bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The German National Economy in an Era of Crisis and War, 1917–1945
Authors: Tooze Adam
Published: February 2013

This article gives an account of the German national economy amidst war and crisis. West Germany embraced market capitalism and parliamentary democracy as the only possible modes of social organization. Unlike the United States it had foresworn the temptations of fervent nationalism in exchange for the shared prosperity and peace of the European Community. The underpinning of this state of satisfaction was the relentless growth of the German economy, which meant that, distributional issues aside, the needs of the entire population were met in abundance. Again, such changes were far from particular to Germany. They, too, can be naturalized as part of a story of modernization. Germany's business community led the charge against the welfare spending and trade union recognition, which underpinned the domestic stability of the Weimar Republic. This article analyses how United States' economic aid, helped Germany to overcome its crisis.
Nationalism in the Era of the Nation State, 1870–1945
Authors: Judson Pieter M.
Published: February 2013

Under the first German nation state (1870–1945), nationalism became a more potent and, occasionally, a destabilizing force in politics and social life than it had previously been in German society. With the creation of a German nation state, governments and administrators began to treat nationalism as a legitimate tool for the promotion of their official policies at the same time that all manner of activists, politicians, journalists, and reformers used nationalist rhetoric to legitimate their diverse programs for Germany and claims on the state. This article focuses on nationalism in Germany and the concept of the nation state. This article analyses the concept of the German nation along with the idea of German diasporas, and societal and class conflict within German society and the changes that eventually came within German society.
Todesraum: War, Peace, and the Experience of Mass Death, 1914–1945
Authors: Kühne Thomas
Published: February 2013

This article looks at the mass destruction that raged Europe from 1914 to 1945. The trauma of 1918, Germany's defeat and dissolution, would not stop haunting nationalist Germans until the Third Reich collapsed; many Germans took the legend of the stab in the back as a matter of fact, according to which a Jewish-communist conspiracy had betrayed the national cause and sold out the otherwise victorious army. This article further traces the Holocaust that raged Europe and in particular Germany. The condition of the Jews and the treatment meted out to them by Hitler's forces is worth noting. The concentration camps to where most of the Jews were transported are vividly described in this article. It is impossible to estimate how many Germans, whether men or women, whether at the battle front or on the home front, knew about the Holocaust, and what exactly they knew.
Democracy and Dictatorship in the Cold War: the Two Germanies, 1949–1961
Authors: Port Andrew I.
Published: February 2013

The ‘long 1950s’ was a decade of conspicuous contrasts: a time of dismantling and reconstruction, economic and political, as well as cultural and moral; a time of Americanization and Sovietization; a time of upheaval amid a desperate search for stability. But above all, it was a time for both forgetting and coming to terms with the recent past. This article focuses on the two forms of government that controlled Germany, democracy, and dictatorship. The Cold War was without doubt the main reason for the rapid rehabilitation and integration of the two German states, which more or less took place within a decade following the end of the Second World War. This article further elaborates upon the political conditions under dictatorship and its effect on the social life. East Germany, under the Soviet control underwent as much political upheaval. It was not until the second half of the twentieth century that Germany became a democracy.
Ars Prædicandi: Theories and Practice
Authors: Kneidel Gregory
Published: February 2013

This article is primarily concerned with the theories and practice of the Christian Scriptures. It is divided into two main sections, the first being the theory and practice of Scriptures before 1200, where it examines Augustine's legacy and contribution to the history of preaching. The second part of the article is on the theory and practice of Scriptures after 1200. Here the article discusses the theoretical manuals and standardization of preaching that emerged, and introduces the thematic sermon.
Women and Sermons
Authors: Shami Jeanne
Published: February 2013

This article challenges the assumption on how sermons negotiated women's public and private religious roles. It studies the four ways women participated in a religious, literary, and political culture that was enlarged by vernacular preaching. It shows that women in sermons were first used as subjects, and then as patrons, consumers, and finally preachers of sermons.
Preaching and Context: John Donne's Sermon at the Funerals of Sir William Cokayne
Authors: McCullough Peter
Published: February 2013

This article serves as a case study that combines historical research and close formal analysis. It looks at a study of John Donne's sermons, but focuses on the moment of the sermon's delivery. It also provides some contextual detail on the setting and dramatis personae in Sir William Cokayne's funerals that included Donne's sermon.
Preaching at the Court of Charles II: Court Sermons and the Restoration Chapel Royal
Authors: Jenkinson Matt
Published: February 2013

