bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
24. On Relative Growth in Asellus aquaticus
Authors: Needham A. E.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

In the relative growth of various width dimensions and total length in Asellus aquaticus the mean course of the later stages of growth shows simple allometry.

In detail, however, the growth‐curves show a regular rhythmicity which is essentially similar in all segments. It is suggested that the rhythmicity may be due to cyclic phenomena in absolute growth, the periodicity of the cycles in width‐growth differing from those in length‐growth. Simple allometry is then the simpler case when the periodicity of the cycles is the same.

Two well‐marked growth‐gradients occur in the width‐growth of Asellus, one in the posterior thoracic region and another about the fourth thoracic segment. Both appear in both sexes, though the latter is more marked in the female and the former in the male. Both appear before there is any appreciable difference between the growth of the two sexes, though only the posterior gradient occurs in early stages, so that the male continues the trend of immature growth more closely than the female.

One gradient may inhibit the other (female, crest 4) or not (elsewhere).

The temporary retardation of the eighth thoracic segment in young Isopods, Cumacea, and Tanaidacea may be the result of inhibition by a growth‐centre in the abdomen. In Asellus this is followed by a reciprocal retardation by the growth‐centre, which moves forward to segment thoracic 8, on the abdomen.

The“Growth Contour”gives a unified picture of the continuous variation of the growth‐coefficient in space along the body and in time. It gives a more complete idea of the nature of each growth‐centre, of the gradients from it, and of its accelerating or inhibitory effects on neighbouring regions.

In certain respects population growth (group data) may be more specific than individual growth, possibly giving a more accurate idea of the processes underlying growth.

Apart from the rhythmic variation of the growth‐coefficient in each segment there is throughout a steady upward trend in its value; the rate of relative widening increases throughout growth, probably in relation to mechanical requirements, which are thus superimposed upon more fundamental (rhythmic) features of growth.

The head becomes progressively smaller compared with the rest of the body, as in higher vertebrates. It appears to initiate the growth‐rhythms, however

General inhibition of growth (from a crest to a trough) affects regions of high growth‐rate (growth‐centres) more than regions of lower growth‐rate, thus causing a flattening of the growth‐gradient; but this is not accompanied by a movement of the growth‐centre nearer the centre of the body.
27. The Form and Dermatoglyphs of the Hands and Feet of certain Anthropoid Apes
Authors: Wolff Charlotte
Published: August 2010

Summary.

The general form, crease‐line, and papillary‐ridge system of the hand and foot of twelve chimpanzees are described.

A new method for obtaining prints of hands and feet has been devised, with the aid of brilliantine and crude dioxide of copper.

A marked age change in the crease‐line system occurs in chimpanzees. This proceeds in opposite directions in the extremities, but in both cases the resemblance to man is diminished. In the palm numerous new longitudinal crease‐lines are formed, while in the sole the secondary transverse lines disappear, notably in the ball of the big toe.
30. Differential Growth in the Crab Ocypoda
Authors: Sandon H.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

Measurements were made of the carapace and of the lengths of each segment, of the appendages of thirty‐two male Ocypodu ægyptiaca, of carapace lengths ranging from 11–4 to 42.1 mm.

The results previously obtained by Huxley for O. ceratophthalma were confirmed as regards the negative heterogony of the walking‐legs with respect to the carapace (section 4), the presence of a centre of low growth‐potential in the merus of these legs and the complex nature of the growth‐gradient in them. The growth‐gradient is not a simple inverted form of that found in other crustacea, but contains at least three inflexions (section 5).

Both of the chelæ are positively heterogonic. The growth‐gradients within them are of a similar form to those in the walking‐legs. This form of the growth‐gradient is therefore not necessarily associated with negative heterogony (section 6).

The growth‐gradient in the third maxilliped also shows some resemblance the that in the walking‐legs, there being a minimum in segments iii. and iv. (section 7).

Data for the growth of the eye and eye‐stalk are given. These show extreme heterogony (section 8).

In many segments of the appendages the growth‐rate relative to carapace length was found to change during that part of the total development which was studied. In the walking‐legs and in segment iv. of the chelae growth was retarded in the older individuals. In most other segments of the large chela it was accelerated. Growth of the carapace in width relative to its growth in length was also retarded in the later stages. Growth of the walking‐legs relative to carapace width was constant throughout the range (sections 4 to 8).

There was no indication of an antero‐posterior growth‐gradient in the appendages (section 9) nor of any influence of the high growth‐rate of the large chela on the growth‐rate of adjacent appendages (section 10).

In all four pairs of walking‐legs the two terminal segments on the side of the small chela were, on the average, slightly longer than those on the opposite side of the body. This effect is much smaller in degree and opposite in sign to that found in the related genus Uca. No other evidence of asymmetry (apart from the chelæ) could be found. No difference in the lengths of the chelæ between right‐ and left‐handed specimens could be established (section 10).
Comparative Study of the Hyoid and Tongue of some Typical Genera of Reptiles
Authors: Gnanamuthtj C. P.
Published: August 2010

The hyoid apparatus and tongues of fifteen reptiles are described and discussed.

