bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Potential problem analysis: A systematic approach to problem prediction and contingency planning—an aid to the smooth exploitation of research
Authors: Woods M. F. , Davies G. B.
Published: May 2007

Scientists and technologists have always attempted to predict ‘what is likely to go wrong’ with a particular project. At URL Colworth/Welwyn we now have some 24 years’ experience in a semi‐formalized system of problem prediction. The paper describes the system, explains its worth and shows where and when it should be used as well as explaining the consequences of its use. A theoretical justification of some of the assumptions used in the system is also attempted.
Forecasting as an aid to R & D decision making in the nuclear power field
Authors: Brookes L. G.
Published: May 2007

The pay‐off from a new power system does not begin to accrue until many years after the initial research; and perhaps not until 10 years or more after major development programmes are launched. The ensuing benefit to the community in terms of reduced power costs may be spread over 30 to 40 years—combining the lifetime of the stations with the period over which they might be installed. Ideally therefore, the Atomic Energy Authority would like to have accurate forecasts of electricity demand and its characteristics in terms of load factors, etc., 30 to 40 years ahead. This paper describes attempts by the Authority to forecast electricity requirements at and beyond the end of the century as a background to their consideration of the relative merits of alternative future nuclear power systems and the distribution of research effort between them.

The study was conducted between 1969 and 1971. The danger of the Middle East countries restricting oil supplies and raising prices was foreseen but in a less acute form and later than has actually occurred. The recent developments are likely to lead to pauses in economic growth followed by growth at lower rates than otherwise. Where forecasts in this article are given in the form of ranges, the lower bounds of the range are likely to apply—at least in the short and medium term.
Forecasting as an aid to R & D decision making in the nuclear power field
Authors: Brookes L. G.
Published: May 2007

Abstract The pay‐off from a new power system does not begin to accrue until many years after the initial research; and perhaps not until 10 years or more after major development programmes are launched. The ensuing benefit to the community in terms of reduced power costs may be spread over 30 to 40 years—combining the lifetime of the stations with the period over which they might be installed. Ideally therefore, the Atomic Energy Authority would like to have accurate forecasts of electricity demand and its characteristics in terms of load factors, etc., 30 to 40 years ahead. This paper describes attempts by the Authority to forecast electricity requirements at and beyond the end of the century as a background to their consideration of the relative merits of alternative future nuclear power systems and the distribution of research effort between them.

The study was conducted between 1969 and 1971. The danger of the Middle East countries restricting oil supplies and raising prices was foreseen but in a less acute form and later than has actually occurred. The recent developments are likely to lead to pauses in economic growth followed by growth at lower rates than otherwise. Where forecasts in this article are given in the form of ranges, the lower bounds of the range are likely to apply—at least in the short and medium term.
An evolutionary approach to the introduction of corporate planning in the company
Authors: Wilkinson A.
Published: May 2007

When corporate planning has been tried by a number of organizations a number of difficulties have arisen. These are often a consequence of the planning system itself and the manner of its introduction to the organization. A new approach is described in this paper by which planning is introduced in stages. Each is a logical development of the previous one but each makes a reasonable demand on the staff and there is time to ensure that the data needed at each stage by the staff is available. Furthermore, the staff contribute to the development of the planning system which, at each stage in its evolution, is adapted to their needs. Having thus described the introduction and evolution of a planning system in an organization, a later paper will review how the technical function of a company can link into it.
Coupling technical informationgenerators and exploiters
Authors: Isenson R. S.
Published: May 2007

Organizational separation between the research and development functions in industry and in government laboratories offers significant administrative conveniences. There is a possible hidden, associated cost, however, in terms of added impedance to the flow of technical information between the separated groups. This paper reports the results of a deliberate effort to circumvent an assumed communication barrier and a limited test of the validity of that assumption.
The technological gatekeeper
Authors: Taylor Robert L.
Published: May 2007

The present study identifies a two‐step flow process of communication mediated by technological gatekeepers for scientific and technical fields characterized by dynamic information environments. Peer identification and a supervisory recognition of the phenomenon validate the gatekeeper finding. Certain characteristics of this study differ from previous research. The external communication needs of military in‐house researchers are mitigated greatly by the infusion of technical information into the laboratory which is a part of the everyday activities of the organization. Gatekeepers are differentiated by topic and not the media monitored. Finally, the gatekeeper phenomenon is implicitly recognized, even though the development may be spontaneous; development that results because either the formal media leave a void in information needs or that engineers are not trained in the use of the formal information sources. In either case, the technological gatekeeper is a natural response to an information need.
Characteristics and diffusion of technological innovations
Authors: Hayward G. , Allen D. H. , Masterson J.
Published: May 2007

