On potential cooperation in predator-prey interactions in fishes
Authors:   , Sarhan Hanaa 
Published: June 2023

Predator – prey interaction provide the context for some of the best-studied cases of cooperation. Some predator species can hunt together and coordinate their moves within active and diverse roles to increase capture rates of their prey; this is known as cooperative hunting. Lionfish are common piscivores in the Indo-Pacific and invasive in the Caribbean. Since lionfishes hunt alone by nature, a study by a former researcher that demonstrated active recruitment, coordination, and alternated (perhaps reciprocal) striking in the dwarf lionfish <i>Dendrochirus zebra</i> has attracted much interest. Zebra lionfish have been seen to use a fin-flaring pattern that involves undulation of the caudal fin and successive flares of both pectoral fins to indicate the start of cooperative hunting. The findings suggested that the ability to hunt cooperatively may have contributed to the success of a sister lionfish species, <i>Pterois miles</i> and <i>P. volitans</i>, in invading the Caribbean. Here, I investigated <i>Pterois miles</i> - one of the invasive species - in its natural range in the Red Sea. In the field, I found no signs of coordinated hunting. I supplemented field observations with a laboratory experiment, in which I exposed individuals to a possible hunting partner and inaccessible prey in a transparent housing. I observed the fin-flaring pattern, but it is vital to note that the partner was not the target of this fin-flaring signal. Also supporting the field findings that this species in the Red Sea does not rely on cooperative hunting to catch fish is the result that the two lionfish did not congregate at the prey patches. I further supported these findings by examining coordinated movement and strike alternation during hunting. I exposed subjects of <i>P. miles</i> pairings to inaccessible prey in three clear housings. In the presence of prey, the two lionfish did not congregate at the same prey house in space or time. In a second experiment, I put food pieces on a "feeding tree" stick to test for reciprocal alternation of strikes. I generally saw fewer alternations than expected by chance, and found that alternations can be increased by putting constaints on individual monopolization of food. In conclusion, the fin flaring movement pattern seen in the Red Sea sister species <i>P. miles</i> that were previously thought to be a signal was now interpreted as a swimming mode. Additionally, pairs of <i>P. miles</i> in the Red Sea did not reciprocally alternate their strikes. I interpreted the result of the previous study of <i>D. zebra</i> that some alternation might be generated if prey items become alternately available at two corners in a confined space, with each lionfish preferring to monopolize one corner each. Eventually, due to some challenges encountered in the original study, which prevented me from conducting more empirical research, I complimented the empirical chapters of the PhD thesis with a research review on the perspectives of predator inspection in fishes. The topic was chosen because predator inspection is another classic example of cooperation. This review looked at the possible goals and functions of prey fishes inspecting potential predators and how prey approach them based on the inspection goals. We discussed the assessment of prey motivations and indicators that moved from predator presence and state indicators that could show why an attack was made. Also, we discussed what types of games are involved in predator inspection behaviour. The review identified several important gaps in our knowledge that currently prevent a proper assessment of what cooperation games might apply.