bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The phase behaviour of polyoxyethylene 10 stearyl ether/geraniol/olive oil/H2O system and preliminary evaluation of fragrance evaporation
Authors: YANG JIANG , RONG GUO , FRIBERG S.E. , AIKENS P.A.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

The phase diagram of system polyoxyethylene 10 stearyl ether (Steareth 10)/geraniol/olive oil/H2O was determined using visual observation and low angle X‐ray diffraction. The system formed two isotropic solution phases: water and a geraniol solution of Steareth 10 and water. In addition a lamellar liquid crystal was formed along the water–Steareth 10 axis. It solubilized geraniol and olive oil in different locations within its structure with maximum solubilization depending on the site. Geraniol is only solubilized in the hydrocarbon chain part of the bilayer, while olive oil is solubilized both at that site and between the terminal methyl group layers. The results provided essential information about the behaviour of geraniol during evaporation.
Synthesis and odour properties of floral smelling compounds
Authors: ANSELMI C. , CENTINI M. , SEGA A. , NAPOLITANO E. , PELOSI P. , SCESA C.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

To provide further information on the relationships between chemical structure and floral odour, here we report the synthesis and the odour evaluation of some spirane derivatives, designed as conformational models of our previously described floral odorants. One of the new compounds (5‐methyl‐benzo[1,3]dioxole‐2‐spiro‐1‐cyclohexane), in particular, is endowed with a particularly pleasant odour of white flowers, can be easily prepared from commercial products and is more stable than other odorants of the same class; these characteristics make this odorant suitable for being used as an additive in perfumery and cosmetics.
Comparative effectiveness of α‐hydroxy acids on skin properties
Authors: SMITH W.P.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

A number of α‐hydroxy acids, including glycolic, lactic (l(+) and d(–) forms) citric, hydroxybutyric and malic acids, were evaluated for their effects on various skin properties at concentrations of 0.5–1.15 m. The acids were evaluated for their stinging potential on sensitive skin, the ability to increase skin cell renewal, and their ability to improve moisture content and reduce lines and wrinkles over a six‐week period. Results indicated that lactic l(+) and glycolic were the most effective acids when tested at equimolar concentrations. Both materials were less irritating than the d(–) lactic acid form and the other acids tested. Even though with long‐term use both d(–) and l(+) lactic acid and glycolic acid produced comparative improvements in skin hydration and lines and wrinkle improvement, the l(+) form of lactic acid did so with fewer consumer complaints than any of the other acids tested. When the concentration of lactic and glycolic acids was increased to more than 1.5 m a greater difference in irritation potential was observed with respect to stinging, with the l(+) form of lactic acid being less irritating than glycolic acid and the d(–) form. Our results suggest that l(+) and d(–) lactic acid and glycolic acid are the two most effective materials for developing α‐hydroxy acid products. Lactic acid has a slight technical advantage over glycolic acid. Both l(+) and the d(–) forms are better moisturizers when fully or partially neutralized. Moreover the l(+) form is also less irritating than d(–) and glycolic acid. Other acids such as citric, malic, and hydroxybutyric acids appear to be less effective materials but may be useful additions to lactic or glycolic acid mixes.
Modulation of sebum excretion from the follicular reservoir by a dichlorophenyl‐imidazoldioxolan
Authors: PIERARD G.E. , CAUWENBERGH G.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

The dichlorophenyl‐imidazoldioxolan elubiol is used for skin and hair care in subjects with oily skin or dandruff. A study was conducted in 14 men to evaluate by non‐invasive methods the effect of long‐term use of elubiol on the sebum output at the skin surface. Measures were made using the Sebumeter SM810 and Sebutapes. Data show a progressive decrease in skin oiliness at the forehead site treated by elubiol compared to the contralateral control site. The function of the follicular reservoir appears to be affected without significant primary change in the sebaceous gland activity.
Insight into how skin changes perfume
Authors: BEHAN J.M. , MACMASTER A.P. , PERRING K.D. , TUCK K.M.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

Overall consumer perception of personal products such as colognes, deodorants, talc, and soap is often strongly influenced by the presence and nature of the fragrance incorporated into these products, which is also true for the corresponding olfactory characteristics of skin during and after application. Although extensive research has been carried out to define the morphology and characteristics of living skin, relatively little is known about the physical or (bio)chemical behaviour of perfume once deposited onto skin. It is widely acknowledged that some perfumes may perform very differently on different skins, but little definitive information is available to elucidate the associated mechanism(s). Rationalization of this may necessitate understanding both the physical and the chemical interactions between perfume and skin. To assist studies in this area, techniques based on headspace analysis and solvent swabbing have been developed to monitor fragrance concentrations on and above skin in use. Using these techniques, we have carried out some initial exploration into the physical and chemical interactions between skin and perfume. (a) Physical interactions: differences in perfume behaviour when on skin and when on a relatively inert surface (vitreous tile) were quantified to build up at least a qualitative idea of the importance of physical interactions between skin and perfume. (b) Chemical interactions: the potential for skin‐mediated chemical transformation of perfume was examined across a wide range of functional groups relevant to perfumes, but was found to be low under ‘non‐forcing’conditions (i.e. clean dry skin). However, some evidence has been found for changes in perfume ingredients in the underarm, probably arising from microbially catalysed reactions. It is envisaged that it may be possible to harness such transformations usefully – for example, to deliver unusual fragrance effects or enhance fragrance longevity. In addition, product‐mediated transformation on skin is feasible, and a specific case has been investigated based on the pH sensitivity of citral acetalization.
A new method for skin care product evaluation based on the laser Doppler imaging technique
Authors: ISSACHAR N. , POELMAN M.C. , BRIN A.J. , PERRIN S.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