The patterns formed by the transverse muscles of the throat are classificatory importance, as are also the intrinsic muscles of the tongue. The study of these muscles throws new light on the position of the families Iguanidae and Chameleontidæ.

The hyoid apparatus and its muscles exhibit variations too numerous to provide data of taxonomic importance. The gular structures, as well as protrusible tongues, are aided by specially modified devices of the hyoid apparatus.

The mechanism of the protrusible tongues of reptiles is described.

The hyoid apparatus and the muscles of the tongue and throat co‐operate in making the buccal cavity an active agent in the respiratory mechanism of most reptiles.
The Structure and Post‐Embryonic Development of Vanessa urticse (Lepidoptera)–II. The Larval Malpighian Tubules.
Authors: Henson H.
Published: August 2010

Vanessa urticx has six Malpighian tubules, three on each side which open into the colon by a common duct. Between the tubules proper and the common duct is a small‐celled undifferentiated region known as the imaginal ring or interstitial ring.

The posterior ends of the tubules enter into close association with the wall of the rectum forming the rectal plexus.

In the embryo (of Pieris hrassicse) the tubules arise in association with the proctodeum. During the first half of the embryonic period the tubules grow by active cell division, but there is no differentiation. During the second half of the embryonic period differentiation takes place, but no new cells are formed.

In the larva (of Vanessa urticse) the tubules grow by an increase in the size of their constituent cells. The nuclei are rounded at first but become palmate and finally much ramified. The nuclei of the cells of the rectal plexus remain rounded throughout larval life. In no parts of the tubules proper is there any cell division.

The common duct increases in size by a continuous enlargement of its constituent cells. There is no cell division. This mode of growth is similar to that of the hind‐gut.

The interstitial (imaginal) ring continues cell division throughout larval life. As a formative region, however, it is relatively inactive and adds only a few cells to the tubules proper and common duct. It appears to be a relic of the embryonic blastopore, which fails to differentiate completely but retains to a slight extent its capacity for producing endoderm internally (tubules proper) and ectoderm externally (common duct).
6. On the Structure of Larvae of Hispine Beetles.–V. (With a Revision of the Genus Brontispa Sharp.)
Authors: Maulik S.
Published: August 2010

The genus Brontispa Sharp is revised here.

 Out of the twenty recorded forms only eleven can be considered as true species, of which a table based on structural characters is given.

 Brontispa sumatrana Weise is the same as Plesispa reichei Chapuis.

 Brontispa sarasini Hiller does not belong to the genus Brontispa.

 The following eight species are only colour varieties of one and the same species:–Oxycephala longissima Gestro, Oxycephala longipennis Gestro, Brontispa froggatti Sharp, Brontispa javana Weise, Brontispa selebensis Gestro, Brontispa castanea Lea, Brontispa simmondsi Maulik, Brontispa reicherti Uhmann. The name to be used is Brontispa longissima Gestrq. The life‐history and habits and structural features all support the view adopted here.

 Thus a general principle can be enunciated:–In the genus Brontispa whenever a species cannot be separated on structural characters it is not a true species.

 Larvse of three species are described: B. froggatti Sharp (=0. longissima Gestro), B. linearis Spaeth, B. gleadowi Weise.

 The heads of these larvas have well‐developed crania, and the bodies have tail‐shovels with the largest spiracles in them.

 The structure of the larvae of the three species examined here shows such differences that they confirm their separation by the systematist on adult characters. In other words, when the species are separated on structural characters of the adults the immature stages will also show structural differences

 This remark applies also to the pupas. The pupae of two species have been examined. They also have tail‐shovels, but without spiracles. The form of the tail‐shovel of the pupa is different from that of the corresponding larva. It (the tail‐shovel) possesses a pair‐of prongs though different in shape and weaker in structure.

 The structure of the tail‐shovels, both of the larva and the pupa, can be said to have specific value, that is, species can be separated on the form of the tail‐shovels alone.

 Attention is drawn to the form of the lateral projections from the body of the larvae and to the characteristics of the surface structure.
On the Fossil Amphibia from the Gas Coal of Nýřrany and other Deposits in Czechoslovakia.
Authors: Steen Margaret C.
Published: August 2010

Researches on fossil Amphibia in this century, with few exceptions, have been concerned with the morphology of the Labyrinthodonts and its interpretation, work which has shown, for the first time, the evolutionary significance of the morphological changes taking place in the group. There exist, however, contemporaneously with the Carboniferous and Permian Labyrinthodonts, many other fossil Amphibia. These forms, which never attained the size of the latter group, display in their morphology a variety and diversity which are in direct contrast to that uniformity of structure common to all Labyrin‐thodont species.

The Nýřany fauna, in numbers and in variety, is one of the largest fossil Amphibian faunas known, containing, in addition to ten species of Labyrinthodonts, some twenty determinable species belonging to Orders other than the Labyrinthodontia, as well as many other species represented only by fragments and incomplete specimens. The importance of these delicate fossils, so perfect in their preservation, lies in the contribution which they make to the morphology of the small Carboniferous Amphibia. This contribution is summarised under the headings of the various Orders (Part I.), the theoretical significance of which is then discussed in a separate section (Part II.).
Nests and Broods in Whipsnade Bird Sanctuary in two successive years
Authors: Huxley J.S.
Published: August 2010

The record of nests in the Whipsnade Bird Sanctuary in 1936 and 1937 shows that the latter year was less favourable to avian reproduction.

