bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Giuseppe Mazzini in Britain and Italy: Divergent Legacies, 1837–1915
Authors: Duggan Christopher
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines how Mazzini's exile in England, and his adoption by sections of the British radical movement, led to the more illiberal aspects of his thought, especially in connection to the nation, being overlooked. This is one important reason why Mazzini has often been hard to situate on the European political map. Whilst British radicals accentuated the progressive and democratic elements of Mazzini's political and social thought, and overlooked many ideas that they did not find congenial, in Italy it was his illiberal fusion of religion and politics as an instrument for creating a new unified Italy that arguably had a more enduring legacy. The chapter looks at how Mazzini's influence in Italy dwindled in the face of socialism in the years immediately following his death in 1872, but underwent a major revival after the turn of the century with the emergence of nationalism.
Mazzini and Brazil*
Authors: Burke Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter concentrates on the ‘Mazzinian moment’ in Brazil, the six years from 1835 to 1840 in which a small group of Italian admirers of Mazzini – notably Garibaldi – was active both in Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul. The later influence of Mazzini in Brazil, especially on the great wave of Italian immigrants who arrived in the country between 1870 and 1914, was less direct, mixed with ideas from other sources such as the anarchism of Bakunin. It is Garibaldi rather than Mazzini who remains a hero in Brazil.
Introduction
Authors: Enmarch Roland
Published: February 2012

This book presents a commentary on and an analysis of P. Leiden I 344 recto, which contains the poem variously called The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All or The Admonitions (Mahnworte), from the Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt. The first part of the book comprises an analysis of several literary aspects of the poem, including its unity, compositional date, reception, possible setting, genre, literary style and meaning. It also offers a literary reading of the poem within the context of the cultural and intellectual milieu that produced it. The second part of the book provides a detailed translation, commentary to, and literary reading of, the poem, subdivided into sections that largely follow the divisions within the manuscript. A metrical transliteration is given, broadly following the prosodic principles of Gerhard Fecht, which provide a pragmatic formal mode of analysis. The degree to which these are relevant to the compositional structure of the poem is discussed.
Charles Hilliard Feinstein 1932–2004
Authors: Offer Avner
Published: February 2012

Charles Hilliard Feinstein (1932–2004), a Fellow of the British Academy, worked out the structure and size of the British economy from 1965 and back to mid-Victorian times. Beyond scholarship, his life subsumed a longer arc: the quest for an equitable South Africa in his youth, and its resumption in his final years. The economics that appealed to Feinstein were those of Karl Marx, and he submitted an honours dissertation on the labour theory of value. He was attracted to the University of Cambridge by the presence there of the Marxist economist Maurice Dobb, and the two remained close for years afterwards. In 1958, Feinstein took a research position in Cambridge's Department of Applied Economics, where he adapted national income series for immediate use. In 1963, he became an assistant university lecturer in economic history, and fellow and director of studies in economics at Clare College. Feinstein published a book entitled National Income towards the end of the heroic phase of historical national accounting.
Emrys Jones 1920–2006
Authors: Johnston Ron
Published: February 2012

Emrys Jones (1920–2006), a Fellow of the British Academy, was a geographer who, together with his elder brother, Alun, was raised in the Cynon Valley mining community of Aberaman in South Wales. In 1938, he entered University College Wales, Aberystwyth to study geography. Social anthropology and prehistoric archaeology dominated the teaching programme he experienced – with physical geography largely taught in the Department of Geology. The work on the Teify valley, Tregaron and Utica – all completed if not published by 1950 – together provide a clear view of the underlying philosophy of human geography that Jones sustained throughout his career. He also wrote papers on rural settlement patterns. At the London School of Economics, Jones focused on social geography. The last of his major projects – which occupied much of his retirement – was his study of the Welsh in London.
David Oates 1927–2004
Authors: Curtis John
Published: February 2012

