bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Probation
Authors: Morris Clare
Published: December 2008

Probation– a word I had always associated with the prison service rather than teaching. In my early naïvety I thought it rather derogatory to use this word to describe my first year as a teacher. A four-year university course was surely enough, I felt, to allow me to remove the learner label and to be fully qualified. But, as I gradually came to realise, the first year in full-time teaching was as much a learning process for me as it was for my pupils.

My training had consisted of a three-year Music and Education degree followed by a one-year PGCE course. I am not entirely certain that PGCE courses are the most effective means of training teachers, because their brevity limits the amount of time spent in schools. However, the system does allow the opportunity of more specialised study first, and I am grateful to have been able to do a teacher training course as well. The breadth of the PGCE studies confused me. At times I wondered whether the study of educational psychology and sociology would be better replaced by more down-to-earth advice on lesson preparation and the control of difficult classes. In retrospect I realise that virtually all the work was useful and, anyway, the music tutorials covered practical matters.
An Analysis of Group Instrumental Teaching
Authors: Thompson Kevin
Published: December 2008

It was envisaged that the data gathered in this investigation from empirical statements, case studies and observation of a broad spectrum of group teachers, would contribute towards establishing a clearer perspective, focus attention on and evaluate the techniques and procedures of group tuition. In short, the study was intended to investigate, in an illuminative and interpretative manner, the effectiveness of group work.

A major concern was to identify a methodology – practice-based, eclectic and illuminative of music and the learning milieu – with designing a questionnaire; and with selecting for interview acknowledged group teachers. Thus the interviews provided both a primary source of opinion and a basis for further evaluation of the principles and procedures of group teaching in action.

To collect empirical data, a case study technique was employed and structured by use of pro formas. Four teachers, chosen on the basis of specific criteria, were each observed systematically in both group and individual settings. The datum elicited was then interpreted and summarized.
Da Capo
Authors: Ellis Phil
Published: December 2008

It's the start of a new academic year and a familiar pattern is about to repeat itself. Students from a variety of locations around the country arrive for their first composition lesson, fresh from seven years of secondary education, no doubt pleased with having passed A level music…
Towards a Better Understanding of Piano Technique
Authors: Raikin Bruno
Published: December 2008

Control of touch is the alpha and omega of beautiful piano playing. Each finger is a member of a playing apparatus that functions as a multiple lever comprising six segments, from shoulder to fingertips, each of which is controlled by its particular muscles. When a note is played inadequately, tests on the finger and wrist joints usually reveal weaknesses and the need for specific isometric gymnastic exercises to strengthen the muscles that control them. These produce a unity in the functioning of the whole limb, without which complete control is impossible. Such unity is duplicated by the kinaesthetic memory, and confirmed at subsequent practices.
Improvisation: Music for an Occasion
Authors: Prévost Eddie
Published: December 2008

The case is put for improvisation as the basis for world music, with special reference to flexibility of the blues and the gamelan. An overview of the impact of society on music leads to a general survey of the status of improvisation in pre-industrial Western European culture. Improvisation is contrasted with composition and consideration is given to the problems of providing education in improvisation without destroying its vitality and communicative power.
Finding a Place for Music in the Curriculum
Authors: Elliott David J.
Published: December 2008

This discussion develops a perspective on the current relationship between music and the school curriculum in North America. The gap between rhetorical support for music education and the reality of educational and societal commitments is traced to fundamental philosophical dilemmas facing education in particular, and society in general. Several ‘new keys’ are offered for the future of music education including a radical proposal for ‘deschooling’ music education and a practical guide for ‘networking’ excellent programmes.
Towards Tolerance and Taste: Preferences for World Musics
Authors: Shehan Patricia K.
Published: December 2008

A multicultural imperative has emerged in American educational philosophy and practices of the last decade. Never before has there been such an emphasis on multicultural understanding in the school curriculum. The changing philosophy of education as expressed in the literature suggests that the melting-pot theory is outdated; instead, the various ethnic groups present a rich tapestry of American national culture while maintaining their distinct identity. In this article Dr Shehan examines the relationship between these developing educational attitudes and the music teacher's task in helping to expand students' musical understanding and taste.
Composing Music: Case Studies in the Teaching and Learning Process
Authors: Bunting Robert
Published: December 2008

In this article the author opens up some of the issues involved in teaching composition to individual pupils of the upper Secondary School age range. To do this he studies the work of two boys over two terms in detail, including many of their sketches, and pays particular attention to the role of the boys' teacher. This study leads to some general considerations: syllabus design, the relationships between composing, performing and listening, and methods of assessment.
Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: An Outline for a Course
Authors: Pratt George , Henson Michael
Published: December 2008

The unit for Research into Applied Musical Perception (RAMP) was set up in the Music Department of Huddersfield Polytechnic in October 1985. Led by Professor George Pratt, then newly appointed as Head of Department, it was supported generously by the Polytechnic which made available a full-time Research Assistant post, filled by Michael Henson. Dr John Sloboda of Keele University, musical psychologist and author of ‘The Musical Mind’, agreed to be an Associate of the Unit and to co-supervise the first postgraduate students registered for research degrees.

