bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Role of Board Oversight in Central Bank Governance
Authors: Bossu Wouter , Rossi Arthur D. P.
Published: January 2020

This paper discusses key legal issues in the design of Board Oversight in central banks. Central banks are complex and sophisticated organizations that are challenging to manage. While most economic literature focuses on decision-making in the context of monetary policy formulation, this paper focuses on the Board oversight of central banks—a central feature of sound governance. This form of oversight is the decision-making responsibility through which an internal body of the central bank—the Oversight Board—ensures that the central bank is well-managed. First, the paper will contextualize the role of Board oversight into the broader legal structure for central bank governance by considering this form of oversight as one of the core decision-making responsibilities of central banks. Secondly, the paper will focus on a number of important legal design issues for Board Oversight, by contrasting the current practices of the IMF membership’s 174 central banks with staff’s advisory practice developed over the past 50 years.
India
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. Asia and Pacific Dept
Published: January 2020

India has been among the world’s fastest-growing economies in recent years, lifting millions out of poverty. However, growth slowed to a six-year low in the first half of 2019, with both consumption and investment decelerating owing to weak, especially rural, income growth, stresses in the non-bank financial sector, and corporate and environmental regulatory uncertainty. On the external sector, following a rise in vulnerabilities in 2018, stability has returned, anchored by high foreign reserve buffers and a modest current account deficit.
Seychelles
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
Published: January 2020

Economic developments since the completion of the 2019 Article IV
consultation and the third review under the Policy Coordination Instrument (PCI) in
June 2019 have been broadly in line with expectations. The program is largely on track.
The 2020 budget recently submitted to the National Assembly is in line with the
program and the major infrastructure and climate change related projects would be
implemented within the fiscal parameters under the PCI.
Gabon
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
Published: January 2020

Prudent macroeconomic policies, supported by the Extended Arrangement,
have contributed to Gabon’s economic recovery. Growth is picking up, the fiscal and
external positions have improved, public debt has started to decline, and Gabon has
contributed to the rebuilding of regional international reserves. Challenges remain,
though, as buffers are still insufficient and deep-rooted institutional and structural
weaknesses continue to constraint growth and poverty reduction. Almost one-third of
the population still lives below the poverty line.
Suriname
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. Western Hemisphere Dept.
Published: January 2020

Suriname continues to grow steadily with low inflation. However, there has been little progress in implementing urgently-needed fiscal reforms, and the fiscal position is likely to continue to weaken in the coming year. Advances have been made in developing the central bank’s monetary tools and facilities, but more is needed to strengthen the credibility of the monetary framework. The banking sector faces important downside risks and there are gaps in the central bank’s supervisory and resolution framework. Annex I reports the implementation status of key prior Fund policy recommendations.
Burkina Faso
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
Published: January 2020

Third Review under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement-Press Release; and Staff Report
Armenia
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. Middle East and Central Asia Dept.
Published: January 2020

First Review under the Stand-By Arrangement-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for the Republic of Armenia
Chad
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. African Dept.
Published: January 2020

Fifth Review under the Extended Credit Facility Arrangement and Financing Assurances Review-Press Release; Staff Report; Staff Supplement; and Statement by the Executive Director for Chad
Philippines
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. Statistics Dept.
Published: January 2020

Technical Assistance Report-Monetary and Financial Statistics Mission
Finland
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. European Dept.
Published: January 2020

Selected Issues
Extension Of The Periods For Consent To And Payment Of Quota Increases
Authors:   International Monetary Fund. Finance Dept.,   International Monetary Fund. Secretary's Department
Published: January 2020

On December 20, 2019, the IMF’s Executive Board approved a further six-month extension of the period for members to consent to an increase in their quotas under the Fourteenth General Review of Quotas (“Fourteenth Review”) through June 30, 2020. The deadline was due to expire on December 27, 2019. However, Board of Governors Resolution No. 66-2 provides that the Executive Board may extend the period for consent as it may determine. An extension under Resolution No. 66-2 also extends the periods of consent for quota increases under the 2008 Reform of Quota and Voice (Resolution No. 63-2) and the Eleventh General Review of Quotas (Resolution No. 53-2). The Executive Board also approved a further six-month extension of the period for payment of quota increases under the Fourteenth Review, and an extension for the payment of the quota increases under the 2008 Reform, through June 30, 2020.
Confines
Authors: Reidy Joseph P.
Published: January 2020

Confined space offers an instructive vantage point into the reconfiguration of social relationships that were central to the emancipation process. In homes and kitchens throughout the slave states, enslaved house servants devised strategies for asserting greater control over their labor and their lives, even when escape to freedom was out of reach. Women and men hired to work in the shops and factories that supported the Confederate war effort interacted with new casts of characters with new possibilities for stretching their customary boundaries and shedding their usual constraints. For freedom-seeking refugees who reached Union lines, refugee camps (generally called "contraband camps") offered shelter and employment, though often under the watchful eyes of proselytizing Northerners. Cities presented special conditions for the breakdown of slavery, as the experience of Washington, D.C., illustrates. The D.C. emancipation act of April 1862 set in motion a contested process that defies the simple characterization of immediate emancipation.
Tremors and Whirlpools
Authors: Reidy Joseph P.
Published: January 2020

