bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Democracy, Consultation, and the Paneling of Disputes under GATT
Authors: Busch Marc L.
Published: March 2007

Studies of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) stress the role of formal panels in adjudicating trade conflicts. Yet most cases are settled beforehand in informal consultations. This article tests two sets of hypotheses about the decision to escalate GATT cases, one concerning the significance of the right to a panel, the other concerning the effects of political regime type. Results show that the right to a panel did not inspire more early settlement, more escalation, or more resolution through concessions at the panel stage; however, highly democratic dyads are more likely to achieve concession, but only at the consultation stage. This suggests that a strategy of tying hands, rather than adherence to legal (and other) norms of conflict resolution, is likely to shed light on the way democracies use formal third-party adjudication at GATT.
Spending Priorities and Democratic Rule in Latin America
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: March 2007

Has democracy produced a shift in Latin American budget priorities from military to civilian spending? Do discerned shifts from military to civilian spending within democracies represent “hard choices,” that is, are they shifts of the “zero-sum” variety in which resources from one budget are effectively given to another? A budgetary model is developed to explain the change in nonmilitary relative to military spending. Cross-sectional time series data for a large number of Latin American countries in the period from 1974 to 1995 are used to test the model. Results show that level of democracy has a significant positive effect on the size of nonmilitary relative to military budgets, that Latin American democratization is producing significant budgetary changes, and that democratic countries rely on zero-sum trade-offs that defy prediction.
Moments of Opportunity
Authors: Greig J. Michael
Published: March 2007

Some points in time are more favorable for mediation success than others and result from the concatenation of contextual factors that encourage movement toward more cooperative behavior by disputants. Ripeness for mediation between enduring rivals is examined by focusing on mediation success in the short and extended term. Results suggest that the factors conducive to the achievement of short-term mediation success differ significantly from those that promote extended-term improvement in the rivalry relationship. These results help to reconcile some of the diversity of expectations in the ripeness literature by demonstrating that short-term and extended-term mediation success follow distinct dynamics.
Militarism and Grass-Roots Involvement in the Military-Industrial Complex
Authors: Phillips Nancy Edelman
Published: March 2007

Data from a survey of 381 men in the New London, Connecticut area are analyzed with a view to learning whether people involved in the military-industrial complex (either formerly, as with veterans, or presently, as with defense workers) are more likely than those not involved to have "belligerent" opinions on foreign policy. The results indicate that military-industrial involvement and belligerence are associated, and further, that the relationship is probably causal rather than a result of self-selection alone.
Rationale, Research, and Role Relations in the Stirling Workshop
Authors: Alevy Daniel I. , Bunker Barbara B. , Doob Leonard W. , Foltz William J. , French Nancy , Klein Edward B. , Miller James C.
Published: March 2007

Criticisms of theory, design, and research connected with a workshop involving Catholics and Protestants from Belfast are assessed by the organizers and consultants responsible for the project. Differences in role and commitment are advanced as partial explanations for divergent assessments of the workshop.
Effects of Sex Role in a Maximizing Difference Game
Authors: Carment D.W.
Published: March 2007

Same-sex dyads of Canadian males and females and mixed-sex dyads played 100 trials of a maximizing difference game in a replication of an experiment which used Flemish subjects performed by McNeel et al. (1972). It was found, in contrast to the Belgian investigation, and in line with earlier experiments in the United States which had used the Prisoner's Dilemma game, that the like-sex female dyads were most competitive, followed by the like-sex male dyads. The males and females in the mixed-sex dyads were least competitive and not different from one another. Simply being paired with a female had an immediate effect on the males but the females appeared to be more affected by the response strategy of the males. It was argued that the most likely factor accounting for the results was the greater use of "tit-for-tat" responding by the males. Research concerned with cultural differences and the antecedents of strategy preferences is suggested.
Decisions of Timing in Conflict Situations of Unequal Power Between Opponents
Authors: Kahan James P. , Rapoport Amnon
Published: March 2007

Games of timing constitute a subclass of two-person, zero-sum, infinite games, where the problem facing each player is not what course of action to take, but rather when to take a prespecified action. The present study is an extension of previous research on games of timing with complete information (noisy duels) and equal accuracy functions, to noisy duels with unequal accuracy functions. The game-theoretic solution of this class of games, which has been recently derived, is briefly presented. Ten pairs of male subjects participated in two sessions each in a computer-controlled noisy duel experiment. Each pair played 256 duels in which both the accuracy functions and the starting number of bullets were varied systematically. The results are analyzed and discussed in terms of predictions derived from the game-theoretic solution.
Mathematical Models of a Three-Nation Arms Race
Authors: Hunter John E.
Published: March 2007