This is manifested in number of species nesting (20 as against 21); reduction of total number of nests (about 11 per cent.); and of nests in nest‐boxes (17‐5 per cent.).

For the three abundant species of which complete records were taken (Starling, Great and Blue Tits, taken together), it was manifested in reduction in the number of nests where eggs were laid (11‐8 per cent.) and those in which eggs hatched (6‐5 per cent.); in reduction of mean size of clutch (2–4 per cent.); of mean number of young hatched per brood (8‐7 per cent.); and of mean number of young fledged per brood (14‐4 per cent.). The Blue Tit showed the greatest decrease in 1937.

The only change in conditions was a reduction in the amount of underbrush; this, however, could not be responsible for most of the decreases noted.

Records by Mr. Kendrick of Blue Tits in the Birmingham area indicate that there also 1937 was less favourable to avian reproduction than 1936.
Antagonism between two Heavy Metals in their Toxic Action on Freshwater Animals
Authors: Jones J. R. Erichsen
Published: August 2010

A brief review is given of previous work on antagonism.

 Lead nitrate and copper nitrate are highly toxic to Polycelis nigra (Müller). Lead nitrate is the more toxic salt at high concentrations, copper nitrate is the more toxic at low concentrations.

 The addition of lead nitrate to a solution of copper nitrate reduces its toxicity to Polycelis. At any particular copper concentration the addition of increasing quantities of lead nitrate at first prolongs the survival time, which attains a maximum at 0–005 N Pb; with addition of further lead nitrate the survival time shortens, and at high lead concentrations the mixture solutions become more toxic than the pure copper solution. With decrease in the copper nitrate concentration the relative prolongation of the survival time at 0–005 N Pb increases.

 Generally similar results are observed with Oammarus pulex (L.).

 Lead nitrate also reduces the toxicity of copper nitrate to Tubifex tubifex Müller, and the tadpole of the frog, Rana temporaria temporaria L.

 No case has been observed in which copper nitrate reduces the toxicity of a lead nitrate solution, and the antagonistic action of these salts thus appears to be of the non‐reciprocal type.

 The results are discussed in relation to the theories of other workers on the mechanism of antagonistic salt action.
The Status and Problem of the Bridled Guillemot
Authors: Southern H. N.
Published: August 2010

This paper summarizes the results obtained from the Bridled Guillemot Enquiry organized by the British Trust for Ornithology. It is hoped to carry on the enquiry during 1939.

 The biological problems of most interest connected with the enquiry are (a) how isolation has occurred in a previously more homogeneous population to produce the cline in proportion of bridled birds now observable from south to north, and (b) upon what genetic basis such proportions are maintained.

 The results are given showing increase from < 0.25 per cent, in the south of England to 26 per cent, in the Shetlands, with two lines of discontinuity in the cline; beyond the British Isles the increase is continued up to 70–80 per cent, in the Westmann Islands, Iceland.

 The question of the races shows another cline existing in Guillemot populations. There is not complete evidence to show that this is significantly correlated with the cline in bridling.

 Previous work adds little but contradictions to the data gathered in 1938.
The Bionomics of the Spotted Hyæna, Crocuta crocuta Erxl
Authors: Matthews L. Harrison
Published: August 2010

The Spotted Hyæna occurs in large numbers in many varied habitats in East Africa.

 The senses of smell, sight, and hearing all play an important part in the normal foraging of the animal.

 The hyæna's unhurried lope gives a speed of about eight to ten miles an hour, but a speed of about thirty miles an hour can be attained if pressed.

 The fæcal masses, which rapidly turn from green to white in colour on drying and consist almost entirely of mineral matter derived from bones, are deposited in regular latrine areas often of large extent.

 The Spotted Hyæna is primarily a scavenger, but often pulls down game on its own account. Several individuals often combine in hunting.

 Breeding occurs at all times of the year on the Masai Steppe. The growth of the young is slow.

 Spotted Hyænas lie up in thick cover or in burrows during the day. The young are always born in underground dens, either natural cavities among rocks or burrows excavated in the soil. A description is given of an extensive warren of such burrows.

 The Spotted Hyæna shows little sign of any organized pattern of social behaviour.

 There are three distinct cries; a foraging call, a chuckling noise made when settling to feed, and loud laughing and screaming cries probably associated with mating.

 The commonest external parasite is a Hippoboscid fly: several species of ticks also occur. Two species of Cestode infest a high proportion of the animals: nematodes and encysted larval cestodes are less frequent. Very small cysticerci are abundant in the liver.

 About 30 per cent, of the animals suffer from splenitis apostematosa, a diseased condition of the spleen which is filled with large pyæmic abscesses. Alveolar abscesses, broken, decayed, and heavily worn teeth occur commonly in the older animals from which one or more teeth are often missing. Abscesses appear to be frequently caused by fragments of bone becoming impacted between the teeth. Repaired fractures of the bones are recorded.

