bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Laws of Hammurabi
Authors: Barmash Pamela
Published: October 2020

The Laws of Hammurabi is one of the earliest law codes, dating from the eighteenth century BCE Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq). It is the culmination of a tradition in which scribes would demonstrate their legal flair by composing statutes on a repertoire of traditional cases, articulating what they deemed just and fair. The book describes how the scribe of the Laws of Hammurabi advanced beyond earlier scribes in composing statutes that manifest systematization and implicit legal principles. The scribe inserted the statutes into the structure of a royal inscription, skillfully reshaping the genre. This approach allowed the king to use the law code to demonstrate that Hammurabi had fulfilled the mandate to guarantee justice enjoined upon him by the gods, affirming his authority as king. This tradition of scribal improvisation on a set of traditional cases continued outside of Mesopotamia, influencing biblical law and the law of the Hittite Empire and perhaps shaping Greek and Roman law. The Laws of Hammurabi is also a witness to the start of another stream of intellectual tradition. It became a classic text and the subject of formal commentaries, marking a Copernican revolution in intellectual culture.
Bases Loaded
Authors: Panagopoulos Costas
Published: October 2020

Over the past few decades, a fundamental shift in political campaign strategy has been afoot in U.S. elections: Political campaigns have been gradually shifting their attention away from swing voters toward their respective, partisan bases. Independents and weak partisans have been targeted with less frequency, and the emphasis in contemporary elections has been on strong partisans. This book documents this shift—away from persuasion toward base mobilization—in the context of U.S. presidential elections and explains that this phenomenon is likely linked to several developments, including advances in campaign technology and voter-targeting capabilities as well as insights from behavioral social science focusing on voter mobilization. The analyses show the 2000 presidential election represents a watershed cycle that punctuated this shift. The book also explores the implications of the shift toward base mobilization and links these developments to growing turnout rates for strong partisans and attenuating participation among independents or swing voters over time. The book concludes these patterns have contributed to heightened partisan polarization in the United States.
The Waning of the Federal Common Law of Foreign Relations
Authors: Stephan Paul B.
Published: October 2020

This chapter argues that concentrating authority in the federal judiciary to make foreign relations law in the absence of congressional enactments both ignores the capacity of the States to promote encounters with foreign actors and the tendency of the federal courts toward entropy, rather than coherence. The new Fourth Restatement confirms that many important legal doctrines that affect the foreign-relations interests of the United States rest on State law, unless and until the federal political branches enact something else. According to the Fourth Restatement, the existence of plenary federal power over foreign relations does not automatically translate into exclusive federal authority. The Fourth Restatement not only captures the temper of the times, but good functional arguments support its position. The growth of international commerce and connectivity since the 1980s has greatly increased pressure on the States to adopt laws that promote foreign contacts and business. Moreover, it has become apparent that a sprawling and diverse federal judiciary cannot pursue nationally uniform law except under stringent conditions that limit, rather than expand, judicial discretion to make law. The U.S. Supreme Court accordingly sees its task as inducing lawmaking by Congress and the executive. It pursues this goal by barring the lower courts from adopting stopgaps. As a result, the federal common law of foreign relations has shrunk and may disappear.
Customary International Law and U.S. Judicial Power
Authors: Lee Thomas H.
Published: October 2020

This chapter describes specific points of divergence between the Third and Fourth Restatements of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States regarding how U.S. courts should engage with customary international law. The Third Restatement, adopted in 1987, envisioned U.S. courts fluent in and engaged with international law, deploying a U.S. foreign relations jurisprudence in dialogue with international law and lawyers. Customary international law was a central feature of this vision because it was the prime pathway for human rights litigation in federal courts when U.S. treaty-based human-rights initiatives had stalled. Appearing thirty years later, the Fourth Restatement exhibits a fundamentally different orientation toward customary international law. Customary international law is no longer embraced as it was in the Third Restatement as an opportunity to play offense, to advance the international law of human rights. That vision inspired a reaction among some U.S. legal scholars who questioned the U.S. federal law status of customary international law and the legitimacy of U.S. judges advancing the customary international law of human rights. The Fourth Restatement seeks a middle ground by defending against this revision of customary international law’s status role in the United States, concerned that the revisionist view might encourage and provide cover for U.S. courts to dismiss cases and claims with foreign policy ramifications that they should be adjudicating. The approaches of the two Restatements, taken together, have contributed to the disengagement of U.S. judges from customary international law altogether, to the detriment of U.S. conduct of foreign policy and contrary to the original constitutional specification of the judicial power of the United States as reflected in Article III, the Judiciary Act of 1789 that established the federal courts, and early historical practice.
Consider the Source
Authors: Swaine Edward T.
Published: October 2020

