bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
International activities to reduce pollution impacts at the regional scale.
Authors: Bull K. , Fenech G.
Published: November 2017

At the regional scale there has been much effort made to introduce international agreements on pollution control over the last two decades. In Europe in the 1980s, much of the early focus was upon simple flat rate controls based upon emission limits or technology. Some countries adopted the best available technology or the precautionary principle for their emission controls. In the 1990s, the move towards effects-based approaches have made use of the development of critical loads maps and our knowledge of long-range atmospheric transport resulting from models and measurements at monitoring sites. An effects-based sulfur protocol for the UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution is now being followed by a multi-pollutant, multi-effect protocol which will address effects of sulfur, nitrogen and ozone. This will be supported by European Community strategies on acidification and ozone effects (which will also consider the effects of excess nutrient nitrogen) and emission ceilings directives. In North America bilateral agreements have been used to reduce sulfur emissions and their impacts internationally; Canada has indicated that further action will be needed in the future to address outstanding acidification problems. In general, emissions have fallen in line with protocol obligations across Europe, while similar changes have taken place in North America. There are differences for many individual countries, however, with some achieving more while others, usually those who are not parties to particular protocols, much less. Overall, sulfur emissions will probably be around 20% of their maximum in the mid-1980s by 2010: this has benefits both internationally but also more locally where individual sources often have significant impacts on ecosystems. Improvements in sulfur emissions are placing more emphasis on the need to control nitrogen pollutant emissions. In addition, future consideration will need to be taken of the large costs associated with high levels of protection and whether that protection is justifiable or attainable; for this, better information on benefits will be needed.
Population genetics.
Authors: Yeh F. C.
Published: November 2017

Population genetics is the quantitative study of the amount and distribution of genetic variation in populations, and the dynamics of the underlying genetic processes. This chapter provides an introduction to the analysis of gene and genotype frequencies and the measurement of genetic variation at individual and population levels. The basic mathematical models that form the framework for such analyses are developed (e.g. The Hardy-Weinberg Principle) and these are used to explore the effects of mutation, random genetic drift, sex, migration and selection on population genetic structure. The final section deals with the more complex analysis of multilocus genetic structure.
Genetic tools: the use of biochemical and molecular markers.
Authors: Glaubitz J. C. , Moran G. F.
Published: November 2017

Several types of genetic marker are available to forest conservation geneticists, including isozymes, terpenes, restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), microsatellites, random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) and amplification fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The techniques underlying these markers are explained in terms that are accessible to those unfamiliar with molecular biology. The strengths and weaknesses of the various marker systems are elucidated via comparison. Guidelines are given for choosing the appropriate markers for particular applications in conservation genetics.
Small population processes.
Authors: Savolainen O. , Kuittinen H.
Published: November 2017

Some forest tree populations have small geographical distributions or occur in fragmented populations, and the distribution of more species is becoming fragmented as land use increases. In fragmented populations the genetic variability within populations is reduced, and the variance between populations increases. In small populations, homozygosity increases because of inbreeding. This may have deleterious consequences because of inbreeding depression. The rates of inbreeding and drift depend on the genetically efficient population size. Even populations with large census size can be genetically small if only part of the individuals participate in reproduction, or if there is clonal reproduction. A short bottleneck will have minor effects on overall variation, whereas a long term reduction in population size will deplete variability. Similarly, once variability is depleted due to a long term bottleneck, the recovery of variation by mutation takes a long time after the increase of population size. Because of the long time to reach equilibrium between mutation and drift, the current population sizes do not always correlate positively with the level of variability. For neutral loci such as molecular markers, the distributions of allele frequences depend mainly on the balance between mutation, migration and drift, but the level and distribution of quantitative variation is more likely to be affected as well by selection.
Selection.
Authors: Namkoong G. , Koshy M. P. , Aitken S.
Published: November 2017

The power of selection in changing the genetic make-up of populations and species has been demonstrated through both breeding of artificial populations and study of natural populations. Genetic conservation of forest trees requires consideration of the process of selection, not in isolation but in combination with the effects of other evolutionary forces including mutation, migration and genetic drift and on how the interpopulational genetic diversity is affected. Whether it is better for the conservation of genetic diversity to promote, maintain or mute the effects of selection is situation-dependent, as the former may increase the average fitness of populations under current environmental conditions but will reduce the ability of populations to adapt to future conditions.
Disease threats and the conservation genetics of forest trees.
Authors: Byrne M.
Published: November 2017

