bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Miller Nicola
Published: May 2021

This chapter draws several conclusions about the history of knowledge through a survey of landscapes of knowledge in Spanish America over the hundred years or so after independence. It discusses the recognition of knowledge that matters as much as the production or distribution in analysing outcomes of past and present struggles to extend access to knowledge. It also clarifies how certain ways of knowing are deemed worthy of being received as knowledge and who decides what counts as knowledge, even before it is subject to validation. The chapter emphasizes that a nation-state can be revealingly interpreted as a community of shared knowledge, providing a more flexible and more grounded analytical framework of an imagined community. It stresses that the knowledge order of a society will affect its capacity to achieve integration, constitutional legitimacy, and political participation.
Solving Problems by Fighting for an Interest
Authors: Lichterman Paul
Published: May 2021

This chapter shows how fighting for an interest works as a strategy of collective problem-solving. It describes what that strategy sounds and feels like, and the central dilemma it produces for participants. The chapter also looks closely at everyday tests: points at which participants in a community of interest are faced with challenges and potential alternatives to their usual style of action. The activists' responses to these tests show concretely what kinds of decisions, arguments, and avoidances perpetuate a community of interest. A community of interest is not intrinsically more strategic or effective than other forms of collective problem-solving. The Housing Justice (HJ) and Inquilinos del Sur de Los Angeles / Tenants of South Los Angeles (ISLA) coalitions both experienced victories and disappointments. When it was time to end the field research, ISLA participants had won more of what they said they wanted than did the more conventionally strategic-sounding HJ coalition.
What Is Winning?
Authors: Lichterman Paul
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at scenes from the two main coalitions (Housing Justice and Tenants of South Los Angeles) to show just how different their campaigns were and why that matters, even though both fought for affordable housing. Accomplishments make sense only inside strategic arcs; scene style shapes the strategic choices advocates make. Scene style inflects the meaning of particular strategies and goals as well as winning itself. The chapter presents two trajectories of collective problem-solving that unfold on varying timelines, toward tentative and evolving goals. The two coalitions and their trajectories reveal different trade-offs that go with each, differently styled line of action. None of this is to imply that goals and outcomes themselves do not matter. In fact, accumulating evidence shows that different styles do shape outcomes that matter to advocates and the scholars who study them. There is much more to find out about how style contributes to outcomes as scholars usually treat them. The point is that one learns valuable and practical things when one understands particular outcomes in the context of strategic arcs that make those outcomes more, or less, meaningful to advocates and their constituencies.
Hybrid Problem Solving
Authors: Lichterman Paul
Published: May 2021

This chapter evaluates how the close juxtaposition of civic and noncivic in hybrid civic action provides better ways to discern whether or not, and how, nonprofits express the will of people in their immediate locale, and whether or not they pose an effective alternative to governmental action, as some commentators argue. All that should help clarify how civic action really works. The chapter focuses mostly on a locally prominent and successful, nonprofit affordable housing developer, Housing Solutions for Los Angeles (HSLA). It then compares HSLA briefly with efforts by a Tenants of South Los Angeles (ISLA) committee to administer the housing provisions of the community benefits agreement (CBA) that ISLA's campaign won from the Manchester apartments developer. This was a different kind of hybrid. ISLA's affordable housing work for the community ultimately was both financed and constrained by a big, for-profit real estate developer — the Manchester property owner.
Neo-Surrealism within the Prose Poetry Tradition
Authors: Hetherington Paul , Atherton Cassandra
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses the American neo-surreal as an influential strand of prose poetry, adapting ideas that originated with the surrealists to challenge assumptions about how the world should be understood, and prose-poetic narratives ought to be read. The term “neo-surrealism” does not have to be restrictive but may be used as a way of opening up an understanding of certain key features of prose poetry internationally. And while American prose poets are certainly not the first to experiment with surrealism, many contemporary American prose poets demonstrate a particular interest in absurdism and neo-surrealism. As a result, neo-surrealism is arguably best exemplified by American prose poets — in terms of the number of writers employing such techniques and the quality of neo-surrealistic works being written. Notwithstanding its contemporaneity, the neo-surrealistic strand of prose poetry maintains a clear — if sometimes lateral — connection to the strange and often dreamlike works produced by nineteenth-century French prose poets such as Charles Baudelaire and Arthur Rimbaud.
Prose Poetry and TimeSpace
Authors: Hetherington Paul , Atherton Cassandra
Published: May 2021

