bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electric field and stepped barrier effects on hydrogenic impurity states in semiconducting stepped quantum wells
Authors: Xia Congxin , Zhu Yanping , Wei S. Y. , Jia Yu
Published: January 2012

Based on the effective-mass approximation, the electric field and stepped barrier effects on hydrogenic impurity states in semiconducting stepped quantum wells (QWs) are investigated theoretically. Numerical results show that electron and impurity states are highly dependent on the electric field and stepped barrier in the stepped QWs. The applied symmetric electric fields induce asymmetric distribution of the donor binding energy in the stepped QWs. When the electric field is applied opposite to the growth direction of stepped barrier layer, it has a remarkable influence on the donor binding energy of impurities located at any position in the stepped QWs with any stepped barrier height. However, when the electric field is applied along the growth direction of the stepped barrier layer, the donor binding energy of impurities located at any impurity position is insensitive to variation of the stepped barrier height in the stepped QWs.
Energy transfer from exciplexes to dopants and its effect on efficiency of organic light-emitting diodes
Authors: Park Young-Seo , Jeong Won-Ik , Kim Jang-Joo
Published: January 2012

We report that an exciplex is formed at the interface between the N,N′-dicarbazolyl-4-4′-biphenyl (CBP) and the bis-4,6-(3,5-di-3-pyridylphenyl)-2-methylpyrimidine (B3PYMPM), which are widely used as an emitting layer (EML) host and an electron transporting layer (ETL) for high efficiency, green phosphorescent, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), respectively. The intensity of the exciplex emission is almost proportional to the inverse square of the fac-tris(2-phenylpyridine) iridium [Ir(ppy)3] concentration of the EML. Meanwhile, the efficiency of the OLEDs increases as the concentration of the Ir(ppy)3 increases. This enhancement of the efficiency and the decrease of the exciplex emission originates from the increase in the energy transfer rate from the exciplex to the dopants, due to the decrease in the distance between the exciplex and the dopant. The energy transfer processes were successfully analyzed using the Förster energy transfer mechanism. The high-efficiency OLEDs were obtained through the energy transfer from the exciplex to the dopant at the EML/ETL interface. The external quantum efficiency of the OLED reached 20.1% when the concentration of the Ir(ppy)3 is 6 mol. %. In addition, we investigated the relationship between the efficiency roll-off of the OLEDs and the energy transfer from the exciplex to the dopant by inserting a thin, undoped CBP layer at the EML/ETL interface.
Relationship between Comfort Meter values and the prickle rating of garments in wearer trials
Authors: Tester D. H.
Published: January 2012

The latest prototype version of the CSIRO-developed Comfort Meter was used to measure representative samples of all the garments used in the Sheep Cooperative Research Centre wearer trials. The average wearer prickle ratings of the garment sets were compared to the average Comfort Meter values for the garments. Comfort Meter values were strongly correlated with average prickle ratings assigned by wearers of the garments. As average wool fibre diameter and fabric knit structure were changed in the fabrics used in the wearer trials, the relationship between the Comfort Meter value and the wearer prickle rating remained highly correlated. The correlation between the Comfort Meter value and the wearer prickle rating changed for a set of fabrics in which the yarn structures were changed. A possible mechanism to explain the various relationships is proposed.
A strategy for achieving innovation through Sheep Cooperative Research Centre research and development
Authors: Truscott Graham , Thomas Philip
Published: January 2012

The Sheep Cooperative Research Centre’s role to facilitate the transformation of the Australian sheep industry is complicated by the extensive nature of the industry across some 31 000 small to medium farming enterprises, linking to both sheep meat and wool supply chains. Close integration of the market with research and adoption through a product development focus is enabling a staged product development process while providing the management flexibility needed for development of each product type within target markets. This paper presents the basis of the New Product Development Framework and the adoption strategies used across the Sheep Cooperative Research Centre programs to accelerate utilisation of products developed out of research. These strategies include: communication; training coordination; network engagement and use of key influencers; supply chain engagement and the use of specific adoption research tools.
Risk behaviours by type of concurrency among young people in three STI clinics in the United States
Authors: Hess Kristen L. , Gorbach Pamina M. , Manhart Lisa E. , Stoner Bradley P. , Martin David H. , Holmes King K.
Published: January 2012

Background Concurrent sexual partnerships can increase sexually transmissible infections (STI) transmission on a population level. However, different concurrency types may be associated with differential risks for transmission. To investigate this, we describe the prevalence and correlates of four specific concurrency types. Methods: Between 2001 and 2004, 1098 young adults attending three STI clinics were interviewed and tested for STIs. Characteristics associated with concurrency types were identified using logistic regression. Results: Approximately one-third of respondents reported reactive (34%), transitional (36%), compensatory (32%) and experimental (26%) concurrency. Among men, reactive concurrency was associated with not identifying as heterosexual, drug use and having sex the same day as meeting a partner. Among women, reactive concurrency was associated with African-American race and having >3 lifetime partners. Transitional concurrency was associated with >3 lifetime partners for men and women. Among men, compensatory concurrency was associated with African-American race; among women, there were no associations with compensatory concurrency. Among men, experimental concurrency was associated with >3 lifetime partners and having sex the same day as meeting a partner. Among women, experimental concurrency was associated with not identifying as heterosexual, drug use and having sex the same day as meeting a partner. Conclusions: All concurrency types were common in this population and each was associated with a set of demographic and risk factors. Reactive and experimental concurrency types were associated with other high-risk behaviours, such as drug use.
A comparison of young women’s actual and assigned timing of use of a microbicide surrogate
Authors: Tanner Amanda E. , Roof Katherine A. , Katz Barry P. , Katschke Adrian , Fortenberry J. Dennis , Zimet Gregory D.
Published: January 2012

