bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The influence of housing research on welfare legislation
Authors: Edwards S. A. , Robertson J. , Kelly M.
Published: June 2019

The design and management of housing play a major rôle in the welfare of most farm animal species and are implicated in all of the ‘five freedoms’. Housing has always been an aspect of livestock production systems which is readily amenable to legislation and the majority of current UK (and EU) welfare legislation relates generally or specifically to housing. An area of concern in current legislation is the tendency to legislate on housing systems rather than animal state, which leads to disagreements in interpretation and anomalies in implementation. Housing legislation is furthest advanced in the simple-stomached species, rather than in ruminant species which have traditionally been farmed more extensively. However, issues of housing and welfare certainly require to be addressed in other species. Whilst scientific research does underlie many of the existing housing regulations, it has not always been correctly interpreted or sensibly applied. Many dilemmas exist when overviewing the balance of scientific evidence relating to contentious housing systems in all species. In many areas, requirements of quality assurance schemes are now more rigorous and wide reaching than legislation but these are not always based on scientific evidence. However, many component-specific recommendations have been scientifically established and animal welfare could be significantly improved by their application. In the future, advances in fundamental science are needed to better establish legislative criteria. Applied scientists should continue to be used as independent advisers in consideration of future legislation and should be more proactive in information transfer outwith the normal scientific media.
Too cramped for comfort? Constraints on the Government's room to manoeuvre
Authors: Radford M.
Published: June 2019

Traditionally, the UK parliament has been legislatively supreme: it can pass or repeal whatever measure it wishes. Membership of the European Community and the World Trade Organization has fundamentally changed this situation. Parliament and government are both constrained in what they may do if their action would conflict with the principle of free trade, to the extent that, under EC law, the domestic courts may override the will of Parliament. Provisions which allow nations to introduce restrictions in order to protect public morality, or the life and health of animals, have not been effective in providing a basis for the introduction of animal protection measures. Amendments to the Treaty of Rome, recognizing the sentiency of animals, is an advance, but what difference it will make in practice is as yet unclear. The apparent inability of a nation state to give effect to the will of its citizens raises important constitutional issues: it has serious implications for democracy and the rule of law and undermines the legitimacy of the political process.
Using Biotechnology for the Production and Enhancement of Livestock Feed
Authors: Hartnell Gary F.
Published: June 2019

The human race has previously utilized biotechnology (defined as the use of microorganisms or biological substances to perform industrial purposes) for thousands of years to produce foods such as beer, wine, cheese and yogurt. In recent decades, biotechnology has been successfully employed to improve plant and animal products beneficial to livestock and humans while indirectly improving the environment through pesticide reduction.
Causal factors of equine stereotypy
Authors: McBride S D , Hemmings A
Published: June 2019

The commonality in neural mechanism (transmitter and brain region) underpinning stereotypy and that associated with motivation of goaldirected behaviours lends support to the idea that the former is derived from the latter. Hughes and Duncan postulated this theory behaviourally within their proposed 1988 model of motivation. This review re–interprets the Hughes and Duncan model to neurochemically describe the motivational development of stereotypic behaviour in the horse.
Factors influencing placental and fetal development in the mare: important considerations for the selection of embryo recipients
Authors: Wilsher S , Allen W R
Published: June 2019

In mammals the placenta is the vehicle for nutritional and gaseous exchange between the maternal and fetal circulations during pregnancy. The allantochorionic placenta of equids is classified as non–deciduate, non–invasive, epitheliochorial and diffuse and, as such, equine placentation demands fetomaternal interdigitation over the entire endometrial surface to optimise fetal development in utero. Any shortcomings are reflected by slower growth and delayed maturation of the fetus.

This requirement for an unabbreviated area of placental attachment is emphasised by the inability of mares to carry twin conceptuses to term due to simple competition between the two placentae for the limited area of endometrium which results in progressive starvation of one or both fetuses (Jeffcott and Whitwell, 1973). In addition, age–related chronic degenerative changes in the mare's endometrium (endometrosis) may compromise the uterine environment during pregnancy and Bracher et al. (1996) showed a close relationship between the health of the endometrium, the normality of structure and the density of the microcotyledons on the surface of the allantochorion, and fetal weight.
Tubule density at different sample sites around theStratum mediumof horse hoof horn
Authors: Hopegood L , Abraham D , Shervey C
Published: June 2019

Microscopic analysis shows that equine hoof wall is composed of distinct phases of tubular and intertubular horn. The tubule density (TD) of hoof horn is found by ascertaining the number of tubules per unit area and is believed to relate to mechanical properties, resistance to wear, “quality”, hardness and moisture content. The straight grid previously used to ascertain the TD of hoof horn may omit certain tubules on both the inner and outer hoof wall as the wall itself is curved. This present study examined whether there was a significant difference in results for TD between using the conventional straight grid method and a novel method using a curved grid. TD was also compared across three sample sites. An analysis of TD from four equal sections (zones) across the hoof wall was also carried out.

