bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Democratic survival and quality
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

This chapter complements the statistical analyses in Chapter 5 with case studies to understand how the degree of civilian control affects the survival and quality of democracy in third wave democracies. First, the chapter contextualizes the statistical findings in greater detail by delving into the 18 instances of breakdown of third wave democracies from 1974–2010, distinguishing three distinct military roles as (i) perpetrator, (ii) partner, or (iii) bystander in processes of democratic regime breakdown. Second, two process tracing case studies of Brazil (weak civilian control and low democratic quality) and Taiwan (strong civilian control and high democratic quality) uncover how the development of civilian control has affected the quality of democratic institutions and processes in both countries. Overall, weak civilian control and, especially, an extensive military role in the provision of internal security are likely to lead to impingements on citizens’ political rights, civil liberties, and the rule of law. Supporting comparative case evidence from Portugal, Romania, South Africa, and Turkey reiterates the crucial importance of civilian control, not only for democratic survival, but also for the quality of third wave democracies. In sum, the case study evidence uncovered in this chapter corroborates the theoretical arguments outlined in the second chapter of this book.
The “deceasèd I” of the 1609 Sonnets
Authors: de Grazia Margreta
Published: April 2023

The only work by Shakespeare that expressly aspires to immortality is also the one that came closest to extinction. The “eternal lines” of the 1609 Sonnets were out of print for over a century and not fully incorporated into the canon until almost another had passed. During that long stretch, the sonnets were ensconced in an eclectic miscellany, John Benson’s 1640 Poems. Though discredited as spurious and corrupt by 1800, the sonnets in the 1640 format endured longer than in the authentic 1609 quarto. What gave the sonnets in their 1640 remake their power to endure? Certainly it was not the promise of access to the life of the poet. Through its distancing and generalizing rubrics, the edition rendered the 1609 Sonnets quite impersonal. How then did Benson’s Poems secure, at least for a time, a future for the sonnets? How did they capture what the Sonnets themselves presume: the literary attention of “ages yet unborn”?
Introduction
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

A review of the development of the atomic theory of matter from antiquity through the nineteenth century is presented. The scientific tradition in Western Europe developed in parallel with the evolution of thought on matter, atoms, and the void. A separation between religion and science formed during this period. Boltzmann’s H theorem together with the Poincare recurrence conjecture are discussed. Detractors of atomic theory and the positivist movement delayed the acceptance of the notion of atoms in Physics by nearly 100 years compared to Chemistry.
Further developments of wave mechanics by Schrödinger
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

We trace out Schrödinger’s development of his theory. In the beginning, there was no wave equation, but the de Broglie hypothesis motivated Schrödinger to find one. His work culminates with the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. Perturbation theory, both static and time-dependent, were developed. The physical meaning of the wavefunction was defined.
Early attempts at interpretation of the theory
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

While the theory proved successful at describing a broad range experimental results, from the black body spectrum to the hydrogen atom, the question arose as to what the theory was telling us about the nature of physical reality. Schrödinger’s attempt to represent particles as wave packets failed because of the spreading of the wave packets. Max Born, investigating how the theory could be applied to scattering processes, was led to introduce the probability interpretation of the wave function. In an attempt to summarize the physical meaning of the theory, Heisenberg introduced the uncertainty principle. Niels Bohr and his Copenhagen school developed the philosophical position known as “complementarity.” There was a bitter dispute between Schrödinger and the “Copenhageners” over the necessity of quantum jumps in the theory.
The final synthesis of quantum mechanics: the “transformation theory” and Dirac notation
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

The mathematics underpinning quantum mechanics is reviewed and discussed at length. The Sturm-Liouville theory of linear differential equations is presented. It is shown that the solutions form a complete set of orthogonal functions with real eigenvalues, and the magnitude of the eigenvalues form an ascending series beginning from a minimum. The formulation of the Dirac bra-ket notation and its meaning and applications is developed. We examine the idea of Hilbert space and the general abstract form of the theory as developed by Dirac and Jordan, introducing the Dirac notation which will be used in the rest of the book.
The “completion of quantum mechanics” —the fifth Solvay Conference on Physics, October 1927
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

This conference was lauded by Heisenberg as, “officially, the completion of the quantum theory,” while Langevin remarked it was, “where the confusion of ideas reached its peak.” The conference was held just as the theory had reached maturity, only two years after Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics was invented. De Broglie argued for his pilot wave theory, which was shot down by Pauli using an incorrect argument and in later years was re-introduced as the de Broglie–Bohm theory. Heisenberg and Dirac debated the meaning of superposition and the “collapse” of the wave function. Bohr and Einstein engaged in their legendary debate. In the conference proceedings, we see the main contributors to the new theory attempt to come to terms with its enigmas.
Weimar culture and quantum mechanics
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

