bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Relationships between glucose, sodium and effective osmolality in diabetic dogs and cats
Authors: Schermerhorn Thomas , Barr Stephen C.
Published: February 2006

Objective:To examine the relative contributions of sodium and glucose to serum effective osmolality and the presence of abnormalities of sodium and osmolality in diabetic dogs and cats.

Design:Retrospective study.

Setting:A university‐based referral hospital.

Animals:Diabetic dogs (n=14) and cats (n=13) consecutively admitted to the hospital over a 6‐month period.

Interventions:None

Measurements:Serum biochemistry assessments.

Main results:The mean glucose concentration was higher in diabetic dogs than in diabetic cats. Total osmolality (OsmT), effective osmolality (OsmE), and the concentrations of sodium, potassium, blood urea notrogen, bicarbonate, and creatinine did not differ between species. Sodium abnormalities and hyperosmolality affected 44% and 81%, respectively, of the study group. However, marked hyperosmolality (OsmE>330 mOsm/L) was found in only 33% of the study group. Serum sodium correlated closely with OsmEin dogs and cats but serum glucose did not correlate with the OsmEin either species. Subsets of dogs (n=10) and cats (n=7) with diabetic ketosis (DK) were examined separately. DK dogs had significantly lower sodium concentrations than DK cats and the proportion of DK dogs with hyponatremia was nearly 3 times greater than DK cats. Severe hyperosmolality (OsmE>330 mOsm/L) was more common in DK cats than DK dogs.

Conclusions:In diabetic dogs and cats, sodium, not glucose, was correlated with serum OsmEand marked elevation in pretreatment OsmEis uncommon. Compensatory reduction in serum sodium may be 1 mechanism for blunting changes in OsmEin the presence of marked hyperglycemia.
Nosocomial infections and antimicrobial resistance in critical care medicine
Authors: Ogeer‐Gyles Jennifer S. , Mathews Karol A. , Boerlin Patrick
Published: February 2006

Objective:To review the human and companion animal veterinary literature on nosocomial infections and antimicrobial drug resistance as they pertain to the critically ill patient.

Data sources:Data from human and veterinary sources were reviewed using PubMed and CAB.

Human data synthesis:There is a large amount of published data on nosocomially‐acquired bloodstream infections, pneumonia, urinary tract infections and surgical site infections, and strategies to minimize the frequency of these infections, in human medicine. Nosocomial infections caused by multi‐drug‐resistant (MDR) pathogens are a leading cause of increased patient morbidity and mortality, medical treatment costs, and prolonged hospital stay. Epidemiology and risk factor analyses have shown that the major risk factor for the development of antimicrobial resistance in critically ill human patients is heavy antibiotic usage.

Veterinary data synthesis:There is a paucity of information on the development of antimicrobial drug resistance and nosocomially‐acquired infections in critically ill small animal veterinary patients. Mechanisms of antimicrobial drug resistance are universal, although the selection effects created by antibiotic usage may be less significant in veterinary patients. Future studies on the development of antimicrobial drug resistance in critically ill animals may benefit from research that has been conducted in humans.

Conclusions:Antimicrobial use in critically ill patients selects for antimicrobial drug resistance and MDR nosocomial pathogens. The choice of antimicrobials should be prudent and based on regular surveillance studies and accurate microbiological diagnostics. Antimicrobial drug resistance is becoming an increasing problem in veterinary medicine, particularly in the critical care setting, and institution‐specific strategies should be developed to prevent the emergence of MDR infections. The collation of data from tertiary‐care veterinary hospitals may identify trends in antimicrobial drug resistance patterns in nosocomial pathogens and aid in formulating guidelines for antimicrobial use.
Resolution of severe thrombocytopenia in two standard Poodles with surgical correction of splenic torsion
Authors: Stoneham Anne E. , Henderson Alicia K. , O'Toole Therese E.
Published: February 2006

Objective:To describe the diagnosis and treatment of 2 cases of severe thrombocytopenia associated with splenic torsion and to discuss the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying the thrombocytopenia.

Summary:We report 2 cases of severe thrombocytopenia associated with splenic torsion. Each dog presented with non‐specific clinical signs, radiographic evidence of an intra‐abdominal mass, and platelet counts of less than 25,000 platelets/μL. The diagnosis of splenic torsion was made with abdominal ultrasonography and was confirmed during exploratory laparotomy. Both dogs recovered rapidly following splenectomy. The cause of thrombocytopenia associated with splenic torsion is not fully elucidated, but may be because of either platelet sequestration within the torsed spleen, platelet consumption in disseminated intravascular coagulation, or a combination of both.

