bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Channels of Distribution
Authors: Bourlakis Michael
Published: January 2015

This article analyses the role and importance of the channel of distribution. It examines both the direct and indirect distribution channels and illustrates its key intermediaries such as brokers, agents, wholesalers, and retailers. The concept of disintermediation is provided and various channel strategies are introduced including the multichannel distribution strategy and the intensive, selective, and exclusive distribution strategies. The role and various types of channel competition are illustrated followed by an analysis for two distinctive channels, the reverse channel and the international channel of distribution. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the various types of flows identified in a channel of distribution.
Customer Satisfaction
Authors: Guido Gianluigi
Published: January 2015

Customer satisfaction is basically the judgment a consumer makes in relation to his/her sense of fulfillment related to his/her choices about the purchase and use of specific products and services. The concept of satisfaction emerging from past research shares three recurrent elements: the fact of being a (either cognitive or emotional) response to an evaluation process; the fact that such a response depends on a specific focus (constituted by individual expectancies, standards of comparison, and consumption experience); and the fact that it depends on the specific timing in which such a response takes place.
Discourse Analysis
Authors: Hopkinson Gillian C.
Published: January 2015

Discourse analysis is a qualitative and interpretive approach to social research that is increasingly being applied in the field of
M
arketing.
Integrated Marketing Communications
Authors: Deshpande Sameer
Published: January 2015

Integrated marketing communications (IMC) is a strategic version of the traditional promotion “P” that marketers employ to communicate the brand promise with a single voice. AnIMCapproach ensures consistency with other Ps of marketing strategy (i.e., positioning, product, price, and placement), consistency across four components of the communication mix (advertising, marketing public relations, sales promotion, and direct marketing), consideration of all four components of the communication mix in the campaign strategy, and consideration of behavior as the primary objective. AnIMCapproach facilitates positive impactful interaction with consumers as well as other stakeholders, cost reduction, and better management for the marketing organization.
Interpretive Research
Authors: Mossinkoff Marco
Published: January 2015

In marketing and consumer studies posivistic and interpretive methodological approaches are often considered as oppositional. These two perspectives apparently hinge upon contrasting ontological assumptions. In positivistic approaches an initial interpretive phase is aknowledged, and referred to as qualitative research; the following quantitative phase is aimed at confirming previous findings. Interpretive approaches, however, are more tolerant in nature, and do not necessarily imply a distinction between exploration and “scientific prove” phases in the research process.
Not‐For‐Profit Marketing
Authors: Byrom John
Published: January 2015

Not‐for‐profit marketing involves organizations outside the mainstream private sector applying the tools and techniques of marketing. The typical goal of such organizations is not the enhancement of profit or the building of market share, as traditionally defined, but is instead linked to goals that benefit the aims of the organization concerned, or at a broader level, society as a whole. Examples are apparent from across the public and third sectors, as well as from private sector enterprises.
Personal Selling
Authors: Fixson Steffen , Jobber David
Published: January 2015

Personal selling represents one of the key components in a company's communication mix. It is an interactive marketing tool often used in conjunction with other promotion elements. Personal selling can be characterized by a complex selling process, requiring the sales personnel to be proficient in the use of various selling techniques as well as to possess extensive interpersonal skills. Although a wide array of different sales roles exist, the salesperson frequently represents the “face” of the company, making personal selling a critical function for the nurturing of vital customer relations. Recent developments in the field of marketing, such as relationship selling, technological advancements, or the focus on the salesmarketing interface, are influencing contemporary selling approaches and the specific function of the modern sales force.
Sales Call Cycle
Authors: Tarkiainen Anssi
Published: January 2015

Sales call cycle refers to defined number of sales calls that a salesperson needs to perform in order to cover particular accounts and/or prospects adequately over a given period of time. Planned sales call cycles may be defined separately for different customer types, which are classified by, for example, their sales volume or sales potential, profitability, or future potential.
Sampling
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Research is usually undertaken to obtain information about the characteristics or parameters of a population.
Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale , Rudd John
Published: January 2015

Strategy is derived from the Greek
strategia
, meaning generalship.
SWOT
Analysis
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

As part of the
S
trategic
P
lanning process, it is generally prescribed that organizations undertake an internal audit aimed at identifying their major skills, technologies, competencies, and resources, existing and possible future vulnerabilities, and an environmental analysis aimed at identifying, amongst other things, existing and future societal (e.g., demographic), technological, legal, and economic developments.
Atmospherics
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

