bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Experiments With Albino Mice From Stocks Selected for Predictable Susceptibilities To Audiogenic Seizures 1)
Authors: Frings Hubert , Frings Mable , Hamilton Mildred
Published: April 2008

Albino mice from a stock produced by nine generations of selection for high incidence of clonic-tonic seizures but low incidence of deaths in seizures were tested for susceptibility when started at 20, 25, 30, or 35 instead of the usual 15 days of age. There was a sharp decrease in susceptibility to clonic-tonic seizures and an increase in variability of response when the mice started at 25 days of age or later. When mice of the same stock which had had seizures regularly before 50 days of age were tested after 50 days of age they continued susceptible until death or near death, even when the life-span was relatively long. Offspring of crosses between mice of this stock and those of a stock selected for low seizure incidence had an average seizure incidence intermediate between those of the parent stocks, but no simple genetic explanation could be postulated. Mice of the high incidence stock which were mated without being tested for two generations produced offspring with decreased susceptibility, but still with a high proportion of individuals highly susceptible. These results show the necessity for standardization of stocks of mice and testing procedures in studies on audiogenic seizures. They support the view that inheritance of seizure susceptibility is multigenic and quantitative.
Aggressiveness, Territoriality, and Sexual Behavior in Field Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)
Authors: Alexander Richard D.
Published: April 2008

Most contacts between adult male field crickets involve aggressive behavior by one or both individuals and terminate with the obvious retreat of one individual. Aggressive behavior consists of one or more of several actions: in mild encounters there is either rearing of the forebody, lashing of the antennae, and shaking of the body, or else rearing of the hind body, kicking with the hind legs, and shaking of the body; in intense encounters, antennal lashing and rearing of the forebody are followed by spreading the mandibles, stridulating distinctively, rushing forward, sparring with the forelegs, butting with the head, and grappling, wrestling, or biting with the mandibles. A male is often flipped back or thrown sideways, but mutilation as a result of fighting is rare, and only in the most intense encounters is the winner determined by what seems to be superior strength or fighting ability. The outcomes of most encounters are determined by the relative tenacity of the two males, and the intensity of aggression exhibited is correlated with the length of the fight, continued aggressive activity developing into increasingly severe combat until one male finally retreats. Groups of adult male field crickets caged in small arenas form essentially linear dominance hierarchies which are stable for short periods of time and which can be described in terms of several characteristics: (1) each male dominates all or nearly all of his encounters with males below him in the hierarchy, (2) the total number of encounters by individual males decreases gradually toward the bottom of the hierarchy, (3) the intensity of aggression exhibited during encounters decreases more or less gradually toward the bottom of the hierarchy and the numbers of no-decision and no-aggression encounters and actively homosexual contacts increase, and (4) encounters between males which rank next to each other are usually more intense than encounters between males which are far apart in the hierarchy.
The Motivational Organisation Controlling the Mobbing Calls of the Blackbird (t uRd Us Mer Ula)
Authors: Andrew R.J.
Published: April 2008

1. The change from the low intensity mobbing call 'duck' to the high intensity call 'tix' involves the addition of what is probably the first overtone and a slight rise in pitch of the fundamental tone. The first change has a lower threshold than the second. 2. Bouts of calls are usually associated with flights and commonly begin a little before take-off. 3. At or near take-off there is a change (the 'flight effect') which tends to initiate calling if it has not begun, and to accelerate it and/or cause the change from 'duck' to 'tix', if it has. 4. Experimental prolongation of flight prolongs calling and promotes the change to a 'tix' type of call. 5. Bouts of calls given when perched are accompanied by activity of the system controlling flight, which does not reach the threshold for take-off.
Clam-Digging Behavior in the Starfish
Authors: Smith Lynwood S.
Published: April 2008

The starfish, Pisastcr brevispinus, was observed to locate, dig, and eat bivalves in sand gravel substratum in Puget Sound. The tube feet were thrust through the substratum, moving sand and gravel toward the tips of the rays similarly to the tube foot motions in burrowing starfish such as Astropecten. P. brevispinus does not burrow, however, but digs a hole approximately the same diameter as the starfish and up to ten centimeters deep at the center. The mechanism by which the starfish locates the clam it not known, but the holes were accurately centered over the clams, not randomly dug. The entire digging process took two to three days in specimens observed in the field. MACGINITIE and MACGINITIE (1949) described California P. brevispinus as typically feeding on sand dollars. When placed on sand dollars in Puget Sound, P. brevispinus showed apparent irritation, but later in aquaria ate sand dollars although preferring clams. In the vicinity of Bremerton, P. brevispinus was not found associated with or bordering sand dollar beds.
Sexual Behavior in Three Inbred Strains of Mice
Authors: McGill Thomas E.
Published: April 2008

