bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Putting the conceptual pair on the scholarly agenda
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 13 illustrates how the eighteenth-century Dutch orientalist Albert Schultens repeatedly defined the term dialectus in a highly systematic fashion. Schultens analysed the conceptual pair principally in Aristotelian terms but tied it also to geographical factors and framed it in a language-historical scheme. He, moreover, contrasted the analogy of language to the anomaly of dialect. The Dutch orientalist extended the language,/,dialect distinction so as to include a third concept, that of degenerate offshoot, which, unlike a dialect, did not preserve the core of the language intact. He also insisted on the linguistic classes in which related dialects allegedly differed from one another. Schultens was a key figure, since he put the conceptualization of dialect on the scholarly agenda, albeit always as a matter of instrumental importance only, and triggered numerous follow-up discussions among his pupils and readers.
Between systematization and rationalization
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 16 discusses further evidence for the systematization and rationalization of the language / dialect distinction in the period 1650–1800, the age of rationalism and the Enlightenment. On the one hand, a kind of dialectological tradition emerged. The study of regional variation became a subfield of philology, albeit never an autonomous one; occasionally, it even now received the label of dialectologia, apparently introduced in 1650. For the first time, philologists presented dissertations on dialectal diversity that were no longer exclusively focused on the Greek dialects. On the other hand, scholars adopted more rational attitudes towards the conceptual pair. Some chose to supplement the binary contrast with new concepts. Others advocated distinguishing more clearly between different interpretations of the language / dialect distinction. Confusion persisted, however, throughout the early modern period. The first vocal sceptic of the conceptual pair was Friedrich Carl Fulda, who made it painfully clear how arbitrary and imprecise the distinction actually was.
Ethical Agency
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

This three-year research project represents multidisciplinary research undertaken using a variety of social scientific methods. Together, the different methods used in the project help to develop understandings of Islam on campus. We also explored how emergent ethical concerns about marginalization, discrimination, stigma, consent, and an imperative to protect the vulnerable subject were negotiated through the research process. We challenged, and subjected to critical scrutiny, perspectives apparently driven by suspicion of Muslims as a singular group. We sought to conduct research to explore the possible existence of epistemic wrongs; which reveal the need to give voice to the unheard challenge about whether the campus is a safe place to explore controversial issues. To gain and keep trust of staff and students we developed a multilayered, ethical procedure to protect their identity in the current climate of suspicion.
Freedom of Speech
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

Media and government accuse students of being libertarian (encouraging reckless free speech) or of too much no-platforming (banning external speakers). Both accusations are exaggerated but influential and make it difficult for students to develop face to face conversations about difficult and controversial topics. Government policies on securitization (Prevent) encourage risk averse behaviour, particularly but not exclusively among Muslims. Staff also feel constrained by these pressures and so staff and students self-censor. Analysis of free speech models available in a liberal democracy show two main types, each of which can become an extreme version of itself. The liberal model advocates legal free expression; however if exaggerated the liberal model becomes libertarian and can be offensive. The second approach is the guarded liberal model that seeks to protect minorities but if exaggerated it can turn into no platforming. Students and staff can learn to use combinations of all four approaches and increase face to face discussions.
Enriched Meanings
Authors: Asudeh Ash , Giorgolo Gianluca
Published: November 2020

This book presents a theory of enriched meanings for natural language interpretation. Certain expressions that exhibit complex effects at the semantics/pragmatics boundary live in an enriched meaning space while others live in a more basic meaning space. These basic meanings are mapped to enriched meanings just when required compositionally, which avoids generalizing meanings to the worst case. The theory is captured formally using monads, a concept from category theory. Monads are also prominent in functional programming and have been successfully used in the semantics of programming languages to characterize certain classes of computation. They are used here to model certain challenging linguistic computations at the semantics/pragmatics boundary. Part I presents some background on the semantics/pragmatics boundary, informally presents the theory of enriched meanings, reviews the linguistic phenomena of interest, and provides the necessary background on category theory and monads. Part II provides novel compositional analyses of the following phenomena: conventional implicature, substitution puzzles, and conjunction fallacies. Part III explores the prospects of combining monads, with particular reference to these three cases. The authors show that the compositional properties of monads model linguistic intuitions about these cases particularly well. The book is an interdisciplinary contribution to Cognitive Science: These phenomena cross not just the boundary between semantics and pragmatics, but also disciplinary boundaries between Linguistics, Philosophy and Psychology, three of the major branches of Cognitive Science, and are here analyzed with techniques that are prominent in Computer Science, a fourth major branch. A number of exercises are provided to aid understanding, as well as a set of computational tools (available at the book's website), which also allow readers to develop their own analyses of enriched meanings.
Introduction
Authors: Asudeh Ash , Giorgolo Gianluca
Published: November 2020

