bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Utilitarian Attack and Stoic Withdrawal: Two Extremes
Authors: Card Claudia
Published: October 2003

The classical utilitarians regarded all suffering as evil, regardless of source, and aimed to eliminate as much suffering as possible from the world. Stoics, in contrast, regarded as neither good nor evil what eludes our control and held that the only thing we can be sure of controlling is our own will; hence, for stoics, evil consists simply in wrongful uses of the will and it is a mistake to place importance on suffering that has external sources. The atrocity theory of evil, combining features of utilitarianism with features of stoicism, treats both harm suffered and wrongful willing as essential to an evil, specifies that evils have sources in culpable wrongdoing, and recognizes as evil only those wrongful willings that also cause intolerable harm. John Rawls's theory of justice, also intermediate between stoicism and utilitarianism, emphasizes primary good rather than basic harm and consequently, unlike the author's theory, does not distinguish evils from lesser injustices.
Rape in War
Authors: Card Claudia
Published: October 2003

Sexual enslavement of women and girls, for the enjoyment of soldiers and officers, destroys countless young female lives, and mass rape in war is further terroristic, aiming to intimidate and demoralize the enemy, tamper with the identity and loyalties of the next generation, undermine national and cultural solidarity, splinter families, and disperse populations. The relative invisibility of the evils of both sexual slavery in war and rape as a weapon of war may be explained by the “magnitude gap” between perceptions of perpetrators and victims, by the intimate nature of the harm to victims, by the deaths of victims whose stories are never heard, and by the absence of sadism in the culpability of many perpetrators. As strategies of resistance, women could become armed, skilled in weapons use, and become integrated into the military at all levels. More long‐range goals are to dismantle domestic and international protection rackets and change the symbolic meanings of rape. Fantasies of castration and compulsory transsexual surgery for rapists are explored, with attention on the attitudinal advantages for women of supporting such penalties and the self‐defeating character of such penalties as means to changing the social meanings of rape.
The Moral Burdens and Obligations of Perpetrators
Authors: Card Claudia
Published: October 2003

Perpetrators of atrocities carry burdens of guilt and incur obligations to apologize and repair harm. Mercy from victims is not only a power to relieve punishment or blame but also a compassionate response that allows perpetrators to carry out responsibilities of reparation and apology, which in turn enable them to manifest goodwill and develop trustworthiness. Mercy and the gratitude that it naturally evokes thus have the potential to substitute mutually reinforcing goodwill for past ill will, provided that mercy can be shown compatibly with justice and self‐respect. As a response to one's own evildoing, guilt has an advantage over shame in that although shame can motivate achievements that restore self‐esteem, guilt can also motivate rectification of wrongs to others, which not only supports the rectifier's self‐esteem but also can alleviate victims’ resentment. Contrary to the popular view of guilt as simply negative (and thereby perverse), guilt can manifest itself in such constructive responses as confession, contrition, apology, restitution, and reparation, which actually relieve negative self‐judgment.
Gray Zones: Diabolical Evil Revisited
Authors: Card Claudia
Published: October 2003

This chapter proposes, and illustrates, with the idea of gray zones, a more historically accurate conception of diabolical evil than the one rejected by Kant: the deliberate and successful pursuit of others’ moral corruption (as the serpent of Genesis does with Eve), rather than evil for evil's sake (Kant's view). Primo Levi described as “gray zones” the predicaments of prisoners in Nazi death camps who were selected to administer evils to other prisoners in exchange for reductions in or postponements of their own torture and who thereby faced choices between extreme suffering (or immediate and horrible death) and serious moral compromise; the deliberate creation of gray zones, this chapter argues, is a paradigm of diabolical evil. People in gray zones are forced to risk moral corruption in becoming implicated, by their own choices, in perpetrating on others’ evils that threaten to engulf themselves. Gray zones are marked by the presence of severe duress, combinations of evil and innocence, and lack of clarity of one's responsibilities, one's motivations, or what is morally justifiable, given one's options. Outsiders may be in no position to judge gray zone agents, but insiders face better and worse choices and sometimes hold each other accountable; refusing to abdicate responsibility for one's choices in a gray zone works to disrupt cycles of evil.
Beyond Rigidity
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: October 2003

