bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Russia's Conquest and Pacification of the Caucasus: Relocation Becomes a Pogrom in the Post-Crimean War Period
Authors: Brooks Willis
Published: October 2007

“The history of Russia is the history of a nation that colonized itself.”

Russia's greatest historian has affirmed that the expansion of Russian rule, particularly its method, is of fundamental significance in understanding the course of Russian history, and the establishment of Russian power in the Caucasus has attracted as much scholarly attention as any other region where Russian imperialism spread in the last two centuries. Russia's finest literary figures, scholars of the most divergent bent, Russian participants in the conquest and, of course, native inhabitants themselves have examined geographic, political, military and economic, as well as cultural and other factors that would explain how the many non-Slavic peoples of this strategically critical region were incorporated into the tsarist empire. From such a literature a lengthy list of quite diverse tactics are testimony to the deep concern Russian leaders had about integrating its divergent societies in the Caucasus into the Russian empire. The tsarist ideal was stated in the simplest language when Nicholas I endorsed a report in 1833 that would force the native inhabitants of the Caucasus to “speak, think, and feel Russian.” Not surprisingly, one of the striking qualities of the tsarist, Soviet and, to a great degree, Western literature is that it often focuses, as does this essay, on the frustrations Great Russians experienced while attempting to conquer, pacify and assimilate the multi-ethnic peoples of the Caucasus within the Russian-dominated empire. In addition, while charting the demographic vagaries of the Caucasus most scholars have concentrated on the creeping in-migrations of Cossacks and others from the internal Russian provinces and on the relocation of mountain tribesmen (gortsy) from their inaccessible villages (auly) to valley floors where watchful Russians could “civilize” them. What is strikingly absent from such literature, part of what this essay attempts to provide, is an examination of the policy considerations that led to such decisions, particularly in the post-Crimean War period.
Ethnic Diversity in Eastern Austria: The Case of Burgenland
Authors: Holzer Werner , Münz Rainer
Published: October 2007

Unlike the Habsburg Empire, the Republic of Austria established in 1918 saw and sees itself basically as an ethnically homogeneous state—as did the Weimar Republic and Federal Republic of Germany. Austria's constitution of 1920 made German the official language, just as Hungarian became the official language in Hungary. The relatively high degree of ethnic homogeneity in Austria and Hungary were a result of the collapse of the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire and the new borders of these two successor states. Before 1918, the German-speaking and Hungarian-speaking population of the Empire were politically dominant, but. from a quantitative point of view, “minorities.” It was only the borders established by the Entente in the peace treaties of Saint-Germain and Trianon that reduced Austria and Hungary geographically to two territories, in which the German-speaking population on one side and the Hungarian on the other also became numerically superior, while creating large German and Hungarian minorities in the neighboring countries of Italy, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and SHS-Yugoslavia.
The German Overthrow of the Central Rada, April, 1918: New Evidence from German Archives
Authors: Dmytryshyn Basil
Published: October 2007

On 9 February 1918, at Brest-Litovsk, the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire) concluded an unusually favorable treaty with the government of the Ukrainian Central Rada. By its terms, in exchange for diplomatic recognition and military support against a Russian Bolshevik invasion of the Ukraine, Rada negotiators placed at the disposal of the Central Powers, but primarily Germany, a surplus of foodstuffs and agricultural products estimated at 1,000,000 tonnes. The Brotfrieden, or bread peace, as this arrangement is generally known, had three significant repercussions. First, it greatly undermined Leon Trotsky's bargaining position and obstructionist tactics, forcing the Bolsheviks to accept German terms on 3 March 1918. Second, by acquiring a rich granary, and thus no longer fearing defeat through starvation, it enabled Germany to break the iron ring of the Allied blockade. And, third, it made it impossible for the Ukraine to receive a favorable hearing or reception from the Western (French, English and American) Allies at the peace conference.
Czechs and Germans—An Enduring Problem in the Heart of Central Europe: A Conclusion
Authors: Nolte Claire E.
Published: October 2007

The relationship between Germans and Czechs has often been the crucible on which the history of Central Europe was forged. Although characterized more by enmity than amity in recent times, this was not always the case. For most of the centuries when Czechs and Germans shared the same Central European space, the cultural differences between them lacked a political dimension, and their interaction was peaceful and mutually beneficial. The Teutonic Knights named their citadel “Königsberg” in honor of the Czech ruler, Přemysl Otakar II, while German townspeople contributed their skills and crafts to the economic advancement of the Bohemian kingdom which he ruled. Beginning in the nineteenth century, however, the positive aspects of this ethnic coexistence were ignored, forgotten, or suppressed by scholars and politicians, both Czech and German, who interpreted the Bohemian past in the language of national separatism.
Finno-Ugric-Language Books and Periodicals in the “Soviet Literature in Minor Languages” Collection of the Slavic and Baltic Division of the New York Public Library
Authors: Koressaar Victor
Published: October 2007

In the late 1920s, the New York Public Library received as gifts and on exchange a large collection of books, pamphlets and periodicals in the minority languages of the Soviet Union. These materials remained in storage in the Library's Annex—uncataloged, but not unclassified, albeit superficially—until the spring of 1994. These acquisitions also included materials in the languages of neighboring countries, as well as books for the well-established immigrant population in the Soviet Union speaking Estonian, Latvian, German, and Polish.
Divided Nations and the Politics of Borders
Authors: H.R.H
Published: October 2007