The Unit spent a year enquiring of other institutions about their attitudes to teaching musical perception, and trying out a first-year course which this article describes.
The Alexander Principle and its Importance to Music Education
Authors: Bosanquet R. Caroline
Published: December 2008

Although not developed specifically with musicians in mind, Alexander Technique has come to be associated with musical performers and with the problems of tension they may experience. In this article the author, a cellist and a cello teacher who has herself been helped by therapy based upon Alexander principles, acknowledges the special value that the technique has for musicians and demonstrates this by reference to the needs of string players. She goes on to show how other performers may benefit, and how F. M. Alexander's ideas can be particularly important for singers. She enlarges this view to take in a wider range of musical education and, arguing that singing has, of late, been sadly neglected in schools, illustrates the potential of the Alexander principles through a detailed account of how one child was helped to ‘find her voice’and how, in succeeding, she was able to increase her confidence in many other areas besides music.
Mozart, Marionettes, and the Magic Flute
Authors: Wignall Harry James
Published: December 2008

A project is described which involved making and working with marionettes in a Tokyo school. Through this and other related activities, children were introduced to the world of opera, in particular, The Magic Flute, by Mozart.
Objectives and the Teaching of Composition
Authors: Salaman William
Published: December 2008

The application of objectives to the teaching of music can be easy enough when the results expected are clearly understood in advance. However, when some of the responsibility for the outcome is placed in the hands of pupils, the formulation of objectives becomes more difficult. This article explores the problem and makes suggestions for the framing of objectives in relation to children's compositional work. In support of the argument, the findings of a short course in composing undertaken with two pupils are described with scores and taped examples serving as evidence. The article ends with suggestions for the assessment of pupils' compositions.
An Experiment in the Assessment of Composition
Authors: Simmonds Roger
Published: December 2008

This article describes an experiment in the assessment of composition by group consensus. It was designed to prove that small groups of assessors confronted with only aural evidence of particular compositions could, when using suitable criteria, under certain working conditions, come to similar enough judgements on these compositions to prove the method reliable. The method itself was based on the sessions in assessment held at the University of York in 1977 under the chairmanship of Robert Bunting, but, whereas the results in the York session were quite promising and pointed to the reliability of this method, the present experiment has exposed great flaws in a procedure that is advocated by at least one G.C.S.E. group as being suitable for the moderation of students' compositions.
The Expressivist Future in Music Education
Authors: Stubbs Keith
Published: December 2008

Against the background of current debate concerning the proposed national curriculum, a number of questions remain unanswered. This paper examines the issue of how, and indeed whether music education is practised from an expressivist point of view. The expressivist position, as evidenced for instance in the work of Herbert Read, Louis Arnard Reid and Suzanne Langer, is analysed in the more recent work of Robert Witkin and Malcolm Ross.

The paper continues by questioning whether there is an expressivist future in music education, discussing the work of Keith Swanwick and John Paynter alongside recent guidelines from HMI and the DES. Official utilitarian arguments are questioned and evidence of developments in Scotland and the United States are examined. The American tradition of developmental psychology in music leads to a discussion of the work of David J. Hargreaves in this country, and finally recommendations are made concerning the relationship between music and the other arts, with particular reference to curriculum structures and programmes of learning.
Research In Australian Music Education: A Review and Analysis
Authors: Lett Warren R.
Published: December 2008

A review is made of the contents of the Australian Journal of Music Education from 1969, and of conferences in the early history of the Australian Society of Music Education. The categories of music education theses 1936–78 are described. A review of the research presentations is made from reports of the conferences of the Association of Music Education Lecturers. The paper identifies seminal summaries of music education research issues over a twenty-five-year period. It traces the lines of reported research, distinguishing standards for identification of research. It is concluded that although awareness of research issues has been consistently present amongst music educators in Australia, a lack of research orientation, together with inadequate planning and organisational structure has left the field to haphazard individualism. Proposals for current research priorities and procedures for their pursuit are made.
Music is Fun
Authors: Russell Deirdre
Published: December 2008

