bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cardiac Tamponade Presenting as Refractory Asthma
Authors: Rosen Sasha
Published: January 2013

Asthma has numerous etiologies, and successful treatment requires a proper diagnosis. Changes in weather and exposure to dust can make treatment of asthma difficult. This case exemplifies a diagnostic dilemma associated with bronchospasm; bronchospasm can have an occult cardiac etiology. Diagnosis can be particularly challenging in rural sub-Saharan Africa during the Harmattan, when winds are blowing sands from the Sahara into nearby villages, especially when radiographs are not available. This case is that of a 40-year-old female Ghanaian woman with a lifelong history of asthma. Although she has often had exacerbations of bronchospasm during the dusty Harmattan season, her bronchospasm was now refractory to usual treatments. X-rays were not available at the clinic in the rural city of Tamale, Ghana, and bedside ultrasound was utilized. She was found to have cardiac tamponade with secondary “cardiac asthma.” After 750 cc of fluid was aspirated during a bedside pericardiocentesis, her bronchospasm immediately resolved. The cardiac effusion was due to previously unknown renal failure from hypertension. The patient was referred for dialysis and 1 year later was well without any recurrence of significant cardiac effusions. Healthcare providers should be wary of atypical non-pulmonary etiologies of bronchospasm, especially in cases where there is an inadequate response to usual treatment. Bedside ultrasound has great utility for the diagnosis of cardiac tamponade.
Homeopathic Medications as Clinical Alternatives for Symptomatic Care of Acute Otitis Media and Upper Respiratory Infections in Children
Authors: Bell Iris R. , Boyer Nancy N.
Published: January 2013

The public health and individual risks of inappropriate antibiotic prescribing and conventional over-the-counter symptomatic drugs in pediatric treatment of acute otitis media (AOM) and upper respiratory infections (URIs) are significant. Clinical research suggests that over-the-counter homeopathic medicines offer pragmatic treatment alternatives to conventional drugs for symptom relief in children with uncomplicated AOM or URIs. Homeopathy is a controversial but demonstrably safe and effective 200-year-old whole system of complementary and alternative medicine used worldwide. Numerous clinical studies demonstrate that homeopathy accelerates early symptom relief in acute illnesses at much lower risk than conventional drug approaches. Evidence-based advantages for homeopathy include lower antibiotic fill rates during watchful waiting in otitis media, fewer and less serious side effects, absence of drug-drug interactions, and reduced parental sick leave from work. Emerging evidence from basic and preclinical science research counter the skeptics’ claims that homeopathic remedies are biologically inert placebos. Consumers already accept and use homeopathic medicines for self care, as evidenced by annual US consumer expenditures of $2.9 billion on homeopathic remedies. Homeopathy appears equivalent to and safer than conventional standard care in comparative effectiveness trials, but additional well-designed efficacy trials are indicated. Nonetheless, the existing research evidence on safety supports pragmatic use of homeopathy in order to “first do no harm” in the early symptom management of otherwise uncomplicated AOM and URIs in children.
Limited Oil Spills In Harbor Areas
Authors: Dorrler J. Stephen
Published: January 2013

When compared on an individual basis to major oil pollution disasters, the average Navy oil spillage incident seems insignificant. However, when the cleanup costs are tallied, these limited oil spills do not appear so small. For example, a one barrel oil spill, discharged from a destroyer berthed at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, took nine laborers, a boat operator, a truck driver, a crane operator and a supervisor one and a half days to clean up at a cost of $1,300. On the East Coast, the Norfolk Naval Shipyard spends approximately $1,000 an incident in its oil spill cleanup operations. These spills vary between 50 and 500 gallons.

From the presented data which defines the limited oil spill, three general statements are derived:1. Limited oil spills are a large problem due to their numerous occurrences.2. Limited oil spills require proper treatment.3. Limited oil spills are expensive to treat.

This paper investigates this last statement and by so doing discloses the actual problems which contribute to the high cost of cleaning up limited oil spills. Three factors are discussed:1. The physical conditions affecting an oil spill.,a. Location of the slick,b. Oil Slick Movement,(1) Spreading,(2) Weather, wind and current effects,2. The type of equipment employed.,a. Booms,b. Chemical Dispersants,c. Physical Removal,(1) Skimmers,(2) Straws,3. The completeness of the removal operation.

The limited harbor oil spill is expensive and the cost is expected to rise. At the present time, the typical oil spill costs the Navy over $1,000 to clean up. This cost will increase as control agencies rightfully require more removal and more complete removal.
Microbial Modification Of Crude Oil In The Sea
Authors: ZoBell C.E.
Published: January 2013

Virtually all kinds of hydrocarbons and crude oils from many fields are susceptible to microbial oxidation. More than a hundred species of bacteria, yeasts, and fungi are able to oxidize hydrocarbons. Each species is limited in the kinds of hydrocarbons it can attack. Each species is also limited by the temperature, salinity, surface tension, pH, oxygen tension, and other environmental conditions at which it is biochemically active. Environmental conditions also affect the rate of microbial reporduction and oil oxidation. Enrichment cultures, consisting of several different species growing under optimal conditions, tend to convert crude oils and refinery products mainly to carbon dioxide and microbial biomass. From 10 to 90 per cent of the carbon may be converted into microbial biomass.