 The Spotted Hyæna has few natural enemies. In seeking food its movements are largely determined by the wanderings of herds of game and of nomadic bands of Masai and their cattle.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN HISPINE BEETLES: 7. The Geographic Distribution of European Hispine Beetles (Chry‐somelidse, Coleoptera)
Authors: Maulik S.
Published: August 2010

1. This is a contribution to the knowledge of the distribution of European animals, namely, three beetles of the subfamily Hispinse (Chrysomelidae).

2. The interest of the distribution discussed here is that the animals occur in South India and Ceylon, as well as in Europe.

3. All available localities where they have been captured have been collected and plotted on a map.

4. The beetles are figured, and three small maps showing the distribution of the genera separately and a large map of Europe in which the localities are indicated, are given.

5. The problem of this distribution is considered on the background of the distribution of a larger group. The tentative suggestion is that they are descended from a common ancestor living in Gondwanaland when India and Africa were one land‐mass. When they separated Hispella developed in South India and Dorcathispa and Polyconia developed and differentiated in Africa. Hispella spread towards the north, and during Tertiary times, when the earth folding took place and mountain chains were formed, one part of Hispella became isolated on the northern side of the Himalayas, and evolved into the species Hispella atra. The other part remained in India, where it became differentiated into the present‐day Indian species, and spreading eastwards along the mountains, reached the sea in South China.

After the separation into India and Africa the greatest development of Hispa has been in Africa, and H. testacea is a Mediterranean species spreading from Africa to Europe. The spread of L. filiformis has taken a similar course, from Africa to Europe.

6. As regards the geological history of the food‐plants, two important points are relevant. I have shown that the grasses and the palms form the chief food‐plants of the species of Hispinae. There are hardly any geological records of the Gramineae. The Nipa palm occurs in North African and European Eocene records. It seems likely, therefore, that the original food‐plants of all these beetles were Palmae.
The Activity and Metabolism of Poikilothermal Animals in Different Latitudes.—V
Authors: Fox H Munbo
Published: August 2010

The blood‐vessel pulsations of the polychaete worm Perinereis cultrifera are adapted to environmental temperatures in that the rate for animals living in English waters is the same at 14d̀ as that for Mediterranean animals at 20d̀. At a given temperature the rate for the northern form is quicker than that for the southern form, in spite of the fact that the northern animals are considerably bigger.

The rates of heart‐beat of Crustacea show a similar adaptation to latitude in five out of six pairs of comparable animals living respectively in seas round the British Isles and in the Mediterranean. In spite of the fact that in most cases the northern animals are bigger, they usually have a faster heart‐rate at a given temperature than the southern forms.

The rates of scaphognathite movement of comparable prawns living at Plymouth and at Tamaris have also been measured. For species of Lennder there is a parallelism between scaphognathite and heart‐rates, for Spinrontocaris and Hippolytethis is not the case.

The question is discussed as to whether physiological adaptation to latitude, when it exists within a single species, is genetical or individually acquired.
The Cestode Proteocephalus varius (Beddard)
Authors: Baylis H. A.
Published: August 2010

Proteocephalus varius (Beddard, 1913) is redescribed from specimens obtained from Varanus komodoensis, and P. sandgroundi Carter, 1943, is regarded as a synonym of it. An unsuccessful attempt to elucidate the life‐history of the species is described.
An Investigation into the Life‐history and Morphology of the Mustard Beetle, Phaedon cochleariæ F., on Watercress
Authors: Hamnett Gilbert G.
Published: August 2010

The need for detailed investigations into the life‐history and morphology of Phaedon cochleariæ F. first became apparent during field experiments which were designed to elucidate the problem of the control of this beetle on cultivated watercress in South Wales and Monmouthshire. Reference to literature revealed that our knowledge hitherto concerning this species was very meagre, and that even the information available differed in important respects from the experience gained during these preliminary studies on its control.

In the course of these investigations, the life‐cycle of the beetle, as it occurs on watercress, has been followed out together with its hibernation habits and the duration of the various larval and pupal stages. A perusal of accounts of previous work on this beetle showed that only two generations of adults have been described, but in the present work it was found that actually there are three generations produced in the year. In addition, a detailed study has been made of both the external and internal anatomy of all stages in the life‐cycle.
The Microfauna, especially the Protozoa, found in some Canadian Mosses
Authors: Fantham H.B. , Porter Annie
Published: August 2010

An account is given of the microfauna found in 93 samples of mosses from 18 localities in the Province of Quebec, one from New Brunswick, one from Nova Scotia and one from the Adirondacks in the United States. Species of Rhizopoda, Heliozoa, Mastigophora and Ciliata are summarised and the presence of associated microfauna such as Rotifera, Nematoda and Tardigrada is notified. In all 108 species of Sarcodina, 42 of Mastigophora and 40 species of Ciliata have been encountered. The microfauna of each moss sample is set forth, the mosses being grouped for each locality.

Comparisons are made of the microfauna of the species of Sphagnaceæ, Polytrichaceæ, Dicranaceæ, Bryacoæ and Hypnaceæ examined.

A quantative enumerative study of the micropopulations of a number of the mosses was made and the results are summarised. Huge numbers of Protozoa in many mosses are disclosed.