The paper examines fourteen post war innovations; five in the flour milling industry, four in the malting industry, and five in the dairy industry. The major work has been carried out in the flour milling industry, with supportive studies in the malting and dairy industries. Examination is made of the characteristics of the innovations as perceived by technical managers who are in a position to influence adoption or non‐adoption. The research sets out to study the relationship between the perceived characteristics of the innovations and their diffusion times. It is hoped that the results will be of value to engineering designers and marketing managers in the capital equipment manufacturing industries by enabling them to develop a clearer understanding of adoptors and non‐adoptors of innovations and also to study the inter‐relationships between different sectors of the industries which they serve. Two forms of profiles of the characteristics of innovations are presented.
Social assessment of technology: some clarifications and areas for future research
Authors: Yunis E. S.
Published: May 2007

Most of the literature on Technology Assessment has concerned its methodological aspects. Our current research work is oriented towards organizational aspects of the process of T.A., and to the ways it can be implemented in different institutional environments. This paper enquires a little further into the meaning and implications of the idea of T.A., spelling out its main distinctive features; the process of Social Assessment of Technology is considered as part of the Planning process; then, a conceptual framework, namely the systems approach, is proposed for helping the understanding of the social process dealt with. A general, critical survey of current research trends and unresolved issues in the field is done, to conclude with some suggestions for new research work in this area.
The changing face of research anddevelopment in the public sector
Authors: Gray J. A. , Wolff S. P.
Published: May 2007

This paper examines the changes that have occurred in the management and scale of R & D, in the contextof the'gas industry's experience. As a resultof the discovery o f North Sea gas and new and expanding operations, R & D has become larger, more central, and thus more integrated into and accountable to the organization as a whole. This has resulted in greater centralization and planning administered according to the ‘sponsorship’ principle.

These changes have highlighted the problems of R & D choice and the comparison of commercial and non‐commercial objectives in a public sector industry. The unique constraints under which nationalized industries operate and their commitment to the ‘public interest’ as well as to commercial goals, are discussed. These bear upon the way in which R & D decisions not amenable to cost/benefit analysis (such as the balance between long and short term work) are made. It is emphasized that these decisions are made by the industry as a whole and that R & D must thus be seen to be complying with industry objectives.

The example of British Gas R & D Planning is used to show how ‘sponsorship’ operates and its values for R & D and the restof the industry. Comparison with other public sector industries indicates that there is no one great system for R & D and that its administration is a function of the history, technological characteristics, and present situation of the industry. These imply different procedures appropriate for the innovation process within the Industry.

The role of British Gas within a national energy policy is discussed. The separation of the fuel industries affects the assumptions on which R & D plans are made and thus the degree of uncertainty inherent in all R & D planning. This raises interest‐ ing questions about the degree of flexibility possible in defining each industry's own objectives.
Morphology and creativity in technological forecasting1
Authors: Jones H.
Published: May 2007

Although the morphological approach to the exploration of technological possibilities was first described by Zwicky in 1962 in relation to jet engine systems and used by him as early as 1942, it has received less attention as a tool for creativity than it deserves. Jantsch in his classical review of technological forecasting attempted to establish interest in the methodology, referring to it as ‘a systematic investigation of all the possible solutions to a given problem, without any prejudice, using matrix representations in as many dimensions as there are basic parameters'. Since that time both he and a few others, notably Ayres have continued their interest in its application, dealing with problems in the fields of food production and materials processing.

But less recognition has been given to the use of morphology as an everyday tool in the creative approach to simpler and less comprehensive technologies and it is a purpose of this paper to indicate how this can, and indeed should, be effected by those involved in R & D management and planning.
Technology transfer and the process of technological innovation: new concepts, new models1
Authors: Robbins Martin D. , Milliken J. Gordon
Published: May 2007

Many so‐called ‘technology transfer’ programs are based on the belief that the process is essentially one of communication rather than of innovation. As such, the designers and managers of such programs concern themselves with questions of how to transfer technology after it is already developed, rather than how to develop or adapt technology so that it is transferable. The net result, we believe, has been a very poor showing and a very low level of effectiveness. To design a successful transfer program one must develop a view of the flow of technology in an integrated innovation process, and this paper concludes with the presentation of a highly significant flow model in which the critical aspect is constant assessment of the non‐technological factors during the entire course of the innovation cycle–including those related to marketing, regulations, capital and human resources.
Balancing resources in pharmaceutical research
Authors: Styles A. , Cox J. S. G.
Published: May 2007

