bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Works on English Medieval History
Authors: Toomer G J
Published: November 2023

The humiliations which Selden suffered as a result of his publication of Historie of Tithes, reinforced by his detention after the Parliament of 1621, seem to have made him cautious about the kind of books he published, at least during the decade of the 1620s. This is indicated on the title-page of his edition of Eadmer, where he takes his motto from Juvenal, who recommends writing satire only about the remote past. However, the book is much more than a retreat into safe waters of scholarship. It is also a practical demonstration of Selden’s strong conviction about the right way to approach English history (in contrast to the ways of most contemporary writers), and is offered as a model that he hopes others will follow.
Marmora Arundelliana
Authors: Toomer G J
Published: November 2023

Late at night in early January 1627 Sir Robert Cotton, having just seen the Greek inscriptions which had recently arrived at Arundel House, hurried to rouse Selden and urge him to start interpreting them the very next day. Selden agreed, on condition that he be aided by Patrick Young, the Royal Librarian, and Richard James (then assisting Cotton in his library). Accordingly, the three men assembled at dawn in the gardens of Arundel House. Their attention was immediately caught by a large stele (about 8 ft. wide by 3 ft. high, later identified as a treaty between Smyrna and Magnesia), which was obviously of enormous historical interest.
The Event of the Event: The Unnamable
Authors: Gibson Andrew
Published: November 2023

There is at least one obvious objection to what I have just said about Watt, and a not-so-obvious objection to what I have said about Murphy. The two objections coincide. First, does Beckett really categorically exclude the possibility of the event from Murphy? The obvious answer would seem to be yes, look at the first line of the novel: ‘The sun shone, having no alternative, on the nothing new’ (MU, 5). It seems to proscribe the event from the start, not least in its deliberately banal allusion to Ecclesiastes, and thus to introduce us to a world that is very remote from Badiou’s. But to say just this is to ignore the relationship between the locution and what it says.
Phonetic and psycholinguistic evidence
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

The existence and innateness of distinctive features has been argued on the basis of phonological and esperimental evidence. The experimental literature contains a wide variety of results which are often presented as evidence for distinctive features and their universality. Three mitigating factors are common to many phonetic and psycholinguistic studies involving features. First, some of these studies assume that distinctive features are innate, and test the predictions of different theories of universal distinctive features without considering the possibility that distinctive features are not innate. Second, some studies find evidence that segments sharing distinctive features are processed similarly but do not rule out the possibility that this may result from phonetic similarity, which is usually positively correlated with the number of shared features. Third, some studies find evidence for abstract features but do not find evidence that these features are innate rather than learned. In short, a variety of studies produce data that is relevant for answering questions about the existence of distinctive features, but there is no experimental evidence that distinctive features are innate.
Survey methods
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

The idea that features are innate and able to describe most if not all phonologically active classes has been reinforced by phenomena reported in the phonology literature. Data which are difficult or impossible to analyze in innate feature theories tend not to get analyzed and therefore tend not to end up in theory-oriented publications. For this reason, the phonology literature is not the best place to find a random sample and to assess the ability of phonological features to account for phonological data. Assessing the ability of features to account for data requires a survey of a large sample of classes which are not selected according to their compatibility with any particular theory. However, no large-scale survey of phonologically active classes has previously been available to determine whether or not assumptions about innate features are valid, or to answer many different questions about distinctive features and their universality. This chapter describes the survey of phonologically active classes in 628 language varieties which is intended to address questions about distinctive features.
Ambivalent segments
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

It has long been known that some speech sounds have less predictable phonological patterning than others. While some sounds have attracted a broad consensus concerning their appropriate representation, the phonological ambivalence of others has led to disagreements in how they should be represented, and the precise nature of their phonological specification has remained murky. The feature [continuant] is involved in a number of cases of representational murkiness. Since its introduction, there has generally been agreement that fricatives and vowels are most definitely [+continuant], and that oral stops are certainly [−continuant], but flaps, trills, and lateral liquids have been observed patterning as continuants with fricatives and also patterning as non-continuants with stops. The feature specification of these liquids has been appropriately controversial. The analysis in this chapter will account for ambivalent phonological behavior in terms of phonetic ambiguity. While ambivalent segments appear to be exceptions in innate feature theories, in emergent feature theory the phonologically consistent segments are special, owing to their phonetic unambiguity.
Survey results in terms of feature theories
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

This chapter reports an analysis of the 6,077 phonologically active classes in the database in terms of three well-known feature theories. Additional feature theories are brought in as appropriate when they are able to account for recurrent classes that the other theories cannot account for. As theories of universal features, these theories have been proposed ostensibly in order to describe all phonological phenomena in all (spoken) languages. As seen in Chapter 5, there are many classes they cannot account for. Some of these are crazy and some are phonetically sensible. The ranges of frequent/infrequent and phonetically natural/unnatural classes suggest a more gradient method for predicting the likelihood of a group of sounds patterning together; at the end of this chapter a model based on phonetic similarity is sketched, and it is seen that this has some promise.
The Voyage
Authors: Duberly Frances Isabella , Kelly Christine
Published: November 2023