Most, but not all, of the fundamental work on quantum mechanics took place during the turbulent times of the Weimar republic, which was formed in Germany after the abdication of the Kaiser at the end of WWI. While many physicists are appalled at the implication that physical theories might, even to a limited extent, be influenced by their cultural milieu, we feel an overview of the latter might help in an overall understanding of the theory. We will see that such views were shared, to some extent, by Schrödinger. After a brief overview of the contemporary economic and cultural situation and the reactions of several of the originators of quantum theory, we pass on to Forman’s thesis regarding the influence of Weimar culture and quantum mechanics. This thesis has spurred an enormous debate, of which we give a short description.
Path integrals and scattering
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

We present Feynman’s path integral derivation of the Schrödinger equation. The van Hove formulation of non-relativistic scattering is presented. We then give a full quantum mechanical treatment of non-relativistic scattering. Both the interaction of the beams with the apparatus and the scattering process itself are treated quantum mechanically. In the spirit of Schrödinger, particle trajectories do not appear, with all of the physics being contained in the phases of the wave function.
Introduction to quantum computing (with the assistance of Edward D. Davis)
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

We trace the origins of quantum computing to attempts to set physical limits to the computing power of classical computers. Some ideas of Feynman are discussed and his interesting proof of Bell’s inequality is presented. The circuit model of quantum computing, due essentially to David Deutsch, is described. We give a simple demonstration of quantum error correction. Schor’s famous algorithm for efficient factoring of numbers is derived.
Other types of NPIs
Authors: Zeijlstra Hedde
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses three types of NPIs other than strong and weak ones, arguing that superstrong NPIs are idiomatic and stored as such with their licensers. Strong/weak NPIs are lexically connected with a negation that needs to be spelled out higher in the structure, either as an NM or incorporated in another expression, along the lines of Collins and Postal’s (2014) analysis of unary NPIs. Superweak NPIs, the chapter argues, following Lin et al. (2014, 2021), are referentially deficient and therefore only fine in non-veridical contexts; they may not entail the existence of a referent satisfying their description (after Lin 1996, 1998; Giannakidou 2011, 2018). In addition, the chapter shows that acquisitional data appear to confirm these analyses, and also that weak and strong NPIs like any or in years indeed form different types of NPIs than superstrong, strong/weak, and superweak NPIs.
Introducing bilingual processing research
Authors: Jiang Nan
Published: April 2023

Bilingual language processing research explores the cognition of bilingualism. It studies how a bilingual speaker’s two languages are represented and organized in the mind and how they interact in language use. It is characterized by a broad definition of bilingualism, a clear focus on the cognitive aspects of bilingualism, a well-defined set of research questions about bilingual representation and processing, and the use of a rich repertoire of lab-based experimental tasks and paradigms. Historically, this research began in the 1950s with a focus on memory organization in bilinguals, but its focus shifted from memory organization to lexical organization in bilinguals in the 1970s. The rise of the information processing approach to cognition, the return of the mental chronometry as an approach to studying human cognition, and the use of computers in data collection in the 1980s all contributed to the development of bilingual language processing research as we know it today.
Lexico-semantic organization in bilinguals
Authors: Jiang Nan
Published: April 2023

A central topic in bilingual processing research is how words and meanings are represented and organized in the mind of a bilingual speaker. Research on this topic deals with specific issues such as whether a bilingual speaker has one integrated bilingual lexicon or two separate lexicons, whether a bilingual speaker has an integrated semantic system or two separate semantic systems, and how a word in one language is linked to a word in another and to semantic representations. Multiple theoretical proposals have been put forward, such as the distributed conceptual feature model and the revised hierarchical model. Empirical research has led to some consensuses, e.g., that the two lexical systems are linked to a shared semantic system. Researchers differ in their view regarding other issues, e.g., whether less proficient bilinguals rely on lexical links more and whether bilinguals can access meaning equally efficiently from their two languages.
Cross-language priming
Authors: Jiang Nan
Published: April 2023

Cross-language priming refers to the effect of exposure to words in one language on word recognition in another. It is a phenomenon first intended to explore bilingual lexico-semantic organization. An asymmetry in cross-language priming was found in this research, showing that priming in the L1-to-L2 direction (forward priming) was usually robust and consistent, but L2-to-L1 (backward) priming was usually absent or weak. This asymmetry, particularly the asymmetry in translation priming, became the focus of many subsequent studies that explored how experimental tasks and participant variables may affect this asymmetry. Research showed that backward translation priming was more likely to occur in a semantic task than in a lexical task and among early, balanced, and highly proficient bilinguals than among late and less proficient bilinguals. Multiple explanations of this asymmetry were proposed and tested such as the resting-level account, the semantic richness account, the sense model, and the episodic L2 hypothesis.
Language switch and control in bilinguals
Authors: Jiang Nan
Published: April 2023

