bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
War Correspondents
Authors: Casey Steven
Published: July 2014

War correspondents are a society’s window onto the battlefield. They brave the dangers at or near the front in an attempt to provide stories on who is winning, and why; on the character, strengths, and weaknesses of the main generals; and on the conditions faced by the opposing forces, their appearance, weapons, diets, and morale. The literature on war correspondents can be broadly divided into four categories. First, there are those works that focus on reporters’ output. These are often anthologies containing some of the best, or most influential, writing by one or more big names. Then there are the books that explore war correspondents’ adventures at the front. These tend to be memoir accounts by the reporters themselves, or fast-paced narratives by friendly biographers. The third set of works seeks to uncover the correspondents’ motives and modes of operations. Unlike the many soldiers who have been drafted, reporters have often had a choice: to remain in their safe hometown jobs or to head out to dangerous battle zones. Have they gone to the front simply because of the attractions of fame and fortune, or have other factors been at work: the pull of duty, the fear of being considered a shirker, the lure of comradeship? Moreover, while biographers tend to emphasize the individualistic nature of risk-seeking reporters, this third strand of writing places them in a broader context. For one thing, it looks at the relationships they forged with a military hierarchy that invariably holds a much more restrictive attitude to the whole concept of publicity. For another, it reveals the profession’s own pressures, from the acceptable norms that govern how a story is reported at a particular moment in time to the demands of editors and publishers who pay the wages. Fourth and finally come the works that assess the impact of war reporting. On the one hand, overly restrictive military censorship can cover up specific mistakes, conceal general incompetence, and, as a result, prevent a belligerent from making the necessary changes to prosecute the war more effectively. This has invariably been the journalists’ refrain. On the other hand, overly revealing news stories might give away key military secrets; they might also undermine a society’s will to fight. This is the gist of an influential strand of writing about the Vietnam War: that it was lost not on the battlefield, but on the home front. Small wonder that Vietnam looms large in the literature, as, for some, a cautionary tale of what happens when war correspondents are given too much freedom.
The Irish Revolution, 1911-1923
Authors: Kautt W. H.
Published: July 2014

The Irish War of Independence, also sometimes known as the Tan War or the Anglo-Irish War, was part of the Irish revolution, which consisted generally of three conflicts spanning from 1911 to 1923. The constituent struggles were the Easter Rising of 1916 and the events leading up to it, the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921) and the Irish Civil War (1922–1923). Widespread debate continues as to the exact relationship of these conflicts to each other and whether they constituted a single war or separate wars. Consensus is growing toward their distinctive, yet interconnected nature within an overarching revolution, albeit interrupted, changed, and, in many ways spurred on by World War I, spanning a period from roughly 1910 or 1911 to the end of the Irish Civil War in 1923. Further, some scholars advocate the use of the word “for” to make the title the Irish War for Independence, in place of the War of Independence. The reasoning behind this title change is that Ireland gained only limited independence from the United Kingdom in 1923 rather than complete independence or a republic separate from the British Crown. Regardless, this was a war unlike any war fought in Ireland up to that time. It was not only that it was a guerrilla war, but also that it was a conflict typified by strong political organization. This was the first time the rebels counted the fully enfranchised as the majority within their ranks. It was also the first time many of the rebel leaders were elected to Parliament. Although not universally popular, the war still enjoyed a level of legitimacy among the populace not seen previously. The rebels did not fight in a mass rising as they did in 1916 because they did not want a repetition of the rising, in which they were caught in static defense of an urban center. This was a war based on the guerrilla concepts of dispersal and temporary concentration. Finally, this was the first time the British government avowed independence, although limited, as its goal. The issues were the form and type of new government to be permitted as well as to whom to hand over power.
Operational Art
Authors: Matheny Michael
Published: July 2014

The art of warfare is practiced in three levels: the strategic, operational, and tactical. Operational art refers to the military commander’s employment of force in a theater of operations to achieve strategic objectives. Operational art is inextricably linked to the planning and conduct of military campaigns in specific theaters of war, which distinguishes it from tactics and strategy. Strategy and tactics have long been studied and described, but the third level of war, the operational level, began to emerge only in the 19th century as nations began to field ever-larger armies. The maneuver of large armies or multiple armies required commanders to orchestrate large-scale maneuvers in the theater of war. During the Napoleonic Wars the aim of this maneuver was the pursuit of the decisive battle, such as Austerlitz and Waterloo. By World War I, it was clear that single battles could not yield strategic results. The armies were simply too large for single decisive battles to provide political results, and so campaigns designed to arrange a series of battles became necessary. During the interwar years, practitioners and theorists from several countries began to formalize theories of operational art. The roots of modern operational art can be traced back to World War I in which the conduct of operations in three dimensions became necessary. Historians have largely overlooked the operational level of war, but to the extent it has been studied, there is a good deal of debate on when, how, and why operational art developed. Scholarship on operational art generally falls into several categories that include current military theorists, schools of thought on the development of operational art, and campaign studies. Some historians assert that the roots of operational art lay with the development of the Prusso-German school in the 19th century. Other historians emphasize the Soviet interwar theorists as the preeminent authors of the concept. A much smaller number of scholars point to the United States contribution to operational art. In general, the study of operational art may be divided into the various schools of thought on the development of operational art, theory, and practice. Although the origins and practice of operational art have long been linked to large-scale conventional military operations, the advent of irregular warfare since 1945 has sparked a debate about the role of operational art in irregular warfare. Theorists, practitioners, and historians have wrestled with the concept of operational art in small wars and counterinsurgency. This recent interest peaked due to US counterinsurgency operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Media
Authors: Casey Steven
Published: July 2014

