bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ground‐Water Contamination in an Urban Environmenta
Authors: Hackett J. E.
Published: July 2006

The most widespread potential sources of ground‐water contamination in the highly urbanized metropolitan area of northeastern Illinois are individual sub‐surface sewage disposal systems (approximately 162,000), dumps and landfills that receive millions of cubic yards of refuse annually, and sewage effluent and industrial wastes discharged into streams that are hydrologically connected with widely used shallow aquifers. Contamination also may be introduced from surface and subsurface storage of hydrocarbon and other soluble or mobile materials and from water of poor quality coming from depth.

Ground‐water contamination is a problem of regional scope in the urban area of northeastern Illinois. It must be considered in metropolitan planning not only as a hazard to health and safety but as a basic part of the over‐all program of development and management of water resources. Contamination can result not only in increased cost of treatment but also in the reduction of water resource potential. The relationships that exist between ground‐water contamination and land‐use requirements of the area must be resolved in any effective program.

Establishment of effective policies to control ground‐water contamination in areas of concentrated ground‐water use requires knowledge of the nature of contaminants and their behavior in the physical environment. Hydrogeologic criteria must be developed to determine whether the natural environment can adequately safeguard ground‐water reservoirs against contamination, and. engineering specifications should be established to provide protection where natural safeguards are lacking.
Research under P. L. 88–379 in Quality Aspects of Wateraa
Authors: Oitman R. E.
Published: July 2006

In this short paper, selected water quality problems and the research efforts aimed at their solution supported under P. L. 88–379 (the Water Resources Research Act of 1964) at State Water Research Centers are presented. The water quality problems and associated research efforts presented are not necessarily of high priority with respect to the national needs for water quality knowledge; rather, the problems and research discussed are presented as typical of local or regional situations and as examples of the awareness of State Water Resources Research Centers to the local or regional needs for improving water quality management.

Selected water quality problems associated with urban‐ ization, modern agriculture, industry, recreation, and natural environments are discussed with respect to the needs for new knowledge leading to improved management of water resources. Selected Water Resources Research Centers' projects with the objectives of discovering some of that new knowledge are discussed with respect to the research approach adopted by the investigators.
Maximum Yields from Minimum Aquifersa
Authors: Mogg J. L.
Published: July 2006

Maximum yields from minimum aquifers can be accomplished only by strict adherence to best known practice procedures while following the three necessary steps to well completion. These steps are well design, well construction and well development.

In well design good practice begins with an accurate log and the obtaining and careful testing of formation samples. From such data, optimum depth, diameters, screen settings, and gravel pack gradations for expected yields can be selected.

Well construction should incorporate equipment suited for the kind of formation, size of well, and depth to be drilled. It should be operated by competent and reliable personnel capable of faithfully maintaining all specifications and finishing in a reasonable time, with a well in which all measurements shown on the log are correct.

Development techniques which are appropriate for the well, aquifer, and drilling equipment should be used, al‐though it appears the high velocity horizontal jetting tool, used in conjunction with chemicals and regulated pumping, offers the most promise.
Atomic Tools in Developing Watera
Authors: Piper Arthur M.
Published: July 2006

A nuclear (atomic) explosive, detonated at suitable depth below the land surface, appears to offer substantial advantages and economies as a tool in the development and management of water, under certain special hydrologic situations. It is appropriate, therefore, that we seek to understand not only the potentials, but also the limitations of such a detonation. This paper is a first, small step toward that end.

Greatly over‐simplified, what does an underground nuclear detonation do that it can become a tool of water development and management? Consider first a detonation at a depth sufficiently great that none of the products vent to the atmosphere. Minimum depth for such “containment,” in feet, is close to:

image

in which W = explosive energy, in kilotons.
Hydrogeologist Looks at the 1965 Colorado Ground‐Water Lawa
Authors: McConaghy J. A.
Published: July 2006

The Colorado Assembly passed three laws in 1965 concerning water rights. Two of the new laws pertain directly to ground water and take cognizance of the fact that some wells divert water that would otherwise reach a stream. The use of ground water is now regulated under the doctrine of prior appropriation, which has applied to the administration of surface water in Colorado since 1852. Under the doctrine of prior appropriation, the first person to make beneficial use of water establishes a right to use that water even when there is a shortage of water for later appropriators.

This paper discusses the new laws as they relate to hydrologists and others concerned with hydrology. The law sets up administrative processes for implementing the use of water but raises many questions. Proper hydrologic investigations are necessary as a technical base for administration of the laws.
An Analysis of Ground‐Water Fluctuations Caused by Ocean Tides in Glynn County, Georgiaa
Authors: Gregg D. O.
Published: July 2006

The tidal efficiencies of wells tapping the principal artesian aquifer in Glynn County, Georgia decrease with distance from the influencing tidal body and also decrease with well depth. Although the magnitude of water‐level fluctuation of these wells is largely dependent upon the distance to a large tidal body, the time of a high or a low water level in the wells is mainly dependent upon the time of a high or a low tide in a small, nearby tidal body. A modified formula for computing tidal efficiency is developed:
image
From this formula, tidal efficiency can be calculated rapidly and easily
Plans of the U. S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division for Research, Investigations, and Data Collection in Ground Watera
Authors: Upson J. E.
Published: July 2006

The Geological Survey has been the foremost agency in the investigation of ground‐water resources in the United States beginning about 1910. Most of the basic principles of modern ground‐water hydrology were developed in the Survey's program of cooperative investigations.

