bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of material characteristics and/or surface topography on biofilm development
Authors: Teughels Wim , Van Assche Nele , Sliepen Isabelle , Quirynen Marc
Published: September 2006

Background: From an ecological viewpoint, the oral cavity, in fact the oro‐pharynx, is an ‘open growth system’. It undergoes an uninterrupted introduction and removal of both microorganisms and nutrients. In order to survive within the oro‐pharyngeal area, bacteria need to adhere either to the soft or hard tissues in order to resist shear forces. The fast turn‐over of the oral lining epithelia (shedding 3 ×/day) is an efficient defence mechanism as it prevents the accumulation of large masses of microorganisms. Teeth, dentures, or endosseous implants, however, providing non‐shedding surfaces, allow the formation of thick biofilms. In general, the established biofilm maintains an equilibrium with the host. An uncontrolled accumulation and/or metabolism of bacteria on the hard surfaces forms, however, the primary cause of dental caries, gingivitis, periodontitis, peri‐implantitis, and stomatitis.

Objectives: This systematic review aimed to evaluate critically the impact of surface characteristics (free energy, roughness, chemistry) on the de novo biofilm formation, especially in the supragingival and to a lesser extent in the subgingival areas.

Methods: An electronic Medline search (from 1966 until July 2005) was conducted applying the following search items: ‘biofilm formation and dental/oral implants/surface characteristics’, ‘surface characteristics and implants’, ‘biofilm formation and oral’, ‘plaque/biofilm and roughness’, ‘plaque/biofilm and surface free energy’, and ‘plaque formation and implants’. Only clinical studies within the oro‐pharyngeal area were included.

Results: From a series of split‐mouth studies, it could be concluded that both an increase in surface roughness above the Ra threshold of 0.2 μm and/or of the surface‐free energy facilitates biofilm formation on restorative materials. When both surface characteristics interact with each other, surface roughness was found to be predominant. The biofilm formation is also influenced by the type (chemical composition) of biomaterial or the type of coating. Direct comparisons in biofilm formation on different transmucosal implant surfaces are scars.

Conclusions: Extrapolation of data from studies on different restorative materials seems to indicate that transmucosal implant surfaces with a higher surface roughness/surface free energy facilitate biofilm formation.
Systemic diseases affecting osseointegration therapy
Authors: Mombelli Andrea , Cionca Norbert
Published: September 2006

Objectives: To evaluate the impact of systemic diseases and their treatment on the success of osseointegration therapy.

Material and methods: A search was made to find human studies including subjects treated with osseointegrated oral implants, with a diagnosis of 11 systemic diseases, and reporting at least implant survival.

Results: For most conditions, no studies comparing patients with and without the condition in a controlled setting were found. The evidence to recommend implant therapy was low and consisted in presentations of some successfully treated cases. With regard to diabetes, three types of reports were found: eight case series of diabetic patients treated with implants, six cross‐sectional, longitudinal or retrospective evaluations of groups of subjects treated with implants, including some diabetic patients, and one matched control retrospective chart survey. The heterogeneity of the material and the method of data reporting precluded a formal meta‐analysis. No unequivocal tendency for subjects with diabetes to have higher failure rates emerged, but the largest of these studies indicated a significant increase in the relative risk of implant failure with diabetes. The data obtained from 17 papers reporting data from osteoporotic patients were also heterogeneous. The evidence for an association of osteoporosis and implant failure was low.

Conclusions: The level of evidence indicative of absolute and relative contraindications for implant therapy due to systemic diseases is low. Many conditions have been listed as potentially critical, but studies comparing patients with and without the condition in a controlled setting are sparse.
Bone density and primary stability in implant therapy
Authors: Molly Liene
Published: September 2006

Introduction: To improve patient comfort, deviations from the very successful standard osseointegration protocol are being developed. To keep implant failure rates as low as possible, the most perfect treatment planning and a good patient selection are extremely important. Because bone density plays an important role in implant outcome, known relations of bone density could improve treatment planning.