The media has evolved over time, from the mass press of the 19th century, through the radio, movie, and television industries of the 20th century, and the Internet and global TV networks of recent vintage. Each of these changes has created fresh problems for governments in wartime, whose first instinct is to try to control the media, censoring those stories that it thinks will undermine the war effort, while saturating the same media outlets with propaganda to sell the war to the homefront. The state’s success in these efforts is often at the heart of the literature. Much depends on the specific historical context. The changing nature of the media is one vital contextual element, and this is the subject of the essay’s second section. The other is either the type of war or type of state, and these are highlighted in the remaining sections, which explore the main conflicts since 1914. Finally, the literature on the media not only concentrates on the state’s power over the media; sometimes, it is also interested in the media’s role in developing popular culture about war or reflecting opinion about enemies or allies.
It Happened One Night
Authors: Mizejewski Linda
Published: July 2014

The low-budget sleeper It Happened One Night (1934), directed by Frank Capra (b. 1897–d. 1991) was the first film to sweep the Academy Awards by winning Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Writing/Adaptation, a feat that remains rare in Oscar history. However, the more substantial impact of It Happened One Night is evident in its legacy. Well into the early twenty-first century, mainstream cinema continues to reproduce this film’s formula of the unlikely couple who “meet cute” and bicker their way into happily ever after. It Happened One Night is considered the template for the romantic-comedy film and screwball comedy and is also an early “road” film, structured around the bus/car/hitchhiking journey of spoiled heiress Ellie Andrews (Claudette Colbert) and unemployed reporter Peter Warne (Clark Gable). Together they evade the authorities so Ellie can get from Florida to New York and consummate her ill-conceived marriage to a well-heeled playboy. The sexual tension between Ellie and Peter plays out as class conflict, resolved at the film’s conclusion when Ellie runs away from the altar at her high-society wedding, returns to Peter, and honeymoons with him at a humble motel cottage resembling the ones they used—illegitimately but chastely—during their journey. Ellie’s wealthy father, at first an antagonist, becomes the patriarch with the heart of gold who enables Ellie and Peter to unite. Because the 1930 Hays Code was in force while the film was being shot, its sexual innuendoes were primarily conveyed through the witty conversation. Screenwriter Robert Riskin adapted the script from “Night Bus,” a short story by Samuel Hopkins Adams that first appeared in Cosmopolitan magazine in 1933 and got the notice of Capra, who was the leading director at Columbia Pictures at the time. It Happened One Night was the first of several Capra films that secured his reputation as an auteur and as a “populist” Depression-era director. A huge moneymaker for Columbia, the film was rebooked in theaters continuously for nearly a year. It Happened One Night also dramatically enhanced the careers of Gable and Colbert, whose star value increased considerably following their roles as the original screwball couple.
Hollywood Studios
Authors: Lev Peter
Published: July 2014

“Studio” and “Hollywood” are interestingly complex terms. “Studio” originally meant a room with abundant natural light. The first motion picture studios were large, glass-walled rooms designed for filming with natural light. The term “studio” expanded to refer to a motion picture production facility, and then it expanded again to mean a company that made motion pictures. By the late 1920s the best-known American studios were large, vertically integrated corporations that produced, distributed, and exhibited films: Paramount, MGM, Fox, Warner Bros., and RKO. Columbia, Universal, and United Artists were also considered major studios, though they owned few or no theaters, and there were smaller B-movie companies such as Monogram and Republic. “Hollywood” refers to a neighborhood north and west of downtown Los Angeles where a number of movie companies settled when they left the East Coast for California in the 1910s. This term has expanded in meaning as well; it now means all film production in the Los Angeles area, and even by synecdoche the entire American film industry. From about 1920 to 1950, film was the dominant entertainment industry in the United States, and the eight major studios firmly controlled this medium. The studios’ top executives, sometimes called “moguls” to emphasize their power, supervised thousands of employees and decided what films were made, how they were made, and how they were released. This is often called the “studio period,” or the “classic period,” or the “golden age of Hollywood.” After 1950 there was a gradual change to independent production as directors, producers, stars, and agents took over the creative aspects of filmmaking, with the studios mainly responsible for financing and distribution. Eventually, the Hollywood film studios expanded to other fields such as television, cable, music, home video, theme parks, and Internet, and they were bought or merged with larger corporations. The giant media conglomerates of the early 21st century (Disney, Time Warner, News Corp., Viacom, Comcast, and Sony) resemble the studios of old in their domination of the entertainment industry. This article will concentrate on the studio period, especially the economic and institutional histories of the eight major studios. However, since almost all of these companies still exist, and they are still called studios, some entries will discuss what happened to the American film industry and to the individual companies since the 1950s.
Nicholas Ray
Authors: Rybin Steven , Scheibel Will
Published: July 2014

