bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Five Justices Decide the Election
Authors: Dershowitz Alan M.
Published: October 2003

Outlines the constitutional and statutory framework within which presidential elections are conducted in the USA. Provides a brief chronology and an account of the US (Bush vs Gore) presidential election of 2000. The different sections of the chapter are: How We Elect Our President (the constitutional and statutory framework); The 2000 Election and Its Aftermath; The Ground War in Florida; The Butterfly Ballot; ‘Count All the Votes’ — or at Least the Ones That Favour Gore; Bush Goes to Court; The Overseas Absentee Ballots; The Supreme Court's Initial — Unanimous — Decision; and The Supreme Court's Stay (the decision to stop recounting in Florida before even hearing an argument) — looks at other cases in which equal protection has or has not been applied by the US Supreme Court.
The Final Decision
Authors: Dershowitz Alan M.
Published: October 2003

Gives an account of the final decision of the US Supreme Court on the Florida vote in the (Bush vs Gore) US presidential election of 2000. Includes discussion of the deliberations and decisions of the Florida Supreme Court in the case of the recount in that state. The main sections of the chapter are: Imperfect Ballots and the Misuse of the Equal‐Protection Clause; Discerning Intent; The Majority's Curious Use of Precedent to Reach Its Result — the inability of the majority of the Supreme Court to point to any case that supported its questionable interpretation of the equal‐protection clause; Of Fundamental Rights, Equal Protection, and Victims; Limited Circumstances — the statement by the Supreme Court that their consideration was limited to the 2000 US presidential election; The Article II Argument — by the US Supreme Court that the Florida Supreme Court had usurped the constitutional authority of the legislature; and Justification by National Crisis.
The Poverty of Riches
Authors: Wolf Kenneth Baxter
Published: October 2003

The unusually high regard with which Saint Francis of Assisi is held has served to insulate him from any real criticism of the kind of sanctity that he embodied: a sanctity based, first and foremost, on his deliberate pursuit of poverty. This book offers a critique of Francis's “holy poverty” by considering its ironic relationship to the ordinary poverty of the poor. While Francis's emphasis on voluntary poverty as the first step toward spiritual regeneration may have opened the door to salvation for wealthy Christians like himself, it effectively precluded the idea that the poor could use their own involuntary poverty as a path to heaven. In marked contrast to Francis's poverty, theirs was more likely to be seen by contemporaries as a symptom of moral turpitude. Moreover, Francis's experiment in poverty had a potentially negative effect on the level of almsgiving directed toward the involuntary poor. Not only did the Franciscan abhorrence of money prevent the friars from assuming any significant role in alleviating urban poverty but their own mendicant lifestyle also put them in direct competition with the other kind of beggars for the charitable donations of the urban elite. Though this work focuses on the idea of “holy poverty” as it appears in the earliest hagiographical accounts of the saint as well as Francis's own writings, its implications for the relationship between poverty as a spiritual discipline and poverty as a socioeconomic affliction extend to Christianity as a whole.
St.Francis and His Tunic
Authors: Wolf Kenneth Baxter
Published: October 2003

Francis's choice of clothing after his conversion illustrates the extent to which he constructed his own poverty. Though he was content early on simply wearing whatever poor clothes he could find, ultimately he decided, inspired by his reading of Christ's instructions to the apostles, to design his own “voluntary poverty” costume: a tunic that was designed to be deliberately unattractive, uncomfortable, and cross‐shaped. By doing this, Francis distinguished himself not only from the apostles but also from normal poor people who, we imagine, would have engaged in this kind of deliberate “downsizing” of their wardrobe only if their goal was to attract more sympathy from potential almsgivers.
Monetary and Exchange Rate Policy
Authors: Gochoco‐Bautista Maria Socorro , Canlas Dante
Published: October 2003

Examines the evolution of monetary policy rules and exchange rate regimes in the Philippines over the past two decades. It highlights the importance of recognizing the interdependence of exchange rate and monetary policies in a small open economy, and argues that failure to appreciate this has yielded undesirable consequences. To illustrate, it discusses the macroeconomic performance following regime shifts for various periods: (1) the eighties to early nineties when observed money growth not commensurate with growth in foreign reserve assets under exchange rate targeting caused episodes of peso collapse; (2) capital account liberalization – culminating in full peso convertibility in 1992 – which compromised the ability to conduct an independent monetary policy; and (3) the financial crisis years when it became apparent that fixing the exchange rate in a world of capital mobility was futile. The paper concludes by raising institutional issues and reviewing the conduct of monetary policy in the more recent postcrisis period.
Agriculture
Authors: David Cristina C.
Published: October 2003

