bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Many and the One
Authors: Florio Salvatore , Linnebo Øystein
Published: September 2021

Plural logic has become a well-established subject, especially in philosophical logic. This book explores its broader significance for philosophy, logic, and linguistics. What can plural logic do for us? Are the bold claims made on its behalf correct? After introducing plural logic and its main applications, the book provides a systematic analysis of the relation between this logic and other theoretical frameworks such as set theory, mereology, higher-order logic, and modal logic. The applications of plural logic rely on two assumptions, namely that this logic is ontologically innocent and has great expressive power. These assumptions are shown to be problematic. The result is a more nuanced picture of plural logic’s applications than has been given so far. Questions about the correct logic of plurals play a central role in the last part of the book, where traditional plural logic is rejected in favor of a “critical” alternative. The most striking feature of this alternative is that there is no universal plurality. This leads to a novel approach to the relation between the many and the one. In particular, critical plural logic paves the way for an account of sets capable of solving the set-theoretic paradoxes.
The Semantics of Plurals
Authors: Florio Salvatore , Linnebo Øystein
Published: September 2021

Plural logic provides an appealing framework for the regimentation of natural language plurals. However, the choice of a regimenting language leaves wide open the semantic question of how this language should be interpreted. One option is to interpret a plural term as denoting a non-empty set. Another is to embrace plurals in the metalanguage and take a plural term to have plural reference. A detailed comparison of the options reveals that there is no simple solution to the problem of choosing among them.
On the Innocence and Determinacy of Plural Quantification
Authors: Florio Salvatore , Linnebo Øystein
Published: September 2021

Plural logic is widely assumed to have two important virtues: ontological innocence and determinacy. Both assumptions are problematic, as is shown by providing a Henkin-style semantics for plural logic that does not resort to sets but takes a plural term to have plural reference. This semantics gives rise to a generalized notion of ontological commitment, which is used to develop some ideas of earlier critics of the alleged ontological innocence of plural logic.
Plurals and Modals
Authors: Florio Salvatore , Linnebo Øystein
Published: September 2021

How does plural logic interact with modal logic? Of particular importance is the question of whether plural inclusion is a matter of necessity. Consider some things, and choose any one of them. Is the chosen thing necessarily one of the things from which it was chosen? After explaining the broader significance of the question, this chapter defends an affirmative answer. One argument is primarily philosophical and is based on the fact that a plurality is fully specified when its members have been circumscribed. Other arguments are primarily logical: an affirmative answer follows in plural logic from minimal further assumptions.
Addison as Critic and Critical Theorist
Authors: Walsh Marcus
Published: September 2021

In the first half of the twentieth century Addison’s literary-critical and theoretical works were understood as early formulations of a literary aesthetics, as important theoretical statements on wit and imagination, as pioneering exercises in the analysis and sponsorship of vernacular literary texts, as influential popularizations of philosophical ideas. These writings have in recent decades, however, been less regularly a subject of attention. Indeed, in the 1980s and 1990s Addison’s essays in literary criticism and theory were often treated as though they were covert works of political ideology, as affirmations of ‘a hierarchic Chain of Seeing’. This essay takes Addison at his literary-critical word. It stresses the epistemological, rather than the sensational, elements in Addison’s critical theorizing. In particular, it argues that Addison the critic was fundamentally concerned with recognizably Aristotelian pleasures of mimesis. As readers we take a double mimetic pleasure, not only from our recognition of literature’s imitations of the natural world but also from our recognition of the contextual particulars—political, historical, literary, discursive—which inform writings of earlier times.
Addison’s Modesty, or the Essayist as Spectator
Authors: Parker Fred
Published: September 2021

The disengaged position of Mr Spectator, who observes life without participating in it, is related to Addison’s interest in an inexpressive reticence or modesty in language and in manners. How can this valorization of reserve be reconciled with The Spectator’s saturation in the social scene, a scene which is everywhere held up as open to appraisal? Comparison with Adam Smith’s ‘impartial spectator’ in The Theory of Moral Sentiments reveals Addison’s greater emphasis on the function of the imagination, such that the spectatorial viewpoint is often felt as an imagined viewpoint, a place to visit rather than to reside. This chimes with Addison’s way of endorsing Locke as a thinker who emphasizes the role of the mind’s suppositions and projections in the construction of experience. Genial recognition of the provisionality of what is imagined is key to Addison’s celebrated humour (especially in the Roger de Coverley papers), while the sense of an elusive imaginative agency gives the apparent spontaneity of his ‘easy’ style its subtle irony and its power to delight.
The Complete Spectator
Authors: Wilkinson Hazel
Published: September 2021

