bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Moisture Effects in Epoxy Matrix Composites
Authors: Browning CE , Husman GE , Whitney JM
Published: March 2009

The effect of absorbed moisture on the mechanical properties of a neat epoxy resin and derived graphite/epoxy composites is investigated. Glass transition temperature and modulus as a function of mositure content and temperature are determined for both the neat resin and composite. In addition, elastic modulus for the neat resin and strength and elastic moduli for unidirectional composites and quasiisotropic laminates are determined as a function of absorbed moisture and temperature. A method for predicting moisture content and through-the-thickness profile for a laminate exposed to a constant humidity and temperature is discussed. Particular attention is given also to the details of environmental testing.

Data indicate that absorbed moisture and temperature effects on the neat resin translate directly to matrix dominated properties of the composite and can lead to a change in failure mode, while filament dominated properties show very little environmental sensitivity. Results also indicate that resin glass transition temperature is a function of processing as well as absorbed moisture.
Determination of Trace Elements of Metallurgical Interest in Complex Alloy Matrices by Nonflame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
Authors: Marks JY , Welcher GG
Published: March 2009

Atomic absorption with the high-temperature graphite tube furnace as an atomization source has proven to be particularly versatile in the determination of trace elements in complex alloys such as those used in gas turbine engines. Elements which are harmful to mechanical properties at levels of from 0.1 to 10 ppm include lead, bismuth, thallium, selenium, and tellurium. Indium, antimony, tin, and gallium are harmful at concentrations between 10 and 50 ppm. Accurate and reliable nonflame methods have been established in our laboratory for the determination of all these elements in complex alloys. Proper optimization of several variables is important in obtaining good results. The choice of dissolution medium is important to prevent volatilization losses of trace elements during sample preparation and during the thermal cycle before sample atomization. Selection of proper heating parameters before atomization can be instrumental in reducing background absorption and in realization of best sensitivity. Good alignment of analyte hollow cathode beam with background correction beam is critical for realization of maximum sensitivities. A comparison of the direct nonflame atomic absorption technique with other methods for trace element analysis such as emission spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and flame atomic absorption after preconcentration shows advantages of speed, accuracy, and versatility. Recent work in our laboratory has suggested that some trace element determinations may be possible using direct atomization of the element from alloy chips. Significant advantages in sensitivity, reduction of background absorption, and speed may result from atomization from metal chips.
Use of a Unique Flameless Atomic Absorption Atomizer for the Analysis of Certain Difficult Samples
Authors: Hwang JY , Corum T , Sotera JJ , Kahn HL
Published: March 2009

This article describes the determination of vanadium in crude oils, iron in pitch, and titanium in polypropylene. The sample is placed into a pyrolytically coated graphite microboat and pyrolyzed in an air-acetylene flame. The microboat is then inserted into the cuvette of a flameless atomizer, and the sample is atomized at a temperature up to 3400°C.
Use of Molybdenum in Eliminating Matrix Interferences in Flameless Atomic Absorption
Authors: Henn EL
Published: March 2009

The addition of molybdenum to samples and standards has been found to be an effective method of minimizing matrix interferences in the flameless atomic absorption analysis of lead, cadmium, and selenium. Use of this technique permits the analysis of selenium and lead in natural waters in concentrations as low as 1.0 μg/litre. Cadmium can be analyzed down to 0.1 μg/litre. It appears likely that the use of molybdenum for interference suppression could be extended to other metals. If so, this would greatly expand the usefulness of flameless atomic absorption for trace metals analysis.
Structure, Constitution, and General Characteristics of Wrought Ferritic Stainless Steels
Authors: Demo JJ
Published: March 2009

High chromium-ferritic stainless steels have good general corrosion and pitting resistance and are resistant to stress-corrosion cracking. Despite these desirable properties, the alloys have found little use as materials of construction. This lack of use is a result of significant losses in ductility, toughness, and corrosion resistance when these alloys are subjected to moderate or high temperatures. Names given to the phenomena causing loss in properties include 475°C, sigma phase, and high-temperature embrittlement. This publication summarizes the literature describing the causes, the cures, and the limitations imposed on alloys when these problems occur. The most seriously limiting problem—high temperature embrittlement and loss or corrosion resistance—is discussed in considerable detail. The key role that interstitial carbon and nitrogen play on notch sensitivity and loss of ductility and corrosion resistance following a high-temperature exposure as in welding is defined. Good aswelded properties, the absence of which has severely restricted the use of ferritic stainless steels, depend on controlling interstitial carbon and nitrogen. The publication describes three methods that are being used for interstitial control. It is now possible to produce ferritic stainless steels which are tough and which have excellent corrosion resistance and ductility in the as-welded conditions. Several new high-chromium ferritic alloys with these desirable properties are being produced commercially.
Dispersive Clay in Irrigation Dams in Thailand
Authors: Cole BA , Ratanasen C , Maiklad P , Liggins TB , Chirapuntu S
Published: March 2009