Disease has had major impacts on forest trees and the ecosystems they support. Disease expression is a result of complex plant-pathogen interactions and disease severity is often related to whether the pathogen is endemic or has been introduced. The genetic effects of disease include changes in the distribution and frequency of resistance genes, fragmentation and reduction in population size. Disease control involves containment and quarantine in the field, and increasing the resistance of populations. Disease effects have implications for conservation, both in situ and ex situ. In situ conservation preserves the coadaption of host-pathogen systems and allows the continued evolution of resistance. Ex situ conservation collections provide the gene pool from which disease resistance selection and breeding will be achieved, and therefore should encompass as wide a range of genotypes as possible.
Hybridisation and forest conservation.
Authors: Carney S. E. , Wolf D. E. , Rieseberg L. H.
Published: November 2017

Despite the presence of many barriers to interspecific reproduction, hybridization is common among plants and in some groups of animals. It is especially common in plants living in disturbed habitats, on islands, and when introduced species are involved. Numerous outcomes are possible, including an increase in genetic variation, adaptation to novel environments, the merging of species and the formation and maintenance of stable hybrid zones. Several models regarding the formation and maintenance of hybrid zones have been proposed, and they differ in whether selection is environment-dependent or environment-independent, the fitness of hybrids and the importance of dispersal. There are many rare plants and animals that are threatened by hybridization with relatives. In these cases there are two possible outcomes that are relevant to conservation biology: outcrossing depression and genetic assimilation. Factors that affect the probability of extinction due to hybridization are discussed, as well as management implications. In rare cases, hybridization may also be used to save species on the brink of extinction.
Effect of forest tree domestication on gene pools.
Authors: El-Kassaby Y. A.
Published: November 2017

The little available information on the domestication of forest tree species is mainly devoted to the genetic consequences of domestication rather than the process itself. Domestication of forest tree species is fragmented and follows the classical horizontal organization of management systems, thus making evaluation difficult. However, systematic monitoring of the various steps of the domestication process (selection-breeding methods and strategies, and seed and seedling production) has identified cases of unintentional directional selection where genetic diversity could be affected. Phenotypic selection has been proven effective in capturing most of the genetic variation existing in natural populations. The progress from breeding population to production populations did not substantially reduce genetic variability; however, the chance for rare, endemic allelic loss increased with a reduction in number of parental trees in seed orchards. Use of a breeding strategy that provides for sampling over several geographical locations and selection for various goals, as well as adaptation to different environments (i.e. Multiple Population Breeding System) was demonstrated to be effective. Generally, understanding the species biology and the role of biology on genetic diversity is of great importance. The need for change and/or the implementation of management practices is effective in maintaining the genetic variability.
Genetic markers as a tool for bioindication in forest ecosystems.
Authors: Müller-Starck G. , Schubert R.
Published: November 2017

Bioindication measures the response of individuals and populations to stress with main emphasis on anthropogenically induced change of environment. Forest ecosystems reveal a high indicative potential for the verification of long-term environmental stress. This study aims at a greater efficiency of bioindication via integration of genetic markers as indicators, which are a response variable not currently being employed for this purpose. Principles of adaptation to stress are outlined and influences of environmental stress on genetic structures are classified. A set of selected genetic parameters is suggested for utilization in bioindication. It includes indicators for climate change with respect to thermic impacts and indicators for environmental stress governed by air pollution. Chances of molecular tools for bioindication are described with respect to such genes encoding heat shock proteins, stilbene synthase as well as cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes, and the species-specific detection and quantification of pathogens. Five major problems in bioindication are discussed and the importance of genetic tools in bioindication is pointed out.
Rethinking stakeholder involvement in biodiversity conservation projects.
Authors: Enters T.
Published: November 2017

According to the conventional wisdom of biodiversity conservation, the economic activities of rural people were viewed as threats to the undisturbed functioning of natural ecosystems and their genetic diversity. Thus, representative samples of ecosystems were put under strict protection. The poor success rate of such measures has lead to the exploration of alternative conservation approaches. Most notable among these are community involvement and the devolution of resource management responsibilities. These approaches are also problematic as they are based on numerous - sometimes untested - assumptions regarding the interest, commitment and skills of local people, the notion of stable and homogenous communities and the superiority of community-based natural resource tenure and knowledge systems. The success, in both critical social and biological terms, of biodiversity conservation efforts hinges on abandoning naive assumptions. It is important to challenge the 'received wisdom' about livelihood strategies of 'forest-dependent' people, stakeholder involvement, community cohesion and the interest of local people in forest conservation and management. It is just as crucial to reconsider the new 'conservation-through-development' orthodoxies that have influenced project designs and policies in recent decades and to stress that many issues surrounding forests and their sustainable use are very location specific.
Politics, policies and the conservation of forest genetic diversity.
Authors: Kanowski P. J.
Published: November 2017