The Spectator was one of the greatest publishing sensations of the eighteenth century. The first multivolume collected edition was in the press before the original series had been concluded, and it soon appeared in luxury illustrated volumes, pocket formats, and schoolroom editions. This chapter charts the first hundred years of the Spectator’s life in print, focusing on complete editions produced in the British Isles. The account begins with the Tonsons’ bookselling dynasty, and their dominance of the London Spectator market for the first half of the century, taking in the first illustrations of the papers and the first scholarly edition. In Scotland and Ireland a parallel market flourished, and Scottish writers were responsible for landmark scholarly editions at the turn of the nineteenth century. The chapter is accompanied (in an Appendix) by a descriptive catalogue of complete editions of the Spectator from 1712 to 1812, accounting for 79 editions (over 600 volumes). The catalogue is a key resource for further study of The Spectator, its afterlives, and influence.
Cato and the Crisis of Rhetoric
Authors: Taylor David Francis
Published: September 2021

Reading Addison’s Cato (1713) as dramatizing a sequence of failed speech acts, this chapter finds the manifest ambivalence towards rhetoric in the play to be symptomatic of pervasive cultural anxieties about the nature of speech in an age marked by ‘the rage of party’. Addison’s tragedy asks: in a world in which eloquence no longer serves to defend or illuminate truth, can words do any good? In such a world, can words any longer serve the good man? Yet Cato does far more than merely reflect contemporary concerns about eloquence. It searches for a means of reclaiming the civic utility of rhetoric and tentatively incubates an alternative model of speech: one capable of persuading, moving, and unifying competing constituencies within the publics of and beyond the playhouse.
Addison and the Romantics
Authors: Dart Gregory
Published: September 2021

This chapter looks at the Romantic essayists as critics and emulators of Addison. It begins with ‘The Round Table’ of 1815–17 and Hunt’s and Hazlitt’s paradoxical attempt to revive the form and spirit of The Tatler and Spectator in their own time, while simultaneously attacking the polite consensus that those two periodicals had brought into being. It shows Lamb and Hazlitt seeking to discriminate between ‘Steele’s’ Tatler, in which the ‘first sprightly runnings’ of the periodical essay form had supposedly run freshest and clearest, and ‘Addison’s’ Spectator, in which that flow had been regulated and tamed. It explores how the Romantics, and Romantic-period magazine culture more generally, sought to revitalize the familiar essay form by breaking down its straitjacket of politeness with the contemporaneous cult of personality. But it also shows how a powerful nostalgia for the ‘honeymoon of authorship’ that had been enjoyed by Addison and Steele in the early 1710s continued to haunt both Hazlitt and Lamb. Finally, the chapter looks at the way in which Hazlitt made Addison’s supposed move away from conversational intimacy towards alienated sententiousness an allegory of the development of modern literature more generally, thus characterizing him as a kind of Eve in the garden of modern prose, at one and the same time its fairest embodiment and the harbinger of its ruin.
The Intersection Between Intellectual Property and Antitrust Law
Authors: Maggiolino Mariateresa , Zoboli Laura
Published: September 2021

The interface between intellectual property rights (IPR) and the rules to protect the correct functioning of the market can be canvassed by looking at when these two sets of provisions converge and collide. This chapter analyses four alternative scenarios, by stressing that policy decisions become crucial to solve the cases of conflict and, in particular, the case where antitrust law forbids practices that intellectual property (IP) laws allow. Moreover, the chapter illustrates that it is in relation to these policy decisions that scholars and practitioners can appreciate how different jurisdictions, as in the United States (US) and European Union (EU), conceptualize the role that property rights and competition are called to play in spurring innovation.
The Interface Between Intellectual Property and Information Technology Law
Authors: Montagnani Maria Lillà
Published: September 2021

Over the years, intellectual property (IP) law has developed an increasingly profound link with both technological developments and the rules governing them. IP law is constantly challenged by new waves of technologies as often called to provide protection for them. At the same time, new technologies offer new ways to exploit protected works. Indeed, the more technology has become an autonomous subject matter governed by specific provisions, the more IP law has engaged in a constant dialogue with these provisions. This interaction between IP law and technology has significantly affected the contours of the field. In this chapter, I address the relationship between IP and the rules adopted to govern the specific technologies that are designed to handle information—known as ‘information technologies (IT)’. This set of provisions goes under the name of ‘IT law’. I examine the interface between IP and IT law from the standpoint of the IP scholars who have an interest in technology. In particular, I investigate how the IP/IT interface is, or could be regulated and how the rules regarding IP and IT law interact with each other. There is a circular relationship between law and technology as the former, while governing the latter, is also shaped by it and vice versa.
Intellectual Property and the Question of the Archive
Authors: Bellido Jose
Published: September 2021

