bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
John R. P. French, Jr.: A Lewinian's Lewinian
Authors: House James S.
Published: April 2010

John R. P. French, Jr., was perhaps the most Lewinian of all of Lewin's students, as reflected in his career of basic and action research, institutional innovation and development, and stimulation and support of the work of colleagues and students. Like Lewin, he delighted in theoretical development, but also in its application to social problems; he was a psychologist and experimentalist, but also catholic in the substance and methods of his research; and he was both a forceful advocate and a supportive partner in collaborations with colleagues and students. These Lewinian qualities are evident in his analysis of the bases of social power and his development of theory, research, and a research program on the Social Environment and Health.
Constructive Conflict Resolution: Principles, Training, and Research
Authors: Deutsch Morton
Published: April 2010

This article starts with a listing of several propositions to which most students of conflict, no matter what their discipline, would assent. Next, there is a discussion of such factors affecting the course of conflict as the orientation to the conflict of the parties involved, their personalities, the issues, and the conflict's social‐cultural context. The following part discusses the skills involved in constructive solutions, an area that has been neglected by most scholars. The final part presents some suggestions for research.
Models of Conflict Management
Authors: Rubin Jeffrey Z.
Published: April 2010

Conflict can arise in virtually any social setting, be it between or within individuals, groups, organizations, or nations. Such conflict can be managed in any of a number of possible ways. These include domination through physical or psychological means, capitulation, inaction, withdrawal, negotiation, or the intervention of a third party. This article explores the latter two approaches to conflict management, first examining two very different models—mutual gains and concession‐convergence—that have emerged for the understanding of negotiation, and then turning to the roles and functions of outside intervenors.
The Settlement‐Orientation vs. the Problem‐Solving Style in Custody Mediation
Authors: Kressel Kenneth , Frontera Edward A. , Forlenza Samuel , Butler Frances , Fish Linda
Published: April 2010

While empirical studies have generally demonstrated the value of mediation in divorce, little research has been conducted on the specific models of mediation that are most efficacious in such disputes. This article reports the results of an intensive analysis of 32 cases of custody mediation conducted at the Essex County (NJ) Family Court. One‐half of the cases represented predivorce parental disputes; one‐half were postdivorce disputes. Nearly half of the cases were characterized by extremely high levels of parental conflict. Mediator behavior was assessed in one 1 1/2–2‐hour closing case conferences, supplemented by the examination of audio or video recordings of mediation in 62% of the cases. The effectiveness of mediation was assessed by a postmediation telephone interview and by an analysis of court records, both conducted approximately 18 months after the termination of mediation. Two contrasting styles of enacting the mediator role were identified: The settlement‐oriented style (SOS) and the problem‐solving style (PSS). Mediators tended to use one or the other style. The SOS mediators were primarily concerned with getting a “settlement” and staying “neutral”; PSS mediators were more focused on understanding the causes of the conflict through persistent question asking and were willing to depart from strict “neutrality” in cases where the conflict was being fueled by particularly destructive behaviors in one of the parents. SOS was the mediator style in 59% of the cases, PSS in 41%. Compared to SOS, PSS produced a more structured and vigorous approach to conflict resolution during mediation, more frequent and durable settlements, and a generally more favorable attitude toward the mediation experience. SOS was not necessarily bad, but PSS was better.
Constructive for Whom? The Fate of Diversity Disputes in Organizations
Authors: Donnellon Anne , Kolb Deborah M.
Published: April 2010

Managers and dispute resolution professionals find themselves increasingly involved in the management of conflicts that have significant legal and performance implications for their organizations. In this context, constructive conflict management practices have gained considerable currency. There is, however, one kind of dispute that these practices leave unaddressed: disputes that arise out of, or are complicated by, social diversity. As new social groups enter the work force and move up in organizations, conflicts rooted in class, gender, race, and ethnicity have become more prominent. Existing discourses of organizational conflict management mask such conflicts, dealing with them in ways that are not constructive for all parties considered. An ideology of meritocracy in organizations privileging individual accounts of success, an absence of collective identity by groups, and differential access to power and influence keep disputes that arise from diversity from being heard on those terms. Some approaches are suggested to help organizations deal constructively—for all—with conflicts that have their bases in social diversity.
Managing Conflict: Policy and Research Implications
Authors: Horowitz Sandra V. , Boardman Susan K.
Published: April 2010

This concluding article highlights the importance of constructive conflict management in resolving conflicts arising from diversity. The authors discuss policy recommendations that include (1) implementing and evaluating constructive conflict management programs in schools as part of a core curriculum, (2) training individuals in nonschool settings (community‐based workshops and organizations), and (3) designing cross‐cultural programs for high‐risk inner‐city youth. Procedural modifications for the negotiation process as well as directions for future research are also discussed.
Hardening of the Attitudes: Americans' Views on the Death Penalty
Authors: Ellsworth Phoebe C. , Gross Samuel R.
Published: April 2010

