bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cost-effectiveness of HIV/AIDS Programmes
Authors: Haacker Markus
Published: August 2016

The chapter reviews common approaches to assessing the cost-effectiveness of HIV/AIDS programmes. A principal challenge in the evaluation of HIV/AIDS programmes are the long time frames. Because HIV/AIDS is a chronic disease, current policies have consequences, in terms of spending needs, which extend over decades. The chapter offers a re-interpretation of the costs of HIV/AIDS policies which is built around the concept of fiscal space—what is the magnitude of financial resources committed by an HIV/AIDS policy, including the costs during some programme period, but also taking into account the spending commitments (largely from treatment need) beyond the policy period, as people living with HIV will continue to require treatment. The chapter closes with a discussion of the contribution of HIV/AIDS programmes to national development objectives, such as improved overall health outcomes and any economic returns to investment in the HIV/AIDS response.
Cost-effectiveness of HIV/AIDS Interventions
Authors: Haacker Markus
Published: August 2016

The chapter develops a forward-looking analysis of the cost-effectiveness of HIV prevention interventions, taking into account HIV transmission dynamics and spending commitments implied by new HIV infections. The dynamic and population-level effects of averting an HIV infection differ because an individual not infected because of an intervention does not infect others and so on, but he or she may become infected at a later time. As HIV is predominantly transmitted sexually, the impacts of HIV prevention interventions differ according to risk behaviour, but also to factors (e.g. age) of the individuals targeted. The chapter discusses HIV infections averted and financial savings achieved through condom use across age groups; population-level effects of averting one HIV infection across risk groups; the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and the financial returns to investments of male circumcision; and the cost-effectiveness of treatment, in terms of immediate health outcomes and HIV prevention.
Industrial Policy and Development in Ethiopia
Authors: Gebreeyesus Mulu
Published: August 2016

Ethiopia’s economy has been on a continuous and high growth trajectory since the turn of the millennium, registering an average annual growth of over 10 per cent. This is about double the average growth rate recorded for sub-Saharan Africa over much the same period. Despite its recent impressive growth performance, Ethiopia remains among the world’s poorest countries. Agriculture continues to be the main source of livelihood employing 85 per cent of the labour force. The industry contribution to the economy remains at about 14 per cent. Ethiopia is also one of the few African countries to have formulated full-fledged industrial policy and has been aggressively pursuing it. This chapter looks to understand the policy choices and their implementation, as well as their efficacy, which is of paramount importance.
Industrial Policy in Ghana
Authors: Ackah Charles , Adjasi Charles , Turkson Festus
Published: August 2016

This chapter chronicles the evolution of industry in Ghana over the post-independence era from an inward overprotected ISI strategy of 1960–83 to an outward liberalized strategy during 1984–2000, and since 2001, to the private sector-led accelerated industrial development strategy based on value-addition. Industry in Ghana is mainly dominated by micro and small firms, privately owned and mainly located within urban areas in the form of industrial clusters. Patterns of labour productivity and wages indicate the food processing sub-sector, foreign owned and older firms as the most productive. The emerging policy issues from Ghana’s current industrial policy include how to empower SMEs to expand productive employment and technological capacity within a highly competitive manufacturing sector; how to promote agro-based industrial development to ensure value-addition to manufactures and Ghana’s exports among others.
Mozambique’s Industrial Policy
Authors: Cruz António Sousa , Guambe Dina , Marrengula Constantino Pedro , Ubisse Amosse Francisco
Published: August 2016

The current Mozambican industrial development pattern, a mix of private sector initiative and a public sector licensing mechanism, replaced the post-independence public sector-led industrialization of the central planning countries’ tradition. The transition to a market-driven economy in the mid-1980s followed an international trend with the collapse of the socialist bloc countries and the end of the Cold War era. Before its independence from Portugal in 1975, Mozambique had the mixed industrialization pattern of a dual society. On one hand, there was a growing colonial, urban, and industrializing population, and on the other hand, a local majority population dedicated to low-productive agriculture and other manual activities such as mining and public works. Although the rules of a market economy applied, the public sector was heavily present, distorting labour relations. This national discrimination within an international market economy system partially explained the choice of a socialist economic system after independence.
An Introduction to Clifford Algebras and Spinors
Authors: Vaz, Jr. Jayme , da Rocha, Jr. Roldão
Published: August 2016

