bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PETROLEUM SULFUR-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS AND AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN THE MARINE MOLLUSKS MODIOLUS DEMISSUS AND CRASSOTREA VIRGINICA1
Authors: Lake James L. , Hershner Carl
Published: January 2013

The in situ recovery of the mussel Modiolus demissus and the oyster Crassostrea virginica from successive small experimental dosings of No. 2 fuel oil was examined to determine the retention and release of petroleum hydrocarbons and petro-sulfur compounds from these marine mollusks. Extracts were obtained from the organisms over a four-month recovery period, and were analyzed by flame ionization detection (FID) and flame photometric detection (FPD) gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS). Results showed a large majority of the petroleum compounds that were present in these organisms’ after two weeks of recovery were lost by the 15th week. Both mollusks showed an enrichment of aromatic (releative to saturated) hydrocarbons during the first portion of recovery. As the recovery time lengthened, the aromatics were lost more rapidly than the saturates. Mussels showed relative increases in some individual aromatic hydrocarbons during the recovery period. The oysters, however, appeared to non-selectively depurate the aromatic hydrocarbons. The higher molecular weight petro-sulfur compounds were retained for the longest time periods. During the study period these compounds appeared to be lost from the mollusks at rates similar to those observed for the aromatic hydrocarbons.
UPTAKE OF NAPHTHALENES BY THE CLAM, RANGIA CUNEATA, IN THE VICINITY OF AN OIL SEPARATOR PLATFORM IN TRINITY BAY, TEXAS
Authors: Fucik K. W. , Armstrong H. W. , Neff J. M.
Published: January 2013

In three separate experiments, the clam, Rangia cuneata was exposed under and near an oil separator platform in Trinity Bay, Texas for periods of approximately 100 days. The greatest naphthalenes uptake was in those clams exposed beneath the platform. Clams exposed at distances of 150-1,000 m from the platform showed little or no uptake of naphthalenes. In clams returned to the lab and allowed to depurate, most of the accumulated naphthalenes were released though detectable levels remained in some of the clams after 47 days. There was good correlation between the rates of naphthalenes uptake by the clams and naphthalenes levels in the sediments at the different stations. However, clams analyzed by gas chromatographic techniques showed high levels of weathered hydrocarbons suggesting that the sediments are a source of hydrocarbons accumulated by the clams. The results are discussed in relation to the physical features of Trinity Bay which is a very shallow, semi-enclosed body of water with a high suspended sediment load.
THE STORY OF A SUCCESSFUL OIL SPILL COOPERATIVE: THE CORPUS CHRISTI AREA OIL SPILL CONTROL ASSOCIATION
Authors: Franklin Harry L.
Published: January 2013

The Corpus Christi Area Oil Spill Control Association, founded in 1970 as a nonprofit Texas corporation to provide the Coastal Bend area of South Texas with a reasonable capability to contain and harvest oil spills on the area's shallow waters, can be considered a successful cooperative for two primary reasons.

The first is the smooth blending of industry with federal, state, and local governments to create a working entity. The association, originally funded by each of these partners, is governed by a five-man board with a representative from each. Its operating budget is shared by government and industry alike on a 50-50 basis.

The second reason is the low average cleanup cost, 40 cents per gallon. To date the association has cleaned up 167 assorted spills with the first occurring in November 1971. The largest spill amounted to 8,000 barrels, covering approximately 10 miles of ship channel area; the smallest spill was less than one barrel.

The association has been commended by the Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Coast Guard, the State of Texas, and industry groups. It is the recipient of the Gold Medal Award from the National Sports Foundation and has been assigned the use of EPA's unique beach sand cleaner.
INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF THE TANKER INDUSTRY
Authors: Gray W. O. , Carven C. J. , Becker G. L.
Published: January 2013

Viewpoints regarding the effectiveness of international regulations for safety of ships and crews and for pollution prevention cover a broad spectrum. The authors believe that the basic framework for effective and enforceable regulations to control safety and protect the environment already exists in a “family” of IMCO (Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization) conventions, supplemented by voluntary industry programs. Though many individual elements are not yet in force, the nations of the world have before them the opportunity to implement this coordinated set of measures, thereby taking a major step towards achieving the safety and environmental protection which all desire. Alternate, fragmented, nation-by-nation approaches promise to produce only a mosaic of conflicting requirements which could undermine the efficient international flow of oil. It is the authors’ hope to stimulate support for the “family” of IMCO conventions and related industry measures. Description of industry activities is believed to support their belief that responsible tanker owners are vitally concerned, not only with safe and environmentally acceptable operation of their own tankers, but also with the implementation of effective, enforceable international regulations to assure that all ships adhere to uniform standards.
A DYNAMIC INTERNATIONAL CONTINGENCY PLAN
Authors: Corbett C. R. , Beckett C. J.
Published: January 2013