New information provided:This report provides previously unreported evidence that the degree of thrombocytopenia associated with splenic torsion may be of a severity at which primary hemostasis is compromised, and resolution of thrombocytopenia occurs after splenectomy.
Stability analysis of low‐cost digital cameras for aerial mapping using different georeferencing techniques
Authors: Habib Ayman , Pullivelli Anoop , Mitishita Edson , Ghanma Mwafag , Kim Eui‐Myoung
Published: February 2006

Increasing resolution and lower cost of off‐the‐shelf digital cameras are giving rise to their use in traditional and new photogrammetric activities such as aerial mapping, transportation and surveillance as well as archaeological, industrial and medical applications. For most, if not all, photogrammetric applications, the interior orientation parameters (IOP) of the camera need to be determined and analysed. The derivation of these parameters is usually achieved through a bundle adjustment with self‐calibration procedure. Prior to using a camera in photogrammetric applications, the IOP should be estimated and their stability should be checked. Camera stability has been rarely addressed when dealing with analogue metric cameras since they have been carefully designed and built to assure the utmost stability of their internal characteristics. However, the stability of low‐cost digital cameras needs to be investigated since these cameras are not built with photogrammetric applications in mind. This paper introduces three quantitative methods for testing camera stability, where the degree of similarity between reconstructed bundles from two sets of IOP is evaluated. Each of these methods limits the position and orientation of the bundles in a different way. Hence, each method is applicable for a specific georeferencing methodology depending on similar constraints imposed by the stability measures and different georeferencing techniques. The paper will test this hypothesis on the basis of reconstruction results obtained from the use of a low‐cost digital camera in an aerial mapping project.
The absolute positioning of spaceborne INSAR data using the integer ambiguity method
Authors: Sowter Andrew , Warren Mark A. , Bingley Richard M.
Published: February 2006

In this paper, the capability of the integer ambiguity method to find the absolute position of InSAR data is demonstrated. A radargrammetric model is used for the space triangulation. The method is demonstrated using ERS data of the Thames region and the results are compared to GPS measurements and a digital elevation model. The GPS stations, not visible in the image, are located on the InSAR data using a simple range‐Doppler algorithm and an analysis of their positions is undertaken. The results are consistent with other methods but with the advantage that the radargrammetric model is very simple. The results also highlight the problems of integrating GPS data with InSAR data in urban areas where a GPS station may not be representative of the dominant scatterers within a resolution cell, and they suggest methods that might be applied in future to reduce this problem. The model should help the integration of InSAR data with other geometric survey data.
Sintering and Piezoelectric Properties of Co‐Fired Lead Zirconate Titanate/Ag Composites
Authors: Zhang Hailong , Li Jing‐Feng , Zhang Bo‐Ping
Published: February 2006

Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ceramics were co‐fired with pure Ag powders at 1200°C for 1 h, and the ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties of the resultant PZT/Ag composites were evaluated, aimed at potential applications in functionally graded piezoelectric actuators with enhanced mechanical reliabilities. In the range of 1–15 vol% Ag concentration, pure Ag powder remained as the second phase in the composites, and a small quantity of Ag entered into the crystal lattice of PZT and slightly increased the lattice constants of a and c. The Ag powders were found to aggregate together and grow to larger particles in the composites. The ceramic grains grew from an initial size of 1.5 μm for monolithic PZT to 2.5 μm for the PZT/Ag composites, and the grain size was almost the same for various Ag concentrations. It was found that the ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties decreased when Ag was added to PZT. In the range of 1–15 vol% Ag concentration, the remanent polarization Pr decreased from 38 to 27 μC/cm2, the piezoelectric constant d33 decreased from 394 to 105 pC/N, and the planar electromechanical coupling factor kp decreased from 0.69 to 0.15, respectively. These piezoelectric properties of the present PZT/Ag composites were compared with the results reported for PZT/Pt composites, and discussed in relation to microstructural features.
Synthesis and Properties of Strontium β‐Alumina
Authors: Swetnam M. A. , Fray D. J. , Kumar R. V.
Published: February 2006

It has been shown that strontium β‐alumina is a stable phase at compositions close to SrAl10O17 and can be further stabilized over a composition range in the presence of MgO in the SrO–MgO–Al2O3 system. In the absence of MgO, at temperatures greater than 1673 K, the magnetoplumbite phase is readily formed. Conductivity measurement carried out at temperatures from 1073 to 1773 K has demonstrated that both the strontium β‐alumina and the magnetoplumbite phases have reasonably similar magnitudes of conductivity and activation energy.
Heat Transfer in Porous Green Bodies During Binder Removal by Minimum Time Heating Cycles
Authors: Yun Jeong Woo , Lombardo Stephen J.
Published: February 2006

Heat transfer in ceramic green bodies is examined during rapid binder removal cycles predicted by a variational calculus algorithm. Both the heat transfer and the mass transfer problems are described by one‐dimensional spatial models, for which analytical solutions are available. During the minimum time heating cycles, the temperature difference within the green body is shown to depend on the thermal diffusivity, on the permeability, on the threshold pressure at which failure of the green body occurs, and on a number of other kinetic and transport parameters. The temperature difference within the green body is smallest during the early part of the minimum time heating cycle, when the constraint on pressure buildup within the green body limits the rate at which the temperature can be increased.
Preparation and Characterization of Nanocrystalline (1−x)BiScO3–xPbTiO3 Powder
Authors: Zhao Wei , Wang Xiaohui , Hao Junjie , Wen Hai , Li Longtu
Published: February 2006

