bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multiple Modernities and Socialist Alternatives in the 1970s
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes how, in the 1970s, development assistance models offered an array of radical alternatives to the capitalist system. Three different models stand out: the Second World around the Soviet Union, the Chinese model of self-reliance, and Third Worldism with its project of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The NIEO saw a correlation between the growth of the world economy and that of poor countries: the expansion of world trade within a capitalist market was considered progress. It viewed technology as crucial to development and demanded better and easier transfer procedures to access it—but only one technology, the West's. In sum, the NIEO's goal was integration within the capitalist system, for which it was attacked not only by the Soviets, but by radical critics including Andre Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein. The Soviets criticized Third World intellectuals because of the conceptual weaknesses in their ideas, particularly the paradox of rejecting Western models while hoping for Western support and the way that Third Worldist ideas remained fundamentally connected to Western thought.
Responding to the Challenges from the Global South
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains how new concepts and strategies had to be devised to face the new North–South divide that seemed to be replacing the classic Cold War conflict. By the 1970s, the United States and the Soviet Union were conservative status quo powers that had more in common with each other than with the Global South. The Cold War was embedded in the international system and worked at much lower levels of tension than in earlier years. Would an East–West cooperation to deal with the Global South be viable? The Soviet Bloc did not appear to be keen on discussing a joint path out of the global economic turmoil, which it interpreted as the long-awaited crisis of capitalism. It was the European Economic Community (EEC), instead, that stood up as a distinctive actor, claiming to be distant from its members' imperial past and to offer a third way for the Third World, with goals that were not those of the Cold War superpowers.
Zealot
Authors: Dweck Yaacob
Published: May 2020

This chapter highlights Jacob Emden, who crafted Jacob Sasportas in his own image as a heresy hunter in the middle of the eighteenth century. The transmission of anti-Sabbatian ideas from Jacob Sasportas to Jacob Emden constitutes a crucial period in the formation of the early modern Jewish zealot. As his battle with chief rabbi Jonathan Eibeschütz continued to rage, Emden printed a new edition of Sasportas's Kitzur zizath novel zvi (The Fading Flower of the Zevi). This edition appeared at a particularly fraught time in Emden's life. He turned to Sasportas as a precedent in two of his primary battles: against the Eibeschütz party in Altona-Hamburg-Wandsbek and against the Frankist movement in Poland. To these elective affinities with Sasportas—a common name, a common city, and a common enemy—one can add a few others: an acute sensitivity to the printed word, a pronounced sense of entitlement derived from a combination of lineage and learning, and a peripatetic lifestyle as a result of financial and communal difficulties.
Debt
Authors: Folch Christine
Published: May 2020

This chapter uncovers the development of the Itaipú debt. It begins with the historical development of the debt and the transformation wrought on state institutions as Eletrobras metamorphosed into a creditor, uncovering how the multiplex nature of state institutions is connected to renewable energy requirements. A “multiplex” is a channel or circuit along which multiple signals are simultaneously sent, an analogy from telegraphy that applies to the Itaipú debt. After piecing together a biography of the debt, the chapter turns to a more ethnographic exploration of how Itaipú debt origin stories function based on ideas of interest. It also explains how the infrastructure of renewable energy and hydroelectric potential serve as state-owned collateral.
Conclusion
Authors: Folch Christine
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about future possibilities relating to the Itaipú Binational Dam. In 2023, important parts of the binational treaty must be renegotiated, and the financial arrangements are once again up for grabs. That year, unless an additional US$4 billion in debt is discovered, the massive construction debt will be paid off. But it is unclear how this will affect the tariff. If the present tariff formula holds and energy production costs are the limits for the energy price, the tariff will plummet by more than 60 percent. Energy experts are concerned that this will lead to haphazard energy waste by the largest consumers, rather than a strategic industrialization plan. On the other hand, politicians in the Paraguayan executive and legislative have begun discussions on what to do with US$1 billion more in royalties. But the hydrostate history of Itaipú illustrates the weaknesses in either transferring more energy rent to the Paraguayan government without enforceable development investment plans or of effectively subsidizing Paraguay's current electricity users, who are disproportionately wealthy, without implementing a strategy to increase energy access to the vast majority of Paraguay.
Introduction
Authors: Cardaliaguet Pierre , Delarue François , Lasry Jean-Michel , Lions Pierre-Louis
Published: May 2020

