bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Managing industrial pharmaceutical R&D. A comparative study of management control and innovative effectiveness in European and Anglo‐American companies
Authors: Omta S. W. F. , Boute L. M. , van Engelen J. M. L.
Published: May 2007

Drug regulation and pricing have put strong pressure on the cost‐benefit ratio of the innovative pharmaceutical industry. Therefore a study has been conducted in fourteen large and medium sized companies to determine some important organisational and managerial factors influencing success in pharmaceutical innovation. The study consists of structured interviews with Research Directors and questionnaires, submitted to the heads of the different research departments. The following conclusions are tentatively drawn. Firstly, the data suggest that a threshold investment of approximately $150–200 million is needed to maintain the innovative potential. Above approximately $750 million, ‘economies of scale’ seem to appear in pharmaceutical innovation. Secondly, an incremental strategy aimed at reducing the duration of the development process seems to be more successful than a radical strategy which lays more emphasis on discovery. Thirdly, pure play pharmaceuticals seem to be more successful than the pharmaceutical divisions of conglomerates. Management control, especially the way in which reorganisations are performed, is assessed more positively in pure play pharmaceuticals. Fourthly, the greater emphasis on human resources management in Anglo‐American companies, in comparison to continental European companies, seems to be an important explanatory factor for their greater success on the pharmaceutical market.
Success factors for collaborative product development: a study of suppliers of information and communication technology
Authors: Bruce Margaret , Leverick Fiona , Littler Dale , Wilson Dominic
Published: May 2007

It is apparent that more and more organizations are embarking on collaborative ventures to develop products. This is particularly evident in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sectors, so much so that part of the ‘received wisdom’ of ICT companies is that collaboration is the preferred route for product development. The benefits of collaboration have been well documented and are linked to the complexity and costliness of product development and the need for inputs from wide and varied areas of expertise as well as shorter lead times for product development. But the risks and costs of collsborative product development have been less well defined. In this paper, it is argued that the alleged rewards of collaboration may not be experienced in practice and that collaboration can lengthen the product development process, add to the cost of product development and prove difficult to control. However, management practice can facilitate the effective outcome of collaborative product development and the critical factors affecting the likelihood of successful management practice are presented here.
The role of HRM in supporting innovation strategies: recommendations on how R&D managers should be treated from an HRM perspective
Authors: Martell Kathryn D. , Carroll Stephen J.
Published: May 2007

In recent years, consultants and academics have encouraged managers to use Human Resource Management (HRM) practices to help implement their competitive strategies. In particular, there has been enthusiasm for tailoring HRM practices to fit innovation strategies since achieving a competitive advantage based on technological superiority is very much associated with the quality of the firm's human resources. Unfortunately, there is little empirical research that examines how HRM can best support innovation strategies, and even less that evaluates the effectiveness of HRM practices in encouraging innovation in various functional settings, such as R&D departments. This research is an attempt to bridge this gap. Data were gathered from 115 divisions (SBUs) in 89 Fortune 500 companies in the US, and analyzed to identify which HRM practices used with R&D managers were most strongly associated with innovation and SBU performance. This article, which also includes descriptive data on how R&D managers are selected, compensated and evaluated, concludes with the authors’ recommendations on how R&D managers should be treated from an HRM perspective.
Occupational roles and expectations of research scientists and research managers in scientific research institutions†
Authors: Turpin Tim , Deville Adrian
Published: May 2007

Publicly funded research institutes in most countries have been pressed by economic and political pressures through the 1990s to become more financially independent, to be more accountable and to adopt more businesslike principles and practices. In this context the occupational roles and career options for scientists and research managers in these organisations have undergone considerable change. As the research cultures of these institutions take on a more commercial perspective, new and critical career path choices for both researchers and the organisations themselves have emerged. This article focuses on the changing occupational roles of research scientists and research managers in the Australian CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation), one of the world's largest multidisciplinary research organisations. Two critical occupational pathways are discussed: one between science and science management and another between science management and commercial management. Key points where the pathways diverge are identified and linked to broader issues of organisational culture and human resource management. The authors argue that research institutes such as the Australian CSIRO require a ‘multicultural’ management approach that horizontally integrates the industrial, scientific and commercial domains of the organisations’ research cultures.
Incentives for employed inventors: an empirical analysis with special emphasis on the German Law for Employee's Inventions
Authors: Leptien Christopher
Published: May 2007

