bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation
Authors: Macdonell Herbert L.
Published: September 2009

Bloodstains which result from an accident or criminal action may often allow an accurate reconstruction of the event that produced them. This chapter gives a brief introduction to bloodstain patterns and their interpretation. It is based upon physical laws and is illustrated with many examples that were produced in the laboratory as well as many case applications. A short history of this discipline is included as well as the physics of why blood behaves the way it does when being deposited on a surface or is acted upon by some external force.
Palynology
Authors: Bryant Vaughn M.
Published: September 2009

Forensic pollen studies in the United States of America and to a great degree in other regions of the world as well are currently one of the most highly under utilized and neglected techniques available to assist in solving criminal and civil cases. During the past century, there has been a very limited attempt to use pollen evidence in either criminal or civil cases, for a variety of reasons, including a lack of available information about the technique, a very limited number of specialists trained to do forensic pollen work, and an almost total absence of academic centers that are able to train needed specialists, or forensic facilities able, or willing, to fund research in this area. We outline examples of how forensic pollen evidence has proved helpful in finding and convicting criminals guilty of various types of crimes. The paucity of use of forensic palynology can change provided steps are taken to encourage the routine collection, analysis, and use of pollen evidence in both criminal and civil cases.
Wildlife
Authors: Goddard Ken
Published: September 2009

In their effort to identify submitted evidence items, and link suspect, victim, and crime scene, wildlife forensic scientists apply the same basic scientific principles and processes as do police forensic scientists; the primary difference being that in wildlife casework, the victim is always a non human animal—and the suspect may be non human as well.
DNA
Authors: Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

Biologically, humans consist of trillions of cells organized into physical matter occurring as tissue (such as bone or muscle), organs (such as skin or eyes), or fluid (such as blood or semen). Forensic biology attempts to investigate at a cellular and subcellular level traces of this matter deposited during a criminal offence. The component of human cells that plays the most significant role in this sophisticated scientific analysis is a molecule known as
deoxyribonucleic acid
or DNA.
MitochondrialDNA: Profiling
Authors: Melton Terry
Published: September 2009

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis is a routine adjunct to crime scene investigation. Introduced in the early 1990s to aid with the identification of military remains, and implemented since then by the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory in Rockville, Maryland in all military conflicts, it was first used in criminal justice proceedings by the FBI in 1996 in Tennessee v. Paul William Ware. In that case, a single hair located in the throat of a victim linked Ware to a homicide. MtDNA provides a valuable locus for forensic DNA typing in certain circumstances, especially for skeletal remains, shed hairs or hair fragments, and degraded samples of all types. In general it is used when STR (short tandem repeat) testing is not possible due to limited or degraded nuclear DNA because mtDNA is naturally abundant and resistant to degradation. MtDNA cannot be a unique identifier, as can nuclear DNA, due to its pattern of maternal inheritance, nor does it have the statistical power of a nuclear DNA match; as such, it is used as supplementary circumstantial evidence in criminal cases. MtDNA analysis has played a large role in the identification of missing persons when applied to skeletal remains.
Statistical Evidence in Court
Authors: Koehler Jonathan J.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the different ways that forensic science matches may be characterized at trial and what jurors think about those matches. The focus is on common but erroneous match characterizations, and misconceptions jurors may have about the meaning of a match. There is also discussion about the significance of error rates and how presentation of match statistics affects jurors' beliefs about the strength of the evidence. A final section counsels forensic scientists to avoid mischaracterizing the strength of match evidence and to be forthcoming about the assumptions behind the statistics they offer.
DNADatabases and Evidentiary Issues
Authors: Walsh Simon J. , Buckleton John S.
Published: September 2009

DNA databases can be used as an investigative and/or an evaluative tool. Despite DNA databases having established themselves in an investigative sense, there remain some peculiarities regarding the integration of outcomes from DNA databases into evidence. The major issues are the likelihood of adventitious matches between profiles, robustness of the interpretation model, and controversy around the appropriate approach for reporting a DNA match statistic in cases where the suspect was identified by a database search. Each of these issues has had some significant bearing in criminal trials and, as such, they require the attention of forensic scientists to ameliorate their effect on public confidence or legal outcomes.
Friction Ridge Examination (Fingerprints): Interpretation of
Authors: Champod Christophe
Published: September 2009

