bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The lady who tasted tea—a bit of statistical history
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

A story of a summer afternoon experiment to test a woman’s ability to taste the difference between tea added to milk or milk added to tea leading to the first use of statistical inference resulting from experimentation.
Outlier/extreme values —a difficult decision
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

A discussion of outliers and extreme observations illustrated by the presidential election (Bush/Gore) election of the year 2000.
Odds—a sometimes measure of likelihood
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

Odds are a frequently used and popular metric in the medical and epidemiologic literature and are often generated by logistic regression analysis.
Life table—a summary of mortality experience
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

A complete description of the construction and interpretation of life table mortality patterns of the total US 2010 population. Also included is a contrast of a British 17th century life table and the US 20th century life table.
Draft lottery numbers (1970)
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

The 1970 United States Army draft was based on a lottery to determine eligible men. A description of the statistics and consequences of the draft lottery also includes an investigation of the randomness of the process.
Pictures
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

Simply five pictures and plots relative to statistical data and analyses.
Probabilities and puzzles
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

A series of puzzles are often described in terms of statistical issues and methods. Some examples are presented.
Two by two table—a missing observation
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

Occasionally a two by two data table is missing one of the four expected values contained in the table. Under certain conditions the three remaining values can be used to estimate the missing value. Also called capture/recapture estimation.
Survey data—randomized response
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

A survey method that absolutely guarantees confidentiality is called a randomization survey technique. The application of this clever statistical tool is easily understood and implemented. The process yields interview responses that allow analysis, to repeat, with absolute confidentiality.
Data—too good to be true?
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

A simple and extensive table that contains an error, reducing the analysis to nonsense.
A binary variable—twin pairs
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: May 2019

Binary data is often an important type of data. The description of twin pairs presents an extensive example. Also introduced are the statistical consequences of random pairs illustrated by the analysis of the occurrence of twins with birth defects.
Poverty
Authors: Drèze Jean
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses various aspects of poverty measurement in India, from a practical point of view. It argues against the official practice of “BPL targeting”, whereby social programmes are aimed at households below the poverty line. India's poverty line is really a destitution line, there is no simple way of identifying those who are below it, and BPL targeting is also divisive. The poverty line is best treated as a statistical benchmark for purposes of making poverty comparisons rather than as an eligibility criterion for social benefits. The chapter also includes an essay on social security pensions for widows, the elderly, and disabled persons. Recent evidence suggests that pension schemes in India are doing relatively well—there is a strong case for expanding their coverage, as well as for raising the pension amounts.
Top-up
Authors: Drèze Jean
Published: May 2019

This chapter covers a range of issues that do not fit in earlier chapters. These include urban poverty, universal basic income, the Gujarat model, electoral politics, India's bullet train, the economics of corruption, the aberrations of the caste system, and India's disastrous experience with demonetisation in late 2016. The book concludes with an extended essay on “Development and Public‐spiritedness”. This essay takes issue with the notion, common in economics, that people generally act out of self‐interest. This assumption has no theoretical or empirical basis. Public‐spiritedness, in the sense of a reasoned habit of consideration for the public interest, is a common feature of social life. Expanding the scope of public‐spiritedness is an important aspect of social development.
Knowing and Seeing
Authors: Ayers Michael
Published: May 2019

Knowing and Seeing explores the insight behind the distinction of kind between knowledge and belief drawn by most philosophers from Plato to Locke. Judging that S is P (with or without good reason) is distinguished from seeing that S is P (when reasons are unnecessary), having evidence that S is P from its being immediately evident that S is P. After a historical account of the rise and fall of the distinction, a detailed, careful phenomenological analysis of perceptual experience, consonant with recent empirical psychology, suggests that a distinction is indeed needed at the traditional place, on broadly traditional grounds, if not between ‘knowledge’ and ‘belief’ then between what are here called primary and secondary knowledge. Primary knowledge is immediate awareness or grasp of reality or truth, and consciously so. The explanation given of these features is contrasted with McDowell’s conceptualist, rationalistic explanation. Part I ends with the traditional question, approached through an examination of ordinary language, whether knowledge and belief have different objects—for example, do nominalized sentences of the form ‘that S is P’ refer to the same kind of entity after ‘believe’, ‘know’, and ‘see’? Employing the results of Part I, Part II is a sustained critique of sceptical argument and its current ‘methodological’ use in philosophy, in particular by ‘externalists’, ‘fallibilists’, ‘contextualists’, and ‘reliabilists’. The relationship between ascriptions of knowledge and judgements of certainty, probability and fallibility is analysed, and a particular understanding of ‘defeasibility’ is defended. The thesis of ‘disjunctivism’ is assessed.
Oil and the Great Powers
Authors: Toprani Anand
Published: May 2019