The mere development of a pollution contingency plan will not provide for adequate, and certainly not ideal, organizational response to a spill unless it is coupled with a conscious and deliberate effort by cognizant agencies and people to communicate with and to know each other. A practical method of eliminating organizational problems while at the same time improving operational capabilities is to identify specialized projects which will involve all concerned with the plan and response. This paper tells of an international contingency plan and how its parties from Canada and the United States approached this problem when a major oil spill occurred in the St. Lawrence River on June 23, 1976.
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE OFFSHORE OIL POLLUTION FUND1
Authors: Beck Donald A. , Moeller Paul J.
Published: January 2013

Title III of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments of 1978 creates a scheme of strict liability and compensation for the economic consequences of oil spilled as a result of activities on the outer continental shelf and establishes a federally administered fund to provide compensation for losses which are not otherwise compensated. This paper describes four major topics: scope of damages; methods and procedures for adjudication and settlement of claims; limits of liability and methods of establishing the financial responsibility of firms operating on the outer continental shelf A discussion of these areas includes implementing procedures by the Coast Guard in its attempt to provide a fair, reasonable and judicious system.
VLCC LIGHTERING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA1
Authors: Wolfson Marc W.
Published: January 2013

The large number of oil refineries in Southern California, lack of deepwater port facilities for very large crude carriers, and the large amount of crude oil now available from the Alaska pipeline have necessitated the development of a full-time lightering operation in the lee of San Clemente Island. The three companies presently involved—Shell, Chevron, and Coastal States Gas Corporation—have submitted operation manuals for lightering and contingency plans for handling emergency situations and oil spills. The Southern California Pollution Contingency Organization, an oil cleanup cooperative based in Long Beach, has been contracted by the lightering companies to respond in the event of an oil spill. Each lightering operation consists of a number of phases and requires expert lightering masters and an experienced crew. Since the first lightering on July 22, 1976, Coast Guard boarding teams from both the Los Angeles Captain of the Port Office and the San Diego Marine Safety Office have boarded and monitored more than 70 lighterings. The safety record has been impressive: there have been no major spills and relatively few deficiencies uncovered during tankship examinations.
MAJOR SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING FOR TANKER OPERATIONS
Authors: Kazmierczak Leon J.
Published: January 2013

Many spill response plans are formulated for given locations such as an individual dock, harbor, anchorage or similar situation. However, when the problem is planning for an accident involving any vessel which is part of an operating fleet, the plan must be quite different. Instead of being location-oriented, it must be focused on mobilization, logistics, and people. If the people involved can be properly instructed in their roles beforehand, they will be prepared to be mobilized at the scene wherever it may be and to participate directly in a cleanup operation.

This paper discusses in detail a plan whereby the duties, responsibilities and other activities are identified. They are then described and the overall plan is pieced together. The essence of this particular planning process is that the people assigned to various jobs know who they are, what their jobs are, what will be required of them and have some idea of the resources that may be available to them.

The plan contains job assignments, job descriptions, government contacts, contractors, co-operatives, equipment suppliers and locations, alerting diagrams, the basic organization, and a general description. The plan covers the Gulf and East Coasts of the United States. The approach can be adapted to a geographical area of almost any size.
THE AMOCO CADIZ OIL SPILL CLEANUP OPERATIONS–AN OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANIZATION, CONTROL, AND EVALUATION OF THE CLEANUP TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED
Authors: Bellier (CEDRE) Pierre , Massart (CEDRE-CNEXO) Georges
Published: January 2013

The organization used for work on the Amoco Cadiz oil spill, and the changes in this organization required by the size of the disaster, are explained and details are provided on the techniques used in the cleanup. These techniques had as their goals: protection of selected areas; pumping of oil where possible; and cleanup of the beaches, the shingle shores, rocky areas, and harbors, and disposal of the oily debris. The spill involved some 223,000 tons of oil spilled along 400 kilometers of coast. Almost 10,000 persons worked on the project during the busiest period. As a result, almost 200,000 tons of oil and debris were pumped and gathered. However, less than 20,000 tons of oil was finally retrieved after separation from the total mass of material obtained from the coastal zone.
ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS FROM AMOCO CADIZ ON PELAGIC COMMUNITIES—PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Authors: Samain J. F. , Moal J. , Daniel J. Y. , Boucher J. , Lefevre J.
Published: January 2013

First results on distribution and changes of biomass (dry weight and total soluble proteins), physiology (amylase, trypsin) and faunal composition of zooplankton are reported for the two months following the Amoco Cadiz spill on the northern Brittany coast. A shortage of biomass in the A ber area is attributed to hydrocarbons. The low level of the mean value of biomass on the north coasts, and the peculiarities at the estuarine station on Lannion Bay and the Trieux area are reported and discussed.
ROLE OF DYNAMIC COASTAL PROCESSES IN THE IMPACT AND DISPERSAL OF THE AMOCO CADIZ OIL SPILL (MARCH 1978) BRITTANY, FRANCE
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Gundlach Erich R. , D'Ozouville Laurent
Published: January 2013

Between 60,000 and 65,000 tons of the Amoco Cadiz oil came ashore along approximately 70 km of the shoreline of Brittany during the first few weeks of the spill (March 16–30, 1978). A prevailing westerly wind pushed the oil against west-facing headlands and into shoreline embayments as it moved east. A wind reversal in early April moved the oil in the opposite direction, contaminating previously untouched areas and transporting the oil as far southwest as Pointe du Raz (southwest of Brest). At the end of April, the total volume of oil onshore was reduced to approximately 10,000 tons but by that time more than 300 km of shoreline had been contaminated.

