bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Plato, Parmenides 129 and Republic 475–480
Authors: Murphy N. R.
Published: June 2019

The reply which Socrates makes to Zeno in the Parmenides and that which he makes to the φιλοθɛ⋯μονɛς in the Republic are perhaps connected chiefly by the fact that a false interpretation of either might prejudice the other, but it seems convenient to take them together for that reason even if they have not much actual connection in themselves. Both are controversial, and in the case of Socrates' reply to Zeno, no re-statement of it could be secure which did not take account of Parmenides' reply to Socrates. For if Parmenides, as is maintained by some, is not attacking the doctrine of forms as such, but only Socratic theories of their relation with particulars, it would be natural to think that these theories about ‘participation’ had been the substance of Socrates' answer to Zeno. So it is impossible to avoid some discussion of the later passage, however cursory, as a preliminary.
The Cretan Manuscripts of Thucydides
Authors: Powell J. Enoch
Published: June 2019

In 1461 the refugee Byzantine scholar Michael Apostolius, who since the fall of Constantinople had resided chiefly in Crete, paid a visit to his native city. There he copied a MS of Thucydides and brought the copy back with him to Crete, whither two other MSS of that author had already been taken. These few facts underlie and explain the complex relationships of at least ten extant MSS of Thucydides, which were written during the following generation by Apostolius and other scholars in Crete for their private use or more often for sale to their Venetian masters. All are descendants of one of those three original arrivals, or, by contamination, of more than one of them.
The ‘Comparison of Lives’ in Plato's Philebus
Authors: Murphy N. R.
Published: June 2019

The Republic represents the good life as some sort of harmony or composition between the different interests of which the threefold nature of the soul makes it capable. The rational factor, τ λολιστικν, not only chooses which impulses shall be satisfied and which rejected but is credited also with impulses of its own, such as the desire for knowledge, to the importance of which the Republic testifies by various strands of argument. But in Plato's attempt to prove the goodness of this mixed life he may be thought to have relied too much on arguments about its pleasantness. If he had really meant from the first to prove against Thrasymachus that the just life is more prolific in pleasure1 than the unjust, he would have had to undertake the task of proving a necessary connection between just activities and pleasant states of feeling which could scarcely exist unless feelings were under the control of the will. If this had been his intention, the whole weight of the argument would rest on the two comparatively short passages in Book IX (581–3, 583–6) in which he makes first a dubious appeal to experience and then, by an equally dubious piece of metaphysics, attempts to reinforce his ethical conclusion by denying the reality of such pleasures as might tend to throw doubt on it.
Four Notes on the Choephori
Authors: Dodds E. R.
Published: June 2019

The attempts of Verrall and Tucker to discover, without resorting to emendation, a construction for the participles in v. 285 have convinced only their authors. All other recent scholars either postulate a lacuna before this line or transpose it to follow v. 288, if they do not delete it altogether. All alike assume that both participles describe the behaviour of the victim of the underworld powers.
The Thirteenth Idyll of Theocritus
Authors: Gow A. S. F.
Published: June 2019

That the thirteenth Idyll of Theocritus and the Hylas episode in the first book of Apollonius are not independent of each other was perhaps first pointed out by Casaubon, who supposed T. to be the earlier of the two. The opposite view was upheld, whether for the first time or not I do not know, by Wilamowitz in his lectures, and it was assumed, without much argument, by his pupil G. Knaack, who presently defended it, with little more, against an attack by G. Türk. Gercke and Susemihl were persuaded, and later on Wilamowitz himself touched briefly on the matter. Legrand, who had doubted before, remains unconvinced, and Cholmeley, to whose chronology this theory was disastrous, took shelter behind the unsubstantial shades of Antimachus and Philetas. In Italy, G. Perrotta has supported Wilamowitz's view, but L. Bignone says that the problem is insoluble. I have myself no doubt that Wilamowitz was right, but the arguments employed have not been very cogent, and, as the evidence has not been well set out, it may be useful to outline it here and to add a little to it.
The Aviary Theory in the Theaetetus
Authors: Hackforth R.
Published: June 2019

At 195B 9 it is pointed out that the Wax Block theory does not cover that large class of judgments in which no sense-objects are concerned, e.g. judgments about numbers. How can we make the mistake of judging that 7 + 5 = 11?

