bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of INCOLOY Alloy 800 After 14 Years of Service as a Catalyst Tube in a Steam-Methane Reformer
Authors: Mankins WL , Wenschhof DE
Published: March 2009

An INCOLOY Alloy 800 catalyst tube, which served satisfactorily in a steam-methane reformer for more than 14 years, was removed for examination. The tube had been heated to temperatures varying along its length from 540 to 815°C (1000 to 1500°F).

The deepest penetration of intergranular oxidation was only 0.33 mm (0.013 in.) on the outer surface.

Room-temperature tensile properties and stress-rupture properties improved significantly with the precipitation of carbides at higher temperatures and gamma prime at the lower temperatures. Gamma prime was the principal strengthening phase, and mechanical properties show that ductility was retained.

Rare, discrete, blocky particles of sigma phase found in one section of the tube were determined to be innocuous.
Adhesion of Steel Tire Cord to Rubber Compounds Mutual Influence of Brass and Rubber Compounds on the Adhesion
Authors: Bourrain MP
Published: March 2009

A study was made on strands to define the evolution of the original adhesion as well as thermic aging adhesion both under and free from moisture conditions. The following parameters have been recorded: composition of brass, brass thickness and the formulations of calendered rubber compounds that are representative of the compounds found in tire manufacturing.

The resulting graphic curves show a displacement of maximal adhesion depending essentially on the copper content, on the adhesion promoters used in rubber compounds (cobalt salt or resorcinol-silica-hexamethylene tetramine system), and on the sulfur content with as much regard to the original adhesion as to the aging adhesion.

The influence of the brass plating thickness agrees with the results of a study made on the diffusion of sulfur in brass by the means of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy [XPS or electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA)].
Degradation of Adhesion of Coated Tire Cords to Rubber by Atmospheric Pollutants
Authors: Hartz RE , Adams HT
Published: March 2009

Atmospheric conditions, whether at room temperature or in high temperature ovens, do not consist of pure environments. Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex (RFL) dipped nylon and polyester tire cords lose adhesion to rubber stocks upon exposure to environmental pollutants. Adhesion degradation is most severe upon exposure to ozone and ozone-ultraviolet light. Other degradants such as nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, heat, and air have a much lesser effect on adhesion loss. Degradation is caused by attack of the olefinic double bonds of the butadiene component of the rubber latex to reduce sites for cure with stock formulations. Addition of proprietary waxes to the RFL dip provides protection from adhesion loss during exposure by blooming to the surface of the dip on the cord.

Brass coated steel rapidly loses adhesion upon exposure to nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. However, humidity and heat do not affect adhesion loss. Corrosion of the metals catalyzed by acidic pollutants eliminates sites for cure to the sulfur adducts of the adhesion stocks.
Cyclic Inelastic Deformation Aspects of Fatigue-Crack-Growth Analysis
Authors: Leis BN , Zahoor A
Published: March 2009

The objective of this paper is to examine the general utility of a J-based analysis of cyclic plasticity aspects in fatigue-crack growth. Preliminary analysis of data which indicates J may be appropriate is reviewed, and it is shown that these data represent a unique test case where cyclic plasticity aspects may be inconsequential. Details of the J-integral are elaborated in the sense of possible limitations to the usefulness of the deformation theory in applications to cyclic plasticity. The phenomenology of fatigue crack growth under variable amplitude loading is reviewed, and residual deformations and stresses at the crack tip and in the wake of the crack are identified as essential features of the history dependent flow process associated with crack growth. Each of these aspects is elaborated and discussed with regard to the use of a single characterizing parameter; first for stationary, then for growing cracks. It is observed and concluded that J controlled near field (JNF) must be used on a cycle-by-cycle basis if a J based analysis is to potentially account for cyclic plasticity. A number of crucial analytical and experimental tests of the ability of J (JNF) to adequately characterize these effects are enumerated. It is also concluded that the use of a single parameter J based analysis for fatigue-crack-growth assessment in structures subjected to variable amplitude loading may be tenuous.
Effects of Specimen Geometry on the J1-R Curve for ASTM A533B Steel
Authors: Vassilaros MG , Joyce JA , Gudas JP
Published: March 2009

Two experiments were performed with ASTM A533B steel to evaluate effects of compact specimen geometry on the JI versus crack growth resistance curve and evaluate validity limits for J-controlled crack growth. Side groove depth and crack length ratios were investigated with 1T compact tension specimens (1TCT) of HSST-02 plate. An investigation of thickness to ligament ratios over a broad range was conducted with 2T plan compact specimens using HSST-03 plate. All tests were performed at 150°C (302°F) using a computer-interactive unloading compliance test procedure.

