bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Protective Behavior of Anodic Zirconium Oxide Film
Authors: El-Massry N , Bedair SM , Hammad FH
Published: March 2009

Anodized zirconium when oxidized thermally gives better oxidation resistance than zirconium metal. This protective behavior is significant for low anodizing current density, thick anodic film, and low oxidation temperature. In the initial stages of thermal oxidation, no weight gain due to growth conditions was observed during a certain time interval and incubation period. The presence of this incubation period is discussed in terms of oxygen dissolution and the creation of lattice defects. A model is presented to give their relative contribution.
Estimating the Total Number of Species in a Biological Community
Authors: Slocomb J , Dickson KL
Published: March 2009

The lognormal distribution has figured prominently in the description of species-abundance relationships and in assessing effects of perturbation on aquatic ecosystems. Diatom communities, in particular, have been shown to conform relatively well to a normal law subsequent to grouping individuals on a logarithmic scale. Fitting of the distribution to sample data entails estimation of location and scale parameters. A more interesting and, indeed, ecologically important estimate that can be obtained is the total number of species in the community, S*. Unfortunately, estimates of S* are currently unsatisfactory since an estimator of the variance of S*, var (S*), is not available. Moreover, it is often the case that several different theoretical distributions are found to fit the same sample data equally well but provide discrepant estimates of S*. On this basis then, comparisons between different communities are impossible. In addition, a cautious attitude is warranted in certain applications of the Shannon-Wiener diversity index where knowledge of S* is required.

The purpose of this paper is to report on the results of a computer simulation study which was designed to mimic the sampling and identification of diatom species from idealized, fully censused collections where the value of S* was known as was the proportional abundance of each species. Each simulation run consisted of sampling the idealized collections a total of 100 (independent) times; each sample being fit by a lognormal distribution and an estimate of S* calculated. It was thus possible to compute an estimate of var (S~*) and monitor its behavior as the sample sizes for various types of communities were increased. The results indicate that the precision of S~* depends on the relative size of the sample and that var (S~*) decreases asymptotically as the number of species sampled approaches S*. It is shown that, for some types of communities, species sample sizes on the order of S = 0.8 (S*) yield imprecise estimates of S*. The implications of these results have importance for the biologist who is faced with distinguishing between two or more similarly diverse communities on the basis on an index of evenness such as H/Hmax (in the case of Shannon-Wiener). Unless reliable knowledge of S* can be obtained, misleading conclusions regarding a community's diversity could result.
Statistical Methods Applied to a Four-Year Multivariate Study of a Florida Estuarine System
Authors: Meeter DA , Livingston RJ
Published: March 2009

A four-year study (1972 to 1976) was carried out to determine the long-term changes of organochlorine compound concentrations and of associations of epibenthic fishes and invertebrates in a river-dominated north Florida estuary.

We assessed the relative effectiveness of a number of statistical techniques for describing the effects of key physicochemical variables on the estuarine biota. Techniques used included transformations, correlation, regression with dummy variables, two and three-way analysis of variance, multivariate analysis of variance, principal components analysis, factor analysis, canonical correlation, and cluster analysis.

Several problems were encountered peculiar to studies of this type: missing observations, the sheer size of the data base in numbers of variables and observations, the domination of other effects by river flow, and extreme and noncyclical variation of some measures over the four-year study period.
A Multivariate Procedure for Comparing Control Areas to Possible Impact Areas, Graphically Displaying the Results
Authors: Callahan JD , Palmer J
Published: March 2009

Principal components are used to reduce the dimension of highly correlated, multivariate data. After applying analyses of variance to the principal components, looking for site differences, a graphical method of multiple comparisons is presented. The procedure is applied to two large sets of benthic data.
Crosshole Testing Using Explosive and Mechanical Energy Sources
Authors: McLamore VR , Anderson DG , Espana C
Published: March 2009

Five crosshole-type seismic surveys, each employing the two commonly used seismic wave generation sources (explosive and mechanical), are studied to evaluate the reliability of each source technique to produce comparable seismic velocities. The study documents field procedures and equipment and discusses seismic wave identification and velocity analysis techniques. Comparison of the resulting velocities (compressional and shear) produced by the two different sources indicates that quite similar results can be obtained when proper field and interpretation procedures are used. General field considerations to be included in a crosshole survey using either source mechanism are discussed as a guide to producing high-quality seismic velocity results. These include the number of borings and their spacing and arrangement, test depth intervals, verticality measurements, hole coupling, orientation of sensors, and measurement of the instant of energy generation.
In Situ Seismic Shear-Wave Velocity Measurements and Proposed Procedures
Authors: Statton CT , Auld B , Fritz A
Published: March 2009

Determination of dynamic shear modulus in situ has been an increasingly important source of data for ground response analysis for earthquake design studies. Historically, shear modulus is calculated from in situ measurement of seismic shear-wave velocity. A downhole impact energy source has been developed which maximizes the shear-wave energy produced and minimizes compressional-wave energy for purposes of crosshole in situ seismic shear-wave velocity measurements. The geometry of the energy source permits reversal of the polarity of shear-wave arrivals without changing the polarity of compressional-wave arrivals.

