bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Improving College Teaching: A Critical Review of Research
Authors: Levinson-Rose Judith , Menges Robert J.
Published: March 2008

Studies of interventions to improve college teaching cluster in five categories: grants for faculty projects, workshops and seminars, feedback from student ratings, practice-based feedback (microteaching and minicourses), and concept-based training (protocols). Seventy-one reports provide 97 analyses of dependent variables that are presumably affected by these interventions. Most comparisons (78%) support the intervention being studied, although the support rate in only those studies in which we have high confidence is considerably lower (62%). More exploratory qualitative studies as well as more rigorous experimental investigations, perhaps involving cross-campus collaboration, are needed. Despite methodological flaws, available research can guide the design of teaching improvement programs, particularly those using student ratings feedback and concept-based training.
A Reaction to “Consequences of Failure to Meet Assumptions Underlying the Fixed Effects Analysis of Variance and Covariance”
Authors: Blair R. Clifford
Published: March 2008

Glass, Peckham, and Sanders discourage the use of nonparametric counterparts of the t-test even when it is known that data were sampled from non-normal (e.g., highly skewed) distributions. This paper contends that Glass et al. erred in taking this position and that their error was due, at least in part, to their failure to consider the relative power of the t-test and its nonparametric counterparts under various population shapes. It is further contended that Wilcoxon’s rank-sum test has power properties that make it preferable to the t-test in many, perhaps even most, non-normal population situations.
The Mnemonic Keyword Method
Authors: Pressley Michael , Levin Joel R. , Delaney Harold D.
Published: March 2008

The keyword method is a two-stage procedure for remembering materials that have an associative component. In the case of foreign vocabulary learning, for example, the learner first must acquire a stable association between the unfamiliar foreign word and a familiar English word that sounds like a salient part of the foreign word. The acoustically similar English word is the keyword. The learner then encodes a meaningful interaction between the keyword and the foreign word’s definition. The method has been investigated most extensively with respect to recall of definitions from vocabulary words. However, other aspects of vocabulary learning also are considered, as are potential classroom applications of the keyword method based on a variety of curricular content. Future research directions are emphasized throughout the discussion.
Memory for Connected Discourse: A Constructivist View
Authors: diSibio Mary
Published: March 2008

The history of constructivism in memory theory and research is reviewed briefly. Early work by Bartlett is contrasted with the more firmly entrenched empirical-associationistic notions of his time. Contemporary lines of research are then discussed within the perspective of this ongoing controversy. It is argued that the predominant views of memory at present are essentially abstractive-trace theories, with active construction limited to the perceptive and comprehensive stages of information processing. It is further argued that a more purely constructive model of memory (with active processing during retention and recall, as well as during comprehension) accounts equally well for present empirical evidence, yet at the same time promises a more general and integrated model of human cognition. Finally, certain pragmatic implications of a constructive view of memory are considered, particularly as relevant to the concerns of educators.
The Role of the Laboratory in Science Teaching: Neglected Aspects of Research
Authors: Hofstein Avi , Lunetta Vincent N.
Published: March 2008

The laboratory has been given a central and distinctive role in science education, and science educators have suggested that there are rich benefits in learning from using laboratory activities. At this time, however, some educators have begun to question seriously the effectiveness and the role of laboratory work, and the case for laboratory teaching is not as self-evident as it once seemed. This paper provides perspectives on these issues through a review of the history, goals, and research findings regarding the laboratory as a medium of instruction in introductory science teaching. The analysis of research culminates with suggestions for researchers who are working to clarify the role of the laboratory in science education.
Afro-American Cognitive Style: A Variable in School Success?
Authors: Shade Barbara J.
Published: March 2008

During the seventies, increased attention was given to the study of factors that contribute to individual differences in academic performance. Areas that generated particular concern and increased consideration were sex roles, social class, developmental changes, and race. Until recently the last variable was interpreted to mean variation as determined by the color of the child’s skin. Current orientation, however, redefines the concept as ethnicity with a culturally induced lifestyle and perspective. Proponents of this approach suggest that the diversity found in task and academic competence is precipitated by differences in culturally induced psychological, cognitive, and behavioral strategies rather than ability differences. This theoretical review examines this idea as it relates to Afro-Americans.
The Role of the Elementary School Principal in Program Improvement
Authors: Leithwood K. A. , Montgomery D. J.
Published: March 2008

