bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nested in Its Own Shape
Authors: Bogdanović Jelena
Published: July 2017

The concepts of total design of the Byzantine church based on the micro-architecture of canopies allow the expansion of their scale to include a macro-scale relative to the space in which they are found and which they denote. Two ultimate architectural models for the embodiment of the heavenly and earthly Jerusalem in a Byzantine-rite church are the Temple and the Holy Sepulchre. By focusing on Hagia Sophia, these two concepts and related architectural models are especially highlighted: first, the Biblical architectural models carried on the level of ideas—the Ark, the Tabernacle, the Temple, Heavenly Jerusalem—and second, the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem as the seminal Christian site that palpably carried the pervasive salvific messages from the Holy Land to the Byzantine believers.
The Laws of Subjecthood
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

Chapter 1 explores the myriad legal understandings of subject status that coexisted in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It revisits the landmark case of Calvin v. Smith, among others, in order to examine notions of allegiance, obedience, and protection that cast a long shadow over subsequent interpretations of subject status. Many of the questions left unanswered by this case, particularly those relating to the specific nature of allegiance and protection, led to further definitions and legal quandaries. The numerous treaties, opinions, and correspondence in which subjecthood was also discussed illuminate the importance of local factors and agents in shaping the multivalent legal ideas available to contemporaries.
The Free-born Subject’s Inheritance
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

Chapter 2 demonstrates that subjecthood attracted considerable attention from subjects themselves. Indeed, both official and unofficial declarations of rights from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries popularized British subject status and lent it an almost mythical allure. Declaring and debating rights had a long history in the British world, and the notion that British subjects had inherited and ancient privileges was widely held. Many of these declarations drew on understandings of allegiance and the relationship between subjects and sovereign that echoed legal ones. Their many differences suggest that the rights, liberties, and privileges associated with subject status remained at once limitless and ill-defined. By analyzing a range of declarations, Chapter 2 reveals that subjects of diverse backgrounds had consistently and actively used the relationship between subjects and sovereign to make demands and that subject status, at least in the popular understanding, had been conceived of as a vibrant category of identity well before 1763.
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina – Missa Papae Marcelli
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

The chapter begins with a biographical and compositional overview, including discussions of Palestrina’s various positions in and outside of Rome; his compositional output that numbered 104 Masses, approximately 500 motets, and approximately 140 madrigals; the nature of his Masses, many of which are based on previously composed models; the papacy and the Counter-Reformation; and mandates of the Council of Trent. Musical discussion in this chapter focuses on unique characteristics of the Missa Papae Marcelli and its legacy. Performance practices include: pitch and performing forces; meter and tactus, with considerable focus on syncopation; the importance of oratorical phrasing; tempo and its variability; and musica ficta.
George Frideric Handel – Messiah
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

Messiah is discussed in reference to Handel’s operas, other choral works in general, and other oratorios in specific, with focus on the librettos. Additional historic information covers the premiere of Messiah, audience reactions, and subsequent performances, including the beginning of its popularity after performances in the Foundling Hospital Chapel and large-scale and re-orchestrated festival performances in the 1780s. Musical topics address Handel’s compositional process (e.g., speed of writing, parody of previously composed works, and revision of works from performance to performance) and factors of musical organization. Performance practices issues include vocal and instrumental timbre, pitch, vibrato, metric accentuation, rhythmic alteration, recitative, and ornamentation.
Ludwig van Beethoven – Symphony no. 9
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

Chapter 6 begins with an Introduction that discusses the exceptional popularity of Beethoven’s final symphony. An historical overview of all nine symphonies follows, with emphasis on unique qualities, the genesis of the Ninth, and factors of its premiere. Other historical information includes biographical material about Friedrich von Schiller, his poem “An die Freude,” other musical settings of the poem, and Beethoven’s choice and arrangement of verses. Musical discussion of Beethoven’s Ninth focuses on the formal structures of all movements, the relationship of the first three movements to the fourth, and extra-musical characteristics. Performance practice topics include tempo based on character, metric accentuation, orchestration, and disposition of performers on stage.
Johannes Brahms – Ein deutsches Requiem
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

Chapter 8 begins with historical precedents, including Brahms’s appointments as a choral conductor during his early professional life, his interest in and performance of works by J. S. Bach, and his association with Robert Schumann—of short duration but of profound influence. Substantial discussion is also given to the texts about life suffering that Brahms chose for most of his sacred choral compositions. The Requiem is discussed in terms of its long gestation, unification through use of musical motifs, and balanced and mirror structures. Performance practice issues include timbre and vibrato, metric accentuation, disposition of performers on stage, and tempo fluctuation.
Benjamin Britten – War Requiem
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

