bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Predictable Generalization in Academic Learning as a Result of Preskills and Strategy Training
Authors: Lloyd John , Saltzman Nancy J. , Kauffman James M.
Published: April 2006

The effects of Preskills and Strategy Training were assessed on acquisition of basic multiplication and division skills. In Experiment 1, four boys were first taught preskills for a set of multiplication facts. Preskills alone did not enable children to perform multiplication tasks correctly. When subjects were taught a strategy for using the preskills, they were able to solve problems for which they received the Strategy Training; correct performance generalized to problems for which the preskills but not the strategy had been taught. A multiple-baseline (across subjects) design showed that these effects were reliable. Following Strategy Training each child was given partial Preskill Training for those multiplication facts for which neither Preskills nor Strategy Training had been provided. The children used the preskills to solve the problems correctly. Experiment 2 replicated and extended the findings of Experiment 1 to division and provided a more fine-grained analysis of Strategy Training effects. A novel multiple-baseline design (across subjects) was used in which Strategy Training was introduced successively to three children within a single instructional session lasting 110 minutes, with probes (multiplication and division facts) administered about every nine minutes providing the dependent variables. None of the children completed the division problems correctly during baseline probes. However, they all acquired division skills when taught a strategy. The results of both experiments demonstrate the importance of Preskills Training and the effectiveness of Strategy Training. The results of Experiment 1 showed that generalization across tasks can be predicted when preskills and a strategy are provided; the results of Experiment 2 showed that rapid acquisition of related learning can be obtained by teaching a related strategy.
A Systems Framework for Assessing Attitudes toward the Learning Disabled
Authors: Podemski Richard S. , Marsh George E.
Published: April 2006

This article describes a systems framework for assessing attitudes towards learning disabled students. The framework consists of three levels, each being the locus of attitude development, and each affecting attitude development at the other levels. Level I describes attitudes which affect the goals of the system. Attitudes which pervade the organizational structure of the school are described in Level II. Attitudes within the student environment are described in Level III. Generalizations concerning the framework are drawn to assist researchers, school practitioners, and project directors in formulating research questions and analyzing data regarding the nature and effects of attitudes toward the learning disabled.
The Character of Learning Disabilities: An Iowa Profile
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A. , Reese James H.
Published: April 2006

This article summarizes the findings from The Iowa Learning Disabilities Evaluation Project, designed to study the nature and characteristics of students with learning disabilities (LD) in the state. A sample of 917 LD students was selected on a stratified random basis from Iowa Area Education Agencies (AEA). Data were collected from a survey completed by AEA personnel for each LD student selected focusing on pupil characteristics as well as information related to assessments, programs, and services. The outcome was a comprehensive description and profile of LD students in the state of Iowa.
Key Components of Model Transition Services for Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Rojewski Jay W.
Published: April 2006

Secondary-based transition programs are developed to provide instruction and support for students in transition from school to adult life. Often such programs are general in scope and designed to serve a number of students who share common characteristics (e.g., all students with mild disabilities). However, this type of program design may not adequately address the specific problems or needs of students with learning disabilities. To identify the key components of transition programs for individuals with learning disabilities, nine model programs were reviewed. Seven exemplary program components emerged: individualized planning and coordination; vocational preparation; academic remediation and support; academic, vocational, and social-personal counseling; support systems and services; job seeking and placement; and follow-up/follow-along. Together, these seven components appear to provide students with learning disabilities a set of key services and experiences needed to successfully transition from secondary/postsecondary education to employment and adult life.
Teacher Assistance Teams: A Model for Within-Building Problem Solving
Authors: Chalfant James C. , VanDusen Pysh Margaret , Moultrie Robert
Published: April 2006

Although regular classroom teachers can meet the needs of many mainstreamed children within the regular classroom setting, situations arise when teachers need assistance. In such cases, the classroom teacher often has no place to turn for help. Rather than addressing this problem in the traditional inservice format, the present study proposes a teacher support system model for classroom teachers. Based on a survey of perceived prerequisite skills and competencies for dealing effectively with learning and behavior disorders in the classroom, the Teacher Assistance Team concept was developed to provide a day-to-day peer problem-solving group for teachers within a particular building. The goal of the team is to obtain more efficient and effective delivery of special help to children by placing the initiative for action in the hands of classroom teachers.
The Relationship between Self-Perception of a Learning Disability and Achievement, Self-Concept and Social Support
Authors: Rothman Howard R. , Cosden Merith
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the relationship between self-perception of a learning disability (SPLD) and self-concept and social support. Fifty-six third-through sixth-grade children with learning disabilities were administered Heyman's SPLD scale. This instrument measures the degree to which children view their disability as circumscribed, modifiable and nonstigmatizing rather than global, unchangeable and stigmatizing. Students were also administered two scales developed by Harter to measure general and domain-specific self-concept and social support. Results revealed that children with less negative perceptions of their learning disability had higher math achievement scores. Also, they perceived more positive global self-concept, more intellectual and behavorial competence, and more social acceptance. These children also felt more support from their parents and classmates. The relationship of SPLD to self-concept and social support was maintained after partialing out the influences of actual academic achievement. The importance of helping students more clearly understand the nature of their learning disability is discussed.
Depression and Nonacademic Self-Perceptions in Children with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Heath Nancy Lee , Wiener Judith
Published: April 2006