A switch cost usually refers to a delay in performing a task when a switch of language is involved. This phenomenon has been actively explored to understand the mechanisms of language control and language regulation in bilinguals, often inspired by the inhibitory control model. This research has led to the discovery of four switch-related findings: widely observed switch costs, an asymmetry in switch costs, an L2 advantage in mixed-language condition, and a mixing cost. Multiple proposals have been forwarded to explain (a) what underlies these code switch effects, and (b) how language regulation is achieved in general. These proposals differ with regard to (a) whether an inhibitory process is involved in code switching and in language control in general, and (b) the locus of the switch effects (i.e., inside or outside of the bilingual lexicon).
Bilingualism beyond lexical processing
Authors: Jiang Nan
Published: April 2023

This chapter reviews research on three topics on the cognition of bilingualism beyond lexical representation and processing. They are autobiographical memory in bilinguals, the representation and interaction of syntactic knowledge in bilinguals, and the consequences of bilingualism. Research on the first topic has demonstrated language-dependent encoding and organization of personal events and memories, and that the language one uses to retrieve the memory may affect what and how much detail is retrieved. Research on the second topic often employs the syntactic priming paradigm and has demonstrated an interaction of syntactic knowledge between languages. Finally, much of the research on the impact of bilingualism has focused on two areas: linguistic deficit and cognitive advantage. Findings regarding the former should be interpreted with caution as they often involved the comparison of L1 and L2 processing. Findings regarding the latter have been far from being consistent.
Accession
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

When Tiberius died in ad 37 Macro went quickly to Rome to report the death. He persuaded the senate to put aside Tiberius’ will, which had made Caligula and Tiberius’ younger natural grandson, Gemellus, heirs to his property. The senate was now persuaded to acclaim Caligula as Imperator. In the meantime Caligula made his way to Rome, accompanying Tiberius’ corpse, and crowds came to greet him en route. He went before the senate at a meeting attended also by ordinary people and equestrians, where a law was decreed investing him with supreme power, apparently on the grounds that this was the consensus of the three orders of Roman society. He was thus arguably the first Roman emperor in the full constitutional sense of the term. Caligula’s behaviour was initially impeccable. He honoured his late parents and brothers; he abolished the hated treason laws; he held the consulship with his uncle Claudius, previously isolated from political life because of physical handicaps. The climax of this celebratory period was the long-awaited dedication of the Temple of Augustus on the Palatine hill at the end of August, ad 37. At some point after that Caligula fell ill, and there were serious concerns that he would die.
The Private Caligula
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

Descriptions of Caligula’s appearance survive in the ancient sources. It seems that he was tall, with skinny legs. He was balding, about which he was sensitive, with deep-set eyes. He was also supposedly ugly, although his portraits on official coins show an unremarkable profile. He enjoyed dressing up in exotic clothing, often in the guise of gods or goddesses. He was an insomniac and very highly strung, but there are no serious grounds for concluding that he was mad in the clinical sense, being capable of rational decisions right to the very end. He was very sensitive about his status and took exception to familiar forms of his name, and to references to his youth. He seems to have been intellectually well-endowed, and was supposedly an effective orator. He enjoyed the usual popular entertainments of the day, the stage, the gladiatorial shows, and the chariot races. Caligula seems to have had a cruel sense of humour, and many of his outrageous statements may be misrepresentations of his dark witticisms. An excellent illustration of this is provided by Philo’s account of the meeting of an Alexandrian deputation with the emperor in ad 40.
Outside Rome
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

