bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Liberal State and Criminal Sanction
Authors: Jacobs Jonathan A.
Published: August 2020

Current forms of incarceration in the U.S. and U.K. are morally problematic in ways that are antithetical to the values and principles of liberal democracy. While indicating those morally problematic features the book defends the basic political and legal culture of the U.S. and U.K. A significant remaking of the political order is not needed for the required reforms of incarceration to be made. Greater faithfulness to the values and principles of liberal democracy could be adequate for such reforms. It is crucial to make those reforms because of the ways prisoners are currently being harmed, rendering many of them incapable of reintegrating successfully into civil society. The liberal order makes a dynamic, pluralistic civil society possible, and participating in civil society gives people a reason to value the liberal order. That relation is weakened by penal practices that diminish the agential capacities of offenders and fail to respect them as members of society. The book explores the relation between criminal justice and justice more comprehensively understood, highlighting the distinctive elements of criminal justice. It explains the role of desert in criminal justice and why criminal justice needs to be distinguished from distributive justice. Criminal justice includes a retributivist conception of punishment, one in which desert, proportionality, and parsimony are centrally important. A retributivist conception of punishment most effectively respects the voluntariness and accountability of agents in ways well suited to a liberal political order. The account examines misinterpretations of retributivism and highlights weaknesses of consequentialist approaches to sanction.
The Liberal Political Order
Authors: Jacobs Jonathan A.
Published: August 2020

The key features of a liberal political order, and the way the liberal rule of law makes possible a dynamic, pluralistic civil society are explicated. In addition, the ways that civil society can be an important locus of moral education is explained. This is the basis for arguing that forms of punishment that diminish persons as agents are especially objectionable, and at odds with liberal principles.
Criminal Justice and Justice Overall, Part I
Authors: Jacobs Jonathan A.
Published: August 2020

The chapter highlights the distinctive elements of criminal justice, and I argue that it is a mistake to shape criminal justice around principles of distributive justice, even though there are important economic and social aspects to criminal justice. The equality of persons in a liberal state does not require egalitarian distributive shares. Criminal justice is indeed related to distributive and political justice but is not to be assimilated by either of them.
Collision of Worlds
Authors: Carballo David M.
Published: August 2020

Mexico of five centuries ago was witness to one of the most momentous encounters between human societies, when a group of Spaniards led by Hernando Cortés joined forces with tens of thousands of Mesoamerican allies to topple the mighty Aztec Empire. It served as a template for the forging of much of Latin America and began the globalized world we inhabit today. This violent encounter and the new colonial order it created, a New Spain, was millennia in the making, with independent cultural developments on both sides of the Atlantic and their fateful entanglement during the pivotal Aztec-Spanish war of 1519–1521. Collision of Worlds examines the deep history of this encounter with an archaeological lens—one that considers depth in the richly layered cultures of Mexico and Spain, like the depths that archaeologists reveal through excavation to chart early layers of human history. It offers a unique perspective on the encounter through its temporal depth and focus on the physical world of places and things, their similarities and differences in trans-Atlantic perspective, and their interweaving in an encounter characterized by conquest and colonialism, but also active agency and resilience on the part of Native peoples.
Iberia
Authors: Carballo David M.
Published: August 2020

A deep history of Iberia examines the waves of conquest and cultural developments on the Iberian peninsula. Agriculture was imported to Iberia from the Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia and included animal husbandry and the use of pack animals. Autonomous cultural developments of native Iberians were stimulated by maritime powers that sailed west along the Mediterranean: the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans, each growing in their imperial reach and providing a base for later political and economic developments. Iberians also took advantage of their geographical setting on a peninsular hinge between the Mediterranean and Atlantic worlds, which connected two major maritime spheres of interaction and saw the development of hybrid ships increasingly suited to open ocean crossing. Following the collapse of imperial Rome, Iberia fluctuated between Christian and Islamic rule, with the former emerging victorious after a centuries-long program of national unification known as the Reconquista, or “reconquest.” Crops introduced by Muslims and administrative strategies implemented by Christian kingdoms in frontier regions were direct predecessors of the plantation-like economies eventually imposed on the Americas.
The Spanish-Mexica War
Authors: Carballo David M.
Published: August 2020

The decisive Spanish-Mexica war is covered in this chapter. The war lasted for close to two years but alternated between periods of uneasy diplomacy with the Great Speaker Moctezuma and other Mexica leaders and violent battles. Most important were the expulsion of the Spaniards and their allies from Tenochtitlan and their retreat to Tlaxcala, where they regrouped and were resupplied from boats landing in Veracruz, during which time a disease epidemic devastated Native communities. More Mesoamerican allies joined the Spaniards as the war progressed, including, most importantly, the second most powerful Aztec city-state of Texcoco. It was from here that Cortés launched small ships onto the lake surrounding the imperial capital and brought naval and siege battle tactics, born of millennia of bloodshed in the Old World, to the New World.
Existing Evidence
Authors: Chilton Adam S. , Versteeg Mila
Published: August 2020

