bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Playback Method of Protocol Analysis Applied to a Rapid Aiming Task
Authors: Triggs T. J. , Kantowitz B. H. , Terrill B. S. , Bittner A. C. , Fleming T. F.
Published: January 2012

The analysis of subjective verbal protocols can provide valuable information additional to that obtained from traditional objective data sources. The most frequently used type of protocol analysis is of the “think-aloud” report where operators verbalize as they perform a task of interest. However, while this concurrent method has been usefully applied to high-level cognitive tasks that are accomplished over extended time periods, it is generally considered to be less appropriate for short-duration tasks where the emphasis is on speed of performance. This study reports on the application of a new protocol method to a speeded task based on a procedure where the computer “plays back” the experimental trials and shows the subject's response. The verbal response of the subject was recorded during the playback, augmented by prompts from the experimenter. Several aiming tasks requiring rapid movements to a target were examined using this method. The data obtained from the protocol analysis were a valuable adjunct to the actual performance results, and demonstrated that the new method appears to be a satisfactory procedure for obtaining protocols for rapidly performed tasks. Where movements involving both hands were involved, the verbal protocols supported a divided attention hypothesis for performance over a competing motor-program hypothesis. The reports implied that the movement characteristics were under conscious control requiring division of attention.
A Model for Evaluation and Training in Aircrew Coordination and Cockpit Resource Management
Authors: Simon Robert , Risser Daniel T. , Pawlik Eugene A. , Leedom Dennis K.
Published: January 2012

To improve crew coordination in aviation operations, the Army has adopted an Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT) program. However, the Army does not have a reliable, objective set of metrics for assessing the extent of the resulting crew coordination. Consequently, ARIARDA and DRC developed measures of aircrew coordination to assist in evaluating the effectiveness of the Army ACT program. A rational approach to evaluation requires that assessment be structured and tied to well-defined objectives. The initial stages of the project were driven by the recognition of two crucial deficiencies. First, there was no fundamental conceptual framework for aircrew coordination articulated in the literature. Second, most ACT evaluation schemes were based on measuring attitude change, rather than attitudes and behavior. To remedy these deficiencies, a conceptual model of aircrew coordination was developed and coordination objectives were established. Based on this work, an aircrew coordination evaluation measurement suite was constructed to measure both attitudes and behaviors. This work will assist in moving ACT programs to a much sounder footing since many ACT courses have been criticized for being too “soft.” The ARIARDA project, with a robust theoretical model and associated behavioral outcomes, will integrate ACT training and evaluation in the Army. Moreover, because the model is general, it can provide guidance to other agencies developing crew coordination training or evaluation.
Human Factors Considerations in the Design of Displays and Switches for a Flight Simulator's Onboard Instructor/Operator Station (IOS)
Authors: Seamster Thomas L. , Glass Richard H.
Published: January 2012

The MV-22A training device suite Operational Flight Trainer (OFT) and Aircrew System Trainer (AST) specification requirements provide for an instructor work environment that focuses on integrating the instructor's position with the training environment. This paper will describe the process to refine a display/switch design dedicated to over-the-shoulder instruction at the IOS. The time frame encompasses the period from the mockup through the IOS-specific design reviews which addresses a mature IOS display/switch design. This new IOS display/switch design mirrors the aircraft's Multi-Function Displays (MFDs) which provide the pilots rapid and efficient access to aircraft systems and environmental data, while allowing for primary focus on flying the aircraft. Correspondingly, the IOS display/switch design for control and monitor of the training scenario, allows the instructor to focus on trainee actions, the aircraft instrument panel, and the visual system's forward field of view. Since the mockup, there has been a refinement process leading to some significant design initiatives. An analysis of this refinement process points out some key issues in designing for this new type of IOS display.
Resource Allocation and Object Displays
Authors: Tsang Pamela S. , Bates William E.
Published: January 2012

