bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
After Violence
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

Starting on September 1, 2004, and ending 53 hours later, Russia experienced its most appalling act of terrorism in history, the seizure of School No. 1 in Beslan, North Ossetia. Approximately 1,200 children, parents, and teachers were taken hostage, and over 330—nearly one of every hundred Beslan residents—were killed, hundreds more seriously wounded, and all severely traumatized. After Violence is the first book to analyze the aftermath of such large-scale violence with evidence from almost all direct victims. It explores the motivations behind individual responses to violence. When does violence fuel greater acceptance of retaliatory violence, and when does violence fuel nonviolent participation in politics? The mass hostage taking was widely predicted to provoke a spiral of retaliatory ethnic violence in the North Caucasus, where the act of terror was embedded in a larger context of ongoing conflict between Ossetians, Ingush, and Chechens. Politicians, journalists, victims, and other local residents asserted that vengeance would come. Instead, the hostage taking triggered unprecedented peaceful political activism on a scale seen nowhere else in Russia. Beslan activists challenged authorities, endured official harassment, and won a historic victory against the Russian state in the European Court of Human Rights. After Violence provides insights into this unexpected but preferable outcome. Using systematic surveys of 1,098 victims (82%) and 2,043 nearby residents, in-depth focus groups, journalistic accounts, investigative reports, NGO reports, and prior scholarly research, After Violence offers novel findings about the influence of anger, prejudice, alienation, efficacy, and other variables on post-violence behavior.
“Why Do We Debate?”
Authors: Soufi Youcef L.
Published: April 2023

vfJurists claimed to engage in disputation to find God’s law yet continued to debate the same issues over generations. Had their predecessors not found God’s law? Beyond an exercise in pedagogical training, what purpose was served by revisiting disputations (munāẓarāt), time and again? To answer these questions, this chapter excavates juristic debates within the books of uṣūl al-fiqh. It examines how jurists see the various functions of munāẓara to converge on two discursive foundations: one, that each jurist carries an individual duty of ijtihād (the search for God’s law); and two, that God’s law is ever uncertain. It is the notion that each jurist bore responsibility—for himself—of seeking out the law within this terrain of uncertainty that granted classical critique its salience: only by examining the conflicting views of his predecessors could any jurist claim due diligence and credibly offer guidance to lay Muslims.
Investigating Nature under the Guidance of Reason
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: April 2023

This chapter explores the fact that Kant takes the standpoint of a Naturforscher in his race essays. At the center is his view on the role of reason in the investigation of nature. This view is reflected both in his theory of hypothesis and in how he makes room for teleological principles in the investigations of organic formation in general and of hereditary human differences in particular. Studying these topics takes us through nearly all the major theoretical works that Kant produced during his career, from the Critique of Pure Reason (with its account of the systematic unity and regulative principles of reason) to the Critique of the Power of Judgment (with its clarification of the use of teleological principles and articulation of a theory of epigenesis that has been implicit in the race essays). Kant’s theory of race is thereby intertwined with some of his most sophisticated philosophical innovations.
Introduction
Authors: Fishbach Ayelet , Kopetz Catalina , Kruglanski Arie W.
Published: April 2023

Abstract: This introduction reviews the principles of Goal Systems Theory (GST): people choose means that maximize goal attainment, and an increase in the number of goals that a given means serves (or the number of means that are connected to a given goal), decreases a goal-means association. Next, the authors review the four basic configurations of goal systems: equifinality, multifinality, unifinality, and counterfinality. Finally, the authors summarize some of the research inspired by GST and provide a peek into the discoveries in this book.
New Developments in Goal Systems Theory
Authors: Kruglanski Arie W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter reviews several developments in goal systems theory (GST) that have taken place since its “debut” in 2002. These include empirical work on the configurational constructs of equifinality and multifinality as well as on the new concept of counterfinality. The discussion also addresses the means–ends fusion model of intrinsic motivation based on the structural properties of GST and a model of extremism that draws on both the structural and allocational properties of GST and identifies a common psychological dynamic in widely different “extremisms” including terrorism, extreme sports, extreme diets, extreme love, and exceptional humanism. Lastly, the concept of goal systems is tied to that of basic human needs. Whereas the basic needs form part of a largely invariable human nature, goal systems designed to serve those needs are socially constructed and, hence, vary in accordance with context and culture. Understanding this conjunction provides new insights into a wide range of behaviors, including the aggressive response to frustration and romantic love.
Types of Negative Concord systems
Authors: Zeijlstra Hedde
Published: April 2023

