bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Extra Structure, Extra Meanings
Authors: Fowler Roger
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter I introduced some basic features of textual organization which reflect conditions for any ‘sensible communication’ through language. Whether it be an informal conversation or a formal paper, a text is a sequence of sentences. A sentence is a syntactic unit, but the syntax, the ordering of words and phrases, is semantically based; its function is to make meanings tangible as signs arranged in space (writing) or time (speech). The core of meaning is the proposition, which refers to entities in the world as categorized by the language community, and which predicates properties of these entities. Sentences are used to perform speech acts such as stating, questioning, and commanding, and, in more specialized contexts, promising, marrying, betting, etc. The speaker also communicates his attitudes towards the probability, desirability, and so on, of the states of affairs mentioned in the propositions (modality). Additionally, the utterance of a sentence contains indicators of the spatial, temporal, and interpersonal orientation of its content (deixis).
Register and the Plural Text
Authors: Fowler Roger
Published: November 2023

Informally, it might be said that different points of view may be communicated by different styles of language. In the present chapter, I want to clarify some ideas which might be associated with the traditional notion of ‘style’, but I will introduce a more workable terminology. The term ‘style’ itself is extraordinarily slippery, and although linguistic criticism for a long time called itself ‘linguistic stylistics’ or even just ‘stylistics’, the stylisticians soon decided that ‘style’ was unusable as a technical term. Intuitively, in ordinary non-theoretical usage, the word makes sense, and is handy. We use the word in an enormous range of literary contexts, speaking of ‘Milton’s grand style’ or ‘the prose style of Henry James’ (style of author), ‘epic style’, ‘ballad style’ (genre), ‘seventeenth-century prose style’ (period), ‘Augustan style’, ‘Imagist style’ (movement), ‘florid style’, ‘plain style’ (impression). ‘Style’ has similar usages in speaking about the nonverbal arts: ‘baroque style’ (painting, architecture, music as well as literature), ‘pointillist style’, ‘Picasso’s later style’ (painting), ‘fugal style’, ‘the style of Gregorian chant’ (music). We also readily apply the word ‘style’ to language outside of literature: ‘advertising style’, ‘lecture style’, ‘textbook style’; and to nonlinguistic communication and other behaviour-’a relaxed style of driving’, ‘casual style (of dress)’, ‘authoritarian style’. Any horse-racing buff will recognize Piggott’s style in the saddle. The applications of the term are endless, and they make perfect sense to their users.
The Role of the Reader
Authors: Fowler Roger
Published: November 2023

A literary text, like any other text, is primarily the realization of a mode of discourse or a number of modes of discourse. That is to say, its basis can be found in ways of writing (styles, registers, genres) that precede it and are found more widely than in just the individual work. Whatever is created by the individual writer, it is not the whole being of the text, because nothing is possible without the pre-existing discourses: and they are rooted in social, economic, political, and ideological conditions which go far beyond the consciousness and control of the writing subject, ‘the author’. This is not a matter of linguistic ‘styles’ only; styles of discourse encode the systems of ideas of the cultures which produce them: they are ‘registers’. In effect, the author is constituted by the forms and the ideas of the discourses which (with their social conditions) s/he has experienced. Creativity is founded on the author’s critical consciousness of these resources of discourse, and the practical skill to deploy language to a defamiliarizing effect. Because the whole process of production and reception of texts is essentially historical, defamiliarization must be transient, regularly requiring a secondary application of critical consciousness: the consciousness of the linguistic critic.
The Colleges, I
Authors: Wollenberg Susan
Published: November 2023

Organized musical societies within the individual colleges of the University were more a feature of the later nineteenth century; in the eighteenth century informal musical gatherings regularly took place in the domestic setting provided by collegiate life. Members of the Holywell Band appeared in this context too: But the most systematically recorded aspects of college musical life at this period are those concerning chapel music.
Antebellum Hollywood
Authors: Cripps Thomas
Published: November 2023

One day in 1940 in a small town in Michigan a black teenager with a vaguely studious manner, which may have set him off from other kids, settled in his seat to watch Gone with the Wind. Later he remembered the movie as “one thing that marred this time for me.” The boy’s name was Malcolm Little, a name he would shed in favor of his nom de politique, Malcolm X. “I was the only Negro in the theatre,” he recalled, “and when Butterfly McQueen went into her act, I felt like crawling under the rug.”
“A Pot of Message”
Authors: Cripps Thomas
Published: November 2023

We have seen an accretion of black figures intrude into white movies, challenging the thermidorean inertia, keeping open the prospect of a moral equivalent of the war, erratically deconstructing the conventions that had located them on the margin of the movie frame, and providing a basis for the PCA to challenge Southern censors. They lacked only a formula (and perhaps a crisis to propel them), a voice of advocacy, a new calculus of dramatic questing and conflict, and of course a studio willing to take the risks, develop it within the system, and provide heroic options other than happy endings.
Settling In, Settling For
Authors: Cripps Thomas
Published: November 2023