During the first half of the twentieth century, a lack of oil constrained Britain and Germany from exerting their economic and military power independently. Having fought World War I with oil imported from the United States, Britain was determined to avoid relying upon another great power for its energy needs ever again. Even before the war had ended, Whitehall began implementing a strategy of developing alternative sources of oil under British control. Britain’s key supplier would be the Middle East—already a region of vital importance to the British Empire, but one whose oil potential was still unproven. There turned out to be plenty of oil in the Middle East, but Italian hostility after 1935 threatened British transit through the Mediterranean. As war loomed in 1939, Britain’s quest for independence from the United States was a failure. Germany was in an even worse position than Britain. The Third Reich went to war dependent on petroleum synthesized from coal, meager domestic crude oil production, and overland imports—primarily from Romania. German leaders were confident, however, that they had sufficient oil to fight a series of short, localized campaigns that would deliver to them the mastery of Europe. Their plan derailed following Germany’s swift victory over France, when Britain refused to make peace. This left Germany responsible for satisfying Europe’s oil requirements while cut off from world markets. A looming energy crisis in Axis Europe, an absence of strategic alternatives, and ideological imperatives all compelled Germany to invade the Soviet Union in 1941—a decision that ultimately sealed its fate.
The Years of Complacency
Authors: Toprani Anand
Published: May 2019

This chapter begins with a discussion of Britain’s efforts to monopolize the development of imperial oil reserves and stockpile naval oil reserves. It then shifts to Iraq, which (along with Iran) was one of the centerpieces of Britain’s oil strategy in the Middle East, before examining the failure of British efforts to bring Shell under the control of British nationals. It also discusses the formation of the Oil Board of the Committee of Imperial Defence, which was responsible for assessing Britain’s wartime oil position. The Oil Board identified the key obstacle confronting Britain—a shortage of tankers to move oil from the Middle East. Finally, it contrasts Britain’s ambiguous record in the Middle East with that of Venezuela, which by the early 1930s was becoming Britain’s most important oil supplier.
The Reality of Dependence
Authors: Toprani Anand
Published: May 2019

This chapter and the one that follows demonstrate how and why Britain’s strategy of energy independence failed. The initial threat came from anticolonial nationalism, initially in Iran and then in Mexico. Britain weathered both crises but emerged with a false sense of security. The second and most challenging threat came from the fascist states, particularly Italy following the Abyssinian crisis of 1935–6. Although Italian hostility would jeopardize Britain’s plan to achieve energy independence by exploiting the Middle East, British officials paid little or no attention to the Italian threat to their energy lifelines when considering whether to support League of Nations sanctions against Italy for its aggression against Abyssinia. Compounding the Italian problem was U.S. isolationism via the Neutrality Acts, which complicated British logistics by forcing Britain to import oil from the United States on British tankers and pay for it using scarce foreign exchange.
From Crisis to Opportunity
Authors: Toprani Anand
Published: May 2019

This chapter offers a reassessment of Germany’s oil strategy during World War II. Fuel consumption during Germany’s early campaigns (1939–40) was lower than expected, but the swift victory over France left the Third Reich in a quandary. Before the war, Europe had imported two-thirds of its petroleum consumption. Germany’s prewar efforts had only aimed to make it self-sufficient—the Third Reich could not hope, however, to replace the supplies other European nations had imported from overseas. German planners concluded that unless Germany took control of the oil resources of either the Soviet Union or the Middle East, fuel shortages would soon derail the entire war effort. This looming energy crisis in Europe strengthened Hitler’s ideological and strategic conviction that Germany should risk a two-front war in 1941 by attacking the Soviet Union before the United States could intervene.
Pocket Maps and Public Poetry in the English Renaissance
Authors: Lecky Katarzyna
Published: May 2019

If maps are instruments of power, then it matters that in Renaissance Britain they were often found in the pockets of ordinary people. Pocket Maps and Public Poetry in the English Renaissance demonstrates how early modern British poets paid by the state adapted inclusive modes of nationhood charted by inexpensive, small-format maps. It places chapbooks (“cheapbooks”) by Edmund Spenser, Samuel Daniel, Ben Jonson, William Davenant, and John Milton into conversation with the portable cartography circulating in the same retail print industry. Domestic pocket maps were designed for heavy use by a broad readership that included those on the fringes of literacy. The era’s de facto laureates all banked their success as writers appealing to this burgeoning market share by drawing the nation as the property of the commonwealth rather than the Crown. This book investigates the accessible world of small-format cartography as it emerges in the texts of the poets raised in the expansive public sphere in which pocket maps flourished. It works at the intersections of space, place, and national identity to reveal the geographical imaginary shaping the flourishing business of cheap print. Its placement of poetic economies within mainstream systems of trade also demonstrates how cartography and poetry worked together to mobilize average consumers as political agents. This everyday form of geographic poiesis was also a strong platform for poets writing for monarchs and magistrates when their visions of the nation ran counter to the interests of the government.
The Downsides of Dominance
Authors: Williams Timothy P.
Published: May 2019

