bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Harrison Paul J , Roberts Gareth W
Published: November 2023

Few subjects have generated as much sustained controversy in the field of medicine as the neuropathology of schizophrenia-the Holy Grail of biological psychiatry. At times it has been considered a misguided or meaningless question to ask, reflecting contemporary opinions as to the nature of the relationship between mind and brain, distress, and disease. At the other extreme, eminent psychiatrists and neuropathologists throughout the twentieth century had described putative histological explanations for schizophrenia. Neither of these polarised views can be sustained, the nihilists falling into the dualist trap, and the empiricists finding that the results were not repeatable or were artefactual.
Functional Imaging and Neural Circuitry in Schizophrenia
Authors: Schultz Susan K , Andreasen Nancy C
Published: November 2023

New medical imaging techniques have stimulated exponential advances in the study of brain structure and function. They provide neuroscientists and clinicians with the capacity to see brain structure in a high level of detail and to observe metabolic and neurochemical processes such as cerebral blood flow, glucose utilization, and receptor occupancy. Over recent years these techniques have been applied to schizophrenia, resulting in a veritable revolution in the conceptualization of the illness. In many ways these advances have brought the field back full circle to the emphasis on neurobiology put forth a century ago by such founding fathers as Nissl, Brodmann, Kraepelin, Alzheimer, and Cajal.
The Organization of Cortical Circuitry
Authors: Lewis David A
Published: November 2023

Among the various signs and symptoms of schizophrenia, some appear to be attributable to dysfunction of a specific brain region, and to be associated with evidence of altered synaptic neurotransmission therein.
Perspectives from other Diseases and Lesions
Authors: Esiri Margaret M , Pearson R Carl A
Published: November 2023

The aims of this chapter are twofold. Firstly, to set the neuropathological findings reported in schizophrenia in the context of other neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders; and secondly, to consider what light experimental studies of the nervous system can shed on the interpretation of the schizophrenia findings, especially those concerning alterations in neuronal structure.
A Sceptical View of the Neuropathology of Schizophrenia
Authors: Chua Siew E , McKenna Peter J
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the most appropriate place to begin a sceptical review of the neuropathology of schizophrenia is with a review of the same field carried out over 40 years ago by David (1957). He noted that there had been numerous reports of structural brain abnormality in the disorder, some by researchers as distinguished as Nissl and Alzheimer; the findings ranged from macroscopic cortical atrophy, affecting particularly the frontal lobes, to histological findings including but not limited to cell loss, shrinkage and ballooning, dwarf cells, metachromatic bodies, cellular inclusions, demyelination, and gliosis. After carefully examining the literature, David dismissed all of the alleged abnormalities with the exception of demyelination, on the grounds that they were either not well replicated or had also been documented in normal individuals. Demyelination itself he considered questionable as it could have been due to fixation artefacts.
Methodological Issues
Authors: Harrison Paul J , Kleinman Joel E
Published: November 2023

There are no methodological problems unique to schizophrenia neuropathology. Rather, the field must contend with the problems common to all schizophrenia research, as well as with the factors which introduce noise into postmortem brain studies and which are magnified because of the subtlety of the pathology being sought. Though the technical and statistical sophistication of research has improved dramatically over the past 20 years, limitations continue to hamper progress to an unnecessary extent, contributing to the persisting short comings in the data discussed elsewhere in this book, especially in Chapter 13.
Serious burns
Authors: Wardrope Jim , Edhouse June A
Published: November 2023

Senior help required. Use sterile gloves and technique. Remove all clothing/all the burning agent. Look for signs of upper airway burning. Perform early endotracheal intubation if airway is at risk.
The role of psychological factors in cancer onset and progression: a critical appraisal
Authors: Levenson J L , McDonald K
Published: November 2023

Many professionals and lay people believe that psychological factors play a major role in cancer onset and progression. The media have promoted popular ideas of overcoming cancer through ‘mind over body’, and there are self-help books and retreat centres where patients can learn imagery and relaxation techniques to fight their cancer. Guided imagery (visualizing white cells attacking cancer cells), cognitive restructuring (thinking positive thoughts), and assertiveness training have all been promoted alongside traditional health care for the cancer patient to ‘combat’ the disease.
Renal Development
Authors: Winyard Paul J D
Published: November 2023

Mammalian kidneys perform a number of functions that are essential for normal postnatal life including excretion of nitrogenous waste products, homeostasis of water, electrolytes and acid–base balance, and the production of hormones.
Primary Inherited Metabolic Diseases of the Kidney
Authors: Town Margaret , Hoff William Van’t
Published: November 2023

