bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Development and role of comparative sequence analysis in medical virology
Authors: Stankov Srdjan
Published: July 2006

Introduction. Development of the polymerase chain reaction and deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing techniques has enabled precise identification, classification and taxonomy of viruses. Comparative sequence analysis. Comparative sequence analysis methods can be used in medical virology for many practical purposes. They may be classified into three broad categories: I - reconstruction of genealogical relationships between individual viral isolates for detection and monitoring of sources, reservoirs and modes of viral transmission; II - virus genotyping, that is determination of relationships between genetic types of viruses and their phenotypic properties, which has important implications for immuno-prophylaxis, therapy and prognosis of viral diseases; and III -investigation of functional properties of defined viral sequences, of special importance for explanation of viral pathogenesis and design of antiviral drugs. Future prospects. The combination of DNA sequencing with polymerase chain reaction following reverse transcription with the use of random primers offers a universal means for diagnosis of viral infections. .
Hashimoto's hypothyroidism associated with insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes
Authors: Tesic Dragan , Pantelinac Pavle , Radosavljevic Jovanka , Curic Nikola
Published: July 2006

Introduction. Thyroid peroxidase activity inhibiting immunoglobulins (anti-TPO Ab) is a sign of autoimmune process in the thyroid gland. Association of hyperthyroidism and diabetes mellitus has been classically described. However, hypometabolic state, as a consequence of hypothyroidism, is not frequently linked with the biological activity of insulin. Case description. A 51-year old man was admitted to the Clinic with unregulated diabetes, untreated for 5 yrs. Insulin therapy was introduced one year before, with 96 units on admission. He had bowel movements every three days. BH 176cm, BW 120kg, a puffy face and swollen body. Fundus examination did not show specific diabetic leasions. Hepatic steatosis was present on ultra?sound examination. Occlusion of coronary arteries and superficial femoral artreries was present on angiography, and stenosis of carotid artreies on doppler duplex examination. HbAlc 14.7%. TSH 85.7 mIU/l. FT4 1.6 pmol/l, FT3 1.4. Anti TPOAb >600 IU/ml, triglycerides 2.26 mmol/l, HDL 1.15. cholesterolemia 10.0. Levothyroxine substitution was introduced starting with 25 mgr, gradually increasing up to 75 mgr. The need for insulin gradually decreased and finally it was switched to glibenclamide 5mg +0+2.5 mg. On discharge his FBG was 7.0 mmol/l. HOMA -B 52.3, HOMA-R 9.8. Discussion. We can conclude that in our patient secondary obesity caused deterioration of diabetes. After introduction of substitution therapy with levothyroxine, decrease of insulin resistance an J of cholesterol level was established. The duration of undiagnosed hypothyroidism can be a matter of speculation. However, the beneficial effect of normalized metabolism on atherosclerotic process will be obvious in the future. .
Evaluation of astrophysically useful parameters for strontium monohydride and deuteride
Authors: Ramachandran Sri , Rajamanickam N. , Bagare S.P.
Published: July 2006

The Franck-Condon factors and r-centroids which are very closely related to transition probabilities, have been evaluated by the more reliable numerical integration procedure for the band systems B2?-X2?, C2?-X2? and F2?-X2? of astrophysical molecules strontium monohydride and strontium deuteride using an adequate potential. The Franck-Condon factors are more intense, particularly for the ?? = 0 bands, for all the systems examined here. Thus the bands of the molecules are expected to be present in sunspot spectra, SC-stars, cool M-giant stars and other prominent astrophysical sources.
Mutual relationship of oscillations in the frequency range 3.6 mHz to 22 mHz in the solar chromosphere
Authors: Andjic A.
Published: July 2006

High frequency acoustic oscillations were suggested as the source of mechanical heating in the chromosphere. In this work the radial component of the oscillations in the frequency interval 3 mHz to 22 mHz are investigated. The observations were performed using "D spectrometry on the Fe I neutral spectral line at 543:45 nm. The high frequency oscillations of different frequencies appear to be associated with different spatial scales. It seems that different sources produce high and low frequency acoustic oscillations.
The impact of occlusal morphology on fissure sealant penetration
Authors: Petrovic Bojan , Markovic Dejan , Blagojevic Duska
Published: July 2006