This chapter argues that the contrast between Strict and Non-strict NC languages lies in the fact that, in Strict NC languages, every overt negative element carries an uninterpretable negative feature [uNEG], and the only negative element carrying an interpretable negative feature [iNEG] is the abstract negative operator. This proposal, then, also predicts a mirror image of Non-strict NC systems, where all neg-words and the abstract negative operator carry [iNEG], and the NM carries [uNEG]. The chapter shows that such systems indeed exist and that they can be found, for instance, in certain varieties of Afrikaans. It also shows that in languages like French and English, only some negative elements carry a feature [iNEG] or [uNEG], yielding a so-called Partial NC system. The result of this may be that, in languages like English or Hindi, the number of overt negative elements equals the number of semantic negations, so that the NC system is actually invisible.
The flexibility of negative features
Authors: Zeijlstra Hedde
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the relation between carrying an interpretable formal negative feature [iNEG] and being accordingly semantically active, and argues that, grammatically, the two should be disentangled. There are cases where a particular element may carry a feature [iNEG], despite being semantically non-negative, as is the case for licensers of neg-words that are not negative (such as adverbs meaning ‘before’, or predicates conveying doubt in NC languages like Spanish). There are also examples of semantically negative elements that lack formal negative features, such as the French Negative Marker pas or English Negative Indefinites like nobody or never. If the relation between an [iNEG] and being semantically negative/active is not 1:1, this calls for a learnability algorithm that determines which element should be assigned a formal (negative) feature (if any). This chapter presents such a mechanism: the Flexible Formal Feature Hypothesis (FFFH).
Neg-raising
Authors: Zeijlstra Hedde
Published: April 2023

Neg-raising involves the fact that certain negated predicates (e.g. think, believe, expect) can give rise to a reading where the negation seems to take scope from an embedded clause. The standard analysis aims at solving this question in pragma-semantic terms. Recently, this standard approach has been challenged by Collins and Postal (2014), who argue that Neg-raising involves syntactic movement of the negation from the embedded clause into the matrix clause. This chapter presents three arguments against this account. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the standard, pragma-semantic approach to Neg-raising actually explains phenomena, which were presented by Collins and Postal (2014) as arguments in favour of the syntactic approach to Neg-raising, equally well as, if not better than, this syntactic alternative.
Domains of prominence in polysynthetic languages of North America
Authors: Rice Keren
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines the typology of stress systems found in a selection of Indigenous languages of North America. The major question that is posed is whether, and, if so, how stress aids in determining morphological structure in these languages. Phonological factors are often called upon to help determine the morphological structure of a word; see, for instance, the large literature on Lexical Phonology and Stratal Optimality Theory and the growing literature on syntactic theories of word structure. When words are analyzed as having internal structure, as is the case in polysynthetic languages, one might expect that stress could function to help identify structure including roots and stems as well as words.
A unified account of phonological and morphological accent
Authors: van der Hulst Harry
Published: April 2023

This chapter outlines a unified theory of word accentuation rules, considering that such rules often apply within headed domains that are smaller than the whole grammatical word. These domains, called phonotactic domains, are dependent on the morphosyntactic structure of words, as well as on specific demands of affixes in forming such word-internal domains. Accentual algorithms select a ‘winning’ domain accent from pre-given ‘competing’ syllabic accents that are due to syllable weight or that are diacritic (‘diacritic weight’). As proposed in Bogomolets (2020), languages of the world choose from two kinds of selection strategies to selects winning accents, that I will here call linear and hierarchical. When resolution is linear the accent algorithm is purely phonologically driven. Accent systems that appeal to hierarchical resolution can then be called morphologically driven. However, we will see that the phonotactic structure also plays a role in phonologically driven accent systems when these have more than one accentual algorithm for different domains of the phonotactic structure.
The Study of Bilingual Language Processing
Authors: Jiang Nan
Published: April 2023