Giant strains of some Testacea are notified.

Some survival data of Protozoa found in Canadian mosses are given.

Comparison is made of the Protozoal fauna of some of the Canadian mosses with those of the same species of moss in the United States and Europe.

Some general observations, mainly physiological and distributional, in connection with the microfauna of the Canadian mosses are presented.
Life Tables for Musca vicina and Calliphora erythrocephala.
Authors: FELDMAN‐MUHSAM B. , MUHSAM H. V.
Published: August 2010

Life tables for the imago of Musca vicina and Calliphora erythrocephala were compiled from flies kept under controlled conditions. Musca were fed on diluted milk and Calliphora on 10% sugar solution and chicken liver.

In Musca females are slightly longer lived than males and the contrary is true for Calliphora.

The survivorship curves, and more strikingly the death eurves, exhibit a relatively high mortality during the early days of imaginal life. For the purpose of graduation, the life tables were broken up into two portions and the first one, containing the period of “premature imaginal mortality,” fitted by a fifth order parabola, and the second one by the Gompertz‐Makeham formula.

For Musca, a complete life table, covering all stages of development, has been compiled and compared to the human life table including miscarriages. This comparison reveals a parallelism between portions of the survivorship curves representing respectively the periods of foetus—egg, infancy—larva, youth and puberty—pupa and young imago, adult man—fertile imago.
The Skull of Hymenochirus curtipes.
Authors: PATERSON NELLIE F. , GOODRICH E. S.
Published: August 2010

The nasal capsule comprises a small tectum nasi, a septum nasi that is ossified posteriorly, a flat cartilago alaris and a long slender cartilago obliqua. The crista intermedia and its laminae are absent.

The nasal cavities consist of three chambers which have been termed the cavum principale, the intermediate chamber and the recessus lateralis. Communicating with the latter is the organ of Jacobson, into the floor of which Jacobson's gland opens. There is no ductus nasolacrimalis or glandula intermaxillaris.

The cranial nerves are discussed in connection with the lateral wall of the neurocranium. It is observed that there is a well‐marked preoptic root, but no distinct pila metoptica, the side wall between the foramen opticum and the foramen prooticum representing a combination of the pila metoptica and the pila antotica. It is considered that a prefacial commissure is present.

The skull is strongly ossified. The nasals, the fused frontoparietals, the pterygoids and the parasphenoid are large. A small foramen parietale occurs in the fused fronto‐parietals. The pterygoids do not encircle the median Eustaehian aperture, which in section is seen to penetrate the exoccipitale. The sphenethmoicl region is cartilaginous and unpaired. There is no separate supra‐ethmoid or prevomer. The palatines and quadratojugals are lacking. The quadrate region is anteriorly situated. An ossified processus basalis of the quadrate is recognized. The processus pterygoideus is confluent with neighbouring parts, but the processus oticus forms a lateral cartilaginous wall between the pars media plectri and the middle ear.

The musculus levator mandibulae anterior seems to be present, as the whole levator muscle occurs laterally and posteriorly to the ramus mandibularis V. The musculus depressor mandibulae consists of superficial and deep sections. Some of the fibres of the latter originate on the hinder process of the pars media plectri and on the posterior extremity of the ceratohyale.

The hyobranchial skeleton consists of two completely separated parts. The copula and the ceratohyale are ossified.

The affinities of Hymenochirus are discussed and some neotenie features are pointed out.
Keys to the Ethiopian Tachinidae.—II. Dexiinae
Authors: van Emden F. I.
Published: August 2010

Summary

The Genera and Species ofDexiinae, a subfamily of Tachinidae, which parasitizes larvae of Lamellicornia and, in some cases, of Cerambycidae, are revised and keyed, so far as they occur in the Ethiopian region. Two new genera are created, 21 species described as new, and 14 genera and 59 species and forms are distinguished in the keys.
The Anatomy of the Head and Mouth‐parts of Dysdercus intermedius Dist.
Authors: MacGill Elsie I.
Published: August 2010

Miss H. Frazer has given a brief general account of the mouth‐parts of Dysdercus intermedins in her paper on the transmission of internal boll disease of cotton. In the present paper this description is amplified and augmented.

The arrangement of the sclerites forming the head capsule of D. intermedius is described. The maxillary plates have internal projections, the maxillary processes, which support the stylets in the anterior part of the head.

The sucking pump, described as the pharynx by many authors, is an external chamber and not a true pharynx. It is formed by the flexible dorsal epipharynx, to which are attached the dilator muscles, and the rigid, ventral hypopharynx. The anterior end of the hypopharynx is drawn out into the pharyngeal duct which is inserted into the suction canal between the stylets.

The two pairs of stylets are enclosed in a chamber, the stylet pouch, formed inside the head by the invagination of the outer wall of the head capsule and by the wing of the hypopharynx. The mandible is the outer of the two stylets. The protractor muscle of the mandible is attached to the mandibular lever and not directly to the stylet; the retractor muscle is directly attached to the base of the mandible. The maxillary stylet represents the lacinia of the maxilla of other insects, the rest of the appendage forms the maxillary plate. Both the pro‐ and retractor muscles of the maxilla are attached to the base of the stylet. There are no maxillo‐mandibular muscles.