This chapter introduces and motivates the book. It introduces monads as a way to model enriched meanings and motivates enriched meanings as a way to avoid generalizing to the worst case in natural language interpretation. It reviews the three goals of the book: 1. to provide background on the theory of enriched meanings and how to model meaning enrichment formally using category theory, in particular monads; 2. to show the usefulness of the theory by providing new compositional analyses of the three phenomena; and 3. to explore the compositional possibilities for combining the three monads used in these analyses. The chapter also discusses the place of this kind of research in cognitive science. It lists some related literature on monads for natural language interpretation. It also introduces the computational tools and exercises.
Uncertainty and conjunction fallacies
Authors: Asudeh Ash , Giorgolo Gianluca
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines conjunction fallacies. This phenomenon is a topic in the psychology of reasoning and is not strictly linguistic, but it is related to pragmatics. Monads are shown to capture conjunction fallacies compositionally, which has eluded prominent prior theories. The chapter contrasts a monad built around the probability semiring with one built around a simpler semiring, the one semiring. The choice between the probability and one semirings partially predicts experimental participants’ behaviour. This points to an explanation in terms of the satisficing heuristic, rather than the representativeness heuristic. The chapter explores two options for fully predicting the results. The first is to use Gricean pragmatics in addition to the one semiring. The second is to use alternative underlying semirings for the monad: tropical semirings. This alternative compositional solution achieves a highly satisfying fit with aggregate psychological data and preserves an interesting duality between the logical operations of conjunction and disjunction. Some exercises are provided to aid understanding.
Fundamentals of Multisensory Experiences
Authors: Velasco Carlos , Obrist Marianna
Published: November 2020

What is an ‘experience’, and what role do the senses play in our experiences? Is it possible to design specific experiences with the senses in mind? These questions have fascinated generations of philosophers, scientists, artists, and, increasingly, technologists. This chapter describes the fundamentals of multisensory experiences and presents our own definition of this concept. In this chapter, a group of experts in different research fields and industries shares their understanding of experiences and the role of the senses in them. Finally, the chapter presents key concepts about the senses and how to consider them when shaping experiences.
Compulsory Portion in Hungary
Authors: Vékás Lajos
Published: November 2020

Following the model of continental European law, Hungarian law introduced the compulsory portion in 1853, allowing in the closest blood-relatives to benefit from the estate of a deceased person against the testator’s wishes. In the course of the latest reform, the possible abolition (or at least limitation) of the compulsory portion was raised. However, at the time of the creation of the Civil Code of 2013 the legislator took the view that the compulsory portion had already taken root in the general legal awareness of the population and that its continuation could be justified. This view was strengthened by the fact that the majority of contemporary continental legal systems, in their quest for the protection of the family, tend to recognize a claim by the closest relatives to a compulsory portion. Traditionally in Hungarian law, the descendants and parents of the deceased were entitled to a compulsory portion in accordance with the order of intestate succession. Only since 1960 has the law also recognized the spouse as a person entitled to a compulsory portion. Previously the approach was that the spouse should be compensated through the rules of matrimonial property law and intestate succession. Since 2009 registered partners have been put in the same position as a spouse. Until 2014, the extent of the compulsory portion was one-half of the intestate share of the person entitled to a compulsory portion; today it is one-third.
Legal Rights in Scotland
Authors: Reid Kenneth G C
Published: November 2020

The rules of mandatory family protection in Scotland date from the late Middle Ages and were a close copy of the rules then (but no longer) in force in England. Originally they comprised two distinct ‘legal rights’ (as they came much later to be known). In the first place, the surviving spouse had a usufruct in the immovable property of the deceased, known as ‘terce’ (for widows) and ‘courtesy’ (for widowers). Courtesy extended to the whole immovable property, terce only to one-third. In the second place, the movable property of the deceased was divided into three equal parts. The surviving spouse had a claim (the ‘relict’s right’ or jus relictae) to one part, and the surviving children to another (‘legitim’). The final one-third (‘dead’s part’) was the testator’s to dispose of in his will. Terce and courtesy were abolished, rather unthinkingly, in 1964. Today, therefore, the surviving spouse and children are protected against disinheritance only in respect of movable property – a weak form of protection made weaker still by the absence of anti-avoidance measures that would prevent testators giving property away during their lifetimes. The law is widely acknowledged to be unsatisfactory, but there is less agreement as to how it should be changed. One view is that legal rights should be extended to immovable property. Another view is that legitim should be replaced by a maintenance claim for dependent children (only). In the face of these competing views, the Scottish Government has recently decided to leave the law unchanged.
Freedom of Testation and Family Claims in Canada
Authors: Popovici Alexandra , Smith Lionel
Published: November 2020