The ghost of Trianon continues to haunt Central Europe. The consequences of the unmaking of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary still confront diplomats, even more so now in the aftermath of communism and the demise of Soviet hegemony. The plight of Hungarian minorities in Hungary's neighboring states is a constant concern to diplomats as satisfactory accommodation of ethnic minorities fails throughout post-communist Eastern Europe. Specifically, a fear of destabilization on account of a crisis related to the several Hungarian minorities scattered in half a dozen adjacent states is never far from the surface.
Hungarian Foreign Policy and the Magyar Minorities: New Foreign Policy Priorities
Authors: Reisch Alfred A.
Published: October 2007

In the wake of the 1989 revolutions in East Central Europe, two parallel developments took place in rapid succession. On the one hand, strong national sentiments accompanied by a desire to set up independent nation states emerged in the countries neighboring Hungary. At the same time, the ethnic Magyar minorities, long excluded from participation in the political life of those countries, gained the ability to establish their political movements, to enter candidates in local and national elections, and to elect their own deputies in the national parliaments and local governments. On the other hand, the fate of the Magyar minorities and the guaranteeing of their rights became one of the central elements of Hungary's foreign policy in bilateral relations with its neighbors. Budapest also embarked on a major effort to make the minority problem an international issue and to achieve some form of international legal codification for minority rights. These simultaneous and, in part, contradictory developments and goals placed several dilemmas before Hungarian policy-makers that, three years later, have yet to be resolved.
Hungarians in Serb-Yugoslav Vojvodina Since 1944
Authors: Arday Lajos
Published: October 2007

The southern counties along the Danube, Sava, Tisa (Tisza) and Tamis (Temes) rivers, including Srem (Szerém, Sirmium) had been the richest, most developed and purely Hungarian inhabited part of the Hungarian Kingdom in the Middle Ages. The Ottoman conquest brought about a dramatic population shift between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the Hungarians were either massacred or forced to flee the area. The demographic vacuum was filled by Serbian immigration. The Serbs acquired a privileged status as frontier guards of the Habsburg realm, with full territorial, religious and cultural autonomy up to the middle of the eighteenth century.
The Hungarians in Slovakia
Authors: Gyurcsik Iván , Satterwhite James
Published: October 2007

The situation of Hungarians in Slovakia since 1989 has developed in the context of the political and economic transitions of the region: from post-totalitarian states towards pluralist democracies, and from centrally-planned economies toward market systems. In addition, the end of Czechoslovakia as a united entity on December 31 1992, has directly affected the Hungarian nationality. These political, economic and social changes have had a direct impact on their situation in Slovakia.
The Hungarians in Transcarpathia (Subcarpathian Rus')
Authors: Magocsi Paul Robert
Published: October 2007

As in other countries of the Danubian Basin, the Hungarians of historic Subcarpathian Rus' (Hungarian—Kárpátalja), present-day Transcarpathia, did not become a national minority until 1919. Before then they were simply Hungarians—and part of the dominant state nationality—living in the northeastern corner of the Hungarian Kingdom. With the border changes that occurred in 1919-1920, the Hungarians of Transcarpathia/Subcarpathian Rus' found themselves within the borders of the new state of Czechoslovakia. Since then borders and countries have changed several times, so that Transcarpathia's Hungarians have found themselves in Czechoslovakia (1919-1938), again in Hungary (1938-1944), in the Soviet Union (1945-1991), and in an independent Ukraine (1991-present). Regardless of what state may have ruled Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, it has remained a distinct administrative entity—at times, with a degree of autonomy—throughout most of the twentieth century.
The Hungarians in East Central Europe: A Demographic Profile
Authors: Sebök László
Published: October 2007

The following tables have been compiled on the basis of published census data. In many instances this has necessitated explanatory footnotes for the following reasons:

1. The oldest census results used in the tables are taken from the 1910 Austrian and Hungarian census based on “language” and “religion” categories. The later census results are usually based on declared “nationality.” A significant consequence of this difference is that in the Austrian and Hungarian census Jews can be found either among the German- or the Hungarian-speaking population, while in subsequent census results they are always designated a separate “nationality.” For this reason, additional information is provided in some of the footnotes regarding the Jews.
Russian-Ukrainian Relations, 1917-1918: A Conflict Over Crimea and the Black Sea Fleet
Authors: Torbakov Igor B.
Published: October 2007

The first disagreements between Russia's Provisional Government and the Ukrainian Central Rada emerged in the spring and summer of 1917, right after the proclamation of the Rada's First Universal and the formation of the Ukrainian executive body, the General Secretariat. The arrival in Kiev in July 1917 of the Russian governmental delegation, consisting of Alexander Kerensky, Irakly Tsereteli and Mikhail Tereshchenko, and the attempts to work out a compromise—which found their embodiment in the Second Universal—led, in fact, to the political crisis in Petrograd. The majority of the Kadet ministers refused to approve the results of the negotiations in Kiev and tendered their resignations.
Belarus in the 1920s: Ambiguities of National Formation
Authors: Zejmis Jakub
Published: October 2007

