bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Asia, development and migration
Authors: Skeldon Ronald
Published: January 2013

Asia covers a vast area encompassing some 4.2 billion people, over 60 percent of the world's population. It includes some of the world's largest and most dynamic economies such as China, as well as weaker and poorer nations such as Laos and Tajikistan. Hence, given the marked difference in levels of development across the region, migration also varies greatly. Nevertheless, within all the variety, certain common patterns exist: an increased concentration of population in urban areas and a growing tendency for people to be involved in migration outside the region as well as to destinations within the region. These patterns are essentially the result of trends that fall under the rubric of “globalization” driven by the demand for resources required to sustain the economies of the more developed parts of the world. These resources include oil and other raw materials, but also labor. Hence, the transition to service economies in the developed world with the shift of manufacturing offshore to parts of the developing world has been an integral part of this transition, which has been associated with “development” in its broadest sense. The underlying linkages between migration and development are complex and lie beyond this brief essay, which focuses on describing current patterns, their origins and their prospects.
Asia, gender and migration
Authors: Kaur Amarjit
Published: January 2013

Women accounted for about 50 percent of the estimated 214 million international migrants in 2010, with 90 percent comprising economic migrants and their families (ILO 2011). This is consistent with the increasing trend in Asian women migrants’ participation rates that have ranged from about 45 to 50.1 percent during the period 1960 to 2000 (Zlotnik 2003). Yet these women's migration narratives and the power relations of gender, class, and ethnicity have increasingly been lost under the “feminization” of migration label in migration literature. Generally, migration has been perceived as a masculine or genderless activity and women's migration patterns and economic roles have also been underrated. Fortunately, in recent years women migration scholars have provided new theoretical frameworks for studying women's migration, investigating it through a gendered perspective and contributing to mainstreaming gender into migration (Chant 1992; Jolly 2005; Palmary et al. 2010).
Asia, migration and development nexus
Authors: Ganguly‐Scrase Ruchira
Published: January 2013

In recent years research interest in examining the relationship between migration and development has been growing. This is in part due to the large volume of cross‐border population movements in Asia and corresponding policy concerns about how to manage them. Asis et al. note that in Asia, “the need for information for practical purposes such as policymaking and pro‐migrant (rights) advocacy provided a strong push to know and to understand migration and its ramifications” (2009: 84). But the intellectual dialogue about migration and development begins with a question of why people migrate (Zolberg 1989; Cohen 1996; Massey & Taylor 2004), and researchers use a number of approaches to explain the motivations and forces that propel migration. These include neoclassical economic theory (Harris & Todaro 1970), historical structuralist theory (Castles & Miller 2003), household strategy theory (Massey 1990), and network theory (Waldorf 1998).
Assimilation, integration, and incorporation
Authors: Powers Mary G.
Published: January 2013

Theory and research on assimilation, integration, and incorporation all seek to explain how immigrants and their children become part of their host society. Assimilation theory as originally proposed by Park and Burgess (1921; Park 1930) was based on their analysis of the experiences and characteristics of 19th‐ and early 20th‐century European immigrants to the United States. Implicit in the theory were assumptions of (1) a single majority culture and (2) a one‐way process during which immigrants changed their language and cultural characteristics to become more like the dominant group in the host country.
Australasia, immigrant legislation and laws
Authors: Kraly Ellen Percy
Published: January 2013

Australia and New Zealand constitute the Australasia region in Oceania, and over time have developed both distinct and complementary policies concerning immigration, labor mobility, and refugee resettlement globally as well as within the Asia–Pacific region. In these former British colonies, international migration from the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth has been a significant force both in relationships with indigenous peoples and in nation building. The history of immigration policies in both Australia and New Zealand embodies both the legacies of harsh selectivity among migrants according to race and ethnicity, as well as the active promotion of migration through government policy. In the 21st century, both Australia and New Zealand have encouraged immigration and immigrants, both long‐ and shorter‐term, which will contribute to national economic progress. The two countries also formally recognize their special historical and geographic relationship through the Trans‐Tasman Travel Arrangement, which facilitates relatively free migration within Australasia.
Austria, migration, mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Schropper Isabel
Published: January 2013

Due to its geographical position, throughout the centuries Austria has served as a crossing point for those traveling from east to west or south to north. However, it is only in the last two decades that Austria's history as a country of emigration, immigration, and transit migration has received growing attention. Most research (see Fassmann & Münz 1996) has focused on the subject of immigration as scholars (see Münz et al. 2003) have documented the push and pull factors of labor migration to Austria. By contrast, the subject of Austrian emigration, particularly the study of those who migrated permanently, has been both marginal and marginalized.
Balkans, migration, mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Brunnbauer Ulf
Published: January 2013

