bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Use of heterologous sperm for the dispermic induction of androgenesis in barbs
Authors: Kirankumar S. , Pandian T. J.
Published: June 2004

Dispermic activation of genome‐inactivated eggs of the grey tiger barb Puntius tetrazona, facilitated by 2·5% polyethylene glycol (PEG)‐incubated sperm of the golden rosy barb Puntius conchonius, resulted in the generation of interspecific androgenetic clones of the golden rosy barb. A 10 min incubation of the golden rosy barb sperm in increasing concentrations (1·0, 1·5, 2·0, 2·5 and 3·0%) reduced the frequency of motile sperm (to 70%), motility duration (110–50 s) and fertilizability (to 80%) of the sperm; however, the frequency of sperm with double head size increased. At 3% PEG, motility pattern of the sperm completely changed from ‘zig‐zag’ to ‘circular’. Incubation in 2·5% PEG facilitated the dispermic entry and production of diploid androgenetic female and male progenies at the ratio of 0·27 : 0·73. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis using Tc1 transposon specific primers confirmed the purity of paternal inheritance of P. conchonius through the surrogate eggs of P. tetrazona. Survival and breeding, body colour, diploidy (karyotyping and erythrocyte measurements) and 0·27F : 0·73M sex ratio of the androgenotes provided evidence for the successful induction of dispermic androgenesis. Despite increased heterozygosity and reduced ‘damage cost’ on restoration of diploidy, survival of dispermic androgenotes induced in heterologous eggs was lower (1·7%) than those reported for androgenetic golden rosy barbs induced using homologous sperm (14·0%) and heterologous eggs (7·0%), i.e. tiger barb eggs.
Reproductive biology of Carcharhinus acronotus in the coastal waters of South Carolina
Authors: Driggers W. B. , Oakley D. A. , Ulrich G. , Carlson J. K. , Cullum B. J. , Dean J. M.
Published: June 2004

The reproductive biology of blacknose sharks Carcharhinus acronotus in the western North Atlantic Ocean was studied by examining specimens collected in the coastal waters of South Carolina. Males begin the maturation process between 875 and 910 mm fork length (LF), as indicated by the presence of functional claspers and siphon sacs. The presence of vitellogenic oocytes and developing oviducal glands and uteri indicated that females begin to mature at c. 870 mm LF. Length at which 50% of the population reached maturity was 896 and 964 mm LF, equivalent to 4·3 and 4·5 years, for males and females, respectively. Gonado‐somatic indices suggested that spermatogenesis and vitellogenesis began after December. Mating took place during the end of May and the beginning of June. Fertilization occurred during late June and early July, suggesting that female blacknose sharks were capable of sperm storage. Based on the timing of fertilization and occurrence of females carrying near‐term pups in late May and early June, the gestation period for blacknose sharks was c. 11 months. Female blacknose sharks reproduced biennially based on the absence of vitellogenic oocytes in near‐term females and there being no indication of vitellogenesis in postpartum females. Male blacknose sharks were capable of reproducing annually as indicated by turgid genital ducts, which were observed in all mature males collected during late May and early June.
Body condition and reproductive capacity of three‐spined stickleback infected with the cestode Schistocephalus solidus
Authors: Bagamian K. H. , Heins D. C. , Baker J. A.
Published: June 2004

The relationship between reproductive ability and the residual index of body condition in three‐spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus from a population infected with the cestode macroparasite Schistocephalus solidus in Walby Lake, Alaska, was examined. In general, reproductive activities resulted in significantly lower levels of body condition in three‐spined stickleback during the latter part of the breeding season, and relatively high levels of S. solidus infection intensified the energetic drain. Although female body condition did not differ significantly due just to the presence of S. solidus, increased parasite index did have a significant negative effect on female body condition. Males showed significantly lower levels of body condition in response to S. solidus infection alone and in association with a greater parasite index. Males had greater mean parasite indices than females. Females had significantly lower body condition than males, which may be due to discrepancies in energy expenditure between the sexes during reproduction. Females with greater body condition were significantly more likely to produce a clutch of eggs than those with lower condition, suggesting a threshold effect of body condition on reproductive capacity.
Growth and mortality of introduced fish larvae in a newly restored urban river
Authors: Bartl E. , Keckeis H.
Published: June 2004

The potential of a newly restored river as a nursery for endangered rheophilic fish species was estimated by introducing a population of individually marked larvae of nase Chondrostoma nasus into two river sections differing in river morphology and hydrological conditions. After 12 months, clear differences in fish abundance and fish size were observed: in the braided floodplain section C. nasus were more abundant and larger in size than in the straight river channel section. Total mortality rates over the whole investigation period did not differ between the two sections.
The use of genetic tools for the evaluation of a potential migration barrier for the bullhead
Authors: Knaepkens G. , Verheyen E. , Galbusera P. , Eens M.
Published: June 2004

