bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OPTIONS FOR MINIMIZING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FRESHWATER SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Barton Kenneth , Michel Jacqueline , Owens Edward H. , Fritz David E. , Steen Alexis E.
Published: January 2013

Selecting appropriate protection, response, and cleanup techniques is a critical element affecting the ultimate environmental impact and cost resulting from a spill. The American Petroleum Institute and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration jointly developed a guide as a tool for contingency planners and field responders to identify techniques that in themselves have minimal intrinsic ecological impact and minimize the impact of the oil. The guide provides information on 29 response methods and classifies their relative environmental impacts for four oil types and 12 freshwater environments and habitats. Spill topics of special concern in freshwater settings are also discussed, including public health, conditions under which oil might sink, oil behavior in ice conditions, permafrost, and use of fire-fighting foams.
EXPORTING ALASKAN NORTH SLOPE CRUDE OIL: EVALUATION OF OIL SPILL RISKS
Authors: LaBelle Robert P. , Marshall Charles F. , Anderson Cheryl M. , Johnson Walter R.
Published: January 2013

On November 28, 1995, President Clinton signed legislation (S.395, Public Law 104-58) that authorizes the exporting of Alaskan North Slope crude oil. The oil would be shipped in U.S. flag vessels through the Gulf of Alaska and along a route 200 miles offshore the Aleutian Islands to the Far East. Implementation of this law is subject to a Determination of National Interest, which considers potential effects to the environment and economy. An interagency group, including the Department of Commerce, the Department of Energy, and the U.S. Coast Guard, was formed to analyze such effects, one of which is oil spill risk. The Minerals Management Service's Oil-Spill Risk Analysis model was used to track and analyze simulated spills from two tanker routes: a proposed route offshore the Aleutian Islands, and the existing domestic tanker routes through the Gulf of Alaska and along the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California. The model results reflect the estimated risk to coastal areas over the various seasons from spills at large for up to 30 days’ travel time. The information generated was used to support planning for mitigation of potential risk and impacts.
TOXICITY OF DISPERSANT, OIL, AND DISPERSED OIL TO TWO MARINE ORGANISMS
Authors: Gulec Ismail , Holdway Douglas A.
Published: January 2013

Acute lethal bioassays using semistatic conditions were conducted to assess the toxicity of crude oil, dispersant, and dispersed oil using the amphipod Allorchestes compressa as a test species. Sublethal bioassays (suppression of burying behavior over 24 hours of exposure) were conducted for these toxicants using the marine sand snail Polinices conicus. Both lethal and sublethal bioassays were also carried out for two reference toxicants: sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and zinc sulphate.
CORDGRASS RESTORATION FOLLOWING A GASOLINE RELEASE IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY
Authors: Rausina Gary A. , Jackson Lucinda A. , Winfield Ted P. , Tarpley John A.
Published: January 2013

A 2-year study evaluating natural versus assisted restoration of Pacific cordgrass injured from exposure to unleaded gasoline revealed the following:Survival and growth of transplanted plugs were unaffected by unleaded gasoline at concentrations in sediments ≤ 100 mg/kg TPH-gasoline and ≤10 mg/kg BTEX.Compared to unaffected reference sites, transplanted plugs showed equal heights after 2 years and a comparable number of shoots and flowering stems after 1 year.Additional treatments such as plug cutting or planting into a sand/peat mix resulted in no further success.Natural restoration showed some effectiveness by the end of three growing seasons.
PREVENTION THROUGH PEOPLE
Authors: Ornitz Barbara E.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines the status of action taken in the United States and internationally to prevent oil spills by addressing human factors. The real cause of 60% to 80% of all oil discharges is human error. People, not technology, are the key. There is a shift in prevention from technology to people in six major areas in the maritime community: USCG licensing procedures for crew; the ISM code under SOLAS; self-policing by industry; the USCG Point System; MARPOL 73/78 Port State Control; and use of the Intervention on the High Seas Convention. As an example of lessons to be learned, this paper makes specific reference throughout to the 798,000-gallon oil spill of no. 6 diesel fuel from the Morris J. Berman off San Juan, Puerto Rico, in January 1994, and to the human factors that caused that spill.
HYDROCARBONS AND PAH IN FISH AND SHELLFISH FROM SOUTHWEST WALES FOLLOWING THE SEA EMPRESS OIL SPILL IN 1996
Authors: Law Robin J. , Kelly Carole A. , Graham Katie L. , Woodhead Ruth J. , Dyrynda Peter E. J. , Dyrynda Elisabeth A.
Published: January 2013

The tanker Sea Empress spilled approximately 72,000 tons of light crude oil from the Forties field (North Sea) and 360 tons of heavy fuel oil at the mouth of Milford Haven in west Wales in February 1996. The scale of the spillage made it necessary to impose closure orders on both commercial and recreational fishing in adjacent coastal waters and rivers. A monitoring program was initiated both to follow the spread of oil and its uptake by fish and shellfish and to provide information with which to assess human health risks. In this paper we report the results of monitoring in both commercial and noncommercial stocks offish and shellfish in the first 6 months following the grounding.
PROMOTING OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS IN EGYPT: JOINT GOVERNMENT/INDUSTRY EXERCISE
Authors: Schroeder Art J. , Omar Magdi , DeHart Robert E. , Fawzi Mohamed A. , Stirk Ian
Published: January 2013

