bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of immune T cells derived from mucosal or systemic tissue on host responses to Porphyromonas gingivalis
Authors: Katz J. , Michalek S. M.
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of immune T cells derived from mucosal and systemic tissues on specific humoral responses to the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis and to determine the effect these responses have on periodontal bone loss in an experimental rat model. T cells were derived from either the spleen or Peyer's patches of conventional Fischer rats given live P. gingivalis by the oral route and were adoptively transferred into groups of nude Fischer rats. A group of nude rats to which no T cells were transferred served as control. Within 24 h of the adoptive cell transfer, animals from all groups were orally challenged with live P. gingivalis. Serum and salivary responses were seen in rats given immune T cells, whereas a low, variable serum IgM and no serum IgG or salivary IgA response was detected in the control nude rats, indicating that the major host responses to P. gingivalis whole‐cell antigens were T‐cell dependent. Rats given immune Peyer's patch‐derived T cells exhibited a different serum IgG and salivary IgA immune response pattern than animals given immune splenic T cells. A higher serum IgG, especially IgG2b, antibody response and less horizontal bone loss was seen in rats given splenic than Peyer's patch‐derived T cells. Although some differences were seen in the levels of salivary IgA early in the study in the two experimental groups, the levels of IgA were comparable by the termination of the experimental period. Furthermore, no difference was seen in the amount of vertical bone support in these two groups, which was greater than in the controls. These results suggest a role for serum IgG and salivary IgA in periodontal disease protection. The presence of high serum IgG2b antibody activity suggest the involvement of Th1‐like cells in the response, whereas salivary IgA antibodies indicates the participation of Th2‐like cells. These results suggest that the balance between Th1 and Th2‐like cells within the systemic and mucosal compartments and the humoral immune responses to P. gingivalis they mediate are important in determining whether the responses induced are protective against experimental bone loss after oral challenge with the periodontal pathogen P. gingivalis.
Differentiation of clinical isolates of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans using an insertion sequence, ISAa1
Authors: Hayashida H. , Hotokezaka H. , Ohara N. , Koseki T. , Nishihara T. , Takagi O. , Yamada T.
Published: December 2007

We previously identified an IS200‐like sequence (ISAa1) in the genome of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans FDC Y4. One or more hybridizing bands to the ISAa1 probe were detected in each of several reference strains, representing three of the serotypes (a through c) of A. actinomycetemcomitans. In this study, we examined whether a restriction fragment‐length polymorphism (RFLP) with ISAa1 as a probe could differentiate clinical isolates. One or more hybridizing bands were detected in each of the 27 strains examined, which could be divided into seven groups according to restriction fragment‐length polymorphism pattern. Several strains were observed with identical restriction fragment‐length polymorphism types but with different serotypes. Conversely, strains were also observed with differing restriction fragment‐length polymorphism types and identical serotypes.
Interleukin‐6 production by human monocytes treated with granulocyte‐macrophage colony‐stimulating factor in the presence of lipopolysaccharide of oral microorganisms
Authors: Baqui A. A. M. A. , Meiller T. F. , Chon J. J. , Turng B.‐F. , Falkler W. A.
Published: December 2007

This study focused on the effect of granulocyte‐macrophage colony‐stimulating factor (GM‐CSF) and lipopolysaccharide of the putative periodontal pathogens Porphyromonas gingivalis or Fusobacterium nucleatum on IL‐6 production by THP‐1 cells (a human monocytic cell line). Resting THP‐1 cells were alternatively treated with GM‐CSF (50 IU/ml) and lipopolysaccharide of P. gingivalis or F. nucleatum, in varying concentrations for varying time periods. IL‐6 production in supernatant fluids of treated cells was evaluated by an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) was used to evaluate gene expression. Untreated THP‐1 cells did not produce IL‐6 as determined by ELISA. RT‐PCR also failed to detect IL‐6 mRNA in untreated THP‐1 cells, indicating that IL‐6 was not constitutively produced. After stimulation of THP‐1 cells with lipopolysaccharide of F. nucleatum or P. gingivalis, IL‐6 was produced, peaking at 4 h (200–300 pg/ml) and thereafter sharply declining by 8 h. When GM‐CSF was added together with lipopolysaccharide of P. gingivalis or F. nucleatum, there was a synergistic quantitative increase in production of IL‐6 as measured by ELISA as compared with lipopolysaccharide alone. IL‐6 mRNA was detected by RT‐PCR, 15 min after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide of either P. gingivalis or F. nucleatum. GM‐CSF supplementation with lipopolysaccharide of P. gingivalis shortened the transcription of IL‐6 mRNA to 5 min, a shift which was not observed with lipopolysaccharide of F. nucleatum, possibly indicating a different mechanism of initiation of transcription. Production of IL‐6 by GM‐CSF‐treated THP‐1 cells in the presence of lipopolysaccharide of oral microorganisms may provide a model for studying the role of macrophages in acute and chronic periodontal diseases, including the clinical periodontal exacerbation as observed in chemotherapy patients receiving GM‐CSF for bone marrow recovery.
The relationship between salivary histatin levels and oral yeast carriage
Authors: Jainkittivong A. , Johnson D. A. , Yeh C.‐K.
Published: December 2007