The energy source is described and in situ measurement data are presented. Based on more than three years experience using the downhole source, a procedure for in situ measurement of seismic shear-wave velocity is suggested.
Ultrasonic Testing for Determining Dynamic Soil Moduli
Authors: Stephenson RW
Published: March 2009

Determination of dynamic E- and G-moduli of a silty clay material were made by measuring directly the velocity of both ultrasonic longitudinal and shear waves transmitted through the material. The equipment, developed at the University of Missouri-Rolla, allows dynamic, nondestructive testing of soil materials to be conducted rapidly and easily.
Effect of Cyclic Loading on Rock
Authors: Haimson BC
Published: March 2009

Hard rocks are significantly weakened or fatigued when subjected to cyclic loading. In uniaxial tension and in uniaxial compression the fatigue strength for 105 cycles is 60 to 80 percent of the monotonic strength. In triaxial compression the fatigue strength rises as the confining pressure is increased. By far the most damaging cyclic load is the tension-compression type, its fatigue strength reaching 25 percent of the monotonic tensile strength. The strain-time behavior is not unlike that observed in static creep, with primary, steady-state, and tertiary stages. The accumulated cyclic creep in uniaxial compression for different upper peak cyclic stresses appears to be bounded by the complete stress-strain curve. Acoustic emission and specimen photomicrography suggest microfracturing as the principal mechanism of fatigue failure, with distinct differences between cyclic compression and cyclic tension. Acoustic emission is an excellent precursor of imminent cyclic failure. ASTM standardization of cyclic testing is recommended.
Use the SPT to Measure Dynamic Soil Properties?—Yes, But..!
Authors: Schmertmann JH
Published: March 2009

The author briefly reviews the factors important to the blowcount (N) values obtained from the standard penetration test (SPT), and describes the dynamics of the SPT in terms of wave transmission theory and measurements. The SPT appears to correlate well qualitatively with sand liquefaction potential, with N proportional to the factor of safety against liquefaction. The SPT can also provide the basis for the field-model determination of the Js, and Jp damping coefficients in the wave equation analysis of pile-driving problems. An example indicates it may also correlate locally with shear wave velocity in sands. Because of its current variability, however, the profession needs an improved, possibly alternative ASTM standard before we use the SPT in important dynamic design problems. The author suggests using a mechanized hammer drop system producing a fixed energy content in the first compression wave in the rods, and the use of rotary drilling with the hole filled with drilling mud at all times.
A Small-Scale Laboratory Dispersant Effectiveness Test
Authors: Mackay D , Nadeau JS , Ng C
Published: March 2009

A small-scale laboratory system is described in which known amounts of oil and dispersant are introduced on a water surface at a controlled temperature and turbulence and the dispersion behavior observed. Turbulence is provided by circulating an air current over the oil-water surface, thus simulating, to some extent, natural wave action and avoiding the atypical turbulence introduced by mechanical agitation devices. Oil adherence to solid surfaces is minimized. The apparatus is believed to be particularly suitable for studying the effectiveness and behavior of dispersants under conditions where little or no artificial turbulence is provided. The design and performance of the apparatus is described and some results presented in which turbulence, oil-to-dispersant ratio, and temperature are varied. The system is suitable for close observation of the dispersion process and subsequent emulsified oil behavior. The advantages and disadvantages of the system are outlined and the possibility of relating sea state to conditions in the apparatus is discussed.
Logistic Requirements for Aerial Application of Oil Spill Dispersants
Authors: Ross CW , Hildebrand PB , Allen AA
Published: March 2009

The study has taken a detailed look at selected components involved in establishing the feasibility of aerially applying dispersants on oil spills. The approach has purposely been focused onto only those areas affecting operational feasibility. Little attention has been given to other critical areas such as ecology, comparisons with alternative countermeasures, or even a detailed comparison with alternative dispersant platforms.

The study attempts to include a wide scope in that it has purposely been based on general assumptions and mathematical formulas and could be used to evaluate other spill configurations, volumes, locations, or even other dispersant platforms. The formulas are used to discuss a scenario to disperse the main oil slick resulting from a blowout. Many other scenarios, oil volumes, periods of operation, etc. could be evaluated using these equations.