A novel sol–gel method was used to synthesize homogeneous and nanosized (1−x)BiScO3−xPbTiO3 ceramic powders. During the processing for preparing the sol, the pH value must be strictly controlled to avoid precipitates. Ethylene glycol (EG) or polyethylene glycol (PEG) was added separately to stabilize the sol, and the effects of EG and PEG addition were investigated by using the infrared spectral absorption method. Nano‐ceramic powders can be obtained by calcining the dried gel at 550°–800°C for 2–8 h. The average grain size for the powder calcined at 600°C for 3 h was about 10 nm determined by transmission electron microscope and X‐ray diffraction. The sintering temperature and electrical properties of the ceramics derived by nano‐powders were compared with those prepared by the conventional ceramic processing. The result shows that using the nanopowder, the sintering temperature could be reduced from 1100° to 1000°C, and the electrical properties were enhanced.
Crystallization Kinetics of Lithium Orthosilicate Glasses
Authors: Wondraczek Lothar , Deubener Joachim , Misture Scott T. , Knitter Regina
Published: February 2006

The formation of crystalline Li4SiO4 and Li2SiO3 from lithium orthosilicate glasses has been studied by means of in situ high‐temperature X‐ray diffraction. The first phase that crystallizes from the glass could not be identified, but was followed by the transformation to crystalline orthosilicate and metasilicate. Orthosilicate formation was tracked at temperatures between 600° and 650°C, whereas at higher temperatures, the formation of a small amount of crystalline metasilicate occurs. The kinetics of the initial phase of both crystallization processes are described by the Avrami–Erofeev equation, resulting in activation energies of 90 kJ/mol for the formation of the unidentified phase, and 68 kJ/mol for the formation of Li4SiO4. The rate constant for the crystallization of the unidentified phase is 0.014 s−1 at 510°C, equaling that of the orthosilicate formation at 630°C. After isothermal heat treatment for 100–800 s, depending on temperature, 80%–95% of the sample is crystallized and further crystallization is controlled by diffusion in both cases.
Phase Transition and Failure at High Temperature of Bismuth‐Layered Piezoelectric Ceramics
Authors: Zheng Liaoying , Li Guorong , Yin Qingrui , Kwok K.W.
Published: February 2006

High‐temperature bismuth‐layered piezoelectric ceramics (CaxSr1−x)Bi4Ti4O15 have been prepared by the conventional solid reaction method. Our results reveal that there is a “phase transition induced by the composition” taking place in the solid solution at around x=0.4. During transition, the crystal structure changes from orthorhombic to pseudo‐tetragonal and then back to orthorhombic. Although all (CaxSr1−x)Bi4Ti4O15 (with any x value) undergo a second‐order ferroelectric‐to‐ferroelectric phase transition at about 200°C below their Curie temperature, only the ceramic with x=0.4 exhibits a failure in piezoelectric properties during the transition. It is suggested that, on the basis of the X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy results, this material failure is induced by the high concentration of oxygen vacancies in the material during the phase transition.
Enzymatic Preparation of Hollow Yttrium Oxide Microspheres for In Situ Radiotherapy of Deep‐Seated Cancer
Authors: Kawashita Masakazu , Takayama Yoshihisa , Kokubo Tadashi , Takaoka Gikan H. , Araki Norio , Hiraoka Masahiro
Published: February 2006

Chemically durable microspheres 20−30 μm in diameter containing a large amount of yttrium are useful for in situ radiotherapy of cancer, as they can be activated by neutron bombardment to form β‐emitters, and can be injected into the vicinity of the cancer cells to impart a large localized dose of β‐radiation. In this study, preparation of hollow Y2O3 microspheres using an enzymatic reaction was attempted, and the structure and chemical durability of the resulting microspheres were investigated. Hollow Y2O3 microspheres 20–30 μm in diameter were successfully prepared by this enzymatic method. The outer surface of the microspheres was smooth and dense, and the inner parts had a honeycombed structure. In simulated body fluids at pH 6 and 7, the hollow Y2O3 microspheres showed high chemical durability.
Self‐Crack‐Healing Behavior of Mullite/SiC Particle/SiC Whisker Multi‐Composites and Potential Use for Ceramic Springs
Authors: Nakao Wataru , Mori Shuntaro , Nakamura Jun , Takahashi Koji , Ando Kotoji , Yokouchi Masahiro
Published: February 2006

To improve fracture toughness and encourage excellent self‐crack‐healing ability, mullite/SiC particle/SiC whisker multi‐composites and mullite/SiC whisker composites were hot pressed. The crack‐healing abilities and mechanical properties of these sintered composites were investigated. Based on the obtained results, the usefulness of the mullite composite as a material for springs was discussed. The part of mullite/15 vol% SiC whisker/SiC 10 vol% particle containing healed cracks retained high reliability over the whole measured temperature range. When the crack‐healing ability was endowed by SiC whiskers alone, the parts containing the healed pre‐cracks were found to have a heat‐resistance limit temperature. Mullite/15 vol% SiC whisker/10 vol% SiC particle multi‐composite had the best potential as a material for springs used at high temperatures, because it had an adequate crack‐healing ability as well as shear deformation ability almost two times stronger than that of monolithic mullite.
Preparation of C/SiC Composites by Hot Pressing, Using Different C Fiber Content as Reinforcement
Authors: Ding Yusheng , Dong Shaoming , Zhou Qing , Huang Zhenren , Jiang Dongliang
Published: February 2006

