bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dahomey and the Slave Trade: Reflections on the Historiography of the Rise of Dahomey
Authors: Law Robin
Published: January 2009

The rise of the kingdom of Dahomey coincided with the growth of the slave trade in the area, and consequently has often served as a case study of the impact of the slave trade upon African societies. The article reviews the historiography of the rise of Dahomey, in an attempt to clarify the relationship between the nature of the Dahomian state and its participation in the slave trade. It considers, and refutes, the view that the rulers of Dahomey had originally intended to bring the slave trade to an end. It examines the militaristic character of the Dahomian state, and suggests that this is best understood as a consequence of increased warfare stimulated by the overseas market for war captives. Finally, it examines and partially endorses those views which have presented the political centralization of Dahomey as a constructive response to the problems of order posed by slave-raiding.
La Traite Atlantique des Esclaves et ses Effets économiques et sociaux en Afrique: la Cas du Galam, Royaume de l'Hinterland Sénégambien au dix-huitième Siècle
Authors: Bathily Abdoulaye
Published: January 2009

L'Historiographie se rapportant à la traite atlantique des esclaves en Afrique révèle deux tendances majeures. L'une est représentée par les travaux dont la préoccupation majeure est de quantifier les phénomènes démographiques engendrés par la traite. L'autre s'efforce au contraire d'évaluer ies conséquences de la traite dans le contexte global de l'évolution des formations sociales africaines à l'ère du capitalisme mercantile.
The Nyasaland Tea Industry in the Era of International Tea Restrictions, 1933-1950
Authors: Palmer Robin
Published: January 2009

The Tea Industry in the Cholo and Mlanje districts of southern Nyasaland emerged during the 1930s under the shelter of the International Tea Regulation Scheme of 1933 which restricted exports by the world's leading producers. In contrast to its East African neighbours, Nyasaland's Tea Industry was well organized locally by the Nyasaland Tea Association and was effectively represented in Britain by its London Committee. Though having to accept restrictions on the planting of new tea, which occasioned some local controversy, the industry, in common with other tea-producing countries, benefited from the rising prices of the 1930s for which the Tea Regulations were largely responsible. By 1938 tea had become one of Nyasaland's few profitable industries. A seeming further advantage was the bulk buying scheme, at guaranteed prices, organized by the British Ministry of Food which lasted throughout the 1940s, but the industry's wartime performance was sluggish as a consequence of poor growing seasons combined with serious shortages of manpower and fertilizer. As a poor quality, low price producer facing chronic labour shortages, which prevented millions of pounds of tea from being picked, Nyasaland greeted with hostility Imperial decisions to withdraw eastern Africa from the International Tea Scheme in 1948, to end bulk buying in 1950, and generally to encourage the free expansion of production. Nyasaland's tea planters were told that henceforth they must face open competition.
Society and Place in Nineteenth-Century North Lincolnshire
Authors: Rawding Charles
Published: January 2009

The development of any particular society has to be understood in terms of the economic processes at work at the time, together with the cultural influences which permeate society, and the specific nature of the place in which these cultural and economic influences operate. The visible results of these influences and processes must be seen historically. That is to say, the entity being studied is a constantly changing sequence of processes both present and past. These processes need to be viewed dialectically.
Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: the social context of illegitimacy in rural Kent
Authors: Reay Barry
Published: January 2009

More bad history has been written about sex than any other subject. Our ignorance about the sexual attitudes and behaviour of people in the past is compounded by a desire to rush to rash generalisation. This is unfortunate, for (consciously or not) our perceptions of the present are shaped by our assumptions about the past. Britain's current preoccupation with ‘Victorian values’ is but a politically visible example of a more general phenomenon. And, more specifically, we do not know a great deal about lower-class sexuality in nineteenth-century England. There are studies of bourgeois desires and sensibilities, but little on the mores of the vast bulk of the population.

As Jean Robin has demonstrated recently, one of the most fruitful approaches to the subject is the detailed local study – the micro-study. It may not appeal to those with a penchant for the broad sweep, but such an approach can provide a useful entry into the sexual habits of the people of the past. This article is intended as a follow-up to Robin's work. It deals with a part of rural Kent and, like Robin's work, it covers an aspect of nineteenth-century sexuality – in this case, the social context of illegitimacy. More particularly, this study (and here I differ from Robin) will question the usefulness of the concept of a ‘bastardy-prone sub-society’ (more of which later), a term still favoured by many historical sociologists. The experience of rural Kent suggests that bearing children outside marriage should be seen not as a form of deviancy but rather as part of normal sexual culture.
The Performance of British Agriculture and the Impact of the Common Agricultural Policy: An Historical Review
Authors: Burkitt Brian , Baimbridge Mark
Published: January 2009

United Kingdom (UK) accession into the European Economic Community (EEC), which became a political likelihood in 1970 and an actuality in 1973, led to a major change in agricultural policy away from a deficiency payments system supporting farmers' incomes towards the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) method of assistance through farm prices above the market level. Such a basic alteration in government activity not only imposed well-known and thoroughly researched costs on the British economy in the form of higher food prices and an additional burden of protection, it also undermined dominant post-1945 historical trends.