Even before Britain declared war on Russia on 28 March 1854 (see Appendix I) troops had been posted to Malta in anticipation of their deployment to Turkey. Early in April these regiments, reinforced by others, transferred to Gallipoli ready to defend the Mediterranean should the Russians break through the Turkish defences and reach Constantinople. In all, the initial expeditionary force eventually consisted of one cavalry and five infantry divisions, numbering about 26,000 men. The 8th Royal Irish Hussars, accompanied by Fanny Duberly, were among the last to leave England. By the time they arrived in Turkey both the British and the French armies had been ordered to Varna in Bulgaria to support the Turks who were besieged at Silistria on the Danube. After a few days in Constantinople the Hussars joined them there.
The Expedition to the Crimea
Authors: Duberly Frances Isabella , Kelly Christine
Published: November 2023

The embarkation for the Crimea took the British army six days, to the annoyance of the French, who loaded swiftly with no cavalry horses to winch on board but then had to wait idly for days in their overcrowded ships while cholera continued to decimate their ranks. The British transports were so crowded that each man was allowed only one horse and one piece of baggage. With so many men and horses emaciated and ailing, the lack of extra horses to carry equipment and transport the sick and wounded created problems from the moment they landed. The entire Heavy Brigade was also left behind, hampering the cavalry’s effectiveness during the battle of Alma. And with so little space on board, hundreds of desperate soldiers’ wives were abandoned on the quayside to fend for themselves.
Hungary and Slovakia: Compliance and its Discontents
Authors: Greskovits Béla
Published: November 2023

Meeting the requirements for euro entry appears to be a harder task for Hungary than for Slovakia. In 2007 Hungary failed to comply with any of the Maastricht convergence criteria and lacked a deadline for entering the Euro Area. Conversely, Slovakia fulfills all entry conditions and is allowed by the EU to introduce the euro in 2009. Hungary delayed the reform of its public sector until 2007. To demonstrate credible commitment to macroeconomic stability, Slovakia radically restructured its welfare state. These differences notwithstanding, since 2006 Hungary and Slovakia share a similarity with each other and, indeed, with many other east European new member states of the EU: the loss of political balance.
The Gentle Hand of a Woman? Trota and Women’s Medicine at Salerno
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

Kate Campbell Hurd-Mead, an American obstetrician and ardent proponent of the female medical authority ‘Trotula’ in the early part of the twentieth century, drew on rhetoric typical of her day when she argued for the feminine authorship of the Salernitan compendium of women’s medicine. Women’s capacity to practise medicine and especially to treat women and children was ‘innate’, she and many of her contemporary advocates of female physicians believed, a biologically inherent quality of women. Modern gender theories have rendered such essentialist beliefs in feminine character obsolete and we can no longer assume a priori how a woman would have practised medicine or that she would have done so with a ‘gentle hand’. Rather, we are accustomed now to see gender roles—the behaviours, occupations, dress, and self-expectations that societies deem appropriate for males or females—as contextually specific and, therefore, historically contingent.
Men’s Practice of Women’s Medicine in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

Boccaccio’s description of the ravages of the Black Death in Florence in 1348 is one of the most memorable we have, precisely because of his acuity in depicting the collapse of social order. One casualty of the chaos of this first great wave of the plague was sexual propriety: a patrician woman would now deign to show her body to a male servant, ‘provided that the nature of her infirmity required her to do so’. Given Boccaccio’s succinct (and I believe accurate) insight into the problem of sexual shame in medical practice, we may find it surprising that well before the onslaught of the Black Death in the mid fourteenth century, men had successfully expanded their gynaecological care of women beyond the levels we witnessed in twelfth-century Salerno.
Bruno’s Paradox: Women and Literate Medicine
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

When the Italian surgeon Bruno of Longobucco used female practitioners as the ultimate example of the dangers of illiterate medical practice, he was setting a rhetorical precedent that would be followed for centuries. Here, Bruno elaborates on a general condemnation of illiterate practice he found in one of his Arabic authorities, Rhazes, by adding the specific comment about female practitioners, whom Rhazes had not mentioned at all.
In a Language Women Understand: the Gender of the Vernacular
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

