bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Role of Individual Identification in Conservation Biology
Authors: McGregor Peter , Peake Tom
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the role that a knowledge of the identity of individuals can play in conservation. Much of the impetus for such a discussion comes from the field of behavioral ecology. This is partly because behavioral ecologists have developed a number of techniques for identifying individuals, many of which are designed to have minimal effects on behavior. It is also partly because such techniques have uncovered differences between individuals in features relevant to conservation.
A Minimum Intervention Approach to Conservation: the Influence of Social Structure
Authors: Durant Sarah
Published: November 2023

Over the last decade, research within conservation biology has centered on the concept of a minimum viable population (MVP), originally defined as a population that has a 95% probability of persisting for 100 years without intervention (Shaffer, 1983). The number of individual animals constituting an MVP has become a fundamental question within conservation biology (Soulé, 1987) because, with this knowledge, it might be possible to establish reserves of a suitable size to sustain a population of a particular species. Minimum viable population research largely targets endangered species (e.g., grizzly bears Ursus arc-tos: Shaffer, 1983; black-footed-ferrets Mustela nigripes: Groves and Clark, 1986; redcock aded woodpeckers Picoides borealis: Reed et al., 1988; spotted owls Strix occidentalis: Barrowclough and Coats, 1985: Leadbeaters possums Gymnobelideus leadbeateri: Lin denmayer et al., 1993). More recently this approach to conservation has expanded into population viability analysis, or PVA, which is used to assess the viability of populations across a whole array of population variables rather than just population size (Gilpin and Soule, 1986). Both PVA and MVP theory hinge on being able to establish whether a reserve can support viable populations. Yet they neglect the increasingly urgent issue of how to main tain existing small populations or metapopulations in protected and sometimes unprotected areas (Caughley, 1994).
Behavior as a Tool for Management Intervention in Birds
Authors: Curio Eberhard
Published: November 2023

A number of species have become extinct in the wild and survive only in captivity (Magin et al., 1994). Over the next century, therefore, it will be necessary to finesse our abilities to breed highly endangered species in captivity because there will be no room for error. In addition, as conservation areas in the wild become more isolated and smaller in size, we may have to manage in situ populations along similar lines to captive populations. Eventually captive individuals will have to be reintroduced into the wild, yet there are difficulties in reintroducing captive-bred animals into nature. For example, captive-born individuals survive significantly less well than wild-caught ones when released into the wild (Griffith et al., 1989; Beck et al., 1994; Ginsberg, 1994; Miller et al., 1994). Often releases have to be repeated, with the success rate increasing with the number of releases (Beck et al., 1994; see also Veltman et al., 1996) and the number of places where release occurs (Veltman et al., 1996). Based on this poor record, some postulate spreading releases over many years, but it may be more cost effective to understand the reasons that releases fare so poorly so that captive breeding, now called conservation breeding, and prerelease and postrelease training can be improved.
Conspecific Aggregation and Conservation Biology
Authors: Dobson Andy , Poole Joyce
Published: November 2023

Nearly all animals aggregate for some period of their lives, for mating, for raising offspring, at feeding sites, or because they live in temporary or permanent groups (Wilson, 1975). Many years of behavioral ecological research have shown that there are costs and benefits for each individual in associating with conspecifics, and that these may be important for predator defense (e.g., Thomson’s gazelles Gazella thomsoni: FitzGibbon, 1990), increasing access to food (weavers Quelea quelea: De Groot, 1980; wild dogs Lycaon pictus: Creel and Creel, 1995), or for reproduction (many cooperatively breeding birds; Stacey and Koenig, 1990). Because many benefits of grouping affect survival and reproduction, and many of these benefits fall disproportionately on certain segments of the population a priori, it seems likely that variations in patterns of conspecific aggregation will affect population growth rates and thus the ability of populations to withstand exploitation, environmental insult, and to make a recovery. The difficulty is in determining the precise ways in which conspecific aggregation affects growth rates, as well as understanding ramifications for other aspects of conservation biology including habitat selection, metapopulation dynamics, and monitoring strategies. Despite these acknowledged difficulties, it is increasingly recognized that models and management plans will continue to remain crude if such knowledge is not incorporated (see Durant, Chapter 5, this volume).
The Importance of Mate Choice in Improving Viability in Captive Populations
Authors: Grahn Mats , Langefors Åsa , von Schantz Torbjörn
Published: November 2023

