bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cost Savings from Allowance Trading in the 1990 Clean Air Act: Estimates from a Choice‐Based Model
Authors: Keohane Nathaniel O.
Published: February 2007

This essay offers a comprehensive assessment of the cost savings over the first five years of the allowance trading program. The current study has two methodological advantages over the previous ones. The first is the completeness of the data used. Like the two previous studies, this study estimates scrubber costs from costs reported in survey data, although the current study is able to use cost data from the full five years of Phase I. The data on coal prices used here are much more detailed than that in the other two studies, allowing for plant-level estimates of sulfur premia and counterfactual sulfur content. The second and more significant advantage of the current study is methodological. It employs an econometric model of the abatement choices actually made by utilities to simulate the decisions that would have been made under prescriptive regulation. Thus, abatement costs under counterfactual policies are estimated on the basis of observed behavior under actual policy regimes, rather than on the basis of engineering estimates or least-cost algorithms.
An Assessment of Legal Liability as a Market‐Based Instrument
Authors: Segerson Kathleen
Published: February 2007

This essay focuses on the deterrence effect of liability, recognizing that the motivation for imposition of liability (particularly retroactive imposition) may instead be victim compensation or corrective justice. It evaluates what is known about whether liability creates an effective market for environmental goods and services. It provides an overview of the issues regarding the impact of liability that have been addressed in the theoretical literature to identify key conditions or factors that can be expected to influence the effectiveness of liability as a policy tool. It then turns to a well-known and controversial example of the imposition of liability-liability under CERCLA, to demonstrate the role of some of these factors in a specific policy context. Finally, it looks more generally at the empirical literature that exists to see what, if anything, it suggests about the effectiveness of pricing environmental services through the use of liability.
“No Net Loss”: Instrument Choice in Wetlands Protection
Authors: Salzman James , Ruhl J. B.
Published: February 2007

This essay evaluates wetlands mitigation banking (WMB) as a tool for accomplishing the policy of no net loss of the nation's wetlands. The first part describes the legal and historical background to wetlands mitigation banking, identifying the expected advantages and highlighting the practical difficulties. The discussion then focuses on the three main limitations of WMB design: ensuring meaningful compliance monitoring, currency adequacy, and exchange adequacy. These theoretical concerns are tested by looking at experiences to date in the field. Finally, key lessons for market-based approaches to watershed protection are drawn out.
Woodrow Wilson
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

His contemporaries, subsequent historians and biographers, and Woodrow Wilson himself have all agreed that his religious convictions are crucial to understanding the Democrat’s political thought and actions. Wilson revered the Bible, wore out several of them during his life, quoted it frequently, and sought to use its principles to guide his work as president. He prayed every day on his knees and followed Presbyterian standards in his personal life. While concurring that Wilson’s faith is pivotal to understanding him, scholars disagree over whether it had a positive or negative impact on his performance as president and his policies. Wilson’s firmly rooted and fervently cherished Calvinist faith significantly influenced his thought and actions as president. Clearly America’s preeminent Presbyterian statesman, Wilson’s faith is evident in his philosophy of government, his view of America’s mission in the world, and many of his major domestic and foreign policies, especially his attempts to mediate among the combatants in World War I, his decision to involve the United States in the war, and his role in devising the Paris Peace treaties and the League of Nations.
Jimmy Carter
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

Jimmy Carter’s faith played a major role in both the 1976 and 1980 presidential campaigns and his presidency. This is evident in his speeches, relationship with religious constituencies, approach to politics, and many of his domestic and foreign policies. Three major factors shaped Carter’s ideology: Southern evangelicalism, Baptists’ views of the separation of church and state, and the Christian realism of Reinhold Niebuhr. In most ways, Carter’s personal faith was typical of Southern Baptists and most other evangelicals. He believed in the need to be born again, the importance of evangelism, the sinfulness of human beings, and the authority of the Bible. Carter insisted that his faith should play an important role in his political decisions. He strongly stressed morality, virtue, justice, forgiveness, humility, peace, human rights, concern for the poor, and stewardship. Carter’s faith also helped to inspire his efforts to promote peace throughout the world. Motivated by Christ’s example, Carter strove as president to adopt the attitude and approach of a servant. His positions on several issues, most notably abortion, school prayer, and tuition tax credits, were at odds with those of many evangelicals and Catholics. Carter’s Christian commitment is especially evident in his efforts to strengthen families, reduce poverty, reform welfare, combat the nation’s energy crisis, and slow world population growth.
The Career of the Bodhisattva
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on the career of Bodhisattva. The story begins in the ancient land of Jambudvīpa (India; Sinhala: Dambadiva), wherein the ascetic Sumedha aspires to become a Buddha in the future, thereby setting in motion a series of lifetimes that culminate in the Awakening of Gautama Buddha. Many medieval Sri Lankan vasas typically begin with at least a brief recounting of the Buddha's life, starting with his bodhisattva career. Parākrama imitates this convention, but greatly elaborates upon the brief account in Vācissara's text. The vow Sumedha makes before the former Buddha Dīpakara is followed by a series of predictions whereby subsequent Buddhas encounter the Bodhisattva and confirm that he will one day become a Buddha named Gautama. The text's focus on relics is anticipated by remarks regarding the fate of the bodily relics of all the previous Buddhas.
The Victory of King Duṭugämuṇu
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on the victory of King Duṭugämuṇu. It describes his military victories, highlighting his acts of pious devotion to the Triple Gem, until he defeats the invaders once and for all. An important account regarding the moral crisis King Duṭugämuṇu experiences as a result of having killed so many people is resolved in a way that deviates from the Mahāvasa, as the king learns that the accumulation of his meritorious deeds will prevent the negative results of killing from coming to fruition.
The Relic Deposit
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, describing the deposit of the relics in the Relic Shrine of Golden Garlands. The fantastic miracles displayed by the relics and the large numbers of beings who venerated at the shrine and arrived at the higher attainments leading up to nirvana are also mentioned.
Religion as Communication: The Changing Shape of Catholicism in Europe
Authors: Pace Enzo
Published: February 2007