The details of oil erosion and burial were determined by resurveying 19 permanent beach profiles established during the first few days of the spill. These stations, plus an additional 147 beach observation stations, were revisited one month after the spill.

Coastal processes and geomorphology played a major role in the dispersal and accumulation of the oil once it came onshore. For example, oil accumulated at the heads of crenulate bays and on tombolos (sand spits formed in the lee of offshore islands). Local sinks, such as scour pits around boulders, bar troughs (runnels), marsh pools, and joints and crevasses in rocks, tended to trap oil.

Classification of the coastal environments of the Amoco Cadiz oil spill site, according to an oil spill vulnerability index (scale of 1–10 on basis of potential oil spill damage), revealed a good correlation with earlier findings at the Metula and Urquiola oil spill sites. For example, exposed rocky coasts and wave-cut platforms (stations 1 and 2) were cleaned of extremely heavy doses of oil within a few days. Sheltered rocky coasts (station 8), sheltered tidal flats (station 9) and estuarine marsh systems (station 10) proved to be the most vulnerable of all coastal environments to oil spill damage. These observations provide encouragement and incentive to continue to apply the vulnerability index to areas in the United States threatened by potential oil spills. The Brittany coastline is particularly analogous to the coastline of Maine and parts of southern Alaska.
TARGETING SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL TRAINING TO THE RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL
Authors: Oberholtzer George R. , Acuff James T.
Published: January 2013

In 1975, a contract was initiated between the Energy Research and Development Administration (now incorporated into the Department of Energy) and Texas A&I University at Corpus Christi (now Corpus Christi State University) to develop a training program for a broad-based cross section of citizens in oil spill control and cleanup. Development of course materials was completed and the first class held in October 1977; this one week course is presented about 20 times a year at Corpus Christi, Texas. This paper addresses the methods determined to be most efficient to train persons involved in various levels of an organization. Factors which in our experience may influence the effectiveness of this training include: location, methods of presentation, and composition of the class. The final portion of the paper relates these findings to our training program and the response of the students to this learning experience. These concepts may prove useful to management in efficiently allocating their resources so as to provide the highest level of expertise possible. In the final analysis, this should result in better pollution prevention or, when required, reduced costs of spill cleanup.
CLEAN ATLANTIC ASSOCIATES: AN OIL SPILL CLEANUP COOPERATIVE FOR THE ATLANTIC OFFSHORE AREA
Authors: Hubbard J. F. , Allen T. E.
Published: January 2013

Clean Atlantic Associates was established by the petroleum operating companies with oil and gas leases in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic areas of the outer continental shelf. As lease sales are held in other Atlantic OCS areas, Clean Atlantic Associates will expand into these areas. The purpose of this association is to provide a stockpile of equipment for member companies to use in the event of an oil spill emergency, and to provide trained manpower to maintain and operate the equipment. To date, about $1.4 million has been spent for containment and cleanup equipment for the Mid-Atlantic area. Another $2.9 million has been authorized for the purchase of additional equipment for the North and South Atlantic lease areas. A base has been established at Davisville, Rhode Island, for the Mid-Atlantic equipment already purchased. Additional bases will be established as needed. The organizational structure of Clean Atlantic Associates and the description and operation of the equipment stockpiled are discussed. New open-sea containment booms, boat spray systems, and modified skimming systems are described in detail. Also discussed are the contingency manual prepared to assist member companies in their planning and training programs, and the training programs held to help assure the availability of trained manpower.
CLEAN GULF ASSOCIATES - SIX YEARS LATER
Authors: Shipman E. D.
Published: January 2013

Clean Gulf Associates, an organization representing approximately 60 oil and gas operators and 99% of the production in the U.S. portion of the Gulf of Mexico, continues to improve and add to its stockpile of equipment for containment and cleanup of oil spills. A separate Cost Participation Area off the Texas Coast was established over two years ago; material and equipment is stockpiled and available at two bases on the Texas coast. Additions to the equipment stockpile include a versatile radio communication system designed for use during cleanup operations, and a new self-propelled skimmer for use in shallow-water cleanup operations. During the past year, approximately 50 training sessions on oil spill containment and cleanup with CGA equipment were held.
OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES—A RATIONAL SYSTEM FOR SELECTION AND SIZING OF EQUIPMENT
Authors: Fraser J. P.
Published: January 2013

A system for rational selection and sizing of oil spill countermeasure equipment has been developed. The system involves: Assessment of oil spill risk, including types, maximum sizes, and probable location of spills plus detailing of environmental considerations such as river or ocean currents, sea states, weather and geography, Development of oil spill scenarios to assist in realistic appraisal of the problems of logistics, deployment, and operation of equipment, and Selection and sizing of equipment to match the needs and environmental problems already identified.