Firstly, it reversed a thirty year old process towards greater British self-sufficiency Between 1938 and 1946 UK agricultural production rose in value from 42% to 52% of the country's food imports, while under the deficiency payments scheme, permanently established in peacetime by the 1947 Agriculture Act, the proportion of UK food consumption supplied by domestic producers grew steadily until it reached a level of just under 72% in 1972. EEC membership, involving compulsory adoption of the CAP, initially reversed this movement; British agricultural self-sufficiency fell to 66% in 1977, the year when the Common External Tariff (CET) was first applied in full. The higher import bill that inevitably resulted imposed a severe strain on the UK balance of payments, estimated by the pro-market. Heath government in 1970 at a net annual deterioration in the range of 18% to 26%.
Patientenziele und Therapieerfolg
Authors: Klappheck Marc Aurel , Michalak Johannes
Published: January 2009

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Persönliche Ziele werden dann motiviert verfolgt, wenn Personen optimistisch sind den durch das Ziel beschriebenen Zielzustand und seine Folgen zu erreichen (telische Zieltheorien), aber auch, wenn die Zielverfolgung an sich erfüllend und intrinsisch belohnend ist (selbstdeterminierte Zielverfolgung). Fragestellung: Wie gut lässt sich der Therapieerfolg von Psychotherapiepatienten auf der Grundlage ihres Optimismusses persönliche Ziele zu erreichen und dem Grad der Selbstdeterminiertheit ihrer Ziele, vorhersagen? Methode: An einer Stichprobe von 53 Psychotherapiepatienten wurden Eigenschaften von persönlichen Zielen mit Hilfe eines idiographisch-nomothetischen Vorgehens erhoben und zur Vorhersage von fünf retrospektiven Erfolgsmaßen und der Symptomveränderung benutzt. Ergebnisse: Signifikanten Vorhersagewert besaß vor allem der während der Therapie erhobene Optimismus, das Ziel „Besserung der Symptome” zu erreichen: Schlussfolgerungen: Für Therapeuten dürfte es wichtig sein, den Optimismus bezüglich der Symptombewältigung kontinuierlich zu erfassen und gegebenenfalls zu steigern.
Suicidal Ideation and Behavior and Some Psychological Correlates in Physically Disabled Motor-Vehicle Accident Survivors
Authors: Juriić Brigita , Maruič Andrej
Published: January 2009

Background. Previous research has shown some maladaptive psychological reactions and even increased incidence of various mental disorders in patients with spinal cord injury during their rehabilitation. Self-concept and suicidal risk in particular have not been studied often in these samples. Aims. Our principal goal was to explore suicidal ideation and behavior, self-concept, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and correlations among these traits, in subjects after a motor vehicle accident (MVA) resulting in permanent physical disability. Methods. Our sample consisted of 50 individuals with paraplegia, tetraplegia, or significant amputation, of whom eight had a family history of suicidal behavior. The following assessment instruments were used: an anamnestic data questionnaire; the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale; the Impact of Event Scale-Revised; and the Suicidal Ideations and Behaviour Questionnaire. Results. Rehabilitating patients with spinal cord injury were characterized by low total self-concept, presence of PTSD symptoms, and suicidal ideation and behavior. PTSD symptoms were correlated with low self-concept and suicidal tendencies. Conclusions. While limited by small sample size, our study results support the need to further explore suicide risk and psychological correlates in patients with permanent physical disability.
Suicidal Ideation
Authors: Chamberlain Peter , Goldney Robert , Delfabbro Paul , Gill Tiffany , Dal Grande Lora
Published: January 2009

Background. Suicidal ideation is an important risk factor for suicide attempts and completions, and early identification of the likely presence of self-harm cognitions would benefit clients and clinicians alike. This study examined the clinical utility of the Kessler K10 psychological distress score as an indicator of suicidal ideation. Methods. Suicidal ideation was assessed on the basis of four relevant questions contained in the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28), and these were subsequently analyzed against the K10 scores. The data were collected using a monthly risk-factor surveillance system where each month a representative random sample of South Australians over the age of 16 years is interviewed. The cumulative data covered the period 2002 to 2007 (n = 12,884). Results. Psychological distress and suicidal ideation were reported by 9.9% and 5.1% of the participants, respectively. Univariate analysis demonstrated a positive linear relationship between the K10 score and suicidal ideation. Participants scoring in the very high range of the K10 were more likely to report suicidal ideation and this was experienced with greater frequency than by those who were less distressed. A logistic regression analysis revealed that even those in the moderate category were four times more likely to experience suicidal ideation than those in the low category, and those in the high and very high categories were 21 and 77 times more likely, respectively. Separate models based on sex and using odds-ratios based on very high vs. low K10 scores showed that males were 104 times more likely to report suicidal ideation compared to a 63 times higher rate for females. Both sexes had a 52% probability of experiencing suicidal ideation if they fell into the very high distress group. Conclusions. The K10 score is a clinically useful indicator of the presence of suicidal ideation.
Do Personality Traits Modulate the Effect of Emotional Visual Stimuli on Auditory Information Processing?
Authors: Mardaga Solange , Hansenne Michel
Published: January 2009

