bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exploring the Dynamics of Adaptation with Evolutionary Activity Plots
Authors: Bullock Seth , Bedau Mark A.
Published: May 2006

Evolutionary activity statistics and their visualization are introduced, and their motivation is explained. Examples of their use are described, and their strengths and limitations are discussed. References to more extensive or general accounts of these techniques are provided.
Hyperspace Geography: Visualizing Fitness Landscapes beyond 4D
Authors: Wiles Janet , Tonkes Bradley
Published: May 2006

Human perception is finely tuned to extract structure about the 4D world of time and space as well as properties such as color and texture. Developing intuitions about spatial structure beyond 4D requires exploiting other perceptual and cognitive abilities. One of the most natural ways to explore complex spaces is for a user to actively navigate through them, using local explorations and global summaries to develop intuitions about structure, and then testing the developing ideas by further exploration. This article provides a brief overview of a technique for visualizing surfaces defined over moderate-dimensional binary spaces, by recursively unfolding them onto a 2D hypergraph. We briefly summarize the uses of a freely available Web-based visualization tool, Hyperspace Graph Paper (HSGP), for exploring fitness landscapes and search algorithms in evolutionary computation. HSGP provides a way for a user to actively explore a landscape, from simple tasks such as mapping the neighborhood structure of different points, to seeing global properties such as the size and distribution of basins of attraction or how different search algorithms interact with landscape structure. It has been most useful for exploring recursive and repetitive landscapes, and its strength is that it allows intuitions to be developed through active navigation by the user, and exploits the visual system's ability to detect pattern and texture. The technique is most effective when applied to continuous functions over Boolean variables using 4 to 16 dimensions.
Understanding the Course and State of Evolutionary Optimizations Using Visualization: Ten Years of Industry Experience with Evolutionary Algorithms
Authors: Pohlheim Hartmut
Published: May 2006

Evolutionary algorithms (EAs) are widely employed to solve a broad range of optimization problems. Even though they work in an algorithmically simple manner, it is not always easy to understand what is going on during a particular optimization run. It is especially desirable to gain further insight into the state and course of the algorithm if the optimization does not yield the expected results or if we are not sure whether the result achieved is really the best result possible. During an optimization run an EA produces a vast amount of data. The extraction of useful information is a nontrivial task. In this article, we review visualization methods used to extract this useful information. We also demonstrate the application of visualization techniques and explain how they help us to understand the course and state of the EA. This extra information gained by the use of visualization techniques is often the difference between a good result and a very good result. In complex real-world applications, merely achieving a good result often means that the approach has failed. On the other hand, a success means large gains in productivity or safety or a decrease in costs.
Visualizing Speciation in Artificial Cichlid Fish
Authors: Clement Ross
Published: May 2006

The Cichlid Speciation Project (CSP) is an ALife simulation system for investigating open problems in the speciation of African cichlid fish. The CSP can be used to perform a wide range of experiments that show that speciation is a natural consequence of certain biological systems. A visualization system capable of extracting the history of speciation from low-level trace data and creating a phylogenetic tree has been implemented. Unlike previous approaches, this visualization system presents a concrete trace of speciation, rather than a summary of low-level information from which the viewer can make subjective decisions on how speciation progressed. The phylogenetic trees are a more objective visualization of speciation, and enable automated collection and summarization of the results of experiments. The visualization system is used to create a phylogenetic tree from an experiment that models sympatric speciation.
Trade Integration and Business Cycle Synchronization in East Asia
Authors: Shin Kwanho , Wang Yunjong
Published: May 2006

As trade integration deepens in East Asia, closer links among the business cycles of East Asian countries can be expected. Theoretically, however, increased trade could lead to either closer or looser business cycles across trading partners. This paper seeks to understand how the business cycles of 12 Asian economies have been influenced by increased trade among them. It finds that the increasing trade itself is not necessarily associated with an increased synchronization of their business cycles. Intra-industry trade, rather than inter-industry trade or the volume of trade itself, is the major channel through which their business cycles become synchronized. This result has important implications for the prospects for a unified currency in the region.
Managing Indonesia's Debt
Authors: Feridhanusetyawan Tubagus , Pangestu Mari
Published: May 2006

This paper investigates how Indonesia should manage its massive debt burden arising from the Asian financial crisis, which led to increased external debt and, more significantly, increased domestic debt related to the country's bank restructuring program. Indonesia's enormous outstanding debt puts pressure on the balance of payments, causes severe budget constraints, and creates a huge future debt burden that brings with it the risks of illiquidity and default. The following measures are recommended for an effective debt management program: encourage rapid growth and ensure macroeconomic stability; minimize future contingent liability; increase domestic revenues by broadening the tax base and intensifying tax collection; seek better Paris Club rescheduling terms, obtain more concessional terms for new borrowing, and explore debt swaps; develop and regulate the government bond market; create a well-managed coordinated unit for debt management; and create the necessary legal foundations to protect investors.
The Indian Ocean Tsunami: Economic Impact, Disaster Management, and Lessons
Authors: Athukorala Prema-chandra , Resosudarmo Budy P.
Published: May 2006