Laser Doppler perfusion imaging was used to assess the vasoactive effect of a cosmetic product on a cutaneous inflammation model: erythema induced by methyl nicotinate. Measurements were carried out on ten healthy volunteers after a rest in an environmental controlled room, and trials were performed on the ventral surface of the forearms. Recordings of cutaneous perfusion were made every 10 min after application of the vasodilator. The decrease in the highest value of perfusion on the test site was significantly higher with the cosmetic compared to the control site 30 min after its application. Fifty minutes after application, the difference between the test and control sites was 53%.
The effect of a synthetic ceramide‐2 on transepidermal water loss after stripping or sodium lauryl sulfate treatment: an in vivo study
Authors: LINTNER K. , MONDON P. , GIRARD F. , GIBAUD C.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

The integrity of the chemical and physical structure of the horny layer is essential for maintaining the skin in good health. Any disturbance of this integrity may lead to cutaneous reactions of varying degree: dryness, redness, inflammation. The measurement of Transepidermal Water Loss (TEWL) allows one to record this kind of disturbance and to follow the slow return to normal, in this in vivo study two techniques of insulting the epidermis were used: stripping and washing with sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS). A significant increase of TEWL values resulted in both cases. The application of emulsions containing 0.5% and 1% of a synthetic ceramide type‐2 (N‐stearoyl‐DL‐erythro‐sphinganine) decreased the disturbance measured by TEWL, in a significant fashion in both trials. The placebo emulsions showed no significant effect. The ceramide thus seemed to participate in the restructuring of the horny layer.
Utilization of electrochemical silver ions as preservative agent in cosmetic dispersions
Authors: SCALZO M. , CERRETOU F. , ORLANDI C. , SIMONETTI N.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

The use of anodic silver ions as preserving agents in cosmetics was tested by a challenge test in a set of cosmetic dispersions with the addition of known preservative inhibitors or micro‐organism growth‐promoters such as humectants, hydrosoluble collagen and vegetable extracts. Silver's microbicidal efficacy, compared to that of imidazolidinyl urea or methyl p‐hydroxybenzoate, showed a more efficient activity especially in the presence of proteinaceous material. This agent may represent a good and safe protection for finished products both in manufacture and during use.
PRELIMINARY COMMUNICATION: Application of high‐performance liquid chromatography in the analysis of direct dyes in semipermanent hair colouring cosmetics
Authors: MARIANI E. , NEUHOFF C. , VILLA C.
Published: May 2007

A method for the identification and the quantification of direct dyes in semipermanent hair colouring cosmetics by using a reversed phase high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with gradient elution and diode array detector (DAD) detection is presented. A standard mixture of 18 commonly marketed dyestuffs (11 nitroderivatives, two anthraquinones and five Arianor dyes) was studied. The major problems in the analysis of the mixture of direct dyes is the different chemical structure and especially the wide range of polarities. However we succeeded in the complete separation of the standard dyes. A qualitative analysis of eight colouring commercial products selected from different shades and a quantitative analysis of three of them was carried out. Materials, methods and results are reported. Resume. On presente une methode simple d'analyse pour identifier et quantifier les colorants directs dans des teintures capillaires semipermanentes, en utilisant la HPLC a polarite de phase inversee avec le DAD pour la detection. Avec cette methode on a separe 18 colorants directs provenant de classes chimiques differentes (11 composes nitres, deux antraquinones et cinq colorants Arianor) et on a identifie les colorants dans huit teintures capillaires de differentes nuances; pour trois teintures on les a aussi quantifies. La technique employee s'est revelee tres efficace pour la caracterisation des colorants utilises en teintures semipermanentes.
Vapour pressure of some fragrance ingredients in emulsion and microemulsion formulations
Authors: FRIBERG S.E.
Published: May 2007

The vapour pressure of two fragrance raw materials, phenethyl alcohol and phenethyl acetate, in a microemulsion system is discussed against their participation in the different phases of the system. The results are used to evaluate the change of the fragrance vapour pressure during water evaporation from a typical emulsion system. Resume. Etude de la tension de vapeur de deux matieres premieres de parfum, le phenethylalcool et le phenethylacetate, dans un systeme de microemulsion, en rapport avec leur participation aux differentes phases du systeme. Les resultats sont utilises pour evaluer la modification de la tension de vapeur de parfum lors de l'evaporation d'eau d'un systeme classique d'emulsion.
Sunscreens' photochemical behaviour: in vivo evaluation by the stripping method
Authors: MARGINEAN LAZAR G. , FRUCTUS A.E. , BAILLET A. , BOCQUET J.L. , THOMAS P. , MARTY J.P.
Published: May 2007