“Atmospherics is the tailoring of the designed (sometimes referred to as ‘built’ – see Mehrabian and Russell, 1974) environment to enhance the likelihood of desired effects or outcomes in users” (Greenland and McGoldrick, 1994).
Awareness
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Awareness is the first step in the dagmar (seeDAGMAR Model) and innovation‐adoption (seeInnovation–Adoption Model) models of Marketing Communications which focus on the consumer‐purchasing process.
Brand Loyalty
Authors: Lewis Barbara R. , Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Consideration of consumer buyer behavior over a period involves an understanding of brand loyalty, which follows from the formation of brand images and brand preferences.
Buying Center
Authors: Zolkiewski Judy
Published: January 2015

This article describes the business‐to‐business buying center, which is usually made up of a group of people from different areas of the business. The buying center needs careful consideration in business‐to‐business marketing strategy.
Cluster Analysis
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Cluster analysis refers to a body of techniques used to identify objects or individuals that are similar.
Cognitive Stage
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Models of the Marketing Communications process suggest that a target buyer or customer moves from a state of ignorance or unawareness of an organization and/or its products or services to ultimately make a purchase.
Communications Mix
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The marketing communications mix is a subset of the Marketing Mix.
Competitive Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Widely popularized by Michael Porter (e.g., Porter, 1980) during the 1980s, “competitive strategy” tended to be accepted as a new approach to organizational strategy (
see
Corporate Strategy).
Conjoint Analysis
Authors: Greatorex Michael , Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Conjoint analysis is a set of techniques that allows the researcher to derive indirectly the relative importance respondents place on different attributes and the utilities assigned to different values of each attribute when selecting from among several brands (
see
Brand).
Consumer Acculturation
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Consumer acculturation is an aspect of the acculturation process describing how an ethnic minority consumer learns and demonstrates consumption behaviors, knowledge, and skills specific to the culture they exist in. As such consumer acculturation can occur at the group and individual level.
Consumer Marketing
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

Consumer marketing refers to the buying of products and services for personal or household use, as opposed to buying by organizations. The implied alternative is Business‐to‐Business Marketing, although the distinction between the two areas is not entirely clear cut.
Continuous Innovation
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

It has been suggested that innovations, and in particular technological innovations, can be viewed along a continuum, ranging from incremental or continuous innovations to the more radical or discontinuous innovations.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Davies Gary
Published: January 2015

Corporate reputation is variously defined but a commonly quoted definition is “the accumulated impression that a stakeholder has of the organization”. Other definitions place the concept closer to that of corporate image or corporate brand. Corporate reputation is seen as a corporate asset and a source of competitive advantage. Reputation is created by many things an organisation can do, including advertising and PR but particularly in service organisations can be argued to be ultimately a function of corporate culture. The CEO has a central role to play in reputation management being seen as the “corporate brand manager”. Links between reputation and financial performance while obvious when damage to the former results in the collapse of the latter is still contentious. Corporate reputation is variously measured and there is little or no agreement as to the best way to do so.
Cost Leadership Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is one of the Generic Strategies proposed by Porter (1980).
Culture
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

The term culture is explored identifying differing perspectives that culture does not exist (cultural nominalists) and those that argue that culture does exist (cultural realists). Culture is then presented as consisting of three components: identified: cognitive, structuralist, and symbolic.
Culture and Societal Behavior
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

The term culture describes a collection of behaviour, norms, rules and values that determine not only how an individual behaves and views themselves, but also how society does the same. Research has indicated that two types of cultures exist: collectivist (where adherence to the group is placed above individual needs) and individualist cultures (where the needs of the individual take precedence over the needs of the group).
Customer Expectations
Authors: Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Customer expectations are the future‐oriented beliefs about a product or act of consumption.
Direct Marketing
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Direct marketing is sometimes confused with
D
irect
M
ail.
Discretionary Income
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

An element in the economic environment, discretionary income, that is, that part of household net income which remains after fixed commitments such as mortgage and loan repayments have been made, is likely to vary from one market segment to another.
Discriminant Analysis
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Discriminant analysis is used when there are observations from a sample of a population on many variables for cases which belong to two or more known groups.
Economic Environment
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The economic environment is one of the elements in the Marketing Environment in which an organization is operating.
End Users
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