Tiberius had followed a policy of restraint on the frontiers, not wanting to expand the borders beyond those set by Augustus. Caligula pursued a more aggressive frontier policy. At the outset of his reign he confirmed the settlement, apparently favourable to Rome, reached between the Parthian king Artabanus and the Roman commander in Syria, Lucius Vitellius. In Africa he ended the arrangement whereby senatorial governors of Africa would command the one legion there. He moved that command to an imperial appointee. Prolemy, the ruler of Mauritania in north Africa, was removed and put to death. The reason for such an extreme measure is not clear, and it is speculated that Ptolemy may have been involved in a conspiracy. The incorporation of Mauretania into the empire began at this time. At the end of ad 39 Caligula left Rome to take action against Britain and Germany. The facts are difficult to ascertain. He seems to have carried out limited campaigns on the Rhine and to have led his troops to the Channel, but opted not to attempt an invasion of Britain, although he did accept the surrender of a minor ruler, Adminius/Amminus, who perhaps had been dislodged through dynastic squabbles. In Alexandria clashes between Jews and Greek became more intense and both sides were invited to send deputies to the emperor in Rome. In Judaea also there were serious disturbances and a Jewish uprising was narrowly averted.
A Century of Translation
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter gives a chronological account of English orientalism from the late eighteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, identifying which key texts are translated, and at what time, into English from Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, Chinese, and Japanese. It proposes that in the middle of the nineteenth century a new kind of translation begins to emerge, targeted not at specialists but at the general reader, and that this trend is epitomized by an anthology published in 1845, the Rose Garden of Persia by Louisa S. Costello. The chapter defines two opposed terms that recur throughout the rest of the book, ‘popular translation’ and ‘scholarly translation’, and charts the rise of the ‘popularizer’ of Asian literature. It concludes by demonstrating how, by the early twentieth century, there existed an ‘open market’ in translations in which readers could choose between two, three, or as many as a dozen alternative translations of a given Asian text.
Wage Inequality and Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

This chapter examined various aspects of wage inequality across caste groups for regular salaried and casual workers for the years 2004–05 and 2017–18. The chapter includes inequality in average wage rate between the scheduled castes and higher castes by educational level, industry, regional, and occupation groups. The chapter estimates within and between group inequalities in wage earnings using generalized entropy measure, Theil Index, and relative contribution of factors to wage inequality through Gary Fields’ decomposition method. The chapter also estimates the wage gap between the scheduled castes and higher castes in public and private sectors for formal and informal workers.
Introduction
Authors: Torrance Andrew B.
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces the specific way in which this book will think about the concept of accountability and also considers the motivations for its approach. It begins by highlighting the book’s commitment to thinking more positively about the nature of accountability, by pointing to how relationships of accountability can serve to elevate the persons who are being held accountable. It then draws attention to the narratival view of accountability that will be advanced. In the second part of the chapter, there is an introduction to four key features that characterize the theology of accountability this book will put forward: (1) accountability is ultimately to God; (2) accountability is essential to human flourishing; (3) a theology of accountability holds to an interpersonal view of morality; and (4) accountability to God finds its fulfilment in Jesus Christ. Finally, the Introduction ends with an overview of the book’s chapters.
The Fall from Accountability to God
Authors: Torrance Andrew B.
Published: April 2023

This chapter offers a theological reading of the Genesis story of the Fall, arguing that this story presents sin as rooted in the fall away from accountability to God. More specifically, in conversation with Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Karl Barth, the chapter contends that the tree of life reveals the garden in Eden to be a place of accountability to God, where the fullness of life and flourishing is defined by God’s judgement. The tree of the knowledge of good and evil, by contrast, reveals the deathly possibility of humans rejecting God’s judgement in favour of prioritizing their own judgement, grounded in their own autonomy. As such, the disobedient act of eating from this tree of the knowledge of good and evil represents the human fall away from accountability to God.
Mind as Metaphor
Authors: Toon Adam
Published: April 2023

This book develops a new approach to the mind called mental fictionalism. The key idea behind this approach is that the mind is a useful fiction. The book begins with our ordinary conception of the mind (known as folk psychology). At present, the dominant interpretation of folk psychology sees it as an attempt to describe our inner machinery (a view the author calls Cartesianism). The representational theory of mind (or representationalism) argues that our folk theory is true, and that our thoughts (especially our propositional attitudes, such as beliefs and desires) are representations inside our heads. Mental fictionalism offers a new interpretation of folk psychology. According to mental fictionalism, when we attribute beliefs and desires, we do not claim that people have representations inside their heads; we merely pretend that they do. Our ordinary conception of the mind is fundamentally metaphorical: we project the ‘outer world’ of human culture (especially language) onto the ‘inner world’ of the mind. This is an enormously useful way of making sense of people and their behaviour. But we should not forget that this inner world is only a fiction.
Contrasts, Causes, and Consciousness
Authors: Toon Adam
Published: April 2023

This chapter develops and motivates mental fictionalism by comparing it to well-known alternative positions, such as behaviourism and instrumentalism. It also considers how fictionalism relates to Gilbert Ryle’s view of the mind and Daniel Dennett’s influential work on the intentional stance. The chapter tries to show that fictionalism has advantages over each of these positions. It also responds to two important objections that might be levelled against mental fictionalism. The first is that it overlooks the fact that mental states are causes (mental causation). The second is that it cannot explain the immediate, conscious awareness that we have of our own mental states (introspection).
Student Violence at Oxford in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
Authors: Larsen Andrew E.
Published: April 2023