In Naming and Necessity Saul Kripke undermined descriptive analyses of names by showing that names are rigid designators; thereby telling us what their meanings are not, but not what they are. In Beyond Rigidity, Scott Soames strengthens Kripke's attack, while also providing a positive theory of the semantics and pragmatics of names. Using a new conception of how the meaning of a sentence relates to the information asserted and conveyed by utterances, Soames argues that the meaning of a linguistically simple name is its referent, and that the meaning of a linguistically complex, partially descriptive, name is a compound that includes both its referent and a partial description. After illustrating these analyses with simple sentences containing names, Soames extends them to sentences that report the assertions and beliefs of agents. Appealing again to his new understanding of the relationship between meaning and information asserted and conveyed, Soames attempts to reconcile the central semantic doctrines of Millianism and Russellianism with Fregean intuitions about the information carried by belief and other propositional attitude ascriptions. Finally, Soames investigates the relationship between proper names and natural kind terms, including mass nouns, count nouns, and adjectives functioning as predicates. After showing that natural kind predicates do not fit reasonable definitions of rigidity, he argues that there is no notion of rigid designation for predicates that (1) is a natural extension of the notion of rigidity for singular terms, (2) is such that simple natural kind predicates are standardly rigid whereas many other predicates are not, and (3) plays the role imagined by Kripke in explaining the necessary a posteriori status of theoretical identities like Water is H2O and An object x is hotter than an object y iff x has a higher mean molecular kinetic energy than y. Finally, Soames uses key elements of Kripke's discussion to construct an alternative explanation of the necessary a posteriori character of these sentences that is based on the nondescriptionality of simple natural kind predicates, and the manner in which their meaning and reference is determined.
Rigid Designation and Its Lessons for the Semantic Contents of Proper Names
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: October 2003

The chapter explains the idea that names are rigid designators, and how it is used in Kripke's modal argument against the view that names are synonymous with descriptions associated with them by speakers. The modal argument is defended against the two leading attempts to circumvent it and reinstate descriptivism – one which claims that names are rigidified descriptions, and the other which claims that they are descriptions that are required to take wide scope when embedded in modal (but not epistemic) constructions. These views are refuted, with the result that Kripke's original modal argument is strengthened and extended so as to constitute a decisive objection to all standard forms of descriptivism. However, this result is shown to be compatible with the possibility that there may be a class of linguistically complex, partially descriptive proper names, like Princeton University, the meanings of which include some descriptive elements.
Millian Meaning and Pseudo‐Fregean Attitudes
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: October 2003

It is argued that the propositions semantically expressed by attitude ascriptions report relations to the Russellian propositions expressed by their complement clauses, and hence that pairs of ascriptions that differ only in the substitution of linguistically simple, coreferential names, or indexicals are semantically equivalent. It is explained how ascriptions that are equivalent in this way may nevertheless be used by speakers to assert and convey propositions with different truth values. The end result is a theory in which a Millian account of the semantic contents of simple names and indexicals, plus a Russellian treatment of propositional attitude ascriptions, is reconciled with Fregean intuitions about the information asserted and conveyed by utterances of both simple sentences and attitude ascriptions. The chapter concludes with an examination of the consequences of this theory for Kripke's doctrines about identity sentences and the necessary a posteriori.
The Gospel, the Declaration, and the Divine Child
Authors: McKanan Dan
Published: October 2003

Examines both theoretical and literary expressions of the “ultra” reform tradition. This tradition was shaped by the charismatic personality of William Lloyd Garrison (editor of The Liberator) and the radical pacifism movement known as nonresistance. The theology of nonresistance held, first, that the gospel demands a practice of nonviolent love; second, that humans possess sufficient natural virtue to fulfil that gospel mandate; and third, that no human being should be subordinated to any other. These ideas found literary expression in Henry Clarke Wright's autobiography, Human Life, and in Sylvester Judd's novel, Margaret. Yet these novels also betrayed the liberal faith in humanity to the extent that they assumed that true nonviolence could be achieved only by Christ‐like children, rather than by all people.
The Rationality of the Emotions (1977)
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

There are several important senses in which emotions can be said to be rational (as opposed to nonrational). First and foremost, they involve concepts and can be more or less appropriate to their objects and circumstances.
Emotions' Mysterious Objects (1984)
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