This paper evaluates the use of incentive systems in R&D to stimulate the motivation potential of R&D personnel. Special emphasis is given to the German Employee's Inventions Act, enacted in 1957 which is applicable to all enterprises under German law and provides guidelines for a mandatory compensation of employed inventors. The law's major content, its advantages and disadvantages are presented and discussed in detail. It is shown that the general consensus in industry is unfavourable to the German Act. A significant time lack between the invention and it's compensation, the lack of transparency of the compensation guidelines, the calculation of an adequate compensation level, and a high administrative effort of calculating the compensation are only some of the drawbacks of this law. The consequences of these problems are the encouragement of secrecy among R&D professionals and the negative impact on their individual motivation potential. We also report on an experiment that measures the individual preferences of R&D personnel for different incentive variables. The method of conjoint measurement is applied to this area, it's technique is described and assessed. It is found that different segments of respondents with different preferences exist. The empirical findings also indicate the need to increase the flexibility of existing incentive systems in German industry.
QFD—linking the customer to the product development process as a part of the TQM concept
Authors: Tottie Magnus , Lager Thomas
Published: May 2007

LKAB is one of the world's leading sup‐pliers of advanced iron ore products. Its most important markets are the blast furnace based steelworks of Europe. As a result of customers’ demands for ever‐better products, LKAB has begun to apply Quality Function Deployment (QFD) to its product development pro‐grammes. QFD, originally developed in Japan, is a technique which utilises a series of matrices to translate customers’ requirements into technical specifications that the producer can use. So far the methodology has mainly been used in the manufacturing industry, with very few applications in process industry.

When launching its QFD project, LKAB began by making strenuous efforts to acquire credible and relevant customer data. Experience after one year's work has been encouraging; the QFD technique has proved to be an effective instrument for feeding customers’ requirements into the product development process. In addition, it serves as a guide to setting priorities for research projects. The technique promises to become an established tool in the cornpany's Total Quality Management programme.
The link between managerial style and the job characteristics of R&D professionals
Authors: Yeh Quey‐Jen
Published: May 2007

Despite a growing body of evidence as to the importance of linking job design to supervisory practices, almost no empirical studies have been conducted on the issue specifically for R&D professionals. The effectiveness of supervisors should differ primarily with respect to their leadership styles. Data obtained from three major types of R&D organizations in Taiwan were used to examine how leadership styles affect the job characteristics of R&D professionals with personal attributes of professionals themselves as the concomitant variables. The leadership styles were defined in terms of a two dimensional construct with the supportive dimension focusing on enhancing relationship and participatory decision making, and the directive dimension emphasizing telling and directing to get tasks accomplished. The results supported most of the hypotheses proposed in the study. In particular, the high correlation of the supportive leadership style and overall job characteristics, across the three types of organizations in the test, demonstrates the importance of incorporating the role of supervision in the R&D job design. The findings have implications for enhancing the leadership effectiveness in managing R&D professionals. Such findings are not only important for R&D managers in newly industrialized countries, but are also valuable to their counterparts in industrialized countries.
Japanese/U.S. technological competitiveness and strategic alliances in the biotechnology industry
Authors: Forrest Janet E.
Published: May 2007

This paper analyzes the reasons for Japanese/U.S. collaborations in the biotechnology industry, and considers the question of whether such alliances pose a threat to the North American industry. Japan's technological competitiveness in biotechnology is examined in terms of its strengths and perceived weaknesses. Ways in which Japan is attempting to overcome these weaknesses are identified. As well, the strengths and weaknesses of the North American biotechnology industry are assessed. The paper concludes with recommendations for government and R&D managers on how to preserve U.S. competitiveness. R&D managers must keep abreast of their techno‐global competitive environments. While organizations can enter into alliances to improve their competitiveness they must be aware of the dangers of collaboration, and to benefit from their alliances they must enhance their organizational learning. Organizations must be aware of the pitfalls of alliance formation, and any alliance must be viewed in its national context. Last, but not least, managers must be more effective in their management of the processes of technological innovation.
Describing the issues of knowledge management in R&D: towards a communication and analysis tool
Authors: Kerssens‐Van Drongelen Inge C. , De Weerd‐Nederhof Petra C. , Fisscher Olaf A. M.
Published: May 2007

In this article, a comprehensive descriptive model of R&D knowledge management is presented and its use illustrated. Knowledge is defined as: information internalized by means of research, study or experience, that has value for the organization. First, the issue of knowledge management is placed in the context of R&D management, and set alongside what has been written in R&D management literature about topics such as information management, information technology in R&D, technology transfer, communication and organizational learning. Then, we present our descriptive model, and apply it in a case study concerning a Dutch multinational in the chemical industry. The model served as an aid to identify bottlenecks, and was a useful starting point for formulating improvement plans, some of which are presented. The paper concludes with an evaluation of the model as a communication and analysis tool, and ideas for further improvement.
Dutch Women are Liberated, Migrant Women are a Problem: The Evolution of Policy Frames on Gender and Migration in the Netherlands, 1995–2005
Authors: Roggeband Conny , Verloo Mieke
Published: May 2007