Argues that the poor performance of the Philippines in agriculture has been due more to weaknesses in the policy and institutional frameworks governing the sector than to real domestic and external market factors. It begins by describing the growth patterns of agricultural gross value added, foreign trade, measures of comparative advantage, and labor and land productivity. It proceeds to examine how price interventions and the public expenditure program failed to promote rapid growth of the sector. Institutional issues – specifically weaknesses in the property rights structure and the agricultural bureaucracy – and political economy explanations as to why the policy and institutional structures evolved in the way they did are explored and addressed.
Industry
Authors: Hill Hal
Published: October 2003

Aims to provide a descriptive–analytic overview of the record of Philippine industrialization, with special reference to the period since 1980. It also identifies some of the factors that have retarded efficient industrial growth and examines various key industrial policy debates and challenges. It first presents the basic trends in output, employment, and productivity, followed by an examination of broad structural changes within industry, and of export performance. It further investigates aspects of industrial structure and intervention including ownership and concentration, the size distribution of small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises, spatial patterns, and import protection. The chapter notes that, according to almost all the above criteria and with just a few exceptions, manufacturing has performed poorly for most of the past two decades. It concludes with a forward‐looking assessment of major policy challenges regarding the incentive regime, innovation and diffusion issues, and constraints to industrial growth.
Poverty and Inequality
Authors: Balisacan Arsenio M.
Published: October 2003

Examines the nature, pattern, characteristics, and causes of poverty and inequality in the Philippines over the last quarter‐century using comparable household data. The principal macro conclusion is that levels of poverty are highly growth‐sensitive. Since distribution does not change significantly in the short to medium term, this means that changes in the level of household income, which is affected by aggregate levels of economic activity, is the major proximate determinant of poverty. Apart from the economic growth, other factors – such as education, infrastructure, terms of trade, agrarian reform, governance, and certain geographic attributes – exert direct impact on the welfare of the poor. The chapter concludes with policy suggestions for winning the war against poverty.
Regional Development
Authors: Manasan Rosario G. , Chatterjee Shiladitya
Published: October 2003

Attempts to evaluate the progress that has been made to date in reducing spatial inequality. More specifically, it aims to evaluate the pattern of regional economic development from 1975 to 2000, assess the gains, if any, in reducing regional disparities, and estimate the extent to which government policies have contributed to regional convergence. Employing convergence methodology, the study finds that there has been “alpha” convergence (a decline in overall regional inequality), and also often “beta” convergence (the poorer regions catching up to the richer ones), which is shown to correlate strongly with agricultural growth. Additionally, it draws attention to the key role of physical infrastructure in shaping regional outcomes, the country's experience with decentralization, and the vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalances among LGUs.
Environment and Natural Resources
Authors: Coxhead Ian , Jayasuriya Sisira
Published: October 2003

Discusses the state of the Philippine environment by studying the trends of available data on environmental quality and natural resource degradation, and comparing them with those of other Asian countries. It then presents a brief review of theoretical links among environment quality, resource depletion, and development strategies and outcomes, considering Philippine data in light of this theory. Recent economic trends and policy initiatives affecting the environment and development are discussed, and simulation results indicating likely trends in economic and environmental variables under alternative policy regimes are presented. The chapter concludes with what past experience and current trends might indicate for the future of the Philippine environment.
Introduction
Authors: Rudebusch George
Published: October 2003

This chapter presents the problem that the book solves. The problem is that Socrates in different places argues for three seemingly incompatible theses about the human good: it is pleasure; it is not pleasure; it is virtue. The solution is to harmonize these theses by distinguishing Socrates’ theory of pleasure from competing theories and by identifying virtuous activity with pleasant activity for a human being.
Plato's Aporetic Style
Authors: Rudebusch George
Published: October 2003

There has been persistent controversy about the aporetic dialogs. Are they meant to convey any underlying philosophical position? A strong argument in favor of a negative answer rests on the following premise: if Plato had been trying to present a positive doctrine in his aporetic dialogs, he would have chosen a more straightforward style of writing for his purpose. I argue that this premise is false.
Callicles' Hedonism
Authors: Rudebusch George
Published: October 2003

There has been no consensus as to what version of hedonist Callicles is. Suggested versions are that he is a prudential, indiscriminate, or sybaritic hedonist. I argue, against these interpretations, that Callicles holds a satisfaction hedonism of felt desire with respect to the intrinsically desirable.
The Paradox of American Power
Authors: Nye Joseph S.
Published: October 2003