The movies through which a liberalism of conscience was retailed to a broad audience have suffered at the hands of historians who have been unimpressed by their apparent low voltage, their message that had grown quickly old hat, their limiting of racial discourse to the admission of a single iconic black into a white circle (platoon, courtroom, surgery, and of course, on televised news after 1954, school). But their formula had been uncannily prescient in anticipating, even half-forming, the shape that racial integration would actually take. That is, as surely as one black figure entered the circles in Sahara and No Way Out, so in actuality the Supreme Court obliged voting registrars and school boards to give blacks access to the ballot box and the classrooms, formerly white preserves of privilege, a pattern followed by American business circles in engaging what came to be known as token Negroes. Certainly the main-line civil rights activists adopted such strategies as their own, and almost as certainly, white Americans who tolerated or even welcomed the change did so according to the formula that movies had provided—taking an initiatory black figure into a professional or institutional circle, a bank or school—while fudging the issue as it applied to primary groups such as church, neighborhood, and family circle.
The Big Chill
Authors: Boyle Deirdre
Published: November 2023

TVTV died very slowly, enduring a long and agonizing death ritual. They had incurred serious debt in producing the NBC pilot and tried to salvage things by bringing someone in to handle their financial affairs, only by then it was already too late. For Wendy Appel, The TVTV Show marked the end. Allen Rucker suggests it happened the day Hudson and Megan were let go. He and Michael had decided that they could no longer afford to pay anyone, so the best thing was to cut salaries and expenses by shrinking the staff. They closed down the house on North Robertson and moved to an office on Santa Monica Boulevard, renting out their editing equipment and their tapes, stripped down to almost nothing so they could try to deal with their creditors. “It was impossible, bullshit,” he mournfully remembers, recalling the time as a period of sitting in a windowless room, smoking cigarettes all day, having no money coming in and no sense of what he was doing in Hollywood. TVTV existed this way for a year or so until one day they announced a meeting, decided not to file for bankruptcy, and let it all go by walking out the door.
Past History
Authors: Hay Peter
Published: November 2023

Auguste Lumiere, who with his brother Louis invented modern cinematography, gave the following advice back in 1895: ‘‘Young man, you can be grateful that my invention is not for sale, for it would undoubtedly ruin you. It can be exploited for a certain time as a scientific curiosity, but apart from that it has no commercial value what soever.’‘ Adolph Zukor hired Edwin Porter in 1912 to make six pictures a year for Famous Players.’‘There isn’t that much talent in the world,’‘ said Porter.
Real To Reel
Authors: Hay Peter
Published: November 2023

Motion pictures, because of the enormous technical complexity involved, is the ultimate art form of our technological era. As Francis Ford Coppola once observed, very few inside the profession are familiar with more than one or two aspects of film-making. And, despite the avalanche of magazines, behind-the-scenes and interview programs, the whole process of how films are made remains a complete mystery to the average moviegoer.
Cast to Type
Authors: Hay Peter
Published: November 2023

There Are More Things in Heaven and Earth Along with every other female star in the world, Katharine Hepburn coveted the role of Scarlett O’Hara. David 0. Selznick terminated their interview quickly, telling the angular star: ‘‘I can’t imagine Clark Gable chasing you for ten years!’‘
Oh, Have It My Way!
Authors: Hay Peter
Published: November 2023

D. W. Griffith once slapped Mabel Normand hard to make her crying mad for a scene in The Mender of Nets (1912). After shooting, Griffith put his arms around her and said: ‘‘There, darling, that’s what I wanted. I knew you could do it.’‘ Lillian and Dorothy Gish recalled that when they first came to be interviewed by Griffith at the old Biograph studio in New York, ‘‘he chased them all over the studio with a pistol to get their emotional reaction.’‘
Strictly Business
Authors: Hay Peter
Published: November 2023

Soon after starting to work .at Universal, Carl Laemmle, Jr., asked his father how much profit the studio had made since he had founded it. ‘‘I tell you a story,’‘ said the senior Laemmle, ‘‘about another young man like you, who upon graduation from college, went into his father’s clothing business. ‘Dad,’ he asked one day, ‘when are we going to take inventory and find out how much profit you have made during the past forty years?’ The father thought for a moment and then pointed to an upper shelf: ‘Take that bolt of calico, son, and measure it and figure out what it’s worth. That’s what I started with. All the rest you see in this place is profit.’’‘
Titillations
Authors: Hay Peter
Published: November 2023

The Golden Calf In 1922 Will H. Hays resigned from the Harding cabinet where he was Postmaster General, accepting a salary of a $100,000 to save Hollywood’s reputation from sex and drug scandals. Eventually the Hays Office evolved a Production Code, spelling out what could or could not be shown or mentioned on the screen. As a first step, the new morality czar issued a list of twelve prohibitions. The commandments were greeted by this headline in Variety:
Unity through the Language of Worship
Authors: Thompson Leonard L
Published: November 2023

