bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The numerical study of full three-dimensional particle in cell/Monte Carlo with gas ionization
Authors: Wang Hui-Hui  , Liu Da-Gang  , Meng Lin  , Liu La-Qun  , Yang Chao  , Peng Kai  , Xia Meng-Zhong  ,   School of Physical Electronics, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, China
Published: December 2020

Based on CHIPIC platform and the ionization physics mechanism between electron and gas, a full three-dimensional particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo (PIC/MCC) code is developed with the MCC ionized collision module. The simulations of a relativistic backward wave oscillator with helium gas are used to verify the code. The results show that the gas can enhance the current, peak power and pulse length, but too much gas leads to the reductions of peak power and pulse length.
The luminescence properties of the Dy3+-doped borosilicate glasses
Authors: Yu Yang  , Liu Zi-Jun  , Chen Qiao-Qiao  , Dai Neng-Li  , Li Jin-Yan  , Yang Lü-Yun  ,   Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, School of Optical an Electronic Information, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
Published: December 2020

In this paper, the Dy3+-doped borosilicate glasses are fabricated by high-temperature melting method. The excitation and emission spectra of the glasses are measured to discuss their spectroscopic properties. The effects of the glass composition and the Dy3+ doping concentration on the emission spectrum and the luminescence intensity of the sample are investigated. We also calculate their color coordinates, which are all in the white region. By adjusting the intensity ratio of the yellow band to the blue band, which varies with the composition of the glass host and the doped concentration of Dy3+ ions, we implemente the effective white light on a single host under the excitation of 387 nm long-wavelength UV.
Ultraviolet photoresponse of ZnO thin-film transistor fabricated at room temperature
Authors: Wu Ping  , Zhang Jie  , Li Xi-Feng  , Chen Ling-Xiang  , Wang Lei  , Lü Jian-Guo  ,   State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China;,   Key Laboratory of Advanced Display and System Application, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China
Published: December 2020

Transparent thin-film transistor (TFT) with ZnO film as a channel layer is fabricated at room temperature. ZnO film has a high absorption in the UV region and ZnO-TFT is sensitive to the UV illumination. We investigate the ultraviolet photoresponse of ZnO-TFT and find that the illumination with 254 nm light results in an evident photoresponse. The residual conductivity is observed in ZnO channel even the UV light was removed one week before. The UV illumination can induce the formation of oxygen vacancy defects which will act as donors in ZnO channel.
Research on synchronization of complex networks with random nodes
Authors: Liu Jin-Liang  ,   Department of Applied Mathematics, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing 210046, China
Published: December 2020

This paper deals with the synchronization of complex networks with random nodes. Sufficient conditions for the synchronization of complex networks are derived by using the Lyapunov functional method and linear matrix inequality technique, and the obtained criteria depend on not only the size of the delay, but also the probability distribution of random nodes. A simulation example is exploited in order to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Retrieval of surface NO2 mixing ratio from multi-axis differential optical absorption spectroscopy
Authors: Zhou Hai-Jin  , Liu Wen-Qing  , Si Fu-Qi  , Dou Ke  ,   Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China;,   Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
Published: December 2020

The multi-axis differential optical absorption spectroscopy (MAX-DOAS) technique, in which solar scattered light beams of different elevation angles are used and the spatial distribution of various trace gases is derived, has been widely used for monitoring the NO2 slant column density. Due to the lack of information in a detectable horizontal range of the MAX-DOAS instrument, the concentration of trace gases including NO2 is unable to yield directly. In this work, the relationship between extinction coefficient and light path length of MAX-DOAS observation is analyzed, and a retrieval algorithm to convert the horizontal NO2 differential slant column density into the volume mixing ratio with the information of visibility is described. This algorithm has been used in the MAX-DOAS observation at Hefei, and volume NO2 mixing ratio is derived from MAX-DOAS measurement combining the data of visibility. The NO2 concentration measured with MAX-DOAS shows that it is in good agreement with the result obtained with long path differential optical absorption spectroscopy, proving the feasibility of the retrieval method. This research presents a simple and effective monitoring method of volume NO2 mixing ratio with MAX-DOAS, there by expanding the application scope of MAX-DOAS technique.
Preparation and magnetoelectric characteristics of K0.5Na0.5NbO3-LiSbO3-BiFeO3/CuFe2O4 composite ceramics
Authors: Yuan Chang-Lai  , Zhou Xiu-Juan  , Xuan Min-Jie  , Xu Ji-Wen  , Yang Yun  , Liu Xin-Yu  ,   School of Material Science and Engineering, Guilin University ofElectronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China
Published: December 2020