Nonacademic self-perceptions (social acceptance, athletic ability, physical appearance and behavioral conduct) of depressed and nondepressed children with and without learning disabilities were compared. The nonacademic subscales of the Self-Perception Profile for Learning Disabled Students, a domain-specific self-perception measure, and the Children's Depression Inventory, a self-report inventory of depressive symptomatology, were administered to students in grade 5 ( n=83) and grade 8 ( n=88). Results indicated that self-perceived social acceptance demonstrated a significant relationship with depression only for students with learning disabilities. Furthermore, lower self-perception of physical appearance was related to depression for females but not males. Depressed subjects, regardless of gender, reported lower self-perceptions of behavioral conduct and athletic ability. Consistent with previous findings regarding stereotypical self-perceptions, males reported better self-perceptions of athletic ability than females but lower self-perceptions of behavioral conduct. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.
The Effects of Prior Knowledge and Schema Activation Strategies on the Inferential Reading Comprehension of Children with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Carr Sonya C. , Thompson Bruce
Published: April 2006

The present study compared the reading comprehension abilities of students with learning disabilities (LD) and those of both their age peers and their reading-level peers. Reading passages included familiar and unfamiliar topics, so as to assess the use of prior knowledge under varying conditions. All passages tested inferential reading ability, since the answers to test questions could be inferred from content, but were not explicitly stated. Subject activation and experimenter activation of prior knowledge were also compared. All groups benefited from experimenter activation of prior knowledge, but these benefits were most noteworthy for subjects with LD, and when passage topics were unfamiliar. The subjects with LD performed very similarly to their reading-level peers, as opposed to their age peers. Thus, the findings shed some light on the nature of learning disabilities. Implications for instruction are explored.
The Impact of Positive Mood on Learning
Authors: Bryan Tanis , Mathur Sarup , Sullivan Karen
Published: April 2006

The primary intent of this study was to examine the effects of a brief positive mood induction on a learning task that stimulates beginning reading acquisition. A secondary intent was to examine the durability of this effect across a period of two weeks. Sixty students, half average-achieving and half with learning disabilities, were randomly assigned to either a positive or a neutral mood induction condition. In an effort to control for the effects of prior knowledge, all students received instruction in elementary Hindi language on a series of five tasks. After two weeks, the instruction and tasks were readministered. The results of a MANCOVA indicated that both groups of students in the positive mood condition performed better than those in the neutral condition, although not statistically so. However, gain scores indicated that across a two-week period, students with learning disabilities in the positive condition performed significantly better than students with learning disabilities in the neutral condition.
Classroom Dynamics and Children at Risk: A Followup
Authors: Montague Marjorie , Rinaldi Claudia
Published: April 2006

The two studies reported in this article followed up on an initial investigation of classroom dynamics and young children identified as at risk (AR) for developing learning, emotional, and behavioral disorders (LD/EBD) (Lago-Dellelo, 1998). In the present studies, measures were taken of teacher-student interactions, peer interactions, students' perceptions of their teachers' expectations, student self-perceptions, and academic engaged time. In our first study, when the children were in grades 2 and 3, results replicated those of Lago-Dellelo (1998) conducted the previous year when the children were in grades 1 and 2. That is, significant differences between students at risk for LD/EBD and not-at-risk (NAR) peers were found for type of teacher responses and academic engaged time. Teachers made significantly more negative and nonacademic responses to the AR students, who spent significantly less time on task than NAR peers. In our second followup study, when the children were in grades 3 and 4, significant differences between groups were found for academic engaged time, self-perceptions, and perceptions of teachers' expectations. At-risk students spent less time on task, perceived themselves more negatively, and perceived their teachers as having more negative expectations of them than did NAR students. These findings suggest that as children at risk for LD/EBD get older, they begin to realize that their teachers view them negatively, and in turn begin to view themselves negatively. The effects of this realization on the these students' achievement and self-esteem as well as adult and peer relationships in later years need to be further explored.
The Effectiveness of a Group Reading Instruction Program with Poor Readers in Multiple Grades
Authors: Rashotte Carol A. , MacPhee Kay , Torgesen Joseph K.
Published: April 2006