The saliva is forced down the salivary canal between the stylets by a highly developed salivary syringe. Two salivary ducts, their openings guarded by simple valves, open into the pump chamber. There is no valve at the exit of the common ejaculatory duct which runs through the body of the hypopharynx and opens into the salivary canal between the stylets.

The epipharynx is pierced by two series of pores leading to sensory cells lying dorsal to the epipharynx. Prom their position these cells are supposed to be a gustatory organ.

Dysdercus intermedius has paired maxillary glands lying inside the maxillary plates and opening by numerous small pores on their anterior faces. It is suggested that the secretion from these glands may be to lubricate the stylets or to help to bind the stylet bundle together and so strengthen it.

The salivary glands are of the four‐lobed type with duct‐like accessory glands.
The Natural History of some British Freshwater Fishes.
Authors: Hartley P. H. T.
Published: August 2010

1. The growth and the spawning and feeding habits of nine species of British freshwater fish are described. These species are:—Rutilus rutilus, Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Leuciscus leuciscus, Abramis brama, Blicca bjoerkna, Gobio gobio, Perca fluviatilis, Acerina cernua and Esox Lucius.

2. Growth has been studied by the use of scale‐reading. Individual growth‐rates vary greatly, the range in size of any age group nearly always exceeding the differences in average length between that age group and the next junior and senior age groups.

3. In the cyprinids, male and female fish are at first equal in numbers, but the males die off more swiftly than the females and are in the minority in the senior age groups.

4. Freshwater fish show a wide range of choice of foods; such species as Rutilus rutilus and Scardinius erythrophthalmus may be herbivores or carnivores as opportunity offers.

5. Two instances have been found of closely related species sharing an ecological niche. These species are:—Abramis brama with Blicca bjoerkna, and Perca fluviatilis with Acerina cernua.
Some Observations on the Ecological Variation and Development of the Cruciate Zigzag Camouflage Device of Argiope pulchella (Thor.).
Authors: Marson J. E.
Published: August 2010

The cruciate zigzag of Argiope pulchella (Thor.) is not specific, considerable variation in form and size occurring in different habitats. In any type of habitat, however, the type of device used is constant.

The intensity of illumination seems to be the factor determining the size and completeness of the device, the device being more complete and larger with an increase in illumination.

The density of the webbing used in the device and the distinctness of the zigzag formation are apparently controlled by two factors, the intensity of the illumination, and the speed at which the device is constructed. These two are, however, inter‐related as an increase in illumination, brings a corresponding increase in the speed at which the device is constructed. Increase in these two factors causes an increase in the density of the webbing used and a decrease in the distinctness of the zigzag formation.

This variation with the intensity of the illumination is reasonable as the effectiveness of the cruciate zigzag as a camouflage device decreases with a decrease in the intensity of the illumination, becoming detrimental when the web is in a dark habitat. It would appear then that Natural Selection has not selected this species because of the cruciate zigzag in its web but because of the spider's ability to modify the device according to the habitat in which it spins its web.
A Note on the Female Reproductive Tract in the Tree Kangaroos (Dendrolagus)
Authors: Matthews L. Harrison
Published: August 2010

The anatomy and histology of the female reproductive tract in Dendrolagus matschiei and D. ursinus are described and compared with the previous brief accounts of the anatomy in D. inustus.

There is considerable variation in the degree of development of the lateral vaginae; this may be specific, but is more probably a function of age and sexual activity. The median sinus vaginalis extends caudally to the caudal junction of the lateral vaginae, and ends blindly in the tissue of the urinogenital strand ventral to that junction, and a little cranial to the urethral meatus. There is a short common vagina, and a comparatively long urinogenital canal. The uteri open into the upper ends of the lateral vaginae through conspicuous papillae on their dorsal walls. The ovaries are contained in peritoneal pouches formed in the ligamentum latum genitale, and the abundant fimbriae cover the mouths of the ovarian sacs thus formed. Histological examination of the various parts of the reproductive tract shows that the primitive circular muscular coat forms the greater part of the walls of the uteri and of the lower parts of the lateral vaginae, and that only in the sinus vaginalis do the longitudinal fibres form a complete coat in addition to that formed by the circular ones. The ovary shows a complete lack of interstitial tissue, but a large amount of luteal atresia. The structure of the follicle and of the corpus luteum atreticum is described, and the possible method of formation of the latter is discussed in the light of the studies of other workers.
A Human‐like Embryo of Elephantulus.
Authors: van der Horst C. J.
Published: August 2010

In his early development man is distinct from the other Primates, except that probably, judging from a single known stage in the chimpanzee, this distinctive feature of the early human embryo is also exhibited by the anthropoid apes. Whereas in the other Primates the embryo remains in the uterine cavity, no matter whether it corrodes the uterine wall for the formation of a placenta, as in Tarsius and monkeys, or does not form a placenta at all, as in the Lemuroidea, in man the early embryo penetrates completely into the endometrium and, covered by the decidua capsularis, it is altogether separated from the uterine cavity. This human characteristic occurs in some rodents also, but evidently there is no genetic relationship between man and the guinea‐pig. Therefore, the guinea‐pig is of no importance in endeavouring to understand the difference between man and the other Primates or even between man and the other mammals.
Studies on the Biology of British Limpets.
Authors: Evans Ronald G.
Published: August 2010

(1) The limpets of Cardigan Bay have been studied to provide records additional to those of Eslick (1940) for the Isle of Man and those of Fischer‐Piette (1935, 1938) for the Channel coasts, and to place the recognition of the three species on a clearer basis.

