bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Collection of voucher specimens for bat research: conservation, ethical implications, reduction, and alternatives
Authors: Russo Danilo , Ancillotto Leonardo , Hughes Alice C. , Galimberti Andrea , Mori Emiliano
Published: July 2017

Voucher specimens have played a fundamental role in biology, but ethical and conservation concerns have been raised over unnecessary collection of organisms. From 1996 to 2017, 222 studies mentioned the collection of 7482 bats of 376 species, mostly from South America and Asia (India, China, and South‐East Asia). Researchers mostly aimed to compile checklists or establish geographic ranges. Strong ethical reasons exist to avoid unnecessary collection, and suitable alternatives should be sought; for example, collecting voucher specimens for retrospective taxonomic confirmation can be replaced with molecular methods. We provide information on alternative methods and when to use them to avoid harming fragile populations of bats.
Narrative and Metaphysical Ambition: On Being “in Christ”
Authors: Lett Jonathan
Published: July 2017

This article addresses some of the confusion regarding the role of metaphysical claims in narrative theology. Proponents and critics of narrative theology alike wonder at the ambiguous place of metaphysical speech about God as an objective reality. This essay enters the conversation through the side door of soteriology. Rather than focusing on the relationship between narrative and metaphysics or narrative and analogy or narrative and first‐order theological claims, I examine what sort of metaphysical statements are required to make the Christian claim that human beings are “in Christ” intelligible as a soteriological reality. I argue that the Christian grammar itself assumes a Christology with a certain kind of metaphysical ambition without which Christianity lapses into incoherence. To make this case, I show that David Kelsey's “narrative identity” Christology in Eccentric Existence lacks the metaphysical statements necessary to uphold his conviction that human beings are “in Christ.” A comparison with T. F. Torrance and the Book of Hebrews reveals that when narrative circumvents metaphysical statements about the incarnate Son, soteriological claims lack coherence and the biblical narrative itself is distorted by a false metaphysic. Thus, metaphysical claims internal to the narrative of Jesus are necessary to tell the story of God faithfully. In this way, narrative is the expression of a theological metaphysics.
Biology of SLAC1‐type anion channels – from nutrient uptake to stomatal closure
Authors: Hedrich Rainer , Geiger Dietmar
Published: July 2017

Stomatal guard cells control leaf CO2 intake and concomitant water loss to the atmosphere. When photosynthetic CO2 assimilation is limited and the ratio of CO2 intake to transpiration becomes suboptimal, guard cells, sensing the rise in CO2 concentration in the substomatal cavity, deflate and the stomata close. Screens for mutants that do not close in response to experimentally imposed high CO2 atmospheres identified the guard cell‐expressed Slowly activating anion channel, SLAC1, as the key player in the regulation of stomatal closure. SLAC1 evolved, though, before the emergence of guard cells. In Arabidopsis, SLAC1 is the founder member of a family of anion channels, which comprises four homologues. SLAC1 and SLAH3 mediate chloride and nitrate transport in guard cells, while SLAH1, SLAH2 and SLAH3 are engaged in root nitrate and chloride acquisition, and anion translocation to the shoot. The signal transduction pathways involved in CO2, water stress and nutrient‐sensing activate SLAC/SLAH via distinct protein kinase/phosphatase pairs. In this review, we discuss the role that SLAC/SLAH channels play in guard cell closure, on the one hand, and in the root–shoot continuum on the other, along with the molecular basis of the channels’ anion selectivity and gating.

Contents

Summary
46

I.
Introduction
46

II.
SLAC1 evolved before stomata
47

III.
Multisensory guard cells integrate abiotic and biotic signals (Fig. 3)
50

IV.
Anion channels in shoot and root
53

V.
Structural basis for selectivity and gating
56

VI.
Future opportunities
57

Accession numbers
58

Acknowledgements
58

References
58
CATALASE2 functions for seedling postgerminative growth by scavenging H2O2 and stimulating ACX2/3 activity in Arabidopsis
Authors: Liu Wen‐Cheng , Han Tong‐Tong , Yuan Hong‐Mei , Yu Zhen‐Dong , Zhang Lin‐Yu , Zhang Bing‐Lei , Zhai Shuang , Zheng Si‐Qiu , Lu Ying‐Tang
Published: July 2017

