bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
8. Problèmes d'historiographie religieuse
Authors: Julia Dominique
Published: June 2016

8. Dominique Julia : Problems of religious historiography.

In a first section, the author attempts to define the historical conditions which have organised research into the field of religion since the beginning of the century. The distinction religious/ non religious tends, in a society on the road to secularisation, to disappear, giving way to cleavages which separate methods of investigation from models of interpretation (historical, sociological or psychological). In the second section he attempts to present some directions of research in need of urgent exploration : sociology of religious groups and culture, analysis of discourse, study of exclusions, revolutionary historiography.
11. Les historiens devant la linguistique. Nouveau gadget ou constitution de l'objet discursif ?
Authors: Robin Régine
Published: June 2016

11. Régine Robin : Historians and linguistics.

Resuming her own research either in progress or about to be published, R. R. insists on the double necessity for the historian to have a good knowledge of linguistic methods, and to know how to discern what they can legitimately borrow from them. In fact " if the historian can have recourse to linguistics, it can only be to the linguistics of " discours still largely to be elaborated». This linguistics of " discours " should investigate more particularly the concept of " enonciation " put forward by Jakobson and Benveniste. It should also investigate he concept of ideology (in the Marxist sense), that is to say, some- how or other, it should get back to history, forced into the background by structuralist ideology.
15. Étude quantitative de la déchristianisation. Au 18e siècle : débat ouvert, tabou ou dépassé ?
Authors: Vovelle Michel
Published: June 2016

15. Michel Yovelle : Quantitative study of dechristianisation in the

18th century : open debate, Taboo, or old-fashioned ?

Dechristianisation... " fallacious term " or " suspect term as the learned

will have it, remains a reality so massive as to compel recognition, from the 19th century on. Did the latter invent it ? The roots of the phenomenon are what is sought in the period 1680-1789, a century of Enlightenment... loosely speaking. Where the sources of contemporary religious sociology are lacking, other specific approaches are put forward (the study of wills being one of the most fruitful). A secular movement of indiscutable disaffection comes to light of geographical and chronological nuances. The violent Dechristianisation of the French Revolution takes on a new colour as a result. Finally questions are asked concerning the problem of the causes of dechristianisation of the Enlightenment.
16. Sur l'intelligentsia des Lumières
Authors: Walter Eric
Published: June 2016

16. Eric Walter : On the intelligentsia of the enlightenment.

Recent progress on the road towards a social history of culture in 18th

century leads one to reformulate the terms of the problem of the condition of intellectuals during the Enlightenment. Collective research on this theme could make use of the methodological findings of the sociology of culture, of the analysis of " discours " and of the Marxist theory of ideology. To give an account of the situation of the intelligentsia, must one, as a controversy at present raging would have us believe, reconsider the relationship between the Enlightenment and the French Revolution ? And, in any case, should one substitute a conceptual frame of the " elites " for the study of the antagonism between bourgeoisie and aristocracy ? The critical examination of J. Proust's research bearing on the group of the Encyclopedists, of D. Roche on the provincial Academies, of R. C. Darnton on the pre-revolutionary intelligentsia, followed by an analysis of the texts of d'Alembert on the rapports between men of letters and the nobility, leads one to reject hasty solutions of a sociological type. Finally is it not necessary to avoid the excessive use of a syncretic notion ; that of " thought of the Enlightenment " in favour of a distinction between " culture of the Enlightenment " and the antagonistic ideologies which coexist with and confront one another on the field of this culture ? As far as this global question is concerned, the study of a precise problem : the place of the man of letters in society as defined in the texts of 1750-1780, affords a tentative answer, though calling for new research.
Trois lettres inédites de Fontenelle
Authors: Sareil Jean
Published: June 2016

Jean Sareil : Three unpublished letters from fontenelle.

J. S. publishes here three unknown letters from Fontenelle (of whom few letters have been published so far) which give three differing views of their author. The first one (october 1717), sent to Mme de Lambert is very friendly ; the second one is a formal letter — but not without a sense of humour — sent to pope Benedict xivth (déc. 1743). The last letter, written in sept. 1746 (Fontenelle beeing 89 years old) to Cideville, a founding father of the Rouen Academy, is a witty request for money. the boldest French philosophers, but rather unknown until now. D. D. explains, by questions and answers, a metaphysical system which is built in opposition to the traditionaly religious and usually enlightened ways of thinking. The first part of this manuscript, found in Poitiers Public Library, has been published in Dix-huitième-siècle, N° 4 (1972).
Les discours et les messages de Dom Deschamps
Authors: Baczko Bronislaw
Published: June 2016

Bronislaw Baczko : Dom Deschamps ' words and thoughts.

B. B. explains how Dom Deschamps, who has been viewed as a forerunner of Hegel, has set an original " mystical materialism ", drawing attention to a genuine 18th Century trend, especially in the bitter opposition to all the values of the establishment. B. B. takes into account the biographical data and he shows, by comparing the unpublished texts of Dom Deschamps, and a text he did actually publish, that their author had an esoteric thought for a circle of duly enlightened men, and an exoteric one for the common people.
Lettres à Robert Liston
Authors: Servien Michèle
Published: June 2016

Michèle Servien : Letters to Robert Liston.