In times of war, physical space may appear to shed its customary character of permanence and become pliable. Places that in times of peace signify safety and security might during war become scenes of danger, even death. Federal emancipation policy accentuated this tendency, as civilians and soldiers alike employed space to new ends, often polar opposites of its earlier uses. When freedom-seeking refugees gained the protection of the U.S. Army, they benefited from a cordon of safety that transcended the fixed space of military camps to encompass armies on the move as well as at rest. The winds of change swept through plantation big-houses, fields, and workshops, where enslaved women and men moved more slowly and spoke less respectfully than usual. The bodies of water that lapped on the shores and cut through the interior of the Confederacy proved especially amenable to loosening the bonds of slavery. Nonetheless, black sailors in the U.S. Navy discovered that constraints as well as opportunities accompanied this particular route to freedom.
The Home of the Brave
Authors: Reidy Joseph P.
Published: January 2020

The end of slavery reverberated through the North no less than the South. From the start of the war, black leaders in the free states had hoped to complete the uneven process of gradual emancipation that had been unfolding there since the Revolutionary War. They foresaw an end to the discriminatory laws and practices that compromised their citizenship and denied the elective franchise to most Northern black men. When the War Department began enlisting black soldiers, recruits soon encountered discrimination in the army and began to protest. Meanwhile, their families and other supporters at home leveraged the men's service to challenge all distinctions based on color, notably the practice of segregated streetcars in the cities. Several months before the war ended, black leaders resuscitated the antebellum national convention movement, and black communities across the North and in Union-occupied areas of the Confederacy selected delegates to participate in setting a national agenda for completing the abolition of slavery and extending all the rights of citizenship to black persons, North and South.
Black Boxes and Trojan Horses
Authors: Helderman Ira
Published: January 2020

This chapter introduces psychotherapists’ translating religion approaches to Buddhist traditions focusing on the therapeutic use of mindfulness practices as a popular case example. In these approaches, Buddhist elements are “translated” into biomedical treatment interventions admissible to secular-designated psychotherapy. Influenced by a number of institutional and affiliative factors, cognitive behavioral psychotherapists were predisposed to seek to maintain scientific legitimacy while incorporating Buddhist practices. Taking a closer look at the historical origins of contemporary therapeutic mindfulness practices and the currently-untold stories of the development of some of the most prominent mindfulness methodologies (Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, etc.), the chapter interrogates the prevailing narrative that “mindfulness was extracted from Buddhism” and completely remade into a secular biomedical item. The chapter elucidates the ongoing contestation among clinicians - spurred by encounters with multiple, overlapping institutional authorities (not only biomedical or Buddhist, but academic as well) - over whether to define their “translations” as Buddhist or psychotherapeutic, religious or not-religious.
Conclusion
Authors: Helderman Ira
Published: January 2020

By the Conclusion, the diversity that exists among psychotherapists’ approaches to Buddhist traditions is clear. However, Prescribing the Dharma also informs larger questions in religious studies by observing that this diversity is generated out of therapists’ shifting definitions of what is religious and not-religious. Examining common operative understandings of categories like religion, science, and medicine yields a number of conclusions not only about the interpretive utility of these categories, but their function in the lives of communities in the United States. The Conclusion delineates six central findings that can be derived from Prescribing the Dharma’s research. It is then divided into six sections each of which expands upon those findings and their application to the field.
Pleading for the Fifth
Authors: Hustwit William P.
Published: January 2020

Chapter four moves the narrative from Holmes County to the U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. The chapter explains the legal shift from freedom of choice to outright school desegregation. Segregationist resistance, in particular by Judge Harold Cox, is noted as well.
All the President’s Mendacity
Authors: Hustwit William P.
Published: January 2020

The fifth chapter focuses on the effort by President Richard Nixon to fulfil the “Southern Strategy” and disrupt the pace of school desegregation. In the summer of 1969, Nixon attempted to delay school desegregation. The NAACP LDF urged the Supreme Court to insist on immediate school desegregation.
Finding God through Yoga
Authors: Neumann David J.
Published: January 2020