This is a report on the Music Curriculum course units in a primary teacher-training programme held at the Macarthur Institute of Higher Education, Sydney, Australia. It attempts to give an overview of the attitudes of starting students to music and their experiences of music teaching in the Primary School. These are generally negative, and the students are very hesitant about the idea of being expected to teach music when they graduate. Course content is examined along with changes in attitudes, skills and knowledge of the students.
Task Organisation and Management in Secondary Music Classrooms
Authors: Gilbert Ross G.
Published: December 2008

Recent research and theory in the area of classroom management indicates that there is a relationship between the task organisation of the classroom and teacher management behaviours. That is, classroom settings such as seatwork and recitation are related to different kinds of pupil behaviour and different kinds of teacher response. A review of related literature and a study of music student teachers in secondary classrooms indicates that music teachers spend considerably more time in recitation-type settings than do teachers of other subjects and are thus required to be more constantly alert and more authoritarian in their behaviour. The implications of these data for teachers, teacher educators and administrations are discussed.
Playing by Ear: its Nature and Application to Instrumental Learning
Authors: Priest Philip
Published: December 2008

Instrumental teaching methods in schools have resulted in a near total reliance on notation. Playing by ear has been undervalued by instrumental teachers, yet it is through such playing that some of the aims of music education can best be achieved.

In this article different ways of playing without notation are distinguished theoretically and exemplified through the experiences of some players who have learned in this way. A case is made for all musical playing to be viewed as ‘by ear’, including when notation is involved, so that the aural basis for musicianship is maintained and a wider view of performance encouraged. A possible model for teachers is offered based on imitation and invention.
Physical Movement and Memory for Music
Authors: Taylor Dorothy
Published: December 2008

This article is concerned with the role of kinaesthesis and bodily movement in promoting musical memory. Seventy-two first-year secondary school children were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. They were then asked to listen to short extracts of music ranging from jazz through western classical to the Indian tradition, with a view to conveying to a deaf child the import of the music. Results indicated that a kinaestheic strategy significantly affected achievement on an unexpected recognition test taken one week later.
Logic and Foundations of Music Interpretation: Atonality–Tonality
Authors: Hadjinikos George
Published: December 2008

Music can communicate between human beings across barriers of time and space because it emanates from the very origins of human existence. It expresses the totality of all aspects of human life. Hence music education should be of primary concern and availability to everyone, not simply the ‘musical’. Increasing specialisation and fragmentation has reduced music to either utilitarian service or mere entertainment (muzak), whilst music education habitually misses the faculty of communication. This is happening at a time when, amidst the mounting alienation of society, people hunger for communication. The exclusive pursuit of brilliance, itself alienating, has eclipsed the real purpose of music education – the recognition and cultivation of the human soul.
Changing perceptions of music with Reception children
Authors: Flash Lesley
Published: December 2008

This article is a summary of the influence on the author's practice of classroom observation of four- and five-year-old children working in music. It suggests that a strong emphasis on music in the Reception year is important both for musical and aesthetic development, and for the development of basic formal and social skills across the curriculum.
The Legacy of Folk Song: The Influence of Cecil Sharp on Music Education
Authors: Cox Gordon
Published: December 2008

Cecil Sharp's educational significance is clear – he introduced the music of an oral tradition into schools. Breaking the domination of the literate tradition was no mean achievement. Of course the general climate of educational reform helped, and folk song provided an ideal model of a supposedly instinctual form which would be able to transform the hitherto rigid style of schooling. Nevertheless the folk song movement developed into a narrow orthodoxy.

In his work Sharp probed into relationships between art, race, and national identity, and tackled notions of authenticity and knowledge; issues which are at the heart of the search for an adequate philosophy of music education.
The Kodály Concept and its Pedigree
Authors: Rainbow Bernarr
Published: December 2008

As rumours of a new method of teaching music introduced in Hungary by Zoltán Kodály began to spread early in the 1960s a few uncertain attempts were made to introduce it in English schools. Progress was impeded by language problems: the provision of English song texts to fit Hungarian rhythms and a scarcity of background information in English both proved handicaps. The appearance in translation of F. Sándor's compendium, Music Education in Hungary, in 1966 eventually extended our knowledge of the new method; and the details of the origin of the Kodály Concept it contained were naturally accepted as authentic.

