‘woman’ used to describe applicants in job references would influence subjects' choice of applicant for a job. Reasons given for choices suggested that there are indeed specific traits linked to these terms.
Political involvement and socio‐moral reasoning: Testing Emler's interpretation*
Authors: Markoulis Diomedes
Published: June 2011

In previous research on the relationships between socio‐moral reasoning and political orientation, the evolving capacities in the moral‐cognitive realm have been considered as the framework for the formation of different political orientations or attitudes. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether an alternative interpretation proposed by Emler, Renwick & Malone, (1983), i.e. that differences in moral reasoning reflect differences in content of politico‐moral ideology, could be verified with students and university graduates actively involved with politics, in a different political culture. Seventy‐five young adults completed a measure of moral reasoning from their own and a contrasting political perspective. The results are interpreted as supporting Emler et al.'s interpretation. The implications and the limitations of the study are discussed in terms of understanding vs. discriminating moral arguments and the possible impact of the experimental manipulations of the subject's response pattern.
Moral justification of acts judged to be morally right and acts judged to be morally wrong
Authors: Nisan Mordecai , Koriat Asher
Published: June 2011

In Kohlberg's approach the person's stage of moral development is inferred from the quality of the justifications offered for a moral choice regardless of which course of action is judged as the morally correct. This may imply that moral choice is independent of level of moral reasoning. The study under report suggests otherwise. When subjects offered justifications for alternative courses of action in a moral dilemma, these justifications were of a higher level of moral reasoning when the act was in accord with the subject's own choice than when it was not. This was obtained despite the fact that moral choice and moral reasoning appeared to be independent across individuals. This finding suggests that although moral choices may not evidence a developmental ordering similar to that found for moral reasoning, these choices are probably ranked for each individual in terms of the level of moral reasoning that can be marshalled in their support, and this ordering affects moral decision.
Emotion in the resting face: Taking sides. A reply to McGee & Skinner (1987)
Authors: Rhodes Gillian , Lynskey Michael
Published: June 2011

McGee & Skinner (1987) reported greater attribution of emotion adjectives to resting left than right hemifaces, which they interpreted as evidence for asymmetric expression of emotion in resting faces. However, their emotion adjectives did not describe facial expressions of emotion. We attempted to replicate their result and to relate it to asymmetries in the attribution of facial expression descriptors. We failed to replicate their result for Caucasian faces displaying neutral (resting) expressions, although this result was obtained for Chinese faces displaying a variety of expressions. The asymmetric attribution of emotion and neutral adjectives to left and right Chinese hemifaces was not, however, associated with asymmetries in the attribution of facial expression descriptors. Nor were facial expression descriptors asymmetrically attributed to left and right hemifaces of neutral Caucasian faces.
Stereotypes and social judgements
Authors: Macrae C. Neil , Shepherd John W.
Published: June 2011

The study reported here was a conceptual replication of Bodenhausen & Wyer (1985) using different stereotypical categories and improved dependent measures. It considered the effects of stereotypes on (a) causal judgements concerning a criminal trangression, (b) sanctioning judgements and (c) recall of the incident details. A generally similar pattern of results to Bodenhausen & Wyer was obtained with behaviours typical of a given occupation being attributed internally and preferentially recalled.
Sex‐role orientation and memory for gender‐related terms: Another uncertain link
Authors: Krahé Barbara
Published: June 2011

Two studies are reported which investigate the relationship between sex‐role orientation and memory for gender‐related terms. Based on the concept of ‘cognitive schema’, theoretical models have recently been advanced suggesting that the schematic cognitive representation of gender facilitates the recall of words pertinent to gender. One of these models, Markus' self‐schema theory, proposes that masculine and feminine sex‐typed individuals have a better memory for terms that correspond to their respective self‐schemata. In contrast, Bem's gender schema theory implies that sex‐typed individuals have a better memory for the category of gender as a whole, i.e. for both masculine and feminine terms. Starting from previous findings by Markus and colleagues in support of the self‐schema theory, the present studies derived competing sets of hypotheses from the two models and examined the effect of sex‐role orientation on accuracy of recall for masculine, feminine and gender‐neutral terms. Neither of the models received support in the two studies. The implications of the findings for the relationship between sex‐role orientation and memory are discussed.
The role of causal sequence in the meaning of actions
Authors: Read Stephen J. , Druian Peter R. , Miller Lynn Carol
Published: June 2011