End users are those who ultimately consume or use the product or service.
Exchange
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

While it is often seen as the central concept underpinning Marketing, there is some debate over exactly what constitutes exchange.
Focus Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The focus strategy is one of Porter's (1980) generic strategies and involves concentrating on one or more niches or segments.
Forecasting
Authors: Greatorex Michael , Freeman Jim
Published: January 2015

Forecasts, implicit or explicit, are used every time a marketing decision is made.
Globalization
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

Globalization is best described as a process of deepening internationalization.
Hypothesis Testing
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

abstract

Hypothesis testing or statistical significance testing is important in marketing research.
Innovation
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Innovation is distinct from invention in that it involves the adoption of a new idea, product, service, technique, structure, or process as against the creation of something new.
Innovators
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Innovators are those who first adopt (
see
D
iffusion
P
rocess) an
I
nnovation.
International Marketing
Authors: Cui Charles C.
Published: January 2015

International marketing is generally known as Marketing activities across borders.
International Marketing Research
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

International marketing research is intended to aid Marketing decisions involving more than one country.
International Pricing Policy
Authors: Sinkovics Rudolf R.
Published: January 2015

International pricing strategies refer to three different options in how to set prices for foreign markets, the rigid cost‐plus pricing approach; the approach of flexible cost‐plus pricing; and dynamic incremental pricing.
Legal System
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The legal system is a powerful force in the Marketing Environment surrounding any organization, both national and international (
see
International Marketing Environment).
Market Demand
Authors: Littler Dale , Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

The term market demand most usually refers to the total demand for a product or service over a specific period of time in a specified geographic area in a specified Marketing Environment and for a specified Marketing effort.
Market Potential
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is the total demand possible for a product class such as cigarettes, automobiles, and digital cameras.
Marketing Environment
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

The marketing environment is made up of actors and forces that directly or indirectly influence the organization's marketing operations and performance.
Marketing Performance
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

M
arketing
P
lanning may involve the definition of targets or performance indicators.
Marketing Process
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

Two levels of understanding of the marketing process are common in the marketing literature.
Matched Sampling
Authors: Lindridge Andrew
Published: January 2015

Criticisms of previous cross‐cultural research have tended to focus on the lack of sample group compatibility. In other words, any difference between cross‐cultural sample groups are more likely to arise from differences between sample groups, rather than any particular cultural difference. This article explores these themes, offering an approach to resolving this criticism, as well as a criticism of this approach.
Micro Environment
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The environment of an organization is generally viewed as comprising two components: the
M
acro
E
nvironment and the micro environment, which, unlike the former, consists of elements or activities with which the organization interacts directly and over which it can therefore exert influence, if not control.
Mission Statement
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The mission statement is generally presented as the first stage in the
S
trategic
P
lanning process, depicted as consisting of a number of stages, although it may in fact be formulated at any time.
Multidimensional Scaling
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Multidimensional scaling is a generic name given to a number of procedures related to attitude and image research.
Observation
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Observation is a method of collecting data on a topic of interest by watching and recording behavior, actions, and facts.
Off the Page
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Off the page is a technique for communication or selling using catalogs (either print or electronic) to which a buyer/customer responds directly in person, in writing, or by telecommunication.
Offering
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Marketing has traditionally differentiated between products and services (
see
Service Characteristics).
Organizational Buying Behavior
Authors: Zolkiewski Judy , Hopkinson Gillian C.
Published: January 2015

This article describes the complexity and dynamics of the organizational buying process. It summarizes the major models that describe the process and considers the impact of technology and globalization on the process. How organizational buying behavior is related to relationship marketing and networks is also discussed. Finally, the article considers the similarities and differences between organizational buying behavior and consumer behavior.
Outbound Communications
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Communications in Direct Marketing may be either inbound (
see
Inbound Communications) or outbound.
Positioning
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

In an attempt to emphasize the nonproduct aspects of positioning, Ries and Trout define it as: “not what you do to the product. Positioning is what you do to the mind of the prospect.”
Posters
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Posters, or street Advertising hoardings, are the principal medium of outdoor advertising, and they are targeted at those people who are thought to pass by them.
Principal Component Analysis
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Principal component analysis and
F
actor
A
nalysis are two closely associated multivariate statistical techniques.
Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies (
PIMS
)
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies (
PIMS
) was initiated in 1960 by General Electric, developed further by the Marketing Science Institute, and later administered by the Strategic Planning Institute.
Public Relations
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Public relations is an element in the marketing
C
ommunications
M
ix and may be defined as the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain positive
A
ttitudes toward the organization by its target publics.
Reach
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