This system for selection and sizing of equipment is equally applicable if the choice is to contain and recover the oil or if the choice is to use dispersants. Computer programs are discussed which can be helpful in the assessment of risk, in development of scenarios, and in the selection and sizing of equipment. It is not essential that these computer programs be used, but they can be helpful in developing oil spill countermeasures.
COMPUTER SEARCHING FOR POLLUTION CLEANUP EQUIPMENT1
Authors: Imbrie Robert J. , Karwan Kirk R.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the development of an inventory of spill cleanup and containment equipment for the United States by the Coast Guard. Increased public awareness of the need for prompt and efficient containment and cleanup during pollution emergencies has highlighted the need for reliable information on existing resources available from the private and public sectors. In July 1977, the Coast Guard began developing an information retrieval system that would provide persons involved in oil spill emergencies with comprehensive lists of equipment available to them. The Spill Cleanup Inventory System was implemented in April 1978.
CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR OIL SPILLS: RIVERSPILL—A RIVER SIMULATION MODEL
Authors: Tsahalis Demos T.
Published: January 2013

A simulation model, Riverspill, has been developed for the prediction of transport, spreading, and associated land contamination of oil spills on rivers. The effects of volume and type of oil, use of Oil Herder® or not, type, location, and time of occurrence of the oil spill, geometry and hydrographic characteristics of the river and wind speed and direction are taken into account. The model is capable of operating in either deterministic or stochastic mode. When the model is used in the deterministic mode, it predicts the path and associated land contamination of a specific oil spill as a function of time. When the model is used in the stochastic mode, it estimates the probability that an oil spill will be transported into a specific region after an accidental discharge within another specified region. In the present study the model is specifically applied to the lower Mississippi River. However, the model is general and can be applied to any river. The predictions of the model are in very good agreement with the observed behavior of actual oil spills on the Mississippi River.
MEDITERRANEAN OIL POLLUTION MONITORING AND CONTROL: TECHNICAL AND POLICY ISSUES1
Authors: Boxer Baruch
Published: January 2013

An ambitious intergovernmental program of oil spill contingency and response planning is underway in the Mediterranean Sea region under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO). This paper assesses technical and institutional problems of bringing national needs and capabilities into line with international obligations of Mediterranean coastal states in keeping with the recently ratified 1976 Barcelona Convention. Problems include: definition of the coordinating role of the Malta-based UNEP-supported and IMCO-administered Regional Oil Combating Center for the Mediterranean Sea (ROCC); difficulties in applying the results of oil and petroleum hydrocarbon monitoring in regional spill prevention and contingency planning; jurisdictional questions relating to coastal state regulation and enforcement rights; and lack of consensus on technical aspects of planning and response due to diverse national standards and pollution control objectives.

Through the establishment of the ROCC, UNEP and IMCO have introduced a new element in international attempts to plan for and respond to major spills. The extent to which the ROCC is able to achieve its treaty-defined goals in the Mediterranean is a measure of the potential for international agency contributions to contingency and response planning. This is important in light of UNEP attempts in other “regional seas” areas to establish similar institutional mechanisms for intergovernmental coordination.
THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF OIL SPILL FINGERPRINTING1
Authors: Bentz Alan P. , Smith Stanley L.
Published: January 2013

In several recent court cases, evidence of an oil “fingerprint” has been used to identify the source of an oil spill. As a result, those responsible for the spill have been required to pay a civil penalty and to reimburse the United States for the cost of cleaning up the oil. The use of such evidence in court supports the conclusion that the U.S. Coast Guard's oil spill identification system is both scientifically and legally sound.
THE AIREYE REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM FOR OIL SPILL SURVEILLANCE1
Authors: White James R. , Schmidt Richard E. , Plage William E.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard is developing an airborne, real-time, all-weather, day/night remote-sensing system that will detect oil pollutants and identify violating vessels. The system, designated “Aireye,” will be installed on six of the 41 new Falcon 20G jet aircraft, (military designation HU-25A) purchased by the Coast Guard to replace the aging HU-16E Grumman Albatross as its medium-range surveillance aircraft. The sensor system will include a side looking airborne radar, two-channel infrared/ultraviolet line scanner, aerial reconnaissance camera, airborne data annotation system, and a control, display and record console. To identify polluting vessels at night, an active gated television (AGTV) also is being developed for inclusion in the Aireye system. The AGTV will use a one-watt, pulsed, lead vapor laser illuminator and will be capable of recording vessel names at night from a slant range of 700 meters. In addition to an active and passive mode, the AGTV will be capable of both computer and manual target acquisition and tracking. Each of the sensors will produce annotated, hard copy imagery suitable for prosecution of polluting vessels.
AIRBORNE OIL SPILL SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS IN SWEDEN
Authors: Backlund Lars
Published: January 2013