This article examines those claims – since found to be based on questionable evidence – and urges publication of a more reliable account.
Kinaesthesia in Music and its Implications for Developments in Microtechnology
Authors: Kemp Anthony
Published: December 2008

This paper takes the view that kinaesthesia, processes involving neuro muscular sensation, should be the central and unifying component in any psychological model for music learning. It maintains that engagement in music activities, which consciously encourages the processes of kinaesthesia, helps to bring about the closer association of thinking and feeling. The paper develops the notion that this form of musical ‘knowing’, which is based on the interrelationships between muscular, perceptual and cognitive awareness, is the essential ingredient of musically sensitive and imaginative behaviour. Having established these principles, the paper explores those recent developments in music microtechnology which appear to support and develop these processes.
Training Music Students for a Career in Instrumental Teaching: A Conservatoire's Point of View
Authors: Kite Christopher
Published: December 2008

The author outlines the philosophy and practice of the Instrumental Teaching Course at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. An obligatory requirement for all undergraduate students, this course was from September 1987, co-ordinated from the ILEA Music Centre by Christopher Morgan. The demise of the ILEA had, of course, been foreseen, and the various changes made to the structure of the Instrumental Teaching Course over the last two years, and the adjustment of its place in the overall curriculum, paved the way for its adoption as an in-house operation. From September 1990 the course becomes a direct responsibility of the Department of Performance and Communication skills headed by Peter Renshaw.
Music and Language: Commonalities in Semiotics, Syllabus, and Classroom Teaching
Authors: Dunbar-Hall Peter
Published: December 2008

Music and language are often seen to be similar, and this has led to numerous music education methods based on language models. This paper describes a commonality between music and language at a semiotic level, compares their relevant syllabuses, and discusses a number of possible transfers between language teaching and music education.
A Case for World Music
Authors: Stock Jonathan
Published: December 2008

The basic aim of this article is to argue that world music should be an integral part of any musical curriculum. An extensive example, drawn from Chinese traditional music, outlines potential benefits that the study of world music offers to the music teacher interested in it either for its own sake or as a means of developing pupils' skills at improvisations and composition. The featured example is a composition for erhu (Chinese two-stringed fiddle) by the folk musician Abing. Ideas are raised concerning musical context, analysis, melodic structure, tonality, metre, notation and ornamentation.
Musical Criticism and Musical Development
Authors: Swanwick Keith
Published: December 2008

Musical criticism lies at the heart of music education. It is argued that there are five fundamental dimensions of musical criticism: control of sonorities; expressive characterisation; structural relationships; personal evaluation; historical and technical context. The first four of these – those directly concerned with response to a musical object or event – are the essential modes of criticism and these can be seen unfolding in the musical development of children. Following the publication in 1986 by Swanwick and Tillman of a musical development model, further research in Cyprus gives supportive results; showing strong agreement between judges on the use of critical criteria for assessing children's compositions and articulating the same sequential order of development. A random selection of children's compositions drawn from over 600 items collected in Cyprus is assessed by independent judges. There are correlations between assigned critical criteria and the age of the children. Thus the pattern of musical development can be seen to parallel a critical hierarchy. From these data we can also assume that, although the sequential order of development may be confirmed, the compositions of the UK children in our sample appear generally to be more advanced than those of their Cyprus peers. The quality and consistency of music education provision seems therefore to have a positive role in the development of critical powers. There are implications for music curriculum development, for assessment procedures and for further work on musical development, and on the relationship of composing to performing and of both to audience listening.
Pupil Talk, Musical Learning and Creativity
Authors: Auker Peter
Published: December 2008

The author's interest in the role of language in education began while he was a student at Goldsmiths' College. A number of transcripts from lessons are considered, and the dialogue between teacher and pupil is analysed with a view to finding clues about the nature of the musical learning which is taking place. It is the author's view that we should allow children ample opportunity and time to talk about the music they are involved with, since it is through verbal articulation of knowledge that the process of musical learning and creativity can be fostered.
Concentration and tension
Authors: Gellrich Martin , Parncutt Richard
Published: December 2008

Relaxation clearly plays an important role in music practice and performance. However complete relaxation is neither possible nor musically appropriate. A certain degree of tension is always necessary to enable a suitable level of concentration and musical expression.

Concentration inevitably produces muscular reactions in different parts of the body. These cause problems when they occur in mutually opposing combinations. Common locations for such tension knots or blocks in music practice are the back of the neck, the wrists, and the hands (grasping reflex). Causes include overconcentration, emotional involvement in the music, fear of making mistakes in difficult passages, and insufficiently practised playing movements. The described effects are illustrated by reference to the practice and performance of a piece of piano music.

The article is based on two lectures given in 1987, one at an ESTA conference in Germany, and the other at an EPTA conference in Yugoslavia.
What do we do, and how do we do it? A teacher-group writing project on the significance of creativity in instrumental lessons
Authors: Paynter John
Published: December 2008

The following four articles are the outcome of a project initiated and nurtured by Richard Addison, Lecturer in Music in the School of Eduction at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, who, for many years, has been widely acclaimed for his innovative work in fostering children's creative musical abilities.
Listen to my song: a study of songs invented by children aged 5 to 7 years
Authors: Davies Coral
Published: December 2008

This article examines the musical structural processes used in songs invented by 32 children over a period of 18 months. It takes the view that the organisation and relationships of musical events in time are fundamental to music's meaning, and that we should expect structural considerations to be important as soon as a child begins to be musically articulate.