In 1920 the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic emerged upon the ruins of German and Polish occupation. It replaced the short-lived Belarusian Democratic Republic as the embodiment of national statehood. The ensuing decade came to be an important but ambiguous period in Belarusian history. New state institutions such as the Commissariat of Public Enlightenment, the Institute of Belarusian Culture, and the Belarusian State University carried out unprecedented “nation-building” policies designed to reverse the effects of tsarist Russification and foster the development of Belarusian national culture. Parodoxically, many of the same institutions also implemented various aspects of “Sovietization.” A myriad of measures under the label “socialist construction” served to integrate ever more closely Belarus into the Soviet Union.
The Legal Framework for the Sovietization of Czechoslovakia 1941–1945
Authors: Dmytryshyn Basil
Published: October 2007

Literature in many languages (documentary, monographic, memoir-like and periodical) is abundant on the sovietization of Czechoslovakia, as are the reasons advanced for it. Some observers have argued that the Soviet takeover of the country stemmed from an excessive preoccupation with Panslavism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries by a few Czech and Slovak intellectuals, politicians, writers and poets and their uncritical affection and fascination for everything Russian and Soviet. Others have attributed the drawing of Czechoslovakia into the Soviet orbit to Franco-British appeasement of Hitler's imperial ambitions during the September 1938, Munich crisis. At Munich, Czechoslovakia lost its sovereignty and territory, France its honor, England its respect and trust; and the Soviet Union, by its abstract offer to aid Czechoslovakia (without detailing how or in what form the assistance would come) gained admiration. Still others have pinned the blame for the sovietization of Czechoslovakia on machinations by top leaders of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, who, as obedient tools of Moscow, supported Soviet geopolitical designs on Czechoslovakia, who sought and received political asylum in the USSR during World War II, and who returned to Czechoslovakia with the victorious Soviet armed forces at the end of World War II as high-ranking members of the Soviet establishment. Finally, there are some who maintain that the sovietization of Czechoslovakia commenced with the 25 February 1948, Communist coup, followed by the tragic death of Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk on 10 March 1948, and the replacement, on 7 June 1948, of President Eduard Beneš by the Moscow-trained, loyal Kremlin servant Klement Gottwald.
Deutschland und Ukraine-Politik 1918–1926
Authors: Golczewski Frank
Published: October 2007

Das deutsche Interesse an der Ukraine war nicht ausschließlich an die Person des Het'mans gebunden. Gegen Ende des Krieges begann in Deutschland die im März 1918 von Paul Rohrbach und Axel Schmidt ins Leben gerufene “Deutsch-Ukrainische Gesellschaft” (DUG) ihre Aktivitäten auszuweiten. Sie veröffentlichte eine Zeitschrift (“Die Ukraine”), die zunächst bis zum November 1922 erschien. In ihr trafen mehrere an der Ukraine interessierte Strömungen zusammen. Rohrbach und Schmidt waren primär an der Auflösung des russischen Großreichs interessiert, um aus den “Randstaaten” wirtschaftlich für Deutschland interessante und gleichzeitig die politische Lage ausgleichende Gebiete zu machen. Der liberalen Grundtendenz entsprachen das Streben nach freier Markt wirtschaft und die wie selbstverständlich vorausgesetzte Praktizierung der fundamentalen Menschenrechte durch die entstehenden Nationen. Diese beiden letzten Positionen korrespondierten mit den linkeren Exponenten der Ukrainischen Volksrepublik: den großrussischen Föderationsplänen Skoropads'kyjs und der deutschen Militärs widersprachen sie deutlich. Rohrbach war als Feind des Russischen Reiches auch Gegner seiner deutschen Sympathisanten Das Auswärtige Amt hatte sich eine Zeitlang (wie auch das Militär im Frühjahr 1918) Positives von der ukrainischen Selbständigkeit (sowohl gegen Polen als auch gegen die Entente) versprochen; im Zuge der Konsolidierung Sowjetrußlands und der von der Entente Polen gewährten Sicherheiten verlor die bürgerlich-ukrainische Eigenständigkeit dann an Bedeutung, um in abgewandeltem Kontext 1926 erneut Relevanz zu gewinnen.
Anticipating the Disintegration: Nationalisms in Former Yugoslavia, 1980–1990
Authors: Pavković Aleksandar
Published: October 2007

In addition to rapid economic decline and the persistent political violence in the province of Kosovo, in the 1980s Yugoslavia experienced a veritable renaissance of nationalist ideologies of the “dominant nation” type. According to this kind of national ideology, its target nation is historically predetermined to be politically dominant on a given territory which is then chosen by the national ideology in question. From 1971–1972, when the Croat nationalist movement and the Serbian liberal communist elite was suppressed by Tito until the early 1980s, publication of any nationalist writings was effectively banned in all parts of Yugoslavia, except in Kosovo. While ending public polemics by national ideologues, the ban confined nationalist polemics to the closely watched realm of intellectual dissidence. At that time, intellectual dissidents aimed primarily at the delegitimisaton of the communist regime in Yugoslavia. For this purpose, nationalist—as opposed to liberal—dissidents argued that the Yugoslav communist regime not only intentionally belittled and disadvantaged their respective nations, therefore benefiting the competitor nation(s), but also that it had betrayed their respective nations’ national goals. However absurd these claims may appear when taken together, they reveal how limited the target of each national ideology was: it targeted only “its” nation, in the attempt to prove that the communist regime had failed that nation alone and should not have the right to rule over it. These “dominant nation” ideologies stood in sharp contrast to the official Yugoslav Communist Party ideology of “equal nations,” which maintained the equality of all nations and nationalities in all parts of Yugoslavia; according to the official ideology, no nation in Yugoslavia was, in theory, politically dominant in any part of Yugoslavia.
The Disintegration of Yugoslavia: The Role of Political Elites*
Authors: Goati Vladimir
Published: October 2007

