bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Knowledge and Knowing that p; “Knowledge” and “Knowing that p”
Authors: Azzouni Jody
Published: October 2020

The usage-fact differences between uses of “S knows p,” and “knowledge,” a mass noun, are described. “Knowledge” isn’t factive (a lot of a person’s knowledge can be wrong), and it is contextually sensitive in just the way that mass terms usually are. The knowledge someone (a child) has can be a lot whereas the same knowledge of someone else (an adult) is not a lot. A lot of the knowledge that someone has can be wrong and yet still be knowledge. “Knowledge” is thus open to grading in a way that “know” isn’t. Peter can know more than Sam. This is a use of a verb form derived from the noun “knowledge.” But this is not true when Sam knows p. Sam cannot know p better than Peter knows p. If “know” is contextually sensitive, it’s shown that the word isn’t so in a way like any other contextually sensitive verb.
Representational Justification and Challenges to “the Given”
Authors: Azzouni Jody
Published: October 2020

A paradigmatic example of representational justification is that of an apple on a desk justifying the proposition “that apple is on a desk.” The popular given dilemma is described—roughly, that something nonpropositional cannot be used to justify something propositional. The response is that the semantics of propositions illustrate exactly that what propositions are about justifies the truth of those propositions. Next the issue of rational justificational stopping points is taken up. Because we understand that knowing agents can be justified in what they believe even if they cannot provide those justifications, we understand that those agents need not always have to give justifications for what they believe. Other arguments for why knowers must always have to justify their knowledge are examined: these fail because of delicate matters about tense or because of cognitive/metacognitive confusions.
Usage Challenges to Fallibilism
Authors: Azzouni Jody
Published: October 2020

A definition of fallibility shows that agents are fallible about necessary truths. It is shown that fallibility of agents implies a denial of parity reasoning. Moorean paradoxes appear to undercut fallibility, but they are due entirely to the factivity of “know.” Kripke’s dogmatism paradox is explained: the key is recognizing that knowledge fallibility applies to the knowledge that all evidence against something one knows is misleading. That we do not know we will lose a lottery is denied. Fallibility shows this. And that people argue over this also indicates this. Knowledge closure fails because of fallibility; so does aggregation of assumptions. Vagueness shows why debates about whether we know outcomes of lotteries before winning tickets are drawn are irresolvable. Irrational penny reasoning is analyzed; it applies to nonfactive attitudes such as being really really sure. Preface paradoxes are explained. That it is sometimes rational to believe contradictory propositions is explained.
The (Complex) Structure of the Meaning of “Know(s)”
Authors: Azzouni Jody
Published: October 2020

Why “know(s)” cant be defined is explained: it is not because of Gettier puzzles but because of the failure of parity reasoning. The latter shows that there is a case where S knows p and S does not know q, but where S has as much of a reason to believe p as he does to believe q. Whether “know(s)” should be retooled to have different semantic properties is explored. It is shown that the word needs to be criterion-transcendent, factive, fallible, and vague in order to be a word we can use at all, and in particular to be useful for proposition transfers between agents or between oneself at earlier times and later times, where justification is not transferred. The social roles of “know(s)” are explored next. The word has many roles that correspond to its syntactic and semantic properties.
Introduction
Authors: Matesan Ioana Emy
Published: October 2020

Research shows that repression can lead to both radicalization and deradicalization. When does it drive groups to pick up arms, and under what conditions does it foster disengagement from violence? To answer these questions, it is important to trace tactical changes over time, and to parse the factors that push groups toward or away from violence. The introduction outlines some conventional explanations for understanding tactical choices and shows that recent developments in terrorism studies and in the research on nonviolent resistance leave several puzzles unanswered. It introduces a theoretical framework through which we can understand both escalation and de-escalation, and provides a typology of engagement with violence that can guide the investigation of tactical change. After considering whether Islamist groups are distinctive, the chapter outlines the case-selection strategy and the methodology employed in the book, and then concludes with an outline of the remaining chapters.
The Rise of the Muslim Brotherhood and the Potential for Violent Escalation
Authors: Matesan Ioana Emy
Published: October 2020

This chapter revisits the early history of the Muslim Brotherhood to understand why an organization that started out as a nonviolent religious movement came to be associated with violence. Many blame this on the harsh repression under President Gamal Abdel Nasser. However, the analysis shows that the drift toward violence started much earlier. Reconstructing the sequence of events between 1936 and 1948, the chapter reveals that what initially politicized the Brotherhood was the presence of British troops in Egypt and Palestine. The formation of an armed wing led to competition over authority within the group, which incentivized violent escalation. The chapter then focuses on the period between 1954 and 1970 and shows that repression had a dual effect. On the one hand, it inspired new jihadi interpretations, which were particularly appealing to younger members. On the other hand, the prisons were also the backdrop against which the Brotherhood became convinced that violence was futile.
Inward Baptism
Authors: Tipson Baird
Published: October 2020

