bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Associativity and Understanding of the Operation of Addition in Children with Learning Differences
Authors: Grobecker Betsey , Lawrence Frank
Published: April 2006

This study sample consisted of children from two learning categories, learning disabled (LD, n = 27, x̄ = 9.08) and not identified as learning disabled (NLD, n = 42, x̄ = 7.46), who were individually tested on three different mathematics tasks. The modified nonverbal task and the associativity of length task investigated the quality of students' structures of organizing activity by noting the complexity of grouping relationships abstracted among and between object sets (i.e., composite unit structures). Additionally measured in these two tasks was response accuracy. The flashcard task measured accuracy in response to the same number problems as in the modified nonverbal task as well as strategy type used. However, the strategies scored on the flashcard task were indicative of explicitly taught procedures regardless of children's structures of organizing activity. Significantly more NLD children abstracted composite unit structures suggestive of operational logic on the modified nonverbal and associativity of length tasks, although there were no significant differences in the rate of success on the modified nonverbal task. On the flashcard task, there were no significant differences between the two groups on strategy type used, although the LD children achieved greater success. These results suggest that although children state correct answers on the flashcard and modified nonverbal tasks, they may be reflecting on the tasks using thought structures that are not yet operational.
Social Status of Sixth- and Seventh-Grade Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Conderman Greg
Published: April 2006

A total of 1,053 students participated in this study, which compared the social status of middle-school students with learning disabilities to a randomly chosen sample of students without disabilities. Information was gathered from a forced-choice Sociogram, a self-rating questionnaire, and a teacher rating scale. Descriptive statistics revealed that students with learning disabilities earned lower scores on the teacher rating scale and the self-rating questionnaire. Similarly, compared to their nondisabled peers, these students received more negative and fewer positive votes on the Sociogram. For all students, attractive and athletic votes were highly correlated with positive votes on the Sociogram. Recommendations are offered for future sociometric research.
Attributes Contributing to the Employment Satisfaction of University Graduates with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Madaus Joseph W. , Ruban Lilia M. , Foley Teresa E. , McGuire Joan M.
Published: April 2006

One hundred and thirty-two graduates with learning disabilities (LD) of a large, public, competitive postsecondary institution were surveyed to determine levels of employment self-efficacy and satisfaction. Based upon a response rate of 67% ( N = 89), graduates reported high levels of employment self-efficacy and satisfaction. Although there were no significant differences related to levels of self-efficacy and job satisfaction and selected demographic variables, perceptions of employment self-efficacy and the use of self-regulatory strategies/accommodations were found to be significant predictors of employment satisfaction.
The Vacant Quarter Revisited: Late Mississippian Abandonment of the Lower Ohio Valley
Authors: Cobb Charles R. , Butler Brian M.
Published: April 2006

The idea that a substantial portion of the North American midcontinent centered on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers confluence was largely depopulated around A.D. 1450–1550—Stephen Williams's “Vacant Quarter” hypothesis—has been generally accepted by archaeologists. There has been, however, some disagreement over the timing and extent of the abandonment. Our long-term research along the Ohio River in southern Illinois's interior hill country has yielded a substantial corpus of late Mississippian period radiocarbon dates, indicating that depopulation of the lower Ohio Valley occurred at the early end of Williams's estimate. Furthermore, the abandonment was a widespread phenomenon that involved Mississippian groups living in remote settings, as well as along major drainages. Although causes for the Vacant Quarter are still debated, evidence from other regions indicates that regional abandonment by agricultural groups was not a unique event in the Eastern Woodlands.
Climate and Diet in Fremont Prehistory: Economic Variability and Abandonment of Maize Agriculture in the Great Salt Lake Basin
Authors: Coltrain Joan Brenner , Leavitt Steven W.
Published: April 2006

Research reported here is based on the stable isotope (δ13C,δ15N) and radiocarbon chemistry of Fremont burials from wetlands lining the eastern shores of the Great Salt Lake (GSL). Bone collagen stable isotope signatures covary with reliance on maize and intake of animal protein, facilitating useful reconstructions of past diet. Among the GSL Fremont, economic strategies vary over time with an initial increase in reliance on maize (A.D. 400–850) followed by a period of marked economic diversity (A.D 850–1150) then a return to reliance on wild foods (after A.D. 1150). During the period of greatest economic diversity, male and female diets vary significantly and male diets are correlated with status differences evidenced by grave goods. There is also a clear temporal correlation between the rapid abandonment of maize agriculture and significant moisture anomalies in regional tree-ring chronologies and pollen profiles. These results are discussed in the context of recent arguments regarding economic diversity, social complexity, and the demise of the Fremont.
The Pollen Evidence for the Environment of Early Man and Extinct Mammals at the Lehner Mammoth Site, Southeastern Arizona
Authors: Mehringer Peter J. , Haynes C. Vance
Published: April 2006