Much of the peculiarity of recent historical research in intellectual property (IP) lies in the distinct use of the archive as a medium through which to explore its different pasts. The chapter briefly explores several projects that materialized through specific uses of archives, showing their creative possibilities, constraints, and limitations. It considers document-driven projects on primary and secondary sources, the materiality of many aspects of IP, and the use of oral histories to capture (or record) the ephemerality of those histories by converting them into new resources or applications. In doing so, the chapter reflects on the archive not only as a historical medium but also as a theoretical operation which shapes the ways in which we look at IP law and its histories.
Interpreting Historical-Philosophical Sources of Intellectual Property
Authors: Borghi Maurizio
Published: September 2021

This chapter considers the approach to traditional philosophical sources of intellectual property (IP). It argues that philosophical questioning is characterized by specific and unique features that distinguish it from all other forms of knowledge, including scientific knowledge. It then shows how philosophical concepts—i.e. concepts coined in the course of philosophical questioning—translate in other domains of knowledge, such as jurisprudence, where they eventually decay into empty rhetorical tools devoid of questioning force. The current ‘intellectual property debate’ illustrates this point. In this connection, the chapter questions how intellectual property concepts can be reconstructed in their original philosophical dimension. By way of example, the interpretation of three great philosophers—Kant, Fichte, and Hegel—is considered, by reference to their seminal writings on intellectual property issues.
Intellectual Property and Cultural Heritage: Towards Interdisciplinarity
Authors: Macmillan Fiona
Published: September 2021

The laws governing intellectual property (IP) and cultural heritage, respectively, belong to different parts of the legal order. Intellectual property law, while usually depending on a discourse that either privileges certain types of cultural or innovative outputs or celebrates their importance for our collective life, grants private property rights over certain types of artefacts. Cultural heritage law, on the other hand, is about state, public, and/or community rights and interests over certain types of artefacts. As the positive legal order understands the world, the two sets of law have nothing, or almost nothing, to do with each other. However, the link between the two exists as a consequence of the overlapping application of these two regimes to certain artefacts, such as the heritage of Indigenous Peoples. In this limited context, community struggles allied with innovative legal scholarship and some welcome institutional and judicial activism have opened up a small space in the positivist framework that recognizes a relationship between intellectual property law and the protection of heritage. The use of interdisciplinary perspectives has been critical in this process, as they have also been in the subsequent development of this debate to encompass questions around the relationship between intellectual property rights and cultural heritage more generally. This short chapter examines questions of methodology opened up by this state of affairs. It reflects on a selection of the myriad subquestions and implications opened up by, respectively, the question of legal ordering and that of interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary approaches.
A Primer on Intellectual Property and Popular Culture Research
Authors: Banerjee Arpan
Published: September 2021

A large number of intellectual property (IP) law cases have centred around works of popular culture. Traditionally, IP scholars have focused only on technical legal analysis, neglecting research on the aesthetic and cultural value of such works, or the experiences of creators. However, a growing body of interdisciplinary scholarship has changed this trend. This chapter highlights examples of such interdisciplinary scholarship, focusing on scholarship incorporating approaches from the humanities and empirical social sciences. The chapter discusses the methodologies and perspectives used in such works, and how they can complement traditional legal analysis.
Consequentialist Thinking and Economic Analysis in Intellectual Property
Authors: Ghosh Shubha
Published: September 2021

Legal policy is about consequences, and assessment of consequences requires an understanding of economics. This chapter explores this proposition. Whether intellectual property (IP) satisfies normative criteria requires understanding how IP affects behaviour in meeting social needs. Economic analysis provides testable models of plausible connections between legal rules and standards and individual conduct in the creation and dissemination of innovative outputs. These models provide a conceptual basis for legal arguments and policy recommendations. Whether these models are successful rests on their ability to identify and test the consequences of law. Economic methodology, understood this way, serves as a means of explanation and of prediction to guide the persuasive power of attorneys and policy-makers. This chapter develops this case for economics by consideration of analyses of the publishing and music industries.
Science and Technology and Intellectual Property Research
Authors: Van Overwalle Geertrui , Kestemont Lina
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines science and technology as a subject of legal research and regulation. Rather than reflecting on the regulatory challenges presented by science and (new) technologies intrinsically and generally, this chapter aims to contribute to the methodological debate when conducting legal research on science and technology. The chapter explores the different types of research objectives and related methodological features that legal scholars can pursue in their research on law and science and technology: descriptive, classifying, comparative, theory-building, explanatory, evaluative, and recommendatory research objectives. The analysis is made more exacting by providing concrete examples from research projects in the area of patent and copyright law and technology, ranging from biotechnology, over 3D-printing, to functional design.
The Psychology of Intellectual Property
Authors: Mandel Gregory N.
Published: September 2021