In many European countries, religion today seems to function as guardian of the collective identity and memory, even as those same societies are becoming more multi-religious. Focusing the analysis on European Catholicism and, particularly, on the new role played by the Catholic Church in the public sphere in two historically Catholic countries — Italy and Spain — the chapter develops the hypothesis that Catholic leaders are accepting the idea that religious power must work more and more as communication. They can longer impose norms, but they can reconstruct a romantic sense of being a society, a collective identity rooted in the Christian pattern of values, projecting unity where there is social, religious, and ideological difference.
Evangelicalism and Politics for Korean Americans
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines how Korean Americans view themselves vis-à-vis larger American evangelical attitudes towards politics. Korean Americans do not draw on particular congregational approaches to understand the relationship between religion and politics. Rather, they borrow from broader national Christian models for political action. It is shown that, surprisingly, some Korean Americans utilize political action models learned from black Christians.
Ethics Vindicated
Authors: Bencivenga Ermanno
Published: February 2007

Can we regard ourselves as free originators of some of our behavior? What is the place of values in a world of facts? What grounds the authority of moral imperatives, and why should we care about them? Unless satisfactory answers are provided for these questions, ethics has no credible status and is likely to be swallowed by psychology, history, or rational decision theory: an outcome quite common in recent (post-Hegelian) times as well as one to be strongly regretted. Immanuel Kant's philosophy is a sustained, bold, and successful effort aiming at offering us the answers we need, and this book is a clear and thorough account of this effort that builds on the author's previous interpretation of transcendental philosophy (as articulated in his Kant'sCopernican Revolution) and draws on the entire Kantian corpus. Free choice is rational choice, hence, it is also what reason would consider a good choice; evil behavior is not free — when we behave irrationally, we lose all control on our conduct and become obtuse wheels in the hands of irresistible nature. Which does not mean, however, that we should not take responsibility for our evil actions. On the contrary, that is exactly the right thing to do, despite the absurdity of the stance it involves. This very absurdity teaches us an important Kantian lesson on how to negotiate the bounds of sense: how there is not a single line demarcating sense from nonsense, but rather a variety of shades of (non)sense, experienced in the wake of an ideal of perfect meaningfulness but forever falling short of that ideal. In pursuing this troubling suggestion, the author brings additional light on Kant's understanding of the human form of life. Specifically, on its irremediably conflictual, undecidable character, and on the primacy unrealizable norms have in it.
Augustine's Way into the Will
Authors: Harrison Simon
Published: February 2007