(2) The nomenclature of the British species ofPatellais discussed, and it is decided to adhere, in the present study, to the system adopted by the Plymouth Marine Fauna (1931), and by Winckworth (1932),i. e.

Patella vulgataL.Patella depressaPennant.Patella athleticaBean.

This is related to the systems adopted by other workers.

(3) From a detailed study of 400 limpets in the laboratory and an examination of several hundred specimens in the field, descriptions of the various conchological and anatomical characters have been made. The results are compared with those of Fischer‐Piette (1935, 1938) and of Eslick (1940), and it is established that the three species are quite distinct in Cardigan Bay. A key is suggested for identification, based on external characters.

(4) The horizontal and vertical distributions between tide‐marks of the three species are described and are found to be quite distinct, although some overlapping occurs as among other intertidal forms.

(5) It is shown that whilePatella vulgataandP. athleticaprobably occur all round the British Isles, there is no evidence thatP. depressaoccurs north of the Irish Sea and Bristol Channel. The statement of Fischer‐Piette (1935) that the three species merge in certain areas (e. g.the Isle of Wight) needs re‐investigation and an extensive and detailed analysis of the limpet populations at such localities. The resemblance between the dentition ofP. vulgataandP. depressais discussed, and the possibility of hybridization, in localities where both occur freely, is considered. It is shown that the similarity of the pluricuspids is much more marked in an area where both species are common (Cardigan Bay) than whereP. vulgataonly occurs (Isle of Man).

Since the completion of the above work, I have examined several shells collected by Professor T. A. Stephenson at Salcombe, Looe, Bedruthan Steps, Watchet, Easdale, Staffa, Tantallan, and Charlestown. They are easily separated into the three distinct types here described, and differ in no significant way from the shells collected in Cardigan Bay.
Some Observations on the Eggs and Newly Hatched Embryos of Solpuga hostilis White (Arachnida).
Authors: Lawrence R. F.
Published: August 2010

Certain features of the first larval stage of the South African Solifuge, Solpuga hostilis White, are described. The newly hatched larva is provided dorsally with a number of long and very stout brownish setae arranged serially in symmetrical pairs on the head, thoracic and abdominal regions of the body; in the larva which has just been released from the egg, they are folded in a characteristic manner, forming a pattern which is the same in all the larvae. The setae are quite different from the long delicate hairs and setae of the adult Solpuga, being very much longer and thicker in proportion to the body length.

Before the rupture of the egg capsule, the eggs show a number of dark lines and markings, forming a pattern which is uniform in a series of 61 eggs. This pattern has nothing to do with the covering of the egg itself but is caused by the dark setae showing through the semi‐transparent capsule, some of them lying side by side to form fairly broad bands.

The prominent larval setae of Solpuga hostilis are certainly not found in the newly hatched larva of Galeodes (araneoides and caspius), the only other Solifugae in which this stage of development has been described; such large setae are very unusual in the newly hatched stages of Arachnida and Myriopoda where the delicate and soft‐skinned larva on emerging from the egg is nearly always devoid of hairs, spines or other cuticular out‐growths.

The claws of the appendages and the external appearance of the lateral organ are compared with these structures in Galeodes at the same stage of development.
The Morphology of the Ethmoidal Region of Sphenodon and Lizards
Authors: Pratt C. W. McE.
Published: August 2010

The nasal organs of Sphenodon and lizards are considerably modified by the mode of life, which in turn influences the form of the nasal capsule.

The anterior chamber functions as a filter in preventing foreign bodies from entering the respiratory tract. It is well marked in terrestrial forms that are specialized for a deserticolous existence, but it is very reduced in arboreal forms.

The lateral nasal gland passes its mucoid secretion into the anterior chamber, and serves to bind to the epithelium any small particles that have been inhaled. It is well developed in deserticolous and fossorial forms, but reduced in arboreal and semi‐aquatic lizards.

The olfactory chamber is well developed in terrestrial forms, but reduced in arboreal ones. Conchal formation is dependent upon orbital expansion.

Jacobson's organ is a specialization of ground‐living lizards, and is reduced in arboreal forms. Stimulating particles are deposited by the tongue onto the choanal fold. They are carried by means of ciliary currents into, and along a continuous stream of lachrymal fluid passing to the organ. Some lizards by the development of deeply forked tongues deposit the particles directly into the organ.

The definitive nasal capsule is formed by the fusion of two distinct morphological elements. There is a medial rostral process which belongs to the cranium, and consists of the nasal septum, dorsal plate, and sphenoethmoidal commissure. The lateral capsular element, which is a true sensory capsule, is divisible into parietotectal, paranasal, paraseptal, and ectochoanal cartilages.