Increased fatty acid β‐oxidation is essential for early postgerminative growth in seedlings, but high levels of H2O2 produced by β‐oxidation can induce oxidative stress. Whether and how catalase (CAT) functions in fine‐tuning H2O2 homeostasis during seedling growth remain unclear. Here, we report that CAT2 functions in early seedling growth. Compared to the wild type, the cat2‐1 mutant, with elevated H2O2 levels, exhibited reduced root elongation on sucrose (Suc)‐free medium, mimicking soils without exogenous sugar supply. Treatment with the H2O2 scavenger potassium iodide rescued the mutant phenotype of cat2‐1. In contrast to the wild type, the cat2‐1 mutant was insensitive to the CAT inhibitor 3‐amino‐1,2,4‐triazole in terms of root elongation when grown on Suc‐free medium, suggesting that CAT2 modulates early seedling growth by altering H2O2 accumulation. Furthermore, like cat2‐1, the acyl‐CoA oxidase (ACX) double mutant acx2‐1 acx3‐6 showed repressed root elongation, suggesting that CAT2 functions in early seedling growth by regulating ACX activity, as this activity was inhibited in cat2‐1. Indeed, decreased ACX activity and short root of cat2‐1 seedlings grown on Suc‐free medium were rescued by overexpressing ACX3. Together, these findings suggest that CAT2 functions in early seedling growth by scavenging H2O2 and stimulating ACX2/3 activity.
Measuring Partisan Regimes: Elites Tell Us Who Their Reconstructives Are
Authors: Cook Zachary
Published: July 2017

Stephen Skowronek's partisan regime theory invites challenges concerning how we can measure such regimes, especially if the variable of analysis is “institutional reconstruction” associated with a new president. But if we follow an interpretation by Andrew Polsky and look for cycles of partisan narratives—later candidates praising the accomplishments of a new president—I argue that partisan regime theory can be measured and it provides a straightforward explanation for why a small number of presidents seem to dominate America's political imagination. I suggest a new rationale for and measurement of the crises that are a necessary but insufficient condition for a new narrative regime to begin.
Truman's Rhetoric Entrenches Unilateral Authority and Fashions a Trend for Future Executive Use
Authors: Fletcher Kimberley L.
Published: July 2017

In the 1936 case of United States v. Curtiss‐Wright Export Corp., the U.S. Supreme Court reasoned that the president is the sole organ of foreign affairs given implicitly through the commander‐in‐chief clause. With over 10,000 citations (Code of Federal Regulations) and 145 Curtiss‐Wright references by attorney generals and the Department of Justice justifying presidential prerogatives, the imperial president is enshrined in law. Even with recent challenges, the Court remains steadfast to unilateral executive decision making. However, few studies identify when the executive branch first adopts the Court's newly constituted constitutional order, and few provide a systematic analysis of how presidents advance the sole‐organ doctrine. Building on this scholarship I show that President Truman's cohesive narrative of asserted unilateral powers redirects development for future executives to claim unfettered discretion.
Presidential Leadership of Partisan News
Authors: Eshbaugh‐Soha Matthew
Published: July 2017

The purpose of this article is to examine the partisan slant of cable news coverage of the unemployment rate and the impact presidential speeches have on this coverage. I examine coverage of the monthly release of the unemployment rate from September 2005 through April 2015 for programs on all three major cable networks: The Situation Room, Special Report, and Hardball. Although the partisan leaning of these sources may affect coverage, presidents may be able to influence unemployment news coverage if the news reports the president's speeches. Using Lexicoder to content analyze the amount and tone of coverage, the findings reveal evidence of both partisan slant and presidential leadership of news coverage through speeches.
Charanne and Construction Investments v. Spain: Legitimate Expectations and Investments in Renewable Energy
Authors: Dias Simões Fernando
Published: July 2017

The award in Charanne and Construction Investments v. Spain is the first decision in a growing cluster of investment arbitrations relating to the enactment of legislative measures reducing or withdrawing economic support mechanisms previously introduced in support of renewable sources of energy. These disputes raise the question of whether investors can seek compensation under investment treaties when governments encourage investment via economic support schemes, but decide to reduce or eliminate them after the investment has been made. This case note focuses on the most noteworthy aspects of the Charanne decision: the requirements for breach of the standards of investment protection (namely, the prohibition of expropriation and the fair and equitable treatment standard); and the conditions for the protection of the investors’ legitimate expectations. The conclusions reflect on the tribunal's finding that in the absence of specific commitments, international investment law does not require States to freeze regulatory frameworks.
Cooperation on Transnational Environmental Crime: Institutional Complexity Matters
Authors: Elliott Lorraine
Published: July 2017

There have been clear calls for enhanced international cooperation to meet the environmental, economic and criminal challenges of transnational environmental crime (TEC), defined here to include illegal wildlife trade, timber trafficking and the black market in ozone‐depleting substances. In the absence of an overarching international or transnational environmental crime legal framework, institutional settings are characterized by regime density and complexity amid a growing number of actors across related but distinct institutional settings. Scholars of international cooperation have worried that this kind of complexity leads to legal indeterminacy, normative ambiguity and regulatory uncertainty that will make cooperation more difficult. In the TEC sphere, these propositions remain under‐researched and untested. This article sketches the contours of a study that would bring some conceptual and empirical clarity to these issues. In doing so, it outlines the constitutive elements of the TEC regime complex and the nature of institutional interplay between and among those elements.
Differences between Caucasian and Asian attractive faces
Authors: Rhee S. C.
Published: July 2017

Introduction

There are discrepancies between the public's current beauty desires and conventional theories and historical rules regarding facial beauty. This photogrammetric study aims to describe in detail mathematical differences in facial configuration between attractive Caucasian and attractive Asian faces.