The left fore feet of 10 randomly selected slaughterhouse horses and ponies were used to provide hoof samples.
Characterisation of the WSC fraction of six species of temperate pasture grass
Authors: Ince J. C. , Longland A. C. , Cairns A. J. , Moore–Colyer M.
Published: June 2019

The carbohydrate (CHO) fraction of pasture grasses is a major source of energy for many domestic herbivores. However, the amounts, and types, of the water–soluble carbohydrate (WSC) fraction (i.e. glucose, fructose, sucrose, and polymers of sucrose and fructose, the fructans) present in such grasses, varies with species and environmental conditions. As the WSC constitute a highly digestible, energy yielding fraction of grasses, it is important to be able to measure their levels in a sward so that the diets of pastured animals may be designed to elicit optimal health and productivity. The aim of this study was to characterise the WSC profile of six UK pasture grasses, and to develop a technique for extracting the fructan portion of the WSC.

Six species of UK pasture grasses [Cocksfoot (C), Timothy (T), Meadow Fescue (M), Italian Ryegrass (IR), Perennial Ryegrass (PR) and Hybrid Ryegrass (HR)] were grown in experimental field plots at IGER.
Conservation of farm animal genetic resources - a UK national view
Authors: Mansbridge R.J.
Published: June 2019

In 2003 the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) celebrated its 30th anniversary and is now widely recognised as the national non-governmental organisation responsible for rare breeds of farm livestock in the UK. No breed of farm animal has been lost since 1973 and there are now 72 breeds which meet the Trust's criteria for recognition as a rare breed. These criteria, which are regularly reviewed, take into consideration how long the breed has existed, the number of adult females and geographic distribution. With one or two notable exceptions, the breeds listed by the Trust have built up numbers and have become well distributed. However, all rare breeds still face an uncertain future but their greatest enemy is no longer immediate extinction but extinction by stealth. The sustained downward pressure on livestock farming in the UK, National and European government legislation, loss of genetic diversity and public indifference make a dangerous combination.

So what can an organisation like the RBST do, funded entirely by membership subscriptions, donations and legacies? The answer is a great deal! Firstly, we need to make people care, so that Governments and legislators listen and consider the implications of new (and existing) legislation on rare breeds. There is strong evidence that where people are seen to care, then government does listen to ‘umbrella’ organisations like the RBST lobbying on behalf of a small and sometimes fragmented sector of the industry. Widespread concern during the early days of the recent Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) epidemic in the UK enabled the Trust to secure unprecedented exemption for rare breeds of sheep and pigs from contiguous culls. However, unlike captive zoo collections or wild populations, the individual cattle, horse/ponies, pigs, poultry and sheep/goats belong to individual breeders! Without their support, co-operation and participation, progress can be difficult and slow.

This national role, to be effective and comprehensive, must be grounded in sound science, reliable technical data and impartial information. The Trust now has the expertise and the tools to quantify the genetic diversity in rare breeds while offering practical solutions to some of the problems facing rare breeds. The RBST is doing a great deal but there is still much to do. The next 30 years promise to be as important in securing the future of the UK's rare breeds of farm livestock as the first 30 years were in rescuing them from extinction.
Experiences from plant GR conservation
Authors: Ambrose M.J.
Published: June 2019

There is a long history in the UK of procuring and maintaining plant genetic resources for curiosity, novelty, taxonomic reference or direct utilisation. This paper describes the evolution, the current structures and the processes involved in plant genetic resource activities in the UK, and discusses similarities and differences in the issues in and approaches to plant and animal genetic resources conservation and utilisation.
Role of reproductive biotechnologies: global perspective, current methods and success rates
Authors: Thibier M. , Humblot P. , Guerin B.
Published: June 2019

Artificial Insemination (AI), the first generation of Reproductive Biotechnologies (RB), is widely used in cattle with more than 110 million females, accounting for 20% of the total global population of breeding females, inseminated annually. There is still great potential for expansion, but further increases will depend on improved conception rates on commercial premises. AI is also used in sheep and goats but to a much lesser extent. AI in pigs has become increasing popular in recent years (close to 50%) with further expansion (around 10% or more) expected in the next decade. The major challenge for AI in the years to come is to reduce the cost of the offspring that are produced. Irrespective of the species, the key element determining this cost is the percentage of inseminations that result in viable offspring. In vivo collected embryo transfer has also been widely used across the world but to a much lesser extent than AI. In cattle around 500,000 embryos are transferred annually, generating an active international exchange of germplasm. Technical limitations associated with variability in superovulatory responses between individuals will limit further uptake of this technology. In contrast, in vitro embryo production, particularly in the bovine, has greater potential for expansion due to its ability to (1) generate a large number of offspring, (2) reduce costs of embryo production, (3) facilitate adoption of nuclear transfer and transgenesis and (4) regulate and minimise potential hazards associated with disease transmission. A remaining factor limiting uptake of this technology is the achievement of satisfactory pregnancy rates following the transfer of cryopreserved embryos, although recent developments suggest these problems can be overcome. Nuclear transfer and transgenesis present numerous opportunities for genetic conservation, but are still very much at the experimental stage. Genetically modified animals may only be tolerated by society if they lead to benefits in human health or to the environment. Emphasis should be directed to disease resistance in relation to both animal and zoonotic diseases.
The role of rare and traditional breeds in conservation: the Grazing Animals Project
Authors: Small R.W.
Published: June 2019

