bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Activity, Agency, and Inner Speech Pathology
Authors: Swiney Lauren
Published: October 2018

Over the last thirty years the comparator hypothesis has emerged as a prominent account of inner speech pathology. This chapter discusses a number of cognitive accounts broadly derived from this approach, highlighting the existence of two importantly distinct notions of inner speech in the literature; one as a prediction in the absence of sensory input, the other as an act with sensory consequences that are themselves predicted. Under earlier frameworks in which inner speech is described in the context of classic models of motor control, I argue that these two notions may be compatible, providing two routes to inner speech pathology. Under more recent accounts grounded in the architecture of Bayesian predictive processing, I argue that “active inference” approaches to action generation pose serious challenges to the plausibility of the latter notion of inner speech, while providing the former notion with rich explanatory possibilities for inner speech pathology.
Democracy in Small States
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

This book brings thirty-nine small democracies into the comparative politics canon for the first time. For over fifty years, scholars have debated the complex and dynamic process called democratization: currently the discipline thinks that economic growth, cultural homogeneity, institutional design, party system institutionalization, and geographic location explain why some transitions consolidate, and others do not. But this work has systematically overlooked the world’s thirty-nine smallest states (with populations of 1 million or less), located in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Pacific, and Caribbean, which constitute 20 percent of all countries. These states are much more likely than larger states to be democratic. Existing theory is tested against these understudied cases using a combination of statistical analysis and cross-case comparison. A new theory is then built, based on extensive qualitative research in small states. The personalization of politics is highlighted as ubiquitous in small states, regardless of region, history, institutional design, and level of economic wealth; and as strongly shaping the practice of politics in these countries. Many factors that democratization scholars argue predict successful consolidation do not fit small states: democracy can and does persist against all odds. This hopeful finding is significant in a world of rising democratic pessimism. The book’s optimism is tempered, however by showing that the hyper-personalized politics common to all small states is not without problems, including executive domination, patron-client linkages and extreme polarization. These offer cautionary lessons for all democracies in an era increasingly defined by populism and rising citizen disaffection with representative institutions.
Democratization and Economic Development
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

Chapter 2 interrogates modernization theory and the belief that economic growth is key to explaining why democratic regimes rise and fall. Many small states in Africa, the Caribbean, and most significantly the Pacific are poor but retain high Freedom House scores. Conversely, some small states, in Europe in particular, but also Brunei in Asia, tend to be both richer and poorly scored. This demonstrates that while economic performance is clearly relevant to the survival of regimes, the key link is not how wealthy a country is but how elites both utilize their economic resources and narrate the story of their performance. In poorer states, elites keep public expectations low while rewarding loyal followers via practices of clientelism and patronage. In wealthy states, elites link high living standards with regime stability and centralized authority. Thus, the personalization of politics can have unexpected benefits for democratization, especially in small, poorer countries.
Persisting Against All Odds
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

Chapter 8 pulls together the examples infused throughout the body of the book to show that, despite the odds, political regimes in small states—the vast majority of which are democratic—can be both remarkably adaptive and remarkably resilient. A close examination of political practices demonstrates how personalization and informal politics is the key to explaining both successes and failures. This argument has particular relevance in small states where there is increased social proximity. However, it also has wider implications for scholars of comparative politics and democratic consolidation in particular where the recent tendency has been to downplay the role of intentional agents in theoretical explanations. Most importantly, it provides a nuanced and clearer-eyed analysis of the strengths and limitations of personality-driven politics, a phenomenon of growing importance to democracies across the globe. By studying politics in small states, something is learned about large states, too.
The Ether at the Crossroads of Classical and Modern Physics
Authors: Clarke Imogen
Published: October 2018

