bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The berne Convention for the Protection of literary and Artistic Works (Paris act 1971)
Authors: Lewinski Silke von
Published: October 2023

Basic choices in the 1886 version The Berne Convention did not emerge from nowhere, but against the background of the then existing network of bilateral agreements that had proved unsatisfactory for authors’ needs, so that the next step of a multilateral agreement was needed to improve the situation. The basic aim of both the bilateral treaties and the Berne Convention was to protect foreign works in the contracting states. The bilateral treaties achieved this aim in most cases by the principle of national treatment in different variations, for example, limited in its scope to specified rights or subject to material reciprocity; only in some cases did specific rights stipulated in the bilateral treaties have to be guaranteed.
Orangeism under Fire: Negotiating the Troubles, 1969–1972
Authors: Kaufmann Eric P
Published: October 2023

The Order wasted no time in meeting the new Prime Minister, James Chichester-Clark, to press its views for two hours on issues such as law and order, the reshaping of local government and the franchise, funding for the Catholic Mater Hospital, and plans for the fiftieth anniversary of Northern Ireland. Orange– UUP unity was symbolized by Chichester-Clark ’s Minister of Development, Brian Faulkner. Faulkner at this point maintained a hardline reputation based on his resignation from O ‘Neill ’s cabinet in January 1969. He served on the Orange Grand Committee and attended the June 1969 Grand Lodge sessions, where he was warmly welcomed. Nevertheless, the honeymoon would not last long.
Unity in the Face of Treachery, 1972–1977
Authors: Kaufmann Eric P
Published: October 2023

The turbulent period 1968– 72 saw the Orange Order ’s membership partly recover from its modest post-1961 decline. Some of the new working-class and rural recruits were drawn to the Order as a self-defence organization, but if they expected to join a paramilitary organization, these hopes were soon dashed by an Institution still wedded to traditional principles of respect for law and order. By 1974– 5, membership had sunk to its 1968 level and a new pattern of slow but steady numerical decline had set in. This slide did not necessarily lead to a reduction in political efficacy.
The War against the Parades Commission
Authors: Kaufmann Eric P
Published: October 2023

Parading has always been the top priority for the Orange Institution, and its significance for the Order cannot be reduced to the wider Unionist desire to assert communal dominance. Power over space plays a role, as Jarman and Bryan point out, but marching also has a meaning apart from the political and constitutional contest between Unionists and Nationalists. We see this in politically quiescent places like Rossnowlagh (Eire), Southport (England), and Orono (Ontario, Canada) or in the numerous parades in Northern Ireland that take place in heavily Protestant locales. Parading is about power, but we need not swallow the entire Loyalist story to see that it is also about culture, ‘show ‘, and conviviality. Consider the fact that a third of Orangemen never attend a meeting and only ever turn up on the Twelfth, while for many of the other two-thirds, the Twelfth is the pinnacle of their engagement.
Segmenting the Orange: The Future of Orangeism in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Kaufmann Eric P
Published: October 2023

Parading is the issue which most concerns Orangemen today, but membership loss is the most pressing long-term concern, a lightning rod used by both hardliners and moderates to agitate for change. ‘For many years, the Orange Institution has been in decline. Our membership has decreased alarmingly, ‘ thundered the Orange Banner, official organ of the SOD. ‘Managing our decline is no longer acceptable . . . If the Orange institution is not to die a slow and undignified death we must rekindle the spirit of the [Battle of the] Diamond. ‘ To ‘stop the rot ‘, the SOD wanted Grand Lodge to mount a militant defence of the Orange cause and rally Unionists to Orangeism as the main defender of the Protestant interest.
The government budget deficit
Authors: Heijdra Ben J
Published: October 2023

The Ricardian equivalence theorem was formulated, as the name suggests, by the British classical economist David Ricardo (1817, p. 245), who immediately dismissed it as being irrelevant in practice. In an influential paper, however, the new classical economist Robert Barro (1974) forcefully argued that the Ricardian equivalence theorem is worthy of professional attention and yields important policy prescriptions.
Exogenous economic growth
Authors: Heijdra Ben J
Published: October 2023

According to Kaldor (1961, pp. 178-179), a satisfactory theory of economic growth should be able to explain the following six “stylized facts” by which we mean results that are broadly observable in most capitalist countries. (SF1) (*) Output per worker shows continuing growth “with no tendency for a falling rate of growth of productivity”. (SF2) Capital per worker shows continuing growth. (SF3) The rate of return on capital is constant.(SF4) (*) The capital-output ratio is constant. (SF5) (*) Labour and capital receive constant shares of total income. (SF6) (*) There are wide differences in the rate of productivity growth across countries.
Endogenous economic growth
Authors: Heijdra Ben J
Published: October 2023

