bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Moral Evaluation
Authors: Garrett Don
Published: November 2023

The eighteenth century’s heightened interest in understanding human cognitive processes was by no means restricted to the role of cognitive processes in the development of natural philosophy and metaphysics. In the Introduction to the Treatise, Hume remarks that several “late philosophers in England” have “begun to put the science of man on a new footing, and have engaged the attention, and excited the curiosity of the public” (THN xvii). Of those he mentions by name Locke, Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, and Butler-all but Locke devoted most of their attention to the role of human psychological faculties in morality.
Introduction
Authors: Chitty Dennis
Published: November 2023

On a visit to Norway in 1923, an Oxford undergraduate, Charles Elton, became intrigued by stories about the apparently suicidal migrations of lem mings. Six years later he began a series of studies in which, 6 years later still, I was lucky enough to join. Now, more than half a century later, I’m still trying to separate fact from fiction, much of the latter created by myself in pursuit of the former in the perennial scientific conflict between imagination and “irreducible and stubborn facts”. In the account that follows I try to describe this conflict chronologically; but because many things were going on at the same time, because topics such as food, for example, were studied intermittently over the years 1929-1961, and because I rt.eed to relate these topics to some that followed, no sequence can be entirely satisfactory. To add to these difficulties, much of the work was unpublished until many years after it had been finished, and some was not even analyzed. Novelists have their own chronological problems and solve them with such phrases as “meanwhile back on the farm ... ” I shall play similar tricks with a se quence that goes somewhat as follows.
Controversies, 1951–1956
Authors: Chitty Dennis
Published: November 2023

In science as in politics, we need critics to keep us honest. Unlike the destabi lizing effects predicted in the biblical maxim, divisive views in science are one of its strengths, as they ensure that its conclusions are subjected to intense scrutiny. Nevertheless, outsiders look on in amazement as grown men and women lose their cool over esoteric issues in population ecology. In acting thus, ecologists are behaving like other scientists, on whose sociobiology Hull3 has cast his glittering eye. The following quotations and paraphrases give an idea of his views.
Review, 1923–1961
Authors: Chitty Dennis
Published: November 2023

If scientific method included a recipe for making discoveries (as opposed to piling up data), this book would have been shorter. Anything resembling method, however, is restricted to the time after one has made a discovery, or thinks one has done so. Only then can something methodical be applied to see if there’s anything to it. This is a far cry from the popular idea of scientific method. According to a distinguished classicist, for example, “the scientist is no doubt rigidly objective: he collects the facts relevant to a problem and makes no conclusions that the facts do not justify.” If this were true, scientific research would be impossible. For there are no a priori means of knowing which so-called facts are relevant to a problem, nor can there ever be enough of them to justify a universal conclusion, a problem dealt with in the next section, nor can science proceed without risky leaps of the imagination. The present section deals with the long and difficult prerequisite to anything re sembling the cold logic often supposed to characterize scientific procedure. The imaginative element, is not a product of method any more than it is in the arts.
Epilogue, 1961–1995
Authors: Chitty Dennis
Published: November 2023

Critics of my war cry “no selection, no cycle” rightly doubt whether selection can act rapidly enough to account for the violent reversals of fortune experienced by cyclic populations. Until 1986, supporting evidence, as opposed to long-standing suggestions, was limited to showing that gene frequencies of doubtful relevance can change rapidly during a decline; but in that year Norah Spears submitted a thesis in which one chapter dealt with the way voles respond to selection for sexual development in long and short daylengths. This work, with John Clarke as coauthor, was published in 1988, 2 years after Desjardins et al. had described similar work on deer mice. Both papers showed how rapidly selection can proceed. In the work on voles, selection applied to the Fl generation derived from field animals produced two lines, both recognizable in the F2 generation. One line, the Emergent line, was sexually more developed than the other, the Inhibited line (Figure 12.1). In the work on deer mice, one line became largely infertile after 2 generations of selection under short daylength; the other line was largely fertile (Figure 12.2).
The Historical Formation of Selves
Authors: Danziger Kurt
Published: November 2023

The topic of the self is different from many other psychological topics in that psychology has to share it with a number of other disciplines, sociology and psychiatry, to mention only the most obvious ones. In that way “self’ differs from “intelligence,” for example, which became an almost uncontested psychological category many years ago. That had a lot to do with psychologists’ early production of a specific technology that they very successfully marketed as a socially useful way of measuring intelligence. Having no rivals in the scientific study of intelligence, psychologists rapidly became the recognized experts. They could get away with saying that intelligence was what intelligence tests measured because they controlled the only viable technology in the area. Similar things happened in connection with other categories, such as perception and learning, where psychologists were able to decide among themselves what these terms referred to because they had the field pretty much to themselves.
Selves as Cultured As Told by an Anthropologist Who Lacks a Soul
Authors: Holland Dorothy
Published: November 2023