Fossil pollen is directly associated with a radiocarbon date, mammoth bones, and the same stratigraphic units in which mammoth, bison, tapir, and horse bones and Clovis artifacts were recovered at the Lehner site. The pollen evidence indicates that desert grassland occupied the San Pedro Valley of southeastern Arizona about 9000 B.C.
Ultraviolet Fluorescence as a Means of Skeletal Identification
Authors: Eyman Charles E.
Published: April 2006

A short-wave ultraviolet-light source applied to human phalanges which have been soaked in a commercial ultraviolet-fluorescing pigment allows for rapid and fairly accurate discrimination between individuals obtained from the same archaeological site. The technique is useful in discriminating between sites to a lesser extent.
Ancient History in the New World: Integrating Oral Traditions and the Archaeological Record in Deep Time
Authors: Echo-Hawk Roger C.
Published: April 2006

Oral traditions provide a viable source of information about historical settings dating back far in time—a fact that has gained increasing recognition in North America, although archaeologists and other scholars typically give minimal attention to this data. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) lists oral traditions as a source of evidence that must be considered by museum and federal agency officials in making findings of cultural affiliation between ancient and modern Native American communities. This paper sets forth the NAGPRA standards and presents an analytical framework under which scholars can proceed with evaluation of historicity in verbal records of the ancient past. The author focuses on an Arikara narrative and argues that it presents a summary of human history in the New World from initial settlement up to the founding of the Arikara homeland in North Dakota. Oral records and the archaeological record describe a shared past and should be viewed as natural partners in post-NAGPRA America. In conceptual terms, scholarship on the past should revisit the bibliocentric assumptions of “prehistory,” and pursue, instead, the study of “ancient American history”-an approach that treats oral documents as respectable siblings of written documents.
Additional Discoveries of Filed Teeth in the Cahokia Area
Authors: Perino Gregory
Published: April 2006

Evidence of tooth filing, north of Mexico, is found primarily in the Cahokia area in Illinois. The custom is associated with the acculturation process that took place between peoples having a Mississippian technology and those having a Late Woodland culture. An attempt will be made here to itemize all the discoveries in the Cahokia area in the order in which they occurred and also to add new information not available to earlier reporters.
The Context of Early Southeastern Prehistoric Cave Art: A Report on the Archaeology of 3rd Unnamed Cave
Authors: Simek Jan F. , Franklin Jay D. , Sherwood Sarah C.
Published: April 2006

In the deep recesses of “3rd Unnamed Cave,” a karst cavern in Tennessee, evidence for an ancient association between dark zone cave art and chert mining has recently been documented. The art comprises petroglyphs on the ceiling of a chamber more than 1 km from the cave entrance. On the floor below the art, natural sediments were excavated prehistorically to obtain high-quality chert nodules. Radiocarbon age determinations place the mining during the Terminal Archaic period. Studies in lithic technology, geoarchaeology, and petroglyph description are presented.
The Systematic Use of Radiocarbon Dating in Archaeological Surveys in Coastal and Other Erosional Environments
Authors: Erlandson Jon M. , Moss Madonna L.
Published: April 2006

Traditionally, archaeologists have usedl4C dating primarily as a postexcavation analytical tool to establish the age of features, strata, or assemblages. In coastal zones and other environments around the world, however, thousands of archaeological sites are rapidly eroding or endangered by other destructive processes. We believe archaeologists should expand their use ofl4C dating, systematically incorporating it into surveys in coastal, lacustrine, riverine, and other environments where erosional exposures often provide access to extensive stratigraphic profiles. With examples from the Pacific Coast of North América, we show how widespreadl4C dating of sites during surveys can be used to help manage archaeological sites more effectively and identify significant patterns of paleoenvironmental change, site survival, settlement and demography, technology, and social organization. Without more widespread application of such techniques, and a reallocation of research and cultural resource management funds, thousands of sites will be lost before even the most basic information about their age and contents is known.
Refocusing the Role of Food-Grinding Tools as Correlates for Subsistence Strategies in the U.S. Southwest
Authors: Adams Jenny L.
Published: April 2006

Food-grinding tools in both the New World and the Old World have long been used as subsistence indicators. Previously, variations in tool size and material texture were presumed to have been related to processing differences between wild and domestic foods. However, recent research conclusions from both the U.S. Southwest and the Levant indicate that tool morphology is more closely related to differing processing strategies than to the food procurement system. Ethnographic accounts of food preparation techniques and tool design experiments provide a foundation for new methods of assessing prehistoric food processing techniques. Food-processing techniques from eight distinct cultural groups in the U.S. Southwest provide examples of how foods might have been incorporated into the prehistoric diet. Experiments with prehistoric food-grinding tool types demonstrate their effectiveness for reducing assorted seeds and maize kernels and helping to identify criteria for a technological analysis of grinding tool types. Archaeological assemblages from selected sites in the U.S. Southwest are evaluated with these criteria and used to discuss the relationship between grinding technology and the introduction of and increasing dependency on agriculture. It is proposed that developments in food-grinding technology are related to processing strategies for incorporating flour into prehistoric diets.
Identification of Horse Exploitation by Clovis Hunters Based on Protein Analysis
Authors: Kooyman Brian , Newman Margaret E. , Cluney Christine , Lobb Murray , Tolman Shayne , McNeil Paul , Hills L. V.
Published: April 2006

