bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genetic Parameters and Sire Ranking for the Adjusted Estimate of Mozzarella Cheese Production in Italian Mediterranean Buffalo
Authors: Parlato E. , Zicarelli L.
Published: December 2015

The objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of adjusting mozzarella cheese production (APKM) compare to the unadjusted PKM on genetic parameters and sire ranking in Italian buffalo. 337,158 lactation records at 270d, from years 1997 to 2014, up to fifth parity, of 136,525 animals were analyzed. Estimated Breeding Values (EBVs) for APKM and PKM were predicted by BLUP-Animal Model with the fixed effects of age-parity, days-open, and contemporary-group; and the random factors of animal, permanent environmental and residuals. APKM showed lower heritability (0.23) than that of PKM (0.31) which might be due to the lower genetic correlation between APKM and milk yield (MY) (0.09) compared to that of PKM with MY (0.25). APKM positively changed sire ranking with increasing rank of sire with positive EBVs of Protein and Fat percentage, and decreasing rank of sire with negative EBVs of Protein and Fat percentage. Due to the larger correlation between PKM and MY, by selecting through the PKM, one risk is to increasing the number of buffalo that produce more milk, not optimal for making mozzarella cheese. Whereas, genetic selection through the APKM will increase the number of high-yielding buffalo with positive EBVs for Protein and Fat percentage
Surgical Management of Cranial Cervical Esophageal Diverticulum in a Buffalo
Authors: Rafee Malik Abu , Bhat Abas Rashid , Pawde Abhjit
Published: December 2015

A 3 year old female buffalo calf was presented, with the history of anorexia, dysphagia, regurgitation, frothy salivation. On physical examination a soft bulge was observed. Esophagotomy was performed and the contents removed. The contents lodged at the site of diverticulum were mainly the regurgitated ruminal mass. The edges were trimmed with scissors and mucosal layer sutured using 1/0 vicryl. The muscular wall sutured using 10 Vicryl by simple continuous suture pattern. The skin incision was closed in routine manner. The animal recovered without any complication.
The Influence of Syntactic Quality on Pragmatic Quality of Enterprise Process Models
Authors: Heggset Merethe , Krogstie John , Wesenberg Harald
Published: December 2015

As approaches and tools for process and enterprise modelling are maturing, these techniques are being taken into use on a large scale in an increasing number of organizations. In this paper we report on the use of process modelling in connection to the quality system of Statoil, a large Norwegian oil company, in particular, on the aspects found necessary to be emphasized to achieve the appropriate quality of the models in this organization. Based on the investigation of usage statistics and user feedback on models, we have identified that there are problems in comprehending some of the models. Some of these models has poorer syntactic quality than the average syntactic quality of models of the same size. An experiment with improving syntactic quality on some of these models has given mixed results, and it appears that certain syntactic errors hinder comprehension more than others.
Everyday life in wartime Arkhangelsk: The problem of starvation and death during the Second World War (1939–1945)
Authors: Khatanzeiskaya Elizaveta
Published: December 2015

The article «Everyday Life in Wartime Arkhangelsk: The Problem of Starvation and Death during the Second World War (1939–1945)» is based on primary sources: interviews with eyewitnesses, memoirs, materials of press, diaries and archival documents. During the Second World War more than 40 thousand civilians died in Arkhangelsk (one fourth of its prewar population) because of starvation. This paper is an attempt to explain this phenomenon.
Spatial association between dissection density and environmental factors over the entire conterminous United States
Authors: Luo Wei , Jasiewicz Jaroslaw , Stepinski Tomasz , Wang Jinfeng , Xu Chengdong , Cang Xuezhi
Published: December 2015

Previous studies of land dissection density (D) often find contradictory results regarding factors controlling its spatial variation. We hypothesize that the dominant controlling factors (and the interactions between them) vary from region to region due to differences in each region's local characteristics and geologic history. We test this hypothesis by applying a geographical detector method to eight physiographic divisions of the conterminous United States and identify the dominant factor(s) in each. The geographical detector method computes the power of determinant (q) that quantitatively measures the affinity between the factor considered andD. Results show that the factor (or factor combination) with the largestqvalue is different for physiographic regions with different characteristics and geologic histories. For example, lithology dominates in mountainous regions, curvature dominates in plains, and glaciation dominates in previously glaciated areas. The geographical detector method offers an objective framework for revealing factors controlling Earth surface processes.
Vertical structure and contribution of different types of precipitation during Atlantic tropical cyclone formation as revealed by TRMM PR
Authors: Fritz Cody , Wang Zhuo , Nesbitt Stephen W. , Dunkerton Timothy J.
Published: December 2015