This chapter provides a background on recent advances in the theory of mean field games (MFGs). MFGs has met an amazing success since pioneering works of more than ten years ago. It gives a self-contained study of the so-called master equation and an answer to the convergence problem. MFGs should be understood as games with a continuum of players, each of them interacting with the whole statistical distribution of the population. In this regard, they are expected to provide an asymptotic formulation for games with finitely many players with mean field interaction. This chapter focuses on the converse problem, which may be formulated by confirming whether the equilibria of the finite games converge to a solution of the corresponding MFG as the number of players becomes very large.
Mean Field Game System with a Common Noise
Authors: Cardaliaguet Pierre , Delarue François , Lasry Jean-Michel , Lions Pierre-Louis
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about the unique solvability of the mean field games (MFGs) system with common noise. In terms of a game with a finite number of players, the common noise describes some noise that affects all the players in the same way, so that the dynamics of one given particle reads a certain master equation. It explains the use of the standard convention from the theory of stochastic processes that consists in indicating the time parameter as an index in random functions. Using a continuation like argument instead of the classical strategy based on the Schauder fixed-point theorem, this chapter investigates the existence and uniqueness of a solution. It discusses the effect of the common noise in randomizing the MFG equilibria so that it becomes a random flow of measures.
The Second-Order Master Equation
Authors: Cardaliaguet Pierre , Delarue François , Lasry Jean-Michel , Lions Pierre-Louis
Published: May 2020

This chapter investigates the second-order master equation with common noise, which requires the well-posedness of the mean field game (MFG) system. It also defines and analyzes the solution of the master equation. The chapter explains the forward component of the MFG system that is recognized as the characteristics of the master equation. The regularity of the solution of the master equation is explored through the tangent process that solves the linearized MFG system. It also analyzes first-order differentiability and second-order differentiability in the direction of the measure on the same model as for the first-order derivatives. This chapter concludes with further description of the derivation of the master equation and well-posedness of the stochastic MFG system.
Jacob Sasportas and Jewish Messianism
Authors: Dweck Yaacob
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on Jacob Sasportas and Jewish Messianism. A rabbi in the Western Sephardic diaspora, Sasportas emerged in 1665 as one of the few opponents to the Jewish Messiah named Sabbetai Zevi. In his response to Sabbatianism, Sasportas held up a series of texts as sources of authority to counter the immediate religious experience of the Sabbatians. He repeatedly emphasized an imperative to doubt and beseeched the recipients of his letters to question the certainty of their messianic sensibility. Documents, not enthusiasm, were what counted to him, and, according to the Jewish textual tradition, Sabbetai Zevi was not behaving as a messiah should. When the Sabbatians answered back citing sources of their own, Sasportas took a closer, critical look and proved them fabricated.
Exeuntes de corpore qui sumus? “Out of the Body, Who Are We?”
Authors: Brown Peter
Published: May 2020