Object displays are receiving increasing interest due to their potential contribution to display designs and to the understanding of basic visual attention mechanisms. The aim of the present research is to develop a more in depth understanding of the attention mechanisms involved in object perception. Multidimensional information was presented in the form of an object that was defined by its color, form, and size. Subjects' ability to divide and focus attention on a specific dimension of the object were examined as a function of (a) the number of irrelevant varying dimensions, (b) the uncertainty of the relevant dimension, and (c) the number of objects that the subjects simultaneously attend to. Two possible mechanisms by which processing resources can be allocated among the dimensions of an object were explored. Three task conditions with various degrees of irrelevant information were presented in a single or dual object display. The task was to identify one of the dimensions as quickly and as accurately as possible. As predicted by Kahneman and Treisman's object file model, results show that all dimensions of the object appeared to be processed. This was evidenced by the influence of the irrelevant size variation on color and form identification. However, the data suggest that although all dimensions were processed they were not processed without cost. Attention appeared to be divided among the dimensions. As the number of dimensions increased, the amount of attention available for each of the dimensions would be reduced. Further, only a small difference between the single and dual object case was detected. The small difference attests to a relative ease in selective attention between relevant and irrelevant objects.
The Effect of Cognitive Workload, Job Enrichment Environment, and Spatial Ability on Goal Structures and Strategies
Authors: Bringelson Liwana S. , Eberts Ray
Published: January 2012

The cognitive strategies used in the performance of human-computer interaction tasks have often been described in terms of goal stack models which are equivalent to hierarchical structures of goals and sub-goals. Effects of cognitive workload, spatial ability and job enrichment (JE) environment were evaluated by using goal structures and the quality of output. Studies were performed on a memo text-editing task to evaluate methods to determine the cognitive goal structures by analyzing the keystrokes and the pauses between keystrokes. The keystrokes provide information about the nodes and goals in the structures while the pauses between keystrokes provide information about the hierarchical structure of the goals. The cognitive goal structures of individual subjects were analyzed quantitatively according to the efficiency of the strategy and the depth and breadth of the strategy. The measures of cognitive goal structures were affected by environmental manipulations of the task in an experimental study of subjects using a text-editor. In particular, in a high workload condition, performance depended upon the spatial ability of the subjects. The goal structures of high spatial subjects became shallower as workload increased and the goal structures of the low spatial subjects did not change appreciably. In the high JE condition, the high spatial subjects developed more efficient cognitive strategies while in the low JE condition these high spatial subjects were less efficient. For the low spatial subjects, job enrichment had no effect. Overall, high spatial subjects changed their cognitive goal structures and strategies dependent upon the environmental conditions whereas the low spatial subjects were invariant under different environmental conditions.
Effects of Variations in Head-Up Display Airspeed and Altitude Representations on Basic Flight Performance
Authors: Ercoline William R. , Gillingham Kent K.
Published: January 2012

Five different head-up display (HUD) airspeed and altitude symbol sets were examined for efficacy in a basic instrument crosscheck during visually simulated flight. Twenty-five pilot subjects used each HUD symbol set while tasked to maintain straight and level flight for 200 seconds. Airspeed and altitude were caused to vary during the flight profile, requiring the pilots to recognize deviations and correct back to target conditions. Root mean square (RMS) performance errors (deviations from assigned airspeed and altitude) were measured. The pilots' airspeed and altitude performance was significantly better (p<0.01) with two new formats — rotating pointers with dot scales and plain rotating pointers—than with two more common formats—boxed digits and moving vertical tapes. Another novel format, boxed digits with trend bars, provided the best performance with respect to altitude error, but not airspeed error. Measures of subjects' confidence in their ability to use the different displays for basic instrument flight were significantly different (p<0.001) and consistent with the performance measures. The results of this study are important because of the need to standardize HUD symbology, and because of the trend to make the HUD, rather than the panel instruments, serve as the single-source primary flight reference in military aircraft.
Tracking and Letter Classification under Dichoptic and Binocular Viewing Conditions
Authors: Gopher Daniel , Grunwald Arthur , Straucher Zvi , Kimchi Ruth
Published: January 2012

Subjects were required to fly a simulated helicopter path, while also classifying letter pairs presented intermitently at 5 retinal locations. Binocular and Dichoptic conditions were compared by employing color filters. Tracking under dichoptic conditions was strongly influenced by the absence of a common optical axis. Classification performance also deteriorated and was influenced by the conditions of tracking.
The Effects of Transient Adaptation on Cockpit Operations
Authors: Rinalducci Edward J. , Lassiter Donald L. , Mitchell Lawrence
Published: January 2012

Two experiments examined visibility loss as a function of sudden changes in luminance level such as those that might be experienced by a pilot in a high- performance aircraft. Luminance levels chosen were similar to those found at dawn and dusk or under nighttime conditions. In the first experiment, the observer was required to recognize test letters varying in spectral composition similar to what might be seen on a HUD. The large background field changed upwards or downwards a 1– or 2–log unit increment. Results indicated losses for both directions of change. No differences were found between the different test-letter colors. In the second experiment, the observer was exposed to changing background fields (2–log unit upward and downward changes) which were presented from 0 to 5 degrees from foveal fixation. In general, results indicated greater effects for background stimuli closest to central fixation (in the region of target location) and decreasing to zero with increasing eccentricity.
A Follow-up of the Mature Driver Study: Another Look at Age and Sex Effects
Authors: Laux Lila F.
Published: January 2012