Methods

To analyse the structural differences between attractive Caucasian and attractive Asian faces, frontal face and lateral face views for each race were morphed; facial landmarks were defined, and the relative photographic pixel distances and angles were measured. Absolute values were acquired by arithmetic conversion for comparison.

Results

The data indicate that some conventional beliefs of facial attractiveness can be applied but others are no longer valid in explaining perspectives of beauty between Caucasians and Asians. Racial differences in the perceptions of attractive faces were evident. Common features as a phenomenon of global fusion in the perspectives on facial beauty were revealed.

Conclusions

Beauty standards differ with race and ethnicity, and some conventional rules for ideal facial attractiveness were found to be inappropriate. We must reexamine old principles of facial beauty and continue to fundamentally question it according to its racial, cultural, and neuropsychological aspects.
The Racial Structure of Inequality: Consequences for Welfare Policy in the United States*
Authors: Hero Rodney E. , Levy Morris E.
Published: July 2017

Objective

This article explores the effect of the racial structure of inequality on redistributive policy in the states.

Methods

Applying measures developed in Hero and Levy (2016), we use fixed effects regressions to assess the impact ofbetween‐race inequalityon multiple measures of state welfare effort and generosity.

Results

We find a strong negative association between racial inequality and all measures of welfare policy. The total level of inequality and the racial composition of the population, by contrast, are not associated with the welfare policy measures. The impact of racial inequality emerges after, but does not appear before, the 1996 national welfare reform that increased states’ discretion over welfare policy.

Conclusion

These findings illustrate that the influence of income inequality on public policy is strongly conditioned by racial “structure.”
A novel allele, HLA‐C*14:02:01:03, identified by full‐length genomic sequencing
Authors: Park Y. , Park B. G. , Im J. , Yoon C. E. , Kim H. S.
Published: July 2017

The HLA‐C*14:02:01:03 differs by a single nucleotide at intron 5 (2157 C>T) compared with C*14:02:01:01.
An overview of the past, current and future trends for cervical ripening in induction of labour
Authors: Chodankar Rohan , Sood Akanksha , Gupta Janesh
Published: July 2017

Key content

The advantages and disadvantages of pharmacological methods and mechanical methods (such as the osmotic cervical dilator Dilapan‐S® and Foley catheter) for labour induction are discussed.

This article looks at the international and local (UK) experience with use of Dilapan‐S® for cervical ripening.

The Cochrane and Royal College of Gynaecologists and Obstetricians (RCOG) statements with regards to use of mechanical dilators are referenced.

Learning objectives

To know the past, current and future trends in cervical ripening for labour induction.

To understand that mechanical methods (e.g. Dilapan‐S® and Foley catheter) offer similar efficacy and better safety compared to PGE2.
Yen or Yuan? The law of one price and economic integration in Asia
Authors: Dang Vinh Q. T. , Yang Yu (Alan) , Chan Kenneth S.
Published: July 2017

Using highly comparable local retail prices of 146 goods and services across 18 Asian countries over 1990–2014, we analyse price dispersion and test convergence to the law of one price (LOP) for these prices around three price benchmarks—Asia‐average, Japan and China prices—to gain insight about market integration in overall Asia as well relative integration of Asian economies to Japan and China. Cross‐Asia price dispersion around China‐price benchmark, for both tradables and non‐tradables, diminishes significantly over the sample period whereas that around Japan‐price benchmark increases considerably, particularly after the 2008 crisis. There is convergence to the LOP for about half of goods and services in China‐ and Asia‐average price benchmarks. The percentage of convergent prices is significantly smaller in Japan‐price benchmark. Direct estimates of the convergence speed parameter also confirm these observations. Overall, our results show evidence of increasing economic integration in Asia in the last two decades. The process of price convergence appears to be driven by the emergence of China as the centre of economic gravity in the region. There is much room for improvement as economic integration in Asia is still far below that in Europe in the 1990s or USA in the 1980s.
A Test Part for Evaluating the Accuracy and Resolution of a Polymer Powder Bed Fusion Process
Authors: Allison Jared , Sharpe Conner , Seepersad Carolyn Conner
Published: July 2017

Additive manufacturing (AM) has many potential industrial applications because highly complex parts can be fabricated with little or no tooling cost. One barrier to widespread use of AM, however, is that many designers lack detailed information about the capabilities and limitations of each process. To compile statistical design guidelines, comprehensive, statistically meaningful metrology studies need to be performed on AM technologies. In this paper, a test part is designed to evaluate the accuracy and resolution of the polymer powder bed fusion (PBF) or selective laser sintering process for a wide variety of features. The unique construction of this test part allows it to maximize feature density while maintaining a small build volume. As a result, it can easily fit into most existing selective laser sintering builds, without requiring dedicated builds, thereby facilitating the repetitive fabrication necessary for building statistical databases of design allowables. By inserting the part into existing builds, it is also possible to monitor geometric accuracy and resolution on a build- and machine-specific basis in much the same way that tensile bars are inserted to monitor structural properties. This paper describes the test part and its features along with a brief description of the measurements performed on it and a representative sample of the types of geometric data derived from it.
A Test Result on the Performance of Next Generation ITS Communication in the Railway Environment
Authors: Shin Daekyo , Jang Soohyun , Park Pusik
Published: July 2017