Positive results were obtained from protein residue analysis on three Clovis points from Wally's Beach, southwestern Alberta. Two tested positive for Equus, the third for a bovid, probably Bison or Bootherium. All genera are present in the site remains. This finding clearly demonstrates use of Equus by Clovis hunters. Four 14C dates indicate that the site was in use between 11,000 and 11,300 B.P.
Reconsidering the Cause of Cultural Collapse in the Lillooet Area of British Columbia, Canada: A Geoarchaeological Perspective
Authors: Kuijt Ian
Published: April 2006

The potential interconnections between human settlement systems, subsistence practices, and rapid, high-magnitude transformation of the physical landscape (e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides) is an important issue of discussion in archaeology. This paper critically examines the argument that prehistoric abandonment of Classic Lillooet pithouse villages of south-central British Columbia, Canada, at approximately 1200-1000 B.P., was linked to one or more catastrophic landslides at Texas Creek that blocked the Fraser River, destroyed salmon resources, and caused the abandonment of this area. Examination of the location and depositional condition of several excavated archaeological sites within the Fraser Valley, as well as reflection on the expected environmental and cultural responses to a catastrophic landslide, challenge previous interpretations of the existence, location, and magnitude of such a landslide event, and indicate that archaeologists need to reconsider deterministic environmental explanations for the abandonment of pithouse villages in the interior of British Columbia.
Behavioral Archaeology and the Study of Technology
Authors: Schiffer Michael Brian , Skibo James M. , Griffitts Janet L. , Hollenback Kacy L. , Longacre William A.
Published: April 2006

Loney's (2000) recent paper claims that American archaeologists have paid scant attention to the study of technological, especially ceramic, change. We argue that, in fact, interest in such change processes has grown greatly in recent decades and that Loney has overlooked much relevant literature. We support our general argument with a catalog of recent behavioral research on technological change.
Making Sense of Flake Scatters: Lithic Technological Strategies and Mobility
Authors: Cowan Frank L.
Published: April 2006

Recent theoretical developments in the organization of lithic technology provide powerful tools for learning about prehistoric settlement systems and the roles of sites within settlement systems. Strong relationships between mobility and the designs and production methods of stone tools provide a means for testing hypotheses about the functional and organizational roles of sites; this is especially important for learning about "plow zone lithic scatters" and other small, poorly preserved sites. Subsistence-settlement models for three periods of western New York prehistory imply different roles for small sites in the interior of the region. These hypotheses are tested by the analysis of dominant tool-production methods. Strong differences in stone tool assemblages indicate major differences in site roles, but greater analytical detail and discriminatory power are obtained from the analysis of tool-production methods from flakes.
The Archaeological Visibility of Storage: Delineating Storage from Trash Areas
Authors: Kent Susan
Published: April 2006

Despite the importance attributed to the study of storage behavior, little research has been conducted to determine whether it is even possible to distinguish storage áreas from refuse áreas. Archaeologists routinely separate storage pits from trash pits, but few have systematically investigated the defining characteristics of each. This study suggests that there is an archaeologically visible signature that can help researchers correctly interpret these loci. Research at occupied and recently abandoned camps among the now sedentary residents of Kutse in the Kalahari Desert of Botswana shows that refuse areas have a more homogeneous artifact inventory, regardless of the number of objects present. In contrast, non-trash activity areas at the same camps have a more heterogeneous, or diverse, inventory. The applicability and utility of this finding to the archaeological record is evaluated through the analysis of a Pueblo II Anasazi archaeological site from the southwestern United States. Patterns first recognized ethnoarchaeologically also appear to be recognizable in the archaeological record using the same methods. The results indicate that the statistical tests described here are applicable to distinguishing trash from other activity areas at archaeological sites.
On Evolutionary Ecology, Selectionist Archaeology, and Behavioral Archaeology
Authors: Broughton Jack M. , O'Connell James F.
Published: April 2006

To promote a dialogue between competing but potentially compatible approaches in American archaeology, Schiffer (1996) examined the relationships between two distinct research programs: "behavioral" archaeology and evolutionary archaeology. An approach grounded in evolutionary ecology was not included in that analysis. In this paper, we reply to Schiffer's call for dialogue by outlining the relationships, as we see them, between evolutionary ecology, selectionist archaeology, and behavioral archaeology. We conclude that evolutionary ecology holds the greatest promise as a scientific approach for the investigation of important problems in human behavioral evolution.
A Possible Pyramidal Structure and other Mexican Influences at Pottery Mound, New Mexico
Authors: Hibben Frank C.
Published: April 2006