This paper documents and analyzes the immediate economic impact of the Indian Ocean tsunami generated by the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of 26 December 2004, with a focus on Indonesia (Aceh province) and Sri Lanka, and assesses the disaster management process. The preliminary findings point to the importance of educating the public about simple precautions in the event of a disaster and enforcing coastal environmental regulations. The findings also argue for designing policies and programs, as an integral part of national development strategies, for mitigating the impact of natural disasters on the poor and highlight the need for combining international aid commitments with solutions to the limited aid-absorptive capacity in disaster-affected countries.
The Internationalization of Vietnamese Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
Authors: Kokko Ari , Sjöholm Fredrik
Published: May 2006

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have been important for Vietnam's rapid economic development. This paper investigates the ways in which Vietnam's SMEs have been affected by the ongoing internationalization of the Vietnamese economy and points out the challenges that lie ahead if the country's plans for further trade liberalization are realized. The basis of our analysis is a unique database on the activities of a large sample of Vietnamese SMEs during 1990, 1996, and 2002, with quantitative data about company operations, as well as qualitative information about the entrepreneurs' perceptions of the current business environment and their expectations about the future.
Is a Change in the Renminbi Exchange Rate in China's Interest?
Authors: Eichengreen Barry
Published: May 2006

This paper reviews the controversy over China's exchange rate regime. Placing the issue in the context of the literature on exit strategies, it argues that the best time for China to exit from its peg is now while capital is flowing in and there is a tendency for the rate to appreciate. In contrast, waiting to exit until sentiment has turned around would be problematic. In addition, moving now to a managed float would help the Chinese authorities to gain better control of domestic credit conditions. The principal objections to this recommendation (viz., the banking system is weak, many state enterprises are loss making, and the capital account is not sufficiently open) are unconvincing. Finally, the impact on other countries is likely to be more complex and varied than suggested by other analyses.
An Examination of the Formation of Natural Trading Blocs in East Asia
Authors: Lee Chang-Soo , Park Soon-Chan
Published: May 2006

This paper seeks to identify the appropriate form of a regional trading agreement in East Asia by estimating the intra-regional trade bias of various informal regional groups. The major conclusion is that ASEAN+3 would be the natural policy choice for the formation of a regional trading agreement in East Asia. Moreover, ASEAN+3 will not diverge from the principles of open regionalism and multilateralism, when we consider its inherently open character and the positive influence of the United States and Japan.
The Importance of Fiscal Consolidation for Sustained Economic Recovery in Japan
Authors: Morinobu Shigeki
Published: May 2006

Fiscally, Japan is in critical condition, which means future sustainable economic growth is at great risk. To rectify this situation, the Japanese government must shift its policy toward fiscal consolidation. Japan can learn many lessons from European countries and the United States, which achieved both fiscal consolidation and economic growth in the 1990s. Japan needs better management of the budget process, including the introduction of achievable fiscal targets and a medium-term planning framework for the budget. Such reforms should be implemented as soon as possible.
The Thai Currency Crisis: Financing Constraints, High Fixed Costs, and Corporate Governance
Authors: Dekle Robert , Karnchanasai Cathy , Hoontrakul Pongsak
Published: May 2006

We examine the role of financing constraints in depressing output during the Asian financial crisis, using Thai firm-level data. From an output decline of 3.7 percent in our sample in 1998, we find that tightening financing constraints contributed to lowering output by 1.7 percent. We also find evidence of high scale economies or high fixed costs in Thai industries. With high fixed costs, small changes in unit costs or financing costs can lead to large changes in output. We interpret the high fixed costs as evidence of overinvestment prior to the crisis.
Developing the Government Bond Market in South Korea: History, Challenges, and Implications for Asian Countries
Authors: Kang Kenneth , Kim Geena , Rhee Changyong
Published: May 2006

The government-led development of South Korea's government bond market after the Asian financial crisis provides a case study for building local bond markets in Asia. Two steps considered particularly effective at enhancing the liquidity of the market were the reopening system and the mandatory electronic exchange trading system for benchmark issues. This study uses the micro bondtrading data of the Korea Stock Exchange to determine how these efforts enhanced the government bond market. It also analyzes a long-term challenge: with the fiscal deficit projected to return to balance, the supply of outstanding government bonds is likely to decline, reducing the overall supply of benchmark issues.
Automatic Discovery of Part-Whole Relations
Authors: Girju Roxana , Badulescu Adriana , Moldovan Dan
Published: May 2006