In 1989 we assessed the sensory, cognitive, psychomotor, and physical functioning of 104 Houston drivers aged 40 to 92, as well as their driving habits and problems including accidents and citations. We found age-related changes in functional status and in driving patterns, but we found no age-related tendency to experience more driving problems. In 1990, 95 of the participants completed a 15 month follow-up survey in which we collected data related to accidents, traffic citations, and changes in driving patterns. Those participants who had had the poorest sensory functioning and who were smaller or weaker in 1989 were most likely to report that they had reduced driving or changed their driving habits in the 15 months following the study.

Age and accident rates (per mile driven) were not correlated. In the followup period, however, older drivers' citation rates were significantly lower than younger drivers'. The data were analyzed separately for males and females. We found that performance on several of the tests administered during the study period were predictors of accident and citation rates reported at the 15 month followup, but that different functional measures predicted accidents and citations for men and women.
What Makes a Manual Look Easy to Use?
Authors: Angiolillo Joel S. , Roberts Linda A.
Published: January 2012

What makes a customer manual look attractive and easy to use? How do typeface, margins, tabs, color, style of headings, and so on, contribute to this perception?

We believe that a manual that looks hard to use may discourage users from even trying to use it. Why struggle to make a manual accurate, well-written, and complete if users never turn to it in the first place?

In the study reported here, eighteen subjects ranked six different customer manuals on nineteen dimensions, for example, use of color and overall attractiveness. The manuals were actual production manuals that were written to be used by full-time administrators of complicated electronic equipment. Analyses of the data clearly show that those features that help the user to find information (i.e., tabs, headings, and an impression of good organization) are important in determining judgments of perceived ease of use.
Cognitive Models of Planning in the Design of Project Management Systems
Authors: Pietras Christine M. , Coury Bruce G.
Published: January 2012

The research presented in this paper is concerned with the planning component of project management and describes the use of interviewing and observational techniques to develop cognitive models of planning for project management systems. Interviews were conducted with six project managers from six different problem domains. Protocol analysis was used to develop two types of cognitive models: process models that provided detail descriptions of planning actions; and a higher level model of the planning process based on the Hayes-Roth theoretical model of planning. A visual representation of the planning process, called DMAP, was created to identify the type planning that occurs at each stage of the planning process in project management. The discussion focuses on the use of cognitive models in the design of knowledge-based systems for project management.
Allowing for Human Factors in Computerized Procedure Design
Authors: Dien Yves , Montmayeul René , Beltranda Guy
Published: January 2012

This paper addresses the way in which EDF allows for human factor aspects in the design of procedures to be run on the computerized work stations of its future nuclear power plants.

Based on the issues at stake and the allowance methods involved, it outlines the design points on which human factors have impact.
Human Factors and Medicine
Authors: Bogner Sue , Van Cott Harold , Serig Dennis , Cook Richard , Gaba David
Published: January 2012

Technology is particularly paramount in two major aspects of our culture: military and medicine. Concern about reducing human error and optimizing human performance in the use of technology in the military has given rise to the discipline of Human Factors. The importance of systematic consideration of factors that impact on performance with military systems is recognized and to a large extent institutionalized under the rubric of MANPRINT. Human performance in medicine, however, has not been accorded comparable concern. Indeed, the lack of systematic analysis of human performance and error in medicine seems to indicate that the “art” of medicical practice is implicitly emphasized to the relative neglect of the study of the “science” of the delivery of medical treatment. This is more than a bit incongruous considering the high tech mode of contemporary medicine and the profound implications of human error in medical treatment.
Identifying the Temporal Patterning Confusions in Audio Displays: Developing Guidelines for Complex Audio Displays
Authors: Gerth Jeffrey M.
Published: January 2012

Current guidelines and recommendations for auditory displays suggest that human auditory discrimination performance is limited and that auditory displays should be used only for alarm and alerting signals. Auditory warnings are likely to be confused even when their spectra are very different. Reducing confusion between warnings should increase the number of auditory signals which can be presented. The present research investigated the ability of human listeners to discriminate sounds varying in temporal patterning in several sound categories.