Based on the developed scenario, the total cost to disperse 20 000 m3 of oil is in the neighborhood of $10.22 million or $511/m3. This figure consists of about $1.3 million for equipment rental and fuel and $8.85 million for dispersants. No allowance has been made for other costs such as manpower or ancillary logistics such as shelter, food, waste disposal, and development of airstrips.
Development of an Oil Dispersant Spraying System
Authors: Manolio VP , McCarthy LT
Published: March 2009

The extreme concern about today's large oil spills and their impact on the environment has necessitated the consideration of oil dispersants as possible cleanup agents. For this reason, a joint effort between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S.S.R. Central Scientific Research Institute has been initiated to examine the various oil dispersants and application methods and to establish a uniform series of acceptance tests. Concurrent with laboratory tests of several present-day dispersants, a spraying and mixing system has been developed along the lines of the Warren Spring Laboratory (WSL) system. A continuing program of testing has been begun both in the laboratory and field to develop the optimum operating parameters of the system prior to the full-scale field tests at a spill of opportunity later this year.
Assessment Problems of Whether or Not to Treat Oil Spills
Authors: Wilson MP
Published: March 2009

Any decision to treat or not to treat an oil spill with dispersants involves a multiplicity of biological, chemical, physical, and meteorological inputs. Knowledge concerning the fate of treated and untreated spills is a prerequisite for estimating environmental impacts. Biological data concerning acute toxicity levels and the inter-relationship of the affected marine biota must be understood and quantified, as well as the weathering of the oil, the modification of it by microorganisms, and the change in the chemical and physical nature of the oil spill by various types of dispersants.

Most of the information required to conduct such an assessment is not presently available and must be obtained from a series of laboratory, meso-scale, and in situ types of experiments. The type of information obtainable from each type of experiment is discussed and the role it plays in the assessment process is presented.
Oil Spill Control Chemicals—Oil Spill Control A Current View
Authors: Linblom GP
Published: March 2009

Oil spill control chemicals are still a subject of considerable contention in many parts of the world. Because of the reactions raised by news of oil spills, their potential effects, and the methods used in their control and cleanup, a body of misinformation and misunderstanding about these chemicals and their use has accumulated. Further, there are honest differences of opinion between and among various manufacturers, regulatory agencies, environmental groups, and users.

This paper attempts to provide a basis for further discussion by examining the current status of oil spill chemicals under five categories: definition of terms, classification of products, the mode of action of various-type chemicals, potential ecotoxicity, and the application methods required to obtain optimum results.

The term “oil spill control chemical,” as used herein, includes dispersants, collecting agents, shoreline protection chemicals, and post-spill cleaners. Dispersants are further categorized depending on the solvent type used or on the recommended method of use. The concept of chemical dose per unit area is suggested as most realistic for development of application systems based on the mode of action of various chemicals, and for tests to determine their efficiency and toxicity. Boat and aerial dispersant spray systems are examined in detail to emphasize critical design criteria and to identify limitations.
Chemical Analysis of Dispersed Oil in the Water Column
Authors: Brown CW , Lynch PF , Ahmadjian M
Published: March 2009

Water and air samples collected from treated and untreated simulated oil spills have been analyzed for hydrocarbons. In test tanks, 6.2 m tall, the concentration of oil in the water just beneath the surface is initially 27 times greater when a dispersant is used. During a 3-day experiment, however, the amount of oil in the water column decreased significantly in both the treated and untreated cases. When a dispersant was used, the maximum concentration in the water column gradually moved toward the bottom of the tank. Results of laboratory, meso scale, and a real spill are compared.
Effects of Dispersant Use on Shore Life
Authors: Nelson-Smith A
Published: March 2009

Damage to Cornish seashore life resulting from the chemical dispersal of oil spilled from Torrey Canyon is often taken as typical of dispersant use, although primitive mixtures were badly misapplied there. Where more modern dispersants are used with care, as in recent Milford Haven spills, serious consequences can be avoided. All effective dispersants offer some biological hazards, especially to sedentary or planktonic filter-feeding animals, which are not revealed by short-term acute toxicity testing. Spilled oil should therefore be removed mechanically wherever possible. Careful spraying is recommended to prevent an oil slick reaching the shore and to protect seabird colonies. It may also be necessary on rocky or built-up amenity areas but should be avoided on coasts rarely visited by humans and distant from bird colonies. Spraying may worsen matters on sandy shores, while any form of treatment will further damage oiled salt marshes.
Ecological Effects of Dispersants in the United Kingdom
Authors: Cowell EB
Published: March 2009

The problems associated with the toxicity of dispersants at the time of the Torrey Canyon disaster are described together with subsequent developments to reduce toxicity. The problems of laboratory bioassay and its limitations in ecological prediction are reviewed in relation to dispersant concentrations that are reached under field use.

