bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK IN INTERLANGUAGE FOSSILIZATION
Authors: Selinker Larry , Lamendella John T.
Published: October 2006

This paper, a discussion of the model presented in Vigil and Otler (1976), relates to one parameter of “fossilization” in inter‐language (IL) learning: the role of “extrinsic feedback.” The notion of “extrinsic factors” in second language acquisition is defined, and permanent fossilization is carefully distinguished from temporary stabilization of IL forms and systems. Six tentative conclusions about the role of extrinsic feedback in IL fossilization are presented and discussed in light of the hypotheses made by Vigil and Oller.
COORDINATE STRUCTURES AND LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS IN INTERLANGUAGE 1
Authors: Schmidt Maxine
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study is to investigate the deletion of redundant elements in coordinate structures using and in ESL learners' interlanguages (ILs). In natural language, there are certain universal constraints on the surface orders which may result from the deletion of one or more identical elements in such coordinate structures. Since it has been hypothesized that ILs are natural languages, this study sets out to determine if ILs obey universal constraints on surface orders of coordinate structures and therefore behave as natural languages with respect to these structures. It will be shown that they do.

In addition, where ILs differ from English with respect to surface orders, it is proposed that such ESL learners' errors are not best accounted for in terms of surface order transfer or overgeneralization of a target language rule, but rather that ESL learners may transfer the discourse constraints on deletion from their native language and create a new IL form in English.

Methodological considerations for doing such a study are also discussed. It is argued that a data base drawn from a single test can have serious implications for the accuracy of a description of an IL grammar.
POLITENESS: COMPARING NATIVE AND NONNATIVE JUDGMENTS
Authors: Carrell Patricia L. , Konneker Beverly H.
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the judgments of politeness made by both native speakers of American English and nonnative ESL learners with varied language backgrounds. The judgments were made on eight different request strategies in English, using the method of rank orderings in a contextualized condition. The eight strategies tested were systematically varied across three syntactic/semantic features generally regarded in the theoretical literature (e.g., Lakoff 1972, 1973b. Jespersen 1964, Quirk and Greenbaum 1973) as varying with politeness‐namely, imperative/declarative/ interrogative mood, presence or absence of modals, and tense of modals (“can” vs. “could”). Previous work in this area in ESL, e.g., Rintell(1979), Scarcella (1980). Waiters(1980). while a fruitful beginning, has analyzed spontaneously produced data and has not explored the syntactic/ semantic distinctions systematically. By contrast, this study analyzes theory‐based distinctions via judgments elicited under controlled conditions.

Results indicated that the responses of both native speakersand ESL learners fell into a hierarchy similar to that hypothesized. There was also a high and significant correlation between the natives and nonnatives in their politeness judgments, a finding similar to that of Walters (1980). In general, however, the ESL learners tended to perceive more distinctive levels of politeness than the native speakers, reflecting a kind of “over‐sensitivity” to syntactic/semantic form distinctions. Examination ofthe native politeness hierarchy showed each of the three syntacticlsemantic features contributing differentially to politeness; this suggests that in teaching the pragmatics of politeness, different grammatical patterns should not be given equal teaching emphasis.
THE CONSTRUCT VALIDATION OF THE FSI ORAL INTERVIEW1
Authors: Bachman Lyle F. , Palmer Adrian S.
Published: October 2006

The validation of oral language proficiency tests has long been problematical. The most common approaches to this problem have involved concurrent validation procedures for relating “indirect” measures to so‐called “direct” measures. The most frequently used criterion in such studies has been the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) oral interview. In validating the FSI interview itself, however, criterion‐referenced procedures are not possible since an adequate operationally defined criterion for comparison is not likely t o be found. Therefore construct validation procedures are necessary.

In this study a multitrait‐rnultimethod matrix comprising six measures representing combinations of two traits (speaking and reading) and three methods (interview, translation, self‐rating) was used t o examine the construct validity of the FS1 oral interview. The six measures were administered individually to 75 native Mandarin Chinese speakers of English. Data were analyzed using the Campbell‐Fiske criteria for convergent and discriminant validity and using confirmatory factor analysis.

The results indicate both convergent and discriminant validity for the FSI interview. Of the numerous factor models tested against the data, the model which provides the best fit comprises a general factor, two trait factors, and three method factors. A more parsimonious model, with two correlated trait factors and three method factors, fits the data nearly equally well and provides a more interpretable factor structure. These results provide strong evidence against a model of unitary language competence and support a model of partially divisible language competence.
ON THE NATURALNESS OF INTERLANGUAGE PHONOLOGICAL RULES1
Authors: Eckman Fred R.
Published: October 2006

Two interesting questions which are raised by the interlanguage (IL) hypothesis are (1) to what extent are ILs independent of the native language (NL) and the target language (TL), and (2) d o the grammars of 1Ls contain the same type of rules a s the grammars of other languages.