Cloud evolution during tropical cyclogenesis was examined using the TRMM PR products from 3 days before to 1 day after genesis. Precipitation increases substantially within 36 h before genesis. Stratiform clouds, mid‐level convection, and deep convection all contribute to the increasing precipitation. The contribution by stratiform precipitation is due to its increasing areal coverage, while its pixel rain rate changes little from Day −3 to Day +1. The contribution by mid‐level and deep convections results from their increasing areal coverage and intensifying rain rates. Among the three types of convection, deep convection has the largest pixel rain rate, but mid‐level convection occurs most frequently and makes the largest contribution to the total precipitation. The overall contribution by convective clouds, despite their low areal coverage, is comparable to that by stratiform precipitation. It is suggested that tropical cyclogenesis may be an outcome of the collective contribution by different precipitation types.
Detecting climate signals in precipitation extremes from TRMM (1998–2013)—Increasing contrast between wet and dry extremes during the “global warming hiatus”
Authors: Wu Huey‐Tzu Jenny , Lau William K.‐M.
Published: December 2015

We investigate changes in daily precipitation extremes using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) data (1998–2013), which coincides with the “global warming hiatus.” Results show a change in probability distribution functions of local precipitation events (LPEs) during this period consistent with previous global warming studies, indicating increasing contrast between wet and dry extremes, with more intense LPE, less moderate LPE, and more dry (no rain) days globally. Analyses for land and ocean separately reveal more complex and nuanced changes over land, characterized by a strong positive trend (+12.0% per decade, 99% confidence level (c.l.)) in frequency of extreme LPEs over the Northern Hemisphere extratropics during the wet season but a negative global trend (−6.6% per decade, 95% c.l.) during the dry season. A significant global drying trend (3.2% per decade, 99% c.l.) over land is also found during the dry season. Regions of pronounced increased dry events include western and central U.S., northeastern Asia, and Southern Europe/Mediterranean.
Strengthening relationship between ENSO and western Russian summer surface temperature
Authors: Sun Cheng , Li Jianping , Ding Ruiqiang
Published: December 2015

Western Russia (WR) experienced an extremely hot summer in 2010 that caused tremendous social and economic losses. The WR summer surface temperature (WRST) in the observational record is characterized by substantial interannual variability superimposed on the secular warming trend. Analysis of the 130 year observational record reveals that a strong and significant inverse relationship between WRST interannual variability and the tropical El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has emerged during the past three decades. The ENSO influence on the summer extratropical atmospheric circulation was weak before 1980 but became strong and significant afterward, showing a structure similar to the East Atlantic/WR teleconnection pattern. This pattern is associated with rising/falling upper level geopotential height over WR, which leads to the warming/cooling of surface and tropospheric air temperatures. Numerical simulations from a theoretical linear baroclinic model and Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project models further suggest that the enhancement of the ENSO teleconnection to WR may be attributable to a change in the ENSO‐related tropical thermal forcing. A tripole‐type rainfall anomaly pattern over tropical Pacific and Atlantic is found to be associated with ENSO in the past three decades. The tripole heating pattern can excite a Rossby wave that extends northwestward reaching WR and is necessary for the strong influence of ENSO on WR summer climate.
Interaction of magnetospheric Alfvén waves with the ionosphere in the Pc1 frequency band
Authors: Fedorov E. , Mazur N. , Pilipenko V. , Engebretson M.
Published: December 2015

A characteristic feature of the upper ionosphere is the occurrence of the ionospheric Alfvén resonator (IAR) and MHD waveguide, which can trap electromagnetic wave energy in the range from fractions of a Hz to a few Hz. This wave trapping ensures the strong dependence of the ionospheric transmission/reflective properties on frequency. We have developed a numerical model of the magnetospheric Alfvén wave interaction with the ionosphere and transmission to the ground based on the solution of multifluid magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) full wave equations in a realistic ionosphere, whose parameters were reconstructed from the International Reference Ionosphere model. The MHD modes are coupled owing to the frequency‐dependent Hall conductivity and geomagnetic field line inclination. This model can be applied to the interpretation of the spectral structure of electromagnetic emissions of the magnetospheric origin in the band 0.1–10 Hz observed at various latitudes. The model predicts that the upper part of the ULF spectrum (f > 1 Hz) will be severely absorbed upon wave transmission through the daytime ionosphere to the ground. At nighttime the transmission coefficient of Alfvén waves has an oscillatory dependence on frequency, with “transmission windows” at the lowest IAR eigenfrequencies (<3 Hz). At higher frequencies (3–10 Hz) the reflection/transmission coefficients are dominated by periodic scale‐dependent modulation owing to the waveguide modes. Broad maxima/minima of the transmission coefficient are determined by the phasing between Alfvén and fast magnetosonic waves at the bottom of the ionosphere.
The impacts of precipitating hydrometeors radiative effects on land surface temperature in contemporary GCMs using satellite observations
Authors: Li J.‐L. F. , Lee Wei‐Liang , Yu Jia‐Yuh , Hulley Glynn , Fetzer Eric , Chen Yi‐Chun , Wang Yi‐Hui
Published: December 2015