The previous chapter dealt with the main theories of exogenous economic growth in some detail. As the name already suggests, in exogenous growth models the long- run economic growth rate depends solely on exogenous features of the economy, such as the rates of growth in the population or in labour-augmenting technological change. The objective of this chapter is to move from exogenous to endogenous growth. A model is said to give rise to endogenous growth if it predicts a long- run growth rate which depends on additional features (such as tax or subsidy rates, public infrastructure spending, private educational decisions) which may be affected by the government or the private sector.
Overlapping generations in continuous time
Authors: Heijdra Ben J
Published: October 2023

In this chapter we study one of the “workhorse” models of modern macroeconomics, namely the Blanchard (1985)-Yaari (1965) model of overlapping generations. This model has proved to be quite versatile because it is very flexible and contains the Ramsey model as a special case. The main difference between the Blanchard-Yaari model and the Ramsey model is that the former distinguishes agents by their date of birth whereas the latter assumes a single representative agent. By incorporating some smart modelling devices, the Blanchard-Yaari model can be solved and analysed at the aggregate macroeconomic level, despite the fact that individual house- holds are heterogeneous.
Approaches to Police Knowledge Management
Authors: Dean Geoff , Gottschalk Petter
Published: October 2023

This chapter is the first of three chapters concerned with looking at the structures that exist within the domain of Knowledge Management (KM). These structures represent the conceptual ‘building blocks’ behind KM. Hence, police organizations need to know in a very practical sense what they are getting when they invest in KM.

Such knowledge must include not only the presumed benefits of the ‘systems’ and ‘technologies’ they buy but also the ‘approaches’ that underlie and come with such systems and technologies. Only by having this sort of understanding can police and law enforcement organizations really know for themselves how relevant and necessary are the bewildering array of technologies and systems touted as KM tools to their own policing and law enforcement needs.
‘Interlocking Terrorism Contexts’ System: Knowledge Modelling Application
Authors: Dean Geoff , Gottschalk Petter
Published: October 2023

The focus of this chapter is on modelling knowledge of the contexts in which terrorism evolves, develops, and operates. From this knowledge foundation an application system is presented for use in the policing and law enforcement community.

The chapter starts with outlining various problematic aspects of defining terrorism and applying a profiling methodology to ‘profile’ terrorists. This is followed by the argument supported by extensive empirical research that more emphasis should be given to the pragmatically useful approach of profiling the ‘process’ of terrorism itself rather than the ‘person’ of the terrorist.
Training, minimum wages and the distribution of earnings
Authors: Booth Alison L , Bryan Mark L
Published: October 2023

The Government believes that work is the best route out of poverty and is committed to making work pay by improving incentives to participate and progress in the labour market. Through the Working Tax Credit and the National Minimum Wage, the Government has boosted in-work incomes, improving financial incentives to work and tackling poverty among working people. (HM Treasury 2006: 92)
Conceiving the City: London, Literature, and Art 1870–1914
Authors: Freeman Nicholas
Published: October 2023

Conceiving the City is an innovative study of the ways in which a generation of late-Victorian novelists, poets, painters, and theoreticians attempted to represent London in literature and art. Breaking away from the language and style of Dickens and the static panorama paintings of William Powell Frith, major figures such as Henry James and J. M. Whistler, and, crucially, less-celebrated authors such as Arthur Machen, Edwin Pugh, and George Egerton bent realism into exciting new shapes. In the naturalism of George Gissing and Arthur Morrison, the fragmentary impressions of Ford Madox Ford, and the brooding mystery of Alvin Langdon Coburn’s photogravures, London emerged as a focus for dynamic, explicitly modern art. Although many of these insights would be dismissed or at least downplayed by subsequent generations, the ideas evolved during the period from 1870 to 1914 anticipate not only the work of high modernists such as Eliot and Woolf, but also that of later urban theorists such as Foucault and de Certeau, and the novels and travelogues of contemporary London writers Peter Ackroyd and Iain Sinclair. Nicholas Freeman recovers a sense of late-Victorian London as a subject for dynamic theoretical and aesthetic experiments, and shows, in stimulating analyses of Conan Doyle, H. G. Wells, Arthur Symons, and others how much of our understanding of urban space we owe to eminent (and not so eminent) Victorian figures. Written in a clear and accessible style, the book restores a much-needed historical perspective to our engagement with the metropolis.
British India’s Native Agency System in Asia
Authors: Onley James
Published: October 2023

The practice of imperial powers employing ‘native agents’ in distant lands is as old as imperialism itself. During the modern age of imperialism (from the sixteenth to twentieth century), Western governments and companies employed native agents to represent them throughout Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The Portuguese adopted the practice shortly after Vasco da Gama’s arrival in India in 1498.2 In time, the Spanish, British, Dutch, French, Belgians, Russians, Germans, Italians, and Americans recruited native agents of their own. No imperial power employed native agents more extensively, or for as long, as did Britain.
The Operation of British India’s Native Agency in Bahrain
Authors: Onley James
Published: October 2023