This chapter addresses prose poetry's distortion of space and time, exploring the effects created by prose poetry's simultaneously condensed and onrushing language. This is unlike lineated poetry because although lineated lyric poems, in particular, often create a sense of considerable compression and intensity, the relative abundance of white space in such works creates a countervailing sense that there is room to think and breathe. Prose poetry is also unlike prose fiction, in which the emphasis on narrative progression gives priority to a sense of directed forward movement through TimeSpace — an emphasis that is very different from the effects created by most prose poems. While a prose poem may create an impression of forward momentum as the grammar and sequencing of the prose poem's tightly packed sentences carry the reader forward, its poetic tropes simultaneously complicate or problematize any sense of one-way progression. As a result, prose poems usually yield for the reader a complex textual engagement in which ideas and motifs frequently fold back on themselves, or present unresolved issues for consideration.
Legitimacy and Representation beyond Elections (Part Two)
Authors: Landemore Hélène
Published: May 2021

This chapter determines whether non-elected bodies with intrinsic democratic credentials, such as mini-publics and self-selected representative groups like social movements, also have the legitimacy to make binding decisions for the rest of the polity. It returns to the question of political legitimacy and proposes that the democratic legitimacy of representatives comes not from individual consent, as eighteenth-century theory of legitimacy understood it, but a plurality of factors, including majoritarian authorization as a necessary but insufficient condition. Majoritarian authorization need not be of directly individual representatives but, instead, of the selection mechanism through which they are selected. The chapter then considers the circumstances under which self-selected representatives can acquire a minimal form of democratic legitimacy even in the absence of any explicit majoritarian authorization of the selection mechanism or of the individual persons thereby selected. It also looks at the problems posed by potential conflicts of legitimacy between different democratic representatives and assesses how these problems may be solved. Finally, the chapter returns to electoral representation and asks whether it could be sufficiently democratized through so-called liquid democracy schemes, which would create a system labelled as “liquid representation.”
Foci
Authors: Ballakrishnen Swethaa S.
Published: May 2021

This chapter outlines the macro market reforms that framed the emergence of India's corporate legal elite. It begins by describing the exceptional mobility of these particular global professionals, highlighting the ways that their case differs from the kinds of mobility and praxis widely associated with other Indian professionals, both historically and in the present day. The chapter then uses the variations between the different kinds of global work in India to describe how the novel forms of institutional emergence within the legal profession were especially crucial in establishing the unique — and accidental — circumstances that allowed for the emergence of these women lawyers in elite transactional firms. Two specific consequences of liberalization reforms were central to this project's research design because they offered purchase for analytical sampling across cases. First, while some professional practices like litigation remained unaffected by liberalization measures, others, like international transactional law and management consulting, only emerged as a consequence of the foreign direct investment that liberalization permitted. Second, in addition to new kinds of work, market liberalization also introduced new kinds of work and workplaces.
Firms
Authors: Ballakrishnen Swethaa S.
Published: May 2021

This chapter extends the analysis of novelty from the individual level to a more organizational perspective. No doubt the advantage of newness played a big part in scripting how individuals were viewed and treated, but equally important were the ways in which novelty moderated how organizations identified and wanted to be seen. In exploring the ways in which this organizational identity was presented and negotiated, the chapter reveals the building blocks for another counter-intuitive finding — that it was domestic law firms, rather than local offices of international firms, where women professionals seemed to flourish. It shows that this unique structural premise forces them to use two distinct logics of emergence. First, firms use a differentiation logic to distinguish themselves from traditional firms that foreign clients are likely to see as “traditional” and kinship based — and therefore not modern and sophisticated enough. Second, they use a mimicking logic that mirrors global processes to aggressively signal compatibility and likeness with their global peers.
Futures
Authors: Ballakrishnen Swethaa S.
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses the sustainability of the unintended gender parity in Indian elite law firms. What can we expect this accident to produce? And, to the extent we can predict it, how much will this early advantage influence the path dependency these firms are likely to instill in their future genealogy? Of course, without time-series data, predictions about the actual sustainability of this advantage are moot at best. But in considering them through a range of related lenses, the chapter argues that this “accident” could have important implications and extensions, even if only for a small cross-section of the profession. Specifically, it explains that this case of elite Indian legal professionals offers fresh insights not only into the global legal profession, but to larger relationships between mobility, merit, gender, and globalization. While this research appears to focus on a singular occurrence that is best preserved for its own policy extensions, its true value lies not in its own self-extensions, or even in its direct portability, but rather in its ability to inform about the optics and effectiveness of diversity, representation, and inclusion more generally.
Neoliberal Policies and Supporting Actors
Authors: Madariaga Aldo
Published: May 2021