This chapter reviews the existing body of evidence on constitutional rights effectiveness. Although the debate over whether constitutional rights change government behavior extends back at least to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, there is remarkably little empirical research that focuses specifically on this question. However, there are several academic literatures that are relevant to the topic. Because most legal scholars operate under the assumption that rights matter, it begins by very briefly reviewing some of the normative arguments for including rights. It then proceeds to discuss existing qualitative and quantitative studies on rights effectiveness. Finally, it discusses some of the core findings from a related literature on human rights treaty effectiveness.
The Rise of Rights Constitutionalism
Authors: Chilton Adam S. , Versteeg Mila
Published: August 2020

This chapter introduces the primary data we use to explore the impact of constitutional rights around the world: a dataset capturing the rights found in 194 countries’ written, or “Large-C,” constitutions from 1946 to 2016. It further provides summary statistics that reveal how constitutional rights have spread across the world. The chapter also introduces a novel dataset based on a global expert survey intended to capture constitutional protections beyond the Large-C constitutional text alone, that is, in countries’ “small-c” constitutions.
Civil and Political Rights
Authors: Chilton Adam S. , Versteeg Mila
Published: August 2020

This chapter analyzes three civil and political rights that are practiced on an individual basis: (1) free speech, (2) the prohibition of torture, and (3) the freedom of movement. The chapter first describes the doctrinal aspects of these rights, as well as how these relate to organizations’ ability to secure their enforcement. It then presents results from a global statistical analysis, which reveal that constitutionalizing these rights is not associated with better rights practices. In addition to presenting global data, this chapter present the results from a case study on free speech in Poland, which documents how the newly elected right-wing Law and Justice Party was able to take control of the country’s public media, even though both free speech and the independence of public media were guaranteed in the constitution.
Popular Support for Constitutional Rights Violations
Authors: Chilton Adam S. , Versteeg Mila
Published: August 2020

This chapter presents findings from two survey experiments that explore popular support for individual rights: one focused on free speech in Turkey and one focused on torture in the United States. For both countries, we designed a survey experiment to gauge whether people’s support for a policy changes when they are informed that this policy violates the constitution, and whether people are willing to mobilize to protect their constitutional rights in the face of violations. The goal of the survey experiments was to explore the mechanisms through which rights mobilization can occur and, specifically, whether constitutional violations change people’s positions or motivate them to take action. Both experiments found that being informed that a certain policy violates the constitution does not change popular opinion, which might be one of the reasons why constitutional rights are hard to enforce in the absence of formal organizations.
Conclusion
Authors: Chilton Adam S. , Versteeg Mila
Published: August 2020

This chapter concludes by reflecting on the questions this book has left unanswered and by pointing at avenues for future research. It begins by discussing research showing that constitutional design choices of American Indian Tribal Constitutions have had profound impact on long-term economic outcomes. Specifically, tribes that adopted constitutions that provided for the indirect elections of executives have higher income per capita and greater participation in the labor force decades later. This suggests that constitutions can matter. So although our research has found that the adoption of constitutional rights may have limited impact on the protection of rights, future research should look for the effects of constitutional design choices in other ways. This chapter also highlights some more specific lessons for human rights advocacy that flow from our case studies.
What Religious Buildings Do
Authors: Brenneman Robert , Miller Brian J.
Published: August 2020

With religious buildings common across the globe, this chapter examines how sociologists can turn the study of structure—an important concept in the field—to physical structures and how religious buildings made of materials influence congregations and communities. The authors make four arguments regarding the influence of religious buildings: they shape and are shaped by religious congregations in addition to other actors; their construction and development often involves tension and excitement; through the buildings, the past can influence the present; and they highlight the need to bring bodies back into the sociological study of religion. Drawing on numerous examples from around the world, the authors contend that studying religion should include how the religious buildings in which groups gather influence and work in concert with social structures.
Religious Buildings Need Not Apply
Authors: Brenneman Robert , Miller Brian J.
Published: August 2020

