bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction: The Possibilities of Growth
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Adam Smith, in book i of The Wealth of Nations (1776), pondered ‘the Causes of Improvement in the Productive Powers of Labour’, and he was clear that he had the answer: ‘The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is any where directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour.’1 He illustrated his argument with the famous example of the pin trade. A single workman could scarcely make one pin a day and certainly no more than twenty; division of tasks between specialized workers, each undertaking a distinct part of the process, permitted ten men to make 4,800 pins each a day, or an increase of at least 240-fold in labour productivity. The division oflabour was clear in the pin trade, for relatively few workers were needed and they were gathered together in a single workshop; trades which employed a large number of workers ‘to supply the great wants of the great body of the people’ were more dispersed, and division was less obvious to the casual observer.
Diversities of Industrialization
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

British society underwent a fundamental transformation in the eighteenth century, as a large proportion of the population was released from the land and absorbed into industry and the towns. This amounted to an industrial revolution in terms of the structure of the economy, but did it also entail an industrial revolution in terms of economic growth? In the 1950s and 1960s, many historians believed that there was a spurt in the rate of growth, the level of capital formation rose, and the economy was able to achieve a take-off into self-sustained growth. The classical economists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were more sceptical, and presented a picture of an economy which was resolutely tied to the ground, unable to escape from the restraints of gravity.
The Coming of the Factory
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Edward Baines in 1835 expressed a cataclysmic view of the impact of the factory system and powered machinery in reshaping work and industry: It is by iron fingers, teeth, and wheels, moving with exhaustless energy and devouring speed, that the cotton is opened, cleaned, spread, carded, drawn, roved, spun, wound, warped, dressed, and woven All are moving at once—the operations chasing each other; and all derive their motion from the mighty engine, which, firmly seated in the lower part of the building, and constantly fed with water and fuel, toils through the day with the strength of perhaps a hundred horses. Men, in the meanwhile, have merely to attend on this wonderful series of mechanisms, to supply it with work, and to check its slight and infrequent irregularities—each workman performing, or rather superintending, as much work as could have been done by two or three hundred men sixty years ago.... When it is remembered that all these inventions have been made within the last seventy years it must be acknowledged that the cotton mill presents the most striking example of the dominion obtained by human science over the powers of nature, of which modern times can boast.
Demand, Supply, and Industrialization
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

In England the several ranks of men slide into each other almost imperceptibly, and a spirit of equality runs through every part of their constitution. Hence arises a strong emulation in all the several stations and conditions to vie with each other; and the perpetual restless ambition in each of the inferior ranks to raise themselves to the level of those immediately above them. In such a state as this fashion must have uncontrolled sway. And a fashionable luxury must spread through it like a contagion.
Conclusion
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Many commentators in the 1840s were alarmed at the future prospects of Britain. In 1844, Engels confidently predicted the onset of revolution in The Condition of the Working Class in England. In the northern factory towns, argued Engels, the victory of machine work was creating an industrial proletariat which faced a wealthy group of factory owners. The population was ‘reduced to the two opposing elements, workers and capitalists’. The result, claimed Engels, was the deep wrath of the whole working-class, from Glasgow to London, against the rich, by whom they are systematically plundered and mercilessly left to their fate, a wrath which before too long a time goes by, a time almost within the power of man to predict, must break out into a Revolution in comparison with which the French Revolution, and the year 1794, will prove to have been child’s play.
Redeployment 1960–1970
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

For all the major European merchant capitalists who operated primarily in Black Africa, it was becoming clear by 1960 that their future there must be in some doubt. This was not due entirely, or even primarily, to the coming of political independence; indeed, it has been seen that in many respects this was thought to offer attractive new options. By then traditional trading activities were unlikely to continue indefinitely in their older form: in many countries the commodity trades were controlled by indigenous institutions such as marketing boards or their francophone equivalents. General trading also was increasingly being taken over by African wholesalers and retailers. Yet this left the foreign firms free to move on to more sophisticated forms of trading, mainly in ‘technical’ goods which required higher levels of skill, particularly in servicing equipment, than most African traders then possessed. All the foreign firms duly shifted their merchandising business into these areas in the later 1950s and early 1960s. In addition, there was the possibility of local manufacture, already well under way by 1960. In short, decolonization and accelerating indigenous control of key elements in the local economies did not constitute a dead-end for foreign merchant capital.
Diversification 1971–1983
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