Three models of a three-nation arms race are presented: an all-against-all model, a model in which two nations are allied against the third, and a model in which one of the nations has a secret alliance with the other two. In the all-against-all situation, the model predicts an infinitely explosive arms race as each country fears an alliance of the other two. In the two-sided alliance, the model predicts that there will be an mitial increase until the weaker side approaches parity, after which there will be a mutual deescalation. If one nation signs secret treaties with each of the others, then it immediately deescalates. The other two nations then enter a two-sided arms race in which there will be an initial increase until the weaker nation reaches parity followed by mutual deescalation. These models suggest that two-way arms races would not infinitely escalate if it were not for the fear of third party alliances.
Intraparty Dissensus and Interparty Conflict Resolution
Authors: Jacobson Dan
Published: March 2007

In replicating an experimental design originally tested in a simulated intraorganiza tional bargaining setting, four combinations of bargaining patterns were employed in a laboratory simulation in which interrelated aspects of the Israeli-Palestinian dispute over the West Bank and the Gaza Strip were negotiated. The principal objective was to test the effect of intraparty consensus-dissensus bargaining patterns with extremist-moderate position intensities on the outcomes of interparty negotiations between Arab and Jewish students. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) Intraparty differences, if manifested openly by both parties (bilateral dissensus), would generate more points of agreement, and a greater number of integrative outcomes, than bilateral consensus and unilateral dissensus; (2) a party which exposes its internal differences between moderates and extremists to an adversary that presents a unanimous and extremist strategy would tend to be dominated. Results confirmed the first hypothesis but failed to yield clear-cut support for the second. An attempt is made to explain and discuss the implications of these results in the context of the Middle East conflict.
Libertarian Propositions on Violence within and between Nations
Authors: Rummel R. J.
Published: March 2007

This article subjects the following propositions to systematic tests against the quantitative literature: that violence does not occur between libertarian states; that the more libertarian two states are the less violence there is between them; and that the more libertarian a state is the less it will be involved in foreign and domestic violence. A comprehensive survey of the literature uncovered 67 relevant analyses. An evaluation, scoring, and weighting of these analyses showed that they significantly support the propositions.
Transforming Competitive or Cooperative Climates
Authors: Lindskold Svenn , Betz Brian , Walters Pamela S.
Published: March 2007

In two studies 200 subjects played repeated trials of Prisoner's Dilemma with a simulated other who could send verbal communications. In the first study, the other began intensifying conflict by being behaviorally unresponsive over a long duration, by being totally noncooperative, by responding more quickly to the competition than the cooperation of the subject, or by coercing cooperation with threats for the purpose of exploitation. Then the other introduced a program of carefully communicated conciliation. The results showed a significant increase in cooperation by the subjects across conditions. In the second study, the subjects' competition was intensified by the other's choice of verbal communication—threat, insult, or challenge. Then the other introduced conciliation; the subjects responded cooperatively in all cases. Finally, the other lapsed into uncommunicated competition, and the subjects became highly competitive once more. The results are discussed in terms of Deutsch's (1983) “crude law of social relations” and the evidence suggesting that an atmosphere of either cooperation or competition can be quickly altered in a situation of interdependence when one party clearly acts inconsistently with what is characteristic of that climate.
Victims of Groupthink
Authors: Hensley Thomas R. , Griffin Glen W.
Published: March 2007

An important theory in the study of small group decision making is groupthink, developed by Irving Janis. Groupthink refers to a process by which a small group of decision makers subjected to intense stress may become more concerned with achieving concurrence among their members than in arriving at carefully considered decisions. In this study, Janis's theory is applied to the 1977 gymnasium controversy at Kent State University where trustees decided to build an addition to the school's gymnasium on part of the area where students and Ohio National Guard members confronted each other just before the tragic shootings of May 4, 1970. Despite opposition from the student body and faculty, large-scale protest activities, massive arrests, and numerous third party efforts to resolve the conflict, the trustees not only refused to alter their decision but also refused even to reconsider their decision. A detailed analysis of Janis's theory reveals that each major condition of the theory was present in the conflict and that the trustees were indeed victims of groupthink.
Measuring Military Allocations
Authors: Goertz Gary , Diehl Paul F.
Published: March 2007

This study investigates the validity of different indicators of resources allocated to the military that are commonly used in conflict research. The various indicators are first described and then evaluated on four criteria for face validity. The convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity are then assessed according to the results of various statistical tests. A common hypothesis that conflict involving “overallocating” states is more likely to escalate to war is examined using all indicators under consideration. Implications and suggestions for conflict research are discussed in the conclusion.
The Dimension of Superpower Rivalry
Authors: Williams John T. , McGinnis Michael D.
Published: March 2007