This study shows the influence of a water‐in‐oil emulsion and an oil‐in‐water emulsion on the photochemical behaviour of four sunscreen preparations containing various amounts of three UV filters: octyl methoxycinnamate, butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane, and 4‐methylbenzylidene camphor. With the stripping method in vivo, skin‐product interactions were evaluated after topical application and ultra‐violet exposure. Evaluations were also made under the same operating conditions as in determining sun protection factor in vivo. Results showed that each sunscreen preparation has a particular photochemical behaviour related to filter mixture and emulsion type. When developing a sunscreen preparation the choice of the emulsion type and filters is relevant for achieving optimum efficacy and spectral stability. Resume. L'objectif de cette etude a ete de montrer l'influence du type d'emulsion (eau dans huile ou huile dans eau a base de cristaux liquides) sur le comportement photochimique de quatre preparations solaires contenant differents taux de trois filtres: octyl methoxycinnamate, butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane et 4‐methylbenzyli‐dene camphor. Le methode du stripping, in vivo, permet d'evaluer les interactions peau‐produit apres application topique et irradiation. De plus, l'evaluation est faite dans des conditions operatoires identiques a celles preconisees pour la determination des indices de protection solaire. Les resultats qui ont ete obtenus montrent que chaque preparation solaire a son propre comportement photochimique directement lie au type d'emulsion et au melange des filtres. Au cours du developpement d'un produit solaire les choix du type d'emulsion et du melange des filtres ont une influence significative sur son efficacite et sa stabilite spectrale.
Characterization of the mineral content of a physical sunscreen emulsion and its distribution onto human stratum corneum
Authors: DUSSERT A.‐S. , GOORIS E. , HEMMERLE J.
Published: May 2007

When using physical sunscreens, protection and aesthetic aspects are directly related to particle size and mineral distribution onto skin. These investigations aimed to characterize the different mineral raw materials entering into the composition of a specific sunscreen emulsion and to assess the distribution of the sunscreeen agents at the surface of human stratum corneum. X‐ray diffractometry revealed the crystallographic features of the TiO2 and ZnO crystals. Frequency distributions of crystal length and aspect ratio were determined for the zinc oxide which presented the largest particle size and varying shapes. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy disclosed structural information. The results reported in this study specify the characteristics of the oxide particles involved in the formulation and show a satisfactory mineral distribution along the irregular topography of the skin. No intracellular penetration was noted. Resume. Lorsqu'on utilise des ecrans mineraux dans un produit cosmetique, la photoprotection et les aspects esthetiques sont directement tributaires de la taille des particules et de leur repartition spatiale a la surface de la peau. L'objectif de ce travail etait de caracteriser les differentes phases minerales entrant dans la composition d'une emulsion antisolaire specifique et d'evaluer la distribution des elements photoprotecteurs a la surface du stratum corneum humain. La technique de diffraction des rayons X a ete utilisee pour fournir des donnees cristallographiques relatives auz TiO2 et ZnO employes. Les distributions statistiques des longueurs des cristaux et des rapports de la longueur a la largeur ont ete determinees pour l'oxyde de zinc, qui presente la plus grande taille de particules et des formes variables. Des informations structurales ont ete obtenues par microscopie electronique a balayage et a transmission. Les resultats de cette etude precisent les caracteristiques des particules minerales employees dans la preparation et montrent que la distribution cristalline le long du microrelief cutane est satisfaisante. Aucune penetration intracellulaire des cristaux n'a ete notee.
Zinc and titanium oxides: promising UV‐absorbers but what influence do they have on the intact skin?
Authors: LANSDOWN A.B.G. , TAYLOR A.
Published: May 2007

Suspensions (20%) of microfine and ACS grade zinc oxide, or 20% titanium oxide in water, castor oil or polyethylene glycol were applied topically to rabbit skin over 4 h (1 day) or 2 h daily (3 days). Skin sites were analysed for metal uptake. Percutaneous absorption of the oxides was probably low, most remaining on the skin surface. Uptake patterns were influenced by the vehicles used. Appreciably more microfine zinc oxide was taken up by the skin in subacute studies. Local changes in trace metal concentration were construed as evidence of percutaneous absorption of zinc and titanium oxides. Further studies are indicated to validate the significance of these preliminary observations. On a applique superficiellement a de la peau de lapin des suspensions a 20% d'oxyde de zinc de qualite microfine ou ACS, ou a 20% d'oxyde de titane dans l'eau, l'huile de castor ou le polyethylene glycol, durant 4 heures (1 jour) ou 2 heures par jour (3 jours). On a analyse l'absorption de metal par la peau. L'absorption transcutanee des oxydes est probablement faible, la majeure partie restant en surface. Le deroulement de l'absorption est influence par le vecteur utilise. On constate que notablement plus d'oxyde de zinc microfin est absorbe par la peau dans les etudes subaigues. Les modifications locales dans la concentration des traces de metal ont ete interpretees comme des preuves d'absorption transcutanee d'oxydes de zinc et de titane. Des etudes ulterieures sont necessaires pour valider la signification de ces observations preliminaires.
Design and in vivo evaluation of ultrafine inorganic‐oxide‐containing‐sunscreen formulations
Authors: TURKOGLU M. , YENER S.
Published: May 2007