The outbreak of civil war and the disintegration of the “second Yugoslavia” was caused by many factors; however the impact of the debilitating conflict within the Yugoslav political elite, into which the ordinary citizens also were “drawn,” was crucial. This article will seek to support this hypothesis.
Could a Confederation have Saved Yugoslavia?
Authors: Antonić Slobodan
Published: October 2007

Today, after the signing of the peace agreement in Paris, when the end of the Yugoslav war is in sight, one frequently hears the questions: Could the war have been avoided and could a confederation have saved Yugoslavia? Namely, in late 1990 and early 1991, the republics now outside Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina and Macedonia) proposed that Yugoslavia be reorganised as a confederation which would, as they claimed, have fulfilled their main political aspirations. The Serbian side refused resolutely, and, soon afterwards, war started in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina, which was actually their war of liberation. Now, when the republics in the territory of ex-Yugoslavia are internationally recognised, when they have largely recognised each other and when we are witnessing the restoration of economic and other relations between the peoples who shared a common state for seventy-three years, we may justifiably ask: Would it not have been better if the Serbian side had accepted a confederation and, thus, preserved some kind of Yugoslavia, than, by its persistent refusal, have lead the secessionist republics to take up arms?
Tudjman's Victory: Croatia, the U.N., Nato and the U.S.
Authors: Miller Robert F.
Published: October 2007

Croatian President Dr. Franjo Tudjman's announcement on 12 January 1995 that, as of 31 March, he was withdrawing Croatia's “hospitality” to the 12,000-person U.N. Protection Force (UNPROFOR), stationed in strategic locations on its territory, was a calculated gamble. As subsequent events showed, the risk was not as great as it first appeared. The departure of the UNPROFOR buffer force seemed, on the one hand, to expose Croatia and its army, the HV, to a resumption of hostilities with the rebel Serb forces of the self-proclaimed Republika Srpska Krajina (RSK) and their Serbian allies in Bosnia (RS—Republika Srpska) and, possibly, the rump Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro). The UNPROFOR presence had largely kept such hostilities in check since early 1992, and the outcome of their resumption was at best uncertain.
Belarus and the “Belarusian Irredenta” in Lithuania*
Authors: Burant Stephen R.
Published: October 2007

On 24 February 1992, Belarusian foreign minister Piotr Kraǔchanka told a visiting European Community delegation in Minsk that he wanted to record his country's claim to Lithuanian border territory in the presence of an international audience. When asked whether the claims extended to Vilnius, Kraǔchanka said “yes,” but added that the border areas were really the ones at issue. In the late 1980s and early 1990s many Lithuanian officials expected Poland to make such claims on their country, to regain territory lost in 1939. By contrast Lithuanians paid little attention to what Belarusians were saying about the role of Vilnius in Belarusian history and the national identity of the 258,000 Slavs in the Vilnius region.
Lemkos View Poland and Poles*
Authors: Mihalasky Susan Y.
Published: October 2007

From May to August, 1991, the author distributed 250 questionnaires among Poland's Lemko minority. The questionnaire is part of a dissertation being written on the long-term impact on the Polish Lemko community of the 1947 “Vistula” Operation population resettlement. To date, 52 questionnaires have been returned.
The Kashubes During the Post-Communist Transformation in Poland
Authors: Synak Brunon
Published: October 2007

The political changes which started in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989 have exposed the real ethnic faces of these societies. It has become obvious that the population of these countries were not homogeneous “socialist nations.” During the post-repressive period some ethnic prejudice re-appeared—both between nations and between ethnic groups within these countries.
Bulgaria: Minorities, Democratization, and National Sentiments
Authors: Nitzova Petya
Published: October 2007

English-speakers and Bulgarian-speakers seem to read the term “minority” differently. While in English it is more a demographic term, meaning part of the population which is numerically smaller and distinctive from the largest group (the majority of the country), to Bulgarians the term has inalienable political connotations: “minority” is an ethnic or religious group, the rights of which are protected by international agreements and law with far reaching consequences.
Ethnicity and Institutional Reform: The Dynamics of “Indigenization” in the Moldovan ASSR*
Authors: King Charles
Published: October 2007