Unidirectional C/SiC composites were successfully prepared by hot pressing at 1850°C under 20 MPa, using different fiber volume fractions (from 28 vol% to 55 vol%) as reinforcement. The densification process of the composites became increasingly difficult with increasing fiber volume fraction, and some small pores were still distributed in the intrabundle regions of the composites. The cracks, resulting from the residual thermal stress in the composites due to the mismatch of the thermal expansion coefficient of the matrix and the fiber, were distributed in the matrix. With the increase of fiber content, the mechanical properties of the composites could be improved and the composites exhibited an obvious noncatastrophic fracture behavior due to a decrease in the thermal residual stress and an increase in the fiber pull outs.
Crack Growth in Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Materials: From Discrete to Continuum Damage Modeling
Authors: Nguyen Ba Nghiep , Koeppel Brian J , Ahzi Said , Khaleel Mohammad A , Singh Prabhakar
Published: February 2006

This paper addresses the damage and fracture issues of glass and ceramic materials used in solid oxide fuel cells. Analyses of an internal crack and of an interface crack between dissimilar materials were conducted using a modified boundary layer modeling approach. In this approach, fracture is allowed to occur in a small process window situated at an initial crack tip. Elastic displacement crack‐tip fields are prescribed as remote boundary conditions. Crack propagation was first modeled discretely. Next, a continuum damage mechanics (CDM) model for brittle materials was developed to capture damage and crack growth in the process window. In particular, the damage model was applied to a glass‐ceramic material that had been developed in‐house for sealing purposes. Discrete and continuum damage solutions were then compared. Finally, the CDM model was used to determine the crack propagation direction as a function of a mode mixity measure.
Effect of Uniaxial Stress Upon the Electromechanical Properties of Various Piezoelectric Ceramics and Single Crystals
Authors: Viehland D.
Published: February 2006

A systematic investigation of the stress‐dependent (σ) electromechanical properties of various ferroelectric ceramics and single crystals has been performed. Studies have been carried out on “hard” and “soft” piezoelectrics, electrostrictive ceramics, and various orientations of (1−x)Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3–(x) PbTiO3 PMN–x%PT single crystals. The large signal piezoelectric constant, acoustic power density, and coupling coefficient have been determined by calculation. The results are compared, in order to develop an understanding of the relative merits of the different types of active acoustic materials.
PbZr0.4Ti0.6O3‐Based Reflectors with Tunable Peak Wavelengths
Authors: Hu G. J. , Hong X. K. , Liu A. Y. , Chen J. , Chu J. H. , Dai N.
Published: February 2006

Based on the phase separation, a series of quasiperiodic PbZr0.4Ti0.6O3 (PZT) multilayers consisting of the ordered alignment of the dense PZT and porous PZT layers have been grown using one single precursor. The multilayers exhibit good performance as a dielectric mirror, and the position of the reflection maximum can be easily tuned over the whole visible range through varying the spinning rate. More than 86% optical reflectivity and less than 19 nm photonic stop‐band width have been achieved at room temperature. The quasiperiodic PZT multilayers can be used as dielectric reflectors, interference filters, and optical cavities.
Effects of Thermal Annealing on the Structure of Ferroelectric Thin Films
Authors: Cao Jiang‐Li , Solbach Axel , Klemradt Uwe , Weirich Thomas , Mayer Joachim , Böttger Ulrich , Ellerkmann Ulrich , Schorn Peter J. , Gerber Peter , Waser Rainer
Published: February 2006

The effects of thermal annealing on the structure of polycrystalline Pb(Zr0.3Ti0.7)O3 (PZT) ferroelectric thin films prepared by chemical solution deposition on Pt/TiOx electrode stacks were studied using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and grazing incidence X‐ray specular and diffuse reflectivity of synchrotron radiation. The stratified multilayered structure and element diffusions in the sample were characterized by TEM. Global statistical structural parameters including the density, surface or interface roughness and thickness of each layer in the samples were obtained from fitting the X‐ray specular reflectivity using a homogeneous stratified multilayer model of PZT/Pt/TiOx/SiO2. The results showed that the PZT surface and PZT/Pt interface roughness changed slightly during thermal annealing in oxygen at 700°C. By contrast, the density increase of the PZT ceramic and density decrease of the Pt‐bottom electrode during annealing were observed. A high density value of the PZT ceramic film after the annealing was found, up to 99.8% of the theoretical value of the corresponding bulk ceramics. The density changes of the PZT and Pt layers were further confirmed by X‐ray diffuse reflectivity. The influences of the annealing treatment on the density changes of the PZT and Pt layers were attributed to the further densification of the PZT ceramic and incorporation of light elements such as Zr, Ti and O from the neighboring layers into the Pt layer, respectively, as discussed in correlation with the TEM analyses.
Chemically Modified Water‐Glass Binders for Acid‐Resistant Mortars
Authors: Zellmann H.‐D. , Kaps Ch.
Published: February 2006