The modern history of the Balkan region in the southeast of Europe cannot be comprehended if the consequences of migration are ignored: labor migrations, ethnic migrations, colonization, forced migrations, and political exile resulted in frequent reconfigurations of settlement patterns and an ethnically, religiously, and linguistically heterogeneous population. Eminent historians of the Balkans, therefore, consider migration one of the constitutive features of the historical specificity of this region in the premodern as well as the modern periods (Katsiardi‐Hering 2000; Sundhaussen 2006).
Baltic Sea colonizations, medieval era
Authors: Auge Oliver
Published: January 2013

During the great migrations, the larger part of the people who were of Germanic origin left their territory on the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea. The best known are the Angles and the Saxons, who migrated in considerable numbers to England from the area that today is called Schleswig‐Holstein, around the middle of the 5th century. According to archaeological and palaeobotanical findings, in the subsequent period large parts of once populated landscapes became desolate, even though some people still lived there. Only gradually did the region fill with people again. Thus Danish Jutes moved from the north onto the so‐called Cimbric peninsula and arrived in the first half of the 8th century in places along the river Schlei.
Baltic States, migration 20th century to present
Authors: Kirch Aksel
Published: January 2013

Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became independent from Russia after World War I in 1918. However, the independence of the Baltic States ended when Stalin's regime occupied and annexed Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to the USSR in 1940. After the annexation of the Baltic States States, Estonia's and Latvia's migration was no longer a naturally developing process, but it was in part forced. The most intensive immigration took place during a number of years after World War II (from 1946 to 1949). From the mid‐sixties 1960s the hinterland of migration enlarged, and another reason for immigration became obvious: immigrants from Russia and other regions of the USSR looked for improved material well‐being. Continuous industrialization caused an increased demand for extra labor force and that, in turn, caused the second, larger, immigration wave in the 1960s. Therefore it should be stressed that the population development has been influenced by these substantial immigration flows (Tammur 2008, 12).
Bangladesh, migration, 1969 to present
Authors: Azam Farooq
Published: January 2013

In 2010 Bangladesh was the sixth among the top 10 emigration countries and seventh among the top 10 remittance receiving countries in the world (World Bank 2011). Bangladesh is mainly an emigration country, from where both long‐term migration, mainly to the industrialized countries in the West and Southeast Asia, and short‐term, contract‐based labor migration, mostly to Middle Eastern countries, have been taking place (Siddiqui 2003). In addition, substantial migration to neighboring India also took place during the post‐independence period of the early 1970s which has spurred much illegal migration from the country in later years.
Basque Country migrations, ancient to 17th century
Authors: Rodríguez María Pilar
Published: January 2013

Migration is long‐standing Basque tradition. Recently, Gloria Totoricagüena 2004 has redefined the study of Basque migrations in terms of diaspora, considering transnational identity as an integral factor, and including as the basis for her study “the immigrant populations and their descendants spread and sown throughout the world living in the Basque diaspora, the maintenance of their ethnic identity, and their connections to their homeland” (2004: 7).
Basque diaspora, 18th–20th century
Authors: Arrizabalaga Marie‐Pierre
Published: January 2013

The Basques have a long history of migration which dates back to ancient times when fishermen hunted whales along the shores of the Bay of Biscay (Gallop 1970). These people, who settled some 70,000 years ago in today's southwestern France and northern Spain, are said to be the early whalers of Europe, Roman documents offering testimonies of their commercial activities in the 4th century
CE
. Yet early Basque migration never drew seamen away permanently, their activities calling most of them back to their ports of origin. Similarly in the modern era, seafaring drew many Basques off the shores of the Bay of Biscay to expand their fishing activities and their international commercial enterprises across the Atlantic Ocean to America (Álvarez Gila & Morales 2004). These migration trends undoubtedly shaped families’ collective memory and culture, but it was with the birth of new independent nations in America in the 19th century that the extraordinary political and economic conditions were established for massive permanent emigration (Arana Perez & Alzugaray 1990).
Berbers and Arabs in the Maghreb and Europe, medieval era
Authors: Wolf Marco Di Branco and Kordula
Published: January 2013

Migrations often accompanied Muslim invasions and expansions. They were a frequent phenomenon not only immediately after the conquest of new territories, but also as a consequence of many later military campaigns or other circumstances. Since details about long‐term shifts in the centre of life of Arabs and Berbers in the surviving sources are rare, reliable information about the number, provenance, and duration of stay of new settlers in the Maghreb and parts of Europe during the Middle Ages is hard to find and difficult to estimate. This is aggravated by the fact that not every occupation of a region led to the establishment of a new leadership, which at least temporarily could create basic conditions for significant civilian settlement. In addition, the number of Muslim traders and slaves who stayed for longer periods in the occupied territories is completely uncertain. Therefore, this essay is focused on migrations of greater groups of Muslims, especially during the first phases of new dominations, and develops some major causes and consequences of these new settlements. In this context, the designations “Arab” and “Berber” are used for Muslims of different ethnic descent. But where this distinction cannot be made precisely, the general term “Muslim” is used, with the qualification that it always includes an unquantifiable number of non‐Muslims, especially when talking about military forces. In all new territories ruled by Arabs and Berbers, non‐converted Christian and Jewish populations fell under Muslim protection (ḏimma). With theǧizya(a type of religious poll tax) they had to pay a higher tax burden than (converted) Muslims. The main medieval Arabic, Greek, and Latin sources concerning Muslims in the Maghreb and parts of Europe are collected in Amari 1933, Vasiliev (1935–68), Lévi‐Provençal (1950–53), Talbi 1966, Laroui 1977, and Abun‐Nasr 1987.
Berne Initiative
Authors: Solomon Michele Klein
Published: January 2013