The idea that emotions have “objects” is interpreted. In place of atomistic analysis in terms of components, I offer a holistic account of emotion.
Getting Angry: The Jamesian Theory of Emotion in Anthropology (1984)
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Anthropologists sometimes adopt a “Jamesian” view of emotions, following William James in taking emotions to be feelings based on unlearned physiological reactions. I argue, more in line with anthropologist Clifford Geertz, that emotions are cultural artifacts.
On Emotions as Judgments (1988)
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Emotions are judgments, I argue again, and analyze in considerable detail what this means. I argue that emotions are spontaneous, prereflective, evaluative (“appraisals”), constitutive, systematic, self‐involved, tied to desires, tied to their expression, not “dispassionate”, not propositional, sustaining rather than initiating, structural rather than disruptive.
Back to Basics: On the Very Idea of “Basic Emotions” (1993, Rev. 2001)
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Many psychologists and philosophers now accept the idea that there are “basic emotions,” emotions whose essence is an “affect program”. I argue that in fact this idea is quite old, and that it relies on metaphors and analogies that are quite problematic. Much of the current discussion follows Paul Ekman's influential work on the facial expressions of emotion (which has been sadly neglected in philosophy), but I challenge the very idea of basic emotions as reductionist and unfaithful to the complexity and richness of emotions, even the supposed basic ones.
The Formation of the First Amendment
Authors: Curry Thomas J.
Published: October 2003

Religious liberty depends on keeping the government out of religious matters, whereas religious toleration is a gift of government. Virginia's Bill for Religious Liberty and Massachusetts’ Constitution of 1780 illustrated these contrasting concepts. The modern preoccupation with the meaning of establishment of religion overlooks the significance to Americans in 1789, of the free exercise of religion. So, too, modern emphasis on the image of “separation of Church and State” leads scholars away from an appreciation of the historical meaning of the Amendment.
The Buddhist Understanding of Other Animals
Authors: Waldau Paul
Published: October 2003

Examining the common view that Buddhism is sensitive to nonhuman animals, this chapter concludes that the tradition has an ambivalent view of existence as a nonhuman animal, and that early Buddhists were often very derisive and dismissive of the realities of nonhuman animals. Despite the central place of animal stories and their important emphases on continuity and compassion and the ethical achievements obvious in the First Precept (do not harm), recognizable harms to even the most complicated nonhuman animals, such as elephants, were deemed to be humans’ prerogatives under the moral order. The notion of “speciesism” illuminates features of how mainline Buddhism has come to understand the place of other animals even though there are subtraditions and important ethics‐based attitudes that do not easily fit the description “speciesist.”
Other Animals in the Christian Tradition
Authors: Waldau Paul
Published: October 2003

This chapter first addresses claims and terms found in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, such as covenants and “Leviathan.” New Testament references to and views of other animals are then examined. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the vocabulary and the views held by major post‐biblical theologians based on an examination of the Greek and Latin words used by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Augustine of Hippo, as well as various words found in the Septuagint and Vulgate.
Unacceptable Images
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Opens with a review of the ‘science wars’, and suggests that the polar positions are both overly simplified.
The World as We Find It
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Provides a defence of a modest realism, arguing for the possibility that we can accurately represent some features of the world around us.
The Ideal of Objectivity
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

The next step is to explore the possibility of scientific objectivity. It is argued that the supposed underdetermination of theory by evidence is not as intractable a problem as it has sometimes appeared, and that it does not prevent scientists from aspiring to objectivity.
The World as We Make It
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

So far the account given has favoured champions of the sciences. At this stage, the book acknowledges an insight of their critics, proposing that there is no privileged language for talking about nature. Scientific language, it is suggested, develops in response to human purposes.
Mapping Reality
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

The theme of Chapter 4 is developed and illustrated by considering the example of maps. Maps are partly objective in that there are criteria of accurate representation; they are also partly dependent on our concerns in the choice of features of the terrain that are to be included.
Scientific Significance
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Truth is one goal for the sciences. But the whole truth cannot be our goal. Hence there is an issue about which truths we aim for in inquiry. This chapter argues that any way of resolving that issue must depend on us and on our values.
The Myth of Purity
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

It is common to draw a distinction between pure research and applied research (and technology). When this distinction is examined, it is found that the only way to identify pure research is in terms of the possibility of successfully defending the value of that research; in short, the notion of pure research depends on our judgements of values.
Constraints on Free Inquiry
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Freedom of inquiry is often touted as an unimpeachable virtue. This chapter examines a type of situation in which there seems to be a moral imperative not to pursue certain lines of research. It argues that the imperative is genuine, but that there is no good argument for censorship.
Organizing Inquiry
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Draws on previous discussions to pose the main question for the rest of the book: how should we think about the goals of the sciences?
Well‐Ordered Science
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

The question is answered by introducing an ideal, the ideal of well‐ordered science In well‐ordered science the inquiries pursued are those that would have been selected by a well‐informed group of deliberators dedicated to working cooperatively with one another. Well‐ordered science is contrasted with vulgar democracy and with elitism. The chapter suggests various ways in which our current practice of the sciences falls short of the ideal.
Elitism, Democracy, and Science Policy
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