Introduction: In contemporary preventive dentistry there are numerous experimental in vitro and clinical studies on the growing number of materials for sealing pits and fissures. Aim: the aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of occlusal tooth morphology on penetrating abilities of two types of fissure sealants and measure the unfilled space at the bottom of occlusal groove using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Materials and methods: The sample consisted of 10 freshly extraced intact premolars and 10 molars randomly divided into 4 groups. In group I (5 premolars), and group II (5 molars) glass ionomer Fuji VII was used as fissure sealant, while in groups III (5 premolars) and IV (5 molars) resin-based sealant (Helioseal-F) was used. Six sections of each tooth were prepared for SEM. Sealant penetration was observed at 30x magnification and the unfilled space at the bottom of the groove at 500x. Sealant penetration in relation to the absolute depth of occlusal grooves was recorded and the unfilled space beneath the sealant was expressed through its greatest diameter. Results were statistically analyzed using ?2 test. Results: There was no statistically significant difference in penetration ability and the unfilled space between tested materials or teeth groups. The average depth of penetration for glass ionomer was 83% and for resin-based sealant 81% of fissure depth. Mean diameters of the unfilled space beneath the sealants were 95 ?m (glass ionomer) and 93 ?m (resin-based sealant). Shallower penetration of both sealing materials was observed in deep pits and fissures with greater diameter of unfilled space (p<0.05). Conclusion: Based on results of the present study it can be concluded that penetration of contemporary fissure sealants largely depends on occlusal tooth anatomy.
The role of Streptococcus mutans group and salivary immunoglobulins in etiology of early childhood caries
Authors: Cvetkovic Andrijana , Ivanovic Mirjana
Published: July 2006

Dental caries is a bacterial infective disease modified by carbohydrates from food. Early childhood caries is a special type of primary teeth caries in infants and toddlers. Appearance of early childhood caries (ECC) is related to mistakes in nutrition of infants, but the mechanism of beginning and progression of this disease is very complex. To understand etiology of caries, it is necessary to understand ecology of oral environment and to determine which factors are responsible for conversion of non-pathogenic microorganisms of the oral cavity into pathogenic. Among host factors, salivary immunoglobulin (sIgA) constitutes the main specific immune defense mechanism in saliva and may play an important role in the oral homeostasis. Basic role of salivary immunoglobulins is in control of bacterial oral flora and constitution of balance relationship between oral bacteria and organism as whole.
Dental education of left-handed students
Authors: Grga Djurica , Miletic Vesna
Published: July 2006

Introduction: Asymmetrical activity of brain hemispheres is projected through laterality e.g. the dominance of one of the paired organs. A very important way of laterality manifestation is left-handedness. The lef-handed must solve various conflicts with their environment, so mild left-handedness usually shifts into dominant right-handedness in the early childhood, fortunately with no difficulties. Aim: The purpose of this study was to determine the number and distribution of left-handed dental students, check the possibilities and propose measures for solving the problem in their education. Material and methods: The study was conducted at Belgrade University School of Dentistry, dept. of restorative dentistry and endodontics. During two academic years, six generations of senior dental students (III, IV and V year students) completed a questionnaire, i.e. 1385 individuals were included in the survey. Results: The questionnaire revealed that out of the total number or students involved in the study 62 (4.48%) students were left-handed. The distribution of left-handed students is relatively uniform and concentrated between 4-6% of the sample. Conclusion: Even though the number of left-handed students is small, it is necessary to change conditions for their education and enable their proper development.
Project learn school community: An educational practice meets an educational activity theory
Authors: Marjanovic-Shane Ana , Fox Fran , Pollack-Johnson Bruce , Pack-Allender Lisa , Girard Brian , Rothschild Karen
Published: July 2006

Project Learn School community is a unique school coop in Philadelphia Founded 30 years ago, Project Learn was created as a cooperative between teachers, parents and students. The main philosophical principle, derived from J. Dewey?s educational theories is the principle of equality between the parties in the educative process. Other guiding philosophical principles are: the emphasis on the unique constellation of abilities of every student creating opportunities for meaningful personal involvement in the learning process, developing a sense of responsibility in students for themselves and for the larger world, and, finally, educating the whole person rather than just teaching academic skills. Although Cultural Historical Activity theory of L.S. Vygotsky was not very well known in the United States at the time of it?s founding, this school embodies several basic principles of Cultural Historical Activity theory. Among them is the principle of social mediation of the relationship between the subject and the object. The same principle is actualized through the rich use of cultural tools and symbols such as very developed programs in art, music and drama, as well as the frequent use of play and play like activities both to motivate and to create a collaborative learning atmosphere. Furthermore, the unique style of governance, where all families participate without delegation of their decision making powers, provides for a powerful model of human relationships, rules and norms believed to be the most beneficial for individual learning and the over all social development.
Applied research of attachment theory
Authors: Polovina Nada
Published: July 2006

