bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
11 Different Conceptions of Food Labels and Acceptable Risks
Authors: Cranor Carl
Published: January 2008

As a result of governmental actions consumers are prevented from knowing about genetically modified (GM) foods—there is no mandatory labeling, and it is practically impossible to provide voluntary labeling. However, there is an easy case for the voluntary labeling of GM-created foods based on several different institutional considerations. This conclusion is supported by a) different functions provided by labeling—some inform us of risks, others disclose information pertinent to decisions—b) the nature of the scientific studies that inform risk assessment, c) notions of acceptable risks from the risk perception literature supplemented by philosophic analysis, and d) some analysis of the U.S. Department of Agriculture as a trustee for protecting the public's interests.
The Scholastic Context
Authors: schmaltz Tad M.
Published: January 2008

This chapter considers the medieval and scholastic context of Descartes's theory of causation. It starts with a brief account of the origins of occasionalism in medieval Islamic theology, and then turns to two different alternatives to occasionalism in the later medieval period, namely, the “concurrentism” of Thomas Aquinas, according to which God “concurs” in the action of secondary causes, and the “mere conservationism” of Durandus of Saint-Pourçain, according to which God merely creates and conserves secondary causes that act on their own. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the metaphysical framework for efficient causality in the work of the early modern scholastic Francisco Suárez that prepares the way for a transition from a more traditional Aristotelian view of causality to what we find in Descartes.
1 The Amount of Criminal Law
Authors: Husak Douglas
Published: January 2008

The size and scope of the criminal law have undergone a remarkable expansion in the past few decades. This expansion has led to unprecedented levels of punishment, much of it unjust. This chapter is largely descriptive, showing how too many crimes erode the principle of legality and produce too much punishment—punishment that should not have been imposed at all, or that violates proportionality by being too severe in light of the seriousness of the offense. It offers a novel categorization of the new kinds of crime that have been enacted: ancillary offenses, overlapping statutes, and crimes designed to prevent risk. In many cases, the enforcement of these laws brings about results that any reasonable person will recognize to be unjust. The final section of this chapter describes a specific example in detail—a strict‐liability drug homicide offense—that illustrates my general thesis that too many crimes produce too much punishment.
4 Alternative Theories of Criminalization
Authors: Husak Douglas
Published: January 2008

The seven constraints defended in chapters two and three combine to form a minimalist theory of criminalization. This chapter argues that minimalism is better than any of the alternatives defended by legal philosophers. Three competitive theories are surveyed, and judged to be inferior to a minimalist account: economic analysis as favored by Richard Posner; utilitarianism as explicated most famously by Jeremy Bentham; and legal moralism as defended by Michael Moore. The similarities and differences between my theory and each of these three alternatives are identified and examined. The chapter describes the remaining work that must be done if a minimalist theory is to succeed in reducing the injustice caused by overcriminalization. Even though criminal law minimalism is problematic, it represents major progress in our thinking about the moral limits of the penal sanction.
Introduction
Authors: Wall Wendy L.
Published: January 2008

This chapter gives a brief overview of the book’s argument, beginning with the premise that America’s mid-century consensus can best be understood, not as a “natural” development, but as a political project. From the mid-1930s through the early 1960s, efforts to define a unifying “American Way” often reflected struggles over three key issues: the shape and place of capitalism in American life; the place of ethnic, religious and racial outsiders in a nation long defined as white and Protestant; and the precise nature of America’s external foe. Moreover, while some Americans used the language of consensus to promote civility across class, racial, ethnic and religious lines, others put equality at the center of their consensual visions. This book also suggests that the politics of consensus helps explain two other key shifts in U.S. political culture during the mid-20th century: the movement from class-based concerns to a preoccupation with pluralism and individual rights, and the emergence of the notion that the U.S. was a Judeo-Christian or broadly “God-fearing” nation.
CHAPTER 2 Industrial Democracy versus Free Enterprise
Authors: Wall Wendy L.
Published: January 2008

In the late 1930s, New Dealers, industrial unionists, and business groups led by the National Association of Manufacturers seized on the language of Americanism and launched public efforts to define the nation in ways that furthered their own political and social agendas. All addressed Americans’ desire to be free of want, and all attempted to connect economic and political concerns. Beyond that, however, they framed issues in profoundly different ways. President Roosevelt, CIO leaders, and others in the New Deal coalition stressed the majoritarian overtones of the word “democracy,” and called for an activist government to ensure Americans’ economic security. Industrialists and their allies, by contrast, emphasized individual rights and the libertarian dimensions of American “freedom.” The ensuing battle—pitting “democracy” against “freedom,” mutualism against individualism, and a progressive ethos against interclass unity—presaged contests that would continue into the postwar era.
CHAPTER 3 In Search of Common Ground
Authors: Wall Wendy L.
Published: January 2008