Although overall accuracy was 92 percent across the 45 dissimilar sound sequences, 7 sequences were found to be easily confused and accounted for 64 percent of the total errors made by listeners, regardless of sound category. According to subject reports, multiple simultaneously presented temporally patterned sounds within each sound category were not perceived as multiple sources but rather were fused into a single complex temporal pattern. Implications for developing complex audio displays by increasing the number and complexity of sounds and planned continuing research are also discussed.
Psychosocial Work Strain of Maintenance Personnel during Annual Outage and Normal Operation in a Nuclear Power Plant
Authors: Jacobsson Lena , Svensson Ola
Published: January 2012

The present study evaluates psychosocial work demands during the annual outage for a maintenance work group in a nuclear power plant. The study is based on a stress paradigm and it has been asserted that increased work strain would have a negative effect on performance.

Nineteen workers, aged 20–55 years, participated in the study. The subjects filled out a questionnaire comparing work strain during annual outage and normal operation. During the outage period a 3-shift 24-hour work schedule, including nightwork, was used (working hours during normal operation was 07–16). Increased demands on concentration and vigilance, increased time pressure and strain on social relations within the group were found to characterize work during annual outage. Interestingly, for specific work tasks an association was found between the risk of making errors and high psychological workload. Increased work strain, shiftwork including nightwork and reduced social support are important psychosocial risk factors that might contribute to human error during the outage period.
Product Evaluations and Injury Assessments as Related to Preferences for Explicitness in Warnings
Authors: Vaubel Kent P. , Brelsford John W.
Published: January 2012

Increasing concern about the impact on-product safety information has on sales of a product has focussed attention on consumer decision making as a new area within which to carry out warnings research. Examples of this new research domain include efforts aimed at exploring the relationships between anticipated purchase decisions and the level of detail with which a warning describes consequences of using a product. The level of detail with which consequences are described in a warning is referred to as the explicitness of the warning. In the research reported here, an attempt was made to examine purchase preferences for explicit warnings in the context of cost-benefit tradeoffs made among fictitious products varying in societal value and potential harm. Seventy-three subjects were presented with brief written descriptions of seven products, each having associated with it a unique injury. Explicit and nonexplicit warnings accompanied each product description. Using a questionnaire, subjects evaluated each product in terms of its value to society and indicated whether it should be made available for sale in the United States. They then assessed the severity of the injury and the degree to which they felt it could be controlled by taking the proper precautions. Finally, subjects indicated which warning (explicit or nonexplicit) they would prefer on the product they were to buy. Overall, it was found that products having more detailed, or explicit, consequence information were overwhelmingly preferred. Other patterns indicated that greater purchase preferences for explicit warnings existed when products were considered high in societal value, ought to be sold in the U.S., and when injuries were construed as being controllable. These findings suggest that explicit warnings do influence anticipated purchases of products about which there exists uncertainty concerning product-related danger. This influence appears to be contingent upon perceptions about the costs and benefits associated with the product.
Human Factors Research on Future Automotive Instrumentation: A Progress Report
Authors: Green Paul , Williams Marie , Serafin Colleen , Paelke Gretchen
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a 2–1/2 year project concerning human factors and future driver-information systems. The project goals are to (1) develop human factors guidelines, (2) devise test methods for safety and ease of use, and (3) develop a model that predicts driver performance when using these systems.

A literature review has been completed and focus groups that identified driver needs have been conducted. In addition, a method was developed to select the most beneficial systems using accident reduction, congestion relief, and driver needs/wants as the criteria. Consequently, car phones, navigation, traffic information, vehicle monitoring, and hazard warning systems were selected for further study. Preliminary versions of each have been designed and laboratory tests are in progress. Usability tests in a driving simulator and on the road are scheduled.
Age and the Perception of a Modulating Traffic Signal Light in a Field Location
Authors: Guzy Lawrence T. , Pena-Reynolds Nancy , Brugger Richard D. , Leibowitz Herschel W.
Published: January 2012