The paper aims to throw light in what manner the theory of attachment can be applied in practice. The following applied studies act as intermediaries connecting theory and practice: (a) studies concerning the place and the role of attachment in partnership, parental and family functioning; (b) those concerning attachment and dysfunctional forms of behavior and (c) those concerning counseling and therapeutic applications of the attachment theory. In the paper these are illustrated by concrete research subjects and approaches. Main findings have been put in relation with the field of practical application. In the final part of the work, the author deals with the nature, the dynamics and the phases of relation between knowledge gained through theoretical research and its application in practical work. The author draws the conclusion that the relation between theory and practice, in the field of the attachment theory, is in the phase of early development characterized by asymmetric developmental levels and unidirectional influence. Highly developed theory enriches the practice by providing the basis for understanding the development and close relations; practice validates theory and its usability. However, the level of mutual influence where the practice of direct work with individuals would shape the theory has not been reached.
Choosing school underachievement as a way to resist power
Authors: Dzinovic Vladimir , Pavlovic Jelena , Stojnov Dusan
Published: July 2006

Underachievement in school is seen as a failure in traditional theories of education. An alternative construction of school underachievement, from the point of view of Michel Foucault? s approach to power and George Kelly's principle of elaborative choice, is offered as the subject matter of this paper. Instead of being construed exclusively as a measure of good education school success can be seen as the effect of normalization based on the power of discourses dominating in a society. In the same time, underachievement can be seen as a form of resistance to dominant discourse, as well as a way of defining identity in accordance with marginalized discourses whose significance is not recognized or respected from the point of school authorities. The prevailing tradition of European rationality treats poor achievement as a case of norm deviation. The individual perspectives are discounted as irrational and disordered behavior, requiring treatment. Kelly however, asserts that claims of irrationality reflect poor understanding of individual perspectives. When individuals resist the dominant discourse and underachieve despite their abilities, they are making an active choice which should be understood from their point of view. The choice someone makes is always an elaborative choice. Thus underachievement may be construed as resistance to power, based on the principle of elaborative choice.
The role of play in pre-school and younger school age children
Authors: Kopas-Vukasinovic Emina
Published: July 2006

The paper deals with the importance of play for children?s development and learning in institutionalized preschool education, as well as the opportunities it provides concerning the organization of teaching activities with younger school age children. The paper is based on the theoretical framework emphasizing educational character of children?s play, as a specific form of learning. Notwithstanding occasional attempts within pedagogic theory to deny educational values of children?s play and to emphasize instruction as the only form of systematic learning, contemporary pedagogic views consider play an important part of school education. Learning through play at younger school age helps overcome the discontinuity between preschool and school education. Curriculum subject matter can be covered through carefully selected and prepared play activities within the existing system, providing the support, encouragement and guidance by the adults involved, including their proper knowledge of children? age-related and psycho-physical characteristics. Play facilitates gradual change over from preschool to school developmental stage, free, spontaneous and creative expression and the development of children?s potential.
Problems and perspectives of children with special needs
Authors: Vujacic Milja
Published: July 2006

The paper deals with problems faced by children with special needs and the perspectives for their development. The research on the environment in which children with special needs live testify to what extent the community provides for their development. Since the environment is not encouraging obstacles are numerous, often detrimental due to prejudice, stereotypes and negative attitudes. However, our research data show that organized activities in the process of inclusive education significantly contribute to the changes in attitudes towards children with special needs, which creates favorable conditions for quality in education and overall development. Changing attitudes concerning children with special needs and creating conditions for discovering their preserved potential, through the interaction with other children, are the basis for their further development and, to the extent to which they are capable of it, training for future independent life. The paper suggests that inclusive education is a possible solution for the children with special needs and the way to stimulate and improve their development.
The typological approach to the risky behavior of adolescents
Authors: Mitrovic D. , Smederevac S. , Grujicic S. , Colovic Petar
Published: July 2006

The main research problem is focused on the following question: Is it possible to identify specific patterns of interaction between precipitating and protective factors for the risky behavior among adolescents. The research was conducted on the sample of 204 adolescents of both genders (18 to 20 years old). Specific personality traits and socio-demographic characteristics are manifested as the most important precipitating and/or protective factors for the risky behavior. The frame of reference for personality assessment was the alternative five-factor model (Zuckerman, 2002), specified in the ZKPQ-50-CC questionnaire, and consisted of the five biologically determined personality traits: activity, aggressiveness/hostility, impulsive sensation seeking, neuroticism/anxiety and sociability. Latent dimensions of the risky behavior: risky activities and life - conditions, were extracted by applying the homogeneity analyses (HOMALS). The matrix of squared Euclidean distances (in the common space of factor scores on the principal components of ZKPQ questionnaire, scores on HOMALS dimensions and school grades) was a subject of the Ward hierarchical cluster analysis method, extracting three clusters. According to the discriminant functions: risk proneness and pro-social activity, the clusters were identified: the group of pro-social oriented adolescents, the aloof group and the group of adolescents prone to risky behavior. The results have considerable implications for the prevention programs? development and implementation.
The Aleksandrov Story
Authors: Corbett Percy E.
Published: July 2006

