bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
R (on the application of Miller and Cherry) v Prime Minister and Advocate General for Scotland [2019] UKSC 41, Supreme Court
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case note summarizes the facts and decision in R (on the application of Miller and Cherry) v Prime Minister and Advocate General for Scotland [2019] UKSC 41, Supreme Court. This case concerned the constitutional-legal limits on a Prime Minister’s capacity to advise the monarch to exercise their power to prorogue Parliament. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
Thoburn v Sunderland City Council [2002] EWHC 195 (Admin), Divisional Court
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in Thoburn v Sunderland City Council [2002] EWHC 195 (Admin), Divisional Court. This case introduced the concept of a ‘constitutional’ statute into UK jurisprudence. The case note reflects on the consequences of this. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
11. Equality and non-discrimination
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines equality and non-discrimination in international human rights law. It discusses the provisions of human rights laws, conventions, and declarations, and emerging grounds of discrimination will also be considered. As human rights are focused on the individual, it is perhaps not surprising that there are many people who are disadvantaged or marginalized in the enjoyment of their rights and freedoms due to the intersecting of two or more grounds of discrimination. The chapter suggests that there is a link between the concepts of equality and that of non-discrimination, and that the rule of non-discrimination is basically the negative restatement of the principle of equality.
12. Rights for specific vulnerable persons
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2022

Following on from the previous chapter on equality and non-discrimination, this chapter examines the additional systems of human rights protection in place for specific groups of people who are often disadvantaged and marginalized in societies. Six specific groups are considered: women, children, elderly, internally displaced persons, stateless persons, and refugees. It first explains why group rights evolved in a system of human rights that, from the outset, was supposed to be universal, and then discusses the particular needs of these groups, the evolving international and regional human rights framework, and the extent to which the legal framework addresses the needs of the group in question.
16. The right to an adequate standard of living
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the right to an adequate standard of living in international human rights law. This is an example of a socio-economic right. It has many components in international law and so this chapter discusses issues such as the right to housing, food, water, and social security. To some commentators this right is the realization of ‘freedom from want’ as it ensures the basic necessities of life. Some elements have been well litigated; housing and forced evictions, for example. Understanding and realization of other elements are still emerging. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a renewed understanding of the importance of the right to an adequate standard of living, especially housing and social security rights as well as the right to clean water.
20. Freedom of expression
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines freedom of expression in international human rights law. It discusses the freedom of the press and media; overlap with other rights (correspondence, privacy, and association); and some of the permissible exceptions to freedom of expression. Freedom of expression is more complex than perhaps first appears. There are many situations in which law is engaged to ensure an appropriate balance is struck between competing claims. There are also diverse views on the appropriateness of limiting the exercise of the freedom. The chapter concludes that the scope of the freedom of expression is still evolving and that international bodies are struggling with the challenges of the information technology age.
23. Human rights in practice: the COVID-19 pandemic
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2022