Several lines of evidence attest robust relationships between personality dimensions and emotions, including cognitive aspect of emotion. More particularly, many studies reported strong relationships between extraversion, the behavioral activation system (BAS), and the cognitive processing of positive information, on the one hand, and between neuroticism, the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), and the processing of negative information, on the other hand. Recently, DePascalis, Awari, Matteucci, and Mazzocco (2005 ) reported that personality traits modulated the effect of the emotional visual stimuli on the mismatch negativity (MMN). The aim of the present study was to replicate these data and extend them to other personality dimensions. Auditory MMN was recorded in normal subjects simultaneously to the presentation of emotional pictures selected as neutral, positive, or negative from the International Affective Picture System, and presented in randomized order. The results support the recent finding that personality (namely, BIS and harm avoidance) modulates the influence of emotional (negative) context on auditory information processing. The present findings suggest that the modulation by personality of change detection in the unattended environment as a function of context valence is limited to unpleasant context.
Evaluating the Physical Attractiveness of Oneself and Ones Romantic Partner
Authors: Swami Viren , Stieger Stefan , Haubner Tanja , Voracek Martin , Furnham Adrian
Published: January 2009

The present study sought to extend recent work by examining individual and relationship variables that predict the love-is-blind bias, that is, a tendency to perceive ones romantic partner as more attractive than oneself. A sample of 113 men and 143 women completed a battery of tests that included various demographic, individual difference, and relationship-related measures. Results provided support for a love-is-blind bias, in that both women and men rated their romantic partners as significantly more attractive than themselves on overall attractiveness and the attractiveness of various body components. Results also showed that the Big Five personality factor of Extraversion, self-esteem, relationship satisfaction, and romantic love were positively correlated with the love-is-blind bias, whereas relationship length and playful love were negatively correlated with the bias. The results of this study are considered in relation to previous work on positive partner illusions.
Dimensions of dry snow slab avalanches from field measurements
Authors: McClung D. M.
Published: January 2009

Dry slab avalanches release by a sequence of propagating fractures. In this paper, I provide field measurements of the important length parameters resulting from fractures for hundreds fallen slabs including depth, length, and width. The field data show wide variations in these parameters. Probability plots of all dimensions (length, width, and depth) suggest they approximately obey log normal probability density functions. Given slab dimensions, two applications are considered on the basis of the field data. These applications are: (1) Estimates of total fracture energy consumed around the perimeter of the slab are given, where it is presumed fracture is mostly mode I, and along the base (weak layer) of the slab, where shear fracture (mode II and III) is expected. For average characteristic dimensions, the analysis suggests that energy consumed on the perimeter is somewhat less than in the weak layer. Even though fracture energy around the perimeter is expected to be higher than in the weak layer, the larger area fractured in shear at the base of the slab compared to area fractured in tension around the perimeter results in a comparable amount of total energy needed around the perimeter. (2) Approximate estimates of avalanche mass for average characteristic dimensions based on slab depth D (the only length possibly known prior to avalanching) are made. The mass is considered related to destructive potential and simple guidelines are given to estimate mass in relation to D with validation by considering concurrent size and estimates of D by mountain guides.
Spatiotemporal patterns of changes in maximum and minimum temperatures in multi‐model simulations
Authors: Zhou Liming , Dickinson Robert E. , Dirmeyer Paul , Dai Aiguo , Min Seung‐Ki
Published: January 2009

This paper analyzes and attributes spatial and temporal patterns of changes in the diurnal cycle of land surface air temperature in 20 simulations from 11 global coupled atmosphere‐ocean general circulation models during the 20th century and the 21st century under the SRES A1B scenario. Most of the warming in the maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures from 1900 to 2099 is attributed to enhanced surface downward longwave radiation (DLW), while changes in surface downward shortwave radiation (DSW) and cloud cover mainly contribute to the simulated decrease in the diurnal temperature range (DTR). Although the simulated DTR decreases are much smaller than the observed during the 20th century, the models unanimously predict substantial warming in both Tmax and Tmin and decreases in DTR, especially in high latitudes during the 21st century, in response to enhanced global‐scale anthropogenic forcings (particularly greenhouse effects of atmospheric water vapor and in part aerosol radiative cooling in the tropics) and increased cloudiness in high latitudes.
Carbon storage in permafrost and soils of the mammoth tundra‐steppe biome: Role in the global carbon budget
Authors: Zimov N. S. , Zimov S. A. , Zimova A. E. , Zimova G. M. , Chuprynin V. I. , Chapin F. S.
Published: January 2009