Ultrafine titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and a 1:1 mixture of ZnO/TiO2 were used as 5% dispersions in sunscreen formulae. Three different carrier bases were evaluated for their accelerated stability and rheological properties with and without metal oxides based on sodium lauryl sulphate/polysorbate 80, triethanolamine stearate, and cetyl trimethyl ammonium chloride. All three bases showed thixotropic behaviour. Addition of metal oxides only affected the magnitude of viscosity not the viscoelastic behaviour. The cationic emulsion base was found to be the most stable to incorporate the microfine metal oxides, the others' viscosity values showing a significant drop in storage. The in vivo sun protection factors were determined on the cationic based emulsions in four human subjects using an UV source covering both UVA‐UVB regions. The mean sun protection factors were found to be 5.03, 4.03, and 4.8 for TiO2, ZnO, and 1:1 ZnO/TiO2 respectively for 4 mg.cm‐2 applications, the differences not being significant. Dans cette etude pour preparer les formules d'ecrans solaires fournissant la protection contre les regions UVA et UVB, on a utilise au taux de 5 pourcent du dioxyde de titane ultrafin, oxyde de zinc ultrafin et une mixture 1:1 de ZnO/TiO2. La stabilite acceleree et les proprietes rheologiques de trois emulsions de base ont ete evaluees avec ou sans les oxydes de metaux. Toutes les trois des emulsions de base ont montre un comportement thixotropique. L'addition des oxydes de metal a seulement affecte le degre de viscosite et non le comportement de viscoelastique. L'emulsion cationique de base a ete determinee comme etant le plus stable pour l'incorporation de l'oxyde de metal microfin. Les autres valeurs de viscosite ont presente une baisse significative a la temperature et a la duree de stockage. Les facteurs de protection solaire ont ete determines des emulsions utilisant le tansio actif cationique in vivo sur quatre sujets utilisant une source UV couvrant a la fois les regions UVA et UVB. En moyenne on a trouve que les facteurs de protection solaire etaient respectivement de 5.03, 4.03 et 4.8 pour TiO2, ZnO, et ZnO/TiO2.
Biological screening of 100 plant extracts for cosmetic use (I): inhibitory activities of tyrosinase and DOPA auto‐oxidation
Authors: LEE K.T. , KIM B.J. , KIM J.H. , HEO M.Y. , KIM H.P.
Published: May 2007

The aim of this study was to evaluate several plant extracts with a view to developing melanogenesis inhibitors. In this study, 100 plant extracts were screened to elucidate their whitening effects using in vitro inhibition of tyrosinase and DOPA auto‐oxidation activity. Several plant extracts such as Chaenomeles speciosa, Dryopteris crassirhizoma, Gastrodia ellata, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Morus alba, Myristica fragrans, Rheum palmatum and Sophora japonica showed inhibition of mushroom tyrosinase activity. Plant extracts including Bupleurum falcatum, Caragana sinica, Morus alba and Tussilago farfara showed inhibition of DOPA auto‐oxidation activity. L'objet de cette etude etait d'evaluer plusieurs extraits vegetaux dans le but de developper des inhibiteurs de la melanogenese. Dans cette etude, on a crible 100 extraits vegetaux pour connaitre leurs effets blanchissants en utilisant in vitro l'inhibition de la tyrosinase et de l'activite auto‐oxydante de la DOPA. Plusieurs extraits vegetaux tels que Chaenomeles speciosa, Dryopteris crassirhizoma, Gastrodia ellata, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Morus alba, Myristica fragrans, Rheum palmatum et Sophora japonica presentent une activite d'inhibition de la tyrosinase du champignon. Des extraits vegetaux comprenant Bupleurum falcatum, Caragana sinica, Morus alba et Tussilago farfara montrent une inhibition de l'activite d'auto‐oxydation de la DOPA.
Biological screening of 100 plant extracts for cosmetic use (II): anti‐oxidative activity and free radical scavenging activity
Authors: KIM B.J. , KIM J.H. , KIM H.P. , HEO M.Y.
Published: May 2007