There is a constant increase in the number of species threatened with extinction, and a number of measures are being used to save endangered species or populations, with varying success. One of these is captive breeding, and a growing number of species are today dependent on zoological parks for their existence. Indeed, the main enterprise for many conservation biologists is to maintain viable and reproductive populations of such species in captivity. Specifically, their goal is to create a self-sustaining population that is able to maintain 75-98% of its original heterozygosity for 20-200 years (Ebenhard, 1995; Wiese et al., 1996) in order to “maintain the population’s evolutionary plasticity” (Vrijenhoek and Leberg, 1991). The methods for achieving this goal include minimization of inbreeding with the aid of pedigree records and reduction of genetic drift by planned matings and equalized family sizes (Haig et al., 1990).
Patterns of Development: The Altricial-Precocial Spectrum
Authors: Starck J Matthias , Ricklefs Robert E
Published: November 2023

Since the Late Triassic, the time of Protoavis texensis (Chatterjee 1991), over 200 million years of evolutionary diversification of birds have resulted in about 8900 living species. Rather than there being a gradual and continuous diversification of birds, recent paleontological perspectives suggest that most avian lineages produced during the Mesozoic did not survive the extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous period and that most recent lineages arose in a second, almost explosive phyletic radiation during a relatively short period of IO million years in the early Tertiary (Chiappe 1995; Feduccia 1995).
Embryonic Growth and Development
Authors: Ricklefs Robert E , Starck J Matthias
Published: November 2023

Over the past century, avian biologists have developed a conventional wisdom concerning the relationship among egg size, incubation period, embryo growth, and the developmental state of the neonate. Precocial birds lay larger eggs relative to adult body size than do altricial species (Rahn et al. 1975; Sotherland and Rahn 1987), and they take longer to hatch (Portmann 1955). It seems reasonable that precocial offspring should benefit more than altricial offspring from larger neonatal size (e.g., Nisbet 1978; Ankney 1980; Williams et al. 1993) and that the more mature state of the precocial neonate should take longer to achieve. Portmann (1955) argued that altricial and precocial species progress through the same developmental stages but that altricial chicks hatch relatively earlier in this progression and precocial chicks later. Thus, a portion of the maturation achieved by altricial nestlings is accomplished by precocial embryos before they hatch. Increased self-reliance of precocial neonates results in reduced postnatal growth potential, apparently because of a trade-off between functional maturity and the growth rate of tissues (Ricklefs 1979; see chapter 11). By the same argument, altricial chicks maintain high growth rates well after hatching. Because postnatal growth is strikingly influenced by the functional state of the neonate, it is reasonable to ask about the extent to which variation in the neonate condition is reflected in growth of the embryo.
Energy Metabolism, Gas Exchange, and Ventilation
Authors: Vleck Carol M , Bucher Theresa L
Published: November 2023

The altricial precocial condition has traditionally been used to describe the morphological and behavioral characteristics of different species of bird chicks at the time of hatching (chapter 1). However, the ramifications of developmental mode reach far beyond the hatchling characteristics to affect such factors as energy and water density of the egg, ontogeny of metabolism, embryonic and hatchling growth pattern, and the parent birds’ time and energy budgets. Here we discuss the current state of knowledge about how the developmental mode appears to affect organismal-level energy metabolism, gas exchange, and ventilation in both the embryonic stage and the hatchling and nestling stages. Particularly for egg energy content and energy metabolism of the embryo, different developmental patterns and their correlations with the altricia precocial condition have been identified for some time (see section 4.2.2). For the hatchling and nestling stages, metabolism and ventilatory patterns and their correlations with the developmental pattern are only now emerging.
Models for Avian Growth and Development
Authors: Konarzewski Marek , Kooijman Sebaastian A L M , Ricklefs Robert E
Published: November 2023

Models applied to growth (in birds) serve several purposes. For the most part, models have been used to describe growth empirically. Characterizing growth by parameter values of simple equations facilitates the comparison of growth between species. The generalized growth curve of Richards (1959), of which the logistic, Gompertz, and von Bertalanffy are special cases is frequently applied in this context (e.g., Ricklefs 1973, 1983a; White and Brisbin 1980; Bradley et al. 1984; Brisbin et al. 1986).
The Evolution of the Developmental Mode in Birds
Authors: Ricklefs Robert E , Starck J Matthias
Published: November 2023

The altricial precocial spectrum represents a continuum of functional capabilities of neonates, ranging from the complete independence and adultlike capabilities of megapode chicks to the total dependence of passerines, psittaciforms, and other fully altricial taxa. The dimensionality of this variation - whether it represents one or several axes of diversification is important in understanding how the mode of development evolves. When evolution is constrained to a single dimension of variation, this implies that each aspect of function is linked genetically or developmentally to every other aspect. When evolution can respond in several dimensions of morphology and physiology, the possibilities for adaptation increase enormously.
Economic Growth and Problems of Intergroup Relations
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