During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), atmospheric CO2 concentration was 80–100 ppmv lower than in pre‐industrial times. At that time steppe‐tundra was the most extensive biome on Earth. Some authors assume that C storage in that biome was very small, similar to today's deserts, and that the terrestrial carbon (C) reservoir increased at the Pleistocene‐Holocene transition (PHT) by 400–1300 Gt. To estimate C storage in the entire steppe‐tundra biome we used data of C storage in soils of this biome that persisted in permafrost of Siberia and Alaska and developed a model that describes C accumulation in soils and in permafrost. The model shows a slow but consistent C increase in soil when permafrost appears. At the PHT, C‐rich frozen loess of Europe and South of Siberia thawed and lost most of its carbon. Soil carbon decreases as tundra‐steppe changes to forest, steppes and tundra. As a result, over 1000 Gt C was released to the atmosphere, oceans, and other terrestrial ecosystems. The model results also show that restoring the tundra‐steppe ecosystem would enhance soil C storage, while providing other important ecosystem services.
Climate change projections for the tropical Andes using a regional climate model: Temperature and precipitation simulations for the end of the 21st century
Authors: Urrutia Rocío , Vuille Mathias
Published: January 2009

High‐elevation tropical mountain regions may be more strongly affected by future climate change than their surrounding lowlands. In the tropical Andes a significant increase in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns will likely affect size and distribution of glaciers and wetlands, ecosystem integrity, and water availability for human consumption, irrigation, and power production. However, detailed projections of future climate change in the tropical Andes are not yet available. Here we present first results for the end of the 21st century (2071–2100) using a regional climate model (RCM) based on two different emission scenarios (A2 and B2). The model adequately simulates the spatiotemporal variability of precipitation and temperature but displays a cool and wet bias, in particular along the eastern Andean slope during the wet season, December–February. Projections of changes in the 21st century indicate significant warming in the tropical Andes, which is enhanced at higher elevations and further amplified in the middle and upper troposphere. Temperature changes are spatially similar in both scenarios, but the amplitude is significantly higher in RCM‐A2. The RCM‐A2 scenario also shows a significant increase in interannual temperature variability, while it remains almost unchanged in RCM‐B2 when compared to a 20th century control run. Changes in precipitation are spatially much less coherent, with both regions of increased and decreased precipitation across the Andes. These results provide a first attempt at quantifying future climate change in the tropical Andes and could serve as input for impact models to simulate anticipated changes in Andean glaciation, hydrology, and ecosystem integrity.
Genetic and Environmental Contributions to BMI in Adolescent and Young Adult Women
Authors: Duncan Alexis E. , Agrawal Arpana , Grant Julia D. , Bucholz Kathleen K. , Madden Pamela A.F. , Heath Andrew C.
Published: January 2009

The objective of this study was to determine the genetic and environmental contributions to variation in BMI over time in European‐American (EA) and African‐American (AA) adolescent and young adult women. Self‐reported BMI (kg/m2) data from 2,816 EA (1,306 twin pairs, 56.5% monozygotic (MZ)) and 404 AA (178 twin pairs, 42.7% MZ) women at baseline (T1; median age 15 years) and 3,225 EA (1,511 twin pairs, 55.3% MZ) and 539 AA (252 pairs, 43.3% MZ) women at follow‐up (T2; median age 22 years) from a Midwestern US, population‐based twin registry were used to construct biometrical genetic models. For EA women, the majority of the variance in BMI was attributable to additive genetic effects at both time points (82% for each), with the remaining variance attributable to nonshared environment. Genetic and nonshared environment correlations between adolescent and young adult BMI were 0.87 and 0.23, respectively. Among AA women, nonadditive genetic effects comprised 68% of the variance at T1 and 73% at T2, and were highly correlated (rD = 0.94). The proportions of variance attributable to nonshared environment at T1 (29%) and T2 (25%) were more modestly correlated (rE = 0.31). The remaining variance in AA women could be attributed to additive genetic effects. Additive vs. nonadditive genetic effects contribute differentially to BMI in AA vs. EA adolescent and young adult women. Additional research is needed to better characterize the environmental and genetic factors related to BMI in persons of different races to aid understanding of the complex determinants of body weight in individuals.
Crystal structure of rat haem oxygenase-1 in complex with ferrous verdohaem: presence of a hydrogen-bond network on the distal side
Authors: Sato Hideaki , Sugishima Masakazu , Sakamoto Hiroshi , Higashimoto Yuichiro , Shimokawa Chizu , Fukuyama Keiichi , Palmer Graham , Noguchi Masato
Published: January 2009

HO (haem oxygenase) catalyses the degradation of haem to biliverdin, CO and ferrous iron via three successive oxygenation reactions, i.e. haem to α-hydroxyhaem, α-hydroxyhaem to α-verdohaem and α-verdohaem to ferric biliverdin–iron chelate. In the present study, we determined the crystal structure of ferrous α-verdohaem–rat HO-1 complex at 2.2 Å (1 Å=0.1 nm) resolution. The overall structure of the verdohaem complex was similar to that of the haem complex. Water or OH− was co-ordinated to the verdohaem iron as a distal ligand. A hydrogen-bond network consisting of water molecules and several amino acid residues was observed at the distal side of verdohaem. Such a hydrogen-bond network was conserved in the structures of rat HO-1 complexes with haem and with the ferric biliverdin–iron chelate. This hydrogen-bond network may act as a proton donor to form an activated oxygen intermediate, probably a ferric hydroperoxide species, in the degradation of α-verdohaem to ferric biliverdin–iron chelate similar to that seen in the first oxygenation step.
Chaperones and protein folding in the archaea
Authors: Large Andrew T. , Goldberg Martin D. , Lund Peter A.
Published: January 2009