When religious groups want to purchase land for a new building or alter an existing structure, they may have to apply to a municipal government for approval. When they present a proposal, how often are they approved? Are religious groups treated differently? Looking at zoning proposals from religious groups in three Chicago suburbs over five years, the authors find that although the majority of requests are approved, religious groups do receive differential treatment, and Muslim groups encountered more opposition. Additionally, features of the land and/or building could lead to more conflict, including locations near residences, and different local governments and residents could generate more opposition. These findings suggest the strong desire religious groups can have for their buildings may come in conflict with what neighbors and officials want; this leads to negotiations and occasionally tension.
Architects, Community, and Transcendence
Authors: Brenneman Robert , Miller Brian J.
Published: August 2020

Architects are revered for their ability to conceptualize and design buildings while solving problems with space. This chapter examines how architects work with religious communities to realize their goals for a new or remodeled religious building. Through interviews with three architects who have worked with congregations in varied religious traditions to design religious structures, the authors argue that architects act as guides for congregations, though some play a more proactive role in making suggestions than others. Additionally, the religious formation of architects shapes how they approach their professional duties and advice. Finally, the problems that architects of religious buildings attempt to solve include designing structures that help congregations “build a ‘we’ ” and designing spaces that foster connections to transcendence.
Space Bending When Matter Matters
Authors: Brenneman Robert , Miller Brian J.
Published: August 2020

Religious congregations regularly take buildings not originally intended for religious use and convert them to spaces for worship and fellowship. This chapter includes five case studies: a Guatemalan evangelical megachurch that worships in a parking garage; a suburban Anglican congregation that transformed a former manufacturing plant; a group in Vermont that turned a former US Army horse barn into a mosque; a suburban non-denominational church that meets each week in a high school auditorium; and an Orthodox Christian congregation that altered a Missouri Synod Lutheran building for their use. The authors argue that a number of religious groups can make spaces work for them, particularly if they have constrained resources and are willing to be creative in changing the interior of structures.
Shifting Dynamics of Contention in the Digital Age
Authors: Liu Jun
Published: August 2020

Over the past decades, waves of political contention involving the use of information and communication technologies have swept across the globe. The phenomenon stimulates the scholarship on digital communication technologies and contentious collective action to thrive as an exciting, relevant, but highly fragmentary and contested field with disciplinary boundaries. To advance the interdisciplinary understanding, Shifting Dynamics of Contention in the Digital Age outlines a communication-centered framework that articulates the intricate relationship between technology, communication, and contention. It further prods us to engage more critically with existing theories from communication, sociology, and political science on digital technologies and political movements. Given the theoretical endeavor, Shifting Dynamics of Contention in the Digital Age systematically explores, for the first time, the influence of mobile technology on political contention in China, the country with the world’s largest number of mobile and Internet users. Using first-hand in-depth interview and fieldwork data, it tracks the strategic choice of mobile phones as repertoires of contention, illustrates the effective mobilization of mobile communication on the basis of its strong and reciprocal social ties, and identifies the communicative practice of forwarding officially alleged “rumors” as a form of everyday resistance. Through this ground-breaking study, Shifting Dynamics of Contention in the Digital Age presents a nuanced portrayal of an emerging dynamics of contention—both its strengths and limitations—through the embedding of mobile communication into Chinese society and politics.
From Affordances to Repertoires of Contention
Authors: Liu Jun
Published: August 2020

This chapter analyzes the political circumstances and opportunities under which mobile phones emerge as a repertoire of contention. It argues that we should not just look at the use of communication technologies in contention. Instead, an investigation necessitates the perception of communication technologies as a repertoire of contention on the basis of affordances that structure the possibilities of the use of technology. Through fieldwork and in-depth interviews, this chapter indicates that taking (certain functions of) mobile phones as protest repertoire derives from a confluence of given social group’s habitus of media use that manifests particular affordances and the learned experience of the contested means of the past in official mass communication. More interestingly, communication and metacommunication of official media coverage of information and communication technology-mediated political activism modularizes and legitimizes the use of mobile phones in protests, and hence shapes specific ways people have harnessed their mobile phones as a key contentious repertoire.
The Phantom Ship in Der fliegende Holländer and L’Africaine
Authors: Cruz Gabriela
Published: August 2020

