bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The decision-theory approach to inference
Authors: Garthwaite Paul , Jolliffe Ian , Jones Byron
Published: November 2023

The earlier chapters of this book have adopted what might be termed a classical, or frequency-based approach to inference. In the next two chapters we describe a different approach based on Bayesian methods and decision theory. This chapter focuses on decision theory—Bayesian concepts are introduced sparingly and discussed more generally in Chapter 7. Other approaches to inference will be discussed in the subsequent chapters.
Nature of chemoreceptor stimuli and chemoreceptor responses
Authors: Daly M de Burgh
Published: November 2023

The carotid and aortic bodies are stimulated by natural blood-borne agents, hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidaemia. There are interactions between these variables so that the effects of hypoxia are greater in the presence of a raised PaCO2 or a reduction in pHa. Conversely, the effects of hypercapnia are greater in the presence of hypoxia. The chemoreceptors are also stimulated by local stagnant hypoxia and histotoxic hypoxia; in the case of mild anaemic hypoxia, there is excitation of the aortic bodies but not of the carotid bodies.
Reflex interactions
Authors: Eckberg Dwain L , Sleight Peter
Published: November 2023

Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, vagally mediated R-R interval fluctuations synchronous with respiration, was first observed in animals. Stephen Hales (1733) first documented respiratory fluctuations of blood pressure, and the philosopher and physiologist Albrecht von Haller (1778) first observed respiratory fluctuations of heart rate. Ewald Hering (1871), Heinrich Hering’s father, showed that with moderate lung inflations, cardioacceleration occurs during the inspiratory phase of respiration, and Fredericq (1882) showed that respiratory fluctuations of heart rate persist in animals with open chests, in the absence of respiratory movements and changes of pulmonary and thoracic stretch receptor activity. Heinrich Hering (1930) showed also that respiratory sinus arrhythmia is abolished by bilateral vagotomy and carotid artery occlusion. Schneyer (1935a), Schweitzer (1935), and Anrep et al. (1936) showed that respiratory sinus arrhythmia is dependent critically on the level of baroreceptor stimulation of vagal nuclei; both low and high arterial pressures tend to abolish sinus arrhythmia.
Hypertension
Authors: Eckberg Dwain L , Sleight Peter
Published: November 2023

The discovery of the powerful pressure sensing and regulating role of the carotid sinuses by Heinrich Hering in 1923 led to the intuitively attractive hypothesis that baroreceptor malfunction causes hypertension. This hypothesis was supported by his studies conducted in anaesthetized dogs, which showed that acute carotid sinus baroreceptor denervation provokes hypertension (Hering 1924; Koch and Mies 1928). However, it was not long before evidence against this hypothesis began to appear. As early as 1934, Koch and Mattonet showed that baroreceptor denervation does not necessarily lead to hypertension. In 1936, other arguments were raised by the study of G.W. Pickering et al., which showed that unilateral carotid artery occlusion in hypertensive patients increases blood pressure. Persistence of this reflex response in hypertensive patients suggests that carotid baroreceptors are sensing pressure changes and initiating appropriate reflex adjustments.
The origin and diversification of major groups: environmental-patterns and macroevolutionary lags
Authors: Jablonski David , Bottjer David J
Published: November 2023

The fossil record contains a wealth of information on the origin and radiation of higher taxa, and on the evolutionary dynamics of lower taxa within them, but these have been relatively neglected from an ecological perspective. We have analysed the environment of first appearance for 41 major groups of benthic marine invertebrates that originated in postPalaeozoic times (including all currently recognized orders plus the echinoid superorder Microstomata). Of the 25 taxa with relatively good preservation potential, 18 first appear in onshore environments (i.e. settings above mean storm wave base).
Major evolutionary radiations of the planktonic Foraminiferida
Authors: Hart M B
Published: November 2023

The planktonic Foraminiferida are passive floaters in the water column of the world’s oceans and are capable only of small diurnal movements in response to feeding strategies. Appearing in the Triassic/Jurassic they evolved slowly through the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, but became more diverse in the mid-Late Cretaceous. Following the KIT extinction event the group expanded rapidly, reaching an acme in the mid-Eocene. Following the Oligocene ‘collapse’ they have remained at or about the same level of diversity throughout the Neogene.
Directional macroevolution of the diplograptacean graptolites: a product of astogenetic heterochrony and directed speciation
Authors: Mitchell Charles E
Published: November 2023

Graptolite macroevolutionary history comprised a succession of rapid evolutionary radiations initiated by structural innovations in colony design. The Diplograptacea arose abruptly during the late Arenig, probably as the result of a major rearrangement of a four-branched proximal structure such as that of Phyllograptus. Subsequently, the stemgroup differentiated along several paths through simplification of the primitive diplograptacean’s complex pattern of colonial development (astogeny).
Evolutionary diversification of echinoderms during the early Palaeozoic
Authors: Smith Andrew B
Published: November 2023