This article discusses preaching at the court of Charles II, which was notorious and had a reputation for indulging in the sins of the flesh and the mind. It first describes the court sermons that were conducted and published during the reign of Charles II. It then moves on to examine the court preachers, Catholicism, and Protestant nonconformity. The article ends with a section on one of the most dangerous satirical and learned challenges to Christian morality and Restoration churchmen.
Constrained by Commonsense
Authors: Smith Laurajane , Waterton Emma
Published: February 2013

This article explores the ways in which the multiplicity of the meaning of heritage is overshadowed, so much so that a particular idea about ‘heritage’ has come to represent the dominant and legitimized way of thinking, writing, and talking about heritage management practices. It argues that the dominant way of seeing heritage – ‘authorized heritage discourse’ – has become so comfortable and commonplace within heritage management practices that wider debate over heritage is significantly constrained. Indeed, so pervasive is this air of inevitability that any new debates are ultimately unlikely to lead to changes in heritage management and planning practices. Although the article is illustrated with English policy and management debates, the general issues of the way authorizing notions and discourses of heritage operate have a wider application, both in other national contexts and in international heritage agencies.
Living with Landscapes of Heritage
Authors: Garden Mary-Cate E.
Published: February 2013

This article uses the fundamental notions of place and place-making, and explores both within the context of heritage places. Although both the established sites and the ‘new’ places are discussed, a number of developing trends argue for a priority on the ‘new’ places. Among these is the scale of change that has lately taken place in the way in which new museums are designed and older museums refitted, and in the redrawing of the landscape as a result of urban regeneration and modernization. All of these have had an effect on the way in which individuals use, understand, and negotiate these places of the past. Understanding how this works in the context of these new heritage spaces has yet to find a home within the heritage and museums literature.
People and Landscape
Authors: Schofield John , Kiddey Rachael , Lashua Brett
Published: February 2013

This article considers how people can engage with the historic environment, understanding and appreciating its character and grain, its depth, its subtle folds and weaves; and how the same public can influence change through the increasingly democratic and participatory nature of local government. It focuses on planning, management, and change, and the key role the public can and should play in managing the historic environment and shaping the places and landscapes of the future. The article elaborates on the meaning of ‘public’, recognizing that a diversity of interest groups now exist, defined by ethnicity, sexual preference, cultural and religious affiliation, gender, age, and class. Public archaeology describes public participation, and public involvement in matters concerning the historic environment and the material remains within it. The historic environment matters to all sorts of people, and in this light, it is based on the principle that everyone's view counts.
Enhancing Public Archaeology Through Community Service Learning
Authors: Nassaney Michael Shakir
Published: February 2013

Public archaeologists are turning to community service learning (CSL) as a model for resolving the perceived learning crisis in the field, and to redress the limitations of archaeological pedagogy and practice. Examples drawn from various projects in the United States show how the CSL approach encourages students who practise archaeology to become civically engaged, capable of confronting real-world problems, and empowered to see themselves as catalysts for change. Service-learning practitioners emphasize research problems that emanate from the community, the learning experiences of students who are committed to civic engagement, and the opportunity for the community to collaborate fully in the teaching and the research. The reform in archaeological pedagogy and practice through CSL will keep the discipline of archaeology cognizant of its anthropological roots and allow it to contribute theoretically, methodologically, and substantively to the social sciences while serving to expand the current scope of service learning.
The Political Economy of Health Care
Authors: Tuohy Carolyn Hughes , Glied Sherry
Published: February 2013

This article describes the role of government in the health care system and the factors and forces that determine how that role is played. It examines the application of theories of political economy drawn from both economics and political science to this sector. It discusses the implications of these theories for political choices including interest groups, voting behavior, and institutions. Governments play several roles in the health care system and focus on four broad categories of government action in health care markets, linked to corresponding market failures, namely, health care as a merit good; information gaps; infrastructure as a public good; and externalities. It explores the relevance of this literature to the health domain, and confirms the powerful influence of politics on the shape of the health system.
Economics and Mental Health: an International Perspective
Authors: Frank Richard G.
Published: February 2013