From the perspective of well‐ordered science one can explore previous attempts to set science policy. This chapter considers three: Bacon's story of the New Atlantis, Vannevar Bush's Science: The Endless Frontier, and a recent attempt to make the National Institutes of Health more open to inputs from the public.
Subversive Truth and Ideals of Progress
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

Well‐ordered science may seem too conservative, allowing people to resist views that they find uncomfortable. This chapter scrutinizes arguments for the claim that the truth is always valuable for us. Those arguments are found wanting.
The Luddites' Laments
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2003

By the same token, there are no good arguments for supposing that restricting inquiry will lead to the human good. The discussion of Chapters 12 and 13 constructs an argument for rejecting rival theologies, both those that hold that truth must be beneficial and those that regret the discoveries of past science. Well‐ordered science encourages a humble agnosticism.
Standing Alone
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: October 2003

This chapter traces the development of Southern Christianity in the post-colonial era and notes that with few exceptions and despite Western Christian concern, the new churches have survived and flourished. Some of the greatest triumphs have been enjoyed precisely by the structures created by colonial authorities–the mainstream Catholic and Protestant mission churches. However, although these older churches and missions are the primary fact, there are also many smaller independent indigenous Christian cults/denominations, which have arisen where older groupings have proved inadequate for a changing society; these are often Pentecostal and may be either indigenous or Northern in origin. This type of growth is particularly evident in Latin America, where there has been a major defection from Catholicism to Protestantism (including Pentecostalism); the boom in Pentecostal sects in Latin America and the Catholic response to this are described, and similar Protestant and Pentecostal expansion in the African independent churches/denominations and in Asia outlined. The last part of the chapter investigates the reasons for the expansion of Christianity in diverse cultures, looking in particular at some of the radical Pentecostal communities that have developed and at the common characteristics of Pentecostal sects and what people want from them, the critical idea being that God intervenes directly in everyday life and provides solutions to problems; this is a clear differentiation from Northern Christianity.
The Rise of the New Christianity
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: October 2003

This chapter presents an analysis of the growth of the new Southern Christianity in relation to population growth in Southern countries, which is expected to surge dramatically in the middle term (the next fifty years) before coming to resemble more those of the older industrial nations. This is contrasted with the situation in Europe (and Japan), where the population is declining. The impact of Southern population growth on the world’s religious structures is discussed in terms of the problems of quantifying and predicting church membership, and the possible future demographics of Christian communities are discussed, including those of the steadily growing and huge metropolitan complexes that are likely to exist in the South by 2050. The next three sections of the chapter look at declining religious identification (dechristianization) in Europe, and at what may happen when Southern peoples face continuing pressure to migrate North to Europe and North America (in particular the United States), bringing their religious and cultural patterns with them. The last section discusses Christian America, and the fact that the United States is home to a remarkable number of religious denominations, which, overwhelmingly, are traditions within the broader stream of Christianity.
The Next Crusade
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: October 2003

This chapter looks at how the international politics of the coming decades are likely to revolve around interfaith conflict, above all, the clash between Christianity and Islam. Across the regions that will be the most populous in the twenty-first century there are already vast religious conflicts and contests in progress, although they impinge very little on Western opinion makers and the parochialism of Western public opinion is striking. Demographic projections suggest that these religious feuds will not only continue but become worse, although it is pointed out that, for various reasons, it is very difficult to obtain and project accurate numbers of the people belonging to different religions in any particular country. Nevertheless, of the world’s twenty-five largest nations, by the mid-twentieth-first century, if the current religious balance continues, nine are likely to be wholly or predominantly Muslim, eight wholly or predominantly Christian and three deeply divided between the two; it is suggested that by 2050 there could be ten of the largest nations profoundly divided between these two religions and, therefore, subject to instability as a result of inter-religious violence. The last part of the chapter considers some of the main fronts of religious conflicts, with discussion of Sudan, Egypt, Nigeria, Asia (as represented by Pakistan, Indonesia, the Philippines) and Europe, the cycles of violence in Christian–Muslim conflicts, the place of Judaism in Christian–Muslim relations, conflicts between Hinduism and Buddhism, and various possible future scenarios based on religious conflict in different countries.
Seeing Christianity Again for the First Time
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: October 2003