The conservation of forest genetic diversity is a dominant theme in environmental politics in the late 20th century. Debate has focused on several issues central to the Convention on Biological Diversity: sovereignty over and access to genetic resources, the sharing of benefits and costs, the dynamic between conservation and use, and the relationship between economic efficiency and social and environmental objectives. Multilateral intergovernmental resolution of these issues is proving difficult, but various innovative approaches have emerged in particular situations. These initiatives are characterized by their diversity and flexibility, and by the establishment of partnerships between interested parties. Policies for the conservation of forest genetic diversity, therefore, need to be based on the recognition and accommodation of the diversity of interests and rights. They need also foster coordination, integration and innovation at the policy level, and acknowledge institutional capacity. Realizing these goals is perhaps more challenging than developing the technical elements of genetic conservation policies, in which we are considerably assisted by scientific advances reviewed elsewhere in this book. Key technical issues with a significant policy dimension are the respective roles of in situ and ex situ conservation, the identification of priority areas for conservation, the integration of on-reserve and off-reserve management, and assessment of the effects of forest management on genetic diversity. These issues are being addressed principally through the development of integrated conservation strategies, reappraisal of the role and management of protected areas, and the development and evaluation of sustainable forest management regimes.
Forest conservation genetics: limitations and future directions.
Authors: Boshier D. H. , Young A. G.
Published: November 2017

Maintenance of tree populations with sufficient genetic variation to adapt to future conditions, whether in reserves or in production systems, is essential. Given the limited resources available for conservation, genetic criteria will, however, generally form only one component within strategies that reflect the integral nature of factors such as demography, ecology and genetics, as components of natural systems. The circumstances under which genetic aspects may be limiting are discussed, while recognizing the limits to the use of genetic information and the need for integrated conservation strategies. Limitations of current approaches and knowledge are also considered along with the direction of more recent and future work such as: genetic adaptation of trees within more complex forest environments, the integration of metapopulation and demographic models and modelling of the effects of climate change. The need for more research is highlighted, with the generation of baseline information, as well as the use of a range of model species from which species may be grouped into management guilds being identified as priorities.
Good practices in contracting for extension.
Authors: Rivera W. M. , Zijp W. , Alex G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reproduces much of the Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems Thematic Group's Good Practice Note on contracting for extension. The general findings of case studies are presented along with a review of the policy issues relevant to contracting for extension services and the requirements suggested in the case studies for successful extension contracting. It is suggested that, in general, successful contracting of extension services requires: political will for extension programme reform and contracted extension; clarity in institutional roles, opportunities, and benefits of contracted extension; adequate capacity of service providers; and effective demand for extension services.
Bangladesh: sub-contracting extension services to a local private agricultural training institute.
Authors: Hassanullah M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a case from Bogra district, Bangladesh, which highlights an arrangement whereby the educational needs of a specific and targeted extension clientele (i.e., clients of the Agrobased Industries and Technology Development Project) are provided by a local private agricultural training institute (i.e., the Mahipur Agricultural Training Institute). The impact, sustainability, and replicability of the extension contract are discussed, as well as the lessons learned from the case.
USA-Louisiana: private row crop consulting and implications for interdependency among private consultants, extension and farmers.
Authors: Barnett J. , Verma S.
Published: November 2017