This book is unique in the literature on spinors and Clifford algebras in that it is accessible to both students and researchers while maintaining a formal approach to these subjects. Besides thoroughly introducing several aspects of Clifford algebras, it provides the geometrical aspects underlying the Clifford algebras, as well as their applications, particularly in physics. Previous books on spinors and Clifford algebras have either required the reader to have some prior expertise in these subjects, and thus were difficult to access, or did not provide a deep approach. In contrast, although this book is mathematically complete and precise, it demands little in the way of prerequisites—indeed, a course in linear algebra is the sole prerequisite. This book shows how spinors and Clifford algebras have fuelled interest in the no man’s land between physics and mathematics, an interest resulting from the growing awareness of the importance of algebraic and geometric properties in many physical phenomena. There is much common ground between Clifford algebras, including the geometry arising from those algebras, the classical groups, and the so-called spinors and their three definitions, including pure spinors and twistors, with their main point of contact being the representations of Clifford algebras and the periodicity theorems. Clifford algebras constitute a highly intuitive formalism and have an intimate relationship with quantum field theory; thus, this book will be useful for physicists as well as for mathematicians.
Clifford Algebras, and Associated Groups
Authors: Vaz Jayme , da Rocha Roldão
Published: August 2016

In this chapter, the groups which can be defined within a Clifford algebra are examined. The groups which deserve special attention are the Clifford—Lipschitz group, the Pin group, and the Spin group. The Cartan–Dieudonné theorem plays a prominent role on the construction of the classical groups. The Lie algebras associated with those groups are hence constructed and implemented, together with some of their applications. Conformal transformations and the standard twistors of Penrose are introduced from the algebraic point of view in a straightforward formulation, as geometric multivectors.
The Effect of Termination upon Post-Employment Obligations
Authors: Cabrelli David
Published: August 2016

This chapter probes the interplay between the common-law rules governing the employment contract in post-employment mode and the obligations that continue to bind the employer and the employee when their relationship enters that particular phase. The argument is made that the obligations (i) imposed by the foundational wage-work bargain, and (ii) governing the ongoing and future performance of work, are erased post-employment. The analysis then turns to an exploration of the juridical nature of the obligations of the contracting parties that do continue when the employment contract has entered the post-employment phase. In the final section, the chapter underlines the vitality of public policy controls when the employment contract is in the post-employment stage, as mediated through the restraint of trade doctrine including restrictive covenants and garden leave. It is also shown how powerful that doctrine is when the employment contract is in the full employment mode.
What Is Matter Made Of?
Authors: Gagnon Pauline
Published: August 2016

What are the smallest grains of matter and how do they interact to form the matter we observe around us? This chapter explains how matter is built from a handful of tiny “bricks” called fundamental particles. Although twelve different bricks have been found, only three are needed to form all atoms found on Earth, in stars and in galaxies. The Standard Model is the current theoretical model that describes the fundamental particles and how they interact, giving us a clear representation of the material world. This model also predicts the behavior of these particles with a very high level of accuracy. Each particle comes with its own antiparticle. But why has nearly all the antimatter mysteriously disappeared from our Universe? Why are there useless bricks? These are some of the many puzzles described in this chapter that physicists are still trying to elucidate.
What about the Higgs Boson?
Authors: Gagnon Pauline
Published: August 2016

How do fundamental particles acquire mass? To understand this, three elements are needed: a mathematical mechanism, a physical field and a new particle, the Higgs boson. The Brout–Englert–Higgs mechanism is a mathematical formalism that allows theorists to rearrange their equations to produce massive particles as observed in nature, instead of the massless particles obtained otherwise. This mechanism has revealed the existence of a new physical entity, now called the Brout–Englert–Higgs field. This field, just like space and time, is a property of our Universe. All particles interacting with this field acquire a mass, that is, a resistance to motion. The Higgs boson itself is an excitation of this field, just as a wave is an excitation of the surface of the ocean. Finding the Higgs boson proved the existence of this field. However, composite objects such as protons and atoms get their mass from the binding energy between their constituents.
What Could the Next Big Discoveries Be?
Authors: Gagnon Pauline
Published: August 2016

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN has only just started and could produce enough data in the next twenty years to revolutionize particle physics. If supersymmetric particles exist, the chances are huge that they will be discovered soon. But, if not, theorists will have enough experimental data to formulate better hypotheses to go further. The Higgs boson should reveal all its secrets: is it unique or supersymmetric, and does it link ordinary matter to dark matter? In the coming decade, the many ongoing and planned dark matter experiments should also provide some answers or even discover the first dark matter particles. And, who knows, the next discovery could be something completely unexpected. With the increase in energy and intensity of the LHC and the construction of second-generation dark matter detectors, the chances of new discoveries are tremendous. We could be on the verge of a huge scientific revolution.
Trade-offs and adaptations
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza
Published: August 2016

