bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Evaluation of a Direct Emission Spectrographic Method for the Analysis of Used Lubricating Oils
Authors: Perkins W. D. , Miller J. R. , Moser J. H.
Published: August 2009

The metals in a used lubricating oil may occur as additives which have been put into the oil to give it certain desired properties, as the products of wear between moving parts, and as contaminants. The determination of these metals is of interest for a number of reasons. Calcium barium, zinc, phosphorus, and potassium are among the additive elements commonly encountered, and a knowledge of their concentrations will frequently give information about the depletion rate of the additive and, in some cases, of a change in the brand of make up oil. Silicon is usually associated with dust and may be indicative of poor air filtration, while the presence of boron and chromium, which are often used in the cooling water as inhibitors, may mean coolant leakage. Iron, lead, copper, tin, cadmium, aluminum, chromium, nickel, and silver are components of the engine and its bearings; their presence is an indication of engine wear. Sometimes the appearance of a specific element can pin-point the area of wear. For example one manufacturer uses silver only in the wrist-pin bushings, and the appearance of silver in the oil uniquely indicates difficulty in this location. Lead, copper and tin may also mean bearing trouble. Some manufacturers, however, employ lead flashing on many of their new parts, and in these engines the level of lead in the lubricating oil means very little. The emission spectrograph is an ideal instrument for detecting these metals because of its high sensitivity and its ability to determine a large number of elements simultaneously. Procedures in which the oil sample is ashed prior to analysis are often lengthy, and this paper will concern itself primarily with methods in which the oil is sparked directly. The first direct excitation technique to achieve prominence was the quenched electrode procedure of Calkins and White (1). This method was extensively studied by a Subcommittee on Emission Spectroscopy of the American Petroleum Inst. (API) (2). A number of petroleum laboratories participated in a cooperative project, and while it was found that this method was applicable to new oils of known base stock and additive type, it was discovered that it could not be applied successfully to used oils or to oils of unknown base stock and additive type.
Chromatography of Lubricating Oils for Diesel Locomotives
Authors: Thomas E. R.
Published: August 2009

The utilization of chromatography for analyzing used diesel locomotive lubricating oil gives the laboratory a valuable tool helpful in understanding the processes of oxidation taking place in the lubricant. It is simple and inexpensive to employ. Used as a presumptive test it enables the technician to be extremely selective in the choice of samples on which additional work is required to establish quantitatively the state of oxidation. It can be utilized in a great variety of problems involving the control of diesel locomotive lubrication. Chromatography is a method of chemical analysis which utilizes the differential countercurrent distribution of the components of a mixture between a fluid phase and an interfacial phase. In 1906, Michael Tswett, the inventor of chromatography, described the general nature and scope of the principles involved: “There exists a certain absorption sequence according to which substances are able to replace one another.” He continued with a classic example of chromatography demonstrating the principles involved.
Introduction to Session I
Authors: Scovill W. E.
Published: August 2009

I should like to acknowledge the really wonderful job that Roy Klett has done in organizing this symposium. I would also like to acknowledge the financial contribution which was made to our symposium committee by the Division of Refining, Committee on Petroleum Products of the Am. Petroleum Inst. They have underwritten the nominal cost for the preparation of this symposium. As a result, there has been no registration fee. For about fifteen years or more, Research Division IV of ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants has been working on the standardization of the methods of tests for the hydrocarbon analysis of petroleum gases, gasolines, solvents, jet fuels, kerosine, and the like. Research Division IV of ASTM Committee D-2 has never done any work on the standardization of methods and tests for the determination of hydrocarbons boiling above 600 F. About two years ago the interest in this subject was such that a study was made on the standardization of experimental methods. To develop information on the subject, a small committee was set up to collect authoritative papers. Papers were invited from some twenty-five of the top authorities on hydrocarbon analysis of petroleum oils, both in the United States and in England. We were gratified to receive offers for so many papers.
New Thermal Diffusion Techniques Applicable to High-Boiling Petroleum Fractions
Authors: Jones A. Letcher
Published: August 2009

Thermal diffusion is a means of separating petroleum molecules from each other-in the liquid phase according to their shapes. No change of phase is involved. The principles which govern and limit thermal diffusion separations are completely different from those of distillation, solvent extraction, adsorption, or fractional crystallization (25). As a result of this difference, it is now possible to accomplish separations by means of this newly developed tool that have previously been considered either impossible or so extremely difficult as to be impractical. The advantages of thermal diffusion in extending the ranges of various separation techniques appear to be more pronounced among the higher boiling fractions of petroleum than among the lighter more volatile “front end” constituents. As practically all separation methods are being extended to higher and higher boiling petroleum fractions it is encouraging to realize that we can now extend what appeared to be the practical limits of successful fractionation by combining thermal diffusion with other techniques such as are being discussed at this symposium. It is only within the past ten years that thermal diffusion has been applied to petroleum fractionation (26). Apparatus has been commercially available for less than five years (25). Several dozen different laboratories are now using the principle as a tool of research, but much development remains to be done in apparatus design, operating techniques, and range of application.
The Influence of Intermolecular Interactions on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Chemical Shift Measurements as Related to Certain High Molecular Weight Hydrocarbon Systems
Authors: Zimmerman J. R. , Lasater J. A.
Published: August 2009