If the 1960s was the age of UAC’s apprenticeship in the art of redeploying outside Africa, the 1970s was the period during which it made a sustained attempt to put into practice the lessons it had learnt. The period in fact falls into three loosely differentiated parts. From 1971 to 1975 UAC first defined and then carried out a programme which was almost entirely generated by its own management. From 1975 to about 1980 redeployment was driven by a broader Unilever policy of expanding the geographical coverage of the activities of the concern as a whole. The last period, from about 1980 to 1983, provided growing evidence that most of the initiatives of the past decade were commercial failures and paved the way for a major reassessment of UAC’s role and future.
From UACI to AMEC 1977–1987
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

In the whole history of UAC the six years from 1977 to 1983 can in retrospect be seen to have been perhaps the most critical. At the end of 1976 the company was at its peak. At current prices its consolidated post-tax result had risen from £15.8m. in 1972/3 to £52.7m. in 1975/6. In constant (1982) prices, deflated by the UK RPI index, profit had risen from £54.8m. to £109.6m. during the same years. In 1983 the consolidated result was £24.2m., lower still in constant 1982 prices. Moreover, the post-tax yield had dropped from its highest point of 19.2 per cent in 1975 to 3 per cent in 1983, and was to decline still further in the following two years. The trend is clear from Tables 18.1 to 18.3. Table 18.1 sets out UAC’s consolidated results (that is, final, after all adjustments) from 1972/3 to 1987. Table 18.2 shows the yield (after tax) on GCE from 1962/3 to 1984. Table 18.3 gives the pre-tax trading results for all companies managed by UAC (including profits due to third parties) from 1974/5 to 1987.
Introduction
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

England in 1075was a conquered country. Many of those who had recently been its rulers, the Anglo-Saxon landed class, were dead, exiled, or pressed down into the ranks of the peasantry. A small armed group speaking a language incomprehensible to the majority of the population controlled virtually all the landed wealth. Members of this group were busy supervising the construction of scores of castles, designed to ensure their dominion.
The Aristocracy
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

In common with most of pre-industrial Europe, England in this period was an aristocratic society: great wealth and power were in the hands of a few. The evidence of Domesday Book suggests that about half the income generated in the country was held by less than 200 barons, the rest going to the king or the Church.
The Institutional Church
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

From the seventh century, when it was established, to the sixteenth, when it underwent fundamental transformation, the English Church was one of the most dominant, visible, and pervasive forces in English society. In the period covered here, Christian baptism and Christian burial were virtually universal, while, to an ever-increasing extent, those who married did so through the forms of Christian matrimony. AU these rites of passage were handled by ritual specialists, the priests and other clergy; whose legal standing, dress, and appearance set them off from others. Ethics and theology were in their hands.
Scotland
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

In March 1296 a small band of Scots crossed the Tweed at Pressen, near Wark. The village was surrounded and burned. Many of the inhabitants were killed, and others were taken away to Roxburgh castle. Those who were quick-witted enough to overhear and use the password which the Scots employed managed to escape.1 This small-scale skirmish opened the Anglo-Scottish convict, which dominated the years until the late 1330s. It provided Edward I and his successors on the throne with a far more severe test than the conquest of Wales, and contributed much to the increasing militarization of England.
England under Edward III
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

With hindsight, it appears that there was a complete transformation of political life when Edward III came to power in 1330. At the time this cannot have seemed to be the case; here was yet another small clique of courtiers seizing power. Those responsible for the palace coup of 1330 had not built up any power in the localities, and had no obvious backing among the central administrators and social’s. Edward was a young man with no experience and little to recommend him. Yet within a few years he had established a wide power base. He was much more than a highly successful war leader; he had political skills and the capacity to win the support of the nation he ruled.
The Armies of Edward III’s French War
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

Even at the outset of the Hundred Years War, English armies were formidable. The chronicler Jean le Bel commented that the English had no reputation at the start of Edward III’s reign for prowess or bravery, and that their armour and equipment were then completely out of date. By the late 1330s they had learned well, and were, the chronicler claimed, most noble and redoubtable warriors.1 The Scottish wars had seen important developments such as the appearance of mixed retinues of cavalry and archers. The advent of mounted archers enabled forces to move with impressive speed. Military tactics had been developed that had proved highly elective against the Scots at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill, and a cadre of experienced soldiers knew how to exercise command. Royal oYcials were practised in the vital tasks of recruiting men, and of organizing victualling and the shipping of supplies.
Landownership and the Law
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