The sexual behavior of three inbred strains of mice was studied. Sixteen different behavioral measures were scored; twelve of these sixteen measures revealed statistically significant behavioral differences. The results were as follows: I. C57BL males are characterized by speed. They gain intromission sooner, spend less time between intromissions, and ejaculate sooner than do the other two strains. 2. DBA/2 males show significantly longer intromission latencies, interintromissior. intervals, preintromission mount durations, and mounts than do the C57BL and BALB/c males. DBA/2 males ejaculate with fewer intromissions and thrusts than the other two strains. 3. BALB/c males require the longest time (over one hour), the greatest number of intromissions, and the greatest number of thrusts prior to ejaculation. The sexual behavior of the inbred strains of mice was compared to the sexual behavior of the rat, hamster, and guinea pig. Mention was made of the possibility for genitical and physiological studies of the behavioral differences.
Bringing Up a Young Monkey (Erythrocebus Patas)
Authors: Bolwig Niels
Published: April 2008

1. A young patas monkey was reared by the author from extreme youth (two weeks old at the most). A great deal of attention was given to its upbringing and great efforts were made to emulate the care which, one judged, it would have received from its mother. 2. HARLOW'S stages of reflex, clinging for security, and final detachment through exploration were clearly recognised although the reflex stage seemed less pronounced than in the rhesus monkeys. 3. The importance of clinging to a soft object was confirmed. 4. The mouth region, lower face, chin, ventral neck and chest seem to be the most important contact points, besides the palms of the hands and feet. 5. Contrary to HARLOW'S experiments the observations seem to show that sucking something soft is of the greatest importance to the animal's comfort and feeling of security. 6. Observations were made on the animal's diet and on what it put into its mouth, thereby gradually learning what was eatable. 7. Many observations were made on the monkey's play, its relationship to other animals and its interest in dolls, films and pictures. 8. Various emotional expressions are described. Laughter is traced back to the play-bite and the kiss to the sucking and playing with the mother's teat similar to the origin of the human kiss. 9. Methods of training are discussed taking the animal's particular social and possessive behaviour into consideration. The conclusion is that punishment usually has an effect opposite to that desired. 10. A comparison was made with a small red-tailed monkey brought up with a HARLOW'S mother-substitute. It is suggested that various differences in the behaviour of the two neo-natal monkeys is connected with differences in social behaviour such as troop organisation. 11. It is suggested that when the mother-child relationship of humans is compared with that of other primates more consideration should be taken of the "nesting" behaviour of humans.
The Effects of Some Neuronal Drugs On the Settling Behaviour of Hemileucine Moths
Authors: Collett T.S.
Published: April 2008

1. The walking behaviour of Automeris aspera was examined as one of the factors which contribute to the variability of the rocking score in this species. When walking precedes settling it potentiates the rocking score, so that the further an animal has walked the more likely it is to give its maximum response. However, the strength of walking does not determine that maximum. It is argued that walking acts by priming the rocking system directly. 2. The administration of physostigmine to some species of Hemileucine moths will quantitatively alter the rocking response, so that the number of rocks an animal will give at any time is increased (lowest dose used: 5 microlitres 1 : 25,000 W/V). The qualitative form of the response is unaltered. The effect is dosage dependent: higher concentrations raise the score more rapidly than lower. At low concentrations the maximum response induced by physostigmine appears to be stable for several hours. There is a correlation between the maximum response obtained before the drug is given and that obtained after, though the two ranges scarcely overlap. 3. Except when the increment is very great, the potentiation imposed by physostigmine does not prevent a further potentiation of the rocking score by walking. Similarly, despite the action of physostigmine (a) factors inhibiting rocking continue to do so, (b) inter-specific variations in the form of the response are still present. However, response waning in Hylesia nigricans, which in this species is shown to be partially a property of the rocking system, was not apparent after preparations had been treated with physostigmine. 4. Nicotine does not affect the rocking score at low concentrations, while at higher concentrations rapid knockdown precludes the observation of any change. 5. Pilocarpine (lowest dose 10 microlitres 1 : 10,000 W/V) raises the rocking score, though the increment wanes rapidly, and large increments appear to result from successive re-excitations of the response. 6. Atropine (threshold dose 5 microlitres 1 : 15,000 W/V) reduces the rocking score, and the reduction is dosage dependent. The decrement may be partially, though unreliably obviated by the prior occurrence of walking, or by the administration of physostigmine. 7. Automeris nyctimane leucane differs from Automeris aspera; whereas the rocking response of both species is similarly affected by atropine, physostigmine only affects Automeris aspera. 8. The effects of all these drugs, unlike those produced by the metabolic inhibitors previously examined (BLEST and COLLETT, 1963), are not dependent on the performance of the response.
Observations On the Sexual Behaviour of Some Longicorn Beetles, Subfamily Lepturinae (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae)
Authors: Michelsen Axel
Published: April 2008

