bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards and Motives: Replication and Extension with Kibbutz Workers1
Authors: Eden Dov
Published: August 2006

Past experimental findings on the effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation were explained on the basis of expectancy theory as a special case of the motivational effects on incentives. It was hypothesized that any reward object enhances its commensurate motive and weakens noncommensurate motives. The hypotheses were confirmed by means of partial correlational analyses of the relationships among intrinsic, status, and material rewards and motives measured in a survey of male kibbutz3 workers, providing constructive replication of experimental findings and supporting expectancy theory. The results were discussed with reference to motivation in general as well 3s practical implications for applied settings.
Imitative Behavior as a Function of Success‐Failure and Racial‐Socioeconomic Factors1
Authors: Turner Samuel M. , Forehand Rex
Published: August 2006

This study examined whether success‐failure experiences, race, and social class are related to the likelihood that young children will engage in imitative behavior. Black subjects imitated significantly more than white subjects on a pre‐experimental measure of imitation. Analysis of a difference score between pre‐ and post‐experimental measures of imitation indicated that prior success was associated with less imitation than failure or a neutral condition. In addition, a white model was imitated significantly more than a black model in both the failure and the success conditions, with little difference between models in the neutral condition. No significant difference was found between the nondeprived and deprived groups. The results were discussed in terms of an outer‐directedness hypothesis.
Crowding: Effects of Group Size, Room Size, or Density?
Authors: Nogami Glenda Y.
Published: August 2006

The separate effects of group size, room size, and density (space per person) were investigated for subjects responding interactively or coactively to perceptual and cognitive tasks. The major findings are that crowding has greater effects on “feelings” and “interpersonal perceptions” than on task performance. Where crowding did have effects, they appeared to be mediated more by group size and, to some degree, room size than by density, especially for males. Female subjects appeared somewhat more density oriented than male subjects.
A Test of the Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness1
Authors: Johnson Ronald W. , Ryan Brenda J.
Published: August 2006

Randomly formed groups of 160 male students a t St. Francis Xavier University performed both a structured and an unstructured task. Style of leadership and leader position power were experimentally manipulated, while leader member relations were held constant. Although manipulation checks were positive, results failed to support any of the hypotheses derived from Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership effectiveness.
The Effect of Attitude Similarity on Task Performance1
Authors: Krivonos Paul D. , Byrne Donn , Friedrich Gustav W.
Published: August 2006

It was hypothesized in a two‐person situation that students would perform significantly better on intellectual tasks when paired with a liked other than when paired with a disliked other. In a laboratory experiment, 108 male undergraduates performed one of three types of intellectual tasks with an attitudinally similar or dissimilar partner or with a partner about whom the subject had no attitude information. Individuals paired with a similar partner felt affectively more positive than those paired with a dissimilar partner (p < .01). Individuals paired with a similar other performed significantly better on the tasks than those paired with a dissimilar partner (p < .01).
Complementary and Symmetrical Interaction in the Present Day Mental Health Institute
Authors: Russ Raymond C. , Gold Joel A.
Published: August 2006

Expanding an idea begun by Rosenhan (1973), ratings of communication from psychiatric aides to patients at a psychiatric hospital were obtained using Leather's Feedback Rating Instrument. As compared to a comparison group composed of aide to aide interactions, aide to patient interactions were characterised as more inflexible, withdrawn, concise, personal, irrelevant, and automatic. Implications were offered concerning the training of mental health workers.
Guilty or Not Guilty? A Look at the “Simulated” Jury Paradigm1
Authors: Wilson David W. , Donnerstein Edward
Published: August 2006

Three experiments examined the effects of real versus hypothetical consequences on juridic decision‐making. Real consequences subjects believed their judgments would actually determine what happened to the defendant, while hypothetical consequences subjects believed the study simply dealt with jury decision‐making. In Experiment I, the defendant's character attractiveness had no influence on guilt judgments made by real consequences subjects but did so for hypothetical consequences subjects. In addition, character attractiveness affected recommendations of punishment for both real and hypothetical consequences subjects. In Experiment II, the defendant's physical attractiveness influenced neither real nor hypothetical consequences subjects on either the guilt or punishment measures. Experiment III showed that real consequences subjects recalled more situational evidence of the case than did hypothetical consequences subjects. In all three studies, more guilty verdicts occurred in the real consequences condition than in the hypothetical consequences condition. It was concluded that much current research on hypothetical juries may be misleading and that more attention should be given in the future to the variable of real versus hypothetical consequences. Possible mediating factors leading to real and hypothetical consequences differences were explored.
Interactions Between Jurors as a Function of Majority vs. Unanimity Decision Rules
Authors: Nemeth Charlan
Published: August 2006