David Oates (1927–2004), a Fellow of the British Academy, was a distinguished Mesopotamian archaeologist whose name is closely associated with three of the best-known sites in the Middle East: Nimrud, Tell al-Rimah, and Tell Brak. He was a fellow of Trinity College at the University of Cambridge and Lecturer in Archaeology from 1957 to 1965, as well as Director of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq from 1965 to 1969 and Professor of Western Asiatic Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology, University of London, from 1969 to 1982. In some ways, Oates was a product of the same tradition that had spawned eminent predecessors such as Sir Leonard Woolley and Sir Max Mallowan, but he brought to his task a keen appreciation of ancient languages and cultures, a sharp eye for the interpretation of ancient architecture, and a good understanding of political, social, and economic history and their relevance to archaeological enquiry. At Cambridge he had a brilliant career, reading classics and then archaeology, and graduating in 1948 with first-class honours.
Byzantium and the Limits of Orthodoxy
Authors: CAMERON AVERIL
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about Byzantium and the limits of orthodoxy delivered by the author at the 2007 Raleigh Lecture on History held at the British Academy. It suggests that the Byzantines had a high understanding of orthodoxy and that they certainly give the impression of having a comprehensive doctrine. The lecture also discusses the Byzantine habit of self-conscious theorising about orthodoxy.
Hamlet’s Two Fathers
Authors: BEVINGTON DAVID
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about Hamlet's two fathers delivered by the author at the 2007 Shakespeare Lecture held at the British Academy. It re-examines the psychoanalytical explanation proposed by Sigmund Freud and his disciple Ernest Jones in Hamlet and Oedipus for Hamlet's famous delay in revenging the death of his royal father by killing Claudius. The lecture argues that the Freud–Jones thesis is deeply flawed in its analytical explanation of the cause of delay and that the oedipal and preoedipal nature of Hamlet's dilemma is indeed a key to understanding the cause of the delay.
A Minority Opinion?
Authors: HALE OF RICHMOND BARONESS
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about judges and the traditionalist view of judging delivered by the author at the 2007 Maccabaean Lecture in Jurisprudence held at the British Academy. It highlights the difficulty of finding the elusive boundary between legitimate judicial developments of the law on the one hand and impermissible judicial legislation on the other. The lecture also suggests that a decision should be predictable on the basis of precedent and legal principle, but not on the basis of the judge's personality or philosophy.
The Morally Constitutive State
Authors: Erskine Toni
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the idea of the morally constitutive state. It introduces the second point of theoretical opposition for embedded cosmopolitanism. This forms an approach to international ethics that was extracted from MacIntyre’s essay on patriotism; the approach is termed as communitarian realism. The chapter also addresses statist perspectives, namely the extended political liberalism, from which John Rawls champions his ‘Law of Peoples’, and the ‘constitutive theory of individuality’ of Mervyn Frost.
The Social Question and the Problem of History after Empire
Authors: Mehta Uday Singh
Published: February 2012

Decolonization of the European empires in the twentieth century was spurred by the colonized based on two purposes: the desire for independence, and the desire to build a sovereign political identity. The most obvious feature of the first intention was the formation of anti-imperialist movements, organised under the banner ‘they must leave’. The latter was characterized by the establishment of constitutional government, which highlighted the identity of a novice country in a political and unified form and which featured a central source of power. These two purposes share a complex relationship. For power to be sovereign, independence must be gained first. Power cannot be obligated to the wishes of another power or constrained by the laws of another regime. The struggle for independence of European empires did not readily create the conditions for the exercise of a sovereign power. It was elusive at the moment of independence. This chapter discusses some of the implications of these two purposes, with emphasis on the second purpose and the Indian experience. It addresses questions such as: what is the meaning of collective identity to those newly independent countries in the context of politics; what were the pressures on the claims to political identity and unity; how did these pressures encourage a revolutionary mindset in the conceptualization of constitutional provisions and political power; and how does the struggle for political identity relate to the history of nation and its struggle for independence?
Virgil and the British Empire, 1760–1880
Authors: Vasunia Phiroze
Published: February 2012

This chapter reflects on the readings and uses of Virgil in British imperial contexts during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The British interest in Virgil heightened during the middle of the eighteenth century, when Britain was establishing its Second Empire. In the age of Elizabeth I and Shakespeare, Virgil was often deployed by writers in different imperial situations. Writers such as Edward Gibbon turned to Virgil not because of a desire to promote monarchical imperialism but with the aim of evaluating the mechanism of the empire, to explore its limits and contradictions, and to question its durability. In Victoria’s reign, when the empire in India seemed to several Britons to be long lasting, many prominent figures highlighted the providential and prophetic interpretations of Virgil, and speculated about an empire that was divinely ordained and infinite. Among these prominent personages were Tennyson, Auden, Bryce, and so on. These themes of British Empire within the context of Virgil’s writings are examined from the time of Gibbon to the Victorians, in order to describe the interweaving relationships and patterns that link Virgil and the history of the empire.
British India as a Problem in Political Economy: Comparing James Steuart and Adam Smith
Authors: Travers Robert
Published: February 2012

The consolidation of political economy as a distinct branch of the science of politics was simultaneous with the expansion and diversification of the overseas British Empire. This new political economy was often regarded as distant from the enterprise of imperial expansion. Political economists criticized the mercantile system of restricted colonial trades and monopoly corporations. This chapter discusses the political economy in relation to the imperial politics in India. It takes into focus the problems of imperial politics in India, the first of which was that the East India Company’s growing empire barely fitted into the notions of a British ‘empire of liberty’ which was perceived to be ‘commercial, Protestant, maritime, and free’; and the second was the British ignorance of and lack of sympathy for local customs and manners. In the chapter, the British theorists James Steuart and Adam Smith are closely examined. Both addressed the emerging empire of British India as a dilemma in political economy. Their thinking on Indian affairs posed challenges to the Company rule in India, but at the same time offered theoretical and conceptual resources for the unpopular Company government.
Creditors and debtors
Authors: Briggs Chris
Published: February 2012

