bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Other categories
Authors: Nurse Derek
Published: November 2023

As mentioned in the opening section of the book, although the original intent was to present solely tense and aspect, that would have meant ignoring other important features and categories which form a fundamental part of the Bantu verbal word. Readers unfamiliar with tense and aspect in Bantu were likely to be equally unfamiliar with these other features, some of which have been of recent interest to general linguists. Consequently, this chapter has an overview of three of these features, negation, focus, and pronominal object marking. While other authors had examined some of these— particularly negation—their results were widely scattered and not easily accessible.
Trojan Past and Present
Authors: Erskine Andrew
Published: November 2023

fany Greek cities absorbed the Tnojan myth into their own trad­itions; they may have claimed Trojan descent or a Trojan founder; they may have had a cult of a Trcojan hero or other ties with the mythical city. Often these are obscure cities which left little or no artistic or literary record, virtua1ly ignored by historians such as Herodotos, Polybios, and Livy, salvaged only by the comprehensive scrutiny of a geographer such as Strabo or a travel writer such as Pausanias. Then there are the many Greeks who gave their children the names of Trojan heroes. All this combines to produce a world in which Tnojans are by no means anathema. It is not, hmvever, monolithic and uniform, but full of variety as different cities approach the Trojan past in different ways. Some areas such as the ‘froad itself seem to have valued it particularly highly. Nonetheless, it is not the Troad that opens the present Chapter’s exploration of these numerous local traditions but rather the northern city of Aineia. This city is especially illuminating both because it provides the earliest evidence for the celebration of a Trcojan past and because it helps to highlight the problems of approach.
The Nude Portrait in Greek Art
Authors: Hallett Christopher H
Published: November 2023

The best evidence for the development of ‘portrait costumes’ in Greek art is found in funerary monuments, in the large corpus of Attic grave stelai of the fourth century BC. Here we find Athenian men, identiﬁed by name, depicted in three distinct guises: wearing the himation (the Greek civic cloak); in military uniform and carrying weapons; or shown naked with athletic equipment. All three kinds of representation had been appearing on Greek grave stelai from at least as far back as the late Archaic period, and it has been remarked that these ‘seem to present archetypes for the three ages of Archaic man’: young naked athlete, represented with strigil or aryballos(oil flask); mature bearded warrior, wearing hoplite armour; and senior citizen clad in a himation, shown with his dog, and leaning on a stick. The grave stelai of the fourth century BC continue this tradition. The individuals represented now no longer appear as isolated ﬁgures, however, but are combined into family groups—with a kind of self-consciousness as to their contrasted appearance which justifies the use of the term ‘costumes’.
Mindless Sensationalism: A Quantum Framework for Consciousness
Authors: Page Donn.
Published: November 2023

I write as a physicist, with the knowledge that many physicists are studying the mathematical structure of our physical universe and hope to be able to find a ‘theory of everything’, or TOE, that will give a complete set of dynamical laws for this structure. This would essentially give the rules for how all the physical quantities in the universe evolve. Such a TOE would not by itself give the boundary conditions also necessary to determine the history of the universe, so it is a misnomer to say that it is a ‘theory of everything’, but it is convenient to retain the acronym TOE for this dynamical part of the laws of physics. Some physicists, such as Hartle and Hawking (1983), are also seeking to find rules specifying the boundary conditions (BC) of the universe. The combination of the TOE and the BC would then give a complete description of the mathematics of the state of the universe and its evolution.
Moments of Creation: The Religious Embodiment of Women Prophets and Divine Innovators
Authors: Little Wood Roland
Published: November 2023

To continue the story of Mother Earth: While, at the time, the temporary return of the son back into his mother during an actual childbirth had seemed just an unhappy fortuity, not uncharacteristic of what might be expected from the social (snobbish, ‘correct’) midwives, it remained a frightening experience on which Jeanette continually brooded. Not until her visions a decade later did she begin to realize that this event had been a prefiguring of a cosmic and universal truth: that the Mother’s Son, indeed all men, try to return into a woman’s womb, to destroy her natural fertility and then emulate it as Science. And that it is respectable local women such as nurses who are particularly enlisted in his endeavours.
Naturalistic and Personalistic Models of Thought
Authors: wood Roland
Published: November 2023

The human sources of religious experience and belief have been debated since the eighteenth century. To what extent may cosmologies and moral order be derived from—or modelled on—natural phenomena? May we argue that they originate in our experience of the physical world, whether through phenomenological apperception of that world—or else directly through psychophysiology? I am concerned here not with the extent to which religious cosmologies inevitably reproduce certain naturally given psychological capacities-the recent work of Scott Atran and Pascal Boyer—but with the extent to which these constraints themselves are derived from natural models.
Everyday Life in 1969
Authors: Layton Robert
Published: November 2023

