bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Formation of Lipid Emulsions and Clear Gels by Liquid Crystal Emulsification
Authors: Suzuki T. , Iwai H.
Published: February 2007

Recently developed emulsion technologies for the formation of fine emulsions, lipid emulsions and clear gels by liquid crystal emulsification were reviewed. As a basic information on liquid crystal emulsification, the structures and characteristic behaviours of lyotropic liquid crystals were summarized. Formation of a liquid crystalline phase was often seen in emulsions and biological systems. The significance of liquid crystal formation during emulsification was analysed by comparing the states and stabilities of emulsions prepared by different processes. Then uses of liquid crystals for formation of the characteristic emulsions and gels were also discussed. In liquid crystal emulsification, an oil phase is dispersed directly into the lamellar liquid‐crystalline phase composed of surfactant, glycerol and water to prepare a gel‐like oil‐in‐liquid crystal emulsion. This is followed by dilution with the remaining water to produce an emulsion. From the phase behaviour during emulsification and analysis of the local motion of the liquid crystal membrane by fluorometry, it was confirmed that the interaction between surfactant and a polyol molecule such as glycerol promotes hydrogen bonding and enhances the strength of the lamellar liquid crystal membranes, which results in the formation of oil‐in‐liquid crystal emulsions. The interaction between the liquid crystal and oil was analysed from the changes in molecular motion of the membrane at the oil‐liquid crystal interface using the spin label technique of electron spin resonance (ESR). The fluidity of the liquid crystal membrane did not change when oil was added, and therefore oil‐in‐liquid crystal emulsions of various oils were prepared by the identical process. This lack of dependence of the liquid crystal membrane on oil results in the unique properties of liquid crystal emulsification, which can be used for oils of various polarity and different molecular constituents. When a self‐organizing artificial stratum corneum lipid containing pseudo‐ceramide was used as a principal component of the oil, a multilamellar emulsion of concentric lamellar structure was formed. The multilamellar emulsion supplements the physiological function of stratum corneum by the identical mechanism as natural intercellular lipids. High‐pressure treatment of the lipid emulsion produced a gel‐like emulsion crystal, in which the homogeneous nanoemulsion droplets were arranged in a hexagonal array.

This review paper was presented at the Conference of the Asian Societies of Cosmetic Scientists 2005 in Bangkok.
Prebiotic Cosmetics: An Alternative to Antibacterial Products
Authors: Bockmühl D. , Jassoy C. , Nieveler S. , Scholtyssek R. , Wadle A. , Waldmann‐Laue M.
Published: February 2007

The concept of prebiotics is well known from food products, where several ingredients are used to stimulate the beneficial gut microflora. However, prebiotic substances can in principle be applied to balance almost any microbial community to achieve advantageous effects. Since many cosmetic products target skin bacteria as a cause for undesirable conditions like inflammation or body odour, prebiotic actives can help to cope with these problems in a very effective way. To ensure a focused and successful mode of action we demonstrated that it is essential to analyse the microflora and the interactions between different bacterial species carefully. These analyses were made using a molecular method, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), allowing a precise determination of a bacterial community without the drawbacks of classical culture methods. In a further step it was then possible to identify new actives that inhibit harmful or unwanted bacterial species while protecting the beneficial flora. Using a quick and reliable in vitro screening method we found several plant extracts (e.g. Ginseng or Black currant) which inhibit the inflammation‐causing bacterium Propionibacterium acnes, but do not affect beneficial species like coagulase‐negative staphylococci. In addition, it could also be demonstrated that a prebiotic product line for treatment of inflamed (or acne prone) skin showed the predicted effects on the microflora composition in a first in vivo trial, i.e. decrease of Propionibacterium acnes at a constant level of total bacteria. After 3 weeks, the microflora of 91% of the volunteers had been rebalanced in this way. Furthermore, these formulations have been shown to exhibit excellent skin compatibility compared to an antibacterial product. Thus, prebiotic substances have the potential to provide a gentle and sustainable alternative to undirected antibacterial ingredients which can cause irritation, and frequently only show short time effects.

Paper presented at the IFSCC Conference 2005, Florence, Italy.
Objective Evaluation of the Placebo Effect in Cosmetic Treatments. A Randomized Controlled Study
Authors: Distante F. , Pagani V. , Bonfigli A. , Rigano L. , Fluhr J.
Published: February 2007