Among the various forms and shapes that the seer’s language takes, the language of worship stands out. Even a cursory reading of the Book of Revelation shows the presence of liturgical language set in worship. Moreover, as we shall see, the language of worship plays an important role in unifying the book, that is, in making it a coherent apocalypse in both form and content. The scenes of worship are not just “interludes” or “interruptions” in the dramatic narration of eschatology; they take their place alongside these narrations of eschatology to make of the book some¬ thing more than visions of “things to come.” The language of worship can usually be distinguished from the language around it, yet the elements of that language cannot be described with absolute precision. If liturgical language is introduced by a phrase such as They worshipped, saying, it is easily identified. Sometimes, however, the language of worship (liturgical language) appears in the Book of Revelation without such an introduction. Then it is identifiable only by analyzing the form of the language.
The Book of Revelation in Asian Society
Authors: Thompson Leonard L
Published: November 2023

Broadly conceived, the previous nine chapters have been concerned with religious language and society, specifically with the language of the Book of Revelation and the society of the Roman province of Asia. In actuality the language of Revelation is a part of Roman society: language (chaps. 3-5) and society (chaps. 6-9) form the script and stage, respectively, of the “play”—a larger whole that embraces them both. We are now in a position to begin to look at the play. In considering the social order, I have analyzed conditions in the reign of Domitian, local conditions in the province of Asia, and the place of Jews and Christians in those local conditions. A coherent order of society in Asia has emerged from an analysis of relevant social and historiographic elements. With regard to Domitian, the standard portrait of him in the Roman sources, written after his reign, does not square with literary, epigraphic, numismatic, and prosopographical evidence from the Domitianic period. From sources written in Domitian’s reign, it is clear that Domitian did not modify the imperial cult by demanding greater divine honors than his predecessors (or successors). Nor is there evidence from those sources that Domitian turned into a cruel tyrant, suspicious of those around him and fearful of sharing power.
Policemen and Prosecutors: Crime without Punishment
Authors: Haley John Owen
Published: November 2023

Constraints in Japan’s criminal justice system parallel the relative weak­ ness of Japan’s judiciary in terms of institutional presence and the range of effective coercive sanctions other than those for collection of monetary awards against unconcealable assets. With fewer than 2200 procurators [kensatsukan] to handle not only all criminal prosecutions but also administrative and civil litigation involving Japanese governmental entities, institutional incapacity is at least as serious a problem for Japan’s criminal justice system as it is for civil law enforcement.
Self-Defense in the Gothic Tradition: Radcliffe, Brockden Brown, Henry James
Authors: DeLamotte Eugenia C
Published: November 2023

". . . when, with fainting spirits, you attempt to fasten your door, you discover, with increased alarm, that it has no lock" (Austen, Northanger Abbey 128). With these words Henry Tilney evokes the classic scenario of Gothic terror. The heroine trembles at a door as footsteps approach. The door is locked and she cannot open it; or it is unlocked and she cannot fasten it; or it is fastened with a lock that is rusty and insecure; or she fastens it only to hear the ominous creak of yet another door.
The Mystery of Knowledge: Frankenstein, Melmoth, Pierre
Authors: DeLamotte Eugenia C
Published: November 2023

Richardson was undoubtedly the inspiration for the passages cited at the beginning of the preceding chapter, but Radcliffe added to the formula she learned from him something special to Gothicism: the fact that in neither of these scenes does the heroine know who or what threatens her. In Richardson the heroine and the reader know only too well who it is at the door-the same person it has been for hundreds of pages and will be for hundreds more. Radcliffe’s heroines hear breathing, see something move, discern a shape indistinctly; they are not sure.
Villette: Demystifying Women’s Gothic
Authors: DeLamotte Eugenia C
Published: November 2023

With the air of an optimistic parable, Jane Eyre ends, if not in unqualified fairy-tale wish fulfillment, in an idealized marriage and “safe haven.” Villette presents a more pessimistic and claustrophobic version of the “fear­ spent, spectre-ridden life” and a grimmer view of the possibilities of transcendence for those whom society, for whatever reason, consigns to personal littleness.
Constitutional Dissolution and Reconstruction in Northern Ireland
Authors: Finn John E
Published: November 2023

The state of Northern Ireland was formally created with the passage in 1920 of the Government of Ireland Act (GoA), which partitioned Ireland into two distinct legal states, each with its own parliament, executive, and judiciary, and both subordinate to Westminster.’ The act also created a Council of Ireland, “with a view to the eventual establishment of a parliament for the whole of Ireland.”2 The council was to include members from both the Northern and Southern legislatures and was given jurisdiction over less contentious matters, such as fisheries and railroad services between the provinces.
“Daughter of Very Good Hope”
Authors: Hannay Margaret P
Published: November 2023