This chapter provides a case study of some of the implications in international human rights law of the SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 pandemic, considering positive obligations on States and obligations to work together, as well as a range of rights and freedoms including the right to the highest attainable standard of health, right to privacy, family rights, and freedom of movement. In contrast to earlier chapters which focused on one right/freedom or groups of rights holders, this chapter demonstrates the complexities of human rights in reality by overviewing some of the rights and freedoms engaged by the acts and omissions of governments responding to the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. The official institutions of the European Union
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter discusses the official institutions of the EU, covering the composition, functions, and powers of the European Parliament; the Council of the European Union; the Commission; the Court of Justice of the European Union; the European Council; the European Central Bank; and the Court of Auditors. This chapter also briefly discusses the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions; and addresses, where applicable, the immediate and potential impact of the Brexit referendum.
3. Sovereignty and sources of law
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter examines the principle of sovereignty of EU law and how the judicial application of the sovereignty principle has advanced EU integration. The chapter specifically considers the impact of EU membership on the UK’s sovereignty and how the principle has been applied by the UK courts. The chapter also discusses EU competences and the attribution of powers to the EU; the application of the principle of subsidiarity; the sources of EU law; and EU legislative procedures.
7. Challenging EU action or inaction
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter discusses the role of the Court of Justice in ensuring that the rule of law in the EU is observed both by Member States and EU Institutions. The chapter examines infringement actions under Article 258 TFEU, and financial penalties for Member States under Article 260 TFEU. The discussion of judicial review considers acts that may be challenged; who can bring an action under Article 263 TFEU; permissible applicants under Article 263 TFEU; non-privileged applicants; reforming the criteria for locus standi for non-privileged applicants. The chapter also explains the grounds for annulment; the effect of annulment; the plea of illegality; failure to act; and the relationship between Article 263 TFEU and Article 265 TFEU.
14. Competition law: Article 102 TFEU
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter focuses on Article 102 TFEU, which prohibits as incompatible with the internal market ‘any abuse by one or more undertakings of a dominant position within the internal market or in a substantial part of it … in so far as it may affect trade between Member States’. It also discusses the enforcement of Article 102 by the European Commission, national competition authorities, and national courts under powers conferred by Regulation 1/2003. Finally, it mentions the current impact of Brexit on EU competition law.
15. Enforcement of EU competition law
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter discusses the enforcement of EU competition law. It covers the enforcement regime; burden of proof; the relationship between Articles 101 and 102 TFEU, and national competition laws; cooperation with national authorities; cooperation with national courts; the powers of the competition authorities of the Member States; the European Commission’s powers; safeguards for undertakings; the 2006 Leniency Notice; and private enforcement, as well as the impact of Brexit on the enforcement of EU competition law.
14. Fiduciary relationships
Authors: Penner J E
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses the nature and scope of fiduciary relationships, the duties that govern them, and the remedies for breach. It begins by considering the fiduciary duty of loyalty and disentangling it from other duties of loyalty. Next, it considers the ‘no conflict’ principle; self dealing and fair dealing rules; the duty not to complete with one’s principal; the profit opportunity doctrine; the no-profit rule; and the proprietary and personal nature of the liability to account.
16. Restitution, unjust enrichment, and the law of trusts
Authors: Penner J E
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses the various ways in which the law of trusts can be seen to provide remedies that can be described as ‘restitutionary’, and whether any aspects of the law of trusts should be treated as part of the law of unjust enrichment. The areas of trust law where these issues have been most often raised: the law of resulting trusts, the law of tracing, and the law governing breach of trust, are discussed in detail.
6. Defences to negligence
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. The claimant has the burden of establishing liability for the tort while the defendant has the burden of establishing the defence. If the claimant establishes a successful cause of action in tort, the defendant must plead one (or more) of the defences available to him. If the defendant establishes a successful defence, either his liability for the damage may be reduced or he may be totally absolved from liability. This chapter examines general defences applicable to all torts but which have particular relevance to claims in negligence, focusing on contributory negligence, volenti non fit injuria, and ex turpi causa non oritur actio.
6. Involuntary manslaughter
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores the main types of involuntary manslaughter: unlawful act manslaughter, gross negligence manslaughter, and reckless manslaughter, as well as the offence of corporate manslaughter. Unlawful act manslaughter arises where the defendant intentionally commits an unlawful act which a reasonable person would recognise exposes the victim to the risk of some harm and the victim dies as a result. Gross negligence manslaughter arises where the defendant causes the death of the victim through the breach of a duty of care owed to that victim.
7. Confidentiality
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the legal and ethical aspects of medical confidentiality. The discussion includes the legal basis of confidentiality; defences to claims of breach of confidentiality; the Data Protection Act 1998; legal remedies in confidentiality cases; patient access to their own health information; and ethical arguments for and against confidentiality. Underpinning this chapter is the tension between requiring that a patient’s confidences are kept and the fact that sometimes there is an overwhelming reason why confidentiality needs to be breached. A further difficulty for this topic is that once confidentiality has been breached it can be very difficult to formulate an effective legal remedy.
11. Judge-made law
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers a further source of the UK constitution: the law that is made by the judicial branch of government as a result of the cases heard by the courts. Today it is widely accepted that judge-made law is a reality. It takes two main forms: the development of the common law and the interpretation of statutes. The two main approaches of the courts to the interpretation of Acts of Parliament—the literal approach and the purposive approach—are discussed. In addition, the interpretative obligation imposed on the courts by s 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998 is also reviewed.
16. Tribunals, inquiries, and the ombudsmen remedy
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins by distinguishing between tribunals and inquiries. A tribunal is a permanent body that sits periodically, while an inquiry is something which is established on an ad hoc basis. Tribunals are empowered to make decisions that are binding on those parties subject to their jurisdiction; inquiries generally do not have formal decision-making powers. Tribunals are concerned with matters of fact and law, whereas inquiries are concerned with wider policy issues. The discussion then turns to the reform of the tribunal system; the former Administrative Justice and Tribunals Council; the origins of ombudsmen; the Parliamentary Commissioner; ombudsmen of devolved institutions; the Health Service Commissioner; the Local Government Commissioners; ombudsmen and the courts; and proposals for a unified Public Service Ombudsman service.
20. Freedom of assembly and public order
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers laws governing freedom of assembly and public order in the UK. The discussion covers rights and freedoms, and the powers of the police to preserve the peace and maintain public order. The chapter examines the concept of a breach of the peace and the circumstances in which the police may take action to prevent a breach from occurring. The chapter also focuses on the Public Order Act 1986, including provisions on racially or religiously aggravated public order offences, and the control of public processions and assemblies. With regard to the latter, there is also some consideration as to how these public order powers are likely to be extended under the government’s Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Bill. Finally, the chapter examines statutory provisions specifically aimed at controlling or restricting demonstrations in the vicinity of Parliament.
2. Registered Land
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2022