Results showed that side grooves straightened the crack growth. With HSST-02 plate, total side groove depth of 20 percent is required to eliminate crack tunneling. With this steel, side grooves served to reduce JIc from nonside groove measurements and also resulted in less measurement variability. A change in slip mode from planar to cross-slip did not affect the tearing modulus measurement, which was shown to be insensitive to thickness to ligament ratios ranging from 0.63 to 3.89. The minimum ω required for J-controlled crack growth for this material was shown to be on the order of one when considering less than 6 percent crack extension.
Measurement of Crack Growth Resistance of A533B Wide Plate Tests
Authors: Garwood SJ
Published: March 2009

Nine 500-mm-wide, 110-mm-thick A533B Class I wide plates were tested at +70°C (158°F). Three crack types were used: (1) semi-elliptical, (2) surface notched, and (3) through-thickness center cracked. Various notch depths were employed. The progress of the stable propagating ductile tear resulting in the specimen from the use of the relatively stiff wide-plate rig was marked periodically using an unloading technique.

Estimates of the crack propagation resistance JR-curves for these tests were made and compared to resistance curves obtained from small scale laboratory bend specimens.

The crack morphology exhibited by the surface notched wide-plate specimens, which propagate in the through-thickness direction, was essentially normal ductile rupture in contrast to the through-thickness crack, which showed mostly shear rupture.

Semi-elliptical notched specimens initially behaved in a similar fashion to the surface notched, and after penetration of the plate thickness, continuing propagation behaved as a center cracked plate.

Derivations of a simple estimation formula for the JR-curves for the surface notched and semi-elliptical geometries have been made. Using these formulas, comparisons of all tests with the crack propagating in the L-T and L-S orientations were made.

The results of large-scale tension and large- and small-scale bend tests indicate that laboratory tests give reasonable lower bound estimates of the more structurally relevant tension situation in the L-T orientation where full-plate-thickness bend specimens are employed.

In the L-S orientation much more restrictive thickness requirements are necessary to achieve conservative estimates from laboratory bend tests and as an initial guideline the requirement B > 25(JR/σY) is suggested for surface notched geometries although this may not be restrictive enough for very ductile materials.
Statistical Characterization of Fracture in the Transition Region
Authors: Landes JD , Shaffer DH
Published: March 2009

Fracture toughness results are measured in the transition region for an ASTM A471 Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel on two specimen sizes 1T compact tension (CT) and 4T-CT. The results are typical for steels in the transition in that the smaller specimen toughness values are greater than the larger specimen results. Two explanations are given for this behavior. One explanation, based on loss of constraint, suggests that small specimens cannot be used to characterize the toughness of a large structure in the transition region. A second explanation, based on a statistical model, suggests that small specimen results when properly analyzed can be used to characterize the toughness of large structures.

The results of these tests and others support the statistical model as the proper explanation for the observed difference in toughness between small and large specimens in the transition. The model gives a method for analyzing small specimen results to properly predict the toughness of a large structure.
Ductile Fracture Behavior of Wrought Steels
Authors: Cox EP , Lawrence FV
Published: March 2009

A two failure criteria model based on plasticity limit load (LL) theory and linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is proposed for characterizing the fracture behavior of ductile structural metals. Failure is considered to occur at the lower load predicted by the two failure criteria. The variables involved in the two failure criteria model are: fracture toughness (Kc), tensile strength (Su), relative crack length (a/W), and geometry. A dimensionless parameter, Kc/SuW1/2 was defined. The fracture toughness failure criterion was found to dominate at low values of Kc/SuW1/2, and the LL failure criterion controls fracture at large values.
Fracture Behavior of A36 Bridge Steels
Authors: Roberts R , Krishna GV , Nishanian J
Published: March 2009

This report examines the fracture toughness behavior of three heats of A36 steel in terms of Charpy V-notch (CVN) and critical stress intensity level (KIc) at an intermediate rate of loading (that is, one second rise time to failure). These results are contrasted with current toughness requirements of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the “H” testing frequency.
High-Temperature Irradiation Growth in Zircaloy
Authors: Adamson RB , Tucker RP , Fidleris V
Published: March 2009

Irradiation growth behavior of Zircaloy-2 and -4 was studied on specimens irradiated in the Experimental Breeder Reactor II to fluences of 1.4 to 6.3 × 1025 neutrons (n)·m−2 (E > 1 MeV) in the temperature range 644 to 723 K. Measurements in the three principal directions on annealed and cold-worked/stress-relieved Zircaloy-2 slab materials provided evidence that growth is a constant-volume process up to about 680 K. The growth strains were shown to be determined by the crystallographic texture, that is, proportional to (1-3(1−3fdc)), where), where fdc is the fraction of basal poles, is the fraction of basal poles, fc, in the direction d. The growth strains for annealed and cold-worked Zircaloy were large relative to previously reported data, were similar in magnitude, were strongly dependent on irradiation temperature, and varied linearly with fluence over the range investigated. Transmission electron microscopy on annealed Zircaloy-4 specimens revealed a few small voids and larger cavities, a grain boundary second phase, and dislocation loops, tangles, and arrays. The high growth strains in annealed Zircaloy appear to be governed by dislocation arrays formed during irradiation. This implies a change in growth mechanism from that pertaining at lower temperatures in annealed material. The data suggest a transition from saturating steady-state growth at lower temperatures to increasing and eventually high steady-state rates under the conditions of these tests.
Mechanism of Accelerated Corrosion in Zircaloy-4 Laser and Electron-Beam Welds
Authors: McDonald SG , Sabol GP
Published: March 2009