Women’s shame about their diseases, women’s reluctance to speak to men, women’s greater comfort with the vernacular. All these would lead us to believe that the Trotula, once rendered into the vernacular, would now pass directly into the hands of women who could, thereby, take control of their own health matters and entirely avoid men whether as practitioners or interpreters of written Latin texts. The opening claim in this thirteenth-century French translation of the Trotula certainly reinforces our expectations. But we would be wrong to assume that feminization was the only function of the vernacular. Yes, as we will see, several vernacular translations of the Trotula—like the French version above—were indeed meant specifically for women and were probably used by certain women within their own female textual communities. But as with the Latin Trotula, all known thirteenth- through fifteenth-century owners of manuscripts of the vernacular translations of the Trotula (and all other vernacular gynaecological texts for that matter) were male and, as I will argue below, codicological evidence often suggests audiences not far different from those the texts received in Latin.
The Masculine Birth of Gynaecology
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

By the time Michele Savonarola (d. 1466) was writing his Regimen for the Women of Ferrara in the middle of the fifteenth century, ‘Trotula’ had long since disappeared from the pantheon of gynaecological authorities acknowledged by northern Italian physicians. The last Italian medical writer who made direct use of the Trotula was Niccolò Falcucci (d. 1412) and even he made only vague allusions to the text, never mentioning ‘Trotula’s’ name or acknowledging that he drew on the work of an alleged female authority. For Savonarola and his peers in the mid fifteenth century, gynaecology was a field where masculine authorities reigned supreme: Galen, Rhazes, Avicenna, and, in Savonarola’s humanistic worldview, even such ancients as Ovid and Augustine.
Introduction
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: November 2023

If you vary the context of utterance enough, i.e. vary the audience, the conversational context, the background knowledge, etc., you can get any sentence to communicate different propositions. One central task for those interested in the semantics—pragmatics distinction is to identify and classify such patterns of inter-contextual variability. Having identified such patterns, we develop models that can explain them. In what follows, I first present some versions of three important models: the Semantic Model, the Pragmatic Model, and the Index Model. In the second half of the chapter, I present what I take to be some of the most pressing challenges facing those working in this field.
Meanings, Propositions, Context, and Semantical Underdeterminacy
Authors: Atlas Jay David
Published: November 2023

Many years ago, when the world and we were young, in 1978 in fact, John Searle published in Erkenntnis 13: 207– 24 (reprinted in Searle 1979: 117– 36) a provocative article ‘‘Literal Meaning’’. In the essay Searle considers the sentence ‘The cat is on the mat’, in circumstances in which the cat and mat are in the prototypical spatial relationship of one being snuggled up to the other, except they are both floating freely in various orientations in outer space, in which there is no gravitational field with respect to which the cat is ‘‘above’’ the mat. Is the cat on the mat? Searle asserts that the notion of a literal meaning of ‘The cat is on the mat’ depends on assumptions like the existence of a local gravitational field in which ‘above’ and ‘below’ have an application. (What this amounts to in the ordinary, earth-bound case is that the assertion of ‘The cat is on the mat’ is true if and only if the cat is above and touching— in some typical fashion— the mat beneath it. The earth’s local gravitational field provides a preferred spatial orientation; freely falling bodies fall ‘‘down’’.) Searle’s thesis was that for:
Minimalism, Psychological Reality, Meaning, and Use
Authors: Jackman Henry
Published: November 2023

There are familiar aspects of our linguistic practice that point towards the conclusion that many, if not most, terms in our language are semantically contextsensitive. For instance, in some contexts (discussing professional basketball players) we deny that someone is ‘‘tall’’ if they are under, say, 6”, while in others (discussing 2nd grade students) we claim that someone is ‘‘tall’’ if they are over 51. What counts as ‘‘tall’’ in some contexts does not in others, and many have argued that the semantics for ‘‘tall’’ should reflect this (call these ‘‘context shifting arguments’’). Further, some argue that, even with the meaning of ‘‘John’’ fixed, in absence of a surrounding context, sentences like ‘‘John is tall’’ or ‘‘John is ready’’ can seem to have no determinate meaning at all, that is to say, we have no idea just what is being said by such sentences in the absence of any completing context (call these ‘‘incompleteness arguments’’).
Art, architecture, and marriage
Authors: Hewison Robert
Published: November 2023

Ruskin ’s initial hopes of returning to Oxford in the autumn of 1840 had been dashed by further slight haemorrhages, so his parents took him abroad, on a long continental tour from September 1840 to October 1841. The party travelled as far south as Naples, and spent two periods in Rome; Ruskin liked neither city. In Rome, however, he met Joseph Severn, the friend of Keats, whose son Arthur would marry Ruskin’s cousin Joan Agnew and become his heir and unsympathetic guardian.
Charles Dickens
Authors: Slater Michael
Published: November 2023

Definitive, concise, and very interesting... From William Shakespeare to Winston Churchill, the Very Interesting People series provides authoritative bite-sized biographies of Britain’s most fascinating historical figures—people whose influence and importance have stood the test of time. Each book in the series is based upon the biographical entry from the world-famous Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Fame
Authors: Slater Michael
Published: November 2023