Recently the demand of wireless communications technology in railway field has increased for the purpose of safe operation and economical construction and reducing operating costs. The real implementation test was carried out in order to apply the next generation ITS wireless communication technology (WAVE: Wireless Access Vehicular Environment) to the railway. WAVE communication is suitable for high-speed environment, have a reliable wireless communication performance. This paper presents the results of test about installing the WAVE base station / WAVE Terminal for applying to the railway and measure the performance evaluation conducted.
A New Advance in Tunnel Ventilation Design Planning
Authors: Colino Mark P. , Rosenstein Elena B.
Published: July 2017

The new train signaling, traction power and tunnel ventilation system coordination guidelines enacted in National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 130 have brought the necessity and cost of tunnel ventilation fan shafts into greater focus. The guidelines were aimed at coordinating the three aforementioned rail systems to control the number of trains that could be between successive ventilation shafts during an emergency — in recognition of the fact that the best protection to both incident and non-incident train passengers and crew is to allow no more than one train in each ventilation zone. Though based in safety, these new NFPA guidelines can substantially expand the capital cost and environmental impact of new rail tunnel projects by adding more ventilation shafts and tunnel fan equipment to the scope of work. In addition, the resulting increase in the required number of ventilation shafts and tunnel fan equipment can hinder existing railroad properties as they seek to either increase their train throughput rates, or reduce their tunnel electrical infrastructure. Fortunately, a new kind of emergency ventilation shaft has been developed to facilitate compliance with the NFPA 130 Standard without the excessive capital cost and far-reaching environmental impacts of a traditional emergency ventilation shaft. This new kind of emergency ventilation shaft is called the Crossflue.

The Crossflue is a horizontal passage between parallel rail tunnels with a single ventilation fan-motor unit installation. The Crossflue fan is designed to transfer air/smoke flows from one (occupied, incident) tunnel to another (unoccupied, non-incident) tunnel — thereby protecting the incident tunnel at the expense of the non-incident tunnel. The Crossflue passage has angled construction to allow a smooth transition of airflows both into and out of the adjoining tunnels. In addition to the fan, the Crossflue contains a ventilation damper, sound attenuators, ductwork transitions and flexible connectors within the fan equipment line-up; the functionality of all this mechanical equipment is described in the paper. To preserve underground space and minimize the rock excavation, the Crossflue fan is both remotely-powered and remotely-controlled; the fan is only operated as part of a pre-programmed response to tunnel fire events. The methodology utilized to design the Crossflue was taken from the Subway Environmental Design Handbook (SEDH); the SEDH [1] was specifically developed for rail tunnel ventilation design and is the preeminent reference volume in the industry. In summary, the Crossflue provides a dual benefit of achieving NFPA 130 compliance, while at the same time minimizing the construction, equipment, environmental, and energy costs of a traditional tunnel ventilation shaft.
Deceleration Rates for Safe Braking Distance Calculations
Authors: Thurston David F.
Published: July 2017

IEEE 1698, Guidelines for Safe Braking Distance Calculations - 2009 brakes down the determination of stopping distance for train control system into separate independent events. One of the most misunderstood portions of the model is Parts I and H (train deceleration). This paper looks at the reasoning behind the unique properties of these parts, how they are related as well as how to calculate them. Examples of applications will be shown and optimization techniques will be investigated to shorten the required safe stopping distance and increase capacity.
Simulated Comparison of Energy Storage Systems for Heavy Haul Locomotives
Authors: Wu Qing , Spiryagin Maksym , Wolfs Peter , Sun Yan , Cole Colin
Published: July 2017

Diesel locomotives in heavy haul operations are good candidates to adopt energy storage systems (ESSs). This paper modelled a battery ESS and a flywheel ESS for heavy haul locomotives. Three heavy haul trains with different traction plans (diesel, diesel-flywheel, and diesel-battery) were compared. The diesel, flywheel, and battery locomotives have traction powers of 3100 kW, 2000 kW, and 3100 kW respectively. Available energy from the flywheel and battery ESSs are 500 kWh and 5000 kWh respectively. The simulated railway is about 300 km long while the trains are about 10,000 tonnes each. Traction performance and fuel consumption were compared. The results show that, compared with the diesel train, the diesel-flywheel and diesel-battery trains were 13.26% and 9.20% slower in speed respectively. However, they decreased their fuel consumptions by 12.40% and 20.65% respectively.
Pressure Measurements at the Tie-Ballast Interface in Railroad Tracks Using Granular Material Pressure Cells
Authors: Liu Qingjie , Lei Xiaoyan , Rose Jerry G. , Purcell Macy L.
Published: July 2017

It has been desirable for years to develop a reasonably simple, direct, accurate, and reliable method to measure pressure distributions in railroad trackbeds, especially the pressure magnitudes and distributions at the tie-ballast interface. In this study, specially-designed granular material pressure cells were used to measure pressure magnitudes and distributions. The cells were placed directly under the rail-tie intersection at the tie-ballast interface.