This book provides an overview of research on the cognition of bilingualism. In addition to identifying the most important characteristics of this research and offering a historical sketch in the first chapter, the bulk of the book deals with research on four bilingual processing topics. The first topic, lexico-semantic representation and organization in bilinguals, deals with how words and meanings are represented and connected in the bilingual mind. The second topic, cross-language priming, explores the bilingual lexicon by examining how exposure to words in one language may affect word recognition in another and leads to the discovery of an asymmetry in translation priming. The third topic, selective lexical access in bilinguals, examines whether bilinguals can selectively activate one language while suppressing the other. The research on the topic of code switching is intended to explore language control and language regulation mechanisms in bilinguals. The book ends in a chapter that reviews research on three topics beyond lexical processing: autobiographical memory in bilinguals, the representation and interaction of syntactic knowledge in bilinguals, and the consequences of bilingualism.
Taking an Interest
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter explains why nineteenth-century readers with no specialist or professional commitment to Asian languages and literatures began to take an interest in oriental translations, an interest that can be observed to grow steadily over the course of the century. It proposes four main ‘growth factors’: a climate of religious tolerance and ecumenism, increased opportunities for travel to Asia, imperial consciousness, and concerns surrounding decadence and the perceived cultural decline of the West. It is then shown how each of these factors contributes to the phenomenal popularity of the Rubaiyat of the Persian poet, Omar Khayyam, in a variety of translations between 1880 and 1920. Finally, the chapter defines some of the limits of Victorian cosmopolitanism, beyond which readerly curiosity or sympathy did not readily extend.
Circulating
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter explains how Asian literature circulated in nineteenth-century British and American society, showing how readers accessed copies of cheap and popular translations in bookshops and lending libraries. But the chapter also discusses their circulation in fragmentary form, not as entire texts but as individual lines and phrases, images or characters, which may be quoted or alluded to in writing, or dropped into conversation. This practice became habitual and ubiquitous by the turn of the century, and manifests particularly clearly in the dissemination of proverbs and aphorisms, which through their continuous reprinting in Victorian periodicals are repeatedly misquoted and misattributed. The chapter then turns to the urban environment, pointing out the numerous towns and streets in Britain and America whose names were derived from Asian literature, and the unobserved presence of statues of Asian authors or of their inscribed names on the façades of public libraries and museums.
Canonizing
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter demonstrates how, as translations of Asian literature circulated in increasing volume and variety, members of the cultural elite attempted to organize an accepted canon of ‘oriental classics’ as a counterpart to the traditional Greco-Roman curriculum. The paradigmatic figure in this regard is Sir John Lubbock, who in 1886 published a list of the one hundred greatest books. The nine items of Asian literature Lubbock nominated, including the Quran, the Shahnameh, the Shi Jing and the Ramayana, were a source of considerable controversy, and Lubbock’s decision-making process is shown with reference to his personal papers. Victorian notions of what constituted a ‘classic’ were often at variance with the evolving canons in India, China, and other countries, yet Lubbock’s list strongly influenced the editors of the major cheap reprint series, such as Everyman’s Library and the Chandos Classics, to include Asian texts in their conspectus of world literature.
Translating
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter contrasts the translation methods of scholarly orientalists with the strategies used by popularizers to make Asian texts accessible or appealing to the general readership. Adopting Lawrence Venuti’s distinction between ‘domesticating’ and ‘foreignizing’ styles of translation, it argues paradoxically that the popularizers, in spite of their typically limited knowledge of the source-language, produced versions more respectful of the complexity, cultural difference, and fundamental untranslatability of Asian texts. Popularizers and scholars are shown to have existed in a mingled relationship of collaboration and rivalry, occasionally engaging in dramatic feuds in the periodical press. The chapter concludes with an extended comparison of two popular translations of the Ramayana, by Frederika Richardson (1870) and Romesh Chunder Dutt (1899), showing how each translator’s cultural and political priorities cause them to present startlingly different renditions of the epic poem.
Publishing
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes the publication process, using Milton and Bandia’s term ‘agents of translation’ to describe the important role played by publishers in the dissemination of foreign literature. The chapter shows how authors pitched new translations to publishing houses, and on what criteria publishers decided whether or not to print the proposed manuscript. This is demonstrated through a case-study of the Boston publisher Houghton Mifflin, using the reader reports produced in response to translations proposed to the firm over a fifteen-year period. The chapter also shows translators in negotiation with their publishers over royalties, and over the precise wording of translations. The political interests of publishers are discussed, notably the anticolonial politics of T. Fisher Unwin, and the chapter concludes with a comparison of two major series, Max Műller’s Sacred Books of the East, and the Wisdom of the East series published by John Murray.
Reading
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

This chapter studies the reception of translations of Asian literature by individual readers and by communities of readers. It begins by demonstrating how an encounter with one specific translation could have a significant effect on someone’s life which would not have occurred had they encountered any other translation, by giving the example of John Addington Symonds and his reading of the homoerotic stories in Sadi’s Gulistan. The Gulistan is the central text for this chapter, with various readers shown responding to it in different ways. Evidence of reader response is adduced chiefly from commonplace books, in which individuals transcribed quotations they wished to remember, and the marginalia they wrote in their personal copies. It is argued that readers successfully liberated themselves from the moral, aesthetic, or political constraints of their society by exploring the alternatives available to them in Asian literature, sometimes through tension and frustration with an unsatisfactory translation.
Epilogue
Authors: Bubb Alexander
Published: April 2023

