bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Movement Problems That Develop Later: Dyskinesias, Motor Fluctuations, and Treatment with Levodopa Adjustments
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

More complex movement problems often surface after several years of carbidopa/levodopa treatment. This includes excessive movements (dyskinesias) as well as fluctuations in control of parkinsonism. These may be treated by adding one of several medications, and we will cover their use later in this book; however, the quickest and most expedient solution is often adjustment of the carbidopa/levodopa dosage, which will be our focus now. This will be easiest if you are taking the immediate-release form of carbidopa/ levodopa, but the same principles apply if you are using the sustained-release (Sinemet CR) formulation. The guidelines in this chapter are appropriate if you are taking carbidopa/ levodopa alone or with a dopamine agonist. If you are experiencing no substantial side effects from the agonist medication, we won’t change the dose. In this chapter, we will focus on carbidopa/levodopa adjustments and ignore the agonist.
Urinary Symptoms
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

PD may cause problems with urination. Typically, this is not an early symptom and may never be a problem. However, when such symptoms develop, there are appropriate tests, consultations, treatments, and caveats to consider. When urinary symptoms develop in PD, they reflect problems in the bladder and structures connected to the bladder. Although the kidneys make the urine, kidney problems do not cause difficulties passing urine. The kidneys essentially filter the blood, extracting water and other products that need to be excreted. As the kidneys produce urine drop by drop, it passes down tubes to the reservoir that stores the urine. That reservoir is the bladder. The conduits from kidneys to bladder are called the ureters. When urine is released, it passes from the bladder through another conduit, the urethra. This anatomy is illustrated in figure 27.1. Normally urine is stored in the bladder until the brain is signaled that it is time to urinate.
Support and Advocacy Groups, and the Internet
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric
Published: November 2023

Many communities have well-organized Parkinson’s disease (PD) support groups that meet regularly. These meetings allow people with PD and their families to exchange information and share ideas for dealing with common problems. Frequently guest speakers (doctors, nurses, therapists, etc.) are invited to discuss topics of interest. These groups additionally provide a social outlet and a chance to meet people in similar circumstances. If you are un- aware of a PD support group in your community, check with your doctor’s office, clinic, or hospital for information.
Using Structural Equation Models to Validate Measures of Positive Emotions
Authors: Lucas Richard E
Published: November 2023

Positive emotions play an important role in a comprehensive positive psychology. First and foremost, positive emotions serve as an indicator that one’s life is on the right track. Diener and Lucas (2000) reviewed evidence that positive emotions are strongly related to individuals’ overall evaluations of their lives. By measuring positive emotions and correlating this outcome with various predictor variables, researchers can identify the characteristics that are necessary for a good life. In addition, by measuring positive emotions following interventions, researchers can determine the best ways to increase wellbeing. Thus, positive emotional experiences serve as a useful outcome variable in investigations of the good life.
Dolce Far Niente: The Positive Psychology of Personality Stability and Invariance
Authors: McCrae Robert R , Terracciano, Antonio , Khoury Brigitte
Published: November 2023

When Costa and McCrae first published their findings on the stability of personality in adulthood (Costa & McCrae, 1978, 1980b; Costa, McCrae, & Arenberg, 1980) the results were met not only with skepticism, but also with hostility and scorn. Developmentalist Orville Brim, in an interview in Psychology Today (Rubin, 1981), was quoted as saying “When you focus on stability ... you’re looking at the dregs-the people who have gotten stuck. You want to look at how a person grows and changes, not at how a person stays the same” (p. 24). Costa and McCrae were once half-jokingly introduced at a symposium as “the Antichrists of adult development.” Years later, when McCrae and Costa (1997b) showed constancy of personality trait factor structures across cultures, a similar reaction was evident in some quarters. As Bond (2000) wrote, “among many cross-cultural psychologists there is concern about importing tests developed out of a Western cultural logic ... into alien cultural systems. Berry (1969) labeled this an imposed etic strategy-it was imposed presumably because the test measuring the construct was pressed on the host culture, distorting and dominating its own voice; it was etic because it innocently presumed that the construct being measured was coherent and functioned similarly in all cultures” (p. 64).
Wisdom as a Classical Human Strength: Psychological Conceptualizations and Empirical Inquiry
Authors: Kunzmann Ute , Stange Antje
Published: November 2023

Positive psychologists value the investigation of positive traits and subjective experiences, including happiness, self-efficacy, and optimism (e.g., Aspinwall & Staudinger, 2003; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The field of positive psychology would be incomplete, however, if it failed to incorporate human strengths such as empathy, altruism, or morality-even if these characteristics do not necessarily guarantee a constant experiencing of positive feelings, but rather require the ability to tolerate and make use of mixed and negative experiences, at least occasionally.
Hardiness as a Dispositional Resource: Methods of Conceptualizing the Construct
Authors: Wallace K A , Bergeman C S
Published: November 2023