In October 1996, Mobil, Amoco, and Amoco's Egyptian joint venture partner, Gupco (Gulf of Suez Petroleum Company), conducted a tier III oil spill exercise with key government authorities, including the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) and the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC). This joint exercise represented a significant step forward in promoting global government and industry cooperation in preparedness and response to major oil spills. The exercise involved high-level decision makers from key Egyptian government agencies charged with responding to oil spills. Other participants were local, regional, and international tier II and III consultants and contractors, including responders from Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) in Southampton, England. During the exercise, onshore response equipment was deployed, and civil aviation, customs, and immigration issues related to air transport of equipment and mobilization of personnel to Egypt were tested. Technical resources from the Integrated Simulators Complex in Alexandria, Egypt, were used by the response team in developing strategies to deal with the oil spill scenario. Professional media personnel were used to test issues pertaining to government and public affairs. This exercise, which was observed by the Egyptian Red Sea governor and the U.S. ambassador, demonstrates that Egyptian authorities are working to become a “center of excellence” in oil spill preparedness for the Middle East, Eastern Mediterranean, and North African region.
WHICH PLAN SHOULD I USE? AN INTEGRATION OF PIPELINE RESPONSE PLANS
Authors: Cramer Martin A. , Kalas Ronald J.
Published: January 2013

Because of a number of different federal and state regulations in the United States, the pipeline industry is required to maintain multiple emergency response plans. This often creates confusion about which plan to use when responding to a spill or other emergency. To alleviate this problem, BP Oil Pipeline Company worked with ENSR to integrate the various emergency planning requirements into a single response plan. This approach simplifies the response process, ensures consistency when responding, eliminates duplication, reduces training requirements, improves plan comprehension, and dramatically reduces the effort required to maintain and update the plan.

Largely based on the U.S. Department of Transportation's (DOT's) pipeline oil spill planning standards in 49 CFR 194, the plan also incorporates DOT's applicable pipeline emergency planning requirements of 49 CFR 195, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Organization's (OSHA's) general hazardous material spill planning requirements in 29 CFR 1910.120 (1), and the U.S. Coast Guard's facility oil spill planning requirements in 33 CFR 154.

Other integrated pipeline plans prepared by ENSR have also incorporated DOT's emergency planning requirements for gas pipelines in 49 CFR 192 and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) hazardous waste and oil spill planning requirements in 40 CFR 265 and 112.20. Many of the individual requirements are similar, thereby facilitating the development of a single plan.

This paper examines the development of the BP plan, discusses the similarities and differences between various regulations, and provides a general outline for use in preparing an integrated pipeline response plan. A similar approach can be followed when developing integrated contingency plans in response to multiple requirements mandated by other countries, regions, international conventions, or the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
APPLICATION OF RECENT TECHNICAL ADVANCES TO THE DECISION PROCESS FOR SHORELINE TREATMENT
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Sergy Gary A.
Published: January 2013

During the past 5 years a number of significant advances have been made in our understanding of the fate and behavior of oil on shorelines. The significance and applicability of these scientific and technical advances do not always filter into, or are recognized by, response and operations management. The key to making this information useful is to identify how this technical knowledge or understanding can be applied practically within the management of a response. The objective of this discussion is to highlight those applications. The topics discussed are (1) oil on coarse sediment beaches; (2) the natural cleaning of oil in the absence of wave energy by fine particle interactions (OFI); (3) the efficiency of some cleanup techniques; (4) the effects of cleanup or treatment on natural recovery and the application of net environmental benefit (NEB) analyses; (5) the use of standard procedures (SCAT) to systematically document oil on the shoreline and the adoption of accepted terms and definitions to describe stranded oil, and of accepted objective and strategy statements in spill management; (6) the concept of minimum regret as applied to spill movement projections; (7) the new generation of shoreline response guides and manuals that have been produced; and (8) the recent generation of computer support systems that can provide technical support to managers.
SPILL PREVENTION AT INLAND MARINAS: A SHASTA LAKE, CALIFORNIA, CASE STUDY
Authors: Rogow Michelle , Sellwood Scott
Published: January 2013

Since the enactment of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), there has been a greater focus on spill prevention and response preparedness at large marine transfer facilities. Little attention, however, has been paid to facilities that fall short of 42,000 gallons. Many of these smaller facilities, which are located on the nation's inland waterways, are marinas that fuel recreational boats. Spill prevention at facilities on inland waterways is complicated by factors such as location, hydrologic conditions, regulation under multiple jurisdictions, and lack of available technology. This paper discusses the various types of petroleum product storage, transfer, and delivery systems, as well as spill prevention measures employed by marinas on Shasta Lake, California.

