bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Role of Constitutional Theory in the Cycle of Regimes
Authors: Balkin Jack M.
Published: September 2020

Constitutional theories such as originalism and living constitutionalism evolve to reflect the changing attitudes of partisans and legal intellectuals in political time. They also develop to reflect changing views about judicial review and judicial restraint. For example, while conservative originalism began as a justification for judicial restraint, it soon evolved to justify strong judicial review; the same thing happened to living constitutionalism earlier in the twentieth century. Because we are near the end of the Reagan regime, Democrats are invested in judicial restraint and Republicans in judicial engagement. The situation is closest to the one faced by Democrats in the 1930s. Democrats’ relative hostility to the courts will continue until Democrats once again gain control through partisan entrenchment. However, because the Trump administration has worked hard to stock the courts with as many young conservative jurists as possible, this change may take some time.
In Conclusion: Revisiting the Past, Looking to the Future
Authors: Panagariya Arvind
Published: September 2020

This chapter looks back at post-independence economic history to understand the stranglehold that socialism acquired on the Indian economy in the early years, the launch of reforms in 1991 under Prime Ministers Narasimha Rao and Atal Bihari Vajpayee, partial reversals under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, and a return to reforms under Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It particularly emphasizes the role that a socialistically inclined bureaucracy plays in continuing to hold back reforms. The chapter concludes by making the case that despite a slowdown in growth at the present time, India’s future is bright—but only if the leadership stays the course on economic reforms. The chapter concludes with a number of cautionary notes relating to policy. These relate to policy stability, the necessity of migrating half or more of the agricultural workforce to industry and services, creating an ecosystem that would help firms to grow larger, the centrality of success in export markets, and the need for investment in labor-intensive sectors of the economy.
Introduction
Authors: Jaffrelot Christophe
Published: September 2020

This chapter reveals Mariam Abou Zahab's knowledge of South Asia, especially Afghanistan and Pakistan. Zahab had explored Afghanistan and Pakistan extensively throughout her life, beginning her travels as early as 1973. The chapter reflects her anthropological erudition, which was exceptional in respect to different facets of the Twelver Shia community and the Sunni schools of thought in South Asia. It illustrates Zahab's pedagogical accounts of the transformation of conservative Sunni groups and Deobandis into Islamist and neo-fundamentalist movements. It also highlights her study of the “neo-islamization of Pakistani Shias.” The combination of ethno-historical and regional approach was the first trademark of Mariam Abou Zahab.
Kashars Against Mashars
Authors: Abou Zahab Mariam
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the change in the sociology and patterns of leadership in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) since the arrival of al-Qaeda in the area after 9/11. It focuses on South Waziristan which has become the hub of al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and the Uzbeks, among other foreign jihadis. The chapter argues that the Talibanization of Waziristan might be analyzed as the outcome of a social movement among the Wazir tribesmen which started in the 1970s and was accelerated in the post-9/11 context. It analyzes the emergence of “tribal entrepreneurs” who took advantage of the change in political opportunities and their access to resources in order to challenge the traditional tribal leadership. It also describes the movement of the kashars against the mashars and the Political Agent.
Home
Authors: Colls Robert
Published: September 2020

Chapter 5 sees the parish as a platform for belonging, and sport and custom as celebrations of that belonging. It opens with Edwin Butterworth, a well-connected journalist working for Edward Baines, the radical newspaper owner, who was writing a history of Lancashire. Charged in 1835 with surveying a county deep in the throes of industrialization, and keen to establish the state of ‘Customs, Habits, &c’, Butterworth’s findings do not show the sudden death of parochial custom any more than they show the rising up of a great new factory system. Instead, they show parochial culture dying in some places but flourishing (and changing) in others. The chapter goes on to look more widely at how this old parochial culture had bound people to their sense of place—what the old Poor Law called ‘settlement’. At the same time the chapter notes how from the 1830s to the 1880s, the welfare functions that had underpinned settlement were being removed and given to quasi-national bodies. Apart from Church of England clergy who were not quite insiders or outsiders, the parish had insiders who were enemies as well. Primitive Methodists were anti-sport and counter-parochial for all of the nineteenth century. They brought disruption with a new kind of belonging.
Bloods
Authors: Colls Robert
Published: September 2020