Nuclear magnetic resonance high resolution measurements of certain light hydrocarbon systems are described which illustrate the dependence of chemical shift on intermolecular interactions. Investigations of interaction phenomena are extended to a quantitative study of pure hydrocarbons in the petroleum oil range. Concentration dependent chemical shift deviation values as large as 27 sec−1 at a Larmor frequency of 40 Mc per sec are observed in n-hexadecane-diphenylmethane mixtures. The implication of these concentration dependent shifts on structural characterization of petroleum oils by reference standards is discussed.
Introduction to Session III
Authors: LeTourneau R. L.
Published: August 2009

In the earlier section of this symposium we have learned of the startling progress that has been made in recent years in the simplification of oil fractions through the application of powerful physical separation methods and in the identification of hydrocarbon types by the newer spectroscopic methods. Unfortunately, this straightforward approach to the problem is time consuming and expensive. And not all of those persons interested in the composition of oils have mastered the technique of thermal diffusion or can afford mass or nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers. In this session there will be presented the development and successes of the various physical property correlations which are often applied to unseparated stocks. The physical properties most often used are density, refractive index, specific dispersion, molecular weight, and viscosity. Of these properties, I think most will agree that the measurement of average molecular weight of a sample is one of the most difficult experimentally. One of the papers deals with this technique. Some comparisons will be drawn with spectrometric methods and of the various physical property methods with each other.
Molecular Weight Determination of Oils
Authors: Stross F. H.
Published: August 2009

The molecular weight is a basic quantity needed in many kinds of projects involving the materials that are the subject of this symposium. It is needed to convert weight fractions to mole fractions, which occur in thermodynamic expressions which one uses in the design, evaluation and operation of all kinds of separation equipment and processes. In the examination of natural as well as manufactured oil mixtures, it may be desirable to characterize them by means of a hydrocarbon type analysis, which often requires the direct knowledge of molecular weight. Development of the methods for measuring molecular weight has paralleled the remarkable progress of science during the past decades. These methods are often grouped according to the averaging procedures involved. If a method gives the average of the molecular weights of the individual mole fraction, M=ΣwiΣwiMi (where wi is the weight, and Mi the molecular weight of the i-th fraction of each molecular species in the mixture), the resulting value is called the number average molecular weight. Methods that yield the average of the molecular weights of the individual weight fractions, Mw=ΣwiMiΣwi, give a weight average molecular weight. The light scattering method is representative of this group. Other methods, such as the ultracentrifuge, and the viscosimetric procedures, furnish numbers that are more complicated functions of composition and molecular weight. For various reasons the latter procedures, including the weight average methods, are most useful in the high molecular weight range, of the order of 104 and up, as for polymers, natural macromolecules, and even micellar structures. The application of these techniques actually becomes more difficult, and their results less reliable, at the lower levels. While these methods have been used down to molecular weights around 1000, they are not generally practical at this level. Since the oils that are the topic of this symposium have a molecular weight generally of well below 1000, we shall not discuss these methods further.
Introduction
Authors: Maassen G. C.
Published: August 2009

During the Spring Meeting of ASTM Committee D-11 on Rubber and Rubber-Like Materials held in Chicago in March, 1949, there was held a Symposium on Aging of Rubbers. That symposium covered the effects of oxygen, light, ozones and heat on rubber. The effects of light and ozone were covered by John T. Blake of Simplex Wire & Cable Co. Since 1949, the interest in ozone and its effect on elastomeric polymers has become an item of prime importance to rubber technologists, and because of this intense interest, it was thought advisable to present several papers covering the several facets. By so doing, it is possible to consider in greater detail the subjects which, of necessity, could be given only passing mention in 1949. For many years, technologists were concerned with “light aging,” which had been recognized as a destructive force by Burhardt as early as 1883. However, it was not until 1926 that Ira Williams observed that “in an atmosphere of ozone cracks appeared on all sides of a stretched sample regardless of light exposure. Unstrained rubber is not affected by ozone.” He also observed that “the greater the stretch the smaller the cracks and the greater the number.” Williams thus differentiated between light aging and ozone aging. Van Rosen and Talen6in 1931 observed that on outdoor exposure tests of stretched rubber samples cracks formed at a lower elongation on the shady side than on the side directly exposed to the light. Further, it was learned that cracks could be formed in stretched samples when samples were exposed to the atmosphere only at night. This eliminated sunlight as being necessary for the formation of cracks.
The Reaction of Ozone with Rubber
Authors: Tucker Harold
Published: August 2009