Since the end of the 1994 genocide, Rwanda’s government has charted an audacious development project aimed at social and economic transformation. Formal education has featured prominently in this project. It has introduced policies to improve enrolment at the primary and secondary level. But recent evidence has shown that many students failed to meet basic reading and arithmetic standards. Dropout, repetition, completion, and transition rates have not fared well. Given the ruling party’s commitment to delivering development, why has it not introduced reforms that have improved educational standards? This chapter draws from policy analysis and fieldwork across two districts to explore the interaction between Rwanda’s political settlement and the education policy domain, to shed light on its surprising inability to improve learning. This failure is surprising because the Rwandan political elite has demonstrated both capacity and willingness to undertake and implement reforms it has deemed necessary to deliver development in other sectors.
Political Transformation and Education Sector Performance in South Africa
Authors: Levy Brian , Cameron Robert , Hoadley Ursula , Naidoo Vinothan
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how political and institutional constraints influenced education policymaking and implementation in South Africa at national, provincial, and school levels. Stark differences between the Eastern and Western Cape provinces offer a natural experiment for exploring how context matters. The Eastern Cape’s socio-economic, political, and institutional legacy resulted in a low-level equilibrium trap—one where multiple political patronage networks were mirrored by a factionalized, fragmented bureaucracy. The Western Cape, by contrast, enjoyed a more supportive environment for the operation of public bureaucracy. However, bureaucracy need not be destiny. The research also found that strong hierarchy can result in formal compliance and a low-level equilibrium of mediocrity. Participatory school-level governance potentially can improve outcomes. Whether this potential is realized depends on the relative strength of developmentally oriented and predatory actors, with the outcomes not foreordained by local context, but contingent and cumulative.
Quintilian and the vir bonus
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper was first published in 1964. It argues that Quintilian’s emphasis on the need for high moral standards in oratory, as seen especially in his adoption of the Elder Cato’s definition of the orator as a good man skilled in speaking, is best understood against the background of the oratory of his own time. That oratory is vividly portrayed in Tacitus, especially in the Dialogus, which was written at this period. Aper, a character in the dialogue, defends modern oratory, and its tendency to neglect rhetorical doctrine in favour of brilliant and even violent expression. The paper discusses the informers who made their names and fortunes by means of their eloquence, and shows how Quintilian discreetly evokes and deplores them.
Problems in the Elder Seneca
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper, first published in 1974, concerns the very corrupt Latin text of Seneca the Elder. The standard edition at the time was that of H. J. Müller (1887), already rather antiquated; the text has since been re-edited and much improved by L. Håkanson (1989). The author stresses that the greatest care has to be taken in trying to interpret the words of clever declaimers, which are usually quoted without proper context. The chapter first discusses the manuscript tradition (sceptically as regards the sincerity of the Vaticanus), the way in which the Excerpta should be used, and the help that attention to prose rhythm can afford. It then proposes a long series of conjectural emendations, grouped under the headings ‘Deletions’, ‘Additions’, ‘Other Conjectures’, and ‘The Greek’. Passages are given detailed and technical discussion.
Schoolroom and Courtroom
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper, originally a contribution to a collection of studies on rhetoric (1982), discusses some of the ways in which declamation, as conducted in the Roman schoolroom, interacted with real-life oratory. Though he turned against it later, Cicero had been trained in declamation, and some features of his speeches reflect this; and he perhaps wrote up his orations for publication with an eye to the training of the young. On the other side, declamation, though much mocked, was designed as a preparation for the forum, and the gulf between schoolroom and courtroom has been exaggerated. The so-called Minor Declamations show how practical such training could be; and there is an answer to critics who think the fictionality of the laws and themes employed in declamation disqualify it as a training for reality. Equity, too, which played so important part in legal oratory, was not neglected in the schools.
Cicero and the Middle Style
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper originated as a contribution to a colloquium in Cambridge in honour of C. O. Brink (1987); it was published in a shorter form in 1989. It explores certain problems raised by the Orator. Cicero there passes from one picture of the Middle Style, as a colourless style in between the Grand and the Plain, to something quite different, bright and ornamented like the ‘sophistic’ epideictic that Cicero has earlier rejected but now allows to play an important role in forensic oratory. The paper argues that Cicero makes this shift in order to give his own varied oratory a place in his theoretical model.
More Problems in Quintilian
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper, first published in 2000, supplements a monograph by the author, Problems in Quintilian (1970), where many passages of Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria were discussed and often emended. It arose from prolonged discussion of the text of Quintilian with D. A. Russell, who was then preparing his acclaimed Loeb edition of the book (it appeared in 2001), and who contributed much to this piece. Some suggestions of the late W. S. Watt are also included. A large number of passages from Books 4–11 are discussed in detail, and suggestions made for the solution of both old and newly diagnosed problems. A final footnote brings together a series of marginalia and corrections to the original monograph.
Ennodius, Dictio 21
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