M. S. presents and publishes here two letters by M. S. Riccoboni addressed to the famous Scot Robert Liston, on June 4th 1783 and on December 27th 1770, and long passages of three other letters (March, 28th 1776 ; May, 27th 1779 ; September, 18th 1783). She also publishes a note from Mrs. du Deffand sent to Liston on November, 23rd 1770.
Sur un regret de l'abbé Prévost. «L'usage de France est incommode pour le transport d'un cadavre»
Authors: Favre Robert
Published: June 2016

Robert Favre : On a wish of the abbé Prévost.

Here will be found an instance of a foot-note designed for the edition of Prevost's complete works, " The French custom is inconvenient for the carrying of a corpse " the abbé Prévost wrote in Cleveland. R. F. gives to this enigmatic sentence its full historical meaning in describing the rites of embalming and of funeral transport during the old Regime period. Thoses rites, which recur in Prévost's novels, have more over a critical and symbolical function in the economy of the work.
Inventaire des manuscrits de L.-S. Mercier à la Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal
Authors: Girard Gilles
Published: June 2016

Gilles Girard : An inventory of L. S. Mercier's manuscripts.

The manuscripts of Louis-Sébastien Mercier (1740-1814), preserved in the 'Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal ' (Paris), being relatively little known, we have thought it would be a useful project to prepare an inventory of them. The list of the manuscripts of these twenty-three boxes, containing some ten thousand leaves, must be reduced here, of necessity, considering the limits imposed on this article. Additionably, we have given only the manuscripts of the most significant unedited texts and have indicated, without going into detail, the manuscripts of the most important edited texts.
Vingt-cinq ans de bibliographie
Authors: Trenard Louis
Published: June 2016

Enlightenment and revolution.

These two concepts, by their liaison, seem to characterize the phenomenon which illustrates, primarily in France, the emergence of a new society from the , Ancien Régime '. In opposition to the Anglo-Saxon world, which appears to have opened the way, and to other European countries which followed the movement, France experienced, under Louis XV, an intellectual transformation which has been considered to be the cause of political, social and economic movements developed at the end of the 18th century. In fact, this decisive evolution coincided with other elements, which brought about a more crucial situation, such as repeated abortive attemps at reform, survival of the irrational and even of the mystical, unprecedented solidarity between the élite and the masses, transference of sentiment etc. The Revolution, daughter of Enligh¬ tenment, denied at certain times the new way of thinking. Paradoxically, following an era of tolerance, cosmopolitanism, optimism and prosperity, there began a period of violence, terror, war and nationalism.
Les héritiers des «philosophes» devant l'expérience révolutionnaire
Authors: Mortier Roland
Published: June 2016

The heirs of the French «Philosophes » and the

revolutionary experience.

The impact of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution has often been violently discussed, denounced or questioned. This article investigates the reaction of those of the ' philosophes ' who were still alive in 1792-1793 (the prominent ones all died before 1789). This investigation shows that they either opposed the Revolution (Morellet, Marmontel, Raynal, Suard) or soon became suspect and were considered as liberal opponents (Roucher, Bailly, Chénier, Condorcet, Brissot, even Chamfort), with the sole exception of Alexandre Deleyre. The bitter hostility of Robespierre to the ' sect of the Encyclopaedists ', considered as ' deserters to the cause of the people ', shows the rift between the radicalism of the Jacobins and the liberalism of the ' philosophes whose doctrines were to inspire the ' Constitution de l'An VII ' and the political line of the Directoire (Cabanis, Volney, Sophie de Condorcet, and the ' idéologues ').
Lequeu, entre l'irrégulier et l'éclectique
Authors: Guillerme Jacques
Published: June 2016

Lequeu, the Irregular and the Eclectic.

This article discusses one of the most striking graphical productions of J.-J. Lequeu, one of three architects considered by E. Kaufmann as ' revolutionary '. This document is undoubtedly one of the earliest indications of the development of nineteenth-century architectural eclecticism. This composition is the result of a determination to develop to the point of caricature the irregular deviations which were tolerated, and even recommended, by theorists in the second half of the 18th century under the influence of aesthetic associationism.
Le citoyen Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, théosophe révolutionnaire
Authors: Chaquin Nicole
Published: June 2016

Citizen Louis-Claude de saint-martin, revolutionary

Theosophist.

This study aims to show the complexity of the political thought of L.-Cl de Saint Martin, and to emphasize its fundamental difference from conservative thought (represented by J de Maistre), with which it has been too often aligned. The Revolution, seen by Saint-Martin as a complete break with the past, called for an analysis of society, a redefinition of the concepts of liberty, popular sovreignty etc. and, within the framework of a providential view of history, of the role of collective action. The hesitations of Saint-Martin regarding the idea of the people, and his unhappiness about the bourgeois consolidation of the Revolution, raise questions familiar to specialists in the political thought of the Romantics.
De la polémique sur la Révolution et les Lumières et des Dix-huitiémistes
Authors: Goulemot Jean-Marie
Published: June 2016

On the Revolution and the Enlightenment.