An important problem in knowledge discovery from text is the automatic extraction of semantic relations. This paper presents a supervised, semantically intensive, domain independent approach for the automatic detection of part-whole relations in text. First an algorithm is described that identifies lexico-syntactic patterns that encode part-whole relations. A difficulty is that these patterns also encode other semantic relations, and a learning method is necessary to discriminate whether or not a pattern contains a part-whole relation. A large set of training examples have been annotated and fed into a specialized learning system that learns classification rules. The rules are learned through an iterative semantic specialization (ISS) method applied to noun phrase constituents. Classification rules have been generated this way for different patterns such as genitives, noun compounds, and noun phrases containing prepositional phrases to extract part-whole relations from them. The applicability of these rules has been tested on a test corpus obtaining an overall average precision of 80.95% and recall of 75.91%. The results demonstrate the importance of word sense disambiguation for this task. They also demonstrate that different lexico-syntactic patterns encode different semantic information and should be treated separately in the sense that different clarification rules apply to different patterns.
Woman, Man, Dog, Tree: Two Decades of Intimate and Monumental Bodies in Pina Bausch's Tanztheater
Authors: Cody Gabrielle
Published: May 2006

You're right in demanding that the artist have a conscious relation to his work, but you are confusing two ideas: solving a problem and posing a problem correctly. —Anton Chekhov, Letters to A.S. Suvorin

Choreography too will reassume tasks of a realistic nature. It is a mistake of recent time that it has nothing to do with the depiction of “people as they really are.” […] In any case a theater that bases everything on Gestus cannot do without choreography. —Bertolt Brecht, Little Organon

All lije Murphy, is figure and ground. —Samuel Beckett, Murphy
An Event in Space: The Integration of Acting and Design in the Theatre of JoAnne Akalaitis
Authors: Saivetx Deborah
Published: May 2006

Whatever [the actor] represents in the play, in the order of time he is representing nobody but himself. How could he? That's his body, doing time. —Herbert Blau

Improvisation must be a research activity conducted by someone who is trying to break out oftheir own passivity. Peter Brook
Musical Personae
Authors: Auslander Philip
Published: May 2006

Although traditional musicology has undergone a “performative turn” in recent years, musicologists still tend to privilege text over performance. The micro-sociology of Erving Goffman offers a framework for a comprehensive overview of how musicians use aspects of musical performance as the means of constructing and communicating their musical personae.
Othello and Beijing Opera:
Authors: Fei Faye Chunfang , Sun William Huizhu
Published: May 2006

Two diametrically different theatre projects of cross-cultural appropriation involving Shakespeare's Othello and Beijing opera—1983 production in China and a 1994 workshop at Tufts University—demonstrate the give-and-take and the complexities of intercultural appropriation.
Entanglements:
Authors: Puchner Martin
Published: May 2006

Focusing on four dimensions of the journal's 50-year history—objects of analysis, methods of analysis, functions the journal fulfilled with respect to the theatrical culture it engaged, and changing institutional relations and affiliations—reveals how TDR was crucially shaped by the entanglements among these dimensions.
Operation Northwoods:
Authors: Davis Tracy C.
Published: May 2006

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy authorized Pentagon Joint Chiefs of Staff to develop a plan for dealing with President Fidel Castro. The “Operation Northwoods” proposal is analyzed as a set of explicitly theatrical scenarios, scripting the pretext for invading a sovereign nation.
Caravans Continued:
Authors: Jackson Shannon
Published: May 2006

The heterogeneity of the memorial gathering for the late Dwight Conquergood reveals the disciplinary legacies of what is sometimes erroneously called the “Northwestern” strain of performance studies in the United States—which Conquergood was key in developing.
Parallel Evolution: Performance Studies at the University of Sydney
Authors: Maxwell Ian
Published: May 2006

Performance studies at the University of Sydney has developed in relative isolation from the “main-stream” of performance studies in both North America and Europe, gathering itself around and in the context of a range of local constraints, concerns, and possibilities, with theatre at its center.
Lingering Heat and Local Global J Stuff
Authors: Martin Carol
Published: May 2006

The apprehension created by participation in globalization while maintaining local culture and politics has altered our sense of history, identity, and aesthetics. The proliferation of new-millennium identities and epistemologies obliges scholars to know the local in the context of the global and the global in the context of the local. Looking at Japanese performance as one crucible of globalization makes the difficulty of this task apparent.
Globality's Children: The “Child's” Body As a Strategy of Flatness in Performance
Authors: Tadashi Uchino
Published: May 2006