A product's packaging and claimed efficacy may stimulate pleasant emotions during the use of cosmetics, thus enhancing their perceived benefits. The aim of this study was to evaluate if smart packaging and strongly claimed efficacy attributes can influence the objectively measured efficacy, allowing a true placebo effect to be associated with a given cosmetic treatment. A marketed anti‐aging gluconolactone‐based formulation was selected for the study and packaged both in a fancy sophisticated jar and in an unbranded plain container. Thirty‐six female volunteers (age range: 30‐‐55 years) with facial photoageing were selected for the study and randomly assigned to the fancy or plain packaged product. Pre‐agreed messages aimed at extolling the product's cosmetic effects accompanied delivery of the fancy‐packaged product to panellists. The given product was applied to the face twice a day for 8 weeks. Instrumental measurements of the skin colour (a* and L* parameter), skin capacitance, skin tensile properties (R0, R2, R6), skin thickness and skin microrelief parameters (Ra and Rz) were taken at baseline and after 4 and 8 weeks of use. Clinical and subjective evaluations were also carried out at each control visit. Moreover, the amount of cream consumed during usage was calculated by weighing the given jars at each visit. Statistical analysis of the data obtained showed a significant improvement in all instrumental parameters for both groups (‘fancy’ and ‘plain’ packaging), although no significant differences were detected between the two groups at any time. The improvement was higher in the ‘plain’ group for most instrumental parameters except for micro‐relief parameters where the outcome was better in the ‘fancy’ group. Promotion of facial muscle relaxation deriving from the application of the fancy‐packaged cream could be a possible explanation for this finding. Also the product's efficacy and sensory properties were perceived with a higher positive impact in the fancy group. The better performance of the plain packaging group could be related to daily application of the ‘proper’ amount of cream. In fact, this group consumed a larger amount of cream than the ‘fancy’ group. These results show that a true placebo effect cannot be induced by packaging characteristics, although they can slightly influence the degree of the expected skin benefits in different ways. Moreover, proper daily dosage of the product appears to be a key factor in improving the biophysical skin properties related to anti‐ageing and restoring effects.

Paper presented at the IFSCC Conference 2005, Florence, Italy.
Molding technology and quality estimation on the lipstick production scene
Authors: Fukasawa H.
Published: February 2007

In this paper, the optimization of a generic function of a lipstick manufacturing process is discussed. Traditionally, the quality of lipsticks has been measured by objective quality characteristics such as appearance. Sensory tests, which are not recommended in quality engineering, had been used to evaluate such quality characteristics. That is because these quality characteristics are not stable due to the changes of environmental conditions such as between‐lot variability and seasonal variation. When such quality problems occurred, manufacturing conditions were adjusted from time to time, which is known as fire fighting or ‘mole beating’ in Japanese. Among those objective quality characteristics, the ones such as scratches, colour uniformity or breaking during usage are manufacturing related. As a generic function, the stress/strain relationship was investigated and the results showed that the relationship has satisfied Hook's Law with a good improvement.
The application of thermosensitive polymers to liquid plaster
Authors: Nakai S. , Mori Y. , Yoshino S.
Published: February 2007

Liquid plasters, dissolved pyroxylin (nitrate ester of cellulose) in organic solvents, are classified as new quasi drugs or OTC drugs, which are used for the purpose of dressing damage and disinfection. The defects are the odour of the organic solvents, strong irritation against damaged skin, difficulty at the removal of formed film, and poor release of active ingredients from plasters. A thermosensitive polymer was prepared by co‐polymerization of N‐isopropyl acrylamide and n‐butyl methacrylate. The application of the thermosensitive polymer to liquid plaster improved the above defects, and showed formation of appropriate firm and effective antimicrobial activities.
Impact of shaving and anti‐perspirant use on the axillary vault
Authors: Turner G. A. , Moore A. E. , Marti V. P. J. , Paterson S. E. , James A. G.
Published: February 2007

Synopsis

Shaving the axilla is a regular part of the personal care regime for many women in Europe, North and South America. To assess the impact of shaving on underarm skin, a series of investigations were carried out, in which the thickness of the axillary vault and fossa were measured using optical coherence tomography (OCT), and underarm shaving debris was collected for study. The response of the axilla to histamine iontophoresis was also investigated. Additionally, a study was carried out to investigate the impact of a novel anti‐perspirant roll‐on formulation on irritation and self‐perceived sensory properties of the axilla. The results clearly demonstrate that shaving the underarm consistently removes skin (stratum corneum) as well as axillary hair (with a mean value of 36.1% of the debris being skin). OCT measurements demonstrated that in shaved areas of the axilla, epidermal thickness is higher than in unshaved areas. In response to histamine, wheal and flare were both found to be greater in the shaved axilla, when compared with an unshaved control, but flare in the fossa was greater than that in the vault. On the basis of these results, we propose that the axillary vault has adapted to frequent shaving, notably by the development of a thickened epidermis. However, this adaptation is often not sufficient to fully protect the axilla from damage and irritation resulting from hair removal (shaving). In these instances, we have demonstrated that use of a novel anti‐perspirant roll‐on formulation containing glycerol and sunflower seed oil was able to reduce the impact of shaving‐induced irritation and improve self‐assessment of axillary condition.
Nanosystems for skin hydration: a comparative study
Authors: Esposito E. , Drechsler M. , Mariani P. , Sivieri E. , Bozzini R. , Montesi L. , Menegatti E. , Cortesi R.
Published: February 2007