This article presents the current state of affairs regarding the assessment of fingerprint evidence, typically when a mark, showing a friction ridge skin impression, is compared against a known impression (or print) from a suspect. Both the empirical approach (based on the concept of a numerical standard) and the holistic approach (without any predefined minimum number of minutiae) are discussed. Regardless of the approach, the mechanisms used by practitioners to reach definite decisions remain rather obscure and lack transparency. That is currently at the heart of most critical views expressed by scholars debating the reliability of the field. The author suggests moving toward a probabilistic approach (without resorting to categorical opinions) based on structured, systematic, and peer‐reviewed research.
Microscopy: Light Microscopes
Authors: Hopen Thomas J. , Davis Malcolm
Published: September 2009

The most commonly used instrument in a forensic science laboratory is the light microscope. Of all the available microscope types, the low magnification and ease of use make the stereomicroscope the instrument of choice for preliminary examinations. With little or no preparation of the sample, the stereomicroscope allows an examiner to evaluate and segregate evidence for further examination. A compound microscope, either with brightfield or polarized light, is used to characterize and identify particulate material based on physical features and optical properties. For the trace evidence analyst, it is the polarized light microscope that is the most widely employed analytical instrument since the examiner can characterize and identity almost any type of particulate material. The epi‐fluorescence microscope has become a valuable tool to distinguish similar samples based on their fluorescent properties. The comparison microscope is used extensively in several forensic disciplines to directly compare two samples simultaneously. This article covers the different types of microscopes described above and gives insight into their use in the forensic laboratory.
Paint
Authors: McCullough John
Published: September 2009

This section gives an overview of the background to paint evidence, some consideration of its evidential value, and an outline of the currently available analytical techniques for paint commonly in use in forensic laboratories, with some examples of how paint examination has contributed to solving crime.
Deception: Detection of and Brain Imaging
Authors: Ganis Giorgio , Kosslyn Stephen M.
Published: September 2009

The detection of deception is critical for national security and forensics. Numerous studies have shown that observers cannot discriminate truth tellers from liars on the basis of overt behavior. Although methods based on measuring peripheral psychophysiological variables (such as heart rate and skin conductance) have resulted in better deception detection rates, these methods are still not sufficiently accurate for many applications (e.g., security screening settings in which liars are very infrequent in the pool). In an effort to achieve better detection rates, researchers have begun to examine signals generated directly by the brain. Event‐related potentials (ERPs) are the most commonly used technique for brain‐based detection of deception, but functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has also been used in recent years. The accuracy rates reported so far by using these techniques are still typically under 90%, although ongoing work on paradigm development, brain monitoring methods, and statistical analyses is likely to improve these rates in the future. Finally, the effect of countermeasures on these accuracy rates is still under investigation for ERPs, but has not been examined with fMRI.
Visitation Rights
Authors: Bernet William , Kenan Joseph
Published: September 2009

This article summarizes the procedure for how a mental health professional should conduct a child custody evaluation. The authors address the format for the evaluation, including the initial conference with both parents together, the individual meetings with each parent, the meetings with the child(ren), outside information that should be collected, psychological testing, and the wrap‐up conference with the parents and their attorneys. The article also discusses the critical factors that should be considered in drawing conclusions and making recommendations, such as the child's attachment to the parents, the child's preference, and the possibility of indoctrination and parental alienation. An outline is provided for the written report of the child custody evaluation.
Children: Suggestibility of
Authors: Block Stephanie , Segovia Daisy A. , Goodman Gail S.
Published: September 2009

Suggestibility is of special concern when children provide eyewitness accounts. Although research is mixed on the extent to which misinformation adversely affects children's memory
per se
, it is clear that young children's reports can be susceptible to internal and external influences. Risks of suggestibility can be reduced by interviewing children as soon as possible after incidents, avoiding presentation of false information, limiting parental and peer pressure on children to conform to false suggestions, and refraining from induction of false stereotypes. Additionally, research shows that interview techniques utilizing free recall and open‐ended questions help reduce suggestibility in children's memory reports. Examples of such interviews include the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) protocol and revised cognitive interview. Individual differences in children, such as in language ability, parental attachment style, and inhibition skill, may be associated with reduced suggestibility, but often inconsistently; caution should be taken when considering these factors' predictive power. Research is mixed in terms of whether child witnesses of negative/traumatic events as opposed to neutral events are more or less suggestible. It is important to reduce suggestibility in interview contexts both to prevent wrongful convictions and to protect the credibility of accurate child witnesses.
Delusions
Authors: Silva J. Arturo , Leong Gregory B. , Weinstock Robert
Published: September 2009