Oil-oxidizing bacteria are most abundant in coastal waters and mud where oil pollution is chronic. Such bacteria are extremely scarce in the open sea. In unpolluted waters the ratio of oil oxidizers to the total bacterial population in marine environments ranges from 1:100 to 1:10,000. In chronically oil-polluted coastal areas from 5 to 50 per cent of the bacteria may be able to oxidize one or more kinds of hydrocarbons. In such areas, bacteria in well-oxygenated waters might oxidize oil at rates ranging from 0.02 to 2 grams per square meter per day at 20° to 30° C.
LOCKHEED OIL SPILL RECOVERY DEVICE
Authors: Bruch Barrett , Maxwell K.R.
Published: January 2013

Tests and analysis of an oil spill recovery device with various oils, under forward way and with waves, established a method for estimating performance and verified forward way scaling to be by the square-foot of the device diameter and oil recovery rate by the 5/2 power.

An 8-ft-diameter, 10-ft-long device in sea state 4 and a 2-kt current could recover 8,600 bbls of light oil per day with less than 25 percent additional free water and in calm seas, 17,200 bpd. Within containment booms, 1 to 4 in. of oil are required for maximum recovery. Natural emulsion recovery is double the light oil rate. The device does not create emulsion.

Above 2 kts, oil recovery remains maximum while free-sweeping slicks over 1/2-in. thick. With thinner slicks, the rate decreases linearly down to at least 0.01 in. Tests established 70 percent recovery of oil encountered on a single pass. This can be increased by successive passes. Free-sweeping in calm seas is feasible up to 5 kt.
A Multiparameter Oil Pollution Source Identification System
Authors: Miller John W.
Published: January 2013

The key parameters of carbon and sulfur isotopie composition, total sulfur, nitrogen, vanadium, nickel and normal paraffin odd-even carbon number predominance were measured on the 600°+F residue, which simulates a weathered sample of crude oil. The variation of these parameters among 80 crude oils representative of worldwide sources of water-transported oils forms the basis of an identification system. The parameter range was carbon isotopic composition, −22 to −30 per mil; sulfur isotopie composition, −14 to +20 per mil; total sulfur 0.05 to 6.0 weight per cent; nitrogen 0.02 to 0.73 weight per cent; vanadium 0.2 to 466 wppm; nickel 0.2 to 128 wppm; and odd-even carbon number predominance 0.8 to 1.3. An unknown oil is identified by comparison of these paramters with those in a data library or from suspected sources. A computer “look-up” system was demonstrated to match any one of the 80 crude oils with an unknown. The identification potential is strengthened by addition of the diagnostic parameters of percentage saturates, aromatics and asphaltics as measured by silica gel chromatography and the gas-liquid chromatography hydrocarbon and sulfur profiles (“fingerprints”).
THE ESTIMATION OF THE AMOUNT OF EMPIRE MIX CRUDE OIL IN MULLET, SHRIMP, AND OYSTERS BY LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Authors: Miles D. Howard , Coign Mary Jane , Brown Lewis R.
Published: January 2013

The total quantitative hydrocarbon uptake varies considerably among individual biological specimens. Moreover, total uptake varies between samples of the same type of tissue taken from specimens that have undergone identical exposure conditions. Thus, the problem of determining the uptake of oil from the environment by biological organisms under controlled conditions presents a problem that, utilizing present techniques of analysis, requires a large number of specimens for time-consuming analyses. When several different types of analyses (for enzymes, fatty acids, etc.) are required to be conducted on the same tissue sample, obviously even larger amounts of material are required, and thus, pooled samples are required.

This paper presents a method for rapidly estimating the amount of oil taken up by small (0.1 g) samples of specific tissues from mullet, shrimp, and oysters that have been subjected to exposure to Empire Mix crude oil under controlled laboratory conditions. The results obtained by utilizing the liquid chromatographic (LC) method described in this paper are compared to results obtained using conventional gas chromatographic (GC) techniques. This comparison demonstrates that either method is valid for relatively large samples of tissue from mullet, shrimp, or oysters. Data from routine bioassay experiments have shown that 50% of the samples of shrimp tissue, 23% of the mullet tissue samples, and 49% of the oyster tissue samples showed the presence of oil only by the LC method. Further, this LC method for estimating oil in these organisms affords a greater amount of replications for a given quantity of biological material and affords the opportunity to conduct multiple analyses on a given tissue.
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF OFFSHORE OIL-SPILL CLEANUP OPERATIONS
Authors: Cochran R. A. , Manney G. A. , Fraser J. P.
Published: January 2013

A computer simulation program has been developed to aid in the evaluation of the oil-spill contingency plans for offshore operations. Using this program, the performance of oil-spill recovery equipment can be simulated as a function of oil-spill size, spill location, and weather. The unique feature of the program is its ability to predict oil recovery as a function of weather conditions. The weather data used consist of the historical wave height frequency distribution and wave height persistence. The oil thickness, which is determined by spreading of the oil, and the wave state determine the performance of recovery equipment.