This chapter describes two instances of the re-mediation of grand opera by phantasmagoria, discussing side by side two deployments of the figure of the phantom ship—a seafaring image produced by phantasmagoria at the Adelphi Theatre in of Edward Fitzball’s nautical drama The Flying Dutchman (1826)—in Richard Wagner’s Der fliegende Holländer (1843) and Giacomo Meyerbeer’s L’Africaine (1865). Wagner’s music for the apparitional scenes, discussed in detail in the chapter, suggests a manner of composition adapted from the technical procedure of phantasmagoria and the nautical theatrics cultivated by Fitzball in London. L’Africaine’s nautical scene was also partially inspired by the English figure of the Flying Dutchman, exploring the same idea of magnification that was central to phantasmagorical procedure and to Wagner’s approach to the nautical.
Aida, Egyptomania, and the After-life of Grand Opera
Authors: Cruz Gabriela
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores three related themes present in Giuseppe Verdi’s Aida: the nexus between the imaginative display of the flute and the wider nineteenth-century fascination with ancient Egypt; Verdi’s turn to the affective poetics of phantasmagoria—its focus on loss, mourning and consolation—as he mobilized grand opera for the project of empire in the 1870s; and finally, his timely consideration of the lyrical voice of Aida, which calls attention to the role of memory in listening to opera and comments on the spectral nature of grand opera, suggesting that it survives in operatic modernity as a musical after-image, that is, a trace of a past musicality that potentiates the critical awareness of opera today.
Constitutional Innovation in Governing the Metropolis
Authors: Hirschl Ran
Published: August 2020

This chapter contrasts the status of metropolises in “old world” constitutional orders with their status in “new world” constitutional orders. It focuses largely on the Global South—where new ideas about the constitutional governance of the metropolis are more likely to emerge. From Asia to Latin America and parts of Africa, innovative, sometimes radical, constitutional measures have been introduced, some with more success than others, to address the metropolis issue. The chapter explores several examples of countries in Asia (Japan, South Korea, and China) in which central governments’ constitutional support of megacities reflects astute, long-term planning for regional or national economic growth. It further shows how South Africa’s constitutionalization of city power as part of its 1996 constitutional transformation is arguably the most effective of these attempts to date. In other Global South settings—notably India and Brazil—constitutional experimentation with city emancipation has succumbed to deeply engrained intergovernmental hierarchies. And in yet other settings strategic behavior and colliding incentive structures have driven attempts to either strengthen (e.g., Mexico City, Buenos Aires) or weaken (e.g., Nairobi) megacities.
Compromising Positions
Authors: Smith Leslie Dorrough
Published: August 2020

Compromising Positions argues that sex scandals aren’t really about sex. Rather, they are a form of cultural theater—a moment of highly visible, public storytelling—the purpose of which is to use specific racial and gendered symbols to create a collective sense of national worth and strength. To arrive at this conclusion, the book charts the ways in which attitudes about gender, race, and religion are woven together to create a certain sort of rhetoric about what America is, who is eligible to formally represent it, and what types of religiosity such leaders must display in order to legitimize their power. The book shows that Americans simultaneously condemn and excuse the sexual indiscretions of their politicians depending on the degree to which those politicians reinforce longstanding, evangelical symbols—many of which are heavily raced and gendered—that are associated with “American values” and a “Christian nation.” Such values include not just moral fortitude but also strength, courage, and conquest. The upshot is that sex scandals are less likely to occur at cultural moments when the public is open to reading a politician’s moral lapse as a symbolic form of national dominance. Put simply, when he is perceived as strong, domineering, and necessary for national health, many people will find ways to either forget his illicit sex or somehow read it as an American act.
Nation
Authors: Smith Leslie Dorrough
Published: August 2020

Chapter 4 shows how American sex scandals have a specifically national element inspired by evangelical thinking. How a politician is accountable for illicit sex depends on whether he typifies white masculine norms, and whether he symbolizes a protector who will keep white Americans safe from their enemies, both foreign (e.g., Muslim terrorists) and domestic (e.g., poor blacks). Politicians thus function like national fathers whose indecencies Americans tolerate so long as they can assure the white public of the nation’s strength. To chart this idea, the author explores the proliferation of family rhetoric in political speech across the 1970s and1980s (including that of Ronald Reagan), discusses the racialized gender norms that politicians follow to increase their public appeal, and shows how Americans see themselves as childlike citizens who need a father’s protection. These ideals are borne out in a comparison of the sex scandals of Rudy Giuliani, Newt Gingrich, and John Edwards.
Magnetoencephalography Source Estimation
Authors: Hämäläinen Matti S.
Published: August 2020

