bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TIPE drives a cancer stem-like phenotype by promoting glycolysis via PKM2/HIF-1α axis in melanoma
Authors: Tian Maojin , Yang Le , Zhao Ziqian , Li Jigang , Wang Lianqing , Yin Qingqing , Hu Wei , Lou Yunwei , Du Jianxin , Zhao Peiqing
Published: December 2024

TIPE (TNFAIP8) has been identified as an oncogene and participates in tumor biology. However, how its role in the metabolism of tumor cells during melanoma development remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that TIPE promoted glycolysis by interacting with pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) in melanoma. We found that TIPE-induced PKM2 dimerization, thereby facilitating its translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. TIPE-mediated PKM2 dimerization consequently promoted HIF-1α activation and glycolysis, which contributed to melanoma progression and increased its stemness features. Notably, TIPE specifically phosphorylated PKM2 at Ser 37 in an extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-dependent manner. Consistently, the expression of TIPE was positively correlated with the levels of PKM2 Ser37 phosphorylation and cancer stem cell (CSC) markers in melanoma tissues from clinical samples and tumor bearing mice. In summary, our findings indicate that the TIPE/PKM2/HIF-1α signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in promoting CSC properties by facilitating the glycolysis, which would provide a promising therapeutic target for melanoma intervention.
Predicting the causal relationship between polyunsaturated fatty acids and cerebral aneurysm risk from a Mendelian randomization study
Authors: Yu Weijie , Zhou Liwei , Li Chongfei , Lu Zhenwei , Chen Xiaoyu , Yu Hao , Chen Xiaoyan , Huang Qionghui , Li Zhangyu , Xiao Deyong , Mei Yunyun , Wang Zhanxiang
Published: December 2024

No conclusive evidence for a link between polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and cerebral aneurysm has been found in observational research. The aim of our study was to determine the causal impact of PUFA on cerebral aneurysm.Two sample Mendelian randomization (MR) was performed using genetic instruments derived from a recent genome wide association study (GWAS) of fatty acids from UK Biobank and outcome data obtained from the large-scale cerebral aneurysm GWASs in European ancestry which include IA, aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) and unruptured intracranial aneurysm (uIA). Sensitivity analyses were implemented with MVMR, MR-Egger intercept test, MR-PRESSO, leave-one-out analysis and so on. Bayesian colocalization (COLOC) methods was conducted to focus on the association between the fatty acid gene expression and cerebral aneurysm.Genetically predicted assessed omega-3 fatty acids decreased the risk for IA (OR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.69 - 0.91, P = 1.01ⅹ10
-3
) and aSAH (OR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.61 - 0.84, P = 3.73ⅹ10
-5
). Furthermore, the Docosahexaenoic acid decreased the risk for IA (OR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.63 - 0.87, P = 3.12ⅹ10
-4
) and aSAH (OR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.55 - 0.8, P = 2.32ⅹ10
-5
). The same results were discovered from ratio of omega-3 fatty acids to total fatty acids. While the ratio of omega-6 fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids increased the risk of IA (OR = 1.27, 95% CI: 1.12 – 1.44, P = 1.53ⅹ10
-4
) and aSAH (OR = 1.35, 95% CI: 1.17 – 1.56, P = 5.78ⅹ10
-5
). The result of the COLOC suggested that the above four kinds of fatty acids and IA, aSAH likely share causal variants in gene fatty acid desaturase 2, separately.This study utilized integrative analysis of MR and colocalization to discover causal relationships between genetic variants, PUFA and cerebral aneurysm.This study was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China (82072777), the Natural Science Foundation of Xiamen (3502Z20227097), Fujian Provincial Health Commission, Provincial Health and Health Young and Middle-aged Backbone Talent Training Project (2022GGB010).
Impact of the clinically approved BTK inhibitors on the conformation of full-length BTK and analysis of the development of BTK resistance mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukemia
Authors: Joseph Raji E , Wales Thomas E , Jayne Sandrine , Britton Robert G , Fulton D Bruce , Engen John R , Dyer Martin JS , Andreotti Amy H
Published: December 2024

Inhibition of Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) has proven to be highly effective in the treatment of B-cell malignancies such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), autoimmune disorders, and multiple sclerosis. Since the approval of the first BTK inhibitor (BTKi), Ibrutinib, several other inhibitors including Acalabrutinib, Zanubrutinib, Tirabrutinib, and Pirtobrutinib have been clinically approved. All are covalent active site inhibitors, with the exception of the reversible active site inhibitor Pirtobrutinib. The large number of available inhibitors for the BTK target creates challenges in choosing the most appropriate BTKi for treatment. Side-by-side comparisons in CLL have shown that different inhibitors may differ in their treatment efficacy. Moreover, the nature of the resistance mutations that arise in patients appears to depend on the specific BTKi administered. We have previously shown that Ibrutinib binding to the kinase active site causes unanticipated long-range effects on the global conformation of BTK (Joseph et al., 2020). Here, we show that binding of each of the five approved BTKi to the kinase active site brings about distinct allosteric changes that alter the conformational equilibrium of full-length BTK. Additionally, we provide an explanation for the resistance mutation bias observed in CLL patients treated with different BTKi and characterize the mechanism of action of two common resistance mutations: BTK T474I and L528W.
Unveiling chemotherapy-induced immune landscape remodeling and metabolic reprogramming in lung adenocarcinoma by scRNA-sequencing
Authors: Huang Yiwei , Wu Gujie , Bi Guoshu , Cheng Lin , Liang Jiaqi , Li Ming , Zhang Huan , Shan Guangyao , Hu Zhengyang , Chen Zhencong , Lin Zongwu , Jiang Wei , Wang Qun , Xi Junjie , Yin Shanye , Zhan Cheng
Published: December 2024