In these deliberately polemical remarks, the author is attempting to remind his readers that the present dispute among historians concerning the interpretation of 1789 revolution of the Enlightenment or bourgeois revolution-also involves all aspects of eighteenth-century research. He claims that all interpretations of the eighteenth century are based on a certain view of 1789, which dictates their outline and emphasis and forms the basis of the sociological approach to it. Without taking part in the debate himself, he calls for a reconsideration of the finalism and mechanical sociologism which he considers to be some of the 4 epistemological obstacles ' paralysing-current eighteenth-century research.
Sur une lettre de Diderot à John Wilkes publiée dans le Courier du Bas-Rhin
Authors: Moureau François
Published: June 2016

On a letter from Diderot to John Wilkes published in the Courrier du Bas Rhin.

F. M. has discovered in a German periodical published in French, the text of a letter from Diderot addressed to the celebrated politician, John Wilkes, in 1768, which hitherto was only known in an English version published in 1805. Recalling the interest Diderot had shown in John Wilkes, F. M. compares the two texts. He concludes that the French text in all probability corresponds to the original of the letter written by Diderot.
Thèmes picturaux dans les appartements de marchands et artisans parisiens au XVIIIe siècle
Authors: Chatelus Jean
Published: June 2016

Subjects of works of Art in the homes of Parisian Tradesmen and Artisans.

This article, intended as a sociological contribution to art history, is an analysis of the artistic posessions of 750 tradesmen and 497 artisans in Paris ; it is based on inventories drawn up on their deaths, between 1725 and 1759, and deposited in the legal archives of the Seine. The author studies the respective importance of paintings and prints in the homes of both of these socioprofessional categories, as well as their division according to genre, subject, and technique. Finally, he attempts to define a common attitude to works of art among artisans and tradesmen.
Beaumarchais et Amélie Houret : Une correspondance inédite
Authors: Quinn Renée
Published: June 2016

Renée Quinn : Beaumarchais' letters to Amélie Houret.

After a brief introduction establishing the identity of Beaumarchais' correspondent, this article presents the text, published from the originals in the British Museum, of two letters, one from Beaumarchais to Amélie Houret, the other from her to him with his remarks in answer written between the lines. A third unpublished letter, from Mme de Beaumarchais to Amélie, is added as it sheds further light on her relationship with Beaumarchais. These two letters are all that has been found to date of what is reputed to have been a voluminous correspondence.
Le notariat parisien à la fin du 18e siècle
Authors: Poisson Jean-Paul
Published: June 2016

Jean-Paul Poisson : Parisian notaries at the end of the 18th century.

A preliminary review for a socio-economic study of the Parisian legal profession. The author studies their education, ideas, life-style, professional activity, artistic and literary tastes, attitude towards the Revolution, and the political writings of some of them. He illustrates the important role they played in financial life, as intermediaries between the high aristocracy and business circles, and the general confidence they commanded despite criticisms of their wealth. Several of them, with their artistic and literary connections, their collections and libraries, resemble the great financiers of the century. The picture which emerges is that of a generally cultivated class, in sympathy with the Enlightenment, even at the beginning of the Revolution.
Le théâtre de Marivaux, une « phénoménologie du cœur » ?
Authors: Jutrin Monique
Published: June 2016

Monique Jutrin-Klener : The theatre of Marivaux — A «Phenomenology of the heart » ?

This article studies Marivaux's theatre in the light of Hegelian thought as expressed in the Phenomenology of the Spirit. The author suggests that Marivaux's theatre is ' phenomenological ' in the Hegelian sense of the term. She emphasizes the analogy between the Hegelian process and the development of Marivaux's characters, and examines several ' Hegelian situations ' in his theatre : surprise and self-awareness, love and recognition, and especially the dialectic of master and slave. After the initial surprise, the characters progress, through various trials and by means of dialogue and a dialectic movement, towards the discovery of the truth.
Le fou, la sottie et Le neveu de Rameau
Authors: Arden Heather
Published: June 2016

Heather Arden : The jester and Le Neveu de Rameau.

This article explores the folie of Rameau, in Diderot's Neveu de Rameau ; by comparing him with the mediaeval sot, we gain an understanding of this enigmatic character. Rameau shares with the sot essential characteristics : his métier as entertainer ; his foolish actions, harmful to himself and to others ; his role as speaker of outrageous truths ; his satiric penchant and profoundly ironic discourse ; and especially his contradictory nature. For Diderot, who avoided rigid systems of thought, the fool offered the means of exploring theories to which he subscribed in greater or lesser degree ; Rameau-sot was the ideal way to express both the fluidity and the fixity of his moral philosophy. For this reason, a single interpretation of this work can no more be achieved than for the patter of a sot.
Expérience vécue et création romanesque. Le sentiment de l'éphémère dans la Nouvelle Héloïse
Authors: Osmont Robert
Published: June 2016

Robert Osmont : Experience and Literary creation : The Awareness

of Transience in the Nouvelle Hélolse.