American support for the death penalty has steadily increased since 1966, when opponents outnumbered supporters, and now in the mid‐1990s is at a near record high. Research over the last 20 years has tended to confirm the hypothesis that most people's death penalty attitudes (pro or con) are based on emotion rather than information or rational argument. People feel strongly about the death penalty, know little about it, and feel no need to know more. Factual information (e.g., about deterrence and discrimination) is generally irrelevant to people's attitudes, and they are aware that this is so. Support for the death penalty has risen for most major felonies. Youth is seen as much less of a mitigating factor than it was 35 years ago, but most people still oppose the execution of the mentally retarded. As crime rates have risen despite repeated promises by politicians to “get tough on crime,” the death penalty has become an increasingly prominent issue in electoral politics, suggesting that public opinion should be an issue of central importance for research. We suggest that future research should focus more explicitly on racial attitudes, on comparisons of the death penalty with specific alternatives, and on the emotional aspects of attitudes toward the death penalty.
Sources of Bias and Arbitrariness in the Capital Trial
Authors: Luginbuhl James , Burkhead Michael
Published: April 2010

We consider whether capriciousness and/or bias play an undue role in capital trials. The potential for inequity is explored with regard to the selection of the jury, the verdict, and the determination of the penalty. It is concluded that while more data are necessary regarding most aspects of the capital trial, there is reason to believe inequities exist in the form both of caprice and of bias. Rectifying some of these inequities may be accomplished with relative ease, while reducing or eliminating others is more troublesome. As long as the death penalty remains in effect, whatever one's views on its legality or morality, we should strive to eliminate arbitrariness and bias in its application.
Appeals to Justice in the Environmental Debate
Authors: Clayton Susan
Published: April 2010

Arguments over issues with environmental implications are increasingly salient in the public arena, and appeals to justice are made by both those who favor and those who oppose environmental regulations. But can justice really be claimed by each side with equal plausibility? The concept of justice can be defined in different ways, which may tend to favor one side or the other. Although there is a high degree of variability among the arguments presented, the environmental crisis seems most generally to pit justice for the individual, or microjustice, against justice for a larger group, or macrojustice. The present article examines the evidence for this, and reports the results of a study examining appeals to different principles of justice. Subjects were asked to evaluate arguments based on microjustice principles, such as procedural justice, or macrojustice principles, such as equality and responsibility, by each side of the environmental debate. Although pro‐environmental arguments received stronger ratings overall, it was also found, as expected, that appeals based on procedural justice were relatively stronger when phrased in terms of an anti‐environmental stance, and other arguments were relatively stronger for the pro‐environmental position.
Environmental Attitudes Conceptualized Through Developmental Theory: A Qualitative Analysis
Authors: Robbins Jill Greenwald , Greenwald Ricky
Published: April 2010

Women's attitudes toward the environment were explored in relation to Robert Kegan's model of ego development, using a randomly selected sample of 27 women aged 40 to 49 from a Massachusetts town. Ways of thinking about the environment were differentiated qualitatively according to ego stage. Illustrations of stage distinctions focused on the women's feelings of relationship or connection to the environment and on their presented rationale for their environmentally related behaviors. Implications of stage distinctions to educational efforts and to conceptualizations of justice are discussed.
Finding Fairness in America's Cities? The Search for Environmental Equity in Everyday Life
Authors: Laituri Melinda , Kirby Andrew
Published: April 2010

This article argues that any consideration of green justice cannot be limited solely to wilderness areas; it must include natural resources as they are manifested in urban areas. We discuss the ways in which residents' images of the natural world are shaped by various institutional forces, including corporations and government of all types. We link up these insights to the growing recognition that there exists an inequitable distribution of natural resources within American cities, a phenomenon identified by residents as “environmental racism”. We argue that in order to analyze this situation, it is necessary to generate new analytical tools, and an Environmental Equity Assessment (EEA) is presented. The use of the EEA is presented in a brief case study of Tucson, Arizona.
From Knowledge to Action? Exploring the Relationships Between Environmental Experiences, Learning, and Behavior
Authors: Finger Matthias
Published: April 2010