The simile of the Aviary, now introduced, is very simple. It illustrates the difference between potential (or latent) knowledge and actual knowledge, i.e. between knowledge at our disposal, because it has been learnt and stored away in the mind, and knowledge present and ‘alive’ at the moment. The theory is that when we make a mistake about the sum of 7 and 5 we are ‘hunting for’ the knowledge of 12, which we ‘possess’ (κεκτ⋯σΘαι) as we might possess a bird in a cage, but which we have not ‘got about us’ (ἒχειν); but we mis-take, wrongly take our knowledge of 11, i.e. we call up before our mind a different piece of knowledge.
TPITAΓΩNIΣTHΣ: A Reconsideration
Authors: Todd O. J.
Published: June 2019

When Demosthenes brought Aeschines to trial on a charge of malfeasance as an ambassador, he made what seems now the astonishing declaration in connection with Aeschines' acting of the part of Creon in Sophocles' Antigone: ⋯στε γ⋯ρ δ⋯που το⋯θ' ὅτι ⋯ν ἅπασι τοῖς δρ⋯μασι τοῖς τραγικοῖς ⋯ξα⋯ρετ⋯ν ⋯στιν ὥσπερ γ⋯ρας τοῖς τριταγωνισ ταῖς τὺ τοὺς τυρ⋯ννους κα⋯ τοὺς τ⋯ σκ⋯πτρ' ἔχοντας εἰσι⋯ναι. Until the last generation (and even later) this was taken at face value as indicating that of the three actors presenting a tragedy the third (and least important) was regularly assigned the part of royalty. But that the title rôle in such plays as Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus or an important character such as Creon in the Antigone should have been entrusted to the third ranking actor is incredible. How is the discrepancy to be explained?
The Origin of Cornelius Gallus
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: June 2019

C. Cornelius Gallus requires brief introduction or none at all. A poet in his own right, the friend of Virgil and of Pollio, Gallus is enshrined for ever in literature—and in literary legend, for the inept fictions of Servius and his tribe will survive the most damaging of revelations, remembered even when refuted. Not only that—Gallus is a conspicuous figure in the social and political history of the revolutionary age.
A New Papyrus Fragment of Euripides' Medea
Authors: Page Denys
Published: June 2019

In the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge there is a papyrus fragment, hitherto unpublished, of Euripides' Medea. It was written early in the 2nd century A.D., or possibly at the end of the 1st century A.D. The hand is a good round medium upright, similar to that of P. Oxy. 1810, possibly a little older. The stop and apostrophe in Fr. 1 line 1174 were evidently added later. There are several smudges and blots. Elisions only. There were 35 lines to a column.
Democritus' Theory of Cognition
Authors: Weiss Helene
Published: June 2019

De Anima A 2, 404a 27=Diels, Vorsokratikev 5th edition 68a 101: ⋯κεῖνοςμ⋯γ⋯ρ ⋯πλ⋯ς ψυχ⋯ν ταὐτ⋯7nu κα⋯ νο⋯ν. τ⋯ γ⋯ρ ⋯ληθ⋯ς εἶναι τ⋯ φαι7nu;⋯7mu;ενον; and a 30–31: οὐ δ⋯ χρ⋯ται τῷς δυν⋯7mu;ει τ7iota;7nu;⋯ τ⋯ν ảλ⋯θειαν, ảλλ⋯ ταὐτ⋯ λγ;ει φυχ⋯ν κα⋯ νο⋯ν.

2. Metaph. Г 5, 1009b 12=D.v. 5th ed. 68A 112: ὂλως δ⋯δι⋯ τ⋯ ὐπολαμβ⋯νειν φρ⋯νησιν μ⋯7nu; τ⋯ν αἲσθησιν, τα⋯την δ εἷναι ảλλο⋯ωσιν, τ⋯ φαι7nu;⋯μεν7nu; κατ⋯ τ⋯ν αἷσθησι7nu; ⋯ξ ⋯7nu;⋯γκης ⋯ληθ⋯ς εἶναἰ φασιν.
The Position of Hebrews in the Canon of the New Testament
Authors: Hatch William H. P.
Published: June 2019

In the manuscripts and versions of the New Testament, in lists of books accepted as canonical, and in the works of ecclesiastical writers the Epistle to the Hebrews occupies three different positions: (I) Among the epistles addressed to churches, i.e. after Romans, after 2 Corinthians, and very rarely after Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and Titus. (II) After 2 Thessalonians, i.e. after the epistles written to churches. (III) After Philemon, i.e. at the end of the Pauline canon. Each of these positions represents the usage of some particular section, or sections, of the Church; and each is significant for the history of the canon of the New Testament. No other epistle ascribed to the Apostle Paul has been so variously placed in the canon as Hebrews.
God and the Moral Law
Authors: Pratt James Bissett
Published: June 2019

The subject for our annual conference this year — Ethics and Theology — forces us to face one of the most difficult problems of religious thought, — the relation between God and morality. To this problem several solutions — all quite familiar — have been proposed and it will not be the purpose of my paper to suggest a new one of my own. In fact, as the sequel will show, I am very uncertain whether any completely satisfactory solution to the problem be possible. My aim is the much less ambitious one of placing the matter, with some of its difficulties, before the Society for discussion, in the hope that your collective wisdom may be able to throw more light upon this dark theme than the Society's benighted president for this year — who is no theologian — is able to contribute.