This is an assessment of the relation between experience and creation in Rousseau's Nouvelle Hélotse, with particular reference to his feelings at the beginning of 1758, when he broke with Mme d'Houdetot. His bitterness at the degradation of life is seen in parts 3 and 4 of the novel, but the work itself brings about the triumph of belief over disillusion, and in parts 5 and 6 love is saved and transfigured by the spirit. Rousseau's experience in 1758 was part of a wider experience of the human condition which made him oscillate between an awareness of transience and a longing for eternity. The stylisation of themes (flux of time, nostalgia) bears witness to an optimistic solution, and what emerges from the work is a belief in the power of the spirit which transcends the degradation of human affairs.
Le spectacle bourgeois des antagonismes de classes : Le Philosophe sans le savoir de Sedaine (1765)
Authors: Guibert-Sledziewski Elisabeth
Published: June 2016

Elisabeth Guibert-Sledziewski : A Bourgeois drama of class Antagonism

at the end of the ancien regime.

This analysis of Sedaine's successful play demonstrates how Le Philosophe sans le savoir reflects the social aspirations of the rising middle class, and its desire to be accepted by the system of the Ancien Régime from which it is still excluded. In spite of the wealth amassed by the tradesman Vanderk, he lacks the prestige which can only be conferred by a noble title. The prejudices which deny recognition and acceptance to the middle classes (expressed by Vanderk 's aristocratic sister) can be broken down by their consciousness of their own worth, and by their willingness to accept the place allotted to them within feudal society. They therefore, like Vanderk, choose the path of economic, social and ideological compromise. His son, however, rejects such a compromise and already wishes to fight the nobility.
Louis-Sébastien Mercier et ses deux nouveaux Paris
Authors: Ricken Ulrich
Published: June 2016

Ulrich Ricken : Louis-Sebastien Mercier and his two Descriptions of a

New Paris.

In a semantic analysis of Louis-Sebastien Mercier 's Nouveau Paris (1798) and L'An 2440 (1771), the author compares the vocabulary used by the author in these two works to contrast present and past. In L'An 2440, the contrast between contemporary society and an idealised future is expressed by polarities which oppose a positive present to a negative past (corresponding to Mercier's own day). In the Nouveau Paris, on the contrary, the comparison is most frequently between a negative present and a negative past, in which the new society created by the Revolution is seen to be simply a continuation of the old, and very far from the society predicted by Mercier in L'An 2440.
Jésuites de la Province de France, jésuites en Bretagne vers 1750
Authors: Langlois Claude
Published: June 2016

Claude Langlois : Jesuits of the province of france and jesuits in bri-TANNY IN 1750.

The catalogues of the province of France show no increase for the 18th Century, due to the stability in the number of houses and colleges after 1711 ; also, a large proportion of natives of Normandy and Britanny. Their activity is illustrated in a medium-sized town, Vannes ; here the Jesuits occupied a stra¬ tegic position with, in their college, the monopoly of education for the ruling classes and control of theological training, and, through 2 houses for retreats, a real influence on the countryside. Even after their expulsion, their influence remained in the form of their pastoral organisation, which ensured that their spiritual values continued, into the 19th Century, to inspire the piety of the élite.
Un guide jésuite de savoir-vivre
Authors: Trenard Louis
Published: June 2016

Louis Trenard : A jesuit guide to good manners.

Among the " classical " works used in the Jesuit college at Lille and preserved in the Society's archives, are the Dialogues familiers by A. Van Torre (1675). This code of manners, in use until the 19th Century, recounts the child's day, describes his conduct in class, his duties towards his parents, fellow-pupils, teachers and God. It shows the pious humanism which values discipline, rhetoric and psychological understanding.
Le théâtre d'éducation des jésuites
Authors: Peyronnet Pierre
Published: June 2016

Pierre Peyronnet : Jesuit educational theatre.

Although college theatre was not invented by the Jesuits, by the 16th Century they used plays as a means of developing diction, eloquence, good manners and morality. Costumes and scenery were often elaborate ; moralising comedies were acted by the youngest pupils ; tragedies, even biblical, were no longer in Latin. Their originality lay in the interval ballets, on a subject relating to the play, and danced by pupils to music by famous composers. Such perfor¬ mances, criticised by the Jesuits' opponents, were important in the formation of the intellectual elite.
La logique du paradoxe du P. Claude Buffier
Authors: Marcil-Lacoste Louise
Published: June 2016

Louise Marcil-Lacoste : The paradoxical logic of Claude Buffier.

An analysis of the epistemological foundations of C. B.'s notion of paradox and its role in his metaphysical, moral and religious doctrines, which counters charges of opportunism levelled against the Jesuits. In his work on vulgar prejudices (1704) and his Logic (1714), C. B. proposed a new form of rationa¬ lity to replace binary logic ; applied to the problems of solipsism and egoism, it showed that commonsense answers were paradoxical. The author studies C. B.'s failure to apply his logic consistently to religion and relates it to the charges of opportunism.
Mémoires pour l'Histoire des Sciences et des Beaux-Arts. Signification d'un titre et d'une entreprise journalistique
Authors: Retat Pierre
Published: June 2016

Pierre Rétat : «Mémoires pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux-arts » : THE importance of the title and the enterprise. The complete title of the Jesuits' periodical, founded in 1701, is significant for an understanding of its importance in its political and cultural context. They were playing on the modernity of the vocabulary : " Memoirs " are the ideal vehicle for historical and scientific information and a guarantee of honesty and modesty. Directed at a cultivated public, it reflected the mentality of the age. Its foundation, in 1699-1702, shows the Jesuits' desire to back up royal cultural policy, and the Catholic campaign against " heretics ". A content analysis of the M.T.'s first 2 years (1701-1702) confirms this double preoc¬ cupation and shows how they used an ostensibly scientific organ for a subtle policy of intervention in the " Republic of Letters
Bilan et perspectives de recherche sur les Mémoires de Trévoux
Authors: Favre Robert , Labrosse Claude , Retat Pierre
Published: June 2016

Robert Favre, Claude Labrosse, Pierre Rétat : research on the «mémoires de Trévoux », an assessment.