Pellaport is situated on the Plateau of Levier, some kilometres west of Pontarlier. The Plateau of Levier falls within the lowest, or colline zone, of Alpine environments with an altitude ranging between 500 and 1,000 metres (Viazzo 1989: 17). East of Pontarlier rise the mountains which form the Swiss border. To the west the land descends in a series of lime stone plateaux, separated by escarpments. Each plateau is dissected by dry valleys known as combes. The Plateau of Levier is close to two ancient roads which lead from Switzerland into France, one running east from Pontarlier through Levier to Dijon, the other heading north-east towards Besan çon via Ornans (Fig. 1.1). John Berger’s novel Pig Earth is set in the same general region.
Habitus and the Quality of Community Life
Authors: Layton Robert
Published: November 2023

Chapter 4 assesses the usefulness of Bourdieu’s concept of habitus for the analysis of interpersonal relations and the rituals of daily life in Pellaport. Bourdieu introduced the concept of habitus to explain the connection between cognition and action. Habitus is similar to Giddens’s concept of practical consciousness, that is, knowledge of the rules and tactics which constantly regenerate daily social routines. Bourdieu illustrates the way in which cognitive structures in the Kabyle habitus generate an indefinite number of new symbolic equations, which none the less follow an existing ‘logic’
On Generation and Corruption I. 8
Authors: Hussey Edward
Published: November 2023

As usual, Aristotle first sets out then critically discusses the opinions of his predecessors. The division between the two stages is marked by the formulaic sentence at 325b12-13.
Introduction
Authors: Merchant Jason
Published: November 2023

The primary goal of contemporary theoretical linguistics is to develop a theory of the correspondence between sound (or gesture) and meaning. Nowhere does this sound-meaning correspondence break down more spectacularly than in the case of ellipsis. And yet various forms of ellipsis are pervasive in natural language—words and phrases that by rights should be in the linguistic signal go missing. How is this possible? It is possible because ellipsis is parasitic on redundancy: to paraphrase Wittgenstein, ‘wovon man nicht sprechen muß, darüber kann man schweigen’. Elliptical processes capitalize on the redundancy of certain kinds of information in certain contexts, and permit an economy of expression by omitting the linguistic structures that would otherwise be required to express this information.
Identity in Ellipsis: Focus and Isomorphism
Authors: Merchant Jason
Published: November 2023

Despite the stated primary goal of this book to investigate sluicing, any discussion of the general conditions on ellipsis must begin with the best investigated case, VP-ellipsis in English. I therefore start with this case, describing the general results in this area, and then move on to see how these results apply to sluicing, returning only briefly to VP-ellipsis.

Since Tancredi (1992) and Rooth (1992), it has been known that the problem of defining the conditions under which VPs can be elided in English is related to (these authors claim that it forms a subpart of) the problem of defining the conditions under which English VPs can be deaccented, or phonologically reduced. Both problems seem intimately related to general conditions governing the distribution of focus, and several authors have sought to define the appropriate focus conditions for regulating both deaccenting and ellipsis phenomena. While this unification is not entirely uncontroversial (see Winkler 1997 and Lopez 2000 for dissenting views), the intuitions upon which it is founded are quite robust, and it seems like a promising strategy to explore the connections between the two. Nonetheless, as we will see, identifying the conditions under which a VP can be deaccented (treated as given, in the technical sense defined below) does not answer all the questions about the conditions under which a VP can be omitted-ellipsis of a VP has always been taken to be subject to an additional, usually structural constraint as well.
Perceiving Intentions
Authors: Proust Joëlle
Published: November 2023

Among the many issues raised as part of the ‘other minds’ problem is the discovery of the ways which justify inferring from public behaviour the existence of mental predicates in others. How does one ‘go beyond’ physical moves, dynamical patterns of bodily segments, to interpret these as buying a ticket, throwing a ball to a dog, expressing joy? A traditional theory suggests that understanding others presupposes understanding oneself. If a subject enjoys access to her own inner states while she acts, she may be able to use analogical reasoning to attribute to others intentions, beliefs, and desires corresponding to her own (Armstrong, 1968).
Basil of Caesarea on the Semantics of Proper Names
Authors: KALLIGAS PAUL
Published: November 2023

Philosophical literature in both late antiquity and early Byzantine times usually relies heavily on the tradition of which it forms part. This has sometimes been taken as a mark of lack in originality or even in proper philosophical insight, but it also has created the impression that the contribution made by some of the eminent figures of the period is either dauntingly obscure or hopelessly scholastic. However, not infrequently, the disparaging assessment of these philosophers is due to a misunderstanding of both their particular theoretical aims, and their perception concerning their own role as adherents of a given philosophical tradition. The fact that our knowledge of the developments in the history of philosophy during the vast period between Aristotle and Plotinus is based on evidence which is at best second-rate and at worst distressingly fragmentary deprives us of any real hope of realizing fully the complexities of the theoretical environment within which such thinkers found themselves embedded. Sometimes we get a glimpse of a seemingly arid landscape, ransacked by the intense crossfire of disputation between the various schools during the Hellenistic period, but we are rarely capable of discerning accurately the positions entrenched in it and figuring out the communication and supply lines which used to hold them together into often intricate and meticulously articulated theoretical systems.
Syllogistic in the anon Heiberg
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The anon Heiberg is a short text in five parts or Chapters: Logic, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, Astronomy. The parts are of unequal size, the first being by far the longest. The edition prepared by Heiberg and published posthumously in 1929 is based on seven MSS, the earliest of which is dated to 1040. Heiberg describes a further fifteen MSS. I do not know if any more have since been discovered.
1917
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