In the Autumn of 1946, Georgi Aleksandrov, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Moscow and Chief of the Administration of Propaganda and Agitation in the Central Committee of the Communist Party, was one of Moscow's success stories. Only thirty-eight years old, he had already reached the top rung of the academic ladder. He was, besides, a key figure in that liaison of politics and science upon which the Soviet Government leans so heavily in mobilizing the creative energies of its population for the magnification of the State. In his post as Chief of Propaganda and Agitation for the Communist Party, Aleksandrov was responsible, under Andrei Zhdanov of the Politburo, for the fanatical indoctrination of party-workers and party-members and for spreading the gospel of Marx-Leninism through the broad massesof the people. He was an active member of the editorial board of Bolshevik, long a principal intellectual weapon of the party and government. When Culture and Life was inaugurated as special organ of Zhdanov's savage campaign to purge every branch of art and learning of elements not wholly imbued with aggressive Marx-Leninism, it was foreordained that Aleksandrov should be the moving spirit in the new publication. The Academy of Social Sciences, established in 1946 as the highest agency of political instruction, began its career under his leadership.
Russian Research at Harvard
Authors: Kluckhohn Clyde
Published: July 2006

The Russian Research Center was established February 1, 1948. It is supported by the Carnegie Corporation on a grant covering the period until July 1, 1953. The Research Center is an integral part of Harvard University and the senior members of its staff are all members of the Harvard faculty. Although the Center is not directly concerned with instruction, there is close cooperation with the Soviet Program of the Committee on International and Regional Studies, and a number of members of the Center staff teach in this program.
International Relations an a World of Revolutionary Change
Authors: Rothwell Charles Easton
Published: July 2006

A PROJECT of collaborative research concerning major world trends affecting international relations has been launched this year at the Hoover Institute and Library. This project has been made possible by a three-year grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York.1

Beneath the original planning for the project lay the conviction born of wartime experience, that a deeper understanding of the dynamics of international relations could be obtained by pooling the contributions of the social sciences and related disciplines and by taking account of practical experience in the international field. The need for new and more penetrating approaches to international relations had been put by Arnold Toynbee in a few challenging words: “There is nothing to prevent our Western Civilization from following historical precedent, if it chooses, by committing social suicide. But we are not doomed to make history repeat itself; it is open to us through our own efforts, to give history, in our case, some new unprecedented turn.” Natural scientists, as well as social scientists are agreed that any “new unprecedented turn” must be sought in deeper understanding of relations among people and among nations.
The Soviet Reaction to Vlasov
Authors: Dallin Alexander , Mavrogordato Ralph S.
Published: July 2006

IN recent years a good deal of attention has been focused on the Vlasov movement as an outstanding example of “Soviet opposition to Stalin” and as a wartime opportunity (largely missed by Germany) to utilize defectors and prisoners for military as well as political propaganda purposes. One important facet of the Vlasov problem has eluded systematic investigation: the reaction of the Soviet authorities to the movement. The themes employed in their campaign to reduce the political force of the Vlasov challenge provide some insight into their political behavior under the stress of indigenous opposition.
The Politics of Underdevelopment
Authors: Brzezinski Zbigniew
Published: July 2006

“WE ARE living in an age in which all roads lead to communism,” Molotov proclaimed confidently in 1947. Kaganovich re-echoed him in 1955 by maintaining that “if the nineteenth century was a century of capitalism, the twentieth century is a century of the triumph of socialism and communism.” This serenely optimistic viewpoint sees the victory of communism as all-inclusive, leaving no room for any mutual adjustment between the Communist and non-Communist worlds. Indeed, the First Secretary of the CPSU, Nikita S. Khrushchev, has repeatedly made it clear that the concept of coexistence relates simply to a transitory phase prior to the final assertion of the Communist mode of life over the entire globe. It would be idle to dismiss these claims as mere expressions of blind fanaticism, for whatever the element of fanaticism in the thinking of Soviet leaders may be, such proclamations of faith in final victory are also supported by observation of recent trends in world affairs.
Communist International Front Organizations: Their Nature and Function
Authors: Morris Bernard S.
Published: July 2006

IT was once suggested that the basic trait of psychological warfare—and, incidentally, the greatest asset to those that practice it—is its lack of known positive results.1 No satisfactory method has yet been developed to measure the effects of a propaganda campaign on its chosen audience. This characteristic is at once the greatest weakness of propaganda and psychological warfare (how does the operator know whether his effort was well spent or not?) and their greatest strength (if there is no reliable evaluation of the effort, it had better be continued, or even intensified, lest ground be lost).
Progress in the Theory of Economic Progress
Authors: Scitovsky Tibor
Published: July 2006

