bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Hiddenness of God
Authors: Rea Michael C.
Published: August 2018

This book is about the hiddenness of God, and the problems it raises for belief and trust in God. Talk of divine hiddenness evokes a variety of phenomena—the relative paucity and ambiguity of the available evidence for God’s existence, the elusiveness of God’s comforting presence when we are afraid and in pain, the palpable and devastating experience of divine absence and abandonment, and more. Many of these phenomena are hard to reconcile with the idea, central to the Jewish and Christian scriptures, that God is deeply lovingly concerned with the lives and emotional and spiritual well-being of human creatures; and the philosophical problem of divine hiddenness ranks alongside the problem of evil as one of the two most important and widely discussed reasons for disbelieving in God. The central argument of the book is that the hiddenness problem, construed as an argument against the existence of God, rests on unwarranted assumptions and expectations about God’s love and goodness. In challenging those assumptions, however, the book also raises the question of why we should accept traditional positive characterizations of God’s love (God as perfect heavenly parent, for example) rather than the negative ones suggested by the phenomena of divine hiddenness (God as absent or neglectful parent, for example). The final four chapters aim to address this problem through discussion of God’s widespread experiential availability, God’s loving authorization of lament and protest, and the surprising ease of seeking and participating in a relationship with God.
Visions and Voices
Authors: Rea Michael C.
Published: August 2018

This chapter, together with Chapter 7, presents a theory about encounters with God according to which God’s presence, as well as certain kinds of divine communication are, and always have been, experientially available to a much greater degree than is typically credited in the literature on divine hiddenness. The focus in this chapter is on sensory experiences of God—visions and voices, primarily. Chapter 7 then expands focus to consider any experience that might aptly be described as an encounter with God. Insofar as it implies that experiences of God’s presence and of communication from God are widely available, it undermines the reasons we might have for thinking that certain negatively valenced analogies—God as distant or neglectful lover, for example—are more apt than traditional positive analogies for characterizing divine love.
Divine Presence in a Material World
Authors: Rea Michael C.
Published: August 2018

This chapter, together with Chapter 6, presents a theory about encounters with God according to which experience of God’s presence is much more widely available than is typically credited in the literature on divine hiddenness. The present chapter further develops the account sketched in Chapter 6 and, in so doing, locates the account in relation to a few important decision points in the literature on religious experience. The chapter concludes with some reasons for thinking that the view of divine encounters sketched here is the most plausible account of how creatures like us might experience divine presence in a material world.
The Scandal of Particularity
Authors: Rea Michael C.
Published: August 2018

This chapter is concerned with the question (central to the hiddenness problem) of how people who lack the theistic concept of God, or who are unable to attend to that concept because of trauma or other psychological obstacles, might be able to participate in a positively meaningful relationship with God just by trying to do so. The chapter begins by identifying sufficient conditions on trying to participate in a relationship with God, and arguing that these conditions can be satisfied even by someone who lacks the Christian concept of God. Next, it explains why simply trying to participate in a relationship with God by itself suffices for participating in a relationship with God. Finally, it shows that these conclusions imply that anyone who can try to participate in a relationship with God can participate in such a relationship just by trying.
Introduction
Authors: Mawson Michael
Published: August 2018

The Introduction demonstrates why a book focusing on Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s early ecclesiology is necessary at this time. In a context of widespread and increasing interest in Bonhoeffer’s theology, only limited scholarly attention has been given to Bonhoeffer’s first dissertation. Most scholars have deemed this work to be theologically problematic, in ways that Bonhoeffer later goes on to correct. Those few scholars who have been more positive about Sanctorum Communio have tended to focus on only parts of it, while neglecting its structure and integrity as a whole. The Introduction, therefore situates this book as a systematic study of Bonhoeffer’s early ecclesiology which both addresses this neglect and responds to these ways it has been misread. At the end of the Introduction, a detailed overview of the monograph and its chapters is provided.
Legitimacy in Global Governance Research
Authors: Agné Hans
Published: August 2018

As a prelude to the three themes in the volume, this chapter explores more generally the turn towards legitimacy in global governance research. The chapter suggests that this turn is partly explained by shortcomings in normative research on global democracy, and the potential of research on legitimacy to overcome those problems. The chapter discusses the merits and demerits of alternative conceptualizations of legitimacy in serving these purposes. The chapter concludes in favor of a normative-sociological understanding of legitimacy that is sensitive to beliefs among members of relevant audiences about the normative qualities of political institutions that are ultimately specified by analysts.
Theorizing the Institutional Sources of Global Governance Legitimacy
Authors: Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas
Published: August 2018