This chapter offers a detailed account of how land registration operates under the Land Registration Act 2002 (LRA 2002). The LRA 2002 is the primary source of our title registration system and provides the statutory framework for the modern law. This chapter unpacks the LRA 2002 which governs land registration today: its objectives, mechanics, as well as exploring the implications of registration for the enforceability of interests in land. The chapter therefore first serves to clarify and cement the idea or the concept of registration before turning to examine more closely the nuts and bolts of how our contemporary registration system functions.
6. Interests in the Family Home
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2022

For many people, whether or not they enjoy an interest in the family home is fundamental to their sense of security, stability, and even their sense of self. However, a person may find themselves in a position where they are neither the registered legal owner of property nor do they enjoy an equitable interest under an express trust of land. This chapter examines how a person may acquire an interest in the family home through operation of the law of implied trusts: constructive and resulting trusts. It focuses on non-married, non-civilly partnered, cohabiting couples, or family members otherwise coming together to purchase property as a home. For these people, no legislation exists that gives courts jurisdiction to declare and adjust property interests. In this situation, the courts turn to the law of trusts to determine rights in the home, as this chapter explores.
3. The freehold estate
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

One of the most fundamental changes to land law made by the 1925 property legislation was the reduction of the number of legal estates in land to just two: the fee simple absolute in possession (freehold estate) and the term of years absolute (leasehold estate). This chapter focuses on the fee simple absolute in possession, which is the technical name for the freehold estate. It begins by considering each of the terms that make up the legal definition of legal freehold: the ‘fee simple absolute in possession’. Unless an estate satisfies each part of it, the estate cannot be a legal freehold, but must instead be an equitable interest in land. The discussions then turn to the creation and transfer of the legal freehold.
11. Trusts of land
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on what the law requires of trustees of land and how it protects the beneficiaries of those trusts. All trusts of land are now governed by the statutory framework set out in the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996. The Act sets out the rights and responsibilities of trustees, and the rights of beneficiaries, under a trust of land. Trustees have extensive powers over the land but have a duty to act in the interests of the beneficiaries, to consult them, and to give effect to their wishes where possible. The beneficiaries (with an interest in possession) have a right to occupy the land, although the trustees have the power, under certain circumstances, to restrict or exclude them from occupation. The chapter also discusses the powers of the court under TOLATA 1996, cases of bankruptcy, and the Settled Land Act 1925.
1. The UK Constitution
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2022

This chapter provides an introduction to the UK Constitution and sets out a foundation upon which discussions in later chapters further develop. It starts by exploring definitions of constitutions, placing the unique UK system within commonly accepted themes and characteristics. It then moves to explain the nature and form of the UK Constitution and some of the sources of which it is constructed, as well as exploring some of the more theoretical considerations as regards its character, including the way in which it is legitimised. The final section considers academic questions concerning whether or not the UK can be said to have a constitution, including discussion of the case for and against a codified system.
1. Introduction
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