Over the past decade, there has been a major shift in Dutch gender equality policy to an almost exclusive focus on migrant women. Simultaneously, the focus of ‘minority policies’ has shifted more and more towards gender relations. The appearance of migrant women at the top of the political agenda is remarkable. In this article we examine how this construction of migrant women as a political problem has come about, and consider its implications. As we argue, the dominant policy frames of emancipation and individual responsibility are reinforcing a dichotomy between the autochthonous ‘us’ and the allochthonous ‘them’. As the problem is increasingly defined as a cultural one, it is implicitly stated that there is no problem with the dominant culture and society. Barriers for participation are exclusively located in the migrant (Muslim) culture. In this view, Muslim migrants should first change their culture before they can fully integrate in Dutch society.
Reveiw Discussion
Authors: GEORGE ALEXANDER
Published: May 2007

Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use. By Noam Chomsky.
Multiple Review
Authors: WALKER STEPHEN
Published: May 2007

Gavagai! or the Future History of the Animal Language Controversy By DAVID PREMACK.
Tensed Thoughts
Authors: HIGGINBOTHAM JAMES
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Consider mental states of the type that relate a subject to a content expressed by a sentence. I propose that some of these states necessarily include as constituents of their contents the states themselves. These reflexive states arise when one locates a content as belonging, for example, to one's own present or past. That content is then a tense% thought, ordering one's present state with respect to the content. Anaphoric cross‐reference between an event or state (understood as in Davidson's proposal for the logical form of action sentences) and a constituent of its own content is responsible, I argue, for the phenomenon of sequence of tense in English. Conversely, the fact that some states are necessarily reflexive supports the view that the elaborations of logical form that account for sequence of tense are no mere artefact of semantics, but even intrinsic to some of our utterances and thoughts.
A Defense of De Re Belief Reports
Authors: REIMER MARGA
Published: May 2007

Abstract: In Talk About Beliefs, Mark Crimmins claims that de re belief reports are not nearly as common as they are generally thought to be. In the following paper, I take issue with this claim. I begin with a critique of Crimmins’arguments on behalf of the claim, and then follow with an argument on behalf of the opposing claim: that de re belief reports are indeed quite common. In defending this claim, I make some observations about the nature of tacit reference, a phenomenon central to Crimmins’account of belief reports.
Notional Specificity
Authors: CRIMMINS MARK
Published: May 2007

Abstract: I hold that a belief report characterizes the subject's belief not only by its truth conditions, but also by the token mental representations involved in it (based on conversational hints). To what extent does a belief report specify the mental representations required to make it true? I advance two surprising theses: (i) many reports specify representations by actually referring to them, and (ii) it is not clear that any ordinary reports simply leave open what sorts of representations are required for their truth. I defend these claims from the arguments of Marga Reimer and other critics.
Lost the Plot? Reconstructing Dennett's Multiple Drafts Theory of Consciousness
Authors: AKINS KATHLEEN
Published: May 2007

Abstract: In Consciousness Explained, Daniel Dennett presents the Multiple Drafts Theory of consciousness, a very brief, largely empirical theory of brain function. From these premises, he draws a number of quite radical conclusions—for example, the conclusion that conscious events have no determinate time of occurrence. The problem, as many readers have pointed out, is that there is little discernible route from the empirical premises to the philosophical conclusions. In this article, I try to reconstruct Dennett's argument, providing both the philosophical views behind the empirical premises, and the hidden empirical arguments behind the derivation of the philosophical conclusions.
Information technology and employment in local government: the quantitative and qualitative effects on jobs in the late 1980s
Authors: Quintas Paul
Published: May 2007

New technology is increasingly being introduced into local government. Using a case study of a shire local authority, the author argues that information technology has already affected employment levels and has enhanced management efficiency.
Research on the implications of new technology for manpower and skills: some methodological considerations
Authors: Brady T. M.
Published: May 2007

This paper examines two approaches to the study of the implications of technological change for manpower and skill requirements. One is based on the development of taxonomies to classify different levels of automation of industrial processes. The other is based on the study of the competitive dynamics within industrial sectors.
Feature—International Industrial Relations Association Seventh World Congress Hamburg, West Germany, September 1986
Authors: Bamber Greg
Published: May 2007

As technological change was a main item at the IIRA World Congress the author was invited to write a short report on it for NTWE
New technology, innovation and training: an empirical study of selected British firms
Authors: Campbell Adrian , Warner Malcolm
Published: May 2007