A description is given of the sexual behaviour of 16 longicorn beetles of the subfamily Lepturinae. The following points have been investigated:- 1. Stimulation of the female performed by the male either as a "licking" or combined "licking and tapping" of the female elytra or the grasping of an antenna of the female. 2. Movements of the antennae of the male, which seem to be an expression of the "state of excitement" of the male. These movements are in principle thought to be one of the behaviour patterns originally present in the order Coleoptera. 3. A "round dance", one of the methods for the female to throw off the male after copula, is described. 4. A selection of partner according to size is described in the genus Rhagium. 5. A comparative analysis is attempted for some species and systematic conclusions of such comparisons are proposed.
Le Substratum Inné Dans Le Comportement De Blatella Germanica Placée Dans Divers Labyrinthes
Authors: Darchen Roger
Published: April 2008

Par des travaux antérieures, l'auteur s'est aperçu que la Blatte, laissée libre sur un grand plan, était mue par des tendances innées extrêmement puissantes et tenaces. Il s'est donc appliqué ici à déterminer dans quelle mesure un tel substratum inné gouverne cet Insecte sur les surfaces labyrinthoïdes en vue d'établir des techniques d'utilisation de tels labyrinthes dans de futures expériences. Il acquiert par là même des résultats qui permettent une meilleure compréhension du comportement explorateur. 1) Nous avons démontré la nécessité de conserver les insectes à l'obscurité au moins pendant 18 heures afin de rendre plus isotrope l'exploration des plans. 2) Nous avons montré la puissante influence de l'éclairement des pistes et des parois environnantes sur la technique d'exploration des Blattes. 3) Chaque type de labyrinthe, dans des conditions expérimentales données, induit un schème locomoteur d'exploration. L'exploration n'est donc jamais isotrope. La notion de "force vive" explique peut-être les visites nombreuses d'éléments privilégiés d'un labyrinthe. 4) Nantis de ces résultats, nous comparons le comportement des Blattes, des Fourmis et des Rats. Les résultats des travaux de SCHNEIRA sur les Fournis nous permettent de découvrir que le comportement de nos deux espèces d'Insectes se ressemble énormément; ceux de divers auteurs américains sur le Rat présentent un grand parallélisme avec les nôtres ; en revanche, l'œuvre de MONTGOMERY laisse apparaitre de grosses différences entre le comportement explorateur des Rats et celui des Blattes : les Rats alternent leurs choix dans les labyrinthes. SCHNEIRLA ajoute cependant que le Rat domine plus rapidement que les Insectes ses tendances motrices. 5) Enfin, nous critiquons l'utilisation abusive des labyrinthes dans l'étude de l'apprentissage et l'interprétation erronée des calculs statistiques de certains auteurs. Nous proposons de nouvelles techniques tenant compte du substratum inné des Blattes.
Ethological Studies of the Budgerigar: Reproductive Behavior
Authors: Brockway Barbara F.
Published: April 2008

Behavior patterns associated with pairing, precopulatory, copulatory and postcopulatory activities in Melopsittacus undulatus (a colonial psittacine parrot) are described ; and their possible function, causation and evolution is discussed. Heterosexual pair formation involves 3 obvious activities; Head Shaking, male Loud Warble and female following of the male. Two of these are also seen in precopulatory context. Courtship feeding, reciprocal preening and possibly Loud Warbling or other vocalizations, sidling activities, Courtship feeding, Head-bobbing and attempts to mount. tions variously in precopulatory stimulation and providing nourishment to an incubating or brooding female. Its role as a possible "reward" or appeasement to the female during precopulatory behavior is discussed. Typical male precopulatory behavior consists of 6 "Nudging-Pumping actions", various vocalizations, sidling activities, courtship feeding, Head-bobbing and attempts to mount. Redirected precopulatory behavior and Head Shaking (possibly derived from displacement head shaking) are quite common and redirected aggression is less so. These are described and causally and functionally discussed. The manner of copulation is unique. The male generally plays the more active role in courtship with a typical conflict of FaM (sensu MORRIS, 1956a), while the female shows a typical conflict of fAm. The importance of crown and throat feather adjustments, typically sleeked or normal in the female and ruffled in the male, as possibly signalling the relative motivational states of both sexes is discussed. Also, the ruffled male crown and throat feathers may serve as appeasement towards the female.
Observations On the Incidence of Following of Visual and Auditory Stimuli in Naive Mallard Ducklings (Anas Platyrhynchos)
Authors: Boyd Hugh , Fabricius Eric
Published: April 2008