The civil courts perform the important function of resolving disputes that cannot be resolved by agreement between the parties. This introductory chapter briefly sets out the book’s focus, namely the mechanics of how legal and equitable rights are asserted, determined, and enforced through the civil courts. It then discusses the legal profession, lawyers’ duties, initial instructions, confidentiality and conflict of interest, pre-action correspondence, and the main stages in court proceedings.
5. Pre-Action Protocols
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the pre-action protocols, which provide guidance on the exchange of information and evidence before proceedings are commenced. It covers the 14 pre-action protocols established by the Ministry of Justice; cases not covered by pre-action protocols; professional negligence pre-action protocol; personal injury protocol; different approaches to the appointment of experts; sanctions for non-compliance with protocols; the Road Traffic Act 1988; agreements with the Motor Insurers’ Bureau; and pre-action Part 36 offers.
16. Costs Management
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

Costs management refers to the procedures used by the courts to manage the steps to be taken in civil proceedings while also managing the costs to be incurred by the parties in taking those steps to ensure that litigation is conducted at proportionate cost. This chapter discusses the elements of costs management; cases governed by costs management; costs management orders; costs budgets and case management; judicial control of costs budgets; and impact on costs orders.
18. Requests for Further Information
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

A party may sometimes take the view that the statement of case provided by the other side is not as clear as it should be, or fails to set out the other side’s case with the precision that would be expected. In such cases a request may be made for further information about the facts on which the other side’s case is based. This chapter discusses the rules on requests for further information; the response; objecting to requests; orders for responses; requests in freezing injunctions; and collateral use.
32. Witness Statements, Affidavits, and Depositions
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the rules relating to the use of written evidence in civil proceedings. Under the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (CPR), evidence given in civil trials is given primarily from the witness box, but with witness statements exchanged well before trial standing as the evidence-in-chief of the witnesses. The parties are required to exchange their witnesses’ statements in order to save time and costs at trial, and to enable the parties to evaluate the merits of their dispute with a view to settlement. Written evidence in support of interim applications can be given by a variety of different methods, but the principal means is by way of signed witness statements.
35. Experts
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the principles governing the use of expert evidence in civil claims. It covers the admissibility of expert evidence; control of evidence; choice of expert; privileged nature of experts’ reports; disclosure of experts’ reports; written questions to experts; examinations by experts; experts’ immunity from suit; and use of experts’ reports after trial.
37. Sanctions
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