Augustine is a pivotal figure in the history of the concept of will, but what is his ‘theory of will’? This book investigates Augustine’s use of ‘will’ in one particular context, his dialogue On Free Choice of the Will, taking seriously its historical and philosophical form. First, it finds that the dialogical nature of On Free Choice of the Will has been missed, as exemplified by the unhistorical and misleading modern attributions of names to the speakers. Secondly, the commonplace that Augustine changed his mind in the course of its composition is shown to be unfounded, and a case is made for its argumentative coherence. Thirdly, it is shown that it is the form and structure of On Free Choice of the Will that give philosophical content to Augustine’s theory of will. The dialogue constitutes a ‘way in to the will’ that itself instantiates a concept of will. At the heart of this structure is a particular argument that depends on an appeal to a first-person perspective, which ties the vocabulary of will to a concept of freedom and responsibility. This appeal is significantly similar to other arguments deployed by Augustine which are significantly similar to Descartes’ ‘cogito ergo sum’, ‘I think therefore I am’. The book goes on to investigate how Augustine’s ‘way in’ relates to these cogito-like arguments as they occur in Augustine’s major and most read works, the Confessions, the City of God, and On the Trinity. The relationship of Augustine’s to Descartes’ ‘cogito’ is also discussed. Augustine elucidates, within a particular Platonic theory of knowledge, a ‘theory of will’ that is grounded in a ‘way in’, which takes the conditions and limits of knowledge seriously.
Rents and Development in Multiethnic Malaysia
Authors: Jomo K. S. , Gomez Edmund Terence
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses the trade-offs involved between two types of rents in the context of resource-rich, ethnically diverse Malaysia: one primarily generated for postcolonial industrial development and the other generated for redistributive goals, mainly along interethnic lines. How the two types of rents have interacted with each other, alternated in influence, and affected the efficiency of the development process is discussed. It is shown that while redistributive policy has enhanced human capital accumulation among Malays or Bumiputras and reduced political tension, redistributive rents have induced various unproductive renter behaviours.
4 The Zenith and Slow Decline of Hooker as the Icon of Restoration Anglicanism
Authors: Brydon Michael
Published: February 2007

The Restoration cult of Hooker reached its climax under Charles I. It was challenged during the exclusion crisis, notably by Richard Baxter who claimed Hooker as a Reformed sympathizer and by Algernon Sidney who used the Polity to vest authority in the people, but the ultimate success of the royal party ensured they were swiftly marginalized. Instead, Hooker’s ecclesiastical image continued unchanged and works such as Pariarcha by Sir Robert Filmer ensured that Hooker’s royalist credentials were also bolstered.
Hooker's Reputation: A Conclusion
Authors: Brydon Michael
Published: February 2007

In the debates of the Anglican church, Hooker continues to be appealed to by a remarkable spectrum of churchmanship regarding the central question of where the heart of their faith lies. Such differing emphases offer an index to the changing understandings of the Reformation, which were hammered out in the 17th century. Although Hooker ultimately became an abridged emblem for the values and identity of Anglicanism, this examination of the contingencies and argumentative structures involved shows that it was never a foregone conclusion.
The Eusebians
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: February 2007

This monograph offers a historical and theological re-evaluation of the polemical writings of Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria (328-73) and their influence upon modern interpretations of the so-called ‘Arian Controversy’. It examines in detail the methodology of Athanasius’ polemic, and focuses on his representation of his opponents as a single ‘Arian party’, hoi peri Eusebion (‘the ones around Eusebius [of Nicomedia]’ or the ‘Eusebians’). After an initial chronological catalogue of Athanasius’ polemical works, it traces the evolution of his construction of the ‘Eusebians’ from his own condemnation at the Council of Tyre in 335 onwards, and assesses the actions and the ‘Arian’ theology that Athanasius attributes to his foes. This examination of Athanasius’ polemic and of what little external evidence survives against which the polemic can be compared reveals that the ‘Eusebians’ were neither a ‘party’ nor ‘Arian’. Athanasius’ image of a 4th century Church polarized between his own ‘orthodoxy’ and the ‘Arianism’ of the ‘Eusebians’ as a polemical construct. The distortions inherent within this construct must be recognized to fully understand the 4th century Church, the men whom Athanasius branded as ‘Eusebians’, and Athanasius himself.
6 The ‘Eusebians’ in Action
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines Athanasius’ presentation of the ‘Eusebians’ in action, particularly in the Historia Arianorum and the other works of his third exile (356-62). Those actions include the writing of letters; the manipulation of ecclesiastical patronage (notably in the alleged purge of ‘orthodox’ bishops in the years after the Council of Nicaea); the dependence upon secular power through the support of local officials and the Emperor Constantius; and the violence and persecution that the ‘Arians’ are alleged to have caused in Alexandria and Egypt.
7 The ‘Arianism’ of the ‘Eusebians’
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: February 2007