The problem of economic development was among the main preoccupations of the classical economists; and Karl Marx, Max Weber, and their followers continued to be interested in it. The Anglo-Saxon economists and their followers, however, during the century preceding the Second World War, all but forgot about economic development—perhaps because they took it for granted. The growth of most of the advanced economies was impressive enough to be taken for granted; as for the underdeveloped areas, next to nothing was known about their rates of growth, although economists (at least in the advanced countries) seem to have supposed that the magnitude of capital exports to these areas gave them a chance to develop even faster than, and ultimately to catch up with, the more highly developed Western economies. Only England's development received some attention and mild doubts were occasionally raised as to whether her rate of economic growth was as fast as it could and should have been. From the turn of the century onward, blue books and white papers appeared, uneasily comparing British with German and American industrial production, questioning the wisdom of exporting quite so much capital, stressing the need for more aggressive export drives—but next to nothing was done about all this. For one thing, the philosophy of laisser faire still ruled supreme; for another, business fluctuations obscured and rendered difficult a true assessment of the situation; for a third, Britain's continued political supremacy may have lulled concern over the deterioration of her relative economic position. The problem of development came to the forefront of economic discussion only with the Second World War, as a result of two important changes. In the West, political power shifted across the Atlantic; in the East, Russia's war record established her both as an important center of political attraction and as a shining example of the success of planned industrialization and development.
The “New Diplomacy” of the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Gilbert Felix
Published: July 2006

Ever since Woodrow Wilson, in the course of his attempts to lay a new and secure basis for peace after the First World War, proclaimed the necessity for “open covenants of peace, openly arrived at,” the methods of diplomacy have been regarded as having had their part in bringing about the outbreak of the First World War, and the demand for a “new diplomacy” has been raised. Although this concept has come into frequent use only in our century, it was soon realized that its history could be raced back into the nineteenth century, but its exact provenance has never been fully established. This article will show that the term can be found even earlier than is generally assumed, namely as early as 1793. As in all such disputes about the origin of a term, it would be ridiculous to maintain that this was definitely the first time this concept made its appearance, but it seems justified to propose that the concept definitely belongs to the second part of the eighteenth century.
The Crisis of Politics and Government in France
Authors: Einaudi Mario
Published: July 2006

The French elections of June 1951 and the serious difficulties experienced by the victorious constitutional parties in the formation of a government call attention once more to the problems of a parliamentary system in a multiparty state, and underline the urgency of a redefinition of the roles of parties and government within a constitutional democracy. These developments also draw attention to the basic constitutional problems which affect the political stability of France, and thereby weaken the Western community. With an occasional glance at parallel Italian developments, this article will first analyze the new electoral law and the election returns before proceeding to a discussion of the constitutional issues that contribute to the deepening crisis of the Fourth Republic.
Problems of Communist Rule in Czechoslovakia
Authors: Zinner Paul E.
Published: July 2006

In February 1948 few people in Czechoslovakia could size up the full implications of the Communist coup. The bulk of non-Communist public opinion was, to say the least, bewildered by the rapidity of events and confused about the real issues involved. Its attitude reflected this state of mind. The political parties to which it traditionally owed allegiance collapsed overnight. Their duly elected leaders were immediately muzzled. President Benes, on whom in the final analysis the total burden of stopping the Communist onslaught rested, and from whom the nation would normally expect its cue, gave none, unless his passive acceptance of the fait accompli with which he was presented were to be construed as a sign for the people to do likewise.
France in Defeat: Causes and Consequences
Authors: Padover Saul K.
Published: July 2006

France's defeat in 1940 was one of those events that ‘shook the world.” Its swiftness and completeness amazed even the Germans. But the mere fact of the defeat is, in long range terms, perhaps less important than the factors that caused it and the reactions that followed it.

At the outset, it should be remarked that this whole subject, involving as it does the field of socio-psycho-politics, is still wide open, at least so far as France is concerned. Except for tendentious tracts, some technical military monographs, and the expected autobiographic apologias, there is little to go on. French scholars have not done much objective research on the causes and consequences of the tragedy of 1940.
The Strategy of Communist Infiltration: Czechoslovakia, 1944–48
Authors: Duchacek Ivo
Published: July 2006

Between 1944 and 1948, six European countries experienced Communist seizures of power. Three were enemies and three friends and allies of Soviet Russia during the war; four were Slav countries; five were predominantly peasant with some remnants of feudalism; with the exception of industrial Czechoslovakia, their prewar record in democratic government was far from exemplary. In all of them, however, the Communists were successful.