Single actions, taken out of context, typically have numerous meanings. Yet, when we observe such actions as part of a sequence of behaviour, we are often unaware of this multiplicity of possible meanings. In this article, we argue that the specific meaning of an action is the result of a process in which people, by making appropriate inferences, relate the actions in a sequence to each other and construct a coherent scenario from them. One implication of this position is that the meaning of actions should be extremely sensitive to the order in which they occur, since order affects which knowledge structures are currently active and is an important clue to the causal and means‐end relations among actions. In fact, meaning should be so sensitive to order that it should be possible to construct sets of actions, such that merely by changing the order, the same set of actions could have two radically different meanings. Five sets of such actions were designed. Subjects read one of the two orders for each set of actions and then answered a number of open‐ended questions about them. Subjects receiving different orders identified different causes and reasons for the actions, made different predictions about what would happen next, and came to different conclusions about the identities of actors and objects in the sequences, thus indicating that they had constructed very different meanings for the same actions.
Distinctiveness‐based illusory correlations and stereotyping: A meta‐analytic integration*
Authors: Mullen Brian , Johnson Craig
Published: June 2011

This article reports the results of a meta‐analytic integration of previous research on illusory correlation in stereotyping effects. The following patterns were observed. The basic distinctiveness‐based illusory correlation effect is highly significant, and of moderate strength. Consistent with theoretical expectations, distinctiveness‐based illusory correlation effects are stronger when the distinctive behaviour is negative. Effects are also stronger as a function of the number of exemplars presented in the stimulus array. This is consistent with the effects of memory load on covariation judgement demonstrated elsewhere. Finally, subjects' judgements of covariation in the distinctiveness‐based illusory correlation paradigm are significantly predicted by the paired distinctive covariation judgement strategy. This indicates that subjects' judgements of covariation in the illusory correlation in stereotyping paradigm seem to reflect a responsiveness to the information being presented to them, and especially a reliance upon distinctive information. Discussion considers possible mechanisms for these effects, and suggests that future research examine the processes underlying the effects of the valence of the distinctive behaviours, the effects of the number of exemplars, and the strategies followed in making these types of covariation judgements.
Moral balance: The effect of prior behaviour on decision in moral conflict
Authors: Nisan Mordecai , Horenczyk Gaby
Published: June 2011

Two studies examined predictions from the ‘moral balance’ model, according to which moral decisions are affected by evaluation of the actor's moral status based on his/her recent moral history. It was found that people are more willing to allow a deviation to, and believe that this should generate less guilt in, a person who generally behaves morally than in one who generally behaves immorally. It was also found that an unworthy act by a person (self or other) who has recently behaved morally is evaluated less severely than the same act performed by one who has recently behaved immorally. This trend for normative judgements is contrary to that found for descriptive judgements: a person who has recently behaved immorally is perceived as more likely to choose to act improperly and to feel less guilty. This discrepancy between normative and descriptive judgements is analysed in terms of the distinction between attributions to trait as opposed to effort, to trait as opposed to situation, and between those made from the perspective of actors as opposed to observers.
Suggestions for reducing unemployment: A study of Protestant work ethic and economic locus of control beliefs
Authors: Heaven Patrick C. L.
Published: June 2011

This study was designed to determine the extent to which Protestant work ethic (PWE) and economic locus of control beliefs are related to suggestions for reducing unemployment. Respondents were a community sample of 285 adult Australians. Suggestions for reducing unemployment were found to be multidimensional. Those who supported tough‐minded reform tended to have less formal education and low occupational prestige, while supporters of increased government spending tended to be left‐wing supporters and to earn lower wages. Further analysis revealed PWE and economic locus of control beliefs to be significant correlates of suggestions for reducing unemployment: internals and high PWE scorers supported tough‐minded options, while those who felt that their own economic well‐being was due to chance factors or powerful others supported tender‐minded (e.g. increased government spending) options. These findings are discussed with reference to previous research which has indicated PWE and economic locus of control beliefs to be related to a wide range of socio‐political and organizational attitudes (Feather, 1984; Spector, 1982).
Altering thoughts and judgements through repeated association
Authors: Kuykendall David , Keating John P.
Published: June 2011

The present studies tested the idea that consistently pairing an attitude object with positive or negative words would colour subsequent thoughts and judgements about the object. The results of the first experiment revealed that countries were judged to possess more favourable economic conditions after pairing country names with positive as opposed to negative words. The second experiment replicated the findings of the first, and revealed a tendency to produce thoughts about the attitude obje***ct that were congruent with the valence of previously paired associates. These studies demonstrate that repeated association can have implications for subsequent, seemingly unrelated, assessments of an attitude object.
Numerical distinctiveness, social identity and gender salience
Authors: Abrams Dominic , Thomas Joanne , Hogg Michael A.
Published: June 2011