Renal disease is most commonly associated with structural, immunological, or infective causes but this chapter deals with those in which there is a metabolic defect. There are several such metabolic disorders in which substrate accumulation or an enzyme deficiency can be demonstrated in the kidney but without any significant renal dysfunction (e.g. some of the lysosomal storage disorders).
Inherited Predispositions to Kidney Cancer
Authors: Zbar Berton , Glenn Gladys , Turner Maria , Weirich Gregor , Choyke Peter , Hewitt Stephen , Nickerson Michael , Nakaigawa Noboru , Linehan, W Marston , Schmidt Laura
Published: November 2023

One of the generalizations that has emerged from the study of inherited epithelial tumors of the kidney is that each inherited form of renal cancer has a distinct histologic appearance, that is, distinct histologic phenotype (Zbar and Lerman 1998).
Theoretical concepts in the economic evaluation of health care
Authors: McGuire Alistair
Published: November 2023

The traditional theoretical base of econoamic evaluation rests on welfare analysis. Individuals are said to maximize utility and societal welfare is defined as an aggregation of utility across all individuals. Governments, in taking societal decisions, do so in a completely benevolent manner; they have no additional objective other than to maximize welfare. Under idealized conditions certain institutions, including perfectly competitive markets, will allocate resources in a manner consistent with this aim. Where markets do not exist the technique of cost-benefit analysis can be used as means of mimicking market allocations to ensure welfare maximization.
Modelling in economic evaluation
Authors: Kuntz Karen M , Weinstein Milton C
Published: November 2023

Economic evaluations depend on evidence on the costs and health effects of medical and public health interventions. This evidence can be derived from clinical trials, observational studies, meta-analysis, databases, administrative records and case reports. Because the evidence required on consequences and costs of interventions is never present in a single source, practitioners of cost-effectiveness analysis use analytical structures–or mathematical models–to synthesize data on the costs and benefits of alternative clinical strategies. These mathematical representations can be used to simulate a patient’s or a population’s life experience under a variety of intervention scenarios. A model synthesizes data from multiple sources by making explicit assumptions about the incidence and/or prognosis of a disease, the magnitude and duration of risks and benefits of prevention and/or treatment, the determinants of utilization of health-care resources, and of health-related quality-of-life. Of particular value to clinicians and policy makers, a model allows one to investigate how cost-effectiveness ratios might change if the values of key parameters in a model, which are often unobservable in primary data, are changed. Typical outputs from a model are life expectancy, quality-adjusted life expectancy, and lifetime costs.
Discounting in economic evaluation
Authors: Cairns John
Published: November 2023

Discounting practices often play a central role in determining the relative cost-effectiveness of different interventions. If evaluations are undertaken on an incorrect basis the quality of decision-making will suffer and health service efficiency will be reduced. Moreover, confusion or lack of agreement over standard discounting practice potentially undermines the credibility and value of economic evaluation.
Macrophages in tumor biology
Authors: Kreutz M , Fritsche J , Andreesen R
Published: November 2023

In 1882, Elias Metchnikoff for the first time described macrophages as phagocytic cells. It is now clear that beside phagocytosis, cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) are not only major players in natural immunity to microbial infections but also participate in host defense against malignant tumors. The MPS is found ubiquitously in all tissues and body cavities. Circulating blood monocytes are the common precursor cells of this heterogenous cell family and serve as a source for the constant renewal of tissue macrophages and dendritic cells under normal physiological conditions. The extravasation of blood monocytes markedly increases under different pathological conditions, e.g. inflammation. The tissue-adapted maturation of the infiltrating monocytes is most probably modulated by the site-specific microenvironment. Hypoxia seems to be one relevant factor for the activation and differentiation of macrophages in the microenvironment which may also, in part, be responsible for a tumor-specific phenotype of macrophages (Lewis et al., 1999). However, the tumor microenvironment can differ dependending on the tumor type or due to differences between the primary and metastatic site leading to different types of tumor-associated macrophages (Figure 11.1).
Macrophages in reproductive biology
Authors: Okamura H , Katabuchi H , Kanzaki H
Published: November 2023

Macrophages are present in every organ of the female genital tract. During the last two decades, considerable attention has been paid to macrophages and their various functions in reproductive biology. Apart from defense against specific microorganisms or antigens in collaboration with other immune cells, they are involved in a variety of homeostatic and physiological conditions through their products such as enzymes, cytokines, reactive oxygen intermediates and other biological substances. The foundation for these research achievements was laid by many functional morphological approaches. In female genital organs, they exhibit certain morphological differences, presumably attributable to the cyclical and pregnancy-induced alterations in the levels of sex steroid hormones and the immune mechanisms of embryonic-maternal interactions. In their structural diversity, the functional properties and heterogeneity of macrophages are seen in the ovaries, peritoneal cavity, fallopian tubes, endometrium and placenta.
Macrophages in gene therapy: cellular targets and gene delivery vehicles
Authors: Burke B , Sumner S , Mahon P C , Lewis C E
Published: November 2023