This chapter describes the source estimation approaches to magnetoencephalography (MEG) analysis. Both MEG and electroencephalography (EEG) are measures of ongoing neuronal activity, and are ultimately generated by the same sources: postsynaptic currents in groups of neurons which have a geometrical arrangement favoring currents with a uniform direction across nearby neurons. From the outset, the overarching theme of MEG analysis methods has been the desire to transform the signals measured by the MEG sensors outside the head into estimates of source activity. This problem is challenging because of the ill-posed nature of the electromagnetic inverse problem. However, thanks to being able to capitalize on appropriate physiological and anatomical constraints, several reliable and widely used source estimation methods have emerged. The chapter then identifies the forward modeling approaches needed to relate the signals in the source and sensor spaces, and characterizes two popular approaches to source estimation: the parametric dipole model and distributed source estimates.
Until 50 years ago, electroencephalography (EEG) was the only noninvasive technique capable of directly measuring neuronal activity with a millisecond time resolution. However, with the birth of magnetoencephalography (MEG), functional brain activity can now be resolved with this time resolution at a new level of spatial detail. The use of MEG in practical studies began with the first real-time measurements in the beginning of 1970s. During the following decade, multichannel MEG systems were developed in parallel with both investigations of normal brain activity and clinical studies, especially in epileptic patients. The first whole-head MEG system with more than 100 channels was introduced in 1992. Up to now, such instruments have been delivered to researchers and clinicians worldwide. The overarching theme of MEG analysis methods has been from the outset the desire to transform the signals measured by the MEG sensors outside the head into estimates of source activity. This problem is challenging because of the ill-posed nature of the electromagnetic inverse problem. However, thanks to being able to capitalize on appropriate physiological and anatomical constraints, several reliable and widely used source estimation methods have emerged. This chapter starts by describing the overall characteristics of MEG, followed a general description of the source estimation problem. The chapter then discusses the forward modeling approaches needed to relate the signals in the source and sensor spaces, and finally characterizes two popular approaches to source estimation: the parametric dipole model and distributed source estimates.
The Need for and Road to Hybrid Magnetoencephalography–Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Ilmoniemi Risto J.
Published: August 2020

This chapter addresses the need for hybrid magnetoencephalography (MEG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems. The importance of combining MEG with MRI was realized early. The most important benefit of MEG over the widely available electroencephalography (EEG) is its ability to locate brain activity. To relate the location coordinates to individual anatomy, structural MRI is needed. In addition, structural MRI can help constrain the estimated source currents to the cortex, making the three-dimensional source volume a two-dimensional layer. Later, after the invention of functional MRI (fMRI), it was realized that the new kind of data could be used as additional information to help solve the MEG inverse problem. Thus, structural MRI benefits MEG data interpretation in three main ways: first, MEG localization results can be displayed on top of anatomical images; second, one obtains geometrical information for the analysis of the inverse problem, for example, in beamforming; third, a priori information regarding source locations will be more accurate. Since MEG and MRI are normally done separately, the two data sets have to be combined. This requires co-registration of the MEG and MRI coordinate systems.
Magnetoencephalography Using Optically Pumped Magnetometers
Authors: Boto Elena , Holmes Niall , Tierney Tim M. , Leggett James , Hill Ryan , Mellor Stephanie , Roberts Gillian , Barnes Gareth R. , Bowtell Richard , Brookes Matthew J.
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores one of the most promising alternatives to superconducting quantum-interference devices (SQUIDs) as the fundamental building block of magnetoencephalography (MEG) systems: optically pumped magnetometers (OPMs). OPMs exploit the spin properties of alkali atoms, using a technique known as optical pumping to prepare a gas of atoms such that its opacity to laser light becomes a sensitive marker of a local magnetic field. The theoretical sensitivity of the OPM surpasses even that of the SQUID, and OPMs operate without cryogenic cooling. Moreover, they are small and lightweight, offering the potential for development of a flexible MEG system, which could be adapted to any head shape and in principle could become wearable such that subjects could move freely during data acquisition. Because the external surface of an OPM is at approximately body temperature, the sensing volume can be placed close to the head, increasing the signal strength. When operated in the spin exchange relaxation-free (SERF) regime, their bandwidth is suited to MEG acquisition, and their dynamic range, although limited, is acceptable.
Guidelines and Practical Considerations for Mapping Epileptiform Activity and Network Connectivity with Magnetoencephalography
Authors: Rezaie Roozbeh , Wheless James W. , Babajani-Feremi Abbas
Published: August 2020

Since its adoption in clinical practice, analysis and interpretation of magnetoencephalography (MEG) recordings in patients with epilepsy have evolved as a result of multidisciplinary input, with the aim of developing formalized criteria that can yield reliable results and that are complementary to other modalities used for diagnostic assessment in this cohort. The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the interested practitioner with the process of analyzing interictal MEG recordings, using examples from clinical cases to illustrate the utility of this modality and acknowledging some of its limitations. To achieve this, the reader will first be presented with consideration of basic quality assessment measures when interpreting clinical MEG recordings. Subsequently, a description will be provided on a clinically valid approach that is standard of practice for performing source localization of epileptiform transients. Specifically, the latter is discussed in the broader context of identifying various interictal epileptiform transients in MEG recordings and determining their anatomical extent in order to better characterize the irritative zone. Finally, a review is provided for emerging methods in MEG connectivity analysis and their potential utility in clinical practice for elucidating epileptogenic networks.
Revisional Analysis of Electroencephalography and Magnetoencephalography Based on Comprehensive Epilepsy Conference
Authors: Nakasato Nobukazu , Kanno Akitake , Ishida Makoto , Osawa Shin-ichiro , Iwasaki Masaki , Kakisaka Yosuke , Jin Kazutaka
Published: August 2020