Candida species are common commensal inhabitants of the oral cavity. Human saliva contains antifungal proteins called histatins. We tested the hypothesis that oral yeast status is related to salivary histatin levels. Thirty subjects were divided into two groups based on the presence (n=15) or absence (n=15) of yeast on oral mucosa surfaces. Unstimulated and stimulated submandibular and sub‐lingual and parotid saliva was collected from each subject. Salivary flow rates were measured and histatin concentrations were determined in the stimulated saliva samples. The yeast colony positive group showed lower median unstimulated parotid saliva flow rates as well as lower median concentrations of total histatins in submandibular and sublingual saliva. There was a negative correlation between yeast colony‐forming units and unstimulated parotid saliva flow rates and between yeast colony‐forming units and submandibular and sublingual saliva histatin concentration and secretion. The results suggest that oral yeast status may be influenced by unstimulated parotid saliva flow rates and by submandibular and sublingual histatin concentration and secretion.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS FOLLOWING THE ANDHRA PRADESH CYCLONE, 1977
Authors: Ressler Everett M.
Published: December 2007

It should be clearly understood that this report was written primarily to record the process and observations made in the production of specific educational materials. The conclusions are not definitive. The sampling used for the testing of the drawings was small (approximately 501; was not furry representative of the general population;and, because of the disaster circumstances under which the sampling was made, did not clearly isolate the variables or systematically examine all the options. The comments contained herein should be understood as observations of the staff associated with the project.
Planning Basic Health Services In Nigeria
Authors: Battersby Anthony
Published: December 2007

This article does not deal directly with disasters, but as it is recognised that natural disasters most commonly occur and are most damaging in third world countries which are often still in the process of developing their health services; and since clearly a well‐functioning health service is a valuable resource in pre‐disaster planning and post‐disaster relief and recovery, it is thought relevant to publish this study of one local health network which appears to answer effectively the basic needs of a rural population, within the means of the community.
Attrition and housing improvements: A study of post‐disaster housing after three years
Authors: Snarr D. Neil , Brown E. Leonard
Published: December 2007

This research is part of an effort to monitor houses built for victims of hurricane Fifi in 1975. After 3 years (1978) we interviewed the residents to determine the rate of continued occupancy and the amount of housing improvement and the correlates of both. We found that a significant number of small families, Protestants, and families that had not participated in the construction of the housing had moved. From what we could determine, moving was primarily related to seeking work and improving one's financial position.

Nearly 90% of the permanent occupants had improved their houses with either indigenous or manufactured materials. Non‐improvement of houses was concentrated among families with few members. The largest number of unimproved houses was located in the project that sewed the poorest victims and contained the cheapest housing.
Counter‐disaster training in developing countries
Authors: Carter W.
Published: December 2007

This paper discusses both the need for training within a wider context of community disaster preparedness and the major alternatives in methods of training. Emphasis is placed on the importance of compatibility between the resources within a given country and appropriate training programmes.
Aftermath of natural disasters: Coping through residential mobility
Authors: Belcher John C. , Bates Frederick L.
Published: December 2007

Most studies of population movement have concentrated on the more developed nations and on trends that have not been influenced by man‐made or natural disasters. The experience of developing countries in the Caribbean basin, as studied after the Guatemalan earthquake of 1976 and the impact of Hurricane David in the Dominican Republic of 1979, highlights the importance of socio‐economic factors in the decision to make permanent migrations after a disaster, regardless of whether the migrant had personally suffered losses. In many cases the opportunities for personal betterment created by the disaster acted as a catalyst and accelerated a previously‐existing trend of migration.
A preliminary investigation of socio‐economic problems following the 1978 Thessaloniki (Greece) earthquake
Authors: Karakos A. , Papadimitriou I. , Pavlides S.
Published: December 2007

The consequences of social and economic disruption in the city of Thessaloniki following the large earthquake in 1978 are investigated. Specifically, the phenomenon of organized life in camps for Thessaloniki residents over a long period of time is studied. With the use of a questionnaire, all data regarding each person in the camps were assembled and processed with the correspondence analysis method.
A microcomputer‐based emergency response system*
Authors: Belardo S. , Howell A. , Ryan R. , Wallace W A.
Published: December 2007

A microcomputer‐based system was developed to provide local officials responsible for disaster management with assistance during the crucial period immediately following a disaster, a period when incorrect decisions could have an adverse impact on the surrounding community.