This article is based on a survey of manufacturing sites, and the relation between production innovation and skills provision strategies encountered therein. It discusses the ways in which trends towards process integration and product flexibility are encouraging moves away from the traditional dependence on ‘off‐the‐shelf’skills recruitment and towards a greater emphasis on training, often of a flexible and cross‐disciplinary type.
Trade unions and new technology in West Germany
Authors: Price Robert , Steininger Siegfried
Published: May 2007

The attitudes and policy orientations of the West German unions to the development and utilisation of new technologies have changed substantially over the past three decades. Contemporary union policies are more critical and more politically oriented: the changes which they seek, to more successfully influence technological developments, have potentially crucial significance for the future character and stability of the West German industrial relations system.
Skills and job commitment in high technology industries in the US
Authors: Hodson Randy , Hagan Jacqueline
Published: May 2007

This article, based on a study of workers, engineers and managers in a sample of high technology firms in the US, suggests extensive skill dislocation, labour market segmentation and a lack of participation in production decisions. There is a crisis of organisation and commitment among employees in such firms.
Technical change, work organisation and training: some issues relating to the role of market forces
Authors: Senker Peter
Published: May 2007

Managements often fail to deal with problems of reorganising work to cope with technical change. Nevertheless, it is suggested that skills are becoming more enterprise‐specific and that employers should train to satisfy their own needs. While markets help to distribute skills, they do not ensure that sufficient are created.
New technology, new careers: the impact of company employment policy
Authors: Hendry Chris
Published: May 2007

Both upskilling and deskilling theses are frequently at fault in treating the unit of analysis as the skill residing in a particular group of workers, when it is the intersecting roles and labour markets, established over a period of time by recruitment, training, and job design policies, which are analytically significant.
New office technology and the labour process in contemporary Japanese banking
Authors: Watanabe Takashi
Published: May 2007

Japanese banks account for the top nine of the world's ten biggest banks. Rationalization has led to increased control of employees in the sphere of labour management. This article examines labour management and working conditions in relation to the introduction of new office technology.
Worker support for technical change
Authors: Daniel W W. , Hogarth Terence
Published: May 2007

The Workplace Industrial Relations Survey shows that in the large majority of cases the introduction of new technology is supported by the workers affected and their union representatives. In contrast, organisational change receives a more mixed response. Case studies reveal some of the principal reasons for the contrasting reactions to different forms of change.
New technologies, employment shifts and gender divisions within the textile industry
Authors: Crewe Louise
Published: May 2007

This article examines the implications of the restructuring of the textile industry. In particular, the interlinked themes of technical change, employment restructuring and gender divisions are explored. The tensions which exist between production process and labour process transformations are considered, and a possible policy framework is offered.
Changing technology and design work in the British engineering industry, 1981–1988
Authors: Senker Peter , Simmonds Paul
Published: May 2007

Technologies and management strategies change over time and interact. Longitudinal studies can shed some light on this process, and can also contribute to understanding of how relationships between technology and working conditions change over time.
Work practice barriers to flexible manufacturing in the US and the UK
Authors: Conti Robert
Published: May 2007

Work practice barriers to flexible manufacturing are studied in the British and American unionized engineering industries and a comparison made of the influence of the industrial relations systems on the potential for overcoming these barriers.
CNC technology, job design and training: the scope for personnel strategies
Authors: Nielsen Kjeld
Published: May 2007

Drawing on empirical material from a research project on new technology and skills, the author discusses the scope for personnel strategies within a context of varying social constraints. He concludes that within a given production and at a given level of technology, a variation of strategies for staff training and development may emerge. It is argued that the style of management plays a considerable role in determining job design and skill development.
Workplace implications of FMS and CIM in Denmark and Sweden
Authors: Clausen Christian , Lorentzen Børge
Published: May 2007

Drawing on experiences from the introduction of FMS and CIM in Denmark and Sweden this article deals with the impact on social relations between management and employees and the new challenges faced by the unions. The authors call for a stronger profile in union policy concerning technology and work.
New technology and Hong Kong telephone workers
Authors: Ure John
Published: May 2007

Most studies of technological change in telecommunications have researched incremental shifts within the analogue switching paradigm. This paper takes the case of the shift to digital switching in Hong Kong's public telephone network. It focuses upon how this change was managed and the consequential changes in labour relations.
Control, technology and the management offensive in newspapers
Authors: Noon Mike
Published: May 2007

Here the author explores the dynamics of workplace control in the provincial newspaper industry, and argues that direct input technology has led to structural changes that shift the locus of control from the printers (typesetters/compositors) to the journalists (sub‐editors) by increasing the latter group's influence over strategic contingencies in the production process.
EDI and business network redesign: why the two don't go together
Authors: Spinardi Graham , Graham Ian , Williams Robin
Published: May 2007