In this brief Epilogue the publication, in 1928, of Mark Van Doren’s bestselling Anthology of World Poetry is identified as a watershed moment, after which the nineteenth-century drive to assemble an ‘oriental canon’ rapidly recedes. The Epilogue reflects on present-day trends in the increasingly Anglocentric publishing world, in which Asian texts are selected for translation based primarily on their marketability in the West. While these trends may have originated in the nineteenth century, it is proposed nevertheless that Victorian translation culture may offer us counter-examples with which to resist them and envisage alternatives, particularly if greater attention is paid in future to amateur translators and to ‘ordinary’ readers. The book closes with a final assertion of the physical presence of Asian texts in Victorian domestic and social spaces, giving several examples of non-expert readers who kept a humble shelf of ‘Eastern books’.
Economic Theories of Discrimination
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

Theories of economic discrimination have addressed the most critical issues, such as, why group practice discrimination exists in labour market in hiring, wages, and occupation? Is the motive behind discrimination pecuniary or non-pecuniary or both? What are the consequences on discriminated groups? And which policies will reduce discrimination in labour market in hiring, wages, and occupation? This chapter reviews the relevant theories of economic discrimination with a focus on the labour market discrimination viewed from different perspective viz., neoclassical theory of discrimination, segmentation theory, identity theory, taste for discrimination theory, belief or imperfect theory, identity racial norm theory, and interlinkages of discrimination and prejudices.
Measuring Discrimination and its Impact on Poverty
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

The main purpose of the study is to estimate the extent of caste discrimination in employment, wages, and occupation and the impact of discrimination on income and poverty of regular salaried workers. In this chapter, we outline the methods such as Blinder-Oaxaca, Cotton, Neumark, Oaxaca-Ransom to estimate the extent of discrimination in wages. Further the current chapter also addresses occupational discrimination and non-linear decomposition method to measure employment discrimination. Finally the chapter presents the methodology to address the impact of the discrimination on reduction in income and increase in poverty. The chapter also discusses the justification and method of selection of caste group and sources of data used.
Employment, Wage Discrimination, and its Impact on Poverty
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

Understanding the impact of employment, wage, and occupation discrimination on income loss and the poverty of discriminated groups such as scheduled castes is dealt in this chapter. A majority of the studies on labour market discrimination have nearly bypassed the impact of employment, wage, and occupation discrimination on the income and poverty of discriminated groups such as scheduled castes. The present chapter estimates the income loss and subsequently the incidence of poverty of the discriminated groups due to discrimination in employment and wages by using the method developed for this purpose. The chapter also addresses the regional variation of the impact of discrimination on poverty.
Untouchables’ Poverty
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

This chapter summarizes the main findings of the empirical analysis. The sources and remedies of untouchables’ poverty, caste inequality in wage income and poverty, caste discrimination in employment, wages, and occupation are summarized in this chapter. This chapter also highlights the impact of discrimination on untouchables’ poverty. Lessons from theories and international experiences on policies are also discussed in great length. Based on the empirical results, it suggests the policies to overcome the discrimination in employment and wages. The chapter also suggests a policy of legal safeguards, affirmative action policy, and policy of reparation. The chapter finally concludes that elimination of labour market discrimination is necessary to achieve the reduction in poverty.
Epilogue
Authors: Weber Samuel
Published: April 2023

The Epilogue recaps the Borromeos’ rise from provincial upstarts to members of the Spanish governing elite and interrogates its significance. This trajectory was marred by setbacks, forcing the Borromeos to adapt in light of changes in government style. Having failed to ascend as military entrepreneurs, they reinvented themselves as princely servants. Only when they aligned their own interests with those of the monarchy could they successfully pose as members of the in-group. This refashioning as a service elite stabilized the rule of the peripheral nobility and of the composite Spanish monarchy. It is argued that the misrecognition of their dynastic interests explains why the Borromeos are today remembered as aloof paternalist rulers. The chapter closes with a reflection on the broader meaning of this case study, suggesting that the “courtization” of the nobility was driven neither by absolute monarchs nor the nobility, but by ordinary people who forced the warrior nobility to reinvent itself as a paternalist ruling elite.
Germanic Phylogeny
Authors: Hartmann Frederik
Published: April 2023

This book is a computational re-evaluation and concluding examination of the genealogical relations between the early Germanic languages and their diversification from their most recent common ancestor Proto-Germanic. Further, this book presents a novel computational approach to the problem of linguistic diversification based on agent-based simulation of speech communities over time. This approach, presented alongside traditional phylogenetic inference, is based on wave-like linguistic diversification processes in geographically defined areas and can be modelled with agent-based approaches. The results of this study validate findings by previous research, generate new insights and shed light on debated issues. It further argues that the break-up of Germanic can be understood as a gradual disintegration process in which tree-like branching events are rare. Above all this is true for the eastern part of the Germanic-speaking area and West Germanic.
A Definition of Accountability
Authors: Torrance Andrew B.
Published: April 2023