The landscape of the UK has been largely determined by past agricultural practices that have given rise to a range of anthropogenic habitats much valued by conservationists. Many of these have been created by, or for, grazing livestock. The suggestion that grazing and browsing animals were instrumental in ‘cyclical succession’ in the preagricultural period is also gaining ground. For these reasons the use of grazing animals in the management of conservation sites has become more common. Since its foundation in 1997 the Grazing Animals Project (GAP) has promoted and facilitated the use of grazing livestock in management of habitats for conservation.

In 2001 GAP produced, in consultation with animal welfare organizations, A Guide to Animal Welfare in Nature Conservation Grazing. The practical advice in, and approach of, this document is potentially invaluable not only to conservation managers and graziers but also to all keepers of livestock. Another GAP publication, the Breeds Profiles Handbook, gives brief descriptions of 55 breeds of livestock known, or anticipated, to be of value in conservation grazing. Many of these are rare or traditional breeds, as these have the characteristics that enable the stock to thrive on the nutritionally relatively poor forage afforded by many conservation sites. These characteristics are often identified as ‘hardiness’ and ‘thriftiness’, but are poorly defined except through the practical experience of conservation managers.

Conservation grazing is a relatively new niche, and one that cannot be filled by modern breeds or strains adapted to high-input, high-output systems. It is, therefore, a great opportunity for rare and traditional breeds, many of which developed in parallel with habitats now appreciated for their conservation value. This applies not only in the UK but also in other European countries. Moreover, recent developments, such as English Nature's Traditional Breeds Incentive for Sites of Special Scientific Interest, several grazing projects funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund and the Limestone Country Life Project, suggest that this niche is no longer confined to nature reserves.

Conservation grazing can contribute to genetic conservation by:

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Enabling an increase in numbers and wider distribution of rare and traditional breeds.

•

Allowing breeders to identify, and select, those individuals that fare best under relatively austere conditions.

•

Providing an outlet, or providing additional grazing, for stock that could not otherwise be kept.

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Providing a market for good animals without reference to the showring.

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Providing a refuge for rare breeds from threats such as that posed by the National Scrapie Plan.
Use of molecular genetic techniques: a case study on the Iberian pig
Authors: Toro M.A. , Alves E. , Barragán C. , Castellanos C. , Fabuel E. , Fernández A. , Ovilo C. , Rodríguez M.C. , Silió L.
Published: June 2019

The usefulness of molecular genetic markers as a tool for the conservation, characterisation and differentiation of domestic animal populations are shown in the following text, that summarises diverse applications to Iberian pigs.
Genetic improvement and relative evaluation of competition performance within the UK sport horse population
Authors: Whitaker T.C.
Published: June 2019

A summary of the current position of UK sport horse breeding is given in relation to genetic improvement within a commonly applied breeding scheme. Using event horse breeding as the example, rates of gain are shown to be extremely slow, at less than 1 point gain per generations. In order to ascertain the reasons for slow progress, stallion usage and impact on the population is investigated. The study highlights that currently, elite sires are having a very limited effect on the rate of gain. Further investigation of performance recording and analysis systems is therefore undertaken whilst considering the following three issues: 1 Our limited knowledge of environmental effect on performance. 2) the subjective nature of evaluation techniques and 3) the questionable link between performance and pedigree. The study concludes that limited knowledge of environmental effect on performance, poor linkage of pedigree and performance data and poor application of breed improvement strategies have led to extremely slow rates of genetic gain within the UK event horse population.
Equine behavioural science: perspectives on problems
Authors: Randle H.
Published: June 2019

It is crucial to emphasise the importance of a sound scientific underpinning in the tackling of equine problems and regulation of those who treat equines. It is becoming increasingly common for two types of ‘practitioner’ to be consulted by owners of horses experiencing some kind of behavioural problem, namely Horse Whisperers (HWs) and Horse Behaviour Advisors (HBAs).