Ruling on the constitutionality of less than unanimous juries, the majority and dissenting Justices of the Supreme Court offered differing theories of social influence processes in jury deliberations. Some areas of disagreement involved verdict distribution, majority‐minority interactions, and community confidence as a function of unanimity vs. non‐unanimity requirements. The present series of three studies concentrated on these issues. In the first two studies, groups that were split 4:2 in initial vote deliberated a case involving first degree murder. In the third study, individuals served as jurors in each of seven mock trials (both civil and criminal). Half of these groups were required to deliberate to unanimity, the other half being required to deliberate to 2/3 majority. Results indicated that verdicts were not appreciably altered as a result of unanimity vs. non‐unanimity requirements. However, unanimity groups were more likely to reach full consensus; their deliberations were characterized by more “conflict”; more opinions were changed as a result of the deliberation process; they reported more confidence in the verdict and tended to feel that justice had been administered. The findings tend to corroborate the influence theories of the dissenting Justices.
Reward vs. Reciprocity as Related to Attraction1
Authors: Freeman Harvey R.
Published: August 2006

Groups of six subjects participated in a study to investigate the effect of obligation upon attraction. Each subject received offers of monetary aid from other members of the group. Amount of aid offered was varied along with the obligation attached to the aid. The effect of the offer upon the recipient's attraction to the donor was assessed. Both attraction and desire for coalition were greatest when the offer of aid was high and the obligation to return the benefits received was low.
Evaluations of the Work of Men and Women as a Function of the Sex of the Judge and Type of Work
Authors: Cline Mary Ellen , Holmes David S. , Werner Jana C.
Published: August 2006

Forty‐two male and 42 female subjects selected from a large city, a small town, or a university campus were asked to evaluate four pen and ink sketches and four quotations. Two sketches and two quotations were associated with fictitious women's names while the remainder were associated with fictitious men's names. A three‐way interaction indicated that women tended to discriminate against the productions attributed to men, and men significantly discriminated against the productions of women. But all discriminations were limited to intellectual productions (quotations).
Intrusiveness and Persuasive Impact of Three Communication Media1
Authors: Werner Carol
Published: August 2006

Two field experiments compared the persuasive impact of communications delivered face‐to‐face, by telephone, or by letter. In both studies, letters did not differ from faccto‐face contacts but telephone calls were less effective. In the second experiment, personalness interacted with communication medium such that addressing subjects by name reduced the impact of face‐to‐face encounters, increased that of letters, and had no effect on phone calls. A third sample of subjects rated the appropriateness of name usage by salespeople, indicating a salesperson should give his own name but was inappropriately personal when calling the subject by name. The findings support the notion that varying media and name usage varies the psychological distance between communicator and recipient. At appropriate psychological distances, communicators and communications have optimum effectiveness; at too great or too little distance, they lose impact. Thus, not only is selection of proper medium important to communicators but how the medium is used can affect impact.
Students' Preferences for Information About Their Test Performance: A Social Comparison Study1
Authors: Suls Jerry M , Tesch Frederick
Published: August 2006

College students received their test scores and letter grades for an actual examination and were asked to indicate their degree of interest in obtaining information (average score, highest score, etc.) in order to evaluate their performance. Overall, the students were most interested in knowing the average test score and least interested in knowing the lowest test score and the number of others who received worse test scores. There was some evidence supporting Festinger's unidirectional drive hypothesis in that most of the students were moderately interested in knowing how many others obtained better scores. Surprisingly, students who failed the examination displayed the greatest interest in the available information. There was little evidence suggesting defensive comparison on the part of low scorers. The results have implications for the self evaluation of ability, for social comparison research, and for educational practice.
Analyses of Student Demonstrators Involved in the Overthrow of the Greek Military Dictatorship
Authors: Anderson Lynn R
Published: August 2006

Data collected in a survey of Greek college students were reanalyzed to compare personality, attitudes, and social class scores of students at colleges which did and did not instigate demonstrations and riots during the 1973 overthrow of the military dictatorship. Results indicate that at colleges where demonstrations occurred, males had higher needs for affiliation and lower needs for achievement and order than males at other colleges. Demonstrators indicated general dissatisfaction with many aspects of their university programs and came from higher social class backgrounds than students who did not demonstrate. Results are briefly compared with analyses of student demonstrators in the United States.
Communicator Similarity, Fear Arousing Communications, and Compliance with Health Care Recommendations1
Authors: Dembroski Theodore M. , Lasater Thomas M. , Ramirez Albert
Published: August 2006