The greatest radiation in the history of echinoderms is supposed to have taken place during the Cambrian when many taxa of low diversity and high categorial rank suddenly appeared in the fossil record. This stems, however, from our poor knowledge of the Cambrian fauna and an arbitrary system of taxonomy. Both morphological and ecological diversification at this period are, in reality, much less spectacular. A phylogenetic tree, constructed from cladistic analysis and stratigraphical occurrence data, provides the basis for an evolutionary interpretation of events during this period. By considering the scheme of synapomorphies from a functional point of view a picture of the ecological diversification of echinoderms is built up.
General family accounts
Authors: Nelson J Bryan , Mackay Andrew , Busby John
Published: November 2023

The seven pelican species are closely related and, with cormorants, anhingids, and sulids form the core of the Order. They are largely freshwater birds whose breeding biology is dominated by the need to catch large quantities of fish comparatively near to the breeding colony, a requirement imposed by the enormous biomass of the brood and its rapid growth. If the colony itself is huge, the demands on local food sources are enormous. Moreover (apart from the brown pelican), having largely forfeited the sea and specialized in fishing in shallow water, from the surface, their colonies are highly dependent on productive lakes and wetlands.
Pelicans
Authors: Nelson J Bryan , Mackay Andrew , Busby John
Published: November 2023

Monotypic. Rosy pelican P. o. roseuspreviously recognized by some authors, including Brown and Urban (1969) but variation in P. onocrotalusseems sufficient to account for differences. At Lake Shala, Brown and Urban noted four colour types from almost white with pinkish underparts and virtually no breast patch to dark brown with orange-brown neck, breast and abdomen and even darker breast patch. Upper wing coverts and back grey-brown. Colours apparently acquired during breeding period and rarely seen far from breeding localities. Dark brown birds never described in more northern breeding sta-tions but prevail in most southerly.
Characterizing pollen sculpture of three closely related Capparaceae species using quantitative image analysis of scanning electron micrographs
Authors: Vezey Edward L , Skvarla John J , Vanderpool Staria S
Published: November 2023

Pollen grains of three closely related species, Cleomella longipes, Oxystylis lutea, and Wislizenia refracta (Capparaceae subfamily Cleomoideae), have microreticulate sculpture, with muri surrounding scrobiculate lumina. Sculpture variation was assessed by computerized image analysis of 51 scanning electron micrographs (16-18 per species). Measurements from each grain (per cent muri coverage, lumina perforation density, and three size/shape variables) were compared by U PG MA cluster analysis, resulting in three distinct clusters corresponding to pollen grains of each species. Conversion of the five continuous characters to discrete character states using gap-coding indicates the potential utility of image analysis data for cladistic analysis.
Nodule development and nitrogen fixation in the Rhizobium/ Bradyrhizobium system
Authors: Werner D , Ahlborn B , Bassarab S , Kape A , Kinnback A , Mellor R B , Mörschel E , Müler P , Parniske M , Schmidt P , Schultes A
Published: November 2023

Various aspects of legume nodule development and function have recently been reviewed by Rolfe and Gresshoff (1988), Dazzo et al. (1988), Hennecke et al. (1988), Long and Cooper (1988), Lugtenberg et al. (1989), Appelbaum (1990), Mellor and Werner (1990), and Surin et al. (1990). The subject of nodulins in root nodule development will be covered in detail in this chapter and in Chapter 3, this volume.
Plant-animal interactions in the north-west Atlantic
Authors: Vadas Robert L , Elner Sr. Robert W
Published: November 2023

A feature of the north-west Atlantic is low macroalgal diversity, which may be related in part to grazing. The major herbivores, the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis and the gastropod Littorina littorea, affect distribution and abundance patterns of macroalgae, especially annual forms. Persistent subtidal and intertidal algae are mainly perennials and defended species. Grazing by herbivores appears to influence but not control algal recruitment. Temporal and spatial refuges provide variability for algal colonization. Algae serve as habitat and food for a variety of subtidal and intertidal animals, including crustaceans. Most algal production appears to pass into detrital rather than into herbivore food webs. The systems and interactions are influenced by historical and stochastic events. The introduction of L. littorea in the early nineteenth century displaced Nassarius obsoletus and probably catalysed large-scale changes in the intertidal. Population explosions, followed by massive mortalities of urchins off Nova Scotia, have resulted in an alternation between subtidal macroalgal beds and coralline algal-dominated barrens. Dense populations of littorinids and dogwhelks recycle patches of free space in the intertidal by removing ephemeral algae and barnacles. Feeding by L. littorea on drift algae may have indirectly led S. droebachiensis to increase grazing pressure on living plants. Although much remains unknown about the roles of recruitment, abiotic disturbance and stress, and episodic events, herbivores clearly have a significant impact on benthic algal assemblages.
Grazing and succession in marine algae
Authors: Sousa* Wayne P , Connell† Joseph H Connell
Published: November 2023