Broadly defined, positive psychology encompasses the scientific examination of human strengths and virtues (Sheldon & King, 2001) at either a subjective, individual, or institutional level (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Particularly relevant to the present chapter, the individual level concerns positive individual traits (i.e., positive personality traits), including, for example, forgiveness, spirituality, wisdom, and hardiness. In conjunction with researchers’ growing interest in the area of positive psychology and human strengths (Aspinwall & Staudinger, 2003a), there has been an increase in substantive work on various positive personality traits such as these (e.g., Baltes, Glueck, Kunzmann, 2002; Lightsey, 1996; McCullough, Pargament, & Thoresen, 2001; Pargament & Mahoney, 2002). Despite recent growth in the field of positive psychology (e.g., Keyes & Haidt, 2003), however, considerable research is needed concerning the conceptualization and measurement of positive psychological traits.
Exploring Cyclic Change in Emotion Using Item Response Models and Frequency Domain Analysis
Authors: Chow Sy-Miin , Grimm Kevin]. , Fujita, Frank , Ram Nilam
Published: November 2023

Effective mood regulation presupposes that affect and mood are dynamic and capable of change. Researchers have begun to conceptualize affect as dynamic processes (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1990; Larsen, 2000). However, most of the analytic tools used in affect research are predominantly static. In other words, they do not account for any interdependencies in emotions that may exist over time. Very often, single-occasion factor analytic or correlational techniques are used to capture the relationships among different emotions at one point in time (e.g., Feldman Barrett, 1998; Tellegen, Watson, & Clark, 1999; Watson & Tellegen, 1985). Furthermore, even when such techniques are extended to examine how emotions unfold over time (e.g., Diener, Fujita, & Smith, 1995; Eid & Diener, 1999), they are limited in that they usually only capture linear change. Evidence is building that emotions exhibit nonlinear rather than linear patterns of change over time (e.g., diurnal and weekly cycles; Chow, Ram, Boker, Fujita, & Clore, 2005; Murray, Allen, Trinder, & Burgess, 2002; Larsen & Kasimatis, 1990; Rusting & Larsen, 1998). Taken together, these shortcomings suggest that researchers should expand the study of emotion to incorporate tools for capturing nonlinear (e.g., cyclic) change.
Multilevel Models of Change: Fundamental Concepts and Relationships to Mixed Models and Latent Growth-Curve Models
Authors: Maxwell Scott E , Tiberio Stacey S
Published: November 2023

In their classic article, Cronbach and Furby (1970) recommended that psychologists interested in studying change “frame their questions other ways” (p. 80). Fortunately, in the intervening years methodologists have taken up the challenge to develop better methods of understanding change. In the last two decades, new methods have appeared that offer not just new ways of analyzing data but, more important, fundamentally different conceptualizations of change itself.
Application of Latent Growth Analyses to Health Outcomes of Adolescent Girls
Authors: Ghisletta Paolo , Trickett Penelope K
Published: November 2023

This chapter accompanies the reader through three applications of latent growth analysis. The data utilized come from a longitudinal study on the interrelationships between puberty and sexual abuse in a sample of young women. First, we discuss a general modeling strategy when applying latent growth models (LGMs). We posit that the LGMs should not be tested immediately in their most complex specification, but as a series of increasingly complex models. Like any other structural equation model, this strategy allows examining a series of educated research hypotheses. We then proceed to demonstrate the most popular application of LGMs in psychological research: The examination of change in one variable measured directly. Two body appearance scales were analyzed independently to conclude that one was more sensitive to longitudinal change than the other. The second application concerned the simultaneous analyses of change in two variables. The two body appearance scales were this time analyzed simultaneously to conclude that much, but not all, of the information in the scales is shared between them. We further analyzed the two subscales to inquire about differences between the sexually abused and the nonabused subgroup.
Understanding Journeys: Growth- Curve Analysis as a Tool for Studying Individual Differences in Change Over Time
Authors: Norem Julie K , Andreas Jasmina Burdzovic
Published: November 2023