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) for communication between different corporate computer systems was expected to transform relationships between firms. However, this detailed study of three sectors of the UK publishing industry—the book trade; the magazine and newspaper trade; and newsprint supply to newspapers—found that EDI developed in a slow and incremental manner. This calls into question the radical visions of proponents of business network redesign.
Useful approach for evaluating expert systems
Authors: LIEBOWÌTZ JAY
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Evaluation of expert systems is an important step in the knowledge engineering process. In recent years, emphasis has been placed on knowledge acquisition, knowledge representation, and inferencing mechanisms. However, evaluation, and to a lesser extent, validation, have been slightly overlooked. This paper addresses some of the evaluation techniques that have been used for measuring information systems effectiveness and expert systems effectiveness. Specific attention is focused on the Analytic Hierarchy Process and Expert Choice. The evaluation results of an expert system prototype, called ‘Read’, are discussed via the use of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and Expert Choice.
Consultant expertise
Authors: JOHNSON PAUL E. , NACHTSHEIM CHRISTOPHER J. , ZUALKERNAN IMRAN A.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Experts typically solve problems in narrow domains (e.g. the diagnosis of congenital heart diseases). Consultants, however, have expertise that is based on an ability to apply expertise across domains. Such expertise is exhibited in most fields. In this paper we report an investigation of consultant expertise in statistical experimental design. Our analysis reveals that consultants are successful because of their ability to 1) formulate the client's problem in abstract terms, 2) refine and modify this formulation through interaction with the client, and 3) incorporate the client's domain knowledge into an effective problem solution.
An IKBS for integrating component design to tool engineering
Authors: Lim Beng Siong
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Component design and tool engineering functions are two sequentially related activities. Many additional benefits may arise if these activities can be effectively integrated together within a central environment. The principal aim of the research described in this paper is to develop a component design and tool engineering Intelligent Knowledge Based System (IKBS), called Holdex to demonstrate such a concept. It is an implementation designed to deduce the planning, design, tooling, procurement and scheduling information at the component design stage. It also assists the component designers in the operation of a Computer Aided Design (Cad) system and leads them towards the rationalisation of resources by encouraging standardisation of designs. A major benefit to arise from the provision of such assistance is to facilitate the tasks of executing the production engineering functions. The range of functions performed by Holdex includes the specification of a set of cutting tools; planning a set of pre‐machining requirements; recommendation of the appropriate machine tool and manning level; and the automated design of fixtures. Towards this end, this research aims to provide a foundation for enabling industry to manufacture with the least amount of manual interpretation.
Education, training and knowledge base design
Authors: Tompsett C.P.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Knowledge based systems offer considerable potential for the creation of new learning environments. In education such environments can be used with the mediation of a teacher and limits to the interpretation of the knowledge do not necessarily present problems. Intelligent tutoring systems cannot rely on human mediation and all interpretation of learner understanding is restricted to semantics of the knowledge representation. Thus the choice of representation is fundamental to the design of an intelligent tutoring system. Experience from an engineering context suggests that the success of a few intelligent tutoring systems depends on the formal nature of the topics considered. Typical topics for education and training require the integration of a formal understanding with an informal interpretation of considerable complexity. A new approach to the use of knowledge based systems, firmly centred on experience of applications actively used in education and/or training, will be required to solve this problem.
1st Class
Authors: Forsyth Richard
Published: May 2007

FIRST CLASS is an inductive expert system development tool written by William Hapgood and supplied by 1 st‐Class Expert Systems Inc. The product runs on IBM PC, XT and AT computers and close compatibles, running MS/DOS 2.0 or higher. It is sold in two versons, 1st‐Class (at $495 U.S.) and 1st‐Class Fusion (at $1295). This is a review of the plain version; but mention of ‘Fusion’ facilities is made where appropriate. 1st‐Class Expert Systems Inc. can be contacted at: 286 Boston Post Road, Wayland, Massachusetts 1778, USA (617 358–7722).
Expertise, domain‐structure and expert system design: a case study in development control
Authors: Leary Michael , Rodriguez‐Bachiller Agustin
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This paper outlines the approach taken and presents some early findings from a research project which aims to examine the potential of expert systems in British Development Control; it is a progress report more than an account of finished research. It follows the structure of the research project, dealing first with methodological issues, and then moving on to discuss the specific domain of application.
Neural Works Professional II
Authors: Forsyth Richard
Published: May 2007