This final chapter starts by considering Christianity in relation to the future, with particular regard to the new centers of population and the allocation of religious resources to the South. It points out that, for various reasons, including a lack of priests or clergy, the interest and commitment of many Northern/Western churches toward the global South is far less than it once was and that this problem is particularly serious in the Catholic Church. It also points out that Christianity, despite being and likely to continue being the largest religion in existence, now receives short shrift in Western education, especially as regards the voices of autonomous Southern Christianity; it notes that a case can be made that understanding non-Western Christianity is necessary for understanding the emerging world and is also a good way to teach diversity. The impoverishment of Southern Christians is also addressed and the fact that this should place urgent pressures on wealthy Western Christian societies to assist these poor. The last part of the chapter discusses the fact that looking at Southern Christianity gives a new perspective on something very familiar: the way that the newer churches read the Bible, which makes Christianity look like a wholly different religion from the faith of the prosperous advanced societies of Europe or North America.
The Real Distinction
Authors: Almog Joseph
Published: October 2003

This chapter aims to provide the foundations for Descartes's view that there is a real distinction between mind and body. According to Descartes, x and y are really distinct if x and y are substances and can exist without each other. It is argued that the possibility adumbrated in this definition is weaker that genuine possibility of disparate existences, but it is nevertheless sufficiently strong for vindicating Descartes. Even if it is not really possible that the mind and body lead separate existences, it is logically consistent with what the mind is, being a thinking thing, that it exists without any extended body and even without the specific body that belongs to a person. This conclusion is teased out from careful scrutiny of Descartes's three main arguments for the existence of a real distinction: the argument from possibility, the argument from conceivability, and the argument from whatness (essence). Arnauld's fourth objection to Descartes, and Descartes's official reply to Arnauld, are fleshed out metaphysically and epistemologically in anticipation of the third way, Descartes's theory of complete substances. Arnauld's objection embodies the view that real possibility is conceptually prior to conceivability. This view is questioned and contrasted with the thesis of the primality of conceivability over possibility, itself eventually rejected. Descartes's conception of complete substances emerges as provisionally victorious in its attempt to secure the real distinction, pending the discussion of non‐generic essences in later chapters. This view combines the epistemological advantages of stressing the primacy of conceivability with the metaphysical constraints supplied by essence. The chapter concludes with a look at Kripke's modern conceivability arguments.
Integrative Dualism
Authors: Almog Joseph
Published: October 2003

This chapter takes up the task of examining the three essential Cartesian elements of the human mind, the human body, and the human being. It poses the problem of integration: how does Descartes integrate mind and body into a single human being whose mind and body they are? Opposing approaches to the question of dualism are distinguished: classical separatist dualism and integrative dualism. Central to separatist dualism is the conception of generic essences which forces a disjointed treatment of articulating essence, on the one hand, and provides an account of endurance in time (the life time description problem), on the other. It is argued that two conceptions of substance are present in Descartes. The existential conception claimed by separatist dualism is that substance can exist all by itself. The categorical conception introduced with the idea of ‘complete substance’ is existence‐free, and stresses the categorical difference between substance and modes or attributes. It opens up a sense in which the real distinction of Chapter 1 can be understood as either existential or categorical distinction. Integral dualism reverses the methodology of separatist dualism by asserting the primacy of the integral human being as the entity in terms of which the human mind and body are specified. The essence of the mind and body are depicted as full essences—the mind and body of a human being. Two Cartesian frameworks emerge: one populated by ‘Descartes cuts’ of minds and bodies, which are instantaneous bundles of mental attributes and physical properties respectively; and a developed, robust universe of constantly changing items. Though Descartes appears to operate with both at times, the metaphysics claimed for the body is robust, and the suggestion of this chapter is that the same holds for the mind. The problem of persistence through change is analysed next, in the context provided by Descartes's treatment of the wax in Meditation II. It is argued that the abstractionist cannot deal with change in time, but that robust integrative dualism is apt to assuage these worries.
The Devil in the Details
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: October 2003

This book focuses on a form of reasoning in science that I call “asymptotic reasoning.” At base, this type of reasoning involves methods that eliminate details and, in some sense, precision. Asymptotic reasoning has received systematic treatment in physics and applied mathematics, but virtually no attention has been paid to it by philosophers of science. I argue that once one understands the role played by asymptotic reasoning in explanatory arguments of scientists, our philosophical conceptions of explanation, reduction, and emergence require significant modification.
Philosophical Theories of Explanation
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses in detail a distinction between types of why‐questions. It considers Hempelian models of explanation and their successors and argues that neither causal mechanical models nor unification models can adequately provide explanations of universal behavior.
Holy War, Holy Peace
Authors: Gopin Marc
Published: October 2003