“Flatness” is deployed by many performance artists as an intuitive rather than commercially ridden response to the state of globality. The notion of the “child's” body is discussed in terms of emerging tendencies of body-in-performance, particularly in terms of the junk body. Instead of “Japanese cool,” the super-flat choreographic architecture of the body appears as two-dimensional masquerade.
Performance and/as History
Authors: Taylor Diana
Published: May 2006

The fiesta celebrated annually in Tepoztlán, Mexico, repeatedly enacts a history—one that affirms a sense of identity and agency quite different from the one found in history books, allowing for the massive performance-of-communal-self year after year. Through this astonishing act, performed history trumps official written history and communal organizations stymie governmental structures.
Gertrude Stein's Identity:
Authors: Bell John
Published: May 2006

Donald Vestal's 1930s puppet theatre production of a Gertrude Stein play, Identity, or I Am I Because My Little Dog Knows Me, marked a confluence of Midwest modernism, the resources of the Federal Theatre Project, the development of American puppet theatre as a modernist art form, and the coincidental presence of Stein, Vestal, Thornton Wilder, Bil Baird, and other artists of 1930s Chicago.
“Modern” Education Finance: How It Differs from the “Old” and the Analytic and Data Collection Changes It Implies
Authors: Guthrie James W.
Published: May 2006

This article contends that a new concept of education finance has emerged in response to substantial alterations in the U.S. education policy environment. The major distinction between modern and old is that the latter was principally concerned with arrangements of inputs in K-12 schooling. The former, modern-era education finance, is concerned with relationships of inputs to schooling outcomes. This modern education finance paradigm provokes a need for (1) research and data extending into the operations of education itself, not just financing; (2) far more fine-grained information than now exists regarding education inputs, throughputs, and outputs; (3) cohesive concepts for linking these data elements with one another to better understand their interactions; (4) an expanded set of outcome measures; (5) information about how previously public sector, dominant-education offerings interact with expanded private market conditions; and (6) better linkage between K-12 and postsecondary data and analyses.
The Impacts of Charter Schools on Student Achievement: Evidence from North Carolina
Authors: Bifulco Robert , Ladd Helen F.
Published: May 2006

Using an individual panel data set to control for student fixed effects, we estimate the impact of charter schools on students in charter schools and in nearby traditional public schools. We find that students make considerably smaller achievement gains in charter schools than they would have in public schools. The large negative estimates of the effects of attending a charter school are neither substantially biased, nor substantially offset, by positive impacts of charter schools on traditional public schools. Finally, we find suggestive evidence that about 30 percent of the negative effect of charter schools is attributable to high rates of student turnover.
Charter Schools and Student Achievement in Florida
Authors: Sass Tim R.
Published: May 2006

I utilize longitudinal data covering all public school students in Florida to study the performance of charter schools and their competitive impact on traditional public schools. Controlling for student-level fixed effects, I find achievement initially is lower in charters. However, by their fifth year of operation new charter schools reach a par with the average traditional public school in math and produce higher reading achievement scores than their traditional public school counterparts. Among charters, those targeting at-risk and special education students demonstrate lower student achievement, while charter schools managed by for-profit entities peform no differently on average than charters run by nonprofits. Controlling for preexisting traditional public school quality, competition from charter schools is associated with modest increases in math scores and unchanged reading scores in nearby traditional public schools.
Does No Child Left Behind Place a Fiscal Burden on States? Evidence from Texas
Authors: Imazeki Jennifer , Reschovsky Andrew
Published: May 2006

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requires states to establish goals for all students and for groups of students characterized by race, ethnicity, poverty, disability, and limited English proficiency and requires schools to make annual progress in meeting these goals. In a number of states, officials have argued that increased federal education funding is not sufficient to cover the costs imposed by the new legislation. In this article, we use data from Texas to estimate the additional costs of meeting the new student performance standards. We find that these costs substantially exceed the additional federal funding. The article concludes with a discussion of whether NCLB should be considered an underfunded federal mandate and a brief discussion of the appropriate federal role in the financing of K–12 education.
Devil in the Details: Making Sensible Modifications to No Child Left Behind
Authors: Ritter Gary W. , Lucas Christopher J.
Published: May 2006

Achieving full compliance with the accountability provisions of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) federal legislation poses major challenges for most of the nation's states. Structured, open-ended interviews were conducted with ranking representatives from a number of so-called high-readiness states: California, Florida, New York, South Carolina, and Texas. (Collectively, these states enroll over 16 million children, or approximately 35 percent of the nation's total school-attending population.) Most policy makers are reportedly confident their respective state school systems are able to meet NCLB standards. Yet while each state's situation is unique, limited resources coupled with dramatically increased expectations for public schools may spell trouble ahead. Lessons learned so far by several states as they engage the NCLB mandate are discussed and analyzed. Ultimately, patience and flexibility on the part of federal officials, it is argued, will be critical to the long-term success of the No Child Left Behind reform initiative.
Properties of Gray and Binary Representations
Authors: Rowe Jonathan , Whitley Darrell , Barbulescu Laura , Watson Jean-Paul
Published: May 2006