Ennodius, the sixth-century bishop of Pavia, left twenty-eight so-called dictiones, ten of them classifiable as controversiae, that is, legal speeches on fictional themes. Dictio 21 is the only fully worked out exercise, with theme, a personal Preface where Ennodius says he is ‘speaking against Quintilian’, and the declamation proper. This paper, from a collection of studies on declamation published in 2003, provides a translation of the piece, equipped with a short commentary on the Latin text and Ennodius’ language. The dictio has been taken to be a reply to an extant work, the fifth of the Major Declamations wrongly attributed to Quintilian; but there are difficulties in this view, discussed at the end of the chapter, together with remarks on Ennodius’ technique and merits.
Something New out of Armenia
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

In 1997 M. Patillon and G. Bolognesi published a Budé text of Aelius Theon’s Progymnasmata (preliminary rhetorical exercises), in which the previously known but truncated Greek text is supplemented by an Armenian version of the lost chapters, with French translation. It had long been recognized that Theon’s doctrine is very close to that seen in Quintilian, Institutio, Book 2. This paper, first published in 2004 after a version had been read at a conference in São Paolo, uses the new material to throw fresh light on Quintilian (including his tenth book), and in the process to build up a picture of what went on in a rhetorical school at the pre-declamation stage. It further argues that what a budding writer learned at this level was of crucial importance for his subsequent development.
Declamation and Philosophy
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper was given at a conference at Ouro Preto and published in 2006. As Cicero grew older, he became highly sympathetic to some kind of rapprochement between oratory and philosophy. He came to see that the forensic orator could not avoid talk of abstract matters, and should move freely between general and particular. Indeed, late in life, he declaimed on general questions. But (it is argued) Cicero was doing little more than bring into the realms of theory what had long been practised under the teachers of rhetoric who had trained him in declamation in his youth. The paper draws attention to ‘philosophical’ passages in preserved declamation, and to declaimers who were thought of as philosophers. It suggests that all this goes back to the preliminary exercises (progymnasmata) practised in the schools of rhetoric, especially the so-called theseis.
The Words of the Master
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This paper, published in 2018, is concerned with the Minor Declamations, which though not the work of Quintilian himself are clearly ‘School of Quintilian’. Many of the surviving pieces (244–388) contain, alongside extracts from fair-copy declamations, comments and advice from the teacher. This paper analyses the Master’s procedures in these sermones, which often provide ‘divisions’. He shows himself little interested in ‘colours’ and epigrams (both prominent in the Elder Seneca), and he avoids the technicalities of the status system. Special attention is paid to a sermo that gives a simplified version of Quintilian’s teaching on proem and epilogue. The paper concludes with discussion of sermones that raise special difficulties of interpretation.
The Manuscript Tradition of [Quintilian]’s Major Declamations: A New Approach
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This previously unpublished paper seeks to demonstrate that two twelfth-century manuscripts of the Major Declamations, Montpellier 226 and Paris, lat. 1618, are not, as had hitherto been supposed, independent primary witnesses to the text, but descend from an earlier extant manuscript, Bamberg, Class. 44. This manuscript has gaps at certain points where the rubricator did not complete his task; in these places the Montpellier and Paris manuscripts show either lacunae or words that can be argued to be late confections. The paper goes on to suggest, more tentatively, that the second branch of the tradition, here called Φ‎, is only superior to the lost parent of the Bambergensis and Leiden, Voss. lat. Q. 111 because its own lost ancestor had been subject to medieval conjecture. The paper ends by providing a sample of the kind of simplified apparatus criticus that could be constructed if this new approach is accepted.
L. Håkanson (ed.), L. Annaeus Seneca Maior. Oratorum et rhetorum sententiae, divisiones, colores, Teubner (Leipzig, 1989)
Authors: Winterbottom Michael
Published: May 2019