This paper describes the private crop consulting services in the cotton industry of Louisiana, USA. The impact, sustainability, and replicability of the private cotton consulting business are discussed, as well as the lessons learned from Louisiana's experience.
Mozambique: dual public-private services for small farmers.
Authors: Gêmo H. , Rivera W. M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the phases in the government of Mozambique's move to develop a pluralistic national system of rural extension. It then discusses the problems confronting the development of an integrated national extension system, and speculates on the outcome of outsourcing extension.
World sugar markets and entangled government programs.
Authors: Polopolus L. C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents an overview of the historical uses of sugar and the historical development of commercial sugar production. It also highlights early intervention by governments to protect sugar markets, which laid the foundation for government intervention in modern times.
The U.S.-Mexico high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) trade dispute.
Authors: Buzzanell P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first describes the global high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) industry and the recent developments in HFCS production in the USA, Mexico, and other countries. It then discusses the trade controversy that has developed between the USA and Mexico over increased HFCS imports into Mexico from the USA. The antidumping duties imposed by Mexico on US HFCS imports since January 1998 were declared illegal by a NAFTA Panel on 15 April 2002.
Structural reform and implications for Mexico's sweetener market.
Authors: García Chávas L. R. , Spreen T. H. , Greene G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the structural reforms that the Mexican sweetener industry has undergone. It discusses the implications these reforms have for the sweetener industries in Mexico and the USA. Problems in the production of sugarcane and sugar in Mexico are examined, and the prospects of the Mexican sugar industry is discussed in the context of the North American Free Trade Agreement.
The European Union's high-priced sugar-support regime.
Authors: Schmitz A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first presents an overview of sugar production, imports, exports, and domestic consumption in the EU. It then describes the EU sugar policy mechanisms, including: price guarantees; import restrictions; export subsidies; and the production-quota system. The economic impacts of the EU's high-priced sugar support policy are then discussed.
European sugar markets and policies at the outset of the twenty-first century.
Authors: Swinnen J. F. M. , Gow H. R. , Maviglia I.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyses sugar markets and government policies in Europe in the 1990s and discusses what can be expected in the next decade. The analysis focuses first on the situation in the EU, and subsequently on the changes that have taken place in the Central and Eastern European Countries. Changes in production, consumption, and trade are analysed, as well as changes in policies and the industry structure. How various factors have affected the market situation is also discussed.
Coalition structures and U.S. sugar policy.
Authors: Moss C. B. , Schmitz A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role of coalitions and vertical and horizontal integration structures in the policy debate over the US sugar programme. This debate is characterized by the differing interests of the American Sugar Alliance and the Coalition of Sugar Reform. Coalition theory, public choice, and the new institutional economics are used to describe the pressure that each organization exerts on the US policy process and on the possibility for change based on each coalition's structure.
Biotechnology and the war on poverty.
Authors: Conway G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter touches on four areas: (1) the scale of global poverty and the urgency of poverty alleviation; (2) the potential of biotechnology in agriculture and health to make a radical difference in the lives of the poor; (3) the elements of a global policy framework for addressing the issues posed by biotechnology; and (4) the creation of public-private partnerships for sharing new biotechnology.
Biotechnology and smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa.
Authors: Mukhwana E. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the declining agricultural productivity, the problems of smallholder farming, and the challenge of feeding the poor in Africa, and explores the role of biotechnology in addressing these issues. It is concluded that although biotechnology can improve the lives of poor rural farmers in Africa, one needs to think beyond just selling seeds. Structural and policy constraints of smallholder farmers and their rights to indigenous seeds and genetic material have to be addressed.
Prevention of human infectious diseases in developing countries.
Authors: Crooy P.
Published: November 2017

This article describes the progress in the elimination of human infectious diseases in Developing Countries, such as smallpox, poliomyelitis, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis. The importance of control and prevention programmes, including immunization strategies, are discussed.
International organizations and human health.
Authors: Gezairy H. A. , Saleh A. A.
Published: November 2017

This article provides a description of different international health organizations and their contributions to the improvement of public health. These organizations include the Commission on Science and Technology for Development and other organizations under UN (UNFPA, UNICEF, UNESCO and WHO). The current challenges faced by the organizations in health promotion, including biotechnology and technology transfer, are discussed briefly.
Biotechnology: driven by profit or searching for a better environment?
Authors: Johnson B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the potential impact of biotechnology, particularly the genetic transformation of cultivated crops, on agricultural sustainability, and concludes with the challenge of making biotechnology work not only for the productivity but also for the sustainability of farming systems.
Regulating agricultural biotechnology: a consumer perspective.
Authors: Jaffe G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the CSPI's (Center for Science in the Public Interest) advocacy project on agricultural biotechnology. Some of the project's goals are to identify the risks and benefits of biotechnology, to ensure that the US regulatory system is up to the task of preventing significant risks, and to keep the public informed about the facts surrounding agricultural biotechnology.
Perception and acceptance of biotechnology in some developing countries.
Authors: Sasson A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the findings of several enquiries on the public perception and acceptance of genetically modified (GM) crops and foods derived from them, carried out in developing countries, including the Philippines, Mexico and Brazil. It is concluded that public concerns about GM foods and crops are based on: the increasing speed of progress in the life sciences and their applications; the perceived risks and damage to human and animal health, and the environment; the precautionary approach and principle when facing uncertainty; the ethical issues; the suspicion toward the attitude of transnational corporations and their role in agrifood systems; the suspicion toward the scientists belonging to the public sector who collaborate with these corporations; the suspicion that regulation systems and biosafety guidelines are not sufficiently rigorous and properly enforced; the weakness of the public sector's research and development ability compared to that of the private sector; the view that GMOs and GM crops are part of the globalization process; and the intellectual property rights relating to GM crops.
Improvement of the grain elevator receiving operation by means of object-oriented simulation.
Authors: Berruto R. , Maier D. E.
Published: November 2017

