bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Heat of Reaction, Degree of Cure, and Viscosity of Hercules 3501-6 Resin
Authors: Woo Il Lee  , Loos Alfred C. , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

The heat of reaction, degree of cure, and viscosity of Hercules 3501-6 resin were measured using a differential scanning calorimeter and a disc and plate type viscometer. Expression were developed for correlating the rate of degree of cure and the viscosity with the degree of cure. Viscosities calculated by these ex pressions were compared with data reported previously, and good agreement was found between the present results and the previous data.
Thermal Conductivities of a Cracked Solid
Authors: Hoenig Alan
Published: March 2007

Formulas are presented which describe the effect of flat elliptical cracks on the effec tive thermal conductivity of an otherwise homogeneous body. The cracks are assumed randomly and isotropically distributed throughout the body, and may either be dry or composed of any material with a conductivity differing from that of the matrix. Effec tive conductivities depend solely upon a crack density parameter when the cracks are dry, and additionally upon a saturation parameter and the crack planform aspect ratio otherwise.
Nonlinear Static and Transient Analysis of Orthotropic Thin Circular Plates with Elastically Restrained Edge Under Central Load
Authors: Dumir P.C. , Gandhi M.L. , Nath Yogendra
Published: March 2007

This study deals with the geometrically nonlinear axisymmetric static and transient analysis of cylindrically orthotropic thin circular plate with elastically restrained edge for rotation and inplane displacements, under a concentrated load at the center. Analogue of Von-Karman differential equations in terms of normal displacement w and stress function ψ have been employed. The displacement w and stress function ψ are expanded in finite power series. Orthogonal point collocation method in space do main and Newmark-β scheme in time domain have been used. New results are presented for orthotropic plate for edge conditions spanning the range of elastic edge restraints from the movable simply supported edge to the immovable clamped edge. The influence of orthotropic parameter and the elastic rotation and inplane edge restraint parameters on the response has been investigated.
Stiffness Reduction Due to Fiber Breakage
Authors: Steif Paul S.
Published: March 2007

Reduction of longitudinal stiffness induced by fiber breakage in uni-directional fiber-reinforced composites is examined. A model problem simulating a dilute concen tration of broken fibers which are partially debonded from the matrix is formulated and solved approximately. The extent of debonding emerges as a principal determinant of stiffness reduction. For reasonable values of material parameters, a stiffness change of several percent is predicted.
Elasto-Plastic Failure Analysis of Composite Bolted Joints
Authors: Tsujimoto Yoshifumi , Wilson Dale
Published: March 2007

An elasto-plastic finite element analysis of pin loaded joints in laminated composites has been investigated and comparisons made with both existing 2-D linear elastic plane stress analytical solutions and experimental results for a graphite/epoxy laminate. The finite element analysis included nonlinear material behavior after initial failure by assuming an elastic-perfectly plastic bimodular material model. Laminated plate theory was used to obtain lamina stresses and the Hill yield criterion applied in each layer to create a ply-by-ply failure analysis. The effect of including friction forces along the fastener hole interface on the stress distribution around the hole was also studied. Based upon the results, failure criteria are proposed for each of the basic failure modes, bearing, shearout and net-tension. Failure maps for each ply were developed to characterize the damage progression and identify critical failure strength and mode. For the [0i/±45j/90k] family of laminates the elasto-plastic finite element stress analysis coupled with the developed failure criteria resulted in good agreement with experimental results.
Modeling Surface Deformation of Glass Fiber Reinforced Composites
Authors: Kia Hamid G.
Published: March 2007

Surface waviness in glass fiber reinforced composites is predominately due to dif ferences in the thermal expansion properties of the resin and the reinforcement. A model has been developed which simulates the surface deformation of glass fiber reinforced composites as a function of factors such as molding temperature, thickness of glass fibers, and the thermal expansion properties of the resin and the glass. Application of a top layer helps to conceal fiber readout which is a type of surface waviness. Based on the predic tions of the model, increasing the top layer thickness is more effective than increasing the top layer stiffness.
Buckling of Rectangular Orthotropic Plates Under Biaxial Loading
Authors: Tung T.K. , Surdenas J.
Published: March 2007

Simply supported edge conditions are considered, for which the buckling modes consist of integer numbers of half sine waves in the two perpendicular directions. This note con siders the usual design case of specified load ratios. The lowest buckling mode in biaxial compression is shown to have a single half wave in an effectively short direction, or in both directions if the plate is effectively nearly square. The tension/compression case has a single half wave in the tension direction. The number of multiple half waves can be ap proximately determined to minimize numerical search computations.
Current Status of the Iosipescu Shear Test Method
Authors: Adams Donald F. , Walrath David E.
Published: March 2007