Paramahansa Yogananda (1893–1952), a Hindu missionary to the United States, wrote one of the world’s most highly acclaimed spiritual classics, Autobiography of a Yogi, which was first published in 1946 and continues to be one of the best-selling spiritual philosophy titles of all time. In this critical biography, David Neumann tells the story of Yogananda’s fascinating life while interpreting his position in religious history, transnational modernity, and American culture. Beginning with Yogananda’s spiritual investigations in his native India, Neumann tells how this early “global guru” emigrated to the United States in 1920 and established his headquarters, the Self-Realization Fellowship, in Los Angeles, where it continues today. Preaching his message of Hindu yogic philosophy in a land that routinely sent its own evangelists to India, Yogananda was fueled by a religious nationalism that led him to conclude that Hinduism could uniquely fill a spiritual void in America and Europe. At the same time, he embraced a growing belief that Hinduism’s success outside South Asia hinged on a sincere understanding of Christian belief and practice. By “universalizing” Hinduism, Neumann argues, Yogananda helped create the novel vocation of Hindu yogi evangelist, generating fresh connections between religion and commercial culture in a deepening American religious pluralism.
Department Stores and the Black Freedom Movement
Authors: Parker Traci
Published: January 2020

In this book, Traci Parker examines the movement to racially integrate white-collar work and consumption in American department stores, and broadens our understanding of historical transformations in African American class and labor formation. Built on the goals, organization, and momentum of earlier struggles for justice, the department store movement channeled the power of store workers and consumers to promote black freedom in the mid-twentieth century. Sponsoring lunch counter sit-ins and protests in the 1950s and 1960s, and challenging discrimination in the courts in the 1970s, this movement ended in the early 1980s with the conclusion of the Sears, Roebuck, and Co. affirmative action cases and the transformation and consolidation of American department stores. In documenting the experiences of African American workers and consumers during this era, Parker highlights the department store as a key site for the inception of a modern black middle class, and demonstrates the ways that both work and consumption were battlegrounds for civil rights.
Race and Class Identities in Early American Department Stores
Authors: Parker Traci
Published: January 2020

An exploration of the racial and class dimensions of early American department stores is provided in this chapter. It reveals why these retail institutions became prime locations for protesting and claiming civil rights. Early American department stores operated under the principle of free entry and browsing—a principle that helped usher in a new conception of American democracy that was intricately tied to the practices of consumption that the department store fostered. Stores, however, also conformed to and endorsed aspects of Jim Crow (including notions of racial order and purity): many stores received African Americans under the principle of free entry and browsing but then constrained their movement and participation in this space; and stores hired blacks as maintenance and stockroom workers, elevator operators, porters, and maids—all invisible from the salesroom floor—but barred them from white-collar staff positions in sales, clerical, and management. The racialized democracy of the department store shaped the ways that race and class were imagined and employed to create both worker and consumer identities, making department stores an epitome of racial discrimination and thus an ideal site to challenge racial discrimination.
Toward Wal-Mart
Authors: Parker Traci
Published: January 2020

The book concludes with an examination of the relocation of department stores to suburban shopping centers and the Sears, Roebuck, and Company affirmative action cases. Mass suburbanization, the rise of discount retailers such as Kmart and Wal-Mart, and urban decay transformed department stores. Black workers found that the gains they had made in downtown department stores had virtually disappeared as department stores followed their preferred clientele—the white middle class—to the suburbs. Here, stores were able to return to their former racial practices in spaces that were inaccessible via public transportation, deemed private property, and prohibited civil rights demonstrations. The Sears cases thus reveal the ways that the department store movement modified its tactics, approaches, and strategies. These cases also exposed the industry’s ongoing transformations, ones that revolutionized, or rather diminished, the status of retail work and department stores, and facilitated the reconsolidation of racial discrimination.
The Regulation of Religion and the Making of Hinduism in Colonial Trinidad
Authors: Rocklin Alexander
Published: January 2020

How can religious freedom be granted to people who do not have a religion? While Indian indentured workers in colonial Trinidad practiced cherished rituals, "Hinduism" was not a widespread category in India at the time. On this Caribbean island, people of South Asian descent and African descent came together-under the watchful eyes of the British rulers-to walk on hot coals for fierce goddesses, summon spirits of the dead, or honor Muslim martyrs, practices that challenged colonial norms for religion and race. Drawing deeply on colonial archives, Alexander Rocklin examines the role of the category of religion in the regulation of the lives of Indian laborers struggling for autonomy.
Gradually, Indians learned to narrate the origins, similarities, and differences among their fellows' cosmological views, and to define Hindus, Muslims, and Christians as distinct groups. Their goal in doing this work of subaltern comparative religion, as Rocklin puts it, was to avoid criminalization and to have their rituals authorized as legitimate religion-they wanted nothing less than to gain access to the British promise of religious freedom. With the indenture system's end, the culmination of this politics of recognition was the gradual transformation of Hindus' rituals and the reorganization of their lives-they fabricated a "world religion" called Hinduism.
Crossing the Dark Water
Authors: Rocklin Alexander
Published: January 2020