When organizations are planning their advertising and, in particular, deciding on which media to use, they have to consider the desired reach of their advertising, that is, the number of persons, households, or organizations exposed to a particular media schedule at least once during a specified period of time.
Regionalism
Authors: Yamin Mohammed
Published: January 2015

The global economy and society contains a number of regions which share a degree of commonality inCulture, language, political outlook, and, to a lesser degree, economic circumstance.
Selective Exposure
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

In response to Marketing Communications and, in particular, Advertising, consumers are selective in their exposure, perceptions, selection, and retention (
see
Consumer Perceptions).
Service Design
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Design management is relevant in the context of the Service Product and also relates to other elements of the Marketing Mix, in particular the extended marketing mix for the services sector (Booms and Bitner, 1981).
Service Encounters
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The extent of direct interaction between a service provider and its customers in the Service Delivery process is referred to as service encounters or “moments of truth” or “critical incidents” (Carlzon, 1987; Czepiel, Solomon, and Surprenant, 1985).
Service Product
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

A service or service product may be defined as “an activity of more or less intangible nature that normally, but not necessarily, takes place in inter‐action between the customer and service employees and/or physical resources or goods and/or systems of the service provider, which are provided as solutions to customer problems” (Shostack, 1984).
Servqual
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Parasuraman's five major dimensions of Service Quality (tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy) form the basis for the SERVQUAL questionnaire (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry, 1988).

This has 22 pairs of Likert‐type scales.
Source Effect
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The source of a message is the sender of information, be it a manufacturer, distributor, other organization, salesperson, or another customer.
Store Choice
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

This is the decision made by the consumer as to which store to visit.
Strategic Decisions
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Ansoff draws the distinction between three types of decisions: operational, administrative, and strategic.
Survey Research
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Survey research is one of the four main sources of
P
rimary
D
ata, the others being
O
bservation,
Q
ualitative
R
esearch, and
E
xperimentation.
Symbolic Consumption
Authors: Banister Emma
Published: January 2015

Symbolic consumption refers to the tendency for consumers to focus on meanings beyond the tangible, physical characteristics of material objects.
Symbolic Interactionism
Authors: Banister Emma
Published: January 2015

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory reflecting the means by which individuals understand their world.
Umbrella Strategy
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

An organization is said to have an umbrella strategy when there is a clear definition of strategic goals, and even the general strategic direction, by the chief executive (or senior management), but the detail of how these goals are to be achieved has yet to be decided.
Vertical Integration
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

This is regarded as a growth strategy, although it can be employed to defend the organization against powerful competitors, suppliers, and
C
ustomers.
Sensory Marketing
Authors: Biswas Dipayan , Szocs Courtney
Published: January 2015

This article defines sensory marketing and links sensory marketing to consumer behavior. The authors briefly discuss the process through which sensory cues influence consumers. In addition, the authors provide examples of sensory marketing tactics and how they influence consumers' perceptions, judgments and behaviors.
Causal Ambiguity
Authors: Potter Antony
Published: January 2015

Over the past three decades, causal ambiguity theory has been integrated into a wide range of organizational theories, including the resource‐based view (
RBV
), knowledge‐based view (
KBV
), and Relational View of the firm. Recently, a paradox has emerged within the management literature with some studies finding that inter‐firm causal ambiguity restricts imitation by competitors and sustains a firm's competitive advantage. By contrast, empirical research has also found that intra‐firm causal ambiguity has a negative impact on factor mobility, knowledge transfer, routine replication, decision making, and project performance. This study reviews the latest research on causal ambiguity and its application within the strategy, operations, and innovation management literatures.
Lean Service
Authors: Malmbrandt Malin
Published: January 2015

From its manufacturing origins, the term “lean” is increasingly being used to describe changes being undertaken by service organizations in various industries.
Product‐Service Systems (
PSS
)
Authors: Howard Mickey
Published: January 2015