The U.S. “war on terror” response to the attacks of September 11, 2001 has exposed the extent, already apparent on various other fronts, to which U.S. foreign policy has become unilateralist, arrogant, and parochial. It is pursuing a limited conception of the U.S. national interest with a limited focus on the utility of “hard” (military) power. Instead, it should be aiming to defend American pluralist values by means of an inclusive, multilateralist foreign policy, based on a judicious mix of “hard” and “soft” power.
Building Trust
Authors: Solomon Robert C. , Flores Fernando
Published: October 2003

Everyone agrees that trust is essential for decent human relationships, but our understanding of trust too often collapses in platitudes and falsehoods. It is typically treated as some sort of inarticulate bond between people, a social “glue” or interpersonal lubricant. In what Francis Fukuyama has famously called “high trust” societies, it functions as a kind of cultural “atmosphere” or “climate.” In personal relationships, we usually confuse trust with an unthinking, taken‐for‐granted attitude of unquestioning acceptance, or what we call “simple trust,” like the trust of a child for its parents. In business, we too readily conflate trust with contractual agreements and the enforcement that goes along with them. What we argue in this book is that trust is first of all a matter of decision, commitment, and action, whether in an intimate relationship like a marriage or in the businesslike atmosphere of a corporation. We introduce the notion of authentic trust, trust that is neither naïve nor “blind” but trust with its eyes wide open. It is a risky and uncertain world, but trust is what allows us to navigate it successfully, together. Our aim is not only to understand trust but also to give the reader the tools to build and maintain trust in personal and business relationships and to restore trust even when it has been lost or betrayed. Building Trust has grown out of many decades of experience, consulting with both corporations and couples.
Trusting Trust
Authors: Solomon Robert C. , Flores Fernando
Published: October 2003

Trust, compared to love and freedom, will help us to get away from the negativity implied by the widespread (if often unrecognized) view that trust is essentially risk and dependency. Trust is an opening up of the world, not a diminution of it.
Beyond Greed and Fear
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Behavioral finance is the study of how psychology impacts finance. This book represents the first general, comprehensive treatment of the subject. The book explains how psychological phenomena impact the entire field of finance. Readers will learn to recognize the influence of psychology on themselves, on others, and on the financial environment at large. Psychology is the basis for human desires, goals, and motivations. Psychology is also the basis for a wide variety of human errors that stem from perceptual illusions, overconfidence, over‐reliance on rules of thumb, and emotions. Errors and bias cut across the entire financial landscape, affecting individual investors, institutional investors, analysts, strategists, brokers, portfolio managers, options traders, currency traders, futures traders, plan sponsors, financial executives, and financial commentators in the media.
Introduction
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Behavioral finance consists of three themes: (1) heuristic‐driven bias; (2) frame dependence; and (3) inefficient markets. These themes are ubiquitous and germane, touching every corner of the financial landscape: portfolio selection, corporate finance, asset pricing, and options. Notably all the preceding areas have been recognized through the awarding of Nobel prizes in Economics. Indeed, behavioral finance was explicitly recognized with the 2002 award to Daniel Kahneman, one of the psychologists upon whose work behavioral finance is built. A key lesson for financial practitioners is to appreciate that successful investing requires taking the psychological propensities of others into account. Historically, behavioral psychologists first laid the groundwork for behavioral finance by developing the underlying psychological framework. In the 1980s a few financial economists began to apply this framework to finance. Debates with proponents of the traditional approach soon followed.
Heuristic‐Driven Bias: The First Theme
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Statistics and probability are essential concepts when it comes to risk. Yet, most people have poor intuition about statistics and probabilities. Instead of behaving like professional statisticians, they rely on flawed intuition, based on rules of thumb called heuristics. By using heuristics people render themselves vulnerable to errors and biases. That is why the first theme of behavioral finance is called heuristic‐driven bias. The chapter describes these biases using behavioral concepts such as availability, representativeness, anchoring‐and‐adjustment, overconfidence, and aversion to ambiguity. Examples are provided to illustrate how these concepts affect the manner in which investors form predictions.
“Get‐Evenitis”: Riding Losers Too Long
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Most people exhibit aversion to sure losses: they have great difficulty coming to terms with losses. Consequently, they are predisposed to holding their losers too long, and correspondingly sell their winners too early. Several examples of the phenomenon are described in this chapter. Some pertain to individual investors. Some pertain to money managers. Others pertain to decisions by corporate executives, particularly the reluctance to terminate losing projects. Instead of terminating, they throw good money after bad.
Retirement Saving: Myopia and Self‐Control
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