This review of L. Håkanson’s Teubner edition of the Elder Seneca (1989) appeared in 1991 after the regrettably early death of the editor, to whom the reviewer pays tribute as a scholar ‘whose name deserves to stand alongside those of the most illustrious critics of Latin prose and poetic texts’. The text of the Elder Seneca is deeply corrupt, and Håkanson made innumerable conjectures on it. The reviewer naturally could not comment on them all; instead he restricted himself to discussion of a sample, Suasoria 7, a short piece in which the editor made as many as eighty-five changes to the transmitted text. The reviewer comments on the richness of the apparatus criticus, but he felt the lack of a companion commentary volume (Håkanson’s commentary on the first book of the Controversiae has now been published).
Capabilities and Age Discrimination
Authors: Alon-Shenker Pnina
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the particular relevance and usefulness of the capabilities approach (CA) to age discrimination in the workplace. It argues that the CA provides a fresh theoretical framework for addressing significant barriers experienced by older workers in the labour market. First, the obstacles to attaining and maintaining decent work posed by ageism are examined against Sen’s idea of the real substantive freedom to lead lives we have reason to value and Nussbaum’s idea of core entitlements implicit in the notion of life worthy of the dignity of a human being. Second, the CA provides a strong critique of the popular view that age discrimination is a reasonable way of ordering our society by distributing benefits and burdens over a lifespan. Third, the CA’s sensitivity to variations in need highlights heterogeneity within the group of older workers and advances the consideration of intersectionality issues. Finally, the CA is useful in justifying positive action policies that shift responsibility back to governments.
What I Seek to Show
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: May 2019

This chapter previews the argument set out in the book. A change in economic policy is essential to prevent a fall in living standards in the UK and the US. Weak growth was the result of changes in demography and productivity, caused by the fall in the birth rate in the 1960s and in investment after the 1980s. We cannot change demography so we must increase investment. Conventional growth theory needs to be revised. Current consensus Total Factor Productivity Models are untestable and thus unscientific. This chapter proposes a revised model which is testable and robust when tested. This shows growth does not just depend on technological advance as it can be boosted by policies that encourage more tangible investment. The distractions that have led to a lack of debate over this are examined and policy measures to revive investment and growth are proposed.
Description of My Model
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: May 2019

The volume of the capital stock is defined as the original cost at constant prices of all tangible capital that has not been scrapped. Due to the poor data available for the UK my calculations and testing have had to be limited to the US. The volume of labour is defined as civilian employment. Quality improvements for both labour and capital are defined as being part of TFP. TFP is under conditions of full employment and must therefore be measured over long time periods. All growth comes from TFP, changes in labour and NTVs. The change in the volume of capital less the change in the volume of labour equals the change in NTVs and the balance is that from changes in technology (TFP). NTV is exogenous in aggregate. The value of the capital stock, but not its volume, is mean-reverting.
Distractions from Serious Debate
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: May 2019

Low corporate investment is not caused by a lack of profitable opportunities but by the bonus culture. It can therefore be cured if its perverse incentives are reversed. Official estimates for trend growth rates are very optimistic. The risk of falling living standards should be a matter of major public concern but is not. This is damaging as problems are unlikely to be solved unless widely debated. One persistent problem is that growth is largely discussed in terms of technology rather than investment. The threat that we will soon be replaced by machines attracts much more attention than the problem that this is not happening fast enough to boost productivity. It is also nonsense to claim that companies are not investing in order to reduce debt, or that demand is inadequate. The post hoc fallacy remains a barrier to sensible debate.
Reversing Perverse Incentives
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: May 2019

Depressed business investment prevents growth. There are two possible ways to change this. The first is to alter the way senior managers are remunerated. The second is leave the incentives unchanged but change their impact on investment. This chapter deals with the first. Bonus systems for companies could be changed by encouraging them to include productivity targets. Productivity is output divided by hours worked. Both these data are known to companies as output is broadly defined profits plus employment costs. Though known the information is seldom if ever published. The current failure to do so is both the result and the cause of misinformation, as analysts and financial journalists regularly confuse sales with output. The requirement to publish output and productivity data would on its own benefit the economy.
The Economic Consequences of Higher Investment
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: May 2019

Increased investment is essential to restore growth, but this will require higher savings as well as higher investment. Subject to the limited amount of help likely from rising current account deficits, domestic savings will need to rise at the expense of consumption. This will be unpopular. Those who claim that high corporate cash holdings mean that additional investment can be financed without more savings are confusing stocks with flows. Equally at fault are those who think that additional public sector investment will be painless because interest rates are so low. Companies in the US are the only major sector which is a habitual buyer of equities. Additional corporate investment will lead to fewer buy-backs, lower share prices, and higher household savings. This will narrow the savings gap, but fiscal deficits are highly correlatated with corporate net savings, so rising taxes are likely to be needed if investment rises.
Optimism, Traffic, and the Historic City in Post-War British Planning
Authors: Saumarez Smith Otto
Published: May 2019