This chapter aims to liberate the ether from its historiographical assignment to classical physics, instead considering its role in debates surrounding the future of the discipline. Focusing on the British case, it explores the discussions underway in professional spaces between 1909 and 1914, suggesting that a physicist’s commitment to the ether does not classify them as a ‘classicist’ but rather as an advocate of continuity in the discipline. It then examines the ether’s ‘popular’ life following the well-publicised 1919 eclipse expedition, and the subsequent expository efforts by the ‘classical’ Oliver Lodge and ‘modern’ Arthur Stanley Eddington. By moving beyond a traditional approach that divides physics and physicists into classical and modern, this chapter suggests a more substantial role for the ether in professional and popular early twentieth-century British physics.
Transformations of Knowledge in Oliver Lodge’s Ether and Reality
Authors: Whitworth Michael H.
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines Oliver Lodge’s popular science book Ether and Reality, which was published in 1925. In it, Oliver Lodge purported to give a non-technical account of the functions of the luminiferous ether. However, Lodge himself had a dilemma, as he wanted the ether to be different from material bodies but not wholly immaterial. Lodge thus needed to present both an account of the ether and an account of a scientific view that was sympathetic to its possible existence. This chapter examines Lodge’s expository strategies in his book. It considers Lodge’s creation of ethos, and the reader that his text implies, paying particular attention to his use of analogy, repetition, parallelism and allusion. It also identifies previously unremarked literary allusions and allusions to the Bible. Finally, as this chapter shows, much of Lodge’s work is done through suggestion and insinuation: Lodge requires the reader to complete his meaning for him.
Making Space for the Soul
Authors: Noakes Richard
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the origins, development and reception of Oliver Lodge’s ‘psychic’ uses of the ether of space. It explores the connections that he made between his Maxwellian conceptions of the ether, and psychical research into the soul. It argues that his ideas of a psychic ether owed much to Balfour Stewart and Peter Guthrie Tait’s Unseen Universe (1875) and to a growing friendship with the major figure in Victorian psychical research, F. W. H. Myers. Lodge’s attachment to the ether, and its possible psychic functions, only grew stronger after 1900 when the necessity for a quasi-mechanical medium was challenged by relativity theory, and the need for the soul to have a more substantial state was fuelled by the mass slaughter in World War I. The chapter concludes by arguing that Lodge’s conceptions of the ether enjoyed much greater popularity among wireless engineers and spiritualists than among fellow physicists.
Hunting for the Luminiferous Ether
Authors: Lalli Roberto
Published: October 2018

This chapter re-examines the view widely held by physicists that the luminiferous ether became an outdated concept in the early twentieth century and that Albert Einstein’s special relativity killed it. A second common narrative is that the null result of the 1887 Michelson–Morley ether-drift experiment led to Einstein’s theory and the demise of the ether. On the basis of these two simplified narratives, it has become part of the physicists’ ‘imagined past’ that the Michelson–Morley experiment provided the key evidence decreeing the end of the ether. Using scientometrics, this chapter argues that the first part of this idealised narrative is misleading and that the two parts of this narrative are deeply intertwined, as both had historical roots in the reception of Einstein’s relativity theories. In this perspective, the well-known episode of Dayton C. Miller’s repetition of the Michelson–Morley experiment in the 1920s appears in a new light.
An Ether by Any Other Name?
Authors: Wright Aaron Sidney
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines Paul Dirac’s 1951 proposal that ‘we are rather forced to have an æther’, arguing that it was a purposeful use of anachronism, meant to shock his contemporaries in relativistic quantum theory. The chapter considers the context for Dirac’s proposal in physics and astronomy during his education, and in the journal Nature. Dirac’s ‘æther’ was distinct from the ether proposed by E. T. Whittaker and Arthur Eddington, as it was more physical and substantial. In the conclusion, the chapter argues that the historical progression of physical theory was central to Dirac’s æther proposal. If, in 1905, Einstein ushered in one revolution which removed the possibility for an ether, the later quantum revolution made a new ‘æther’ possible. In the Manchester Guardian, Léon Rosenfeld described Dirac as conjuring ‘the ghost of the “aether”’. In fact, Dirac attempted a resurrection.
Hutton Rises in the World
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: October 2018

Hutton’s business success and social mobility are viewed in the context of Birmingham’s industrial development, a booming land market, the lack of government regulation, and the diversity of religious practice. This chapter reveals the economic framework that allowed Hutton to amass wealth. Once he settled in Birmingham, he found new ways to develop business skills and make money. Early failure stiffened his resolve, taught him lessons, and led him to focus on selling paper, instead of books. Convinced of the future value of land, he made risky speculations and accumulated large debts. A case study compares Hutton’s response to the Industrial Revolution with that of his sister, Catherine Perkins. Hutton devoted all his energies to making money and buying estates. His sister found greater happiness in her religious faith and charity. Their opposing views about land, trade, money, and religion reveal a spectrum of personal responses to rapid economic change.
Hutton as an Author
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: October 2018

Reading and writing were cornerstones of the lives of self-educated rough diamonds like Hutton. He is a perfect example of the dreaded rising author, who wrote for money, without education or status. His writings reveal new modes of authorship and the literary culture of an industrial town. Chapter 6 appraises his work by examining 70 periodical reviews of Hutton’s 15 books. Based on personal experience, they mixed history, travelogues, and life writing. Though they suited the nation’s thirst for entertainment and useful knowledge, Hutton has not been recognized as a new kind of writer, who produced unlearned books for a commercial age. His blunt style and breach of polite norms horrified the literary establishment. But his accessible prose satisfied new audiences and led to alternative yardsticks of literary taste. Hutton thus had an impact on two contrasting groups of readers, and helped put the English Midlands on the national literary map.
Hutton and the Priestley Riots
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: October 2018

