Life satisfaction around the world: Measurement invariance of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups
Authors: Swami Viren , Stieger Stefan , Voracek Martin , Aavik Toivo , Abdollahpour Ranjbar Hamed , Adebayo Sulaiman Olanrewaju , Afhami Reza , Ahmed Oli , Aimé Annie , Akel Marwan , Al Halbusi Hussam , Alexias George , Ali Khawla F. , Alp-Dal Nursel , Alsalhani Anas B. , Álvarez-Solas Sara , Amaral Ana Carolina Soares , Andrianto Sonny , Aspden Trefor , Argyrides Marios , Aruta John Jamir Benzon R. , Atkin Stephen , Ayandele Olusola , Baceviciene Migle , Bahbouh Radvan , Ballesio Andrea , Barron David , Bellard Ashleigh , Bender Sóley Sesselja , Beydaǧ Kerime Derya , Birovljević Gorana , Blackburn Marie-Ève , Borja-Alvarez Teresita , Borowiec Joanna , Bozogáňová Miroslava , Bratland-Sanda Solfrid , Browning Matthew H. E. M. , Brytek-Matera Anna , Burakova Marina , Çakır-Koçak Yeliz , Camacho Pablo , Camilleri Vittorio Emanuele , Cazzato Valentina , Cerea Silvia , Chaiwutikornwanich Apitchaya , Chaleeraktrakoon Trawin , Chambers Tim , Chen Qing-Wei , Chen Xin , Chien Chin-Lung , Chobthamkit Phatthanakit , Choompunuch Bovornpot , Compte Emilio J. , Corrigan Jennifer , Cosmas Getrude , Cowden Richard G. , Czepczor-Bernat Kamila , Czub Marcin , da Silva Wanderson Roberto , Dadfar Mahboubeh , Dalley Simon E. , Dany Lionel , Datu Jesus Alfonso D. , de Carvalho Pedro Henrique Berbert , Coelho Gabriel Lins de Holanda , De Jesus Avila Odia S. , Debbabi Sonia Harzallah , Dhakal Sandesh , Di Bernardo Francesca , Dimitrova Donka D. , Dion Jacinthe , Dixson Barnaby , Donofrio Stacey M. , Drysch Marius , Du Hongfei , Dzhambov Angel M. , El-Jor Claire , Enea Violeta , Eskin Mehmet , Farbod Farinaz , Farrugia Lorleen , Fian Leonie , Fisher Maryanne L. , Folwarczny Michał , Frederick David A. , Fuller-Tyszkiewicz Matthew , Furnham Adrian , García Antonio Alías , Geller Shulamit , Ghisi Marta , Ghorbani Alireza , Gomez Martinez Maria Angeles , Gradidge Sarah , Graf Sylvie , Grano Caterina , Gyene Gyöngyvér , Hallit Souheil , Hamdan Motasem , Handelzalts Jonathan E. , Hanel Paul H. P. , Hawks Steven R. , Hekmati Issa , Helmy Mai , Hill Tetiana , Hina Farah , Holenweger Geraldine , Hřebíčková Martina , Ijabadeniyi Olasupo Augustine , Imam Asma , İnce Başak , Irrazabal Natalia , Jankauskiene Rasa , Jiang Ding-Yu , Jiménez-Borja Micaela , Jiménez-Borja Verónica , Johnson Evan M. , Jovanović Veljko , Jović Marija , Jović Marko , Junqueira Alessandra Costa Pereira , Kahle Lisa-Marie , Kantanista Adam , Karakiraz Ahmet , Karkin Ayşe Nur , Kasten Erich , Khatib Salam , Khieowan Nuannut , Kimong Patricia Joseph , Kiropoulos Litza , Knittel Joshua , Kohli Neena , Koprivnik Mirjam , Kospakov Aituar , Król-Zielińska Magdalena , Krug Isabel , Kuan Garry , Kueh Yee Cheng , Kujan Omar , Kukić Miljana , Kumar Sanjay , Kumar Vipul , Lamba Nishtha , Lauri Mary Anne , Laus Maria Fernanda , LeBlanc Liza April , Lee Hyejoo J. , Lipowska Małgorzata , Lipowski Mariusz , Lombardo Caterina , Lukács Andrea , Maïano Christophe , Malik Sadia , Manjary Mandar , Márquez Baldó Lidia , Martinez-Banfi Martha , Massar Karlijn , Matera Camilla , McAnirlin Olivia , Mebarak Moisés Roberto , Mechri Anwar , Meireles Juliana Fernandes Filgueiras , Mesko Norbert , Mills Jacqueline , Miyairi Maya , Modi Ritu , Modrzejewska Adriana , Modrzejewska Justyna , Mulgrew Kate E. , Myers Taryn A. , Namatame