This article notes that problems of incomplete information are particularly salient in the context of mental health. It considers how different nations address economics and mental health in the formulation of mental health policy. It focuses on three key economic phenomena that are central to understanding the allocation of resources to the treatment of mental disorders. These are externalities, methods for efficient rationing of health resources, and incentives for allocating funds across different types of mental health services. This article provides some background on mental disorders and organization of mental health care in different OECD countries. It considers determination of mental health spending as part of health care rationing schemes in various nations. It discusses the role of government and how each country aligns its financing arrangements with stated policy goals of reducing reliance on institutional care for people with mental illnesses. Finally, it offers some concluding observations on mental health policy.
Non-Price Rationing and Waiting Times
Authors: Iversen Tor , Siciliani Luigi
Published: February 2013

This article examines the implications of using waiting times, rather than co-payments, as a rationing device. It discusses theoretical issues, empirical and policy issues, and the meaning of an optimal waiting time. The theoretical part includes theories concentrating on the demand side and the supply side. The empirical part contains studies on the implied cost of waiting from market data and estimates of demand and supply elasticities. This article states that in the absence of an over-arching welfare analysis both empirical work and policy recommendations are inevitably piecemeal and open to debate. It also describes the relationship between waiting times and the private sector. It investigates the effectiveness of different policy instruments. Finally, it suggests issues for future research.
Measuring Organizational Performance
Authors: Burgess James F. , Street Andrew
Published: February 2013

This article describes econometric approaches to comparing the efficiency of health care organizations. It deals with organizational performance measurement by first formulating a principal-agent model in which a regulator (principal) delegates responsibility to health care organizations (agents) to advance a subset of overall health sector objectives. Both effort and efficiency have to be estimated indirectly, after taking account of measurable phenomena, such as inputs, outputs, and constraints on the production process. This article considers four issues fundamental to the development of an efficiency model in an economic context, regarding appropriate unit of analysis, relevant system outputs, and constraints on the production process. This is followed by a review of the main analytical techniques used to assess efficiency, namely, stochastic frontier analysis and data envelopment analysis. Finally, it concludes that despite the challenges in measuring and comparing organizational performance, considerable analytical advances allow greater confidence to be placed in the results of analysis.
Inter-Generational Aspects of Health Care
Authors: Sheiner Louise
Published: February 2013

The distribution of health spending by age has important effects on inter-generational transfers. This association between age and health care consumption raises a number of issues related to inter-generational equity particularly allocation of society's resources across age groups and the affect of an increase in health spending on distribution over time. This article discusses the inter-generational implications of public sector health care spending and financing. Health spending has two attributes that raise the question of inter-generational transfers: first, health care spending varies by age and second, the government heavily subsidizes health care. This article addresses the ways by which increase in life expectancy and other improvements in health might affect the per capita health spending on the elderly. Finally, it mentions the need for future research as much remains to be learned about how each of these attributes of the health system will evolve over time.
Econometric Evaluation of Health Policies
Authors: Jones Andrew M. , Rice Nigel
Published: February 2013

This article devotes considerable attention to new econometric methodologies that have been used to assess health care econometrics. The goal of evaluative research is to identify the causal impact of an intervention on outcomes of interest and to understand the mechanisms underlying this impact. This article addresses a two-fold interest, in the evaluation of a particular treatment as well as in the evaluation of a broader policy intervention or program, such as a ban on smoking in public places or a reform of provider reimbursement. It refers to individuals as the target of the policy interventions. It mentions that selection on treatment is based only on observables. Ex post evaluation is crucial in understanding the true impact of a treatment or policy. This article outlines approaches to the ex post evaluation of treatment effects by comparing outcomes across suitably constructed treatment and control groups.
The European Union
Authors: Shaw Jo
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the law, legal order, and institutional framework of what is now termed the ‘European Union’, which was created in 1993 by the Treaty of Maastricht. The discussion covers the contexts and characteristics of European Union legal studies; European Union legal studies; and future perspectives for EU legal studies.
Taxation
Authors: Moran Beverly I.
Published: February 2013

This article begins by setting out the six challenges of presenting the last forty years of tax scholarship in the common law world. It then describes the varied approaches to tax scholarship across common law countries. These differences are segregated into four: structure, substance, focus, and by what is missing from each nation's literature. Although each nation surveyed employs many different types of taxes and each tax raises numerous issues, the scholarship as a whole tends to focus on only a few areas. The final section explores what is missing that one would expect to find given the statutes, systems, and histories at work in each country.
Workers
Authors: Cane Peter
Published: February 2013