The chapter begins with testimonies about the aesthetic impact of the War Requiem at the time of its premiere followed by a survey of war-themed musical compositions that preceded Britten’s work and Britten’s reflection of his pacifism in musical works such as the Sinfonia da Requiem op. 20. Discussion is then focused on the commission from Coventry Cathedral that led to the War Requiem; Britten’s choice of nine poems by the war-poet Wilfred Owen, which Britten interspersed with traditional texts from the Roman Requiem Mass; and the choice of three specific soloists to represent three countries involved in World War II. The music of Britten’s work is discussed in terms of musical and structural symbolism, particularly in Britten’s choice of the tritone interval to express tension. Performance practice concerns address the staging of the work into three distinct strata, the vocal characteristics of the original three soloists, and the intended acoustical environment of Britten’s conception.
Materializing the Zen Monastery
Authors: Winfield Pamela D.
Published: July 2017

This chapter explores the ways in which the supposedly inert materials of the monastic compound are understood to function as unique vehicles for awakening. It examines Dōgen’s Talk on Pursuing the Way (Bendōwa), dated 1231, and observes how the material universe (the five phases of earth, water, fire, wood, and metal, as well as yin-yang theory and feng shui geomancy) is invoked to envision a new, biaxial Zen temple layout in Japan. It also considers how Dōgen redeploys these material categories, and even alludes to Chinese contract pledges (fu), to seal the deal with his potential patrons in Japan. Finally, it reflects on Dōgen’s preferred phrase of “grasses and trees” (sōmoku), which he often substituted for the idea of zazen practice-realization in and as the monastery itself.
Prayer Beads in Japanese Sōtō Zen
Authors: Mross Michaela
Published: July 2017

This chapter illuminates some of the functions and interpretations of the rosary in Japanese Sōtō Zen. It analyzes how its uses and meanings changed throughout history and were adapted to fit the agenda of the Sōtō school at certain times. Before examining rosaries in Zen Buddhism, it provides a general overview of Buddhist prayer beads in India, China, and Japan. It also examines Chinese Chan monastic codes before turning to Japanese Sōtō Zen and analyzing the history of the rosary starting with Dōgen (1200–1253) and extending to kirigami (esoteric transmission documents) from the early Tokugawa period (1603–1868). A final section on the functions of prayer beads since the Meiji era (1868–1912) concludes the study.
The Physiology of Natural Character
Authors: Leunissen Mariska
Published: July 2017

Chapter 1 introduces Aristotle’s infamous ethnographical comment in the Politics, which claims that the natural character traits a given tribe of people has, and the kind of natural political organization these traits give rise to, correlate with the environment and the region in which they live. Only those men whose natures are “well mixed” are to be selected as future citizens of ideal cities, since they are the “most easily led to virtue.” Subsequent sections analyze Aristotle’s biological discussions of natural character and show how the species-specific character profile a species of (human) animals has depends on the particular material mixture of their blood, and that by “well mixed” Aristotle has in mind blood that is hot, pure, and moist and that therefore gives rise to natural courage and intelligence. The chapter also shows how the various organs in the human body contribute to this “best” type of blood.
The Science of Natural Character
Authors: Leunissen Mariska
Published: July 2017

Chapter 3 offers a brief but speculative suggestion for how Aristotle might think lawgivers can identify future citizens with good natural character traits in practice, by turning to physiognomic passages in Aristotle. I argue that while the Prior Analytics discusses only the logical and ontological conditions that would make a science of physiognomy possible, thus leaving it in the middle whether Aristotle actually thinks such a science is possible or is one he practices himself, his treatment of physiognomic signs in the History of Animals as basic facts about the faces of animals provides evidence for Aristotle’s own use and endorsement of physiognomy in a biological context. There was a widespread practice among physicians and philosophers of Aristotle’s time to appeal to physiognomy for diagnostic purposes, and it is at least possible that Aristotle did too.
Eugenics and the Production of Good Natural Character
Authors: Leunissen Mariska
Published: July 2017

Chapter 4 takes up Aristotle’s theory of eugenics, which encourages lawgivers not to leave the birth of offspring in their cities up to chance, but to put policies in place that promote the birth of male offspring with the type of natural character traits that are most conducive to moral development. I argue that the specific policies Aristotle recommends to these lawgivers take their facts from his biological theories about reproduction and sexual differentiation. I also discuss Aristotle’s conceptions of “good birth” and “natural talent” that are mentioned outside his biological treatises, but that he claims can be acquired only through birth and bring natural advantages to their possessors in terms of acquiring virtue more easily.
The Natural Character and Moral Deficiencies of Women
Authors: Leunissen Mariska
Published: July 2017