Broad acres of arable and pasture provided the aristocracy with their wealth; wide forests provided them with sport. Land and the right to inherit it were central to the workings of medieval society, from the highest down to the lowest. The law provided a framework for acquiring and passing on estates. Knowledge of how it operated, and how it might be manipulated, was essential for success. Relationships between lords and tenants, and family disputes, frequently led to the courts, with their formalized procedures. This was an age of litigation.
The Peasantry
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

According to Robert Manning of Brunne, admittedly a biased witness, ordinary Englishmen, given good food and drink, were as handsome as the nobility. They had excellent fair, clear complexions, and had an attractive smell.1The great majority of such ordinary people in this period were peasants. They were the bedrock of the economy. It was they who were the producers, growing the corn, tending the herds and the locks. Their labours were the basis of the economic growth of the thirteenth century, and in the fourteenth it was they who were in the front line, facing the problems of famine, animal murrain, and plague. It would be wrong, however, to idealize them. For the most part, the records suggest that they were ungenerous, suspicious, highly litigious, as well as downtrodden. Theirs was a miserable existence.
Population and the Black Death
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the population of England underwent dramatic changes. The Black Death of 1348-9 saw a level of mortality unprecedented in the historical record. There is surprising agreement about the broad outlines of the demographic changes of this period. Population grew in the thirteenth century, reached a plateau in the early fourteenth, and fell dramatically with the great epidemic that reached England in 1348. The devil, however, is in the detail. There are no sources that can be used to provide global Wagers, no equivalent to Doomsday Book of the eleventh century, or to the poll taxes of the late fourteenth. Instead, there is a difficult jigsaw of small pieces of evidence, and as so often happens with jigsaws where many pieces are lost, those that remain do not all Wit neatly together.
The ‘Tácito’ Group and the Transition to Democracy, 1973-1977*
Authors: Powell Charles T
Published: November 2023

A remarkable feature of Spain’s transition from authoritarian to democratic rule was the role played by some members of the Francoist political élite. Its success is partly attributable to the presence of groups within the ruling coalition which observed the minimal possible adherence to the regime during the final years of its existence while simultaneously staking out a strong position in a future democratic system of government. This was done by formulating and publicizing a political strategy and programme—which we shall describe as reformist—which sought to guarantee a non-violent transition to democratic rule after Franco’s death. In doing so, these sectors of the Francoist elite blurred the boundaries between those ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ the official political world (never very clearly defined in authoritarian regimes), which enabled them to exercise influence in both camps. During Franco’s lifetime, these groups undermined the position of those within the ruling coalition who were opposed to democratic change by making the reformist alternative attractive to the sectors of Spanish society which had benefited most from the regime’s existence. After his death, they provided leadership and an element of continuity which reassured these social groups and encouraged them to participate in the consolidation of the new democratic system.
Resources Available to Victims: Public Funding, Prosecution Associations, Print, and Policing
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

Victims of property appropriation in the eighteenth century did not have to rely solely on their own resources in order to detect, apprehend, and prosecute offenders. They were often able to use the physical, financial, and informational resources provided by public funding and statutory incentives, by prosecution associations, by the printed media, by neighbours and friends, and by public or private policing networks. Some of these resources were available whatever the victim’s wealth or status; others were not. Some cost money; others provided it. To understand the decisions that were made during the pretrial stages of the accused’s journey towards formal prosecution it is necessary to ask several questions about these resources. Who decided what assistance would be given, and who was responsible for giving it? How helpful were the people and material resources made available, and what effect did they have on detection and prosecution rates? Which social groups found it easiest to mobilize these resources, and to what extent did using them place restraints upon the victim’s discretionary powers? The answers to these questions are complex because the support mechanisms provided for victims by local parishes, by the central state, by voluntary associations, and by entrepreneurs such as printers and thieftakers changed rapidly between 1740 and 1820.
Trials, Verdicts, and Courtroom Interactions
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

Having analysed pretrial processes and assessed the impact of their deeply discretionary nature on recorded crime rates and on the vulnerability of different groups to prosecution, Part 3 now focuses on the final stages of the accused’s journey through the judicial process. Chapter 7 deals with trials and verdicts, Chapters 8 and g with sentences and pardoning, and Chapter IO with rituals of punishment. Although trials and verdicts were better documented than pretrial hearings and decisions, severe evidential problems remain. The first stage of the trial process, the grand jurors’ private deliberations, remained shrouded in mystery and even the public trials held before petty juries were rarely systematically recorded because they were primarily intended to be oral confrontations between victim and accused. Newspapers, judges’ reports, private correspondence, and formal court records all provide some insights into the trial process, but the most important source was created by the London printers who published detailed reports of every Old Bailey sessions. The survival of these sessions papers has enabled several historians1 to study metropolitan trials in detail but provincial trials are more problematic.
Conclusion
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

