bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
John Lennon as Pop-Cultural and Political Icon
Authors: Shaw Punch
Published: April 2021

No musician embodied the world-changing turbulence of the 1960s and 1970s more than John Lennon. His work as a composer with the Beatles and as a solo artist reinvented what a rock song could be. As a political and social activist, he was a tireless champion of truth, peace, and world harmony. For many of his fans, Lennon’s music and sociopolitical efforts were intertwined. They loved him for the timeless music he created with the Beatles and on his own. And many admired him still more for his efforts to effect social and political change. But his personal life, which included domestic abuse, heavy drug use, and some epically boorish behavior, did not always match his image rooted in peace and love. Has the growing knowledge of Lennon’s personal shortcomings damaged his relationship with his fans? Judging by the adulation he has received since his tragic death in 1980, apparently not.
The Beatles, Gender, and Sexuality
Authors: Kapurch Katie
Published: April 2021

This chapter addresses the Beatles’ complex gendered and sexual appeal to audiences and the evolution of fan identification processes in the 1960s and beyond. The chapter unites the growing body of scholarship that treats issues of gender and sexuality in relation to the Beatles and their fans. After consideration of the theoretical difference between androgyny and gender fluidity, Beatles texts are discussed in relation to fan responses. Their gender fluidity inspired many girl fans to scream for (and sing about) the Fabs’ representation of freedom early in the decade. But their music shifted from the girl talk of “She Loves You” to the bravado of “You’re Going to Lose That Girl.” No longer clad in matching boyish suits, the Beatles maintained their fluid gender performance throughout the ’60s. The Beatles’ gender fluidity is a key ingredient in their sustained popularity. The band endures because listeners keep finding themselves in the Beatles.
Dynamic Decision Making, Distance Functions, and Productive Efficiency
Authors: Silva Elvira , Stefanou Spiro E. , Lansink Alfons Oude
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses three concepts of the directional distance function in the presence of internal adjustment costs, designated as adjustment cost directional distance functions. These functions are the building blocks of technical inefficiency measures. Duality between an adjustment cost directional distance function and an indirect optimal value function allows the construction of economic measures of inefficiency. Duality is established between the adjustment cost directional input function and the optimal current value function of the intertemporal cost minimization problem. From this dual relation, a dynamic cost inefficiency measure is derived and decomposed into technical inefficiency and allocative inefficiency. Similarly, dynamic input-output measures of inefficiency are derived from the adjustment cost directional technology distance function and duality between this function and the current profit function.
Offering a Candidate Answer: An Information Seeking Strategy
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

Candidate answer queries (also referred to as polar or yes-no questions) are used massively in conversational interaction. Although such queries seem simple and straightforward, analysis reveals several kinds of complexities associated with these types of questions. Candidate answer queries carry claims about the speaker’s knowledge. They are understood as the speaker’s best guess and hence display the speaker’s knowledge about the matter at hand. They also have a moral dimension. Candidate answers may reference a normal, legitimate possibility versus an abnormal, illegitimate one. The moral status of the incorporated candidate answer may be read as reflecting the speaker’s attitude and sympathies about the matter at hand. Finally, by incorporating a candidate answer in a query, a questioner provides a model of what would satisfy the questioner’s purpose in asking.
Investigating Reported Absences: “Neutrally” Catching the Truants
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

The data for the analysis consist of telephone calls initiated by a high school attendance office clerk to the home of students who had been reported absent. The purpose of the calls was to gather information relevant to determining whether the student’s absences were legitimate or not. The clerk’s interactional project was to merely investigate, not to make judgments about the status of the absences. When a parent’s report suggested truancy, the clerk sought and provided information differently than when a parent’s report pointed to a legitimate absence. When she suspected truancy, the clerk adopted a neutral stance. In part the stance involved displaying a cautiousness with respect to knowledge claims. As a side note, when the clerk suspected that the attendance records were inaccurate, she initially avoided detailing the reported absences to the parent.
Commentary
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

While I make interesting claims in this paper, it suffers from the problem that the instances represent not one phenomenon but a variety of phenomena. I was intrigued by several fragments of interaction in which participants reported their source or basis for their assertions, and I started collecting more instances of that. However, in making the collection, I neglected to take into account the sequential contexts in which speakers report their sources, and I shortchanged my analysis of the actions accomplished by reporting the source or basis. The result is that the paper has different sections describing various uses rather than being an entire paper dedicated to one phenomenon. In this commentary, I clarify the various sequential contexts in which participants report a source or basis for an assertion, sequential contexts that are essential for understanding their uses....
The Facilitators I: Policing
Authors: Heath Deana
Published: April 2021