A great many people find that they lack the foresight and self‐control necessary to save adequately for retirement. But the spectrum is wide. Some people learn the keys to successful retirement planning. They learn that they need to deal with framing effects and behavioral biases. Notably, there are some aspects of mental accounting that are detrimental to accumulating retirement wealth, and other aspects that are helpful. Mental accounting can lead people to invest too conservatively, because it leads them to suffer from myopic loss aversion. At the same time, mental accounting can be constructively used to distinguish different categories of wealth, thereby helping people both to save money and thereafter to safeguard that money from being injudiciously spent. Dollar cost averaging is intriguing from a behavioral perspective. It combines the cultivation of good savings habits to deal with temptation, framing effects that reduce the pain of loss, and conventionality that mitigates feelings of regret.
Open‐Ended Mutual Funds: Misframing, “Hot Hands,” and Obfuscation Games
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Misframing and heuristic‐driven bias combine to confuse investors about the relative contributions of skill and luck in fund performance. Investors invariably attribute excessive weight to skill, and consequently they tend to overweight the importance of an individual fund's track record. Moreover, open‐end mutual funds companies tend to play to investors' weaknesses by inducing opaque frames.
Closed‐End Funds: What Drives Discounts?
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

The prices of closed‐end funds present a puzzle for market efficiency. The chief feature of the puzzle is that closed‐end fund prices systematically deviate from fundamental values. In this respect, fundamental value is measured by net asset value (NAV), defined as the per share market value of the securities in the closed‐end fund portfolio. Because fund shares trade on organized exchanges, just like the shares of corporations, the market value of the closed‐end fund shares may differ from NAV. When the market value of closed‐end fund shares exceeds NAV, the shares are said to trade at a premium. If market value is less, the shares trade at a discount. Typically closed‐end funds begin trading at a premium, but within a few months begin to trade persistently at a discount. The closed‐end puzzle illustrates opaque framing, heuristic‐driven bias, and an inefficient market—in short, all three themes in behavioral finance.
Fixed Income Securities: The Full Measure of Behavioral Phenomena
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses some of the successes and failures associated with the management of fixed income securities, first by presenting a case, and then by discussing some general issues associated with yield curves. The chapter focuses on all three themes: heuristic‐driven bias, frame dependence, and inefficient markets. In order to illustrate the key issues, the chapter details the experiences of the Orange County Investment Pool. This case is exceedingly rich in behavioral phenomena. At the beginning of the case, the most prominent phenomena are overconfidence, gambler's fallacy, and betting on trends. As the case progresses, emphasis shifts to conservatism, hindsight bias, loss aversion, and regret. The case is very complicated. After discussing the Orange County case, the chapter moves to the general issue of market inefficiency. Many scholars believe that in an efficient market, yield curves should satisfy a property known as the expectations hypothesis. But the evidence indicates that in practice, yield curves fail to satisfy this property. The discussion focuses on a behavioral explanation for this failure. In this respect, the most important behavioral element is conservatism. Specifically, anchoring and adjustment gives rise underreaction, particularly in connection with expectations about future rates of inflation. Underreaction interferes with the forces that would otherwise induce yield curves to satisfy the expectations hypothesis.
IPOs: Initial Underpricing, Long‐Term Underperformance, and “Hot‐Issue” Markets
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

There are three behavioral phenomena associated with initial public offerings (IPOs). These have been termed (1) initial underpricing; (2) long‐term underperformance; and (3) “hot issue” market. Initial underpricing occurs when the offer price is too low. In this case, the issue will be underpriced and its price will soar on the first trading day. But price may overshoot fundamental value. In this case, it will fall back over time, giving rise to long‐term underperformance. IPO activity also appears to move in cycles, hot and cold. A “hot issue” market is a period when investor demand for IPOs is especially high. Are the three IPO phenomena consistent with market efficiency? They are not. In a “hot issue” market, excessive optimism on the part of investors leads IPO prices to rise above fundamental value on the first trading day, and remain so for long periods. This optimism is a manifestation of heuristic‐driven bias. Investors may also be affected by other heuristics. The chapter discusses instances of similarity, betting on trends, representativeness, and regret. Two cases are used to illustrate IPO phenomena, Boston Chicken and Netscape.
Commodity Futures: Orange Juice and Sentiment
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

From the perspective of market efficiency, the question about volatility in commodity prices boils down to whether commodity prices overreact to the flow of new material information. From the outside, it is often difficult to judge how material the flow of information actually is. However, there is one commodity market where it is relatively easy to evaluate those information flows. That commodity is orange juice concentrate, where the most relevant fundamental variables that change on a day‐to‐day basis are the weather around Orlando, Florida and the supply of oranges from Brazil. The bottom line is that heuristic‐driven bias by these traders causes the prices of orange juice concentrate to be excessively volatile relative to the underlying fundamentals. In other words, sentiment impacts the market for concentrate. Usually, excess volatility is a manifestation of trader overreaction, either to news that has occurred, or to the absence of news altogether.
Excessive Speculation in Foreign Exchange Markets
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Foreign exchange traders engage in excessive speculation, stemming from heuristic‐driven bias. In particular, foreign exchange traders seem to overreact, bet on trends, and are overconfident. Therefore, the foreign exchange market shares similar features with the pick‐a‐number game described in Chapter 1. Foreign exchange rates are affected by both fundamental economic factors and by sentiment. This is yet one more instance where heuristic‐driven bias leads to market inefficiency.
The Joy of Philosophy
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