According to McGuire & McGuire's (1981) distinctiveness postulate, being a member of a numerical minority on some descriptive dimension is said to render that dimension a more salient aspect of self. Self‐categorization and social identity theories (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherell, 1987) predict that the presence of two groups (irrespective of relative size) should be sufficient, under certain specifiable conditions, to make in‐group‐defining characteristics salient. In the present study female students with traditional sex‐role orientations observed a sexist advertisement. They were in eight‐person groups of varying sex composition. There was a significant overall difference beween all‐female groups and mixed‐sex groups on a measure of gender salience. Gender was less salient in the all‐female groups. In addition, there was a clear positive correlation between mention of gender (i.e. salience) and endorsement of traditional sex‐role attitudes. The results lend more support to a social identity analysis than to a distinctiveness analysis of identity salience.
Categorical differentiation and intergroup relationships
Authors: Capozza Dora , Volpato Chiara
Published: June 2011

In this study we attempted to replicate the well‐known Doise & Sinclair (1973) procedure for manipulating category salience, in a different social context. We considered the relationship between two groups of professionals: doctors and nurses, as perceived by 40 members of the superior group. The results did not confirm those obtained by Doise & Sinclair since they showed reduced categorical differentiation when the out‐group was evoked in advance of the intergroup evaluations. The implications of these findings for theories of social categorization and social identity are discussed.
Knowing what to think by knowing who you are: Self‐categorization and the nature of norm formation, conformity and group polarization*
Authors: Abrams Dominic , Wetherell Margaret , Cochrane Sandra , Hogg Michael A. , Turner John C.
Published: June 2011

We contrast two theoretical approaches to social influence, one stressing interpersonal dependence, conceptualized as normative and informational influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955), and the other stressing group membership, conceptualized as self‐categorization and referent informational influence (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherell, 1987). We argue that both social comparisons to reduce uncertainty and the existence of normative pressure to comply depend on perceiving the source of influence as belonging to one's own category. This study tested these two approaches using three influence paradigms. First we demonstrate that, in Sherif's (1936) autokinetic effect paradigm, the impact of confederates on the formation of a norm decreases as their membership of a different category is made more salient to subjects. Second, in the Asch (1956) conformity paradigm, surveillance effectively exerts normative pressure if done by an in‐group but not by an out‐group. In‐group influence decreases and out‐group influence increases when subjects respond privately. Self‐report data indicate that in‐group confederates create more subjective uncertainty than out‐group confederates and public responding seems to increase cohesiveness with in‐group — but decrease it with out‐group — sources of influence. In our third experiment we use the group polarization paradigm (e.g. Burnstein & Vinokur, 1973) to demonstrate that, when categorical differences between two subgroups within a discussion group are made salient, convergence of opinion between the subgroups is inhibited. Taken together the experiments show that self‐categorization can be a crucial determining factor in social influence.
Effect of semantic valence on implicit causality of verbs
Authors: Franco Fabia , Arcuri Luciano
Published: June 2011

This work studied the relationship between language and causal attribution. A first aim was to replicate an experiment by Fiedler & Semin (1988) using Italian instead of German; it was found that, when antecedent and consequent of an interpersonal event are inferred, attributions are made to the sentence subject or object according to the type of verb used in the target sentence. A second aim was to test the hypothesis that other variables might affect the attribution of causality, namely, negativity of semantic valence of verb, syntactic form and gender of actors.

Fifty‐three subjects (males and females) were given a questionnaire containing 32 items; each item was a subject—verb—object sentence describing an interpersonal event, the antecedent and consequent of which had to be inferred.