A survey of archaeal genomes for the presence of homologues of bacterial and eukaryotic chaperones reveals several interesting features. All archaea contain chaperonins, also known as Hsp60s (where Hsp is heat-shock protein). These are more similar to the type II chaperonins found in the eukaryotic cytosol than to the type I chaperonins found in bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts, although some archaea also contain type I chaperonin homologues, presumably acquired by horizontal gene transfer. Most archaea contain several genes for these proteins. Our studies on the type II chaperonins of the genetically tractable archaeon Haloferax volcanii have shown that only one of the three genes has to be present for the organisms to grow, but that there is some evidence for functional specialization between the different chaperonin proteins. All archaea also possess genes for prefoldin proteins and for small heat-shock proteins, but they generally lack genes for Hsp90 and Hsp100 homologues. Genes for Hsp70 (DnaK) and Hsp40 (DnaJ) homologues are only found in a subset of archaea. Thus chaperone-assisted protein folding in archaea is likely to display some unique features when compared with that in eukaryotes and bacteria, and there may be important differences in the process between euryarchaea and crenarchaea.
Recognition of deaminated bases by archaeal family-B DNA polymerases
Authors: Connolly Bernard A.
Published: January 2009

Archaeal family-B DNA polymerases interact specifically with uracil and hypoxanthine, stalling replication on encountering these deaminated bases in DNA template strands. The present review describes X-ray structural data which elucidate the mechanism of read-ahead recognition of uracil and suggests how this is coupled to cessation of polymerization. The possible role of read-ahead recognition of uracil/hypoxanthine in DNA repair is discussed, as is the observation that the feature appears to be limited to replicative polymerases of the archaeal domain.
Homologous recombination in Sulfolobus acidocaldarius: genetic assays and functional properties
Authors: Grogan Dennis W.
Published: January 2009

HR (homologous recombination) is expected to play important roles in the molecular biology and genetics of archaea, but, so far, few functional properties of archaeal HR have been measured in vivo. In the extreme thermoacidophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, a conjugational mechanism of DNA transfer enables quantitative analysis of HR between chromosomal markers. Early studies of this system indicated that HR occurred frequently between closely spaced mutations within the pyrE gene, and this result was later supported by various analyses involving defined point mutations and deletions. These properties of intragenic HR suggested a non-reciprocal mechanism in which donor sequences become incorporated into the recipient genome as short segments. Because fragmentation of donor DNA during cell-to-cell transfer could not be excluded from contributing to this result, subsequent analyses have focused on electroporation of selectable donor DNA directly into recipient strains. For example, S. acidocaldarius was found to incorporate synthetic ssDNA (single-stranded DNA) of more than ∼20 nt readily into its genome. With respect to various molecular properties of the ssDNA substrates, the process resembled bacteriophage λRed-mediated ‘recombineering’ in Escherichia coli. Another approach used electroporation of a multiply marked pyrE gene to measure donor sequence tracts transferred to the recipient genome in individual recombination events. Initial results indicate multiple discontinuous tracts in the majority of recombinants, representing a relatively broad distribution of tract lengths. This pattern suggests that properties of the HR process could, in principle, account for many of the apparent peculiarities of intragenic recombination initiated by S. acidocaldarius conjugation.
Expanding and understanding the genetic toolbox of the hyperthermophilic genus Sulfolobus
Authors: Wagner Michaela , Berkner Silvia , Ajon Malgorzata , Driessen Arnold J.M. , Lipps Georg , Albers Sonja-Verena
Published: January 2009

Although Sulfolobus species are among the best studied archaeal micro-organisms, the development and availability of genetic tools has lagged behind. In the present paper, we discuss the latest progress in understanding recombination events of exogenous DNA into the chromosomes of Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and their application in the construction of targeted-deletion mutant strains.
Genetics, biochemistry and structure of the archaeal virus STIV
Authors: Fulton Jennifer , Bothner Brian , Lawrence Martin , Johnson John E. , Douglas Trevor , Young Mark
Published: January 2009

STIV (Sulfolobus turreted icosahedral virus) has been the subject of detailed structural, genetic, transcriptomic, proteomic and biochemical studies. STIV arguably has been investigated in more detail than any other archaeal virus. As a result, we know more about STIV than other viruses infecting members of the Archaea domain. Like most viruses isolated from crenarchaeal hosts, STIV has little in common with viruses that infect eukaryotic and bacterial hosts and should be considered the founding member of a new virus family. However, despite this lack of obvious homology with other viruses, STIV has components of gene content, replication strategy and particle structure reminiscent of viruses of the Eukarya and Bacteria domains, suggesting an evolutionary relationship between viruses from all domains of life. The present mini-review describes the current knowledge of this virus and insights it has given us into viral and cellular evolution, as well as newly developed tools for the further study of STIV–host interactions.
ESCRT proteins, endosome organization and mitogenic receptor down-regulation
Authors: Woodman Philip
Published: January 2009