Initially, a MTS test machine was used to conduct a series of laboratory tie-ballast box tests for a wide variation of ballast types and loading configurations. The adequacy of the cells for in-track measurements was verified with a series of very controlled laboratory tests and measurements using simulated trackbed sections and loading conditions. Excellent correlations were obtained comparing applied machine pressures and measured transferred cell pressures indicating that this type of pressure cell is suitable for in-track tie-ballast pressure measurements. This preliminary testing sequence is briefly described.

A series of in-track wood tie tests were conducted on a yard lead track on a shortline railroad, Transkentucky Transportation, to optimize the in-track installation procedures and to obtain pressure measurements using repeated passes of low-speed locomotives and cars. A normalized pressure distribution was obtained by using metal shims when necessary to fill voids between the ties and pressure cells to insure continuous tie-ballast contact. This test sequence is presented and described.

Additional in-track tests were conducted on Norfolk Southern Railway’s heavy tonnage concrete tie Class 4 mainline with train speeds of up to 64 km/h. Data was obtained for numerous passages of revenue trains over a period of several months for variable weights and types of locomotives and freight cars at typical train speeds. The average pressure intensities at the tie-ballast interface were acquired for six consecutive ties comprising a complete revolution of the wheels. This data is presented and the results discussed.
Visualization of Railroad Equipment Accident Causes Using Data Visualization Systems and GIS
Authors: Williams Trefor , Betak John
Published: July 2017

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how GIS and data visualization systems can be used to identify spatial relationships to add to our understanding of railroad accident factors. Examples are given of the spatial analysis of broken rail accidents and grade crossing accidents on GIS maps. Additionally, using the Weave data visualization system a data dashboard was constructed that shows the complex interaction between variables like track type, FRA track classification, train speed and track density with broken rail accident causes. The findings indicate that broken rail accidents occur most frequently in the Midwest. Possibly this trend is related to climate change and increased temperatures and precipitation in the United States. GIS visualizations also showed that many truck-trailer accidents at grade crossings occur in low population areas. This work indicates that GIS and data visualizations are a useful method of identifying trends in railroad accidents.
On Railroad Tank Car Emergency Braking Performance
Authors: Renze Kevin J.
Published: July 2017

Crude oil and ethanol unit train derailments sometimes result in the release of large volumes of flammable liquids which ignite and endanger the safety of persons, property, and the environment. Current methods to reduce the probability and mitigate the consequences of High-Hazard Flammable Train (HHFT) derailments include operational speed constraints, enhanced tank car design/build requirements, improved car and track inspection and maintenance, and use of advanced braking systems. The train brake system can dissipate more energy in a derailment scenario if the brake signal propagation rate is increased, the brake force against the wheel tread is increased, or a combined approach is used.

This paper describes a simplified energy conservation model used to determine the emergency braking stopping distance and energy dissipation benefits available for three advanced train braking systems. A 3×3 matrix of brake configurations was defined by three brake signal propagation rates and three car net braking ratio (NBR) values. The brake signal propagation rate was modeled for trains with conventional head-end locomotive power, pneumatic car braking, and no two-way end-of-train device (CONV); locomotive distributed power with pneumatic car braking (trailing DP); and locomotive power with electronically-controlled pneumatic (ECP) braking. Car NBR values of 10, 12.8, and 14 percent were selected to reflect the expected brake force range available from older equipment in the existing tank car fleet (10% NBR) to the maximum acceptable value for new or rebuilt cars (14% NBR).

Various in-train emergency brake application scenarios for loaded unit trains were modeled while accounting for the gross effects of derailment/collision blockage forces. Empirical data from four trailing distributed power train derailment events were used to estimate an average derailment/collision blockage force (ADF) and simulate the trailing consist braking performance. The ADF results were subsequently used in a more general tank car unit train parametric study to evaluate the effects of train speed, track grade, and in-train derailment position for each brake configuration in the matrix. The simplified energy conservation model was used to 1) quantify the number of trailing consist cars expected to stop short of the derailment location and 2) compare the car-by-car energy state of each car in the trailing consist that was calculated to reach the derailment location. Results for the empirical and parametric study cases are compared graphically and observations are discussed relative to two assumed baseline brake configurations.
Development of Prognostic Techniques for Surface Defect Growth in Railroad Bearing Rolling Elements
Authors: De Los Santos Nancy , Jones Robert , Tarawneh Constantine M. , Fuentes Arturo , Villarreal Anthony
Published: July 2017