By the second decade of the eighteenth century, basic commercial patterns had developed in colonial New ‘York that would shape its economic destiny for several generations to come. Before about 1712, the rates at which trade multiplied, production increased, agriculture improved, and population grew were varied, erratic, and uncertain. A depression that began in the 1670s had carried over into the 1680s; and thereafter the Leislerian brouhaha in politics, the Anglo-French wars, and the hovering presence of French privateers, as well as French competition in the fur trade, all served to curtail the potential for full economic activity. With the cessation of war in 17 I 3, however, New York entered its first major period of concentrated commercial growth. This phase lasted (with ups and downs) for almost two. decades; and it had profound implications for the colony’s labor force, Indian relations; political activity, and provincial attitudes—both public and private.
War, Trade, and Empire
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

New York’s position in the British Empire was both important and uncertain at mid-century. The province played a relatively minor role in King George’s War (1744–48) but thereafter became literally a linchpin among the continental colonies. New York generally, and the area from Albany to Ticonderoga in particular, became the most critical sector during the French and Indian War, and between 1755 and 1760 Albany was the nerve center of British operations in North America. The formal onset of war in 1756, moreover, marked a significant turning point in New York’s history because it diverted attention from civic problems, such as the King’s College controversy, to military, diplomatic, and economic matters of greater moment.

During the governorship of George Clinton, 1743–53—the longest term for any English governor in the colony’s history the structure of political alignments in New York underwent several major convolutions.
Recipes for Grains of Salt
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

As Corning all too keenly recognized, clear optical fibers were not the only building block vital for fiber-optic communications. A second crucial ingredient was a matching light source. From Bell Labs to the British Post Office, developers of optical communication systems thought the ideal light source would be a semiconductor laser. By a curious coincidence, the spring and summer of 1970 also marked symbolic breakthroughs on the semiconductor laser frontier, although as with fibers, practical devices took longer.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis as a Guide to Resource Allocation in Health: Roles and Limitations
Authors: Russell L B , Siegel J E , Daniels N , Gold M R , Luce B R , Mandelblatt J S
Published: November 2023

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a method used to evaluate the outcomes and costs of interventions designed to improve health. It has been used to compare costs and years of life gained for such interventions as screening for breast cancer (Eddy, 1989), bypass surgery for coronary artery disease (Weinstein and Stason, 1982), and vacci-nation against pneumococcal pneumonia (Willems et al., 1980). The results of an analysis are usually summarized in a series of cost-effectiveness ratios that show the cost of achieving one unit of health outcome-for example, the cost per year of life gained for different kinds of patients and variations of the intervention (Table 1.1).
Reflecting Uncertainty in Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Authors: Manning W G , Fryback D G , Weinstein M C
Published: November 2023

In conducting a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) to evaluate the desirability of a treatment or prevention regimen, the analyst combines information on the course of disease and treatment, the clinical effectiveness of the regimens, preferences regarding health outcomes, the costs of the intervention and its sequelae, and other aspects of the clinical problem. For many of these pieces of information, the analyst may have a very good sense of what the true values and relationships are, based on clinical trials and observational studies in the literature, or experience. For some aspects of the study, the level of certainty concerning the correct value or the form of the relationship may be very limited.
Reporting Cost-Effectiveness Studies and Results
Authors: Siegel J E , Weinstein M C , Torrance G W
Published: November 2023

The way a cost-effectiveness analysis is reported is a critical determinant of the impact and utility of an analysis. The comprehensiveness of a report affects the degree to which research can be reviewed or extended by other analysts. Its organization and clarity govern its accessibility to an audience, its credibility, and, ultimately, the likelihood that study results will play a part in policy discussions.
Introduction: Learning the hard way
Authors: Ching Barbara
Published: November 2023

This book is about hard country music for two reasons. First, it’s impossible to really understand country music, now one of the most popular forms of music in the United States, without recognizing that its “country” is a disputed territory where a mainstream-oriented pop production style reigns over a feisty and less fashionable form—”hard country.” Second, hearing hard country music offers an important perspective on the bewildering cultural situation, often called postmodernism, in which we find ourselves. Conversely, once we recognize the postmodern rhetoric of cultural distinction embedded in contemporary hard country, we can hear the music as something more significant than a stylistic variant of a harmless breed of popular music. Although cultural critics like Susan Sontag may well assert that contemporary culture has done away with the traditional distinction between high and low culture,1 you don’t find them writing an appreciative essay on George Jones. Country music—let alone hard country music—has not figured in any of the now canonical discussions of postmodernity. The difficulty of imagining it may suggest just how remote country music is from intellectual discourse, and thus how overlooked it is in contemporary cultural politics.
Dying hard: Hard country at the finish line?
Authors: Ching Barbara
Published: November 2023