The effectiveness of a phonologically based reading program delivered to first- through sixth-grade impaired readers in small groups (3–5) was examined. The 115 students from a predominantly low socioeconomic school were selected based on poor phonetic decoding and word-level reading skills, then matched and randomly assigned to one of two groups. The treatment group received the Spell Read program for eight weeks while the no-treatment control received only regular classroom reading instruction. At posttest-1 the treatment group performed significantly better than the controls on phonological awareness and decoding, reading accuracy, comprehension and spelling. Except for fluency, effect sizes were strong for most measures across all grades. Improved reading skills as a result of the phonological program were evident regardless of level of deficiency prior to instruction, and were not limited to specific grades. Outcome scores at posttest-2 after the control group was also given the Spell Read program indicated similar growth in reading. Results provide supportive evidence for small-group instruction as an effective remedial alternative for deficient readers.
Fostering the Search for Understanding: A Teacher's Strategies for Leading Cognitive Development in “Zones of Proximal Development”
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Rozendal Mary S. , Mariage Mary
Published: April 2006

This article reports on the ways in which one teacher led her special education students' cognitive development in their “zones of proximal development,” with a specific focus on her interactions with one preconventional writer. Our examination showed that she advanced the student's performance by involving him in literacy activities in advance of competence, using meaningful text representations to scaffold performance, modeling and apprenticing him in the social dialogue, and assisting his performance through social interactions with peers.
Using Mnemonic Strategies to Teach Information about U.S. Presidents: A Classroom-Based Investigation
Authors: Mastropieri Margo A. , Scruggs Thomas E. , Whedon Craig
Published: April 2006

Over a six-week period, students with learning disabilities in an inner-city middle school were taught the chronological orders of 32 U.S. presidents. For three weeks, they were taught using a modified mnemonic keyword-pegword strategy. For the next three weeks, they were taught using rehearsal and representational pictures. Two weeks subsequent to the six-week instructional period, students were given a delayed posttest in which they were asked to provide the numerical order of the president, given a president name; and the president's name, given the numerical order. Results revealed a significant main effect for instructional condition and a significant condition-by-response interaction, suggesting that information was processed differently, depending on instructional condition. Implications for classroom instruction are provided.
Learning Disability Subtyping, Loneliness, and Classroom Adjustment
Authors: Margalit Malka , Levin-Alyagon Michal
Published: April 2006

This study was designed to identify patterns of social-emotional subgroups among students with learning disabilities. The sample consisted of 122 students from 12 self-contained classes for students with learning disabilities situated in regular schools in Israel. Through cluster analysis using measures of loneliness and externalizing and internalizing behavioral maladjustment, four subgroups of students were identified: two non-lonely groups—one behaviorally adjusted and the other with externalizing maladjustment; and two highly lonely groups—one with high externalizing maladjustment, the other with high internalizing maladjustment. Internal validation through MANCOVA analysis revealed significant differences between subgroups on the three classification criteria. As external validation of the classification, significant intergroup differences were also found on teacher- and student-rated social skills and peer acceptance ratings. Case studies demonstrated subgroup patterns, individual differences, and the personal meaning attributed to loneliness and social relations.
Self-Perceptions and Peer Relations of Boys with and Boys without Learning Disabilities in an Integrated Setting: A Longitudinal Study
Authors: Bear George G. , Juvonen Jaana , McInerney Frances
Published: April 2006

This study examined the self-perceptions and peer relations among nonhandicapped boys and boys with learning disabilities (LD) in full-time integrated classes, grades 3–5. Compared to their nonhandicapped peers, boys with LD demonstrated lower self-perceptions of scholastic competence but not lower self-perceptions of social acceptance. Moreover, they did not differ from their peers in the number of reciprocal friendships or positive peer nominations they received. Results were less clear with respect to differences in negative nominations and self-perceptions of global self-worth and behavioral conduct. Correlations among measures of self-perception and social relations varied as a function of group and time. Overall, results suggest that although boys with LD in integrated classrooms often experience peer rejection and negative self-perceptions in several domains, they manage to maintain adequate self-perceptions of social acceptance by having a few close friends.
Language-Based Spelling Instruction: Teaching Children to Make Multiple Connections between Spoken and Written Words
Authors: Berninger Virginia W. , Vaughan Katherine , Abbott Robert D. , Brooks Allison , Begayis Kristin , Curtin Gerald , Byrd Kristina , Graham Steve
Published: April 2006