The corrosion resistance of a series of Zircaloy-4 laser, electron-beam (EB), and tungsten inert gas (TIG) welds was evaluated in high-temperature water and steam. Corrosion exposures carried out in 633 K water revealed that all welds had excellent corrosion resistance at this temperature. However, corrosion exposures carried out in 673 K steam indicated that the laser and EB welds were susceptible to accelerated corrosion, whereas the TIG welds were not. Auger electron spectrometry (AES) and electron microprobe analysis (EMA) were subsequently performed on most of the welds that were corrosion-tested. AES revealed that interstitial impurities such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen were not responsible for the acceleration observed at 673 K. EMA revealed that the welds which underwent accelerated corrosion always exhibited tin, iron, and chromium depletion in the fusion zone. These analyses also revealed that the laser and EB welds which were subjected to multiple fusion passes exhibited more severe alloy depletion levels than did single-pass welds, but that TIG welds sustained no measurable depletion. The strong correlation that EMA established between tin, iron, and chromium depletion and the high-temperature corrosion resistance of the laser and EB welds indicates that alloy depletion effects are the only viable explanation for the accelerated corrosion observed at 673 K. It is believed that alloy depletion and the resultant loss of high-temperature corrosion resistance can be eliminated or minimized by performing welding operations at a power density such that the metal surface is heated above the melting point, but below the boiling point. If the latter is exceeded, depletion of high vapor pressure alloying elements such as iron and chromium will ensue, and the fusion zone will be susceptible to high-temperature accelerated corrosion.
Load Relaxation Testing and Material Constitutive Relations
Authors: Hart EW
Published: March 2009

The phenomenon of load relaxation for a specimen in a tension test configuration is not in itself a material property. The resultant record of load P as a function of elapsed time t is dependent on the conditions of loading in the test as well as on the material elastic and inelastic properties. For this reason, the term “load” relaxation seems preferable to “stress” relaxation as a nomenclature for the test, and we shall employ this term in the paper.

In order to deduce the intrinsic material flow properties from the testing results it is desirable to convert the load-time record P(t) to a specimen record of stress versus strain rate σ(ϵ). In some cases the explicit time dependence is significant, and so each stress-strain rate point can also be associated with the current time t if desired. This data conversion can be always accomplished.

In the following we shall describe the method of data analysis that is desirable for determining the inelastic constitutive relations of a material. We shall discuss some refinements of the experimental technique that have proven very important in such analysis. We shall then illustrate the expected results for several types of ideal material behavior and finally show the type of results and conclusions for some real materials and test conditions.
Room-Temperature Stress Relaxation of High-Strength Strip and Wire Spring Steels—Procedures and Data
Authors: Idermark SUV , Johansson ER
Published: March 2009

Stress relaxation of strip spring steels was investigated with the vibrating string technique. The modified AISI 301 austenitie stainless steel had the lowest relaxation rate up to 170 h followed by a standard AISI 301 stainless steel, a martensitic stainless chromium steel (Type 420), a texture rolled carbon steel (Type 1078), and a hardened and tempered carbon steel (Type 1074). A high elastic limit had a beneficial effect in lowering the stress relaxation rate. The stress relaxation rate for the carbon steels was accelerated after an initial period. The specimens that had an acceleration in stress relaxation also exhibited a simultaneous change in stress-strain behavior as proved by tension testing.

Helical extension wire springs were tested at constant length in a test rig. The modified AISI 301 austenitie stainless steel had the best relaxation properties, followed by a 17-7 precipitation hardenable steel and a standard AISI 302 austenitie stainless steel. An increase in prestress level decreased the stress relaxation as measured at the same testing stress. Springs coiled from wire with the highest values of yield and tensile strength gave the lowest relaxation rate.
Stress Relaxation in Beryllium Copper Strip
Authors: Filer EW , Scorey CR
Published: March 2009

A study was made of the stress relaxation of three beryllium copper alloys in strip form at temperatures between 20 and 200°C. The work was undertaken to obtain comprehensive stress relaxation data that would be useful in engineering design. A mandrel test method was chosen because many of the commercial applications in which stress relaxation is important concern strip material. Materials were stressed at levels of 50, 75, and 100 percent of the 0.2 percent offset yield strength for a total of 40 days. The results showed that aging greatly reduced the stress relaxation in beryllium copper alloys. There was no apparent dependence of stress relaxation on strip orientation. For comparative purposes, a number of tests were run on other copper spring alloys.
Negative Stress Relaxation in Polyurethane Induced by Volume Shrinkage
Authors: Lou AYC
Published: March 2009

An unusual increase in stress due to volume shrinkage under constant constraint conditions was observed when a Caytur 21C extended Adiprene polyurethane specimen was tested at 121 °C (250°F) and 1 percent constant strain. The stress first decreased for 2 h and then actually increased until the test had progressed for about 40 h, when it again started to decrease. This stress enhancement was attributed to contraction of the hard segments brought about at the relatively high test temperature by conversion of branching biuret linkages to linear urea linkages in the presence of free amine. The resulting increase in density causes shrinkage in volume, thus produces stress buildup. After 40 h, the usual stress relaxation process becomes dominant again. This phenomenon was found to be closely associated to Caytur 21 and to depend strongly on the temperature and strain conditions. However, it was insensitive to isocyanate (NCO) content and Caytur amount.
Crack Growth Retardation in Two Low-Strength Materials Under Displacement Controlled Cyclic Loading
Authors: Kapp JA , Underwood JH , Zalinka JJ
Published: March 2009