This chapter charts an epochal change in how life beyond the grave was imagined as the Mediterranean world Christianized in the late antique period. Heaven was a dwelling place not just for the great and good, who after death found a place for themselves as stars in the firmament. It was, rather, a testing ground for all souls, striving to purge themselves of sin and to draw closer to God. The living were in a position to speed that journey along, reciting prayers for the dead and giving alms. From this perspective, it behooved one and all, and not just the mighty, to be generous, and so alms giving entered into the habits of the everyday, ritual practice, thus evolving in response to changing notions about the afterlife.
In the Church and at Home
Authors: Pizzigoni Caterina
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses ritual change in colonial Mexico. The arrival of the Spaniards catalyzed the transformation. They brought with them a new faith and a matching package of ritual practices, not least among them the veneration of saints. Indigenous populations themselves had strong beliefs about the right layout of the home and the place of sacred objects within it. They absorbed the cult of the saints into their own frame of understanding, welcoming images of Jesus and Mary into the household first and then more personalized figures over time. All the while, Spanish officials policed how the images were fabricated and made use of in order to ensure that there was no straying from orthodox belief. From this encounter, sometimes repressive though not always so, a “new cult” was formed, the absorption of imported rituals over time enfolding indigenous peoples into a new system of belief—Christianity.
An Ordinary Soviet Death
Authors: Smolkin Victoria
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes the timing and motivations of the USSR's promotion of atheist doctrine. At the outset, it seems, the Soviets expected Orthodoxy to wither away, invalidated by rational argument and the regime's own record of socialist achievement. This did not happen, but Soviet officialdom did not take full cognizance of the fact until the 1950s and 1960s at the height of the Cold War. Then it was that the Soviet Union's confrontation with the West came to be recast in religious terms as an epic battle between atheist communism on the one hand and on the other that self-styled standard-bearer of the Judeo-Christian tradition, the United States. So, here indeed, in Soviet atheism, is a secular church militant—doctrinally armed, fortified by the concentrated power of the modern state, and, as many believed, with the wind of history at its back. It speaks the language of liberation, but what it delivers is something much darker. The chapter then considers the place of ritual in the Soviet secularist project.
To Lead and to Know
Authors: Hammer Juliane
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the training of Muslim community leaders as advocates against domestic violence (DV). The imam trainings and interviews with these leaders illustrate the tension between their claims to religious authority and their lack of knowledge about DV, which is borne out in their interactions with one another and with the (mostly female) leaders of the imam training sessions. There is an evident tension in the ways in which speaking out about DV draws leaders into the vortex of discussing marriage and family and through that, inevitably, gender roles. There is risk involved in speaking about DV because doing so can pose a threat to their communal authority. On the other hand, if a community is in support of anti-DV efforts, not taking leadership on the issue can also undermine leadership roles and authority. Thus, imams and scholars walk a fine line of negotiating their leadership roles and authority in relation to the textual interpretations and arguments for peaceful families they put forward.
Introduction
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of democracy. Democracy draws much of its political and philosophical support from its claim to be the form of government in which citizens rule equally. It has long been associated, however imperfectly and incompletely, with political equality of citizens. Indeed, the greatest and most profound advances of democracy have been rejections of political inequalities: the demand that the “common born,” the propertyless, and the poor; racial minorities; and women were among those with whom citizens were obliged to share in rule equally. Democracy's claim to moral superiority as a regime draws from its claim to be the political reflection and expression of this equality among citizens. This book then offers a full account of political equality: an account that can help guide people's choices between electoral and law-making institutions and practices.
Equality as a Social Ideal
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses how the ideal of equal status connects to democratic aspirations, and why people should take that ideal seriously. Equality of status constitutes, and is constituted by, relations of an egalitarian kind. When people mutually recognize one another's equal status, they put themselves in an egalitarian relation. However, there are further connections between status equality and egalitarian relations, in that the recognition of equal status in various respects helps promote relationships among citizens free of hierarchy, domination, servility, and the like. These further connections are contingent, depending upon truths of empirical sociology and psychology—about how, in fact, humans tend to respond to certain social conditions, like material or political inequality. A similar structure holds for the ideal of political equality. The shared status of “democratic citizen” is constituted by a range of expectations that regulate institutions and individual practices. That status is properly recognized when institutions and practices meet those expectations. When citizens mutually recognize one another's status, they thereby engage in, and promote, valuable egalitarian political relations.
Democratic Authority and Appropriate Consideration
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains what it is to have authority in general, and why authority claims are the relevant subject matter of a theory of political equality. This requires a different conception of authority from that often used by political philosophers when discussing a different species of authority—that is, the authority of a state or government over its citizens. The conception of authority must recognize diverse ways in which one can obligate others to deliberate and act in response to one's own judgments about what to do. The chapter then introduces claims to consideration as constituting a form of authority of this flexible kind, and describes the different forms consideration can take. It then illustrates why people should see a demand for consideration as an appropriate expression of citizens' authority, or as a form of respect for citizens' political jurisdiction.
Judicial Review
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses whether judicial review of legislation is compatible with political equality. Judicial review typically involves the right of some group of judges—often with very distant, if any, electoral authorization—to overturn acts of elected legislative authorities. In empowering the unelected over the elected, many lawyers, philosophers, and ordinary citizens believe that such review is undemocratic. The chapter argues that a well-designed system of judicial review could be compatible with political equality, despite the institutional inequalities it involves, if such review reliably promotes the consideration of citizens' judgments that would otherwise be neglected by the legislative process. Notably, this is not an argument that judicial review is justified because it protects individual rights from democratic abuse. It is an argument that judicial review is justified because it contributes to a regime that as a whole better instantiates political equality than would a regime without such review. However, the systems of judicial review in place in the United States and elsewhere likely require reform if they are to meet this standard.
Decentralization in One Valley
Authors: Offner Amy C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about decentralization, which was in fact an enduring and characteristic form of government in the Americas by the time of the Great Depression. It was reimagined and redeployed twice during the subsequent years, first as a developmentalist prescription to expand the responsibilities of weak states, and later as an instrument to break down established state functions. During the 1980s, Colombian economist Eduardo Wiesner had served as the Western Hemisphere director for the International Monetary Fund (IMF), pushing through structural adjustment programs throughout the region. By the 1990s, he was an advisor to the World Bank and an international authority on state decentralization. The power and example of decentralized corporations have reordered the political economy of the region and the very terms in which political economy was discussed.
Private Homes and Economic Orders
Authors: Offner Amy C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses private homes in Latin America. The largest housing project built in Latin America under the Alliance for Progress was a private homeownership venture. Ciudad Kennedy, or Kennedy City, grew up on the outskirts of Bogotá during the early 1960s, a sprawling complex of private homes and apartments designed to house 84,000 people. The promise of private property ownership fascinated everyone involved in the undertaking. Nearly four decades later, an original resident of Superblock 7 explained the origins of his neighborhood by digging up a newspaper ad from 1962. Ciudad Kennedy became an international exemplar of “aided self-help housing,” a characteristic policy of mid-century developmentalism. Deployed in mixed economies worldwide, the program assigned governments the tasks of titling land, extending mortgage loans, supplying materials, and supervising construction while recipients built the housing and became property owners.
Black Land
Authors: Nurhussein Nadia
Published: May 2020