Shasta Lake is a mecca of recreational boating, having almost a dozen marinas along its shores. Like many inland waterways, Shasta Lake is affected by precipitation and dam control, which drastically change the surface area of the lake. To stay afloat and operational, marinas, including their fuel transfer capabilities, must be mobile. This presents complex technical and environmental issues for the marinas, which use different combinations of equipment for storing and transferring fuel.

Storage systems include fixed or mobile, aboveground or underground storage tanks and floating fuel systems. The piping used to deliver fuel to dispensers located on the marina dock is usually a combination of rigid and flexible lines. Each system is subject to a variety of laws and regulations, with every facility varying in compliance levels. By evaluating the precarious situations and spill events at Shasta Lake and other marinas, we can better assist in compliance efforts and more effectively protect our nation's waterways from oil spills.
ORIMULSION®: RESEARCH AND TESTING AND OPEN WATER CONTAINMENT AND RECOVERY TRIALS
Authors: Deis Donald R. , Tavel Nelson Garcia , Villoria Carlos , Ortega Germán Febres , Masciangioli Panfilo , Jones Mark A. , Lee Gregory R.
Published: January 2013

Orimulsion is a bitumen-water mixture (approximately 70% bitumen and 30% water, with 0.2% surfactant) produced in Venezuela and sold internationally as a fuel to fire power plants. The permitting process for the introduction of this fuel into the international energy market has required extensive research and testing on its chemical composition, physical properties, behavior in water, environmental toxicity, and containment and recovery after a spill.

Both components (water and bitumen) initially disperse in water. The volatile compounds, which are relatively low in concentration, are contained mostly in the water component. The bitumen is relatively inert. The density of the bitumen tends to cause it to sink in fresh water and rise in saltwater. In addition, seawater causes the emulsifier to destabilize from the bitumen. The result is that, at sea, in calm conditions with sufficient concentration, the bitumen will tend to coalesce and rise to the surface.

Bitor and potential users of Orimulsion have been developing response strategies and tools for responding to Orimulsion spills. Recent field testing has shown that a spill of Orimulsion can be cleaned up using currently available response equipment in response strategies developed uniquely for Orimulsion. The tests have shown that, once contained, bitumen can be recovered from an Orimulsion spill very effectively (80% to 90% recovery).
SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY AND OPA 90 MANAGEMENT TRAINING FOR OIL SPILL CRISES
Authors: Barry David C.
Published: January 2013

This paper investigates the application of computer simulation technology to the discipline of oil spill response management. Since June 1993, the Center for Marine Environmental Protection and Safety has operated a simulation facility for oil spill management training and exercises. The training programs include programs tailored to meet the training requirements and demands of maritime industry qualified individuals and spill management team members.

This paper discusses the center's application of oil spill simulation to industry OPA 90 training programs, and to the conduct of exercises under the OPA 90 Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP). The requirements needed to support simulation exercises and the limitations and benefits of oil spill management simulation are reviewed.
SYSTEM SIMULATION: A RISK MANAGEMENT TOOL FOR PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND1
Authors: Harrald John R. , Mazzuchi Thomas A. , Merrick Jason , Spahn John , Van Dorp Rene
Published: January 2013

The Prince William Sound (PWS) risk assessment was a joint project of Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), and the George Washington University (GWU). The technique of system simulation developed by GWU was one of three risk analysis methodologies used in the PWS risk assessment. The system simulation methodology is based on the premises that risk is a dynamic property of a system, and that the judgment of experts who have a deep understanding of the system can be used to compensate for incomplete data. The system simulation was used to assess the baseline or current risk in the PWS oil transportation system and to evaluate the effectiveness of potential risk reduction measures. The PWS risk assessment found that current system safeguards effectively address significant system risks, but are not optimal. The dynamic interactions modeled in the simulation demonstrate that actions that reduce risk in one part of the system often increase risk in other parts. The ability to identify and to evaluate these risk tradeoffs is an essential element of risk management. The PWS risk assessment identified specific interventions that could increase the level of safety of oil transportation in Prince William Sound.
MULTI-PLAN-HOLDER EXERCISES: A COST-EFFECTIVE PREPAREDNESS APPROACH
Authors: Ducey Donald L. , Pond Robert G. , Walker Ann Hayward
Published: January 2013

Facilities, vessels, and pipelines regulated under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), whether owned by a major international corporation or a small local company, face organizational and technical difficulties in their efforts to comply with the Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP). Response exercises are but one priority competing for the plan holder's time, personnel, and budget dollars. Operators typically lack the in-house expertise and staff to design and conduct effective exercises or to budget dollars to contract for outside support. These problems could adversely affect the plan holders and impact their ability to work within a unified command during a spill.