In the ’70s, as Owens’s career was fading, the much-heralded Outlaw movement, led by Waylon Jennings and Willie Nelson (but including a range of others),1 managed to buck the system in ways very similar to Owens’s. Like Owens, the Outlaws armed themselves with Telecasters and a rock beat, and then insisted on the right to produce their own music. Like Owens, they preferred show venues like Manhattan’s hip Max’s Kansas City or massive festivals and arenas to the staid and low-paying Opry. “Who listens to the Opry nowadays? Ain’t nobody out there listening anymore,” Jennings told Peter Guralnick in 1974 (208). According to Frye Gaillard, Roy Acuff denounced Nelson’s rejection of the fold from the Opry stage (146). However, this rebellion would have been far less newsworthy if the rebels had acknowledged their similarity to Owens. Instead, one of Jennings’s first appearances in the outlaw mode introduces him as a pill-popping “psychedelic cowboy” and critic of Owens: “he does some of the most ridiculous damn things I ever heard,” Jennings complained (Grissim, 80).2
American Health Care and the Law
Authors: Havighurst Clark C
Published: November 2023

Once upon a time, the U.S. health care industry was not beset on all sides by law and lawyers. Indeed, when I first surveyed the field of health law in the late 1960s, the list of emergent legal issues in health care was quite short. In addition, the salient issues arose within relatively few fields of law, principally medical malpractice (including the area of informed consent), occupational licensure, the tort liability of hospitals, abortion, prescription drug development, human experimentation, and several other aspects of what we now call bioethics.
Federalism and the Future of Health Care Reform
Authors: Briffault Richard , Glied Sherry
Published: November 2023

An important theme in the ongoing health care reform debate is federalism. During the battle over the Clinton Health Plan in 1993–94, the question of which level of government—federal or state—should take the leading role in health policy was almost as contentious as the particular proposals for extending access to quality health care and controlling health care costs. With the failure in 1994 to achieve comprehensive legislation at the national level, many policymakers and commentators gave fresh attention to the states as potential agents for health care reform.
Toward a Mediation of Field Methods and Field Experience in Ethnomusicology
Authors: Rice Timothy
Published: November 2023

Fieldwork is so central to contemporary ethnomusicology that I would suppose nearly every graduate program devoted to training ethnomusicologists has a course on it, probably with a title containing the phrase “fieldwork methods:’ The three nouns in these courses’ titles (method, field, and work) speak volumes about our collective understanding of theory and method in ethnomusicology, and thus pro vide the place where I would like to begin this reflection on fieldwork. I hope to show the limits of the usefulness of this phrase and the possibilities for an alternative view of where the field is and what happens in the field, a view that balances method and working with experience and playing. To do so, I move narratively between theoretical or philosophical reflection and some of my own fieldwork experiences, just as I do in practice.
Imagining Emotions and Appreciating Fiction
Authors: Feagin Susan L
Published: November 2023

The capacity of a work of fictional literature to elicit (some) emotional responses is part of what is valuable about it, and having (relevant) emotional responses is part of appreciating it. These claims are not very controversial; perhaps they are even common sense. But philosophy rushes in where common sense fears to tread, raising questions and looking for explanations.
What Is Mental Toughness?
Authors: Emmons Shirlee , Thomas Alma
Published: November 2023

When singers perform well, they are in a psychological state very different from that which accompanies a poor performance. In performance there are times when everything goes well and other times when it is difficult to put a foot right. When your performance hasn’t worked, what do you do? Most singers go back to their voice teachers to work yet again at the many technical things that they suspect are in need of correction, because they blame any problem with the performance on a technical fault. They check and recheck vocal technical problems; they tape; they listen; they tinker some more: They return to their coach to check and recheck the interpretation, the linguistic values, the dramatic qualities, the musical accuracy, and so on and on.
Transcription Factors and Huinan Disease
Authors: Semenza Gregg L
Published: November 2023

Several general principles have emerged from the study of human transcription factors. First, germline mutations in genes encoding transcription factors result in malformation syndromes in which the development of multiple body structures is affected. Second, somatic mutations involving many of the same genes contribute to tumorigenesis. Third, transcriptional regulatory mechanisms demonstrate remarkable evolutionary conservation. Fourth, prenatal development and postnatal physiology are unified by the demonstration that a single transription factor can control the proliferation of progenitor cells during development and the expression within the differentiated cells of gene products that participate in specific physiologic responses. Transcription Factors and Human Disease presents the basic science of transcriptional regulation and then describes inherited human diseases attributable to mutations in DNA sequences encoding transcription factors or their cognate binding sites. The involvement of transcription factors in somatic cell genetic diseases (cancer) and epigenetic disease (teratogenesis) is briefly discussed. The effect of specific mutations on transcription factor activity and the relationship between transcriptional dysregulation, dominant or recessive inheritance patterns, and disease pathogenesis are also explored. This book thus provides a direct connection between molecular defects in transcriptional regulation and human pathophysiology.
Gene Expression and Transcriptional Regulation
Authors: Semenza Gregg L
Published: November 2023