Methanol aqueous extracts of 100 plants were screened for anti‐oxidative activity using Fenton's reagent/ethyl linoleate system and for free radical scavenging activity using the 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picryl hydrazyl free radical generating system. The results suggest that 14 plants ‐ Alpinia officinarum, Areca catechu, Brassica alba, Cannabis sativa, Curcuma longa, Curcuma aromatica, Eugenia caryophyllata, Evodia officinalis, Paeonia suffruticosa, Rhaphanus sativus, Rheum palmatum, Rhus verniciflua, Trapa bispinosa, Zanthoxylum piperitum ‐ may be potential sources of anti‐oxidants. Eight plants ‐ Citrus aurantium, Cornus officinalis, Gleditsia japonica, Lindera strychnifolia, Phragmites communis, Prunus mume, Schizandra chinensis, Terminalia chebula ‐ may be the potential source of free radical scavengers from natural plant. Nous avons crible l'activite anti‐oxydante de 100 extraits methanoliques aqueux de plantes en utilisant le systeme reactif de Fenton/linoleate, et leur activite de piege a radicaux libres en utilisant le systeme generateur de radicaux libres au 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picryl‐hydrazyle. Les resultats suggerent que 14 plantes ‐ Alpinia officinarum, Areca catechu, Brassica alba, Cannabis sativa, Curcuma longa, Curcuma aromatica, Eugenia caryophyllata, Evodia officinalis, Paeonia suffruticosa, Rhaphanus sativus, Rheum palmatum, Rhus verniciflua, Trapa bispinosa, Zanthoxylum piperitum ‐ peuvent etre des sources potentielles d'anti‐oxydants. Huit plantes ‐ Citrus aurantium, Cornus officinalis, Gleditsia japonica, Lindera strychnifolia, Phragmites communis, Prunus mume, Schizandra chinensis, Terminalia chebula ‐ peuvent etre la source potentielle de pieges a radicaux libres a partir de plantes naturelles.
Risk Taking in Adolescence
Authors: Steinberg Laurence
Published: May 2007

Trying to understand why adolescents and young adults take more risks than younger or older individuals do has challenged psychologists for decades. Adolescents' inclination to engage in risky behavior does not appear to be due to irrationality, delusions of invulnerability, or ignorance. This paper presents a perspective on adolescent risk taking grounded in developmental neuroscience. According to this view, the temporal gap between puberty, which impels adolescents toward thrill seeking, and the slow maturation of the cognitive-control system, which regulates these impulses, makes adolescence a time of heightened vulnerability for risky behavior. This view of adolescent risk taking helps to explain why educational interventions designed to change adolescents' knowledge, beliefs, or attitudes have been largely ineffective, and suggests that changing the contexts in which risky behavior occurs may be more successful than changing the way adolescents think about risk.
From Nonhuman to Human Mind
Authors: Hare Brian
Published: May 2007

Two questions regarding the human mind challenge evolutionary theory: (a) What features of human psychology have changed since humans' lineage split from that of the other apes such as chimpanzees and bonobos? And (b) what was the process by which such derived psychological features evolved (e.g., what were the selection pressures)? I review some of the latest research on chimpanzee and canine psychology that allows inferences to be made regarding these questions.
Implicit–Explicit Relations
Authors: Nosek Brian A.
Published: May 2007

Mental process and mental experience are not the same thing. The former is the operation of the mind; the latter is the subjective life that emerges from that operation. In social evaluation, implicit and explicit attitudes express this distinction. Although it is clear that they are not the same, how they differ is not. Across content domains, implicit and explicit attitude measures show substantial variability in the strength of correspondence, ranging from near zero to strongly positive. Variation in controllability, intentionality, awareness, or efficiency is thought to differentiate implicit and explicit attitudes. Dual-process theories and empirical evidence for moderating influences of implicit–explicit attitude relations provide a framework for comprehending relations between the operation and the experience of the mind.
Event Segmentation
Authors: Zacks Jeffrey M. , Swallow Khena M.
Published: May 2007

One way to understand something is to break it up into parts. New research indicates that segmenting ongoing activity into meaningful events is a core component of perception and that this has consequences for memory and learning. Behavioral and neuroimaging data suggest that event segmentation is automatic and that people spontaneously segment activity into hierarchically organized parts and subparts. This segmentation depends on the bottom-up processing of sensory features such as movement and on the top-down processing of conceptual features such as actors' goals. How people segment activity affects what they remember later; as a result, those who identify appropriate event boundaries during perception tend to remember more and to learn more proficiently.
Corticotropin-Releasing Factor and the Psychobiology of Early-Life Stress
Authors: Gillespie Charles F. , Nemeroff Charles B.
Published: May 2007

Trauma and neglect during childhood are increasingly appreciated as factors in the etiology of adult mood and anxiety disorders. Much has been learned about the role of stress biology in the persisting effects of early adverse experience on adult psychopathology. Here we present an overview of developmental trauma in the psychobiology of depression and anxiety. We emphasize the role of corticotropin-releasing factor in the pathophysiology of these disorders, focusing on the transduction of early life trauma into adult psychopathology.
Affect, Social Behavior, and the Brain in Williams Syndrome
Authors: Bellugi Ursula , Järvinen-Pasley Anna , Doyle Teresa F. , Reilly Judy , Reiss Allan L. , Korenberg Julie R.
Published: May 2007