This article explores the past and future of scholarship in labour law. It is organized as follows. Section 2 addresses the formation and regulation of individual employment contracts, but its primary concern is the law that enables or disables the transformation of the individual contract into collective bargaining. After the 1960s, the dominant frameworks' treatment of collective and individual labour relations faced four sources of disruption: chronic failures in the implementation of existing statutes (Section 3); legislative enactments that cut against or fall outside the scholarly consensus (Section 4); growing disjunctures between existing labour-law regimes and fast-changing political economy (Section 5); and insurgent intellectual movements (Section 6). Section 7 describes two concepts that increasingly animate legal scholarship — pragmatism and reflexivity.
Abortion and Reproductive Rights
Authors: Cohen Jane Maslow
Published: February 2013

This article discusses critical debate about individual control over the beginnings of life that has sprawled across the fields of academic law, philosophy, politics, religion, the life sciences, and the self-christened field of bioethics from the 1960s up to the present. The subject has formed in and around a cascade of popular pressures; biomedical advances; legislative, judicial, and public policy initiatives; media attention; and the boiling politics in which, at least in the United States, the whole series of enterprises has been bathed. The present undertaking will train on the law. It covers contraception in the United States, abortion law and policy in the United States, and contraception and abortion in Europe and the United Kingdom.
The Environment
Authors: Heinzerling Lisa
Published: February 2013

This article discusses three strands of environmental law scholarship. First, the nearly simultaneous passage of the major environmental laws meant that legislators often had no time to react to the experience under one law before enacting another; thus several mistakes were made in the early environmental laws, and many of these mistakes were repeated from one statute to the next. A large strand of legal scholarship on the environment has taken critical aim at these early mistakes. To this day, environmental law scholars focus much of their attention on issues of statutory design. Secondly, environmental law came of age during a period of great flux in the relationships between the legislature, the executive, and the courts. Finally, environmental law has come of age during a period in which opinions about ‘vertical’ institutional design — what in the United States comes under the umbrella of ‘federalism’ and what in the European Union comes under the umbrella of ‘subsidiarity’ — have changed quite substantially.
Historical Research in Law
Authors: Ibbetson David
Published: February 2013

Legal history is by no means a unitary discipline. A convenient and conventional division can be made between ‘internal’ and ‘external’ legal history. The former is the history of lawyers' law, of legal rules and principles. Its sources are predominantly those that are thrown up by the legal process: principally statutes and decided cases, supplemented where possible with lawyers' literature expounding the rules and occasionally reflecting on them. The latter is the history of the law in practice, of legal institutions at work in society rather than legal rules existing in a social, economic, and political vacuum. This article discusses the historical foundations of legal historiography, the professionalization of legal history, internal legal history, and external legal histories.
Phonology
Authors: Bird Steven
Published: February 2013

This article presents the fundamentals of descriptive phonology and gives an overview of computational phonology. Phonology is the systematic study of sounds used in language, and their composition into syllables, words, and phrases. It introduces some of the key concepts of phonology by simple examples involving real data and gives a brief discussion of early generative phonology. It analyses the autosegmental phonology using some data from African tone language. This article considers in detail one level of phonological hierarchy, namely, the syllable. It reveals many interesting issues that are confronted by phonological analysis. Some of these theoretical frameworks include: lexical phonology, underspecification phonology, government phonology, declarative phonology, and optimality theory. The article provides a means for phonological generalizations such as rules and constraints to give a finite-state interpretation.
Morphology
Authors: Trost Harald
Published: February 2013

This article discusses in detail computational morphology with examples from various languages. It deals with the processing of words in both their graphemic, i.e. written, and their phonemic, i.e. spoken form. It has a wide range of practical applications such as spelling correction or automated hyphenation. It further seeks the fact that these tasks may seem simple to a human but they pose hard problems to a computer program. This article provides insights into why this is so and what techniques are available to tackle these tasks. It discusses the sort of information that is expressed by morphology and differs widely between languages and looks at the constraints involved in morphotactics. It is responsible for governing the rules for the combination of morphs into larger entities. It concludes with an outline of finite-state morphology and alternative formalisms.
Lexicography
Authors: Hanks Patrick
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview of computational lexicography in two senses, namely, the function of the lexicon in computer programs; and then the use of computational techniques in compiling new dictionaries. It begins with the historical background of lexicography and further discusses the particular challenges of using human dictionaries for computational purposes. It examines the ways in which computational techniques have changed the task of compiling new dictionaries. A serious problem for computer applications is that dictionaries compiled for human users focus on giving lists of meanings for each entry, without saying much about how one meaning may be distinguished from another in text. Thus, this article outlines the links between meaning and use. Finally, it presents the need for future directions in computational lexicography.
Formal Grammars and Languages
Authors: Martín-Vide Carlos
Published: February 2013