Focusing on the role of atrocity facilitators, particularly colonial officials and the British government, in the governmentalization of torture by the police and other officials in colonial India, this chapter examines the ways in which, following the transfer of India’s governance from the East India Company to the Crown in 1858, the extra-legal violence of torture became systematized as a technology of colonial rule. Beginning with an analysis of what led to the perpetration of torture by state officials, the existence of which had long been known in both India and Britain, to erupt into scandal in 1854, the chapter interrogates how the commission set up to investigate torture led to the emergence of a new facilitatory discourse that served both to deny the existence of torture and the structural violence that underpinned it, as well as to displace blame for it from the colonial regime to its Indian subordinates. The chapter further explores how police reform in the commission’s aftermath was designed not to eradicate torture or ensure the welfare of the Indian populace but to safeguard the coercive and terrorizing powers of the colonial state
Introduction Cannons and Codes: Law, Literature, and America’s Wars
Authors: LaCroix Alison L. , Masur Jonathan S. , Nussbaum Martha C. , Weinrib Laura
Published: April 2021

Western literature as we know it begins with a mythic war: the anger of Achilles that “brought thousandfold pain upon the Achaeans.” Many non-Western literary traditions are built on similar origin stories: the Indian epic Mahabharata is, like the Iliad, a war story, and one could find many other examples in other traditions, both oral and written....
Law and Its Limits in Albion Tourgée’s Bricks without Straw
Authors: Masur Kate
Published: April 2021

Tourgée’s novel explores the challenges posed by the wartime abolition of slavery in the United States and the federal government’s attempt to impose a new legal order on the southern states. The Ohio-born Tourgée was an accomplished writer as well as a judge in Reconstruction North Carolina, and the novel—which is set in central North Carolina—takes up the possibilities and limits of legal reform in the wake of war. Masur argues that Bricks without Straw presents a largely pessimistic vision of law’s capacity to change deeply rooted social and political structures. Tourgée’s novel warns readers that when it comes to overcoming the legacies of slavery, the law is outmatched by white southerners’ racism and contempt. Masur situates Tourgée’s novel in the context of his political experience, which convinced him that an abstract commitment to individual rights meant little without robust federal institutions capable of protecting those rights against state and local resistance.
Response to Response
Authors: Ryff Carol D. , Boylan Jennifer Morozink , Kirsch Julie A.
Published: April 2021

We challenge the view that “one is better than none” on grounds that single-item assessments perpetuate a simplistic view of well-being, which is out of touch with how the field has progressed over recent decades. We also question blanket advocacy for measures in the absence of substantive scientific questions that require thoughtful engagement with the prior literature to make sound measurement choices. Substantive illustrations, invoking research on well-being and health in different cultural and socioeconomic contexts, are provided. Quality control is also essential in making sound measurement choices. Numerous contenders fail at this juncture because they have no conceptual foundation and also lack rigorous psychometric analyses documenting their empirical credibility. Another critical element in adjudicating measurement quality is extent of prior usage: evidence that the measures have taken hold in the scientific community, indicated by citation counts and number of published studies. We conclude that all such quality control criteria were inadequately addressed or missing in the measurement recommendations put forth in Chapter 17.
Reflections on the M/V “Norstar” Case Before the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
Authors: Tanaka Yoshifumi
Published: April 2021

The M/V “Norstar” case deserves serious consideration for four reasons. First, the M/V “Norstar” judgment of 2016 is the first judgment on preliminary objections in the jurisprudence of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). The judgment shed some light on procedural issues concerning preliminary objections. Second, ITLOS, in its judgment of 2019, addressed the interpretation and application of Article 87 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. In light of the paramount importance of the freedom of navigation, the Tribunal’s view on this matter merits particular attention. Third, the M/V “Norstar” case provides an insight into basic concepts of international law, such as acquiescence, estoppel, good faith, and abuse of rights. Fourth, the M/V “Norstar” case furnishes a precedent regarding reparation in international law. Thus, this chapter examines the M/V “Norstar” judgments on preliminary objections and the merits, respectively.
Spiritual Rearmament
Authors: Strasburg James D.
Published: April 2021