The Berne Initiative was a state‐led consultative process of national migration authorities, involving relevant stakeholders, with the goal of identifying a common language on migration as a basis for a non‐binding reference system and policy framework on migration management at the international level. It was launched by the government of Switzerland at an International Symposium on Migration in 2001, with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) serving as its secretariat. Its goal was to achieve more effective management of migration at the regional and global levels through enhanced cooperation among states. It responded to the need to institute inter‐state dialogue and cooperation on migration management at the global level.
Bilateral labor agreements
Authors: Blank Nathan R.
Published: January 2013

Bilateral labor agreements (BLAs) are a broad categorization of labor‐related agreements between two states. Generally the use of the word “bilateral” is meant to distinguish two‐state agreements from multilateral or global efforts at forging labor agreements or standards. Within international labor diplomacy BLAs have become the dominant mechanism through which states manage their labor relationships. Although BLAs are widely used to manage state‐to‐state flows of migrant workers, it should be noted that the vast majority of migrants go abroad through private party agreements between recruitment agencies and employers in destination states under nominal government control and regulation.
Bonded labor and migration, India
Authors: Mohanty Manoranjan
Published: January 2013

Slavery is a hallmark in human history, a system in which people were sold and forced to work, and forced labor was closely associated with imperialism. In the modern era, slave migrations were a primary force in European mercantilism as tens of millions of people were captured, sold, and shipped from Africa to the Americas (Cohen 1995). Due to the vast profits in the slave trade that accrued to financial and commercial interests, it was essential to European mercantile capitalism (John 2006). The abolition of slavery by Britain in 1833, France and Denmark in 1848, and Holland in 1863 created new demands for cheap labor to support commerce and trade (Vertovec 1995), and the emancipation of African slaves in 1838 created a severe shortage of laborers working in sugar, coffee, tea, cocoa, rice, and rubber plantations (John 2006). Therefore, mercantile interests gradually replaced slavery with servitude and unfree labor. The terms “bonded labor,” “indentured servitude,” “peonage,” and “serfdom” are used synonymously but are different forms of servitude.
Bonded labor and migration, Russia
Authors: Gorshkov Boris B.
Published: January 2013

In the context of Russian history, bonded labor refers to several types of unfree labor. These included the labor of slaves, serfs, indentured servants, laborers of state and manorial factories and mines, as well as penal and child labor, military conscription, and trafficking. All these types entailed employment against the will of the employed and sometimes their involuntary relocation. Each of these types of labor existed throughout Russia's history during certain time periods, experienced dynamics (evolution, changes, or continuity), and declined or was outlawed.
Bonded labor and migration, United States
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: January 2013

Bonded labor is one of the oldest and most pervasive institutional systems of economic exploitation in the history of humankind and can be found in many parts of the world even today. Interestingly, while it is drastically exploitative, the choice to enter an agreement of bonded labor is, in many cases, voluntary. As a form of debt bondage, bonded labor is not a form of slavery, but a form of contract labor that is highly exploitative. While voluntary by agreement, bonded labor is often ex‐ante voluntary because it preys on workers in areas that lack suitable alternatives. In these cases, workers enter debt bondage agreements hoping that they will lead to more opportunities and a chance for a better life.
Borderlands and cultural bonds
Authors: Tang Weimin
Published: January 2013

Although the word “border” and, in close association with it, “borderland,” conveys a concept as ancient as the sovereignty of a kingdom, nation, or state, it is Anzaldua's widely acclaimed book
Borderlands/La Frontera
(1987) that has made the conditions of living on the border a focus point of studies across social sciences and humanities over recent decades. The multifaceted conditions of the borderland existence, with respect to gender, race, class, belief, and national and cultural identities, for instance, also constitute a central concern in recent studies of global migration. The study of borderlands, however, goes back to as early as the turn of the 20th century, largely focusing on historiographic studies of colonial frontiers, such as the pioneering studies of the Spanish borderlands in America by Herbert Eugene Bolton (1870–1953).
Britain, migration, c.1800 to present
Authors: Panayi Panikos
Published: January 2013