This paper discusses the obstacles to maintaining an adequate level of preparedness through traditional exercises and describes a cost-effective, innovative approach to exercises. By working with other plan holders in the area to conduct a combination workshop and exercise for each participating company, each operator can reduce costs, improve the value of exercises, and exercise facility plans in a unique and highly focused manner. The paper discusses the key issues of designing scenarios for each plan holder in a multi-plan-holder exercise while maintaining the focus of the workshop, the value to the predesignated on-scene coordinator, and the synergistic effects of plan holders learning from one another.
NATURAL RECOVERY: A PRACTICAL NATURAL RESOURCE RESTORATION OPTION FOLLOWING OIL SPILLS
Authors: Jahn Andrew E. , Robilliard Gordon A.
Published: January 2013

This paper evaluates the role of natural recovery in the restoration of populations, communities, and ecosystems following natural and anthropogenic disturbances, especially oil spills. Under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, options for the restoration of natural resources and services injured by oil spills range from natural recovery to aggressive methods requiring human intervention. Natural recovery is defined herein as the return of natural resources to a dynamic baseline with no active human intervention. Populations, communities, and ecosystems are a product of biological responses to a wide variety of natural and anthropogenic disturbances. In an oil spill, biological communities will generally recover naturally to baseline conditions about as quickly and effectively as they will with active human interventions, and at a lower cost and lower commitment of people, equipment, and materials. Therefore, natural recovery should be considered a primary restoration alternative for each oil spill incident. Natural recovery should also be the standard or benchmark restoration alternative against which all active restoration alternatives are compared for cost-effectiveness and probable success in restoring natural resources and services. We conclude that natural recovery is a cost-effective, efficient process that, in most oil spills, restores natural resources to baseline about as quickly as would the most aggressive active restoration alternative.
INTERNATIONAL COMMONALITY IN RESPONSE MANAGEMENT
Authors: Weller Mark F.
Published: January 2013

The Sea Empress spill in February 1996, in Wales, required an extensive response management organization that exceeded any in recent history in the United Kingdom. The government agencies, along with other responders, created solutions to the problem of providing management coordination across all phases of the response.

Texaco participated in the Sea Empress response, and the response management lessons learned are compared in this paper with those learned in the San Jacinto River oil spill in Texas in October 1994, in which Texaco also participated. The commonalities are highlighted as a basis for establishing a coordinated response management philosophy. The key to success at both spills was the recognition by all involved that response management is a philosophy and not a prescribed organizational structure.
BRIDGING THE GAP FOR EFFECTIVE DISPERSANT DECISIONS THROUGH RISK COMMUNICATION
Authors: Kucklick Janet H. , Walker Ann Hayward , Pond Robert G. , Bostrom Ann , Fischbeck Paul , Aurand Don
Published: January 2013

Dispersant use has been the focus of many research studies over the last two decades. However, traditional research and communication efforts have been unable to successfully resolve decision-making concerns on the ecological effects and effectiveness of dispersant use. This paper describes an innovative project to address these concerns through the use of a theoretically based and empirically tested approach to effective risk communication development and evaluation. The study is founded on the premise that people's basic frames of reference, their previous knowledge on the subject, their set of values, and the format and structure of the new information will all contribute to their interpretation of the information. Only by taking these “mental models” into account can risk communication effectively supply people with the information they need to make informed, independent judgments.

Using one-on-one interviews and written questionnaires, the individual perspectives of federal, state, and regional regulators and environmental and marine user groups were elicited relative to dispersant use and its risk. Their mental models were then compared to an expert decision model to identify topics to be addressed in issue papers.
CLEVECO UNDERWATER OIL RECOVERY: REMOVING A 50-YEAR-OLD THREAT1
Authors: Davin Commander John J. , Witte John A.
Published: January 2013

In the late summer of 1995, the U.S. Coast Guard supervised the successful removal of over 340,000 gallons of no. 6 oil from the sunken wreck of the tank barge Cleveco on the bottom of Lake Erie near Cleveland, Ohio. Many challenges were faced in trying to determine the amount of oil in a barge that had sunk 50 years before and was lying upside down and nearly completely buried in 70 feet of water. The salvage contractor and the U.S. Coast Guard overcame many technical problems in developing an effective and low-risk method of oil removal. The solution included the use of a hot-tap drill and phased pumping system to maximize the amount of oil recovered. The underwater operation required many divers and a total force of 55 personnel working together for the 33-day duration. This was the largest operation of its kind in the Great Lakes and offers valuable lessons to others who may encounter similar situations.
THE ROCKEFELLER REFUGE OIL SPILL: A TEAM APPROACH TO INCIDENT RESPONSE
Authors: Hess Thomas J. , Byron LCDR Ilene , Finley Heather Warner , Henry Charles B.
Published: January 2013