Variations of individual traits are usually cross-constrained, and the components of fitness are generically traded off. A series of examples illustrate that constraints on inherited variation are the consequences of morphological or physiological features, most of which are inevitable due to physical or chemical laws and often can be modelled by allocation trade-offs. Life-history trade-offs can be easily masked by differences in individual environmental conditions or individual qualities. A certain set of environmental conditions impose directional phenotypic selection on inherited variation implying that the actual trade-off function between the fitness components is subject to optimization. However, optimal strategies change in response to regulating and modifying environmental conditions. Density-dependent optimization theory and experiments reveal that increased mortality levels can be balanced by increased optimal fecundity in a regulated population. The chapter concludes with a classification of primary plant strategies corresponding to the levels of the main regulating and modifying factors.
Population regulation and the ecological niche
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza
Published: August 2016

On the basis of the theory of robust coexistence the ecological niche—one of the most controversial concepts in ecology—can be appropriately defined and operationalized. Abstract definitions for the notions of niche space, regulating variable, niche, niche overlap, and niche segregation are given in this chapter, with the range of their interpretation extended to alleles and clones besides the usual ecological (species-oriented) one. Models formulated in discrete and continuous niche spaces and temporal niches with circular (seasonal) timescales are explained. Several empirical examples of the three types of niche segregation (-trophical, spatial, and temporal) are introduced. Relation of temporal niche segregation and the storage effect is discussed. The community context dependence of the niche space and of the niche of any specific variant is emphasized and explicated. An evolutionary toy model of competition-induced diversification—the central idea of Darwin—closes the chapter.
A structural comparison of Latin and Romance
Authors: Vincent Nigel
Published: August 2016

In contrast to most historically-oriented research on Romance which has focused either on analysing or reconstructing changes that have taken place in the passage from Latin to modern Romance, this chapter compares from a distance the ‘before’ and the ‘after’. The perspective then is not so much diachronic as metachronic: the juxtaposition of patterns over time without an assumption that there is a direct historical connection between them. In terms of linguistic typology, the chapter also highlights how Latin and Romance should not only be compared with each other but that the structures they exhibit should in turn be fitted into the larger space of possible grammars of natural languages. Specific topics dealt with include: Vowels and diphthongs; Nominal morphology and case; Inflection and periphrasis; Conditionals and counterfactuals; Causatives; Non-finite forms; Complementation; Configurationality and analyticity.
Romance linguistic geography and dialectometry
Authors: Goebl Hans
Published: August 2016

This chapter focuses on the diachronic and synchronic relation between language and space, critically considering some of the most important advances made within Romance linguistic geography and dialectometry. It reviews the early work of the dialect geographers in recording regional variation by means of detailed linguistic atlases and in tracing dialect areas, while reflecting upon the linguistic nature of the major discontinuities and their historical significance in explaining the fragmentation of Latin. The second part of the chapter concentrates on more recent taxometric and cartographic achievements of dialectometry in its quantitative investigations and interpretations of traditional linguistic atlases, exploring the non-coincidence of single areas and their surrounding isoglosses; difficulties in measuring the data of linguistic atlases; integration of quantitative methods with traditional qualitative geolinguistics; discovery of lower and higher ranking structural patterns concealed in traditional presentations of atlas data; and cartographic exploitation of similarity and distance matrices.
Francoprovençal
Authors: Kristol Andres
Published: August 2016

After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external history, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Francoprovençal. Linguistic history and geography. The name of the language; Phonetics; The twofold development of Latin stressed a in open syllables; final unstressed vowels; The development of ū; Stress shift Diphthongization of stressed vowels in open syllables; Nasal vowels; Palatalization of velar consonants; Nominal group; Remnants of a two-case system;, maintenance of a functioning two-case system; Noun determiners: maintenance or neutralization of the masculine-feminine opposition in the plural; The partitive article or partitive de; Possessives; pronominal system; Stressed personal pronouns; Subject clitics; Neuter subject and object; neuter demonstrative pronoun; verb syntax and morphology; split of the first conjugation; Present indicative; Imperfect indicative; Periphrastic tenses; ‘Surcomposé’ (double compound) forms; Future; Subjunctive
Derivational morphology
Authors: Rainer Franz
Published: August 2016

This chapter surveys some of the principal aspects of Romance derivational morphology. It covers the distribution, morphophonology, semantics, transparency and productivity of the major prefixes, infixes, and derivational suffixes; word formation processes, loanword adaptions; learned forms; particular derivational processes; origin of derivational processes; parysnthesis; the ‘third stem’; non-canonical word-formation; conversion; reduplication; back-formation; clipping; truncation; exaptation; inchoative suffix; fuzzy categories; origins of derivational processes; adverbs; left-headedness; evaluative suffixes; denominal forms; deverbal forms; word games; verlan.
Onomasiological differentiation
Authors: Söhrman Ingmar
Published: August 2016