Assemblages of sessile organisms on rocky seashores and nearshore subtidal hard bottoms experience a variety of space-clearing disturbances. The order and rate of recolonization of cleared space by algae and invertebrates depend on characteristics of the initial disturbance, the pool of available colonists, effects exerted by prior occupants on subsequent colonists, and the actions of grazers and predators. Grazers may affect succession in diverse ways depending on the model(s) of succession that is operating (Connell and Slatyer 1977), the effect of the particular grazer on species of differing successional status, and the intensity of grazing. Experimental studies have shown that browsing herbivores, such as crabs, coiled snails, and dipteran larvae, that prefer early-colonizing algae can accelerate succession by breaking the inhibitory effect of these early species on later colonists. In contrast, herbivores such as limpets and sea urchins that damage plants in a less discriminating fashion, or preferentially feed on later successional species, tend to stall succession or to shift the climax state to one composed of species that are well-defended against intense rasping or bulldozing. Lastly, some studies have found that, late in a successional sequence, grazers have little effect on the replacement of one species by another.
Multiple Cholecystokinin Receptors in the CNS
Authors: Douri Sh C T , Cooper S J , Iversen S D , Iversen L L
Published: November 2023

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is found in high concentrations in mammalian brain where it appears to act as a neurotransmitter. CCK has been implicated in a number of important physiological processes and disease states, including feeding and feeding disorders, nociception, schizophrenia, movement disorders, anxiety, and panic disorder. The recent increase in interest in CCK is mainly attributable to the development of potent selective CCK receptor antagonists. These drugs have proved to be valuable research tools and may also prove useful as therapeutic agents. This volume reviews the most recent data on the role of CCK in normal and abnormal brain function. It brings together contributions from the leading researchers in the field of CCK neurobiology. Particular emphasis is placed on the roles of CCK receptor subtypes (CCKA and CCKB) which have been determined using selective antagonists. This volume reviews the most recent data on the role of CCK in the central nervous system.
Ethological analysis of the role of CCK in anxiety
Authors: Hendrie C A , Neill J C
Published: November 2023

Behavioural systems develop in response to evolutionary forces, and for many species one of the most important selection pressures has been predation. Species that are preyed upon have therefore developed various strategies to defend against predation which include, as the distance between a predator and a prey species closes, (1) avoiding situations where predation is likely, (2) freezing upon detection of a predator, (3) attempted escape, (4) active defence, (5) highly intense defensive threat and attack (e.g. the ‘jump attack’ in rats), and (6) tonic immobility (‘death feigning’) (Gallup 1974; Ratner 1977). Whilst these behaviours represent essential prerequisites for successful defence, they clearly do not operate in isolation and influence the expression of other behaviours. For example, both attack (Miczek et al. 1982; Rodgers and Hendrie 1983) and threat of attack (Rodgers and Randall 1985) have been found to activate endogenous analgesia mechanisms, but in different ways. In the case of attack, the analgesia is opioid mediated, as indicated by its duration of 45-60 min, the ability of naloxone to block and reverse the response, and its bidirectional cross-tolerance with morphine (Miczek and Thompson 1984; Rodgers and Randall 1986). In contrast, the threat of attack induces short duration ( < 10 min) non-naloxone-reversible analgesia which is thought not to be mediated by opioid mechanisms (Rodgers and Randall 1987). Interestingly, both forms of analgesia have been shown to be under psychological, rather than physiological, control. That is, opioid analgesia mechanisms are activated in circumstances where the animal has perceived that it has lost control over the source of the aversive stimulation (Maier et al. 1982), whilst stimuli signalling danger produce non-opioid analgesia. Evidence also seems to suggest that non-opioid analgesia is activated following low intensity threat (Rodgers and Randall 1987). In contrast, opioid mechanisms appear to be activated during or in anticipation of actual attack, functioning to inhibit wound-orientated behaviour, to promote defensive responses concerned with minimizing physical injury, and thereby to increase the possibility of escape (Liebeskind and Paul 1977; Ratner 1977).
Calcium release from neural tissue: experimental results and possible mechanisms
Authors: Blackman Carl F
Published: November 2023

The research discussed in this paper was first conceived following a report by Bawin et al. (1975) which demonstrated that amplitude-modulated radio¬ frequency (RF) fields could preferentially cause a biochemical· change in isolated brain tissue, depending on the specific frequency of modulation. They performed this experiment with isolated brain tissue to test whether modulated RF fields could interact with an animal via the central nervous system or whether the peripheral nervous system was needed. Our interest in this experiment was motivated by the observation that the results could not easily be explained by a mechanism that involved heating of the sample. We designed our experimental procedures in consultation with a professional statistician, Dennis House, who subsequently analysed the raw data in all our reports. After a year of work we were able to reproduce their findings (Blackman et al. 1979); however, some of our results were sufficiently unusual to merit additional experimentation to determine whether the phenomenon was an artefact of the preparation or procedures. By 1980, we were convinced that the positive results were based in a true response of the samples to RF radiation (Blackman et al. 1979, 1980a, b, 1981; Joines and Blackman 1980, 1981; Joines et al. 1980). Thus we initiated our experiments to establish the electromagnetic field parameters that were critical to induce the biological changes we had observed. To simplify the exposure situation and analysis, we elected to use the modulation frequency alone, without the RF carrier wave.
ELF fields and the immune system: signal transduction, calcium metabolism, and mitogenesis in lymphocytes with relevance to carcinogenesis
Authors: Liburdy Robert P
Published: November 2023