This chapter assesses Athanasius’ presentation of the ‘Eusebians’ as ‘Arian’. After a brief introduction to Athanasius’ highly polarized heresiological polemic, it traces Athanasius’ construction of the ‘Arianism’ which he imposes upon his opponents. A comparison between this ‘Athanasian Arianism’, the doctrines of Arius himself, and the known doctrines of Eusebius of Nicomedia and Asterius ‘the Sophist’ reveals that these two alleged ‘Eusebians’ differ theologically both from Arius’ and from Athanasius’ definition of ‘Arianism’. Indeed, Eusebius and Asterius appear to have been representative of a widespread theological position held by a significant number of eastern bishops in the first half of the 4th century, a theology expressed above all by the ‘Dedication Creed’ of the Council of Antioch in 341. The chapter then turns to the methodology through which Athanasius created his distorted polarized construct of the ‘Arian Controversy’, and concludes with a brief assessment of how this construct influences Athanasius’ interpretation of the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed.
Emotion in Response to Art
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay surveys the range of philosophical problems that can be encompassed under the rubric, emotion in response to art. It details five such problems, according most of its attention to the nature of the emotional responses had to art, and the puzzle of emotional responses to fictional entities known to be fictional (what is often labeled ‘the paradox of fiction’). Attention is also given to the puzzle of how people derive satisfaction from art expressive or evocative of negative emotion (what is often labeled ‘the paradox of tragedy’), and to the question of how abstract works of art (such as pieces of instrumental music) manage to express or evoke emotions at all.
Nonexistent Artforms and the Case of Visual Music
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay has two parts. The first proposes some ways of thinking about the field of nonexistent arts as whole, in effect making some advance inroads into it. The second part tries to cast light on why certain artforms that seem eminently possible in fact fail to exist, through a case study of one such would-be art, that of visual music, i.e., a structured organization of coloured presentations in time, such as might be provided through the medium of colour film.
Wollheim on Pictorial Representation
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay was written as a contribution to a symposium in honour of the distinguished aesthetician Richard Wollheim, and begins with a sympathetic summary of his highly influential account of depiction in terms of the successfully realized intention that viewers have a certain sort ofseeing-inexperience faced with a picture depicting a given subject. While agreeing with the basic thrust of Wollheim's account, which makes a certain sort of visual experience in appropriate viewers criterial of achieved depiction, it differs with Wollheim as to whether that experience is invariably one of seeing in, given the twofold attention to subject and surface that the notion, as Wollheim conceives it, necessarily involves. An alternative account is sketched, Wollheimian in spirit, but closer than most recent proposals to the classic Gombrichian view of depiction as involving something akin to illusion. It is proposed that a picture that depicts a subject is one fashioned so as to yield an experience ofas-if seeingof its subject, but not an experience that engenders the false beliefs typical of illusion.
Erotic Art and Pornographic Pictures
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay was written in response to a 2001 essay of Matthew Kieran, itself prompted in part by remarks on the distinction between the erotic and the pornographic offered at the end of the essay, ‘What Is Erotic Art?’. Whereas Kieran holds that there is no incompatibility, and even precious little tension, between something's being pornography and something's being erotic art, it is argued that there is indeed such tension, and that the two statuses are in fact incompatible. Nothing is entailed as to whether pornography, though it is not art, may or may not be, for various reasons, of value.
What are Aesthetic Properties?
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay presents a defence of aesthetic realism, focusing on the issue of how properties in general and aesthetic properties in particular should be conceived. It is proposed that at least paradigm cases of the latter are to be understood ashigher-order perceptual ways of appearing. In the course of developing this proposal, the vexed issue of whether or not aesthetic properties areresponse-dependent, or such that they cannot be conceived or analyzed except in terms of kinds of responses in relevant perceivers is addressed. It is suggested that there is a spectrum, among properties usually thought of as aesthetic, from ones that are clearly response-dependent to ones that are clearly non-response-dependent, with many gradations in-between.
Introduction
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

What is a theory of virtue about? It is about what constitutes a good moral character, or a good quality of character. It is not about what makes an action right or wrong, though virtuous people generally act rightly. The evaluation of character as good or bad and the evaluation of actions as right or wrong are different departments of ethical theory. Neither can be reduced to the other, and there is reason to care about both of them. This chapter explains and defends these theses, and the remaining chapters of the book are sketched in outline.
Altruism
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

Finding an appropriate way of evaluating altruistic benevolence is a crucial test of a theory of virtue as a sort of intrinsic excellence. Some may think that altruism is sufficiently commended by its social benefits without any thought of such excellence. Consideration of Nietzsche's critique of altruism leads, however, to an argument that it is morally important that altruism be intrinsically excellent. This is followed by an argument that altruism has indeed such excellence. Not that altruism must (or indeed should) be unmixed with other motives. Relations between altruism and self-sacrifice on the one hand, and agent-centered or self-regarding motives such as conscientiousness and self-respect on the other, are explored.
Do the Virtues All Imply Each Other?
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

This chapter defends the fragmentariness of virtue suggested in Chapter 8 against the ancient thesis of the unity of the virtues, which holds that one cannot have any virtue without having all of them. As examples, the virtues of courage, wisdom, and benevolence are analyzed in some detail. It is argued that courage and wisdom themselves are not one, and that some (though not all) significant deficiencies or faults in moral motivation are compatible with virtuous forms of benevolence.
Plural and Integrated Virtue
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines questions about holistic ascriptions of virtue or good character. It argues that such ascriptions may imply possession of some but not all particular virtues. Some virtues may find a place only in certain situations, vocations, or ways of life. Personal moral integration remains an important goal of moral aspiration, though it probably will, and should, never be finished, but rather require recurrent renegotiation.
Introduction
Authors: Bourne Craig
Published: February 2007