It was only to be expected that after two years of war and sacrfice, with no apparent result, Russians would be beginning to ask themselves whether their country was being properly led. This question had been asked by men of knowledge or influence ever since the war started, but during 1916 lack of confidence in the government spread to the people as a whole. ‘That German woman’, the Empress, was suspected of sympathy towards the enemy, and when it was realized that she was, in effect, at the helm in Petrograd while her husband was at GHQ, popular alarm grew.
Stalinism in action
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

Historians differ as to whether the 1930s constituted the final stage of the Russian Revolution, or whether this was a revolution in itself, or even the ‘real’ revolution. Few Soviet citizens had the time or inclination to ponder this question; they were in the thick of things, involved in an industrialization drive that brought hardship for most and tragedy for many.
Decrepitude
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

The communist party could justify itself as organizer, planner, and ultimate authority at a time when scarce resources had to be rigorously allocated to the most necessary sectors of the economy. With Sputnik and other projects it had demonstrated what it could do as organizer and inspirer. But the world was changing, and traditional party officialdom risked being seen as unnecessary, if not actually harmful, in a world where the spontaneity and diversity that come from absence of imposed control seemed to bring good rewards. Under Brezhnev, the party would encounter such problems of modernity without, however, always recognizing them.
Transformation
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

When Mikhail Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990, Soviet citizens made cynical observations about his greater popularity abroad than at home. But the honour was deserved, even though when he resigned in 1991 the USSR would be in ruins and its people, though free, would be facing an uncertain future. He seemed destined to take his place in history alongside other great transformers. Things did not turn out the way he had hoped, but he switched Russia onto a different and more promising track.
Introduction. The Republic of Letters and Enlightenment
Authors: Brockliss L V B
Published: November 2023

IN THE THREE centuries that preceded the Enlightenment, the establishment world-view which dominated intellectual life can be most conveniently de- scribed as Augustinian. The dominant intellectual force in Europe remained the Church, and the Church, as it had been for a thousand years, was still in the thrall of a particular concept of Christianity associated with Augustine of Hippo. Put simply, it was believed that human nature had been irredeemably destroyed with Adam’s Fall. Not only could mankind no longer perform actions pleasing to God without particular divine assistance or grace, but humanity was henceforth adrift in a merciless natural world over which we had little control. The theological controversies of the Reformation era only gave Augustinianism a new lease of life, for both sides of the debate, Catholic and Protestant, shared a common belief in human corruption and nothing- ness: they argued over the finer points of salvation-theology, not anthropology. In the course of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, however, a small, but growing number of artists and intellectuals broke free from the Augustinian maw.
The Bibliophile
Authors: Brockliss L V B
Published: November 2023

Calvet’s library was housed in a room on the second floor of his house, probably directly above the salon where he kept his finest antiquities (Fig. 1.3). Normally, members of the Republic of Letters had their library adjacent to or within their study, so Calvet’s arrangement was not ideal, especially as he grew older and became less and less mobile. In the final years of his life he must have been largely dependent on his servant, The ‘re’se, to fetch and carry his books. It can only be assumed that the arrangement was forced upon him by the relatively cramped dimensions of his town house. At one time, shortage of space may even have led him to keep a part of the library in the attic, for in a letter to Se ‘ guier, written in 1768, Calvet revealed that a number of his books had been spoilt by rain entering through the roof. According to the inventory taken on Calvet’s death, the library was decorated with two mirrors and a number of nondescript religious paintings and seascapes, while the floor was cluttered with ten armchairs and two small tables, one in bad condition. The manner in which Calvet displayed his books remains unknown. Although the inventory went on to list his books in detail, they were not catalogued in the order they were found on the shelves. Rather, they were first taken out of the book-cases and sorted according to their size. The inventory then began with the folio volumes, proceeded to the quartos, and concluded with the smaller formats. Calvet’s personal catalogue of his library is no more informative.
Theatres of the Air
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

Ian McIntyre ‘s run-ins with Current Affairs dominated public discussion of Radio Four between 1976 and 1978—as would Monica Sims ‘s struggles to help it survive in the face of even more radical plans unveiled over the next four years. Yet behind the politicking the essential work of broadcasting went on, and a different layer of historical change was at work. This moved more slowly and less sensationally, and took place not in the Controller ‘s office or the Boardroom but in the studios and offices of ordinary producers where the ‘supply ‘ departments ruled.
Introduction: Making ‘British-Indians’: Children, Family Traditions of Indian Service, and Cycles of Migration
Authors: Buettner Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

