bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Text as Data: Methods Appendix
Authors: Grimmer Justin , Westwood Sean J. , Messing Solomon
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter provides more details about the classification of the nearly 170,000 House press releases used in this study as credit claiming or not. Making use of recent Text as Data methods, the study begins with 800 triple-hand-coded documents, providing a label for each of the press releases. The idea is to learn a relationship between the hand-coded labels and the words in the texts. This relationship will then be used to predict the label for all the remaining documents. The result of the process is that all the press releases will be labeled. The chapter then presents a series of simplifying assumptions that make statistical modeling of the texts feasible.
Institutional Transformation and Uncertainty
Authors: Ruef Martin
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the institutional transformation of the American South after the U.S. Civil War. Although the emancipation of former slaves and political upheavals of Radical Reconstruction are perhaps the most evident features of this institutional transformation, it touched upon almost every aspect of Southern society, ranging from urban life to class structure to the organizations that populated the region's agriculture and industry. The New South that resulted after Radical Reconstruction evidenced a more capitalist and market-driven society than its antebellum counterpart. Enduring uncertainty was a defining feature of this transition between precapitalist and capitalist institutions. The chapter then formulates a general theory regarding the evolution of uncertainty over the course of institutional transformation, and discusses the specific transitions toward capitalism that occurred in the economy of the U.S. South during the postbellum era.
Credit and Trade in the New South
Authors: Ruef Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the uncertainties surrounding the trade among country merchants, manufacturers, and wholesalers. Often separated by distances of hundreds of miles, their exchange relationships had little recourse to the social devices used to manage uncertainty within Southern communities. After the Civil War, moreover, these relationships had to bridge the sectional division between the North—where many wholesalers were concentrated in the large seaboard cities, and the South—where many country stores and manufactories were located in the hinterland. The physical and social distance between suppliers and Southern businesses created a need for new institutions to govern the flow of commerce. Although these institutions did emerge in the postbellum era, they ultimately proved inadequate to manage the economic uncertainty of merchants and, in some respects, may have even exacerbated it.
Paths to Development
Authors: Ruef Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that familiar paths to economic development such as investments in railroad infrastructure, banking, and market centers, produced unpredictable returns for Southern communities in the decades after the war. Confronted with new forms of commerce, boosters faced not only uncertainty in anticipating how much economic and demographic growth to expect from their communities, but also categorical uncertainty in deciding what paths to economic revitalization might be possible. Under conditions of profound change, the most reliable approach for postbellum communities to secure capital investments, attract new residents, and increase the production of local goods was to create organizational forms that were present in other comparable communities, thereby avoiding accusations of idiosyncrasy. This produced a remarkable pattern of economic underdevelopment, and by 1900, most small Southern towns were tied to cotton monocropping and a homogeneous pattern of retailing.
Establishing Distance from Immigrant Muslims
Authors: Özyürek Esra
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how converted German Muslims seek to practice a so-called true Islam stripped of cultural accretions. In its indigenous German Muslim context, an Islam free of culture means an Islam that has been purged of its often-stigmatized Arab and Turkish cultural practices. Once rectified like this, the reasoning goes, Islam will be more in line not only with its original spirit but also with European ideals of democracy, freedom, and tolerance. In that way, a purified Islam, in the German context, becomes an effort to connect German converts to their parents rather than differentiate them. This process sets apart immigrant Muslims, who are delineated by their traditional and hence by definition “wrong” Islamic practices.
East German Conversions to Islam after the Collapse of the Berlin Wall
Authors: Özyürek Esra
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the conversion and life-story narratives of two East Germans who both grew up during the closed, authoritarian regime of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). When the wall fell, Zehra was a twenty-year-old woman from a family of regime opponents just about to begin her life after graduating from high school. Usman was a thirty-year-old man with an established position as a chemist at an East German state-run factory. The fall of the wall transformed both their lives radically, recasting them as second-class citizens with no foreseeable way out in the united Germany. Both Zehra and Usman converted to Islam shortly after the collapse of the East German Communist regime in 1989.
Being Muslim as a Way of Becoming German
Authors: Özyürek Esra
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes a look at the Muslimische Jugend Deutschland (Muslim Youth of Germany, or MJD), a small organization of not more than 1200 registered members. The MJD promotes Muslim youths of diverse backgrounds coming together to discover ways of becoming active and desirable members of German society. Young members of the MJD participate in discussions about how to represent Muslims and immigrants in the general elections; arrange trips to Auschwitz in order to shoulder the weight of German history and talk about its meaning for contemporary German society; and organize New Year's evening celebrations along with hip-hop concerts that are Islamically proper. Many born Muslim members confirm that through their participation in the MJD, they start to embrace their German identity in a wholehearted way and define themselves primarily as German rather than Turkish or Arab.