To address these questions, data were gathered from two native speakers of Spanish and two native speakers of Mandarin, all of whom were learning English as a second language. A partial phonological analysis of the 1L data revealed that (1) at least some of the 1L rules were independent in that they were motivated for neither the NL nor the TL, and (2) one of the IL rules, Terminal Devoicing, is motivated for the grammars of numerous languages whereas another rule, Schwa Paragoge, is apparently not part of the grammar of any other language. This conclusion raises the question of the extent to which ILs can be considered to be “natural languages.”
THE ALTERNATION HYPOTHESIS: ACQUISITION OF DUTCH WORD ORDER BY TURKISH AND MOROCCAN FOREIGN WORKERS1
Authors: Jansen Bert , Lalleman Josien , Muysken Pieter
Published: October 2006

We describe the acquisition of Dutch word order (in particular the positions of the verb and the preposition) by 16 Turkish and Moroccan foreign workers residing in Amsterdam Our theoretical framework is the Alternation Hypothesis, which states that when the target language offers an alternation between two patterns (eg. verb final and verb second, as in Dutch), a second language learner will tend to over generalize the pattern existing in his or her first language (eg, verb final in Turkish. verb second in Moroccan Arable) The hypothesis is partly confirmed by our data Reliance on first language structures is frequent in the earl) stages of the process of acquisition of the alternating orders involved. but almost absent in later stages
THE EFFECTS OF INDUCED SCHEMATA ON THE “SHORT CIRCUIT” IN L2 READING: NON‐DECODING FACTORS IN L2 READING PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Hudson Thom
Published: October 2006

Recent research in L2 reading has indicated that language proficiency in L2 places a limit on transference of L1 reading skills. The research reported here was developed to provide information on the possible application of L1 “schemata” theory to the nonlinguistic elements of L2 reading. The “schemata” based learning theory indicates that readers process meaning which has been presented through print by using prior knowledge of the world to produce representations of anticipated meaning. Further, this knowledge and representation can either aid or impede comprehension. In the experiment, a repeated measures design was used to present Ss with reading passages using three types of intervention. In the first method, Ss read a passage, took a test, reread the passage, and took the test again. In the second method, Ss were presented with a vocabulary list prior to reading and being tested. In the third method, Ss were shown pictures relating to the general topic of the passage and were asked to make predictions about the passage content. The results of the study indicate that schemata production is involved in the short circuit of L2 reading, that the effectiveness of externally induced schemata is greater at lower levels of proficiency than at higher levels, and that induced schemata can override language proficiency as a factor in comprehension.
MOTHERS'LANGUAGE AND INFANT SENSORIMOTOR DEVELOPMENT: IS THERE A RELATIONSHIP?1
Authors: Widerstrom Anne
Published: October 2006

An investigation was made of the language of three mothers to their infants between the ages of two months and eight months in order to chronicle pragmatic changes in the mothers' language as the infants progressed from Piaget's Stage 2 (primary circular reactions) to Stage 3 (secondary circular reactions) of sensorimotor development.

Results indicated that the mothers modified their speech to their infants when the babies began to display primarily Stage 3 behaviors. That is, a greater proportion of their speech referred to the child interacting with objects, while their references to the child alone decreased. They used a greater proportion of meaningful utterances and more reference in their speech. A decrease in the use of language to maintain interaction with the infant and an increase in its use to regulate the child's behavior or teach the child was noticed. Finally, the mothers used less repetition as their infants entered Stage 3. These language modifications would not be apparent in an analysis limited to syntactic or semantic aspects.
LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT AND GENDER IDENTITY ATTAINMENT1
Authors: Guiora Alexander Z. , Beit‐Hallahmi Benjamin , Fried Risto , Yoder Cecelia
Published: October 2006

This study attempted to explore the question whether sex‐determined grammatical gender loading in the native language will have an effect on the development of gender identity. The empirical question asked was, Will there be a relationship between the amount of linguistic emphasis on sex‐determined gender and the average age of attaining gender identity in children, in a specific language environment? Three groups of children, one in Israel, one in the USA, and one in Finland, were tested on the Michigan Gender Identity Test (MIGIT). The findings indicate a direct relationship between gender loading in the native language and gender identity attainment. It appears that the Israeli children have a significant, albeit temporary, advantage over their American and Finnish counterparts in the timing of gender development.
SIMPLIFICATION, TRANSFER, AND RELEXIFICATION AS ASPECTS OF PIDGINIZATION AND EARLY SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1
Authors: Schumann John H.
Published: October 2006

Schumann (1978) argues that the simplification (i.e., general absence of inflectional morphology and grammatical transformations) found in the early stages of second language acquisition (SLA) reflects pidginization. Gilbert and Mack (1979) argue that the early stages of SLA are characterized by native language (NL) transfer and relexification but not by pidginization.