Since 1970, a number of earth dams in northeast Thailand have suffered serious tunnel and surface erosion from rainfall, and several have failed during the first reservoir filling. The behavior is typical of dams containing dispersive clay. This paper describes the testing program undertaken to evaluate the embankment and foundation materials, and discusses the results. Laboratory testing included chemical analysis of the saturation extract, the U.S. Soil Conservation Service dispersion test and X-ray diffraction. Some correlation was found between the test results and the extent of the damage to various embankments.

In the search for nondispersive soil, the Emerson Crumb Test has been used for initial indications in the field, as well as being used, with modifications, in the laboratory.

A description is given of measures being adopted to repair two damaged dams with dispersive soil where nondispersive soil is not available. The repairs involve the replacement of eroded material and the prevention of any serious future damage to existing and new materials by physical and chemical treatments.
Experience with Studies of Clay Erodibility in Greece
Authors: Coumoulos DG
Published: March 2009

This paper describes investigations, carried out in Greece, on dispersion properties of clays in connection with (a) the performance of the upper layers of an earth dam prior to the complete filling of its reservoir, and (b) the selection of clay materials to be used for the construction of earth dams. Data concerning typical high sodium content soils in Greece and chemical data concerning river and lake waters are presented. Methods adapted by the author for dispersion testing are described. The effect of the chemical analysis of the eroding fluid is discussed.
Laboratory Testing on High-Sodium Nondispersive Clays as Related to the Repair of a Clay Dam in Algeria
Authors: Francq J , Post G
Published: March 2009

A 10-km-long homogeneous dam needed repair before filling as extensive cracking and slides occurred soon after completion. In order to design the repair, two sorts of clays were investigated: a gray plastic expansive clay constituting the old dam and a red sandy clay for the repair works. After Soil Conservation Service (SCS) tests and chemical analyses on the saturation extract, dispersiveness of the gray clay was feared, but pinhole tests proved it to be nondispersive. This allowed substantial savings on the design of the repair.

The red clay, after SCS tests and chemical analyses on the saturation extract, should not be dispersive. Pinhole tests gave dispersive reactions on air-dried specimens but nondispersive reactions on specimens at natural moisture content. Correlatively, the sodium content in the saturation extract decreases while calcium and magnesium content increases when air drying the red clay.

The conclusion may be that dispersiveness of a clay is more a result of the sodium that adheres to the clay particles than the sodium dissolved in the pore water.
Erosion, Corrective Maintenance, and Dispersive Clays
Authors: Ghuman OS , Allen RL , McNeill RL
Published: March 2009

Erosion problems may result when the dispersive properties of clays are not suitably accounted for in the design of earth structures. These problems may become evident immediately upon introduction of water into the reservoir. An arid climate and alkaline soils are important indicators of the possible occurrence of dispersive clays. The phenomenon of dispersive clays has only recently been recognized, and all the effects are not yet understood.

Experiences in southern California projects are used to demonstrate how problems associated with dispersive clays may be identified. Test results leading to the recognition of such clays are outlined, and the different mechanisms of erosion are discussed. The choice between alternative corrective actions is dependent on a number of variables. These are identified, and a decision-making approach to the selection of appropriate corrective action is discussed.
Identification of Dispersive Clays in the Texas Gulf Coast Area
Authors: Marshall AF , Workman JP
Published: March 2009

Laboratory testing was done to determine the dispersive characteristics of typical clay soils from two sites near Houston, Texas. The tests included (a) the crumb test, (b) the Soil Conservation Service Laboratory Dispersion Test, (c) chemical analysis of pore water, and (d) the pinhole test. The soils tested consisted of inorganic clay of low to medium plasticity (CL) and inorganic clay of high plasticity (CH) with plastic limits varying from 12 to 32, liquid limits varying from 26 to 99, and activity ratios of 0.7 to 1.3. With a few exceptions, each of the four types of tests showed good reproducibility. The pinhole test results were not affected by variations in compaction moisture content, from three points dry to three points wet of the plastic limit. The four types of tests were found to be in excellent agreement for nondispersive clays. Of the tests judged as dispersive on the basis of sodium content or percent dispersion from the SCS test or both, surprisingly few were dispersive in the pinhole test.
A Rheological Approach to Dispersive Clays
Authors: Nickel SH
Published: March 2009

The zone of expansion, formed on a wetted surface of a potentially dispersive clay, is modeled as a dilute clay slurry. This allows existing data from rheological studies of clay slurries to aid the understanding of the failure mechanism of dispersive clays.