When Rudyard Kipling wrote ‘The Exiles’ Line’ in1890, he shed light on many of the defining features of the British community in late imperial India. To begin with, ‘The Exiles’ Line’ literally referred to the steamships run by the P. & 0. and other companies that not only took Britons to India but also allowed those participating in the work of empire periodically to go home. Between visits to the metropole Britons living in India became ‘exiles’, separated from their national homeland, friends, and many family members. Many, but certainly not all: as Kipling’s poem insists, British men making their careers in India were often accompanied by their wives and children (Illustration r). Over time, India became a family concern as children followed in their parents’ imperial footsteps. ‘Exile’, then, formed part of family lineage ‘from sire to son’ and involved permanent impermanence-repeated comings and goings-between metropole and colony, between ‘home’ and ‘away’.
Danger and Pleasure at the Bungalow: British Children at Home in India
Authors: Buettner Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

With the publication of The Secret Garden in 1911, Frances Hodgson Burnett provided one of the most enduring images of lndia’s impact on British children in popular culture. The novel’s heroine, 10-year-old Mary Lennox, arrived in England after early years in the empire had left their mark on both her body and her character: When Mary Lennox was sent to Misselthwaite Manor to live with her uncle, everybody said she was the most disagreeable-looking child ever seen ... She had a little thin face and a little thin body, thin light hair and a sour expression. Her hair was yellow, and her face was yellow because she had been born in India and had always been ill in one way or another ... her mother had been a great beauty who cared only to go to parties and amuse herself with gay people.
Britain 1714–1815
Authors: Sweet Rosemary
Published: November 2023

Black, Jeremy. ‘Britain 1800’, History Today50:11 (2000), 29–37.Cervantes, Xavier. L’Angleterre au XVIIIe siècle (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 1998), 171p.Douglas, Hugh. The private passions of Bonnie Prince Charlie , revised edn. (Stroud: Sutton, 1998), xv, 316p. [1st published 1995.]Dziembowski, Edmond. ‘La France et la Grande-Bretagne pendant les années 1750: aux portes d’une nouvelle modernité’ [France and Britain in the 1750s: on the eve of a new modernity], Franco-British Studies 28 (1999), 67–86.Mason, H. ‘Voltaire and Sir Everard Fawkener’, British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 23:1 (2000), 1–12.Rak, J. ‘The improving eye: eighteenth-century picturesque travel and agricultural change in the Scottish highlands’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture27 (1998), 343–64.
Empire And Commonwealth Post 1783
Authors: Eldridge C C
Published: November 2023

Ambler, Charles H. ‘East Africa: metropolitan Action and local initiative’ [Historiography], A214, 500–12.Austen, Ralph A.; Derrick, Jonathan. Middlemen of the Cameroons rivers: the Duala and their hinterland, c.1600–c.1900 (African Studies Series, 96) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), xii, 252p.Bayly, Christopher Alan. ‘Ireland, India and the Empire, 1780–1914’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th ser. 10 (2000), 377–98. 6041. Bridges, Roy C. (ed.) Imperialism, decolonization and Africa: studies presented to John Hargreaves: with an academic memoir and bibliography (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan and St Martin’s Press, 2000), xv, 213p.Chakravarti, Uma. Rewriting history: the life and times of Pandita Ramabai (New Delhi: Kali for Women in association with the Book Review Literary Trust, 1998), xiii, 370p.
‘A bow-legged boy running with a chest of tea between his legs’: Reports, Experiments, and Hallucinations, 1894-1912
Authors: Mills James H
Published: November 2023

When the IHDC released its report nobody was interested in it. For those MPs that had shown little concern over the drugs issues of 1893 it was enough that the government had appointed the IHDC and the Opium Commission and that they had reported un disturbing conclusions. For them the matter was closed. For the drugs campaigners the findings of the Opium Commission had been a great disappointment and a source of controversy. The wrangling about its conclusions and about its operations continued to rumble on but it succeeded in dividing campaigners into those that accepted its findings and those that refused to do so. Joshua Rowntree for example wrote a pamphlet denouncing it and he hastily tried to rally the campaigners by assembling the Representative Board of Anti-Opium Societies in 1894. However, the rift within the campaigners’ ranks was open and indeed one of the anti-opium lobby’s appointments to the Commission actually signed the opium report. This was especially significant as he was Arthur Pease, the brother of Sir Joseph Pease, whose 1891 motion in Parliament had sparked off the House of Commons campaign for a Com- mission in the first place. Arthur was forced to resign from the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade.
Introduction
Authors: Tookey Helen
Published: November 2023

