bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Le jeu comme autothérapie chez un patient polytoxicomane
Authors: Parisot Lucie
Published: March 2012

Résumé Cet article fait une large place à l’étude clinique d’un patient polytoxicomane. Dans sa prise en charge, la psychologue s’appuie sur la pratique ludique du patient pour l’aider à décortiquer ses conflits, à comprendre ses comportements et à les modifier.
From environmental awareness in word to environmental awareness in deed: The case of Ljubljana
Authors: Smrekar Aleš
Published: March 2012

Modern lifestyles demand the exploitation of natural resources, which results in a significantly deteriorated living environment. The goal of this study was to determine and evaluate people’s relationship to the environment and their willingness to take action themselves to protect it. The majority of people (or more than half, in this case) support environmental protection in principle, especially in word only, because this is also socially desirable. However, when they must address limitations that would interfere with their lives by limiting activities or increasing costs, their enthusiasm abates quickly. Twenty percent of people can be defined as being in favor of environmental protection and regarding it as a value. Education level plays a very important role in people’s behavior towards environmental issues. This study was carried out in Ljubljana by surveying 408 people.
Geotourism – a short introduction
Authors: A. Hose Thomas , B. Marković Slobodan , Komac Blaž , Zorn Matija
Published: March 2012

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Preliminary geosite assessment model (gam) and its application on Fruška gora mountain, potential geotourism destination of Serbia
Authors: D. Vujičić Miroslav , A. Vasiljević Djordjije , B. Marković Slobodan , A. Hose Thomas , Lukić Tin , Hadžić Olga , Janićević Sava
Published: March 2012

This paper presents a preliminary geosite physical assessment model which has the potential to assist in the sustainable planning and management of natural heritage locations and their transformation into tourism destination. The methodology is based on several existing models and presented through two groups of values – main and additional, which are further divided into indicators and subindicators respectively. The resultant model is a graph that consists of nine fields, into which geosites can be classified as fitting into nine general areas of suitability for tourism in terms of their main (scientific/educational, aesthetic/scenic and protection as market appeal and conservation) and additional values (functional and tourism use as current stage of development). This could prove to be of great help to natural heritage protection and tourism managers, as they could assess the current state of a geosite and thence propose a future path for it.
Ethanol Induces Oxidative Stress in Alveolar Macrophages via Upregulation of NADPH Oxidases
Authors: Yeligar Samantha M. , Harris Frank L. , Hart C. Michael , Brown Lou Ann S.
Published: March 2012

Chronic alcohol abuse is a comorbid variable of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Previous studies showed that, in the lung, chronic alcohol consumption increased oxidative stress and impaired alveolar macrophage (AM) function. NADPH oxidases (Noxes) are the main source of reactive oxygen species in AMs. Therefore, we hypothesized that chronic alcohol consumption increases AM oxidant stress through modulation of Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4 expression. AMs were isolated from male C57BL/6J mice, aged 8–10 wk, which were treated with or without ethanol in drinking water (20% w/v, 12 wk). MH-S cells, a mouse AM cell line, were treated with or without ethanol (0.08%, 3 d) for in vitro studies. Selected cells were treated with apocynin (300 μM), a Nox1 and Nox2 complex formation inhibitor, or were transfected with Nox small interfering RNAs (20–35 nM), before ethanol exposure. Human AMs were isolated from alcoholic and control patients’ bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Nox mRNA levels (quantitative RT-PCR), protein levels (Western blot and immunostaining), oxidative stress (2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein-diacetate and Amplex Red analysis), and phagocytosis (Staphylococcus aureus internalization) were measured. Chronic alcohol increased Nox expression and oxidative stress in mouse AMs in vivo and in vitro. Experiments using apocynin and Nox small interfering RNAs demonstrated that ethanol-induced Nox4 expression, oxidative stress, and AM dysfunction were modulated through Nox1 and Nox2 upregulation. Further, Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4 protein levels were augmented in human AMs from alcoholic patients compared with control subjects. Ethanol induces AM oxidative stress initially through upregulation of Nox1 and Nox2 with downstream Nox4 upregulation and subsequent impairment of AM function.
NLRC5 Deficiency Selectively Impairs MHC Class I- Dependent Lymphocyte Killing by Cytotoxic T Cells
Authors: Staehli Francesco , Ludigs Kristina , Heinz Leonhard X. , Seguín-Estévez Queralt , Ferrero Isabel , Braun Marion , Schroder Kate , Rebsamen Manuele , Tardivel Aubry , Mattmann Chantal , MacDonald H. Robson , Romero Pedro , Reith Walter , Guarda Greta , Tschopp Jürg
Published: March 2012

Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs) are intracellular proteins involved in innate-driven inflammatory responses. The function of the family member NLR caspase recruitment domain containing protein 5 (NLRC5) remains a matter of debate, particularly with respect to NF-κB activation, type I IFN, and MHC I expression. To address the role of NLRC5, we generated Nlrc5-deficient mice (Nlrc5Δ/Δ). In this article we show that these animals exhibit slightly decreased CD8+ T cell percentages, a phenotype compatible with deregulated MHC I expression. Of interest, NLRC5 ablation only mildly affected MHC I expression on APCs and, accordingly, Nlrc5Δ/Δ macrophages efficiently primed CD8+ T cells. In contrast, NLRC5 deficiency dramatically impaired basal expression of MHC I in T, NKT, and NK lymphocytes. NLRC5 was sufficient to induce MHC I expression in a human lymphoid cell line, requiring both caspase recruitment and LRR domains. Moreover, endogenous NLRC5 localized to the nucleus and occupied the proximal promoter region of H-2 genes. Consistent with downregulated MHC I expression, the elimination of Nlrc5Δ/Δ lymphocytes by cytotoxic T cells was markedly reduced and, in addition, we observed low NLRC5 expression in several murine and human lymphoid-derived tumor cell lines. Hence, loss of NLRC5 expression represents an advantage for evading CD8+ T cell-mediated elimination by downmodulation of MHC I levels—a mechanism that may be exploited by transformed cells. Our data show that NLRC5 acts as a key transcriptional regulator of MHC I in lymphocytes and support an essential role for NLRs in directing not only innate but also adaptive immune responses.
Measurements of ambient HONO concentrations and vertical HONO flux above a northern Michigan forest canopy
Authors: Zhang N. , Zhou X. , Bertman S. , Tang D. , Alaghmand M. , Shepson P. B. , Carroll M. A.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. Systems have been developed and deployed at a North Michigan forested site to measure ambient HONO and vertical HONO flux. The modified HONO measurement technique is based on aqueous scrubbing of HONO using a coil sampler, followed by azo dye derivatization and detection using an optical fiber spectrometer with a 1-m long path flow cell. A Na2CO3-coated denuder is used to generate "zero HONO" air for background correction. The lower detection limit of the method, defined by 3 times of the standard deviation of the signal, is 1 pptv for 2-min averages, with an overall uncertainty of ±(1 + 0.05 [HONO]) pptv. The HONO flux measurement technique has been developed based on the relaxed eddy accumulation approach, deploying a 3-D sonic anemometer and two HONO measurement systems. The overall uncertainty is estimated to be within ±(8 × 10−8 + 0.15 FHONO) mol m−2 h−1, with a 20-min averaged data point per 30 min. Ambient HONO and vertical HONO flux were measured simultaneously at the PROPHET site from 17 July to 7 August 2008. The forest canopy was found to be a net HONO source, with a mean upward flux of 0.37 × 10−6 moles m−2 h−1. The HONO flux reached a maximum mean of ~0.7 × 10−6 moles m−2 h−1 around solar noon, contributing a major fraction (~60%) to the HONO source strength required to sustain the observed ambient concentration of ~70 pptv. There was no significant correlation between NOx and daytime HONO flux, suggesting that NOx was not an important precursor responsible for HONO daytime production on the forest canopy surface in the low-NOx rural environment. Evidence suggests that photolysis of HNO3 deposited on the forest canopy surface is a major daytime HONO source.
Comparison of AERONET and SKYRAD4.2 inversion products retrieved from a Cimel CE318 sunphotometer
Authors: Estellés V. , Campanelli M. , Utrillas M. P. , Expósito F. , Martínez-Lozano J. A.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. SKYNET is an international research network of ground based sky – sunphotometers for the observation and monitoring of columnar aerosol properties. The algorithm developed by SKYNET is called SKYRAD.pack, and it is used on Prede instruments only. In this study, we have modified the SKYRAD.pack software in order to adapt it to Cimel sunphotometers. A one month database of Cimel data obtained at Burjassot (Valencia, Spain) has been processed with this program and the obtained inversion products have been compared with AERONET retrievals. In general, the differences found were consistent with the individual error assessments for both algorithms. Although the aerosol optical depth compared well for any aerosol burden situation (rmsd of 0.002–0.013 for all wavelengths), inversion products such as the single scattering albedo, refractive index and asymmetry parameter compared better for higher turbidity situations. The comparison performed for cases with an aerosol optical depth at 440 nm over 0.2 showed rms differences of 0.025–0.049 for single scattering albedo, 0.005–0.034 for the real part of refractive index, 0.004–0.007 for the imaginary part of the refractive index and 0.006–0.009 for the asymmetry parameter. With respect to the volume distributions, the comparison also showed a good agreement for high turbidity cases (mainly within the 0.01–7 μm interval) although the already known discrepancy in the extremes of the distribution was still found in 40% of the cases, in spite of eliminating data and instrumental differences present in previous studies.