Nicholas Ray (b. 1911–d. 1979), the director of Rebel Without a Cause, Johnny Guitar, In a Lonely Place, and other Hollywood films from 1947 to 1958, came to filmmaking with a diverse artistic background from the 1930s. As a student of architecture, he was an apprentice of Frank Lloyd Wright, and, as an actor, he was a member of the socialist-leaning New York City acting company the Theatre of Action, which associated with the Group Theatre. He also served in various New Deal agencies—the Works Progress Administration, the US Department of Agriculture’s Resettlement Administration, and the Office of War Information—that immersed him in American folk culture before moving to Hollywood. In cinema studies, he is best known as the American test case for auteurist film criticism. Discovered by the French critics at Cahiers du Cinéma after World War II, Ray was celebrated as an auteur, a director with a consistent signature style and personal vision who (like an author) is understood to be the single force of control that structures the entire film. Yet, at the mercy of producers and executives, he also worked within classical studio and genre systems and was generally unknown or ignored in the United States at this time. After directing his final studio film, Party Girl, in 1958, Ray spent the late 1950s and 1960s outside of Hollywood, helming a series of international co-productions. Throughout the 1960s, he would struggle to finance projects independently; his unrealized efforts during this period include an adaptation of the Dylan Thomas story The Doctor and the Devils and a film about the trial of the Chicago Seven. Ray spent much of the 1960s outside of the United States, attending retrospectives of his work, living in Paris during the student protests of 1968 and attempting to put together production deals. In the 1970s, Ray returned to America, eventually taking a job as a film professor at Harpur College at Binghamton University, State University of New York. With his students, Ray would embark on his ambitious final project, a multi-image experimental film entitled We Can’t Go Home Again. The film would remain unfinished at the time of the director’s death, but, in 2011, it was restored by his widow, Susan Ray. While underappreciated by critics in America during his career in the 1950s, the critical studies referenced below demonstrate the ongoing importance of Ray’s films to cinema scholars.
Georgia and International Law
Authors: Blanc Altemir Antoni , Ortiz Hernández Eimys
Published: July 2014

The dissolution of the USSR at the end of December 1991 and the reunification of Germany were, without doubt, two of the most remarkable international events at the end of the 20th century. Analysis of the consequences of these events with respect to international law has proved challenging to international legal norms due to the fact that the kind of “micro cosmos” exemplified by these events served to highlight the principal sectors of international law. The consequences of the dismemberment of the USSR proved to be extensive and they were felt not only in Europe, but also in the rest of the world. The breakup of such a prominent strategic actor put an end to the restricted stability that characterized the bipolar nature of the Cold War. Thus, international society witnessed a period of instability in succeeding years marked by a renewed rise in issues such as the right of self-determination and the principle of uti possidetis. Therefore, events unfolding in the former Soviet Union, at times tedious and even tragic, led to the creation of a new international organization called the Commonwealth of Independent States, which tried to fill the “black hole” left by the breakup of the USSR as well as deal with the problems confronted by the successor states, notwithstanding its own deficiencies. Moreover, some disputes of a territorial, interethnic, or national character became very violent, such as those in Central Asia and the Caucasus, in particular in Georgia. Over the years Georgia has intensified its process of approximation to the European Union (EU). On the one hand, the EU-Georgia Association Agreement that entered into force on 1 July 2016 is remarkable for establishing a deep and comprehensive free trade area. On the other hand, the effective application of the Schengen—visa-free travel for short stays for Georgian citizens—has been of great importance. This article provides researchers with instruments to study the recurring problems in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, as well as the Georgian-Russian conflict in 2008, and also treats the consequences of these crises in international law. Issues such as military operations, the cease-fire agreement, and the succeeding evolution of events are discussed. A section focuses specifically on important violations of international law that took place during the conflict, for which an international report was published. In addition, the consequences of the conflict are addressed with respect to NATO-Russia and EU-Russia relations while the effects of the conflict in the geostrategic and energy fields are also considered. Additionally, the rapprochement between Georgia and the European Union is analyzed.
Prayer and Liturgy
Authors: Reif Stefan C.
Published: July 2014