Throughout this paper HWs are considered to be those who can ‘communicate with an equine, in a para–normal, gifted manner’, whilst HBAs are considered to be those who ‘advise on horse behaviour, especially problem behaviour’. The commonly used term ‘Horse Behaviourist’ has deliberately not been used as it is technically incorrect. Anyone with a rudimentary knowledge of psychology and learning theory will know that behaviourists are proponents of ‘behaviourism’ – a particular way of explaining learning. It is not a generic term referring to the study of animal behaviour – that is ‘ethology’. Worryingly today the term ‘ethology’ is being employed as a marketing tool.
In vivo foregut digestion of starch-based concentrate feeds in horses using the mobile bag technique
Authors: Moore-Colyer M.J.S. , Clercq T. , Julliand V. , Drogoul C.
Published: June 2019

Metabolic disorders from poor foregut digestion of starch-based concentrate feeds are one of the most serious challenges that face today’s horse owners. Although there are many different cereal and legume-based concentrates used to formulate compound horse feeds in Europe relatively little is known about their in vivo foregut digestibility. While Meyer et al (1993) has examined the effects of processing on digestibility, there is no published data comparing the in vivo foregut digestibility of a wide range of concentrates. Therefore this study sought to determine the digestibility of 20 different starch rich feeds in the foregut of horses using the mobile bag technique.

Four mature geldings (BW ranging from 395 to 478 kg) fitted with caecal and colonic cannulae, were maintained in individual stalls, where water was available ad libitum and fed a diet of pellets and straw. The pelleted feed, fed at 0.8% BW/d, contained 14% fibre, 13% crude protein, 3.2% fat and 8.7% ash. This feed was equally divided and offered at 8am and 5pm.
Factors affecting mutual grooming and play behaviour in a group of domestic horses (Equus caballus)
Authors: Hannan M. , Draganova I. , Dumbell L.
Published: June 2019

Horses are a gregarious species with strong social bonds between individuals and when under free-ranging conditions, form family bands or herds (Tyler, 1979; Wells and Goldschmidt-Rothschild, 1979). Each herd contains small bands of roughly 3 adult horses (1 stallion, 2-3 mares) plus their most recent offspring (Linklater et al., 1999). There are also bachelor groups composed of males that are either too young for their own harems, or can no longer defend the harems they once had (Waring, 1983). As horses live in groups they have evolved a complex behaviour repertoire in order to communicate. Mutual grooming and play are two such behaviours that have been widely studied in both domestic and feral horses, however the results from studies on their influencing factors have been contradictory. Mutual grooming has the obvious function of coat care and parasite removal; moreover, it has also been implicated in forming and maintaining bonds between horses in a herd (Waring, 1983).
Non-completing horses within the cross country phase of selected advanced level Eventing competitions: the effect of rider gender and ‘course toughness’
Authors: T. C. Whitaker  , Hill J.
Published: June 2019

Non-completion of equestrian competition by competitors may occur for a variety of reasons. However, limited work has been conducted to establish the likely factors causing non-completion. Non-completion by a competitor needs to be carefully considered within any overall analysis of competition data. Non-completing competitors within sporting competitions are potential complicating and confounding factors in the analysis of performance data (Whitaker and Hill, in press). Within a population it is important to establish if there are systematic or nonrandom reasons for non completion; or whether non-completion is entirely a random event (Little and Rubin 1987). If systematic or nonrandom effects are occurring in competition they need to be considered carefully in the wider analysis of the whole population. This will include the application of appropriate statistical methods to the data sets. These may include such techniques as Regression Analysis, Approximate Bayesian Bootstrap, Hot Deck Method or Summary of Single Input Method (ibid).
Preliminary investigation of maximal fetlock extension during jump landing phase on two arena surfaces; two dimensional motion analysis
Authors: Openshaw G. , Northrop A. J. , Brigden C. , Martin J. H.
Published: June 2019

Surface type has a recognised effect on the biomechanics of a horse, yet suitability of surfaces to discipline has not been fully substantiated. Ideal exercise surface conditions should be a balance of energy absorption to minimise concussion and energy return to aid performance (Barreyet al., 1999) and these conditions vary according to type of work. Greater force on a particular limb will increase the probability of injury, especially in sports that are repetitive in nature, such as show jumping. It is well known that high impact forces occur during the landing phase of jumping (Meershoeket al., 2001); investigation of this phase is therefore integral to understanding the effect that surface has on horses that jump. Maximal fetlock extension may be useful as an indicator of magnitude of ground reaction forces (Clayton, 1997). This means that in-field studies can be used to measure maximal fetlock extension as a guide to forces placed on the limb.
Positive and negative trends in biometrical changes among Arabian horses bred in Poland
Authors: Pieszka M. , Kulisa M. , Luszczynski J. , Dlugosz B. , Makiela K.
Published: June 2019

As a result of long-term work by Polish breeders the special type called ‘Polish type’ of Arabian horses has been created. Polish Arabians differ from their ancestors who were bred by Bedouins in the deserts of Arabia. The main differences are slightly more height, better stature and correct conformation. The process of Arabian improvement is on going and must be adapted to modern trends and conditions which is reflected in changes of biometric parameters (Budzynski et al., 1976). Height at withers HW (cm), girth circumference GC (cm) and cannon bone circumference CC (cm) are basic measurements that make it possible to compare horses born at different times and in different studs. The objective of this study was to evaluate the changes in biometric parameters of Arabian horses bred in Poland after the World War II until now.

