bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spiral Detection of Periodicity and the Spiral Form of Musical Scales
Authors: Patterson Roy D.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to suggest that the neural part of the auditory system employs a temporal mechanism, referred to as a spiral processor, to determine whether sounds are periodic, and that this type of mechanism would explain the form of consonance observed in Western music. Pitch is our perception of periodicity in a sound wave, and harmony is the set of rules that explain which pitches go well together. The octave, the diatonic scale and its modes are the basic ingredients of harmony in Western music. For over a hundred years we have known that the logarithmic spiral (base 2) provides a good description of the cyclic aspect of musical scales, that is, the octave. But the implications for the internal structure of the octave, that is the diatonic scale and its two main modes, have largely been ignored. A periodic sound like a musical note generates regular streams of pulses in primary auditory neurones. As these pulse streams flow through the spiral processor they form a pattern of spokes radiating from the centre of the spiral. The shape of the pattern is fixed; the orientation of the pattern determines the pitch. The primary intervals of the diatonic scale are produced by pairs of notes whose main spokes coincide, and the intervals fall naturally into two groups, major and minor.
Effects of Repetition on the Familiarity and Likeability of Popular Music Recordings
Authors: Russell Philip A.
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined the effect of repetition on the familiarity and likeability of popular music recordings, utilising the "natural" repetition of records in the music media. The rationale is that the higher the chart position a record achieves and the longer it stays in the chart the more repetitions it receives. One study obtained familiarity and likeability ratings for recordings which had recently completed chart runs. The other measured familiarity and likeability as a function of how long current hits had been in the chart. Familiarity was a function of chart performance but likeability was not. Hence repetition increases familiarity but has little effect on likeability. Various reasons for the absence of a link between repetition and likeability are discussed, including the possibility of a self-regulating mechanism which decreases exposure once likeability begins to decline. The need to consider likeability in terms of appeal to specific "taste publics" is also recognised.
Four Cases of Pitch-Specific Chromesthesia in Trained Musicians with Absolute Pitch
Authors: Rogers George L.
Published: March 2007

Subjects underwent a structured interview and aural testing. Aural testing revealed idiosyncratic but consistent color associations for specific pitches and confirmed the subjects' reported absolute pitch. Higher octaves of a note were described as being lighter shades of the basic color for that pitch. Chords were perceived as combinations of the colors of the individual notes in the chord. Subjects generally were not able to divorce their absolute pitch ability from the color associations, and reported that their chromesthesia helped them to identify pitches, take dictation, play by ear. and memorize music. All subjects were formally trained musicians who had begun piano study at about age five. All were actively involved in the visual arts or reported considerable arts training. Two subjects reported childhood pairings of colors and pitches in books where notes or pitch letter names were colored.
A Discussion on the Relationships between Music Therapy and The Psychology of Music
Authors: Bunt Leslie , Cross Ian , Clarke Eric , Hoskyns Sarah
Published: March 2007

The discussion started with an attempt to examine the ground common to music therapy and the psychology of music, and indicated that mutual incomprehension of concepts and methods on the part of practitioners in both areas constituted a considerable problem. The potential relevance to music therapy of some psychological findings were outlined, appropriate modes of research for music therapy were considered and the potential value which data gathered in the pursuit of music therapy might have for psychology was discussed. Finally, some areas of possible collaboration between the two disciplines were sketched out.
Abstraction of Two Forms of Underlying Structure in a Tonal Melody
Authors: Bigand Emmanuel
Published: March 2007

This experiment, based on the work of Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1983), was designed to test the abstraction of two forms of underlying structures: "reduced structure" and "prolongational structure". A family of four melodies (al,bl,cl,dl) with the same underlying structure but with different rhythmic-melodic organisations was presented to subjects twice in the first step of the experiment. In the second step of the experiment, these melodies were then interspersed with four analogous melodies (a2,b2,c2,d2) differing in their underlying structure. Listeners had to identify melodies belonging to the first family. By presenting either a real family (al,bl,cl,dl) or a false family (al,b2,cl,d2), the subject's success in abstracting underlying structures could be observed. Results indicate that this abstraction does occur for the two forms of underlying structure studied, and that it is performed by non-musicians as well as musicians. This experiment thus reveals a highly elaborate processing of musical phrases thoroughly consistent with the Lerdahl and Jackendoff model.
Effects of Tempo and Situational Arousal on the Listener's Perceptual and Affective Responses to Music
Authors: Holbrook Morris B. , Anand Punam
Published: March 2007