Synopsis

The present investigation describes a comparative study for the design of innovative topical formulation for skin hydration. In particular, different colloidal forms based on lipidic components have been produced and characterized. Morphology and dimensional distribution have been investigated by means of electron microscopy and photon correlation spectroscopy. Nanoparticulate systems characterized by different morphology and dimensions depending on production procedures have been obtained, namely cubosomes, nanovesicles, solid lipid nanoparticles and liposomes. Hydration power has been studied by means of a corneometer, measuring the skin electrical capacitance before and after the application of opportunely viscosized nanoparticulate systems. It has been demonstrated that nanovesicle gel displayed a pronounced hydration power with respect to the other nanostructured forms, its hydration effect on skin was 3.5‐fold higher, with respect to the untreated area, after 5 min from the application and 1.5‐fold higher after 2 h.
Recovering the Shadow Value of Nutrients
Authors: Beatty Timothy K.M.
Published: February 2007

This article investigates the shadow values of twenty‐eight different nutrients. It links the unit price of foods to the shadow values of nutrients by building on a utility theoretic model first proposed by Gorman. Maximum entropy principles are then used to reason consistently about the values of the parameters of interest. The resulting estimates are discussed and analyzed.
Distinguishing the Source of Market Power
Authors: Raper Kellie Curry , Love H. Alan , Shumway C. Richard
Published: February 2007

Structural models used to measure market power, though widely employed, continue to be criticized. We compare alternative market power tests, including nonparametric and Solow residual‐based (SRB) tests. We develop SRB methods that permit nested testing for both monopolistic and monopsonistic market power by the same firm. These tests and a set of nonparametric tests are implemented to examine market power exertion by U.S. cigarette manufacturers from 1977 to 1993. All tests indicate that cigarette manufacturers exerted monopsonistic power in the upstream tobacco market. They are mixed on whether monopolistic power exertion was exerted in the downstream market.
The Pricing of Experience Goods: The Example ofen primeurWine
Authors: Ali Héla Hadj , Nauges Céline
Published: February 2007

The market for “primeur” wine in the Bordeaux region allows producers to sell wine that is still in barrels. As with all experience goods, producers send quality signals to uninformed buyers. Using original data on Bordeaux wines, we show that the pricing behavior of producers depends to a large extent on their reputation, and much less on short‐term changes in quality (as measured by experts' grades). We also find that the primeur price has an informative role, since a 10% increase in primeur price leads to a 3% increase in prices on the market for bottled wine.
Consumer Benefits of Labels and Bans on GM Foods—Choice Experiments with Swedish Consumers
Authors: Carlsson Fredrik , Frykblom Peter , Lagerkvist Carl Johan
Published: February 2007

The European Union has been relatively cautious about using biotechnology in food production. A label regime combined with the right of individual member states to ban introduction of new genetically modified (GM) strains means that GM food products in effect are banned in many countries. We show how it is possible to empirically test whether a ban can be motivated by reference to potential negative externalities. This is followed up by results from a choice experiment. We cannot reject the hypothesis of equal WTP for a ban and a labeling scheme.
Dynamic Use of Closures and Imperfectly Enforced Quotas in a Metapopulation
Authors: Herrera Guillermo E.
Published: February 2007

The dynamic efficiency of closures in bioeconomic systems depends upon stock levels and in situ values that evolve over time, and on relative costs of implementation. A model of a harvested metapopulation is presented in which second‐best reduction of harvest from open‐access levels using input quotas balances monitoring costs against dynamic benefits of mitigating overharvesting. Temporary or permanent closures—though generally still second best—are preferable to quotas under certain conditions, as demonstrated for a representative patch and time period. Interactions between patches are discussed. Numerical solutions illustrate comparative dynamics of closure use, and show their potential benefits in a dynamic regulatory path.
Dynamics of Agricultural Technology Adoption: Age Structure, Reversibility, and Uncertainty
Authors: Baerenklau Kenneth A. , Knapp Keith C.
Published: February 2007

We develop a dynamic model of technology adoption that generalizes previous literature by incorporating technology age, reversible investment, variable inputs and outputs, and stochastic prices. The model is calibrated for irrigated cotton production in California. Optimal investment exhibits a significant vintage capital effect which provides a new candidate explanation for delayed technology diffusion. We show that the hurdle rate derived by option value models can be partially explained by the assumption of irreversible investment, and simulations demonstrate this assumption has regional policy relevance. Uncertainty affects optimal investment but has a declining effect with technology age.
From Socialism to Fascism: The Relation between Theory and Practice in the Work of Robert Michels
Authors: Beetham David
Published: February 2007