When using the program, oil-spill events and cleanup operations are simulated many times. Each time the weather conditions used in the simulation will be different, owing to the probabilistic nature of weather in the real world and the use of random access to the weather data. In this way a probabilistic estimate of oil recovery is produced for any given oil-spill incident and equipment array. Simulations are presented using state-of-the-art equipment, although the use of improved equipment can be simulated. The results show the need for rapid response and for containment for sudden spills due to the rapid thinning of uncontained oil.
LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF AN OIL SPILL AT WEST FALMOUTH, MASSACHUSETTS
Authors: Michael A. D. , Van Raalte C. R. , Brown L. S.
Published: January 2013

A small spill of No. 2 fuel oil occurred near Wild Harbor, Massachusetts, in September 1969. The benthic fauna of the Wild Harbor Marsh, boat basin, and offshore area was sampled through the fourth and fifth years after the spill (1973, 1974). Sediment samples were analyzed for the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons. Gas chromatography produced evidence of hydrocarbons typical of weathered fuel oil in the sediments of the marsh, boat, basin, and two offshore stations. The numbers of benthic species at the offshore stations and the marsh were slightly, but significantly, lower than those found at control stations. Population densities were similar to control areas for the offshore stations but not in the case of the marsh. The boat basin was still heavily affected. Some stations were characterized by the presence of opportunistic species. The recovery process in terms of the total benthos has leveled off, but there was evidence for further recovery during the course of the study.
NAVY DEVELOPMENT OF SUITABLE SHIPBOARD BILGE OIL/WATER SEPARATORS
Authors: Smookler A. L. , Harden J. W. , Conroy P.D.
Published: January 2013

The evolutionary development and evaluation of a suitable Navy shipboard bilge oil/water separator is detailed. Evaluations were performed at four levels: laboratory screening tests, shipboard screening tests, formal shipboard technical evaluations (TECHEVALS) and operational evaluations (OPEVALS). Gravitational and filter/coalescer systems, as well as systems combining these techniques were evaluated.

Initial shipboard screening tests revealed significant problems caused by particulates and detergents in the bilge fluids. Although effluent goals could be met, severe penalties in terms of costs to process, logistics support, and size of separation equipment were evident.

Screening tests produced three promising systems for formal TECHEVALS: a parallel-plate gravity separator, and two designs for gravity/filter/coalescer systems. TECHEVAL included in-port and at-sea performance tests, bulk oil removal, oily waste holding tank and detergent-contaminated waste processing demonstrations, and reliability and maintainability assessments. Performance goals were established for effluent oil levels during in-port and at-sea periods, water content of separated oil, average element set life, cost to process, mechanical/electrical reliability, and mean time to repair. As a result of TECHEVAL, the parallel-plate separator was selected for OPEVAL and modified to improve its structural adequacy and machinery/personnel interface.

The OPEVAL was structured to determine if the unit could be operated and maintained by ship's personnel, while processing both actual and deliberately contaminated bilge water on a daily basis for six months.
STORM RELATED OIL SPILL MOVEMENT ON THE BEAUFORT SEA SHELF1
Authors: Hufford G. L. , Lissauer I. M. , Thompson B.D.
Published: January 2013

A storm model is developed and applied to the north Alaskan coast. The model is used to generate wind fields from various storms which have occurred during the past 20 years. The wind fields generated are used to study the wind drift trajectories of oil spills from five different sites along the north Alaskan coast. The probability of an oil slick impacting the shoreline from the five different sites is discussed for different storms. Environmental risk analysis is discussed for drilling sites at different distances from the shoreline.
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILLS ON EASTERN COASTAL PLAIN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Authors: Bender M. E. , Shearls E. A. , Ayres R. P. , Hershner C. H. , Huggett R. J.
Published: January 2013

Five segments of a mesohaline marsh located off the York River in Virginia were physically isolated from the surrounding area, except for allowing subtidal flow, and dosed with fresh and artificially weathered South Louisiana crude oil. The experimental design and field site utilized in this study are described. The mini-ecosystems each contained about 695 m2 of marsh, 100 m2 of open water and 15 m2 of intertidal mud flat. In September 1975, three barrels (5701) of each of the experimental oils were spilled into replicate systems.