Chemotherapy is widely used to treat lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients comprehensively. Considering the limitations of chemotherapy due to drug resistance and other issues, it is crucial to explore the impact of chemotherapy and immunotherapy on these aspects. In this study, tumor samples from nine LUAD patients, of which four only received surgery and five received neoadjuvant chemotherapy, were subjected to scRNA-seq analysis. In vitro and in vivo assays, including flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, Seahorse assay, and tumor xenograft models, were carried out to validate our findings. A total of 83,622 cells were enrolled for subsequent analyses. The composition of cell types exhibited high heterogeneity across different groups. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that chemotherapy drove significant metabolic reprogramming in tumor cells and macrophages. We identified two subtypes of macrophages: Anti-mac cells (CD45+CD11b+CD86+) and Pro-mac cells (CD45+CD11b+ARG +) and sorted them by flow cytometry. The proportion of Pro-mac cells in LUAD tissues increased significantly after neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Pro-mac cells promote tumor growth and angiogenesis and also suppress tumor immunity. Moreover, by analyzing the remodeling of T and B cells induced by neoadjuvant therapy, we noted that chemotherapy ignited a relatively more robust immune cytotoxic response toward tumor cells. Our study demonstrates that chemotherapy induces metabolic reprogramming within the tumor microenvironment of LUAD, particularly affecting the function and composition of immune cells such as macrophages and T cells. We believe our findings will offer insight into the mechanisms of drug resistance and provide novel therapeutic targets for LUAD in the future.
A transcription network underlies the dual genomic coordination of mitochondrial biogenesis
Authors: Zhang Fan , Lee Annie , Freitas Anna V , Herb Jake T , Wang Zong-Heng , Gupta Snigdha , Chen Zhe , Xu Hong
Published: December 2024

Mitochondrial biogenesis requires the expression of genes encoded by both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. However, aside from a handful transcription factors regulating specific subsets of mitochondrial genes, the overall architecture of the transcriptional control of mitochondrial biogenesis remains to be elucidated. The mechanisms coordinating these two genomes are largely unknown. We performed a targeted RNAi screen in developing eyes with reduced mitochondrial DNA content, anticipating a synergistic disruption of tissue development due to impaired mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) deficiency. Among 638 transcription factors annotated in the Drosophila genome, 77 were identified as potential regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis. Utilizing published ChIP-seq data of positive hits, we constructed a regulatory network revealing the logic of the transcription regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis. Multiple transcription factors in core layers had extensive connections, collectively governing the expression of nearly all mitochondrial genes, whereas factors sitting on the top layer may respond to cellular cues to modulate mitochondrial biogenesis through the underlying network. CG1603, a core component of the network, was found to be indispensable for the expression of most nuclear mitochondrial genes, including those required for mtDNA maintenance and gene expression, thus coordinating nuclear genome and mtDNA activities in mitochondrial biogenesis. Additional genetic analyses validated YL-1, a transcription factor upstream of CG1603 in the network, as a regulator controlling CG1603 expression and mitochondrial biogenesis.
Single-cell profiling reveals the intratumor heterogeneity and immunosuppressive microenvironment in cervical adenocarcinoma
Authors: Peng Yang , Yang Jing , Ao Jixing , Li Yilin , Shen Jia , He Xiang , Tang Dihong , Chu Chaonan , Liu Congrong , Weng Liang
Published: December 2024

Cervical adenocarcinoma (ADC) is more aggressive compared to other types of cervical cancer (CC), such as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and tumor heterogeneity are recognized as pivotal factors in cancer progression and therapy. However, the disparities in TIME and heterogeneity between ADC and SCC are poorly understood.We performed single-cell RNA sequencing on 11 samples of ADC tumor tissues, with other 4 SCC samples served as controls. The immunochemistry and multiplexed immunofluorescence were conducted to validate our findings.Compared to SCC, ADC exhibited unique enrichments in several sub-clusters of epithelial cells with elevated stemness and hyper-malignant features, including the Epi_10_CYSTM1 cluster. ADC displayed a highly immunosuppressive environment characterized by the enrichment of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and tumor-promoting neutrophils. The Epi_10_CYSTM1 cluster recruits Tregs via ALCAM-CD6 signaling, while Tregs reciprocally induce stemness in the Epi_10_CYSTM1 cluster through TGFβ signaling. Importantly, our study revealed that the Epi_10_CYSTM1 cluster could serve as a valuable predictor of lymph node metastasis for CC patients.This study highlights the significance of ADC-specific cell clusters in establishing a highly immunosuppressive microenvironment, ultimately contributing to the heightened aggressiveness and poorer prognosis of ADC compared to SCC.
Design of Pulse Sequences for Low-Field Cardiac MRI Using Bloch Simulations
Authors:   , Castillo Passi Carlos
Published: December 2024