The first chapter introduces the way architectural and planning ideas were conceived and perceived as responses to concurrent British concerns and ambitions. A widespread optimism about Britain’s economic future led planners to revise many of their assumptions about planning that had been formed in the aftermath of the Second World War. This chapter stresses the centrality of the growth of traffic for architectural thinking in the period, while also showing how architect-planners were influenced by a cross-cultural reinvestment in distinctly urban values, often centred on the slippery term ‘urbanity’. Planners developed an approach to the buildings of the past, where what was at stake was providing a new environment to a selected number of historical buildings, often at the expense of the more mundane built fabric of cities.
Planning for Affluence
Authors: Saumarez Smith Otto
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the architect-planner Graeme Shankland. Shankland’s planning practice is understood through the influence of the political culture and concerns of the British Left in this period. The chapter charts his formation as a planner for the London County Council, especially through his work on the unrealized New Town of Hook in Hampshire. The chapter details Shankland’s notorious plan for Liverpool city centre, showing how, despite its radical forms, it was inspired by a deep love of the city. The chapter goes on to look at Shankland’s plan for Bolton, in which he developed a much more sensitive appreciation of the qualities of a northern townscape.
The Trajectory of Central-Area Redevelopment
Authors: Saumarez Smith Otto
Published: May 2019

The final chapter looks at the way that the very planning and political elites who had been at the heart of the changes came to disavow the ideas that they had espoused only a few years before. The chapter argues that architecture ceased to be the dominant profession in the planning profession. It traces the widespread disillusionment with modernist planning, showing the disavowal of modernist approaches from the perspective of planning and political elites, including a section on the Labour politician Richard Crossman. A new set of priorities for cities was indicated by the emergence of the term ‘inner city’, which saw urban decision makers tackling problems centred around the persistence of poverty rather than affluence.
Seizing the “Point Imaginary”
Authors: Hyman Wendy Beth
Published: May 2019

“Seizing the ‘Point Imaginary’ ” follows erotic poets as they grapple with the elusive concept of nothingness. The pervasive quips about a woman’s “nothing” within Renaissance literature belie the fact that virginity is in several respects a genuine paradox. Although countless attempts upon the “point imaginary” were merely sexual in nature, others make of the hymen the ultimate sign of mystery and impossibility: a tympan between materiality and immateriality, the cusp between the known and unknown. The hymen, like the Lucretian atom or the draftsman’s mathematical horizon of sight, sometimes functions as the poet’s conceptual limit point. Worth pursuing for its own sake, this vanishing point of the female body further beckons the poet with the tantalizing threshold of knowledge that it emblematizes. A seemingly trivial seduction narrative such as Christopher Marlowe’s Hero and Leander thereby re-emerges as a site for wrestling with the epistemological and ontological problems that this paradoxical bit of material represents. This chapter traces these operations in the works of several authors, including Shakespeare, Richard Crashaw, Abraham Cowley, Ben Jonson, John Davies, and Thomas Wyatt. “Nothing,” for these poets, may initially refer to the woman and her questionable virginity, but also becomes attached to more portentous unknowables and supersigns. Such “impossible” thoughts were not wholly containable within the airy realm of paradox. They had implications for how early moderns understood the limits of knowledge in relation to both bodily and poetic form.
Mass Exodus
Authors: Bullivant Stephen
Published: May 2019

In 1962, Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council with the prophecy that ‘a new day is dawning on the Church, bathing her in radiant splendour’. Desiring ‘to impart an ever increasing vigour to the Christian life of the faithful’, the Council Fathers devoted particular attention to the laity, and set in motion a series of sweeping reforms. The most significant of these centred on refashioning the Church’s liturgy. Over fifty years on, however, the statistics speak for themselves—or seem to. In America, only 15% of cradle Catholics say that they attend Mass on a weekly basis; meanwhile, 35% no longer even tick the ‘Catholic box’ on surveys. In Britain, of those raised Catholic, just 13% still attend Mass weekly, and 37% say they have ‘no religion’. But is this all the fault of Vatican II, and its runaway reforms? Or are wider social, cultural, and moral forces primarily to blame? Catholicism is not the only Christian group to have suffered serious declines since the 1960s. If anything Catholics exhibit higher church attendance, and better retention, than most Protestant churches do. If Vatican II is not the cause of Catholicism’s crisis, might it instead be the secret to its (comparative) success? Mass Exodus is the first serious historical and sociological study of Catholic lapsation and disaffiliation. Drawing on a wide range of theological, historical, and sociological sources, it also offers a comparative study of secularization across two famously contrasting religious cultures: Britain and the USA.
Looking Foolish
Authors: Bullivant Stephen
Published: May 2019