I have been continuing my study of young children's invented songs (Davies, 1986), analysing them in the light of recent writings on music as mind. If music is an activity of mind, the question arises, what are musical thought processes, and can we find them in the musical inventions of young children ?
‘Opera on the Pier’, 1990 – a view from the pit and classroom
Authors: Ruffer David
Published: December 2008

Education Departments in Arts organisations have traditionally taken on the role of explaining the repetoire to young audiences; forward-looking education officers have sought to bring in new audiences by engaging them in the processes involved in their particular art form. The ‘Opera On The Pier’ project, which became known later as Hastings Spring, achieved this end with spectacular results.
Music Education and a European Dimension
Authors: Hoskyns Janet
Published: December 2008

This article looks at some of the issues surrounding the notion of a European dimension and ways in which it might be developed and applied in Music education.
The Percussion Band – Mere Noise or Music?
Authors: Southcott Jane
Published: December 2008

The Percussion Band method is part of our methodological heritage. The method was carefully based on contemporary educational theory and its advocates argued convincingly for its inclusion in kindergarten and school curricula. Critics of the method were heard from the first. This article seeks to examine the arguments for and against the method, the educational beliefs that underlie these positions and to note the influence of the method in the Australian school curriculum.
The Position of Music in the Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (TVEI): a Critical Appraisal
Authors: Green Lucy
Published: December 2008

Now in its ninth year, the Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (TVEI) has a complex history, marked by lively debate about the value and purpose of education itself, and about the role of central government in educational reform. At first seemingly unrelated to the arts, the scheme has gradually come to have a chequered impact on them. Whereas many music teachers have not been at all affected, others have been deeply involved. For them, it has brought distinct, sometimes radical innovation in both the form and content of the curriculum.
Out of Africa…into Hastings – Reflections on African Week at William Parker School, April 1991
Authors: Ruffer David
Published: December 2008

The Report of the Working Group for Music on the National Curriculum suggested that music teachers should incorporate music from non-Western cultures into their programmes of study. African Week proved to be an ideal opportunity to introduce the idea of music and dance from Africa to both students and the wider community in a predominantly white area, as well as to address the vexed problem of how to teach combined arts without diluting standards in the individual art forms.
Instrumental Teaching for the Curriculum. A Survey of Developments in Wolverhampton
Authors: Bunting Robert
Published: December 2008

LEA re-organisation is in many places bringing instrumental teachers into closer contact with people whose background is that of classroom teaching and curriculum development. Initially there may be some suspicion on both sides, but our experience in Wolverhampton suggests that this is potentially an enjoyable and immensely fruitful relationship.
Key Stage-Struck! Assessment and class music making
Authors: Ogilvie Len
Published: December 2008

As the time for the implementation of the National Curriculum in Music approaches, will the tail of assessment begin to wag the dog of class-room music and dissipate all that has been achieved in providing the dynamic, challenging and fulfilling experiences that now characterise many class music lessons? This article sets out some proposals for an assessment strategy which, it is hoped, is faithful to the intentions of the National Curriculum Music Working Group in allowing practical music to flourish but with a greater sense of direction and enhanced awareness of the power of musical expression for teachers and students alike.
Music for Everyone?
Authors: Crichton Laura
Published: December 2008

This paper addresses the musical needs of people with disabilities, taking two specific issues – entitlement and access to music experience. While there are increasing examples of good practice, for various reasons the needs of many individuals and groups with special needs are not being adequately met. The argument that all people, regardless of ‘ability’, should enjoy equal access to music is fundamental to the discussion.

Whilst the roles of music providers may differ in various contexts, if disabled people are to enjoy the right to music at all levels, access from primary age through to adulthood has to be ensured. The implication for training to fulfil this need cannot be ignored.
Post-compulsory Education in Scottish Schools
Authors: Sheridan Mark
Published: December 2008

With the introduction of the new Revised Higher Grade Examination in Music, the proposed Certificate of Sixth Year Studies in Music and the plethora of modules and short courses available from the Scottish Vocational and Educational Council and the Scottish Examination Board, teachers now have the opportunity to tailor courses to suit individual student needs. Those involved in planning have been meticulous in ensuring that performing, inventing and listening are present at all stages of certification. This ‘comprehensive musician’ approach ensures that students have breadth of experience in playing more than one instrument and that they are all involved in inventing – improvising, composing or arranging. In addition, having adopted a concept-based approach to the acquisition of knowledge and understanding, the whole process is very clearly associated with the philosophy of the ‘spiral’ curriculum.
Towards the National Song Book: The History of an Idea
Authors: Cox Gordon
Published: December 2008