Microsatellite analysis and computer simulations strongly suggested that a culvert, i.e. a connection between two river stretches by a narrow tube underneath an artificial channel, was not a migration barrier for the endangered bullhead Cottus gobio.
Geographical differences in marine feeding of Atlantic salmon post‐smolts in Norwegian fjords
Authors: Rikardsen A. H. , Haugland M. , Bjørn P. A. , Finstad B. , Knudsen R. , Dempson J. B. , Holst J. C. , Hvidsten N. A. , Holm M.
Published: June 2004

Stomach content analyses were conducted on Atlantic salmonSalmo salarpost‐smolt (average size, 119–154 mm fork length,LF) caught in eight large Norwegian fjord systems along a north–south geographical axis during 1998–2001. In general, post‐smolts from southern Norway showed low feeding intensity in the fjords, whereas extensive feeding was observed in fjords in the northern and middle parts of Norway. The marine diet mainly included different crustaceans and in particular marine pelagic fish larvae (sand‐eelsAmmodytesspp., herringClupea harengusand gadoids), but with a substantial spatial and annual variation in prey diversity and feeding intensity. Insects were most frequently taken in the estuary, although fishes often made a large contribution in mass. In contrast, fishes, and to some extent various crustaceans (particularly Hyperiidae, Gammaridae, Euphausiacea and Copepoda) dominated the diet in the middle and outer parts of the fjords, where post‐smolts also fed more extensively than in the inner part. The results indicate that extensive feeding immediately after sea entrance may be more common for post‐smolts in the northern and middle parts of Norway, than in the southern fjords. The observed differences in post‐smolt feeding may be due to spatial and temporal differences in prey availability within and between the different types of fjord systems, and this might influence post‐smolt growth and survival.
Latitudinal gradients in Atlantic reef fish communities: trophic structure and spatial use patterns
Authors: Floeter S. R. , Ferreira C. E. L. , Dominici‐Arosemena A. , Zalmon I. R.
Published: June 2004

Trophic strategies and spatial use habits were investigated in reef fish communities. The results supported the hypothesis of differential use of food resources among tropical and higher latitude reef fishes,i.e. the number of species and relative abundance of fishes relying on relatively low‐quality food significantly decreased from tropical to temperate latitudes. The species : genus ratio of low‐quality food consumers increased toward the tropics, and was higher than the overall ratio considering all fishes in the assemblages. This supports the view that higher speciation rates occurred among this guild of fishes in warm waters. It was also demonstrated that density of herbivorous fishes (the dominant group relying on low‐quality food resources) in the western Atlantic decreased from tropical to temperate latitudes. Spatial use and mobility varied with latitude and consequently reef type and complexity. Fishes with small‐size home ranges predominated on tropical coral reefs.
Reproductive cycle and sex inversion in razor fish, a protogynous labrid in the southern Mediterranean Sea
Authors: Candi G. , Castriota L. , Andaloro F. , Finoia M. G. , Marino G.
Published: June 2004

The reproductive biology of the Mediterranean razor fish Xyrichthys novacula was investigated by demographic data and histological analysis of the female, intersexual and male gonads. Specimens were collected by bottom trawl on a monthly basis between June 2000 and July 2001 in a sandy bay in southern Thyrrenian. Gonad histology confirmed that the Mediterranean razor fish is a monandric, protogynous hermaphrodite. Females reached first sexual maturity at 100 mm (LT) and the estimated mean LT at first maturity (L50) was 125 mm. Females exhibited asynchronous ovarian development and multiple ovulations occurred over the spawning period. Vitellogenesis started in early May and spawning occurred from late May until late September. Sexual transition involved a large‐scale atresia of all oocyte stages and a massive degeneration of ovarian tissue followed by primordial germ cells proliferation. Sex change began at spawning time (June) but transitional individuals tended to cluster at the end of the reproductive period (September). They accounted for 17·1% of the population sampled and were found in a broad size range (105–150 mm LT).
Assessment of arbovirus vector infection rates using variable size pooling
Authors: Gu W. , Lampman R. , Novak R. J.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  Pool testing of vector samples for arboviruses is widely used in surveillance programmes. The proportion of infected mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) is often estimated from the minimum infection rate (MIR), based on the assumption of only one infected mosquito per positive pool. This assumption becomes problematic when pool size is large and/or infection rate is high. By relaxing this constraint, maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is more useful for a wide range of infection levels that may be encountered in the field. We demonstrate the difference between these two estimation approaches using West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data from vectors collected by gravid traps in Chicago during 2002. MLE of infection rates of Culex mosquitoes was as high as 60 per 1000 at the peak of transmission in August, whereas MIR was less than 30 per 1000. More importantly, we demonstrate roles of various pooling strategies for better estimation of infection rates based on simulation studies with hypothetical mosquito samples of 18 pools. Variable size pooling (with a serial pool sizes of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 individuals) performed consistently better than a constant size pooling of 50 individuals. We conclude that variable pool size coupled with MLE is critical for accurate estimates of mosquito infection rates in WNV epidemic seasons.
Anopheles gambiae feeding and survival on honeydew and extra‐floral nectar of peridomestic plants
Authors: Gary R. E. , Foster W. A.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  It is widely believed that the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) rarely or never feeds on sugar in nature. If so, the need for supplemental blood‐feeding may be increased and this would help to explain why it is such an efficient malaria vector. Nonetheless, both sexes of this mosquito species readily imbibe and digest sugar solutions, and sugar is a staple of laboratory colonies. In this study, we investigated whether An. gambiae will feed on the extra‐floral nectar of three common peridomestic plants in Africa, and on honeydew of the mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni‐Tozetti) (Hemiptera: Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), and how this affects survivorship.