Dispersive erosion is visualized as requiring three conditions: a passageway filled with flowing water, a zone of expansion on the wetted surface of the soil forming the walls of the passageway, and sufficient shear stress applied by the flowing water in the passageway to exceed the shear strength of the zone of expansion. Shear strength limits for dispersive, intermediate, and nondispersive soils are determined from an analysis of the pinhole dispersion test. The relative effects on the shear strength of the zone of expansion due to varying clay mineral type, predominant cation, slurry clay concentration, and electrolyte concentration are examined. Explanations are offered for anomalies in current chemical-empirical criteria for defining dispersiveness.
Dispersion Characteristics of Clay from Mushroom Cave, Meramec Park Lake Project, Meramec River, Missouri
Authors: Perry EB , Postol GJ
Published: March 2009

The results of a laboratory study to assess the dispersion characteristics of a plastic clay (CH) from Mushroom Cave, Meramec Park Lake Project, Missouri, are presented. The sedimentary characteristics of the clay were investigated by X-ray radiography, neutron scanning, and microscopic examination of selected specimens. The mineralogy and chemical properties of the clay and the chemical properties of the natural eroding water (Meramec River water) were determined. Pinhole erosion tests conducted on undisturbed soil specimens, using both distilled water and natural water as the eroding fluid, indicated the clay was nondispersive. The results from the soil pore water chemistry tests plotted in the nondispersive zone on Sherard's relationship between dispersion and soil pore water chemistry, thus confirming the results of the pinhole erosion tests.
Dispersion in Some New Zealand Clays
Authors: Riley PB
Published: March 2009

The dispersion of residual graywacke clays from near Wellington was investigated as part of the feasibility study for a water supply dam. The clay had a low salt content, but a high percentage of sodium. The clay was nondispersive and erosion resistant in the pinhole test.

A clay derived from weathering of tertiary rocks at a location near Auckland had similar salt contents, but was eroded in the pinhole test, indicating dispersivity.

Tunnel erosion also occurs on hillsides in the area in old landslips. However, this same clay has formed a waterfall in an adjacent stream for five years. This unusual behavior may possibly be explained by the stream having higher salt contents than the clay after floods, causing reverse diffusion of ions, and forming a protective skin on the clay.
Encountering Dispersive Clays on Soil Conservation Service Projects in Oklahoma
Authors: Ryker NL
Published: March 2009

Dispersive clays occur frequently in nature, possessing properties detrimental to agronomic tillage practices and to engineering structures such as dams, terraces, channels, etc. Surface erosion occurs readily, since the fines are easily detached and suspended in runoff water. Where water can enter cracks in dispersive clays, subsurface erosion usually develops rapidly and extensively in areas of strong relief under favorable climatic conditions.

For many years, the Soil Conservation Service has relied upon the Laboratory Dispersion Test as the benchmark for identification of these problem clays. Improved sampling techniques and the supplementary use of two field identification tests have been extremely helpful in recent years, particularly in embankment zoning. Liming the surface layers of dispersed clay embankments has provided a satisfactory means for stabilization. Three lime-treatment jobs have not been damaged in seven years. Aluminum sulfate is being evaluated on a field trial basis.
Influence of Eroding Solution Composition on Dispersive Behavior of a Compacted Clay Shale
Authors: Statton CT , Mitchell JK
Published: March 2009

The pinhole test was used to determine the boundaries between dispersive and nondispersive behavior for a clay shale with respect to acidity and salt concentration in the erosion solution. It was found that, for this soil, a decrease in pH of the eroding water to less than about 4 (using hydrochloric acid) or an increase to greater than about 11 (using calcium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide) caused a change from dispersive to nondispersive behavior. Similarly, increasing the salt concentration of the eroding water at its natural pH of 6.3 to 0.1 N calcium chloride or 0.5 N sodium chloride caused erosion to stop.
Experiences with Tests of Dispersibility of Fine-Grained Soils for Dams in Colombia
Authors: Villegas F
Published: March 2009

The new methods of investigating colloidal erodibility (dispersion) of fine-grained soils for the impervious sections of earth dams have been used as part of the design studies for two important dams for hydroelectric projects in Colombia. The soils derived from weathering of diorite which form the surface materials over a large geographic area are highly erosion resistant, as evidenced by resistance to erosion of severe rainfall runoff (annual rainfall 3 to 5 m/year), and are shown to be nondispersive in laboratory tests. Laboratory tests of filter requirements confirm that sand filters are not needed to prevent piping.
Codes and Standards for In-Service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plants
Authors: Dau GJ
Published: March 2009