Delusions involve false beliefs not based on external reality and proof or evidence to the contrary. Delusions are symptoms of underlying psychiatric or medical conditions. The content of delusions varies widely. In a variety of clinical and forensic contexts, the presence of delusions may be particularly relevant. In addition, malingering of delusions as well as denial of actual delusions may complicate clinical or forensic assessment.
Interrogation
Authors: Costanzo Mark , Leo Richard A.
Published: September 2009

Interrogations are designed to persuade a presumably guilty suspect to admit that he committed a crime. Although the “third degree” was once common in the United States, it is now rare for interrogators to rely on physical abuse as a means of extracting criminal confessions. Instead of physical force, police now rely on psychological coercion. Over the course of an interrogation, police strive to convince the suspect that the evidence against him is compelling and that admitting guilt is the only sensible course of action. The interrogator seeks to create the impression that confessing will actually improve the suspect's otherwise hopeless situation. Sometimes an innocent suspect will be misclassified by police as guilty and subjected to psychologically powerful interrogation techniques. A significant number of these innocent suspects will offer a false confession. Methods of reducing the risk of false confessions and subsequent wrongful convictions (e.g., video recording of interrogations and expert testimony at trial) are discussed.
Juvenile Justice: Adolescent Development
Authors: Steinberg Laurence
Published: September 2009

Some have argued that courts ought to assess defendants' maturity on a case‐by‐case basis, pointing to the fact that older adolescents, in particular, vary in their capacity for mature decision‐making. But the tools needed to measure psychosocial maturity on an individual basis are not well developed, nor is it possible to distinguish reliably between mature and immature adolescents on the basis of brain images. Consequently, assessing maturity on an individual basis, as we do with other mitigating factors, is likely to produce many errors. However, the maturing process follows a similar pattern across virtually all teenagers.

Therefore it is both logical and efficient to treat adolescents as a special legal category—and to refer the vast majority of offenders under the age of 18 to juvenile court, where they will be treated as responsible but less blameworthy, and where they will receive less punishment and more rehabilitation and treatment than typical adult offenders. The juvenile system does not excuse youths of their crimes; rather, it acknowledges the development stage and its role in the crimes committed, and punishes appropriately.
Malingering: Forensic Evaluations
Authors: Vitacco Michael J.
Published: September 2009

Malingering for the purposes of evading criminal prosecution or obtaining drugs is commonly seen in forensic settings, and forensic mental health clinicians often face difficult decisions when evaluating and treating these individuals. In civil settings, malingering is often related to obtaining potentially large financial settlements. In order to appropriately assess and manage malingering, clinicians must have in‐depth knowledge of the following: (i) prevalence rates of (ii) common reasons for countertransference toward malingering patients; (iii) empirically validated measures of malingering; and (iv) clinical issues related with the evaluation of malingering.
Memory: Repressed
Authors: Fowler Nicci B. , Nelson Kally J. , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: September 2009

Assertions by some writers that people repress horrific memories and reliably recover them later have led to a controversy within the social science professional community and the legal field. Despite the lack of proof that massive repression exists, it remains the primary issue of debate in the overall disagreement between proponents and critics of repression. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, claims of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) affected many families and spurred creative interpretation and changes in legal statutes to bring these cases into the courtroom. While it is certainly possible that people can refrain from thinking about unpleasant experiences and be reminded of them later, this constitutes ordinary forgetting and remembering. Virtually no credible scientific evidence has been produced to support the notion of some special processes such as repression. Many individuals reporting recovered memories of CSA during this era had been subjected to questionable therapeutic techniques, such as guided imagery, hypnosis, and dream interpretation designed to ferret out allegedly buried CSA memories. Critics of repression worry that such suggestive procedures induce false memories. Some false memories may even be very similar to true memories and can be embellished and later reported with great emotion.
Mental Status: Examination
Authors: Yang Suzanne , Smith Delaney M.
Published: September 2009

The Mental Status Examination (MSE) is a means of gathering and recording information regarding an individual's mental state in a clinical interview. It is commonly used by treating clinicians to communicate information in the medical record and is often included in a forensic mental health report in order to convey the evaluee's mental condition at the time of examination. In this article, we review the similarities and differences between clinical treatment interviews and the forensic interview, with regards to the data obtained in each setting. We then summarize the major categories of descriptive data that are generally included in the MSE, whether in the context of treatment or in the context of a forensic evaluation. The MSE is of interest in the forensic setting in two main instances: in forensic evaluations by mental health experts and in medical records that are subpoenaed for civil or criminal cases. The article concludes with a brief comment on the reliability and limitations of the MSE.
Profiles: Psychological and Behavioral
Authors: Edwards Carl N.
Published: September 2009

The often misused termprofileis best restricted to investigative tools used to narrow down likely suspects and establish reasonable suspicion necessary to justify an action in the field. Reasonable suspicion is reviewed on a case‐by‐case basis to assure protection of suspect rights. As evidence at trial, profiles easily become little more than a means to either link a defendant to undesirable traits or stereotypes; or for the defense to attribute by association positive or sympathetic attributes to a defendant. Although behavioral science evidence may be proffered for use at trial, including statistical compilations, such evidence should have relevance to the applicable party as an individual, and the termprofileavoided when possible.