We found that both males and females of An. gambiae provided with vegetative parts of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) survived as well (x̄ = 26.3 and 19.2 days, respectively) as they did on 50% sucrose solution (x̄ = 29.7 and 24.3 days, respectively) and much longer than they did on water alone (x̄ = 1.8 days, both sexes). Females provided with mealybug honeydew also lived substantially longer (x̄ = 16.5 days) than those on water alone. Males and females provided with vegetative parts of castorbean (Ricinus communis L.) also survived much longer (x̄ = 12.7 and 7.8 days, respectively) than on water, but those provided with flowering lantana (Lantana camara L.) did not. Anthrone tests of females after one night of exposure to these potential energy sources confirmed that they obtained fructose from cassava, from mealybug honeydew, and from non‐flowering castorbean, but not from lantana or from castorbean lacking its petiolar nectaries. Previous laboratory studies had shown that sugar availability affects the survival and biting frequency of An. gambiae. It now appears that this mosquito can locate natural sources of plant sugar readily and utilize them effectively. Nectar‐producing plants in the domestic environment may play a significant role in this mosquito's energy budget and malaria vectorial capacity.
Experimental hut comparisons of nets treated with carbamate or pyrethroid insecticides, washed or unwashed, against pyrethroid‐resistant mosquitoes
Authors: Asidi A. N. , N'Guessan R. , Hutchinson R. A. , Traoré‐Lamizana M. , Carnevale P. , Curtis C. F.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  The efficacy against mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of a bednet treated with carbamate insecticide [carbosulfan capsule suspension (CS) 200 mg/m2] was compared with four types of pyrethroid‐treated nets in veranda‐trap huts at Yaokoffikro near Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire, where the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles carries the kdr gene (conferring pyrethroid resistance) at high frequency and Culex quinquefasciatus Say is also pyrethroid resistant. Pyrethroids compared were lambdacyhalothrin CS 18 mg/m2, alphacypermethrin water dispersible granules (WG) 20 mg/m2, deltamethrin 50 mg/m2 (Permanet™) and permethrin emulsifiable concentrate (EC) 500 mg/m2. Insecticidal power and personal protection from mosquito bites were assessed before and after the nets were used for 8 months and hand washed five times in cold soapy water. Before washing, all treatments except permethrin significantly reduced blood‐feeding and all had significant insecticidal activity against An. gambiae. The carbosulfan net gave significantly higher killing of An. gambiae than all pyrethroid treatments except the Permanet. Against Culex spp., carbosulfan was more insecticidal and gave a significantly better protective effect than any of the pyrethroid treatments. After washing, treated nets retained various degrees of efficacy against both mosquito genera – but least for the carbosulfan net. Washed nets with three types of pyrethroid treatment (alphacypermethrin, lambdacyhalothrin, permethrin) gave significantly higher mortality rates of Culex than in huts with the same pyrethroid‐treated nets before washing. After five washes, the Permanet™, which is sold as a long‐lasting insecticidal product, performed no better than the other nets in our experimental conditions.
Species composition, distribution, and ecological preferences of the ticks of grazing sheep in north‐central Spain
Authors: Estrada‐Peña A. , QUÍLez J. , Sánchez Acedo C.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  The distribution and ecological preferences of tick (Acari: Ixodidae) parasites of grazing sheep in the region of Aragón (north‐central Spain) were surveyed on flocks four times a year and mapped into a 5 × 5 km grid. Nine tick species were found. These were species of the Rhipicephalus sanguineus group (about 95% of them Rhipicephalus turanicus Pomerantsev, in 91% of cells of the grid), Rhipicephalus bursa Canestrini & Fanzago (79% of cells), Dermacentor marginatus (Sulzer) (58% of cells), Haemaphysalis punctata Canestrini & Fanzago (74% of cells) and Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus) 14% of cells. Other species weakly represented in the surveys were Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius), Haemaphysalis sulcata Canestrini & Fanzago and Hyalomma m. marginatum Koch. Data on temperature, Normalized Difference Vegetation index (NDVI), topography, vegetation categories and plant productivity were used to build models of distribution and abundance of D. marginatus, H. punctata, R. bursa and R. turanicus. The ocurrence models largely incorporated climatic variables and had good discrimination ability (P < 0.0001 for every modelled species, correct classification rate or sensitivity within 0.89 and 0.99), whereas the abundance models had a lower explanatory power. These models are relevant in the understanding of the variables composing the main distribution patterns, but they are unable adequately to predict the density. Abundance models produce good predictions in cells with low tick density, whereas poor correlation is observed in sites with high tick abundance. Several causes may be responsible for this low predictive power of the abundance models. Model output might be sensible to host density, to local farming practices, or to the size of the grid used to refer the results of the survey. In the latter case, small patches may support locally important populations of ticks, influencing largely the results of the survey. These patches of particular abiotic conditions, or supporting large host densities, may have been undetected at the resolution of the survey, thus obscuring the impact of the predictive variables.
Field issues related to effectiveness of insecticide‐treated nets in Tanzania
Authors: Erlanger T. E. , Enayati A. A. , Hemingway J. , Mshinda H. , Tami A. , Lengeler C.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  Insecticide‐treated nets (ITNs) impregnated with pyrethroid insecticides have become one of the most promising interventions to prevent malaria in highly endemic areas. Despite the large body of experience documenting their health impact and the best way to distribute them, some key practical issues remain unresolved. For example, the duration of effective life of a net under field conditions is unknown. The most important factor affecting net effectiveness is the issue of regular re‐treatment with insecticide. Washing is also an important determinant of insecticide longevity in the field. Trials were undertaken to provide some essential field information on ITNs within the site of an extended ITN programme in the Morogoro region of Tanzania. It was found that 45% of all nets were in bad condition (defined as more than seven large holes). It is concluded that an effective ‘life’ for polyester nets is 2–3 years. Further, two‐thirds of the 20% of nets that were reported as having been re‐treated within the last 12 months had less than 5 mg/m2 of insecticide. According to the World Health Organization this is insufficient to be effective. People reported that they washed their nets four to seven times per year, usually with soap. Observations showed that such washing does not harm the nets and that the wash‐water was unlikely to have an impact on the environment. Finally, bioassays were carried out with Anopheles gambiae on polyester netting with 0.5, 2, 5, 10 and 30 mg/m2 of deltamethrin, alphacypermethrin and lambdacyhalothrin to assess the effectiveness of pyrethroids. The results confirmed that even with low insecticide concentrations, nets can still provide partial protection.
Efficiency of Simulium sanctipauli as a vector of Onchocerca volvulus in the forest zone of Ghana
Authors: Kutin K. , Kruppa T. F. , Brenya R. , Garms R.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  The role of Simulium sanctipauli Vajime & Dunbar (Diptera: Simuliidae) as a vector of Onchocerca volvulus (Leuckart) (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) in the forest zone of central Ghana was studied in the Upper Denkyira district, where onchocerciasis is hyperendemic. Simulium sanctipauli was found to be a highly efficient vector, with a mean of 377 infective (L3) larvae in the heads of 1000 parous and 122 in the heads of 1000 biting flies. The overall infection rate of 44% of the parous flies with L1, L2 and L3 stages of O. volvulus (identity confirmed by polymerase chain reaction) demonstrates marked anthropophily. Female flies dispersed over a wide area and can transmit onchocerciasis up to at least 10 km away from their breeding sites. Annual community‐directed treatments with ivermectin did not have a noticeable effect on the infection rates and parasitic loads of fly populations, which were as high 2 months after as 3 months before the distribution of ivermectin. This failure can be attributed to poor coverage, with treatment taken by only 24.4% of the population of the six study villages.
Population structure of the peridomestic mosquito Ochlerotatus notoscriptus in Australia
Authors: Foley D. H. , Russell R. C. , Bryan J. H.
Published: June 2004