This chapter surveys some of the most salient cases of onomasiological differentiation across the Romance lexicon, investigating the degree of continuity between Latin and Romance and the degree of homogeneity and diversity in the lexical structures attested across Romance today. It covers verbs of motion, verbs and nouns of meteorological activity, body parts, adverbial spatial deixis, designations for human beings, flora and fauna, urbanization, direction expressions.
Diphthongization
Authors: Maiden Martin
Published: August 2016

This chapter critically addresses some of the most important issues in Romance spontaneous and conditioned diphthongization. It covers ‘closing’ diphthongizations of vowels (notably /e/ and /o/) as a function of stress and syllable structure; the origins and development of new diphthongs arising through vocalization of syllable-final consonants, or through metathesis; the differential maintenance of the Latin diphthong au and, in particular detail, the controversy surrounding the origins and nature of the ‘opening’ diphthongization of the Romance vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/, which are argued to lie in metaphony.
Morphomes
Authors: Maiden Martin
Published: August 2016

This chapter addresses some of the most important issues concerning morphomic distributional patterns in Romance. It covers patterns originally due to the effects of stress-related vocalic alternation and palatalization in the verb (‘N-pattern’ and ‘L-pattern’); the remnants of Latin perfective morphology (PYTA); the ‘western Romance’ future and conditional as possible morphome; the ‘past participle’ as morphome; morphomic structures in the inflectional morphology of nouns and adjectives (especially in Romanian); morphomic structures in derivational morphology; the mechanisms by which morphomes emerge historically and the relation between putative morphomes and surviving remnants of their historical semantic or phonological conditioning environment; factors leading to the ‘death’ of morphomes.
Subject clitics: syntax
Authors: Poletto Cecilia , Tortora Christina
Published: August 2016

The main goal of this chapter is critically to address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance subject clitics as currently found in northern and southern Gallo-Romance varieties, Francoprovençal, Raeto-Romance, and the dialects of northern Italy and northern Tuscany. Specific topics dealt with include: what counts as a subject clitic language?; person subject clitics; nmber subject clitics; deictic subject clitics; invariable subject clitics; lack of subject clitics in imperatives; enclisis of subject clitics in interrogatives and other non-declarative clauses; subject relative clauses; expletive environments; verb class; subject identification; position of the subject; type of subject; null subject (pro); tonic pronoun; full noun phrase; quantifier phrases; functions unrelated to the identification of a subject; place holders; auxiliary clitics; OCL-for-SCL phenomenon; left-peripheral functions.
Tense and aspect
Authors: Marco Bertinetto Pier , Squartini Mario
Published: August 2016

This chapter addresses some of the most striking and interesting problems and questions related to tense and aspect in Romance. It covers the distribution of most widespread temporal and aspectual grammaticalized distinctions, including the expression of perfective past, future and future in the past; auxiliary constructions, and various aspectual categories; relationship and competition between synthetic and periphrastic forms; development of aspectual markers into temporal markers and the relative discreteness of tense and aspect as grammatical categories; distribution and value of doubly-compound forms. Specific topics dealt with include: temporal and aspectual values in present and past ‘simple’ tenses; the present: temporal and aspectual flexibility; perfective and imperfective pasts; simple past and its analytic competitors; compound forms: resultatives, perfects, and perfectives; resultative constructions; ‘aoristic drift’; specialized perfects (inclusive only; experiential only); competing pluperfects and doubly-compound forms; aspectual and phasal periphrases; progressive periphrases; habitual and phasal periphrases; futures (tense interacting with modality; modal uncertainty and prospectivity; futures-in-the-past).
Traffic Games
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry
Published: August 2016

