bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Political Psychology of The Federalist
Authors: Edwards Jonathan , Lincoln Abraham
Published: November 2023

No document relating to the Constitution of the United States has received more attention than The Federalist Papers. The papers were written in 1787–88 for the purpose of persuading the people of the state of New York to elect a convention that would ratify the proposed Constitution of the United States. In this immediate objective they failed, though in the end New York did ratify and the Constitution went into operation. Thereafter The Federalist was transformed from a failure into a success, becoming a canonical text of American constitutionalism, next in importance only to the Constitution itself and the Declaration of Independence. Ever since Jefferson prescribed it as a text at the newly founded University of Virginia, the work has been treated as an authoritative statement of how American political institutions work or should work.
The Emerging Ideal of Self-Improvement
Authors: Edwards Jonathan , Lincoln Abraham
Published: November 2023

“It is the age of the first person singular,” Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in his journal at the beginning of February, 1827. Like so many of his aphorisms, this observation offers several levels of meaning. Antebellum white Americans not only asserted themselves in a variety of ways, they were increasingly able to define themselves through voluntary choice. Contemporaries were quite aware of this novel power and felt that it presented both opportunities and dangers. The origins of the goal of personal self-definition may be sought in evangelical Christian “new birth” and in the cultivated self of eighteenth-century politeness, but the ideal spread widely and took on new forms in the United States during the nineteenth century. A combination of weak institutional constraints and the market revolution, which multiplied occupational and consumer options, provided favorable conditions for such widespread personal autonomy. This chapter will outline broadly some of the forms that self-definition took. It was an age of self-reliance, but also of self-control and self-improvement. (On the other hand, it was not an era that celebrated self-indulgence; “the age of the first person singular” meant something quite different from the “me generation” of the 1980s.) Surprisingly, the Enlightenment model of the balanced character, in which reason reigned supreme over the passions, remained relevant and widely accepted, even in an era of democratic Romanticism.
When I Think about Myself as Politically Engaged, I Think of Myself as a Citizen: Interview with Iris Marion Young
Authors: Pajnik Vlasta Jalušičand Mojca
Published: November 2023

I (VJ) met Iris for the first time in Vienna, at the Institute of Human Sciences, in 1998. There she gave an excellent lecture on inclusion and democracy. As we spent time together in some of the Viennese cafes, I asked her whether she’d be interested in coming to Slovenia to give a talk at the Peace Institute. She liked the idea and promised to come. I kept sending her texts on Eastern Europe and feminism, and she was very interested in the topic. Time passed, however, and she had been obviously too busy. In 2004, when we exchanged some articles, one on violence and Hannah Arendt among them, she asked me if the invitation still held. But then she could still not come. In 2005, she sent me an e-mail saying that she’d be traveling to Europe in spring 2006, and that she’d love to come to Ljubljana before she traveled to a conference in Prague.
Letter to Iris Young
Authors: Struhl Karsten J
Published: November 2023

We have known each other for almost thirty years, but the last time I saw you was at the World Philosophical Conference in Istanbul, which was in August of 2003. I heard you give a talk entitled “Modest Reffections on Hegemony and Democracy,” in which you argued, among other things, that human rights could only be defended if there is a global system of democratic dialogue. Later that week we had dinner at a restaurant some distance from the center of the city— you, David, a friend of yours who lived in Istanbul, my wife Olga, and myself. David, whom I had not seen for many years, had remarked to you earlier that he wondered if he would recognize me, and you answered that I seemed very much the same, only a little grayer. And in a very important sense you were also the same, the same loving, argumentative spirit that I knew so well. You had become a political superstar by then, but there was nothing in our conversation that evening, or for that matter any other time that we were together, which betrayed an air of self-importance. You were always the quintessential exemplar of the dialogic ethos which you had analyzed so deftly in your writing on justice and democracy. We talked about many things that evening—the political situation in Istanbul, banning the veil from public places, your invitation to spend the next semester in Princeton working on your new project, which was to be a critique of the mainstream concept of responsibility and the construction of a new way to understand political responsibility. You were very excited about this project. When we said goodbye, it was assumed that we would see each other soon on the east coast. But it was not to be. How easy it is for time to pass quickly with too many necessary commitments to fulfill.
Making Character Disposition Matter in Iris Young’s Deliberative Democracy
Authors: Melton Desirée H
Published: November 2023

Our democracy is imperfect. Votes are miscounted, election judges fail to show up at polling sites, candidates are personally attacked and scrutinized rather than their platforms and positions on important issues, lobbyists are bought; voters are discouraged from voting in many ways, and fraud can turn the outcome of a relatively fair election. Despite its flaws, however, most of us would probably agree that democracy is the best political arrangement we have out of the options available to us.
I. Death
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

We know about our wish to go on being, we human beings, our Wish not to die. Samuel Beckett, who rigged nothing, fashioned for himself and for us a voice, Malone’s, at once wistful and wiry: Yes, there is no good pretending, it is hard to leave everything 1. These are the accents of a consciousness, imagining and imagined, which braves the immortal commonplace of mortality. Most people most of the time want to live for ever. This truth is acknowledge in literature, including Beckett’s.
A Reader’s Experience: Landscape in Greek Poetry
Authors: Jenkyns Richard
Published: November 2023