This chapter addresses the Fourth Restatement of Foreign Relations Law’s methodology for reckoning U.S. foreign relations law. The Fourth Restatement is a distinctive project: other recent American Law Institute projects touch on international law, U.S. constitutional law, and federal statutes, but none blends these diverse bodies of law so comprehensively. Continuity between the Third Restatement and Fourth Restatement may indeed diminish the odds of any sea changes, but may also show deeper and more sustained tendencies. Most important, discussion of the Fourth Restatement’s methodology may be valuable precisely because it is a work in progress: sufficiently determinate insofar as substantial work is completed, but sufficiently unresolved that criticism, including self-criticism, is constructive. With that in mind, what is the Fourth Restatement exhibiting about how foreign relations law is established and evidenced? As would be expected, it appears to have a conventional sense of how that law is to be reckoned; that is surely easier to accept than had it pursued something untested and unrecognizable to those in the field. At the same time, its methods tend not only to follow a path on which the law is developing but also to reinforce it, and it is worth exploring where discrete choices are being made and might be made differently.
The Restatements and the Rule of Law
Authors: Daugirdas Kristina
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores the promotion of the rule of law. In drafting and publishing Restatements of Foreign Relations Law, both the American Law Institute and the reporters have understood the projects as contributing to the rule of law at the international level, at the domestic level, or both. There are at least three distinct ways that these Restatements might promote the rule of law. First, they might do so by clarifying the content of the law. Second, the Restatements might contribute to the development of new legal rules, specifically to the evolution and consolidation of customary international law. Finally, the Restatements might promote the rule of law by promoting compliance with the law. Ultimately, the Third and Fourth Restatements have taken quite different approaches to promoting the rule of law. To some extent these different approaches are a consequence of changes in the legal landscape over the past three decades. They also reflect different choices that the reporters and the American Law Institute have made about how to carry out the project of restating foreign relations law.
Introduction
Authors: Walther-Hansen Mads
Published: October 2020

The introduction outlines key discourses of sound through an examination of music reviews, recording technology advertisements, and sound engineering literature. Listening is theorized both from the perspective of production (evaluating and imagining music and sound in the process of shaping it) and from the perspective of reception (reviews and user discussions). A quality-oriented mode of listening is outlined, and it is argued that music listening is, for the most part, characterized by a certain aesthetic attitude toward sound, even when music listening is strongly connected to, for instance, social identification and everyday activities.
The Social Construction of Climate Science
Authors: Lejano Raul P. , Nero Shondel J. , Chua Michael
Published: October 2020

Chapter 6 shows how in constructing, with some success, a challenge to the narrative of climate change science, the skeptical narrative has increasingly taken on features of ideology. A similar phenomenon may also be happening among the ranks of climate change advocates, with the response to skeptics taking on elements of ideological talk. Reactions to a prominent climate skeptic are examined in the chapter, along with characteristics of climate scientists’ responses to the skeptics. The chapter asks if this a pattern of negative feedback, with ideological discourse on one side eliciting a similarly ideological counter-reaction from the other, and suggests that if this is so, it does not bode well for the idea that constructive engagement of contending publics is still possible. Any way out of this impasse will require an openness on the part of the climate scientific majority to the interests and concerns of a skeptical public. Most fundamentally, the chapter shows, there is something about much climate change discourse that is modernist, exhibiting cultural biases that can alienate the other (e.g., the global South).
Organic thin film transistors
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

This chapter lays the foundations of operation of both unipolar and ambipolar organic thin film transistors (OTFTs). Thin film transistors are used in display back planes, digital circuits, memory addressing elements, and photodetection. The discussion describes basic transistor principles and the limitations to their performance. Transistor noise and circuit noise margin, cutoff frequency, transconductance, and gain are discussed. Several different lateral architectures including top and bottom gate, and split gate configurations, as well as vertical transistors are described. High performance OTFT materials and channel morphologies and how they are achieved along with contact patterning are discussed. Phototransistors are introduced, and their characteristics are compared with other photodetectors discussed in Chapter 7. Transistor stability and its implication for circuit performance are detailed. Finally, several circuit applications with particular focus on chemical and medical sensing, and communications are described.
Democratic Angst
Authors: Biess Frank
Published: October 2020

