bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SMALL SAMPLE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF STEPPED‐UP RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS BASED ON SPLIT‐HALVES
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

Maximum‐likelihood estimates of stepped‐up reliability coefficients are developed and their sampling distributions derived. These estimates turn out to be biased. So new unbiased estimates are developed with even smaller sampling variances and recommended for general use whenever some statistical assumptions about the test halves hold. Finally, some statistical tests based on the sampling distributions are described.
STATISTICAL INFERENCES ABOUT THE ERROR VARIANCE
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This paper is a presentation of an essential part of the sampling theory of the error variance and the standard error of measurement. An experimental assumption is that several factorially equivalent tests with equal variances are available. These may be either final forms of the same test or obtained by dividing one test into several parts. The simple model of independent and normally distributed errors of measurement with zero mean is employed. No assumption is made about the form of the distributions of true and observed scores. This implies unrestricted freedom in defining the population. First maximum‐likelihood estimators of the error variance and the standard error of measurement are obtained, their sampling distributions given, and their properties investigated. Then unbiased estimators are defined and their distributions derived. The precision of estimation is given special consideration from various points of view. Next, rigorous statistical tests are developed to test hypotheses about error variances on the basis of one and two samples. Also the construction of confidence intervals is treated. Finally, Bartlett's test of homogeneity of variances is used to provide a multi‐sample test of equality of error variances.
ESTIMATING TRUE MEASUREMENTS FROM FALLIBLE MEASUREMENTS (BINOMIAL CASE)–EXPANSION IN A SERIES OF BETA DISTRIBUTIONS*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

In mental‐test theory, a useful mathematical model specifies the relation of the examinee's observed score, x, to his “true score,” ζ. The present paper is concerned with a model for the number‐right scores on a test composed of n questions or “items.” This model is completely specified by the assertion that the conditional frequency distribution of x when ζ is fixed is the binomial distribution . The basic problem in the use of this model may be thought of as the problem of estimating the unknown frequency distribution of true scores. Once this is done, the bivariate distribution of ζ and x has also been estimated. All important properties of the test score can thus be investigated. Although it might at first seem otherwise, the model has empirical verifiable implications. The first section of the present paper discusses various methods for estimating g(ζ). The second section outlines the method to be reported here. The third section presents and discusses the results of applying this method to Widely different sets of mental test data.
DIMENSIONS OF OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCE
Authors: Terwilliger James
Published: August 2014

This study was undertaken to: (a) determine the dimensionality of the occupational preferences of college students, and (b) relate other measures of preference and ability to the dimensions which result from analysis of occupational preferences.

Occupational preference rankings were obtained from 280 undergraduate males. The preference questionnaire consists of 31 occupational titles cast into a “balanced incomplete blocks” design as described by Gulliksen and Tucker. The subjects ranked occupational prestige and the desirability of various job attributes and general goals of life on separate questionnaires which were constructed with variations on the incomplete blocks design. Allport‐Vernon, Kuder‐Preference, and SCAT scores were also obtained.

A principal axis factor analysis was performed on the cross‐products among the 46 occupational preference and job attribute variables using the technique derived by Tucker for double‐centered matrices. Ten factors were retained following a translation with respect to the preference variables and a rotation according to the varimax criterion.

Eight factors were interpreted. Six are defined predominantly by the occupations and indicate preference for: scientific‐technical occupations (I), persuasive occupations (III), occupations which involve teaching (IV), artistic occupations (V), outdoor‐scientific occupations (VI), and occupations which require artistic‐technical skills (VII). Factor II is defined both by occupations and attributes and was interpreted as preference for high‐income occupations. Factor VIII is a bipolar factor which contrasts preference for the activity‐related attributes versus the role‐related attributes of a job.

These results suggest that occupational preferences are determined by the activities which are involved in a job rather than by more general attributes which may characterize the occupation. The only attributes which appear to relate to job preferences are those which contrast material and nonmaterial rewards.

The remaining prestige, preference, and ability measures which were obtained were related to the factors through the factor extension technique. The pattern of the loadings for the prestige variables is generally the same as for the corresponding preference variables. The loadings of the Allport‐Vernon, Goals of Life, and Kuder variables are small but consistent with and give support to the interpretation of the factors. The ability measures do not relate to the preference factors.
THE INTERCORRELATIONS AND RELIABILITY OF THE MYERS‐BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR SCALES1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Ross John
Published: August 2014

The Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator is a Jungian‐oriented, self‐report inventory. Each of its four scales provides categorical type classifications as well as continuous scores. The intercorrelations and reliability of the scales, in terms of both measures, were determined for high school and college samples. The Extraversion‐Introversion, Sensation‐Intuition, and Thinking‐Feeling scales were independent of each other, but the Judging‐Perceiving scale was moderately related to the Sensation‐Intuition and Thinking‐Feeling scales. The internal‐consistency reliability of the continuous scores was generally in the .70's and low .80's and the type categories' reliability (using a lower‐bound estimate) was generally in the .40's and .50's.
AN ASSESSMENT OF SOME STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF THE JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPOLOGY1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Ross John
Published: August 2014

Jung's typology implies that the attitudes and functions are (a) stable; (b) categorical or qualitatively dichotomous; (c) interacting; and (d) giving rise to different compounds of surface traits. In addition, it implies that type indeterminacy produces ineffective and maladjusted behavior.