Water‐glass as a binder is used in acid and fire‐proof applications. A chemical modification influences the curing rate or characteristics like the flexural and compressive strength. The aim of this work is to investigate the influence of the addition of C3S, C3A, and Na3(PO3)3 on the chemical durability of cured sodium silicate mortars. The results show that the addition of clinker minerals as accelerator reduces chemical durability and makes these binders unusable for acid‐proof applications. The addition of Na3(PO3)3 makes the sodium silicate binder durable against water and acid attacks and triples the compressive strength.
Simulation of Colloidal Particle Packing for Photonic Bandgap Crystals
Authors: Li Jenn‐Feng , Chen Chuin‐Shan , Yu Bang‐Ying , Wei Wen‐Cheng J.
Published: February 2006

We study the packing history and packing structures of photonic bandgap crystals consisting of mono‐sized SiO2 particles. Simulations with combined actions of Brownian motion, inter‐particle interactions, and imposed external fields are considered. Numerical tactics to support modeling of Brownian particle agglomerations and consolidation and drying processing are developed. Our results suggest that the desired close‐packed patterns on the surface are propagated from those at the bottom layer during consolidation. The driving forces for this pattern formation and growth are the coupling between inter‐particle interactions and constraints from imposed external fields.
Preparation of Hollow BaTiO3 and Anatase Spheres by the Layer‐by‐Layer Colloidal Templating Method
Authors: Nakano Hideyuki , Nakamura Hiroshi
Published: February 2006

Hollow BaTiO3 and anatase spheres were prepared from multilayered colloidal titanate particles. An inorganic precursor, titanium (IV) bis(ammonium lactate) dihydroxide (TALH) (chemical formula: [CH3CH(O–)CO2–NH4]2Ti(OH)2) was used. First, a layer‐by‐layer (LBL) colloid‐templating method was employed using TALH to generate monodispersed hollow titanate spheres. These spheres were then treated in a Ba(OH)2 solution or distilled water under hydrothermal conditions to transform them into hollow BaTiO3 or anatase spheres, respectively.
A review of invertebrates and seed‐bearing plants as food for farmland birds in Europe
Authors: Holland J.M. , Hutchison M.A.S. , Smith B. , Aebischer N.J.
Published: February 2006

Dietary information was reviewed for 22 bird species typically found in farmland areas across Europe using 100 references from the UK and other European countries for which quantitative data were presented. The number of studies and degree of taxonomic resolution available varied considerably between the species and, for some, dietary information was only available prior to agricultural intensification and may be unrepresentative of current feeding habits. Consequently, some caution is required in interpreting the results because of the different methods of data collection between the studies and the biases in analytical techniques for prey detectability. Food availability was rarely quantified in the study areas, and diet may have reflected availability or preference. Plant families and invertebrate orders were ranked in their importance separately for adult diet in the breeding and nonbreeding seasons and for chicks. The most important plant families overall were Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cruciferae, Compositae, Chenopodiaceae and Labiatae, although the last two were unimportant for chicks. A number of key species were also identified. Similarities in dietary preferences were observed among Fringillidae (finches) and members of the Columbidae (doves and pigeons). Fringillidae andCarduelis cannabina(linnet) were associated with plants that occur in seminatural habitats, whileEmberiza citrinella(yellowhammer), Phasianidae (partridges) and Columbidae were shown to be more closely associated with plants of agricultural environments. The most important invertebrate orders overall were Coleoptera adults, Hemiptera adults, Arachnida, Lepidoptera larvae/pupae, Diptera adults, Lepidoptera adults, Diptera larvae/pupae and Hymenoptera adults. During the nonbreeding season, a smaller number of invertebrate taxa were important. For adults in the breeding season and for chicks, there were 10 families of invertebrate that were important for four or more bird species (Aphididae, Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae, Elateridae, Formicidae, Scarabeidae, Staphylinidae, Tenthredinidae and Tipulidae). In the nonbreeding season, Curculionidae and Lumbricidae were important in the diet of three species. A few species exhibited a narrow diet range, selecting invertebrates from only one or two families. Similarities in dietary composition were observed among closely related bird species, while that of chicks and adults sometimes differed.
Distribution of Rupestris stem‐pitting‐associated virus variants in two Australian vineyards showing different symptoms
Authors: Habili N. , Farrokhi N. , Lima M.F. , Nicholas P. , Randles J.W.
Published: February 2006

The incidence of Rupestris stem‐pitting‐associated virus (RSPaV) in two vineyards in South Australia was studied by comparing symptoms with the results obtained from biological indexing and from virus detection by reverse‐transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR). Vineyard 1 was an experimental block comprising a number of varieties grafted onto Vitis rupestris cv. St George rootstocks for the detection of Rupestris stem pitting disease. No swelling at graft union or decline was observed at 3 years, but some vines showed pitting on the rootstock trunk. Vineyard 2 contained Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz (Syn. Syrah) vines on Paulsen 1103 rootstock, showing a range of symptoms including swelling of the graft union, pitting on the rootstock, leaf reddening and vine decline, resembling those in Syrah Decline, a disorder known to occur in this variety. RT‐PCR using the coat‐protein‐specific primers detected RSPaV in all samples from either vineyard including symptomless V. rupestris cv. St George, which is used as the biological indicator for the virus. In contrast, a pair of primers designed from the replicase gene detected the virus only in symptomatic vines, whereas the symptomless St George control and nonsymptomatic vines in both vineyards tested negative. An assay for 12 other major grapevine viruses showed that none were associated with either type of symptom. Comparison of a 628‐bp amplicon on the replicase gene in 13 RSPaV isolates showed that while they had 96–99% nucleotide sequence identity to each other, their identity to the American isolates from California and New York was around 65%. This low homology may indicate that a different virus species is present. The variability was more pronounced between the two vineyards than among the virus isolates in the Shiraz vines within the same vineyard. However, even the vines of the same vineyard did not contain viruses with exactly the same sequence homology. We found no association between the type of symptom expressed and the sequence variation in the amplicons in either vineyard. The sequence variants in Vineyard 1 showed a closer cluster than in Vineyard 2.
PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL CAPACITY, HOMELESSNESS, AND CRIME AND ARREST RATES*
Authors: MARKOWITZ FRED E.
Published: February 2006