Inward Baptism describes theological developments leading up to the great evangelical revivals in the mid-eighteenth century. It argues that Martin Luther’s insistence that a participant’s faith was essential to a sacrament’s efficacy would inevitably lead to the insistence on an immediate, perceptible communication from the Holy Spirit, which evangelicals continue to call the “new birth.” A description of “conversion” through the sacrament of penance in late-medieval Western Christianity leads to an exploration of Luther’s critique of that system, to the willingness of Reformed theologians to follow Luther’s logic, to an emphasis on “inward” rather than “outward” baptism, to William Perkins’s development of a conscience religion, to late-seventeenth-century efforts to understand religion chiefly as morality, and finally to the theological rationale for the new birth from George Whitefield, John Wesley, and Jonathan Edwards. If the average Christian around the year 1500 encountered God primarily through sacraments presided over by priests, an evangelical Christian around 1750 received God directly into his or her heart without the need for clerical mediation, and he or she would be conscious of God’s presence there.
Luther Insists on Faith
Authors: Tipson Baird
Published: October 2020

This chapter describes Martin Luther’s critique of late-medieval religiosity, concentrating particularly on his understanding of infant baptism. While a legitimate sacrament in Luther’s eyes, infant baptism appears to coexist uneasily with Luther’s insistence that justification must occur through the instrumentality of faith. Confronted with the writings of the “Enthusiasts,” Luther comes to insist on the sacramental power of the baptismal water.
The “Conscience Religion” of William Perkins
Authors: Tipson Baird
Published: October 2020

This chapter moves to England to examine the “conscience theology” of the Puritan William Perkins, who stands in here for countless of his Puritan colleagues. Perkins’s treatises outsold Shakespeare’s plays well into the seventeenth century. To read Perkins’s many treatises is to see the encounter between the divine and the human shifting from the sacraments to the human heart.
The Outbreak of Evangelicalism
Authors: Tipson Baird
Published: October 2020

This chapter first describes the theology of the leaders of the evangelical awakening on the British Isles, George Whitefield and John Wesley. Both insisted that by preaching the “immediate” revelation of the Holy Spirit during what they called the “new birth,” they were recovering an essential element of primitive Christianity that had been forgotten over the centuries. Both had clear affinities with the conscience theology of William Perkins, yet both distanced themselves from it in important ways. In New England, Jonathan Edwards explored the nature of religious experience more deeply than either Wesley or Whitefield had done, and Edwards proudly claimed his Puritan heritage even as opponents found him deviating from it.
Introduction
Authors: Parkin Jack
Published: October 2020

The Introduction contextualises the pursuit of algorithmic decentralisation within the contemporary landscape of cryptocurrencies and blockchains. It problematises these new distributed ledgers within the literatures of economic geography, software studies, and anthropology to outline the analytical scope of the book. A “follow-the-thing” method is briefly introduced to demonstrate the multi-dimensional approach used to understand Bitcoin and to help foreground the monograph’s interventions and outline the academic contribution. This research technique is supported by an epistemological claim: in order to understand blockchains stakeholders must pay close attention to how they are constantly being (re)made and performed on a daily basis. This focus involves separating ideologies of algorithmic decentralisation from how it actually plays out in practice.
Grounding Cryptocurrencies
Authors: Parkin Jack
Published: October 2020

Chapter 6 documents a more specific and exploratory follow the thing research technique to uncover the digital-material architecture of Bitcoin. Treating the Bitcoin code as both a text and material, a single bitcoin is followed through the decentralised protocol “from” Australia “to” the United States. By tracing the spatial relationships between miscellaneous paraphernalia that facilitate the transaction, from proprietary software to Bitcoin mining rigs, the chapter navigates the material culture of the Bitcoin blockchain. This involves opening up source code for inspection to uncover the functional performativity of the network. The spatial lens used reveals several material infrastructures such as undersea cables, data centres, pools of Bitcoin mines, active nodes, and third-party wallet software, that assemble to form operational modes of centralisation.
Conclusion
Authors: Parkin Jack
Published: October 2020