Abstract.  Ochlerotatus notoscriptus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae) is the predominant peridomestic mosquito in Australia where it is the primary vector of dog heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis (Leidy), and a potentially important vector of arboviruses (Barmah Forest, Ross River) with geographical variation of vector competence. Although widespread, Oc. notoscriptus has low dispersal ability, so it may have isolated subpopulations. The identification of gene flow barriers may assist in understanding arbovirus epidemiology and disease risk, and for developing control strategies for this species. We investigated the population structure of Oc. notoscriptus from 17 sites around Australia, using up to 31 putative allozyme loci, 11 of which were polymorphic. We investigated the effect of larval environment and adult morphology on genetic variation. At least five subpopulations were found, four in New South Wales (NSW) and one unique to Darwin. Perth samples appear to be a product of recent colonization from the Australian east coast. For NSW sites, a Mantel test revealed an isolation by distance effect and spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed an area of effective gene flow of 67 km, which is high given the limited dispersal ability of this species. No consistent difference was observed between ‘urban’ and ‘sylvan’ habitats, which suggests frequent movement between these sites. However, a finer‐scaled habitat study at Darwin revealed small but significant allele frequency differences, including for Gpi. No fixed allozyme differences were detected for sex, size, integument colour or the colour of species‐diagnostic pale scales on the scutum. The domestic habit of Oc. notoscriptus and assisted dispersal have helped to homogenize this species geographically but population structure is still detectable on several levels associated with geographical variation of vector competence.
Circulating Cytokines in Primary Sjögren's Syndrome Determined by a Multiplex Cytokine Array System
Authors: Szodoray P. , Alex P. , Brun J. G. , Centola M. , Jonsson R.
Published: June 2004