In 1993, when Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin sealed the Oslo peace agreement, it was heralded as the beginning of a new era in the Middle East peace process. Instead, violence on both sides has continued to plague the region. The brutal facts on the ground have called into question the style of diplomacy that saw its greatest triumph with the Oslo Accords. This book asserts that the failure of the peace process stems in large part from its complete neglect of cultural and religious factors; attempted solutions have ignored the basic needs and values of average people. The author argues for a far greater integration of the religious communities of the region into peace‐building efforts. Drawing on his own personal experience with religion‐based peace initiatives in Israel and Palestine, he writes of the individuals and groups that are already attempting such reconciliations. He offers a detailed prescription for future negotiations using methods specifically designed to undermine the appeal of religious extremists by subtly incorporating religious values and symbols into the procedures of official and unofficial diplomacy, believing that a combination of secular and religious methods of peacemaking will yield a rich and creative model for conflict resolution. Any effort at peacemaking that fails to take into account the deep religious feelings of Muslims, Jews, and Christians is destined to fail. Only by including religion in the peace process can we move past fragile and superficial agreements and toward a deep and lasting solution. The book is arranged in two parts – Analysis, and Practical applications.
Family Myths and Cultural Conflict
Authors: Gopin Marc
Published: October 2003

Starts with an analysis of the Abrahamic family myth (or metaphor) as treated by the three Abrahamic faiths (Islam, Judaism, and Christianity), showing how it sets the stage for mythically based conflict. It goes on to discuss the use of metaphor and cultural constructs as a framework for meetings and peace negotiations between Israelis and Arabs, and then addresses street or other public encounters, and wonders whether the alienating constructs of modern city life (and Western suburban life) have a role to play in the origin of violence. The last part of the chapter wraps these approaches together in a discussion of the possibilities for Arab/Jewish reconciliation in general, and Israeli/Palestinian reconciliation, in particular.
Patterns of Abrahamic Incrimination
Authors: Gopin Marc
Published: October 2003

Begins with a discussion of the processes of “othering” (the need to distinguish and exclude) and incrimination that are adopted both by religions and as a basic human psychological trait. “Othering” and incrimination comprise a constant source of conflict generation in human intercourse and have been particularly damaging in the history of the Abrahamic religions (Islam, Judaism, and Christianity). The various options of religious traditions within the evolutionary process of confrontation with the “other” are then listed and further discussed. These are continued incrimination; increased incrimination; denial of incrimination and apologetics as a moderation of othering; hard rejection of past interpretations and an end to othering; soft rejection of the past, and historical contextualization; and pious transformation of old cognitive constructs as an end to othering – remythification. The latter is discussed in the context of the Jerusalem Religious Peace Agreement (the Islamic/Jewish treaty).
Patterns of Abrahamic Reconciliation
Authors: Gopin Marc
Published: October 2003

One of the central challenges facing cultural and religious peacemaking is the self‐imposed wall around ethnic and religious identities, particularly in terms of the deliberate circumscription of their prosocial moral structures and meaning systems. Among the ethical resources within Abrahamic traditions for peacemaking and conflict resolution, one of the most important in terms of building prosocial relationships is the way that individuals and communities cope with moral failure of the individual. Understanding this is vital for intercultural work because here the outsider group is often the object of the failed relationship; potentially at least, such a relationship could be transformed by means of the traditional process of acknowledging sin and ultimately receiving forgiveness. The various parameters and uses of forgiveness and reconciliation in the traditions of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are examined at length, and it is concluded that there is potential in all three of these religions for the use of reconciliation in the processes of conflict resolution.
The Use of the Word and Its Limits
Authors: Gopin Marc
Published: October 2003

The discussion argues that words and dialog must not be the only path of reconciliation that is explored in conflict resolution – nonverbal cues, symbols, and deeds are also important. Other problems with dialogic encounters are also addressed – the disempowering of the less educated, the favoring of the more verbal and aggressive, and the unsatisfactory nature of interactions in larger groups. Shared education and study, and other informal contacts are discussed as the means toward mutual understanding and conflict resolution. Examples are given from the conflict and from the Falklands War (which is described in terms of a Protestant/Catholic communication failure).
Ritual Civility, Moral Practices of Interpersonal Exchange, and Symbolic Communication
Authors: Gopin Marc
Published: October 2003