In the search for factors that influence school effectiveness, the role of the elementary school principal has emerged as critical. Yet the bulk of past research focused on that role has provided limited insights to explain how principals go about improving the effectiveness of their schools; surprisingly few studies have asked that question directly. Using a framework for planned change, this study assessed the status of knowledge about effective and ineffective principal behaviours. Obstacles that principals face in their attempts at school improvement were also reviewed. Results point to areas of existing knowledge in which confidence can be placed and to useful approaches to subsequent research
Analyzing and Interpreting Significant MANOVAs
Authors: Bray James H. , Maxwell Scott E.
Published: March 2008

Multivariate statistical methods have been strongly recommended in educational and psychological research, which employs multiple dependent variables. While the techniques are readily available there is still controversy as to the proper use of the methods. This paper reviews the available methods for analyzing and interpreting data with multivariate analysis of variance and provides some guidelines for their use. In addition, causal models that underlie the various methods are presented to facilitate the use and understanding of the methods
The Search for School Climate: A Review of the Research
Authors: Anderson Carolyn S.
Published: March 2008

School climate has been studied with a multitude of variables, methodologies, theories, and models, resulting in a not easily defined body of research. This analysis of the school climate literature, based on over 200 references, uses an organizational theory taxonomy to organize the diverse body of research and to draw conclusions about common findings. The history of school climate research is reviewed, noting the influence of climate instruments developed to study climate in settings other than the total school building, such as business, college, and classroom settings. The difficulty of defining school climate is reflected in the diversity of climate typologies that have evolved, despite their often common roots. The debate about school climate is tied to differences among researchers in theory base, variables to study (and their hypothesized interrelationships), unit of measurement choices, and the validity of subjective and qualitative data (based on participant or observer perception). Some common conclusions about school climate (considered as an independent, intervening, or dependent variable) do emerge in the literature. The paper concludes with a summary of the methodological issues common to school climate studies and suggestions for dealing with the concomitant problems
Student Interaction and Learning in Small Groups
Authors: Webb Noreen M.
Published: March 2008

While research on learning in cooperative small groups has greatly increased during the past several years, few studies have focused on the interaction processes occurring within groups. This review focuses on the role of the student’s experience in small group interaction in learning. Research bearing on three aspects of small group learning is examined: (1) the relationship between interaction and achievement, (2) cognitive process and social-emotional mechanisms bridging interaction and achievement, and (3) characteristics of the individual, group, and reward structure that predict interaction in small groups. Methodological and substantive issues are discussed to evaluate and integrate research findings, and as guidelines for further research. The conclusion is that an individual’s role in group interaction is an important influence on learning, and that interaction can best be predicted from multiple characteristics of the individual, group, and setting
Educational Seduction
Authors: Abrami Philip C. , Leventhal Les , Perry Raymond P.
Published: March 2008

Critics have referred to the influence of an instructor’s personality on student ratings of instruction as the “Dr. Fox effect” or “educational seduction.” In reviewing earlier research, we found inconsistencies from study to study and conducted a meta-analysis to attempt an empirical integration of this literature. Overall, we found that instructor expressiveness had a substantial impact on student ratings but a small impact on student achievement. In contrast, lecture content had a substantial impact on student achievement but a small impact on student ratings. We discuss these findings and offer a new interpretation of the implications of the educational seduction literature for the validity of student ratings
Restrictive Educational Settings: Exile or Haven?
Authors: Leinhardt Gaea , Pallay Allan
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews the educational and emotional impact of restrictive (isolated) educational settings on children who are in the lowest quartile of achievement. The basic arguments for and against separation of slower students (both those classified as handicapped and those not so classified) are reviewed and some of the more prominent legal cases discussed. Various educational settings are defined and a position is developed as to how setting operates. The main body of the paper examines the results of studies in both special and compensatory education. As a result of the extensive review, it is asserted that the variables which are important for successful student outcomes can occur in most settings, and that for ethical reasons the least restrictive environment is preferred. In summary, it is the issue of effective practices, not the setting, that deserves the attention of educators.
Identifying Features of Effective Open Education
Authors: Giaconia Rose M. , Hedges Larry V.
Published: March 2008