Rockefeller Refuge staff identified a potential petroleum pipeline leak on the evening of March 13, 1995. Approximately 40 barrels of condensate oil (API Gravity 40-42) and minimal produced water leaked from the pipeline, affecting 50 acres of brackish marsh. It soon became evident that vehicular traffic, human ingress, and mechanical cleanup procedures were negatively impacting the marsh. Refuge personnel made a verbal request to the United States Coast Guard to apply an in-situ burn to the spill-affected area. A tremendous cooperative effort between industry, state, and federal agencies ensued on March 17, 1995, to develop and implement a written burn plan. Regional Response Team VI approved the burn plan at 2:30 P.M., and the burn was applied to the area at 3:00 P.M. By 5:30 P.M. the in-situ burn had removed condensate oil from approximately 20 acres of spill-affected marsh.
OIL-SPECIFIC PROPERTIES SUMMARY SHEETS FOR SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Gala William R. , Rausina Gary A. , Ammann Michael J. , Harvey Elizabeth A. , O'Brien Patrick Y. , Suzuki John P. , Young Lyman A. , Newman John , Singer Michael M. , Tjeerdema Ronald S.
Published: January 2013

Chevron has developed oil-specific properties summary sheets for major crude and high-volume oil products to improve our ability to provide timely and accurate information for decision-making processes in the initial stages of a spill and to help address questions posed by trustees and the public. Each summary sheet is composed of five modules that denote (1) the oil's physical and chemical properties; (2) the oil's environmental fate; (3) spill countermeasures; (4) public health and ecotoxicology data; and (5) appropriate analytical methods. Identified information gaps (Le., aquatic toxicity, WAF chemistry, etc.) are being addressed in Chevron-funded research at the University of California—Santa Cruz
FEDERAL SPILL PREVENTION PROGRAMS: COULD A “ONE PLAN” APPROACH WORK?
Authors: Lively-Diebold Bobbie , DeMarco Gregory , Gilder David , Fried Juliet
Published: January 2013

Much attention has recently been focused on the Integrated Contingency Plan (ICP) Guidance, which is designed to promote more effective and consistent emergency response planning at facilities. This poster will explore the possibility of expanding that concept to the realm of oil spill prevention by promoting increased coordination among the various programs that address technical and operational measures aimed at preventing spills associated with the handling, storage, and transport of oil. For operations subject to multiple federal regulations, the potential for consolidation and resulting efficiencies may exist. Improved coordination among prevention programs is likely to reduce the overall risk of systemwide oil spills as well as duplicative and conflicting requirements. Lessons learned from efforts to coordinate on the response side of the equation can be applied to the prevention side to facilitate such coordination.
THE INTERNET AS A RESPONSE DATA NETWORK1
Authors: Silva David J.
Published: January 2013

The Internet is a viable option for delivering a data network to the response community. If properly applied it is secure, reliable, easy to install and maintain, and will allow for the greatest inclusion of a wide and divergent group of agencies and individuals to the response process.
BIODEGRADATION OF JET FUEL A1 RECOVERED FROM POLLUTED SOIL
Authors: Bergueiro José-R. , Amengual Simón , Moyá Paloma , Morales Nuria , Dominguez Félix
Published: January 2013

The purpose of this work is to study the biodegradation of Jet Fuel A1 (Jet Al). The samples were recovered from a polluted ground. The first step was to characterize all remaining compounds by gas chromatography/flame ionized detection (GC/FID). The lineal hydrocarbons detected were split from nonane to tetradecane. The branched hydrocarbons found were mono-, di- and trimethyl alkanes. Degradation of Jet A1 was carried out by the local ground microorganisms and also in the laboratory by using a trade product called Putidoil. Several degradation accelerators were employed. In most samples, degradation levels were up to 90%.
MEDIA RELATIONS IN THE OIL FIELDS
Authors: Wilkerson Bob , Shelton Tony , Caudle Allen
Published: January 2013

Developing and implementing an integrated field media relations strategy during an oil spill is critical to the success of an overall response effort. A company's crisis media relations plan should address all of the issues associated with communicating with the media during an oil spill incident. The plan should place particular emphasis on how one will coordinate the media strategy with one's field, the regional and corporate staff, and the public information officers from all of the involved regulatory agencies. If the effort is coordinated, everyone can respond quickly with the facts that the media want to know and speak with one voice.
STUDY ON THE BIODEGRADATION OF OIL SPILLED ON THE SEA
Authors: Jianqiang Zhao , Junhuang Zhu
Published: January 2013

Three major factors affecting the biodegradation of spilled oil (chemical composition of spilled oil, dissolved oxygen content in water, and nutrient elements for microorganisms) were analysed. The sequences of biodegradation rates of some hydrocarbon compounds are summarized. The oxygen demand for biodegradation of 1 g of hydrocarbons was derived as 3 to 4 g. The maximum ratio of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) that microorganisms need was suggested as C:N:P = 100:7:0.14.
Using Laboratory, Mesocosm, and Field Data In Ecological Risk Assessments for Nearshore Dispersant Use
Authors: Aurand Don , Coelho Gina
Published: January 2013