This chapter presents the history of the global indentured labor scheme and Indians' experiences of and resistance to its effect. As part of an examination of those effects, the chapter looks at Indians' incorporation of the intertwined colonial discourses of religion and race and the role of promises of religious freedom in the naturalization of the category religion.
Standardizing Sanatana Dharma
Authors: Rocklin Alexander
Published: January 2020

This chapter looks at the politics of recognition and "orthodox" Hindu identity, focusing on the competition between two Sanatanist Hindu organizations, the Sanatan Dharma Association and the Sanatan Dharma Board of Control, for representation of the Hindu community. Indian Trinidadian organizing in order to receive religious equality led to contentious projects of religion-making. In this chapter, I attend to the controversies among Sanatanists throughout the 1930s over what Sanatan Dharma (eternal religion or orthodox Hinduism) could and should be, and related contestations over who could count as a Hindu.
✦ Superpower Saints ✦
Authors: Cummings Kathleen Sprows
Published: January 2020

This chapter focuses on Elizabeth Ann Seton’s cause between papal conclave of 1939, when her cause leaped forward at the Roman Center, through Seton’s beatification in 1963. It analyzes gender and power in the Catholic church through the conflict between Seton’s Daughters of Charity and the Vincentian priest assigned to serve as Seton’s vice-postulator. It explains the fierce competition between Seton’s advocates and those of John Neumann, who was also beatified in 1963. The chapter argues that in the post-World War II era, saints became stand-ins for U.S. Catholics' new role in the nation and in the world--and harbingers of more transformations on the way, in sanctity and beyond.
Little Will Thomas and the Cherokee Legion
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

William Holland Thomas, whose father dies before he is born, is adopted by a Cherokee chief, Yonaguska. Upon his deathbed, the chief names Thomas-a white man-as the new chief of the eastern band of Cherokee. He becomes a fierce advocate for the Cherokee, insuring that they own the land on which they live. Late in life he marries Sarah Love, the much younger daughter of his best friend. The Cherokee declare war on the United States-which marched so many of their tribe away form their ancestral lands along the Trail of Tears. Thomas raises a regiment of Cherokees and mountaineers and spends himself in the war, eventually failing in health and dangerously insane.
Indivisible
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Chang and Eng Bunker, the famous Siamese Twins, make their fortune touring and settle in Mt. Airy, where they marry sisters and become prosperous slaveholders who raise lucrative crops, including tobacco. Chang’s eldest son, Christopher Wren, enlists in the 37th Virginia Cavalry at sixteen, quickly followed by Eng’s eldest, Stephen Decatur. Both are seriously wounded and Christopher is captured and imprisoned at Camp Chase, Ohio, where he survives by eating rats. Both eventually return home, but the war has ruined the family: their wealth was tied up in slaves, now free. Chang and Eng must tour again, with a disastrous outcome.
Onward Christian Soldiers
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

The Confederacy aims to establish a Christian republic based on chattel slavery, a crusade cast in Old Testament allegiance to tribe, culture and God, justified by using the Biblical Book of Genesis to cast blacks as the descendants of Ham, cursed by God to perpetual slavery. Most Christian churches split over the issue. The Religious Military Press unites the southern sects-they produce inspirational tracts for soldiers and prayers to recite in the event of victory, defeat, or death. Chaplains and evangelical missionaries follow the troops, exhorting them to behave like Christian soldiers and promising them an eternal reward if they fall in battle. Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk-an Episcopal bishop-embodies the ideal of the Christian soldier, fighting under a battle flag emblazoned with the Cross of Constantine.
The Gray Ghost
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

A veteran of service on the USS Constitution and as captain of the brig Dolphin, chasing down slavers, John Newland Maffitt resigns his U.S. Navy commission and joins the rebel war effort as a blockade runner. Often he steers his fast side-wheeler into Wilmington via the Cape Fear approaches, which he charted as a young officer. He becomes legendary for his daring runs. He captures seventy prizes worth as much as $15. At last, thwarted by the capture of Wilmington, he runs his ship to England. He later retires to Wilmington and authors a stirring novel about his cruise aboard the Constitution.
The Scholar-Warrior
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