Summarising the book’s findings, algorithmic decentralisation is shown to be an inherent contradiction as spatial trajectories coalesce at different points around blockchain networks. This provides a starting point for understanding the economic geographies of distributed blockchain networks that, on one hand, are open for all to see and, on the other, work out of view underneath the surface of cryptographically concealed code. By following Bitcoin into different aspects of its network, its money/code/space is revealed to be a product of complex webs of humans and non-humans formed through cultural-economic practice as opposed to an autonomous machine world. In doing so, the Conclusion works to debunk the libertarian and liberatory claims of cryptocurrencies by illuminating modes of uneven power. It is argued: only by understanding these limitations can pathways be taken to building less inequitable, or at least sensationalist, blockchain forms.
The Theological Mediation
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines late modern reappropriations of the classical theology of the cross. In continuity with medieval and Reformation theology, these hold that Christ’s suffering was a divinely willed redemptive act, in vicarious satisfaction for human sin. The neo-orthodoxy of Karl Barth, in line with the Reformed tradition, emphasizes election and covenant. The theme of divine kenosis, found in nineteenth century German an English thinkers, is taken up into Orthodox trinitarian soteriology by the Russian theologian Sergei Bulgakov, with strong attention to Patristic dogma. Hans Urs von Balthasar stresses Christ’s “descent into hell” as the central symbol of the divine entry into the lost human condition. Jürgen Moltmann sees the suffering of God as the only possible theological response to the horrors of the twentieth century, especially the Holocaust.
Revisionist Theologies of Salvation
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: October 2020

What unites revisionist theologies of the cross is the rejection (sometimes with qualification) of the idea of vicarious substitution and the Anselmian analysis of its rationale. They all reject or reinterpret the doctrine of “original sin.” They propose an “existential” interpretation of the cross, and relate it to the imperative for human liberation. These ideas are in continuity with liberal theology of the nineteenth century. What is more specifically novel is their reliance on critical biblical studies and above all their acceptance of contemporary science, especially its account of human evolution.
The Passion in Film
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: October 2020

In general film treatments of the Passion fall into a few categories or types. Obviously, these categories are general characterizations of approaches, and may sometimes overlap. (1) During the first fifty years of the genre’s existence, most “Jesus” films took a traditional religious approach, being more or less faithful to the Gospels. (2) In the latter part of the twentieth century films increasingly attempted to treat the Passion as a realistic narrative. (3) Others deal with the Passion as a historical narrative that also functions as a “myth” with universal significance. (4) The story of Jesus’ crucifixion may be combined with explicitly fictional elements. (5) The Passion is also represented in a theatrical context. (6) In a number of films the Passion of Christ figures as a secondary element in a story about another figure or event. (7) Finally, there are films not about the Passion itself but about portraying the Passion.
Conclusion
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: October 2020

Most of this book consists in the exposition of others’ images and ideas. In this last chapter, the purpose is more personal: by way of commentary and expansion it will offer thoughts and views regarding a few of the major themes that have been treated in the art and theology of the cross. It first considers the relation of theology as concept to theology as image. This issue underlies many of the conflicts that seem to arise in the confrontation of theology with religious practice. The question of suffering in God is an example. The final section attempts to present elements of a possible contemporary spirituality of the cross.
Creationism USA
Authors: Laats Adam
Published: October 2020

Who are America’s creationists? What do they want? Why do they think dinosaurs were on Noah’s ark? Creationism USA reveals that misconceptions about creationism have led Americans into a full century of unnecessary culture-war histrionics about evolution education and creationism. In fact, America does not and never has had deep, fundamental disagreements about evolution. Not about the actual science of evolution, that is, and not in ways that truly matter to public policy. Americans do have significant disagreements about creationism, though, and Creationism USA offers a new way to understand those battles. Describing the history of creationism and its variations demonstrates that the real conflict about evolution is not between creationists and evolution. The true landscape of American creationism is far more complicated than headlines suggest. This book digs beyond those headlines to prove two fundamental facts about American creationism. First, by any reasonable definition, almost all Americans can be classified as creationists. At the same time, almost all Americans, including creationist Americans, want their children to learn mainstream evolutionary science. Taken together, these difficult truths about American creationism point to a large and productive middle ground, a widely shared public vision of the proper relationship between schools, science, and religion. These facts aren’t hidden, yet they remain surprising to those who do not understand the real world of American creationism. Creationism USA explains the history and current state of America’s true battles over creationism. It offers a nuanced but simple prescription to solve them.
The Evolution of Radical Creationism
Authors: Laats Adam
Published: October 2020