This chapter undertakes an empirical analysis based on quantitative and qualitative data to discover the patterns of support and opposition to neoliberalism in two concrete policy domains: exchange rate and industrial policies. It provides an understanding of neoliberalism as a political project based on the gradual and purposeful erosion of democracy. It also connects economic and political actors with their policy preferences and political behavior. The chapter describes patterns of support and opposition to concrete policies that reveal whether certain countries maintained their neoliberal trajectories or switched to alternatives as they contested or even dismantled neoliberalism. It gives a regression analysis based on historical data from different countries and investigates which economic actors demanded and supported the implementation and continuity of neoliberal policies.
Blocking Opposition
Authors: Madariaga Aldo
Published: May 2021

This chapter analyzes the opposition blockade with respect to the political expression and representation of parties opposed to neoliberalism. It uses sources to investigate how neoliberal social blocs used political institutions to block the representation of adversaries in formal politics, including electoral rules, executive powers, veto players, and lustration. It also recounts the processes of economic and political liberalization in Latin America and Eastern Europe, wherein economic reforms were expected to bring immediate costs to the population and positive results in the long-term. The chapter discusses how the opposition blockade affected the political expression and representation of interests opposed to neoliberalism through key aspects of the institutional design of the new polities. It describes the design of electoral laws as the most successful way of limiting the power of political and societal actors opposing neoliberalism.
Normal Bedfellows
Authors: Mandić Danilo
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses three concepts: separatism, organized crime, and the relation between the two. It begins by drawing on social scientific insights to dispel some common misconceptions about, in turn, separatist movements and mafias. By bridging two compartmentalized subfields, one discovers just how natural the connections between them are. Organized crime scholarship typically neglects separatist cases altogether or confounds them with nonseparatist ones. Yet today's globalized mafias have deep structural reasons to flourish, especially in torn states. Organized crime is notoriously embedded in extant community relations: patriarchal, occupational, residential, and above all, ethnic. The chapter then delineates two tools — a Simmelian triadic model of state-separatist-mafia relations, and typology of mafias across three regions — for explaining the phenomenon.
Introduction
Authors: Gribetz Sarit Kattan
Published: May 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of how the rabbis used time-keeping and discourses about time to construct crucial social, political, and theological difference. As the rabbis fashioned Jewish life and theology in the Roman and Sasanian worlds, they articulated conceptions and structures of time that promoted and reinforced new configurations of difference in multiple realms. The chapter then reflects on the categories of “time” and “difference” and the interrelationship between the two. It discusses three interrelated cultural and political dimensions of the rabbis' late antique world. Rather than set within a conventional historical contextualization, however, the story is told as a history of time, highlighting specifically temporal aspects of the Jewish, Greco-Roman, and Christian contexts in which the rabbinic movement emerged and developed.
Rabbinic and Roman Time
Authors: Gribetz Sarit Kattan
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores the differentiation and synchronization of rabbinic and Roman time by examining rabbinic attitudes toward the Roman calendar and its annual festivals. Mishnah Avodah Zarah begins with a list of Roman festivals and prohibitions against participating even in the non-cultic commercial activities that surrounded them. Ironically, by trying so deliberately not to observe the Roman calendar and by formulating laws intended to limit interactions between Romans and Jews on certain calendar days, the rabbis of the Mishnah actually integrated the rhythms of the Roman calendar into their own daily lives, embedding Roman temporal sensibilities into the Jewish calendar. However, the Roman calendar became integrated into the Jewish calendar not only through the formulation of rabbinic laws intended to limit interactions between Romans and Jews on certain calendar days but also through the Judaization of the Roman calendar in the rabbinic imagination. These illuminate just how integral past and present Roman time was for the rabbis — a grave threat from which the rabbis sought to protect and distance their community, and so pervasive in the rabbis' environment that they sought to Judaize the Roman calendar.
The Business Park
Authors: Wetherell Sam
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the suburban, postindustrial, and holistically planned developments such as the Cambridge Science Park. These were initiated and managed by a single authority, usually a private developer, and hosted a mixture of offices, light industry, and private research centers. The chapter also highlights the emergence of the business park, which the author described as a host of different developments that at various times have been called “office parks,” “science parks,” “research parks,” “industrial parks,” or “technology parks.” The chapter then looks at the history of a new late-twentieth-century urban form, looking at the kinds of working subjects that this form hoped to produce and attract, and its relationship to the state and the wider world. Ultimately, the chapter traces back where the book began, at Trafford Park. Ruined by deindustrialization and choked by geography, Trafford Park was transformed by a state development corporation into a massive business park by the 1980s. As with the private housing estate and shopping mall, this new urban form required a reimagining of the old.
Dreamworlds of Race
Authors: Bell Duncan
Published: May 2021