While the paper focuses on a potential disaster resulting from an accident at a commercial nuclear power generating facility, the system can be applied to other disastrous situations. Decisions involving evacuation, shelter and the deployment of resources must be made in response to floods, earthquakes, accidents in the transportation of hazardous materials, and hurricanes to name a few examples.

As a decision aid, the system was designed to enhance data display by presenting the data in the form of representations (i.e. road maps, evacuation routes, etc.) as well as in list or tabular form. The potential impact of the event (i.e. the release of radioactive material) was displayed in the form of a cloud, representing the dispersion of the radioactive material. In addition, an algorithm was developed to assist the manager in assigning response resources to demands.

The capability for modelling the impact of a disaster is discussed briefly, with reference to a system installed in the communities surrounding the Indian Point nuclear power plant in New York State.

Results demonstrate both the technical feasibility of incorporating microcomputers indecision support systems for radiological emergency response, and the acceptance of such systems by those public officials responsible for implementing the response plans.
Damage to structures caused by the Japan Sea earthquake of 1983
Authors: Izumi Masanori
Published: December 2007

A summary review of the Japan Sea (Nipponkai‐chubu) earthquake of 1983 is presented. Damage to civil and building structures is explained in brief. Owing to the spread of earthquake‐proof design, damage sustained was very slight for a M = 7.7 earthquake, except to those built on liquefied ground. Our next target in earthquake engineering may be to protect and maintain the functions of city‐facilities against strong shaking so that citizens might not experience much disruption in their daily lives after big earthquakes.
Damage to structures due to liquefaction in the Japan Sea earthquake of 1983
Authors: Yanagisawa Eiji
Published: December 2007

A strong earthquake of magnitude of 7.7 hit the northeast part of Japan on 26th May 1983. Because 100 persons were killed by tsunami, the disaster created a sensation throughout Japan, but there was also a large amount of damage to structures due to the earthquake. Highways, railways, bridges, harbours, levees and private houses were damaged severely in Aomori and Akita prefectures. A great portion of the damage was caused by liquefaction of sand.

This is a prompt report of earthquake damage to structures due to liquefaction. The paper describes general aspects of the damage to structures, with some typical examples are mentioned in more detail. Preliminary results of investigation after the earthquake are also presented to describe the liquefaction phenomena in the earthquake.
Training refugees as primary health care workers: Past imperfect, future conditional
Authors: Simmonds Stephanie , Cuttst Felicity , Dick Bruce
Published: December 2007

Many problems have been encountered in the planning and implementation of health care in refugee camps, and more specifically in the training of refugees as primary health care workers. A review of the published literature and a “survey” of the opinions and experiences of refugee, national and international health personnel regarding training has therefore been undertaken to provide an overview of what has been done and to make recommendations for future work.

The review highlights the need to reallocate resources away from high visibility emergency aid to development activities, such as training, that will create an infrastructure for primary health care and promote self‐reliance.
The Spanish toxic oil syndrome: Some explanations for the pathology and an appraisal of the similarities with other episodes of food adulteration
Authors: Fears R.
Published: December 2007

In 1981 in Madrid, a new disease was identified, and attributed to the fraudulent sale of adulterated, industrial‐quality oil as olive oil. The competing hypotheses for the clinical symptoms and tissue changes are reviewed but it is also important to note the general similarities between this epidemic and those other incidents where food adulteration has presented an acute hazard.
Eleventh Regional Seminar on Earthquake Engineering, Granada, September 1984
Authors: Vogt J. , Davagnier M. , Jimenez E.
Published: December 2007

Some of the problems of combining macroseismic (descriptive) and instrumental information on modern and historical earthquakes are discussed, together with the relationships that have evolved between these two fields of study. The paper emphasises the dangers of transferring macroseismic information straight into computer databanks, without taking full account of the levels of confidence attached to the information and its suitability for earthquake risk analysis.
Climate hazards: Lessons from recent events in the United States
Authors: Riebsame William E.
Published: December 2007

Three recent cases of climate extremes are studied to identify human impacts and response strategies and to identify common characteristics that may help illuminate the nature of climate hazards. The 1980 heat wave in the central United States, 1981 cold wave in Boston, Massachusetts, and recent flooding and lake level rise in northern Utah, illustrate several important aspects of climate hazards that separate them from the more traditional set of catastrophic events (e.g. tornadoes, hurricanes and earthquakes) usually dealt with by hazards research and management. Among those characteristics are an emphasis on health impacts rather than physical damage, accumulative effects rather than short shocks, a tendency for impacts to accrue to certain socio‐economic classes, and relatively slow onset. The management and research implications of these hazard characteristics are explored.
From drought relief to post‐disaster recovery: The case of Botswana
Authors: Morgan Richard
Published: December 2007

This article discusses the initiative of the Government of Botswana in formulating and introducing a programme to assist recovery in rural areas after the present drought period as an important aspect of the national development effort. It examines the process by which this Post Drought Recovery Programme was arrived at, its limitations, the extent of its appropriateness to longer‐term factors which render rural households more vulnerable to drought, and suggests conclusions which may be drawn to inform the design of similar programmes elsewhere.
Supplementary feeding for refugees and other displaced communities – questioning current orthodoxy
Authors: Dick Bruce
Published: December 2007

Supplementary feeding programmes of one sort or another are an almost universal response to refugee displacements, particularly in Africa. The aim of this paper is to question some of the assumptions which underlie current approaches to providing this additional food.