Some two millennia ago, the liturgies of the Jerusalem Temple, which were generally ceremonial rather than verbal and the Psalms, which were primarily verbal, were merged into synagogue worship and the genres of benediction, hymn, and praise were further developed. The Dead Sea Scrolls testify to the timely recitation of prayers and their association with events and pietistic themes. The early rabbis were also influenced by ideas about the end of time and about angels and celestial arrangements. Rabban Gamaliel II in the second century innovated and formalized the content, language, and structure of rabbinic prayer, which was orally preserved and transmitted. Personal prayers and benedictions gradually became communal liturgy. The talmudic rabbis of the early Christian centuries molded together the biblical readings known as the shema’ and the collected ‘amidah blessings, formalized ceremonies for the Sabbath’s arrival and departure (qiddush and havdalah), developed a domestic liturgy on the first Passover night to mark the biblical exodus from Egypt, and formulated benedictions for religious duties. Fixed cycles of biblical readings ensured that the Pentateuch and the Prophets were formally read and expounded in the synagogue, and Torah study, both biblical and rabbinic, was given an almost liturgical function. Orality gave way to the literary medium in the post-talmudic and medieval periods when the prayers were consigned to a codex that became known as the siddur (= “order [of prayers]”) and that evolved an increasingly authoritative form and status. Large numbers of liturgical poems (piyyuṭim) were composed, and supplicatory prayers were incorporated, while the kabbalists made an increasingly impressive contribution and the accuracy of liturgical Hebrew preoccupied grammarians. Magic and popular religiosity made their impact, and special blessings were devised for communal leaders, for the sick, and for the dead. Ceremonials became more formalized, especially with regard to the Torah scroll; formal, communal posts were created for rabbis and cantors; and choirs were introduced. Influenced by the modern intellectual world and by sociopolitical emancipation, some congregations replaced Hebrew with the vernacular, yearnings for Zion with local loyalties, the personal with the communal and the mystical with the rational. New compositions marked rites of passage and contemporary events, while modern interpretations of Judaism gave women an equal liturgical role. The largest synagogues had, in the nineteenth century, attempted to compete in grandeur, style, and decorum with their non-Jewish counterparts; but by the twenty-first century it became more fashionable to find warmer and more modest contexts for Jewish worship.
Resource-Dependence Theory
Authors: Cobb Adam , Wry Tyler
Published: July 2014

The resource dependence perspective (hereafter RD) refers to a research tradition that emerged from the basic framework of Jeffrey Pfeffer and Gerald R. Salancik’s classic 1978 work, The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective (Pfeffer and Salancik 1978, cited under Classic Treatments). The theoretical arguments that serve as RD’s foundation can be summarized as follows: (1) an organization’s external environment comprises other organizations, each with their own interests and objectives; (2) organizations hold power over a focal firm—and may thus constrain its behavior—if they control resources that are vital to its ongoing operation and cannot be acquired elsewhere. RD also highlights a number of strategies that organizations can utilize to deal with problematic dependence relationships; empirical research in this tradition has largely focused on this catalog of strategies. This bibliography is organized by the topic areas covered in External Control and displays representative and impactful work associated with each topic. Though RD’s influence has spread to a number of disparate fields beyond management (Gerald F. Davis and J. Adam Cobb’s article “Resource Dependence Theory: Past and Future” (Davis and Cobb 2010, cited under Reviews and Theoretical Intersections), this article focuses on scholarly work published in management journals and related fields such as strategy and economic sociology which collectively comprise the core RD literature.
Family Relations in Contemporary China
Authors: Jankowiak William , Sun Yuezhu
Published: July 2014

Across different time periods and regions the Chinese family displays a variety of forms, functions, and relationship dynamics. The pre-1949-era Chinese family was an economic, political, and jural unit. This type of Chinese family was organized in accordance with patrilocal residence and patrilineal descent and based in patriarchal authority. Elderly males, especially fathers, had authority over the entire family. Socialist policies (1949–19?) that created the hukou system (household registration system) resulted in profound rural-urban differences. Urban areas become the centers of industry, commerce, and political governance, whereas rural areas, which, until the 1980s, made up 80 percent of Chinese society, engaged primarily in agriculture. Given these institutional changes, Chinese families began to diverge along urban-rural lines. The rural Chinese family continued to carry on more or less the patriarchal tradition whereby parents arranged marriages, women were the “inferior” gender, and daily life was largely improvised. In contrast, urban areas were divided into self-contained work units (danwei) that strived to combine residence with employment. In the work unit era (1950s–1990s) the urban family was organized in accordance with neolocal residence rules and the de facto practices of bilateral descent, or equally valuing the husband’s and wife’s families. Moreover, males’ authority, especially fathers’, was eliminated. In post-reform China (1980s–early 21st century), owing in part to China’s modernization policies, such as dismantling of the work unit and institution of the one-child policy, the Chinese family was gradually transformed. Research on the transformation is ongoing and, in the early 21st century, is in its initial stages. So far, no firm consensus has been reached. In China, family increasingly serves as an umbrella term for an array of connective relationships. The Chinese family evolves not only across historical periods; like all families, it also goes through different developmental stages, ranging from courtship, to marriage, to parenting, to eldercare. The sections follow the developmental sequence of the Chinese family, covering the time period from pre-reform to early-21st-century China.
1989 People's Movement
Authors: Wasserstrom Jeffrey , Wu Yidi
Published: July 2014