Macrobenthic assemblage structure and organismal stoichiometry control faunal processing of particulate organic carbon and nitrogen in oxygen minimum zone sediments
Authors: Hunter W. R. , Levin L. A. , Kitazato H. , Witte U.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. The Arabian Sea oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) impinges on the western Indian continental margin between 150 and 1500 m, causing gradients in oxygen availability and sediment geochemistry at the sea floor. Oxygen availability and sediment geochemistry are important factors structuring macrofaunal assemblages in marine sediments. However, relationships between macrofaunal assemblage structure and sea-floor carbon and nitrogen cycling are poorly understood. We conducted in situ 13C:15N tracer experiments in the OMZ core (540 m [O2] = 0.35 μmol l–1) and lower OMZ boundary (800–1100 m, [O2] = 2.2–15.0 μmol l–1) to investigate how macrofaunal assemblage structure, affected by different oxygen levels, and C:N coupling influence the fate of particulate organic matter. No macrofauna were present in the OMZ core. Within the OMZ boundary, relatively high abundance and biomass resulted in the highest macrofaunal assimilation of particulate organic carbon (POC) and nitrogen (PON) at the lower oxygen 800 m stations ([O2] = 2.2–2.36 μmol l–1). At these stations the numerically dominant cirratulid polychaetes exhibited greatest POC and PON uptake. By contrast, at the higher oxygen 1100 m station ([O2] = 15.0 μmol l–1) macrofaunal C and N assimilation was lower, with POC assimilation dominated by one large solitary ascidian. Macrofaunal POC and PON assimilation were influenced by changes in oxygen availability, and significantly correlated to differences in macrofaunal assemblage structure between stations. However, macrofaunal feeding responses were ultimately characterised by preferential organic nitrogen assimilation, relative to their internal C:N budgets.
Current state and future scenarios of the global agricultural nitrogen cycle
Authors: Bodirsky B. L. , Popp A. , Weindl I. , Dietrich J. P. , Rolinski S. , Scheiffele L. , Schmitz C. , Lotze-Campen H.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. Reactive nitrogen (Nr) is not only an important nutrient for plant growth, thereby safeguarding human alimentation, but it also heavily disturbs natural systems. To mitigate air, land, aquatic, and atmospheric pollution caused by the excessive availability of Nr, it is crucial to understand the long term development of the global agricultural Nr cycle. For our analysis, we combine a material flow model with a land-use-optimization model. In a first step we estimate the state of the Nr cycle in 1995. In a second step we create four scenarios for the 21st century in line with the SRES storylines. Our results indicate that in 1995 only half of the Nr applied to croplands was incorporated into cropland biomass. Moreover, less than 10 per cent of all Nr in cropland biomass and grazed pasture was consumed by humans. In our scenarios a strong surge of the Nr cycle occurs in the first half of the 21st century, even in the environmentally oriented scenarios. Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions rise from 3 Tg N2O-N in 1995 to 7–9 in 2045 and 5–15 Tg in 2095. Reinforced Nr pollution mitigation efforts are therefore required.
Landscape control of uranium and thorium in boreal streams – spatiotemporal variability and the role of wetlands
Authors: Lidman F. , Mörth C. M. , Laudon H.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. The concentrations of uranium and thorium in ten partly nested streams in the boreal forest region were monitored over a two-year period. Considerable spatiotemporal variations were observed, with little or no correlation between streams. The export of both uranium and thorium varied substantially between the subcatchments, ranging from 1.7 to 30 g km−2 a−1 for uranium and from 3.2 to 24 g km−2 a−1 for thorium. Airborne gamma spectrometry was used to measure the concentrations of uranium and thorium in surface soils throughout the catchment, but could not explain the variability in the export. Instead, the extent of lakes and mires within each subcatchment was found to be a stronger predictor for the transport of uranium and thorium. The results indicate that there is a predictable and systematic accumulation of both uranium and thorium in boreal mires. Approximately 65–80 % of uranium and 55–65 % of thorium entering a mire is estimated to be retained in the peat. Overall, accumulation in mires and other types of wetlands is estimated to decrease the fluxes of uranium and thorium from the boreal forest landscape by 30–40 %. The atmospheric deposition of uranium and thorium was also quantified and its contribution to boreal streams was found to be low compared to weathering.
The acetylene inhibition technique to determine total denitrification (N2 + N2O) losses from soil samples: potentials and limitations