This chapter tells my version of the story of anthropological studies of self. 1 It begins with the culturalist versus universalist debate and ends with an emerging “practice theory” of self. Between these conceptualizations falls “the critical disruption,” the intrusion of issues of power, hegemony, and history into anthropology in general and psychological anthropology in particular. Foucauldian, feminist, and other critical approaches not only undermined the older conceptualization of cultures as discrete, coherent, systems of meaning, common to all members, but also popularized a social-constructivist view of self. In the last section, I discuss the varieties of anthropological research undertaken in the wake of the critical disruption. Their commonalities reveal the possibilities of a practice theory of self, a theory that bears the strong marks of social constructivism, yet, because of its grounding in ethnographic research, avoids the extreme versions of constructivism. This emerging practice theory recognizes plural sites of self-making, focuses on mediational processes of the self, insists on embodiment, and gives culturally specific discourses and practices a pivotal role in constituting the self. My review is organized around the significance of culturally constructed, socially (dis)empowered languages and practices of the self, which constitutes one of the major points of disagreement in the literature.
Intellectuals on Auschwitz: Memory, History, and Truth
Authors: Bartov Omer
Published: November 2023

The urge to write this chapter can be traced back to several causes. A number of scholarly/polemical discussions on the difficulties with memory and forgetting, representation and commemoration of the Holocaust prompted me to attempt to articulate my thoughts on the subject and clarify to myself what it was that so disturbed me in those seemingly reasonable and detached ruminations.2 Teaching a course on the Holocaust brought me once more face to face with the familiar, yet still jarring realization that neither teachers nor students, nor for that matter anyone who had either experienced it or studied it from some geographical or chronological distance could quite grasp the essence of the Holocaust or make it understandable to others.3 Always remaining from without, on the margins of experience and comprehension, one was never actually speaking of the thing itself, one never dared (or found oneself unable) to put one’s finger on the heart of the matter. Was this due to the elusive nature of the matter, or to the fears aroused in us by the prospect of direct confrontation? This predilection for the indirect or oblique approach could also be observed in some scholarly gatherings and subsequent publications, whether they consisted of the more down-to-earth variety of scholars or of those more inclined toward contemporary literary criticism.4
War, Memory, and Repression: Alexander Kluge and the Politics of Representation in Postwar Germany
Authors: Bartov Omer
Published: November 2023

In Alexander Kluge’s 1979 film The Patriot, Gabi Teichert, a German history teacher, spends much of her time digging for the past, its images, memories, artifacts, fairy tales. She digs and digs and digs, and as she does so we cannot avoid thinking that neither the action, nor the tool associated with it, nor even the German word used to describe this action can remain innocent in a post-Nazi, post-Holocaust world. In Germany, we should know, a spade is no longer just a spade. It is the weapon of the men of the Arbeitsfront (Labor Front), featured so vividly and frighteningly in Leni Riefenstahl’s film Triumph of the Will (1935), shouldering their spades like rifles, precisely as Gabi Teichert does in The Patriot, and crying out for Germany in the most moving scene of Riefenstahl’s film. It is the weapon of the workers in the Nazi labor organization, Organisation Todt, who make an appearance in Kluge’s film in excerpts from authentic documentaries of Aryan “spade-workers” building the Reich’s new Autobahnen, accompanied, of course, by Wagnerian themes.
Chambers of Horror: The Reordering of Murders Past
Authors: Bartov Omer
Published: November 2023

As a child growing up in Israel in the 1950s and 1960s, I was fascinated by war machines. I would spend hours putting together plastic models of fighter planes and bombers, war ships and aircraft carriers. I would paint them with the appropriate camouflage colors, stick to them the various national insignia, then hang them from the ceiling or arrange them on top of a chest of drawers. My room was a virtual battlefield complete with barbed wire and tanks, charging soldiers and destroyers bristling with guns. At night the immense firepower surrounding my bed calmed my spirit and infused my child’s dreams with images of heroism and sacrifice. By the time I was fourteen years old, I probably knew more about the different types of war machines in both world wars and there-after than many of the soldiers who had been subjected to their destructive powers; I was certainly more comfortable with reciting the qualities of aircraft and ships than with the algebra and geometry my teachers tried in vain to pump into my head.
Multi-Hash: Learning Object Attributes and Hash Tables For Fast 3-D Object Recognition
Authors: Grewe Lynne , Kak Avi
Published: November 2023

Three-dimensional object recognition is complicated by the fact that an object may present itself to a sensor in any one of an infinity of poses. Fortunately, this problem can be alleviated by declaring equivalent classes of object poses through either the use of the aspect graph representation of objects [7, 14] or through the use of local feature sets (LFSs) [3, 9].