The responses of naive mallard ducklings to simple moving models and to simple calls (rapidly repeated "kom") were studied at different posthatch ages, ranging from 3 to 240 hours. i. The proportion of ducklings following moving models, not accompanied by calls, gradually decreased from 58 % at io-20 hours to 17 % at 240 hours. 2. The proportion of ducklings responding to moving models by avoidance rose steeply with increasing age, beginning with 46% at I0-20 hours and reaching ioo% at 240 hours, or probably earlier, between 80 and 240 hours. 3. The proportion of ducklings ready to follow auditory stimuli showed a steep initial rise, culminating in a maximum of 85% reached at 40-5o hours, and followed by a final decrease, although not so marked as in the case of visual stimuli. At 240 hours, the proportion of followers was still as high as 50 %. 4. Ducklings which had not initially followed moving objects could be induced to do so by presenting the model in combination with auditory stimuli. After this procedure, they followed the model even when no auditory stimuli were presented. 5. Some ducklings reacted to moving models by aggressive behaviour (threat posture and attack), or by pumping head movements similar to the pre-copulatory display of the adult mallard. 6. The discrepancy between the long persistence of the following tendency in naive ducklings and the existence of an early critical period found by HESS is discussed. It is suggested that the departure of mallard ducklings from the nest often takes place at an age well past the critical period. Under these circumstances the long persistence of a high level of responsiveness to stimuli releasing the following reaction must have a high adaptive value, particularly in connection with the dangerous journey of the brood from the nest to the nearerst water. The curve for the following of auditory stimuli probably reflects the true state of the following tendency more closely than the curve for the following of visual stimuli, which is depressed by escape tendencies in older ducklings. Ignorance of the long persistence of the responsiveness to unconditioned stimuli eliciting the following response may have been a source of error in some current work on imprinting.
Intra- and Interspecific Differences in Phototactic Behaviour of Freshwater Turtles
Authors: Mrosovsky N. , Boycott B.B.
Published: April 2008

With fresh water turtles Pseudemys scripta elegans some individuals choose a white compartment and others a black one when tested in identical conditions on a small diving stand. These differences could not be related to weight, sex, adaptation to laboratory conditions, or level of illumination in the starting area. Latencies were very variable but for many individual animals responses made to the black side tended to be quicker than those to the white side. Other species (Pseudemys floridana and Pseudemys scripta ornata) showed a higher level of positive phototaxis and less individual variation. In many animals tested the positive response to the white stimulus became more frequent as testing was extended up to 60 trials. Some cautions are given about the design of experiments on learning in turtles. The role of positive phototaxis in the water-finding abilities of hatchling turtles is discussed. The possible value of the study of the negatively phototactic turtles in elucidating some aspects of their life cycle is suggested, but the present work produced no good evidence that individual variations depended on maturational differences.
The Effects of Human Environment Upon the Reactions To Novel Situations in the Rhesus
Authors: Singh S.D.
Published: April 2008

Six urban and six forest adult rhesus monkeys were individually tested in several novel situations to see as to whether human environment has got any effect on the responsiveness of these animals to novel objects and novel situations. In contrast to the forest Ss, the urban ones were found to be active, manipulative, contacted objects readily and frequently, and were not at all timid of strange humans. The Ss of the two groups did not differ much with respect to their bodily postures such as prone, supine; and stereotyped behaviours were seldomly performed by the Ss of either group.
The Sexual Behaviour of the Blowfly, Protophormia Terrae-Novae R. -D
Authors: Parker G.A.
Published: April 2008

In P. terrae-novae the male courtship behaviour begins with a run towards the female followed by mounting, orientation, and copulation. Male sexual activity begins on the second day after adult emergence if supplied with a solution of "Marmite" yeast extract and milk, sugar, and water. No reactions to a volatile sex attractant could be demonstrated from either sex. Other males are equally effective as females in eliciting "encounters" from sexually active males, and the encounter rate of males in isolated all male cultures is the same as that of males in the presence of attractive females. Though attractive females do not affect the male behaviour before contact they elicit an increased chance of completion of the pattern after encounter, whereas bouts with other males tend to break off in the early stages of courtship. Sexual behaviour directed towards newly emerged individuals of either sex is inhibited relative to that directed towards other sexually active males. The males from mixed-sex cultures gradually become attractive to other males, which respond to them as if they were attractive females. This may be due to their contamination with a female pheromone of the "mounting stimulant" type. Though males fed only on sugar and water showed a vastly reduced rate of sexual activity, their mechanism of sex discrimination remained unimpaired. In cultures with active males, newly emerged females become attractive and mate on the second day after adult emergence. About 4% of the attacks by males on pairs in copula result in a clnange of copulating male. After copulation females reject any further attention from males by horizontal vibration of their wings across the abdomen. This reduces the duration of mounting and prevents genital contact, otherwise mated females are as attractive as virgins. The female vibration response is elicited mainly on mounting, especially after orientation, but never before contact by the male. Males reject courtship with a "pushing" of the hind legs as in cleaning. This operates when a mount persists, and though the chances of orientation and genital extension are reduced the chance of mounting is not.
Attack Elicited By Stimulation of the Thalamus and Adjacent Structures of Cats
Authors: Mac Donnell M.F. , Flynn J.P.
Published: April 2008