Chapter 6 addresses Aristotle’s exclusion of women from full virtue by explaining their moral deficiencies in light of their presumed biological imperfections. Although formally identical to men, Aristotle believes that women, as a result of what happens to them during embryogenesis, are less perfect members of the human species due to their colder, earthier material nature. The particular natural character profile Aristotle attributes to women in the biological treatises, which is due to this particular material nature, accounts for his claims in the Politics that women can acquire only the “virtues of assistants” and that they are naturally being ruled by men. I also discuss Aristotle’s notorious claim (often ascribed to plain sexism) that women by nature have a deliberate capacity necessary for moral decision making but that it “lacks authority,” and his attribution of softness and weakness of will to them, and I offer psychophysical explanations for these moral deficiencies.
Descartes on Universal Essences and Divine Knowledge
Authors: Nolan Lawrence
Published: July 2017

This chapter develops a new defense of the conceptualist interpretation of Descartes’s theory of universals, according to which universal essences are merely innate, intellectual ideas in the minds of human beings. The source of this conceptualism is to be found in Descartes’s view that all substances are simple. Given this simplicity, universals can exist neither in created things as shared properties nor in the mind of God as ideas or exemplars for creation. Descartes rejects the Neoplatonic doctrine of exemplary causation on the grounds that it anthropomorphizes God. He also rejects the related doctrine of divine ideas that was intended by medieval philosophers to explain divine knowledge of creaturely essences in terms of God’s knowledge of himself. It is argued here that Descartes’s God knows these essences by knowing created substances directly. This chapter also responds to objections to the conceptualist interpretation and identifies the failings of rival Platonist readings.
Some Perspectives on Leibniz’s Nominalism and Its Sources
Authors: Di Bella Stefano
Published: July 2017

The chapter considers the presence of nominalist motives in the development of Leibniz’s logical and ontological thought. The discussion begins with Leibniz’s Preface to his reedition of the work of the Renaissance nominalist Nizolius, and emphasizes Leibniz’s acceptance of antirealistic assumptions, his balancing of them with Platonic elements, and his rejection of Hobbes’s conventionalist implications. There is also a consideration of the deflationary treatment of abstract terms that Leibniz offers as part of his program of providing ontological clarification by way of semantic analysis. Leibniz applies an analysis of abstract talk stemming from Hobbes, with the aim of availing himself of the resources of certain expressive devices in logical and scientific language, while avoiding realistic commitments. Leibniz’s final profession of a “precautionary nominalism” confirms his preference for ontological economy, but also leaves unresolved some problems in his “austere” account of the ontology of predication and change.
Locke on General Ideas
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: July 2017

This chapter considers Locke’s account of our general ideas of natural kinds, and in particular of the natural kind “water.” This account came under explicit criticism in the work on the semantics of natural kinds by Saul Kripke and Hilary Putnam in the 1970s, which also highlighted this particular natural kind. However, the argument here is that Locke’s detractors had much less right on their side than they suppose. Though there are some deficiencies in Locke’s account, these are due for the most part to his commitment to a theory of the “Great Chain of Being” that has not been borne out by modern science.
Hume on Abstraction and Identity
Authors: Baxter Donald L. M.
Published: July 2017

Hume’s critique of the traditional account of abstraction applies to his own account of the idea of identity. Abstraction is mentally separating what are inseparable in reality. The inseparable are identical. So abstraction is mentally separating something from itself. That is to conceive it as distinct from itself, which seems inconceivable. For Hume, conceiving of identity requires taking two views of something, first as one, single thing and second as multiple, distinct things. So it requires conceiving of the single thing viewed one way as somehow distinct from itself viewed the other way. If that is conceivable then so is abstraction. Thus, traditional abstraction and Hume’s account of the idea of identity stand or fall together. Along the way the chapter argues that Locke’s version of abstraction is the traditional one rather than the partial consideration some commentators attribute to him.
Introduction to Mobile Media and Loss
Authors: Cumiskey Kathleen M. , Hjorth Larissa
Published: July 2017