Material and methods: A Pubmed search revealed 66 manuscripts investigating and discussing bone density of human jawbone whether or not related to implant stability or outcome. Forty‐five of these will be discussed in this review.

Results and discussion: Many pre‐operative methods of jawbone density assessment are available. Most of those techniques correlate well with one another. Some are more elaborate to use in clinical practice. Primary stability measurements show significant correlations with different bone densities and also with implant outcome; however, not many studies investigate both at the same time.

Conclusion: To investigate the outcome of adaptation methods of the surgical protocol with regard to the jawbone density, an objective pre‐surgical determination of bone density is necessary.
Biomechanical aspects of oral implants
Authors: Hobkirk J. A. , Wiskott H. W. A. ,   On behalf of Working Group 1
Published: September 2006

Abstract: The method used by the working group was an iterative process based upon a structured review of the relevant literature by a group of rapporteurs. The review papers were circulated to the members of the group before the conference and formed the basis for subsequent discussions. Each paper was subject to detailed collective analysis and subsequently modified on the basis of the panel's discussions and referenced to additional relevant literature where appropriate. The group assessed the levels of evidence for the statements made in the supporting documentation and recognized that it was necessary to adopt a compromise between acceptance of the lowest level, resulting in the largest body of material, and the highest level, which, in some cases, produced little evidence. While this approach does not represent endorsement of lower evidence levels per se, it was designed to provide conclusions of clinical utility within the existing knowledge base. The consensus statements were prepared after a detailed consideration of the papers submitted to the workshop by the working group. The papers were scrutinized, amended and approved by the group. The basis of each paper is described in the section on ‘search strategy’ and defines the parameters within which the consensus statements were prepared.
Influence of forces on peri‐implant bone
Authors: Isidor Flemming
Published: September 2006

Abstract: Occlusal forces affect an oral implant and the surrounding bone. According to bone physiology theories, bones carrying mechanical loads adapt their strength to the load applied on it by bone modeling/remodeling. This also applies to bone surrounding an oral implant. The response to an increased mechanical stress below a certain threshold will be a strengthening of the bone by increasing the bone density or apposition of bone. On the other hand, fatigue micro‐damage resulting in bone resorption may be the result of mechanical stress beyond this threshold. In the present paper literature dealing with the relationship between forces on oral implants and the surrounding bone is reviewed. Randomized controlled as well as prospective cohorts studies were not found. Although the results are conflicting, animal experimental studies have shown that occlusal load might result in marginal bone loss around oral implants or complete loss of osseointegration. In clinical studies an association between the loading conditions and marginal bone loss around oral implants or complete loss of osseointegration has been stated, but a causative relationship has not been shown.
Validity and clinical significance of biomechanical testing of implant/bone interface
Authors: Aparicio Carlos , Lang Niklaus P. , Rangert Bo
Published: September 2006

Purpose: The aim of this paper was to review the clinical literature on the Resonance frequency analysis (RFA) and Periotest techniques in order to assess the validity and prognostic value of each technique to detect implants at risk for failure.

Material and methods: A search was made using the PubMed database to find clinical studies using the RFA and/or Periotest techniques.

Results: A limited number of clinical reports were found. No randomized‐controlled clinical trials or prospective cohort studies could be found for validity testing of the techniques. Consequently, only a narrative review was prepared to cover general aspects of the techniques, factors influencing measurements and the clinical relevance of the techniques.