First, there is a brief description of recent general policy developments relating to refugee health care and an outline of the two main factors that are likely to affect the objectives of supplementary feeding programmes: the adoption of either the medical or the epidemiological model of malnutrition, and the identification of the major differences between refugees and stable communities in developing countries.

The characteristics of vulnerable groups are then discussed, as is the need to place food supplements within a much broader context of appropriate interventions directed towards improving and maintaining the health and nutritional status of these vulnerable groups. At the same time, emphasis is placed on the non‐nutritional value of food and the importance of allowing refugees to determine their own priorities and to use the available resources accordingly.

Several unresolved questions about nutrition programmes are identified, in particular whether the focus of supplementary food should be high risk individuals or families, and whether supplements should be provided on a supervised or take home basis – or if they should merely be included as part of a basic ration determined by “need.”

Eight axioms of supplementary feeding programmes for refugees are stated and the implications of these for planning, training and research are discussed.
Fiji, land of tropical cyclones and hurricanes: A case study of agricultural rehabilitation
Authors: Chung Joseph
Published: December 2007

Tropical cyclones and hurricanes have a severe impact on the social and economic activities of affected communities. For small island nations in the Pacific region, the effects can be devastating because of their smallness. FQi and several other countries in the region are vulnerable to such disasters as they are situated in the zone where cyclones occur frequently.

During the last decade, the frequency of natural disasters and their adverse impact on die economic and social development of small nations like Fiji, has aroused awareness mat relief efforts must go beyond immediate “mopping up” operations to those which contribute to attaining longer term benefits through reconstruction and rehabilitation.

The paper outlines the 1985 agricultural rehabilitation program and discusses related issues and problems.
Avoidance of death and injury through mionitoring of dams and flood evacuation in Essex, Connecticut, June 1982
Authors: Kircher Tobias , Nelson Judith , French Jean
Published: December 2007

During a period of heavy ranfall in Essex, Connecticut, on 4th and 5th June 1982, dams in the town along the Fall River were monitored for signs of braks. The observation of water spilling over one of teh dams at 10 p.m. in 5th June ld to the decision to evacuate community rsidents. The notification and avacuation process was conducted by the cvolunteer fire department over a two‐hour periopd. At 12.30 a.m 6th June, the upper dam on the Fall River gave way, rsulting in a rapidly moving floodwave which sequentially destroyed four additional dams along the river. Although there was extensive property damage, gthere were no serious injuries and no deaths. The responsible actons of the town officials in monitoring the dams during the period of heavy rainfall permitted the evacuation order to be given in sufficient time to evacuate the residnts. The success of the evacuation was the result of good communication, trust, and co‐operation between town officials and the community.
Gas Bursts from Cameroon Crater Lakes: A New Natural Hazard
Authors: SIGURDSSON HARALDUR
Published: December 2007

Gas bursts from tropical crater lakes constitute a hitherto unrecognized natural hazard, which claimed 37 lives around Lake Monoun in 1984 and 1,746 lives in 1986 around Lake Nyos in Cameroon, west Africa. Studies of these events indicate that the lethal gas clouds were dominantly CO2 which exsolved catastrophically from deep waters of the lakes, producing in the case of Lake Nyos a gas cloud of 1.94 times 106 tons CO2. Carbon‐isotope data indicate a magmatic source of the carbon dioxide, but the geochemistry of deep water and gases does not support a sudden injection of volcanic gas from a deep source into the lakes. Rather, it is proposed that the gas bursts were preceded by gradual build‐up of dissolved bicarbonate in deep waters, where anoxic conditions in enclosed and stagnant basins led to low pH and pCO2 close to saturation. Steady input from the Earth's mantle to submerged mofettes or CO2‐rich soda springs within the lakes is most likely the primary source of carbon dioxide. Lethal effects of the gas bursts are almost entirely due to CO2‐induced asphyxia. A small percentage of victims awoke from coma one or two days after the event, but most died. Unusual skin lesions on about 5% of victims arose from the comatose state. It is shown that the mass of gas required to account for the lethal effects and observed gas clouds is an order of magnitude less than the potential gas yield from the lakes. In view of the lethal gas bursts from the small Cameroon lakes, the potential hazard of future gas bursts from other much larger density‐stratified equatorial lakes must be seriously considered, particularly in Lake Kivu in east Africa, where methane and carbon dioxide gas content is higher by two to four orders of magnitude than that of the Cameroon lakes. A gas burst from Lake Kivu would form a carbon dioxide cloud up to 340 km3 in volume and expansion of the exsolving gas from deep water to atmospheric pressure would correspond to an energy release equivalent to 8 megatons of explosive.
Vehicle Scheduling for Emergency Relief Management: A Knowledge‐Based Approach
Authors: KNOTT R. P.
Published: December 2007