This chapter documents evangelical Protestant efforts to “spiritually rearm” Germany and Europe in an era of Cold War militarization. These spiritual efforts complemented a vast increase in American military capabilities during the early 1950s, as well as West Germany’s entry into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The evangelical pursuit of Europe’s “spiritual rearmament” signaled the rising prominence of Protestant evangelicals in American politics and diplomacy. Vying for spiritual leadership of their nation, Protestant evangelicals prepared to spread across the globe a gospel of faith, freedom, and free enterprise. In response to Cold War rearmament campaigns, a growing number of American ecumenists began to adopt Europe’s “third way” theology.
Christians and Muslims in Lebanon Before the Syrian Civil War
Authors: Hoffman Michael
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines perhaps the most famous illustration of sectarian politics: Lebanon. It provides an account of Lebanon before the Syrian Civil War using data from the first wave of the Arab Barometer, conducted in 2007. This chapter considers communal prayer and support for democracy through a Christian-Muslim sectarian lens. Before the war in Syria---which pitted Sunnis and Shi`a against each other in a more severe way than any time in the country's recent history---it was possible for both Sunnis and Shi`a to consider issues of representation through a Christian-Muslim perspective rather than through the Sunni-Shi`a divide. Since both Muslim sects were under-represented in politics and relatively poorer than Christians, their incentives with respect to democracy were aligned, despite their differences on other issues. Communal prayer therefore had a pro-democratic effect among Muslims, while the opposite was true for Christians, who sought to maintain their disproportionate influence in Lebanese politics as well as their greater wealth.
Representation or Redistribution? Evidence from Iraq
Authors: Hoffman Michael
Published: April 2021

This chapter considers Iraq, a case in which majoritarian and redistributive understandings of democracy imply very different preferences for the main sects. When democracy is believed to be a fundamentally political arrangement (elections, freedom to criticize government, etc.), Shi`a (the majority group) have reason to favor democracy, while the formerly powerful Sunni minority have reason to oppose it. Communal prayer pushes individuals' regime preferences further in the direction of these sectarian interests; i.e., mosque attendance increases support for democracy among Shi`a but decreases such support among Sunnis. However, when democracy is considered in economic terms, namely, narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor, the interests of each sect change. Sunnis, now poorer than Shi`a on average, have an incentive to support redistributive democracy, while Shi`a have reason to fear democratic redistribution. The effect of communal prayer follows these same patterns: in this case, mosque attendances enhances support for democracy among Sunnis but has the opposite effect among Shi`a. Evidence from the second wave of the Arab Barometer, conducted in 2011, is used to support each of these claims.
Constitutionalism and Pluralism
Authors: Pavel Carmen E.
Published: April 2021

The final chapter defends the idea of constitutionalizing international law against views that require the preservation or scaling back of the current institutionalization of international law, most notably legal pluralism. Legal pluralists argue that conflict among the claims of various overlapping legal orders is unavoidable, but it is also desirable insofar as it preserves the values inherent in various legal systems and refrains from stifling moral, social, and legal diversity through the imposition of narrow hierarchies. The chapter shows why pluralism fails as a normative ideal of international law, due to its facilitation of legal uncertainty and indeterminacy, the lack of commitment from states to a rule-based order at the international level, and the proliferation of deeply oppressive and unjust state legal orders. Finally, the chapter explains why, contra existing claims to the contrary, the UN Charter does not meet the standards of an adequate constitutional treaty for international law.
Resilience and Decline: Civil Liberties in Pakistan
Authors: Yadav Vineeta
Published: April 2021

This chapter continues the analysis of the Pakistani case by testing whether the two conditions stated in Hypothesis 2—religious parties in government, and highly institutionalized religious organizations—predict a decline in civil liberties in Pakistan. It identifies two distinct periods corresponding to the presence of religious parties in government in the (i) absence and (ii) presence of highly institutionalized religious organizations in Pakistan. According to the argument articulated in Hypothesis 2, civil liberties should only decline for religious reasons starting in 2009, when the religious Jamaat-e-Ulema-Fazlur party joined the ruling coalition and religious organizations finally achieved moderate levels of socioeconomic institutionalization. In this context, Hypothesis 2 predicts a moderate decline in de facto civil liberties. The chapter uses additional evidence from the survey of 150 Pakistani politicians, analytical narratives from Pakistani political history, and quantitative data to test support for Hypothesis 2 and its corollaries in Pakistan and finds strong support for them.
May Machines Take Lives to Save Lives? Human Perceptions of Autonomous Robots (with the Capacity to Kill)
Authors: Scheutz Matthias , Malle Bertram F.
Published: April 2021

In the future, artificial agents are likely to make life-and-death decisions about humans. Ordinary people are the likely arbiters of whether these decisions are morally acceptable. We summarize research on how ordinary people evaluate artificial (compared to human) agents that make life-and-death decisions. The results suggest that many people are inclined to morally evaluate artificial agents’ decisions, and when asked how the artificial and human agents should decide, they impose the same norms on them. However, when confronted with how the agents did in fact decide, people judge the artificial agents’ decisions differently from those of humans. This difference is best explained by justifications people grant the human agents (imagining their experience of the decision situation) but do not grant the artificial agent (whose experience they cannot imagine). If people fail to infer the decision processes and justifications of artificial agents, these agents will have to explicitly communicate such justifications to people, so they can understand and accept their decisions.
The Human Role in Autonomous Weapon Design and Deployment
Authors: Cummings M.L.
Published: April 2021