Excavations at the site of Pottery Mound, 40 mi. south and west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, give evidence that the first structure at the site was a large, flat-topped pyramid built in two terraces. Four Pueblo IV architectural levels are superimposed on top of this structure. Sixteen painted kivas in association with the Pueblo IV room tiers retained on their walls a number of multi-layered fresco paintings. These paintings show macaws, other varieties of parrots, jaguars, and possibly Mexican Indians. The flat-topped mound and the ceremonial implications of the frescoes seem Mexican-inspired. The mound may date in the late Pueblo III period. The superimposed architectural levels and the frescoes date in the early Pueblo IV period.
Society and Technological Control: A Critical Review of Models of Technological Change in Ceramic Studies
Authors: Loney Helen L.
Published: April 2006

The use of evolution as either analogy or theory in ceramic change artificially imposes a view of technology that is directed. The use of progress has led to a tendency to equate technological change with technological improvement, as if change were unidirectional. This improvement is usually measured by modern standards of industrialization, such as increasing standardization, increasing speed of production, increasing quantity of production, and the overall increasing formality of the workshop. Within models that employ an evolutionary paradigm there is the implicit notion that: a) technology change, when it occurs, only occurs towards improvement; b) improvement occurs toward the most logical, efficient solution to a technological problem; and c) such a solution is rooted in fundamental scientific "truths" or "facts," which scientists or technicians "discover." Over the past twenty years, social scientists studying the development of modern technology and society have questioned the usefulness of evolution as a model for change. A critical appraisal of technologically determinist history of scientific discovery has found that important discoveries are frequently credited with fundamentally changing the course of history. The evidence of modern history and ethnography, however, shows that cultural values and embedded beliefs may be more powerful in selecting and directing developing technologies than any external factors. European archaeologists van der Leeuw, Petréquin, and Loney, among others, are now applying the findings of the techno-sociologists to the development of ancient pottery production. Their perspective on ancient technology takes into account personal choice as well as ecological resources and economic organization. The approach of European archaeologists permits the investigation of the varied trajectories of ancient ceramic technology without resorting to self-perpetuating, internally self-generating models of biological evolution.
Stelae at the Crystal River Site, Florida
Authors: Bullen Ripley P.
Published: April 2006

Two stone stelae at the Crystal River site, Florida, are in similar alignment with two temple mounds. One stela has an incised human head, ceremonial caches, and a radiocarbon date of about A.D. 440. The stelae, their spatial relationships, and the ceremonial deposits are evidence of influences from southeastern Mexico.
El Inga Projectile Points — Surface Collections
Authors: Mayer-Oakes William J
Published: April 2006

Surface collecting in 1960 and excavations in 1961 have produced a large sample of chipped obsidian tools from El Inga, a site in Highland Ecuador. From a total surface collection sample of 83 projectile points, 25 complete and 3 nearly complete specimens have been examined intensively. They are described here by precise line drawings and narrative statements about the presence or absence and quantity or quality of morphological and technological attributes within the five attribute systems of material, form, dimension, chipping, and grinding. The three major projectile point styles derived here — “Fell's Cave Stemmed,” “Ayampitin,” and “Paijan” — are interpreted as representing horizon markers in South American preceramic times. The “Fell's Cave Stemmed” style is earliest and shows some technological relationships to the "fluted" points of North America.
Sandal Types and Archaic Prehistory on the Colorado Plateau
Authors: Geib Phil R.
Published: April 2006

Perishable artifacts provide an alternative to projectile points for examining spatial patterns in Archaic material culture between northern and southern portions of the Colorado Plateau of the North American Southwest. This is so because they possess a potential great variety of specific construction and design attributes and can be directly dated to establish independent chronologies of development. The analysis and dating of a collection of warp-faced plain weave sandals from Chevelon Canyon, Arizona demonstrates the potential utility of perishable artifacts to our understanding of prehistory. The collection provides an important first sample of early Archaic footwear for the southern Colorado Plateau. AMS dating reveals that the oldest Chevelon Canyon sandal (8300 ± 60 B.P.) is 1,500 years earlier than the oldest directly dated sandal of this style on the northern Colorado Plateau. Most of the Chevelon Canyon sandals date from 7500 to 6000 cal. B.C., contemporaneous with open-twined sandals on the northern Colorado Plateau. This study provides another contrast in forager material culture between southern and northern portions of the plateau during the early Archaic, prior to ca. 5700 cal. B.C. After this time, the plain weave sandal style was adopted on the northern Colorado Plateau but not because of population replacement.
The Dolphin Hunters: A Specialized Prehistoric Maritime Adaptation in the Southern California Channel Islands and Baja California
Authors: Porcasi Judith F. , Fujita Harumi
Published: April 2006