The security policies of the United States and the Soviet Union can be interpreted as manifestations of a single “rivalry system.” If each state's security policies are driven by the same underlying factors, then any effort to separate the contributions of internal and external determinants of the arms race is essentially misleading. We use dynamic factor analysis to evaluate whether an unobservable dimension of rivalry explains the dynamics exhibited by the military expenditures and diplomatic hostility of these two states. A one-factor model explains much of the variance of these data series, although some evidence indicates the possible existence of a second factor. More generally, the results of this analysis question the validity of many structural equation models of dyadic interaction.
Dynamic Models of Dissent and Repression
Authors: Hoover Dean , Kowalewski David
Published: March 2007

The connection between dissent and repression has been the topic of much theory and empirical research, but little agreement on the relationship can be found. We reconceptualize the linkage in terms of an interactive process model of changes in the grievances and resourcemobilizations of dissident movement and regime countermovement. Diachronic modeling is proposed as superior to the cross-sectional approach for unraveling dissent-repression interactions. Dynamic modeling techniques are employed to experiment with three linear “mutuality models” using the scope and intensity dimensions of dissent and repression. Our findings reveal significant similarities and differences among the models studied that would be difficult to intuit from conventional methods. Dynamic modeling of complex rivalry relationships emerges as a potentially useful methodology for constructing effective policies of conflict resolution.
Maximizing Expected Utilities in the Prisoner's Dilemma
Authors: Marinoff Louis
Published: March 2007

This article reports the results of a computer experiment with iterated prisoner's dilemmas conducted as an interactive tournament of competing strategies and families of strategies. The purposes of the experiment are to complement Axelrod's previous tournaments and to supplement his findings. For his competitions, Axelrod drew on an unregulated population of strategies. In contrast, the interactive tournament regulates the composition of the strategic population itself. By grouping the competing strategies into families, whose members are related in certain ways, the performance characteristics of particular strategies are studied by varying parameters in their familial program logic. By this means, optimal strategic performance can be “bred” into domesticated populations. Two new methods are developed for assessing strategic robustness: combinatorial analysis and eliminatory ecosystemic competition. The strategy that maximizes expected utility with the most cooperative initial weighting is found to be most robust in the interactive environment.
The Effect of Repeated Play in the IPG and IPD Team Games
Authors: Bornstein Gary , Erev Ido , Goren Harel
Published: March 2007

Repeated interaction in integroup conflict was studied in the context of two team games: the intergroup public goods (IPG) game and the intergroup prisoner's dilemma (IPD) game. The results reveal (a) a main effect for game type; subjects were twice as likely to contribute toward their group effort in the IPG game than in the IPD game, and (b) a Game-Type × Time interaction; subjects contributed less over time in the IPD game while continuing to contribute at about the same rate in the IPG game. The second finding supports the hypothesis that subjects learn the structure of the game and adapt their behavior accordingly and is compatible with a simple learning model, which assumes that choices that have led to good outcomes in the past are more likely to be repeated in the future. A reciprocal cooperation hypothesis, which assumes that players make their choices contingent on the earlier choices of the other players, received little support.
The Electoral Consequences of Voting to Declare War
Authors: Regens James L. , Gaddie Ronald Keith , Lockerbie Brad
Published: March 2007

The conventional wisdom of national elections suggests that there are electoral costs associated with opposing declarations of war. However, an alternative literature contends that the negative electoral consequences of waging war may be borne by legislators who supported war, especially those members of the majority party. The authors test this assumption by examining the electoral consequences of supporting or opposing the declarations of war for the Mexican-American War, World War I, and the 1991 resolution to use force in the Persian Gulf. The results of their analysis of House elections indicate that although electoral costs were borne for opposing World War I, legislators who dissented often preselected themselves out of Congress through retirement or pursuit of other office. No evidence of electoral costs is evident in the wake of the Persian Gulf War, due in part to the influence of intervening events during the long period between the end of the war and the 1992 election.
The “Spite” Dilemma in Voluntary Contribution Mechanism Experiments
Authors: Saijo Tatsuyoshi , Nakamura Hideki
Published: March 2007

This article explains deviations from formal expectations regarding choice behavior in settings where economic rationality (i.e., own payoff maximization) dictates either cooperating (full contribution) or free riding (no contribution) in the provision of public goods via the voluntary contribution mechanism. The authors find that the difference between full contribution and the observed level of contribution is greater than or equal to the corresponding difference when free riding is the best strategy. This surprising result is interpreted as the “spiteful” behavior of subjects whose first priority is not the total amount of payoff they receive but the ranking among them.
Simulating International Cooperation under Uncertainty
Authors: Signorino Curtis S.
Published: March 2007