This chapter highlights the importance of the revised analysis of electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) spike source estimation based on comprehensive case conference discussion. It discusses two typical cases of localization-related epilepsy: case 1 as a simple situation and case 2 as a complicated situation. No “gold standard” for epileptic spike analysis in EEG or MEG has been established, so several methods must be adopted to achieve the most reasonable interpretation. However, such intense and revisional analyses may be too time-consuming in clinical settings and result in arbitrary conclusions. Therefore, the authors currently use a simple method first, that is, a single dipole model for the peak or preceding upward slope of unaveraged single spikes. In the following case conference, EEG and MEG data are reviewed with seizure semiology, anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). If all the findings almost agree, the clinical decision can be easily made. If not, revisional analysis of EEG/MEG is recommended using averaged spikes and principal component analysis models as well as distributed source models. In addition to EEG/MEG, the authors often order revisional analysis and additional MRI and FDG-PET studies after the conference. Even further history taking will be recommended if necessary.
Investigations of the Somatosensory System with Magnetoencephalography
Authors: Tiège Xavier De , Jousmäki Veikko
Published: August 2020

This chapter reviews the historical contribution of magnetoencephalography (MEG) to the understanding of the functioning of the somatosensory system and how some achievements have been transferred to clinical research or routine to be integrated in clinical guidelines. Considering the vast literature and the existence of comprehensive MEG review papers on the topic, the chapter focuses on pioneering or specific studies in a historical framework. Thanks to its noninvasiveness and excellent temporal and good spatial resolutions, MEG has substantially contributed in the past 50 years to the characterization of the spatial, temporal, and spectral dynamics of somatosensory system activity. It has brought a tremendous amount of novel insights into the neural mechanisms at the basis of body perception. The methods developed for this purpose appeared useful in clinical routine and also in clinical research to investigate the pathophysiology of various brain disorders.
Language Mapping with Magnetoencephalography
Authors: Simos Panagiotis G. , Bowyer Susan M. , Kamada Kyousuke
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the applications of magnetoencephalography (MEG) to the study of the brain mechanisms for language functions. Language mapping with MEG has proved helpful in presurgical estimates of the location and extent of language-related cortex as well as in the intraoperative identification of these cortical patches. In fact, in several neurosurgical centers around the world, such assessments are part of the protocol of surgical interventions, especially in the case of epilepsy. Moreover, MEG alone or in combination with other imaging methods, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), is extensively used for the testing of alternative models of cortical organization for language in normal populations. However, applications of MEG to language mapping face most of the limitations that characterize brain imaging techniques relying on hemodynamic measures. Perhaps the most fundamental of these limitations concerns the degree of specificity of results: Activation profiles feature brain regions that may not be indispensable for a particular target function. This problem is particularly serious in the case of language mapping and to a lesser degree in motor cortex mapping.
Cöthen (1717–1723)
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

At the end of 1717 Bach moved to Anhalt-Cöthen (Köthen) as Capellmeister to the ruling prince. His years there, often described as his happiest, saw growing recognition as a musician and frequent travel, to Hamburg, Berlin, and elsewhere. They also saw the death of his first wife, but Bach soon remarried, to Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a court singer with whom he would perform regularly. Reductions in court spending on music may have led Bach to contemplate moving again, and much of his last year at Cöthen was overshadowed by his successful application for and ensuing negotiations concerning his appointment as cantor at Leipzig.
Bach the Capellmeister
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

As Capellmeister, Bach was in charge of all musical matters at the court of Cöthen. Although the prince’s Reformed religious faith ruled out the performance of church cantatas, Bach did compose occasional vocal works for special occasions. His chief works of this period, however, were suites, sonatas, and concertos for the court instrumental ensemble, as well as keyboard music for his family and pupils. Among the famous compositions composed or completed at Cöthen and discussed in this chapter are the inventions, Well-Tempered Clavier, organ sonatas, cello suites, sonatas and partitas for violin and flute, and Brandenburg Concertos.
Leipzig
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