Conclusion
Authors: Özyürek Esra
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers some concluding thoughts on how German converts to Islam apply different and at times conflicting strategies in order to demonstrate how Islam is a perfect—and indeed better—fit for German/European society. It also briefly discusses the significance of Salafi communities in this context. In addition, the chapter tells the story of a moral panic over converts to Islam that swept Germany in the 2000s, which suddenly moved German converts from their previously invisible position to center stage in the media. This account highlights the most novel aspects of Islamophobia, with the reason for the panic being the fear of a potential terrorist attack.
American Insecurity
Authors: Levine Adam Seth
Published: November 2017

Americans today face no shortage of threats to their financial well-being, such as job and retirement insecurity, health care costs, and spiraling college tuition. While one might expect that these concerns would motivate people to become more politically engaged on the issues, this often doesn't happen, and the resulting inaction carries consequences for political debates and public policy. Moving beyond previously studied barriers to political organization, this book sheds light on the public's inaction over economic insecurities by showing that the rhetoric surrounding these issues is actually self-undermining. By their nature, the very arguments intended to mobilize individuals—asking them to devote money or time to politics—remind citizens of their economic fears and personal constraints, leading to undermobilization and nonparticipation. The book explains why the set of people who become politically active on financial insecurity issues is therefore quite narrow. When money is needed, only those who care about the issues but are not personally affected become involved. When time is needed, participation is limited to those not personally affected or those who are personally affected but outside of the labor force with time to spare. The latter explains why it is relatively easy to mobilize retirees on topics that reflect personal financial concerns, such as Social Security and Medicare. In general, however, when political representation requires a large group to make their case, economic insecurity threats are uniquely disadvantaged. Scrutinizing the foundations of political behavior, the book offers a new perspective on collective participation.
Financial Threats and Self-Undermining Rhetoric
Authors: Levine Adam Seth
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book examines the political consequences of threats to Americans' financial well-being and in particular why they might not motivate people to become politically active even though we have good reason to expect that they would. Such threats are collectively referred to as American insecurity—or, in some cases, simply economic insecurity. The book focuses primarily on four threats: involuntary job loss, health care costs, retirement, and higher education costs. These four by no means capture the full range of financial threats that Americans face, but they turn out to be particularly illuminating cases. Relative to many other issues that are often grouped under the label of “economic insecurity,” explaining political inaction on these four issues turns out to require a new theoretical approach.
Do Americans View Financial Threats as Important Political Issues?
Authors: Levine Adam Seth
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes in greater detail the objective situation facing Americans in four major areas of financial threats: job insecurity, healthcare costs, retirement, and the cost of college. It analyzes the politics of such threats among the mass public. It examines the extent to which the people who consider such issues important are facing them in their own daily lives, as opposed to a situation in which their concerns are reflective of what others are facing. The data for this chapter are drawn from several sources, including time series data from Gallup beginning in the early 1950s as well as American National Election Study data from the past three decades that (broadly) match the time frame in which the objective situation in these four areas has become more insecure.
Why Rhetoric about Economic Insecurity Can Be Self-Undermining
Authors: Levine Adam Seth
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a theory about how people decide to spend money or time on something. It shows the link between being reminded of a personal financial constraint and actual behavior requires stating a theory about how people decide to spend money or time on something. The starting assumption is that there are a significant number of people who find economic insecurity issues to be important political issues. Another starting assumption is that decisions to donate time and money to politics typically do not arise spontaneously but instead upon receipt of a request. With these two assumptions in place, the chapter considers how people decide whether they can spend scarce resources of money or time on politics. It draws upon seminal work in behavioral economics and consumer psychology. Given that this work was originally developed and tested in terms of monetary expenditures, it begins by discussing only monetary donations and later expands this to consider how decisions to spend time are both similar and different.
The Benford Property
Authors: Berger Arno , Hill Theodore P.