This paper traces the relationship between music and national feeling which permeated popular education during the latter part of the nineteenth century, culminating in the publication ofThe National Song Book(Stanford, 1906). By the First World War there was hardly a school in the country which did not possess a copy. The roots of the idea of national songs are traced back to Herder and Engel, and in particular to William Chappell'sPopular Music of the Olden Time(1858–9). The paper argues that music educationists developed distinct theories about the educative value of such songs in developing notions of nationhood, patriotism and racial pride. Specifically a line of development is traced in the development ofThe National Song Bookthrough Charles Stanford, W. H. Hadow and Arthur Somervell, while taking cognisance of the dissenting views of John Stainer and Cecil Sharp. The paper concludes thatThe National Song Bookproclaimed the hegemony of the literate tradition as opposed to the oral, and considers the view that national songs contained within them the danger of the manipulation of patriotism.
The Concept of Domain in the Cognitive Theory of Metaphor
Authors: Engberg-Pedersen Elisabeth
Published: December 2008

In cognitive semantics metaphors are cross-domain mappings in the conceptual system. Thus the notion of domain plays a crucial role in the theory. However, domain is never defined, but taken for granted. By means of data from language acquisition and language production and comprehension I question the cognitive status of the notion of domain. Furthermore, I demonstrate that both linguistic and nonlinguistic evidence indicate that space and time are cognitively linked in a way that makes it problematic to claim that space is mapped onto time in the development of grammatical temporal markers.
Palatal Vowel Harmony: A Perceptually Motivated Phenomenon?
Authors: Suomi Kari
Published: December 2008

The paper attempts to determine the motivating causes of palatal vowel harmony (PVH). Previously suggested causal explanations of PVH are critically evaluated, especially the progressive palatal assimilation view of the origin of PVH. Data on PVH restrictions from Finnish and Turkish are examined against a set of perceptually motivated working tendencies. It is shown that PVH and “labial harmony” are only special cases of a single, unitary type of restriction, statable acoustically in terms of the frequency of the second formant. A perceptual theory of the causes of PVH is proposed and general phonetic conditions for and against the development of PVH in a language are suggested. On the whole, the paper is an argument for a substance-based approach to phonology.
On Extraposition in German and Norwegian. Towards a Contrastive Analysis
Authors: Askedal John Ole
Published: December 2008

In the present article, it is claimed that German, being basically an SOV-language, has a clearly delimitable extrapositional field behind the final verb field of the sentence, whereas Norwegian, which belongs to a VO-type, is in this respect more indeterminate. Two general facts corroborate this assumption. First, extraposition is in German systematically correlated with certain other syntactic phenomena that are either non-existent or play a far more peripheral part in Norwegian. Second, certain constructions of German that are uniformly extrapositional have a number of different translational equivalents in Norwegian which are only in part extrapositional in character. It is also claimed that these Norwegian constructions are formally more diverse, insofar as rules with a different structural impact are required to account for their syntactic behaviour.
Complex Passives, Reanalysis, and Word Formation
Authors: Christensen Kirsti Koch
Published: December 2008

This paper deals with the syntax of the so-called ‘complex passive’ and, more generally, with investigating the range, effects, and interaction of certain reanalysis processes that have been claimed to be operative in this and other syntactic constructions.
Phonetically Low Tone–Phonologically High Tone, and Vice Versa
Authors: Fretheim Thorstein
Published: December 2008

The phonological Highs and Lows of prosodic feet in East Norwegian utterances do not always coincide temporally with the phonetic Highs and Lows associated with the pitch contours characteristic of Accent 1 and Accent 2. This paper accounts for two distinct types of discrepancy between actual pitch level and perceived pitch level, i.e. phonological pitch level, in certain prosodically well-defined cases where pitch peaks appear to occur “too late”. In order to determine what is phonologically High or Low in a given prosodic foot, you often have to consider phonetic aspects of the pitch contours of the immediately preceding or the immediately following foot.
Language Maintenance and Language Shift among Four Immigrant Minorities in the Nordic Region: A Re-evaluation of Fishman's Theory of Diglossia and Bilingualism?
Authors: Boyd Sally , Latomaa Sirkku
Published: December 2008