During the past several years, considerable study of the Iosipescu shear test method has been conducted by a number of investigators, including the present authors. Several dif ferent test fixture designs have been developed, and variations of the specimen size and notch configuration have been considered. Materials with properties ranging from iso tropic to highly orthotropic have been tested. The response of such materials has also been predicted using finite element techniques, and attempts have been made to correlate these predictions with available experimental data.
The Notch-Fatigue Behavior of an Aluminum Composite Reinforced Unidirectionally with Silicon Carbide Fiber
Authors: Tsangarakis Nikos
Published: March 2007

The sequence of fatigue damage accumulation in silicon carbide fiber reinforced alumi num plates with circular holes and the essence of the notch endurance limit of this com posite are analyzed. The affects of specimen size and hole aspect ratio on the fatigue life of these plates are discussed and rationalized.
Electrothermal Curing of Filament Wound Composite Cylinders
Authors: Burwasser John T. , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

A model was developed which describes heating of filament wound composite cylinders by applying voltage across the fibers. Two situations were examined: power applied both during and after the wind, and power applied only after completion of the wind. Electrical connections in series and in parallel were modeled.

The model yields temperature and cure profiles within the laminate as functions of time during and after the filament wind process. Sample calculations were performed showing the effects of geometry and power applied on the temperature, degree of cure, and manufacture time of the cylinder. The temperature, degree of cure, and manufacture time were also calculated for a filament wound cylinder cured conventionally in an oven. Assessments were made on the merits of electrothermal curing versus curing in an oven.
Static and Fatigue Notch Strength Prediction in Alumina Fiber Reinforced Aluminum Plates with a Circular Hole
Authors: Tsangarakis Nikos , Slepetz John M. , Nunes John
Published: March 2007

Predictions of the tensile notch strength and endurance limit of unidirectional FP/Al plates with circular holes are evaluated. The predictions were based on the average stress model introduced by Nuismer and Whitney. The calculated values of the tensile notch strengths agreed with experimentally determined data. Calculated values of the endurance limits were conservative by 24% and 19.6% of the experimentally determined values. The endurance limits, determined from specimens 15.2 cm x 3.8 cm x 0.25 cm and with 9.5 and 4.8 mm dia. holes, were 179 MPa and 207 MPa respectively. It was found that the endurance limit of FP/A1 plates depends on the ratio of the amplitudes of the minimum and maximum cyclic stresses.
Analyzing the Bending Response of Aramid/Epoxy Beams and Rings
Authors: Reedy E.D.
Published: March 2007

Aramid/epoxy laminates often exhibit substantial material nonlinearity when subjected to bending. This is a consequence of the yield-like behavior of a Kevlar 49/epoxy lamina in fiber-directed compression. In this paper, analyses that utilize a simple idealization of compressive yielding are described and calculated results for Kevlar 49 reinforced beams and rings are compared with available data. Fabric reinforced beams are considered first. An existing analysis for unidirectionally reinforced beams is extended to accommodate the bilinear compressive behavior exhibited by a Kevlar 49 fabric reinforced lamina. Next, results of a finite element analysis of a thin, unidirectionally reinforced ring subjected to diametral compression are presented. This analysis uses beam elements that incorporate linear tensile and elastic-perfectly plastic compressive behavior. Finally, a method used to analyze quasi-isotropic beams tested in four-point bending and rings tested in diametral compression is discussed. This finite element analysis uses a layered shell element with a lamina constitutive model that permits elastic-perfectly plastic response to fiber-directed compression, but otherwise assumes linear elastic behavior. Comparison of calculated and experimental results corroborate the ability of analyses using a simple compressive yield model to account for much of the observed flexural nonlinearity in Kevlar 49/epoxy beams and rings.
Design of Laminated Plates for Maximum Buckling Load
Authors: Shin Yung S. , Haftka Raphael T. , Watson Layne T. , Plaut Raymond H.
Published: March 2007

The buckling load of laminated plates having midplane symmetry is maximized for a given total thickness. The thicknesses of the layers are taken as the design variables. Buck ling analysis is carried out using the finite element method. The optimality equations are solved by a homotopy method which permits tracing optima as a function of total thick ness. It is shown that for any design with a given stacking sequence of ply orientations, there exists a design associated with any other stacking sequence which possesses the same bending stiffness matrix and same total thickness. Hence, from the optimum design for a given stacking sequence, one can directly determine the optimum design for any rearrangement of the ply orientations, and the optimum buckling load is independent of the stacking sequence.
Application of the Paris Equation to the Fatigue Growth of Transverse Ply Cracks
Authors: Boniface L. , Ogin S.L.
Published: March 2007

A model based on a stress intensity factor for a growing transverse ply crack is outlined. The model is applied to experimental observations of crack growth in a trans parent 0/90/0 glass fibre/epoxy laminate under fatigue loading. The crack growth rate is found to be independent of crack length but to depend on the spacing between cracks. Under static loading and fatigue loading at high maximum stress, cracks grow by fast frac ture. Slow crack growth is observed at lower maximum fatigue stresses and in the later stages of fatigue tests at higher stresses when the crack spacing is small. Crack growth rates can be described using a Paris relation.
Relating Resin Mechanical Properties to Composite Delamination Fracture Toughness
Authors: Jordan William M. , Bradley Walter L. , Moulton Richard J.
Published: March 2007

The relationship between resin mechanical properties and the resultant composite Mode I and Mode II delamination fracture toughnesses in graphite-epoxy systems was examined. The tensile property that best correlated with composite delamina tion toughness was the resin tensile elongation. Resins with higher tensile elongations pro duced composites with a higher delamination toughness, though the relationship between the two may not be a simple one.