Using a pretest‐treatment‐multiple posttest design, two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of race of communicator and different levels of fear‐arousing dental health appeals on reported anxiety, attitudes, information retention, and behavior change among 304 black, junior high school students. In addition to paper‐and‐pencil measures, a chemical dye (erythrosin), which stains red the bacteria concentrations on teeth, was used to measure changes of actual toothbrushing behavior. The results of the two studies for behavior change were reasonably consistent. Irrespective of the fear level of the message, the similar communicator produced more immediate behavior change than the dissimilar communicator, and correlations showed that anxiety reports were unrelated to behavior change. Overall, fear communications positively influenced anxiety and attitudes but did not affect behavior. The findings suggest that caution be exercised in using self reports as measures of effectiveness of persuasive communications and additional factors need to be incorporated into existing theories to account for differential reactions to threat appeals.
Swine Flu: A Field Study of Self‐Serving Biases
Authors: Larwood Laurie
Published: August 2006

Self‐serving biases were examined as an explanation for swine flu inoculation behavior. Subjects who had recently had the opportunity to obtain the shot were surveyed by questionnaire. As predicted, most persons held biased beliefs that their own health was superior to that of others. Those getting or intending to get the shot had less health bias, had recently experienced a confidence‐shaking event, and felt that the shot might make a difference in their health. The results are seen as having implications both for self‐serving bias research and for disease control.
Do “They all look alike?” The Effect of Race, Sex, Experience, and Attitudes on the Ability to Recognize Faces1
Authors: Brigham John C. , Barkowitz Paul
Published: August 2006

Legal scholars and social scientists have long assumed that there is a racial bias in facial recognition and eyewitness identifications, with persons being much more accurate in identifying persons of their own race, but corroborative research evidence is scanty. In the present study, black and white college students attempted to identify which of a series of facial photos they had seen earlier. As predicted, a strong race of subject by race of picture interaction was found; both black and white subjects were significantly more accurate in identifying pictures of their own race than pictures of the other race. However, contrary to assumptions made by many legal and criminal justice personnel, neither racial attitude nor reported amount of quality of interracial experience were related to ability to recognize pictures. Implications for eyewitness identifications of these and related findings are discussed.
Is Justice Really Blind?–The Influence of Litigant Physical Attractiveness on Juridical Judgment1
Authors: Kulka Richard A. , Kessler Joan B.
Published: August 2006

The present investigation examined the influence of litigant physical attractiveness on the decisions of 91 undergraduates playing the role of nondeliberating jurors in an automobile negligence trial. Seeking to achieve a more realistic simulation of actual courtroom practice than that produced in prior studies, which have relied exclusively on short written synopses as their method of trial presentation, this experiment tested the hypothesis that physical attractiveness would have a significant impact on juridic judgments even though an audiovisual presentation of the trial permitted the introduction of a variety of other important stimuli typically present at a jury trial. This prediction received empirical support: Subjects exposed to an attractive plaintiff and an unattractive defendant more often found in favor of the plaintiff and awarded more money in damages than students viewing an unattractive plaintiff and an attractive defendant. However, in contrast to findings from general studies of interpersonal evaluation, analyses of student perceptions of the two litigants provided only limited evidence for a global (positive) physical attractiveness stereotype within the context of a simulated trial. Instead, the observed effect of physical attractiveness on student decisions was apparently mediated by differential perceptions of the seriousness of the accident itself. Possible implications of the results for the judicial process were mentioned.
Employment Status and Sex Role Attitudes in Middle‐class Suburban Mothers
Authors: Rodgon Maris Monitz , Gralewski Carolyn
Published: August 2006

Twenty‐one employed and 31 nonemployed suburban mothers of 2nd and 6th grade children were administered the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), Welledey Role Orientation Scale (WROS), and items from the Traditional Family Inventory (TFI items). Employed mothers agreed with more nontraditional attitudes on the WROS and described themselves in more masculine or androgynous terms than did nonempldyed mothers. These differences were not affected by grade or sex of child. While the directionality of effect could not be established, it was clear that these employed women viewed themselves and their roles as wives and mothers differently than did their nonemployed counterparts. This was true despite differences in conditions of employment, and despite a more traditional overall attitude among these women than has been reported in studies using younger, upper middle‐class university women. In this study, mothers employed part time were more traditional in their responses to TFI items concerned with child rearing attitudes than were mothers employed full time. Again, while directionality of effect could not be established, the decision to work part time and thus spend more time with the children is compatible with a more traditional attitude. The usefulness of these easily administered measures in dividing groups of women for further research on sex roles outside university communities is apparent.
The Impact of Language in Job Advertising on Fair Practices in Hiring: A Research Note
Authors: Costello Ellen M.
Published: August 2006