In February 1836, just after the appearance of the two-volume Sketches by Boz, two young booksellers who were moving into publishing, Edward Chapman and William Hall, approached Dickens to write the letterpress for a series of steel-engraved plates by the popular comic artist Robert Seymour. The plates, depicting the misadventures of a group of cockney sportsmen, were to be published in twenty monthly numbers, each containing four plates.
Personal aﬀairs and public career
Authors: Slater Michael
Published: November 2023

In March 1856 at a cost of £1700 Dickens purchased the pleasant but modest Georgian house Gad’s Hill Place, near Rochester, for use as a country home. It was a house he had admired on childhood walks with his father and John Dickens had told him he might come to own it one day if he ‘were to be very persevering and were to work hard’ (The Uncommercial Traveller, ‘Travelling Abroad’). This, his ‘little Kentish freehold’ as he liked to call it, was the first and only home that Dickens ever owned, and it was one in which he took great delight for the rest of his life.
Reputation and legacy
Authors: Slater Michael
Published: November 2023

From a very early period of Dickens’s career many of his great comic and/or grotesque characters took on a life of their own in the culture (both high and low) of the English-speaking world and have ever since been recognized and referred to by people who may well have never read a single Dickens novel. This resulted from his extraordinary ability to create, and give unforgettably expressive names to, figures who are highly individualized by their physical appearance, dress, and mannerisms, and who are also powerfully allegorical, being brilliant incarnations of various aspects of perennial human nature.
Parish naturalist, 1842–1856
Authors: Desmond Adrian , Moore James , Browne Janet
Published: November 2023

In September 1842 Darwin moved the family to Down, a parish of about 400 inhabitants on the North Downs, 16 miles from London. Here, at ‘the extreme verge of the world’ (Correspondence, 2.352), he found security in an old parsonage with 15 acres of land. Down House would be his refuge for the next forty years. Much of his life here resembled that of a prosperous country parson, the sort of man he had once intended to be.
The new regime and its problems
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

The Annals of Queen Elizabeth by the late Elizabethan historian Sir John Hayward opens with a dark scenario: Every report was greedily both inquired and received, all truthes suspected, diverse tales beleeved, many improbable conjectures hatched and nourished. Invasione of strangeres, civill dissentione, the doubtfull dispositione of the succeeding Prince, were cast in every man’s conceite as present perills.
The struggle for stability
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

It was in the context of the Anjou courtship, and as an expression of opposition to it, that the persona of the Virgin Queen was invented, or at least perfected. On the royal progress into East Anglia in 1578, plays and masques devised by Thomas Churchyard were performed at Norwich which celebrated Elizabeth’s admirable virginity, with appropriate reference to Diana and the Virgin Mary. A year later Spenser deployed similar allegorical imagery in The Shepheardes Calender, and a series of portraits rubbed the same point home with the symbol of a sieve held in the queen’s hand, which identified her with the vestal virgin Tuccia, who had employed a sieve full of water to prove her chastity.
Matters of church and state
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

In a speech to parliament in 1589, Sir Christopher Hatton, the lord chancellor, said that at the beginning of her reign Elizabeth had ‘placed hir Reformation as uppon a square stone to remayne constant’ (Folger Shakespeare Library, MS V.b.303, pp. 183–6). The stone may have been square but it was very shaky. Even before the religious settlement of 1559 was made, the ‘Device for alteration of religion’ accurately forecast that it would be rejected on the one hand by ‘the papist sect’, and on the other by those who, dissatisfied with its moderation, would ‘call the alteration a cloaked papistry or a mingle-mangle’ (Gee, 196–7).
Conflict with Spain
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

The conflict of policy and interest, with its considerable constitutional implications, was most dramatically demonstrated in the long-running saga of Mary, and especially in its dénouement in February 1587. The exclusion of Mary from the English throne was the lynchpin of Burghley’s politics, and much desired by many. During the 1572 parliament, the bishops were particularly insistent that she should be executed, while in the Commons she was called ‘the monstrous and huge dragon, and masse of the earth’ and ‘the most notorious whore in all the world’ (Hartley, 1.312, 438).
Death, legacy, and assessment
Authors: Parry Jonathan
Published: November 2023

If continental influence was restored, financial health was not, and this became the government’s major problem up to and at the election called in the spring of 1880. Beaconsfield later complained that it had been his misfortune to govern the country during six consecutive bad harvests, while farmers were not even compensated by high prices, because of cheap food imports. Already in the summer of 1879 he feared that agricultural bankruptcy would ‘finish’ the government (Monypenny and Buckle, 6.477), while by early 1880 there was considerable landlord–farmer tension, which was damaging Conservative prospects and morale.
Christopher Wren
Authors: Downes Kerry
Published: November 2023