Identification of general effects for open education is hindered by differences in the implementation of open education programs. This paper identifies seven features of open education programs that may or may not be present. Effect size estimates are used to identify more and less effective open education programs from a large sample of studies of the effectiveness of open education. The data are then examined to determine which features differentiate the more effective open education programs from the less effective programs. Programs that are more effective in producing nonachievement outcomes attitude, creativity, and self-concept) are found to be characterized by four features: emphasis on the role of the child in learning, use of diagnostic (rather than norm-referenced) evaluation, individualized instruction, and the presence of manipulative materials. The same features did not differentiate the programs that produced a high level of academic achievement. Examination of data from studies that measure both academic achievement and nonachievement outcomes suggests that open education programs are generally not effective in producing both types of outcomes.
Individualized Systems of Instruction in Secondary Schools
Authors: Bangert Robert L. , Kulik James A. , Kulik Chen-Lin C.
Published: March 2008

This meta-analytic synthesis of findings from 51 studies indicated that use of an individualized teaching system has only a small effect on student achievement in secondary school courses. This result was consistent across a variety of academic settings and research designs and held true for both published and unpublished studies. In addition, individualized teaching systems did not contribute significantly to student self-esteem, critical thinking ability, or attitudes toward the subject matter being taught. Findings from studies of individualized college teaching are strikingly different from these secondary school findings.
Teacher Evaluation in the Organizational Context: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Darling-Hammond Linda , Wise Arthur E. , Pease Sara R.
Published: March 2008

This article presents a conceptual framework for examining the design and implementation of teacher evaluation processes in school organizations. Research on teaching, organizational behavior, and policy implementation suggests that different educational and organizational theories underlie various teacher evaluation models. The conceptions of teaching work and of change processes reflected in teacher evaluation methods must be made explicit if educational goals, organizational needs, and evaluation purposes are to be consonant and well served.
Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media
Authors: Clark Richard E.
Published: March 2008

Recent meta-analyses and other studies of media's influence on learning are reviewed. Consistent evidence is found for the generalization that there are no learning benefits to be gained from employing any specific medium to deliver instruction. Research showing performance or time-saving gains from one or another medium are shown to be vulnerable to compelling rival hypotheses concerning the uncontrolled effects of instructional method and novelty. Problems with current media attribute and symbol system theories are described and suggestions made for more promising research directions.
Time, Equality, and Mastery Learning
Authors: Arlin Marshall
Published: March 2008

Mastery learning theorists make claims about reduction in learning time variability among students which, if valid, will have far-reaching implications about the nature of individual differences and equality of educational outcomes. These claims have stimulated considerable controversy. This review is an attempt to assess both mastery proponents’ and mastery critics’ claims in the context of learning time differences. The discussion is situated within the historic debates about stable versus alterable differences and the author’s contention of an equilibrium reached by current leveling practices. It is concluded that the weight of evidence does not support the mastery position of alterable differences as convincingly as it supports the critics’ position of stable individual differences. It is suggested that issues in this debate illustrate equality, time, and achievement dilemmas which may be inherent to most forms of collective instruction.
Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence and Their Implications for Education
Authors: Wagner Richard K. , Sternberg Robert J.
Published: March 2008

In this article, we review alternative conceptions of intelligence and their implications for education. First, we consider the basic question of just what intelligence is. Because no single universally accepted view exists, we compare and evaluate three major views of intelligence: the psychometric, the Piagetian, and the information-processing. The three views are complementary rather than mutually exclusive, each dealing with different but overlapping aspects of intelligence. Next, we consider the educational implications of each view for training content knowledge, which is currently emphasized in our schools, and for training intellectual skills, which is emphasized to a lesser degree. We compare the educational implications of each approach by discussing how each would address the problem of training students on one type of intellectual skill, solving verbal analogies. We conclude by summarizing the implications of current conceptions of intelligence for education and by making recommendations for researchers and practitioners that follow from our analysis.
The General/Academic Self-Concept Nomological Network: A Review of Construct Validation Research
Authors: Byrne Barbara M.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews research in which the primary focus was directed toward the construct validation of self-concept (SC) within an educational framework. Specifically, studies are included that investigate SC internally, with respect to its general facet (GSC) and academic facet (ASC), and externally, with respect to its relationship with academic achievement (AA). The literature is divided into two broad categories: within-network research and between-network research. Within these divisions, the studies are further classified according to their methodological procedures. It is concluded that SC is a multidimensional construct, having one general facet and several specific facets, one of which is ASC. Although important findings have been noted regarding relations among GSC, ASC, and AA, an overall conceptual model and operational definition of SC have not been established and universally accepted. A number of very recent studies, however, have provided increasing support for the hierarchical model. Although one study has determined causal predominance between SC and AA, the findings are considered tentative. Considerations of definition and conceptualization, together with construct validation techniques, are also presented.
The Relations Between Symbolic Play and Literate Behavior: A Review and Critique of the Empirical Literature
Authors: Pellegrini A. D.
Published: March 2008