Chapter 7 gets away from the school side of things to the boys’ and girls’ side. Bloods’ is an old word for a certain kind of aristocratic young man taken up by the public schools to mean a leading man of fashion, or a captain of sport, or both. It never applied to girls but it is quite clear that there were sporty girls who could take the daring part and all girls’ schools, like all boys’ schools, were periodically rocked over what to wear and the best way to wear it. Sport was the main inspiration for fashion, and sporting fashion was the key to the true standing of a ‘Blood’. In all these things, schools had to negotiate with their pupils. The extent to which they were able to do so determined the sort of school it was and the boys and girls side of things led, first in the 1920s and again in the 1960s, to the creation of the modern university as a place where students enjoyed boarding-house life and the liberty to play and have fun. Chapter 7 also describes the crisis in elite masculinity in the 1850s, a crisis over military failure but also to do with perceived failings in the character and personality of elite young men. Sport was never far away from this crisis, both as the cause and the solution.
Retiring or Engaging
Authors: Field Ophelia
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the paradox inherent in tackling political issues within a traditionally ‘polite’ form, authorial consciences torn between retirement and public engagement, and the recurring tendency of the essayist to attack complacent readers rather than more obvious adversaries. For some, writing under political pressure, the tactics are indirection or literary insurgency; for others, the essay form itself symbolizes the freedoms to be defended from more absolutist forms of thought. Via readings of essays by Addison, Hazlitt, Woolf, Orwell, Baldwin, and Hitchens, it highlights the forgotten political agendas of declaredly apolitical essayists, while inversely emphasizing the overriding literary, autobiographical, and philosophical ambitions that dominate some of the most famously political of classic English essayists.
Dalí’s Montaigne
Authors: Wampole Christy
Published: September 2020

This chapter analyses the hybridization of the essay with visual genres such as illustration, photography, film, and video, an emergent tendency throughout the twentieth century that underscores the shared features of essayism and Surrealism. These include the use of a logic of digression and free association, a focus on the inner life of the self, the dismissal of formal strictures, the deployment of sensory perception, memory, intuition, and imagination towards expressive ends, and the reliance on images. Beginning with Salvador Dalí’s illustrations for Montaigne’s Essays (1947), the chapter then turns to James Agee and Walker Evans’ collaborative photo essay Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), Chris Marker’s essay-film Sans soleil (1982), and John Bresland’s video essay Mangoes (2010) in order to pinpoint the shared affinities between essayism and Surrealism.
Beyond the Railway
Authors: Saunders Nicholas J.
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter provides a summary of the discoveries of the Great Arab Revolt Project (GARP) from the conflict landscape of the Hejaz Railway. A decade in the desert revealed the anthropological archaeology of the Arab Revolt of 1916–18 to be more than the excavation of historically recent places or the survey of ruinous station buildings. It was rather an interdisciplinary study of the railway’s heritage from 1900 to the present, its role as a catalyst in creating a unique conflict landscape, and its intriguing relationships with earlier Hajj routes. The railway was also entangled with the beginnings of modern guerrilla warfare, the creation of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, and a complex and sometimes volatile mix of traditional Bedouin culture, modernity, religion, and local and national politics. Furthermore, the Revolt itself was embedded in the wider regional and geo-political framework of the First World War and its many aftermaths: the collapse of the Ottoman Empire; the creation of the modern Middle East; the rise of Arab Nationalism; the Second World War; the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq; the destructive legacy of the Islamic State’s short-lived Caliphate announced in 2014; and Syria’s descent into a tortuous and tragic civil war.
Sounding Out the Divine
Authors: Williams Richard David
Published: September 2020

From Vedic sacrifices to kīrtan podcasts, sound art and music shape how Hindu religions are experienced. Nonetheless, the social and discursive value of music is easily underemphasized in accounts of religious practice and thought: frequently, music is either viewed as a technical field—best left alone by non-specialists—or taken for granted and dismissed as part of the ‘background’ in rituals and texts. However, the auditory dimensions of religion have very real consequences: historically, musical transmission has been crucial in the dissemination of ideas and texts, while soundscapes and performance genres continue to cultivate identities and moral positions. There is more to music than decoration or mediation: in some contexts, it is possible to consider music and sonic practices as the substance of a theological system, the centre of gravity for doctrine, behaviour, and soteriology.
Gandhi, Hinduism, and Humanity
Authors: Devji Faisal
Published: September 2020