Authors: Felber R. , Conen F. , Flechard C. R. , Neftel A.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. The loss of N2 from intensively managed agro-ecosystems is an important part of the N budget. The monitoring of N2 emissions at the field scale is impossible due to the high atmospheric background of 78%, which precludes the measurement of fluxes. The acetylene (C2H2) inhibition technique is a rather simple, albeit imperfect, method to determine N2 losses from entire soil cores. Despites serious limitations it is one among very few methodological options to estimate total denitrification at high temporal resolution and on small spatial scale, with limited workload and costs involved. A laboratory system with two different detection systems (photoacoustic IR spectroscopy and gas chromatography) is presented, which allowed parallel measurements of up to 7 intact soil cores in air-tight glass tubes in a temperature controlled cabinet (adjusted to field conditions) with an automated C2H2 injection. A survey of total denitrification losses (N2 + N2O) over 1.5 yr in soil from an intensively managed, cut grassland system in central Switzerland showed a lower bound loss in the range of 6 to 25 kg N ha−1 yr−1 (3–13% of added N), roughly 3.4 times higher than the N2O loss. However, several drawbacks of the C2H2 inhibition technique preclude a more precise determination of the total denitrification loss.
Combining ground-based and airborne EM through Artificial Neural Networks for modelling hydrogeological units under saline groundwater conditions
Authors: Gunnink J. L. , Bosch J. H. A. , Siemon B. , Roth B. , Auken E.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. Airborne Electro Magnetic (EM) methods supply data over large areas in a cost-effective way. We used Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to classify the geophysical signal into a meaningful geological parameter. By using examples of known relations between ground-based geophysical data (in this case electrical conductivity, EC, from Electrical Cone Penetration Tests) and geological parameters (presence of glacial till), we extracted learning rules that could be applied to map the presence of a glacial till using the EC profiles from the airborne EM data. The saline groundwater in the area was obscuring the EC signal from the till but by using ANN we were able to extract subtle and often non-linear, relations in EC that were representative for the presence of the till. The ANN results were interpreted as the probability of having till and showed a good agreement with drilling data. The glacial till is acting as a layer that inhibits groundwater flow, due to its high clay-content, and is therefore an important layer in hydrogeological modelling and for predicting the effects of climate change on groundwater quantity and quality.
Floating stones off El Hierro, Canary Islands: xenoliths of pre-island sedimentary origin in the early products of the October 2011 eruption
Authors: Troll V. R. , Klügel A. , Longpré M.-A. , Burchardt S. , Deegan F. M. , Carracedo J. C. , Wiesmaier S. , Kueppers U. , Dahren B. , Blythe L. S. , Hansteen T. H. , Freda C. , Budd D. A. , Jolis E. M. , Jonsson E. , Meade F. C. , Harris C. , Berg S. E. , Mancini L. , Polacci M. , Pedroza K.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. A submarine eruption started off the south coast of El Hierro, Canary Islands, on 10 October 2011 and continues at the time of this writing (February 2012). In the first days of the event, peculiar eruption products were found floating on the sea surface, drifting for long distances from the eruption site. These specimens, which have in the meantime been termed "restingolites" (after the close-by village of La Restinga), appeared as black volcanic "bombs" that exhibit cores of white and porous pumice-like material. Since their brief appearance, the nature and origin of these "floating stones" has been vigorously debated among researchers, with important implications for the interpretation of the hazard potential of the ongoing eruption. The "restingolites" have been proposed to be either (i) juvenile high-silica magma (e.g. rhyolite), (ii) remelted magmatic material (trachyte), (iii) altered volcanic rock, or (iv) reheated hyaloclastites or zeolite from the submarine slopes of El Hierro. Here, we provide evidence that supports yet a different conclusion. We have analysed the textures and compositions of representative "restingolites" and compared the results to previous work on similar rocks found in the Canary Islands. Based on their high-silica content, the lack of igneous trace element signatures, the presence of remnant quartz crystals, jasper fragments and carbonate as well as wollastonite (derived from thermal overprint of carbonate) and their relatively high oxygen isotope values, we conclude that "restingolites" are in fact xenoliths from pre-island sedimentary layers that were picked up and heated by the ascending magma, causing them to partially melt and vesiculate. As they are closely resembling pumice in appearance, but are xenolithic in origin, we refer to these rocks as "xeno-pumice". The El Hierro xeno-pumices hence represent messengers from depth that help us to understand the interaction between ascending magma and crustal lithologies beneath the Canary Islands as well as in similar Atlantic islands that rest on sediment-covered ocean crust (e.g. Cape Verdes, Azores). The occurrence of "restingolites" indicates that crustal recycling is a relevant process in ocean islands, too, but does not herald the arrival of potentially explosive high-silica magma in the active plumbing system beneath El Hierro.
Do open source software developers listen to their users?
Authors: Raza Arif , Capretz Luiz Fernando
Published: March 2012