In the late 1930s, many individuals and organizations argued that a defining feature of American life was the ability of people of diverse origins to live together harmoniously. Such assessments were both descriptive and prescriptive. Despite the nation’s long history of intolerance, when compared to the rest of the world the U.S. looked to many observers like a cosmopolitan haven. At the same time, many of those who hailed American pluralism did so to shore up tolerance and prevent the U.S. from succumbing to the hatreds ravaging other lands. Thus, nearly all of those who lauded America’s pluralist makeup also emphasized an ideological consensus that made other forms of pluralism possible. The bulk of this chapter explores the different versions of pluralism and consensus offered by Louis Adamic and the Common Council for American Unity, the interfaith movement spearheaded by the National Conference of Christians and Jews, Margaret Mead and other intellectuals concerned with cementing national morale, and Gunnar and Alva Myrdal.
CHAPTER 5 “The House I Live In”
Authors: Wall Wendy L.
Published: January 2008

During the war, federal agencies, Hollywood, and private groups appealed for tolerance in the name of national unity, thus making pluralism a corollary of consensus. This chapter explores the implications of that formulation, highlighting the emergence to prominence during the war of the “interfaith idea.” Many federal officials and private groups worried about shoring up ethnic identities that tied Americans to foreign homelands. One way to address this problem was to recast ethnic differences in religious terms—to portray the U.S. as a Protestant-Catholic-Jewish nation. In fact, since U.S. propaganda portrayed all three Axis powers as hostile to anything other than the religion of the state, faith could actually provide a basis for American unity. Religious prejudice by no means disappeared, during the war, but the notion that the U.S. was a “tri-faith” or “Judeo-Christian” nation emerged as a powerful symbol of both American pluralism and consensus. The formulation that accelerated acceptance of religious “outsiders” proved more problematic for racial minorities since it stressed social harmony and teamwork above all else. The war gave hope and occasional triumphs to those Americans arguing for a more racially egalitarian society, but more often than not it favored civility over true equality.
CHAPTER 7 The Freedom Train
Authors: Wall Wendy L.
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the politics behind the most ambitious postwar effort to promote a consensual vision of the nation: the Freedom Train of the late 1940s. Conceived in office of Attorney General Tom Clark, orchestrated by advertising and movie executives, and financed by America’s largest corporations, the Freedom Train and accompanying media blitz portrayed a nation at once unified, inclusive and consensual. But this veneer of unity concealed an ongoing contest over America’s core values—a contest symbolized by the decision to downplay the controversial word “democracy” in the campaign. Under the banner of “freedom,” the train's organizers promoted interfaith cooperation and business-labor harmony, even as they arranged to have leftists who protested the train arrested. But as the train entered the South, those who had hoped to portray a nation devoid of social strife found themselves drawn into a head-on conflict with blacks and southern civic leaders over the issue of segregation. (151)
Conclusion: The Limits of Consensus
Authors: Wall Wendy L.
Published: January 2008

Most of those who invoked a unifying set of American values between the mid-1930s and the mid-1960s shared some common ground: they emphasized individual freedoms not majoritarian democracy and believed America had a message for the globe. At the same time, they were split by a chasmal divide: some used the language of consensus to preach civility and shore up the social, economic and political status quo; others deployed that language to promote equality and social change. The competition between these two visions—as well as the ground they shared—structured national debates in powerful ways. Corporate America and the interfaith movement reaped particular benefits, and even civil rights activists were able to use the language of consensus to make limited gains. At the same time, consensus politics helped to take economic inequality off the table as a political issue and proved inadequate to addressing the long-term effects of white supremacy. The politics of consensus finally fractured in the mid-1960s for a variety of reasons, including the Vietnam War. Its legacy survives, however, in institutions, political rhetoric and assumptions about the past that continue to inform political debates.
Introduction
Authors: Collins David J.
Published: January 2008

An analysis of a controversy in Saxony over the 1523 canonization of the eleventh‐century bishop, Benno of Meissen, introduces the reader to the engagement of early German humanists in hagiographical projects, the interest in and critique of such humanist works by fifteenth‐ and sixteenth‐century contemporaries, and the causes of this literature's preterition and misapprehension by historians since the nineteenth century. The Introduction argues that the amount and qualities of the literature belie conventional generalizations, drawn from simplistic and inaccurate interpretations of Erasmus or Luther and his circle, about a negative humanist stance towards traditional Christian devotions like the cult of the saints. The Introduction instead proposes that the humanist engagement in the cult of the saints was coherent and outlines the strategic ways that these authors transformed writings about the saints into a literature for religious and cultural reforms that German humanists promoted through much else of their activity.
Legends Pleasing and Brightly Polished
Authors: Collins David J.
Published: January 2008