One of the simplest and most popular modes of conceiving the relation between God and the laws of morality is to equate righteousness with obedience to the divine will. God is good, we are told, and our goodness is to be defined as conformity to the will of God. One relatively superficial and pragmatic difficulty in accepting this view consists in the obvious fact that it is by no means easy to know with certainty what the will of God may be. Different philosophers, different prophets, different religions give us different and sometimes quite contradictory answers to this question.
Some Observations on “Family Annuities”, Considered with Reference to National Statistics
Authors: Maddex G. H.
Published: June 2019

The term “family annuities” appears to have been coined by George King, who used it in a paper read before the Institute on 19th December, 1892 (J.I.A. Vol. xxx, p. 291), to describe that form of orphans' benefit in which a small annuity is paid to each child of a deceased father until the child attains a specified age, such as 14 years. King gave a formula for the evaluation of the benefit and discussed a suitable basis, but though he worked out commutation columns he did not give any results in the form of specimen premiums. He was mainly concerned with the problem as an element in the schemes of State insurance which were then under discussion; indeed, as he revealed in a letter to the Insurance Record in 1920 (see J.I.A. Vol. LII, p. 35), he had been asked to make estimates in this connexion in 1890 by Mr Joseph Chamberlain.
The Estimated Population of Great Britain, 1941–1971
Authors: Honey F. J. C.
Published: June 2019

(1) In a paper read before the Institute in November 1933 (J.I.A. Vol. LXV, p. 38), Mr C. D. Rich showed how to calculate the inherent rate of growth of a population by combining in a single index the current data regarding mortality and fertility. Valuable though this index is in showing the true underlying trend at a particular point of time, it cannot be adapted (nor is it intended) to show the actual future populations at any particular time.

(2) It is the purpose of the present paper to make estimates of the population of Great Britain, according to age and sex, for certain future years, and in order to do this an attempt is made to forecast the probable future course of mortality and fertility in Great Britain, in the light of the experience of the past, and such indications as there may be regarding the factors which will influence the future.
Classification and Valuation of Industrial Assurance Policies
Authors: Fulford W. J.
Published: June 2019

The subject of this paper is essentially a practical one, and although it has been before the Institute on various occasions it is some considerable time since there has been a discussion on the actual methods employed in classifying and valuing industrial assurance contracts.

Forty years ago a paper was read before the Institute by the late Frederick Schooling “On some Methods of Grouping Policies for the Purpose of Valuation“ (J.I.A. Vol. XXXII, p. 301). It dealt with the classification and method of valuation of industrial assurance policies. Since the paper was written many changes have taken place, and it will be useful as an introduction to consider the developments which have occurred during that period.
Equities and Fixed Interest Stocks During Twenty-Five Years
Authors: Raynes H. E.
Published: June 2019

In November 1927 I submitted to this Institute a paper on the place of ordinary stocks and shares in the investment of life assurance funds. The conclusions were drawn from an investigation of hypothetical investments made in 1912 of uniform amount in the equities of nine groups of companies and followed out during a period of fifteen years. A comparison was made with similar investments made in the fixed interest securities of the same groups of companies. The records showed clearly in favour of the equities both as to income during the fifteen years and as to capital values at the end of the term. It has been on my conscience for some time that the record is incomplete without the inclusion of the period of the world depression in industry and trade which followed soon after the close of the period selected.
Expense investigations and kindred problems
Authors: Miller I. A. , Richardson C. F. B.
Published: June 2019

It is remarkable how little attention has been given to this subject. In the past thirty years, only two papers on expenses have been submitted to this Institute, one written by C. H. Maltby over twenty years ago (J.I.A. Vol. XLIX) and the other by J. Rietchel (J.I.A. Vol. XLIV) five years earlier.

We probably know less about expenses than about any other factor in our daily work. No doubt the chief reason for this apparent neglect is the fact that in the past we have had comfortable surplus margins in our premium rates. To-day we are calculating rates on much narrower margins as to interest and mortality, and a study of the expense problem, therefore, appears opportune.
Some Observations on the Rate of Interest as Affecting Pension Funds
Authors: Brown C. H. L. , Taylor J. A. G.
Published: June 2019

Most actuaries would agree that the determination of the rate of interest to be employed in the valuation of a pension fund is one of the most difficult of the problems which have to be faced. It is usually possible, either from the actual experience of the staff in question or from a knowledge of the experience of other staffs which are similar in character, to form a fairly accurate estimate of the rates of mortality likely to be experienced before the pension age is reached and, with perhaps rather less certainty, the rates of withdrawal from service. So far as the rates of mortality after retirement are concerned, there is available a considerable volume of data regarding the experience of annuitants and of the pensioners of a number of large funds, and so long as a reasonable allowance is made for future improvement no great difficulty is likely to be experienced on this account. It is true that the experience of some of the larger pension funds has shown that the mortality of pensioners tends to fluctuate over a period of years, but on the whole such a standard can be adopted as will be likely to be adequate for many years.
Blood pressure among standard lives
Authors: Hunter Arthur
Published: June 2019

There are so many phases of the problem of blood pressure that I shall limit myself to dealing with a recent investigation of the mortality on lives accepted as “standard risks” by the New York Life Insurance Company.