This experiment investigated the effects of sex‐biased language in job advertisements on subjects' reported interest in applying for the advertised positions. Booklets containing 12 advertisments, 4 experimental and 8 control, were distributed to 176 high school seniors. The four experimental advertisements varied across three experimental conditions: sex‐biased, sex‐unbiased, and sex‐reversed. Results of X2 analyses indicate that significantly more subjects express interest in applying for stereotypically “opposite sex” jobs in the sex‐reversed condition than in the sex‐biased condition. These findings support previous research by Bem and Bem (1973) and have implications for affirmative action programs.
Undermining Effects of the Foot‐in‐the‐Door Technique with Extrinsic Rewards
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Iazzaro Michele M. , Waldgeir Diane
Published: August 2006

The self‐perception explanation of the foot‐in‐the‐door technique suggests that a person who complies with a small request infers that he or she is the kind of generous individual who is more likely to comply with a larger demand. It was hypothesized that individuals who are promised a monetary reward for their compliance with a small request are not more likely to comply with a larger demand because they cannot perceive themselves as generous persons. To test this hypothesis, subjects were presented with a small request (a 5‐minute telephone interview) followed, 2 or 3 days later, by a larger demand (a 25‐minute telephone interview). Some of the subjects were promised a monetary reward for their compliance with a small request (pay condition) while others were not promised a reward (no‐pay condition). Results showed that rate of compliance in the no‐pay conditon (64.3%) was significantly higher than rate of compliance in either a no‐initial‐request control condition (45.0%) or the pay condition (33.3%). The difference in rate of compliance between the control condition and the pay condition was not significant.
The Air Pollution Experience and Physical Aggression1
Authors: Rotton James , Frey James , Barry Timothy , Milligan Michael , Fitzpatrick Michael
Published: August 2006

Sixty undergraduate males delivered electric shocks to a confederate as punishment for making errors on a learning task. Half did so after being exposed to an aggressive model, whereas the other half did so without being exposed. Shocks were delivered from a room whose atmosphere was either unpolluted or contaminated by a moderately unpleasant odor (ethyl mercoptan) or an extremely obnoxious stench (ammonium sulfide). As hypothesized, the moderately unpleasant pollutant facilitated higher levels of aggression than either the extremely obnoxious one or the absence of pollution. However, contrary to a second hypothesis, pollution facilitated aggression only in the model's absence. The confirmation of the first hypothesis was interpreted as supporting and extending the affect‐aggression model from heat research. It was speculated that disconfirmation of the second hypothesis resulted either from a ceiling effect or from malodor distracting attention away from the aggressive cues of the model. The methodological, theoretical, and applied implications of research on air pollution were discussed.
Threat, Knowledge, and Support for a Collective Response to Urban Flooding1
Authors: Hansson Robert O. , Henze Rita J. , Langenheim Mary Abby , Filipovitch Anthony J.
Published: August 2006

The most realistic solution to recurring urban flooding in most American cities is some form of land use planning (zoning), i.e., an integrated, collective response to this type of threat to the community. Yet there is frequently little public support for such action. The present study surveyed persons living in and around a notorious urban floodplain to assess support for such land use planning as a function of (a) threat, i.e., the motivational effect of proximity to the floodplain, ownership of property at risk, personal flooding history, perceived likelihood of one's home being flooded in the next 5 years, and the presence of small children in the home; and (b) amount of knowledge about variables affecting flooding, i.e., the cognitive element. Although proximity was related strongly to expressions of concern, none of the measures of threat was related to support for land use planning. Knowledge of the variables involved, however, was positively related to support for a planning solution. The findings are discussed in terms of theoretical implications of the cognitive element in collective responses to environmental hazards.
Sex as a Status Variable in Work Settings: Female and Male Reports of Dominance Behavior
Authors: Radecki Catherine , Walstedt Joyce Jennincs
Published: August 2006

This study shows that sex is an important status variable in occupational settings. The basic hypothesis that males, because of a status prerogative, would be more likely than females to use nonverbal and verbal dominance behaviors, including intimate gestures, toward their opposite sex co‐workers was confirmed. Subjects (88 female and 69 male samples from two institutions of higher learning) reported dominance behaviors (a) toward opposite sex co‐workers; (b) from opposite sex co‐workers; (c) toward opposite sex superiors; and (d) from opposite sex superiors. Analysis of the sexual dominance items revealed that sexual intimacy is expressable along the same continuum as traditional dominance gestures. The hypothesis that sex competes with other status variables was supported. If the sexual dominance patterns explored in this study prove widespread, institutions may wish to provide programs aimed at raising employee awareness of these interactions.
Task Incentives, Type A Behavior Pattern, and Verbal Problem Solving Performance1
Authors: Blumenthal James A. , McKee Daphne C. , Haney Thomas , Williams Redford B.
Published: August 2006

A laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate the interaction between task incentives and the Type A behavior pattern in determining performance during a task of verbal problem solving. The results indicated that Type A subjects responded more quickly and more frequently than their Type B counterparts. In addition, evidence suggested that a situational characteristic–whether instructions offered a monetary reward or served as an evaluative stressor–affected subjects differently depending on their behavior pattern classification. These findings suggest that Pattern A behavior occurs as a response to challenges signifying the potential for reward as well as a threat of failure. Implications for future research emphasize the need to investigate the characteristics of the situation and the task, as well as the individual.
Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts1
Authors: Kassin Saul M. , Wrightsman Lawrence S.
Published: August 2006

The present study tested the Supreme Court's assumption that jurors discount a coerced confession as unreliable and do not allow it to influence their decisions. In two experiments, subjects read a transcript of a trial in which testimony revealed that the defendant had confessed either on his own accord (no constraint), in response to an offer of leniency (positive constraint), in response to a threat of punishment (negative constraint), or not at all (control group). In Experiment 1, subjects discounted the negatively induced confession. However, their estimates of the probability that the defendant committed the crime were increased not only by the unconstrained confession, but by the positively constrained one as well. Experiment 2 essentially replicated this pattern for probability‐of‐commision estimates and verdicts despite the additional finding that the positively constrained confession was in fact perceived as involuntary. The potential danger of admitting the latter as evidence was noted and specific recommendations were made.
Violation of a Spacing Norm in High Social Density
Authors: Thalhofer Nancy N.
Published: August 2006

A field experiment investigated violation of the spacing norm which keeps distance between people in a particular type of crowding, high social density, when the number of people in an area is large but space is not necessarily restricted. The proportion of people passing a drinking fountain who drank from the fountain was observed in conditions of high and low social density and, for each of these densities, when a confederate stood one foot from the fountain and when no one stood near the fountain. Three hundred passersby were observed in each of the four conditions. The observations supported the conclusion that the spacing norm was followed in low social density (p <.01) but violated under conditions of high social density for reasons other than lack of space. Interpretation focused on several concomitants of high social density, especially excessive social stimulation, and the accompanying tendencies to attribute less of the usual social meanings to people and honor fewer of their expectations.
Situational and Arousal‐Based Messages and the Reduction of Crowding Stress
Authors: Fisher Jeffrey D. , Baum Andrew
Published: August 2006

In an anticipatory crowding context, an attempt was made to assess the effects of various control‐relevant messages for ameliorating crowding stress. Two informational foci (i.e., situational and emotional) were employed, and it was found that situational information was more effective in relieving discomfort associated with anticipated high‐density than emotionally‐focused information. In addition, an exploratory attempt was made to evaluate the effectiveness for relieving crowding stress of control‐relevant information highlighting different aspects of density (i.e., overload, spatial intrusion, and interference). In general, it was found that such messages were effective in relieving discomfort to the extent that they accurately described the characteristics of the setting that subjects were anticipating.
Some Psychological and Social Attitude Correlates of Northern Ireland University Students' Contact with the Civil Disturbances
Authors: Mercer G. William , Bunting Brendan , Snook Suzi
Published: August 2006

Northern Ireland university students' contact with the Northern Ireland civil disturbances was examined with regard to five dimensions: Friends' Contact; Bomb Contact; Confrontation or Riot Contact; Harassment; and Property Damage. Confrontation and Bomb contact dimensions were further investigated in terms of their personality, social attitude, and alcohol use correlates. Since analyses of variance did not differentiate Protestants and Roman Catholics in terms of intelligence, socioeconomic status, age, location of residence (rural‐urban), or religious homogeneity of peer group with regard to these two contact dimensions, these two groups were combined in stepwise discriminant analyses. The discriminant analyses suggested that, for both genders, contact with the “troubles” may be conceptualized in terms of a positive feedback loop involving social dissatisfaction and helplessness combining with previous contacts to produce future contacts. Further, having been in a bombing appeared to subdue males, but to produce pro‐social aggression in females. The sample consisted of 65 males and 133 females.
Children's Television Viewing, Racial and Sex‐Role Attitudes1
Authors: Zuckerman Diana M. , Singer Dorothy G. , Singer Jerome L.
Published: August 2006