Use of ground water in the United States in 1960 was about 17½ percent of all water uses, excluding water power. The use will probably increase, though at a decreasing rate. Although amount of use may level off, the need to know about it will not.

While coordinating its activities with those of the Office of Water Data Coordination and the Office of Water Resources Research, the Survey expects to step up its work in all three areas of data collection, investigations, and research. However, there will be changes of emphasis.

Collection of raw data will tend to stress key observation points, and more and more observation of temperature and quality, including contaminants. Investigations will be aimed at upgrading reconnaissance coverage to general coverage for most of the Nation. The areal basis will be stream drainage basins and special hydrologic terranes, rather than political units. There will be an increase in the preparation of analog models for representative ground‐water systems.

In research, the problem‐oriented basis will continue. Stress will be on basic principles that pertain to artificial recharge, and the natural recharge and discharge of ground‐water reservoirs; and also on the application of geologic principles on a regional scale. These are critical elements in the management of surface‐water and ground‐water resources conjunctively in river basins.
Artificial Recharge at Valley City, North Dakota, 1932 to 1965a
Authors: Kelly T. E.
Published: July 2006

Valley City, North Dakota, has an average daily water use of 750,000 gallons, which is obtained from wells tapping pattly confined gravel deposits in the Sheyenne River valley. These deposits at Valley City have a maximum thickness of more than 50 feet and an areal extent of approximately 1 square mile. The aquifer has been artificially recharged successfully since 1932 by diversion of water from the Sheyenne River to an abandoned gravel pit. During this time the piezometric surface in the aquifer has been raised more than 22 feet.

Prior to 1958, the recharge system was operated from January until June; however, when the piezometric surface rose to within about 8 feet of the surface, the recharge operation was discontinued. Between June and January the piezometric surface declined as ground water was withdrawn. During the recharge‐discharge cycle, the average annual fluctuation of the piezometric surface was 10 feet, amounting to a change in storage of about 1,000 acre‐feet of water. Since 1958, the recharge system has been operated throughout the year. There has been a gradual improvement in the quality of the water in the aquifer since the installation of the recharge system.
Transmissibility Determination from Variable Discharge Pumping Tests
Authors: Sternberg Y. M.
Published: July 2006

A rapid graphical technique for the determination of aquifer transmissibility from a variable discharge pumping test is presented. The data required include the variation of discharge with time during the pumping test and a record of the recovery ar an observation well after the well was shut off. An example using a synthetic well data is provided.
Effects on Ground‐Water Quality and Induced Infiltration of Wastes Disposed into the Hocking River at Lancaster, Ohioa
Authors: Norris S. E.
Published: July 2006

Watercourse aquifer systems in many areas are adversely affected by wastes disposed into surface‐water sources, resulting in either reduced streambed permeability, infiltration of wastes into the aquifer, or both. These conditions are illustrated at Lancaster, Ohio, where low streambed permeability in the vicinity of the municipal well field, resulting from the discharge of wastes to the Hocking River, seriously retards the infiltration of surface water and lessens the available yield of the wells. The wastes consist of brine and iron‐laden effluent from the municipal treatment plant, discharged within the area of influence of the pumped wells to a stream already carrying much organic waste and other debris. Upstream from the discharge sewer, muck and organic debris have accumulated thickly on the streambed, while downstream from the sewer the streambed sediments have become tightly cemented by iron and other constituents in the waste water. There is evidence that, despite reduced streambed permeability, wastes have entered the aquifer and have materially contributed to declines in well efficiency and to recurring problems of well maintenance.

Conditions such as those illustrated at Lancaster occur also at Dayton and are not uncommon elsewhere in Ohio. Indirect contamination of aquifers and adverse physical and chemical alteration of streambed sediments, resulting from surface‐water waste disposal, may in many places pose a threat to the ground‐water supply. This fact should not be overlooked in determining water‐quality standards to be established under the Water Quality Act of 1965.
Engineering Economies of Ground‐Water Pumpage, with Interferencea
Authors: Nuzman C. E.
Published: July 2006

The need for investigating the economics of groundwater pumpage was developed to aid in the interpretation and administration of the Kansas Water Appropriation Act. The Act requires that in determining impairment from the lowering of static water level, the economics of pumping water shall be considered. No comprehensive treatment of the subject matter has been found.