This is the first book to explore how African American writing and art engaged with visions of Ethiopia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As the only African nation, with the exception of Liberia, to remain independent during the colonization of the continent, Ethiopia has long held significance for and captivated the imaginations of African Americans. The book delves into nineteenth- and twentieth-century African American artistic and journalistic depictions of Ethiopia, illuminating the increasing tensions and ironies behind cultural celebrations of an African country asserting itself as an imperial power. It navigates texts by Walt Whitman, Paul Laurence Dunbar, Pauline Hopkins, Harry Dean, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, George Schuyler, and others, alongside images and performances that show the intersection of African America with Ethiopia during historic political shifts. From a description of a notorious 1920 Star Order of Ethiopia flag-burning demonstration in Chicago to a discussion of the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie as Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1935, the book illuminates the growing complications that modern Ethiopia posed for American writers and activists. American media coverage of the African nation exposed a clear contrast between the Pan-African ideal and the modern reality of Ethiopia as an antidemocratic imperialist state: Did Ethiopia represent the black nation of the future, or one of an inert and static past? Revising current understandings of black transnationalism, the book presents a well-rounded exploration of an era when Ethiopia's presence in African American culture was at its height.
Recognizing the Ethiopian Flag
Authors: Nurhussein Nadia
Published: May 2020