A court can impose sanctions to ensure that its case management directions and orders are complied with, and to retain control over the conduct of litigation. These range from adverse interim costs orders through to striking out the whole or part of the defaulting party’s statement of case. This chapter discusses sanctions for non-compliance with pre-action protocols, with the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (CPR), and with directions; application for sanctions; non-compliance with an unless order; striking out; less serious immediate sanctions; extending time and correcting errors; and relief from sanctions and setting aside.
45. Norwich Pharmacal and Related Disclosure Orders
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers a number of other special forms of disclosure orders, the best known of which is the Norwich Pharmacal order. Norwich Pharmacal orders are primarily used for finding the identity of an unknown potential defendant. They can only be sought against a person who facilitated and got ‘mixed up’ in the wrongdoing. Norwich Pharmacal orders therefore cannot be made against ‘mere witnesses’. Pre-action disclosure orders bring forward the time when disclosure of documents takes place to the period before a claim is issued. Disclosure against non-parties enables the court to order a witness to produce documents in advance of the trial, thus avoiding adjournments when documents are produced at the last minute at trial.
50. Appeals
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the structure of non-family civil appeals. It covers routes of appeal; permission to appeal; time for appealing; procedure on appealing; respondent’s notice; applications within appeals stay; striking out appeal notices and setting aside or imposing conditions; hearing of appeals; appeal court’s powers; appeals by way of case stated; and appeals to the Supreme Court.
6. Raising capital: debentures: fixed and floating charges
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses corporate borrowing through debentures or debenture stock, as well as fixed and floating charges that companies issue to creditors as security interests. It begins by outlining some important distinctions between the ability of small and large companies to raise loan capital. It then considers the priority of secured creditors and the registration requirements for charges, the issue of whether or not a fixed charge could be created over a company’s book debts, provisions for automatic crystallisation that converts the floating charge into an equitable fixed charge over company assets, and reform of security interests.
13. Corporate management
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter deals with corporate management, focusing on those individuals who are responsible for making key strategic decisions within the company, namely the members of the board of directors. It begins by tracing the emergence of the professional managerial organ, with emphasis on the separation of ownership and control and the recognition of directorial autonomy. It then considers the relationship between directors and the general meeting, how directors are appointed, categories of directors, principle and policy governing directors’ remuneration, and the fiduciary nature of the office. The issues surrounding corporate governance are also examined, along with the approach of company law in the UK with regards to the structure and functions of the board of directors. Finally, the chapter discusses vacation, removal from office, and disqualification of directors as well as recent statutory reforms (the Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Act 2015 and the Rating (Coronavirus) and Directors Disqualification (Dissolved Companies) Act 2021) aimed at bolstering the disqualification regime.
14. Directors’ duties
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter is concerned with the duties which a director owes to the company, including duty to act within powers, duty to promote the company’s success, duty to exercise independent judgement, duty not to accept benefits from third parties, and duty to avoid conflicts of interest. After reviewing the general duties of directors under Part 10 of the Companies Act 2006, the chapter discusses the fiduciary position of directors, the remedies for breach of directors’ duties, and the liability of those who assist a director in the course of a breach of fiduciary duty. Finally, it considers three ways in which a director who is in breach of duty may be relieved from liability.
17. Corporate rescue and liquidations in outline
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter deals with the regulatory regime governing corporate rescue and liquidations. It first considers two procedures that were introduced by the Insolvency Act 1986 aimed at implementing the objective of corporate rescue: the administration order and the company voluntary arrangement, the former of which has been fundamentally reformed by the Enterprise Act 2002. It then discusses voluntary winding-up by companies, members, and creditors under the 1986 Act, as well as the grounds on which the court may initiate compulsory winding-up. The chapter also examines the consequences of a winding-up petition on dispositions of company property; winding-up in the public interest; the duties and functions of the liquidator; provisions allowing avoidance of transactions entered into prior to liquidation; the personal liability of directors under the Insolvency Act 1986; and distribution of surplus assets following liquidation. Finally, it outlines a number of amendments to the 1986 Act.
2. The nature of a trust
Authors: McDonald Iain , Street Anne
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the nature of trusts. Trusts arise when the legal and equitable interests in property are divided. Trusts are either express or implied. An express trust can be either private or public. Private trusts are created for the benefit of private individuals or classes of individuals. Public trusts are trusts which will benefit members of the public. Implied trusts are those which are not expressly created. There are three broad types of implied trusts: resulting, constructive, and statutory.
7. Non-charitable purpose trusts
Authors: McDonald Iain , Street Anne
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses non-charitable purpose trusts. The beneficiary principle requires a valid trust to have human beneficiaries. Charitable trusts are the largest exception to the ‘beneficiary principle’. However, there are further ‘anomalous’ exceptions to this rule: 1) monuments: the erection and upkeep of monuments and graves; 2) animals: the upkeep of individual animals; and 3) masses: the saying of private masses. They are ‘gifts of imperfect obligation’ because the trustee does not have to carry out the obligations and there are no human beneficiaries to enforce it. Because they do not satisfy the beneficiary principle, and have no human beneficiary, the courts have taken a strict approach to the categories of purpose trusts.
12. Remedies for breach of trust
Authors: McDonald Iain , Street Anne
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. When property is held on trust, arising expressly or implied by law, any breach of the trustee/fiduciary obligation will lead to a remedy. This chapter explains the personal and proprietary remedies available to the claimant. A personal claim is one made against the trustee/fiduciary personally; it is not based upon the recipient having the property in their possession. A proprietary claim is based upon the defendant having the property or its replacement in their possession and being required to return it, or its substitute, to the claimant. The claimant, after identifying the breach, will often have the choice of which claim to make and there may be more than one possible remedy.
2. Actus reus
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter reviews the actus reus elements of criminal offence. The actus reus consists of prohibited conduct (acts or omissions), prohibited circumstances, and/or prohibited consequences (results). A person can be criminally liable for omissions at common law, but imposing this liability can be controversial. Causation is a key part of consequence/result crimes. The prosecution must prove that the result was caused by the defendant. In order to do this, the chain of causation must first be established, and then consideration must be given to any intervention which might break the chain.
10. Participation
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the liability of parties who participate in the criminal acts of others. Liability can be split into four parts: those who are accessories, those who are joint perpetrators, those who are vicariously liable, and those who are corporations. Accessories are those who aid, abet, counsel, or procure the commission of the principal offence. Participants who enter a joint venture (also known as a joint unlawful enterprise) are liable for the crimes committed as part of that venture, unless one of the parties deliberately departs from the agreed plan. The doctrine of vicarious liability has a (limited) role in the criminal law. A corporation is a legal person, so criminal liability can be imposed on a corporation for many (although not all) crimes.
11. General Defences
Authors: Dyer Dr Karen , Balan Dr Anil
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses general defences, covering key debates, sample questions, diagram answer plan, tips for getting extra marks, and online resources. To answer questions on this topic, students need to understand the following: the concept of negligence; the Occupier’s Liability Acts; the defence of volenti non fit injuria; the defence of contributory negligence and the Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945; and the defence of illegality—ex turpi causa non oritur action.
1. Family Life and the Law
Authors: Lamont Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores the nature of family life and the role of the law in family relationships to identify the particular challenges facing family lawyers. In particular, it considers how the law interacts with family life, how family relationships are identified in law, and what role the law plays in regulating family behaviour. The diversity and personalised experience of ‘family’ means that the role of the law in these processes is complex. There are two central issues facing family lawyers. First, the identification of a relationship as being one of ‘family’ for the purposes of the law is an important label, and may give rise to specific rights and obligations, even if the particular relationship bears no significance for the individual. Secondly, identifying the nature of the rights and obligations arising from a family relationship is central to determining the significance of the relationship.
12. Human Rights, Children’s Rights, and Family Law
Authors: Stalford Helen , Byrne Seamus , Yaqub Nazia
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores children’s rights in the context of family law and family life. It aims to look at family law through the lens of the human rights of children and the associated theoretical, doctrinal, and empirical scholarship. It begins with a brief overview of the international children’s rights framework underpinning this area, including the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the European Convention on Human Rights. It then points to some of the cultural, legal, and practical obstacles to the protection of children’s rights in the context of family law. The updated chapter responds to changes in the law arising as a result of Brexit and the recent legislative changes on corporal punishment across the different UK jurisdictions.
13. International Family Law
Authors: Lamont Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the legal framework governing family law with an international dimension. Given the migration of people and families between countries and legal systems, the management of family law disputes between these systems is an important issue. The chapter examines the sources of international family law, and how we connect people to particular legal systems to govern their dispute. It then considers the law in England and Wales on the recognition of marriage, jurisdiction over divorce, and disputes over children including international child abduction.
17. The remedies of the buyer
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter sets out the remedies available to the buyer under a contract of sale. Before the Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations 2002, these remedies comprised damages for non-delivery of the contract goods, specific performance, and damages for breach of warranty. In cases of breach of condition, the buyer generally has the right to reject the goods and repudiate the contract. Since implementation of the 2002 Regulations, a buyer who deals as consumer has additional remedies of repair, replacement, reduction in price, or rescission. These additional consumer remedies are discussed after a consideration of the remedies that are available to all buyers, including consumers, beginning with those remedies granted to a buyer where the seller fails to deliver the goods, or fails to deliver on time. Certain consumer contracts entered into after 1 October 2015 are governed by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, which is also discussed.
26. Forms of title-based financing
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the ways in which goods and things in action can be dealt with to facilitate the financing of business. It begins with a brief survey of the financing mechanisms available to businesses and proceeds to discuss receivables financing (or ‘factoring’), whereby a succession of debts owed to a business can either be sold outright or subjected to a security interest in favour of a financier, focusing specifically on outright sale. The chapter also discusses how the fact that title to an asset can be split between an ‘owner’ and a person with physical possession of it can be used to advantage in providing flexibility and tax advantages in financing the acquisition of capital items for use in a business through chattel leasing.
Additional Chapter Aspects of Commercial ADR
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