This chapter queries the widely prevalent distinction between input- and output-related sources of legitimacy in global governance. Instead, it suggests a typology of sources which builds on a related but analytically sharper distinction of procedure and performance. Moreover, the chapter emphasizes that legitimacy perceptions derive from democratic, technocratic, and fairness qualities of procedure and performance. The chapter thus arrives at a novel typology whereby the sources of legitimacy for global governance institutions can be classified in terms of democratic procedure, technocratic procedure, fair procedure, democratic performance, technocratic performance, and fair performance. The chapter further illustrates a range of indicators for these sources and considers how these bases of legitimacy may vary across types of global governance institutions, countries, societal groups, and time. The result is a wider, tighter, and more systematic understanding of the institutional grounds for perceptions of global governance legitimacy.
Audiences of (De)Legitimation in Global Governance
Authors: Bexell Magdalena , Jönsson Kristina
Published: August 2018

This chapter identifies types of audiences at which legitimation and delegitimation practices are directed in global governance. The concept of “audience” steers attention to processes of communication between those who seek to shape legitimacy perceptions and those whose perceptions would be shaped. (De)legitimation practices may have different implications for different audiences, and the chapter suggests that audiences play an active part in the performance of (de)legitimation in global governance. Two distinctions are introduced for classifying relationships between global governance institutions and the multitude of actors that may hold legitimacy beliefs about them, namely between constituencies and observers and between targeted and self-appointed audiences. Such categories can be used for the purpose of studying patterns and variation in legitimacy beliefs across actors.
What is the urban environment and what is biology?
Authors: James Philip
Published: August 2018

The two main themes contained within the title The Biology of Urban Environments are explored. The initial focus is on urban environments. A discussion of the origins of cities and the global spread of urbanization leads on to a consideration of urban environments in the twenty-first century. In the second section, the focus switches to biology. The scope of the discipline is set out in terms of both the range of sub-disciplines and of biological scales. It is established from this discussion that in this book the topics considered span from genes to ecosystems and will be illustrated by examples of the biology of micro-organisms, plants, and animals. Importantly humans will be included within this consideration: our biology is affected by urban environments. The final part presents the structure of the book.
The physical environment
Authors: James Philip
Published: August 2018

Elements of the physical aspects of urban environments determine which micro-organisms, plants, and animals live in urban environments. In this chapter, climate, air, water, soil, noise, and light are discussed. Urban environments are affected by the climate of the region in which they are located, and in turn and create their own, distinctive urban climate. Air, water, and soil are all affected by urbanization. Pollution of these elements is common. High noise levels and artificial light at night (ALAN—a new phenomenon) are both strongly associated with urban environments. Details of both are discussed. The discussion in this chapter provides a foundation for further exploration of the diversity of life in urban environments and for later exploration of how organisms adapt to urban living, which will be discussed in Parts II and III.
Relationships
Authors: James Philip
Published: August 2018

Relationships between organisms within urban environments are many and varied. Plants are found in many households, and in addition to the benefits derived from their decorative properties, they also purify the air by removing pollutants. Over the course of history some animals have become domesticated: cows, horses, goats, providing food and transport. Of these, a select group have become companions (cats, dogs, and more exotic pets). Such domesticated and companion animals are an important part of the overall biology of urban environments and these relationships are explored and discussed. Some former companion or domestic animals have become feral, and other animals have never been domesticated and live freely in the urban environment. Some of these animals have beneficial relationships with humans whereas others are parasitic or are considered pests. These relationships are the focus for the later part of the exploration set out in this chapter.
The Discourse of Tyranny and the Greek Roots of the Bad King
Authors: Luraghi Nino
Published: August 2018

This chapter provides a systematic discussion of the essential attributes of the tyrant in ancient Greece, whence both the term and the concept spread throughout the West. Seen against the background of Greek cultural and moral values, the tyrant emerges as a radically marginal character, a violator of the accepted norms of sociability, a monstrous aberration. Thus, tyranny was perceived and depicted not as a bad political alternative but as a primordial sort of evil: a taboo that cannot be rationalized. Yet, the discourse of tyranny, this chapter argues, underpinned the whole concept of monarchy in Greek culture, to the point that the typical virtues of the ideal ruler were nothing more than a reversal of the negative traits of the tyrant.
Discourse of Kingship in Late Republican Invective
Authors: Baraz Yelena
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines the anti-monarchical discourse that was indigenous to Rome since the expulsion of the kings. Through a study of the lexicographic range of the words rex (king) and regnum (kingship), it parses the accusations of ‘regal aspirations’ abounding in political writings of the late Republic. Although associated with the last Roman king, the ‘tyrannical’ Tarquin, these terms were not indicative of constitutional positions. Rather, in the rhetoric of faction politics, they suggest the traits of arrogance and rampant ambition. Thus refining our understanding of political discourse in the final years of the Republic, the chapter also paves the way for a new understanding of Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and its critical assessment before and after his assassination.
Contradictory Stereotypes
Authors: Reimitz Helmut
Published: August 2018