Most, if not all, of the native agency buildings in the Gulf Residency were the property of their agents. The possession of a large and impressive house—one suitably reflective of Britain’s imperial status—was likely a prerequisite for the position of native agent. In Bahrain, the Union Jack adorned Bait Safar (Safar House) for thirty-four years while it served as the British Agency under four members of the Safar family between 1834 and 1900. Bait Safar also doubled as the British Indian Post Office in Bahrain from 1884 to 1902, servicing the whole of the Arab coast.
The Development And Performance Of European Pri Vate Equity
Authors: Jenkinson Tim
Published: October 2023

Private equity represents one of the most interesting and important developments in the provision of capital to companies. Definitions of private equity vary, but in this chapter we consider the entire asset class including early-stage venture capital (VC), expansion financing, and buyouts. Private equity consists of equity investments in companies that are not listed on a stock exchange. Although much attention has been focused on VC, the impact of private equity on economic performance has arguably I am grateful to Colin Mayer for comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.
Post-Trading Services And European Securities Markets
Authors: Russo Alberto Giovannini John Berrigan Daniela
Published: October 2023

Textbook financial analysis typically assumes that a securities transaction begins and ends with the trade between buyer and seller: in fact this could not be further from reality. The trade is just the beginning of a chain of actions designed to safely transfer ownership of the security from the seller to the buyer in return for payment. This chain of actions involves an inevitable degree of operational complexity, mainly due to the large volume of transactions to be processed simultaneously, the need for a proper sequencing of the various actions, and the participation of agents other, The views expressed in this chapter do not necessarily represent those of the authors’ respective aﬃliations.
Deri vatives Markets
Authors: Mckay Ronald W Anderson Kenneth
Published: October 2023

In this chapter we survey the development in derivatives markets over the last twenty years. In 1985 the American derivatives markets were visibly riding the crest of a wave of innovation that had started some ten years earlier with the introduction of exchange-traded financial derivatives such as stock options, foreign exchange futures, interest futures, and stock index futures. In Europe exchange-traded derivatives were largely limited to the long-standing London markets in metals and soft commodities and the newly opened London International Financial Futures Exchange (LIFFE) that had been modelled on the big Chicago markets.
Structured Finance
Authors: Firla-Cuchra Maciej
Published: October 2023

Structured finance is one of the leading growth areas in capital markets, encompassing difierent business segments from classic securitizations of mortgages to repackagings and synthetic portfolios of credit derivatives. According to Alan Greenspan (1998), former chairman of Federal Reserve, securitization is one of the major financial innovations to have occurred over recent decades. The rapid expansion in both depth and breadth of structured finance markets has resulted in a remarkable assortment of financial products.
The Physician
Authors: Ryrie Alec
Published: October 2023

Who was Wisdom? He vanishes from Lord Henry’s story without trace, as suddenly as he appears in it. The records of Lord Henry’s arrest, trial, and release make no mention of his fate. When I first read this case, and saw the way Lord Henry used only the single name ‘Wisdom’, I assumed that this was a sorcerer’s nom de guerre. But one clue which Lord Henry left unlocks the secret for us. After he met Wisdom and Menville on 15 March 1545, and learned that the fatal spells had been cast, Lord Henry sent for Wisdom’s father. He spoke to the older man in the fields beyond Moorgate, where he would come close to murdering Wisdom the next day, and told him that ‘that villain thy son hath gone about to destroy my father and my wife’. Wisdom’s father professed to be shocked, condemned his son’s actions, and claimed he had nothing to do with the matter.
The Underworld
Authors: Ryrie Alec
Published: October 2023

Henry, Lord Neville, does not seem to have been a bookish young man. That was unlucky, because during the same winter that he was being defrauded and bamboozled by Gregory Wisdom, a book was published which could have solved his gambling problems more effectively than any magician. It was the first of a series of books and pamphlets written over the next fifty or more years which offer a glimpse into London’s criminal underworld, and to how it went about parting fools from their money. The book, apparently the work of one Gilbert Walker, was called A manifest detection of the most vyle and detestable vse of Diceplay. It is as instructive to us as it would have been to Lord Henry, for it provides a unique glimpse into another of the worlds where Gregory Wisdom lived and worked: the networks of fraud and crime which pervaded Tudor London.
Civilization and Africa
Authors: Taithe Bertrand
Published: October 2023

In his answer to Jules Ferry’s speech of 28 July 1885 which had defined explicitly the rights of civilized people to rule the world, the Radical leader Georges Clemenceau outlined equally clearly the anticolonial position:

Superior races! Inferior races! That’s easily said! As for myself I am not so proud since I have seen German scholars demonstrate scientifically that France had to be defeated in the Franco-German war because the French are a race inferior to the Germans. Ever since then, I think twice before looking at someone and at a civilization and state: inferior man or civilization ... Consider the history of the conquest of these people you call barbaric, and you will see violence, all the crimes unleashed, oppression, and rivers of blood, and the weak oppressed and under the yoke of the victors. Here is the history of our civilization ... I say nothing of the vices Europeans bring with them: of the alcohol, the opium they spread around ... No there is no right for so-called superior nations against that of inferior races; there is a struggle for life which is a fatal necessity that we must constrain within the boundaries of justice and laws, as we rise in civilization; but let us not dress up violence in the hypocritical guise of civilization; do not talk of rights and duties!
Slaving and African Warfare
Authors: Taithe Bertrand
Published: October 2023