The most eye-catching form of American creationism is the one that builds huge replicas of Noah’s ark and insists that humans and dinosaurs must have shared the planet at one time. This chapter relates the unique history of this kind of radical young-earth belief. In the 1920s, very few creationists thought that their ardent opposition to evolutionary theory needed to include a belief that humanity was created relatively recently. By the end of the twentieth century, belief in a young earth came to be far more common. This evolution was part of a revolution in both religion and public life, as this chapter relates. As radical creationism was pushed out of mainstream universities and scientific life, it flourished in more and more radical forms.
Evolution and All That
Authors: Laats Adam
Published: October 2020

When radical creationists warn about the dangers of evolutionary theory, they do not focus on scientific ideas. Rather, the threat of evolutionary theory to radical creationists comes from such ideas as homosexuality and abortion. For many radical creationists, evolutionary theory is not necessarily bad by itself, but terrifying in its suggested threat of utter social disintegration. Adopting an evolutionary worldview, they warn, is a stepping stone to abandoning traditional morality altogether. This chapter relates the long history of radical-creationist worry about the social threats of evolutionary theory. It argues that creationists who worry about evolution are not generally nervous about science but social decline.
What Not to Know and How Not to Know It
Authors: Laats Adam
Published: October 2020

During the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century, radical creationists have built a network of institutions to spread the word about their anti-evolution faith. Universities, schools, museums, and publishing companies all provide an environment in which Americans can raise children in a world safe from mainstream thinking. As this chapter argues, the alternate world of creationist institutions does not see the threat as being evolutionary theory itself but rather a changing society, one in which traditional values are no longer seen as sacrosanct. Children are not only taught creationist ideas but also a deep distrust of mainstream thinking.
Evolution USA
Authors: Laats Adam
Published: October 2020

In spite of common stereotypes, American creationists do not dislike science. Even radical young-earth creationists have never dismissed the value of science. To be sure, radical creationists often have ideas about science that differ from mainstream ones, but they never dispute the value of science itself. This chapter describes the true feelings of radical creationism about science and demonstrates that even the most radical of creationists actually want their children to learn mainstream evolutionary science, if it can be done safely. Americans’ shared respect for science offers a path out of long culture wars about evolution. The central issue is not about science itself, but rather about building trust.
The Stela of the Laws of Hammurabi and the Representation of Political Power
Authors: Barmash Pamela
Published: October 2020

This chapter explains how the Stela (stone monument) of the Laws of Hammurabi was employed as a manifestation of political power. A royal investiture scene is at the top of the Stela, and the artist manipulated the imagery cleverly to enhance the legitimacy and authority of Hammurabi. Standard imagery is skillfully reconfigured to exalt him. The king stands alone before Shamash, the god of justice, and the direct gaze between them symbolizes their close bond and the near equality of their status. Other elements in the imagery vividly promoted the message that Hammurabi had been exalted and authorized as king by the gods. It is not surprising, then, that a number of stelas inscribed with the Laws of Hammurabi were set up. Ironically, the Stela itself was seized centuries later by another king wanting to manifest his authority, and then by a modern state displaying its cultural power.
The Laws of Hammurabi as a Royal Inscription
Authors: Barmash Pamela
Published: October 2020

This chapter addresses the rich treasury of rhetorical devices the Laws of Hammurabi uses to present its message. It is structured in the form of a royal inscription, but it is not an ordinary agglomeration of hackneyed bromides repeating standard wording. It is inventive and subtle in the way it fuses together a number of models from Hammurabi’s royal inscriptions, amplifying the authority of the king and demonstrating his devotion to justice. The Laws of Hammurabi incorporates a collection of statutes and presents them as being promulgated by the king immediately after his accession to the throne, rather than decades later: his pious actions are portrayed as timeless and unassailable achievements, rather than in chronological format. Verbal maps depict Hammurabi’s domination over different regions.
Excursus
Authors: Barmash Pamela
Published: October 2020

In this chapter, we explore how the way in which Mesopotamian scribes were educated sheds light on how the Laws of Hammurabi was composed. It is important to move away from the image of a scribe mindlessly copying text: that was not the reality of Mesopotamian scribes. Scribes who mastered Mesopotamian tradition used phraseology, topics, or textual structures in composing a new work. They learned and absorbed legal terminology, model contracts, court records, and administrative documents. This allowed scribes to find employment in many realms, whether in institutions or as freelance scribes working for private individuals, because they could compose whatever legal or administrative document was needed.
Adoption in the Laws of Hammurabi
Authors: Barmash Pamela
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores how the statutes on adoption, a prominent institution in Mesopotamian society, in the Laws of Hammurabi illustrate a number of the compositional techniques the scribe employed to demonstrate his flair for legal reasoning and conceptualization. Among these methods of composition are the use of incremental variants, the incorporation of explanation, and the designation of specific types of punishment. Legal records demonstrate the artificiality of the statutes because the extant records are about the adoption of adults. By contrast, the statutes are about the adoption of minor children, a sampling that does not accord with the historical reality of adoption in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia.
What Is Knowledge?
Authors: Zagzebski Linda Trinkaus
Published: October 2020