The religious changes of the sixteenth century had sapped the reputation and resources of the episcopate without redefining their position in English society. In 1603 bishops were still expected to support an impressive household, offer hospitality and charity to their neighbours, play their part in ruling the shires as magistrates and royal commissioners, and attend Parliament and Convocation. In some respects the burdens of office had actually increased. It is true that after 1558 bishops ceased to be sent on foreign embassies1 but in James I’s reign they regained their role as royal advisers and politicians, without relinquishing their active involvement in diocesan affairs. Many protestants expected their bishop to be pastor as well as prelate, and in particular hoped to hear him in the pulpit. Alongside the traditional work of moral reform through the church courts, bishops also faced the novel problem of containing sizeable minorities of Puritans and Catholics. We cannot doubt that the Jacobean episcopate had many and conflicting responsibilities, but we may wonder what, if anything, they achieved.
Local Society
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

In September 1633 the city of Bristol welcomed its new Bishop, George Coke. On his arrival, Coke was greeted first by the mayor and aldermen, then by the chapter and choir, who escorted him to the cathedral ‘with great solemnity’. There, on the second Sunday after his entry, Coke preached before ‘the greatest concourse of people’ that he had ever seen, including the mayor, aldermen, sheriffs and city clergy, ‘who to increase the auditory preached not one sermon at their own churches in the forenoon’. Presents were despatched and invitations were issued: the mayor invited Coke to one ‘royal and sumptuous feast’, the sheriff to another.
Clerical Nonconformity
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

In the preface to the King’s Works in 1616, Bishop Mountagu claimed that James I had ‘so tempered’ Puritan nonconformity at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 ‘as the harmony hath bene the better ever since’.1 Many historians, in their search for religious origins of the English Civil War, would contest this view. Lord Clarendon maintained that the uniformity of the English Church was fatally undermined by the lax rule of Archbishop Abbot of Canterbury from 16u to 1633.
Global Origins and Dispersals
Authors: Haggett Peter
Published: November 2023

The closing decade of the twentieth century saw a curious paradox in the history of epidemic diseases. On the one hand, we observed a steady fall in mortality from the classic infectious diseases, culminating in the 1970s in the global eradication of one of the world’s most dreaded killers (small pox). This was the decade in which W H. Stewart, the Surgeon-General told the United States Congress that it was ‘ ... time to close the book on infectious diseases, declare the war against pestilence won, and shift national resources to such chronic problems as cancer and heart disease’.In like vein, biologist John Cairns could write in 1975 that ‘... the western world has virtually eliminated death due to infectious disease’.
Ambonwari: The Way of the Village
Authors: Telban Borut
Published: November 2023

In September 1990 I left Wewak, the capital of the East Sepik Province in Papua New Guinea, and took a truck along the dirt road to Angoram, a wellknown market town on the Sepik River. The larger part of the settlement near the river was built by non-local people from different language groups, some coming from the north but most from the swampy areas to the south. They bring fish and sago to sell at the market before they return to their homes with the goods they have purchased at the local trade stores. A large canoe, once used for the purpose of war, took me up the Sepik River. Heavy rain drenched the outboard operator, his son, and myself all day long. I tried to see, through the mist and rain, if anyone else was travelling in either direction. Except for islands of grass floating in the muddy river there was nothing. I was left to ponder my first trip to Papua New Guinea several years before, and the uncertainty of my arrival in Ambonwari. The people, of course, did not know that I was coming.
Transformation and Presentation
Authors: Telban Borut
Published: November 2023

Throughout the book I have been concerned with imi-nggan kay (the way of the village) in its various manifestations and refractions. For Ambonwari the most salient feature of imi-nggan kay is that it embodies and reproduces kupambi-n kay, ‘the way of the ancestors’. As noted in Chapter 2, however, this phrase is often used to refer specifically to those practices which anthropologists refer to as ritual, and amongst these the paradigms of this ancestral way are male initiation and female menstruation rituals. And for the Ambonwari there is no doubt that it is the male initiation ritual that exemplifies kupambin kay in its purest form, being also referred to as ‘the way we are/live/ stay’ (kay apia kaykan). As in Fiji, ‘ritual is doing something in a Fijian way; its meaning arises from how things are done, as well as from what is done. Moreover, if one does something in a Fijian way then the doing of it becomes Fijian. This is a processual notion and so it can incorporate change’ (Toren 1988: 712).
Tradition and Ideology
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