Calcium has played an important role in investigations of extremely low-frequency (ELF) magnetic field interactions with cellular systems. ELF-modulated radiofrequency (RF) carrier waves and ELF fields themselves have been shown to alter calcium efflux from neural tissue (Bawin and Adey 1976; Blackman et al. 1982, 1990; Dutta et al. 1984). ELF fields have also been reported to alter normal diatom movement, which is dependent on calcium, and also calcium uptake in resting human peripheral lymphocytes (Liboff et al. 1987; Smith et al. 1987). Efforts to reproduce these latter findings have proven inconclusive (Frazier et al. 1990; Parkinson and Sulik 1990; Prasad et al. 1991).
The influence of oscillating electromagnetic fields on membrane structure and function: synthetic liposomes and the lymphocyte cell membrane with direct application to the controlled delivery of chemical agents
Authors: Liburdy Robert P
Published: November 2023

Cellular systems interact first and foremost with their environment through the cell membrane. Interaction with extracellular entities, both physical and chemical, are orchestrated through the cell membrane. Two important examples of signal transduction events are the binding of extracellular ligands to cell-surface receptor sites, and the translocation of charged ionic species across the bilayer. Both events, receptor-site binding and ion-channel transport, lead, importantly, to the activation of diverse biochemical pathways that transduce signals to internal sites within the cell (Gardner 1989); these events depend on structural changes in the local organization of the bilayer. Given the cell membrane’s role in such signal transduction processes, it is important to understand how the membrane bilayer is influenced by an imposed extracellular electric or magnetic field. This has been a major goal in our laboratory.
Practical significance of tritrophic interactions for crop protection
Authors: Price Peter W
Published: November 2023

Three-trophic-level interactions can be defined as interactions between plants, herbivores and carnivores that pass up and down food webs spanning more than direct linkage between two species. General awareness of the commonness and importance of such interactions was recognized over 10 years ago (Bergman and Tingey 1979; Lawton and McNeill 1979; Price et al. 1980). These interactions may involve physical factors such as a trichome layer on the leaf that modifies herbivore behaviour and thus affects the her:bivore-carnivore interaction, or chemical factors. The chemical effects may result from constitutive defenses such as alkaloids or tannins, or they may involve volatile compounds that become used as cues or repellents by higher trophic levels. Chemical messages between different species are called semiochemicals, and have been divided, for between-species interactions, as follows: allomones which are defensive against another species, kairomones which act as positive cues to food or prey for the receiver, synomones which are mutually beneficial to the sender and receiver, and apneumones in which emission of a signal is from a non-living source such as rotting fruit or carcasses that attracts the enemies of inhabitants currently living there (Nordlund 1981). Examples to help clarify these differences would include, for an allomone, a chemical defence emitted by a plant that is repellent to an insect herbivore. A kairomone may be a chemical in a plant that attracts a herbivore to that plant. A synomone could be a chemical released by a plant that acts as a beneficial cue to a predator or parasitoid attacking a herbivore, such that when the herbivore is killed both the emitter of the chemical and the receiver benefit. Apneumones are chemicals emitted from dead organic matter, but as a result predators or parasitoids can more easily find their hosts which attack and live in, for example, dead animals or plant material. Parasitoids of fly larvae in a rotting carcase may find the host larvae in the carcase first by responding to a smell emitted by the rotting body. The specific cue in the smell would then act as an apneumone.
Ginkgo biloba–cultivation, extraction, and therapeutic use of the extract
Authors: O’reilly J
Published: November 2023

The term ‘living fossil’ was first used by Darwin to describe Ginkgo biloba, as it is the sole surviving species of a group of plants, the Ginkgoales, which can be traced back more than 200 million years. Species of the order Ginkgoales were worldwide in pre-Cretaceous times and fine examples in fossil rock have been found in all parts of the world. The Ginkgoales increased to its maximum diversity during the Cretaceous period (Seward 1938). However, the great upheavals of the Quaternary period, followed by the ice age led to the destruction of all species of the Ginkgoales with the exception of Ginkgo biloba which survived only in the far east.
Experiences of starting a commercial company based on plant-derived products in a developing country
Authors: Sheak Asfaq
Published: November 2023

To tell a story about establishing a commercial company for plant-based products in a developing country without such experience is to proximate an object with blindfolded eyes.

Nepal was unknown to many parts of the world until 1951, when it became a democracy and a member of the United Nations.