Two studies addressed issues related to multiple instructional components in early intervention for at-risk spellers learning to spell polysyllabic words. The first study was a follow-up to a prior second-grade intervention. The fast responders in that study, who were monitored at the beginning and end of third grade ( n=61), maintained their earlier gains during third grade when treatment was withdrawn. Thirty-two of the slower responders received continuing tutoring (12 individual tutorials over 6 to 8 weeks in late fall of third grade), which showed that children who received only alphabet principle training did as well as those who received combined alphabet principle and syllable awareness training (syllable types in English), but that these children required 24 practice trials for short-term mastery of spelling specific words. The second study with a new sample of 48 third graders also evaluated the effectiveness of alphabet principle training only versus combined alphabet principle and syllable awareness training. In these 24 individual tutorials over a 4-month period beginning in the fifth month of third grade, the combined treatment was more effective for (a) spelling untrained transfer words, (b) spelling taught polysyllabic words with a final, silent e syllable, and (c) transfer to phonological awareness. A two-tier model for early intervention to prevent spelling disabilities is proposed. In the first tier alphabet principle is taught (along with other sound-spelling connections for words including syllable awareness) and applied to practice in spelling words singly and in text (teacher-directed dictation and child-generated composition). In the second tier children are monitored in the year following early intervention and continuing tutoring is provided if necessary.
Free Recall as a Test of Reading Comprehension for Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Carlisle Joanne F.
Published: April 2006

Free recall is commonly used to assess reading comprehension in research studies and school practices. Students with learning disabilities (LD) perform less well on recall measures than their nonLD peers. However, memory or expressive language requirements of recall tasks may affect the ability of students with LD to show their understanding of passages. An exploratory investigation was designed to determine whether sixth- and eighth-grade students with LD attending general education science classes performed less well than their nonLD peers on recall of science passages, when differences in passage understanding and domain vocabulary were controlled. The results showed that this was the case. Productivity and recall of main ideas were explored as possible reasons for difficulty with recall tasks. The groups did not differ in productivity, but the sixth and eighth graders with LD were less able to understand and use idea structure for purposes of remembering passage information than their nonLD peers. The results suggest that task requirements of recall measures may pose particular problems for students with LD.
Classifying Children as LD: An Analysis of Current Practice in an Urban Setting
Authors: Tomasi Susan F. , Weinberg Sharon L.
Published: April 2006

A large number of states have continued to include a discrepancy criterion in their regulations for determining a child's learning disability status even though researchers have raised questions regarding the appropriateness of discrepancy formulas and the ability of clinicians to apply such formulas to quantitative data. Given the problems raised with the discrepancy model approach, one must question to what extent clinicians are, in fact, making decisions based upon this approach. This study sought to answer this question using data from 105 case files of predominantly African American children who had been classified as LD in a large, inner-city public school district and who had been receiving special education services for at least three years. Data are evaluated at both initial and triennial evaluations. Implications of results are discussed as are suggestions for future research.
Effects of Cognitive Strategy Instruction on Algebra Problem Solving of Adolescents with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Hutchinson Nancy L.
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the effects of a two-phase cognitive strategy on algebra problem solving of adolescents with learning disabilities. The strategy was designed to enable students to represent and solve three types of word problems. The study used a modified multiple baseline with 11 replications as well as a two-group design. Conditions of the multiple-baseline design included baseline, instruction to mastery, transfer, and maintenance. Visual analysis of the single-subject data showed the strategy to be an effective intervention for this sample of students with deficits in algebra problem solving, but with criterial knowledge of basic operations and one-step problems. Statistical analyses of the two-group data showed that the instructed students had significantly higher posttest scores than the comparison group. Overall, the instructed students demonstrated improved performance on algebra word problems. Maintenance and transfer of the strategy were evident. This study has implications for teaching complex problem solving to adolescents with learning disabilities in secondary schools.
Self-Concept in Children with Learning Disabilities: The Relationship between Global Self-Concept, Academic “Discounting,” Nonacademic Self-Concept, and Perceived Social Support
Authors: Kloomok Shauna , Cosden Merith
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to explore how some children with learning disabilities maintain a positive self-concept despite academic difficulties. The study used Harter's model to investigate the relationship between global self-concept and perceived competence in general intellectual ability, specific academic subjects, athletics, behavior and appearance, and perceived social support. Data were collected on 72 elementary-school students with learning disabilities. Five hypotheses were tested: (a) children would vary in their global and academic self-concept; (b) children with high global self-concept would discount the importance of academics; (c) children with high global self-concept would perceive themselves as more intelligent; (d) children with high global self-concept would perceive themselves as more competent in other, nonacademic domains; and (e) children with high global self-concept would perceive higher levels of social support. Data supported all hypotheses except discounting. Implications for interventions with students with learning disabilities are discussed.
The Effects of Story Prompts on the Narrative Production of Students with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Graves Anne , Semmel Melvyn , Gerber Michael
Published: April 2006