This study used data concerning basic measurements (HW, GC and CC) of 1218 Arabian horses (1076 mares and 142 stallions measured at 5 years of life) used in Polish state breeding after the World War II.
Analyses and comparison of the moisture content across theStratum mediumof donkey and horse hoof horn
Authors: Hopegood L. , Collins S , Reilly J D
Published: June 2019

The moisture content of horse hoof horn is important as it affects its function, quality and mechanical properties. It is believed for horse hoof horn that there is an inverse relationship between the amount of water present and stiffness, or the ability of hoof horn to resist deformation. The majority of studies, until the work of Leach (1980) and Douglaset al.(1996) concentrated on quantitative values for moisture content for the full hoof wall depth (HWD) for horse hoof horn. Douglaset al.(1996) divided the hoof wall into inner and outer wall samples and showed a moisture content of 28% for the outer wall and 35% for the inner wall, confirming a dorsopalmar increase in moisture content. Whether a similar gradient exists for donkey hoof horn is not known. The existence of such a dorso-palmar moisture gradient may have a profound effect on the mechanical properties of the hoof horn and would further contribute towards the understanding of how moisture content affects the function of the hoof.
Dependence between ‘heat diarrhoea’ traits in foals and mares’ milk composition
Authors: Pieszka M. , Kulisa M.
Published: June 2019

Growth and development of foals is highly influenced by different factors during the period they spend with their mothers. One of the most interesting and not really recognised phenomena is first foals’ diarrhoea called ‘heat diarrhoea’ or ‘heat scours’. This diarrhoea occurs during first 2-3 weeks after birth in most of horse breeds (Deskur et al. 1978, Gustafsson 1998). Until today there is no exact explanation of this phenomenon – most vets describe it as a pathological infection due to viruses or bacteria, parasitologists explain it as an early invasion of some nematodes, physiologists describe it as a result of changes in intestines and breeders clarify it as a result of changing in mare's milk composition related to her heat. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between first diarrhoea occurrence, its duration and intensity and mares’ milk composition.

The research was carried out on 30 Arabian mares and their foals. Milk samples were collected to evaluate the main components and macroelements.
Welfare implications of the New Forest pony sales at Beaulieu Road, Hampshire
Authors: Randle H. , Player V.
Published: June 2019

It has been suggested that there are no longer truly wild ponies present in the New Forest (Hargreaves, 1992). Indeed, as Russel (2002) pointed out, there are many feral equines present across the UK which have evolved from wild and domesticated stock and are typically managed as a commodity using extensive farming practices. The New Forest (NF) pony is such a commodity. The NF pony is one of the nine recognised U.K. native breeds (Tyler, 1972) and has been depastured on the New Forest for over 1000 years. The extensive farming of the NF pony is overseen by the New Forest Verderers Society. All ponies are individually owned but run unrestricted in semi-feral breeding herds on the New Forest. It was estimated that there were some 3500 head at the end of the 2005 breeding season. Every autumn (October to November) the ponies are rounded up for checking, marking, worming, weaning and the removal of surplus individuals. Weaned and surplus stock are then marketed and sold at the New Forest pony sales held at Beaulieu Road (BR).
Quality assurance in the management of chronic disease
Authors: Petrie J. C.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

This chapter focuses on application of quality assurance procedures to the management of patients with chronic diseases. The three principal themes developed are amongst the most central to effective and efficient long-term management, namely medical information systems, clinical guidelines and protocols, and patient and clinical outcomes.

The present state of play of the three themes is outlined, potential methodologies and technology to apply quality assurance techniques are described, and some implementation strategies for the management of chronic disease are described.

Consideration of these topics strongly suggests that quality assurance must have a high profile in the care of patients with chronic diseases. Purchasers of care now have to be confident that adequate quality assurance policies are in place. Providers of care also recognise that quality control has to be implicit in their daily practice and that quality assessment of the service that they provide is an acceptable and necessary exercise. The challenge is to involve the professions and the patient in the process of quality assurance and to prove that it is a cost-effective tool in achieving such benefits as may, or may not, be identified in the care of patients with chronic diseases.
Quality assurance in maternity care
Authors: Hall Marion H. , Currell Rosemary
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The quality of care for pregnant women and their babies must be a high priority to ensure the health of future generations. Unique features are the need to deal with at least two ‘patients’, that the process of parturition is usually normal, and that there is a long history of incorporating women's views into definitions of good care. Methods of assessing structure, process and outcome of care are described, and the limited evidence of their efficacy in improving care. High-quality care in the future will require collaboration between women, midwives, family doctors and obstetricians.
Quality assurance in laboratory haematology
Authors: Lewis S. M.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Quality assurance in laboratory haematology includes (a) constant checking of test reliability by internal quality control, (b) external quality assessment by an independent agency to check performance of a number of laboratories at intervals in order to obtain a retrospective indication of their ability and (c) proficiency control by supervision of the pre-test and post-test phases of laboratory work, from specimen collection to delivery of the report to the clinician.