The People’s Movement began in mid-April 1989, with gatherings of students in Beijing. They ostensibly turned out to mourn Hu Yaobang, a recently deceased Chinese Communist Party (CCP) official associated with reformist ideas, who had been General Secretary and Deng Xiaoping’s heir apparent as paramount leader until being demoted for taking a soft line on campus unrest in 1986–1987. The students used the mourning ceremonies to speak out on issues that concerned them, especially official corruption and nepotism. In later weeks, the struggle spread rapidly in geographical and social terms and increasingly became a fight for political liberalization and the right to protest. In Beijing, local students, who made Tiananmen Square their main protest site, were joined on the streets by intellectual, workers, and even sympathetic journalists and cadres, as well as by educated youths who streamed into the capital from other cities. By late April and May, very large crowds were filling Tiananmen Square, site of some of China’s most important political monuments, while smaller but still significantly sized crowds gathered at the central squares of other cities. The most dramatic events of the movement included a high-profile hunger strike by student leaders, which increased popular support for the protesters, and the creation of a “Goddess of Democracy” statue, which combined design elements from America’s Statue of Liberty with traditional Chinese features. The struggle ended in June with the government using force to put down demonstrations, after condemning the movement as an effort to create “turmoil” (a code word for Cultural Revolution-style chaos) backed by foreigners wishing to destabilize China. The most significant repression took place in Beijing, where soldiers killed many protesters and bystanders—estimates of casualties range widely, but at least several hundred deaths occurred—on the streets near Tiananmen Square late on the night of 3 June and early in the morning of 4 June 1989. Common names for the upheaval include “Tiananmen Movement,” “June 4th Movement” (the most common term in Chinese language publications is Liusi, literally “Six Four”), “Democracy Movement,” “Beijing Spring,” and “1989 Student Movement,” but “People’s Movement” has two advantages. First, it underscores the multiclass, multilocale nature of the struggles and the repression (demonstrations in scores of cities, a massacre in Chengdu as well as Beijing); and it avoids giving the impression that the sole issue was “democracy” (anger at corruption and a desire for increased personal freedoms were also important).
Neo-Confucianism
Authors: Foster Robert
Published: July 2014

Neo-Confucianism is the English reference to the revival of Confucian religious, social, and ethical thought that eventually dominated Chinese official culture from the 13th through the 19th century. As early as the 9th century, there was a renewed interest in Confucianism, which had been eclipsed by Buddhism for roughly seven hundred years. At its core, Neo-Confucianism focused on the works of the Classical Confucian tradition (particularly Confucius’s Analects, the Mencius, and selected chapters from the Book of Rites) as a means of ordering human society. To this was added a metaphysical argument affirming the ultimate reality of the world, which responded to the Buddhist assertion (overly simplified by their Neo-Confucian detractors) that this world is illusion. From this affirmation, Neo-Confucians developed integrated social, political, and philosophical systems pointing toward the individual’s obligation to find the appropriate role within these overlapping systems and thereby contribute to universal harmony. Through the process of self-transformation, one hoped to become a sage: a moral, social, and political paragon. The core Neo-Confucian ideas were developed in the 11th and 12th centuries by a number of different thinkers. There were diverging selections of core texts to study, competing interpretations of Classical Confucian texts, and wide-ranging debates about the role of Neo-Confucians in society and politics. In the 12th century, Zhu Xi streamlined the tradition. He is considered the great synthesizer of Neo-Confucian thought. It is his vision of the Confucian tradition that eventually became state orthodoxy in the 13th century. Anyone who hoped to become a scholar-official in Late Imperial China had to spend years studying and memorizing the core texts and commentaries as collated and written by Zhu Xi. Challenges to Zhu Xi’s orthodoxy arose in later periods, particularly in the Ming dynasty with Wang Yangming; but no alternative fully displaced Zhu Xi’s orthodox status within the official examination system. In 1905, Neo-Confucianism was decoupled from the examination system. In the 20th-century drive to modernize, many criticized Neo-Confucianism as a force that held China back. Still, others, particularly outside the People’s Republic of China, continued to see value in the tradition and developed post-Imperial “New Confucianism.” Since the 1980s, interest in Confucianism has revived in the PRC as well.
Novel Mutation in Cytochrome B of Plasmodium falciparum in One of Two Atovaquone-Proguanil Treatment Failures in Travelers Returning From Same Site in Nigeria
Authors: Plucinski Mateusz M. , Huber Curtis S. , Akinyi Sheila , Dalton Willard , Eschete Mary , Grady Katharine , Silva-Flannery Luciana , Mathison Blaine A. , Udhayakumar Venkatachalam , Arguin Paul M. , Barnwell John W.
Published: July 2014

Background.  Atovaquone-proguanil (AP) is the most commonly used treatment for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the United States. Apparent AP treatment failures were reported 7 months apart in 2 American travelers who stayed in the same compound for foreign workers in Rivers State, Nigeria.