Based on previous research, this study formulates hypotheses concerning (1) the psychophysical relationship between musical tempo and perceived activity, (2) a nonmonotonic hedonic effect of musical tempo on affective responses, and (3) a shift in this preference function due to differences in situational arousal. An experiment manipulates tempo in the same piece ot music at 14 different speeds varying by equal percentage increases. T he findings appear to support (1) a strong psychophysical relationship between a multi-item index of perceived activity and the logarithm of musical tempo, (2) a nonmonotonic hedonic curve wherein affective responses reach their most favourable peak at an intermediate level of musical tempo, and (3) a sympathic shift of this single-peaked preference function to the right with increases in situational arousal.
Measuring Musical Originality Using Information Theory
Authors: Coffman Don D.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the feasibility of applying the mathematics of information theory to the analysis of musical originality. Originality can be thought of, in information theory, as entropy, the degree of freedom a composer has in selecting musical symbols to convey a message. Theoretically, original music has high information, or low predictability. Seventh grade students (N = 34) enrolled in a nine-week general music course were asked to create a composition on a MIDI keyboard prior to receiving course instruction and once again at the end of the course. The pitch content of pre- and post-instruction compositions were analysed for levels of entropy. Results showed that post-instruction compositions exhi- bited significantly higher pitch entropy, indicating greater freedom of choice and less predictability in pitch choices, despite a sizeable reduction in the average length of compositions.
Pain Attenuating Effects of Preferred Versus Non-preferred Music Interventions
Authors: Hekmat Hamid M. , Hertel James B.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated effects of preferred and non-preferred music in alleviating cold-pressor pain. Pre-(i.e. baseline measurement) and posttest ice-water hand immersions were experienced by 80 participants. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups. Group I listened to their preferred music, group II was exposed to non-preferred music, group III received no music intervention in the presence of an experimenter (control I), and group IV experienced an absence of music intervention in the absence of an experimenter (control II). Univariate repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) and planned comparisons indicated that preferred music was effective in increasing pain tolerance. Non-preferred music and controls did not show an increased pain tolerance. Further, the absence of the experimenter heightened participants' experienced pain. Other groups (group I, II and III) did not experience significant changes in their subjective reports of pain from preto posttests.
Music, Education, and the Development of Pitch Perception: The Role of Context, Age and Musical Experience
Authors: Lamont Alexandra
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the results of an investigation into children's music listening capabilities with respect to musical pitch, focusing on the effects of types of materials presented in a short-term listening situation using the probe-note methodology. Results from a listening task administered to children of different levels of musical experience aged between 6 and 16 illustrate that children's capabilities exceeded those typically ascribed to them by music educators and psychologists. In particular, children appeared more sensitive to higher-order musical features such as interval content than to more surface features such as contour, and these sensitivities increased with age and experience. Furthermore, the distinction between musicians and non-musicians typically drawn in music- psychological research was found to be insufficient in characterising the range of children's perceptual behaviours. Evidence was also found to support the reliability of responses given in short-term listening situations.
The Value of Performing from Memory
Authors: Williamon Aaron
Published: March 2007

Performances of the Preludes from Cello Suites I, II and III by J. S. Bach were recorded on video-tape across five separate conditions, differing with respect to menmorisation and the presence of a music stand. Fifty "musicians" and thirtysix "non-musicians" were asked to watch and rate one video-taped performance of each Prelude on four performance aspects: overall quality, musical understanding, technical proficiency and communicative ability. Ratings indicated that (1) performing from memory was superior to playing from the score, (2) visibility of the performer influenced audiences' ratings of performances in a favourable direction, (3) the extra time spent preparing for the memorised performances was beneficial and (4) musicians seemed biased in favour of performances without a music stand. Results are discussed in relation to possible implications for musical performance and pedagogy.
The Role of Psychology Research in Understanding the Sex/Gender Paradox in Music - Plus Ca Change...
Authors: Maidlow Sarah , Bruce Rosemary
Published: March 2007

In this article we seek to assess the usefulness of the work done by psychologists to explain the sex/gender paradox in music. Whilst not pretending to be an exhaustive review, by tracing the quest as it has been tackled over the past 80 or so years, the principal issues to emerge fall into two categories. On the one hand there are areas in which clear gains appear to have been made, highlighting preferences such as those for different musical characteristics, styles and particular instruments, and the contribution made by investigating personality traits. On the other, however, there are important influences which contribute to gender formation which have remained largely unexplored in music education research, such as race/ethnicity, class and home circumstances, sexuality, disability, birth ordinal position and birth date, as well as the frustratingly inconclusive studies of the functions of brain lateralisation. Thus we reason that psychologists researching music education need to widen their attention to aspects of both difference and absence, acknowledging the real world contexts in which people make musical meanings.
Science and Story in Development
Authors: Shrum Wesley
Published: March 2007