Prevention of bearing failures which may lead to catastrophic derailment is a major safety concern for the railroad industry. Advances in bearing condition monitoring hold the promise of early detection of bearing defects, which will improve system reliability by permitting early replacement of failing components. However, to minimize disruption to operations while providing the maximum level of accident prevention that early detection affords, it will be necessary to understand the defect growth process and try to quantify the growth speed to permit economical, non-disruptive replacement of failing components rather than relying on immediate removal upon detection. The study presented here investigates the correlation between the rate of surface defect (i.e. spall) growth per mile of full-load operation and the size of the defects. The data used for this study was acquired from defective bearings that were run under various load and speed conditions utilizing specialized railroad bearing dynamic test rigs operated by the University Transportation Center for Railway Safety (UTCRS) at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (UTRGV). Periodic removal and disassembly of the railroad bearings was carried out for inspection and defect size measurement and documentation. Castings were made of spalls using low-melting, zero shrinkage Bismuth-based alloys so that a permanent record of the full spall geometry could be retained. Spalls were measured using optical techniques coupled with digital image analysis and also with a manual coordinate measuring instrument with the resulting field of points manipulated in MatLab™ and Solidworks™. The spall growth rate in area per mile of full-load operation was determined and, when plotted versus spall area, clear trends emerge. Initial spall size is randomly distributed as it depends on originating defect depth, size, and location on the rolling raceway. The growth of surface spalls is characterized by two growth regimes with an initial slower growth rate which then accelerates when spalls reach a critical size. Scatter is significant but upper and lower bounds for spall growth rates are proposed and the critical dimension for transition to rapid spall growth is estimated. The main result of this study is a preliminary model for spall growth which can be coupled to bearing condition monitoring tools to permit economical scheduling of bearing replacement after the initial detection of spalls.
Design and Analysis of Parallel Interconnection Hydraulic-Electric Energy-Harvesting Active Radial Steering Bogie System
Authors: Meng Lingshuai , Xu Lin , Zou Junyi , Mi Jia , Guo Sijing
Published: July 2017

With the increasing of the train load, the wheel-rail wear is worsening, the maintaining and replacing cycle is shortened enormously, the problem of replacing steel rail and wheel prematurely not only make the railway transportation cost increasing, but also affect the railway normal transportation. This paper proposes a novel type of active energy self-supply radial steering technology — the parallel interconnection hydraulic-electric energy-harvesting active radial steering bogie system. This system is a typical “machine – electric – hydraulic” coupling system, which includes parallel interconnection hydraulic-electric energy-harvesting suspension and active radial steering bogie, consisting of mechanical, electronic, hydraulic and control subsystems internally. In this system, the radial steering bogie is equipped with four HESA, and HESA can reuse the mechanical vibration energy which used to be transformed into waste heat by the shock absorber. In this system, the mechanical vibration energy is now used to drive power module of active radial steering bogie, so as to implement the train’s active radial steering without external power supply. This paper discusses the evolution of radial steering bogie in general, and introduces the structure and basic principle of the parallel interconnection electro-hydraulic energy-harvesting active radial steering bogie system. The system establishes a model of the parallel interconnection hydraulic-electric energy-harvesting shock absorber. The typical vertical irregularity of American track is established. In the paper, we research on the system’s damping performance and energy recovery performance through stimulation. Simulation results show that the maximum vertical acceleration of train body is reduced from 42.9% to 62.3%, and the average energy recovery power from the system increases from 217W to 1835W when the system works at the six levels of track irregularities.
Results of the 2016 Hiawatha Service Passenger Survey
Authors: Sperry Benjamin R. , Collins Tyler
Published: July 2017

The Hiawatha Service is an Amtrak intercity passenger rail service that operates the 90-mile route between Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Chicago, Illinois. As part of its management and oversight role for the route, the Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) routinely conducts surveys of passengers traveling on the Hiawatha Service. The most recent survey was conducted in May 2016. This paper reports a summary of the key findings from the 2016 Hiawatha Service passenger survey. Analysis of more than 2,400 surveys reveals significant details of the travel behavior and demographic profile characteristics of Hiawatha Service passengers. A majority of passengers on weekday trains are traveling for work commute or business-related purposes while a majority of weekend passenger trips are leisure or personal trips. Approximately 70 percent of passengers would drive if the Hiawatha Service were not available, indicating that the train has a meaningful impact on highway congestion. Additional details on passenger motivations for using rail and the importance of on-board Wi-Fi service are also provided. Comparison of the results from 2016 with previous surveys conducted in 2002/2003, 2005, and 2011 demonstrates the role of the Hiawatha Service in the Milwaukee-Chicago travel corridor.
Failure Analysis of LNG Rail Locomotives
Authors: LaFleur Chris B. , Muna Alice B. , Groth Katrina M. , St. Pierre Matthew , Shurland Melissa
Published: July 2017

This paper presents a risk assessment of a Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)/diesel hybrid locomotive to identify and rank failures that could result in the release of LNG or Gaseous Natural Gas (GNG) to the surrounding environment. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) will analyze industry safety assessments of the proposed rail vehicles and the goal of this risk analysis is to identify and prioritize hazard scenarios so the FRA can ensure that they are properly addressed. For operational activities, a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) was performed to identify high risk failure modes. A modified hazard and operability study (HAZOP) methodology was used to analyze hazard scenarios for the maintenance activities for the LNG and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) dual-fuel locomotives and the LNG tender car. Because refueling operations are highly dependent on human interactions, a human factors assessment was also performed on a sample refueling procedure to identify areas of improvement and identify best practices for analyzing future procedures.