What were the components of Communist success and democratic defeat? The case of Czechoslovakia shows clearly that the active interest and impressive display of Soviet power in contrast to the West's hesitant policy not only formed the background but were the chief bases for Communist successes in Eastern Europe. Careful, professional infiltration of democratic institutions and the wishful thinking of the democrats did the rest.
Soviet Atomic Blackmail and the North Atlantic Alliance
Authors: Speier Hans
Published: July 2006

The uncertainty about whether atomic weapons will be used in future war, whether local or general, lends itself to political exploitation in the cold war. The efficiency of nuclear weapons in wartime, and their resulting threat-value in either war- or peacetime, constitute their political-military worth. In peacetime, the threat-value of weapons can be exploited in many ways: by an ultimatum, by authoritative or inspired statements on capabilities or intentions, by studied disclosures of new weapons at ceremonial occasions, by means of maneuvers, redeployments of forces, or by so-called demonstrations.
Planning and Economic Progress in France
Authors: Peterson Wallace C.
Published: July 2006

FRANCE, it is said these days, is the “sick man of Europe,” a dubious honor once bestowed on the crumbling Ottoman Empire. To the outside observer it seems as if crisis following crisis is the “normal” state of affairs in France. Within France, the illusion that the post-Liberation social order would somehow be fundamentally different from that of the prewar regime is no more; politically, economically, and socially France today seems distressingly similar to the France of yesterday.Plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose.
Russia and Asia: Problems of Contemporary Area Studies and International Relations
Authors: Wittfogel Karl A.
Published: July 2006

The educated American of the middle nineteenth century who took an inventory of his knowledge of the world found himself much more poorly informed on Asia than on Europe. The reason for this is manifest. America's relations with Asia were fragmented and peripheral, trade alone being a major concern. Interaction with Europe proceeded on an entirely different plane: For the New World, Europe was an inexhaustible source of population increase and personal contacts, of monies for economic growth, and of technological, artistic, and educational inspiration.
Nationalization and Private Foreign Investment: The Role of Government
Authors: Rubin Seymour J.
Published: July 2006

The United States is at present creditor to the world. Since the war more than $25 billion has been put into various foreign aid programs. Government loans, military assistance, ECA assistance have combined in a great assault on world problems. Yet, great as has been the government-to-government assistance extended by the United States, and substantial as has been aid given by such organs of American policy as the Export-Import Bank not only to foreign governments but to private business, it is not only conceded but argued by government officials as well as private business that a job remains to be done which cannot be done in this way. For the doing of that job, private enterprise and private capital investment are needed. In testimony on various aspects of the Point IV program over the course of the last year, this necessity has been stressed no less by government than by business witnesses.
Stalin and the Uses of Psychology
Authors: Tucker Robert C.
Published: July 2006

THE influence of ideological conceptions upon the men who make Soviet policy has been frequently and rightly emphasized. Some observers are so deeply impressed by this influence that they tend to regard the Soviet system as a kind of ideocracy. It is undeniable that ideology has been one powerful factor in the shaping of Soviet policies and actions from the time of the October Revolution to the present. But one must not lose sight of the fact that, in Soviet Russia, the relationship between ideology and policy is one of mutual interaction. It is a two-way process in which theoretical conceptions affect the making of policy and practical considerations affect the content of the ideology. The ideological system is not a completely static thing. It has evolved over the years, and the realities of Soviet politics have been the driving force behind this evolution.
Politics, Administration, and American Foreign Policy
Authors: Chamberlain Lawrence H.
Published: July 2006

Both of these books deal with foreign policy and they are alike in their common concern with the organizational rather than the substantive aspect of that policy. Both authors believe in democracy and in our own particular American brand of democracy. Although both feel that existing arrangements need modification, neither desires a complete scrapping of our basic governmental structure. But while Professor McCamy puts his faith in the executive branch and feels that the answer lies in an energizing and streamlining of the administrative process which will better equip the President and his subordinates for (a) determining sound policy and (b) persuading Congress to accept—or not reject—that policy, Professor Dahl argues that the more basic need is to equip Congress so that its wisdom and judgment can be added to that of the executive in the attainment of a mutually determined policy.
The “Policy Sciences”: Aspiration and Outlook
Authors: Kecskemeti Paul
Published: July 2006