A second large group of vitae had as subjects holy men and women who had led lives of reclusion as hermits and anchoresses. Their veneration was, in contrast to the holy bishops', geographically limited to single churches and small regions. Even at this local level, however, new ambitions to have official legends written in the latest style were emerging, and custodians of these local cults sought out humanist authors. Local attraction to the humanist style, however, did not obviate the need to respect local traditions about the saints. An examination of two pairs of lives, each including an original life by a humanist and his own later revision, exposes a fundamental tension between the appeal of a new style and a respect for traditional narratives that was intrinsic to the cult of the saints. The results of revisions in different, nearly opposite directions, Albert von Bonstetten's second vita of Saint Ida of Toggenburg and Sigmund Meisterlin's second vita of Saint Sebald, demonstrate how complicated the creative interactions between authors and patrons could be.
Situating the Saints
Authors: Collins David J.
Published: January 2008

A common kind of revision humanists made to older narratives, regardless of the type of saint being portrayed, was to the geographical and cultural setting. Often they inserted excurses of descriptive geography and historical chronicle not before associated with the given saints. Chapter three investigates how and why humanist authors amended the lives in these novel and sometimes tendentious ways. The chapter associates such chorographical changes with the Germania illustrata project, a wider movement among German humanists to investigate, construct, and glorify an ancient and medieval past that was truly German.
Seeking the Kingdom
Authors: Barsam Ara Paul
Published: January 2008

Schweitzer's preoccupation with Jesus' eschatology is his overarching concern with the triumph of reverence over both the loss of ethics in human society (what he normally calls the “decay of civilization”) and the “ghastly drama” of life divided against itself encountered in the natural world. Naturalism, particularly in the form of predation, is a dead moral trail. Ethics, therefore, requires a supranaturalistic, or more precisely eschatological, framework in order to flourish. Schweitzer's recently uncovered Lambaréné sermons, explored in Chapter Four, demonstrate how vital he regarded the discovery of eschatology to the rediscovery of ethics itself. In other words, it is difficult to discern the ethical motivation in this world without hope for another, better, world.
Enjoining Good and Forbidding Wrong
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines why people attempt to bring others of the same religion to their understanding of that religion (the motivation of the Kadızadelis), the link between piety and proselytization, and the central role played by those who mediate conversion. It charts the rise to prominence of the Kadızadelis religious movement in the 1650s, explaining the movement's origins in the 1620s and 1630s with Kadızade Mehmed Efendi, who propagated the interpretations of Islam of the 16th-century pietist Birgili Mehmed Efendi. It discusses their main conversionary method of preaching reform to other Muslims from the pulpits of Istanbul's imperial mosques. Charismatic preachers convinced the public to change their ways through didactic interpretations of the Qur'an and Hadith; interpersonal bonds also enabled the movement to spread at the Ottoman court. The relations between Kadızadelis and sultans, the larger societal response to their incitations to abolish many common religious practices as well as forms of entertainment, and debates among Muslims about the proper way to be Muslim are described. The chapter concludes with a discussion of conversion of religious geography and sacred space during the grand vizierate of Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (1656-61), who conventional wisdom claims ended the movement. A discussion of his policies also points to the ever waxing strength of the grand vizierate and waning of the sultanate's power, crucial for understanding Mehmed IV's interest in conversion and conquest once he obtained his majority.
Islamizing Istanbul
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines how conversion affects religious geography and sacred space. It discusses the great fire of the summer of 1660 and the meaning given to it by contemporary writers, Hatice Turhan's converting of Jewish places in the wake of the fire, the construction and dedication of the Valide Sultan Mosque in the heart of the former main Jewish neighborhood, Fazıl Ahmed Pasha's Islamization of Christian places, and how Muslim commoners followed the rulers' example in articulating the call to enjoin good and forbid wrong by removing perceived obstacles to Muslim piety. These processes transformed the religious geography of the imperial capital, shaping a more Islamic landscape.
Conversion and Conquest
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins with a discussion of Mehmed IV's path of jihad in the early 1670s when he journeyed to the heart of Europe to conquer a citadel which is referred to today as “the Turkish fortress”. It then discusses Mehmed IV' second campaign to ensure the Treaty of Buczacz that guaranteed Polish tribute, death of Fazıl Ahmed Pasha, Mehmed IV's campaign against the Russian Empire, and conquest and conversion in Central Europe.
The Failed Final Jihad
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyzes the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 within the framework of several of the book's interrelated themes: the links between conversion and conquest and between piety and proselytization, the centrality of the mediator in conversion, how conversion affects religious geography and sacred space; and the role war, violence, and changing power relations play in conversion. As is well known, the siege did not go as planned and the Ottoman forces were routed. The rest of the chapter explores the fallout. While the sultan continued to hunt and convert peasants, a gathering storm of opposition coalesced to banish Vani Mehmed Efendi and dethrone Mehmed IV.
Mehmed IV’s Life and Legacy, from Ghazi to Hunter
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines Mehmed IV's life and legacy. His hunting habit overshadowed his numerous conversions. Dire straits for commoners, lawlessness in the capital, and military failure turned commoners, the military, and factions in the administration against Mehmed IV. The sultan's constant hunting earned the wrath of the religious class and united commoner and elite alike in opposition. All anyone could see was that Mehmed IV was in the environs of Istanbul, pitching his tent where he pleased and hunting; no one seemed to have appreciated his proselytizing behavior. Within a decade of Mehmed IV's death, writers reinterpreted his reign. By the turn of the 18th century, everything positive that Mehmed IV had achieved for his dynasty, empire, and religion, namely, a restored name, greatest territorial extent, and hundreds of conversions of people and places, seemed to have been forgotten.
Conclusion
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses Islamic rulers and the process of conversion. It argues that the conversion of self, conversion of others of the same religion, conversion of others of different religions and their sacred spaces within society, and the waging of ghaza in part to convert others and their religious geography abroad were all linked during Mehmed IV's epoch. Most notable about the ideology of Mehmed IV's court was its marked religious piety: the sultan and his inner circle openly proclaimed their own piety in their writings and through their personal behavior and the policies they implemented. After experiencing their own conversion, Mehmed IV, Hatice Turhan, Fazil Ahmed Pasha, and Vani Mehmed Efendi considered themselves devoted Muslims returning society to the right path, from which it had deviated. Mehmed IV's time in power also invites comparisons with those of modern rulers, particularly the reign of the last important Ottoman sultan, Abdülhamid II.
Prologue: The Hill of the Axes 1504
Authors: Connolly S. J.
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter uses one particular incident to describe some key characteristics of late medieval Ireland: a frontier society organized for warfare, in which power depended immediately on physical force, in which government authority and personal lordship were inextricably entangled, and in which cultural frontiers were clearly defined yet constantly crossed.
‘The Land of Banba is but Swordland’: Late Medieval Ireland
Authors: Connolly S. J.
Published: January 2008