From his own verse we know that Virgil read very widely and with an extraordinarily retentive memory. The breadth of his literary experience was unusual in a world where books were uncommon and expensive, and though Latin poets often advertise their know ledge of Greek precedent, Virgil should be considered exceptional. But it is not the purpose of this chapter either to assert or to deny that he had read all the works discussed in it. Our concern is with the broad picture of the Greeks’ perception of landscape, and with the question of how far it influenced Virgil, how far he was new. In a short compass it is of course impossible to survey the whole area in detail; instead we shall pick out a few pinnacles and leap like the chamois from crag to crag. Even so, we should be able to see in the development of Greek ideas of landscape the gathering.
The Neoteric Experience
Authors: Jenkyns Richard
Published: November 2023

However proud they might be of their power, their ancestry, and their mores, the Romans were constantly aware of an inferiority. Wherever the Greeks’ rule or influence had spread, they had over whelmed the native culture; even the Jews were only a partial exception. The first Roman gentlemen with literary ambitions, men like Fabius Pictor and Cincius Alimentus, naturally chose to write in the civilized language, Greek. Latin literature was reckoned to begin with Livius Andronicus, a Greek prisoner of war, who translated Homer, making a Greek masterpiece more accessible to his rude conquerors. The first great figure in their literature, so later Romans thought, was Ennius, an Italian from the Hellenized far south of Italy, who spoke Latin, Greek, and Oscan alike; he could have addressed the great world in the world language. Instead, he chose Latin; it was a momentous choice.
A Trojan’s Experience: The Wanderings of Aeneas
Authors: Jenkyns Richard
Published: November 2023

The first book of the Aeneid has an exploratory air. In this it differs from the Odyssey, which opens with Zeus himself laying out the moral rules, and the Iliad, which moves rapidly to the heart of the action, so rapidly indeed that it does not pause to give any motive for Agamemnon’s first fatal error, his insulting of the Trojan priest Chryses.’ The first Aeneid has its grand set pieces too, but predominantly it gives the impression of introducing themes and motifs which will be enlarged and developed as the poem proceeds. We have already considered one such theme: the investigation of landscape and man’s place within it.
The Subjects of Early Greek Inscriptions
Authors: Jeffery L H
Published: November 2023

I do not propose to do more here than touch upon some of the many subjects illustrated in the surviving inscriptions of the sixth century and earlier. A sketch of this kind cannot be free from distortion, because (even apart from the good or ill luck of excavations) the chances of survival vary greatly according to the material used; by this I do not mean only the truism that a poem on papyrus will perish faster than a decree on stone, but also that the same type of inscription will survive in one city but not in another.
The Moral and Political Outlook of Theopompus
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah
Published: November 2023

Modern scholarship on Theopompus is divided between several distinctly different views as to the motivating force behind his historical works. The traditional interpretation is that Theopompus saw Philip as the man who would put Isocratean Panhellenism into effect and thereby become the saviour of Greece. This view was first advanced by J. B. Bury, who wrote that Theopompus ‘… was affected by the national idea of Isocrates; he saw in the Macedonian power a unifying principle, and he made it the focus of his contemporary history’. Such an interpretation was elaborated at length by A. Momigliano, but with the qualification that Theopompus had altered his concept of Panhellenism when he came to write the Philippica. He argued that an Isocrateanstyle Panhellenism had been central to the Hellenica, in which Theopompus praised the Spartan effort to subdue Asia Minor. Theopompus ended the Hellenica with the battle of Cnidus in 394 because it was there that Spartan hopes of conquering Asia Minor were crushed. When he came to write the Philippica, Theopompus no longer advocated a Panhellenic crusade against Persia and he conceded the king’s right to Asia. Rather, he saw in Philip the man who could unify Greece and create a strong and enlarged European state.
Theopompus’ Historical Accuracy
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah
Published: November 2023

A trend in recent scholarship on Classical historiography has been to emphasize the differences between ancient and modern historical writing. Ancient historians, it is argued, were more interested in rhetorical style and readability than their modern counterparts, and thus less concerned with the objective recording of ascertainable facts. For it is assumed that rhetorical embellishment and amplification are antithetical to what most modern historians conceive of as historical truth. Rhetoric, by its very nature, is thought to distort, to exaggerate, and to supplement by means of invention the hard evidence which the historian has before him.
Introduction
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: November 2023

‘Licinius was thus besieged by Constantine in Nicomedia, whereupon he gave up hope, realizing he did not have sufficient men for a battle. Going out of the city, therefore, he threw himself before Constantine as a suppliant, and bringing him the purple, acclaimed him as emperor and lord... Constantine sent Licinius to Thessalonica as if to live there in security, but not long after broke his oath, as was his custom, and had him hanged. The whole empire now devolved on Constantine alone.’
Introduction
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