Nepal is mountainous except for the Terai plain that covers approximately 15 per cent of the country on the southern border with India (see Fig. 13.1).
Industrial production of fine chemicals – plants versus chemical synthesis
Authors: Bruggink Alle
Published: November 2023

The emergence of new technologies does not immediately imply that existing industrial processes become old-fashioned and must be replaced. When research in biotechnology grew exponentially in the early I 980s predictions were made that several established petrochemical-based bulk chemical products would be substituted by bio-based equivalents. With the introduction of enzymes in the (industrial) synthesis of organic products many symposia were organized to discuss the sad future of organic synthesis going to be replaced by cheaper, milder, and more selective biosynthesis.
Risk of parasitism on Taxomyia taxi (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in relation to the size of its galls on yew, Taxus baccata
Authors: Redfern Margaret , Cameron Robert
Published: November 2023

Galls of Taxomyia taxi (lnchbald) on yew are attacked by two chalcid parasitoids, Mesopolobus dijfinis (Walker) (Ptcromalidae) and Torymus nigritarsus (Walker) (Torymidae). Earlier work suggested that risk of attack by either species varied with the size of the galls.
Assemblages of herbivorous chalcid wasps and their parasitoids associated with grasses-problems of species and specificity
Authors: Claridge Michael F , Dawah Hassan Ali
Published: November 2023

Most chalcid wasps are parasitoids, but the family Eurytomidae includes many herbivores. Of the numerous species of Tetramesa in temperate regions, all arc phytophagous and, so far as known, use only grasses as their host plants. Many of these form distinctive galls in which their larvae feed. Others feed within developing flowering stems without accompanying gall formation. Tetramesa larvae arc attacked by a series of characteristic parasitoids including species of Pediobius (Eulophidae), Chlorocytus and Homoporus (Pteromalidae), and Eurytoma and Sycophila (Eurytomidae). Taxonomy of chalcid wasps is generally very difficult and poorly known. Biparental sexual reproduction is usual for Tetramesa and its parasitoids so that the biological species concept is appropriate.
Collision avoidance: from the locust eye to a seeing machine
Authors: Rind F Claire
Published: November 2023

The superb aerial performance of flying insects is achieved with comparatively simple neural machinery. Insects react rapidly to changing visual images. The abilities of insects to perform these computations in real time has already led to a successful prototype autonomous guided vehicle with a sensor and control structure modelled on the fly eye (Pichon et al. 1989; Franceschini et al. 1992). Increasingly in visual neuroscience it is possible to isolate the critical image cues used by identified neurones to achieve a selective response to a feature or group of features within the changing visual image (Rind and Simmons 1992; Simmons and Rind 1992).
Artificial evolution of visual control systems for robots
Authors: Cliff Dave , Harvey Inman , Husbands Phil
Published: November 2023

Typically, machine vision systems employ high-bandwidth images with hundreds of thousands of pixels. Yet many visual animals (particularly arthropods) exhibit sophisticated, visually guided behaviours with orders of magnitude fewer ‘pixels’ (i.e. ommatidia in the compound eye). Inspired by this observation, we have for several years been exploring the possibilities of visually guided robots with ultra-low-bandwidth vision.
The genetics and physiology of size reduction in mice
Authors: Hastings Ian M
Published: November 2023

Artificial selection for reduced body size in mice has been performed in numerous laboratories. Typically, body weight at age 6 weeks has been reduced from around 20 to 13 g and/or body weight at 10 weeks from around 32 g to 16 g. In our laboratory, we have further reduced body weight in our ‘small’ line by introducing a gene disrupting growth hormone production (the little gene), resulting in mice with a 10-week body weight of less than 10 g. Such mice appear healthy and viable. The genetic and physiological basis of reduced body weight in selected lines is reviewed and the relevance of experiments to natural populations is discussed. The biggest differences are the reduced environmental fluctuations experienced by laboratory stocks and their smaller population sizes compared to natural populations. It is concluded that laboratory stocks must be considered as paradigm populations evolving under very specific conditions. With this caveat, it is concluded that considerable size reduction may be achieved very rapidly in mouse populations and that such size reduction appears not to entail significant alterations in physiology, biochemistry, or behaviour nor to invoke significant reduction inviabiliry as a consequence of scale effects.
Miniature mammals: life-history strategies and macroevolution
Authors: Searle J B
Published: November 2023

Most mammal species are smaller than 60 g. The smallest species are mainly shrews, myomorph rodents, and insectivorous bats. A bias in data availability has led most previous work on patterns of mammal life-history evolution to focus on unusually large species. We review the major findings of such comparative studies, beginning with allometries of key variables and moving on to patterns of correlations among residuals. Every date, weight, and rate scales tightly with adult size across mammal species: small mammals tend to live faster and die younger than large species. This fast-slow continuum is also apparent when body size is factored out. We discuss two very different optimality models, one aiming to understand the driving forces behind life-history variation, the other trying to explain the macroevolutionary pattern of body size among species. Our comparative analysis finds that, among small mammals, most of the variation in life histories is independent of body size, but that correlations among residuals are broadly similar to those in mammals as a whole: the slow-fast continuum is still present. The size independence of the variation shows that quite radical life-history changes are possible without any change in body size being necessary: mammals are not tightly constrained by allometry. Interestingly, mammals that are smaller than their relatives have relatively small litters of large offspring. Our findings lend at best qualified support to the models we discuss.
Great Geological Controversies
Authors: Hallam A
Published: November 2023