There has been increasing debate in the international community as to whether it is morally and ethically permissible to use autonomous weapons, which are weapon systems that select and fire upon a target with no human in the loop. Given the tightly coupled link between emerging technology and policy development in this debate that speaks to the very core of humanity, this chapter explains how current automated control systems, including weapons systems, are designed in terms of balancing authority between the human and the computer. The distinction between automated and autonomous systems is explained, and a framework is presented for conceptualizing the human-computer balance for future autonomous systems, both civilian and military. Lastly, specific technology and policy implications for weaponized autonomous systems are discussed.
Fortresses
Authors: Husain Faisal H.
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the role of river transportation in Ottoman state-building in Iraq. From the sixteenth century, the Ottoman state organized a steady supply of grains and arms to be shipped from Aleppo, Diyarbakır, and Mosul to the downstream fortresses of Baghdad and Basra. The Ottoman state, as a result, could deploy in Iraq sizable garrisons capable of stabilizing its authority in a volatile frontier region. In addition, Istanbul improved the communication infrastructure of the drainage basin by investing in seaports, docks, rafts, and bridges, which smoothed the movement of men and provisions between the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. The janissary and artillery corps deployed from the capital profited greatly from the imperial patronage of provincial religious foundations and their cadre, which buttressed the legitimacy of Ottoman hard power in the region.
Discourse
Authors: Myrick Nathan
Published: April 2021

This chapter engages the discursive problem of music in both popular and academic literature, and, using ethnographic evidence, shows that musical meaning is partially determined and simultaneously configured via linguistic and generic means. One of the ways communities may form is around shared understanding of musical meaning, and musical meaning may be determined largely by generic understandings—musical genres often function discursively for North American evangelicals. The chapter argues that generic musical meaning is imbued with values and convictions, claiming that these are negotiated as a kind of discourse ethics. However, these generic understandings of meaning are unstable, being troubled by the competing claims of authenticity and control. This instability precludes ethical theorization on the premise of discourse alone, yet it indicates that the discourse that takes place both around and through musical activity is ethically important and should be taken into account in any ethical theory that gives an account of music.
The Decline of Natural Law
Authors: Banner Stuart
Published: April 2021

Before the late 19th century, natural law played an important role in the American legal system. Lawyers routinely used it in their arguments, and judges often relied upon it in their opinions. Today, by contrast, natural law plays virtually no role in the legal system. When natural law was part of a lawyer’s toolkit, lawyers thought of judges as finders of the law, but when natural law dropped out of the legal system, lawyers began thinking of judges as makers of the law instead. The Decline of Natural Law explores the causes and consequences of this change. It discusses the ways in which lawyers used natural law and why the concept seemed reasonable to them. It examines several long-term trends in legal thought that weakened the position of natural law, including the use of written constitutions, the gradual separation of the spheres of law and religion, the rapid growth of legal publishing, and the position of natural law in some of the 19th century’s most contested legal issues. It describes the profession’s rejection of natural law in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. And it explores the ways in which the legal system responded to the absence of natural law.
Freedom in Kant’s Revolution
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: April 2021

This chapter turns to the philosophical revolution of Kant. Starting from what he described as his ‘Copernican’ revolution in epistemology, it examines what he took to be its implications, negative and positive, for metaphysics, ethics, and religion. It examines Kant’s account of freedom as autonomy; his moral theory and its basis in the categorical imperative; his conception of the relation between morality and practical reason; and his ethical views and ideals. His political views are examined in relation to the ideas identified in Chapter I, particularly those of the revolutionary thinker Sieyès. In the concluding section Kant’s critical and hermeneutic stance in metaphysics and ethics is defended. It is argued, however, that while transcendental idealism is a powerful response to the problem of knowledge, it is not required for a full account of freedom, will, and reason.
Verb verb complex predicates in Old and Middle Japanese
Authors: Aoki Hirofumi , Frellesvig Bjarke
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes the main features of Verb Verb complex predicates in Old and Middle Japanese (8th to 16th centuries) and discusses changes that took place between Old Japanese and Modern Japanese. Old Japanese had complex verbal predicate constructions which resemble the Modern Japanese Types 1–3, and in addition a V1 aktionsart verb construction, which is not found in later stages and which is hypothesized to have played a crucial role in the development of complex predicates in Japanese. The wordhood of complex verbal predicates is addressed. Verb Verb complex predicates did not constitute tight morphological units in Old and Early Middle Japanese, but developed into morphological words in Late Middle and Modern Japanese. It is proposed that the loss of subordinating function of the infinitive played an important part in this change. It is also observed that the Modern Japanese Type 4 (Vte V) is a Late Middle Japanese innovation which is not a prototypical complex predicate verb construction but rather an auxiliary verb construction.
Verb-verb complexes in Irabu Ryukyuan
Authors: Shimoji Michinori
Published: April 2021