In application software, the satisfaction of target users makes the software more acceptable. Open source software (OSS) systems have neither the physical nor the commercial boundaries of proprietary software, thus users from all over the world can interact with them. This free access is advantageous, as increasing numbers of users are able to access OSS; there are more chances of improvement. This study examines the way users’ feedback is handled by OSS developers. In our survey, we have also inquired whether OSS developers consult professional usability experts to improve their projects. According to the results, majority of OSS developers neither consider usability as their top priority nor do they consult usability experts.
Instant messaging and interruption in organizational settings: A social presence’s perspective
Authors: Chang Hui-Jung , Ian Wan-Zheng
Published: March 2012

The goal of this study is to approach conflicting views regarding IM interruption by examining the social presence of IM and its relationship to the level of interruption experienced in organizational settings. Data was gathered via convenience and snowball sampling of computer–using workers in Taiwan (N=283). The results indicated that all four dimensions of IM’s social presence (copresence, social richness, self–reported involvement/partner involvement, social attraction) account significantly for the level of IM interruption at work. Among them, self–reported involvement is the best predictor of the level of IM interruption.
Discerning truth from deception: Human judgments and automation efforts
Authors: Rubin Victoria L. , Conroy Niall
Published: March 2012

Recent improvements in effectiveness and accuracy of the emerging field of automated deception detection and the associated potential of language technologies have triggered increased interest in mass media and general public. Computational tools capable of alerting users to potentially deceptive content in computer–mediated messages are invaluable for supporting undisrupted, computer–mediated communication and information practices, credibility assessment and decision–making. The goal of this ongoing research is to inform creation of such automated capabilities. In this study we elicit a sample of 90 computer–mediated personal stories with varying levels of deception. Each story has 10 associated human deception level judgments, confidence scores, and explanations. In total, 990 unique respondents participated in the study. Three approaches are taken to the data analysis of the sample: human judges, linguistic detection cues, and machine learning. Comparable to previous research results, human judgments achieve 50–63 percent success rates, depending on what is considered deceptive. Actual deception levels negatively correlate with their confident judgment as being deceptive (r = -0.35, df = 88, ρ = 0.008). The highest-performing machine learning algorithms reach 65 percent accuracy. Linguistic cues are extracted, calculated, and modeled with logistic regression, but are found not to be significant predictors of deception level, confidence score, or an authors’ ability to fool a reader. We address the associated challenges with error analysis. The respondents’ stories and explanations are manually content–analyzed and result in a faceted deception classification (theme, centrality, realism, essence, self–distancing) and a stated perceived cue typology. Deception detection remains novel, challenging, and important in natural language processing, machine learning, and the broader library information science and technology community.
Jane Addams's Progressive Democracy Hull-House and the Ethics of Reform
Authors: Culbertson Graham
Published: March 2012

This article examines how conditions in turn-of-the-century Chicago seemed inimical to uniting progressive policies and democratic politics, and shows how Jane Addams was unusual for her era in her simultaneous commitment to progressivism and democracy. In Democracy and Social Ethics and Twenty Years at Hull-House, Addams argues that humanity's ethical values must evolve in response to the new urban conditions emerging in the twentieth century. This article identifies various philosophical conflicts with which Addams had to deal in her attempt to reconcile democracy and progressivism, and shows how her experiences at Hull-House structured her responses to those philosophical oppositions. The three oppositions that Addams dealt with are the distinction between private or individual reform and public reform, the ethical gulf between abstract ethics (i.e., “honesty”) and lived ethics (i.e., “neighborliness”), and the divergent interests of the wealthy and the poor.
“The Rules Come Later” The Priority of Practices in a Grassroots Democracy.Blessed Are the Organized
Authors: Ruprecht Louis A.
Published: March 2012

Blessed Are the Organized has been read by many as a significant departure from Jeffrey Stout's previous work, both stylistically and substantively. In this essay, I attempt to draw out the connections between this new book and his three previous books, in order to demonstrate how he has always been interested in the priority of social practices in the construction of social norms. In this sense, a case study of contemporary broad-based organizing in the United States has implications not just for these kinds of modern democratic movements, but for more elusive premodern movements like the early Jesus movement.
Advertising
Authors: Anthony Cortese
Published: March 2012

Advertising is perhaps the most influential cultural and economic institution (Cortese 2008). Advertising has been credited with improving the quality of life for Americans, boosting the economy, and encouraging competition (Woods 1995). Yet it has also been blamed for subliminally urging people to purchase products and services that they do not need or even want, constructing false expectations, and adulterating language. The study of consumer behavior became recognized as a science in the late 1940s (Woods 1995). Since then, an impressive body of literature on target marketing, demographics, and social segmentation has emerged. Motivational research (i.e., the latent reasons why people buy particular brands of goods and services) developed in the 1950s, while greater indepth psychological research developed in the 1960s (Woods 1995). During the early years of consumer research, ethnic consumers were all but ignored. Instead, researchers were trying to tap into the “average American” – a label not applied to ethnic minority populations. Even while ethnic minority populations grew at a record pace, marketing researchers continued to overlook them. Now consumer research has indicated that blacks, for example, respond differently to advertising than whites (Hunter & Associates 1991).
A
gency‐Structure
Authors: Loyal Steven
Published: March 2012

The paired concepts of agency and structure are used to discuss and highlight the fundamental ontological relation between people constituting society and social formations shaping human agents. The agency‐structure dualism runs through a series of related perspectival and methodological tensions that plague sociology: individual versus society; micro versus macro; and subjective versus objective.
Agro‐Exports
Authors: McMichael Philip
Published: March 2012

Agro‐exporting began as a colonial enterprise, producing tropical commodities such as sugar, coffee, tea, cocoa, rice, peanuts, and palm oil for emerging European markets. Sidney Mintz has shown how sugar, formerly a luxury good of the aristocracy, became increasingly consequential as a sweetener and cheap caloric fuel for the metropolitan working classes, as colonial plantation systems intensified the exploitation of sugar slavery. Mimi Sheller quotes the Liverpool Maritime Museum: “Much of the social life of Western Europe in the eighteenth century depended on the products of slave labour. In homes and coffee‐houses, people met over coffee, chocolate, or tea, sweetened with Caribbean sugar,” concluding: “In consuming the Caribbean … Europe was itself transformed” (Sheller 2003: 81–82).
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Declaration
Authors: Tormey Simon
Published: March 2012