Several experiments have been performed to determine the tolerance to defects of two low-strength materials used on cannon tube components subjected to displacement-controlled fatigue loading. The study was initiated to determine acceptable flaw sizes for hoops used to stabilize large cannons during recoil. A simple specimen was devised to approximate the axisymmetric, displacement-controlled actual loading of hoops. The results show that under this loading, a fatigue failure is not possible in either material because of the combination of the reduced stiffness of the structure containing fatigue cracks and general cross-sectional yielding.
Development of Strain-Rate Testing and Its Implications
Authors: Parkins RN
Published: March 2009

The application of slow dynamic straining to specimens to facilitate stress corrosion cracking (SCC) now has been in use for more than a decade, and the test is beginning to emerge as one that has much more relevance than the rapid sorting test to which its early use was related. The importance of creep effects in constant load testing is considered, and it is shown that reasonable predictions of threshold stresses for SCC can be made from relevant creep data and that the effects of prior creep upon the incidence of cracking and of the phenomenon of nonpropagating cracks below the threshold stress are all in agreement with the concept of the crack tip strain rate playing a major role, even under constant load conditions. The reasonable correlation between appropriate strain rate and constant load tests is therefore not surprising, nor is the reduction in threshold stress by dynamic straining, with or without cyclic loading, over that observed for constant loads.
A Review of the Constant Strain-Rate Stress Corrosion Cracking Test
Authors: Kim CD , Wilde BE
Published: March 2009

A review of six years operational experience in using the slow strain test procedure has indicated several unique advantages associated with dynamic strain techniques and also identified an area of limitation.

The chief advantage of the dynamic slow strain test procedure is that it is much more aggressive in producing stress corrosion cracking (SCC) than conventional constant-strain or constant-load tests, so that the testing time is considerably reduced. The procedure reduces the incubation period for crack nucleation by virtue of continuous straining above the elastic limit on smooth surfaces, and avoids the pitfalls associated with reducing incubation times by means of precracking and other methods. With the latter methods, marked chemical inhomogeneities in an environment have been observed so that spurious results are obtained.

The slow strain test is also ideally suited, on a “go-no-go” basis, for rapid sorting or screening of environment/metal or environment/metallurgical-condition combinations which can produce SCC. However, the test is not suitable for ranking materials with regard to their resistance to SCC when the strength levels and microstructure vary widely. Furthermore, because of the test severity, discretion must be exercised in translating susceptibility to SCC observed in the laboratory to anticipated performance in service.
Propagation of Stress Corrosion Cracks under Constant Strain-Rate Conditions
Authors: Scully JC
Published: March 2009

Stress corrosion crack velocities have been measured in α and β titanium alloys, Zircaloy-2, and in 70Cu-30Zn brass at room temperature as a function of crosshead speed. Constant crack velocities have been observed in constant crosshead speed tests. In α titanium alloys in aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions cracking occurs only at crosshead speeds ≥ 8.3 µm/s-1 because crack-tip repassivation occurs at lower crosshead speeds. In brass,, the velocity and type of fracture are dependent upon the potential and the metallurgical condition of the specimen. The use of double crosshead speed tests and work on β titanium alloy and on brass shows that the work-hardening capacity of an alloy is important in determining crack velocity. Limitations of the technique are indicated.
Detection of Heat Treatment Effects on Environmentally Induced Degradation of a Martensitic Stainless Steel and a Nickel-Base Alloy by the Slow Strain-Rate Method
Authors: Suery P
Published: March 2009

The response of slow strain-rate measurements to heat treatment of a cast, low carbon, martensitic stainless steel in 3 percent sodium chloride solution under cathodic and anodic polarization and Alloy 600 in 0.1 M sulfuric acid solution (poisoned with arsenic) under cathodic polarization has been investigated. The relative reduction of area evaluation was very sensitive to heat treatment and electrochemical polarization effects in both corrosion systems.

The reduction of area measurements on the stainless steel revealed a minimum and a maximum crack sensitivity after tempering at 873 K if the straining electrode were cathodically and anodically polarized, respectively. The test results are explained by hydrogen assisted cracking and active path cracking under cathodic and anodic polarization, respectively.