Plasma cytokines play an important role in the pathogenesis of Sjögren's syndrome (SS) by initiating and perpetuating various cellular and humoural autoimmune processes. The aim of the present study was to describe a broad spectrum of T‐cell and B‐cell cytokines, growth factors, chemokines and molecules that could contribute to cell death in SS. A novel protein array system was utilized to measure simultaneously the levels of 25 plasma cytokines of patients with primary SS and healthy individuals. Furthermore, we correlated these plasma cytokine levels with potential laboratory and clinical parameters related to disease activity in SS. A subset of plasma cytokines [e.g. interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), IL‐6, CXCL8 (IL‐8), IL‐12 p40, IL‐15, tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α), epidermal growth factor, CCL4 (MIP‐1β), CCL2 (MCP‐1), CCL11 (Eotaxin), CCL5 (RANTES), TNF‐RI and TNF‐RII] was found to significantly differ between patients and controls. Also, distinct populations of cytokines were found to differentiate between patients with normal versus elevated ESR or IgG levels and patients with the presence or absence of extra‐glandular manifestations (EGMs). Our results support the assumption that the multiplex cytokine array system can be successfully utilized in the diagnosis and disease management of SS. Furthermore, it may provide a powerful tool in the design of individualized anticytokine therapies.
Anti‐Inflammatory Cytokines Induce Lipopolysaccharide Tolerance in Human Monocytes Without Modifying Toll‐Like Receptor 4 Membrane Expression
Authors: Moreno C. , Merino J. , Vázquez B. , Ramírez N. , Echeverría A. , Pastor F. , Sánchez‐Ibarrola A.
Published: June 2004

Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4) participates in innate immunity by detecting lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of Gram‐negative bacterial cell walls. TLR4 macrophage expression in mice is modulated by LPS. This fact constitutes, at least partially, the molecular basis for LPS tolerance. Very recently, the effect of interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ), a pro‐inflammatory cytokine, has been described on TLR4 membrane expression of human monocytes. IFN‐γ up‐regulates TLR4 expression and antagonizes the LPS‐induced TLR4 down‐regulation. These data prompted us to study the expression of membrane TLR4 in human mono‐ cytes in which LPS tolerance was induced by LPS and by anti‐inflammatory cytokines [interleukin‐10 (IL‐10) and transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1)]. Data concerning this latter model, and more specifically, the effect of anti‐inflammatory cytokines over TLR4 expression, are not available at present. We show here that membrane TLR4 expression in human monocytes falls after LPS exposure. The effect was prolonged for 12 h, but then expression returned to normal levels. The incubation of human monocytes with IL‐10, TGFβ1 or a mixture of both induces no alterations in membrane TLR4 expression. However, these cytokines are able to substitute the tolerizing LPS exposure in order to induce LPS tolerance. Our data help to achieve a better understanding of the way cytokines control the cellular expression of TLR.
The Effect of Earnings Management on the Value Relevance of Accounting Information
Authors: Marquardt Carol A. , Wiedman Christine I.
Published: May 2004

This study investigates whether opportunistic earnings management affects the value relevance of net income and book value in determining stock price. We document a decrease in the value relevance of earnings in the year of an equity offering for a group of firms with ex post evidence of earnings management. This decrease is greater for the discretionary component of earnings than for the non‐discretionary component. These results are robust to model specification and the type of offering. However, the results are sensitive to firms’ disclosure activity prior to the offering.
Non‐linear Predictability of Value and Growth Stocks and Economic Activity
Authors: Black Angela J. , McMillan David G.
Published: May 2004

Recent empirical evidence suggests that stock market index returns are predictable from a variety of financial and macroeconomic variables. We extend this research by examining value and growth portfolios constructed by book‐to‐market ratio, and consider whether such predictability is evident here. Further, we assess whether such predictability is better characterised by a non‐linear form and whether such non‐linear predictability can be exploited to provide superior forecasts to those obtained from a linear model. General non‐linearities are examined using non‐parametric techniques, which suggest possible threshold behaviour. This leads to estimation of a smooth‐transition threshold model, with the results indicating an improved in‐sample performance and marginally superior out‐of‐sample forecast results.
A Comparative Analysis of Auditor, Manager and Financial Analyst Interpretations of SFAS 5 Disclosure Guidelines
Authors: Aharony Joseph , Dotan Amihud
Published: May 2004