The recent development of high-end scanners offers the potential to make cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) more accessible and affordable. However, adapting cardiac imaging sequences from higher fields such as to presents significant challenges.To address these challenges, we employed MRI simulations, which have proven effective for optimizing imaging parameters at novel field strengths. Nevertheless, current MRI simulators have performance, ease of use, and extensibility problems. Consequently, a new open-source MRI simulator with GPU acceleration, written in Julia, was developed. Its speed, accuracy, extensibility, and ease of use were demonstrated to be superior to currently available alternatives.This simulator was used to adapt two sequences, previously implemented at traditional field strengths, to . These sequences are for free-breathing 3D whole-heart cardiac MRI: (1) CMRA for cardiac angiography and (2) iprep-BOOST for simultaneous angiography and vessel wall imaging. Image navigators (iNAVs) were employed for non-rigid respiratory motion correction to enable 100% respiratory scan efficiency, while patch-based denoising techniques were used to mitigate the reduced signal-to-noise ratio at and accelerate the scans. As explained, for both sequences, the parameters were adjusted using MRI simulations and in-vivo experiments, focusing on improving SNR, contrast, and fat suppression. Both sequences were assessed using quantitative and qualitative scores, achieving excellent image quality and vessel sharpness comparable to previous studies.Finally, a comparison between the optimized sequences and their counterparts was conducted by acquiring images from the same cohort of healthy subjects. Image quality was comparable, with improvements observed in regions of high susceptibility, such as the lung vessels.In conclusion, this work successfully developed cardiac MRI sequences at using MRI simulations, demonstrating image quality comparable to their counterparts. Further evaluation of these sequences in patients with cardiovascular diseases will be necessary to determine the diagnostic quality provided.
Fostering Character and Attitudes in Mathematics: The Role of Independent Curriculum at Nurul Ilmi Islamic Elementary School in the Era of Educational Disruption
Authors: Hidayati Astuti , Syahrial  , Sulistiyo Urip
Published: December 2024

This study aims to determine the effect of implementing character education on the development of attitudes from the perspective of mathematics learning in the independent curriculum at Nurul Ilmi Integrated Islamic Elementary School Jambi. This study uses a quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental design. The population in this study were all second-grade students, totaling 236 people, who were divided into 10 study group classes. The sample used in this study was 29 class 2D students, who were taken randomly. The data in this study were collected using test techniques (pretest and posttest) from the perspective of mathematics learning. The data analysis used was the N-gain test and the T-test. The results of the study showed that the application of character education in grade 2 of SD Islam Terpadu Nurul Ilmi had a positive and significant effect on the development of student attitudes, both spiritual and social attitudes. The average increase in students' spiritual and social attitudes was in the "medium" category but tended to be "high." Thus, it is recommended for teachers to be more professional in implementing character learning in schools in various learning contexts.
Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Revolution in Bihar: A Critical and Systematic Review
Authors: Lal Sudhanand Prasad , De Sarbangi
Published: December 2024

The mushroom farming revolution in Bihar represents a landmark in the state’s agricultural and socio-economic transformation. Over the years, the adoption of mushroom cultivation has not only provided a viable livelihood alternative to small-scale farmers but also demonstrated the potential of sustainable agriculture. The movement’s success stems from a combination of factors, including optimal climate conditions, technological interventions, and robust community engagement. Initiatives such as low-cost storage facilities, value-added products like mushroom pickles and powders, and awareness programs have amplified the scope of this agricultural shift. Mushroom farming has not only offered economic benefits but also addressesed environmental challenges by recycling agricultural waste and promoting sustainable practices. There has been phenomenal growth in its mushroom production during the last two years. At a production level of 28,000 tonnes for 2021-22, it grew to 41,310 tonnes during 2023-24, having achieved a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of nearly 21.46%. The high rate of growth was due to an increase in the adaptation of mushroom cultivation practices amongst growers, advancement in the techniques of cultivation, and also due to increased demand for mushrooms in the state. Such a high CAGR, though, really spells out Bihar's potential to play an important role in India's mushroom production landscape, thereby contributing to agricultural diversification and rural income generation. This underscores the importance of education, training, and local leadership in driving large-scale socio-economic changes. Bihar’s remarkable growth in mushroom production, from negligible production to becoming India’s top most mushroom producing state, showcases the transformative power of innovation and community-driven approaches in agriculture. This success serves as a model for other regions aiming to achieve agricultural sustainability and rural empowerment in the field of mushroom cultivation.
Synergistic Effects of Phosphorus, Molybdenum, and Rhizobium on Greengram (Vigna radiata L.) Yield in Light Textured Soil
Authors: Patel D.A. , Malav J.K. , Jat J.R.
Published: December 2024