An accurate representation of the land surface temperature (LST) climatology of the coupled land‐atmosphere system has strong implications for the reliability of projected land surface processes and their variability inferred by the global climate models (GCMs) contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change CMIP5. We have identified a substantial underestimation of the total ice water path and biases of surface radiation budget commonly seen in the CMIP models which are highly correlated to the biases of LST over land. One of the potential causes of the CMIP model biases is the missing representation of large frozen precipitating hydrometeors and their radiative effects (i.e., snow) in all CMIP3 and most CMIP5 models. We examine the impacts of snow on the radiation, all‐sky and clear‐sky LST, and air‐land heat fluxes to explore the implications to the common biases in CMIP models by performing sensitivity experiments with and without snow radiation effects using the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Earth System Model version 1. It is found that an exclusion of the snow radiative effects the CESM1 generates the LST biases (up to 2–3 K) in the midlatitude and high latitude, in particular, in December, January, and February (DJF). All‐sky and clear‐sky LST in model simulations are found to be too cold and are mainly due to underestimated downward surface (longwave) LW radiation in DJF, which is consistent with those in CMIP models. The correlation between the changes of the LST and downward surface LW radiation is very high both in summer and winter seasons.
Effects of amines on particle growth observed in new particle formation events
Authors: Tao Ye , Ye Xingnan , Jiang Shuqing , Yang Xin , Chen Jianmin , Xie Yuanyuan , Wang Ruyu
Published: December 2015

Particle size distributions in the range of 0.01–10 µm were measured in urban Shanghai in the summer of 2013 using a Wide‐range Particle Spectrometer (WPS). Size‐segregated aerosol samples were collected concurrently using a Micro‐Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor (MOUDI), which aided our in‐depth understanding of the new particle formation (NPF) mechanism in the polluted Yangtze River Delta area. During the observations, 16 NPF events occurred at high temperatures (~34.7°C) on clear and sunny days. In the ammonium‐poor PM1.0 (particulate matter less than 1.0 µm), sulfate and ammonium accounted for 92% of the total water‐soluble inorganic species. Six aminiums were detected in these MOUDI samples, among which the group of diethylaminium and trimethylaminium (DEAH+ + TMAH+) was the most abundant. The very high level of aminiums (average concentration up to 86.4 ng m−3 in PM1.8), together with highly acidic aerosols, provided insight into the frequent NPF events. The high mass ratio of total aminiums to NH4+ (>0.2 for PM0.056) further highlighted the important role of amines in promoting NPF. The concentration of DEAH+ + TMAH+ in new particles below 180 nm was strongly correlated with aerosol phase acidity, indicating that acid‐base reactions dominated the aminium formation in NPF events. The unexpected enhancement of DEAH+ + TMAH+ on a nonevent day was attributed to the transportation of an SO2 plume. Our results reveal that the heterogeneous uptake of amines is dominated by the acid‐base reaction mechanism, which can effectively contribute to particle growth in NPF events.
ADME
for Therapeutic Biologics: What Can We Leverage from Great Wealth of
ADME
Knowledge and Research for Small Molecules
Authors: Wang Weirong , Prueksaritanont Thomayant
Published: December 2015

This chapter presents a brief historical perspective on how the roles of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) and the key enablers for studying the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) processes of small molecule (SM) drugs and their underlying mechanisms have evolved over time in order to influence internal de‐risking strategy and decisions. It reviews external factors, such as changing regulatory environments and evolving large molecule (LM) discovery and development landscape. The chapter also provides an overview of a DMPK concept analogy between SMs and LMs, as well as case examples to demonstrate the applicability of SM DMPK knowledge and experiences to LM drug discovery and development. The commonly used bioanalytical methods for the determination of LMs in biological fluids are ligand‐binding assays that are immunological in nature. These assays usually have an associated degree of nonspecificity.
ADMEfor Therapeutic Biologics: Antibody‐Derived Proteins and Proteins with Novel Scaffolds
Authors: Rathi Chetan , Meibohm Bernd
Published: December 2015

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are the largest and most rapidly growing class of therapeutic proteins. Recent advances in protein engineering have opened up new avenues of modulating the desired properties of therapeutic proteins. This includes not only the optimization of existing protein therapeutics by approaches such as glycoengineering, but also the creation of new scaffolds such as antibody‐ drug conjugates (ADCs), antibody fragments, antibody‐based fusion proteins, nanobodies, and bispecifics. ADCs and bipecifics are among the most promising classes of antibody‐based therapeutics with a large number of candidates in various stages of preclinical and clinical development. Pharmacokinetic (PK) characterization is one of the most important determinants toward rational development of these novel scaffolds. This chapter discusses the ADME properties of ADCs, and bispecifics and its role in guiding the development of next‐generation therapeutic biologics.
Overview of
ADME
and
PK/PD
of
ADCs
Authors: Zhao Baiteng , Han Tae H.
Published: December 2015