Conclusions: Factors such as bone density, upper or lower jaw, abutment length and supracrestal implant length seem to influence both RFA and Periotest measurements. Data suggest that high RFA and low Periotest values indicate successfully integrated implants and that low/decreasing RFA and high/increasing Periotest values may be signs of ongoing disintegration and/or marginal bone loss. However, single readings using any of the techniques are of limited clinical value. The prognostic value of the RFA and Periotest techniques in predicting loss of implant stability has yet to be established in prospective clinical studies.
Chewing fails to induce oral bacteraemia in patients with periodontal disease
Authors: Murphy Anthony M. , Daly Christopher G. , Mitchell David H. , Stewart Douglas , Curtis Brad H.
Published: September 2006

Aim: To investigate whether chewing in patients with untreated chronic periodontitis or plaque‐induced gingivitis causes bacteraemia of oral origin.

Method: Twenty‐one patients with untreated chronic periodontitis (32–75 years old) and 20 with plaque‐induced gingivitis (26–54 years old) chewed a standard wax medium for 4 min. Blood samples were drawn before, during and 5 min. post‐chewing. Aerobic and anaerobic Bactec system culturing was performed for 21 days and positive bottles were subcultured and isolates were identified to genus level. A full periodontal analysis was performed on all teeth and included probing depths, recession, attachment levels, bleeding on probing, mobility plaque index and gingival index. Radiographs were assessed for the severity of alveolar bone loss.

Results: No bacteraemia of oral origin was detected in any patient. Skin contaminants (Staphylococcus epidermidis, Propionibacterium spp.) were detected in blood samples from three patients (two periodontitis; one gingivitis).

Conclusion: Chewing did not cause bacteraemia in chronic periodontitis or plaque‐induced gingivitis patients and may not be a risk factor for infective endocarditis in at‐risk individuals with periodontal disease.
The potential impact of neighborhood empowerment on dental caries among adolescents
Authors: Pattussi Marcos P. , Hardy Rebecca , Sheiham Aubrey
Published: September 2006

Abstract – Objective: Empowerment has been considered a dimension of social capital. It refers to social interaction processes that enable people to enhance their individual and collective skills and to exert greater control over their lives. This relationship has not been explored in relation to dental health. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between neighborhood empowerment and dental caries in adolescents.

Methods: A multilevel study was designed to assess the individual and neighborhood effects on the oral health of adolescents. Four sources of data were used: (a) clinical examinations (WHO), (b) students’ questionnaires, (c) parents’ questionnaires and (d) census data. The study population was 1302, 14/15‐year‐old students from 39 public schools of two cities of the Distrito Federal (DF), Brazil. Data analysis used logistic multilevel modeling at two levels: students (sources a and b) and neighborhood as defined by catchment areas of schools (sources c and d).

Results: High DMFT (DMFT > median, DMFT ≥3) rates were significantly lower in areas with higher levels of empowerment. This relationship was independent of socioeconomic variables at the individual and area levels and of all other individual risk factor variables such as sex, fluoride, sugar consumption, tooth brushing and dental attendance [OR for low compared with high empowerment was 1.54 (95% CI = 1.09–2.18),P = 0.014].

Conclusions: Neighborhood empowerment may play an important role in explaining inequalities in the levels of dental caries. New perspectives are needed so that more effective interventions can be implemented using area‐based perspectives.
Dental status and measures of deprivation in Clermont‐Ferrand, France
Authors: Enjary Celine , Tubert‐Jeannin Stephanie , Manevy Rachelle , Roger‐Leroi Valerie , Riordan Paul J.
Published: September 2006

Abstract –  Background:  Many background variables, such as socioeconomic status (SES), may be measured at the level of the individual or using some ecological indicators.

Objectives:  This study aimed to examine, in 5‐ and 10‐year‐olds in Clermont‐Ferrand, the relationship between household SES indicators, SES measured as an area‐based ecological variable and dental status.

Methods:  All 5‐ and 10‐year‐olds attending public schools in deprived and semi‐deprived zones (n = 15) and six other randomly selected schools in Clermont‐Ferrand were invited to participate. All children were examined clinically. On a questionnaire, parents provided sociodemographic information.