Since there is no consensus among pidginists as to what constitutes pidginization (Washabaugh and Eckman 1980), it is impossible for researchers in SLA to rely on them for a definition of the process. Therefore SLA researchers must take an active role in the development of an accurate definition. In this paper I suggest that pidginization be seen as SLA under conditions of restricted input (Bickerton 1977) or restricted intake. Learners attempting to use a second language under such conditions will perform within the constraints of the general principle,Keep L2 output simple, and its corollary,Maintain your NL to whatever extent possible.From this perspective, the simplification reported by Schumann and the NL transfer and relexification reported by Gilbert and Mack are all proper characteristics of pidginization. The general principle accounts for simplification and the corollary accounts for NL transfer and relexification.

In support of this view, evidence is presented from both longitudinal and cross‐sectional studies of SLA by Spanish and Japanese learners of English.
REVIEW ESSAY
Authors: Schreck Richard
Published: October 2006

Some Cognitive Issues in Second Language Acquisition: A Review of Semantic and Conceptual Development: An Ontological Perspective by F. Kiel
EFFECTS OF TEST DISCLOSURE ON PERFORMANCE ON THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Angelis Paul J. , Thibodeau Lawrence A.
Published: October 2006

Specially constructed “disclosed TOEFL forms” were made available to students in intensive English language programs. Later the students were administered a special TOEFL consisting of items from those disclosed forms as well as a TOEFL consisting of items to which they had not been exposed. Scores on the former test were found to be greater than those on the latter, indicating a “disclosure effect”—i.e., showing that the students studied and recalled specific items from the disclosed forms.

Some items in the disclosed forms were to be discussed in class by the students' language instructors before the special TOEFL, and a relatively large disclosure effect was observed for these items. Nevertheless, a significant disclosure effect was also observed for items not discussed in class, indicating that the students studied the disclosed forms on their own initiative.

While some students were given 6 disclosed forms to study, others were given 12 forms, and the disclosure effect was found to be more pronounced for the former group than the latter. Apparently, if students must cover a relatively large number of forms in order to be exposed to all items that will appear on a later test, they will be less likely to benefit from disclosure than if they need cover a smaller number of forms.
INTERFERENCE AND OVERGENERALIZATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH DATIVE VERBS BY NATIVE SPEAKERS OF FRENCH
Authors: Compagnon Betty Le
Published: October 2006

This paper examines the role of interference in the acquisition of English dative verbs by native speakers of French. Two case studies involving the acquisition of English in a natural environment are presented as well as the results of two judgment tests in which each of four subjects was asked to judge the grammaticality of sentences containing both correctly and incorrectly used dative verb structures. Analysis suggests that the process of lexical acquisition of verbs in English is similar for both first and second language learners. However, second language learners may produce overgeneralization errors unlike those of first language learners due to incorrect assumptions concerning marked and unmarked forms in English for which there is positive evidence in both the source and target languages. Thus, although interference plays a significant role in the process of lexical acquisition of verbs, this does not rule out the hypothesis that first and second language acquisition are essentially like processes. If a more sophisticated understanding of the process of interference can be gained, it should be possible to predict the characteristic errors a second language learner will make based upon the particulars of the learner's native language.
CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK IN NATIVE‐NONNATIVE DISCOURSE
Authors: Day Richard R. , Chenoweth N. Ann , Chun Ann E. , Luppescu Stuart
Published: October 2006

This article reports the results of an investigation into how native speakers of English provide corrective feedback to errors in conversations with their normative speaker friends. We also present other types of noncorrective conversational repair. From approximately 12.7 hours of taped conversations in social settings, we learned that native speakers responded to errors by using either on‐record or off‐record corrective feedback. In addition, they used several noncorrective discourse devices to repair conversational difficulties: word searches, requests for help, clarification requests, and confirmation checks. The interaction of corrective feedback is described, which shows that much of native speaker corrective feedback occurs at transition points in conversation, not as interruptions.
AWARENESS OF FORM CLASS AS A FACTOR IN ESL READING COMPREHENSION
Authors: Guarino Regina , Perkins Kyle
Published: October 2006

This paper presents the results of an empirical study relating awareness of form class (morphology) to reading comprehension in which an ESL subject pool was employed. The analyses indicate that awareness of form class and reading comprehension are significantly related, but the authors note that morphology competence is but one dimension of reading comprehension and that in these data the effects of reliable method variance, world knowledge, lexical knowledge, and discourse grammar knowledge may be equally or more robust in explaining the reading comprehension variance as form class awareness. The difficulty of partitioning trait variance from trait‐irrelevant variance in language testing in general is also discussed.
WORD ORDER TYPOLOGY, LEXICAL GOVERNMENT, AND THE PREDICTION OF MULTIPLE, GRADED EFFECTS IN L2 WORD ORDER
Authors: Zobl Helmut
Published: October 2006

Lexical government refers to the relationship between a phrasal head and its complement. In this paper it is used to define a centre and periphery in word order typology. The direction of the government relation gives rise to two word order types. It is proposed that grammars in which the phrasal heads show a major split in their direction of government are more marked than those with a uniform direction.