Imagine a race with three runners. Runner A crosses the finish line first, followed fairly closely by Runner B. Runner C finishes last. Studying how the winner of the race trained prior to the race, and the strategies she used while running, may reveal techniques that can improve results for other runners. If one is interested in running a good race, it makes good sense to study winners, and focusing on Runner A would seem the way to go.
Using Experience Sampling and Multilevel Modeling to Study Person-Situation lnteractionist Approaches to Positive Psychology
Authors: Fleeson William
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to describe a method to study interactionism; this method may help rejuvenate interactionist approaches in psychology and may highlight the value of interactionism in positive psychology. Most broadly, interactionism is the view that both environmental and person factors are required for a complete understanding of psychological functioning and that the two factors often interact in producing behavior (Bowers, 1973; Lewin, 1935; Magnusson, 1999; Magnusson & Endler, 1977). Interactionism is valuable to developmental and to social psychology when those fields are interested in how environmental impacts depend on the characteristics and history of the individuals (Magnusson, 1999). Interactionism is valuable to personality psychology as a way to characterize personality in terms of unique responses to situations and as a potential solution to the problems for pure trait or pure situation approaches (Magnusson, 1999). Finally, interactionism is valuable to positive psychology because one of the ways people attain the good life is through flexibly adapting their behavior in situations to accomplish their goals (Magnusson & Mahoney, 2003; Seligman, 2003).
Individual and Situational Factors Related to the Experience of Flow in Adolescence: A Multilevel Approach
Authors: Schmidt Jennifer A , Shernoff, David]. , Csikszentmihalyi Mihaly
Published: November 2023

A fundamental issue pursued by researchers in positive psychology involves defining what constitutes a good life and understanding how individuals can create one. From the perspective of flow theory, “a good life is one that is characterized by complete absorption in what one does” (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002, p. 89). Born out of a desire to understand intrinsically motivated activity, flow refers to a state of optimal experience characterized by total absorption in the task at hand: a merging of action and awareness in which the individual loses track of both time and self. The flow state is experientially positive, and out of the flow experience emerges a desire to replicate the experience. Over the past three decades, Csikszentmihalyi and colleagues have developed theoretical constructs and empirical research tools to better understand the nature, origins, and consequences of this state of optimal experience called flow. In this chapter, we describe the flow model and then present data analyses in which we explore the personal traits and contextual conditions associated with the experience of flow among adolescents in the United States. We demonstrate the utility of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) for exploring flow using a complex data set characterized by repeated measures.
Reaching Out…Without Being Pulled Down
Authors: Wicks Robert J
Published: November 2023

This book is written for psychologically healthy physicians, nurses, and allied health professionals. It is designed to alert them to the sources of secondary stress and provide ways to strengthen their inner lives. In the modern health care setting, knowing this information is not simply desirable; it is essential for one’s personal and professional well-being.
The Beginning
Authors: Shneidman Edwin S .
Published: November 2023

Luckily for us, many important things in our lives happen serendipitously. Without a modicum of good luck, we would be rather unfortunate creatures. It was on a whim that I agreed to give a lecture (on suicide) at St. Pelagia’s Hospital, and it was fate that brought a grieving mother, Hannah Zukin, to hear me. At the end of my lecture, she came forward and said she had to talk to me for a few minutes. With some emotion, she told me of the recent suicide of her physician-lawyer son. She literally pressed into my hands a copy of an 11-page, handwritten suicide note. She asked me two questions.
Fluvial Hydraulics
Authors: Dingman S Lawrence
Published: November 2023

Fluvial Hydraulics provides a sound qualitative and quantitative understanding of water and sediment flows in natural rivers. This understanding is essential for modeling and predicting hydrologic and geomorphologic processes, erosion, sediment transport, water supply and quality, habitat management, and flood hazards. This book's coverage bridges the gap between the highly quantitative mechanics-based civil-engineering approach to stream hydraulics and the more qualitative treatments of fluvial geomorphology typical of earth-sciences and natural-resources curricula. Measurements of natural river flows illustrate many central concepts. The book is specifically designed for upper-level students and practitioners who are interested in a fundamental understanding of river behavior. An introduction to the history of fluvial hydraulics and an overview of the morphology and hydrology of rivers provides the context for the rest of the text. A thorough understanding of water properties, including turbulence, is developed via a series of simple thought experiments. The bases of the equations that are used to describe and predict river flows are systematically presented, including dimensional analysis. Subsequent chapters build logically on these foundations, covering velocity distributions, new insights to the central topic of flow resistance, the magnitudes of forces in natural river flows, the principles of conservation of energy and momentum, the prediction of water-surface profiles, the principles of flow measurement, mechanics, and geomorphic aspects of sediment transport. The book will be especially valuable in providing a scientific basis for the growing field of river restoration. An appendix reviews dimenstions, units, and numerical precision. Over 250 references are cited, providing an entree to the extensive multi-disciplinary literature on rivers. The book's website provides suggestions for student exercises and makes available extensive data bases of measured streamflows for student exploration.
Family and Friends
Authors: Lazarus Richard S , Lazarus Bernice N
Published: November 2023