Tradition connects people to their history and thus informs their sense of self or their identity. Tradition gives shape to the collective remembrance of the past; it is memory rephrased in words and action. In this view, tradition is not only what is handed down, it is also the way it is shaped and by its shape influences the present. In other words traditions are those myths we live by (Samuel and Thompson 1990). By being lived by, they are of course part of contemporary reality. If contexture is what surrounds and constitutes the world, as I have argued, tradition provides contexture with a depth of time. This is pre-eminently true in Iceland, where historical self-consciousness is constantly reaffirmed by reference to shared stories from and about the past.
Space: Remoteness
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

Culture and wilderness are categories of thought, not entities. They may not even be categories of thought, just blurry images of an operative distinction between the controlled or tamed on the one hand, and the uncontrolled or wild on the other. In earlier works I have often emphasized this distinction, or the equally abstract distinction between inside and outside, in the Icelandic world, using it as an analytical instrument in my coming to grips with certain practices and figures of speech. This has been criticized as part of a ‘neo-orientalist’ discourse on the Icelanders (Palsson 1995: 62ff). There is all the more reason to stress, therefore, that in social practice, of course, there is no boundary, no distance between ‘culture’ and ‘nature’; living from nature as do fishermen and farmers means being at one with it, even if it also means being subject to hazards and unpredictabilities that cannot be controlled. As we discussed in connection with the landscape, nature is no stage upon which culture may perform itself.
People: Othering
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

It is in the nature of people to see their world partly through the (imagined) eyes of the other (Mead 1934). One could argue that this dual vision is the bottom line of any reflexivity which nevertheless implies the taking of a first-person standpoint (Taylor 1989: 130). Awareness and experience are always those of an agent, and reflexivity implies a kind of presence to oneself which is inseparable from one’s being the agent of experience. Yet the very idea of a first-person standpoint, and the sensation of its uniqueness implies a consciousness of second-person standpoints as well.
Introducing Social and Political Factors in the Study of Growth
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

The quest for the explananda of growth is not new. Since the pioneering work of Adam Smith (1776), economists, geographers, sociologists, political scientists, and other social scientists have progressively been attracted to the field of spatial disequilibria and growth. The analysis of wealth and its uneven territorial distribution has led to the development of many theories concerning economic inequalities, both from a theoretical and from an empirical point of view. Growth studies flourished especially after the Second World War and during the period of decolonization, and the analysis of growth has been tackled with most fervour by economists. Accordingly, the economic dimension of growth has tended to be over-emphasized in most analysis, whereas the impact of social and political factors on growth trends has remained in the background, only coming to the foreground in a limited number of explanations. The following pages contain a brief review of the major recent theories of economic growth, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses and paying special attention to the consideration of social and political conditions as contributing factors to economic growth.
Politics, Institutions, and Economic Performance
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

Measuring the relationship between politics and political conditions on the one hand and economic growth on the other is a chronic problem. The question of how political outcomes and political structures might influence economic growth—and vice versa—has attracted social scientists for several decades. From the analyses of political participation of Verba and Nie (1972) and Alford and Friedland (1974; 1975) to Olson’s (1982) studies of interests groups, the interrelationship between politics and growth has been the object of constant attention, both for political scientists and economists. In recent years, political scientists and sociologists have been increasingly concerned with the intertwining of political phenomena and economic conditions. As mentioned in Chapter 2, numerous studies have been devoted to the influence of the political orientation of parties in office, trade union membership, welfare state size, government spending, and processes of supranational integration on growth trends (Garrett and Lange 1986; Lange and Garrett 1987; Lane and Ersonn 1987; Castles and Dowrick 1990). Institutions and institutional change have also attracted considerable attention. Works by Williamson (1985; 1993), North (1990; 1991; 1992), and Frey (1993) have greatly contributed to our understanding of the complex interrelationship between institutions, institutional change, and economic growth.
Telling Stories
Authors: Widlok Thomas
Published: November 2023

When Namibia became independent in 1990 and comprehensive research with the Hai‖om became feasible once again, talking about ethnic identity also changed its character. Ethnic terms were no longer used by the State as a repressive tool. Instead their use became a minor field of interest in the face of national changes. Slowly the conventional anthropological practice of calling ethnic groups by the name(s) they have chosen for themselves was adopted. However, hunter-gatherers and former hunter-gatherers in southern Africa continue to be subjected to ethnic stereotyping as ‘Bushmen’ or ‘San’. More fundamentally, their own ways of defining and managing their ethnic identity are restricted by the ethnic ascriptions of the dominant groups in Namibia.
Naming and Placing Bacup
Authors: Edwards Jeanette
Published: November 2023