The method used to toughen the resin affected the resulting composite delamination toughness. A rubber toughened resin would produce a tougher composite than would a resin that had the same tensile elongation (but with a lower crosslink density rather than rubber particle additions).
Microscopic Aspects of Failure and Fracture in Cross-Ply Fibre Reinforced Composite Laminates
Authors: Bandyopadhyay S. , Gellert E.P. , Silva V.M. , Underwood J.H.
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the microscopic deformation processes in composite laminates and seeks to explain (a) the superior tensile fracture toughness of a commercial laminate of the new composite system carbon/bismaleimide over a commercial laminate of the conventional material carbon/epoxy, and (b) the dependence of interlaminar failure in glass and carbon fibre/epoxy laminates on the fracture energy of the matrix resin.
A New Generation of Innovative Ultra-Advanced Intelligent Composite Materials Featuring Electro-Rheological Fluids: An Experimental Investigation
Authors: Gandhi M.V. , Thompson B.S. , Choi S.B.
Published: March 2007

A new generation of revolutionary, intelligent, ultra-advanced composite materials featuring electro-rheological fluids is proposed herein for the active continuum vibrational control of structural and mechanical systems. This paper reports on a pioneer ing proof-of-concept experimental investigation focussed on evaluating the static and elastodynamic transient response characteristics of cantilevered beams fabricated in this new class of materials. The results of this investigation clearly demonstrate for the first time the ability to dramatically change the vibrational characteristics of beam-like speci mens fabricated in ultra-advanced composite materials by changing the electrical field im posed on the fluid. The capability of these materials to interface with modem solid-state electronics can be exploited by extending the fundamental phenomenological work pre sented herein by the successful incorporation of intelligent sensor technologies and modern control strategies in order to significantly accelerate the evolution of this in novative class of multi-functional, dynamically-tunable, ultra-advanced, intelligent com posite materials for military, aerospace, advanced manufacturing applications.
On Sandwich Beams with Laminate Facings and Honeycomb Cores Subjected to Hygrothermal Loads: Part I—Analysis
Authors: Mukhopadhyay A.K. , Sierakowski R.L.
Published: March 2007

Following a macromechanical approach, a sandwich beam with a honey comb core and laminate facings is analyzed under the combined effects of mechanical, thermal, and hygrometric loading. The cores considered are very flexible, and offer negli gible in-plane resistance but are considered relatively stiff in the transverse direction. The general deformation pattern of the beam consists of unequal displacements in the cores and the facings. The governing equations are obtained in terms of the lateral deflection and the mid-plane displacement. The analysis is general and applicable to any construction con sisting of composite construction consisting of laminate faces and cores. The important parameters are defined and their behavior is explained.
Spall Behaviour of Carbon Epoxy Unidirectional Composites as Compared to Aluminum and Iron
Authors: Gilath I. , Eliezer S. , Shkolnik S.
Published: March 2007

The spall behaviour at ultrahigh strain rate (ε ∼ 107 sec-1) of carbon/epoxy unidirectional composites was compared to aluminum and iron using short pulsed laser induced-shock waves. A linear dependence was obtained between plasma ablation pressure for threshold spall conditions and sample thickness.

The threshold for spall damage was estimated to be 1.5 kbar for carbon epoxy unidirec tional composites, 21 kbar for aluminum and 54 kbar for iron.
Fiber/Matrix Interfacial Bond Ultimate and Fatigue Strength Characterization in a 37°C Dry Environment
Authors: Latour R.A. , Black J. , Miller B.
Published: March 2007

The ultimate and fatigue strengths of the fiber/matrix interfacial bond of four fiber/matrix combinations (fiber: carbon, polyaramid; matrix: polysulfone, polycar bonate) have been quantitatively investigated in a dry 37°C environment using the TRI microbond single fiber pull-out test method. Fatigue testing was conducted at 1 Hz using a sinusoidally varying applied load. Each sample type exhibited a linear relationship be tween peak applied interfacial shear stress and the logarithm of fatigue life. Interfacial bond fatigue behavior is apparently significantly influenced by both matrix viscoelastic be havior and fiber/matrix interfacial bond ultimate strength.
Process-Induced Stress and Deformation in Thick-Section Thermoset Composite Laminates
Authors: Bogetti Travis A. , Gillespie John W.
Published: March 2007