In Virginia Woolf Icon (1999), Brenda Silver explores the proliferating and conflicting versions and cultural images of Virginia Woolf-the ways in which Woolf has come to function as icon, as sign. Silver shows how the various images of Woolfs face, in particular, become a kind of visual shorthand for the multiple meanings of ‘Virginia Woolf circulating in contemporary British and American culture’: intellectual, asexual woman/vulnerable beauty/high-cultural snob/feminist pioneer/ frightening madwoman/suicide.
‘As Fluid as Mercury’: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and Questions of Identity
Authors: Tookey Helen
Published: November 2023

In April 1932, Nin began her first analysis with Rene Allendy after being introduced by her cousin to the writings of Freud and Jung. In September that year, she wrote to Henry Miller: ‘I have not decided yet whether analysis simplifies and undramatizes our existence, or whether it is the most subtle, the most insidious, the most magnificent way of making dramas more terrible, more maddening ... psychoanalysis, when grasped by the artist, becomes another device by which to create chaos.’ One on level, we can see here another manifestation of the tension I located, in the previous chapter, within Nin’s autobiographical practice: the pull towards ‘wholeness’ or unity of identity, and simultaneously the recognition-even the celebration-of its impossibility.
‘I am the Other Face of You’: Fantasies and Femininity
Authors: Tookey Helen
Published: November 2023

In House of Incest, Nin’s first published work of fiction and the text which she saw as containing the seeds of all her later writing, we find the image of two women become one, ‘soldered together’ in a fantasy of identification: ‘For an hour you will be me; that is, the other half of yourself. The half you lost’ (185). Sabina and the narrator are two faces of the same woman, revolving like day and night, like a planet-’the “two-faced berm” that makes beauty and death one’:1 Our faces are soldered together by soft hair, soldered together, showing two profiles of the same soul... Only our faces must shine twofold-like day and night— always separated by space and the evolutions of time.
Prefatory Note
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

The first part of the book is chronological, and considers poets Augustan, Romantic, and Victorian: Dryden and Pope, Burns, Wordsworth, Byron, Keats, and Tennyson. All are seen under the aegis of the poet as heir. Allusion is one form that inheritance may take, even while inheritance takes diverse forms in different ages and for individual genius.
Wordsworth
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

What, for Wordsworth, is the central or essential inheritance? And how might this validate the inheritance that is allusion?
Keats
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

Keats alludes to mythology, history, topical circumstance, and so on, but the present focus is on the calling into play of the words or phrases of a previous writer. An allusion predicates a source (no coincidence), but identifying a source is not the same as postulating an allusion, for a source is not necessarily called into play by its beneficiary. What goes to the making of a poem does not necessarily go to its meaning. Sometimes readers will disagree as to whether a line of Keats had its source in, say, Hamlet; sometimes, readers may agree that such was a source but disagree as to whether he was alluding; and often readers will disagree as to just what they should make of what Keats made of that which he alluded to. This, not because in criticism anything goes, but because much goes.
Loneliness and Poetry
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

Set aside, at once, the loneliness of the writer, about which Geoffrey Hill is compassionate and dispassionate. Ample, rather too ample, testimony of this has been heard, often from authors not without self-serving self-pity. This has its comic side, as Henry James perfectly well knew when he plumped this cushion into orotund rotundity.
A.E. Housman and ‘the colour of his hair’
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

‘You know, you and I do not always agree’, Jonathan Swift wrote to his friend Charles Ford, 8 September 1711: ‘One thing is that I never expect Sincerity from any man; and am no more angry at the Breach of it, than at the colour of his Hair’.
Yvor Winters: Allusion and Pseudo-Reference
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

Thirty years ago, Robert Lowell passed a summary judgement on the critic who had died three years earlier and who had loved to execute summary justice: ‘Winters, a Humanist, our Malherbes, maybe wrote the clearest criticism … intuitive, authoritative, perverse’.1
David Ferry and the Shades of the Dead
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

Neo-Latin verses (Politian having been a professor at the University of Florence) are sometimes unjustly judged to be written in a deader than dead language. The destination of the present essay is a neo-Latin poem by Samuel Johnson that David Ferry rendered exquisitely as ‘The Lesson’; meanwhile, there are things to be remarked on the way there.
Bombay to Bloomsbury
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