On 27 October 1561, Mary Sidney was born at Tickenhall near Bewdley in Worcestershire, on the border of Wales. Previously a royal palace, “Ticknell” had become, like Shrewsbury and Ludlow, a standard meeting place for the Council in Wales.1 The family Psalter recorded: Mary’s godfather, the most important of the Welsh earls, was an ally whom Henry Sidney needed to cultivate as he began his tenure in Wales; the alliance was, of course, strengthened fifteen years later, when Mary married Pembroke’s son.
“As You Begine,”
Authors: Hannay Margaret P
Published: November 2023

Mary Sidney arrived at the court as one of the most eligible maidens in England; beautiful, witty, learned, and well connected, she began to attract attention immediately. One of her first experiences of court spectacle was Leicester’s entertainment of the queen at Kenilworth. Present with her parents and Philip, young Mary was a guest honored by her host and by the queen. Kenilworth, a magnificent twelfth-century castle of warm pink-brown limestone enlarged by John of Gaunt and later by Henry V, was partially bordered by a large artificial lake that served both for defense and for pleasure. Leicester made significant alterations: a gateway on the northern side, by the village; a new stable block near the northern gate; a tiltyard on a long causeway across the water; a timber bridge 14 feet wide and 600 feet long to reach the hunting park on the western side; and Leicester’s Buildings, magnificent guest accommodations in a tower on the southern corner of the inner court, overlooking the lake and connected to the great hall. Robert Langham, who served Lady Sidney and probably her daughter during the festivities, said that the castle was built Few of the sumptuous furnishings have survived, but one can reconstruct their extravagance from Leicester’s possessions that do remain, such as a tapestry that depicts the bear and ragged staff, and a small box whose exterior is damascened in gold and silver, with David and Bathsheba in a rondel, and interior shows the bear and ragged staff.
“This Moses and this Miriam”
Authors: Hannay Margaret P
Published: November 2023

When Simon van de Passe portrayed the Countess of Pembroke holding a volume clearly labeled “Davids Psalmes,” the iconography reflected the value placed on this unpublished work by her contemporaries.1 Her brother had ranked “the holy David’s Psalms” as “a heavenly poesy, wherein almost he showeth himself a passionate lover of that unspeakable and everlasting beauty to be seen by the eyes of the mind, only cleared by faith”: the greatest poems were “they that did imitate the unconceivable excellencies ofGod.”2 With such a valuation of the Psalms themselves, it is not surprising that Sidney began to translate them into a more elegant English than that of the ubiquitous Sternhold and Hopkins Psalter.
Reading Wordsworth’s Revisions: Othello and the Drowned Man
Authors: Manning Peter J
Published: November 2023

Shifts from the recounting of childhood experience as if from the child’s perspective to the commenting voice of the adult narrator in The Prelude usually mark Wordsworth’s attempt to achieve closure of the recalled incident, his declaration of its meaning for him. The confident, detached tone of this passage, which moves easily from consideration of narrative alternatives to the concluding affirmation of “know no decay,” seems to perform the same function. Yet its rhythm and its syntax remain curiously at odds with each other, for the long single sentence depends from a conditional that is never re-solved.
Eckhart, Gezücken and the Ground of the Soul
Authors: Forman Robert K C
Published: November 2023

In his presentation of the thesis that all experience is, in part, constructed or mediated by the subject’s conceptual system, Jerry Gill points to the purported intentionality of all experience as a fundamental truth. According to him, all human experience is vectorial in nature. That is to say, “[o)ur consciousness is always consciousness of some concrete aspect of the world, of some particular aspect whose reality for us is constituted by our intentional activity in relation to it. This intentionality is clearly a mediational factor which undercuts the possibility of unmediated experience.” Gill clarified what he means by vectorial character of experience in his “Religious Experience as Mediated.”
Of Form and Genre
Authors: Curran Stuart
Published: November 2023

Conceptual structures haunt the human mind, and their syntax takes many forms. On the grandest scale mythologies, synchronizing independent legend and history into enfolding structures, resonate through all art, subdividing into encoding systems, each of which will ultimately possess an independent integrity. Thus the symbolic referentiality of Christian iconography underpins the medieval world over many centuries, self-evidently so in painting, often more subtly in literature, but ingeniously nuanced even in the structures of music.
The Alexandrian Period: The Reemergence of Arithmetic and Algebra
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

Let us go back for a moment to pick up the threads of arithmetic in the classical period. The classical Greeks called the art of calculation logistica; they reserved the word arithmetica for the theory of numbers. The classical mathematicians scorned logistica because it was concerned with the practical calculations needed in the trades and commerce. We, however, shall consider both logistica and arithmetica in order to see what the Alexandrian Greeks had at their disposal.
The Demise of the Greek World
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