The province of Quebec has a civilian law of succession, while the common law governs in the other provinces and in the territories. At the dawn of the twentieth century, an unbridled freedom of testation prevailed in most of Canada. In the decades that followed, the law evolved to temper this principle in favour of protecting the family of a deceased person, so that obligations of support did not simply vanish upon death. The shape and structure of provision for the family is, however, diverse across the country. There is a great deal of variation even among the statutory regimes in the common law provinces, under which courts have the discretion to grant an allowance; some require a claimant to show need, an inter vivos obligation of support, or both, while others allow claims even by adult independent children. In relation to those members of First Nations to whom it applies, federal law grants a wide power to intervene in the distribution of an estate, in this case not to the courts but to the relevant minister. Quebec law, by contrast, aims to convert legal obligations of support that existed at the moment of death into claims against the estate, rejecting any wide discretion and preserving freedom of testation as much as possible. In a broadly comparative context, the unexpected conclusion is that in Canada, it is not the common law but the civil law of Quebec that offers the most freedom to a testator.
Necessary Portion in China
Authors: Pißler Knut Benjamin , Kleinwegener Timo
Published: November 2020

The chapter deals with forced heirship and necessary portion in the laws of China from a historical perspective and through analysing not only statutory law but court decisions as well. The Chinese doctrine of necessary portion comprises two, allegedly socialist, principles. First, it encourages people to support themselves by their own efforts as long as they are able to work. Secondly, it aims to protect a person’s right to inherit and ensures a level of support for those who are unable to work and have no source of income. The application of the necessary-portion doctrine in court practice features certain particularities that mirror the Communists’ predisposition towards flexibility in inheritance law, but it can also be understood as a holistic view of the application of law.
Same Bed, Different Dreams
Authors: Chen Weitseng
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyses legality in hybrid regimes in Asia, which refers to countries categorized by varying strands of literature as ‘semi-democracy’, ‘competitive authoritarianism’, or ‘electoral authoritarian regimes’. This type of hybrid regime is common in Asia and very much a product of the contemporary world where the functionalities of legality and constitutional law are recognized by not only democratic countries but also authoritarian states. This essay seeks to answer three questions: first, why would authoritarians accept the idea of legality and what exactly do they mean by legality? Second, what makes authoritarian legality functional and stable? Third, what are the factors that provide the conditions for the transition towards a more liberal and democratic system? The experience of East Asian hybrid regimes shows that authoritarian legality and constitutionalism is not only possible but actually exists in many Asian states associated with reputed prosperity. That being said, various limitations exist. It is also theoretically problematic and empirically wrong to assume a linear theory about the trajectory of legality development moving towards democracy.
National Development Finance in Middle-Income Countries
Authors: Griffith-Jones Stephany
Published: November 2020

This chapter focuses on the roles of National Development Banks (NDBs) in emerging and developing economies. They finance investment in sectors key for dynamic and sustainable growth, both through their own lending, and by catalyzing private finance. For NDBs to contribute significantly to avoiding a middle-income trap, there are several conditions: they must be “good,” well-run development banks, their scale must be sufficiently large to help meet investment needs on a significant scale, and there must be a clear national development strategy, for NDBs to implement. This chapter stresses NDBs contribution to financing investment in innovative sectors and infrastructure. This is complementary to supporting provision of public goods, particularly investments that help combat climate change and financial inclusion. NDBs should provide counter-cyclical financing in the busts, when privately-financed investment tends to decline and NDB lending increases to help maintain crucial investment, and in booms, when lending by NDBs should slow down.
A Quiet Success
Authors: Xie Zheping
Published: November 2020

The EU–China Higher Education Cooperation Program (1997–2001) in European studies and social sciences was a pioneer as well as a milestone in the field of higher education cooperation between the European Union and China. It promoted academic exchanges among scholars, expanded European Studies in China, and furthered the internationalization of Chinese universities. Many of the beneficiaries of the project would go on to distinguished and influential careers. Less well known and less visible than physical joint ventures such as the China Europe International Business School (CEIBS), this project nonetheless laid a foundation for contemporary European Studies in China and for the growth of mutually beneficial academic relations between China and the European Union. The product of a “golden era” of EU–China relations, it is unlikely to be duplicated in the future.
One Belt One Road
Authors: Zhu Jiabin , Zhang Guoyang , Huang Yaxin
Published: November 2020