This chapter shifts the focus from economic fears as analyzed in Chapter 4 to political fears regarding the future of postwar democracy. After the Federal Republic had gained sovereignty and accomplished a basic political stabilization, commentators continued to discuss the basic contours of West German democracy. They articulated intense fears of a possible authoritarian transformation (on the Left) or of a weakness of state authority (on the Right). Both political fears dialectically reinforced each other during the 1960s. A renewed presence of the Nazi past as a result of a series of trials of Nazi perpetrators also sensitized the West German public to the lingering effects of the Nazi dictatorship in postwar West Germany. The chapter then analyzes the emergence and functioning of democratic fears with respect to the debate over the planned “emergency laws” in the 1960s.
Conclusion
Authors: Biess Frank
Published: October 2020

The conclusion explains what was distinctly “German” about German Angst after 1945. It summarizes the argument of the book and reflects on the general historical factors that explain the rise and fall of specific fears in postwar Germany. Recurring episodes of fear resulted from changing international and global contexts. Intense media attention exacerbated certain fears, whereas shifting scientific understandings of emotions enabled other fears. Political elites engaged in a deliberate politics of fear, but fears and emotions more generally often evaded attempts at control or manipulation. The conclusion then also discusses the significance of the history of fear for our contemporary political moment.
Maximizing Expected Choiceworthiness
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

In this chapter we argue that, in conditions of interval-scale measurability and unit-comparability, one should maximize expected choice worthiness. Though this position has often been suggested in the literature and is often taken to be the ‘default’ view, it has so far received little in the way of positive argument in its favour. We start, in section I, by providing new arguments against two rival theories that have been proposed in the literature—the accounts which we call My Favourite Theory and My Favourite Option. Then we give a novel argument for the view that, under moral uncertainty, one should take into account both probabilities of different theories and magnitudes of choice-worthiness. Finally, we argue in favour of maximizing expected choice-worthiness (MEC).
Ordinal Theories and the Social Choice Analogy
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

We introduce and discuss the problems of intertheoretic incomparability and merely ordinal theories. We then introduce the analogy between decision-making under moral uncertainty and social choice, and explain how this analogy can help us to overcome these problems. The rest of the chapter is spent fleshing out how this idea can help us to develop a theory of decision-making under moral uncertainty that is applicable even when all theories under consideration are merely ordinal, and even when there is neither level-nor unit- comparability between those theories. We consider whether My Favourite Theory or My Favourite Option might be the right theory of decision-making under moral uncertainty in conditions of merely ordinal theories and incomparability, but reject both of these accounts. We defend the idea that, when maximizing choice worthiness is not possible, one should use the Borda Rule instead.
Metaethical Implications
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

In this chapter, we show that moral uncertainty creates a challenge for another metaethical view, namely non-cognitivism, according to which moral judgements are desires, or some other desire-like states, rather than beliefs. We show that it is surprisingly difficult, though perhaps not impossible, for non-cognitivists to accommodate moral uncertainty, for they lack the resources to adequately distinguish degrees of moral confidence and degrees of value ascribed to things. We discuss Lenman’s and Ridge’s versions of ecumenical expressivism and argue that neither are able to satisfactorilty explain moral uncertainty. We consider Sepielli’s defense, based on the ‘being for’ account of normative certitude, but argue that it, too, suffers from grave problems.
LU decomposition
Authors: Bisseling Rob H.
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses parallel dense matrix computations, in particular the solution of linear systems by LU decomposition with partial row pivoting. It first presents a general Cartesian scheme for the distribution of matrices. Based on BSP cost analysis, the square cyclic distribution is proposed as particularly suitable for matrix computations such as LU decomposition and Gaussian elimination. The chapter introduces two-phase broadcasting of vectors, which is a useful collective-communication method for sending copies of matrix rows or columns to a group of processors. It also discusses how to achieve high performance by delaying rank-1 matrix updates to create a multiple-rank update, which can be carried out by multiplying tall-and-skinny matrices in a cache-friendly manner. The high-performance parallel LU decomposition is tested on a top-ranking supercomputer, and its performance is analysed with respect to computation, communication, and synchronization.
The fast Fourier transform
Authors: Bisseling Rob H.
Published: October 2020