Published: November 2017

In order to translate the informal versions of Benford's law into more precise formal statements, it is necessary to specify exactly what the Benford property means in various mathematical contexts. For the purpose of this book, the objects of interest fall mainly into three categories: sequences of real numbers, real-valued functions defined on [0,+ ∞), and probability distributions and random variables. This chapter defines Benford sequences, functions, and random variables, with examples of each.
After Hegel
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2017

Histories of German philosophy in the nineteenth century typically focus on its first half—when Hegel, idealism, and Romanticism dominated. By contrast, the remainder of the century, after Hegel's death, has been relatively neglected because it has been seen as a period of stagnation and decline. This book argues that the second half of the century was in fact one of the most revolutionary periods in modern philosophy because the nature of philosophy itself was up for grabs and the very absence of certainty led to creativity and the start of a new era. This innovative concise history of German philosophy, from 1840 to 1900, focuses not on themes or individual thinkers but rather on the period's five great debates: the identity crisis of philosophy, the materialism controversy, the methods and limits of history, the pessimism controversy, and the Ignorabimusstreit. Schopenhauer and Wilhelm Dilthey play important roles in these controversies but so do many neglected figures, including Ludwig Büchner, Eugen Dühring, Eduard von Hartmann, Julius Fraunstaedt, Hermann Lotze, Adolf Trendelenburg, and two women, Agnes Taubert and Olga Pluemacher, who have been completely forgotten in histories of philosophy. The result is a wide-ranging, original, and surprising new account of German philosophy in the critical period between Hegel and the twentieth century.
The Identity Crisis of Philosophy
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the “identity crisis” suffered by philosophers beginning in the 1840s, the decade after Hegel's death. They could no longer define their discipline in the traditional terms widely accepted in the first decades of the nineteenth century. So they began to ask themselves some very hard questions. What is philosophy? What is its purpose? And how does it differ from the empirical sciences? The remainder of the chapter covers the sources of the crisis, Trendelenburg's philosophia perennis, philosophy as critique, Schopenhauer's revival of metaphysics, the rise and fall of the neo-Kantian ideal, Eduard von Hartmann's metaphysics of the sciences, and Wilhelm Dilthey's conception of philosophy as a worldview.
The Ignorabimus Controversy
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the controversy generated by the August 14, 1872, lecture of Emil Du Bois-Reymond, Rector of Berlin University and one of the most prominent physiologists of his age. Du Bois-Reymond declared that there are two insurmountable limits to all scientific knowledge: the nature of matter; and the connection between consciousness and the brain. All scientific knowledge oscillated between these two limits—matter and mind—which served as impassable border posts. About these two topics, Du Bois-Reymond maintained, we would forever remain ignorant. To emphasize the point, he concluded his speech with the solemn and emphatic Latin word: “Ignorabimus!” We will be ignorant. The reaction to his lecture was as tumultuous as its content was controversial. It was the starting point for an intense discussion about the limits of natural science that would last for decades.
Political Dynamics and Senate Representation
Authors: Schiller Wendy J. , Stewart Charles
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the links between the indirect electoral mechanism and patterns of representational behavior that appear to differ markedly from that exhibited by U.S. senators today. Specifically, it examines whether U.S. senators' institutional activities were connected to the dynamics underlying their election to office—for example, whether their election was resolved on the first ballot or required joint session balloting to resolve, and their margin of victory. The chapter proceeds in three parts. First, it presents a quantitative analysis of the patterns of separate or joint elections along with the number of ballots it took to resolve elections once they moved into joint session. Second, it assesses the relationship between how senators were elected and key indicators of legislative activity, such as bill sponsorship, committee assignments, and roll call voting. Third, it compares the behavior of senators elected under indirect elections to their directly elected modern-day counterparts.
Introduction
Authors: Corbeill Anthony
Published: November 2017

This book presents some evidence from ancient Rome to dispute the notion that the grammatical gender of inanimate objects is a convenient linguistic convention, having no correspondence with any sort of imagined sexual characteristics of those objects in the real world. It argues that in the world of Latin grammatical gender, the sex and sexuality behind a given gender was always available for exploitation by the learned speaker. The book provides a historical perspective to the ongoing debate over the extent to which the structure of language affects perception of the world. Using the stable data of the Latin language and Latin literature, it examines the consistent overlap, and even occasional identification, of grammatical gender with biological sex by speakers in ancient Rome, and shows that this overlap finds an analogue in the Latin nouns commonly used to denote “gender” and “sex.”
Why Tolerate Religion?