A program of studies aimed at assessing these structural properties of Jung's typology was designed and executed, using a self‐report inventory, the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator. These studies found that (a) the type classifications had moderate temporal stability; (b) Indicator score distributions showed no marked evidence of bimodality; (c) with one exception, the regressions of other variables on Indicator scales did not change in either level or slope at the zero point of the Indicator scales; (d) the Indicator scales did not interact in relation to other variables; (e) the Indicator scales did not moderate the regression of other variables on one another; and (f) type indeterminacy was unrelated to measures of ineffective behavior and maladjustment.

It was concluded that these findings offer little support for any of the structural properties attributed to the typology. Two possible interpretations of these negative findings were suggested: (a) Jung's typology is not consistent with the real world; or (b) the Indicator does not correspond to the theoretical formulation of the typology; that is, the Indicator does not operationally define the typology. Verification of these interpretations awaits further research.
THE ROLE OF MEMORY AND COLOR IN GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL EMBEDDED‐FIGURES MEASURES OF FIELD INDEPENDENCE1
Authors: JACKSON DOUGLAS N. , MESSICK SAMUEL , MYERS CHARLES T.
Published: August 2014

Three group‐administered embedded‐figures tests were designed to evaluate the possibility of developing economical and reliable measures of perceptual field‐independence. These were administered together with individual and group forms of Witkin's EFT in a factorial design to study the effects of color, memory, and item format. Embedded‐figures test performances were also studied in relation to perceptual speed, spatial orientation, and Adjective Preference Scale scores. Within‐group correlations between group‐ and individually‐administered embedded‐figures tests were sufficiently high to warrant the use of the group forms as measures of perceptual field‐independence. A comparison of the correlational patterns between sexes indicated greater differentiation in cognitive performances for males than for females.
COGNITIVE STYLES AND MEMORY FOR FACES1
Authors: Messick Samuel , Damarin Fred
Published: August 2014

Accuracy in the incidental recall of photographed human faces can be predicted from the subject's cognitive styles and biases: (a) Subjects who were field‐dependent on an embedded figures test recalled more faces correctly than did the field‐independent; (b) subjects who were narrow categorizers on the Pettigrew Category‐Width Test had better recall than had broad categorizers; and (c) subjects who thought the photographed persons were relatively young did better than those who thought they were older. These three kinds of stylistic consistency were mutually independent. Some of these styles may determine memory for all sorts of stimuli and some may be relatively specific to memory for faces.
FORMULATING HYPOTHESES: FACTOR STRUCTURE AND VALIDITY DATA
Authors: Cliff Rosemary , Cliff Norman
Published: August 2014

It was hypothesized that performance on the Formulating Hypotheses Test is related to the Induction, Sensitivity to Problems, Ideational Fluency, Spontaneous Flexibility, and Originality factors identified in previous research and to measures of creative achievement in the sciences. A factor analysis of reference tests for the above‐named factors failed to identify any but Induction. Scores on Formulating Hypotheses had loadings of borderline significance on fluency and general information factors. No relationship was demonstrated between Formulating Hypotheses scores and grades of mechanical engineering students for courses stressing creative design.
A TEST OF SOME ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION*
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. , Kulkarni Sharadchandra
Published: August 2014

Programers try to construct programs which are carefully sequenced and provide the learner with immediate knowledge of results. The present research has implications for these program construction practices and their underlying rationale.

Ss were randomly assigned to Group R, the regular version of the program, Group O, the program with knowledge of results omitted, and Group I, the program with the order of some frames inverted. Chemistry and mathematics programs were used with a total of 223 students in three schools.

In no school did the groups differ in time taken to learn. In one school Group O made significantly more errors in going through the program than did Groups R and I, but in the other two schools there were no group differences in errors. In two of the schools Groups O and I did significantly better on the posttest than did Group R, but in the third school there were no group differences on the posttest. In one school Groups O and I had significantly more favorable attitudes toward programed instruction than did Group R, but this was not true in the other two schools.