Entering the postclassical world, this chapter examines what happened when Roman power structures were inhabited by so-called barbarian, do-nothing kings. Focusing in particular on the multilayered depiction of Chilperic I (c. 539–589) in the Histories of Gregory of Tours, the chapter shows that the Merovingian kings are rebuked not only for barbarous and un-Christian behaviors but also, surprisingly, for being ‘too Roman’. These critiques originate with local political and ecclesiastical elites, who feared a destabilizing displacement of their own authority and jurisdiction as the Merovingians strove to centralize their state after the model of Rome. Once again, therefore, foreignness of various kinds becomes the marker of a bad king, this time reflecting the interplay between the complex sociopolitical developments of the sixth century and the Roman imperial tradition.
There Are No ‘Bad Kings’
Authors: Nederman Cary J.
Published: August 2018

This chapter provides a discussion of the conceptual impossibility of the ‘bad king’ in the medieval Latin West—a conundrum that caused evil lords to be defined exclusively as tyrants. Nonetheless, political theorists from Isidore of Seville to John of Salisbury, Thomas Aquinas, and Dante display a remarkable ambivalence toward the tyrant’s role in civic life. While condemned in normative political theory, tyranny was often viewed as acceptable when a populace was deemed incapable of benefiting from good government, or when it was legitimized as an instrument of divine punishment. This chapter demonstrates furthermore that even overtly tyrannical behavior could be countenanced by attributing it not to the prince himself but to his evil counselors, who were subjected to much scrutiny in high and late medieval mirrors for princes.
A Crooked Mirror for Princes
Authors: Rychterová Pavlína
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines the growing importance of the vernacular languages during the later Middle Ages in shaping the form, content, and audiences of political discourse. It presents a famously wicked king of the late Middle Ages, Wenceslas IV (1361–1419), as a case study and traces the origins of his bad reputation to a group of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century writings. These have often been dismissed as fictions or studied solely as literature, but in fact they represent new modes of articulating good and bad kingship. The chapter shows that, in the context of an increasingly literate bourgeois culture, especially in university cities, these vernacular works transformed Latin theological approaches to monarchy, while rendering mirrors for princes and related literatures accessible to an unprecedented audience.
Introduction
Authors: Como David R.
Published: August 2018

The Introduction offers an overview of the historiography of the English Civil Wars and Revolution, situating the present study within several recent trends in scholarship on early modern England. The approach and methods adopted in the book are outlined. The central category used—“radical parliamentarians”—is delineated and discussed. The goals of the study are then defined. The book aims to trace and illuminate the processes whereby a society, bound by custom, monarchical institutions, the ancient constitution, and orthodox Christianity, unraveled, cascading into constitutional and religious innovation, and, ultimately, regicide and republicanism.
The Rubble of Episcopacy
Authors: Como David R.
Published: August 2018

This chapter explores the politics of the Long Parliament in 1641, focusing on how efforts in parliament to remodel the church interacted with external pressure campaigns and informal propaganda flowing from London presses. The chapter examines the emergence of fissures within the godly front that was challenging the existing church order. Particular attention is devoted to the rise of “independency” as a label used by both friends and enemies to describe varying shades of congregational church government. The chapter also outlines the proactive steps taken by puritan reformists to bury these growing differences. It suggests that those steps paradoxically provided leverage to more militant “independent” ideologues, who were emboldened and abetted by the attack on episcopacy waged by leading MPs at Westminster, and who began to adopt and promote ever more extreme attacks on the existing order.
The Rise of Religious Conflict in the Parliamentarian Coalition
Authors: Como David R.
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines rising religious conflict in 1643. It looks at the ways that the new Scottish alliance, the Solemn League and Covenant, and the convention of the Westminster Assembly began to place stress on parliament’s coalition, bringing to the surface fissures that had been developing within puritanism for many years. The chapter chronicles the disputes that resulted, exploring how intensifying debates migrated between the Assembly, the city, and parliament itself, producing the first signs of serious tension between incipient “independent” and “presbyterian” wings of parliament’s coalition. One significant upshot of these conflicts was the publication of An Apologeticall Narration, the famous statement of the congregational “dissenting brethren.” This chapter elucidates the immediate historical context of An Apologeticall Narration.
White King, Black Cassock
Authors: Como David R.
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines ideological developments unfolding in the last months of the civil war. In particular, it examines the coalescence of a “propaganda collective,” centering on John Lilburne and his closest collaborators, which began to promulgate a distinctive vision of political reality, put forward as the need for a final settlement became evident. This “collective” established many of the ideological, organizational, and personal ligatures that would hold together the Leveller movement in 1647. However, this collective remained in 1645 an integral part of the wider “independent” coalition, sharing broader political and ideological objectives with other constituents of that coalition. Moreover, there were also important developments among other independent sympathizers, evident most notably in the emergence, for the first time, of overtly republican sentiments and arguments at the end of 1645.
Introduction
Authors: Duff R A
Published: August 2018