The investigative work is presented in three parts consisting of ground‐water interference, the definition of general cost functions, and the effect of interference on costs. The physical process of ground‐water pumpage for a single well in both steady‐state and nonsteady systems is used as a beginning basis for both interference and associated costs. Interference between multiple wells is then developed for both idealized states of condition. In the second part, economic parameters with associated costs, primarily for irrigation use of water, are developed and generalized cost functions given in terms of discharge, total head, and operating time. In the third part, an analytic model is developed to define the costs associated with mutual interference. The procedure has been tested on a limited number of examples to find the relative sensitivity of different parameters on costs.
A Comparison of Long Term and Short Term Pumping Tests
Authors: Summers W. K.
Published: July 2006

Comparison of the analysis of 3 and 4 day pumping tests with the analysis of water‐level changes due to 18 years of pumping suggests that experience in an area can be a critical factor in determining the transmissivity and storativity of an aquifer.
Design and Construction of a Horizontal Viscous Flow Model
Authors: Varrin R. D. , Fang H. Y.
Published: July 2006

The horizontal viscous flow model with “infinite” areal extent can be used for almost any well flow problem whether two‐dimensional or three‐dimensional, steady or nonsteady, single aquifer or multiaquifer. This model can also be used in the field of soil mechanics for subsurface drainage problems. The design includes scale model analysis and the application of conformal mapping techniques in order to simulate an ideal aquifer. Construction, calibration, and test procedures for the model are described. The apparatus has proved to be both a valuable research tool and an excellent teaching aid.
Safe Yield of a Well Field in a Leaky‐Artesian Strip Aquifera
Authors: Berg A. Vanden , Lennox D. H.
Published: July 2006

Coarse granular deposits in preglacial river valleys are an important source of ground water on the Canadian prairies. Such an aquifer can commonly be modeled by an infinite‐strip leaky‐artesian aquifer. Test results can be analyzed, future drawdowns predicted, and safe yields estimated by applying the standard leaky‐artesian formula in conjunction with image‐well theory, making due allowance for well‐loss factors.

This paper develops basic formulas required for safe yield estimation for an array of n wells located on the axis of an infinite‐strip leaky‐artesian aquifer. In general, determination of safe yield for each well depends on the solution of n simultaneous linear or nonlinear equations. For certain symmetrical arrays, however, the number of equations to be solved is approximately halved. A linear equation will apply for any well if flow adjacent to the well bore always obeys the Darcy law for all pumping rates of interest. If all n equations are linear, they may be solved by the methods of matrix algebra; if not, a trial‐and‐error solution must be adopted.

The method is illustrated by an application to a 6‐mile stretch of a buried‐valley aquifer near Edson, Alberta. The numerical coefficients in the system of equations are first derived and the equations then solved to obtain estimated 20‐year safe yields for well arrays containing up to 38 equally spaced wells.
Direct Conductance Method of Measuring Casing Lengths
Authors: Ross Sylvia H. , Adcock Gerald
Published: July 2006

The standard water‐level indicator can be easily and inexpensively modified so that it also measures casing lengths. The simple modification permits electrical current from one wire of the two‐wire probe to be routed through the metal casing. The semiquantitative method works well with most metal casings, including nonmagnetic ones, and can be used to detect most casing reductions. The method is limited in that it works only below the water level in the well, and in that it cannot easily detect casing reductions when the conductance between the upper and lower casings is low.
Analog‐Digital Models of Stream‐Aquifer Systemsa
Authors: Moulder E. A‐ , Jenkins C. T.
Published: July 2006

The best features of analog and digital computers were combined to make a management model of a stream‐aquifer system. The analog model provides a means for synthesizing, verifying, and summarizing aquifer properties; the digital model permits rapid calculation of the effects of water‐management practices. Given specific management alternatives, a digital program can be written that will optimize operation plans of stream‐aquifer systems. The techniques are demonstrated by application to a study of the Arkansas River valley in southeastern Colorado.
Application of Hydrogeology to the Selection of Refuse Disposal Sitesa
Authors: London Ronald A.
Published: July 2006

New sanitary landfills are being opened each day to accommodate the rising volume of solid wastes. Selection of proper sites is a very major part of the disposal problem, particularly as they might affect the surrounding surface and ground water.

Leachate production is inevitable in the humid East and throughout most of the country. Several alternatives are suggested that would result in the assimilation of migrating leachate into, the environment at tolerable limits or for its renovation prior to final discharge: Alternative 1—knowledge of existing hydrogeologic conditions which would favorably control the rate and direction of leachate migration; Alternative 2—engineering the landfill by construction of low‐cost facilities to collect and treat leachate; and Alternative 3—construction of limited collection facilities to supplement natural conditions.