Urbain Gohier’s vibrant and pugnacious preface to Paul Vigné d’Octon’s equally emphatic denunciation of French crimes in Africa contained a measure of exaggeration but also a kernel of truth. Its main allegation of an institutional slave trade was probably seen as defamatory by most French people and like the book itself, set aside in all but the most radical circles. Yet the gradual accumulation of a large crowd of captives is one of the salient features of the Voulet–Chanoine expedition—to many it explained its slow and relentlessly violent progress.
Conspiracy Theories and Scandals
Authors: Taithe Bertrand
Published: October 2023

This deeply ironic analysis of the Voulet–Chanoine affair may have been wrong as to Voulet’s motives on 14 July 1899, but it nevertheless casts the scandal in its rightful place. There was a criminal trial in the making andwhen it came tomilitary justice, all roads led to the Dreyfus affair. France in 1898–9 was in the final throes of the notorious miscarriage of justice of the Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus. Alfred Dreyfus had been framed for an act of treason committed by another officer in 1894. The case against him was a document found in the German embassy. To cover up for their lack of evidence the French military secret services forged documents and rigged the trial of Dreyfus.
Representing Women in the Querelle des femmes
Authors: Swift Helen J .
Published: October 2023

The first-person feminine subject of Semiramis’ epitaph, housed in the palace of illustrious women in Jean Bouchet’s Jugement poetic de l’honneur femenin, tackles directly the question of her gender identity through the discourse of transvestism. She mobilizes the usual Middle French adjectives (‘femenin’, ‘masculin’) used to describe what pertains to each sex according to cultural convention— what we would call gender issues—and employs them in a simply ‘denotative’, semantically neutral sense; there is no ‘connotative’2 value-judgement contained in her description of how she donned men’s clothing in order to conceal her woman’s body.
The Eye of the Needle
Authors: Folbre Nancy
Published: October 2023

Once upon a time, it is said, our ancestors didn’t care very much about making money. They lived miserable lives and consoled themselves with a religious faith that offered them the hope of eternal life. Then something happened, we are not exactly sure what. Maybe some of them figured out better ways of doing things, which changed the way they thought about themselves. Maybe some of them decided they wanted something better in this world rather than the next and changed their behavior as a result. In any case, European society began to undergo a series of related but distinctive transitions: from production for use to production for exchange, from kin- to non-kin-based units of production, from strict patriarchal control over women and children to greater scope for individual choice.
Self-love, Triumphant
Authors: Folbre Nancy
Published: October 2023

Insistence that self-interest should be virtuous gradually began to dissipate, displaced by new interpretations of the tensions between moral and political economy. The English clergyman and writer Thomas Robert Malthus argued not only that the pursuit of self-interest would serve the common good, but that benevolence would undermine it. Malthus did not abandon the traditional religious emphasis on virtue. Rather, he recast virtue as control over lust rather than greed, describing poverty as punishment for the sexual self-indulgence of early marriage and rapid population growth. In his usage, the term “moral restraint” conveyed something quite specific: delayed marriage that could keep population growth in check.
The Social Family
Authors: Folbre Nancy
Published: October 2023

If, then, due care as to the state of your inanimate machines can produce such beneficial results, what may not be expected if you devote equal attention to your vital machines, which are far more wonderfully constructed? When you shall acquire a right knowledge of these, or their curious mechanism, of their self-adjusting powers; when the proper main- spring shall be applied to their varied movements—you will become conscious of their real value.
The Subjection of Women
Authors: Folbre Nancy
Published: October 2023

The early socialist feminists celebrated female altruism and regarded it as a model for society as a whole. In this sense they emphasized the importance of differences between men and women. The early liberal feminists chose a simpler, and in the short run, more successful strategy, celebrating the masculine pursuit of self-interest as a strategy that women could and should adopt for themselves. Demanding equality, they de-emphasized gender differences. It is, however, difficult to find perfect examples of either extreme, or both feminisms were united by their discomfort with the traditional dualism that encouraged self-interest in men but demanded altruism from women.
The Nanny State
Authors: Folbre Nancy
Published: October 2023

The term “nanny state” is often used to deprecate public policies that seem fussy, intrusive, and expensive, policies that would perhaps be unnecessary if individual women were more virtuous. But the term can also convey the ways that early welfare state policies encouraged motherhood and limited women’s reproductive choices. Apprehensions about the quantity and quality of the nation’s population helped motivate the development of social safety nets, family allowances, and tax subsidies for rearing children. Women’s groups played an important role in the fight for maternalist programs, which, nonetheless often had the effect of reinforcing women’s traditional nanny role.
Introduction
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2023