Young, middle, and older drivers were motored towards a traffic signal face and were required to report whether the illuminated signal lens was modulating. No significant differences were found among the three age groups in the distance at which modulation was first reported nor in the change of the modulation pattern as they approached the signal face. The modulating of the illuminated green lens was perceived significantly further away than was the red lens. These distances increased during trials associated with inclement weather. Seventy-four percent of the observers indicated that the modulation attracted their attention. Of these, 64% reported a preference for the use of the modulating light in the traffic signals as compared with the standard light source. Implications for improving safety at intersections for the older driver are discussed.
Development of a Human Factors Engineering Program for the Canadian Nuclear Industry
Authors: Beattie J.D. , Malcolm J.S.
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses the development of a new planning document for the Canadian nuclear industry called the Human Factors Engineering Program Plan. This document is to provide a central location for human factors requirements, complete with mechanisms for their implementation as applied to a given project. Human factors knowledge has been incorporated to varying degrees into such areas as control centre design, maintainability and human reliability analyses; but to date there has been no broadly based, formal human factors program in the Canadian nuclear industry. The HFEPP will provide a broader, integrated approach to human factors activities. Background on the development of the plan along with format and content requirements are discussed.
Can Decision Analysis Define the Goals of Training?
Authors: Cohen Marvin S.
Published: January 2012

An appealing goal in the training of decision makers is the development of formal reasoning skills based on decision analysis. Such techniques are applicable to virtually any problem and are guaranteed to be formally consistent. Behavioral evidence regarding “heuristics and biases,” however, suggests that deviations from such methods are systematic, hard to eliminate, and characteristic of both novices and experts in a number of real-world domains. Would training in formal methods to avoid biases (if it were possible) produce an improvement in the quality of decision making?

There are reasons to believe that it would not. “Biases” may in fact be inescapable by-products of the knowledge structures and problem-solving methods that make experienced decision makers effective. Inconsistencies in judgments and choices (1) may simply not matter much in real-world domains; (2) may be corrected in dynamic environments; and (3) may be offset in any case by the advantages of effective use of decision-maker knowledge. Moreover, the identification of biases based on the current experimental literature may itself be mistaken, due to incomplete or otherwise inadequate models.

Effective performance in most domains is the result of (a) a reportoire of recognition-based responses, and (b) a set of meta-recognitional strategies that facilitate recognition and validate the results. In training based on these concepts, “errors” are avoided by acquiring and making the most effective use of domain knowledge, and by adapting to feedback, changes in the situation, and shortcomings in one's current approach as they appear.
Using Eye Movements to Classify Search Strategies
Authors: Crosby Martha E. , Peterson W. Wesley
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a study which employed eye tracking to investigate visually searching lists. An experiment was designed to test if “cognitive style” influences search strategies. We examined the search patterns of subjects as they viewed lists of sorted and randomly ordered columns. We found that cognitive style was a good predictor of the scanning strategies of ordered lists. For the unordered lists, efficient, systematic searching was performed by college students but not by high school students.
PC-Based System for Thermal Image Identification Training
Authors: LaFollette Robert , Horger John , Kane Barbara O'
Published: January 2012

The U.S. Army's CECOM Center for Night Vision and Electro-Optics (C2NVEO) has been conducting a series of human perception tests to complement results of field tests. The perception tests score military observers on their ability to identify and recognize simulated thermal images of combat vehicles. The results of these tests are used to develop and refine the Night Vision FLIR Performance Model (FLIR90/ACQUIRE) which predicts range performance for human target acquisition using different sensor designs.

During the analysis of an early group of tests it became apparent that observers needed to be trained to equal levels of competence before taking the tests. For this purpose, we created a software package designed to teach observers about thermal signatures and to help the observer become more familiar with the target set used in our tests. In the following months we trained and tested dozens of soldiers and civilians with various backgrounds. These training and testing sessions provided a large database of observations for analysis.

The paper includes discussions of the simulation techniques used to produce the test and training imagery and a description of the software package used for training. Conclusions are discussed in light of the patterns of learning achieved by the training and some implications for the human perception of tactical targets.
Telepresence in Videocommunications
Authors: Prussog Angela , Mühlbach Lothar , Böcker Martin
Published: January 2012

The paper discusses factors that affect the impression of telepresence in video-communications. Telepresence is experienced by interlocutors to the extent to which natural visual cues from the remote site are adequately transferred by the medium. The paper reports on two experimental Human Factors studies investigating the effects of various features of videoconferencing systems in terms of, inter alia, the conferees' impression of telepresence as well as user satisfaction and the willingness to use those systems. Within the framework of Experiment 1 the system features that were varied were the scale of representing the conferees (natural vs. reduced size) and the representation of the conferees' surroundings (small vs. large sector of the remote room). In Experiment 2 the system feature being tested was the stereoscopic representation of the conferees. Results showed that both the natural-size representation of conferees as well as the stereoscopic representation increase the impression of telepresence. The expected benefits of a representation of the conferees' surroundings could not be verified. Given a fixed size of the screen, the trade-off between the conferees' size and the representation of surroundings is in favor of the natural size representation.
Incidental Exposure to Rotating Warnings on Alcoholic Beverage Labels
Authors: Wogalter Michael S. , Brelsford John W.
Published: January 2012