To ensure that the subsequent discussions of transcriptional regulation and molecular pathophysiology will be accessible to those not well versed in this literature, a brief overview will be presented first. Whereas molecular geneticists may wish to forgo this introductory course and proceed directly to the second half of the chapter (beginning with “The Transcription Initiation Complex”), the uninitiated should not do so until the definitions and organizing principles in the first three sections have been thoroughly digested. If additional introductory material is needed, a basic textbook in molecular biology should be consulted (e.g., Lewin, 1997). The most basic (and most misused) terminology in molecular genetics relates to gene structure (Fig. 1.1). For the purposes of this text a gene will be defined as a continuous, uninterrupted, chromosomal (genomic) DNA sequence that constitutes one (or more) transcription unit(s) from the (5’-most) transcription initiation site to the sequence corresponding to the (3’-most) polyadenylation site found in the transcribed messenger RNA(s) (mRNA). This somewhat cumbersome definition takes into ac count genes with multiple transcription initiation and polyadenylation sites. Sequences flanking the transcription unit(s) are referred to as 5’ and 3’-flanking sequences (5’-FS and 3’-FS). Because many cis-acting transcriptional regulatory elements are located within flanking sequences, they are not formally considered part of the gene proper.
Cis-Acting Transcriptional Regulatory Elements
Authors: Semenza Gregg L
Published: November 2023

Although it is impossible to discuss the cis-acting DNA sequence elements without reference to the trans-acting factors that bind to these sequences, this chapter will primarily focus on defining the different types of positive and negative cis-acting transcriptional regulatory elements. The trans-acting factors will be described in considerable detail in Chapter 3. All the cis-acting elements that affect transcription are defined on the basis of functional criteria. Therefore, none of these elements can be definitively identified solely by the examination of nucleotide sequence data. In general cis-acting elements are DNA sequences containing binding sites for several different transcription factors that are required en bloc for the element to function fully. The first defining criterion is whether the putative element has a positive or negative effect on transcription. In general, positive cis-acting elements contain binding sites for positive trans-acting factors (transcriptional activators) and negative cis-acting elements contain binding sites for negative trans-acting factors (transcriptional repressors). Examples of positive cis-regulatory elements include promoters and enhancers, whereas silencers and transcription-arrest sites represent examples of negative regulatory elements.
PAX Proteins
Authors: Semenza Gregg L
Published: November 2023

As in the case of the HOX proteins (described in Chapter 9), the PAX proteins represent a family of transcription factors whose members ap pear to play key roles in the development of both invertebrates and vertebrates (reviewed by Chalepakis et al., 1993; Strachan and Read, 1994; Stuart and Gruss, 1995). Nine PAX genes have been identified to date in mice and humans (Fig. 7.1). Unlike the HOX genes, which are clustered at four loci in the human and mouse genomes, mapping of the PAX genes revealed no clustering even though several of the genes have similar genomic structure and coding sequences. The proteins encoded by these genes have in common a unique 128- amino-acid DNA-binding domain, the paired domain. Although the paired domain contains three regions that are predicted to form a heli ces, there is no sequence similarity to the helix-turn-helix motif present in homeodomains. In addition to the paired domain, which is present in all nine PAX proteins, four of the proteins (PAX3, PAX4, PAX6, and PAX7) also contain a homeodomain that contributes to the affinity and specificity of DNA binding by these proteins. Curiously, three PAX proteins (PAX2, PAXS, and PAX8) contain truncated homeodomains of un known function. PAX 1 and PAX9 lack homeodomain-related sequences altogether and must therefore rely entirely on the paired domain for DNA-binding activity.
General Transcription Factors
Authors: Semenza Gregg L
Published: November 2023

As described in Chapter 1, formation of the transcription initiation complex is required for Pol II transcription of protein-coding genes. This complex contains, in addition to the multiple subunits of Pol II, a set of general transcription factors that includes TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIF, and TFIIH (Table 14.1). These factors are involved in DNA-protein interactions (TFIID only); protein-protein interactions with Pol II, DNA binding transcriptional activators, and activator-bound coactivators; and enzymatic activities (DNA-dependent ATPase, DNA helicase, and protein kinase). In addition, TFIIH appears to play an essential role in both Pol II transcription and DNA repair processes (reviewed by Drapkin et al., 1994). (A complete description of DNA repair is beyond the scope of this book and interested readers should consult an authoritative text by Friedberg et al.[1995].) Among the many genes that encode components of the transcription initiation complex, germline mutations affecting only subunits of TFIIH have been identified as being responsible for hereditable human disorders.
Epigenetic Disease: Teratogenesis
Authors: Semenza Gregg L
Published: November 2023