The Stracheys were an exceptionally intelligent and unusual family, prominent in imperial administration, science, and feminism in the nineteenth century, and in the suffrage movement, women’s education, and the bringing of new approaches to sexuality in the twentieth century. The Strachey Family examines the lives of Lytton Strachey, a well-known member of the Bloomsbury set, his nine siblings, and his parents. Richard Strachey worked in India, marrying Jane, the daughter of the Indian Chief Justice, in 1859. A successful imperial couple, they were progressive, following the ideas of Auguste Comte and J. S. Mill, and the teachings of science. Their ten children were born over a period of 27 years and reflect the development and changes in a Victorian society moving to modernity. The richness of their letters provides a fascinating picture of a large, complex, and diverse family where attitudes to the family name, gender tensions, differing views on sexuality, ideas on modernity, and varying degrees of support for feminism all played a part. Dick Strachey, the eldest son, had an unsuccessful military career in India but a loving marriage, whereas Oliver announced to horrified parents that he wished to learn the piano and give music lessons, eventually finding success as a code-breaker in both world wars. Elinor, married to a man of wealth and position, devoted her life exclusively to family and social life, whilst Ralph, Chief Surveyor in India, married a woman who suffered emotional and nervous collapses and was unable to manage a family. Pippa, a full-time suffrage organizer and, in all but name, head of the family, combined the Victorian devoted single daughter with the twentieth century independent career woman, and James, a homosexual in adolescence, married Alix, one of the Bloomsbury cropheads who embraced sexual experimentation, psychoanalysis, and new patterns of domestic life. The remaining children, including Lytton, all had lives no less absorbing, and it is the examination of these lives, as well as relating the issues which they faced to wider society, which make Barbara Caine’s study so captivating and intriguing.
Single Life
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Marriage was by no means the universal pattern amongst the younger Stracheys. It was considerably less common than it had been in the families of their parents: only one of Jane Strachey’s siblings had been single, and none of Richard’s. By contrast, four of their ten children remained unmarried. In addition, Dorothy married when she was nearly 40, and hence was single for a significant part of her adult life. Jane Strachey would have dearly loved to see all her children married and Elinor and Lytton constantly kept an eye out for eligible young men for their sisters. Lytton too was under constant maternal pressure to find a spouse—which was a source of amusement to him and his friends.
Old Age and Death
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Although the history of old age is attracting an increasing amount of scholarly attention, the question of how precisely to define this stage of life remains a diffcult one. This is particularly so for a family like the Stracheys. Unlike other life stages, old age lacks clear or unequivocal markers. In some periods and for some groups, it is seen as commencing at a formal age of retirement or when one becomes entitled to a pension or specific welfare benefit—around 60 or 65 today. This is of little help in regard to a family to whom state provision was of little significance, and whose members often remained active long beyond the normal age of retirement.
ProtocadherinXY: A Candidate Gene for Cerebral Asymmetry and Language
Authors: Crow T J
Published: November 2023

‘Human language is an embarrassment for evolutionary theory’, perhaps, as Premack (1985: 283) suggested, ‘because it is vastly more powerful than one can account for in terms of selective fitness’, but also as Chomsky (1972) had pointed out, in language we have a faculty without clear precedent in other primates (see also Penner 2000). Bickerton (1995) has argued that language appeared suddenly and recently. Evidence, such as rock art, for a representational capacity that might parallel possession of language, can be traced back, with some difficulty, to around 90,000 years (Noble and Davidson 1996; Mellars 1998). Such capacity is absent in the archaeological record that relates to the Neanderthals (Mellars 1998), as also in the longer record that relates to Homo erectus (Bickerton 1995; Noble and Davidson 1996). While these hominid species are credited with protolanguage, the compon-ents of language (e.g. grammatical elements and structure, embedding and sub-categorization of verbs) characteristic of modern humans are assumed to have been absent. Thus the acquisition of the capacity for language represents a recent, and datable, discontinuity in hominid evolution. The parsimonious conclusion (because it links the distinctive characteristic of the species to its genetic origin) is that the origin of language coincided with the transition to modern Homo sapiens dated to somewhere between 100,000 and 150,000 years ago (Stringer and McKie 1996).
Language and Revolutionary Consciousness
Authors: Knight Chris
Published: November 2023

From the outset, ‘spirit’ is cursed with the ‘burden’ of matter, which appears in this case in the form of agitated layers of air, sounds, in short, of language. Language is as old as consciousness, language is practical consciousness, as it exists for other men, and thus as it really exists for myself as well. Language, like consciousness, only arises from the need, the necessity of intercourse with other men.
On the Evolution of Grammatical Forms
Authors: Heine Bernd , Kuteva Tania
Published: November 2023

A number of approaches are available to the linguist for studying earlier phases in the evolution of human language or languages. This chapter explores the potential for grammaticalization theory to throw light on language evolution. Grammaticalization theory relies on regularities in the evolution of linguistic forms, drawing on the unidirectionalityprinciple and its implications for the reconstruction of earlier language states (Traugott and Heine 1991; Heine, Claudi, and Hiinnemeyer 1991; Hopper and Traugott 1993). The main purpose of this chapter is to show that there are certain classes of grammatical forms that can be assumed to presuppose other grammatical forms in time. An attempt is made to reconstruct sequences of grammatical evolution with a view to establishing how language may have been structured at earlier stages of human evolution. While there are a number of interesting scenarios for how early human language may have been structured (e.g. Bickerton, this volume; Wray, this volume), it is hard to find con-vincing hypotheses for how functional categories evolved out of other items or structures that may have been used in early human communication.
Artifacts and Human Concepts
Authors: Thomasson Amie L
Published: November 2023