The idea of “policy science” is not a new one. In fact, it is organic to the Western tradition. Its first, incomparable formulation is found in Plato's Republic; policy, the Platonic Socrates says, can be reasonable and sound only if it is based upon the fullness of scientific insight and knowledge. According to the Platonic conception, it is not even enough to apply scientific knowledge, gathered by specialists, to practical policy problems which the rulers are to decide. Rather, the rulers themselves must acquire all the scientific knowledge needed to frame reasonable policy. The duality of the “expert adviser” and of the “decision-maker” who merely listens to him is implicitly rejected in the Republic. The ruler himself must be the knower. For the decisive thing is not knowledge in the abstract, knowledge as something impersonally available and ready to be picked up; it is knowledge conceived as the quality of a soul. According to the Platonic (and Aristotelian) view, knowledge is not an alien material “contained” in the mind, but the “form,” the ideal essence of the mind itself, so that a mind that knows belongs to a different species than the mind that lacks knowledge. In acquiring knowledge, the mind becomes essentially transformed, it acquires a new form; this is the original meaning of the term “information.” In its Platonic sense, then, the idea of “policy science” refers to the soul of the ruler, which must be the highest species of soul.
The Political Attitudes of German Business
Authors: Almond Gabriel A.
Published: July 2006

The surface indices of political life in Germany suggest that that nation has embarked upon a moderate pro-European and pro-Western course, and that political extremism and nationalism have no significant appeal at the present time. Thus the elections of 1953 produced an overwhelming majority for the “moderate” parties. Neither the Communist Party nor specifically neo-Nazi formations attained significant votes or representation in the Bundestag in the election of that year. On the whole, the statements made by governmental, political, and interest group leaders have been cautious and responsible. Occasional manifestations of neo-Nazism have been local and limited in character. There is no evidence to suggest that such tendencies have widespread organized support either aboveground or underground.
Changing Political Attitudes in Totalitarian Society: A Case Study of the Role of the Family
Authors: Geiger Kent
Published: July 2006

There is general agreement among Western scholars that the modern totalitarian state is distinguished in part by its possession of a unitary and systematically elaborated ideology. While it will be found that expert opinions vary considerably in regard to the importance of the role played by ideology in the origin and continuation of totalitarianism, there is little question but that the ruling power of the totalitarian society is not indifferent to the relationship between national ideology and popular attitudes. Indeed, history shows that the rulers of twentieth-century totalitarian states have devoted considerable effort to the development among their citizenries of attitudes of acceptance toward the social philosophies and goals associated with their regimes.
The Fall of China
Authors: Michael Franz
Published: July 2006

The Communist conquest of China has been the topic of a heated American debate. This debate has been concerned mainly with American politics, and has often been based more on opinion than on knowledge and has dealt more with political argument than with historical fact. The result has been a good deal of confusion and of misinformation, which is always hard to eradicate. However, as we gain more perspective on the events of the Chinese tragedy, it is becoming possible to reconstruct the basic story of the fall of China.

This story cannot be understood merely by tracing Chinese postwar developments: the moves of the Chinese Communists, the obvious weaknesses of the National government, the question of American support to the Nationalist side, and of aid given by the Russians to their fellow Communists. These developments have to be seen against the double background of world Communism and the modern history of China. The Communist victory in China is but one case of a worldwide struggle, the special problems of which must be examined within the setting of the Communist system, its general aims, its strategy and tactics, its use of dogma, and its inner conflicts.
Taft and MacArthur, 1900–1901: A Study in Civil-Military Relations
Authors: Berthoff Rowland T.
Published: July 2006

When the United States stumbled into possession of the Philippine Islands in 1898, Americans had not operated a military government since Reconstruction, and the task of ruling a populous alien colony was an unprecedented one for them. Because of the insurrection waged by Filipino guerrillas after February 1899, martial law could give way to civil control but gradually. The long transition provoked a civil-military conflict which, because the chief antagonists were famous fathers of now famous sons, has recently acquired a new interest. But the rivals of 1900–1901 should be judged for their own deeds. How and why did Major General Arthur MacArthur and Commissioner William Howard Taft fall out?
Origins of the Winter War: A Study of Russo-Finnish Diplomacy
Authors: Anderson Albin T.
Published: July 2006

The origins of the Winter War cannot be explained solely by reference to the hectic days which followed the Nazi attack upon Poland in September 1939. Issues then debated in both Helsinki and Moscow had deeper historical roots. Neither country could forget the bitter days of revolution, counter-revolution, and civil war in 1917–1918. Neither party had been fully satisfied with the Treaty of Dorpat (1930) which drafted the territorial lines of demarcation and specified mutual rights and obligations.
The Vulnerability of the United States to Enemy Attack
Authors: Kaysen Carl
Published: July 2006

Wars and rumors of wars are always with us. Today, and for the foreseeable future, they include the prospect of heavy enemy attack on the cities of the United States, a prospect which creates problems in public policy never before faced. It is the purpose of this article to sketch some lines of research which will be useful in understanding and dealing with these problems, and which are of a character that can be undertaken by academic social scientists and discussed in public.
Some Notes On The Evolution of Air Doctrine
Authors: Brodie Bernard
Published: July 2006

Military strategy is of all the human sciences at once the most ancient and the least developed. It could hardly be otherwise. Its votaries must be men of decision and action rather than of theory. Victory is the payoff, and is regarded as the most telling confirmation of correct judgment. There is no other science where judgments are tested in blood and answered in the servitude of the defeated, where the supreme authority is the leader who has won or can instill confidence that he will win.