In the previous studies about medieval creditors and debtors, two main points were constant: 1) creditors tended to be richer than the debtors; and 2) creditors and debtors tended not to overlap; an individual is generally a borrower or a lender but not both. This chapter aims to evaluate these propositions by focusing on the creditors and debtors of fourteenth-century English villages. It discusses the distinct traits and characteristics of creditors and debtors as groups, including the overall traits of the credit network participants. In this chapter and the next chapter, two approaches were used to study the villages. The first approach sought to determine generalizations about individuals in the aggregate and the second approach used court rolls to add nuance and qualification to the generalizations. The pre-plague decades of medieval Europe form the focus of this chapter. However the latter periods are also considered to determine the changes in the composition of creditor and debtor groups after the fourteenth century crisis had passed. The chapter also compares the village credit system to other regions of Europe, such as in the regions where urban lenders existed in a rural setting.
Conclusion
Authors: Briggs Chris
Published: February 2012

This book began by describing the transformation that occurred in the 1990s in the impression and ideas of credit systems in the medieval countryside. Through this change in attitude on the medieval credit system, the sophistication of rural credit mechanisms and their positive effects within the traditional economies were established. Before this time, the consensus on medieval credit mechanism was of a vehicle of poverty and stagnation. By changing the perspective of credit as a framework of crisis to focusing on credit as mere credit itself, the mechanism of lending and borrowing during the medieval period was not constantly borne out of crisis. It has been found out that credit supply did not always fail in problem periods, that debtors were not always worse off than their lenders, and that leasing of land by debtors was an effective strategy compatible with individual prosperity and not an indication of economic failure. In sum, the credit system of medieval Europe had bearings on the economy of the country. Although rural credit had little effect on the overall contours of the economic change of Europe, it nonetheless shaped other significant forces. In the earlier part of the century, the rural credit system was there to reinforce wealth, and influenced in such a way to separate the peasants from the upper strata. In the second half of the century, market opportunities were exploited by the means of credit mechanisms. However, when economic contraction happened at the end of the century due to the sustained demographic collapse and monetary difficulties, rural credit mechanisms fell into abeyance.
Administration and Fortification in the Van Region under Ottoman Rule in the Sixteenth Century
Authors: SINCLAIR TOM
Published: February 2012

This chapter compares the administration of the Lake Van region under the Ottomans and that of the same region in the late Middle Ages. This required a well-defined region whose boundaries would suggest a certain degree of internal coherence and a certain degree of isolation from surrounding regions; and mountain ridges seemed the best natural boundaries to take for this purpose. Defining such a region meant that one could analyse the manner in which successive overlords dealt with the same political entities on the ground, in this case the local Kurdish principalities. Given that the territory of the Safavid empire lay immediately adjacent to the east, this chapter examines the effect the position of the border exercises on the methods of control on the administration and the internal relationships in question.
The Frontier as a Measure of Modern Power: Local Limits to Empire in Yemen, 1872–1914
Authors: BLUMI ISA
Published: February 2012

The negotiations with the Ottomans over how exactly to define the boundary separating each party's domain were largely confused by a completely different set of criteria. The Ottomans constantly argued that the areas they claimed (large areas of which the British contended existed within Dali territory) had historically and thus always formed part of the Ottoman territory. They installed troops in the areas in dispute and actually started to collect taxes, in part thanks to Muqbil's aggressive alliance-building. The longer this physical presence was maintained, the more difficult it was for the British to argue that these areas were actually Dali. It was largely the growing insurgency in Ottoman Yemen, in some respects a product of British machinations, that ultimately led to the 1903 capitulation by the Ottoman authorities to British demands for formal control of the Dali plateau.
Between Hinterland and Frontier: Ottoman Vidin, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries
Authors: GRADEVA ROSSITSA
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines how the frontier and the changing fate of the region influenced the military system as well as the provincial administration and agrarian regime. It focuses on Vidin in the period of the wars which made it a frontier outpost again, being either directly occupied (by the Holy League) or under immediate threat (in 1715–18). As in many other frontier areas, military activity affected relations between Muslims and Christians in the province and the town of Vidin. This chapter contributes to a better understanding of the complex impact of the wars during the expansion and contraction of the Ottoman state. The discussion is based mainly on documents from the series of kadi sicils, the records of the sharia court in the town, preserved from the last years of the seventeenth century onwards and kept in the Sofia National Library.
War without Frontiers: The Archaeology of the Arab Revolt, 1916–18
Authors: FAULKNER NEIL , SAUNDERS NICHOLAS J.
Published: February 2012