A field experiment was carried out during kharif, 2019 and 2020 in different adjoining similar sites at Agronomy Instructional Farm, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture Sardar krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardar krushinagar. The soil of the experimental field was loamy sand. The experiment comprised of eighteen treatment combinations i.e. three levels of phosphorus (P1 : 20 kg P2O5 ha-1, P2 : 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 and P3 : 60 kg P2O5 ha-1); three levels of molybdenum (Mo0 : 0.0 kg Mo ha-1, Mo1 : 0.5 kg Mo ha-1 and Mo2 : 1.0 kg Mo ha-1) and two levels of Rhizobium (R0 : without rhizobium inoculation and R1 : with rhizobium inoculation) were evaluated with GM 4 cultivar of green gram in randomized block design (R.B.D.) with factorial concept with three replications. Results revealed that application of 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 0.5 kg Mo ha-1 significantly enhanced the all-nodulation parameters, growth, yield attributes, seed and stover yields of greengram over 20 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 0.0 kg Mo ha-1. Seed inoculation with Rhizobium significantly improved the numbers and weight of effective nodules per plant at 45 and 60 DAS, and others parameters i.e., yield attributes, seed and stover yield. Hence, application of 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 along with 0.5 kg Mo ha-1 and seed inoculation with Rhizobium were found to be most beneficial for greengram variety GM 4 grown in the light textured soils.
Assessing Farmers' Knowledge on e-NAM: Advancing Agricultural Market Transformation in Nizamabad District, Telangana, India
Authors: Jabeen Afshan , R Vasantha. , P Prashanth. , Padmaja.B
Published: December 2024

The study assesses farmers' knowledge of the Electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) in Nizamabad district, Telangana, a key agricultural hub producing crops like turmeric, maize, and pulses. e-NAM, a digital initiative, aims to improve price discovery, reduce transaction costs and empower farmers. However, adoption has been slow due to factors like low awareness, limited digital literacy, and infrastructure challenges. The study involved 120 respondents, including 60 farmers, 20 market officials, 20 traders, and 20 commission agents. Data were collected using structured interview schedule, and statistical tools were employed to analyze knowledge levels and identify adoption barriers.  Findings revealed that 43.4% of farmers had medium knowledge, 40% had low knowledge, and 16.6% had high knowledge of e-NAM. In contrast, market officials showed a higher level of awareness, with 60% having high knowledge, followed by traders (60% with medium knowledge) and commission agents (65% with medium knowledge). The analysis indicates the need for targeted capacity-building programs, such as workshops and hands-on training, to enhance knowledge, especially for farmers, traders, and commission agents. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance of user-friendly digital tools, video tutorials in local languages, and improved internet connectivity were highlighted ad critical factors to bridge the digital divide. The study emphasises the importance of enhancing farmers knowledge off e-NAM to ensure its effective adoption. Policy interventions, such as subsidies for digital tools and improved connectivity are essential for addressing knowledge gaps. Strengthening the role of market officials through advanced training could streamline norms implementation, promoting market efficiency, reducing intermediaries influence and enhancing farmers income levels
Phanigiri
Authors: Shimada Akira
Published: October 2021

Phanigiri is an early Buddhist site in the Nalgonda district of Telangana state, southeastern India. Recent excavations in 2001–7 and 2018 revealed extensive remains of a Buddhist monastic complex on the top of a granite hill with abundant sculptures and inscriptions and a hoard of lead coins issued by a local feudatory. The sculptural, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence suggests that the peak period of the monastery was the late Ikṣvāku period and even after (ca. the late third–fourth centuries
ce
).
Sufism in Khurasan/Central Asia
Authors: Papas Alexandre
Published: October 2021

Sufism emerged in Khurasan and Central Asia during the ninth and tenth centuries in the form of circles of followers organized around spiritual masters. Either practicing various professions or living as mendicants, Sufis gathered in lodges calledkhanaqahto experience pious companionship. Masters were often trained as religious scholars and were well‐versed in Islamic disciplines, including law. Among them, medieval authors such as Sulami and Tirmidhi shaped the so‐called Khurasani school of Sufism based on regional spiritual traditions. Thanks in part to the patronage of rulers seeking religious legitimacy, Sufi institutions spread in the region. In this favorable context, Sufi scholars of the eleventh century elaborated principles of organization and spiritual progress. Two phenomena arose in the history of Sufism before and after the Mongol conquest: the elaboration of Persian mystical poetry and the advent of Sufi lineages. In a time of crisis preceding the nomads' surge, poets such as Sanaʾi delivered a salutary message. In response to the disorder caused by the invasions, early Sufi orders strengthened the institutionalization of Sufism. The main Sufi orders in the region included the Kubrawiyya, the Yasawiyya, and the Naqshbandiyya, each characterized by specific teachings related to, among other things, ritual repetitions and spiritual inner life. They developed in branches headed by missionary deputies in Khurasan, Transoxania, Khwarezm, Badakhshan, and the Kazakh Steppe. Especially under the Timurids (fifteenth century), Sufism became a mainstream culture, a source of inspiration and constant reference in the writings of influential polymaths such Jami and Nawaʾi. Lastly, beside Sufi orders, marginal mystics with antinomian practices livened up the socioreligious scene of cities like Herat.
Conversion to Islam, Iran/Central Asia
Authors: Bulliet Richard W.
Published: October 2021

An overview and methodological discussion of conversion to Islam from 650 to 1000, and from 1000 to 1500.
Ruhushak
Authors: Potts D. T.
Published: October 2021

Ruhushak
is an Elamite kinship term denoting Ego as the sister's son of a ruler. It was used in different periods as a royal epithet.
Athibu, Governor of Kabnak
Authors: Mofidi‐Nasrabadi Behzad
Published: October 2021

Athibu was the great governor of Kabnak, administrator and confidante of the king Tepti‐ahar in the early Middle Elamite period (about 1500–1320bce).
Adad‐Erish, Superintendent of Inshushinak‐Shar‐Ili
Authors: Mofidi‐Nasrabadi Behzad
Published: October 2021