The effects of four types of prompting conditions on the narrative productions of seventh- and eighth-grade students with learning disabilities (LD) and without learning disabilities (NLD) were investigated. Participants were asked to write four stories for which a beginning, middle, end, or no prompt was given in a randomly assigned order. Results indicated differences between LD and NLD groups in both quantity and quality of story production across prompts. A significant group-by-prompt interaction supported the experimental hypothesis. The difference between the quality of LD and NLD stories was significantly greater following the middle-prompt condition; that is, the LD group scored significantly lower when offered the middle prompt than under the other prompting conditions. The results are interpreted as supporting the theoretical position that students with LD reveal relatively greater propensity for linear-sequential processing. Hence, the quality of their writing performance on tasks requiring recursive processing is lower than that of NLD students.
A Process Approach to Remediating Word-Decoding Deficiencies in Chapter 1 Children
Authors: Carlson Jerry S. , Das J.P.
Published: April 2006

Difficulties in remediating reading deficiencies in Chapter 1 children have been well documented. Using samples of children from this population, we report the results of two studies employing a recently developed program designed to remediate word-decoding deficiencies. The Process-Based Reading Enhancement Program (PREP) is based on the Luria-Das model of information integration. It involves instruction twice weekly over 14 to 16 weeks. In Study 1, 50 children were randomly selected from a fourth-grade Chapter 1 population. From this group, random assignment was made to experimental and comparison groups ( N=25 in each group). The PREP was administered using a student-teacher ratio of 2 to 1. The Word Attack and Word Identification subtests of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised (WRMT-R) were used as pre- and posttests. For both measures, significant group-by-time interactions were detected. In Study 2, a different sample of 100 Chapter 1 fourth-grade children was randomly divided into remediation and comparison groups (after attrition, Ns=37 and 41, respectively). As in Study 1, all children were pretested and posttested on alternate forms of the Word Attack and Word Identification subtests of the WRMT-R. The time x treatment interactions were significant for both measures. The results of these studies support the efficacy of the PREP to improve word-reading and decoding abilities.
Integrating Low- and High-Level Skills in Instructional Protocols for Writing Disabilities
Authors: Berninger Virginia W. , Abbott Robert D. , Whitaker Diane , Sylvester Leihua , Nolen Susan B.
Published: April 2006

Twenty-four children with writing problems were given instruction in handwriting automaticity, spelling strategies, and the composing process (plan, write, review, revise) in 14 one-hour individual tutorials during the summer between third and fourth grade. Half the children (8 boys, 4 girls) received extra practice in composing, while half the children (8 boys, 4 girls) received special training in orthographic and phonological coding. Hierarchical linear modeling of growth curves was used to compare the treatment groups to a non-contact control group (10 boys, 5 girls) on a standard battery at pretest, midtest, posttest, and the two treatment groups with each other on probe measures of handwriting, spelling, and composition in each tutorial session. The treatment groups improved at a faster rate than the control group on some measures of handwriting, spelling, and composition (fluency and quality) in the standard battery, but Verbal IQ did not predict rate of improvement. Differences were found between the two treatment groups in some probe measures of writing and a motivation variable (work avoidance). Repeated-measures ANOVA was used to compare treatment groups to a non-contact control group at pretest, midtest, posttest, and follow-up. Differences between the treatment and control groups favoring the treatment groups were maintained at 6-month follow-up on some handwriting, spelling, and composition (quality) measures. Individual differences were found in learner characteristics prior to treatment and in response to the same treatment. The importance of affect and motivation as well as cognitive variables is emphasized.
Current Understanding of the Genetic Basis of Reading and Spelling Disability
Authors: Raskind Wendy H.
Published: April 2006