This chapter defines and elaborates on the concept of accountability as a condition. It also distinguishes this concept from two other concepts of accountability. First, it contrasts this book’s view of accountability from Stephen Darwall’s view of accountability as ‘moral responsibility to’. Second, it compares its view to Jesse Couenhoven’s view of accountability as ‘moral responsibility for’. In so doing, this chapter considers a way to think about the concept of accountability that differentiates it from the concept of responsibility. It proposes that a key distinction between ‘accountability’ and ‘responsibility’ is that ‘accountability’ is specifically concerned with the account of the person who is accountable: an account that is developed by the person to whom they are accountable.
The Story That Turned Paul’s Life Around
Authors: Torrance Andrew B.
Published: April 2023

This chapter turns to the theme of conversion to explore further what it means to be accountable to God in Christ. To do so, it begins by proposing a theological definition of conversion that is distinctive to the Christian faith. It then elaborates on this definition by applying it to a contemporary debate in New Testament studies about how to construe the turn that Paul’s life took following his road to Damascus experience. In so doing, it is argued that while it can be helpful to make Paul’s turn a focal point in the story of his accountability to God, we better represent Paul’s story when we make it primarily about the one God who holds him accountable and, furthermore, the one in whom Paul is held accountable, Jesus Christ. To do so, we must index the story of Paul’s life to the Christological stories of creation and reconciliation.
Free Trade Agreements and their Evolution
Authors: Seshadri V. S.
Published: April 2023

This chapter outlines the legal framework for FTAs as per WTO rules. It traces the three waves of FTA evolution globally that have now been followed by some mega-regional FTAs. It examines what have been their drivers and looks at how they have become deeper and wider in becoming both WTO plus and WTO extra. Some of the downsides of the FTAs are also discussed. How much of world trade gets routed through the FTAs is another aspect dwelt upon. The chapter further analyses to what extent the evolution is compatible and coherent with the WTO framework. Finally there is also a brief discussion about whether FTAs act as building blocks or stumbling blocks to multilateralism.
Minds and Representations
Authors: Toon Adam
Published: April 2023

WThis chapter explores the implications of mental fictionalism for the nature of intentionality. An important feature of mental states is that they can represent things in the world. According to the representational theory of mind (or representationalism), the intentionality of thought is to be explained in terms of the content of mental representations. Since fictionalism denies the existence of these representations, it must adopt a different approach to intentionality, which looks to language and social norms. Once we understand the nature of its approach to intentionality, we can see that mental fictionalism can avoid the charge of incoherence (or cognitive collapse). The chapter closes by explaining why we should prefer fictionalism to realism about mental representations.
Minds and Materials
Authors: Toon Adam
Published: April 2023

This chapter will show that mental fictionalism offers a new perspective on the relationship between mind and material culture. According to the extended mind thesis, items of material culture can form part of the material basis for our mental states. The extended mind thesis assumes a representationalist account of mental states. This chapter argues that, by rejecting representationalism and turning to fictionalism, we can retain the important insights underlying the extended mind thesis, while avoiding its more problematic consequences. The chapter closes by responding to the worry that fictionalism makes the success of folk psychology a miracle.
Dead Dogs and Rattles
Authors: Smith Christopher
Published: April 2023

This chapter explores the nature of the Latin religious experience from the 8th to the 6th century BC by referencing the Robigalia and the dynamically changing social structures. The Latin site Osteria dell’Osa, particularly the annual celebration of the Robigalia festival in Rome, provides evidence of how the ancient agricultural practice evolved through the years. Colin Renfrew proposed a framework based on Middle Range Theory to reduce the misinterpretation of cult sites and to postulate certain universal truths about religion and ritual. The chapter then presents an experiential understanding of religion to explore the changes indicated by archaeological evidence in ritual symbolism and practice. It also covers the nature of the society where rituals are conducted.
Visual Rhetoric, Retaliatory Humiliation
Authors: Euben Roxanne L.
Published: April 2023