This introductory chapter provides the context for the book—the widely held belief that we face a crisis of (over)criminalization, and a criminal law that has become chaotic and unprincipled. One useful response to such a crisis is to articulate a normative theory of criminal law, which will help us to see what criminal law ought to be (and thus to identify more clearly the radical defects in our criminal law): that is what this book will do. The Introduction also comments on the book’s method—a process of rational reconstruction that begins from salient features of our existing practices, and aims to make normative sense of them. Finally, it sketches the aims and contents of the chapters to follow.
Philosophical Cosmology
Authors: Rudavsky T. M.
Published: August 2018

Chapter 7 presents a more careful examination of the natural order, focusing upon both the natural world that comprises the “sublunar” sphere (viz., the space between the earth and the moon) and the heavenly bodies that comprise the “superlunar” (above the moon). In the sublunary world, it is necessary to focus upon those features of the natural order, including in particular time, place, and void. The chapter discusses the rival cosmologies of Aristotle and Ptolemy; the Greek and secular antecedents; astrology in the Jewish world; and the astrological determinism with reference to Ibn Ezra, Maimonides, and Gersonides. Finally, serious note must be taken of those events that, contravening the natural order, fall into the general category of miraculous. How, in a cosmology ruled by law and order, can miracles be explained?
Lost Glory
Authors: Majumdar Sumit K.
Published: August 2018

Lost Glory: India’s Capitalism Story describes India’s industrialization experiences. Questions about long-term industry and productivity evolution, and their impact on economic growth, lie at the heart of discourses of capitalism. The book is based on detailed empirical analyses of India’s industrialization over a period of almost seven decades, and a case study of Maruti Suzuki, India’s largest automobile manufacturer. The deeply nuanced depiction of the historical political economy that has affected India’s industrialization is a unique feature. This history will enlighten everyone interested in India. The presentation takes readers on a definitive evidence-based survey of India’s industrial landscape. It includes a detailed historical description of the intellectual origins of India’s modern industrialization, anchored in a privileged view of economic policymaking. Grounded in historical and political analyses, the facts derived on India’s long-term economic performance are used to set the record straight. It is unsparing in its assessments where the evidence warrants such conclusions. Its findings will transform debate, and set the agenda for thoughtfully assessing the future course of India’s prosperity. The author overturns the assumptions that India’s much-vaunted private sector firms only engender positive outcomes, finding State-sector firms to have become efficient, and the molecular sector to be as effective overall, while also challenging the notion that privatization is necessary for progress. Conversely, it is found that competition policy innovations to have had positive impact. Practical suggestions are provided and three fundamental reforms, one administrative, one structural, and one behavioral, necessary to regenerate high output, are advocated.
India’s Mixed Economy Experiments
Authors: Majumdar Sumit K.
Published: August 2018

This chapter describes the evolution of India’s industrial structure. Unlike industrialization carried out through large state-owned firms, or industrialization through a cadre of large private corporations, or industrialization through a network of small firms, many alternative organizational dynamics play simultaneously in the Indian system. The system consists of many private businesses that constitute the large-scale industrial sector. Policies were put in place to develop the molecular economy and to develop State-owned firms investing in large-scale units. These policies led to the emergence of important and dynamic segments making up India’s heterogeneous model of capitalism. Each has been in coexistence with the other and added variety to the economy. In the quest for economic progress, if Indian society was to be industrialized, modernized, autonomous, self-reliant, able to defend itself, and an independent center of economic power, State-directed industrialization was realized as a key solution for national development.
Productive Efficiency and Growth
Authors: Majumdar Sumit K.
Published: August 2018

This chapter contains an assessment of the impact of industrial efficiency on India’s growth. Average growth rates had been 4.95%, and with a 1% rise in the efficiency score the resulting growth rate would be 5.03%. Were Indian industry to operate at the frontier, with full efficiency, then annual growth over the period of six decades would have been 6.38%. By now, India’s national income would have been two and a half times its aggregate value if in the last six-plus decades industry had reached attainable efficiency. India’s national income of $2.26 trillion could be $5.54 trillion. Liberalization has positively impacted efficiency and introducing competition has been performance enhancing. Conversely, the impact of technology on productive efficiency has been negative. As the amount of knowledge capital has increased in the economy, so has inefficiency. Indian industry has been incompetent in harnessing and managing technology.
Final Thoughts
Authors: Majumdar Sumit K.
Published: August 2018