A study of process-induced stress and deformation in thick-section thermosetting composite laminates is presented. A methodology is proposed for predict ing the evolution of residual stress development during the curing process. A one- dimensional cure simulation analysis is coupled to an incremental laminated plate theory model to study the relationships between complex gradients in temperature and degree of cure, and process-induced residual stress and deformation. Material models are proposed to describe the mechanical properties, thermal and chemical strains of the thermoset resin during cure. These material models are incorporated into a micromechanics model to pre dict the effective mechanical properties and process-induced strains of the composite dur ing cure. Thermal expansion and cure shrinkage contribute to changes in material specific volume and represent important sources of internal loading included in the analysis. Tem perature and degree of cure gradients that develop during the curing process represent fun damental mechanisms that contribute to stress development not considered in traditional residual stress analyses of laminated composites. Model predictions of cure dependent epoxy modulus and curvature in unsymmetric graphite/epoxy laminates are correlated with experimental data. The effects of processing history (autoclave temperature cure cy cle), laminate thickness, resin cure shrinkage and laminate stacking sequence on the evo lution of process-induced stress and deformation in thick-section glass/polyester and graphite/epoxy laminates during cure are studied. The magnitude of process-induced residual stress is sufficient to mitiate transverse cracks and delammations. The results clearly indicate that the mechanics and performance of thick-section thermoset laminates are strongly dependent on processing history.
Effects of Stacking Sequence on the Impact Resistance of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Toughened Epoxy Laminates
Authors: Strait L.H. , Karasek M.L. , Amateau M.F.
Published: March 2007

Few comprehensive studies on the effects of stacking sequence and rein forcement form (unidirectional versus woven) have been published to date and much of the available data is contradictory. In the present study, instrumented impact tests were used to characterize such effects for carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic toughened epoxy laminates. Impact resistance was characterized in terms of load and energy parameters measured during penetration tests. These parameters were related to damage in the lami nates by conducting rebound tests followed by ultrasonic imaging and microscopy. The results clearly demonstrated a relationship between the onset of damage and the first peak in the load versus deflection plots obtained in the penetration tests. No major effects of stacking sequence or reinforcement form were apparent in terms of the energy required for the onset of damage in the laminates. Energy to maximum load was found to be highly de pendent on stacking sequence. Substitution of woven reinforcement for unidirectional tape in a quasi-isotropic layup resulted in a substantial decrease in the energy to maximum load. The results in terms of peak load showed similar trends. No effects of stacking se quence or reinforcement form were observed in terms of energy after peak load. It is ap parent from this work that stacking sequence and reinforcement form can have significant effects on impact resistance particularly at higher impact energies.
Method for Computing Energy Release Rate Using the Elastic Work Factor Approach
Authors: Rhee K.Y. , Ernst H.A.
Published: March 2007

The elastic work factor ηel concept was applied to composite structures for the calculation of total energy release rate by using a single specimen. Cracked lap shear specimens with four different unidirectional fiber orientation were used to examine the dependence of nel on the material properties. Also, three different thickness ratios (lap/strap) were used to determine how geometric conditions affect ηel. The ηel values were calculated in two different ways: compliance method and crack closure method. The results show that the two methods produce comparable ηel values and while ηel is affected significantly by geometric conditions, it is reasonably independent of material properties for the given geometry. The results also showed that the elastic work factor can be used to calculate total energy release rate using a single specimen.
Elastic Behavior of Woven Fabric Composites: III — Laminate Design
Authors: Naik N.K. , Shembekar P.S.
Published: March 2007

Two-dimensional woven fabric composite models were developed for the elastic analysis of WF composites in Part I of this paper. The effect of undulation of yarn and fabric thickness on the elastic properties of woven fabric lamina was studied. The study was extended to woven fabric laminates and the effect of laminate configuration on the elastic properties was analyzed in Part II. In the present paper, the effect of gap be tween two adjacent yams on the elastic properties of woven fabric lamina and the effect of laminate configuration for different number of layers on the elastic properties of woven fabric laminates for different material systems are studied. An optimum gap between adja cent yarns gives higher Young's moduli, and it depends upon the fabric structure and material system. A basic building block is found which gives higher elastic properties than with any other configuration with the same number of layers. Such a basic building block can then be used for making thicker laminates. The comparison of woven fabric laminates with UD cross-ply laminates indicated that, in general, the material system with lower de gree of orthotropy is desirable for woven fabric composites.
Initiation and Propagation of Delamination in a Centrally Notched Composite Laminate
Authors: Jen M.-H.R. , Kau Y.S. , Hsu J.M.
Published: March 2007