The reaction of ozone with unstressed rubber and neoprene was examined by using open cell sponge. In each case the initial rate of adsorption was very high and decreased with the adsorption of ozone. Under conditions of very high humidity, however, there was no falling off in the rate of ozone up-take. The sponge was extracted with acetone and the products examined. A similar pattern was obtained on solid styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) in a tread-type recipe. Here as the sample was elongated the amount of ozone adsorbed increased until a strain of about 20 per cent was reached. Under the conditions of the test, the ozone up-take reached a constant value at this point. The mechanism of cracking of rubber by ozone is postulated to be by modification of the rubber structure by ozone to yield a material with low elongation. Cracks then develop by failure in tension of this modified rubber. Cracks typical of ozone cracking were produced by curing the surface of rubber compounds much tighter than the interior.
Ozone Resistance of Elastomeric Vulcanizates
Authors: Ossefort Z. T.
Published: August 2009

The problem of obtaining rubber products having adequate resistance to ozone has become more difficult in recent years principally because of the increased use of ozone-susceptible synthetic rubber, increasing use of oil extended and plasticized rubber, and the higher atmospheric ozone concentrations existing around many industrial centers. While the problem is common to all users of rubber items, it is believed to be especially acute in the case of the military, since this usage involves long periods of storage under a variety of conditions, with the mandatory requirement that the material be at all times in a state of immediate combat readiness. During these periods of uncertain global conditions, the time-consuming processes of manufacture and procurement cannot be relied upon to provide the necessary rubber for operation of a modern military machine. A typical example depicting ozone cracking resulting from static storage of a truck tire and the enlargement of these cracks after a short period of service is shown in Fig. 1. The means presently available for obtaining ozone resistance in rubber items may be classified as follows: A. Proper selection of polymer: (1) Chemically saturated type, and (2) Sterically hindered type; B. Application of physical barrier: (1) Wrappers—paper or plastic films, (2) Paint film—flexible films of ozone resistant rubber or plastic, and (3) Chemical film—antiozonant in solvent; C. Proper compounding and use: (1) Chemical antiozonants, (2) Waxes, (3) High set and low modulus compounds, and (4) Storage of items in unstressed state. With the notable exception of the use of chemical antiozonants (1), these methods are practically identical to those listed in Chemistry and Technology of Rubber (2) over 20 years ago. Of course, during this interval many additional ozone-resistant rubbers have become available, providing the compounder a much greater latitude in choice of starting material from which to prepare ozone-resistant compounds.
Chemical Antiozonants and Factors Affecting their Utility
Authors: Cox William L.
Published: August 2009

The advent of chemical antiozonants has granted to the rubber industry considerable relief from the problem of ozone-cracking which has plagued it to an ever-increasing extent throughout its history. This problem, enhanced in the past two decades by increased ozone in the atmosphere and by the wide-spread application of certain synthetic rubbers, can now be controlled if not eliminated by the judicious use of one of several materials specifically tailored to this purpose. However, unless the rubber manufacturer is conscious of the influence of a large number of variables upon the potential utility of a material as an antiozonant, to a large extent the usefulness of antiozonants may be lost to him. The amount of antiozonant required to protect a rubber article from ozone degradation will depend upon such factors as: 1. Antiozonant structure, 2. Polymer type, 3. Other compounding ingredients, and 4. Exposure conditions. It is hoped that this present survey will assist prospective antiozonant users in achieving more effective protection at decreased expense.
Performance Characteristics of Objectives, Eyepieces, and Illuminators for Microscopy
Authors: Zieler H. W.
Published: August 2009

In recent years, the versatility of the light microscope has increased continuously through development of new methods, techniques, and equipment. Illumination devices, now available for microscopy, comprise accessories for brightfield, phase-contrast, and dark-field illumination in transmitted or reflected nonpolarized or polarized light, for fluorescence microscopy, interference microscopy, image formation in ultraviolet, visible or infrared light, and others. Objectives for microscopy fall into five major categories: achromats, fluorite objectives, apochromats, planachromats, and planapochromats. These objectives are available as dry systems, water-, oil-, or glycerin immersions, for regular (nonpolarized) light, or selected for freedom from polarization for use in transmitted or reflected polarized light; corrected for observation of objects covered with cover glass of specified thickness or for uncovered objects; with normal or abnormally long or short working distances. The variety of objectives is so great that, for certain focal lengths—as, for instance, for 4 mm—there are between 20 and 30 objective types, differing from each other in performance characteristics. The variety of eyepiece types is not so great. There are Huygens and Ramsden eyepieces of simple design, compensating or planocompensating eyepieces, projection eyepieces, eyepieces especially corrected to improve the “flatness of the field,” and other types. The selection of the illumination method, the objective, and the eyepiece for any specific task in microscopy should be based on a systematic analysis of the optical properties of the object and its surroundings. The following suggestions are offered in the hope that they will help the microscopist in making the selections. The variety of objects observed and analyzed with the microscope is very great indeed. In order to make observation under the microscope possible, the object or its minute structures must differ sufficiently from their surroundings in regard to one or more of the following optical properties: the refraction of light (including double refraction of anisotropic objects), the reflection of light (including bireflection of anisotropic objects), the absorption of light (including dichroism or pleochroism of anisotropic objects), and the emission of light (fluorescence or phosphorescence).
Chemical Microscopy in the Optical Industry
Authors: Crossmon Germain
Published: August 2009