Purpose: This study examined young women’s actual timing of use of a microbicide surrogate gel (vaginal moisturiser (VM)) compared with assigned timing conditions. Methods: Participants used a VM with coitus during 4-week cycles over a 3-year period in random timing sequences: 1 h before coitus, 10 min before coitus and 10 min after coitus. Daily diaries collected information related to coital behaviours, VM use and timing, and participants’ and partners’ VM assessments. Descriptive and mixed-effects model analyses were conducted. Results: At least three VM timing conditions were completed by 109 women aged 18–22 years old. Of 17 772 diary days collected, coitus was reported on 2128 (1252 with VM use; 59%). Median times between VM application and coitus were: 60 min before coitus (mean = 68.2; s.d. = 76.9) for the 1-h pre-coital group, 13.5 min before coitus (mean = 44.9; s.d. = 117.1) for the 10-min pre-coital group and 5 min before coitus (mean = 24.5; s.d. = 205.1) for the 10-min post-coital group. Women reported that the VM was very easy to use (68%), it was somewhat messy (61%), they were very wet during sex (81%), sex was very good (80%) and their partners liked using the VM (38%). Conclusions: Overall, the VM was rated positively. There was substantial deviation in application time across timing conditions, with significantly greater variability in the post-coital group. These findings contribute to understanding of how VMs are accepted and used, with implications for HIV prevention with microbicides requiring specific application timing.
Antimicrobial resistance: animal use of antibiotics
Authors: Soulsby Lord
Published: January 2012

The evolution of resistance to microbes is one of the most significant problems in modern medicine, posing serious threats to human and animal health. The early work on the use of antibiotics to bacterial infections gave much hope that infectious diseases were no longer a problem, especially in the human field. However, as their use, indeed over use, progressed, resistance (both mono-resistance and multi-resistance), which was often transferable between different strains and species of bacteria, emerged. In addition, the situation is increasingly complex, as various mechanisms of resistance, including a wide range of β -lactamases, are now complicating the issue. The use of antibiotics in animals, especially those used for growth promotion, has come in for serious criticism, especially those where their use should be reserved for difficult human infections. To lend control, certain antibiotic growth promoters have been banned from use in the EU and the UK.

It is now a decade since the UK House of Lords Science and Technology Committee (1998) highlighted concerns about antimicrobial resistance and the dangers to human health of resistant organisms derived from animals fed antibiotics for growth promotion or the treatment of infectious diseases. The concern expressed in the House of Lords report was similar to that in other major reports on the subject, for example from the World Health Organization, the Wellcome Foundation, the Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food and the Swann Report (1969) in which it was recommended that antibiotics used in human medicine should not be used as growth promoters in animals. At the press conference to launch the Lord’s Report it was emphasized that unless serious attention was given to dealing with resistance ‘we may find ourselves returning to a pre-antibiotic era’. The evolution of resistance is one of the significant problems in modern medicine, a much changed situation when the early work on antibiotics gave hope that infectious diseases were no longer a problem, especially in the human field. Optimism was so strong that the Surgeon General of the USA, William H Stewart, in 1969 advised the US Congress that ‘it is time to close the book on infectious diseases and to declare that work against the pestilence is over’. This comment was not only mistaken but it was also damaging to human health undertakings and also reduced funding for research on infectious diseases.

Despite the widespread support for and dependence on antibiotics, resistance was increasingly reported worldwide and to recognize the global problem a group of medical workers established in 1981, at Tufts University, the Alliance for the Prudent use of Antibiotics (APUA). This now has affiliated chapters on over 60 countries, many in the developing world. APUA claims to be the ‘world’s leading organization conducting antimicrobial resistance research, education, capacity building and advocacy at the global and grass roots levels’.
Anthrax
Authors: Baillie Les , Huwar Theresa
Published: January 2012

Anthrax is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-positive aerobic spore-forming bacillus, primarily infecting herbivores. Although rare in the developed world the organism remains a threat to livestock in African and Asian countries where control depends on appropriate animal husbandry approaches such as vaccination and disposal/decontamination of carcasses. Animals are thought to contract anthrax by ingesting spores from contaminated soil while humans become infected via contact with diseased animals, their products or as a consequence of acts of bio-terrorism such as occurred in 2001. This unprecedented act has stimulated a burst of research, shedding new light on the biology of the organism and its ability to cause disease. It is to be hoped that this renewed interest will see anthrax once more regain the status of an exotic disease of antiquity.
Lyme borreliosis
Authors: O’Connell Sue
Published: January 2012