As described in various other chapters in this volume, macrophages play a central role in the immune system mainly by participating in the ingestion and killing of invading microorganisms and the presentation of antigen to T cells. In addition, they secrete over 120 different substances (Gordon, 1995) involved in host defence and inflammation. These include complement components, a wide range of cytokines and enzymes with narrow- or broad-range specificity. During infection, macrophages have the capacity to become ‘activated’ by cytokines and different bacterial products. These activated macrophages exhibit increased tumoricidal and microbicidal activity, and release increased levels of immune mediators. However, macrophages (whether through ‘normal’ pro-inflammatory or pro-angiogenic activities, or through defects in activity, or by acting as hosts and reservoirs for pathogens) have been implicated in the onset and/or progression of various pathogenic conditions. These include the growth and spread of malignant tumors, the pronounced inflammation present in rheumatoid arthritic joints, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, chronic granulomatous disease, atherosclerosis, lysosomal storage diseases, diabetes, lupus erythematosus and Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome (reviewed by Speer and Gahr, 1989).
5-HT receptors in brain and vasculature
Authors: Hargreaves Richard , Beer Margaret
Published: November 2023

Current opinion is that the generation of headache pain involves a primary CNS dysfunction that in some way, as yet undefined, provokes activation of the trigeminal sensory nervous system and changes in vascular regulation within pain-producing intracranial structures. The synthesis of these views have led to an integrated neurovascular hypothesis for migraine and the description of migraine headache as a neurovascular disorder.
Synergism of 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors on sumatriptan-induced vasocontractile response in rabbit common carotid artery
Authors: Akin Demet , Onaran H Ongun , Gurdal Hakan
Published: November 2023

Sumatriptan (known as a 5-HT1B/D agonist) induces vasocontractile responses that have been suggested to be mediated by 5-HT1-like receptors. Unlike many other receptor agonists that cause vasocontraction, sumatriptan possesses an atypical response pattern across different vessels. For instance, sumatriptan can produce vasocontractile responses in standard experimental conditions in some vessels such as human pulmonary artery and temporal artery, whereas it can contract others only after the vessels are slightly precontracted by a contractile agent such as KCl, histamine, tromboxane, etc. The exact mechanism of this heterogeneity is not clear.
The importance of vasoconstriction in the mechanism of the antimigraine action of the triptans
Authors: Feniuk W , Humphrey Patrick P A
Published: November 2023

It is now some 10 years since the first selective 5-HT1 agonist, sumatriptan, was introduced into clinical practice for the acute management of migraine. During this decade we have witnessed enormous advances in genetic and cloning technologies, which have not only increased our awareness of the molecular diversity of 5-HT1 receptor types but also our understanding of the genetic basis of migraine itself. In addition advances in imaging technologies, the development of experimental headache models in man and identification of possible surrogate markers in migraine have all added to our understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease and our knowledge of the clinical pharmacology of the antimigraine action of 5-HT1 agonists, now known collectively as the triptans.
Evidence against tight correlation between chest oppressive symptoms and ischaemic coronary changes after subcutaneous sumatriptan injection
Authors: Tomita Manami , Suzuki Norihiro , Igarashi Hisaka , Endo Motoi , Sakai Fumihiko
Published: November 2023

Ischaemic heart accident is one of the most serious issues on administration of the antimigraine agent, sumatriptan. Several cases have been reported as victims of sumatriptan’s side-effect of constricted coronary arterial smooth muscles through 5-HT1B receptors. On the other hand, there are some reports that the occurrence of chest oppression is attributed not to coronary vasospasm but other mechanisms such as contractile response in oesophageal or bronchial smooth muscle. To date, however, there is no firm evidence that sumatriptan actually constricts the coronary arterial smooth muscles to cause fatal heart attacks.
Comparison of the triptans with other drugs in the development of drug-induced headache
Authors: Göbel Hartmut , Heinze Axel , Heinze-Kuhn Katja , Zumbroich Vera
Published: November 2023

A large proportion of the patients who are admitted for inpatient treatment of headaches that are very frequent or difficult to treat are suffering from druginduced headache1–3. A study was made of the patients with drug-induced headache treated at the Kiel Pain Clinic, with particular regard to their existing primary headache syndromes, their medication-taking habits, and the results of treatment. An aspect of special interest was the comparison of triptans with other drugs used for acute migraine treatment and the development of drug-induced headache.
An epidemiological study on the differences between sumatriptan and ergotamine overuse
Authors: Evers Stefan , Gralow Ingrid , Bauer Birgit , Suhr Birgit , Buchheister Alexandra , Husstedt Ingo W
Published: November 2023