Expert testimony concerning a trait of an accused may only be used as evidence that the accused possesses such a trait. It must be left to the jury to determine whether and how such a trait may influence the facts of the case. While the termprofilemay appear to give behavioral evidence an aura of scientific respectability, such labels themselves do nothing to enhance the stature of the substantive underlying observations. In fact, if anything, good science and credible observation are more readily accepted without them.
Behavioral Science Evidence
Authors: Edwards Carl N.
Published: September 2009

Human beings have understood and accommodated the relationship between individual differences, conduct, and culpability since before recorded history. Henry de Bracton, built on this foundation in the thirteenth century, created a modern judiciary that could unite disparate clans into a nation under law. Bracton also reasoned that law involved two components: the physical fact of whether a person committed a crime, and a corresponding requirement of mental accountability. The prerogative of granting dispensations on the basis of mental accountability was reserved for kings and religious officials until the United States rejected royal and religious rule, and enacted laws that transferred behavioral dispensations to trial juries. Behavioral evidence now accounts for the single largest category of expert testimony in the United States, and the academic literature on the topic is followed worldwide.

Insanity is not a medical or psychiatric term; it is a
legal
concept that must be determined as a question of fact. The behavioral sciences today bear little resemblance to where they were 50 or even 30 years ago. Questions of motive and state of mind are, by definition, unique to a given person at a specific time. The task of an expert witness is to assist the trier of fact. The reality that the vast majority of people may fit a particular pattern is irrelevant, if there is any chance that the person being evaluated may be an exception. The fact that behavioral experts may disagree often, reflects nothing more than one expert arguing the rule, and another the exception.

“Novel” behavioral theories and classifications have had a tendency to create both “victims” and causes of action. Typically, these proposed conditions are advanced during a period of social change, anxiety, and as a seeming means of righting some historic wrong. Case congregations provide a vivid record of shifts and corrections in the judicial process. Most problems are self‐correcting, given an open forum and a public, both willing to accept new ideas in its effort to do the right thing, and also able to recognize mistakes.
Psychological Testing
Authors: Andrews Paul
Published: September 2009

Psychological testing, one aspect of psychological assessment, has developed clinically along two paths which provide information about an individual. While cognitive testing provides data about skills such as intelligence and memory, personality testing produces information about emotional states, behavioral patterns, and interpersonal tendencies. This article traces the modern development of psychological testing with particular emphasis on personality testing with adults. Application of personality testing within a forensic context is discussed.
Psychopharmacology
Authors: Miles Samuel I.
Published: September 2009

Psychopharmacology, the study of drug effects on psychological function, is reviewed in this article. The neural substrate for drug mechanisms is described, including an overview of nervous system function, and an introduction to the concepts of neurotransmitter and receptor. Pharmacological concepts of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and drug interactions are described.
Intersecting Lines: Documents
Authors: Shiver Farrell C.
Published: September 2009

The sequence of intersecting lines may play an important role in the forensic examination of a document. The determination that elements of a document were prepared out of the proper sequence provides evidence that the document has been altered. While most line intersection problems involve writing inks, they may also involve typewriting, computer‐printed text, paper folds, and indentations. Many methods have been suggested to determine the order of intersecting lines. Some are more effective than the others. This article reviews a number of techniques.
Paper Analysis
Authors: Murphy John P.
Published: September 2009

Analysis of the paper on which documents are written can give important information. The information derived can assist in detecting document fraud, or in linking particular criminal suspects with materials, documents and or other samples of paper associated with the crime under investigation. The paper discusses (i) paper properties and standard paper test methods and (ii) fiber analysis of paper as a means of discriminating one paper from the other. The above subjects are discussed in general terms and references are provided to standard pulp and paper test methods to which the reader may refer for more in‐depth study.
Firearm Examination: Ballistics
Authors: Jackson Michael
Published: September 2009