I begin by discussing what a theory of time is and what it should aim to do. Then discusses the initial plausible candidates for a theory of time; shows how best to frame the debate between tensed and tenseless theories of time; and discusses the tenseless theory, and the various tense theories, such as the growing block view of Tooley, the branching‐future view of McCall, and presentism.
When Am I?
Authors: Bourne Craig
Published: February 2007

I introduce the Present Problem: how can a theory of time guarantee the infallible knowledge that we have that we are present? I show that only presentism and the tenseless theory can satisfy this requirement, and thus all other theories, such as Tooley's growing block theory and McCall's branching‐future theory, should be rejected.
The Present Dialectic in Special Relativity
Authors: Bourne Craig
Published: February 2007

I discuss the argument (put forward by Putnam and others) that special relativity is incompatible with presentism. I reject some ways (such as Stein's) to solve the problem, but suggest that the problem lies in Einstein's definition of simultaneity. I offer an alternative way of understanding and defining simultaneity and show how the Lorentz transformations are to be understood in light of it. After defending the position against possible attack, I go on to show its positive benefits.
Financial Development and the Effects of Volatility on Growth
Authors: Aghion Phillippe , Banerjee Abhijit
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues, based on Aghino-Angeletos-Banerjee-Manova (AABM), that the presence of credit constraints can help us understand why volatility is so costly for growth. The basic idea behind this explanation is rather obvious: The long-term productivity-enhancing investment in the model developed in the previous chapter creates a need for liquidity; with perfect credit markets the necessary liquidity is always supplied. Not so with imperfect credit markets: The liquidity shock is only financed when the firm has enough profits, because only profitable firms can borrow a lot. A negative productivity shock, by making firms less profitable, makes it less likely that the liquidity need would not be met. As a result, a fraction of the potentially productivity-enhancing long-term investments will go to waste, with obvious consequences for growth.
CHAPTER 3Normative Commitments and the Very Idea of Normativity
Authors: Millar Alan
Published: February 2007

This chapter outlines a conception of the normative commitments incurred by beliefs and intentions. Close attention is paid to the idea that believing something commits you to believing what is implied by what you believe (an implication commitment), and that intending something commits you to doing what is necessary for you to do what you intend (a means-end commitment). The concept of a normative commitment also figures in an account of practices, conceived as essentially rule-governed activities. It is argued that just by virtue of participating in a practice one incurs a commitment to following the rules governing the practice. The chapter concludes by discussing a conception of a normative statement as a statement implying that there is a normative reason to believe or do something. Complexities arising from this way of thinking are explored.
CHAPTER 7The Problem of Explanatory Relevance
Authors: Millar Alan
Published: February 2007

The explanatory insight provided by rationalizing explanations is causal and tied to appropriate generalizations. Because of this, it is not clear what rationalizing adds to such explanations. It is argued that the problem is not solved merely by having causal connections among propositional attitudes and actions mirror appropriate reason-giving connections. Among other things, this approach does not deal with messy rationalization — the sort implicated when people believe things or do things for reasons that are bad on grounds other than the falsity of the considerations that constitute the reasons. The problem is addressed by invoking two plausible assumptions: (a) that belief or action for a reason is belief or action on the understanding that the relevant reason-constituting considerations are relevant normative reasons; (b) that normative considerations themselves — not just people’s acceptance of such considerations — play an explanatory role.
CHAPTER 9Limits
Authors: Millar Alan
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that while rationalizing explanations are genuine explanations, the explanatory insight they supply is limited. This is a limitation of the power of available explanations. The position is contrasted with that of enthusiasts for the explanatory power of intentional psychology, notably Jerry Fodor, and sceptics about such explanatory power, notably Paul Churchland. Fodor’s approach is contrasted with one according to which familiarity with relevant practices, in the sense previously explained, has a central role in both the explanation and prediction of what people think and do. In this connection, particular attention is paid to practices implicated by roles in institutions. It is further argued that not only are available rationalizing explanations limited in scope, but that there are limits to the availability of rationalizing explanations even with the domain in which commonsense sense thinking aspires to explanations.
Introduction: Democracy in Europe
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the challenges faced by national democracies in Europe. It examines the concept of ‘Europeanization’, or how member states adapt their democracies to the evolving European public sphere. A more helpful way of thinking about the EU is proposed, i.e., that the EU is best understood as a regional union of nation-states in which national differentiation persists alongside integration. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
5 Theorizing Democracy in Europe
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: February 2007