Abrahamic and cultural processes of change have been neglected by elite diplomacy and conflict resolution efforts in the Palestinian/Israeli conflict (although possibly only at a conscious level). However, cultural and religious habits can be very helpful in peacemaking processes, and are expressed in two kinds of human engagements – informal and formal or ritualistic; such nonrational interactions are a necessary catalyst of rational negotiations. The power of symbol and metaphor is also a strong factor in interreligious encounters. This is investigated first by looking at the most elemental level of the encounter – the human face – and then at two other key ingredients of empathetic psychology – silence (listening) and humility. An examination is then made of symbolic and moral gestures, symbolic communication, and rituals. Numerous illustrative examples of these points are given from the author's experiences in Israel and Palestine.
The Flowering of Metaphysical Religion
Authors: Fuller Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Metaphysical spirituality has found a receptive audience among middle‐class Americans. The New Thought movement combined mesmerist psychology and the “power of positive thinking” to show Americans how they might learn to become inwardly connected with powerful spiritual forces. Theosophy built upon this tradition and added a new vocabulary, partially drawn from Asian religions, for describing the higher spiritual worlds to which we are said to be inwardly connected. Avid interest in such topics as mysticism, altered states of consciousness, angels, and near‐death experiences have all been avenues through which Americans have pursued spiritual discovery outside of our established churches. The phenomenal popularity of James Redfield's bestseller The Celestine Prophecy illustrates how fully metaphysical spirituality has penetrated the American religious vernacular.
Exotic Messages, Familiar Themes
Authors: Fuller Robert C.
Published: October 2003

By the middle of the twentieth century, there was already a core of beliefs and attitudes widely held among America's unchurched spiritual seekers. Although many of these seekers turned to exotic new sources of religious thought, they tended to filter these exotic philosophies through a familiar set of beliefs that grew out of the American metaphysical tradition. Many Americans have,e.g., become fascinated with Asian spiritual teachings (e.g., Hindu meditation systems, Zen Buddhism, and Daosim). Others have embraced feminist spiritualities, ecological spiritualities, Wicca, and many versions of Neo‐Paganism. Together these exotic sources of religious thought constitute what is commonly known as the New Age movement, a cluster of interests that informs the personal spirituality of millions of churched and unchurched Americans.
Powers of the Hidden Self
Authors: Fuller Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Popular psychology has emerged as one of the major sources of Americans’ self‐understanding. From Ralph Waldo Emerson's essay on “Self‐Reliance” to today, American reading audiences have turned to popular psychologies with the hope of learning how they might inwardly align themselves with the deepest energies of the universe. William James, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers are but a few of the acclaimed academic psychologists who have nurtured this uniquely American form of “psychological spirituality.” As exemplified in the writings of Rev. Norman Vincent Peale, this psychological spirituality has also filtered into the vocabulary with which members of mainstream churches take their religious bearings on life.
New England
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard
Published: October 2003

New England banks were smaller than banks in other regions of the United States and they were more likely to be run by families. The region's banks were not impersonal dispensers of credit in anonymous markets. Rather, they were formed and served as the financial arms of extended kinship networks of several interrelated businesses. The insider nature of New England's small banks resolved a number of information asymmetry and agency problems. Small groups of large shareholders were well‐positioned to evaluate the prospects of borrowers and provided effective monitoring of bank management.
Middle Atlantic
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard
Published: October 2003

Bank chartering in New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland was contentious, often corrupt, high‐stakes politics. The corruption surrounding bank chartering made it difficult for cooperative interbank relationships to develop. Although a regional clearinghouse arose in New England in the 1820s, comparable clearinghouses were not formed in the principal Middle‐Atlantic cities until the 1850s. Corrupt chartering practices also meant that many banks became entangled with state internal improvement schemes, often to a bank's detriment. The financial panic of 1839 threw the region's banking systems into turmoil. New York and Pennsylvania's systems nearly collapsed during the depression of the early 1840s.
Free Banking
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard
Published: October 2003

Modern interpretations of free banking argue that lightly regulated banking systems are either unstable and undesirable, or that free competition in banking generates the same favorable outcomes as competition in any other industry. The historical evidence shows that America's experience with free banking can support either position depending on the time and place under study. Free banking laws in antebellum America induced massive entry and, often, equally rapid exit in its early years (sometimes referred to as wildcatting), but later experience was more favorable. After 1845, failure rates among free banks fell to about the same rate as chartered banks. Free banking created some perverse incentives for banks, however. Free banks under‐issued banknotes relative to profit‐maximizing banks and free banknote issues demonstrated less seasonal elasticity. Both features were the result of the requirement that free banks hold unbalanced portfolios, top heavy with government bonds.
Banking in the South and West
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard
Published: October 2003