MANY Bacup residents in 1987 and 1988 claimed an interest in the history of the region in which they lived. They suspected this was my interest also and if it was not then it ought to be. They spoke mainly of the town’s industrial past and remarked that it was not a very attractive or healthy place in which to live during the heyday of the textile industry. They described a polluted, open river running through the town centre, factory chimneys belching smoke, and overcrowded, dark, and damp dwellings. They pointed to these as just some of the things responsible for poor health and high infant mortality. They agreed that Bacup was a much healthier and more pleasant place in which to live today, and some mentioned the slum-clearance programmes of the 1960s, and various Clean Air Acts (1956 and 1968) as having made a positive impact on the environment and on the health of the population. At the same time, those who have lived in Bacup through such changes expressed a longing for ‘them days’, and commented on the way in which improvements to the physical landscape had not necessarily resulted in a better ‘way of life’. ‘Them days’ took on the quality of a mythological past, the narrating of which suspended for a moment the former harshness of life in the town which, at a different moment and for a different purpose, was emphasized. The past as resource was drawn upon by all Bacup residents, and the comparison between ‘them days’ and the present was not confined to those born and bred in Bacup. Residents who moved to the town from elsewhere and who thought of themselves (and were defined) as incomers also dwelt on social and economic changes that had occurred in their lifetime. They pointed to such changes as having occurred in the places they left behind and how it was they that prompted them to settle in Bacup. Younger Bacup people who had no recollection of Bacup as a ‘thriving, industrial mill town’ also mobilized the past; they recalled their growing up in the town and pointed to how things were different today.
Space
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

It is customary to distinguish between absolute and relational models of space. In an absolute model, space is regarded as having existence and properties independently of the existence of any object; and the objects acquire their spatial properties and relations in consequence of their being located in this pre-existing space. In a relational model, on the other hand, objects come first, and space exists only in so far as the objects have spatial properties and relations: space is, in other words, a logical construct from objects and their properties.
Objects
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

Since we are interested in spatial change, we are interested in objects in so far as they can participate in spatial change. That means we are interested in objects which possess spatial attributes susceptible to change. These objects form a very varied class; the purpose of this chapter is to survey the variety of different kinds of spatial objects and attempt to bring some system into their classification. In the next chapter I shall look more closely at the spatial attributes that these objects possess.

It is surely fair to say that for an object to have spatial attributes it must either be a material object or must depend for its existence in some way on the existence of one or more material objects. This claim will be amplified in the discussion that follows. I shall organize the survey of spatial objects on the basis that matter is fundamental to their existence, and shall move outward, as it were, from the central core of ‘bare matter’ to successively more elaborate kinds of dependence on bare matter.
Time and Change
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

Time and change are two sides of the same coin: you cannot have one without the other.1 The passage of time, as we experience it, seems for the most part to consist of a sequence of things happening, of changes in the world, and it is precisely when nothing happens to excite our interest that time seems to flow most slowly, as if change itself were the dynamo that powers the flow of time. Our most intimate knowledge of time comes from the flow of events in our subjective consciousness, with all its vagaries and fluctuations; but we begin to transcend mere subjectivity when we start correlating our experiences with those of others. In this way we can identify intersubjectively invariant features of time and can recognize in what respects our personal experience agrees with or contradicts that of others. From here we can move on to the idea of an objective flow of time, independent of any one individual’s experience, and come to see our own experience of time as an imperfect representation-a distortion-of some objective reality. When we are absorbed in some activity, time seems to rush by without our noticing, but when there is nothing to absorb us, it slows down to a snail’s pace; and when we are asleep it seems to take no time at all. All these variations we readily learn to put down to our personal misperception of an objective, uniform flow such as Newton described.
Casata Unity: Size and Political Muscle
Authors: Rheubottom David
Published: November 2023

Ragusans were fearful of oligarchy and introduced a number of administrative measures to ensure that its constituent casate could not subvert the public good. We now turn to consider the role of the casata in political affairs. As we have seen, Kent and others regard the Florentine casata as a descent group. Most anthropologists would agree with Fortes that ‘the most important feature of unilineal descent groups ... is their corporate organization’ (1970: 77-8). What they might disagree about is what constitutes corporacy. One tradition, following Maine, emphasizes perpetuity, collective unity, and universal succession-’the rights and duties of all members present and future in them’ (M. Smith 1974: 43). The corporatism of the lineage, as Fortes viewed it, was expressed by structural criteria. The lineage had a single legal personality; it was ‘one person’ (1970: 78).
The Casata, Genealogical Skewing, and Political Support
Authors: Rheubottom David
Published: November 2023