It is suggested that more emphasis be given to hydrogeologic factors in the selection of refuse disposal sites to insure protection of surrounding surface and ground water. It is time to approach the waste disposal problem on a more sophisticated level by requiring test drilling, monitoring, and by giving consideration to the engineering of, landfills so that man's health and' environment are not jeopardized.
Ground‐Water Training in Barcelona, Spain
Authors: Davis Stanley N.
Published: July 2006

Water‐supply problems in Spain have become acute during the past decade owing to expansion of industry, construction of modern houses and apartments, and development of a tourist industry. A training program in ground‐water hydrology and geology was established three years ago in Barcelona to help supply personnel who would be able to cope with these problems. Training is also given to foreign nationals, a total of nine countries having been represented to date. Part of the success of the school rests on the fact that a large variety of ground‐water problems exist in the vicinity of Barcelona. Students obtain a firsthand knowledge of sea‐water intrusion, aquifer‐testing techniques, agricultural and municipal degradation of water quality, and drilling and exploration techniques within a wide variety of rock types.
A Mathematical Model of an Existing Municipal Well Field
Authors: DeVries Richard N.
Published: July 2006

Increased irrigation demands on water from the Platte River in central Nebraska are causing a depletion in the flow that passes the City of Lincoln's Municipal well field, at Ashland, Nebraska. A study was made for the U. S. Army Engineers, Omaha District as to the future harmful effects of this depletion.

a mathematical model using the Theis nonequilibrium equation was formulated. Drawdown computations were performed using an IBM 360 Model 65 computer. Recharging image wells were used to represent the physical boundary of the aquifer. Drawdowns in selected wells were calculated using the method of superposition by including both the real wells and the image wells. Values for permeability and the storage coefficient were computed from field pumping test data.

Three different model runs were made. First, the wells were assumed to be pumped continuously at maximum output of 84 M.G.D. for periods of 10, 30, and 60 days both with and without river recharge.

Next, the same time periods and recharge situations were run assuming 37 wells to be operating at their present field capacities, totaling 60 M.G.D.

The third computer run was made using 39 wells. During the first 10‐day period only 27 wells were modeled to produce 51 M.G.D. In the next 10 days 31 wells were required to produce 59 M.G.D., and finally for the last 10 days 20 wells were‐used to produce 37 M.G.D. This operation duplicated the actual operation for July, 1968, when the all‐time peak production for any one month was recorded.

It is concluded that the well field can be operated at high rates for periods of greater than 30 days without recharge from the river. Previous studies have indicated the river is the source of most of the water produced from the wells. The study does indicate that the well field can draw on the ground‐water reservoir for much longer periods than had been assumed in the past.
Trend‐Surface Analysis of Ground‐Water Fluctuationsa
Authors: Rockaway John D.
Published: July 2006

As round‐water research is accelerated and basic data on aquifer parameters become more abundant, a statistical approach to evaluation of the ground‐water regimen becomes increasingly useful. One such statistical technique is the fitting of polynomial trend‐surfaces to ground‐water levels. Barcholomew County, Indiana was chosen as a test site to derive techniques which could give additional guidance in the selection of areas suitable for the development of future ground‐water resources.

Trend‐surface maps and maps of the deviations from the trend‐surfaces were prepared from water‐level data and evaluated to establish their relationships with the hydrogeologic regimen. A field‐testing program was carried out to evaluate aquifer parameters.

On the basis of the results obtained from these studies, the following conclusions were drawn:

A mathematically fitted surface may be considered to approximate the water‐table or piezomecric surface, and will be sensitive to fluctuations in the ground‐water reservoir.

The anomalous areas of the trend‐surface represent local effects superimposed on the regional base and may be explained by a particular set of geologic, hydrologie or man‐made conditions.

From these conclusions, it appears that trend‐surface analysis provides a rapid, inexpensive method of delineating attractive areas for detailed ground‐water investigations.
Noninstrumental Factors Affecting Measurement of Static Water Levels in Deeply Buried Aquifers and Aquitards, Nevada Test Sitea
Authors: Winograd Isaac J.
Published: July 2006

Accurate measurement of static water levels in wells tapping deeply buried aquifers and aquitards at the Nevada Test Site requires evaluation of and correction for several factors exclusive of instrumentation. Both the drilling method used and the depth of the hole at the time of measurement significantly affect determination of the static water level for the aquitards, and frequently these factors preclude head determination in an economically justifiable time. Density of fluid in the drill stem and hole deviation affect the determination of accurate static water levels for the aquifers. In the principal aquifers, in which hydraulic gradients are as low as 0.5 foot per mile, direct measurement of depth to water is preferable to pressure‐gage measurements at the aquifer face. Case histories and graphs are presented to illustrate the magnitude of errors that can result when these factors are disregarded.
Modelling Partially Penetrating Rivers on Aquifer Models
Authors: Herbert Robin
Published: July 2006

A technique is presented for simulating partially penetrating rivers on two dimensional resistance‐capacitance network analogue aquifer models. The method is tested against an analytic solution due to Boulton (1942). Several results are presented which can be used to estimate an approximate value for the steady state discharge of a well pumping near to a partially penetrating river.
Numerical Solutions for the Radial Subsurface Flow Problem
Authors: Drake Ronald L. , Ellingson Michael B.
Published: July 2006