Methods.  We analyzed pretreatment (day 0) and day of failure samples from both travelers for mutations in the P falciparum cytochrome B (pfcytb) and dihydrofolate reductase (pfdhfr) genes associated with resistance to atovaquone and cycloguanil, the active metabolite of proguanil, respectively. We genotyped the parasites and sequenced their mitochondrial genomes.

Results.  On day 0, both travelers had proguanil-resistant genotypes but atovaquone-sensitive cytb sequences. Day of failure samples exhibited mutations in cytb for both travelers. One traveler had the common Y268S mutation, whereas the other traveler had a previously unreported mutation, I258M. The travelers had unrelated parasite genotypes and different mitochondrial genomes.

Conclusions.  Despite the infections likely having been contracted in the same site, there is no evidence that the cases were related. The mutations likely arose independently during the acute infection or treatment. Our results highlight the importance of genotyping parasites and sequencing the full cytb and dhfr genes in AP failures to rule out transmission of AP-resistant strains and identify novel mechanisms of AP resistance.
Emerging issues in the evolution of animal nuptial gifts
Authors: Lewis Sara M. , Vahed Karim , Koene Joris M. , Engqvist Leif , Bussière Luc F. , Perry Jennifer C. , Gwynne Darryl , Lehmann Gerlind U. C.
Published: July 2014

Uniquely positioned at the intersection of sexual selection, nutritional ecology and life-history theory, nuptial gifts are widespread and diverse. Despite extensive empirical study, we still have only a rudimentary understanding of gift evolution because we lack a unified conceptual framework for considering these traits. In this opinion piece, we tackle several issues that we believe have substantively hindered progress in this area. Here, we: (i) present a comprehensive definition and classification scheme for nuptial gifts (including those transferred by simultaneous hermaphrodites), (ii) outline evolutionary predictions for different gift types, and (iii) highlight some research directions to help facilitate progress in this field.
On the initial value problem for the wave equation in Friedmann–Robertson–Walker space–times
Authors: Abbasi Bilal , Craig Walter
Published: July 2014

The propagatorW(t0,t1)(g,h) for the wave equation in a given space–time takes initial data (g(x),h(x)) on a Cauchy surface {(t,x) : t=t0} and evaluates the solution (u(t1,x),∂tu(t1,x)) at other timest1. The Friedmann–Robertson–Walker space–times are defined fort0,t1>0, whereas fort0→0, there is a metric singularity. There is a spherical means representation for the general solution of the wave equation with the Friedmann–Robertson–Walker background metric in the three spatial dimensional cases of curvatureK=0 andK=−1 given by S. Klainerman and P. Sarnak. We derive from the expression of their representation three results about the wave propagator for the Cauchy problem in these space–times. First, we give an elementary proof of the sharp rate of time decay of solutions with compactly supported data. Second, we observe that the sharp Huygens principle is not satisfied by solutions, unlike in the case of three-dimensional Minkowski space–time (the usual Huygens principle of finite propagation speed is satisfied, of course). Third, we show that for 0<t00 emanating from the space–time singularity att=0. Under reflectiont→−t, the Friedmann–Robertson–Walker metric gives a space–time metric fort<0 with a singular future att=0, and the same solution formulae hold. We thus have constructed solutionsu(t,x) of the wave equation in Friedmann–Robertson–Walker space–times which exist for all−∞<t<0and0<t<+∞, where in conformally regularized coordinates, these solutions are continuous through the singularityt=0 of space–time, taking on specified datau(0,⋅)=g(⋅) at the singular time.
Sex-biased immunity is driven by relative differences in reproductive investment
Authors: Vincent Crystal M. , Gwynne Darryl T.
Published: July 2014

Sex differences in immunity are often observed, with males generally having a weaker immune system than females. However, recent data in a sex-role-reversed species in which females compete to mate with males suggest that sexually competitive females have a weaker immune response. These findings support the hypothesis that sexual dimorphism in immunity has evolved in response to sex-specific fitness returns of investment in traits such as parental investment and longevity, but the scarcity of data in sex-reversed species prevents us from drawing general conclusions. Using an insect species in which males make a large but variable parental investment in their offspring, we use two indicators of immunocompetence to test the hypothesis that sex-biased immunity is determined by differences in parental investment. We found that when the value of paternal investment was experimentally increased, male immune investment became relatively greater than that of females. Thus, in this system, in which the direction of sexual competition is plastic, the direction of sex-biased immunity is also plastic and appears to track relative parental investment.
The evolution of peafowl and other taxa with ocelli (eyespots): a phylogenomic approach
Authors: Sun Keping , Meiklejohn Kelly A. , Faircloth Brant C. , Glenn Travis C. , Braun Edward L. , Kimball Rebecca T.
Published: July 2014