The chapter sums up the evidence and concludes that India’s industrial performance has been sub-par. Given India’s uninspiring industrial performance, three ameliorative reforms, an administrative reform, a structural reform, and a behavioral reform, are put forward. Since talent management is a critical administrative functionality of capitalism, an Indian Management Service would fill key strategic management positions in State firms to deepen the human capital pool for strategic management in the State sector. State sector firms’ ownership could be restructured. An autonomous India Public Investment Authority would be the agency for share-vesting and portfolio management. The India Public Investment Authority would own controlling stakes, while granting strategic and operational autonomy to the firms. A message of economic nationalism, on the theme that a productive industrial India will be a prosperous India, has to stir a consciousness for Indians to change behavior to achieve the efficiency needed for India’s economy to prosper.
A First Look at Relativity
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

The heart of relativity is the supposition that the laws of physics are the same in all coordinate systems. This chapter builds a foundation by defining coordinate systems (also called frames of reference or simply frames) and examining some quantities that are coordinate‐dependent and others that are coordinate‐independent; the latter turn out to be more physically meaningful. Galileo first considered relationships between coordinate systems moving at different veloCities; in modern terms this could relate a coordinate system attached to the ground to one attached to a moving train. Given your velocity relative to the train, and the train‐ground relative velocity, Galileo developed a law for inferring your velocity relative to the ground. If this Galilean velocity addition law is correct, there are profound implications: nature must have no speed limit, and the laws of motion must be the same in any constant‐velocity frame.
Acceleration and Force
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

This chapter develops crucial distinctions between constant‐velocity (also called inertial) frames of reference and accelerating ones. Inertial frames respect Newton’s first law—objects maintain constant velocity unless acted upon by a net force—while accelerating frames violate this law. Therefore, much of our thinking about whether the laws of physics are the same in all frames will really concern *inertial* frames. Newton’s first law gives us a foolproof test for distinguishing accelerating frames from inertial frames; this testworks even if velocitymeasurements are not directly available. We sometimes invent fictitious forces (such as “centrifugal force”) to explain the acceleration of free objects in accelerating frames, but we know how to determine that these are indeed fictitious.We also examine relationships between acceleration, force, andmass (Newton’s second law).We *define*mass as the ratio of force to acceleration, so mass represents a resistance to acceleration, or inertia.
Reasoning with Frames and Spacetime Diagrams
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

To prepare for the high‐speed world where Galilean relativity breaks down, we now practice the skill of thinking in different frames. Practicing this in our familiar lowspeed world will help us avoid cognitive overload when we enter the more counterintuitive high‐speed world. We examine two problems that illustrate the process of thinking in different frames. Te frst is a brain‐teaser that suddenly becomes easier in a particular frame; the second is a classic problem from introductory physics that we can solve in a new way using symmetry and frame‐based thinking tools alone. Along the way, we will learn how to use the spacetime diagram, a major tool that will appear throughout this book. Te chapter concludes with another look at accelerated vs. inertial frames, from the spacetime diagram point of view
Time Skew
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

This chapter explores one major consequence of the invariance of c: events that are simultaneous in one frame are not necessarily simultaneous in other frames.We will find that the time coordinates of events are just as frame‐dependent as their positions. This is no accident, but a symmetry between space and time. Viewed in a spacetime diagram, a frame change rotates the grid lines marking time just as much as it rotates the grid lines marking position; this preserves c as the same speed in all frames. Along the way, we practice using skewed grids in spacetime diagrams: identifying the time coordinates of events, identifying events that are simultaneous in a given frame, and adding velocities. Although the skewed grids change the time coordinates of events and even their order in time, we show that they do not change causal relationships between events.
Special Relativity: Putting it All Together
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

We have introduced the ideas of special relativity in quick succession because none of those ideas can really be understood in isolation. This chapter works through examples in some detail so you can practice applying the ideas and solidifying your understanding.We start with an overview of how to use spacetime diagrams to solve problems in special relativity, then we walk through examples ofmeasuring the length of a moving object; the train‐in‐tunnel paradox; velocity addition; and how clock readings are arranged so that each observer measures the other’s clocks as ticking slowly.
The Twin Paradox
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

To prepare for the high‐speed world where Galilean relativity breaks down, we now practice the skill of thinking in different frames. Practicing this in our familiar lowspeed world will help us avoid cognitive overload when we enter the more counterintuitive high‐speed world. We examine two problems that illustrate the process of thinking in different frames. Te frst is a brain‐teaser that suddenly becomes easier in a particular frame; the second is a classic problem from introductory physics that we can solve in a new way using symmetry and frame-based thinking tools alone. Along the way, we will learn how to use the spacetime diagram, a major tool that will appear throughout this book. Te chapter concludes with another look at accelerated vs. inertial frames, from the spacetime diagram point of view.
Spacetime Geometry
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