This chapter demonstrates the use of different data distributions in different phases of a parallel fast Fourier transform (FFT), which is a regular computation with a predictable but challenging data access pattern. Both the block and cyclic distributions are used and also intermediates between them. Each required data redistribution is a permutation that involves communication. By making careful choices, the number of such redistributions can be kept to a minimum. FFT algorithms can be concisely expressed using matrix/vector notation and Kronecker matrix products. This notation is also used here. The chapter then shows how permutations with a regular pattern can be implemented more efficiently by packing the data. The parallelization techniques discussed for the specific case of the FFT are also applicable to other related computations, for instance in signal processing and weather forecasting.
Sparse matrix–vector multiplication
Authors: Bisseling Rob H.
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces irregular algorithms and presents the example of parallel sparse matrix-vector multiplication (SpMV), which is the central operation in iterative linear system solvers. The irregular sparsity pattern of the matrix does not change during the multiplication, which may be repeated many times. This justifies putting a lot of effort into finding a good data distribution. The Mondriaan distribution of a sparse matrix is a useful non-Cartesian distribution that can be found by hypergraph-based partitioning. The Mondriaan package implements such a partitioning and also the newer medium-grain partitioning method. The chapter analyses the special cases of random sparse matrices and Laplacian matrices. It uses performance profiles and geometric means to compare different partitioning methods. Furthermore, it presents the hybrid-BSP model and a hybrid-BSP SpMV, which are aimed at hybrid distributed/shared-memory architectures. The parallel SpMV can be incorporated in applications, ranging from PageRank computation to artificial neural networks.
The Myth of the Common-sense Conception of Colour
Authors: Adams Zed , Hansen Nat
Published: October 2020

Some philosophical theories of the nature of colour aim to respect a ‘common sense’ conception of colour: aligning with the common sense conception is supposed to speak in favour of a theory and conflicting with it is supposed to speak against a theory. This chapter argues that the idea of a ‘common sense’ conception of colour that philosophers of colour have relied upon is overly simplistic. By drawing on experimental and historical evidence, it demonstrates how conceptions of colour vary along several dimensions and how even supposedly ‘core’ components of the contemporary ‘common sense’ conception of colour are less stable than previously thought.
The Late Ottoman Practice of Violence, 1878–1914
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

This chapter surveys developments within the late Ottoman state. It begins by exploring communal relations during the period of tanzimat reforms, going on to investigate how the takeover of the Ottoman state by a group of military politicians from Salonika, their attempted centralization and territorialization of the Ottoman state as a response to the Balkan losses, and the European ethnicization of imperial intervention—not yet fully evident in the Arab provinces but certainly becoming clear in the Balkans and the Caucasus—served to shape the consciousness of Arab political elites and formed the backdrop to later expressions of political violence in the Mashriq.
The Violence of World War, 1914–1920
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

This chapter investigates the unfolding of the war in the Arab provinces, examining how imperial reforms morphed into extreme violence as the Ottoman state enacted genocidal campaigns against Armenians and practiced political repression against Arab activists while European forces invaded, blockaded, and occupied the famine-stricken Levant. It focuses in particular on the rather sudden delegitimization of Ottoman authority in the Mashriq as a consequence of the multiple Allied invasions; the Committee of Union and Progress’s emerging policies of mass conscription, material requisitioning, and political repression in greater Syria and the Iraqi provinces, symbolized particularly by the public executions in Beirut and Damascus in 1915 and 1916. It also articulates how the Allied military campaigns in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine aimed not only to defeat the Ottomans but also to establish the outlines of a postcolonial absorption of these territories and their resources into the British and French Empires.
Voter Behaviour
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

How do party organizational and party system linkages help us understand how voters treat multi-level contexts? It is commonly argued that federal contexts disrupt the accountability mechanism. Do certain institutional designs of federalism affect this? Institutional designs that maximize the autonomy of each level of government should preserve the clarity of responsibility more than institutional designs that create a high degree of interdependence between levels of government. The existence of other forms of political linkage, at the party organizational and party system level, should also affect the emergence of linked political behaviour. This chapter tests whether this prediction holds using aggregate-level electoral data to identify barometer voting and subnational economic voting effects across seven multi-level systems. It then uses individual-level data to more closely examine how and when partisanship serves as a linkage mechanism in the case of Canada.
Introduction
Authors: Gellert Raphaël
Published: October 2020

The introductory chapter frames the way the topic of the risk-based approach will be addressed throughout the book. Rather than studying the risk-based approach as a given that is often seen as the irreconcilable opposite of the so-called rights-based approach (directly stemming from the status of data protection as a fundamental right of the EU), it sees the risk-based approach instead as the latest avatar of a series of regulation models applied in the data protection context. If the risk-based approach is the implementation of a regulation model to data protection, this means that the rights-based approach, and data protection more generally, has always had something to do with regulation. Furthermore, given the crucial importance that risk management tools play in the regulation model at stake, the issue becomes one of the entanglement of data protection law, risk, and regulation. One of the main points put forth is that the principle of proportionality is common to data protection law, regulation, and risk. From this perspective it frames the shift from the rights-based approach to the risk-based approach as a matter of variations around the proportionality principle. These variations are encapsulated in the different models of regulation at play: from the command and control model of the Data Protection Directive, to the meta regulation model underpinning the risk-based approach in the GDPR and other statutes.
Fundamental notions
Authors: Gellert Raphaël
Published: October 2020