This chapter covers the nature of student violence in Oxford during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It argues that the phenomenon of student violence is a complex and multi-faceted issue. Most evidence of student violence in between centuries falls into the broad categories of personal conflicts, town-gown violence, conflicts with ecclesiastical institutions, North-South conflicts, and struggles with political factions within the university. Letters and chronicle accounts of student violence are often distinctly biased in favour of scholars, so they generally present scholars as innocent victims of unprovoked violence by townsmen. The chapter mentions the limited use of the Coroner’s Rolls and the Eyre Court Rolls in giving a cold accounting of facts, motivations for violence, and the relationship between victims and killers.
Daniel Sennert’s Dissertations and the Furthering of Knowledge in Seventeenth-Century Medicine
Authors: Goeing Anja-Silvia
Published: April 2023

This chapter references Daniel Sennert’s dissertations to examine the development of new medical knowledge. It also covers new ways of assimilating and transmitting information in early modern Europe. Dissertations have only recently become a subject for investigation and are now treated as documents that help reveal learning practices in universities. The chapter explains how early modern medical science thrived on the lively exchange of information and materials among centres of European universities and academies. Overlooked developments in the organization and spread of medical knowledge of the early modern period is connected to the influence of university teaching and research on the (new) forms of knowledge. Dissertations are an important link in the chain of knowledge beyond the academy, and students’ undetermined part in the transmission of information.
A Failed Ideal? General Education in Post-War Netherlands
Authors: Dorsman Leen
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the state of general education in post-war Netherlands. Examining the renewed plans for the national regeneration of the Netherlands shows that universities lacked a community spirit, which had disastrous consequences when Germany demanded a declaration of loyalty from students in 1943. At this time, the Dutch universities suggested the Civitas Academica as a way to bring about a new group consciousness, greater social and physical care, and the Studium Generale as a reform of the curriculum. The chapter addresses the issue of the changing composition of the student population and the switch between broad humanistic education and scientific training in the Netherlands in the nineteenth century. It also notes the issue of subject specialism that concerns Studium Generale.
‘The Champion of a Cause more Interesting than Prosperous’
Authors: Rothblatt Sheldon
Published: April 2023

This chapter looks at Paul Shrimpton’s written work which revolves around the life, academic career, ideas, connections, conflicts, and critics of John Henry Newman. Shrimpton looks at Newman's writings which are hitherto difficult to locate, including a lecture omitted from the famous text of The Idea of a University (although bits of the text leaked into different writings). Newman was recognized as an educational reformer and controversialist, but the strength of his arguments on university can be understood as a warning about the loss of religion, continuity, and tradition in a practical age eroded by consumer relativism. The chapter also states how Newman was influenced by the Oxford Movement of High Church Anglicanism before his conversion to Roman Catholicism. It explores Newman’s goal and tortured history of founding a Roman Catholic university.
The Folklore of Childbirth in Russia
Authors: Rouhier-Willoughby Jeanmarie
Published: April 2023

This chapter presents an overview of scholarship on the Russian childbirth rite in the last two centuries. It discusses the major approaches to childbirth rites in the East Slavic context as well as challenges that they have presented to folklorists as a topic of study, particularly in the context of the medicalization of labor and delivery since the late nineteenth century. It discusses the lacuna in folklore studies dedicated to birth rites beginning in the first decade of the 21st century and the importance of folklorists’ research in this area. Of note are three particular contributions: the role of vernacular practices in daily life, even in urban settings; the structure and function of traditional genres in women’s narratives about birth; and the consideration of people’s voices in both urban and rural settings.
Introduction
Authors: Eyal Gil , Medvetz Thomas
Published: April 2023

This introduction provides a road map for the handbook, which brings together investigations from social scientists, philosophers, and legal scholars into the political dimensions of expertise. It argues that the sense of crisis hovering over democratic politics today can be traced to the paradoxical combination of growing mistrust of scientific findings and expert opinions and unprecedented reliance on experts that marks our current era. The chapter then offers a two-part survey of the topics covered in the handbook. The first part links the crisis of trust in experts to a threefold process of socialization, politicization, and mediatization of science over the last few decades; the second turns from causes to effects by discussing new dynamics of expertise that have emerged in response to the ongoing legitimation crisis affecting science and the professions.
Institutions of Expert Judgment: The Production and Use of Objectivity in Public Expertise
Authors: Laurent Brice
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses the relationships between objectivity and expert judgment in public bodies. Building on science and technology studies (STS), it looks at how the manufacturing of objectivity and the definition of appropriate expert judgment have been jointly undertaken in public institutions of expertise. The analyses of objectivity as a historical and social construct invite us to consider that public expertise always relies on operations that actively shape human subjects and social organizations, yet in ways that differ across various institutional settings. The chapter discusses the case of the European institutions, which have struggled to stabilize a unique expert voice while also being accused of being overly technocratic. Instead of considering this case as a failure of expertise, the chapter shows that it offers a magnifying lens into the current difficulties of expertise, and provides elements to explore potential ways forward.
Expertise and Complex Organizations
Authors: Turner Stephen
Published: April 2023