The mandatory periodic in-service inspection of commercial nuclear power plants in the United States is governed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI, “Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components.” The scope of these rules is indicated, as well as a summary of the requirements that have evolved as the ASME Code was developed. Recent experience with austenitic pipe inspection is used to illustrate the interaction of ASME Code requirements, inspection technology development, and fabrication practice. Because the performance of these examinations requires skilled people, comments are made about certification and manpower availability.
ASNT Recommended Practice for Nondestructive Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification (SNT-TC-1A) and Its Use
Authors: Berry FC
Published: March 2009

The need for standardization of nondestructive testing personnel qualifications brought about the writing of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice for Nondestructive Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification (SNT-TC-1A). The choice of an organization to prepare such a document was based on ASNT's prime interest and its membership being a cross-section representation of industry and government organizations within the United States.

ASNT Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A is a combination of various requirements taken from American government and industry specifications. This document is designed to be adapted by any user to fit a specific need.

ASNT offers an additional service of review or examination of personnel for the qualification as a Level III Nondestructive Testing person.
Image Quality Indicators—Penetrameters
Authors: Greene A
Published: March 2009

The design of the present-day plaque-type penetrameter has changed very little over the past 35 years. Changes have been made in the size of the holes and the identification and correlation of material classes. Other users of penetrameters outside of the United States have been using a wire- or step-type design. Users of penetrameters as well as those who specify them have been under a cloud because of the variations from one code to another. A chart has been included to show the variations in the plaque style. Significant progress by ASTM Subcommittee E07.01 on Radiographic Practice and Penetrameters has been made to bring together the various code-making bodies toward accepting a unified design.
Standards for Real-Time Systems Used with Penetrating Radiation
Authors: McKee WJ
Published: March 2009

In the area of radiography, there has been a substantial effort to find a reasonable approach in formulating standards to aid us in determining the level of performance that can be expected from a certain group of equipment and then determine desired or recommended procedures that would provide the optimum results obtainable with the equipment described.

We now approach the area of real-time systems, those of electronic imaging and gaging, for similar purposes. In many ways, there are close correlations to the classic film techniques of radiography but there are also many areas that are unique to these electronic systems, and we must deal with them now.
Status of Reference Radiographs
Authors: Goldspiel S
Published: March 2009

The paper summarizes work on reference radiographs over a period of 30 years covering: (a) availability and limitations of American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) reference radiograph standards, (b) some correlation work between radiographic quality and strength, (c) problems in mass production of illustrations, and (d) projection of work needed in the field in the near future, including considerations to be given to justify the need for new reference radiograph documents for a particular alloy or fabrication type.
Ultrasonic Testing Standards—Overview
Authors: Bobbin JE
Published: March 2009

Ultrasonic testing is used extensively for flaw detection, thickness measurement, and determining material properties. Now, as the field reaches maturity, there is a greater need to obtain quantitative data from the test itself. This need, in turn, has been followed by an implied need for standardization.

The goal of standardization, for whatever reasons, is laudable. In ultrasonics it covers three possible areas of interest which will be discussed in detail in the following papers. These include: the instrumentation itself, including probes, and the possible standardization of performance characteristics; reference standards including test blocks and other techniques for setting rejection limits; and finally standarization of application techniques.

Our challenge is first to determine what should be standardized within each area. Then, under what conditions should such standards be applied. The developers of these standards should also clearly understand the complex relationship between the significance of the parameters being standardized, the performance flexibility of the equipment, and the overall cost/benefits involved.

This presentation attempts to put some of these factors into proper perspective, so that realistic standardization may benefit all parties concerned.
Search Unit Standardization
Authors: McElroy JT
Published: March 2009

The search unit, an important component in the ultrasonic examination system, has yet to be controlled by a performance standard. While controversy over methods of measuring performance exist and parameters have not been defined, nevertheless, a foundation document can and must be generated.
Calibration Blocks for Ultrasonic Testing
Authors: Burley CE
Published: March 2009

The historical development of test blocks is reviewed briefly, leading to the development of the most recent ASTM standards. The large number of test blocks developed by other than ASTM sources is outlined, together with the problems presented by this proliferation of standards.

The current status of ASTM Recommended Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks (E 127-75) and ASTM Recommended Practice for Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection (E 428-71(1975)) for flat entry surface standards is discussed, together with the requirements to apply and duplicate the specified calibration procedures.