Interlaminar stresses occur at the free edge and notch to cause composite laminates to delaminate. Actually, delamination is an important failure mode and affected, for example, by fiber orientation and stacking sequence as discussed. In analysis, our de veloped mathematical model yields the interlaminar edge stresses and singularities around the hole to predict the onset of delamination. Furthermore, our work mainly aims to inves tigate experimentally the initiation and propagation of delamination subjected to tension and cyclic tension-tension (T-T) tests in centrally notched T300/5208 graphite/epoxy com posite laminates, including four layups: (a) orthotropic [=±45]4s, [90/0] 4s and (b) quasi- isotropic [0/90/±45]2s, [90/0/±45]2s. Experimental result and observation associated with the obtained maximum stresses and the adopted failure criterion are in good agree ment with our predicted delamination onset. Other important findings are highlighted as follows. The failure mode of each layup recorded by X-ray radiograph can be closely cor related to the prediction of our model. The delamination growth rate has also been mea sured. An approximately linear relationship between delamination area and stiffness re duction for the centrally notched quasi-isotropic lammates is established. The critical load for delamination can be estimated by the Hashin-Rotem failure criterion satisfactorily. As a benefit of nondestructive testing, we finally find that the residual strength of the laminate first increases as applied cycles increase and then decreases during fatigue tests. However, residual stiffness always decreases monotonically with the increase of applied cycles.
Optimization of Fiber Coatings to Minimize Stress Concentrations in Composite Materials
Authors: Carman Gregory P. , Averill Ronald C. , Reifsnider Kenneth L. , Reddy J.N.
Published: March 2007

In this article we utilize a concentric cylinder model to analyze the stress state in a continuously reinforced coated fiber composite subjected to transverse loading. We incorporate this analysis into a methodical approach to determine an optimal inter phase coating for the fibers to maximize the composite's transverse strain to failure. The present study focuses on the effect of interphase Young's modulus on the stress state in the matrix material of a composite subjected to constant strain (displacement) boundary con ditions. We demonstrate, by analytically varying the coating modulus, that an optimum in terphase property exists which minimizes the maximum principal stress and the strain en ergy density in the composite material. The minimization of these quantities clearly indicates that failure initiation in a composite with an optimal fiber coating will occur at a significantly larger strain level. Therefore, we postulate (based on the current analysis) that the transverse strain to failure of a composite system can be increased with appropriate fiber coatings. Results and design curves are presented for an AS-4/Epon 828 composite system which suggest that for large fiber volume fractions (i.e., 60%) the optimum coating is an elastomeric material. The data presented on this composite suggest that the strain to failure can be increased as much as 6 times by coating the structural fibers with an optimal coating. A comparison between constant stress boundary conditions (i.e., optimizing strength) and constant strain boundary conditions (i.e., optimizing strain to failure) are also presented.
Anelastic Deformation of a Thermoplastic-Matrix Fiber Composite at Elevated Temperature; Part III: Structure and Thermomechanical Properties of AS4/PACM-12 Composite
Authors: Miyase A. , Wang S.S. , Chen A.W.-L. , Geil P.H.
Published: March 2007

Structural characterization of AS4-graphite fiber/PACM-12§ matrix com posites was conducted using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Wide-Angle X-Ray Diffraction (WAXD) analyses. The DSC results indicate the significant effect of processing variables on the morphology, microstructure and crystallmity of the fiber rein forced semicrystalline thermoplastic matrix prepreg and unidirectional laminates. From WAXD results the crystallinity was determined. Time-temperature dependent thermo mechanical properties of the laminates were evaluated using dynamic mechanical spec troscopy and creep compliance measurements. Dynamic mechanical spectra revealed the matrix-dominated time-temperature dependent behavior of the laminate under torsional loading. Elevated temperature creep compliance in the longitudinal direction showed time- temperature independent behavior whereas transverse creep deformation was found to be significantly time-temperature-stress dependent.
Modeling of Non-Uniform Composite Microstructures
Authors: Everett R.K. , Chu J.H.
Published: March 2007

The microstructural effects of non-uniform composite microstructures are modeled. Relationships are observed between the degree of non-uniformity and fiber spa tial information which may be measured via image analysis or derived from Dirichlet cell tessellations. For artifical patterns containing chain-like clustering which simulate com posite microstructures: (a) the nearest-neighbor distances of random and clustered pat terns are smaller than those normally estimated by square or hexagonal arrays, (b) in creased clustering may be associated with increased mean cell volume fraction, cell volume fraction distribution standard deviation, number of cell sides, distribution stan dard deviation, nearest-neighbor distance distribution skewness, and decreased nearest- neighbor distances and (c) accounting for non-uniform fiber diameters is generally un necessary, except possibly at low fiber volume fraction or with patterns exhibiting a high degree of chaining. For Nicalon SiC/zirconia titanate composite samples with micro structures which exhibit clustering, the maximum value of skewness, determined from sub-regions of the sample, correlates with the flexure strength of that sample.
Sex Roles of the Traditional Mexican Family
Authors: Gonzalez Alex
Published: March 2007

The study sought to examine the degree to which Chicano and Anglo students agree on the sex roles as presented in the literature characterizing the traditional Mexican family. Results of a family, sex role questionnaire yielded significant differences for sex and ethnicity. A factor analysis identified the underlying variables of the questionnaire to be highly loaded on sex-role stereotypes. Although there was disagreement with the questionnaire for both the Chicano and Anglo participants, Chicano males agreed more with stereotypic sex roles than Chicano females, Anglo males, and Anglo females. Implications of the findings and directions for further research are discussed.
Birth Order and Intellectual Performance in East Africa
Authors: Munroe Robert L. , Munroe Ruth H.
Published: March 2007