Results:  Of the children invited, 84% (880 children) were examined. Mean dft of 5‐year‐olds was 0.93 (SD 2.27); 26.5% had at least one tooth affected. The caries experience (DMFT) of 10‐year‐olds was 0.85 (SD 1.14) and 37.2% had permanent tooth caries experience. Caries experience varied significantly with school deprivation status: the greater the deprivation score, the more likely was poor dental health. Country of birth, parents’ employment status, family size and health insurance type were significantly related to dental status. Logistic analyses estimated the importance of SES and ecological variables; deprivation influenced dental status in 5‐year‐olds even when household SES indicators were considered. In 10‐year‐olds, caries experience was influenced by household SES, immigrant background, father's employment and family size.

Conclusion:  The use of school deprivation as an ecological measure status was useful for identyfing population subgroups with different levels of oral health, particularly in young children. This indicator of social deprivation could be used for targeting preventive programmes to high caries risk communities defined geographically.
Sugar snack consumption in Ugandan schoolchildren: validity and reliability of a food frequency questionnaire
Authors: Kiwanuka S. N. , Åstrøm A. N. , Trovik T. A.
Published: September 2006

Objectives:  This study assessed the reproducibility and relative validity of an eight‐item self‐administered food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) on intake of sugared snacks in Ugandan schoolchildren. A 5‐day precoded food behaviour checklist (FBC) was used as validation criteria. Sociodemographic correlates of a sum frequency sugar score were explored.

Methods:  The study was conducted in Kampala, Uganda, in 2004. Six hundred and fourteen schoolchildren (mean age 12.4 years) completed the FFQ on cakes/biscuits, chocolate, ice sticks, soft drinks, coffee, tea, sugared desserts and sweets/candies at school. They were examined clinically for dental caries. Forty students completed the FFQ twice, 1 week apart and 325 students completed the 5 day FBC at school.

Results:  The mean decayed, missing and filled tooth index score was 0.98 (SD 1.6, range 0–15). Reproducibility scores (Cohen's kappa) for the sugar items ranged from 0.17 (ice sticks) to 0.55 (biscuits). No differences were seen between the average intakes at test and retest. Higher intake was reported in FFQ than in FBC across all sugar items. Crude agreement between students reporting intake at least 3–5 times a week/less than three times a week ranged from 50% to 55% (e.g. biscuits, chocolate) to 87% (tea). Spearman's correlation coefficients ranged from 0.14 (desserts) to 0.27 (sweets). anova revealed significant increase (P = 0.001) in the mean FBC sum scores by increasing quartiles of the FFQ sum scores. The average sum FFQ sugar scores were higher in girls than in boys and higher in older than in younger students.

Conclusion:  Fair reproducibility was established for the FFQ sugar items. The FFQ was acceptable in classifying individuals into broad categories of low and high sugar consumption.
Factors associated with dental health care coverage in Mexico: findings from the National Performance Evaluation Survey 2002–2003
Authors: Pérez‐Núñez Ricardo , Medina‐Solis Carlo Eduardo , Maupomé Gerardo , Vargas‐Palacios Armando
Published: September 2006

Abstract –  Objectives:  To determine the level of dental health care coverage in people aged ≥18 years across the country, and to identify the factors associated with coverage.

Material and methods:  Using the instruments and sampling strategies developed by the World Health Organization for the World Health Survey, a cross‐sectional national survey was carried out at the household and individual (adult) levels. Dental data were collected in 20 of Mexico's 32 states. The relationship between coverage and environmental and individual characteristics was examined through logistic regression models.

Results:  Only 6098 of 24 159 individual respondents reported having oral problems during the preceding 12 months (accounting for 14 284 621 inhabitants of the country if weighted). Only 48% of respondents reporting problems were covered, although details of the appropriateness, timeliness and effectiveness of the intervention(s) were not assessed. The multivariate regression model showed that higher level of education, better socioeconomic status, having at least one chronic disease and having medical insurance were positively associated with better dental care coverage. Age and sex were also associated.