The repeated prisioner's dilemma is representative of a broad range of situations in international security and trade. This article examines the effects of asymmetric noise on the emergence and maintenance of cooperation under such conditions. The results show that positive and negative asymmetric noise have very different effects on strategy performance. For forgiving strategies, positive noise provides a stimulus out of perpetual defection or unsynchronized retaliations, but also opens them to exploitation. For provocable strategies, negative noise triggers unsynchronized retaliations or perpetual defection, although this may be tempered by generosity and contrition. The effects of neutral noise reflects the signature of each asymmetric noise type. Of the strategies examined, contrite tit-for-tat (CTFT) is generally one of the best performers in both homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Moreover, one generally sees the evolutionary models moving from heterogeneous bilateral interaction to cooperative norms of behavior, often including or even dominated by CTFT.
Democratic Diversions
Authors: Gelpi Christopher
Published: March 2007

Students of international politics have often argued that state leaders initiate the use of force internationally to divert attention away from domestic problems. The author contends that these arguments concerning the relationship between domestic unrest and international conflict are not supported empirically because they focus too narrowly on the incentives state leaders have to use external force as a diversionary tactic without considering alternative solutions to quieting domestic unrest. It is hypothesized that democratic leaders will respond to domestic unrest by diverting attention by using force internationally. On the other hand, authoritarian leaders are expected to repress the unrest directly, and these acts of repression will make them less likely to use force internationally. An analysis of the initiation of force by the challenging states in 180 international crises between 1948 and 1982 strongly supports these hypotheses. The results of the analyses and their implications for the literature on diversionary conflicts and the rapidly growing literature on democratic peace are discussed.
Double Take
Authors: Gleditsch Kristian S. , Ward Michael D.
Published: March 2007

The Polity data are widely used to explore the causes and consequences of democratic authority patterns. These data often have been used uncritically. The authors explore some of the theoretical and empirical characteristics of these data. They show how the analytical composition of the well-known democracy and autocracy scores is not upheld by an empirical analysis of the component measurements and demonstrate that democracy, as measured by the Polity indicators, is fundamentally a reflection of decisional constraints on the chief executive. The recruitment and participation dimensions are shown to be empirically extraneous despite their centrality in democratic theory. The authors conclude that it is a mistake to overlook the categorical nature of these data and that an analysis of the constituent authority patterns is likely to be fruitful for the democratic peace and democratization literature.
Why States Act through Formal International Organizations
Authors: Abbott Kenneth W. , Snidal Duncan
Published: March 2007

States use formal international organizations (IOs) to manage both their everyday interactions and more dramatic episodes, including international conflicts. Yet, contemporary international theory does not explain the existence or form of IOs. This article addresses the question of why states use formal organizations by investigating the functions IOs perform and the properties that enable them to perform those functions. Starting with a rational-institutionalist perspective that sees IOs as enabling states to achieve their ends, the authors examine power and distributive questions and the role of IOs in creating norms and understanding. Centralization and independence are identified as the key properties of formal organizations, and their importance is illustrated with a wide array of examples. IOs as community representatives further allow states to create and implement community values and enforce international commitments.
Military Buildups, War, and Realpolitik
Authors: Sample Susan G.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the role of mutual military buildups in dispute escalation to war. It is argued that the effect of the pervasive realist culture in the modern state system is to affect policy choices and perceptions in ways that alter the dynamics of militarized disputes when the countries are arming, thus raising the chance that war will be the outcome of the dispute. Previous tests of the connection between arming and escalation have been fraught with methodological controversy and have been inconclusive in their conclusions. By contrast, this study is multivariate; it incorporates other factors that might have a strong influence on arming, escalation, or both. The findings indicate that when those factors are considered (including the issue in contention, history of disputes, and relative defense burdens as well as relative power balance), preceding mutual military buildups are strongly and positively related to the likelihood of dispute escalation.
Fighting Battles, Winning Wars
Authors: Smith Alastair
Published: March 2007

The author models warfare as a random-walk stochastic process. Rather than model war as a single-shot lottery, as is common in the literature, nations fight a series of battles. Nations do not defeat their foe in a single battle; rather, victory results from aggregate success over a series of interactions. Only by gradually reducing an opponent's capacity to resist can a nation force victory. Yet, under many circumstances, nations preempt defeat by surrendering once the tide of war moves against them. The author characterizes the distribution of resources that results in conflict. Against this background, the author examines how the preferences of leaders affect the conditions under which war occurs. Because the preferences of leaders affect the pattern of conflict, citizens' electoral choices are made contingent on the international environment. Hence, the author provides a link between conflict behavior and domestic electoral processes.
Transitions from Authoritarian Rule and the Problem of Violence
Authors: Zielinski Jakub
Published: March 2007