The generalizability of birth order effects found by Zajonc and Markus was investigated for a sample of 1400 high school students in rural, sub-Saharan Africa. For three intellectual test scores, performance declined as a function of birth order. Variations from monotonicity included a reversal of the performance of ranks I and 2, markedly superior performance of birth ranks 1-3 over lower ranks, and very poor scores for those at ranks 7 and lower. Family size was unrelated to test score performance. The variations were tentatively attributed to sociocultural factors that may have affected the quality of the intellectual environment for this sample.
Analysis of the Modernity Scale
Authors: Hui C. Harry , Drasgow Fritz , Chang Bei-Hung
Published: March 2007

This article introduces item response theory as a method to test and improve the cross-cultural scalar equivalence of a psychological measurement instrument. A comparison of American Hispanics and Mainstream Americans on the dimension of modernity is also reported. The 25-item Overall Modernity Scale (Inkeles & Smith, 1974) was administered to 432 Hispanic and Mainstream navy recruits. Consistent with previous research, the scale was found to have a single dominant dimension and moderate reliability. Analyses based on item response theory indicted that there was no item bias against either of the two ethnic groups. No difference was found between the mean level of modernity for the Hispanic and Mainstream subjects. Explanations of the lack of cross cultural differences are offered. Issues related to cross-cultural comparisons and the statistical-substantial meanings of item bias are also discussed.
Anxiety and Social Restriction
Authors: Johnson Dale L. , Teigen Katrina , Davila Rosa
Published: March 2007

The hypothesis that child anxiety is a function of degree of environmental restrictiveness was tested in Mexico, Norway, and the United States with 440 sixth-grade children. The Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale was used toassess anxiety and a Child's View of Child Rearing questionnaire was used to determine level of restrictiveness. This questionnaire measured restrictiveness in several different areas of parent-child relations. Mexican and U.S. children were found to be more anxious than Norwegian children. Mexican children perceived their parents as more restrictive in more ways than did Norwegian and U.S. children. Thus the hypothesis failed. Within nations, the relationships obtained between anxiety and restrictiveness varied greatly. In Mexico anxiety tended to be associated with low restrictiveness, but in Norway anxiety was more highly associated with high restrictiveness. Few significant correlations were found for U.S. children.
On Cross-Cultural Comparative Studies with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
Authors: Bijnen Emanuel J. , Van Der Net Theo Z. J. , Poortinga Ype H.
Published: March 2007

By means of pseudorandom procedures factor similarity indices are computed that come close in numerical values to those taken by H. J. Eysenck and associates as sufficient evidence for metric identity of EPQ scales across cultures. It is argued that considerable bias in the results by no means can be ruled out and that intercultural comparison of mean scores obtained on EPQ scales is unwarranted.
Generational Changes in Conceptions of Mental Illness
Authors: Bhana Kastoor , Daniels Carol Sandra
Published: March 2007

Generational changes in the conceptualization of mental illness were investigated by means of a specially constructed scale. The sample comprised 100 subjects made up of two groups of Hindu and Muslim grandmothers (mean age 61 years) and two groups of their middle-aged daughters (mean age 41 years). The results included the following: (1) a significant generation effect and (2) the conceptualization largely in Eastern terms but an acceptance of both Eastern and Western conceptions of etiology and treatment. Possible factors influencing the results were discussed.
Interrelation of Social Resources
Authors: Foa Uriel G. , Salcedo Linda N. , Tornblom Kjell Y. , Garner Miriam , Ubman Hannaniah Gla , Teichman Meir
Published: March 2007

Research on the interrelationship among interpersonal resources was conducted in five cultures: those of Israel, the United States, the Philippines, Sweden, and Spanish-speaking Mexican Americans. In spite of differences in language, instrument format, and age of subjects, the results supported the pattern previously hypothesized on theoretical grounds. These results support the notion that interrelationship of resources may be cross-culturally invariant.
Intermarriages
Authors: Parsonson Karen
Published: March 2007

This article examines the relationship between family ethnic homogeneity or heterogeneity and children's ethnic identity. The basic premise was that children from endogamous marriages should have stronger ethnic identities than those from exogamous marriages. Students from four ethnic groups completed a questionnaire to determine their parents' ethnic identities and their own identities, among other items. Results showed only a weak relationship between children's ethnic identity and parents' marriage, however quite a strong relationship was found between ethnic identity and desire to marry within their own ethnic group. This suggests another more important process occurring with little impact from the family ethnic mix.
The Impact of a Workshop upon Grass-Roots Leaders in Belfast
Authors: Doob Leonard W. , Foltz William J.
Published: March 2007