Chapter 11 analyzes congestion effects in road networks and in packet-switched communication networks. It focuses on Wardrop equilibrium, the appropriate version of Nash equilibrium for such networks. The analysis begins with the Braess paradox, where improving a link may actually increase overall congestion for a given set of drivers. The analysis includes results bounding the degree of inefficiency in equilibrium (“the price of anarchy”). One possible remedy is a Pigovian tax that can restore efficiency, even in the presence of a double marginalization-like problem arising from competition amongst profit-maximizing link-owners. The analysis exploits analogies to electrical circuits, particularly simple circuits that are Thevenin equivalent to more complex circuits.
Cancer mortality in Europe, 1970–2009: an age, period, and cohort analysis
Authors: Rosso Tiziana , Malvezzi Matteo , Bosetti Cristina , Bertuccio Paola , Negri Eva , La Vecchia Carlo
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to interpret long-term trends in cancer mortality. We analyzed age, period of death, and cohort of birth effects for 18 major cancer sites and all neoplasms combined in the European Union and 16 European countries over the period 1970–2009 using data from the WHO mortality database. We used a log-linear Poisson model with a likelihood penalizing function to solve the identifiability problem. The present comprehensive analysis confirms the appreciable declines of cancer mortality since the late 1980s in most European countries. For several major sites, the declines were appreciably greater for cohort effects than for period ones. This reflects – besides the inherent characteristics of the model used – a major impact of tobacco smoking on total cancer mortality, particularly in men, as the role of tobacco in mortality of subsequent generations is largely – although not totally – a cohort effect. For neoplasms largely affected by improvements in management and therapy (e.g. testis, Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia, but also breast and colorectal cancer), a favorable period effect is evident. However, there is also a cohort effect as the advancements have been generally greater in younger generations. For several cancer sites, there were considerable differences in cohort and period effects across Europe, and particularly high age-specific estimates were observed in eastern countries.
Cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, and oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer in the Japanese: a population-based cohort study in Japan
Authors: Lu Yuquan , Sobue Tomotaka , Kitamura Tetsuhisa , Matsuse Ryoichi , Kitamura Yuri , Matsuo Keitaro , Ito Hidemi , Oze Isao , Shimazu Taichi , Yamaji Taiki , Iwasaki Motoki , Sasazuki Shizuka , Sawada Norie , Tsugane Shoichiro
Published: August 2016

The effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking on the incidence of oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer (OCPC) in the Asian population have been poorly understood. To assess the effects of cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, and facial flushing response on incidence of OCPC, a total of 95 525 middle-aged and older eligible individuals were followed in a large-scale population-based cohort study in Japan from 1990 to 2010. In this study, the person-years of observation were 698 006 in men and 846 813 in women, and a total of 222 cases (men=160, women=62) of OCPC were newly diagnosed during the study period. A multivariate Cox proportional-hazards model was used to assess the incidence risk of OCPC and subsites by cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking. The result showed that cigarette smoking and regular alcohol drinking were associated significantly with the incidence of OCPC in men. Compared with nonsmokers and nondrinkers, current male smokers showed a hazard ratio (HR) of 2.37 [95% confidence interval (CI)=1.51–3.70] and regular male drinkers showed an HR of 1.82 (95% CI=1.20–2.76). Cigarette smoking also increased the risk of OCPC among male heavy alcohol drinkers (HR=4.05, 95% CI=2.31–7.11). However, there was no significant association between facial flushing response and OCPC. In conclusion, cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking are independent risk factors for OCPC and its subsites in the male Japanese population.
Exploring the Contextual Factors of Adolescent Obesity in an Underserved Population Through Photovoice
Authors: Nichols Michelle , Nemeth Lynne S. , Magwood Gayenell , Odulana Adebowale , Newman Susan
Published: August 2016

Obesity, a global health epidemic, requires targeted interventions to promote sustainable health behavior change; yet, prior efforts have not yielded significant improvements in obesity rates. Using Photovoice as a data collection approach, this community-engaged research study partnered with a weight management program to understand participants' perspectives on access to physical activity and nutritious food. Twelve adolescent-parent dyads participated. Barriers, facilitators, and opportunities for change were identified and categorized through adolescent photographs, interviews, and participant focus groups, according to the social ecological model. A community-engaged research approach can identify areas to increase health promotion and prevention efforts regarding physical activity and nutrition.
Planting Healthy Roots
Authors: Brandt Heather M. , Freedman Darcy A. , Friedman Daniela B. , Choi Seul Ki , Seel Jessica S. , Guest M. Aaron , Khang Leepao
Published: August 2016

Documentary filmmaking approaches incorporating community engagement and awareness raising strategies may be a promising approach to evaluate community-based participatory research. The study purpose was 2-fold: (1) to evaluate a documentary film featuring the formation and implementation of a farmers' market and (2) to assess whether the film affected awareness regarding food access issues in a food-desert community with high rates of obesity. The coalition model of filmmaking, a model consistent with a community-based participatory research (CBPR) approach, and personal stories, community profiles, and expert interviews were used to develop a documentary film (Planting Healthy Roots). The evaluation demonstrated high levels of approval and satisfaction with the film and CBPR essence of the film. The documentary film aligned with a CBPR approach to document, evaluate, and disseminate research processes and outcomes.
A Comparison of the Nutritional Value of Cow's Milk and Nondairy Beverages
Authors: Singhal Sarita , Baker Robert D. , Baker Susan S.
Published: August 2016

Objectives:

Nondairy beverages are advertised as a healthy alternative to cow's milk. There is an increased availability and consumption of nondairy beverages and a decrease in consumption of cow's milk. The aim of the present study is to review and compare the contents and nutritional value of nondairy beverages to cow's milk.