Expertise always has a place in social organization. One of the fundamental problems of the employment of expertise derives from the conflict between the fact that experts must be supported and therefore have interests and the need for at least the appearance of disinterestedness that is necessary for their expertise to be persuasive. This requires that experts have a protected status and that expert systems, which involve the aggregation of expert knowledge for the purposes of decision-making, also be organized in such a way that they are protected from conflicts of interest. This, however, is a problem of organizational design with no standard solution, though there is one common one: redundant structures with different evidence sources. The chapter discusses examples of the problem and considers the sources of failure. It shows that the sources of failure are intrinsic to the devices used to protect experts. The examples of the failures of the International Monetary Fund in the 2008 and the Greek crises are examined in detail from an organizational perspective to show that the flaws that led to expert failure in both cases were features that were effective in normal circumstances rather than bugs. This is an important lesson that generalizes to all expert systems. The concluding discussion deals with the implications for reliance on these systems.
Data and Expertise: Some Unanticipated Outcomes
Authors: Porter Theodore M. , Nelson Espeland Wendy
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines two contrasting versions of expertise. The first, tied to traditions of professional practice in theology, medicine, and law, relies on intuitions derived from generations of experience. Even when they articulate their knowledge as rules, these professionals are likely to insist on the need to interpret these rules in applying them to particular problems and issues. The ideals of the other type of expertise are captured in phrases such as “evidence-based” or, still more austerely, “data-driven,” and often imply a dim view of professional faith in case-based reasoning as casuistry, a self-interested evasion of properly rigorous reasoning. The second type of expertise is embedded in algorithms and, in this chapter, more specifically in rankings. Rankings evaluate institutions using a standardized set of factors. The chapter focuses on the confrontations between these rival forms of expertise, and on the unintended consequences that often arise from efforts to impose numerical standards in place of experience and professional judgment in the design and evaluation of educational programs. Finally, it shows how such confrontations have stimulated the emergence of new forms of quantitative expertise.
Experts in the Regulation of Technology and Risk: An Ecological Perspective on Regulatory Science
Authors: Demortain David
Published: April 2023

The evaluation of technologies and their risks is a hybrid exercise, involving the forging of facts and proofs of the properties of these technologies, and judgment calls about the value of these technologies and underlying risks for society. This regulatory science, where the construction of facts about technologies mix with debated legal, social and economic criteria of technological desirability, is a particularly challenging area for scientists to navigate and gain authority in. This is all the more the case now as the practices and norms of regulatory science appear to be influenced by the very industries it helps to regulate. This chapter discusses how expert objectivity and authority have historically been negotiated in regulatory science and the associated changes in a context that is politicized by claims of industry capture and scientists’ conflicts of interest. It argues that the authority of experts and their reputation for objectivity and responsibility have much to do with their positions in various fields—administrative, industrial, academic, and social mobilization—that is, in the broad ecology in which regulatory knowledge contentiously takes form.
Gender and Economic Governance Expertise
Authors: Azocar Maria J.
Published: April 2023

Gender scholars have made three key contributions to studies of experts and expertise in economic governance. First, they have explored how experts mobilize intersectional gendered assumptions to make expert claims intelligible and authoritative, while rendering alternative claims unrecognizable. Second, by taking expertise as a series of practices, and not just a claim, gender scholars have explored the points of tension and conflict embedded in the work experts do to establish authority in economic policymaking. Third, gender scholars have studied expertise as institutional processes in which claims, people, and organizations are incorporated into networks that stabilize specific configurations of economic expertise over time. The chapter is an invitation to expand the reach of gender scholars’ contributions, in a dialogue that not only explores how expertise sustains social oppression, but also how expertise can be deployed as a tool for social justice.
Professional Authority
Authors: Huising Ruthanne
Published: April 2023