In the United States, pre-approval for dispersant use exists only in conservatively defined circumstances of water depth and/or distance off shore. Historical records suggest that most opportunities for dispersant use will occur closer to shore and in shallower water than defined in existing pre-approval areas. The issue is to determine when it is appropriate to relax these standards in order to protect sensitive nearshore habitats, despite the potential for increased ecological effects in the water column. This paper reviews selected data in the context of Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) protocols. In some cases onshore impacts are clearly decreased by dispersant use without adversely affecting the water column. This is especially true for small- or moderate-sized spills, often not viewed as a high priority for dispersant use. In other cases, however, trade-off decisions must be made, and when the ERA approach is properly integrated into oil spill response process, it can improve the likelihood of proper use of dispersants, and assist in the identification of appropriate dispersant response capabilities.
Recovery of the Marine Environment Following the Braer Spill, Shetland
Authors: Kingston Paul
Published: January 2013

In January, 1993 on the southwest tip of Shetland the oil tanker Braer was wrecked, spilling 84,000 tonnes of crude oil and 1,500 tonnes of bunker oil into the sea. Heavy weather conditions dispersed almost all the oil into the surrounding water, producing oil-in-water concentrations near the wreck as high as 20,000 times background. Concentrations fell rapidly with time, regaining background values in 30–40 days. As surface slick formation was minimal and most seabirds were offshore at the time of the spill, seabird mortality was relatively light and seal and otter mortality was in single figures. Catching and marketing fish and shellfish for human consumption from the oil-contaminated area was prevented by the establishment of a Fishery Exclusion Zone. Oil concentrations in fish from this zone fell to background levels within 2 months of the spill. Shellfish were more severely affected, the most heavily contaminated regaining background levels within a year except for the sediment-dwelling Norway lobster, which still is contaminated. The impact on the intertidal habitat was minimal and most shores recovered within a year. Offshore benthic communities in contaminated sediments did not show evidence of being significantly stressed.
Assessment of Natural Cleaning and Biological Colonization On Oiled Rocky Shores: In Situ Experiments
Authors: Menot Lénaïck , Chassé Claude , Kerambrun Loïc
Published: January 2013

When exposed rocky shores are affected by oil spills, the advised cleanup option, in most cases, is the “do nothing” This assumes that natural processes should rapidly clean up such shores and that remedial actions should have great detrimental effects in regard of ecological recovery. Few studies however deal with quantitative rates of natural cleanup on rocky shores. Therefore, CEDRE (Centre de Documentation de Recherche et d'Experimentations sur les Pollutions Accidentelles des Eaux) has conducted field experiments to determine the rate of such processes.

Granite plates have been polluted with Arabian Light crude oil and Bunker C and set on exposed and sheltered sites. On an exposed site, the influence of tidal elevation has also been studied. The plates were situated in diverse biological communities; the recolonization of polluted and non polluted plates has been recorded during a 13-month survey.

The results show that the Arabian Light crude oil was rapidly washed away by the tide despite low wave energy even on the most exposed site. The persistence of Bunker C was much longer and seemed to be mainly a function of fauna and flora settlement.

At the beginning of the survey, all the plates at the exposed site were colonized by barnacles in equal densities whatever the nature of the oil. A second recruitment wave of barnacle colonized preferably the “crude oil plates” which in fact were clean at that time. Along the tidal gradient, non polluted lower plates were colonized by Porphyra and Fucus while the polluted ones were essentially colonized by green algae.
Development In Fingerprinting Analysis of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Authors: Wang Zhendi , Fingas Mervin F. , Landriault M. , Sigouin L. , Castle Bill , Hostetter David
Published: January 2013

Major advances have been made on analyses of petroleum hydrocarbons in oils, petroleum products and complex oil-spill-related environmental samples. This paper briefly describes how the advanced chemical fingerprinting and data interpretation techniques are used to identify the source(s) of tarballs from the coast of Vancouver Island and Northern California. Characterization of the unknown oil was achieved by not only a variety of “standard” analyses including distribution analyses of aliphatic, aromatic and biomarker hydrocarbons, but also analyses of diagnostic ratios of “source-specific marker” compounds, in particular the alkylated series of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons within the same alkylation isomeric groups. Results of the analysis revealed that (1) California/Oregon and British Columbia/Washington tarball samples were chemically similar, but were identified to be from two different types of bunker fuel; (2) the source of the tarball samples was neither Alaska North Slope oil nor California Monterrey Miocene oil; and (3) the spilled oil samples have been highly weathered since release, and the California samples were more heavily weathered than the British Columbia samples.
Recovery of a Louisiana Coastal Marsh 3 Years After In Situ Burning of a Hydrocarbon Product Spill
Authors: Pahl James W. , Mendelssohn Irving A. , Hess Thomas J.
Published: January 2013