A group of researchers at Lyon University sum up their work in the last few years, a content analysis of the M.T., 1701-1762, to determine the Jesuits' attitude towards contemporary problems. Their studies have already revealed, for example, the fact that their welcome for new values (e. g. economic) only exists within a framework of traditional values (antiquity, religion, monarchy). The authors sketch a general plan for this'study : the�cultivation of a complete cultural field, quantitative studies, analysis of journalistic language and the typology and morphology of periodicals.
Les Jésuites dans l'Empire russe (1772-1820)
Authors: Beauvois Daniel
Published: June 2016

Daniel Beauvois : The Jesuits in the Russian empire, 1772-1820.

A small group of Jesuits, Russian subjects since the division of Poland in 1772, survived thanks to Catherine after abolition in 1773, and exerted consi¬ derable influence. In 1812 they founded an Academy at Polock, aided by the intervention of J. de Maistre, but they met with opposition from the University of Vilna with its strong Enlightenment tradition. This conflict is studied in de Maistre's letters to the minister Razumovskij and in the University's arguments. The author examines the size of the Society, its teaching and publications, and considers the reasons for their expulsion in 1820, seen as a nationalistic and religious reaction to their blatant proselytising.
Jésuites et Francs-maçons, à propos d'un article du R. P. Riquet
Authors: Ligou Daniel
Published: June 2016

Daniel Ligou : Jesuits and freemasons, an article by father riquet.

A discussion of an article by Riquet in the Archivum historicum Societatis Iesu (t. XLIII, 1974), on Barruel, the chief disseminator of the legend of the masonic origins of the French Revolution. Although Riquet contributes much new information from the Jesuit Archives, concerning Barruel's documentation and his informers, he seems to accept certain of Barruel's affirmations that do not stand up to scrutiny by historians. Also rejected is the assimilation of Bavarian Illuminism to contemporary rationalistic Freemasonry.
D'Alembert : Cinq lettres inédites. Le traitement de la rage et la Société royale de médecine. Présentation
Authors: Theodorides Jean
Published: June 2016

Jean Theodorides : Five letters from d'alembert to the société royale de médecine.

These five letters, dating from 1777 and 1779, concern the treatment of rabies, a problem with which the Academy was particularly concerned. One dangerous remedy was the application of blister beetles, also to be taken internally. As Frederick II had advised their use in Prussia, d'Alembert wrote to him in 1777 for information. The first four letters inform the Society of the result, while the last (1779) reflects his interest in the activities of the Society and in medecine in general.
Un trio de Francs-Maçons ignorés
Authors: Lelièvre Renée
Published: June 2016

Renée Lelievre : An unknown trio of freemasons.

An unpublished letter (1752) from C. P. Patu, lawyer and libertine poet, to P. M. Hennin, diplomat, concerning the initiation of two friends, Gaigneron and Marescot ; the letter also contains a poem in their honour. Light is thus thrown on the spread of Freemasonry in enlightened and jansenist circles in the middle of the 18th Century.
Le corps et l'inanimé dans la nature morte
Authors: Baudinet Marie-José
Published: June 2016

Marie-José Baudinet : The body and the inanimate in still-life.

It is now possible, in the light of recent studies, to analyse still-life painting in a new way. Faced with these tables and buffets, we must consider 18th-century life in the stillness of its digestions, but also death, present in the designation «nature morte ». The representation of food becomes a metaphor for the living body, fixed on a canvas, explicitly abstracted from life. The paintings of Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789) have been chosen for his exemplary use of food and skin, and because his Traité de la peinture expresses what is hidden in the painting : the pox. Thus still life is part of the history of the suffering, mortal and lustful body. It is not surprising that it should predominate on the eve of a bourgeois revolution which ushered in the industrial era.
Corps sauvages, corps étranges
Authors: Delon Michel
Published: June 2016

Michel Delon : Wild bodies and savages.

For Europeans, America presented as much an ideological as an economic problem. Although missionaries and philosophers use different terms, they present the same refusal of difference. For the former the savage represents the health of the body, its purity before the fall and its state of corruption before grace. Instead of freeing the savage from such external criteria, Cornelius de Pauw's condemnation, in the name of progress, is more radical. For him, the Americans' physical constitution and conduct show them to be degenerates who produce neither food nor offspring ; economic sterility must be accompanied by sexual sterility. Here is the modern conception of sexuality, with its two-fold function of pleasure and productivity. Only Diderot recognises the right to pleasure and to be different.
Posture, espace et pédagogie
Authors: Vigarello Georges
Published: June 2016

Georges Vigarello : Posture, space and pedagogy.