Alloy 600 samples in poisoned sulfuric acid showed a pronounced decrease in the relative reduction of area after a 50 percent cold deformation plus low temperature aging treatment at 673 K during 500 h. The same metallurgical state had been shown to be especially prone to caustic embrittlement at high temperature. It seems that the slow strain-rate test, as performed in this investigation, can be used as a sensitive method to detect variations in the susceptibility to environmentally induced degradation of Alloy 600 in high temperature caustic solutions.
Effect of Cold-Working on Impact Transition Temperature of 409 and E-4 Stainless Steels
Authors: Vigor CW
Published: March 2009

When Type 409 stainless steel (11 percent chromium, balance iron, titanium stabilized) was specified for rectangular mechanical tubing for structural components, brittle fracture concerns were not anticipated because the tube wall thickness was in the plane-stress regime. However, low-temperature impact tests indicated that brittle fractures often occurred in the corner areas of the rectangular tubing, suggesting that residual cold-work influenced impact strength. Laboratory impact tests showed cold-working to strongly affect the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) of 409 stainless. A novel impact specimen allowed direct evaluation of the DBTT of the cold-worked tubing corner, confirming results obtained in conventional Charpy tests. An acceptably low DBTT for heavily cold-worked sections was found for a low-carbon ferritic stainless (11Cr-1Ni-0.03C-Fe) obtained from Crucible Steel Corp. under the trade designation of E-4. The as-welded toughness of E-4 is also improved over 409 due to the formation of low-carbon martensite in weld-heat-affected zones; in this application, however, only the base material properties were of interest.
Effect of Small Additions of Niobium on the Welding Behavior of an Austenitic Stainless Steel
Authors: Moorhead AJ , Sikka VK , Reed RW
Published: March 2009

The mechanical property data for Type 304 stainless steel show large variations in tensile, creep, and creep-fatigue properties. Previous researchers have attributed these differences to variations either in carbon and nitrogen content or in grain size, but we have found some heats which are stronger than can be explained by these factors and attribute this apparent anomaly to the strengthening effect of niobum. To systematically study the effect of niobium on the behavior of Type 304 stainless steel, a low-niobium commercial heat was remelted with varying niobium additions—up to 1000 ppm. A standardized weldability test, the Spot Varestraint, was used to compare the propensity of various heats for hot-cracking. We found that the fusion and heat-affected zone cracking behavior of the experimental heats was similar to that of a heat of commercial Type 304, and much superior to that of a commercial heat of Type 347 stainless steel. The superior resistance to fusion zone cracking was attributed to the presence of a small amount of delta ferrite in the microstructure of the weld nugget in the experimental materials. The outstanding heat-affected zone cracking behavior was at least partly attributable to backfilling of grain boundary separations in the experimental heats, as well as in the commercial Type 304. We hypothesize that a relatively wide partially melted zone prevents backfilling of heat-affected zone cracks in the Type 347 steels.
Eleven-Year Pavement Condition History of Asphalt-Rubber Seals in Phoenix, Arizona
Authors: Schnormeier RH
Published: March 2009

After the development of asphalt rubber in Phoenix, Ariz, under the direction of Charles H. McDonald, from 1963 through 1970, the City of Phoenix began the placement of 91.7 km of asphalt-rubber seals from 1971 through 1979. These pavements have been evaluated periodically since 1971 and continue being evaluated. This inspection covers the 91.7 km of streets and includes special studies and airport projects that received applications of asphalt rubber from 1968 through the date of the last inspection, August 1979. A digest of observations and conclusions reached as a result of this study follows: 1. The asphalt rubber performed its principal function of preventing reflection of fatigue-type cracking in sublayers and shrinkage cracking of soil cement. 2. The most common defect noted in this survey was a loss of cover aggregate in non traffic areas. 3. There is a need to maintain close liaison concerning construction procedures with distributors, chip spreaders, and rollers.

In summary, the asphalt-rubber system, when properly installed, does its job well in preventing reflection of “alligator”-pattern cracking.
Surface Composition of Copper-Nickel Alloys
Authors: Ling DT , Lindau I , Miller JN , Spicer WE
Published: March 2009

The surface composition of alloys is of great importance in determining their chemical and catalytic properties. In this paper, a presentation is given of the application of Auger electron spectroscopy and photoemission spectroscopy to the study of the surface composition of copper-nickel alloys. An enrichment of copper in the surface region is observed for annealed surfaces. The effects of sputtering and chemisorption on the surface composition are also treated. By applying a nondestructive technique like photoemission, it has been demonstrated for the first time that there is at least one oscillation in the depth profile of the composition. This observation cannot be explained readily by the regular solution theory which, for instance, correctly predicts the copper enrichment at the surface.
Data Treatment in Electron and Ion Spectroscopy
Authors: Baun WL
Published: March 2009

In order to utilize fully the newly developed electron and ion surface spectroscopies, the data from these methods must be treated carefully to assure quality and clarity both during and after the experiment. Signal conditioning during the experiment puts the data into proper form for recording and may include steps for amplifying, digitizing, discriminating, modulating, gating, transforming, and filtering.

After the acquisition and storage of data in digital form, several processing steps may be used to enhance, simplify, or otherwise make the data more useful to the operator. These data presentation improvements include smoothing, normalizing, differentiating, integrating, and performing other mathematical functions. An example of such a manipulation in Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) is the integration of the electron energy distribution curve, dN(E)/dE, which recovers the energy distribution, N(E). A second integration gives the original Auger electron current which may in certain cases be more effectively used for quantitative purposes than the usual peak-to-peak dN(E)/dE values. Subtraction methods may be used to emphasize the difference between a sample and the standard or between a bulk and a surface composition. The addition and subtraction of spectral features in an interactive graphics system allows synthesis of any composition for comparison with an unknown.