Two stable finite difference schemes are presented for the numerical solution of the nonlinear partial differential equation describing the radial flow of soil moisture. The nonlinearity is due to the fact that the soil moisture diffusivity, D, is a nonconstant function of the nondimensional soil moisture, y. Numerical solutions for twenty‐one different moisture dependent diffusivities are obtained. These diffusivities have the following forms: (a) eleven of the diffusivities represent flow into a sink, and the other ten represent flow from a source; (b) D is proportional to yP, where p =¼, ⅓, ½, 1, 2, 3, 4; (c) D is proportional to Ay, where A is a positive constant; and (d) some of the D's possess inflection points as y varies from 0 to 1. From these numerical solutions quantitative results are obtained for the following: (1) the boundedness and monotonicity of the moisture distribution; (2) the continuous dependence of the moisture distribution on the system's parameter, namely, the diffusivity; (3) the rate at which the “wetting front” approaches the steady state solution; (4) the evolution of the moisture front with time and with the formulation of the diffusivity; and (5) the time evolution of the rate of inflow or outflow at the wall of the source or sink.
Ground‐Water Fluctuations in Response to Arbitrary Pumpage
Authors: Moench Allen
Published: July 2006

The problem of predicting water level changes in an aquifer due to variable pumpage is approached by using the convolution integral. Equations for a nonleaky artesian aquifer and a leaky artesian aquifer with negligible storage in the confining layer are presented. Computational results compare favorably with type curves for hypothetical cases with constant pumping. A practical example using variable pumpage from several pumping centers shows the applicability of the technique and its value in interpreting water level variations.
The Home Ground‐Water Supply Picture As We See Ita
Authors: McDermott James H.
Published: July 2006

Drinking water for more than 50 million Americans is supplied from individual wells, springs, rain‐water catchments or unprotected surface‐water sources. The choice of water source is usually controlled by individual economic factors, and climatic, geologic and geographic considerations. This segment of the nation's population lives in the rural and suburban areas of the United States remote from existing community water supply distribution lines.

The United States Public Health Service has shared, for many years, the concern of the various State Health Departments regarding the sanitary quality of individual water supplies. It has been generally concluded by public health officials, both Federal and State, that safe water supplies are not available to many homes in the United States. The rapid technological advances in industry, agriculture and transportation in recent years have intensified the potential of pollution of the environment, both chemically and biologically. The spread of pollution is accompanied by the increased hazard of water‐borne disease and associated illnesses.

During the summer of 1969 the Bureau of Water Hygiene*, Environmental Health Service, with the cooperation of the Georgia State Health Department, conducted a systematic survey of individual water supplies in 4 counties in the State of Georgia. The results of the survey indicate that more than ⅓ of the water supplies sampled are potentially hazardous to the users, and that there is a definite relationship of the geologic environment and type of water supply to the nature of the contamination.
Comparison of Methods for Evaluating Aquifer Characteristics
Authors: Nawrocki Michael A.
Published: July 2006

Nonequilibrium pumping tests were performed at two widely separated sites consisting of one pumped and two observation wells each. The wells at both sites bottomed in the same stratigraphie formation; at one site a confined aquifer was tested, at the other the aquifer was unconfined. Data gathered from the tests were analyzed using the methods developed by Theis (1935), Jacob (1946), Chow (1952), and Hantush (1961). Eight separate determinations of transmissibility, permeability, and specific yield were made at each site. At the unconfined site, all eight determinations of permeability and transmissibility fell within nine percent of the mean of these calculated values. Specific yield predictions showed a wider variation, with individual computations differing by up to 55 percent from the mean at the confined site. No one method was found to yield consistently higher or lower values for the computed hydrologic characteristics; rather, the observation well used to make the analysis was found to have a more marked effect on the results obtained. Analysis of the well recovery curves confirmed the existence of local recharge near the test sites, explaining the apparent effect of the use of data from different observation wells on the analysis.
Drawdown in a Well Group Along a Straight Line
Authors: Rao D. Babu , Krizek Raymond J. , Karadi Gabor M.
Published: July 2006

Procedures are developed and charts are presented to determine the unsteady drawdown in a group of wells which are located along a straight line and fully penetrate a homogeneous, isotropic, artesian aquifer. Based on the linearity of the governing field equation, the principle of superposition is used to combine the effects of individual wells, and solutions are obtained by using a digital computer to evaluate an exponential integral. The concepts of equivalent radius, coefficient of interference, and degree of uniformity are introduced, and quantitative graphical relationships are given as functions of the independent variables, which are the number of wells, well spacing, and time.
Cost of Domestic Wells and Water Treatment in Illinoisa
Authors: Gibb James P.
Published: July 2006

This study provides cost information for private home ground‐water supply systems in Illinois. Relatively accurate cost predictions for different types and depths of wells, ranging in cost from about $150 to $2400, can be made from the graphs presented. The average cost of all wells studied is about $575. Cost data for pumping systems equipped with 10‐gpm submersible pumps (approximately 50 percent of all collected data) show that the average cost of these systems is about $585 with 50 percent ranging between $400 and $680.