The Asean Declaration (Bangkok Declaration). Bangkok, Thailand, August 8, 1967.
http://www.aseansec.org/1629.htm
Asylum‐Seekers
Authors: Schuster Liza
Published: March 2012

An asylum‐seeker is a person who has made a claim for recognition as a refugee, and who is waiting for that claim to be decided. Many states recognize an obligation to offer protection (often no more than the right not to be deported) to individuals who are refugees from persecution, and have in place a legal or administrative system for examining claims to such protection. From the time a person makes an application for asylum until the time they are recognized or rejected by the state in which they have made the claim, they are an asylum‐seeker. An individual is a refugee from the moment s/he fulfills the criteria, but it may take some time before their status as a refugee is confirmed by the state in which they request recognition. This period may vary from a few days to many years, depending on the complexity and comprehensiveness of the system, the number of appeals available, the (un)willingness of the state to process claims, and the level of proof required by the state and available to the applicant. Asylum‐seekers enjoy very different levels of support in different countries, from temporary admission and nothing else, to accommodation in enclosed camps, to accommodation, healthcare, and education provided either separately or through the mainstream welfare system.
Asymmetric Warfare
Authors: Simon Tormey
Published: March 2012

The term “asymmetric warfare” relates to an armed conflict in which there is a significant gap or incompatibility in terms of power between two fighting parties. The weak side believes, thinks, operates, is equipped and is organized in a different manner than the strong side, in order to maximize its relative advantages and to offset the strong side's advantages. The term can either relate to a conflict between armies, or to a conflict between an army and an organization or movement.
Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas
Authors: Kellogg Paul
Published: March 2012

The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA – from the Spanish name, Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) “is an alternative approach to economic, social, cultural and political integration that aims to foster trade, development and unity among the nations of Latin America and the Caribbean on the basis of a set of principles distinct from those underlying conventional integration efforts” (Backer & Molina 2009: 109–110). The idea first emerged in discussions between Cuba's Fidel Castro and Venezuela's Hugo Chávez in 1994 (Cole 2008: 6), and it began to take formal shape with the Cuba–Venezuela Integral Cooperation Agreement in 2000. The acronym “ALBA” was used publicly for the first time (by Chávez) at the December 2001 Association of Caribbean States Summit (Muhr forthcoming: 6 and 3; Blake 2009: 98). The alliance finally took institutional shape on December 14, 2004, with a formal agreement between the governments of Cuba and Venezuela (Backer & Molina 2009: 119). It was joined in 2006 by Bolivia, in 2007 by Nicaragua, in 2008 by Dominica, and in 2009 by Ecuador, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Antigua and Barbuda. Honduras joined in 2008, but a coup the next year resulted in a change of government and a decision to withdraw from the alliance in early 2010 (Hart‐Landsberg 2010: 17).
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Authors: MacLachlan Ian
Published: March 2012

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is an incurable degenerative neurological disorder of cattle that is invariably fatal. It was first identified in 1986 in the United Kingdom and by 1996 it had been associated with a form of the Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease in humans. Though largely concentrated in the United Kingdom, BSE has infected cattle in most of Europe, North America, and Japan, disrupting the international trade of live cattle, beef for human consumption, and beef by‐products. BSE has attained global significance by revealing the potential for the intercontinental spread of an infectious animal disease and its implications for risk management, animal health, and human health.
Bretton Woods
Authors: Ritzer George
Published: March 2012

In the midst of World War II the Western world, especially the United States and Great Britain, began planning for a more open international economy. A great fear was the recurrence of the Depression after the end of World War II, especially because of the difficulties those societies would have in absorbing the massive manpower created by the demobilization of the military when the war ended. There was also fear of a resurrection of barriers to trade and to the free flow of money that had become commonplace prior to World War II. The focus of the planners was on reducing trade barriers and on creating conditions necessary for the free flow of money and investment. Another concern was the creation of conditions needed for financial stability around the globe. This was the background for a three‐week meeting in July 1944 at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, which led to the beginning of the “Bretton Woods system” (Bordo & Eichengreen 1993).
Capitalism
Authors: Antonio Robert J. , Bonanno Alessandro
Published: March 2012