There is always something more to be said. In five years Wren’s masterpiece, St Paul’s Cathedral, has changed dramatically. Exterior recleaning, still in progress, has restored the way in which the mouldings and relief details ‘read’, how each piece fits into a visual structure partly representing, partly expressing, the material structure of mass and support. It restores clarity and balance, like removing scratch from old records, or brown varnish from a painting. The interior cleaning, finished first, is even more dramatic, taking away the deepest traces of the soot that was already eating into the stonework before the cathedral was finished, and the last remnants of the three coats of oil paint Wren had ordered at the eleventh hour in an attempt to hide the dirt and the many surface patches that it affected unevenly. Now the patches are hardly noticeable, and the whole interior has the luminosity—from direct daylight combined with reflected light from one bright stone to another—that Wren envisaged but, after thirty-five years in building, never saw. The soul has come back to St Paul’s.
Each of Us Is Just One Among Others
Authors: Singer Peter
Published: November 2023

Simpson’s-in-the-Strand is a London institution famous for its roasts, which are carved at guests’ tables on antique, silverdomed trolleys. Early on a spring morning in 2006, British politicians and business leaders have gathered in one of its wood-panelled rooms to attend a breakfast forum on global poverty. One of the speakers is Princeton University professor Peter Singer, a leading utilitarian moral philosopher. Utilitarianism holds that the well-being (or ‘utility’) of every sentient being counts equally, and that, insofar as we are considering a given population of such beings, there is only one supreme moral requirement: to maximize the sum of the utility of the members of that population.
The Origin of Fairness
Authors: Binmore Ken
Published: November 2023

Ken Binmore is best known as the ‘ruthless, poker-playing economist’ from University College London who, in 2000, netted the British government £22 billion (then around $US 35 billion) when he led the team that designed the third-generation (3G) telecommunications auctions. Binmore took up economics after a career in mathematics, during which he held the Chair of Mathematics at the London School of Economics. Since his switch to economics, he has been at the forefront of the development of what is known as ‘game theory’, the study of the logic of strategic interaction between ‘players’ — which is how game theorists refer to the entities engaged in strategic interaction.
A Pragmatic Justification Of Morality
Authors: Gibbard Allan
Published: November 2023

Woody Allen’s film Crimes and Misdemeanors tells the story of Judah Rosenthal, apillar of the community and loving family man who has his ex-mistress murdered when she threatens to expose his infidelity and financial misdeeds. Tormented by guilt and a fear of punishment that has its origins in his religious upbringing, Judah returns in imagination to a boyhood Passover dinner at which his father Sal and Aunt May are arguing about whether there is a God-given ‘moral structure’ to the world.
The Kingdom Of Ends on The Cheap
Authors: Scanlon T M
Published: November 2023

Thomas Scanlon is a philosopher’s moral philosopher. His writing is like the Carpenter Centre by Le Corbusier that he points out as we walk across the Harvard campus: both are without ornamentation and constructed with their purpose always in mind. In this measured style, Scanlon addresses the basic questions of moral philosophy: When we call an action morally right or wrong, what kind of judgement are we making? What kind of reasoning do we employ to arrive at such judgements? Further, when we consider an action wrong, this gives us an important reason not to perform it, and to condemn ourselves if we do.
Words and Compounds
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

Both [tsho] and [ve] have a rising tone, represented as LH (see Chapter 10 for the representation of tone). When they form a phrase, they keep their rising tones, but when they form a compound, the first word is L (low), the second, H (high). A phonological analysis of such problems requires knowing the distinction between a compound and a phrase. As will be seen in Chapter 6, the analysis of stress involves the notion of word and compound, and stress in turn provides the key to the analysis of the word length problem (Chapter 7), the word-order problem (Chapter 8), and tone (Chapters 10 and 11). The second reason why we include words is that there is considerable disagreement among Chinese linguists on what a word is. It would be useful, therefore, to offer a clear position on this issue.
The Word-Order Problem
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

The column on the left shows nominal phrases with a relative clause that contains a verb (V) and an object (O). The particle de can be considered as a relativizer, the equivalent of that in English. The column on the right shows the corresponding compounds. The phrase column has one word order, [V O N], but the compound column can be either [V O N] or [O V N]. The compound word order depends on the word length of the constituents. For example, when V and O are both monosyllabic, [V O N] is the only possible order, but when V and O are both disyllabic, [O V N] is the only possible order.
Tone 3 Sandhi (T3S)
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

T3S can create ambiguities, because T2-T3 and T3-T3 are both realized as T2-T3 at surface. For example, although mai3 ‘ buy’ and mai2 ‘ bury’ have different tones when they are spoken alone, ‘ to buy a horse’ and ‘ to bury a horse’ sound the same at surface.

