bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Observations on the role of hospital blankets as reservoirs of infection
Authors: Caplan Harold
Published: May 2009

A planned experiment to gauge the effect of regular blanket disinfection on bacterial, especially staphylococcal, contamination and infection in an acute geriatric unit is described.

With formalinization of blankets, the total colony counts of sweep-plates of blankets in use fell to 43 and 34% of the control period counts on two test wards respectively. The staphylococcal counts fell to 20 and 25% of their previous levels on the two test wards. Ordinary laundering with soap and water did not significantly alter the degree of bacterial contamination of the blankets.

Colony counts of slit-sampler plates taken during bed-making fell, with formalinization, to about one-third and one-half of the control period counts on the two test wards respectively. Staphylococcal colony counts fell to about one-fifth and one-third of their previous levels.

Staphylococcal contamination of patients was measured by the nasal carrier rate, there being very little sepsis on the unit. The gross figures for nasal carriage of Staph. aureus showed little variation attributable to blanket disinfection. The number of patients acquiring a new strain of staphylococcus after admission tended to increase as the investigation continued. This trend was reversed on both test wards coincident with the introduction of blanket disinfection, and it would seem that this measure may have the effect of lessening the chances of the hospitalized patient becoming a nasal carrier of Staph. aureus, but the results are not formally statistically significant.

There appears to be a lack of parallelism between the degree of environmental contamination and cross-infection rates. It is considered unlikely that contaminated blankets may cause infection except in two special circumstances: (a) in the wards, by direct contact with the patient's skin or in-dwelling catheter, and (b) in the operating theatre suite, either directly by contact with the patient's skin, or indirectly via the air.

I am grateful to Professor R. E. O. Williams for the loan of a slit-sampler; to Dr Martin Hynes for advice and encouragement; to Mr M. P. Curwen for the analysis of statistical significance; to Mr F. Seage for much technical help; to Dr J. Sharkey, geriatrician; to Sister J. Cleary and the nurses of the geriatric unit; and to Mrs H. M. Page and Miss M. Hanworth for secretarial assistance.

The work was supported by a grant from the free funds of the Northern Group Hospital Management Committee.
Staphylococcal disease and nasal carriage in the Royal Air Force
Authors: Miller D. L. , McDonald J. C. , Jevons M. P. , Williams R. E. O.
Published: May 2009

1. The nasal carriage of Staph. aureus and its relation to disease was studied in new recruits, boy apprentices and trained men of the Royal Air Force.

2. The proportions of Staph. aureus that were penicillin-resistant ranged from 15% in new recruits to 29% in trained men. In a school for apprentices the rate in new arrivals was 18%, and 23% for boys after the initial training. We were unable to find when these changes occurred.

3. 31% of strains isolated from septic lesions were penicillin-resistant and the rate was similar in all types of unit. Resistant strains were not apparently more virulent than sensitive strains.

4. About 1% of all strains isolated were resistant to tetracycline and streptomycin and much smaller proportions to chloramphenicol and erythromycin.

5. The phage-group distribution was similar for nasal and lesion strains, but nearly half the penicillin-resistant lesion strains belonged to Group I, and types 52A and 3C/55/71 were much commoner in lesions than in the nose.

6. Penicillin-resistant strains were more readily acquired and more rapidly lost than the sensitive strains.

7. Nasal carriers suffered from septic lesions more frequently than non-carriers, and those with a lesion tended to suffer further lesions. There was no evidence of cross-infection among bedroom contacts.

8. The proportion of penicillin-resistant strains rose from 30 to 40% between admission to and discharge from service hospitals. Resistant strains were not carried for long after discharge.

9. Penicillin treatment resulted in a fall in the total carrier rate and a rise in the resistance rate. Phage type analysis showed that this was mainly due to elimination of sensitive strains and recolonization with resistant strains.

We are greatly indebted to Miss Susan Green for the large amount of work that she did in the laboratory. We should like to thank also many Royal Air Force medical officers for their assistance, in particular Wing Commander E. S. Odbert, Wing Commander M. White, Squadron Leader M. Shearer and Flight Lieutenant A. J. Zuckerman; and the Director-General of the Royal Air Force Medical Services for permission to publish the results.
The lethal effect of cotton-wool lipid on tubercle bacilli in acid conditions and its prevention by surface-active agents
Authors: Hart P. D'arcy , Lovelock J. E. , Nash T.
Published: May 2009

Long-chain fatty acids are not appreciably bactericidal to tubercle bacilli at neutral pH, but become so even in slightly acid solution. In this way tubercle bacilli, normally resistant to 0·1 N hydrochloric acid (pH 1·0), are rapidly killed at this pH if traces of fatty acid are present, such as can be found inside test tubes that have been plugged with cotton wool and sterilized by dry heat.

The lethal effect is largely prevented by non-ionic, cationic, and to a lesser extent anionic detergents, which probably take up the fatty acid into the micelles so that it can no longer attack the bacilli.

The various fatty acids identified in the deposit from heated cotton wool were tested individually and found to be bactericidal. They comprised the usual C12to C18saturated acids and also oleic acid. The latter, however, showed no particular lethal toxicity in excess of that shown by, for example, palmitic acid. Shorter chained fatty acids than those represented in the deposit were less lethal.