This chapter uncovers the beginnings of a more grounded Ethiopianism in its treatment of nineteenth-century lyric verse by Walt Whitman, Paul Laurence Dunbar, and others written on the topic of Ethiopia, when abstract Ethiopianism was a prominent ideology in African America. It addresses the politics of Walt Whitman's poem, particularly in the poem's “recognition” of the Ethiopian flag, in light of the press's treatment of the Anglo-Abyssinian conflict. Paul Laurence Dunbar's interpretation of the Ethiopian flag's symbolic value, in “Ode to Ethiopia” and “Frederick Douglass,” positions him uncomfortably alongside Whitman, a poet he found distasteful. His poems present an “Ethiopia” invigorated with nationalism and, unexpectedly, with militarism. The chapter also talks about two poems about Emperor Tewodros by women: “Magdala,” which appeared in the 1875 book Songs of the Year and Other Poems by “Charlton,” and “The Death of King Theodore,” in E. Davidson's 1874 The Death of King Theodore and Other Poems.
Imperial Embellishment
Authors: Nurhussein Nadia
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the case of Harry Foster Dean, whose “The Pedro Gorino: The Adventures of a Negro Sea-Captain in Africa and on the Seven Seas in His Attempts to Found an Ethiopian Empire” recounts the tale of his ambition to build a black empire in Africa. Dean's effort led one of the major British participants in the Scramble for Africa to call him “the most dangerous ‘negro’ in the world.” The chapter also addresses the unofficial diplomatic role of William Henry Ellis, a flashy African American millionaire and the first American to visit with Emperor Menelik in 1903. Ellis was not the only African American to visit Abyssinia prior to the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. In 1922, A'Lelia Walker, daughter of the famed Madame C. J. Walker and host of a Harlem Renaissance salon, visited Empress Zauditu. Ellis did his best to curry favour with Emperor Menelik but was rumored to be planning to oust the emperor in order to take his seat on the throne.
Claude McKay and the Display of Aristocracy
Authors: Nurhussein Nadia
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks into Claude McKay's “Amiable with Big Teeth: A Novel of the Love Affair between the Communists and the Poor Black Sheep of Harlem,” which was written during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. McKay's novel hinges upon the question of what it means to be an “authentic” Ethiopian imperial representative. It focuses on one of the novel's characters, Alamaya, who admits cagily that a signed letter from the emperor establishing his bona fides “was authentic but not genuine”; later, as part of a scheme to raise funds for the Ethiopian cause, Alamaya and his secret communist colleague “invent” an Ethiopian princess by costuming a local Harlem woman. But in fact, it was Professor Koazhy, a costumed figure modeled after Marcus Garvey, and not the meek visiting Ethiopian prince Alamaya, who proves to be the “authentic” Ethiopian prince. The chapter also explains how the existence of a centralized Ethiopian empire would challenge the viability of an imagined extra-imperial network of black internationalism.
Conclusion
Authors: Nurhussein Nadia
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on Langston Hughes's dedicatory poem to Haile Selassie, which expresses the existence of a centralized Ethiopian empire that would actually challenge the viability of an imagined extra-imperial network of black internationalism by the 1960s. The poem expresses not only an awestruck veneration but the familiar bafflement regarding the seeming dissonance between modernity and antiquity, between the modern business suit and the archaic scroll. Imperial events such as the business suit only serve to exaggerate the apparent disjuncture between the modern and the ancient, as Addison E. Southard said of the coronation decades. Representatives gathered from all corners of the country for the occasion results in the spectacle of “modern civilization cheek by jowl with medievalism.” The allegorical significance of the business suit illustrates imperial Ethiopia's impulse to Westernize in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
To Fork or Not to Fork
Authors: Dunbar-Hester Christina
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores what diversity advocacy builds in terms of techniques of governance and sociality to support a subaltern counterpublic and to speak back to a wider collectivity of open-technologists. It illustrates the painstaking local-ness of many infrastructural interventions. The chapter also argues that the practices of diversity advocates are essentially an extension of the geek practice of argument by technology, an outgrowth of the “rough consensus and running code” ethos that defines free software development. But the interventions are not technical in the sense of code itself; they are hacks of open-technology communities themselves, which directly flow from practitioners' habit of reflective technical engagement. Diversity advocates are attentive to the layers of sociality that form the architecture of their congregation: they seek to re-engineer the structures that undergird their communities and their practices.
Crafting and Critique
Authors: Dunbar-Hester Christina
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines hacking infrastructures on a more literal artifactual level. It describes what is being produced in sites of diversity advocacy, including code and craft. It argues that the significance of much of this material production is symbolic identity work; care is manufactured as much as things. Although this chapter takes seriously the material aspects of the practices and artifacts under consideration, it emphasizes that the products' primary significance arises from their symbolic dimensions. Rather than standing alone as material products or practices, they represent a range of critical stances formulated in reaction to mainstream open-technology communities. It is very similar to the “recursive public” discussed by Christopher Kelty, whose members participate in “reorienting knowledge and power” around technology, and through their practices create a community.
Conclusion: Overcoming Diversity
Authors: Dunbar-Hester Christina
Published: May 2020

This chapter assess the potentials and limitations of diversity advocacy in open-technology as a site for claiming equal rights, and as a quest for representation. It also evaluates the market logics that accompany advocacy. It reflects on the challenges inherent in centering a project that insists on a redress of imbalances of power around technology, arguing for a project of justice and equity that ironically decenters technology as a primary axis of intervention. The chapter argues that while voluntaristic tech communities cannot singlehandedly attain the scale of the endeavors they hope their interventions will address, they are well-positioned to offer care and analysis that can set a more expansive, yet more rigorous, agenda. It explores a variety of diversity advocates' interventions, which include changing rules and norms in open-technology communities, creating separate spaces for feminist hacking, bringing to the surface other political concerns like militarism and colonialism, and questioning the makeup of open-technology communities.
Loneliness
Authors: Christoff Alicia Mireles
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about how people learn to feel alone and sustained, rather than alone and persecuted, lost, adrift, untethered. On loneliness and character in Tess of the D'Urbervilles, the chapter describes the way people internalize novelistic structures and come to feel like literary characters. Like Tess, readers imagine that others are with them, narrating and experiencing their lives alongside them, even when they are alone. Alone with others, Tess introduces a notion of paradoxical solitude that D. W. Winnicott would explicitly theorize more than half a century later, as a fact of psychic life in his essay “The Capacity to Be Alone.” The chapter also shows how Thomas Hardy anticipates Winnicott's theory of relational solitude by making and unmaking his character Tess, who becomes an existence, an experience, a passion, a structure of sensations—an internalized presence—to her readers as much as to herself, and who seems to likewise sense the presence of the narrator and the reader in the world of the story.
Denotation
Authors: Freedgood Elaine
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes how realism recuperates reference in the realm of the fictional, offering a kind of epistemological safety net for the awkward and awful stuff it regularly represents. It provides an open circuit between fictionality and reference that can never be closed. But only in the age of realism, and in the realistic works that continue to be written in its modernist and postmodernist wake, do critics believe so firmly and earnestly in reference. The chapter also talks about “realism” and reflects the problems of Roland Barthes's “referential illusion” under that generic tarpaulin. But this open circuit provides a denotational metalepsis: a rupture of one level into another—the realm of the factual and the material into the realm of the fictional.
Patient Care under Uncertainty
Authors: Manski Charles F.
Published: May 2020