The goal of this chapter is twofold. First, it provides a comprehensive overview of two key notions: risk and regulation. In the case of risk this includes the following. An explanation of risk and risk management, including an appraisal and description of the technical notion of risk as it appears in ISO Standards. It also provides for a discussion of some of the key methods for assessing and managing risks, including some of the main drawbacks and criticisms that have been raised against the use of risk management. In the case of regulation, it includes a more in-depth analysis of the notion, and of its constitutive elements; a discussion on the conflation between law and regulation; and a discussion on what exactly the object of regulation is. These discussions of key caveats pertaining to these two notions serve as the backbone of many of the analyses carried out in later chapters (e.g. understanding data protection in the light of the constitutive elements of regulation, discussing various methods for data protection risk management, etc). Second, beyond these caveats, this chapter also shows and contrasts how both risk and regulation can be analysed as a matter of two balancing exercises with associated safeguards, and hence, as variations around the proportionality principle. A grid at the end of the chapter summarises this, with reference to the European Convention on Human Rights proportionality test.
Acceptability ratings cannot be taken at face value
Authors: Schütze Carson T.
Published: October 2020

This chapter addresses how linguists’ empirical (syntactic) claims should be tested with non-linguists. Recent experimental work attempts to measure rates of convergence between data presented in journal articles and the results of large surveys. Three follow-up experiments to one such study are presented. It is argued that the original method may underestimate the true rate of convergence because it leaves considerable room for naïve subjects to give ratings that do not reflect their true acceptability judgments of the relevant structures. To understand what can go wrong, the experiments were conducted in two parts. The first part had visually presented sentences rated on a computer, replicating previous work. The second part was an interview where the experimenter asked the participants about the ratings they gave to particular items, in order to determine what interpretation or parse they had assigned, whether they had missed any critical words, and so on.
A Thousand Years of History
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

Joining the European Community would, in the words of Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell, be ‘the end of a thousand years of history’. Britain, as an island, was set apart from continental Europe both geographically, politically, and psychologically. It had fought off invasion and fought continental wars to prevent the formation of too-dominant continental alliances. But Britain’s economic and political life was inextricably bound up with that of the continent and its own monarchical dynasties were sometimes more foreign than domestic in origin. The English Reformation was a key definer of national identity and resistance to continental encroachment. The Second World War entrenched British confidence in the UK’s national institutions, which had stood against tyranny, by comparison with those on the continent that had been disgraced or destroyed. After the Second World War, Winston Churchill played a key role in the vision that became the European Community but he wanted to be ‘with’ it, not ‘of’ it.
The Price of Victory
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

Post-war Labour and Conservative governments saw the UK’s global interests as lying primarily with the United States and the Commonwealth. They took no part in the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community or in the proposed European Defence Community, though, when the EDC idea foundered, Prime Minister Anthony Eden played a prominent role in promoting European defence, just as Labour Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin had done in fostering the establishment of NATO. The British sent only an observer to the Messina Conference (1956) that negotiated the terms of the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Community (EEC). The UK set up its own trading bloc (EFTA) but it could not compete politically or economically with the EEC and, in 1961, the government of Prime Minister Harold Macmillan applied for EEC membership, despite the opposition of France’s President de Gaulle.
Social Change in Eleventh-Century Armenia
Authors: Greenwood Tim
Published: October 2020

Although the Byzantine annexation of Armenian territories in the later tenth and eleventh centuries has been studied from a number of perspectives, little attention has been paid to the subsequent history of those districts, and in particular the circumstances and the responses of the communities who stayed put. This chapter explores the social and cultural history of the district of Tarōn in the century after its incorporation as a theme. Through comparison with the annexation of Vaspurakan in 1021, it argues that both the lay and clerical elite left Tarōn in 966. This affected land tenure in several ways, including the creation of stratiotika ktemata and the imposition of the demosion. Evidence from an Armenian Gospels manuscript indicates that the land tax was still being collected—and the registers updated—as late as 1067. A new network of episcopal sees was established across the former Armenian see of Tarōn. Finally the History of Tarōn, a composition completed in the 980s, shows how one monastic community took advantage of the recent turmoil to promote its claim to foundation and endowment by St Grigor the Illuminator at the start of the fourth century. It also forged multiple links between the activities of St Grigor and the metropolitan see of Caesarea, associating the conversion of Tarōn, and by implication of Armenia, with the Byzantine Church.
The exploitation of deep-sea biodiversity
Authors: Harden-Davies Harriet
Published: October 2020