The (1-x)(K0.5Na0.5NbO3-LiSbO3-BiFeO3)-xCuFe2O4 (x=0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4) magnetoelectric composite ceramics are prepared by the conventional solid-state reaction method. The microstructures and properties of the composite ceramics are characterized by X-ray diffractometer, scanning electron microscope and magnetoelectric coupling coefficient meter. The weak ionic interdiffusions between the phases K0.5Na0.5NbO3-LiSbO3-BiFeO3 and CuFe2O4 are observed and their particle sizes are well matched between each other. With the increase of CuFe2O4 content, the piezoelectric coefficient (d33) of the composite ceramics decreases from 130 pC/N to 30 pC/N and the magnetostriction coefficient (-λ) increases from 4.5×10-6 to 12.4×10-6. The magnetoelectric coupling coefficient (αE) of the composite ceramics first increases and then decreases with the CuFe2O4 content increasing. When the composition x=0.3, a maximum value of αE=9.4 mV·cm-1·Oe-1 is achieved.
The high efficiency sub-micrometer Cu(In, Ga)Se2 solar cell prepared on low temperature
Authors: Han An-Jun  , Sun Yun  , Li Zhi-Guo  , Li Bo-Yan  , He Jing-Jing  , Zhang Yi  , Liu Wei  ,   Key Laboratory of Photo-Electronic Thin Film Devices and Technology of Tianjin, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information Technology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Photo-Electronic Thin Film Devices and Technology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071 China
Published: December 2020

In the presence of Se, Cu(In0.7Ga0.3)Se2 (CIGS) thin films are prepared by the sequential evaporation of Ga, In, Cu at a constant substrate temperature between 250 ℃ and 550 ℃ on the Mo/soda lime glass substrates. The thickness values of films are about 0.7 μm. The structural and phase properties of CIGS films are studied by an X-ray diffractometer, the morphology and crystalline quality are characterized by a scanning electron microscope, the depth profiles of elements are measured by a secondary ion mass spectroscopy, the surface compositions are analyzed by a Raman spectrometer, and the optical properties of CIGS films are measured by a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere. It is found that the films prepared at substrate temperature above 450 ℃ each exhibite a single Cu(In0.7Ga0.3)Se2 phase, and the homogenization of Ga/(Ga+In) distribution in the Ga-In-Se precursor is achieved by the diffusion of In atoms through grain boundaries. As the substrate temperature is less than 400 ℃, a serious Ga phase separation is observed and the high content of Ga phase mainly exists at the top and bottom of CIGS films. Below 300 ℃, a serious deterioration of crystalline quality is found, and Ga atoms cannot effectively enter into the CIS lattice position to form CIGS. The films prepared at the substrate temperature less than 400 ℃ are covered with lots of Cu(In0.5Ga0.5)Se2 small grains, which results in the enhancement of the surface roughness and the formation of a light trapping structure at the interface of Cd/CIGS. Thus, the light absorption of solar cell is improved. In addition, the smaller gap value of the low Ga content phase also facilitats the light absorption, then the short-circuit current density of thinned solar cell is greatly improved. The analysis shows that the short-circuit current density is the main factor affecting the conversion efficiency of thinned solar cell prepared between 550 ℃-350 ℃. However, when the substrate temperature is below 350 ℃, the reduction of VOC and FF has become the main reason for the deterioration of solar cell. In conclusion, the efficiency of solar cell with 0.7 μm CIGS absorber prepared at substrate temperature of 350 ℃ reaches 10.3% due to the improvement of short-circuit current density.
Drag-reduction of one-dimensional period and puasiperiod groove structures
Authors: Wang Xiao-Na  , Geng Xing-Guo  , Zang Du-Yang  ,   Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Science, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710129, China
Published: December 2020

We design three types of groove structures which are arranged in closely-packedarry (space free), periodic and quasiperiodic orders. The drag reduction properties of these structures are studied by numerical simulations and experimental shear stress measurements. Particularly, the effect of groove arrangement on the drag reduction is elucidated. Based on both the numerical and experimental results, it is found that the quasiperiodic arrangement can obtain more effective drag reduction than the close-packed groove structure and periodic structure. The underlying mechanism of the drag reduction is analyzed by vortex redistribution caused by the groove structures. The high-speed flow can be modulated by the disturbance wave resulting from the quasi-periodic groove structure, forming stripe-like flow patterns arranged in quasiperiodic style. This restrains the formation of big vortex in both the spanwise and the streamwise directions, hence leading to substantial drag reduction. Furthermore, the modulation effect on the streamwise vortex is more remarkable than on spanwise vortex, suggesting that the modulation of streamwise vortex plays a more important role in the drag reduction.
Theoretical Models Testing for Examining Permissible Onset Sequences in Jordanian Urban Arabic
Authors: Sa’aida Zainab
Published: December 2020