This framework serves to generate multiple, graded predictions about word order in non‐primary acquisition and the predictions are tested on a broad range of available L2 word order data. The investigation indicates that while L2 learners do have access to the defining principle, they may not be as successful as L1 learners in acquiring peripheral word order attributes and word orders with a split in the direction of government.
AN EXPERIMENT IN THE PRESENTATION OF PARALLEL AND CONTRASTING STRUCTURES
Authors: Politzer Robert L.
Published: October 2006

Five learning experiments (three in French, two In Spanish) were conducted. The main independent treatment variable in each experiment was the sequence of presentation of a contrasting structure and a parallel structure closely related to it (e.g., the French and English patterns used in Donne‐moi/ Give me are parallel structures while those used in Ne me donne pas/Don't give me are contrasting). The following research hypotheses were investigated: (1) The sequence Contrasting Structure before Parallel Structure will result in better learning than the reverse sequence. (2) Each of the two treatments will exert a recency effect in favor of the structure taught last. (3) Contrasting structures are more difficult to learn than parallel structures. Hypothesis 1 was only partly confirmed, though the experiments showed a trend toward the superiority of treatment Contrasting before Parallel Structure. Hypothesis 2 was clearly confirmed and hypothesis 3 was confirmed in those of the five experiments in which “parallel” and “contrasting” referred to syntactical arrangements involving word order.
Language Learners' Extrapolation of Word Order in Micro‐Artificial Languages*
Authors: Cook Vivian J.
Published: October 2006

This article is concerned with the ability of language learners to extrapolate from the word order in one type of phrase to that in another, namely from the order in the verb phrase (VP) to the orders in the prepositional (PP) and noun phrases (NP) and from the verb phrase order plus either the prepositional‐phrase order or the noun‐phrase order to the other phrase type. Such extrapolation relates both to the implicational universals of possible word orders in language described by Hawkins (1983) and to the head parameter of Government/Binding Theory (Chomsky, 1986a, 1986b, 1988). This article describes an experiment with eight Micro‐Artificial Languages (MALs) that tested the ability of 409 secondary‐school children to extrapolate in this way. The results showed that most learners (340) were highly consistent in ascribing word order and most (321) succeeded in learning the MALs. Four extrapolation strategies followed by the learners that are not covered by the syntactic analyses mentioned are preferences for (1) postpositions, whatever the VP order; (2) adjectives in the same position as objects in the VP; (3) prepositions the same side as adjectives in the NP and objects in the VP; and (4) adjectives before nouns if the VP order and the NP order are consistent. Further research is needed to see if such extrapolation strategies occur in real learning or if they are an artefact of the MAL approach.
Phonological Asymmetry in Second‐Language Learning and Performance
Authors: Neufeld Gerald G.
Published: October 2006

This paper reports on the results of a study in which adult second‐language learners' performance on phonological perception tasks was contrasted with their performance in articulatory production. The project was a continuation of earlier work in which the writer found no evidence for language‐learning deficits at the level of perception and notable asymmetry between phonological perception and articulatory production in L2. The objectives of the work discussed here were to take a closer look at some of the factors that might account for asymmetry and to see what implications our additional findings might have for the continuing debate about developmentally induced language‐learning disabilities.
Echoic Memory Interference and Comprehension in a Foreign Language*
Authors: Greenberg Seth N. , Roscoe Suzanne
Published: October 2006

Based on the hypothesis that students who are less able to comprehend speech in a foreign language suffer from greater echoic memory interference, faculty evaluated the listening comprehension of students in several introductory foreign language courses. The evaluations were used to assign students to weaker and stronger comprehension groups. Both groups were tested for echoic memory interference using the standard suffix procedure in which a list of digits is read with either a tone control, or a suffix recall, appended to the end of the list. Echoic interference is measured by comparing the recall performance in the suffix and nonsuffix (tone) conditions. Poorer recall of terminal digits in lists in the suffix condition, as compared to the nonsuffix condition, indicates echoic interference. The results were consistent with our hypothesis, suggesting that students with weaker listening comprehension depend more upon vulnerable sensory codes in echoic memory, while those with better comprehension rely on stable higher‐order codes.
Textual Sequence and Second‐Language Comprehension*
Authors: Jonz Jon
Published: October 2006