While Gandhi spoke frequently about humanity and humanitarianism, he was deeply suspicious of any attempt to serve or even speak in the name of the human race. In Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, his manifesto from 1909, he wrote, ‘I am so constructed that I can only serve my immediate neighbours (āspās vastā mānaso in the Gujarati text), but in my conceit I pretend to have discovered that I must with my body serve every individual in the Universe. In thus attempting the impossible, man (mānas jāt) comes in contact with different natures, different religions, and is utterly confounded’ (Gandhi 2008: 42). Gandhi considered the effort to address mankind as a whole fundamentally violent, and often described it as a sin. This was because man’s universality could only become manifest by destroying the social particularities that both obscured and made it possible.
Nomination and Systematization in Seneca’s Controversiae
Authors: Cappello Orazio
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the praxis and theory of onomatothesis in Roman declamation by outlining how Seneca uses proper names and onomastic formulae in his Controversiae. By connecting declamatory speeches to the names of those who delivered them, Seneca homologizes a community of declaimers from different periods and areas of the Empire, and thus fosters a collective rhetorical ‘memory’ for transmission via his compilation. Names thus serve as the organizing principles of a pedagogy founded on mimesis, and as the entry-points to the role-playing activity inherent to declamatory activity. The act of naming also plays a key structural role in the Controversiae by enabling and introducing perspectival and stylistic variations on each theme. Furthermore, the interplay between prefatory biographies, anecdotes, and use of individuals’ names throughout each controversia serves to classify and develop each voice’s contribution to the texture of the collection. By rereading the tenth book of the Controversiae from these standpoints, this chapter showcases the textual-cultural coordinates of nomination, and proffers insight into Seneca’s criteria for including or excluding particular declaimers from his collection.
The Ocean (Seneca Suas. 1)
Authors: Huelsenbeck Bart
Published: September 2020

This chapter traces a single motif—that of the ‘Ocean’—within Seneca’s Suasoriae. This theme spans the declamations of Argentarius, Pompeius Silo, Moschus, Musa, Albucius Silus, and Papirius Fabianus, as well as verses by Albinovanus Pedo and excerpts from the History of Alexander by Quintus Curtius Rufus. By comparing how these declaimers and authors introduce variations around the idea of an ‘ocean’ while maintaining its overall characteristics (e.g. darkness, monstrousness, sluggishness), this chapter identifies two overarching concepts which governed declamatory improvisation. On the one hand, ‘scalability’ allowed declaimers to compose speeches of different lengths while maintaining thematic coherence through the use of similar core-structures; on the other, the principle of ‘sequence’ dictated that each declaimer spoke in response to another. These parallel concepts enabled declamatory themes to gain new meanings through an ongoing accumulation of arguments and contributed to declamation’s status as a dynamic, interactive process.
Objection!
Authors: Mannering Jonathan E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter stems from Seneca the Elder’s dedication of the Controversiae to both his sons and the ‘people’: the double audience implied by these opening statements extends throughout the compilation, resulting in an unstable ‘centre’ of attention. It demonstrates how declaimers are interrupted and critiqued in Seneca’s retellings, and highlights the ways in which these objections redirect attention from the speaker to an individual in the audience. These diversions in turn alter the community’s balance of power as spectators move into the central role which we would expect the speakers to occupy. In addition, this chapter outlines the role of decorum within these disputes and outlines the factors which distinguish what is proper from what is unacceptable within the world of Roman declamation, and by extension within Roman culture as well as cultural memory as a whole.
‘Ancestral Voices Prophesying War’
Authors: Murray Chris
Published: September 2020

Edward Gibbon and Samuel Taylor Coleridge were uneasy about the prospect of a British Empire, fearing overreach and collapse. Historical precedents such as the Roman Empire and Kublai Khan’s China made imperial expansion appear unwise. To Coleridge these predecessors served as warnings to Britain, but to Macartney they offered evidence that the Qing Dynasty was doomed. The Macartney Embassy attempted to recreate aspects of Marco Polo’s reception at Kublai Khan’s court: Macartney, like Gibbon and Coleridge, felt that histories could be replicated. In light of Britain’s fruitless embassies to China in 1793 and 1816, Coleridge’s ‘Kubla Khan’ draws on Gibbon’s account of the Khans for prophetic effect. Like Macartney’s journal, Coleridge’s poem articulates a perception that war between Britain and China was likely some decades before the First Opium War occurred.
A Greek Tragedy in China
Authors: Murray Chris
Published: September 2020

Thomas de Quincey endorsed the Opium Wars in his journalism. Yet his China essays invoke ideas from Greek tragedy, and his ‘Theory of Greek Tragedy’ expresses British jingoism. Such a connection was topical: the Canton Register stirred controversy over Qing officials’ description of Europeans as yi (夷‎) with reference to classical conceptions of barbarism. Classical literature is crucial to de Quincey’s identity; he wields this as a master-knowledge against such Sinologists as Thomas Taylor Meadows when debating the Arrow crisis. Classical allusions reveal that his hatred of China is ultimately self-loathing: figures such as the classical daimon show that de Quincey identifies with those who have ceded agency to an outside force, and in his opium addiction he resembles China as much as he does the Malay in Confessions of an English Opium Eater. By reference to tragedy he proposes violence that is symbolic rather than real.
Production at the Individual Level
Authors: Fogarty Michael J. , Collie Jeremy S.
Published: September 2020