Nine months after 56 persons from the various communities of Belfast had attended a modified Tavistock-NTL Workshop in Scotland, 40 of them were interviewed to determine the effect of that experience. Emphasis was placed upon the changes they had observed within themselves, upon the organizations they had planned during the Workshop, and upon their own general effectiveness back in Belfast. The results are not clear-cut, but for everyone the Workshop itself was an impressive event. Many reported that they had been helped as persons. For some but not all participants the Workshop facilitated elaboration or subsequent carrying out of plans of their own devising in spite of intimidation and of the difficulties inherent within Northern Ireland.
An Economic Assessment of the Military Burden in the Middle East 1960-1980
Authors: Gottheil Fred M.
Published: March 2007

Since the Arab-Israel war of 1967, military expenditure/GNP ratios for the participants in the conflict-Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Syria, and Irag-have escalated to levels far surpassing those in other developing areas and even those of the superpowers locked in an extensive global arms race. In the Middle East, a region of low per capita income and not especially endowed with an abundance of natural resources, the costs incurred by military expendenditures are particularly severe. The purpose of the paper is to measure these costs. A simple variant of the Harrod-Domar model is employed to determine the military burden. Estimates are made for both the 1960-1970 and the 1970-1980 periods. A set of assumptions-none peculiar to the Middle East-is posited to describe the transfer of resources from military to civilian production in a hypothesized process of deescalation. The additions to civilian production provide the basis for the estimates of the economic sacrifice the Middle East populations incur in maintaining the abnormal levels of military expenditure/GNP ratios.
Individual Contributions for Collective Goods
Authors: Frohlich Norman , Hunt Thomas , Oppenheimer Joe , Wagner R.Harrisson
Published: March 2007

There is a growing controversy as to what behavior is to be expected of individuals regarding contributions for the supply of collective goods. This paper attempts to settle some of the controversy. It attempts to do so not by showing that one of the positions taken is correct and the others wrong, but by showing that the various authors in question reach different conclusions about individual behavior in situations involving the potential supply of collective goods because they make different assumptions regarding the nature of the goods and the nature of the situations in which the individuals find themselves. The different conclusions are reconciled by a careful examination of the assumptions of the authors. Specific variables are identified which account for the differences in the models and a set of dimensions along which collective goods situations can vary is presented.
Superiority of Vicarious over Direct Experience in Interpersonal Conflict Resolution
Authors: Braver Van Rohrer Sanford L.
Published: March 2007

In order to compare the effects of direct versus vicarious experience in conflict resolution, an actor-subject played a Prisoner's Dilemma game, while an observer-subject observed his responses and their consequences. Each then played a subsequent, private test game against a new opponent. In all three games, the simulated opponents played a tit-for-tat strategy which reinforces cooperation and punishes competition. Thus, the proportion of cooperative responses made is a measure of how frequently the subject produced the reinforced response. Observers tend to respond more cooperatively than actors in the test game, particularly if the first game was marked by high degrees of mutual competition. The results were explained by assuming that an actor is more highly motivated than an observer and has greater difficulty acquiring a new response. A speculative attribution theoretical account was offered to explain this effect The findings demonstrate that vicarious experience (observing) is superior to direct experience (participating) for the production of appropriate responses for reduction of interpersonal conflict.
Wars, Alliances, and Military Expenditures
Authors: Thompson William R. , Duval Robert D. , Dia Ahmed
Published: March 2007

Alcock's (1972) two-phase theory of war and an earlier test of the theory are critically reviewed. Two pendulum hypotheses linking the onset of war (defined both broadly and narrowly), the formation of alliances, and changes in military expenditures are derived, operationalized, and tested. Contrary to Alcock's earlier findings, the tests, concentrating on 1900-1965 great power war and alliance behavior, fail to provide any systematic support for the two hypotheses. This does not mean that we can reject the theory, but the evidence indicates that Alcock's theory does not advance our understanding of great power war and alliance behavior.
Conciliation with Simultaneous or Sequential Interaction
Authors: Lindskold Svenn
Published: March 2007

A total of 96 subjects, half women and half men, opposed a simulated player who was 50% cooperative in the first block of 10 trials and 100% cooperative in the third (last) block. In the second block the latter either was 50% cooperative (control condition) or, in the GRIT condition, communicated and carried out a conciliatory strategy that included some retaliation. The subjects made their choices on each trial either before, after, or simultaneous with the simulated player. It was hypothesized that, beginning in the second block, there would be greater cooperation in the GRIT than in the control condition in all three sequences, including the condition in which the subject chose second, making the simulated player's cooperation very vulnerable to exploitation. The results supported the hypothesis; and the difference persisted in the third block, where there was no longer any retaliation for exploitation. Subjects choosing second were less cooperative in the control condition than those in other sequences. It was concluded that the GRIT approach is effective even when the sequence of responding makes the initiator's acts especially vulnerable-the condition ordinarily holding true in real-life conflict.
The Impact of the Korean War on the Cold War
Authors: Jervis Robert
Published: March 2007