The central questions for this chapter are whether, how, and to what extent family and friends play a role in the quality of life and well-being of aging persons. We are inclined to think this role can be both positive and negative, a source of joy and of distress. Social scientists have great interest in these questions, as should the elderly, and there has been considerable recent research attempting to address the way family and friends might contribute to or detract from the lives of people who are growing old. We examine ideas and research about this in the first half of the chapter. In the second half, we present a case history of a wife who takes on the role of caregiver for a husband with Alzheimer’ s disease.
A Different Doctor for Every Organ
Authors: Lazarus Richard S , Lazarus Bernice N
Published: November 2023

The slightly sardonic title of this chapter reflects the anomaly in modern American medicine of having separate specialists for the heart, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract, cancer anywhere in the body, nerves, bones and muscles, blood, eyes, teeth, mind, having babies, and raising them. One specialist rarely knows what another is doing with the patient and has little time to be concerned about it.
Patrons and Adversaries
Authors: Castiglione Caroline
Published: November 2023

The early modern Roman countryside was a site of contestation between great aristocratic families and an expanding papal political regime. Rarely has the role of the inhabitants of this landscape--the villagers--been considered as part of that power struggle. As Caroline Castiglione shows in this compelling revisionist work, one Roman aristocratic family, the Barberini, was not squeezed out of governing by the extension of the papal bureaucracy, but rather became increasingly engaged with it during the long eighteenth century. Through their participation in the rural commune, villagers in an extensive territory belonging to the Barberini became active participants in the governing of the countryside. Villagers cultivated and exploited interference from the aristocratic family and the papal government, but they also kept urban elites at bay, defending their rights through the strategies of adversarial literacy. Such literate practices drew on village mastery of local constitutions, debates in the village assembly, and brilliant use of the legal system of the papacy to thwart the designs of the Barberini. Later villagers created and interpreted sources for themselves, effectively challenging the elite monopoly on making and interpreting texts. A lost world of increasingly savvy villagers, irate nobles, and exasperated bureaucrats emerges here in an engaging narrative that chronicles how seemingly marginalized villagers challenged the pragmatic control of the Roman countryside, using texts and ideas that urban elites had exported to the countryside for other purposes.
The Broken Branch
Authors: Mann Thomas E , Ornstein Norman J
Published: November 2023

Congress is the first branch of government in the American system, write Thomas E. Mann and Norman J. Ornstein, but now it is a broken branch, damaged by partisan bickering and internal rancor. The Broken Branch offers both a brilliant diagnosis of the cause of Congressional decline and a much-needed blueprint for change, from two experts who understand politics and revere our institutions, but believe that Congress has become deeply dysfunctional. Mann and Ornstein, two of the nations most renowned and judicious scholars of government and politics, bring to light the historical roots of Congress's current maladies, examining 40 years of uninterrupted Democratic control of the House and the stunning midterm election victory of 1994 that propelled Republicans into the majority in both House and Senate. The byproduct of that long and grueling but ultimately successful Republican campaign, the authors reveal, was a weakened institution bitterly divided between the parties. They highlight the dramatic shift in Congress from a highly decentralized, committee-based institution into a much more regimented one in which party increasingly trumps committee. The resultant changes in the policy process--the demise of regular order, the decline of deliberation, and the weakening of our system of checks and balances--have all compromised the role of Congress in the American Constitutional system. Indeed, Speaker Dennis Hastert has unabashedly stated that his primary responsibility is to pass the president's legislative program--identifying himself more as a lieutenant of the president than a steward of the house. From tax cuts to the war against Saddam Hussein to a Medicare prescription drug benefit, the legislative process has been bent to serve immediate presidential interests and have often resulted in poorly crafted and stealthily passed laws. Strong majority leadership in Congress, the authors conclude, led not to a vigorous exertion of congressional authority but to a general passivity in the face of executive power. A vivid portrait of an institution that has fallen far from the aspirations of our Founding Fathers, The Broken Branch highlights the costs of a malfunctioning Congress to national policymaking, and outlines what must be done to repair the damage.
Introduction Ways to Language
Authors: Grieve James
Published: November 2023

By the age of two or three, most children in the world have learned to talk. Not all of them, though: about 10 percent have what are called “communication and language problems.” Fortunately, many such children will overcome these problems without great difficulty, though they may require the assistance of a speech therapist. There is, however, a minority—how many is difficult to estimate—who remain more profoundly affected. Some of them suffer from acute hearing disorders or even minor brain damage. The pathology in such cases is straightforward, if severe. But there are other children who, for reasons that may be a complete mystery, never speak at all. There may be whole range of different causes, such as language disorders or communication disorders, or both. The diagnosis may be imprecise, but the choice usually comes down to profound dysphasia (sometimes also called audimutism) or autism.
Charles, or Paradoxical Communication
Authors: Grieve James
Published: November 2023