To elaborate a bit on the notion of local feature sets, since they are so central to the work described in this chapter, consider the two simple model objects shown in Figure 2.l(a) and 2.l(b). Each surface of each of these objects is called a feature and each feature can be characterized by a set of attribute-value pairs. For example, the surface features 9 and 4 of an instance of the object in Figure 2.l(a) can be described by the attribute-value pairs:

How attributes are used in matching a feature from the scene with a feature from a model depends on the nature of the attribute. If an attribute, such as “area,” is susceptible to occlusion, then it can be used only in the sense of its providing an upper-bound constraint, meaning that we must exclude all model features whose areas exceed the area of the feature in the scene. This point is discussed in greater detail in [8].
Explanation-Based Learning For Mobile-Robot Perception
Authors: O’Sullivan Joseph , Mitchell Tom M , Thrun Sebastian
Published: November 2023

Results in robot learning have demonstrated that robots can learn simple strategies from very little initial knowledge when in restricted environments [9, 2, 17]. While these results indicate the potential role of machine learning for robot perception and control, new approaches are needed to scale up to more complex problems and realistic environments.

The fundamental roadblock to scaling up learning algorithms is that, as the complexity of the learning task (for example, the number of distinct sensors, complexity of individual sensor inputs, amount of sensor noise, complexity of the function to be learned) increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to correctly generalize from the limited quantity of training data available. Both experimental and theoretical research indicate that purely inductive learning methods, which basically rely on detecting statistical regularities among the training data, scale poorly with such increases in complexity [7, 30, 10].
Groundice
Authors: Carr Michael H
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2 we defined the martian cryosphere as the region of martian crust where if water were present it would be frozen. In the expectation that if groundwater was present it would have dissolved salts within it, a basal temperature of 252 K was assumed. The nominal thickness was estimated to be 2.3 km at the equator and 6.5 km at the pole, but these figures incorporate large errors because of poor knowledge of the thermal conductivity of the crust and the heat flow. At the end of heavy bombardment the heat flow is expected to have been four to five times larger than the present (see Figure 1-14), so the cryosphere should have been at least four to five times thinner than at present. But if the climate was significantly warmer at that time, the cryosphere may have been nonexistent or very thin. Thus, since the end of heavy bombardment the cryosphere at low latitudes has grown from an initial thickness of no more than a few hundred meters, and perhaps considerably less, to the present thickness of a few kilometers. We also saw in Chapter 2 that under present climatic conditions ice is unstable at low latitudes and that any ice present in the cryosphere at these latitudes at the end of heavy bombardment is likely to have been lost by sublimation down to depths of a few hundred meters unless it has, in some way, been replenished, or if climatic conditions were significantly different for much of the time. The arguments presented in Chapter 2 were almost entirely theoretical and were based on present surface conditions. In this chapter we examine the observational evidence for the presence of ground ice.
Implications For Life
Authors: Carr Michael H
Published: November 2023

The increasingly compelling evidence that Mars is water rich, and that it may have experienced major changes in its climate, coupled with recent improvements in our understanding of the early evolution of life on Earth and the range of conditions under which it can survive, has led to a revival of interest in the possibility that life may have started on Mars. Liquid water is almost universally accepted as a requirement for life, and we have almost unequivocal evidence that liquid water was at the surface on many occasions. High erosion rates, high rates of dissection to form valley networks, and high rates of weathering all suggest, although with considerable uncertainty, that conditions, at least on early Mars, were warm in addition to being wet. Episodic formation of outflow channels throughout the planet’s history indicates the presence of abundant groundwater.
Future Mars Exploration
Authors: Carr Michael H
Published: November 2023

Missions are the lifeblood of planetary science. Unfortunately, planetary missions are expensive and because they are expensive only a few nations or agencies have independent planetary exploration programs. At the time of this writing the list was restricted to four: the United States, Russia, Japan, and the European Space Agency. To lay out a rational, step-by-step program for the exploration of Mars is not difficult, but the likelihood of such a plan being followed is small. Because the missions are expensive, their approval requires support of a much broader constituency than the small planetary science community. Planetary missions may serve a variety of purposes in addition to advancing scientific knowledge. They may be used to demonstrate to the rest of the world a nation’s technical virtuosity and the superiority of its economic system. They have been used to promote technological innovation and to preserve specialized technical capabilities. They may foster international cooperation and cement economic alliances. They stimulate interest in science and technology among a nation’s youth. They must also have public appeal, for it is the public who pays for them. This multiplicity of objectives often leads to frustration in planning, for not only do the different goals pull the exploration strategies in different directions, but the weight given to the different goals is constantly shifting with the political climate.
Ducks, Rabbits, and Hedgehogs: Resolution, Impasse, or Fostered debate?
Authors: Logie Robert H , Cornoldi Cesare , Brandimonte Maria A , Kaufmann Geir , Reisberg Daniel
Published: November 2023