This chapter explores the V-V complexes in the Irabu dialect of Miyako Ryukyuan, spoken in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Two major classes of V-V complexes are identified: phrasal V-V complexes (Auxiliary Verb Constructions and Serial Verb Constructions) and one-word V-V complexes (lexical and syntactic compounds). After a detailed description of these structures, they are compared with the V-V complexes in Japanese. Finally, it is argued that the descriptive data of Irabu has implications for diachronic studies, especially the ongoing debate in Japanese historical linguistics with regard to whether one-word V-V complexes existed in Old Japanese.
Introduction
Authors: Budolfson Mark , McPherson Tristram , Plunkett David
Published: April 2021

This volume is guided by two thoughts. First, philosophers have much to contribute to the discussion of climate change. Second, reflection on climate change can contribute to our thinking about a range of general topics that are of independent interest to philosophers. This volume will be of interest both to philosophers working on climate change as well as those working in a range of other fields, ranging from public policy to economics to law to empirical disciplines including psychology, the science of climate adaptation, mitigation, and beyond. Part of what we aim to establish in this volume is that philosophers are in a strong position to collaborate in the kind of interdisciplinary conversations needed to tackle pressing challenges for the world such as climate change....
Case Studies
Authors: Cohn Margit
Published: April 2021

The chapter offers general introductions to the legal ordering of two fields—national emergency and air pollution. In addition to providing general backgrounds for those analyses, the introductions present initial accounts on the complexity of both bodies of law in two legal systems, thereby offering four glimpses of the ways fuzziness can, and does, develop and flourish in law. These overviews may also be useful to those who study these fields. Commentaries on specified areas of law often tend to direct their attention to a small number of measures—those that could be considered the ‘legislative mandates’ under the ideal-type vision of regulation—but, true to one of the themes of this book, attention should also be cast elsewhere. The overviews presented here span the legal rules directly targeting the regulation of these two fields of government action, originating from customary international law; international law treaties and documents; EU law, as long as applicable; domestic law; and unilateral measures such as orders in council and executive orders.
Executive-Generated Fuzziness
Authors: Cohn Margit
Published: April 2021

This chapter is dedicated to analyses of examples of executive-generated fuzziness in the context of implementation. It offers examples of the ways executives can create further nodes of fuzziness, by crafting the implementation of the law, be it fuzzy or relatively clear, in ways that further fuzzy-up the law. Under the classical vision of executive action, implementation and enforcement are straightforward, easily apprehended processes that follow the legislative mandate and are applied by authorized regulators. The well-developed body of research on the gap between law-on-the-books and law-in-action overviewed in this chapter more than challenges this vision. Either as proof of government failure, or, opposingly, as an indication of well-thought-out responsive action aimed to achieve optimal results, all action located in this gap is fuzzy. Using examples from the UK and the US in the fields of emergency and air pollution law, I discuss three practices that challenge the classical understanding of the nature of implementation: selective enforcement; creative compliance; and the non-application of law ('pastiche law'). The focus here is, then, on the behaviour of the executive and the ways it applies a power granted to it in ways that frustrate the law without moving into the sphere of illegality.
Nascent Newtonian, 1690–1716
Authors: Roos Anna Marie
Published: April 2021

This chapter assesses Folkes’s early life and letters as a nascent Newtonian. We demonstrate to what extent Folkes’s education with French Huguenot scholars Abraham de Moivre and Jacques Louis Cappel, as well as with Charles Morgan, Master of Clare College, Cambridge would serve as a basis for his continued ties to Huguenot instrument makers and Cambridge natural philosophers and mathematicians throughout his professional career.
Investigating the past of the futurate present
Authors: Cowper Elizabeth , Hall Daniel Currie , Bjorkman Bronwyn M. , Tollan Rebecca , Banerjee Neil
Published: April 2021

Using a corpus of 1118 future-referring clauses from each of five versions of the Christian Gospels, this paper explores the effect that the development of English modals as a distinct class had on the range of meanings expressed by the simple present tense. It is shown that in Old English, the simple present tense was the primary form used to express future meanings, while by Early Modern English modals were obligatory in such clauses. In late Middle English, modals were very frequently used, but are shown not to be obligatory. The change is attributed to the advent, in the late 1500s, of a contrastive interpretable feature modality, spelled out by the modals. Thereafter, a clause lacking this contrastive feature could not be interpreted as future-referring except in planned or scheduled contexts. The featural implications of the present-day decline of the true modals are then briefly considered.
The nature and origin of syntactic ergativity in Austronesian languages
Authors: Aldridge Edith
Published: April 2021