Models of individual growth commonly used in fisheries and ecological research can be built around simple allometric functions representing the build-up of body mass (anabolism) and metabolic loss terms incorporating the effects of respiration, egestion, and excretion. From a bioenergetic perspective, body weight is a natural choice for the response variable in these models because it can be readily recast in terms of energy. Temperature affects virtually every dimension of the biology and ecology of aquatic organisms. Modifications of traditional models of individual growth can be augmented to account for temperature effects. The development of ‘full’ bioenergetic models considering each of the individual elements of production is a natural culmination of the issues described above. By invoking mass-balance constraints the bioenergetic approach offers important avenues for estimating elements of production that can be difficult to otherwise obtain.
Production at the Cohort and Population Levels
Authors: Fogarty Michael J. , Collie Jeremy S.
Published: September 2020

The dominant focus on production processes in fisheries science sets it apart from other areas of population ecology in which population numbers are the principal currency for analysis. This chapter extends consideration of individual growth and mortality rates provided in earlier chapters to broaden the context for understanding cohort and population processes. A cohort is a group of organisms born within a given time period (e.g. year). How a fish population will respond to harvesting requires not only accurate accounting of its effective reproductive output but an understanding of the relative importance of compensatory mechanisms operating at different points in the life cycle. Recruitment (the number in a cohort surviving to a specified life stage or age) emerges as a dominant component of production at the population level. A dominant theme in this chapter concerns population regulation as embodied in the recruitment process and the high variability in this process.
Production at the Ecosystem Level
Authors: Fogarty Michael J. , Collie Jeremy S.
Published: September 2020

The development of ecosystem models can be size-based, species-based, or trophocentric. In all cases, equilibrium mass-balance descriptions of ecosystems can be translated to dynamic models. Linear network models trace the flow of energy through food webs. Starting from the base of the food web, they can be solved from the bottom up to calculate how many predators can be supported for a given level of primary production. Conversely, the food web can be solved from the top down to calculate how much primary production is required to support fisheries yield, given the dietary requirements of top predators. These models typically employ species-level and/or trophic-level designations for the nodes in the model. Biomass-spectrum models in contrast are based on body size dimensions (typically weight) rather than any taxonomic designation. Biogeochemical models provide another approach to developing ecosystem production models by making the connection between the availability of key nutrients and ecosystem production.
Introduction
Authors: Whatmore-Thomson Helen J.
Published: September 2020

Local populations interacted and engaged with their nearby Nazi camps whether in perpetrator or occupied nations, and these interactions continued with whatever became of the camps after the war. The introduction situates the book between historiographical debates that span wartime experience and post-war national memory cultures, and discusses the conceptual relevance of bystanders as a category of analysis. It shifts the perspective of KZ history to the durable intertwinement of camp and community and argues that local engagement with sites of terror is a critical vector in KZ history and memory.
Pragmatism and Memorialization
Authors: Whatmore-Thomson Helen J.
Published: September 2020

After the internment camps closed, the KZs were used in further pragmatic capacities. Chapter 3 reviews how the refunctionalization of the KZs at Vught and Neuengamme displaced the connotations of Nazi history by inscribing new narratives onto the local landscape, and how the new institutions gave the sites more prevalent associations with the present than with the past. The chapter also assesses the ways in which memory culture began to develop at the three sites, with or without the presence of an official (national) KZ monument. It evaluates local contributions to rites and rituals, the occasions when the KZ site was used as the stage for alternative forms of commemoration, and the practical and administrative implications of hosting a KZ monument on local territory. It closes by analysing how KZ memory was not limited to the KZ site (in former occupied Europe) and assesses other contexts in which KZ memory affected local identity and self-understanding.
Incongruity and resolution
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

This chapter returns to the incongruity theory of humor and presents its most common conceptualization, the incongruity-resolution model. A semantic definition of incongruity, based on the violation of expectations, is provided. The discussion of the resolution of the incongruity is then addressed. A distinction is made between full and partial resolution and between foregrounded and backgrounded incongruities. Finally, the linearity of the incongruity-resolution model is discussed, using the Isotopy Disjunction Model, which is the linguistics-based proposal that offers the most insight in the linear processing of humor.
Semiotics of humor
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the semiotics of humor. Semiotics considers signs of any kind, not just linguistic ones. The distinction between denotative semiotics and connotative semiotics is introduced. Humor is a connotative semiotics and it thus shares some of the features of connotative semiotics, such as the defunctionalization of the sign (i.e., messages are no longer used to communicate, but for ulterior purposes, i.e., to amuse or for play). Bateson’s theory of play is also introduced in this context. This leads to the definition of humor as a message whose perlocutionary goal is to be perceived as humorous (rather than, say, informative). Two significant conclusions are drawn: the mechanisms of humor and are the same in linguistic and non-linguistic communication and the semantic and pragmatic mechanisms of humor are the determining factors of the unique features of humorous communication.
The semantics of humor
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