The pedagogy of posture which, in the classical era, was part of good breeding, became incorporated in the 18th Century in hygienic precepts, according to which doctors preferred certain positions and profiles. It was also the object of exercises which show that the fundamental representation of the body had changed. Preventative rectification no longer used external forces on passive limbs and muscles ; the organism was now subjected to a formative activity which presupposed a self-corrective effect. The pedagogy of posture bears witness to new principles of education which were gradually to build up around the body exercises and training made up of developed programmes and reinforced normes.
La salubrité du Grenier de l'Abondance à la fin du 18e siècle
Authors: Boudon Françoise
Published: June 2016

Françoise Boudon : The salubrity of the paris market at the end of the 18th century.

After 1750, public opinion was aroused by the problem of the Halles : the buildings, extremely dilapidated, were unhealthy and ill-adapted ; food was displayed on the ground, in the mud and dirt ; there was no water for cleaning. The network of narrow lanes, perpetually jammed, was impassable and repug nant due to the stagnant air. During the second half of the century a large number of plans attempted to define the ideal market, according to three imperatives : the physical safety of customers, the control of odours and the purification of the air. Space, air and water are the guiding lines of these projects' which do not question the market's economic structure.
La fermeture du cimetière des Innocents
Authors: Hannaway Owen , Hannaway Caroline
Published: June 2016

Owen and Caroline Hannaway : The closure of the cemetery of the innocents.

The closure, and subsequent exhumation, of the Cemetery of the Innocents represents one of the major triumphs of enlightened public hygiene in the last years of the Ancien Regime. Evidence for the decision was based on the medical theory of the epidemic constitution with its two components, the poisonous miasma emanating from the ground and the hypothesis of a specific atmospheric constitution. There was no improvement in the understanding of the nature and pathological effects of the putrefying emanations from underground, but progress was made towards a fuller understanding of the constitution of the atmosphere. Quantitative precision in determining the chemical components and quality of the air, particularly by means of the eudiometer, played a major role in the decision.
Quelques lettres inédites de d'Alembert
Authors: Pappas John
Published: June 2016

John Pappas : Some unpublished letters of d'Alembert.

In addition to the letters, this article presents the project for an edition of d'AIembert's complete correspondence. Of the letters, one (12th February 1750), to the mathematician G. Cramer, discusses research plans, as well as literary news concerning Rameau, Maupertuis, Montesquieu. The second, listed in a catalogue as addressed to Dumarsais, suggests corrections to his Essai sur les préjugés, thus sustaining Dumarsais' authorship of the work. Further letters are to Bruyset, the Comte d'Erbach, Boissy d'Anglas, Bertin, the Marquis d'Orléans and De Croix and illustrate the growing demands for advice and recommendations as d'AIembert's fame increased.
Moses Mendelssohn et l'Aufklärung
Authors: Bourel Dominique
Published: June 2016

Dominique Bourel : Moses mendelssoh and the aufklärung, followed by a translation of Mendelssohn's What is aufklären ?

If there are certain philosophers who belong to the Aufklârung and not to the Age of Enlightenment, then Moses Mendelssohn, the Berlin Jew, is certainly one. A study of his thought illustrates perfectly the world which died after the awakening of Kantian thought, and it is at the same time a perfect basis for a reflection on the origins of modern thought, which derives from two separate rationalisms — that of Athens and that of Jerusalem.

The question as to the nature of the Aufklârung is posed when it is retreating into history ; no sooner is Lessing dead than the Critique of Reason is published. But it is nevertheless extremely important as a meditation on a praxis which aimed to apply the Leibnizian motto «Theoria cum Praxi ». The translation of one of the most authoritative replies, that of Mendelssohn, is here given for the first time to a non German-speaking reader who can thus compare it to Kant's reply and discover the profound originality of a thinker who is still not widely known.
Le champ lexical Science-Littérature en français et en allemand
Authors: Ricken Ulrich
Published: June 2016

Ulrich Ricken : The lexical field «science — literature » in french and german.

The modern notion of literature had its origin in France in the middle of the 18th Century, before it appeared in Germany. The development of the meaning of littérature as seen in French dictionaires is similar to that seen for Wissenschaften in German. The lexical field of littérature is determined by the synonyms science, érudition, lettres, belles-lettres. The main development is the semantic differentiation which gradually separated littérature and lettres from science and from érudition. This development is not to be found in dictionaries, but rather in the titles of literary periodicals in France and Germany. In Germany, the word Literatur appeared in the 1760s, while Schöne Wissenschaften declined thereafter, before its equivalent in French — belles-lettres.
Lumières et Enlightenment. Faux parallèle ou vraie dynamique du mouvement philosophique ?
Authors: Baridon Michel
Published: June 2016

Michel Baridon : Lumières and enlightenment : an artificial parallel or the true driving force of the philosophical movement ?