All the consultants agreed about Charles: by the age of six, he was still not speaking, and there was a definite autistic element in his disorder. With him, play was out of the question. However, as will be seen, his ability with signs was particularly rich and complex, and he was well able to show what he wanted. This paradoxical dimension was what made working with him as exciting as it was difficult. To tell the truth, of all the children described in this book, Charles was the one whose symptoms most closely corresponded to a definite diagnostic category: his dis-order was autism without language. However, like other children with this disorder, he could still make himself understood via writing. This was what I found most interesting, as it meant he must be credited with a functioning mind. This ruled out naive and simplistic notions, such as that autistic children do not have “any representations or any representation of another person’s mind.” As can often happen, clinical practice leads to a more complex way of seeing things. Needless to say, my acceptance that there was a mind at work in this child did not mean that I assumed everything would be plain sailing from then on. The first thing that came to my own mind was a question: since he does have a mind that works, why does he not make more use of it to establish a bond with others?
From Sense to Sound and Back Again
Authors: Grieve James
Published: November 2023

I have just outlined the principal stages in the acquisition of language from the perspective of symbolization. Here I want to stress certain essentials in the grounding of language as a mechanism that brings together sound and sense. This chapter therefore deals with language as an instrument of production and recognition of speech. In children who are “merely” dysphasic, this dimension of language is particularly underdeveloped.
The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions
Authors: Fredrickson Barbara L
Published: November 2023

At first blush, it might appear that positive emotions are important to positive psychology simply because positive emotions are markers of optimal well-being. Certainly, moments in people’s lives characterized by experiences of positive emotions—such as joy, interest, contentment, love, and the like—are moments in which they are not plagued by negative emotions, such as anxiety, sadness, anger, and the like. Consistent with this intuition, the overall balance of people’s positive to negative emotions has been shown to contribute to their subjective well-being (Diener, Sandvik, & Pavot, 1991). In this sense, positive emotions signal optimal functioning. But this is far from their whole story. I argue that positive emotions also produce optimal functioning, not just within the present, pleasant moment, but over the long term as well. The bottom-line message is that people should cultivate positive emotions in themselves and in those around them not just as end-states in themselves, but also as means to achieving psychological growth and improved psychological and physical well-being over time.
What Works Makes You Happy The Role of Personal Goals in Life-Span Development
Authors: Salmela-Aro Jari-Erik Nurmi Katariina
Published: November 2023

We are not neutral observers of the surrounding world. Rather, some parts of it appeal to us, drive us forward, and make us feel good, whereas other parts arouse anxiety or disgust or just don’t have any meaning for us. The kinds of things, activities, people, and environments we like or dislike are bound up with our motivations. Our motives are important because they direct our behavior and the life we live. However, not all people share the same interests or values. In the same situation, some of us choose a path that leads in one direction, whereas others take the opposite route.
Body Mereology:Frederique de Vignemont Manos Tsakiris
Authors: Haggard Patrick
Published: November 2023

The body is made up of parts. This basic assumption is central in most neuroscientific studies of bodily sensation, body representation, and motor action. Yet, the assumption has rarely been considered explicitly. We may indeed ask how the body is internally segmented and how body parts can be defined. That is, how can we sketch the mereology of the body? Mereology (from the Greek meros, meaning “part”) is the theory of parthood relations, of the relations of part to whole and the relations of part to part within a whole. Traditionally, it addresses the metaphysical question of the relation between constitution and identity: is the sameness of parts necessary for identity? One of the most famous examples is the story of the cat Tibbles, who loses his tail. If a cat survives the annihilation of its tail, then the cat with tail (before the accident) and the cat without tail (after the accident) are numerically the same in spite of their having different proper parts (Wiggins, 1980). Therefore, the cat cannot be identified to the corresponding amount of feline tissue, even if it is constituted by it. As Wiggins (1968, p. 90) said, “No man is the same as his forearm.”
Computational Principles for the Recognitionof Biological Movements:Model-Based Versus Feature-Based Approaches
Authors: Giese Martin A
Published: November 2023

The recognition of body movements is a complex computational problem. Multiple theories about possible underlying computational mechanisms have been discussed in the psychological literature, and in computer vision a variety of technical algorithms for body tracking and human movement recognition have been proposed. However, models for neural processes in the visual cortex must fulfill additional constraints. We discuss two opposing explanations for the recognition of complex body movements: the fitting of kinematic models and an analysis in terms of simple dynamic motion and form features. We present a physiologically plausible neural model that accounts for biologicalmotion recognition by the analysis of simple form and motion features, which accounts for many known experimental results. We discuss advantages and limitations of the two approaches as models for the cortical processing of biological-movement stimuli. Also we provide some ideas about how the neural model can be extended to account for an influence of motor planning on visual perception.
Micromechanics for Composite Materials
Authors: Lee Dai Gil , Suh Nam Pyo
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters, were treated the behaviors of composite materials macroscopically, assuming that the materials are homogeneous and the effects of the constituent materials appear only as average apparent properties of composite materials. However, the behavior of composite materials is dependent on their micromechanical status in which the stresses in the fiber and matrix vary from point to point within each constituent phase.
Robot Structures
Authors: Lee Dai Gil , Suh Nam Pyo
Published: November 2023