Mitogenic tyrosine kinase receptors such as the EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) are endocytosed once they are activated at the cell surface. After reaching the early endosome, they are ubiquitinated within their cytosolic domain and are consequently sorted away from recycling receptors. They are then incorporated into intraluminal vesicles within the MVB (multivesicular body) en route to the lysosome, where they are degraded. MVB formation requires the stabilization of the vacuolar domain of the early endosome, the segregation of degradative cargo within this domain (with subsequent incorporation of receptors such as EGFR into intraluminal vesicles) and the physical separation and movement of this domain away from the tubular regions of the early endosome. How these different aspects of MVB biogenesis are coupled is unknown, but ESCRTs (endosomal sorting complexes required for transport) have been identified as key molecular players in driving mitogenic receptor sequestration and formation of intraluminal vesicles. The present review summarizes recent findings within the field and from our laboratory regarding the detailed function of ESCRTs and associated proteins in driving the ubiquitin-dependent sorting of EGFR and in maintaining the domain organization of the early endosome.
Structure and function of ESCRT-III
Authors: Lata Suman , Schoehn Guy , Solomons Julianna , Pires Ricardo , Göttlinger Heinrich G. , Weissenhorn Winfried
Published: January 2009

ESCRT-III (endosomal sorting complex required for transport III) is required for the formation and abscission of intraluminal endosomal vesicles, which gives rise to multivesicular bodies, budding of some enveloped viruses and cytokinesis. ESCRT-III is composed of 11 members in humans, which, except for one, correspond to the six ESCRT-III-like proteins in yeast. At least CHMP (charged multivesicular body protein) 2A and CHMP3 assemble into helical tubular structures that provide a platform for membrane interaction and VPS (vacuolar protein sorting) 4-catalysed effects leading to disassembly of ESCRT-III CHMP2A–CHMP3 polymers in vitro. Progress towards the understanding of the structures and function of ESCRT-III, its activation, its regulation by accessory factors and its role in abscission of membrane enveloped structures in concert with VPS4 are discussed.
ESCRTs and human disease
Authors: Saksena Suraj , Emr Scott D.
Published: January 2009

The ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport) machinery plays a critical role in receptor down-regulation, retroviral budding, and other normal and pathological processes. The ESCRT components are conserved in all five major subgroups of eukaryotes. This review summarizes the growing number of links identified between ESCRT-mediated protein sorting in the MVB (multivesicular body) pathway and various human diseases.
Down-regulation of epidermal growth factor receptor signalling within multivesicular bodies
Authors: Eden Emily R. , White Ian J. , Futter Clare E.
Published: January 2009

Activated EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) undergoes ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport)-mediated sorting on to the intraluminal vesicles of MVBs (multivesicular bodies) before degradation in the lysosome. Sorting of endocytosed EGFR on to the intraluminal vesicles of MVBs removes the catalytic domain of the EGFR from the cytoplasm, resulting in termination of receptor signalling. The formation of intraluminal vesicles that contain EGFR is promoted by EGF stimulation in a mechanism that depends on the EGFR substrate, annexin 1. Signalling from endocytosed EGFR is also subject to down-regulation through receptor dephosphorylation by PTPs (protein tyrosine phosphatases), such as PTP1B, an enzyme thought to reside on the ER (endoplasmic reticulum). In the present paper, we review how the phosphorylation state of components of the MVB sorting machinery, as well as the EGFR, may play a critical role in regulating EGFR sorting and signalling.
The ESCRT machinery: new functions in viral and cellular biology
Authors: Carlton Jeremy G. , Martin-Serrano Juan
Published: January 2009

The ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport) machinery consists of a number of cytosolic proteins that make up three functional subcomplexes: ESCRT-I, ESCRT-II and ESCRT-III. These proteins function in multivesicular body formation and cell division and are co-opted by enveloped retroviruses to facilitate viral egress. Analysis of these functions may help illuminate conserved mechanisms of ESCRT function.
Alix and ALG-2 make a link between endosomes and neuronal death
Authors: Mahul-Mellier Anne-Laure , Strappazzon Flavie , Chatellard-Causse Christine , Blot Béatrice , Béal David , Torch Sakina , Hemming Fiona , Petiot Anne , Verna Jean-Marc , Fraboulet Sandrine , Sadoul Rémy
Published: January 2009

Alix [ALG-2 (apoptosis-linked gene 2)-interacting protein X] is a ubiquitinous adaptor protein first described for its capacity to bind to the calcium-binding protein, ALG-2. Alix regulates neuronal death in ways involving interactions with ALG-2 and with proteins of the ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport). Even though all Alix interactors characterized to date are involved in endosomal trafficking, the genuine function of the protein in this process remains unclear. We have demonstrated recently that Alix and ALG-2 form in the presence of calcium, a complex with apical caspases and with the endocytosed death receptor TNFR1 (tumour necrosis factor α receptor 1), thus suggesting a molecular coupling between endosomes and the cell death machinery.
The role of CHMP2B in frontotemporal dementia
Authors: Urwin Hazel , Ghazi-Noori Shabnam , Collinge John , Isaacs Adrian
Published: January 2009