Some improvements in equipment and techniques are described for the microscopic determination of the particle size of abrasives, polishing, buffing, and other materials encountered in the manufacture of glass optics and scientific instruments. Identification of these materials or of impurities present is facilitated by the use of dispersion-staining microscopy combined with polarizing accessories. Dispersion staining used alone or combined with the usual Becke line method has proven to be of value for the refractive index determination of experimental and production type glasses and certain plastics used in the optical industry.
Application of Electron Microscopy in The Petroleum Industry
Authors: Allred H. M.
Published: August 2009

Many problems in petroleum technology involve a knowledge of the shape, size distribution, and degree of aggregation of particles of colloidal dimensions. The electron microscope has rightfully assumed an important position in research and analysis when the determination of particle statistics and surface structure is involved. With the aid of electron microscopes of extremely high resolving power, the sizes and shapes of molecules as small as 10,000 molecular weight, calculated from centrifugation rates and light-scattering data, have been confirmed. The development of instruments of high resolving power and the improvements in specimen preparation methods have made observations of the atomic lattice an attainable goal.
Paper for High-Voltage Cables
Authors: Del Mar Wm. A.
Published: August 2009

Increasing loads on electrical systems call for higher currents and higher voltages. These invite the use of larger conductors and thicker insulation. However, due to limitations imposed by manufacturing, transportation, and installation, there is a practical limit to cable diameters. Therefore, a condition is reached where higher voltages cannot be met by more insulation but require the use of insulation of higher quality. At present, the only commercially and technically available high-voltage cable insulation is Kraft paper impregnated with mineral oil. Therefore, progress depends on effective cooperation between paper makers and cable makers as well as between cable makers and oil refiners. The purpose of the present paper is to present, from the cable maker's point of view, the lines along which such cooperation is necessary, if paper insulation is to hold its present lead.
The Utility Viewpoint on Cable Oils
Authors: Gates A. M. , Gillette R. W.
Published: August 2009

American electric utilities are now faced with the serious problem of buying cable oils whose properties at the present time cannot be adequately defined. This situation arose because of circumstances peculiar to oil-impregnated paper-insulated cables and the manufacturers who produce them. The utilities feel that this problem must be solved to assure satisfactory maintenance of the high-voltage cables already installed and to lend confidence that the higher voltage cables required for the future will be a safe investment. The utility viewpoint on cable oils does not differ fundamentally from that applicable to all of the tools used by the utility in producing and selling electric power and light. This viewpoint can be expressed by the familiar adage, “The status quo is sacred unless there is a good and sufficient reason for a change,” and a corollary, “Any change should be well conceived and well executed.” These are not startling propositions, and in fact they serve as a yardstick in plotting the course of human conduct throughout the ages, whether as individuals, political groups, or business organizations. The degree of success of any enterprise can be related to the wisdom used in adhering to well-tested practices, in deciding when there is a good and sufficient reason for a change, and in determining what that change should be and how it should be made. In reviewing the history of utilities one sees that there have been areas of fixed policies and areas where practically continuous changes have been the rule. Examples in the former category include the policies of (1) buying equipment designed and manufactured by specialists in their fields, (2) buying by specifications, (3) cooperating closely with manufacturers in the operation and maintenance of their respective products, and (4) buying American products. In the second category there have been changes: (1) to accomplish a fixed purpose in a better way, (2) to perform a specific operation on a larger scale, and (3) to overcome a circumstance beyond the control of the utilities.
Sharp-Notch Behavior of Some High-Strength Sheet Aluminum Alloys and Welded Joints at 75, −320, and −423 F
Authors: Hanson M. P. , Stickley G. W. , Richards H. T.
Published: August 2009