Recent theoretical and empirical evidence for relations between children’s symbolic play and literate behavior are reviewed. Symbolic play and literate behaviors are said to involve similar mental processes: the production and comprehension of decontextualized language and narrative competence. Studies are classified and discussed according to these similarities. Results of the studies are reviewed and critiqued in terms of methodological and theoretical issues. Observational results suggest that decontextualized language and narrative skills are involved in both symbolic play and school-based literacy events. Experimental results, however, raise a number of problems with the theory that symbolic play is related causally to literate behavior. Suggestions for future research are made
The Upgrading and Downgrading of Occupations: Issues, Evidence, and Implications for Education
Authors: Spenner Kenneth I.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews a major debate that has implications for educational research and policy communities. The debate concerns the skill upgrading versus downgrading of occupations in the United States and relationships to schooling and vocational preparation. The review summarizes the major positions in the debate, surveys the evidence on skill changes, including methodological and design issues and concepts and measures for skill, and discusses research and policy implications for general and vocational education.
Toward a Solution of the Learning Paradox
Authors: Bereiter Carl
Published: March 2008

Efforts to explain learning as a constructive process run into the paradox of having to attribute to the learner prior knowledge that is at least as complex as the new learning to be explained. Although no full solution of this paradox is in sight, it is argued that progress is possible through examination of the wide range of mental resources available to human learners, only a limited range of which are taken account of in current theories. This paper considers 10 relatively neglected resources for the “bootstrapping” of cognitive growth, including chance plus selection, the affective boosting of relevant schemas, the operation of innate biases, and use of spare mental capacity. Implications for educational research are illustrated with reference to recent work on the development of complex composition strategies.
Designing Systems that Train Learning Ability: From Theory to Practice
Authors: Derry Sharon J. , Murphy Debra A.
Published: March 2008

Empirical and theoretical evidence is presented to support the conclusion that improvement of learning ability is an important and viable educational goal. However, the improvement of learning ability necessitates development not only of specific learning skills, which we know how to teach, but also an executive control mechanism that automatically accesses and combines learning skills whenever they are needed. Metacognitive theorists are currently investigating evidence that some executive skills can be imparted through direct training. However, a theme that emerges repeatedly in our review is that executive learning skills cannot be trained easily or by direct instruction alone, but must be developed gradually and automated over an extended period of time. It follows that genuine improvement of academic aptitude is not likely to result from anything less than a thoughtful, systematic curriculum that complements direct training in learning strategies, and thereby “engineers” the gradual evolution of important executive control skills.
Race, Class, and Gender in Education Research: An Argument for Integrative Analysis
Authors: Grant Carl A. , Sleeter Christine E.
Published: March 2008

Race, social class, and gender tend to be treated as separate issues in education literature. We review a sample of education literature from four journals, spanning ten years, to determine the extent to which these status groups were integrated. We found little integration. We then provide an example from research on cooperative learning to illustrate how attention to only one status group oversimplifies the analysis of student behavior in school. From findings of studies integrating race and class, and race and gender, we argue that attending only to race, in this example, oversimplifies behavior analysis and may contribute to perpetuation of gender and class biases.
Test Procedure Bias: A Meta-Analysis of Examiner Familiarity Effects
Authors: Fuchs Douglas , Fuchs Lynn S.
Published: March 2008

This article presents a meta-analysis of the effects of examiner familiarity on children’s test performance. The data for the meta-analysis came from 22 controlled studies involving 1,489 subjects. In the typical study, the effect of examiner familiarity raised test performance by .28 standard deviations. Differential performance favoring the familiar examiner condition was greater when subjects were of low socioeconomic status (SES), were tested on comparatively difficult tests, and knew the examiner for a relatively long duration. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization
Authors: Cousins J. Bradley , Leithwood Kenneth A.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews empirical research conducted during the past 15 years on the use of evaluation results. Sixty-five studies in education, mental health, and social services are described in terms of their methodological characteristics, their orientation toward dependent and independent variables, and the relationships between such variables. A conceptual framework is developed that lists 12 factors that influence use; six of these factors are associated with characteristics of evaluation implementation and six with characteristics of decision or policy setting. The factors are discussed in terms of their influence on evaluation utilization, and their relative influence on various types of use is compared. The paper concludes with a statement about implications for research and practice.
Cognitive Conceptions of Learning
Authors: Shuell Thomas J.
Published: March 2008