Theories of the cold war that stress the imperatives of the American domestic politico-economic system or the requirements of bipolarity are undermined by the argument that the Korean war strongly influenced international history and indeed brought about most of the characteristics which we associate with the cold war. Without Korea, U.S. policy would have been very different, and there were no events on the horizon which could have been functional substitutes for the war. The international or the American domestic system may have "needed" high defense budgets, the globalization of American commitments, and the militarization of NATO, but these patterns arose only in the wake of Korea. To explain the cold war in terms of such requirements is therefore inadequate.
An Assessment of the Merits of Selective Nuclear Proliferation
Authors: de Mesquita Bruce Bueno , Riker William H.
Published: March 2007

We assume that in a conflict between a nation with a nuclear capability and one without, the conflict may become nuclear, while, in a conflict between two nuclear powers, the conflict is unlikely to become nuclear by reason of fear of retaliation. Then, as the number of nations with nuclear weapons increases, the chance of bilateral conflict becoming nuclear initially increases and then decreases to zero when all nations are nuclearly armed. Empirical evidence suggests that nuclear deterrence does in fact work in the way the model assumes. We set forth an expected utility model for initiating conflict when nuclear weapons are held by both sides, by one side, and by neither side. While there are dangers in proliferation, these dangers may not be as great as dangers of asymmetry in nuclear power.
Some Necessary Conditions for International Policy Coordination
Authors: Sampson Martin W.
Published: March 2007

N-actor cooperative game theory may be a useful body of knowledge for understanding aspects of international policy coalitions. Using a 1974 OPEC decision as an illustrative case, this article demonstrates that game theory is a source of ideas about necessary conditions for international policy coordination and also a means of testing those ideas with empirical data. The article considers three sets of possibly necessary conditions: the imputation, the core, and the convex game. The results of the empirical test are supportive of the core as a set of necessary conditions. The test is not supportive of the convex game, which substantively is a more interesting set of necessary conditions. The article concludes with observations about the policy relevance of knowing necessary conditions.
Asymmetrical Dyads and Foreign Policy
Authors: Dolan Michael B. , Von Riekhoff Harald , Tomlin Brian W. , Molot Maureen Appel
Published: March 2007

An analysis of Canada's foreign policy toward the United States from 1963 to 1972 is used in a test of a theory of foreign policies of subordinate states in asymmetrical dyads. In this theory the interaction of two conditions—the state of a nation's economy and the extent of concentration in its linkages with a superordinate power, along with a set of conditioning environmental factors—are used to explain the foreign policy actions of the subordinate state. The findings confirm the importance of the two main exogenous factors and the environmental variables, but the interactive effect of economic performance and linkage concentration is not corroborated. In particular the statistical effects of the economic performance variable on the foreign policy indicators are positive where a negative sign was predicted.
A Critique of “A Critique of The War Trap”
Authors: De Mesquita Bruce Bueno
Published: March 2007

By applying the criteria suggested by Lakatos for comparing rival theories, I show that the expected utility research program developed in The War Trap has yielded an integrative, fairly comprehensive theory that has provided a better empirical understanding of international conflict than any widely tested alternative. I go on to demonstrate that Majeski and Sylvan are mistaken with regard to their criticisms of the accuracy, importance, relevance, and fairness of the theory set out in The War Trap. Also, I show that they have misunderstood fundamental aspects of the theory and have, therefore, attributed premises and characteristics to it that it does not possess.
Reproduction of Social Structures
Authors: Banerjee Sanjoy
Published: March 2007

Social structure is viewed as interaction animated by culture. Culture is modeled as comprising a system of transindividual Piagetian schemata guiding social action. Such a schema is reinforced when the action it mandates in some social setting yields the reactions from other people guided by their own schemata that fit its goal and expectations. An enduring social structure is a pattern of action that reproduces itself by stimulating and reinforcing the schemata animating its actions. These concepts are operationalized by a program written in PROLOG. The program takes as a knowledge base a representation of the preferences and judgments of social causality of subjects in some historical situation. It assembles schemata from this knowledge base that are stimulated by past actions of other subjects, and that then monitor the flow of action to see if the desired reactions to their action are forthcoming. The model is illustrated by simulating Skocpol's analysis of China's sociopolitical structure in the 1930s and O'Donnell's analysis of the Latin American bureaucratic-authoritarian structure of the 1960s.
Local Police Force Size and the Severity of the 1960s Black Rioting
Authors: Carter Gregg Lee
Published: March 2007

The repressive power of a government to quell rebellious activity is a central variable in all social science theories of rebellion. Several previous studies of the 1960s black riots have tried to incorporate the repressive-power construct into city-level explanations of riot activity. This article continues in this tradition and focuses on the relationship between relative police force size and the severity of black rioting that cities incurred during the 1960s. It is the first study of this relationship to use data on the entire rioting era (1964-1971). Controlling for other causally relevant predictors (e.g., black population size and racial inequality), the regression of a composite measure of riot severity on relative police force size (the number of police per 10,000 blacks) reveals a significant—inverse “U”—curvilinear relationship. These results fit a pattern previously uncovered at the cross-national level of analysis.