The Arab Revolt of 1916–18 played a significant part in the military collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the First World War. This chapter argues that archaeological evidence indicates that the revolt's importance was probably substantially greater than has sometimes been acknowledged. The evidence demonstrates the need for a critical re-evaluation of the issue in southern Jordan. The archaeological investigation of sites associated with the Arab Revolt in southern Jordan offers dramatic insights into the material consequences for the Ottoman army of combating the guerrilla tactics of British-backed Arab guerrillas. The aim of the discussion is twofold: to give more precision to the military assessment of the Arab Revolt in the area between Ma'an and Wadi Rutm, and to demonstrate the potential of the new and multidisciplinary sub-discipline of twentieth-century ‘conflict archaeology’.
‘A Matter too hot…to be Handled’:1 The Death of Edmund Berry Godfrey
Authors: Hinds Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the Justice of the Peace Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, who was another important character in the progress of the Popish Plot. It considers Godfrey's posthumous talismanic presence in anti-Catholic plot discourse. Godfrey is noted to have witnessed Titus Oates' deposition of ‘evidence’ relating to the plot.
‘A Few Words among Many, about the Touchy Point of Succession’:1 The Duke of York and the Exclusion Crisis
Authors: Hinds Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on the Duke of York and the crisis over the succession, which was precipitated in part by Oates' allegations. It sets concerns over a potential Catholic successor in several contexts, such as analysing the rhetoric of debate both in Parliament and on the printed page, and placing the succession issue in context of the Duke's periods of exile between 1679 and 1682.
Conclusion
Authors: Hinds Peter
Published: February 2012

This concluding chapter discusses the realizations and attempts that were made in the previous chapters. It focuses on Roger L'Estrange, who was preoccupied with authority and used metaphors to describe disguise and opacity. He was a prolific writer of pamphlets and periodicals, and was also fully alive to the manipulations and distortions of political discourse. Roger L'Estrange is also shown to have professed moderation, but he was found to be frequently guilty of zeal and running to extremes. The representation of Catholics is revealed to have been crucial for the credit of the plot.
The Colonial City
Authors: BRADING D.A.
Published: February 2012

This chapter demonstrates that while Spain had a clear vision of what the conquered Aztec city should be, the city of the conquistadors was relatively short for it was soon transformed by its Creole inhabitants who made their own identity pronounced on its building and culture. For 300 years, the city of Mexico was the capital of viceroyalty. It was the capital of New Spain and was the seat of the metropolitan archbishopric of Mexico. During the first decades of the seventeenth century, a generation of young Creoles entered the secular priesthood and the religious orders. They challenged the predominance of European Spaniards, affirmed their talents and identity, and started looking back to the glorious past the conquistadors had destroyed. However, the development of the city was constrained and limited by the city’s status as the viceregal capital of New Spain. Its status hence meant that the city depended on the political decisions and cultural influences emanating from the Spanish. Out of this tension, a creative process of change emerged in which different ethnic groups and cultures intermingled and conflicted to ensure that the social composition and character of Mexico City would be different from the other cities in Spanish America. However, these changes were not brought without due loss. Due to the conquest and the Old World diseases the Mexico population fell to the near brink of oblivion. These epidemics and natural calamities continued to afflict the city throughout the colonial period.
Introduction
Authors: Dueck Jennifer M.
Published: February 2012

This chapter, in setting the stage, first offers a theoretical framework for understanding culture as a forum of exchange and negotiation between diverse leaders, communities, and institutions, and provides a note on the structure of the book and its sources. Following that, it outlines the historical background of the Mandates most relevant to understanding the intersection between politics and culture in the Levant. It describes the cultural networks for Syria and Lebanon. Part I of this book discusses how Levantine political and religious leaders cooperated, negotiated, and competed with the French government over the provision of education and language instruction. Part II widens the circle of actors to consider other Western powers which, like the French, saw the Middle East as an integral factor of Mediterranean security. Finally, the third part of this study focuses on a cultural phenomenon that drew the attention of almost all parties with a stake in culture, namely scouting and youth movements.
‘All that Peter Stands For’: The Romanitas of the Codex Amiatinus Reconsidered
Authors: O’Reilly Jennifer
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the romanitas of the Codex Amiatinus. It suggests that the choice of uncial script in Northumbria in the 660s and 670s was a political act and that the association of uncial script with Rome and the papal mission acted as a challenge to insular liturgical gospel-book traditions in Northumbria. The chapter analyses the romanitas of Wearmouth-Jarrow, assuming that Bishop Wilfrid's romanitas aimed to demonstrate to the Northumbrians the superiority of Rome over Iona and of St. Peter over Columba.
Understanding Popular Politics: Caste, Kinship and Factionalism among Yadavs in North India
Authors: MICHELUTTI LUCIA
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the rise of caste politics and the dynamics of Indian popular politics in the 1990s, specifically in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It shows how the interrelation between vernacular socio-cultural idioms and structures have been vital to make ‘democracy’ a part of the Indian political imagination. These have also been used to give information about the political upsurge of the common people and the shaping of political cleavages based on caste or community.
Social Networks and Social Complexity in Female-bonded Primates
Authors: Lehmann Julia , Andrews Katherine , Dunbar Robin
Published: February 2012