Representations are formalized as encodings that map the search space to the vertex set of a graph. We define the notion of bit equivalent encodings and show that for such encodings the corresponding Walsh coefficients are also conserved. We focus on Gray codes as particular types of encoding and present a review of properties related to the use of Gray codes. Gray codes are widely used in conjunction with genetic algorithms and bit-climbing algorithms for parameter optimization problems. We present new convergence proofs for a special class of unimodal functions; the proofs show that a steepest ascent bit climber using any reflected Gray code representation reaches the global optimum in a number of steps that is linear with respect to the encoding size. There are in fact many different Gray codes.Shifting is defined as a mechanism for dynamically switching from one Gray code representation to another in order to escape local optima. Theoretical results that substantially improve our understanding of the Gray codes and the shifting mechanism are presented. New proofs also shed light on the number of unique Gray code neighborhoods accessible via shifting and on how neighborhood structure changes during shifting. We show that shifting can improve the performance of both a local search algorithm as well as one of the best genetic algorithms currently available.
A Study of Structural and Parametric Learning in XCS
Authors: Kovacs Tim , Kerber Manfred
Published: May 2006

The performance of a learning classifier system is due to its two main components. First, it evolves new structures by generating new rules in a genetic process; second, it adjusts parameters of existing rules, for example rule prediction and accuracy, in an evaluation step, which is not only important for applying the rules, but also for the genetic process. The two components interleave and in the case of XCS drive the pop-ulation toward a minimal, fit, non-overlapping population. In this work we attempt to gain new insights as to the relative contributions of the two components. We find that the genetic component has an additional role when using the train/test approach which is not present in online learning. We compare XCS to a system in which the rule set is restricted to the initial random population (XCS-NGA, that is, XCS No Genetic Algorithm). For small Boolean functions we can give XCS-NGA all possible rules of a particular condition length. In online learning, XCS-NGA can, given sufficiently many rules, achieve a surprisingly high classification accuracy, comparable to that of XCS. In a train/test approach, however, XCS generalises better than XCS-NGA and there seem to be limitations of XCS-NGA which cannot be overcome simply by increasing the population size. This illustrates that the requirements of a function approximator tend to differ between reinforcement learning (which is typically online) and concept learning (which is typically train/test).
A Note on the Extended Rosenbrock Function
Authors: Shang Yun-Wei , Qiu Yu-Huang
Published: May 2006

The Rosenbrock function is a well-known benchmark for numerical optimization problems, which is frequently used to assess the performance of Evolutionary Algorithms. The classical Rosenbrock function, which is a two-dimensional unimodal function, has been extended to higher dimensions in recent years. Many researchers take the high-dimensional Rosenbrock function as a unimodal function by instinct. In 2001 and 2002, Hansen and Deb found that the Rosenbrock function is not a unimodal function for higher dimensions although no theoretical analysis was provided. This paper shows that the n-dimensional (n = 4 ∼ 30) Rosenbrock function has 2 minima, and analysis is proposed to verify this. The local minima in some cases are presented. In addition, this paper demonstrates that one of the “local minima” for the 20-variable Rosenbrock function found by Deb might not in fact be a local minimum.
Human-Competitive Evolution of Quantum Computing Artefacts by Genetic Programming
Authors: Massey Paul , Clark John A. , Stepney Susan
Published: May 2006

We show how Genetic Programming (GP) can be used to evolve useful quantum computing artefacts of increasing sophistication and usefulness: firstly specific quantum circuits, then quantum programs, and finally system-independent quantum algorithms. We conclude the paper by presenting a human-competitive Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) algorithm evolved by GP.
Evolutionary Testing Using an Extended Chaining Approach
Authors: McMinn P. , Holcombe M.
Published: May 2006

Fitness functions derived from certain types of white-box test goals can be inadequate for evolutionary software test data generation (Evolutionary Testing), due to a lack of search guidance to the required test data. Often this is because the fitness function does not take into account data dependencies within the program under test, and the fact that certain program statements may need to have been executed prior to the target structure in order for it to be feasible.

This paper proposes a solution to this problem by hybridizing Evolutionary Testing with an extended Chaining Approach. The Chaining Approach is a method which identifies statements on which the target structure is data dependent, and incrementally develops chains of dependencies in an event sequence. By incorporating this facility into Evolutionary Testing, and by performing a test data search for each generated event sequence, the search can be directed into potentially promising, unexplored areas of the test object's input domain.