On the basis of qualitative research and two surveys with 786 and 1004 Swiss respondents, this article presents a new “life‐world” approach to exploring the complex relationships between environmental experience, learning, and behavior. Contrary to traditional views, the author shows that environmental information, knowledge, and awareness predict little of the variability in most forms of environmental behavior. (The primary behaviors that information and knowledge acquisition appear to foster are protest actions). Rather than fostering behavior, environmental learning is more often used as a means to cope with environmental fear and anxiety. Consistent with the life‐world approach, the main factors predicting environmental behavior, or absence thereof, are experiences in and with the environment (e.g., previous environmental activism, experiences with nature, and exposure to environmental catastrophes).
The Construction of Justice: A Case Study of Public Participation in Land Management
Authors: Cvetkovich George , Earle Timothy C.
Published: April 2010

Productive, just management approaches are more likely to be developed on the basis of an understanding of how people make judgments of justice. We propose that acceptable (just) land‐use management plans are compatible with salient values. Values are created and come to be salient through the process of social construction. Public participation, as a form of social discourse, can be an important element in the social construction process. To realize this potential, changes in the nature of public participation are required. It is argued that public participation (and other practices) that create new, common values that can be used to develop just land‐use management practices should be encouraged. A case study of experiences with a county critical areas ordinance is discussed.
Fairness Motivations and Tradeoffs Underlying Public Support for Government Environmental Spending in Nine Nations
Authors: Rasinski Kenneth A. , Smith Tom W. , Zuckerbraun Sara
Published: April 2010

Public support for government spending on the environment in nine countries was assessed by examining responses to surveys conducted in each of these countries as part of the International Social Survey Program. Both absolute and relative levels of support were assessed. Aggregate level analysis showed considerable variability across countries. Within countries, the young and more educated were more supportive of environmental spending, even at the expense of other social programs. Prosocialist values were associated with higher levels of support for environmental spending, while probusiness and government social responsibility values were associated with less support. However, those endorsing both prosocialist and government responsibility values were less likely to endorse spending on the environment at the expense of other social programs. The linkage of resource distributions tradeoffs to values supports a psychological model of public opinion about the environment based on distributive fairness considerations.
Social Science Research on Lay Definitions of Sexual Harassment
Authors: Frazier Patricia A. , Cochran Caroline C. , Olson Andrea M.
Published: April 2010

This article critically reviews social science research relevant to lay people defining sexual harassment, including research on what behaviors are considered harassing, the effects of harasser status on perceptions of harassment, and gender differences in definitions of sexual harassment. Included in this review are data from a previously unpublished study of definitions of sexual harassment among a sample of over 4000 students, faculty, and staff at the University of Minnesota. Our review suggests that there is now quite a bit of lay consensus regarding which categories of behaviors are generally considered harassing. Studies on both the effects of harasser status and gender differences in perceptions of harassing behaviors are less consistent. We conclude our review with several recommendations for increasing the external validity of this research.
Using Surveys to Assess the Prevalence of Sexual Harassment: Some Methodological Problems
Authors: Arvey Richard D. , Cavanaugh Marcie A.
Published: April 2010

Problems and issues associated with using survey methodologies to develop estimates of the prevalence of sexual harassment are summarized. Problems with respect to the definition of sexual harassment in survey research, response sets, the use of retrospective self‐report measures, sample selection bias, validity and reliability, and generalizability are addressed. Recommendations are offered in terms of conducting such survey research in future efforts to assess sexual harassment, as well as establishing relationships between reports of sexual harassment and other relevant variables.
Recalling Harassment, Reconstructing Experience
Authors: Kidder Louise H. , Lafleur Rebecca A. , Wells Carole V.
Published: April 2010

In this study we examine how events that may have been called “normal” or “acceptable” by some people at one time are recalled and reconstructed as “harassment.” Four interviewers conducted open‐ended unstructured interviews with 21 women about incidents in which sex was not the ostensible purpose of the encounter but sexual innuendo and in some cases assault was the result. The analysis of their stories explores how they experienced events that at the time were not called “sexual harassment” but that they now call by that name. The respondents describe themselves as having been “naive” or “gullible” and having felt “guilty” or “ashamed.” In analyzing these stories the paper compares the experiences of “preverbal” children and adults who recall events that have been reconceptualized as assaultive rather than acceptable.
Ambivalence and Stereotypes Cause Sexual Harassment: A Theory with Implications for Organizational Change
Authors: Flske Susan T. , Glick Peter
Published: April 2010

We theorize that sexual harassment in the workplace results from the complex interplay of ambivalent motives and gender stereotyping of women and jobs. Ambivalence combines hostile and “benevolent” sexist motives based on paternalism, gender differentiation, and heterosexuality. Stereotyped images of women and jobs also reflect these three dimensions. Together, these ambivalent motives and stereotyped cognitions promote sexual harassment of different types. Organizational context can encourage or discourage the cognitive‐motivational dimensions that underlie sexual harassment.
Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: A Longitudinal Study of Women Managers
Authors: Murrell Audrey J. , Olson Josephine E. , Frieze Irene Hanson
Published: April 2010