Drug abuse with subsequent drug-induced headache is a common problem in the treatment of different headache disorders. In particular, abuse of ergotamine derivates has been known for a very long time to induce a chronic headache syndrome. The International Headache Society (IHS) has defined analgesics abuse headache and ergotamine-induced headache by: (i) daily abuse of analgesics or ergotamine derivates, chronic headache at least every second day, and (iii) successful treatment by withdrawal therapy. The prevalence of analgesics abuse and ergotamine-induced headache has been estimated to be about 15% of the patients in headache ambulances and up to 3% of the general population3,4.
Global patterns of smoking and smoking-attributable mortality
Authors: Gajalakshmi C K , Jha Prabhat , Ranson Kent , Nguyen Son
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews the global data on the prevalence of smoking and its incidence (or uptake), on consumption trends, and on smoking-attributable deaths. The vast majority of the world’s 1.1 billion smokers in 1995 lived in low-income and middle¬ income countries. Cigarette consumption bas risen over the past two decades in these countries, in contrast to declines in overall consumption in high-income countries. Most smokers start in youth, and there is some evidence that the average age of smoking uptake is falling. Because of the long delay between the age at which people take up smoking and their death from tobacco-related disease, current mortality patterns largely reflect past smoking patterns, and future mortality depends on current and future smoking. Currently, tobacco deaths number about 4 million per year worldwide, about one in ten of all adult deaths. For the twentieth century, the cumulative number of tobacco deaths is estimated to have been about 100 million, with about 60 million of these in the high-income countries and the former socialist countries. Projections are difficult to make with precision, but on current smoking trends it is plausible that there will be 10 million tobacco deaths per year, about one in six of all adult deaths, by 2030. About seven in ten of these deaths will be in low-income countries. The variations in the tobacco epidemic over time, sex, age group, and region, attest to the importance of conducting further reliable long-term epidemiological studies. If current pat¬ terns of smoking continue, about 0.5 billion of the world”s population alive today will be killed by smoking, half of them in middle age (defined as ages 35-(;9). Over the twenty-first century as a whole, about billion tobacco deaths are projected. Much of the projected mortality increase over the next fifty years could be avoided if adults quit smoking. However, quitting remains rare in low-income and middle-income countries.
The economics of addiction
Authors: Chaloupka Frank J , Tauras John A , Grossman Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews economic models of addiction and their empirical applications to cigarette smoking and other tobacco use. These models can help in understanding the impact of prices and tobacco-control policies on individuals’ smoking behavior, including their decisions to start, continue, reduce, quit, or re-start smoking. The discussion of economic models is technical and assumes some knowledge of economics. Here we provide a summary for the reader interested in the key implications from the various models.
The taxation of tobacco products
Authors: Chaloupka Frank J , Hu Teh-wei , Warner Kenneth E , Jacobs Rowena , Yurekli Ayda
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews a variety of issues related to the taxation of cigarettes and other tobacco products. The empirical evidence showing that higher cigarette taxes result in higher cigarette prices is reviewed. This is followed by a discussion of the econometric literature examining the impact of prices and taxes on the demands for tobacco products. The small but growing body of research for low-income and middle-income countries clearly shows that higher prices would lead to significant reductions in tobacco use. Similarly, numerous studies from high-income countries reach the same conclusion. The estimated price-elasticities for low-income and middle-income countries are about double those for high-income countries, where estimates center on –0.4. Because of the addictive nature of tobacco use, demand for tobacco products is more elastic in the long-run. In addition, estimates from high-income countries indicate that youth and young adults, less educated persons, and those with lower incomes will be relatively more responsive to price changes. This review is followed by a discussion of the various motives for tobacco taxation, including the use of these taxes to generate revenues and to improve economic efficiency and public health. Finally, several other issues in tobacco taxation, including the earmarking of tobacco tax revenues and barriers to tobacco taxation, are discussed.
The impact of trade liberalization on tobacco consumption
Authors: Taylor Allyn , Chaloupka Frank f. , Guindon Emmanuel , Corbett Michaelyn
Published: November 2023