The rostral elements arise earlier in the embryo than do the capsular elements, and are distinguished in the adult by the relations of the profundus nerve, which lies ventral to the rostral element and dorsal to the capsular element. The line of union is taken from the points of entry and exit of this nerve, and the position of certain fenestrae.

The fenestrae are due in the first place to weak development of the dorsal plate, and secondarily follow weak capsular development. In the case of fenestrae superior it follows weak parietotectal cartilage development, while fenestrae lateralis appears where there is marked conchal formation.

The dorsal plate forms most of the roof of the capsule, and with the spheno‐ethmoidal commissure encloses the cranial olfactory foramen.

The parietotectal cartilage is related to the fenestra narina and encapsulates the anterior chamber, on which it is dependent for its form. The paranasal cartilage encapsulates the olfactory chamber and gives rise to the lamina transversalis anterior, concha, planum antorbitale, and posterior maxillary process. The ectochoanal cartilage has become secondarily associated in lizards with the functioning of Jacobson's organ.
A Review of the Hydridae and Two New Species of Hydra from Natal
Authors: Ewer R.F.
Published: August 2010

Two new species of Hydra from Natal are described.

The classification of the Hydridae is discussed. It is concluded that Schulze's genus Pelmatohydra is no longer valid and the genus Hydra should be extended to include the forms previously classified as Pelmatohydra. It is considered desirable to defer consideration of subspecific classification until the descriptions of many of the species have been completed:

Summaries are given of the descriptions of the species known to date.
The Eyelids and Spectacle in Geckos
Authors: Bellairs A. D'A.
Published: August 2010

The eye‐coverings of three species of geckos belonging to the genera Coleonyx, Stenodactylus and Ptenopus have been studied by means of serial sections.

In Coleonyx true eyelids and probably a small nictitating membrane are present and there is no brille or spectacle. The relationships of these structures to the cornea, Harderian gland ductules and lachrymal canaliculi are essentially similar to those in Lacerta, and conform to the characteristic saurian pattern.

In Stenodactylus and Ptenopus a brille is present, and is surrounded by prominent extra‐brillar fringes. These structures are very extensive in Ptenopus and contain muscle fibres. The relationship of these fringes to the ductules of the Harderian gland and to the lachrymal canaliculi which open into the subbrillar space indicates, however, that the fringes cannot be regarded as homologous with the eyelids of other lizards.

By demonstrating that true eyelids and a brille are not found in association, these findings are regarded as evidence for the palpebral origin of the brille in geckos which is therefore homologous with that in snakes.
The Early Development of the Fore‐limbs in Xenopus laevis.
Authors: Newth D.R.
Published: August 2010

The early development of the fore‐limb and the origin of the brachial sac in Xanopuslaevis are described.

The brachial sac is shown to arise as a split in the limb rudiment, not in communication with either the opercular chamber or the exterior at the time of its formation. A derivation of the brachial sac in phylogeny is suggested.

The formation of the fore‐limb rudiment is shown to be unlike that known in any other tetrapod vertebrate.
On the Genus Phrixopogon Mshl. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae).
Authors: Marshall Guy A. K.
Published: August 2010

The genus Phrixopogon was erected (Ann. Mag. N. H. (11) viii, 1941, p. 366 to include Corigetus filicornis Fst. C. molitor Fst., C. ignarus Fst., Myllocerinus excisangulus Reitt., Phrixopogon hirtus Mshl. and P. mystacinus Mshl.; later (op. cit. (11) xi, 1944) Corigetus nobilis Fst. was also added.
A New Copepod Parasite, Clavellisa dussumieriae, belonging to the Subfamily Clavellinae from the Gills of a Madras Fish.
Authors: Gnanamuthu C. P.
Published: August 2010

While a few parasitic copepods have been described from the fishes of Ceylon by Wilson (1906) as well as by Kirtisinghe (1932‐37) and some recorded from the fishes of Bombay by Bassett‐Smith (1898) only three parasites belonging to the family Lernacopodidae are described by Thompson and Scott (1902), all from Ceylon. However, Lernaeopodids occurring elsewhere have been exhaustively treated by Kröyer, Brian, Scott, Wilson, Gurney and Leigh‐Sharpe. The sub‐family Clavellinae in particular has not been recorded from India, and as Clavellisa dussumieriae, a new species treated in this paper, exhibits certain features of general interest, a full description of both the female and the male was deemed fit.
Observations on littoral sponges, including the supposed swarming of larvae, movement and coalescence in mature individuals, longevity and death
Authors: Burton Maurice
Published: August 2010

The pattern in early growths of encrusting sponges suggests a grouping consistent with the swarming and simultaneous settlement of the larvae.

Post‐larval sponges tend to move about and, as they come into contact with each other, coalesce.

This movement, accompanied or not by coalescence, appears to be continued throughout the early part of life and may persist throughout.

In the later stages special growth forms include the production of blunt processes, slender branches or plasmodia, which may lead either to coalescence or to the formation of new individuals.

Several new individuals may be formed from a pre‐existing individual by disintegration due to desiccation, predators or wave action.

A new definition of the word “individual” is proposed, with special reference to sponges.

Notes are included on longevity, senescence and death.