Our research examines the connection between sexual harassment and other sex discrimination experiences of a sample of women within managerial and professional occupations. In this research, 257 women MBAs were surveyed over a seven‐year period. Women who experienced early discrimination were likely to have experienced discrimination, including sexual harassment seven years later. However, slightly more than one‐third of the women reporting sexual harassment report never experiencing discrimination. A variety of correlates of sexual harassment and discrimination experiences were also examined. Our findings suggest that some women do not perceive their experience with sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination, yet experiences of discrimination and harassment negatively affect work attitudes for women. These findings support the notion of sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination that contributes to a hostile and intimidating work environment.
The Empirical Basis for the Reasonable Woman Standard
Authors: Gutek Barbara A. , O'Connor Maureen
Published: April 2010

In Ellison v. Brady, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals said that the perspective of a reasonable woman, rather than just a reasonable person, should be used in deciding whether or not the plaintiff has experienced sexual harassment. One of the assumptions underlying the Ellison opinion, traceable to findings from research, is that men and women perceive and define sexual harassment differently. In this article, we review the research to see if the conclusion is warranted. In general, the finding that women define sexual harassment more broadly and inclusively than men is reliable, but the difference is small, often smaller than intrasex differences, and is affected by a variety of factors, including characteristics of the study itself. After reviewing the evidence, we evaluate the use of a reasonable woman standard, concluding that this standard is not helpful.
On the Courtroom Use and Misuse of Gender Stereotyping Research
Authors: Borgida Eugene , Rudman Laurie A. , Manteufel Laurie L.
Published: April 2010

Expert psychological testimony in recent sex discrimination and sexual harassment cases has presented fact finders with a conceptual framework for understanding the antecedents and consequences of gender stereotyping. In this article, we focus on perhaps the most scientifically complex aspect of research on gender stereotyping—namely, the role that individuating information plays in stereotypical thinking. Although a preponderance of evidence suggests that stereotypes are likely to influence impressions and evaluations when perceivers have either minimal or ambiguous information about another person, there is the potential for attorneys and even some expert witnesses to misconstrue this aspect of the scientific data base. We review briefly pertinent findings on the relationship between stereotypes and individuating information, and discuss some of the reasons why this evidence could be misrepresented.
The Relationships Between Religion and Mental Health
Authors: Ventis W. Larry
Published: April 2010

This article reviews the relationships between the means, end, and quest religious orientations as measures of religion (Batson & Ventis, 1982) and measures of mental health. Mental health is defined by seven criteria gleaned from the previous literature: (a) absence of mental illness, (b) appropriate social behavior, (c) freedom from worry and guilt, (d) personal competence and control, (e) self‐acceptance and self‐actualization, (f) unification and organization of personality, and (g) open‐mindedness and flexibility (Batson, Schoenrade, & Ventis, 1993). The literature approached in this way reveals that the relationship depends on both the measure of religion and the measure of mental health. The means dimension shows predominantly negative relationships with mental health indices; the end dimension shows predominantly positive relationships; and the quest dimension (though less thoroughly researched) reveals mixed results. Applications to mental health of these religious orientations and the research findings are discussed.
A Cognitive Model of Religion's Influence On Health
Authors: Dull Valerie T. , Skokan Laurie A.
Published: April 2010

Research on the relation between religion and health has tended to focus on group identity and specific religious behaviors that are directly linked to improved health. This paper proposes a new model, which incorporates religious beliefs into a system of cognition (illusions and meaning for events) and psychoneuroimmunologic functioning. It is hypothesized that cognition within religious belief systems may be associated with bodily changes in the immune system and lead to particular health outcomes. The discussion highlights the need for psychological process models to study the way life events are interpreted in the context of religious beliefs. Limitations and challenges of such a global model are identified and several directions for future research are discussed.
Religion and HIV: Implications for Research and Intervention
Authors: Jenkins Richard A.
Published: April 2010

The role of religion in the lives of people with HIV has received relatively little systematic research attention. Even so, extant literature suggests that religion may play complex and varied roles in coping with this disease. Such patterns were evident in data from a sample of HIV‐seropositive military personnel. Findings highlight the ambivalent ties to organized religion noted elsewhere, as well as ethnic, gender, disease stage, and stressor differences in religious coping.
Religion and the Well‐Being of Adolescents
Authors: Donahue Michael J. , Benson Peter L.
Published: April 2010