This is the second edition of the author's account of celebrated controversies in geology that embrace many of the most important ideas that have emerged since the birth of the subject. Two new chapters have been added. One reviews the emergence of stratigraphy in the nineteenth century, focusing on two major controversies concerning the Cambrian-Silurian and the Devonian. The second new chapter deals with the mass extinctions controversy, which has not yet been resolved. The existing chapters have been revised in the light of recent publications. The book will be of interest to professional geologists, geology students, and amateur geologists as well as to geographers and historians of science.
Catastrophists and uniformitarians
Authors: Hallam A
Published: November 2023

Like the neptunists, with whom they have often been associated, the catastrophists have generally had a bad press. In the popular mythology they were the ones who gave free play to fantasy, who rashly invoked supernatural causes and allowed their geological researches to be dictated by a priori metaphysical beliefs. The uniformitarians on the other hand were sober-minded, sensible people who, guided by the talismanic principle that ‘the present is the key to the past, eventually carried all before them and routed the opposition by their devotion to careful study of natural phenomena and cautious, empirically well-based and logically sound inference. The true history of the controversy is a good deal more complicated and certainly more interesting.
The Social Anthropology Of Marriage And Mating
Authors: Leach Edmund
Published: November 2023

While preparing various drafts of this essay in collaboration with Dr Vernon Reynolds it has become obvious that although biosociologists often use terms which are also used by social anthropologists, they use them in quite a different way Two such terms are ‘mating’ and ‘marriage’. A third term, ‘descent’, which has not so far come into the argument hangs in the background. I am a social anthropologist and I use these terms in a social anthropological way. So let me start by explaining what that way is. For me, mating and marriage are totally different concepts, as different as chalk from cheese.
Implications of global climatic change
Authors: Tickell Crispin
Published: November 2023

Sir Crispin Tickell, Warden of Green College, Oxford since October 1990 brought to the lecture theatre an unusual combination of international experience and specialist knowledge of the environment. His distinguished career in the Diplomatic Service culminated in the posts of British Ambassador to Mexico, Permanent Secretary of the Overseas Development Administration (the government department responsible for aid and technical assistance), and British Permanent Representative (Ambassador) to the United Nations, a position which he held until taking up his present appointment in Oxford. His last two official appointments, in particular, enabled him both to expand and deploy the environmental interests which he had developed in parallel with his diplomatic career. During a sabbatical year at Harvard University in 1975–6 he wrote a study of Climatic change and world affairs which was well received, on publication, by expert and layman alike. His knowledge of climatology and imaginative interest in the social implications of climatic change were acknowledged by his appointment as an unofficial adviser on environmental matters to Margaret Thatcher. He delivered his lecture on the day of her resignation as Prime Minister.
The earth is not fragile
Authors: Lovelock James E
Published: November 2023

Professor James Lovelock, FRS, is one of the most eminent representatives of that rare breed, the independent scientist. The first 20 years of his career were spent with the National Institute for Medical Research in London; during the same period he held visiting Fellowships at both Harvard and Yale Universities. In 1961 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Baylor University’s College of Medicine and began an important series of consultancies to NASA which led to his pioneering work in measuring chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases in the atmosphere and predicting their effects. In 1964 James Lovelock broke free from the constraints of institutional science and pursued his research independently: ‘You may well ask’, he wrote in the introduction to his book The ages of Gaia, ‘whatever became of those colourful romantic figures, the mad professors, the Drs Who? Scientists who seemed to be free to range over all of the disciplines of science without let or hindrance? They still exist and in some ways I am writing as a member of their rare and endangered species’. James Lovelock used his freedom to develop the ‘Gaia theory’ which he expounded in this lecture and which was first formulated in his book Gaia, published in 1979. Ten years later, The Independent newspaper, in a leading article, commented that in his address to the ‘Friends of the Earth’ in September 1989 ‘Professor James Lovelock slaughtered just about every sacred cow in the scientific establishment and in the environmental movement’.
Water is best’: would Pindar still think so?
Authors: Bowman John
Published: November 2023

‘Water is best’ is an inscription taken from the Roman baths at Aquae Sulis, or Bath as it is now known. The quote is attributed to Pindar, a poet born in Greece in 522 BC, and is taken from the first Olympian ode dedicated to the honour of Hieron of Syracuse. This poem was famed in antiquity for its brilliant use of metaphor, drawing on the beauty of nature to describe the athletic prowess of Greek heroes (Kirkwood 1982). The opening line ‘water is best’ expresses the widespread belief of the Greeks, and later the Romans, that water was the basic element and source of life.
How will it all end?
Authors: Smith David
Published: November 2023

The answer to the question posed by the title of this chapter is reasonably clear-cut in the geological long term. The sun is about half way through its predicted life-span as a main sequence star, so that in about five billion years it will begin to run out of hydrogen fuel (which it consumes at the rate of 600 million tons of hydrogen per second).
Brushless servomotor sensors and digital signal processors
Authors: Nagakura Masateru
Published: November 2023