What was the significance of the casata for the marriages of its members? If marriages were arranged with a view towards their political usefulness and if the casata acted as a unit in political affairs, then we would expect to see evidence of casata involvement in arranging marriages. But given the relatively small size of the endogamous patriciate, the shallow depth of the study period and the variations in size of the component casate, it is not easy to discern clear patterns. In the halfcentury from 1440 to 1490, there are too few marriages to permit a meaningful analysis of casata alliances. Because of this, it was decided to open the window of observation to include all marriages occurring between 1400 and 1520.
The Cultural Revolution
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

Mao’s Cultural Revolution

When the disastrous results of his brainchild—the Great Leap Forward—began to became clear, Mao, in a 1959 Central Committee Conference, had been forced to admit to making mistakes. Mao’s position was weakened by the failure of the GLF, and over the next few years he withdrew from the centre of policy-making. In the early 1960s, under the guidance of Liu Shaoqi, control of the economy was returned to the planners and specialists, and the Party curbed the decentralized and politicized management policies of the GLF. Some of my informants thought that Mao must have felt at a disadvantage in the new political climate. Not an expert or university graduate himself, he had always practised a style of leadership that relied on populist movements and mass campaigns, rather than on meticulous instructions from central planners.
Symbolism and Meaning
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

The Household as a System of Meaning

Mongolian culture can be seen to include a repertoire of symbolically meaningful actions and forms which provide institutionalized methods of social expression. This system rests upon socially accepted conventions, which are taught to succeeding generations, and can be compared to a language in that these conventions entail communication and represent social relationships.1 Symbolic statements are expressed in the spatial arrangement of people and objects, and in the ceremonial or formalized actions of individuals. What is expressed using this cultural or symbolic system is generally more than the passing opinion of an individual. It is generally a public statement about the long-term position of community members. Much of this symbolic behaviour is expressive of relations within the domestic group and between such groups. This is true not only of the rituals of hospitality and formal events such as a wedding ceremony, but also in the everyday location of dwellings and the people within them. Many actions in the ger are simultaneously instrumental and expressive. People obviously have to sit, drink, and eat, for example, but a great meaning is assigned to how this is done, particularly in formal situations. This does not imply that such ritual can be seen as simply a means of communication or that there is a single unambiguous meaning expressed by the symbolic actions involved. Just as the appreciation of art, for example, requires a creative reaction on the part of the viewer, who may see meaning in the work that the creator did not intend, so symbolic and ritual acts are something to which the witnesses bring meaning, and are open to a number of interpretations. I offer interpretations I consider to be dominant ones, but these should not be seen as the exclusive or definitive meanings. The Mongolian symbolic repertoire is a means of comprehension as much as it is one of expression, in that it also attaches meaning to that which is observed.
From Mission to Movement
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

Most of the earliest European settlers in Papua New Guinea were missionaries and for many indigenous villagers even up to the present time, the most enduring and intensive links with European culture have been mediated by proselytizing Christians. The latter were by no means exclusively white; indeed, many early missionaries were Polynesians and, later, Melanesians from the more heavily Christianized areas. But whether or not the carriers of these diverse ‘Christianities’ were themselves ethnically European, the mode of religious transmission they established was fundamentally alien to most Papua New Guineans. My principal concern in this chapter is not with the thematic differences between indigenous and Christian cosmologies but with a set of fundamental contrasts in the nature of their transmissive characteristics.
Politics, Policy, and Livelihoods
Authors: Sporton Deborah , Twyman Chasca
Published: November 2023

Contemporary development discourses recognize the need to move away from top-down towards bottom-up approaches to poverty alleviation, where the poor are viewed as stakeholders rather than victims in the policy-making process (World Bank 2000). In the implementation of policy, community consultation and grass-roots involvement are encouraged with the aim of empowering the poor. Within the Kalahari of southern Africa which is today incorporated within the policy domains of three nations, Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa, a key contemporary policy challenge is the need to respond to the legacy of colonial and subsequent apartheid land and agricultural policies that have created an underclass of rural poor who are deprived of the capital assets necessary to sustain livelihoods.
Ecological Change in Kalahari Rangelands: Permanent or Reversible?
Authors: Dougill Andrew
Published: November 2023