One of the major tasks facing any relief agency is the management of the large scale distribution of food stocks. Such a distribution involves the scheduling of a large number of trucks, arranging fuel distribution, loading arrangements etc. In a previous paper, we suggested a micro‐computer based system for use in the field by emergency relief managers for scheduling this distribution. The system was to be based on a mixture of O.R. and knowledge‐based inference techniques. In this paper we describe the progress so far in implementing this proposed solution.
The Persian Famine of 1870–1872: Prices and Politics
Authors: MELVILLE CHARLES
Published: December 2007

By whatever definitions one cares to classify food shortages and deaths resulting from lack of food, there can be little semantic difficulty in recognising a catastrophic famine in Persia (Iran) in the early 1870s. This paper briefly examines the famine in its natural, political and socio‐economic context. Fluctuations in prices and in the supply of essential commodities responded primarily to weather conditions, but this response was exaggerated and in some instances triggered directly by actions in the political and economic sphere.
The Protection of China's Ancient Cities from Flood Damage
Authors: QINGZHOU WU
Published: December 2007

Over many centuries, the repeated and serious flooding of many of China's ancient cities has led to the development of various measures to mitigate the impact of floods. These have included structural measures, such as the construction of walls, dams and dykes, with tree planting for soil consolidation; installation of drainage systems and water storage capacity; the raising of settlement levels and the strengthening of building materials. Non‐structural measures include warning systems and planning for emergency evacuation. Urban planning and architectural design have evolved to reduce flood damage, and government officials have been appointed with specific responsibilities for managing the flood control systems. In view of the serious consequences of modern neglect of these well‐tried methods, this paper examines China's historical experience of flooding and demonstrates its continuing relevance for today. A brief historical survey is followed by a detailed discussion of various flood prevention measures. The paper is illustrated by city plans from ancient local chronicles.
Earthquake Hazard Assessment after Mexico (1985)
Authors: DEGG MARTIN R.
Published: December 2007

The 1985 Mexican earthquake ranks foremost amongst the major earthquake disasters of the twentieth century. One of the few positive aspects of the disaster is that it provided massive quantities of data that would otherwise have been unobtainable. Every opportunity should be taken to incorporate the findings from these data in earthquake hazard assessments. The purpose of this paper is to provide a succinct summary of some of the more important lessons from Mexico. It stems from detailed field investigations, and subsequent analyses, conducted by the author on the behalf of reinsurance companies.
The Role of the Media in Hazard Mitigation and Disaster Management
Authors: RATTIEN STEPHEN
Published: December 2007

The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, which began in January 1990, will embrace efforts to reduce death, injury and property losses stemming from rapid‐onset natural disasters. Our expanding science and technology base makes possible this concerted cooperative international effort, and communications is a central part of that effort — for public education, early warning, evacuation and coordination of post‐disaster relief. Mass communication is inextricably entwined with disasters and hazard mitigation. Reflecting the public's great interest and concern, the electronic and print media extensively cover natural disasters and significantly affect how and what the public learns about and how it perceives natural hazards. Improving the linkages between the media and disaster‐mitigation researchers and practitioners could prepare the public to act promptly on warnings, helping to mitigate disasters. This could also accelerate the shift of the societal emphasis from post‐disaster relief toward pre‐disaster initiatives.
The Politics of AIDS and Condoms for Stable Heterosexual Relations in Africa: Recent Evidence from the Local Print Media
Authors: BLEDSOE CAROLINE
Published: December 2007

Although there has been considerable attention to increasing mortality rates and economic problems in areas of Africa hardest hit by AIDS, in this paper I examine the epidemic's impact on stable heterosexual relations. By identifying salient cultural themes pertaining to marriage and fertility, I examine people's emerging responses to policy injunctions to use condoms and limit their sexual partners. I draw policy conclusions for the fate of children whose mothers die from AIDS, threats to female education in the wake of the AIDS epidemic and the likelihood of condom acceptance.
Shelter, Housing and Recovery: A Comparison of U.S. Disasters
Authors: BOLIN ROBERT , STANFORD LOIS
Published: December 2007