The thalamus of unanesthetized unrestrained cats was explored stereotaxically for sites which when electrically stimulated will either give rise to attack, facilitate attack elicited from the hypothalamus, or suppress such attack. A quiet biting form of attack could be elicited from the medial portion of nucleus dorsalis medialis, the caudal portion of nucleus reuniens, the midline region of nucleus centralis medialis, and anterolateral portions of nucleus reticularis. Facilitation of hypothalamic attack also occurred with stimulation of these same sites. In addition, facilitation was observed from sites that did not give rise to attack. These include nucleus ventralis anterior, area subparafascicularis, and the paraventricular region medial to the nucleus parafascicularis. Suppression of attack was elicited by stimulation of sites which by themselves gave rise to retreat from discrete objects in the environment, or to "fear-like" responses. The areas whose excitation suppressed attack include anterolateral portion of the reticular nucleus, the region of the anterior thalamic radiations, the rostral portion of nucleus reuniens, nucleus interoanteromedialis, somewhat lateral portions of nucleus dorsalis medialis and posterior portions of centrum medianum. The responses seen by a number of previous investigators are also confirmed. Finally, the possible pathways mediating attack and its suppression are discussed.
The Courtship Songs of Drosophila
Authors: Ewing Arthur W. , Bennet-Clark H.C.
Published: April 2008

1. The males of many Drosophila species perform wing displays during courtship and there is evidence that the stimuli provided by these is primarily acoustic. 2. The songs produced by members of the melanogaster and obscura species groups were recorded and analysed. 3. The songs consisted of regularly repeated pulses of sound. The frequency within the pulses and the interval between them varied between species but was constant and characteristic for each species. 4. It is suggested that the songs are codes which allow females to recognise con-specific mates.
Pace-Setting Mechanisms of the Nesting Cycle in the Ring-Billed Gull
Authors: Emlen John T. , Miller Don E.
Published: April 2008

Records of the incidence of sitting, provisioning and other attentive activities by parent Ring-billed Gulls at their nests were obtained for successive daily stages of the breeding cycle. The normal progression of stimulus features at 112 nests was experimentally delayed, advanced, arrested, accelerated and reversed by exchanging eggs and chicks of various ages for information on the effect of such manipulations on the progress of the breeding cycle. A series of undisturbed nests provided control data. The incidence of sitting activity at control nests (two parents alternating) was 99+%, when eggs were present, dropped to 90% at hatching and remained at a plateau at that level for 3 days, then declined at about 13% per day. Full time (egg-level) sitting was extended by experimentally postponing the introduction of chicks, shortened by early introductions and restored by returning to eggs after as much as four days with chicks. The 90% level of the early post-hatching period was induced by replacing eggs with chicks regardless of the time of the introduction (up to 8 days early or late) or the age of the introduced chicks (up to 6 days of age). The post-plateau decline was delayed and attenuated by arresting the normal nest progression at early chick stages, and advanced and accelerated by accelerating the progression. Provisioning (feeding the young) activity appeared with the introduction of chicks at any time, early or late in the cycle, and ceased abruptly with a return to eggs. The level of provisioning increased over the first two days to an incidence level of about 7%, then gradually declined after the fifth day. Exchanges of eggs and chicks were generally well tolerated by parent gulls in the delaying, advancing, arresting and accelerating experiments but not where the progression was reversed from advanced chicks to eggs or early chicks. The data suggest: a - The pace-setting mechanisms of the breeding cycle switch from internal (hormonal) to external (embryo and chick development) regulators early in the incubation phase of the cycle. b - Changes in parental activity at hatching are quantitatively uniform and are triggered by non-specific stimuli associated with cliicks. c - Changes in parental activity after the second day are quantitatively regulated by changing stimuli associated with growing chicks.
Experimental Analysis of Sexual Behavior of the Deermouse Peromyscus Maniculatus Gambeli
Authors: Clemens Lynwood G.
Published: April 2008

Ejaculation in the deermouse Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli was preceded by a sequence of brief penile penetrations (intromissions). In the sexually rested male the number of intromissions preceding the first ejaculation averaged 7 to 8. Each intromission was preceded by a short "bout" of running in which the male pursued the female. Following ejaculation the male failed to mount or investigate the female for the next 6 or 7 minutes. This "refractory period" was terminated when the male achieved another sequence of intromissions and ejaculated again. Males were considered sexually satiated after 30 minutes elapsed without any more ejaculations. Using this criterion it was found that from 3 to 6 ejaculations precede sexual satiation. The refractory periods became progressively longer following each successive ejaculation. If, following satiation, the female was removed and a different female was placed in the test area, all the males achieved additional intromissions and 8 out of 10 ejaculated. When the original mating partner was removed and then returned none of the males achieved ejaculation. This failure to achieve ejaculation with the original female was not due to changes in the condition of the female as a result of copulatory stimulation. Satiated males achieved additional ejaculations with females that had copulated with a different male just prior to the test just as frequently as they did with fresh females that had not copulated for 14 days. The condition of the female as affected by copulatory stimulation did influence other measures of the male's mating performance. These effects were seen most clearly in sexually rested males. The number of intromissions achieved prior to the first and the second ejaculation was greater with females that had received copulatory stimulation just prior to the test than it was with fresh females that had not copulated for 14 days. The time delay between intromissions was longer with fresh females. When males were allowed to achieve their first ejaculation with a fresh female and their second with the same female, there was no change in the number of intromissions from the first to the second ejaculation. This is in contrast to findings with the rat and hamster, in which species a decrease in intromission frequency occurs after the first ejaculation. The current study of the deermouse indicated that if the condition of the female was held constant by testing a male with a fresh female for the first ejaculation and another fresh female for the second ejaculation, a decrease in intromission frequency occurred. On the basis of these results it was concluded that: (i) sexual satiation in the male deermouse is, in part at least, specific to the particular female mating partner, and (2) changes in the condition of the female as a result of copulatory stimulation can have major effects on the "measure of male sexual performance".
The Development of Behaviour in Tilapia Nilotica L
Authors: Abu Gideiri Y.B.
Published: April 2008