Given the importance of social location to research practice, a particularly compelling problem for social studies of science is how research activities emerge in a new sector. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in less-developed countries (LDCs) are initiating research, often in a style of `alternative' agriculture. I account for this development using concepts from semiotic and structural network approaches. While many studies stress linkages as the key to technoscientific organization, `delinking' is especially important to the emergence of a new research sector in the Third World. Stories of participation, indigenous knowledge and greening allow NGOs to capitalize on local relationships and tap external resources by offering the technological alternative of `organics'. But such institutions are also buffeted by the opportunities and constraints of resources imported from outside. This development is illustrated by the case of Shamba, an NGO whose research involvements illustrate the promise and pitfalls of both locality and linkages.
Biases about Man-made Cancer among Researchers
Authors: Mazur Allan , Rothman Stanley , Lichter S. Robert
Published: March 2007

Can sociological variables significantly predict researchers' positions on a scientific issue? Carcinogenesis offers a good test case because it is not definitively established how important man-made substances are as contributors to human cancer. American cancer researchers divide on this issue, some broadly emphasizing the importance of man-made carcinogens, others consistently minimizing their importance relative to natural carcinogens. We find that cancer researchers who are male, are affiliated with a medical school, and have more publications, are more likely than their colleagues to minimize the importance of man-made carcinogens.
Science and the Statistical Victim
Authors: Jasanoff Sheila
Published: March 2007

The advent of mass torts in US federal courts in the latter third of the 20th century accelerated a process of modernization in an institution that was unprepared for standardized approaches to dispute resolution. Faced with large-scale technological disasters, in particular, courts struggled to reform both their procedures and their fact-finding approaches in order to deal with multiple claimants in consolidated proceedings. Using silicone gel breast implant litigation as a case study, this paper argues that the attempt to marry judicial concerns for individual justice with administrative concerns for speed, efficiency and economy has produced anomalous results. The testimony of the clinician and the victim has become less relevant as judicial remedies take account of injuries done to classes of plaintiffs. Subjective claims about the body are subordinated to statistical correlations between exposure and grouped complaints. At the same time, the transfer of fact-finding authority from juries to judges under new evidentiary rules has privileged the judiciary's lay knowledge and experience over that of the jury. While these transformations may hasten the processing of cases, the paper questions whether the courts can legitimately take on board the issues of risk and social justice in contemporary industrial societies.
Progress, Innovation and Regulatory Science in Drug Development
Authors: Abraham John , Reed Tim
Published: March 2007

This paper examines international standard-setting in the toxicology of pharmaceuticals during the 1990s, which has involved both the pharmaceutical industry and regulatory agencies in an organization known as the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH). The analysis shows that the relationships between innovation, regulatory science and `progress' may be more complex and controversial than is often assumed. An assessment of the ICH's claims about the implications of `technical' harmonization of drug-testing standards for the maintenance of drug safety, via toxicological testing, and the delivery of therapeutic progress, via innovation, is presented. By demonstrating that there is not a technoscientific validity for these claims, it is argued that, within the ICH, a discourse of technological innovation and scientific progress has been used by regulatory agencies and prominent parts of the transnational pharmaceutical industry to legitimize the lowering and loosening of toxicological standards for drug testing. The mobilization and acceptance of this discourse are shown to be pivotal to the ICH's transformation of reductions in safety standards, which are apparently against the interests of patients and public health, into supposed therapeutic benefits derived from promises of greater access to more innovative drug products. The evidence suggests that it is highly implausible that these reductions in the standards of regulatory toxicology are consistent with therapeutic progress for patients, and highlights a worrying aspect embedded in the `technical trajectories' of regulatory science.
Disciplining Experts
Authors: Thorpe Charles
Published: March 2007

In 1954, J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had emerged from World War II as America's foremost scientific advisor to government, faced a security hearing which stripped him of his security clearance and barred him from government work. This paper provides a novel interpretation of this event and its significance by arguing that the hearing exposed fundamental and endemic tensions in the place of science in liberal democratic politics. Science's image of impersonal objectivity makes it useful to the liberal democratic state. Scientific advice helps to legitimize executive power as a neutral tool of the public will. However, as it is appropriated by the state, science is itself held accountable to bureaucratic conceptions of objectivity. Personal trust and personal authority in science become problematic in the context of state administration and the use of science for political legitimation. The Oppenheimer hearing exemplified the way in which the incorporation of science into the administrative apparatus of government has involved disciplining scientific experts and fashioning scientific authority after the bureaucratic model of the state.
The Chimerical Cat: Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics in Historical Perspective
Authors: Brush Stephen G.
Published: March 2007