Current activities of ASTM to improve existing standards are outlined. In conclusion, some requirements for the development of new standards are advanced.
Problems Encountered in Using Penetrant and Magnetic Particle Inspection Methods During Aircraft Maintenance
Authors: Boisvert BW
Published: March 2009

Penetrant and magnetic particle are the most widely used methods of nondestructive inspection performed during aircraft maintenance. This presentation will discuss briefly U.S. Air Force procedures in determining applications, developing specific techniques, and implementing inspections on a world-wide basis. This will provide the background necessary to understand the problem peculiar in maintaining military aircraft. The objective of this briefing is to describe the difficulties resulting from inadequate equipment/materials/process specifications and standards. General requirements necessary for the resolution of these difficulties will be defined.
Magnetic Particle and Liquid Penetrant Testing in the Shipbuilding Industry
Authors: Hardison RR
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses the variations in inspection results which can be obtained through the use of mixing variables within the allowable specification requirements. The need to standardize field indicators also is discussed. The ability to reproduce inspections, for example, during audits, without more rigid standardization is questioned. The base specification for the above discussion will be Military Standard on Nondestructive Testing Requirements for Metals (MIL-STD 271, D and E). Also, a brief dissertation concerning the lack of magnetic particle/liquid penetrant testing requirements as applied to commercial shipbuilding is given. Finally, the paper discusses magnetic particle/liquid penetrant acceptance standards and the lack of statistical or engineering data, or both, to support their existence.
Specification/Code Syndrome
Authors: Plumstead WC
Published: March 2009

This presentation intends to show a need for fewer standards and specifications from the independent laboratory viewpoint.

Although the independent testing laboratory attempts to maintain an adequate library of specifications, standards, codes, and procedures, it is not uncommon to receive requests to perform tests and evaluate results according to a completely unfamiliar document. New variables introduce a potential for error.

The overall results of liquid penetrant inspection, magnetic particle inspection, and the other nondestructive testing methods would benefit if fewer documents existed which also address the engineering principles behind the testing procedures and acceptance criteria incorporated into the document. Documents of this nature would provide better test performance and more accurate results just as a result of the familiarity created. Personnel training effectiveness would improve with less supervisory control.
Penetrant Inspection Standards
Authors: Packman PF , Hardy G , Malpani JK
Published: March 2009

The purpose of this paper is to review some of the quantitative techniques that have been used for the evaluation of penetrant systems and to present an analysis technique based on analysis of variance (ANOVA) that appears to have a potential for rating penetrants.

The paper covers five areas: quantitative penetrant methods, two-fold congruency evaluation, the limitations on the reuse of the specimens, the influence of threshold visibility on evaluation of penetrants, and crack line intersection counting and evaluation of the crack line intersection data by ANOVA to evaluate the effects of primary and secondary influencing variables.
Magnetic Flux Density Measurements Relative to Magnetic Particle Testing
Authors: Schroeder KW
Published: March 2009

The basic magnetizing requirements relative to magnetic particle testing are reviewed briefly and flux density (B) is established as the all important factor. Rules of thumb and various magnetic field measuring techniques are discussed relative to their usefulness in determining magnetizing levels. It points up the limited nature of field measuring techniques and classifies them as laboratory tools.
Considerations and Standards for Visual Inspection Techniques
Authors: Yonemura GT
Published: March 2009

When we look at the capacity of the human visual system we see that man can adjust to a wide variety of operating conditions. But, unless we have detailed information of the conditions for which these processes are to be standardized and quantitative descriptions of the tasks to be performed, the advantages to be obtained by visual science applications cannot be utilized optimally. The modulation transfer function would be an image evaluation technique applicable to nondestructive testing (NDT). Standardized tests to assess day-to-day performance as well as initial capacities should be developed. These tests should be derived from visual capacities correlated with the tasks to be performed.
Hermetic Test Procedures and Standards for Semiconductor Electronics
Authors: Ruthberg S
Published: March 2009

The hermetic testing of semiconductor devices is a challenging subject area because of the need for leak testing large numbers of sealed packages to very fine leak rates, where the packages are of a wide range of materials and internal volumes. The types of measurement methods to be discussed are those presently in use and are represented in both military and voluntary standards. Four of these methods will be assessed briefly along with the relevant standards as to advantages, disadvantages, range, precision, and agreement. The four methods are bubble, weight gain, helium leak detector, and radioisotope test procedures. Present interlaboratory test efforts that have been undertaken to provide suitable test data for guidance in the drafting of new American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards will be summarized. Future directions will be indicated.
Generation of a Standards Document for an Emerging Nondestructive Evaluation Technology
Authors: Posakony GJ
Published: March 2009