The procedures which comprise quality control are described; these include use of control preparations with control charts, CUSUM analysis, constancy of daily means of the blood count indices of ‘absolute values’, duplicate testing, clinical correlation and the important role of the blood film to check the instrument-derived blood count measurements.

A description of the functions of an external quality assessment scheme is based on the UK National Scheme (UK NEQAS). The blood count and other tests of general haematology have been used as models to describe the procedures for qualitative and quantitative tests, low results are analysed and performance is assessed. The tribulations and triumphs of NEQAS are described and it is concluded that NEQAS has a vital role in ensuring good laboratory practice in general, and the reliability of the individual laboratories who participate in the scheme. NEQAS, in turn, must ensure its own ability to provide stable materials which are suitable for each test in the programme, and to analyse data correctly. There is also need to take account of the continued expansion of laboratory services as new techniques are introduced and to develop appropriate EQA procedures and materials in order to incorporate these in a comprehensive scheme.
Shetland and oil – the local perspective
Authors: Thomason Edward
Published: June 2019

During these two days this conference will review the environmental management and monitoring at Sullom Voe Oil Terminal since 1974. To understand the part played by Shetland, its people, and the successive Island Councils we have to look further back. Many individuals, many organisations of varying motivations, of differing gifts have been contributors; have set the pattern.

Who were they all? As a good citizen I will place the Government first – not necessarily in importance. These days a County Convener must be cautious in his utterances! In the early 1970s politically safe oil held many attractions. The recent BBC2 programme so graphically evokes the period. There was also the massive potential income so near to the homeland.
Industry – inputs to the environment
Authors: Watson Peter
Published: June 2019

Sullom Voe Terminal has been in operation since November 1978, processing crude oil from the East Shetland Basin. Gas processing was initiated in April 1981, with full LPG production commencing in May 1982. The terminal is operated by BP Exploration, while port operations are controlled by Shetland Islands Council. This paper will summarise both terminal and port operations, to highlight those areas which involve a discharge or emission to the environment. Variation of the discharges with time will also be indicated to provide a background against which the results of the environmental monitoring programme can be set.
Sublethal biological effects and chemical contaminant monitoring of Sullom Voe (Shetland) using mussels (Mytilus edulis)
Authors: Widdows John , Donkin Peter , Evans Sheila V. , Page David S. , Salkeld Peter N.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Mussels (Mytilus edulis), collected from up to nine sites, were used to monitor the degree of chemical contamination (by petroleum hydrocarbons and organotins) and the associated sublethal biological effects (scope for growth) in the vicinity of the North Sea oil terminal at Sullom Voe from 1982 to 1989. Gluss Voe represented a ‘clean reference’ site at which mussels showed a very low level of contamination and a consistently high ‘scope for growth’ (>20 J g−1 h−1). Spatial and temporal changes in the concentration of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the mussel tissues reflected the major sources of oil inputs and the number and size of oil spillages around the tanker loading jetties. Hydrocarbon concentrations in mussels at the oil tanker jetties were typically 10-fold higher than mussels at Gluss Voe. The concentrations of tributyltin in the tissues were greatest in the area near the tanker jetties and showed a steady decline between 1986 and 1989 which correlated with a decline in tanker activity (r = +0.98).

The results demonstrated a significant correlation between the net quantity of oil spilled during the month prior to sampling and the accumulated aromatic hydrocarbons in the mussel tissues (r = +0.89). In addition, there was a significant negative relationship between scope for growth and the log concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons in the mussel tissues (r = −0.83). Toxicological interpretation of tissue residue data indicated that the decline in SFG was caused by accumulated PAHs rather than TBT. Although mussels showed a significant reduction in scope for growth in Sullom Voe they were still able to grow, reproduce and maintain their populations. When these results are placed in a wider geographical context and compared with other UK sites, it is apparent that the ‘clean reference’ site in the Shetland has the lowest recorded levels of organic contaminants, and that other sites in the vicinity of the Sullom Voe Oil Terminal are less contaminated and impacted than many estuaries on the UK mainland.
Shetland beached bird surveys: national and European context
Authors: Heubeck M.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

A Shetland-wide beached bird survey was established in March 1979 and monthly surveys have continued since. This paper presents results from March 1979 to December 1992 during which time a total of 34 320 corpses of seabird and seaduck were found, of which 34023 (99.1%) were specifically identified. Corpses of guillemot (8911), fulmar (8707), kittiwake (4421), herring gull (2264), shag (1843) and great black-backed gull (1785) comprised 82.1% of the identified total, the remainder being made up of 31 other species. The relationship between the numbers of each species found, and their numbers and occurrence in Shetland waters is discussed. A total of 2781 corpses were judged to have been oiled before their deaths, of which 2732 (98.2%) were specifically identified. The six species most frequently found oiled were guillemot (1170 corpses), fulmar (543), kittiwake (184), razorbill (131), puffin (111) and shag (99).