The ISIS videos staging the executions of American captives are usually understood within the logic of instrumental rationality as devices to deter, recruit, and “sow terror.” By contrast, taking these videos as performative events and communicative acts in need of close reading brings into sharp relief a disjuncture between what they say and how they work. While the verbal rhetoric largely hews to the logic of instrumental rationality, the visual rhetoric enacts what Islamists define as retaliatory humiliation, an inversion of power in two different registers. It symbolically converts the public abjection of the captives by the Islamist executioner into an enactment of ISIS’s invincibility and American impotence. Second, it transposes the roles between the United States—mass terrorist, failed sovereign, and rogue state—and ISIS, now repositioned as legitimate, invincible sovereign. Circulating repetitively across digital networks, the events depicted are constituted as continually unfolding, part of an ongoing present rather than a completed past. This makes available to millions the viscerally intense and immediate experience of witnessing such humiliation, soliciting spectators either to suffer vicariously with the victim—or relish the brutal humiliation of two men who have, through metonyomic slide, become the American body politic. Inasmuch as such rhetorical practices seek to actually constitute their audiences through the visual and visceral power of their address, the end of ISIS’s caliphate in Iraq and Syria augurs not the irrelevance of the videos but the remaking of their affective power in aspirational terms.
Introduction
Authors: Bullock Justin B. , Chen Yu-Che , Himmelreich Johannes , Hudson Valerie M. , Korinek Anton , Young Matthew M. , Zhang Baobao
Published: April 2023

In this Introduction to The Oxford Handbook of AI Governance, the editorial team provides an overview of what we mean by artificial intelligence and by governance. The introduction then briefly maps how governance has evolved to respond to the evolution of technology and culture. It argues that our governance ecosystem has adapted to include a strong pairing of humans not only with machines but also with other artificial entities, such as markets and organizations. It is within this ecosystem that modern AI, particularly in the form of machine learning, has entered the governance ecosystem, with important consequences both for the governance ecosystem and for AI development, implementation, and use. From this general overview of AI and governance and their ecosystem, the Introduction offers a section by section summary of the Handbook. Section 1 is the Introduction and Overview from various contributors. Section 2 sets the Value Foundations of AI Governance. Section 3 focuses on Developing an AI Governance Regulatory Ecosystem. Section 4 provides Frameworks and Approaches for AI Governance. Section 5 examines the Assessment and Implementation of AI Governance. Section 6 explores AI Governance from the Ground Up. Section 7 analyzes the Economic Dimensions of AI Governance. Section 8 takes a close look at Domestic Policy Applications of AI. And finally, Section 9 turns to questions of International Politics and AI. Taken together, these sections provide a general overview of the current discourse around AI and governance.
Fentanyl
Authors: Dunn Kelly E. , Bird H. Elizabeth , Durgin Caitlyn J.
Published: April 2023

Fentanyl is a potent synthetic opioid that was engineered to have good lipid solubility to aid its use in medicinal settings. Fentanyl is relatively easy to synthesize and for this and other reasons it has infiltrated the illicit heroin supply throughout North America. Fentanyl is unique relative to other opioids; it has a different pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profile of effects. These characteristics contribute to its heightened side effect profile, which includes opioid-related respiratory depression, as well as additional medical comorbidities. This chapter reviews a brief history of fentanyl in the United States and its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles with particular emphasis on its unique biphasic excretion pattern and risk for delayed onset of respiratory depression. The chapter also reviews the fentanyl-related withdrawal syndrome; its overdose profile, which includes components consistent with other opioid agonists (e.g., respiratory depression) and components unique to fentanyl (e.g., muscle rigidity/wooden chest syndrome, hypoxia, laryngospasm/vocal cord closure); the complexities of using naloxone in the context of fentanyl; and how fentanyl may be contributing to otherwise rare medical comorbidities, like an amnestic syndrome and bacterial infections. Finally, the chapter reviews fentanyl-related complexities in treatment, spanning harm reduction efforts to interactions with medications for opioid use disorder (most notably buprenorphine).
Supervised Withdrawal Opioid Use Disorder Treatments
Authors: Dunn Kelly E. , Huhn Andrew S.
Published: April 2023

Supervised opioid withdrawal (also referred to as detoxification or detox) is a medical treatment aimed at fully discontinuing opioid use in persons who are physically dependent on opioids. There is a long history of supervised withdrawal treatment programs in the United States, although the approach has varied wildly and to this day there is little guidance regarding best practices. Early approaches to supervised withdrawal favored an abrupt discontinuation of opioids rather than longer opioid tapers, though recent data support an extended approach. Withdrawal is a highly variable process with many decision points, including residential versus outpatient status, choice of withdrawal treatment and complementary/supportive interventions, duration of treatment, percent change in daily dose, and whether the withdrawal schedule is determined by the patient, provider, or both. Several treatments to help reduce withdrawal severity will be discussed. This chapter reviews the historical basis of withdrawal programs; the data supporting the aforementioned decision points; and the rationale, efficacy, and unique considerations for the different withdrawal methods. Outcomes following withdrawal programs, including resolution of medical comorbidities, overdose risk, and linkage to aftercare are also reviewed. Since the United States now has a formal indication of opioid withdrawal, this chapter also includes a discussion of important considerations for empirical trials of medications and/or other interventions for opioid withdrawal management. Future efforts to maximize the efficacy of withdrawal treatment, and importantly, to link individuals to long-term care (preferably with a medication for OUD) are important directions for future research and practice.
Sex as a Biological Variable and Gender as a Social Construct in the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder
Authors: Huhn Andrew S.
Published: April 2023