This chapter opens the second part of the book on humor competence (chapters 6-9). This chapter introduces Raskin’s semantic theory of humor competence based on scripts (Semantic-Script Theory of Humor, SSTH). The concept of script (or frame) is introduced. Dynamic scripts (i.e., scripts that are updated with new informatiom) are described as well as the mechanics of combinations of word senses and disambiguation. The two conditions for a text to be a joke are described: 1) two scripts must be opposite, and 2) they must overlap fully or in part, i.e., be compatible with (parts of) the text. The pragmatic aspects of the SSTH are also discussed, with the idea of non-bona-fide communication, i.e., communication not entirely focused on cooperative (in the Gricean sense) communication. Finally, the recent development of Ontological semantics and its application to humor is discussed.
Conversation analysis: humor in conversation I
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

As the title indicates this is the first part of the discussion of humor in conversation. The focus is on Conversation Analysis (CA). The chapter starts with a discussion of CA methodology, which is quite different from that used in previous chapters, and then focuses on the analysis of laughter in conversation and on the definition of laughable. The foundational analysis of a canned joke telling by Harvey Sacks is presented and several issues related to CA analyses of humor are discussed, including that humor and laughter are not an adjacency pair, the non-humorous laughter is common, and that humor is not often a test of understanding and that the tellability of humor does not only come from its being funny, but may come also from its being a shared experience.
Sociolinguistics of humor
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

This chapter concludes the discussion of the performance of humor by addressing the variationist approaches to the sociolinguistics of humor. Among the topics discussed are humor and gender, social class, age, and the uses of dialects associated with humor. The chapter also considers the universality of humor, which is attested in all human societies, and the social constructionist views of humor as setting up an alternate “reality” in which the rules of normal social interaction are suspended.
The Press and the People
Authors: Fox Adam
Published: September 2020

This is the first full-length study of cheap print in early modern Scotland. It traces the production and distribution of ephemeral publications from the nation’s first presses in the early sixteenth century through to the age of Burns in the late eighteenth. It explores the development of the Scottish book trade in general and the production of slight and popular texts in particular. Focusing on the means by which these works reached a wide audience, it illuminates the nature of their circulation in both urban and rural contexts. Specific chapters examine single-sheet imprints such as ballads and gallows speeches, newssheets and advertisements, as well as the little pamphlets that contained almanacs and devotional works, stories and songs. The book demonstrates just how much more of this reading matter was once printed than now survives and argues that Scotland had a much larger market for such material than has been appreciated. By illustrating the ways in which Scottish printers combined well-known titles from England with a distinctive repertoire of their own, The Press and the People transforms our understanding of popular literature in early modern Scotland and its contribution to British culture more widely.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Adam
Published: September 2020

The introduction to this book argues that no general study of cheap print and popular literature has yet been undertaken for Scotland in the period between the advent of the nation’s first presses in the early sixteenth century and the eve of the French Revolution in the late eighteenth. It demonstrates that far more of this kind of ephemeral work aimed at a wide audience was once produced than has now survived and that the scale of its output has been insufficiently appreciated. The book sets out to show that Scotland both produced and imported a far more extensive range of reading matter for the mass market than has been acknowledged and that no understanding of contemporary society can be complete without it.
Creating a Reading Public
Authors: Fox Adam
Published: September 2020

Chapter 1 examines the creation of a reading public in early modern Scotland. It charts the expansion of basic education both in the formal setting of schools and the informal environment of the home. It highlights the way in which the ability to read a simple printed text in English spread down through Lowland Scottish society so as to become commonplace. The price of cheaply printed works in the form of single sheets, pamphlets, and unbound tracts is documented and set alongside the data of wages and prices so as to assess the changing cost of such material in real terms and emphasise its relative affordability. Finally, the broader context of press regulation and output in Scotland is surveyed across the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.
The Edinburgh Book Trade and Popular Wares, 1660–1785
Authors: Fox Adam
Published: September 2020

Chapter 3 traces the continued development of the book trade in Edinburgh during the later seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, focusing in particular on the lower end of the market. It examines the printers who specialised in cheap wares, the booksellers who purveyed them in the city, and the chapmen who carried them out into the towns and villages of Lowland Scotland. It examines the roles of book auctions and circulating libraries, of cheap reprints and popular imports, in extending the reach of popular works down through society in Edinburgh and beyond.
Historical sources and periodization of the Japonic and Koreanic languages
Authors: Miyake Marc
Published: September 2020