Results indicate that Fiedler & Semin's effect also is present with the Italian language. Nevertheless, a significant position × verb × valence interaction reveals that, in inferring the antecedent, the effect does not show for verbs with positive semantic valence.
Self‐esteem and close relationships: A statistical refinement
Authors: Cramer Duncan
Published: June 2011

Cramer's (1988) panel data were re‐examined using linear structural relationships analysis (LISREL) with latent variables to determine the nature of the cross‐lagged association between self‐esteem and the Rogerian facilitative qualities in a close current relationship. While the associations between self‐esteem and level of acceptance, empathy and congruence seemed spurious, unconditionality of acceptance and total facilitativeness were significantly positively related to later self‐esteem, implying that these associations were unidirectional in nature.
Towards an integration of social representations and social schema theory
Authors: Augoustinos Martha , Innes John Michael
Published: June 2011

This paper attempts to forge links between two recent approaches in social cognition research: Moscovici's theory of social representations and social schema theory. These two theories or concepts converge in that both schemata and representations are conceptualized as existing knowledge structures which guide and facilitate the processing of social information by the use of cognitive short‐cuts or heuristics. Furthermore, both schemata and representations are viewed as memory traces with an internal organizational structure, and both are viewed not only as cognitive structures but also as evaluative and affective structures. However, the two theories diverge importantly on the social dimension. Social representations theory views these structures as being collectively shared, as originating and developing via social interaction and communication, and as being autonomous entities with an independent life force once created. In Doise's terms, social representations theory attempts to understand individual social psychological functioning by making links with societal and collective processes. By contrast, social schema theory is essentially an information‐processing model studied predominantly within an individualistic framework. The two theories, therefore, are articulated at different levels of explanation. Whilst it may not be possible to integrate fully the two theories, it is at least desirable for an articulation between these two levels of explanation for what are, essentially, similar social cognitive phenomena.
The roles of outcome satisfaction and comparison alternatives in envy
Authors: Smith Richard H. , Diener Ed , Garonzik Ron
Published: June 2011

We examined the perception of envy using an approach patterned after Thibaut & Kelley's (1959) analysis of outcome evaluations. Subjects read scenarios about a hypothetical target person who had experienced an apparent setback. The target person was described as either satisfied or dissatisfied with this outcome by virtue of it either matching or falling short of expectations (comparison level). In addition, the target person was shown to have either enjoyed a recent success or to have suffered a recent failure in an alternative domain. Finally, the target person encountered a comparison person who had either suffered a similar setback or who had experienced a success in the same domain. Subjects rated how envious they would feel if, hypothetically, they were the target person depicted in the story. As predicted, subjects gave more intense ratings of envy in reaction to the advantaged comparison person when the target person was dissatisfied (outcomes below comparison level) compared to when the target person was satisfied (outcomes matching comparison level). Furthermore, subjects expressed more envy when the target person had experienced a failure in an alternative domain compared to when the target person had experienced a success in an alternative domain. Some theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

No doubt there are few positions in life that do not throw together some persons who are there by virtue of failure and other persons who are there by virtue of success. In this sense, the dead are sorted but not segregated, and continue to walk among the living. (Goffman, 1952, p. 463)
Human values and suggestions for reducing unemployment
Authors: Heaven Patrick C. L.
Published: June 2011

This study investigated the relationship of social and mode values (Braithwaite & Law, 1985) to lay suggestions for reducing unemployment. Respondents were 256 adult Australians (134 females, 122 males). As predicted, suggestions for reducing unemployment were found to range from punitive to ‘tender‐minded’ and were differentially related to human values. Punitive suggestions were significantly related to values such as national strength and order, traditional religiosity, competence and effectiveness, getting ahead, propriety in dress and manners and religious commitment. Suggestions involving increased government spending were significantly related to international harmony and equality. Some demographic correlates of these suggestions were also noted. The findings are discussed with reference to previous work (Eysenck & Wilson, 1978; Feather, 1982, 1984; Wilson, 1973), whilst suggestions for future research are made.
Gender‐stereotypic traits are derived from gender roles: A reply to McCreary
Authors: Archer John
Published: June 2011

McCreary (1990) argued that the conclusions from a review of the associations between gender scale measures (Archer, 1989) were limited because: (1) in gender trait questionnaires (PAQ and BSRI), measures of masculinity and femininity are restricted to instrumental and expressive traits; (2) these scales are multifactorial in nature. In reply, I point out that: (1) neither the PAQ nor the BSRI were designed to measure only instrumental and expressive traits, but were based on gender‐stereotypic traits. The link with instrumental and expressive traits occurs because these traits are prescriptive for traditional gender roles. The more general point is that gender‐related traits are derived from gender‐related roles. (2) The BSRI, but not the PAQ, has been shown to be multifactorial, but most of the evidence in my review came from the PAQ. The limitations of, and alternatives to, gender role measures are also discussed.
Social projection, actual consensus and valence
Authors: Mullen Brian , Goethals George R.
Published: June 2011