As a result of developments in pharmacology, stricter standards for involuntary commitment, and changes in public expenditures, there has been a dramatic decline in the capacity of public psychiatric hospitals to maintain America's most severely mentally ill. Psychiatric deinstitutionalization has led to an increased presence of persons with mental illness in urban areas, many “falling through the cracks” of community‐based services. This is hypothesized to have contributed to homelessness, crime, and arrests. Individual‐level research has documented disproportionate and increasing numbers of mentally ill persons in jails and prisons. It has also found higher rates of violence and arrest among persons with mental illness compared to the general population. This study takes a macro‐level social control approach and examines the relationships between psychiatric hospital capacity, homelessness, and crime and arrest rates using a sample of eighty‐one U.S. cities. I find that public psychiatric hospital capacity has a statistically significant negative effect on crime and arrest rates, and that hospital capacity affects crime and arrest rates in part, through its impact on homelessness. In addition, I find no crime‐reducing effect of private and general psychiatric hospital capacity.
RACE, DRUGS, AND POLICING: UNDERSTANDING DISPARITIES IN DRUG DELIVERY ARRESTS*
Authors: BECKETT KATHERINE , NYROP KRIS , PFINGST LORI
Published: February 2006

This article draws on several unique data sources to assess and explain racial disparity in Seattle's drug delivery arrests. Evidence regarding the racial and ethnic composition of those who deliver any of five serious drugs in that city is compared with the racial and ethnic composition of those arrested for this offense. Our findings indicate that blacks are significantly overrepresented among Seattle's drug delivery arrestees. Several organizational practices explain racial disparity in these arrests: law enforcement's focus on crack offenders, the priority placed on outdoor drug venues, and the geographic concentration of police resources in racially heterogeneous areas. The available evidence further indicates that these practices are not determined by race‐neutral factors such as crime rates or community complaints. Our findings thus indicate that race shapes perceptions of who and what constitutes Seattle's drug problem, as well as the organizational response to that problem.
Immunohistochemical Changes of the Transcription Regulatory Factors in Rat Striatum after Methamphetamine Administration
Authors: MURATAKE TATSUYUKI , TOYOOKA KAZUHIKO , HAYASHI SHIGENOBU , ICHIKAWA TOMIO , KUMANISHI TOSHIRO , TAKAHASHI YASUO
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: We have found evidence for cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element (CRE) in the 5′‐upstream region of the human 14.3.3 η chain gene during studies on isolation and structure of animal brain 14.3.3 cDNA and the human 14.3.3 h chain gene. cAMP response element‐binding protein (CREB) and phosphorylated CREB (pCREB) may bind to this CRE. Since it was considered that these CREBs may play an important role in molecular mechanisms in the brain of animals treated with methamphetamine, we examined the expression of CREB and pCREB in rat brain after acute and chronic methamphetamine administrations using antibodies against CREB and pCREB. We observed findings for change in the expression of these factors. Our findings should be discussed in relation to the data of other authors.
Unraveling Dopamine D3 Receptor Function in Response to Psychostimulants Using a Genetic Approacha
Authors: XU MING
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: The dopamine D3 receptor is expressed mostly in the limbic regions of the brain that influence reward‐related behaviors, including responses to psychostimulants. However, the lack of ligands with sufficient D3 receptor specificity has hampered our understanding of its possible involvement in mediating psychostimulant actions. To unravel dopamine D3 receptor function and underlying mechanisms in response to psychostimulants, we used a genetic approach and generated D3 receptor gene mutant mice. Our analysis indicates that the D3 mutant mice exhibit enhanced behavioral sensitivity to cocaine, amphetamine and combined injections of D1‐ and D2‐class receptor agonists. By contrast, the combined electrophysiological effects of the same D1‐ and D2‐class agonists on single neurons within the nucleus accumbens were not changed in the D3 mutant mice. We propose that the D3 receptor modulates responses to psychostimulants by inhibiting the cooperative effects of postsynaptic D1‐ and other D2‐class receptors at systems level. The continuous use of the gene targeting approach will provide essential information regarding the molecular and cellular basis of psychostimulant actions and allow the development of new strategies in the prevention and cure of drug abuse.
Phentermine and Fenfluramine: Preclinical Studies in Animal Models of Cocaine Addiction
Authors: ROTHMAN RICHARD B. , ELMER GREGORY I. , SHIPPENBERG TONI S. , REA WILLIAM , BAUMANN MICHAEL H.
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: Combined dopamine (DA) and 5‐hydroxytryptamine (5‐HT) releasers such as phentermine (PHEN) and fenfluramine (FEN) are reported, in open label studies, to reduce craving for alcohol and cocaine and to prevent relapse. The objective of the studies reported here was to assess the actions of these agents alone and in combination in various animal models of drug addiction. Study 1. in vivo microdialysis experiments demonstrate that these agents preferentially release mesolimbic DA (PHEN) and 5‐HT (FEN). Patients who relapse and use cocaine while taking these medications report diminished cocaine‐like subjective effects. Microdialysis experiments were performed in awake rats, and dialysate samples were analyzed for DA and 5‐HT. PHEN (1 mg/kg, intravenously (i.v.)) elevated DA (2–3‐fold) for over 1.5 hr. Administration of cocaine (3 mg/kg, i.v.) increased DA 6‐fold in saline‐treated rats, but only 3‐fold in PHEN‐treated rats. PHEN did not reduce cocaine‐induced increases in 5‐HT. Study 2. These agents were assessed in a mouse model of cocaine‐conditioned motoric activity (CCMA). Pretreatment with non‐activating doses of PHEN (4.6 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) enhanced CCMA, whereas non‐depressing doses of FEN (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) did not alter CCMA or the PHEN‐induced increase in CCMA. In contrast, sub‐effective doses of FEN reduced CCMA stereotypy‐like locomotion, whereas sub‐effective doses of PHEN were without effect. PHEN reversed the FEN‐induced increase in CCMA stereotypy‐like locomotion. Study 3. PHEN and FEN were assessed in the conditioned place preference model. FEN produced marked aversions for an environment previously associated with its administration and the minimum dose producing this effect was 3.0 mg/kg. In contrast, administration of PHEN, amphetamine (1.0–3.0 mg/kg) or morphine (3.0–5.0 mg/kg) produced dose‐related preferences for the drug‐paired place. However, the magnitude of the response to PHEN was less than that produced by the other prototypic drugs of abuse. In rats that received FEN (0.3 or 3.0 mg/kg) in combination with PHEN (3.0 mg/kg), the conditioned rewarding effects of PHEN were abolished. These data demonstrate that the rewarding effects of PHEN can be conditioned to stimuli previously associated with its administration. However, the conditioned response to this agent is less then that produced by prototypic drugs of abuse. The finding that PHEN‐induced place preferences were attenuated by doses of FEN demonstrates that the combination of FEN/PHEN is devoid of motivational effects. The preclinical data obtained with PHEN/FEN in various models of drug provide a strong rationale for pursuing controlled clinical trials in humans with agents that act via a similar mechanism of action.