Languages differ as to which sounds are permissible to combine to form onset sequences. The aim of this article is to test two versions of the theory of sonority hierarchy to examine to what extent that they can make correct predictions about permissible onset sequences in Jordanian urban Arabic. It also aims at testing articulator-based feature theory to examine its capability to account for permissible onset sequences in the language in question. Findings of the study have shown that the sonority theory seems to fail to predict some occurring onset sequences in Jordanian urban Arabic and to make wrong predictions about some other missing sequences. Some sequences violate the minimal sonority distance, but they are found in Jordanian urban Arabic while some other sequences satisfy the minimal sonority distance, but they are not found in this language. The results have also shown that the articulator-based feature theory fails to account for permissible onset sequences in Jordanian urban Arabic.
The Politics of Innocence: A Semiotic Analysis of the Pakistani Animated Cartoon Series Burka Avenger
Authors: Shah Syed Kazim , Riaz Aniqa , Aqeel Asim
Published: December 2020

The animated cartoons occupy a significant part of a child’s upbringing, but its contents can be considered debatable. Though parents prefer such animations which can protect their children from potentially harmful awkward images in the media, yet the examination of their content has so far been limited. The analysis of media texts is closely connected with the actual problem of demonstration in children’s animated cartoons and movies that not only contribute to the development of children’s imagination, the formation of the child’s ideas about moral values and the surrounding world, but also cause irreparable harm to the fragile child’s psyche. The purpose of this research is to investigate the manipulation of various concepts in the Pakistani animated cartoon series Burka Avenger. This study draws upon Roland Barthes’ (1957) semiotic theory for deeper understanding of the meanings, conveyed by the selected images. Moreover, Norman Fairclough’s (1989) three dimensional model of critical discourse analysis (CDA) is used for deeper understanding of the socio-cognitive effects of the concerned text (images). This research will help parents to be careful while choosing the media contents to be shown to their kids. It will also be a source of realization for the Pakistani producers and directors of kids’ contents, that they should play their role positively for nurturing our future generation instead of preferring their personal benefits only.
Practicing Dogme ELT to Enhance L2 Academic Essay Writing Skills
Authors: Amjad Muhammad , Tahir Adnan , Qadeer Ayyaz
Published: December 2020

English language has been a pressing need of people all over the world; so, the experts are making efforts for effective and successful teaching and learning of different language skills through innovations in teaching approaches and methods. As a new teaching approach, Dogme ELT was introduced in 2000, which claimed success and better outcomes in different language teaching areas. Focusing on the claim of this new teaching approach, this study was conducted to explore the effectiveness of Dogme ELT to enhance English language competence in academic writing skills. For this purpose, a Classroom Action Research (CAR) was conducted, and the data was collected through a diagnostic assessment test on the very first day and a final test after Dogme ELT treatment. The collected data was analyzed through qualitative and quantitative methods to record the results of the study. The research participants’ performance in the diagnostics test and in the final test after Dogme ELT treatment shows that this new teaching approach is very effective and successful to enhance English language competence in academic writing skills.
Issuing a Refusal: How Female Saudi Speakers of Arabic Say No
Authors: Alaboudi Samah Saleh
Published: December 2020

The study examines the refusal strategies used by Saudi female speakers of Arabic. More specifically, the study aims at exploring the most frequently used refusal strategies by those speakers and how directness might have an effect on that use. A modified version in Arabic of a Discourse Completion Test (DCT) that was originally developed and used by Beebe et al. (1990) is used to elicit the data. The written questionnaire consists of nine situations. The initiating acts are three requests, three invitations and three offers which were designed to elicit refusals. The situations specify the context and the social status of interlocutors. The data is analyzed using a modified version of a classification scheme of refusal strategies developed be Beebe et al. (1990). The analysis focuses on the semantic formulas used for each situation and the frequency of each refusal strategy. The results reveal that the order of the semantic formulas in the responses of the participants differed across the initiating acts and the status differences. ‘Excuse/Reason’, an indirect refusal strategy, is used the most by the participants in their refusals. The excuses/reasons that the participants give tend to be lacking detail and of an uncontrollable nature. ‘Negative Ability’ is another frequently used strategy. Although a direct strategy, the participants still show their awareness of the need to lessen the threat that their refusal poses on the interlocutor by using other indirect strategies and adjuncts to accompany the direct one. The participants used more indirect refusal strategies than direct which might indicate that the participants are trying to mitigate their refusals by being less direct.
A Convegerence between Anthropology and Literature: How Reading, Writing, and Ethnography Intertwine
Authors: AL-Gharib Munirah
Published: December 2020