Authors: Leiter Brian
Published: November 2017

This book addresses one of the most enduring puzzles in political philosophy and constitutional theory—why is religion singled out for preferential treatment in both law and public discourse? Why are religious obligations that conflict with the law accorded special toleration while other obligations of conscience are not? The book analyzes the concept of religious toleration, which has long been the paradigm of the liberal ideal of toleration of group differences, as reflected in both the constitutions of the major Western democracies and in the theoretical literature explaining and justifying these practice. The book shows why our reasons for tolerating religion are not specific to religion but apply to all claims of conscience, and why a government committed to liberty of conscience is not required by the principle of toleration to grant exemptions to laws that promote the general welfare.
Toleration
Authors: Leiter Brian
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the concept of religious toleration. Religious toleration has long been the paradigm of the liberal ideal of toleration of group differences, as reflected in both the constitutions of the major Western democracies and in the theoretical literature explaining and justifying these practice. But while the historical reasons for the special “pride of place” accorded religious toleration are familiar, what may be more surprising is that no one has been able to articulate a credible principled argument for tolerating religion qua religion—that is, an argument that would explain why, as a matter of moral principle, we ought to accord special legal and moral treatment to religious practices. The answer in this book is: not because of anything that has to do with it being religion as such.
Forting Up the Skyline: Rebuilding at Ground Zero
Authors: Molotch Harvey
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Ground Zero and the successive attempts to rebuild. It treats the replacement skyline of New York as a great mishap and wasted opportunity. Security measures display, on the ground, some rather new ways that political authority combines with market forces to shape the world. Although there were varied aesthetic and moral visions of what should happen at the site, the pugilist instinct predominated. Post-9/11 measures to protect the downtown called for not just any sort of buildings, but those that would show the enemy that we could build tall and powerful. The result is a different kind of building in the form of One World Trade Center, also known as “Freedom Tower.” It is argued that the “program” for the structure, still in another way, created vulnerabilities through misguided hardening up.
Toward a Theory of the Tea Party
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter situates the Tea Party movement in historical context and proposes a theory of why people support it. It argues that one of the reasons why some people are sympathetic to the goals and objectives of the Tea Party rests upon their discomfort with Barack Obama as the president. Similar to the Ku Klux Klan, who believed that Jews, Catholics, and blacks threatened to subvert the America to which they had become accustomed, so too is this the case with the Tea Party and Obama. To the Tea Party supporters, Obama represents a threat to the America they have come to know, in which American identity is commensurate with being white, male, native-born, English-speaking, Christian, and heterosexual.
Who Likes Tea? Sources of Support for the Tea Party
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter tests the claim that Barack Obama, and what he is perceived to represent, plays a key role in why people support the Tea Party. The change represented by the election of Barack Obama increases the attractiveness of the Tea Party to the mainly white, middle-aged, middle-class, relatively well-educated, largely male slice of America who believe he is committed to the destruction of “their” country. Tea Party supporters tend to be relatively financially secure, white, mostly male, and Protestant—many of whom are evangelicals. In the end, sympathy for the Tea Party is generally motivated by conservative principles as well as out-group hostility. Critics, however, claim that the Tea Party is driven by intolerance.
Does the Tea Party Really Want Their Country Back?
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes claims made by the Tea Party's critics, who argue that the movement is one rooted in bigotry. The minority and immigrant population in America has grown dramatically, eventually leading to the election of many prominent African American, Latino, and Asian American candidates to office. At the same time, minority groups have continued to promote equal rights, especially civil rights for a range of groups, including racial/ethnic minorities, women, and sexual minorities. Yet, American history is filled with periods during which increasing visibility and calls for equal treatment among out-groups has been repeatedly met with opposition from dominant groups. The chapter calls into question whether or not Tea Party supporters see all Americans as equal members of society entitled to the same access to the American dream.
Can You Hear Us Now? Why Republicans Are Listening to the Tea Party
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter evaluates the proposition that the Tea Party promotes political mobilization beyond other factors known to promote activism. It appears as though the Tea Party and its supporters have the potential to convert their sentiments into public policy. The principal vehicle for doing this is through political mobilization, pressuring public officials to represent one's interests. Social movements exist not just to bring attention to their issue, but also to capture the attention of public officials, often by promising to elect or eject from office key allies and opponents. Based on their activism and political success in 2010, the Tea Party appears to be the most recent exemplar of the type of social movement capable of sparking political participation.