James Johnston Pettigrew, born of a prominent planter family, is a gifted scholar at University of North Carolina, but he becomes bored with the life of the intellect and longs for martial adventure. Like other UNC alums and students, he volunteers to fight for the Confederacy and becomes legendary for his reckless courage. He is appointed Colonel of the First Regiment of Rifles in South Carolina and takes part in the fruitless negotiations to assure the surrender of Fort Sumter before it is bombarded. Later he becomes colonel of the 22nd North Carolina and is severely wounded and feared dead at Seven Pines. At Gettysburg he commands Maj. Gen. Harry Heth’s brigade and charges Cemetery Ridge on the third day of battle-and again is seriously wounded. He is killed on the homeward retreat by a Union cavalry trooper.+
The Great Surrender
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Richmond has fallen; Jefferson Davis and his cabinet retreat to Greensboro by rail. Both Johnston and Sherman believe that more killing would be fruitless-the outcome of the war is inevitable. Davis wants to disband the infantry in the mountains, to fight on as guerrillas-a prospect that appalls Johnston. He persuades Davis to allow him to arrange a truce with Sherman. Sherman obliges. The two generals meet on the Hillsboro Road at the home of James and Nancy Bennitt, where Sherman confides a piece of bitter news: Lincoln has been assassinated. If they can’t conclude a peace settlement quickly, there will be no quarter given. Sherman oversteps himself, promising political and civil concessions, and calling off Stoneman’s raiders. The War Department in Washington will not accept the terms, orders Grant to relieve Sherman and take over. Grant indeed travels to Raleigh but leaves Sherman in command-to conclude the surrender along the lines of Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House-on April 26, 1865. It is the largest surrender of the war-90,000 troops in the Carolinas Georgia, and Florida, and effectively ends the war.
Marronage
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores marronage as one of the ways in which slaves were able to win their freedom in a context in which slavery appeared unshakable. Marronage represented the slaves' primary form of revolt until the mid-eighteenth century and consisted of slaves running away and creating maroon societies within the inner frontiers of the Americas. Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, hundreds of thousands of Africans and Afro-descendants favored marronage and the creation of fugitive slave societies such as unyielding palenques and quilombos. These forms of revolt corresponded well to a context of gradual colonization that left immense spaces uncontrolled by authorities or slaveholders. Though undetermined numbers of fugitives were captured, a great many escaped the yoke of slavery by surviving long-term in forests, mountains, or marshlands. Despite the proliferation of slave codes and the severity of punishments, marronage could not be eradicated.
Feminism for the Americas
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

This book chronicles the dawn of the global movement for women’s rights in the first decades of the twentieth century. The founding mothers of this movement were not based primarily in the United States, however, or in Europe. Instead, Katherine M. Marino introduces readers to a cast of remarkable Latin American and Caribbean women whose deep friendships and intense rivalries forged global feminism out of an era of imperialism, racism, and fascism. Six dynamic activists form the heart of this story: from Brazil, Bertha Lutz; from Cuba, Ofelia Domíngez Navarro; from Uruguay, Paulina Luisi; from Panama, Clara Gonzoz; from Chile, Marta Vergara; and from the United States, Doris Stevens. This Pan-American network drove a transnational movement that advocated women’s suffrage, equal pay for equal work, maternity rights, and broader self-determination. Their painstaking efforts led to the enshrinement of women’s rights in the United Nations Charter and the development of a framework for international human rights. But their work also revealed deep divides, with Latin American activists overcoming U.S. presumptions to feminist superiority. As Marino shows, these early fractures continue to influence divisions among today’s activists along class, racial, and national lines.
Marino’s multinational and multilingual research yields a new narrative for the creation of global feminism. The leading women introduced here were forerunners in understanding the power relations at the heart of international affairs. Their drive to enshrine fundamental rights for women, children, and all people of the world stands as a testament to what can be accomplished when global thinking meets local action.
Mobilizing Women’s Rights as Human Rights
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines how, during the Second World War, Latin American feminists continued to push broad meanings of international women’s rights and human rights in spite of little support from their U.S. counterparts. The women from the U.S. Women’s and Children’s Bureaus who replaced Doris Stevens in the Inter-American Commission of Women avoided promoting women’s “equal rights” because of the fraught Equal Rights Amendment debate in the U.S. Latin American feminists effectively pushed these U.S. counterparts on a number of issues, including toward advocacy for maternity legislation, which Latin American feminists asserted as a human right. The Atlantic Charter and Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms, which underscored social and economic rights, inspired Latin American feminists’ broad calls for human rights. Their framings included women’s rights, and greater economic security and multilateral relations in the Americas. These demands came together at the 1945 Chapultepec conference where a number of Latin American feminists in the Inter-American Commission of Women also paved the way for Latin American countries to appoint women to their delegations going to the conference that would create the United Nations.
History and Human Rights
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