In the context of the One Belt One Road (OBOR) initiative, Chinese engineering education has encountered new opportunities and possible challenges. This chapter starts with a synthesis of the overarching trends in Chinese engineering education, analyzing its overall strengths and weaknesses, particularly highlighting the critical impact of China’s membership in the Washington Accord on its engineering degrees’ international recognition and the relevant ongoing engineering education innovations. The chapter also points out the lack of empirical research in Chinese engineering education to support the development of Chinese engineering education. The chapter further zeroes in on the specific advantages, and drawbacks, in attracting international students, and reviews additional models for Chinese engineering education to “go global.” Specific suggestions for multiple stakeholders are proposed to facilitate Chinese engineering education going global.
A European Compass for Transporting Personal Data on the New Silk Road
Authors: van Deursen Stijn , Kummeling Henk
Published: November 2020

The New Silk Road initiative offers unique opportunities for setting up Sino–European collaborations in higher education and research. Academic cooperation between countries that are rooted in different legal, cultural, and academic backgrounds might, however, also create challenges. Although the European Union is strongly promoting Open Science and—within that framework—open and fair data, it is clear that Open Science is only possible in an open society, in which fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals are protected. In this light, the chapter investigates the implications of the European personal data protection rules (GDPR) for Sino–European collaborations. To what extent are free flows of personal data possible on the New Silk Road? It concludes that the current differences between both regimes create considerable obstacles on the Road. The chapter explores the necessary restrictions, technological solutions, and legal arrangements that might be helpful in facilitating collaborations that comply with the European rules.
Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2020

This book uses extensive original archival and elite interview research to examine the attempt to rejuvenate liberalism as a means of disciplining democracy and the market through a new rule-based economic and political order. This rebirth took the form of conservative liberalism and, in its most developed form, Ordo-liberalism. It occurred against the historical background of the great transformational crisis of liberalism in the first part of the twentieth century. Conservative liberalism evolved as a cross-national phenomenon. It included such eminent and cultured liberal economists as James Buchanan, Frank Knight, Henry Simons, Ralph Hawtrey, Jacques Rueff, Luigi Einaudi, Walter Eucken, Friedrich Hayek, Alfred Müller-Armack, Wilhelm Röpke, Alexander Rüstow, and Paul van Zeeland, as well as leading lawyers like Louis Brandeis, Franz Böhm, and Maurice Hauriou. It also played a formative role in establishing new international networks, notably the Mont Pèlerin Society. The book investigates the rich intellectual inheritance of this variant of new liberalism from aristocratic liberalism, ethical philosophy, and religious thought. It also locates the social basis of conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism in the cultivated bourgeois intelligentsia. The book goes on to examine the attempts to embed this new disciplinary form of liberalism in Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States, and to consider the determinants of its varying significance across space and over time. It concludes by assessing the historical significance and contemporary relevance of conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism as liberalism confronts a new transformational crisis at the beginning of the new millennium. Is their promise of disciplining democracy and the market a hollow one?
The Core Galilean Idea and Some Crucial Data
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2020

Traditional social conceptions of language, which focus on surface speech performance, are contrasted with Chomskyan “Galilean” conceptions, which seek to understand the underlying computational system that constitutes speakers’ linguistic competence. Only in conjunction with many other systems (e.g., decision making) is competence responsible for observed performance. Consequently, the concern of a Chomskyan theory is not with explaining the ordinary data of speech, but with crucial data that are revelatory of that system in a way that rival theories are not. Striking examples of such data are “WhyNots,” or strings of words that speakers find “unacceptable” but could nevertheless easily guess what they mean. I discuss half a dozen such cases, as well as other crucial data, e.g., the productivity, creativity, and apparent universality of grammar, its independence of general intelligence, and the stability and speed of its acquisition based upon impoverished stimuli, in what appears to be a critical period.
Competence/Performance
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers the distinction between Conventional E(xternal)-languages and non-conventional I(nternal, intensional)-languages. The problems with traditional external, extensionalist, especially Quinean behavioristic, and more generally what I call “Superficialist”approaches are discussed, specifically the problems Quineans have raised about how to distinguish between extensionally equivalent grammars, and between explicit from implemented (or “implicit”) rules and structures. The chapter will also consider less purely behaviorstic, but still superficalist objections to a Chomskyan internal realism associated with the work ofWittgenstein, Ryle, Baker and Hacker, Chater, and “Kripkenstein” (or Saul Kripke’s well-known interpretation of Wittgenstein), according to which there can be no factual basis for claiming speakers are following one set of grammatical rules rather than another.
Knowledge and the Explanatory Project
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2020