The costs of treating water for domestic use also are summarized. Two graphs illustrate the monthly costs of softening and removing iron at varying monthly consumption rates and concentrations of hardness‐forming minerals and iron. The monthly cost of continuous chlorination is calculated.

Use of the data presented makes it possible to estimate the monthly costs of raw and treated water from a domestic ground‐water supply. Two maps show the probable costs of domestic raw water‐supply systems from sand and gravel wells and bedrock wells throughout the State. For an average installation and domestic use rate in Illinois, the monthly cost of raw water is about $11.00, softened water $15.40, softened water treated for iron $22.00, and softened water treated for iron and chlorinated $25.00. Similar calculations for any type and depth of well, water quality, and treatment can be made from the information in this report. This material should provide adequate information for planning purposes and decision making in developing a desired domestic supply.
A Basin Study of Ground‐Water Discharge from Bedrock into Glacial Drift Part II–Estimate of Discharge
Authors: Kent Douglas C. , Sendlein Lyle V. A.
Published: July 2006

This is the second part of a two‐part series (Kent and Sendlein, 1972) in which an approximation of the quantity of bedrock recharge is made. Procedures used for the definition of the ground‐water system were described in Part I. In Part II, a subsurface ground‐water budget equates subsurface recharge from the bedrock aquifer to discharge through sand and gravel and to discharge by pumping. The Darcy equation is used to compute recharge and discharge volume flow rates. Estimates of permeability were obtained from existing pump‐test data and the hydraulic gradients were determined from the piezometric map. Two conceptual models are proposed to account for the maximum and minimum cross sectional areas of the bedrock aquifer through which ground water could flow into the sands and gravel and thus are used to represent the maximum and minimum limits of recharge. Upper, lower and average values of bedrock recharge are determined for each model and compared with the average natural discharge for the entire ground‐water basin (“total basin” approach). Comparisons are also made for portions of the basin (“partial basin” approach). Upper and lower limits of recharge are chosen from recharge values which are nearest to the average discharge estimate. This determination is based on the assumption that recharge is equal to discharge. Results of this study indicate a quantity of bedrock recharge between a lower limit of 0.23 mgpd and an upper limit of 2.5 mgpd is possible for an 800‐square mile basin.

The purpose of this approach is to provide an approximation of ground‐water recharge from bedrock into an unconfined unconsolidated ground‐water basin, and to provide an estimate of its importance to urban ground‐water use.
Digital Simulation of an Outwash Aquifer
Authors: Lin Chang L.
Published: July 2006

A digital model has been developed to simulate the ground‐water flow through a confined aquifer discretized by a nonuniform mesh, using the noniterative alternating direction implicit method. The model results were checked closely with the analytical Theis solution for a homogeneous, isotropic aquifer. The use of the model will result in the following advantages: (1) a reduction in computer core storage and execution time requirements, (2) a closer and better replica of the aquifer boundaries, and (3) a freedom to focus on concentrated areas of interests in the aquifer system.

The model was applied as a test case to the isolated sand and gravel aquifer at Elmsvale, Nova Scotia, Canada. With the superposing Musquodoboit River providing a source of recharge to the system, the Elmsvale aquifer would reach an equilibrium after 51 days of continuous pumping at a rate of 0.670 cubic feet per second. Available information suggests that the ground‐water resources potential in the Musquodoboit River Valley is more than sufficient to meet the demand of the valley in the foreseeable future.
Processing of Results of Observations of Spring Discharge
Authors: Kříž Hubert
Published: July 2006

In Czechoslovakia special methods of mathematical statistics are being used for the treatment of results of long‐term observations of spring discharges. This paper describes these methods using examples of the statistical treatment of weekly discharges of important springs issuing in the eastern marginal part of the Bohemian Cretaceous Plateau in Czechoslovakia for the years 1901 to 1970. Besides the usual average and extreme discharges of springs, the so‐called characteristic discharge, i.e. the discharge exceeded for the period of “n” days or “n” percent per year, is determined by this method. On the basis of these characteristic values it is then possible to rate the individual discharges even for a longer time, especially with an extraordinarily high or low discharge of springs, from the aspect of exceptionality of their occurrence.
Aerial Remote Sensing of Carbonate Terranes in Shelby County, Alabamaa
Authors: Warren William M. , Wielchowsky Charles C.
Published: July 2006

Remotely‐sensed data are being used by the Geological Survey of Alabama in the study of subsidence and collapse problems in several carbonate terranes. Active areas in Shelby County, Alabama, have been delineated by on‐the‐ground inspection and by use of airborne remote sensors. These active terranes present formidable problems to those who presently live in the area as well as to those who will be involved in the future development of this region; therefore, techniques must be found that can be used to predict subsidence and collapse.