The establishment of the Heisenberg-Schrodinger quantum mechanics in 1926 was undoubtedly the most important event m the history of twentieth-century science - for science itself, even if not for society. One might therefore suppose that the metaphysical conclusions associated with quantum mechanics are a major part of our present view of the world The purpose of this paper is to show that two of these conclusions - indeterminism, and the denial of independent reality to atomic properties - are not unique to quantum mechanics, but emerged as the culmination of historical trends begun m the nineteenth century It postulates cyclic oscillation between 'Romantic' and 'Realist' periods m science and culture, and ascribes a gradual breakdown of belief in determinism to debates about irreversibility. Albert Einstein's opposition to the 'Copenhagen Interpretation' of quantum mechanics was based on a preference for realism as much as a dislike for indeterminism, and the 'Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox' was a formidable challenge to subjectivist instrumentalism. Following the revival of realist interpretations m the 1950s, new experiments seem to have reconfirmed the subjectivist view But there is currently strong disagreement on what kind of subjectivism is scientifically legitimate; John Wheeler's version of the 'anthropic principle' and parapsychological explanations both conflict with the naive realism that has dominated the Western Intellectual tradition since the seventeenth century.
Interests and Explanation in the Social Study of Science
Authors: Woolgar Steve
Published: March 2007

Recent applications of the 'strong programme' in the social study of science involve (I) appeals for a 'naturalistic' study of science and (II) the invocation of 'interests' as an explanatory resource. It is argued that the notion of 'naturalism' is insufficiently clear and that attempts to 'identify' interests neglect important features of scientific practice. Studies of the content of scientific knowledge have proceeded at the expense of attention to the character of argument Itself. A detailed examination of one example of the many recent case studies hrghlights a series of explanatory strategies used to gloss the fundamental difficulties of 'interests explanation'. It is argued that rather than unreflectively attempting to 'reveal' interests it is more appropriate to turn our attention to the management of explanatory strategies in the practice of scientific argument.
Reflexivity in Technology Studies: Toward a Technology of Technology (and Science)?
Authors: Hamlin Christopher
Published: March 2007

In recent years scholars have begun to apply perspectives of the sociology of scientific knowledge to technology. At the same time, there has been much concern about how to deal, methodologically, with the issue of reflexivity in sociological (and historical) studies of science. This paper considers implications of the reflexivity issue for sociological and historical accounts of technology. Drawing on characterizations of technology (mainly by its historians), the paper develops several senses in which technology is conceived to differ significantly from science. Accordingly, assumptions and approaches, contexts and expectations associated with the sociology of scientific knowledge may be inappropriate to the study of technology. These differences can be used to gain insights into the reflexivity question. If, as we have done in science, we look to the activity we study for guidance about how to study it, we may find technology to warrant a different conception of the location and purposes of its analysts than does science - a conception of the studier not as an isolated knower, but as a socially and politically involved co-creator. In line with recent suggestions of Sal Restivo and Bruno Latour, our activity as STS scholars might then better be characterized as a technology of technology (or science), rather than as a science of science (or technology).
Engineering Knowledge: The Construction of Knowledge in Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Forsythe Diana E.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents an anthropological study of knowledge production in the expert systems community within AI. Expert systems are built by knowledge engineers, specialists in the task known as `knowledge acquisition'. This is a complex process of interpretation and translation; not surprisingly (to an anthropologist, at least), it presents a troublesome `bottleneck'. However, knowledge engineers have a different perspective on why this is so. Typically positivist in approach, they see knowledge acquisition as conceptually straightforward. In their view, it is difficult, not because of the nature of knowledge or the complexity of the process, but rather because it requires extended face-to-face interaction between knowledge engineer and expert. Believing that automation will `get around' the inexact and uncontrollable nature of this interaction, they seek to automate it. Drawing on ethnographic material, the paper explores the knowledge engineers' epistemological stance, noting its characteristic deletions, and suggesting that they are reflected in the resultant technology.
Narrative Form and Normative Force: Baconian Story-Telling in Popular Science
Authors: Curtis Ron
Published: March 2007

Why do science journalists cast their material in narrative form, using familiar fictional genres such as the detective story? Why do they avoid other genres, such as the dialogue? Popular science provides a cognitive space, and the scientific detective story an interpretative repertoire, in which only one theory of science is readily but tacitly expressed and endorsed, not only to a popular audience but also as part of a continuing debate among scientists themselves. There is a strong formal, structural analogy between popular scientific story-forms and the method of induction by elimination. Science is Baconian, these stories imply, and it can progress only through a cooperative effort among scientists to conquer nature by labour, not their adversaries in debate. To develop a new critical self-consciousness about theories of science, popular science needs to explore alternative literary forms, particularly the radically anti-Baconian, Socratic dialogue.
The Double Helix and the Warped Zipper — An Exemplary Tale
Authors: Stokes T. D.
Published: March 2007