Methods:

Information about the nondairy beverages on the shelves at stores in Buffalo, New York was collected. The Web pages of several manufacturers were assessed for product contents. The nutrient contents including the protein quality of the nondairy beverages and cow's milk were compared. The nutrient contents of nondairy beverages and cow's milk were also compared to recommended dietary allowance or adequate intake for toddlers and young children.

Results:

Commonly available nondairy beverages are derived from almond, cashew, coconut, hazelnut, hemp, oat, rice, and soy. Cow's milk has higher protein content and quality compared with most of these products. It was noted that most of these beverages are fortified with calcium and vitamin D. The bioavailability of these substances after fortification is, however, not available.

Conclusions:

Nondairy milk beverages vary in their nutritional profiles. These should not be considered nutritional substitutes for cow's milk until nutrient quality and bioavailability are established.
Pherotype polymorphism inStreptococcus pneumoniaeand its effects on population structure and recombination
Authors: Miller Eric L. , Evans Benjamin A. , Cornejo Omar E. , Roberts Ian S. , Rozen Daniel E.
Published: August 2016

Natural transformation in the Gram-positive pathogenStreptococcus pneumoniaeoccurs when cells become “competent”, a state that is induced in response to high extracellular concentrations of a secreted peptide signal called CSP (Competence Stimulating Peptide) encoded by thecomClocus. Two main CSP signal types (pherotypes) are known to dominate the pherotype diversity across strains. Using thousands of fully sequenced pneumococcal genomes, we confirm that pneumococcal populations are highly genetically structured and that there is significant variation among diverged populations in pherotype frequencies; most carry only a single pherotype. Moreover, we find that the relative frequencies of the two dominant pherotypes significantly vary within a small range across geographical sites. It has been variously proposed that pherotypes either promote genetic exchange among cells expressing the same pherotype, or conversely that they promote recombination between strains bearing different pherotypes. We distinguish these hypotheses using a bioinformatics approach by estimating recombination frequencies within and between pherotypes across 4,089 full genomes. Despite underlying population structure, we observe extensive recombination between populations; additionally, we found significantly higher rates of genetic exchange between strains expressing different pherotypes than among isolates carrying the same pherotype. Our results indicate that pherotypes do not restrict, and marginally facilitate, recombination between strains. Furthermore, our results suggest that the CSP balanced polymorphism does not causally underlie population differentiation. Therefore, when strains carrying different pherotypes encounter one another during co-colonization, genetic exchange can freely occur.
Large scale genomic analysis shows no evidence for repeated pathogen adaptation during the invasive phase of bacterial meningitis in humans
Authors: Lees John A. , Kremer Philip H.C. , Manso Ana S. , Croucher Nicholas J. , Ferwerda Bart , Serón Mercedes Valls , Oggioni Marco R. , Parkhill Julian , Brouwer Matthjis C. , van der Ende Arie , van de Beek Diederik , Bentley Stephen D.
Published: August 2016

Recent studies have provided evidence for rapid pathogen genome variation, some of which could potentially affect the course of disease. We have previously detected such variation by comparing isolates infecting the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of a single patient during a case of bacterial meningitis.

To determine whether the observed variation repeatedly occurs in cases of disease, we performed whole genome sequencing of paired isolates from blood and CSF of 938 meningitis patients. We also applied the same techniques to 54 paired isolates from the nasopharynx and CSF.

Using a combination of reference-free variant calling approaches we show that no genetic adaptation occurs in the invasive phase of bacterial meningitis for four major pathogen species:Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Listeria monocytogenes and Haemophilus influenzae. From nasopharynx to CSF, no adaptation was seen inS. pneumoniae, but inN. meningitidismutations potentially mediating adaptation to the invasive niche were occasionally observed in thedcagene.

This study therefore shows that the bacteria capable of causing meningitis are already able to do this upon entering the blood, and no further sequence change is necessary to cross the blood-brain barrier. The variation discovered from nasopharyngeal isolates suggest that larger studies comparing carriage and invasion may help determine the likely mechanisms of invasiveness.