Gaelic Ireland in the late middle ages was an archaic and economically impoverished, but not necessarily static, society. The area ruled under English law by the Dublin government — traditionally seen as a shrunken east coast enclave (the ‘Pale’) — had in fact recovered from its mid-15th-century crisis. In outlying regions the descendants of the medieval colonists had adopted aspects of Gaelic culture, but this ‘gaelicization’ did not necessarily weaken their English political identity. The late medieval church reflected both the sharp ethnic divisions within the society and the scope for interaction across cultural boundaries. The close integration of religious and secular concerns was a source of strength rather than weakness, and the church was more pastorally effective than is often realized. The rise of the earls of Kildare as viceroys, effectively ruling Ireland in the king's name, is analysed.
From Lordship to Kingdom
Authors: Connolly S. J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyses how Henry VIII and his ministers blundered into a confrontation with the Kildare dynasty, on which they depended for the management of the Irish lordship. The rebellion and destruction of the Kildares left a power vacuum, filled by the new strategy of seeking to integrate the Gaelic Irish lords, formerly considered aliens, into the English social hierarchy — the policy known as surrender and regrant. Meanwhile, Ireland followed England in rejecting the authority of the pope. Under Edward VI, surrender and regrant gave way to a more aggressive policy, while more far reaching changes in doctrine and liturgy — a true Protestant Reformation — encountered strong resistance.
Wild Fruit from Savage Soil: The Crisis of the 1590s
Authors: Connolly S. J.
Published: January 2008

Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, rose to power, first as England's client in Ulster, but subsequently as the main opponent of the extension there of the crown's authority. His rebellion in alliance with other Ulster lords, often referred to as the Nine Years War, represented the century's most serious challenge to English rule. Although O'Neill's initial aim was to preserve his regional autonomy, his decision to seek the support of Spain led him to put himself forward as a champion both of Catholicism and of an Irish patriotism. Edmund Spenser has been presented as the spokesman for a new policy of ruthless repression that determined the way in which the war was prosecuted by government forces. It is argued that English attitudes were more divided, and the shift in policy less dramatic than this implies. Following his defeat, O'Neill was in fact restored to his estates, but his departure into exile five years later (the Flight of the Earls) prepared the way for a more radical restructuring of Ulster society.
Food, Economics, and Entitlements
Authors: Sen Amartya
Published: January 2008

Putting the acquirement problem at the heart of hunger and starvation issues, this book argues that the entitlement approach, much in line with the old traditions of economics preoccupied with acquirement, can provide a general perspective to analyse effectively hunger and food policy requirements. To lower the degree of vulnerability to famine and starvation, this book raises a number of short-run issues such as famine anticipation, famine relief (food distribution vs. cash relief), and the role of food supply and food prices in famine, and some long-term policy concerns such as enhancing, securing, and guaranteeing entitlement, and diversification of production patterns.
Global Food Balances and Individual Hunger: Three Themes in an Entitlements‐Based Approach
Authors: Kanbur S. M. Ravi
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses three themes illuminating the regional element in the link between global food balances and individual hunger. First, for a nation-state in a global setting, it underlines the importance of non-market-based food-entitlements and the availability of food aid. Importantly, the prices of non-food exports should be considered while constructing early warning systems. It is argued that there can be and usually are significant indirect effects when various traded and non-traded food crops are substitutes in production or consumption. Lastly, in a system of market-based entitlements, there exists net buyers and net sellers, and hence a fall in food price has a mixed impact. The chapter also examines the problem of data availability. For making good use of nutrition-based poverty measures, performing sensitivity analysis using different cut-offs is suggested.
The Politics of Hunger and Entitlement
Authors: Sobhan Rehman
Published: January 2008

Access to food depends on food supply, the ability to establish entitlement over food, production, market transaction, and household political power. Hunger originates in ‘entitlement failures’ bearing community specificity rather than household-specificity features. While emphasizing the political influences on a state's direct contribution to entitlements, this chapter tries to establish a causal nexus between politics, hunger, and entitlement. In general, much of the entitlement is generated by the state through aid, subsidy, employment, public distribution of commodities, and incomes. A developing country's control over entitlement depends on external and internal political influences, and policies often become functions of political priority or compulsions. The chapter argues that to raise a household's entitlement level, significant action of a political nature is necessary.
Nutrition and the Economics of Food: Implications of Some Recent Controversies
Authors: Osmani S. R.
Published: January 2008

This chapter argues that many of the policy debates arising from the recent nutrition controversies are ‘a classic case of much ado about nothing’. The difficulties associated with the traditional dietary approach to undernutrition-measurement using the average requirement as the cut-off norm are: intraindividual variation in requirement arising from adaptation in physical growth, interindividual variation in requirement due to genetic differences, and variation in requirement due to differing conditions of environmental hygiene, all leading to the misclassification of the undernourished. However, the appropriateness of an average norm as a method of measuring poverty depends on the conceptual foundations of poverty, opulence, or capability. For the capability approach, anthropometry has been an uncertain indicator due to lack of required information. This chapter suggests supplementary feeding programmes for wasted children and a simultaneous focus on entitlement to food and entitlement to hygiene as a policy priority.
Food and Standard of Living: An Analysis Based on Sri Lankan Data
Authors: Anand Sudhir , Harris Christopher
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines an empirical welfare indicator using data from Sri Lanka. Per capita income, because of its variability, may lead to overstatements of inequality and poor people's food consumption, and understatements of rich people's food consumption and the rich-poor disparity. Per capita total expenditure as a measure is flawed as it contains durable expenditure and this leads to to variability in total expenditure. However, lack of variability in per capita food expenditure is evident and it is less prone to seasonal variations in relative prices, has some practical advantages, and is superior to the remaining contender — foodshare. All these have made it a good welfare indicator. It is argued that widespread dissaving, reported for bottom ranges in developing countries, originates from the use of inappropriate welfare indicators. A re-ranking by per capita food expenditure is warranted on other countries' data sets.
Modelling an Early Warning System for Famines
Authors: Desai Meghnad
Published: January 2008