Although there is no formally agreed definition of alternative dispute resolution (ADR), it is generally accepted as including all methods of resolving disputes other than through formal litigation. The use of ADR has developed significantly over the past few decades and despite the use of the word ‘alternative’ it is now very much part of mainstream thinking in modern-day dispute resolution. The importance of ADR to civil actions was reinforced by the Civil Procedure Rules in 1998, which emphasized it as part of the overriding objective, encouraged at all stages of the dispute process, from pre-action to after litigation has commenced. This is reinforced by sanctions that a court can impose on a party which fails properly to embrace the process. The Review of Civil Litigation Costs carried out by Jackson LJ further promoted the importance and use of ADR. There are many different forms of ADR, both adjudicative and non-adjudicative. This chapter will focus on the use of mediation as a non-adjudicative form of ADR and the steps the courts take to require (rather than compel) the parties to attempt to resolve their disputes.
Additional Chapter: The UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods
Authors: Baskind Eric , Osborne Greg , Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter is intended to introduce the reader to the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods otherwise known as the ‘Vienna’ Convention or the ‘Convention of the International Sale of Goods (CISG). This chapter is intended to introduce the reader to the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods otherwise known as the ‘Vienna’ Convention or the ‘Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG). The chapter begins with a discussion of the scope and application of the convention along with the difficulties with its interpretation and the problem of ensuring consistency across all jurisdictions. It then deals with the substantive provisions of the convention covering offer and acceptance, resolving the battle of the forms and variation of contract. It then details the rights, duties and remedies of the parties especially where these differ from English law, for example in relation to the seller’s right to cure, and the right to reduce the price in the event of breach and particularly the limitations on the right of either party to terminate the contract. It ends with a table comparing in summary form. the provisions of the CISG with the position in English law,
8. Evidence of the defendant’s bad character
Authors: Munday Roderick
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. Human behaviour tends to follow patterns. Those who have previously been convicted of crime, or who can be shown to have committed other offences or to have behaved disreputably, either have a tendency to reoffend or are more likely to commit offences than those without such attributes. A defendant’s previous bad character may also reflect on credibility. This chapter discusses the following: the problem of whether or not to admit evidence of a defendant’s misconduct on other occasions; the situations in which evidence of a defendant’s bad character may become admissible in criminal cases, and the purposes for which it may be admitted. The admission of similar fact evidence in civil cases is also discussed.
Introductory remarks on the law of evidence
Authors: Munday Roderick
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This introductory chapter discusses the origins of a ‘law of evidence’ and the properties of the law of evidence. The law of evidence is rapidly evolving and, particularly in criminal cases, the Criminal Procedure Rules have transformed the environment within which they operate.