Although cognitive psychology currently represents the mainstream of psychological and educational thinking, it is only recently that much concern has been shown for learning as such — that is, concern for the factors and/or variables that influence changes in human performance, knowledge structures, and/or conceptions. This article examines current thinking about learning within the framework of cognitive psychology and how a new, cognitive conception of learning can guide future research on both learning and instruction. Similarities and, differences between behavioral and cognitive conceptions of learning are discussed, along with issues such as the active (rather than passive) nature of learning, the concern for understanding (i.e., comprehension), the role of prior knowledge, the cumulative nature of most forms of human learning, and the role played by cognitive analyses of performance. Several cognitive theories of learning are presented as examples of how cognitive psychology has influenced research on learning.
IRT Test Equating: Relevant Issues and a Review of Recent Research
Authors: Skaggs Gary , Lissitz Robert W.
Published: March 2008

The application of item response theory (IRT) methodology to test equating has been a research topic of considerable interest in the past 2 decades. Despite the volume of research, it has been difficult to draw conclusions and make generalizations because different studies have used different types of tests, different types of samples, and different methods for assessing the accuracy of equating results. The purpose of this paper is threefold: (a) to review some of the major studies thus far and synthesize their results, (b) to discuss what questions are as yet unanswered and what problems exist with research methodology, and (c) to provide direction for future research. Whereas earlier research focused on comparing equating methods and IRT models, recent research has addressed such statistical concerns as standard errors of equating, parameter stability, and robustness of IRT models to violations of their assumptions. A major finding from the research so far is that it is unreasonable to expect a single equating method to provide the best results for equating all types of tests. Future research must determine how conditions, such as multidimensionality and test content, affect IRT equating.
Peer Models and Children’s Behavioral Change
Authors: Schunk Dale H.
Published: March 2008

This article critically reviews the research literature on peer modeling among children as a function of model attributes. Peer modeling is hypothesized to depend in part on perceived similarity between model and observer. Similarity serves as an important source of information for gauging behavioral appropriateness, formulating outcome expectations, and assessing one’s self efficacy for learning or performing tasks. Research is reviewed on the effects of model age, model sex, model competence, number of models, and model background. Peer models can foster diverse types of behavioral change in children, but attribute similarity does not automatically enhance modeling. The conditions under which similarity promotes behavioral change are discussed. Future research needs to assess children’s self-perceptions, as well as maintenance and generalization of behavioral changes. It is suggested that classroom peers can help train social skills, enhance self-efficacy, and remedy skill deficiencies.
What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?
Authors: Fuller Bruce
Published: March 2008

Within industrialized countries, much is known about the relationship between schools’ material inputs or social practices and pupils’ achievement levels. Less is known about school effects in developing countries. In the Third World, the secular school is often a novel institution, operating in social settings where written literacy and formal socialization are relatively recent phenomena. Therefore, even schools with limited material resources appear to have a stronger impact on academic achievement, independent of pupils’ family background, than within industrialized countries. This optimistic claim is undercut, however, by limitations in how pupil background characteristics have been specified within empirical models. I review 60 (multivariate) studies conducted in the Third World that (a) report on the school’s aggregate influence on academic achievement versus the influence of family background and (b) assess the relative influence of alternative school inputs and organizational practices, pointing to more efficient strategies for raising pupil achievement. A framework is introduced to critically evaluate this existing empirical work and to suggest a second generation of questions that researchers might ask in the future.
Ability Grouping in Elementary Schools: Do We Really Know Nothing Until We Know Everything?
Authors: Slavin Robert E.
Published: March 2008

In responses to “Ability Grouping and Student Achievement in Elementary Schools: A Best-Evidence Synthesis,” Elfrieda Hiebert and Adam Gamoran express concern that the review only compares alternate forms of ability grouping without documenting actual classroom practices. In this rejoinder, it is argued that while process data would also be valuable, such “A versus B” research is critical in informing researchers and practitioners, who must make “A versus B” decisions about grouping. Also addressed is the possibility that effects of the Joplin Plan may be due to novelty effects, to factors other than cross-age grouping, or to unique conditions of schools 20 years ago. While conceding that the ability grouping research reviewed is not perfect, the rejoinder argues that matched or randomized comparisons of effects of alternative grouping plans on standardized tests over periods of one or more semesters tell us much about the effects of ability grouping.
The Economics of Early Educational Intervention: A Review
Authors: Barnett W. Steven , Escobar Colette M.
Published: March 2008