This text examines the convergent and double-sided relationship between anthropology as an ethnological study, which of necessity uses literary language - and writing itself as a subject for ethnography. Cultural Reader-response theory shows that every text involves some participation on the reader’s part and is not a solitary unchanging object. This response will itself be a function of social and cultural relations. At the same time, cultural and social life, studied by anthropologists, only becomes explicable through language and the results of ethnographic fieldwork are always, therefore, mediated by linguistic forms. The development of literary anthropology gained momentum in the 1980s but had already germinated in the pioneering work of Levi-Strauss whose work on kinship structures in the 1940s and his study of myth turned the attention of anthropologists towards the important and neglected dimension of language. Since then it has been recognised that an anthropologist’s work is diminished if theoretical and linguistic aspects are unaddressed. and the realm of socio-anthropology has been enriched. Disciplinary and genre distinctions have become very fluid in the past few decades and many university departmental studies now blend literary criticism with culture studies, anthropology, sociology, philosophy, folk discourses, and hermeneutics. While a standard definition of one of any two terms may be possible, it may not always be practical. Therefore, the definition of these two terms—anthropology and literature—needs to be updated from time to time to reflect ongoing developments and the advancements taking place in various fields. In particular, it is evident that coinciding with the linguistic turn’ in English literature studies, the discourse of anthropology has become permeable. A broad ‘literary anthropology’ can become possible as a science only if it maintains a dialogue between ideas, actions, and texts. The results and conclusions of this study substantiate the inseparable and interdependent relationship between two traditional approaches to investigating man as a social being.
Profitability of Trade in Moringa oleifera (LAM) Fresh Leaves in Taraba State, Nigeria
Authors: Kassa Lobiya, John , Ukper Ancha, Paul , Norbert Tee, Terver
Published: December 2020

This study investigates the profitability of trade in Moringa oleifera (Lam) Fresh Leaves and also examine the Socio-economic characteristics of Traders in Taraba State, between June, 2018 and May, 2019. Applying a multistage Sampling approach, 342 and 97 traders were randomly selected and administered with questionnaire in the wet and dry seasons respectively, to elicit data, which were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results on the socio-economic variables showed that female traders (94.7%), age class 31-40 (36.3%), Married (65.5%), Household size of 8 members and above (69.6%) and non-formal education (51.8%) featured dominantly in moringa fresh leaves trade. Furthermore, Gross Margin (GM) analysis showed that the monthly income from Moringa oleifera (Lam) fresh leaves was highest (N372.50 ± 125.15) in Ibi Local Government Area (LGA), while Bali LGA had the least GM of (N 88.83 ± 91.40) in the wet season. In the dry season, Gashaka LGA had the highest GM of N 228.00 (± 78.55), while Jalingo LGA was the least with GM of N 57.50 (± 86.68). The comparison of GM and Quantity of leaves sold (QLS) in the dry and rainy seasons were not significantly different. The Rate of Returns on Investment (RORI), Gross Margin Index (GMI) and Unit Price (UP) in the rainy and dry seasons were significantly at 0.05 level of probability. It is therefore recommended that Government and Non-government organisations (NGOs) should educate the traders on the marketing of Moringa oleifera leaves; Government and NGOs should also make loans available at one-digit rate; Government should put in place a security outfit to curtail the incessant crisis in Taraba; and traders should form cooperative society to access loans with the Bank of Industry through the Anchor Borrower scheme.
Seismic Analysis of Simply Supported Damped Rayleigh Beams on Elastic Foundation
Authors: Kehinde Ogunbamike Oluwatoyin
Published: December 2020

In this paper, the flexural analysis of a simply supported damped Rayleigh beam subjected to distributed loads and with damping due to resistance to the transverse displacement resting on elastic foundation is obtained. The characteristics of the beam are assumed uniform over the beam length while the foundation is considered of Winkler type. In order to evaluate the vibration characteristics of the dynamical system, the Fourier sine integral transformation in conjunction with the asymptotic method of Struble is used to solve the governing equations for the transversal vibrations in the beam structure induced by moving load. The effect of prestress and other structural parameters were considered. Numerical results show that the structural parameters have significant influence on the behaviour of the dynamical system.
Effect of Different Organic Manures on the Growth and Yield of Water melon (Citrullus Ianatus)
Authors: Emeghara U. U. , Olukotun O. , Olagunju O. E. , John R. Akanni- , Oni B. O. , Ganiyu L. , Yahaya U. F. , Olafemi S. O. , Omodona S. , Rasheed F. M.
Published: December 2020

Field experimental trials were carried out at Federal College of Forestry Mechanization, Afaka. Kaduna located between latitude 100 35”N and longitude 07°21”E at altitude 644m above sea level to compare the effect of different application of organic manures on growth and yield of water melon (Citrullus Ianatus). Two trials were conducted between the early onset of rain in April and post monsoon in October 2011 and the mean of the two trials were taken. The treatments were poultry manure, mixture of poultry manure plus goat/ sheep manure, goat/ sheep manure and control(no manure). The treatments were replicated four times in randomized complete block design. Data were collected on growth parameters such as plant vines length, Number of branches per plant, number of leaves and yield parameters like fruits weight, fruits diameter and number of fruits. The data were subjected to analysis of variance and the mean separated using Least Significant Difference. The results showed that there were significant differences (P<0.05) in plant vine length. The plots treated with poultry droppings had the highest value of plant vine length of 8.20, 137.90 and 216.30 cm at 2, 4 and 6 weeks after planting. Poultry droppings also gave the highest values for the weight of fruit (10.72 Kg) and diameter of fruit (53.25 mm). The best treatment is poultry manure which has the highest yield of 34.25% at 2.5 tonnes per hectare. Poultry manure showed positive effect on all the growth and yield parameters of water melon (Citrullus lanatus) measured. The use of poultry manure is therefore recommended for farmers in the study area in order to be able to obtain good yield of water melon.
Study of Different Rates of Application of Mixture of Amidosulfuron and Iodosulfuron-Methyl-Sodium on Broadleaf Weed Infestation and Grain Yield of Soft Wheat
Authors: Hajjaj B.
Published: December 2020