In 1928 the Clarendon Press published Sir Arnold Wilson’s The Persian Gulf. Wilson’s study ranged ‘from the earliest times to the beginning of the twentieth century’,1 and when it was written the early history of the area could be dealt with adequately in under fifty pages. Sixty years on, as a result of intensified exploration and excavation since the Second World War, it requires considerably more space to treat the sources, both archaeological and historical, which reflect the course of human history in the region. The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity has been written to provide the scholar and the interested layman with a comprehensive, up-to-date synthesis of what is perhaps the only major sub-area of the Near East for which a work of this sort was still lacking. The scope of the present work encompasses the history and archaeology of the region from c.8000 BC to the Islamic conquest.
The Late Fourth and Early Third Millenniums BC
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

The only sites which could legitimately be placed in the interval between the end of the occupation at al-Markh and Ras Abaruk 4, c.3800 BC, and the last centuries of the fourth millennium are some of the lithic sites in the Eastern Province, Bahrain, Qatar, and the UAE of the type discussed in the preceding chapter. As noted above, the available Cl 4 dates suggest that the indigenous hunting-gathering¬ fishing populations of eastern Arabia represented by these sites may have continued to use the same basic types of stone tools as their more remote ancestors had well into the fourth millennium or even later. Nevertheless, the apparent scarcity of fourth-millennium sites in the Gulf may be a reflection of at least two natural factors, one climatic and the other eustatic. An arid phase has been documented for this period in eastern Arabia and Bahrain, and its onset may have thinned out the local hunting and gathering population. Many if not all of the playa lakes in the area dried up at this time, becoming choked with aeolian silt. Assuming that the game dependent on these lakes was forced to migrate elsewhere, the majority of the hunters and gatherers of the region may well have followed suit.
The Late Third Millennium BC in the Central and Northern Gulf
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

Outside the Oman peninsula, Bahrain has yielded the largest body of late third-millennium material in the Gulf. Some important material is also known from eastern Saudi Arabia, while in Kuwait the sole finds of this period are a small number of cylinder seals from the lowest levels on Failaka. Thus far, no remains dating to the second half of the third millennium have been discovered in Qatar.
The Early Second Millennium BC on Bahrain and in Eastern Arabia
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

The expansion of field-work in eastern Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Bahrain during the last decade has brought to light a substantial amount of material datable to the early second millennium BC. This is, moreover, a period for which we are well informed about Dilmun from a variety of cuneiform sources. We shall begin our discussion by reviewing the archaeological material from Bahrain, before moving to the mainland, and finally turning to the written evidence.
Failaka in the Second Millennium BC
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

Despite the long-standing presence of resident Europeans, visitmg European and American archaeologists, and a large local Department of Antiquities, the mainland of Kuwait has yet to be systematically investigated. And while there are indications that some of Kuwait’s smaller islands were inhabited in antiquity, no definitive information has been forthcoming. Thus, the archaeology of Kuwait, as we know it today, is the archaeology of its best-known island, Failaka.
The Hellenistic Period on Failaka
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

The Danish expedition commenced work in Kuwait in February 1958. While a survey was being conducted on the mainland by P. V. Glob and T. G. Bibby, a group under the direction of the late A. Roussell began investigations on Failaka, the best-known of the several Kuwaiti islands in the Arabian Gulf .1 The area of greatest interest was found to be a cluster of low mounds spread over an area measuring roughly 2.5 km. square in the south-west corner of the island, where work continued through 1962-3. Since that time, work has been conducted on the island by a number of organizations. The Kuwaiti Department of Antiquities sounded the remains of what later turned out to be a small temple by the sea (see below) in 1964. T. Howard-Carter opened several small soundings in 1974-5, while an Italian mission from the University of Venice worked briefly in 1976. A brief electromagnetic investigation was conducted in 1982 by T. Howard-Carter and B. Fnbhlich, and finally, in 1983, a new programme of annual excavations was initiated by a French team under the direction of J.-F. Salles.
The Governing Classes: (I) Symmachus and the Senatorial Class
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

To one visitor to Rome in the 380s, a gentleman officer and historian from Syrian Antioch, the tastes and behaviour of its upper-class residents presented a memorably unfavourable impression. In a pair of vivid satirical portraits, inserted as digressions into his history, Ammianus Marcellinus depicted the senators as totally unworthy of their traditions and social eminence as, sunk in leisure and frivolity, they devoted themselves to the pursuit of trivial, degrading enthusiasms. They stuffed themselves with food, played dice, patronized charioteers and chorus-girls (it was perhaps with an acutely personal sense of grievance that Ammianus mentioned one occasion when, food supplies being short, foreign visitors to Rome were told to leave the city, while three thousand dancing-girls, with their attendants and trainers, were allowed to stay). Despising literary culture, senators kept their libraries ‘locked up like tombs’, giving their attention instead to water-organs, harps as big as carriages, and the pipes, stages, and all the ponderous apparatus needed to accompany the posturings of dramatic actors. In their profound leisure, states Ammianus, confessing his bafflement, some nobles exerted themselves to read no more exacting literature than the satires of Juvenal and the light biographies of Marius Maximus.
The Accession of Theodosius
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