The opioid crisis has devasted individuals, families, and communities in the United States and abroad. Improving opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment requires a nuanced understanding of the risk factors associated with the onset of OUD, and barriers to successful, long-term recovery. Women and men might have several unique risk factors for initiating opioid use, progressing from non-medical opioid use to OUD, and experiencing negative OUD treatment outcomes. These unique risk factors are best understood by examining sex as a biological variable and gender as a social construct in persons with OUD. Toward this end, the research reviewed in this chapter includes sex-based biological factors that affect opioid use, such as neurohormonal interactions with the endogenous opioid system and sex-based differences in neural development, as well as gender-based societal influences that can lead to OUD and potentially stymie attempts at treatment, such as traditional gender roles within the family unit and stigma surrounding OUD treatment. Factors that encompass the intersection of sex and gender are also discussed in the context of OUD treatment, including co-morbid mental health conditions, chronic pain, and response to medications for OUD (MOUD). Building on the preclinical and clinical research on these topics, future studies should aim to optimize pharmacotherapeutic approaches within subpopulations of women and men with OUD, develop strategies to better engage women and men with childcare responsibilities in OUD treatment, and reduce stigma associated with living with OUD and seeking treatment for OUD.
Cultural Intelligence and Cultural Learning
Authors: Sterelny Kim
Published: April 2023

Humans live in social worlds that are often larger and always more complex and inter-dependent than those of great apes, with life success requiring the ability to navigate one’s social environment. It is very plausibly suggested that human minds are specifically adapted to these social worlds, though the specific details of these hypotheses vary considerably. It is also true that humans are much more dependent on social learning: very little in our behavioural repertoire is uninfluenced by social learning, and humans have many capacities that would be difficult or impossible to acquire without social support. This is known as cumulative cultural learning and humans are said to live in social environments that are not just encultured but cumulatively encultured. As a consequence, it has also been suggested that human minds are specifically adapted to enhance social learning abilities, making it possible to acquire capacities beyond those an individual could acquire individually. Again, specific suggestions vary, though imitation learning and/or sophisticated forms of theory of mind are often mentioned. This chapter reviews these ideas, suggesting that cognitive adaptations for life in complex social environments probably suffice to explain enhanced social learning as well. If so, human minds are adapted for encultured social environments but not specifically for cultural learning.
Cultural Evolution and Music
Authors: Youngblood Mason , Ozaki Yuto , Savage Patrick E.
Published: April 2023

The universality and diversity of music in human societies make it an important research model for understanding how cultural features change over time and space. In this chapter, we review research on the cultural evolution of music, broken down into three major approaches: (i) corpus-based approaches that use large datasets to infer evolutionary patterns, (ii) experimental approaches that explore cultural transmission and transformation, and (iii) research on ‘music-like’ behaviors in non-human species, such as bird and whale song, that highlights shared mechanisms and future directions. Finally, we discuss applications of this research to issues like musical endangerment, copyright enforcement, and algorithmic inequality. Given the diversity of musical datasets that have yet to be fully leveraged, we think that music has the potential to become a powerful research model for cultural evolution.
Patients With and Without COVID-19 in the Intensive Care Unit: Physical Status Outcome Comparisons 3 Months After Discharge
Authors: Cijs Bastiaan , Valkenet Karin , Heijnen Germijn , Visser-Meily J M Anne , van der Schaaf Marike
Published: April 2023

Objective

Many patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections were admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU). Physical impairments are common after ICU stays and are associated with clinical and patient characteristics. To date, it is unknown if physical functioning and health status are comparable between patients in the ICU with COVID-19 and patients in the ICU without COVID-19 3 months after ICU discharge. The primary objective of this study was to compare handgrip strength, physical functioning, and health status between patients in the ICU with COVID-19 and patients in the ICU without COVID-19 3 months after ICU discharge. The second objective was to identify factors associated with physical functioning and health status in patients in the ICU with COVID-19.