Over the past two decades, trade in tobacco and tobacco products bas expanded dramatically as a result of a variety of bilateral, regional, and international trade agreements that have significantly reduced trade barriers. This chapter provides a brief discussion of arguments derived from economic theory suggesting that the reductions in trade barriers will lead to greater competition, lower prices, and increased advertising and promotion in tobacco-product markets. This is followed by a review of recent trade agreements, highlighting features particularly relevant to tobacco. The limited empirical evidence on the impact of liberalized trade in tobacco products on their consumption is then discussed, followed by a new empirical analysis using data on 42 countries over the period from 1970 through 1995. This new analysis clearly demonstrates that trade liberalization has led to increases in cigarette smoking, with the most significant impact in low-income and middle-income countries. Finally, the globalization of the tobacco industry and global tobacco-control responses are briefly described.
Issues in the smuggling of tobacco products
Authors: Joossens Luk , Chaloupka Frank J , Merriman David , Yurekli Ayda
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews several issues related to the smuggling of cigarettes and other tobacco products. First, the health and other consequences of cigarette smuggling are described, emphasizing the potential for cigarette smuggling to undermine tobacco-control efforts. This is followed by a description of the various legal, quasi-legal, and illegal activities that are broadly described as smuggling. The factors that create incentives for and/or facilitate these activities are reviewed, noting that non-price factors, such as the presence of corruption, organized crime, and widespread street-selling, can be as, or more, important than the levels of taxes and prices and the differentials between these in different jurisdictions. The impact of smuggling on tobacco tax revenues is then discussed, highlighting the experiences of Canada and Sweden, where cigarette taxes were reduced in response to the perception that cigarette smuggling was draining revenues. The role of the tobacco industry in smuggling is then discussed. Finally, a set of policy measures that can be used to counter cigarette smuggling is presented.
The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of price increases and other tobacco-control policies
Authors: Ranson Kent , Jha Prabhat , Chaloupka, Frank J , Nguyen Son
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides conservative estimates of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of tobacco-control policies. Using a model of the cohort of smokers alive in 1995, we find that tax increases that would raise the real price of cigarettes by 10°/o worldwide would cause about 42 million of these smokers to quit. This price increase would prevent a minimum of 10 million tobacco-related deaths. A combined set of non-price measures (such as comprehensive bans on advertising and promotion, bans on smoking in public places, prominent warning labels, and mass information) would cause some 23 million smokers alive in 1995 to quit and would prevent S million deaths. The non-price measures are assumed to have an effectiveness of 2% —a conservative assumption. Increased use of nicotine-replacement therapies (NRTs), with an assumed effectiveness of 0.5%, would enable some 6 million smokers alive in 1995 to quit and would avert 1 million deaths.
Alcohol: no ordinary commodity
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg
Published: November 2023

Alcohol has multiple functions in any society. Alcoholic beverages have important cultural and symbolic meanings. They are commodities that are bought and sold in the marketplace. And alcohol is a drug with toxic effects and other intrinsic dangers such as intoxication and dependence. This chapter examines these different functions, paying special attention to the contrast between alcohol’s role as a commodity and as a drug. An understanding of this contrast is essential to the book’s central purpose.
Diet and dental caries
Authors: Moynihan Paula
Published: November 2023

Despite a low mortality rate associated with dental caries, it has a considerable impact on self-esteem, eating ability, nutrition, and health. Teeth are important in enabling consumption of a varied diet and preparing the food for digestion. In modern society the most important role of teeth is to enhance appearance and facial appearance is very important in determining an individual’s integration into society. Teeth also play an important role in speech, being essential for making certain sounds. Dental diseases may therefore impact on diet and nutrition, facial appearance and speech. In addition, dental caries cause considerable pain and anxiety. The 1998 Adult Dental Health Survey showed that 40% of adults in the United Kingdom had experienced dental pain in the past year.
Microbiological aspects of caries prevention
Authors: Russell Roy
Published: November 2023

Modern developments in dentistry have given us a wide range of options for the effective treatment of dental disease, but it is only by understanding the details of the events that lead to the diseased state that we can hope to design rational methods of prevention. Insights into the disease will help us to achieve the ultimate aim of prevention and also lead to methods for prediction of disease and new approaches to treatment. In this chapter therefore, we shall first consider what is known of the way in which bacteria are involved in the dental caries process and then how this knowledge can be exploited.
Prevention of oral mucosal disease
Authors: Scully Crispian , Hegarty Anne
Published: November 2023

Most conditions that affect oral mucosal health are acquired, through environmental or lifestyle factors, albeit the genetic constitution may well influence the result of an onslaught by some agent such as a micro-organism. Various biological, physical, and chemical factors may act singly or in concert to cause disease, some of which is preventable. A range of infections can affect the oral mucosa, but few are more devastating than HIV, which can result in oral and other fungal, viral, or other mucosal infections, or neoplasms.
The prevention of social inequalities in oral health
Authors: Nuttall Nigel
Published: November 2023

Evidence for the existence of social inequalities in health has existed throughout history. In fifteenth century Florence, mortality rates have been shown to be related to the size of women’s dowries on marriage; women with higher dowries were found to be less likely to die within any given year than women with lower dowries. In other cases the evidence is still visible in our architectural heritage. It was fashionable among the wealthy in Victorian.
Developing the concept of prevention—evidence-based dentistry
Authors: Murray John
Published: November 2023

The suggestion that the dental caries rates in English children were declining was cautiously put forward by Palmer in 1980. The theme of a decline in dental caries took on an international flavour when a conference was held in Boston in 1982. Speakers from Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, and the United States all confirmed that a downward trend in dental caries in children and young adults had occurred in the 1970s (Glass 1982, Table 16.1).
Learning And Literature In Early England
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