There exists a general consensus for the need of ‘early warning systems’ for policy makers' prompt response to impending famines. But since famines occur for a variety of reasons and a famine's influence on the economic system is varied, a formal early warning is difficult. This chapter argues that famines develop from initial shocks and the underlying dynamic process can help to devise an early warning system. Past data on famine-prone regions can be used as a basis to build appropriate warning systems. An early warning system should be accompanied by a policy response system that considers factors such as institutional structure, national and international politics, and the recent history of the area.
Feeding China
Authors: Riskin Carl
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyses the evidence of China's apparently remarkable success in reducing the prevalence of malnutrition. This success is particularly associated with public policies taking in relatively egalitarian distribution (the result of rural collective institutions) and widespread public support of health and nutrition. The chapter also focuses on the mechanisms of food distribution, provincial as well as personal. The rapid expansion of food production and consumption in the post-reform era owed much to the elimination of negative incentives, and the government's ever greater redistributive role has significantly reduced regional insufficiency of food supply. The chapter analyses factors contributing to the famine of 1959-61, and explores the roles of direct and indirect state policies and information in this regard. It is argued that despite the early success of reforms, the eradication of China's food problem is far from complete.
Policy Options for African Agriculture
Authors: Idachaba Francis
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the stagnation and decline of sub-Saharan Africa's agriculture. It identifies four genres of constraints: rural infrastructure, research and technology, harmful pricing policies, and institutional arrangements. It criticizes the persistent ambiguity regarding the role of the government in African agriculture, and argues that in many instances donor agencies have only succeeded in making bad situations worse. The chapter emphasizes the needs of rural households as producers-consumers as well as the need for a proper sequencing of policy interventions. To transform Africa's agriculture, a wide range of policy options are presented which focus on the need to promote the food entitlement of the rural population. It is argued that to understand the policy alternatives, a demand-side approach rather than the traditional supply-side approach is required.
The Contribution of Industry to Solving the Food Problem in Africa
Authors: Samuel Wangwe
Published: January 2008

This chapter investigates some important intersectoral relationships, specifically the positive contribution of industry, by raising agricultural productivity and creating employment opportunities and hence increasing incomes outside agriculture, in alleviating the food problem in sub-Saharan Africa. It emphasizes the creation of linkages between agriculture and other sectors, linkages between industry and food production activities in agriculture, and the link between research and development. It also explores the role of industry in agricultural processing. To solve the persistent endemic undernourishment, the chapter suggests a wide range of remedial actions involving institutional changes and economic reforms, both within and outside the food sector.
The Elimination of Endemic Poverty in South Asia
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: January 2008

This chapter evaluates policies for combating persistent and mass poverty, with empirical illustrations from the experiences of some South Asian countries. It argues that direct action is possible and even desirable, and that different policy options are available for achieving higher growth and greater equity. The chapter scrutinizes various poverty alleviation programmes, many of which failed but are promising if effectively planned and implemented. To design an efficacious anti-poverty policy, it is essential to evaluate the whole package of several schemes together. The success of direct action programmes depends greatly on their political background. It is argued that political constraints are not only difficult to overcome but also difficult to understand.
The Neuropsychology of Anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This book provides an updated theory of the nature of anxiety and the brain systems controlling anxiety, combined with a theory of hippocampal function, which was first proposed thirty years ago. While remaining controversial, the core of this theory, of a ‘Behavioural Inhibition System’, has stood the test of time, with its main predictions repeatedly confirmed. Novel anti-anxiety drugs share none of the side effects or primary pharmacological actions of the classical anti-anxiety drugs on the actions of which the theory was based; but they have both the behavioural and hippocampal actions predicted by the theory. This text is the second edition of the book and it departs significantly from the first. It provides, for the first time, a single construct — goal conflict — that underlies all the known inputs to the system; and it includes current data on the amygdala. Its reviews include the ethology of defence, learning theory, the psychopharmacology of anti-anxiety drugs, anxiety disorders, and the clinical and laboratory analysis of amnesia. The cognitive and behavioural functions in anxiety of the septo-hippocampal system and the amygdala are also analysed, as are their separate roles in memory and fear. Their functions are related to a hierarchy of additional structures — from the prefrontal cortex to the periaqueductal gray — that control the various forms of defensive behaviour and to detailed analysis of the monoamine systems that modulate this control. The resultant neurology is linked to the typology, symptoms, pre-disposing personality and therapy of anxiety and phobic disorders, and to the symptoms of amnesia.
Overview
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