Although uncertainty is a common element of patient care, it has largely been overlooked in research on evidence-based medicine. This book strives to correct this glaring omission. Applying the tools of economics to medical decision making, the book shows how uncertainty influences every stage, from risk analysis to treatment, and how this can be reasonably confronted. In the language of econometrics, uncertainty refers to the inadequacy of available evidence and knowledge to yield accurate information on outcomes. In the context of health care, a common example is a choice between periodic surveillance or aggressive treatment of patients at risk for a potential disease, such as women prone to breast cancer. While these choices make use of data analysis, the book demonstrates how statistical imprecision and identification problems often undermine clinical research and practice. Reviewing prevailing practices in contemporary medicine, the book discusses the controversy regarding whether clinicians should adhere to evidence-based guidelines or exercise their own judgment. It also critiques the wishful extrapolation of research findings from randomized trials to clinical practice. Exploring ways to make more sensible judgments with available data, to credibly use evidence, and to better train clinicians, the book helps practitioners and patients face uncertainties honestly. It concludes by examining patient care from a public health perspective and the management of uncertainty in drug approvals. The book explains why predictability in the field has been limited and furnishes criteria for more cogent steps forward.
Reasonable Care under Uncertainty
Authors: Manski Charles F.
Published: May 2020

This chapter develops decision-theoretic principles for reasonable care under uncertainty. It discusses some reasonable ways to choose among undominated actions. When addressing this issue, decision theorists have distinguished three primary situations regarding information that a decision maker may or may not have beyond specification of the state space: decisions with rational expectations, maximization of subjective expected utility, and decisions under ambiguity. When making a choice under ambiguity, a reasonable way to act is to use a decision criterion that achieves adequate performance in all states of nature. There are multiple ways to formalize this idea. The two most commonly studied are the maximin and minimax-regret (MR) criteria.
Conclusion
Authors: Manski Charles F.
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter provides suggestions that encourage putting the themes of the book into practice. It returns to the question from Chapter 1: “Should clinicians adhere to guidelines or exercise judgment?” The chapter cautions against universal adherence to guidelines. Motivated by some of these considerations, the chapter considers separating two tasks of guideline development that have commonly been performed in conjunction. One task is to characterize medical knowledge. The other is to make recommendations for patient care. An alternative to having guidelines make care recommendations would be to enhance the ability of clinicians to make reasonable patient care decisions under uncertainty.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Christian , Ritz Bridget , Rotolo Michael
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter describes the research approach to the question, “How do religious parents in the United States approach the task of passing on their religious faith and practice to their children?” It then goes further to consider the implications of the question on theories of culture and how it works. The chapter suggests two different answers to these questions, one substantive and one theoretical. Substantively, it shows how American religious parents tackle the challenge of intergenerational religious transmission to children. Theoretically, the chapter reveals what an inquiry into that substantive concern can teach about the nature and operation of culture more generally.
Pisones
Authors: Ferriss-Hill Jennifer
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the Pisones, the persons to whom the Ars Poetica is addressed. It argues that Horace subjects the Pisones to a far less gentle handling than has been generally acknowledged, and one in line with his aggressive treatment at times of addressees and other figures in his Satires and Epistles. In dedicating his poem to a unit consisting of a father and two sons, Horace is able to make the father–son relationship a central narrative strand of the Ars Poetica and, with it, the theme of teaching. Ultimately, the chapter sees Horace presenting a studied evolution of his poetic persona from student-son in the Satires, written at the beginning of his career, in which one witnesses him receiving teachings from his own father, to teacher-father in the Ars Poetica, written at his career's end. From behind his masks of senex and pater, Horace instructs and helps to shape the Piso boys (and the general reader), as his own father had done for the poet's youthful persona in Satires.
The End of the Poem
Authors: Ferriss-Hill Jennifer
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses the end of Horace's Ars Poetica. In considering the poem's final lines, the chapter returns to its opening ones, showing how they are linked through a concern with the visual and with making and creating in numerous manifestations. It proposes that the Ars Poetica be read as an ars poiētikē, art of creating, for Horace's interests lie in the overlap of all human pursuits. The source of Latin poetica—and with it “poet,” “poem,” and “poetry”—the Greek verb poiein is rather more wide ranging in its senses, encompassing “make, produce, bring into existence, cause, and do,” that is, making and creating in a multitude of forms. In addition, in concluding the Ars Poetica by indulging himself in a flight of the sublime, Horace ends the poem's conversation on creative endeavor by revealing definitively his superior and unmatchable mastery of the literary art.
The Nature Cure
Authors: Macdonald John , Branas Charles , Stokes Robert
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks at interventions for land and open spaces and their impact on public health and safety. Abandoned, vacant, and neglected land is of great and growing concern in many cities. The chapter considers recent efforts to address this sort of land-based blight and how planners can partner with scientists to implement and evaluate land-remediation and zoning strategies to best improve public health and safety. In many ways, these changes represent the innate human desire for nature and green spaces. Without action from planners and landscape architects, such natural spaces would not exist in many of the cities. The chapter then showcases several studies that provide evidence that the mere presence of green spaces have healing and calming effects, an effect that occurs even if residents do not actively use these spaces. Indeed, there have been myriad efforts over the past decade or so by cities to revisit and reinvigorate their green and open-space planning efforts. Much of this effort has been to insert managed green spaces into smaller parcels and equitably distribute them across neighborhoods that lack access to larger green spaces. This pocket-park movement has economic drivers but, in some cities, also seeks to leverage the likely health benefits to local residents.
Creating a Constitution
Authors: Carugati Federica
Published: May 2020