We wish to thank Dr A. T. James for the chromatographic analyses and for advice; Dr R. J. W. Rees for carrying out counts of total acid-fast bacilli in two experiments; Messrs. Robinson & Sons Ltd, Chesterfield, for information on the industrial processes involved in the preparation of cotton wool; Mr E. J. Latham for advice on preparing glassware; and Dr J. Marks for helpful criticism of the manuscript.
Efficacy of measles vaccine
Authors: Hartfield J. , Morley D.
Published: May 2009

1. Approximately 1000 Nigerian children between the age of 6 months and 2 years were given Enders ‘B’ meásles vaccine, combined with gamma globulin in all except 120 children. A control group of similar numbers received gamma globulin alone plus inert material.

2. In a preliminary village study the 26 vaccinated children remained free of measles, 19 of the 27 control children developed measles and 2 of these children died.

3. In a blind study among children attending the large child out-patient clinic at the Ilesha hospital, a follow up was also attempted but was more difficult. In all, 272 cases of ‘measles-like’ illness were seen, 192 in control children, and 80 in the vaccinated group. The number in the vaccinated group is believed to be a reflexion of the difficulties under which this diagnosis was made, rather than a failure of the vaccine to immunize. Eleven children are known to have died from measles. All these 11 were in the control group who had not had vaccine.

4. The control children showed a smaller mean gain in weight than the vaccinated in the months following inoculation. The difference may have been due to poor weight-gain among the control children who developed measles.

This work was supported in part by the Health Research Council of the City of New York under contract U 1056 and by the office of the Surgeon General, Department of the U.S. Army, sponsored by the Commission on Viral Infection Armed Forces Epidemiological Board. We wish to thank Dr W. J. Martin, Ph.D., D.Sc. and Miss I. Allen of the Medical Research Council's Statistical Unit for Statistical help.

The vaccines and gamma globulin were supplied by Dr Maurice Hilleman, Director, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research.
Studies in tissue culture on the pH-stability of rinderpest virus
Authors: Liess B. , Plowright W.
Published: May 2009

The pH-stability of three strains of rinderpest virus, propagated in tissue cultures, was investigated at 4°C. in veronal-acetate buffers (Michaelis) of pH 3·0–10·7.

An attenuated laboratory strain, in its 95th culture passage (RBOK), showed maximal stability in the pH range 7·2–8·0, the half-life being about 3·7 days. It was relatively stable from pH 4·0 to 10·2, the half-life at the extremes of this range being over 2 hr. At pH 3·0 the infectivity declined very rapidly, the half-life period being 24·0 sec.

One virulent strain (RGK/1) showed a significantly lower resistance than strain RBOK at pH 3/0, probably also at pH 5·0. The inactivation rates for these two strains were, however, not greatly different at pH 10·7. The other virulent strain (RBT/1) was even less stable than RGK/1 at pH 4·0 or 5·0 but of a comparable stability at pH 9·0 and 10·2.

These findings are discussed in comparison with published data on the related viruses of measles and canine distemper. The importance of strain differences in studies of this kind is stressed.

We are grateful to Mr C. S. Rampton, A.I.M.L.T., and Mr L. W. Rowe, F.I.M.L.T., for help in the preparation of the diagrams. This paper is published with the permission of Mr H. R. Binns, C.M.G., O.B.E., Director, E.A.V.R.O.
Salmonellae and shigellae in a group of periurban South African Bantu school children
Authors: Richardson N.J. , Bokkenheuser V.
Published: May 2009

1. Faeces from apparently healthy Bantu school children of a periurban district of Johannesburg were examined eight times at regular intervals over a period of 1 year.

2. Of 75 children, 29·3 % experienced at least one salmonella infection and 2·7 % one shigella infection. It is suggested that over a year nearly all children will have one, and many of them several, infections with these pathogens. The infections occurred at a low rate throughout the year.

3. In most cases the infections were asymptomatic. A few of the children showed evidence of being salmonella carriers of long standing.

4. Eighteen different salmonella types were recovered. Salmonella typhi, S. paratyphi B and S. paratyphi C were absent. The organisms were highly resistant to penicillin, erythromycin and novobiocin and a few strains were also resistant to chloramphenicol and tetracycline.

5. The drinking water was of poor quality and may well be implicated in the transmission of the infections.

Our thanks are due to the Director of this Institute, Dr J. H. S. Gear, for permission to publish this paper; to Mr R. G. Robinson for assessing the microorganisms'sensitivity to antibiotics; and to the South African Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, for a grant enabling us to meet the transport expenses.
The production and inactivation of pyocines
Authors: Wahba A. H.
Published: May 2009

Certain strains ofPs. aeruginosaproduce, in addition to pyocines, substances which inhibit pyocine activity. These pyocine inhibitors are probably proteolytic enzymes.

In order to investigate the production of pyocines by various strains ofPs. aeruginosa,aeruginosa, nutrient agar medium was devised in which the action of the pyocine-inhibiting substances is suppressed by incorporating 10–5M iodoacetic acid, 0·1 % sodium citrate and 0·1 % dipotassium hydrogen phosphate. This medium also diminished slime production.

Pyocine production is a stable characteristic which is not lost on repeated sub-culture or prolonged storage, and might form the basis of a typing system forPs. aeruginosa.