Hikari , Nassani Mohammad Zakaria , Nerini Amanda , Neto Félix , Neto Joana , Neves Angela Nogueira , Ng Siu-Kuen , Nithiya Devi , O Jiaqing , Obeid Sahar , Oda-Montecinos Camila , Olapegba Peter Olamakinde , Olonisakin Tosin Tunrayo , Omar Salma Samir , Örlygsdóttir Brynja , Özsoy Emrah , Otterbring Tobias , Pahl Sabine , Panasiti Maria Serena , Park Yonguk , Patwary Muhammad Mainuddin , Pethö Tatiana , Petrova Nadezhda , Pietschnig Jakob , Pourmahmoud Sadaf , Prabhu Vishnunarayan Girishan , Poštuvan Vita , Prokop Pavol , Ramseyer Winter Virginia L. , Razmus Magdalena , Ru Taotao , Rupar Mirjana , Sahlan Reza N. , Salah Hassan Mohammad , Šalov Anđela , Sapkota Saphal , Sarfo Jacob Owusu , Sawamiya Yoko , Schaefer Katrin , Schulte-Mecklenbeck Michael , Seekis Veya , Selvi Kerim , Sharifi Mehdi , Shrivastava Anita , Siddique Rumana Ferdousi , Sigurdsson Valdimar , Silkane Vineta , Šimunić Ana , Singh Govind , Slezáčková Alena , Sundgot-Borgen Christine , Ten Hoor Gill , Tevichapong Passagorn , Tipandjan Arun , Todd Jennifer , Togas Constantinos , Tonini Fernando , Tovar-Castro Juan Camilo , Trangsrud Lise Katrine Jepsen , Tripathi Pankaj , Tudorel Otilia , Tylka Tracy L. , Uyzbayeva Anar , Vally Zahir , Vanags Edmunds , Vega Luis Diego , Vicente-Arruebarrena Aitor , Vidal-Mollón Jose , Vilar Roosevelt , Villegas Hyxia , Vintilă Mona , Wallner Christoph , White Mathew P. , Whitebridge Simon , Windhager Sonja , Wong Kah Yan , Yau Eric Kenson , Yamamiya Yuko , Yeung Victoria Wai Lan , Zanetti Marcelo Callegari , Zawisza Magdalena , Zeeni Nadine , Zvaríková Martina , Tran Ulrich S. 
Published: January 2025

The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) is a widely used self-report measure of subjective well-being, but studies of its measurement invariance across a large number of nations remain limited. Here, we utilised the Body Image in Nature (BINS) dataset–with data collected between 2020 and 2022 –to assess measurement invariance of the SWLS across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups (N = 56,968). All participants completed the SWLS under largely uniform conditions. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis indicated that configural and metric invariance was upheld across all nations, languages, gender identities, and age groups, suggesting that the unidimensional SWLS model has universal applicability. Full scalar invariance was achieved across gender identities and age groups. Based on alignment optimisation methods, partial scalar invariance was achieved across all but three national groups and across all languages represented in the BINS. There were large differences in latent SWLS means across nations and languages, but negligible-to-small differences across gender identities and age groups. Across nations, greater life satisfaction was significantly associated with greater financial security and being in a committed relationship or married. The results of this study suggest that the SWLS largely assesses a common unidimensional construct of life satisfaction irrespective of respondent characteristics (i.e., national group, gender identities, and age group) or survey presentation (i.e., survey language). This has important implications for the assessment of life satisfaction across nations and provides information that will be useful for practitioners aiming to promote subjective well-being internationally.