This article asks why some attempts at democratization trigger a military intervention while others end peacefully. The author argues that the cause of violence lies in a miscommunication within the government rather than in an intransigence of the opposition. A formal model is analyzed in which opposition, reformers, and military bargain over the extent of democratization. The reformers are better informed than the opposition about the military's attitude toward reforms. Consequently, the opposition treats the behavior of the reformers as a signal about the military. In this model, violence occurs only when the reformers are misinformed about the military. The author tests this result against historical evidence from Hungary and Poland. In 1956, both countries attempted to liberalize their dictatorships. Yet, Soviet military intervention occurred only in Hungary. The author traces the difference in the outcomes to different inferences drawn in the two countries about the Soviet attitude toward reform.
Multiple Goals or Deterrence
Authors: Palmer Glenn , David J. Sky
Published: March 2007

The functions of international alliances are investigated by testing two models of state behavior with data drawn from nuclear and nonnuclear alliances since 1860. A diversity-of-goals model is based on Morrow's assumption that states pursue two goals through their foreign policies: autonomy and security. The second is the Olson-Zeckhauser theory that alliances provide a collective good to their members. The diversity-of-goals model sees alliances as mechanisms for states to transfer desired foreign policy goals, so that different states join alliances for different reasons. Asymmetrical alliances are mutually preferred arrangements between or among states where different goals are traded and are more likely to work when punishment of defection is credibly threatened. Accordingly, the diversity-of-goals model should find support only in nonnuclear alliances. The Olson-Zeckhauser model should apply more to nuclear alliances. The statistical results support the hypotheses.
Some Thoughts on the Future of Cross-Cultural Social Psychology
Authors: Singelis Theodore M.
Published: March 2007

This article presents some predictions for the future of cross-cultural social psychology. It begins with the argument that all social psychology is cultural and that there is ever-growing acceptance of this fact. The results of this acceptance will be an increase in the pervasiveness of culture as a variable, a growth in multicultural research teams, and a recentering of research in social psychology. The introduction of non-Western constructs and theories, such as the interdependent self and relationship harmony, will increase in the future and bring with them a focus on research on interpersonal interactions and relationships. Finally, a model is presented that it is hoped will lead to studies that include both group-level and individual-level variables. It is concluded that an increase in complexity of studies and the incorporation of interdisciplinary research will lead to greater understanding of the mutual effects of culture and social behavior.
Cross-Cultural Aspects of Passionate Love
Authors: Landis Dan , O’Shea William A.
Published: March 2007

Recent work has suggested that passionate love may be conceived of within cultures as an emic that may consist of several dimensions. This study explored the factor dimensionality and cultural relativity of passionate love using the Passionate Love Scale (PLS) with data from 9 samples from North America, Europe, the Middle East, and a Pacific Island and analyzed with 3 Mode Factor Analysis with Point-of-View solutions (3M-POV). A 6-factor group-common structure was found to best explain variance in PLS responses collapsed across cultures. 3M-POV hierarchical clustering procedures yielded 6 idealized cultures separated by gender. Principal component analysis of PLS responses by idealized culture groups revealed unique factor structures for each of these groups. These results suggest passionate love to be a multifactorial construct uniquely defined within cultures.
An Examination of the Cross-Cultural Validity of a Multidimensional Model of Commitment in Europe
Authors: Vandenberghe Christian , Stinglhamber Florence , Bentein Kathleen , Delhaise Tania
Published: March 2007

This study examined the validity of a multidimensional model of employee commitment in Europe. The study was conducted using a sample of employees working for the translation department of the European Commission, located in Brussels. The survey questionnaire included measures of affective and normative commitment to the organization, the occupation, the work group, and Europe; continuance commitment to the organization and the occupation; and intent to quit. Participants ( N = 580) pertained to 12 European nationalities and responded to a French or an English version of the questionnaire. Results showed that (a) for normative and continuance commitment, the organizational and occupational foci were not empirically distinguishable and that (b) both the commitment model and the relationships between commitment components and intent to quit were culturally invariant. On the other hand, evidence also emphasized the importance of considering multiple commitment components in predicting intent to quit. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Strategies of Upward Influence
Authors: Ralston David A. , Vollmer Guenther R. , Srinvasan Narasimhan , Nicholson Joel D. , Tang Moureen , Wan Paulina
Published: March 2007