This chapter provides a brief recap of the argument about the EU as a regional state and the general question of its democratic legitimacy before considering, in turn, theories about the EU’s impact on national institutions, ideas, and discourse. It argues that European integration is at risk, not so much because of the institutional changes related to Europeanization, but because of the lack of new ideas and discourse that address those changes at the national level. Although the EU has had a greater impact on simple polities than on compound ones, both kinds of polities have nevertheless had to deal with EU-related changes in governance practices and challenges to traditional ideas about democracy. Moreover, even though simple polities may have an advantage with regard to addressing the issues through the communicative discourse, they have not used that ability to the fullest.
THE VIRTUES OF CRACKED REASONING
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: February 2007

Drawing upon the rich experience gathered within applied mathematics, various ‘facade patterns’ are examined that frequently develop when an originating usage enlarges its descriptive scope through patch-to-patch prolongation. The completed results can generate a global structure that is syntactically inconsistent as a whole, yet avoids logical ruination through simple restrictions upon data exportation from one patch to another (a ‘Riemann surface’ represents a standard mathematical prototype of the phenomenon). It is argued that not only do such facades often represent the natural end products of ordinary linguistic development, they often provide particularly effective forms of linguistic engineering. Philosophical puzzles sometimes arise when these alternative patterns of semantic design get mistaken for classical models, as the troubled history of ‘force’ effectively illustrates. The fact that we can rarely determine whether an initial collection of descriptive vocabulary is destined to develop into a facade rather than implementing a simpler pattern of word/world alignment provides a convenient indication of the degree to which a classical picture of conceptual grasp exaggerates our capacity to augur the fate of our descriptive words over time.
Interlude: The Place and Role of Model Theory
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: February 2007

This chapter is a short introduction on the purpose and function of formal logic. The key item of interest is the role and function of model theory. It adopts a perspective that model theory provides a mathematical model of certain aspects of the correct use of certain terms, in roughly the same sense as the Bohr model is a model of the atom, and a point-mass is a model of an extended physical object.
The Scale of Virtues
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

The path to divinization involves the ascent of the soul through a scale of virtues. The Neoplatonic theory of a scale of virtues, as a path to divinization, is traced here in its evolution from Plotinus to its more elaborate versions in later Neoplatonism, with particular reference to the conception and level of ‘political virtue’.
The Curriculum
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses the curriculum of texts stipulated in the Late Antique Neoplatonic schools as the material to be studied for the purpose of ascending the scales of virtue and sciences. The texts of Aristotle and Plato thought to correspond to political virtue and political science are identified, as are other texts related to these subjects. This produces a Neoplatonic ‘library’ of texts thought by Neoplatonic philosophers to relate to political philosophy.
The Political Function of Religion
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter concerns the political importance of religion. Plato’s views on this theme are briefly sketched, as is the Neoplatonic interpretation of these views, with particular reference to Julian the Emperor’s political programme, Iamblichus’ views on religious cults, the place of public and private cult, and of theurgy in the divinization of the soul.
5 John Henry Gordon
Authors: Larsen Timothy
Published: February 2007

John Henry Gordon wrote for G. J. Holyoake’s Reasoner. Gordon became the first full-time Secularist lecturer in Britain when he was appointed by the Leeds Secular Society. After a dramatic reconversion, he eventually became a Baptist minister and a lecturer in favour of disestablishment for the Liberation Society.
7 John Bagnall Bebbington
Authors: Larsen Timothy
Published: February 2007

John Bagnall Bebbington, in addition to writing and lecturing in favour of Secularism, was also a patron of freethinking endeavours. He was the chairman of the Temple Secular Society and the editor of the Propagandist. He was particularly influenced by the thought of David Hume. He gave the reasons for his reconversion in Why I Was An Atheist and Why I Am Now A Christian.
The Enchantment of Words
Authors: McManus Denis
Published: February 2007

This book is a study of Wittgenstein’s early masterpiece, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. It argues that Wittgenstein’s aim in that deeply puzzling work is to show that the ‘intelligibility of thought’ and the ‘meaningfulness of language’, which logical truths would delimit, and metaphysics and the philosophy of mind and language would explain are issues constituted by confusions. What is exposed is a mirage of a kind of self-consciousness, a misperception of the ways in which we happen to think, talk, and act as reasons why we ought to think, talk, and act as we do. The root of that misperception is our confusedly endowing words with a life of their own: we enchant and are enchanted by words, colluding in a confusion that transposes on to them and the world which we then see them as ‘fitting’, responsibilities that are actually ours to bear. Such words promise to spare us the trouble not only of thinking, but of living. In presenting this view, the book offers readings of all of the major themes of the Tractatus, including its discussion of logical truth, objects, names, inferential relations, subjectivity, solipsism, and the inexpressible. It offers novel explanations of what is at stake in Wittgenstein’s comparison of propositions with pictures, of why Wittgenstein declared the point of the Tractatus to be ethical, of how a book — which infamously declares itself to be nonsensical— can clarify our thoughts and require of us that we exercise our capacity to reason in reading it, and of how Wittgenstein later came to re-evaluate the achievement of the Tractatus.
Some Historical Preliminaries
Authors: McManus Denis
Published: February 2007