The Joy of Philosophy: Thinking Thin and the Passionate Life is a return to some of the perennial questions of philosophy, questions about the meaning of life, about death and tragedy, about the respective roles of rationality and passion in the good life, about love, compassion, and revenge, about honesty, deception, and betrayal, about who we are, and how we think about who we are. It is an attempt to save philosophy from a century‐old fiber diet of thin arguments and logical analysis and recover the richness and complexity of life in thought. It tackles the question, loathed by professional philosophers but asked all too often by nonphilosophers, “Has Analytic Philosophy Ruined Philosophy?” The answer is “no,” or at least, “not yet,” but superprofessionalization and a near‐exclusive emphasis on the “thinnest” of philosophical formulations and arguments have either robbed the perennial questions of their gut‐level force or dismissed them altogether as “pseudoquestions” suited only for sophomores. This is a book that tries to put the fun back in philosophy, recapturing the heartfelt confusion and excitement that originally brings us all into philosophy. But it is not a critique of contemporary philosophy so much as it is an attempt to engage in philosophy in a different kind of way, beginning with a reevaluation of Socrates and the nature of philosophy and defending the passionate life in contrast to the calm life of thoughtful contemplation so often held up as an ideal by traditional philosophers. It includes discussions of love as a virtue, Nietzsche's Will to Power, the politics of emotion, rationality in a multicultural perspective, the rationality of emotions, and the rationality of such emotions as sympathy and vengeance, the tragic sense of life, the nature of fate and luck, the denial of death and death fetishism, the nature of personal identity in multicultural and emotional perspective, and the role of deception and self‐deception in philosophy. In short, it is an attempt to recapture the kind of philosophy that Nietzsche celebrated as a “joyful wisdom.” My concern is to break down the walls between academic philosophy and its lost audience, between thin logic and thick rhetoric, between philosophical reason and philosophical passion, between “analytic” and “continental” philosophy, and between philosophy and life. As the great Chilean poet Pablo Neruda says (of his poetry), the result is an “impure philosophy, as impure as old clothes, as a body with its foodstains and its shame, with wrinkles, observations, dreams, wakefulness, prophesies, declarations of love and hate, stupidities, shocks, idylls, political beliefs, negations, doubts, affirmations, and taxes.”
Rationality and Its Vicissitudes
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Rationality has been under attack. One of the reasons is its seeming denial or neglect of non‐Western cultures. There is also a strong pretense of rationality, evident, for instance, in the rejection of “instrumental rationality.” But recognizing cultural differences with respect to rationality does not mean embracing “relativism.” Rationality has been perverted in modern thinking, as “smart selfishness,” knowing the most efficient means to the ends of self‐interest. Rationality is ultimately the rationality of the emotions.
Justice, Sympathy, Vengeance
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Justice is not an abstraction to be implemented, but a concrete set of feelings, including sympathy, compassion, a keen sense of injustice, resentment, and even vengefulness.
Deception, Self, and Self–Deception in Philosophy
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Philosophers have always condemned lying, but in philosophy, the telling of falsehoods is far more common and far more accepted than usually acknowledged. Plato defended ”the noble lie,” and the ultrarespectable English ethicist Henry Sidgwick suggested that a ”high‐minded lie might do us all a good deal of good.” Nietzsche challenged, ”Why must we have truth at any cost anyway?” The threatening nature of the truth has long been whitewashed by philosophers. Self‐deception is of particular interest, but it is not simply the application of deception to oneself. It is deception about rather than to oneself.
The Aesthetics of Music
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Attempts to give a complete account of music: its nature, meaning, and value. The book begins from an examination of sound, distinguishes sound from tone, and identifies tones as intentional (but not material) objects. Musical understanding is based in a form of imaginative perception, in which metaphors of space, weight, effort, and movement play an organising role. Musical meaning does not arise through representation, but through expression and form, both of which must be explained through a theory of musical understanding. Tonality is examined as a paradigm of musical organization, and a theory of expression advanced that gives prominence to first‐person awareness and ‘knowing what it's like’, while acknowledging that expression and musical organization are interconnected. Theories of analysis and structure, such as those of Schenker, Meyer, Lerdahl, and Jackendoff, are examined from the perspective of philosophical aesthetics, and an account given of the identity of the work of music and the distinction between work and performance. The book advances a theory of musical value and of the cultural conditions that enable a musical tradition to emerge and to convey the weight of significance that we hear when we listen to music. Listening is a kind of ‘moving with’, to be illuminated through the comparison with dancing.