No previous research has been published specifically aimed at determining the effectiveness of rotating warnings (as is required in the government-mandated cigarette warnings). This issue has become relevant because decisions may be made with respect to rotating warnings in print and broadcast alcoholic beverage advertisements, and perhaps for labels and ads for other products as well. The present study used 80 participants in a controlled incidental-exposure laboratory experiment. The effect of the current government warning label for alcoholic beverages was compared to a 5-warning and a 10-warning rotating scheme as well as a no-warning control condition. The study was disguised as marketing research where participants were incidentally exposed to the warnings while evaluating a set of alcoholic beverage labels. The dependent measure was performance on a test of alcohol facts and hazards. Findings show that the present single government warning label is inadequate compared to multiple (rotated) warnings. The 10-warning condition produced higher test scores than either the single government warning or no-warning conditions. Overall, the 5-warning condition produced intermediate levels of knowledge. Also, four exposures produced greater specific warning content knowledge than either two or no exposures. The results suggest that rotating multiple warnings are a better means of communicating facts and hazards than a single repeated warning of limited content. Policy implications are discussed.
Comparing Ecologically Constrained and Conventional Displays in Control of a Simple Steam Plant
Authors: Edlund Carl , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2012

Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) are becoming increasingly common for application software in process control. Conventional interfaces display the states of a system without conveying the constraints which drastically reduce the evolutions which must be considered. Our model resolves this difficulty by presenting system parameters in the context of ecological constraints mirroring those of the underlying process. A simulation of a simple steam plant with five different GUIs was used. The displays were a conventional Dials display, a Mimic display, an Object display, a Seesaw analogue, and a Fluidtank analogue. Poor over-all performance in maintaining specified values was found for the Seesaw and the Object displays. The Dials and the Mimic displays performed similarly but with greater accuracy. The best control was observed in the experimental Fluidtanks display. These Findings are consistent with our hypotheses.
A Method to Measure Discomfort of Static, Submaximal Force Exertion
Authors: Daams Brechtje J.
Published: January 2012

The degree of discomfort during force exertion is little investigated in literature. In daily life, however, comfort is an important aspect when using or operating products. It would therefore be useful for designers to know about the subjective experience of (dis)comfort during the exertion of submaximal forces by users of products. No standard measurement methods were found in literature. Two experiments have been carried out, using different methods.

The first experiment was combined with the measurement of endurance time at different force levels and in four different postures. Subjects were asked every half minute to rate the discomfort they experienced on a five-point scale. Alas, the results generated by this method were found to be not sufficiently reproducible.

The second experiment was set up in such a manner as to prevent subjects thinking explicitly about their feelings. This time, only one posture was investigated (pushing with the arm) and a spontaneous change of posture was taken as an indication of discomfort. The time to the first change increased consistently with lower force levels and these results proved to be sufficiently reproducible. Therefore this measurement method is recommended to get an idea about the level of discomfort experienced by subjects. A formula is given to indicate the relation found between the force level and the median of the time to the first change of hand.
Human Factors Issues for Resolving Adverse Effects of Human Work Underload and Workload Transitions in Advanced Transportation Systems
Authors: Ryan Thomas G.
Published: January 2012

A workshop was conducted in which the specific purpose was to build on earlier work by the National Research Council, Federal Government agencies, and the larger human factors community to: (1) clarify human factors issues pertaining to degraded performance in advanced transportation systems due to human work underload and workload transition; and (2) develop strategies for resolving these issues.