Variations in both the percentage of corpses found that were oiled, and the number of oiled corpses found per kilometre of beach surveyed, are examined and discussed. Comparison is made with results from beached bird surveys elsewhere in the British Isles and in other countries bordering the North Sea. In some species, notably the pelagic auks, there was considerable annual variation in the numbers of unoiled corpses found while in other species the number of unoiled corpses found changed more gradually over the 14 years. Reference is made to similar changes observed in other beached bird surveys and possible reasons for these changes are discussed.
The use of Puccinellia maritima in salt marsh monitoring
Authors: Dalby D. H.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

This programme was intended to assess the environmental health of the Sullom Voe salt marshes and, if any deterioration proved to have occurred, to suggest whether activities at the oil terminal could have been responsible.

The main study has been in the growth of the important halophytic grass Puccinellia maritima as measured by tiller/stolon elongation. This has been used as a measure of salt marsh vitality.

The salt marshes within Sullom Voe have suffered statistically significant declines in plant vigour in the detailed study areas over the period 1976 to 1987 (accompanied by local erosion and deterioration of the marsh edges), in contrast to comparable sites outside Sullom Voe, which have shown no overall decline. All sites however have shown conspicuous and loosely synchronised variations in tiller/stolon length, which may be explained in part by changes in sea level.

Although some local damage to sites can be attributed to oil-related activities, no cause can be identified for the wider deterioration within Sullom Voe because of the absence of data on factors which might be inhibiting grass growth. This problem in identifying causes is a serious weakness in monitoring programmes which use plant performance to assay changes.
Overview of marine environmental monitoring
Authors: McIntyre A. D.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Monitoring in the marine environment is selectively reviewed and illustrated by examples of programmes covering water, sediments and biota at both global and site-specific levels. Against this background the monitoring work at Sullom Voe is considered, and the optimal approach to oil terminal monitoring is discussed.
Clinical evidence on the role of oestrogens in the development of the breasts
Authors: Laron Z. , Kauli R. , Pertzelan A.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Girls start their puberty including breast development around age 8. Though the best correlation found is that with oestradiol, most girls still have at the onset of breast development oestrogen levels in the normal range for adult males. Therefore, it seems that oestrogen receptor sensitivity plays an important role in breast development. An important insight into the hormonal interplay in breast development was obtained when comparing the effect of exogenous oestrogens in forty-five girls with four different aetiologies of oestrogen deficiency: gonadal dysgenesis (GD). 17-alpha hydroxylase deficiency (17-OHase def), isolated gonadotrophin deficiency (IGnD) and multiple pituitary hormone deficiencies (MPHD). None of the girls had any breast development in the absence of oestrogens. Treatment with oestrogen was given in an identical manner to all. In GD, in whom the hypothalamic-pituitary functions were normal, treatment led to full development of breasts in a relatively short period. In IGnD and MPHD, breast development was incomplete even after years of oestrogen treatment. The conspicuous difference of the hormonal status between GD and IGnD and MPHD is that the latter two groups lack gonadotrophins, while in GD and 17-OHase def. these hormones are pathologically elevated. Thus the gonadotrophins seem to play an important role in mammary gland development. In the girl with 17-OHase def., it was also found that cortisol is necessary for normal breast development. A girl with hyperprolactinaemia due to a microadenoma had delayed puberty including slow breast development. Upon bromocriptine treatment the prolactin fell, the oestrogens rose and puberty including breast development occurred. Patients with Laron-type dwarfism (isolated IGF-I deficiency) have been found to have normal breast development.
Oestrogens in the initiation and promotion of breast cancer
Authors: Bulbrook R. D. , Leake R. E. , George W. D.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

A wide variety of methods has been used to investigate the role of the oestrogens in the aetiology and clinical course of breast cancer. They include measurements of urinary metabolites and the concentrations of oestrogens in blood, saliva, nipple aspirates, cyst fluids, lymph and breast tissues. The function of the oestrogen-binding proteins has also been examined. There is no clear evidence that an excessive oestrogenic stimulus is a determinant of risk of breast cancer and it may be sensible to question this widely-held belief. Variation in the oestrogenic stimulus within the normal range might be responsible for the observed differences in tumour doubling times and for clonal selection. Case/control studies which do not include some measure of tumour growth rates are not an efficient way of investigating these possibilities. Endogenous androgen concentrations show such a strong correlation with the natural history of the disease that it would seem unwise to investigate the role of the oestrogens without taking the androgens into account. Geographical variation in the incidence of breast cancer is probably not due to racial differences in endocrine function.
The clinical usefulness of oestrogen-receptor and other markers of hormone dependence
Authors: Clark Gary M. , McGuire William L.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

There is an increasing trend to administer adjuvant therapy to patients with all stages of primary breast cancer. However, since only about half of these patients will eventually relapse, it would be useful to have a set of factors that could predict which patients are at high risk for recurrence and which patients are probably cured by local therapy alone.