I wish to thank Dr M. T. Parker, Director of the Cross-Infection Reference Laboratory, Public Health Laboratory Service, for constant encouragement and helpful advice.
A slowly sedimenting infectious component of Rift Valley fever virus
Authors: Polson A. , Levitt Julia
Published: May 2009

If Rift Valley fever virus (RVF), of which the main component has a sedimentation constant (S20) of about 450, is centrifuged under conditions adequate to secli ment MEF1 poliomyelitis virus (S20 = 156) completely, about 1 % of the original infective particles remain in the supernatant fluid. This slowly sedimenting (S10W) fraction was shown by centrifugation to contain infective components ranging in sedimentation constant from 4 to 19 Svedberg units. Density gradient centrifu gation showed that the densities of these particles varied from 1 to < 1 g./cm. The components were neutralized by RVF immune serum but were not affected by ribonuclease or deoxyribonuclease. In gel diffusion-filtration experiments the S10W virus behaved as substances having very low diffusion constants. Its filtration end-point using graded collodion membranes, is approximately two to three times higher than the ‘whole’ virus. It is suggested that particles comprising the S10W virus fraction contain lipoid material and may be filamentous.

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Prof. A. Kipps and R. A. Alexander for their continued interest in this work and to Dr T. H. Mead for many helpful suggestions during preparation of the manuscript.

This investigation was supported in part by a Public Health Service research grant Al 04044–02 from the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, U.S.A.
Infections in a hospital for patients with diseases of the skin
Authors: Wilson Patricia E. , White Pamela M. , Noble W. C.
Published: May 2009

Studies on infections in a hospital for diseases of the skin are described. Patients were shown to acquire staphylococci in the groin and on the chest at about the same rate as in the nose. In contrast to surgical wards, many staphylococci were resistant to tetracycline but sensitive to penicillin. Nevertheless, much of the epidemic spread of staphylococci was with typical surgical-ward strains rather than with phage group II strains which might be thought typical of skin diseases.
Studies of respiratory viruses in personnel at an Antarctic base
Authors: Holmes M. J. , Allen T. R. , Bradburne A. F. , Stott E. J.
Published: May 2009

Thirteen men wintering on an Antarctic base were isolated from other human contact for 10 months. During this period Coxsackievirus A21 and later influenza A2 virus were administered to some of the men. Serum samples were collected from each of the men at monthly intervals.

Coxsackievirus A21 produced symptoms and apparently spread to uninoculated men. It also appears that repeated re-infections occurred and that the virus persisted in this small community for most of the period of isolation. HI antibody responses in the absence of neutralizing antibody responses seem to be transient.

The vaccine strain of influenza virus induced antibody responses but did not cause symptoms. There was no evidence of spread to uninoculated men.

Antibody titres against influenza C, parainfluenzaviruses 1 and 2 and coronavirus OC43 did not fall significantly during isolation.

An outbreak of respiratory illness occurred at the end of isolation and its origin was traced. No causative agent was detected.
Colonization resistance of the digestive tract in conventional and antibiotic-treated mice
Authors: Van der Waaij D. , Berghuis-de Vries J. M. , Lekkerkerk-van der Wees J. E. C.
Published: May 2009

The effect of oral administration of antibiotics on the intestinal flora of conventional mice and their resistance to colonization by orally introducedEscherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniaeandPseudomonas aeruginosawas studied. Colonization resistance (CR) was expressed as the log of the oral bacterial dose followed by a persistent take in 50 % of the contaminated animals. The intestinal flora was virtually eliminated by the antibiotics and this elimination was accompanied by a precipitous fall of CR. CR gradually returned to normal values during the period of repopulation of the intestinal tract by the organisms surviving the treatment. Antibiotic treatment resulted in the disappearance of Enterobacteriaceae, enterococci, staphylococci and yeasts and, under appropriate housing conditions, the animals remained free of these organisms indefinitely. Germ-free mice contaminated with the intestinal flora of an antibiotic-treated animal and their offspring housed in a germ-free isolator showed high values of CR. Their intestinal flora consisted of anaerobic bacteria only. Apparently, these anaerobes are responsible for CR in these and in conventional mice.
Field trials of an inactivated oil-adjuvant vaccine against louping-ill (Arbovirus group B)
Authors: Brotherston J. G. , Bannatyne C. C. , Mathieson A. O. , Nicolson T. B.
Published: May 2009

A single dose of inactivated louping-ill oil-adjuvant vaccine elicited a serologically detectable immune response in sheep lasting for at least 1 year. These sheep when exposed to a natural focus of louping-ill virus were completely protected from clinical disease and 1 year after vaccination were able to pass on a substantial maternal immunity to their lambs.

Twenty-nine per cent of unvaccinated sheep, exposed at the same time, died from clinical louping-ill; half of the survivors showed positive sero-conversion and became immune, while the other half remained susceptible. The incidence of fatal encephalomyelitis in sheep which were known to have circulated virus exceeded 50% in 2 out of 3 trials conducted simultaneously in different locations in Scotland in 1969.
Aspects of influenza C virus replication
Authors: Barclay Grizel R. , Leader-Williams Lesley K. , Flewett T. H.
Published: May 2009

Influenza C virus antigen could be detected by immunofluorescence in chick amniotic epithelium 4 hr. after inoculation with undiluted amniotic fluid. Antigen could be detected in the nucleus of rhesus monkey kidney tissue cultures 10 hr. after infection. Only cytoplasmic fluorescence was observed 17–21 hr. after infection.