The defeat of the eastern emperor Valens and the destruction of his army in the great battle against the Visigoths fought on g August 378 near Hadrianopolis in Thrace, was one of the decisive moments of late Roman history. The threat of the Goths as a hostile force on the Danube frontier was not new. In recent years, they had been persistently troublesome, although the pressure had for a time been eased when they were defeated by Valens, in his expedition over the river in 369. But since 376, they had come back, forced against the Roman provinces by the mysterious movements of the Huns, deep in the steppes to the north and east of the Caspian Sea. There were no heroes or villains in the desperate quest for lands. One section of the Goths, under their king Athanaric, had turned away from the north bank of the Danube, to find the home they searched for in a remote part of Sarmatia—from which they in turn expelled its Sarmatian inhabitants.
Christianity and the Court: (I) Constantinople
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

To a visitor of the later fourth century, Constantinople would have presented itself as a comparatively new city, even as one that did not yet fully belong within the eastern empire.1 It had been refounded by Constantine expressly to contain the emperor and his entourage, consciously developed as the first city of the east, and second only to Rome. As a result of these efforts, which were continued by Constantine’s successors, by the late fourth century the city was already lavishly equipped with public monuments and amenities: imperial palaces and public squares, aqueducts and cisterns, colossal statues, triumphal arches, a great hippodrome—and churches. The dominating site of the city, which already by the time of Constantine had made it, as Byzantium, a city of ancient origin (it was first founded by Greek colonists in the seventh century B.C.), had even increased in importance within the strategic context of the Roman empire. Readily defensible in itself—Constantinople needed only a single land wall, on the west side of the city—it controlled crucial routes of communication, by land from the Danubian to the eastern provinces of the empire, and by sea, between the Mediterranean and the productive coasts of Thrace and northern Asia Minor which lay through the Bosphorus. And a further factor is worth special emphasis: in standing between eastern Illyricum and Asia Minor, Constantinople retained access to resources of manpower which in the years to come would give the eastern empire a military cohesiveness and strength far greater than were possessed by the west.
Christianity and the Court: (2) Milan
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

During the fourth century, the increasing importance of north Italy as an administrative and military centre had been accompanied, as at Trier and the Rhineland, and in parts of Pannonia, by a transformation of the social and economic life of the region. The solid agricultural opulence familiar from the time of the early empire had given place to—or rather had now to coexist with—a society which was to a high degree mobile and cosmopolitan. The imperial administration offered its opportunities to men of talent and education, who came to the area from all parts of the Roman empire to work as functionaries and officials; new industrial occupations had been brought into the region, for instance by the foundation of mints and armament factories (with all that this implies for supply and transport facilities); and the soldiers stationed in the area made their own contribution to the new population, their diverse nationalities often adding to it a distinctly exotic flavour. At Vercellae, for instance, was a garrison of Armenian troops; by the early fifth century, Sarmatian detachments were posted at Patavium, Cremona, Vercellae, Bononia, Pollentia, and half a dozen other places across north Italy; while a Christian cemetery at Concordia produced numerous inscribed sarcophagi from the fourth and early fifth centuries, showing the coexistence of the civilian population with soldiers, officials, and immigrants from many regions of the empire, even from outside its borders—from Syrians to Batavians, Heruli and Ostrogoths.
Theodosius and the West
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

Before the invasion of Maximus, Valentinian’s government dispersed immediately. The emperor had already left Milan for Aquileia, where he was better placed to seek safety in the east; 1 and he now went with his mother and a group of courtiers, who included the elder statesman Petronius Probus, to meet Theodosius at Thessalonica and discuss his restoration. Maximus, meanwhile, set up court at Milan, and appointed to the prefecture of Rome a correspondent and friend of Symmachus, the Gaul Sextius Rusticus Julianus; while Symmachus himself, acting no doubt on behalf of the senate, travelled to Milan to attend the celebrations for Maximus’ consulship in 388, and delivered a panegyric to the new ruler.
The Regime of Stilicho
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

The death of Theodosius, so evidently a turning-point in the history of the late empire, is a suitable moment to pause, and to recall certain features of general significance which have emerged so far—both byway of provisional summary, and also to introduce the period of profound and rapid change which now followed in the west. The central preoccupation of the preceding chapters has been the governing classes of the late empire: their respective political roles, their composition and relations with each other, but also the wider question of the social and cultural pursuits of their members. The imperial governing class, for its part, in addition to its more narrowly ‘professional’ activities—the formulation and enforcement of legislation, the assessment and collection of taxes, the execution of military policy, and so on—has been seen to have possessed a broader range of social functions. The bureaucracy provided opportunities for men of talent and sufficient education (and widely diverse origins) to rise by their ability and better themselves; in doing so, it promoted a degree of controlled social mobility, leading regularly to membership of the provincial ‘clarissimate’ of exofficials who had achieved senatorial rank, and occasionally to actual participation in senatorial life at Rome itself. As a physical institution, the court exercised an invigorating economic and cultural effect upon the districts in which it was established—a feature which can be detected in varying degrees of detail in the region of Trier and the Rhineland, in the parts of Pannonia most closely associated with the court, at Milan and in north Italy, and of course pre-eminently at Constantinople. In addition, the movements of the emperors (especially at moments of political crisis) encouraged mobility between eastern and western parts of the empire—although, since even the eastern emperors were themselves in this period still Latin-speakers whose immediate origins and careers were in the Illyrian or western provinces, the direction of this mobility was more usually from west to east than vice versa.
Alaric, Rome, Ravenna
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