Conclusion
Authors: Parker Christopher S. , Barreto Matt A.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter discusses how the Tea Party remains an important player in American politics and a subject of great national interest. Since relatively few people ever become an official member of a social movement, this study focuses on the attitudes and behavior of Tea Party sympathizers, instead of the members and organizers themselves. The chapter argues that out-group hostility and adherence to conservative principles are not the only ways of understanding why people are sympathetic to the aims of the Tea Party. The movement is also associated with social change perceived as subversion. Support for the Tea Party is really a proxy for reactionary conservatism, which provides a different motivation for various attitudes and behavior associated with current political and policy issues.
Introduction
Authors: Willis Paul E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the two youth cultures under discussion — the motor-bike boys, sometimes known as ‘rockers’, and the hippies, sometimes known as ‘heads’ or ‘freaks’ — form a ‘dialectic relationship’ with cultural life. It argues that it is only in the factories, on the streets, in the bars, in the dance halls, in the tower flats, in the two-up-and-two-downs that contradictions and problems are lived through to particular outcomes. Furthermore, it is in these places where direct experience, ways of living, creative acts and penetrations — cultures — redefine problems, break the stasis of meaning, and reset the possibilities somewhat for all of us. And this material experience is embedded in the real engagement of experience with the world: in the dialectic of cultural life.
The Motor-Bike Boys
Authors: Willis Paul E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the politics and experiences of identity as exercised by the motor-bike boys. It first discusses the author's approach to studying the motor-bike boys' culture at large, by making contact with a motor-bike club in a large English city in 1969, thus producing an account based on general observation, conversations with individuals and groups, participation around the club, often with the group just described, and tape-recorded sessions. It then embarks on a more intimate examination of this particular culture. The world of the motor-bike boys was above all else concrete and unequivocal. They perceived it without ontological insecurity, without existential angst.
Creating Post–Cold War Europe: 1989 and the Architecture of Order
Authors: Sarotte Mary Elise
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter describes how, for roughly a year following the collapse of the old order in November 1989, various groups of actors competed and struggled vigorously to re-create order in a way most advantageous to themselves. The longer-term goal, of course, was to dominate that order in the post-Cold War world. Again and again, key actors in 1989–90 employed the terminology of architecture to describe what they wanted: to start building anew, to construct a European roof or a common European home, to create a new transatlantic architecture, and so on. Leaders consciously proposed a number of competing blueprints for the future and described them as such. This metaphoric understanding, on top of its historical evidence, is an apt one for a study centered on Berlin, where so much real architecture went up after the wall came down.
Prefab Prevails
Authors: Sarotte Mary Elise
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the prefab model, which was proposed by the Western allies in 1990. The United States and West Germany convincingly made the case for taking the West's prefabricated institutions, both for domestic order and international economic and military cooperation, and simply extending them eastward. This institutional-transfer model had the advantage of being quick, and dealing in known and successful commodities, such as the West German Basic Law, the West German currency (or DM), and the Article 5 mutual defense guarantee of NATO, to name a few. Indeed, the fact that both the European Community (EC) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) were structurally capable of expansion provided useful precedents. Ultimately, the prefab model was the one model that proposed to harmonize both domestic and international institutions in Eastern Europe to preset Western standards.
Securing Building Permits
Authors: Sarotte Mary Elise
Published: November 2017

This chapter details how Helmut Kohl still had to secure building permits to start work even after the prefab model emerged as the winner among the models. Kohl particularly had to convince Gorbachev because he needed some form of permission from not only Moscow but also Warsaw to proceed with his plans for East Germany. Close cooperation between Kohl and the Bush administration ensued—which involved the chancellor and his aides making repeated trips to the States in spring and summer 1990, often just weeks apart—with the mission of finding ways to convince their NATO allies to make reform a reality in time to sway Gorbachev. In the second half of 1990, Kohl got the building permits that he needed to move the prefabricated structures that had served West Germany well—its alliance, constitution, currency, and market economy—eastward to replace the ruins of Eastern socialism.
Libertas’ philosophandi, or the Liberty of Thought
Authors: Gatti Hilary
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the freedom of thought and speech as it relates to the political, artistic, cultural, and scientific realms. The question of liberty here is raised as ideas of a new institution began to form during the sixteenth century: the parliaments, or general councils, which were inherited from both the classical and medieval worlds. Next, the chapter explores the tensions between author and authority through the figure of William Shakespeare, here considered not so much for his remarkable poetic and dramatic achievement as in his relationships with other figures of his time who were deeply involved in a discourse on liberty and the toleration of new and unorthodox forms of thought. Finally, the chapter considers ideas of liberty as they are applied to the scientific thought of Francis Bacon and Galileo Galilei.