This chapter outlines the various periods of Japonic and Koreanic language history. It provides approximate dates for each period more or less following traditional divisions while noting issues with conventional dividing lines. Owing to length considerations, it does not contain comprehensive lists of sources. Instead it only refers to a few sources per period, with an emphasis on the difficulties of interpretation that are not often explicitly discussed in the literature. It gives selected examples of characteristic features—mostly phonological but also sometimes morphological and lexical—for each period. It introduces the various scripts in the sources with brief examples and transliteration: Chinese characters, man’yōgana, hiragana, katakana, hyangch’al, idu, kugyŏl, and han’gŭl.
The classification of the Mongolic languages
Authors: Nugteren Hans
Published: September 2020

The Mongolic languages constitute a compact language family with limited written history. Given the paucity of decisive shared features such as sound laws, it has been relatively hard to set up a Mongolic family tree. Owing to the steady increase in the number of sufficiently studied Mongolic languages and dialects in the past 60 years, Mongolists have reached a rough consensus. This chapter will provide a brief overview of published opinions and a survey of phonological, morphological, and lexical arguments traditionally used in classification. In addition, it will attempt to make use of irregular, not easily repeated, developments as an alternative avenue to fine-tune the classification.
The classification of the Turkic languages
Authors: Johanson Lars
Published: September 2020

This chapter deals with the genealogical classification of the Turkic languages. After a presentation of the areas in which the languages are distributed, the distinction between “language” and “dialect” is discussed. The history of Turkic has been heavily influenced by continuous migrations of the Turkic-speaking groups, which has led to divergence and/or convergence of the varieties. Contacts with non-Turkic languages have resulted in two types of contact-induced changes: “take-over” and “carry-over” copying. The proposed classification is based on a rough geographical division, which at the same time mirrors the basic genealogical affiliations. The classificatory criteria applied include phonetic, morphological, and lexical features.
The typological heritage of the Transeurasian languages
Authors: Robbeets Martine
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the question of whether some structural features shared by the Transeurasian languages can be explained by inheritance. For this purpose, first 20 structural features shared by the Transeurasian languages that are shared to a lesser extent by neighboring non-Transeurasian languages are established. Next, a number of diachronic typological criteria are proposed which indicate that the Transeurasian languages can be characterized as a “typological heritage,” even if this still leaves room for the concepts of “diffusion” and “language area.”
Typological profile of the Transeurasian languages from a quantitative perspective
Authors: Hübler Nataliia
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the typological features of the Transeurasian (Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Japonic, Koreanic) languages, including brief descriptions of the phonology and morphosyntax of these languages. Through the application of phylogenetic comparative methods, a set of structural features with a high phylogenetic signal is delimited. These features can be assumed to be genealogically stable. The trees achieved by Bayesian tree-sampling based on all 226 features are compared with those derived via the 97 structural features with a high phylogenetic signal and the conclusion reached is that the data set with presumably stable structural features does not provide a tree that is compatible with the language history assumed by classical historical linguists. Neither the full nor the reduced feature set provides a reliable internal classification of the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, and Japonic language families.
Jejudo Korean
Authors: Shin Ubong , Kiaer Jieun , Shin Jiyoung
Published: September 2020

Jejudo Korean is spoken mainly on the island of Jeju. Owing to its geographic distance from Korean peninsula, it has some unique features that make it different from other dialects spoken in Korea. For instance, it contains a lexical influence from Middle Mongolian and has also preserved some elements of Middle Korean (10th century–16th century) that no longer exist in other Korean dialects. In 2011, UNESCO listed Jejudo Korean as a nearly extinct language. Since then, much attention has been given to Jejudo Korean. This chapter provides an overview of Jejudo Korean: historical connections and geneology, phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary. Owing to the vast influence of Standard Korean, we also observed phonological and morphological changes in Jejudo Korean, particularly in young people’s speech.
A comparative approach to the vowel systems and harmonies in the Transeurasian languages and beyond
Authors: Joseph Andrew , Ko Seongyeon , Whitman John
Published: September 2020

In this chapter the standard treatments of the Transeurasian vowel correspondences are reviewed, including their reconstructions of hypothetical proto-inventories, for the purpose of establishing a description of the Transeurasian vowel inventory and vowel harmony type. The review commences with a comparison of two major types of vowel-harmony systems in the Transeurasian languages, i.e. the palatal vs. the tongue-root harmony systems, and presents phonetic, phonological, and comparative evidence for a tongue-root harmony analysis of Korean, Mongolic, and Tungusic. Interpretations of the main Transeurasian reconstructions are then proposed, such as Ramstedt (1952–66) and Poppe (1960b) according to tongue-root harmony analysis as opposed to the conventional palatal harmony analysis. After this, there is an effort to situate the Transeurasian vowel inventory in its typological and geographical neighborhood, including Northeast Asian languages and beyond, and in its linguistic geographical setting.
Transeurasian as a continuum of diffusion
Authors: Vajda Edward
Published: September 2020