Using tumour specimens from our San Antonio Tumour Bank, we have confirmed the prognostic significance of axillary nodal status for predicting disease-free and overall survival. Among patients with node-positive disease, both oestrogen-receptors (ER) and progesterone-receptors (PgR) are predictive of patient outcome, but PgR is the more powerful factor. Using multivariate techniques, we have found that amplification and/or expression of the HER-2/neu oncogene provides additional prognostic information for node-positive patients.

Among patients with node-negative disease, ER and tumour size comprise a powerful set of prognostic factors. But ploidy status and S-phase fraction, as measured by flow cytometry, provide additional independent information for predicting disease-free and overall survival. Using these factors, sub-groups of node-negative patients with low risk of recurrence who will probably not benefit from adjuvant systemic therapy might be identified.
Oestrogens and other biochemical and cytological components in nipple aspirates of breast fluid: relationship to risk factors for breast disease
Authors: Petrakis Nicholas L.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The breast of the nonpregnant woman secretes, retains or reabsorbs a variety of endogenous and exogenous biochemical substances of potential physiological and clinical significance. Among these substances are steroid hormones, prolactin, growth hormones, and peptide growth factors. Because the concentrations of these hormones secreted into the breast ducts are often significantly higher than the concentrations in serum, the breast epithelium is commonly exposed to very high concentrations of steroid and other hormones which may play a role in the aetiology and pathogenesis of breast disease.

This paper presents a brief review of published data on the cytological and biochemical constituents of breast fluid obtained by nipple aspiration and data on factors affecting oestradiol and oestrone concentrations in breast fluid. Concentrations of oestradiol and oestrone in nipple aspirate fluid are much higher than in serum, not correlated with serum levels, much lower in women who recently have given birth or breast-fed their infants, not related to day in menstrual cycle, and higher in women with biopsied benign breast disease compared with nulliparous women without breast disease.

Further studies of the interrelationships of hormones, other biochemical constituents and the cytopathology of breast fluid may provide new insights into the pathophysiology and aetiology of breast diseases.
Oestrogen uptake and metabolism in vivo
Authors: James V. H. T. , Reed M. J. , Adams E. F. , Ghilchick M. , Lai L. C. , Coldham N. G. , Newton C. J. , Purohit A. , Owen A. M. , Singh A. , Islam S.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Uptake of oestrogens into breast tissue and their subsequent metabolism can be studied by infusing radio-labelled steroids into volunteer patients. Such studies show that oestradiol is preferentially accumulated in breast tumours, oestradiol concentrations exceeding those of oestrone. This contrasts with plasma, in which oestrone concentrations in postmenopausal women are greater than those of the oestradiol. This observation suggests that tissue factors can modulate local oestrogen metabolism, and thus local steroid concentrations.

We have studied the local production of oestrogens from androgen, and also the interconversion of the major oestrogens, oestrone and oestradiol. Using isotopic techniques, it is possible to calculate the proportion of endogenous oestrogen produced from androgen, as opposed to uptake from the circulation. These studies suggest that a very variable proportion of tissue oestrogen derives from endogenous synthesis. After administration of aromatase inhibitors, aromatase activity is substantially inhibited, both in vivo and in vitro.

Relative oestrogen concentrations are determined in part by the activity of oestradiol dehydrogenase. In breast tissue, dehydrogenase activity is present and this is modified by various factors, including androgens. In addition, we have demonstrated that normal, benign and malignant breast tissues produce factors which can modulate both growth and dehydrogenase activity of cancer cells in vitro.

We conclude that breast tissue is a site of synthesis of oestrogens, and that a number of factors can affect their local concentration. Tumour cells produce growth factors which can influence steroid metabolism, and may thus be able to enhance favourably their own endocrine environment.
Clinical experience in the use of the antioestrogen tamoxifen in the treatment of breast cancer
Authors: Stewart Helen J.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The use of tamoxifen in the treatment of both metastatic and primary breast cancer is reviewed. In metastatic disease, tamoxifen slows progression in at least one-third of patients and is now the preferred first systemic therapy. Results from the larger trials of adjuvant tamoxifen are reviewed in relation to total dose and receptor status. It is suggested that variations in total dose may account for the variable results reported. Although benefit is not confined to those with tumours which are oestrogen-receptor (ER)-positive, the greatest chance of increasing disease-free survival would seem to be in those with high ER levels. Duration of tamoxifen and its effect within defined ER categories, with and without chemotherapy, are areas requiring further study by direct comparison.