Conclusion
Authors: Gatti Hilary
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter reflects on the historical foundation on which the modern discourse of liberty and toleration is based. It looks back to “the long sixteenth century,” the period between 1500 and approximately 1650—specifically between the time of Niccolò Machiavelli and John Milton—during which the principal concepts and themes concerning liberty in the modern world began to emerge against a background of unprecedented violence and oppression. At this time a series of dramatic crises that altered the map of European society and culture, bringing about changes so radical and lasting that all the values that had guided the previous centuries had to be recast in entirely different and unfamiliar molds.
“The Anglo-Saxons of the Orient”
Authors: Hsu Madeline Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with the story of Yung Kuai, a Chinese Educational Mission (CEM) student who graduated from Yale but remained in America for the rest of his life where he married a Euro-American woman and raised a biracial family, which he supported by working as a diplomat at the Chinese embassy. Yung Kuai's story reveals the holes in Asian exclusion, from the welcomed presence of the CEM in New England even at the height of the anti-Chinese movement in California, and highlights the efforts of Americans such as missionaries, educators, and diplomats who treated Chinese as culturally distinct yet malleable in ways that could be turned to advantage. Fears that unilaterally imposed immigration restrictions might damage relations with China meant that initial forays into imposing controls came through diplomatic negotiations.
The Wartime Transformation of Student Visitors into Refugee Citizens, 1943–1955
Authors: Hsu Madeline Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the Chinese people present in America on temporary visas as students, technical trainees, diplomats, sailors, and so forth suddenly found themselves stranded by the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War. For instance, C.Y. Lee, the author of Flower Drum Song, was rescued from refugee status by changes in immigration laws and procedures that allowed resident Chinese in good standing to receive permanent status. On behalf of this group of elite, highly educated Chinese, the State Department and Congress made accommodations rather than force such usefully trained workers to return to a now hostile state. Lee's transformation from student to refugee and then to legal immigrant mirrors that of thousands of other Chinese intellectuals who received American assistance to remain, enter the U.S. workforce, and become citizens.
The Challenge of State-Building in Africa
Authors: Herbst Jeffrey
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines three sets of issues that present a challenge to state-building in Africa: the cost of expanding the domestic power infrastructure; the nature of national boundaries; and the design of state systems. Understanding the decisions made regarding each is critical, and there are profound trade-offs inherent to different approaches. Africa’s political geography helped structure the responses that leaders adopted to each set of issues just as European decisions were influenced by the structural features of that region. The chapter first compares the political geographies of Europe and Africa, focusing on the European experience of state consolidation and the nature of African politics, before discussing the extension of power in Africa. It also explores continuities in African politics and concludes with an overview of the analytic tools that are central to this study.
Believing in Yellowstone: The Moralization of Nature and the Creation of America’s Eden
Authors: Farrell Justin
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows how materially instrumental or utilitarian aspects of social life can acquire moral and religious meanings. It argues that the use of natural resources in Yellowstone underwent a process of “moralization” that had important institutional effects on the area (e.g., more government attention, scientific research, censuring, public sentiment, emotional disgust). The chapter documents the emergence and interaction of three “moral visions” (utilitarian, spiritual, biocentric) in Yellowstone in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in order to explain this process of moralization. To demonstrate the effects of this process, and how the meaning of Yellowstone changed from its early years, the chapter ends with an analysis of how new moral visions were institutionalized into new laws and policies, both nationally and locally, culminating in the creation of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem—thus creating the social conditions for eventual intractable contemporary conflict that would soon follow.
Paternalism in Practice
Authors: Grand Julian Le , New Bill
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the prevalence of paternalistic elements in existing government policies. It first considers the range of interventions that may be viewed as involving elements of government paternalism, including the provision of information, subsidies or other forms of positive financial incentives, and the imposition of legal restrictions, taxation or other forms of negative financial incentives. It then describes various nonpaternalistic justifications for state intervention and a number of ways in which they fail satisfactorily to provide an adequate basis for particular policies. In particular, it discusses efficiency, market failures, and the harm principle as well as equity. The chapter identifies paternalistic motivations as the most plausible explanation for many currently existing laws, regulations, and other government activities that promote well-being.