Mutations in the CHMP2B (charged multivesicular body protein 2B) gene that lead to C-terminal truncations of the protein can cause frontotemporal dementia. CHMP2B is a member of ESCRT-III (endosomal sorting complex required for transport III), which is required for formation of the multivesicular body, a late endosomal structure that fuses with the lysosome to degrade endocytosed proteins. Overexpression of mutant C-terminally truncated CHMP2B proteins produces an enlarged endosomal phenotype in PC12 and human neuroblastoma cells, which is likely to be due to a dominant-negative effect on endosomal function. Disruption of normal endosomal trafficking is likely to affect the transport of neuronal growth factors and autophagic clearance of proteins, both of which could contribute to neurodegeneration in frontotemporal dementia.
Amino-acid-induced signalling via the SPS-sensing pathway in yeast
Authors: Ljungdahl Per O.
Published: January 2009

Yeast cells rely on the SPS-sensing pathway to respond to extracellular amino acids. This nutrient-induced signal transduction pathway regulates gene expression by controlling the activity of two redundant transcription factors: Stp1 and Stp2. These factors are synthesized as latent cytoplasmic proteins with N-terminal regulatory domains. Upon induction by extracellular amino acids, the plasma membrane SPS-sensor catalyses an endoproteolytic processing event that cleaves away the regulatory N-terminal domains. The shorter forms of Stp1 and Stp2 efficiently target to the nucleus, where they bind and activate transcription of selected genes encoding a subset of amino acid permeases that function at the plasma membrane to catalyse the transport of amino acids into cells. In the present article, the current understanding of events in the SPS-sensing pathway that enable external amino acids to induce their own uptake are reviewed with a focus on two key issues: (i) the maintenance of Stp1 and Stp2 latency in the absence of amino acid induction; and (ii) the amino-acid-induced SPS-sensor-mediated proteolytic cleavage of Stp1 and Stp2.
PI3K inhibitors for cancer treatment: where do we stand?
Authors: Maira Sauveur-Michel , Stauffer Frédéric , Schnell Christian , García-Echeverría Carlos
Published: January 2009

In contrast with cytotoxic agents that do not differentiate between normal proliferating and tumour cells, targeted therapies primarily exert their actions in cancer cells. Initiation and maintenance of tumours are due to genetic alterations in specific loci. The identification of the genes in which these alterations occur has opened new opportunities for cancer treatment. The PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) pathway is often overactive in human cancers, and various genetic alterations have been found to cause this. In all cases, PI3K inhibition is considered to be one of the most promising targeted therapies for cancer treatment. The present mini-review provides an update on new PI3K inhibitors currently in or entering clinical development. Recent discoveries, challenges and future prospects will be discussed.
Translational responses to growth factors and stress
Authors: Cully Megan , Downward Julian
Published: January 2009

Cellular stresses can induce a wide range of biological responses, depending on the type of stress, the type of cell and the cellular environment. Stress-mediated changes in translational output cover a broad spectrum of potential responses, including an overall decrease in translation or an increase in the translation of specific mRNAs. Many of these changes involve post-translational modifications of components of the translational machinery. The mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) pathway is a critical regulator of growth and translation in response to a wide variety of signals, including growth factors, amino acids and energy availability. Through its kinase activity, mTOR activation results in the phosphorylation of translational components and an increase in translation. As stress-mediated changes in translational output are context-dependent, the interplay between stress and mTOR in the control of translation is also likely to depend on factors such as the strength and type of incident stress. In the present paper, we review mTOR-dependent and -independent translational responses, and discuss their regulation by stress.
Rag proteins regulate amino-acid-induced mTORC1 signalling
Authors: Sancak Yasemin , Sabatini David M.
Published: January 2009

The serum- and nutrient-sensitive protein kinase mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) is a master regulator of cell growth and survival. The mechanisms through which nutrients regulate mTOR have been one of the major unanswered questions in the mTOR field. Identification of the Rag (Ras-related GTPase) family of GTPases as mediators of amino acid signalling to mTOR is an important step towards our understanding of this mechanism.
Placental mTOR links maternal nutrient availability to fetal growth
Authors: Roos Sara , Powell Theresa L. , Jansson Thomas
Published: January 2009

The mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signalling pathway functions as a nutrient sensor, both in individual cells and, more globally, in organs such as the fat body in Drosophila and the hypothalamus in the rat. The activity of placental amino acid transporters is decreased in IUGR (intrauterine growth restriction), and recent experimental evidence suggests that these changes contribute directly to the restricted fetal growth. We have shown that mTOR regulates the activity of the placental L-type amino acid transporter system and that placental mTOR activity is decreased in IUGR. The present review summarizes the emerging evidence implicating placental mTOR signalling as a key mechanism linking maternal nutrient and growth factor concentrations to amino acid transport in the human placenta. Since fetal growth is critically dependent on placental nutrient transport, placental mTOR signalling plays an important role in the regulation of fetal growth.
Neuroinflammatory changes increase the impact of stressors on neuronal function
Authors: Piazza Alessia , Lynch Marina A.
Published: January 2009