In this paper we examine the issues associated with the temporary sheltering and housing of victims after natural disasters in the United States. Specific topics addressed include differential access to shelter and housing aid according to social class, ethnicity and related demographic factors; the relationship between post‐disaster shelter and housing and long‐term recovery; the role of social support networks in the sheltering of victims; and the implications of the research for the provision of shelter and housing aid after disasters.
“Droughts have Different Tails”: Response to Crises in Mukogodo Division, North Central Kenya, 1950s‐1980s
Authors: HERREN URS J.
Published: December 2007

In this essay I discuss the response to crises of Maasai speaking pastoralists in Mukogodo Division, North Central Kenya. I begin with the reminder that the Maasai term currently translated as “drought”, olamei, refers primarily to any situation of want of which meteorological drought is only one possible cause. It is therefore preferable to speak of crises, rather than of “droughts”. 1 then review the crises which have affected Mukogodo pastoralism since the turn of the century in a wider socioeconomic and political perspective. I then show how the crises of 1981 and 1984 have led to a process of stratification, which locks the poorer half of the population into an unviable and residual “labour reserve pastoralism” with declining chances of recovery.
Chaos, Order and World View: Tibetan Refugees in Switzerland
Authors: CORLIN CLAES
Published: December 2007

This article is about culturally specific responses to extreme events. The concept of social chaos and some criteria for distinguishing this concept are discussed. Social chaos refers to an extreme situation in which neither the rules of normal behaviour nor those for coping with unexpected problems apply. It is suggested that the concept of world view may be an asset in the study of social chaos. The case of Tibetan refugees in Switzerland is presented to show how the ability of a society to survive a disaster is related to the specific outlook on the world shared by members of that society. Finally, it is asked whether it would be possible to account for a society's response to disasters, on the basis of socio‐cultural factors.
II Murahaleen Raids on the Dinka, 1985–89
Authors: MAWSON ANDREW N.M.
Published: December 2007

Successive Sudanese governments have used proxy forces, so‐called militias, as an integral part of their war with the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). The Rizeiqat and Misseriya of South Darfur and South Kordofan created armed bands, known as Murahaleen, in order to raid cattle from the Dinka to their south. Massive raids have depopulated swathes of territory south of the Bahr al‐Arab, killing tens of thousands of people and leading to the destruction and displacement of unknown numbers of others. Famine in western Sudan fuelled the early raids, but the scale of the devastation wrought from 1985 onwards was the result of government complicity and assistance. More recently, since the coming to power of the current military government in Khartoum in June 1989, the relationship between the army and the Murahleen has been formalized through the creation of Popular Defence Forces.
III A Disaster for Whom?: Local Interests and International Donors During Famine Among the Dinka of Sudan
Authors: KEEN DAVID
Published: December 2007

The 1985–88 famine amongst the Dinka is described and shown to have been rooted in the long term exploitation of the south by northern Sudanese and international interests. This process of exploitation served, and continues to serve, important functions for particular groups. Some of the ways in which the 1985–88 famine was functional – for the central government, the army and merchants – are outlined and the implications for relief operations considered. It is argued that international donors had considerable “room for manoeuvre” which they could have used to adopt more effective policies. They only did so after the worst of the mortality was over.
The Risks from Flooding: Which Risks and Whose Perception?
Authors: GREEN C.H. , TUNSTALL S.M. , FORDHAM M.H.
Published: December 2007

Four main groups are considered in relation to the risk from flooding: the engineers involved in the design of flood alleviation schemes, emergency planners, the public, including both the population at risk from flooding and the rest of the population who will bear all or most of the cost of flood alleviation schemes and the researchers, such as geographers and economists concerned with flood hazards and scheme appraisal. It is argued that these different groups vary significantly in their selection and definition of risks from flooding as a focus of concern and that their definition of risk influences their expectations about future events and the appropriate response to those events. But the different groups share two tendencies: the expectation that the future will be a replication of the past; and the neglect of “uncertain uncertainties” in favour of known uncertainties of risk.
Warfare, Vulnerability and Survival: A Case from Southwestern Ethiopia
Authors: TURTON DAVID
Published: December 2007

The Mursi are a small group of herders and cultivators living in the Lower Omo Valley of southwestern Ethiopia. Over the past 20 years they have suffered a disaster of classic proportions, involving drought, famine, migration and war. Measures taken to ensure the physical survival of people, and especially cattle, in the face of regular and expected attacks by their neighbours have made the economy of the Mursi more vulnerable to climatic uncertainty. A crude materialist explanation of warfare is not, therefore, supported by this case but it is clear also that warfare has played a key part in Mursi expansion northwards, over the past century, into the territory of the Bodi. Warfare, in this context, is a means of establishing and maintaining the separate political identities of neighbouring groups. The problem of survival does not present itself to the Mursi and their neighbours as a choice between political and physical survival: the only way they know of saving lives is to save their way of life.
Should Pastoralism Continue as a Way of Life?
Authors: HOGG RICHARD
Published: December 2007