Cardinal Newman famously quipped that the laity are those whom the Church would ‘look foolish’ without. This chapter explores the scope and nature of precisely this phenomenon: that is, the large and growing numbers of born-and-raised Catholics who, as adults, come no longer to identify as such. Far from being a problem exclusive to western Europe and North America, statistics from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) demonstrate such ‘disaffiliation’ to be a seriously overlooked pastoral reality in diverse countries from central Europe, Africa, Latin America, and Oceania. This chapter also probes the complexity of religious identity, and what it means for a person to change it, or lose it altogether.
Why They Say They Leave
Authors: Bullivant Stephen
Published: May 2019

The obvious way to discover why and how Catholics lapse or disaffiliate is simply to ask them. This chapter’s main aim, therefore, is to present and discuss the findings from the small number of qualitative studies that have done precisely that. These include Hoge et al.’s interviews with Catholic ‘dropouts’ in the late 1970s, and the more recent surveys of inactive or non-practising Catholics undertaken in two US dioceses (Trenton, NJ, and Springfield, IL), and one British diocese (Portsmouth). These studies probe the multivarious reasons why so many cradle Catholics have come, in later life, no longer to practise or—in many cases—even to identify as Catholics. They also shed rich new light on how ‘Catholic identity’ (and by extension, other religious identities) is understood in real life.
The Night Before
Authors: Bullivant Stephen
Published: May 2019

The late 1940s and 1950s are rightly regarded as a period of social upheaval and restructuring on both sides of Atlantic. The post-war Baby Boom, the GI Bill, the Cold War, suburbanization, growing prosperity, urban regeneration, social mobility, road building, and car and television ownership all form part of this story. These years are also often viewed in retrospect as a ‘boom time’ for mainstream religion: a time of growing devotion, church building, and—among Catholics particularly—growing self-confidence and social acceptance. Yet under the surface, cracks were beginning to form, with lapsation (or leakage) a source of growing anxiety. This chapter narrates the socio-religious history of this period, in light of three theoretical lenses: social network theory, plausibility structures, and Credibility Enhancing Displays (CREDs).
Gaudium et spes, luctus et angor
Authors: Bullivant Stephen
Published: May 2019

In 1965, Vatican II’s final document observed that ‘Profound and rapid changes are spreading by degrees around the whole world.’ Even by the mid-1960s, this assessment was hard to contradict—at the end of the decade, it would seem wildly understated. Put simply, a lot changed in the ‘turbulent sixties’—fashion, politics, popular music, social values, sexual mores. Within the Catholic Church, it would be more turbulent still. The euphoria unleashed by the Council precipitated a period of rapid and disorienting changes. Changes to the liturgy, devotional practices, the ordering and architecture of churches, and ecumenical relations were accompanied by the ‘abolition’ of Friday abstinence in 1966 and a crisis of disappointment and dissent in the wake of Humanae Vitae.
Unto the Third and Fourth Generations
Authors: Bullivant Stephen
Published: May 2019

In January 2002, the Boston Globe’s ‘Spotlight’ team began what would become a series of over 600 reports into sexual abuse and cover-up within the Catholic Church. The cumulative effect of ongoing revelations—reignited in 2018—on Catholic practice and retention is discussed here in light of empirical data and the theoretical idea of Credibility Undermining Displays (or CRUDs). Also covered in this chapter are issues relating to intergenerational transmission, the rise of the internet and social media, the rise of the ‘nones’, the phenomenon of ‘liminal nones’, and the chasm between traditional Christian moral teachings and contemporary social mores (especially in relation to LGBT issues).
Dreamitation
Authors: Burrow Colin
Published: May 2019

This chapter turns from the theory to the practice of imitating authors, which it explores in relation to Latin epic in particular. It shows how the metaphors used in the rhetorical tradition to describe the process of imitating authors also ran through the practice of imitation. The chapter begins with a discussion of the passages in Lucretius’s De Rerum Natura which consider imitatio, and shows how Lucretius’s concept of a simulacrum, or a thin film of atoms which flowed from the surface of a perceivable object, became an element within the wider language used to describe the imitation of authors. Virgil’s Aeneid played a significant part in this by associating dreams and simulacral resemblances with imitations of earlier authors, including Homer, Ennius, and Lucretius. Ghosts and dreams in the Aeneid have a particular significance: those with substantial bodily presence, such as the appearance to Aeneas of the ghost of Hector, may be associated both with ethical value and with successful imitation, while simulacral resemblances are associated with moral fallibility, and are often presented as female. The metaphors used to describe the imitation of one author by another thus also became part of the practice of imitating.
Adaptive Imitation
Authors: Burrow Colin
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how the debates about the imitation of Cicero in the early sixteenth century influenced the theory and practice of imitatio. It concentrates on two works published in 1528: Erasmus’s dialogue Ciceronianus and Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier. It shows how both texts developed a view of the imitator not as a verbal replicator but as someone who learnt an ability to speak aptly to any occasion—hence the term ‘adaptive’ imitation. This concept is explored in relation to the theory and practice of epic and romance poetry in the sixteenth century, from Boiardo and Ariosto, through Tasso, to Spenser. Adaptive imitation created acute stress between two senses of ‘imitation’ in the epic tradition: was an imitator to imitate the ethics and behaviour of a heroic character, or to adapt both heroic values and past writing to the present times? That question is developed in relation to Cervantes’s Don Quixote, in which an imitator who directly replicates the actions of a prior figure becomes increasingly unapt to his own times, and subsequently encounters simulacral imitations of himself. That key text in the emergence of the new genre of the novel grows in part from the complex arguments about imitatio in the early sixteenth century.
Formal Imitation
Authors: Burrow Colin
Published: May 2019