Though the Alexandrian Greek civilization lasted until A.D. 640, when it was finally destroyed by the Mohammedans, it is apparent, from its decreasing productiveness, that the civilization was already declining in the early centuries of the Christian era. Before investigating the reasons for the decline, we shall summarize the achievements and deficiencies of Greek mathematics and note the problems it left for subsequent generations. The Greeks accomplished so much, and the pursuit of mathematics when taken over by the Europeans, after minor interpolations by the Hindus and Arabs, was so completely determined by what the Greeks bequeathed, that it is important to be clear as to where mathematics stood.
Mathematical Contributions in the Renaissance
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

Though the Renaissance men grasped only dimly the outlooks, values, and goals of the Greek works, they did take some original steps in mathematics; and they made advances in other fields that paved the way for the tremendous seventeenth-century upsurge in our subject.
The Mathematization of Science
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

By 1600 the European scientists were unquestionably impressed with the importance of mathematics for the study of nature. The strongest evidence of this conviction was the willingness of Copernicus and Kepler to overturn the accepted laws of astronomy and mechanics and religious doctrines for the sake of a theory which in their time had only mathematical advantages. However, the astonishing successes of modern science and the enormous impetus to creative work that mathematics derived from that source probably would not have come about if science had continued in the footsteps of the past. But in the seventeenth century two men, Descartes and Galileo, revolutionized the very nature of scientific activity. They selected the concepts science should employ, redefined the goals of scientific activity, and altered the methodology of science. Their reformulation not only imparted unexpected and unprecedented power to science but bound it indissolubly to mathematics. In fact, their plan practically reduced theoretical science to mathematics. To understand the spirit that animated mathematics from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries, we must first examine the ideas of Descartes and Galileo.
Partial Differential Equations in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

As in the case of ordinary differential equations, the mathematicians did not consciously create the subject of partial differential equations. They continued to explore the same physical problems that had led to the former subject; and as they secured a better grasp of the physical principles underlying the phenomena, they formulated mathematical statements that are now comprised in partial differential equations. Thus, whereas the displacement of a vibrating string had been studied separately as a function of time and as a function of the distance of a point on the string from one end, the study of the displacement as a function of both variables and the attempt to comprehend all the possible motions led to a partial differential equation. The natural continuation of this study, namely, the investigation of the sounds created by the string as they propagate in air, introduced additional partial differential equations. After studying these sounds the mathematicians took up the sounds given off by horns of all shapes, organ pipes, bells, drums, and other instruments.
The Calculus of Variations in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

As in the areas of series and differential equations, the early work on the calculus of variations could hardly be distinguished from the calculus proper. But within a few years after Newton’s death in 1727 it was clear that a totally new branch of mathematics, with its own characteristic problems and methodology, had come into being. This new subject, almost comparable in importance with differential equations for mathematics and science, supplied one of the grandest principles in all of mathematical physics. To gain some preliminary notion of the nature of the calculus of variations, let us consider the problems that launched the mathematicians into the subject. Historically the first significant problem was posed and solved by Newton. In Book II of his Principia,he studied the motion of objects in water; then, in the Scholium to Proposition 34 of the third edition, he considered the shape that a surface of revolution moving at a constant velocity in the direction of its axis must have if it is to offer the least resistance to the motion. Newton assumed that the resistance of the fluid at any point on the surface of the body is proportional to the component of the velocity normal to the surface. In the Principiaitself he gave only a geometrical characterization of the desired shape, but in a letter presumably written to David Gregory in 1694 he gave his solution.
Mathematics as of 1800
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

If the seventeenth century has correctly been called the century of genius, then the eighteenth may be called the century of the ingenious. Though both centuries were prolific, the eighteenth-century men, without introducing any concept as original and as fundamental as the calculus, but by exercising virtuosity in technique, exploited and advanced the power of the calculus to produce what are now major branches: infinite series, ordinary and partial differential equations, differential geometry, and the calculus of variations. In extending the calculus to these several areas, they built what is now the most extensive domain of mathematics, which we call analysis (though the word now includes a couple of other branches upon which the eighteenth-century men barely touched). The progress in coordinate geometry and algebra, on the other hand, was hardly more than a minor extension of what the seventeenth century had initiated. Even the major problem of algebra, the solution of the nth degree equation, received attention because it was needed for analysis, as for example, in integration by the method of partial fractions.
Functions of a Complex Variable
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