The study of forensic ballistics can be divided into four fields of study, namely, internal, intermediate, external, and terminal ballistics. Internal ballistics deals with the events that take place within the firearm. Intermediate ballistics covers a transition phase between internal and external ballistics and occurs around the muzzle of the firearm. External ballistics deals with the trajectory of the projectile between the muzzle of the firearm and the target. External ballistics covers the various factors that have an influence on the flight of a projectile. Terminal ballistics is a study of the projectile's impact with the target. Terminal ballistics looks at the effects that the projectile has on the target and the effects that the target has on the projectile. When the target is a person, the term
wound ballistics
is more appropriately used.
Firearm Discharge Residue: Analysis of
Authors: Zeichner Arie
Published: September 2009

Analysis of firearm discharge residues (FDR) on relevant exhibits can assist in reconstruction of a crime and might provide evidence against suspects involved. This review discusses the detection and analysis of primer residues (GSR), detection and analysis of gunpowder (propellant) residues, techniques of associating firearms and ammunition with gunshot entries, and estimation of the time since shooting.
Automated Fingerprint Identification System
Authors: Meuwly Didier
Published: September 2009

This article describes the development and the forensic uses of automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS). The AFIS technology was initially developed in order to overcome the limitations of the paper‐based fingerprint collections, by digitizing the 10‐print cards in computerized databases. Then technologies to automate the fingerprint feature extraction and comparison were developed, and AFIS systems were implemented on a large scale in order to improve the process of identification of repetitive offenders based on the 10‐print cards. Further development of the AFIS technology allowed for the inclusion of palmprint reference databases and for the processing of fingermarks and palm marks with, as a result, the partial automation of the forensic investigation and intelligence processes. In the field of AFIS, the challenges for the future call for further automation of the feature extraction from low‐quality fingerprint and fingermark images, the improvement of the interoperability of the systems on a global level, and the combination of databases, AFIS technology and scientific methodology in order to further improve the forensic friction ridge evaluation process.
Toolmarks
Authors: Katterwe Horst
Published: September 2009

The examination of toolmarks is a special discipline of forensic science. This discipline is directed at the examination and comparative analysis of tools or instruments, and the marks they produce. The primary purpose of comparative analysis as applied to toolmark identification is to determine whether two objects have been in contact with each other, share some class or identifying (accidental) characteristics, or were once part of the same object.
Crime Scene Investigation
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson
Published: September 2009

Crime scene investigation is the forensic examination and search of a scene. It is a dynamic process that starts with the gathering of basic information, then undertaking an independent assessment of the scene. The scene is documented using written notes, photography, and video. Once physical, biological, and trace evidences are recovered, fingerprint development and recovery can take place. As every scene is unique, when photography and video recording are complete, the sequence of recovery processes can vary according to the evidence location. After a scene has been examined, it may be necessary to carry out a detailed search.

In line with agency guidelines, minor offenses may not be photographed in detail.
Confirmation Testing: Toxicology
Authors: Drummer Olaf H.
Published: September 2009

Confirmation screening in forensic toxicology is critical to ensure that the results of initial tests can be verified and can be led in a court of law, if necessary. Confirmation testing often determines which one of a class of drugs is present, as well as providing a quantitative result in the specimen. This article describes a number of different chromatographic techniques used with a focus on mass spectrometry, the gold standard for confirmatory testing.
Behavioral Toxicology
Authors: Drummer Olaf H.
Published: September 2009

Many drugs and naturally occurring substances can cause significant changes in personality and predispose to behavioral toxicity. These drugs include alcohol, the amphetamines, cocaine, anabolic steroids, benzodiazepines, and the hallucinogens. This article reviews the behavioral changes caused by these substances and outlines the manifestations of such behavior including the increased risk of violence and criminal acts.
Cocaine
Authors: Isenschmid Daniel S.
Published: September 2009

Cocaine is isolated from coca that is found in the plant,Erythroxylon coca,and is a common drug of abuse. It is a powerful central nervous system stimulant that causes intense euphoric effects by preventing dopamine, a neurotransmitter that stimulates the reward pathways in the brain, from being deactivated. It is sold on the street in two forms—as a hydrochloride salt and as a free base (crack). The salt form is typically abused by nasal insufflation, while crack is smoked. Smoked cocaine causes greater and more rapid euphoria than administration through other means, making crack particularly dangerous. Cocaine is metabolized through a variety of competing mechanisms of chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis. The average half‐life of the drug in the blood is 60‐90 min, depending on the route of administration. Cocaine metabolites typically remain detectable in the urine for 2‐4 days after use, depending on dose and other physiological factors. The parent drug and its metabolites can be detected through a variety of analytical procedures. For forensic purposes, analysis typically includes an initial test such as an immunoassay and a confirmatory test such as mass spectrometry. Increased sensitivity of newer analytical instrumentation has made the analysis of hair and oral fluid for cocaine and metabolites possible. Hair provides longer detection times than traditional specimens, while oral fluid may prove useful in roadside sobriety testing.
Alcohol
Authors: Jones Alan W.
Published: September 2009