Among the immediate consequences of the fall of Stilicho, the most violent was the massacre by the soldiers in north Italy of the wives and families of the barbarian federates quartered in the region (of whom besides, 30,000 were said to have found refuge with the camp of Alaric); perhaps the most interesting sidelight, early in the year 409, was the arrival of a letter from Augustine requesting the continued enforcement by the government of legislation against the Donatists, and addressed to the magister Officiorum Olympius—’unconfirmed reports’ of whose ‘well-deserved promotion’ had reached North Africa. At Ravenna, Olympius himself, having risen to power, it must be said, by the qualities of the ruthless politician rather than the devout Christian of Augustine’s information, applied himself vigorously to the dismantling of the structure of Stilicho’s regime. Former supporters of Stilicho were put on trial and executed, sometimes after brutal tortures. The emperor’s wife Thermantia, the daughter of Stilicho and Serena, was divorced, to be sent to her mother at Rome; at Rome also, Stilicho’s son Eucherius was sought for execution by Olympius’ agents. Meanwhile, a new official, Heliocrates, arrived at Rome from the court as comes  sacrarum largitionum, with the specific instructions to reclaim for the imperial finances all money and property which had been distributed by Stilicho.
Gaul and Spain (406−418)
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

In the two years since their crossing of the Rhine in the winter of 406/7, the invading barbarian tribes of the Suebi, Vandals, and Alani had advanced unimpeded across Gaul towards the Pyrenees. Behind them, they left the Gallic countryside, in the words of one contemporary, ‘smoking like one huge funeral pyre’. If the expression is perhaps something of an exaggeration, it is forgivable in the circumstances; and it is not out of keeping with the more precise details given by Jerome, in a letter addressed from Bethlehem to a Gallic lady in 409. Jerome’s contacts with upper-class Christian society in the western provinces had made of him a well-informed commentator, able to describe with authority and immediacy contemporary events in the west; and so he was able to list the towns of north-eastern Gaul and the Rhineland which had already fallen into barbarian hands. He could say also that, as he wrote, Toulouse in the south-west was only preserved from capture by the inspiring leadership of its bishop (an interesting glimpse of the future); while Spain lived in fear of imminent invasion. It was, in fact, in the late summer of 409 that the Vandals, Suebi, and Alani overcame the garrisons of the passes through the Pyrenees, to pour into Spain, where they scattered in destructive bands, and began to form their own barbarian kingdoms. It was probably the violent descent of Suebi and Vandals upon north-western Spain that drove a local priest, Orosius, from his town, as a refugee who made his way, after narrow escapes, to Augustine in North Africa.
‘Ordo Renascendi’: (1) Gaul
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

From 418 a Roman government now permanently situated at Arles was confronted by a Visigothic kingdom in Aquitania, bound to it by the terms of its settlement there to provide military assistance to the Romans, but at the same time a constant source of uncertainty. For a time, the alliance was preserved by common apprehension of the more unruly barbarian peoples in the lands over the Pyrenees, who were engaged in carving out their territories, dispossessing the Roman occupants of the provinces, and warring against each other. In the years immediately after the settlement, Roman generals conducted campaigns with Visigothic assistance against the Vandals in Spain. In 433 Gothic forces were brought in by the court of Ravenna to help the defence of Italy against the new threat of the Huns. This particular threat did not materialize, and over the next few years the Huns normally fought in the service of the Roman government in Gaul; but this did not last, and the defeat of Attila by massed federate forces in the battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 45 I was the spectacular climax of the alliance between Arles and Toulouse.
East and West: Olympiodorus and Rome
Authors: Matthews John
Published: November 2023

In January 420 Fl. Constantius had entered office as consul for the third time. His second consulship, in 417, had been distinguished by his marriage to Galla Placidia; and now, close upon the completion of his third, came his elevation, on 8 February 421, to the rank of Augustus. At the same moment, his wife received the title Augusta, and their little son, Valentinian, became at under two years of age, ‘nobilissimus’. For the moment, the political and dynastic situation in the west seemed full of promise. During the past ten years Constantius had achieved much for the western empire, by policies reminiscent above all of those of Stilicho—that is, by a measured, realistic combination of military force and diplomacy. A dynasty based upon Constantius as the active member in an alliance (doubly, through Placidia as his wife and Honorius as his colleague) with the house of Theodosius, had much to offer.
Being Female
Authors: Clark Gillian
Published: November 2023