Since the early 1980s, the study of political institutions has made a remarkable come-back within political science. After a long period of concentrating on the “outputs” of the political process, many political scientists have begun to give greater attention to the formal and informal structures that circumscribe political behavior: governmental departments, ministries, standard operating procedures, social norms, duties, obligations. Especially in its more inductive, interpretive forms, contemporary institutional analysis has focused less on political outcomes and more on the political process itself—the “how” questions of politics rather than the “why” questions addressed both by highly quantitative methods and by deductive, rational choice approaches. One legacy of the behavioral revolution has been a propensity for researchers to see the elucidation of why some groups win out over others in the political process as the chief end of political science. But by examining the strategic boundaries within which action takes place, modern institutional analysis—labelled the “new institutionalism” as early as 1984—seeks to remind political scientists that, quite simply, institutions matter.
What Price Languages in Contact: Is There Russian Language Influence on the Syntax of Moldovan?
Authors: Dyer Donald L.
Published: October 2007

“Our culture was virtually annihilated. The great paradox is our children study German, French and English in school. They can use Latin letters for these foreign languages, but not for their native language.” Thus spoke Mikhail Chimpoi, a prominent literary critic and candidate for the national legislature in 1989; as, in the spirit of the “new” Moldova, restrictions were loosened on what officials were allowed to say in public about the language situation.
Transnational Dimensions of the Transnistrian Conflict
Authors: Kaufman Stuart J. , Bowers Stephen R.
Published: October 2007

Rarely does an ethnic conflict remain wholly confined to its country of origin. Because ethnic groups often have members across international borders, their civil wars can have a strong influence on neighboring countries’ politics, impelling kindred communities to push for their state to intervene in support of imperilled relatives across the border. At the same time, strategic thinkers often find it tempting to destabilize neighboring countries, or to oppose groups acting as proxies for regional rivals. Because of such considerations, intervention in ethnic civil war becomes a political issue for the neighbors, with the emotional stakes often strengthening the hands of nationalists in the neighboring countries.
The Kazaks and Kazakstan: The Struggle for Ethnic Identity and Nationhood
Authors: Crowe David M.
Published: October 2007

In a recent article in Ulitsa, Moscow journalist Denis Dragunsky asked whether Russia was an Asian or a European country. Much the same question could be asked about Kazakstan (the land of the Kazaks), particularly given its long historical ties with Russia. And it is not an easy question to answer. While Kazakstan's history is a blend of Mongol, Turkic, Islamic, and Russian heritages, there are Cossacks and Russians both in and outside of Kazakstan who feel that parts of Kazakstan belong historically to Russia. While such claims have been long and vocal, the Kazak response has been forcibly silent during most of this century. However, with the emergence of Kazakstan as not only an independent country, but a potentially powerful regional player, Kazaks have begun to reclaim their history from the Russians. And with questions about how to construct a nation come queries about ethnicity and history. What is a Kazak? Given that the Russians referred to them as the Kirgiz during most of the period that they dominated the Kazaks, and thus robbed the Kazaks of their most basic linguistic identification term, there is much to be explored and reclaimed before this people and nation can truly define itself in the context of its rich history.
Refiguring Ethnicity through Kazak Genealogies
Authors: Eitzen Hilda
Published: October 2007

In Kazakstan, as the meaning of Soviet citizenship recedes into the past, the question of Kazak identity comes to the fore. The framing of Kazak national identity is generally configured in relation to the Three Zhuzes, in common parlance referred to as “hordes” but more properly translated “hundreds.” Multiple means of defining Kazak ethnicity emerge either to challenge or reinforce legacies of the past. Traditional concepts of the past may alternately reinforce or break away from stereotypes informed by Russia, by the “civilizing” factors of Islam, or by the nineteenth-century imperial West, depending upon external conditions of military or financial power.
The Oil and Gas Industry in Kazakstan
Authors: Karibdzhanov Erik S. , Taishibayev Murat A.
Published: October 2007

In Kazakstan, there are currently over sixty known oil and natural gas fields, including five sedimentary basins with a potentially large amount of proven and expected gas and oil bearing seams. The largest and best known are the Caspian (Prikaspiiski), South Mangishlak (Uzhno-Mangishlakski), Ustiurt-Buzachi (Ustiurtsko-Buzachinski), Torgai (Torgaiski), and Chu-Sarisu (Chu-Sarisuiski). Kazakstan is ranked twenty-fourth among the world's 55 oil-producing countries by many analysts. It has about 60 billion barrels of oil reserves. Indeed, it has been estimated by many of the same analysts that the offshore fields in the Caspian Sea, which borders Kazakstan's western territory, contain at least 26.6 billion barrels of extractable oil reserves. Yet in 1994, according to an article in Oil and Gas Journal, the government of the United States stated that it “does not consider Kazakstan as the most important source of oil supplies for the United States; however, Kazakstan might play [an] important role in reduction of the [sic] oil price.” Oil is a vital resource for Kazakstan and its extraction will play a major role in fostering the country's future development and relations with major oil consumers. Accurately estimating Kazakstan's reserves, and its ability to sell it on the world market, remains a major concern for Almaty.
Kazakstan and Xinjiang: Regional Players in the World Economy
Authors: Nadyrov Sharip
Published: October 2007

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the large international companies of the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR) began to emphasize collaboration with the former Soviet republics because of opportunities for new markets and raw materials. There are several basic problems, however, demanding serious research into such trade prospects:

(1) The definition of economic and technological variants in the division of labor among Russia, Central Asia, and the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.), including the roles of Kazakstan and Xinjiang.