We took as a starting point a debate about construal and reconstrual of images. Eloquent cases have been made by major proponents on differing sides of the debate. In opening the final discussion for this volume, there might be some merit in trying to establish the current state of agreement or otherwise among the three major contributors to this volume. As the previous chapters have made clear, there are profound disagreements among these authors. Against this backdrop, there are a number of ways in which the debate might progress. It might reach an impasse, with consensus impossible and with the arguments progressing the debate no further.
Sweden Toward a Deresidualization of Swedish Child Welfare Policy and Practice?
Authors: Hort Sven E Olsson
Published: November 2023

If one were to single out a country that in practice resembles the model welfare state, postwar Sweden would definitely be a contender. It has been said that this country of the Far North is the closest one comes to Richard Titmuss’s (1974) institutional model of social policy. Everybody is included under the universal social safety net. Public spending on social protection, including child welfare, is thus substantial and usually is looked on as investment in human capital. The general disadvantages of this system are of course the problem of overconsumption and the necessity of high taxes to fund such fancy programs. The international competitiveness of Swedish trade products is supposed to have become weakened, although this belief is contradicted by many experts in the field. Furthermore, in the early 1990s high unemployment levels and increasing interest payments on a burgeoning public deficit have created macroeconomic distortions of a magnitude hitherto unknown. This aspect of Swedish welfare policy is not further discussed here.
Situating the corpus
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul
Published: November 2023

Initially at least, CAR is readily recognizable as a register in the sense that the frequency of function words or the reliance on abbreviations tends to correlate with specific functional parameters. These include the presentation of narrowly focused information in texts produced under largely uniform spatial constraints and normally benefiting from ample planning time. CAR also qualifies as a simple register in that it typically falls short-sometimes dramatically so of the degree of elaboration usually associated with written language.
Syntactic Elaboration
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul
Published: November 2023

The job of comparing one language variety with another normally presupposes the identification and operationalization of linguistic variables, be they lexical, morphological, or syntactic. This is normally done by identifying a set of linguistic features that can be expected to appear in specific slots-or obligatory contexts-in the literary grammar and by measuring their actual occurrence in the variety under examination. These actually occurring features are then quantified as a proportion of possible occurrences, thus permitting the computation of what might be called structural reduction in this variety.
Epidemiology
Authors: Lafferty William E , Hopkins Sharon G
Published: November 2023

HIV is transmitted by three major routes: (1) sexual contact that exchanges body fluids (usually semen or vaginal fluid); (2) blood exchange (transfusion, injection drug use [IOU], needlestick); and (3) perinatally. The risk of acquiring HIV per exposure is highest (nearly 100 percent) from the transfusion of infected blood and lowest (virtually nonexistent) from casual contact. Following the institution of HIV-antibody screening in the United States in 1985, the incidence of transfusion-associated HIV infections has decreased. Infections acquired by heterosexual contact, however, have increased. Worldwide, sexual transmission accounts for greater than 90 percent of HN infections.
Aspergillosis
Authors: Panther Lori A , Rosen Henry
Published: November 2023

Aspergillosis results from infection with various Aspergillus

species: among HIV- infected patients, A. fumigatus

is the most frequently isolated species, followed by A. flavus,

then A. niger. Aspergillus

is a ubiquitous mold that generally enters the body via the respiratory tract.

Most HIV-infected patients who develop invasive aspergillosis have the same risk factors as other immunosuppressed patients, namely, the presence of neutropenia, recent treatment with high-dose steroids, and malignancies. Possible additional risk factors include prolonged courses of broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy, alcoholism, previous pulmonary infections, and marijuana smoking.

Systemic aspergillosis uncommonly occurs among HIV-infected individuals: less than

0.5 percent of all HIV-infected patients are diagnosed with invasive aspergillosis. This incidence contrasts with the much higher frequency of aspergillosis in other groups of severely immunosuppressed patients.

Aspergillosis typically occurs in patients with advanced HIV disease who have CD4 counts less than 100 cells/mm3 The initial AIDS case definition developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) included aspergillosis as an AIDS- defining condition. Because of the primary relationship of aspergillosis with neutropenia, as well as the infrequent occurrence of aspergillosis in patients with AIDS, the CDC later deleted aspergillosis from the AIDS case definition.
Histoplasmosis
Authors: Panther Lori A , Skerrett Shawn J
Published: November 2023

This fungus exists in the mycelial phase in soil and in the yeast phase in tissues at 37°C. The organism thrives in soil enriched with avian or bat excrement. Infection results from inhalation of airborne spores, often after contaminated soil has been disturbed. Endemic areas include major river valleys in the central United States, areas along the United States-Mexican border, the Caribbean, and some areas in Central America, South America, and Africa.
Cryptosporidiosis
Authors: Bramante John P , Ryan Caroline A
Published: November 2023

Cryptosporidiosis is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum.