Dyslexia is a common developmental disorder of unknown etiology. Behavioral and biological studies of dyslexia are complicated by its phenotypic heterogeneity and the lack of uniformly applied diagnostic criteria. In the past 20 years, increasingly powerful genetic technologies and statistical methodologies have been applied to identify genomic locations for genes involved in this complex heterogeneous disorder. This article reviews studies addressing the genetic contributions to dyslexia.
Occupational Aspirations and Early Career-Choice Patterns of Adolescents with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Rojewski Jay W.
Published: April 2006

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) database was used to examine the influence of gender and learning disability status on the occupational aspirations and career-choice patterns of adolescents at grades 8 and 10. Results indicated that adolescents with learning disabilities displayed different career-choice patterns and strategies than their nondisabled peers at two points early in the career-exploration stage: Youth with learning disabilities were less likely to aspire to high-prestige occupations and were more likely to be indecisive about future occupational alternatives. Females with learning disabilities appeared to be at particularly high risk of setting limits on their occupational futures. In terms of career-choice patterns, nondisabled youth were more likely to identify occupations within a particular prestige level and remain consistent from grade 8 to grade 10. By comparison, youth with learning disabilities were more likely to express lower or indecisive aspirations in early adolescence and then report higher aspirations in mid-adolescence.
Is IQ-Achievement Discrepancy Relevant in the Definition of Arithmetic Learning Disabilities?
Authors: González Juan E. Jiménez , Espínel Ana I. Garcia
Published: April 2006

This study was designed to test whether the criterion based on the IQ-achievement discrepancy is useful in the definition of arithmetic learning disabilities (ALD). A sample of children with ALD, garden-variety (G-V) poor mathematics performance (i.e., the poor arithmetic performance of children of below-average intelligence is believed to be nondiscrepant, or in accordance with their lower cognitive capabilities) and normally achieving children were selected using the standard-score discrepancy method (i.e., the differences between IQ and achievement standard scores). All the groups were compared to determine whether there were differences in solving addition and subtraction word problems and in other cognitive abilities related to mathematics such as working memory. There were no significant differences between children with ALD and children with G-V poor mathematics performance in solving arithmetic word problems or on working memory tasks. The performance of both groups with arithmetic disabilities was significantly below that of normally achieving children. This means that the criterion based on the IQ-achievement discrepancy does not seem to be relevant for differentiating between children with ALD and children with G-V poor mathematics performance.
Learning to Effectively Implement Constant Time Delay Procedures to Teach Spelling
Authors: Hughes Trudie A. , Fredrick Laura D. , Keel Marie C.
Published: April 2006

This study examined the effectiveness of a training procedure designed to teach a special education resource teacher the constant time delay procedures. In addition, the study examined the effectiveness of constant time delay procedures in teaching written spelling words to one 12-year-old male student with a learning disability. A multiple-probe design across behaviors was used to demonstrate the functional relationship between the time delay procedure and the student acquiring, maintaining, and generalizing 15 spelling words. The investigation specifically sought to address teacher-training issues related to instructional procedures, student acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. The teacher successfully implemented the procedure with 100% treatment integrity and the student learned to spell all 15 spelling words.
Transition for Youths with Learning Disabilities: A Focus on Developing Independence
Authors: Reiff Henry B. , de Fur Sharon
Published: April 2006

Youths with learning disabilities encounter more difficulty in making a successful transition to employment and independence than their nondisabled peers. Consequently, they can benefit from implementation of recent federal legislation and the accompanying requirements for transition planning and services. Of particular value for youths with learning disabilities is the philosophy underlying these legislative initiatives of self-determination for individuals with disabilities. For youths with learning disabilities to realize these benefits, education and post-secondary service professionals must confront the myths that have previously driven services. This article examines the history of transition policy and legislation, current post-secondary outcome experiences, and transition planning services to improve outcomes for youths with learning disabilities.
Job Accommodations for Adults with Learning Disabilities: Brilliantly Disguised Opportunities
Authors: Jacobs Alice E. , Hendricks Deborah J.
Published: April 2006

The job accommodation needs of adults with a specific learning disability (SLD) are examined through an analysis of cases handled by the consultants at the Job Accommodation Network, an international accommodation information service of the President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities. Case examples are included, which provide practical solutions to common situations involving adults with a SLD in the employment environment. The final section lists useful resources available to those involved in making accommodations for people with a SLD.
Employment Discrimination Law for the Learning Disabled Community
Authors: Grossman Paul David
Published: April 2006

The newly expanded right of individuals with learning disabilities (LD) to be free from discrimination in employment presents the learning disabled community with a promising and exciting challenge. A comprehensive review of court decisions concerning persons with learning disabilities demonstrates that it is not always easy to convince employers and judges that individuals with learning disabilities are covered by disability discrimination laws, that such persons may be entitled to “reasonable accommodation” in order to perform their jobs competently, or that use of expert advice by employers may be necessary to identify the most effective way to remove traditional barriers to the employment of persons with learning disabilities.