The workshop affirmed that: (1) work underload and workload transition are issues that will have to be addressed by designers of human-automation operating configurations, if cost, performance, safety, and user acceptability are to be optimized, (2) human function allocation models, standards, and guidelines which go beyond simple capability approaches will be needed to preclude or seriously diminish the work underload and workload transition problems, and (3) the issues identified during the workshop, need resolution if these models, standards, and guidelines are to be achieved.
The Russian Approach to Task Analysis and Ergonomics Design
Authors: Bedny Gregory , Meister David
Published: January 2012

Political changes in the East now make available to Western Human Factors scientists information about ergonomics developments in the former Soviet Union. This paper indicates the similarities and differences between American and Russian ergonomics viewpoints.
Predicting Driver Behavior using Advanced Traveler Information Systems
Authors: Wheeler William A. , Lee John D. , Raby Mireille , Kinghorn Rhonda A. , Bittner Alvah C. , McCallum Marvin C.
Published: January 2012

As a part of the Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS), Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) will offer tomorrow's drivers significantly expanded capabilities for getting where they want to go safely and efficiently. Vehicle-based navigation systems combined with information on highway conditions and services have the potential for improving driver performance. Though ATIS may offer considerable advantages, the system design must be consistent with the primary tasks of controlling and operating the vehicle. This paper describes an attempt to identify the likely interaction between what a driver must do to operate the vehicle safely while at the same time using the various ATIS systems. As such, it is an attempt to visualize what driving with these advanced systems will be like and to translate that vision into standard human factors task analytic techniques. Though a broad range of ATIS systems and functions were addressed in this project, this paper will address the macro-level task analyses that resulted from the examination of 165 tasks related to ATIS use.
An Experimental Field Test of Automotive Headway Maintenance/Collision Warning Visual Displays
Authors: McGehee Daniel V. , Dingus Thomas A. , Horowitz Avraham D.
Published: January 2012

Motor vehicle crashes resulting from one vehicle striking the rear-end of another are one of the most common types of crashes involving two or more vehicles. The National Safety Council reported (Accident Facts, 1992) that there were approximately 11.3 million motor vehicle crashes in 1991 of which 2.7 million were rear-end crashes (about 23.8% of the total). These crashes accounted for 33% of all collisions involving two or more vehicles. To address the rear-end crash problem, a color LCD display designed to indicate safe following distances was mounted in the instrument panel of an 1990 Olds Toronado Troféo. The vehicle was also equipped with a laser range finder, forward view video camera, eye view camera, video multiplexer, and computer-controlled video cassette recorder. One hundred and eight drivers from three age groups participated in this field experiment in one of three display symbology conditions. Drivers were not explicitly instructed on how to use the headway displays. Data analyses indicated that (1) the drivers easily understood the displays, (2) those drivers who initially maintained unsafe headways increased their following distance when one of the display symbologies was used, (3) during events where changes in relative velocity (braking) took place, all three symbologies increased the overall headways, and (4) drivers preferred and understood, even better, displays that included graded headway/warning information.
A Human Factors Simulation Tool for Stereoscopic Displays
Authors: Reinhart William F. , Lloyd Charles J.C.
Published: January 2012

The increasing complexity of advanced display systems places increased importance on simulation tools. Display simulation tools allow the development of displays with the desired balance of image quality and end cost while reducing the time and cost otherwise associated with iterative testing of physical prototypes. In addition, simulation offers the advantage of permitting demonstration of display systems to targeted users and decision makers early in the display design cycle, allowing for more feedback in the design process. A new display simulation tool is described in this paper with the capability of simulating advanced electronic stereoscopic displays. To illustrate the use of this tool, an evaluation of a simulated stereoscopic head-mounted display is reported. Surgeons viewed stereoscopic laparoscopic imagery and rated the acceptability of display gray scale, resolution, and field of view. Clear preferences were seen for levels of each of these parameters. Simulations such as the one described in this report play an invaluable role in defining acceptable design parameters prior to commitment to display production.
Eeg and Subjective Measures of Private Pilot Workload
Authors: Wilson Glenn F. , Hankins Thomas
Published: January 2012

Complex systems can place high levels of mental demand on human operators and methods of assessing these demands are needed. Subjective and performance metrics are typically employed while psychophysiological assessment has been used to a more limited extent. In this study, civilian pilots flew a single engine propeller aircraft on a flight profile designed to produce several levels of cognitive workload using VFR and IFR conditions. Subjective and brain wave (EEG) measures were used to assess mental workload. EEG theta band activity was sensitive to a wider range of workload levels and was more sensitive than the alpha and beta bands or the subjective reports. The alpha and beta bands reliably discriminated between ground and flight segments as did the subjective data.
A Lighting and Visibility Evaluation of the Shuttle/Mir Docking Target
Authors: Sampaio Carlos E. , Berman Andrea H. , Fleming Terence F. , Backemeyer Lynn A.
Published: January 2012