The most remarkable feature of Japan’s post-war economic performance was the rapid surge of economic growth from a state of devastation and defeat in the Second World War. Particular attention should be paid to the 1950s and 1960s. This period is often referred to as an ‘economic miracle’ and continues to attract worldwide attention. In the process of rapid growth, Japan succeeded in catching up with the Western powers by the late 1960s, reaching the forefront of major industrialized countries in the 1980s. Since such a remarkable record of economic growth is unparalleled in history, many relevant lessons may be gleaned by other countries from the ‘Japanese model’.
The Preconditions for Post-war Economic Growth
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2023

No doubt, one of the most salient features of Japan’s post-war economic performance was the rapid surge of economic growth from a state of devastation and defeat at the end of the Second World War. This transition is often referred to as an ‘economic miracle’ and continues to attract worldwide attention. In fact, Japan succeeded in catching up with the Western economic powers by the late 1960s, and it has continued to grow, coming to the forefront of major industrialized countries in the 1980s. Since Japan’s remarkable economic growth is unparalleled in history, many relevant lessons can be gleaned by other countries.
The Emergence of the Bubble Economy and Its Aftermath
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2023

Japan’s economy achieved great success in its overall performance until the late 1980s. It had attained the highest rate of economic growth among major industrial countries with no serious problems of unemployment or inflation. Perhaps the first oil shock, caused by the oil embargo of the Arab countries, was an epoch-making incident in that Japan’s weakness became evident, along with its vulnerability as a very resource-poor country. However, the damage of the first oil crisis was successfully limited by cooperation between private business and government policy. After overcoming the initial hardship of the 1970s, Japan emerged as an economic superpower in the 1980s. At the end of the twentieth century Japan is considered to be one of the more significant world economies, along with the USA and Germany, which should be responsible for the stable growth of the world economy.
Budget Orthodoxy and Strategies for Deficit Reduction
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2023

Generally speaking, the government plays an important role in not only providing public goods and redistributing income, but stabilizing the economy in a non- inflationary environment. In order to execute the fiscal activities of the government sector, government expenditure, tax revenue and public debt are the main economic instruments. Apart from a balanced budget state, the budget frequently generates fiscal surpluses and deficits as a result of an expenditure-revenue gap, depending on the general level of economic expansion or contraction. Thus, fiscal deficits (or surpluses) provide us with a certain yardstick to express the basic nature of government fiscal activity.
The Budgetary Behaviour of Local Governments and Intergovernmental Grant Policies
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2023

The basic aim in this chapter is to clarify intergovernmental fiscal relations in Japan. Particular attention is paid to the impact of various types of central government grants on local government budgets. This is an important issue in a nation like Japan, where the fiscal system is strongly centralized. First, a brief outline is given to clarify the Japanese system of local public finance as a preliminary consideration. Secondly, an empirical model is constructed to express the local fiscal behaviour under the current grant policies, following attempts developed in the USA. Thirdly, the estimates from this model are calculated using Japanese data, and some policy questions are examined. The main empirical conclusions that are drawn from the Japanese experience are much more plausible than those in the US case. This implies that the control of central government via various grant policies is more dominant in Japan.
Trends in Tax Policy
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher
Published: October 2023

The world of taxes in year 2000 was very different from that in 1900, not only because tax levels have increased almost fourfold, but also because the main sources of tax revenues have completely changed. In 1900, the greater part of government revenues was derived from selective taxes on consumption (import duties and excises) with property taxes on land and buildings, then as now providing revenues for local government, being the next most important revenue source. In 1900 there was in some, but not all, countries a relatively unimportant personal income tax (PIT) on the rich few, backed up in some cases by a net wealth and bequests tax, though never a capital gains tax. In those days, corporate income taxes (CITs), social security contributions and general consumption taxes were virtually non-existent.
Tax Policy and Public Sector Trends
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher
Published: October 2023

Many economists stress that to tax at all is to create dead-weight losses by reducing the optimum allocation of resources, even though such an assertion would hold good only if—in the absence of government intervention—all resources were allocated in perfectly competitive markets and without negative externalities. Such economists consider that the best tax systems are those which least affect economic and social decisions such as where to invest, whether or not to get married, to take up paid employment, and so on. Since in their opinion taxation necessarily distorts, the lower the tax burden the better. This view presupposes that governments are unlikely to improve on market forces in terms of economic efficiency and/or equity, so that their role in the economy should be kept to the necessary minimum.
Social Security Contributions
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher
Published: October 2023