Our general conclusions are:

A mismatch between program and students may occur when a program is too redundant for students of a particular ability level to provide sufficient challenge to them. Such mismatches may be revealed by a comparison of R, O, and I conditions with regard to posttest achievement and attitude toward programed instruction.

Ability and motivational characteristics of the students, administrative variables, and subject matter variables may be at least as important as the programing variables (sequencing and knowledge of results) that we manipulated.

A program is a set of carefully sequenced materials which build upon each other to effectively guide the student toward achieving well‐defined objectives (see Holland, 1960a; Glaser, 1960; Skinner, 1960; Stolurow, 1961). A program consists of a series of frames, each of which requires the student to answer a question and tells him what the correct answer is (provides knowledge of results). This research attempts to see how (a) carefully sequencing the frames of a program and (b) providing knowledge of results with each frame contribute to the program's effectiveness. The basic experimental design involved giving comparable groups of students one of three versions of a program:

This design was used with auto‐instructional programs in two different areas, mathematics and chemistry.
RESPONSE SET SCORES AS PREDICTORS OF PERFORMANCE
Authors: Frederiksen Norman
Published: August 2014

A Work Preference Schedule (WPS), containing items concerned with preferences for a variety of job attributes, was administered to federal government employees in connection with routine personnel procedures. Answer sheets were obtained and rescored to yield scores which would presumably reflect social desirability and extremity response sets. Statistical study of the scores showed that response sets could be reliably measured and that attractive and unattractive items should be studied separately.

Correlations of set scores with biographical data and with scores from inventories and tests were computed, including scores from a situational test, the Bureau of Business In‐Basket Test. It was judged that the only correlations that were capable of reasonably unambiguous interpretation were those between in‐basket scores and desirability set scores obtained from unattractive items. The results show that those who try to put themselves in a good light in responding to the WPS are likely to follow leads suggested by their superior in the in‐basket situation and to show generally good performance both in terms of quantity and quality. Some underlying motivational variable such as anxiety or need for recognition may account for both the desirability response bias and the characteristics of the in‐basket performance.
BAYESIAN INDIFFERENCE PROCEDURES: REFINEMENTS AND EXTENSIONS
Authors: Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

This report is a technical supplement to the University of North Carolina, Institute of Statistics, Mimeo Series Report No. 345, which dealt with the specification of indifference distributions for a wide range of statistical models and within the context of a Bayesian logical probability model. In this paper a more refined approach to indifference procedures is presented and applied to Bernoulli and Poisson models. It is also shown that the proposed procedure yields invariant specifications under certain transformations of the scale of measurement of the random variable. The null‐distribution of the correlation coefficient corresponding to the structuring of a regression model is presented.
PERFORMANCE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE ACQUISITION OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL ADVANTAGE IN COMPETITION1
Authors: Myers Albert E.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate psychological advantages in competitive encounters. Twenty Ss participated in fourman tournaments using shuffleboard bowling machines. By remote control, the experimenter was able to manipulate the scores. A 2 × 2 factorial design controlled for the mean performance (high vs. low) and the variability (high vs. low) of each S. It was found that the low mean Ss gained a psychological advantage in this situation which was characterized by a pessimistic outlook and poor strategy selection on the part of their opponents.
ITEM ANALYSIS AND TEST RELIABILITY
Authors: Myers Charles T.
Published: August 2014

This study compares four different item‐analysis procedures with respect to their effectiveness in identifying items which would make up reliable and valid tests. The four procedures were: (1) the item‐test biserial correlation, (2) the item‐test covariance divided by the test standard deviation (or the item reliability index), (3) the “standard length” of the item, and (4) the ratio of the item validity index to the item reliability index. These procedures were applied to a 32‐item, multiple‐choice test with an essay test criterion. Results for a 300‐case item‐analysis sample and for three 100‐case cross‐validation samples are presented which show each of the four procedures to be about equally effective.
FACULTY PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS
Authors: Davis Junius A.
Published: August 2014

The steps leading to the development of a Student Rating Form, an instrument for use by faculty in systematically describing college students, are outlined in this first of a series of reports concerned with faculty characterizations of students. The treatment is primarily historical, providing a basis for subsequent technical reports of analyses of faculty definition of desirable student traits. Data presented include a thematic analysis of free verbal descriptions by faculty of students, and the results of a factor analysis (suggesting 16 factors) of variables contributed by an early version of the Student Rating Form.
CHOICE‐SEQUENCE PATTERNS IN BINARY‐CHOICE “LEARNING” BY RETARDATES1,2
Authors: Gerjuoy Herbert , Gerjuoy Irma R.
Published: August 2014