From an economic perspective, early educational intervention is an investment in the lives of young children that may yield both immediate and future returns. Economic analysis can be used to estimate the costs and benefits of investments in early intervention and to produce estimates of the net economic gain to society resulting from early intervention. In the last two decades, at least 20 economic analyses of early intervention have been conducted and their results widely distributed. The “cost-effectiveness” of early intervention has been used with apparent success as an argument for a wide range of early interventions for infants and young children. This paper critically reviews the existing literature to assess the strength of the empirical evidence regarding the economics of early intervention. We find that a few studies provide credible evidence that early intervention for disadvantaged children can be a sound economic investment. Many of the studies that have been conducted were found to be problematic, however, and much work remains to be done. Few conclusions can be drawn regarding the relative economic efficiency of alternative intervention strategies or the long-term economic benefits of early intervention programs for handicapped children. Recommendations are offered for improving the research base.
The Effects of Stratification in Secondary Schools: Synthesis of Survey and Ethnographic Research
Authors: Gamoran Adam , Berends Mark
Published: March 2008

On the topic of stratification in secondary schools, this paper uses ethnographic research to interpret the findings of survey analyses and uses survey studies to assess the causal implications and generalizability of ethnographic findings. The authors criticize survey research for ambiguity concerning the measurement of within-school stratification and for lack of attention to the mechanisms through which the effects of grouping and tracking occur. At the same time, ethnographic research is seen as limited by an inability to demonstrate the significance of between-track differences in social and instructional conditions and by the failure to disentangle track effects from the influence of social class and other preexisting circumstances. The authors advocate longitudinal, quantitative research that is sensitive to the actual dimensions of stratification in schools, and to classroom conditions and processes that vary across levels of the academic hierarchy.
Participation in Extracurricular Activities in Secondary School: What Is Known, What Needs to Be Known?
Authors: Holland Alyce , Andre Thomas
Published: March 2008

The paper reviews literature relating to extracurricular participation and adolescent development. Five areas are described: personal-social characteristics, academic achievement, educational aspirations and attainments, participants’ roles in activities, and environmental social context. A methodological critique and directions for future research are provided. Participation correlated with higher levels of self-esteem, improved race relations, involvement in political/social activity in young adulthood, academic ability and grades in males, educational aspirations and attainments, feelings of control over one’s life, and lower delinquency rates. However, causal relationships between participation and desirable characteristics have not been demonstrated. Students in smaller schools participate in a greater number and variety of extracurricular activities than students in larger schools. Low-ability and lower SES students are more involved in school life in smaller schools. The existing findings justify additional research into the processes by which participation may influence students’ lives.
Research on Revision in Writing
Authors: Fitzgerald Jill
Published: March 2008

Views of revision and its role in writing have changed dramatically over the last two decades. This article first presents a historical perspective on revision and suggests a contemporary definition of revision. Next, it reviews research methods for examining revision. The evolving methods mirror the recent reconceptualization of revision by enabling investigation of the following: meaningful revision activity, not just editorial actions; the revision process as well as the revision products; and revision as it occurs at several points in writing. Findings from research on revision are synthesized, conclusions about the results are given, and limitations of the research are examined.
The Holland and Andre Study on Extracurricular Activities: Imbalanced and Incomplete
Authors: Taylor John L. , Chiogioji Eleanor N.
Published: March 2008

The Holland and Andre study on extracurricular activities is imbalanced and incomplete—imbalanced in that because the authors fail to provide a theoretical framework as well as definitions of key terms, both of which would guide their presentation, the inclusion of research studies is skewed heavily toward one aspect of extracurricular activities; incomplete in that the authors fail to provide a literature review comprehensive enough to support the conclusions they draw. These shortcomings make it difficult to understand the relationship between extracurricular activities and student development and, thus, to have confidence in the authors’ recommendations for future research. We agree, however, on the importance of a research effort in this area.
Beauty Is in the Eye of the Reviewer
Authors: Holland Alyce , Andre Thomas
Published: March 2008