Problems of the use and ecological effects of dispersants in shore cleaning are described in association with practical aspects of safe application and limitations. The author concludes that modern dispersant formulations can be used with minimum ecological risk provided the application is done with care by trained operators. It is stressed that even the most recently developed materials should not be used on areas of vascular plants such as salt marshes and mangroves. The lack of adequate research precludes recommending dispersants to treat oil spillage in freshwater rivers and lakes unless the bodies of water are extremely large.
Fibrous Insulating Materials as Standard Reference Materials at Low Temperatures
Authors: Bertasi M , Bigolaro G , De Ponte F
Published: March 2009

A model is proposed to describe the thermal behavior of relatively high-density fibrous materials. The theoretical approach is compared with experimental results on glass fiber insulating specimens. The results point out the limits of other oversimplified models and the excessive complexity of other models with respect to the precision of results. The agreement between experimental and computed data was considered satisfactory when near to 1 percent.

The theoretical model may be used for computing some limits to obtain reliable standard reference materials with regard to production variations.

The problem of the influence of moisture on measured data is then analyzed, starting from a large set of experimental data obtained on specimens in controlled atmospheres.
Natural Convective Heat Transfer in Permeable Insulation
Authors: Bankvall CG
Published: March 2009

This paper describes the natural convective heat transfer in permeable insulation. Equations and results are given to calculate the influence from natural convection upon the heat transfer in insulated structures.
Blown Cellulose Fiber Thermal Insulations: Part 1—Density of Cellulose Fiber Thermal Insulation in Horizontal Applications
Authors: Bomberg M , Shirtliffe CJ
Published: March 2009

This paper presents results of a study with the following objectives:

1. Determine the effects of transport and placement conditions on the initial density of the insulation.

2. Establish a standardized method for producing specimens of blown cellulose fiber insulations.

3. Investigate the factors that cause the material to settle after placement.

4. Establish a standardized method to produce settlement in the specimens comparable with those found in field studies.

A method recommended for producing settlement in the specimens consists of two procedures, one simulating settlement by impact produced on the standardized containers, and the other causing settlement under climatic cycling of the material.
Blown Cellulose Fiber Thermal Insulations: Part 2—Thermal Resistance
Authors: Shirtliffe CJ , Bomberg M.
Published: March 2009

The thermal resistance of a number of commercial blown loose-fill cellulose fiber thermal insulations has been measured using the guarded hot plate and heat flowmeter methods. An equation describing the variation of thermal resistance with temperature, temperature difference, density, and thickness has been derived from these measurements and, with lesser precision, from the data provided by other investigators. The equation does not include the effects of chemical content, moisture content, chemical composition, or structure of the paper particles. The thermal resistance of a layer of insulation was found not to be directly proportional to thickness. The equation for thermal resistance fits the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) data with a standard deviation of less than 3.5 percent for thickness of 50 to 305 mm.
Analysis of the Applicability of the Hot-Wire Technique for Determination of the Thermal Conductivity of Diathermanous Materials
Authors: Fine HA
Published: March 2009

The hot-wire technique has been used to measure the thermal conductivity of many electrically and thermally insulating materials and the effective thermal conductivity of some diathermanous materials. An analysis of the heat transfer in diathermanous materials is presented which indicates that the method will not give a correct value of the effective thermal conductivity when radiation conduction is of importance. Until an exact solution to this heat-transfer problem is found, an ASTM standard for hot-wire type measurements on diathermanous materials is not recommended.
Determination of the Thermal Conductivity of Refractory Insulating Materials by the Hot-Wire Method
Authors: Davis WR
Published: March 2009

The hot-wire line source technique has been applied to the measurement of the thermal conductivity of refractory insulating materials at temperatures up to 1000°C. The method is rapid and has a repeatability of better than 5 percent. Comparisons have been made with other methods.
Light Transmission Measurements Through Glass Fiber Insulations
Authors: Pelanne CM
Published: March 2009

As part of a study to define the structure of glass fiber insulations, light transmission was measured through a number of insulations made by different manufacturing processes.

A significant relationship was observed between light transmitted normal to the plane of the insulation and the apparent thermal conductivity. This relationship suggests a possible application for the continuous monitoring of glass fiber insulation being manufactured.

The light transmission measurement allows us to see the laminar structure of glass fiber insulations as well as the preferred orientation of the fibers resulting from manufacturing process characteristics.

The light transmission measurements also may provide an indirect way of estimating the apparent thermal conductivity in the plane of the insulation, as well as a way of evaluating heat flow in tailor-made glass fiber specimens.
Evaluation of High-Temperature Pipe Insulations Using a 16-ln.-Diameter Pipe Test Apparatus
Authors: Svedberg RC , Steffen RJ , Rupp AM , Sadler JW
Published: March 2009

The thermal performance of candidate pipe insulation systems for the sodium piping at the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) in Richland, Wash., has been tested at pipe temperatures up to 838.7 K (1050°F) using a 40.64-cm (16 in.) pipe test rig. Where applicable, procedures outlined in the ASTM Test for Thermal Conductivity of Pipe Insulation (C 335-69) were followed. These tests have demonstrated the feasibility of measuring thermal performance using large-diameter, guarded pipe test systems. To compare and evaluate the large-diameter pipe test results, the thermal performance of these insulations was also measured by an independent testing laboratory on a 7.62-cm (3 in.) pipe test apparatus.