Was the Enlightenment an international movement or a conglomerate of philosophes determined by national issues ? This article tries to demonstrate that it was from the start an international movement inspired by intellectuals whose audience had been shaped by the Reformation. Its coherence resulted from its opposition to divine right absolutism. This explains why it was founded in Holland among refugees from France and England in the early 1680s. The attack against the Catholic church generated a new vision of the past and a complete reappraisal of the function of history ; the attack against divine right revived two types of political ideologies : limited monarchy (Macchiavelli, Harrington and Montesquieu) and Calvinistic contractualism (de Bèze, Locke and Rousseau). The very names show that the Enlightenment, true to its origins, assumed an international character.
Problèmes des Lumières polonaises
Authors: Libera Zdzislaw
Published: June 2016

Zdislaw Libera : Problems of the polish enlightenment.

The Polish Enlightenment covers the period from the 1740s to the first twenty years of the 19th Century, and corresponds to a time of economic, social and cultural development which, however, ends with the loss of Polish independence. It developed in the face of the conservatism of the nobility and of threats from outside her frontiers, but it was given impetus by the growth of periodicals, of a national theatre and the reform of education. This article reviews the progress in the fields of science, historiography, socio-political thought ; literature, with its classical, «sentimental » and rococo tendencies is particularly studied, to show the diversity and richness of the Polish Enlightenment.
Les Lumières au Portugal
Authors: França José-Augusto
Published: June 2016

José Augusto França : The Portuguese enlightenment.

This term normally signifies a precise period — the Marquis of Pombal's government (1750-1777) — but one must go back further, to the 1720s, to find symptoms of a rational and empirical mentality, perceptible in courses of «experimental philosophy » and in attacks on baroque forms of behaviour. La Véritable méthode d'étudier (1746) by L.A. Verney, a Portuguese priest of French parents, was the culminating point of this movement. The catastrophe that destroyed Lisbon in 1755 gave Pombal an absolute power that enabled him to establish his «enlightened despotism », in which the reconstruction of the town was to play a historical and symbolical role. The programme of the new Lisbon was both ideal and pragmatic and was the only lasting success of «Pombaline » policies, before the enlightened spirit came to dominate Portuguese social practice among the middle-class «Jacobins» of 1820 and in the republic of 1910.
Une interprétation russe de Voltaire à la fin du 18e siècle
Authors: Zaborov Piotr
Published: June 2016

Piotr Zaborov : Voltaire as seen by Russian critics at the end of the 18th century.

The great influence of Voltaire in Russia, and the transformation of perception of Voltaire under the influence of Russian «preromanticism » can be seen clearly in the attitude of Karamzin, towards the end of the 18th Century. An admirer of Shakespeare and translator of Julius Caesar, Karamzin refuted V's hostile criticism which he considered out-dated. While his admiration for V. was undiminished, he considered Shakespeare superior. Similarly his admiration for V's poetry did not prevent him preferring Young, Thomson and Gessner ; his translation of the Précis de V Ecclésiaste transforms V's style in accordance with this preference. V's influence on this «preromantic » remains important despite such differences.
L'homme de lettres en France et en Angleterre (1700-1730)
Authors: Waller Richard
Published: June 2016

Richard Waller : The man of letters in France and England (1700-1750).

A study of the financial situation of writers in France and, by way of comparison, in England. The different sources of income in France are : publishing, which produced meagre revenues, the theatre which earned slightly more, posts as tutors, and government service (censors, journalism, the Bibliothèque du Roi, teaching, membership of academies) ; by accumulation of several of such posts a comfortable revenue could be achieved. In England, in contrast, writers could earn more from both the theatre and publishing, the later partly due to political rivalries, which however made for greater insecurity. Public service or membership of the Royal Society brought no revenue. In France the professional writer could earn but little, but he enjoyed relative security, while in England a small minority earned large sums and the majority lived in insecurity.
Diderot et Danton vus par le 19e siècle : problèmes d'une filiation
Authors: Besnard-Coursodon Micheline
Published: June 2016

Micheline Besnard-Coursodon : The problem of a filiation : Diderot and Danton as seen by the nineteenth century.

Throughout the second half of the 19th Century, Comte and his followers stressed the influence of the Encyclopédists on the French Revolution, and, more particularly, the close relationship between Diderot's personality and thought and that of Danton. While the parallel was almost universally accepted, judgements of the two men varied widely, ranging from the Positivists' unconditional admiration (which was eventually shared by materialists, free-thinkers and Republicans) to violent indictments of their alleged immorality by right-wingers and the Academic Establishment. Thus, the reassessment of Diderot's and Danton's reputations became a familiar bone of contention between political adversaires in the socio-ideological clashes that marked the early decades of the Third Republic.
Pour une théorie de la satire au 18e siècle
Authors: Gunny Ahmad
Published: June 2016

Ahmad Gunny : Towards a theory of satire in the eighteenth century.

As in the preceding century, one's first impression is that a theory of satire does not exist in the 18th Century, despite the abundance of satirical works. In their attitude to satire, many writers, especially in the first half of the 18th Century, are either ambivalent or completely hostile. However, a theory of satire in the varied forms it took in the century does exist. One must look for it in the scattered writings of Voltaire and in the more methodical approaches of Rémond de Saint-Mar d and Marmontel.
Pouvoir et Lumières dans "La Flûte enchantée"
Authors: Starobinski Jean
Published: June 2016

Jean Starobinski : Power and enlightenment in «the magic flute».