Sixty‐seven middle‐grade and 53 high‐grade retardates were assigned to either control or experimental binary‐choice‐task groups. Control subjects were invariably reinforced, regardless of choice. Various response patterns were differentially reinforced for experimental subjects. Single alternation was overwhelmingly preferred, and there was little choice‐sequence pattern variability. These results were attributed to a lowered tendency in retardates to avoid long sequences of alternation responses.
NONINTELLECTIVE CORRELATES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT1
Authors: Skager Rodney , Terwilliger James
Published: August 2014

The research reported here represents an attempt to isolate biographical and attitudinal correlates of achievement after controlling for aptitude. Two biographical inventories pertaining to academic aspirations and plans, extracurricular activities and jobs, pressures and values in the home and peer group, and self‐initiated efforts to achieve various personal goals were administered to approximately 750 college preparatory eleventh grade students in seven northeastern public secondary schools. The responses to the inventories were correlated with a residual grade average reflecting academic achievement independent of aptitude as measured by the PSAT.

The results are generally consistent with the findings of previous investigations. Attributes found to be positively related to our criterion of achievement include: high academic aspirations, plans to continue education beyond four years of college, a home and peer environment which encourages academic goals and general intellectual pursuits, and self‐initiated efforts to achieve goals of an intellectual nature.

Caution should be exercised in attempting to generalize specific relationships to students in school settings different from that characterizing the schools used in the present research. Replications of the present study in such schools would provide interesting empirical comparisons.
EFFECTS OF COACHING ON THE COLLEGE BOARD ENGLISH COMPOSITION TEST
Authors: Jacobs Paul I.
Published: August 2014

Coaching may increase students' scores on an achievement test without increasing, or increasing only temporarily, skills in the area being tested. This study deals with the immediate and longer term effects of coaching on the CEEB English Composition Test.

Students at each of six cooperating high schools were randomly assigned to coached and non‐coached conditions. Following the coaching sessions, all students took the English Composition Test.

The immediate effects varied from essentially no mean difference in test scores between coached and non‐coached students at one school to a mean difference of 73 points favoring the coached students at another school. In general the coaching increment was not confined to the specific item types coached for. The coached groups achieved their superiority by getting fewer items wrong.

When coached and non‐coached students were retested ten months later, it was found that the coaching increment had disappeared. Estimates of growth and practice effects from test‐retest data of the non‐coached students varied from a mean of 15 points at one school to a mean of 94 points at another.

It was concluded that the candidate who receives coaching may indeed have an advantage over the candidate who does not. But the variability from school to school both of coaching effects and of score gains due to “growth” indicate that the specifics of the teaching situation are quite important.
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF ACCOMPLISHMENTS AS MEASURES OF CREATIVITY1
Authors: Skager Rodney W. , Schultz Charles B. , Klein Stephen P.
Published: August 2014

In studying creativity, criterion measures based on biographical information can be scored for the number of accomplishments (Quantity) or for level of a single most outstanding accomplishment (Quality). The meaningfulness of the distinction between the two scores is dependent upon their intercorrelation and whether the measures show differential correlations with other variables. The Independent Activities Questionnaire (IAQ), composed of items describing achievements of a creative type, was developed for use as a criterion instrument in research on creativity.

Examination of the correlates of Quality and Quantity scores calculated from the responses of a sample of entering college freshmen indicated that (1) Quality and Quantity scores are significantly correlated, but that (2) Quality was more related to a measure of academic aptitude, and (3) Quantity was more related to a measure of intellectual stimulation in the home.
CORRELATES OF HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
Authors: Dermen Diran
Published: August 2014

An attempt was made to relate hypnotic susceptibility to: an inventory of subjective nonhypnotic personal experiences; attitudes and opinions toward, and interest in hypnosis; environmental and social perceptions; five Guilford‐Martin personality scales; and measures of response styles. The questionnaires were administered to 203 male and 233 female college students. The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A was later administered to 80 male and 97 female volunteers from the above sample. Those few variables correlating significantly with hypnotizability in either or both samples, were: (a) Rhathymia; (b) previous hypnotic experience; (c) the number of different hypnotic situations for which S expressed willingness to volunteer; and (d) self‐predictions of susceptibility. Results in the present study, considered with the results of other studies, lead to the conclusion that hypnotic susceptibility is not related to available personality inventories or measures of “social and environmental perceptions,” and probably not related to measures of subjective nonhypnotic personal experiences. A S's previous hypnotic experience, attitude toward hypnosis, and expectations regarding his own hypnotizability do appear to be related to his susceptibility. A fresh approach to the area is needed. One such approach would be the determination of the dimensions of hypnotic depth and susceptibility, and the relationships between these factors and outside variables.
ACCURACY IN THE JUDGMENT OF CONSISTENCY1
Authors: Myers Albert E.
Published: August 2014