This chapter primarily discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism/catabolism, and elimination (ADME) properties for antibody‐drug conjugates (ADCs) in oncology therapy and associated pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) modeling of ADCs. Drug‐linker stability is a key attribute required for the development of a successful ADC and has been a primary focus in ADC technology. Premature release of the conjugated drug prior to reaching its intended target may cause unwanted systemic toxicity and reduce the amount of drug delivered to the target tissues. An exposure‐response relationship exists for all therapeutic proteins and small molecule drugs. Multiple modeling efforts have been attempted to incorporate the deconjugation process and/or nonlinear clearance in ADC PK models. A full mechanistic PK model encompassing all major processes of ADC distribution, binding, and elimination of different drug‐to‐antibody ratio (DAR) species was proposed and multiple approximations were applied to simplify the model based on different assumptions.
Fixed Dosing versus Body‐Size‐Based Dosing for Therapeutic Biologics—A Clinical Pharmacology Strategy
Authors: Wang Diane D. , Hoffman Justin T. , Parivar Kourosh
Published: December 2015

This chapter focuses on the dosing strategies for therapeutic biologics in human adult populations, and it is acknowledged that the strategies for the dosing of pediatric populations may be different. The aim of any dosing strategy for a therapeutic agent is to optimize the overall clinical performance within an intended indication by maximizing the efficacious effect while minimizing the adverse events within the target patient population. The performance of body‐size‐based dosing and fixed‐dosing approaches have been evaluated for monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and therapeutic peptides/proteins, in terms of their population and individual performances in reducing intersubject pharmacokinetic (PK) and/or pharmacodynamic (PD) variability in adult patients. The results of these simulation studies have demonstrated that in contrast to conventional assumption, body‐size‐based dosing did not always result in less intersubject variability in drug exposure and PD measurements when compared to fixed‐dosing approaches.
Impact of Diseases, Comorbidity, and Target Physiology onADME, PK, andPK/PDof Therapeutic Biologics
Authors: Zheng Songmao , Wang Weirong , Zhou Honghui
Published: December 2015

Conceptually, any disease or comorbidity that can regulate or impact the ADME and subsequently the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) of a biologic would have an impact on the treatment response that may sometimes necessitate a dose alteration in different patient populations, different disease states, patients with varying disease burdens, or in patients with different comorbidities. The PD of a biologic is not the only aspect driven by target engagement, the PK is also often impacted via target‐mediated drug disposition (TMDD) interactions. This chapter provides an overview of our current knowledge on how diseases, comorbidity, target physiology, and other treatment interventions (e.g., surgery) impact the ADME, PK, and PK/PD of therapeutic biologics. The chapter discusses the underlying mechanisms associated with these processes. Additionally, a few case examples demonstrate, in detail, the interplay between disease, target physiology, and PK/PD of therapeutic biologics.
Integrated Quantitation of Biotherapeutic Drug–Target Binding, Biomarkers, and Clinical Response to Support Rational Dose Regimen Selection
Authors: Lowe Philip J. , Kümmel Anne , Vasalou Christina , Matsushima Soichiro , Skerjanec Andrej
Published: December 2015

In the development of new medicines, the posology can be critical to get the intended clinical benefit whilst minimizing dose‐related unintended or adverse effects. The use of direct drug‐target‐binding models has increased over the years, forming, in effect, a new class to be added to the original effect site and indirect response models. This chapter focuses on the capture of soluble targets. However, it is also possible to quantitate the nonlinear target‐mediated disposition in the phamacokinetics (PK) to provide an estimate of whole‐body target engagement. If related to downstream biomarkers or, preferably, to clinical outcomes, this is just as valuable to the posologist as soluble target capture. The chapter shows that the PK/phamacodynamics process enables an integrated quantitation of biotherapeutic drug‐target binding, biomarkers, and clinical response to support rational dose regimen selection.
Target‐Driven Pharmacokinetics of Biotherapeutics
Authors: Meno‐Tetang Guy M.L.
Published: December 2015

Biotherapeutics are a class of molecules that are produced by living organisms. They comprise monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), antibody‐drug conjugates (ADCs), antibody fragments, fusion proteins, peptides, recombinant cytokines, vaccines, growth factors, oligonucleotides, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) preparations. This chapter reviews published data on the contribution of target biology including expression, turnover, and binding on the PK of fusion proteins, mAbs, ADCs, cytokines, and recombinant proteins. Peptide‐Fc fusion proteins (or peptibodies) are construct proteins generated by fusing a biologically active peptide with the Fc domain of an immunoglobulin G (IgG). This construct combines the biologic activity of peptides with the stability of mAbs. Biotherapeutics display both linear and nonlinear kinetics. The PK of biotherapeutics that exhibit target‐mediated drug disposition (TMDD) are controlled by the level of target expression, turn over, and affinity. Interspecies scaling is used to predict human PK for first‐in‐ human clinical trials.
H
itler,
A
dolf (1889–1945)
Authors: Emil Katz Fred
Published: December 2015