(2) Defining needs and prioritizing units of production, labor, transportation, etc.

(3) Macropolitical and macroeconomical forecasts of the situations in Russia, Central Asia, and China.

(4) Research on the optimum forms of cooperation.
Nationality Population Distribution, Redistribution and Degree of Separation in Moscow, 1979–1989
Authors: Rowland Richard H.
Published: October 2007

Despite the fact that the former Soviet Union was perhaps the most multinational state in the world, until recently data were not available to undertake a systematic investigation of patterns of nationality population, distribution, redistribution and segregation within Soviet cities. However, nationality data were recently published for the 32 rayons of Moscow for the last two census years of 1979 and 1989.
Pedagogy and Politics: Origins of the Special Conference of 1905 on Primary Education for Non-Russians in the East
Authors: Dowler Wayne
Published: October 2007

In May-June 1905 a special conference on education for non-Russians (inorodtsy) of the eastern Empire met in St Petersburg. The conference was organized by the Ministry of National Enlightenment (i.e. Education) with the concurrence of the Holy Synod. It was chaired by A. S. Budilovich, a member of the Council of Ministers. The conference had been preceded by an investigatory commission, also headed by Budilovich, which visited non-Russian elementary schools in the eastern regions of Russia and interviewed education officials, teachers, and parents involved in the education of non-Russians in the area. The purpose of the commission and the subsequent conference was the “examination of the presently existing legislation concerning the non-Russian schools of eastern Russia and in particular that system among them which is linked to the name of N.I. Il'minskii, compared with the schools of the general type that exist in those regions, on the one hand, and with the confessional schools (especially Moslem and Buddhist), on the other.”
On a stochastic wave equation with unilateral boundary conditions
Authors: Kim Jong
Published: October 2007

We prove the existence and uniqueness of solutions to the initial boundary value problem for a one-dimensional wave equation with unilateral boundary conditions and random noise. We also establish the existence of an invariant measure.
A note on 𝐿₂-estimates for stable integrals with drift
Authors: Kurenok Vladimir
Published: October 2007

Let

X
X

be of the form
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="upper X Subscript t Baseline equals integral Subscript 0 Superscript t Baseline b Subscript s Baseline d upper Z Subscript s Baseline plus integral Subscript 0 Superscript t Baseline a Subscript s Baseline d s comma t greater-than-or-equal-to 0 comma">

X
t

=

∫
0
t

b
s

d

Z
s

+

∫
0
t

a
s

d
s
,
t
≥
0
,

X_t=\int _0^tb_sdZ_s+\int _0^ta_sds, t\ge 0,

where

Z
Z

is a symmetric stable process of index

α
∈
(
1
,
2
)

\alpha \in (1,2)

with

Z
0

=
0

Z_0=0

. We obtain various

L
2

L_2

-estimates for the process

X
X

. In particular, for

m
∈

N

,
t
≥
0
,

m\in \mathbb N, t\ge 0,

and any measurable, nonnegative function

f
f

we derive the inequality
\[
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="bold upper E integral Subscript 0 Superscript t logical-and tau Subscript m Baseline left-parenthesis upper X right-parenthesis Baseline StartAbsoluteValue b Subscript s Baseline EndAbsoluteValue Superscript alpha Baseline f left-parenthesis upper X Subscript s Baseline right-parenthesis d s less-than-or-equal-to upper N double-vertical-bar f double-vertical-bar Subscript 2 comma m Baseline period">

E

∫
0

t
∧

τ
m

(
X
)

|

b
s

|

α

f
(

X
s

)
d
s
≤
N
‖
f

‖

2
,
m

.

{\mathbf E}\int _0^{t\land \tau _m(X)}|b_s|^{\alpha }f(X_s)ds\le N\|f\|_{2,m}.

\]
As an application of the obtained estimates, we prove the existence of solutions for the stochastic equation

d

X
t

=
b
(

X

t
−

)
d

Z
t

+
a
(

X
t

)
d
t

dX_t=b(X_{t-})dZ_t+a(X_t)dt

for any initial value

x
0

∈

R

x_0\in \mathbb R

.
On the unique representation of families of sets
Authors: Gao Su , Jackson Steve , Laczkovich Miklós , Mauldin R.
Published: October 2007

Let

X
X

and

Y
Y

be uncountable Polish spaces.

A
⊂
X
×
Y

A \subset X\times Y

represents a family of sets

C

\mathcal {C}

provided each set in

C

\mathcal {C}

occurs as an

x
x

-section of

A
A

. We say that

A
A

uniquely represents

C

\mathcal {C}

provided each set in

C

\mathcal {C}

occurs exactly once as an

x
x

-section of

A
A

.

A
A

is universal for

C

\mathcal {C}

if every

x
x

-section of

A
A

is in

C

\mathcal {C}

.