One hundred and fifty‐five third, fourth, and fifth grade children were assessed in terms of their racial and sex‐role attitudes, family's television viewing habits, and demographic background. Stepwise multiple regression analyses indicate that children's and parents' viewing of specific types of television programs predict children's racial prejudice and girls' sex prejudice. Children's IQ and mothers' educational attainment and employment status also significantly predict children's attitudes, but age, grade level, family constellation, fathers' educational attainment, and mothers' traditional/nontraditional careers do not. Implications for the role of television as a socialization agent are discussed.
The Effect of Affective States on Selective Exposure to Televised Entertainment Fare1
Authors: Zillmann Dolf , Hezel Richard T. , Medoff Norman J.
Published: August 2006

Subjects were placed into a negative, neutral, or positive affective state and then, ostensibly in a waiting period, provided with an opportunity to watch television. They were free to choose among situation comedy, game show, action drama, and not watching. Time of selective exposure was measured unobtrusively. Compared to other affect‐conditions, subjects in the condition of negative affect avoided comedy. Time of exposure in this condition was significantly below that in the condition of neutral affect. The tendency to avoid comedy was stable over the 10‐minute test period. Compared to other affect conditions, subjects in the condition of positive affect preferred action drama. Time of exposure in this condition was significantly above that in the condition of neutral affect. Subjects experiencing negative affect watched less action drama over time; in contrast, subjects experiencing positive affect watched more action drama, but less game show. A subsequent investigation showed that hostile comedy tended to be avoided by provoked subjects specifically. Merely frustrated subjects were found to actually prefer such comedy. Furthermore, neither provoked nor frustrated subjects avoided nonhostile comedy. The findings were considered consistent with the proposal that persons select exposure to those materials that hold the greatest promise of providing prompt relief from negative affective experiences.
RACE AND INEQUITY1
Authors: Gray‐Little Bernadette
Published: August 2006

Two experiments examined the effects of beneficiary‐victim status and race on the reactions of fifth‐ and sixth‐grade children to an inequitable allocation. In the first experiment, mixed‐race dyads of black and white children were subjected to profitable or unprofitable inequity by black or white allocators. Following this, they were allowed to request portions of a second reward and were interviewed in order to assess inequity distress and their cognitive reactions to the experience of being a beneficiary or victim. Allocator's race was found to have a significant impact on the efforts of black victims to redistribute rewards and to be relevant to all children's perceptions of the inequity. Although neither subject's race nor beneficiary‐victim status had a major impact on children's distributions, these factors did influence their interpretations of the initial allocation and the amount of distress experienced. The second experiment examined the impact of race of observer and participant on observers' perceptions of an inequitable allocation. The results of this study confirmed the pervasive and complex impact of racial identity on reactions to inequity, pointing to its influence even on persons who have nothing tangible to gain or lose by their ratings and allocations.
Bystander Response to Rape: Can A Victim Attract Help?1
Authors: Shotland R. Lance , Stebbins Charles A.
Published: August 2006

The present study was designed to sugest sounds a woman might make that may attract the greatest amount of help. In the context of a simulated rape, the sounds that were tested were (1) a woman screaming “Help, rape, call the police”; (2) a woman screaming “fire”; (3) the sound of a whistle; and (4) a control consisting of the sounds of the struggle without one of the above messages. We concluded that when the situation provides little information bystanders help more frequently to “Help, rape” than to the “Fire” message. Under conditions of high information, Fire is the least successful message in attracting indirect help and we concluded that Fire is not statistically superior at attracting direct help. For logistical and other reasons, we feel that the “Help Rape” message is superior to the whistle sound. In addition, we found only a few people who would try to help directly by putting themselves at physical risk. These individuals were male, and felt assured that they could handle the physical conflict as a result of prior training (physical defense, varsity athletics, etc.). We concluded that direct help is not probable when environmental or sociological factors lead bystanders to expect a physical confrontation with the perpetrator of the attack as a cost of interfering. Thus we feel that further research should focus efforts at causing bystanders to contact the police, as recent evidence demonstrates that the police respond to “crime in progress” calls within 3 minutes in at least two major cities.
Attitudes Toward Male Oral Contraceptives: Implications for Models of the Relationship Between Beliefs and Attitudes1
Authors: Jaccard James , Hand Daniel , Ku Lucille , Richardson Kathleen , Abella Rudolfo
Published: August 2006

Four factors (effectiveness, health risks, cost, and convenience) were orthogonally manipulated in a 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design to determine their relative importance in influencing attitudes toward and intentions to use male oral contraceptives. The experimental design also permitted a test of the assumption of additivity underlying expectancy‐value models of attitude and the assumption of absence of context effects. Results were consistent with expectancy‐value models of the relationship between beliefs and attitudes. In addition, it was found that health risks and effedtiveness, in that order, were the most important factors influencing receptivity to male oral contraceptives, with the effects of cost and convenience being mediated by these two factors. Sex differences in attitudes toward male oral contraceptives were also observed.
Effects of Viewing “Holocaust” on Germans and Americans: A Just‐World Analysis1
Authors: Hormuth Stefan E. , Stephan Walter G.
Published: August 2006