Aims: A soft wheat weed control trial was conducted in order to investigate the effect of mixture of Amidosulfuron and Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium on controlling broadleaf weeds infestation in a soft wheat crop.

Study Design: The experimental design was a random block with three replications. Each block contained 4 elementary plots, 3 plots of which are treated with three doses of mixture of Amidosulfuron and Iodosulfuron-Methyl-Sodium and one untreated control plot.

Place and Duration of Study: Field experiments in Ouazzane region of Morocco. Laboratory measurements were carried out at weed research laboratory of INRA-CRRA Tangier. Morocco, between December 2016 and July 2017.

Methodology: Treatments was applied at weed seedling stage. Three doses of mixture of Amidosulfuron and Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium were applied. Observations were made 14,                   28 and 56 days after application of herbicides (DAT). Observations concerned selectivity of    applied treatments, percentage of weed density reduction, biomass reduction and soft wheat grain yield.

Results: Results showed that treatments with mixture of 15 g/ha Amidosulfuron + 3.75 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium and 22.5 g/ha Amidosulfuron + 5.63 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium gave the best control of broadleaf weeds infestations and provided the best wheat grain yield. No phytotoxic symptoms were observed on soft wheat crop. Treatment with mixture of (15g/ha Amidosulfuron+ 3.75 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) recorded 95.7±1.3%, and 98.5±0.5% respectively on weed density reduction, and weed dry biomass reduction. Treatment with mixture of (22.5 g/ha Amidosulfuron + 5.63 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) recorded 98.5±0.5% and 98.8±0.3% respectively on weed density reduction and weed dry biomass reduction. Treatment with mixture of (7.5 g/ha Amidosulfuron + 1.88 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) recorded the lowest efficacies 60.7±10.2% and 70.2±3.3% respectively on weed density reduction and weed dry biomass reduction. Plots treated with mixture of (15 g/ha Amidosulfuron + 3.75 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) and (22.5 g/ha Amidosulfuron+ 5.63 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) recorded the highest yields of 3.65±0.1 and 3.46±0.3 tons/ha respectively an increase exceeding 74% over the control.

Conclusion: Mixture of (15 g/ha Amidosulfuron+ 3.75 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) and (22.5 g/ha Amidosulfuron+ 5.63 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) gave the best control of weed infestation in soft wheat and recorded the best grain yield. Therefore, mixture of (15 g/ha Amidosulfuron+ 3.75 g/ha Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium) can be recommended in similar weed infestation in soft weed crop.
Exploring the Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on Education Divide in Pakistan
Authors: Rajput Naseem Hyder , Noonari Narmeen , Bukhari Syed Muhammad Ahsan , Dehraj Mehboob Ali , Rajput Jabbar Abbas
Published: December 2020

Background: The education sector is badly shaken in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic as nationwide closures have impacted 89% of the world’s student population.

Aims and Methodology: This qualitative, exploratory study investigated the impacts of COVID-19 on the prevailing education divide through focus group discussion. Focus group included purposefully selected two teachers (one male & one female), two senior headteachers (one male & one female), two Taluka Education Officers (one male & one female), two Assistant District Education Officers (One male & one female) and two Assistant professors of Education (one male one female). The focus group interviews were conducted from the participants through conference calls.

Results: Focus group discussion results showed that there could be variable impacts of COVID-19 across society, parents, input that students could receive from families during this pandemic, assessment, gender, and schools. These variable impacts could result in further widening of the existing education divide in Pakistan. The major reasons, as highlighted by the participants, are the weak education system and the prevalent digital divide in Pakistan due to the use of online learning resources. It is recommended that the authorities should engage economically sound local elders, Non-Government Organizations and volunteer educated persons to meet the technology-based needs.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Challenges in Impairment Rating
Authors: Talmage James B.
Published: December 2020