Overall, the artificially weathered oil was shown to have as great an ecological impact on the communities as the fresh crude. Phytoplankton and fish populations all showed greater declines following the spills in the weathered oil systems. Phytoplankton production declined immediately after both oil spills but had recovered to control values within seven days. Species composition was not affected by the oils, while periphyton biomass, as measured by adenosine triphosphate (ATP), increased after both treatments. Marsh grass production was reduced in both spill units. Benthic animals, showing population declines after both oil spills, included nereid polychaetes, insect larvae and amphipods. Oligochaete populations decreased shortly after the fresh crude spill, returned to normal within 30 days, and then declined again relative to the control in both treatments 11 weeks after the spill. Mortalities offish, Fundulus heteroclitus, held in live boxes were noted only in the weathered treatment systems.
THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER OIL SPILL OF JUNE 23, 1976—ARE YOU EVER TRULY READY?1
Authors: Foley Jerome P. , Tresidder Stephen J.
Published: January 2013

On June 23, 1976, tank barge Nepco 140 grounded near the eastern end of Wellesley Island releasing approximately 300,000 gallons of No. 6 oil into the St. Lawrence River. Over the following three days the oil spread 85 miles downstream and contaminated more than 300 miles of island and mainland shoreline. The cleanup lasted more than 16 weeks at a cost of more than $8 million.

The need to reduce the affected area should be paramount to all other considerations in a spill such as this. The problems encountered in this spill should clearly motivate both government agencies and private concerns to plan for and provide all that is necessary to be as prepared as possible for an incident of this nature.

In this case study, the inability to mitigate the damage resulted not only in a time consuming and expensive cleanup, but also in contamination to high residential development, wilderness shoreline, wildlife refuges and marshland frontage. Previous incidents in similar areas did not provide complete information for pre-planning as to the behavior of the oil. When technology and nature may not allow meaningful containment, it is essential that the pre-designated on-scene coordinator (OSC) implement an organizational scheme to make the recovery effort as effective and as thorough as possible.

Where environmental and economic impacts are severe, it is necessary for the OSC to have planned both internal organizational needs and substantive needs for the physical recovery itself. The comments in this paper point out an approach which was successful on the St. Lawrence River.
THE TANKER/PIPELINE CONTROVERSY
Authors: Stewart Robert J.
Published: January 2013

The problems of drawing comparisons between alternative tanker and pipeline transportation systems are discussed. The statistical properties of mean values calculated for samples drawn from highly skewed populations are outlined. Existing U.S. spill data resources are critiqued. A sample regression result of number of spills versus port calls is presented.
OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL IN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Manuell R. W.
Published: January 2013

In 1976/77, Australian crude oil consumption was about 590,000 barrels per day (bpd), with indigenous production supplying 423,000 bpd. Some 223,000 bpd were moved by coastal tanker, 167,000 bpd were imported in overseas tankers, and the remainder was transported by pipeline.

The Australian oil spill control situation differs from that commonly found in the northern hemisphere. The long coastline, low ratio of population to coastal distance, shipping route isolation, and the low shipping densities, dictated a dispersant-oriented approach to control when it was first contemplated in the 1960s.

This paper describes the development of industry and government spill defence organisations, and the establishment of control techniques other than dispersion. The strategic location of materials and equipment, emergency response plans and responsibilities, and interrelationships among organisations are examined. The interface between offshore oil production and other coastal uses is discussed with some forecasts of future developments, including the implications for the very large Australian Fishing Zone which was recently established under current 200 nautical mile offshore proposals.
COLD REGIONS SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: Marsh Gordon D. , Schultz Lawrence A. , DeBord Frank W.
Published: January 2013

As a part of its Arctic Pollution Response Research and Development Program, the U.S. Coast Guard in 1977 awarded a systems analysis contract to ARCTEC Incorporated to identify the pollution response system requirements for dealing with spills in ice-infested waters. A cold regions oil pollution response system was defined through an engineering and cost effectiveness analysis of six oil spill scenarios, selected to encompass the broad range of oil spill and environmental conditions likely to be encountered offshore Alaska. Also identified were modifications to the system required to extend the response capability to the seasonally ice-infested waters of the lower 48 states, including the Great Lakes, the northern rivers, and the northern coastal regions. Projections were made of the behavior of the spilled oil in ice-infested waters, and oil spill response scenarios were developed for three levels of spill response. Three distinctly different types of spill response operations were identified: (1) for a thick, stable, level shorefast ice situation; (2) for a dynamic, hum-mocky, heavily concentrated broken ice situation; (3) for the case of light broken ice and open water. The presence of ice was found to aid response efforts in some cases and to hinder or preclude response efforts in others. This paper discusses the three types of spill response required for cold regions and reviews the six Alaskan and three lower 48 scenarios used to define the system requirements.
OIL SPILL CONTROL AND ABATEMENT TECHNIQUES USED AT THE S.S. SANSINENA EXPLOSION SITE—A COAST GUARD PERSPECTIVE1
Authors: White W. W. , Kopeck J. T.
Published: January 2013

At 1938 PST on Friday, December 17, 1976, the Liberian tankership Sansinena exploded and burned while taking on ballast at the Union Oil Terminal, Berth 46, Los Angeles harbor, California. In addition to the loss of nine lives and millions of dollars in property damage, approximately 30,000 barrels of oil was spilled onto Los Angeles harbor waters. The majority of this oil sank to the bottom of the harbor and had to be removed mechanically over the following sixteen months utilizing oil removal equipment designed and constructed especially for this spill. Two years after the Sansinena disaster the reconstructed Union Oil Terminal is in full operation, with only an occasional small oil sheen stirred from the bottom by propwash to remind us of the havoc of that December Friday.
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OIL-DISPERSANT MIXTURES IN FRESH WATER
Authors: Scott Brian F. , Nagy Elmer , Sherry James P. , Dutka Bernard J. , Glooschenko Valanne , Snow Norman B. , Wade P. J.
Published: January 2013