This chapter shows that the counterintuitive aspects of special relativity are due to the geometry of spacetime. We begin by showing, in the familiar context of plane geometry, how a metric equation separates frame‐dependent quantities from invariant ones. The components of a displacement vector depend on the coordinate system you choose, but its magnitude (the distance between two points, which is more physically meaningful) is invariant. Similarly, space and time components of a spacetime displacement are frame‐dependent, but the magnitude (proper time) is invariant and more physically meaningful. In plane geometry displacements in both x and y contribute positively to the distance, but in spacetime geometry the spatial displacement contributes negatively to the proper time. This is the source of counterintuitive aspects of special relativity. We develop spacetime intuition by practicing with a graphic stretching‐triangle representation of spacetime displacement vectors.
The Equivalence Principle
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

The equivalence principle is an important thinking tool to bootstrap our thinking from the inertial coordinate systems of special relativity to the more complex coordinate systems that must be used in the presence of gravity (general relativity). The equivalence principle posits that at a given event gravity accelerates everything equally, so gravity is equivalent to an accelerating coordinate system.This conjecture is well supported by precise experiments, so we explore the consequences in depth: gravity curves the trajectory of light as it does other projectiles; the effects of gravity disappear in a freely falling laboratory; and gravitymakes time runmore slowly in the basement than in the attic—a gravitational form of time dilation. We show how this is observable via gravitational redshift. Subsequent chapters will build on this to show how the spacetime metric varies with location.
Newtonian Gravity
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

Having developed a framework for subsuming gravity into relativity, we examine how gravity behaves as a function of the source mass (Earth, Sun, etc.) and distance from that sourcemass.We develop Newton’s inverse‐square law of gravity, and we examine the consequences in terms of acceleration fields, potentials, escape velocities, and surface gravity. Chapter 17 will build on these ideas to show how orbits are used to probe gravity throughout the universe.We also develop a tool for exposing variations in the acceleration field: the tidal acceleration field in any region is defined as the acceleration field in that region minus the average acceleration. This enables us to restate Newton’s lawof gravity as: the acceleration arrows surrounding any point show a net convergence that is proportional to the density of mass at that point. Chapter 18 will use this to develop a frame‐independent law of gravity.
General Relativity and the Schwarzschild Metric
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

Previously, we saw that variations in the time part of the spacetime metric cause free particles to accelerate, thus unifying gravity and relativity; and that orbits trace those accelerations, which follow the inverse‐square law around spherical source masses. But a metric that empirically models orbits is not enough; we want to understand how any arrangement of mass determines the metric in the surrounding spacetime. This chapter describes thinking tools, especially the frame‐independent idea of spacetime curvature, that helped Einstein develop general relativity. We describe the Einstein equation, which determines the metric given a source or set of sources. Solving that equation for the case of a static spherical mass (such as the Sun) yields the Schwarzschild metric. We compare Schwarzschild and Newtonian predictions for precession, the deflection of light, and time delay of light; and we contrast the effects of variations in the time and space parts of the metric.
Beyond the Schwarzschild Metric
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

General relativity explains much more than the spacetime around static spherical masses.We briefly assess general relativity in the larger context of physical theories, then explore various general relativistic effects that have no Newtonian analog. First, source massmotion gives rise to gravitomagnetic effects on test particles.These effects also depend on the velocity of the test particle, which has substantial implications for orbits around black holes to be further explored in Chapter 20. Second, any changes in the sourcemass ripple outward as gravitational waves, and we tell the century‐long story from the prediction of gravitational waves to their first direct detection in 2015. Third, the deflection of light by galaxies and clusters of galaxies allows us to map the amount and distribution of mass in the universe in astonishing detail. Finally, general relativity enables modeling the universe as a whole, and we explore the resulting Big Bang cosmology.
Black Holes
Authors: Wittman David M.
Published: August 2018

Black holes seem like something out of science fiction, but they are real. Now that we understand the relevant properties of gravity we can separate fact from fiction. We start by defining black holes and showing how they differ fromthe simple Newtonian idea of “no escape.” Time and space seem to swap meaning inside the black hole, so that “forward in time” is a direction that points toward the center of the black hole. We then look at the astrophysical evidence that black holes really exists: how we can observe them, as well as the limits to our observations.We then examine facts andmyths about black holes, including tidal effects such as spaghettification. Finally, because black holes in nature spin rapidly, we look at gravitomagnetic effects around rapidly spinning black holes.
What Is a Novel?
Authors: Whitmarsh Tim
Published: August 2018