The life cycle of this parasite includes three key forms: oocysts, sporozoites, and trophozoites. Humans become infected when they ingest oocysts. Upon reaching the intestinal lumen, sporozoites emerge from within the oocysts and invade the

intestinal epithelial cells. After entering the intestinal cells, the sporozoites mature into trophozoites. Infection with Cryptosporidium

typically involves the small bowel.

Cryptosporidial oocysts have been detected in rivers, surface water, and, in some areas, municipal water supplies. The organism is highly infectious and transmission occurs by person-to-person contact, ingesting contaminated water, or animal-to-person contact. Unpublished data suggest that person-to-person contact plays the most important role in the transmission of C. parvum.

The exact risk of acquiring C. parvum

from municipal water supplies remains unknown. The incubation period is 2 to 14 days. Among HIV-infected patients, it is unknown whether cryptosporidiosis results from reactivation of a prior infection or whether it is acquired de novo.

In 1976, investigators first described cryptosporidium as a human pathogen. In the 1980s, the number of reports of cryptosporidiosis exploded as a result of the AIDS epidemic. Among AIDS patients with diarrhea in the United States, it is estimated that cryptosporidiosis is the causative agent in 11 to 16 percent. Cryptosporidiosis, however, is an AIDS-defining diagnosis in only approximately 2 percent of patients.

Cryptosporidiosis occurs sporadically among immunocompetent people, typically causing a 10 to 14 day illness manifesting as diarrhea and abdominal cramping. The same pattern usually occurs among HIV-infected individuals with CD4 counts greater than 200 cells/mm3 Among those with CD4 counts less than 200 cells/mm3, a chronic infection typically develops.
Toxoplasmosis
Authors: Marra Christina M
Published: November 2023

Toxoplasmosis is caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This organism exists in three forms: (1) oocysts; (2) tachyzoites or trophozoites, the replicating form of the organism; and (3) bradyzoites or nonreplicating organisms.
Hepatitis B
Authors: Koelle David M , Willson Richard A
Published: November 2023

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that replicates through an RNA intermediate. This virus is transmitted via parenteral drug use, sexual contact, blood products (now screened), and occupational exposure. In addition, sporadic cases of HBV transmission also occur.

Evidence of resolved or chronic HBV infection is present in up to 90 percent of patients with AIDS. In addition, 5

to 10 percent of HIV-infected individuals in all risk groups are chronic carriers of HBsAg.

Several studies suggest that HBV coinfection does not accelerate the progression of HIV infection. In contrast, HIV coinfection modifies the natural history of HBV infection. Chronic carriage of HBV after acute HBV infection occurs in approximately 20 percent of HIV-infected patients compared with a chronic carrier rate of only 6 percent in those without HIV infection. In addition, HIV-infected patients with HBV (compared with HIV-negative patients) have increased HBV replication and milder liver injury during acute and chronic infection and increased loss of HBsAb after resolution of acute infection.

The natural history of chronic HBV infection in HIV-infected individuals is variable, with potential progression from chronic hepatitis to either cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma.

The diagnosis of HBV chronic carrier refers to the presence of HBsAg in the serum for 6 months or longer. Since serologic testing in chronic HBV infection does not define the extent or severity of the underlying chronic liver disease, liver biopsy may be required to establish the stage of the chronic HBV infection.
Nephropathy
Authors: Burik Jo-Anne Van , Cooper Mindy A
Published: November 2023

HIV-associated nephropathy is typically characterized by heavy proteinuria (with nephrotic syndrome), enlarged kidneys, and rapid progression to end-stage renal disease. Because this disorder often develops before the onset of AIDS, most experts prefer the term HIV-associated nephropathy

instead of AIDS-associated nephropathy.

For unknown reasons, HIV-associated nephropathy has a striking predilection for African-Americans: approximately 85 percent of patients with HIV-associated nephropathy are African-American. The mean age is 33 years, with a male to female ratio of 10:1. Approximately 50 percent of patients with HIV-associated nephropathy have injection-drug use as their risk factor for HIV acquisition. Most reported cases have involved patients living in New York City, Miami, or Los Angeles, with few cases reported from the San Francisco area. These differences in the geographic distribution of HIV-associated nephropathy remain unexplained.

Although initial studies suggested that histologic changes solely consisted of focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis, subsequent reports indicate that HIV-associated nephropathy can produce a diverse array of histologic lesions, including global glomerulosclerosis, mesangial hyperplasia, tubular necrosis, microcystic tubular dilatation with casts, and interstitial inflammation. Nevertheless, focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis remains the most distinctive and common histologic lesion. Although heroin-associated nephropathy and HIV-associated nephropathy share some histopathologic findings, these lesions can usually be distinguished from one another.
Anal Neoplasia
Authors: Kovach Nicholas L , Koutsky Laura A , Kiviat Nancy B
Published: November 2023

Human papillomavirus virus (HPV) is a common sexually transmitted agent. HPV infection is associated with intraepithelial neoplasia, the presumed precursor for anal cancer. Types 16, 18, and 31 are the types most frequently associated with malignancy, although other types, including 6 and 11, may also be associated with malignant dysplastic changes in HIV-infected persons.