In contrast to germline mutations, which are hereditable and result in malformation syndromes, and somatic mutations, which are nonheredit able and contribute to oncogenesis, teratogenesis can be viewed as resulting from changes in gene expression that are induced by in utero exposure of the developing embryo to an exogenous compound or to increased amounts of an endogenous compound. This differs from the traditional view of teratogenesis as representing the effect of toxins that cause cell death. Although teratogens undoubtedly cause cell death, they may do so not by nonspecific toxic effects on cellular metabolism but by activating specific genetic pathways that lead to an active form of cell death, termed apoptosis, which is an essential process of normal development. Teratogenic exposure of mouse embryos to ethanol or retinoic acid (RA) results in an increased area and density of dying cells at sites of developmentally programmed cell death (Kotch and Sulik, 1992a, b; Sulik et al., 1988). In this chapter, evidence will be presented indicating that the effects of two well-studied teratogens, retinoic acid and ethanol, may be mediated by specific changes in gene expression.
Effects of Tropical Mountain Elevations on the Climate of the Late Carboniferous: Climate Model Simulations
Authors: Otto-Bliesner Bette L
Published: November 2023

The Westphalian (∼305 million years ago [Ma]), during the Late Carboniferous, is interesting from both a geologic and a climatic standpoint. The southern supercontinenf of Gondwana and the tropical continent of Laurussia had collided closing the seaway that had separated them during the Devonian and the Earlier Carboniferous (Ziegler et al., 1979; Scotese, 1994). As a result of this collision, the Central Pangean Mountains, consisting of the Appalachian-Mauretanide-Hercynian orogenic belts, formed at tropical latitudea:s. Based on high-temperature/high-pressure metamorphics found for the late Paleozoic Appalachian mountains, these mountains probably reached over 3 km in altitude (Ziegler et al., 1985).
Role of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge in Neogene Climate Changes
Authors: Wright James D
Published: November 2023

Cenozoic climates are marked by long-term cooling since the early Eocene that evolved into the large amplitude glacial/interglacial cycles of the late Pleistocene. Circulation models (both atmospheric and oceanic) have simulated these changes by altering the concentration of atmospheric trace gases (i.e., increased CO2) or by changing the meridional heat transports (increased delivery of heat to the poles via oceanic circulation) (e.g., Barron, 1983, 1987; Manabe and Bryan, 1985; Rind, 1987; Covey and Barron, 1988; Covey and Thompson, 1989; Manabe et al., 1990; Rind and Chandler, 1991). There is evidence in support of both mechanisms, leaving unclear the fundamental cause of the long-term climate change during the Cenozoic. Identifying mechanisms that triggered Cenozoic cooling has focused on tectonic changes, both marine and terrestrial, that fundamentally altered the ocean-atmosphere system. Arrangements of continents and marine gateways dictate surface and deep-water circulation patterns, and therefore, how water masses communicate between the ocean basins. Opening of the Drake Passage and uplift of the Central American Isthmus are two gateways that are often associated with climate change. The Drake Passage gateway is thought to be a critical “valve” in the development of a circumpolar circulation that led to the thermal isolation of Antarctica (Kennett, 1977). The closure of the Central American Isthmus has been implicated as a potential causes for largescale Northern Hemisphere glaciation (Keigwin, 1982) and the formation of deepwater in the North Atlantic (Keigwin, 1982; Maier-Reimer et al., 1990).
The Transition From Arc Volcanism to Exhumation, Weathering of Young Ca, Mg, Sr Silicates, and CO2 Drawdown
Authors: Reusch Douglas N , Maasch Kirk A
Published: November 2023

Paleoclimate modelers need estimates of the partial pressure of atmospheric carbon dioxide (pCO2) because CO2 influences the mean global temperature through the greenhouse effect (Arrhenius, 1896). Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere as a result of high temperature decarbonation reactions and low temperature oxidation of organic C. Carbon dioxide leaves the atmosphere either through Ca, Mg silicate weathering and subsequent burial as carbonate or through photosynthesis and subsequent burial as organic C (Ebelmen, 1845). Changes in these C fluxes, brought about by various biological, oceanographic, and tectonic factors, affect atmospheric pCO2 and, consequently, Earth’s climate (Plass, 1956; Bemer, 1990).
General Principles of Expression
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2023