The most striking feature of peafowl (Pavo) is the males' elaborate train, which exhibits ocelli (ornamental eyespots) that are under sexual selection. Two additional genera within the Phasianidae (PolyplectronandArgusianus) exhibit ocelli, but the appearance and location of these ornamental eyespots exhibit substantial variation among these genera, raising the question of whether ocelli are homologous. WithinPolyplectron, ocelli are ancestral, suggesting ocelli may have evolved even earlier, prior to the divergence among genera. However, it remains unclear whetherPavo,PolyplectronandArgusianusform a monophyletic clade in which ocelli evolved once. We estimated the phylogeny of the ocellated species using sequences from 1966 ultraconserved elements (UCEs) and three mitochondrial regions. The three ocellated genera did form a strongly supported clade, but each ocellated genus was sister to at least one genus without ocelli. Indeed,PolyplectronandGalloperdix, a genus not previously suggested to be related to any ocellated taxon, were sister genera. The close relationship between taxa with and without ocelli suggests multiple gains or losses. Independent gains, possibly reflecting a pre-existing bias for eye-like structures among females and/or the existence of a simple mutational pathway for the origin of ocelli, appears to be the most likely explanation.
Dispersal distance is influenced by parental and grand-parental density
Authors: Bitume E. V. , Bonte D. , Ronce O. , Olivieri I. , Nieberding C. M.
Published: July 2014

Non-genetic transmission of information across generations, so-called parental effects, can have significant impacts on offspring morphology, physiology, behaviour and life-history traits. In previous experimental work using the two-spotted spider miteTetranychus urticaeKoch, we demonstrated that dispersal distances increase with local density and levels of genetic relatedness. We here show that manipulation of parental and grand-parental density has a significant effect on offspring dispersal distance, of the same order of magnitude as manipulation of offspring density. We demonstrate that offspring exposed to the same density disperse further if they were born to parents exposed to higher density compared with parents exposed to low density. Offspring dispersal distance also increases when grand-parents were exposed to higher density, except for offspring exposed to low densities, which disperse at shorter distances whatever the grand-parental density. We also show that offspring from mothers exposed to higher densities were overall larger, which suggests that parents in high densities invest more in individual offspring, enabling them to disperse further. We propose that our findings should be included in models investigating the spread rate of invasive species or when predicting the success of conservation measures of species attempting to track changing climates.
Predator-induced flow disturbances alert prey, from the onset of an attack
Authors: Casas Jérôme , Steinmann Thomas
Published: July 2014

Many prey species, from soil arthropods to fish, perceive the approach of predators, allowing them to escape just in time. Thus, prey capture is as important to predators as prey finding. We extend an existing framework for understanding the conjoint trajectories of predator and prey after encounters, by estimating the ratio of predator attack and prey danger perception distances, and apply it to wolf spiders attacking wood crickets. Disturbances to air flow upstream from running spiders, which are sensed by crickets, were assessed by computational fluid dynamics with the finite-elements method for a much simplified spider model: body size, speed and ground effect were all required to obtain a faithful representation of the aerodynamic signature of the spider, with the legs making only a minor contribution. The relationship between attack speed and the maximal distance at which the cricket can perceive the danger is parabolic; it splits the space defined by these two variables into regions differing in their values for this ratio. For this biological interaction, the ratio is no greater than one, implying immediate perception of the danger, from the onset of attack. Particular attention should be paid to the ecomechanical aspects of interactions with such small ratio, because of the high degree of bidirectional coupling of the behaviour of the two protagonists. This conclusion applies to several other predator–prey systems with sensory ecologies based on flow sensing, in air and water.
MINI REVIEW: Statistical methods for detecting differentially methylated loci and regions
Authors: Robinson Mark D , Kahraman Abdullah , Law Charity W , Lindsay Helen , Nowicka Malgorzata , Weber Lukas M , Zhou Xiaobei
Published: July 2014

DNA methylation, and specifically the reversible addition of methyl groups at CpG dinucleotides genome-wide, represents an important layer that is associated with the regulation of gene expression. In particular, aberrations in the methylation status have been noted across a diverse set of pathological states, including cancer. With the rapid development and uptake of large scale sequencing of short DNA fragments, there has been an explosion of data analytic methods for processing and discovering changes in DNA methylation across diverse data types. In this mini-review, we aim to condense many of the salient challenges, such as experimental design, statistical methods for differential methylation detection and critical considerations such as cell type composition and the potential confounding that can arise from batch effects, into a compact and accessible format. Our main interests, from a statistical perspective, include the practical use of empirical Bayes or hierarchical models, which have been shown to be immensely powerful and flexible in genomics and the procedures by which control of false discoveries are made. Of course, there are many critical platform-specific data preprocessing aspects that we do not discuss here. In addition, we do not make formal performance comparisons of the methods, but rather describe the commonly used statistical models and many of the pertinent issues; we make some recommendations for further study.
A cell cycle-regulated Slx4–Dpb11 complex promotes the resolution of DNA repair intermediates linked to stalled replication
Authors: Gritenaite Dalia , Princz Lissa N. , Szakal Barnabas , Bantele Susanne C.S. , Wendeler Lina , Schilbach Sandra , Habermann Bianca H. , Matos Joao , Lisby Michael , Branzei Dana , Pfander Boris
Published: July 2014