This paper investigates, by means of a simulation model, the option of enlarging the receiving pit holding capacity and dimensions to increase the throughput of the unloading operation for a country grain elevator. The model has been validated against the performance of a large Midwestern USA commercial grain elevator and has previously been used to verify the feasibility of different facility improvements. The parameter used to compare the performance of the different elevator configurations is the average service time per customer, expressed as the difference between the moments the truck enters and leaves the system. It includes all unit operation times and waiting times incurred by each truckload delivered to the grain elevator. Enlarging the pit size to simultaneously dump the two hoppers of a trailer carrying approximately 25 tonnes of grain without moving the semi truck back and forth would yield a 1.1 minute per truck time saving for each load. For the elevator surveyed, semi trucks represent approximately 80% of the total traffic. On a peak day, the enlargement of the existing two receiving pits would result in service times of approximately 32 minutes per load for the proposed elevator configuration versus 59 minutes per load for the present configuration. It would also reduce the truck cycle time per load for farmers, which would increase their daily crop harvesting capacities without their having to add additional transportation equipment. Consequently, the grain volume received at the elevator could be considerably higher with this modified configuration.
Paddy and rice storage in China.
Authors: Qiu WeiFen Qiu WeiFen , Jin ZuXun Jin ZuXun
Published: November 2017

China is the predominant paddy grower in the world. Annual paddy output is 166.20 million tonnes which is approximately 36.9% of the world output. China's total output ranks first among more than 100 paddy-cultivating countries. Paddy is a seasonal crop, and China is a country, with 1.3 billion people, As a consequence, paddy, and milled rice storage and reserves are extremely significant in China. There are three major types of storage facilities: horizontal warehouses of Soviet Union origin, bins, and silos. China has large territory and its climate, field and drainage conditions are quite varied. Appropriate paddy storage facilities must be chosen to ensure the safe storage of rice under different ecological conditions. The overall losses for paddy and rice during storage are the same though the degree is varied. There are two types of losses, namely quality and quantity. China's grain (including paddy, wheat, and maize) storage loss is about 0.2% at national reserve level, while rural household storage losses amount to 7-13%. The keeping qualities of the abovementioned grains, from the best to the worst, are wheat, paddy, and maize. The main causes of grain storage loss in China can be summarized as insects in the south and moisture in the north. Moisture content and temperature are the most important parameters affecting the stability of the stored rice. To ensure the safe storage of rice, storage techniques such as conventional storage, low-temperature storage, controlled-atmosphere storage and chemical storage are all practiced in China. China's paddy storage loss is low in terms of quantity. The cost of China's paddy storage is relatively low, at about 80 PBY RMB per tonne.
Do resistant seeds offer a worthwhile avenue for progress in stored product protection?
Authors: Credland P. F. , Appleby J. H.
Published: November 2017

Most plants support the development of many specialist and a few generalist insect species. The corollary is that herbivorous insects tend to be associated with a very limited number of host species. Frequently this restriction on an insect's capacity to utilize a particular plant has been ascribed to the presence of plant-produced allelochemicals and has been exploited in several direct and indirect ways for the protection of stored commodities. For example, extracts made from many plant parts and powders prepared from dried ground plants have frequently been considered as possible additives to protect stored grain and legume seeds. Some experiments have gone further and have attempted to identify the active chemical agents in such oils and powders, suggesting their usage in a purified form. However the practical application of these findings is rarely reported. Alternatively, but with actually a similar philosophical basis, is the suggestion that one can identify "resistant" populations or cultivars of a crop and interbreed them with other cultivars possessing more desirable agronomic characteristics, transferring the resistant property and thereby yielding cultivars which are pest resistant. Resistance is frequently, though not always, associated with changes in plant chemistry. Modern molecular genetics enhance the speed of plant breeding and also allow the introduction of genes from other species. Is any of this work worthwhile? Are we taking traditional wisdom about food protection, allying it with modern plant breeding programmes and yet forgetting the pest biology? In this paper we propose to take examples from research on bruchids living on cowpeas and suggest that the results of plant breeding will rarely provide a long-term solution to the protection of stored seeds. Charles Darwin noted the occurrence of individual variation among organisms and the power of selection; all control measures for pest insects, including the use of botanicals and resistant seeds, are effectively selecting agents we would do well to remember the consequence, evolution, when considering how to protect stored seeds.
Psocoptera (psocids) as pests of bulk grain storage in Australia: a cautionary tale to industry and researchers.
Authors: Rees D.
Published: November 2017