According to the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides) the impairment rating of patients with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) begins with a documented, objectively verifiable diagnosis by nerve conduction testing and is not based on symptoms only. A motor latency of more than 4.0 msec or a sensory latency of more than 3.7 msec clearly defines CTS, but the relative slowing of the median nerve should not be the basis of a CTS diagnosis for an impairment rating. After correct diagnosis, the next consideration is rating the impairment of patients with CTS who have not had surgery. The AMA Guides provides tables that summarize the calculations of common impairments and typically involve the maximal value of the median nerve's loss of function times a severity multiplier. Examples show the calculations for examples of impairment, including complete transection of the median nerve at the wrist, with and without severe reflex dystrophy (causalgia); a patient with CTS who has decreased two-point recognition (7-15 mm) but normal motor function, with and without normal sensation on two-point testing and no motor weakness. The article also discusses the questions that should be answered to determine if a patient who has had surgery for CTS has a permanent disability.
Literature Review
Authors: Mueller Kathryn L.
Published: December 2020

The AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides) has been adopted by many jurisdictions for evaluating permanent impairment. The AMA Guides is formally accepted by means of adoptive language in each jurisdiction's statutes or regulatory code, and this adoptive language falls into one of three types: The first type specifies a particular edition of the AMA Guides for use. Such language has the advantage of being unambiguous, but it fails to take into account subsequent editions. The second type of adoptive language specifies use of the latest or most recent edition of the AMA Guides and ensures currency; states such as Kentucky, New Hampshire, and New Mexico are jurisdictions that employ this type of language. The third type of adoptive language does not indicate which edition of the AMA Guides to use, and in these jurisdictions the courts must decide which edition to use. A chart lists 26 states, the edition of the AMA Guides used in the state, and the source; the chart also includes states such as Arizona, Georgia, Massachusetts, Nevada, South Carolina, and Washington in which the adoptive language is unclear regarding which edition to use, and in these jurisdictions a court would decide which edition should be used.
Impairment Tutorial: Rating Central Nervous System Disorders
Authors: Shaw William , Direnfeld Lorne
Published: December 2020

The term nonverifiable radicular complaints is an oxymoron because if the complaint is radicular one should know the cause, but the word nonverifiable contradicts such knowledge. The AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides) explains that nonverifiable radicular complaints “follow anatomic pathways but cannot be verified by neurologic findings.” A frequent error in impairment rating is to assign patients to Category II based on incorrect use of nonverifiable radicular complaints when Category I or 0% impairment is the correct rating. Some physicians inappropriately use the Range of Motion model and cite tables from the third edition. Other physicians may place a patient in Category II using the Injury Model without a specific basis in the AMA Guides, but the key point is that a diagnosis of nonverifiable radicular complaints indicates that the physician can identify the nerve root involved. Absent the latter, the patient does not have nonverifiable radicular complaints. The Injury Model is the preferred method in rating spinal injury in the AMA Guides, Fourth Edition, and this model clearly intends to place patients with some back pain, some leg pain, and some leg numbness—but not a true radicular pattern—in Category I.
Impairment Tutorial: Rating Peripheral Nerve Disorders of the Upper Extremity
Authors: Mueller Kathryn
Published: December 2020

The AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment, (AMA Guides) Fourth Edition, states that peripheral nerve impairments are determined by determining the percentage of the patient's motor and sensory loss. This article discusses the six steps necessary to rate a peripheral nerve impairment of the upper extremity: First, identify the nerve or nerves affected using relevant tables and figures. Second, locate the table that lists the nerve identified, and record the maximum loss attributed to that nerve for motor and sensory function. A table lists peripheral nerve charts in the AMA Guides, including nerves rated, table and page numbers, and type of rating (upper or lower extremity, foot, and so on). Third, grade the motor deficit of the nerve, and, using the appropriate table, find the percentage range and choose a number within the range that is appropriate for the patient; multiply the graded percentage by the total motor impairment found in step two. Fourth, determine the total deficit for the nerve by combining the motor and sensory deficits using the Combined Values Chart. Fifth, combine the total nerve deficit with other appropriate impairments. A table instructs raters how to convert to a whole person impairment. Sixth, grade the sensory deficit of the nerve. An example illustrates application of the six steps.
Clinical Update: The Spine
Authors: Haralson Robert
Published: December 2020

In the case of Brown v Campbell County Bd. of Educ., 914 S.W.2d407 (Tenn. 1995), the Tennessee Supreme Court found that use of the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides), Fourth Edition, was proper and constitutional. Two claimants in this case challenged the constitutionality of Tennessee Statute 50-6-241, which stated, in part, that «the medical impairment rating [is] determined pursuant to the provisions of the American Medical Association Guides.» The Court upheld the constitutionality of the use of the AMA Guides and found that this use did not violate equal protection, in part because the legitimate state interests,—uniformity, fairness, and predictability—are equally applicable to the use of the AMA Guides: «If the Guides were not used, medical opinions would be more subjective, and perhaps arbitrary. It is no surprise, therefore, that most states either mandate, recommend, or frequently use the AMA Guides in Workers' compensation cases.» To date, every appellate court that has dealt with the AMA Guides has upheld its use and/or its constitutionality»; for additional information, see the following cases: Allen v Natrona County School District One, 811 p.2d 1 (Wy. 1991); Duran v Industrial Claim Appeals Office, 883 p.2d 477 (Colo. 1994); and Texas Workers’ Compensation Commission v Garcia, 893 S.W.2d 504 (Tex. 1995).
Literature Review
Authors: Talmage James B.
Published: December 2020