The FMEA resulted in the identification of 87 total failure modes for the operational phase, three of which were deemed to have a High risk priority, all involving the cryogenic storage tank. The HAZOP for the LNG tender resulted in the identification of eight credible hazard scenarios and the HAZOP for the locomotive in the maintenance mode identified 27 credible hazard scenarios. The high and medium risk failure modes and hazard scenarios should be prioritized for further analysis.
Quantification of Rail Displacements Under Light Rail Transit Field Loading Conditions
Authors: Canga Ruiz Alvaro E. , Csenge Matthew V. , Edwards J. Riley , Qian Yu , Dersch Marcus S.
Published: July 2017

While timber crossties are widely used in North America, the popularity of concrete crossties has increased significantly in recent years. Concrete crossties require the use of premium elastic fastening systems to have a proper and stable system.

The primary role of fastening system is to attach the rail to its support preserving track geometry. For this reason, past research has focused on its development and behavior. Even though a large amount of research has been conducted on heavy-haul freight railroad systems, little work has been conducted to focus on rail transit systems. Therefore, a field analysis of the behavior of fastening systems under rail transit system loading conditions has been executed, focusing on light rail transit loading conditions.

To perform this study, revenue service field data were collected on a light rail transit system. The instrumentation used and how it was installed on site are described in this paper. The critical quantitative metric discussed in this study is the relative displacement of the rail with respect to the concrete crosstie. Analyzing vertical and horizontal displacements, as well as rotation, the performance of the fastening system can be evaluated. For this purpose, different sites on the same rail system were selected for study, comparing both curve and tangent track geometry. In addition to this, the movement of the rail under every axle of the light rail vehicle has been studied in detail.

In summary, an analysis of how the rail performs in terms of displacement under light rail transit loading conditions has been completed. Based on field data, the analysis allows the reader to understand how the rail displaces under the given loads when it is installed in a ballasted concrete crosstie track and restrained by elastic fastening systems.
Solutions for Cross-Border Technical Interoperability With ERTMS: ERTMS-PTC Convergence
Authors: Fanea Alex
Published: July 2017

This paper provides an overview of current solutions for Cross-Border technical interoperability offered by ERTMS and introduces convergence points between the ERTMS and PTC system architectures.

Seen as an overlay system for legacy national ATP/ATC in Europe, ERTMS definition was initiated with the announced purpose of solving cross-border technical interoperability. Beyond the carrier for voice and data radio communications, the paper will introduce the current technical solutions to ensure interoperability, the building blocks and founding principles, focusing on key requirements and design choices.

The reasons for the global success of ERTMS well outside Europe will be explored, offering the author’s view on factors that influenced decision making in favor of ERTMS-based system solutions, and provided significant commercial success (end of 2014, more track-km were fitted with ERTMS outside Europe). The same system architecture that ensured technical interoperability, allowed purchasing decisions supporting ERTMS, due to perceived inter-changeability of technical components (multi-vendor supply was ensured), along with public availability of detailed system specifications and hazard analyses.

To conclude, the paper will review the convergence points between ERTMS and PTC, and offer a possible way forward into using ERTMS building blocks for a PTC solution.
Development of Candidate New Emergency Warning Signals (EWS) to Improve Railroad Safety
Authors: Ross Jason , Campbell Tom , Parida Basant , Arnoldy Mark , Omar Tarek
Published: July 2017

From the original “steam trumpet” built for locomotives in 1832 by the Leicester and Swannington Railway to modern air-pressure horns, train warning signals have not changed significantly in nearly 200 years. The effectiveness of train warning signals has been of particular concern for trespassers listening to music with headphones.

The authors have conducted research as part of a Federal Railroad Administration program to design and assess the effectiveness of candidate new emergency warning signal (EWS) sounds. This paper summarizes a literature review to understand the needs for a new EWS sound and principles of audible signal detection. Acoustic measurements were conducted of headphones to understand in-ear music levels and active and passive sound attenuation. Candidate EWS sounds were developed with a goal of maintaining the identification of a train approaching and increasing the sense of urgency and response time for trespassers to vacate the tracks. Testing of candidate EWS sounds was conducted in an audio booth and on-board a moving locomotive.