Chapter 6 revisits the Priestley riots (1791) from the viewpoint of a victim, and finds causes concerning the wealth and power of rough diamonds. Birmingham’s print culture and attitudes to law also caused problems, as shown in hostility to Hutton’s role as a magistrate without legal training. Priestley’s influence on religious and political disputes is well known, but Hutton’s actions also triggered violence. His unpublished ‘Narrative of the Riots’ places him at the riots’ centre, and suggests an individual life can address larger questions. His story reveals unexpected self-education amidst industrialization, social mobility alongside poverty, and personal freedom amongst stark limits. The rags-to-riches tale of Hutton and Birmingham is widely admired. But the town’s fabled harmony was accompanied by conflict, and Hutton was never fully accepted. Despite his magnificent achievements, fear of the social mobility of rough diamonds persisted. Since he flaunted his ascent, no one could forget or forgive him. As he crossed the line between workers and masters, he sealed his own fate.
Which Theology for Anthropology?
Authors: Howell Brian M.
Published: October 2018

This chapter suggests that defining the concept of theology may seem more suited for the professional theologian rather than the anthropologist. However, it may be the anthropologist who is best positioned to investigate theology in order to discover what conversations can be profitably brought into the work of anthropology. It begins with a typology of theology first suggested by Hans Frei in the latter part of the twentieth century. The typology serves to compare the present project to one undertaken recently by anthropologists engaging philosophy. Finally, the chapter presents an ethnographic vignette from fieldwork in the Philippines to illustrate how this particular understanding of philosophy–theology may serve to answer anthropological puzzles.
Theology Revealing the Hājibs of Anthropology
Authors: Furani Khaled
Published: October 2018

This chapter proposes ways in which theology could promote a critique of idolatries in modern anthropology. It culls resources by scouring Nietzsche’s arguments against modernity. Nietzsche enables a vision of modern anthropology as symptomatic of God’s death in the West, thus inducing questions about the ways its adoration of idols may inhibit a truer inquiry. The chapter finds examples to this effect in anthropology’s engagement with the nation state, humanism, and the constitutive concept of culture. It then speculates as to how a theological repudiation of anthropology’s idols could support a conceptual and institutional renewal going far beyond enhancing its study of religion. For instance, anthropology awakened by theistic rationality could adequately engage with the concept of tradition. It could also forge a new grammar of connectivity within the discipline as well as within the disciplinary arrangements of the modern university.
What Can Theology Contribute to Cultural Anthropology?
Authors: Kollman Paul
Published: October 2018

After considering the author’s personal history engaging theology and anthropology, this chapter examines the consequences of Robbins’ influential 2006 article on the disciplines’ relationship. Robbins’ decision to focus on theologian John Milbank to make the case unintentionally discouraged consideration of other theologians who draw upon anthropological theory. Informed by the author’s own research on missionary activity in Africa and how theological understanding yielded insights into it, the chapter turns to two frameworks that consider the outcomes of Christian missionary practices: anthropological writings by Kenelm Burridge and theological essays of Andrew Walls. Both consider the dialectical relationship between the Christian message that missionaries bring and the reception of that message by those evangelized. It explores the similarities and differences between their two approaches and then considers what this comparison reveals about the potential mutual fruitfulness of bringing theology to bear on anthropological study.
Theology’s Contribution to Anthropological Understanding in T. M. Luhrmann’s When God Talks Back
Authors: Jenkins Timothy
Published: October 2018

This chapter offers a particular example of the contribution theology might make to anthropology by taking T. M. Luhrmann’s ethnography of evangelical Christian prayer practices, When God Talks Back (2012), as its focus. The argument has two aspects. First, theological criticism of notions of religious experience needs to be taken seriously and will contribute to the anthropological description. Second, something is missing from the anthropological description offered because certain theological ideas—in this case, principally, the direction of travel of the soul with respect to God—are underplayed. The case study illustrates the complexities we may expect from a project of the kind pursued in this volume.
Narratives of Significance
Authors: McGrath Alister E.
Published: October 2018

This chapter explains that narratives are important both to anthropology and theology. It initially considers the general role that narratives play in an anthropological account of the construction of meaning and social identity before moving on to consider how certain narratives acquire a sacred status. This cultural analysis is then interpreted theologically as a first step in developing a theologically engaged anthropology of narrative. Although it interacts with leading voices in contemporary theological reflection, many of the more interesting theological engagements with the importance of narrative originate from literary circles, and the chapter incorporates these in its reflections, considering how narratives can generate and sustain a sense of the sacred, provide an imaginative resource for theological reflection, and develop a framework of meaning. Finally, the manner in which such a theological framing of the role and significance of narratives may illuminate anthropological approaches is considered.
Superstition and Enlightenment
Authors: Adams Nicholas
Published: October 2018