From an ecological point of view a bulk of grain is a huge potential source of food for a succession of organisms to exploit. These include pests as well as the human "owners". The success or otherwise of individual species depends on complex interactions between the commodity, environment, and interactions between species and control measures. The speed at which these interactions take place is most rapid in warm to hot climates like Australia, where pest populations can develop very rapidly. From time to time the status of pests can change. Before the early 1990s, psocids (Liposcelis species) were pests of no great significance to the Australian grain bulk-handling industry. Since that time, in some areas they have become the most frequently encountered storage pest. The paper summarizes efforts to understand the growth of psocid pests in the Australian grain bulk-handling industry. In particular, it demonstrates the need to understand pest behaviour and biology in addition to the more frequently examined toxicological and engineering aspects.
Effect of suboptimal temperatures and sublethal carbon dioxide levels on Cryptolestes ferrugineus, alone and in combination with Tribolium castaneum.
Authors: Hulasare R. B. , White N. D. G. , Jayas D. S.
Published: November 2017

The adults of C. ferrugineus alone and in combination with adults of T. castaneum, were exposed to suboptimum temperatures (15, 20, and 25°C) and sublethal carbon dioxide (CO2) levels (2, 5, and 10%) in dry (12% wb) and wet (15% wb) wheat to investigate their effects on adult survival. The mean adult survival of C. ferrugineus in single-species or mixed-species situations was positively correlated with temperature and moisture content and negatively correlated with CO2 levels. Adult survival in single and mixed-species was lower at elevated but sublethal CO2 levels compared with ambient CO2 levels at all the test temperatures and decreased in dry grain compared with wet grain. Although a specific trend was not observed in population inhibition in mixed species compared with single-species, overall the adult population of C. ferrugineus was reduced in the presence of T. castaneum. The adult populations at experimental temperatures and CO2 levels demonstrated that these are the stress factors reducing the population compared with the optimum conditions. A mathematical model was derived to predict adult populations of C. ferrugineus alone or in the presence of T. castaneum considering all the variables in this study. The model had an R2 value of 0.83 but this needs to be validated and refined with the field data.
Use of pheromone-baited trap catches as indicators of occurrence of potential hosts of Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) in a forest in southern Benin.
Authors: Nansen C. , Meikle W. G.
Published: November 2017

Pheromone-baited traps were used to study the abundance of P. truncatus, one of the most important pests of stored maize and cassava in Africa, in the Lama forest of southern Benin during 1999-2000. The traps were established inside the forest, in a teak plantation surrounding the forest, and at four sites approximately 50 m from smallholders' maize stores less than 1 km from the forest perimeter. Pheromone trap catches were highest in teak-dominated vegetation. Thus, in subsequent no-choice rearing experiments in the laboratory, the reproductive rate of P. truncatus on teak branches, roots and seeds was studied. Behavioural experiments were also conducted to evaluate the potential affinity of P. truncatus to the soil environment. In the rearing experiments, P. truncatus established only poorly in dry and fresh roots and branches of teak, and no P. truncatus reproduction was obtained on these potential forest hosts. In most of the no-choice rearing experiments, P. truncatus did not even bore into the roots and branches. From 191 rearing experiments on teak seeds, P. truncatus reproduction was obtained twice. Behavioural experiments revealed a surprising affinity to the soil environment, suggesting that P. truncatus may have evolved into a pest on stored grain from an original forest seed predator.
Entomopathogenic fungi for the control of invertebrate pests in storage structures.
Authors: Cox P. , Wakefield M. , Price N. , Wildey K. , Moore D. , Muro M. A. de , Bell B.
Published: November 2017