Scientific investigations dating back more than 100 years established a functional relationship between the concentration of alcohol in blood or urine and the signs and symptoms of drunkenness. The blood‐alcohol concentration (BAC) achieved after drinking has become universally accepted as the most objective way to judge the effects of this depressant drug on a person's performance and behavior. Alcohol easily crosses the blood‐brain barrier to disrupt the balance between inhibitory and excitatory influences. Drinking large amounts of alcohol leads to progressively higher BAC and more pronounced behavioral changes and negative effects on the individual, such as disinhibition, ataxia, sedation, coma, and finally death by paralysis of the respiratory centers in the brain. This article reviews the disposition and fate of alcohol in the body and the factors influencing the BAC reached after drinking alcoholic beverages. Knowledge about the physiology, pharmacology, and toxicology of alcohol is vital to allow a proper understanding of how this drug influences behavior and how a person's BAC should be interpreted for research, clinical, and forensic purposes. The relationships between the concentrations of ethanol in blood and other body fluids from both living subjects and forensic autopsies are also examined and discussed.
Trauma Causation: Analysis of Automotive
Authors: Liptai Laura L.
Published: September 2009

Biomedical engineering applies engineering principles to biological systems, holistically utilizing knowledge in engineering, biology, and medicine. The cross‐disciplinary field integrates engineering (e.g., external force applied) with biomedical sciences (e.g., tissue tolerance) and clinical input from health care providers (e.g., medical diagnosis). Written for those familiar with forensics, this article introduces biomedical engineering by explaining how it integrates medicine and engineering. Scientific methodological approaches for the analysis of trauma causation and the specific applications to forensics are outlined. Common interactions or relationships with other forensic and medical disciplines illustrate how biomedical engineering uniquely contributes to forensics. The section on design and proper use of experimentation outlines applications of standardized automotive crash tests to specific cases. In situations where the scale of the analysis does not allow for customized full‐scale testing, and when the use of crash test databases is not appropriate, the proper design of engineering subsystem experimentation is illustrated. Lastly, an alternative method for force quantification in trauma causation analysis, computerized mathematical modeling, is illustrated.
Computers
Authors: van Waalwijk van Doorn K. , den Dunnen M. , Geradts Zeno
Published: September 2009

Computer forensics is a fast growing area. In businesses and in law enforcement, the number of people involved is growing rapidly. Computer forensics can be described as “the use of specialized techniques for recovery, authentication, and analysis of electronic data with a view to present evidence in a court of law”. Within law enforcement, some of the objectives are to find information that might contribute to an insight into what has happened in an investigation, and who was responsible. Important issues are that the data on the seized computers are not altered and that a clear chain of evidence is documented.

Traditionally, a distinction is made between computer forensics (hard drives), mobile phone forensics, and video. Nowadays, mobile phones and personal digital assistants like the IPAQ or Blackberry are like computers with a hard drive and therefore are dealt with in mostly the same way. Standard software mostly used within law enforcement for these products are “Encase”, “Ultimate Toolkit”, XRY, and Tulp 2G (developed at the Netherlands Forensic Institute).

Digital video is still a different field because, although they are basically like computers with a hard drive, the problem with proprietary systems is so great that different techniques need to be used.
Length Measurement
Authors: Edelman Gerda , Alberink Ivo
Published: September 2009

In forensic practice, frequently requests arrive for height measurement of persons in digital images. Results can be used to exclude or gather evidence against suspects and, as such, are interesting to the police, judges, and lawyers. Typical complicating factors in the above are camera parameters (location, orientation, and lens distortion) and characteristics of the questioned person (pose, footwear, and headwear). Methods used in the literature include single‐view metrology (on the basis of vanishing points) and 3D modeling of either the perpetrator or the crime scene. For any method used, results need to be validated by doing a reconstruction with persons of known height posing in front of the same camera under identical circumstances. The systematic and random error made in measurements is then modeled, and confidence intervals for the questioned person's height may be determined. Likelihood ratios (LRs), which quantify evidential value, need to be studied in more detail. Moreover, camera dependency of the results needs to be studied, and the different methods need to be compared in actual casework.
Anthropology: Age Determination of Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina
Published: September 2009