The Epilogue demonstrates how the UN Charter’s women’s and human rights promises inspired feminists throughout the Americas, and how the Cold War stifled the movement and largely erased the historical memory of inter-American feminism. Paulina Luisi and Marta Vergara helped organize an inter-American feminist meeting in Guatemala in 1947 that articulated broad meanings of inter-American feminism and global women’s and human rights. However, the Cold War’s pitched battle between communism and capitalism narrowed both “feminism” and “human rights” to mean individual political and civil rights. The Cold War also contributed to historical amnesia about this movement. The epilogue explores how Cold War politics affected each of the six feminists in the book. Each woman sought in different ways to archive the movement and write inter-American feminism into the historical record. The epilogue also provides connections between their movement and the global feminist and human rights movements that emerged in the 1970s through the 90s. It argues that the idea that “women’s rights as human rights” was not invented in the 1990s; rather, it drew on the legacy of early twentieth-century inter-American feminism.
Treated with the Greatest Civility
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the role of surrender in American history prior to the Civil War, including the Revolutionary War, War of 1812, and Mexican War. It argues that American ideas about surrender grew out of notions that civilized warfare had rules. The chapter culminates with Major Robert Anderson's surrender at Fort Sumter in 1861.
Without a Government
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the collapse of the Confederacy west of the Mississippi. It explores why some Confederates continued to fight a month after Lee's surrender and how desertion compelled their surrender. It examines the last Confederates to surrender, including Stand Watie and the CSS Shenandoah.
An Emotional Craving
Authors: Kotch Seth
Published: January 2020

As the death penalty was falling out of use in North Carolina, the civil rights movement was underway. In 1972, the Supreme Court ruled in Furman v. Georgia that the death penalty as practiced was unconstitutional. Politically conservative North Carolinians who viewed the Supreme Court as a weapon of liberal overreach reacted by reinstating the mandatory death penalty and ultimately adopting the bifurcated sentencing protocol now in use around the country. The renewed interest in the death penalty emerged from the tough-on-crime rhetoric adopted by conservatives and the Republican Party during and after the civil rights movement. North Carolina resumed executions in 1984.
France and the American Civil War
Authors: Sainlaude Stéve , Doyle Don H.
Published: January 2020

France’s involvement in the American Civil War was critical to its unfolding, but the details of the European power’s role remain little understood. Here, Stève Sainlaude offers the first comprehensive history of French diplomatic engagement with the Union and the Confederate States of America during the conflict. Drawing on archival sources that have been neglected by scholars up to this point, Sainlaude overturns many commonly held assumptions about French relations with the Union and the Confederacy. As Sainlaude demonstrates, no major European power had a deeper stake in the outcome of the conflict than France.
Reaching beyond the standard narratives of this history, Sainlaude delves deeply into questions of geopolitical strategy and diplomacy during this critical period in world affairs. The resulting study will help shift the way Americans look at the Civil War and extend their understanding of the conflict in global context.
The Implementation of Neutrality
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

On May 13, 1861, the British cabinet published a proclamation of neutrality accompanied by recognition of Southern belligerency. The French followed suit on June 10, 1861 with a proclamation of neutrality that employed the same cautious language to describe the Southern authority. Instead of taking a stance on the central problem, French Foreign Minister Edouard Thouvenel sought to anticipate the conflict’s damage to French interests in the U.S. However, by keeping an equal distance from both belligerents, France displeased the Lincoln administration, which denied that its enemy had any legitimacy to fight. The legal government remained the one in Washington because the French did not recognize the Confederacy as a state. France therefore maintained diplomatic relations with the Lincoln administration, while French relations with the authorities in Richmond remained unofficial.
The Declaration of Paris of April 16, 1856 introduced changes to maritime law. It prohibited privateering, exempted nonbelligerent vessels carrying enemy goods from confiscation, and declared that blockades had to be physically effective in order to be legally binding. Thouvenel found it easier to depart from a strict reading of the Declaration of Paris because the text did not clearly specify any practical arrangements for certifying a blockade’s effectiveness.
The Emperor Gets Involved in the War
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

In defiance of neutrality, because he saw the American Civil War as an opportunity to strengthen France’s position in Mexico and Latin America,Napoleon III pursued a policy openly favourable to the Confederate government: he tried to gain the Confederates a respite from the war via mediation; he twice sought a way to recognize their government; and he wanted to build them ships and buy them maritime weapons. In both 1862 and 1863, Napoleon anticipated victory for the Confederates and wanted to support them with a diplomatic decision.However, Napoleon had to reckon with the resolute opposition of Foreign Minister Eduouard Thouvenel and his successor Edouard Drouyn de Lhuys, who regularly thwarted Napoleon’s plans. The Rappahanock affair was perhaps the peak of these convoluted negotiations. The Confederate envoys understood that there was no consensus in the French government on the position to adopt toward the South. As they attentively followed the exercise of French diplomacy, they saw that it was possible to draw actors into the opposition, to hamper the foreign minister’s efforts by encouraging his colleagues to contradict him, or even to appeal to the emperor and his entourage to achieve their ends.
The South, a Trade Partner?
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