Most primates are intensely social and spend a large amount of time servicing social relationships. The social brain hypothesis suggests that the evolution of the primate brain has been driven by the necessity of dealing with increased social complexity. This chapter uses social network analysis to analyse the relationship between primate group size, neocortex ratio and several social network metrics. Findings suggest that social complexity may derive from managing indirect social relationships, i.e. relationships in which a female is not directly involved, which may pose high cognitive demands on primates. The discussion notes that a large neocortex allows individuals to form intense social bonds with some group members while at the same time enabling them to manage and monitor less intense indirect relationships without frequent direct involvement with each individual of the social group.
Constraints on Social Networks
Authors: Roberts Sam G. B.
Published: February 2012

In both modern humans and non-human primates, time and cognitive constraints place an upper bound on the number of social relationships an individual can maintain at a given level of intensity. Similar constraints are likely to have operated throughout hominin evolution, shaping the size and structure of social networks. One of the key trends in human evolution, alongside an increase in brain size, is likely to have been an increase in group size, resulting in a larger number of social relationships that would have to be maintained over time. The network approach demonstrates that relationships should not be viewed as dyadic ties between two individuals, but as embedded within a larger network of ties between network members. Together with relationships based on kinship, this may have allowed for larger groups to be maintained among hominins than would be possible if such networks were based purely on dyadic ties between individuals.
Social Networks and Community in the Viking Age
Authors: Wallette Anna
Published: February 2012

During the Viking Age, the use of private violence was a precondition for social power. Iceland, for instance, was a law-making community but had no executive power to put the laws into effect. Politics throughout the whole of Scandinavia was based on strong personal relations. This was not a society of uncontrolled violence, but, alongside the development of church and kingdom, the attitude towards a legal type of violence changed. The Icelandic sagas are preoccupied with networks; the alliance patterns described can shed light on the relations between both biological and social kin. This chapter describes competing loyalties through marriage, fostering, friendship, and pledges of support. Kin and marriage systems are the main organization form for people. The discussion also considers alliances and the need for strong bonds with both family and friends at a time when the political and social order was changing.
The Evolution of Altruism via Social Addiction
Authors: Hui Julie , Deacon Terrence
Published: February 2012

Each generation of evolutionary biologists has brought a fresh wave of attempts to answer the evolutionary riddle of altruism. However, none describe how such a condition could incrementally evolve from a prior condition of non-cooperation. This chapter describes a mechanism that could spontaneously and incrementally give rise to a synergistic codependence among individuals within a social group. It shows that prolonged social living in the absence of reproductive cost can mask selection-maintaining traits important for autonomous living, causing them to drift and degrade to the point where individuals can no longer succeed outside the social context. This ‘social addiction’ will subsequently favour traits that maintain social cohesion because of the high cost of group dispersion. This mechanism contributes a missing complementary component to existing selection-based explanations of the evolution of pro-social and altruistic behaviours.
Malcolm MacNaughtan Bowie 1943–2007
Authors: Hobson Marian
Published: February 2012

Malcolm MacNaughtan Bowie (1943–2007), a Fellow of the British Academy, was appointed from an assistant lectureship at the University of East Anglia to one in the University of Cambridge in 1969. At Cambridge, he worked as a specialist in difficult poets in French beginning with ‘M’, particularly Henri Michaux and Stephane Mallarmé. These are writers of involuted complexity, to read whom both a sensitivity to how word play plays and to how French prosody in poetry or prose works were essential. These studies by Bowie were followed by work on mind-altering psychoanalysis: on Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan. He was the first director of the Romance Languages Institute, ran its vigorous seminar programme, and gave this a strong international profile by his invitations. At the University of Oxford, Bowie set up the European Humanities Research Centre, followed by an associated publishing venture, Legenda.
Norman Rufus Colin Cohn 1915–2007
Authors: Lamont William
Published: February 2012