The authors examine six cultures from the three economic centers of the world: Europe (Germany and the Netherlands), Asia (Hong Kong and India), and the Americas (Mexico and the United States). The findings from this exploratory study begin to identify patterns of influence strategies across cultures that are in part consistent with the existing cross-cultural values literature, while concurrently indicating the need for a more encompassing explanation of the cultural similarities, as well as differences, that were found in this study.
Self-Enhancement and Attitudes Toward High Achievers
Authors: Harrington Leigh , Liu James H.
Published: March 2007

Individualism, collectivism, self-enhancing biases, and attitudes toward tall poppies were investigated in New Zealand European and Maori students. Two hundred and eighty (215 women, 65 men) New Zealand European and 88 (55 women, 33 men) Maori students at Victoria University of Wellington participated in the study. Whereas Maori exhibited a stronger orientation to the collective, they also showed higher self- esteem. Group-oriented Maori displayed slightly higher levels of self-enhancement and were more likely to favor the rewarding of high achievers (tall poppies). Both groups displayed high levels of self-enhancement and favored the reward of high achievers, with both self-enhancement on the Self-Attributes Questionnaire and attitudes toward tall poppies being correlated with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Results are discussed in the context of a bicultural nation of both Maori and European origins, and consideration is given to a bicultural rather than categorical perspective on independence and interdependence.
The Intellectual Development of Yoruba Children: A Re-Examination
Authors: Lloyd Barbara B.
Published: March 2007

A study of Yoruba Ss from traditional (OJE) and educated (ELITE) homes suggested that the advantage of economically and intellectually privileged socialisation was greatest at three years of age but diminished by five years. The present study sought to investigate Abiola's convergence hypothesis by assessing threeand-a-half to eight-year-old OJE and ELITE Ss on a Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale, a range of Piagetian tasks appropriate to concrete operational thought, and on a relational concept learning problem. No evidence of convergence was found which reached acceptable levels of significance. A coefficient indicating steeper growth under five years for OJE Ss and an absolutely steeper curve for ELITE Ss over five years was noted. An intervention program for OJE Ss was proposed to compensate for the intellectual advantage of ELITE Ss socialized by westernised and highly educated parents.
Modal Personality in the Bahamas
Authors: Lefley Harriet P.
Published: March 2007

Modal personality of a colonial people evolving toward independence was investigated. The research was presented as Phase I of a longitudinal study of behavioral adaptation to sociopolitical change. A questionnaire and 40-item Sentence Completion Test, tapping aggression, anxiety, authority relations, dependency, interpersonal attitudes, values, and aspirations were administered to a representative sample of 160 Bahamian adults. Passivity, hostility/acquiescence toward authority, internalization of anger, lack of achievement orientation, and a strong emphasis on interpersonal relations and psychological equilibrium, with a concurrent de-emphasis of economics, were modal characteristics. Despite significant differences in percentage response, groups differentiated by age, sex, SES, education, and father-absence were alike in central tendency. Comparative data from Thailand and the Philippines were presented. The relationship of modal personality to historical factors, and its implications for sociocultural change, were also discus sed.
An Assessment of Perceptual Acuity in Fiji: A Cross-Cultural Study With Indians and Fijians
Authors: Chandra Subhas
Published: March 2007

110 Indian and 83 Fijian Ss of ages 15 through 20 were administered Gough and McGurk's 30-item visual Perceptual Acuity Test (PAT). In accord with prior findings in French, Italian, Swiss, and American applications, scores correlated sign ficantly with age (r =. 26); in addition, mean weighted scores increased for each older subsample by age. Insignificant differences in performance were observed between Fijian and Indian Ss, and between two small subsamples of delinquents and nondelinquents matched for age. Sex was related to performance, with men attaining higher scores. PAT performance was essentially unrelated to school achievement, and to ability as measured by Raven's Matrices. It may be concluded that the PAT is a promising device for cross-cultural study of age gradients in the development of perceptual acuity.
The Ponzo Illusion
Authors: Brislin Richard W.
Published: March 2007

The postulated ecological hypothesis used to explain the Ponzo illusion is that the converging lines indicate distance, and so there is an unconscious inference that "the top line must be longer since it is further away." Four hundred and twenty Ss, ranging in age from 3 to 22 years, from Guam and Pennsylvania were administered various forms of the Ponzo illusion. Results were generally in line with the ecological hypothesis, especially if the importance of various illusion forms and responses from specific age groups is accepted. The major plausible rival hypothesis to the ecological explanation, the interpretation of two-dimensional cues, was also discussed.
The Resistance to Temptation
Authors: Fry P. S.
Published: March 2007