A comparison of Brown’s and Taylor and Chiogioji’s responses to our review of literature concerning extracurricular activity participation revealed conflicting views on the strengths and weaknesses of the paper. We present counterarguments for their criticisms in this rejoinder. Their critiques and our rejoinder serve to clarify certain points in the paper for the reader. We agree with the critics that additional research is needed to assess the role extracurricular activities play in adolescent development.
Cost Analysis for Educational Policymaking: A Review of Cost Studies in Education in Developing Countries
Authors: Tsang Mun C.
Published: March 2008

Given the major challenge of improving education under tight budgetary constraints, educational policymakers in developing countries today are concerned with issues regarding educational costs. Using an economic framework, this paper reviews the issues and synthesizes the findings in a diverse literature on costs of education in developing countries. Four key educational-cost issues are considered: (a) What are the costs of education? (b) What are the major determinants of educational costs? (c) In what ways can cost analysis improve policymaking in education? and (d) What are the informational needs for cost analysis in education? The paper concludes that although cost analysis can contribute significantly to informed decisions on education, greater efforts must be undertaken to strengthen the informational basis of cost analysis and to incorporate cost analysis in educational policymaking.
Qualitative Research Traditions: A British Response to Jacob
Authors: Atkinson Paul , Delamont Sara , Hammersley Martyn
Published: March 2008

This paper is a response to Jacob’s (1987) presentation on qualitative research traditions published in the Review of Educational Research, Volume 57, Number 1. There is no disagreement about the benefits for educational research that accrue from systematic use of qualitative research. This paper differs from Jacob’s in two ways. First, it argues that a framework of distinct theoretical traditions is neither an accurate historical account of social science nor helpful to researchers. Second, and more important, it addresses a major gap in Jacob’s article: the neglect of British research drawing on qualitative perspectives.
Learning and Instruction: An Examination of Four Research Perspectives in Science Education
Authors: Eylon Bat-Sheva , Linn Marcia C.
Published: March 2008

Recent research in science education examines learning from four perspectives which we characterize as a concept-learning focus, a developmental focus, a differential focus, and a focus on problem solving. This paper illustrates how these perspectives, considered together offer new insights into the knowledge and reasoning processes of science students and provide a framework for identifying mechanisms governing how individuals change their knowledge and thinking processes. An integrated examination of the four research perspectives strongly suggests that in-depth coverage of several science topics will benefit students far more than fleeting coverage of numerous science topics.
Learning Disabled Children’s Self-Concepts
Authors: Chapman James W.
Published: March 2008

Studies of learning disabled (LD) children’s self-concepts were reviewed. The findings show that LD students have lower self-concepts than nonhandicapped students. Greater decrements occur for academic self-concept than general self-concept. Significant variations in results were found as a function of the group LD students were compared with, and the instruments used. Studies using the Piers-Harris scale indicated that although LD students obtained lower general and academic self-concept scores than their nonhandicapped peers, these scores were generally within the normal range reported in the manual. On the other hand, scores from the Student’s Perception of Ability Scale indicated that LD students had substantially lower academic self-concepts than either their nonhandicapped peers and those students in the normative sample. Age was not systematically associated with self-concept differences. For most LD children, decrements in self-concept occur by grade 3 and remain fairly stable through high school. Placement environment was not systematically associated with differences in self-concept. Mainstreamed settings did not lead to higher self-concepts than segregated settings. But unplaced “LD” students clearly had lower self-concepts than LD students who were receiving remedial assistance. The results were discussed in terms of factors associated with self concept development in LD students, and the negative effects on achievement outcomes.
The Impact of Classroom Evaluation Practices on Students
Authors: Crooks Terence J.
Published: March 2008

In most educational programs, a substantial proportion of teacher and student time is devoted to activities which involve (or lead directly to) evaluation by the teacher of student products or behavior. This review summarizes results from 14 specific fields of research that cast light on the relationships between classroom evaluation practices and student outcomes. Particular attention is given to outcomes involving learning strategies, motivation, and achievement. Where possible, mechanisms are suggested that could account for the reported effects. The conclusions derived from the individual fields are then merged to produce an integrated summary with clear implications for effective educational practice. The primary conclusion is that classroom evaluation has powerful direct and indirect impacts, which may be positive or negative, and thus deserves very thoughtful planning and implementation.
Nonparametric Tests of Interaction in Experimental Design
Authors: Sawilowsky Shlomo S.
Published: March 2008