The movement of peoples from other parts of the world has played a central role in the evolution of modern Britain, predating the Romans but subsequently also including Anglo‐Saxons, Vikings, and Normans in particular. In the medieval and early modern period smaller groups also made their way to the country: Irish, Jews, Roma (Gypsies), black slaves, and refugees from religious upheaval during the Reformation.
Byzantium, medieval era migrations
Authors: Niehoff‐Panagiotidis Jannis
Published: January 2013

Seemingly, it is clearly May 29, 1453 that marks the end of the political entity of Byzantium, when the Ottomans surged into the half‐deserted city, killing Constantine XI, the last “autokrator ton Romaion” (“Roman emperor”), though the political unit he was commanding did not exceed the capital and the islands nearby. On that same day, the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Proverbs 8: 12ff.) became Aya Sofya, the main mosque of al‐ Quşţanţinīya. But is the political end the real end of Byzantium, though (Jorga 1935)?
Cameroon, migration 1960s to present
Authors: Chouapi Nadège Kouam D.
Published: January 2013

During the last five decades from 1960 to 2010, the economic evolution of Cameroon has passed through three primary stages: (1) years of growth (1960–85); (2) years of economic crisis (1986–90); followed by (3) years of international multilateral lending institutions binding economic programs of boosting macroeconomic indicators through structural adjustment and other programs (1990–present). Populations undergoing the requirements of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) have been reduced more and more to poverty. In fact, 39.9 percent of the population live under the poverty line (NIS 2007: 14). In response to growing poverty, many Cameroonians have moved in search of better living conditions elsewhere, both within Cameroon and out of the country. Key factors of migration among most Cameroonians are family reunification (24.0%), relocation in search of education, studies, or training (18.8%) and lack of autonomy (17.8%)(ECAM 3, 2007: 106).
Canada: internal migration
Authors: Nerbas Don
Published: January 2013

During the late 1860s and early 1870s the vast territories of northern North America were assembled under a new political entity called Canada. With this, the new Canadian state assumed political authority over a highly regionalized geographic space peopled by individuals whose migration patterns and worldviews failed to respect national boundaries. In the case of Canada, a settler society, the project of nation‐building was explicitly linked to attracting large numbers of immigrants, but outmigration also remained common; and an estimated 2.8 million people left for the United States between 1840 and 1940 (Ramirez 2001: ix). Internal migration thus represents a discrete category of migration, which only became recognizable as such after the creation and consolidation of imperial and national boundaries.
Canada: 20th‐century migration
Authors: Avery Donald Howard
Published: January 2013

Canada remains one of the world's leading immigration nations, accepting newcomers from more than 200 different countries. Indeed, by 2010, over 19 percent of its overall population of 34 million was foreign‐born, with 34 ethnic groups being represented by at least 100,000 members each, most located in major urban centers. In addition, over 58 percent of newcomers now come from Asia, as this region has steadily replaced Europe and the United Kingdom as the major source of Canada's immigrant population. Indeed, today six of the top ten source countries are China, India, the Philippines, Pakistan, South Korea, and Sri Lanka (Canada 2010).
Caribbean African diaspora, 19th–20th century
Authors: Jacklin Laurie
Published: January 2013

Four centuries of the transatlantic slave trade created the African Caribbean diaspora, uprooting millions of Africans from their distinct societies to labor under inhumane conditions on Caribbean sugar plantations and generate immense wealth for their owners. In the 19th century, heightening public outrage and anti‐slavery reformers pressured Europeans to abolish slavery in their colonies. Britain did this in 1838 and France followed suit a decade later. Abolition spanned 64 years in the Spanish Caribbean, starting in the Dominican Republic (1822) and ending in Cuba (1886). The second wave of diasporization occurred as the former slaves and generations of their descendants migrated and resettled within and beyond the Caribbean during the 19th and 20th centuries. The modern African Caribbean diaspora consists of innumerable diverse and heterogeneous anglophone, francophone, and hispanic populations. These Afro‐Creole societies, along with their enslaved ancestors, share the legacy of repression – targeting their African heritage – and their relentless resistance to it.
Caribbean agriculture and migration
Authors: Momsen Janet
Published: January 2013

Migration is an institutionalized feature of Caribbean societies (Thomas‐Hope 1978). The pre‐Columbian movement of Amerindians from elsewhere in the Americas, European colonization, the forced transfer of several million Africans as plantation slaves, the post‐Emancipation arrival of indentured agricultural workers from India, Indonesia, and Europe, and the more recent circum‐Caribbean and international emigration of West Indian workers counterbalanced by a flow of sun‐seeking tourists from the global North, are all elements of the human flux in the region. The switch, after four hundred years, from a region of labor shortage to one of labor reserve reflects changes in regional resource use, the declining role of agriculture in the regional economy, the introduction of labor‐saving devices such as the plough in the 19th century and the improved accessibility of the region in the last six decades.
The Caribbean and Circum‐Caribbean migration, 16th century to the present
Authors: Thomas‐Hope Elizabeth
Published: January 2013