Study of a 70‐square‐mile test area in the county indicates that aerial infrared photography, thermography, and side‐looking airborne radar (SLAR) imagery can be used for (1) locating, inventorying, and monitoring sinkholes; (2) predicting potential collapses; (3) mapping fracture traces, lineaments, regional geologic structure, and alignment of sinkholes; and (4) assisting general project planning. Tremendous time and effort can be saved by using remote‐sensing techniques because large areas can be examined in a very short period of time.
Tax Implications of Ground‐Water Depletion
Authors: Sellers James H.
Published: July 2006

The Shurbet Case established that ground water is a natural resource subject to depletion. That decision was restricted to water extracted from the Ogallala formation on the Southern High Plains of Texas and New Mexico. The unique features of the Ogallala formation on the Southern High Plains are that (1) the reservoir serves a significant geographic area which has no other source of water, (2) the recharge of the reservoir is from a single predictable source, and (3) the artificial discharge caused by pumpage produces a permanent reduction in the water available for use.

In order to claim a depletion deduction, the taxpayer must (1) determine the cost of the water, (2) determine the quantity of water available at the time of acquisition, and (3) determine the quantity of water exhausted during the year. The procedures developed for use in the Shurbet Case have been accepted by the Internal Revenue Service for use in establishing the cost, quantity, and usage of water.

In deciding who can claim a depletion deduction for the use of ground water, four factors must be considered. They are: (1) legal, (2) geologic, (3) economic, and (4) procedural. The taxpayer must have an economic interest in the water, and the water must be a depletable deposit. The geology and hydrology must be similar to the Southern High Plains. The taxpayer must have a cost basis in the water and must produce income from its sale or use. The taxpayer must prove that he sustained depletion.

Although the Shurbet decision has been confined to the Southern High Plains, it seems that similar conditions may exist in other areas and that water users should be made aware of the potential tax saving arising from the depletion deduction.
Ground‐Water Recharge for Urban Use: Leaky Acres Projecta
Authors: Nightingale Harry I. , Bianchi William C.
Published: July 2006

The problems associated with the use of agricultural surface water for artificial ground‐water recharge to maintain an urban ground‐water supply are being researched at the Leaky Acres Recharge Project in Fresno, California. Ground‐water recharge and agricultural technologies are combined to recharge available irrigation water through agricultural soils and profiles of known chemical, geologic, and hydrologic properties. This report describes the project area, research aims, and some ground‐water quality changes associated with two years of recharge operation.

Leaky Acres has 117 acres (47.4 ha.) of ponding surface in 10 basins. During 1971 and 1972 recharge seasons, not all of the area was in operation at one time; still, a total of 13,904 acre‐feet (17,150,000 m.3) of high‐quality water was recharged. The 1972 average intake rate was 0.574 ft./day (17.5 cm./day). Changes in ground‐water quality related to soil leaching during recharge are discussed. Eventual improvement of the regional ground‐water quality is expected.
Tube Wells, Open Wells, and Optimum Ground‐Water Resource Developmenta
Authors: Walker William H.
Published: July 2006

Many tube wells drilled for irrigation use fail prematurely because of poor well design, improper sized and placed gravel‐pack material, and ineffective slotted‐pipe screens. Well and gravel‐pack design criteria and an improved slotted‐pipe screen described in this paper offer promise of drastically reducing such failures. Properly designed tube wells equipped with this type of screen should have more than double the safe‐yield and service‐life capability of most irrigation tube wells now in use.

In some countries large‐diameter, low‐capacity open wells always have been used to obtain irrigation water. Now, small‐diameter, high‐capacity tube wells are being constructed in the same aquifers. As extensive tube‐well development occurs, the water table will drop, drying up many shallow open wells. In such instances, those who can afford the deeper, more expensive tube wells could gain almost exclusive use of the aquifer.

Optimum development of surficial aquifers using both tube and open wells may have to be rigidly controlled to assure every farmer a fair share of available water. Such controls should be based on the potential safe yield capability of aquifers. A graphical procedure used in Illinois to obtain an estimate of this value for planning and initial development purposes is presented in this paper.
CANADA'S LARGEST WATER WELL
Authors: Bourgeois P. O. , Brownell J. D. , Kirk J. W. , Larsen C. H.
Published: July 2006

. Prince George, B.C. required 15 mgd additional municipal water supply. A cost comparison led to the selection of the Nechako Aquifer ground‐water supply instead of the Nechako River surface‐water supply. A Fehlmann horizontal collector, consisting of a 16‐inch diameter reinforced concrete caisson, 100 feet deep, with 1788 feet of 8‐inch diameter polystyrene screen, projecting spoke‐like at the bottom of the caisson, was installed. On test, the collector produced 15.3 mgd of clean, excellent quality water, with 6.7 feet drawdown under equilibrium conditions.
The Hydrogeology and Utilization of Brines in El Salado, Chile
Authors: Lloyd John W.
Published: July 2006

The Rio Salado catchment is located in the southern Atacama Desert. The area is distinctly arid and no ground‐water reserves originating from local recharge exist. To obtain water for a new copper ore processing plant, brines are being utilized. The complex hydrogeology of the brines from their origin in the Andes to their emergence as springs in the vicinity of El Salado is described.