Adad‐erish was a high‐ranking official in the early Middle Elamite period (about 1500–1320bce) at Haft Tappeh.
Untash‐Napirisha
Authors: Matsushima Eiko
Published: October 2021

Untash‐Napirisha was a king of the Igihalkid Dynasty during the Middle Elamite period. According to the Berlin Letter, he was born to Humban‐numena and a granddaughter (or a daughter or niece) of Kurigalzu, and himself married Burnaburiash's daughter. The synchronism with Burnaburiash referred to here places Untash‐Napirisha's reign at ca. 1340–1300bce. Even now, questions about the genealogy of the Igihalkids remain. Untash‐Napirisha left many inscriptions in Elamite. Most of them are temple foundation inscriptions on bricks, with traditional structure: name, filiation, title, designation of the holy building(s), and verb(s) of construction. Further actions, reasons behind constructions, and maledictions against defilers, were often added. Some texts in Akkadian and an Elamite‐Akkadian text are known. At Susa Untash‐Napirisha built/restored the temples of about eighteen gods of varying origin, from the lowlands, the highlands, and Mesopotamia. Many inscribed bricks excavated at Choga Zanbil (ancient Āl‐Untash Napirisha) document the foundation works of a new city planned by Untash‐Napirisha. The main part was a massive temple complex for about twenty‐five deities. The great ziggurat, dedicated to Inshushinak and Napirisha, still remains in situ. Styling himself “king of Anshan and Susa,” Untash‐Napirisha wanted to realize here the unification of the highlands and lowlands of Elam.
Anshan (Tal‐e Malyan)
Authors: Carter Elizabeth
Published: October 2021

Anshan (Anzan/Anšan) is a geographic name that appears most commonly in the titulary of the Middle Elamite kings – “kings of Susa and Anshan.” Rulers of the early Sukkalmah period also occasionally refer to themselves as kings of Anshan and Susa. Anshan (modern Tal‐e Malyan) was identified on the basis of numerous inscribed brick fragments of king Huteludush Inshushinak (1125–1104
bce
) found on the mound. It lies 500 kilometers southeast of Susa in an upland internal drainage basin of the central Zagros range in the Kur River Basin of Fars Province, Iran. Excavations and survey revealed occupations of the mound in the late fourth through early second millennia
bce
and during the last centuries of the second millennium
bce
, the late Middle Elamite period.
Tahirids
Authors: Azad Arezou
Published: October 2021

The Tahirids were a line of governors who served the Abbasid caliphs in Khurasan, and held high offices in Iraq in the third/ninth century (205–78/821–91). Tahir (I) b. al‐Husayn, the namesake of the line, was a 
mawlā
 commander. The Tahirids were loyal servants to the caliphs, which set them apart from the later dynasts, such as the Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids, who asserted a much larger degree of autonomy toward the caliphs.
Proto‐Elamite
Authors: Dahl Jacob
Published: October 2021

Proto‐Elamite is the conventional name given to the earliest indigenous writing system from Iran. Proto‐Elamite is a derived writing system, developed from the older proto‐cuneiform writing system invented in neighboring Mesopotamia. Proto‐Elamite had a very restricted use, entirely connected to the administration of the agricultural production of small or midsize households. Nevertheless, proto‐Elamite developed features unknown in contemporary Mesopotamian writing, and spread across all of what is today the modern country of Iran. The reasons for its disappearance remain unknown and most of the texts undeciphered.
Statue of Napir‐Asu
Authors: Wicks Yasmina
Published: October 2021

Excavations by the
Délégation scientifique française en Perse
at Susa in 1903 unveiled a life‐size statue identified by its inscription as an image of Napir‐Asu, wife of the Middle Elamite king Untash‐Napirisha (ca. 1340–1300
bce
). The sculpture, which depicts the exquisitely dressed and adorned queen standing with her right hand resting over the left in front of her waist, is composed of a bronze core and a copper outer shell. It was produced using a sophisticated casting technique incorporating lost‐wax, and additional details were chased into the copper surface after the sculpture was cast. The style and decorative elements of the garment, which include dotted circles to imitate precious metal appliqués, layers of luscious fringes, and complex geometrical arrangements of hatches, zigzag lines, dots, and triangles suggestive of embroidery, are typical of royal female dress in both Napir‐Asu's era and later, as is the right‐over‐left‐hand gesture. This rare surviving example of large‐scale ancient Near Eastern metal sculpture offers insights into the highly developed copper and bronze casting technology achieved at the time of Untash‐Napirisha.
Funerary Heads (Susa, Haft Tappeh)
Authors: Wicks Yasmina
Published: October 2021

During the Middle Elamite period (ca. 1500–1000
bce
), certain inhabitants of the Elamite city of Susa introduced the use of modeled unbaked clay human heads into their funerary practices. The heads are near life‐size and depict both men and women, often with carefully detailed and individualized hairstyles, adornment, facial features, and expressions. These details were variously modeled, incised, and painted on, and clay or bitumen eyes were inlaid. Modeled clay heads have been unearthed mainly in tomb chambers, but being unbaked and prone to disintegration, it is possible that others simply have not survived or been recognized in other burial types. Their vulnerability makes it difficult to judge the extent to which they had permeated the funerary practices of Susa's society. According to current knowledge, the use of modeled clay heads was restricted to this city and did not extend more broadly through the Elamite world. Two well‐made heads were found at neighboring Haft Tappeh (Haft Tepe) in an atelier close to an elite tomb complex, but the jury remains out on whether they would have been intended for funerary contexts.
Greco‐Persian Wars
Authors: Hyland John O.
Published: October 2021