Migration has been a major factor in the formation of modern Caribbean societies and those of the circum‐Caribbean region (Central America and the northern countries of South America). First, immigration into the region was the means whereby the region became incorporated into the global mercantilist system of production and trade. This was followed by more than a century of net outward movement from most parts of the region – a trend that has continued into the 21st century.
Caribbean: Dutch migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Oostindie Gert J.
Published: January 2013

At the threshold to the 20th century, the Dutch Caribbean consisted of two colonies, Suriname on the northern coast of South America and the Netherlands Antilles, six tiny islands in the Caribbean. The populations on the islands descended mainly from enslaved Africans. Because of post‐slavery migrations from British India and Java, the Surinamese population would eventually be divided into two roughly equivalent parts of African and Asian descent.
Caribbean: English‐speaking emigration, 1950s to present
Authors: Conway Dennis
Published: January 2013

From its early (post‐1492) incorporation into Europe's colonial empires until present times, the sociocultural demographic profiles of the (mostly) island territories in what can be collectively labeled as the English‐speaking Caribbean have been significantly shaped by waves upon waves of immigration (Conway 1989a; Marshall 1982: Richardson 1992). For centuries, migrants from all over the region have sought employment and opportunities for advancement “off the island,” both intra‐regionally and extra‐regionally, and remittances and return migrants are just two of the reciprocal consequences of this international mobility (Connell & Conway 2000; Conway 1993, 2007a). The long‐held, conventional view that international migrants from the peripheral global South – the English‐speaking Caribbean – into the advanced capitalist global North – United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom – are always destined to be either settlers or sojourners, has been found to be outdated. Caribbean migration scholars now view the intra‐regional and extra‐regional diaspora of significant proportions of the region's citizenry as highly fluid, flexible, and dynamic in its global reach and scope (Fog Olwig 1999, 2001; Foner 2001; Thomas‐Hope 1998; 2006).
Caribbean: English‐speaking regional and external migration, 1830s–2000
Authors: Brereton Bridget
Published: January 2013

The people of the modern Caribbean descend from men and women brought to the region mainly through coerced or semi‐coerced migrations, notably the transatlantic trade in enslaved Africans, and the post‐emancipation schemes of Asian indentured immigration. It has been historically a region of massive in‐migration, from Africa, Europe, and Asia. But after the end of slavery in the British Caribbean in the 1830s movement within the wider region, and out of it to Central, South, and North America, and to Europe, became a key aspect of life for the people of these territories. As soon as they were free to leave their own islands, they did so in large numbers, and outmigration – to many different destinations, which shifted according to opportunities and changing circumstances – became part of the lived experience of many (Richardson 2004).
Caribbean: French‐speaking migration and settlement
Authors: Vergès Françoise
Published: January 2013

French Caribbean modern mobility and migrations refer to the population movement associated with the French colonial empire and its occupation of and domination over some of the Caribbean islands, most notably the island they called Saint‐Domingue (modern Haiti). The beginning of the history of migration in the region coincided with the time of Europeans' arrival there. Yet recent archeological discoveries are transforming the ways in which migrations are studied in the Caribbean, since it is now realized that long before the arrival of the Europeans, native populations moved from one island to the other and maintained a “dynamic inter‐connected character” (Hofman & Bright 2010). In other words, the migrations set in motion by French colonial powers happened in territories that had already been sites of exchange between groups. French Caribbean modern migrations are thus inscribed within a larger history of migratory practices, and the practices of cultural mixing, hybridity, syncretic practices, and creolization. In other words, contacts between people of different rituals, beliefs, languages, and ways of living led to the creation of new linguistic, cultural, and religious forms where the vernacular nonetheless survived in its own forms. From these processes emerged what is known as “Caribbean” music, literature, cuisine, technology, and rituals.
Caucasus, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Gevorkyan Aleksandr V.
Published: January 2013

Spread from the southern boundaries of Russia's plains all the way to the southern Armenian highlands enclosed between the Black and Caspian seas, the Caucasus is one of the world's most ancient and diverse regions. Because of that, migration in the Caucasus is a necessarily more complex issue than just an economic or political problem. A site of some of the earliest settlements in human history, despite its near‐impassable mountains, the region served as a center for the population exchanges that occurred en masse from the days of the earliest civilizations and that continue unabated now.
Central America: migration 1960s to present
Authors: Hamilton Nora
Published: January 2013