This article concludes a study tracing the role of élite theory in Michels' development from revolutionary socialist to Fascist ideologue. It argues, first that the laws of oligarchy and élite circulation as expounded by Mosca and Pareto made the Fascist seizure of power appear historically necessary. It then examines the contribution which the experience of Fascist rule made to the further development of élite theory in Michels' work; his use of the theory to give scientific status to the self-image of the Fascist élite and the charismatic claims of its leader; his legitimation of authoritarian government and nationalist policies through the theories of mass psychology. The conclusion argues that what distinguished Michels from other Fascist ideologues was his use of scientific categories, and locates the origin of these categories in the historical experience of pre-world war Europe.
The Resolution-Based International Agency
Authors: Buehrig Edward H.
Published: February 2007

The resolution is a convenient vehicle, alternative to the cumbersome procedure of treaty-making, whereby an already established international organization—itself treaty-based—may create entities which, in turn, are corporate beings. Structurally they very much resemble each other. Functionally they are similar in their direct involvement in international relations, though they establish contact with governments and private parties in different ways. Through research and debate they may seek consensus in a particular area. More typically, they may render tangible benefits: a benefit for the taking, or a conditional benefit, the latter affording leverage on fellow actors in the international system. They may also perform governmental functions, with or without territorial jurisdiction.
Prentice and the Newham North-East Constituency: The Making of Historical Myths
Authors: McCormick Paul
Published: February 2007

This article is an essay in political historiography showing how historical myths are created using the political development of Reg Prentice and his relations with the Newham North-East Constituency Labour Party as a case study. It shows how misapprehension about sources of Labour Party information facilitate myth-making and looks at the three central myths involved—the Activists' story, the Establishment's story, and Prentice's story. It examines the options open to Prentice following upon his rejection by his local party and traces his political development and his relations with his constituency between 1970 and 1979. The myths are exposed by reference to the chronology of events and the salient facts. Prentice is shown to be a ‘rebel for position’; and the left-wing takeover of the Newham Party is established. The tactical thinking behind Prentice's moves is also discussed.
The Electoral Politics of the French Peasantry: 1946–1978
Authors: Lewis-Beck Michael S.
Published: February 2007

Past research has concluded that French peasants differ politically from their counterparts in other nations, because they are highly participative and exhibit no pattern of class voting. This analysis, in contrast, demonstrated that the peasantry is less involved in electoral politics than any other occupational group in French society. Moreover, they are distinctly anti-Left in their political preferences, forming a ‘supporting class of the bourgeoisie.’ These rather traditional behaviours are regularly observed in surveys across the post-war period, persisting despite the substantial modernization of French agriculture.
Oakeshott's Concept of Civil Association: Notes for a Critical Analysis
Authors: Berki R. N.
Published: February 2007

The concept ‘Civil Association’ in Oakeshott contains two discrepant elements, namely the quality of civility and the institution of the state. This conflation is the result of Oakeshott's idealist mode of reasoning which consists in the method of one-sided abstraction. Civil association, in its abstract presentation, appears as a purely moral association, sharply distinguished from the pursuit of substantive aims in enterprise associations. Analysis of its postulates, however, reveals civil association as being insubstantial and only a particular expression of a given world of enterprise associations. Without substantive inequality and conflict civil association could not be made intelligible, and it is these features only which, although not ostensibly present in Oakeshott's abstract concept, endow it with its distinctive character: morality by itself is not a sufficient explanation. Idealist abstraction is, on a certain level, common to opposed ideological trends; the content of Oakeshott's concept does not meaningfully distinguish it from the ideal vision of utopian thought.
Civil Liberty and the Rule of Law
Authors: Day J. P.
Published: February 2007

All think that the rule of law is a good thing. It is also widely believed, and it has been argued by some leading jurisprudents, that the chief reason why the rule of law is a good thing is that it protects civil liberty. I argue in this essay that the former belief is true, but that the latter belief is false, since the rule of law does not protect citizens' liberty but increases their power. The argument is conceptual rather than factual, and turns on explaining the meanings of the expressions ‘rule of law’, ‘law’, ‘power’ and—above all—‘civil liberty’.
The Origins of the ‘New Poverty Lobby’
Authors: Whiteley P. , Winyard S.
Published: February 2007

A large number of interest groups attempt to influence the income maintenance policies of government in the field of social welfare. Many of these have emerged within the last 25 years and constitute the ‘new poverty lobby’. The purpose of this article is to explain the origins of the poverty lobby in general, and the new poverty lobby in particular. Various theoretical explanations of group origins are evaluated against data from a survey of more than 40 such groups, MPs and civil servants and none of these explanations is found to be wholly adequate. An alternative explanation is provided which sees groups arising as a result of environmental factors, group resources and lobbying strategies. This theoretical analysis also explains why groups in the new poverty lobby adopted similar organizational structures and strategies.
Will and Political Rationality in Rousseau
Authors: Barnard F. M.
Published: February 2007