The experience investigated was that of new policies issued from 1925 to 1936, inclusive, observed from entry until the anniversaries of the policies in 1937. The investigation was by policies and was divided into two groups, (a) those in which there was no impairment, and (b) those in which there appeared minor impairments but not of sufficient moment to place the policyholders in a substandard group. The expected deaths were obtained according to the company's standard experience for the same years of issue and exposure. The total number of policies emerging by death was 9552.
A method of determining the rate of interest involved in a given transaction
Authors: Kerrich J. E.
Published: June 2019

In Todhunter's Compound Interest (4th edition, chapters 8 and 9) several methods are given for the approximate determination of the rate of interest involved in a given transaction. In these methods there is no adequate treatment of the errors contained in the results. No simple means are given whereby the computer can tell to how many significant figures the results can be trusted.
A general theory of mortality
Authors: Rich C. D.
Published: June 2019

If a pebble on a steep hill is disturbed from a state of rest, it will probably roll down the hill gathering speed as it goes, and, if the hill ends in a precipice, the pebble will, unless it is checked in its course, eventually fall over the edge. So long as the pebble is rolling down the hill it is within sight of an observer on the hill, but when it falls over the precipice it passes out of his sight; its disappearance occurs suddenly. There is no violent change in the pebble's speed or direction as it passes over the edge, so the suddenness of its disappearance is not due to any alteration in its motion but to the fact that it has rolled down beyond the level of the edge of the hill.
A synthesis of methods of deriving measures of decrement from observed data
Authors: Bailey W. G. , Haycocks H. W.
Published: June 2019

1. Like all sciences, actuarial science has been developed piecemeal. From time to time theory has been constructed attempting to systematize and unify practices which had already been adopted by the working actuary. In the case of the general treatment of the derivation of rates of decrement from data, little has been published in the Journal to unify the various methods and techniques since W. J. H. Whittall's well-known paper written in 1893 just prior to the commencement of the investigation into the British Offices experience.
The Rate of Interest which should be Employed in the Valuation of a Pension Fund and the Values which should be Placed on Existing Investments
Authors: Puckridge C. E.
Published: June 2019

1. After the discussion on Sir George (then Mr) Epps's paper on ‘Superannuation Funds’, the President in proposing a vote of thanks said: ‘It is of the highest importance that we should exchange views with one another and try to come to a common opinion on matters of practice so that the world at large will bring against us no charge of inconsistency in the advice which we respectively give to those who consult us.’ In 1921, when Epps's paper was presented, actuaries were faced with the position that current yields on new investments were very much higher than had been anticipated in earlier valuations, while most of the older funds had suffered very heavy depreciation in values of existing investments. Today the circumstances are reversed. The rate of interest which can be earned on new investments is very low, but there has been substantial appreciation in values of existing investments. It is in the hope of provoking an exchange of views on the best method of dealing with this present situation that this paper has been written.
The Analysis of Heterogeneous Mortality Data
Authors: Solomon Leon
Published: June 2019

In this paper, everyday actuarial data have been examined by means of standard statistical techniques. The data in question have been drawn from the publications of the Continuous Mortality Investigation Committee, and the methods of statistical analysis have been applied to investigate the nature and extent of the heterogeneity which may exist in those data.
Punched-card Equipment
Authors: Coe N. E. , Hedley K. J. , Longley-Cook L. H.
Published: June 2019

‘Punch-card equipment is becoming more and more a convenient and useful tool of the actuary. For this reason, the study of, this equipment and its flexibility should and will occupy a larger place in the training of actuarial students in the future.’

R. J. WALKER, F.A.S.

The actuary employed in life office work is very closely concerned with the methods by which the valuation and other records of a life office are built up. It is surprising, therefore, that there are very few references in the pages of the Journal of the Institute to the use of punched-card equipment for life office work. The use of the equipment for calculations of interest to the actuary, such as the construction of tables, has also been largely ignored. Actuaries employed in work outside life oflices so often rely on punched-card equipment for their statistical data that the authors feel that no apology is needed to either class of actuary for presenting a paper on the subject. Punchedcard equipment has received much more attention in the Transactions of the Actuarial Society of America, most recent volumes containing a paper or note on its application.
Some Thoughts on the Analysis of Numerical Data
Authors: Starke L. G. K.
Published: June 2019

This paper is the record of an attempt by an ordinary actuary, who entered the profession in days when statistics were but a nugatory ingredient in the examination syllabus, to get a little clearer in his mind about some of the similarities and differences between the traditional technique of the actuary and the methods which have been developed for dealing with statistical material in other fields. It seemed that the result might be of some general interest, and it is from this point of view that the paper is submitted to the Institute.
An Approximate Law of Survivorship and Other Notes on the Use of Frequency Curves in Actuarial Statistics
Authors: Elderton W. Palin
Published: June 2019

LET EX be the exposed to risk at age x; F (x, 0) be the ordinate at x of a frequency curve used instead of Ex : the frequency curve is not necessarily a graduation of Ex. but may be and in some circumstances will be;
On the validity of statistical tests of the graduation of a mortality table
Authors: Daw R. H.
Published: June 2019