In this chapter we outline some of the discussions around the role of memory, mobile media, and culturally specific notions of grief. We then focus on the key characteristics of mobile media practices that recalibrate particular forms of intimacy through a sense of a networked public that makes intimate the fabric of what it means to be a public. We discuss the methods deployed in the book and then finish with a roadmap for the particular cartographies of mobile media loss. Far from being exhaustive, Haunting Hands seeks to provide some nuanced understandings of the complex, dynamic, and rapidly changing role of mobile media in processes of loss as part of a broader context of technological, cultural, social, linguistic, and generational shifts.
Co-present Reconstructions of Death, Loss, and Mourning
Authors: Cumiskey Kathleen M. , Hjorth Larissa
Published: July 2017

In this chapter we detail examples of mobile-emotive co-presence practices and some of the multiple ways in which reconstructions of death and afterlife are reframed through the lens of mobile media. We define what we mean by mobile-emotive practices, and further define the ways in which mobile media now companion the bereaved in their loss. We also explore how mobile media magnify both continuities and discontinuities around cultural beliefs, traditions, and rituals surrounding death. We mark the mobile phone as part of broader remediated rituals around grief and loss, and acknowledge death’s emotional impact on mobile media use.
Companionship
Authors: Cumiskey Kathleen M. , Hjorth Larissa
Published: July 2017

In this chapter we investigate the shifting role of memorialization through case studies of individual usage of mobile and social media. The mobile phone, now an active part of everyday life for many, provides a pivotal role in the construction and maintenance of memorialization. We explore how the sense of co-presence generated through use of mobile-emotive rituals and practices can be experienced as a form of companionship and continuing bond. Drawing on fieldwork done predominantly in Australia, this chapter considers how the mobile phone can facilitate a kind of constant companionship that can be a lifesaver in times of extreme emotional suffering, and can assist users in practical as well as affective aspect of the grieving process.
The Selfie Affect in Disasters
Authors: Cumiskey Kathleen M. , Hjorth Larissa
Published: July 2017

In this chapter, we explore the case study of mobile media and loss in the South Korean Sewol ferry disaster of 2014. This specific disaster was one in which mobile media featured, especially in terms of lingering incriminations from the mobile phones of the 250 drowned schoolchildren. We explore the ways in which grief and loss are culturally specific, including an array of various social responses, rituals, and cultural prescriptions. We trace a contextualized view of postmortem photography and the intimate and memorialized publics. As demonstrated in the Sewol disaster, mobile media practices like selfies and vlogs are being deployed by the soon-to-be-deceased, and thus become self-eulogies.
Conclusion
Authors: Cumiskey Kathleen M. , Hjorth Larissa
Published: July 2017

The concluding chapter revisits our major themes and highlights next steps for exploring mobile-emotive practices and loss. We also seek to provide a set of propositions for future areas of study. We explore the limits of funeral decorum through understanding selfies at funerals, virtual veneration, and the challenges of a new kind of public mourning. We discuss further the crux of our book: how the personal nature of mobile devices positions them to uniquely play a role in bereavement. We examine digital legacies and the impact of the increasingly likelihood that we will be co-present at the moment of death for some, thanks to live mobile media broadcasting. We conclude with an analysis of shifting cultural understandings of death and imagine a mobile-emotive afterlife.
Secrecy, Poetry, and Being-Free
Authors: Kockelman Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter asks two questions: What are some of the secrets of networks? And what might constitute their poetics, an aesthetic means of revealing their secrets? It leverages the relation between codes and channels, delving into two topics that link them: degrees of freedom and secrets. By degrees of freedom is meant the number of independent dimensions needed to specify the state of a system. This chapter argues that even relatively commensurate systems, which have identical degrees of freedom, can have different secrets—understood as inherent symmetries that organize their sense-making capacities. This chapter also shows how channels as well as codes can have inherent secrets (in addition to their ability to keep and reveal secrets in more stereotypic ways). By extending the notion of poetics, it shows how such systems can be made to reveal their secrets. As will be seen, all this is a way of reinterpreting the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (i.e., the idea that the language one speaks affects the way one thinks), such that this hypothesis can be usefully applied to media more generally (such as interfaces, algorithms, infrastructure, and networks).
The Development of Legal Reasoning
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

The cognitive developmental model of legal socialization is discussed in chapter 5. This approach emphasizes the development of legal reasoning and focuses on how such thinking shapes legal judgments about the purpose of laws, how legal authority should be used, and whether people should feel obligated to obey legal institutions. Basically, legal reasoning provides a framework to understand the nature of society and the requirements of social order, leading to judgments about the legitimacy of the law. Building on Kohlberg’s work in moral development, the legal reasoning perspective argues that people develop increasingly abstract and sophisticated models of the relationship between society and the law with respect to the position and duties of the law and the responsibilities and obligations of citizens. This provides a basis for understanding when to follow appropriate laws and when to violate laws viewed as unjust or unprincipled.
Introduction
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