I will begin by giving the three principles, which appear to me to account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and sensations.* I arrived, however, at these three principles only at the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter be found to come under the same or closely analogous heads.
General Principles of Expression–continued
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2023

We will now consider our second principle, that of antithesis.* Certain states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service; and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, when we treat of the special expressions of man; but as, in these cases, we are particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and expressions with those which are innate or universal, and which alone deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals.
Reflection – Meditation – Ill-temper – Sulkiness - Determination
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2023

The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring them together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead – that is, a frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was peculiar to man, ranks it as ‘the most remarkable muscle of the human face. It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably, but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind.’ Or, as he elsewhere says, ‘when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there is the mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the mere animal.’*
Conceptual Perspectives on Family Care and Work
Authors: Fredriksen-Goldsen Karen I , Scharlach Andrew E
Published: November 2023

There has been an extensive historical debate regarding the interplay between work and family in American life. The relationship has been characterized at times as symbiotic; at other times it as been described as predominantly conflictual. While scholars from many fields-sociology, psychology, social welfare, demography, law, economics, and others-have entered the debate, there is relatively little agreement about how these two pivotal life foci interface and interact.
Impact of Gender, Ra.Ce/Ethnicity, and Occupational Role
Authors: Fredriksen-Goldsen Karen I , Scharlach Andrew E
Published: November 2023

Demographic trends in this country show that women and racial and ethnic minorities are comprising an increasing portion of the American work force. Women accounted for at least two-thirds of the growth in the labor market in the past decade. In addition, there has been considerable growth in the participation of Hispanic, African-, and Asian Americans in the labor force. While whites remain the largest group in the formal labor market, the proportion of non-white workers increased from 20 percent in 1986 to 25 percent in 1996. By the year 2006, non-whites are expected to account for 27 percent of the labor force (Jacobs, 1998).
The Temporal Organization of Behavior
Authors: Chase Ronald
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we saw that even with the simplest withdrawal reflexes, where the causal relationship between stimulus and response leaves little room for complicated neural circuitry, the expression of behavior is affected by an animal’s past experience through the processes of habituation, sensitization, and associative learning. Earlier, we saw that the more complex behaviors of feeding and mating are influenced by motivational states. In this chapter we consider some additional factors that influence the expression of behavior in gastropods, where the common element is the constraint of time.
Hormonal Influences on Osteoporosis and Fractures: An Epidemiologic Perspective
Authors: Cauley Jane A , Lucas Frances Leslie
Published: November 2023

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue with a consequent increase in bone fragility and fractures after minimal trauma. An expert panel convened by the World Health Organization (WHO) developed a definition of osteoporosis based on bone densitometry: osteopenia is a bone mineral density (BMD) measurement of the hip, spine, or distal forearm of >1.0 but ::52.5 standard deviations (SD) below the young normal mean; osteoporosis is a BMD at one of the three sites of >2.5 SD below the young normal mean. The purpose of this operational definition of osteoporosis was to estimate the worldwide prevalence of the disease. It is currently used clinically to identify women in need of treatment or prevention of osteoporosis. Although the WHO definition relies solely on BMD measurements, with no consideration of the “microarchitectural” deterioration in bone tissue that accompanies the loss of bone mass, it is believed that BMD measurements do provide some information on the microarchitectural properties of bone, especially if the problems are severe.
Contraceptive Choices and Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Women
Authors: Cates Willard
Published: November 2023

Using contraception has two main benefits: prevention of unplanned pregnancy and protection against sexually transmitted infections. Abstinence from sexual intercourse provides nearly absolute protection against both outcomes. For those choosing to be sexually active, contraception reduces but does not eliminate the risk of unintended pregnancy. Unfortunately, the contraceptives with the best record for pregnancy prevention provide minimal protection against sexually transmitted disease (STD). Some contraceptives may even raise the risk of certain infections.
The Autocatalytic Nature of Hominid Evolution in African Plio-Pleistocene Environments
Authors: McKee Jeffrey K
Published: November 2023

Causal explanations of hominid evolution may be derived from a synthesis of paleontological data and evolutionary theory. Paleoecological perspectives gleaned from the fossil record may contribute the critical element of time depth for testing hypotheses derived from interdisciplinary research on contemporary evolutionary and ecological phenomena. The challenges for paleoecologists are to correctly interpret fossil data in light of the inherently incomplete nature of the fossil record and to reconcile long-term perspectives gained from interpretations of the past with what is known from the present. The theoretical perspective of autocatalytic evolution, viewing evolutionary change as a result of intraspecific changes independent of external events, may provide an appropriate yet counterintuitive solution to these challenges.
Correlation and Causation
Authors: Turner Alan
Published: November 2023