T3S was observed as early as the sixteenth century (Mei 1977). Some studies have asked whether the changed T3 is completely identical to T2 in SC. The perception study of W. Wang and Li (1967) shows that, as far as the listener is concerned, T2 and the changed T3 are indistinguishable.
Theoretical Implications
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

As stated in the original preface, I believe that there are linguistic laws (universals) that apply to all human languages. A major goal of my research is to look for such universals. In this regard, I share the theoretical position of generative linguistics.

I proposed some generalizations for Standard Chinese, but I did not always claim whether the proposals are universal. The main reason was that the subject of the book was on Chinese and there was little space to discuss other languages. Besides, there are enough problems to solve in Chinese, a tall order by itself.
Constraints on Substrate Influence
Authors: Siegel Jeff
Published: November 2023

In an earlier article (Siegel 1997a ), I proposed that there are two types of constraints, or what Mufwene (1991: 137) calls ‘regulatory principles’— i.e. factors that influence the selection of features, both from the substrate languages and the lexifier. These are with reference to the model of mixing and levelling, referred to here in earlier chapters. First there are ‘availability constraints’—factors that influence whether or not features actually reach the pool of variants used in the contact situation. We have seen that substrate features enter the pool of variants as a result of transfer. Thus, with regard to substrate influence, availability constraints are concerned with what languages occur in the contact environment and the likelihood of transfer of particular features from these languages taking place. Second, there are ‘reinforcement principles’—factors that influence whether a particular feature in the pool is retained in the contact language or whether it is levelled out.
Decreolization?
Authors: Siegel Jeff
Published: November 2023

Originally described (but not named) by Schuchardt (1883) (see Meijer and Muysken 1977: 31), a post-creole continuum is characterized by a cline of lexical, phonological, and grammatical features ranging from those closest to a standard form of the creole’s lexifier language (the acrolect) to those furthest from the lexifier language, and therefore most ‘creole-like’ (the basilect). Thus, there is a great deal of variation in the speech community and the point at which a form of speech is located along the continuum depends on the context as well as the social characteristics of the speaker. For example, the speech of the urban professional elite would be towards the acrolectal end whereas the speech of a poor rural villager would be towards the basilectal end. Intermediate or mesolectal varieties are also found in between. Similarly, formal speech would be more towards the acrolectal end of the continuum, and informal speech towards the basilectal end. An example of the range of speech in the Jamaica Creole continuum can be seen in Figure 9.1.
Conclusion
Authors: Siegel Jeff
Published: November 2023

In the initial stages of learning a second language (L2), speakers target the perceptually salient forms of the L2 that they can connect with some meaning, and string these forms together in the order of corresponding forms of their own language. These perceptually salient forms are generally lexical or content morphemes, rather than grammatical morphemes, and therefore early inter language, such as the Basic Variety, has no grammatical morphology. Thus, no abstract mental structures are needed to account for the initial morphological simplicity of this inter language . If individual inter language s are used for communication between people in groups who have no other common language, certain conventions may emerge, and this means of communication becomes a restricted pidgin, with the L2 being the lexifier.
“Big Social Science” in Comparative Politics: The History of the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems
Authors: Grosse Ashley , Appleton Andrew
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents a case study of “big social science” in the field of comparative politics. The particular case reviewed, the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems (CSES) is a collaborative program of research among election studies conducted in representative democracies around the world. The project is unique and rich with important lessons for the collaborative researcher. This case study contributes insights into the unique challenges of multinational data collections.
‘Poor dear Queen’
Authors: Reynolds K D , Matthew H C G
Published: November 2023

With Rosebery’s defeat Victoria turned happily again to Lord Salisbury, ‘who has so faithfully served her before’ (Letters, 3rd ser., 2.523), and Salisbury’s third premier- ship saw out her reign. This was the nineteenth occasion (ignoring abortive attempts and failed resignations) on which Victoria had played the monarch ‘s role in initiating a new government, and Salisbury was the last of her ten prime ministers. In her late seventies she was inevitably growing tired, although a challenge to British prestige could still draw out one of her inimitable rebukes. When her grandson Kaiser Wilhelm congratulated the president of the Transvaal on foiling the Jameson raid in January 1896 in the so-called Kruger telegram, she fired oﬀ a letter regretting his actions, ‘as your Grandmother to whom you have always shown so much aﬀection and of whose example you have always spoken with so much respect ‘ (Letters, 3rd ser., 3.8); his explanations she found ‘lame and illogical ‘ (ibid., 18).
Caskets Decorated with Images of the Martyrs
Authors: Noga-Banai Galit
Published: November 2023