A literature review of the relation between religiousness and adolescent well‐being is presented, along with new analyses from a large adolescent data base. It is found that the average level of religiousness of U.S. adolescents has not declined recently, although it does appear to decrease on average across the years of adolescence. African Americans are more religious than whites, and girls are more religious than boys. Religiousness is positively associated with prosocial values and behavior, and negatively related to suicide ideation and attempts, substance abuse, premature sexual involvement, and delinquency. It is unrelated to self‐esteem. These results are found to be robust after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics. The article concludes with policy suggestions for integrating religion's prosocial influences into larger societal programs.
Using Person‐Perception Vignette Methodologies to Uncover the Symbolic Meanings of Teacher Behaviors in the Milgram Paradigm
Authors: Collins Barry E. , Brief Diana E.
Published: April 2010

Behavior in the Milgram paradigm is rich with meanings for the identities of all three interactants—experimenter, teacher, and learner. The desire to construct desirable self‐images and social impressions is among the causal forces driving behavior in the Milgram paradigm. American college students valued disobedient teachers over obedient teachers, but they also valued polite disobedience over defiant disobedience. It is not only necessary to find the will to disobey the experimenter, it is also necessary to find a socially appropriate way to disobey. Russian participants' perceptions of teachers who were politely obedient, politely disobedient, and defiantly disobedient differed only in an interaction with the participants' SES. Russian participants looked to the hierarchical structure of the social situation (experimenter, teacher, learner) and not the behavior of individual teachers when they assigned responsibility for the learner's shocks. The person‐perception vignette methodologies used in the present study can tap the conclusions of the automatic inferences that create the symbolic meanings of behaviors in the Milgram paradigm. The range of mediating mechanisms necessary to explain the shock‐delivering lever presses in the Milgram paradigm includes some that fall outside the “obedience” metaphor in general and Milgram's “Agentic State” in particular. Behaviors observed in the context of the Milgram “Obedience” Paradigm are, at once, the most visible, puzzling, and unimaginable acts quantified in experimental social psychology.
Constructive and Destructive Obedience: A Taxonomy of Principal‐Agent Relationships
Authors: Darley John M.
Published: April 2010

A phenomenological analysis of the plight of the Milgram subject is conducted. It is concluded that the subject who continues to give shocks should not be seen as deciding to inflict serious harm on another, but as torn between two incompatable perspects on the meaning of continuation, one of which is enforced by the readings of the meanings of the actions of the experimenter. Next, drawing on the laws governing principal‐agent relationships, a taxonomy of situations in which an authority directs the actions of a subordinate is suggested. Importantly, in different cells of the taxonomy, legal codes assign sharply different degrees of responsibility to the agent and the principal for harms that result from their joint projects; in the Milgram situation the entire responsibility for harms done rests on the experimenter. Finally, an experiment that demonstrates “constructive obedience” is presented.
Psychology and Sustainability: An Introduction
Authors: McKenzie‐Mohr Doug , Oskamp Stuart
Published: April 2010

The goals of this issue on psychology and the promotion of a sustainable future are (1) to introduce the breadth of environmental problems that currently face humanity, (2) to explore alternative courses of action that might facilitate the attainment of a sustainable future, (3) to expose the reader to interdisciplinary perspectives regarding sustainability, and (4) to introduce the results of empirical research whose application can assist in the promotion of sustainability. This first article provides a brief introduction to the environmental problems facing the world, an overview of social science research related to sustainability, and a summary of the articles in this issue.
Sustainability as a Social Vision
Authors: Olson Robert L.
Published: April 2010

Many areas of social research show that images of the future influence behavior. There is evidence that traditional images of the future are becoming less believable and that we are becoming less hopeful about the future. This article explores emerging images of a sustainable society to assess their potential for renewing our sense of hope and social purpose. Four different images or scenarios are set out of the level of change that may be required to reach a sustainable future. Rough quantitative estimates are used to test the feasibility of the scenarios. The analysis suggests that most of these scenarios are well within the realm of physical possibility. It also shows that emerging images of a sustainable society have the characteristics possessed by other images of the future that have been highly influential in Western history and in other cultures. They are believable, highly positive, and open‐ended, inviting further elaboration. They specifically respond to key challenges facing our society. And they set out a story of “what is happening” and “what could be” that provides an integrative perspective on the significance of today's events and choices.
Resource Conservation and Recycling: Behavior and Policy
Authors: Oskamp Stuart
Published: April 2010