Mineral wool, calcium-silicate, and aluminum-silica refractory fiber blanket-type insulations were evaluated on both the 40.64-cm (16 in.) and 7.62-cm (3 in.) pipe test apparatus. A contractor-installed calcium silicate and a duplex calcium-silicate-mineral wool system were also tested on the 40.64-cm (16 in.) pipe test apparatus to investigate thermal performance resulting from different installation procedures.

These measurements of the thermal performance of insulations assembled on large-diameter testing apparatus have been shown to be both feasible and informative. In cases where the insulation can be installed in a seam-free manner, that is, few cracks and gaps, the thermal properties are in excellent agreement with those measured on the standard 7.62-cm (3 in.) pipe test system.

In cases where installation is difficult and seam cracks and gaps occur, the additional heat losses can be evaluated on the large-diameter pipe test apparatus.
Drift Measurement Technique Applied to Poor Conductors
Authors: Ashworth T , Lacey WG , Ashworth E
Published: March 2009

Many applications require knowledge of thermal properties, over a wide range of temperature, to within 5 percent. The speedy and economical acquisition of the data is often a prime concern. We are investigating the potential of the very simplest system (an unguarded plate system), used in a drift mode rather than in a steady-state mode, to fulfill this need.

When heat flows across a specimen whose mean temperature is drifting slowly and linearly with time, a term of the form CF(dT/dt) must be added to the steadystate equation. Data are taken over a given temperature range with the temperature both increasing and decreasing; the value of CF is then adjusted until the two sets of data produce the same value of conductivity. Since CF is a function of the density of the specimen and its specific heat at constant pressure, an approximate value of the thermal diffusivity is obtained as a by-product in this drift mode of operation.

The successful application of the technique is illustrated by both drift technique and steady-state measurements on microconcrete over the temperature range -20 to +60°C. Corrections for heat losses and nonlinear heat flow have been appraised by finite-element analysis and by comparisons with data from adiabatic linear heat flow systems. Our objective is to develop the apparatus for use up to 500°C.
Further Suggestions about Coal Description in the Field
Authors: Schopf JM
Published: March 2009

Specific and systematic description of coal beds should be attempted as a preliminary aid, in advance of or coordinated with laboratory testing. Distribution of the most readily differentiated coal components (megascopic fusain and thicker bands of vitrain) might appropriately be singled out for training in coal description to develop essential insight and expertise. Standardized description of other coal lithologies, including thinner bands of vitrain and the attrital varieties of coal, is more difficult and less precision can be expected. An initial study utilizing field description will materially aid in other studies, leading to effective mining development. It may be most important to consider geologically the inherent lateral variability in coal beds.
Compromise in Coal Seam Description
Authors: Davis A
Published: March 2009

Although the lithotype terms introduced by Stopes were not intended to have any compositional implications, some early descriptions of the petrographic contents of lithotypes have resulted in less than universal adherence to this nomenclature following its adoption by the International Committee for Coal Petrology. Alternative descriptive systems have been developed for use with Australian coals, many of which have very low exinite contents. The recognition of a midlustrous attrital coal lithotype has proved useful because such layers can be characterized by relatively high vitrinite contents and swelling indices. An advantage of terms such as “bright coal” and “dull coal” is that they can be used to describe the overall appearance of layers on as broad a scale as is convenient for the user.
Correlation of Weathered Lignite with pH and Depth of Cover
Authors: Ginnard KJ , Corriveau MP
Published: March 2009

Using the well known relationship of lowered pH with increased oxidation of lignite slurries, a rapid field technique was established correlating the pH of a sample lignite slurry and its depth of cover to the degree of oxidation (or weathering).

Four relationships were confirmed: (a) calorific content decreases with increased oxygen content, (b) increasing cover corresponds to decreasing oxygen content, (c) megajoule (Btu) content increases with depth of cover, and (d) megajoule (Btu) content increases with corresponding increase in pH of lignite slurry.

Using this technique and the relationships derived therefrom, a field geologist can quickly estimate as a first order approximation from the depth of coal times pH product whether or not a sample lignite is unacceptably weathered.
Field Description and Characterization of Coals Sampled by the Oklahoma Geological Survey, 1971–1976
Authors: Friedman SA
Published: March 2009

During a five-year period (1971–1976) 147 channel and 92 core samples representing 15 individual bituminous coal beds in Oklahoma were collected and characterized using megascopic petrographic terms. The average coal contains sparse (< 15 percent) to moderate (15 to 30 percent) and thin (12 to 2-mm) bands of vitrain, and moderately bright attritus. Channel samples are reliable but not as preferable as core samples, because constant depth and width of the sample is difficult to obtain from channel samples. The channel samples are convenient to utilize for standard proximate, calorific, sulfur, ultimate, and ash fusion analyses. Analyses from the same coal face remain to be compared, and examination of lateral and vertical variations of the coal bed character should be undertaken.
Practical Aspects of Reconstituting Deteriorated Bituminius Pavements
Authors: Davidson DD , Canessa W , Escobar SJ
Published: March 2009

Practical recommendations are made for recycling asphalt pavements by (a) use of selected reclaiming agents to restore durability and consistency to the aged asphalt, and (b) application of a rational mix design.