These techniques, combined with plotting subroutines, produce spectra of high quality and, in addition, simplify great amounts of information and present it in the form of depth profiles, histograms, or three-dimensional plots, which make the data more understandable.
Energy Calibration of Electron Spectrometers
Authors: Wagner CD
Published: March 2009

One of the principal useful features of electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) is the identification of chemical states by the use of chemical shifts in the energies of photoelectron and Auger lines. For this purpose, the proper operation of electron spectrometers requires an accurate voltage scale. This can be checked with high accuracy, along with other important instrumental parameters, by recording the 2p3/2 Auger, and 3p lines for clean copper.

The correction of energy data on insulators for steady-state static charges is best accomplished by noting the position of the adventitious carbon C-1s line, or by properly applying the gold decoration method. Data indicate that these methods are usually reproducible to approximately ±0.2 eV for homogenous compounds among different laboratories; reproducibility is better within any one laboratory. Energy corrections for insulating multiple phases pose special problems.
Application of XPS Analysis to Research into the Causes of Corrosion
Authors: Castle JE
Published: March 2009

The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS or ESCA) technique, which is capable of analyzing a surface layer only 1-nm thick, has contributed to our knowledge of the thin film which protects metals and alloys from environmental attack. Published work, in the main part, concerns laboratory experiments in corrosion science. This work has been reviewed for those common features of successful work which might provide guidance in the applications of the technique in the wider context of corrosion engineering. An extra degree of sophistication is required for industrial work, both in the defining of the problems and in the interpretation of the answers. The author concludes that the probability of success is greatest for those problems where there is a good match between the dimensions of the analyzed zone and those of the zone of interest to the engineer.
DOE Welcome Presentation of Awards to Drs. Guenther and Glass
Authors: Stickley CM
Published: March 2009

It is both an honor and a privilege to be invited to speak at this tenth anniversary meeting. This symposium has become an established fixture in the laser community, for whom its only title will always be “The Laser Damage Meeting,” even though I recommended changing it. As a participant and attendee of many of these meetings over the years, and even as an editor with Art Guenther and Alex Glass for the first one, I must admit that ten years ago few of us expected that our trip to Boulder would become an annual pilgrimage. On the other hand, I doubt that any of us could have appreciated the tenacity with which this group would hold onto the opportunity to spend a week in the Rockies each year!
A 1.06µm Laser Absorption Calorimeter for Optical Coatings
Authors: Allen TH , Apfel JH , Carniglia CK
Published: March 2009

We describe a laser calorimeter for measuring the absorption of an optical coating deposited on a thin disc. The sample with diameter 2.54cm and thickness between 0.02 to 0.13cm is irradiated with 6 watt CW Nd:YAG laser. The temperature of the coated disc is compared to that of a reference disc using thermistors in mechanical contact with the samples. Measurements are made under vacuum (100 torr) to reduce temperature variations caused by convection. The calorimeter was evaluated by measuring coated and uncoated discs of various thicknesses with absorptances from 9 × 10-6 to 5 × 10-3. These measurements demonstrated a repeatability of ± 2% at an absorptance level of 1 × 10-4 and a sensitivity for a 0.04cm thick substrate of 3.8 × 105 µV/watt. The lower absorption limit of the calorimeter is 2 × 10-6. The results of measurements on polished, uncoated fused silica discs with thicknesses from 0.04 to 0.13cm show a surface absorptance of 6 × 10-6 and a bulk value of 5 × 10-5/cm.
Measured Thin Film Absorption at the Air-Film Interface, the Film Bulk, and the Film-Substrate Interface
Authors: Temple PA , Decker DL , Donovan TM , Bethke JW
Published: March 2009

A measurement technique is described where the absorption introduced by the addition of a single-layer thin film is separated into three parts: absorption (a) within the bulk of the film; (b) at the air-film interface; and (c) at the film-substrate interface. The technique employs a scanning adiabatic calorimeter to measure substrates which are partially coated on the entrance surface with films of continuously varying thickness. By measuring the absorption on the bare substrate and at various film thicknesses, we have unambiguously determined the film-bulk absorption coefficient. We have also measured the combined absorption due to the two film interfaces. It will be shown that, in some cases, it is possible to distinguish between air-film interface absorption and film-substrate interface absorption and determine the magnitude of each. Data will be presented for 2.9 and 2.7 µm for films made of NaF and As2Se3 on CaF2 These films show the presence of impurities in the film and/or at the film interfaces. The relative magnitude of absorption in the three regions will be discussed.
Photoacoustic Spectroscopy Studies of Thin Film Coatings on Laser Windows
Authors: Fernelius NC , Walsh DA
Published: March 2009

Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) studies have been made of TlI and graded PbF2-TlI coatings on KCl. Wavelength dependent PAS studies on the TlI absorption edge indicate impurities in TlI in the graded coating and/or the existence of cubic TlI layers. PAS wave-length studies were made on a solid ZnSe window and various ZnSe coatings on CaF2. Wavelength dependent studies show poorer stoichiometry as the coating gets thinner. Frequency dependent PAS studies at 440 nm on the solid and thin film ZnSe all showed a signal dependence of S = Af-1. Theoretical calculations based on the Rosencwaig-Gersho theory show that these results are consistent if β is greater than 500 cm-1 for ZnSe at 440 nm.
Simplified Description of Dielectric Reflectors
Authors: Sparks M. , Flannery M.
Published: March 2009

The spectral reflectance, R(ω), of a quarter-wave reflector is quite asymmetric in general as a result of absorption. The maximum electric field E in an infinite stack is in the center of the high-index (low-index) layer at the low-frequency (high-frequency) end of the high-reflection band. Thus, the absorptance minimum of a stack having much greater absorption in the high-index material occurs at ω> ωc (band center). Operation at ω> ωc could increase the damage resistance if the high-index material is easily damaged. At ωc, E decays rapidly. As ω departs from ωc in an infinite reflector, E penetrates deeper into the coating, with no decay at the band edges. The peak-to-peak distance in an infinite dielectric stack is constant for all frequencies in the band. By using the continuity of E and dE/dz, E can be obtained from E= 0 at the metallic substrate or, in an infinite stack, from E=0 at the reflector surface for ω = ωC or E=0 in the center of the high- or lowindex layer at the band edges. Simple closed-form approximations for the spectral absorptance and the phase of E are accurate and sufficient for present applications.
Laser-Induced Damage in Semiconductors
Authors: Danileiko YK , Manenkov AA , Sidorin AV
Published: March 2009

The laser-induced bulk breakdown in Ge, Si and GaAs crystals at the 10.6 µm, 2.76 µm, and 2.94 µm radiation wavelengths of the pulsed CO2, Ca2F:Er3+ and YAG:Er3+ lasers is investigated. Generation of free carriers has been observed and their kinetics studied by the dc and microwave photoconductivity measurement techniques. In Si and GaAs, the laser-induced bulk damage has been observed and the damage threshold measured. In Ge, the damage was not observed due to a self-defocusing effect associated with the negative contribution of nonequilibrium electrons in the refractive index. Mechanisms of free carrier generation and laser-induced damage are discussed.
Investigation of Surface Breakdown Mechanism in IR-Optical Materials
Authors: Kovalev VI , Faizullov FS
Published: March 2009

It has been found that with a decrease in ambient gas pressure, there takes place a decrease of surface breakdown threshold in IR-optical materials under TEA CO2-laser radiation. To explain this fact, a new mechanism of the breakdown has been proposed, which is connected with evaporation of adsorbed water. The breakdown stage has been experimentally investigated and a theoretical analysis has been performed. The dependence of the surface breakdown in NaCl on ambient gas pressure, spot size, frequency and time have been studied. The dependence on the quantity of adsorbed water (surface absorption) has been studied as well. The breakdown thresholds have been measured with a calibrated, photon drag detector by the amplitude of the transmitted pulse. The results obtained are in good agreement with the proposed model.
Erosion: Prevention and Useful Applications
Authors: Adler WF
Published: March 2009

Description

The 28 investigative papers in this publication form the basis for technical information concerning a board range of erosion-related topics.
Aquatic Toxicology: Proceedings of the Second Annual Symposium on Aquatic Toxicology
Authors: Marking LL , Kimerle RA
Published: March 2009

Description

The second symposium on Aquatic Toxicology was held in Cleveland, Ohio, on 31 Oct.-1 Nov. 1977. This symposium was sponsored by the American Society for Testing and Materials through its Committee E35 on Pesticides. L. L. Marking, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and R. A. Kimerle, Monsanto Co., presided as chairmen of the symposium and served as editors of this publication.
Behavior of Deep Foundations
Authors: Lundgren R
Published: March 2009

Description

The symposium on Behavior of Deep Foundations was held during the June Committee Week of the American Society for Testing and Materials, 25-30 June 1978, in Boston, Mass. ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes sponsored the symposium. The symposium Committee members were: Raymond Lundgren, Roy Bell, R. D. Darragh, M. I. Esrig, L. C. Reese, M. T. Davisson, and F. M. Fuller. Lundgren also served as editor of this publication.
Stress Relaxation Testing
Authors: Fox A
Published: March 2009

Description

This ASTM Publication is for those concerned with the design and manufacture of steam and power generation equipment, and to those concerned with the design of gaskets, reinforced concrete, and electric motors.
Factors in Using Kerosine Jet Fuel of Reduced Flash Point
Authors: Dukek WG , Strauss KH
Published: March 2009

Description

The Symposium on Jet Fuel Flash Point Reduction was presented at a meeting of Committee D02 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants of the American Society for Testing and Materials held in Dallas, Tex., 3—8 Dec. 1977. The symposium was sponsored by the subcommittee (Technical Division J) on Aviation Fuels. K. H. Strauss, Texaco, Inc., presided as symposium chariman and W. G. Dukek, Exxon Research and Engineering Co., served as symposium secretary. They have acted as coeditors of this special technical publication which includes the presentations at the symposium.
Tire Reinforcement and Tire Performance
Authors: Fleming RA , Livingston DI
Published: March 2009