At the middle of the seventh century there was nothing to suggest the imminence of a great English achievement in learning and literature. The strongest of English kings was an obdurate heathen. The country was distracted by wars which destroyed the peace of scholars, and offered little but a succession of well-worn themes to the makers of heroic verse. The Christian faith, which was to carry imagination into new worlds, was only secure in the extreme south-east of the island. Within a hundred years England had become the home of a Christian culture which influenced the whole development of letters and learning in western Europe. The greatest historical work of the early middle ages had been written in a northern monastery, and English poets had begun to give a permanent form to heroic traditions. There is nothing in European history closely parallel to this sudden development of a civilization by one of the most primitive peoples established within the ancient Roman empire.
The Conquest Of Scandinavian England1
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

By the end of the ninth century the Scandinavian attack upon western Europe had lost much of its energy. The Danish invasion of England in 892 was only the ill-planned enterprise of an army which had been decisively defeated on the Continent in the previous year. By the year 900 the great armies which had devastated northern France and the Low Countries between 880 and 890 had disintegrated into a number of small bands, of which one was destined to enter the service of the king of the West Franks, and to receive from him the lands along the Seine which formed the nucleus of the duchy of Normandy. For nearly a generation there had been no Norwegian descent in force on Ireland, and native kings had begun to take the offensive against the foreign settlers along the eastern coast. The future of England was still uncertain, but the possibility of a Danish conquest of the whole country was steadily becoming more remote as the Alfredian organization for the defence of the land was tested and extended.
The Norman Conquest
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

Harold was king of England for nine months, in which the national life was overshadowed by the threat of invasion. For more than half this period the forces available for the defence of southern England were kept in a state of readiness for war-on shipboard, or in stations along the coast. It was a time not only of strain and danger but of political unease. The Northumbrians refused at first to accept Harold as king, and were not brought into obedience until he had visited the north, and Bishop Wulfstan of Worcester, who accompanied him, had impressed on them the danger in which the country stood. There is no evidence that Edwin and Morcar, the earls of Mercia and Northumbria, had opposed Harold’s election, and there is reason to think that early in his reign he secured their formal allegiance by marrying Ealdgyth, their sister. But the course of events in the autumn showed that they had not identified their personal interests with his, and that the things and smaller landowners of their earldoms, to say the least, had no enthusiasm for his leadership.
The Norman Settlement
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

The cardinal principle of the Conqueror’s government was the wish to rule, and to be accepted by Englishmen, as King Edward’s legitimate successor. He claimed the English throne as the heir whom the Confessor himself had selected from among all his kinsmen. He preserved the constitutional framework of the Old English state, so that it was without any breach of continuity that the Old English witena gemot developed under him into the feudal Great Council. His administration was based on the theory that he had restored the good law of King Edward’s time after it had been overthrown by Harold’s usurpation. Few invaders who have overcome so strong an opposition have been at such pains to disguise the fact of conquest.
Culture and War
Authors: Kramer Alan
Published: November 2023

Cultural destruction was not merely an incidental phenomenon of the Great War, but intrinsic to it. Intellectuals anticipated and welcomed the war, and played the leading role in the mobilization of culture and minds. They popularized the idea of the war to defend civilization, as the Allies saw it, or a war to defend culture, as Germany saw it. It is practically a cliche of Great War historiography that intellectuals, even those regarded as the cultural ‘avant garde’, everywhere reacted in parallel fashion in rallying to their nation, only to be gradually disillusioned by the reality of industrialized mass killing in a long war of attrition.
Fleeing Hitler
Authors: Diamond Hanna
Published: November 2023

Wednesday 12th June 1940. The Times reported 'thousands upon thousands of Parisians leaving the capital by every possible means, preferring to abandon home and property rather than risk even temporary Nazi domination'. As Hitler's victorious armies approached Paris, the French government abandoned the city and its people, leaving behind them an atmosphere of panic. Roads heading south filled with ordinary people fleeing for their lives with whatever personal possessions they could carry, often with no particular destination in mind. During the long, hard journey, this mass exodus of predominantly women, children, and the elderly, would face constant bombings, machine gun attacks, and even starvation. Using eyewitness accounts, memoirs, and diaries, Hanna Diamond shows how the disruption this exodus brought to the lives of civilians and soldiers alike made it a defining experience of the war for the French people. As traumatized populations returned home, preoccupied by the desire for safety and bewildered by the unexpected turn of events, they put their faith in Marshall Pétain who was able to establish his collaborative Vichy regime largely unopposed, while the Germans consolidated their occupation. Watching events unfold on the other side of the channel, British ministers looked on with increasing horror, terrified that Britain could be next.
On the Road
Authors: Diamond Hanna
Published: November 2023