Handling the huge amount of solid waste generated by our “throw‐away society” is a major threat to a sustainable future. Recycling of used products is one important contribution toward sustainability, and social science research can help to increase its success. Of the many varied forms of recycling, residential curbside recycling is fast becoming the dominant form in the U.S., but it has been little studied. This article briefly reviews earlier research on other forms of recycling and describes the findings of several recent studies of curbside programs, including the new commingled collection method. In addition, it summarizes a study on the growth of paper recycling by businesses, and a study of consumers' environmentally conscious “green buying,” which can help reduce the overall amount of solid waste that is generated.
Integrating Behaviorism and Humanism for Environmental Protection
Authors: Geller E. Scott
Published: April 2010

Theory and principles from behaviorism and humanism are integrated to propose a synergistic approach for dealing with the human aspects of environmental protection. Numerous intervention agents are needed worldwide to implement the kind of behavior‐change techniques that lead to positive attitudes. This requires people to “actively care.” Research is reviewed to support an actively caring model, which proposes that certain person states increase one's propensity to actively care for the environment. Strategies to increase these person states or expectancies are found in the basic principles and technology of behaviorism. Behaviorism offers the technology for changing behaviors and attitudes in environment‐protective directions, while humanism offers the states or expectancies needed in people to increase their propensity to actively care for the environment.
Applying Social Psychology to Avoid Ecological Disaster
Authors: Oskamp Stuart
Published: April 2010

The danger of humans producing irreversible harmful changes to the environmental conditions that support life on earth is grave and imminent. Since this threat to the environment is caused by human behavior, behavioral and social scientists have an important role to play in reducing it. The goal of their efforts must be to determine and encourage patterns of life that can be sustainable into the indefinite future. The most central factor producing our environmental problems is the worldwide population explosion, which must be curtailed as soon as possible in order to provide any hope of a sustainable world. This article gives examples of valuable social science research related to population control, global environmental change, energy conservation, and reducing and recycling solid wastes.
Grassroots Political Action as an Intergroup Phenomenon
Authors: Hinkle Steve , Fox‐Cardamone Lee , Haseleu Julia A. , Brown Rupert , Irwin Lois M.
Published: April 2010

A theoretical model of grassroots activism is presented based upon an integration of concepts from the intergroup relations literature and a modification of Ajzen's (1987) theory of planned behavior. The model emphasizes identification with grassroots organizations and perceived efficacy as important variables moderating the effects of other constructs (including perceived conflict, ingroup relative deprivation, and ingroup biases) on intentions regarding overt grassroots action. Support for components of the model is derived from the existing literature on political activism and several studies on peace activism and abortion rights activism. The model's methodological, theoretical, and practical implications are discussed.
Grassroots Groups Confront the Corporation: Contemporary Strategies in Historical Perspective
Authors: Friedman Monroe
Published: April 2010

The last two decades have witnessed dramatic changes, both quantitatively and qualitatively, in the grassroots initiatives taken by Americans in response to the offensive behaviors of corporations. Not only have there been marked increases in consumer boycotts, the most common organized grassroots action against corporations, but boycott targets have become more diverse and boycott strategies have largely shifted from a marketplace orientation to a media orientation. This article reviews these contemporary developments from a historical perspective with special attention to the boycott tactics employed, including their psychological foundations and ethical implications.
The Intragroup Dynamics of Maintaining a Successful Grassroots Organization: A Case Study
Authors: Bettencourt B. Ann , Dillmann George , Wollman Neil
Published: April 2010

We suggest that key components of intragroup dynamics, including coordination, motivation, and group identification, are important for determining whether a grassroots group will function well, maintain itself over time, and regularly achieve “successes” as defined by the group. These processes were examined in a case study of a grassroots peace organization. The evaluation was carried out via an interview with the director and a survey of the group's volunteers. The director's perceptions of the quality of intragroup dynamics within this group are discussed in conjunction with the responses of the surveyed volunteers. This study showed that the group puts considerable effort into coordinating their activities and implementing strategies to motivate their volunteers. Nevertheless, it appeared that the group was more purposeful in their efforts toward coordination than toward motivating members. Future research will need to involve other groups, as well as identify which specific intragroup components are most important for grassroots success.
Grassroots Organizations: Recurrent Themes and Research Approaches
Authors: Bettencourt B. Ann
Published: April 2010

This concluding article outlines the themes related to successful grassroots organizing that were recurrent in the other articles of this journal issue. These themes include group dynamics, characteristics of grassroots activists, intergroup coalitions, leadership and other resources, and the role of technology. In addition, this paper highlights suggestions for methodological approaches to the study of grassroots organizing. Finally, practical implications that can be drawn from studies of grassroots movements are discussed.
Euthanasia: An Introduction
Authors: Brigham John C. , Pfeifer Jeffrey E.
Published: April 2010