This chapter questions the continued efficacy of expertise derived from proprietary, abstract knowledge systems in producing professional authority. Recent studies demonstrate alternative means used to generate authority in contemporary workplaces, including interdependence, contextual expertise, interactive expertise, and the ethos or the moral character of how work is done. These forms of knowledge and practice generated through interactions with adjacent professions and clients inform how members of professions leverage traditional expertise to diagnose and treat problems in situ, and influence how those around them understand and contribute to their work. Beyond substantive capacities (arguing a legal case or treating a disease), authority depends on accomplishing outcomes preferably in ways that reflect the clients’ interests, including saving them time, money, and discomfort. This relates to the more recent ways in which expertise is evaluated and valued through bureaucratic (managerial evaluations in organizations) and technological means (client evaluations on social media).
The Social Distribution of the Public Recognition of Expertise
Authors: Arnoldi Jakob
Published: April 2023

The chapter expands the notion of social distribution of expertise, arguing that increasingly, it is not only the organizations and professions surrounding expertise that are socially distributed. Also the institutions that traditionally have defined and legitimized expertise (in particular, news media) have become socially distributed—that is, they have lost their monopoly on the definition and legitimization of expertise. The social distribution of expertise suggests that organizations such as universities and institutionalized professional roles such as academics have lost their monopoly on expertise because of new types of knowledge-generating organizations and professions—think tanks, financial analysts, R&D-intensive private corporations, consultants, etc.—increasingly being viewed as expertise or experts. The chapter shows that news media and media pundits have lost their monopoly on recognizing and legitimizing expertise due to new (social) media and new media professions, such as influencers. Thus, not only expertise, but also the public recognition of expertise, has become socially distributed.
The Third Wave and Populism: Scientific Expertise as a Check and Balance
Authors: Collins Harry , Evans Robert , Durant Darrin , Weinel Martin
Published: April 2023

This chapter draws on the Third Wave of Science Studies to argue that science is needed to resist the rise of populism in modern democracies. Wave Three of science studies focuses on expertise and values to characterize science as “craftwork with integrity” and justify science’s centrality in modern societies. This contrasts with Wave One, which treated science as an epistemically superior way of creating true knowledge, and Wave Two, which showed that science was neither certain nor independent of social context and hence put too much emphasis on public involvement. By focusing on values, not truth, Wave Three shows that there is no necessary conflict between science, however esoteric, and democracy and that science can play a leadership role in democracy as an object lesson in decision-making with integrity and as a check and balance on populism. Promulgating this new understanding of science is important as neither democracy nor science will endure unless citizens understand them sufficiently to reject populist leaders for violating its norms and values. The chapter concludes by calling for a program of civic education teaching the nature of democracy and the role of science within it.
On the Multiplicity of Lay Expertise: An Empirical and Analytical Overview of Patient Associations’ Achievements and Challenges
Authors: Akrich Madeleine , Rabeharisoa Vololona
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines patient organizations’ involvement in the production of knowledge and the governance of health. It addresses three questions: (a) what sort of knowledge and expertise do patient organizations bring in? (b) how do they trigger changes in health policy making? and (c) to what extent does the current institutionalization of patient participation strengthen democracy in contemporary societies? This chapter offers empirical and analytical insights into patient organizations’ “evidence-based activism,” a term that captures their efforts to articulate experiential knowledge and credentialed knowledge to give shape to issues they deem important to tackle, and for turning these issues into objects of collective inquiry. It also revisits notions such as “experiential knowledge,” “lay expertise,” “expert patient,” that are not only analytical tools for science and technology studies scholars and social scientists but also part and parcel of today’s institutional parlance. It concludes with a few suggestions for future investigations in health democracy.
EMDR Therapy as a Transdiagnostic Psychotherapy
Authors: Dominguez Sarah K.
Published: April 2023

Within mental health, there is a shift from a diagnosis-based system to a transdiagnostic model. In this chapter, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy is proposed as a transdiagnostic intervention that can overcome challenges in the current system. A transdiagnostic model requires a unified protocol with a theoretical base applicable across psychopathologies. Adverse experiences, maladaptive cognitions, and emotional dysregulation are key etiological and maintaining factors across all mental health conditions. Accordingly, evidence suggests that EMDR therapy is an effective transdiagnostic approach, as it directly addresses these predisposing and perpetuating factors. As a transdiagnostic psychotherapy, EMDR therapy is further supported by evidence of the effective application to various populations across the life span, beyond posttraumatic stress disorder. This broader adoption could improve the prognosis for a wide range of individuals. Research investigating modifications needed for specific population groups, and the application for other health problems outside of mental health, are suggested.
EMDR with a Military Population
Authors: Bradley-Scholey Shelley , McCauley Mathew , Whybrow Dean , Hurley Elisha Columbus
Published: April 2023