Within the financial and technical objectives of pharmaceutical R & D, an important sub‐goal is the maintenance of a long‐term balance between the different activities of research. Such a balance provides stability and, by ensuring a high utilization of research man‐power, offers a higher output from a given level of investment. This paper describes the development and use of a simple technique to assist in attaining this balance. The performance of a strategic plan, in both the long‐ and short‐term, is assessed, and the scope for corrective action to deal with deviations from the plan is explored. The flexibility and robustness of suitable strategic plans are demonstrated by the use of simulation.
Research, development and technology transfer in the Canadian construction industry
Authors: Boyd A. D. , Wilson H.
Published: May 2007

. This article highlights the observations made and conclusions reached in a recent background study for the Science Council of Canada (Boyd & Wilson, 1975). It examines the interdependence of research and development activities associated with the building and engineering sectors of the construction industry in Canada. It also examines several important factors influencing the effectiveness of the transfer of technology into, and within, these two sectors.
Costs and escalation on U.K. aerospace projects
Authors: Hartley K. , Cubitt J.
Published: May 2007

Cost escalation on aircraft projects is a frequent source of controversy. This paper presents a framework for analysing such escalation and assesses the contribution of technical advance, duration and the pressure of demand.
Diversification through licensing
Authors: Killing J. p.
Published: May 2007

In this paper the author examines the appropriateness of taking a licence agreement to implement four different types of strategy for product diversification. The research is based on interviews with managers of more than 40 companies manufacturing more than 70 products under licence in Canada and the UK. The result is a guide to the effective use of licence agreements from the point of view of the buyer. The central question addressed is ‘under what conditions should a firm take up a licence agreement?’
The learning curve, R & D management, and marketing strategies for new products
Authors: Milutinovich J. S. , Dempsey W. A.
Published: May 2007

This paper represents a review of the learning phenomenon which is useful in evaluating the potential of new industrial products. The learning curve in quantitative form provides a means for forecasting costs and prices in many industrial situations. While there are many metho‐dological problems to be solved in any specific new project evaluation, the utilization of the learning curve should lead to improved estimates of costs, revenues, and profits. The important role of R & D management in connection with the learning curve is discussed. The interrelationships involving R & D, the learning curve, and marketing strategies are examined.
The economic analysis of agricultural research
Authors: Wise W. S.
Published: May 2007

Several economic analyses of agricultural research projects have been published in which the ‘surplus’ concept has been used to estimate welfare changes. It is suggested that this procedure does not provide a welfare indicator suitable as a basis for action. The analytical procedure can be re‐worked purely in terms of resource usages. However, the welj‐known hybrid‐maize data of Griliches are used to show that ‘technical assessment’ can often provide, much more simply, as adequate an approximation as more elaborate methods. The importance for agricultural research planning of considerations other than the efficient use of resources is stressed.
Modular risk management: an applied example
Authors: Cooper R. G. , More R. A.
Published: May 2007

A major problem for managers is to effectively manage the high risks inherent in moving a new product from idea to market introduction. An example is presented in which a company effectively manages the process of developing a new product by effectively managing risk. The process is characterized by a modular approach to risk and timely review points built into each risk management module. Explicit recognition is made of the major uncertainties at the end of each module and specific actions taken to reduce these uncertainties and therefore reduce risk.
From lead compound to product
Authors: Cox J. S. G. , Styles A. E. J.
Published: May 2007

The process of turning a promising chemical compound into a safe and effective drug is both expensive and risky. Effective strategic planning is vital to ensure that investment in staff and equipment is used productively and that an acceptable output of products can be maintained. But methods of planning in common use do not deal satisfactorily with the uncertainties. This paper sets out an analysis of the process and describes the use of a simple model to establish a strategic plan. The model allows the output, resource efficiency and robustness of a plan to be examined. Important conclusions about the relative distribution of resources between different activities are drawn and the effects of possible changes in regulatory requirements are explored.
Public managers’ acquisition of scientific and technical information
Authors: Bozeman B.
Published: May 2007