Two studies are reported which investigated the ability of people to make accurate judgments of variability in performance. In one study, a laboratory experiment in which performance was manipulated by the experimenter, it was found that significant accuracy did exist even though it was clouded by the tendency to judge Ss with high mean scores as more consistent. In the other study, persons participating in a real‐life bowling league were asked to make judgments of consistency about the players on their team. There was no trace of any appropriate sensitivity to differences in variability. The halo effect involving the judged consistency of the high average players was, however, quite strong. The importance of these findings for mathematical models of decision making is briefly discussed.
SECULAR TRENDS IN AN ADJECTIVE CHECKLIST1,2
Authors: Hofstee Willem K. B.
Published: August 2014

Secular trends in tests were redefined as effects of systematic changes in response to test items resulting from experience with similar items, rather than from learning outside the testing situation. In the present study, two such trends were investigated in a list of 180 trait‐descriptive adjectives: a trend for items to be responded to more desirably as the list continues, and a trend for items to be responded to more or less desirably depending upon the desirability of the preceding item. The method consisted of comparing item popularities, as found in the original format, with the popularities of the same items presented in forced‐choice format: if item popularities had been biased through the operation of secular trends in the original list, such bias should to some extent be detectable in the responses to the forced‐choice format. The results showed no evidence for the first trend; with respect to the second, it was clearly demonstrated that items in the original list were responded to more desirably as the preceding item was more desirable. The importance of controlling and studying secular trends was discussed.
BINARY‐CHOICE SEQUENCES OF RETARDATES, NORMAL CHILDREN, AND COLLEGE STUDENTS UNDER RANDOM‐ AND PATTERN‐SET INSTRUCTIONS1
Authors: Gerjuoy Irma R. , Gerjuoy Herbert
Published: August 2014

Twenty successive free binary choices (between A and B) were elicited without reinforcement from adolescent educable mental retardates, from normal fourth‐ and fifth‐grade children, and from college students under one of two sets of instructions: instructions to respond randomly and instructions to respond with a simple pattern of successive choices.

There was a preference for A rather than B as the first response. For all treatment combinations, the number of alternations over the entire set of 20 items was above chance; consistent with previous findings, however, the college students alternated less than the others. Although the instructional variable had no significant effects on retardate behavior, random‐set instructions elicited very few cyclic sequences of choices from normal children and college students. College students who gave cyclic sequences generally gave longer cycles than did Ss in the other two populations; most of the children who gave cyclic sequences alternated; and some of the retardates who gave cyclic sequences alternated and some perseverated.

These results imply that the tendency to alternate above chance that has been noted in binary‐choice tasks is due to something more than preconceptions about the nature of random sequences. There is a general tendency to alternate that is at least as strong under pattern‐set as under random‐set instructions; the latter instructions appear to be interpreted as instructions to behave unpredictably.
BAYESIAN ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS: FIXED EFFECTS
Authors: Bohrer Robert
Published: August 2014

Bayesian analysis is a method of making inferences concerning a given process which allows prior beliefs and data concerning the statistical structure of the process to be combined with the results of present trials of the process into a posterior credibility distribution on the parameters characterizing the process. Credibility interval statements from this distribution are often of interest. In this paper, a technique for stating some such intervals for a normal regression model is developed.

Section 1 of this paper briefly presents an approach to Bayesian inference, due to Novick and Hall, which provides a technique for quantifying prior beliefs.

Section 2 reviews the distribution theory necessary for Bayesian analysis of processes which are of the normal, linear fixed effects model type and presents a method of deriving Bayesian credibility intervals based on this distribution theory.

Section 3 demonstrates the application of these methods to three sets of data.
SKILL AND MOTIVATION AS SEPARABLE COMPONENTS OF PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G.
Published: August 2014

A music learning experiment was performed, illustrating the possibility of isolating certain components of performance (labeled Skill and Motivation) by using separate measurement situations for each. Straightforward application of Hullian theory–which considers that component factors of performance interact prior to overt behavior and are not thus separable in measurement situations–to the experiment's data led to a self‐contradiction. It was shown, further, that Hull's theory could be considered consistent with the present data only when certain assumptions of dubious plausibility were made.
PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT AND THE ETHICS OF ASSESSMENT1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

Recent controversies about the adequacy of psychological testing may not only indicate poor public relations between psychologists and society, but may also derive from value conflicts within psychology itself about the proper role of assessment. Current concern among testers to institute further self‐regulation to conform with recent pressures from social critics may be a mistaken emphasis; a more important concern is the development of policies to guide practice in those cases where alternative uses of tests are in conflict. Since policy‐making in areas of value conflict may produce an undesirable impact on the atmosphere of the regulated domain, some provision should also be made for the continuing reappraisal of policy decisions.
BEHAVIOR CHANGE MEDIATED BY CHANGE IN BELIEF: THE ROLE OF COMMITMENT PRIOR TO THE INFLUENCE ATTEMPT1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G.
Published: August 2014