Two different oil spill surveillance systems have been developed by the Swedish Space Corporation for the Swedish Coast Guard and the Swedish Board for Space Activities. These systems are installed in two Coast Guard Cessna 337 aircraft. One of the systems is based on a side looking airborne radar, developed by L. M. Ericsson Telephone Company under contract to the SSC, and the other on a Daedalus infrared/ultraviolet line scanner. Both systems generate real-time imagery on a television monitor. In addition to the remote-sensing equipment, both aircraft have a Decca tactical air navigational system and a camera system on board. The technical evaluation and field testing of the two surveillance systems was carried out during 1978. The systems gradually will be put into operational use by the Swedish Coast Guard for coastal surveillance.
A COMPARATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE FOR TANKER OIL SPILLS
Authors: Özkaynak Halûk , Murphy Brian L. , Watson Joel J.
Published: January 2013

The tanker oil spill risk assessment model (TRAM) allows a user to investigate the way in which oil spill probabilities, and amounts spilled, vary with such factors as fleet composition, navigational aids, or particular properties of the route. Such a comparison of alternatives is generally required for an environmental impact statement.

TRAM operates through multiplication of a series of matrices: P, Q, R, and S. The rows and columns of all matrices are parameterized by accident type (such as collision or grounding) and location (such as at a pier, or in a harbor). The probability of an accident (P) and of a spill following an accident (Q) are based on world tanker fleet data. The matrix S expresses the conditional probability that if there is a spill, the vessel will be a total loss. This enables catastrophic spills in which spill size can be related to vessel size to be distinguished from minor spills in which vessel size is generally not a factor.

The matrix R contains most of the unique features of the model. It accounts for vessel and route-specific features that reasonably may be expected to alter the world tanker fleet data. Examples are given from the literature for the elements of R corresponding to: fleet composition (domestic/foreign carrier); navigation aids such as vessel traffic system; vessel age, and construction (double hull, inerting system, segregated ballast, etc.); and various features of the tanker route, such as channel width and traffic density, based on Macduff's causation probability formalism. The practical usage of the model is demonstrated by applying it to a hypothetical project involving tanker oil transportation. The extension of this analysis technique to other forms of risk analysis studies (including operations other than oil transport) is also discussed.
THE GROUNDING OF THE IMPERIAL ST. CLAIR A CASE HISTORY OF CONTENDING WITH OIL IN ICE
Authors: Beckett C. J.
Published: January 2013

During mid-morning on December 23, 1976, the oil products tanker Imperial St. Clair, carrying over 10,400 tons of cargo, grounded in the approaches to Parry Sound. Located on the eastern shores of Georgian Bay in Lake Huron, this port is a central depot supplying a large hinterland with petroleum.

At the time of grounding, new winter ice was present in varying thicknesses and temperatures and winds varied from day to day, resulting in very difficult conditions in which to effect operations.

An estimated 57,000 gallons of diesel fuel and gasoline was lost during the initial impact and later during oil transfer operations. The methods used to boom off the remaining oil through the winter period accounted for almost 40,000 gallons of the remainder.

This paper deals with the chronology of events after the grounding, the problems encountered with the safety of personnel, methodology of removal under ice conditions and the logistics of the operation. The result was total success, thus safeguarding one of the most beautiful areas of the Great Lakes.
DEVELOPMENT OF A NOVEL ICE OIL BOOM FOR FLOWING WATERS
Authors: Tsang Gee , Vanderkooy Nick
Published: January 2013

To contain and recover oil in an ice-infested river, an ice-free area has to be created wherein conventional clean-up gear may be employed. A joint Canada-United States study was begun to develop a barrier which would allow the oil to pass through while barring ice floes from entering the recovery site area. Theoretical and laboratory study showed that the ice floes could be deflected successfully from an oil spill recovery site. The U.S. Coast Guard financed the construction of the prototype and it was successfully tested at the Canadian Coast Guard Base in the Detroit River, Amherstburg, Ontario.

The ice boom utilizes the ruddering principle, used by glance booms for the lumber industry. It consists of a sturdy body and a number of short fins or rudders. The angle between the boom and the fins is variable. The upstream end of the boom is tied to the shore. When the fins are gradually closed from the initially open position, the force of the current on the fins brings the boom gradually into the flow. The out-swung boom then prevents the ice floes from entering the area behind it and thus creates the desirable ice-free area. Openings are provided in the boom for the oil slick to pass through. After the oil passes through the boom, it may be contained and recovered by conventional methods.