This article introduces the preliminaries of classical formal language theory. It outlines the main classes of grammars as language-generating devices and automata as language-recognizing devices. It offers a number of definitions and examples and presents the basic results. It classifies grammar according to several criteria. The most widespread one is the form of their productions. This article presents a systematic study of the common properties of language families has led to the theory of abstract families of languages. It shows that a context-free grammar generates not only a set of strings, but a set of trees too: each one of the trees is associated with a string and illustrates the way this string is derived in the grammar.
Part-of-Speech Tagging
Authors: Voutilainen Atro
Published: February 2013

This article outlines the recently used methods for designing part-of-speech taggers; computer programs for assigning contextually appropriate grammatical descriptors to words in texts. It begins with the description of general architecture and task setting. It gives an overview of the history of tagging and describes the central approaches to tagging. These approaches are: taggers based on handwritten local rules, taggers based on n-grams automatically derived from text corpora, taggers based on hidden Markov models, taggers using automatically generated symbolic language models derived using methods from machine tagging, taggers based on handwritten global rules, and hybrid taggers, which combine the advantages of handwritten and automatically generated taggers. This article focuses on handwritten tagging rules. Well-tagged training corpora are a valuable resource for testing and improving language model. The text corpus reminds the grammarian about any oversight while designing a rule.
Parsing
Authors: Carroll John
Published: February 2013

This article introduces the concepts and techniques for natural language (NL) parsing, which signifies, using a grammar to assign a syntactic analysis to a string of words, a lattice of word hypotheses output by a speech recognizer or similar. The level of detail required depends on the language processing task being performed and the particular approach to the task that is being pursued. This article further describes approaches that produce ‘shallow’ analyses. It also outlines approaches to parsing that analyse the input in terms of labelled dependencies between words. Producing hierarchical phrase structure requires grammars that have at least context-free (CF) power. CF algorithms that are widely used in parsing of NL are described in this article. To support detailed semantic interpretation more powerful grammar formalisms are required, but these are usually parsed using extensions of CF parsing algorithms. Furthermore, this article describes unification-based parsing. Finally, it discusses three important issues that have to be tackled in real-world applications of parsing: evaluation of parser accuracy, parser efficiency, and measurement of grammar/parser coverage.
Natural Language Generation
Authors: Bateman John , Zock Michael
Published: February 2013

Communication via a natural language requires two fundamental skills, producing text and understanding it. This article introduces the field of computational approaches to the former-natural language generation (NLG) showing some of the theoretical and practical problems that linguists, computer scientists, and psychologists have encountered when trying to explain how language works in machines or in their minds. The corresponding task of NLG spans a wide spectrum: ranging from planning some action to executing it. Providing architectures in which all of these decisions can be made to coexist, while still allowing the production of natural sounding texts within a reasonable amount of time, is one of the major challenges of NLG. Another challenge is ascertaining just what the decisions involved in NLG are. This article overviews the cognitive, social and linguistic dimensions of NLG and finally opens issues and problems related to the field.
Finite-State Technology
Authors: Karttunen Lauri
Published: February 2013

The article introduces the basic concepts of finite-state language processing: regular languages and relations, finite-state automata, and regular expressions. Many basic steps in language processing, ranging from tokenization, to phonological and morphological analysis, disambiguation, spelling correction, and shallow parsing, can be performed efficiently by means of finite-state transducers. The article discusses examples of finite-state languages and relations. Finite-state networks can represent only a subset of all possible languages and relations; that is, only some languages are finite-state languages. Furthermore, this article introduces two types of complex regular expressions that have many linguistic applications, restriction and replacement. Finally, the article discusses the properties of finite-state automata. The three important properties of networks are: that they are epsilon free, deterministic, and minimal. If a network encodes a regular language and if it is epsilon free, deterministic, and minimal, the network is guaranteed to be the best encoding for that language.
Machine Learning
Authors: Mooney Raymond J.
Published: February 2013