The Greco‐Persian Wars were a series of conflicts over the first half of the fifth centurybcebetween Achaemenid Persian military forces and coalitions of Greek city‐states on the empire's northwestern frontier.
Achaemenid Diplomacy
Authors: Hyland John O.
Published: October 2021

Achaemenid Persian diplomacy extended the empire's patronage over a peripheral client network, exchanging favor for deference from dependent partners. It is best attested in Persia's relations with Aegean Greek states, including efforts to secure their surrender before the Greco‐Persian Wars, the funding of Sparta against Athens in the Peloponnesian War, and the imposition of the King's Peace in the early fourth century.
Khandagiri/Udayagiri
Authors: Owen Lisa N.
Published: October 2021

Khandagiri/Udayagiri is an ancient Jain rock‐cut site in the state of Odisha, India. It features over thirty caves that were used as residences for Jain ascetics. Patrons of the site include the ancient king Kharavela and other anonymous donors. Many of the caves date between 50
bce
and 100
ce
and are carved with sumptuous sculptural programs. Subjects that are carved across the site include floral and vegetal motifs as well as figures presented in various acts of devotion. Structural monuments include the foundations of an ancient
caitya
hall and stone memorials that were erected in later periods. The art historical and epigraphical evidence at Khandagiri/Udayagiri assists scholars in reconstructing the history of Jainism in this region.
Artaxerxes II
Authors: Hyland John O.
Published: October 2021

Artaxerxes II (r. 404–358
bce
) was the longest‐reigning monarch of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Victorious over the rebellion of his brother Cyrus the Younger in 401, he engaged in major building activities at Susa and imposed the King's Peace on Persia's Greek periphery (386), but was unsuccessful in efforts to reclaim the breakaway province of Egypt.
Cyrus the Younger
Authors: Hyland John O.
Published: October 2021

Cyrus the Younger (c. 423–401
bce
) was an Achaemenid prince, son of Darius II and Parysatis. He served at a young age as the highest Persian official in western Anatolia, and delivered the financial aid that empowered Sparta to defeat Athens in the Peloponnesian War. After the elevation of his older brother to the throne as Artaxerxes II, Cyrus' rebellion ended in his defeat and death at the battle of Cunaxa.
Sugir
Authors: Gorris Elynn
Published: October 2021

The Elamite wordsugìr(“king”) with its multiple orthographies, going from the syllabic variantssu‐un‐gìr, su‐un‐ki‐ir, zu‐un‐ki‐ir,zu‐kirto the logogramsunki(eššana), refers to the highest office in the Elamite political system, i.e., the king of Anshan and Susa. As well as the principal meaning of the word “king,” the secondary meaning of “sheikh, ruler of a certain group of people, or ruler of restricted territory within the limits or on the outskirts of the Elamite kingdom” should be considered.
Satrapy
Authors: Hyland John O.
Published: October 2021

The satrapy was an administrative subdivision of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, subsequently adopted by Alexander and the Seleucids. The term derives from the title of satrap, a high‐ranking official tasked by the king with administrative authority within a particular region.
Iconography
Authors: Farridnejad Shervin
Published: October 2021

Pre‐Islamic iconography and art, as a part of a bigger picture of the artistic expressions of ancient Iran, must be contextualized within the religious structure of ancient Iran. Here the definitive criteria are the existing features of the various aspects of the Zoroastrian religion as the religion of the royal house, as well as the royal character of pre‐Islamic Iranian art. Both these features are clearly manifested in the artistic representation of anthropomorphic and theriomorphic figures. Furthermore, the abstract vegetal and geometric patterns are also closely associated with the religious notion of the ancient Iranian religion. An exegetic analysis of the visual representations of some Zoroastrian divinities from the Antique and Late Antique Parthian and Sasanian empires demonstrates this special characteristic at its best. Ancient Iranian iconography in Antiquity and Late Antiquity is characterized by a strong textual referentiality both to Zoroastrian and side‐tradition (
Nebenüberlieferung
) sources, supplemented by motifs from both indigenous Iranian and later Greco‐Roman classic tradition.
Imperial Aramaic
Authors: Daneshmand Parsa
Published: October 2021

Aramaic is a Northwest Semitic language which originally appeared among the Aramaeans in the late eleventh centurybce. As the presence of the Aramaeans expanded in Mesopotamia, the Aramaic language gradually became a lingua franca that paralleled Akkadian. However, Imperial Aramaic, now mostly labeled as Official Aramaic, was the standard language attested in documents throughout the Achaemenid Empire during the fifth and fourth centuriesbce.
Achaemenid Zoroastrianism
Authors: Skjærvø Prods Oktor
Published: October 2021

Achaemenid Zoroastrianism is the Persian religion of the Achaemenid period as it appears from the Achaemenid royal inscriptions, Elamite cuneiform tablets from Persepolis (Iran), Aramaic letters from Elephantine (Egypt) and Bactria (Afghanistan), and from Herodotus and other classical authors.
Aurangabad
Authors: Brancaccio Pia
Published: October 2021

The eleven caves at Aurangabad, whose ancient name remains unknown, reflect important developments in Buddhist art and religious practice that took place in the Western Deccan between the first and sixth centuries
ce
.
Ellora
Authors: Brancaccio Pia
Published: October 2021