A number of information channels are available to public managers, but there is considerable variance with regard to the flow of scientific and technical information along the various channels. The objective of this study, based on data derived from a questionnaire mailed to program managers at the Canadian Environmental Protection Service, is to examine aspects of information acquisition with a focus on scientific and technical information. More specifically, the study attempts to determine (1) the relationship of information channel preference to scientific and technical information acquisitiveness and (2) the relation of ‘externalist/internalist’ orientations to STI acquisitiveness. Analysis of correlations indicated that the proposition relating STI acquisitiveness to disposition for formal channels is supported. The results for ‘externalist/internalist’ indicate that those more closely tied to the scientific and technical communities’ activities and norms (i.e. those who attend scientific meetings, publish, have Ph.D.s in the sciences or engineering), are more active in acquiring STI, but it does not follow that the internalists (at least as measured by identification with the organization rather than the profession) are less active in acquiring STI.
RESPRO‐an interactive procedure for planning newproduct chemical research
Authors: Gittins J. C. , Roberts D. M.
Published: May 2007

The model has been developed specifically for the great uncertainties obtaining in new‐product chemical researchparticularly in the pharmaceutical industry‐but it is hoped that it will prove flexible enough to be used in other circumstances. The program is in Fortran and could be run on most computer systems.

Procedures for selecting projects and reviewing their progress are becoming increasingly important aspects of R & D management. Modelling a procedure mathematically can prove advantageous, especially if such a model is capable of computational analysis, for then the policy alternatives can easily be explored and compared. This paper describes one such computer based procedure. In quantifying the value of any effort allocation, the program automatically takes account of the fact that estimates of the likelihood that a project will result in a new discovery change as work continues on the project. It also computes a marginal profitability index for each project. Comparison of these indices suggests ways in which effort might profitably be re‐allocated among projects.
Trends in technology forecasting
Authors: Wissema J. G.
Published: May 2007

The current state of the art of technology forecasting (TF) is critically reviewed. A statement of the aims of TF, which distinguish it from futurology, a brief history and a summary of the basic principles are provided. The last includes the technological escalation, technological succession, societal impact and methods of quantification. TF techniques are divided into two pairs of classes: extrapolative versus normative and single‐variable versus multivariable. Each is critically evaluated in terms of its potential applicability and reliability. Substitution analysis, Delphi techniques, cross impact analysis and morphological analysis are treated in some detail.

It is concluded that some form of TF is essential to the success of strategic planning and its use will undoubtedly increase in the future.
R and D tactics: applications of RPD decision analysis
Authors: Davies D. G. S.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The application of RPD decision analysis to R & D tactics is discussed and the role of the technique as an aid to self‐consistent decision making is enaphasized. RPD decision analysis is used to define limits to its own cost effectiveness.

Two example problems are analysed in detail. Simple priority ratings are defined for two special cases: the sequence of independent tests all of which must succeed, and the sequence of independent problem solving attempts, any of which may succeed. The compromise between project duration and project cost is analysed in terms of time dependence of the value of success.

The discrimination study is defined as an investigation which aims to provide information for an improved assessment of project success probability.

It is shown that such a study is never worth more than one quarter of the total expected benefits of the project.
The Role of the User in Successful New Product Development
Authors: Parkinson Stephen T.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The purpose of the study reported in this paper is to examine the view that one of the reasons for the poor performance of British companies in certain engineering industries may be the relatively low technical sophistication of its domestic customers. Data for the study were collected predominantly by mail questionnaire from customer organisations in Great Britain and West Germany. The results of the study suggest that British customers are significantly less receptive to new technology than their West German counterparts, and less demanding of new technology from their suppliers. Given the importance of the domestic customer to new product development activity this appears to be a major problem for British suppliers, and suggests an alternative approach to public policy designed to improve the innovative performance of British Industry in these sectors.
Management information system for a research institute in a developing country: a case study
Authors: Altunbay Seyhun , Kiziltan Gülseren
Published: May 2007

Abstract: An information system which is designed for and is being implemented at Marmara Scientific and Industrial Research Institute, Turkey, is described. The basic objectives of the system are to provide for a continuous review of the activities carried out at the Institute based on quantitative as well as qualitative information and to facilitate the gathering of timely and accurate information required by the organizations with which the Institute is affiliated.
A note on the relationship between managerial change values, innovative intentions and innovative technology outcomes in food sector firms
Authors: Ettlie John E.
Published: May 2007