A robot is defined as ‘‘a machine capable carrying out a complex series of actions automatically,’’ by the Oxford English Reference Dictionary . The definition by the Robotics Institute of America is more specific: ‘‘A robot is a re-programmable multi-functional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices, through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.’’ Examples of robots include mechanical manipulators, numerical control machines, walking machines, and the humanoids of science fiction, although most people perceive robots anthropomorphically (Tsai, 1999; Koren, 1985; Craig, 1989). Most industrial robots are mechanical manipulators.
In a Different Voice Women and the Policy Process
Authors: Kathlene Lyn
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, Lyn Kathlene explores the roots of women’s distinctive legislative attitudes and behaviors and their implications for effectiveness. She shows that both individuals and institutions are influenced by gender and that expectations of proper behavior for each sex affect individual legislative perceptions and choices as well as the structures and rules of institutions that produce public policy. Substantively, Kathlene explores legislative solutions to issues of crime and finds that men are more likely than women to focus on individual criminal actions and personal responsibility, whereas women are more likely to focus on the context of societal opportunities and constraints that precede criminal acts. Consequently, men tend to prefer solutions such as increased sanctions, whereas women prefer a focus on crime prevention and offender rehabilitation. Because institutional rules, norms, and structures have been designed to conform to male models of power and hierarchy—illustrated, for example, by men’s more autocratic interactive legislative style—women are more likely to find resistance to both their policy preferences and their legislative styles. Harkening back to a fundamental theme of this volume, the result is that, for similar levels of success, women legislators often have to devote more time and resources to an issue and thus pay a higher cost than men.
Women as Political Leaders Worldwide: Cultural Barriers and Opportunities
Authors: Norris Pippa , Inglehart Ronald
Published: November 2023

As is the case in the United States, women in politics are underrepresented across the globe. For example, as of this writing, only 15.4 percent of parliamentarians worldwide are women (compared to 13.6 percent of members of the U.S. Congress). Because U.S. women’s distinctive political attitudes and actions are mirrored across the world, Norris and Inglehart are interested in the factors that explain this paucity of women. Their analysis shows that the highest rates of women in government are generally correlated with high levels of development, secularization, and, especially, egalitarian attitudes toward women. They predict that, as nations move toward these conditions, women’s presence (and, therefore, the difference they can make) will be enhanced.
Two-Way ANOVA
Authors: Weiss David J
Published: November 2023

A graph or a set of effect equations are not sufficient to answer the researcher’s questions because of the variability issue. Statistical significance must be examined. In all of our factorial ANOVA problems, we shall have the same number of scores in each cell. Not only does this make for simplicity of computation and provide equal emphasis for all treatment combinations, but equal n also produces a desirable statistical property known as orthogonality. The import of this property is that the effects are estimated independently. In order to avoid the difficulties associated with a nonorthogonal analysis, most researchers routinely and resolutely aim for equal cell size. (Unequal n will be considered in chapter 12.)
Measurement Issues
Authors: Weiss David J
Published: November 2023

Although practitioners often regard measurement concerns as a side issue, there is a sense in which measurement is the key problem in behavioral research. The researcher’s goal is to know and to understand how variables affect one another. We must be able to control changes in behavior. The assessment of change requires measurement. Statistical tests are distinct from measurement questions. We can compare sets of numbers that have no behavioral referents. But for the researcher, such comparisons are pointless exercises; a statistical test is meaningful only to the extent that the data being processed are meaningful. A statistical test answers questions about numbers, but the researcher’s interest is in what the statistical tests tell us about the behavior they measure. This distinction can be clarified with a facetious example suggested by Lord (1953). Suppose I want to make a comparison of two football teams—let’s say Cal State and Notre Dame. Since the teams have not played each other recently, I decide to compare the players themselves. As my numerical measure, I use the convenient numbers placed on the players’ backs. I carefully perform a one-way ANOVA on the two sets of scores, and find them significantly different, with Cal State having the higher mean. So I proudly announce that statistical analysis has scientifically shown Cal State to be the better team.
Strength of Effect
Authors: Weiss David J
Published: November 2023