Watson and Crick's celebrated double helix is a model problem-solution in the study of the conformation of biological macromolecules. It is, in Kuhn's terms, an `exemplar' for that `disciplinary matrix'. In 1976, however, two groups independently suggested essentially the same alternative, non-helical structure for DNA. No disciplinary `crisis' of confidence in the double-helical model preceded this proposal and, although Kuhn allows for such occurrences, he does not explain them. A Kuhnian account of the genesis and reception of the `side-by-side' or `warped zipper' model of DNA is provided. It invokes both explicit methodological norms at variance with the implicit presumptions of the scientific community and the freedom from conceptual constraint of amateurs and scientists outside, or on the fringe of, the disciplinary matrix. On this account the advent of the novel structure is seen as extrinsic to that matrix. But, as Francis Crick acknowledged, the competitive challenge `served a useful purpose'. It demonstrated the need for a `more careful scrutiny' of the empirical evidence for the double helix — with surprising results. This indicates that the effects of an exemplar are not necessarily advantageous.
Joking Apart: Some Recommendations Concerning the Analysis of Scientific Culture
Authors: Mulkay Michael , Gilbert G. Nigel
Published: March 2007

This paper is an attempt to show that scientific humour is an important topic analytically, because it reveals with particular clarity some of the interpretative resources by means of which scientists create social meaning. A discourse analysis is presented of a recurrent participants' `proto-joke' dealing with communication among scientists, of a satirical article appearing in a `joke journal', and of a cartoon. This analysis adds further support to prior work on the nature of scientists' interpretative repertoires; as well as describing some of the organizational forms which are used to construct scientists' humour. It is suggested that there is no difference, in general principle, between the social production of humour and the social production of, say, consensus or controversy; in other words, that the phenomena traditionally investigated by sociologists of science are best conceived, like humour, as highly variable outcomes of the interpretative procedures used by scientists to organize their versions of social action in specific contexts.
The Death of Spontaneous Generation and the Birth of the Gene: Two Case Studies of Relativism
Authors: Roll-Hansen Nils
Published: March 2007

Relativists in the history and sociology of science have recently claimed that whatever the status of the philosophical debate, their empirical programme is very successful: relativistic case studies meet little criticism on the empirical level. In this paper I try to redress the balance, a little, by repeating and elaborating some objections to two cases which relativists have frequently used to support their general claims about the nature of science. A crucial objection to the relativist interpretations of the Pasteur-Pouchet debate over spontaneous generation, and of the biometrician-Mendelian debate over the nature of heredity, is that they are based on inadequate understanding of the scientific issues. When these misunderstandings are cleared up, interpretations in the rationalist tradition become much easier to uphold.
Federal Funding and Sudden Infant Death Research, 1945-80
Authors: Hufbauer Karl
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the role played by targeted funding in advancing research on a recalcitrant problem. A synoptic view of American studies of unexpected deaths of sleeping babies reveals two principal advances — (1) the establishment between 1945 and 1961 of sudden infant death `syndrome' as a problem for biomedical research, and (2) the recognition between 1969 and 1980 that many of the victims had congenital breathing abnormalities. Analysis of targeted federal funding shows that it played a lagging rather than leading role in both major advances. That is, while such funds provided little support for the initial insights, they fostered much of the follow-up work. A few suggestions about how funding agencies might handle significant yet recalcitrant problems are offered by way of conclusion.
Contested Boundaries in Policy-Relevant Science
Authors: Jasanoff Sheila S.
Published: March 2007

In the United States, as in other industrialized nations, regulatory decisions to protect the environment and public health depend heavily on scientific information. Yet the process of decision-making places unusual strains on science. Knowledge claims are deconstructed during the rule-making process, exposing areas of weakness or uncertainty and threatening the cognitive authority of science. At the same time, the legitimacy of the final regulatory decision depends upon the regulator's ability to reconstruct a plausible scientific rationale for the proposed action. The processes of deconstructing and reconstructing knowledge claims give rise to competition among scientists, public officials and political interest groups, all of whom have a stake in determining how policy-relevant science should be interpreted and by whom. All of these actors use boundary-defining language in order to distinguish between science and policy, and to allocate the right to interpret science in ways that further their own interests. This paper explores the contours of such boundary disputes in the context of controversies over carcinogen regulation. It focuses on the contested definitions and strategic implications of three groups of concepts: trans-science or science policy, risk assessment and risk management, and peer review.
Certainty and the Public Understanding of Science: Science on Television1
Authors: Collins H. M.
Published: March 2007