The pattern of replication was similar to that reported for group I myxoviruses, indicating that the virus is correctly classified as an influenza virus.
Vibriocidal antibodies induced byYersinia enterocoliticaserotype IX
Authors: Barua D. , Watanabe Y.
Published: May 2009

Yersinia enterocoliticaserotype IX has been found to stimulate the production of vibriocidal antibody againstVibrio cholerae, particularly in Inaba serotype, in experimental rabbits and infected man to a significant degree. This activity could be absorbed by both Inaba andYersiniaantigens from anti-yersinia sera, butYersiniaantigen could not absorb vibriocidal activity from the anti-cholera sera, indicating a unilateral relation.

Vibrio agglutinating antibody, particularly against Ogawa, in anti-yersinia rabbit or human sera was found to be less liable to non-specific stimulation.

V. cholerae, while removing vibriocidal antibody, could not absorb theYersiniaagglutinin from anti-yersinia sera, suggesting that there is a different determinant for these two types of antibody activities.

The non-specific production of vibriocidal antibody byY. enterocoliticatype IX indicates the need for caution in the interpretation of the results of vibriocidal tests where such organisms are prevalent.
Serological detection of enterotoxin in foods implicated in staphylococcal food poisoning
Authors: Gilbert R. J. , Wieneke Antonnette A. , Lanser Janice , Šimkovičová Magda
Published: May 2009

Two methods are described for the extraction of enterotoxin from foods incriminated in incidents of staphylococcal food poisoning. Enterotoxin was detected serologically in 12 of 24 food samples from 20 separate incidents: eight samples contained enterotoxin A, three contained D and one both A and B. The amount of enterotoxin in nine foods, based on 100 % recovery, varied from 0·02 to 0·09 μg./g.

Data are also given on the numbers ofStaphylococcus aureusisolated from samples of food from 39 food poisoning incidents. Colony counts varied between 7·5 × 105and 9 × 109/g. with a median value of 7 × 107/g.
Examination of two bacterial strains designated ‘Brucella suisbiotype 5’
Authors: Corbel M. J.
Published: May 2009

The morphological, cultural, biochemical, serological and pathogenic properties of two bacterial strains of the group designated ‘Br. suisbiotype 5’ were examined. Both strains were found to be atypical of the genusBrucellain many of these characteristics. No serological relationship to known brucella strains could be detected. On the basis of the evidence obtained the two strains examined were classified asMoraxella duplexand the status of ‘Br. suisbiotype 5’ questioned.
Typing ofPseudomonas aeruginosa: comparison of the phage procedure with the pyocine technique
Authors: Bernstein-Ziv Ruth , Mushin Rose , Rabinowitz Kurt
Published: May 2009

Two hundred and sixty strains ofPseudomonas aeruginosawere isolated from patients of the Asaf Harofe Government Hospital. The strains were typed by phage technique and 64 of them were also typed according to pyocine sensitivity. The two methods proved complementary, and reduced the number of untypable strains. Phage typing was performed with both routine test dilution (RTD) and more concentrated phage suspensions. The most reliable results were obtained at 100 RTD.
A single medium for the rapid detection ofEscherichia coliat 44°C
Authors: Mara D. D.
Published: May 2009

Lactose tryptone ricinoleate broth (0·3% lactose, 2% Oxoid tryptone, 0·1% Na ricinoleate; pH 7·1) was found to be as good as the currently recommended combination of lactose ricinoleate broth and tryptone water for the detection ofEscherichia coliin the positive tubes of presumptive coliform counts.
Susceptibility of the VERO line of African green monkey kidney cells to human enteroviruses
Authors: Davis Patricia M. , Phillpotts R. J.
Published: May 2009

The relative susceptibility of VERO cells and primary rhesus monkey kidney cells to 47 prototype strains of human enteroviruses is described. Of these strains, types 4, 14, 16, 17, 18, 21, 31 and 34 and Coxsackie virus A 9 failed to cause CPE in the VERO cells whilst only one, echovirus type 34, failed to cause CPE in the monkey kidney cells.

A comparison is given of the efficiency of the two cell cultures for enterovirus isolation from clinical material. Results show that VERO cells are as useful as primary monkey kidney for the isolation of Coxsackie B viruses but less satisfactory for isolating echoviruses. They are satisfactory for the isolation of single types of poliovirus and appear to be more satisfactory than primary monkey kidney cells for the isolation of mixtures of polioviruses. The identification of enteroviruses by neutralization tests in VERO cells is successful.
The distribution in Kenya of bluetongue virus and antibody, and the Culicoides vector
Authors: Davies F. G. , Walker A. R.
Published: May 2009