Neural Works Professional II is a neuro‐computing development environment authored by Casimir ‘Casey’ Klimasauskas of Neural Ware Inc. It runs on IBM PC, XT and AT computers and close compatibles under MS/DOS 2.0 or higher. This review was carried out on an Opus V AT‐class machine running at 10 Mhz with EGA, 1 Mb RAM and a 30‐megabyte hard disk. The package costs $2250 (there is a Sun/Unix version at /2600), and can be obtained from Neural Ware Inc., 103 Buckskin Court, Sewickley, PA 15143, USA. Tel: (412) 741‐5959. In the United Kingdom the price is £ 1350 and it is distributed by Scientific Computers Ltd., Victoria Road, Burgess Hill, Sussex, RH15 9LW, England. Tel: (04446) 5101.
Collating real‐time market indicators through a temporal paradigm
Authors: Loo Siew Lan
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This is an endeavour to amalgamate temporal logics with financial problems. By utilising real strategies, it takes cognisance that ‘generic’ trading systems can be creative. In the financial market, time is a critical vector. Accordingly, trading decisions have to be specific and any advice controlled. Reichgelt's two‐tier reified temporal logic seems to offer a favourable pliancy for tracking such a capricious market. The external modal language, TM, is friendly and simple but expressive. It allows the outside world to be related by three primitives: AT, P(ast) and F(uture). The internal meta‐language, TR, permitting time points, allows TM's effect to be developed with precision.
XpertRule advanced
Authors: Forsyth Richard
Published: May 2007

XpertRule is an expert‐systems development environment authored by Dr Akeel Al‐Attar. It runs on IBM PC, XT and AT computers and close compatibles. This review was carried out on an Opus V AT‐class machine running at 10 Mhz with EGA, 1 Mb RAM and a 30Mb hard disk. The package costs £995 and can be obtained from Attar Software Ltd, Newlands Road, Leigh, Lancashire WN7 4HN, England. Tel: +44 (0)942 608844.
Property rights in knowledge‐based products and applications
Authors: Clarke Roger
Published: May 2007

Abstract: As Knowledge‐Based Technology (KBT) becomes commercially exploitable, large financial commitments are being made, and businessmen are increasingly concerned to protect those investments. The nature of property rights in software is outlined. Issues arising in relation to software in general, and KBT in particular, are considered, and some significant areas of uncertainty are identified. It should not be assumed that investment in KBT‐based products and applications automatically gives rise to property rights in the resulting software. Investors and technologists should seek legal advice as to whether, in the relevant legal jurisdictions, copyright or other intellectual property rights apply to their software. Further, they should take the steps necessary to establish and retain such rights
FRIL: A Support Logic Programming System
Authors: Graham Ian
Published: May 2007

FRIL: A Support Logic Programming System is principally an extension of Prolog designed to facilitate the modelling of uncertainty in applications which are suitable for Prolog and need to allow for probabilistic, evidential or vague reasoning. This review was carried out on an Amstrad 1640HD. The product runs on IBM PC, XT, AT and PS/2 computers and compatibles running MS‐DOS 3.0 or higher, with 640 Kb RAM. It also runs on a variety of workstations and minicomputers such as the Sun and VAX range. Prices of currently available versions are as follows:

PC single user: £495

PC single user with expanded memory (2 Mb): £995

PC networks (up to ten PCs): £1495

SUN, Apollo HP300 workstations: £2500

MicroVax and VAX workstations (UNIX or VMS): £5000

VAX 11/730, 11/750, 11/780 (UNIX or VMS): £6000.

The product is available from FRIL Systems Ltd, Bristol ITeC, St Anne's House, St Anne's Road, Bristol BS4 4AB, England. Telephone: (0272) 713481. FRIL Systems launched version 4.0 of FRIL in late 1988.
Constructive interaction in knowledge engineering
Authors: Gammack John G. , Anderson Anthony
Published: May 2007