When a persuasive communication causes a change in belief, will behavior relevant to the belief also change? Past experiments have shown both successes and failures in obtaining such behavior change. The present study offers a reconciliation for these differences in findings by showing that the pattern of belief change with no behavior change occurred only in Ss who, before a communication, committed themselves to a position opposing it. Without this commitment, Ss showed no immunity against the effects of the communication on behavior. Some theoretical implications of this finding were discussed briefly.
AFFECT AND EXPECTATION1
Authors: Rosenhan David , Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

Four groups of Ss were exposed to a probability learning situation in which they guessed which of two stimuli would next appear. One set of stimuli contained angry and smiling faces, while the other or neutral set contained big and little kangaroos. When the input ratio was 70 per cent angry faces to 30 per cent smiling faces, Ss markedly underestimated the dominant input. When the ratio was reversed (70 per cent smiling, 30 per cent angry), expectancies for the dominant stimulus approximated objective input. Thus, relative preferences for the stimuli appeared to dictate expectations. Expectancy curves for the relatively neutral kangaroos fell between the curves for the affective stimuli.

Considerable interindividual variability was found for affective expectancies. These individual differences were tentatively associated with personality differences.
LEARNING THEORY: SOME REVISED BASIC LAWS AND CONCEPTS OF PERFORMANCE, REWARD, AND PUNISHMENT1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G.
Published: August 2014

This paper has attempted to outline the basis for a new theory of learning. One important feature of the theory has to do with those respects in which it is not new–it has incorporated some ideas contained in presently competing theories into a formulation that offers the possibility of unifying these rivals. In addition, new suggestions concerning the analysis of performance, the interpretation of punishment and the role of information feedback in learning have been offered. Data from three experiments described in the paper have both supported predictions based on the new theory and have indicated difficulties in previous interpretations of learning. These three experiments also demonstrated that the new theory has the desirable feature of lending itself readily to experimentation on human subjects.
DIFFICULTY AND OTHER CORRELATES OF CRITICALNESS RESPONSE STYLE AT THE ITEM LEVEL1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J.
Published: August 2014

This study examined the relationship between the difficulty of items on an achievement‐type test of report writing and (a) the items' correlations with the test's criticalness response style score, and (b) the items' correlations with the test's content score. Item readability and item format variables were also analyzed. The major findings were that (a) the items' difficulty was related to their correlations with the content score and unrelated to the items' correlations with the response style score; (b) the items' location in the test was generally related to their correlations with the response style score, and unrelated to the other variables; and (c) the readability indexes were not related to the three basic item variables.
BEHAVIOR CHANGE MEDIATED BY CHANGE IN BELIEF1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G.
Published: August 2014

When a persuasive communication causes a change in belief, will behavior relevant to the belief also change? The few studies directly relevant to this problem have failed to obtain such behavior change. The first three studies in the present series show definite success in obtaining behavior change mediated by belief change. The fourth experiment offers a reconciliation for these contradictory findings by showing that the pattern of (temporary) belief change with no behavior change occurred only in subjects who, before the communication, committed themselves to a position opposing it. The potential theoretical and practical significance of this last finding was briefly discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF AGE, SEX, AND SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS ON RESPONSIVENESS TO TWO CLASSES OF VERBAL REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Rosenhan David , Greenwald Jean A.
Published: August 2014

The effects of two classes of verbal reinforcers, one more abstract (performance reinforcers) and the other less abstract (person), were examined among lower‐ and middle‐class children. Previous work that had shown lower‐class children to be relatively unresponsive to abstract reinforcers was not substantiated. The experiment suggested serious deficiencies in the experimental methodology (and hence in conceptualization) for examining the psychological properties of lower‐class children.

A second experiment examined the developmental implications of responsiveness to person and performance reinforcers. The results suggested that, in growing older, children become more sensitive to a broader band of reinforcers and particularly to abstract reinforcers, without declining in their responsiveness to concrete ones.
CAN GROUP MEMBERS RECOGNIZE THE EFFECTS OF GROUP DISCUSSION UPON RISK TAKING?
Authors: Wallach Michael A. , Kogan Nathan , Burt Roger B.
Published: August 2014