This chapter argues that problems in defining knowledge arise in part from the fact that the good of knowledge has been treated differently in different historical periods. In Plato and much of philosophy until the modern period, knowledge was treated as one of the supreme human goods, but the focus of contemporary philosophy on simple empirical knowledge led to a weakening of the normative component of knowledge. An account of knowledge should be the result of reflection on the broader philosophical context of human goods. The value component of knowledge can be hard or easy to achieve, depending upon the way one thinks of the good of the human grasp of reality.
Intellectual Virtue Terms and the Division of Linguistic Labor
Authors: Zagzebski Linda Trinkaus
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses the division of moral linguistic labor, an application to moral terms of Putnam’s idea of the division of linguistic labor in his version of the theory of direct reference. The chapter uses a form of direct reference for moral terms that includes the idea that one’s semantic success depends upon one’s attachment to a social linguistic network. This chapter focuses on the semantics of intellectual virtue terms and argues that these terms lose meaning and eventually die due to malfunctioning in the network of users. A well-functioning semantic network is a necessary condition for getting agreement and users need to attend to the way the linguistic networks operate, including attention to the “stereotype” of virtue terms and the way different experts contribute to its functioning—philosophers, theologians, storytellers, empirical scientists.
Religious Knowledge and the Virtues of the Mind
Authors: Zagzebski Linda Trinkaus
Published: October 2020

This chapter objects to three features of Reformed Epistemology, two of which are connected with its Calvinist inspiration and one of which was a feature of most contemporary epistemology at the time. First, like almost all contemporary American epistemology, Reformed Epistemology focuses on individual beliefs—where by a “belief” is meant a particular state of believing, not the proposition believed—and it searches for the properties of a belief that convert it into knowledge. Second, Reformed Epistemology is largely externalist. Third, an important motivation driving externalist theories is the desire to avoid skepticism; in fact, this is one of its most attractive features. Reformed epistemology is externalist and nonvoluntarist; it is individualistic rather than communally based; and it makes the element of belief that converts it into knowledge a property of the belief rather than of the believer. The approach here is Aristotelian in spirit and differs from the Reformers in all three respects.
Phronesis and Religious Belief
Authors: Zagzebski Linda Trinkaus
Published: October 2020

This chapter outlines a theory of rationality integral to virtue theory suggested by a remark by Hilary Putnam that reason is both immanent and transcendent. It is immanent in that it is not to be found outside human language games, cultures, and institutions, but it is also a regulative idea that is used to criticize the conduct of all activities and institutions. The chapter proposes three corollaries of the immanence and transcendence of reason and some constraints that should be respected in defining a rational belief. These proposals are intended to help settle disputes about the rationality or epistemic praiseworthiness of culture-specific beliefs, including beliefs distinctive of a particular religion. The discussion in the chapter is at odds with the approach of Plantinga on the defense of the epistemic status of Christian belief.
Religious Trust, Anti-Trust, and Reasons for Religious Belief
Authors: Zagzebski Linda Trinkaus
Published: October 2020

This chapter begins by distinguishing two kinds of epistemic reasons, one irreducibly first personal, and the other third personal. Here the kinds of reasons that are irreducibly first personal are called “deliberative reasons,” and the kinds of reasons that are third personal are called “theoretical reasons.” The use of the terms “deliberative” and “theoretical” is not essential to the distinction being made, but these terms draw attention to the different functions of the two kinds of reasons in psychology. Epistemic self-trust is an irreducibly first personal epistemic reason, and it is the most basic reason of either kind. Attacks on religious belief are sometimes third personal, but sometimes they are first personal attacks on self-trust or trust in religious communities. Attacks on self-trust require a different kind of response than attacks on third person reasons.
The Moral Transcendental Argument against Skepticism
Authors: Zagzebski Linda Trinkaus
Published: October 2020

Transcendental arguments against skepticism claim that the skeptical argument depends on the falsehood or the unbelievability of the skeptical hypothesis. This chapter argues that the skeptic needs to presuppose the moral or practical rationality of the subject, requiring the existence of an external world with certain features (strongest arguments), the falsehood of the skeptical hypothesis (strong arguments), or the subject’s belief in such a world (weak arguments). The argument starts with rational agency and investigates the sense of moral obligation, moral motives, and virtues that would exist in “vat morality,” arguing that although the skeptic needs to presuppose the rational and moral agency of the subject, the skeptical hypothesis denies or undermines the subject’s agency. The chapter ends by considering whether the skeptic can retreat to Pyrrhonian skepticism to save the skeptical project, concluding that he cannot.
Article II Treaties and Signaling Theory
Authors: Bradley Curtis A.
Published: October 2020