Humans have been harnessing the natural properties of marine organisms for millennia—initially in their unprocessed form for sustenance, and more recently via extracted products as biomaterials, functional food ingredients, and medicines. As accelerating scientific and technological advances open up the deep ocean, potential avenues to exploit components and characteristics of marine biodiversity are revealed. To keep pace with such innovations and to promote equitable and sustainable activities, the international legal framework has evolved over recent decades to address the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, together with the sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources. Gaps remain, however, particularly for the deep, remote and technologically demanding ocean areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) that account for more than 60 per cent of the global ocean. The question of how to share benefits from marine genetic resources is one of the most contentious issues in ongoing negotiations for the development of a new international legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in ABNJ under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). In this chapter, the potential exploitation of deep-sea biodiversity is considered, and the governance challenges associated with the sharing of benefits are discussed. Associated opportunities and challenges for the conservation and sustainable use of deep-sea biodiversity are discussed. The development of a new legal instrument under UNCLOS provides a central focus for the discussion in this chapter.
Public Intellectual
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

In this chapter, the focus shifts to Dieter Grimm’s role as a public intellectual. How did he become one? Which role played his position as a justice? He is also asked about services he rendered to society or the scientific community, in particular his membership in the board of the second German TV (ZDF).
Introduction
Authors: da Costa Alexandra
Published: October 2020

The Introduction foregrounds the ways in which printers paid attention to market developments, both in England and in Europe, and the successes and failures of the books they and their competitors printed. It establishes how books were physically sold in this period, including the role of printers’ advertisements, what bookshops were like, and the importance of browsing in the buying process. A final section summarizes the development of different paratexts to market books within that context, including title-pages, woodcuts, tables of contents and indices, and errata notices. It also considers how printers exploited similarities and complementarity between books to suggest sammelbände (compilations).
For the Reader’s Digest
Authors: da Costa Alexandra
Published: October 2020

Even as travel guides and pilgrimage souvenirs encouraged readers to be interested in distant places, printers exploited a counterbalancing attention to the household. Chapter 6 looks at the printing of guides to husbandry (that is, land management), cooking, carving, and other practical topics related to the household. It explores how printers developed these reference works and shifted away from printing material of most relevance to those at the apex of society to guides relevant to a broader swathe of readers, including women. The chapter argues that printers recognized the potential demand for material related to domestic life and, by offering works that first tangentially and then explicitly concerned the household, gave it a greater visibility and importance in the early Tudor imagination, making it available for increased religious, political, and imaginative use from the 1530s onwards.
Family, Community, and Mental Wellbeing
Authors: Cable Noriko , Sekine Michikazu , Koike Shinsuke
Published: October 2020

The Japanese demographic changed rapidly after 1945. There was rapid ageing, a sharp decline in three-generation households, and a rise in solo households. Still, the Japanese family-based collective culture continues to shape individuals’ overall beliefs and attitudes within society. The demographic shift has become a significant constraint on the Japanese social care system, manifesting as ro-ro kaigo (the old caring for the older), kaigo-rishoku (leaving employment to become a carer), and ‘8050’ (parents in their eighties caring for socially withdrawn children in their fifties). The national tendency towards social detachment makes such problems difficult to address. Today, Japan is finding a way to overcome these social challenges and establish an inclusive society by re-connecting people, including the mentally ill, within communities by tapping into the culturally inherited collective mentality of its people.
Chronic Diseases and Risk Factor Trends in Japan
Authors: Iso Hiroyasu , Maruyama Kotatsu , Yamagishi Kazumasa
Published: October 2020

Top longevity in Japan since the 1990s was primarily due to a large reduction in the incidence of stroke and a moderate reduction in ischaemic heart disease. Such trends in cardiovascular diseases in Japan are attributable to population-level health and changes in cardiovascular risk factors, especially (a) the high but largely reduced prevalence of hypertension and smoking (in men), and (b) the low but increased or stable prevalence of high blood cholesterol and the low prevalence of overweight and diabetes. Economic development, integrated activities in public health services, and improved medical care contributed to these favourable trends for stroke and ischaemic heart disease in Japan, reducing the urban-rural inequalities in cardiovascular diseases, risk factors and behaviours. An important aspect of cardiovascular health in Japan is national resistance to westernization of diet although meat and dairy consumption has tended to increase. Growing socioeconomic gradients among the ageing population however might worsen the health inequalities in cardiovascular health, requiring urgent measures for healthy ageing.
Cancer Inequalities in Japan
Authors: Ito Yuri , Rachet Bernard
Published: October 2020