Until recently the design of experiments in the behavioral and social sciences that focused on interaction effects demanded the use of the parametric analysis of variance. Yet, researchers have been concerned by the presence of nonnormally distributed variables. Although nonparametric statistics are recommended in these situations, researchers often rely on the robustness of parametric tests. Further, often it is assumed that nonparametric methods lack statistical power and that there is a paucity of techniques in more complicated research designs, such as in testing for interaction effects. This paper reviewed (a) research in the past decade and a half that addressed concerns in selecting parametric and nonparametric statistics and (b) 10 recently developed nonparametric techniques for the testing of interactions in experimental design. The review shows that these new techniques are robust, powerful, versatile, and easy to compute. An application of selected nonparametric techniques on fabricated data is provided.
Riding the Pendulum: A Rejoinder to Schickedanz and McGee and Lomax
Authors: Stahl Steven A.
Published: March 2008

Since we wrote our paper (Stahl & Miller, 1989 ), the popularity of whole language approaches has increased. Yet, there has been little additional research evidence on the effects of whole language to support the widespread implementation of these methods. This paper suggests that the process of getting a program as widely and quickly implemented leads to politicization of the movement, which, in turn, leads to exaggerations of small differences and an excessive reliance on beliefs. It is still suggested that language experience and whole language approaches in first grade, at least, are not well supported by available research and that language experience/whole language approaches might be more useful in kindergarten for developing children’s initial concepts of the functions of reading. This paper proposes that discussions of initial reading instruction expand beyond simple dichotomies.
The Literature of Direct Writing Assessment: Major Concerns and Prevailing Trends
Authors: Huot Brian
Published: March 2008

This article attempts to describe the condition of direct writing assessment literature. Instead of focusing on a particular assessment concept, issue or methodology, this review reflects the concerns evident within the bulk of work done on writing assessment since its adoption during the last fifteen years. The purpose of this work is to provide an overall sense of how assessment research defines the important issues and creates the trends that seek to inform efficient and accurate writing assessment procedures. Focusing on topic selection and task development, the relationship between textual features and quality ratings, and the influences upon raters’ judgments of writing quality, this essay presents direct writing assessment’s own preoccupations and concerns. The center of attention is not only on how direct evaluation has progressed but where it is heading. This large picture of direct writing assessment, available through an examination of its literature, is important to an understanding of direct writing assessment as the primary instrument in making decisions about the quality of student writing.
Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Programs: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Kulik Chen-Lin C. , Kulik James A. , Bangert-Drowns Robert L.
Published: March 2008

A meta-analysis of findings from 108 controlled evaluations showed that mastery learning programs have positive effects on the examination performance of students in colleges, high schools, and the upper grades in elementary schools. The effects appear to be stronger on the weaker students in a class, and they also vary as a function of mastery procedures used, experimental designs of studies, and course content. Mastery programs have positive effects on student attitudes toward course content and instruction but may increase student time on instructional tasks. In addition, self-paced mastery programs often reduce the completion rates in college classes.
Active and Dynamic Self-Regulation of Learning Processes
Authors: Iran-Nejad Asghar
Published: March 2008

It is generally assumed that learning is internalization of externally available knowledge and occurs under the active control of one internal source of self-regulation: executive self-regulation. This article argues that these assumptions undermine the creative and multisource nature of learning, limit its domain to incremental learning of facts and definitions, and are largely responsible for achievement and motivational problems children experience in schools. The article defines learning as creative reconceptualization of internal knowledge and proposes two different sources of internal self-regulation: one to regulate largely the sequential aspect of learning and another to coordinate its simultaneous aspect. To extend the domain of learning beyond incremental memorization of facts, both sources of internal self-regulation must be the target of cognitive and metacognitive instruction and research.
Learning with Media
Authors: Kozma Robert B.
Published: March 2008

This article describes learning with media as a complementary process within which representations are constructed and procedures performed, sometimes by the learner and sometimes by the medium. It reviews research on learning with books, television, computers, and multimedia environments. These media are distinguished by cognitively relevant characteristics of their technologies, symbol systems, and processing capabilities. Studies are examined that illustrate how these characteristics, and the instructional designs that employ them, interact with learner and task characteristics to influence the structure of mental representations and cognitive processes. Of specific interest is the effect of media characteristics on the structure, formation, and modification of mental models. Implications for research and practice are discussed.