Synthesis of faunal collections from several archaeological sites on the three southernmost California Channel Islands and one in the Cape Region of Baja California reveals a distinctive maritime adaptation more heavily reliant on the capture of pelagic dolphins than on near-shore pinnipeds. Previous reports from other Southern California coastal sites suggest that dolphin hunting may have occurred there but to a lesser extent. While these findings may represent localized adaptations to special conditions on these islands and the Cape Region, they call for reassessment of the conventionally held concept that pinnipeds were invariably the primary mammalian food resource for coastal peoples. Evidence of the intensive use of small cetaceans is antithetical to the accepted models of maritime optimal foraging which assume that shore-based or near-shore marine mammals (i.e., pinnipeds) would be the highest-ranked prey because they were readily encountered and captured. While methods of dolphin hunting remain archaeologically invisible, several island cultures in which dolphin were intensively exploited by people using primitive watercraft and little or no weaponry are presented as possible analogs to a prehistoric Southern California dolphin-hunting technique. These findings also indicate that dolphin hunting was probably a cooperative endeavor among various members of the prehistoric community.
Tepimans, Yumans, and Other Hohokam
Authors: Shaul David Leedom , Hill Jane H.
Published: April 2006

The Proto-Tepiman speech community—that is, the community that spoke the language ancestral to all the contemporary Tepiman languages—can be located at the northern end of the present-day Tepiman range, perhaps as far north and west as the Gila-Colorado confluence, and probably within the Hohokam region, during the Hohokam time period in the first millennium A.D. Evidence for the northern location of Proto-Tepiman includes, first, attestation of language contact with Proto-River Yuman, including data from phonology, syntax, and lexicon. This evidence suggests that the Hohokam were a multi-ethnic community; we present evidence that by the fourteenth century this multi-ethnic system probably included speakers of Zuni. Second, the greatest internal diversity in Tepiman is among the northernmost varieties. Third, we can reconstruct a word meaning “saguaro cactus,” a plant not found south of Ciudad Obregón, Sonora, for Proto-Tepiman. While the linguistic evidence strongly suggests the involvement of the Proto-Tepiman speech community in the Hohokam system, the evidence provided by contemporary Upper Piman languages (Akimel O’odham [Pima] and Tohono O’odham [Papago]) neither confirms nor excludes the involvement of speakers of these languages in the core Hohokam complex in the late prehistoric period.
A Warp Set-Up from the South Coast of Peru
Authors: Wallace Dwight T.
Published: April 2006

An undated specimen, which consists of yarns prepared for being fixed to a loom and comes from the south coast of Peru, is reported. The unusual features of the specimen are its length of 107 ft. and some supplementary yarns which are interpreted as heddles in preparation, for which the possible steps are reconstructed.
Prehistoric Human Use of Fire, the Eastern Agricultural Complex, and Appalachian Oak-Chestnut Forests: Paleoecology of Cliff Palace Pond, Kentucky
Authors: Delcourt Paul A. , Delcourt Hazel R. , Ison Cecil R. , Sharp William E. , Gremillion Kristen J.
Published: April 2006

Fossil pollen assemblages from Cliff Palace Pond, Kentucky, characterize changes in forest composition through the past 9,500 years of the Holocene. Early-Holocene spruce and northern white cedar stands were replaced by mixed mesophytic forests after 7300 B.P. Hemlock declined around 4800 B.P., and eastern red cedar became locally important. After 3000 B.P, mixed oak-chestnut and pine forests were dominant. The fossil charcoal record from Cliff Palace Pond demonstrates that Late Archaic and Woodland peoples cleared forest gaps to cultivate native plants in the Eastern Agricultural Complex and that anthropogenic fires served to increase populations of fire-tolerant oaks, chestnut, and pines in upland forests of the northern Cumberland Plateau.
Cucurbita pepofrom King Coulee, Southeastern Minnesota
Authors: Perkl Bradley E.
Published: April 2006

Domesticated squash (Cucurbita pepo) was recovered from King Coulee, a multicomponent habitation site. Recent accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon determinations on two seeds indicate that Cucurbita was used as early as 2530±60 B.P, during the Late Archaic. This marks the earliest occurrence of domesticated plant use in the upper Midwest. Another seed dated to the Late Woodland (1170±40 B.P.) is consistent with an inferred pattern of greater plant use throughout the area. The use of Cucurbita played an important role in the long transition from foraging to farming. These new data provide valuable insights into the economies of the people inhabiting the region.
The Red Butte Lithic Sites Near Grand Canyon, Arizona
Authors: McNutt Charles H. , Euler Robert C.
Published: April 2006

Surface collections from three sites at Red Butte, near Grand Canyon in northern Arizona, produced small, concave-based Pinto points, as well as fragmentary Ventana-Amargosa forms. In addition, a wide range of lithic tools was found. Lateral and basal grinding on several points suggest that at least one preceramic component is represented. No points characteristic of the ceramic period were obtained, but a few potsherds dating A.D. 1000-1200 were found on two of the sites. The pottery, unexpectedly, is attributable to Kayenta Anasazi rather than Cohonina. Presumably, but not demonstrably, this pottery is not associated with the points mentioned above. Neither the projectile forms nor the pottery complex from these sites has been reported previously from this immediate region.
Additional Radiocarbon Dates from the Sambaquίs of Brazil
Authors: Hurt Wesley R.
Published: April 2006

Three new radiocarbon dates are presented for two sambaquίs in Brazil. These agree with dates previously reported.
Incised Slate Disks from the Atlantic Watershed of Costa Rica: A Commentary
Authors: Baudez Claude F. , Coe Michael D.
Published: April 2006