The high degree of physical disturbance associated with conventional response options to oil spills in wetlands is driving the investigation of alternative cleanup methodologies. In March 1995, a spill of gas condensate product onto a brackish marsh at Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Louisiana was removed through the use of in situ burning. A monitoring program was initiated to examine three treatment marshes: (1) condensate-impacted and burned, (2) condensate-impacted and unburned, and (3) a reference that was neither exposed to the condensate nor burned. The authors compared vegetation cover, stem density and biomass between the treatment marshes as parameters defining recovery of the plant community from the condensate spill and subsequent in situ burn. After three growing seasons, stem density, live biomass, and total cover values in the impacted-and-burned marsh had recovered to levels similar to non-burned treatments. In addition, community composition within the impacted-and-burned treatment returned to a co-dominant mix of the grasses Distichilis spicata (salt grass) and Spartina alterniflora (wiregrass) characteristic of the surrounding marsh. Recovery of the marsh at Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge was largely due to proper consideration of environmental factors at the time of the burn, especially marsh type, season and water level. The results of this in situ burn evaluation support the conclusion that burning can be relied upon as an effective cleanup response to hydrocarbon spills in wetlands.
PAH Distribution in the 1994 and 1997 Mobile Burn Products and Determination of the Diesel PAH Destruction Efficiencies
Authors: Wang Zhendi , Fingas Mervin F. , Landriault M. , Sigouin L. , Lambert Patrick , Turpin Rod , Campagna Phil , Mullin Joseph V.
Published: January 2013

In 1994 and 1997, several U.S. and Canadian government agencies jointly conducted a series of mesoscale burns in Mobile Bay, Alabama, to study various aspects of in situ diesel fuel burning. Samples were taken from the oil, residue and the smoke plume during each burn and analysed by capillary gas Chromatograph/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Analysis results reveal that the PAH distribution patterns in the diesel, residue, and soot samples are significantly different from each other. A simple model based on mass balance of individual petroleum ?AHs pre- and post-burn is proposed to estimate the destruction efficiencies of the total petroleum PAHs. The average destruction efficiency of the total diesel PAHs from three 1994 Mobile burns was estimated to be greater than 99%. The high molecular weight PAHs with five or more rings were found to be largely generated by combustion. These studies demonstrated that under certain circumstances, in situ burning is an effective measure to minimise the impact of an oil spill on the environment and to reduce the damage of an oil spill to the ecological system.
Developing and Measuring Standards of Leadership for On-Scene Commanders
Authors: Niblock Ian , Cavaye Nicholas , Irving Paul
Published: January 2013

The realisation in 1996 that marine oil spill response training in New Zealand had reached a stage where there was a need to introduce a training course that focused on leadership and command, also raised the question of how to ensure that people in command positions would meet the expectations of New Zealand's co-operative response system participants. The answer was to introduce a standard for performance in the key areas of leadership, management, and command, and to measure individual performance against pre-determined criteria during desktop exercises contained within an On-Scene Commander course. Results to date have seen nearly 70% of course participants reach the required standard. The long-term objective is to ensure a minimum level of leadership and command ability and to enhance confidence in New Zealand's ability to respond to marine oil spills.
A Primer on in Situ Fluorometry to Monitor Dispersed Oil
Authors: Henry Charles B. , Roberts Paulene O. , Overton Edward B.
Published: January 2013

A flow-through fluorometry system is a valuable tool for measuring dispersed oil concentrations real-time in freshwater and marine environments. As part of the new Scientific Monitoring of Advanced Response Technologies (SMART), fluorometers are used to investigate dispersant efficacy and dispersed oil transport. Using fluorometers in situ to accurately measure dispersed oil concentrations is not a trivial task: detector response values vary due to oil composition, oil weathering changes response factors, dispersed oil is not a true solution, and natural waters contribute matrix effects and background fluorescence. Based on recent experiences and building upon research conducted in the 1980's, the most effective and accurate method to estimate the dispersed oil concentrations is through real-time water grab samples analyzed by laboratory methodologies for in vitro dispersed oil toxicity quantification. Once analyzed, the field water results can be used to establish a response curve, converting raw field response values into oil concentrations. The continuous record created by the flow-through fluorometer provides a far more comprehensive assessment than collecting a few water samples for laboratory analysis. The combination of using a real-time fluorometer in conjunction with field water sampling is a far superior approach than either method alone. The art and science of in situ fluorometry for measuring dispersed oil will be demonstrated using both laboratory and actual field data.
Oiled Wildlife Care Network Development for Integrated Emergency Response1
Authors: Mazet Jonna A. K. , Tseng Fiorina , Holcomb Jay , Jessup David A.
Published: January 2013

In response to the potential risk to California from oil spill events, the Lempert-Keene-Seastrand Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act was passed in 1990 requiring the Administrator of the Office of Oil Spill Prevention and Response to establish rescue and rehabilitation stations for sea birds, sea otters, and other marine mammals. This legislative mandate for addressing the problems of oiled wildlife care was reaffirmed by three subsequent amendments to the original law.

The California Oiled Wildlife Care Network strives to ensure that wildlife exposed to petroleum products in the environment receive the best achievable treatment by providing access to trained personnel and permanent wildlife rehabilitation facilities which are maintained in a constant state of readiness for oil spill response. This system includes a coordinated effort by federal, state, and local governments; the party responsible for the spill of the oil; and pre-identified non-governmental organizations, such as International Bird Rescue Research Center (IBRRC), specializing in all aspects of oil spill response.