Legal scholars and social scientists studying the law recognize that a central issue in law is understanding why adults obey the law (Tyler, 2006a, 2011). Evidence suggests that law-related attitudes and values are central to motivating adult law-related behavior, and hence that it is important to understand how they develop during the process of legal socialization. Although this is true, legal scholarship has widely ignored the process of childhood and adolescent socialization. The lack of research on legal socialization is ironic in that by the time people become adults, their law-related attitudes and values are already well formed and they have often had formative personal experiences with legal authorities. This important development begins during childhood and adolescence as part of the overall process of socialization....
Models of Legal Socialization
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

The aim of this part of the book is to examine different theoretical perspectives on the legal socialization process. In addition, this section of the book considers research on neurological development and how general biological and cognitive growth during childhood and adolescence can put limits on their understanding of the law, legal procedures, and appropriate legal behavior. The text here then introduces the chapters which follow which look closely at the literature on the mechanisms of attitude and value socialization, as well as the literature that examines the evolution of reasoning and the cognitive abilities that enable abstract thinking.
Life in the Context of the Whole Universe
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

The chapter considers the argument that, when taken in the context of the cosmos at large, we emerge as tiny, ineffectual, and, hence, insufficient. On the background of the whole universe, whatever we do is negligible and, therefore, meaningless. But this argument supposes that only a life that affects the whole universe can be considered meaningful. The chapter argues that there is no reason to accept this highly perfectionist supposition. The discussion distinguishes between perspectives, on the one hand, and standards, on the other, and claims that we can have a wide perspective that considers a life in the context of the cosmos while holding standards that do not require that life to affect the whole cosmos.
The Goal of Life
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Many associate the meaning of life with the goal, aim, or end of life, asking themselves what they are living for. When they cannot answer this question, they suspect that their lives are meaningless. Some also believe that all things must have goals in order to be meaningful. But this means that goals must also have goals, ad infinitum, with no final goal that gives meaning to the entire chain. This chapter responds to these concerns by distinguishing between instrumental and terminal value, and arguing that it is incorrect that meaningful lives must have ends to which they are means. A life may be of much worth even if it serves no ulterior purpose.
The Paradox of the End
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

People try to achieve ends in the hope that attaining them will improve their condition. Paradoxically, however, when they do finally achieve those ends, their sense of meaning is sometimes diminished rather than enhanced. In reaching their goals, they lose the meaning they experienced while striving toward them. But if the goal is revealed to be of little or no worth, the efforts to realize it are rendered worthless as well. From this perspective, then, much of what we do is worthless, and our lives seem meaningless. This is “the paradox of the end,” with which this chapter contends.
Suffering
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Some people feel that life is meaningless because there is so much suffering in the world. The chapter criticizes three arguments by Schopenhauer for the painfulness of life: the argument from the analysis of pleasure (pleasure is always the satisfaction of a need, but the displeasure in experiencing the need is always greater than the pleasure felt when the need is satisfied); the argument from the subjective passage of time (time passes more slowly when we are suffering than when we are enjoying ourselves); and the argument from our enhanced sensitivity to suffering. The chapter claims that many lives are not painful and many that are could be improved. Moreover, painful lives need not be meaningless.
Identifying II
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

This chapter continues the discussion begun in the preceding one. It explains why we cannot engage in all that we find meaningful and must focus on some pursuits, thereby deepening our engagement, committing ourselves to them, and “personalizing” them. It also notes that although different people find different pursuits meaningful, helping other people and increasing pleasure turn out to impart worth to the lives of many. The chapter then explains why most people need to periodically reconsider what sustains meaning in their lives, and cautions against the tendency to opt for radical, irreversible, and abrupt changes in order to make life meaningful.
Community and Voice
Authors: Norris Andrew
Published: July 2017

This chapter analyzes Cavell’s reception of Rousseau’s theory of the general will and the manner in which he uses it to counter dominant conceptions of democracy, freedom, rhetoric, and public reason. Central here is Rousseau’s idea that the virtuous citizen can speak for fellow citizens—articulate their shared general will—in much the same way, and with the same limitations, as the ordinary language philosopher who articulates “what we say when.” Cavell develops this in his account of the political “claim to community,” and argues that certain archetypical forms of injustice are best explained by the failure of their perpetrators to properly articulate their own will. The problem here is not one of sincerity, but of self-knowledge. In reviewing these matters, this chapter also clarifies as neither previous commentators nor Cavell himself have the nature and worth of Cavell’s critique of the dominant model of contract theory, that of John Rawls.
Liberalism and the Welfare State in Britain, 1890–1945
Authors: Backhouse Roger E. , Bateman Bradley W. , Nishizawa Tamotsu
Published: July 2017