Since it determines the critical issue of which particular items of proof parties are permitted to produce before a court in support of their contentions, it would be hard to exaggerate the subject’s importance and relevance.
3. Incorporation
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the various ways by which a company can be created and the different types of company that can be created. The process of creating a company is known as ‘incorporation’. There are four principal methods of incorporating a company: by royal charter, by Act of Parliament, by delegated authority, or by registration. The general rule is that the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006) only applies to registered companies. However, in order to prevent unregistered companies being under-regulated and having an unfair advantage over registered companies, the CA 2006 provides that the Secretary of State may pass regulations that set out how the CA 2006 is applied to unregistered companies. There are a number of different company types that can suit a wide array of businesses. These include public and private companies. Companies can change their status by a process called re-registration.
15. Members’ remedies
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores principal statutory remedies that aim to protect a company’s members: the derivative claim, the unfair prejudice petition, and the petition to wind up the company. Where a company has sustained a loss, a member may be able to bring a derivative claim on behalf of the company. In order to continue a derivative claim, the member must obtain permission from the court to continue the claim. A member can also petition the court for a remedy where the company’s affairs have been conducted in a manner that is unfairly prejudicial to that member’s interests as a member. In unfair prejudice cases, the most common remedy is a share purchase order. Finally, a member can petition the court for a winding-up order, with the relevant ground here being winding up where the court thinks it is just and equitable to do so.
5. The Right to Life
Authors: Foster Dr Steve
Published: September 2022

The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, diagram answer plans, caution advice, suggested answers, illustrative diagrams and flowcharts, and advice on gaining extra marks. Concentrate Q&A Human Rights & Civil Liberties offers expert advice on what to expect from your human rights and civil liberties exam, how best to prepare, and guidance on what examiners are really looking for. Written by experienced examiners, it provides: clear commentary with each question and answer; bullet point and diagram answer plans; tips to make your answer really stand out from the crowd; and further reading suggestions at the end of every chapter. The book should help you to: identify typical law exam questions; structure a first-class answer; avoid common mistakes; show the examiner what you know; all making your answer stand out from the crowd. This chapter covers the right to life, including its importance, the duty of the state to preserve it, and the situations where life can be taken.