Product‐service systems (PSS) are integrated bundles of customer focused products, services and knowledge‐based activity which increase the value of a core offering. Interest in “PSS” has steadily increased in the literature as industrial firms in the west seek new ways to compete and create value by shifting from a production dominant to service dominant business model.
Service Profit Chain
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

The service profit chain is a model that argued for a link between superior service, customer loyalty, and financial performance (i.e., profit and growth). Subsequent research by a range of scholars has suggested empirical support for key elements and key connections in the model.
Triple‐Bottom Line
Authors: Brandon‐Jones Emma
Published: January 2015

The triple bottom line is a tri‐dimensional concept incorporating people, planet and profit into the way an organisation evaluates its success and performance. It moves beyond the conventional economic focus to incorporate broader stakeholder concerns as well as issues relating to environmental responsibility and social equity.
Beer Distribution Game
Authors: Ziegenbein Arne , Nienhaus Joerg
Published: January 2015

The beer distribution game is a simulation of a supply chain.
JIT
and
MRP/ERP
Authors: Harrison Alan , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Just‐in‐time (
JIT
) and material requirements planning/enterprise resource planning (
MRP/ERP
) are complementary approaches to production and organizational planning and control.
JIT
Tools and Techniques
Authors: Harrison Alan , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

The operational tools and techniques is associated with the just‐in‐time (
JIT
) philosophies of customer pull and waste minimization. Many are not new or even exclusive to
JIT
applications. This article further categorizes these techniques according to their purpose: simplifying or integrating.
Job Enlargement
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article describes an approach to job design that provides a way of increasing job satisfaction and motivation. A greater amount of work is carried out as a way of increasing worker involvement, but the level of work remains unchanged. This can lead to greater job satisfaction and, as a result, higher performance and better quality.
System Loss
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

System loss occurs with product layouts where operators are “paced”, or required to keep working at the speed of the line, so they cannot complete all their work within the cycle time or have idle time on a cycle. The line then needs to be stopped for work to be completed, or products remain unfinished at the end of the line and need to be completed later, or workers further down the line are forced to have idle time.
Work Organization
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article is about the way in which the people in the production or operation system can be organized and directed toward meeting its output objectives. It examines product, process and task‐oriented types of work organization as well alternative forms that that recognize the importance of how workers interact with technology.
Computer‐Integrated Manufacturing
Authors: Upton David
Published: January 2015

Computer‐integrated manufacturing (
CIM
) is a generic term used to describe the integration of manufacturing processes via increasingly sophisticated information/communication technology (
ICT
) infrastructures (e.g., distributed server technology, enterprise resource planning (
ERP
) software, common databases, etc.).
Flexibility
Authors: Upton David
Published: January 2015

Flexibility has become an increasingly important aspect of operations for a number of reasons.
Enterprise Resources Planning
Authors: Correa Henrique
Published: January 2015

Enterprise resource planning systems are computer systems that link application software in sales, order management, manufacturing, finance, accounting, human resources, distribution, and other functions in a firm into a tightly integrated single system with shared data and visibility across the business.
Design
Authors: Moultrie James
Published: January 2015

It is difficult to identify a precise definition for an amorphous concept like design.
Method Study
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Method study is the process of subjecting work activity to systematic, critical scrutiny in order to make it more effective and/or more efficient.
Inventory Control Systems
Authors: Mapes John
Published: January 2015

Inventory control systems are the systems employed in order to insure that inventories are kept at the minimum level consistent with maintaining continuity of supply to meet the needs of external customers and users within the business.
Inventory Valuation
Authors: Mapes John
Published: January 2015

Inventory valuation is the procedure used for determining the value of inventory held by the organization.
Concurrent Engineering
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Concurrent engineering is the term commonly applied to the process of overlapping product design and other value creating activities (such as manufacturing engineering, marketing, etc.) in order to achieve reduced total development lead times, improved quality and reduced costs.
Dynamic Capabilities
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Assessment of sustainable competitive advantage should include both barriers to imitation and also the dynamic efforts a firm makes to improve what it currently does and how it intends to innovate for the future. The underlying mechanisms that allow a firm to build up advantage from the way it changes what it “has” and what it “does” are called dynamic capabilities.
Product–Service Systems
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