Results presented in the paper show that test data can be found for a number of test goals with this hybrid approach that could not be found by using the original Evolutionary Testing approach alone. One such test goal is drawn from code found in the publicly available libpng library.
Trends in Global Environmental Governance: The Emergence of a Mutual Supportiveness Approach to Achieve Sustainable Development
Authors: Sanwal Mukul
Published: May 2006

The experience of the last ten years of global environmental negotiations suggests that a new and different approach to international cooperation is required if we are to achieve sustainable development. While multilateral environmental agreements have provided a valuable framework for building a consensus on broad objectives, their implementation requires a focus on the underlying activities that cause environmental degradation. Moreover, globalization encourages the development and use of innovative technologies, leading to a large degree of overlap between global environmental concerns and national sustainable development objectives. These shifts require wholly new perspectives that are based less on determining responsibilities and more on supporting mutually reinforcing transformations. The new approach also looks beyond the state to other stakeholders as contributors to achieving sustainable development.
The Emergent “System” of Global Environmental Governance
Authors: Najam Adil , Christopoulou Ioli , Moomaw William R.
Published: May 2006

A de facto “system” of global environmental governance already exists. The de facto system of global environmental governance is neither neat nor simple; it works in a rather messy, non-linear, non-hierarchical, and intertwined fashion. However it is a system that has proved to be resilient as well as prolific. This paper argues that although there is no real reason to make the system less messy, it can be made more effective by taking a number of steps that would (a) support the positive trends already apparent in the emergent system (b) strengthen the system as it evolves, and (c) articulate a clear vision for the eventual system that we wish to move towards.
NGO Influence in the Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol: Compliance, Flexibility Mechanisms, and Sinks
Authors: Gulbrandsen Lars H. , Andresen Steinar
Published: May 2006

While most scholars agree that NGOs make a difference in global environmental politics, there has been little systematic work that looks at the actual influence NGOs have on policy outcomes. This paper looks to shed some new light on the question of NGO effectiveness through an evaluation of the role played by NGOs in climate negotiations. We begin with a brief sketch of different kinds of green NGOs, along with a review of the sorts of strategies and resources they employ. Next, we look to gauge the influence that NGOs have had on recent rounds of negotiations to do with compliance, flexibility mechanisms, and appropriate crediting rules for sinks. Our analysis is based on detailed interviews with members of some of the most prominent environmental NGOs involved in climate work. Finally, we suggest, based on our findings, some means by which NGOs may look to extend their influence in the development of the climate regime. Our analysis points to the crucial need for further “insider” capacity—that is, NGOs are likely to have the most far-reaching influence on future climate negotiations if they foster ways to work closely and collaboratively with key negotiators and governments.
Mapping Environmental Justice in Technology Flows: Computer Waste Impacts in Asia
Authors: Iles Alastair
Published: May 2006

In the 21st century, technology and material flows constitute an ever-growing set of global environmental change. In particular, electronic wastes are emerging as a major transnational problem. Industrial nations are shipping millions of obsolete computers to Asia yearly; Asian countries are emerging as generators of e-waste in their own right. This article argues that an environmental justice approach can help illuminate the impacts of technology and material flows. To do so, however, environmental justice definitions and methodologies need to account for how and why such flows occur. Using the case of computers, the article analyses some factors shaping the e-waste recycling chain, shows how e-waste risks depend on design and manufacturing chains, and evaluates inequalities in the ecological and health impacts of e-wastes across Asia. It proposes a definition of environmental justice as obviating the production of risk, using a framework that brings together the global production system, development models, and regulatory action.
A Qualitative Analysis of the WTO's Role on Trade and Environment Issues
Authors: McCormick Rachel
Published: May 2006

This article examines the role of the WTO in addressing trade and environment issues and considers how NGO and industry activities could complement this role. I interviewed over seventy experts and analyzed the responses using a grounded theory methodology, and present the findings within the context of existing literature on trade and environment issues. This approach allowed for an interdisciplinary and qualitative analysis of the underlying factors that have contributed to past successes and challenges in dealing with environmental issues within the WTO, as well as assessing current opportunities for progress and identifying misperceptions that could foster increased expectations of what the WTO is able to achieve. I conclude that the role the WTO plays in addressing trade and environment issues will be tested by the outcomes from the Doha round of negotiations, and by the willingness of WTO members to examine past work and identify a way forward. Survey results suggest that increased consideration of NGO perspectives and industry strategies would provide insight into ways of moving forward that are not hindered by political constraints.
When is Sustainable Forestry Sustainable? The Forest Stewardship Council in Argentina and Brazil
Authors: Espach Ralph
Published: May 2006