Sera from domestic cattle, sheep and goats and 11 wild bovid species taken at 41 locations throughout Kenya were screened for antibody to bluetongue virus using the indirect fluorescent antibody method. Positive sera were found at 39 locations and in all the species tested. The distribution of clinical disease was mapped and found to be more restricted than the distribution of antibody. Culicoides were collected in light traps at 55 locations throughout Kenya. The presumptive vector of bluetongue in Kenya, C. pallidipennis, was the most widespread species, found in 38 locations. Both the distribution of antibody and Culicoides have been tabulated by ecological zones to demonstrate that bluetongue virus in its natural state in cattle and wild bovids is far more widespread than clinical bluetongue disease seen in exotic sheep of restricted distribution; and that C. pallidipennis has great ecological range.
The characterization of plasmids in the enterobacteria
Authors: Anderson E. S. , Threlfall E. J.
Published: May 2009

The routine methods used in the Enteric Reference Laboratory for the study of enterobacterial plasmids are described. The results of their application to plasmids of diverse origin, and their value for the categorization of those plasmids, are presented and discussed.
Laboratory tests of 5-p-chlorophenyl silatrane as a rodenticide
Authors: Greaves J. H. , Redfern R. , Tinworth H.
Published: May 2009

The properties of 5-p-chlorophenyl silatrane as a rodenticide against Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus were investigated in the laboratory. The high oral toxicity of the compound was confirmed. When the compound was given to laboratory rats and mice by stomach tube at lethal dosages, signs of poisoning were observed within a minute. When caged wild rats and mice were given a choice between plain and poisoned baits the optimum rodenticidal concentration in the bait was about 0.5% for both species, producing 50% mortality in wild rats and 95% mortality in wild mice. The results are discussed in relation to safety in use and the probable effectiveness of the compound as a rodenticide in field conditions.
Swine vesicular disease: attempts to transmit infection to cattle and sheep
Authors: Burrows R. , Mann J. A. , Goodridge D. , Chapman W. G.
Published: May 2009

Cattle and sheep were housed with infected pigs for 11 days. Small amounts of virus were recovered intermittently from the pharynx, milk and rectal swabs of the cattle, but no evidence of subclinical infection was found. Some indication of virus growth in the sheep was obtained in that large amounts of virus were recovered from the pharyngeal region 4 to 7 days after exposure and six of the eight sheep developed significant titres of neutralizing antibody which were maintained in four animals for at least 6 weeks.
Pertussis agglutinins in vaccinated children: better response with adjuvant
Authors: Preston N. W. , Mackay R. I. , Bamford F. N. , Crofts J. E. , Burland W. L.
Published: May 2009

Children were immunized with a single batch of pertussis vaccine, either adsorbed on aluminium hydroxide or plain. With a primary course of three injections, adsorbed vaccine produced higher titres of pertussis agglutinins in the serum than did plain vaccine. There was no obvious difference in response between those who received the three doses at intervals of 1–2 months, starting at 3–4 months of age, and those in whom the third dose was delayed until about 6 months after the second, but the number of children in each group was small.
The foot-and-mouth disease virus subtype variants in Kenya
Authors: Anderson E. C. , Anderson J. , Doughty W. J.
Published: May 2009

The subtype variants found in Kenya in the past ten years have been studied. The type O and type SAT 2 subtypes have a distinct geographical distribution which appears to be associated with livestock movement patterns. The type A viruses have a greater tendency to antigenic variation and their geographical distribution is less distinct. In type C only minor differences exist between the three viruses studied.
The isolation of Escherichia coli from a poultry packing station and an abattoir
Authors: Shooter R. A. , Cooke E. Mary , O'Farrell Sheila , Bettelheim K. A. , Chandler Mary E. , Bushrod Frances M.
Published: May 2009

The distribution and serotype of strains of Escherichia coli from a poultry packing station and an abattoir are described. The results indicated that animal faecal strains contaminated the environment and the animal carcasses.

Using 150 O antisera, a high proportion of the E. coli strains were non-typable. This suggests that the serotype distribution of E. coli in animals is different from that in man.

Strains with single antigenic differences were isolated, and the possibility of genetic transfer of these antigenic structures is suggested.
Further studies of Escherichia coli in babies after normal delivery
Authors: Bettelheim K. A. , Teoh-Chan Ching Haan , Chandler Mary E. , O'farrell Sheila M. , Rahamin Layla , Shaw Elizabeth J. , Shooter R. A.
Published: May 2009

Previous work showed that on the basis of O serotyping alone of Escherichia coli, the majority of babies acquired the same O serotype as was found in the stools of their respective mothers. Further characterization of the E. coli by H serotyping, determination of their antibiotic resistance and ability to ferment six carbohydrates showed that in the majority of cases the previous results were confirmed. In a minority of cases this further testing showed that the strains were not identical. In some instances a number of strains isolated from the same pair showed different combinations of the markers used.
The problem and implications of chloramphenicol resistance in the typhoid bacillus
Authors: Anderson E. S.
Published: May 2009

Transferable chloramphenicol resistance has become common in the typhoid bacillus in countries such as Mexico, India, Vietnam and Thailand. Situations such as this, and others analogous to it in many parts of the world, are the result of the long-term indiscriminate use of chloramphenicol and other antibiotics in the affected areas. They can be rectified only by more rational antibiotic usage.
A new, surface-antigen-adsorbed influenza virus vaccine. I. Studies on immunogenicity in hamsters
Authors: Jennings R. , Potter C. W. , McLaren C. , Brady Margaret
Published: May 2009