Conclusions:  Overall dental health care coverage could be improved, assuming that ideal coverage is 100%. Some equality of access issues are apparent because there are differences in coverage across populations in terms of wealth and social status. Identifying the factors associated with sparse coverage is a step in the right direction allowing policymakers to establish strategies aimed at increasing this coverage, focusing on more vulnerable groups and on individuals in greater need of preventive and rehabilitative interventions.
Patient's delay in oral cancer: a systematic review
Authors: Scott Suzanne E. , Grunfeld Elizabeth A. , McGurk Mark
Published: September 2006

Abstract –  Detecting oral cancer at an early stage is the most effective means of improving survival and reducing morbidity from this disease, yet a significant proportion of patients delay seeking help after the self‐discovery of symptoms of oral cancer. The literature on factors associated with patient delay was searched systematically to access relevant data published between 1975 and 2005. Eight studies met the inclusion criteria for the review. In these studies, most clinical/tumour factors, sociodemographic variables, and patient health‐related behaviours were not related to the duration of patient delay. Healthcare factors and psychosocial factors may play a role but the research in this area is sparse, atheoretical and of poor quality. Patient delay is a problem in oral cancer and yet at present the reasons for such delays are poorly understood and under‐researched. Systematic, high‐quality and theory‐driven research in this area is urgently required.
Outcomes associated with dentists’ risk assessment
Authors: Brad Rindal D. , Rush William A. , Perrin Nancy A. , Maupomé Gerardo , Bader James D.
Published: September 2006

Abstract –  Objective:  To examine retrospectively the caries‐related restorative experience of at‐risk individuals who received fluoride‐based preventive interventions to determine if the intervention resulted in fewer caries‐related procedures.

Methods:  Administrative data from two dental health plans were used to determine the relationship between caries risk assessment (CRA) scores, preventive treatment and caries‐related treatment procedures. We identified 45 693 adults who were consecutively enrolled for at least 1 year before and 2.5 years after the CRA. Variables representing the number of teeth with any caries‐related treatment procedure and receipt of preventive treatment were created.

Results:  The outcome variable of interest was having at least one tooth with a caries‐related procedure in the 2‐year follow‐up period. In plan A, the recommendation for home‐use fluoride was not significantly related to caries‐related treatment procedures in the follow‐up period for individuals at low, moderate or high risk (P > 0.300). In plan B, application of in‐office fluoride was associated with having at least one tooth with a caries‐related treatment procedure in the follow‐up period (P < 0.001).

Conclusions:  We found incomplete compliance with guidelines for recommendation or administration of preventive treatment for patients at elevated risk for caries. We were also unable to identify any significant reductions in caries‐related procedures for individuals receiving a fluoride intervention, compared with those who did not, when stratified by risk level.
Retention of resin‐based pit and fissure sealants: a systematic review
Authors: Muller‐Bolla Michèle , Lupi‐Pégurier Laurence , Tardieu Corinne , Velly Ana Miriam , Antomarchi Constance
Published: September 2006

Abstract –  The aim of the present study was to perform a systematic review on the retention of resin‐based sealants (RBSs) according to the material used and the clinical procedure. An electronic search in MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane library and SCOPUS was completed by a hand search in conference proceedings. One hundred and twenty‐four studies were identified, 31 of which were included. The retention rate of auto‐polymerized and light‐cured RBSs did not differ significantly. Light‐cured RBSs had a significantly higher retention rate than fluoride‐containing light‐cured RBSs at 48 months (RR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.72–0.89) and more. Concerning the clinical procedure, the scarcity of well‐conducted studies made judgement difficult, except for the isolation stage. If using a rubber dam did not affect retention of auto‐polymerized RBSs, it did for fluoride‐containing light‐cured RBSs (RR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.51–2.73).
Effects of different Rhododendron control methods in eastern beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) ecosystems in the western Black Sea region of Turkey
Authors: Yildiz O. , Eşen D.
Published: September 2006