A key function of the cellular DNA damage response is to facilitate the bypass of replication fork-stalling DNA lesions. Template switch reactions allow such a bypass and involve the formation of DNA joint molecules (JMs) between sister chromatids. These JMs need to be resolved before cell division; however, the regulation of this process is only poorly understood. Here, we identify a regulatory mechanism in yeast that critically controls JM resolution by the Mus81–Mms4 endonuclease. Central to this regulation is a conserved complex comprising the scaffold proteins Dpb11 and Slx4 that is under stringent control. Cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation of Slx4 by Cdk1 promotes the Dpb11–Slx4 interaction, while in mitosis, phosphorylation of Mms4 by Polo-like kinase Cdc5 promotes the additional association of Mus81–Mms4 with the complex, thereby promoting JM resolution. Finally, the DNA damage checkpoint counteracts Mus81–Mms4 binding to the Dpb11–Slx4 complex. Thus, Dpb11–Slx4 integrates several cellular inputs and participates in the temporal program for activation of the JM-resolving nuclease Mus81.
Organismal proteostasis: role of cell-nonautonomous regulation and transcellular chaperone signaling
Authors: van Oosten-Hawle Patricija , Morimoto Richard I.
Published: July 2014

Protein quality control is essential in all organisms and regulated by the proteostasis network (PN) and cell stress response pathways that maintain a functional proteome to promote cellular health. In this review, we describe how metazoans employ multiple modes of cell-nonautonomous signaling across tissues to integrate and transmit the heat-shock response (HSR) for balanced expression of molecular chaperones. The HSR and other cell stress responses such as the unfolded protein response (UPR) can function autonomously in single-cell eukaryotes and tissue culture cells; however, within the context of a multicellular animal, the PN is regulated by cell-nonautonomous signaling through specific sensory neurons and by the process of transcellular chaperone signaling. These newly identified forms of stress signaling control the PN between neurons and nonneuronal somatic tissues to achieve balanced tissue expression of chaperones in response to environmental stress and to ensure that metastable aggregation-prone proteins expressed within any single tissue do not generate local proteotoxic risk. Transcellular chaperone signaling leads to the compensatory expression of chaperones in other somatic tissues of the animal, perhaps preventing the spread of proteotoxic damage. Thus, communication between subcellular compartments and across different cells and tissues maintains proteostasis when challenged by acute stress and upon chronic expression of metastable proteins. We propose that transcellular chaperone signaling provides a critical control step for the PN to maintain cellular and organismal health span.
MicL, a new σE-dependent sRNA, combats envelope stress by repressing synthesis of Lpp, the major outer membrane lipoprotein
Authors: Guo Monica S. , Updegrove Taylor B. , Gogol Emily B. , Shabalina Svetlana A. , Gross Carol A. , Storz Gisela
Published: July 2014

In enteric bacteria, the transcription factor σE maintains membrane homeostasis by inducing synthesis of proteins involved in membrane repair and two small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) that down-regulate synthesis of abundant membrane porins. Here, we describe the discovery of a third σE-dependent sRNA, MicL (mRNA-interfering complementary RNA regulator of Lpp), transcribed from a promoter located within the coding sequence of the cutC gene. MicL is synthesized as a 308-nucleotide (nt) primary transcript that is processed to an 80-nt form. Both forms possess features typical of Hfq-binding sRNAs but surprisingly target only a single mRNA, which encodes the outer membrane lipoprotein Lpp, the most abundant protein of the cell. We show that the copper sensitivity phenotype previously ascribed to inactivation of the cutC gene is actually derived from the loss of MicL and elevated Lpp levels. This observation raises the possibility that other phenotypes currently attributed to protein defects are due to deficiencies in unappreciated regulatory RNAs. We also report that σE activity is sensitive to Lpp abundance and that MicL and Lpp comprise a new σE regulatory loop that opposes membrane stress. Together MicA, RybB, and MicL allow σE to repress the synthesis of all abundant outer membrane proteins in response to stress.
Healing for destruction: tRNA intron degradation in yeast is a two-step cytoplasmic process catalyzed by tRNA ligase Rlg1 and 5′-to-3′ exonuclease Xrn1
Authors: Wu Jingyan , Hopper Anita K.
Published: July 2014

In eukaryotes and archaea, tRNA splicing generates free intron molecules. Although ∼600,000 introns are produced per generation in yeast, they are barely detectable in cells, indicating efficient turnover of introns. Through a genome-wide search for genes involved in tRNA biology in yeast, we uncovered the mechanism for intron turnover. This process requires healing of the 5′ termini of linear introns by the tRNA ligase Rlg1 and destruction by the cytoplasmic tRNA quality control 5′-to-3′ exonuclease Xrn1, which has specificity for RNAs with 5′ monophosphate.