Bach’s last two decades saw him gradually distancing himself from his official responsibilities and engaging more with, first, the Collegium Musicum, then the revision and codification of his major compositions. These years were darkened by disputes with his superiors around 1730 and again in the mid-1730s (the “Battle of the Prefects”); the death of a son in 1739; and a crisis involving the direction of the Collegium and published criticism of Bach’s music. Yet Bach also gained a royal title in 1736, following submission of the B-Minor Missa to the elector, and in 1747 he made a celebrated visit to the Prussian court, where his son Emanuel had become a royal chamber musician. Although afflicted during his final months with blindness, the result of a botched eye operation, Bach continued to teach and was honored by membership in Mizler’s Corresponding Society.
How Scientists Communicate
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: August 2020

What is scientific research? It is the process by which we learn about the world. For this research to have an impact, and positively contribute to society, it needs to be communicated to those who need to understand its outcomes and significance for them. Any piece of research is not complete until it has been recorded and passed on to those who need to know about it. So, good communication skills are a key attribute for researchers, and scientists today need to be able to communicate through a wide range of media, from formal scientific papers to presentations and social media, and to a range of audiences, from expert peers to stakeholders to the general public. In this book, the goals and nature of scientific communication are explored, from the history of scientific publication; through the stages of how papers are written, evaluated, and published; to what happens after publication, using examples from landmark historical papers. In addition, ethical issues relating to publication, and the damage caused by cases of fabrication and falsification, are explored. Other forms of scientific communication such as conference presentations are also considered, with a particular focus on presenting and writing for nonspecialist audiences, the media, and other stakeholders. Overall, this book provides a broad overview of the whole range of scientific communication and should be of interest to researchers and also those more broadly interested in the process how what scientists do every day translates into outcomes that contribute to society.
The Two Expanded Cinemas
Authors: Walley Jonathan
Published: August 2020

This chapter, one of two that make up Part I of the book, provides a revised history of expanded cinema from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s. It divides this period into two phases or waves of expanded cinema. During the first phase, the term was more or less synonymous with “intermedia,” connoting hybridity, the dissolution of artistic boundaries, and the questioning of traditional art forms. But the liberatory rhetoric of this phase was countered by concerns that the expansion of cinema threatened to dilute and destabilize the art form that generations of filmmakers and film critics had worked to establish. It was within avant-garde film that the perceived threat to cinema’s identity caused the most anxiety, as that mode of film practice had always been the most preoccupied with the nature of cinema. Within a few years, the term “expanded cinema” was reclaimed by filmmakers whose work extended avant-garde cinema’s longstanding tradition of specifying the cinematic into a wide range of new, “expanded” forms. This phase of expanded cinema lasted through the 1970s into the first few years of the 1980s. Chapter 1 also introduces two other major themes: a historical process of negotiation between cinema’s specificity and its connections to the other arts, which works of expanded cinema enact, and the interplay between two conceptions of cinema—as a physical material and an ephemeral experience. This reciprocal movement between the material and ephemeral is a key factor in expanded cinema’s formal mutability.
Expanded Cinema Revis(it)ed
Authors: Walley Jonathan
Published: August 2020

Chapter 2 addresses a third wave of expanded cinema, running from the mid-1990s to the present. Though in dialogue with art world developments, particularly the prevalence of moving images in that world, this wave again rose out of the theory and practice of avant-garde cinema. Hence, it reflects that film culture’s skepticism about digital technology, media convergence, and the “death” of cinema. Chapter 2 considers two major factors in the resurgence of expanded cinema. The first is the spread of digital technology and the implications of this for filmmaking and the theorization of cinema’s ontology. In the wake of “new media’s” ascendency in the “digital age,” experimental filmmakers and critics took up a renewed investigation of the nature of cinema and the role that specific physical media (e.g., celluloid film) play in our conception it. Prominent theorists of new media have argued against such specificity positions, employing concepts like “remediation” and “media convergence,” which speak to a merging of media and art forms quite contrary to the broadly modernist notions of avant-garde filmmakers—including those who produced expanded cinema during its “second wave.” The second major factor for expanded cinema’s new life is the microcinema, a form of film exhibition specific to experimental cinema that appeared across the United States, Canada, and Europe beginning the mid-1990s. Microcinemas are characterized by a highly participatory social environment, wherein film screenings blend into other kinds of social activity. Microcinemas are thus models for expanded cinema, each showcasing cinema’s adaptability to varying spaces and formal heterogeneity.
La Forge
Authors: Platt Andrew R.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 6 argues that La Forge is a “partial” occasionalist, who appeals to “body–body” occasionalism to defend Descartes’ central epistemic thesis that mind is better known than body. La Forge argues for an occasionalistic version of Descartes’ physics. However, La Forge presents a theory of the mind–body union that implies that the human mind and body causally interact. While he says bodies are the “only occasional causes” of sensations in the mind, he uses “occasional cause” to refer to a type of accidental efficient cause. La Forge’s arguments for occasionalism are limited to body–body interaction: Although he holds that God continually re-creates finite substances, he is not committed to full-blown occasionalism. La Forge does not adopt occasionalism simply because he takes it to be a logical consequence of Cartesian physics. He sees body–body occasionalism as playing a broader theoretical role: He uses it to respond to criticisms of Cartesian epistemology.
Cordemoy
Authors: Platt Andrew R.
Published: August 2020