A series of spills using oil and dispersant was begun July 5, 1978 in a set of artificial freshwater ponds. Prior to the spills, the ponds had been allowed to stabilize and the water as well as a number of biological components including zooplankton, phytoplankton, bacteria, and fungi was regularly monitored. These parameters also were determined regularly after the spill as was the distribution of the stressing agents. The short-term results, encompassing the observations made for 55 days following the spills, indicate that the oil-dispersant mixture affects the zooplankton, phytoplankton, bacteria, fungi, and dissolved oxygen to a greater degree than oil alone. Also, in the oil-dispersant ponds there was an enhancement of the dissolved reactive silica values relative to the oiled and control ponds.
CONTINGENCY PLANS: A USEFUL TOOL OR BUREAUCRATIC BURDEN?
Authors: Donohoe Michael J.
Published: January 2013

Since the idea of contingency planning for environmental emergencies became fashionable in the late 1960s, the process by which contingency plans are formulated and promulgated has undergone many refinements. However, contingency planning is all too often accomplished for its own sake, to comply with government regulation or company policy, or to establish a decisionmaking hierarchy so complex it precludes realistic implementation.

This paper presents and discusses alternative methods available to personnel responsible for preparing contingency plans. Further, it provides positive guidelines to assist in making contingency plans functional, usable reference publications.

The state of the art in the areas of pollution prevention, spill control, and cleanup have been greatly enhanced by experience and innovation on the part of operators and administrators.

This paper is not intended to be a “cookbook” solution, but rather, a compilation of input by users. We hope it will close the gap between “planning” and the other areas of environmental practice.
CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR OIL SPILL LITIGATION
Authors: Haubold Samuel A.
Published: January 2013

Advance planning and prompt post-spill response are highly important to the successful defense of oil spill damage claims. Failure to anticipate the requirements of litigation can result in a defendant being unable to refute false or inflated claims. The objective of a properly designed legal response plan is to facilitate an immediate data-collection and fact-gathering program for possible use in subsequent litigation. It is essential that all information be preserved in a legally acceptable form because it must meet strict evidential requirements for later use at trial.
DISPERSANT USE GUIDELINES FOR FEDERAL REGIONS IX AND X
Authors: Smith Randall W. , Pavia Robert
Published: January 2013

The Regional Response Teams in California, Oregon, and Washington have attempted to deal with the problem of providing rapid approval or denial of dispersant use requests during a major spill event. Realizing that the On-Scene Coordinator must act quickly in order for the dispersants to be effective, the RRT undertook a program to develop a system that would allow for approval or denial within four hours.

The Regional Response Teams in Standard Federal Regions IX and X developed and implemented Dispersant Use Guidelines, from 1978 to the present, to enhance the regions’ capability to respond rapidly to requests for approval of dispersant use. The physical, chemical, and biological parameters associated with spilled oil and dispersants are evaluated in this procedure. A decision to use dispersants is based on balancing the possible contamination of the environment with other factors. Damages expected from spills not treated with dispersants are compared to damages which would be expected if the oil were successfully treated. The objective is to minimize the impact of spilled oil on natural resources.

This paper summarizes the progress of two Regional Response teams in responding to the questions of dispersant use, reviewing dispersant guidelines, and recommending minimum standards for documentation. The procedure involves the interaction and cooperation of the several agencies, and promotes the timely use of knowledge and information.
THE INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION TRAINING PROGRAM IN OIL SPILL PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND RESPONSE FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES1
Authors: Hayes Terence Michael , Okamura Bin
Published: January 2013

Since March 1979, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has funded the post of International Maritime Organization (IMO) inter-regional consultant on marine pollution, and more than 50 missions have been conducted to developing countries. Activities during these missions include risk assessment, identification of locally available resources, contingency planning, and identification of training requirements. This paper deals with the development by IMO of a three-phase program which is funded by the Swedish International Development Authority and UNDP. The detailed program, consisting of national seminars and short- and long-term fellowships, is described, together with the particular problems of tropical and sub-tropical environments as identified by the seminar participants. This program is underway in Bangladesh, Chile, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and Thailand.
OIL DEGRADATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF VARIOUS CO-DISPOSAL METHODS
Authors: Halmø Gerd
Published: January 2013

A study on disposal of oily debris from polluted beaches was performed under laboratory conditions in columns simulating a vertical segment of a landfill. Nine different mixtures of oily debris were tested in parallel, including debris pre-mixed with municipal waste, and mixtures with oil absorbents like pine bark and lime. Fertilizers were used to give an optimum C:N ratio. Oil degradation and leachate formation and composition were studied for one year. The results show that if oily debris i.e., oily sand, gravel, and seaweed, is placed directly in a landfill leachates will have unacceptably high oil content. When oily sand was mixed with pine bark and seaweed was mixed with lime, the disposal experiments showed a complete stabilization of the oil. Lime stabilization, however, caused a leachate of unfavorably high alkalinity.