The ability of a new, surface-antigen-adsorbed influenza virus vaccine to induce serum antibody in hamsters, and to protect these hamsters against subsequent homologous virus challenge, is reported. In addition, similar studies in hamsters have also been carried out using the surface antigen material prior to adsorption to the aluminium hydroxide carrier. The new, adsorbed vaccine is at least as effective as inactivated saline influenza virus vaccine in inducing serum antibody and protection in hamsters; the unadsorbed surface antigen material, however, did not confer protection to hamsters challenged subsequently with homologous virus.
Clostridium botulinumin the lakes and waterways of London
Authors: Smith G. R. , Moryson Caroline J.
Published: May 2009

Mud samples collected during 1974 from a large proportion of the lakes and waterways of London were examined forClostridium botulinum. Of 69 such sites, 50 (72·5%) contained at least one type of the organism. Of the 50 positive sites, 31, 12, 1 and 10 contained, respectively, types B, C, D and E. Most of the demonstrations of type B required trypsinization of culture filtrates. An examination of 7 lakes in Edinburgh, made for the purpose of comparison, showed that 4 contained type B and one type C.

An analysis of the results gave quantitative information on the value of (1) resampling apparently negative lakes, (2) the use of both heated and unheated culture inocula, and (3) trypsinization of culture filtrates.
Type-specific action of vibriocidal antibody onVibrio cholerae
Authors: Pykett Angela H. , Preston N. W.
Published: May 2009

The vibriocidal activity of Inaba and Ogawa antisera, from which cross-reacting agglutinin had been absorbed, was specific forVibrio choleraestrains of the homologous serotype. No vibriocidal action against strains of the heterologous type was detected.

The sera appeared to be equally effective in killing organisms of different biotypes (classical, intermediate, and EITor), provided that these were of the homologous serotype (Inaba or Ogawa). However, they had been raised against strains of the classical biotype only; and sera resulting from immunization with other biotypes had not been prepared.

The implications of these findings in immunity to cholera are discussed.
Clothing for use in clean-air environments
Authors: Clark R. P. , Mullan B. J.
Published: May 2009

Disposable plastic two-piece suits were compared with conventional cotton suits, gowns, and plastic aprons by nurses in a burns unit. The plastic suits allowed fewer micro-organisms to be dispersed into the environment than the other garments but were less comfortable.
The sensitization of children by opportunist mycobacteria in Lagos, Nigeria
Authors: Ogunmekan D. A.
Published: May 2009

Groups of school children aged 6–14 years were tested with PPDS and one of the following five antigens simultaneously, namely PPDA, PPDF, PPDG, PPDPL and PPDY. PPDS was prepared from the human tubercle bacillus, and the others were prepared from M. avium, M. fortuitum, the ‘Gause’ organisms, M. marinum and M. kansasii respectively.

It was observed that there was some increase in induration size to PPDA, PPDG, PPDL, PPDS and PPDY with increase in age, while M. fortuitum gave a preponderance of small reactions with no increase of size with age. It was also observed that there was evidence of cross sensitization between PPDS and all the other antigens, particularly in those who had negative or doubtful reactions.
Enzyme-labelled immunosorbent assay techniques in foot-and-mouth disease virus research
Authors: Elzein E. M. E. Abu , Crowther J. R.
Published: May 2009

The indirect ELISA technique has been developed successfully to measure antibodies to foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in cattle sera. Preliminary studies using a standard serum assay show that reproducible results are obtained. The method should prove useful for the examination of antibody titres in sera from large numbers of cattle or other animals.
A survey of Nairobi sheep disease antibody in sheep and goats, wild ruminants and rodents within Kenya
Authors: Davies F. G.
Published: May 2009

The distribution of antibody to Nairobi sheep disease in sheep and goats in Kenya was found to coincide closely with that of the tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. The proportions of a population in an enzootic area with antibody was similar in the different age groups. No antibody to the virus was found in rodent sera and while some low titres were found in some wild ruminant sera, these were considered to be most likely cross reactions with antibody to related viruses.
Nairobi sheep disease in Kenya. The isolation of virus from sheep and goats, ticks and possible maintenance hosts
Authors: Davies F. G.
Published: May 2009

Nairobi sheep disease was seen principally upon movement of susceptible animals into the enzootic areas. This occurred most frequently for marketing purposes near the main centres of population. Other outbreaks followed local breakdowns in tick control measures. The disease did not occur in epizootic form during the period under consideration.

Nairobi sheep disease was isolated from pools of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus but not from many pools of other tick species. No virus was isolated from the blood or tissues of a range of wild ruminants and rodents.
The pathogenicity of thymidine kinase-deficient mutants of herpes simplex virus in mice
Authors: Field H. J. , Wildy P.
Published: May 2009

The pathogenicity for mice of two mutants of herpes simplex virus (type 1 and type 2), which fail to induce thymidine kinase, were compared with their respective parent strains. The mutants were much less virulent than the parents following either intracerebral or peripheral inoculation. The replication of the virus at the site of inoculation and its progression into the nervous system were studied. Following a very large inoculum in the ear, the type 1 mutant was found to establish a latent infection in the cervical dorsal root ganglia. Mice inoculated intracerebrally with small doses of the mutant viruses were solidly immune to challenge with lethal doses of the parent strain.
A search for faecal viruses in new-born and other infants
Authors: Appleton Hazel , Buckley Marie , Robertson M. H. , Thom B. T.
Published: May 2009