Between the late nineteenth century and the First World War an ocean-spanning network of prominent individuals advocated the unification of Britain and the United States. They dreamt of the final consolidation of the Angloworld. Scholars, journalists, politicians, businessmen, and science fiction writers invested the “Anglo-Saxons” with extraordinary power. The most ambitious hailed them as a people destined to bring peace and justice to the earth. More modest visions still imagined them as likely to shape the twentieth century. This book explores this remarkable moment in the intellectual history of racial domination, political utopianism, and world order. Focusing on a quartet of extraordinary figures, the book shows how unionists on both sides of the Atlantic reimagined citizenship, empire, patriotism, race, war, and peace in their quest to secure global supremacy. Yet even as they dreamt of an Anglo-dominated world, the unionists disagreed over the meaning of race, the legitimacy of imperialism, the nature of political belonging, and the ultimate form and purpose of unification. The racial dreamworld was an object of competing claims and fantasies. Exploring speculative fiction as well as more conventional forms of political writing, the author reads unionist arguments as expressions of the utopianism circulating through fin-de-siècle Anglo-American culture, and juxtaposes them with pan-Africanist critiques of racial domination and late twentieth-century fictional narratives of Anglo-American empire. Tracing how intellectual elites promoted an ambitious project of political and racial unification between Britain and the United States, the book analyzes ideas of empire and world order that reverberate to this day.
The Dreamer of Dreams
Authors: Bell Duncan
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores Andrew Carnegie's shifting racial dreamworld. Racial dreamworld argues that nationalism and international competition were slowing down the march of progress, and it was essential to eliminate them in order to unleash the full potential of humanity. The chapter outlines his account of historical change, the value of social dreaming, and his early ideas about the racial reunion. Carnegie's account of historical change — a kind of naturalized secular theodicy — sustained his boundless optimism, moralized his rapacious capital accumulation, and guaranteed the realization of his political desires. He insisted that dreams were both the prerogative and the privilege of the engaged citizen and social dreaming was a vice not a virtue, a danger not a duty. It also discusses some of the most popular historical narratives deployed by unionists to ground the claims about Anglo-America, focusing especially on Teutonist visions of racial development.
Conclusion
Authors: Bell Duncan
Published: May 2021

This concluding chapter steers a different course, reflecting on some of the ways that time and history have underpinned visions of Anglo-America. It outlines a discourse of racial union which was usually predicated on a specific account of both space and historical temporality. The chosen people — whether designated Aryan, Teutonic, Anglo-Saxon, or English-speaking — was imagined as superior to all others, their greatness ordained by their unique historical trajectory and extant racial characteristics. They had been, and remained, the pioneers of human progress. This historical story produced stratified global geography: the vanguard of modern humanity was concentrated in specific places, chiefly Britain and its past and present settler colonies in North America and the South Pacific. Ultimately, the chapter discusses W. E. B. Du Bois and T. E. Scholes' ideas about race and empire. While the steampunk literature renarrates the history of Anglo-modernity by erasing the primacy of the United States, Afro-modernists sought to destabilize the historical validation of racial domination, clearing the ground for imagining alternative futures.
The Origins of the “Daughters’ Question”
Authors: Manekin Rachel
Published: May 2021

This chapter traces the imperial legal context of both compulsory education and religious conversion and their selective application in Galicia. It presents a background of the stories of the runaway Galician Jewish minor girls. It also considers the new cultural and intellectual opportunities for females in Kraków, including the spread of feminist ideas with which the highly acculturated Orthodox women would be familiar. The chapter analyses archival records on Jewish conversion that provides data on the age and geographical origin of the female Jewish converts, as well as the time period when their baptism took place. It discusses the lack of rabbinic response to the growing phenomenon of the female runaways.
Romantic Love
Authors: Manekin Rachel
Published: May 2021

This chapter centers on Debora Lewkowicz, a daughter of a village tavernkeeper, who completed her primary school education in the city of Wieliczka in Western Galicia. It discusses Debora's close relationship with a young Pole, as a result of which her father quickly arranged for her to marry a Jewish man. It also refers to Debora's escape on the eve of her wedding and entry into the Felician Sisters' convent, where she was subsequently baptized and prepared for the profession of governess. The chapter explores Debora's ambivalence that reflected her life on the boundary between the Polish-Catholic and Jewish worlds. It reviews the overall impression that Debora left in her letters to her father and to the convent, which is one of a deeply conflicted young woman who was torn between rival loyalties.
Intellectual Passion
Authors: Manekin Rachel
Published: May 2021