Abstract: It is argued that knowledge engineering can be usefully viewed as an interactive, conversational process. We review some issues concerning the dynamic determination of meaning and reference in the context of knowledge acquisition and argue that these issues affect both the process of knowledge engineering and its product. First, we distinguish three different aspects of context relevant to knowledge engineering and emphasise their critical importance. Secondly, some particular aspects of knowledge engineering as an interactive process are discussed, including the negotiation of local conventions, referentiality, tacit knowledge and agreed meaning. Finally, we suggest supplementing traditional practice with the method of constructive interaction, in an approach which recognises the relevance of interactive issues and their implications for knowledge engineering. In this approach, represented structure does not contain meaning, but acts as the focus for meaning to be agreed through an interactive dialogue. The knowledge engineer has a unique and active contribution to make to the success of this dialogue, leading to the systematisation of a domain of expertise.
On maintaining and updating expert systems
Authors: Madeo Laurence A. , Levary Reuven R.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: A mechanism for tracing the utilization of rules in expert systems during periods of practical usage is proposed. Statistics related to the utilization of each rule help the designer to re‐evaluate the appropriateness of each rule, so that over‐utilized rules may be expanded and unnecessary ones deleted. By incorporating such a mechanism, the efficiency of maintaining and updating expert systems is improved.
A fuzzy logic inference model for a rule‐based system in medical diagnosis
Authors: Binaghi Elisabetta
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Intrinsically vague knowledge is typical of the decision processes involved in medical diagnosis, especially when they are based on complex and non numeric data. Linguistic descriptions of the symptoms exhibited by a given patient do not, by definition, represent a precise numeric concept and diagnostic classes cannot be modelled in terms of crisp sets. Fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic provide an appropriate framework for the representation of imprecise medical concepts and imprecise modes of reasoning. A medical expert system with a fuzzy inference model, for the diagnosis of involutional osteoporosis is presented. Medical knowledge is represented in the form of relationships between combinations of symptoms and diagnostic classes. Two categories of disease, postmenopausal osteoporosis and senile osteoporosis are identified and three diagnostic classes are introduced for each disease category expressing the degree of severity of the disease: Definite, Possible, Excluded. For each diagnostic class the system infers a conclusion expressing the degree of satisfaction in the choice of the diagnostic class.
Expert systems in industrial practice: advantages and drawbacks
Authors: Dubas Michel
Published: May 2007

Abstract: On the basis of experience gained in the engineering industry, the present paper describes advantages and drawbacks encountered using the expert system technique. The constraints which real programs are subject to are explained using a configuration system as an example. The criteria which influence the choice of software and hardware are presented. Finally, aspects of the knowledge elicitation task as well as implementation topics are discussed.
POPLOG‐Neural — a neural network development toolkit
Authors: Clinton Julian
Published: May 2007

Expert Systems has invited Julian Clinton, Product Development Manager at Integral Solutions, to describe the background to the company's recent launch of POPLOG‐Neural. POPLOG‐Neural runs on all POPLOG host systems. These include Sun 3, SPARC station, Sun 386i, DEC VAX under both VMS and Ultrix, DECstation, Hewlett‐Packard 9000/300 systems, Sequent Symmetry and 68000‐based Apollo workstations. You do not need an existing POPLOG licence to use POPLOG‐Neural. For further information contact either Julian Clinton or Colin Shearer at Integral Solutions Ltd, Unit 3, Campbell Court, Bramley, Basingstoke RG26 5EG, UK (tel: +44 (0)256 882028). POPLOG is a trademark of the University of Sussex. Other trademarks acknowledged.
Towards a methodology for evaluating expert systems
Authors: Preece Alun D.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Expert system evaluation comprises verification, validation and user acceptance testing. The nature of expert systems requires that they be evaluated carefully, and that detailed methodologies for their development be devised. This paper attempts to give practical guidance for the evaluation phase of expert system development. Empirical and logical evaluation methods are surveyed, and both types of method are applied in an evaluation case study. This case study provides insights as to the relative effectiveness of the methods, and demonstrates that empirical and logical testing are complementary to each other. The paper concludes that any evaluation methodology should incorporate both types of method, and presents prescriptions and an outline for such a methodology, which combines the methods for maximum effectiveness.
Object‐oriented representations, causal reasoning and expert systems
Authors: Narayanan Ajit , Jin Yuanping
Published: May 2007

Abstract: In this article we describe how two popular AI representation techniques—frames and production systems— can be usefully combined under a general AI object‐oriented approach to problems which arise in the domain of hardware fault diagnosis. One of the main advantages of such a combination is that causal reasoning— crucial to the domain under consideration — can also be naturally and effectively represented. In order to put the combination of frames and production systems on a sound methodological footing, we first provide a knowledge engineering methodology which is an object‐oriented re‐interpretation of ontological analysis.
Eliciting reliable uncertainty estimates
Authors: Tonn Bruce E. , Goeltz Richard , Travis Cheryl
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Knowledge engineers often find that experts’ estimates of uncertainty change from one day to the next and therefore often seem unreliable. This article explores the unreliability of probability estimates. Forty undergraduates answered 31 questions concerning the probability of daily events at two separate times. Three answer modalities were available: probability, chances and percent of the time. This paper finds that reliability decreases when answer modalities change from one time to the next. It is hypothesized that problem‐solving approaches changed along with the modalities. The subjects represented a wide range in reliability, with the most reliable subjects changing answer modalities less than the unreliable subjects. These results suggest that knowledge engineers should endeavor to have experts express their uncertainty estimates using consistent modalities.
Pragmatic KADS: a methodological approach to a small knowledge‐based systems project
Authors: Kingston John
Published: May 2007