Nondestructive testing standards, recommended practices, specifications, procedures, definitions, and classifications are described in technical documents used by both producers and consumers. These documents provide the common language for the testing and evaluation of raw materials, products, structures, and components. Preparing technical documents which are acceptable to involved parties requires a major effort on the part of professional organizations and governmental agencies. Meeting the industrial need of maintaining pace with accepted test methods is a formidable task. Developing documents for new and evolving test methods is a challenge in technology, language, acceptance, patience, and perseverance. This article reviews the time and effort expended to develop acceptable recommended practices within the volunteer consensus mode followed by the American Society for Testing and Materials.
Fracture Mechanics and the Need for Quantitative Nondestructive Measurements
Authors: Wessel ET
Published: March 2009

Fracture mechanics technology provides a modern, systems-type, engineering approach for dealing with all of the factors involved in structural reliability. The relationships between material properties, stresses, defects, nondestructive inspection, fabrication, and structural performance requirements can be analyzed and their combined effect on structural integrity can be determined. The philosophy and general approaches for applying the technology are described. Emphasis is devoted to illustrating the vital role of nondestructive inspection in the utilization of fracture mechanics technology, and the need for quantitative nondestructive measurements is described.
Automated Nondestructive Evaluation Systems and Standards
Authors: Schmitt JK
Published: March 2009

This paper presents the cases for automating a nondestructive evaluation (NDE) operation. Cautions are presented on the use of automation as are a series of steps and a checklist for the design and procurement of a system. Reference specimen use, cautions, and replacement recommendations are included.
The National Bureau of Standards Program in Nondestructive Evaluation
Authors: Berger H
Published: March 2009

The rationale and present technical content for the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) program in nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is presented. Needs for improved NDE measurement reliability and accuracy, needs that led to the establishment of this new program, are discussed. The present technical program is described. It includes work related to acoustic-ultrasonic, radiography, visual, electrical eddy current, microwave, penetrant and thermal testing, and wear debris analysis. The program content is summarized in two tables. Outputs from this program are indicated; these include standards and methods of measurement, calibration services, and standard reference materials.
Economic Benefits of Reliable Nondestructive Evaluation Standards
Authors: Doherty JE , Baldwin ME , LaGrotta JM
Published: March 2009

The evolution of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) to its current sophistication has been long and involved. The primary driving forces in the evolution of NDE are derived from economic considerations; the primary concern is to drive the total cost of a product to a minimum. The interdependence of the inspection process and the production process is considered using a probabilistic outlook and some historical perspectives. A generalized discussion is presented to demonstrate how cost savings might be incurred by the introduction of a reliable inspection system. The value of reliable NDE standards in reducing inspection uncertainty and the impact of this uncertainty on the total cost of a product is discussed.
Evaluations of Control Agents for Conifer Seed Protection
Authors: Lindsey GD
Published: March 2009

Standardized test procedures have been developed for evaluating repellent and toxic treatments on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and toxic baits for use against deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus)—a primary target species in the Pacific Northwest. This sequential series of repellent and toxicant evaluations includes various bioassay, phytotoxicity, enclosure, hazard, and field studies with each step providing more detailed information on the properties, efficacy, and potential hazards associated with specific candidate chemicals. The primary objective of these evaluations is to provide a safe, effective method to achieve the minimum stocking criteria of 7400 Douglas-fir seedlings per hectare.
Exclusion Cyclinders as a Means of Assessing Losses of Vegetation Due To Ground Squirrel Feeding
Authors: Sauer WC
Published: March 2009

Exclusion cylinders were used to assess vegetation loss due to feeding activity of the Oregon ground squirrel, Spermophilus beldingi oregonus Three hardware cloth cylinders were placed within a four-acre (1.62 hectare (ha)) squirrel colony for 44 days. Sample pairs included vegetation within a cylinder and a comparable area of vegetation near the cylinder—each clipped at ground level. Green and dry weights were taken of each sample to estimate hay production. The average dry weight difference between the excluded area and the grazed area was estimated to be 1790 lb/acre (2005.9 kg/ha). Visual observations and a Lincoln Index estimated the squirrel colony population at 123 squirrels (adults and young) per acre (303.9 per ha). Visual observation and trapping resulted in no other animal significantly contributing to the assessed damage. This study indicated that exclusion cylinders are an effective means for assessing vegetation loss due to ground squirrel feeding activity.
A Device for Bioassay of Response to Olfactory Stimuli in Wild Rodents
Authors: Christiansen E , Døving KB , Mørk E
Published: March 2009

To record the attraction of an animal to odorous testing materials, the scent was placed inside plexiglass tubes equipped with photocells. Located close to one end of the tube, the photocell senses the presence of the test animal's snout. The signals are transferred to a data logger connected with a paper-tape punch or to an event recorder. The device can be placed in home cages, enclosures, or the natural habitat of the study animal.
Bioassay Methods Guilding the Development of a Big Game Repellent
Authors: Gauditz I
Published: March 2009