The success of intellectual property (IP) systems depends on their ability to influence human behaviour in relation to creativity and innovation. Understanding how people react to and are influenced by intellectual property systems is therefore critical to their design. The psychology of intellectual property is an area rich with opportunities for further exploration using various research methodologies. In particular, this is a field where human subjects research on the design and implementation of intellectual property systems can be of great value. Such approaches can include both laboratory and field experimental designs, and qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The chapter explores these approaches through a survey of research on three broad areas where human psychology plays an outsized role in intellectual property systems: heuristics and biases in intellectual property law, whether and how intellectual property laws motivate creativity, and popular understanding of intellectual property law.
A ‘Human Development’ Approach to Intellectual Property Law
Authors: Janewa Osei-Tutu J.
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses the human development approach to intellectual property (IP) and suggests some areas for further research. As the chapter explains, IP can positively affect human development and human flourishing. Human development refers to factors such as those measured by the United Nations Human Development Index, and includes health, education, and financial well-being. This human development framing can also incorporate subjective measures of human flourishing, such as happiness. A human development lens treats IP as a tool for promoting progress by improving the human condition, and recognizes human development as an objective of IP law rather than as an incidental by-product of the trade-based IP system.
Intellectual Property Rights and Well-Being: A Methodological Approach
Authors: Taylor Tim , Derclaye Estelle
Published: September 2021

The dominant justification of intellectual property rights (IPR) holds that it is desirable in utilitarian terms for inventions and creations to be produced. In this context, utility is usually equated with economic wealth. However, this interpretation of utility is suspect for a number of reasons, as is widely recognized in other fields. The well-being approach to IPR proposes that utility should be construed directly in terms of human well-being, rather than using economic proxies. There are several rival theories of well-being. The authors propose a theory-neutral approach which builds on areas of common ground between the theories on the ‘markers’ of well-being: things which are either constitutive, productive, or indicative of well-being. This approach provides a principled rationale for a broadly based approach to the measurement of well-being, encompassing a range of different subjective and objective measures. The chapter identifies nine markers that seem consistent with the mainstream theories of well-being and discusses their specific implications for IPR. The well-being approach argues for a more cautious and nuanced evaluation of IPR than currently prevails. Encouraging invention or creation in a particular field may increase general well-being in some way. But if a creation or invention is likely to decrease well-being, that might be a point against it. Although the well-being approach acknowledges that utilitarian considerations are relevant, it makes no claim that these are the only relevant considerations. The approach has potential synergies with other ‘lenses’, including social justice and morality.
Researching Social Justice Aspects of Intellectual Property
Authors: Mtima Lateef , Jamar Steven D.
Published: September 2021

This chapter provides a brief introduction to intellectual property (IP) social justice theory and guidance on how to research social justice issues in IP. Included are tips for finding social justice issues in IP law and administration; a toolkit for addressing such issues; and examples of the process in use. IP social justice examines IP law and administration to determine rules and processes that adversely affect equality with particular focus on access to IP; inclusion in the benefits that flow from IP creation, use, and exploitation; and empowerment of marginalized groups within society who are not fully benefiting from both IP they have generated and use of IP created by others. This chapter provides tips on spotting and addressing IP social justice issues both with respect to implementation and with respect to normative aspects.
Intellectual Property and ‘Open’ Innovation: A Synthesis of Concepts
Authors: Beer Jeremy de
Published: September 2021

This chapter addresses four interrelated issues: (1) the variability in ways openness is understood across groups and disciplines; (2) the debate over intellectual property (IP) and its impact on open innovation; (3) the dearth of research connecting firm strategy and innovation systems; and (4) the relationships among legal systems and managerial strategies. The result is an integrated conceptual synthesis for addressing the relationship between IP and ‘open’ innovation. The chapter beings with a review of the relevant literature and distillation of key concepts. It then expands on the basic theory of appropriation for innovation by describing three nuanced IP-based business strategies to appropriate returns on innovation: acquisition toward commercialization, free revealing to the public domain, and open licensing for collaboration. The strategic choices that firms make are further analysed as either offensive or defensive decisions. After linking key terminology and IP management strategies, the chapter concludes with recommendations for researchers, policy-makers, lawyers, managers, economists, and others. The synthesis in this chapter will enable researchers to: (1) understand and use precise terminology; (2) revisit assumptions about appropriation; (3) neutralize marketplace framework policies; and (4) promote more collaboration.
Research Perspectives on Intellectual Property Law and Spirituality
Authors: Palar Miranda Risang Ayu
Published: September 2021