How should we conduct the study of human evolution? There can be no disputing the need to examine the hominid fossils and their archaeological associations, but what of the larger context within which such evidence occurs? In their recent discussion of new hominid material from the Malawi Rift, Bromage et al. (1995b) argued for a paradigm shift in paleoanthropology away from narrower, character-based taxonomic analyses toward a wider, ecologically oriented understanding of hominid evolution. Viewed from that perspective, they suggested, habitat and habitat change in particular may be “as relevant to the characterisation of a paleospecies, its evolution, and its speciation, as are details of the simple morphological characters themselves” (Bromage et al., 1995b:105). The Malawi meeting was a logical outcome of efforts to set hominid evolution into that larger, paleoecological picture.
Cenozoic Climate Change
Authors: Denton George H
Published: November 2023

The hypothesis that climatic changes initiated major biotic evolutionary events carries the prediction that patterns of macroevolution should display temporally concentrated pulses correlated with climatic and environmental change (Vrba, this volume). For example, Vrba ( l 985b,c,d) argued that turnover pulses of many lineages of mammals were triggered by major Cenozoic environmental changes. One such major burst of evolution was roughly coincident with a marked mid-Pliocene paleoclimatic change that culminated about 2.5 m.y. when Africa became cooler and drier (Vrba, 1975). One possible conclusion from Wood’s (1992a) results is that two hominid lineages evolved from Australopithecus afarensis about 3.0 m.y. near the beginning of the mid-Pliocene climatic deterioration. One of these lineages led to Homo, the other to the robust australopithecines. In this regard Bromage et al. (1995b) suggested that Homo rudolfensis and Paranthropus aethiopicus evolved from Australopithecus afarensis prior to or about 2.5 m.y. If climate changes were indeed coeval with evolutionary pulses, then this opens the possibility that the basic mechanisms driving paleoclimate and evolution may be linked. As a background for testing this hypothesis, I outline here the major Cenozoic climatic changes that culminated in a succession of ice ages beginning in mid-Pliocene time. I divide the discussion into two parts. One part involves long-term Cenozoic climatic cooling; the other part concerns high-frequency oscillations superimposed on this long-term cooling trend.
Of Mice and Men Evolution in East and South Africa during Plio-Pleistocene Times
Authors: Denys Christiane
Published: November 2023

Mice and men are often associated in Plio-Pleistocene sites of Africa. Mice belong to the most abundant order of mammals (Rodents) and are representatives of the most successful family of tropical rodents, the Muridae. In addition to the Muridae, tropical Africa has an impressive record of endemic rodent families and genera. Some of the representatives of Muridae have followed humans, like Rattus and Mus. It is less widely known that in Africa some other Muridae, such as Mastomys and Arvicanthis, are commensal. In western Europe and in North America important and extensive changes in the distribution of rodents during the last glaciations have been well described. In Africa, neither these events, their causes, nor their passive versus active dispersal have yet been established. For the Plio-Pleistocene faunas of East and South Africa, Denys (1989d, 1990a) has discussed an important distribution change in Jaculus and some murid species. Kowalski et al. (1989) showed an important shift toward the north in the distribution of savanna rodents, birds, and reptiles at around 120,000 years BP. The research on the dispersal of rodent taxa was not exhaustive and was limited to Late Pleistocene times or to the Holocene of South Africa. The suggested causes of dispersal events have been discussed by Foley (this volume) and Vrba (1992, this volume). According to Vrba, the habitat theory suggests that climate and habitat specificity play a prominent role and minimize interspecific competition and its effects.
Plio-Pleistocene Floral Context and Habitat Preferences of Sympatric Hominid Species in East Africa
Authors: Sikes Nancy E
Published: November 2023

The natural relationships between the carbon in terrestrial plants, soil organic matter, and pedogenic carbonates and between the oxygen in rainfall and pedogenic carbonates are sensitive indicators of the isotopic paleoecology of early hominid sites. Although the history of stable carbon and oxygen isotopic research on buried soils (paleosols) from hominoid and early hominid fossil localities in East Africa is only 20 years old, this method is well established in paleoanthropology as an independent means for reconstructing local and basinwide paleoenvironments. The available isotopic data, reviewed herein, from East African fossil localities do not show a dramatic change in the proportion of tropical C4 grasses to woody C3 vegetation coinciding with hominid speciation events about 5.5 or 2.5 m.y. (e.g., Brain, 1981a; Vrba, 1985c), or with the beginning of the archaeological record near 2.5 my. (e.g., Kibunjia, 1994). Likewise, the isotopic evidence suggests that early hominid floral habitats were more closed than previously assumed, and along with recent research in other fields, questions whether there was a dominant association between Plio-Pleistocene hominids and open C4 savanna grasslands.