An important part of the work of an actuary consists in making and testing graduations of mortality statistics. Much space has been devoted in the Journal to methods of graduation, but for many years, apart from the recent paper by H. L. Seal (J.I.A. Vol. lxxi, p. 5), little attention seems to have been paid to the testing of graduations. Although statistical methods are usually employed in making the tests, consideration has not often been given to ascertaining whether mortality statistics fulfil the conditions necessary for the tests to be strictly applicable. It is the purpose of this paper to set out some investigations into this question. Such matters may be thought to be of only theoretical interest, since, in practice, the tests work satisfactorily as a general rule; but actuaries should not employ their tools in a mechanical fashion without realizing fully their limitations and implications, and the question therefore takes on a practical as well as a theoretical aspect. It is hoped that this paper will show how far the tests of a graduation are satisfactory in theory and practice and indicate where modifications are required.
Towards a managed monetary system
Authors: Craig W. G.
Published: June 2019

It is now widely recognized that the future must see far-reaching changes in our monetary system, and that these changes must be in the direction of a conscious and planned management, as distinct from leaving the system to be regulated in a more or less automatic manner by factors which reflect and are governed by international conditions; that the monetary system should in fact be made to serve and not govern the requirements of the economic system.

This changed view of the function of the monetary system is probably mainly the result of two economic phenomena which were witnessed in the ten years preceding the war.
Some observations on life reassurance
Authors: Foster G. T.
Published: June 2019

A Number of papers have been submitted to the International Congresses of Actuaries on the subject of life reassurance and full discussions have taken place at the Seventh, Eighth and Eleventh Congresses. Very little has been contributed to the Journal, and many years have elapsed since a paper was prepared on this subject.
Central difference formulae obtained by means of operator expansions
Authors: Michel J. G. L.
Published: June 2019

Interpolation and other formulae involving advancing differences are frequently developed, or at least conveniently reproduced from memory, from the familiar operational identities

where
The valuation of whole-life assurances by the use of moments
Authors: Joseph A. W.
Published: June 2019

W. Perks in his recent paper (see p. 377 of this issue of the Journal) has shown how we may avoid tabulating net premiums or other special functions applicable to a particular valuation basis on individual valuation cards, and how a change may thus be made easily and rapidly from one valuation basis to another. The primary purpose of the present note is to develop Perks's principles and to test the methods on the actual valuation of the whole-life assurances of a life office.
Tests of a mortality table graduation
Authors: Seal H. L
Published: June 2019

“Sangue di Bacco! ... les dés sont pipés!”

A Former President of the Institute once remarked that whereas the graduation of a mortality table might be considered a specialized technique not required by the practising actuary, the efficient testing of any graduation submitted to him should be an integral part of his actuarial ability. The student anxious to equip himself in this respect encounters considerable divergence of opinion regarding the best method of testing a graduation. There is complete agreement as to the duality of purpose of such a test: smoothness and fidelity to the data are essential factors. But whilst the criterion of smoothness is easily formulated—the run of the second or third differences of qxmust show no awkward breaks—the views relating to the tests of adherence to the data are divided between the application of a “mean deviation” rule at each age or group of ages and a purely “practical” judgment based on that elusive virtue, experience.
A note on the Registrar-General's reports on occupational mortality in England and Wales in connexion with recent censuses
Authors: Brown Henry
Published: June 2019

The recent publication of the Registrar-General's Report on Occupational Mortality in England and Wales in connexion with the 1931 Census has suggested that a Note on this Report and its recent predecessors, with reference mainly to the methods employed in the investigation, may be of use to actuarial students.

Occupational Mortality has been investigated in connexion with every census since 1851. It may at first sight seem a simple matter to take, in each age group, the number exposed to risk in a given occupation from the census schedules and the number of deaths from the death registers, and from these figures to find the rates of mortality. In practice there are many pitfalls. The history of the successive investigations records various attempts to improve the statement and classification of the particulars and the presentation of the results, although there are still a number of known or suspected sources of error, the effect of which can only be estimated roughly, if at all.
The construction of a small-scale differential analyser and its application to the calculation of actuarial functions
Authors: Beard R. E.
Published: June 2019

In many problems arising from scientific investigations their theoretical formulation leads to differential equations, the numerical solution of which is frequently an extremely laborious process. To handle such problems various mechanical devices have been developed from time to time and the Differential Analyser is one such device, possessing great flexibility in the range of differential equations which can be dealt with by it. Lord Kelvin conceived of such a machine, and the first practical model was designed by Dr V. Bush of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Subsequently another full-scale machine was designed by Prof. D. R. Hartree and is in operation at Manchester University. Various small-scale machines have been constructed in this country and mention may be made of those at London University and Cambridge University, designed by Profs. H. S. W. Massey and J. E. Lennard-Jones respectively.
The Embargo on the Export of Irish Provisions, 1776-9
Authors: O’Connor Theresa M.
Published: June 2019