Aluminum alloys, because of their face-centered cubic structure, offer distinct advantages as structural materials for use at cryogenic temperatures, at which some other metals are brittle. Accordingly, tests of seven alloys (2014-T6, 2219-T62, 5456-H321, 6061-T6, 7075-T6, 7079-T6, and 7178-T6) using smooth and sharply notched, longitudinal and transverse specimens of plain and welded 1/8-in. sheet were made at 75, −320 (liquid nitrogen), and −423 F (liquid hydrogen). As parent metal, all alloys were found to be suitable for use at these temperatures, exhibiting ductile behavior throughout the full temperature range. For welded structures or in applications where notch sensitivity is important, the use of some of the higher strength heat treated alloys may necessitate special precautions in design. While as-welded joints in each alloy had lower strengths than the parent metal at all temperatures, welds in alloy 2219-T62 when reheat treated had strengths equal to those of the parent metal. The sharp-notch sensitivities of welds in some alloys were less than those of the parent metals.
Thermal Cycling under Constant Load to Low Temperatures of Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys
Authors: Weiss V. , Schaeffer G. T. , Saule A. , Sachs G.
Published: August 2009

The effect of thermal cycling under constant stress on aluminum alloys 7075-T6 and X2020-T6 and magnesium alloys AZ31B-H24 and HK31A-H24 was investigated for sawtooth type thermal cycling between −320 F and maximum temperatures of 200, 400, and 600 F for the aluminum alloys and 100 and 400 F for the magnesium alloys. The test equipment which permits thermal cycling under constant nominal stress by resistance heating of a specimen immersed in liquid nitrogen is described. Creep and creep rupture occurs on cycling at all these temperatures. For a given material under constant heating rate and thermal cycling range, the number of cycles to failure increases with decreasing nominal applied stress. Increase in the maximum cycle temperature displaces the σA − N curves toward lower stress values. This decrease is roughly proportional to the decrease in ultimate isothermal tensile strength at Tmax. The effect of heating rate is not consistent. An analysis of the data shows that thermal cycling under constant load is basically an intermittent creep phenomenon and that failure can be predicted from the minimum plastic strain per cycle, ϵpc, according to Nϵpcn=constant, where n is close to unity.
Low-Temperature Properties of Cast and Wrought Magnesium Alloys
Authors: Fenn Raymond W.
Published: August 2009

Experimental results from a low-temperature test program on magnesium alloys are reported. The new data include: (1) tensile properties of cast AZ91C-T6, AZ92A-T6, EZ33A-T5, HK31A-T6, QE22A-T6, and ZH62A-T5 alloys at −320, −109, 75, 200, and 300 F; (2) notched and unnotched Charpy impact strength of these same alloys at 75, −109, and −320 F; and (3) tensile properties of extruded HM31A-T5 alloy at −320, −109, and 75 F. Previously published low-temperature properties of commercial magnesium sheet and extrusion alloys are also reviewed.
Effect of Stress Concentration on Tensile Strength of Titanium and Steel Alloy Sheet at Various Temperatures
Authors: Sachs George , Sessler John G.
Published: August 2009

The effect of stress concentrations on the nominal tensile strength of sheet was studied for a number of ultra-high-strength steels and heat-treated titanium alloys at several test temperatures from −320 F to 800 F. Sheet specimens containing edge-notches of various root radii were employed for the investigations. The test results illustrate a wide variation in the behavior of the different alloys as a function of temperature. It appears that some steels approach an extremely brittle condition when exposed to very low temperatures. In addition, preliminary results were obtained on the room-temperature behavior of a titanium sheet alloy heat treated in a nonconventional manner to a completely brittle condition. The behavior of this alloy appears to be in general conformance with the present concepts of “ideally brittle” materials.
Mechanical Properties of High-Strength 301 Stainless Steel Sheet at 70, −320, and −423 F in the Base Metal and Welded Joint Configuration
Authors: Watson James F. , Christian J. L.
Published: August 2009

The ultimate tensile strength, elongation, and notched to unnotched tensile ratio of several tempers of high-strength 301 stainless steel sheet were determined at 70, −320, and −423 F. Specimens examined included smooth base metal, notched base metal (Kt = 6.3), and heliarc butt welds. The notched specimens were included in this study for the purpose of measuring notch sensitivity, which was taken as a criterion of sensitivity toward crack initiation and crack propagation. Microstructural studies and X-ray diffraction analyses were also conducted to study the mechanism of deformation at cryogenic temperatures. Tensile strengths and elongations of the base metal and welded joint specimens were generally observed to increase between room temperature and −320 F, and then to decrease between −320 and −423 F. The notched to unnotched tensile ratio remained close to 1.0 at −320 F, and then dropped to about 0.92 at −423 F. Extra-full-hard 301 stainless steel (cold rolled 60 per cent) exhibited tensile strengths of 230,000, 313,000, and 330,000 psi at 70, −320, and −423 F, respectively. The corresponding elongations were 5 per cent, 20 per cent, and 15 per cent. The notched to unnotched tensile ratio went from 1.0 at 70 F to 0.99 at −320 F, to 0.92 at −423 F. Specially rolled 301 steel cold worked 70 per cent to 300,000 psi at 70 F exhibited the same general type of behavior. Heliarc butt welds were observed to increase from 120,000 psi at 70 F to 278,000 psi at −320 F, and then to decrease to 255,000 psi at −423 F. The major factor contributing to the observed effects was shown to be the austenite-to-martensite reaction which is known to be favored by both low temperature and high tensile stress.
Properties of Some Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels and Low-Alloy High-Strength Steels at Very Low Temperatures
Authors: Campbell J. E. , Rice L. P.
Published: August 2009