In his attempt to vindicate the notion of will in action and the notion of patriotism in political action, Rousseau succeeds in advancing a theory of political agency that contains the potential of an impressive justification of political commitment, as it also contains an ingenious analogue between willing in nature and willing in society. On the other hand, Rousseau's blurring of autonomy and paternalism together with his elevation of intrinsic reasons of sentiment over discursive reasons of interest call into question choice and discourse as modes of political action and the giving and probing of reasons as modes of political accountability. The article explores this paradox and suggests that Rousseau's attempted fusion of self-choosing and right-acting, and of legitimacy and viability in politics may similarly be bedevilled by his ambivalence over rationality in political willing.
Reproduction and Development: A Case for a ‘Darwinian’ Mechanism in Marx's Theory of History
Authors: Torrance John
Published: February 2007

An attempt is made to meet the criticism that G. A. Cohen's functional interpretation of Marx's theory of history fails for lack of a causal mechanism to explain how functional consequences occur. It is argued that Marx's work contains rudiments of a ‘Darwinian’ mechanism of historical selection, by which those production relations survive that best ensure reproduction of the productive forces. This necessitates the abandonment of Cohen's implausible ‘scarcity thesis’.
The Politics of Nietzsche's Philosophy: Nihilism, Culture and Power
Authors: Warren Mark
Published: February 2007

This article sketches an approach to what might be called the politics of Nietzsche's philosophy. Taking as its point of departure Nietzsche's diagnosis of nihilism in Western culture, the article aims to show that through his analysis of nihilism Nietzsche raises in an intrinsically political way the philosophical issue of how human agency is possible in an historical world. The methodology Nietzsche follows in constructing the problem provides a second arena of interest for political theory and philosophy. A critical dimension in Nietzsche's thought comparable to Marx's stems from the manner in which he related nihilism—a crisis of power manifest as a failure of self-understanding—to political experiences and reified cultural practices. Finally, the article concludes that Nietzsche could arrive at his overt politics only by combining his critical analysis of nihilism, culture, and power with uncritical assumptions about the modern determinants of nihilism.
Theory and Practice in Public Policy: The Case of the New Federalism
Authors: McKay David
Published: February 2007

President Reagan's New Federalism has been identified as part of a broad programme of radical reforms based on market-oriented economic and political theories. This article tests the extent to which the reforms introduced in 1981 and 1982 are compatible with these theories. The New Federalism is shown to have no obvious rationale based on the achievement of economic efficiency. Increased accountability, improved government responsiveness to the people or administrative simplicity cannot be shown to follow in any obvious way from the reforms. Instead, the New Federalism would have reduced government expenditure in an economically non-rational way, and would have increased inequalities between jurisdictions and regions. The article concludes that the inequities and incoherence of the New Federalism helped contribute to its failure in an area in which under the best of circumstances, radical change is politically difficult to achieve.
Herbert Spencer: Individualist or Organicist?
Authors: Gray T. S.
Published: February 2007

It has long been assumed by political theorists that there are two opposed characterizations of the state. One is expressed by the individualistic school of thought, in which the individual is primary and the state is secondary. The other is expressed by the organicist school of thought in which the state is primary and the individual is secondary. Herbert Spencer appears to straddle both schools of thought, in that his doctrine includes elements of both individualism and organicism. As a result, Spencer has been much criticized for conceptual confusion and contradiction. Such criticism is misconceived: Spencer successfully reconciles individualism and organicism in his theory, and thereby exposes the falsity of the alleged antithesis between these two concepts in political theory
The French Communists under François Mitterrand
Authors: Antonian Armen , Wall Irwin
Published: February 2007

One of the most historically significant aspects of the presidency of François Mitterrand was his experiment with Communist participation in his government from June 1981 to July 1984. Mitterrand was looking beyond the Parti Communiste Français (PCF) to its working-class constituency, whose alienation from the French political system he hoped to end; the Communists, for their part, were no longer pursuing policies of unity on the left when his victory occurred, and accepted his offer of participation. As the rapid spate of reforms of his first year in power took hold, they rallied to him with enthusiasm, apparently concluding that any improvement in the party's fortunes lay with his success. In the Autumn of 1982 the Socialists adopted a policy of economic ‘rigour’, which by the Spring of 1983 had evolved into a coherent policy of budgetary and wage restraints, suspiciously like the policies of austerity pursued by previous governments of the right. The PCF's attitude toward Mitterrand consequently hardened, and the party sought to distance itself from his economic policies while continuing to support him in the cabinet and in parliament. By the summer of 1984, following the party's decline to 11.2 per cent in elections to the European Parliament, it was apparent that this ambivalent policy was not succeeding, and the PCF used the occasion of the resignation of Prime Minister Pierre Mauroy to withdraw its participation, after it became clear that his successor, Laurent Fabius, was committed to the same economic policies.
The International Politics of African Debt
Authors: Parfitt Trevor , Riley Stephen
Published: February 2007