Paternalism and Policy
Authors: Grand Julian Le , New Bill
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the impact of actual paternalistic policies, some of which are already in place, on well-being and autonomy. It first describes four principal types of policy intervention that are potentially paternalistic: interventions involving legal restrictions, those involving taxation or negative financial incentives, those involving subsidy or positive financial incentives, and those arising from libertarian paternalism. It then discusses three areas where paternalistic interventions could be (and/or have been) considered: smoking, pensions, and assisted suicide. In the cases of pensions and smoking, the chapter argues that there is evidence of significant reasoning failure, which justifies some form of intervention, provided that the impact on autonomy can be minimized. With respect to assisted suicide, there is relatively little evidence of reasoning failure for the individuals concerned, and hence paternalistic intervention to prevent assistance is not justified.
Immigration, Latinos, and the Transformation of White Partisanship
Authors: Abrajano Marisa , Hajnal Zoltan L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines white Americans' partisan preferences. Using data from the American National Election Survey (ANES) and a series of other national public opinion surveys, it shows that white Americans who harbor anti-immigrant sentiments are much more likely than others to identify as Republican. This is true regardless of what other potentially relevant political factors are taken into account, how partisanship is measured, or which survey is used. Importantly, using panel data, the chapter finds that changes in individual attitudes toward immigrants such as African Americans and Latinos precede shifts in partisanship. Similarly, using aggregate data, it demonstrates that the public's views on immigration predict shifts in macropartisanship. These results suggest that immigration is driving individual defections from the Democratic Party to the Republican Party.
How Immigration Shapes the Vote
Authors: Abrajano Marisa , Hajnal Zoltan L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether the effects of immigration extend to the electoral arena. On average, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party present Americans with two different alternatives on immigration. Most of those calling for more punitive measures come from candidates on the Republican side. By contrast, most of the individuals offering a more compassionate perspective toward immigration emerge out of the Democratic camp. There are obvious partisan choices for voters with real hopes or deep fears on immigration. The chapter asks whether concerns about immigration are leading to greater support for Republican candidates across a range of elections from the presidency to gubernatorial contests. It shows that there is a strong, robust relationship between immigration attitudes and white Americans' vote choice. In other words, immigration exerts a broad influence on electoral politics in the United States.
Implications for a Deeply Divided United States
Authors: Abrajano Marisa , Hajnal Zoltan L.
Published: November 2017

This conclusion summarizes the book's main findings and considers their implications for the areas of race, immigration, and American politics. The results confirm the important role that immigration plays in American politics and also highlight the enduring though shifting role of race in the nation. Where African Americans once dominated the political calculus of white Americans, Latinos appear more likely to do so today. The movement of so many white Americans to the right has wide-ranging ramifications for both the future balance of partisanship and likely trajectory of race relations in the country. With a clear majority of the white population now leaning towards the Republican Party and a clear majority of the minority population now favoring the Democratic Party, political conflict in the United States is increasingly likely to be synonymous with racial conflict—a pattern that threatens ever-greater racial tension.
Action-minimizing Methods in Hamiltonian Dynamics (MN-50)
Authors: Sorrentino Alfonso
Published: November 2017

John Mather's seminal works in Hamiltonian dynamics represent some of the most important contributions to our understanding of the complex balance between stable and unstable motions in classical mechanics. His novel approach—known as Aubry–Mather theory—singles out the existence of special orbits and invariant measures of the system, which possess a very rich dynamical and geometric structure. In particular, the associated invariant sets play a leading role in determining the global dynamics of the system. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to Mather's theory, and can serve as an interdisciplinary bridge for researchers and students from different fields seeking to acquaint themselves with the topic. Starting with the mathematical background from which Mather's theory was born, the book first focuses on the core questions the theory aims to answer—notably the destiny of broken invariant KAM tori and the onset of chaos—and describes how it can be viewed as a natural counterpart of KAM theory. The book achieves this by guiding readers through a detailed illustrative example, which also provides the basis for introducing the main ideas and concepts of the general theory. It then describes the whole theory and its subsequent developments and applications in their full generality.