The surface and ground‐water discharges indicate that the long‐term supply of brine will be adequate for the processing plant. A design for abstraction incorporating three filter drains with wooden pump‐housings has been adopted to combat corrosion, incrustation and flood damage.
A Topographic‐Hydrogeologic Model for Solid Waste Landfill Siting
Authors: Sendlein L.V.A. , Palmquist R. C.
Published: July 2006

Geomorphic and hydrogeologic studies have shown that the material, topographic, ground‐water, and surface‐water characteristics of a particular landscape position are all related. Because topography is related to the local material and surface‐water characteristics and because the ground‐water regimen is related to the local materials and topography, an analysis of the topography should allow the prediction of the material, ground‐water, and surface‐water characteristics of a disposal site within the local area. Topographic consideration of potential solid waste disposal sites thus provides insight about the physical characteristics of the site and shape of the resulting contamination enclave.

Seven possible topographic positions for disposal sites are floodplain, valley terrace, valley side, upland crest, upland ravine, upland valley and upland flat interfluve. Upland sites are characterized by the outward flow of both ground water and surface water, whereas valley sites are characterized by the through flow of both ground and surface water. At the present time, upland sites are considered preferable over valley sites because of the greater likelihood of the refuse remaining dry. An analysis of ground‐water flow patterns indicates that the greatest potential for extensive ground‐water contamination exists for upland sites, which are in ground‐water recharge areas; and the least potential for extensive ground‐water contamination exists for properly placed valley sites, which are in ground‐water discharge areas.
Unsteady Flow to a Nonpenetrating Artesian Well
Authors: Abdul Khader M. H. , Ramadurgaiah D.
Published: July 2006

Exact solution to the problem of unsteady drawdown in a leaky artesian aquifer due to a constant discharge nonpenetrating well is presented. Finiteness of the well radius and aquifer anisotropy are considered in formulating the problem. Solution is derived on the assumption that the flux entering the pumped well is uniformly distributed over the plane circular bottom of the well. The aquifer is considered to be finite in thickness, but of infinite lateral extent. The flow of ground water is assumed to be governed by Jacob's model of linear leakage. Laplace transformation technique is employed in the theoretical development. The drawdown function is numerically integrated in terms of dimensionless parameters of the flow system and the results are depicted in graphs.
Hydrogeophysical Equivalence of Water Salinity, Porosity and Matrix Conduction in Arenaceous Aquifers
Authors: Worthington Paul F.
Published: July 2006

The value of the electrical resistivity method as a quantitative indicator of ground‐water resistivity, porosity and effective matrix resistivity is examined through the equivalence of these parameters as manifested in the surface‐measured resistivity of heterogeneous water‐saturated sands. It is demonstrated that, where there are unknown variations in porosity, the mapping of groundwater resistivity is most feasible at lower salinities and where porosity is relatively high. Porosity can be determined most exactly at lower values and where groundwater salinity is relatively high. Both these approaches become less efficient as matrix conduction increases. The mapping of effective matrix resistivity is best effected at lower values where this parameter can be approximately monitored against moderate variations in both porosity and ground‐water resistivity. In general, however, where there are unknown and pronounced variations in any two of these parameters, the geoelectrical determination of the third can be so ambiguous that the uncertainty in the estimated value of this parameter can exceed the total range of values encountered in an entire formation.
A Hypothesis of Ion Filtration in a Potable‐Water Aquifer System
Authors: Wood Warren W.
Published: July 2006

Chemical analyses of major dissolved constituents in approximately 300 samples of ground water and 60 samples of stream water indicate that the process of ion filtration may control the distribution of some major ionic species in the water of the Saginaw aquifer system. This system, which is in the upper Grand River basin of the central part of the southern peninsula of Michigan, consists of sandstone, shale, coal, and limestone of the Saginaw Formation of Pennsylvanian age and overlying glacially deposited sand and clay of late Wisconsin age.

The Saginaw Formation is recharged through the glacially deposited material; however, the concentrations of iron, calcium, sulfate, and chloride are greater in water in the glacial deposits than in water in the underlying Saginaw Formation. It is hypothesized that shale beds in the Saginaw Formation act as ionic filters, allowing water with a lower dissolved‐solids concentration to move through the shale to the sandstone aquifer. A concentration of ions greater than input value forms above the shale beds. Gravity provides the energy necessary to filter the water in a process of reverse osmosis. The similarity of this hydro‐geologic system to other systems suggests that ion filtration may occur in many potable‐water aquifers.