The onset of behaviour, studied in relation to the neuro-anatomy. is marked by the heart beat. This begins in separate regions of the heart which later becomes connected and develops a rhythm. It is followed by non-rhythmic contractions of the body musculature, the resulting flexures becoming alternating or serial and cephalo-caudal. Movements of the pectoral fins, jaws and opercula are first caused by the axial musculature of the body; later they become independent and co-ordinated. There is an increasing
A Suggested Mechanism for Habitat Selection By the Juvenile Manini Acanthurus Triostegus Sandvicensis Streets
Authors: Sale Peter F.
Published: April 2008

The Hawaiian manini, Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis Streets, shows a continuing selection of habitat throughout juvenile life, and the selected habitat changes in character as the fish grows in size. Habitat selection of this kind is a complex type of choice behaviour in which the animal makes a selection from a number of (at least partly) configurational stimulus situations experienced separately over time. This sort of behaviour cannot be satisfactorily explained by reference to concepts of taxes or kineses. A mechanism is proposed to explain this process. It suggests that intensity of habitat exploration is regulated through a negative feedback mechanism by the character of the immediate environment with respect to the pertinent stimuli. A fish in an inadequate environment will show a high intensity of habitat exploration. One in an adequate environment will show a much reduced level of exploration. Twenty manini were exposed singly to four test environments of known relative value as habitats. Each fish received all four, and order of exposure was randomised. Analysis of thirteen components of behaviour showed that exploration did vary in the manner predicted. A control experiment showed that the nature of the holding environment prior to testing did not influence this variation. The variation in exploration was not a response to relative novelty of the test environments. The proposed mechanism is discussed as a general behaviour pattern. It seems an applicable approach to the study of habitat selection in other organisms.
Habituation of Conspecific Aggression in the Three-Spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus Aculeatus L.)
Authors: Peeke Harman V.S.
Published: April 2008

1) Male three-spined sticklebacks which were clearly in the sexual phase of their reproductive cycle, were presented with aggression eliciting stimuli for a period of fifteen minutes each day for ten days. One group was stimulated with a live, nuptially colored male stickleback in a clear plastic tube each day. Another group was presented with a wooden model of a male stickleback each day. The third group received no aggression eliciting stimulation. Both groups which received stimuli showed a decrement in responding to the stimuli over the ten days; the more dramatic decrement was found with the group presented with a live stimulus since this stimulus elicited the greatest aggression initially. 2) Aggressive responses did not all wane at the same rate, but rather one, charges at the stimulus, dropped out first, followed by bites. Orientations toward the stimulus decreased over the ten days but never reached a low level. 3) All three groups were presented with a gravid female stimulus for five minutes each day. The group presented with a model of a male stickleback and the group presented with no male stimulus both showed no change in the level of sexual response directed toward the female stimulus. The group presented with the live male stimulus demonstrated an increasing number of sexual responses directed at the gravid female.
Prenatal Development of Spontaneous and Evoked Activity in the Rat (Rattus Norvegicus Albinus)
Authors: Narayanan C.H. , Fox M.W. , Hamburger V.
Published: April 2008

I. The characteristics of prenatal spontaneous activity of rat fetuses of 16 through 20 days of gestation, and the development of responses to cutaneous stimulation are discussed and tabulated. In early fetuses of 16 and 17 days, only few activity bursts occur between long intervals of inactivity. The frequency of activity bursts increases greatly at day 18 and attains a peak at this stage, whereupon it declines to a lower level from day 19 through term. 2. Qualitatively, the movements appear to be unintegrated. Three types of activity have been distinguished: Total, generalized or mass movements, when all parts that are capable of movements participate; regional when only one body region such as the head and forelimbs are in motion, and local movements of single parts. In the earliest stage, only head and forelimb movements are observed. There is a gradual extension of motility in rostro-caudal and proximodistal direction, but there are exceptions to this rule. The movements in the rat fetus seem to be more smooth compared with those of the chick embryo where the movements are more jerky. 3. Our recordings show that no clear, or one-to-one correlation exists between fetal activity and uterine contractions. Amnion contractions do not occur in the rat fetus. 4. The first evoked responses in the rat fetus are interpreted as an incipient total or regional pattern. In later stages of development, discrete, low-amplitude unintegrated local responses are identifiable. At 17 and 18 days the local responses are frequently combined with regional and total mass body movements, but by day 19, total movements are less frequently elicited, and the local responses are more complex, resembling mature and fully integrated action patterns. The conclusion is made that in the rat fetus local complex patterns are built up from less complex units. 5. Spontaneous motility in other mammalian embryos and the origin of integrated specialized local action patterns are discussed in relation to the development of the structure and organization of the spinal cord.
Free-Ranging Rhesus Monkeys: Behavioural Effects of Removal, Separation and Reintroduction of Group Members
Authors: Vessey Stephen H.
Published: April 2008