Adolph Hitler was the Nazi leader who ruled Germany from 1933 until his suicide in Berlin on April 30, 1945. While numerous studies have explored the life events and strategies of this one of the most destructive tyrants in history, this entry focuses on the appeal he had among so many ordinary German citizens during this period.
Cyprus
Authors: Demetriou Chares
Published: December 2015

In Cyprus as elsewhere, nationalism was a modern phenomenon. But it was also one underpinned by social boundaries rooted in premodern times. Sometimes slow‐moving and other times abrupt, social boundary formation and transformation through the centuries endowed modern Cyprus with two groups of people who were thinking of themselves as Greek and Turkish, respectively. This, together with the existence of two mother countries and a colonial power, provided a mix conducive to nationalist projects and conflict.
Genotype and Phenotype
Authors: Van Den Berghe Pierre L.
Published: December 2015

Genotype refers to the actual DNA at given locations (loci) on chromosomes. Phenotype refers to observable traits in either physical appearance or behavior. Phenotypes reflect the interaction between genotype and environment as well as the effect of genes on each other. Genotype and phenotype may be concordant, but frequently are not. Understanding the relationship between genotype and phenotype is crucial to addressing the central problem in human behavior: gene–culture interaction.
Dependency and World‐Systems Theories
Authors: Chase‐Dunn Christopher
Published: December 2015

This entry is an overview of the intellectual history of dependency theory and the world‐systems perspective and a brief presentation of the main ideas in these approaches to understanding human social change.
Caste System of Stratification
Authors: Jalali Rita
Published: December 2015

This entry defines the concept of caste systems of stratification, focusing on its distinguishing characteristics and origins in India. It describes the historical changes in the caste system from precolonial times to the present. Using the latest government data the article also examines the impact of the modern economy and a democratic political system—whether the caste system has disintegrated, and the extent of social mobility, and intercaste disparities in the country. It also, briefly discusses the similarities and differences of caste systems of stratification with class, race, and ethnic systems of stratification.
Hawaii
Authors: Okamura Jonathan Y.
Published: December 2015

Hawaii is renowned for its ethnic diversity but has major problems with ethnic inequality and neglect of the problems and concerns of Native Hawaiians.
Cuban Americans
Authors: Eckstein Susan
Published: December 2015

The Cuban American experience in the United States is unique because of the political tensions between successive American administrations and the communist government of Fidel Castro. How this central factor has shaped the special character of the assimilation of several waves of migrants and generations of Cuban Americans is set against the changing geopolitics of the period.
Transnationalism
Authors: Remennick Larissa
Published: December 2015

Transnational lifestyle is a central feature of contemporary ethnic diasporas. The entry juxtaposes historic and current expressions of trasnationalism among immigrants as part of globalization process.
Meritocracy
Authors: Yair Gad
Published: December 2015

“Meritocracy” is a type of society, structure, or arrangement that distributes resources, roles, and esteem according to merit. The term refers to criteria of allocation of positions, roles, prestige, power, and economic reward whereby excellent individuals receive greater rewards than others. Those criteria are based on achieved rather than ascribed characteristics and reflect the assumption that, while achievements of merit are rare and difficult to attain, they are culturally valued. The term also denotes the “rule of the talented,” a system of governance wherein the brightest and most conscientious individuals are accurately and efficiently assigned to occupy the most important positions, on the basis of talent and achievement. Crucially, the modern capitalist system—which combines the ideals of morality and efficiency—rests on the constitution and maintenance of meritocratic arrangements.
F
anon,
F
rantz (1925–61)
Authors: Bairner Alan
Published: December 2015

This entry briefly outlines the life and intellectual legacy of Frantz Fanon.
Character, National
Authors: Yair Gad
Published: December 2015

The idea of a “national character” enjoyed great popularity after World War II; declined to a point of oblivion from the 1970s on; and is now being revived following September 11, 2001. The following entry suggests that the social and moral history of the idea of national character is tied to global security contexts. It also suggests that political sensitivities curtailed the use of this highly promising scientific idea. New security challenges may underlie the recent revival of national character in sociology. This entry describes the ups and downs of this idea and explains why its current vogue holds promise for future studies of national idiosyncrasies.
Literature and Nationalism
Authors: Ivic Christopher
Published: December 2015

Literature has long played a crucial role in constructing and disseminating what Benedict Anderson terms “imagined communities.” The invention of an English sense of national identity emerged in full in the Elizabethan period. The early modern period is a rich site for the study of literature and nationalism not only because this period witnessed profound and contested articulations of the political nation, but also because it bears witness to the ways in which nationalism is underpinned by a variety of cultural discourses, including class, gender, race, and religion.
Cultural Intelligence Measure
Authors: Liao Yuan
Published: December 2015