All available evidence suggests that the great majority of individuals avoid taking unnecessary risks. This is apparent from the fact that most individuals are willing to pay insurance premiums the amount of which exceeds the expected pay-out: the amount of potential damage times the chance that such damage will happen. Although private markets offer protection against a wide array of mishaps, such as fire, death or car accidents, insurance markets are characterized by well-known imperfections. Because insurance companies cannot distinguish between high- and low-risk individuals, they must charge a premium based on average risk. Low-risk individuals will in this case drop out (self-selection) because they can buy cheaper insurance from a company offering lower-priced but more restricted policies only available to low-risk individuals (adverse selection).
Future Tax Systems
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher
Published: October 2023

This concluding chapter offers a few guesses on how tax systems might evolve over the next fifteen to twenty years. Tax policies pursued will to some extend depend on policy goals that governments want to achieve. These policy goals are not written in stone, but will change as rapidly as successive elections alter the face of governments. Probably more relevant to future tax trends is what governments find it feasible to do in the tax area. Among the more important constraints upon them will be the state of their economy—rates of GDP growth and inflation and the level of employment—the impacts of economic integration within the European Union and—more generally—globalization, the ageing of populations, and the uncertain outcome of the continuous struggle between tax officials and tax avoiders and evaders.
Introduction
Authors: Sathar Zeba Ayesa , Phillips James F
Published: October 2023

As recently as a decade ago, experts continued to write about the demographic homogeneity of South Asia. Few would have predicted the demographic diversity that has emerged in recent years. Given the common history, cultural affinity, and shared geography of South Asian populations, authors often overlooked the possi ble demographic implications of linguistic, religious, and political diversity. But evidence of profound demographic change is now unmistakable.
Intellectual Origins of Post-World War II Population Policies in South Asia
Authors: Demeny Paul
Published: October 2023

No manifestation of what Gunnar Myrdal called the Asian Drama-essentially with the subcontinent in mind-has been more striking than the growth of its human population. Between 1950-just a few years after partition-and 1995, the populations of the three largest countries of South Asia went from 358 million to 929 million in India, from 40 million to 136 million in Pakistan, and from 42 million to 118 million in Bangladesh. The two main demographic factors underlying that growth-mortality and fertility-each exhibited major changes. Between the first quinquennium of the period, 1950-55, and the last, 1990-95, life expectancy at birth rose from 39 years to 61 years in India.
Prospects for Fertility Decline and Implications for Population Growth in South Asia
Authors: Bongaarts John , Amin Sajeda
Published: October 2023

Despite relatively low levels of development, South Asia is moving rapidly through the demographic transition. Since 1950 the crude death rate has dropped from 25 to 9 per 1,000, and the birth rate, which remained at about 40 per 1,000 until the early 1970s, has since declined to below 30 per 1,000. As a consequence, the annual population growth rate rose from 2.0 to 2.4 per cent per year between 1950 and 1970 and then declined slowly, reaching 1.9 per cent in 1995. The overall popula tion size of the region has grown from 0.5 billion in 1950 to 1.37 billion in 1995, a 174 per cent increase (United Nations 1996).
Firms and Financial Markets
Authors: Eichberger Jürgen , Harper Ian , Pfeil Christian , Scheid Florian
Published: October 2023

In this chapter we consider firms in an asset market economy. If there are sufficient financial assets with pay-offs independent of the firms’ cash flows, then the firms’ equity can be unambiguously priced by arbitrage. The Fisher separation theorem, which claims that consumption and production decisions can be separated, holds in this case. If there are fewer financial asset markets, then the firms’ equity may complete the system of markets depending on the production decision.

Exercise 1 provides an example of how to determine the relevant state system from information about technology. The state-contingent profit frontier is derived from a production function in Exercise 2. The concept of a stock-market equilibrium and the Fisher separation theorem are treated in Exercises 3 and 4 for different consumer preferences. Exercise 5 considers a two-state economy.
Endogenous Cycles in a Stiglitz-Weiss Economy
Authors: Suarez Javier , Sussman Oren
Published: October 2023

Economic research in recent years has revitalized the idea that financial factors should play a central role in business-cycle theory.1 On the one hand, there exists a growing body of empirical work showing that financial imperfections affect real economic decisions2 in a way which varies systematically along the business cycle.
The Institutions and Processes of the Convention
Authors: Blackburn Robert
Published: October 2023

The origins of the Council of Europe lay in the political initiatives that followed the Second World War designed to promote closer formal associations between the sovereign states of Europe.1 The overriding wish in the European international community was to adopt new measures that would do everything possible to help avoid future wars such as those which had ravaged Europe in 1939–45 and earlier in 1914-18. Many conferences and agreements on European unity took place in the years immediately following the cessation of the War, the most important of which for the future of European human rights was the Congress of Europe held in The Hague on 8-10 May 1948, organized by the International Committee of Movements for European Unity.
The Development of Occupational, Personal, and Stakeholder Pension Schemes
Authors: Blake David
Published: October 2023