Despite the acknowledged usefulness of ANOVA in settling the central question of whether an experimental manipulation affects the response, some researchers have expressed dissatisfaction with an inherent limitation of the technique. The limitation is that the machinery for testing a hypothesis does not disclose the magnitude of the manipulation’s effect. An effect may be significant, that is, reliable, but at the same time it may be small. And small effects do not provide the satisfaction that comes from demonstrating clear-cut experimental control. It is tempting to use the significance level of an F ratio as an index of the magnitude of the effect. Significance at the .01 level is seen as more impressive than significance at the .05 level. This temptation should be avoided, for its underlying logic is incorrect. The problem is that significance depends not only on the size of the effect but also on the number of scores. Indeed, virtually any small true difference can be made a significant one if the researcher gathers enough observations.
Missing Data
Authors: Weiss David J
Published: November 2023

Every now and then the best laid plans of rats and sophomores go awry, and a carefully designed study ends up with missing scores. An animal may die, or a human may not show up, and the researcher must deal with a reduced set of data. In terms of the statistical analysis, this reduction can be either that the various cells in the design no longer have the planned equal numbers (the unequal n case) or that one or more cells in the design have no scores at all (the missing cells case). Also, we shall consider the rare situation in which inequality of cell size is intentionally achieved. The situation we examine first is one in which each cell has some scores in it, but the number of scores differs from cell to cell. While such unequal n is of little consequence for one-way designs, special consideration is required for factorial designs. The researcher should not blindly submit the data to a computer program, even one that claims to cater to the situation.
Inter.personal Disputes
Authors: Weissman Myrna M
Published: November 2023

An interpersonal dispute is a situation in which you and at least one other important person in your life have different expectations about the relationship. An example would be a wife who expects her spouse to take care of her financially but has had to have an outside job to help meet bills. The spouse, on the other hand, may expect the wife to share financial responsibility. This is an example of what is called a non-reciprocal expectation. Two parties have different expectations about the relationship and these expectations are in conflict. Therefore, they have a dispute.
A Social-Developmental Perspective on Lay Theories and Intergroup Relations
Authors: Levy Sheri R , Karafantis Dina M , Ramírez Luisa
Published: November 2023

Every culture has popular sayings that people use in their everyday lives. Some examples are: “It’s never too late to turn over a new leaf”; “The early bird gets the worm”; “El perico donde quiera es verde” (A parrot is green wherever it goes). Although such adages may not seem on the surface to have a tremendous impact on people’s social judgment and behavior, many of them do. They represent people’s lay theories and are similar to scientific theories in that they serve important epistemic needs of providing understanding, meaning, simplification, and prediction of one’s social world (e.g., Heider, 1958; Kelly, 1955; for a discussion of the features and properties of scientific vs. lay theories see Levy, Chiu, & Hong, 2006). Indeed, lay theories filter incoming social information and direct cognition, affect, and behavior toward the self and others (e.g., see Hong, Levy, & Chiu, 2001; Wegener & Petty, 1998).
A Mutual Acculturation Model for Understanding and Undermining Prejudice Among Adolescents
Authors: Wittig Michele A
Published: November 2023

Results of a U.S. national representative survey of Asian-, African-, Latino-, and Euro-American adolescents show that only 22% of youth nationwide report socializing with people of another race (Forman & Ebert, 2004). Among Euro-American youth, the figure is 15%. Thus, despite the fact that the United States is multiracial, multiethnic, and multicultural at the aggregate level, intergroup friendships among adolescents across racial, ethnic, or cultural boundaries are relatively uncommon. Undoubtedly, numerous factors are responsible, including residential isolation, as well as segregation (and resegregation) in U.S. schools. Insofar as racial integration is the great unfinished task of the U.S. civil rights movement, multiracial schools are one of the most important settings in which children and youth of diverse racial/ethnic and cultural heritages come into daily contact. Such intergroup contact “may sow the seeds of conflict or compassion” (Jones, 1994, p. 39), depending on the conditions under which it occurs. Consequently, multiracial schools provide researchers and educators with powerful opportunities to structure intergroup contact within the classroom so as to reduce interracial/ ethnic prejudice, prevent conflict, and promote interracial harmony and friendship.
How it All Began
Authors: Jamieson Patrick E , Rynn Moria A
Published: November 2023

Oahu, Hawaii I experienced my first manic episode at 11, just after my family moved from Maryland to Hawaii for six months. I found Hawaii dizzyingly bright, a world of billowing white clouds and blue ocean. It was there that I felt for the first time a heightened sense of energy, a reduced need for sleep, and an accelerated rush of thought and speech. No one thought anything of it. To my parents, these behaviors looked like a reasonable response to a new place filled with sun and surf. But something wasn’t right, because I felt on edge and angry.
One in Two Million
Authors: Jamieson Patrick E , Rynn Moria A
Published: November 2023

All my growth and development led me to believe that if you really do the right thing, and if you play by the rules, and if you’ve got good enough, solid judgment and common sense, that you’re going to be able to do whatever you want to do with your life.
A Very Brief Introduction to U.S. Law, and to the Role of Expert Witnesses
Authors: Kadane Joseph B
Published: November 2023

This is a short introduction to a very complex subject. It does not substitute for law school, for reading books, or even for internet searches. Instead its idea is to give enough of a background that you can understand the context of the papers to come.