Some modicum of theory there always had to be. But like much other military equipment, it had to be light in weight and easily packaged to be carried into the field. Thus, the strategic ideas which have from time to time evolved have no sooner gained acceptance than they have been stripped to their barest essentials and converted into maxims. Because the baggage that was stripped normally contained the justifications, the qualifications, and the instances of historical application or misapplication, the surviving maxim had to be accorded a substitute dignity and authority by treating it as an axiom, or, in latter-day parlance, a “principle.”
Democratic Socialism in Europe
Authors: Sturmthal Adolf
Published: July 2006

The departure of the French Socialists from the government early in 1950, even though they returned in a few months, marked the end of a stage of postwar history in Europe. For the first time since liberation France was governed by a coalition in which the Socialists were no longer represented. At the same time the Socialists were in the opposition in Belgiumand Western Germany as well and limited to little influence upon the Italian and Swiss governments. Austria, Great Britain, and Scandinavia were the only countries in which the Socialists are strongly represented in their governments. Roughly speaking then, Europe is divided into three zones according to the degree of power of democratic socialism: Eastern Europe—bordered on the West by a line running from Trieste to Lübeck—where the democratic Socialist parties have been absorbed by the Communist parties; Northwestern Europe—Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark)—under predominant Socialist influence; and the rest of Continental Europe where the the Socialists are a more or less powerful opposition group. Spain and Portugal in the South and Greece and Turkey in the Southeast are left outside ofthe scope of our study owing to the peculiar and non-democratic structure of these countries.
A Customs Union for Western Europe: Advantages and Feasibility
Authors: Verdoorn P. J.
Published: July 2006

EXPANSION of internal trade and a wider market for its products are generally considered necessary conditions for the economic strengthening of Western Europe. Obviously, creation of a wider market presupposes at least some liberalization of trade. Liberalization of intra-Western European trade might be part of some broader scheme, such as a world-wide liberalization of trade, or the establishment of a huge block of interlocking preferential areas, as advocated by the Strasbourg Plan; or it might be restricted to Western Europe alone. At all events, it is clear that the economic consequences of liberalization will depend on the areas to be liberalized and on the character of the agreements that pertain to the mutual removal of trade restrictions.
Ambassador Henry Morgenthau's Special Mission of 1917
Authors: Yale William
Published: July 2006

Attempts to explain world politics in terms of the clashes of sharply defined national interests have an air of unreality. This is because of the unequal interest of groups of the population in any particular course of official action. The little known and obscure, but historically important episode with which this article deals, describes the impact of one influential private group on foreign policy, even after the President of the United States had made an official determination of policy. It also throws light on the way in which a private group can operate through and with a foreign government, whose interests are parallel to its own, to change the direction of American policy. Similarly it illustrates how a foreign government can mould its relations with the United States (or with most countries) by developing a policy with a special appeal to particularly influential groups in that country.
Stalinism and the Meaning of Titoism
Authors: Macridis Roy
Published: July 2006

The Soviet-Yugoslav dispute and the subsequent defection of the Yugoslav Communist Party from the ranks of the Cominform early in 1948 took the world by surprise. This surprise was in itself indicative of our belief that Stalinist control was to be taken for granted at least in the areas where the local Communist parties had come to power through direct or indirect help from the Soviet Union and particularly from the Red Army. Even when no such help had been given, the ideological affinities of Communist states and their need of alliances to preserve the Communist power structures would lead, it was believed, to a tightening of relations with the Soviet Union and to Soviet predominance. In other words, we tended to accept without question the premises of Stalinism.
Reflections on the Eclipse of Europe
Authors: Black C. E.
Published: July 2006

It is doubtless a truism to state that Europe is on the wane, at least as a center of political power. Few would deny that a change of major proportions has taken place since the turn of the century in Europe's role in world affairs. But once this is stated, agreement ceases. The causes and mechanism of Europe's decline have received the most varied interpretations, and the bearing of this change on the future is so profound that each school of thought tends to evaluate the destiny of Europe in terms of its own political philosophy. The widest assortment of scholars and prophets have been drawn to this problem by the fascination of its perplexities, and their treatises already comprise a formidable library. Yet the solutions proposed can scarcely be said to have resulted in a clarification of the problem of Europe, and even the most distinguished and influential of these writers have found relatively few areas of agreement.