Once people had left home, the pressure of the German advance created the momentum which kept the floods of refugees moving slowly south and west. The crowds from Paris joined columns of other advancing civilians who had left their homes during the first exodus. Peasants from rural areas with their heavily laden carts set a slow, tortuous pace. Food became more and more difficult to and, and comfortable provision for shelter was increasingly thin on the ground. Refugees were obliged to sleep rough as hotels in towns ran out of space, local residents had no more spare rooms to rent out, and local farms and their outbuildings were already packed with those who had preceded them. To add to their discomfort, this human mass was an easy target for the German planes who sought to kill indiscriminately as well as add to the confusion by machine-gunning them down.
Back to ‘Normal’?
Authors: Diamond Hanna
Published: November 2023

Refugees who returned to their homes were encouraged by the German and Vichy authorities to get on with their lives in an atmosphere of business as usual. Their exodus experience was evoked by Pétainist publicists as a just punishment for believing in the Republican regime which had brought disaster upon the country. People tended to go along with this in the immediate aftermath of the defeat as they slowly came to terms with the upheaval these events had brought to their lives. Gradually the French began to wake up to the reality of their situation and soon came to realize that returning to their ‘ homes’ could not provide the return to their normal lives that they longed for. The majority found themselves obliged to make the best of the changed situation and adapted to it as best they could. A small minority began to question the policies of the Vichy government, to react against the Occupation, and started to and ways of expressing this.
Strangers in Our Midst: In Search of Seven Pillars of Wisdom
Authors: Mazrui Ali A
Published: November 2023

The year 2004 marks the ninetieth anniversary of the out- break of World War I which resulted in the collapse of Islam’s last great imperial order. The story of Islam’s relationship with the Western world in the last one hundred years can be viewed as a transition from the final collapse of the Ottomans to the spectacular rise of the American empire.

The decision of the Young Turk Triumvirate to enter World War I on the side of Germany and Austria unleashed forces which were going to affect the Muslim world for the rest of the twentieth century and beyond.
The substance of sleep
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

Apart from believing sleep to be some sort of recovery process, most early ideas looked only at how sleep might be brought about, rather than at what it really does. The two approaches can be quite different. For example, aperitifs and the smell and sight of food all promote eating but they do not explain why we eat. Even after a filling meal, these stimuli can tempt us to eat more, but this extra food is unnecessary for our well-being or waistlines! Most early civilisations thought sleep was due to something that built up in the brain during wakeful-ness and dissipated during sleep. Aristotle thought along these lines 2000 years ago, and proposed that sleep resulted from warm vapours rising from within the stomach:
Then
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

Nowadays, many of the older studies into human sleep loss, carried out even 30 years ago, are seen to be of only historical interest, dismissed for their antiquity and use of seemingly crude techniques and equipment. Nevertheless, despite the benefits of sophisticated computers in modern times, little has really changed in the outcome from these studies. They are all too easily forgotten—how wrong, because at least one nineteenth-century experiment still remains impressive enough to better many contemporary studies in its standard of science. Ironically, too many of today’s sleep scientists undertake what they consider to be cutting edge research, when the answers that they seek are to be found in dusty old tomes stored in library basements.
Brain waves
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

We can feign sleep by lying still for several minutes but remaining awake with closed eyes, and even fool the actimeter into registering that we are asleep. Fortunately, there is more to sleep than an absence of body movement, and better ways of measuring sleep are available. Sleep is not only mainly for our cortex; of all the body’s organs, it is the brain, and especially the cortex, that show the clearest and most profound changes during sleep. That something special happens to the cortex in sleep ties in with the most obvious effect of sleep loss—sleepiness—which, of course, is caused by the brain. Changes shown by most, if not all, other body organs in sleep are just as likely to be seen in relaxed wakefulness and not exclusive to sleep.
chapter IV
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE following morning I was awoke by a tap at the door,and who should enter my room but the newly-engaged servant, Osman. “Effendi,” he said, “I have five horses for you to see. They are in a large yard close to the hotel. Splendid horses they are too. I am so industrious,” he added, “the Effendi will find this out for himself soon. I am not like other Turks-I like working; I have been running all over Constantinople after the horses, for I heard that the Effendi was in a hurry to start. When will he go and see the animals?” About half an hour later I accompanied the industrious man to a small plot of ground not far from Pera. It was surrounded by a high wall, and, judging from the number of loose stones which lay about, had once been a cemetery. But cemetery or not it was all the same to Osman, who had not the same reverence for the dead as the rest of his countrymen.
Codebreaker In The Far East
Authors: Stripp Alan
Published: November 2023