One of the initial problems raised for England by the outbreak of Anglo-American hostilities in 1775, was that of ensuring an adequate supply of provisions for the English naval and military forces, that had to be dispatched to, and maintained in, America. Confronted with this problem, Lord North's government inevitably focussed attention on Ireland's provision supply.
The Personnel of the Dublin Society of United Irishmen, 1791-4
Authors: McDowell R. B.
Published: June 2019

One of the most noticeable features of Irish political life in the 'later eighteenth century, is, that though political power was :oncentrated in comparatively few hands, there was a very large leasure of political freedom. One could in fact sum up the system by saying that it was oligarchy tempered by discussion. As a result, voluntary and unofficial societies and clubs arose for the purpose of educating and influencing public opinion, and were the nuclei of much political thought and action. There [were Whig Clubs, Constitutional Clubs, Societies for the [Preservation of Liberty and Peace and Associations of Independent Voters. Thus there was nothing very strange in the Iformation, in November 1791, of a Dublin branch of the newly bounded Society of United Irishmen. But this group was to prove unique in at least one respect.
The Hymn of St. Secundinus in honour of St. Patrick
Authors: MacNeill Eoin
Published: June 2019

The earliest event of Irish history that bears a well authenticated date is the mission of Palladius to Ireland in A.D. 431. The record of this year is found in the contemporary chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine. In another work written a few years later. Prosper writes of the institution of a christian church in Ireland by Pope Celestine, who died in 432. All the early Irish sources agree in dating the mission of Patrick in 432.

Seven years later, the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Inisfallen have the entry, derived from an earlier common source: ‘ Secundinus, Auxilius, et Iseminus mittuntur in Hiberniam in auxilium Patricii ’ A short tract copied in the Book of Armagh and dating probably, like the other documents in the same collection, from about 700, tells that Auxilius and Iserninus were sent by Germanus. It is silent regarding Secundinus.
The Dating of the Irish Annals
Authors: Walsh Paul
Published: June 2019

Whitley Stokes, the editor of the Annals attributed to Tigernach, had once the audacity to say that many, perhaps most, of the dates of our Annals are erroneous, and that the amount of error in each case is not very important. To those who are qualified to study the evidence, it will be apparent that this is not the case, and that so far from the various collections differing in chronology from one another, they are in remarkable unanimity back to about the middle of the seventh century. There is great ignorance prevalent on the relations of our Irish chronicles to one another, and there is room for a thorough study of their criteria such as I now propose’ to sketch from a distance. A definite chronology if attainable is the first essential for knowledge of our past. If it be not certainly available, then we should have the nearest possible approximation to exact dating.
The Talbot-Ormond Struggle for Control of the Anglo-Irish Government, 1414-47
Authors: Griffith M. C.
Published: June 2019

The feud between the Talbot and Ormond interests, which dominates Anglo-Irish history from about 1414 to 1447, is of interest chiefly as an illustration of the final stage in the collapse of a government, and as affording a striking instance of that parallelism which can often be observed between English and Anglo-Irish history. In both cases the period is marked by the relapse of politics into mere faction and the corresponding decline of the institutions of government in estimation and effectiveness. In Ireland this decline is even more marked than in England, lacking, as it does, the more cheerful colours of rapid commercial progress to lighten the dark picture of political decadence. In Ireland the feuds and factions of the early fifteenth century, connected with the personalities of Sir John Talbot and the fourth earl of Ormond, brought the government to such a pitch of disorder that by the beginning of the Tudor period thorough reorganization was necessary.
Irish parliamentary elections, 1727–68
Authors: McCracken J. L.
Published: June 2019

The Irish house of commons in the eighteenth century was composed of 300 members: two were elected by each of the 32 counties; two by 117 boroughs; and two by Trinity College, Dublin. Only protestants were returned, for by an English act of 1691 all members of the Irish house of commons were required to take oaths of allegiance and supremacy. Catholics could still exercise the franchise until 1727, but an act of that year deprived them of the right to vote. The dissenters were equally excluded: a clause in an act of 1704 requiring all office-holders to receive communion according to the usage of the established church excluded them from the corporations and indirectly from the house of commons. Even the minority that remained was very inadequately represented.

In the counties the leading landlords were able to influence the return of members, and many of the Irish boroughs were quite as rotten as any in England prior to 1832. Bannow in co. Wexford, for example, was a mountain of sea-sand without a single inhabited house; at Clonmines in the same county there was one solitary house; at Harristown in co. Kildare there was none. A traveller in Ireland in 1755 found Naas ‘a shabby looking place’; Castle Dermot ‘a very poor town’; Callen ‘a poor dirty town, interspersed with the numerous ruins of old castles and religious houses’; Rathcormac ‘a poor borough’; and Kilmallock ‘a spacious street, composed of houses, which, though magnificent, were windowless and roofless’. The conclusion he came to was: ‘Happy would it be for Ireland, if her corporate towns were divested of the privilege of returning representatives to the great council of the nation; for it becomes the selfish policy of the lord of the soil to impoverish the voters into compliance’.
The Grand Tour of an Elizabethan
Authors: Yeames A. H. S.
Published: June 2019

English travellers in the days of the Tudors who have left behind them the story of their wanderings in the civilised lands of Europe are so few that perhaps little excuse is needed for the publication of a diary kept for Sir Edward Unton.