The cryogenic properties of materials have assumed great importance since the development of the liquid-fueled rocket engine as a prime propulsion system. A great deal of work is under way in a number of laboratories, including Battelle Memorial Institute, to determine the mechanical properties of materials to be used at liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen temperatures. Of special interest are a number of alloys such as the precipitation-hardening stainless steels and the high-strength low-alloy steels being used in missiles and aircraft now in production. These steels possess high strength-to-weight ratios and are generally heat treated so as to have high strength at room and moderately elevated temperatures. Mechanical properties of metals and alloys measured at cryogenic temperatures often reveal extreme brittleness. It is for this reason that the selection or use of high-strength metals for low-temperature applications must be based on mechanical properties determined at the operating temperatures. This paper contains data on the cryogenic properties of several precipitation-hardening stainless steels and high-strength low-alloy steels from room temperature to −423 F.
Introduction
Authors: Turner H. C.
Published: August 2009

Until the past decade, room-temperature data were sufficient for design of most aircraft structures. Present turbojet engine aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft travel at speeds which create heating of the exposed surfaces, especially at the leading edges. High temperatures are also encountered in the vicinity of the power plant. Room-temperature design data are no longer sufficient; data obtained from tests made at elevated temperature are required for design of present high - performance aircraft and spacecraft. From 60 to 90 per cent of an airframe or missile structure must be designed for compression. Most parts are designed so that, if overloaded, failure will occur by elastic instability. A part may also fail by yielding when relatively heavy thicknesses or short column lengths are involved. The compression stress-strain curve provides data that enable the designer to predict failure by buckling or yielding. Many aircraft and missile parts are made from relatively thin sheet metal formed into skins, ribs, frames, webs, and stringers. Compression tests must be made on sheet of the actual thickness used because material properties are a function of processing procedures; a thin sheet will have different compression properties than a heavy section of the same composition. In order to load a sheet specimen without budding, a supporting jig is required. This jig must provide the necessary lateral support without significant friction during compression of the specimen.
Compression Testing of Sheet Materials at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Papirno Ralph , Gerard George
Published: August 2009

Information on a novel compression testing machine and extensometer system for both short- and long-time testing at elevated temperatures is presented. In combination with a lateral solid or ball-bearing support guide compression jig, this system has been used to obtain compressive stress-strain and creep data on sheet materials. The compression unit is horizontal in operation which results in low spatial temperature variations in the test region. A pneumatic loading system permits accurate control during the loading phase and avoids undesirable seismic effects during creep. The elevated-temperature extensometer utilizes differential capacitor sensors which combine a high sensitivity for accurate determination of elastic modulus with a long linear response range. Sheet compression tests were performed in a jig having lateral solid or ball-bearing support guides. Short-time and creep data are presented for a number of sheet titanium alloys up to 950 F.
Evaluation of Test Variables in Determination of Elevated-Temperature Compressive Yield Strength of Magnesium Alloy Sheet
Authors: Fenn R. W.
Published: August 2009

This paper (1) describes equipment for obtaining elevated-temperature compressive stress-strain curves and determining compressive yield strength under conditions of rapid heating, (2) evaluates the effect of several test variables on the compressive yield strength, (3) presents compressive yield strength data and compressive stress-strain curves for HM21A-T8 and HK31A-H24 magnesium sheet and HM31A-T5 magnesium extrusion, and (4) compares the compressive yield strength data to the tensile yield strength data for these alloys and conditions. A plate-type jig for lateral support of the sheet test specimen is used to avoid buckling. It incorporates (1) a means of applying and measuring the supporting force and (2) a compression spring which minimizes increases in friction resulting from thermal expansion and the Poisson effect. The following test variables were investigated and are discussed: specimen-supporting force, lubrication, method of heating, exposure time, method of strain measurement, strain rate, and temperature control. Recommendations for standard elevated-temperature compression test methods are made.
Introduction
Authors: Goff J. W.
Published: August 2009