This paper reports research into the interactive roles played in verbal comprehension processes by the sequence of textual elements, text‐specific prior knowledge, and levels of language proficiency. Four cloze tests were administered to undergraduate (n=246) and graduate (n=240) native speakers of English and to undergraduate nonnative (n=238) speakers at three universities in northeast Texas. One test passage was a set of descriptive facts with very little linear connectivity. A second test was based on the chronological account of a psychological experiment. The third and fourth tests were scrambled versions of the first two. Prior to the administration of the tests, half of the subjects were allowed to read the entire intact sequentially ordered text before completing the cloze test derived from it. For the native speakers who read the simple collection of facts, textual sequence and topic‐specific prior knowledge did not contribute significantly to comprehension; however, for all subjects who read the chronological account, variation in the text's naturally occurring sequence and the interaction of that sequencing with the reader's access to topic‐specific prior knowledge were important factors in comprehension. Moreover, proficient nonnative speakers were significantly more able to capitalize on recently acquired topic‐specific prior knowledge, especially when the cloze task that they were given was presented in its normal sequence. This findings are interpreted as evidence of nonnative textboundness.
The Divisibility of Language Competence: A Confirmatory Approach
Authors: Fouly Kamal A. , Bachman Lyle F. , Cziko Gary A.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of second language proficiency with respect to its divisibility and components. Specifically, the correlated‐traits and the second‐order hypotheses were evaluated using 334 university students learning Englishasa second language, a wide range of language proficiency measures, and confirmatory data‐analytic techniques. The focus was to determine the extent to which each model represented the data. The results of this study provide evidence supporting both models. The significance of these findings as well as directions for future research are discussed.
Problems of Speech Act Theory From an Applied Perspective*
Authors: Flowerdew John
Published: October 2006

Speech act theory has been very influential in a number of fields, including applied linguistics. However, there remain a number of fundamental problems within the theory. These concern (1) how many speech acts there are; (2) indirect speech acts and the concept of literal force; (3) the size of speech act realization forms; (4) the contrast between specific and diffuse acts; (5) discrete categories versus scale of meaning; (6) the relation between locution, illocution, and interaction; and (7) the relation between the whole and the parts in a discourse. This paper discusses these problems and asks to what extent they undermine attempts to apply speech act theory in the field of language pedagogy. In addition, consideration is given to the question of whether future development in speech act theory is likely to offer the possibility of further advances in application.
A Study of Communication Strategies in Interlanguage Production by Chinese EFL Learners*
Authors: Si‐Qing Chen
Published: October 2006

This article reports an empirical research into the nature of the relationship between L2 learners’target language proficiency and their strategic competence. The 220 communication strategies employed by 12 Chinese EFL learners of both high and low proficiency in their target language communication with native speakers were identified and analyzed.

The results indicate that the frequency, type, and effectiveness of communication strategies (CSs) employed by the learners vary according to their proficiency level. The language distance between the learners’LI and L2 is also found to affect their choice of communication strategies. These findings lend strong support to our hypothesis that learners’communicative competence could probably be increased by development of their strategic competence.
Teacher and Nonteacher Perceptions of Second‐Language Communication*
Authors: Hadden Betsy L.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to compare teacher and nonteacher perceptions of second‐language communication. Eight native speakers of Chinese enrolled in an advanced ESL class at The Ohio State University were videotaped speaking extemporaneously about the same topic. These videotapes were shown to ESL teachers (n=25) and nonteachers (n=32) who completed a questionnaire about their perceptions of each speaker and his or her presentation. All of the respondents were native speakers of American English. Perceptions were found to be multidimensional not unidimensional. A factor analysis of the ESL teachers’ data revealed five factors: comprehensibility, social acceptability, linguistic ability, personality, and body language. A factor analysis of the nonteachers’ data yielded four factors: comprehensibility/linguistic ability, social acceptability, body language, and personality. A factor analysis of the combined‐group data revealed five factors: comprehensibility, social acceptability, linguistic ability, personality, and body language. A MANOVA and a series of univariate analysis of variance comparing the two groups on the five factors found in the combined‐group factor analysis showed a significant difference in ratings of students’ linguistic ability. Nonteachers rated students’ linguistic ability significantly higher than did the ESL teachers. Differences in ratings of students on other factors were not significant.
Evidence of Transfer and Loss in Developing Second Language Writers*
Authors: Carson Joan Eisterhold , Kuehn Phyllis A.
Published: October 2006