A range of factors have led firms to consider how customer needs might be fulfilled using innovative combinations of product and service. Specifically, can key features of the product be replaced by, potentially, less resource‐intensive service provision – such as in shifting from widespread use of disposable nappies to use of a nappy cleaning service?
Scientific Management
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

“Scientific” management, a term inevitably associated with
FW
Taylor's book of the same name, is used to describe management based on research and experiment rather than tradition, rule of thumb, guesswork, or personal opinion.
Service Technology
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Technology increasingly dominates a great deal of service operations management. It can provide a platform for achieving significant economies of scale and scope and can enhance organizational decision‐making processes.
Variety
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Variety is the term used to denote the range of different products or services an operation produces. How an operation deals with its variety is a key strategic question; offering greater variety may be critical to satisfying customer requirements but increased variety typically involves greater complexity and operating costs.
Reliability‐Centered Maintenance
Authors: Shulver Michael
Published: January 2015

Reliability‐centered maintenance (RCM) is a form of preventive maintenance (PM) which, rather than focusing on the reliability of individual pieces of equipment, instead seeks to preserve the overall function of an operating system.
Fault Tree Analysis
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

This is a logical procedure that starts with a failure or a potential failure and works backward to identify all the possible causes and therefore the origins of that failure.
Operations Activities
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Operations activities are the clusters of tasks to be completed (and decisions to be taken) which together delineate the boundaries of what constitutes operations management (OM).
Push and Pull Planning and Control
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

“Push” and “pull” are terms commonly used in operational planning and control to indicate the direction of the stimulus in the system that causes materials to be moved and activities to be undertaken.
Quality Function Deployment
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Quality function deployment (QFD) is a structured procedure used to translate the expressed or perceived needs of customers into specific product or service design characteristics and features, and then to process and operational characteristics.
T
aguchi Methods
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Taguchi “methods” are normally used as a label for two separate but related sets of ideas.
Time‐Based Performance
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

In an increasingly competitive world, operational “speed” or the time taken to deliver products or services is increasingly viewed as a core operations objective.
Trade‐Offs
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Trade‐off theory is concerned with the manner in which
O
perations
O
bjectives relate to one another.
Kit Bill
Authors: Danese Pamela
Published: January 2015

The kit bill is a planning bill that is useful to define the super bill of a product family. The concept behind the generation of the kit bill is the identification of the product components common to all product configurations and of the components specific to each end‐product configuration. The kit bills are mainly used when the products are not characterized by numerous product options. In fact, in this case, modular bills are more adequate.
Product Architecture
Authors: Danese Pamela
Published: January 2015

The product architecture is the scheme by which the functional elements of a product are associated with its physical components. Two typologies of product architecture can be defined: 1. modular architecture, characterized by (a) a one‐to‐one mapping between functional elements and physical components and (b) decoupled interfaces among physical components (in this case, physical components are called modules); 2. integral architecture, characterized by (a) a complex (non‐one‐to‐one) mapping and/or (b) coupled interfaces among physical components. Generally, the mapping between functional elements and physical components may be one‐to‐one, when every functional element corresponds to a single physical component and vice versa; many‐to‐one, when more functional elements correspond to a single physical component; or one‐to‐many, when a single functional element corresponds to more physical components. The specification on the interfaces among interacting components concerns the interactions across the interfaced components and the mating geometry among them in the cases where there is a geometric connection. Interfaces are called coupled if a change made to one physical component requires a change to the other interacting physical components in order for the overall product to work correctly. Otherwise, interfaces are decoupled.
Supply Network Centralization
Authors: Danese Pamela
Published: January 2015

In supply networks, centralization is related to how much authority or power is concentrated or dispersed across the supply network. If the decision‐making authority in a supply network is mainly concentrated on a single supply network member, the supply network is said to be centralized. Conversely, if the decision‐making authority is distributed among supply network members, the supply network is said to be decentralized. The decision‐making process can regard different processes such as product engineering, production planning, order replenishment, or forecasting activities.
S
eiri,
S
eiton,
S
eiso,
S
eiketsu, and
S
hitsuke
Authors: Åhlström Pär
Published: January 2015

The article provides a short description of the housekeeping technique of 5S. The 5Ss are intended to promote the discipline of cleanliness and tidiness as a set of shared values throughout the organization. First, materials and equipment are separated into those really needed and those not, with those not needed being thrown away. Next, each work area is organized for easy retrieval. Third, the workplace is cleaned and then standards introduced to maintain cleanliness. Finally, all previous tasks are made part of the daily routine.
Vendor‐Managed Inventory
Authors: Romano Pietro
Published: January 2015