This article introduces the type of symbolic machine learning in which decision trees, rules, or case-based classifiers are induced from supervised training examples. It describes the representation of knowledge assumed by each of these approaches and reviews basic algorithms for inducing such representations from annotated training examples and using the acquired knowledge to classify future instances. Machine learning is the study of computational systems that improve performance on some task with experience. Most machine learning methods concern the task of categorizing examples described by a set of features. These techniques can be applied to learn knowledge required for a variety of problems in computational linguistics ranging from part-of-speech tagging and syntactic parsing to word-sense disambiguation and anaphora resolution. Finally, this article reviews the applications to a variety of these problems, such as morphology, part-of-speech tagging, word-sense disambiguation, syntactic parsing, semantic parsing, information extraction, and anaphora resolution.
Lexical Knowledge Acquisition
Authors: Matsumoto Yuji
Published: February 2013

This article deals with the acquisition of lexical knowledge, instrumental in complementing the ambiguous process of NLP (natural language processing). Imprecise in nature, lexical representations are mostly simple and superficial. The thesaurus would be an apt example. Two primary tools for acquiring lexical knowledge are ‘corpora’ and ‘machine-readable dictionary’ (MRD). The former are mostly domain specific, monolingual, while the definitions in MRD are generally described by a ‘genus term’ followed by a set of differentiae. Auxiliary technical nuances of the acquisition process, find mention as well, such as ‘lexical collocation’ and ‘association’, referring to the deliberate co-occurrence of words that form a new meaning altogether and loses it whenever a synonym replaces either of the words. The first seminal work on collocation extraction from large text corpora, was compiled around the early 1990s, using inter-word mutual information to locate collocation. Abundant corpus data would be obtainable from the Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC).
Information Retrieval
Authors: Tzoukermann Evelyne , Klavans Judith L. , Strzalkowski Tomek
Published: February 2013

Information retrieval (IR) involves retrieving information from stored data, through user queries or pre-formulated user profiles. The information can be in any format. IR typically advances over four broad stages viz., identification of text types, document preprocessing, document indexing, and query processing and matching the same to documents. Although NLP has a role to play in IR, the procedural complexities of the latter impede determination of the stage of incorporation of the former into the latter. Earliest attempts at connecting NLP with IR, were extremely ambitious, proposing concepts instead of terms, as complex structures, to be compared using sophisticated algorithms. In its current state, IR still comes in handy, to retrieve information from various thesauri and ontologies, both in general-purpose lexical databases, as well as those categorizing knowledge in particular scientific and trade domains. However, NLP has yet to prove a better compatibility with IR, in enhancing the latter.
Question Answering
Authors: Harabagiu Sanda , Moldovan Dan
Published: February 2013

Textual Question Answering (QA) identifies the answer to a question in large collections of on-line documents. By providing a small set of exact answers to questions, QA takes a step closer to information retrieval rather than document retrieval. A QA system comprises three modules: a question-processing module, a document-processing module, and an answer extraction and formulation module. Questions may be asked about any topic, in contrast with Information Extraction (IE), which identifies textual information relevant only to a predefined set of events and entities. The natural language processing (NLP) techniques used in open-domain QA systems may range from simple lexical and semantic disambiguation of question stems to complex processing that combines syntactic and semantic features of the questions with pragmatic information derived from the context of candidate answers. This article reviews current research in integrating knowledge-based NLP methods with shallow processing techniques for QA.
Natural Language Interaction
Authors: Androutsopoulos Ion , Aretoulaki Maria
Published: February 2013

This article introduces natural language interaction (NLI) systems. NLI systems are systems that allow their users to formulate requests in spoken or written natural language. This article highlights the central concepts of natural language interaction systems. NLI systems refer to applications where users can formulate requests addressed to a computer in natural language. Database querying constitutes the most studied form of NLIs. Database NLIs allow information to be retrieved from an underlying database by typing single-sentence queries. This article draws attention to the basic components of an NLI system and gives an overview of spoken dialogue systems (SDS). Apart from giving information about the several applications where NLIs and SDS are being explored, this article concludes with a discussion of more ambitious forms of natural language interaction that may become possible in the longer term.
Natural Language Processing in Computer-Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Nerbonne John
Published: February 2013

This article examines the application of natural language processing to computer-assisted language learning (CALL) including the history of work in this field over the last thirtyfive years and focuses on current developments and opportunities. It always refers to programs designed to help people learn foreign languages. CALL is a large field — much larger than computational linguistics. This article outlines the areas of CALL to which computational linguistics (CL) can be applied. CL programs process natural languages such as English and Spanish, and the techniques are therefore often referred to as natural language processing (NLP). NLP is enlisted in several ways in CALL to provide lemmatized access to corpora for advanced learners seeking subtleties unavailable in grammars and dictionaries. It also provides morphological analysis and subsequent dictionary access for words unknown to readers and to parse user input and diagnose morphological and syntactic errors.
Alexander the Great
Authors: Briant Pierre
Published: February 2013