Intensive weed control and plot preparation practices have become a critical and integral part of productive beech forest management in Turkey’s coastal Black Sea region (BSR). This study was conducted in an eastern beech forest of 100+ year old in the BSR to evaluate ecosystem effects of three different experimental Rhododendron ponticum understory control methods with a randomised block design, including manual grubbing, foliar and cut stump spraying with imazapyr (Arsenal) and foliar and cut stump spraying with triclopyr (Garlon). Untreated vegetation plots served as controls. Evaluation of these treatments included their effects on understory and forest floor biomass and nutrients (C, N, P, S, K, Ca and Mg) and effects on soils, including bulk density, pH, soil nutrients (C, N, P and S), exchangeable cations (K, Ca and Mg) and soil cation exchange capacity (CEC). Grubbing and imazapyr treatments had greatly reduced the amount of understory biomass 5 years after application (P = 0.002). Triclopyr treatment also had a major effect on understory vegetation control, but by 5 years later, about 10% of the rhododendron originally present on these plots had gradually re‐sprouted and partially covered the plots. Five years after woody vegetation control treatments, at the 0‐ to 20‐cm depth, treatments did not appear to affect soil bulk density, pH and CEC. For the upper 20‐cm soil depth, the exchangeable soil K concentration at the 10‐ to 20‐cm depth on triclopyr‐treated plots was 33% higher than on grubbing plots, and it was twice that of imazapyr application plots. Imazapyr plots had almost 11 times more dead organic matter on the forest floor than there was on grubbing plots. Forest floor C concentrations on imazapyr plots were 26 and 14% greater than those on grubbing and triclopyr plots, respectively. Total ecosystem (forest floor + understory + soil exchangeable) Ca content was 50% higher on imazapyr plots than that on triclopyr plots, while the ecosystem K pool on imazapyr treatment plots was 27% lower than that on triclopyr plots. Herbicides can be used as an alternative for achieving some forest management objectives when other vegetation control methods are not feasible or economical. It is recommended that vegetation control not be used on steep slopes because of greater risk of soil erosion. There may be benefits in encouraging slash disposal by fire after imazapyr treatments, thus removing recalcitrant understory residues left on the forest floor and releasing the essential nutrients within them.
Rural Futures: Alternative Scenarios for French Rural Society to 2020
Authors: Léon Yves , Perrier‐Cornet Philippe , Soulard Christophe
Published: September 2006

The foresight approach presented in this article is a contribution to a work programme set up by the French land planning agency (DATAR) on the theme‘Land planning for the France of 2020′. The future of rural space is a matter of concern because of the rapid economic polarization movement towards the metropolis and surroundings, observed over the last three decades. This movement threatens the viability of rural space. The foresight study is based on scenario building. Rural space is seen as a system that ensures various functions: residence, production, nature. Each function and the global context are considered as subsystems driven by a set of key variables. Combining the various modalities of any subsystem variables allows us to build partial scenarios. In turn, these partial scenarios are combined to design four global scenarios describing the possible futures of the French rural space:‘a generalized residential countryside', characterized by a marked increase in urban spread; 'sustainable towns and large farms', where rural areas are organized according to the interest of farmers;‘towards the nature countryside', a breaking scenario where the priority is to meet environmental challenges; and‘active and competitive rural areas', emphasizing the role of local productive systems. Policy makers have many choices and can shape the countryside's picture in the next decade.
Geographic Indications and Farmer‐Owned Brands: Why Do the US and EU Disagree?
Authors: Hayes Dermot J. , Lence Sergio H. , Babcock Bruce
Published: September 2006