Oxygen appears to be the primary limiting parameter for oil degradation in landfills, and small units or different configurations must be used to improve air diffusion into the mass. Mixing the oily debris with municipal waste had a favorable effect on both biodegradation and stability towards leakage.
AN APPROACH TO OBSERVING OIL AT SEA
Authors: Pavia Robert , Payton D. L.
Published: January 2013

Any response to an oil spill incident requires expedient observations of the appearance, location, and distribution of the spilled oil. These observations are fundamental for the determination of spill severity, initialization of trajectory forecasts, and planning of mitigation efforts. Present techniques for determining oil distribution over large areas of water rely predominantly on visual estimation from various types of aircraft. The need to rely on observers in aircraft has resulted in a variety of problems during past spill responses. These problems center on inconsistent classification of types, amounts, and distribution of oil. Inconsistent terminology results in poor reporting of oil conditions, which in turn hinders spill mitigation planning.

A consistent approach to reporting observed oil distribution has been developed based on experience gained during the IXTOC I and Burmah Agate spills, as well as during other, smaller spills. It provides a uniform terminology for describing oil, including oil coverage and appearance terms, and a working vocabulary for oil sighting. A flight planning guide, data format for recording observations, and a mapping procedure for providing observations to other response personnel are also part of the scheme.

This approach to observing oil at sea can be used, with photographs, as a manual for rapidly training observers. Use of this approach during spills has shown it to be an effective and simple solution to recurrent problems in mapping oil slick distribution.
THE TEXACO CONNECTICUT'S OIL SPILL INCIDENT IN THE PANAMA CANAL
Authors: Von Chong Cesar , Jordan John C. , Gutierrez Ricardo
Published: January 2013

The second largest recorded oil spill to occur in the waters of the Panama Canal happened on June 7, 1980. The 39,366 deadweight ton (dwt) United States tanker Texaco Connecticut, while on a northbound transit and laden with Alaskan crude, struck the east bank of Gaillard Cut, ripping its number 1 and 2 cargo tanks.

In a period of approximately six hours, from the time the tanker struck the bank of the canal until it was anchored for repairs at Limon Bay, the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal, an estimated 4,000 barrels (bbl) of crude were spilled in a distance of approximately 35 miles.

A multi-agency effort was deployed immediately. The Panama Canal Commission's own pollution control forces, in close working coordination with other units of the commission, the United States Army and the Government of the Republic of Panama were able to recover a total of 1,361 bbl of crude. Manual and mechanical methods of oil recovery were used during 27 days in which an estimated total of 29,396 man-hours were used at a total cost of approximately $800,000.

The environmental impact of the spill was observed by Panama Canal Commission biologists as well as by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI). Although no baseline data exists for comparison, it is apparent that no far reaching negative effects were imposed on the fauna and flora of Gatun Lake.
CASE HISTORY: OPEC IN SOUTHERN IDAHO
Authors: Willmann James C.
Published: January 2013

The City of Nampa, Idaho, has had an oil pollution problem for about eight years. Oil was found in basements of downtown buildings, in sewers, and occasionally in a local stream. Numerous efforts to locate the source failed. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency assisted the city in locating the source and establishing a recovery system which continually removes oil from the shallow groundwater aquifer.
EXPOSURE OF ABARENICOLA PACIFICA TO OILED SEDIMENT: EFFECTS ON GLYCOGEN CONTENT AND ALTERATIONS IN SEDIMENT-BOUND HYDROCARBONS1
Authors: Augenfeld John M. , Anderson Jack W. , Kiesser Steven L. , Fellingham Gilbert W. , Riley Robert G. , Thomas Berta L.
Published: January 2013

A one-month field experiment was conducted to determine the alterations of specific hydrocarbons within a fine sediment mixed with oil and to assess the impact of this contamination on the deposit-feeding polychaete, Abarenicola pacifica. Fresh or weathered Prudhoe Bay crude oil was mixed with sediment in nominal concentrations between zero and 1,000 parts per million (ppm). Oiled sediment filled the exposure chambers or was placed in a layer over clean sediment. After one month of exposure under field conditions, concentrations of individual saturate and aromatic hydrocarbons in the worms’ body wall muscles were below the limits of detection (less than 0.2 ppm saturates and less than 0.08 ppm aromatics). Analyses of both saturates and aromatics in core samples of sediment systems containing or lacking worms indicated that bioturbation occurred in some instances. The relative release rates of specific aromatic hydrocarbons from sediments were greater at the surface and appeared to decrease with increasing molecular weight. The effect of exposure to oiled sediment on glycogen content of Abarenicola body wall was significant (p <0.02). Analysis of individual variability in populations sampled between February and August showed that test groups of 12 control and 12 exposed animals could be used to demonstrate a reduction of 10 milligrams per gram (mg/g) in glycogen levels resulting from environmental conditions. Within the proper testing framework, analysis of Abarenicola glycogen content could be used to assess the effects of oil spills on benthic infauna.
OIL SPILL MODELING—A TOOL FOR CLEANUP OPERATIONS
Authors: Rasmussen Dorte
Published: January 2013