An attempt is made to correlate the finds recently published in this journal by Doris Stone and Carlos Balser with the Coe-Baudez sequence in northwestern Costa Rica. The 25 tombs at La Fortuna cover the whole Linear Decorated period, with one tomb belonging to the preceding and another one to the succeeding period. The material listed from Guácimo is tentatively dated to the Middle Polychrome period corresponding to the Mesoamerican Postclassic. It is shown that these finds do not contradict the Coe-Baudez sequence, but rather confirm it. A few remarks are added about the condition of Costa Rican archaeology.
Variation in the Early Paleoindian Economies of Late Pleistocene Eastern North America
Authors: Tankersley Kenneth B.
Published: April 2006

The nature of Early Paleoindian economies in late Pleistocene eastern North America has been extensively debated by archaeologists. To better understand paleoeconomies we need to examine intraregional and interregional diversity in the production, consumption, distribution, and exchange of materials that sustained or reproduced early Paleoindian livelihoods. Coarse-grained comparisons drawn on the composition of flaked-stone tool assemblages from early Paleoindian sites in the Northeast (western New York State) and the western Midwest (the confluence area of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers) show varying degrees of homogeneity and heterogeneity in the use of tool stone. Statistically significant patterns from stone procurement and tool manufacturing sites, base camps, and food procurement and processing sites are presented in support of a pancontinental model of flexible economies during a period of rapid and dramatic environmental change.
The Interplay of Evidential Constraints and Political Interests: Recent Archaeological Research on Gender
Authors: Wylie Alison
Published: April 2006

In the last few years, conference programs and publications have begun to appear that reflect a growing interest, among North American archaeologists, in research initiatives that focus on women and gender as subjects of investigation. One of the central questions raised by these developments has to do with their "objectivity" and that of archaeology as a whole. To the extent that they are inspired by or aligned with explicitly political (feminist) commitments, the question arises of whether they do not themselves represent an inherently partial and interest-specific standpoint, and whether their acceptance does not undermine the commitment to value neutrality and empirical rigor associated with scientific approaches to archaeology. I will argue that, in fact, a feminist perspective, among other critical, explicitly political perspectives, may well enhance the conceptual integrity and empirical adequacy of archaeological knowledge claims, where this is centrally a matter of deploying evidential constraints.
Mesoamerican Origin for an Obsidian Scraper from the Precolumbian Southeastern United States
Authors: Barker Alex W. , Skinner Craig E. , Shackley M. Steven , Glascock Michael D. , Rogers J. Daniel
Published: April 2006

EDXRF analysis of an obsidian scraper from the Spiro Mounds, Oklahoma, shows that the source material was from Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico. Given the distinctive peralkaline character of the obsidian, the source assignment is considered extremely secure. The artifact was recovered from the east tunnel of Craig Mound, Spiro, immediately after the cessation of commercial digging in 1935, and has been in the Smithsonian’s collections since 1937. Despite more than 150 years of speculation regarding supposed contact with and influence from the region, this represents the first documented example of Mesoamerican material from any Mississippian archaeological context in the Precolumbian southeastern United States.
Folsom and Yuma Culture Finds
Authors: Fischel Hans E.
Published: April 2006

A little more than a decade ago, the term “Folsom points” made its first appearance in the literature. It signifies a stone implement characterized by a wide, shallow groove, usually found on both sides (Figure 25:1, 2, 6, 7). Previously these implements, known from surface finds only, had aroused no particular attention. Their true significance was established by the Colorado Museum of Natural History, when these artifacts were discovered in direct association with a number of extinct bison (B. antiquus taylori) and other animals. The undoubted association of fauna and artifacts was confirmed by Barnum Brown, A. V. Kidder, and F. H. H. Roberts, Jr. All finds of this particular grooved blade were henceforth called “Folsom” points, after the nearby town of Folsom, New Mexico.
A Basketmaker III Site in Canyon Largo, New Mexico
Authors: Hibben Frank C. , Dick Herbert W.
Published: April 2006

One of the activities of the University of New Mexico's 1939 field school at Chaco Canyon was a reconnaissance excavation in the vicinity of Largo Canyon, to the northeast of the Chaco, proper. This was a continuation of the survey and excavations of the past four seasons, as a part of the project for outlining chronologically and geographically the culture known as Gallina. The extent of the Gallina manifestation to the east and south has already been fairly accurately delineated, but its western and northwestern boundaries are unknown. Since the San Juan and Mesa Verde centers lie to the northwest, it was deemed imperative that the cultural connections in that direction be determined. Typical Gallina unit houses are common on the headwaters of the Largo and in the Llegua Canyon area which heads in the same region. The extremely rugged area lying between this district and the San Juan and Mesa Verde region, however, is not only difficult of access, but is practically unknown archaeologically.
Regarding J. C. Jones' Date for Lake Lahontan
Authors: Antevs Ernst
Published: April 2006