The research results have shown that a new EWS sound can maintain the association of a train approaching, increase the sense of urgency, reduce the reaction time for trespassers to vacate the tracks and improve safety on railroad corridors.
The Importance of Preparedness for Emergency Response to Railway Incidents
Authors: Cockle John , Day Larry
Published: July 2017

Public transportation provides opportunities for people to share a common platform or mode of transportation as they move from place to place, often amassing persons in large groups or quantities. Rail transportation in particular has the benefit of accommodating very large numbers of people in one movement, often upwards of 1000 persons. The benefits to society are considerable: shared resources, lower impacts on the environment, and more efficient use of time and energy. The consequence when something goes wrong, however, can also be considerable: mass casualties (fatalities and/or injuries) from a single event, disrupted supply chains, and environmental damages to name a few. Even if persons are not physically harmed, the effects of an incident can be felt by a far greater number of persons. Adequate preparation can play a key role in minimizing the effects of mass casualty events such as railway collisions or derailments. Indeed, lives can be saved or lost depending on the resources, training, and organization that are employed when responding to a mass casualty incident.
Challenges With Applying Axle Counter Technology in the USA
Authors: Hofbauer John
Published: July 2017

There is a growing trend for transit agencies to evolve from wayside and cab-based signal systems to Communication Based Train Control (CBTC). With the complexity of CBTC, a failure of CBTC component could bring a transit system to a standstill. Implementing a secondary signal system can serve to minimize the consequences of a CBTC failure. It is paramount for a transit system to continue to operate, and axle counter technology can be a suitable candidate for use as a secondary signal system. Axle Counter technology has not been widely used in the U.S., but has been used for many years in Europe and the rest of the world. This paper will review and analysis the following:

1. Train Detection Systems; Track circuits vs. axle counters and the basic Principles of Axle Counting; check-in and check-out.

2. Implementing Electromagnetic Compatibility and the EMI standards used in European with previous testing of various axle counter systems, and the frequencies that have been selected, and the proper usage of these frequencies.

3. Testing of radiated emissions using existing guidelines and methods to analyze existing wayside and vehicle Electromagnetic Interferences (EMI), environment conditions, and the limitations of installing axle counters in an existing rail or transit system.

4. Recommendations for improving vehicle and wayside specifications and standards within the U.S. for dealing with installation of axle counter equipment and with failures and EMI emissions between railway devices.
Class K Axle Design and Repair by Machining
Authors: Dedmon Steven L.
Published: July 2017

Until the introduction of AAR Standard S-259 (circular C-8287) in November, 1994 the Class F axle was the only officially designated roller bearing axle design permitted for 100 ton freight car service in North American interchange service. The increase in Gross Rail Load permitted by the Standard was correlated to increased failures at the journal ends of the axle. A 1998 redesign of the bearing and axle resulted in lower stresses in the journal; the new axle was designated as Class K and was to be used in service loads of 100/110 tons (263,000 to 286,000 pounds GRL). The redesign was highly successful in reducing axle journal failures and improving bearing life. An increase in axle failures between the wheel seats was reported several years after the redesign. Better inspection requirements and repair procedures were implemented to reduce failures resulting from surface damage. This investigation considers the effect on stresses of the accepted practice of repairing the body of the axle by machining.
Improving Rail Connectivity Through 3GPP Technology
Authors: Rothbaum David , Debsi Nabil
Published: July 2017

In order to conduct rail operations safely and securely, operators need reliable train connectivity. With the advent of Intelligent Transport Systems, there are increased demands from this connectivity. This paper introduces the capabilities of 3GPP standard radio technology to meet the railway operator’s connectivity needs using a unified radio infrastructure. 3GPP is the 3rd Generation Partnership Project and provides the standards known to the public as 3G or 4G mobile telecommunications provided by the cellular phone operators. Recent developments in 3GPP standards make the technology suitable for use in both urban and mainline rail environments based on a private 4G LTE network owned and operated by the railroad agency. Since the 3GPP standard equipment ecosystem is shared by mobile operators, public safety agencies, utilities, and airports, the equipment cost is reduced compared to proprietary wireless techniques due to economies of scale. Using a dedicated radio network, all rail applications requiring wireless connectivity can traverse over a single radio infrastructure.

These rail applications include: CCTV real time passenger surveillance, mission critical push-to-talk voice, train control signalling (CBTC, ETCS or PTC), train telemetry, including real-time condition-based monitoring and passenger information systems. Using Quality of Service prioritization and pre-emption inherent to the LTE radio system, the mission critical railway applications always receive priority over non-mission critical functions. The FCC has recently announced the availability of the 3.5 GHz band to the public based on spectrum sharing. Spectrum sharing could be an acceptable option for railway application, provided it was given priority for mission critical functions. Current advances in LTE radio, notably Massive MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) antenna arrays, can provide coverage in 3.5 GHz band to a distance of over 1400 yards — which is less than the typical distance between stations. this transit agency dedicated network. Alternately sharing spectrum with Firstnet 700 MHz band should be explored.