Satisfactory reclaiming agents are characterized as (a) being fully compatible with the broadest range of aged asphalts, (b) providing durability to the aged asphalts, (c) being capable of producing a reclaimed asphalt within paving-grade consistency, and (d) assuring good wetting and thorough mixing. Interim specifications are proposed for reclaiming agents fulfilling these requirements.

The basic information needed for a rational design is discussed and identified as follows: (a) gradation of the aggregate in the salvaged pavement, (b) asphalt content of the old pavement, (c) consistency of the extracted asphalt, (d) asphalt demand of the aggregate, and (e) desired consistency of the asphalt in the recycled pavement.

A simple formula and two nomographs are presented as aids for the design engineer.
Design of Recycled Asphalt Pavements and Selection of Modifiers
Authors: Dunning RL , Mendenhall RL
Published: March 2009

Properties of modifiers for recycling of asphalt concrete should be such that the recycled asphalt will have properties essentially the same as neat asphalt with the least addition of modifier possible. Recommended specification requirements for a modifier include a flash point of 200°C Cleveland open cup (COC) min, a viscosity range of 90 to 300 cP at 60°C, and a composition of at least 9 percent polar compounds and 60 percent aromatic compounds as measured by the clay-gel procedure. Data presented demonstrate the utility of these limits and the detrimental effect of the addition of paraffinic oils. A procedure is presented for bracketing the amount of modifier required to soften an asphalt to a desired consistancy, and data are supplied which demonstrate the utility of this procedure.
Laboratory Performance of Recycled Asphalt Concrete
Authors: Terrel RL , Fritchen DR
Published: March 2009

Addition of rejuvenating oils to aged, dry asphaltic pavement materials to restore them to their original condition is a practice currently being used on many construction projects. Typically, the effect of rejuvenation is measured using standard mix design procedures such as stability. This research was aimed at providing information on the behavior of rejuvenated mixtures when subjected to accelerated aging such as repeated freezing and thawing and sustained high temperature. The nondestructive resilient modulus (MR) test was used to monitor the change in recycled mix from an old pavement, new mix made with virgin asphalt, and old mix rejuvenated with two commercially available admixtures. Results indicated that old mixtures continued to age rapidly and the rejuvenated mixtures behaved similarly to virgin mixtures.
History and Status of Performance Tests for Evaluation of Soundness of Cements
Authors: Mehta PK
Published: March 2009

The history of the commonly used performance tests for soundness of cement and the evolution of the autoclave test are reviewed. Hydration-expansion characteristics of cement compounds and the relationship between expansion and unsoundness are discussed. A critical evaluation of the status of the autoclave test shows that sufficient new information has been developed since the adoption of the test to warrant reconsideration of its usefulness for ascertaining the soundness of cements in service.
History and Status of Specifications and Tests for Strength
Authors: Isberner AW , Klieger P
Published: March 2009

Strength specifications and test methods over the past 75 years of cement testing are reviewed. Early strength specification ranges and limits, requiring tensile strength tests of neat cement paste and mortar briquets, have evolved into compressive strength specifications, using mortars prepared and tested in accordance with detailed test methods. Though present strength specifications appear adequate, new cementitious materials and research test methods will, no doubt, produce a need for new test methods and specifications, which will include other considerations, such as uniformity.
Insulation Practices: Protection of Thermal Insulation
Authors: Marks JB , Holton KD
Published: March 2009

It has been proven that it actually costs less to properly insulate process vessels, pipes, valves, and flanges, and thereby conserve energy, than not to insulate and supply sufficient additional heating or cooling capacity to cover the loss or gain of heat. Thermal insulation is, therefore, a long-term investment. In the present energy crisis it becomes even more; it becomes a definite necessity and an obligation.
Insulation Practices: Foam Insulation for Tanks and Vessels
Authors: Foster CS
Published: March 2009

A spray type of polyurethane foam insulating material has been found, in two commercial scale test cases, to be a completely satisfactory method of minimizing energy costs, by cutting down on energy waste.
Design and Strength of Screw Threads
Authors: Alexander EM
Published: March 2009

An analytical model has been developed to compute the strength of screw threads for mechanical fasteners. The model takes precise account of dimensional and mechanical properties in determining the ultimate assembly strength and mode of failure (bolt stripping, nut stripping, or bolt breaking) in the event of overloading.