Cancer death has been Japan’s greatest public health enemy since the 1980s, after controlling infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis. Improvement in cancer survival due to the development of effective cancer treatment and the spread of screening for early detection of cancer has led to declining trends in cancer mortality. However, inequalities in cancer outcome have been observed and trends in inequalities for some cancers have widened in Japan. Socioeconomic inequalities in cancer can be partly explained by differences in the prevalence of cancer risks and screening uptakes. Issues of access to treatment and diagnostic differences still need clarification due to the lack of data in Japan. We need to understand the mechanisms of inequalities in cancer occurrence, detection, and treatment to deal with this barrier to cancer control.
Social Determinants of Health on the Island of Okinawa
Authors: Shirai Kokoro
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses how island of Okinawa achieved the highest longevity in the world and why it then came to have high premature death rate in Japan. Okinawa returned to Japanese control in 1972 and for 20 years from 1975 to 1995 had the highest life expectancy and the highest number of centenarians per 100,000 population in the country. These days, Okinawa has a higher prevalence of obesity and higher mortality rates among 40-65 years-old than mainland Japan. This chapter seeks to understand the reasons for the health changes, from historical and cultural perspectives as example of social determinants of health.
New Legal Pluralism and Transnational Private Law
Authors: Mak Vanessa
Published: October 2020

This chapter makes an analysis of the theoretical foundations of lawmaking in European private law. It shows that they can be traced to transnational and constitutional pluralist theories. The main question is in which respects legal pluralism should replace the monist, state-centred perspective on lawmaking that prevailed in Western Europe since the creation of the Westphalian nation state. It is argued that, even though the state remains the primary locus for lawmaking in private law in the EU, the rise of private regulation and the interaction between courts through judicial dialogues plead in favour of adopting a strong legal pluralist perspective. ‘Strong’ or ‘radical’ legal pluralism, other than monism or ‘ordered’ legal pluralism, holds that norms can co-exist without a formal hierarchy. Both a descriptive and a normative case are put forward in support of adopting this perspective.
Realizing the EU Social Market Economy through Law
Authors: Mak Vanessa
Published: October 2020

This concluding chapter asserts that a case can be made for a strong legal pluralist theory of lawmaking in European private law. It takes a discursive approach, focusing on some aspects that require further consideration. The chapter considers how, and to what extent, the regulation of offline transactions is affected by the perceived shift towards legal pluralism. In addition, the chapter assesses which risks are posed to the instrumental-normative framework by political, economic, and social divides in the EU. Finally, the chapter closes with a reflection on the connections that could be made between certain fields such as citizens' rights as workers or in relation to environmental protection, opening up vistas for further research on lawmaking in European private law.
Introduction
Authors: Matthews Samantha
Published: October 2020

Virginia Woolf dismissed Byron’s early poetry as ‘album stuff’ and critics have assumed album poetry is inherently unoriginal and imitative. The introduction challenges these received ideas by laying out the aesthetic and cultural interest of this neglected hybrid, protean form designed to be read and circulated in manuscript, and which developed its own poetic language, generic conventions, and common themes. Writers of album poetry range from canonical Romantic poets, women poets, society poets, to amateurs, and albums create social spaces where different views of gender, hierarchy, and poetry clash. ‘Albo-mania’ has been seen as a phenomenon of the 1820s. The introduction traces the fashion’s origins in the 1780s, defines and contextualizes key terms ‘album verse’ and ‘album’, while analysis of Byron’s ‘Written in an Album’ (1812) lays out the characteristics and creative possibilities of album poetry examined in the six case studies which follow.
What’s in a Name?
Authors: Matthews Samantha
Published: October 2020

Charles Lamb treated album verses as occasions for rethinking and recuperating human relationships in an alienating modern culture. Lamb uses the unpromising occasion of writing a poem for a stranger to meditate on ethical, formal, and affective questions raised by the album transaction. Lamb’s poems for strangers problematize female identity; they draw on gendered stereotypes or nominative determinism but suggest that names and albums are unreliable determinants of female identity. One such poem for a stranger was the primary evidence in critical debates triggered by Lamb’s collection Album Verses, with a Few Others (1830). The chapter shows why Lamb presented an aesthetic defence of this minor, occasional genre, resisting the aggressive masculinity of periodical reviewing, and affiliating himself instead with the marginal literary values of manuscript culture—the feminine, domestic, and juvenile.
The New Agnosticism
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin
Published: October 2020