Faecal specimens were collected at weekly intervals over the winter months from 141 new-born infants without diarrhoea. Contrary to the findings in other studies, no viruses were detected by electron microscopy or culturein any of these specimens. Over the same period faecal specimens were collected from 84 infants up to four yearsof age admitted to hospital. Rotaviruses or adenoviruses were found in 48% of infants with gastroenteritis. Enteroviruses and other small round virus-like particles were found in infants both with and without gastroenteritis.No viruses or pathogenic bacteria could be found in 34% of specimens from infants with gastroenteritis.
Isolation of animal viruses from farm livestock waste, soil and water
Authors: Derbyshire J. B. , Brown E. G.
Published: May 2009

Ten porcine enteroviruses, 2 porcine adenoviruses and 1 coronavirus were isolated directly from 32 samples ofslurry collected from a pig fattening house. Concentration of the same samples by adsorption with the polyelectrolyte PE-60 yielded 24 porcine enteroviruses and 3 porcine adenoviruses. A porcine enterovirus was isolated, following PE-60 concentration, from 1 of 6 slurry samples from a sow farrowing house. No virus was isolated from 12 samples of slurry from dairy cows nor from 6 slurry samples from a calf-rearing unit. A porcine enterovirus was isolated from soil samples, after concentration with PE-60, collected 1, 2 and 8 days after pig slurry was spread on hay stubble. Two porcine enteroviruses were isolated by membrane filtration from 26 samples of surface run-off from land on which pig slurry was routinely spread, and 2 bovine enteroviruses were isolated from cattle feedlot run-off after adsorption to layers of talc and celite followed by hydroextraction. A porcine enterovirus was also isolated from 1 of 33 samples of surface water collected on farms on which pig slurry was routinely spread on the land, but no virus was isolated from 36 samples of ground water from the same farms. The surface water and ground water samples were concentrated by talc-celite adsorption and hydroextraction.
Salmonella pollution of surface waters
Authors: smith P. J. , Jones F. , Watson B. C.
Published: May 2009

Summary Surface waters in 14 selected sites were examined for the presence of salmonella using modified Moore's swabs. The sites included an upland impounding reservoir, 3 rivers and 10 streams within Lancashire and Cheshire, selected because of their accessibility to farm livestock. Salmonellas were isolated from 22 out of the 57 swabs examined representing 10 sites. The probable source of pollution was shown to be sewage or farm effluent and an examination of sites over a wider area may be expected to produce similar results.

The significance of these findings is discussed in relation to the epidemiology of salmonella infections and the possible disinfection of effluent discharges.
Cholera: possible infection from aircraft effluent
Authors: Rondle C. J. M. , Ramesh B. , Krahn J. B. , Sherriff R.
Published: May 2009

This paper presents the hypothesis that some cases of cholera might be due to effluent discharge from aircraft. The theoretical case is borne out by inspection of data on the physical conditions pertaining between high altitudes and ground level. A study of the distribution of isolated outbreaks and single cases of disease and their relation to major airline routes showed a reasonable correspondence. Sporadic outbreaks of cholera in Europe between 1970 and 1975 were found to lie within the flight paths of regular airline services from Calcutta, where cholera is endemic, to the Northern Hemisphere. Laboratory studies on the stability of Vibrio cholerae to conditions likely to be encountered in droplets falling from high altitude to the ground suggested that significant numbers of organisms might survive. It should be noted that in this study no account was taken of the effect of ultra-violet light on viability and it is known that at high altitudes the ultraviolet light component of solar radiation is much higher than at ground level. Results of experiments where small numbers of organisms were inoculated into relatively poor media showed that rapid growth ensued and that sufficient organisms were produced to give an infective dose of Vibrio cholerae in 1–10 ml/fluid. It could be concluded that human infection could easily occur by ingestion of fluids such as milk or soup which had some time earlier received a fortuitous but slight contamination from the air. Investigation of one disinfectant (chloramine T) showed that it reacted rapidly and in a complex manner with peptone. One effect of this reaction was the elimination of bactericidal activity and it seems likely that, as at present employed, chloramine T is of doubtful value in aeroplanehygiene. One important conclusion that arises from this work is that if cholera can be spread, even only occasionally, by effluent from aircraft then close investigation should be made of the possibility of other bacteria and viruses being spread in a similar way.
Haemagglutination-inhibition test for the detection of rubella antibody
Authors:   The Public Health Laboratory Service Standing Advisory Committee On Viral Reagents
Published: May 2009

Between 1969 and 1972 three quality control studies were set up to investigate the variation in results that was occurring between and within laboratories performing routine tests for the diagnosis of rubella infection. No attempt was made to standardize the test in these studies, and a wide range in titres of sera was reported. The aims of the present studies were:

(i) to investigate in greater detail whether results were more reproducible between laboratories if test sera were compared with control sera of known potency and the results given in international units of activity, and

(ii) to ascertain whether results between laboratories would be more reproducible if a standard test procedure was used.

Eleven laboratories participated in testing 38 sera on three separate occasions by a prescribed standard technique and by that used routinely in each laboratory. Eight of the 38 sera consisted of four pairs of duplicate samples.