This chapter cites one of the runaway Jewish girls named Anna Kluger, who was a daughter of an affluent family in Podgórze and a direct descendant of R. Hayim Halberstam, the founder of the Sandz Hasidic dynasty. It describes Anna as person who had a passion for learning as she received her gymnasium matriculation certificate as an external student. It recounts how Kluger continued her studies at the university in secret after getting married and then ran away from home to pursue her dream. The chapter talks about Kluger's stay in a convent to hide while trying to be released of her father's custody. It discusses the cases of the runaway Jewsish girls that were brought to court, with the parents demanding that the state authorities help them bring their underage daughters back home.
Rebellious Daughters and the Literary Imagination
Authors: Manekin Rachel
Published: May 2021

This chapter interrupts the historical narrative with a short literary interlude that identifies and discusses works of contemporary fiction inspired by press reports of the Galician female Jewish runaways. It shows how different both Jew and non-Jew authors interpreted the predicament of the contemporary young Galician Jewish women. It also reviews the devastation of the war years that bore the first initiative for a change in the traditional practice of female education. The chapter talks about Sarah Schenirer, a young woman from Kraków who paved the way for the creation of the Orthodox Beit Yaakov female school network. It explains how the Beit Yaakov movement introduced formal religious education for Orthodox girls and controlled and filtered their exposure to secular studies.
Bringing the Daughters Back
Authors: Manekin Rachel
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at the model of Orthodox female education developed in Kraków, where the teachers' seminary was adopted as the highest learning institution for young Orthodox women. It discusses the rebellion of the daughters in Habsburg Galicia that continued until World War I as many young daughters, even young men, from Orthodox Jewish homes abandon the ways of their parents. It also points out how the phenomenon of Galician young Jewish females running away and seeking refuge in the Felician Sisters' convent eventually stopped. The chapter explores how the First World War changed the map of the Habsburg Empire and made Galicia in 1918 part of the newly created Second Polish Republic. It elaborates how the laws in the Second Polish Republic eliminated the legal conditions that facilitated the runaway phenomenon.
Introduction
Authors: Mao Douglas
Published: May 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of utopian literature and utopianism. Utopian speculation, at least since its key crystallization in Thomas More's Utopia of 1516, has been crucially animated by indignation. This may not strike many readers as a controversial claim. Yet the vast critical and theoretical literature on utopia has devoted curiously little attention to this point and, in so doing, has left certain features of utopianism looking not only more perplexing or contradictory than they really are but also more damagingly trivial. The chapter then looks at the halfway-to-utopia declaration in Samuel Beckett's Endgame (1957). Beckett, perhaps more disarmingly than any other in the twentieth century, insisted on conveying fundamental philosophy through old-fashioned gags.
Shaping Utopians
Authors: Mao Douglas
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines an aspect of utopia that has provided especially ample fodder for counterindignation. Analysts of utopian writing have long noted that some utopias promise to realize their goals by means of rules and institutions that work with people as they inevitably are, while other utopias propose to arrange conditions that will reshape human character. The chapter distinguishes between managerial utopias, which operate mainly through wittily engineered incentives and disincentives, and transformative utopias, which arrange conditions in ways that help determine what utopian people will be like. Both kinds of utopias have inspired vehement counterindignation because they can be seen as assaulting, if in somewhat different ways, human freedom. But the transformative utopia has proven especially inflammatory because it seems to imply a forcing of the soul by the powers that be — and because it seems at its furthest to threaten the replacement of humanity as we know it with something else. After tracing the history of these two utopian modes, the chapter turns to the acme of the transformative mode as it emerges, in the middle of the twentieth century, in antiutopian alarms about behavioral conditioning as well as a radical defense of conditioning mounted by B. F. Skinner.
Double Resonance: Geometric Description
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines the geometrical structure for the system at double resonance. After describing the normal form near a double resonance, it reduces the system to the slow mechanical system with perturbation. The system is conjugate to a perturbation of a two degrees of freedom mechanical system after a coordinate change and an energy reduction. The chapter then formulates the non-degeneracy conditions and theorems about their genericity. It also considers the normally hyperbolic invariant cylinders, and sketches the proof using local and global maps. The periodic orbits obtained in Theorem 4.4 correspond to the fixed points of compositions of local and global maps, when restricted to the suitable energy surfaces.
Aubry-Mather type at the single resonance
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter proves Aubry-Mather type in the single-resonance regime. It proves that for a single-resonance normal form system which satisfies the non-degeneracy conditions, every c in the resonance curve is of either Aubry-Mather or bifurcation Aubry-Mather type. The main results are Theorems 9.3 and 9.5, which restate Propositions 3.9 and 3.10. The chapter then proves that the conditions hold on an open and dense set of Hamiltonians. It discusses bifurcations in the double maxima case, as well as hyperbolic coordinates. The chapter also examines normally hyperbolic invariant cylinder, the localization of the Aubry and Mañé sets, and the genericity of the single-resonance conditions.