From the technical standpoint, the most original creation of the nineteenth century was the theory of functions of a complex variable. The subject is often referred to as the theory of functions, though the abbreviated description implies more than is intended. This new branch of mathematics dominated the nineteenth century almost as much as the direct extensions of the calculus dominated the eighteenth century. The theory of functions, a most fertile branch of mathematics, has been called the mathematical joy of the century. It has also been acclaimed as one of the most harmonious theories in the abstract sciences. As we have seen, complex numbers and even complex functions entered mathematics effectively in connection with integration by partial fractions, the determination of the logarithms of negative and complex numbers, conformal mapping, and the decomposition of a polynomial with real coefficients. Actually the men of the eighteenth century did far more with complex numbers and functions.
Ordinary Differential Equations in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

Ordinary differential equations arose in the eighteenth century in direct response to physical problems. By tackling more complicated physical phenomena, notably in the work on the vibrating string, the mathematicians arrived at partial differential equations. In the nineteenth century the roles of these two subjects were somewhat reversed. The efforts to solve partial differential equations by the method of separation of variables led to the problem of solving ordinary differential equations. Moreover, because the partial differential equations were expressed in various coordinate systems the ordinary differential equations that resulted were strange ones and not solvable in closed form. The mathematicians resorted to solutions in infinite series which are now known as special functions or higher transcendental functions as opposed to the elementary transcendental functions such as sin x, ex,and log x.
The Theory of Numbers in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

Up to the nineteenth century the theory of numbers was a series of isolated though often brilliant results. A new era began with Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmeticae1 which he composed at the age of twenty. This great work had been sent to the French Academy in 1800 and was rejected but Gauss published it on his own. In this book he standardized the notation; he systematized the existing theory and extended it; and he classified the problems to be studied and the known methods of attack and introduced new methods. In Gauss’s work on the theory of numbers there are three main ideas: the theory of congruences, the introduction of algebraic numbers, and the theory of forms as the leading idea in Diophantine analysis. This work not only began the modern theory of numbers but determined the directions of work in the subject up to the present time. The Disquisitiones is difficult to read but Dirichlet expounded it.
Algebraic Geometry
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

While non-Euclidean and Riemannian geometry were being created, the projective geometers were pursuing their theme. As we have seen, the two areas were linked by the work of Cayley and Klein. After the algebraic method became widely used in projective geometry the problem of recognizing what properties of geometrical figures are independent of the coordinate representation commanded attention and this prompted the study of algebraic invariants.
Integral Equations
Authors: Kline Morris
Published: November 2023

An integral equation is an equation in which an unknown function appears under an integral sign and the problem of solving the equation is to determine that function. As we shall soon see, some problems of mathematical physics lead directly to integral equations, and other problems, which lead first to ordinary or partial differential equations, can be handled more expeditiously by converting them to integral equations. At first, solving integral equations was described as inverting integrals. The term integral equations is due to Du Bois-Reymond.
Introduction
Authors: Huang Chichung
Published: November 2023

For more than 2,400 years, the great majority of the Chinese, except for a small number of Ru (Confucian) scholars, never even knew the Master’s real name, Kong Qiu; they always called him Kong Fuzi. Fuzi was not part of his name but a title of respect applied to the ministers at court in ancient times, equivalent to “Your Excellency” or “His Excellency” in the English language. His disciples addressed him by this title because he had once served as minister of justice in his native state, Lu. Later, the title was applied to all teachers, and it gradually picked up the connotation “master” or “teacher.” So, to posterity, Kong Fuzi means Kong the Master, or Master Kong.
The Analects of Confucius(Lun yu)
Authors: Huang Chichung
Published: November 2023

The Master’ said: “To learn• something and3 regularly practice it-is it not a joy? To have schoolfellows come from distant states-is it not a pleasure? Not to resent when men do not know you-is it not like a gentleman?”4 Master You’ said: “Those who are filial to their parents and obedient to their elder brothers but are apt to defy their superiors are rare indeed; those who are not apt to defy their superiors, but are apt to stir up a rebellion simply do not exist. The gentleman applies himself to the roots. Only when the roots are well planted will the Way• grow.
Life Of Master Kong
Authors: Huang Chichung
Published: November 2023

Master Kong was regarded as a sage by many even when he was still alive, and legends were already circulating about his omniscience. During his lifetime none of the princes of the various states was particularly interested in his Way of humanity.
The Preservation of Amoraic Argumentation
Authors: Kraemer David
Published: November 2023

The extent to which we understand the amoraim of the middle generations to have distanced themselves from earlier models depends heavily on our view of their involvement in the preservation of argumentation. There is of course no question that they participated in argumentation; there is ample evidence of the fact that they did. But there is also little question that their amoraic predecessors, or the tannaim before them, also participated in argumentation.
European Evolution
Authors: Almeida Hermione De
Published: November 2023

Abraham Trembley’s discovery in 1740 of that monstrous freak of nature, the underwater polyp, inspired extraordinary speculations among scientists on the nature of life and led to speculative research during the rest of the century on the creature’s strange evolution and reproductive advantage. Trembley’s polyp was a plant-structured organism of the Obelia genus and, like the fresh-water hydra and anemone and the ocean-borne medusa, it exhibited attributes that were both animal and botanical.
Law Talk in the Divorce Lawyer’s Office
Authors: Sarat Austin , Felstiner William L F
Published: November 2023