In this study three, two‐part propositions were developed based on a general model of how organizational variables moderate the influence of individual change values on innovative intentions and how these same organizational factors moderate the impact of individual innovative intentions on organizational innovative outcomes. A total of 66 respondents, mostly top managers in food processing and food equipment and packaging firms, returned questionnaires. Results indicated that the absence of technical specialist concentration significantly (p <.05) increased the correlation between managerial change values and innovative intentions. Organization size and diversification into nonfood markets did not significantly moderate the correlation between managerial change values and innovative intentions although results were in the predicted direction. Managerial innovative intentions were significantly (p <.05) more likely to be correlated with the rate of new products introduction, and the rate of adoption of incremental process innovation when technical specialists were concentrated. Managerial innovative intentions were significantly (p <.05) more likely to be correlated with the rate of new production introduction and the adoption of radical (new to the industry) process innovation in firms that had diversified into nonfood markets. Critical incident accounts by respondents of creative or innovative episodes in their organizations are strongly correlated with indicators of slack resources for innovation, and the skills managers develop to identify and back innovators in their firms are discussed.
Management of technology in traditional industries: a pilot study in ten Belgian companies
Authors: De Meyer Arnoud
Published: May 2007

Empirical Research about management of innovation has mainly been limited to the Anglo‐Saxon world. In this paper the author reports on a pilot study, which is part of a larger project, in ten small and medium‐sized Belgian companies, all of them active in rather mature industries. The study concerned aspects of idea generation, problem‐solving, project selection, and some organizational aspects of the innovation process. An interesting hypothesis resulting from this study is that innovation is mainly an incremental process along a natural trajectory characteristic for the subindustry to which the company belongs, and that the selection process is for the majority of these companies only a minor problem.
An explanation of R&D decision processes through individual information processing preferences
Authors: Blaylock B. K. , Winkofsky E. P.
Published: May 2007

Creative fluency in the R&D department can be enhanced by understanding the decision processes and information needs of the individuals involved. Through a recognized construct of cognitive style, we examine the R& budgeting and project selection process with respect to innovation, project acceptance, and organizational harmony. We suggest that many of the conflicts and inefficiencies of an R&D department can be explained and prevented by recognizing the innate problem‐solving differences between scientists and managers.
Creativity techniques in product planning and development: A view from West Germany
Authors: Geschka Horst
Published: May 2007

The author advocates the use of formalised heuristic principles and teamwork as the cornerstone of creativity techniques on which he has written papers in German, and in view of the interest aroused has taken the opportunity to write a summary for an English‐language journal. The purpose of the paper is to review the large number available, to indicate their most profitable field of use and their limitations. He classifies the techniques into four main groups, intuitive association, intuitive confrontation, systematic variation and systematic confrontation. Brainstorming is an example of the first, excursive synectics of the second, morphological analysis of the third and the morphological matrix of the last. He briefly summarises the method employed by about 20 of the 50 he says exist.

The paper concludes with some advice to potential users of the methods and a review of the use made of them in German industry.
Business innovation in the UK
Authors: Littler D. A. , Sweeting R. C.
Published: May 2007

It is argued that a viable and durable solution to corporate maturity is new business development (NBD). An idealised process for NBD is outlined. The results of an in‐depth study of fourteen UK firms’ experience in NBD, including a case study of one NBD, illustrate the problems with this approach, and some suggestions for overcoming these are advanced.
Top management roles in R&D projects
Authors: Rafael Israel Dror , Rubenstein Albert H.
Published: May 2007

The work described in the paper is aimed at a better understanding of decision processes in ‘directed’ R&D. Specifically it focusses on the questions: What aspects of innovation does top management influence significantly?, and What are the effects of this influence? The kinds of influences looked at include technological, financial. marketing, timeliness and personnel factors as well as company characteristics. The overall hypothesis was that top management would be interested not only in ultimate objectives but also in intermediate objectives of shorter timespan.

The research material consisted of answers to a 29‐item questionnaire given by 107 management‐level respondents in 13 sites. The questionnaires related to data on 154 projects including the degree of success data achieved. The results were analyzed to bring out main‐effect factors on success and intercorrelations between factors.

Overall the results supported the initial hypothesis that top management is concerned with shorter‐term R&D matters as well as with the effects of R&D on long‐term strategy. The influence appears to be more marked during early some stages the of factors projects than later. Interestingly of correlated with economic success are not correlated with top management support, although support is correlated directly with succes. On the whole, top management intervention appears to be operational rather than primarily strategic.