A reanalysis of the meta‐analytic database reported in Mullen & Hu (1988) revealed a strong effect of valence on social projection: overestimation of consensus decreased as a function of the valence, or the positivity, of the behaviour or choice. The previously demonstrated effect of actual consensus (overestimation of consensus decreasing as a function of actual consensus of the behaviour or choice) and this new effect of valence were shown to exert independent, additive effects on social projection.
Social identity and levels of influence: When a political minority fails
Authors: Kelly Caroline
Published: June 2011

A longitudinal field study was conducted to examine direct and indirect influence amongst minority and majority factions of a political party. The context was provided by the 1988 leadership contest in the British Labour Party in which a left‐wing minority challenged the majority of the party. Two postal questionnaires sent to a panel of 136 respondents — supporters of both the minority and the majority — examined attitude change over the course of the campaign and tested the cognitive‐attributional, identity and dependency mechanisms associated with this attitude change. Findings showed that the majority polarized away from the minority on both direct and indirect measures, whilst the minority polarized away from the majority on direct measures but moved closer towards the majority on indirect measures. Analysis of the correlates of attitude change showed a complex relationship between identification and influence. In particular, perceptions of common identity were negatively related to the acceptance of direct majority influence and positively related to the acceptance of indirect majority influence. Present findings are compared with findings from laboratory studies and reasons for the differences are discussed.
Relational and systems methodologies for analysing parent—child relationships: An exploration of conflict, support and independence in adolescence and post‐adolescence
Authors: Honess T. M. , Lintern F.
Published: June 2011

Research procedures which constitute a significant reorientation towards relational rather than individually focused methods are critically reviewed. A novel ‘paired interview’ strategy, consistent with this relational paradigm, is employed in two research studies. The first study involves the analysis of 18 mother—adolescent son/daughter relationships at the time when the young people had just left school at the age of 16. A relationship typology was developed for these 18 pairs and it is demonstrated that the themes of conflict, independence and interdependence can be operationalized using this procedure. The second study involves the analysis of 25 mother and post‐adolescent daughter relationships to test the proposition that such relationships are inherently conflicted. Taken together, the two studies demonstrate that mothers and daughters are not chronically conflicted in their relationships. Nevertheless, the potential for conflict may be a significant element in accounting for girls' adolescent development. However, on entering early adulthood, the young women typically reach a state of ‘interdependence’ with their mothers.
Charity advertising: For or against people with a mental handicap?
Authors: Eayrs Caroline B. , Ellis Nick
Published: June 2011

This research investigated whether it is possible for charity advertising campaigns to stimulate donations successfully as well as to represent people with disabilities as valued human beings. Thirty‐eight subjects were required to rank 10 MENCAP posters along 15 bipolar constructs using a variation of the Q sort procedure. Constructs included feelings such as pity, guilt and sympathy, constructive helping behaviours such as giving money and time, and perceptions such as having rights, value and capabilities.

Correlational, cluster and factor analyses suggest that images which elicit the greatest commitment to give money are those most closely associated with feelings of guilt, sympathy and pity and are negatively associated with posters which illustrate people with a mental handicap as having the same rights, value and capability as non‐handicapped persons. The implications of these findings with regard to advertising and the principle of normalization (social role valorization) are discussed.
When a Queen speaks to her nation: A non‐verbal analysis
Authors: Vrugt Anneke J.
Published: June 2011

In her annual speech to the nation the Dutch Queen presents government policies for the coming year — policies with which she does not necessarily agree. A discrepancy between the opinions of the government and those of the Queen could evoke tension which would be expressed in the non‐verbal behaviour of the Queen during the presentation. It was expected that in 1985 such a discrepancy would occur and would be expressed in more speech disturbances, object manipulation, higher pitch and less looking up from the paper than in earlier years. Differences in speech disturbances, object manipulation and looking up were indeed observed; the expected pitch differences, however, were not found. The implications of the results are discussed.
The role of statistical reasoning in the formation, preservation and prevention of group stereotypes
Authors: Schaller Mark
Published: June 2011

This article explores the relationship between the everyday use of statistical reasoning and the perception of erroneous group stereotypes. Recent research concerning a reasoning process analogous to a statistical analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is reviewed. This research implies that the failure to engage in ANCOVA reasoning may play a role in the development and maintenance of stereotypes. This research also reveals that people can and do sometimes engage in sophisticated ANCOVA reasoning, and thus avoid forming erroneous group stereotypes. A number of factors influencing ANCOVA reasoning and group perception are identified, and the cognitive processes underlying their effects are considered. Finally, speculation is offered concerning the implications of statistical reasoning research for developing interventions that might help prevent the formation of erroneous group stereotypes.
Stereotyping of the elderly: A functional approach
Authors: Snyder Mark , Miene Peter K.
Published: June 2011