Abstract: There has been a growing desire for methodological support for the development of knowledge‐based systems, and the KADS methodology is probably the most widely known methodology in Europe. However, KADS has been criticised for the overhead which it places on small and medium‐sized KBS projects where the risks of KBS development becoming unmanageable are relatively low. This paper describes the use of ‘pragmatic KADS’, an attempt to extract the most useful elements from the KADS methodology, in the development of the COURSE SELECTOR KBS, which assists undergraduate students to choose courses which comply with University regulations and timetabling restrictions. This KBS was built in six man‐weeks. The paper describes the three major phases of a KBS project, giving a brief outline of the KADS approach to each of these stages, and then discusses the techniques which were actually used for COURSE SELECTOR. It concludes with a recommendation of techniques for future small KBS projects.
LAZARUS: the Linguistic (Aramaic) Zoological Animation and ResUscitation System
Authors: Rugg G. , Phibes T.A.D.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Knowledge‐based systems have previously been restricted to capturing the knowledge of living human experts and, in the medical domain, to delaying the onset of death in living patients. The system described in this paper overcomes both these restrictions by providing knowledge‐based support for the reanimation of dead patients, who may also be domain experts.

There is a well‐established literature on raising the dead to life and an extensive literature on counselling patients who have undergone traumatic experiences. Examination of this literature suggests that the actual reanimation process is a relatively simple process, so the system concentrates on the counselling and care aspects. Results so far are encouraging.

The next version of the system is intended to include a natural language interface to handle the English‐Aramaic interpretation which is expected to be necessary for the actual reanimation process: this version will require further funding and clearance from the appropriate ethical committees. Both of these are expected to present few difficulties.

The success of this system demonstrates that application of proven KBS techniques to a domain previously considered intractable can produce surprisingly fast and impressive results; to date, over 90% of system modules have been successfully tested. It is likely that this success could be replicated in other areas and this is currently the subject of further study by the authors (Rugg & Phibes 1993b).
Using human factor guidelines for developing expert systems
Authors: Suh Chang‐Kyo , Suh Eui‐Ho
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Although MIS professionals had predicted that expert systems would improve productivity enormously, and a number of expert system application success stories have been reported, the expert system revolution has not yet happened. Moreover, there have been many cases, less well publicised, where expert systems have failed. Most problems concerning expert systems failure stem from non‐technical issues such as cognitive and psychological problems, rather than such purely technical issues as an inference engine and an expert system shell. Here, the major reasons for expert systems failure and the need to consider human factors are discussed. We then propose human factor principles that can help designers handle most of these non‐technical problems and many technical ones elegantly, improving the performance and acceptance of expert systems. Finally, some human factor guidelines for expert systems are presented so that these considerations may be incorporated into expert systems development in a clear and comprehensible manner.
D‐KAT: a deep knowledge acquisition tool
Authors: Maniezzo V. , Mussi S. , Morpurgo R.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This paper describes a system of shallow and deep knowledge acquisition and representation for diagnostic expert systems. The acquisition system is integrated into a diagnostic expert system shell. Shallow knowledge is represented in a failure model as a set of cause‐effect relations among the possible faults, while deep knowledge is represented in three deep models: a functional, a deep causal and a taxonomic model. The acquisition and the representation of all the models are fully integrated. The deep knowledge is used by the final expert system in order to provide the user with deep explanations of the cause‐effect relations of the failure model.
LFA: a linear forward‐chaining algorithm for AI production systems
Authors: Wu Xindong
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The LFA algorithm is a linear forward‐chaining algorithm for AI production systems. It finds all the possible solutions for each given problem in a time proportional to the number of rules in a knowledge base, after all the possible evidence about the problem has been given. This paper presents the algorithm in detail. Another new technique, the‘rule schema + rule body’representation, which is coupled with the chaining algorithm to support high efficiency of production system interpreters, is also described here.
Hybrid neural network classifiers for automatic target detection
Authors: Katz Alan , Thrift Philip
Published: May 2007

Abstract: We describe a one‐class classification approach to an automatic target detection problem, which involves distinguishing targets from clutter in diverse environments. We use only target statistics to construct the classifier. The classifier combines conventional and neural network methods. The classifier is a Parzen estimator, which requires storage and recall of all training points. To reduce the size of the training set, we apply two neural network learning algorithms: (1) we use a backpropagation network to approximate the Parzen estimator; (2) we apply the infomax learning principle to compress the size of the training set before constructing the Parzen estimator. We find that the results obtained with the infomax scheme approach those obtained with Parzen alone and are better than those obtained with backpropagation.