Using children from American and Asian-Indian populations, I assessed the hypothesis that exposure to conforming or deviant models in a resistance to temptation situation would have significantly less deviating effect on Indian subjects. The rationale employed was that certain cultures provide an early impetus for self-discipline. Subjects were given an immediate resistance to deviation test with a forbidden toy. As hypothesized, exposure to a deviant model resulted in significantly greater deviation in latency, frequency, and duration of deviation among the American subjects, and exposure to a resisting model decreased frequency and duration of deviation in the Indian subjects. There was no significant difference between the samples in subjects' recollection of experimenter's instructions. The findings were discussed in terms of the differing influence of adult authority and peer interactions in the two cultures.
Extension to Indian Subjects of a Study of Exploratory and Verbal Responses to Visual Patterns
Authors: Berlyne D. E.
Published: March 2007

Procedures previously carried out with Ugandan and Canadian subjects were used with Indian villagers and Indian students. The stimulus material consisted of line drawings, sampling a number of complexity and incongruity variables. The procedures involved (a) recording of looking time, (b) paired-comparison preference, and (c) ratings on seven scales. Although there were differences among groups of subjects, there were also similarities, which in some cases were quite striking. The implication is that recurrent findings regarding exploratory behavior and other measures of interest to experimental aesthetics have some cross-cultural validity.
Occupational Identity Status, Occupational Preference, and Field Dependence in Maori and Pakeha Boys
Authors: Chapman James W. , Nicholls John G.
Published: March 2007

Occupational identity status was assessed, using Marcia's (1967) interview method, in Maori (Polynesian) and Pakeha (White) high-school boys. Marcia's method is based on Erikson's (1950) conception of the adolescent stage of ego development, identity v. identity diffusion. More Maoris than Pakehas were occupational identity diffusions: they were not committed to an occupation and had not seriously contemplated possible occupations. More Pakehas than Maoris were identity achievers: they were committed to an occupation which they had chosen after serious examination of several alternative occupations. The two ethnic groups differed in IQ and socioeconomic status, but identity status was not related to these variables. Field dependence and occupational preference were related to identity status but not ethnic background.
A Study of Empathy in Young Greek and U.S. Children
Authors: Roe Kiki Vlachouli
Published: March 2007

To gauge the effect that different attitudes and child-rearing practices may have on the development of empathy, the responses to the Feshbach and Roe Affective Situational Test for Empathy of 64 Athenian children were compared to those obtained earlier from 46 children in Los Angeles. Athenian girls were more empathic than Athenian boys, whereas no such difference was detected in the Los Angeles children. Children in both environments responded more empathically to stories depicting children whose sex was the same as the subject's sex. Also, the children in Los Angeles scored higher in empathy than the children in Athens. These differences are attributed to different patterns of discipline and sex-role expectations.
Motivational Factors in the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
Authors: Barrett Colleen A. , Nicholls John G.
Published: March 2007

Zigler et al.'s (1973) hypothesis that economically disadvantaged children's performance on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test is impaired because of their wariness in test situations was tested with 5- and 10-year old Maori and Pakeha New Zealand children. In contrast to Zigler et al.'s findings, no significant test-retest gains were found with the Peabody. However, the performance of lower-class Maori children, but not Pakeha children, was depressed in an interpersonally "cool" testing condition, suggesting that Maori children do suffer more wariness than Pakehas. The educational implications of this result are discussed.
The Fear-Affiliation Relationship
Authors: Ramirez Alexander C. , Garza Raymond T. , Lipton Jack P.
Published: March 2007

The relative saliency of social comparison and anxiety reduction as motives for affiliation under conditions of fear was examined within a cross-cultural context. Forty-eight Chicano and forty-eight Anglo adolescents, equally divided by sex, were randomly assigned to condition high or low fear. While the analyses based on manipulated fear failed to replicate the classic findings of Darley and Aronson (1966) supporting the social comparison explanation, an internal analysis, based on reported fear, provided evidence that this lack of replication was probably due to- lack of functional equivalence across sociocultural groups. Indeed, the sociocultural consideration proved to be a potent qualifier of the fear-affiliation relationship. There was considerable variation across sex and ethnicity in the relative importance of social comparison and anxiety reduction as motives for affiliation under conditions of fear. The results of the present study make clearly evident the importance of taking a sociocultural perspective in all social psychological research.
When Fourth can Precede Second
Authors: Saxe Geoffrey B.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a developmental analysis of children's understanding of an indigenous birth-order naming system used in a remote Papua New Guinea island community (Ponam Island). The naming system is organized such that boys are given one set of names depending upon their birth-order relation to other boys of a family, and girls are given a separate set of names depending upon their birth-order relation to other girls of a family. The names are invariant across families. On the basis of Piaget's theory, it was hypothesized that developmental changes in operational reasoning would be necessary for children to understand the determinate and indeterminate age relations implied by birth-order names within and across sex. To test this formulation, 29 Ponam islanders were interviewed who ranged in age from 8 to 23 years. The findings supported the general formulation.
Directional Scanning of Visual Displays
Authors: Chen May Jane
Published: March 2007