Forcing equivalence between kissing cylinders
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter formulates and proves the jump mechanism. It constructs a variational problem which proves forcing equivalence for the original Hamiltonian using Definition 6.18. It first constructs a special variational problem for the slow mechanical system. A solution of this variational problem is an orbit “jumping” from one homology class to the other. The chapter then modifies this variational problem for the fast time-periodic perturbation of the slow mechanical system. This is achieved by applying the perturbative results established in Chapter 7. Recall the original Hamiltonian system near a double resonance can be brought to a normal form and this normal form, in turn, is related to the perturbed slow system through coordinate change and energy reduction. The variational problem for the perturbed slow system can then be converted to a variational problem for the original.
Pure exchange and general equilibrium
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on situations of pure exchange, where consumers wish to exchange bundles of goods they hold at the outset for other bundles they will subsequently consume. It uses this setting to introduce the theory of price-mediated market transactions and, more particularly, the theory of general equilibrium, in which all markets in all goods are considered simultaneously. Following in the footsteps of generations of classical microeconomists, the chapter makes the assertion that in many situations of pure exchange, the consumer will wind up at the consumption allocation part of some Walrasian equilibrium for the economy, and insofar as there are markets in these goods, prices will correspond to equilibrium prices. One thing that the concept of a Walrasian equilibrium does not provide is any sense of how market operates. There is no model here of who sets prices, or what gets exchanged for what, when, and where.
The neoclassical firm
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses the neoclassical firm. In neoclassical economic theory, the firm is an entity, just like the cois maximized subject to a nsumer. The consumer has an objective function, utility, which budget constraint and any constraints on feasible consumption. The firm has an objective function, profit, which it maximizes subject to constraints imposed by its technological capabilities. Chapter 2 focused on the consumer's objective function; the budget set constraint was not discussed much. For the neoclassical firm, the reverse is typically true. There is a lot of discussion about how to represent the technological capabilities of the firm and very little about profit maximization. The chapter describes ways to model the firm's technological capabilities, before studying the firm's behavior, assuming it chooses inputs and outputs to maximize its profits.
The competitive firm and perfect competition
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter addresses market equilibria for competitive firms, firms that act as price takers. It develops a theory which is based on the hypothesis that firms and consumers act as if they have no effect on prices; consumers choose what to consume and firms choose their production plans in the belief that the prices they see are unaffected by their decisions. There are two ways to proceed in the theory. One could continue analysis of general equilibrium in the style of Chapter 6, but with firms added to the story. Or one can undertake partial equilibrium analysis. The chapter begins with the classic partial equilibrium analysis of perfect competition. It then develops an example that shows how a partial equilibrium perspective can be misleading, before discussing general equilibrium with firms.
Modeling competitive situations
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter studies how competitive situations are conventionally modeled in noncooperative game theory. It uses two sorts or forms of models: the so-called extensive form game and the normal or strategic form game. An extensive form representation of a noncooperative game is composed of the following list of items: a list of players; a game tree; an assignment of decision nodes to players or to nature; lists of actions available at each decision node and a correspondence between immediate successors of each decision node and available actions; information sets; an assignment of payoffs for each player to terminal nodes; and probability assessments over the initial nodes and over the actions at any node that is assigned to nature. There is no single way to proceed in general from a normal form game to a corresponding extensive form game. In one obvious extensive form, the players all choose complete strategies simultaneously, but often other extensive forms could be constructed from a given normal form.
Solution concepts for noncooperative games
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on the analysis and “solution” of noncooperative games. Any predictions one makes about how a game will be played must depend on the characteristics of the individuals playing the game. The theories that the chapter presents proceed on the presumption that all the players in the game are “rational,” that each credits their rivals with “rationality,” that each believes that all rivals credit their rivals with “rationality,” and so forth. The objective is to predict how people act in gamelike settings. The ground rules in noncooperative game theory are that the description of the game should include all relevant opportunities for the players. One of the hardest things to handle in this regard is the possibility that the players can communicate.
Repression and Polarization in Tunisia, 1987–2010
Authors: Nugent Elizabeth R.
Published: May 2021