This chapter first engages two cases where anthropologists draw on the work of theologians and then develops a normative account of the relation between the two disciplines via a third—philosophy—by drawing attention to questions of scale in these engagements. The second part considers, briefly, the distinctive approach to time that theological work often articulates in its concern with the past for the sake of the future. This construct can be presented as an ideal scheme. The past is a resource for reparative thinking; the present is an abundance of signs of suffering calling for repair; the future is imagined as a life where suffering has been healed. The chapter interprets Robbins’ and Jenkins’ interest in theologians’ work in the light of this approach to time, suggesting that both are concerned with change but in different ways.
Athens Engaging Jerusalem
Authors: Rynkiewich Michael A.
Published: October 2018

This chapter proposes that the emergence of the individual is often credited to theological anthropology filtered through the Enlightenment. This concept has been reshaped with secular meaning, yet critical theological thinking continues to enhance our understanding of the person. Pannenberg’s exocentricism situates the formation of the person in relationship to the Other. Moltmann’s work on the fragmented self confirms the possibility of change, offering hope to a discipline where it is sadly lacking. The embodiment of the soul in a non-dualistic, non-reductionist theology recovers the Eastern Church Fathers, particularly Maximus the Confessor, in their understanding of the goal of participation in God through participation in the Other.
The Exclusive Brethren “Doctrine of Separation”
Authors: Webster Joseph
Published: October 2018

This chapter draws inspiration from Webb Keane’s (2014) suggestion that “we shouldn’t decide in advance what ethics will look like”. The chapter seeks to contribute critically to new scholarship within the anthropology of morality and detachment by constructing, in a very literal sense, an anthropology of theology via an analysis of the Exclusive Brethren doctrine of separation. Specifically, it seeks to answer two questions: (1) How do the Exclusive Brethren try to live good lives? and (2) What can we learn anthropologically from these models of the good and from the objections they provoke? The chapter concludes by arguing that detachment and disconnection, as well as the negative statements of non-belonging that accompany them, can be found in spheres of thought and practice not normally regarded as religious.
The Literary and Ideological Character of the Letters in Ezra 4–7
Authors: Grätz Sebastian
Published: October 2018

At first glance, the Aramaic letters embedded in the biblical book of Ezra look like authentic documents issued in favour of the Judaeans by the Achaemenid chanceries. This chapter shows that the letters display formulaic and stylistic features differing from authentic imperial Persian royal correspondence, that the contents of these letters are influenced by other biblical texts, chiefly Deutero-Isaiah and the books of Chronicles, and that the image of the king in these letters comprises aspects of the euergetism characteristic of Hellenistic monarchs. Grätz therefore suggests that the letters in Ezra 4–7 are fictitious and serve certain literary and ideological purposes: they present the Persian period as a time of divinely monitored reconstruction after the exile, and they emphasize God’s lasting election of Judah and the Jerusalem temple. The deployment of letters for such purposes can be compared with similar practices in Hellenistic historiography.
Configuring Addressee Communities in Ancient Jewish Letters
Authors: Doering Lutz
Published: October 2018

The chapter investigates how the Epistle of Baruch configures Jewish national identity in the first or second century CE. Baruch emphasizes the unity and common lot of the twelve tribes: all of them have left their land; all they can rely on now is God and his Torah. Baruch thus shifts the focus from a this-worldly national expectation to an other-worldly hope. By requesting recurrent rereading of the Epistle and mutual commemoration, the Epistle (and with it the Apocalypse) specifies the preferred mode of its own reception. It is unclear whether it was successful with real communities of readers around 100 CE. But the stand-alone form of the Epistle popular in the Syriac tradition shows that it achieved its aim at least with later Syriac Christian readers.
The Letters of Paul and the Construction of Early Christian Networks
Authors: Barclay John M. G.
Published: October 2018

The chapter argues that, contrary to what might be expected, in Paul’s network of early Christian communities, letters were subsidiary to non-literary, and thus non-epistolary, forms of face-to-face communication during meetings, by messengers, and through conversation and gossip. As Barclay shows in a close reading of 2 Cor 8:16–24, there was a lot going on orally before, behind, and in the wake of Paul’s letter(s) to the Corinthians. Nevertheless, Paul’s letters had a threefold managerial import: they managed perceptions as well as reputations, and they fulfilled a controlling function in that they affirmed his authority over his churches. Barclay claims that practice and physical presence were ultimately deemed superior to words and letters, and that Paul’s letters acquired the dominant role that we assign to them only in the subsequent rereading by different Christian communities.
The Communities Configured in the Letter of James
Authors: Niebuhr Karl-Wilhelm
Published: October 2018