This study examines empirically whether financial analysts (users), as well as managers (preparers) and external auditors ascribe different interpretations to the SFAS 5 disclosure criteria. We find: (1) financial analysts are, on average, more conservative than managers and auditors in their numerical interpretations of both the ‘remote’ and ‘probable’ verbal phrases; (2) managers and auditors share very similar numerical interpretations of these verbal phrases; (3) audit partners’ numerical interpretations of the ‘remote’ region are between those of managers and users, whereas audit managers align their numerical interpretations with those of managers. One danger is that preparers of financial statements may omit loss contingency information that users consider valuable.
Birthing Sphere
Authors: Walker Peter , Purdin Susan
Published: June 2004

This paper tells the story of the initiation and first year of Sphere. It traces the history of how the project was started and its relationship to other major events of that time, principally the multi‐donor Rwanda evaluation. The paper describes how the basic structure of the Sphere standards was agreed upon and discusses why some sectors were eventually left out of the standards. Tensions and public disagreements between the agencies that created Sphere are discussed, along with the manner in which the chosen working processes contributed to the successful publication of the Sphere standards. We show how the process of policy formulation, which led up to the publication of the first edition of the Sphere standards, was as dependent upon the ability of the project team to work opportunistically as it was upon the application of agency principles. Finally the paper reflects upon the success of Sphere and lessons that can be learned from this early Sphere process.
Rights, Standards and Quality in a Complex Humanitarian Space: Is Sphere the Right Tool?
Authors: Dufour Charlotte , de Geoffroy Véronique , Maury Hugues , Grünewald François
Published: June 2004

The Sphere Project (consisting of both the Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards for Disaster Response) has made prominent contributions to the debates, thinking and work on the quality of assistance and accountability of aid agencies. However, since its inception in 1997, several agencies expressed concerns regarding Sphere's approach, many of which were confirmed by the Sphere evaluation (2002/3). The present article restates these concerns, and addresses more fundamental issues regarding Sphere's cornerstone. It questions the validity of Sphere's rights‐based approach, which consists of a tenuous link between the rights of affected populations and standards for technical interventions. Sphere is founded on ‘the right to assistance’, although this right does not exist in international law. Its elaboration would entail solving several complex legal and political issues, which Sphere fails to address. This article also questions the validity and usefulness of universal standards for technical performance in helping relief agencies provide adapted assistance to disaster‐affected populations, in line with their mandates and principles. It suggests that Sphere's approach and content largely reflect the concerns, priorities and values of technical professionals in Northern agencies, leaving limited space to genuine ‘participation’ by affected populations and partners from the South.
Questionable Accountability: MSF and Sphere in 2003
Authors: Tong Jacqui
Published: June 2004

This article examines the relationship between Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) and the Sphere Project. Prior to revisiting the concerns MSF had with the project, it looks at factors that give rise to differences between NGOs and cites some reasons for why an organisation such as MSF would not embrace such a project and clarifies some key elements of MSF‐style humanitarianism. The author revisits the original concerns and arguments presented by MSF when it decided not to participate beyond assisting with the establishment of technical standards and key indicators for the handbook. This is followed by a critical discussion examining these concerns and counter‐criticism with reference to experiences a few years after the inception of Sphere. It concludes with MSF's perceptions and stance regarding Sphere and accountability in 2003.
Humanitarian Action and Military Intervention: Temptations and Possibilities
Authors: Weissman Fabrice , Leverdier Roger
Published: June 2004

Although the war in Liberia in July 2003 claimed hundreds of lives, the international community was reluctant to intervene. In this article, the author debates the question: does international military intervention equal protection of populations? The role of humanitarian organisations in military intervention is considered. Aid organisations cannot call for deployment of a protection force without renouncing their autonomy or appealing to references outside their own practices. Such organisations provide victims with vital assistance and contribute to ensuring that their fate becomes a stake in political debate by exposing the violence that engulfs them, without substituting their own voices for those of the victims. The political content of humanitarian action is also outlined and military intervention in the context of genocide is discussed. The author concludes that the latter is one of the rare situations in which humanitarian actors can consider calling for an armed intervention without renouncing their own logic.
Introduction: The Life, Career, and Social Thought of Gerhard Lenski—Scholar, Teacher, Mentor, Leader
Authors: Barnett Bernice McNair
Published: May 2004

This introduction provides an overview of the life, career, and social thought of Gerhard Lenski. Following a preliminary description of Lenski's contributions, this essay is divided into two sections. The first section examines the origins, education, and biographical influences on Lenski as a major social theorist as well as the intellectual foundation of his sociological theories. The second section presents Lenski's work, impact, and legacy and sets the stage for the original essays that are grouped around four of six key areas of Lenski's work, which has had enormous impact on both American and international sociology: (1) teaching sociology; (2) “status crystallization” and “status inconsistency”; (3) sociology of religion and “the religious factor”; (4) social stratification, “power and privilege”; (5) gender stratification in comparative-historical perspective; and (6) ecological-evolutionary theory. While these six areas do not correspond neatly to the progressive phases of Lenski's theory development and sociological career they are interconnected and reflect Lenski's central concerns in asking the big questions about human societies and in providing explanations for understanding the processes of social change differentiation and inequality among and within human societies across time and space from hunting and gathering to postindustrial societies.
The Religious Factor Revisited
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: May 2004