This study examines attributions of blame to the Nazis and the Jews for the events of the holocaust. The sample consisted of Germans and Americans who had viewed the television series “Holocaust” and comparison groups who had not seen the program. It was found that among viewers who identified with the Nazis, attributions of blame to the Jews were higher than among nonviewers or viewers who identified with the Jews. Attributions of blame to the Nazis did not vary as a function of viewing the television series. However, people who identified with the Nazis blamed the Nazis less for the holocaust than people who identified with the Jews. These results are discussed in terms of the justworld hypothesis (Lerner & Miller, 1978) and their implications for media presentations on the victims of oppression.
An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Two Tactics to Reduce Arousal in Crowded Mass Transit Settings1
Authors: Epstein Yakov M. , Teitelbaum Richard , Karlin Robert A. , Katz Sally , Aiello John R.
Published: August 2006

Studies of crowding in various settings have shown that individuals are aroused and frequently suffer from ill health. Several studies have shown that it is possible to successfully intervene in residential, shopping, and classroom settings to reduce the negative effects of crowding. The present laboratory experiment assessed the effectiveness of two tactics commonly used by passengers in crowded mass transit settings. Results indicated that the two tactics, reading a newspaper or talking to others, failed to reduce arousal. An explanation for the failure of these tactics is offered.
Environmental Choice and Control In Community Care Settings for Older People1
Authors: Moos Rudolf H.
Published: August 2006

This study focuses on the long‐term stable levels of environmental choice and control available in community care settings, and explores how variations in these factors affect elderly residents of such settings. New methods to evaluate naturally‐existing levels of policy choice and resident control are developed and applied to a representative sample of residential care facilities. The findings showed that residents with more functional resources, and women residents, were inore likely to live in facilities high in choice and control, and that these personal and environmental factors were associated with better resident functioning and more cohesive, independence‐oriented social environments with relatively little conflict. Functionallyable residents reacted more positively to high control and women residents reacted more positively to high choice. Investigators who attempt to manipulate perceived control in institutional settings need to consider the existing opportunities residents have to exercise control, as well as the levels of other relevant personal and environmental resources.
The Effects of Type of Information and Method of Dissemination on the Reporting of a Shoplifter
Authors: Klentz Bonnel , Beaman Arthur L.
Published: August 2006

The present study demonstrated increased reporting rates of a staged shoplifting in a university bookstore. Two methods of information presentation (lecture format, mass‐media campaign) succeeded in producing these effects. The type of information given to 72 male and 99 female students was also varied and included: (1) how and why to report shoplifting, (2) the social‐psychological factors which inhibit reporting, and (3) a combination of these. All types of information increased the reporting rates compared to the control groups. The lecture format increased reporting rates above that of the mass‐media groups. No sex differences were found. The findings have implications for the way factual knowledge and attitudes interact in influencing behavior.
Effect of Mode of Adjudication, Presence of Defense Counsel, and Favorability of Verdict on Observers' Evaluation of a Criminal Trial1
Authors: Austin William , Williams Thomas A. , Worchel Stephen , Wentzel Allison Adler , Siegel Daniel
Published: August 2006

In an experimental simulation, observers evaluated one of four different legal procedures in the presence of either a favorable or unfavorable outcome in a video‐taped reenactment of a criminal trial. The procedures were adversarial, inquisitorial, adversarial without lawyer, and adversarial with plea bargaining. Data were gathered on the fairness and perceived satisfaction of the defendant with the final outcome, and quality of the defense and prosecution. Contrary to previous research, results showed that the several different procedures were seen as equally fair and legitimate, which suggests that how a procedure is implemented may be more important than its structural properties in observers' overall evaluations. It was also found that defendants are seen as least satisfied when the ostensibly fairest procedure (eg, adversarial) yields an unfavorable outcome. This finding supports a frustration interpretation and contradicts previous studies which report adversarial to be the most preferred dispute resolution procedure within all outcome conditions.
Life Change and Psychological Distress: The Role of Perceived Control and Desirability
Authors: Suls Jerry , Mullen Brian
Published: August 2006