Lyme borreliosis is the most common vector-borne bacterial infection in the temperate northern hemisphere. In the United States of America over 35,000 confirmed or probable cases were reported by state health departments to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2008. It is likely that well over 100,000 cases occur in Europe each year. Lyme borreliosis is caused by several genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, which are transmitted by ticks of the Ixodes ricinus complex. The infection occurs most commonly in forested, woodland and heathland habitats that support the lifecycles of Ixodes ticks and the small mammals and birds that are reservoir-competent hosts for B burgorferi. The most common presenting feature of Lyme borreliosis is erythema migrans, a slowly spreading rash. The spirochaetes can disseminate through the bloodstream and lymphatics to other organs and tissues and cause later manifestations, most commonly affecting the nervous and musculoskeletal systems. The infection responds to appropriate antibiotic treatment at any stage of disease, with excellent outcomes in most cases, but patients with severe tissue damage from previously untreated late stage disease may recover incompletely. A small proportion of patients can have persistent non-specific symptoms following treatment, without evidence of continuing active infection. This has been termed “post-Lyme syndrome” and appears to be similar to other post-infection syndromes. Prevention relies mainly on personal protection measures against tick bites.
Flea-borne rickettsial diseases
Authors: Angelakis Emmanouil , Raoult Didier
Published: January 2012

R.felis has been identified in cats and cat fleas and is now considered to be the cause of flea borne spotted fever (cat flea typhus). Cases of fever, rash and lymphadeopathy have been reported from Europe and the Americas. Diagnosis is based on serology and treatment with doxycycline.
Epidemic and murine typhus
Authors: Angelakis Emmanouil , Raoult Didier
Published: January 2012

Epidemic typhus is now a rare disease, but previously it was worldwide in distribution. Typically epidemic typhus occurred during instances in which humans were forced to live in crowded, cold and unhygienic conditions (eg aboard ships, in jails, and during military operations). Until recently man was considered to be the only reservoir for R.prowazekii, but in 1975 a new sylvatic cycle involving the flying squirrel and its ectoparasites was discovered in the eastern United States.

Murine typhys occurs throughout the world. Its epidemiology is primarily linked to the distribution of rats and the rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis. However, recently both a new reservoir (opossums in southern California) and a new potential vector (the cat flea) have been discovered.

Control or avoidance of the vectors are the cornerstones of strategies to prevent morbidity and mortality.
Scrub typhus
Authors: Angelakis Emmanouil , Raoult Didier
Published: January 2012

Bacteria of the genus Rickettsia are obligate intracellular rods that retained basic fuchsin when stained by the method of Gimenez. This genus has long been used as a generic term of small intracellular bacteria. However, taxonomic progress made over the last years has deeply modified the definition of “rickettsia”. As a result, in 1995 the position of R. tsutsugamushi has reclassified from the genus Rickettsia into a separate new genus, Orientia (Tamura et al. 1995).

Scrub typhus, also known as ‘tsutsugamushi fever’, occurs only in Asia and is a chigger-borne zoonosis. The disease is acute, febrile, potentially fatal and has been known for centuries in China where it was probably described as early as in the fourth century BC (Parola and Raoult 2006). These last years this infection has been re-emerging because of descriptions of strains of O. tsutsugamushi with reduced susceptibility to antibiotics and of the surprising interactions between scrub typhus and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It is estimated that more than a million cases of scrub typhus are transmitted annually in Asia and more than a billion people are at risk (Rosenberg 1997).
Q fever
Authors: Marrie Thomas J.
Published: January 2012

Q fever is a wide spread illness affecting wild and domestic animals and man. The etiological agent Coxiella burnetii, has both a wild life and domestic animal cycle. In mammals, infection localizes to the endometrium and the mammary glands. The organism is reactivated during pregnancy reaching high concentrations in the placenta. At the time of parturition the organism is aerosolized. Inhalation of Coxiella burnetii by a susceptible animal results in Q fever. In man, Q fever may be acute (self limited febrile illness, pneumonia, hepatitis) or chronic (mostly endocarditis, but also osteomyelitis, endovascular infection, hepatitis [can be both acute and chronic] and Q fever in pregnancy). Abortion and stillbirth are manifestations of Q fever in domestic animals and in animal models of disease (such as a mouse model of Q fever in pregnancy ). A vaccine is available for abattoir workers, veterinarians and others at high risk for acquiring Q fever.
Other bacterial diseasesDiseases caused by corynebacteria and related organisms
Authors: Zoysa Aruni De
Published: January 2012

The genus Corynebacterium contains the species Corynebacterium diphtheriae and the non-diphtherial corynebacteria. C. diphtheriae is the major human pathogen in this genus, but several species of nondiphtheria corynebacteria appear to be emerging as important pathogens.