This paper describes bioassay techniques found useful to support the development of big game repellents and discusses the criteria for matching these techniques to specific tasks. The latter range from the preliminary screening of large numbers of potential repellents to the final selection of a small number of candidates which in repeated tests exceeded all established repellents and other candidates in degree and persistance of repellency. From this small number of candidates, the new, improved big game repellent is selected through field bioassays with the help of statistical analysis of their results. The bioassay techniques described here use a herd of wild deer held captive in a large pen under near natural conditions. They are simple multiple choice tests of preference, and no statistical methods are used for data analysis. Tests using the pen bioassay techniques for rapid screening of products are evaluated by gross ranking of browse counts; extended tests of promising candidates are evaluated via browse curves which show the increase in browsing with time. Established repellents are used as reference standard against which the performance of each product is compared.
Field Testing Method Used in Evaluating Acute Commensal Rodenticides
Authors: Peardon DL
Published: March 2009

The field testing protocol developed in cooperation with the Registration Division, Office of Pesticide Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the evaluation of an acute rodenticide as a bait for use against commensal rats (Rattus norvegicus and R. rattus) and mice (Mus musculus) and as a tracking powder for use against house mice is described. In addition to the experimental design, site selection, identification, safety, and important equipment in field testing are discussed. Basically, the tests were divided into three phases: (1) pretreatment population census, (2) treatment (placement of bait or tracking powder), and (3) post-treatment population censusing. Food consumption was always used as one method of censusing the pest population. Live trapping, which includes recapture of previously marked individuals, was the second method used.
Cage Units and Procedures Designed for the Testing of Toxic Rodent Tracking Powders
Authors: Marsh RE
Published: March 2009

A versatile unit was designed for testing the efficacy of toxic tracking powders in controlling commensal rodents. The test units are relatively simple modifications of commercially available cages commonly used for laboratory rats and mice. Two modified cages are connected by a tunnel which, depending on test design, allows the test animal free access to the tracking powder. Racks of test units permit a wide variety of tracking powders to be tested on species ranging from wild house mice to wild Norway and roof rats. The emphasis is placed on the design and construction of the test cage units with only a brief account of test methods provided.
Techniques for the Evaluation of Potential Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Chemosterilants
Authors: Godfrey ME
Published: March 2009

Four chemicals shown to be effective as sterilants in other vertebrate species were evaluated for efficacy in the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Weight-related doses were administered, by gavage, to groups of does who were then allowed to form breeding colonies with bucks of proven fertility. Two chemicals were found to have a long-term effect from this single oral dose. Acceptability of these two drugs was evaluated in a no choice situation and found to be adequate. One of these drugs was then used in a simulated field trial where prefeeding prior to exposure to the drugged baits occurred but where alternative feed was also available. The results were inconclusive.

Two chemicals were found to have a long-term effect from a single oral dose, but the duration and variation in effectiveness observed for individual animals indicate that neither drug is suitable for full field use in pest control operations.

Techniques to allow the evaluation of new compounds have been evolved and are applicable to use with other vertebrate pest species as well as the rabbit.
Test Methods for Determining the Efficacy of Coyote Attractants and Repellents
Authors: Linhart SB , Dasch GJ , Roberts JD , Savarie PJ
Published: March 2009

Methods whereby candidate coyote repellents and attractants can be evaluated are described. Repellents were tested by conditioning wild-caught captive coyotes to feed upon tethered domestic rabbits. Coyotes were then offered treated and untreated rabbits on alternate days for a ten-day period. Efficacy of candidate compounds was based on kill rates. Difficulties associated with field evaluation of repellents are discussed.

Potential coyote attractants were evaluated in the field by recording visitation rates to scent stations. Each scent station consisted of a 3-ft circle of sifted earth in the center of which was placed a capsule containing a candidate attractant. Attractants were alternated between scent stations; animal tracks present at each site were recorded daily until sufficient data were obtained to permit comparisons. Problems that may confound the analysis of attractants by use of captive coyotes are reviewed.
A Method for Evaluating Coyote Scent Baits
Authors: Timm RM , Howard WE , Monroe MW , Teranishi R , Murphy EL
Published: March 2009

A method for evaluating candidate coyote scent baits to make coyote control more selective has been developed. Each odorous compound is placed on a wad of cotton within a disposable tissue capsule secured between two metal plates. One or several horizontal or vertical scent stations or both can then be placed within a test area into which a coyote is released. A single observer, located in a blind, can observe the animal's responses to the scents. The type of frequency of the coyote's responses to compounds can be recorded. Such information is valuable in selecting scents for use with various methods of coyote control.
Field Testing a Bird Repellent Chemical on Cereal Crops
Authors: Martin LR , Jackson JJ
Published: March 2009

Field trials in East Africa with methiocarb (3, 5-dimethyl-4-(methylthio) phenol methylcarbamate) on sorghum, millet, wheat, barley, triticale, and rice indicate that special problems need considerable evaluation before treatment of a cereal crop for protection from bird damage.