As a prelude to the assembly of the International Space Station Alpha, the Space Shuttle will dock with the current Russian Mir Space Station several times. In order to align the docking interfaces, the Shuttle commander will use a camera view of a target mounted inside the Mir docking hatch to determine and to correct misalignment. An evaluation took place at NASA's Johnson Space Center to determine if modifications to the target design resolved previous visibility issues and to quantify the effect of orbital shadows on the commander's ability to perceive target cues. Both the commander and pilot of the first two docking missions participated as subjects. Results of this evaluation showed that target visibility issues were resolved. Critical information was also provided to operations engineers regarding how to deal with orbital shadows during rendezvous. These results assisted ground operations controllers in instructing the STS-63 crew on what image data was required to verify expected on-orbit conditions for upcoming Shuttle/Mir missions.
Vertical Auditory Localization for Spatial Orientation
Authors: Endsley Mica R. , Rosiles S. Armida
Published: January 2012

The use of three-dimensional auditory technology which provides localization of auditory cues presented through headphones is proposed as a means of providing supplemental information to pilots on the spatial orientation of an aircraft. This technique shows promise for reducing accidents due to spatial disorientation associated with high visual load. A study was conducted using Air Force pilots as subjects to determine desirable cue characteristics for accurately localizing auditory cues using this technique. The study examined the use of nine different cue types at each of two frequency levels. It was found that the accuracy of subjects' localization of cues in elevation was greatly enhanced by the use of multidimensional cues which provided redundant elevation information through varying frequencies and distance from the horizon cues in addition to the inherent spatial location information.
Effects of Aging on Working Memory and Workload
Authors: Fox Starr Lynn , Eggemeier F. T. , Biers David W.
Published: January 2012

The current study investigated the effects of aging on working memory and mental workload. Subjects performed a Brown-Peterson memory task using simulated air traffic controller/pilot communications. Perceived mental workload was measured using the NASA-TLX rating scale. Results revealed no significant recall performance differences between younger and older individuals. However, workload ratings indicated that older individuals experienced higher perceived workload than younger individuals. These findings suggest subjective workload ratings may be sensitive to age-related differences not demonstrated by performance measures.
The Effects of Task and Multifunction Display Characteristics on Pilot Viewport Allocation Strategy
Authors: Seidler Karen , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

Twenty pilots searched through a 280 screen hierarchically organized data base of flight information in single task conditions, and in dual-task conditions which required concurrent monitoring of an altitude variable. Two screens were available that could either be shared between the two tasks, or fully allocated to the information access task (IAT). Search questions varied in the distance in the data base that needed to be traversed and in the extent to which they required working memory to integrate information between two screens. Subjects performed the dual task trials under either information or monitoring task emphasis, and when the monitoring task was either low or high bandwidth. The results indicated that longer single task traversals resulted from integration problems, from more distant nodes, and from nodes that shared the same top level of the hierarchy. The dual task results indicated that a measured strategic variable which facilitated performance on the IAT (the devotion of both screens to that task) was modulated as the IAT became more difficult with integration questions, as the IAT was emphasized, and as the monitoring task was at lower bandwidth. However, the result revealed that pilots failed to consider the length of the data base navigational path in their choice of single versus dual screen strategy.
On Making Legal Documents Understandable: Objective and Subjective Measures
Authors: Howe Julie E. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

Citizens are often asked to sign a variety of legal documents such as contracts, monetary agreements, and consent forms, but the adequacy of how well informed average citizens become when they sign such documents is unclear. A recent survey indicated that respondents signed a variety of legal documents that they did not fully read or understand (Howe and Wogalter, 1994). Participants in that survey also identified characteristics of legal documents that hinder their understanding and offered suggestions for improving understandability. In the current study, these characteristics and suggestions were used to create two different consent forms: a conventional “legalistic” consent form and an improved consent form. These were compared with each other and with a third, one-line, consent form (a control). Understandability was assessed using an objective comprehension test and measures of participants' subjective perceptions of understandability. Consistent with the hypotheses, objective comprehension and participant's subjective understanding was significantly enhanced by the improved form relative to the conventional form. Comprehension in the control condition was significantly lower than either of the other two consent forms conditions. In addition, even though comprehension was poor with the conventional legalistic consent form, all but one person receiving that form signed it, agreeing to participate in an activity that was described as having some risk of explosion and burn injury (jump starting a dead battery with booster cables). There was also a tendency for more participants with the improved form than the conventional form to take advantage of a stated option of participating in a less risky activity (a card sorting task). The importance of understanding legal documents as well as the implications for additional work in this domain are discussed.