In his (1972) book, The Sociology of Language, Joshua Fishman presents his often-cited typology of language contact situations in the form of a four-cell table: + or − diglossia and + or − bilingualism. Although criticism has been made of this typology and particularly of the predictions based on it, in this paper we operationalize Fishman's concepts of diglossia and bilingualism as presented in this book. We then examine results from a comparative study of language contact among four immigrant minorities in the Nordic region – North Americans, Finns, Turks and Vietnamese. Each of these groups was studied in at least two locations in the region, making a total of nine informant groups. By comparing the results for the generations, it is possible to see if there is evidence to support Fishman's predictions in the cases studied. The relatively stable levels of bilingualism found among the Americans and the Turks are not predicted by Fishman's typology, at least as we have operationalized it. The “stability” would seem to result more from the way these minorities have been received by the host societies than from the pattern of language use within the groups.
Weak GPS Signal Detection in Animal Tracking
Authors: MacLean Grant
Published: December 2008

The weak GPS signal-processing work described here was part of the development of an innovative GPS tag – TrackTag™. The technology is aimed at animal tagging applications and therefore has particular challenges. These primarily relate to designing a tag to be small enough in physical size and weight so as not to impact the behaviour of the animal under study as well as robust enough to operate wherever the animal goes. TrackTag's architecture differs from that of a conventional GPS receiver. The key differences are that very short (typically 24 ms) snapshots are used and there is no processing intelligence on the tag itself. Such a short length of ON time, with no need for longer warm or cold starts, results in very little energy being used. This, in turn, allows the design of the tag to be made very small with a minimal battery size requirement and capable of being used over far greater periods than conventional GPS tags. Processing of the data is done on a PC following the download of the tag's memory.

The GPS signal-processing using such short snapshots must not compromise the accuracy of the positions calculated and they should be comparable or better than normal GPS receivers. Weak signal processing is also a requirement for tracking signals in harsh environments involved with tagging animals in their natural habitat. This research has demonstrated that weak-signal processing coupled with the short snapshots, and careful integration of a suitable antenna, allows tracking under rainforest canopy and marine environments. Conventional GPS tends not to work well under those conditions.
How Many Sumerians per Hectare? — Probing the Anatomy of an Early City
Authors: Postgate Nicholas
Published: December 2008

Excavations at the Early Dynastic site of Abu Salabikh in southern Iraq have aimed at recovering a rounded view of early urban life. One of the questions regularly and rightly asked about our results is ‘how large was the population?’, but we are still far from being able to provide an answer. This article is intended as a report from the field on where we stand at this one site, rather than a general exploration of the issues. Geomorphological and taphonomic issues relating to site size and use of space are exemplified from our own data. Progress beyond a blanket guess (based on comparative ethnography) for population density requires us to break the urban area down into individual houses and the houses into individual rooms. In this context the need for, and possible methods of, more accurate characterization of space use are described. Calculations based on high and low assumptions illustrate the wide range of estimates we still have to work with, but help to crystallize those areas where progress might be made.
Ritual Burial of Cultic Objects: The Earliest Evidence
Authors: Garfinkel Yosef
Published: December 2008

This article deals with the ritual burial of cultic objects in the Near East during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. These items are not grave goods associated with human burials but objects buried on their own because of their ritual significance. A systematic survey of the depositional context of anthropomorphic statues, plastered skulls and other cultic objects from a large number of sites indicates clearly that the earliest evidence for this concept can be traced to the early agricultural communities of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period of the seventh millennium bc. The custom was a ritual institution for the disposal of worn-out and unwanted cultic items. A further analysis of twelve other symbols and artistic components emphasizes the importance of the seventh millennium bc as a formative era for the cult and mythology of the ancient Near East.
On Categorization and Metaphorical Structuring: Some Remarks on Egyptian Art and Language
Authors: Frandsen Paul J.
Published: December 2008

This article discusses some aspects of the way the ancient Egyptians classified their world. The Egyptian method of representation aimed at showing things as they existed in the imagination of the artist who accordingly rendered them as they ‘really were’, and not as they were seen, that is, without having recourse to foreshortening, shadow, perspective. What is stored is a mental image of the prototype or ‘genus’ of the object. Linguistic and pictorial material provide evidence of the existence of inalienable properties of a given mental picture. Another set of components is the interactional properties. Both are grounded in the basic experience of the perceptual, motor and intellectual apparatus of the body. Their distribution is overlapping, because the factual inalienability of its own members is one of the first experiences of a child. While some aspects of the conceptual system and categorization grow out of this immediate experience, others can only be understood in terms of other types of experience, such as metaphors in the sense of Lakoff and Johnson. Hieroglyphs and art are discussed in terms of the notion of metaphorical structuring.
Entering Alternative Realities: Cognition, Art and Architecture in Irish Passage-Tombs
Authors: Dronfield Jeremy
Published: December 2008