The Ellora caves are located in the Western Deccan near the Ajanta plateau. They were occupied by multiple religious communities (Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain) and became places where fertile artistic exchange occurred between the seventh and eighth centuries
ce
and beyond.
Gathas
Authors: Skjærvø Prods Oktor
Published: October 2021

TheGathas(Gāθās) are five poems in Old Avestan in praise of the supreme god. They are the oldest Iranian texts, preserved orally for millennia, and traditionally ascribed to Zarathustra (Avestan: Zaraθuštra). They tell the story of how Zarathustra was chosen by the gods to be the first human sacrificer, prototype of all human sacrificers, who emulate Zarathustra for their sacrifices to be effective and reinstate the supreme god in command of the cosmos, remove evil, and earn them a fee.
Cyrus I
Authors: Rollinger Robert , Degen Julian
Published: October 2021

This entry deals with Cyrus I, the grandfather of Cyrus the Great.
Cyrus II
Authors: Rollinger Robert , Degen Julian
Published: October 2021

This entry deals with Cyrus the Great, founder of the Teispid Persian Empire.
Nāga
Authors: DeCaroli Robert
Published: October 2021

Nāgas are snake‐like spirits associated with water and abundance. Although they originate in India they spread to Southeast Asia and East Asia in various forms. There is strong evidence suggesting that these spirits were worshipped independently by localized cults across India, but, over time, most of these cults were co‐opted by other organized religions, most notably Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Appearing as multi‐headed cobras or as humans with snake hoods above their heads,nāgas are visible in the art of many traditions. Most were associated with a specific pond, tank, river, or other body of water and from these locations they were believed to exert influence over the abundance or scarcity of local water. In literature thenāgas are typically portrayed positively, but they could occasionally be cruel. Several religious communities claimed control over these deities and thereby claimed control over local water. These claims may also be linked to changes in irrigation and water control.
Naṇaghat
Authors: DeCaroli Robert
Published: October 2021

The caves of Naṇaghat are situated on an ancient South Asian trade route leading from the coast to the inland city of Junnar. This South Asian city was the capital of the Sātavāhana Dynasty. A small group of rock‐cut caves were excavated along this road and served as a resting place and, potentially, as a center for toll collecting. The most notable of these is cave 11, which contains a long inscription by the donor, Queen Nāyanikā. It also contains the badly damaged remains of several portrait images that, according to the inscriptions, portrayed members of the Sātavāhana court.
Yakṣa
Authors: DeCaroli Robert
Published: October 2021

Yakṣa
s are nature spirits associated with health, fertility, and abundance. Although they originate in India they spread to Southeast Asia and East Asia in various forms. As early as the third century
bce
, these spirits were worshipped independently by localized cults across India, but, over time, most of these cults were co‐opted by other organized religions, most notably Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Appearing as healthy, youthful humans, images of
yakṣa
s and their female counterparts,
yakṣī
s, are invariably adorned with jewelry and other signs of great wealth. Most of these divinities were regional in nature and held sway over a particular town, village, forest, or lineage. In literature,
yakṣa
s are typically portrayed positively, but they could occasionally be cruel, particularly if treated poorly.
Yakṣa
s still play an important role in many South Asian religious traditions.
Persepolis Fortification Tablets
Authors: Daneshmand Parsa
Published: October 2021

Alongside the Achaemenid royal inscriptions and the Greek sources, the Persepolis Fortification tablets provide unique insights into the Persian administrative system. The information extracted from this archive shows that the Achaemenid bureaucracy created a rigorous accounting system to control the vast amount of monthly and daily disbursements of food commodities and rations to a huge number of recipients, including workers, travelers, official elites, the royal family, animals, and gods.
Shutruk‐Nahhunte II
Authors: Gorris Elynn
Published: October 2021

Shutruk‐Nahhunte II (717–699
bce
) was an early Neo‐Elamite king, belonging to the first Neo‐Elamite Dynasty, whose reign is attested in Elamite as well as Mesopotamian sources. He is described as the nephew (
mār aḫātišu
) of his predecessor Huban‐nikash I, with a paternal lineage that goes back to the Shutrukid Dynasty. During his long reign of eighteen years, Shutruk‐Nahhunte II was mostly occupied with defending Elam's border against the Neo‐Assyrian expansion policy. In the north, Shutruk‐Nahhunte II was involved in the Ellipean succession war, while he participated in the southern Babylonian–Elamite coalition to limit Assyrian presence in the Persian Gulf region.
Science and medicine in Iran/Central Asia 600–1500
Authors: Thomann Johannes
Published: October 2021

Khurasan and Central Asia, which formed the eastern part of the Islamic Empire, were the region from which most scholars came to the new capital Baghdad in the second half of the eighth century and realized the renaissance of the ancient sciences. Throughout the period under consideration, the most important mathematicians, astronomers, astrologers, physicians, and pharmacologists came from this region and were attracted by the gradually emerging centers of power. The best known are al‐Khwarazmi (d. ca. 850), Abu Mashar (ca. 886), known as Albumasar, al‐Farghani (d. 861), al‐Farabi (d. 950), al‐Razi (d. 925), known as Rhazes, Ali ibn al‐Abbas al‐Majusi (d. last quarter of the tenth century), known as Hali Abbas, Ibn Sina (d. 1037), known as Avicenna, al‐Biruni (d. ca. 1048), Nasir al‐Din al‐Tusi (d. 1274), and Ulugh Beg (r. 1447–9). Less well known but very influential were Habash al‐Hasib (d. ca. 864), Abu Jafar al‐Khazin (d. 971), Abu Nasr Ibn Iraq (ca. 1036), and many others. The most important centers that attracted scholars were Merv, Bukhara, Ghazna, Hamadan, Maragha, and Samarqand.
New Persian, Multi‐Ethnic Language
Authors: Fragner Bert G.
Published: October 2021