Cereals with exposed seeds (sorghum, millet) may need two treatments for extended protection if bird damage begins shortly after flowering. Shielded seeds (wheat, triticale, barley, rice) may need only one treatment depending upon the period of vulnerability, the time at which bird damage begins, and the type of adhesive used. In dry windy climates, a good adhesive is needed. If damage begins after the glumes have begun to dry, an adhesive is essential indicating that early treatment of shielded seeds is the best practice. Milk has been used as a sticker with limited success when commercial adhesives were unavailable. Experiments with many different test plot sizes indicate that areas of approximately 1000 m2 with 2 to 3 m spacing between repetitive plots work well. No single damage assessment technique is suitable for every trial. The assessment method will depend on time and manpower availability and the degree of precision required. A combination of visual and quantitative methods will often yield a more comprehensive assessment than either method alone. Following the evolution of damage and using good bird censusing techniques are essential to determine the necessity of retreatment.
Learned Aversion in Wild Birds: A Method for Testing Comparative Acute Repellency
Authors: Schafer EW , Brunton RB , Lockyer NF
Published: March 2009

A method was developed to measure the comparative acute learned aversion of a number of wild bird species to repellent chemicals. It was shown that both the innate acute response and the intensity and duration of the learned response of birds to repellents vary among species. Two repellents, methiocarb and thiram, were tested by the described method. Methiocarb produced the stronger and more lasting response in most species; thiram was much more variable in its acute effects, and the intensity and duration of the learned response tended to be weaker and shorter.

Factors relating to improving the test methodology presented are discussed, especially with regard to the species tested.
Considerations in Testing Vertebrate Pesticides To Be Used in Disease-Control Activities
Authors: Beck JR , Jackson WB
Published: March 2009

Many factors related to disease etiology, animal behavior, and comparative physiology combine to complicate the testing of vertebrate pesticides for use in disease control. Several case histories and documented events are referred to as a means of delineating the diverse nature of these difficulties. Because of the great variety of experiences and formal education necessary to evaluate these problems effectively, it is obvious that a multidisciplinary, consensus effort is required. The exceedingly high cost and low return for investment and labor in research would indicate that no single agency, company, nor group of scientists are capable of, nor can afford, undertaking pesticidal registration for vertebrate disease control under the usual criteria. Therefore, special consideration for a multiagency, multidisciplinary approach to the development of pesticides for disease control in vertebrate animals is mandatory, if catastrophes to human and environmental health are to be minimized.
Testing Effectiveness of a Chemical as a Bird Repellent on Pearl Millet in Somalia
Authors: Holcomb LC
Published: March 2009

Testing of a chemical (methiocarb) for bird repellency when placed on pearl millet (Penasetum typhoides) was done in Somalia, East Africa, under field conditions. The data show that of two methods of assaying bird numbers, counting birds from a stationary position and counting birds flushed by drivers, the second method gives a better estimate of true numbers. There was 9 percent more damage in the control than in the sprayed plot. This was not a significant difference. At the beginning of the experiment, undamaged heads of millet received nearly the same percent of damage as damaged heads. The data demonstrate the value of assessing damage before application of chemical, during regular intervals following application, and just before harvest. More than one observor should estimate damage. Several suggestions are made about damage assessment techniques.
A Simplified Method to Evaluate the Efficacy Potential of Spray-on Bird Repellents Under Simulated Natural Conditions in Cornfields
Authors: Alsager DE
Published: March 2009

A technique using large portable field cages is described as a practical method of evaluating efficacy potential of chemical bird repellents on maturing field corn. Several advantages of this technique over conventional “open-field type” efficacy evaluations are described—all relating to greater control of possible test variables. 4 methythio-3,5-xylyl N-methylcarbamate (mesurol) showed significant repellency (p < 0.05) in all tests completed using an application rate of 2 kg/acre. A comparison of results using two types of sample vectors indicated that efficacy of the repellent tested was highest prior to the onset of bird damage, possibly due to the presence of the repellent in accessible water. Once bird damage occurred, the efficacy of the product was reduced considerably. The simplicity and versatility of the technique suggests its potential application for efficacy evaluation involving other products, bird species, and agricultural crops.