FEMALENESS, by general consent, was a disadvantage. It was assumed that females were physically weaker than males, were unlikely to be the intellectual equals of males, and had a more difficult time controlling bodily desires and the onslaughts of emotion. This was held to be true even if they escaped some of the dangers of femaleness by choosing virginity, or if they were trained in philosophy and became the respected partners of philosophic men. On this question we do not suffer from the usual shortage of evidence: we are very well informed about the dominant ideology.
Introduction
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

Existing studies of proper names in Virgirs Aeneid are concerned with the sources of names, their etymological significance as well as with the issue of invention of characters and names.1 The close scrutiny of the literary, mythological, historical, geographical, ethnographical, and narrative issues associated with the poet ‘s choice and employment of proper names has brought to light a considerable number of perplexing questions.
Book 2
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

Aeneas has been asked to narrate the ‘doli ‘ of the Greeks and the sufferings of his people (I. 753-6). The shuddering memories arouse unspeakable pain ( ‘dolorem ‘) in his soul, but he none the less begins by first mentioning the Horse [86pv], \\foch ,vas constructed ,with the ‘skill ‘ of ‘Pallas ‘ [86pv]. Aeneas ‘ ‘dolor ‘ is not the symptom of a physical wound, but he is none the less wounded, like Juno in the opening of Aeneid I. His ‘dolor ‘ is ‘beyond all ,words ‘ ( ‘infandum ‘) and requires the utter silence of the audience in order to be voiced (1-2); no one could tell ( ‘fando ‘) the tale of the crimes of the ‘Myrmidones ‘ and the ‘Do/opes ‘ [Dwpov and 86t\os-] without weeping. This is, in addition, the story of Troy ‘s last agony ( ‘laborem ‘), which also arouses Aeneas ‘ ‘dolor ‘ [1r6vos- and 1r6vos-]. The association of the ‘casus ‘ (lit. ‘fall ‘) of his people with the dowmvard course of night ( ‘caelo praecipitat ‘) and that of the stars ( ‘cadentia sidera ‘) provides a cosmic introduction to the narrative of the Fall of Troy. Mycenae, Tenedos, and ‘T ‘rojan blindness (13-56)
Book 3
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

When Aeneas arrives in Thrace he sets about founding a city ( ‘moenia ‘) on the curved shore ( ‘litore curuo ‘); in order to ensure the good will of his mother ( ‘Dionaeae matri ‘1) and the other gods for the task he has undertaken, he engages in the prescribed rites and the sacri fice of a bull. Nearby there is a ‘tumulus ‘, on top of which grow cornel bushes ( ‘cornea . . . uirgulta ‘) and myrtles with bristling, spear like shoots ( ‘densis hastilibus horrida myrtus ‘). The hero attempts to tear up some shoots in order to wreathe the altars, but drops of blood ooze from the broken roots and stain the earth with gore; as he tries to pluck another shoot, again blood comes out of its bark. Next, Aeneas gives the full story of Polydorus in his own voice. When Troy was in grave peril Priam secretly sent his youngest son Polydorus to the Thracian king (Polymestor is meant) with a great quantity of gold. When Troy fell to the Greeks the king sided with them, killed the youth, and took possession of the gold. After per forming funeral rites for Polydorus, the Trojans sail out under a fair wind.
Book 5
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

‘When the Trojans depart from Carthage a black rain-cloud appears above their heads darkening the sky and the seas. Palinurus, standing on the lofty stern, blames ‘Neptunus ‘ for it;1 he tells Aeneas that it is impossible to reach Italy against the wind and suggests that they should make for Sicily, which should not be far away, if he remembers correctly as he retraces the stars which he had watched before ( ‘si modo rite memor seruata remetio astra ‘). Components of the name ‘Palinurus ‘ are Sight (ovpos), Memory, and Return (7T<1Atv); in addition, ovpos ( ‘watchman ‘) interacts semantically with oopos ( ‘favourable wind ‘ of return). ‘Palinurus ‘ guides the ships back to Sicily, a familiar shore, by watching the stars, relying on his recollection of the earlier voyage, and running before a favourable wind (32-3). The present deviation from the voyage of return to Italy is a welcome one (30-1) for the purpose of honouring Anchises.
Book 6
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