The first thing to understand is that the US system is adversarial. Each side in a legal case is entitled to be represented by an attorney whose job is to make the best case for the side the attorney represents. It is not necessary that the attorney personally endorse the side he or she represents.
Interactions Between Action and Visual Objects
Authors: Ellis Rob
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the interactions between actions and visual objects. It is argued that represented visual objects, whether we are seeing them or recalling them in memory, propel us to act on them. If a represented object has to be ignored so that actions can be directed toward another, target object, then actions associated with the ignored object are inhibited. Our action intentions also direct us to see aspects of the world that are congruent with those intentions. Such conclusions about the relations between action and visual objects reinforce the validity of the view that perceptual systems have evolved in all species of animals solely as a means of guiding and controlling action, either present or future.
Action Representation as the Bedrock of Social Cognition: A Developmental Neuroscience Perspective
Authors: Decety Jean , Sommerville Jessica A
Published: November 2023

This chapter proposes that shared action representations provide the basic biological mechanism for social interaction. It argues that shared representations are the primary means by which we align ourselves with others, paving the road for a range of social and motor processes, including action understanding, imitation, and empathy. It also argues that the sense of agency—the awareness of oneself as an agent who is the initiator of actions, desire, thoughts, and feelings—plays an essential role in social interaction.
Acquisition, Representation, and Control of Action
Authors: Hommel Bernhard , Elsner Birgit
Published: November 2023

“If, in voluntary action properly so-called, the act must be foreseen, it follows that no creature not endowed with divinatory power can perform an act voluntarily for the fi rst time” ( James, 1890, p. 487). There is quite a bit of information that William James wanted to communicate to the reader with this sentence. First, he incidentally introduces probably the most common definition of voluntary action by equating it with goal-directed movement.
Free Willpower: A Limited Resource Theory of Volition, Choice, and Self-Regulation
Authors: Baumeister Roy F , Gailliot Matthew T , M.Tice Dianne
Published: November 2023

How does action occur? For centuries, thinkers have struggled to answer that question on the basis of shifting assumptions. The idea of free will, though now rather in disfavor, expressed the popular and philosophical view that behavior reflects the outcome of a struggle between an autonomous, relatively virtuous, possibly spiritual self and the baser forces of external demand and inner cravings. The assumption that two different processes battle it out to determine action has been fundamental in theological views, such as in beliefs about the judgment of individual souls based on whether they chose virtuous or sinful acts. Likewise, it is central to some modern legal judgments that assign punishment not just on the basis of the action and its (criminal) consequences but also on the supposed state of mind of the perpetrator—reserving lesser punishments for crimes committed in mental states (including passionate anger, fear, intoxication, interpersonal influence, and legally defined insanity) that supposedly reduce the capacity of the nobler part of the self to restrain the wickeder impulses so as to do the right thing.
Culture and Identity in a Muslim Society
Authors: Gregg Gary S
Published: November 2023

In the last fifteen years, psychologists have rediscovered culture and its influence on emotion, thought, and self. Research appeared to produce a consensus that the world's cultures can be ranked on dimensions of individualist vs. collectivist, with Western cultures falling at the individualist end, and non-Western cultures at the collectivist end. Studies seemed to further indicate that individualist cultures give rise to "independent" selves so that Westerners think and act autonomously while collectivist cultures foster "interdependent" selves with permeable boundaries that embed non-Westerners in social relationships so that they think and act relationally. Culture and Identity presents an alternative to the individualist vs. collectivist approach to identity. Unlike most psychological and anthropological studies of culture and self, it directly studies individuals, using study of lives-style interviews with young adults living in villages and small towns in southern Morocco. It analyses the life-narratives of two men and two women, building a theory of culture and identity that differs from prevailing psychological and anthropological models in important respects. In contrast to modernist theories of identity as unified, the life-narratives show individuals to articulate a small set of shifting identities. But in contrast to post-modern theories that claim people have a kaleidoscopic multiplicity of fluid identities, the narratives show that the identities are integrated by repeated use of culturally-specific self-symbols, metaphors, and story-plots. Perhaps most importantly, the life-narratives show these young Moroccans self-representations to be pervasively shaped by the volatile cultural struggle between Western-style modernity and authentic Muslim tradition. Offering a new approach to the study of identity, the volume will be of interest to cross-cultural psychologists, anthropologists, and scholars specialising in the study of lives.