This chapter establishes that the British welfare state was the creation of Liberals as much as socialists. By the early twentieth century, the “New Liberalism” was moving the Liberal Party away from Gladstonian Liberalism, and the Asquith government took major steps toward a welfare state before World War I. The economists arguing for the welfare state included many Liberals, notably Alfred Marshall, J. A. Hobson, A. C. Pigou, William Beveridge, and John Maynard Keynes. British Liberalism was varied, and influential strands within it were strongly supportive of the welfare state. Beveridge and Keynes, in particular, were responsible for much of the intellectual architecture of the welfare state as it was implemented by the first postwar Labour government of Clement Attlee.
Liberal Economists and the British Welfare State
Authors: Peden George
Published: July 2017

The chapter explores changing liberal attitudes to the welfare state. Hayek shared much common ground with Beveridge and Keynes in the 1940s, but saw postwar expansion of welfare services combined with inflationary full-employment policy as a threat to individual liberty. Other liberal economists thought Hayek exaggerated the threat, but were nevertheless critical of state monopoly in welfare provision and were keen to maintain the independence and individual responsibility of citizens. From the 1960s neoliberal ideas that had originally been conceived within the Liberal Party became associated with Conservatism and the New Right. The New Right had a considerable impact on housing policy and set an agenda for free-market alternatives in the provision of health and education services.
Conclusion
Authors: Backhouse Roger E. , Bateman Bradley W. , Nishizawa Tamotsu , Plehwe Dieter
Published: July 2017

This volume reveals the complexity of the positions towards the welfare state taken by economists, most of whom could be counted as liberal in one way or another. Liberal economists were both at the heart of the original development of the welfare state and at the center of the counter movement against the welfare state. The nature of the interaction between liberalism and the welfare state, and the role of economists, varied greatly between countries. Initially, the structure of the welfare states in different nations made it difficult for transnational neoliberal ideas to have much influence in minimizing the size and nature of the welfare state. Today, however, one brand of free-market, anti-state neoliberalism plays a particularly effective role in attacks on the welfare state across countries. History shows that is not the only form of liberalism or the only ways that liberals might see the welfare state.
International Enforcement
Authors: Donno Daniela
Published: July 2017

This chapter examines issues at the heart of the transparency-accountability-compliance nexus. In particular, it looks at how far the international community uses the tools of conditionality, diplomacy, mediation, and shaming in response to violations of norms of electoral conduct. The chapter employs an original data set that records the use of conditionality and diplomatic engagement by 15 governmental and intergovernmental actors, in response to 668 elections in 119 countries. It finds, in short, that enforcement empowers opposition voices and increases pressure for states to implement electoral reforms, leading to improvements in electoral conduct. Regional organizations serve a particularly important role in this regard through leverage and linkage, which makes them effective compared with bilateral actors.
Election Management
Authors: Garnett Holly Ann
Published: July 2017

This chapter provides new evidence about the ways that election management bodies (EMBs) remain transparent with a variety of stakeholders. In particular, it operationalizes and measures transparency in election management through a content analysis of the websites of 99 EMBs around the globe. It considers five key dimensions of transparency: activity reports, election results, EMB hierarchy, EMB members, and election laws. With this new measure of EMB transparency, this chapter tests two major questions within the field of electoral governance. First, it explores whether the formal design of an EMB is related to its transparency, and secondly, it looks at the relationship between transparency and public confidence in elections.
Constitutional Courts
Authors: Mazmanyan Armen
Published: July 2017

This chapter considers the role of the courts, which is expected to be critical for electoral integrity through upholding voting rights; examining legal appeals, petitions, and complaints in specific cases; and evaluating the constitutionality of electoral procedures. In many countries, constitutional courts have often played a vital role in judging legal complaints about electoral malpractices. This process is particularly important in democratic states with an independent judiciary. By contrast, in autocratic states, the judiciary is often believed to be in the pockets of ruling parties, although this assumption has been challenged where the courts ruled against the government. Through examining cases in eastern Europe this chapter considers the role and independence of the courts as a check and balance both on the legislature and executive branches.
Cognition is Embodied
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