Research Issues Related to Development of Medications for Treatment of Cocaine Addiction
Authors: KLEIN MICHAEL
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: Draft guidelines for the study of medications for treatment of drug addiction have been developed by the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA's) Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Division of Anesthetic, Critical Care and Addiction Drug Products. These guidelines are intended to provide a common basis for planning, evaluating and interpreting clinical studies and facilitating development of new and effective drugs for the treatment of dependence. For each class of abusable substances, certain clinical situations stand out as targets for intervention, while others may seem less relevant. The focus of clinical research needs to be tailored to the clinically relevant situations for each drug of abuse. In general, the pharmacotherapies being considered for treatment of abuse and dependence disorders are used to achieve one or more of six major objectives: 1. Reduction in the risk of addiction; 2. Reduction in high‐risk behavior; 3. Reduction in morbidity and mortality from addiction; 4. Reduction in drug use and/or induction of abstinence; 5. Relief of symptoms of withdrawal; and 6. Relapse prevention; along with rehabilitation and restoration of functioning. General requirements for outcome measures include measuring drug use, abstinence, withdrawal, and relapse. For all outcomes, both the validity and the meaningfulness must be established. Although considerable neurobiological knowledge relative to cocaine has been acquired, investigation of applicable medications based on these data is still under development. Many studies to date have focused on modifying dopamine function. Because dopamine plays a critical biologic role in motivation, reward and locomotion, modification of its activity may potentially contribute to serious adverse effects. An optimal strategy might require the use of several medications that have different mechanisms of action, or several medications targeted at different aspects of the problem (e.g., relapse craving, etc.). The agonist approach is believed to be potentially problematic because of effects on cardiovascular function and temperature regulation. A substitution model (comparable to methadone for heroin dependence) has not been proposed. The antagonist model is hampered by the fact that reinforcing effects are mediated through dopamine, which, if blocked, might produce a sufficient anhedonic state that compliance with the treatment regimen might be unlikely. Unlike opiates and alcohol, the withdrawal syndrome from cocaine and other stimulants is subtle and usually is not seen as requiring medication intervention.
A Selective Regional Response of Cultured Astrocytes to Methamphetaminea
Authors: STADLIN ALFREDA , LAU JOSEPHINE W.S. , SZETO Y. K.
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: Methamphetamine (METH) has long‐lasting neurotoxic effects on the dopamine and forebrain serotonin systems. It was reported that METH would induce the release of glutamate within the striatum and that it also caused astrogliosis. The mechanisms of this release and subsequent neurotoxicity are not well defined. The aim of this study was to examine the response of cultured astrocytes after METH‐induced injury. Astrocytes were cultured from neonatal C57B1/6 mice brains. Cells were obtained from the mesencephalon, striatum and cortex in order to examine any regional differences. Cells were treated with 4 mM METH for 4, 8, 12, 24 and 48 hr. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were used as a measure of cell viability. At various time points, Western blot analyses were performed to study the change in GFAP and vimentin (markers for astrogliosis) levels. Change in glutamine synthase (GS), the enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of glutamine from glutamate and ammonia in astrocytes, was also examined. The results showed that METH caused marked astrogliosis in striatal and mesencephalic astrocytes. Cells were transformed from protoplasmic (inactive) to fibrous (reactive) form after 48 hr treatment. There were also large amounts of vacuoles present in the cytoplasm of these cells. LDH results showed that there was only slight increase in enzyme levels after 48 hr treatment suggesting that the astrogliosis observed was not due to the decrease in cell viability. The amount of GS were depleted more rapidly in striatal astrocytes (50% of control by 8 hr treatment) followed by mesencephalic astrocytes (reaching 10% of control by 48 hr treatment). Cortical astrocytes showed only a 48% depletion by 48 hr treatment, indicating that they are more resistant to METH‐induced toxicity. The rapid depletion of GS obtained in striatal and mesencephalic astrocytes suggested that astrocytes of the dopaminergic system are more sensitive to METH‐induced injury. This may be due to the direct effects of METH‐induced oxidative stress on the mitochondria of these cells resulting in GS depletion and astrogliosis.
Role of Calpain in Spinal Cord Injury: Effects of Calpain and Free Radical Inhibitorsa
Authors: BANIK N. L. , SHIELDS D. C. , RAY S. , DAVIS B. , MATZELLE D. , WILFORD G. , HOGAN E. L.
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: The demonstration of increased calpain activity, immunostaining, and expression at the gene (mRNA) and protein levels concomitant with ultrastructural degeneration and loss of axon and myelin proteins in lesioned cord have implicated a pivotal role for calpain in tissue destruction in spinal cord injury (SCI). Calpain, stimulated by free radicals, also mediates apoptotic cell death. These findings suggested that the use of calpain and lipid peroxidation drugs as therapeutic agents would protect cells and maintain the axon‐myelin structural unit by preventing protein degradation. In order to examine this hypothesis, we treated SCI animals with calpain inhibitors (calpeptin) and/or methylprednisolone (MP), an antiinflammatory and free‐radical inhibitor. SCI (40 g/cm) was induced by weight‐drop, and 1 mg calpeptin or 165 mg MP/kg were given intravenously (i.v.) for 24 hours. Untreated injured animals receiving vehicle served as controls. Lesion 68‐kDa and 200‐kDa neurofilament proteins (NFPs) were analyzed by sodium dodecylsulfate polyarcylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE) and chemiluminescence, and the extent of protein loss was quantitated. Loss of protein in the lesion of untreated cord amounted to 47% compared to sham control, while that for calpeptin‐ or MP‐treated rats was 25–30%. Combination treatment with calpeptin and MP was slightly more effective in preventing NFP degradation, compared to either when used alone. Apopotic cell death in SCI as characterized by internucleosomal DNA fragmentation was also reduced following treatment with the inhibitors. The inhibition of cytoskeletal protein degradation suggests that calpain and free‐radical inhibitors may rescue cells and preserve and maintain membrane structure by preventing protein breakdown, preserving motor function, and being neuroprotective.
The Impact of Gender and Estrogen on Striatal Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity
Authors: MILLER DIANE B. , ALI SYED F. , O'CALLAGHAN JAMES P. , LAWS SUSAN C.
Published: February 2006