In the last few years, several research groups have reported that neuroinflammation is one feature common to several neurodegenerative diseases and that similar, although perhaps less profound, neuroinflammatory changes also occur with age. Age is the greatest risk factor in many neurodegenerative diseases, and the possibility exists that the underlying age-related neuroinflammation may contribute to this increased risk. Several animal models have been used to examine this possibility, and it is now accepted that, under experimental conditions in which microglial activation is up-regulated, responses to stressors are exacerbated. In the present article, these findings are discussed and data are presented from in vitro and in vivo experiments which reveal that responses to Aβ (amyloid β-peptide) are markedly up-regulated in the presence of LPS (lipopolysaccharide). These, and previous findings, point to a vulnerability associated with inflammation and suggest that, even though inflammation may not be the primary cause of neurodegenerative disease, its treatment may decelerate disease progression.
The discovery of fission
Authors: Frisch Otto R. , Wheeler John A.
Published: January 2009

THE NEUTRON was discovered in 1932. Why, then, did it take seven years before nuclear fission was found? Fission is obviously a striking phenomenon; it results in a large amount of radioactivity of all kinds and produces fragments that have more than ten times the total ionization of anything previously known. So why did it take so long? The question might be answered best by reviewing the situation in Europe from an experimentalist's point of view.
Growth and characterization of Nd-doped Ca0.28Ba0.72Nb2O6 crystal
Authors: Gao W. L. , Zhang H. J. , Liu D. , Xu M. , Wang J. Y. , Yu Y. G. , Jiang M. H. , Sun S. Q. , Xia H. R. , Boughton R. I.
Published: January 2009

We report the growth of a Nd-doped calcium barium niobate (Nd:CBN-28) single crystal using the Czochralski method. The point group and space group of Nd:CBN-28 are determined to be tetragonal 4mm and P4bm, respectively, and the effective segregation coefficients of Nd, Ca, Ba, and Nb are 0.988, 1.029, 0.992, and 0.985, respectively. The density of the material is 5.321 g cm−3 at 19.6 °C, in good agreement with the theoretical value. Thermal expansion measurements reveal that during the heating cycle, the c-axis of Nd:CBN-28 undergoes both thermal contraction and thermal expansion, while at the same time there is only expansion along the a-axis. Specific heat measurements reveal that an anomaly appears at about 220 °C due to a phase transition. The thermal diffusivity increases slowly with increasing temperature. The thermal conductivity of the crystal has been calculated from these results, and the phonon mean free paths la and lc along the a- and c-axes of Nd:CBN-28 crystal are estimated. The transmission spectrum of Nd:CBN-28 crystal along the [001] direction has been measured.
Direct evidence of gas-induced laser beam smoothing in the interaction with thin foils
Authors: Benocci R. , Batani D. , Dezulian R. , Redaelli R. , Lucchini G. , Canova F. , Stabile H. , Faure J. , Krousky E. , Masek K. , Pfeifer M. , Skala J. , Dudzak R. , Koenig M. , Tikhonchuk V. , Nicolaï Ph. , Malka V.
Published: January 2009

The process of laser beam homogenization in a gas medium placed in front of a thin metallic foil has been studied. Experiments were performed using the Prague Asterix Laser System iodine laser [Jungwirth et al., Phys. Plasmas 8, 2495 (2001)] working at 0.44μm wavelength and irradiance of about 1015W∕cm2. Homogenization was detected both by directly analyzing the transmitted laser beam and by studying the shock breakout on the foil rear side. Results show that the gas ionization by the laser pulse induces a strong refraction and produces an effective smoothing of large-scale intensity nonuniformities.
Mechanisms of countergradient diffusion in turbulent combustion
Authors: Yoshizawa Akira , Fujiwara Hitoshi , Abe Hiroyuki , Matsuo Yuichi
Published: January 2009

The mechanism of countergradient diffusion of chemical species and heat in turbulent combustion is sought with the aid of the results by the two-scale direct-interaction approximation. The deviation of the Reynolds stress and the turbulent fluxes of chemical species, heat, and mass from their gradient-diffusion representations is related to the Lagrange derivatives of mean velocity and scalars. Their relative magnitude to the gradient-diffusion parts paves the way for explaining the countergradient diffusion. Towards engineering applications, these theoretical findings are converted to a Reynolds-averaged model. It consists of a closed system of equations for the mean density, the mean velocity, the mean internal energy, and the mean scalar, with the turbulence equations for the kinetic energy and its dissipation rate supplemented. This system is tested in a turbulent premixed flame and is shown to reproduce some of the characteristics pointed out by the direct numerical simulation.
The responsibilities of physicists for the future
Authors: Harrison George R.
Published: January 2009

“Scientists should have a greater awareness of their responsibilities to society.” This statement, often heard nowadays, has the ring of truth, but the specific responsibilities are seldom listed except in a vague way. When they are discussed by humanists some of the principal responsibilities turn out to be of a sort scientists cannot accept. Usually there lurks in the, background an insinuation that physicists, having released on an unsuspecting world some sinister force such as nuclear energy, should bottle up their djinn again and be more careful in the future. A number of commentators have even gone so far as to state flatly that humanity would be much better off if science had been nipped in the first bud and never allowed to develop its materialistic control over man at all.