The Central American population in the United States can be distinguished from other ethnic and migrant populations in the United States on the basis of the diversity of its origins, its relatively recent arrival, its rapid growth, and its changing character. Central Americans have come from seven different countries: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Belize. While the majority are of mixed European and indigenous descent (ladino), a significant number are indigenous, for most part from different Mayan ethnic groups including Q'anjob'al, K'iche, Mam, Kaqchiquel, and Q'eqchi. Most indigenous groups in Central America speak their own languages and are often geographically and culturally isolated from ladino society. The Central American foreign‐born population also includes Afro‐Caribbean groups from Belize and the Caribbean coast of Central America, among them the Garifuna, a mixed population descended from Africans who allegedly escaped from slave ships and Amerindians who migrated north from South America, meeting in the Caribbean islands of St. Vincent and Dominica, from which they were subsequently expelled, resulting in their migration to Central America.
Central America: regional migration and border policies
Authors: Kron Stefanie
Published: January 2013

International migration management has become the predominant framework for discourses and practices claiming to create a new global regime of rules and norms for the governance of cross‐border mobility. This migration management paradigm has converted the intergovernmental agency the International Organization for Migration (IOM) into an important non‐state actor (Geiger and Pécoud 2010). Since the mid‐1990s, the most important activity of the IOM has consisted of the creation of at least 15 Regional Consultative Processes on Migration (RCPs) all over the world. RCPs are informal forums of governmental and nongovernmental actors. Their objective is to create new alliances between sending, receiving, and transit countries.
Central Asia: migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Laruelle Marlíne
Published: January 2013

Central Asia, defined as the five post‐Soviet states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, has a history that is entirely traversed by migrations. Central Asia is made up of a vast flat expanse, comprising desert and steppe, which, unimpeded by any geographical obstacle, links Mongolia and south Siberia to the plains of central Europe. It also includes the mountainous zones of the Pamirs and Tian‐Shan, the foothills of the Himalaya, which for several centuries served as a transit zone between the Indian, Chinese, and Persian worlds. Since the ancient era the region has seen a succession of Indo‐European populations, including the Scythes, and Turkic‐Mongol populations, including Huns, Seljuks, and Mongols. These migrations changed the cultural and linguistic face of the region, intensified its ethnic complexity, and embedded the zone in the great empires of the time.
Children and migration: disease and illness
Authors: Gozdziak Elzbieta M.
Published: January 2013

Poverty, political turmoil, armed conflict, and human trafficking are but a few factors that lead to the significant migration of children. Researchers claim that the burden of ill health, infection, and emotional disturbance is much higher in child migrants than in other children (Hjern & Bouvier 2004). More than one‐quarter of refugee children in the UK are believed to have significant psychological disturbances (Fazel & Stein 2003). Scandinavian studies of refugee children indicate that 40 to 50 percent of children in asylum‐seeking families suffer from psychiatric and psychosomatic symptoms (Ekblad 1993; Almquist & Brandell 1997; Hjern et al. 1998). Almost all subjects (94%) among a group of internally displaced Bosnian children fulfilled the criteria for post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Goldstein et al. 1997). Similar findings were reported about Sudanese refugee children in Uganda (Paardekooper et al. 1999). Rates of PTSD varying from 11.5 to 28 percent were found in refugee children from Tibet and Bosnia (Weine et al. 1995; Servan‐Schreiber et al. 1998). Children who experienced war in Cambodia and former Yugoslavia reportedly had PTSD prevalence rates of 40 to 50 percent upon resettlement in the US (Weine et al. 1995; Servan‐Schreiber et al. 1998; Papageorgiou et al. 2000).
Children of migrants
Authors: Glick Jennifer E.
Published: January 2013

Migration is a growing global phenomenon that impacts individuals, families, and communities. Although migration is often thought of as an adult activity, migration by children and youth is quite common throughout the world and is on the rise. The United Nations estimates that approximately 16 percent of all international migrants are under the age of 20, although this ranges considerably from a low of 11 percent in North America to just over 40 percent in Africa (UN 2009). One study comparing Argentina, Chile, and South Africa estimated that over one‐quarter of all migrants are children under the age of 18 (Yaqub 2009). Children migrate for many of the same reasons that adults migrate; they move toward jobs or better education and away from poverty and conflict. In some cases, children are taken along as families migrate. Other children are in the lead of this migration, while still others follow subsequent to family members' migration. This essay considers the impact of all types of migration on young children and provides contemporary examples of children's participation in migration. The essay concludes with a review of some findings on the consequences of migration for children's health and education.
Children: migration and human capital
Authors: Antón José‐Ignacio
Published: January 2013

The hope for improving living conditions – particularly, of children – represents one of the main motivations behind the massive migration flows that characterize the current age of globalization. In this context, how migration can make a difference in minors' lives represents one of the prime focuses of current research in social sciences. The aim of this essay is to provide a summary of the current state of research on the impact of migration on child welfare from an economic perspective, which has been concentrated in the last three decades.
Children, migration, and human rights
Authors: Bhabha Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