Occupational pension schemes are supplementary pension schemes that are related to a particular occupation or contract of employment. When an individual leaves that occupation, he will generally leave the pension scheme and have his accumulated pension rights transferred to the scheme of his new employer. Personal pension schemes, on the other hand, are supplementary schemes that are not tied to a specific contract of employment.
Self-employed, Partners’, Executives’, and Directors’ Pension Schemes
Authors: Blake David
Published: October 2023

In the previous four chapters we discussed the pension schemes available to employees. These cover the vast majority of people in this country. In this chapter we briefly examine the types of pension schemes available to people who are either not employees (the self-employed and partners in partnerships) or who are senior employees (executives) or directors of companies.
The Consequences of Pension Funds for Capital Markets
Authors: Blake David
Published: October 2023

Given the size of pension funds, we cannot ignore their consequences for capital markets. Some of these consequences are good, while some are bad. Pension funds have a very important role to play in ensuring that capital markets operate efficiently. They also, in principle, provide a stable source of finance for long-term investment in British industry. However, in recent years the investment behaviour of pension funds, along with that of other institutional investors, has been dominated by short-termism, that is, the obsession with generating short-term investment returns whatever the longer-term costs.
Epilogue
Authors: Einaudi Luca
Published: October 2023

What remained of the programme of monetary unification after 1871? The programme was apparently dead, Parieu was marginalized and the growing wave of nationalism was destroying all that had been achieved. Parieu realized that his campaign had profited Germany which adopted the gold standard but refused monetary unification.
Central Policy Formulation Under a Dominant Mao
Authors: Chan Alfred L
Published: October 2023

An examination of the process of policy formulation of the Great Leap Forward in 1958 inevitably highlights Mao’s predominance and the dogged but impulsive manner by which Leap policies were instigated. Driven by a grand transformative vision, he assumed direct command like a hero-emperor in personal charge of a military campaign, designing and controlling every move, and monitoring everything closely. The Leap was Mao’s crusade; he had every incentive to see it succeed. So, in 1958, he spent close to ten months touring the country-extremely unusual in his post-1949 career-returning to Beijing only for the most important meetings or occasions. His purpose was to inspect the grass roots, gamer support from regional leaders, as well as to understand and promote the GLF.1 He also dispatched a coterie of personal aides and secretaries to act as his eyes and ears. His authority in 1958 was absolute and unrivalled, and he demanded undivided loyalty and obedience from his colleagues and subordinates. Those who questioned the Leap were browbeaten and humiliated into impotence.
The Ministry of Metallurgy and the Policies of Industrial Development in 1958
Authors: Chan Alfred L
Published: October 2023

Single-handedly Mao pushed through the GLF by subduing the planners, stifling all opposition, and turning his harangued colleagues into either willing or reluctant accomplices of his personal crusade. The Chairman’s obsession with iron and steel also thrust the Ministry of Metallurgy (MM) onto the centre stage. Communists from Stalin to Mao had always shown an exaggerated sense about the importance of iron and steel and the heavy industry-driven economic growth. From the mid-1950s onward, Mao increasingly was fond of using the quantity of steel to compare the achievements and capabilities of nations.1 Consequently, the lFYP placed tremendous emphasis on heavy industry-42.5 per cent of all capital investment was allocated for industry, of which 85 per cent was for heavy industry. The share of the metallurgical industry alone was 7.9 per cent of the total capital investment during the first plan, or 21.9 per cent of the total invested in heavy industry.2 This preferential treatment had led to a remarkable tripling of output in steel, from 1.35m. tons in 1952 to 5.35m. tons in 1957.3 Yet, this was regarded as inadequate, and during the GLF, the drive for steel turned into an all-consuming obsession, and the entire country was mobilized for this goal, despite the rhetoric of ‘simultaneous development of industry and agriculture’. The new Maoist developmental strategy also necessitated a sharp break from the Soviet modus operandi, and the incorporation of many radical but unworkable policies.
Introduction
Authors: Bårdsen Gunnar , Eitrheim Øyvind , Jansen Eilev S , Nymoen Ragnar
Published: October 2023

Macroeconometric models, in many ways the flagships of the economics profession in the 1960s, came under increasing attack from both theoretical economics and practitioners in the late 1970s. The onslaught came on a wide front: lack of microeconomic theoretical foundations, ad hoc modelling of expectations, lack of identification, neglect of dynamics and nonstationarity, and poor forecasting properties. As a result, by the start of the 1990s, the status of macroeconometric models had declined markedly, and had fallen completely out of (and with!) academic economics. Specifically, it has become increasingly rare that university programmes in economics give courses in large-scale empirical macroeconomic modelling.
Wage–price dynamics
Authors: Bårdsen Gunnar , Eitrheim Øyvind , Jansen Eilev S , Nymoen Ragnar
Published: October 2023

The open economy Phillips curve and the Incomplete Competition Model (ICM) appear to be positioned at opposite ends of a scale, with a simple dynamic model at the one end, and an economically more advanced but essentially static system at the other. In this section, we present a model of wage and price dynamics that contains the Phillips curve and the wage curve as special cases, building on the analyses in Kolsrud and Nymoen (1998) and Bårdsen and Nymoen (2003).
Financial Crises, Payment System Problems, and Discount Window Lending (excerpts)
Authors: Flannery Mark J
Published: October 2023