This article argues that the centrality of Alexander the Great to the study of imperialism and cultural transfer can scarcely be in doubt. Indeed, the subject of Alexander is so heavily studied that people might well demand a justification for any new discussions of the Macedonian conqueror. Historiography proves to be one element in the scholarship that has been relatively neglected, a situation which is exemplified by the lack of any systematic account of Alexander studies from the seventeenth to the twentieth century. A long-term view of the historiography would show that Droysen's picture of Alexander was less original than previously believed, and that it was prefigured in some significant respects by Montesquieu. The discussion also argues that progress in the field is likely to come when historians better account for the Achaemenid and Near Eastern milieux in which Alexander flourished and ruled.
Hebraism and Hellenism
Authors: Gruen Erich
Published: February 2013

Turning back to the conjunction made famous by Matthew Arnold, this article observes that the stark dichotomy implied in the expression ‘Hellenism and Hebraism’ is, in fact, built on methodologically shaky foundations and perhaps stems from tendentious readings of 2 Maccabees. The concepts of Hellenism and Hebraism are complex and cannot be easily reduced to pure essences, though Greeks and Jews may have maintained a distinctive sense of their ethnic identities. The discussion holds that Greek writings about Jews, and Jewish writings about Greeks, points to the ‘comfort’ that each had in forging a link or connection with the other. The ancient writers clearly show that Hellenes and Hebrews should not only be opposed to each other, but that they participate in overlapping, as well divergent, cultures and traditions.
Hellenism in the Renaissance
Authors: Celenza Christopher S.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses Hellenism in the Renaissance, illustrating how humanist scholarship laid the foundations for modern philology and the later stages of classical studies. It points out the hunger for ancient texts and knowledge that fuelled Renaissance intellectuals such as Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni. A large part of the humanist project was devoted to acquiring Greek texts, translating them into Latin, and studying them with the intense philological precision that was also deployed in the scrutiny of Latin. The humanist achievements cannot be separated from the enhanced status of libraries, the invention of printing, and the political upheavals caused by the fall of Constantinople in 1453, all of which served as an impetus to Greek learning in Europe.
Civic Institutions
Authors: Forsdyke Sara
Published: February 2013

This article looks at the parallel evolution of civic institutions, all of which culminated in the polis, the ‘city-state’, as the backdrop to the rich cultural legacy of the fifth and fourth centuries. Historians have demonstrated that the formal institutions of the Greek city-state are best understood as emerging from, but still very much embedded within, a much broader range of collective practices and discourses. Nevertheless, it is the dynamic interplay between the institutional structures of the state and these broader practices and discourses that has been the focus of much of the most fruitful scholarship on the ancient Greek city-state over the past thirty years. The discussion then turns to some of the most interesting areas of investigation in current scholarship on the interaction between formal institutions and broader cultural activities and norms in the Greek city-state.
War and Society
Authors: Hunt Peter
Published: February 2013

Recent research on Greek warfare often explores not the battles and campaigns themselves, but the relationship between warfare and other aspects of ancient life. The topic of ‘war and society’ in ancient Greece is an enormous and complex one. Works on this subject have played an important role in the study of Greek history for more than a generation. This article focuses on two exemplary cases: attempts to explain the development of Greek land forces exclusively in terms of military advantage, which have been succeeded by theories that place more weight on cultural or social factors; and the notion that military service often brought political power in its wake. The idea is an appealing one, but the theory of the ‘hoplite reform’ highlights the difficulties of such explanations.
Ancient Concepts of Personal Identity
Authors: Gill Christopher
Published: February 2013

The burgeoning science of human nature recognized the implications for human identity. In the later fifth or early fourth centuries BCE philosophers started to develop a systematically dualistic account of human beings as composites of body and soul. In this view, the body is something that embeds the person in a particular community, and the soul is the true ‘self’, the locus of desires and beliefs which those communities could shape. This article suggests that personal identity is for these thinkers social identity, and it is no coincidence that Plato's utopian designs for a polis in the Republic are largely structured around rethinking the educational curriculum, or, conversely, that Protagoras assigns the central role in moral education to the city as a whole.
Friendship, Love, and Marriage
Authors: Cantarella Eva
Published: February 2013