Author Summary

We have analysed the entire DNA sequence from bacterial pathogen isolates from cases of meningitis in 938 Dutch adults, focusing on comparing pairs of isolates from the patient’s blood and their cerebrospinal fluid. Previous research has been on only a single patient, but showed possible signs of adaptation to treatment within the host over the course of a single case of disease.

By sequencing many more such paired samples, and including four different bacterial species, we were able to determine that adaptation of the pathogen does not occur after bloodstream invasion during bacterial meningitis.

We also analysed 54 pairs of isolates from pre- and post-invasive niches from the same patient. InN. meningitidiswe found variation in the sequence of one gene which appears to provide bacteria with an advantage after invasion of the bloodstream.

Overall, our findings indicate that evolution after invasion in bacterial meningitis is not a major contribution to disease pathogenesis. Future studies should involve more extensive sampling between the carriage and disease niches, or on variation of the host.
Re-evaluation of low-resolution crystal structuresviainteractive molecular-dynamics flexible fitting (iMDFF): a case study in complement C4
Authors: Croll Tristan Ian , Andersen Gregers Rom
Published: August 2016

While the rapid proliferation of high-resolution structures in the Protein Data Bank provides a rich set of templates for starting models, it remains the case that a great many structures both past and present are built at least in part by hand-threading through low-resolution and/or weak electron density. With current model-building tools this task can be challenging, and thede factostandard for acceptable error rates (in the form of atomic clashes and unfavourable backbone and side-chain conformations) in structures based on data withdmaxnot exceeding 3.5 Å reflects this. When combined with other factors such as model bias, these residual errors can conspire to make more serious errors in the protein fold difficult or impossible to detect. The three recently published 3.6–4.2 Å resolution structures of complement C4 (PDB entries 4fxg, 4fxk and 4xam) rank in the top quartile of structures of comparable resolution both in terms ofRfreeandMolProbityscore, yet, as shown here, contain register errors in six β-strands. By applying a molecular-dynamics force field that explicitly models interatomic forces and hence excludes most physically impossible conformations, the recently developed interactive molecular-dynamics flexible fitting (iMDFF) approach significantly reduces the complexity of the conformational space to be searched during manual rebuilding. This substantially improves the rate of detection and correction of register errors, and allows user-guided model building in maps with a resolution lower than 3.5 Å to converge to solutions with a stereochemical quality comparable to atomic resolution structures. Here, iMDFF has been used to individually correct and re-refine these three structures toMolProbityscores of <1.7, and strategies for working with such challenging data sets are suggested. Notably, the improved model allowed the resolution for complement C4b to be extended from 4.2 to 3.5 Å as demonstrated by paired refinement.
Employing neo-Durkheimian institutional theory in cross-cultural accounting research
Authors: Linsley Philip Mark , Linsley Alexander , Beck Matthias , Mollan Simon
Published: August 2016

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to propose Neo-Durkheimian institutional theory, developed by the Durkheimian institutional theory, as developed by anthropologist Mary Douglas, as a suitable theory base for undertaking cross-cultural accounting research. The social theory provides a structure for examining within-country and cross-country actions and behaviours of different groups and communities. It avoids associating nations and cultures, instead contending any nation will comprise four different solidarities engaging in constant dialogues. Further, it is a dynamic theory able to take account of cultural change.

Design/methodology/approach

The paper establishes a case for using neo-Durkheimian institutional theory in cross-cultural accounting research by specifying the key components of the theory and addressing common criticisms. To illustrate how the theory might be utilised in the domain of accounting and finance research, a comparative interpretation of the different experiences of financialization in Germany and the UK is provided drawing on Douglas’s grid-group schema.

Findings

Neo-Durkheimian institutional theory is deemed sufficiently capable of interpreting the behaviours of different social groups and is not open to the same criticisms as Hofstede’s work. Differences in Douglasian cultural dialogues in the post-1945 history of Germany and the UK provide an explanation of the variations in the comparative experiences of financialization.

Originality/value

Neo-Durkheimian institutional theory has been used in a wide range of contexts; however, it has been little used in the context of accounting research. The adoption of the theory in future accounting research can redress a Hofstedian-bias in accounting research.
Disempowerment and empowerment of accounting: an Indigenous accounting context
Authors: Lombardi Luisa
Published: August 2016

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to examine the disempowering and/or empowering role of accounting in the context of Indigenous Australians.

Design/methodology/approach

A total of 31 interviewees participated in this study, which included 18 self-identified Indigenous Australians and 13 non-Indigenous Australians. A qualitative research methodology, and in particular an oral history method, was chosen because of its ability to support a deeper and richer form of inquiry. Bourdieu’s concepts provide the framework for mobilizing and analyzing the findings of this study.