Southern DNA hybridization studies of anal specimens have shown a prevalence of 50 to 60 percent of HPV among HIV-infected individuals compared with only 20 to 30 percent among homosexual subjects not infected with HIV. One study, which tested anal specimens for HPV using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, showed HPV detectable in 92 and 78 percent of HIV-infected and seronegative (homosexual or bisexual) subjects, respectively. Increased levels of detectable HPV correlate with progressive immunosuppression. In addition, anal cytologic abnormalities correlate both with the presence and with higher detectable levels of HPV.

Sexual practices have also been associated with an increased incidence of HPV and anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN), with those individuals who practice receptive anal intercourse having the highest incidence. Studies using anal Papanicolaou (Pap) smear evaluations of men reporting anal intercourse have shown that 25 to 40 percent of HN-

infected men have abnormal cytologic findings, ranging from atypia to dysplasia, compared with 5 to 15 percent of subjects not infected with HIV. Among HIV- infected men, those with CD4 counts less than 500 cells/mm 3 have an approximate threefold increased risk of AIN compared with those with CD4 counts greater than 500 cells/mm 3 The overall incidence of anal cancer in HIV-infected persons is not known.
Periodontal Disease
Authors: Moss Gregory B , Schubert Mark M
Published: November 2023

Three major forms of periodontal disease have been described in HIV-infected patients: linear gingival erythema (formerly HIV-associated gingivitis), necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis (formerly HIV-associated periodontitis), and acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Gingivitis refers to inflammation of the gingivae caused by oral microflora; when associated with changes in the bone it is referred to as periodontitis. Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis involves inflammation of the gingiva with soft tissue necrosis, but not bone loss.

Some investigators have suggested that HIV-infected persons have unusual forms of gingivitis and periodontal disease; others, however, have found that HIV-infected individuals have similar periodontal health compared with persons in the general population who are not HIV-infected.

In studies of HIV clinic attendees, up to 30 percent have linear gingival erythema, 4 to 25 percent have necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis, and less than 10 percent have advanced or acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. The more severe conditions usually occur in patients with low CD4 cell counts.

Pathogens include the same oral bacterial flora commonly associated with gingivitis and periodontitis in non-HIV infected persons, namely, Bacteroides intermedius, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Treponema

species, and Actinomyces

species. Although Candida, albicans

is often present in these lesions, its role in HIV-associated periodontal disease remains poorly defined.

Necrotizing stomatitis, which is generally considered separate from periodontal disease, refers to nonperiodontal soft tissue necrosis. Necrotizing stomatitis can,
Drug Therapy
Authors: Woodward Cynthia Brennan Jane A
Published: November 2023

This chapter, which provides information on HIV-related drugs, includes four tables:

(1) Mechanism, Adverse Effects, and Interactions of Commonly Used Drugs-

information regarding mechanisms of action, significant adverse effects, and drug interactions; (2) Highly Significant Drug Interactions Table-a

quick reference for common clinically significant drug interactions that may require modification of therapy; (3) Prices of HIV-Related Drugs-a

summary of drug costs based on the 1995 average wholesale price (AWP) for standard doses (not including pharmacy fees); and

(4) Programs Supplying Medications for HIV-Infected Indigent Patients-a

list of pharmaceutical companies (and their phone numbers) that have programs to assist HN

-infected patients who cannot pay for medications.

Throughout this chapter, medications are grouped into the categories listed below (Index of Drugs), and the order of the categories follows the order listed below (alphabetical order). Although some medications overlap in several categories, we have listed them under the category that they are most commonly used.

The table Mechanism, Adverse Effects, and Interactions of Commonly Used Drugs

lists medications by generic name with trade names listed in parentheses. In addition, where appropriate, we have listed commonly used abbreviations, such as AZf, ddl, G- CSF, or TMP-SMX. The drugs listed include those that are FDA-approved and are commonly used to treat HIV-infected individuals.

In the Highly Significant Drug Interactions

table, changes in drug concentrations are expressed as measurements in the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC); this is the best measure of total drug in the body and accounts for alterations in absorption, distribution, and elimination. Several drugs can affect the coagulation cascade and cause changes in the international normalized ratio (INR) measurement; the INR is a commonly accepted form of reporting and interpreting prothrombin time results.
The Modular Effects of Sign Language Acquisition
Authors: Lillo-Martin Diane
Published: November 2023