To date, two groups of scholars, led by Soon Ang and David Thomas, have developed two theoretical models and corresponding measures of cultural intelligence. Ang and colleagues theorized and measured four domains—metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral—and relied on a single‐method twenty‐item self‐report survey. This scale is easy to administrate and provides an easy way to compare results across cultures. Thomas and colleagues theorized cultural knowledge, cultural skills, and cultural metacognition as the three domains of cultural intelligence, and used both self‐report and think‐aloud technique in their web‐based instrument. This online assessment tool is more difficult to use but has the strengths of assessing different aspects of cultural intelligence with multiple methods and measuring metacognitive process with a more appropriate technique. This entry describes the development and the psychometric characteristics of each measure and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of both.
H
ofstede,
G
eert (1928–)
Authors: Praveen Parboteeah K. , Han Kyung‐Il , Chen Chung‐Wen
Published: December 2015

Hofstede's work on national culture remains some of the most influential evidence of the existence of national culture. This entry discusses Hofstede's work, specifically his analysis of data from IBM multinational subsidiaries worldwide and his evidence that countries can be distinguished along five national cultural dimensions. Each of the cultural dimensions is discussed. The entry also discusses the many criticisms of Hofstede's work. The entry concludes that, despite serious criticisms and new national culture frameworks, Hofstede's pioneering work will likely for a long time remain one of the most significant contributions to understanding how countries differ based on national cultures.
Welfare Queen
Authors: Lens Vicki
Published: December 2015

Welfare queen is a derogatory phrase that encapsulates the central myth underlying welfare policy in the United States—that welfare recipients are deceitful and devious, and are gaming the system to collect unneeded welfare payments. This myth is built on an edifice of both racial and gender stereotypes. It taps into pejorative myths about African American women, combining potent images of promiscuity and laziness to suggest that welfare recipients are manipulators of the system, rather than casualties of the labor market. The myths underlying the welfare queen have driven welfare policy over the past several decades, eventually culminating in the demise of the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program in 1996, and its replacement with the harsher and more restrictive Temporary Assistance to Needy Families program.
Stereotyping and Stereotypes
Authors: Pickering Michael
Published: December 2015

Stereotyping involves the representation and evaluation of others in ways that ratify and endorse unequal social relations. It does so by making such representations appear fixed and unchanging as well as in stark contrast to the identities of those who engage in and perpetuate them. Stereotypes diminish the social standing of those targeted, reducing them to a particular attribute or disposition that either demeans them or confines them to achievement only in association with this attribute or disposition. This acts as a distancing mechanism, radically separating those stereotyped from those among whom the stereotypes circulate and are reproduced. Stereotyping always occurs within a two‐way, but one‐sided relationship, and operates in favor of the existing status quo.
Nation of
I
slam
Authors: Berg Herbert
Published: December 2015

The Nation of Islam is a black nationalist and religious movement started in the 1930s. It demanded justice, freedom, and equality for African Americans by advocating the religious, social, economic, and political separation for blacks and whites. Central to this goal was a unique racialized formulation of Islam.
Return Migration (Ethnically Privileged Migration)
Authors: Remennick Larissa
Published: December 2015

Ethic return migration has significantly grown over the last thirty years, especially in Europe and East Asia. The entry describes this phenomenon, its causes, and its implications for the immigrants by drawing on several comparative cases.
Chile, Indigenous Peoples in
Authors: Agostini Claudio A.
Published: December 2015

Census data from 2002 show that 4.6 percent of the Chilean population belonged to one of the eight existing indigenous groups. Compared to nonindigenous people, indigenous people in Chile are in general poorer, have lower educational attainment, are more likely to be unemployed, and are more likely to be illiterate. Most of them do not speak or understand their indigenous language.
Ethnosymbolism
Authors: Smith Anthony D.
Published: December 2015

Ethnosymbolism, an approach to the study of ethnicity and nationalism that focuses on the symbolic elements of ethnic communities, emerged as a critique of both “modernist” orthodoxy and the varieties of “perennialism” and “primordialism” that modernism has largely displaced. Ethnosymbolism emphasizes the ethnic bases of many modern nations while privileging the cultural and symbolic dimensions of ethnic communities and nations. It also analyzes the elements of nationhood over
la longue durée
and stresses continuities and disruptions between them and earlier ethnic communities. Criticizing the generally elite‐oriented accounts of modernists, ethnosymbolists posit a two‐way relationship between elites and “masses” and emphasize the recurrent conflicts of national vision and the constant reinterpretations of the “character” and “destiny” of ethnic communities and nations. In this way ethnosymbolists seek to enter the “inner world” of members of a community in terms of cultural elements of that world: myth, memory, value, tradition, and symbol.
Balkanization
Authors: Davidova Evguenia
Published: December 2015