This study, carried out at the VKI, the Water Quality Institute, Denmark, includes development of an oil spill weathering model, which can be combined with a transport model to produce an operational oil spill model. The weathering model consists of three modules: a mass transport module, a heat transport module, and a module computing physical and chemical properties of the oil slick. The mass transport module takes the following processes into account: spreading, horizontal and vertical dispersion, evaporation, emulsification, and upwelling of dispersed oil droplets. The heat transport module takes into consideration solar radiation, heat transfer between the oil and water and the air, evaporative heat loss, and radiation. The oil is divided up into six fractions, with each fraction characterized by boiling point and chemical structure. The physical and chemical properties of the slick are calculated by summing up the corresponding properties of each fraction.

This weathering model computes the volume remaining on the water surface, water content, viscosity, surface tension, density, temperature, and area of the slick.
AN ESTUARINE OIL SPILL INCIDENT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Authors: Mitchell N. , Pyburn B. , Syratt W. J. , Holmes P. D.
Published: January 2013

In September 1983, the 218,000 deadweight ton VLCC Sivand collided with the jetty while berthing at the Immingham oil terminal on the River Humber in England. As a result of the collision, a 66-foot gash was sustained in the ship's hull below the water line and about 6,000 tons of Nigerian light crude oil was released into the Humber. A combination of fast currents and southeasterly winds carried the oil over a wide area of the estuary, polluting dock areas and river creeks and threatening a number of sensitive areas.

The cleanup following this incident, potentially the most serious in the U.K. since the Torrey Canyon, was a coordinated operation involving government, local authority, and industry resources. Four hundred tons of oil was recovered from docks, rivers, creeks, and inlets using disc and vacuum skimmers. A further estimated 2,000 tons was dispersed chemically using boats and aircraft.

Information on the effects of the oil and cleanup on the estuary has so far indicated that the impact was considerably less than originally feared. Monitoring of the estuary continues and should provide useful long-term information.
MANGROVE LEAF TISSUE SODIUM AND POTASSIUM ION CONCENTRATIONS AS SUBLETHAL INDICATORS OF OIL STRESS IN MANGROVE TREES
Authors: Page D. S. , Gilfillan E. S. , Foster J. C. , Hotham J. R. , Gonzalez L.
Published: January 2013

As part of an ongoing study of the long-term effects of the Zoe Colocotroni oil spill of March 17, 1973, in Bahia Sucia, Puerto Rico, the effects of the remaining oil on the red mangrove trees in the impact area were investigated. This study involved four sampling trips to the spill site and a reference area outside the spill zone between April 1979 and April 1981. The present study was based on the observation that stressed mangrove trees in the heavily oil-affected areas had a similar appearance to trees exhibiting stress due to hypersalinity in unoiled areas. The working hypothesis was that petroleum hydrocarbons induce stress in salt-excluding plants such as red mangroves by disrupting the ability of the roots to exclude ions from seawater. Measurements of sodium (the principal seawater cation) and potassium (a major physiological ion) were made on leaf samples taken from trees from oil-affected areas and reference areas. Sediment core samples were taken from the root zone of the trees sampled at each site and analyzed for hydrocarbons by gravimetric and gas chromatographic methods. The results show a relationship between sediment hydrocarbon concentration and the ratio of sodium to potassium for mangrove leaves sampled at each site. The results show that for trees exposed at the root zone to the least weathered oil, the values of this ratio for the leaves had the largest values, reflecting an oil-induced impairment of the salt (Na) exclusion mechanism. This approach to measuring the physiological health of mangrove trees at an oil spill site offers a potentially useful means of documenting oil stress and recovery from oil stress in salt-excluding halophytes. Because oil stress in mangroves appears to be a root membrane-directed effect, there may be a “window in time” between initial oil impact and plant damage, as oil penetrates the sediments, during which mitigation measures could be taken.
EFFECTS OF DIESEL OIL ON COMMERCIAL BENTHIC ALGAE IN NORWAY1
Authors: Bokn Tor
Published: January 2013