A
A

is uniquely universal for

C

\mathcal {C}

if it is universal and uniquely represents

C

\mathcal {C}

. We show that there is a Borel set in

X
×
R

X\times R

which uniquely represents the translates of

Q

\mathbb {Q}

if and only if there is a

Σ
2
1

\Sigma _2^1

Vitali set. Assuming

V
=
L

V = L

there is a Borel set

B
⊂

ω
ω

B \subset \omega ^\omega

with all sections

F
σ

F_\sigma

sets and all non-empty

K
σ

K_\sigma

sets are uniquely represented by

B
B

. Assuming

V
=
L

V =L

there is a Borel set

B
⊂
X
×
Y

B \subset X\times Y

with all sections

K
σ

K_\sigma

which uniquely represents the countable subsets of

Y
Y

. There is an analytic set in

X
×
Y

X\times Y

with all sections

Δ
2
0

\Delta _2^0

which represents all the

Δ
2
0

\Delta _2^0

subsets of

Y
Y

, but no Borel set can uniquely represent the

Δ
2
0

\Delta _2^0

sets. This last theorem is generalized to higher Borel classes.
Chromatin Challenges during DNA Replication: A Systems Representation
Authors: Kohn Kurt W. , Aladjem Mirit I. , Weinstein John N. , Pommier Yves
Published: October 2007

In a recent review, A. Groth and coworkers presented a comprehensive account of nucleosome disassembly in front of a DNA replication fork, assembly behind the replication fork, and the copying of epigenetic information onto the replicated chromatin. Understanding those processes however would be enhanced by a comprehensive graphical depiction analogous to a circuit diagram. Accordingly, we have constructed a molecular interaction map (MIM) that preserves in essentially complete detail the processes described by Groth et al. The MIM organizes and elucidates the information presented by Groth et al. on the complexities of chromatin replication, thereby providing a tool for system-level comprehension of the effects of genetic mutations, altered gene expression, and pharmacologic intervention.
The steady-state response of a Maxwell viscoelastic cylinder to sinusoidal oscillation of its boundary
Authors: Massouros Panagiotis G , Genin Guy M
Published: October 2007

The steady-state response of a Maxwell viscoelastic cylinder to periodic sinusoidal oscillation of its boundary was studied as a simplified model of the brain responding to low-amplitude angular vibration of an idealized skull. The objectives were to identify conditions in which peak strain occurred on the interior of the cylinder, and to identify ways to scale strains from differently sized cylinders. This latter objective is motivated by the work of Holbourn to inform scaling of intracranial strains experienced under similar acceleration of skulls of different animals. The mechanical response was dictated by two dimensionless parameters that incorporate material properties and external loading frequency. The location and magnitude of maximum strain were examined with respect to these governing parameters in steady state. A frequency-dependent mapping of brain constitutive data to idealized Maxwell models was applied to predict the location and magnitude of peak strains inside a cylinder with mechanical properties representing the adult human brain. Results suggest that peak strains occur on the interior of such a cylinder for skull oscillation within a specific frequency band.
Maternal investment tactics in superb fairy-wrens
Authors: Russell A.F , Langmore N.E , Gardner J.L , Kilner R.M
Published: October 2007

In cooperatively breeding species, parents often use helper contributions to offspring care to cut their own costs of investment (i.e. load-lightening). Understanding the process of load-lightening is essential to understanding both the rules governing parental investment and the adaptive value of helping behaviour, but little experimental work has been conducted. Here we report the results of field experiments to determine maternal provisioning rules in cooperatively breeding superb fairy-wrens (
Malurus cyaneus
). By manipulating carer : offspring ratios, we demonstrate that helpers allow females to reduce the rate at which they provision their brood. Female reductions, however, were less than that provided by helpers, so that chicks still received food at a faster rate in the presence of helpers. Despite this, chicks fed by parents and helpers were not heavier than those provisioned by parents alone. This is because maternal load-lightening not only occurs during the chick provisioning stage, but also at the egg investment stage. Theoretically, complete load-lightening is predicted when parents value themselves more highly than their offspring. We tested this idea by ‘presenting’ mothers with a ‘choice’ between reducing their own levels of care and increasing investment in their offspring. We found that mothers preferred to cut their contributions to brood care, just as predicted. Our experiments help to explain why helper effects on offspring success have been difficult to detect in superb fairy-wrens, and suggest that the accuracy with which theoretical predictions of parental provisioning rules are matched in cooperative birds depends on measuring maternal responses to helper presence at both the egg and chick stages.
Scents and scents-ability: pollution disrupts chemical social recognition and shoaling in fish
Authors: Ward Ashley J.W , Duff Alison J , Horsfall Jennifer S , Currie Suzanne
Published: October 2007

Chemical cues are of enormous importance in mediating the behaviour of animals, enabling them to navigate throughout their habitats, to detect the presence of predators or prey and for social recognition—identifying and discriminating between conspecifics. In many species of freshwater fish, social recognition is known to be based primarily on chemical cues. Such recognition mechanisms are vulnerable to disruption by the presence of anthropogenic contaminants in the aquatic environment. Here we show that acute exposure to low, environmentally relevant dosages of the ubiquitous contaminant, 4-nonylphenol, can seriously affect social recognition and ultimately social organization in fishes. A 1 hour 0.5 μg l−1dose was sufficient to alter the response of members of a shoaling fish species (juvenile banded killifish,Fundulus diaphanus) to conspecific chemical cues. Dosages of 1–2 μg l−1caused killifish to orient away from dosed conspecifics, in both a flow channel and an arena. Given the overall importance of shoaling as an adaptive strategy against predators and for locating food, it is likely that its disruption by anthropogenic contaminants would have serious implications for fishes' fitness.
Indirect reciprocity in asymmetric interactions: when apparent altruism facilitates profitable exploitation
Authors: Johnstone Rufus A , Bshary Redouan
Published: October 2007