Sound
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Is an exploration of the metaphysics of sound, arguing that sounds are not properties of the objects that emit them but ‘secondary objects’, which can be isolated in an ‘acousmatic’ experience as ‘pure events’, with an internal spatial order.
Imagination and Metaphor
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Develops an account of metaphor, in terms of the theory of imagination expounded in earlier works, and argues that there are metaphors that are indispensable to the formation of certain kinds of experience (e.g. the musical experience), and that these kinds of experience are therefore beyond the capacity of non‐rational beings.
Ontology
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Confronts certain puzzles raised about the nature and identity of the musical work, and dismisses these puzzles as unreal: either they concern the musical work itself, in which case they are puzzles about the metaphysical status of an intentional object, and therefore susceptible to an arbitrary solution, or they concern the sounds in which the work is heard, in which case they are simply special cases of the problems concerning the nature and identity of events.
Expression
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Music is not representational; nevertheless, it has expressive content, and one of the perennial puzzles of musical aesthetics is to show what that means and why it is important. Certain intuitions about the matter are expounded and systematized, and tests laid down that any theory of expression must pass. In particular, expression must be connected to musical understanding: it is part of what is understood by the person who understands what he hears.
Language
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Explores the parallels and divergences between music and language, dismisses certain fashionable semiotic approaches, and tries to show that recent attempts to give a generative theory of musical syntax are fundamentally mistaken. Explores the suggestions that music has syntax and a rule‐guided structure, and argues that these suggestions are based on metaphors. The meaning of a piece of music is given by perception, not by convention.
Understanding
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Adumbrates a theory of musical understanding as based in imaginative perception, in which a sound pattern is imbued with a spatial order by the perceiving intellect. Argues that tonality provides a paradigm of this spatial order, and that it is the object of an act of ‘intentional understanding’.
Tonality
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Gives an account of tonality, and why tonality is central to our musical tradition Shows that the attempt to replace tonality with atonal or serial forms of musical order threatens the foundations of musical perception, and explores the various ways in which music can depart from tonality while still maintaining its character as an object of aesthetic interest. Contains a critical account of Schoenberg's theories and of Adorno's associated socio‐cultural analysis.
Form
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Develops an account of the formal aspect of musical structure and the kind of understanding that it permits and satisfies. Argues for the untenability of the theories developed by both Schenker and Meyer but tries to rescue the Schenkerian concept of prolongation from its theoretical abuse. Argues for a fundamental connection between musical form and human gesture and movement.
Performance
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Addresses the question of the relation of the work to its performances, and the interesting puzzles concerning arrangements, versions, variations, and mistakes. Explores the cultural and historical significance of performance in creating the identity of the musical work and contains a critical account of the present vogue for ‘authenticity’. The cult of authenticity makes the relation between sound and tone, and this is explored in Ch. 2.
Culture
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Musical understanding, as described in preceding chapters, is clearly dependent on a musical culture. What exactly do we mean by culture? Ch. 15 develops a theory of culture as rooted in the religious experience, which it perpetuates in aesthetic form. Hence, culture is inherently liable to crises, as faith dwindles or vacillates. We are living through such a crisis now. It is a crisis that was radically misunderstood by Adorno, who nevertheless introduced an important element of sociological criticism into the study of musical banality. The book concludes with some pre‐modern responses to post‐modern doubts.
Strategic Interaction and Markets
Authors: Gabszewicz Jean J.
Published: October 2003