Frege and Russell were particularly important influences on the early Wittgenstein, and this chapter presents a brief sketch of some themes in their work. Two themes in particular are emphasized: (1) the notion that philosophical problems can be exposed as pseudo-problems through logical analysis of propositions; and (2) the question of the nature of logical truth. Later chapters in the book argue that Wittgenstein develops in radical ways the thought of Frege and Russell on these themes.
Logical and Ontological Types
Authors: McManus Denis
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses how Wittgenstein’s conception of ‘the illogical’ as sign/symbol confusion affects our understanding of logical and ontological ‘types’. It explores the notion that the confusion that ‘the illogical’ embodies needs to be addressed by introducing novel notations rather than constructing theories of logical and ontological ‘types’. It considers what talk of such ‘types’ amounts to if there is no real task for such theories to perform.
Subjectivity
Authors: McManus Denis
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the Tractatus’ discussion of thought and subjectivity, particularly its remarks concerning the ‘internal relatedness’ of thoughts and their constituents, thoughts and facts, and subject and world. By reflecting on the notion of first language learning, a sense is identified in which subject and world might be said to be ‘internally related’: we can make no sense of the notion of the subject ‘coming to’ or indeed already being ‘in contact with’ its world. On this basis, a reading is presented of Wittgenstein’s puzzling and apparently sympathetic remarks about solipsism. In discussing and criticising alternative interpretations of the ‘internal relation’ between subject and world, further light is shed on the notion that Wittgenstein is casting doubt on whether we have a clear idea of what it is for thought to be ‘intelligible’ and for language to be ‘meaningful’ to ‘work’.
Conclusion
Authors: McManus Denis
Published: February 2007

This chapter reviews how the author’s reading presents those features of the Tractatus (described in Ch. 1) that Wittgenstein himself described as crucial. It clarifies the interpretation of the say/show distinction and explains how that theme runs through the many and superficially diverse interests of the book. It offers an interpretation of why Wittgenstein said that the ‘point’ of the Tractatus is ethical and connects this interpretation to his reflections on logical truth. Crucial to the diverse forms of philosophical confusion discussed is a spiritually significant willingness to confusedly endow words with a life of their own: this enchanting of, and enchantment by words transposes on to them, and the world which we then see them as ‘fitting’, responsibilities that are actually ours to bear.
3 Calendrical Customs and Alternative Beliefs
Authors: Holmes Andrew R.
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes and assesses the various customs and beliefs in which Presbyterians indulged at springtime, Halloween, and Christmas. Presbyterians observed holidays because they marked the passing of the seasons and allowed them the opportunity to relax. They utilized alternative beliefs and practices because they made practical sense and accorded with a belief in God who was omnipresent, omniscient, and omnipotent. The efforts of reformers to eradicate anti-social and superstitious aspects are addressed, and comments are made about the persistence of these customs and beliefs.
7 Baptism
Authors: Holmes Andrew R.
Published: February 2007

This chapter explores the official and popular understandings of baptism and its importance to the life of communities, whether in terms of the church or local society.
Large scale genotype–phenotype correlation analysis based on phylogenetic trees
Authors: Habib Farhat , Johnson Andrew D. , Bundschuh Ralf , Janies Daniel
Published: February 2007

We provide two methods for identifying changes in genotype that are correlated with changes in a phenotype implied by phylogenetic trees. The first method, VENN, works when the number of branches over which the change occurred are modest. VENN looks for genetic changes that are completely penetrant with phenotype changes on a tree. The second method, CCTSWEEP, allows for a partial matching between changes in phenotypes and genotypes and provides a score for each change using Maddison's concentrated changes test. The mutations that are highly correlated with phenotypic change can be ranked by score. We use these methods to find SNPs correlated with resistance to Bacillus anthracis in inbred mouse strains. Our findings are consistent with the current biological literature, and also suggest potential novel candidate genes.

Contact:  farhat@pacific.mps.ohio-state.edu for software requests.
Robustness analysis of theE.colichemosensory system to perturbations in chemoattractant concentrations
Authors: Patnaik Pratap R.
Published: February 2007

Motivation: Cells of Escherichia coli sense and move toward chemical attractants. This is done through an intricate sensory system that eventually directs the movements of flagellae which regulate the ‘runs’ and ‘tumbles’ of the cells. Under realistic conditions, chemical stimuli often fluctuate due to noise from the environment. The effect of noise on the chemosensory system has been investigated here through the sensitivity coefficients of the concentrations of four key proteins—the phosphorylated forms of CheA, CheB and CheY, and the FliM-CheY∼P complex—that govern chemotactic motility. The letter P denotes phosphorylation.