The notion of `the public understanding of science' is ambiguous. It is not the findings of science that are crucial, but the public understanding of science as a knowledge-producing activity. Two television broadcasts on science are described and analyzed. Features typical of science broadcasting, with their implicit epistemological messages, are discussed. The public understanding of science is affected by the way such programmes portray science as a producer of certainty. The first programme deals with a controversy in an area of low status. While this allows an uncertain face of science to be glimpsed, it is with us only for a narrow slot in time — the present. We are shown only a small `window of uncertainty' set within walls of certainty that extend into the past and the future. The second programme confirms this analysis. The first programme puts us in a position to follow the window of uncertainty in real time. An experiment discussed in the programme — the carbon-dating test on the Shroud of Turin — is about to happen. It is predicted that the carbon-dating test will move into the `window of uncertainty' as we approach it.
Citation Context Classification of a Citation Classic Concerning Citation Context Classification
Authors: Moravcsik Michael J.
Published: March 2007

The citations to a citation classic dealing with the classification of citations according to their contexts were analyzed using the method of that citation classic. It was found that (a) the ratio of conceptual to operational citations is very much larger than in the cases studied before in the natural sciences; (b) the ratio of evolutionary to juxtapositional citations is much smaller than in the cases studied before in the natural sciences. The results are interpreted in terms of the following conclusions: (1) the technique of the original paper has been little used directly; (2) the specific results of the original applications of the original paper have been used to some extent as evidence; and (3) the conceptual idea of the original paper has been used in general to stimulate further, refined, and alternate investigations in scientometrics.
The Impact of the Strategic Defense Initiative on US Civilian R&D Investment and Industrial Competitiveness
Authors: Lichtenberg Frank R.
Published: March 2007

At a time when US industrial competitiveness was at its lowest point in the modern era, the Reagan Administration requested unprecedented sums for research and development of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). If funded at the levels requested, SDI would further weaken the US competitive position by substantially reducing the amount of civilian R&D investment. Past military R&D has made a negligible contribution to US economic performance, and the exotic nature of SDI technology suggests that its contribution will be even smaller. Given the current state of the US economy, the consequences of a policy which greatly undermines US competitiveness are likely to be much more serious now than they would have been in the past.
Creativity and Conformity in Science: Titles, Keywords and Co-word Analysis
Authors: Whittaker John
Published: March 2007

In this paper the adequacy of the co-word method for mapping the structure of scientific inquiry is explored. Co-word analysis of both the keywords and the titles of a set of papers in `acidification research' is undertaken and the results are found to be comparable, though the keyword-derived results provide greater detail. This strongly suggests that keyword indexing doest not, as has sometimes been claimed, distort coword findings. It also points to differences between titles (which often emphasize the supposed originality of an article) and keywords (which tend to show the relationship between the paper and other publications). The paper also explores important differences between the methodological assumptions that underlie the Paris/Keele co-word clustering algorithms and the factor analysis method for creating clusters.
Organization and Wildlife Preservation: The Case of the Whooping Crane in North America
Authors: Dunlap Thomas R.
Published: March 2007

The campaign to save the North American whooping crane from extinction began in the early twentieth century with a few individuals seeking legal protection for the bird. It evolved into a programme involving scientists and public interest groups in the United States and Canada, and requiring active strategies to increase reproduction and form new flocks. Programmes and plans have become progressively more complicated; power over policy has shifted from individuals and non-governmental organizations to federal agencies; and academically qualified scientists have displaced naturalists and nature-lovers. The evolution of administrative structures and the increasing importance of federal agencies and experts is seen as a response not only to public demands for action to save species, and the crane in particular, but to the imperatives of bureaucracy and organization required by an industrialized society using all the land.
Beyond Epistemology: Relativism and Engagement in the Politics of Science
Authors: Jasanoff Sheila
Published: March 2007

In recent years, it has become increasingly clear that work in the social studies of science and technology can be appropriated, or consciously deployed, to serve political ends. Correspondingly, pressure has risen on scholars in this field to choose sides in controversies involving science and technology. This paper argues that `co-production' — the simultaneous production of knowledge and social order — provides a more satisfying conceptual framework than `controversy' for understanding the relationship between science and society, and the scholar's rôle in that relationship. Political engagement is better achieved through reflexive, critical scholarship than through identification with apparent `winners' or `losers' in well-defined but contingent controversies. Reflexivity is especially desirable when selecting sites for research, styles of explanation, and methods of articulating normative positions.
Feminism, Sociology of Scientific Knowledge and Postmodernism: Politics, Theory and Me
Authors: Singleton Vicky
Published: March 2007