Aeneas ‘ arrival in Italy is marked by a riding metaphor ( ‘classique immittit habenas ‘); the place where he lands is ‘Euboean Cumae ‘ ( ‘Euboicis Cumarum adlabitur oris ‘). Horse and Ox (Ev{3ota< /3ov ) interact in the Aeneid. The component of Ox marks Aeneas ‘ arrival in ‘Italia ‘ ( ‘Land of Oxen ‘) while the association of Ship-sailing with Horse-riding pursues the ‘Phorbas ‘ scene of Aeneid s. Aeneas appears as a rider (horse-tamer) only metaphorically (here and in Aeneid 12). The metaphor marks Aeneas ‘ grief for the death of Palinurus (cf. 12. 499, where it conveys his wrath); and possibly it undercuts the positive aspect of arrival in Italy with the threat of war.1 Immediately upon arriving in Italy, and before pursuing his voyage of return to Latium, Aeneas seeks a reunion \Vith his father by whom he is told about the reincarnation of the souls and of his descendants destined to return to the Upperworld. Aeneas proceeds next to consult the Sibyl. The scene of the con sultation comprises Apollo ‘s temple on the citadel of Cumae and a cave ( ‘antrum ‘) cut into the rock; the temple ‘s ‘adytum ‘ and the Sibyl ‘s cave are virtually indistinguishable during the consultation, just as the prophetess ‘s voice merges with the god ‘s voice.
Book 7
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

In 3. 384 ff. Helenus prophesied to Aeneas that before he could build his city in a ‘safe place ‘ ( ‘tuta ... terra ‘), he would have first to sail around ‘Trinacria ‘ [Circle] and then past the ‘inferni lacus ‘ and the island of Aeaean Circe ( ‘ Aeaeae insula Circae ‘). After Aeneas has returned to the Upperworld, he raises a ‘tumulus ‘ for the burial of his nurse Caieta, sails past the island of ‘Circe ‘, and reaches ‘Latium ‘. The landmarks are a curved elevation ( ‘tumulus ‘), the abode of ‘Circe ‘ [Circle], and the shaded mouth of the Tiber [Cavity).
Book 8
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

At the opening of Aeneid 8 Turnus gives the signal for war from the top of the citadel with a rustic horn (curved and hollow), and then rouses his horses and brandishes his arms, \\l ‘ith these actions he stirs war-lust among the Latins. Notable is the abrupt transition from the horn-signal on the citadel to horses, and the bold metathesis of verbs in which horses are treated like arms. The abrupt transition origi nates from the close relation between Horse and War and between Cavity/Sound and Horse, as noted in the L,aocoon-Horse sequence. In the present sequence these components merge with the ‘arx ‘, the function of which is reversed: instead of ‘repulsing ‘ or ‘restraining ‘ ( ‘arceo ‘), it unleashes the forces of war. The arrangement of the com ponents recalls Aeolus ‘Hippotades ‘ and his horselike storm forces.2 The Latin forces are led by Messapus, an ‘equum domitor ‘, and ‘Vfens ‘, whose name suggests the ‘blind ‘ course to violent conflict.
Book 9
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: November 2023

‘Saturnia Iuno ‘ sends Iris to Turnus who is seated in a valley; the goddess incites him to attack the Trojan camp. A valley is a depression of the earth situated between hills or mountains [Cavity]. The place is forested [Tree] and is sacred to ‘Pilumnus ‘, whose name evokes ‘pilum ‘ ( ‘spear ‘). Iris ‘ speech to Turnus, inciting him to attack the camp, is followed by her ‘arrowlike ‘ flight ( ‘secuit ... arcum ‘) back to heaven, which causes the sky to part asunder and reveal the courses of the stars in the firmament. The miraculous event is encapsulated in the antonomastic reference to Iris as ‘Thaumantias ‘ (< 0avµa,w) and provokes Turnus ‘ ‘marvelling ‘. The true aim of this ‘miraculous ‘ event is to deceive Turnus [ooAos] into believing that he can capture the Trojan camp (compare 2. 3 I ff.). Turnus ‘ ‘loading ‘ ( ‘onerauit ‘) of the sky with vows is a metaphor from ‘piling up offerings ‘ [owpov]; ‘onero ‘ in this sense is normally accompanied by ‘dona ‘.1
Introduction
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Ancient Sparta: a militaristic and totalitarian state, holding down an enslaved population, the helots, by terror and violence, educating its young by a system incorporating all the worst features of the traditional English public school, and deliberately turning its back on the intellectual and artistic life of the rest of Greece. Such, at least, is the picture, if any, which mention of the name consciously or unconsciously conjures up in the minds of most people in this country today. The liberal democratic tradition that dominates modern English thought has very naturally tended to idealize Sparta’s great rival, democratic Athens; and its consequent distrust of Sparta was reinforced by reaction against a very different set of political ideas, particularly prominent in Germany, where admiration for Sparta reached a fantastic conclusion under the Nazis; to some writers, at that time, Sparta was the most purely Nordic state in Greece, and an exemplar of National Socialist virtues.
Laconism in the West
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Our picture of fourth-century laconism has concentrated heavily and inevitably on Athens. But there is an outlying part of the Greek world where there were meanwhile interesting developments probably not without influence on later Greek thought the Italian and Sicilian colonies.
Laconism Exported
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