This is the first book to detail British wartime successes in breaking Japanese codes. Other veterans of Bletchley Park (GCHQ) have described how they broke the German Enigma machine to produce Ultra intelligence, and how that helped to hasten victory. There have also been accounts of how the US broke the Purple cipher and a naval code, even before Pearl Harbour. The Book, however, chronicles the British achievement at Bletchley Park and in the Far East of breaking Japanese codes of dazzling variety in Burma three months before Hiroshima. This first-hand account shows the magnitude of the task: grappling with one of the world's most daunting languages, learning the skills of cryptanalysis, turning out decrypts against the clock, and weaving together all the strands of intelligence to help vanquish a dogged and resourceful enemy who had never known defeat - in perhaps the worst climate and terrain in the world. It is success story that conveys the sheer excitement of reading the enemy's mind, and contains some surprises: who would have expected Japanese signals to reveal not only what they were up to in Asia but also details of German jet aircraft, the latest U-boats, even Normandy beach defences?
How were they broken?
Authors: Stripp Alan
Published: November 2023

The message which we left at the end of Chapter Nine has been picked up not only by the Rangoon operator for whom it was intended but also by one of the intercept stations described in Chapter Ten. The Allied operator has been standing by for the scheduled transmissions on the Meiktila-Rangoon frequencies which he has been assigned to cover, and he intercepts the signal. It now acquires further clerical prefixes, showing the frequencies, call-signs, day and time of interception, quality and strength of signal, and so forth, and is passed to the codebreaking unit. Here I have to watch my step. The British authorities naturally do not wish to reveal detailed codebreaking techniques that might enable potential enemies to break our codes, or to alert them to ways of tightening their crypto security so as to stop us breaking theirs. The question is how far the methods used between 1939 and 1945 are relevant to the days of the one-time pad and the powerful ‘number-cruncher’ computer. In the words of Sir Stuart Milner-Barry, who succeeded Gordon Welchman as head of Hut Six at Bletchley Park, the methods of 1939—45 ‘must seem to present-day cryptanalysts rather like fighting with bows and arrows’.
Origins
Authors: Bull Marcus
Published: November 2023

His thirst for blood was so unprecedented in recent times that those who are themselves thought cruel seem milder when slaughtering animals than he did when killing people. For he did not establish his victims’ guilt of a crime and then dispatch them cleanly with the sword, which is a routine occurrence.
Settling In
Authors: Robinson Jane
Published: November 2023

It did happen to others, of course (if a little more prosaically). Once those startling and unfamiliar first impressions had had time to evaporate, and the business of settling in began, emigrant women could either fit in with whatever society and circumstances they found abroad, or else create their own from scratch.
Spending the Day
Authors: Robinson Jane
Published: November 2023

Miss Guinness was a missionary. She was expected to weather inexpressible experiences in the course of her duty: ten hours by wheelbarrow was all in a day’s work. Mind you, other missionaries in this chapter did not have it quite so hard: Keturah Jeffreys was carried about Madagascar in a kind of cot (admittedly with her head somewhat lower than her feet for half the time), while Jane Moir relished being on the move in Tanzania for miles and days at a time—on foot.
Staying On
Authors: Robinson Jane
Published: November 2023

If I were a prospective ‘Jenny’, like the fresh-faced, wholesome paragon with whom this anthology opened, I would not think such a future as Mrs Flower’s much reward for my hard days’ work as an emigrant wife.
The Volga Frozen—Navigation Stopped in the Caspian—The Russian Boundary Line in the East—Reports are rife in Russia—The Press is Gagged—General Milutin’s Regard for my Safety—Ignorance of Clerks at Railway Station— Cartridge Case—Insurgents in Herzegovina—Subscriptions—England bent upon Money-making—Austria Allied with England—The Baltic Provinces— The Russians’ Hatred of Austria and Germany—Bismarck’s Policy—Mr. Leslie, Her Majesty’s Consul in Moscow.
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

Mr. Schuyler thought that the best way to go to Khiva would be by Astrakhan and the Caspian to Krasnovodsk, and from there across the steppes on horseback to Khiva. This, undoubtedly, would have been the shortest and easiest journey; but a paragraph which I read in a paper that afternoon showed me that this route was out of the question. The paragraph was to the effect that the accumulation of ice had already prevented navigation in the Caspian, and that the Volga was frozen.
Railway Officials—Unpunctuality of Trains—Frauds on the Railway Companies— Old Spirit of Serfdom—Socialistic and Nihilist Tendencies—The Emperor Alexander and the Religious Influence in Russia—The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy more powerful than the Tzar—Waiting-rooms at Riajsk—Superstition and Dirt—Sizeran.
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

On the track again, but this time alone in my compartment, till I was joined by an official whose business it was to inspect the line between Moscow and Riazan. His chief object was to find out if any unnecessary delays took place at the different stations on this railway, a number of complaints having been lately made about the unpunctuality of the trains. It was supposed to be the station-masters’ fault, and that these officials, being slack in the performance of their duty, were the main cause of the delay. “ I could easily find them out,” remarked the inspector, “ if it were not for the confounded telegraph, but that beats me. The rogues are all in collusion the one with the other, and as soon as ever they see me on the platform they telegraph the intelligence to their brethren down the line.”