Results: All sensitivities increased with time and then stabilized. However, the four sets of sensitivities differed in their magnitudes and the durations of their transient phases before stabilization. CheA∼P was the least sensitive and CheY∼P the most sensitive. Moreover, while the sensitivities of CheA∼P, CheB∼P and CheY∼P increased with chemoattractant concentration, that of the FliM complex decreased. These differences have been interpreted in terms of the mechanism of the chemosensory system and they have important implications for practical applications of chemotaxis.

Contact:  pratap@imtech.res.in
Repair of a Malleus‐Handle Fracture Using Calcium Phosphate Bone Cement
Authors: Hato Naohito , Okada Masahiro , Hakuba Nobuhiro , Hyodo Masamitsu , Gyo Kiyofumi
Published: February 2007

We report a case of a 60‐year‐old woman who reported a popping sound in her left ear, induced by changes in pressure, since she pulled her index finger out of her ear canal after accidentally inserting it while washing her hair. Otoscopic examination revealed a wrinkled tympanic membrane and irregular malleus handle. An isolated malleus‐handle fracture resulting from barotrauma was suspected. The fracture was repaired surgically using calcium phosphate bone cement. Postoperatively, the problem disappeared and her hearing recovered. This case is the first to demonstrate the efficacy of calcium phosphate bone cement for repairing a malleus‐handle fracture.
Natural Course of Retention Cysts of the Maxillary Sinus: Long‐Term Follow‐Up Results
Authors: Wang Jong Hwan , Jang Yong Ju , Lee Bong‐Jae
Published: February 2007

Objectives: Retention cysts of the maxillary sinus are an incidental finding on radiographs. These cysts usually appear as rounded, dome‐shaped, soft tissue masses, most often on the floor of the maxillary sinus. The aim of this study was to investigate the long‐term natural course of retention cysts of the maxillary sinus.

Methods: Between November 1997 and October 2002, 40 patients were incidentally found to have retention cysts of the maxillary sinus on Waters view films. Seventeen of these patients were followed for 38 to 102 (mean, 60) months. Medical records, endoscopic nasal examinations, and Waters view of all 40 patients were reviewed. The size of each retention cyst and the ratio of cyst size to antral size were measured.

Results: Of the 40 patients, 21 (52.5%) had cysts in the left maxillary sinus, 17 (42.5%) had cysts in the right maxillary sinus, and 2 (5%) had cysts in both sinuses. Thirty of the 43 (69.7%) cysts appeared to arise from the floor of the sinus. Cyst size ranged from 108 mm2 to 1,001 mm2, and the ratio of cyst size to antral size ranged from 12.8% to 96.9%, as measured on Waters view. Follow‐up Waters view films in 17 patients showed that seven cysts disappeared completely, two decreased in size, four showed no significant change in size, and five increased in size.

Conclusions: Most retention cysts of the maxillary sinus spontaneously regressed or showed no significant change in size over the long term. These findings suggest that, in the absence of associated complications, “wait and see” may be the appropriate management strategy for these retention cysts.
Pulmonary Recovery After Rigid Bronchoscopic Retrieval of Airway Foreign Body
Authors: Chung Man Ki , Jeong Han‐Sin , Ahn Kang Mo , Park Shin‐Hong , Cho Jae Keun , Son Young‐Ik , Baek Chung‐Hwan
Published: February 2007

Objective: The aim of this study was to determine how long postoperative pulmonary care is needed in patients after rigid bronchoscopic retrieval of foreign body from the airway and to identify the factors affecting pulmonary recovery.

Materials and Method: A retrospective review of 98 pediatric patients who had foreign body removed from the airway by rigid bronchoscopic procedure was conducted. After the removal of the foreign body, the time required for complete clinical and radiologic pulmonary recovery was reviewed for each subject. Factors examined included age, sex, preoperative symptoms, preoperative radiologic findings, duration between the aspiration event and treatment, the type of foreign body, the location of foreign body impaction, operation time, immediate postoperative radiologic changes, and treatment outcome.

Results: More than 1 week for the complete pulmonary recovery was required in 25 (25.5%) cases, whereas 74.5% of subjects fully recovered within 1 week after the removal of foreign body. In the univariate analysis, preoperative inflammatory symptoms, and radiologic findings, an operation time of over 50 minutes and the aggravation of immediate postoperative radiologic findings predicted a delayed pulmonary recovery (more than 1 week). In the multivariate analysis, three of four variables previously noted, except preoperative inflammatory symptoms, showed significant predictability for a delayed pulmonary recovery.

Conclusion: The recovery time of more than 1 week after rigid bronchoscopic retrieval of airway foreign body was associated with preoperative inflammatory findings by radiologic study, a prolonged procedure over 50 minutes, and aggravation of the immediate postoperative radiologic findings. Therefore, long‐term pulmonary care is required for this group of patients.