It is time to look beyond the confines of the Greek world. The first country to arrest our attention is Egypt, the history of whose supposed connections with Sparta forms a pretty climax. Herodotus points out one or two features-respect for age, the hereditary nature of certain callings-common to Sparta and that country that appeared so remarkable to the Greeks. Later we find Isocrates declaring that the Lacedaemonians have copied from Egypt their common meals, physical training, exclusive dedication to arms, restriction on travel, and supreme devotion to the state; in this not very serious panegyric of Egypt he even claims to find the copy inferior to the model. Next Ephorus explicitly states that Lycurgus paid her a visit (as Solon had genuinely done) ; while at the end of the fourth century Hecataeus of Abdera, in a philosophic romance about Egypt, pretended that this visit like those of other famous Greeks was attested by the priestly documents there.
The Middle Ages
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

It was inevitable that, given her place in Jewish apologetic literature and the Graeco-Roman ethical and rhetorical tradition, Sparta should occasionally attract the attention of the Fathers of the Church. During the great age of debate, when some Christians, in self-defence, were ready to assimilate a part of pagan culture, we find Tertullian describing Christian heroism as outdoing all precedents, including the Lacedaemonian endurance of fiagellatio, and urging on the martyrs with the same examples. Here the famous and then still existing festival at Lacedaemon forms his climax: how slight such torments must be to those who will gain a divine reward, if they are so bravely borne for the sake of mere human glory !1 The Christian writers of Alexandria, that centre of Greek scholarship and hellenizing Judaism, show their double ancestry clearly. St. Clement, accepting what is as we saw a Jewish thesis, like many others after him, not only supposes that Plato was following Moses in blaming Minos’ and Lycurgus’ concentration on physical courage, but also assumes that Moses was himself the archetype of all the Greek lawgivers. Clement regarded exempla as vital (for which reason he even approves of the Lacedaemonian way of teaching their children temperance by making their helots drunk).
In Utopia and Among the Savages
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

No one today would think of taking Agesilaus as a model, either for himself or for his rulers. And ideas of constitutional government and its safeguards have been profoundly modified since the days of clamour for the mixed state or for the ephorate. But when we discuss rival patterns for society as a whole, we still find we have not quite forgotten Sparta; and the modern reader, who tends to be better acquainted with Plato than with Plutarch or Polybius, may find more interest in a brief consideration of Sparta’s part in the Utopian tradition.
Spartans on the Stage
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

When we turn from political theory to the arts we are reminded again how specialized was the interest that Sparta aroused. Hardly more than in antiquity do scenes from Spartan history make their way into the Renaissance or Baroque repertoire of the visual arts. And it is a commentary on Sparta’s generally disappointing role in imaginative literature that the only poetic references at all generally familiar, in this country at least, are those of Shakespeare’s Theseus, who describes his hounds (where the implications of the adjective seem curiously ambiguous, or even sinister, for an age that was only occasionally less than enthusiastic in its response to the idea of Sparta).
France in the Eighteenth Century (II)
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

So much, then, for the arch-priest of laconism. But variations in the doctrine were made by other believers. Helvetius published his taking to extreme lengths the belief in intellectual equality, and in the power of education, based upon it; and he linked this with the pleasure/pain principle of motivation that was to be so abhorrent to Mably. He is a complete utilitarian. If private interest alone moves man to action, virtuous action can only be what benefits the largest number of people-what is, in short, in the public interest.
Italy in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

V1co and the theatre between them earn Italy a chapter to herself here, even if a short one. As so often in more important matters, Vico’s attitude to Athens and Sparta is remarkably original and pregnant for the future, though it also bears some resemblance to much enlightened thought of the early eighteenth century. In the Scienza Nuova he relegates Sparta firmly to a primitive stage in human progress.
Sparta in Germany
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

For all the mass of works dealing with German thought and German writers in their relation to die Antike, there seems to be no special study of the German attitude to Sparta -perhaps because the Spartans are here so often concealed under the more general rubric of Dorians, or even of Greeks. But the story is of some interest. It could only be properly told by someone very familiar with the intellectual history of Germany during the past two centuries; but the following pages may provide a basis for further investigation.
England: From the Whigs to the Liberals
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

In the early eighteenth century the dominant political belief of first the Whigs and then the Tories too was that of the sublime wisdom of the constitution of 1688. From Liberty as enshrined therein every blessing flowed-virtue, prosperity, excellence in the arts and sciences. Like Romans and Venetians before them, the English considered their version superior to all its prototypes sometimes because of the fully equal share of the king, sometimes because, with representation and limited suffrage, the democratic element was not really democratic at all. The enormous literature in prose and verse celebrating English liberty does however often continue to consider English history and origins; while, as Voltaire observed, the English of the Augustan age liked to see themselves in Roman dress (though many people at this time believed antiquity had nothing really to teach the present age). But for a time Spartan precedents are rarely and briefly recorded. King Theopompus, incidentally, owing to the new stress on the king’s share in the constitution, can turn up in a surprising context. In 1719 Steele, opposing the Peerage Bill that threatened to deprive the king of the power to create new peers, was one of those who argued that this would destroy the famous equilibrium in favour of aristocracy, and he points out that Theopompus, gracious and moderate as he was, made a disastrous mistake in giving power to the ephors. ‘This unwary step prov’d fatal both to the Crown and the People, and ended in the ruin of the Constitution.’