Perfect competition provides a model of a frictionless economy in which economic agents behave independently of each other, abandoning to the market the task of coordinating their individual decisions. This model is extensively studied in traditional price theory textbooks.

Imperfect competition is the paradigm that develops when, on the contrary, economic agents interact in a conscious manner, which is necessarily the case when competition takes place ‘among the few’. In this system, agents act strategically, taking into account the impact of their own decisions on competitors ‘behaviour and on the price mechanism. Such situations commonly arise when firms differentiate their products, erect strategic entry barriers, or exploit the imperfect information of their customers about the price or characteristics of their product.

This book explores the theoretical richness of these economic contexts, using some basic concepts of game theory. The four assumptions underlying the paradigm of perfect competition (no barriers to entry, large number of agents, product homogeneity, and perfect information) constitute the natural departure points of the theories of imperfect competition: whenever at least one of these assumptions is violated, imperfect competition is present. The framework of the book is organized around the four corresponding themes: the role of collusion and entry barriers in the degree of market competition (Ch. 3), product differentiation (Ch. 4) and the information of agents as an instrument of competition (Ch. 5). Finally, Ch. 6 illustrates the possibility of extending the theory to a general equilibrium framework.
From Perfect to Imperfect Competition
Authors: Gabszewicz Jean J.
Published: October 2003

Examines in turn the four assumptions defining a perfectly competitive market: a large number of buyers and sellers, no entry barrier, product homogeneity, and perfect information. Then, we state the problems arising when these assumptions are relaxed: existence of entry barriers, collusion of economic agents, product differentiation, and competition with uninformed buyers. An introduction to the basic game‐theoretic equilibrium concepts used in the book is also provided at the end of this chapter.
Product Differentiation
Authors: Gabszewicz Jean J.
Published: October 2003

Abandons the assumption of a homogenous product to tackle the problem of competition among firms selling differentiated products. First, the role product differentiation is studied in the monopoly case: the problems of a monopolist selecting a ladder of substitute products, or selecting the quality of a particular product, are successively examined. Then, coming back to strategic competition, we analyse duopoly assuming that the rivals not only choose the price but also the product itself. The two cases of horizontal and vertical differentiation are considered. Also, the effects of entry are analysed in these two cases.
Imperfect Information
Authors: Gabszewicz Jean J.
Published: October 2003

Concentrates on the consequences on the market solution of abandoning the perfect information assumption. Though this constitutes a broad topic not yet completely elucidated by theory, we limit ourselves to two illustrations. The first examines the effects of consumers’ imperfect information about prices on the market solution and the second is devoted to the same problem assuming now that consumers are not perfectly informed on the quality of the rival products.
No Causes in, No Causes out
Authors: Cartwright Nancy
Published: October 2003

This chapter argues that one cannot get knowledge of causes from equations and associations alone, using critical analyses of theoretical examples in physics and of attempts in the philosophy of science and economics (e.g. Granger causality and various probabilistic theories of causality) to reduce causal claims to probabilities. Old causal knowledge must be supplied for new causal knowledge to be had. Analysis of experimental methods and actual experiments (Stanford Gravity Probe) show how this can be done.
Capacities
Authors: Cartwright Nancy
Published: October 2003

In addition to the notion of causal law, the concept of capacity, modelled on Mill's notion of tendency, is required to make sense of standard methods in econometrics and standard accounts of probabilistic causality. General causal claims are shown to be ascriptions of capacities while causal laws are local causal claims, relative to a test population. Capacities are at a higher level of modality and are not reducible to causal laws, as causal laws are not reducible to laws of association that describe mere regularities; but unlike laws of association, capacities are real.
What Econometrics Can Teach Quantum Physics: Causality and the Bell Inequality
Authors: Cartwright Nancy
Published: October 2003

This chapter gives a concrete example of a question of current scientific interest where capacities matter: ‘Do the Bell inequalities describing

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) experiments show that causality is incompatible with quantum mechanics?’ The question cannot be answered if we rely on probabilistic theories of causality and laws of associations alone. It takes the concept of capacity and related notions of how capacities operate even to formulate the problem correctly. Econometrics models with correlated errors, it is shown, can explain the EPR results when the correlations are given a capacity interpretation.
Berkeley: An Interpretation
Authors: Winkler Kenneth P.
Published: October 2003

This book is an interpretation of Berkeley's immaterialism or ‘idealism’: an exposition of his arguments, an assessment of their significance, and an explanation (inevitably partial) of their content and form. In the first five chapters, I explore a range of themes that seem, on the surface, to be distant from Berkeley's denial of matter or material substance: his account of intentionality; his attack on abstract ideas; his repudiation of simple ideas; his affirmation of objective necessity; and his appeal to intelligibility in understanding cause and effect relations. In Ch. 6, I show how Berkeley's consideration of these themes shaped his defence of immaterialism. In the final three chapters, I examine some of the consequences of immaterialism and the challenges confronting it: the existence of unperceived objects; the success of modern corpuscularian science; and the nature and existence of mind or spiritual substance.
The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works
Authors: Goehr Lydia
Published: October 2003