With the motivation to develop computational and algorithmic levels of understanding how the mind comes into being, this chapter considers computer science, artificial intelligence, and cognitive systems perspectives. Questions are addressed, such as what ‘intelligence’ may actually be and how, and when an artificial system may be considered to be intelligent and to have a mind on its own. May it even be alive? Out of these considerations, the chapter derives three fundamental problems for cognitive systems: the symbol grounding problem, the frame problem, and the binding problem. We show that symbol-processing artificial systems cannot solve these problems satisfactorily. Neural networks and embodied systems offer alternatives. Moreover, biological observations and studies with embodied robotic systems imply that behavioral capabilities can foster and facilitate the development of suitably abstracted, symbolic structures. We finally consider Alan Turing’s question “Can machines think?” and emphasize that such machines must at least solve the three considered fundamental cognitive systems problems. The rest of the book addresses how the human brain, equipped with a suitably-structured body and body–brain interface, manages to solve these problems, and thus manages to develop a mind.
Behavioral Flexibility and Anticipatory Behavior
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

While reward-oriented learning can adapt and optimize behavior, this chapter shows how behavior can become anticipatory and selectively goal-oriented. Flexibility and adaptability are necessary when living in changing environmental niches. As a consequence, different locations in the environment need to be distinguished to enable selective and optimally attuned interactions. To accomplish this, sensorimotor learning is necessary. With sufficient sensorimotor knowledge, the progressively abstract learning of environmental predictive models becomes possible. These models enable forward anticipations about action consequences and incoming sensory information. As a consequence, our own influences on the environment can be distinguished from other influences, following the re-afference principle. Moreover, inverse anticipations enable the selection of the behavior that is believed to reach current goals most effectively. Coupled with motivations, goal-directed behavior can be generated self-motivatedly. Furthermore, curious, information seeking, epistemic behavior can be generated. The remainder of the book addresses how the brain accomplishes this goal-oriented, self-motivated generation of behavior and thought, where the latter can be considered mental behavior.
Primary Visual Perception from the Bottom Up
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

This chapter addresses primary visual perception, detailing how visual information comes about and, as a consequence, which visual properties provide particularly useful information about the environment. The brain extracts this information systematically, and also separates redundant and complementary visual information aspects to improve the effectiveness of visual processing. Computationally, image smoothing, edge detectors, and motion detectors must be at work. These need to be applied in a convolutional manner over the fixated area, which are computations that are predestined to be solved by means of cortical columnar structures in the brain. On the next level, the extracted information needs to be integrated to be able to segment and detect object structures. The brain solves this highly challenging problem by incorporating top-down expectations and by integrating complementary visual information aspects, such as light reflections, texture information, line convergence information, shadows, and depth information. In conclusion, the need for integrating top-down visual expectations to form complete and stable perceptions is made explicit.
Top-Down Predictions Determine Perceptions
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

While bottom-up visual processing is important, the brain integrates this information with top-down, generative expectations from very early on in the visual processing hierarchy. Indeed, our brain should not be viewed as a classification system, but rather as a generative system, which perceives something by integrating sensory evidence with the available, learned, predictive knowledge about that thing. The involved generative models continuously produce expectations over time, across space, and from abstracted encodings to more concrete encodings. Bayesian information processing is the key to understand how information integration must work computationally – at least in approximation – also in the brain. Bayesian networks in the form of graphical models allow the modularization of information and the factorization of interactions, which can strongly improve the efficiency of generative models. The resulting generative models essentially produce state estimations in the form of probability densities, which are very well-suited to integrate multiple sources of information, including top-down and bottom-up ones. A hierarchical neural visual processing architecture illustrates this point even further. Finally, some well-known visual illusions are shown and the perceptions are explained by means of generative, information integrating, perceptual processes, which in all cases combine top-down prior knowledge and expectations about objects and environments with the available, bottom-up visual information.
Retrospection and future perspectives
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

As the concluding chapter, the story of the book’s content is revisited and summarized. Essentially, our embodied minds come into being due to an evolutionary predisposed cognitive developmental process, which builds progressively more abstract, conceptual, compositional predictive encodings based on actively gathered sensorimotor experiences. The chapter also acknowledges several under-represented, but important topics in cognitive science. Finally, the matter of consciousness is addressed, emphasizing that the mind emerges from a recurrent, self-maintaining, and self-regulating system, that is, our brain–body system. Combined with developing self-referential, social, event-oriented, conceptualizing predictive encodings, self-reflective cognition becomes possible. We conclude that despite pursuing a computational approach to embodied cognitive science, cognitive models in this direction are just at their beginning. Future cognitive modeling efforts promise to shed much further light on the exact details about how our minds come into being and how we may create useful, artificial, cognitive systems in the future.
The Golden Age of Ministerial Exile, 1715–74
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