Agricultural intensification of domestic livestock production, especially on designated cattle ranches, throughout the Kalahari of Botswana has been experienced at an increasing rate in the last thirty years. Changes in land-use practices have led to a series of ecological changes that remain the focus of debates regarding the implications for continued sustainable agricultural development. This chapter analyses these debates and reviews recent studies undertaken to resolve key environmental uncertainties. In particular discus sions aim to:
Entitled to a Living: Opportunity and Diversity in the Wildlife Management Areas
Authors: Twyman Chasca
Published: November 2023

This chapter will examine sustainable livelihoods within the context of Kalahari Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). WMAs are multiple-use areas combining wildlife conservation with the creation of economic opportunities, jobs, and incomes for rural populations (DWNP 1999). Within WMAs rural populations are permitted access to a range of wildlife and natural resources (land, plants, water, and wildlife). WMAs are just one part of Botswana’s development strategy to combine sustainable management of environmental resources with the development of the local and national economies. This chapter will explore the extent to which the Kalahari WMAs are changing the access to, and effective use and management of, the natural resources of the rural populations living within these areas. These changes have important implications for the dynamics of livelihood strategies and thus the viability of resource-based livelihoods.
Alternatives to Yoōgoshisetsu: Fostering and Adoption
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

There is one service provided by Kodomo Gakuen which has not been discussed. Since 1973 it has also housed what is called a yoōiku katei centre staffed by two fulltime workers to recruit and register foster-parents within the locality, introduce them to appropriate children, help them through the procedures with the local jidoōsoōdanjo, which has exclusive authority over foster placements, and then provide support for them while fostering. The centre, one of ten in Tokyo, had twenty foster-families registered in 1997, of which sixteen had foster-children placed with them.
Localized Unities and Dualities
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Although the relation of Land Mother and Defender involves spiritual and political links between groups often resident in separate settlements, in most respects the largest unit of social and ceremonial action is the village (nua or, in parallelistic form, nua ola).1 Villages are also the most inclusive social and territorial units that Keo distinguish by proper name.
Unaffiliated Ancestors: The Pau Enclave
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I describe several villages whose territories are surrounded by the domains of Land Mother Lape and other Ga’e siblings. Deriving from ancestors not related in any known way to the Ga’e siblings, these groups remain something of a curiosity; they are unequivocally depicted as neither an aboriginal population, nor as descendants of immigrants more recent than the Ga’e. After lengthy discussions with group members and other Keo, I can only characterize them as independent Land Mothers (ine tana) who in no instance are simultaneously the Defenders (ana tuku) of other, earlier populations. Not being territorially subordinated to others, the groups are thus equal to direct (agnatic) descendants of the several Ga’e siblings but are not unambiguously connected with any of them.
The Land of Lobo, the Youngest Ga’e
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

The furthest west of the original ancestral territories, the domain of Lobo Ga’e, the youngest of the Ga’e siblings, is also the smallest. The area is further distinguished dialectally and culturally from the other territories, most obviously in regard to the naming and disposition of ceremonial buildings. With qualifications explained later, the domain includes lands belonging to three villages: Liwo, Wulu, and Wagha. Agnatically related to Wagha is the former village of Bena which, together with the paired settlement of Ki and the subsidiary Ma’u Bena, I describe towards the end of the chapter.
Morphology and Syntax
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

Kimatuumbi has a rich system of noun classes and concordial agreements, and a system of verbal derivation, including a number of ‘extensions’ modifying the meaning of verb stems. Noun morphology can be divided into class morphology and stem-formation, the former being richer than the latter. Formation of noun stems is discussed in section 2.2.2 after discussion of verb stems.
Syllable Structure
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

Standard generative phonology didn’t consider the syllable to be a phonological unit or a domain of rule application. The identification of vowels with the feature [+syllabic] in a number of SPE-like works had nothing to do with the consideration of its role as the nucleus of a specific unit; this feature is only used within a classificatory scheme to identify the segment. On the contrary, to multilinear generative phonology the syllable is an important linguistic unit and it has an internal hierarchical structure. In this framework, the syllable is a multidimensional object with an internal structure that has a hierarchical organization where the onset and the rhyme constitute a branching structure. These syllable constituents behave independently, as we will see below (for instance, the number of the segments included in the onset is irrelevant with respect to the maximum number of segments allowed in the rhyme). Moreover, the concept of a branching structure is also supported by the cohesion between the elements belonging to each one of the constituents.