The capitalist system is characterized by mainly private ownership and management of the means of production, distribution, and exchange and by prices and profits that depend largely on market competition. Yet historically, capitalist regimes have varied in the scope of state ownership, regulation, and redistribution and in levels of private collusion and concentration that impact prices. Adam Smith (1776) held that a single pin‐maker would be hard pressed to make one pin a day, but that 10 specialized producers could make 48 000 daily. Employing examples of masons and cavalry, Karl Marx (1867) stressed the same point: that capitalism's specialized system of complex social cooperation exponentially increases productive powers. In 1848, when mechanized industry was in its infancy (in England only), Marx held that capitalists had already spurred creation of a more powerful array of productive forces than all previous generations everywhere, they would continuously revolutionize production and all culture, and capitalism's growth imperative would soon extend the regime worldwide, knocking down “Chinese walls” and creating global “interdependence.” Dramatic evidence of the
sui generis
social powers of which Smith and Marx spoke, the late nineteenth and early twentieth century technological revolution gave us the distinctly modern world. Earlier epochal productive transformations, which changed collective life from top to bottom, took many millennia to develop and spread (e.g., the rise of agriculture and ancient cities). By contrast, capitalism transformed global productive practices and cultures much more sweepingly and radically in a few generations. Capitalism's expansionary logic pushed its borders and impacts ever outward. Its revolutionary changes continue today in nearly every corner of the globe. However, capitalism's growth imperative and unparalleled productive powers, which have created great wealth and enriched culture, have also generated great costs, contradictions, and risks, which have been mounting with globalization.
Childhood and Migration
Authors: Knörr Jacqueline
Published: March 2012

To consider the impact of migration on childhood and of children on migration processes, one has to deal with childhood as a social category first. The emergence of childhood studies has been compared with the emergence of women's studies, which in the 1970s gave rise to a shift in paradigms in gender studies and theories – the big difference being, that, unlike women, children cannot pursue research on themselves. It is up to adults to discover how children see the world, their social lives, and their childhood. They can do so by letting children speak for themselves but despite the shift towards the social world of children in more recent approaches in the study of childhood, scientific knowledge about childhood still largely ignores what children themselves have to say about their lives and their own place in the social world. Children's explicit ways of criticizing the latter could be one of the reasons why adults are reluctant to consider their views, observations, and assumptions relevant (Butler & Shaw 1996).
Christianity
Authors: Thomas George M.
Published: March 2012

It commonly is said that globalization should be viewed from a long historical perspective. The recent era marked by massive increases in global interactions, myriad global problems demanding global governance, and a sense of the world as one place, must be understood in a long‐term, historical context. This principle is especially true for globalization and Christianity. Christianity was global before it was European; it subsequently was involved in Western expansion and colonialism, the precursors of what we now call globalization. It thus is important to consider the relationship between Christianity and these earlier globalizations, focusing on those aspects and episodes that are particularly relevant to globalization at the turn of the twenty‐first century.
Civil Society
Authors: Kellogg Paul
Published: March 2012

The word “globalization” almost automatically evokes the idea of economic globalization. However, globalization clearly has other dimensions, among them the political – and conceptualizing political globalization poses some immediate difficulties. Pre‐globalization politics was defined through a geographically specific nation‐state, and “it is hardly possible to argue that there exists a global state” (Thörn 2006a: 204). Theorists like Richard Falk have grappled with this at the governance level, deploying the term “geogovernance” to identify the ad hoc emergence, in the context of economic globalization, of “a more integrated economic, cultural, and political reality” (1995: 1). However, this geogovernance in the first instance, emerges as corporate or “capital‐driven geogovernance” (p. 135) and has little clear relation to political democracy. Many theorists have suggested that the democratic content to globalization will have to come “from below” (p. 87; Thörn 2006a; 204). Increasingly the term “global civil society” (GCS) has been deployed as an attempt to conceptualize the space where this democratic globalization from below can be articulated.
Climate Change
Authors: Clark Brett , Jorgenson Andrew K.
Published: March 2012

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007a, 2007b) indicates that human activities – such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation – are unequivocally responsible for the observed warming of the atmosphere. Global average temperatures have increased faster than anticipated – rising by 0.74°C (1.3°F) since 1906. A further increase of 1.8–4.0°C (3.3–7.1°F) is expected during the twenty‐first century if current trends continue. Carbon dioxide is one of the most important greenhouse gases contributing to global climate change. Approximately half of every ton of carbon dioxide generated remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. The average annual increase in carbon dioxide emissions during the first seven years of the twenty‐first century was at least 3.5 percent, surpassing the worst case scenarios (Canadell et al. 2007; IPCC 2007a, 2007b; Kintisch 2009). The economic downturn that started in 2008 temporarily interrupted this trend, as global emissions decreased in 2009 by 1.3 percent – less than half of what was predicted (Le Quéré et al. 2009, Friedlingstein et al. 2010). The growth in carbon dioxide emissions resumed in 2010, with a 3 percent increase, which is expected to be the yearly standard over the next two decades (Garnaut et al. 2008).
Colonialism
Authors: Ashcroft Bill
Published: March 2012