Balkanization refers to the violent disintegration of large entities into small and hostile political units. The term was coined around the end of World War I and the emergence of the Versailles System that superseded the old multiethnic empires with a mosaic of new nation‐states. Its political usage comprises three periods. Initially, it signified recent events such as the Balkan Wars (1912–13) and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo that led to the outbreak of World War I. Hostility, emanating from the European periphery, was seen as “uncivilized” and a threat to peace in Europe. After World War II the notion also referred to postcolonial developments in Africa. During the Yugoslav Wars (1991–95), balkanization became one of the main modes of interpreting such complex conflicts in the media. Gradually, the term was decontextualized and it is now employed in a variety of fields from law to medicine to engineering.
Islamophobia
Authors: Bravo López Fernando
Published: December 2015

Islamophobia is hostility towards Islam and everything identified as Islamic or Islamophilic, based on the belief that Islam is an enemy, a threat that must be countered. It is not therefore a merely critical attitude towards certain precepts of the Islamic religion or certain customs prevailing in so‐called Islamic societies. Islamophobia is a form of rejection that differs from racism and religious intolerance, one with its own distinct character and history. It is an intellectual tradition originating in the Middle Ages, shaped by a set of ideas concerning Islam that have been passed down from one generation to the next. Changes have occurred in the course of its transmission process with the result that this tradition has adapted to different geographical and temporal contexts, paving the way for the emergence of various types of Islamophobia. Whatever form it may take, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights.
Culture, Conceptual Clarifications of
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: December 2015

The concept of culture has been used within a wide variety of social sciences and in the humanities. Two types of definition predominate in the social sciences. In the first of these culture is considered as encompassing all humanly constructed aspects of the environment. This conception includes physical structures and implements, as well as the social structures that characterize different societies. The second type of definition emphasizes the meanings that are created by members of a social system for events and activities within that social system, and sustained over time by transmission to new members. Under this type of definition, culture does not have an autonomous existence: it is a property of a social system.
Catalonia
Authors: Crameri Kathryn
Published: December 2015

The term “Catalan” has come to be associated mainly with residents of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, a region of Spain that has Barcelona as its capital. However, the historical reach and cultural influence of the Catalans is much broader, thanks to the medieval expansion of the Crown of Aragon. Outside Catalonia itself, speakers of varieties of Catalan can be found in Valencia, the Balearic Islands, eastern Aragon, southern France, and even Sardinia. Spain's autonomous communities have significant administrative and legislative powers, but dissatisfaction with the scope of these in the context of Spain's economic crisis, as well as Spain's refusal to treat Catalonia as a sovereign nation, have recently led to a strong growth in support for independence.
M
yanmar (
B
urma)
Authors: Walton Matthew J.
Published: December 2015

Myanmar is an ethnically diverse country in Southeast Asia, with a majority ethnic group (the Burmans) that has dominated politics since independence. Ethnic conflict has been a regular feature of Burmese politics for the last six decades, exacerbated by military rule. From the end of the colonial period Burmese nationalism has effectively been Burman nationalism and in some version has included a strain of suspicion toward other ethnic groups or nationalities. Even though political reforms since 2011 have ushered in a semicivilian government, ethnic reconciliation remains one of the country's persistent political challenges.
Diversity
Authors: Parnell Allan , Stevens Gillian
Published: December 2015

The term
diversity
typically refers to variation in the ethnic or racial characteristics of people in a specific environment such as a neighborhood, a city, or a workplace setting. Low levels of racial and ethnic diversity in a given environment can imply discriminatory processes and require legal attention.
Urban Ecology
Authors: Krissoff Boehm Lisa
Published: December 2015

Urban areas are intimately connected to the natural environment. Environmental issues within cities disproportionately affect people in poverty and members of diverse groups. With populations of ten million or more, megacities face pressing environmental challenges. Urban planners often strive to incorporate open spaces into urban design.
M
āori and
P
akeha (
N
ew
Z
ealand)
Authors: Crothers Charles
Published: December 2015

Māori—organized in a settlement hierarchy of
whānau
,
hapū
, and
iwi
—have occupied New Zealand for over the last eight hundred years, having developed a sophisticated culture. Dispossession of land and deterioration of culture and society followed settlement by Pakeha over the past two hundred years, but a Māori renaissance during the last forty years has led to an official “bicultural” modus vivendi being established. With considerable recent migration of Pacific and Asian peoples a consensual multicultural framework has now been added.
Gendered Aspects of War and International Violence
Authors: Saroj Bakhru Tanya
Published: December 2015

Gender is the totality of socially constructed characteristics and behaviors associated with one's sex. Both men and women experience the effects of war and international violence, although in distinctly gendered ways. Women are highly vulnerable during war and in times of international violence. As a social category, women already experience marginalization during peacetime, and periods of armed conflict exacerbate their vulnerability. In addition, women occupy multiple and conflicting spaces within war and international conflict. They are simultaneously a highly present population and, due to their subordinate status, an invisible one. While women are the minority in terms of combatants, war strategists, and decision makers, they experience the most harm. Frequently the needs of women during armed conflict are overlooked or ignored.
Diversity and Small Business
Authors: Alexander Mark M. , Powell Kendra , Monti Daniel
Published: December 2015