The authors interpret observations as meaning that top management intervenes at irreversible decision points and on matters that affect other functions of the company but keeps out of some important issues that are beyond their control.
Technology push and need pull: A new perspective
Authors: Voss C. A.
Published: May 2007

Researchers into the stimuli of the innovation process have consistently found that the number of innovations stimulated by need pull substantially exceeds those stimulated by technology push. The research reported in this article indicates that when the innovations were divided into user and supplier active innovations, user active innovations were found to be predominantly stimulated by technology push. A possible explanation of this phenomenon is offered.
The energy conservation demonstration projects scheme; A case study in technology transfer
Authors: Fawkes S. D.
Published: May 2007

The author has investigated the causes of the relative failure of ETSU‐sponsored energy saving projects. Using a set of characteristics of successful innovations proposed by Twiss the author assessed how far a number of ETSU projects met them. He concludes that the major cause of failure was over‐stressing product performance and under‐stressing market need. This fault was compounded by the effects of a number of organisational variables over which ETSU had too little executive control. He concludes that innovatory projects proceeding under this kind of management system are more likely to fail than succeed and public money should not be spent on them.
Role Structures and Creative Potential of Working Teams
Authors: Ryssina V. N. , Koroleva G. N.
Published: May 2007

The authors have carried out a study in a number of engineering research institutes of the relationship between the performance of teams engaged in technological innovation and the existence in the team of possible roles. Their objective was to ascertain the optimum role composition. They have identified as essential to an effective innovating team the roles of leader/organiser, idea generator, critic, gatekeeper, research technique specialist, and interface manager.

They found that which roles were the key depended on the stage of progress of a project. For example, during the earliest stage the idea generator and the gatekeeper were the most important; in the last stage the interface manager and research technique specialist roles came to the fore. The leader's role was always crucial. His most important functions were to staff the team (getting the right balance of roles and skills, develop the team members, help to generate ideas and act as a gatekeeper. Preferably he should be neither a critic nor a research technique specialist.

The authors conclude that the use of these role concepts will improve innovation performance. They also believe that they will be found to be of importance for teams engaged in any form of creative activity.
The management of cross‐disciplinary research
Authors: Epton S. R. , Payne R. L. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

This paper is based on a critical review of the proceedings of the Second International Conference on Interdisciplinary Research held in 1981 in Manchester, England. Two sets of issues important for the management of collaborative research are identified. One is the need to remove ambiguities from the meanings of commonly used terminology, for which more precise definitions are proposed. Cross‐disciplinary is used to describe only the nature of the task; multi‐ and inter‐disciplinary are seen as describing alternative organizational ways of executing it. Which way should be used depends objectively on the circumstances.

The other set of issues is concerned with the effect institutional setting could have on the possibility of carrying out effective cross‐disciplinary activity. Six different settings are identified and broad concepts of group dynamics are used to identify theoretical and practical problems and their possible solutions. The paper concludes with a survey of the practical implications for those managing cross‐disciplinary research.
Knowledge centres: A technology & engineering hybrid
Authors: Dror Israel , Bnaya David
Published: May 2007

A Knowledge Centre is defined as a group of experts in a specific field, with some designated equipment and software.

Such groups were recognized for the first time (in a given matrix organization) as the real carriers of the accumulated knowledge of science and technology disciplines.

To be reckoned as a knowledge centre (K.C.), the group has to be ready to participate in development projects, as well as to lead research for improved technologies and advance knowledge in its field.

It was found that by nurturing knowledge centres, the organization has succeeded in per‐forming an interdisciplinary R&D while at the same time maintaining and advancing a strong technology base. The K.C. has some distinctive lifecycle phases. Consequently, the organization applies different considerations and different planning and control methods for each phase. An emerging K.C. needs sensitive care and support. A mature K.C. calls for firm guidance and control, a declining K.C. should be directed to another field, or be dismantled.

This report also describes some of the procedures employed by the organization to maintain and control its K.C.s, and a management attempt to use them as a tool for managing the advancement of technology within the organization. The authors predict that a system of K.C.s may be defined and serve other R&D laboratories in a similar way. This thesis has to be verified by additional studies. Some additional areas for further research are identified, too.
A model for small‐scale industry/university collaboration in the UK based on case studies*
Authors: Kamala G. V. , Swamy K. N. Krishna.
Published: May 2007