It has been argued that euthanasia is one of the most pressing social concerns of our times. A review of current scientific and legal materials, however, indicates that this issue is a complex and contentious one that crosses numerous perspectives and theoretical orientations. In order to provide background for the other articles in this collection, we present a brief history of attitudes toward euthanasia. In addition, various terms that are associated with the concept of euthanasia are defined. Finally, this paper provides a framework for the articles that follow by suggesting that three central issues must be addressed in order resolve the controversies surrounding euthanasia. These are (I) the establishment of standardized criteria of euthanasia eligibility, (2) the investigation of public attitudes regarding acceptable means for engaging in euthanasia, and (3) the evaluation of the roles of professionals who are directly involved in euthanasia decisions. We hope that the following articles will provide insight into these issues.
The Problem of Inadequately Relieved Suffering
Authors: Cherny Nathan I.
Published: April 2010

A request for euthanasia or assistance in suicide usually derives from severe patient distress and indicates significant suffering. Although the Hippocratic purview of medicine requires that suffering be acknowledged, its causes be identified, and that steps be taken to provide adequate relief, an appreciation of the diversity of factors that may contribute to suffering underscores the need for methodical assessment and familiarity with a range of therapeutic strategies. It may be argued that when other options to effectively relieve suffering are available, euthanasia and assisted suicide fall outside of the purview of Hippocratic medicine. Given the existence of other options, the capacity for human maleficence, and the lack of resources currently allocated to the relief of suffering, this paper presents a number of reservations regarding the legalization of euthanasia and assisted suicide. In addition, it is suggested that the current community focus on the issue of inadequately relieved suffering should be harnessed to work toward the provision of care that would diminish the impression that elective death is necessary to ensure adequate relief.
Euthanasia and Persistent Vegetative State Individuals: The Role and Moral Status of Autonomy
Authors: Soifer Eldon
Published: April 2010

This paper offers a philosophical consideration and evaluation of several different criteria of moral standing, and discusses their implications for persistent vegetative state (PVS) individuals who were once competent. It is argued that the only criterion PVS individuals meet is that of being human, which is not the best test of moral standing. Accordingly it is, in principle, morally acceptable to perform passive or active euthanasia on PVS individuals or to use their bodies for research or for organ harvest. Nevertheless, the autonomous choices made by the persons the PVS individuals used to be can still impose moral obligations. Indeed, it is argued that the capacity for autonomy is a particularly appealing criterion of moral standing, and that the implications of this standard for PVS individuals confirm that appeal.
Assessing Right to Die Attitudes: A Conceptually Guided Measurement Model
Authors: Rogers James R.
Published: April 2010

This article discusses the current status of research regarding the assessment of attitudes toward euthanasia and other right to die constructs with a focus on conceptual and methodological issues hindering advancement in this area. Two models are presented: a conceptual model for differentiating the various right to die constructs, and a measurement model to guide scale development and refinement. The conceptual model defines the right to die constructs as a function of locus of decision and locus of action. Health status and age are hypothesized as important factors that in some instances are defining attributes in right to die constructs and in other instances are factors influencing people's attitudes to ward the right to die. The measurement model considers the importance of construct specificity, individual characteristics, and conviction in the assessment of right to die attitudes. An extant euthanasia attitude scale is presented and evaluated in terms of the models to demonstrate how they may be useful for advancing attitude research in this important area.
Community Attitudes on the Family of Issues Surrounding the Death of Terminal Patients
Authors: Darley John M. , Loeb Israela , Hunter Jane
Published: April 2010

In two studies, respondents made recommendations for the medical treatment of a terminally ill elderly woman. The woman was or was not experiencing intractable pain, and had requested either heroic medical efforts or euthanasia. Respondents' recommendations were influenced by both the specific wishes of the patient and the pain the person was experiencing. However, participants were not completely swayed by the patient's wishes: only about half of the sample recommended euthanasia even when the patient was in intractable pain and had requested death; also, many subjects would not resuscitate the patient whose heart or lungs failed, even though she had requested heroic measures. Respondent attitudes toward euthanasia predicted recommendations in the expected directions. We suggest that there is less dissent on the issues that arise for medical treatments at the end of life than has been widely assumed.
On Gender Role Violations and Judgments Made About Euthanasia: A Research Note
Authors: Nance Carriella H. , Ruby C. L.
Published: April 2010

The impact of perceived gender role violations on the willingness of evaluators to label a deadly act to “end suffering” as euthanasia was explored in two studies. It was predicted that “killing” (even mercy killing) would be perceived as more role contradictory for a female actor than for a male actor. Therefore, it was expected that the deadly actions of a female actor would be judged as less justified (i.e., less likely to be labeled as euthanasia) than the same action committed by a male actor. A total of 486 undergraduates participated in one of two studies. It was found that although perceptions of justification for a deadly act were clearly influenced by whether or not the method of action taken was direct and proactive (commission) vs. indirect and passive (omission), the gender of the actor did not impact differently on the judgments of the participants. Possible explanations and future research directions are discussed.
Practical Reasons and Reasonable Practice: The Case of Euthanasia in The Netherlands
Authors: Hessing Dick J. , Blad John R. , Pieterman Rod
Published: April 2010