The category of ‘novel’ should be defined broadly—an extended fictional narrative, usually written and usually in prose—but more important than what it is is what it does, that is, circulate.
Return to Joseph
Authors: Whitmarsh Tim
Published: August 2018

The story of Joseph became centrally important in Hellenistic Judaism. This chapter considers the biblical context of the (relatively late) ‘novella’ found in Genesis, reading it primarily as an aetiological myth about the emergence of agricultural storage in a settled urban environment.
Evidence and Environmental Epidemiology
Authors: Plutynski Anya
Published: August 2018

In this chapter, I consider two case studies in environmental epidemiology of cancer, in service of several aims. First, I argue that while identification of mechanisms is useful, they are neither necessary nor sufficient to justify claims about causal regularities in epidemiology. Second, I argue that Hill’s list of considerations are not “criteria” for judging that X is a cause, but rather a set of guidelines and an argument for consideration of total evidence in conditions of uncertainty. Third, I argue that standards of evidence for establishing causation ought in part to hinge upon what we intend to use the evidence for. Since epidemiological data is so important for law and policy, the practical matter of what the causal information is for must be taken into account in setting standards of assessments of evidence.
Cancer from an Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Plutynski Anya
Published: August 2018

In this chapter, my goals are threefold. First, I give a taxonomy of evolutionary explanations of cancer, illustrating distinct types with case studies of explanations of cancer’s origins and prevalence. Second, I argue that cancer progression can be viewed as both a process of selection and a byproduct of selection at distinct levels in the biological hierarchy. Third, I provide a general account of the explanatory role of theoretical models of cancer progression and treatment failure. I use these accounts to illustrate examples of “how possibly” and “a priori” causal modeling.
First application of 3D design custom-made uncemented prosthetic stem for distal femoral cemented megaprosthesis revision
Authors: Min Li , Yao Kai , Lu Minxun , Zhou Yong , Wang Jie , Tang Fan , Zhang Wenli , Luo Yi , Duan Hong , Tu Chongqi
Published: August 2018

Objectives

3D design, which is widely used in orthopedics, can be applied for precise distal femoral megaprosthetic revision. This research aimed to present and evaluate the design, perioperative management, and mid-term clinical outcomes of a 3D design custom-made uncemented prosthetic stem.

Methods

Between January 2014 and January 2016, seven patients received 3D design custom-made uncemented prosthetic stem revision at our institution. Clinical records and radiographs were evaluated retrospectively.

Results

There were no hardware-related complications during the follow-up (average 24.3 months; range 24–48 months). The average Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) score at the last follow-up after revision (27.7 points, range 25–28 points) was significantly higher than that before (16.0 points, range 13–18 points). In addition, the range of motion (ROM) of the affected knee, and the scores of pain, function, emotional acceptance, support, walking and gait all improved significantly. The antecurvature radian of the revision stem averaged at 3.6°. Of the seven patients, three received femoral stem revision and four received revision of the femoral stem and the femoral component; three of them used longer prostheses than the others. There were no significant differences in function between these two groups at the last follow-up after revision.

Conclusion

The 3D design custom-made prosthesis is a typical precision medicine technology in oncologic orthopedics. Characterized by its individually and precisely designed uncemented stem, it offers an alternative option for distal femoral cemented prosthesis revision. Besides the 3D design itself, the perioperative management, especially the techniques for stem implantation, and long-term follow-up are also crucial.
Characterization of a Hypovirus-Regulated Septin Cdc11 Ortholog, CpSep1, from the Chestnut Blight Fungus Cryphonectria parasitica
Authors: Jo Myeongjin , So Kum-Kang , Ko Yo-Han , Chun Jeesun , Kim Jung-Mi , Kim Dae-Hyuk
Published: August 2018

We identified a protein spot showing downregulation in the presence of Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 and tannic acid supplementation as a septin subunit with the highest homology to the Aspergillus nidulans aspA gene, an ortholog of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cdc11 gene. To analyze the functional role of this septin component (CpSep1), we constructed its null mutant and obtained a total of eight CpSep1-null mutants from 137 transformants. All CpSep1-null mutants showed retarded growth, with fewer aerial mycelia and intense pigmentation on plates of potato dextrose agar supplemented with L-methionine and biotin. When the marginal hyphae were examined, hyperbranching was observed in contrast to the wild type. The inhibition of colonial growth was partially recovered when the CpSep1-null mutants were cultured in the presence of the osmostabilizing sorbitol. Conidia production of the CpSep1-null mutants was significantly increased by at least 10-fold more. Interestingly, the conidial morphology of the CpSep1-null mutants changed to circular in contrast to the typical rod-shaped spores of the wild type, indicating a role of septin in the spore morphology of Cryphonectria parasitica. However, no differences in the germination process were observed. Virulence assays using excised chestnut bark, stromal pustule formation on chestnut stems, and apple inoculation indicated that the CpSep1 gene is important in pathogenicity.
Coordinated regulation of skeletal muscle mass and metabolic plasticity during recovery from disuse
Authors: Kneppers Anita , Leermakers Pieter , Pansters Nicholas , Backx Evelien , Gosker Harry , Van Loon Luc , Schols Annemie , Langen Ramon , Verdijk Lex
Published: August 2018