In vendor‐managed inventory (
VMI
) systems, the distributor or manufacturer monitors and manages inventories at the wholesaler or retailer.
Deming
Authors: Silvestro Rhian
Published: January 2015

W. Edwards Deming became highly influential as a consultant in Japan in the 1950s, when he was invited to lecture on quality control methods at the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (
JUSE
).
Service Processes
Authors: Silvestro Rhian
Published: January 2015

The article discusses the typologies of services based on their operational characteristics rather than industry type. It is argued that the manufacturing process model, which distinguishes five manufacturing process types on the basis of production volume and variety,has played an important part in facilitating an understanding of the operations management challenges which are shared by manufacturers in widely differing industries. An analogous model of service processes is presented, which combines service volumes and six service typologies. Three service process types are defined: professional services, service shops, and mass services. The key characteristics and operational challenges of the different service process types are defined and discussed. It is argued that the service process model can enable the cross‐fertilization of ideas and the sharing of operations management practices between services from different industries.
Process Types
Authors: Chambers Stuart
Published: January 2015

Manufacturing (and service) transformation processes are conventionally classified according to their VOLUME and VARIETY characteristics. The interaction of these two variables giving rise to a number of generic process types: project processes, jobbing processes, batch processes, line processes, and continuous processes.
Six‐Sigma
Authors: Betts Alan , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Six–Sigma, an approach to improvement first popularized by Motorola, is so named because it requires that the natural variation of processes (±3 standard deviations) should be half a process' specification range. That is, the specification range of any part of a product or service should be ±6 the standard deviation of the process. Although initially (and fundamentally) based on the principles of statistical process control, Six–Sigma incorporates a wide range of other approaches – built around the DMAIC cycle – many of which were previously associated with earlier quality movements.
Make or Buy
Authors: Probert David R.
Published: January 2015

The make or buy question is a fundamental issue facing manufacturing business. It needs to be addressed at both strategic and operational levels, since over time the consequences of the associated decisions will determine the scope of the business and its operations. While cost comparisons are frequently a dominant consideration, there are many other factors that should not be overlooked, including acquisition costs. The integration of all these considerations in arriving at good decisions is discussed, together with structured methods to develop long‐term make or buy strategy. It is important that analysis is prioritised on the areas of most significance to the business, and good methods permit some economy of effort. The multiple perspectives involved in reaching appropriate decisions, and the need for implementation in an organizational context, make project team approaches to strategy development very relevant. Such methods have been implemented in leading companies to develop and maintain an expertise in the area of make or buy. Sources of further practical guidance are given.
Newsvendor Problem
Authors: Yalabik Baris
Published: January 2015

This article provides an introduction to the newsvendor problem. The basic problem is introduced with its assumptions and components, and a solution is provided. The article concludes with suggestions for further reading.
Risk and Operations
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

OM has always been focused on a range of risk management issues; seeking to avoid, control and mitigate the unwanted negative consequences of transformation processes. In recent years, there has also been increased attention paid to the impact of more unexpected and potentially more significant risk events (e.g. natural disasters) on operations and supply systems.
Operations Management History
Authors: Piercy Niall
Published: January 2015

Identifications of early operations management (OM) activities have included the labor specialization resulting in greater productivity mentioned in Plato's “The Republic” in 300 BC (Schroeder 1993) or the management practices described by Machiavelli in “The Prince” (Devargas 1995).
Failure in Operations
Authors: Brandon‐Jones Alistair
Published: January 2015

Failure is the state that occurs when a service, product, or process does not meet its performance objectives.
Internal Customer–Supplier Relationships
Authors: Slack Nigel , Roden Sinéad
Published: January 2015

The terms internal customer and internal supplier can be used to describe the micro operations that take outputs from, and give inputs to, other micro operations. The internal customer‐supplier concept is regarded by some as one of the most powerful aspects to emerge from total quality management.
Operations Management
Authors: Piercy Niall
Published: January 2015

Compared to the other areas of modern business, operations management is the least understood and worst defined.
Supply Network Complexity
Authors: Danese Pamela
Published: January 2015