This paper outlines some examples of current collaboration between universities and technologically sophisticated small companies in Britain. Based on the examples a descriptive model of university‐industry collaboration in the UK is presented. The model shows that interactions with small industries are often sequels to earlier ones and are essentially a part of the total university‐industry collaboration efforts. Very often the whole process of new efforts. Very often the whole process of new product emergence chain – research ideaprototype‐marketable product‐multiple applications‐general marketable version – is triggered off by initial interactions with small companies and small companies do play a very important role in the process of total technology transfer from university to industry. While flow of research results in a collaboration was on the whole well planned, the initial contact was prone to chance. A two‐stage search by the university, which can reduce the chance element, is suggested.
Aspects of technology assessment – the future role of artificial intelligence
Authors: Bernold T.
Published: May 2007

The author regrets that the artificial intelligence (Al) community is too inward looking. There is not enough concern with the potential impact of the new technologies of Al on the world outside. For example, it gives too little importance to the needs of the system user. Continued neglect may mean that it will fall victim to the current shake‐out in the computer industry. The current tendency to restrict system development to modelling expertise rather than general intelligence is a good sign, reflected in the general adoption of the term knowledge engineering rather than Al.

The author surveys briefly some of the problems that may bar rapid development: secrecy, the gap between Academe and the industrial user and lack of standardisation. For continued progress it will be necessary to concentrate on designing simple systems, studying knowledge acquisition and orientation on the user. The author appeals for a systematic technology assessment programme to devise means of avoiding negative social impacts such as further de‐skilling of the workforce, concentration of the know‐how into too few hands amd fostering the false idea that Al will eliminate the need for human judgment in decision‐making.
The management of technological innovation in the machine tool industry: a cross‐national regional survey of Britain and Switzerland
Authors: Ackermann Charbel , Harrop Jeffrey
Published: May 2007

Abstract

The research was undertaken during 1983 to find out why a country such as Switzerland has been able to manage innovation in a mature industry, such as machine tools, much more successfully than Britain. The methodology used was by structured interviews of Managing Directors in a sample of firms in the two important machine tool regions of Berne and Yorkshire/Humberside. The results cover the main types of innovation in products and processes, the reasons for innovation and the problems which were encountered by the companies visited. We found that the Swiss firms were strong on product innovation. The most important innovation was the introduction of computer numerical control (CNC), and the Swiss firms had on average introduced this earlier than the British firms and it accounted for a larger proportion of their turnover. The main problem for firms in both countries was in adjusting to upstream developments in electronic controls. The Swiss had better downstream market links with their customers who were mostly in foreign countries. Some British firms were handicapped by being part of company groups and used public sector grants for their innovation, whereas the largely independent Swiss firms carried out more self‐financing.
Theory versus practice in the staffing of R&D laboratories
Authors: Dill David D.
Published: May 2007

The paper addresses the question of how far precept as revealed in the academic literature on staffing of industrial R&D organizations is reflected by practice in those organizations. The author has used the opportunity afforded by discussions with twenty‐five middle‐ and higher‐management staff in laboratories in four large European companies in the petrochemical, engineering and pharmaceutical industries to obtain an overview of their staffing practices.

Six aspects of staffing were enquired into: identifying and attracting persons with skills needed, selecting those satisfying organizational needs, developing the new recruit, measuring performance, appraising the individual's needs and career planning. The general impression was that the practices were remarkably similar, though some differences were observed between research‐ or discovery‐oriented laboratories and development‐oriented laboratories.

When compared with well‐validated generalisations in the literature firms tend to use practices judged good in the literature though there are some significant deviations especially with respect to the value of the personal interview. In some respects firms use innovative practices not yet studied by academic researchers.
Productivity & the R&D/Production interface in Japan
Authors: Bergen S. A. , Miyajima R.
Published: May 2007

The effect of national culture, found to be strong in the FRG/UK study, is even stronger in Japan. Apparent anomalies in the quantitative findings are resolved by taking it into account. The slopes of the regression lines of R&D resources against company productivity suggest that expenditure on R&D in the UK is well below optimum while that in Japan is rather above it and permit speculation as to what the optimum is for the industry.
Influence of task type on the relationship between communication and performance: the case of software development
Authors: Hauptman Oscar
Published: May 2007

The relationships between communication patterns and performance of software development projects mostly resemble those of technical services, and not development projects, in hardware R&D. The local focus of software development projects in their information requirements is emphasized by the positive influence only of the informal and mostly internal literature, while external contacts, participation in conferences, and formal and external literature were inconsequential. The implications are two‐fold: a) on the conceptual level they suggest that a trade‐off between coordination and innovation requirements of the task might be an important determinant of optimal communication patterns; b) on the practical level it suggests that ‘software development’ consists of ‘software engineering’ and ‘software production’. Consequently, it should be recognized that as such, these activities should be managed differently—the former as R&D, the latter as manufacturing.
Stimulating creativity through managerial intervention
Authors: Lovelace R. F.
Published: May 2007

By linking creativity enhancement constructs to motivation theory, this paper theorizes how research managers, by virtue of their relationship with research personnel, may engage in behaviour which stimulates creative effort. Proposed is that the stimulation of creativity results from a basic scientist experiencing self‐actualization needs. Self‐actualization becomes prepotent in part as a result of the research manager's effort to satisfy lower level and higher level needs of scientists. Research managers may help satisfy such needs by virtue of their linking pin function, by engaging in goal setting and task definition, and by acquiring needed resources.