Since the early 1970s the issue of euthanasia has been intensely debated in The Netherlands. Through these debates knowledge about medical practices involving the end of life was no longer confined to medical or legal quarters, but became public to a large extent. Following public opinion changes, the legal reaction to euthanasia changed. By prosecuting test cases the public prosecutors allowed the Dutch Supreme Court to formulate specific conditions in which euthanasia would go unpunished. The political debate about changing the criminal law, which still holds that euthanasia is a serious crime, developed at a much slower pace. Several extensive empirical studies were undertaken to gain valid knowledge about the medical practices. This article is concerned with a presentation of the various debates and the changes that took place in the fields of criminal law, politics, and medicine. The main conclusion is the hypothesis that a more open climate for medical practices concerning the end of life allows society to better control these practices.
Neonatal Euthanasia: Attributions of Students and Nurses
Authors: Sugarman David B. , Montvilo Robin K. , Matarese Colette J.
Published: April 2010

An attributional analysis of neonatal euthanasia was undertaken in two studies to compare the responsibility attributions of nursing and non‐nursing students (Study 1) and nurses (Study 2) toward a physician for a critically ill neonate's death. In both studies, vignettes about a newborn's death differed with respect to the physician's treatment of the critically ill newborn. In the student study, the physician was attributed the least responsibility for the newborn's death when cardiopulmonary resuscitation was attempted but failed, followed by the physician's issuance of either a “Do Not Resuscitate” order or an order to turn off the infant's respirator. Greatest responsibility was attributed to the physician when he ordered the infant's nutritional and hydration support to be terminated. In addition, the student's major (nursing vs. non‐nursing) and the nursing student's educational cohort impacted the level of physician responsibility attributed. In contrast, the nurses' study found that the termination of nutritional and hydrational support was viewed as different from the physician's other three actions.
The New Stepfamily Requires a New Public Policy
Authors: Mason Mary Ann , Mauldon Jane
Published: April 2010

About one‐fourth of all children born in the 1980s will live with a stepparent before they reach legal adulthood. Despite the prevalence of stepfamilies and their importance in nurturing children and protecting them from poverty, they have been largely ignored in state and federal policy. In this article we first analyze demographic data, focusing on the supportive yet fragile stepparent‐stepchild relationship. Second, we review existing state and federal stepparent policies, with a critical eye to their shortcomings. Finally, we propose a new conceptualization of the stepparent‐stepchild relationship in which stepchildren receive the same protections under law as do natural children, and in which stepparents who are functioning as de facto parents have the same rights and obligations as do natural parents, and a limited set of rights and obligations should the marriage terminate.
Ten Myths About Affirmative Action
Authors: Pious S.
Published: April 2010

The case against affirmative action rests heavily on myth and misunderstanding. In this paper I discuss ten of the most common myths concerning affirmative action, and I present public opinion poll data suggesting that support for affirmative action is greater than typically assumed.
Words Worth of Wisdom: Toward an Understanding of Affirmative Action
Authors: Crosby Faye J. , Cordova Diana I.
Published: April 2010

This article lays a conceptual foundation that is needed if social scientists and policymakers are to design and implement fair and effective affirmative action programs. Because the policy of affirmative action is oftentimes misunderstood, the article starts with definitions and contrasts affirmative action with equal opportunity. We argue that affirmative action is a necessary policy if organizations are to be fair. Finally, we conclude by reviewing the relevant empirical literature in support of this argument.
Affirmative Action, Unintentional Racial Biases, and Intergroup Relations
Authors: Dovidio John F. , Gaertner Samuel L.
Published: April 2010

This paper examines whether affirmative action is still needed, investigates why it may be needed in terms of contemporary racial attitudes, and considers ways of reducing intergroup conflict and tension surrounding this issue. Although the nature of contemporary bias is more subtle than traditional forms, this unintentional bias can produce barriers to the employment and advancement of well‐qualified members of historically disadvantaged groups, as well as resistance to affirmative action. Nevertheless, affirmative action policies may address contemporary biases more effectively than passive equal employment opportunity policies because they emphasize outcomes rather than intentions, provide unambiguous standards of behavior, and establish monitoring systems that insure accountability. Strategies for improving intergroup relations and reducing intergroup conflict associated with this issue are considered.