Methods

In this observational, retrospective chart review study, handgrip strength (handheld dynamometer), physical functioning (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Physical Function), and health status (EuroQol 5 Dimension 5 Level) were compared between patients in the ICU with COVID-19 and patients in the ICU without COVID-19 using linear regression. Multilinear regression analyses were used to investigate whether age, sex, body mass index, comorbidities in medical history (Charlson Comorbidity Index), and premorbid function illness (Identification of Seniors At Risk-Hospitalized Patients) were associated with these parameters in patients in the ICU with COVID-19.

Results

In total, 183 patients (N = 92 with COVID-19) were included. No significant between-group differences were found in handgrip strength, physical functioning, and health status 3 months after ICU discharge. The multilinear regression analyses showed a significant association between sex and physical functioning in the COVID-19 group, with better physical functioning in men compared with women.

Conclusion

Current findings suggest that handgrip strength, physical functioning, and health status are comparable for patients who were in the ICU with COVID-19 and patients who were in the ICU without COVID-19 3 months after ICU discharge.

Impact

Aftercare in primary or secondary care in the physical domain of postintensive care syndrome after ICU discharge in patients with COVID-19 and in patients without COVID-19 who had an ICU length of stay >48 hours is recommended.

Lay Summary

Patients who were in the ICU with and without COVID-19 had a lower physical status and health status than healthy people, thus requiring personalized physical rehabilitation. Outpatient aftercare is recommended for patients with an ICU length of stay >48 hours, and functional assessment is recommended 3 months after hospital discharge.
Thermo-induced physically crosslinked polypeptide-based block copolymer hydrogels for biomedical applications
Authors: Zhao Dan , Rong Yan , Li Dong , He Chaoliang , Chen Xuesi
Published: April 2023

Stimuli-responsive synthetic polypeptide-containing block copolymers have received considerable attention in recent years. Especially, unique thermo-induced sol–gel phase transitions were observed for elaborately-designed amphiphilic diblock copolypeptides and a range of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polypeptide block copolymers. The thermo-induced gelation mechanisms involve the evolution of secondary conformation, enhanced intramolecular interactions, as well as reduced hydration and increased chain entanglement of PEG blocks. The physical parameters, including polymer concentrations, sol–gel transition temperatures and storage moduli, were investigated. The polypeptide hydrogels exhibited good biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo, and displayed biodegradation periods ranging from 1 to 5 weeks. The unique thermo-induced sol–gel phase transitions offer the feasibility of minimal-invasive injection of the precursor aqueous solutions into body, followed by in situ hydrogel formation driven by physiological temperature. These advantages make polypeptide hydrogels interesting candidates for diverse biomedical applications, especially as injectable scaffolds for 3D cell culture and tissue regeneration as well as depots for local drug delivery. This review focuses on recent advances in the design and preparation of injectable, thermo-induced physically crosslinked polypeptide hydrogels. The influence of composition, secondary structure and chirality of polypeptide segments on the physical properties and biodegradation of the hydrogels are emphasized. Moreover, the studies on biomedical applications of the hydrogels are intensively discussed. Finally, the major challenges in the further development of polypeptide hydrogels for practical applications are proposed.
Sirolimus for the treatment of patients with refractory connective tissue disease-related thrombocytopenia: a pilot study
Authors: Du Hongjia , Su Wei , Su Jiang , Hu Jiarui , Wu Dongze , Long Wubin , Zhu Jing
Published: April 2023

Objective

CTD-related immune thrombocytopenia (CTD-ITP) represents an unmet medical need because the drugs that are available are only partly effective and have considerable side-effects. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy and safety of sirolimus in refractory CTD-ITP patients.

Methods

We did a single-arm, open-label, pilot study of sirolimus in patients with CTD-ITP unresponsive to, or intolerant of, conventional medications. Patients received oral sirolimus for 6 months at a starting dose of 0.5–1 mg per day, with dose adjusted according to tolerance and to maintain a therapeutic range of 6–15 ng/ml. The primary efficacy end point was changes in platelet count, and overall response assessed according to the ITP International Working Group Criteria. Safety outcomes included tolerance as assessed by the occurrence of common side-effects.

Results

Between November 2020 and February 2022, 12 consecutively hospitalized patients with refractory CTD-ITP were enrolled and prospectively followed. Of these, six patients (50%) achieved complete response, two (16.7%) achieved partial response, and four (33.3%) were no response under therapy. Three of four patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome and two of three patients with systemic lupus erythematosus achieved overall response. One of two patients with overlapping Sjögren's syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus achieved complete response at 6 months. No severe drug-related toxicities were observed.

Conclusion

Our results do support sirolimus as an alternative regimen for refractory CTD-ITP patients, including systemic lupus erythematosus and primary SS.