This article examines the significance of the passage in Irish passage-tombs. An association between passages and concentric motifs in the engraved parietal art is analyzed, and interpreted in terms of the ‘tunnel experience’ often associated with altered states of consciousness as a means of access between ‘real’ and supernatural worlds. In addition, the implications of the coincidence of tunnel experiences and visions of the dead are considered.
Can We Interpret Figurines?
Authors: Hamilton Naomi
Published: December 2008

Figurines—miniature human representations modelled in clay or stone — are one of those key categories of prehistoric material which no archaeologist who finds one can ignore. Whether working in central America or southeast Europe, or in any of the many other contexts in which figurines abound, they form a central class of material which generates a heightened level of interest and attention. But however numerous and how-ever intriguing, prehistoric figurines have another crucial quality — that of ambiguity. Without the help of textual evidence, can prehistoric figurines be confidently interpreted or understood? Can we ever hope to know what an individual figurine was meant to represent, or why it was modelled in the way it was? Yet the challenge of interpretation can hardly be refiised. For figurines illustrate self-awareness, which is a unique human characteristic. It is this dilemma — the impulse to interpret, but the difficulty of doing so convincingly — which is the focus of the present Viewpoint.

Figurines are found in many (though not all) regions and periods of prehistory. The earliest — the female forms once referred to as ‘Venus figurines’ — date back to the Upper Palaeolithic. At the other end of the scale, figurines are still in active production today, in the form of dolls, models and statues. In a prehistoric context, figurines have multiple dimensions of interest and meaning. In first place, there is the issue of sex and gender. Many figurines are clearly female, yet their gender significance, in both social and cognitive terms (rather than in simplistic notions of Mother Goddess or sex object), has only recently begun to be considered in a serious and critical way. Then there is the aspect of human self-awareness which the figurines so vibrantly express. Figurines also encode important cognitive elements in the modelling and representation of the human form, their makers frequently exaggerating some features or concealing others. Nor, ultimately, can we avoid the question of belief, and the ritual context in which so many figurines were made or used.

The contributors to this Viewpoint feature all believe that figurines can indeed be interpreted. But they also lay stress on the vital importance of context and definition. Prehistoric figurines cannot be understood as isolated artefacts, but must be seen as products of particular societies. How far we can penetrate into their meanings — and into the minds of their prehistoric makers — is the fundamental question which underpins this discussion. Can we interpret figurines? And if so, how should we go about it?
Mesopotamian Petrology: Stages in the Classification of the Material World
Authors: Postgate Nicholas
Published: December 2008

In the search for cognition in the mute record of archaeology the record of ancient thought transmitted to us by early written texts is an obvious but underexploited resource. An examination of the classification of stones in Mesopotamia gives a rare opportunity to match textual information with the archaeological record, and offers some insights into the organization of thought and classification of knowledge by one of the first literate societies.A group of unshaped stones in the corner of a grave under the floor of a Sumerian dwelling attests to an awareness of natural properties as distinct from functions, whether or not these concepts were already formulated in words. The group of various stones also hints at the concept of a class, the first stirring of a mindset which percolates through Plato and Aristotle to Linnaeus. Already in c. 2000 BC the essential properties of some of these stones were conceptualized and described in a ‘literary’ composition, and the concept of a stable set of properties is linked to traditions relating to the proper source of a stone. Later still, maybe around 1000 BC, the Mesopotamian scribes created a lapidary or ‘Handbook of Stones’ which provides an ordered key to stones in respect of their appearance. Then, or later, the description of their appearance was supplemented by details in which their natural or physical properties were distinguished, along with magical properties some of which were probably transmitted to the Hellenistic world.
‘Insofar as the Ruby Wine Seduces Them’: Cultural Strategies for Selling Wine in Inter-war Burgundy
Authors: WHALEN PHILIP
Published: December 2008

Burgundians developed new cultural strategies to market their wines during the inter-war years. Regional leaders, cultural intermediaries and the wine industry collaborated to overcome overproduction, prohibition and foreign as well as regional competition by exploiting the concept ofterroirto develop a repertoire of popular festivals such as the Gastronomic Fair of Dijon, the Paulée of Meursault, Saint Vincent parades, an annual wine auction at the Hospice in Beaune and a Burgundian Pavilion at the 1937 World's Fair in Paris. These drew attention to the unique qualities of their wines and suggested how they might be best consumed. This aggressive marketing strategy was so successful that it became a model for French agricultural products promoted through thesystème d'appelation d'origine controlée. The result united natural resources, historical memory, marketing strategies and cultural performance into an imaginative and enduring form of commercial regionalism.