Mr. Alex D. Krieger's (pp. 355, 359) reference to the late J C. Jones’ date for Lake Lahontan calls for some clarifying comments. Lake Lahontan, the ancient lake in northr western Nevada which occupied 8500 square miles and reached several hundred feet above the modern lakes in its basin, Professor Jones believed, was not, as generally held, contemporaneous with the extensive Pleistocene glaciations in the adjacent mountains,1 but “the Lahontan stages occurred during the present era, with the survival of the fauna till the last thousand years” (1933, p. 96). The extinct fauna referred to included horses, elephants, camels, and Felis atrox (1925, p. 49; 1929, p. 539). Jones (1925, p. 4) did not correlate Lake Lahontan with other ancient lakes in the Great Basin, did not discuss their relationship, and objected to my introducing the obvious sister-lake in western Utah, Lake Bonneville, into the discussion.
Excavation of Mesa Verde Pit Houses
Authors: Lancaster James A. , Watson Don W.
Published: April 2006

During the autumn of 1941, excavations in Modified Basketmaker sites in Mesa Verde National Park were carried on, for the twin purposes of clearing well-preserved pit houses that could be used in the interpretative program of the park and of adding to the meager amount of information on Modified Basketmaker culture in the park area. Although this period has been studied extensively in adjacent districts, little work has been done on it in the Mesa Verde.
A Chapter in Navaho-Pueblo Relations
Authors: Keur Dorothy L.
Published: April 2006

In an effort to expand the known range of early Navaho history, an area in north-central New Mexico was chosen for survey and excavation in the summer of 1940. This territory lies just south of the Colorado line, between 107° and 108° longitude, and between 36° and 37° latitude, in the northwestern part of Rio Arriba County, in the upper San Juan drainage. Reconnaissance extended over the country within a radius of from ten to fifteen miles from Gobernador. The area is about thirty-five miles east of the town of Aztec and includes the canyons of Compaftero, San Rafael, Mufioz, Gobernador, Frances, La Jara and Pueblito.

Sites from this region had been noted as early as 1912 by Kidder and Morris, who point out their seemingly Pueblo-Navaho nature. Father Berard and Van Valkenburgh report hogan remains on the slopes of Gobernador Knob, sacred in Navaho mythology, and Mera obtained pinyon specimens for dating from several small pueblo-like structures in this region.
The Rogers' Collection From Lakes Mistassini and Albanel, Province of Quebec
Authors: Johnson Frederick
Published: April 2006

Edward and Murray Rogers have generously presented to the Peabody Foundation, Andover, the collection of stone tools obtained during the trips described in the preceding paper. It is my privilege to offer a description of these fascinating specimens together with some comments. In doing this I do not wish to divert attention from the task the Rogers' accomplished. The material and the accompanying information which they brought back is, and will remain, of considerable importance to the archaeology of the “Far Northeast.”

Few of us have the slightest conception of what the two men went through in order to make these data available to us. The region is difficult to travel in; even the Indians do not move around during the summer any more than they have to.
Passadumkeag, a Red Paint Cemetery, Thirty–Five Years After Moorehead
Authors: Hadlock Wendell S. , Stern Theodore
Published: April 2006

Present-day knowledge of the Red Paint burial complex in Maine rests chiefly upon the work of Willoughby and of Moorehead, done in the latter part of the last, and the first quarter of the present, century. Without doubt, the most extensive report on the subject is Moorehead's Archaeology of Maine, in which summary accounts of excavations at twelve Red Paint sites were set forth. Unfortunately, certain details pertaining to the burials were obscure. In particular, more data were desirable upon the character of the deposit—whether burial or ceremonial offering—as well as upon the indications of age. With the purpose of securing this information, the authors in June, 1947, undertook limited excavations on the Hathaway farm at Passadumkeag, Maine. Here Moorehead had excavated seventeen graves; without exhausting the possibilities, we were able to uncover seven more.
Some Skeletal Remains in Saskatchewan
Authors: Edmunds F. H. , Jackson J. L. , Spinks J. W. T. , Vigfusson V. A.
Published: April 2006

The skeletal remains described in this report were found by Pius Fischer on November 14, 1936, as gravel was being dug from a pit near the town of Bradwell, Saskatchewan, for highway purposes. The find was reported to the R. C. M. Police, and Detective Sergeant F. W. Davis kindly mentioned the matter to Dr. Vigfusson, who proceeded a week later to the site of the find with Professors Jackson, Edmunds and Spinks. Unfortunately, by that time the gravel had been excavated to a distance of about four feet beyond the original position of the bones, and thus all evidence of the condition of the burial had been obliterated.
A Progress Report on the Dating of Archaeological Sites by Means of Radioactive Elements
Authors: Merrill Robert S.
Published: April 2006

The importance of being able to date accurately the remains of past societies has long been recognized by archaeologists. The problem has always been to find methods that work in the absence of historical records. Recent developments, such as tree-ring dating, have been great contributions, but they are not applicable everywhere. There is still a great need for new methods to supplement and extend the range of present dating procedures.