This paper assesses the international politics of Africa's growing external indebtedness and the pressures for policy direction that it produces. After the scale and character of the problem has been assessed, the paper looks, first, at the increasingly significant rôle of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) within Africa. The nature of external policy direction is then examined, particular attention being paid to the influential World Bank policy paper, the Berg Report. Its policy prescriptions are assessed in the light of conditions in several African countries. The paper concludes by examining alternatives to IMF policy direction, including default and collective disengagement.
Three Forms of Political Realism
Authors: Spegele Roger D.
Published: February 2007

In the recent study of international relations, political realism has, apparently, had as many supporters as detractors. Nonetheless, there seems to be a growing tendency to treat the categories of political realism as if they were passing the way of all flesh, destined to be replaced by system theory, transnationalism, Marxist structuralism, critical theory or whatever. One difficulty with this judgement is that political realism is not a single theoretical entity which can be refuted by single disconfirming instances. Nor is it an understanding of the subject rooted in the views of such well-known exponents of this school as Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Thompson, Martin Wight, Sir Herbert Butterfield, E. H. Carr or Raymond Aron. On the contrary, political realism is a conception of politics which stretches back to the great Indian thinker Kautilya and in fact constitutes a many-mansioned tradition of thought about international relations. Three aspects of that tradition are examined in this essay: Common-sense Realism, Concessional Realism and neo-Aristotelian Realism. These reflections are only very tangentially related to the debates in the 1950s and 1960s concerning realism. This essay focuses, rather, on certain neglected features of contrasting philosophies of science. The article concludes, somewhat tentatively, that neo-Aristotelian Realism is coherent and cogent and superior in important respects to what scientific empiricism has to offer.
Selling Oneself into Slavery: Mill and Paternalism
Authors: La Selva Samuel V.
Published: February 2007

‘Voluntarily acceding to slavery’, Joel Feinberg has written, ‘is too much for Mill to stomach’, and so Mill espouses strong paternalism and contradicts his famous principle of individual sovereignty. Mill's critics have found incoherence where none exists, largely because they have failed to take seriously his own claim that the nonenforcement of slavery contracts is required by the principle of liberty. The refusal to enforce such contracts arises not from Mill's espousal of paternalism, but from the paradox of sovereignty. Reconstruction of Mill's solution to this paradox not only dispels the charge that he abandoned the sovereignty of the individual, but also contributes to the reinterpretation of his defence of freedom, as a result of which his entire doctrine of antipaternalism emerges as a coherent and defensible position.
Class and Nation: Problems of Socialist Nationalism
Authors: Schwarzmantel J. J.
Published: February 2007

The strength of nationalism can be explained in terms of the malleability of the concept of the nation, which can be defined in very different ways, with consequently varying political implications. Socialism, in theory and practice, has had to respond to the appeal and force of nationalism. One possible response has been to take over and develop a form of left-wing nationalism, and this is illustrated by examples taken primarily from French socialist thought in the period before 1914. Such a form of socialist nationalism has its strengths, both theoretical and practical; but it also involves problems, notably the difficulty of maintaining the separation of a nationalism of the left from a right-wing nationalism with its anti-socialist and antidemocratic appeals.
Clausewitz's Political and Ethical World View
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: February 2007

This article challenges the accepted view that Clausewitz did not deal with the ethical status of war. It attempts to show that his views on this matter are well documented in his works; that they were part and parcel of a comprehensive outlook regarding the nature of both international relations and the state; and that this outlook reflected the emerging world view in the Germany of national awakening.
The German Greens in the 1980s: Short-term Cyclical Protest or Indicator of Transformation?
Authors: Müller-Rommel Ferdinand
Published: February 2007

In the West German general election of 1983 the newly formed Green Party received 5.6 per cent of the popular vote and was (at only its second attempt) able to send 27 delegates to the federal Parliament (Bundestag). It was the first time since the 1950s that a new party had joined the three major parties (SPD, CDU-CSU, FDP) in the federal Parliament. In the 1987 federal election the Green Party achieved an even better result: it received 8.3 per cent of the popular vote and 42 seats in the federal Parliament. Because of this remarkable success the analysis of the Green Party in Germany has become a major research object in political science.