We live in an era of constitution-making. More than half of the world's constitutions have been drafted in the past half-century. Yet, one question still eludes theorists and practitioners alike: how do stable, growth-enhancing constitutional structures emerge and endure? This book argues that ancient Athens offers a unique laboratory for exploring this question. Because the city-state was reasonably well-documented, smaller than most modern nations, and simpler in its institutional makeup, the case of Athens reveals key factors of successful constitution-making that are hard to flesh out in more complex settings. The book demonstrates that the institutional changes Athens undertook in the late fifth century BCE, after a period of war and internal strife, amounted to a de facto constitution. The constitution restored stability and allowed the democracy to flourish anew. The analysis of Athens' case reveals the importance of three factors for creating a successful constitution: first, a consensus on a set of shared values capable of commanding long-term support; second, a self-enforcing institutional structure that reflects those values; and, third, regulatory mechanisms for policymaking that enable tradeoffs of inclusion to foster growth without jeopardizing stability. The book is an account of how political and economic goals that we normally associate with Western developed countries were once achieved through different institutional arrangements.
Introduction
Authors: Carugati Federica
Published: May 2020

This chapter combines tools and methodologies from institutional analysis, political economy, and history. It argues that the creation of a stable, growth-enhancing constitution requires a set of steps. These include a consensus on a shared set of values capable of commanding support over time, a self-enforcing institutional structure that reflects those values, and regulatory mechanisms for policy-making that enable trade-offs of inclusion. By trade-off of inclusion, it means a process whereby institutional access is extended differentially across the domains of politics, economics, law, and society to increase prosperity without jeopardizing stability. The chapter aims to weave strands of the literature to provide a theoretically rigorous and empirically new account of constitutional emergence and endurance. It also connects the study of constitutions to the study of the conditions that foster political and economic development.
The Institutional Foundations of Prosperity
Authors: Carugati Federica
Published: May 2020