The earliest caskets, as we have seen, did not include representations of martyrs in their decoration programmes but rather a repertoire of biblical scenes, the one possible exception being Peter and Paul in the Traditio legis. The role of these two saints in early representations, as on the casket from Nea Herakleia, may reflect their local Roman eminence. But on the so-called Capsella Africana a martyr’s figure is at the focal point of the decoration, leaving hardly any doubt as to the reliquary function. The Africana is the focus of the first section of this chapter, but it would be misleading to launch the discussion without mentioning another silver casket possibly decorated with martyr figures, dated earlier than the Africana, the silver casket from Pula today in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
Beyond Program Explanation
Authors: Macdonald Cynthia , Macdonald Graham
Published: November 2023

In a number of articles over the years, and especially in The Common Mind (1993), Philip Pettit has defended a distinctive and influential solution to the so-called problem of mental causation—the problem of how minds can make a causal difference to the world. This view has become known as ‘program explanation ‘, hereafter PE. As its name indicates, PE is more than just a proposal purporting to solve the problem of how our minds can influence events in the physical world. It is also an account of how the ‘special ‘ sciences can be explanatorily autonomous. The ‘problem ‘ addressed by PE is multifaceted, and we cannot deal with all of its aspects here.
Ethics and Law
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

We have seen that the evidence indicates that morality evolved within the context of interpersonal relationships in small, relatively simple groups. One source of evidence on the early elaboration of moral precepts comes from the early history of legal systems, for laws were originally elaborated and formalized from moral intuitions or principles as an additional way to control the behaviour of individuals. This chapter, therefore, contains first some speculations on the early evolution of moral systems, and then specifies some of the similarities and differences between ethics and laws.
Ethics and Business
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

The commercial world poses ethical conflicts of great complexity at every level from the individual to the society. Many of the problems go unnoticed by the general public until there is news of gross mishandling or misappropriation of funds, as in the collapse of the Maxwell empire and the Enron scandal. As I write, the papers report that one of the giant oil companies, in trying to safeguard its markets, is pouring money into organizations that minimize the significance of climate change. It is partly to such events that the growing interest in business ethics is due: there are now innumerable books as well as a journal devoted specifically to it.
Categorization in Linguistics
Authors: Aarts Bas
Published: November 2023

Categorization in its most general sense can be seen as a process of systematization of acquired knowledge. Each time we come across something new in our worlds—concrete entities, as well as abstract concepts—we try to accommodate it by assigning it to some category or other. This phenomenon is especially common in early childhood when children progressively acquaint themselves with the world around them. However, knowledge systematization in fact occurs throughout the lives of all human beings. Conceived of in this way, as knowledge systematization, categorization is a cognitive process which allows human beings to make sense of the world by carving it up, in order for it to become more orderly and manageable for the mind.
Grammatical Gradience
Authors: Aarts Bas
Published: November 2023

The two views expressed above show the differences in opinion regarding linguistic categorization. The quotation from Bolinger recognizes the fact that the elements of language cannot artificially and rigidly be forced within certain predefined bounds. A certain degree of categorial Flexibility—that is gradience—needs to be permitted, a point of view denied by Joos (see Section 2.4.1). We return to
Gradience and Related Notions
Authors: Aarts Bas
Published: November 2023

The notion of gradience as deWned in previous chapters bears a resemblance to a number of other phenomena in language. In this chapter I will discuss how gradience compares with related notions/ideas, some of which we have already come across Xeetingly in earlier chapters.
Subsective Gradience
Authors: Aarts Bas
Published: November 2023

Subsective Gradience (SG) is the phenomenon whereby a particular set of elements displays a categorial shading in prototypicality from a central core to a more peripheral boundary. We can contrast Subsective Gradience with Intersective Gradience (IG): whereas with SG elements from only one category are involved, with IG there are two categories on a cline. IG will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. In what follows I will discuss a number of case studies of SG within the principal word classes (V, N, A, and P), as well as phrases and clauses. These case studies are intended to be a representative sample of examples of SG in the grammar of English.
Intersective Gradience
Authors: Aarts Bas
Published: November 2023

Recall that at the end of Chapter 3 I introduced the notion of IG as follows: IG involves two form class categories a and b, and obtains where there exists a set g of elements characterized by of a subset of a-like properties and a subset of b-like properties. When there is gradience between two categories a and b we will say that these classes ‘converge’ by virtue of the fact that there exist elements which display properties of both categories. Given this definition, we can view IG as a kind of ‘intercategorial resemblance’. I will maintain that grammatical categories are strictly bounded, and do not overlap. The inter- section is between g and the full set of a-like properties, and between g and the full set of b-like properties.
Constructional Gradience
Authors: Aarts Bas
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I will discuss gradience obtaining either within a particular construction-type (Subsective Constructional Gradience) or between two different syntactic constructions (Intersective Constructional Gradience), including clauses. Before we can sensibly talk about constructional gradience we need to define what is meant by the term ‘construction’, since it is used prolifically in the linguistic literature with very different definitions. In the next section I will give a bird’s-eye overview of the history of the notion. As we will see, in the Chomskyan paradigm constructions are regarded as epiphenomena, although more recently they have begun to attract attention again. In Section 7.3 I will attempt to define the notion, while in Section 7.4 I will look at some examples of constructional gradience. Section 7.5 presents some conclusions regarding the notion of constructional gradience.
Museum Ethnography: The Field Site and Our Informants
Authors: Gosden Chris , Larson Frances , Petch Alison
Published: November 2023