The sensor attached to a brushless servomotor, in combination with an appropriate control circuit, detects the position information in positioning control. It is not until the sensor is combined with the control circuit that it becomes possible to detect positions. This section presents features and usages of rotary encoders, resolvers, and sensor digital signal processors.
Design method for brushless servomotors
Authors: Nakatsuka Haruo
Published: November 2023

There are two kinds of brushless servomotor: the SM type (synchronous motor) and the IM type (inductive motor). The SM type is mainly used because it has superior and easy to apply braking and is highly controllable because of its N-T characteristic and superior efficiency. In this chapter, information about SM type brushless servomotors will be given. Like common permanent magnet synchronous motors, a brushless servomotor consists of a fixed armature and a rotary magnet field.
Vortex motion
Authors: Acheson D J
Published: November 2023

We mentioned in §1.1 how the shedding of a starting vortex is essential to the generation of lift on an aerofoil, and we now investigate why this should be so.

Consider the situation at a time t after the start. Vorticity and viscous forces will be confined to (i) a thin boundary layer on the aerofoil, (ii) a thin wake, and (iii) the rolled-up ‘core’ of the starting vortex, as indicated by the shading in Fig. 5.2. Consider now a dyed circuit abcda which is large enough to have been clear of all these regions since the start of the motion. As the original state was one of rest the circulation round that circuit was originally zero.
Proof of the Pontryagin maximum principle
Authors: Hocking Leslie M
Published: November 2023

We now have to justify the PMP, which we stated in Chapter 6 and extended in Chapter 7. First we show that the PMP applied to linear autonomous time-optimal control problems is identical to the maximum principle TOP established in Part A. Then we outline the proof of the PMP in its basic form as defined in Chapter 6. In Part A we proved the existence of a solution of the time-optimal control problem and established a maximum principle TOP which we could use to construct the optimal solution for a variety of problems. In Chapter 6 we introduced the Pontryagin maximum principle which can be applied to a much wider class of problems. We have not, as yet, shown that the PMP provides identical solutions to those obtained using the results of Chapter 4. This identification of the two methods provides corroborative evidence for the validity of the PMP and also leads to a result that will be important when we proceed to the proof of the PMP. It is for this reason that the application of the PMP to time-optimal problems has been delayed until this chapter; otherwise, it could have formed part of Chapter 6.
Some applied optimal control problems
Authors: Hocking Leslie M
Published: November 2023

Optimal control theory has been applied to a large variety of problems in many different fields. Some examples have been given in the preceding chapters. In this chapter we consider some applications of the theory in a more extended form, although the mathematical models are still greatly simplified. Some features of the real situations have to be ignored in order to present solutions that are meaningful to a non-specialist and that demonstrate the power of the theory in providing optimal strategies. Four problems, related to fishing, epidemics, trading, and physiology, are discussed in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

You wake up one morning and in the half-light you see a figure with a strange hat crouching in the corner of the room. After a moment your eyes adjust and you realize that it is just your clothes thrown over a chair, and some bottles on the dressing table behind. Now you notice that your loved one is gone and find a note on the pillow saying ‘I LOVE XOU’.
Block codes, weight, and distance
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

All the examples of Chapter 1 divide the message into blocks before they process it. We shall concentrate on such codes, as they form the best vehicle for introducing the ideas of coding theory. For simplicity the channel will be taken to be the binary symmetric channel. Having found some examples, we need a method to assess their performance over a given channel. The key concept that forms the basis for the assessment is the Hamming distance, which is just the number of places in which two words differ. We shall show that the worst case error-processing performance of a code is completely determined by the minimum distance between code words.
Euclid’s algorithm
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to an algorithm that is the central technique of this book. It is Euclid’s algorithm, which was invented about 2000 years ago to find highest common factors of integers without first splitting them into their prime factors. It turns out that this algorithm is the key that enables us to construct all finite fields and to do arithmetic in them. In addition it provides an efficient method for error processing of BCH and RS codes. The existence of efficient error processors for these codes is the principal reason for their dominance of practical block-code implementations.
Roots of polynomials
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

Until now, polynomials have been treated as formal sums. That is appropriate for the construction of finite fields. The idea that polynomials are functions only gets in the way and causes confusion. However, one functional aspect of polynomials is important for our theory, namely the concept of a zero or root of a polynomial. Field extensions were originally introduced in order to solve polynomial equations. The most notable example of this is the introduction of imaginary and then complex numbers to solve the equation x + 1 = 0. That occurred in the sixteenth century and caused mathematicians of that time great philosophical problems, as can still be seen from the very names ‘real numbers’ and ‘imaginary numbers’. It is amusing to note that the introduction of the real numbers caused the ancient Greeks equal philosophical problems, and that they would have queried the attribute ‘real’ for most irrational numbers.
Appendix PF Polynomials over a field
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this appendix is to give a formal outline of the theory of polynomials. It is intended for reference rather than for study. A full exposition can be found in Cohn (1982). Throughout the appendix F is a fixed field. We begin with polynomials in a single indeterminate x. Initially the full set of field axioms is not required, so we shall use an integral domain R.
Classical Goppa codes
Authors: Pretzel Oliver
Published: November 2023