Rhesus monkeys (26) varying in age, sex and social rank were removed from their free-ranging groups and held captive for periods of 1 to 103 days. 'The absence of the alpha male did not affect the group's home range on the island habitats or its rank in the intergroup dominance hierarchy. When released the monkeys interacted most with those closest to them in rank, attacking those lower and grooming those higher. Of 18 males, 8 failed to rejoin their groups and became solitary or low-ranking in other groups. Only 1 of 9 females failed to rejoin their group. Males held captive for more than four weeks seldom rejoined after release. Upon reintroduction alpha females experienced more difficulty than lower-ranking females in maintaining rank. This procedure of removing and reintroducing members of free-ranging groups is of value in studying social roles.
Individual Recognition By Voice in Reindeer Mother-Young Relationship. Field Observations and Playback Experiments
Authors: Espmark Yngve
Published: April 2008

Observations and experiments were made on the ability of reindeer mothers and calves to identify each other by voice. Field observations showed that this ability is very well-developed and that discrimination is very good due to high individuality of the voices. Playback experiments with recorded sounds confirmed the field observations.
Exploration of Novel Objects By Marsupials
Authors: Russell Eleanor M. , Pearce G.A.
Published: April 2008

The investigatory behaviour of 30 animals from 6 species of marsupial to novel objects differing in shape, texture and odour has been measured. 1. The qualitative response of each species to the object was described. 2. For all animals tested with a set of four objects, there was a decline in response from the first presentation to a second presentation immediately after the first. Response to the objects declined in the course of a five minute tetst. 3. The highest level of reactivity to novel objects was found in the carnivorous Dasyuroides, and this was contrasted with low levels of reacivity in the herbivorous Megaleia rufa and Macropus eugenii. 4. The results are interpreted in terms of the suggestion of GLICKMAN & SROGES (1966) that species differences in reactivity may be related to diferences in feeding patterns and prey-predator relationships, as well as to brain-behaviour correlations.
The Functions of Advertising Song in the Sedge Warbler (Acrocephalus Schoenobaenus) and the Reed Warbler (a. Scirpaceus)
Authors: Catchpole Clive K.
Published: April 2008

The possible functions of male advertising song in the Sedge Warbler (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus) and the Reed Warbler (A. scirpaccus) were studied using both observational and experimental techniques in the field. The seasonal rhythms of advertising song in the populations over three years were found to be species-specific, and were related to male arrival, female arrival and pairing. Population song was also related to population breeding acivity as revealed by the seasonal pattern of egg-laying. When population song was more synchronised, population breeding activiy was more synchronised towards the start of the breeding season. The diurnal rhythms of advertising song in individual marked males were monitored before and after pairing. In Sedge Warbler males advertising song ceased completely after pairing, and only resumed if the female deserted. In Reed Warbler males, a vestige of the former diurnal rhythm remained after pairing, with groups of paired males performing dawn and dusk choruses of 'social song'. The interspecific differences were extended further, as both observations and play-back experiments confirmed that paired male Sedge Warblers did not utilise advertising song in territorial interactions, but performed visual 'threat' displays instead. Male Reed Warblers however utilised advertising song in territorial interactions both before and after pairing. A functional interpretation of advertising song is presented, based upon the observational and experimental evidence collected. It is suggested that the prime function of persistent advertising song in the unpaired male is sexual attraction of the female, and that intermittent advertising song from paired males functions in territorial defence. The precise function(s) of social song in paired males are not known, but some suggestions are discussed. The interspecific differences in the functional spectra of advertising song found in the Reed Warbler (sexual, territorial, social) and Sedge Warbler (sexual only,) are discussed in relation to habitat and social organisation. The Reed Warbler inhabits more dense, non-visual habitats, and the Sedge Warbler more open, visual ones. Thus the Sedge Warbler has developed comparatively more visual forms of advertisement, and the Reed Warbler more vocal forms which in the latter case is reflected particularly in the wider functional spectrum of advertising song. The only common function for which advertising song is utilised in both species is sexual attraction of the female. This, and other evidence discussed suggests that sexual attraction may be the most important and perhaps the most primitive function of advertising song in these species.
Ontogeny of Squirrel Monkey Calls Under Normal Conditions and Under Acoustic Isolation
Authors: Winter Peter , Handley Patricia , Ploog Detlev , Schott Ditmar
Published: April 2008