Despite the proliferation of private regulatory regimes as instruments for global governance, we know little about the operations or effectiveness of these regimes at the national level. This is particularly true in developing countries where these programs are expected to have their greatest impact. This paper examines why it is that in two nations that share several properties believed to support private forms of environmental regulation, the effectiveness of one prominent global program, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), should vary so dramatically. Findings indicate that differences in three variables that often support successful private regulation—domestic and foreign market demand, the influence of transnational actors, and state endorsement—do not adequately account for this variation. Instead, factors that promote the supply of local programs have strongly influenced the effectiveness of the FSC in these nations, particularly the social resources and political strategies utilized by program administrators.
Shop Right: American Conservatisms, Consumption, and the Environment
Authors: Greenberg Nadivah
Published: May 2006

Prevailing American conservative views regarding consumption and the environment have evolved in ways incongruous to a past intellectual legacy. As the world's most voracious consumer and greatest power, the United States possesses a vast global footprint; this historically unprecedented combination of appetite and might translates into both potential and peril. Given that the repercussions of dominant American perspectives are not just domestic, but global, it is imperative to reflect on American conservative ideology. This article begins with an examination of a past intellectual heritage, which extolled virtues such as conservation, prudence and stewardship. It then examines an array of contemporary conservatisms by laying out a typology of views. As a whole, the spectrum shows considerable ideological elasticity. Of much interest is an array of green outliers within the typology, for these nascent, diverse voices indicate potential synergy with mainstream environmental goals, although not without caveats. Finally, the future direction of conservative thought with respect to consumption and the environment is assessed.
Who “Won” Libya? The Force-Diplomacy Debate and Its Implications for Theory and Policy
Authors: Jentleson Bruce W. , Whytock Christopher A.
Published: May 2006

The debate over credit for Libya's shift away from “rogue state” policies, most especially by settling the Pan Am 103 Lockerbie terrorism case and abandoning its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs, is lively politically and challenging analytically. It has important implications for theories of force and diplomacy, particularly coercive diplomacy, and policy debates including such cases as Iran and North Korea. U.S. coercive diplomacy against Libya can be divided into three phases: the Reagan strategy of unilateral sanctions and military force, which largely failed; the mixed results from the more multilateral strategy of the George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton administrations; and the substantial success achieved through the secret direct negotiations initiated along with Britain in the latter Clinton years and furthered under George W. Bush, which culminated in Libya closing down its WMD programs. These differences in success and failure are principally explained by (1) the extent of “balance” in the coercer state's strategy combining credible force and deft diplomacy consistent with three criteria—proportionality, reciprocity, and coercive credibility—taking into account international and domestic constraints; and (2) target state vulnerability as shaped by its domestic politics and economy, particularly whether domestic elites play a “circuit breaker” or “transmission belt” role in blocking or carrying forward external coercive pressure.
Success Matters: Casualty Sensitivity and the War in Iraq
Authors: Gelpi Christopher , Feaver Peter D. , Reifler Jason
Published: May 2006

Since the Vietnam War, U.S. policymakers have worried that the American public will support military operations only if the human costs of the war, as measured in combat casualties, are minimal. Although the public is rightly averse to suffering casualties, the level of popular sensitivity to U.S. military casualties depends critically on the context in which those losses occur. The public's tolerance for the human costs of war is primarily shaped by the intersection of two crucial factors: beliefs about the rightness or wrongness of the war, and beliefs about the war's likely success. The impact of each belief depends upon the other. Ultimately, however, beliefs about the likelihood of success matter most in determining the public's willingness to tolerate U.S. military deaths in combat. A reanalysis of publicly available polls and a detailed analysis of a series of polls designed by the authors to tap into public attitudes on casualties support this conclusion.
The Evolution of U.S.-Indian Ties: Missile Defense in an Emerging Strategic Relationship
Authors: Tellis Ashley J.
Published: May 2006

The shift in Indian positions on missile defense in the context of the growing transformation of U.S.-Indian relations since the end of the Cold War, and particularly since the advent of the George W. Bush administration, has been remarkable. New Delhi's traditional opposition to strategic defenses gave way to its current consideration of missile defense for a variety of reasons. These included structural factors related to the dissolution of U.S.-Indian antagonism associated with the bipolar configuration of the Cold War; the growing recognition in Washington and New Delhi of the threat posed by weapons of mass destruction and their associated delivery systems in the hands of hostile states intent on nuclear coercion; and the Indian and American desire to forge a new partnership grounded in democratic values but ultimately oriented toward promoting geopolitical equilibrium in Asia in the face of rising challengers such as China and problem states such as Pakistan. All of these factors combined to produce a dramatic new acceptance of strategic defenses as conducive to stability on the part of New Delhi. What is fascinating about this evolution is the manner in which missile defenses have come to reflect both an example of, and a means toward, the steady improvement in U.S.-Indian ties occurring in recent years. This, in turn, implies that a deepening bilateral relationship has become part of New Delhi's larger solution to increasing India's capacity to defeat those threats requiring active defenses in the future.
Desperate Times, Desperate Measures: The Causes of Civilian Victimization in War
Authors: Downes Alexander B.
Published: May 2006

