GeoAI advances in specific landform mapping
Authors: Arundel Samantha , Von Pohle Michael , Akbari Asanjan Ata , Oza Nikunj , Lott Aaron 
Published: March 2024

Landform mapping (also referred to as geomorphology or geomorphometry) can be divided into two domains: general and specific (Evans 2012). Whereas general landform mapping categorizes all elements of the study area into landform classes, such as ridges, valleys, peaks, and depressions, the mapping of specific landforms requires the delineation (even if fuzzy) of individual landforms. The former is mainly driven by physical properties such as elevation, slope, and curvature. &#160;The latter, however, must consider the cognitive (human) reasoning that discriminates individual landforms in addition to these physical properties (Arundel and Sinha 2018).Both mapping forms are important. General geomorphometry is needed to understand geological and ecological processes and as boundary layer input to climate and environmental models. Specific geomorphometry supports such activities as disaster management and recovery, emergency response, transportation, and navigation.In the United States, individual landforms of interest are named in the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Geographic Names Information System, a point dataset captured specifically to digitize geographic names from the USGS Historical Topographic Map Collection (HTMC). Named landform extent is represented only by the name placement in the HTMC.Recent work has investigated CNN-based deep learning methods to capture these extents in machine-readable form. These studies first relied on physical properties (Arundel et al. 2020) and then included the HTMC as a band in RGB images in limited testing (Arundel et al. 2023). Results from the HTMC dataset surpassed those using just physical properties. The HTMC alone performed best due to the hillshading and elevation (contour) data incorporated into the topographic maps. However, results fell short of an operational capacity to map all named landforms in the United States. Thus, our current work expands upon past research by focusing on the HTMC and physical information as inputs and the named landform label extents.Specifically, we propose to leverage pre-trained foundation models for segmentation and optical character recognition (OCR) models to jointly map landforms in the United States. Our approach aims to bridge the disparities among independent information sources to facilitate informed decision-making. The modeling pipeline performs (1) segmentation using the physical information and (2) information extraction using OCR in parallel. Then, a computer vision approach merges the two branches into a labeled segmentation.&#160;ReferencesArundel, Samantha T., Wenwen Li, and Sizhe Wang. 2020. &#8220;GeoNat v1.0: A Dataset for Natural Feature Mapping with Artificial Intelligence and Supervised Learning.&#8221; Transactions in GIS 24 (3): 556&#8211;72. https://doi.org/10.1111/tgis.12633.Arundel, Samantha T, and Gaurav Sinha. 2018. &#8220;Validating GEOBIA Based Terrain Segmentation and Classification for Automated Delineation of Cognitively Salient Landforms In Proceedings of Workshops and Posters at the 13th International Conference on Spatial Information Theory (COSIT 2017), Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography, edited by Paolo Fogliaroni, Andrea Ballatore, and Eliseo Clementini, 9&#8211;14. Cham: Springer International Publishing.Arundel, Samantha T., Gaurav Sinha, Wenwen Li, David P. Martin, Kevin G. McKeehan, and Philip T. Thiem. 2023. &#8220;Historical Maps Inform Landform Cognition in Machine Learning.&#8221; Abstracts of the ICA 6 (August): 1&#8211;2. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-abs-6-10-2023.Evans, Ian S. 2012. &#8220;Geomorphometry and Landform Mapping: What Is a Landform?&#8221; Geomorphology 137 (1): 94&#8211;106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.09.029.