Williams syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by intellectual impairment and a distinctive physical and neuropsychological profile. Relative to their level of intellectual functioning, individuals with WS exhibit strengths in language and face recognition, with deficits in visual-spatial cognition. A heightened appetitive drive toward social interaction is a strong behavioral feature. Relative to other neurodevelopmental disorders, WS has a clearly defined genetic basis, together with a consistent neurocognitive profile of strengths and deficits. Thus, this disorder offers unique opportunities for elucidating gene–brain–behavior relationships. We focus on manifestations of the unusual social profile in WS, by examining data within and across levels of cognition, brain, and molecular genetics.
Auditory-Processing Malleability
Authors: Kraus Nina , Banai Karen
Published: May 2007

Auditory processing forms the basis of humans' ability to engage in complex behaviors such as understanding spoken language or playing a musical instrument. Auditory processing is not a rigid, encapsulated process; rather, it interacts intimately with other neural systems and is affected by experience, environmental influences, and active training. Auditory processing is related to language and cognitive function, and impaired auditory processing negatively affects the quality of life of many people. Recent studies suggest that the malleability of the auditory system may be used to study the interaction between sensory and cognitive processes and to enhance human well-being.
Theory Revision and Redescription
Authors: Dixon James A. , Kelley Elizabeth
Published: May 2007

Children acquire complex relational representations of the world. Explaining the acquisition of these representations has been a significant challenge for theories of cognitive development. Recent work suggests that two processes, theory revision and redescription, operate in an iterative, complementary fashion to produce new representations. Given a novel situation, children use theory revision to generate a candidate relational structure and can modify that structure in response to error. Redescription detects regularities created through successful use of that structure in interaction with the environment; these regularities are consolidated into new representations, which are then available to the theory-revision process. The complementary nature of these processes is illustrated by recent work on representational change in a gear-system task and in arithmetic concepts. Theory revision and redescription occupy different, but mutually supportive, niches in knowledge acquisition.
Effective Opportunity and Democratic Deliberation
Authors: Allen Michael
Published: May 2007

This article develops a conception of effective opportunities of minority speakers that is tied to the possibilities of conceptual innovation in informally inclusive democratic deliberation. My argument proceeds through a critical engagement with Brian Barry and Bikhu Parekh on what it means to have an equal opportunity in a multicultural society. I claim that the exchange between Barry and Parekh reaches a conceptual deadlock over the possibility of producing a substantive revision in the concept of equality. I break this conceptual deadlock, however, by appeal to the potential of diverse speakers in informal deliberation to reinvent the meanings of their basic political terms of co-operation.
Gender, Institutions and Power: A Critical Review
Authors: Kenny Meryl
Published: May 2007

Both feminist and mainstream political science has taken an institutional ‘turn’, opening up possibilities for interchange between the two fields. This article explores the potential for theoretical synthesis between feminist gender analysis and new institutional theory, focusing particularly on issues of power. After providing a brief overview of approaches to power in the institutionalist and feminist literature, it outlines some initial possibilities for dialogue between the two fields. The article concludes by considering some potential insights that a gendered approach to institutions and power would offer to new institutionalism, establishing a preliminary foundation for a wider ‘feminist institutionalist’ research agenda.
Non-participative Observation in Political Research: The ‘Poor’ Relation?
Authors: Moug Peter
Published: May 2007

Non-participative observation, a data-gathering tool where the researcher assumes the role of observer while minimising participation, has a relatively low profile in empirical political research. This article begins with some introductory comments on the status of non-participative observation in political research. It then sets out the particular attributes of non-participative observation, focusing on the practical application and utilisation of non-participative observation in empirical political research. I show that non-participative observation can make a valuable, if particular, contribution as a data-gathering tool in empirical political research.
‘Critical’ Political Economy, Historical Materialism and Adam Morton
Authors: Germain Randall D.
Published: May 2007

In response to Adam Morton's survey of ‘critical’ IPE in the January 2006 issue of this journal, I argue that we should resist the call to privilege the question of class struggle when considering the political economy of world order. This question, although not unimportant, draws upon an overly narrow and austere conception of historical materialism. Instead, I consider a more fulsome – but decidedly non-Marxist – tradition of historical materialism in order to move beyond the monological tendency that continues to mar much Marxist historiography, especially when the question of class struggle is elevated as the principal lens through which our understanding of capitalism is organised. I do this by considering the importance of historical idealism in the work of Robert W. Cox, a key interlocutor of much so-called ‘critical’ IPE. Although I agree with Morton that class struggle should not be effaced, I make the counter-claim that understanding the political economy of world order demands an attention to the formation of collective human subjectivities if we are adequately to grasp its contemporary dynamics.
Picture Yourself at the Polls
Authors: Libby Lisa K. , Shaeffer Eric M. , Eibach Richard P. , Slemmer Jonathan A.
Published: May 2007

The present research demonstrates that the visual perspective—own first-person versus observer's third-person—people use to picture themselves engaging in a potential future action affects their self-perceptions and subsequent behavior. On the eve of the 2004 U.S. presidential election, registered voters in Ohio were instructed to use either the first-person or the third-person perspective to picture themselves voting in the election. Picturing voting from the third-person perspective caused subjects to adopt a stronger pro-voting mind-set correspondent with the imagined behavior. Further, this effect on self-perception carried over to behavior, causing subjects who were instructed to picture voting from the third-person perspective to be significantly more likely to vote in the election. These findings extend previous research in autobiographical memory and social judgment linking the observer's perspective with dispositional attributions, and demonstrate the causal role of imagery in determining future behavior.
The Format in Which Uncertainty Information Is Presented Affects Decision Biases
Authors: Gottlieb Daniel A. , Weiss Talia , Chapman Gretchen B.
Published: May 2007