It is a sad fact that long BCH codes are bad in the sense that their rate and relative minimal distance cannot both be bounded away from 0. As block lengths increase the performance of the codes deteriorates instead of improving as it should.
The Classification of Knots and 3-Dimensional Spaces
Authors: Hemion Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

People have been interested in knots at least since the time of Alexander the Great and his encounter with the Gordian knot. There are famous knot illustrations in the Book of Kells and throughout traditional Islamic art. Lord Kelvin believed that atoms were knots in the ether and he encouraged Tait to compile a talbe of knots about 100 years ago. In recent years, the Jones polynomial has stimulated much interest in possible relationships between knot theory and physics. The book is concerned with the fundamental question of the classification of knots, and more generally the classification of arbitrary (compact) topological objects which can occur in our normal space of physical reality. Professor Hemion explains his classification algorithm - using the method of normal surfaces - in a simple and concise way. The reader is thus shown the relevance of such traditional mathematical objects as the Klein bottle or the hyperbolic plane to this basic classification theory. The Classification of Knots and 3-dimensional Spaces will be of interest to mathematicians, physicists, and other scientists who want to apply this basic classification algorithm to their research in knot theory.
The ‘easy’ case
Authors: Hemion Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

We are now in a position to describe the classification procedure for knots (and other Haken manifolds) in the ‘easy’ case. (The meaning of the word easy will be explained below!) Let M be given as a triangulated 3-manifold with a pattern on its boundary. The pattern is itself a piecewise linear structure; we can assume that it occurs as part of the given triangulated structure of M, i.e. the pattern consists of edges and triangles on ∂M, the boundary of M. The next step is to define the complexity of a normal surface.
Subdirectly irreducible algebras
Authors: Blyth T S , Varlet J C
Published: November 2023

An algebra L is said to be subdirectly irreducible if it has a smallest nontrivial congruence; i.e. a congruence α such that ,  ϑ  ≥ a for all ϑ ∈ Con L with ,  ϑ ≠ w. Such a congruence a is called the monolith of Con L. The importance of such algebras is shown in a classic theorem of Birkhoff [2] which states that in an equational class of algebras every algebra can be embedded in a direct product of subdirectly irreducible algebras. An immediate consequence of the above definition is that if L is subdirectly irreducible then in Con L the trivial congruence w is ∧-irreducible. A particularly important case of a subdirectly irreducible algebra is a simple algebra, namely one for which the lattice of congruences is the two-element chain {w, i}.
The homeobox in cell differentiation and evolution
Authors: Robertis E M De
Published: November 2023

It was also fortunate that, almost from the beginning, the efforts of those working on the mouse were dedicated to showing that homeobox genes were organized in complexes in genomic DNA, and to mapping on which chromosome they were located (Rabin et al., 1985). This strategy was indeed the correct one. After an extraordinary amount of work the human and mouse Antp-type complexes were mapped to four gene complexes, containing about ten homeobox genes each, as shown in Figure 1. The name Hox was coined for genes in the mammalian Antp complexes. Within the Hox-1 (now HOXA) through Hox-4 (now HOXD) complexes, each gene was numbered according to the order in which it was discovered (Martin et al., 1987). This created some confusion because the numbering did not follow a linear order (Fig.1), but was much better than having no systematic nomenclature at all.
The E. coli preprotein translocase
Authors: Wickner W
Published: November 2023

Most protein export in f. coli is catalyzed by a complex, multisubunit enzyme termed preprotein translocase, whose subunits are encoded by many of the sec genes1·3.
GroEL and GroES
Authors: Martin J , Hartl F -U
Published: November 2023

Both Groel and GroES are essential for growth of E. coli at all temperatures4 Temperature-sensitive, conditional lethal mutants isolated on the basis of blocking phage λgrowth show impaired DNA and RNA synthesis5, a block in cell division that results in formation of long filaments without septa at the non-permissive temperature6 and a reduction in general protease activities (in the mutant Groel 140 but not in grof530)7. These pleiotropic effects may reflect the general role of the chaperon ins in protein folding and assembly.
SEC71
Authors: Green N
Published: November 2023

A mutant allele (sec71-1} was isolated based on its inability to insert into the membrane of the ER a membrane-bound fusion protein consisting of the N-terminal 255 residues of arginine permease and the complete histidinol dehydrogenase sequence encoded by the HIS4C region of H/541,2 The histidinol dehydrogenase portion of the fusion protein was poorly translocated across the ER membrane in sec71-1 mutant cells. This mutant was also defective in translocation of the dehydrogenase when it was placed behind only the N-terminal 189 residues of the permease and in the insertion of another membrane-bound fusion protein containing an N-terminal segment of Sec63p fused to invertase, a glycosylated reporter protein.