This chapter details how widespread repression in Tunisia decreased polarization within the opposition between 1987 and 2010. It demonstrates the effects of widespread repression on Tunisian opposition groups through psychological, social, and organizational mechanisms. Psychologically, a widespread repressive environment made Tunisian opposition members aware that they were not the only targets of harsh state repression. It also altered socialization patterns among opposition groups by imprisoning Islamist and secular opposition members together, and by exiling members of these same groups together abroad, where they exchanged ideas about how to best combat the regime. Finally, widespread repression altered the organizational structures of individual opposition groups by creating cross-group human rights organizations that advocated the freedoms of political prisoners of different ideological persuasions. As experiences of repression became increasingly ubiquitous among the Tunisian opposition over time, members of individual parties more strongly identified with a collective opposition identity and demonstrated more positive feelings towards members of other opposition groups. In addition, two major collaborative initiatives in the early 2000s solidified an agreement among opposition leaders about how religion and politics would be dealt with should authoritarianism end.
Identity and Polarization in the Lab
Authors: Nugent Elizabeth R.
Published: May 2021

This chapter presents the motivation, design, and results of laboratory experimental tests on how repression conditions political polarization through identity. The effects of shared trauma on group identification and polarization are well-established in the psychological literature. Here, the chapter tests for the relationship between repression and political identities to establish the central psychological mechanism through which repression conditions polarization. To do this, the author designed an experiment in a controlled lab environment to observe, measure, and make causal inferences about the psychological mechanism underpinning the book's theory. While the two previous case-study chapters demonstrate how repression and polarization unfolded in the complicated real world, the lab experiments provide a clean (if hard) test of the theory, focusing on the central psychological mechanism. The results show how repression shapes levels of polarization among groups through identity formation.
The Birth of Cultural Primatology from the Spirit of Japanese Uniqueness
Authors: Langlitz Nicolas
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the birth of cultural primatology in mid-twentieth-century Japan, looking at the prehistory of the chimpanzee culture wars. The story begins in 1948 with the observation of a troop of Japanese macaques on a subtropical islet. As Kinji Imanishi and his students fed them sweet potatoes on the beach, the monkeys invented a way of washing off the sand in the sea. Subsequently, they passed on the new behavior from generation to generation. The Japanese primatologists conceived of this social transmission as preculture. They framed their anthropomorphic conceptualization, as well as a research practice that made no effort to minimize human interference, in terms of Japanese culture. Soon Imanishi's anti-Darwinian evolutionary theory became engulfed in national and international controversy over its association with nationalist politics and its breach of the divide between science and the humanities. Ironically, this self-consciously Japanese brand of scholarship had not only appropriated European and American elements of evolutionist thought, including the idea of animal traditions, but also stirred up a controversy over primate cultures that polarized primatology far beyond the boundaries of national cultures.
Conclusion
Authors: Langlitz Nicolas
Published: May 2021

This concluding chapter reviews what the previous chapters have revealed about cultural primatology. It compares the knowledge cultures of Christophe Boesch's field station, Michael Tomasello's laboratory, Tetsuro Matsuzawa's laboratory, and Matsuzawa's field station with each other to map a space of no-longer-available possibilities. Boesch's fieldwork on wild chimpanzees and Tomasello's laboratory experiments on captive chimpanzees contradicted each other regarding the capacity of Pan troglodytes for culture and cooperation. Boesch and Tomasello could not agree because the fieldworker doubted the ecological validity of the experimenter's findings, while the experimenter denied that field observations could provide any insights into what caused the observed behaviors, leaving chimpanzee ethnographers unable to rule out alternative explanations of supposedly cultural behaviors. Meanwhile, Matsuzawa's laboratory research at the Kyoto University Primate Research Institute and his field research in Bossou presented an interesting contrast to the disagreements between the two because he integrated lab and field in his own work. He studied the social learning of nut cracking through field observation, field experiment, participation observation, and controlled laboratory experiment — and conceived of his synthesis of all these approaches as an expression of Japanese holism.
Epilogue
Authors: Langlitz Nicolas
Published: May 2021