The chapter explores how the Letter of James configures communities, distinguishing between the real (or historical) readers, the implied readers, and the letter’s reception history. During late antiquity and the Middle Ages the letter was perceived as a foundational instruction from James, the brother of the Lord, one of the leading figures of the Jerusalem church. At the level of the implied readers, the text makes use of the genre of Diaspora letter, which allows for the creation of a sense of common values and shared faith with the addressees. Finally, at the level of historical communities, the Letter of James appears to address a community of Jewish origins searching for a specifically ‘Christian’ identity in the midst of a dominant Mediterranean culture.
Fluid Mechanics
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

Starting with a review of vector fields and their integral curves, the book presents the basic equations of the subject: Euler and Navier–Stokes. Some solutions are studied next: ideal flows using conformal transformations, viscous flows such as Couette and Stokes flow around a sphere, shocks in the Burgers equation. Prandtl’s boundary layer theory and the Blasius solution are presented. Rayleigh–Taylor instability is studied in analogy with the inverted pendulum, with a digression on Kapitza’s stabilization. The possibility of transients in a linearly stable system with a non-normal operator is studied using an example by Trefethen et al. The integrable models (KdV, Hasimoto’s vortex soliton) and their hamiltonian formalism are studied. Delving into deeper mathematics, geodesics on Lie groups are studied: first using the Lie algebra and then using Milnor’s approach to the curvature of the Lie group. Arnold’s deep idea that Euler’s equations are the geodesic equations on the diffeomorphism group is then explained and its curvature calculated. The next three chapters are an introduction to numerical methods: spectral methods based on Chebychev functions for ODEs, their application by Orszag to solve the Orr–Sommerfeld equation, finite difference methods for elementary PDEs, the Magnus formula and its application to geometric integrators for ODEs. Two appendices give an introduction to dynamical systems: Arnold’s cat map, homoclinic points, Smale’s horse shoe, Hausdorff dimension of the invariant set, Aref ’s example of chaotic advection. The last appendix introduces renormalization: Ising model on a Cayley tree and Feigenbaum’s theory of period doubling.
Euler’s Equations
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

Euler derived the fundamental equations of an ideal fluid, that is, in the absence of friction (viscosity). They describe the conservation of momentum. We can derive from it the equation for the evolution of vorticity (Helmholtz equation). Euler’s equations have to be supplemented by the conservation of mass and by an equation of state (which relates density to pressure). Of special interest is the case of incompressible flow; when the fluid velocity is small compared to the speed of sound, the density may be treated as a constant. In this limit, Euler’s equations have scale invariance in addition to rotation and translation invariance. d’Alembert’s paradox points out the limitation of Euler’s equation: friction cannot be ignored near the boundary, nomatter how small the viscosity.
The Navier–Stokes Equations
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

When different layers of a fluid move at different velocities, there is some friction which results in loss of energy and momentum to molecular degrees of freedom. This dissipation is measured by a property of the fluid called viscosity. The Navier–Stokes (NS) equations are the modification of Euler’s equations that include this effect. In the incompressible limit, the NS equations have a residual scale invariance. The flow depends only on a dimensionless ratio (the Reynolds number). In the limit of small Reynolds number, the NS equations become linear, equivalent to the diffusion equation. Ideal flow is the limit of infinite Reynolds number. In general, the larger the Reynolds number, the more nonlinear (complicated, turbulent) the flow.
Viscous Flows
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

Here some solutions of Navier–Stokes equations are found.The flow of a fluid along a pipe (Poisseuille flow) and that between two rotating cylinders (Couette flow) are the simplest. In the limit of large viscosity (small Reynolds number) the equations become linear: Stokes equations. Flow past a sphere is solved in detail. It is used to calculate the drag on a sphere, a classic formula of Stokes. An exact solution of the Navier–Stokes equation describing a dissipating vortex is also found. It is seen that viscosity cannot be ignored at the boundary or at the core of vortices.
Boundary Layers
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