Europe’s dependency on North American cotton gave the South leverage. Once hostilities began, the Confederates hoped to inspire a diplomatic choice in their favour through economic pressure since France and Britain felt the effects of the “cotton famine.” The Tuileries cabinet tried to determine the origin of the shortage while assessing the real impact of the crisis on the workforce. Though it initially seemed that the North’s blockade of Southern ports was to blame, proof was uncovered that the cotton supply was being intentionally limited with the Southern leaders’ assent, with some Southern planters burning their cotton rather than see it fall into the hands of Northerners. The effects of the cotton crisis were less dramatic than first expected due to the existence of a cotton surplus in France right before the war, alternate suppliers outside Dixie, and the relatively low number of French workers who were directly dependent on cotton. France also did not lose sight of trade in wheat and other products with the states loyal to the Federal government. This concern for trade in the North explains why France, like the United Kingdom, confounded Southern expectations by not recognizing the Confederacy or otherwise intervening in the conflict.
Introduction
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

Sets out book’s thesis and major themes. Abstracts the subsequent chapters chronologically.
Words
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

Evidence found in the diaries and other private modes of expression written by antebellum southern white men show that the writers practiced forms of masculine performance expected of their class. Nineteenth century diarists showed a need to express themselves emotionally. Diary entries capture both the insular world of the family unit and engagements with the outside world, such as records of shooting parties.
Battle
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

Now fully immersed in their military experiences, Confederate soldiers struggled to express in letters to their families the scale and emotional impact of war’s carnage. The Battle of Gettysburg serves as a lens for the examination of the soldiers’ efforts to express their new-found emotional experiences in words. Through these efforts, the men’s self-perceptions and identities were often altered forever.
Quantification of nitrous acid (HONO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in ambient air by broadband cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (IBBCEAS) between 361 and 388 nm
Authors: Jordan Nick , Osthoff Hans D.
Published: January 2020

Abstract. This work describes an incoherent broadband cavity-enhanced absorption
spectroscopy (IBBCEAS) instrument for quantification of HONO and NO2 mixing ratios in ambient air. The instrument is operated in the
near-ultraviolet spectral region between 361 and 388 nm. The mirror
reflectivity and optical cavity transmission function were determined from
the optical extinction observed when sampling air and helium. To verify the
accuracy of this approach, Rayleigh scattering cross sections of nitrogen
and argon were measured and found to be in quantitative agreement with literature
values. The mirror reflectivity exceeded 99.98 %, at its maximum near 373 nm, resulting in an absorption path length of 6 km from a 1 m long optical cavity. The instrument precision was assessed through Allan variance analyses and showed minimum deviations of ±58 and ±210 pptv (1σ) for HONO and NO2, respectively, at an optimum acquisition time of 5 min. Measurements of HONO and NO2 mixing ratios in laboratory-generated mixtures by IBBCEAS were compared to thermal dissociation cavity ring-down spectroscopy (TD-CRDS) data and agreed within combined experimental uncertainties. Sample ambient air data collected in Calgary are presented.
The CopterSonde: An Insight into the Development of a Smart UAS for Atmospheric Boundary Layer Research
Authors: Segales Antonio R. , Greene Brian R. , Bell Tyler M. , Doyle William , Martin Joshua J. , Pillar-Little Elizabeth A. , Chilson Phillip B.
Published: January 2020

Abstract. The CopterSonde is an uncrewed aircraft system developed in-house by a team of engineers and meteorologists at the University of Oklahoma. The CopterSonde is an ambitious attempt by the Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling to address the challenge of filling the observational gap present in the lower atmosphere among the currently used meteorological instruments such as towers and radiosondes. The CopterSonde is a unique and highly flexible platform for in situ atmospheric boundary layer measurements with high spatial and temporal resolution, suitable for meteorological applications and research. Custom autopilot algorithms and hardware features were developed as solutions to problems identified throughout several field experiments carried out since 2017. In these field experiments, the CopterSonde has been proved capable of safely operating at wind speeds up to 22 m s-1, flying at 3050 m above mean sea level, and operating in extreme temperatures: nearly −20 °C in Finland and 40 °C in Oklahoma, United States. Leveraging the open-source ArduPilot autopilot code has allowed for seamless integration of custom functions and protocols for the acquisition, storage, and distribution of atmospheric data along with the flight control data. This led to the creation of features such as the "wind vane mode" algorithm which commands the CopterSonde to always face into the wind. It also allowed for the design of an asymmetric airframe for the CopterSonde, which is shown to have more convenient locations for weather sensor placement, in addition to allowing for improvements in the overall aerodynamic characteristics of the CopterSonde. Moreover, it has also allowed the team to design and create a modular shell where the sensor package is attached and which can run independently of the CopterSonde's main body. The CopterSonde is on the trend towards a smart UAS tool with a wide possibility of creating new adaptive and optimized atmospheric sampling strategies.
Lability classification of soil organic matter in the northern permafrost region
Authors: Kuhry Peter , Bárta Jiří , Blok Daan , Elberling Bo , Faucherre Samuel , Hugelius Gustaf , Jørgensen Christian J. , Richter Andreas , Šantrůčková Hana , Weiss Niels
Published: January 2020