A large field of knowledge so far largely unexplored for possible dating methods is the physics and chemistry of archaeological remains. One area in this field is the study of naturally occurring radioactive elements. Some of these elements have been used by geologists to date ancient rock strata, but applications to archaeological materials have not been made. Recently, however, two possible methods for using radioactive elements to date archaeological remains have been proposed on theoretical grounds. It is not yet definitely known whether they will work, or how well. Further research is necessary.
A Spear Thrower from Oklahoma
Authors: Baker W. E. , Kidder A. V.
Published: April 2006

There is reason to believe that the bow came into use in the New World in relatively recent times, and that prior to its introduction, or its much less probable local invention, the spear-thrower enjoyed continent-wide distribution in both Americas. These suppositions are based on the apparent total absence from all respectably ancient deposits of small, light points suitable for the tipping of arrows; and, conversely, by the presence in such deposits of larger points, of sizes and weights appropriate for service with the heavier, longer darts propelled by the spear-thrower. Furthermore, the spear-thrower is known to have been replaced by the bow in the Southwest during the Basket Maker II period, probably in the early centuries of the Christian era.
The Direct Historical Approach to Archaeology
Authors: Steward Julian H.
Published: April 2006

In recent years considerable attention has been given to theoretical statements and to concrete applications of what is called the “taxonomic method“ in archaeology. Although this method is not necessarily in conflict with the direct historical approach to archaeology, a growing preoccupation with the former has definitely been at the expense of the latter. The direct historical approach, although employed more or less for many years, has not received formulation comparable to that of the taxonomic method, nor have its potentialities for planned research programs and its possible integration with recent types of historical ethnographic research received full recognition. Even, therefore, if it is unnecessary to argue its value, it seems timely to attempt a statement that may help clarify its procedures and research possibilities.
Remarks on the Prone Burial Position in China and North America
Authors: Heizer Robert F.
Published: April 2006

Some ten years ago Dr. Herrlee Glessner Creel in his Studies in Early Chinese Culture discussed briefly the four Shang period burials (Nos. 18.2, 18.3, 18.4, 18.S) excavated at Anyang in 1929. The unusual position of the skeletons (lying fully extended on the face) intrigued the Chinese archaeologists of the National Research Institute, and they made inquiries about parallels elsewhere. All their queries drew blanks, and their conclusion therefore was that this burial posture was unique and had never been recorded in the literature prior to 1930. More recently Li Chi has treated these four burials in greatest detail, and of them he says, “As far as can be determined, these four instances [of prone burials] in China are unique in the world.“

In October, 1938 after reading Dr. Creel's Studies, I wrote to him and described the prone (or as we call them, ventrally extended) burials of the Early Central Cali-. fornia culture horizon and sent a photograph of one such interment. This information apparently was not communicated farther by Dr. Creel, judging from Li Chi's printed article of more recent date.
A Trial Survey of the Southern Maya Area
Authors: Thompson J. Eric S.
Published: April 2006

Maya history can be divided into four great periods; the formative, the initial series, the Mexican, and the Mexican absorption. The formative period (prior to A.D. 300) comprises the Mamom and Chicanel phases at Uaxactun and coeval phases found elsewhere in the central area (Petén, British Honduras, Chiapas, Tabasco, lower Motagua, drainage), the northern area (Yucatan, northern Campeche, Quintana Roo) and, as we shall see, the southern area.
Pre-Columbian Art and Art History
Authors: Kelemen Pál
Published: April 2006

The acceptance of pre-Columbian art as true and great art did not come speedily. In fact, it has not yet been as generally accepted as has the art of the great civilizations of the Near East and the Far East. An attempt is made here to trace the slow progress toward its general acknowledgment and to examine some of the problems now confronting those concerned with the subject.

When, in the second half of the eighteenth century, humanistic studies gained a wider interest, there already existed a predilection for the art of Greece and Rome and what was built, developed, and permuted on these styles. Neither the Near East nor the Far East was then sufficiently known to be given serious esthetic consideration, and their artistic products were appreciated mainly as rarities and curios; the arts that throve or lay in ruins elsewhere over the globe were glimpsed only occasionally in the travel descriptions of intrepid voyagers.
The Occurrence and Significance of Southwestern Grooved Axes in California
Authors: Heizer Robert F.
Published: April 2006

To the archaeologist whose primary field of endeavor is California, the grooved stone ax is a relatively unfamiliar object, since it occurs but rarely either in the course of excavation or in the perusal of the literature. That the grooved ax occurs at all in this region is significant, chiefly for the reason that in western North America it is a form highly characteristic of, and, with few exceptions, restricted to the Southwestern culture province proper. Since southern California is generally considered a western peripheral extension of the Southwestern culture area, it is not surprising occasionally to encounter the grooved ax here. It is interesting to note that this implement also occurs far to the northward in central and northeastern California, a region commonly thought to be beyond the zone of direct influence by or immediate contact with the Southwest proper. Presumably the grooved ax in central and northern California represents an extreme northwesterly extension from its native locale, which we assume to be the Southwest.