Pastoralism is unpopular with most African governments. It is widely regarded as environmentally destructive and even economically irrational. Yet most of the popular allegations against pastoralism are unfounded. In most of the areas in which it is practiced it is the only way to survive in marginal, semi‐arid environments, and the majority of pastoralists have a deep respect and knowledge of their environment. The tragedy of pastoralism today derives from a misunderstanding of the position and motivation of pastoralists who, often in extreme circumstances, are trying to come to terms with a rapidly changing political, economic and natural environment. The only sensible pastoral development strategy in this context is to provide a facilitating environment for pastoralists, where they can be supported in the particular range of activities which they know best. Any more traditional, prescriptive ‘range management’ approach is likely to fail.
Opportunities for British Involvement in the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
Authors: DAVIS IAN
Published: December 2007

The UK Science, Technology and Engineering Committee for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was jointly established by The Fellowship of Engineering and The Royal Society, in 1990. Its purpose is to promote the aims of the IDNDR with particular reference to disaster risk reduction within developing countries.

In order to provide a forum for people with a wide range of experience in this field to meet and exchange views, the Committee convened a one‐day Workshop, held at The Royal Society in London on 27 March 1992. The following is a shortened version of a position paper (originally drafted by Ian Davis and subsequently approved by the Committee), setting out seven ‘priorities’ for the IDNDR, which formed the basis of discussion at the Workshop.
Environmental Influences on the Distribution of the Incidence of Cholera: A Case Study in Quelimane, Mozambique
Authors: COLLINS ANDREW
Published: December 2007

Cholera continues to cause widespread suffering in many parts of the world. Previous research has mainly described modes of transmission and has correctly indicated the role of predisposing socio‐economic conditions in affected areas. Little field research has been carried out, however, in endemic zones, on the contribution of physical characteristics in environmental reservoirs which prolong the survival time or increase the toxigeneity of Vibrio cholerae 01, despite substantial indication of their significance at laboratory scale. A study carried out in Quelimane, Mozambique, to test for such environmental influences on the spatial and temporal distribution of cholera incidence, is described. The role of population displacement in this relationship is also discussed. The practical implications of the results for prevention of primary infection and subsequent reinfection are outlined.
Recovery after Disaster: Achieving Sustainable Development, Mitigation and Equity
Authors: BERKE PHILIP R. , KARTEZ JACK , WENGER DENNIS
Published: December 2007

This paper reviews key findings and raises issues that are not fully addressed by the predominant disaster recovery literature. Achievement of equity, mitigation and sustainable development, particularly through local participation in redevelopment planning and institutional cooperation, is the central issue of the review. Previous research and past assumptions about the process by which communities rebuild after a disaster are reviewed. A conceptual model for understanding local disaster recovery efforts is then presented. The conceptual and practical significance of this model is then demonstrated by presenting case studies of local recovery experiences. Finally, conclusions on the current understanding of disaster redevelopment planning, as well as implications for public policy and future research are offered.
Infant Feeding in Emergencies
Authors: KELLY MARION
Published: December 2007

Recent experience of emergency relief operations in middle‐income countries has shown that infant feeding issues can greatly complicate attempts to protect infant health. The two main problems are: how to protect and support breastfeeding in communities where it is no longer the norm and how to assist artificially fed infants without exposing them to the dramatically increased risks associated with artificial feeding under disaster conditions. This article explores the underlying issues and makes a number of recommendations for policy and programmes.
Volcanic Disaster Mitigation in the Philippines: Experience from Mt. Pinatubo
Authors: TAYAG JEAN C. , PUNONGBAYAN RAYMUNDO S.
Published: December 2007

Considerable progress has been made in volcanic disaster mitigation in the Philippines during the last four decades, since the devastating Hibok‐Hibok eruption in 1951 and the establishment of the Commission on Volcanology (COMVOL), the forerunner of the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) in 1952. The management of the Pinatubo Volcano eruption crisis of 1991‐92 marks the highest point in the development of volcanic disaster mitigation in the country. State‐of‐the‐art volcano monitoring techniques and instruments were applied; the eruption was accurately predicted; hazards zonation maps were prepared and disseminated a month before the violent explosions; an alert and warning system was designed and implemented; and the disaster response machinery was mobilized on time. The unprecedented magnitude and lingering nature of the hazards, however, and their widespread, long‐term impacts have sorely tested the capability of the country's volcanic disaster mitigation systems. In particular, the lahar threat has triggered controversies and put decision makers in a dilemma of choosing between adaptive versus confrontational/control approaches. At least three strategies have been articulated and adopted in varying degrees and forms: (1) the establishment of a lahar monitoring‐warning‐evacuation system to deal with the lahar problem on an emergency basis; (2) relocation of settlements from the hazard zones; and (3) installation of engineering countermeasures to control/divert the lahar flows and protect settlements. A combination of the three appears to be the best, but the most effective and least costly mix remains to be determined.
Post‐Emergency Epidemiological Surveillance in Iraqi‐Kurdish Refugee Camps in Iran
Authors: BABILLE MARZIO , COLOMBANI PIERPAOLO DE , GUERRA RANIERI , ZAGARIA NEVIO , ZANETTI CHIARA
Published: December 2007