Prospects are reviewed for the use of entomopathogenic fungi to control invertebrate pests of stored food on a commercial scale. A new four-year project, funded by the UK government and industry, has been set up to examine the use of entomopathogenic fungi as a means of reducing organophosphate pesticide and methyl bromide usage for the control of invertebrate pests of stored food. The project will assess the effectiveness of using naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungi for controlling residual infestations in storage structures in farms and mills. Samples from UK storage premises have been collected. Fungal isolates from these samples have been identified, established in laboratory culture and prepared for testing by CABI Bioscience. These new isolates, together with some additional UK isolates from the CABI Bioscience culture collection, have been tested in a "high-challenge" primary screen against representative stored-food pests: the saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis), the Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella), the black domestic psocid (Lepinotus patruelis) and the flour mite (Acarus siro). Preliminary results have been encouraging, and have indicated levels of activity that could lead to the development of a practical mycopesticide for use against stored food pests. Some isolates of Beauveria bassiana have resulted in 100% mortality in some species within 7 days of initial contact.
Distinguishing injury from damage and post-storage damage projection.
Authors: Stejskal V. , Lukás J.
Published: November 2017

If injury (I) of stored commodities becomes a unit of measurement of quality damage (D), the two terms need not be distinguished. It is proposed that the location aspect of sampling of I and D parameters may help to introduce an "I-D concept" into the storage and marketing of crop commodities, thereby potentially increasing field and storage economic injury level equations (EILs). The injury of stored commodity should be estimated in the store and damage to the marketable-commodity should be measured after stocking it out of the store. The harvest or stocking-out corrective interface provides farmers with an opportunity to convert quality damage caused by injurious organisms into quantity damage. Non-injurious biological contamination without any weight loss can be identified. This may lead to higher pest tolerance (non-zero EIL) during the storage of a commodity. Non-zero tolerance generally creates much more favourable conditions for accepting biological control and partial crop resistance for the management of pests of stored products and other product-quality sensitive types of agricultural environment.
Where does pest detection research go next?
Authors: Chambers J.
Published: November 2017

The need to detect storage invertebrates is increasingly important for the protection of food quality. Present capabilities for detection involve various techniques. There are traps for insects within food bulks, and outside bulks for flying or crawling insects, and for mites. Much investigation has been made on pheromones to augment trap catch. Food attractants have been shown to improve detection but they are more complex and less well understood. Higher technologies with potential include acoustic sensors, electronic noses, machine vision and immunoassay. Basic analysis suggests that the ultimate users of pest detection methodology need to be able to relate detection results to matters as widely different as economic value, food content, potential for conversion into useful products and consumer satiety. To see how these needs are met by present capabilities it helps to dissect the detection process into five critical component steps. Surprisingly, beetle traps are found wanting in most of these steps. There are examples of attractants failing to meet user needs by virtue of limited availability, unpredictable sampling, uncertain effectiveness and difficulty in interpretation of results. Between them, the higher technology methods have limitations, whether in availability, sampling or suitability. To address these points, attention should be given to the lack of methods to suit particular needs. Examples include new traps for specific applications and use of biosynthesis to make attractants. The interpretation of trap catch is still limited by lack of understanding of the distribution of invertebrate pests in bulks. Decision making tools are valuable but their use should be extended to include nutritional, health and environmental factors. Better understanding of the response of storage invertebrates to behavioural modifiers and their olfaction mechanism would help optimize our use of semiochemicals. At that stage, it would become possible to establish their potential in methods to control populations.
Molecular diagnostic tools for detecting arthropod contamination in stored products.
Authors: Phillips T. W. , Zhao B.
Published: November 2017

Arthropod contamination in raw commodities and finished food products is significant for both commercial and human health reasons. Rapid and precise methods for detecting these arthropod pests in food and bulk commodities could benefit public health research and grain evaluation. DNA markers based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were developed that can specifically detect the evidence of the mould mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, and the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica at very low levels in food and grain. Dilution series analyses determined that a single mite or beetle could be detected at less than 10-9 equivalents for either fresh, frozen or dried samples. Single rice weevils were identified from fresh, frozen and dried samples, and the same primer set could detect contamination of the congeners maize weevil, S. zeamais, and granary weevil, S. granarius. Extreme sensitivity in some cases was attributed to the presumed high copy number of mitochondrial DNA in cells of these insects. Studies with contaminated food found that markers for rice weevils and lesser grain borers were easily detected at concentrations of 1 larva per 1000 g of wheat. Work on extraction methods for arthropod DNA at low densities from food, and for non-gel methods for detection and quantification of PCR products, is reported. These methods should lead to a practical detection tool for these and other pests in food.
The I-SPy Insect IndicatorTM: development of an insect monitoring trap for use on flat surfaces in the cereal and food trades, and potential applications.
Authors: Collins L. E. , Chambers J. , Cogan P.
Published: November 2017