ABSTRACT: The reproductive properties of estrogen are well established, but it is now evident that this steroid hormone has substantial modulatory capabilities in nonreproductive systems. For example, estrogen may be neuroprotective as Alzheimer's disease progresses more slowly in women receiving hormone replacement therapy, and Parkinson's disease affects more men than women. Gender affects both the functional and biochemical responses of the nigral‐striatal pathway to dopaminergically active compounds. To begin to evaluate the possible neuroprotective effects of estrogen in this pathway, we first determined if gender affected the dopaminergic striatal neurotoxicity induced by two different neurotoxicants, 1‐methyl‐4‐phenyl‐1,2,3,6‐tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and methamphetamine (METH). Both agents induced greater neurotoxicity in males than females as evidenced by greater striatal dopamine (DA) depletions. An examination of striatal levels of 1‐methyl‐4‐phenylpyridium ion (MPP+) following MPTP treatment established that the observed gender differences were not due to metabolic/pharmacokinetic variables. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was then examined in ovariectomized (OVX) mice. Estrogen replacement reduced the DA, dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA) depletions as well as the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) elevation induced by MPTP, which indicates that estrogen has neuroprotective properties in this model of striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Surprisingly, estrogen supplementation did not protect against the neurotoxic effects of MPTP in intact 2‐yr‐old intact female mice, suggesting that low endogenous levels of estrogen may provide neuroprotection.