Several studies have described the development of the Green Party, its social bases, its organizational structure and its ideology.1 However, these findings have not been related to the role as well as the function of the Green Party in the West German party system. This research note represents such an attempt. The debate on ‘realignment’ and ‘dealignment’ of West European party systems is the most useful in this respect.2 Is the Green Party vulnerable and consequently likely to disappear from the political scene or will it become a stable component of the party system? It is hypothesized that the Green Party will consolidate its position as the fourth party in the German party system because it is a ‘new type of party’ that differs significantly from the established parties and hence can mobilize its own voter clientele.
The Political Origins of Self-Government and Bureaucracy: Otto Hintze's Conceptual Map of Europe
Authors: Page Edward C.
Published: February 2007

The work of Otto Hintze offers a rare combination of long-term historical perspective, detailed description of institutional arrangements, exploration of broad developmental trends as well as understanding of the factors producing divergent patterns of political development. One of the dominant themes of his comparative writing is his conception of Europe as comprising a heartland, which developed military-bureaucratic government institutions, and a set of peripheral states in which institutions of self-government were more likely to develop. While Hintze's analysis largely only goes as far as the nineteenth century, it offers a number of insights into understanding the development of the modern state in Europe.
Economic Democracy and the Expediency of Worker Participation
Authors: Adamson Walter L.
Published: February 2007

The increased discussion of economic democracy in America in recent years makes sense given the context of crises in Keynesianism, the welfare state, corporate legitimacy and American ‘competitiveness’. Departing from Dahl's recent analysis, this paper argues that one notion of economic democracy – the internal democratization of the firm – can be conceived and plausibly linked to objectives of increased American competitiveness and community stability. The argument rejects purist schemes of universal cooperative ownership as well as so-called shareholder democracy. It proposes a representative system for the firm based on a balance among shareholder, employee and community interests, a separation of powers between boards of directors and management, and a concept of transition based on democratic development of already widespread employee stock-ownership plans.
Boundary Revisions: The Deconstruction of Moral Personality in Rawls, Nozick, Sandel and Parfit
Authors: Mosher Michael A.
Published: February 2007

The boundaries between selves and within selves are notions that have been subject to constant readjustment in the debates between liberals and communitarians. Through the archetype theories of Rawls, Nozick, Sandel and Parfit this essay re-enacts the deconstruction of one of the intuitive certainties of earlier liberal thought. Counterintuitive alliances are struck across the liberal-communitarian divide in demonstrating that the impersonality required by any theory of justice puts pressure on every notion of personality within it. Parfit radicalizes the problem of identity for everyone, permitting us to view old problems from new perspectives.
On Forcing Individuals to Be Free: T.H. Green's Liberal Theory of Positive Freedom
Authors: Simhony Avital
Published: February 2007

Berlin argues that Green's positive freedom, at odds with his liberalism, justifies an oppressive society. Berlin's argument proceeds in three steps. The first embraces a shift from negative freedom to rational self-mastery, which is underpinned by a metaphysics of a split self. Then it is claimed that positive freedom is realizable only in a certain kind of society which, thirdly, it is argued, is oppressive. Green takes the first two steps but they do not commit him to the totalitarian conclusion, not least because he grounds positive freedom in a view of a unitary self and his society does not leave empty the institutional framework which makes possible the realization of freedom. Green's society is not oppressive in the name of freedom, but rather enabling in the name of freedom.
Poll Tax, Rates and Local Elections
Authors: Gibson John G. , Stewart John D.
Published: February 2007

The 1990 London local elections provided a unique opportunity to examine the sensitivity of voters to two local taxes: domestic rates and poll tax. Both taxes were found to have had an important influence on voting but in unequal proportions according to party incumbency prior to 1990. In Conservative boroughs swing was sensitive to poll tax level but this was not true in Labour boroughs. In both, swing was sensitive to the change in average local tax level in the switch from domestic rates to poll tax in 1990. Rate increases between 1986 and 1989 had a substantial effect in Labour boroughs. Other variables, such as service levels and some borough-level issues, also contributed to the high levels of explanation achieved.
Unconventional Participation in Party Politics: The Experience of the German Greens
Authors: Poguntke Thomas
Published: February 2007

The German Green Party, which is one of the most successful Green parties in Western Europe, has not only been efficient in changing the political agenda of the Federal Republic. It has also challenged the conventional way of organizing party politics by institutionalizing a series of organizational principles that are inspired by the ideals of grass-roots democracy. However, despite the ideological appeal of grass-roots democracy to Green sympathizers, the party has failed to attract sufficiently large numbers of active party members. The Greens are caught in a dilemma, because they appeal to those segments of West German society where ‘non-partisans' are most numerous. This undermines the functioning, and hence the credibility, of Green grass-roots democracy.
Green versus Ecosocialist Economic Programmes: The Market Rules OK?
Authors: Eckersley Robyn
Published: February 2007