The specific needs of basic scientists are specified based on the characteristics of basic scientists; two are predominant:—

1. The scientist is a professional, exhibiting many of the characteristics of professionals.

2. The scientist is a creative individual who, when sufficiently motivated produces novel ideas, combines old ideas in a novel way, or applies knowledge of one field to another.

By satisfying the particular needs aroused by professional norms and creative ability, the research manager hence may help satisfy the needs of basic scientists.

Appropriate managerial behaviours are linked to creativity enhancement in a model depicting the mechanisms whereby scientists are so motivated. Hypotheses are proposed as a basis for future research in testing the model.
A comparison of British and Japanese industrial energy management
Authors: Fawkes Steven D.
Published: May 2007

This paper compares methods of energy management in Japanese and British industrial companies. It is based on the premise that Japanese industry has been more successful at adopting energy conservation measures and aims to highlight differences between the two countries' approaches to energy management.

In both successful Japanese and British companies the value of energy monitoring and target setting is stressed. In Japanese companies the information gained from monitoring is pushed out to the shopfloor employees who can use the information in ‘good housekeeping’ campaigns. In British companies monitoring information is usually held centrally, thus reducing its usefulness in good housekeeping. The decentralisation of information in Japan, coupled with the encouragement of employee participation results in Quality Circle type exercises aimed at implementing energy conservation measures.

At the investment level of energy management co‐ordination and systematic thinking is necessary in order to prevent sub‐optimisation of investments. Japanese companies are notable for their very detailed explicit planning of energy management, something few if any British companies practice. This planning process, as well as encouraging employee participation through being bottom up, also encourages systematic thinking about the linkages of energy conservation investments to other parts of the business such as new plant investment and marketing.

As well as the managerial factors the legal requirement in Japan for companies with a certain energy consumption to have a qualified energy manager with certain legally defined duties helps to encourage energy conservation.
R&D strategies and variable demand
Authors: Lowe Julian , Silver Mick
Published: May 2007

This paper looks at some of the factors imposing on the resourcing of R&D in the face of fluctuating demand. R&D has various features that differentiate it from other aspects of corporate activity and consequently managerial strategies for dealing with R&D may vary substantially. The implications for R&D strategies and the acquisition of technology are considered under different demand conditions. Various alternative strategies are developed including contracting out, technology licensing and the maintenance of an in‐house facility through labour hoarding. New and existing empirical estimates are used to support the arguments and explain corporate strategy in this area.
Conference Reports
Authors: TWISS B. C.
Published: May 2007

K. D. KILBURN

Report of a Conference jointly organised by the R&D Research Unit of Manchester Business School, the journal R&D Management, and RADMA, in Manchester, 8–11 July, 1986.
Government support of clean technology research in West Germany: some evidence
Authors: Bongaerts Jan C. , Heinrichs Dirk
Published: May 2007

The authors have set out to review the procedures used in the allocation of public money by the Federal German government for research into ‘clean’ technologies. Public sponsorship of this kind of research is necessary as industrial firms rarely see enough return for their R&D investment to warrant their carrying it out. The authors have surveyed the methods used by the government funding agency (BMFT) to identify projects and to allocate money to them. 82 projects were included in the survey in the fields of low‐emission processes.

Projects were segmented in five ways: Status of the receiver; Type of technology; R&D stage (from basic through demonstration plant); Cooperative versus non‐cooperative, Environmental medium. Their broad conclusions are that (a) most of the funds went to projects for the development of ‘end‐of‐the‐pipe‐cum‐recycling’ technologies and integrated technologies, (b) where there was cooperation between a firm and a university the R&D concentrated on studying basic principles, and (c) success depends on the existence of a clear strategy for the research as a whole rather than on ad hoc monitoring against a narrowly conceived plan. The authors also summarise the problems met in ensuring that money allocated in this way is effectively used.