Contrary to sexing, determining the age at death of human remains is much easier when the remains belong to subadults. In this age range, in fact, aging is based on the analysis of the morphological and metric characteristics of bones and teeth and on the stage of development, since each single structure grows and develops at a different rate and in a different manner. Aging, in these cases, is based on the degree of bone growth (e.g., diaphyseal length), epiphyseal fusion, dental eruption, and tooth mineralization. At around 20 years of age (taking into account the influence of ancestry, nutrition, and health status), dental and bone development terminates (apart from areas such as the clavicle). After 25 years of age, one needs to switch to parameters, which rely on degeneration or alteration in time of bony or dental tissues. The most popular methods of age estimation after 25 years use the pubic symphysis, the fourth rib, and the auricular surface of the ilium. Evaluation of cranial sutures is, on the other hand, very variable and less reliable. Degeneration related to age can also be assessed in teeth, where periodontosis and root translucency can provide fairly accurate age estimation. The microscopic study of bone sections may also provide data concerning age through the evaluation of the number of osteons and secondary osteons, of osteon fragments, and of primary osteons by regression formulae. Finally, chemical methods such as aminoacid racemization also have been tested.
Identification of Human Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide , Angelis Danilo De
Published: September 2009

Once there is a suspicion of identity—in other words, we think we know whom the skeleton belonged to—definite positive identification can be performed by DNA analysis, by odontological methods, and also by forensic anthropology via the comparison of bone shape. This may be done, for example, by comparing the shape of specific bones visible in an antemortem X ray of the missing person with the same bones visible in a postmortem X ray of the skeleton. The most popular areas for this type of comparison are the frontal sinuses and the vertebrae, although every skeletal area can be compared. There is, however, no unanimous indication on which and how many characters are necessary in order to achieve personal identification, so some subjectivity still exists. The recurrence of discordant characters settles the case, by excluding the identity; the occurrence of several concordant characters, commonly observed within the population, does not allow one to express a final judgment on identification, whereas even a few characters rarely observed can lead to a personal identification. Craniofacial superimposition may also be performed, though it is much less reliable. Fingerprint analysis may provide a correct identification of human remains if the subject has a criminal record and can be restored even in cases of advanced decomposition.
Trauma Analysis of Skeletal Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide
Published: September 2009

In the study of skeletonized human remains, as in the case of well‐preserved cadavers, identification and interpretation of signs of trauma is crucial for indicating possible cause and manner of death. However, the task for the anthropologist may be more challenging since bones do not have any soft tissue, which may help interpret the traumatic scenario. In fact, as regards the timing of lesions with respect to the time of death, anthropologists are limited to distinguishing between antemortem (inflicted several days or weeks before death), perimortem (around death), and postmortem (a long time after death) trauma. It is impossible at the moment to verify whether a bone lesion that can be classified as perimortem actually occurred a little before or a little after death. On the other hand, bone is a good substrate for tool mark analysis and other signs of trauma. Thus blunt force injury, sharp force injury, and gunshot wounds give a good degree of information and can be studied in great detail. Within bone, one can also find signs of drowning and also of poisoning via microscopic and toxicological analysis, though these must be interpreted with great caution.
Anthropology: Aging the Living
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina
Published: September 2009

There is a growing section of forensic anthropology, which concerns the study of living individuals, in particular, the problem of aging and that of identifying living subjects for legal purposes. In subjects who have committed crimes and do not possess effective identification documents, it is of utmost importance to verify their imputability, which usually implies determining whether they are underage or adults. Such age thresholds change according to the country of interest; however, bone and dental development are crucial for solving this problem. The main techniques for age estimation in the living consider wrist and hand X‐ray analysis and tooth mineralization. More age assessments are being performed on adult subjects coming from poorer countries who have no certified documents and who, for example, want to know how old they are in order to request old‐age pensions or other benefits. This age range in the living poses considerable problems and only certain new dental techniques may provide a solution. Lately, due to the increase in pedo‐pornographic material, in many countries, anthropologists, pathologists, and pediatricians must now tackle the issue of aging children from photographic material.
Suicide (Behavior)
Authors: McCoy Katrina , Thomas Tracy A. , Fremouw William J.
Published: September 2009

This article presents the incidence, prevalence, and types of homicide–suicide.
Genomics and Behavioral Evidence
Authors: Bernet William
Published: September 2009