Imagine yourself suddenly set down in central Oxford in 1884 as a series of carts complete their journey from London carrying some of the 20,000 objects from the collections of Lieutenant-General Pitt Rivers, recently donated to the University of Oxford. Or imagine yourself suddenly and surprisingly present at a committee meeting in Oxford in the late 1930s where Henry Balfour, the first Curator of the Pitt Rivers, now in old age, is arguing in a weary but passionate manner with Radcliffe-Brown, the new Professor of Social Anthropology, for the importance of artefacts to the way in which anthropology is taught and researched at the University of Oxford.
Participatory Anthropology: Museums as Emergent Entities
Authors: Gosden Chris , Larson Frances , Petch Alison
Published: November 2023

Charles Darwin once described trees as ‘great compound animals’ (quoted in Beer 1985: 37) that were made up not just of the trunk, branches, and leaves but also of communities of insects, birds, and animals living in symbiotic or antagonistic relations. Trees became a central image for Darwin in thinking about the multiplicity of life and its histories. The phrase ‘great compound animals’ might well apply to museums also, compounded as they are of numerous people, buildings, and objects. The Pitt Rivers Museum is not unusual in being a collection of collections, incorporating a complex colony of collectors, many of whom gave only a single object. Unlike trees, with their instantly recognizable structures, varying from species to species, the basic anatomy of museums is not well known, despite considerable study.
Spatial Transformations: Representing the World at the Pitt Rivers Museum
Authors: Gosden Chris , Larson Frances , Petch Alison
Published: November 2023

Let us imagine an institution called the Perfectly Representative Museum (PRM for short). The mission statement of the PRM shows that its main aim is to create a collection that represents as accurately as possible all human products, past and present. As the PRM is unbelievably well funded, it has few practical constraints, merely needing to decide how best to represent the world. The Policy and Planning Committee of the PRM draws up a number of possible routes to a perfectly representative collection. The Collections Management team argue for a single object, which could be researched and documented in infinite detail, research which would, over time, lead out into all aspects of the world, providing a wonderfully rich set of documentary records. The Conservation Department, hoping for new staff and laboratories, is unhappy with this solution, and the PRM’s Director worries whether a single object could ever encourage social inclusiveness or maintain visitor numbers.
Automating the Districting Process: An Experiment Using a Japanese Case Study
Authors: Sakaguchi Toshihiro , Wada Junichiro
Published: November 2023

A new electoral system was adopted in Japan in 1994. Under the mixed electoral system introduced, 300 Lower House members are elected from constituencies and 200 members are elected separately via a proportional representation system with a party-decided list of candidates. Creating the constituencies required by the new electoral system was challenging, in large part because of the dual requirements that counties and small cities not be split and the ratio of the most populated districts to the least populated districts should be less than 2.
Introduction
Authors: Heine Bernd , Kuteva Tania
Published: November 2023

It is the above quotation that inspired us to embark on this book project. The claim is important; it is intuitively appealing at the same time, it is hard to verify. It therefore provided a real challenge for the research which was subsequently carried out, and whose Windings are presented here. But there was yet another factor which was accompanying us throughout the work on the present book, namely to test and apply to a topic as fascinating, challenging, and ambitious as that of language evolution the potential of grammaticalization theory as a tool for reconstructing the evolution of human language.
An outline of grammatical evolution
Authors: Heine Bernd , Kuteva Tania
Published: November 2023

Among the questions that we raised in Chapter 1 there were the following: Which is older—the lexicon or grammar? What was the structure of human language like when it first evolved? How did language change from its genesis to now? Was language evolution abrupt or gradual? It is these questions that will be our concern in this chapter. After having provided a general introduction to grammaticalization theory in the preceding chapter we will now use this theory to reconstruct some major lines in the development of functional categories. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to trace grammar back to its beginnings in early language.
On pidgins and other restricted linguistic systems
Authors: Heine Bernd , Kuteva Tania
Published: November 2023

In discussions on language genesis and evolution, ‘ ‘ degraded forms of language’ ‘ are widely held to provide a primary source for proposing hypotheses, and among such systems, pidgin languages are taken to provide one of the main sources of evidence: They are believed to exhibit properties that shed light on earlier forms of human languages.