Norman Rufus Colin Cohn (1915–2007), a Fellow of the British Academy, wrote three major histories around a single theme. The Pursuit of the Millennium (1957) related the apocalyptic beliefs of twentieth-century totalitarian movements, whether Nazi or Communist, to their origins in medieval heresy. Warrant for Genocide (1967) established that the key document of a Jewish world conspiracy, The Protocol of the Elders of Zion, was a nineteenth-century Tsarist forgery. Europe's Inner Demons (1975) argued that the belief in a Satanic pact was at the heart of witch persecution in early modern Europe. Within a year of retiring as Director of the Columbus Centre, Cohn was invited to Concordia University, Montreal, to help launch an Institute for Genocide Studies. He regarded his three books as tied to the Columbus Centre agenda and as such compatible with Lord Dacre's own search for what it was in Germany's myths and history that Adolf Hitler's mind could have been working upon in his lost years in Vienna.
David Fairweather Foxon 1923–2001
Authors: Barker Nicolas , McLaverty James
Published: February 2012

David Fairweather Foxon (1923–2001), a Fellow of the British Academy, published English Verse 1701–1750: a Catalogue, a book that not only took a long leap forward into a new century; it also provided a cross-section through the record of all British books and books printed abroad in English in a period in which the total number of books, periodicals, and ephemera began to increase exponentially. The period was also one in which the whole concept of authorship and the relationship between author and the book trade changed substantially, as a result of the Copyright Act (1709). Foxon was born in Paignton, the son of a Methodist minister. Bletchley Park was a crucial experience for him, socially and intellectually. He met a variety of gifted academics, some eccentric, mostly from Oxford or Cambridge, at an early age; it gave him training in codebreaking; and it introduced him to his future wife. Foxon was involved in the recataloguing of the British Museum Library, a gigantic undertaking that had begun in 1929.
Continuity and Change in a Wessex Landscape
Authors: CUNLIFFE BARRY
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about the continuity and change in the Wessex landscape delivered by the author at the 2008 Albert Reckitt Archaeological Lecture held at the British Academy. It describes the Wessex landscape as an area of chalkland situated in the centre of the chalk uplands of southern Britain, highlights the results of archaeological excavations in Wessex, and describes the principal types of settlement in the area.
Internal Displacement in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: Politics and the Loss of Livelihood
Authors: Bitar Maher Anawati
Published: February 2012

Between December 2008 to January 2009, the Israel militaries assaulted the Gaza Strip displacing over 50,000 people. This assault accentuated the already long history of Palestinian forced migration. It created ‘internally stuck persons’ (ISPs) who were no longer able to flee conflict areas to safer grounds. For the ISPs, the Gaza Strip has become a prison which is controlled by outside force. Within the context of open-air prison, the ISPs have become ‘internally displaced persons’ because they are compelled to remain within this circumscribed boundary. IDPs receive less assistance and protection than refugees. This chapter discusses the scope, extent and repercussions of the involuntary migratory movements within the occupied Palestinian territories (oPt) of the West Bank and East Jerusalem. It focuses on the physical barrier created by the Government of Israel (GoI) within the oPt. Although the displacement in Gaza, the East Jerusalem, and the West Bank is often triggered by similar and indirect factors, the latter two areas face a distinct set of triggers. A review of the preliminary displacement patterns have shown that forced displacement is both a result of and a means by which the GoI has expanded its hold of East Jerusalem and the prime areas of the West Bank. This review thus asserts that displacement cannot be simply viewed as a humanitarian crisis or a consequence of conflict or Israel’s security needs.
Repatriation and Reconstruction: Afghan Youth as a ‘Burnt Generation’ in Post-conflict Return
Authors: Kamal Sarah
Published: February 2012