We examined how the format in which uncertainty information is presented affects two biases in humans∗ choice behavior. In a computer task, participants were given four common-ratio effect and four common-consequence effect problems in each of four different formats. In these problems, uncertainty information was described, as percentages (e.g., 80%) or as frequencies (e.g., 16/20), or was experienced, either serially (20 outcomes shown one at a time) or simultaneously (20 outcomes all shown at once). Presenting information as percentages attenuated the common-ratio effect and augmented the common-consequence effect, which suggests that these biases have different underlying mechanisms. Participants∗ percentage estimates of outcome likelihoods did not differ according to the format in which the information was presented; however, participants∗ nonverbal estimates of outcome likelihoods differed across formats. The results suggest that uncertainty information presented as percentages is processed differently than the same uncertainty information presented in other formats.
Can Infants Map Meaning to Newly Segmented Words?
Authors: Estes Katharine Graf , Evans Julia L. , Alibali Martha W. , Saffran Jenny R.
Published: May 2007

The present experiments investigated how the process of statistically segmenting words from fluent speech is linked to the process of mapping meanings to words. Seventeen-month-old infants first participated in a statistical word segmentation task, which was immediately followed by an object-label-learning task. Infants presented with labels that were words in the fluent speech used in the segmentation task were able to learn the object labels. However, infants presented with labels consisting of novel syllable sequences (nonwords; Experiment 1) or familiar sequences with low internal probabilities (part-words; Experiment 2) did not learn the labels. Thus, prior segmentation opportunities, but not mere frequency of exposure, facilitated infants∗ learning of object labels. This work provides the first demonstration that exposure to word forms in a statistical word segmentation task facilitates subsequent word learning.
Cognitive Control of Sequential Knowledge in 2-Year-Olds
Authors: Bremner Andrew J. , Mareschal Denis , Destrebecqz Arnaud , Cleeremans Axel
Published: May 2007

Under incidental instructions, thirty-eight 2-year-olds were trained on a six-element deterministic sequence of spatial locations. Following training, subjects were informed of the presence of a sequence and asked to either reproduce or suppress the learned material. Children's production of the trained sequence was modulated by these instructions. When asked to suppress the trained sequence, the children were able to increase generation of paths that were not from the training sequence. Their performance was thus dependent on active suppression of knowledge, rather than on a random generation strategy. This degree of control in 2-year-olds stands in stark contrast to 3-year-olds∗ failure to control explicitly instructed rule-based knowledge (as measured by the dimensional-change card-sort task). We suggest that the incidental nature of a learning episode enables the acquisition of a more procedural form of knowledge with which this age group has more experience prior to the onset of fluent language.
Heart Rate Variability Reflects Self-Regulatory Strength, Effort, and Fatigue
Authors: Segerstrom Suzanne C. , Nes Lise Solberg
Published: May 2007

Experimental research reliably demonstrates that self-regulatory deficits are a consequence of prior self-regulatory effort. However, in naturalistic settings, although people know that they are sometimes vulnerable to saying, eating, or doing the wrong thing, they cannot accurately gauge their capacity to self-regulate at any given time. Because self-regulation and autonomic regulation colocalize in the brain, an autonomic measure, heart rate variability (HRV), could provide an index of self-regulatory strength and activity. During an experimental manipulation of self-regulation (eating carrots or cookies), HRV was elevated during high self-regulatory effort (eat carrots, resist cookies) compared with low self-regulatory effort (eat cookies, resist carrots). The experimental manipulation and higher HRV at baseline independently predicted persistence at a subsequent anagram task. HRV appears to index self-regulatory strength and effort, making it possible to study these phenomena in the field as well as the lab.
Foreign Policy Objectives: Left Socialist Opposition in Denmark, Norway and Sweden
Authors: Christensen Dag Arne
Published: May 2007

Due to their foreign policy opposition, the left socialist parties in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden remain among the few parties in Western democracies that lack governmental experience. When political parties confront political issues, they can either choose a competitive or a cooperative strategy. The Norwegian and Swedish left socialists chose competition when the EU issue appeared on the scene in the early 1990s. The Danish Socialist People's Party, on the other hand, opted for a cooperative strategy and accepted EU membership and the 1993 Edinburgh Agreement. Drawing on coalition theory, this article asks why.
Local Political Recruitment in Crisis? A Comparison of Finland and Norway
Authors: Aars Jacob , Offerdal Audun
Published: May 2007