It is found experimentally that all the components of fluid velocity (not just thenormal component) vanish at a wall. No matter how small the viscosity, the large velocity gradients near a wall invalidate Euler’s equations. Prandtl proposed that viscosity has negligible effect except near a thin region near a wall. Prandtl’s equations simplify the Navier-Stokes equation in this boundary layer, by ignoring one dimension. They have an unusual scale invariance in which the distances along the boundary and perpendicular to it have different dimensions. Using this symmetry, Blasius reduced Prandtl’s equations to one dimension. They can then be solved numerically. A convergent analytic approximation was also found by H. Weyl. The drag on a flat plate can now be derived, resolving d’Alembert’s paradox. When the boundary is too long, Prandtl’s theory breaks down: the boundary layer becomes turbulent or separates from the wall.
Hamiltonian Systems Based on a Lie Algebra
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

There is a remarkable analogy between Euler’s equations for a rigid body and his equations for an ideal fluid. The unifying idea is that of a Lie algebra with an inner product, which is not invariant, on it. The concepts of a vector space, Lie algebra, and inner product are reviewed. A hamiltonian dynamical system is derived from each metric Lie algebra. The Virasoro algebra (famous in string theory) is shown to lead to the KdV equation; and in a limiting case, to the Burgers equation for shocks. A hamiltonian formalism for two-dimensional Euler equations is then developed in detail. A discretization of these equations (using a spectral method) is then developed using mathematical ideas from quantum mechanics. Then a hamiltonian formalism for the full three-dimensional Euler equations is developed. The Clebsch variables which provide canonical pairs for fluid dynamics are then explained, in analogy to angular momentum.
Finite Difference Methods
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

This chapter offers a peek at the vast literature on numerical methods for partial differential equations. The focus is on finite difference methods (FDM): approximating differential operators by functions of difference operators. Padé approximants (Fornberg) give a unifying principle for deriving the various stencils used by numericists. Boundary value problems for the Poisson equation and initial value problems for the diffusion equation are solved using FDM. Numerical instability of explicit schemes are explained physically and implicit schemes introduced. A discrete version of theClebsch formulation of incompressible Euler equations is proposed. The chapter concludes with the radial basis function method and its application to a discrete version of the Lagrangian formulation of Navier–Stokes.
Introduction
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

An overview of topics discussed in the book. The introduction starts with a discussion of a range of example networks including the internet, social networks, the world wide web, and biological and ecological networks, followed by a discussion of methods for analyzing network data and properties of observed networks, such as degrees, centrality, degree distributions, the small-world effect, and community structure. The chapter ends with an outline of the rest of the book.
Networks of information
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

A discussion of information networks and their measurement. The world wide web is discussed at length, including HTML, HTTP, and the use of crawlers to measure network structure. Citation networks are also discussed in some detail, including their history, structure, and statistics, and the use of databases of citation records to construct networks. Other networks discussed include peer-to-peer networks, recommender networks, and keyword indexes.
Biological networks
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

A discussion of a range of different kinds of biological networks. The chapter starts with a discussion of biochemical networks such metabolic and protein interaction networks and methods for determining their structure, particularly focusing on high-throughput methods such as the yeast two-hybrid screen. Next is a discussion of neural networks and other networks in the brain, along with measurement techniques such as slice electron microscopy, optical microscopy, transsynaptic tracing, functional MRI, and diffusion MRI. Finally, there is a discussion of ecological networks, and particularly food webs.
Computer algorithms
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

This chapter introduces some of the fundamental concepts of numerical network calculations. The chapter starts with a discussion of basic concepts of computational complexity and data structures for storing network data, then progresses to the description and analysis of algorithms for a range of network calculations: breadth-first search and its use for calculating shortest paths, shortest distances, components, closeness, and betweenness; Dijkstra's algorithm for shortest paths and distances on weighted networks; and the augmenting path algorithm for calculating maximum flows, minimum cut sets, and independent paths in networks.
Network statistics and measurement error
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

This chapter introduces the mathematics of network statistics, the quantification of errors in network data, and the estimation of network structure in the presence of error. The discussion starts with a summary of the types of error that can occur in network data and the empirical sources of those errors. The remainder of the chapter is given over to a discussion of the theory of network statistics, beginning with a review of the theory for ordinary real-valued (non-network) data, then developing the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm for estimating network structure and error levels in the presence of error, with example applications. The chapter ends with a discussion of error correction methods such as link prediction and node disambiguation.
Random graphs
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

An introduction to the mathematics of the Poisson random graph, the simplest model of a random network. The chapter starts with a definition of the model, followed by derivations of basic properties like the mean degree, degree distribution, and clustering coefficient. This is followed with a detailed derivation of the large-scale structural properties of random graphs, including the position of the phase transition at which a giant component appears, the size of the giant component, the average size of the small components, and the expected diameter of the network. The chapter ends with a discussion of some of the shortcomings of the random graph model.
The configuration model
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