After the rise of Islam (seventh and eighth centuries), Arabic eventually found its function as a transregional “lingua franca,” from al‐Andalus to the shores of the Indian Ocean and the Tienshan Mountains. In the eastern Islamic World “New Persian” developed gradually as a second Islamicate language. Throughout the centuries, Persian served as a language of representation and also of communication, not only in the Iranian Plateau, but also in the Caucasus, in Central Asia, and even in the Subcontinent. From the eighteenth century onward, Persian gradually lost this position. New “regional and national” languages came into existence and benefited strongly from this process, e.g., Indian languages (Hindi, Urdu etc.), Turkic languages in Central Asia and in the Caucasus, and Pashtoo, Kurdish, Baluchi and others. In the present day Persian serves still as a national state‐language in Iran (
fârsi
), Afghanistan (
dari
), and in Tajikistan (
tojikî
).
Egypt, Archaeology of
Authors: Reid Donald M.
Published: October 2021

Despite pharaonic Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and medieval European and Muslim proto‐archaeological interest in ancient Egypt, modern Egyptian archaeology developed only in the wake of Napoleon's military expedition in 1798. The expedition gathered data for its encyclopedic
Description de l'Égypte
and uncovered the Rosetta Stone. The philological branch of Egyptology rests on Champollion's decipherment of the Rosetta Stone's hieroglyphs, while its archaeological branch studies the human past through material remains. The founding director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service, Auguste Mariette, excavated extensively, established Cairo's Egyptian Museum, and slowed the export of antiquities to Europe. Britain occupied Egypt from 1882 to 1956, but their French colonial rivals ran its Antiquities Service even longer (1858–1952). Briton Flinders Petrie revolutionized excavation techniques, and American George Reisner improved on even those. In the 1920s, Egyptian nationalists won enough autonomy to keep the treasures of Tutankhamun's tomb together in the Cairo Museum and to begin regular training of the country's own Egyptologists. Germans have played leading roles in both Egyptian archaeology and philology for nearly two centuries. Fieldwork in Egypt dwindled from the 1930s until 1960, when UNESCO launched the Nubian salvage campaign ahead of the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Egyptian archaeology has flourished ever since, enriched by new theoretical perspectives (including emphasis on women and the common people) and technological innovations. Postcolonial Egypt partners with foreign expeditions and exports antiquities only for temporary exhibitions. Remote sensing, virtual reality reconstructions, and X‐raying, CT scanning, and DNA analysis of mummies have all expanded the scope of Egyptian archaeology.
Ban Zhao
Authors: Daniels Benjamin
Published: October 2021

Ban Zhao

(ca. 45–ca. 120
ce
) was one of the leading scholars of the Eastern Han period (25–220
ce
). Most of what we know about her life comes from the
Houhan Shu

(The History of the Latter Han) written by Fan Ye

(398–445/446
ce
). She was the younger sister of the historian Ban Gu

(32–92
ce
), who wrote and compiled the
Hanshu

(The Book of Han), a history of the Western Han period (202
bce
–9
ce
). After Ban Gu died in prison, Ban Zhao finished writing and edited the
Hanshu
. The emperor commanded her to teach this difficult text, and some of the most important scholars of the day were her students, including the distinguished commentator Ma Rong. In addition to her contributions to the
Hanshu
, she wrote the
Nüjie

(Lessons for Daughters), a controversial text that not only had immense influence on later ideas about female education, but also behavior, emphasizing obedience. Ban Zhao was recognized as a great poet, writing
fu
‐style poetry for the imperial court. Today, her “Rhapsody on an Eastward Journey” (“Dongzhengfu”

) survives in full, and other poems, such as the “Rhapsody on the Great Bird,” survive in fragments. She was employed as a teacher to the women of imperial household, becoming quite close to the Empress Dowager Deng Sui, who often consulted Ban Zhao on state affairs.
Xianbei
Authors: Lau Q. Z.
Published: October 2021

During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, northeast Asia saw the establishment of many states by an array of peoples of non‐Chinese origin, with those established by the Xianbei (Chinese:

; pinyin:
Xiānbēi
) people as perhaps the most successful. Initially recorded as being subject to the Xiongnu confederation, the Xianbei emerged as major geopolitical players in the region after the second century
ce
. States established by those of Xianbei descent promulgated organizational and military innovations that culminated in the unification of north China under the Tuoba branch as the Northern Wei dynasty.

Though the Northern Wei fell to a divisive civil war in the sixth century, the dynasty and its regional successors set many precedents for the later Sui and Tang dynasties, including their extensive patronage of Buddhism, urban and land planning, and administrative structures. The use of the term “Xianbei” as an appellation gradually disappeared in the Sui and Tang, but by then much of the northern elite, including the imperial houses of both dynasties, claimed descent from Xianbei families.