Two studies were conducted to specify what attributes of life change events increase the risk of future psychological distress. It was hypothesized that the events perceived as both undesirable and uncontrollable would be most likely to be linked to subsequent distress. In the fiist study, which employed a retrospective methodology, 117 college students reported the life changes that occurred to them over a 3‐month span and indicated the desirability and controll‐ability of each event. These subjects also responded to an inventory, used in studies of community mental health, to assess symptoms of psychological distress. The findings indicated that only events perceived as both undesirable and uncontrollable were related to the incidence of psychological distress symptoms. Study 2 examined the same hypothesis in a prospective methodology. As in Study 1, only undesirable, uncontrollable life events were significantly related to subsequent psychological distress symptoms. The results of both studies implicate the importance of perceptions of control over aversive events in understanding the link between real life outcomes and illness.
Sex Differences in Evaluations of Female and Male Victims' Responses to Assault
Authors: Krulewitz Judith E.
Published: August 2006

In an investigation of perceptions of victim response to assult, 84 female and 70 male subjects read a narrative in which either a female or a male victim was roughly assaulted by a male stranger. The victim was described as either offering no resistance, resisting in a verbally aggressive manner, or resisting in a physically aggressive manner. Results of 3 × 2 × 2 ANOVA's revealed that women and men expected different outcomes for aggressive victim resistance. Women anticipated a worse outcome than did men, especially for victims who resisted. Men expected the most favorable outcome for the victim when he or she fought with the assailant; women expected the most positive outcome with nonresistance, especially for female victims. Female victims were seen as much more likely than male victims to be raped by the assailant. Women rated rape as a more likely outcome for physically aggressive victims while men considered rape least likely when the victim fought back. Sex differences in evaluations of victim resistance are discussed in terms of identification and empathy with the victim, goals of the victim's response strategy, and the expected effectiveness of aggressive and nonaggressive reactions to attack.
Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instruction, and Mock Juror Verdicts1
Authors: Kassin Saul M. , Wrightsman Lawrence S.
Published: August 2006

The present research assessed whether judicial instruction can curb jurors' inappropriate use of coerced‐confession evidence. In Experiment 1, subjects read an auto theft trial in which the defendant had confessed on his own initiative (no constraint), after an offer of leniency (positive constraint), or after a threat of punishment (negative constraint). Subjects then received an instruction that simply directed them to ignore a coerced confession (short form), another that additionally defined both positive and negative inducement as coercive and hence unreliable (long form), or no instruction at all. As previously reported (Kassin & Wrightsman, 1980), subjects fully discounted the negatively constrained confession but not the positively induced one which, although judged involuntary, produced a high percentage of guilty verdicts. Neither form of instruction significantly reduced this latter tendency. In Experiment 2, subjects read an assault case involving a voluntary or positively coerced confession and one of four types of instruction. The positive coercion bias was replicated. An instruction that stressed both the unreliability and unfairness of an induced confession decreased voluntariness judgments but failed to lower the conviction rate. The theoretical basis for and practical implications of this phenomenon are discussed, and future research directions are proposed.
Independence of Multiple Verdicts by Jurors and Juries1
Authors: Kerr Norbert L. , Harmon Douglas L. , Graves James K.
Published: August 2006

An assumption underlying the common practice of permitting a juror to serve on more than one jury is that jurors can and will reach multiple verdicts independently. Two studies were carried out to examine this assumption. The first experiment had mock jurors consider several cases in succession. Subjects exhibited a clear contrast effect on the strength of evidence; those subjects who initially saw strong prosecution cases were less likely to convict in a moderate test case than those who had initially seen wcak prosecution cases. In the second study, the contrast hypothesis was tested for actual juries' verdicts through archival analyses. The results of this field study paralleled those obtained in the experimental study. The discussion focused upon alternative theoretical explanations for these results, implications for trial practice, and the strengths and weak‐nesses of the methodologies applied in these studies.
Toward the Reduction of Entrapment1
Authors: Nathanson Sinaia , Brockner Joel , Brenner Dan , Samuelson Charles , Countryman Martin , Lloyd Mary , Rubin Jeffrey Z.
Published: August 2006

Entrapping conflicts are those in which decision makers continue investing their resources in a costly or losing course of action in order to justify the appropriateness of already sunken costs. Given the great costs often associated with becoming entrapped, it would seem worthwhile to learn how this decision‐making process can be avoided or reduced. The present experiments addressed this issue. In Experiment 1 subjects participated in an entrapping waiting situation in which self‐focused attention should have been phenomenologically uncomfortable. To test the notion that self‐directed attention would cause reduced entrapment, half of the participants waited in the presence of a mirror whereas half did not. As predicted, subjects became significantly less entrapped in the former than in the latter condition. Experiment 2 studied whether subjects would be less likely to enter a conflict that could later prove entrapping if they were made aware beforehand of the process of entrapment. Half of the individuals in this field experiment were given a brief general description of the process of entrapment, whereas half were not. As expected, subjects were significantly less likely to enter the situation if they had been provided the information about entrapment. The implications of these and other findings are discussed.