Zoonotic corynebacteria rarely cause disease in humans, but recent reports have indicated that the frequency and severity of infection associated with Corynebacterium ulcerans has increased in many countries. In the past most human C.ulcerans infections have occurred through close contact with farm animals or by consumption of unpasteurised dairy products. However, recently, there have been cases of human infection following close contact with household pets. Rhodococcus equi appears to be emerging as an important pathogen in immunocompromised patients, especially those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Human infections caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis is still a very rare occurrence.

Antibiotics in combination with surgery and vaccination are the treatment of choice for human infection. Control of human infection is best achieved by raising awareness in those at risk (e.g. domestic pet owners, sheep shearers, the immunocompromised), clinicians involved in treating these groups and by vaccination. Reducing prevalence in the animal population could be achieved by improving hygiene in farms and husbandry practices, reducing minor injuries (e.g. cuts and abrasions) during routine procedures, and by vaccination.
Other bacterial diseasesPasteurellosis
Authors: Thomas Daniel Rh.
Published: January 2012

Pasteurellosis is a zoonosis that occurs worldwide, caused by bacteria of the genus Pasteurella, and other related organisms. Pasteurellosis reported in humans is most frequently caused by the species Pasteurella multocida. In humans, cutaneous infection is most common, but more severe outcomes have been reported, particularly in those with underlying chronic disease. Infection in animals is usually subclinical, but may give rise to a range of clinical symptoms, depending on the host species. Disease in animals usually occurs as a consequence of stress such as overcrowding, chilling, transportation, or as a result of a concurrent infection. In animals, pasteurellosis is known as: shipping fever or pneumonia, transport or transit fever, stockyard pneumonia, bovine pneumonic pasteurellosis, haemorrhagic septicaemia, or avian, bird or fowl cholera. The pasteurella bacterium is commonly present in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract of a wide range of mammals. Transmission to humans occurs after bites, scratches, or licks from infected animals, most frequently from dogs or cats, although infection has been associated with other animals including: cows, pigs, hamsters and rabbits. However, not all patients report a history of direct animal contact. Infection may be prevented through the avoidance of animal bites and the prompt hygienic care of wounds. Health professionals should be aware of the risk of pasterurellosis in immunocompromised patients exposed to companion animals.
Other bacterial diseasesStreptococcosis
Authors: Morgan Marina
Published: January 2012

Many pyogenic (β -haemolytic) streptococci of clinical significance have animal connections. In the last edition of this book two species of streptococci were considered of major zoonotic interest, namely Streptococcus suis and S. zooepidemicus. Since then, numerous sporadic zoonoses due to other streptococci have been reported, and a newly recognized fish pathogen with zoonotic potential termed S. iniae has emerged. Changes in nomenclature make the terminology confusing. For example, the organism known as S. zooepidemicus — now termed S. dysgalactiae subsp. zooepidemicus — still causes pharyngitis in humans, complicated rarely by glomerulonephritis after ingestion of unpasteurized milk. Pigs remain the primary hosts of S. suis with human disease mainly affecting those who have contact with pigs or handle pork.

Once a sporadic disease, several major epidemics associated with high mortality have been reported in China. The major change in reports of zoonotic streptococcal infections has been the emergence of severe skin and soft tissue infections, and an increasing prevalence of toxic shock, especially due to S. suis (Tang et al. 2006), group C (Keiser 1992) and group G β -haemolytic streptococci (Barnham et al. 2002). Penicillin remains the mainstay of treatment for most infections, although some strains of group C and G streptococci are tolerant (minimum bactericidal concentration difficult or impossible to achieve in vivo) (Portnoy et al. 1981; Rolston and LeFrock 1984) and occasionally strains with increased minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for penicillin are reported.

Agents preventing exotoxin formation, such as clindamycin and occasionally human intravenous immunoglobulin, may be used in overwhelming infection where circulating exotoxins need to be neutralized in order to damp down the massive release of cytokines generated by their production (Darenberg et al. 2003). Prevention of human disease focuses on maintaining good hygienic practice when dealing with live animals or handling raw meat or fish products, covering skin lesions, thorough cooking of meats and pasteurization of milk.
Other bacterial diseasesErysipeloid
Authors: Smith Robert M.
Published: January 2012

Erysipeloid is an acute bacterial infection usually causing acute localised cellulitis as a secondary infection of traumatised skin. It is caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (insidiosa), a non-sporulating Gram-positive rod-shaped bacterium, ubiquitous in the environment. It is the cause of swine erysipelas and also a pathogen or commensal in a variety of wild and domestic birds, animal and marine species. Human infection primarily associated with occupational exposure to infected or contaminated animals or handling animal products and therefore is commoner in farmers, butchers and abattoir workers and fisherman.

Risk factors for the rare human invasive E. rhusiopathiae infection include conditions that affect the host immune response, such as alcoholism, cancer and diabetes. Treatment is with penicillin.