Like adults, children migrate for a range of reasons and in varying circumstances. And like adults, they experience migration in differing ways. In recent years, it has been increasingly recognized that children are part, indeed a growing part, of the contemporary migration phenomenon. And yet no single piece of international or regional legislation comprehensively addresses their distinctive situation and particular needs. Instead, three broad, intersecting approaches can be identified: inhibitory, regulatory, and protective.
Chile, migration 1885 to present
Authors: Mena Carolina Stefoni, translated by Andrés I. Pérez y
Published: January 2013

During recent years Chile has begun to be recognized as a country of emerging migratory attraction in the Latin American region, in that there are still more Chileans living abroad than there are foreigners living within their national territory. The percentage of foreign population residing in Chile has historically remained below 5 percent, and, in the last three decades, has not exceeded 2 percent. The period spanning 1885–1940 represents the largest foreign population stock in the country (in 1907 it reached 4.1%), although, during the second half of the 20th century, it fell below 1 percent. This figure began to increase recently (following the resurgence of democracy in 1990), rising to 1.3 percent of the national population in 2002 (Martínez 2003; Doña & Levinson 2004) and 1.9 percent in 2010 according to INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística) estimates. Estimates of the number of Chileans residing abroad vary from 3.5 percent and 5 percent in relation to the national population (Martínez 2003: 17; Solimano & Tokman 2008: 190).
China: ancient era migrations
Authors: Miščević Dušanka
Published: January 2013

The term “ancient China” usually refers to the roughly two millennia before the Common Era, during which time, according to traditional Chinese historiography, the earliest civilization of China was created under the Three Dynasties (Sandai) – Xia, Shang, and Zhou (K. C. Chang 1983a). Traditional chronology places Xia between 2205 and 1766BCE, Shang between 1766 and 1122BCE, and Zhou between 1122 and 256BCE. Only the last date – the year the rising power of Qin vanquished the state of Zhou, on its way to creating the first unified empire in 221BCE– is certain. The others have been repeatedly and convincingly rejected, and continue to be debated, because they are irresoluble (K. C. Chang 1983a; Shaughnessy 1999; Keightley 1999b). Some scholars even regard the Xia dynasty as sheer invention. For the purposes of discussing ancient Chinese migration, we will include territorial expansions and consolidation of the Former (Western) Han dynasty (202BCE–8CE) because they bring to a conclusion the trends that started earlier in the ancient period.
China: immigrant legislation and laws
Authors: Liu Lisong
Published: January 2013

As one of the major nations of emigrants, China has a long historical trajectory of migration legislation and a large reservoir of migration laws and policies, which reveal how Chinese governments kept close surveillance on human mobility; how the state defined its relationship to emigrants, returning migrants, and foreign nationals; and how China positioned itself in the changing local and global contexts.
China: internal migration
Authors: Chan Kam Wing
Published: January 2013

The success story of Chinese manufacturing in the last quarter‐century is inextricably meshed with the story of migrant workers toiling for subsistence wages to produce goods for export. Indeed, the total stock of rural migrant labor, estimated to be about 155 million in 2010 (Cai et al. 2011: 18), has been the backbone of China's export industry since the mid‐1990s. In export centers such as Shenzhen and Dongguan, migrant labor accounted for the great majority (70–80%) of the labor force in the early years of the 21st century (Chan 2007). Rural–urban migration has also played a very important part in China's recent epic urbanization. In the 30 years since 1979 China's urban population has grown by about 440 million to 622 million in 2009 (Chan 2010c). Of the 440 million based on de facto urban population counts, the increase of about 340 million was attributable to net migration and urban reclassification (for estimates of components and definitions, see Chan & Hu 2003; Chan 2007). The latest urban population count, based on the 2010 census, was 666 million in November 2010 (NBS 2011). Even if only half of that increase was due to migration, the volume of rural–urban migration in such a short period is likely the largest in human history. The latest urban population count, based on the 2010 census, was 666 million in November 2010 (NBS 2011).
Chinese emigration to 1948
Authors: Lockard Craig A.
Published: January 2013

Hundreds of temples in Chinese communities worldwide honor Tianhou (Mazu), the Taoist protective goddess of sailors, fishermen, and traveling merchants who made possible Chinese emigration over the past millennium. Pushed by necessity and drawn by opportunity, Chinese have long migrated into nearby Asian regions and eventually beyond Asia in search of work or commercial opportunities. The majority went as temporary sojourners, hoping to return wealthy but many became permanent settlers in their new homes. Today over 30 million people of Chinese descent live outside their ancestral homeland while millions in China have relatives or ancestors who have resided abroad. In addition to Southeast Asia, home to perhaps 25 million ethnic Chinese today, the emigrants also eventually established substantial communities in the Americas, Pacific and Indian Ocean islands, Japan, Europe, and parts of Africa. The emigration of Chinese and other Asians into distant lands constituted an important social and economic development in modern world history.
Chinese in Southeast Asia, c.1400–1950
Authors: Heidhues Mary Somers
Published: January 2013