Several strategies are described for developing disability employment discrimination law in a direction favorable to the LD community. This discussion should ensure that individuals with learning disabilities and the persons who advise them place neither too much nor too little reliance upon disability employment discrimination law when setting career goals or deciding how to redress adverse treatment by an employer. The information contained in this article also provides insight to experts in learning disabilities about their crucial role in the development of the law.
Facilitating Successful Transition: Using the TRAC Model to Assess and Develop Academic Skills Needed for Vocational Competence
Authors: Minskoff Esther H. , DeMoss Sherry
Published: April 2006

Successful transition from school to employment requires a variety of services, one of which is vocational education at the secondary level. Students with learning disabilities have difficulties meeting the academic demands of mainstream vocational education programs. The TRAC model for assessing and developing academic skills for 26 vocational education programs is described. The TRAC program is designed for use by special education teachers in conjunction with vocational educators to provide a positive first experience for students with learning disabilities in the long transition process to adult competence.
Reference Cohesion in the Oral Narratives of Students with Learning Disabilities and Normally Achieving Students
Authors: Roth Froma P. , Spekman Nancy J. , Fye Ellen C.
Published: April 2006

The present study compared the use of reference cohesion in oral narratives produced by 93 students with learning disabilities (LD) and normally achieving (NA) students, 14–16 each at the 8:0–9:11, 10:0–11:11, and 12:0–13:11 age levels. Narrative stories were collected from each subject under two elicitation conditions: spontaneous story production and story production to a picture. The stories were analyzed for types of reference, distance, and direction of referential link. The results indicated significant group, age, and task effects. The LD students used reference ties less accurately than NA peers, produced fewer correct ties per T-unit, and demonstrated a lower rate of correct Article usage than the NA group. Further, the LD students relied most heavily on nonimmediate reference ties, while the NA students made greater use of immediate reference ties. The primary age-related finding was an increase in overall correct use of reference cohesion as a function of increased age. With regard to task differences, both the LD and the NA group used a higher proportion of correct reference ties on the spontaneous than on the structured task. Findings are discussed with regard to the development of reference cohesion abilities. Consideration is given to the effects of reference cohesion on text unity and text coherence. Implications for classroom performance are suggested.
Comparison of the Peer Status of Mexican-American Students with Learning Disabilities and Non-Disabled Low-Achieving Students
Authors: Ochoa Salvador Hector , Palmer Douglas J.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of achievement on the peer status of Mexican-American male and female pupils with LD in academic and play contexts in classrooms where all students displayed low achievement. Participants were fourth- and fifth-grade pupils in a metropolitan school district in the Southwest. The sample was obtained from 13 compensatory regular education classrooms across six schools. Mexican-American pupils with LD received significantly lower sociometric scores than their low-achieving nondisabled Mexican-American peers even when the entire class was composed of low-achieving students.
General Educators' Instructional Adaptation for Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Fuchs Lynn S. , Fuchs Douglas
Published: April 2006

Over the past decade, we have conducted research exploring methods by which general educators introduce instructional adaptations to meet the needs of students with learning disabilities (LD). This article provides an overview of this research in the area of mathematics. To create a context and rationale for this program of study, we begin by summarizing the levels and types of instructional adaptation general educators typically incorporate into their classrooms. Then, we provide an overview of the methods we have developed to extend general educators' adaptation strategies for students with LD. Finally, we describe a series of studies in which we have explored teachers' planning methods and the associated learning outcomes for children with LD with and without these special interventions in place. Implications for preparing general educators and for the special education full inclusion movement are considered.
Prediction of First-Grade Reading Achievement: A Comparison of Fall and Winter Kindergarten Screenings
Authors: Bishop Anne G.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was threefold: (a) to identify a combination of predictive measures that correlate with reading achievement, (b) to examine the predictive accuracy of these measures, and (c) to determine the most accurate time frame for test administration in kindergarten. One hundred and three kindergarten students from three schools participated over a period of two years. Measures representing letter identification, phonological awareness, phonological memory, and rapid automatized naming were administered in the fall and winter of the kindergarten year. Reading achievement was measured at the end of grade 1 using measures that included passage comprehension, fluency, sight-word recognition, and phonemic decoding. Five predictive models representing a combination of the predictive constructs were analyzed. The model combining letter identification, phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming was identified as the best predictor of early reading achievement. There was no practical, significant difference between the fall and winter testing time frames. These findings hold important implications for predictive research by clarifying the importance of administering standardized measures that reflect the reading process. Most important, the results can provide practitioners with information for identifying the children most in need of early reading interventions.
Self-Image and Peer Acceptance of Dutch Students in Regular and Special Education
Authors: Bakker Joep T. A. , Bosnian Anna M. T.
Published: April 2006