Erysipelas can affect animals of all ages but is recognised more frequently in juveniles. Swine exhibit similar stages to the disease in man. Clinical manifestations in swine vary from the classical rhomboid urticaria (diamond skin), the condition of greatest prevalence and economic importance, to sepsis, polyarthritis, pneumonia and death.

Prevention is largely a matter of good hygiene, herd management and by raising awareness in those at risk (especially butchers, farmers and fishermen); ensuring that clinicians are aware of E. rhusiopathiae as a possible cause of occupational skin lesions and bacterial endocarditis is important.
Other bacterial diseasesStaphylococcal zoonoses
Authors: Dawson Susan
Published: January 2012

Staphylococcal species are common commensals of the skin and mucous membranes of humans and animals but only in very recent years has zoonotic infections been recognised. They can also be associated with infection and disease, especially coagulase positive organisms. Staphylococcus aureus is relatively frequently carried by humans in the nasal passages and is a cause of infections in people including bacteraemias in hospitalised patients. More recently some strains of Staphylococcus aureus have acquired a resistance gene (mecA) which renders them resistant to meticillin (meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA). MRSA isolates are of major importance in healthcare situations as well as increasingly in the community. Animals can also be carriers of Staphylococcus aureus although less frequently than humans and MRSA can be carried or infect several different host species. For companion animals such as dogs and cats, the most frequently isolated MRSA strains are similar to the common local human healthcare strains; thus for the UK, EMRSA-15 and -16. This suggests a reverse zoonosis with spill over from the human population into their companion animals. In horses the situation is different, with some horses carrying or infected with human epidemic strains but others infected with strains less frequently seen in people. For food-producing animals the picture is different again with a particular strain, ST398, which appears to circulate endemically in animal populations, such as pigs, and can spill over into the human population where it can cause carriage as well as infection and disease. The transmission appears to be by direct contact with animals rather than through the food-chain.

Where risk factors for infection with MRSA have been studied in animals they appear similar to some of the risks for human infection. Therefore, for control of MRSA in animals measures such as improved hygiene and good antibacterial stewardship are important.
Yersiniosis and plague
Authors: Prentice Michael B.
Published: January 2012

Disease in humans is caused mostly by Y.enterocolitica belonging to serotypes 03, 05, 27, 08 and 09 and by Y.pseudotuberculosis (Skurnik et al 2002, Perry and Fetherston, 2006). The clinical presentations include fever, diarrhoea, abdominal pain that may mimic appendicitis, and chronic arthritis. There are typically lesions of enteritis and mesenteric lymphadenitis. Yersiniosis occurs in all European countries, with highest prevalence in northern countries and Scandinavia, as well as Canada, the United States, Australia, and Japan. Transmission is mainly from contaminated animal products such as pork and milk, and rarely from person to person spread by the faecal-oral route. Control of yersiniosis can be achieved by careful handling and cooking of meats and by pasteurization of milk and other dairy products.
Salmonellosis
Authors: Threlfall E. J. , Wain J. , Lane C.
Published: January 2012

Salmonellosis remains the second most common form of bacterial food-poisoning in the UK and in most of the developed economies. Although the number of isolations per annum has declined since 2000, over 10,000 laboratory-confirmed cases are recognised each year in England and Wales, and over 150,000 in Europe. Most of infections are associated with contaminated food, particularly of poultry origin, but also may originate from cattle and pigs, and to a lesser extent, sheep. The most common serovars from cases of human infection is Enteritidis, followed by Typhimurium. Contact with pets, particularly reptiles and amphibians is becoming an increasing problem and infections can be severe, particularly in children. Accurate and reproducible methods of identification and subtyping are crucial for meaningful epidemiological investigations, and traditional phenotypic methods of typing are now being supplemented by DNA- based methods such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, variable number of tandem repeats analysis, and multilocus sequence typing. The use of such methods in combination with phenotypic methods has been invaluable for outbreak control at the international level. The occurrence of resistance to antimicrobial drugs is an increasing problem, particularly in relation to the development of resistance to antimicrobials regarded as ‘critically-important’ for last resort therapy in humans. Control measures such as vaccination of poultry flocks appear to have had a substantial impact on the number of infections with Salmonella Enteritidis. Nevertheless good hygiene practices in both catering establishments and the home remain essential for the control of infections at the local level.
Tularaemia
Authors: Pearson Andrew
Published: January 2012

Tularaemia is a plague-like bacterial disease of animals (particularly rodents, hares, and rabbits) and man caused by five subspecies of Francisella. Two subspecies predominate: F. tularensis tularensis in North America and F. tularensis holarctica throughout the northern hemisphere. F. tularensis occurs in persistent natural foci causing localized epidemics and sporadic cases in man.

Francisella tularensis subspecies tularensis was described originally as causing a more virulent form of tularaemia than was seen in Europe. More recently recognized are subpopulations of Francisella tularensis subspecies tularensis which have markedly different virulence for man. These have been designated A1a, A1b and A2. Infections resulting from type A1b have been shown to have an attributable mortality of 24% as compared to 4% for tularaemia caused by A1a types.