This chapter focuses on the treaty-making process set forth in Article II of the U.S. Constitution, which requires that presidents obtain the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Some scholars contend that, under modern law and practice, presidents can choose to conclude any international agreement by obtaining either ex ante authorization or ex post approval from a majority of Congress rather than obtaining the supermajority “advice and consent” of the Senate. If presidents in fact have this freedom of choice, there appears to be a puzzle: Why do they ever choose to use the Article II treaty process, which is more politically difficult than the executive agreement processes? To be sure, the use of the Article II process has been in decline, but the process is still used for some agreements, including in situations in which the process seems to make it more difficult for presidents to obtain approval of agreements that they support. A common answer to this puzzle is based on signaling theory: Using the Article II process, it is said, allows the president or the country to signal valuable information to potential treaty partners. This chapter argues that the signaling explanation is questionable and suggests that domestic legal and political factors better explain the continued use of the Article II process.
International Law in American Courts
Authors: Born Gary
Published: October 2020

This chapter looks at the grave flaws in the current treatment of international law in American courts. Both the status and content of public and private international law in the United States are uncertain, frequently governed by contradictory or parochial rules of State law; the resulting body of international law that is applied by U.S. courts is unpredictable and incoherent. Over the past fifty years, U.S. federal courts have also increasingly marginalized both international law and the role of American courts in resolving international disputes. This treatment of international law threatens serious damage to historic U.S. values and frustrates vitally important national policies. The chapter then considers how the current treatment of international law in American courts is also contrary to the U.S. Constitution’s allocation of authority over the nation’s foreign relations and international trade, which vests the federal government with both plenary and exclusive authority over U.S. foreign relations and commerce, while, exceptionally, forbidding State involvement in either field. Moreover, this treatment conflicts with vital national interests and policies in both fields, frustrating long-standing national interests in the nation’s compliance with international law and development of the international legal system.
Forum Non Conveniens in the Fourth Restatement
Authors: Childress Donald Earl
Published: October 2020

This chapter analyzes the approach taken by the Fourth Restatement of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States to the forum non conveniens doctrine in light of the doctrine’s history and present usage. The Fourth Restatement states succinctly the forum non conveniens doctrine: A U.S. federal court “may dismiss a case if: (a) there is an available and adequate alternative forum; and (b) despite the deference owed to the plaintiff’s choice of forum, the balance of public and private interests favors dismissal.” The Fourth Restatement next details in the comments various intricacies of the doctrine and proposes rules derived from U.S. federal court decisions with the hope of constraining judicial discretion in applying the main rule. These rules illustrate that the Fourth Restatement treats the forum non conveniens doctrine as a doctrine of law, as opposed to one of judicial discretion. In so doing, the Fourth Restatement formulates clear rules for U.S. federal courts to apply in resolving a forum non conveniens motion. This chapter considers Supreme Court decisions developing the doctrine to set the stage for assessing the Fourth Restatement’s approach and explores the doctrine as it has developed through various restatement projects, including the Fourth Restatement. The chapter concludes by examining the role of party interests in the forum non conveniens analysis and explores tensions in the doctrine that should be accounted for by U.S. federal courts and in future restatement projects.
The Fourth Restatement, International Law, and the “Terrorism” Exception to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act
Authors: Stephens Beth
Published: October 2020

This chapter evaluates the “terrorism” exception to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA). The Fourth Restatement of Foreign Relations Law of the United States sets out to “restate” the law of the United States and “relevant portions of international law,” not to critique U.S. law or settle debates about the content of international law. However, that task is complicated when the law of the United States triggers questions about unresolved international law issues. The “terrorism” exception to the FSIA illustrates this complexity. Congress, the executive branch, and the judiciary have employed the exception as a politically motivated weapon to target disfavored states, while excluding U.S. allies, politically powerful states, and the United States itself from the reach of the statute. The text of the Fourth Restatement merely restates the U.S. law governing the “terrorism” exception, without identifying international law concerns or analyzing the issues they raise. The chapter, by contrast, offers a critique of the “terrorism” exception, focusing on the statute as written, as amended to reach particular targets, and as applied in practice. A well-crafted statutory exception to sovereign immunity for state human rights violations would be a welcome addition to human rights accountability. The “terrorism” exception falls far short of that goal.
The Jurisdictional Immunities of International Organizations
Authors: Stewart David P. , Wuerth Ingrid
Published: October 2020