In 1991 a computerized, comprehensive epidemiological surveillance system was developed to monitor health trends in approximately 25,000 acutely displaced Kurds in Nowsood and Saryas refugee camps, Bakhtaran region, Northwestern Iran. In addition, community‐based surveys offered information unobtainable from health facilities. Weekly population movements, attack rates, point‐prevalence estimates, and case fatality ratios were calculated, and the data were analysed and compared. The overall crude mortality rate (CMR) in the camps under study was still 9 times higher than the reported CMR for Iraq. Health problems with very low rates (less than 1.0/ 1,000 population/week) included the triad of measles, meningitis and tetanus. However, morbidity for the most common conditions (acute respiratory infections, diarrhoea, skin infections, eye diseases and, finally, typhoid fever) was shown to increase at the end of the intervention, highlighting that the pressure of repatriation on refugees made them progressively worse. This article concludes that epidemiological surveillance systems should be implemented during mass‐migrations in developing countries also in post‐emergency settings. Furthermore, surveillance appears to be indispensable in order for the international agencies to keep abreast of events and to safeguard human rights when international attention subsides.
Food Security Reserve Policy in Ethiopia: A Case Study of Experience and Implications
Authors: JONES STEPHEN
Published: December 2007

Food security reserve policy in Ethiopia since 1982 is reviewed in the light of the limited progress made elsewhere in Africa in establishing and maintaining such reserves. While the reserve played some role in dealing with the crisis of 1987/8, donor confidence was eroded by unauthorised drawings from the reserve and other factors. In 1992, the Ethiopian Food Security Reserve Authority was established to provide a system of management more acceptable to donors. This had led to donor pledges to replenish the reserve, though it remains well below the target level. Despite increased government commitment of funds, donor confidence remains fragile and the reserve remains dependent on donor support. The place of the reserve in national food security policy is not yet fully defined. Conclusions are drawn for food security reserve policy in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa.
Profile of Mortality from the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake using Coroner and Medical Examiner Reports
Authors: EBERHART‐PHILLIPS JASON E. , SAUNDERS THERESA M. , ROBINSON AMY L. , HATCH DOUGLAS L. , PARRISH R. GIBSON
Published: December 2007

Mortality patterns from earthquakes in the United States may differ from those observed in other parts of the world. We reviewed coroner and medical examiner records for all investigated deaths from seven California counties for 15 days following the Loma Prieta earthquake of October 17, 1989 (N = 327). Data on the circumstances surrounding death were used to classify each case as directly earthquakerelated, indirectly earthquake‐related, or not earthquake‐related. Fifty‐seven deaths were judged as directly earthquake‐related. Six other deaths were indirectly related. Ten circumstances accounted for all directly earthquake‐related deaths, with the collapse of an elevated freeway accounting for 40 of these deaths. Forty‐six (80.8 per cent) of the 57 directly earthquake‐related deaths occurred in motor vehicles on public roadways. Fifty‐three (93.0 per cent) of the directly earthquake‐related deaths occurred within seconds or minutes of injury. Future earthquake deaths in the United States may best be prevented by identifying and modifying seismic hazards in earthquake‐prone regions, particularly transportation structures.
Putting Children First
Authors: LAST MURRAY
Published: December 2007

Save the Children Fund in 1923 and UNICEF in 1990 both declared that children must come first in receiving relief. Whereas SCF's call was a corporate credo for the world, for use whenever disaster struck, UNICEF's was offered as a strategic policy document applicable at all times. In contrast, the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, as a legally‐binding document in the field of human rights, omitted all reference to giving such priority to children. The reason for transforming the original credo is that the principle of ‘children first’, if it includes every child and is to be applied literally in the field, is not only impracticable but unacceptable in many cultures. The social value of a particular child's life — or of human life generally — is simply not an absolute, in all circumstances, in all cultures.
Disasters, Family Tracing and Children's Rights: Some Questions About the Best Interests of Separated Children
Authors: LUCY BONNERJEA
Published: December 2007

Large numbers of children get separated from their families and communities in disasters. Family tracing is an attempt to find the families and assess if the children can be reunited. This paper examines how questions about the rights of children arise in the context of family tracing. It then looks at the challenges posed by effective and child sensitive tracing to both emergency and development programmes. The paper suggests that traditional coping mechanisms within communities are part of the social infractructure which all disaster intervention, including family tracing programmes, need explicitly to build on and repair.