Current intellectual property (IP) protection and direct IP valuation for spirituality is, to an extent, obsolete. By using literature studies, cases, independent research observations and interviews, and participation in certain spiritual traditions, this chapter identifies and provides examples of the gap in IP protection for spirituality and sacred objects. This chapter also provides a lens for IP scholars to use when researching as well as new approaches to IP protection in religion, philosophy, and spirituality. When it comes to IP protection for spirituality, there are often occasions where decisions are influenced by current protections that are given for religiosity, which encourages the reader to note the overlap between religion, philosophy, and spirituality. This overlap provides scholars with an understanding and framework for further protections for spirituality and sacred objects. While this chapter cannot touch the entire realm of IP protection for spirituality, its purpose is to provide scholars with questions and understanding as well as provoke further investigation into the issues that the chapter identifies.
The study of evolutionary parasitology
Authors: Schmid-Hempel Paul
Published: September 2021

An overview of the evolutionary process and the four basic questions that can be asked for biological phenomena. Furthermore, what biological units evolve, and the particular role of genes, is explained. Life history is introduced as a basic scheme that applies to individuals as well as to infections within a host. In particular, life history theory highlights the relevance of transmission as an equivalent to reproduction in the life history of individuals. The last section mentions several major methods for studying evolutionary parasitology; in particular, optimality approaches, the study of evolutionarily stable strategies, and comparative studies. Introducing the disease space as an illustrative tool for major topics in the book chapters.
The diversity and natural history of parasites
Authors: Schmid-Hempel Paul
Published: September 2021

Parasites are more numerous than non-parasitic species and have evolved in virtually all groups of organisms, such as viruses, prokaryotes (bacteria), protozoa, fungi, nematodes, flatworms, acantocephalans, annelids, crustaceans, and arthropods (crustacea, mites, ticks, insects). These groups have adapted to the parasitic lifestyle in very many ways. Evolution towards parasitism has also followed different routes. Initial steps such as phoresy, followed by later consumption of the transport host, are plausible evolutionary routes. Alternatively, formerly free-living forms have become commensals before evolving parasitism. Complex life cycles with several hosts evolved by scenarios such as upward (adding a new host upwards in the food chain), downward, or lateral incorporation, driven by the advantage of extending growth phases within hosts and increasing fecundity. Examples are digenea; other parasites have added vectors to their life cycle.
Introduction
Authors: Scott Dominic , Freeman R. Edward
Published: September 2021

Here the main themes of the book are introduced, starting with an explanation of why Plato is so relevant to understanding leadership today. We outline one of the fundamental ideas of the book: rather than attempting to give a single ‘one-size-fits-all’ definition of leadership, the best approach is a variegated one that breaks it into its different strands. Plato gives us a series of models—most of them analogies or images designed to capture important features of leadership: the models of the doctor, navigator, artist, teacher, shepherd, weaver, and sower. Since Plato’s views on leadership are mostly found in his political writings, a justification is given for using these to apply to leadership outside of the political realm, notably business.
Setting the Scene
Authors: Scott Dominic , Freeman R. Edward
Published: September 2021

Before going through the models of leadership one by one, it is important to have a sense of the historical and intellectual background to Plato’s thought. This will explain both why he was so interested in leadership and why he chose the particular models being considered in this book. By way of historical background, this chapter describes the Athenian empire and its democracy, about which Plato was deeply critical. As for the intellectual background, there is a section on the sophists, who attempted to teach aspiring political leaders how to succeed in a democratic context, and of Socrates, Plato’s intellectual mentor. The chapter also includes an overview of Plato’s career and writings, as well as his success in founding and leading the Academy, an institution of teaching and research, which was a prototype of the modern university.
The Weaver
Authors: Scott Dominic , Freeman R. Edward
Published: September 2021

On the model of the weaver, a leader’s role is to combine a group of diverse talents and temperaments into a single team. In the Statesman, Plato is particularly interested in weaving together ‘doves’ and ‘hawks’: people who show particular mildness or restraint on the one hand, and those who are more forceful or aggressive, on the other: he terms these qualities respectively ‘moderation’ and ‘courage’. He also thinks there can be no co-operation or unity unless all parties espouse the same values. The leader needs to be prepared to discard certain strands that do not fit into the pattern of their woven cloth. A good leader also manages to weave the virtues of both courage and moderation into their own character. The second part looks at Nelson Mandela as epitomizing the weaver and, in business, Jim Kutsch, CEO of Seeing Eye, who ensured employees of quite different temperaments worked together.
Gropes, Towers, and Skyscrapers
Authors: Powell Mark , Ray Arunima
Published: September 2021