This chapter focuses on developments in the law of international organization (IO) immunity, focusing on the United States. As international entities, IOs are generally entitled to some measure of immunity from the jurisdiction of domestic courts. Immunity allows IOs to fulfill their missions without interference from the domestic courts of the countries in which they locate and operate. As IOs grew, the domestic and international legal regulation of their activities also expanded. A variety of social harms were increasingly addressed by positive law and resolved through private litigation, both in the United States and around the world. As a consequence of these developments, immunity for IOs today may shield them from more conduct that would otherwise be actionable in court than it did when most treaties and statutes conferring IO immunity were adopted. In addition, the immunity of foreign states has generally become subject to more exceptions during this period, another factor that makes absolute immunity for IOs appear anomalous to some observers, despite the differences between IOs and foreign states. Although IOs generally remain entitled to a high level of immunity in the United States as they do around the world, cases in the United States and elsewhere have begun to indicate ways in which that immunity will be limited going forward. The chapter then suggests that the Fourth Restatement of Foreign Relations Law take up the topic of IO immunity.
Can the Fourth Restatement of Foreign Relations Law Foster Legal Stability?
Authors: Nzelibe Jide
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines whether the kind of legal stability one may expect the Fourth Restatement of Foreign Relations to foster is even feasible, and if it is, whether it is desirable. It makes two key points. First, in the current political climate, the objective of fostering legal stability in foreign relations law may no longer be as feasible as it once was. For much of the postwar era until the administration of President George W. Bush, various commentators have suggested that even though there were occasional partisan skirmishes, a relatively bipartisan consensus on liberal internationalism prevailed. However, today, the conditions that produced that moderate bipartisan consensus no longer hold, and thus the quest to foster stability in foreign relations law is likely to face even more of an uphill battle. Second, while the Fourth Restatement may occasionally foster stability in foreign relations law, there is also the possibility that it may do so in undesirable circumstances. This point assumes that whereas too little legal stability can sometimes be disruptive, too much of it could be inhibiting.
Sound Quality
Authors: Walther-Hansen Mads
Published: October 2020

The chapter takes a closer look at sonic concepts and the relevant major strands of research in the cognitive sciences. The chapter explores the ways in which the cognitive processing of sound is a multimodal task that extends into the world via language, technology, and actions. The main source of information in this study consists of cognitive metaphors reflected in written accounts, but the chapter also outlines nonlinguistic realizations of sound quality such as visual metaphors (e.g., graphical user interfaces) and enacted metaphors (e.g., bodily actions). The transition from analog mixing boards to digital ones that maintain the actions and look of the first-generation models is explored in the context of the signal flow metaphor. Finally, the schematic function of force metaphors in sound production is covered.
Introduction
Authors: Porter Mark
Published: October 2020

The Introduction to this volume explores the importance of individual–world interactions through the medium of sound in distinguishing between different traditions of Christian worship. I introduce ideas of musicking and resonance and suggest their potential usefulness in exploring the different patterns of interaction present in musical acts of devotion. I draw attention to resonance’s ability to point toward the simultaneous or subsequent sounding of energy in and between multiple actors, entities, and spaces, and to its particular conceptual advantages and strengths in approaching congregational singing. I highlight its ability to foreground the materiality of music while simultaneously giving conceptual space for the overtones latent within and surrounding such materiality. Alongside this, it is able to offer a relatively loose sense of priority that evokes very strongly complex dynamics of interplay back and forth between numerous agents, spaces, things, and materials as energy and vibration are passed between them.
Singing, Resonance, and Ascetic Struggle
Authors: Porter Mark
Published: October 2020

This chapter suggests that an exploration of ascetic singing within its broader ecology serves to illuminate practices of recitation within the literature of the early Desert Fathers. Solitary recitation provides a relatively stripped-down mode of devotion, with few opportunities for interpersonal interaction. However, within this context, the idea of resonance highlights the way in which ascetic singing relates the individual to body, architecture, landscape, and the surrounding spiritual world. It focuses attention on the dynamic interplay of these different spaces and actors in the activity of singing. This chapter moves toward an ecological understanding of music as integrally caught up in broader projects.
Space, Multiplicity, and De/Reconstructing Resonance
Authors: Porter Mark
Published: October 2020