Geographic Indications (GIs) identify the geographic origin of products whose quality, reputation or other characteristic can be attributed to the geographic origin. We focus on a subcategory of GIs, Farmer Owned Brands. Like GIs in general, FOBs require governmental assistance to protect the property rights of the brand owners. GIs are receiving increased attention because many countries and producer groups realize the importance of property right protection for GIs, and are negotiating such rights in international forums like the World Trade Organization. Here we explore possible reasons for US opposition to EU policies conferring special property right protection to GIs. We conclude that the most plausible explanation for the US position is the lack of a domestic constituency advocating greater GI protection, which means that the US position represents the interests only of those who stand to lose from such protection. It will take a change in US property right regulations and a widespread understanding and adoption of the concept among producer groups before the political pendulum changes within the US. This process will take several years and until then we will have the unusual situation of the US opposing the only market‐based solution to the US rural development problem that we are aware of.
The Tariff‐Only Import Regime for Bananas in the European Union: Impacts on ACP and Non‐ACP Suppliers
Authors: Guyomard Hervé , Le Mouël Chantal , Levert Fabrice , Lombana Jahir
Published: September 2006

The European Union is bound by World Trade Organisation agreements to move to a tariff‐only import regime for bananas no later than 1 January 2006. What should change at that date is the trade regime, not the level of protection offered to African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries. This article provides an assessment of the trade impact of this tariff‐only regime on the basis of simulations carried out with a dynamic partial equilibrium model of the world banana market using 2002–03 as the base year. Simulation results show that the tariff levied on imports from non‐ACP countries should be set at around €250 per tonne in order to maintain in 2008 the EU import structure that prevailed in 2003. A lower tariff would increase EU total imports, to the benefit of non‐ACP countries and to the detriment of the group of ACP countries. Conversely, a higher tariff would decrease EU imports from non‐ACP countries and increase imports from ACP suppliers. Under this assumption, the increase in ACP exports to the EU would mainly benefit the two West African suppliers, Cameroon and Ivory Coast, who are more competitive and have a more price elastic supply than the ACP suppliers of the Caribbean islands.
Communicating Food‐Safety Risks to Key Stakeholders
Authors: Peddie Scott , Stott Alistair , Oglethorpe David , Gunn George
Published: September 2006

In recent years, the public has become increasingly concerned about the safety of the food they eat. Anxieties are augmented each time there is a food crisis, with each new disease and resultant food safety concern adding to the perception that our food is no longer safe. Bridging the gap between the scientist/veterinarian, economist, farmer and consumer requires effective communication strategies. This article uses the example of paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) in cattle to illustrate the difficulties of communicating food‐safety risks when considerable uncertainty exists. Scientific data linking this disease to Crohn's disease in humans is contradictory and far from conclusive. We show how the Codex Alimentarius system can be used as a template for communicating risk in such situations. This is a four‐stage process that addresses public perceptions of the risk and the public's related information requirements. One aim is to give peoples’ concerns as much emphasis as the risk statistics in an open and honest debate. The example highlights the difficulty of deciding when and how best to instigate the process. However, positive collaboration between epidemiologists, public health specialists, economists, food marketers and policy‐makers to work in conjunction with consumers of both food and animal health products and services is essential for a satisfactory outcome.
The Role for Ethics in Bush's New World Order
Authors: Brinkoetter Steve
Published: August 2006

The end of the Cold War and the reduction of tensions between East and West have generated talk of a “new world order” in which greater cooperation between states might be possible. These developments also raise the possibility that state behavior might be constrained more than ever before by shared moral standards, contributing further to the reduction in international tensions. Brinkoetter investigates the potential role that shared moral standards - and international ethics in general - may play in this new world order. The role that one finds for international ethics in the new world order depends upon whose version of it is being evaluated - in this case George Bush's.
Power and Suspicion: The Perspectives of Reinhold Niebuhr
Authors: Diggins John Patrick
Published: August 2006