THIS BOOK BEGAN with Rousseau and his heirs, who had finally made the philosophical voyage to the monsters of Loango. Of course, other genealogies of the common Enlightenment origin of cultural and biological anthropology would have been possible. My reference to the Discourse on the Origins and the Foundations of Inequality among Men...
Privatization and Its Discontents
Authors: Cordelli Chiara
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides both the motivational and the philosophical background against which an account of the wrong of privatization is then developed. It clarifies how to understand the concept of a public function and critically assesses existing answers to the question of when and why privatization is morally problematic. It also argues for a different diagnostic approach, which begins with what political institutions are for. The chapter investigates the nature of the disagreement on privatization. It critically examines and partly rejects four dominant approaches to the question of whether, when, and why the privatization of the public is morally objectionable: the distributive, motivational, sociocultural, and essentialist arguments.
Discussion, Societal Exclusion, and Political Voice
Authors: Baker Andy , Ames Barry , Rennó Lúcio
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores the implications of horizontal intermediation for the normative issues of the quality and equity of political voice. Because its monetary costs are virtually nil, the realm of horizontal intermediation could be a haven for under-resourced and marginalized groups. The analyses of data from the panel studies and the Comparative National Elections Project (CNEP), however, show that political discussion in seven Latin American countries suffers from an exclusion problem. Individuals of high socioeconomic status (SES) are much more likely to discuss politics than individuals of lower status, and men discuss politics more than women. This has concrete consequences, as high-SES individuals and men have more political knowledge than low-SES individuals and women, respectively. The chapter then considers whether these inequalities distort the political voice of marginalized groups. In Brazil and Mexico, the degree of engagement in horizontal intermediation is positively correlated with voters' abilities to choose the candidates who best represent their issue attitudes. Because of this correlation, the poor are sometimes less likely than the rich to choose candidates who support their expressed values and beliefs about politics and policies. Moreover, the emergence of socially informed preferences during a campaign does not move voters toward their correct candidates.
Survivalist Anthropology
Authors: Payne Mark
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at postapocalyptic fiction that brackets the direct, immediately productive relationship between occupation and mentation. It explains how postapocalyptic fiction posits the need for constant ontological practice as a prerequisite of survival, which is considered an adversarial strategy in posthuman survivalist fiction. It also refers to Octavia Butler's Parable novels, wherein the Earthseed writings of her protagonist that sustain eucharistic functions of community creation and group adhesion in an unstable world. The chapter elaborates Earthseed's ontological claims as a requirement for admission to the survivor group and as an understanding that human beings' relationships with one another are directly commensurate with their relationships to other living beings. It analyzes Butler's figure of the Sower that fulfills the organic meaning of apokalypsis.
1958-1973
Authors: Reich-Ranicki Marcel
Published: May 2021

This part narrates how, when anti-Semitism reared its ugly head in Poland during the 1950s, the author fled in 1958 to West Germany, another one of the striking twists in his development. Thanks to his connections with numerous German writers and key people in the mass media, he was able to establish himself quickly on the cultural scene. Indeed, it is astonishing how fast he became famous if not notorious. Through his reviews, books, and radio and television shows, he focused all his efforts on re-establishing the great humanistic tradition of German literature and became the spokesman for the renewal of this tradition on the contemporary scene. In 1972, he received the first honor of his life: an honorary doctorate of the University of Uppsala.
1973-1999
Authors: Reich-Ranicki Marcel
Published: May 2021

This part looks at how the author joined Frankfurter Allgemeine in 1973. Some fifteen years after his return to Germany, the author at last had a post in his literary life. The literary section of the paper, he hoped, would develop into a forum and an instrument of the highest quality; a particular concern of his was the reviewing of poetry. He then conceived the idea of extending the existing poetry reviews by introducing a regular weekly column. This would not present volumes of poetry, however, but individual poems from all periods of German poetry. Thus the Frankfurt Anthology was born. The fact that literature was being so widely promoted on the pages of Frankfurter Allgemeine did not, by any means, meet with approval only among the literary public — many of the author's colleagues on the paper applauded it too.
Leviathan on a Leash
Authors: Fleming Sean
Published: May 2021

States are commonly blamed for wars, called on to apologize, held liable for debts and reparations, bound by treaties, and punished with sanctions. But what does it mean to hold a state responsible as opposed to a government, a nation, or an individual leader? Under what circumstances should we assign responsibility to states rather than individuals? This book demystifies the phenomenon of state responsibility and explains why it is a challenging yet indispensable part of modern politics. Taking Thomas Hobbes' theory of the state as a starting point, the book presents a theory of state responsibility that sheds new light on sovereign debt, historical reparations, treaty obligations, and economic sanctions. Along the way, it overturns longstanding interpretations of Hobbes' political thought, explores how new technologies will alter the practice of state responsibility as we know it, and develops new accounts of political authority, representation, and legitimacy. The book argues that Hobbes' idea of the state offers a far richer and more realistic conception of state responsibility than the theories prevalent today and demonstrates that Hobbes' Leviathan is much more than an anthropomorphic “artificial man.” The book is essential reading for political theorists, scholars of international relations, international lawyers, and philosophers. It recovers a forgotten understanding of state personality in Hobbes' thought and shows how to apply it to the world of imperfect states in which we live.