Voluntary repatriation has been framed as the optimal and durable solution in internal politics and legal frameworks since the 1980s. While still generally put into practice as the solution of choice, repatriation is no longer perceived as an unproblematic end to the refugee cycle. With the growing awareness of repatriation’s less than exemplary methods, the sometimes coercive nature of it, and the unstable post-conflict conditions awaiting returnees, voluntary repatriation has waned over the years. However, there is an insufficient understanding of the long-term prospects of the returnees and the repatriation perspectives of the young refugee. This chapter hence explores repatriation within the perspectives of Afghan youths. It presents stories of four Afghan youths: in 2003 as they face the prospect of voluntary repatriation in the hands of the Iranian government; in 2006 as they situated themselves vis-á-vis Afghanistan in the early flush of return to their homeland; and in 2007 as they narrated their hopes and aspirations within their growing understanding of their new context. The stories presented in this chapter offer a longitudinal examination of repatriation from the perspective of the long-term forced migrant youth and a window to the lives of young Afghans repatriating from Iran.
Defectiveness as Stem Suppletion in French and Spanish Verbs1
Authors: Boyé Gilles , Hofherr Patricia Cabredo
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines some particular types of defectiveness in French and Spanish verbs. In the cases considered herein, the gaps in the paradigm exhibit the same zones of stem suppletion patterns prevalent in irregular verbs. The defective paradigms of the French and Spanish verbs which are assumed to be associated to the level of the stem are examined through stem suppletion and through the lexicalization of the gaps in the stem space. Discussed herein are: the three kinds of defectiveness that can be found in verbal paradigms; the morphology of the defective verbs in French and Spanish; and the analysis of the Spanish verb morphology according to Boyé and Cabredo Hoffer. This analysis suggests that each zone of the systematic co-variation in the verbal paradigm corresponds to the forms built on the same stem. Stems are generally organized by a graph that presents the links between stems which define implicative relations. Regular verbs only need one stem to be specified while irregular verbs need more than one stem to be specified. Included as well is a discussion on how the zones of defectiveness identified in the French and Spanish verbs coincide with the independently established zones of stem suppletion in the study of irregular verbs. The chapter concludes with the three ways that can lead to defectiveness, stem indeterminacy, stem gaps, and stem avoidance.
Relative Acceptability of Missing Adjective Forms in Swedish
Authors: Löwenadler John
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the implications of an acceptability test designed to evaluate the Swedish native speakers's reluctance to form the neuter gender of certain adjectives such as the defective adjectives. This chapter provides some observations related to the Löwenadler paper. While the paper focused on the certain Swedish adjective forms which are regarded as ungrammatical by most Swedish speakers, the present chapter places emphasis on the actual evaluation of the logically possible yet unacceptable neuter alternatives. To provide a better understanding of the reluctance of speakers to use neuter gender, the chapter provides some additional factors aside from the inflectional process that define the judgements derived from the acceptability test.
On Morphomic Defectiveness: Evidence from the Romance Languages of the Iberian Peninsula1
Authors: Maiden Martin , O’neill Paul
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the overall paradigmatic distribution of gaps in the Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula. It revisits the Spanish data from a historical and comparative perspective, considering the closely related language, Portuguese. Ibero-Romance paradigm gaps are determined by the lexical rarity and the morphemic patterning. Paradigm gaps are also affected by ‘low speaker confidence’. This behaviour defines the avoidance of allomorphy even in the absence of reasonable grounds to expect the occurrence of allomorphy. Such behaviour is triggered by the speaker's sensitivity to a major distributional pattern of root allomorphy in Spanish and Portuguese such as that in non-first conjunction verbs, the first person singular present indicative together with all persons and numbers of the present subjunctive in shared root allomorph. In addition to determining the defectiveness in the Ibero-Romance languages, the chapter also provides a discussion on the general domains and determinants of defectiveness.
The Church of England and the Palatinate, 1566–1642
Authors: Milton Anthony
Published: February 2012

This chapter explores a long-neglected relationship, which has escaped scholarly notice in part because of the assumption that reformation remained fixed after the sixteenth century. Historians previously focused on fragmentation within the Lutheran tradition following the death of Luther in 1546. Yet the conversion of the Elector Palatine Frederick III to the reformed faith in 1561 has more recently drawn attention for inaugurating a second reformation in central Europe along with the confessional conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War. The discussion follows the peculiar role of the Palatinate in constructing the Church of England’s reformed identity from the late sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries. The unique circumstances of reform initiated by the Prince, for instance, could be used by both conformist and puritan divines.
Milton and the Regicide
Authors: Dzelzainis Martin
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Milton and his idea of regicide. It discusses his The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates and the concepts of regicide, tyrranicide, and enemy found in his work. Milton's Tenure asserts that a tyrannical ruler should no longer be regarded as one of the powers ordained by God and may be therefore be resisted like a private person who employs unjust force. The chapter also discusses his political theory and his emerging notion of resistance, including the significance of his method of not naming Charles Stuart as a public enemy or hostis in his Tenure.
Milton and the Romantics
Authors: Fairer David
Published: February 2012

According to Joseph Wittreich, Romantic poets empowered Milton by making him whole again through their readings of his poetry in the future tense, so that poems emerging from one moment of crisis could reflect upon and explain another crisis in history when, once again, terror and tyranny overruled. In the Romantic period, it became a commonplace to link the prophetic Milton to the Romantic poets. This chapter discusses Milton and the Romantics. It examines the Romanticist readings of Paradise Lost and its influence in the writings of the Romantic poets. The chapter examines his tradition of prophecy and oppositional rhetoric, which found its way into the works of the Romantics.
Reconciliation with the Empire after the Peace of Constance (1184–1199)
Authors: Raccagni Gianluca
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the reconciliation of the Lombard League with the Empire after the Peace of Constance. It discusses the renewals of the oath of association in 1185, 1195, and 1198. The terms of the Peace of Constance entitled the Lombards to keep the League and to renew its oath of association whenever they wanted. On 21 January 1185, in the church of Santa Brigida of Piacenza, an assembly was held that was attended by rectors from twelve cities. The association was confirmed for thirty years, but the oath could be renewed every five years if the majority of the rectors requested this. After the Peace of Constance, the League continued to be involved in the resolution of disputes among its members. On the other hand, the Lombard regional conflicts of the 1190s show that in practice the Po Valley was increasingly divided into two opposing coalitions.
Conclusion
Authors: Raccagni Gianluca
Published: February 2012