A discussion of the most fundamental of network models, the configuration model, which is a random graph model of a network with a specified degree sequence. Following a definition of the model a number of basic properties are derived, including the probability of an edge, the expected number of multiedges, the excess degree distribution, the friendship paradox, and the clustering coefficient. This is followed by derivations of some more advanced properties including the condition for the existence of a giant component, the size of the giant component, the average size of a small component, and the expected diameter. Generating function methods for network models are also introduced and used to perform some more advanced calculations, such as the calculation of the distribution of the number of second neighbors of a node and the complete distribution of sizes of small components. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of extensions of the configuration model to directed networks, bipartite networks, networks with degree correlations, networks with high clustering, and networks with community structure, among other possibilities.
Models of network formation
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

This chapter describes models of the growth or formation of networks, with a particular focus on preferential attachment models. It starts with a discussion of the classic preferential attachment model for citation networks introduced by Price, including a complete derivation of the degree distribution in the limit of large network size. Subsequent sections introduce the Barabasi-Albert model and various generalized preferential attachment models, including models with addition or removal of extra nodes or edges and models with nonlinear preferential attachment. Also discussed are node copying models and models in which networks are formed by optimization processes, such as delivery networks or airline networks.
Community structure
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

A discussion of community structure in networks and methods for its detection. The chapter begins with an introduction to the idea of community structure, followed by descriptions of a range of methods for finding communities, including modularity maximization, the InfoMap method, methods based on maximum-likelihood fits of models to network data, betweenness-based methods, and hierarchical clustering. Also discussed are methods for assessing algorithm performance, along with a summary of performance studies and their findings. The chapter concludes with a discussion of other types of large-scale structure in networks, such as overlapping and hierarchical communities, core-periphery structure, latent-space structure, and rank structure.
Living Standards and Prosperity
Authors: Nolan Brian
Published: October 2018

This introductory chapter develops and motivates the overarching topic of the book, which is how rich countries have fared in recent decades in terms of the generation of prosperity for ordinary working families and the lessons to be learned from analysing their performance. It sets out how this is at the core of current concerns and debates, not least about the impact of globalization and technological change and the growth in inequality, and the economic, social, and political consequences. It then provides an outline and roadmap of the structure of the book, in terms of the range of topics to be addressed. In doing so it sets out how the various elements fit together and contribute to the overall aim of the book.
Median Household Income and GDP
Authors: Nolan Brian , Roser Max , Thewissen Stefan
Published: October 2018

This chapter investigates the extent to which real income growth for households around the middle is seen to diverge from growth in national income per head—the most widely-used metric for assessing overall macroeconomic performance. While the concentration of income gains at the top of the distribution examined in Chapter 3 is one potential explanation, it is by no means the only one. A range of distinct factors that may contribute are described and their importance assessed across countries and over time. The implications are brought out both for understanding what drives ordinary living standards and for how they are best monitored and assessed.
Minimum Wages and Supporting Wage Growth
Authors: Nolan Brian
Published: October 2018

This chapter addresses the central question of how governments can seek to underpin real wage growth for working households over time. It looks first at the role that minimum wages can play in supporting wages and household incomes in the middle as well as lower parts of the distribution. This is investigated through a simulation exercise looking at the impact of a substantial increase in the minimum wage in the UK, bringing out the broader lessons to be learned for rich countries. A variety of other routes through which policy might seek to support wage growth are then set out and discussed.
Conclusions and Implications
Authors: Nolan Brian
Published: October 2018

The concluding chapter provides a thematic overview in order to bring out from the range of findings presented in the book the main messages and their implications. In doing so, it highlights that the wide variation across OECD countries in how the circumstances of middle and lower income households have evolved—documented and analysed throughout the book in various dimensions—has critical implications for the quest for inclusive growth. While there are some important commonalities across rich countries, it may not be helpful to frame their experiences mostly in terms of the types of encompassing ‘grand narratives’ that are now in vogue, and seek on that basis to produce a common set of policy prescriptions where ‘one size fits all’.
Spin Resonance
Authors: Glazov M. M.
Published: October 2018