The core idea of a behavioural inhibition system including the septo-hippocampal system is presented here. This is linked to a strong ethological and pharmacological distinction between fear and anxiety; and to a primary role (illustrated with a schematic model) for the hippocampus in the resolution of goal conflict by increasing aversion and so producing behavioural inhibition.
A theory of the behavioural inhibition system
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) as mediating between a Fight-Flight-Freezing system (FFFS) that controls pure avoidance (of punishment or frustration), and a Behavioural Approach System (BAS) that controls pure approach (to reward or safety). The BIS is activated when both the FFFS and BAS are concurrently activated. Its output increases the avoidance tendency as well as generating risk assessment, changes in arousal, and changes in attention. The BIS, as evidenced by anti-anxiety drug action, has immense species-generality and by implication, phylogenetic age. It is argued that it will, therefore, have distributed neural control with multiple evolved modules each providing a ‘rule of thumb’ that allows appropriate output under some but not all circumstances. The observed outputs of the BIS will often be the result of output from a range of parallel neural pathways.
The neurology of anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter reviews data from a range of disciplines and, in particular, the comparison of lesion effects with those of anti-anxiety drugs. It presents an essentially two-dimensional picture of the neurology of defense that matches the two ethological dimensions described in Chapter 2. Small defensive distances are dealt with by lower neural levels and large ones by higher neural levels following the hierarchy: periaqueductal gray; hypothalamus; amygdala/hippocampus; cingulate cortex; prefrontal cortex. Different streams within these levels control fear and anxiety, respectively.
Symptoms and syndromes of anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter provides a typology of disorders of fear and anxiety — such as anxiety disorder, phobias including agoraphobia, panic, and social anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder — mapping them to the two-dimensional framework provided by Chapters 2 and 6. It treats syndromes as resulting from unusual reactivity of structures and symptoms as resulting from unusual activity, with symptoms not providing a good guide to syndromes. Specific tests for some syndromes are derived from the theory.
Putting Humpty Dumpty together again: the anxious personality and its inheritance
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents neurotic introversion as trait punishment sensitivity and as a major risk factor for the development of disorders of fear and anxiety. This is potentially linked to the modulation of the entire defense system by, for example, monoamines or stress hormones.
The treatment of anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses behaviour therapy, drug therapy (antidepressants), cognitive-behavioural therapy for the treatment of disorders such as anxiety disorder and their possible interactions, in the context of the theory.
The Pilot ACE at the National Physical Laboratory1
Authors: Wilkinson James H.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the pilot Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) project at the National Physical Laboratory. The Pilot ACE had been designed purely as an experimental machine to demonstrate the competence of the team as computer engineers. It was originally intended that when it was successfully completed a full-scale computer would be built. However, when it was successful, it was the only electronic computer in a government department and the engineers came under very heavy pressure to use the Pilot ACE for serious computing. They implemented a small set of modifications which included the addition of an automatic multiplier and improvements to the control unit which made programming a little less arduous. The computer was then put into general use and did yeoman service for a number of years.
From Turing machine to ‘electronic brain’
Authors: Numerico Teresa
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the relationships and differences between the various machines that Alan M. Turing developed in fields ranging from logic and the theory of computability to cryptanalysis, computer science, and artificial intelligence. Topics covered include Turing's role in the Enigma decryption project during the Second World War, the ACE project, and relationships between Turing and various US groups. Turing's project is compared with von Neumann's to highlight their similarities and differences.
The Pilot ACE instruction format
Authors: Norton Henry John
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins with the author's recollections about Alan M. Turing while working at the National Physical Laboratory. It then discusses the Pilot ACE Instruction Set Architecture (ISA). The ISA is an important abstraction for the interface between the hardware and the low level software. It standardizes instructions, machine language bit patterns, among other things. It allows for the use of different implementations of the same architecture on different machines.
The Pilot ACE: from concept to reality
Authors: Vowels Robin A.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the development of the Pilot ACE, including the architecture, programming, and performance. The Pilot ACE was a general purpose computer of the serial type, with a clock frequency of 1 MHz. The word size was 32 bits, and dual arithmetic units were provided. One arithmetic unit supported 32-bit numbers (about 9 decimal digits), while the other was for 64-bit numbers (about 19 decimal digits). The 64-bit accumulator was also capable of functioning as two independent 32-bit accumulators. The Pilot ACE had Hollerith 80-column punch-card input and output equipment, the input device running at 200 cards per minute and the output device at 100 cards per minute.
The ACE Simulator and the Cybernetic Model
Authors: Woodger Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the ACE simulator and the Cybernetic Model. The ACE simulator was a demonstration machine built as an aid to the visualization of binary operations. Designed by D. W. Davies and Michael Woodger in the winter of 1949/1950, it was demonstrated on January 30, 1950 as part of the NPL Jubilee demonstrations to the Royal Society at Burlington House. The Cybernetic Model was constructed in May 1949, before even the first chassis of the Pilot Model ACE had been delivered. The Cybernetic Model was built to explore some of Turing's ideas about learning, and had nothing to do with the development of the ACE.
How valves work
Authors: Clayden David O.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents background information on valves. A valve consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a number of electrodes. These are connected to the outside by wires passing though special seals. The innermost electrode is the cathode, which consists of a metal tube coated with a material that emits electrons when it is heated. In the simplest form of valve, called a diode, the cathode is surrounded by a metal cylinder called the anode. If the anode is connected to a voltage that is positive relative to the cathode, the anode attracts electrons from the cathode and a current flows. Valves as amplifiers and switches, power consumption, and valve specifications are described.
Circuit design of the Pilot ACE and the Big ACE
Authors: Clayden David O.
Published: January 2008