Banks in the South and West received large state subsidies, became embroiled in infrastructure projects, and were expected to promote social welfare and the “commonwealth ideal.” In accordance with theories of the connection between financial development and economic growth, southern banks were designed to help late‐developing economies catch up with early developers. These institutions also played a secondary role in that they insulated regional economies from financial panics, extended recessions, and potentially devastating debt‐deflation cycles.
Balkan Idols
Authors: Perica Vjekoslav
Published: October 2003

Written on the basis of a wide range of South Slav sources and previously unpublished, often confidential documents from communist state archives, as well as on the author's own on‐the‐ground experience as a journalist, this book explores the political role and influence of religious organizations, namely, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church in Croatia and Bosnia‐Herzegovina, and the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (Islamic community) over the course of the last century. The author emphatically rejects the notion that a “clash of civilizations” has played a central role in fomenting aggression in the former Yugoslavia. He finds no compelling evidence of an upsurge in religious fervor among the general population. Rather, he concludes, the primary religious players in the conflicts have been activist clergy. What emerges from the book, which aims to be the first political history of religion in modern Yugoslav states, and combines narrative and analysis, is a deeply nuanced understanding of the history and troubled future of one of the world's most volatile regions. The narrative presents the process of the making, decay, and collapse of several regimes and nation‐states chronologically, highlighting the role of religion in these processes, while also presenting the history of the religious institutions mentioned above. The analysis deals with the role of religious institutions, symbols, and practices in state formation and destruction. The book starts with a chronology (1935–2002) and maps of the region as background to what follows in the 12 chapters.
The First Strife
Authors: Perica Vjekoslav
Published: October 2003

An account is given of the political history of the Yugoslav region from the 1930s to the 1960s, highlighting the role of the various religious and political organizations during the period. The different sections of the chapter cover the 1930s; civil war and the communist revolution (1941–50); exile politics and warring myths post‐1945 (the end of World War II); the years of renewal and peaceful coexistence after the Tito–Stalin split in 1948, and the interfaith dialog at that time; Church–State relations in the 1960s; and the erosion of religion and growth of Church buildings post‐1945 (and to beyond the 1960s).
The Other Serbia
Authors: Perica Vjekoslav
Published: October 2003

The role of the Serbian Orthodox Church during the years of the communist federation of Yugoslavia is discussed in the context of Tito's suppression of Serbian secular nationalism, which in the end led to an upsurge of clerical nationalism that would during the last two decades of Yugoslavia's life successfully appropriate and virtually monopolize ethnic nationalist causes. Among the events covered in the chapter are the rise of Serbian ethnic nationalism, the rise of Albanian ethnic nationalism in Kosovo, the seeking of independence from the Serbian Orthodox Church by the Macedonian and Montenegrin branches of that Church, and the schism in the North American branch of the Serbian Church. Surveys of religiosity in the Catholic, Muslim, and Orthodox communities in the 1960s are also reported and relations between the Russian and Serbian Orthodox Churches discussed.
United We Stand, Divided We Fall
Authors: Perica Vjekoslav
Published: October 2003

The chapter opens with some extracts from the letters from Yugoslav peoples of various religions and nation‐states during the period of Tito's illness prior to his death in May 1980. An account is then given of the death of Yugoslavia during the period 1980–4. This is followed by an analysis of the history of civil religion in communist Yugoslavia from the end of World War II, which includes discussion of the myth of the nation's origin, the myth of its brotherhood and unity (further discussed in the last section of the chapter), and of the Tito cult and Tito's Youth Relay (a sports event).
The Second Strife
Authors: Perica Vjekoslav
Published: October 2003

After Tito's death, ethnic nationalism was simmering in all parts of Yugoslavia from Slovenia in the northwest to Kosovo in the southeast. The secular politics of the regime's establishment involved factional quarrels, and the activities of secular intellectual elites have been analyzed at length elsewhere. The religious scene, where important things occurred, has remained obscure, yet visible religious symbols and movements were no less telling harbingers of what was to happen in the 1990s; these are the subject of this chapter. The different sections cover: the clerical offensive and the communist regime's last stand (1979–87); the promise of peaceful transition (moderate religious policies and the belated democratization of the regime, 1988–90); ethnoreligious realignment and multiparty elections; worsening relations between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, and the schisms between nation‐states in the Serbian Orthodox Church; the Churches and the official history of the genocide of Serbs by Croats in World War II; the establishment of a site of Serb martyrdom at Jasenovac in Croatia (completed in 1983) to commemorate the genocide of 1941, and the myths surrounding this; disputes over holy places; the collapse of interfaith dialog; untimely Serbian commemorations of World War II sufferings in 1990–1; and calls for partition and revenge by the Serbs.