F. tularensis is one of the most potent bacterial pathogens affecting humans with an infective dose from 1 to 10 organisms. The incubation period is usually 3–5 days (range from 1–21 days). Onset of disease is abrupt, with fever, chills, fatigue, general body aches, and headache. When the bacteria are acquired through skin or mucous membranes, tender regional node enlargement may become conspicuous. When bacteria are inhaled, the infection will result in deep lymph node enlargement.

The clinical epidemiology of human infection is complex since it relates to one of four modes of transmission of the agent harboured in multiple hosts from diverse ecosystems. Clinical presentation of the human disease is indicative of both the mode of transmission and often the source of infection in a specific ecosystem. Tularaemia presenting as ulceroglandular disease results from either vector-borne infection from mosquito or tick bites or occurs as a result of animal contact from bites, hunting or from skinning hares or muskrats. Oropharyhgeal and typhoidal infections predominate in waterborne outbreaks of F. tularensis holarctica. Pulmonary or influenza disease results from airborne transmission associated with either farmers moving rodent contaminated hay or laboratory acquired infection. An intentional aerosol release of F. tularensis tularensis would be expected to result in clinical manifestations similar to those recognized in natural respiratory tularaemia. Both vector-borne and airborne transmission of F. tularensis may both be associated with florid skin manifestations as a presenting symptom of tularaemia. Pulmonary or typhoidal forms of the tularaemia may occur as a complication of localized infection.
Foot-and-mouth disease, Vesicular stomatitis, Newcastle disease, and Swine vesicular disease
Authors: Kurkela Satu , Brown David W. G.
Published: January 2012

In this chapter we review four viral zoonoses that are an important cause of a vesicular disease in animals, but only occasionally cause human infections. These viruses represent three different taxonomical families (Picornaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Paramyxoviridae). Their clinical manifestations in animals resemble each another, characterised by vesicular eruptions in skin and mucous membranes, while human manifestations are generally mild and range from skin lesions and conjunctivitis to influenza-like illness and rarely encephalitis.
Mosquito-borne arboviruses
Authors: Gould E. A.
Published: January 2012

The arboviruses are all single-stranded RNA viruses, although they belong to four different viral families. Several important human pathogens belong to the mosquito-borne arboviruses including yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever. They cause a wide range of illnesses from unrecognised infection to severe systemic disease with hemorrhagic complications and encephalitis with a high mortality similar range of illnesses is seen in infected animals.

Arboviruses have several unique characteristics, these include; an ability to infect and be transmitted by mosquitos, ticks, midges, sand flies, bugs, fleas, blackflies and horseflies. They infect vertebrate hosts which may amplify virus for invertebrate vectors that feed on infected vertebrates. An ability to replicate in anthropods, with little pathology and in vertebrates often with significant pathology. Many arboviruses are Zoonotic.

Control methods depend on the epidemiology of particular viruses, but epidemic vector control through control of insect breeding sites and the use of insecticide spraying have been successfully used in the past. Effective vaccines are available for yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis.
Poxviruses
Authors: Reid Hugh W. , Dagleish Mark P.
Published: January 2012

The poxviruses are a large family of complex viruses infecting many species of vertebrates as well as arthropods, and members of the three genera Orthopoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus and Parapoxvirus are the cause of sporadic zoonotic infections originating from both wildlife and domestic livestock. Infections of humans are generally associated with localized lesions, regarded as inconvenient rather than life-threatening, although severe illnesses have occurred, particularly in immunologically compromised individuals.

The most celebrated of the orthopoxvirus infections is cowpox — a zoonotic infection which has been exploited to the enormous benefit of mankind as it had a pivotal role in the initiation of vaccination strategies that eventually led to the eradication of smallpox. Cowpox occurs only in Eurasia and in recent years it has become evident that infection of cattle is fortuitous and the reservoir of infection is in wild rodents. Monkeypox is another orthopoxvirus causing zoonotic infections in central and west Africa resembling smallpox and is the most serious disease in this category. While monkeypox does not readily spread between people, the potential of the virus to adapt to man is of concern and necessitates sustained surveillance in enzootic areas.

The third orthopoxvirus zoonoses of importance is buffalopox in the Indian subcontinent, which is probably a strain of vaccinia that has been maintained in buffalo for at least 30 years following the cessation of vaccination of the human population. Likewise in Brazil, in recent years widespread outbreaks of vaccinia have occurred in milkers and their cattle.

Orf virus, the most common of the parapoxviruses to cause zoonotic infection, is largely restricted to those in direct contact with domestic sheep and goats. Generally, infection is associated with a single localized macule affecting the hand which resolves without complications. Infection would appear to be prevalent in all sheep and goat populations and human orf is a relatively common occupational hazard. Sporadic parapoxvirus infections of man also occur following contact with cattle infected with pseudocowpoxvirus, and wildlife, in particular seals.