This model was utilized as the basis for a Monte Carlo computer simulation to design the most suitable nut properties for industrial applications.
Factors in the Corrosivity of Seawater Used for Secondary Petroleums Recovery
Authors: Annand RR , Hilliard HM , Tait WS
Published: March 2009

The mathematical equations for the corrosive effects of temperature, velocity, and concentration of depolarizer are discussed, and baseline values are established so that the equations can be used to project corrosion rates. From these, suggested conditioning levels are derived for dissolved oxygen and chlorine and for silt, biological, and scale control. The factors used here for the velocity, temperature, and pit versus general penetration rate relationships are based on limited data. As greater experience is gained and more data are made available (particularly from field installations), refinement of the proportionality constants in the cause-effect relationships can produce any desirable degree of reproducibility.
Corrosion Rate Monitoring in Gas and Oil Production
Authors: Harrell JB
Published: March 2009

One of the most expensive operations in gas and oil production is corrosion control. Methods for minimizing the cost and increasing the efficiency of corrosion control measures are very valuable to the gas and oil producer. For several years, corrosion rate instrumentation has been used to determine the eftectiveness of inhibitor programs and to detect extreme corrosion conditions in gas and oil production systems.

Case history-type examples of the use of corrosion rate instrumentation in production systems are presented. Factors affecting the utility of data produced in a corrosion monitoring scheme are discussed, including probe selection, probe placement, and instrument selection. Some data are presented to demonstrate the possible utility of a new technique which measures the rate of hydrogen penetration through production pipe walls as they carry sour production fluids.
Use of ATP Extraction in Oil Field Waters
Authors: Littmann ES
Published: March 2009

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) measurement of microorganisms in pressurized oil field injection waters has confirmed the unsuitability of standard micro-organism counting techniques for this use. Biocide performance in contamination level measurements are used to demonstrate the importance of this relatively new technique.
NBS Standards for Pressure, Temperature, and Humidity
Authors: Hudson RP
Published: March 2009

A summary is presented of the metrological activities in the Heat Division of the National Bureau of Standards, covering the calibration and other service activities in temperature, pressure, and humidity, together with a description of some representative examples of related current research and developmental work.
Meteorological Instruments for Use Near the Ground: Their Selection and Use in Air Pollution Studies
Authors: Mazzarella DA
Published: March 2009

This paper deals with the instruments of primary importance in air pollution studies, those that are used to supply data for making dispersion estimates and to measure wind and temperature. Since air pollution—and, in its broader aspect, air quality—involves turbulence, the equipment employed to measure the fluctuations of the wind must have known dynamic characteristics. Also, the equipment used to measure temperature difference in relation to altitude must have known accuracies. Both wind- and temperature-measuring instruments should be given exposures that make the measurements representative of the physical phenomena at the location being studied.

Meterological instruments that do not provide data for dispersion estimates—generally considered of secondary importance—include equipment for the measurement of solar radiation, precipitation, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and visibility. A wide range of meterological equipment is now available to the individual or organization undertaking an air pollution study. The selection and use of this equipment is primarily dependent on the purpose of the investigation. To assist those concerned with meteorological study, guidelines are offered in terms of criteria, terminology, and instrument specifications, especially for wind and temperature sensors. Sources of equipment are also given, together with some comparisons of specifications.
Meteorological Radar Signal Processing
Authors: Serafin RJ , Strauch R
Published: March 2009

Modern meteorological Doppler radar has applications related to measurements of precipitation intensities and kinematics in convective storms, widespread stratiform precipitating systems, winter frontal and cyclonic storm systems, and other cloud systems. In addition, air velocities may be measured in the optically clear atmosphere from backscatter due to refractive index perturbations or from dispersed chaff tracers.

In order to derive the maximum scientific benefit from Doppler radar it is necessary to process vast quantities of data in real time at rates in excess of 1 MHz. Fortunately, current integrated circuit technology permits such processing. However, this ability to process data rapidly also produces data rapidly and results in large data sets which must be stored and processed further for outputs of maximum meteorological significance to be derived. Even when data compression ratios of 100:1 are achieved in real time, modern meteorological Doppler radar can produce 9-track, 732-m (2400-ft) tapes at the rate of two per hour.