An examination of the question of power in this Viennese Singspiel imbued with the spirit of the Enlightenment, in which the word Macht constantly appears. The problem is considered in turn in relation to each of the three couples in the opera : Papageno and Papagena, representing spontaneity and animality ; Tamino and Pamina, where we see the triumph of love and music ; the conflict between the Queen of the Night and Sarastro, with the power exercised by Sarastro and the victory of wisdom over the forces of darkness. The article finishes with a brief discussion of the sequel to the Magic Flute projected by Goethe, in which the optimistic triumph of reason and light is transformed to express the uncertainties of the modern world, with the return of darkness and the retreat of the Truth.
Le théâtre en 1778
Authors: Lagrave Henri
Published: June 2016

Henri Lagrave : The Theatre in 1778.

In 1778 there was an abundant theatrical production, audiences were larger, and there was vigorous competition between official theatres and the smaller ones on the boulevards. Above all there was the Gluck-Piccini rivalry and the development of the dispute between authors and comedians. The stagnation of tragedy was counterbalanced by a revival : of minor comedy and farce, by the fashion for pantomime and spectacle, the triumph of comic opera with ariettes and of ballets of action, and by the development of serious comedy and drama which was hindered neither by the lack of great authors, nor by the outdated structures. Nevertheless, privileges were questioned, theatres were increasing both in and outside Paris, aid the movement was towards theatrioal liberty.
Voltaire et les matérialistes d'après ses derniers contes
Authors: Virolle Roland
Published: June 2016

Roland Virolle : Voltaire and toe materialists in the last "contes".

In the last three years of his 'Mfe, with the rivality between theism and materialism, Voltaire persisted in opposing his God to the brute Nature of the new philosophers (Maillet, Needham, Buffon, etc...) ; but as (long as Turgot was in power, and even more after his disgrace in 1776, a united philosophical front was a political necessity, and so his contes attempted to reduce the differences between the two camps. In the Histoire de Jenni, Spinozism becomes an acceptable compromise, while in les Oreilles du Comte de Chesterfield it is stoicism. But Voltaire remained convinced that in his age, God was the only guarantee of happiness. Thus, while making concessions in metaphysics and ethics, he defended to the last his God who for him was not metaphysical.
La librairie française en 1777-1778
Authors: Martin Henri-Jean
Published: June 2016

Henri-Jean Marten : The French book trade, 1777-1778.

French publishing was characterised by a great increase in production, by the existence of three parallel circuits — clandestine, official and popular, — and of an active fringe of itinerant peddlars and printers. The oligarchy of official Parisian publishers enjoying monopolies was challenged by the pilosophes'editors and provincials linked to foreign publishers. 1777-9 brought a rupture with the modification of the system of privileges in 1777, liberating many titles for re-edition by provincials. The government's action against foreign printers, and their aggressive pamphlets favoured the development of Panckoucke's empire in Paris. In this period we see, alongside traditional works, the spread of novels and subversive works printed in France with the help of powerful protectors.
De l'histoire naturelle à l'histoire de la nature
Authors: Lepenies Wolf
Published: June 2016

Wolf Lepenies : From natural history to the history of nature.

The last third of the 18th Century was decisive for the history of science. Some important tendencies of modern scientific thought can be seen in three works published in 1778, namely the Nouveaux éléments de la science de l'homme by Paul-Joseph Barthez, the Epoques de la Nature by Buffon, and the German anthropologist Georg Forster's inaugurai address to the Society of Antiquities in Kassel. What is most remarkablie in these works is the change from a more or less ahistorical point of view typical of natural history to an historical perspective which was to characterize modern scientific thought. Natural History was transformed into the History of Nature.
Chimie et matérialisme : la stratégie anti-newtonienne de Diderot
Authors: Guédon Jean-Claude
Published: June 2016

Jean-Claude Guédon : Chemistry and materialism : Diderot's anti-newtonian strategy.

Newton's physics depended explicitly on metaphysical assumptions which led to God ; thus science and iretligion appeared as valid complementary discourses. Diderot, wishing to remove the scientific basis of religion, had to oppose Newtonian physics which is essentially a science of matter ; thus he advocated Rouielle's chemistry which was a science dealing with the transformations of matter. Instead of knowledge about ultimately unknowable things, he advocated a science of processes. Thus he could disqualify questions about origins and purpose to focus on the dynamics of the universe. Diderot's materialism was based on a science in which the possibility of knowing matter in itself had been rejected.
La critique biblique en 1778
Authors: Cotoni Marie-Hélène
Published: June 2016

Marie-Hélène Cotoni : Biblical criticism in 1778.

Around 1778 biblical criticism concerned a small group of specialists. Lessing published Reimarus's Fragments while in France, Voltaire, like d'Holbach and their imitators, waged a battle for the defence of science and earthly happiness. Voltaire, like Reimairus, demonstrated the relative and fabulous nature of Old Testament accounts without probing into the history of myths. Interest was shown for the historical Jesus. Investigations into mentalities accompanied static, common-sense psychological explanations. But Lessing attempted to free exegesis, to discover the different phases of the Bible's development and to show how the text is a stage in humanity's education. History began to overcome theology.