Literacy skills are thought to be transferable across languages. That is, good L1 readers and writers should be able to transfer their reading and writing abilities to the L2. However, studies of language attrition suggest that loss of language skills might influence the transfer of literacy skills from L1 to L2. This study investigates the role that transfer and/or loss of L1 writing abilities plays in the development of L2 writing proficiency. Data from native Chinese speakers enrolled in academic and preacademic English courses in American universities indicate that academic writing skills develop as a function of educational experience in L1 and in L2. There is also evidence that good LI writers tend to become good writers in their L2, but that L1 writing proficiency may decline as L2 writing proficiency increases. Furthermore, there appears to be a writing aptitude factor that imposes a ceiling on writing development both in L1 and in L2.
Relationships Among Second Language Proficiency, Foreign Language Aptitude, and Intelligence: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
Authors: Sasaki Miyuki
Published: October 2006

The present study investigated the relationships among measures of second language proficiency (SLP), foreign language aptitude, and two types of intelligence (verbal intelligence and reasoning). The research had two objectives: (a) to examine the factor structure of several different SLP test scores; and (b) to investigate the relationship between a general SLP factor (G‐SLP) and a hypothetical general cognitive factor (G‐COG) that was assumed to influence foreign language aptitude, verbal intelligence, and reasoning. Several competing hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling. Participants consisted of 160 Japanese college students studying English as a foreign language.

The results supported two models of SLP: one in which several specific trait factors were highly correlated with each other, and another in which these specific trait factors were connected to a higher‐order G‐SLP factor. Because there were only three first‐order specific factors, these two models could not be distinguished from each other. Further investi gation suggested that GSLP and GCOG were not identical, but mutually correlated k0.65). This relationship implies that students' SLP and cognitive abilities were influenced by two distinct, but mutually correlated factors. More than half the G‐SLP variance (58%)could not be explained by the G COG factor. Several suggestions for krther studies are presented.
The Relationship Between First‐ and Second‐Language Reading Comprehension of Occupation‐Specific Texts
Authors: Donin Janet , Silva Maria
Published: October 2006

Two within‐subject studies were conducted in which detailed discourse analysis techniques were used to analyze 27 nursing students' comprehension of texts typically found in their anticipated workplace (Montreal‐area hospitals) in both their first and second languages. The results of these studies support the argument that the use of second‐language production tends to underestimate and distort second‐language comprehension, at least at intermediate levels of second‐language proficiency. These studies also suggest that the lack of inferencing or higher‐level processing that has been attributed to second‐language comprehension may be a result of the assessment techniques used. Except when second‐language production was employed, the same factors appeared to affect recall and inference in both languages. These studies also stress the importance of text content and structure on text comprehension in either one's first or second language.
Processing Strategies in L2 Learners of French: The Role of Transfer
Authors: Heilenman L. Kathy , McDonald Janet L.
Published: October 2006

This study compared the comprehension processing strategies of 15 monolingual English native speakers and 8 bilingual French native speakers to 112 second language (L2) learners of French, using stimuli containing word order and clitic pronoun (type and agreement) cues in French. Results indicated differential dependence on cue use by the two native speaker groups, with English native speakers depending more on word order for interpretation and French native speaker depending more on clitic pronoun agreement. Interpretations produced by L2 learners of French indicated an immediate abandonment of LI word order strategies with a much later onset of clitic pronoun agreement strategies. Results are discussed within the framework of the Competition Model.
Neurobiological Mechanisms of Language Acquisition
Authors: Pulvermüller Friedemann , Schumann John H.
Published: October 2006

In this paper we specify language acquisition processes in terms of brain mechanisms in order to explain the variable success achieved by early and late language learners. On the basis of the literature in language acquisition, neurobiology, and linguistics, we propose a brain‐based model for language acquisition. The model assumes two conditions must be met in order to acquire full knowledge of a particular language: first, that the learner is motivated to acquire the language; and second, that the learner is equipped with the ability to acquire grammatical knowledge. We explain the neural underpinnings for both motivation and grammatical ability and show how they interact to produce variable success in language acquisition.
Developmental Changes in Receptive Vocabulary in Hispanic Bilingual School Children
Authors: Umbel Vivian M. , Ki Oller D.
Published: October 2006

The present study examined the receptive vocabulary knowledge of mid‐socioeconomic‐status Hispanic simultaneous bilinguals exposed to English and Spanish (either mostly Spanish or equally English and Spanish) at home since birth. One hundred and two (34 from each grade level) first, third, and sixth graders were tested in both English and Spanish with complementary standardized tests, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT‐R) and the Test de Vocabulario en Imáenes Peabody (TVIP‐H). All functioned comparably well on the Spanish receptive vocabulary test, the performance of first and sixth graders being near the mean for the norming sample. In contrast, English receptive vocabulary performance increased with grade level (p<.05), first graders functioning approximately one standard deviation below the mean and sixth graders near the mean. It appears, therefore, that early simultaneous exposure to two languages does not harm receptive vocabulary development in the language of origin, while it lays the groundwork for gradual improvement in the majority language with formal schooling. Furthermore, within a simultaneous learning circumstance, equal exposure to English and Spanish at home was found to be sufficient for the maintenance of Spanish vocabulary skills and superior to exposure to mostly Spanish at home with respect to English vocabulary development. In addition, consistent with Cummins'(1979, 1984) interdependence hypothesis, performance in one language was found to be the best predictor of performance in the other.
Transfer in Bilingual Development: The Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis Revisited
Authors: Verhoeven Ludo T
Published: October 2006