What is the difference between a performance of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and the symphony itself? What does it mean for musicians to be faithful to the works they perform? To answer such questions, Lydia Goehr combines philosophical and historical methods of enquiry. Finding Anglo‐American philosophy inadequate for the task, she shows that a historical perspective is indispensable to a full understanding of musical ontology. Goehr examines the concepts and assumptions behind the practice of classical music in the nineteenth century and demonstrates how different they were from those of previous centuries. She rejects the finding that the concept of a musical work emerged in the sixteenth century, placing its emergence instead around 1800. She describes how the concept of a work then came to define the norms, expectations, and behaviour that we now associate with classical music. Out of the historical thesis, Goehr draws conclusions about the normative functions of concepts and ideals. She also addresses current debates amongst conductors, early‐music performers, and avant‐gardists.
What is Testimony?
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Attempts to provide a definition of testimony as the target concept for the inquiry. Distinguishes between formal and natural testimony and locates natural testimony as the outcome of a certain sort of speech act in the category of evidence providing. Various extended uses of the concept of testimony are examined.
Objections and Clarifications
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Considers objections that might be raised to the wide scope of the definitional sketch of testimony in the previous chapter. Beginning with some views of Thomas Reid, the chapter criticizes the idea that scientific or other expert opinion cannot count as testimony. It then rejects philosophical claims that avowals of psychological states are not testimony. Finally, the possibility of moral expertise and testimony to moral facts is raised and given qualified support.
Testimony, Observation, and the Reductive Approach
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Examines Hume's influential treatment of testimony in his essay ‘On Miracles’. Hume admits the importance of testimonial knowledge but argues that we are justified in relying on testimony as an epistemic ground because we can defend this reliance in terms of more basic recourse to observation and inductive inference. Coady argues that this reductive approach is flawed because, (1) it relies for its plausibility upon a communal understanding of observation that is already testimony loaded, (2) where observation is taken as individual observation the task of justifying the extent of our reliance is impossibly difficult, and (3) the very language in which the reductive project is framed already presupposes the broad reliability of testimony.
The Analogical Approach
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Bertrand Russell recognizes the epistemological importance of testimony at the common‐sense level and also recognizes its significance in making the public/private distinction with respect to objective reality. He considers, however, that direct reliance on testimony is displaced at the higher levels of science by an analogical principle. Coady argues that Russell is unclear about the role of this principle, but that neither Russell's version, nor something similar that can be extracted from F. H. Bradley, provides a satisfactory resolution of the epistemological problem posed by testimony.
Scottish Fundamentalism
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

The eighteenth‐century Scots philosopher Thomas Reid's account of testimony is one of his most interesting and original contributions. Reid's analogy between the epistemic roles of perception and of testimony is explored in this chapter and its consequences for the view that testimonial knowledge can be direct (or non‐inferential) are discussed. Coady also examines Reid's resort to epistemic first principles and his placing of reliance upon testimony amongst them.
Language and Mind
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Develops a line of criticism deployed in the discussion of Hume's reductive approach to testimony explored in Ch. 4, and argues that understanding the speech of others presupposes a significant degree of reliance upon the correctness of their testimony. This argument has affinities with some of Wittgenstein's reflections on linguistic communication, and with Donald Davidson's ‘principle of charity’ for interpretation, but is somewhat less charitable than Davidson's and allows some space for ultimate sceptical argument about the link between ‘correct’ and true belief. The presupposition argument does not by itself support a commitment to testimonial reliability as strong as our normal cognitive practices imply, but a supplementary argument from cohesion and coherence can underpin that commitment where appropriate.
Dretske's Drinker
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Fred Dretske has raised an amusing counter‐example to a plausible epistemic principle of testimonial transmission—namely, that if someone knows something then, given that certain simple conditions hold, he or she can bring an audience to know that thing by telling them that it is so. Dretske's counter‐example concerns a wine expert, George, who knows that he was served a Bordeaux at dinner and tells Michael as much, but fails to convey his knowledge because, had he been served a Chianti, he would have thought it a Bordeaux since his geographical knowledge is faulty. Against this, it is argued that, when the example is fully characterized, the most plausible response to it is either that George did not know in the first place (and so neither did Michael as a result of transmission) or that both of them knew.
Collingwood and Historical Testimony
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Explores R. G. Collingwood's influential account of the role of testimony in historical knowledge. Collingwood minimizes the significance of testimony from the past as a source of knowledge in truly rigorous or scientific history, relegating its use to the practitioners of inferior ‘scissors‐and‐paste’ history, and going so far as to claim that history ‘has no relation with testimony at all’. His position is analysed and his arguments for it (and for the rejection of ‘historical facts’) are criticized.
The Witness of Psychology
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

Psychologists have long been worried about the reliability of ‘eyewitness’ testimony, and have drawn lessons from their empirical studies for the procedures of criminal investigation and legal proceedings. This chapter argues that there are significant flaws in much of this empirical work, and that the very strong conclusions about the ‘unreliability’ of eyewitness testimony are unwarranted. Several studies are examined in detail to show what seem to be typical interpretative and conceptual flaws.