Since the crumbling of the Berlin Wall there has been a chorus sounding the death of the command economy and the triumph of liberal capitalism. It does seem to be the case that ‘capitalism is everywhere receiving the flattery of imitation’.1 It is also the case that socialist thought – both western and eastern – is undergoing a profound shake-up in response to the economic and ecological challenges of the late twentieth century. Whether a new socialism will withstand these momentous challenges and emerge as the political saviour of our time is an open question. What is clear, however, is that the growing momentum of the ecological critique of capitalism is likely to ensure that the 200-year-old debate concerning the respective merits and demerits of the market versus economic planning is not going to disappear, although the debate is likely to be considerably reformulated. This paper is concerned to review the arguments for and against the market economy versus the planned economy in the light of the social and ecological problems of the late twentieth century and to compare and evaluate the alternative economic programmes defended by ecosocialists and Green economists in response to these problems.
Strong Poets and Utopia: Rorty's Liberalism, Dewey and Democracy
Authors: Wain Kenneth
Published: February 2007

Richard Rorty is one of the most controversial philosophers today. He argues, among other things, that philosophy should be replaced by literary writing and that it has nothing to say to politics. Yet his own more recent writing has been more and more about political issues. This article focuses upon the inconsistency of his politics with the philosophical influence which he has consistently identified as the strongest on his writings; that of John Dewey. At the root of this incompatibility lies the failure of his theoretical project to carry over his synthesis between Deweyan pragmatism and Nietzschean poststructuralism into the realm of politics.
American Interest Group Research: Sorting Out Internal and External Perspectives
Authors: Davis Frank L. , Wurth Albert H.
Published: February 2007

Research on interest groups in America has developed from two major traditions, studies of group activity in the polity and analyses of groups' relations with their members. We argue that these two research streams focus on analytically distinct external and internal dimensions of interest group behaviour, and that the tendency to conflate these two dimensions has caused certain types of groups to be ignored or misunderstood. Categorizing groups on the basis of their internal life and external relations, we derive a two-dimensional framework from which to examine the present state of American interest group research.
Rescue or Retreat? The Nation State in Western Europe, 1945–93
Authors: Wallace William
Published: February 2007

‘My first guideline is this: willing and active cooperation between independent sovereign states is the best way to build a successful European Community. To try to suppress nationhood and concentrate power at the centre of a European conglomerate would be highly damaging. … Europe will be stronger precisely because it has France as France, Spain as Spain, Britain as Britain, each with its own customs, traditions and identity.’

Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister, speech to College of Europe in Bruges, 20 September 1988.

‘The nation state was the twin of the industrial society, and like industrial society it is becoming outworn. … The evolution of Europe in the next decades will be shaped by the phasing in of the information society to replace the industrial culture and industrial technology which have served us so well for almost two hundred years.

Poul Schluter, Danish Prime Minister, speech to the America–European Community Association, London, 20 September 1988.

‘Nations are not everlasting. They have a beginning, they will have an end. Probably a European confederation will replace them.’

Ernest Renan, Qu'est-ce qu'une nation? Lecture to Sorbonne, Paris, 11 March 1882.

‘Both the nation state and integration appear as fortunate accidents of the time, fundamentally contradictory tendencies, which nevertheless in promoting economic growth fortuitously complemented each other.’

Alan Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State (London, Routledge, 1992), p. 24.
Good Public Policy Voting in the US Congress: An Explanation of Financial Institutions Politics
Authors: Owens John E.
Published: February 2007

Two important themes in the literature on the United States Congress are that members experience difficulty transacting complex technical legislation – because most are not experts – and that they make their decisions on the basis of what will help them win re-election, by following the economic preferences of their interest group or electoral constituencies. The few writers who have examined congressional decisionmaking on financial institutions regulatory policy have generally accepted the conventional re-election premise and argued that legislators follow the economic preferences of their interest group of electoral constituencies. Using a case study of how members of a House committee make decisions on complex financial institutions regulatory policy, the article offers an alternative political explanation which takes better account of the complexity of congressional decisionmaking and the specific nature of the policy issues which are decided. Through a close analysis of internal committee politics, the research demonstrates the crucial roles played by subject specialists and the importance of party-mediated cue-passing.
Divided Capitalism and Marx's Concept of Politics
Authors: Cohen Avner
Published: February 2007

Scholars argue that Marx explicitly states that financial and industrial capitalists do form distinct classes. Relations between industrial and financial capital were broadly discussed not only by Marx but also by Marxists after Marx. However, the question of the practical significance of Marx's distinction between industrial and financial capitalists does not seem to be properly answered. This paper tries to show that this distinction always had a political significance. It discusses the changes made by Marx during his lifetime, and attempts to explain those changes by connecting them to historical events on the one hand and to Marx's concept of politics on the other.