Intraspecific cooperation and interspecific mutualism often feature an asymmetry in the scope for exploitation. We investigate the evolution of indirect reciprocity in an asymmetric game, loosely modelled on interactions between cleaner fishes and clients, in which ‘actors’ can choose to help or to exploit a ‘recipient’ that approaches them, while recipients can only choose whether or not to approach an actor (based on the observation of its behaviour towards others). We show that when actors vary in state over time, in a manner that influences the potential gains from exploitation, an equilibrium is possible at which recipients avoid actors whom they have observed exploiting others in the past, and actors help when the potential gains from exploitation are low but choose to exploit when the potential gains are high. In this context, helping is favoured not because it elicits reciprocal altruism (‘help so that you may be helped’), but because it facilitates profitable exploitation (‘help so that you may gain the opportunity to harm’). The cost of helping one recipient is thereby recouped through exploitation of another. Indirect reciprocity is thus possible even in asymmetric interactions in which one party cannot directly ‘punish’ exploitation or ‘reward’ helping by the other.
Constitutive activation of c‐Met is correlated with c‐Met overexpression and dependent on cell–matrix adhesion in lung adenocarcinoma cell lines
Authors: Nakamura Yu , Matsubara Daisuke , Goto Akiteru , Ota Satoshi , Sachiko Oguni , Ishikawa Shumpei , Aburatani Hiroyuki , Miyazawa Keiji , Fukayama Masashi , Niki Toshiro
Published: October 2007

In this study we explored the mechanisms of constitutive activation of c‐Met in lung adenocarcinoma cell lines. First, we examined levels of c‐Met and phospho‐c‐Met (Y1234/Y1235) in a panel of lung adenocarcinoma cell lines by Western blot analysis. c‐Met expression was found in 12 of 14 cell lines and an overall correlation between the expressions of c‐Met and phospho‐c‐Met was noted. c‐Met was constitutively activated particularly at high levels in five cell lines (PC3, LC‐2/ad, L27, H1648, and H2009). c‐Met amplification was identified in L27 and H1648 by single nucleotide polymorphism array analysis, but no mutations were identified in the Sema domain or in any part of the cytoplasmic domain of c‐Met. Experiments with neutralizing anti‐hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) antibody, scatter assay using Madin–Darby canine kidney cells, and Western blotting on conditioned media of the cell lines revealed that the constitutive phosphorylation of c‐Met was largely ligand‐independent. The inhibition of cell–matrix adhesion induced the dephosphorylation of c‐Met in the five cell lines tested. This was accompanied by downregulation of c‐Met in three of the five cell lines. In contrast, the inhibition of cell–cell adhesion by neutralizing E‐cadherin antibody had a minimal effect on the expression and phosphorylation of c‐Met. These results reveal three features of the constitutive activation of c‐Met in our panel of lung adenocarcinoma cell lines: (i) it correlates with c‐Met overexpression, either with or without gene amplification; (ii) it is largely ligand‐independent; and (iii) it depends on cell–matrix adhesion. (Cancer Sci 2008; 99: 14–22)
Enhancement of esophageal carcinogenesis in acid reflux model rats treated with ascorbic acid and sodium nitrite in combination with or without initiation
Authors: Kuroiwa Yuichi , Okamura Toshiya , Ishii Yuji , Umemura Takashi , Tasaki Masako , Kanki Keita , Mitsumori Kunitoshi , Hirose Masao , Nishikawa Akiyoshi
Published: October 2007

Combined treatment with sodium nitrite (NaNO2) and ascorbic acid (AsA) has already been shown to promote rat forestomach carcinogenesis, possibly due to nitric oxide generation under acidic conditions. We hypothesized that a similar effect might occur in the esophagus when the luminal pH is decreased by acid reflux. To clarify this possibility, reflux esophagitis model rats (F344 male) were coadministered 0.2% NaNO2 in the drinking water and 1% AsA in the diet. After 32 weeks of the combined treatment, a significant increase in the incidence of epithelial hyperplasias of the lower‐middle and lowest parts of the esophagus were observed compared with the basal‐diet group, along with exacerbation of dysplasia and extension of the lesions. Additionally, one squamous cell papilloma was found only in the combined‐treatment group. Subsequently, we confirmed the enhancing effects of NaNO2 and AsA cotreatment in the rat N‐bis(2‐hydroxypropyl)nitrosamine‐initiated esophageal tumorigenesis model. The incidence of hyperplasia was enhanced in all segments, along with the incidence and multiplicity of squamous cell papillomas in the lowest segment of the esophagus. Thus, the data demonstrate that combined treatment with NaNO2 and AsA exerts promoting effects on rat esophageal carcinogenesis under acid reflux conditions, as in the forestomach. These findings suggest that the risk of excessive intake of a combination of nitrite and antioxidants for esophageal carcinogenesis is appreciable, particularly in patients with reflux esophagitis. (Cancer Sci 2008; 99: 7–13)