Five mothers of squirrel monkey infants isolated from other species members were muted by severence of their vocal cords during pregnancy. After delivery, mother infant pairs were brought up in an environment free of any species-specific auditory input. One of these infants underwent a deafening operation five days after birth. In addition, two infants grew up under normal conditions, i.e., exposed to species-specific vocalization. Supplemental data were acquired from six other infants, four of them normally raised and two handraised. Soundspectrograms were taken over a period up to six months in the case of the isolates and up to 17 months for the normal animals. Samples of this spectrographical material were analyzed with respect to the form of calls and to quantitative criteria, such as duration, starting frequency, mid-frequency, and end frequency of peep and cackle calls. Clear evidence is presented that the vocal repertoire of squirrel monkey infants raised under normal conditions and those raised in the absence of species-specific auditory input are virtually identical. Furthermore, comparison of the infants' vocalization with those of adult animals shows no significant differences.
Elimination Patterns in the Laboratory Beagle
Authors: Sprague Randall H. , Anisko Joseph J.
Published: April 2008

Twelve distinct elimination postures were recorded during the present study. Females employed a wider variety of urination postures, eight compared to four in the males. On the other hand, more males urinated during more tests and did so more frequently than the females. Too, the males showed a considerably lower urination latency than the bitches. Females tended to evacuate the bladder all at once while the males would deposit a small amount of urine many times and continue to pseudo-urinate even though no urine was expelled. In the males, urination appeared to be oriented toward the scent of other males or toward conspicuous vertical objects while female urinations tended to be distributed at random. Although most elimination by the females was aimed at the ground, a substantial number of their urinations were directed toward vertical targets as well. The defecation rate was low in both sexes, being slightly higher in the males. Five defecation postures were used by the males as opposed to two by the females. Of the postures observed, two were formerly thought to be used for urination only. Both sexes showed some defecation on vertical targets. Almost one-fourth of male defecations were placed on the fence. A small amount of ground scratching was done, most of it by the males, who scratched only after urination. Scratching appears to function as part of the marking behavior of the dog. It may help to disperse an animal's odor over a wide area as well as making a conspicuous mark on some surfaces.
Improvement and Termination of House Building in the Caddis Larva Lepidostoma Hirtum Curtis
Authors: Hansell M.H.
Published: April 2008

A 5th instar larva of Lepidostoma hirtum is found in the wild in a house of regularly cut leaf panels; however it was shown that, if a larva was removed from this house, it first built a house of sand grains before building onto the front of that, a leaf panel house. The most anterior panels of the house from which the larva had been removed obtained a higher score, as measured by a number of panel features, than the most posterior panels of the reconstructed house. As house reconstruction progressed, however, the panel scores rose until they reached their previous level. When the reconstructed leaf panel portion of the house covered the body of the larva, it cut away the sand grain portion. A larva with anal hooks and hairs removed reconstructed a house that was longer in both sand and leaf portions than that of an intact larva. It differed from an intact larva in not cutting off the sand grain portion of the reconstructed house, and also in the improvement of leaf panel cutting along the length of a reconstructed house. A mechanism controlling the changes in house building is suggested to account for the observed differences between intact and operated animals.
Cues Used in Searching for Food By Red-Winged Blackbirds (Agelaius Phoeniceus)
Authors: Alcock John
Published: April 2008

Sixteen red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) were given an opportunity on each of four consecutive days to search for food items partly hidden in a wooden "food maze". The birds were divided equally into four groups. Each group on Days 1 and 2 of the experiment hunted for one of two baits placed on one of two separate rows of holes in the food maze (either sunflower seed bits in the lower row or seeds in the upper row or mealworm halves in the lower row or mealworms in the upper row). On the second day of the experiment the birds' foraging efficiency had usually improved with the redwings requiring less time to find ten baits. This improvement was linked to the adoption of a long distance scanning strategy which replaced the birds' initial tendency to inspect each hole at close range. On the third day of the experiment the birds were offered the same food item as on Days 1 and 2 but this time equally distributed in the upper and lower rows instead of entirely in one or the other. The redwings' previous experience affected their searching pattern. Birds that had been hunting and finding food only in the upper row continued to concentrate their efforts there. Birds that had been offered food in the lower row of holes initially took several baits there before switching to the upper row baits. On the fourth day of the experiment birds were offered two baits instead of just one. Again previous experience biased the searching behavior of the birds. Redwings that had on earlier days been hunting solely for mealworms usually removed many larvae before finding their first sunflower seed bit. Birds that had been searching for seeds quickly took several before switching to mealworms. It appears likely that redwings are sensitive to both locational and visual cues associated with prey and learn to use them while foraging. These results were discussed in the context of L. TINBERGENS search image hypothesis.