Abstract. The large stocks of soil organic carbon (SOC) in soils
and deposits of the northern permafrost region are sensitive to global
warming and permafrost thawing. The potential release of this carbon (C) as
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere does not only depend on the total
quantity of soil organic matter (SOM) affected by warming and thawing, but it
also depends on its lability (i.e., the rate at which it will decay). In this study
we develop a simple and robust classification scheme of SOM lability for the
main types of soils and deposits in the northern permafrost region. The
classification is based on widely available soil geochemical parameters and
landscape unit classes, which makes it useful for upscaling to the entire
northern permafrost region. We have analyzed the relationship between C
content and C-CO2 production rates of soil samples in two different
types of laboratory incubation experiments. In one experiment, ca. 240 soil
samples from four study areas were incubated using the same protocol (at 5 ∘C, aerobically) over a period of 1 year. Here we present C
release rates measured on day 343 of incubation. These long-term results are
compared to those obtained from short-term incubations of ca. 1000 samples
(at 12 ∘C, aerobically) from an additional three study areas. In
these experiments, C-CO2 production rates were measured over the first
4 d of incubation. We have focused our analyses on the relationship
between C-CO2 production per gram dry weight per day (µgC-CO2 gdw−1 d−1) and C content (%C of dry weight) in the
samples, but we show that relationships are consistent when using C ∕ N ratios or
different production units such as µgC per gram soil C per day (µgC-CO2 gC−1 d−1) or per cm3 of soil per day
(µgC-CO2 cm−3 d−1). C content of the samples is
positively correlated to C-CO2 production rates but explains less than
50 % of the observed variability when the full datasets are considered. A
partitioning of the data into landscape units greatly reduces variance and
provides consistent results between incubation experiments. These results
indicate that relative SOM lability decreases in the order of Late Holocene
eolian deposits to alluvial deposits and mineral soils (including
peaty wetlands) to Pleistocene yedoma deposits to C-enriched pockets in cryoturbated soils to peat deposits. Thus,
three of the most important SOC storage classes in the northern permafrost
region (yedoma, cryoturbated soils and peatlands) show low relative SOM
lability. Previous research has suggested that SOM in these pools is
relatively undecomposed, and the reasons for the observed low rates of
decomposition in our experiments need urgent attention if we want to better
constrain the magnitude of the thawing permafrost carbon feedback on global
warming.
The PMIP4-CMIP6 Last Glacial Maximum experiments: preliminary results and comparison with the PMIP3-CMIP5 simulations
Authors: Kageyama Masa , Harrison Sandy P. , Kapsch Marie-L. , Löfverström Marcus , Lora Juan M. , Mikolajewicz Uwe , Sherriff-Tadano Sam , Vadsaria Tristan , Abe-Ouchi Ayako , Bouttes Nathaelle , Chandan Deepak , LeGrande Allegra N. , Lhardy Fanny , Lohmann Gerrit , Morozova Polina A. , Ohgaito Rumi , Peltier W. Richard , Quiquet Aurélien , Roche Didier M. , Shi Xiaoxu , Schmittner Andreas , Tierney Jessica E. , Volodin Evgeny
Published: January 2020

Abstract. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ~ 21,000 years ago) has been a major focus for evaluating how well state-of-the-art climate models simulate climate changes as large as those expected in the future using paleoclimate reconstructions. A new generation of climate models have been used to generate LGM simulations as part of the Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) contribution to the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP). Here we provide a preliminary analysis and evaluation of the results of these LGM experiments (PMIP4-CMIP6) and compare them with the previous generation of simulations (PMIP3-CMIP5). We show that the PMIP4-CMIP6 are globally less cold and less dry than the PMIP3-CMIP5 simulations, most probably because of the use of a more realistic specification of the northern hemisphere ice sheets in the latest simulations although changes in model configuration may also contribute to this. There are important differences in both atmospheric and ocean circulation between the two sets of experiments, with the northern and southern jet streams being more poleward and the changes in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation being less pronounced in the PMIP4-CMIP6 simulations than in the PMIP3-CMIP5 simulations. Changes in simulated precipitation patterns are influenced by both temperature and circulation changes. Differences in simulated climate between individual models remain large so, although there are differences in the average behaviour across the two ensembles, the new simulation results are not fundamentally different from the PMIP3-CMIP5 results. Evaluation of large-scale climate features, such as land-sea contrast and polar amplification, confirms that the models capture these well and within the uncertainty of the palaeoclimate reconstructions. Nevertheless, regional climate changes are less well simulated: the models underestimate extratropical cooling, particularly in winter, and precipitation changes. The spatial patterns of increased precipitation associated with changes in the jet streams are also poorly captured. However, changes in the tropics are more realistic, particularly the changes in tropical temperatures over the oceans. Although these results are preliminary in nature, because of the limited number of LGM simulations currently available, they nevertheless point to the utility of using paleoclimate simulations to understand the mechanisms of climate change and evaluate model performance.