The kelp Laminaria digitata and the fucoid Ascophyllum nodosum are being studied to see if low, continuous dosage of diesel oil over a two-year period has any effects on length growth. This project is part of a larger experiment to assess long-term effects of low concentrations of oil on a simulated littoral rock community kept in four 50 m3 concrete basins equipped with artificially made waves and tide. Over three years, four fucoids planted along with associated flora and fauna have established luxuriant and relatively stable communities. From September 1982 to autumn 1984 the plants were exposed to diesel oil mixed with inlet seawater as a water-accommodated fraction. The exposure level averaged about 100 µg/L total hydrocarbons in the basin with the highest diesel oil concentration and about 25 µg/L in that with the lowest concentration. The other two basins served as controls. The work on A. nodosum started in June 1982. No significant growth difference was observed the first year. However, during 1983 and 1984, the new tips of plants in both oil-exposed basins were significantly shorter than those of the controls. No significant difference in growth of L. digitata was noted from March to July 1983. However, during spring 1984, growth of plants in both oil-exposed basins varied significantly from the controls. Studies of recovery will start at the end of the diesel oil exposure and will continue until 1986.
COMPARATIVE FATE OF CHEMICALLY DISPERSED AND UNTREATED OIL IN THE ARCTIC: BAFFIN ISLAND OIL SPILL STUDIES 1980–1983
Authors: Boehm Paul D. , Steinhauer William , Requejo Adolfo , Cobb Donald , Duffy Suzanne , Brown John
Published: January 2013

Two experimental oil spill studies designed to assess the comparative short and long term fates and effects of chemically dispersed and untreated nearshore discharges in the Arctic were undertaken as part of the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project. The fates of oil in the water column, in subtidal and beach sediments, and in five species of filter- and deposit-feeding animals were investigated. Analytical results indicate that the discharge of the chemically dispersed oil caused a large but short-lived chemical impact on the water column (up to 50 ppm), a significant initial bio accumulation of oil, and little sediment impact. In contrast, the untreated oil, allowed to beach, did not have a significant water column impact, but did result in a large scale landfall, continual long term erosion of oil off the beach, and increasing oil levels in subtidal sediments and deposit-feeding animals.
APPROACHES TO OIL SPILL RISK ASSESSMENT FOR MARINE VESSEL OPERATIONS
Authors: Painter Louis J. , Haley Donald R.
Published: January 2013

An oil spill risk assessment study should show the estimated relationship between the magnitude of an adverse environmental impact and the probability of an impact's equaling or exceeding that magnitude. Any unacceptably large impact must have an acceptably low probability of occurrence. Unless such probabilities are correctly estimated, no informed decision can be made about the acceptability of a proposed project. In this paper, we review the basic rules of the calculus of probabilities, demonstrate their application to oil spill risk calculations, and discuss the analysis of data for estimating very low probabilities and the role of computer simulation models to estimate environmental effects. Throughout, a case study is used to point out the pitfalls and errors one should try to avoid. In this example, the correction of a number of errors in the probability calculations resulted in a 37-fold reduction in the collision spill probability estimate and a 3,500-fold reduction in the grounding spill risk estimate. Grounding spills had been estimated to have by far the most adverse environmental impacts. The corrections substantially reduced the expected values of the impacts.
OPERATIONAL AIR SURVEILLANCE AND EXPERIENCES IN THE NETHERLANDS
Authors: Schriel R. C.
Published: January 2013

Surveillance of suspected oil pollution incidents in the Dutch sector of the North Sea by aircraft has proven useful in reducing the amount of oil discharged and apprehension of violaters. An operational approach based on experience has been developed, using both visual and remote sensing observations. A number of practical suggestions have been put forward for use in establishing whether or not a violation has occurred.
THE KUWAIT NATIONAL CONTINGENCY PLAN IN ACTION
Authors: Al-Nakib Namir A.
Published: January 2013

The implementation of a contingency plan in an exercise differs enormously from reality. The paper will discuss what is practiced in an exercise and relate it to an actual incident, detailing the differences between the exercise and the real incident. Problems can arise from where they are least expected and may jeopardize the preparations made beforehand.
OIL SPILL INCIDENTS AND DISPERSANT APPLICATIONS IN KUWAIT
Authors: Al-Mazidi Salah M. , Samhan Omar
Published: January 2013

Since the discovery of oil in Kuwait, most oil-related activities have been located along the coastline 50 km south of Kuwait City. Other related industrial activities have been developed in this area apart from oil and petroleum products export in order to diversify the national sources of income. For these reasons, the potential for large oil spills in Kuwait's marine environment is highest along the south coast, where oil refineries and exporting facilities are located. An average of 219 barrels of oil were spilled annually between 1979 and 1985, and 2,100 gallons of dispersants were used in cleanup operations. The majority of incidents involved less than 5 barrels of oil and 500 gallons of dispersants. Incidents involving more than 100 barrels of oil and 5,000 gallons of dispersants were confined to the Sea Island and Mina Al-Ahmadi North and South Piers. This distribution undoubtedly affects the concentration of petroleum residues in various components of the marine environment, resulting in an increase in tar ball density along this coast, reaching a maximum at Ras Az-Zor, and significantly higher levels of vanadium and petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments and oysters collected south of Mina Al-Ahmadi.

The objective of this paper is to report on the number, volume, and frequency distribution of oil spill incidents in Kuwait and the usage of dispersants in cleanup operations. Vanadium and petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations also are described as is the sensitivity of the southern coastal environment to oil spills. Recommendations have been made on how to conduct cleanup operations for any future oil spill incidents along the southern shoreline of Kuwait.