Congregational singing has become problematized within the emerging-church movement. This movement is a self-consciously postmodern expression of Christianity that brings into question not only ideas of group singing but also of the congregation itself, intentionally deconstructing the boundaries, patterns, and norms that have typically served to define the congregational group. Nevertheless, music and sound remain important, if contested, components of emerging-church practices. Through fieldwork undertaken in a number of emerging-church groups, this chapter investigates the ways in which sonic material is deployed in nontraditional settings, and the different patterns of interaction that are set up between agents, spaces, and objects in these environments. In particular, this chapter draws attention to a move away from totalizing patterns of high-intensity resonant union, toward models that, in a variety of different ways, offer space for individuals to experience their own micro-resonant interactions as they engage in a range of different devotional activities.
Accessible Elections to Help Poor People
Authors: Ritter Michael
Published: October 2020

Inequality in who votes matters. People with lower incomes are significantly less likely to participate in elections, creating a class bias in the electorate. Even if overall voter participation improves, can accessible elections shrink turnout inequality between higher and lower socio-economic class citizens? Chapter 5 empirically evaluates whether the voting laws and election administration lead to an increased probability of poor individuals (proxied as those at or below the federal poverty line) voting when comparing 2010 to 2014 midterm election turnout, and 2008 to 2012 presidential election turnout. The results show that no-excuse absentee/mail voting (in midterm elections) and same day registration (in both presidential and midterm elections) increases voter turnout among the economically disadvantaged. Better election administration also leads to improved outcomes for lower socio-economic citizens.
The Power of Narrative
Authors: Lejano Raul P. , Nero Shondel J.
Published: October 2020

Narrative is the stuff of community. The Power of Narrative embarks on a quest to understand how narrative works in taking an inchoate group of individuals and turning it into a powerful social movement. To understand the force of narrative, the authors examine the particular phenomenon of climate skepticism. Somehow, the narrative of climate skepticism has been able to forge a movement and stake a challenge to the hegemony of the larger community of scientists on what is ostensibly a matter of science. The book asks: How is this achieved? What is the narrative of climate skepticism, and how has it evolved over time and diffused from place to place? Is it possible that this narrative shares with other issue narratives an underlying genetic code of sorts, a story that is more fundamental than all of these? How has the climate skeptical narrative contended with its other, which is the narrative-network of climate change science, and forged its own social movement? The outcome of this struggle between climate science and its denial has implications for society that go far beyond climatology. Using narrative and discourse analysis, the authors demonstrate how the narrative lens allows us unique insights into these questions. The book takes the reader on a journey, across times and places and social realms; throughout, we see the power of narrative at work, making believers, or skeptics, of us all.
Ideological Narratives and beyond in a Post-Truth World
Authors: Lejano Raul P. , Nero Shondel J. , Chua Michael
Published: October 2020

Chapter 7 concludes with a review of the self-constructed climate skeptic community’s efforts to challenge the dominance of anthropogenic climate science by systematically creating an ideological narrative framed as us vs. them through particular use of words/phrases and rhetorical and messaging strategies. US climate skepticism is also part of the post–WW II anti-reflexivity movement that views reflexivity around climate science as increasingly intruding on public policy and personal freedoms, which it vehemently rejects. To meet this challenge, this chapter proposes building on existing research combatting misinformation about science; changing the messaging around climate science; changing communication strategies in mainstream and social media; and teaching climate change in schools. It argues that continued debate is necessary, giving scientists their due on matters of evidence while not dismissing people’s doubts and closing off discussion. In an increasingly divided world, only dialogue can begin to save us from ideological paralysis.
Organic Electronics
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

Organic electronics is a platform for very low cost and high performance optoelectronic and electronic devices that cover large areas, are lightweight, and can be both flexible and conformable to irregularly shaped surfaces such as foldable smart phones. Organics are at the core of the global organic light emitting device (OLED) display industry, and also having use in efficient lighting sources, solar cells, and thin film transistors useful in medical and a range of other sensing, memory and logic applications. This book introduces the theoretical foundations and practical realization of devices in organic electronics. It is a product of both one and two semester courses that have been taught over a period of more than two decades. The target audiences are students at all levels of graduate studies, highly motivated senior undergraduates, and practicing engineers and scientists. The book is divided into two sections. Part I, Foundations, lays down the fundamental principles of the field of organic electronics. It is assumed that the reader has an elementary knowledge of quantum mechanics, and electricity and magnetism. Background knowledge of organic chemistry is not required. Part II, Applications, focuses on organic electronic devices. It begins with a discussion of organic thin film deposition and patterning, followed by chapters on organic light emitters, detectors, and thin film transistors. The last chapter describes several devices and phenomena that are not covered in the previous chapters, since they lie outside of the current mainstream of the field, but are nevertheless important.