In spite of the fact that Chinese readers are accustomed to reading Chinese either from top to bottom, from right to left, or from left to right, they chose to scan predominantly from top to bottom and from left to right when presented with patterned arrays of familiar stimulus materials. Two groups of Chinese subjects, 30 high school and 30 university students, were tested on a naming task using six types of material. There was no difference between the two groups in their preference for direction of scan, and the scanning patterns were highly systematic and unaffected by stimulus materials. Further analysis of subjects' scanning patterns suggested that a general top-to-bottom and left-to-right scanning tendency, so familiar to English readers, also prevails in the Chinese subject's performance.
Culture and the Development of Conflict Resolution Style
Authors: Kagan Spencer , Knight George P. , Martinez-Romero Sergio
Published: March 2007

Previous descriptive studies of development of cooperation and competition among United States and Mexican children have sampled a limited age range and relied predominantly on behavioral experimental game measures with a very limited number of response alternatives. In this experiment, open-ended verbal conflict resolution questions were asked of Anglo American, Mexican American, and Mexican children. Content analysis of children's responses indicated that previous conclusions regarding Mexican-United States differences were supported at early childhood age ranges. However, with increasing age, all children responded more to imaginary conflict situations with conflict, so cultural differences diminished with age. Further, on the verbal conflict resolution questions, Mexican American and Anglo American children did not differ, possibly indicating differences in what is assessed by the verbal conflict resolution questions and experimental games.
Communication and the Sense of Community among the Members of an Immigrant Group
Authors: Regis Humphrey A.
Published: March 2007

This article develops the concept of sense of community and the communication concepts of expenditure of effort in the acquisition of information, likelihood that sources will provide desired information, and volume of information secured from sources. It examines these factors as predictors of the sense of community displayed toward each other by Trinidadian and Jamaican immigrants in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan tanarea. Stepwise multiple regressions revealed that the likelihood of friends and acquaintances providing desired information was the only significant predictor of the sense of community Trinidadian immigrants display toward Jamaican immigrants. However, the volume of information secured from immigrant community-oriented radio programs was the only significant predictor of the sense of community Jamaican immigrants displayed toward Trinidadian immigrants. Expenditure of effort was not a significant factor in the prediction of the sense of community that either group displayed toward the other.
Individualism-Collectivism and Pyschological Needs
Authors: Hui C. Harry , Villareal Marcelo J.
Published: March 2007

Two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between the dimension of individualism versus collectivism and psychological needs. In the first study Chinese subjects in Hong Kong completed an Individualism-Collectivism Scale and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Collectivism was found to be positively related to the needs for affiliation, succorance, abasement, and nurturance and negatively related to the needs for autonomy, deference, and heterosexuality. In the second study, American subjects in Illinois responded to several scales from the Personality Research Form, (PRF) and a collection of items constructed to measure collectivism. A factor labeled Self-reiliance Versus Interdependence held significant correlations with the autonomy need. It was negatively associated with needs for abasement, affiliation, nurturance, succorance, and desirability, as measured by the PRF. The similarity of correlational patterns observed among Hong Kong Chinese subjects and Illinois subjects suggested that there was some generality in the findings.
The Determinants of Motivation for Urban Aboriginal Students
Authors: McInerney Dennis M.
Published: March 2007

As part of a larger study into the psychological determinants of motivation of urban Aboriginal school students, the Triandis model of social behavior was used to examine a range of variables considered important in influencing behavior. A comparative study, utilizing multiple regression analysis, was made of the responses of 496 Aboriginal students, 487 migrant students, and 1,172 Anglo students to the Behavioural Intentions Questionnaire. The study demonstrates the cross-cultural relevance and usefulness of the Triandis model. Major findings suggest that of the components of the Triandis model, personal normative beliefs and affect toward the act are the most salient predictors of intention for the three groups studied. Furthermore, although they vary in their relative importance, the consistency of the predictors across the three groups strongly suggests that the same cognitive motivational systems are influencing the intentions to continue with or leave school expressed by Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students. Further study of both the facilitating conditions that may assist inhibit the development of motivation to continue with school and the effect of "habit" on decision making needs to be completed to explain why Aboriginal students drop out of school earlier than non-Aboriginal students.