This chapter describes circuit design of the Pilot ACE and Big ACE. Topics covered include the advantages of the long tailed pair in digital circuits, the half-adder and adder circuits, signal coupling, the circulation unit, wide band DC coupling, data distribution and control, the assisted cathode follower, and the magnetic drum store of the ACE Pilot Model and Big Ace.
Proposed electronic calculator (1945)
Authors: Turing Alan M.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents Alan M. Turing's report, ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’. The report was submitted to the Executive Committee of the National Physical Laboratory in February 1946, under the description ‘Report by Dr. A. M. Turing on Proposals for the Development of an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)’. The design set out in ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’ was the basis for all the ACE computers.
Notes on memory (1945)
Authors: Turing Alan M.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents fragments from Turing's draft of ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’. This material is of interest chiefly because of its remarks concerning the universal machine of Turing's 1936 paper ‘On Computable Numbers’. In 1947, Turing described electronic stored-programme digital computers as ‘practical versions of the universal machine’ and it is clear that in designing the ACE, his aim was to replace the paper tape of the universal machine with a practical form of memory for holding instructions and data, and to replace the abstract ‘scanner’ of the universal machine by a ‘central pool of electronic equipment’.
The Turing–Wilkinson lecture series (1946–7)
Authors: Turing Alan M. , Wilkinson James H.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents the nine lectures given by Turing and his assistant Jim Wilkinson from December 1946 to February 1947. The lectures add substantially to the understanding of the evolution of the design of the ACE. Turing and Wilkinson describe Versions V, VI, and VII of the design.
The Photoperiodic Pathway of Floral Induction
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

Long day plants and short day plants experience photoperiodic induction of flowering, and so flower in certain daylengths. This chapter considers the photoperiodic regulation of flowering in Arabidopsis, which is a facultative long day plant (that is, one whose flowering is brought forward by long days, rather than one with an absolute requirement for them). Understanding the photoperiodic induction pathway requires an analysis of how light is perceived, how time is measured, and how the two signals are integrated to activate responses. Phytochromes and cryptochromes are necessary for light perception, an endogenous circadian clock measures time, and several proteins interact to integrate these signals.
Colouring the Flower
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

One of the most obvious ways in which flowers differ from one another is in their colour. This colour is usually the result of pigment deposition in the petals, but in some species brightly coloured bracts, sepals or stamens can provide a similarly striking display. The colour of a flower has traditionally been viewed as one of the ways in which plants attract pollinating animals, and there is considerable literature on the preferences of different pollinators for different colours. In recent years these data have often been reinterpreted, with the emphasis more on contrast and search images, rather than on particular colours as ‘favourites’ of particular animals. This chapter considers the different biochemical pathways through which flowers can become coloured.
Are Flowers under Selective Pressure to Increase Pollinator Attention?
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

The underlying assumption of much of the work on flower development and morphology is that these features serve to increase the attractiveness of the flower to pollinating animals, thus maximizing pollinator attention, and consequently seed set and fitness. It has long been believed that these elaborations are the consequence of adapting to attract particular pollinating animals, resulting in pollination syndromes. Before the existence of pollination syndromes and how frequently they are needed are examined, this chapter considers whether there is evidence that the underlying assumptions are met. This chapter addresses one fundamental issue: do plants actually benefit from increased pollinator attention and should floral attractiveness therefore be expected to increase across generations?
Pollination Syndromes—The Evidence
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

The concept of the pollination syndrome has underlain much of floral biology for many years. This chapter assesses the usefulness of the concept in understanding flowers and flowering. It begins by considering why and how the pollination syndrome concept has become so entrenched in the literature on flowering, and then examines whether the key assumptions that underlie it are met. Finally, it assesses the experimental evidence that pollination syndromes do exist, and the experimental evidence which shows them to be false — those cases where the major pollinator in the native habitat is not that which the flower's morphology would lead you to predict. The chapter also provides a brief overview of the relative importance of generalization and specialization in pollination ecology.