Findings

The damaging role of accounting in the context of Indigenous peoples has largely stemmed from non-Indigenous peoples providing accounting services for Indigenous peoples. The evidence and analysis provided by this study postulates a constructive way forward of accounting’s role in contributing to the empowerment of Indigenous Australians.

Research limitations/implications

Limitations include being a non-Indigenous researcher conducting research in an Indigenous context, which may have prevented some interviewees from feeling comfortable to openly share their experiences and insights.

Practical implications

As this study’s findings have supported the theory that accounting skills can be used in an empowering way when used “by” Indigenous peoples, Indigenous Australians should be actively supported by the accounting bodies to gain the qualifications needed for membership of the accounting profession.

Originality/value

This study contributes to the expanding accounting literature that locates the role of accounting in the context of Indigenous peoples by proposing accounting as a tool of empowerment.
Consumer approach to insects as food: barriers and potential for consumption in Italy
Authors: Cicatiello Clara , De Rosa Beatrice , Franco Silvio , Lacetera Nicola
Published: August 2016

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the attitude of Italian consumers towards insect consumption. The use of insects as alternative protein source is claimed to be a solution to the environmental concerns over the production of animal proteins and to food security issues. Studies conducted in other European countries report that consumers are quite resistant to the introduction of insect-based products in their diet, although those who are more concerned about environmental and health show some interest towards insect consumption.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors conducted a survey with a 14-item questionnaire on 201 consumers, selected with a systematic sampling within a shopping mall. The factors influencing respondents’ attitude towards insect consumption were studied by means of a logistic regression.

Findings

Results show that 31 per cent of respondents were willing to try insects as food, while 5 per cent had already tried. Familiarity with foreign food, higher education and gender (male) positively influenced consumer attitude to entomophagy. Instead, the fear of insects and the idea that the taste might be disgusting were the main barriers to the willingness to try entomophagy, although these issues were mainly raised by consumers who had no direct experience with insects eating.

Originality/value

The paper is a first attempt of exploring the topic of entomophagy in the Italian context. Most of the results were consistent with previous research carried out in other countries. However, some barriers to insect consumption seem to be stronger in Italy than elsewhere.
The relation between attitudes toward functional foods and satisfaction with food-related life
Authors: Schnettler Berta , Adasme-Berríos Cristian , Grunert Klaus G. , Márquez María Paulina , Lobos German , Salinas-Oñate Natalia , Orellana Ligia , Sepúlveda José
Published: August 2016

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to assess the effect of attitudes towards functional foods (AFF) on university students’ satisfaction with food-related life (SWFL) and to distinguish student typologies, considering that the AFF are not homogeneous among consumers.

Design/methodology/approach

A survey was applied to 372 university students (mean age=20.4 years, SD=2.4) in Southern Chile. The questionnaire included the AFF questionnaire and the SWFL scale, questions about consumption and knowledge about functional food (FF) and socio-demographic characteristics.

Findings

Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling, it was found that AFF directly and significantly influence students’ SWFL. A cluster analysis applied to the Z-scores from the factors obtained by the CFA classified three typologies: positive towards FF (36.3 per cent), moderately positive towards FF (43.0 per cent) and negative towards FF (20.7 per cent). The positive towards FF type had a significantly greater SWFL score than the negative towards FF type. The types differ according to consumption and knowledge about FF.

Research limitations/implications

This study was conducted in the context of only one country in South America.

Originality/value

This study is the first that assesses the effect of AFF on SWFL in a sample of university students. Fostering positive attitudes towards FF will allow for a growth in the degree of SWFL of university students with features similar to those of the study sample.
Social network analysis in supply chain management research
Authors: Wichmann Barbara K. , Kaufmann Lutz
Published: August 2016

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to investigate when and how to best use social network analysis (SNA) in the supply chain management (SCM) discipline. In doing so, the study identifies SCM phenomena that have been examined from a social network perspective (SNA approach) in the SCM literature and highlights additional SCM phenomena that would be worth investigating using social network research. Then, the study critically investigates the application of SNA as a methodology (SNA method), with the goal of assessing and mitigating methodological risks in future studies.

Design/methodology/approach

This study carries out a systematic literature review of articles published in 11 top-tier SCM journals over a 20-year period.

Findings

First, while social network research has gained momentum especially since 2010, scholars are not yet entirely aware of the many possibilities the SNA approach offers to the SCM field. Second, expanded possibilities also hold for the development of SNA as a method.

Originality/value

The paper guides future SCM research by investigating when SNA is the right approach to use and how SNA as a method should be performed. Theoretically richer and practically more relevant research should result.