The negotiation of meaning and the exercise of power in lawyer-client relations occur against a background of legal norms and procedures that, in tum, provide the broad boundaries within which lawyers and clients construct a picture of the legally possible. Those norms and procedures define what will be useful in putting together persuasive legal narratives by establishing what is both relevant and realistic. In the preceding two chapters we have seen how lawyers and clients in divorce cases work within these boundaries to negotiate the meaning of marriage failure, develop explanations for the behavior of people going through divorces, exchange ideas of what is reasonable in terms of expectations and objectives, and decide on a division of responsibility for the management and progress of the client’s case. We have seen the importance of what we have called the ideology of separate spheres, in which law is distanced from society and portrayed as a domain of reason and logic.
J. Gresham Machen: Princeton Theology and Southern Culture
Authors: Longfield Bradley J
Published: November 2023

Young, energetic, and aggressively conservative, J. Gresham Mache had been watching the Fosdick-McCartney duel with rapt attention. For more than a decade Mache, assistant professor of New Testament at Princeton Theological Seminary, had been warning the church of the destructive consequences of modernist theology. In November 1921 he distilled his ideas into a brief, poignant address entitled “Liberalism or Christianity.” As the title implied, Mache had concluded that the liberal religion preached by Fosdick and his kind was not simply a variety of Christianity but a different faith altogether. “At every point,” he declared, “the liberal movement is in opposition to the Christian message.,. I Encouraged by positive responses to the article and, no doubt, by Fosdick’s sermon, Mache expanded the essay into a landmark volume, Christianity and Liberalism, published in 1923.2Mache set the theological debate of the church squarely within its
Clarence E. Macartney and the 1924 General Assembly
Authors: Longfield Bradley J
Published: November 2023

As at every General Assembly, the first item of business for Presbyterians gathered in Grand Rapids in May 1924, was the election of a moderator. Both candidates were conservative; but one, Clarence Macartney, was the acknowledged leader of the fundamentalist party, while the other, Charles Erdman, was more tolerant of diverse views within the church. William Jennings Bryan placed Macartney’s name in nomination stating, “His election to the office of chief executive of our militant Church will be accepted as an announcement of the Church’s unshaken adherence to the impregnable Rock of the Holy Scriptures.”
Charles R. Erdman and the 1925 General Assembly
Authors: Longfield Bradley J
Published: November 2023

In the wake of the 1924 assembly, Machen warned his conservative allies that they could not let down their guard. He wrote to a friend, ‘“We did suffer a great defeat at the end of the A:,scmhly; and I think that if we represent it as a victory, or if we give the impression that we regard the battle as over, we arc traitors to our cause.’’’ In the following months Machen acted on these sentiments. In print and pulpit he strove valiantly to advance the fundamentalist cause. Indeed, from this point on Machen emerged more and more as a leader of militant conservatives within the church.
Die Goldene Zeit Des Werdens.
Authors: Taylor Mary , Murray Janet H
Published: November 2023

That sort of structure indefinitely called a mill has the power of gathering round it a kind of architecture more useful than ornamental. Trim gentility and retired leisure never seek its neighbourhood, and the picturesque cottages with diamond paned windows, many-coloured thatch, and earthen floors, disappear under its influence. Their place is taken by weather tight buildings with slated roofs, stone floors, and sash windows-repulsive to aestheticism, but cheering to the eyes of real philanthropists.
Introduction
Authors: Nixon Rob
Published: November 2023

Manifestly, Naipaul’s prestige as a novelist has assisted him in sustaining his high profile as an interpreter of postcolonial societies. However, by diversifying into nonfiction he has achieved a reputation of a quite different order, not merely as a powerful imaginative writer, but as a mandarin and an institution.
‘Mimicry,’ ‘Parasitism,’And Resistance
Authors: Nixon Rob
Published: November 2023

Naipaul’s two principal literary progenitors are thus evidently bonded in memory, each allowing him to reimagine what qualified as writing and to ratify the literary potential of his colonial experience. The men fathered him in complementary ways: Seepersad taught him that Trinidad could become fertile material for fiction, while Conrad the traveler suggested that an international range of experience could compensate for the absence of a profound knowledge of a single society. So although Seepersad transmitted an esteem for Conrad to his son, the two men approached the modernist seeking different kinds of precedent. The father, whose talent had begun to flower in obscurity and on the brink of the grave, required the consoling memory of a late, great bloomer; the precocious Vidia was drawn to the idea of a wandering, global writer. Conrad’s example stands, for instance, behind Naipaul’s remark that travel “broadened my world view; it showed me a changing world and took me out of my colonial shell; it became the substitute for the mature social experience-the deepening knowledge of a society-which my background and the nature of my life denied me.”
The Muslim as the “Other”: Representation and Self-Image of the Muslims in North America
Authors: Al-Shingiety Abubaker Y
Published: November 2023