Evaluating physicians should understand how their impairment evaluations are used, and to these ends Section 1.5 of the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides), Fourth Edition, discusses impairment and workers’ compensation. Permanent disability rewards may be paid according to a schedule that associates impairments of certain body parts, functions, or systems (eg, amputation or loss of sight or hearing) with specific awards. Typically, a schedule in the workers’ compensation law equates disability and a maximum number of weeks of benefits, but what occurs when an injured worker has both scheduled and unscheduled injuries? Under Colorado statute, scheduled injuries involve those to the neck, head, torso, and any injury not specifically enumerated in the statutory schedule. Because schedules usually do not cover all conditions following injuries, nonscheduled awards are available and are based on the extent of impairment, the nature of the injury, and the employee's occupation, experience, training, and age. The Colorado Supreme Court ruled that when a work-related injury results in both a scheduled and a nonscheduled injury, the scheduled injury must be converted to a whole person impairment rating and combined with the nonscheduled injury's whole person impairment when calculating permanent disability benefits. In its decision, the court relied heavily on and cited provisions in the AMA Guides.
Impairment Tutorial: Rating Pain After a Musculoskeletal Injury
Authors: Talmage James B. , Brigham Christopher R.
Published: December 2020

The AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides), Fourth Edition, notes that pain is a subjective perception, and usually no exact relationships exist among the degree of pain, extent of pathologic change, and extent of impairment. Chapters 3, 14, and 15 regarding the musculoskeletal system, mental and behavioral disorders, and pain, respectively, may be relevant in evaluating an individual's pain following musculoskeletal injury. The eight diagnostic characteristics of chronic pain are duration, dramatization, diagnostic dilemma, drugs, dependence, depression, disuse, and dysfunction; if four of the eight are present, a presumptive diagnosis is established. The fourth edition of AMA Guides distinguishes chronic pain syndrome and psychogenic pain (the former is not considered a mental disorder), but diagnosis of pain should consider psychological factors that are judged to play a significant role in the onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain. Thus, two individuals may have identical musculoskeletal histories, physical exams, and pain out of proportion to their injuries, but when one of the patients has psychological factors that are known and understood, the evaluating physician may diagnose a pain disorder associated with psychological factors. Because formally associating psychological factors and diagnosis usually requires legal discovery, physicians may keep the psychological factors confidential, diagnose chronic pain syndrome, and evaluate using Chapter 15 of the fourth edition of the AMA Guides.
Legal Update: Nevada Requires Impairment Evaluation Certificate
Authors: Brigham Christopher R. , Mangraviti James J.
Published: December 2020

How should an individual with pain arising from muscle be rated using the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides)? Syndromes of muscle pain include simple muscle strains and two controversial conditions, myofascial pain and fibromyalgia. Tables in the AMA Guides can be used for rating forearm injuries that affect grip or pinch strength; a separate set of tables can be used to rate the injury in a lower extremity. Injuries to some muscles (deltoid, biceps, and triceps) are not described in these sections but almost always test as grade 4. Major injury to muscle is well understood and noncontroversial, but terms such as myofascial pain syndrome and fibromyalgia describe controversial muscle pains. Some physicians attempt to differentiate myofascial pain and fibromyalgia on the basis of taut bands in myofascial pain and tender points in fibromyalgia, but the interrater reliability of these findings is low and the consensus view suggests that the cause of these two conditions is unknown. Muscle pain, like muscle contraction headache, irritable bowel syndrome, and dysmenorrhea, are real symptoms for which no impairment rating is provided. Our understanding of these conditions should improve with future research, enabling us to define criteria for evaluating impairment.
Impairment Tutorial: Impairment From Coronary Artery Disease
Authors: Talmage James B.
Published: December 2020

Coronary artery disease is quite common, and physicians often are asked about the work capacity of patients with coronary disease; less commonly are physicians asked to rate the patient's permanent impairment. In such cases, Chapter 6, Cardiovascular System, of the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides) is used to rate impairment. The AMA Guides directs the physician who is rating impairment to place the individual in one of four classes of impairment. Class 1 impairment is rarely used because patients often have neither significant lesions nor a history of angina. The likelihood of disease progression may qualify these individuals as impaired even in the absence of symptoms. Patients with Class 2 impairment have no symptoms even with moderately heavy activity, and moderate dietary adjustment or medication is required to prevent symptoms. Class 3 impairment describes individuals who have symptoms of congestive heart failure or angina with moderately heavy activity. According to the AMA Guides criteria, patients in Class 3 would qualify for US Social Security benefits. Class 4 impairment describes individuals who have symptoms during ordinary activity and should have signs or laboratory evidence of cardiac enlargement and abnormal ventricular function. For each class, the AMA Guides describes a range of impairment ratings and provides examples.
Performing Quality Impairment Evaluations
Authors: Brigham Christopher R.
Published: December 2020