A final serious consideration with the poxvirus zoonoses is the clinical similarity of such infections with smallpox. In view of the potential for smallpox virus to be employed by bio-terrorists there can be an urgency for laboratory confirmation of unexplained zoonotic poxvirus infections. Thus there is a requirement to maintain the capacity for rapid confirmation of poxvirus infections by molecular technique. As representatives of the known poxviruses have all been sequenced, generic and virus specific Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) can readily be performed to ensure rapid confirmation of any suspect infection.
Tick-borne encephalitides
Authors: Nuttall Patricia A.
Published: January 2012

Tick-borne encephalitides are caused by three different viruses transmitted by ticks and belonging to the Flaviviridae virus family: tick-borne encephalitis virus (Far Eastern, Siberian, and European subtypes), louping ill virus, and Powassan virus (including deer tick virus). These viruses cause encephalitis affecting humans in Eurasia and North America. In nature, they are maintained in transmission cycles involving Ixodes tick species and small or medium-sized wild mammals. The tick-borne flavivirus group is one of the most intensely studied groups of tick-borne pathogens.
Zoonotic paramyxoviruses
Authors: Rota Paul A. , Bellini William J.
Published: January 2012

Hendra virus (HeV), Nipah virus (NiV), and Menangle virus (MenV) are recently emergent paramyxoviruses that are responsible for zoonotic infections and represent potential threats to agriculture and humans. In particular, HeV and NiV cause fatal disease in animals and man, and outbreaks of NiV continue to occur almost annually in Southeast Asia. Molecular biologic studies have made substantial contributions to the characterization of these new paramyxoviruses by providing an accurate picture of their relative taxonomic positions, and molecular techniques were used to provide rapid diagnostic capabilities. In the outbreaks of NiV in Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India, molecular biological data quickly identified the etiologic agent present, and RT-PCR and serologic assays were used to rapidly confirm NiV infections in humans and animals. There has only been one report of human illness due to MenV and one study has detected an antibody response to a related rubulavirus, Tioman virus (TiV), in humans. It is interesting that all of these viruses share a common reservoir in large fruit bats. Because of their clear potential to cause severe disease in humans and animals, NiV and HeV have been designated as Class C Select Agents and have been the focus of intense study since their emergence.
African trypanosomosis
Authors: Gibson W.
Published: January 2012

The African trypanosomoses are diseases of both man and his livestock. There are two forms of human trypanosomosis or sleeping sickness: Gambian or Rhodesian sleeping sickness, roughly corresponding to a West, Central or East African distribution respectively. Gambian sleeping sickness runs a more protracted and chronic course than the Rhodesian form; nevertheless, human trypanosomosis is invariably fatal if not treated. Animal reservoir hosts, both wild and domestic, assume greater importance for Rhodesian sleeping sickness than Gambian sleeping sickness, and the former is often an occupational hazard of those visiting or working in wildlife areas, e.g. tourists, hunters. Animal trypanosomosis transmitted by tsetse is generally referred to as Nagana, while the disease transmitted by other bloodsucking flies outside the African tsetse belt is known chiefly as Surra, but also by a variety of local names.

Sleeping sickness control measures are aimed either at the trypanosome or the fly. Human cases are detected by active or passive surveillance and cured by treatment with trypanocidal drugs.Control of the tsetse vector is by application of residual insecticides or bush clearing and, more recently, by traps or insecticide-impregnated targets, or by wholesale release of sterile males. Tsetse control is more widely employed for the control of animal trypanosomosis than sleeping sickness.
Babesiosis and malaria
Authors: Cox F. E. G.
Published: January 2012

Babesiosis and malaria are rare zoonoses that, with new developments in diagnosis and the application of molecular techniques, are becoming increasingly frequently recognised. Babesia species infect millions of cattle and unknown numbers of sheep, dogs, horses, and wildlife throughout the world but human infections are very uncommon. There are two distinct forms of human babesiosis. In Europe the causative agent is Babesia divergens, a natural parasite of cattle transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinis. B. divergens infections in humans are extremely rare and nearly all have been recorded from asplenic or otherwise immunocompromised patients. In the USA, human babesiosis is more common than in Europe, although still very rare, and is not restricted to immunocompromised individuals. The causative agents are Babesia microti and B. duncani, common parasites of rodents, transmitted by the tick Ixodes scapularis. In addition there have been sporadic reports of human babesiosis from other parts of the world but in most cases the species of Babesia involved has not been characterised. Malaria parasites and Babesia both inhabit red blood cells during part of their life cycles and these stages cause the diseases, malaria and babesiosis, which are similar in many respects. The facts that humans can occasionally acquire malaria and babesiosis from animals, that both parasites appear similar when seen in blood films and that both cause similar symptoms can cause problems in diagnosis and these rare infections are, therefore, of interest to clinicians and epidemiologists.
Blastocystosis
Authors: Puthia Manoj K. , Tan Kevin S.
Published: January 2012

Blastocystis , the causative agent of blastocystosis, is an intestinal protozoan commonly identified in stool specimens of patients. It is one of the most common parasites inhabiting the human intestinal tract. Clinical symptoms attributed to Blastocystis include recurrent watery diarrhoea, mucous diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and flatulence. Blastocystis infects both children and adults and its geographical distribution appears to be global with prevalence ranging from 30 to 50% in developing countries (Stenzel and Boreham 1996).