In supply networks, complexity regards both the complexity of the supply network structure and the complexity of the relationships among supply network members (Choi and Hong, 2002).
Project Management
Authors: Levene Ralph
Published: January 2015

Project management involves the processes of managing change by planning the work, executing it, and coordinating the contribution of the people and organizations with an interest in the project.
Quality Characteristics
Authors: Roden Sinéad , Johnston Robert
Published: January 2015

Quality characteristics are the properties of a product or a service that are required to satisfy the customers. They can relate to the characteristics that customers expect or demand from the service. Quality characteristics can also be described as measureable variables that comprise the specification that the organization uses to assess its production capability and to insure that the specifications are met.
Service Quality
Authors: Brandon‐Jones Alistair , Johnston Robert
Published: January 2015

Service quality can be defined as two inter related components. Operational service quality is the degree to which a delivered service matches its design specification, whereas customer perceived service quality is the degree to which the service matches the customer's expectations or requirements.
Service Recovery
Authors: Johnston Robert , Brandon‐Jones Alistair
Published: January 2015

Service recovery is the action of seeking out and dealing with failures in the delivery of service. The critical issue about service recovery is that it is not necessarily the failure itself that leads to customer dissatisfaction, as most customers do accept that things can go wrong. It is more likely to be the organization's response (or lack of response) to a failure that causes dissatisfaction. The crucial point is that while mistakes may be inevitable, dissatisfied customers are not.
Little's Law
Authors: Roden Sinéad
Published: January 2015

Little's law represents the mathematical relationship between Work‐In‐Process, throughput time in a process and cycle time of a production system.
Assertiveness
Authors: Bosak Janine
Published: January 2015

Assertiveness is people's tendency to actively defend, speak up for, and act in the interest of themselves and their own values, preferences, and goals. Assertiveness has been found to yield instrumental benefits but also can result in social costs, such as negative perceptions. This article discusses the costs and benefits of assertiveness in the workplace specifically in relation to perceptions of leadership effectiveness and women's self‐promotion.
Backsourcing
Authors: McLaughlin Des
Published: January 2015

Outsourcing is the transfer of the management responsibility for activities, functions, and/or processes of an organization from in‐house providers to external providers.
Job Burnout
Authors: Leiter Michael P. , Maslach Christina
Published: January 2015

Burnout is a syndrome of exhaustion, cynicism, and diminished professional efficacy closely associated with the work environment. Once established, the syndrome persists. Burnout arises in response to stressors within the work environment. It has a wide range of negative effects on job performance and personal well‐being. Burnout stands in contrast to the positive experience of work engagement, and consequently interventions to alleviate or reduce burnout may also be framed in terms of promoting engagement.
Ethnocentric
Authors: John Anna
Published: January 2015

This article defines the concept of ethnocentrism. It discusses the origin of the phenomenon of ethnocentrism, describes its structure, and designates its distinctions from other similar terms such as patriotism and nationalism. It also suggests a series of effects of ethnocentric tendencies on group dynamics, leadership processes, international staffing patterns, and group diversity in organizations.
Job Crafting
Authors: Freeney Yseult
Published: January 2015

Job crafting captures proactive behaviors that individuals engage in to redesign their own jobs in an effort to make it more meaningful and to increase their identification with the work. This entry reviews what is known about job crafting, why people engage in it, and the individual and organizational factors that drive it. It also considers the proposed outcomes of job crafting and suggests that further research is required to establish models of job crafting and to inform managers on how best to facilitate it, manage it, and ensure that it results in positive outcomes for both employees and their organizations.
Meaningfulness
Authors: Kirrane Melrona
Published: January 2015

This article explores the nature of meaningfulness, its value and the manner in which it can be experienced. It considers how meaning can be interpreted and how meaning can emerge from a variety of sources. The subjective characteristic of meaningfulness is recognized and its relevance in the work environment is noted. Areas for future research are identified.
Adhocracy
Authors: Harney Brian
Published: January 2015

Adhocracies are informal, organic and fluid organizational structures staffed by professionals with high levels of expertise. Control in adhocracies comes from lateral co‐ordination as opposed to traditional hierarchy. The characteristics of adhocracies make them particularly beneficial for knowledge sharing, collaboration and rapid adaptation. For this reason adhocracy is typically viewed as the antithesis of bureaucracy and the most appropriate organizational form for a knowledge‐based age.