This study aimed to find empirical evidence for the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, which states that in bilingual development, language and literacy skills can be transferred from one language to another. Ninety‐eight 6‐year‐old Turkish children, living in the Netherlands since infancy, were selected prior to their entrance into the first grade of primary school. A longitudinal design monitored the development of lexical, morphosyntactic, pragmatic, phonological, and literacy abilities in the children's first and second languages. To minimize test‐bias, I developed linguistic tasks, which required minimal instruction, analyzing interdependence relationships in bilingual development with LISREL techniques. The results clearly show that at the level of lexicon and syntax, language transfer was quite limited. At the level of pragmatic skills, phonological skills, and literacy skills, however, positive evidence appeared for the interdependence in bilingual development.
Semantic Differentiation in the Acquisition of English as a Second Language
Authors: Zhang Shuqiang
Published: October 2006

I analyzed the mental organizations of two sets of fuzzy lexical items by 70 native speakers (NSs) of English and 185 learners of English as a second language (ESL). They provided pair‐wise comparisons of a set of degree adverbs and a set offrequency terms, respectively. I subjected their judgments to unidimensional scaling and circular triad analysis, which indicated that: (a) despite their apparent familiarity with the items, ESL learners' semantic organizations deviated from the NSs' model; (b) the location and extent of semantic mismatch can be identified at different levels of ESL proficiency; (c) consistent approximation to the target model improved as ESL proficiency improves; (d) the structural stability of an individual's private semantic model is not readily generalizable between sets of lexical items or levels of proficiency; and (el consensus among ESL learners improves as proficiency increases. The findings suggest that a discernible approximative pattern exists in the acquisition of ESL semantics, with the differentiation of certain words acquired before the differentiation of others.
Error Gravity: A Critical Review of Research Design
Authors: Rifkin Benjamin , Roberts Felicia D.
Published: October 2006

This paper examines error gravity research design and its theoretical assumptions. Based on an analysis of 28 errorgravity investigations (1977–1995), we study several aspects of error gravity research design (including, e.g., the authenticity of language sample), and theoretical constructs (such as the definition of “error”). The study demonstrates that investigators have only skimmed the surface of the process of error evaluation, which is undoubtedly shaped by extralinguistic factors. We conclude that researchers should reconceptualize error gravity research and should reassess earlier studies to confirm or disaffirm their stated outcomes.
Reconsidering the Role of Interaction and Input in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Braidi Susan M.
Published: October 2006

This article reviews the findings of research on second language (L2) interaction from the perspective of L2 syntactic development. Previous studies provide us with a broad view of the grammatical nature of interaction. However, they have not revealed how interaction affects grammatical development, nor have they considered the specific relation between interactional structure and grammatical structure. I argue that in order to better understand the role of negotiated interaction in L2 syntactic development, it is necessary to examine the specific grammatical structures in interaction guided by the criteria of relevance, availability, accessibility, and effect. By examining interaction from a more focused perspective, that is, Universal Grammar triggers, one can ask precise questions about the grammatical characteristics of interaction and can make very specific recommendations about further study. More fine‐tuned grammatical measures are needed to understand the grammatical characteristics of interaction and their effects on L2 syntactic development.
Bimodal Speech Perception by Native and Nonnative Speakers of English: Factors Influencing the McGurk Effect
Authors: Hardison Debra M.
Published: October 2006

Two experiments explored factors affecting the influence of visual (lip‐read) information on auditory speech perception, the “McGurk effect”, in 120 advanced ESL learners of 4 L1s (Japanese, Korean, Spanish, and Malay) and 50 native speakers (NSs) of English. The audio and video speech signals of a female English speaker producing CV syllables with /p,f,w,r,t,k/ and// were combined on videotape. For nonnative speakers (NNSs), identification accuracy of /f/ and /r/ increased with matched visual cues. Visual nonlabials /t,k/ significantly influenced perception of auditory labials. For NSs, significant effects were noted only in noise. When stimuli involved only /p,t,k/, NSs and NNSs reported significant visual effects. Results demonstrate the influence of first language (L1) and linguistic experience on the relative information value of the cues, assumption of perceptual unity, and thus audiovisual integration. Implications for bimodal speech perception and second language instruction are discussed.
A Longitudinal Study of Pragmatic Differentiation in Young Bilingual Children
Authors: Nicoladis Elena , Genesee Fred
Published: October 2006