Is postmodernism debilitating for feminists approaching science? Is the actor-network approach, which rejects dualisms and universalism, politically impotent? Or is such a critique epistemologically conservative? I explore these questions by drawing on empirical research examining the UK Cervical Screening Programme (CSP). Specifically, I attempt to answer the question of whether or not women should participate in the CSP and undertake a cervical smear test. Because the CSP is constantly changing as participants' identities multiply in negotiation, I propose that there is no stable point from which a single decision about lay participation can be made, however politically useful it may be to do so. I demonstrate my discomfort with talking about whether women should or should not participate. Given the dynamic nature of the Programme, a `should' discourse is inappropriate, and can also be guilt-inducing and oppressive to women. My preference is for a discourse which emphasizes that women could participate.
Contract Shop Epistemology: Credibility and Problem Construction in Applied Social Science
Authors: Breslau Daniel
Published: March 2007

The use of social scientific expertise in forming state policies alters the social structure of scientific fields in a way that has important cognitive consequences. In particular, it leads to a competition between holders of traditional forms of academic recognition, and those who are distinguished by their administrative capacity and links to state personnel. Controversies over the authoritative measurement of the effects of state social policies reflect a social struggle between holders of these two kinds of capital or `credibility.' Based on a case study of evaluation of federal job training programmes in the USA, this paper shows that researchers in academic departments and in non-academic `contract-shops' compete to impose different definitions of research problems and objects of study. These definitions, in turn, favour their interests in accumulating different forms of credibility. Academic economists favour a rationalist approach using formal models, while contract shop researchers promote a case-based empiricism and social experiments.
A Police Program for Employment of Youth Gang Members
Authors: Willman Mark T. , Snortum John R.
Published: March 2007

One hundred experimental subjects and 100 controls were matched on age, sex, ethnic group and gang membership; and the groups were equated on the number of prior police detentions. Because both groups showed a subsequent decline in police detentions, the effect cannot be attributed to the jobs program but is more likely increasing age and maturity and decreasing vulnerability to police arrests for minor infractions. It was suggested that the focus should shift from job procure ment to job maintenance.
Transition Processes: Healthy versus Pathological in Youth Groups
Authors: Wright Fred
Published: March 2007

Relying largely on Winnicott's ideas about transitional phenomena and transitional objects, this paper reviews the ways in which group experience can be psychologically meaningful, even necessary, for many young people. A distinction is made between healthy and pathological, or antisocial uses of the group, and some of the possible dynamics determining involvement with antisocial groups are discussed. Study of ways in which groups can be organized that will assist youth to work through developmental issues in a pro-social fashion is strongly recommended.
Women Staff Members and Ward Atmospheres in a Forensic Hospital
Authors: Goldmeier John , Silver Stuart B.
Published: March 2007

The results of the efforts to employ more women staff on secure wards in a forensic hospital are reported. These efforts were directed at creating equal employment opportunities as well as enhancing the resocialization of patients through more positive ward atmospheres. Ten ward atmosphere qualities identified by Moos were used as measures. The study concentrated on ratings of patients from two wards which had higher and lower concentrations of women staff. Patients in the ward having more women staff members rated their ward significantly higher on several relationship and systems maintenance dimensions but lower on the amount of aggression permitted.
A Research Note on the MMPI PD Scale and Sociopathy
Authors: Rogers Richard , Gillis J. Roy , Dickens Susan E.
Published: March 2007

This study examines retrospectively the distribution of Pd and non-Pd two-point codes and ICD-9 diagnoses for 470 court-referred patients. Pd two-point codes were notfound to be useful in identifying anti social personality disorders and were often present in individuals with either major psychiatric disorders or no disorders at all. These findings are discussed with reference to current interpretations of Pd codes.
The Criminological Case Evaluation and Sentencing Recommendation: An Idea Whose Time Has Come
Authors: Gitchoff G. Thomas , Rush George E.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of sentencing is to give convicted offenders their "just desserts" and simultaneously provide the community with a sense of justice. In assessing sanctions, judges often have little data to support other than traditional sentencing models. Use of the Criminological Case Evaluation and Sentencing Recommendation provides the judiciary with in-depth background information and offers creative sentencing options. This procedure allows expanded remedial and rehabilitation efforts.
Different Substance Abusing Offenders Require a Unique Program
Authors: Loza Wagdy
Published: March 2007