Chomskyans distinctively require that a linguistic theory be “explanatorily adequate,” accounting for the possibility of children’s acquisition of grammar. They characterize that acquisition in terms of “knowledge,” a fraught term inessential to the core theory. It suggests that a child is a “little linguist,” an absurdity that is avoided by presuming the knowledge involves “non-conceptual” representations of the sort required for states not integrated into general cognition. Related misunderstandings can be avoided by noting that the kind of epistemological project that concerns Chomskyans is not the “working” epistemology that traditionally concerns philosophers replying to sceptics, but rather an “explanatory” one concerned with explaining cognitive capacities, an interest that may not coincide with the working project. The concluding section briefly sets out a “computational-representational” explanatory strategy on which Chomskyans are relying, and how it might afford a principled basis for what ascriptions of “knowledge” are worth preserving.
Resistance of Even Mental Realists and the Need for Representational Pretense
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2020

Many non-behaviorists have also opposed the Chomskyan psychological conception of linguists. Some of this opposition is concerned with issues orthogonal to Chomskyan ones, for example issues about prescriptive grammars, conscious phenomena or abstract Platonistic systems. The most persistent opposition has been from Michael Devitt, who insists that linguistics be concerned with a largely conventional “linguistic reality” of words entokened in the air and on paper. His arguments occasion noting that a Chomskyan theory is about computations on representations of words, not on words themselves. However, to avoid an awkward and prolix literal statement of their theory, they conveniently drop the term “representation” and engage in what I call a “representational pretense,” speaking as if the computations were on the words and other SLEs themselves, a convenient and innocuous pretense that I argue is implicit in almost any “internalist” psychology.With this distinction in mind, it is easier to see that there need not in the end be a conflict between the psychological and more external conceptions of linguistics so long as each does not insist on excluding the other.
Linguistic Intuitions and the Voice of Competence
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2020

This chapter defends a “voice of competence” (“VoC”) view of the speaker intuitions on which Chomskyans rely, whereby they are a relatively direct causal consequence of (non-conceptual) representations generated by a speaker’s I-language. Devitt has argued against this view, defending instead the view that, although speakers’ intuitions are ultimately based upon items produced by an internal grammar for central cognition, these items merely “have” and do not represent syntactic properties. Moreover, what speakers ordinarily hear are not those linguistic properties, but only “the message” the items convey. Speaker’s intuitions are therefore just part of their empirical knowledge of items in the world generally, no different in principle from their knowledge of typing. The chapter argues that internal items “having” properties cannot explain the way that syntactic properties are integrated into perception; only representations of properties can do that, which, when they do, also inform speakers’ intuitions. The conclusion looks at the considerable empirical evidence that exists for phonological and syntactic perception often trumping understanding of whatever likely message was intended.
Chomsky and Intentionality
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: November 2020

Intentionality, or the property of minds and representations whereby they are “about” things real or unreal, such as chairs, ghosts, colors, or words. Although intentionality seems to play a crucial role in psychology and in Chomskyan linguistics, its reality has been contested by philosophers such as Quine and, surprisingly, by Chomsky himself. On behalf of Chomsky, John Collins has defended a “Scientific Eliminativism,” endorsing what I call a “Platonist-algebraic” reading of Chomsky’s core theory. I argue that this reading will fall short of satisfying “explanatory adequacy,” failing to provide an account of how a child could be perceptually sensitive to linguistic phenomena. As argued in Chapter 7, this latter requires intentionalist representations, even of phenomena such as words (and colors) that do not exist, what Brentano called “intentional inexistents,” a category this chapter argues is not as problematic as naturalistic philosophers have feared.
A Stamp of Authority
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 investigates how the rise of the caliphate saw an increasing intervention of Arab-Muslim rulers and governors—in the form of substantial investment—in urban retailing and crafts in the eighth and ninth centuries. It examines the chronology of this evolution and its significance, questioning how this favoured economic growth and served the interests of caliphs; the extent to which this acted as a stamp of authority in the context of the assertion of the Umayyad and ‘Abbāsid aristocracy; the relationship between imperial patrons and benefactors; and lastly how this evolution in the patronal system participated in the development of a social structure that differed notably from that of Western Christendom.
Artisans to Producers
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers the physical change of the workspace chronologically, geographically, and by industry. From the case studies of pottery, glass, and textile making, as well as food processing, it discusses the standardization of the Roman practice, as seen at Timgad in North Africa, of zoning and conglomerating crafts in early Islam across the Near East and Central Asia. While acknowledging this continuity with the past, it examines the novelty and significance of manufacturing after 800, when ‘post-Roman’ ceased to be a meaningful description of Near Eastern economy, and questions whether urban crafts experienced differentiated or similar forms of development.
Reshaping Marketplaces
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