The California system has involved representatives from governmental wildlife trustee agencies; universities and research organizations; oil production, transportation, and shipping industries; and wildlife rehabilitation organizations in the organizational structure of the network to ensure an integrated, coordinated, and successful emergency response. Organizations such as IBRRC provide expertise in the rehabilitation of oiled wildlife and the personnel to successfully conduct a spill response. In addition to the development of an organizational structure, crucial to the preparation for an integrated response effort is the pre-identification of wildlife resources at risk. Data on sensitive species can be combined with information on shipping traffic to indicate areas at highest risk of severe wildlife impacts from oil spills in order to target areas requiring the availability of trained volunteers and wildlife rehabilitation facilities. A well-planned response system capitalizes also on existing expertise by developing relationships with wildlife care and response organizations prior to an oil spill event. Key to this effective response system is an annual training program for these partner organizations, incorporating hazardous materials safety information, description of current techniques in oiled wildlife care, and the captive management problems associated with the species at risk of oil exposure. The Oiled Wildlife Care Network must maintain the flow of information within the oil spill response community to ensure that new techniques and technologies are being incorporated into treatment protocols to provide the best achievable treatment for oil-affected wildlife.
Government and Industry Partnering: Nationwide Progress in Pre-Authorization Agreements Since 1994
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Scholz Debra K. , Kucklick Janet H. , Pond Robert G.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes a long-term partnering effort between industry and government to make appropriate and effective decisions about the use of non-mechanical oil spill counter-measures, i.e., in situ burning (ISB), dispersants, and other chemicals. To illustrate the success of this partnering effort, this paper reports the nationwide evolution and status of pre-spill authorization agreements for the use of these technologies, with a focus on status changes since 1994.

The authors propose that partnering, i.e., consensus-building through shared goals and responsibilities for planning and implementation, between industry and government is a practical approach to achieving credible and supportable results on controversial issues, and especially in situations where staffing resources are limited. In places like the United States where national policy mandates roles and responsibilities for both industry and (multiple agencies and levels of) government during oil spill planning and response, partnering as a deliberate approach greatly enhances the ability of all participating entities to integrate effectively into a true response community.
New Approach of the European Community Towards Liability for Natural Resource Damage
Authors: Brans Edward H. P.
Published: January 2013

The European Commission is preparing a White Paper on Environmental Liability. This is an important step in the legislative process of the European Community. The White Paper contains the core elements and principles of a future EC environmental liability directive. The regime will focus on damage caused by dangerous activities and the recovery of damage to natural resources. The scope of the proposed regime has a closed character. Only those dangerous activities are going to be covered that are already subject to EC law. As to the natural resources, the regime will cover only natural resources that are protected under the Wild Birds and Habitats directives. The European Commission has proposed in its draft White Paper, a measure of damages that is directed at a fuller recovery of damage to natural resources including the loss of public services caused by the damage to these resources. The Commission is also considering introducing rules on access to justice for public interest groups. In its draft White Paper, these groups are granted a right of standing in case the state does not act (or not properly) and are thereby granted a right to submit claims for damage to natural resources.
Estimating the Cumulative Cost of OPA 90 to Private Industry
Authors: Maillett Edward J. , Yoshioka Gary A.
Published: January 2013

The purpose of this paper is to estimate the cumulative cost incurred by private industry as a result of the various regulations enacted under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) and to compare these costs against the estimated effectiveness of the program in terms of avoided future oil spills. The authors reviewed Federal Register announcements of federal agency rulemakings to identify estimated costs to industry and to determine if reported costs are one-time occurrences for capital-related expenditures or represent annual estimates for repeated activities. The authors then estimated the total costs of each rulemaking through the year 2015. The costs of regulations implemented under OPA 90 that impact the private sector range from zero to $3.5 billion in discounted dollars. Based on these individual government estimates for each OPA 90 regulation, the authors estimate the discounted cost to industry to comply with all of the OPA 90 requirements to be $12.1 billion, the largest portion of which affects the marine vessel industry. Total benefits of the rulemakings are estimated to exceed 3.6 million barrels of avoided oil spills through the year 2015. Over one-half of this benefit estimate results from the facility response planning requirements for non-transportation-related on-shore facilities and pipelines. The cost effectiveness of regulations implemented under OPA 90 ranges between several hundred dollars to over $26,000 per barrel of avoided oil spill.
Prevention of Oil Pollution from Ships in Shanghai Harbor
Authors: Jiabin Wu
Published: January 2013

Recently Shanghai's economics have been rapidly developed, and the oil shipping is daily on the increase, In order to prevent oil pollution, Shanghai has made great efforts, such as having made several pollution prevention laws and regulations, improving the construction of ships, map out oil spill contingency plan, produce the equipment and materials to handle an accident in case it occurs, etc.