This paper describes the chain of processing from real-time processing and acquisition, to displaying processed single and multiple Doppler radar data. The paper also describes briefly the meteorological significance of the work.
Meteorological Data Processing
Authors: Jenne RL , Joseph DH
Published: March 2009

The archival storage and use of meteorological data sets are discussed. Plans for handling a large data set should often include the creation of a small set that captures much of the information. Most data sets are small enough that they can be readily handled by using present technology, if the data are in machinable form and if appropriate methods are used to process the data. The system used for data storage and access should be made up of modular blocks that are simple to use, yet can cope with a full range of diversity. Several data sets of interest to ASTM are discussed.
An Overview of Atmospheric Reactive Pollutant Models
Authors: Eschenroeder A
Published: March 2009

Air quality models have been developed for the purpose of relating ambient concentrations of reactive pollutants to the emissions of primary pollutants under specified meteorological conditions. Some of the substances of interest from a health and welfare point of view include gas phase oxidants (such as ozone, nitrogen dioxide, organic nitrates, and oxygenated hydrocarbons), as well as condensed phase materials (such as sulfates or nitrates). The atmospheric concentrations of these materials are influenced both by transport and transformation. Computer simulations have been developed to describe the pollutant phenomenology in terms of advection, turbulent diffusion and a variety of chemical reaction steps both homgeneous and heterogeneous. Inputs include wind velocities, stability data, emissions data, and initial concentrations in the ambient atmosphere. The most interesting output quantities are the surface concentrations of pollutants for times and locations of interest. The time and space resolution of the models set many of the requirements placed on input data. This paper will provide a description of available models, a discussion of related measurement requirements, and directions for future developments. Models are assessed in terms of detail, computer resource requirements, and ease in data handling. The spatial and temporal requirements on input data vary widely according to the methodology employed to solve the governing equations. Future work should be directed toward the satisfaction of new requirements of additional species and phenomenology, but, at the same time, toward preserving or enhancing the efficiency of the computation.
On the Development of a Guideline for Applying Air Quality Models
Authors: Slater HH , Tikvart JA
Published: March 2009

The Clean Air Act of 1970 is based on the concept that acceptable air resources can be attained and maintained by applying two basic strategies—by managing the quality of the air and by promulgating emission standards. Air quality management requires the use of procedures for relating emissions and ambient air quality, that is, air quality models.

The infinite variety of climatological and meteorological circumstances, of topography, and of the characteristics and configurations of sources challenges atmospheric scientists to devise accurate and simple models for general use. Demands arise for uniform procedures for estimating the impacts of sources. Representatives of nonscientific disciplines publicly debate issues involving the use and standardization of models.

This paper describes a process followed in developing a guideline for selecting and applying models for the management of air quality. The process included participation by specialist groups, and also by the general public, in determining the content and tone of the guideline and the appropriate degree of standardization.
Nonanthropogenic Ozone in California Urban Areas
Authors: Stephens ER
Published: March 2009

Ozone concentrations of a few parts per hundred million (pphm) sometimes occur in urban areas, unaccompanied by significant concentrations of other pollutants. The Santa Ana winds provide an important example of such ozone episodes, for they invariably contain 3 to 6 pphm of ozone with no diurnal variation. The origin of these winds in a large-scale weather system, along with the absence of other pollutants and the lack of a diurnal cycle, indicates that this ozone is of natural origin.

Occasionally the sea breeze develops a sharp front as it moves inland from the Pacific Ocean. In such episodes, the air which the marine sea breeze replaces is free of pollution except for several parts per hundred million of ozone. This is also regarded as not man-made because of the absence of other pollutants. Elevated ground-level concentrations of ozone have also been occasionally reported from other areas in association with storms. Downward transport from the ozonosphere seems the most probable source for these ozone episodes.
Implications of the Vertical Distribution of Ozone in the Troposphere
Authors: Sticksel PR
Published: March 2009

Ozone observed within the troposphere, but above the planetary boundary layer, may arrive there by various routes—descent from the stratosphere, ascent from the surface, or descent from the stratosphere followed by ascent. Once ozone has left the lower stratosphere through a tropopause break it can be transported horizontally for several days before descending to the boundary layer. During this period it may remain as a discrete maximum within a dry, stable layer or undergo mixing with the surrounding air (which may include anthropogenic oxidant) producing an ozone concentration which is uniform with height, in a relatively moist layer. High amounts of stratospheric ozone existing within the troposphere can be expected within dry, stable layers which intersect low tropopauses. High concentrations of stratospheric ozone have been observed to accumulate above a subsidence inversion at the same time that anthropogenic oxidant produces smog below the inversion. Examples are given of the use of isentropic trajectories, ozone profiles, temperature-humidity soundings, and synoptic weather maps in the study of tropospheric ozone.
Detection and Interpretation of Trends in Oxidant Air Quality
Authors: Wayne LG , Wilson KW , Boyd CL
Published: March 2009

Ambient air concentrations of photochemical oxidants, monitored over a five-year period in Philadelphia, Denver, and five regions in California, were examined for evidence of trends in air quality. Statistically significant trends were identified in the cases of Denver and the San Francisco Bay area.

The oxidant air quality in the San Francisco Bay area was found to be significantly related to the rates of emission of oxidant precursors. The relation is positive in the case of hydrocarbons, but negative for oxides of nitrogen. Geographical and meteorological factors are also important in determining the distribution of oxidant levels, and various indexes of oxidant air quality show different statistical behavior in regard to the detection of trends.