Unton was a gentleman of Berkshire, and traced his pedigree to Edward IV.'s time. He married in 1555 a widowed daughter of the Protector Somerset, was knighted by the Queen in 1559, and in 1574 had the honour to entertain her at his house of Wadley near Faringdon. He was Sheriff in 1567 and elected to Parliament in 1572. He died in 1583 and was buried in Faringdon Church.

His younger son, Henry, took a larger part in affairs of State. He, too, sat in Parliament, but he is chiefly remembered as Ambassador to France and friend of Henry IV., who is said to have mourned his death at the siege of La Fère in 1596. There is a curious portrait of the younger Unton in the National Portrait Gallery.
IV.—The Temple; Results of the Architectural Evidence
Authors: Gardner E. A.
Published: June 2019

Any attempt to present to our imagination the temple of Aphrodite as it once stood, and to realise the various changes which the building underwent at various periods, must be preceded by a short enquiry. Before entering upon what seems to be entirely new ground, one must ask who, if any, are those that have already explored it, and how far their investigations may help to guide a later venture. Fortunately in the present case no long or detailed criticism will be necessary; all previous reconstructions of the temple have been based upon evidence so slender or erroneous that a mere indication of that evidence will suffice to show how little attention need be paid to the theories based upon it.

All the earlier reconstructions and plans, given by Münter and Gerhard, and reproduced in the various handbooks, from Müller to Perrot and Chipiez, are admittedly derived from the description and plan given by von Hammer; the description in Engel's Kypros comes from the same source. Now since all the essential features of the plan we have recovered were completely concealed and buried in several feet of earth, it is obvious that von Hammer's plan must be just as conjectural as those that are based upon it; for he does not himself claim to have made any excavations or to have recorded more than was visible to all who passed by. His plan may be based upon what seemed to be probable inferences; but excavations have proved that those inferences were erroneous.
V.—Contents of the Temple
Authors: Gardner E. A.
Published: June 2019

As a supplement to the description and discussion of the Temple itself, a few words must be added as to the movable antiquities found upon its site. This is a section that we might have hoped to prove rich in treasures and full of interest. But all such hopes were destined to be disappointed, from what reason it is not now easy to discover. At Tochni, at Cyprus, is a well, into which tradition says St. Helena cast all the devils in the island; does this mean that the statues of ‘heathen gods’ were thrown in it? Perhaps at Paphos too, some zealous iconoclast may have similarly striven to abolish all the sacred objects of ancient worship—or perhaps mere considerations of gain or utility may have led to a most complete destruction. So we might easily account for the disappearance of all bronze statues: stories of the discovery of such linger about the neighbourhood. But it is harder to account for the vanishing of all the marble statues that probably were once here. We can hardly suppose that the absence of suitable marble in the island can have led to the exclusive use of bronze except for small works: offerings were brought to Paphos from all quarters of the ancient world. And if any marble statues ever existed, we should expect to find portions of them built into houses and walls, even if they were mostly reduced to lime. Why should inscriptions have been so much more fortunate? The preponderant use of bronze, shown by the bases, may serve in part as an explanation, but it seems necessary also to assume some general destruction of statues such as would probably have taken place if the worship were forcibly suppressed. The sacred cone itself has totally disappeared.
Monemvasia
Authors: Miller W.
Published: June 2019

Since the article on this subject (pp. 229 ff. above) was passed for press I have obtained some additional information in Venice which it seems desirable to put on record.

Of the two coats of arms illustrated on p. 240, that on the left belongs to Sebastiano Renier. The other is of Antonio Garzoni, who was elected podestà of Monemvasia in 1526, and again in 1538, when he was the last podestà before the Turkish conquest. The identification of this latter coat I owe to the assistance of Mr. H. F. Brown.

Hopf's statement, reproduced by me on p. 235, that Monemvasia was Venetian in 1419, is, I find, riot justified by the evidence. I have had some difficulty in tracing the documents cited by Hopf, as the pagination of the Vienna copy of the Misti used by him differs from that in the copy at Venice. The three documents merely shew that Venetian wine-merchants were engaged in the wine-trade at Monemvasia.
Hubert Hall, 1857–1944
Authors: C. J.
Published: June 2019

The death, on 27 July, 1944, on his 87th birthday, as a consequence of enemy action, of Hubert Hall has deprived the Royal Historical Society of one of its most beloved members, one, too, who had perhaps the largest share in shaping its history. He died from shock, following the explosion of a flying bomb which severely damaged his house at Walderslade, near Chatham.
Adam Smith: Philosophy, Science, and Social Science
Authors: Raphael D. D.
Published: June 2019

What darkness was the ‘Enlightenment’ supposed to have removed? The answer is irrational forms of religion. Most of the ‘enlightened’ took the view that revealed religion was irrational and that natural religion could be rational; but some were sceptical about natural religion too. Hume was the most honest and the most penetrating thinker of the latter group. His biographer, Professor E. C. Mossner, is not alone in believing that the Dialogues concerning Natural Religion is ‘his philosophical testament’.
Hume as Moralist: a Social Historian's Perspective
Authors: Phillipson Nicholas
Published: June 2019