An examination of EMDR with military populations entails consideration of the specific methods and challenges that clinicians encounter when using EMDR with the serving armed forces population. This chapter reviews the phenomenon of military mental health in a historical and current context, exploring concepts of combat-related PTSD, moral injury, and transdiagnostic non-combat-related trauma. It defines the distinct organizational and individual characteristics and unique culture of the armed forces population. The use of EMDR across the military deployment cycle is explored, with a particular focus on delivering EMDR in the home country and on deployed operations. Finally, the chapter proposes additional factors to consider across the phases of EMDR therapy, including considerations for risk assessment, diagnosis, conceptualization, and treatment planning for the military population.
Homogamy within Romantic Relationships
Authors: Boertien Diederik , Esping-Andersen Gøsta
Published: April 2023

This chapter considers how partner similarity within romantic relationships, often referred to as homogamy, is influenced by social stratification, and vice versa. The chapter first discusses how one’s social origins and status in life influence the likelihood of partnering with someone who has similar characteristics and attributes to oneself and explains how homogamy has been used as an indicator of the degree of openness in society. Secondly, we review research on how levels of gender (in)equality influence dynamics within relationships. Gender equality is positively correlated with education and research also suggests that gender equality has a positive effect on the stability relationship. Thirdly, the chapter addresses the broader issues of how partner choices influence societal level inequalities and social stratification. For instance, changes in socioeconomic homogamy are often considered to be an important contributor to levels of income inequality, but empirical evidence so far is limited.
Tramadol
Authors: Dunn Kelly E. , Ashworth Judy , Strain Eric C.
Published: April 2023

Tramadol is a unique opioid that is differentiated from other opioids by its prototypical opioid activity occurring through a major metabolite (M1) that is produced via hepatic metabolism. Used throughout the world for analgesia, tramadol engenders many effects consistent with opioid agonists. This includes the development of physical dependence and an associated opioid withdrawal syndrome, as well as an inherent risk for nonprescribed use. Laboratory examinations suggest tramadol has a lower risk for nonprescribed or recreational use compared to other opioids; however, epidemiological data reveal that some regions of the world struggle with high rates of nonprescribed use. Tramadol exerts multimodal effects across several transmitter systems, including the serotonin system, which causes it to have a unique array of potential side effects that can include serotonin syndrome and seizures (although these are generally rare) and associated considerations for its use. The cross-tolerance displayed between tramadol and other opioids positions it as a worthwhile medication to explore for opioid use treatment. This research is most robust in the area of supervised withdrawal, in which tramadol has continually demonstrated efficacy comparable or better than what is produced by existing opioid use medication treatments (e.g., buprenorphine, methadone). Data supporting tramadol as a maintenance treatment are lacking and preclude any recommendations in that area.
A Rapid Glove-Based Inoculum Sampling Technique to Monitor Erysiphe necator in Commercial Vineyards
Authors: Lowder Sarah R. , Neill Tara M. , Peetz Amy B. , Miles Timothy D. , Moyer Michelle M. , Oliver Charlotte , Stergiopoulos Ioannis , Ding Shunping , Mahaffee Walter F.
Published: April 2023

Information on the presence and severity of grape powdery mildew (GPM), caused by Erysiphe necator, has long been used to guide management decisions. While recent advances in the available molecular diagnostic assays and particle samplers have made monitoring easier, there is still a need for more efficient field collection of E. necator. The use of vineyard worker gloves worn during canopy manipulation as a sampler (glove swab) of E. necator was compared with samples identified by visual assessment with subsequent molecular confirmation (leaf swabs) and airborne spore samples collected by rotating-arm impaction traps (impaction traps). Samples from United States commercial vineyards in Oregon, Washington, and California were analyzed using two TaqMan qPCR assays targeting the internal transcribed spacer regions or cytochrome b gene of E. necator. Based on qPCR assays, visual disease assessments misidentified GPM up to 59% of the time with a higher frequency of misidentification occurring earlier in the growing season. Comparison of the aggregated leaf swab results for a row (n = 915) to the row’s corresponding glove swab had 60% agreement. The latent class analysis (LCA) indicated that glove swabs were more sensitive than leaf swabs in detecting E. necator presence. The impaction trap results had 77% agreement to glove swabs (n = 206) taken from the same blocks. The LCAs estimated that the glove swabs and impaction trap samplers varied each year in which was more sensitive for detection. This likely indicates that these methods have similar levels of uncertainty and provide equivalent information. Additionally, all samplers, once E. necator was detected, were similarly sensitive and specific for detection of the A-143 resistance allele. Together, these results suggest that glove swabs are an effective sampling method for monitoring the presence of E. necator and, subsequently, the G143A amino acid substitution associated with resistance to quinone outside inhibitor fungicides in vineyards. Glove swabs could reduce sampling costs due to the lack of need for specialized equipment and time required for swab collection and processing.