According to a recent statement, packaging in the United States accounts for the expenditure of over 21 billion dollars annually. This is more than 4 per cent of the gross national product, and more than the annual capital investment represented by new housing construction in the United States. Packaging is an important segment of our economic activity. Technically, packaging has been and continues to be an opulent orphan capable of causing temporary difficulties which have generally been overcome by empirical approaches. The evaluation of packages and systems of packages for compatibility with and the protection of the contained product has traditionally been performed using simulated service techniques. Available test methods involve the exposure of the packaged product to conditions of simulated transportation and accelerated storage and the subsequent determination of damage. Such damage may be evidenced by (1) breakage, disfiguration, or malfunction of the contained product, (2) the contamination of the product by some package component, or (3) failure of the package to prevent exposure to contaminating agents or by other predetermined criteria. There are simulation problems since product damage may be the result of a complex combination of shock, vibration, and atmospheric conditions, to mention only the most common damage-producing factors, acting over an indeterminate period of time in a random manner. By necessity, tests have been designed to simulate single damage-producing conditions. The effect of combinations of conditions is difficult to deduce from test results. The degree of acceleration in simulated storage tests is also an unknown and complex factor.
Mechanics of Package Cushioning
Authors: Crede C. E.
Published: August 2009

The paper describes an hypothesis of shock damage that forms a useful criterion for the design of package cushioning. Using this criterion, the theory of shock isolation is developed and applied to both linear and nonlinear cushions. Although the present state of the art permits the design of the cushioning in a rational manner to meet specified requirements, it is difficult to determine the capability of the equipment to withstand shock and to define the severity of the shock to which the package will be subjected. Current procedures make extensive use of experimentally determined properties of cushioning material and apply the experimentally determined data directly to package design. Typical examples of such data are included, and references are given to more extensive compilations of applicable data.
Polyethylene—Environmental Stress Rupture and Blown Bottles
Authors: Lander L. L. , Carey R. H.
Published: August 2009

Two methods of test have been applied to the study of stress crack resistance of polyethylene resins. One test measures the stress-rupture properties of polyethylene in inert environments such as air or water. The second test characterizes the environmental stress-rupture resistance of polyethylenes subjected to surface active agents. Data from these tests show (1) the effects of resin properties (density and melt index) on stress rupture and environmental stress rupture properties, (2) the acceleration in brittle failure of polyethylenes caused by the presence of a surface active environment, (3) how the mechanism of failure differs between stress rupture and environmental stress rupture, and (4) how data from compression molded specimens can be used to determine the performance of a resin in a blown plastic bottle.
Introduction
Authors: Sutton Roger
Published: August 2009

With the increasing interest in the use of zirconium and, in particular, zirconium alloys in high-temperature, high-pressure, water- and steam-cooled reactor systems, it is appropriate to pause and evaluate our present knowledge of the various factors involved in the corrosion of alloys of this system. To this end, a Symposium on Corrosion of Zirconium Alloys was held at the 1963 Meeting of the American Nuclear Society. The work of organizing this most important and timely symposium was a joint effort of the Program Committee, Materials Division, American Nuclear Society, and of Subcommittee IX, Committee B-3 on Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American Society for Testing and Materials. At that time, W. Kermit Anderson, of General Electric's Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (KAPL), was chairman of both these committees, and we owe special thanks to him, as well as to his fellow members of both organizations, for the time and toil expended in arranging the program. Thanks are also due cochairman William Cashin of KAPL who so ably represented the American Nuclear Society. The coverage of the subject is as complete as can be hoped for in the limited time available. It is hoped that a “sequel” symposium can be arranged in the near future to extend the dissemination of our knowledge in these areas. For example, our participants have pointed out that we do not have agreement on the effects of radiation on the surface films of zirconium and its alloys, nor do we fully understand the mechanism involved in such contradictory effects as have been observed. A symposium devoted entirely to all phases of this important problem might well be scheduled. Also, the problems involved in the use of this class of materials at higher temperatures and in superheated steam are only partially solved, and this symposium has served to illuminate the problem. Much work, however, remains to be done.
Recent Studies of the Growth and Breakdown of Oxide Films on Zirconium and its Alloys
Authors: Wanklyn J. N.
Published: August 2009

Several attempts to develop zirconium alloys suitable for use in superheated steam have been described (1-4). Assessment (5,6) of the results suggested that although a number of alloying additions can have a beneficial effect, great variability confuses the results, which, moreover, are no better than would be achieved by unalloyed zirconium in dry oxygen. Further, it appeared that only a low concentration of the added elements, provided it was distributed appropriately in the oxide film, might suffice to give corrosion resistance (2); it was also suggested (6) that the significant film breakdown in steam occurred on a very small scale. The behavior of resistant alloys was pictured in terms of a balance between film growth and film breakdown, leading beyond weight gains of 100 mg/dm2 to a more or less linear rate of corrosion. This paper reports recent attempts to study these two processes more intimately, using thinner films on unalloyed zirconium, and exploring some newer techniques. It may be said that zirconium, quite apart from its nuclear interest, is a rather suitable metal for such studies, forming but one oxide and having only a single valence. Moreover, although the entry of small amounts of hydrogen into the oxide is important, the complication of hydrated oxides is absent. Inasmuch as the aim is to give an up-to-date report of current work and thought, loose ends and tentative explanations may be expected in the following account.
Introduction
Authors: Voorhees Howard R. , Freeman James W.
Published: August 2009