This study focused on differences in well-being and peer acceptance of three groups of low-achieving students in regular and special education in the Netherlands. Well-being was assessed by means of a self-image scale consisting of 39 statements and peer acceptance through sociometric nomination and rank-order procedures. Low-achieving students in regular education who received remedial help had a similar self-image and were equally accepted by their peers as the low-achieving students in regular education who did not receive remedial support. Students in special education, however, had a slightly better self-image and were also a little more accepted by their peers than the low-achieving students in regular education. Low-achieving students in regular education who received remedial support neither profited nor suffered from their “needy” status regarding peer acceptance.
Evidence and Metaphor in Evolutionary Archaeology
Authors: Bamforth Douglas B.
Published: April 2006

Evolutionary theory and terminology are widely used in recent archaeological work, and many evolutionary archaeologists have argued that the integration of such theory and terminology is essential to the future of our field. This paper considers evolutionary archaeology from two perspectives. First, it examines substantive claims that archaeology can study the operation of Darwinian evolution, either through a reliance on optimal-foraging theory or by linking the process of natural selection to archaeological data. It concludes that there are serious problems with both of these claims on Darwin: the relation between evolution and foraging theory has never been documented, and midrange arguments linking selection and archaeological data are unsustainable. Second, it argues that archaeologists rely metaphorically on evolutionary terminology to help make sense out of archaeological data. Although the use of evolutionary metaphor can be, and has been, problematic, it also offers a powerful conceptual framework for our research. However, this framework is only of one of a number of comparable frameworks that have been offered to our field, as a comparison of systems archaeology and evolutionary archaeology shows.
Archaeological Objectives and Statistical Methods: A Frontier in Archaeology
Authors: Tugby Donald J.
Published: April 2006

Eighteen archaeological objectives are ordered within two general classes: Class A, placement of archaeological units—traits, types, and assemblages — within a space-time framework, and Class B, integration of the units in a cultural context. Four levels of interpretation of data are distinguished: identification, unidimensional distribution, bidimensional distribution, and processual analysis. Statistical methods appropriate to the different levels of interpretation, including cluster analysis, matrix analysis, and factor analysis, are discussed. It is suggested that the matrix method provides a statistical model of findings in archaeological field work. It is concluded that archaeological theory can be advanced by interpretation in terms of series rather than in terms of classes.
The Recovery and First Analysis of an Early Holocene Human Skeleton from Kennewick, Washington
Authors: Chatters James C.
Published: April 2006

The nearly-complete, well-preserved skeleton of a Paleoamerican male was found by chance near Kennewick, Washington, in 1996. Although analysis was quickly suspended by the U.S. government, initial osteological, archaeological, and geological studies provide a glimpse into the age and life of this individual. A radiocarbon age of 8410 ± 60 B.P., stratigraphic position in a widely-dated alluvial terrace, and an early-Cascade style projectile point healed into the pelvis date the find to the late Early Holocene. Initial osteological analysis describes the man as middle-aged, standing 173.1 ± 3.6 cm tall and weighing approximately 70-75 kg. Healthy as a child, he later suffered repeatedly from injuries to his skull, left arm, chest, and hip, in addition to minor osteoarthritis and periodontal disease. His physical features, teeth, and skeletal measurements show him to be an outlier relative to modern human populations, but place him closer to Pacific Islanders and Ainu than to Late Prehistoric Amerinds or any other modern group. Despite his uniqueness relative to modern peoples, he is not significantly different from other Paleoamerican males in most characteristics.
Radiocarbon-Dated Archaeological Remains on the Northern and Central Great Plains
Authors: Neuman Robert W.
Published: April 2006

This paper consolidates and summarizes the mass of radiocarbon determinations that has accumulated in various books, journals, newsletters, and manuscripts between 1951 and the spring of 1965. The dates are derived from Paleo-Indian, Archaic, Early Ceramic, and Late Prehistoric occupations in the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and the Plains areas of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Iowa. Included are 195 radiocarbon dates attesting to the presence of man on the Plains for the last 12,000 years.