Field experiments showed that deployment and manipulation of the boom could be carried out readily. It was also apparent that the fins created a surface current deflecting the oil simulant directly toward the shore. Quantitative design criteria have been obtained.
BETWEEN A DAM AND A HARD SPOT
Authors: Morrison C. D.
Published: January 2013

As a result of the most severe winter in history, the locks at Markland Locks and Dam on the Ohio River, 60 miles south of Cincinnati, were closed to traffic by heavy ice accumulation January 25, 1978. Up river, 13 towboats and 125 barges with cargoes ranging from xylene to steel waited.

Yet further up the river, an undetected ice gorge was building, trapping the tows between the inoperative locks and the gorge. On January 27, 1978, the gorge broke and swept down on the entrapped tows. Some towboats could just hold their position, while others, and many barges, were carried away toward the dam with the result that one towboat and seven barges sank at the dam, three barges were swept over the dam, six barges were unaccounted for, and 11 barges lodged against the dam producing a major pollution and explosion potential from the non-gas-free tank barges. To complicate matters, the river was at flood stage and bank-to-bank ice was forming behind the stranded barges, eventually extending six miles up river.

We had to determine the cargoes and location of 125 barges in order to establish the safety measures needed during salvage operations. Salvage operations and channel ice breaking continued until February 5, 1978. On the night of February 5, 1978, two tows locked through, but the third, a 108-foot-wide, 1,000-foot-long gasoline tow became wedged solid in the lock chamber with the forward gate open. Three days were required to free the tow, but both lead barges were damaged and lost 1,084 gallons of gasoline in the lock chamber. A large number of Coast Guard personnel and a variety of equipment was deployed from five Coast Guard districts.
CLEANUP OPERATIONS AFTER THE 1976 SS SANSINENA EXPLOSIONAN INDUSTRIAL PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Hutchison John H.
Published: January 2013

This paper outlines the efforts made for oil spill cleanup and control following the explosion on the SS Sansinena. It describes the layout and conditions encountered in the harbor area, such as prolonged exposure to fire, interaction with salvage operations, and ship and pleasure boat traffic. The main problem encountered was the fact that the fuel oil aboard was heavier than water, and hence sank to the bottom of the 60-foot-deep ship channel when the tanks ruptured.

The methods and equipment employed in recovering the oil from the channel are described indicating the relative advantages and disadvantages. Some of the problems included visibility in deep water, methods to maximize oil in the pump effluent, and separation of oil and water at the job site. Additionally, the long period (120 days) required to operate booms and other gear at the site required logistics and maintenance support not normally encountered.

Cleanup and oil removal services were also utilized during the salvage and removal of the ship which was cut into segments that were either towed away or lifted onto barges for movement to a scrap yard.
THE RESTORATION OF OILED SHORELINES BY THE PROPER USE OF CHEMICAL DISPERSANTS
Authors: Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

Currently, mechanical cleanup techniques are conventionally utilized to restore oil contaminated shorelines, such as marshland, beaches, sea walls, etc. Such methods can cause severe environmental damage. The approach is also inefficient in that oil removed from a shore surface by water jets or similar techniques can readily redeposit on a neighboring surface.

This paper reviews the shortcomings of the expensive mechanical cleanup methods and presents the overall mechanism and technique for restoration using chemical agents. Although the use of chemicals in intertidal zones has not been well accepted by some environmental and regulatory groups, there is limited documentation that use of these agents results in less environmental damage and more rapid and economical shoreline restoration than mechanical alternatives. In support of this argument, an actual instance wherein an extensive Tampa, Florida shoreline had been oiled by a spill from the S/S Delian Appolon and subsequently chemically restored, is described. Detailed biological sampling of the biota in the environs of the work area was conducted by Texas A&M University. Data from an oiled area, oiled and chemically cleaned area, and a control (as is) area are supplied in the presentation.

The implications and feasibility of simply allowing the oil to weather/biodegrade in areas where this would be permissible are discussed, as are the proper, as well as improper, applications of chemical agents for shoreline restoration.
DEVELOPING A DISPERSANT SPRAYING CAPABILITY
Authors: Gill S. D.
Published: January 2013

As provided by the Canada Shipping Act, the marine emergency office of the Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) is responsible for providing maritime emergency countermeasures operations that in peace time are not furnished by the private sector. With respect to oil spill countermeasures, the Canadian Coast Guard has pursued an equipment acquisition programme that involves recovery hardware, tanker lightening machinery, and dispersant spraying equipment.