Intermingling of Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic speakers over many centuries left multiple overlapping layers of contact-induced language change in their wake. While the dynamics of pastoralist mobility spread linguistic traits far and wide, it remains unresolved whether contact alone (together with coincidental resemblance) can account for all of the shared features in the families traditionally grouped as “Altaic,” or whether some homologies represent evidence of deeper common ancestry. Without arguing strongly for or against either possibility, this chapter considers how typological parallels may have diffused among pastoral Inner Eurasia’s four autochthonous families—Uralic, Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic—and also into Yeniseian, Yukaghir, Chukchi-Kamchatkan, Nivkh, Ainu, Koreanic, and Japonic—families and isolates that interacted less pervasively with steppe and forest pastoralists.
Beck-Wichmann-Brown evaluation of lexical comparisons for the Transeurasian proposal
Authors: Brown Cecil H.
Published: September 2020

The Beck-Wichmann-Brown system is used to objectify and provide uniformity to the comparative method of historical linguistics in the evaluation of lexical sets assembled as evidence for proposals of language genealogical relationship. The approach quantitatively assesses degrees of support that collections of comparative sets provide for proposals, with regard to whether or not observed similarities exceed coincidental expectation, and in the case that they do, an algorithm is developed for distinguishing resemblance due to genealogical affiliation from that due to borrowing. This study applies Beck-Wichmann-Brown to ten collections of comparative sets based on data compiled by Robbeets (2005) for the Transeurasian proposal (uniting Japanese, Korean, Mongolic, Tungusic, and Turkic). These evaluative results are compared with those yielded by Beck-Wichmann-Brown application to 86 other collections of lexical sets for proposals involving languages of global distribution.
Begriffsspaltung II
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores two further ‘split’ abstract concepts presented in the Works and Days, Aidos (‘Shame/Awe’) and Nemesis (‘Righteous Indignation’). It is shown that not only are there contradictory meanings inherent in these terms, but these contradictions become apparent only once we consider the context. For Hesiod, the good and the bad Aidos are not clearly opposed and distinct from one another, but can have positive or negative effects depending on the existing conditions. Reality and its linguistic expression are not static, but fluid and dynamic, and must be subjected to interpretation.
Begriffsspaltung III
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

The present chapter discusses another important abstract concept, viz. dike. This time we are not confronted with an abstraction that can have both a positive and a negative aspect, expressed through adjectival attributes. In the case of dike, there is no ontological split as in Eris, either. Instead, in presenting dike Hesiod uses the same means of expression as earlier (adjectival attribution) in order to portray the opposition between genuine and false justice. But Hesiod goes further and illustrates the variety of (sometimes contradictory) meanings which dike can have. It turns out to be so multivalent and (sometimes) deceitfully used that it requires a special kind of definition. Coming to grips with the confusion that the (mis-)application of dike can cause is essential for Hesiod’s project since this concept is of paramount importance for the world of mortals as established by Zeus.
Kennings and Riddles
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses a number of riddling expressions in the Works and Days, often referred to in scholarship as kennings. These represent another facet of Hesiod’s ambiguous language in the final part of the Works and Days. Here, the poet goes beyond the difficulties posed by the ‘split’ abstract concepts discussed earlier and actually suggests a tendency for opacity and obscurity. The kennings are riddles that introduce the idea that language may not only explain and reveal, but also cause confusion and conceal. They are semata whose interpretation requires a certain hermeneutic effort and thus their primary function is to add a further layer of complexity that mirrors the condicio humana.
Hesiod in Plato’s Cratylus
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores Plato’s interaction with Hesiod the language expert in his Cratylus. On a basic level, Plato often invokes Hesiod by quoting from his works in order to lend support to a certain thesis that one of the interlocutors proposes. More importantly, there is a different mode of interaction as well, i.e. the intellectual affinity that may exist between the two authors in matters pertaining to language. From the ensuing discussion, it emerges that both authors show that names and their etymology have some value insofar as they enable us to search for the truth. But knowing a name and its etymology does not enable us to grasp the meaning of the denotatum
tout court.
Approaching ‘Religious Identity’ in Late Antiquity
Authors: Rebillard Éric
Published: September 2020