Early Islamic marketplaces have been studied almost exclusively for their art historical and architectural values, by Maxime Rodinson in the preface of El señor del zoco en España, while their functioning and process of development have not yet been fully elucidated. It is also believed that marketplaces in early Islam functioned as their late antique predecessors, with apparently nothing bequeathed from pre-Islamic Arabia, where dedicated spaces for trade were extremely rare. This chapter considers what happened to urban marketplaces in the Near East after the Muslim conquests, to look at the fate of the late antique legacy under the new Arab masters—a people with contrasting indigenous commercial traditions—in the context of new power dynamics from 700 to 950. It explores the ways in which early medieval marketplaces differed from the late antique past, and the role they played in the agrarian society of early Islam.
Money Supply and Currency
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

In the Middle Ages, Arab-Muslims inherited the massive coin stocks struck by Byzantium and Iran to support their war efforts in the sixth and early seventh centuries. Up to the late seventh century, solidi and drachms continued to circulate, Arab-Muslims making use of the available stocks. The situation changed from the reign of ‘Abd al-Malik (685–705) and the second fitna. With the rise of the ‘counter-caliph’ Ibn al-Zubayr, ‘Abd al-Malik felt the need to assert the Umayyad’s imperial authority to keep the unity of the umma. His famous reform of coinage was used to impose the Umayyads’ ideology through the use of new Islamic currencies. This chapter examines how Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik’s monetary reforms in the late seventh century played a fundamental role in triggering exchange and increasing the velocity of money circulation. It also explores how, in the late eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, influxes of precious metal from the release of antique treasuries, the intensified exploitation of existing mines, and the discovery of ore veins and deposits in the Near East, Central Asia, and Africa, helped to sustain a developing culture of consumption.
Conclusion to Part III
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

The monetary reforms of the early Middle Ages, as well as the conscious Islamification of daily life and practices, in the context of the assertion of the Umayyad and early ‘Abbāsid caliphates, functioned as powerful generators of economic change. Not only did they create a favourable environment for trade and production, they also provided an ideological legitimacy to earning and spending....
Conclusion to Part IV
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

From 700 to 950, artisanal labour remained anchored in late antique traditions, with a continued reliance on slaves, Christians, and Jewish workers, as illustrated through their signatures on Umayyad and early ‘Abbāsid artefacts. Women continued to work in retail, crafts, and most commonly textile production; occasionally they participated in the administrative sector, sometimes carrying heavy responsibilities as ...
CJEU Citations in the Case Law of the Swiss Federal Supreme Court
Authors: Maiani Francesco
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses the issue of when, why, and to what effect the Swiss Federal Supreme Court (FSC) refers to the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). After providing background information on the Swiss legal system and the relations between Switzerland and the EU, it presents the doctrines of ‘euro-compatible’ interpretation developed by the FSC. Based on a comprehensive analysis of published FSC decisions, it then examines the frequency of references to the CJEU, their legal rationale, and their impact. The article finds that citations of the CJEU in Swiss case law are much more frequent and cogent than in the other third states covered by the present book. This, it is argued, is due to the far-reaching Europeanization of Swiss law. Indeed, while cultural factors may influence the decision to cite CJEU precedents in individual cases, the degree and type of Europeanization in each legal field predict the frequency and cogency of such citations. Thus, in the Swiss case, it may be misleading to speak of the ‘influence of the CJEU’. More than inter-judicial dynamics, it is Swiss judges’ everyday office of applying the law that leads them to consider CJEU precedent.
The Court of Justice of the European Union and the Armenian Legal Order
Authors: Ghazaryan Narine
Published: November 2020

The chapter analyses the limited impact of Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) case law on the legal order of the Republic of Armenia. Despite Armenia’s geographic proximity to the EU, CJEU precedents feature in only two cases of the Constitutional Court of Armenia. In both cases, CJEU case law is seen merely as part of comparative international legal practice, informing the judgment of the national court, rather than affecting the ratio per se. The chapter analyses the main reasons behind the apparent lack of CJEU impact on Armenian judicial practice and the legal order more generally. These include, for example, low intensity in bilateral relations between the EU and Armenia and cognitive barriers. The chapter also addresses the main features of the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement and covers future possibilities for judicial interaction between the two legal orders.
The Impact of the Court of Justice of the European Union on Azerbaijan
Authors: Aliyev Azar
Published: November 2020