Monitoring insects in stored products is essential for the efficient application of control strategies, be they chemical, physical, biological or integrated. The Pitfall Cone (PC) trap was invented and developed in the UK to monitor crawling insect pests within stored grain. The PC trap has proven to be an effective insect monitor for the primary pests of stored grain in the United Kingdom, including Sitophilus granarius (the grain weevil), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (the saw-toothed grain beetle) and Cryptolestes ferrugineus (the rust-red grain beetle). The CSL I-SPy Insect Indicator (PC Floor Trap) is a further development of the PC trap for use on flat surfaces in food and stored commodity premises. It does not rely on a sticky surface to trap insects, allowing it to be effective even in dusty environments such as flour mills. In a previous laboratory comparison with four other insect monitoring devices, the CSL I-SPy Insect Indicator has proved to be effective at trapping all six insect pest species tested. The work reported here investigates the effectiveness of this new trap, with an improved attractant lure, against the same six species and compares it with another recently introduced design, the DOME trap.
Effect of diatomaceous earths on the reproductive performance of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).
Authors: Prasantha B. D. R. , Reichmuth C. , Büttner C.
Published: November 2017

The pulse beetle, C. maculatus, is a destructive pest of pulses in both storage and field. It is well known that diatomaceous earth (DE) kills the insects by locally absorbing the epicuticular lipid layers, leading to desiccation. However, the effectiveness of DE depends on its ability to kill the adults before egg-laying. Newly emerged virgin males and females of C. maculatus were exposed to the DEs, Fossil-Shield and Silico-Sec on 30 treated mung beans (Vigna radiata). Fecundity, number of beans used for egg-laying and beans without eggs were evaluated after 4 days; the number of unhatched eggs was evaluated after 10 days. F1 progeny inhibition was studied using 15 pairs of newly emerged insects. Immediate and later effects of DE were studied using two groups ("treated" and "transfer "). It was determined that the fecundity of female insects fell geometrically with increasing rate of DE content. Percentages of unhatched eggs, and seeds bearing no eggs, increased with increasing DE dosages. However, the maximum egg densities (eggs per seed used) occurred at 1200 mg DE/kg for both Fossil-Shield and Silico-Sec. The reason for such DE-stimulated behaviour of egg laying, expressed as a number of seeds with eggs of C. maculatus, is not known, but it may be related to the stress caused by the inert dusts or to the reduction of both chemical and physical (tactile) stimuli. Treatment with DEs altered the surface texture of the beans and caused less cohesion between eggs and the seed surface. Few larvae were able to penetrate the grains, possibly due to increased grain roughness and repellent effect of DE. A relatively high number of eggs was laid on the surface of those beans where the amount of dust had been locally reduced by adult movement and their pick up of DE. Therefore, several larvae tried to penetrate these treated beans, causing a high larval density per partially cleaned bean. Later effects of DEs were more significant than initial effects on mating and egg laying of C. maculatus. However, Fossil-Shield showed comparatively higher efficacy than Silico-Sec. DE particles that are packed up readily damage the external genitalia of females. Due to these, the number of progeny declined.
The use of pheromone traps for mass trapping of Lasioderma serricorne in a cigarette factory in Portugal.
Authors: Carvalho M. O. , Mexia A.
Published: November 2017

Trials were conducted from August 1997 to November 2001 in a cigarette factory containing silos (Silos-1), in which chemical control was not allowed, to study the efficacy of pheromone traps for mass trapping of cigarette beetles (Lasioderma serricorne). The results were compared with data obtained from a similar structure, Silos-2, where pheromone traps were used only for monitoring the cigarette beetle population. Pheromone mass trapping reduced L. serricorne populations below the economic threshold adopted by the industry and its efficacy increased as the population density decreased. Traps placed against the walls performed significantly better, trapping more cigarette beetles than those distributed between silos. The inherent variability in the trap catches as indices, for classifying dispersion patterns, indicated an aggregated pattern and the negative binomial distribution fitted more adequately to the data than the Poisson distribution, mainly at higher densities of cigarette beetles.