The term colonialism describes a dominant form of cultural exploitation that developed with the expansion of Europe over the last 400 years. The term “colony” stems from the Latin word
colonus
meaning “a small farm” and thus originates in the practice of occupying and cultivating land. Although many earlier civilizations had colonies and although they perceived their relations with them to be one of a central imperium in relation to a periphery of provincial, marginal, and barbarian cultures, a number of crucial factors entered into the construction of the post‐Renaissance practices of imperialism. Edward Said offers the following distinction: “ ‘imperialism’ means the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a distant territory; ‘colonialism’, which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the implanting of settlements on distant territory” (Said 1993: 8). What distinguishes the modern European empires from the Roman or the Spanish or the Arab, according to Said, is that they are systematic enterprises, constantly reinvested. They do not move into a country, loot it and leave. What keeps them there is not simple greed, but massively reinforced notions of the civilizing mission.
Colonialism, Neo‐
Authors: Ashcroft Bill
Published: March 2012

This term was coined by Kwame Nkrumah, the first President of Ghana, and a leading exponent of pan‐Africanism, in his
Neo‐Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism
(1965). This title, which echoed Lenin's definition of imperialism as the last stage of capitalism, suggested that, although countries like Ghana had achieved political independence, the ex‐colonial powers and the newly emerging superpowers such as the United States continued to play a decisive role in their cultures and economies through new instruments of indirect control such as international monetary bodies, particularly the IMF and World Bank, through the power of multinational corporations and cartels which artificially fixed prices in world markets, and through a variety of other educational and cultural nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In fact, Nkrumah argued that neo‐colonialism was more insidious and more difficult to detect and resist than the direct control exercised by classic colonialism.
Commercialization
Authors: Kukreja Sunil
Published: March 2012

The process of commercialization is integral to capitalism. Experts regard economic exchange, in all its manifestations, as a key and enduring engine of capitalism and the process of globalization. The phenomenal expansion in the volume and intensity of economic exchange in the capitalist world economy has arguably been closely linked to and depended on a critical process of the commercialization of social relations.
Corruption
Authors: Warner Carolyn M.
Published: March 2012

Corruption is typically defined as “behavior by a public servant, whether elected or appointed, which involves a deviation from his or her formal duties because of reasons of personal gain” (LaPalombara 1994: 328, italics in the original; see also Klitgaard 1988: 20–24). Definitions assume that the context involves public office or government bureaucracy, rather than limited malfeasance within a corporation.
Creative destruction
Authors: Dahms Harry F.
Published: March 2012

In the context of globalization, creative destructive is a concept uniquely well‐suited to capture one of the defining features of the present age: the lack of clarity regarding the likely impact the simultaneous processes of integrating global markets and accelerating global trade, communication, and space—time compression will have on the politics, culture and society of the future. As the constellation between the latter dimensions of human civilization is continuing to undergo changes in relation to economic conditions and forms of organization, it is impossible to make predictions about likely trends into the future. Indeed, in the early twenty‐first century, expectations of and concerns about the future are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty. Creative destruction is an apt tool to confront related challenges. Even when the utility of the concept of creative destruction is being questioned (for instance, whether and in what sense particular kinds of destruction that have accompanied globalization can be thought of as “creative”— and whether “destructive creation,” or even “destructive destruction,” might be more suitable terms), it provides ample occasions and incentives to address present dilemmas, contradictions, and complexities.
Credit cards
Authors: Manning Robert D. , Butera Anita C.
Published: March 2012

Consumer credit cards provide electronic payments for goods and services based on an unsecured loan or line of credit provided to the account holder. A financial institution — the issuer/lender — extends an unsecured or secured line of credit to the cardholder/borrower. The card issuing bank may require the cardholder to pay an annual fee. The account holder must repay the purchases/charges within the specified billing period (at least 20 days) to avoid incurring finance charges and/or penalty fees. Cardholders receive a line of credit based on the banks' risk assessment of their debt capacity and expected ability to remit at least a minimum payment of between 1.0 and 2.0 percent of the outstanding monthly account balance.
Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: Vergès Françoise
Published: March 2012

To judges in charge of clarifying the laws and procedures by which Nazi leaders would be judged and the post‐World War II Nuremberg trials would be conducted, a new notion was necessary because “war crimes” and “crimes against peace” did not cover the scope, extent and characteristics of Nazi crimes. “The wrongs which we seek to condemn and punish have been so calculated, so malignant, and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignored, because it cannot survive their being repeated,” argued US Justice Jackson. Nazism had attacked the very fiber of civilization, but how could justice define what a crime against “civilization” meant? The notion of “crimes against humanity” which judges and jurists from France, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom and United States discussed raised many questions: what defines “humanity,” what kind of crimes can be judged under that name, in the name of which community the tribunal is legitimated? In its final agreement, on August 8, 1945, the
London Charter of the International Military Tribunal
defined “crimes against humanity” as:
Deindustrialization
Authors: Steven P. Dandaneau
Published: March 2012

Deindustrialization refers to the political‐economic process in which industry and its manufacturing jobs are significantly reduced in a region or country. Resulting “rust belts,” whether in Germany's Ruhr Valley, Michigan's Motown, or dispersed throughout Russia as hundreds of dilapidated “monotowns,” become the source of social dislocation and distress and, more often than not, environmental degradation and hazard.