The relationship between the EU and Azerbaijan is ambivalent: strong economic cooperation, membership in the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), on the one hand, and differences with regard to human rights issues and tough negotiations on a new Cooperation Agreement, on the other hand. However, many facts are in favour of strong impact of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) jurisprudence on Azerbaijan. Despite all the tensions, Azerbaijan consistently developed its legal system based on the European, especially German, model. European law is a mandatory course in the largest law faculty of the country. Azerbaijan has positive experience with the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), which plays an important role in the development of the legal and court systems of the country. The chapter shows that despite the favourable circumstances, the impact of the CJEU jurisprudence on Azerbaijan remains very limited. It analyses three decisions of the Constitutional Court referencing to CJEU jurisprudence. Furthermore, the author tries to identify the reasons for this by analysing the legal and courts systems, as well as the legal education, and comes up with several proposals on how to make the CJEU jurisprudence more fruitful for Azerbaijan, but also for other neighbouring jurisdictions.
Analytic Elements from Singular Integral Equations
Authors: Steward David R.
Published: November 2020

Solutions to interface problems may be developed using analytic elements with mathematical solutions to the Laplace equation developed by singular integral equations. This formulation leads to solutions with discontinuities occurring across line segments, where the potential or stream function is discontinuous across double layer elements in Section 5.2, and the normal or tangential component of the vector field is discontinuous across single layer elements in Section 5.3. Examples illustrate a broad range of solutions to interface conditions possible with these elements. Series expansions are used to represent the far-field at larger distances from elements in Section 5.4, which leads to higher-order elements with nearly exact solutions and also provides a simpler representation for contiguous strings of adjacent elements. Such strings of elements are used with polygon elements in 5.5 to solve conditions along the interfaces of heterogeneities, and to provide a common series expansion to represent the far-field for a group of neighboring elements. Methods are extended to analytic elements with curvilinear geometry using conformal mappings (Section 5.6) and to three-dimensional fields in Section 5.7.
Introduction
Authors: Gupta Gopal K.
Published: November 2020

This chapter introduces the Bhāgavata and this book. The Bhāgavata’s philosophical content is solidly grounded in the classical understandings of both Vedānta and Sāṁkhya, and its overarching theological aim is to promote unalloyed devotion to Kṛṣṇa (or God) as the highest and most satisfying human occupation. This having been said, this chapter also argues that the Bhāgavata is not a systematic work in the manner of the Sāṅkhya-kārikā or Yoga-sutras, nor is it structured and linear in fashion as are these works. Rather it weaves its theological discourse through its narratives, often discussing various themes at the same time. The Bhāgavata’s discourse sometimes moves like a spiral, discussing a theological topic repeatedly, but each time with a bit more depth or in a different context. At other times, it moves like a neural network, in which one theological idea leads to another with no apparent framework other than the connections between the ideas themselves. All these matters and more are touched upon in this chapter.
Māyā’s Role in the Absolute Realm
Authors: Gupta Gopal K.
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores māyā’s role in the absolute realm that is said to be a transformation of yoga-māyā, Kṛṣṇa’s internal energy, meaning the realm in which Kṛṣṇa personally resides along with his loving associates: those souls that want to live in full knowledge and remembrance of Kṛṣṇa (sambandha), that have chosen loving devotional service (bhakti) as the means (abhidheya), and that have found complete fulfillment and unlimited joy in unconditionally dedicating themselves to Kṛṣṇa’s happiness (prayojana). However, before journeying into that divine realm, this chapter first develops a nuanced understanding of the term bhakti. The chapter concludes that in the context of Kṛṣṇa’s līlā, māyā serves not as the potency of delusion, but rather as the energy that reconnects finite souls with the divine play of Kṛṣṇa. Instead of forgetting God, the souls now forget that he is God, so that they may play their role in relationship with him. Indeed, Kṛṣṇa himself voluntarily submits to the power of yoga-māyā, losing himself in this divine drama, thus increasing the intensity and intimacy of his devotees’ love for him.
The Bhāgavata Speaks of Human Suffering
Authors: Gupta Gopal K.
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the Bhāgavata’s overall response to the problem of suffering, namely to celebrate “devotional heroism”: the facing and conquering of unavoidable suffering through intensified devotion. The Bhāgavata does not see karma as an adequate solution to the problem of suffering. It admits that just as it is difficult or sometimes impossible to ascertain the cause of a forest fire, which may be due to lightning or the rubbing of sticks, so also the cause of living beings’ suffering is difficult to understand. Implicit in the narratives of devotional heroism throughout the Bhāgavata is the notion that the ultimate purpose of all temporary sufferings is eternal freedom and never-ending spiritual joy in intimate association with Kṛṣṇa. Suffering, in other words, is a means by which devotees—bhāgavatas—are understood to be elevated from already-existing greatness to eternal glory. As models for ordinary human beings, saintly devotees in such conditions of adversity underscore the Bhāgavata’s message of hope, that all human beings, and indeed ultimately all living beings, may become exalted, overcome the bonds of māyā, and attain Kṛṣṇa-prema (love of God) by imbibing the Bhāgavata vision.
Origins, Bondage, Liberation, and Grace
Authors: Gupta Gopal K.
Published: November 2020