Gropes, towers, and skyscrapers are carefully defined. These are the objects that the rest of Part II studies and seeks to construct. All three are 4-manifolds with boundary, obtained from stacking thickened surfaces on top of one another. Gropes are constructed from thickened orientable surfaces with positive genus, each stage attached to a symplectic basis of curves for the homology of the previous stage. Towers have an additional type of stage obtained from plumbed thickened discs. A skyscraper is the endpoint compactification of an infinite tower. An introduction to endpoint compactifications is included. The notion of a good group is also defined.
Architecture of Infinite Towers and Skyscrapers
Authors: Behrens Stefan , Powell Mark , Ray Arunima
Published: September 2021

Architecture of Towers and Skyscrapers formalizes the results from the previous chapter, regarding the structure of gropes and towers, and establishes the notation used for towers and skyscrapers in the remainder of the book. In particular, the boundaries of towers and skyscrapers are carefully described. The boundaries are divided into subsets called the floor, the walls, and the ceiling, and the topology of each of them is identified. The walls are associated with certain mixed Bing–Whitehead decompositions from a previous chapter. How the endpoint compactification of a tower corresponds to a quotient space with respect to a decomposition is also described.
Surgery Theory and the Classification of Closed, Simply Connected 4-manifolds
Authors: Orson Patrick , Powell Mark , Ray Arunima
Published: September 2021

Surgery theory and the classification of simply connected 4-manifolds comprise two key consequences of the disc embedding theorem. The chapter begins with an introduction to surgery theory from the perspective of 4-manifolds. In particular, the terms and maps in the surgery sequence are defined, and an explanation is given as to how the sphere embedding theorem, with the added ingredient of topological transversality, can be used to define the maps in the surgery sequence and show that it is exact. The surgery sequence is applied to classify simply connected closed 4-manifolds up to homeomorphism. The chapter closes with a survey of related classification results.
Skyscrapers Are Standard: An Overview
Authors: Behrens Stefan
Published: September 2021

‘Skyscrapers Are Standard: An Overview’ provides a detailed outline of the upcoming proof that a skyscraper is homeomorphic to the standard 2-handle, relative to the attaching region. Since the proof is technically challenging, this chapter serves to introduce the key ideas without cumbersome notation. The key points to keep in mind during the proof are enumerated. Briefly, the proof consists of finding a common subset, called the design, of both the given skyscraper and the standard 2-handle. This is accomplished by studying the vertical boundaries of skyscrapers. Next, one would wish to show that the decompositions of the skyscraper and the 2-handle, arising from the connected components of the complements of the common subset, shrink. The decompositions have to be modified to achieve this.
Skyscrapers Are Standard: The Details
Authors: Behrens Stefan , Kasprowski Daniel , Powell Mark , Ray Arunima
Published: September 2021

‘Skyscrapers Are Standard: The Details’ provides a thorough and detailed proof that every skyscraper is homeomorphic to the standard 2-handle, relative to the attaching region. Results from decomposition space theory established in Part I and the constructive results from Part II are combined. The idea is to construct a subset of a skyscraper called the design, define an embedding of this subset into the standard 2-handle, and then consider the decomposition spaces obtained by quotienting out the connected components of the complement of this common subset. It is shown that the decomposition spaces are homeomorphic, and that both quotient maps are approximable by homeomorphisms. This chapter also shows that everything can be done fixing a neighbourhood of the attaching region. It is then deduced that skyscrapers are standard, as desired.
Finding Space in a Non-Spatial World
Authors: Chalmers David J.
Published: September 2021

What is the relation between space in the manifest image of perceptual experience and in the scientific image of physics? I will argue that we have moved from spatial primitivism (on which space is understood as a primitive conception that we are acquainted with) to spatial functionalism (on which space is picked out by its functional role). I investigate different forms of spatial functionalism on which the relevant roles are experiential (involving effects on our experience) and non-experiential (involving patterns of causal interactions). I draw connections to functionalism in the philosophy of mind, to Cartesian skepticism, and to recent literature on spacetime functionalism and emergent spacetime.
A Million Famines
Authors: Chowdhury Debasish Roy , Keane John
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines how the Indian democracy faces a new challenge: hunger that kills its citizens in silence. Thanks to the public distribution system, when it is applied properly, there is some food some of the time these days. But for particularly vulnerable groups, such as tribes whose livelihoods have historically been tied to the forests that are increasingly being appropriated for mines and factories, and who now have to depend on uncertain menial work, it is still not enough. The scale of dispersed and slow-motion famine that afflicts Indian democracy should be an ethical and political scandal, but it is hardly ever an election issue. In the world’s fifth largest economy, starvation deaths sometimes do cause brief media outrage when they occur. But a conspiracy of silence by incompetent officials, ephemeral media attention, and the indifference and complacency of well-fed citizens helps to temper outrage. Avoiding words like starvation — using malnutrition instead — and hiding hunger under the garb of diseases allows India’s million famines to go untreated, debilitating the social foundations of its democracy.
Dangerous Gifts
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

From Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt in 1798 to the foreign interventions in the ongoing civil wars in Syria, Yemen, and Libya today, global empires or the so-called Great Powers have long assumed the responsibility of bringing security to the Middle East. The past two centuries have witnessed their numerous military occupations to ‘liberate’, ‘secure’, and ‘educate’ local populations. Consulting fresh primary sources collected from some thirty archives in the Middle East, Russia, the United States, and Western Europe, Dangerous Gifts revisits the late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century origins of these imperial security practices. It questions how it all began. Why did Great Power interventions in the Ottoman Levant tend to result in further turmoil and civil wars? Why has the region been embroiled in a paradox—an ever-increasing demand for security despite the increasing supply—ever since? It embeds this highly pertinent genealogical history into an innovative and captivating narrative around the Eastern Question, freeing the latter from the monopoly of Great Power politics, and also foregrounding the experience and agency of the Levantine actors: the gradual yet still forceful opening up of the latter’s economies to global free trade, the asymmetrical implementation of international law from their perspective, and the secondary importance attached to their threat perceptions in a world where political and economic decisions were ultimately made through the filter of global imperial interests.
Introduction
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

The Introductory chapter discusses the overarching question of the book: how did it all begin? Since when did the self-defined Great Powers of the nineteenth century––Austria, Britain, France, Prussia, and Russia––come to assume responsibility for providing security in the Levant. Why? The Introduction traces the answer of these questions to the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and maintains that Great Power interventions in the nineteenth-century Levant need to be considered not only in reference to their immediate causes, theatres, and implications. It is essential to take into account the continuity that European and Levantine actors saw in regional affairs from the late eighteenth century through until at least the mid-nineteenth. There is a need to foreground the persistent patterns or cultures of security within which violence was generated and sustained, and how the quest for security acted as an organizing principle of international relations. It also discusses the importance of considering these interventions in the fabric of the Eastern Question. It invites the readers to view the latter not only as a European question, as the existing literature has us believe, but also as an Ottoman question, whereby the agency of the Ottoman ministers and other local actors was more central than has been documented.
The Circle of Justice and the Napoleonic Wars
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

How was the French invasion of Egypt in 1798 received in Istanbul? What implications and repercussions did it have for the wider Ottoman world? After an overview of the changing nature of Ottoman diplomacy in the late eighteenth century and the Ottoman conceptions of security at the time, this chapter addresses these questions. It details Sultan Selim III’s attempts to secure his empire from European aggressions during the Napoleonic wars while at the same time looking to reform his bureaucracy and military by means of an ambitious programme that would revive ‘the circle of justice’—an underlying philosophy of Ottoman governance. The chapter displays how the realization of one goal was actually dependent on the attainment of the other, and how Selim III’s quest for security cost him first his throne, and then his life.
The Chase in the Desert
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

As the French expedition came to a disastrous end for France in 1801, a civil war broke out in Egypt. The strife in 1801–11 was not only an early example of the coalescing of global imperial struggles and local animosities, it was also one of the earliest instances of surrogate wars in the Levant. This chapter considers this civil war and its constitutive role in imperialism in the Levant—the imperialism of both British and French, and of both the Ottoman Empire and, in due course, an Albanian soldier in the name of Mehmed Ali. It details Mehmed Ali’s rise as the governor of Egypt in times of this civil war, and how the peculiar circumstances of violence in the 1800s would affect the later phases of the Eastern Question.
Beginnings
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

This chapter portrays the pre-1840 history of Mount Lebanon. Using fresh archival sources, it discloses that, in contrast to the revisionist scholarship that attributes the sectarian violence in 1841, 1845, and 1860 to the Great Powers’ intervention in 1840 and the Tanzimat policies, sectarianism and class violence had already been in the making in Mount Lebanon before 1840. The chapter explains this by trailing the story of a leading feudal family, the Druze Jumblatts, in whose lands the Maronites and Druze had lived side by side in harmony for decades. It was in these very lands that internecine and inter-imperialized violence would erupt in the nineteenth century.
The Age of the Eastern Question
Authors: Ozavci Ozan
Published: September 2021