Four decades have passed since the publication of Gerhard Lenski's The Religious Factor. While generally regarded as a classic in the sociology of religion, the book has had a curious history, largely because of the interest it generated in differences between Protestants and Catholics. In this paper I provide an alternative reading of The Religious Factor's impact on sociology of religion that points to its larger theoretical implications. I argue that the book should be understood in relation to continuing debates about the classification of religious traditions, differentiation among socioreligious groups, intergroup relations among religious traditions, and friendship ties within religious communities. Through understanding these contributions, the book's legacy as well as continuities and new opportunities in the study of religion can be appreciated.
Between Modernism and Postmodernism: Lenski's Power and Privilege in the Study of Inequalities
Authors: Tickamyer Ann R.
Published: May 2004

Gerhard Lenski's classical work on stratification, Power and Privilege, was an effort to reconcile and to synthesize different approaches to inequality incorporated into the grand theories of the day. It anticipated a variety of developments in the theoretical and empirical understanding of inequalities. These include recognition of the multiplicity of inequalities; emphasis on race, class, gender, and other sources and systems of domination and subordination; and the intersection of these factors in complex patterns to create different standpoints and life consequences. The result was groundbreaking work that underscored the multidimensionality of stratification systems, the variability of their influences, and the notion that their intersection in itself has implications beyond the sum of component parts. In these ways his work foreshadowed the possibilities of finding common ground between modern and postmodern perspectives, to make Lenski the last grand theorist of modernity and a forerunner of postmodern theories of inequality.
Lenski Effects on Sex Stratification Theory
Authors: Huber Joan
Published: May 2004

This paper tries to explain why the Lenski (1970) theory of stratification based on ecology and subsistence technology had relatively little effect on theories of sex inequality. In cultural anthropology, generalization was held to be impossible. Feminist explanation in sociology was social-psychological. Moreover, by the 1980s, the bias against biology in feminist theory came to include all of science. Exceptions to these trends include the work of Blumberg, Chafetz, Collins, Coltrane, and Turner. Whether feminist sociologists will follow their lead remains to be seen.
Gendered Power and Privilege: Taking Lenski One Step Further
Authors: Chafetz Janet Saltzman
Published: May 2004

In Power and Privilege, Gerhard Lenski's theory of the evolution of systems of inequality, he showed some recognition of gender inequality but, as universally accepted in sociology at the time, “social” stratification was conceptualized implicitly as inequality between male household heads. To move from this to explaining gender inequality requires consideration of constructs in addition to those developed by Lenski, but in terms of his typology of societies based on technology and size of economic surplus, the level of gender stratification tracks that of “social” stratification and the basic variables he delineates remain centrally important.
Evolution and Event in History and Social Change: Gerhard Lenski's Critical Theory
Authors: Kennedy Michael D.
Published: May 2004

Authors have contrasted social change and history many times, especially in terms of the significance of the event in accounting for the broadest contours of human societies' evolution. After recasting Gerhard Lenski's ecological-evolutionary theory in a critical fashion, by emphasizing its engagement with alternativity and by introducing a different approach to structure, I reconsider the salience of the event in the developmentalist project and suggest that ecological-evolutionary theory can be quite helpful in posing new questions about an eventful sociology. By rethinking communism's collapse in 1989 and terrorism's explosion in 2001 within Lenski's theoretical frame, one can suggest critical transformations of theory and research on the evolution of human societies.
Ecological-Evolutionary Theory: A Reanalysis and Reassessment of Lenski's Theory for the 21st Century
Authors: Nolan Patrick D.
Published: May 2004

Gerhard Lenski's ecological-evolutionary theory of human societies, originally presented and tested in Power and Privilege (1966) and Human Societies (1970), makes a number of general and specific predictions about the impact of subsistence technology on the fundamental features of societies, as well as identifying constraints that the techno-economic heritage of currently industrializing societies continue to exercise on their development trajectories. This paper reviews the strategies adopted for presenting and for testing the theory, critically analyzes and extends some important results of its empirical tests, and explores issues confronting the future development and presentation of the theory.
Towards Inclusion? Models of Behaviour Support in Secondary Schools in One Education Authority in Scotland
Authors: Kane Jean , Head George , Cogan Nicola
Published: May 2004

This article draws on data emerging from an evaluation of behaviour support strategies in secondary schools in an education authority in Scotland. The authors all work at the University of Glasgow. Jean Kane has research and teaching interests in the area of special educational needs; she offers consultancy to local authorities in the development of inclusive policies and practices in schools. Dr George Head has research and teaching interests in the area of social, emotional and behavioural difficulties and social inclusion; he is also an experienced teacher. Both Jean Kane and George Head are lecturers in the Faculty of Education. Nicola Cogan is a researcher at the Strathclyde Centre for Disability Research and has a background as a research psychologist in the health sector.