The category of ‘semi-Christians’ has often been criticized, but nevertheless seems to endure in academic discourse. It is used for describing Christians who do not fully embrace Christianity. After a review of the use of this category and its critics, this chapter proposes a shift of paradigm for approaching ‘religious identity’ in late antiquity. Instead of classifying individuals according to one category membership, their ‘religious identity’, I introduce the notion of identity salience and that of arrangement of category membership sets. Finally, I consider what such theoretical considerations can bring to the understanding of individuals described as ‘semi-Christians’ with the case-studies of Ausonius and Macrobius.
Julian the Apologist
Authors: Tougher Shaun
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines how the myth and cult of the Mother of the Gods (with the associated figures of Attis and the supposedly self-castrating Galli) were utilized in the rhetorical construction of religious identity in the fourth century AD. Christians in their characterizations of paganism gave a prominent place to the cult of the Great Mother, usually in salacious and shocking terms, and the chapter focuses on the examples of Arnobius and Firmicus Maternus. These Christian texts are then brought into dialogue with a pagan treatment of the cult, the discourse on the Mother of the Gods written by the emperor Julian. The chapter emphasizes the need to see Julian in context and in dialogue with his times and his contemporaries. A close reading of Julian’s text reveals that he is responding to Christian presentations of the cult, and that he is not just an apostate but also an apologist.
Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge
Authors: Louth Charlie
Published: September 2020

Baudelaire forms the link onto this chapter on Rilke’s ‘prose-book’, where his experience of Paris is given fullest expression and where the French literary tradition is everywhere present. Malte is read as in dialogue with decadence, especially with Huysmans’ À rebours. It is understood as a ‘poet’s novel’ in the sense that its techniques, preoccupations, and structures are not those of the novel as they are commonly understood, and make more sense when approached as a kind of prose poetry with connections to Baudelaire’s. There is also an extended comparison with Hamlet, as a way of elucidating the novel as a work of crisis, with its hero poised between ruin and revelation.
Tender Taxes and Other Departures
Authors: Louth Charlie
Published: September 2020

The poems 1922–1926 are a body of work that has not received as much attention as it should. The most significant development is that Rilke, partly under the influence of Valéry whom he continued to translate, begins writing a large number of poems in French. What exactly does this turn to French mean? The main focus is on the Quatrains valaisans and the informal cycle of landscape poems in German related to the seasonal cycle, both of which are attempts to write a modern version of pastoral. This chapter makes the case for taking Rilke’s French poems seriously and for seeing them as enabling him to do something different from his German work. It explores a lightness and song-like quality in Rilke’s writing as the inheritance of the Sonette, while also attending to the German poems and the interactions between the two.
Pretense Part I
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter
Published: September 2020

Three related questions—metaphysical, epistemological, and psychological—about pretense and its relationship to imagination are distinguished. Answers to the metaphysical and epistemological questions are defended in the balance of the chapter. In response to the metaphysical question of what it is to pretend, it’s argued that we need not invoke a sui generis notion of imagination, nor a concept of pretend, in order to say what qualifies someone as pretending. To pretend that x is y is, roughly, to intentionally make some x y-like while believing that x will not, in the process, become a y. Nor, in answer to the epistemological question, need we hold that the recognition of pretense in others requires attributing to them sui generis imaginings, or a primitive mental state concept of pretend. Pretense can be recognized—when it is recognizable at all—via superficial features of a person’s behavior.
Consuming Fictions Part III
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter
Published: September 2020

Further challenges to the idea that sui generis imaginings account for our affective responses to fiction are developed. The chapter then undertakes an extended analysis of the “paradox of fiction”—viz., the claim that it is irrational or inappropriate to respond emotionally to mere fictions—and proposes a novel solution. A number of theorists have held that special features of imagination play a role in resolving the paradox. It is argued that these proposals fail on their own terms and that the paradox can nevertheless be resolved in a way consistent with our emotional reactions to fiction being grounded in beliefs and desires. Coming to terms with the paradox requires both understanding why the “rug-pull” structure of the examples typically used to motivate it are disanalogous to our experience of fictions, and appreciating the specific emotional norms relevant to fiction-appreciation.
The Morality of Harm
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

The methodological debate about the morality of war has tended to confuse different questions. It has led to a polarization, where on the one hand people see the morality of war as a primarily collectivist and institutionalized subject and on the other simply as a matter of questions of individual responsibility. These are not the only options, and we need a more nuanced approach. Rejecting the existence and significance of collective agency, or the authority of the commands of unjust states to go to war, should not incline us to ignore other facts about relationships between individuals that are morally important.
Fighting for One’s Own
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the significance of political and personal relationships in the ethics of war—the extent to which such relationships and political communities give people reason to fight, the kind of reasons they are, and what implications they have in the ethics of war. It is mainly sceptical that such relationships can make an otherwise unjust war permissible, but it defends the view that they can make otherwise permissible conduct required. It also addresses the question whether contractual duties ground permissions and duties in war. Finally, the chapter argues that it is sometimes permissible to fight in unjust wars.