In syntactically ergative languages, generally only the nominal with nominative (absolutive) case can undergo A’-extraction operations. Drawing evidence from Austronesian languages, this paper argues that this restriction is a consequence of the nature of nominative case valuation, which forces this feature to be retained on the phase head C rather than being inherited by T. Consequently, only the DP needing to value nominative case can move to [Spec, CP]. This paper also explores the diachronic origin of the extraction restriction in Austronesian languages and proposes that it must be reconstructed to Proto-Austronesian (PAn). But because PAn was an accusative language, objects could not be extracted directly in transitive root clauses, since the subject always valued nominative case in root clauses. Rather, the clause had to be nominalized and genitive case assigned to the subject in order to make [Spec, CP] available as a landing site for another argument.
Clay mineral layers and nanoparticles
Authors: Netzer Falko P. , Noguera Claudine
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides an introduction to the properties of naturally occurring oxide ultra-thin films and nanoparticles of complex composition, namely clay minerals. Clays represent a wide family of nanomaterials, formed from the weathering of primary rocks at the Earth surface. Their layered structure is responsible for their extreme anisotropy and their extremely high specific surface area which is at the origin of their unique properties and of their strong interaction with their surrounding. The focus of this chapter is on their structural and composition characteristics, the conditions of their formation, their interaction with water and their chemical properties. A mention is given of their uses in human cultural activities, in dwelling constructions and statuary, in porcelain fabrication, in retention of metal contaminants in the environment, in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, and as lubricants, catalysts, therapeuthic agents, among others.
The conformal anomaly and anomaly-induced action
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes in detail basic results concerning the conformal (trace) anomaly and anomaly-induced action in four spacetime dimensions. It is shown how the anomaly appears from the non-local form factors discussed in chapter 16. Starting from the conformal transformations, the necessary invariants and transformation rules are obtained. The simplest derivation of the anomaly in dimensional regularization is explained, followed by the equally simple calculation of the anomaly-induced effective action of gravity. The chapter also briefly discusses applications of the induced effective action in cosmology and black hole physics.
Massive ghosts in higher-derivative models
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes the unsolved problem of the massive unphysical ghost and related instabilities in higher-derivative models of gravity. After explaining what ghosts and tachyons are, the chapter describes the situation with ghosts in polynomial models and non-local models. It is shown that the unitarity of the S-matrix cannot be regarded as the main criterion for consistency in gravitational models. The effective approach to the problem of ghosts is described from a general perspective. After that, the chapter presents a basic discussion of stable and unstable cosmological solutions in massive ghost theory, and their correspondence with the effective approach.
Death’s Shadow Lightened
Authors: Rubio Daniel
Published: April 2021

This chapter by Daniel Rubio defends Epicurus’ famous argument that death cannot harm us because we no longer exist after we die. Focusing on the deprivationist account of the harm of death, Rubio contends that death is not especially harmful in any candidate ways.
The Macrofoundations
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

Chapter 2 is the first theoretical chapter developing the contours of the theory of socio-spatial positionality and how it applies to the four types of diaspora entrepreneurs—Broker, Local, Distant, and Reserved. They operate in transnational social fields, simultaneously embedded in different global contexts. The chapter builds on diaspora-, host-land-, and home-land-centric theories and further integrates three streams of thought that have not been in conversation with one another. First, it reimagines transnational social fields from a socio-spatial positionality perspective, considering earlier work in International Political Sociology. Secondly, it draws on scholarship on fragile and weak states in IR, especially on de facto states, and discusses their place in the international system and the rationales through which they engage diasporas abroad. Third, the chapter consults relational theories in IR, demonstrating that durable interactions among actors in international politics form structures spanning borders. These theories are useful to think about configurations of socio-spatial linkages of the four types of diaspora entrepreneurs, at the core of the typology. The chapter then lays out the socio-spatial positionality approach and its major features—relativity, power, fluidity, and perception—while delving deeper into the individual level of analysis. The four types of diaspora entrepreneurs have different socio-spatial positionalities at the intersection of various global contexts that empower them differently to pursue homeland-oriented goals. The chapter ends with a discussion about structure and agency in diaspora mobilizations.
Structure and Structural Change in Macroeconomic Theory
Authors: Rada Codrina
Published: April 2021