Friendship, love, and marriage are three different types of personal relationship. The first and main difference considered in this article is the fact that friendship and love are emotional bonds, while marriage is a social and legal institution, not necessarily connected with an emotional bond. The first part of this article discusses the nature of the emotional relationship created by friendship and love. The second part describes the basic legal and social rules of Greek marriage, and reflects on the relations between marriage and love.
Performance and Text in Ancient Greece
Authors: Nagy Gregory
Published: February 2013

This article points out that many Greek texts were conceived as scripts for performance, rather than as literature designed for readers. Even the Greek alphabet, the first alphabetic script that recorded both vowels and consonants, and hence a crucial development towards the current literate culture, probably developed as it did out of a desire to reproduce as accurately as possible oral delivery. There is a link between performance and orality, matching the obvious link between text and literacy. The discussion considers these matching links.
Tragedy
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: February 2013

Tragedy has inspired such feverish activity over the past half-century, both in scholarship and in the theatre, that it is hard to sketch the main lines of past explorations, let alone indicate how they may develop and ramify in the future. This article attempts to do just that. It presents an overview of approaches to tragedy in the recent past, and some divinations about areas of study that may reward interest in the future. Presently, in Greek tragic studies, the solidity of material culture provides a counterbalance to relentless object-lessons in the instability of knowledge. As such, a new emphasis on the changing functions and manifestations of theatre is turning the continual changes in cultural emphasis over time into a positive heuristic resource.
Historiography
Authors: Dewald Carolyn
Published: February 2013

In discussing ancient historiography, this article makes something of the opposite claim: Thucydides – for example – wrote ‘a possession for all time’, but was also a man of his age. The ‘linguistic’ and the ‘cultural’ turn in the study of historiography help situate his work in a broader fifth-century context and acknowledge its strangeness. Among other things, new approaches enable people to rediscover the connections between rhetoric and historiography – connections that were clear to all in antiquity, but have since eluded many readers. The discussion focuses on some changes that have occurred during the last half-century or so in the way in which classicists think and write about the narratives of four of the ancient Greek historians whose works remain largely extant: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Polybius.
Medicine
Authors: Holmes Brooke
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to characterize a secular tradition of medicine, and focuses on approaches to the body and theories of causation. It seems that, just like the street philosophers, magicians were more individualistic and charismatic than the writers of systematic treatises, and yet they too sometimes relied on texts. It is important to remain open to possible connections between magic and medicine. For example, in the course of medical history, dissection and investigation of the interior of the body gradually became more prominent; similarly, ancient curses, spells, and binds became increasingly specific about the body parts and internal organs they targeted. The wider context of society is relevant here: magical and medical texts are affected by the history of torture, and of vivisection.
Hellenistic Poetry
Authors: Sens Alexander
Published: February 2013

This article examines Hellenistic poetry by outlining the gradual separation between literary genres and the performance contexts within which they originally developed. The Hellenistic poets felt the gap and tried to reconstruct a literary past from which they felt separated. In a city like Alexandria, where different cultures and ethnicities coexisted, Greek identity was increasingly seen as a matter of cultural and literary competence, rather than as a function of one's place of birth – ‘Greece’ was becoming a place of the mind.
Biography
Authors: Pelling Christopher
Published: February 2013

This article points out that the genre of biography was also fundamentally concerned with Hellenic identity. As the discussion holds, ancient biographies do not just describe individuals, they tackle a range of issues, chief among which is that crucial question, what it might mean to be Greek. Biography is about individuals. That is what makes it interesting; it is also what leaves it vulnerable to critics who look for something more, for the big things rather than Plutarch's ‘small things’. However, the individuals matter too, and usually matter most. The reason biography can do so much is because a human being is both what other human beings tend to find most interesting, and the mechanism and the phenomenon that other humans understand most intuitively.
Myth, Mythology, and Mythography
Authors: Bremmer Jan N.
Published: February 2013

This article examines traditions through which members of a society achieve or express identity via myth, mythology, and mythography. It is no exaggeration to state that myths are the best-known parts of Greek antiquity today. In a brief survey, it is impossible to treat the whole subject of myth. The discussion here instead focuses on some observations on the origin, production, and function of myth; its relation to ritual; its transformation and marginalization in the course of the archaic and classical periods; its fossilization and function in the Roman/Hellenistic period; and its study in modern times.