In developing a national dispersant spraying capability, the CCG has undertaken a modification programme to enable the conventional offshore spraying gear to be mounted on almost any vessel of convenience. Smaller, more versatile inshore spraying vessels and pumps have been designed and built. With the popularization of concentrated dispersants, the inshore pumping equipment can be used aboard hovercraft for special application situations. A programme of acquiring mobile dispersant storage tanks has been undertaken with auxiliary equipment that will facilitate the shipment of dispersants in bulk by air freight. Work also has commenced on extending the dispersant application programme to include the CCG fleet of helicopters.
THE USE OF AIRCRAFT FOR THE CLEARANCE OF OIL SPILLS AT SEA1
Authors: Cormack Doug , Parker Hugh
Published: January 2013

This paper describes experiments conducted with undiluted concentrate dispersants both in the laboratory and at sea which show that oil may be dispersed without the addition of artificial agitation. A description is given of trials over airfields, in which the appropriate droplet size was determined so that virtually all of the liquid discharged from the plane actually reaches the ground/sea surface. Experimental slicks were then laid at sea and the methods are described. These were treated by aircraft using the technique developed over the airfields. Results are presented on fresh crude oil (Kuwait, Ekofisk), topped Kuwait, and topped Kuwait water-in-oil emulsion. Experiments and results obtained with a Piper Pawnee and a DC-4 are included. Information is also presented on the logistics of aircraft use in spills offshore and close to shore with a view to giving as precise an evaluation as possible of the overall feasibility of aircraft dispersant operations.
OIL SPILL DEBRIS DISPOSAL HARDWARE SYSTEMS: METHODS FOR CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT1
Authors: Hansen Warren G. , Ross David E. , Sinclair John R.
Published: January 2013

A Coast Guard sponsored investigation has determined that additional equipment systems are needed for disposal of wastes collected during cleanup of oil spills. Survey results indicate that, in most cases, existing systems are designed for specific environmental and debris conditions and may not provide the flexibility for the variety of situations that can be encountered during Coast Guard operations. Research also shows that there is equipment presently available that can be included in disposal systems for responding to a wide range of oil spill mass scenarios.
APPLICATIONS OF ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS TO OIL SPILL IMPACT
Authors: Cowell Eric B. , Cox Geraldine V. , Dunnet George M.
Published: January 2013

Ecologists need to be more involved in selection of oil spill clean-up devices, setting clean-up priorities, and evaluation of clean-up techniques. This paper outlines some basic ecological principles and stresses their proper application to minimize ecological damage and to properly evaluate that damage.
A FISHERY-OIL SPILL INTERACTION MODEL
Authors: Reed Mark , Spaulding Malcolm L.
Published: January 2013

An oil spill behavior and fates model (see paper by P. C. Cornillon et al. elsewhere in this volume) has been coupled to a fisheries model54 to produce dynamic simulations of the interactive effects between an oil spill and the cod fishery on Georges Bank, with impacts being projected into the commercial catch. Four trial cases are documented: spills occurring in December and April, with and without chemical treatment. Several systems problems are discussed, along with present and anticipated efforts to bring the set of models from its current preliminary state to one in which useful inferences may be drawn.
SELECTIVE OIL SPILL COMBAT PLANNING FOR OFFSHORE EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION OPERATIONS IN THE NORTH SEA
Authors: Poley Johannes Ph.
Published: January 2013

Experience shows that during emergencies (Ekofisk, Amoco Cadiz) considerable differences of opinion can arise concerning the best combat-action to be taken, in spite of existing approved contingency plans. In this paper, a case is made for an improvement of the decision-making during emergencies through selective contingency planning for offshore operations.

In such selective contingency planning, a spill from a specific (potential) source and its impact on a stretch of coastline are being interconnected and analysed. This will involve consideration of source-specific data (such as location, oil-composition, flow-rates, and temperatures), together with such items as estimates of the fate and movement of that oil across the intermediate stretch of sea, seasonal conditions, pollution risks in terms of oil arrival times and amounts, and coastal vulnerability

In consultation between government and industry, a scenario for action tailored to that situation then can be decided in advance, both for combat at the spill location and for coastal protection.

The paper is illustrated with evidence from the Ekofisk blow-out case, and with the estimated pollution hazard for the Dutch Wad-denzee from an oil blow-out in the central North Sea area.
A MODEL TO FORECAST THE MOTION OF OIL ON THE SEA
Authors: Hess Kurt W. , Kerr Christopher L.
Published: January 2013

A model to forecast the motion of oil spilled on the surface of water was established by combining separate models for the motion of oil, the motion of water, and the motion of air. The model for the motion of oil is based upon the hydrodynamic equations as they apply to oil on water. This model requires information at both the lower and upper boundaries of oil. At the oil lower boundary, the information is obtained from a model for the motion of water. This model is formulated by combining Ekman dynamics and continuity for the upper mixed layer of the sea. At the oil upper boundary, a model for the motion of air provides the required information. This model is based upon an analysis of output obtained from one of the National Weather Service's multi-level atmospheric models. A number of case studies demonstrate the features of the separate models and the composite oil spill model.
OIL SPILL TREATMENT STRATEGY MODELING FOR GEORGES BANK
Authors: Cornillon Peter C. , Spaulding Malcolm L. , Hansen Kurt
Published: January 2013