This chapter shows that the available evidence for fiscal and economic policy is consistent with the model's predictions. It emphasizes that fiscal and economic policy reflects growth-enhancing, innovative departures from the status quo, but departures crafted with an eye to preserving the balance of power among domestic actors. Throughout the fourth century, the Athenians sought to regulate the burden of taxation on the elite. But regulating elite taxation made it even harder for the state to generate revenues in a post-imperial era. In the first half of the century, the Athenians sought to extract rents from abroad while developing market incentives at home. After the defeat in the Social War from 357 to 355 ruled out the coercion option, the Athenians sought to intensify the exploitation of domestic natural resources, most notably the harbor of Piraeus and the Laurion silver mines. But in order to intensify the exploitation of Piraeus and Laurion, the polis had to provide incentives to those actors that were primarily involved in such exploitation. As a result, forms of access to social, legal, and economic institutions were extended to selected categories of noncitizens.
Suburban Showdown
Authors: Massey Douglas S. , Albright Len , Casciano Rebecca , Derickson Elizabeth , Kinsey David N.
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes in great detail the Mount Laurel court case and the controversy it generated. It takes a closer look at the emotion and controversy surrounding Mount Laurel's opposition to the Ethel Lawrence Homes as a prelude to the systematic study on the effects of neighbors, the community, and tenants. In 1967 Ethel Lawrence joined with other local residents to form the Springville Community Action Committee, which was established with the explicit goal of bringing subsidized housing to Mount Laurel. The non-profit obtained seed money from the State of New Jersey and in 1968 optioned a 32-acre parcel in Springville, along Hartford Road, and began drawing up plans to build thirty-six two- and three-bedroom garden apartments affordable to low-income renters. This was the genesis of the suburban showdown that became regional and then national news and led to the landmark New Jersey Supreme Court ruling establishing what became known as “the Mount Laurel Doctrine.”
Field of Dreams
Authors: Massey Douglas S. , Albright Len , Casciano Rebecca , Derickson Elizabeth , Kinsey David N.
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes the construction, organization, and physical appearance of Ethel Lawrence Homes (EHL) and assesses the aesthetics relative to other housing in the area. Bringing affordable housing to her hometown of Mount Laurel was very much Ethel Lawrence's dream. She never gave up the fight for affordable housing in Mount Laurel and the entire state of New Jersey has benefitted from it. Although Ethel Lawrence participated in all of the litigation and court hearings and was active in the early phases of project planning, her health declined in the 1990s and she passed away in July of 1994 at the age of sixty-eight, with her dream of affordable housing in Mount Laurel still unrealized. In her honor the future housing project was baptized the “Ethel R. Lawrence Homes.”
All Things Considered
Authors: Massey Douglas S. , Albright Len , Casciano Rebecca , Derickson Elizabeth , Kinsey David N.
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers the effects of Ethel Lawrence Homes (EHL) on the ethos of suburban life. It draws on a representative survey and selected interviews with neighbors living in surrounding residential areas, which show that despite all the agitation and emotion before the fact, once the project opened, the reaction of neighbors was surprisingly muted, with nearly a third not even realizing that an affordable housing development existed right next door. The chapter takes a closer look at community perceptions of the EHL project ten years after its controversial origins. It considers not what actual data and statistics tell about the project's consequences for the community but focuses instead on what those who live in surrounding neighborhoods believe the consequences to have been. It analyzes the responses from the neighborhoods that commented about the EHL and explores their perceptions of its inhabitants, but before doing so the chapter provides information on the contrasting social backgrounds of community residents and EHL tenants.
Reputation
Authors: Origgi Gloria
Published: May 2020

Reputation touches almost everything, guiding our behavior and choices in countless ways. But it is also shrouded in mystery. Why is it so powerful when the criteria by which people and things are defined as good or bad often appear to be arbitrary? Why do we care so much about how others see us that we may even do irrational and harmful things to try to influence their opinion? The author of this book draws on philosophy, social psychology, sociology, economics, literature, and history to offer an illuminating account of an important yet oddly neglected subject. Filled with surprising insights, the book pins down an elusive subject that affects us all.
Income
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This chapter shows that, while happiness is not the same with income, income still affects happiness. Indeed, the effect of income on happiness is one of the best-measured effects in all happiness research. It presents the evidence to this effect. Again, the chapter begins with evidence from the British Cohort Study, mostly cross-sectional. It then goes on to time-series data on individuals drawn from three panel studies for Britain, Germany, and Australia, as well as cross-section data on the United States. The chapter also examines the key role of social comparisons and adaptation, before tracing how the income factor is determined by earlier childhood experiences.
Crime
Authors: Machin Stephen J.
Published: May 2020

This chapter takes a look at crime. Crime is a problem, both for the criminal and for the community. For the criminal it can lead to social exclusion and a life that fails to satisfy. For the community it reduces the quality of life. These are the effects of crime. However, the chapter reverses the usual order by looking first at the causes of crime. It studies the British Cohort Study data to find out the cause, revealing that problems in early childhood tends to produce more crime. Afterward, the chapter considers the issue in more depth, and attempts to examine the correlation between early childhood problems and early education. Finally, the chapter discusses the effects of crime, both on the individual criminal and on society as a whole.
Working Parents
Authors: Clark Andrew E. , Flèche Sarah , Layard Richard , Powdthavee Nattavudh , Ward George
Published: May 2020

This chapter takes a look at how working parents can affect their children, and how. Evidence from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) shows that, other things held constant (including income), mother's work has no marked effect, good or bad, on the emotional health of her children. However, the chapter goes further by exploring the behavioral effects on the child if they have a minder or some form of nursery care. The child's intellectual development is also explored. In addition to these, the chapter takes a look at the effects of unemployed parents on their children. ALSPAC provides clear unemployment data only on the fathers of the children and shows that this can have a critical effect on children's development. There are many channels through which this can work—via the parents' mood, family conflict, reduced aspirations, taunting at school, and simple loss of income.