Beginning with the assumed problem of high turnover among local councilors in Norway, the article compares local political recruitment processes in Finland and Norway. Turnover in Norwegian local councils has proven surprisingly stable at 60–65 percent for a series of elections, whereas it has been significantly lower at 35–45 percent in the other Nordic countries, including Finland. Turnover among Norwegian councilors is mainly due to voluntary retirement. According to theories of political recruitment and representation, lack of motivation among candidates poses a threat to the democratic quality of political systems, because it undermines the voters' ability to exercise democratic control over politicians. The authors argue that rotation in office need not constitute a democratic problem. On the contrary, empirical evidence is presented to show that participation in political council work may in itself have a politically activating effect on the participants. Very few candidacies can be described in terms of political ambition. Instead, motivation is often created and cultivated through participation. Furthermore, rotation in office may lead to the diffusion of political competence and may therefore constitute an alternative source of democratic control.
Implementation Deficit — Why Member States do not Comply with EU directives?
Authors: Lampinen Risto , Uusikylä Petri
Published: May 2007

This article discusses factors effecting the implementation of European policies at the national level. Four main independent variables are distinguished: political institutions, the degree of corporatism, citizens' support for the EU, and political culture in the member states. The impacts of these variables on the success of implementing EU directives in ten policy areas are then tested with the multiple regression model. The results suggest that political culture and the design of political institutions in the member states had the most significant impact on implementation behavior. Countries with a high level of trust and political stability combined with efficient and flexible political institutions had the most success in implementing European policies.
Power and Policy Design: A Comparison of Green Taxation in Scandinavian Agriculture
Authors: Daugbjerg Carsten
Published: May 2007

This article demonstrates the political importance of policy design in overcoming the opposition to the use of green taxes directed towards producers. The purpose of the article is to establish the link between the political power of producers and policy design. It is argued that the more politically powerful they are, the more likely policy makers are to reimburse tax revenues, to give producers control over the spending of the revenue and to design tax schemes in which there is a direct relationship between the subject being taxed and pollution. A comparison of fertilizer and pesticide tax policy making in Denmark, Norway and Sweden supports this argument.
Consensual Coalitions? Coalition Formation in Norwegian Municipalities
Authors: Gravdahl Hans Petter
Published: May 2007

While widely applied to political coalitions in national assemblies and cabinets, theories of coalition formation have seldom been tested at the local level of government. This article presents a model of coalition formation in connection with mayoral elections in Norwegian local councils and tests it on the basis of the first systematic collection of data on the election of mayors from a large number of municipalities. It finds small significant effects on the probability that oversized coalitions will be formed. Contrary to “common” knowledge, the size of a municipality has a positive influence on the conflictual climate, and thus on the size of the coalitions formed, which implies that the probability that an oversized coalition will form is higher in a large than in a small municipality. It also finds that the possibility that an oversized coalition will form increases if one party controls a majority of the councilors on its own, and if the majority is non‐socialistically controlled. The assumption of a strong norm for reaching consensus‐based decisions, reinforced by the design of the local political institutions, is supported.
The Voting System in the Council of the European Union. The Balance Between Large and Small Countries1
Authors: Moberg Axel
Published: May 2007

There is no foundation for the view that the balance between small and large member countries has changed through the successive enlargements of the EU. In most cases, the share of votes of the large countries is about 75 percent of what it would have been if the votes had been distributed in proportion to their population, and this figure has changed very little over the years. The great exception is Germany, which is due to the reunification. The effects of the enlargements and of a greater share of small and overrepresented countries have been borne to the same extent by all member countries. The relationship between the over/under‐representation of small and large countries has not changed since 1958. The share of the total population needed for a decision by qualified majority has, however, fallen, particularly with the accession of Spain and Portugal and the German reunification, and the majority has in a way become “less qualified.” This will continue with the coming enlargements, but the widespread belief that the small countries could outvote countries with a majority of the population is erroneous. This article examines the changes in the system that were suggested during the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference. A change of the same magnitude as these could be achieved through a simple formula based on objective criteria and would also eliminate the inconsistencies of the present system and the need for new negotiations at each enlargement.
One for the Record ‐ the 1997 Storting Election
Authors: Aardal Bernt
Published: May 2007

Norwegian politics remains in a turbulent and volatile state. The 1997 Storting election became a record‐breaking election where two parties, the Christian Peoples Party and the Progress Party, achieved their best ever results. The Conservative Party experienced the worst result in the party's more than hundred years' history. The Labor Party had its second worst election since the 1930s, while the Center party halved its number of voters and lost two thirds of their MPs compared to the previous election. The election campaign played a decisive role in this outcome. More than half of the voters decided which party to vote for during the campaign. Lack of commitment, rather than the parties' ability to create a positive interest in the election, seems to have caused the large shifts in support for the parties and the record‐high share of voters who decided during the campaign. 43 percent of the voters changed party preference from 1993 to 1997. If we exclude non‐voters, 33 percent switched party. The main issues of the campaign were health and eldercare. Although these issues dominated in all party groups, we find clear evidence of “issue ownership,” where specific parties attract voters with particular agendas and issue priorities. The Labor Party government stepped down after the election and was replaced by a centrist government led by Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bondevik. The new government is one of the weakest minority governments in Norwegian history and is only supported by 42 of the 165 Storting members.