It is frequently observed that artifacts and other social and cultural objects are in some sense ‘creations of the mind’, depending in certain ways on human beliefs or activities. But in what sense are such objects and kinds dependent on human concepts and intentions? And what difference does this make to the place of such objects in our philosophical theories?
The Essence of Artifacts: Developing the Design Stance
Authors: Kelemen Deborah , Carey Susan
Published: November 2023

First some terminology: by ‘concept’, we simply mean a mental representation. We endorse a ‘two factor’ theory of conceptual content: concepts are individuated both by causal processes that relate mental symbols to their referents and also by internal inferential role. Philosophers sometimes treat these two factors as determining distinct kinds of content (wide and narrow), but we will not take a stance on this issue here. We assume that the meanings of terms in natural language are fixed in the same way, and thus we will sometimes speak of the meaning of a word such as ‘accordion’ and sometimes speak of the concept accordion.
Introduction
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

‘Governments come and go,’ an old Turkish farmer commented, ‘but the state is forever.’ A group of farmers was discussing what ‘the state’ actually was; metaphors and metonyms spilling out in an attempt to pin down definitions. Erzurum, a bleak, military city high on a barren plateau in eastern Anatolia, provided much of the source material. ‘Buildings’ such as the gated sugar factory compound or the blank-faced bureaucratic offices criss-crossing the city were suggested by one farmer as embodying the state. Another man proposed the state officials whom the farmers sometimes encountered in their villages collecting statistical information, sometimes behind desks handing out favours, demanding repayments on loans. Turkey itself was suggested, the essence and continuity of the land. At other times, farmers had thrown in notions of familial closeness through the idea of the state as father, or a sense of protection and direction through the state as shepherd.
Sugar
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

Sugar inhabits a number of realms: material, metonymic, and metaphoric, each meaning enfolding and being refracted through the others. The organic form is itself multiple and mutable, ‘sugar’ is not a single substance but a family of carbohydrates: fructose, galactose, lactose, and sucrose, and it is only this last, the most complex, that is commonly called sugar. Extremes of temperature cause sucrose to destabilize and fracture into simpler molecular forms. Each structure therefore holds within it the potential of the others; the potential to be built up or broken down, reformulated, and reassembled. Sucrose is latent in the agricultural products, beet or cane, and needs to be isolated and extracted through the industrial refining process in order to produce the ‘white gold’, as trade journals sometimes refer to it in lyrical mood. In a sense then, the form of sugar changes through the actions enacted upon it, although it maintains its essential characteristic of sweetness whatever the structural form in which it appears. The converse is also true; sugar changes the consuming body through organic incorporation. The change is effected materially, but also metonymically and metaphorically.
The State: The View from Elsewhere
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

Distance can be understood in two ways. For a farmer in Erzurum, the bureaucratic capital of Ankara is quite literally far away But it is not just the eighteen- hour bus journey that makes Ankara seem so remote; they also do things differently there. The people, they say are unlike them: harder, avaricious, tainted. Distance, as this chapter explores, is as much about different ways of categorizing and understanding the same thing, as it is about geographical reach. Just as the state classifies actions, responsibilities, and relationships in one narrative of order, so do farmers, officials, and workers place their own structure of understandings upon their lives. This chapter goes on to consider what happens when the same life is subject to different ordering narratives, and how attempts are made to domesticate the state, in Hann’s (1990) phrase, by reappropriating classificatory orders and so contesting the alienating effect of the modern state. Distance then, is also about non-recognition; coming home is the process of perceiving the knowable.
Village Brokering
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

It is one thing to be a state official in Ankara trying to secure a position, to make sense of one’s relationship to the state. It is quite another thing altogether to be a state official in the east, far, it seems, from the loci of power and influence, caught between the ordering modes of a half-spent centralizing ideology and local practice. But to be a farmer in the east is to grapple with sliding moments of interiority and exteriority in relation to the state, with a series of unconnected ordering narratives. Systems of meaning in villages coexist with central and local state constructions. Without a broker adept in making each system of meaning understandable to the others, the villagers risk being caught in the interstices rather than the intersections of networks of communications that might connect them to the state. Whatever the geographical location of a state official, at least he or she has an organizational line to Ankara and the central government establishment. How that line is used depends on the skill of each person to manipulate connections along the route, bypass institutional blocks, and summon patterns of likeness that reassure a potential patron. For most farmers there is no such line, only a series of local state institutions that stretches away into the distance and ends up in Ankara. In the Erzurum plateau, as with most rural areas, there are many organizations overlapping in function. The ViJlage Research service (K  öy Hizmetleri) provides agricultural advice and occasionally funds for village projects. The özel jdare also supplies money or equipment for such village enterprises as roads or clinic buildings.
The Secret History of Chemical Warfare Against Moroccans
Authors: Balfour Sebastian
Published: November 2023