The reign of Louis XV was marked by ministerial instability, but also the consolidation of a model of ministerial disgrace that had first taken shape under Louis XIV. This chapter examines the continuities between the two reigns as well as the reasons behind that instability and argues that despite the rapid turnover in ministers the state machine had a certain permanence which meant that disgrace was not enough on its own to destabilize government. It also examines the changes in ministerial recruitment and the decline of the system of survivance that had underpinned the great ministerial dynasties of the reign of Louis XIV.
Conclusion
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

In the concluding chapter, the importance of political disgrace is examined in broader comparative perspective. The chapter argues that not only was there a distinct Bourbon ‘politics of disgrace’, but also that the concept is significant for the study of other early modern monarchies and other polities. Disgrace can be seen as a global phenomenon, as applicable to societies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America as it is to those in Europe, and one that transcends historical periods. There are histories of disgrace to be written for the classical medieval and modern periods, and arguably through the campaign against arbitrary punishment lessons for contemporary societies too. Disgrace was a justification for raison d’état, and in an era of ‘wars on terror’ the willingness of states to imprison without trial takes us back to the arguments of its seventeenth- and eighteenth-century opponents that without justice there can be no liberty.
The Strange Case of Carlo Goldoni
Authors: Goodman Jessica
Published: July 2017

This chapter studies how Goldoni created himself as an author and glorious ‘phénomène’, and reinforced this image through his personal and autobiographical writings. It locates the inception of his authorial persona in his early work in Italy, and explores the pragmatic realities behind his heroic narrative of a theatrical vocation, before applying a similarly pragmatic approach to readings of his 1762 invitation to Paris. It suggests that Goldoni’s experience at the Comédie-Italienne, and subsequent dismissals of it by the author himself and modern critics, are most productively understood by considering this two-year period within the context of the parallel real and recounted careers he had been constructing, and by examining the relationship between Goldoni’s self-fashioning and the expectations and reactions of those around him.
Brave New Borders: The EU’s Use of New Technologies for the Management of Migration and Asylum
Authors: Rijpma Jorrit J.
Published: July 2017

This chapter shows how in the 21st century new technologies and new bureaucracies have become part and parcel of the EU’s migration and asylum policy, and how these two are intimately linked. Together they have allowed the EU and its Member States to tighten their grip over the movement of people. The use of technology has transformed the nature of the European border and has reinforced the agencies in charge of its management. This has largely been done without a clearly defined vision or grand design. Rather, it was technology itself that enabled this development and has greatly helped to shape it. While technology has often been portrayed as value-neutral, it may now pose challenges to some of the EU’s fundamental rights, most notably the right to data protection.
Introduction
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book’s main themes. This book examines the population categories constructed and utilized every ten years by the US census. Approaching these categories from a historical perspective rather than a strictly sociological or political one permits their analysis as sites of internal and external mobilization. It also reveals the hidden evolutions by which the contents of seemingly stable categories changed while the definitions remain the same. Long-standing categories of race, such as white or black, have varied dramatically across periods and regions. Based on distinctions of origin and status—between free and slave, white and non-white, native-born Americans and immigrants or children of immigrants—over a period of a century and a half, from the creation of the federal census in 1790 to the 1940s, this study retraces the genealogy and evolution of these categories.
Modernization, Standardization, and Internationalization
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses developments surrounding the censuses of 1850, 1860, and 1870. Topics covered include the first international statistical congress in Brussels in 1853; efforts to bring American statistics closer to the European publications; the abortive reform of 1870; and the counting of roughly 4 million free men and women of African origin alongside more numerous immigrants from more places, in the wake of the Civil War. The chapter concludes that the period from 1850 to 1870 appears to be an exception in the long history of the US census, and that the appeal to international scientific authority must be seen as one way for experts to give weight to their arguments, with mitigated success.
From Slavery to Freedom
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses changes introduced by three Reconstruction-era amendments and their consequences for the census. These amendments include the suppression of slavery by the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865; the redefinition of American citizenship at the federal and state levels by the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868; and guaranteeing black men’s right to vote under the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870. These amendments had two major consequences for the census: on the one hand, the end of the Three-Fifths Compromise; on the other, the development of the census itself into the instrument of control and sanction of the limitation of former slaves’ right to vote. The 1870 census thus had to measure with much difficulty both the distribution of the population for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and the enforcement of these amendments. States where the voting rights of blacks were denied would see their representation diminished accordingly.