This chapter is devoted to one of key phenomena in the field of spin physics, namely, resonant absorption of electromagnetic waves under conditions where the Zeeman splitting of spin levels in magnetic field is equal to photon energy. This method is particularly important for identification of nuclear spin effects, because resonance spectra provide fingerprints of different involved spin species and make it possible to distinguish different nuclear isotopes. As discussed in this chapter the nuclear magnetic resonance provides also an access to local magnetic fields acting on nuclear spins. These fields are caused by the magnetic interactions between the nuclei and by the quadrupole splittings of nuclear spin states in anisotropic crystalline environment. Manifestations of spin resonance in optical responses of semiconductors–that is, optically detected magnetic resonance–are discussed.
Hyperfine Interaction of Electron and Nuclear Spins
Authors: Glazov M. M.
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the key interaction–hyperfine coupling–which underlies most of phenomena in the field of electron and nuclear spin dynamics. This interaction originates from magnetic interaction between the nuclear and electron spins. For conduction band electrons in III–V or II–VI semiconductors, it is reduced to a Fermi contact interaction whose strength is proportional to the probability of finding an electron at the nucleus. A more complex situation is realized for valence band holes where hole Bloch functions vanish at the nuclei. Here the hyperfine interaction is of the dipole–dipole type. The modification of the hyperfine coupling Hamiltonian in nanosystems is also analyzed. The chapter contains also an overview of experimental data aimed at determination of the hyperfine interaction parameters in semiconductors and semiconductor nanostructures.
Electron Spin Decoherence by Nuclei
Authors: Glazov M. M.
Published: October 2018

The discussion of the electron spin decoherence and relaxation phenomena via the hyperfine interaction with host lattice spins is presented here. The spin relaxation processes processes limit the conservation time of spin states as well as the response time of the spin system to external perturbations. The central spin model, where the spin of charge carrier interacts with the bath of nuclear spins, is formulated. We also present different methods to calculate the spin dynamics within this model. Simple but physically transparent semiclassical treatment where the nuclear spins are considered as largely static classical magnetic moments is followed by more advanced quantum mechanical approach where the feedback of electron spin dynamics on the nuclei is taken into account. The chapter concludes with an overview of experimental data and its comparison with model calculations.
Electron Spin Relaxation Beyond the Hyperfine Interaction
Authors: Glazov M. M.
Published: October 2018

Here, some prospects for future studies in the field of electron and nuclear spin dynamics are outlined. In contrast to previous chapters where the electron interaction with multitude of nuclei was discussed, in Chapter 8 particular emphasis is put on a situation where hyperfine interaction is so strong that it leads to a qualitative rear rangement of the energy spectrum resulting in coherent excitation transfer between electron and nucleus. The strong coupling between the spin of the charge carrier and of the nucleus is realized; e.g., in the case of deep impurity centers in semiconductors or in isotopically purified systems. We also discuss the effect of the nuclear spin polaron; that is, the ordered state, where the carrier spin orientation results in alignment of spins of the nucleus interacting with the electron or hole. Such problems have been briefly discussed in the literature but, in our opinion, call for in-depth investigation.
Strong Coupling of Electron and Nuclear Spins: Outlook and Prospects
Authors: Glazov M. M.
Published: October 2018

In this chapter, some prospects in the field of electron and nuclear spin dynamics are outlined. Particular emphasis is put ona situation where the hyperfine interaction is so strong that it leads to a qualitative rearrangement of the energy spectrum resulting in the coherent excitation transfer between the electron and nucleus. The strong coupling between the spin of the charge carrier and of the nucleus is realized, for example in the case of deep impurity centers in semiconductors or in isotopically purified systems. We also discuss the effect of the nuclear spin polaron, that is ordered state, formation at low enough temperatures of nuclear spins, where the orientation of the carrier spin results in alignment of the spins of nucleus interacting with the electron or hole.
Introduction
Authors: Porter Patrick
Published: October 2018

The introductory chapter lays out the book’s research question, outlines its argument, identifies and critiques alternative arguments, locates its argument in the wider literature (academic, journalistic, and ‘grey’), explains the methodology, identifies the policy implications of the debate, and summarizes the chapters. The argument is offered not as an exhaustive final explanation but as the first of the ‘post-Chilcot’ accounts. Emphasizing the war’s intellectual and ideological roots, it puts ideas and doctrines back at the centre of the story, suggesting that the assumptions that drove Britain to war were more collectively shared and more enduring. Above all, it was Britain’s war, not just Blair’s.
Breaking States
Authors: Porter Patrick
Published: October 2018

This chapter forms the core of the argument, tracing the ideological roots of ‘regime change’, identified as an underlying form of security-seeking. Though it took the structural fact of American power and the contingent event of the 9/11 terrorist attacks to make the assault on Saddam possible, it was also conditioned by the rise in the previous decade of a set of ideas about liberalism and security. Those ideas bred a ‘common sense’ that presented disputable ideas as obvious: that 9/11 was a harbinger, not an aberration, warranting high-risk and radical measures; that designated ‘rogue’ actors are undeterrable aggressors who we cannot live with; and that given the obvious ‘arc’ of history towards democracy and capitalism, Western power can be applied to transform whole regions if only Westerners have the will.