In this paper I want to discuss David Hume's views about morals, politics and citizenship and the role of philosophers and philosophizing in modern civil society - what I shall call his theory of civic morality. This is a subject which has been neglected by philosophers, presumably because it is of limited philosophical interest. But it is of considerable interest to the historian who wants to understand Hume's development as a philosopher, to locate his thought within a specific, Scottish context and to arrive at some understanding of his surprisingly close and cordial relations with the literary and social world of enlightened Edinburgh. These are large claims and I cannot hope to substantiate them fully in a short paper. My purpose is first, to show that, historically speaking, Hume's preoccupation with civic morality was of central rather than peripheral interest to him as a philosopher and that it helps to explain his otherwise rather puzzling decision to give up philosophizing systematically in the manner of Hobbes and Locke, in favour of polite essay-writing in the manner of Addison and Steele. My second purpose is to suggest that Hume's interest in civic morality, his neo-Addisonian (or perhaps I should say, neo-Ciceronian) mode of philosophizing about it and the nature of his understanding of politics, citizenship and philosophizing in a modern age was, unlike his thought about religion, responsive to and consonant with some of the most important ideological preoccupations of his Scottish contemporaries. It was, I suspect, a shared interest which helped to contain some of the anxieties Hume's notorious religious scepticism caused his contemporaries. Without it, he could not possibly have emerged as one of the leaders of Edinburgh's intellectual life in the age of the Scottish Enlightenment.
Diderot: Man and Society
Authors: Brumfitt J. H.
Published: June 2019

Principal editor of the greatEncyclopedia, novelist and prose writer of genius, contributor to the development of scientific thought and method, to the theory of the bourgeois drama and to the practice of art criticism, Diderot perhaps embodies the rich variety of the Enlightenment spirit more than any other man. His only real rival is surely Voltaire. Rousseau, whose influence was greater than Diderot's, would not thank us for classing him among thephilosophes. The more profound philosophers - a Hume or a Kant - not only lack his range, but are less unquestionably ‘Enlightenment men’.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Philosopher of Nature
Authors: Grimsley Ronald
Published: June 2019

From the very outset of his literary and intellectual career Rousseau saw himself as an uncompromising critic of contemporary society. As he has vividly related in his personal writings, the famous moment of ‘illumination’ when he was on the way to visit his friend Diderot imprisoned in the Chateau de Vincennes not only gave him a vision of ‘another universe’ but transformed him into ‘another man’. An overwhelming ‘enthusiasm for truth, freedom and virtue’ made him henceforth reject the corrupt values of the society he saw around him; ‘to be free and virtuous and above fortune and opinion’ seemed a greater and nobler attitude than servile acquiescence in the ‘maxims of his age’.
Genetical and Cytological Studies of Lethals induced by Chemical Treatment inDrosophila melanogaster.
Authors: Slizynska Helen , Slizynski B. M.
Published: June 2019

Thepresent paper forms a continuation of studies of recessive sex-linked lethals inDrosophila melanogasterpublished previously (1938, 1941). In these, lethals occurring spontaneously, induced by X-ray treatment and by ultra-violet light were examined cytologically in the salivary gland chromosomes.

The genetic factors which stop or change the development of an individual in such a way that its death ensues under normal conditions are termed lethals. A lethal effect may be connected with a mutation of a gene or with its absence from the chromosome: those which cannot be proved to be associated with the absence of a cytologically detectable part of the chromosome are considered as due to “point” mutations.

The absence of a microscopically identifiable section of a chromosome with all its genetical and structural elements is called a deficiency. With few exceptions (Muller, 1935; Demerec and Hoover, 1936) the deficiencies in the X-chromosome, whatever their size and whatever loci they involve, are lethal for males. In females heterozygous for them deficiencies of small or even moderate size usually do not produce any visible phenotypical effect, although some cases are known (Mohr, 1923; Slizynska, 1938) in which a heterozygous deficiency for a particular band is always associated with a definite phenotype. Thus a lethal effect may or may not be the result of a deficiency, while a deficiency in the X-chromosome almost always has a lethal effect in the males.

In 1941 Auerbach (1943, 1946 in press) succeeded in producing “visible” and lethal mutations and chromosomal rearrangements by chemical treatment in which adult males were exposed to vapours of (C1CH2CH2)2S in a specially designed apparatus. The object of this paper is to show what proportion of sex-linked recessive lethals produced inDrosophila melanogasterby these new agents is connected with detectable deficiencies. Besides finding out whether chemically produced lethals are associated with detectable deficiencies, the problem of the relation between lethals and “visible” mutations is discussed on the basis of their respective distributions along the chromosome. It should be stated that the lethals connected with gross structural changes represent probably only a small fraction of such lethals actually produced since many of them were eliminated by zygotic lethality.