Blastocystis was first described as a distinct organism in 1911 and the name B. enterocola was proposed for this organism (Alexeieff 1911). It was isolated from human faeces and the name B. hominis was coined (Brumpt 1912). At first, it was described as a harmless intestinal yeast and ignored for many decades. Its association with human disease was suggested by a number of reports and eventually work by Zierdt (1991) increased the awareness of Blastocystis infections in humans.

In spite of its description about a century ago, the exact role of Blastocystis as a cause of human disease is uncertain. A number of clinical and epidemiological studies implicate the parasite as a potential pathogen (Al-Tawil et al. 1994; El-Shazly et al. 2005; Garavelli et al. 1991; Logar et al. 1994) while others exonerate it as an etiology of intestinal disease (Chen et al. 2003; Leder et al. 2005; Shlim et al. 1995). Significant progress has been achieved on descriptions of the morphology and genetic diversity of Blastocystis but most aspects of its life cycle, molecular biology, and athogenicity remain unresolved (Stenzel and Boreham 1996; Tan 2004).
Alveolar echinococcosis (Echinococcus multilocularis)
Authors: Eckert J. , Deplazes P. , Kern P.
Published: January 2012

In this chapter three forms of echinococcosis in humans are described that are caused by a larval stage (metacestode) of Echinococcus multilocularis Leuckart, 1863, Echinococcus oligarthrus (Diesing, 1863) or Echinococcus vogeli Rausch and Bernstein, 1972. E. multilocularis is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis (AE). In the human host the metacestode of E. multilocularis behaves like a malignant tumour, characterized by infiltrative proliferation and the potential to induce serious disease. The liver is nearly exclusively the primary site of metacestode development, but metastases may by formed in adjacent and distant organs. Typically AE exhibits a chronic progressive clinical course, which finally leads to death in up to 90% of untreated patients within 10 years after diagnosis. An undefined proportion of cases are abortive with inactivation of the parasite. Evidence has accumulated in recent years that anti-parasitic therapy with benzimidazoles (albendazole or mebendazole) over many years or lifelong, if necessary combined with interventional procedures, can inhibit disease progression and improve or stabilse the patient’s clinical condition. Radical surgery in an early stage of the infection combined with anti-parasitic therapy for two years may lead to cure. The introduction of benzimidazole therapy of AE (1977), combined with improved diagnostic and surgical procedures, has resulted in significantly increased life-expectancies of adequately treated AE patients. In highly endemic areas ultrasound population screening (partially combinated with antibody detection) has been successfully used for early detection of AE cases. Countrywide annual AE incidence rates are mostly low at approximately < 0.1 to 2.0 per 100,000 inhabitants, but they can be much higher locally. Furthermore, there are indications of emerging case numbers in some areas of Europe and Asia. In spite of relatively low case numbers, AE is a significant disease due to its severity and high costs of treatment (median costs of approximately 145,800 per case).
Zoonotic schistosomosis (schistosomiasis)
Authors: Carabin Hélène , Johansen Maria V. , Friedman Jennifer F. , McGarvey Stephen T. , Madsen Henry , Xiao-Nong Zhou , Riley Steven
Published: January 2012

Asiatic schistosomiosis is a very old disease with Schistosoma japonicum eggs found in human remains > 2000 years old from Hunan and Hubei provinces in China (Mao and Shao 1982). The original description of Asiatic schistosomiosis was made by Fujii in 1847 (Sasa 1972). The life cycle was fi rst described by Kawanashi (1904) who noted trematode-like eggs in cat faeces. The same year, Katsurada recovered adult worms from a cat from Katayama, Japan (Okabe 1964). Fujinami and Nakamura (1909) first reported skin infection with S. japonicum cercariae of different mammals, and Miyairi and Suzuki (1914) discovered that Oncomelania hupensis served as intermediate host where miracidia developed into sporocysts and further into cercariae (Jordan 2000). The snail hosts of S. japonicum were discovered in China by Faust and Meleney (1923), The Philippines by Tubangui (1932) and in Indonesia by Carvey et al. (1973). In addition to the skin as the principal route of infection, Suda (1924) described oral infection and several authors described the intrauterine route of infection. (Okabe 1964; Sasa 1972).

Following the understanding of the lifecyle, control measures including wearing closely woven clothing, composting of faeces with urine for at least 14 days, replacing cattle with horses, killing of rodents especially rats, killing of snails by lime, copper sulphate or salt water, were proven to have some efficacy. In Japan, an effective integrated control programme started after Second World War with the last human case being reported in 1978 (Jordan 2000 ). The National Schistosomiosis Control Programme in China started in 1955 and at that time more than 10 million people were infected with S. japonicum (Wu 2002). Emetine and antimony potassium tartrate were among the first drugs with proven efficacy against schistosomiosis in humans. Later antimony and finally praziquantel and artemether have been introduced as highly effective drugs with only minor adverse effects (Wu 2002).