The Subcommittee on the Properties of Weldments of the Data and Publications Panel of the ASTM-ASME Joint Committee on Effect of Temperature on the Properties of Metals accumulated data from laboratories conducting tests at elevated temperatures on welds. The original data were in the form of reports, technical papers and a questionnaire circulated by the subcommittee. These data have been reduced to a common type of data sheet and the key properties presented graphically as a function of temperature. The approximate ranges in properties for the unwelded forms of the alloys, as presented in prior Special Technical Publications of the ASTM, are shown to indicate the relative properties of welds and base metals. Data are presented for carbon, low-alloyed and austenitic steels and for a number of the complex alloys developed for high strength at high temperatures. Tensile, rupture and creep properties are covered by the data. The data sheets provided space for information on the welding methods and conditions, chemical composition of both base metal and weld deposit, heat treatments, hardness, and microstructural characteristics. Both original test data and derived creep and rupture strengths are shown on the data sheets. The source of data is acknowledged on each data sheet. In most cases only part of the data for which provision was made in the data sheets was available. Properties were reported for specimens taken entirely from weld-deposited metal as well as for cross-weld specimens which included both base metal and weld deposit in the gage section. In cross-weld specimens the weld deposit frequently differed in composition from the base metal; and in some cases two different base metals were present in the same weldment. Some data covered sheet specimens welded without filler metal.
High-Strength Stainless Steels by Deformation at Room Temperature
Authors: Floreen S. , Mayne C. R.
Published: August 2009

Low-silicon stainless steel sheets were rolled 40 per cent at room temperature and heat-treated 24 hr at 800 F. Yield strengths of 240 ksi were obtained in iron-nickel-chromium alloys. Through the use of 7 to 12 per cent cobalt as a supplemental hardener, the yield strengths were increased to 270 ksi. Notch tensile ratios of unity were obtained using NASA-ASTM sheet specimens.
An Evaluation of the 18Ni-9Co-5Mo Maraging Steel Sheet
Authors: Corn D. L.
Published: August 2009

An investigation was conducted on 0.070-in.-thick 18Ni-9Co-5Mo, 300 ksi, maraging steel sheet to determine its applicability for use in high-strength pressure vessels. This study includes the effects of aging as-received material, re-annealing material, the combined effects of annealing and aging, and the influence of cold working and aging upon the properties and micro-structure of this maraging material. Austenite retained at room temperature was found as a result of aging at 950 F for 8 hr, or annealing in the temperature range of 1200 to 1250 F. Material containing significant amounts of austenite at room temperature was found to age unsatisfactorily; however, if material containing austenite is plastically strained, the aging response markedly improves. Material containing no austenite was also strengthened by virtue of the cold work, but a loss in strength was obtained after stretching beyond 2 per cent tensile plastic strain. Duplex aging cycles were investigated, and it was found that the heat treatment time required to reach a specified strength can be reduced by using a duplex aging cycle instead of a single aging cycle. In addition, the microstructures produced by various heat treatments are presented and interpreted in terms of the austenite-to-martensite transformation, martensite-to-austenite reversion, and precipitation reactions.
The Effect of Solidification Practice on the Properties of High-Strength Steels
Authors: Carman C. M. , Strachan R. W. , Armiento D. F. , Markus H.
Published: August 2009

The effect of unidirectional solidification on the mechanical properties of high-strength steels was investigated by means of split heats of AISI 4340 and 25 per cent nickel maraging steel. One half of these heats were unidirectionally solidified and the other half of these melts were allowed to solidify to produce an equiaxed structure. These ingots were forged and rolled to a light gage sheet 0.040 to 0.060 in. thick. The materials were evaluated by means of standard tension tests and fracture toughness studies. By means of compliance measurements, it is possible to determine the crack resistance as a function of absolute crack extension. This investigative technique was used to study the AISI 4340 steel. Unidirectional solidification did not alter the crack resistance properties of this steel. However, a 10 per cent improvement in plane-strain fracture toughness as determined by the pop-in technique was observed for the unidirectionally solidified material. In order to obtain very high strength levels, the total content of hardener elements was increased in the 25 per cent nickel maraging steels. Consequently these materials were quite brittle and the results not definitive. However, it was demonstrated that a homogeneous structure is necessary for high values of fracture toughness in this material. The data were interpreted in terms of critical crack size for instability at yield stress. Both through-cracks and part-through-cracks were considered in this analysis.