Current evidence indicates that young bilingual children can use their languages differentially and appropriately in different language contexts at about two years of age. We examined whether there is an even earlier developmental stage when bilingual children do not use their languages in pragmatically differentiated ways. We recorded natural language samples from 4 French‐English bilingual children during free play sessions with their mothers and fathers, all of whom were native speakers of one of the languages and habitually used that language with their children. We observed the children 7 times between approximately 1;7 and 3;0 years of age. We analyzed 2 aspects of pragmatic differentiation: (a) use of French‐only and English‐only utterances and (b) use of translation equivalents. Analysis 1 indicated that none of the children showed differentiated and appropriate use of French and English during the initial recording sessions but that all did so in later sessions. Analysis 2 indicated a shift in their use of translation equivalents from generally inappropriate to generally appropriate; this shift coincided with the emergence of differential usage with both parents, as revealed in Analysis 1. Taken together, the analyses suggest a stage very early in development when bilingual children do not show pragmatic differentiation in language use.
Monitoring and Assessing a Japanese FLES Program: Ambiance and Achievement
Authors: Donato Richard , Antonek Janis L. , Tucker G. Richard
Published: October 2006

This article reports on the third year of an ongoing research project to document and evaluate an innovative foreign language in elementary schools (FLES) program in Japanese for Grades K–5 (N=195). We report 2 strands of research. First, concerned with school and community ambiance, we attempted to describe systematically the attitudes and perceptions of various constituents of this curricular innovation. Second, we investigated the language achievement of children in Grades K–5 for oral proficiency, vocabulary development, and social uses of language. During a 3‐year period, the children, regardless of age, made considerable progress in foreign language proficiency and developed positive attitudes toward language learning. Innovative language programs in the elementary school can move beyond their often marginalized status to become regularized features of the overall school curriculum.
Negative Feedback Incorporation Among High‐Proficiency and Low‐Proficiency Chinese‐Speaking Learners of Spanish
Authors: Lin Yue‐Hong , Hedgcock John
Published: October 2006

Recent investigations of metalinguistic input have focused on processes in which learners incorporate native speaker‐generated feedback; evidence of the influence of metalinguistic feedback, however, remains inconclusive. This study, based on conversational data, analyzes the incorporation patterns of 4 well‐educated but low‐proficiency Chinese immigrants to Spain and 4 high‐proficiency Chinese university students with extensive formal training in Spanish. Analyses revealed striking differences in the detection of ungrammatically and in negative feedback incorporation: Whereas the 4 university students evinced awareness of error and successfully incorporated native speakers' corrections, the 4 immigrants manifested little sensitivity to negative feedback, suggesting that their interlanguage systems were closed to further modification. Results indicate that the internalization of negative feedback may depend upon learners' metalingual receptivity.
DETECTING AND REMOVING DISCRIMINATION UNDER EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES POLICIES
Authors: Dex S. , Sloane P. J.
Published: October 2006

Abstract. This paper surveys part of the recent voluminous literature on the economics of discrimination, focusing on two key questions. First, how should discrimination be measured and can in fact unambiguous estimates be derived, as the basis for detecting where discrimination is present and setting in train measures to eliminate it? Second, to what extent has the implementation of equal opportunities legislation improved the relative standing of women and minority workers in the labour force? This section includes a discussion of the likely effects of recent changes in the law such as the equal value amendment in the UK or the introduction of comparable worth in the USA. The survey concludes that our ability to detect discrimination at all precisely is still rudimentary and consequently policy measures are likely to be inefficient for this reason.
CHOICE UNDER UNCERTAINTY
Authors: Jeffcoat Colin
Published: October 2006

Books reviewed in this article:

Jacques Drèze (1987) Essays on Economic Decisions under Uncertainty.

W. Kip Viscusi and Wesley Magat et al (1987) Learning about Risk.

J. L. Ford (1987) Economic Choice under Uncertainty: a Perspective Theory Approach.

Isaac Levi (1986) Hard Choices: Decision Making under Unresolved Conflict.
COMPUTATIONAL CONTROVERSIES IN DISEQUILIBRIUM AND SHORTAGE MODELLING OF CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMIES
Authors: Charemza Wojcieh W.
Published: October 2006

Abstract. Most disequilibrium and shortage models of centrally planned economies fall into three categories: testable excess demand (the Portes school), disequilibrium indicators, and Kornai's economics of shortage. These models have generated numerous controversies and conflicting empirical results. However, this paper argues that some disputes are not caused by the theoretical features of the models but rather by the utilisation of different estimation methods that are not directly comparable. This suggests that several controversies are more apparent than real and can be resolved through the improvement of computational techniques and statistical hypothesis testing theory.