Skeletal muscle regeneration after disuse is essential for muscle maintenance and involves the regulation of both mass‐ and metabolic plasticity–related processes. However, the relation between these processes during recovery from disuse remains unclear. In this study, we explored the potential interrelationship between the molecular regulation of muscle mass and oxidative metabolism during recovery from disuse. Molecular profiles were measured in biopsies from the vastus lateralis of healthy men after 1‐leg cast immobilization and after 1 wk reloading, and in mouse gastrocnemius obtained before and after hindlimb suspension and during reloading (RL‐1, ‐2, ‐3, ‐5, and ‐8 d). Cluster analysis of the human recovery response revealed correlations between myogenesis and autophagy markers in 2 clusters, which were distinguished by the presence of markers of early myogenesis, autophagosome formation, and mitochondrial turnover vs. markers of late myogenesis, autophagy initiation, and mitochondrial mass. In line with these findings, an early transient increase in B‐cell lymphoma‐2 interacting protein‐3 and sequestosome‐1 protein, and GABA type A receptor‐associated protein like‐1 protein and mRNA and a late increase in myomaker and myosin heavy chain‐8 mRNA, microtubule‐associated protein 1 light chain 3‐II:I ratio, and FUN14 domain‐containing‐1 mRNA and protein were observed in mice. In summary, the regulatory profiles of protein, mitochondrial, and myonuclear turnover are correlated and temporally associated, suggesting a coordinated regulation of muscle mass‐ and oxidative metabolism‐related processes during recovery from disuse.—Kneppers, A., Leermakers, P., Pansters, N., Backx, E., Gosker, H., van Loon, L., Schols, A., Langen, R., Verdijk, L. Coordinated regulation of skeletal muscle mass and metabolic plasticity during recovery from disuse. FASEB J. 33, 1288–1298 (2019). www.fasebj.org
Mks6 mutations reveal tissue‐ and cell type‐specific roles for the cilia transition zone
Authors: Lewis Wesley R. , Bales Katie L. , Revell Dustin Z. , Croyle Mandy J. , Engle Staci E. , Song Cheng Jack , Malarkey Erik B. , Uytingco Cedric R. , Shan Dan , Antonellis Patrick J. , Nagy Tim R. , Kesterson Robert A. , Mrug Michal M. , Martens Jeffrey R. , Berbari Nicolas F. , Gross Alecia K. , Yoder Bradley K.
Published: August 2018

The transition zone (TZ) is a domain at the base of the cilium that is involved in maintaining ciliary compartment‐specific sensory and signaling activity by regulating cilia protein composition. Mutations in TZ proteins result in cilia dysfunction, often causing pleiotropic effects observed in a group of human diseases classified as ciliopathies. The purpose of this study is to describe the importance of the TZ component Meckel‐Grüber syndrome 6 (Mks6) in several organ systems and tissues regarding ciliogenesis and cilia maintenance using congenital and conditional mutant mouse models. Similar to MKS, congenital loss of Mks6 is embryonic lethal, displaying cilia loss and altered cytoskeletal microtubule modifications but only in specific cell types. Conditional Mks6 mutants have a variable cystic kidney phenotype along with severe retinal degeneration with mislocalization of phototransduction cascade proteins. However, other phenotypes, such as anosmia and obesity, which are typically associated with cilia and TZ dysfunction, were not evident. These data indicate that despite Mks6 being a core TZ component, it has tissue‐ or cell type‐specific functions important for cilia formation and cilia sensory and signaling activities.—Lewis, W. R., Bales, K. L., Revell, D. Z., Croyle, M. J., Engle, S. E., Song, C. J., Malarkey, E. B., Uytingco, C. R., Shan, D., Antonellis, P. J., Nagy, T. R., Kesterson, R. A., Mrug, M. M., Martens, J. R., Berbari, N. F., Gross, A. K., Yoder, B. K. Mks6 mutations reveal tissue‐ and cell type‐specific roles for the cilia transition zone. FASEB J. 33, 1440–1455 (2019). www.fasebj.org