Despite normative and legal injunctions against targeting civilians in war, as well as doubts regarding the effectiveness of such strategies, belligerents have frequently turned their guns on noncombatants. Two variables—desperation to win and to save lives on one's own side in protracted wars of attrition, and the intention to conquer and annex enemy territory—explain this repeated resort to civilian targeting. According to the desperation logic, costly and prolonged wars of attrition cause states to become increasingly anxious to prevail and to reduce their losses. Adopting a policy of civilian victimization permits states to continue the war while managing their losses and hopefully coercing the adversary to quit. In the appetite for conquest model, by contrast, belligerents specifically intend to seize and annex territory. Attackers in this model employ civilian victimization to eliminate enemy civilians, who can threaten the aggressor's immediate military position and present a future threat of rebellion. Multivariate analysis of interstate wars between 1816 and 2003 corroborates the importance of these factors,and a case study of the British starvation blockade of Germany in World War I supports the plausibility of the desperation mechanism.
Building a Republican Peace: Stabilizing States after War
Authors: Barnett Michael
Published: May 2006

Although peacebuilders do not operate from a common template, liberal values so define their activities that their efforts can be called “liberal peacebuilding.” Many postconflict operations aspire to create a state that contains the rule of law, markets, and democracy. Growing evidence suggests, however, that liberal peacebuilding is re-creating the conditions of conflict; states emerging from war do not have the necessary institutions or civic culture to absorb the pressures associated with political and market competition. In recognition of these problems and dangers, there is an emerging call for greater attention to the state and institutionalization before liberalization. These critiques, and lessons learned from recent operations, point to an alternative—republican peacebuilding. Drawing from republican political theory, this article argues that the republican principles of deliberation, constitutionalism, and representation can help states after war address the threats to stability that derive from arbitrary power and factional conflict and, in the process, develop some legitimacy. Republican peacebuilding is not only good for postconflict states; it also is appropriate for international peacebuilders, who also can exercise arbitrary power.
Rethinking Nonproliferation: LBJ, the Gilpatric Committee, and U.S. National Security Policy
Authors: Brands Hal
Published: May 2006

In late 1964, Lyndon Johnson and National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy convened an ad hoc group of distinguished citizens to consider the problem of nuclear proliferation. The creation of this group, known as the Gilpatric Committee, signaled Johnson's fear that a number of foreign policy issues related to proliferation had reached a crisis point in 1964. It also signaled his dissatisfaction with existing bureaucratic arrangements to resolve these problems. After several weeks of deliberation, the committee gave Johnson a report that advocated a sharp intensification of U.S. nonproliferation policy. The committee challenged key aspects of the administration's foreign policy and urged the president to rethink the nature of the U.S.-Soviet relationship. Although Johnson shied away from implementing some of the committee's more controversial proposals, the administration eventually embraced the basic philosophy of the report. The Gilpatric Report provided a conceptual foundation for important departures in U.S. foreign relations and national security policy from 1965 until the end of Johnson's presidency.
The Industrial Ecology of Lead and Electric Vehicles
Authors: Socolow Robert , Thomas Valerie
Published: May 2006

The lead battery has the potential to become one of the first examples of a hazardous product managed in an environmentally acceptable fashion. The tools of industrial ecology are helpful in identifying the key criteria that an ideal lead‐battery recycling system must meet maximal recovery of batteries after use, minimal export of used batteries to countries where environmental controls are weak, minimal impact on the health of communities near lead‐processing facilities, and maximal worker protection from lead exposure in these facilities. A well‐known risk analysis of electric vehicles is misguided, because it treats lead batteries and lead additives in gasoline on the same footing and implies that the lead battery should be abandoned. The use of lead additives in gasoline is a dissipative use where emissions cannot be confined: the goal of management should be and has been to phase out this use. The use of lead in batteries is a recyclable use, because the lead remains confined during cycles of discharge and recharge. Here, the goal should be clean recycling. The likelihood that the lead battery will provide peaking power for several kinds of hybrid vehicles‐a role only recently identified increases the importance of understanding the levels of performance achieved and achievable in battery recycling. A management system closely approaching clean recycling should be achievable.