Description

Covers the spectrum of tire cord reinforcements and their adhesion to visco-elastic rubber compounds.
Native Aquatic Bacteria: Enumeration, Activity, and Ecology
Authors: Costerton JW , Colwell RR
Published: March 2009

Description

A broad yet specific discussion of the theoretical basis and practical problems of current methods in aquatic microbiology. The first two sections address the problem of how to arrive at an accurate enumeration of the bacteria present in aquatic environments. The third section describes and evaluates methods for measuring specific metabolic activities of bacterial populations in aquatic environments.
Applied Surface Analysis
Authors: Barr TL , Davis LE
Published: March 2009

Description

Presents a forum devoted solely to the technology and problem inherent in applications of surface analysis. Addresses the surface science itself, while concentrating on the present level and direction of the science in its more applied areas. Main application areas are covered broadly divided into materials analysis and chemical surface analysis through the publication of several papers which deal with the quantitative determinations of surface composition in both areas.
Disposal of Oil and Debris Resulting from a Spill Cleanup Operation
Authors: Farlow JS , Swanson C
Published: March 2009

Description

This publication, Disposal of Oil and Debris Resulting from a Spill Cleanup Operation, contained papers presented at the Symposium on Disposal of Oil and Related Materials and Debris Resulting from a Spill Cleanup Operation which was held in Denver, Colorado, 6—7 November 1978. The symposium was sponsored by Committee F20 on Spill Control Systems of the American Society for Testing and Materials. J. S. Farlow, Environmental Protection Agency, and Clare Swanson, Conwed Corp., served as symposium chairmen and editors of this publication.
Aquatic Invertebrate Bioassays
Authors: Buikema AL , Cairns J
Published: March 2009

Description

The first comprehensive review of the use of invertebrates in toxicity testing and hazard evaluation. Discussions range from comprehensive evaluations of specific organisms to proposals for alternative methods.
Composites for Extreme Environments
Authors: Adsit NR
Published: March 2009

Description

The publication presents the latest data and application of polymide resin composites and their use in space and aircraft environments. Three categories of papers address recent work on polymide-matrix composites, applications of epoxy-matrix composites, and the saga of moisture effects on epoxy-matrix composites.
Low-Cycle Fatigue and Life Prediction
Authors: Amzallag C , Leis BN , Rabbe P
Published: March 2009

Description

An examination of the state of the art of low-cycle fatigue problems concisely describes the intent of this book. The papers selected for this publication cover topics relating to basic research on the fatigue of metals, phenomenology and modeling, and application and design aspects.
Damage in Composite Materials: Basic Mechanisms, Accumulation, Tolerance, and Characterization
Authors: Reifsnider KL
Published: March 2009

Description

The contents of this book should serve a variety of technical people in a variety of ways. Engineers who only want to consider damage mechanisms and damage development to the extent that they can use those concepts in design will find that several papers deal specifically with relationships between damage development and life.
Toxic Materials in the Atmosphere: Sampling and Analysis
Authors: Himmelsbach BF
Published: March 2009

Description

The contents are divided into four sections: Industrial Hygiene Sampling and Analysis; Continuous Air Monitors and Portable Instruments; Passive Monitoring Devices; Chemical Characterization and Analytical Methods. The intent of the 1981 Boulder Conference upon which this publication is based was to review all aspects of air sampling and analysis in the areas of ambient air and workplace atmospheres.
The Effects of Latitudinal Origin and Paternal Contribution on Larval Growth of Winter Flounder in a Northern Environment
Authors: Fraboulet E. , Lambert Y. , Litvak M. , Audet C.
Published: March 2009

Three stocks of winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus are currently defined in the northwest Atlantic region: One south of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, one north of it, and a third on Georges Bank. Our objectives were to determine whether the different populations along this latitudinal gradient have similar larval development characteristics in a coldwater environment and to test the paternal contribution to larval development. We crossed breeders that had been captured on their natural spawning sites in Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick, and Baie des Chaleurs and the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec, to produce pure‐strain families (year 1) and hybrids (year 2). Larvae were reared under the salinity and temperature conditions of the St. Lawrence estuary, the northernmost site in our study. Total length and maximum width were measured from hatching to settlement. In the wild population from the St. Lawrence estuary, males were shorter and in better condition and females produced smaller eggs than those from the two more southern wild populations. The time lapse between fertilization and hatch was shorter for embryos from the Baie des Chaleurs. In both the pure and hybrid cross experiments, the different cross‐types showed similar fertilization and hatching success, size at hatch and settlement, and time until settlement but differed in larval growth rate. Larval growth was slower in families sired by St. Lawrence estuary males. When females from the Baie des Chaleurs were crossed with males from the different origins, the results were similar to those obtained in families sired by St. Lawrence estuary males. These results strongly suggest a paternal component to larval growth. Settlement, however, which appeared to be size dependent, was governed more by environmental factors than by parental ones.