What is agnosticism? Is it compatible with a genuinely religious life? Here is a conventional answer to these questions: ‘Agnosticism is the view that we do not, and perhaps cannot, know whether God exists. Provided we think the epistemic probability of God’s existence is not negligible, engagement in religious discourse and practice is entirely rational’. Agnosticism so defined is quite different from fictionalism, which takes religious discourse to be fictional discourse, and religious practice a game of make-believe. Fictionalism, it seems, would have to offer a completely different justification for a religious life. This paper explores a hybrid between these positions, a hybrid that might be called ‘religious semantic agnosticism’, but which is perhaps more memorably called ‘New Agnosticism’. It is suggested that this hybrid position combines the advantages of both traditional agnosticism and fictionalism, but does not inherit their disadvantages.
Redeeming Agnosticism: Richard Kearney’s Anatheistic Wager
Authors: Collins Guy
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores whether there is more to agnosticism than a failure to take a position. Philosophy and theology are often faced with an impossible choice between the Scylla of theism and the Charybdis of atheism. Concentrating on metaphysical and epistemological agnosticism rather than psychological agnosticism leads to an exploration of Richard Kearney’s anatheistic wager. Drawing deeply on continental philosophy, Kearney offers a way of drawing theism and atheism into a constructive dialogue. Kearney, it is argued, redeems agnosticism by presenting it as an essential truth about the nature of philosophical thought about the divine. Against the oppositional logic that contrasts theism and atheism, Kearney’s anatheism shows how both theism and atheism are necessary in the search for the divine. In contrast to the certainty of both new atheists and old fideists, Kearney’s anatheistic wager inscribes agnosticism at the heart of the quest for God.
Family Relics
Authors: James Alison
Published: October 2020

Chapter 3 studies Marguerite Yourcenar’s distinctive synthesis of material mementos and personal recollections, historical documents and family relics. Yourcenar’s three-volume work Le Labyrinthe du monde (1974–1988) exemplifies a more general archival tendency in post-war autobiography; works by Perec, Barthes, and others also supplement personal testimony with documentary materials. Yourcenar’s trilogy marks a shift in her own practice from works that fictionalize history (Mémoires d’Hadrien, 1951), to a project that integrates “snippets of facts” within a factual composition. Yourcenar herself has a paradoxical place in this unusual autobiography, developing a family chronicle that attempts self-erasure even as it is organized around her relationship to the past. Developing a form of literary “necromancy,” Yourcenar’s writing mobilizes fictional devices to reanimate dead fragments of the past, while laying bare the work of research and reconstitution.
David Friedrich Strauß, Father of Unbelief
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: October 2020

This book is an intellectual biography of one of the most controversial thinkers of nineteenth-century Germany: David Friedrich Strauß (1808–74). It examines Strauß’s intellectual development from his first work—Das Leben Jesu—to his last—Der alte und der neue Glaube. This is the first comprehensive study of all of Strauß’s most important theological and philosophical writings. It investigates in detail works that have been ignored or treated only superficially: the 1840 Die christliche Glaubenslehre, the 1864 Das Leben Jesu für das deutsche Volk, and the1865 Der Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus der Geschichte. It also examines many writings that have hitherto eluded scholarly attention, especially Strauß’s political writings. It also provides an account of Strauß’s early Tübingen lectures. This book is also a partial defense of Strauß as a philosopher. It argues that his biblical criticism did not presuppose the truth of any metaphysics but was only an application of the historical method. His method was essentially limited to an internal critique of the Bible and did not apply alien standards to it. Strauß’s theory of myth, which went through several formulations, was essentially an attempt to explain the social and cultural origin of religious belief. It did not hold that myths are fictions but only the expression of the values of a culture. The idea of a Volksgeist was not a metaphysical postulate but a heuristic maxim to investigate the social, political, and historical factors behind the formation of a religious belief. The book concludes with a chapter defending Strauß against his most eminent critics, Nietzsche, Treitschke, and Schweitzer.
The New and the Old Faith
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: October 2020

Chapter 15 is an examination of Strauß’s last philosophical writing, Der alte und der neue Glaube. This work was an attempt to work out a new humanism independent of religious belief. The chapter examines the various aspects of this new humanism: its cosmology, its ethics, and its politics. In this work, Strauß posed the provocative question whether his contemporaries were still Christians, and answered it in the negative. This chapter attempts to explain the reasoning behind Strauß’s answer. It ends with a brief characterization of Strauß’s politics: his conservative sentiments regarding political change, his fears of socialism, and his abiding belief in monarchy.