An impairment evaluation aims to produce a report that is clear and consistent with the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides), Fourth Edition, which outlines the three-step process of medical evaluation, analysis of the findings, and comparison of the results with the impairment criteria. This article reviews common errors that can occur in each of these steps. Medical evaluation is the basis for the evaluation of impairment and relies on the patient's medical history; the latter must include adequate background information, specify data sources, document pre-existing status and specifics of the injury, and document history from onset to current status. The medical evaluation should support a report that explains the effects of the medical condition on life activities; whether the medical condition is stable; whether the individual is likely to suffer incapacitation, injury, harm, or further impairment; and whether restrictions or accommodations are warranted. Common errors in this step include determinations of permanency and stability, and raters should be aware that the AMA Guides is used to assess impairment, not disability. Forms from the AMA Guides are appropriate and help mitigate errors. An audit form is included and can help physicians produce consistent, efficient reports.
Clinical Update: Dysphagia
Authors: Spiegel Joseph R. , Mandel Steven , Sataloff Robert T. , Creed Judith
Published: December 2020

Physicians are infrequently asked to evaluate an individual with facial disfigurement following an injury because, when the face is injured, typically it heals without any ratable impairment. When a permanent facial disfigurement must be rated, physicians can use Section 9.2 of the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides). Chapter 9 of the AMA Guides is unique because it deals only with permanent impairment related to the face's structural integrity, which may be only one aspect of a patient's condition that requires an impairment rating. Facial disfigurement may be the result of a complicated process, for example, a burn that involves multiple organ systems, each with a loss of function that requires an impairment rating. These ratings fall into one of four classes: Class 1 is used when the disorder is limited to the cutaneous structures and may involve a scar or abnormal pigmentation in the cutaneous structures of the face. Class 2 involves loss of some significant underlying supporting structure of the face without significant functional loss or major disfigurement such as a depressed orbital rim, frontal bone, or nasal bone. Class 3 indicates loss of a normal anatomic part or area of the face, eg, an eye. A facial disfigurement so severe that it precludes social acceptance is a Class 4 impairment.
Impairment Tutorial: Rating Facial Disfigurement After an Injury
Authors: Taylor Marc T.
Published: December 2020

This article discusses two important cases that involve the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides). First, in Vargas v Industrial Com’n of Arizona, a claimant had a pre-existing non–work-related injury to his right knee as well as a work-related injury, and the issue was apportionment of the pre-existing injury. The court held that, under Arizona's statute, the impairment from the pre-existing injury should be subtracted from the current work-related impairment. In the second case, Colorado courts addressed the issue of apportionment in a workers’ compensation claim in which the pre-existing injury was asymptomatic at the time of the work-related injury (Askey v Industrial Claim Appeals Office). In this case, the court held that the worker's benefits should not be reduced to account for an asymptomatic pre-existing condition that could not be rated accurately using the AMA Guides. The AMA Guides bases impairment ratings on anatomic or physiologic loss of function, and if an examinee presents with two or more sequential injuries and calculable impairments, the AMA Guides can be used to apportion between pre-existing and subsequent impairments. Courts often use the AMA Guides to decide statutorily determined benefits and are subject to interpretation by courts and administrative bodies whose interpretations may vary from state to state.
Clinical Update: Functional Capacity Evaluations and Disability
Authors: Pransky Glenn
Published: December 2020

According to the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment, a functional capacity evaluation (FCE) measures an individual's physical abilities via a set of activities in a structured setting and provides objective data about the relationship between an impairment and maximal ability to perform work activities. A key distinction between FCEs and self-reported activities of daily living is that the former involve direct observation by professional evaluators. Numerous devices can quantify the physical function of a specific part of the musculoskeletal system but do not address the performance of whole body tasks in the workplace, and these devices have not been shown to predict accurately the ability to perform all but the simplest job tasks. Information about reliability has been proposed as a way to identify magnification and malingering, but variability due to pain and poor comprehension of instructions may cause variations in assessments. Structured work capacity evaluations involve a set of activities but likely underestimate the individual's ability to do jobs that involve complex or varying activities. Job simulations involve direct observation of an individual performing actual job tasks, require a skilled and experienced evaluator, and raise questions about expense, time, objectivity and validity of results, and interpretation of results in terms of the ability to perform specific jobs. To understand the barriers to return to work, examiners must supplement FCEs with information regarding workplace environment, accommodations, and demotivators.