The present investigation was designed to determine whether group members recognize the occurrence of group‐induced shifts toward enhanced risk taking. The subjects, 122 male and 139 female university students, were assigned at random within sex to decision‐making groups calling for discussion with or without a consensus requirement. As in previous work, groups gravitated toward increased risk taking under both conditions. Upon the completion of all decisions, the group members made judgments concerning the effect of the discussion on the groups' risk‐taking levels. These judgments were significantly biased in the risky direction, but fell significantly below the actual magnitude of the risky shifts. Results were highly uniform for both sexes and for both types of group. We then inquired whether the trend toward veridicality in the judgment data reflected a genuine awareness of group outcomes or a process of assimilative projection, i.e., attribution of one's own shift behavior to the group. The findings pointed to greater genuine awareness for the females and stronger assimilative projection for males, suggesting that females may display greater interpersonal attentiveness than do males. In the case of both types of group and both sexes, group members ascribed greater forcefulness to those who in fact had higher initial risk‐taking levels.
ENGINEERING PRODUCTS: EXPERIMENTAL MANIPULATIONS AND RATINGS BY SUPERVISORS AND ENGINEERS1
Authors: Sprecher Thomas B.
Published: August 2014

When descriptions of engineering products were deliberately altered, supervisors responded positively to increases in the dollar savings reported, while engineers responded positively to increases in the additional contributions reported. The marked spread of scores occurring when all judges rated the same nonmanipulated product is only in part due to the moderate test‐retest reliability of the judgments. Differing criteria systems and even differing perceptions of the kind of achievement (e.g., novel versus conventional) were also involved.
NUMERICAL METHODS FOR POLYNOMIAL MODELS IN NONLINEAR FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: McDonald Roderick P.
Published: August 2014

The basic concepts of nonlinear factor analysis are introduced and some extensions of the general theory are developed. An elementary account of the class of multiple‐factor polynomial models is presented, using more elementary algebraic methods than have been employed in earlier accounts of this theory. Working formulas are developed for the multiple‐factor polynomial model without product terms and for the simplest case of a model with product terms.

Some empirical results are presented.
EFFECTIVENESS OF PSAT AND SAT BOOKLETS II. YOUR COLLEGE BOARD SCORES: PRELIMINARY SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST1
Authors: Halpern Gerald , Sasajima Masu
Published: August 2014

Students in 19 different schools were asked to answer a number of questions in order to evaluate the comprehensibility of the booklet entitled Your College Board Scores: Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test. Five hundred and sixty‐five students, selected at random within these schools, completed the questionnaire.

Information is provided on students' comprehension of the booklet, including their ability to convert test scores to percentiles and to predict SAT scores from a knowledge of PSAT scores. The perceived implication, by students, of the use of the PSAT for college admissions and for the prediction of college success is discussed.

The booklet, in general, was comprehensible to the majority of students. However, some of the facts and concepts presented (e.g., prediction of SAT scores, use of interpolation, interpretation of a percentile) did prove difficult for many of the students. Comprehension was found to be positively related to scholastic aptitude.
WORD ASSOCIATION: VARIABLES AFFECTING POPULAR‐RESPONSE FREQUENCY1
Authors: Wynne Ronald D. , Gerjuoy Herbert , Schiffman Harold , Wexler Norman
Published: August 2014

Normal subjects were given 54 Kent‐Rosanoff word‐association‐test items in one of two different orders; antonym‐eliciting items were concentrated either (a) near the beginning or (b) near the end of the list. For each order, testing was administered under three different test conditions: (a) standard free‐association instructions, (b) instructions to give the response “most people” would give, and (c) “most people” instructions with a multiple‐choice test format. The order starting with antonym‐eliciting items elicited more popular antonym responses than did the other order. Popularity‐set instructions, particularly with the multiple‐choice format, elicited more non‐antonym popular responses than did free‐association test conditions. With repeated testing, popular antonyms became more frequent. For some sequences of test conditions, there was also an increase in non‐antonym popular responses with repeated testing.
ORTHOGONAL INTER‐BATTERY FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

It is the purpose of this paper to present a method of analysis for obtaining (i) inter‐battery factors and (ii) battery specific factors for two sets of tests when the complete correlation matrix including communalities is given. In particular, the procedure amounts to constructing an orthogonal transformation such that its application to an orthogonal factor solution of the combined sets of tests results in a factor matrix of a certain desired form. The factors isolated are orthogonal but may be subjected to any suitable final rotation, provided the above classification of factors into (i) and (ii) is preserved. The general coordinate‐free solution of the problem is obtained with the help of methods pertaining to the theory of linear spaces. The actual numerical analysis determined by the coordinate‐free solution turns out to be a generalization of the formalism of canonical correlation analysis for two sets of variables. A numerical example is provided.
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF STUDENT ATTITUDES IN THE PRIMARY GRADES
Authors: Cohen Sandra R.
Published: August 2014

An exploratory study was carried out to investigate the feasibility of using a structured projective interview to study the attitudes that children in the primary grades have about school and about teachers. One hundred and twelve first‐ and second‐graders in seven schools were shown a series of specially prepared sketches depicting teacher‐child or child‐child interaction in the classroom; they were asked to tell what had led up to the pictured situation or what would happen next.