The politics of representing Islam and Muslims in American cultural and political discourse and the Muslims’ reponse to it in how they interpret Islam and identify themselves, reveal a dialectical relationship between Western representations of Muslims and Muslims’ self-image. In this dynamic process, the “otherness” of Islam and Muslims has two functions. It acts as a dynamic of identification, by default, for the American. At the same time, it is appropriated by the Muslim as a form of self-identification. Both functions are germane to a mode of representation characteristic to a particular and dominant political and cultural discourse in the United States: a mode that is essentially ethnocentric.
Islamic Education in the United States and Canada: Conception and Practice of the Islamic Belief System
Authors: Barazangi Ni mat Hafez
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the way immigrant Muslim parents and their offspring perceive Islam and view its practice in the context of the societies of the United States and Canada.
Islamic Issues for Muslims 1n the United States
Authors: Voll John O
Published: November 2023

Muslims in the United States face a variety of challenges. Many of these are similar to those faced by other minority communities in America. However, Muslims also face challenges and opportunities that are tied to the character of Islam. The Islamic faith and its practice involve special obligations and responsibilities that shape the way Muslims as individuals and groups respond to the conditions of American society. Often people become involved in examining the “American” issues faced by distinctive and minority communities in the United States forgetting that the special characteristics of the community are also important. Significant Islamic issues are involved in the life of Muslims in the United States as well as important American issues.
A Stable Inner Platform of Mental Control
Authors: King Winston L
Published: November 2023

Given the fact of the popularity of Zen among the warrior class from the thirteenth century onward and the easily observed superficial reasons for this popularity, the more inward and fundamental reasons for its great attraction for the warrior mind have yet to be observed in depth.
The Warrior in Japanese History
Authors: King Winston L
Published: November 2023

In their very first appearance in our extant legendary and historical sources around 400 c.e., the people we now know as the Japanese were already assuming social and political characteristics that, with some modifications, were to be theirs for the next twelve centuries. Our first sight of them is in clan-family groupings held together in a loose unity that maintained itself only by an uneasy balancing of clan power. Having first achieved some political unity on the southern island of Kyushu, they gradually moved into the main island of Honshu as well, establishing a form of “national” existence in southwestern and central Japan known as Yamato.
(Pre)amble
Authors: Lincoln Kenneth
Published: November 2023

On the eve of the New World quincentennial, Euroamericans are rediscovering the “Indian” they created by mistaken cartography, then idealized to dispossess, and all but annihilated by military conquest. For American “Indians” a five-hundred-year holocaust exploded in the slipstream of Christopher Columbus. His wake vaporized 97 percent of the 75 to 100 million natives in the Western Hemisphere. Pre-Columbian, indeed, signifies a Native American world not discovered, but decimated.
Religious Experience and Psychopathology: Cross-Cultural Perspectives
Authors: Prince Raymond H
Published: November 2023

By religious experiences I mean states of mind which their subjects invest with supernatural or preternatural meaning (interpreting the experiences as related to such agencies as spirits, gods, devils, or magical influences). Defined in this way, we can immediately see a significant kinship between psychiatric disorders and religious experiences. Functional psychoses, including both schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychoses are often interpreted by patients in this way (Boisen, 1936; Custance, 1951). Swedenborg, George Fox, and many other religious leaders experienced states of mind which they believed were of supernatural origin. But, for the psychiatrist, these are very difficult to distinguish from psychotic states. For example, reactions to bereavement include melancholia in some individuals (Freud, 1925/1917) and mystical experiences among others (Aberbach, 1987). Also, Westerners who have been subject to mystical or other types of religious experiences commonly believe them to indicate mental illness and, for this reason, avoid speaking of them (Prince, 1979).
John Come Lately: The Belated Evangelist
Authors: Foster Donald
Published: November 2023

The writer of the Gospel of John (whom I’ll simply call “John”) is disquieted by his belatedness, by the fact that he comes after Matthew, Mark, and Luke (to say nothing of Q), yet wishes to write an authoritative account of Jesus’ life. His motto is the Lord’s motto: “I am the door of the sheep. All who came before me were thieves and robbers” (10:8). There were, of course, many before John, as before Luke, who undertook “to compile a narrative” of Jesus’ life (Lk. 1:1); but none of them, if we may believe John, succeeded. As we shall see, John’s purpose is not to add one more to a growing heap of apocryphal Gospels, nor even to write a supplement to the synoptics, but rather to provide the world-for the first time, if belatedly-with the true Gospel of Jesus Christ. John wishes to clarify the message of a badly misunderstood Son of God. And in the process, he does more than a little campaigning on his own behalf as belated evangelist.