Macroeconomic models are built on causal structures that reflect choices made with respect to the variables that are solved from the model and those assumed exogenous. These choices are the ‘closures’ of the model. Differences in closures can lead to stark qualitative differences in the model’s solutions of macroeconomic equilibrium, and should therefore reflect the basic structure of the economy. In order to highlight these differences, closures are discussed first in the context of one-sector models. Closing mechanisms become even more consequential for models that formalize economies with multiple sectors. The second part of the chapter thus extends the discussion to multi-sector models and, particularly, to dual economy models. These models are especially relevant for understanding the process of structural change in developing countries and its implications for growth and development.
Globalization, Structural Change, and Technological Change in Emerging Economies
Authors: Vivarelli Marco
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides a critical overview on a series of issues that the relevant theoretical and empirical literature suggests being crucial in dealing with the challenges an emerging country may encounter in its attempts to reach a higher income status, with a particular focus devoted to the implications for the domestic labour market. The first part of the chapter focuses on structural change, capability building, and technological progress, mapping specific ways in which an emerging country can engage in successful catching-up, keeping in mind that developing countries are deeply involved in globalized markets where domestic innovation has to be complemented by the role played by international technology transfer. The chapter then deals with possible consequences of this catching-up in terms of employment and skills, contrasting the prescriptions of conventional trade theory with a view taking into account technology transfer, labour-saving technological progress, and skill-enhancing trade.
Alan Bennett’s The Old Country (1977) and An Englishman Abroad (1983)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

Theatre critic Michael Billington has spoken of Alan Bennett’s ‘peculiar radical nostalgia’ and described him as ‘a writer who believes in progress but who is irrevocably attached to his country’s cultural inheritance; and it’s specifically England, rather than Britain, that stirs his deepest sympathy’. This chapter analyses the radical nostalgia of two of Bennett’s dramatic characters, both traitors in exile: the Audenesque Hilary in The Old Country, who many people assumed was based on Kim Philby, and Guy Burgess in An Englishman Abroad. It probes the seeming paradox at the core of both plays, that these Soviet defectors continue imaginatively to inhabit, and long for, the country they betrayed. The chapter ends by quoting George Orwell’s essay The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius, in which he explains the nagging resilience of Englishness—something that leaves an indelible mark on the traveller and the traitor alike, the way Ithaca left its mark on Odysseus.
John Van Druten’s The Widening Circle (1957)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

This chapter begins with a brief history of West Hampstead’s transformation from a sleepy bucolic hamlet on the outskirts of London to a Victorian commuter suburb. It sets out how West Hampstead’s perceived loss of innocence in the railway age spawned a tradition of nostalgic writing, forming the backdrop, and sometimes the centrepiece, of several childhood memoirs. It then looks at John Van Druten’s autobiography, The Widening Circle. Published in April 1957, eight months before he died, the book is a discursive and deeply meditative essay in nostalgia. In it Van Druten portrays his visits back to the streets of his youth in West Hampstead as not only spiritual but also physical, sensory, and characterized by the Homeric elements of recognition, testing, and tokens. The chapter examines, in particular, how these Odyssean pilgrimages were spurred by Van Druten’s ‘longing to know what I am truly composed of’, how they were an attempt to piece together an aetiology of the self.
Introduction
Authors: Carayannis Tatiana , Weiss Thomas G.
Published: April 2021

If past is prelude, the most creative and imaginative rethinking of the contemporary bases for international cooperation will emanate from the Third United Nations. The first section briefly parses it to provide the working vocabulary for subsequent chapters. The original argument appeared in a journal whose title, Global Governance, reflects the move away from the older notion of states and their creation in the form of IGOs as the only substantial pillars of world order. That evolution is explained in the second section before briefly summarizing the book.
The UN’s Knowledge Economy
Authors: Carayannis Tatiana , Weiss Thomas G.
Published: April 2021

This chapter spells out the various ways that the world organization’s intergovernmental machinery requires outside inputs as part of making UN policy sausages. A cottage industry of outside experts—think tankers, consultants, and university faculty members—greases the gears of the UN’s messy process with substantive inputs. The ways that ideas matter, and how they influence state decision-making, are essential. Among the cases are the International Peace Institute (IPI), the International Crisis Group (ICG), the DC-based Stimson Center, the Security Council Report, UN University, the Conflict Prevention and Peace Forum (CPPF) at the US-based Social Science Research Council, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, and the Small Arms Survey. These intellectual entry points—primarily based in the global North but increasingly with wider participation from individuals and institutions worldwide—have helped shape the UN’s framing of international peace and security, human rights and humanitarian action, and sustainable development
Analytic Christology and the Theological Interpretation of the New Testament
Authors: McCall Thomas H.
Published: April 2021