The Bhāgavata is primarily concerned with how the jīva (self’s) bondage is perpetuated and how it is brought to an end. While the text more or less takes bondage for granted, there are several passages that discuss the important but vexing question of how we became bound in the first place. In some of these passages, the self’s bondage is described as having a beginning, and that beginning is described as a type of “fall” from an original spiritual state. As for freedom from bondage (or liberation), this is basically described as a return to that original state. Standing against this portrayal, however, are a handful of Bhāgavata passages which seem to suggest that the self’s bondage is beginningless (anādi), with no starting point in time. This chapter explores the question of whether the Bhāgavata views the bound jīva as having existed eternally in the cycle of birth and death or as having previously existed in an unbound state of eternal being, from which it fell into temporal cyclical existence.
Epilogue
Authors: Gupta Gopal K.
Published: November 2020

This chapter concludes by examining how the Bhāgavata figures into the intellectual history of India. As has been shown throughout this work, rather than being a naive, irrelevant book of fabled tales and irrational beliefs, the Bhāgavata provides a sophisticated alternate view of Vedānta to that which is presented by Śaṅkara and his followers, up to and including Vivekānanada. The Bhāgavata claims that Kṛṣṇa is endowed with unlimited potency (māyā), for which nothing is impossible or contradictory. It is through the transformation of Kṛṣṇa’s māyā that the categories of existence are said to arise, and never through a transformation of Kṛṣṇa himself.
Interlude
Authors: Stewart Dustin D.
Published: November 2020

The book as a whole emphasizes a productive discontinuity between various eighteenth-century poets and both their Miltonic sources and their Romantic successors. Two interludes, however, qualify this picture by showing how a mortalist poetics, shared by the late Milton and some early Romantic writers, persisted in between the two in certain quarters of Enlightenment England. The first interlude focuses on the poet James Thomson. It identifies and discusses a few of the theological implications of his Poem Sacred to the Memory of Isaac Newton (1727) and his revisions to The Seasons (1730).
The Place for Gloom
Authors: Stewart Dustin D.
Published: November 2020

Beginning the final section of the book, which shows how early Romanticism tames the spiritualist impulse, this chapter considers poetic re-embodiment in relation to psychological depression, called “gloom” by the poet and critic Anna Letitia Barbauld. She faulted Edward Young for having popularized a dangerously gloomy sublimity that, by separating souls from bodies, desensitized readers to subtle and modest everyday feelings. As a remedy, her writing praises the enlightened “chearfulness” of Mark Akenside, a healthy middle register of embodied emotion that is neither too dark nor too bright. Yet Barbauld eventually came to agree, the chapter argues, with medical experts who had decided that melancholy is an affliction more of matter than mind. Late poems, crowned by Eighteen Hundred and Eleven (1812), both accept that gloom belongs in the physical body and identify the poet’s own voice with that body. De-souled and dispirited, Barbauld at last domesticates Young’s otherworldly passion. She makes depression political by making it ordinary.
The Victorian Baby in Print
Authors: Wagner Tamara S.
Published: November 2020

The Victorian Baby in Print: Infancy, Infant Care, and Nineteenth-Century Popular Culture explores the representation of babyhood in Victorian Britain. The first study to focus exclusively on the baby in nineteenth-century literature and culture, this critical analysis discusses the changing roles of an iconic figure. A close look at the wide-ranging portrayal of infants and infant care not only reveals how divergent and often contradictory Victorian attitudes to infancy really were, but also prompts us to revise persistent clichés surrounding the literary baby that emerged or were consolidated at the time, and which are largely still with us. Drawing on a variety of texts, including novels by Charles Dickens, Wilkie Collins, Mary Elizabeth Braddon, Mrs Henry Wood, and Charlotte Yonge, as well as parenting magazines of the time, childrearing manuals, and advertisements, this study analyses how their representations of infancy and infant care utilised and shaped an iconography that has become definitional of the Victorian age itself. The familiar clichés surrounding the Victorian baby have had a lasting impact on the way we see both the Victorians and babies, and a close analysis might also prompt a self-critical reconsideration of the still burgeoning market for infant care advice today.