In two studies, we investigated the functions served by stereotyping of the elderly. Theoretical analysis suggested that stereotyping of the elderly may serve a cognitive economy function (that is, by reducing processing demands on the perceiver), an ego protective function (that is, by protecting the self from perceived threats), and/or a social function (that is, by helping identify with a social in‐group). We designed interventions, intended to reduce stereotyping of the elderly, based on these three hypothesized functions and administered them to male and female college students. The results showed that, compared to a no‐intervention control, the ego protection intervention effectively reduced stereotyping in an illusory correlation task for women. By contrast, the ego protection intervention appeared to have a stereotype‐arousing effect for men. A second study involving only the ego protection intervention generally replicated these basic findings. We discuss possible sources of these differential effects, as well as implications of this research for a functional approach to stereotyping.
The (limited) role of trait‐laden stereotypes in predicting attitudes toward Native peoples
Authors: Haddock Geoffrey , Zanna Mark P. , Esses Victoria M.
Published: June 2011

Three studies examined the role of trait‐laden stereotypes (i.e. beliefs concerning the characteristics or attributes of target group members) and other components of inter‐group attitudes in predicting evaluations of Native peoples in Canada. In Studies 1 and 2, measures of stereotypes, symbolic beliefs, affect, and attitudes toward Native peoples were assessed. The results revealed that although stereotypes, on their own, were associated with attitudes, they contributed little unique variance upon the addition of symbolic beliefs and affective associates. However, in both studies, the three predictor measures accounted for relatively little variance. In order to see if we could increase our predictive power, a third study explored the influence of behavioural information on attitudes and discovered that the quality (but not the frequency) of past experiences with Native peoples was associated with subjects' attitudes. Implications of the current findings for future research are discussed.
Features of men, features of women: Assessing stereotypic beliefs about gender subtypes
Authors: Eckes Thomas
Published: June 2011

The cognitive organization of gender subtypes was studied using a new cluster‐analytic approach allowing construction of a joint classification of subtypes and features. Based on type‐by‐feature rating data, the joint clustering procedure yielded a clear‐cut picture of how types relate to each other, how type‐descriptive features relate to each other, and, most importantly, how types and features relate to each other. As to female types, only the housewife stereotype was shown to bear a high resemblance to the global female stereotype; the others were described by featural patterns deviating substantially from beliefs held about women in general. Similarly, the clustering solution for male types and features demonstrated that the global male stereotype at best captures only a small part of the cognitive structure underlying the categorization of men. In the discussion, several implications of the present methodological approach for research into gender belief systems as well as for research into social stereotypes in general are pointed out.
Context, issues and frame as determinants of negotiated outcomes
Authors: Olekalns Mara
Published: June 2011

Negotiation outcomes can be influenced by the extent to which individuals focus on potential gains or losses; whether outcomes are so influenced depends on situational features of the negotiation. This paper identified and tested for the effects of three such variables: opponents' gain or loss frame, pay‐off structure (fixed‐or variable‐sum) and strategic orientation (cooperative or competitive). Results showed that, when pay‐offs were variable‐sum, gain‐framed negotiators outperformed loss‐framed negotiators, with their relative advantage increasing when instructions encouraged a cooperative orientation or opponents were loss‐framed. When issues were fixed‐sum, a negotiator's gain or loss‐frame affected outcomes only when opponents held a different frame. Under these conditions, the profits of loss‐framed negotiators increased over time, while those of gain‐framed negotiators decreased over time. It is concluded that negotiators are advantaged when negotiating style and market dynamics are congruent; they are disadvantaged when negotiating style and market dynamics are incongruent.
Subjects' expectations and the search for alternatives to deception in social psychology
Authors: Krupat Edward , Garonzik Ron
Published: June 2011

Two studies were performed, the first investigating subjects' attitudes towards participation in experimental research, the second testing a non‐deceptive, non‐role playing methodology. In Study 1, we asked a sample of 225 college students who might comprise a typical experimental sample for their attitudes towards deception. We found that those who had been previously deceived at least once were more likely to expect future deception than those who had not been deceived. To demonstrate that deception is not always essential, in Study 2 we used a simple non‐deceptive parallel to a classic social influence experiment and successfully replicated its findings. These two studies give new empirical weight to the challenge to experimental deception in social psychology.