Cordemoy was the first of the Cartesians to argue in print for occasionalism about both body–body and mind–body causation—however, chapter 7 argues that Cordemoy had motives for adopting occasionalism similar to those of Geulincx and La Forge. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 present Cordemoy’s arguments for body–body and mind–body occasionalism. (Section 7.3 examines his account of the mind–body union, and argues his view about body–mind causation is unclear.) Geulincx’s overriding argument for body–body occasionalism is based on theses from Cartesian physics, including Descartes’ claim that motion is a mode of body, and the thesis that a mode of one substance cannot be transferred to another substance. But section 7.4 argues that Cordemoy’s occasionalism is not just a logical result of these metaphysical principles. Section 7.5 concludes that (like La Forge) Cordemoy also used occasionalism to defend Descartes’ epistemology, and thus had a broader theoretical motive for adopting occasionalism.
Harmonic Syntax
Authors: Nobile Drew
Published: August 2020

This chapter adapts traditional Schenkerian analytical methodology to form a theory of rock harmony rooted in the concept of prolongation. The chapter begins with the premise that focusing on small-scale chord-to-chord successions, as many existing theories do, tells us little about rock’s harmonic organization. After describing a new, syntactically based approach to harmonic function, the chapter defines the functional circuit: a large-scale harmonic trajectory spanning at least one complete song section and comprising the functional succession from tonic to pre-dominant to dominant and back to tonic. This trajectory is familiar from centuries of theoretical work on harmonic function, but its adaptation to the rock style is not trivial. In particular, it requires disentangling the notion that only certain chords can carry certain functions. For instance, dominant function can arise not only from the standard V chord but also from IV, ii, or sometimes even I chords.
Choruses
Authors: Nobile Drew
Published: August 2020

This chapter looks at rock’s most expressively significant section: the chorus. The chapter argues that rock’s choruses divide into three general types, differentiated by their harmonic profiles but with distinct lyrical, thematic, and expressive features. Sectional choruses have complete harmonic and thematic structures and are relatively autonomous and separate from the verse; continuation choruses begin off-tonic and combine with the preceding verse in a single, unified trajectory; and telos choruses begin with an arrival and then plateau at a high energetic state.
Concluding Meditations
Authors: Dubler Joshua , Lloyd Vincent W.
Published: August 2020

In two concluding vignettes, the authors gesture toward how the religious traditions of their divergent upbringings inform their respective abolitionist commitments. Dubler, who was raised an observant Jew, reflects on how, among other aspects of the Jewish tradition, his formative encounters with Passover seder helped shape him into the abolitionist he is today. Drawing a connection between Jewish liturgy and the nineteenth-century abolitionist opponents of slavery, Dubler accounts for how the book acquired its title. Lloyd reflects on the experience of “witness” and how the ambivalence of this practice motivated his interest in prison abolition, and his scholarship. Both authors meditate on how direct action, prison education, scholarship, and citizenship are entangled, and how those tangles can be worked through Judaism or Protestantism.
A Systemic Perspective on the Global Sanitation Challenge
Authors: Welie Mara J. van , Truffer Bernhard
Published: August 2020

The sanitation target of the millennium development goals (MDGs) was not reached and progress toward the sustainable development goal on water and sanitation (SDG6) is very slow. The lack of sanitation is especially persistent in cities in the Global South, as the world is rapidly urbanizing. This problem demands long-term fundamental transformations of urban sanitation services and infrastructures. This chapter analyzes the challenges and opportunities of innovations that have the potential to contribute to solving urban sanitation problems. The authors therefore use a sociotechnical systems perspective that draws on insights from innovation studies and the sustainability transitions literature. Such a systemic perspective enables the analysis of the interplay between technologies, infrastructures and their associated actor networks, and institutions and user and provider practices. The chapter presents the analysis of the case of sanitation in Nairobi, Kenya, building on qualitative data from 104 expert interviews. Based on the analysis, the authors show that innovative efforts should focus on improving alignments between the various sanitation service regimes in the city—for example, through making utility services work in informal settlements or improving collaborations in the efforts to scale on-site sanitation innovations. The chapter illustrates how factors hindering innovation development toward reaching SDG6 often go beyond technological aspects, but rather represent system weaknesses related to actors, networks, and institutional aspects.