This book draws upon the resources of both contemporary analytic theology and the theological interpretation of the New Testament in order to investigate a set of important issues in Christology. It is the first work in analytic Christology to draw upon both recent scholarship in biblical studies and recent contributions to analytic philosophy and theology. This book explores the themes of union with Christ and the faith of Christ as these are developed by the “apocalyptic” and “New Perspective” interpreters of Pauline theology, it offers an careful analysis of recent dogmatic proposals about the identity of Christ and the doctrine of election, it provides an examination of debates over the subordination of the Son in Hebrews, it probes the relationship of the incarnate Son to his Father in Johannine theology, and it offers an exegetically grounded theological engagement with recent work on the place of logic in the doctrine of the incarnation.
Conclusions
Authors: O'Meara Chris
Published: April 2021

Chapter 5 completes this book by setting out its conclusions. It provides a summary of the theory and practice relating to necessity and proportionality and considers the strengths and weakness of the current law. This author suggests that the analytical framework set out in this book offers the opportunity for a doctrinal switch that recognizes necessity and proportionality, and not the armed attack, as the core regulating requirements of the exercise of self-defence. The chapter rounds off the exploration of this subject by considering improvements to the reporting and monitoring of claims of self-defence and possible options for future legal development.
The Humanitarian Civilian
Authors: Sutton Rebecca
Published: April 2021

In international humanitarian law (IHL), the principle of distinction delineates the difference between the civilian and the combatant, and it safeguards the former from being intentionally targeted in armed conflicts. This monograph explores the way in which the idea of distinction circulates within, and beyond, IHL. Taking a bottom-up approach, the multi-sited study follows distinction across three realms: the Kinetic realm, where distinction is in motion in South Sudan; the Pedagogical realm, where distinction is taught in civil–military training spaces in Europe; and the Intellectual realm, where distinction is formulated and adjudicated in Geneva and the Hague. Directing attention to international humanitarian actors, the book shows that these actors seize upon signifiers of ‘civilianness’ in everyday practice. To safeguard their civilian status, and to deflect any qualities of ‘combatantness’ that might affix to them, humanitarian actors strive to distinguish themselves from other international actors in their midst. The latter include peacekeepers working for the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), and soldiers who deploy with NATO missions. Crucially, some of the distinctions enacted cut along civilian–civilian lines, suggesting that humanitarian actors are longing for something more than civilian status–the ‘civilian plus’. This special status presents a paradox: the appeal to the ‘civilian plus’ undermines general civilian protection, yet as the civilian ideal becomes increasingly beleaguered, a special civilian status appears ever more desirable. However disruptive these practices may be to the principle of distinction in IHL, it is emphasized that even at the most normative level there is no bright-line distinction to be found.
Basic concepts
Authors: Lütge Christoph , Uhl Matthias
Published: April 2021

This chapter clarifies the most fundamental concepts of business ethics. Business ethics problems are characterized as interaction problems emerging from the interdependence of at least two actors. The problem of scarcity and the limits of individual moral action are introduced: business ethics starts where individually virtuous behavior cannot solve the problem of scarcity. The terms ethics and economics are defined. Business ethics is interpreted as an ethics from a broad economic perspective that examines which norms can be established under conditions of global economies. In this context, normative implications of economics are emphasized. Business ethics is then situated within philosophy, and the essential tension between two basic approaches to business ethics, the dualistic and the monistic, is discussed.
Temperature and equilibrium
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

Statistical mechanics explains the comprehensible behavior of microscopically complex systems by using the weird geometry of high-dimensional spaces, and by relying only on the known conserved quantity: the energy. Particle velocities and density fluctuations are determined by the geometry of spheres and cubes in dimensions with twenty three digits. Temperature, pressure, and chemical potential are defined and derived in terms of the volume of the high-dimensional energy shell, as quantified by the entropy. In particular, temperature is the inverse of the cost of buying energy from the rest of the world, and entropy is the currency being paid. Exercises discuss the weird geometry of high dimensions, how taste and smell measure chemical potentials, equilibrium fluctuations, and classic thermodynamic relations.
Continuous phase transitions
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter analyzes systems with emergent scale invariance -- fractal, self-similar behavior -- by developing the renormalization group. The renormalization group is an amazing abstraction. It describes the flow of the laws governing the system as one coarse-grains -- blurring out the short-distance or short-time details. In the huge space of possible systems (experimental and theoretical), a fixed point of the renormalization group will be the same after blurring and shrinking -- implying emergent scale invariance, a fractal self-similarity. The points which flow into the fixed point share its properties under rescaling -- implying universality, with behavior shared by theory and a wide variety of different experimental systems. The renormalization group also predicts universal power laws and universal functions, describing all behavior on long length and/or time scales. Exercises explore applications to the Ising model, the onset of lasing, superconductors, the onset of chaos, percolation, crackling noise and avalanches, earthquakes, random walks and diffusion, chemical reaction rate theory, and extreme value statistics.