Authority
Authors: Jackson Roy
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the origins and development of political authority in the Islamic world. From the laylat al-qadr, the “night of power” in which the Qur'an symbolically “came down” from God, to the death of the Prophet, Muslim affairs were governed by the special authority of that prophetic-revelatory event, and it remains the primary paradigm of political authority in Islam. Muhammad was a religious, political, and military leader who founded a new form of community, an umma, that was both spiritual and worldly in nature. The development of this new community, which defined itself in terms of faith rather than national or tribal boundaries, marked a transition from polytheism to monotheism, and was ultimately shaped by both Arab tribal bonds and Persian monarchic systems.
Fundamentalism
Authors: Euben Roxanne
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the origin, definitions, and issues associated with the term Islamism. It argues that an understanding or explanation of Islamism requires attending not only to the multiple and various ways Islamist thinkers reinterpret Islam but also to the specific conditions and cultures in which they are embedded and the partisans and audiences they seek to address. These conditions and contexts determine the extent to which an Islamist framework resonates with Muslims who live in a wide range of cultural contexts and geographic locations. Such resonances are, in turn, facilitated by a concatenation of forces that mark this particular moment in history. These include the ways in which contemporary global inequalities compound the legacy of European colonialism to reproduce a sense of Muslim powerlessness relative to the West; ongoing Euro-American political and financial support of corrupt autocrats, many of whom preside over nation-states stitched together by Western fiat; and the persistence of authoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzing “Muslim rage” toward external targets.
Government
Authors: Shahin Emad El-Din
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the concept of government in Islamic political thought. The question of who rules, or the qualities of the head of the Islamic government, has been critical in Islamic history. The first political conflict between the members of the early Muslim community took place immediately after the death of the Prophet (632) over the issue of ṭukm, or rule. The disagreement was not over the necessity of the establishment and continuation of political authority after the death of the Prophet but instead over who should succeed the Prophet as ruler of the Muslim community. Early Muslims also believed in the necessity of establishing one government under a single leader. The remainder of the chapter discusses the constitutional theory of government, principles of government, necessity of government, institutions and structures of government, legislative and judicial functions of government, and modern formulations of government.
Knowledge
Authors: Heck Paul L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the concept of religious knowledge. Knowledge informs us about the reality of existence, providing guidance for decision making. In Islam, such knowledge, based in scripture (Qur'an and sunna), exists to generate a moral order pleasing to God. Loss of such knowledge is a sign of the end times, ignorance being the cause of moral disarray. Knowledge is thus not simply a source of prestige for scholars but truth from God to guide society to prosperity in both this world and the next. Embodied in a corpus of laws known as shari'a, this knowledge is overseen by religious scholars with jurisprudential expertise to apply God's will with wisdom to life's situations. The chapter discusses the scope of religious knowledge, the religious value of secular reality, the political demands of religious knowledge, politics of religious diversity, religious knowledge and the modern state, and religious knowledge as guidance for society.
Muhammad
Authors: Bowering Gerhard
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the life and career of Muhammad. In Muslim belief, the religion of Islam is based on divine revelation and represents a divinely willed and established institution. In the perspective of history, the origins of Islam can be traced back to the prophetic career of Muhammad, its historical founder in the first third of the seventh century. Born around 570 in Mecca, a town in a rocky valley of the Hijaz—the northwestern quarter of the Arabian Peninsula—Muhammad began his prophetic proclamations circa 610. He appeared not as a mystic or visionary but as a prophet with the mission to convert the Quraysh, his fellow Arab tribesmen who had settled there. The discussions cover Muhammad's life from ca. 570 to 610; Muhammad's career in Mecca from ca. 610 to 622 and in Medina from 622 to 632; and Muhammad as a political leader.
War and Democratic Constraint
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

Why do some democracies reflect their citizens' foreign policy preferences better than others? What roles do the media, political parties, and the electoral system play in a democracy's decision to join or avoid a war? This book shows that the key to how a government determines foreign policy rests on the transmission and availability of information. Citizens successfully hold their democratic governments accountable and a distinctive foreign policy emerges when two vital institutions—a diverse and independent political opposition and a robust media—are present to make timely information accessible. The book demonstrates that there must first be a politically potent opposition that can blow the whistle when a leader missteps. This counteracts leaders' incentives to obscure and misrepresent. Second, healthy media institutions must be in place and widely accessible in order to relay information from whistle-blowers to the public. The book explores this communication mechanism during three different phases of international conflicts: when states initiate wars, when they respond to challenges from other states, or when they join preexisting groups of actors engaged in conflicts. Examining recent wars, including those in Afghanistan and Iraq, the book links domestic politics and mass media to international relations in a brand-new way.