The efforts of Frederick I to enhance imperial authority in Italy and the creation of the Lombard League were two very different but related interventions in northern Italy by the middle of the twelfth century: the Lombard city communes rejected the intrusive reforms introduced by the emperor but the solidarity and co-operation sparked by the common threat went beyond the creation of a military alliance. Instead, a regional collective entity was developed, the Societas Lombardie. Apart from its leading role in events of momentous historical importance such as the conflicts between empire and papacy, the characteristics of the League were quite remarkable in themselves: as a regional organization it had no precedent in Italy and no contemporary competitor, apart from the related Tuscan League. The League declined and largely disappeared after 1220, to be restored in 1226, identifying with the Milanese regional power.
Introduction
Authors: GOODMAN MARTIN
Published: February 2012

This introductory chapter explains the coverage of this book, which is about rabbinic texts of late antiquity and their application in the study of the history of late-Roman Palestine. It investigates whether these rabbinic texts existed in anything like their present form in late antiquity and examines the differing status as historical evidence for late antiquity of different sorts of rabbinic literature. It provides a series of thematic studies of historical topics for which rabbinic evidence has been considered as useful evidence and denied such a role by others.
The Future of Ancient Piyyut
Authors: VAN BEKKUM WOUT JAC
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the developments in the study of ancient piyyut. It explains that piyyut is a Jewish liturgical poetry composed to replace or serve as an alternative to prayers in the synagogue, mainly on Sabbaths and festivals and special occasions such as circumcisions and weddings. Piyyut scholarship primarily developed in Germany, and continued later in Jerusalem and then to a lesser extent in New York. Some of the most notable piyyut scholars include Leopold Zunz, Menahem Zulay and Wolf Heidenheim. This chapter suggests that future studies of ancient piyyut will have to pay much attention to a proper designation of appropriate criteria for the discussion of Jewish hymnography amidst a wide range of adjacent disciplines.
Robert Denis Collison Black 1922–2008
Authors: O’brien D. P.
Published: February 2012

Robert Denis Collison Black was internationally recognized as the authority on Jevons, and in particular on the centrally important elements of Benthamite Utilitarianism in Jevons' thought. Jevons' Theory Political Economy was, Black argued, a Benthamite exercise, not a systematic treatise on value and distribution. This in turn explained why Jevons' theory of production was essentially classical, and why he had no theory of aggregate distribution. Black's work on Jevons also threw light on the professionalization of economics. Black was the well-merited recipient of many honours. In 1974 he was elected both a Fellow of the British Academy and a Member of the Royal Irish Academy. He became an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin in 1982; President of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland over the years 1983 to 1986; acted as President of Section F of the British Association in 1984–5; was elected a Distinguished Fellow of the History of Economics Society in 1987; and in 1988, Queen's University bestowed upon him an Hon. D.Sc. Econ.
Henry Chadwick 1920–2008
Authors: Williams Rowan
Published: February 2012

Henry Chadwick's achievement overall remains immense. The range of his learning in classical and post-classical literature, both Greek and Latin, and his encyclopaedic knowledge of the Fathers and, increasingly, the early medievals was rare by any standard, and his success in making it available to the non-specialist reader as well as the expert was striking. Chadwick played a pivotal role in redefining a whole area of scholarship. Individual works, both long and short, still occupy a significant place in the literature of their subjects–especially the work on Origen, Augustine, and Boethius. The translations that frame his career–the Contra Celsum and the Confessions–illustrate his capacity to get into the skin of ancient authors. Chadwick was without doubt the foremost patristic scholar of his generation in the English-speaking world, and one of the foremost in Europe. He will be remembered with enormous gratitude and affection by a large number of scholars to whom, by direct or indirect teaching and example, he taught their business.
Many Legal Orders, One Law
Authors: Jacobs Francis G.
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents the text of a lecture on legal orders in Europe given at the British Academy's 2008 Law Lecture. This text suggests that developments in European and international law make it increasingly hard to sustain the view that a single system of law operates within each sovereign territory. It explains that in Europe, different legal orders seem to coexist, in relation to the same issues, within the same legal space; and questions constantly arise about which law is to prevail.