Analysis of results of the study showed that the reproducibility between laboratories was substantially improved when the test sera were compared with a control serum of known potency and when a standard test procedure was used.

Variation in results between laboratories was least when a control serum of low rather than high potency was used. Variation within laboratories can be reduced by increasing the number of times the control and test sera are tested.

Since the rubella antibody content of the British Standard anti-rubella serum is expressed in international units, the potency of the control and results of test sera should also be expressed in such units.
The dimensions of skin fragments dispersed into the air during activity
Authors: Mackintosh C. A. , Lidwell O. M. , Towers A. G. , Marples R. R.
Published: May 2009

There was a 1000-fold difference between the highest and the lowest mean rate of dispersal of bacteria-carrying particles during exercise among a group of three male and three female subjects. Differences in the numbers of skin fragments dispersed and in the proportion of these carrying bacteria were almost equally responsible for this. Since there is little difference between individuals in the rate of skin replacement the differences in the rates of dispersal of skin fragments during exercise must reflect large variations in the amount of skin surface removed in other ways. The skin fragments dispersed had a wide size range extending below 5 μm for the minimum projected diameter (MPD). The median MPD was about 20 μm with 7–10% less than 10 μm. Many of the particles could therefore pass freely through tightly woven fabrics with pores up to 10–15 μm which might seem to be impenetrable to whole corneocytes, typically larger than 30 × 40 μm in the hydrated state.
Immune response to virus-infection-associated (VIA) antigen in cattle repeatedly vaccinated with foot-and-mouth disease virus inactivated by formalin or acetylethyleneimine
Authors: Pinto A. A. , Garland A. J. M.
Published: May 2009

The results of experiments to investigate antibody to ‘virus infection associated’ (VIA) antigen in cattle repeatedly vaccinated with formalin- or acetylethyleneimine- (AEI) inactivated foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccines under laboratory conditions are reported. Results are also presented from some vaccinated animals subsequently exposed to FMD infection.

Antibody against VIA was not detected before and after the first vaccination with formalin or AEI-inactivated vaccine but did develop in all animals after the second formalin vaccination and persisted throughout the experiment. After the second AEI vaccination, 4 of 12 animals developed antibody which persisted for at least 37 days. This transient response in some cattle was repeated after successive vaccinations but, in general, more animals responded as the number of vaccinations increased.

After exposure to infection, a transient VIA antibody response was occasionally observed in immune AEI-vaccinated animals. Some immune repeatedly AEI-vaccinated cattle did not develop detectable VIA antibody after challenge despite the persistence of virus in oesophageal–pharyngeal (O/P) fluid.

The presence of antibody to VIA antigen is not conclusive proof that vaccinated animals have been exposed to infection and field data must be interpreted with caution.
The Brown Animal Sanatory Institution
Authors: Wilson Graham
Published: May 2009

The history of the Brown Animal Sanatory Institution was intended originally to be published in book form, and was therefore divided into chapters. For the sake of convenience this division has been continued, even though it is unusual for the term to be employed in scientific periodicals. The history will be published serially in four consecutive issues of the Journal of Hygiene. References have presented a difficulty. In two instances the title of the paper referred to has had to be omitted, because no copy of the original journal in which the article appeared has been obtainable. More important, however, is the failure to give references, beyond the date, to a number of statements in the text, because the information in question has been abstracted from sources that are not available to the general reader.
The influence of operating conditions of activated-sludge treatment on the behaviour of f2 coliphage
Authors: Balluz S. A. , Butler M.
Published: May 2009

The behaviour of f2 coliphage during activated-sludge treatment was influenced by the temperature, flow-through-time, concentration of mixed liquor suspended solids and the virus load.

The most sensitive way to detect behavioural changes was to examine the regression coefficients for the rate of uptake or loss of virus by the mixed liquor solids. This type of analysis revealed, for instance, high values when the solids concentration was high and even greater values occured when high inocula were used. At high temperature the rate of loss of virus titre after inoculation had stopped was greater than the rate of uptake of virus during inoculation although in all other conditions uptake occurred at a greater rate than the loss of virus. The coefficients were relatively low when the flow rate was increased, when the temperature was low or when the inoculum was small.

The distribution of virus between the solids and liquid fractions of the mixed liquor varied somewhat for all conditions but was notably different when (a) the plant was incubated at 5 °C when there was much less virus in the solids fraction than usual, and (b) when the inoculum was low and a much higher proportion of virus was found in the solids.

The efficiency with which virus was removed across the plant was the least-sensitive determinant of viral behaviour and the value was about the same for most treatment conditions. However, low or high inocula did result in some increased or decreased removal of virus, respectively.
Ecological effects of antibiotic production by dermatophyte fungi
Authors: Youssef Nagwan , Wyborn C. H. E. , Holt G. , Noble W. C. , Clayton Yvonne M.
Published: May 2009

Antibiotic production by dermatophyte fungi has been demonstrated in vivo in the lesions of patients with dermatomycoses. Patients infected with antibiotic-producing strains more frequently carried cocci resistant to penicillin and other antibiotics than did patients infected with non-producer strains. The total bacterial load was less in lesions caused by producer fungi. In vitro studies demonstrated the selection of penicillin-resistant S. aureus from mixed populations of resistant and sensitive cells.