One of the topics that introductory linguistics courses almost always cover is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. According to the textbooks, around 1930 Edward Sapir (see Sapir, 1949) and (somewhat later) Benjamin Lee Whorf (Whorf, 1956) made two proposals: “First, that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Second, that the structure of the language one habitually uses influences the manner in which one understands his environment. The picture of the universe shifts from tongue to tongue” (Chase, 1956, p. vi). Careful reviews of this position usually point out that Sapir and Whorf were not the originators of such ideas, nor did they even put them so strongly (see Hill, 1988, for a nice review). But the idea that language shapes thought--or cognition-has been debated in various forms over the years and now usually goes by the name of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Despite their popular appeal, the two hypotheses, linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity, have been largely discredited by thorough crosslinguistic study and experimentation. The linguistic determinism hypothesis is the easiest to put to rest. The facts that (1) one can discover the patterns in a language other than one’s own and that (2) cross-cultural miscommunications are frequent even among speakers of the same language attest to the ability of human cognition to think outside of language (cf. Hill, 1988).
Neuroanatomical Correlates Of The Effects Of Stress On Memory: Relevance To The Validity Of Memories Of Childhood Abuse
Authors: Bremner J Douglas , Southwick Steven M , Charney Dennis S
Published: November 2023

The recent controversy surrounding the validity of memories of childhood abuse has centered on the question of whether memories of abuse can remain dormant for many years before they come to the surface in the form of delayed recall. Authors on one side of the controversy suggest that memories of abuse can be not available to conscious recall secondary to a mechanism described clinically as amnesia or “repression.” The other side of the controversy claims that psychotherapists practicing a form of psychotherapy known as recovered memory therapy have suggested episodes of abuse to their patients which never in fact occurred, through leading questions or excessive insisting.
World War I and National Self-Determination 1914-1922
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

There was a great disparity between the motives and aims of the initial belligerent powers in World War I and the principles and objectives embodied in the various peace settlements after the war. When the war broke out at the beginning of August 1914, the Entente Powers of France, Russia, and England pursued traditional objectives.
Spheres of Influence I: Germany and the Soviet Union
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

The states that were carved out of the Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian empires after World War I-Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Yugoslavia-initially were conceived as modern democratic nation-states. Along with Romania, they were to have the dual function of collectively containing the expansion of Germany and preventing the spread to the West of the Soviet Union’s breed of Communism.
Spheres of Influence II: East and West, or “Yalta Europe”
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

“Yalta Europe” has two relatively distinct sets of meaning. Among many East Central European intellectuals and dissidents, it is a pejorative reference to a summit meeting of the “Big Three”-Winston Churchill, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin-held at Yalta, a resort in the Crimea on the Black Sea, on February 4 to 11, 1945. During one week of negotiations, as this version of the story goes, the two most important leaders of the Western democratic world abandoned more than 100 million people to an expanded Soviet version of the east, or the “Soviet empire.”
The Failure of Eastern Europe 1956-1989
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R
Published: November 2023

When the Cold War started, the concepts of East and West were more than sufficient for describing the political reality of a divided Europe, a division 1hat appeared to be permanent. The Soviet version of Communism and the Soviet Communist version of Eastern Europe seemed to be here to stay. The idea that the Soviet Union would let its empire go was simply unrealistic, according to the experts of that now defunct discipline called Sovietology.
Effect of Alcohol on Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors and Enzymes
Authors: Tabakoff Boris , Hoffman Paula L
Published: November 2023

Over the last two to three decades the actions of ethanol on nearly every aspect of central nervous system (CNS) function have been investigated, including those on the synthesis, release, and catabolism of neurotransmitter substances. Much of this work generated a rather diffuse picture of ethanol’s actions, with varying results depending on the transmitter system, the experimental protocol, the species, the timing of ethanol administration, and the brain area studied. We have previously reviewed research on neurotransmitter metabolism and direct the reader to those reviews for a historical perspective (Hoffman and Tabakoff, 1985; Tabakoff and Hoffman, 1983a, 1991, 1992).
First Among Friends
Authors: Ingle H Larry
Published: November 2023

In First Among Friends, the first scholarly biography of George Fox (1624-91), H. Larry Ingle examines the fascinating life of the reformation leader and founding organizer of the Religious Society of Friends, more popularly known today as the Quakers. Ingle places Fox within the upheavals of the English Civil Wars, Revolution, and Restoration, showing him and his band of "rude" disciples challenging the status quo, particularly during the Cromwellian Interregnum. Unlike leaders of similar groups, Fox responded to the conservatism of the Stuart restoration by facing down challenges from internal dissidents, and leading his followers to persevere until the 1689 Act of Toleration. It was this same sense of perseverance that helped the Quakers to survive and remain the only religious sect of the era still existing today. This insightful study uses broad research in contemporary manuscripts and pamphlets, many never examined systematically before. Firmly grounded in primary sources and enriched with gripping detail, this well-written and original study reveals unknown sides of one who was clearly "First Among Friends."
Introduction
Authors: Hasan-Rokem Gaut , Shulman David
Published: November 2023