What implications and effects did the 1840 intervention have in Mount Lebanon? What did it mean for the Ottoman Syrians, and particularly the Lebanese, whose lands became the centre of the conflict at the time? It was during the five-year period between the summers of 1840 and 1845 that Lebanon became part and parcel of the Eastern Question. The latter came to inform local realities as much as it was shaped by the agency of the Lebanese. And it fanned, even if it did not ignite, a series of civil wars in 1841, 1842, and 1845, and further legal and administrative interventions on the part of the Powers. This chapter details the processes through which Lebanon descended into this vicious cycle, and how violence was terminated at least temporarily in the age of the Eastern Question.
Introduction
Authors: Wilkinson Michael A.
Published: September 2021

 This book recounts the transformation of Europe from the interwar era until the euro crisis, using the tools of constitutional analysis and critical theory. The central claim is twofold: post-war Europe is reconstituted in a manner combining political authoritarianism and economic liberalism, and this has produced an order which is now in a critical condition. Through a passive authoritarianism, inter-state sovereignty is reconfigured after World War II, state-society relations are depoliticized, and social relations transformed. Integration substitutes internationalism, technocracy replaces democracy, and economic freedom stands in for political freedom and class struggle. This transformation takes time to unfold, and it presents continuities as well as discontinuities. It is deepened by the neo-liberalism of the Maastricht era and the creation of Economic and Monetary Union, and yet countermovements then also emerge: geopolitically, in the return of the German question; domestically, in the challenges to the EU presented by constitutional courts, and informally, in the rise of anti-systemic political parties and movements. Struggles over sovereignty, democracy, and political freedom resurface, but are then more actively repressed through the authoritarian liberalism of the euro crisis phase. This leads now to an impasse. Anti-systemic politics return but remain uneasily within the EU, suggesting the post-war order of authoritarian liberalism is reaching its limits. As yet, however, there has been no definitive rupture.
Epistemic Explanations
Authors: Sosa Ernest
Published: September 2021

This book develops an improved virtue epistemology and uses it to explain several epistemic phenomena. Part i lays out a telic virtue epistemology that accommodates varieties of knowledge and understanding particularly pertinent to the humanities. Part ii develops an epistemology of suspension of judgment, by relating it to degrees of confidence and to inquiry. Part iii develops a substantially improved telic virtue epistemology by appeal to default assumptions important in domains of human performance generally, and in our intellectual lives as a special case. This reconfigures earlier virtue epistemology, which now seems a first approximation. This part also introduces a metaphysical hierarchy of epistemic categories and defends in particular a category of secure knowledge.
Counting quantum states and field modes
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Counting quantum states and field modes” deals with wave modes identified as terms in a Fourier expansion made within a large arbitrary volume. Travelling-wave modes are preferred as they are eigenstates of momentum; counting modes is also made straightforward, whence the density of states. This is in contrast to a fashion that works instead with standing waves.
Diffraction integrals and the Kirchhoff approximation
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Diffraction integrals and the Kirchhoff approximation” gathers together theorems concerned with diffraction. The diffraction integral may be put into Dirichlet and Neumann forms. Back-diffraction is exactly zero (not relying on a Kirchhoff approximation or an obliquity factor). We discuss the limits on Kirchhoff's approximation, complementary apertures (Babinet's principle), the Fraunhofer limit, and the case of a long slit.
Symmetry in quantum mechanics
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Symmetry in quantum mechanics” shows how symmetry properties are helpful in taming problems in quantum mechanics. When two operators commute, wavefunctions may be prefabricated as eigenstates of the simpler operator. There is detailed application to spin–orbit interaction and to helium.
Stability of negative feedback
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Stability of negative feedback” discusses the measures that must be taken to guarantee that a negative-feedback system is stable. Examples are given of frequency dependences using Bode and Nyquist plots. Safety margins are quantified by means of gain margins and phase margins; the desirability of a minimum-phase-lag network. A design procedure is formulated. There is discussion of Nyquist (conditional) stability, and how it may be achieved by judicious introduction of a non-linearity. A demonstration circuit shows that these measures can yield Nyquist stability with safety.
Spontaneous emission of radiation
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: September 2021

“Spontaneous emission of radiation” calculates the rate of spontaneous electric-dipole emission of a photon by an excited atom or molecule. The calculation proceeds by using basic quantum mechanics (i.e. not using the short cuts of Chapter 19); it uses quantum electrodynamics but is not, on that account, particularly difficult. A 2p–1s transition in hydrogen is used as exemplar; the radiation is elliptically polarized. The spectral line profile (lineshape function) is approximately Lorentzian, but has a high-frequency cut-off, needed to prevent the power radiated from diverging. A radiation-induced frequency shift is negligible. The width of the line profile agrees with the Einstein A-coefficient. A high-frequency cut-off is shown to apply similarly in the derivation of Golden Rule Number Two.