As part of a larger project assessing the environmental impact of treated versus untreated oil spills, a fates model has been developed which tracks both the surface and subsurface oil. The approach used to spread, drift, and evaporate the surface slick is similar to that in most other oil spill models. The subsurface technique, however, makes use of a modified particle-in-cell method which diffuses and advects individual oil/dispersant droplets representative of a large number of similar droplets. This scheme predicts the time-dependent oil concentration distribution in the water column, which can then be employed as input to a fisheries population model. In addition to determining the fate of the untreated spill, the model also allows for chemical treatment and/or mechanical cleanup of the spilled oil. With this capability, the effectiveness of different oil spill control and removal strategies can be quantified.

The model has been applied to simulate a 34,840 metric ton spill of a No. 2-type oil on Georges Bank. The concentration of oil in the water column and the surface slick trajectory are predicted as a function of time for chemically treated and untreated spills occurring in April and December. In each case, the impact on the cod fishery was determined and is described in detail in a paper by Reed and Spaulding presented at this conference.
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF TWO EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILLS IN AN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM, PART II
Authors: Bieri Rudolf H. , Stamoudis Vassilis C. , Cueman M. Kent
Published: January 2013

This paper deals with hydrocarbons in unconsolidated sediment and oysters, Crassostrea virginica, exposed to experimental oil spills. Quantitative data are based on high resolution, wall coated glass capillaries, and compound identification on mass spectrometry and retention.

The results emphasize the general trends observed in Fundulus heteroclitus:3 a rapid response of individual tissue hydrocarbon concentrations to the spill, followed by a gradual decrease that appears to be related to the environmental residence time of the compound. Total aromatic concentrations in unconsolidated sediment (unresolved envelope + peaks), at the maximum, reach >500 parts per million (ppm) in both spill areas. In oyster tissue, maximum concentrations of total benzene eluate are <5 ppm and those of individual isomers in general are <100 parts per billion (ppb). Compositional changes with time are evident in both unconsolidated sediment and oyster extracts, resulting in increasing complexity that in the end becomes a basic limitation to analytical efforts for quantitation from gas chromatograms. Total concentrations of benzene fractions in oysters were found to remain essentially constant over a period of at least 10,000 hours; those of individual compounds clearly decay to ppb levels within a few hundred hours.

Unconsolidated sediment extracts were found to contain chlorinated hydrocarbons in concentrations of the same order of magnitude as those of aromatic hydrocarbons. While a few chlorinated hydrocarbons were also detected in oysters, their concentration relative to aromatic hydrocarbons was low and their structure in general different from those in unconsolidated sediments. Contrary to expectations, there is no obvious correlation between unconsolidated sediment and oysters.
SURVEY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE SETO INLAND SEA OIL SPILL IN 1974
Authors: Hiyama Yoshio
Published: January 2013

On December 18, 1974, a fuel oil tank in Mizushima Refinery of Mitsubishi Oil Co. ruptured. About 50,000 barrels of fuel oil spilled and spread in the Seto Inland Sea, where there were intensive fisheries and heavy marine traffic among various industrial settlements. Coastal fisheries and fish culture fell into confusion, but, according to this survey, marine life quickly recovered by the summer of 1975 and the effect of the oil on the natural environment was not so large as suspected, the reason being mainly the quick and energetic work to recover the spilled oil. This paper is a report of the outline of the accident and a survey of its influence on the marine environment.
A TIDAL SIMULATION SYSTEM FOR ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM RESEARCH
Authors: Johnson Richard A. , Brown Lewis R. , Wells W. Graham
Published: January 2013

This paper describes a system for simulating tidal movements in an enclosed salt-water (estuarine) environment. This Tidal Simulation System (TSS) can be programmed to deliver various tide levels on variable cycles, and can record system performance analog data output on strip charts. Employing a variable-speed centrifugal pump, a system of pneumatic valves actuated by a central timing device, a pressurization subsystem, and a special piping manifold, the system controls flow through a branched array of submerged outlet pipes which prevent disruption of surface water and oil films, and prevent disturbance of bottom sediments.

The system has undergone extensive operation tests in the Ecosystem Research Laboratory of the Mississippi State University Research Center, situated at the NASA National Space Technology Laboratory (NSTL) at Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, and has been used to simulate tides in two pairs of ponds which were employed on an Environmental Protection Agency contract to study the fate and effect of oil in the aquatic environment of the Gulf Coast Region. The salinity of the ponds ranged from 6 to 12 parts per thousand (‰), and the composition of the plankton population changed with salinity and paralleled changes observed in the estuarine area of the south-central Gulf area. Several effects of low level oil pollution, not found in laboratory studies, were observed during the course of an eleven-month study.