The Gonds of central India perform a ritual when a member of their tribe is dying: at night, the adult men divide into two groups and gather at the boundary of the village; one group chants riddles to the beat of a drum, and the other group searches for the answers. No riddle can go unanswered, and each answer has to reproduce a text sancified by tradition. In between the riddle exchanges, strange meaningless sounds are also uttered, heavy with sorrow. Women and children are not allowed within earshot of these singing men. The ritual continues until dawn.
Myth as Enigma: Cultural Hermeneutics in Late Antiquity
Authors: Stroumsa Guy G
Published: November 2023

Must the gods mean what they say? The question runs like Ariadne’s thread through¬ out Greek culture. Set in the frame of the centuries-long reflection on the ambivalent nature of religious language, this question bears upon conceptions of truth and its expression in the ancient world. Plutarch quotes a well-known saying of Heraclitus, “to the effect that the Lord whose prophetic shrine is at Delphi neither tells nor conceals, but indicates.” The god’s answer is not clearly expressed, but only hinted at, and its understanding requires an interpretative effort. Greek philosophers and grammarians had strived, since the fifth century B.c. at least, to make sense of their religious and cultural tradition, to interpret it. Their need to interpret (hermeneuein) the Homeric myths stemmed from the intellectual impossibility to accept these myths at their face value.
God’s Chastisement
Authors: Stowell Daniel W
Published: November 2023

Religious southerners upheld the Confederacy both in victory and in defeat. Few, if any, groups could surpass Confederate clergymen in their devotion to the southern cause. They preached for it, prayed for it, and interpreted God’s purposes in it from the beginning to the end. White religious southerners were certain, even through the bitter spring of 1865, that God favored the Stars and Bars. Then came defeat, sudden and complete. How could such a calamity befall the people and, fledgling nation whom God favored and whose cause was righteous? The answer for most white religious southerners was that God was chastening the southern people for greater purposes in the future.
God’s Deliverance
Authors: Stowell Daniel W
Published: November 2023

Black Christians in Civil War America shared with their white brethren a strong belief in God’s providential intervention in human affairs. For northern and southern black evangelicals, the central fact of the war was the deliverance of four million black men, women, and children from the bonds of slavery. The central actor in this drama was God. The results of the war demonstrated His care for His children in bondage and His condemnation of slavery and its beneficiaries. The northern people and northern armies were simply instruments in God’s hands to carry out His judgment. As such, however, northerners clearly demonstrated their greater righteousness in comparison to southerners.
Educating Confederate Christians
Authors: Stowell Daniel W
Published: November 2023

The proper education of young southerners formed an integral part of white southern Christians’ vision of religious reconstruction; they understood that the perpetuation of their distinctive religious identity depended on their success at transmitting cultural ideals to the next generation. The primary instruments used to accomplish this goal, other than the churches themselves, were Sunday schools and denominational colleges.
One Nation under God? Efforts toward Sectional Reunion
Authors: Stowell Daniel W
Published: November 2023

No other issue reflected so well the divergence of the Confederate and northern visions of religious reconstruction as the question of denominational reunion. In no area was southern identity more pronounced. Georgia and Tennessee Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians vehemently rejected any plans for reunion with their counterparts in the North. The sectional rancor of the postwar period might seem unavoidable, but for the example of other den9minations: northern and southern Episcopalians quickly healed the de facto breach in their organization; even the Cumberland Presbyterians were able to restore their national unity in 1866. Yet each of the three largest evangelical denominations remained bitterly divided in the aftermath of the war.
Introduction
Authors: Viola Lynne
Published: November 2023

Collectivization was a violent and bloody clash between two cultures at fatal variance with one another. It was a campaign of domination and destruction, which aimed at nothing less than the internal colonization of the peasantry. Stalinist state building required a “tribute” (grain and other agricultural produce) from the peasantry in order to fill the state’s granaries for export and to feed the cities and the Red army-in short, to fulfill the endless demands of primitive socialist accumulation.
On the Sly: Everyday Forms of Resistance in the Collective Farm, 1930 and Beyond
Authors: Viola Lynne
Published: November 2023

By the end of 1930, peasant resistance began to enter into a new stage of activity. Peasant resistance-by definition, kulak resistance-operated under the official rubric of tikhaia sapa. Translated idiomatically as “on the sly,” tikhaia sapa literally means a quiet or stealthful undermining or weakening of foundations.
An Examination Of Jensen’s Theory Concerning Educability, Heritability And Population Differences
Authors: Biesheuvel S
Published: November 2023

It is difficult, within the confines of a symposium, to deal effectively with Prof. Jensen’s view that the difference in performance of white and black Americans at school and in intelligence tests must be ascribed more to genetic than to environmental factors. There is obviously no time to evaluate the vast amount of re search material he has reviewed in support of his hypothesis. (Symposiasts were supplied with a 385 page manuscript and a summary of its contents).1 The best one can do is to comment on the principal arguments put forward in the summary.