For all the horrors of the First World War, the European powers still officially clung in the post-war period to what might seem to us today the antiquated notion that there were moral standards in warfare. In the codes of the time, the conduct of the belligerent parties was meant to be limited by the moral boundaries of Western civilization. Thus, for example, war was still regarded as an affair between men enrolled in professional armies. As late as 1938, the British prime minister Chamberlain declared that the bombing of civilians was unlawful.
Controlling Egypt’ s Finances 1879-1880
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

On 25 June 1879 the Ottoman Sultan sent two telegrams to Egypt. One, addressed to Son Altesse Ismail Pacha, ‘ Ex-Khedive’ , ordered him to leave the country at once. The other addressed to his son Taufiq made it clear that he was to take his father’ s place. Five days later, on 30 June, Ismail boarded his personal yacht at Alexandria never to return.
Egypt: Digging In 1883-1885
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

Baring, now Sir Evelyn Baring, went straight from India to Cairo, arriving on 11 September 1883. He returned to the rue Moughrabi and established both his residence and his office in a house owned by Sir Alexander Baird that was later to become the Turf Club after the Agency moved out in December 1893.1 Harry Boyle, who came to work in it in August 1885, described it as ‘ small and rambling’ , a statement which seems somewhat at odds with photographs of the building itself.2 ‘ Small’ is, however, a relative concept and the question of whether it was big enough for its purpose soon became a matter of some importance.
Sudan Again and the Tragedy of Ethel’ s Death 1895-1899
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

Cramer’ s belief that even a defeated Khedive would continue to make trouble for the British provided the spur for his renewed emphasis on policies designed to ensure Egypt’ s economic growth. The rationale was well spelled out in a dispatch to Salisbury some years later. He was ‘ certain’ , he wrote, that, as long as the occupation lasts, the Khedive and the small but influential class that look to the Khedive for guidance will maintain a position of irreconcilable hostility ... [Hence] it is almost a political necessity that the mass of the people should be in such a condition of material prosperity as to render them proof against appeals to the sentiments of race hatred and religious fanatic sm. I
Finale : Summary and Prospects
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

The structural variation among the world’s languages is overwhelming. Yet this variability should not be considered a nuisance to linguistic inquiry, but a potential source of insight into the possibilities of human language. Looking for a balance between gross generalizations and extreme relativism, I have attempted, in the present investigation, to catalogue the existing variability of the para-dogmatic structure of person marking and to highlight structures that turned out to be more common than others. The existing variation shows a continuum from commonly attested paradigmatic structures, through a set of ever less common structures, up to structures that are not attested among the world’s languages at all. Nothing seems to be impossible, although certain structures are clearly less probable.
‘A Ghastly Spectral Army’: History, Identity, and the Visionary Poet
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

The Chinese author and intellectual dissident Hsien-Liang Chang spent the late 1950s and most of the 1960s in a gulag, accused of thought-crimes. Like most Chinese during the reign of Mao Tse-tung, political prisoners were in constant danger of starvation: the title of Chang’s autobiography, Grass Soup, reflects the state of his diet for many years. Yet, despite his own sufferings, and the constant deaths from starvation of camp col leagues, he continued to write.
The Black Stream: Politics and Proselytism in Second–Generation Famine Novels
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

Literary critics tend to agree that the generation following the Famine was ‘among the most barren culturally in modern Irish history’, providing little of value except to the antiquarian or anthropologist. Few literary works were produced at all, say the critics, even less a cohesive literature of the Famine: ‘There is a handful of novels and a body of poems, but few truly distinguished works. Where is the Famine in the literature of the Revival? Where is it in Joyce?’ Eagleton is so disturbed by this lack that he felt the need to borrow Wuthering Heights in order to fill out the canon of Famine literature.
‘La Guerre Sainte’: Debates about Just War among Republicans in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Nabulsi Karma
Published: November 2023

THIS exhortation comes not from the Revolutionary era but from an official call to arms to the people by the French republican organization, the Liguedu Midi, in October 1870. The original poster was given to me by Vincent Wright in the spring of 1999, while we were working on a piece together, drawing from Vincent’s extensive archives of the 1870-1 war period. Our article focused on the range of disagreements between Gambetta’s new republican prefects and France’s army generals, all of whom had been appointed by the old regime of the Second Empire. Both of these actors were charged with organizing the defence of the country as it was being invaded by Prussia. And Vincent and I had given ourselves the ambitious task of setting out precisely the nature of the quarrel between them and its manifestations on the local and national levels. We set out to classify and explore, within the literature on the Franco-Prussian war and wider debates in the academic literature, a typology of conflicts between these two parties. Yet every day our discussions on the nature of our joint piece inexorably took us into the realm of another, more fascinating quarrel concerning the conflicts that flourished within the republican camp in 1870-1.