This chapter returns to the debate about the imitation of Cicero between Pietro Bembo and Gianfrancesco Pico in the early sixteenth century, and shows how these two writers’ different approaches to imitatio encouraged subsequent authors to imitate the ‘form’ of earlier texts. This could be a quasi-Platonic abstract idea of an earlier author, or it could encompass the structures of sentences or arguments. This theme was developed by later sixteenth-century Northern European writers on imitatio, principally Philipp Melanchthon and Johannes Sturm. They encouraged imitating authors to attend to the rhetorical structure of the works that they imitated, rather than borrowing their language. Through Roger Ascham these German rhetoricians had a profound influence on later sixteenth-century English writing. The chapter concludes by arguing that their thinking encouraged imitating authors in that period to engage in what is here called ‘stylism’. Many later Elizabethan authors sought not only to imitate a distinctive ‘form’ of an earlier author, but also to establish that they had a ‘form’ or style of their own, which could be identified by their readers, and which subsequent authors might imitate.
The Promethean Moment
Authors: Burrow Colin
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how Enlightenment arguments about the creation of imitation human beings affected thinking about literary imitation. The creation of an imitated human would at once testify to the Promethean skill of its creator and threaten the notion that human beings were more than an assemblage of mechanical parts. The chapter opens with Descartes’s efforts to distinguish between human and mechanical beings, and goes on to consider La Mettrie and early automata, including those of Jacques Vaucanson and the Jaquet-Droz family. The ‘Promethean skill’ of such imitators of human life takes on a new form in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, or the New Prometheus, a work which itself imitates Milton, and in which Mary Shelley herself imitates Milton’s Eve in particular. It is argued that the monster, a vast and shadowy being that is also alive, grows out of the centuries-long debate about whether an imitator generated a living imitation of an original or a mere simulacrum. That opposition is then shown to run through twentieth-century representations of cloning, including Kazuo Ishiguro’s Never Let Me Go. The ability to create digital and biological replicants, the chapter argues, has led in late modernity to an inflated valuation of supposedly ‘human’ and ‘inimitable’ qualities such as creativity. It concludes by arguing that if imitation is regarded not as direct replication or as textual copying but as a process of learning practices from prior agents it might counteract the pessimism of postmodern discussions of cloning and copying.
Morphology and the architecture of grammar
Authors: Booij Geert
Published: May 2019

This chapter summarizes the theoretical findings of the book concerning the architecture of grammar. The notion ‘construction’, a systematic correspondence between form and meaning, appeared to be very fruitful in describing the morphology of Dutch. Paradigmatic relations between words, and between words and phrases are essential for the analysis of Dutch morphology. The interaction between inflection and derivation in Dutch implies rejection of the split morphology hypothesis. A proper theory of morphology requires us to conceive of the grammar and the lexicon of Dutch as forming a multidimensional network of relations between (morphological and phrasal) constructional schemas of various degrees of abstractness, between these abstract schemas and the individual words and phrases by which they are instantiated, and between individual words and phrases. The detailed study of one subsystem of one language, the morphology of Dutch, gives us insight into the kind of conditions of adequacy that any theory of the architecture of grammars of natural languages must meet.
Good Governance
Authors: Addink Henk
Published: May 2019

Good governance is a legal concept and a cornerstone of the modern state. It is the most modern of the three cornerstones of the state, whereas the rule of law and democracy concepts are the more classical yet still lively cornerstones. The legal system of the state requires further specification by norms and enforcement and the concept of good governance plays an important role. Three steps can be distinguished in the positivation of the concept: the identification, the internalization, and the enforcement of good governance. There is a direct link between good governance and human rights which can be illustrated by different articles in international human rights treaties. The latest developments are related to the right to good governance. Important also are the development of most of the originally unwritten principles by the judiciary which are later more or less codified and the internationalization of national administrative law by the development of principles of good governance including principles of good administration.