In Scotland, the growth of behaviour support provision is closely related to broader policy on social inclusion. It is argued in this article that new models of behaviour support can be developed in the light of previous and related experience in the development of inclusive support systems in schools. The authors present a typology of behaviour support, drawing upon their evaluation of provision, and discuss the characteristics of the types of support that emerge. Using data from exclusion statistics, pupil case studies and interviews with teachers, managers, pupils and parents, Jean Kane, George Head and Nicola Cogan explore the implications of their work for future developments in support for pupils who present difficult behaviours.
‘Celebrating Families’: an Inclusive Model of Family‐Centred Training
Authors: Carpenter Barry , Addenbrooke Mandy , Attfield Elizabeth , Conway Sally
Published: May 2004

This article describes an innovative week of training days, entitled ‘Celebrating Families’, which took place at Sunfield, Worcestershire, in July 2002. The week, for and around families of children with special needs, arose from a shared vision and philosophy held by three host organisations. Representatives of all three organisations have contributed to this article. Barry Carpenter is chief executive of Sunfield, an independent school which provides education and care for children with severe and complex learning needs, and Sally Conway is the school's co‐ordinator of family services. Mandy Addenbrooke is currently working as an independent consultant in communication and autistic spectrum disorders, and, at the time of the training week described here, was regional development officer for Contact a Family in the West Midlands. Elizabeth Attfield is children's services training and advisory officer for Autism West Midlands.

The week of events was underpinned by the notion of the self‐defined, extended family. T he format and content of the week were designed to highlight and celebrate the vital roles that extended family members play in supporting one another, and in educating professionals. Workshops and a conference were planned to explore common themes and illuminate unique contributions, and family members were actively involved as ‘trainers’ as well as delegates. Outcomes were highly positive. Evaluations from participants not only validated the inclusive training model, but also inspired a series of further events for families at Sunfield during 2003 and 2004. ‘Celebrating Families’ week delivered a clear message: families of children with special needs must be recognised, involved and celebrated.
Getting in Touch with our Feminine Sides? Men's Difficulties and Concerns with Doing Intensive Interaction
Authors: Culham Andrew
Published: May 2004

Andrew Culham has been a lecturer in further education for seven years. During this time he has worked primarily with students with learning difficulties. He now works for Oxford and Chen/veil College as a coordinator of provision for students with profound and multiple learning difficulties within the supported learning curriculum unit. In this article, Andrew Culham addresses a number of concerns expressed by male practitioners using Intensive Interaction.

The issues raised in this article are based on the outcomes of a research project that used a mix of qualitative and quantitative approaches. The results indicate that men who use Intensive Interaction are concerned about issues of touch, especially when working with female clients, and about the potential for their interactions with learners to be misinterpreted and misrepresented. Respondents suggest that targeted professional development opportunities are required to support men in delivering programmes of Intensive Interaction and to provide practical responses to their difficulties. Intensive Interaction has been demonstrated to be of benefit to people with learning difficulties. Andrew Culham proposes that professionals, colleagues and managers can support male practitioners more effectively through policy creation, staff development and professional dialogue. He argues that an ‘inclusive’ support structure should be established to provide all staff with practice‐focused advice and guidance.
Brain virus burden and indoleamine‐2,3‐dioxygenase expression during lentiviral infection of rhesus monkey are concomitantly lowered by 6‐chloro‐2′,3′‐dideoxyguanosine
Authors: Depboylu Candan , Reinhart Todd A. , Takikawa Osamu , Imai Yoshinori , Maeda Hitomi , Mitsuya Hiroaki , Rausch Dianne , Eiden Lee E. , Weihe Eberhard
Published: June 2004

Increased kynurenine pathway metabolism has been implicated in the aetiology of lentiviral encephalopathy. Indoleamine‐2,3‐dioxygenase (IDO) initiates the increased production of kynurenine pathway metabolites like quinolinic acid (QUIN). QUIN itself is elevated in AIDS‐diseased monkey and human brain parenchyma and cerebrospinal fluid at levels excitotoxic for neurons in vitro. This study investigates the cellular origin of IDO biosynthesis in the brain of rhesus monkeys infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and explores the effects of CNS‐permeant antiretroviral treatment. IDO transcript and protein were absent from the brain of non‐infected and SIV‐infected asymptomatic monkeys. IDO biosynthesis was induced in the brain of monkeys exhibiting AIDS. Nodule and multinucleated giant cell‐forming macrophages were the main sources of IDO synthesis. Treatment with the lipophilic 6‐chloro‐2′,3′‐dideoxyguanosine suppressed IDO expression in the brain of AIDS‐diseased monkeys. The effectiveness of this treatment was confirmed by the reduction of virus burden and SIV‐induced perivascular infiltrates, mononuclear nodules and multinucleated giant cells. Our data demonstrate that brain IDO biosynthesis is induced in a subset of monocyte‐derived cells, depends on viral burden and is susceptible to antiretroviral treatment. Thus, IDO induction is associated with reversible overt inflammatory events localized to areas of active viral replication in the SIV‐infected brain.