Responses were studied both in terms of overt content and in terms of underlying attitudes that they were believed to be revealing. Fourteen of 24 items were judged independently by four judges. The other items were judged by the investigator. Judges showed a very high percentage of agreement in their scoring: at least three of the four agreed in 92% of the responses judged.

Items that were believed to be tapping aspects of the same underlying attitudes generally showed modest but significant correlations with each other and zero correlation with items believed to be unrelated. Responses to items did not differ according to the sex, grade, or socioeconomic background of the respondent. However, children in an urban slum school gave a greater number of responses expressing violence than did children in other schools.

Children showed a high degree of responsiveness to the interview with virtually no refusals to respond; however, in many cases, skilled and patient interviewing was needed to obtain complete protocols. It was concluded that while a technique of this type probably cannot presently be considered suitable for mass administration as part of large‐scale evaluation programs, its further development as a research tool may be warranted.
COLLEGE DECISIONS ON ADVANCED PLACEMENT: I. A FOLLOW‐UP OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT CANDIDATES OF 1963
Authors: Casserly Patricia L.
Published: August 2014

The results of a mail survey of all colleges and universities that received May 1963 A. P. score reports are presented in this, the first of two reports dealing with College Decisions on Advanced Placement. The report is based on tabulations of returns from 90% of the colleges questioned and represents over 97% of the potential candidates involved.

Previous studies carried out by Educational Testing Service and elsewhere had indicated considerable variability in awards of placement and/or credit in relation to A.P. examination score. There were indications that the variability might be related to regional differences or the relative volume of A. P. candidates at colleges as well as a product of differences across subject matter fields. Therefore, the data were analyzed to test these tentative hypotheses.

Differences across and within individual colleges proved to be the greatest source of variability. In comparison, differences across regions, college groups (as determined by the number of 1963 A.P. candidates) and subject fields were found to be of minor importance.

Data on awards of placement and credit to students who had not participated in the formal A. P. Program were also collected and compared with data for the formal A. P. candidates. Although approximately three times as many non‐A.P. students were given some positive college action, our tabulations showed that only 27% of this group were given recognition carrying credit, whereas the achievement of 75% of A. P. students who gained any reward for college level work done in secondary school was recognized by awards of placement and credit or credit alone.

In the appendices of this report are tables which present the relation of A. P. examination score to various college actions by region, college group and subject matter fields.
DOUBLE ALTERNATION IN CHILDREN'S BINARY CHOICE RESPONSES1
Authors: Rosenhan David
Published: August 2014

The presence of significant amounts of double alternation in a 70:30 binary choice problem is demonstrated among first‐grade children as a function of positive reinforcement and of instructions that stress only correct responses. Evidence supports the notion that Ss understood the response behavior required of them, but nevertheless persisted in this stereotyped response. Like single alternation, double alternation poses problems for various learning theories. However, the hypotheses advanced to account for single alternation do not appear to explain double alternation. A partial and cognitive explanation that assumes that Ss impose complexity on what they perceive to be a boring task is offered.
TESTING A MODEL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS1
Authors: Hermann Margaret G.
Published: August 2014

A model of stress drawn from work by Lazarus and his associates was explored. The model suggests, first, that the more motivated individuals are to achieve a goal, the more likely they are to perceive the goal as threatened when potentially threatening stimuli are directed toward it. Second, the more motivated individuals are to achieve goals they perceive are threatened, the more negative affect they experience. And, third, the more negative affect they experience, the greater are their attempts to cope with it.

These three hypotheses were tested in a simulation of international politics in which Ss assumed the roles of national decision makers. Usable Ss were 163 Navy Petty Officers. Each S was instructed to assist his government in achieving specified goals. Threats, differing in intensity and decision time, were directed toward these national goals by six experimental situations introduced into the simulation activities. The Ss rated their goal motivation before each intervention and recorded their feelings after each situation. Participation in reacting to the experimental situation was used as a general measure of coping behavior.

The analysis used those experimental interventions that the Ss perceived to threaten one of their goals and which aroused high, moderate, and low negative affect. These data supported the first and third hypotheses but not the second. Increases in motivation were not associated with increases in negative affect. Differences in negative affect appeared to be a function of the characteristics of the threat. Related to increases in negative affect were generalization of threat to other goals, a tendency to increase motivation in the threatened goal, and higher post‐threat motivation.

The implications of the results for the model of stress were discussed.