Visitors, traders, and even migrants came to Southeast Asia from China long before the time of Western colonialism. Many people crossed the southern borders of China – if they were defined as borders at all. Even more traveled by sea, either to trade in Southeast Asian ports or on the way to India and beyond. The invasions of the Yuan (Mongols, 1271–1368) and the official missions of Admiral Zheng He on behalf of the Ming emperor in the early 15th century were additional opportunities for interaction, trade, and migration. For people of the land‐poor southeastern coastal provinces, Fujian and Guangdong, where most migrants originated, trade was a necessity and emigration a way of life. Geography helped. The monsoon winds that propelled sailing ships from the Chinese coast to Southeast Asia reversed their direction only after months, so traders would “sojourn” abroad for a time before, hopefully, returning home (Wang 1996).
Chinese urban migration and politics
Authors: Mobrand Erik
Published: January 2013

Large‐scale migration to cities and urban areas since the 1980s has been a major symptom of China's reforms and growth. These migrants have been portrayed variously as protagonists of Chinese reform and as its victims. Former peasants who sought urban opportunities have been pioneers of economic and social reform, while migrant laborers and petty merchants have also been among the most vulnerable to exploitation by capitalists, state agents, and wealthier residents.
Citizenship
Authors: Gilbertson Greta
Published: January 2013

Citizenship is a multidimensional concept that denotes membership of a specific nation‐state and the formal rights and obligations that this membership entails for an individual. Citizenship is also understood as a status and identity. The principle premise of citizenship is that nation‐states can set and control the parameters of membership.
Citizenship education and migration
Authors: Banks James A.
Published: January 2013

This entry describes the ways in which global migration has influenced the development of citizenship and citizenship education in nations around the world. It also delineates the goals of citizenship education in multicultural nation‐states that are derived from theory and research in the field. Citizenship consists of the rights, duties, and identities that connect citizens to the nation‐state. Citizenship education is the school, college, and university experiences designed to help students develop an allegiance to the nation and the knowledge, skills, and values required to function effectively in the nation and the world.
Citizenship, nationality, and legal status
Authors: Lee Chulwoo
Published: January 2013

Citizenship is defined in terms of its three fundamental axes: “extent(rules and norms of inclusion and exclusion),content(rights and responsibilities) anddepth(thickness or thinness)” (Isin & Turner 2002: 2). Here, we are concerned primarily withextentand partially withcontent. Theextentof citizenship is gauged by the rules governing membership of the given political community. That community could be a small substate unit or a supranational entity such as the European Union. Yet membership of the nation‐state has been the quintessential mode of citizenship, although it is under debate whether national citizenship will remain the dominant modality in the face of globalization.
Climate change, migration, and displacement
Authors: Afifi Therese Rosenfeld, Koko Warner, and Tamer
Published: January 2013

The links between human migration and environmental changes can be traced back to the earliest existence of humanity. However, from the rise of industrialization up to the advent of globalization, human activities have had a particularly strong impact on the Earth's natural architecture. Extensive research by the global scientific community such as the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report has revealed that climate change due to human activities is having an increasingly destabilizing impact on the relationship between man and nature.
Criminality and victimization
Authors: van San Marion
Published: January 2013

The history of victimology goes back over half a century. Von Hentig 1948 is often credited with being the founder of this approach. What is remarkable about his work is that he posited that victims are at least partly to blame for their own victimization. In his view, victims of crimes often deliberately seek out risky situations and are therefore partly responsible for their own victimization. Mendelsohn 1956 also argued that victims sometimes play a role in their own victimization, but whereas Von Hentig stressed the importance of the victims' active behavior, Mendelsohn focused on their carelessness, such as a neglect to take precautionary measures. Critical criminologists (Fattah 1992) have argued against this approach by drawing attention to the victims of the powerful, such as victims of state violence, victims of sexual violence, or employees forced to work under unsafe working conditions (Lissenberg et al. 2001).
Crusades: Middle East migration, medieval era
Authors: Mitchell Piers D.
Published: January 2013

The crusades were military expeditions from Europe that were bound for Christian holy sites in the eastern Mediterranean (Riley‐Smith 1999; Tyerman 2004; Murray 2006). The first crusade left Europe in 1096 and captured Jerusalem in 1099. A series of Frankish states were established along the coast of the Levant, namely the kingdom of Jerusalem, the county of Tripoli, the county of Edessa, the principality of Antioch, and the kingdom of Cyprus. The last mainland city (Acre) was retaken from the Europeans by Muslim troops in 1291. Hundreds of thousands of Europeans are thought to have migrated to these Frankish states as part of military expeditions, as pilgrims, or traders. Some stayed for a year and returned to Europe, others died during their travels, and yet others decided to settle in the east. Modern study of these migrations helps us to understand who chose to settle in the east, how the Frankish states in the east may have differed from European states and the social and health consequences of these migrations (Mitchell and Millard, in press).