This study aimed at determining if alcohol, drug, or combined alcohol and drug abusing offenders differed in their characteristics from each other and from other non-substance abusing offenders, with the eventual goal of suggesting treatment strategies for these offenders. Offenders were classified into four groups: alcohol abusers, drug abusers, combined alcohol and drug abusers, and non-alcohol/non-drug abusers. Measurements used were the Level of Supervision Inventory (LSI) (Andrews, 1983) and Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) (Hare, 1985a, 1985b). Results supported previous findings regarding the prevalence of substance abuse problems among incarcerated offenders. The combined alcohol/drug abusing offenders had the highest scores among the groups on all items and total score of the LSI; the majority of items, total score, Factors I and 2 of the PCL-R. They were followed by drug abusers, alcoholics, the non-alcohol/non-drug abusing offenders. Implications for treatment programming for substance-abusing offenders are discussed.
Moral Judgment among Incarcerated Offenders from a Psychotherapeutic Background
Authors: Wolf Yuval , Friedlander Miriam , Addad Moshe , Silfen Peter , Walters Joel
Published: March 2007

The present work is a preliminary attempt to examine whether the theory of information integration is applicable as aframework for the study of moral judgment by incarcerated offenders who underwent formal psychotherapy in prison (psychotherapeutic background). The hypothesis, derived from the theory, was that judgment would be based on more than a single source of information. This hypothesis was tested against an alternative, unidimensional prediction derived from the theory of object relations. Nineteen subjects, 14 of them hospitalized in the psychiatric ward of an Israeli prison, participated in a study based on a single subject experimental design, where every subject participated in all experimental conditions. Seven of them were diagnosed as borderline and seven as anti-social. Each subject responded to an experimental questionnaire which included hypothetical episodes about property crimes committed by two offenders. The subject was instructed to identify with one of the offenders. Three pieces of information were included in each episode: the intent of each of the two offenders and the size of the job.' All episodes derived from a complete factorial design were presented to each subject. In one replication the subject assigned blame to the offender with whom he identified, and in the other he assigned blame to the accomplice. Meaningful differences were found between the groups of prisoners, as reflected in the importance assigned to the three sources of information.
Looking With Fresh Eyes Across Time and Space: Europe from a Confucian Perspective
Authors: Choi Kee Il
Published: March 2007

The most valuable finding of my first sightseeing trip was that medieval Europe was the seat of Christendom and that Christianity defines the West. I was amazed to see that Europe reveals so much of its past. I had not had such an experience in the United States, where I had lived as a student and then as a professor of economics.

As I glimpsed the West, I found myself rediscovering Confucian civilization and how much I am still Confucian, although I was born into a Presbyterian family in Korea. But then, Korea is the most Confucian country. Curious about the West since my first trip, whenever I can I have toured Europe in search of the meaning of the West.

While travelling in Europe, my mind often jumps back to my early life in Korea and Japan. I am struck by the vivid contrast in appearance between medieval European towns and Asian towns, which were grey and as flat as pancakes. Medieval towns are stony and solid. Nothing is flimsy. Shaped by spires, domes, and towers, a European town's silhouette rises and falls like a stock market graph. Europeans obviously loved the vertical emphasis. A traveller can see either a soaring church tower or a castle keep miles away on the horizon. Churches predominate, as if to emphasize that the main business of the town is the worship and glorification of God.
Stock-market Forecasting as Cosmography
Authors: Mobio Francis
Published: March 2007

In the midst of the ultra modernity of stock exchanges and financial markets, certain practitioners are increasingly using forecasting models of changes in rates whose scientific rationality is particularly contested. We refer to ‘technical analysis’, or, in the jargon of finance, of ‘chartism’. The adherents of this practice affirm that their models offer the possibility of detecting and of reading, by means of stereotyped graphical configurations, rising or falling market trends. Now, for a large number of people who hold scientific economic and financial theories to describe the ‘nature’ of changes in rates as so many random and unpredictable phenomena, these models arise above all from the sphere of ‘superstition’ and ‘beliefs’, in the worst sense of the term. To listen to them, one would think there was hardly any difference between sorcery, prophecy, and chartism, since in short: “it works because people believe in it”. These are remarks that can only arouse the curiosity of the anthropologist, because they actually serve merely to recall epistemologica! controversies that depend on the rationality and the irrationality of observed practices and debates in various cultures. At the heart of these contradictory debates, it is precisely prophecy as a cultural mode of managing unforeseen events that has been the subject of multiple anthropological, historical, and epistemological studies which can, in a comparative perspective, clarify the structure and functioning of forecasting tools employed by the chartists in the context of financial speculation.