This article summarizes the history and current status of testimony regarding behavioral genetics and genomics. Depending on the case specifics, testimony regarding a person's genetic makeup may constitute evidence of a particular psychiatric diagnosis, may simply support the diagnosis in a general way, or may help explain the person's behavior. In criminal trials, testimony regarding behavioral genomics—including gene and environment interactions—is most likely to be relevant as mitigation in sentencing hearings. Ordinarily, genotyping a defendant is only one part of a comprehensive psychiatric and psychological forensic evaluation.
Cross‐Examination: Impact on Testimony
Authors: Zajac Rachel , Hayne Harlene
Published: September 2009

When witnesses give evidence in adversarial trials, their testimony is open to scrutiny by the opposing party. This process is known ascross‐examination. Although the goal of cross‐examination is to uncover inaccuracies that may render the witness's testimony unreliable, recent research has cast doubt on cross‐examination as a means of eliciting accurate testimony, especially from children. In fact, the types of questions that lawyers ask witnesses during cross‐examination are the same types of questions that have been empirically shown to promote inaccuracy: leading questions, questions involving complex language, and questions that place strong social pressure on the witness. Under cross‐examination, child witnesses frequently change aspects of their earlier testimony. Laboratory research, however, has suggested that these changes may bear little relation to the truth. That is, children questioned about a staged event using an analog of cross‐examination tend to change both correct and incorrect information, resulting in a considerable decrease in accuracy. Adult witnesses also make changes to their testimony during cross‐examination, raising the possibility that concern about cross‐examination as a truth‐finding mechanism should not be limited to children. In light of these findings, it is crucial that research continues into the effect of cross‐examination on children's and adults' ability to provide accurate accounts of their past experiences.
Criminalization of The Mentally Ill
Authors: Romero Erin G. , Elkington Kate S. , Teplin Linda A.
Published: September 2009

The objective of this study is to review the definition of criminalization of persons with severe mental illness (SMI), discuss possible causes of criminalization of this population, and analyze findings from empirical studies that examine the criminalization hypothesis. At each point in the criminal justice system—the police‐citizen encounter, arrest, court processing, and jail detention—studies have shown that persons with SMI have extensive contact with the criminal justice system. Many studies of the criminalization of persons with SMI were conducted before special programs were developed to divert persons with SMI from the correctional system into the mental health system, e.g., special training programs for police, mental health crisis teams integrated into police departments, jail diversion programs, and mental health courts. Future studies should address the extent to which the recent programs designed to reduce criminalization of persons with SMI have been effective.
Elder Abuse: Policy
Authors: Nerenberg Lisa
Published: September 2009

In the quarter century since elder abuse was first recognized, researchers, policy makers, and practitioners have struggled to achieve consensus on how to define the problem and what the appropriate response should be. This article describes the main subcategories of abuse and explains the controversies over definitions. It further describes common risk factors and impediments to assessment. It explains common interventions and emphasizes the need for multidisciplinary responses.
Elder Abuse: Risk
Authors: Anetzberger Georgia J.
Published: September 2009

Because the causes for elder abuse are unknown, we look to risk factors to help us better understand this problem and conditions leading to its occurrence. Risk factors are critical to elder abuse detection, assessment, and prevention. They are most salient in combination and with longer exposure. They also may vary by elder abuse form and setting. Risk factors for which there is substantial supporting research are found in characteristics of the perpetrator (i.e., pathology, dependency), victim (i.e., dementia, problem behaviors), and perpetrator/victim environment (i.e., shared living arrangements, social isolation). Characteristics of the cultural milieu (e.g., ageism, stereotyping of persons with disabilities, etc.) are seen as providing the backdrop for abusive actions.
Premenstrual Syndrome
Authors: Easteal Patricia , Kaye Neil S. , Reed Tom
Published: September 2009

We look at the medical definition and description of the diagnostic symptoms of severe premenstrual syndrome (PMS), which is commonly referred to as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). We explain how PMS has been used as a basis for insanity, automatism and diminished capacity (responsibility) legal pleas. Such forensic use of PMS in the courtroom has generated controversy with concerns about sexism, potential for stigmatizing all women, its reliance upon acceptance of the legitimacy of PMS and PMDD, the need for expert witnesses and the potential for its misuse.
Error Rates in Forensic Methods
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

In science, the word “error” has multiple meanings. It can be given its ordinary, colloquial meaning of simply being wrong because of a mistake. Error in everyday life can result as acts of omission (not doing something that should have been done) or commission (doing something that should not have been done). And so it is in the forensic environment. Errors can be introduced at any point from crime scene to the court. This article discusses the impact of error rates on forensic analyses and also discusses the special attention that the American courts have given to error rates in the assessment of reliability of a technique.