Small business is the backbone of economies in western societies. It hires more people than large corporations and generates an enormous number and variety of goods and services. In minority communities in urban settings its role is even more important because these may be among the only employers willing to hire their own people. An ethnically and racially diverse collection of small business owners and operators, therefore, is vital to both the economic and social well‐being of urban places.
P
ruitt–
I
goe Homes
Authors: Goeke Michael , Monti Daniel
Published: December 2015

Large‐scale multistory public housing complexes were a common and sometimes celebrated device in the United States to house low‐income and minority persons whose presence in cities made some kind of official response necessary. But they made better warehouses than they ever did homes for the people who lived there. The Pruitt–Igoe homes in St. Louis, Missouri, have acquired an iconic status as embodying the worst traits of public housing in the United States.
I
sraelis in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Lev Ari Lilach
Published: December 2015

More than half of Israelis who emigrated from Israel live in the United States. Most of them have high socioeconomic status. Their ethnic identity and identification are dynamic and differentiated by the migration generation. Some of them identify with and assimilate into the host society, some are more attached to the local Jewish population, while others keep their main social and cultural connections with the homeland, Israel. While first‐generation Israelis in the United States tend to live within the “Israeli bubble,” their offspring, particularly second‐generation immigrants, have multiple ethnic identities and identifications and the place of Israel and their Jewishness are mere symbolic components of their identity. Local Jewish communities, as well as formal Israeli agents, have a significant role in the reconstruction of ethnic identity among Israeli immigrants, particularly those who were born in the United States and wish to maintain their identities as both Jews and Israelis.
Workplace, Race and Ethnicity in
Authors: Carrim Nasima M. H.
Published: December 2015

The article offers a review of research on the study of race and ethnicity in organizations. It discusses the contentious history of the definition of race, the manner in which the latter has evolved over the centuries, the various ways in which ethnicity is defined, as well as the difficulties scholars experience in applying these concepts to empirical studies in organizations. The theoretical approaches to the study of race and ethnicity are delineated with a short description of each theory situated in its historical context. The literature on race and ethnicity in organizational studies is outlined emphasizing the themes of minority identity, and the degree of prejudice and discrimination still operating within the workplace.
M
azzini,
G
iuseppe (1805–72)
Authors: Sutcliffe Marcella
Published: December 2015

Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian patriot. An exile for most of his life, he fought to free Italy from foreign domination and led the movement for national unification. Mazzini sought to establish a democratic, republican government in Italy, which could provide a model for other nations. Such was the brief experiment of the Roman Republic (1849), which he led. Mazzini had a quasi‐religious faith in the role of the “nation,” able to “associate” its “people” within a civil community. The association of all democratically governed nations would ensure harmony within “humanity.” In 1861, the unification of Italy under a constitutional monarch, rather than under republican institutions, only partly realized Mazzini's vision for the new nation.
Nationalism, Everyday
Authors: Ichijo Atsuko
Published: December 2015

The rise in interest in studying everyday nationalism or nationhood since the 1990s reflects the “cultural turn” in social sciences, which focuses on how ordinary people make sense of the world. The study of everyday nationalism and nationhood complements the preceding, more structure‐oriented studies of nationalism to further our understanding of today's world.
Brittany
Authors: Kernalegenn Tudi , Pasquier Romain
Published: December 2015

Brittany, with 4.5 million inhabitants, is a strongly differentiated region in the northwest of France. It has a threatened Celtic language but a vibrant culture and a strong aspiration toward devolution. Economically backward until the 1950s, it has developed rapidly since then, notably as a result of the organization of its civil society.
Black Middle Class in the Post‐Civil Rights Era
Authors: Welburn Jessica S.
Published: December 2015

In the United States, middle‐class status is often associated with improved opportunities and life circumstances. However, for middle‐class African Americans, race and class intersect to create a more complex middle‐class experience. Middle‐class African Americans may navigate a number of important issues including persistent racism and discrimination, limited access to financial resources, fragile neighborhood circumstances, and disproportionately high intergenerational downward mobility rates. These experiences can shape their cultural repertoires and their perceptions of the American opportunity structure. Their case is important for understanding the position of middle‐class racial minorities in the United States.
Dual Labor Market Theories
Authors: Elger Tony
Published: December 2015

Dual labor market theorists present an institutionalist critique of conventional economic analyses of labor market inequalities, arguing that different categories of workers (minority and majority ethnic groups; migrants and nonmigrants; men and women) experience contrasting labor market logics. This approach provides a fertile research agenda for analyzing continuities, variations, and changes in the labor market experiences of racialized and/or minority ethnic groups in different societal and economic contexts. Debate ranges over competing explanations of the management calculations that encourage dualism; the interplay between the institutional structuring of labor demand and labor supply; and the recent impact of growing forms of insecure employment.