A developed economy’s basic infrastructure must include a cheap, reliable payment system to facilitate the mutually profitable exchanges required for agents to exploit economies of specialization. A better payment system permits risks to be spread more efficiently, makes prices more informative, and enhances the alloca tion of real resources. If payments cannot be effected cheaply and reliably, social welfare is constrained to a lower level. Modem economies possess complex payment systems that successfully transmit numerous daily payments, totaling a large fraction of the typical country’s GDP. A staggering velocity of monetary claims can be attained in these systems, largely because institutional arrangements have evolved that substitute credit exposures for the immediate payment of ‘good money’ (Goodfriend 1991).1 The payment system’s credit component constitutes its (potential) Achilles’ heel: if traders lose faith in their counterparties’ abilities to pay as promised, the costs of transacting within a credit-based system can rise dramatically.
Introduction
Authors: Thomas Keith
Published: October 2023

In 1818 the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge advertised a course of lectures, to be delivered at the Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand, on the history of philosophy. In the prospectus, he explained that all he required from his auditors was ‘a due interest in questions of deepest concern to all, and which every rational creature, who has arrived at the age of reflection, must be presumed, at some period or other, to have put to his own thoughts:—What, and for what am I made? What can I, and what ought I to, make of myself? And in what relations do I stand to the world and my fellow men?’These are perennial questions, to which, in every age, answers have been given, both explicitly by philosophers and theologians, and implicitly by the rest of us in the conduct of our lives.
Wealth and Possessions
Authors: Thomas Keith
Published: October 2023

In the early modern period it was often said that wealth was something which everybody desired. ‘All men studied on every side how that they may wax rich,’ complained a late medieval writer, ‘and every man almost is ashamed to be holden a poor man.’ In fact, most people were more concerned to avoid poverty than to become rich. What small husbandmen, cottagers, and day-labourers in Tudor England sought was a reliable supply of the resources necessary to sustain life.
Decisions under Uncertainty
Authors: Ritzberger Klaus
Published: October 2023

Throughout, decision making will be considered in an abstract setting. An individual decision maker is given a set A of alternatives a Є A from which she is supposed to choose.
Understanding Japanese Intergovernmental Relations: Perspectives, Models, and Salient Characteristics
Authors: Muramatsu Michio , Iqbal Farrukh
Published: October 2023

The twentieth century has provided rich material for the study of intergovernmental systems or the set of fiscal, administrative, and legal interrelationships that exist among municipal, provincial, and national levels of government. The century has experienced a great variety of intergovernmental arrangements brought about by events such as the rise and fall of socialist regimes in Russia, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and China; the advent of a large number of nation-states and new, independent governments through the process of decolonization in Africa and Asia; and political and ideological struggle related to welfare-state considerations in much of the industrialized world. Towards the end of the century, however, a certain convergence occurred in favour of greater decentralization, or expanded powers and roles of sub-national or local governments. It is quite apparent, for example, that in many industrialized countries, local governments have become the most important agents for the formulation and implementation of broad swathes of welfare policy relating to ageing, health care, income support for the poor, and so on. In developing countries as well, the post-independence fascination with centralized government is giving way to experimentation with decentralized models.
Introduction The Swell of the Third Wave
Authors: Walsh Lisa
Published: October 2023

Simone de Beauvoir’s famous dictum, literally translated: ‘One is not born woman, one becomes this1, quite aptly encapsulates the theoretical bulwark of what has come to be known as ‘first wave* feminism in France.1 Although many French women had fought for varying degrees of equal status under the law prior to the late nineteenth century, the first wave of French feminism is generally considered to have begun with the suffragettes’ turn of the century struggles for the right to vote and to have concluded with existentialist feminism’s call for equal recognition for women at all levels of the social and symbolic orders. De Beauvoir’s groundbreaking opus, The Second Sex, dissects the inner and outer workings of a historical, patriarchal oppression of women—in such diverse domains as biology, politics, philosophy, and literature—as a means to demonstrating the undeniable veracity of the above dictum. Expanding existentialism’s claim, that ‘existence precedes essence’ to include the essence of the ‘fairer sex’, de Beauvoir sets herself the monumental task of a thoroughgoing examination of the ways in which femininity, and even femaleness, are cultural constructs which may or may not be taken up by any given individual. And here the rather awkward literal translation proves useful. The French pronoun ‘on’, like its English equivalent ‘one’ is not gender specific: ‘one’, in other words, is born free of gender definition and only later becomes ‘woman’—pronominalized here with a masculine/ neuter pronoun best translated as ‘this’. One does not become ‘her’ (in which case the feminine pronoun ‘la’ would have been chosen) but rather ‘this’—a social category called ‘woman’.