This essay seeks to bring Reinhold Niebuhr into the postructuralist dialogue in order to suggest that his writings are far more constructive about the human predicament. The essay begins by presenting eleven positions commonly taken by poststructuralists. It then examines similarities between Niebuhr and postructuralist thinkers in their interrogation of the Enlightenment to expose the illusions of reason and progress and in their exposure of the Marxist philosophy of history as a false teleology that dramatizes truth and freedom emerging triumphant from conflict and struggle. Instead of posing postructuralist constraints and incarceration, however, Niebuhr's theology and philosophy of history offer indeterminate potentialities for freedom. Whereas the poststructuralists fetishize systems and structures, Niebuhr believes in the possibilities of human agency. And while Foucault presents us with a theory of oppression without an oppressor, Niebuhr seeks to show how power issues from ourselves, from the sin-prone ego that prevents consciousness from rising to knowledge of the motives for its own actions. The essay argues, finally, that in Niebuhr power and morality meet in one, with a suspicious glance at the disavowal of power and the pretensions of morality, and with responsibility for the use of power remaining within mind, will, and conscience.
Notes on the Just War Theory: Whose Justice, Which Wars?
Authors: Myers Robert J.
Published: August 2006

Dr. Myers challenges the legitimacy of the traditional concept of the “just war,” revived during the Vietnam War and with the publication of Michael Walzer'sJust and Unjust Warsin 1977. The doctrine's major flaw, says Myers, is that it allows self-interested interpretation in a world of sovereign states - “Whose justice are we talking about?” he asks. Myers nonetheless validates the theory's intention and its utility in coping with war
“Think Globally, Punish Locally”: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions
Authors: Rodman Kenneth A.
Published: September 2006

The traditional realist paradigm holds that the sovereign nation-state is the principal political and legal unit in the world community. Reflecting this tradition, most studies of economic sanctions are state-centered. They assume that states exercise control over their national corporations to deny economic resources to other states. Within this framework, nongovernmental human rights organizations become involved only as interest groups, lobbying governments to regulate or ban private economic activity with designated malefactor. These groups, however, are generally unable to persuade states to mandate disinvestment from or socially responsible behavior within repressive regimes. As a result, they redirect their energies away from the central authorities and toward corporations-directly pressuring them through boycotts and shareholder activism-and local governments-persuading them to condition municipal contracts on human rights criteria.

This essay examines the degree to which these nonstate actors can provide an alternative center of authority to that of the state in imposing human rights accountability on corporate conduct abroad. The first section explains the logic of nonstate sanctions and establishes criteria against which one can judge their challenge to realism. The second section assesses the successes and limitations of the anti-apartheid movement, which is viewed as the role model for such efforts. The third and final section contrasts the South African case with recent campaigns against corporate investment in Burma and Nigeria. These cases have been chosen because most grassroots organizations have pressed for corporate withdrawal rather than for more socially responsible business practices. Each represents an attempt by citizens' groups to impose sanctions against repressive regimes beyond those enacted by governments.
South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Ethical and Theological Perspectives
Authors: Graybill Lyn S.
Published: September 2006

How do governments deal with human rights violations committed by former regimes? South Africa's solution has been to set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which offers amnesty to perpetrators who tell the truth about the past and disclose their deeds to the victims; the goal is the reconciliation of former enemies. While the TRC has a clear political focus, it is at its heart a deeply theological and ethical initiative. At times, however, it appears that ethics and theology are at cross-purposes, that justice is less important than Christian mercy; this viewpoint springs from a narrow understanding of what constitutes justice. Does offering amnesty to perpetrators and forgiving enemies deny the victims justice? Or does the TRC embody a “different kind of justice,” as one commentator recently suggested? In this overview of the TRC—its establishment, procedures, and principles—special attention is given to the ethical and theological arguments for this unique approach.
Humanitarian Intervention: An Overview of the Ethical Issues
Authors: Smith Michael J.
Published: September 2006

The capacity to focus on the issue of humanitarian intervention represents what Joel Rosenthal has noted as the maturation of the field of ethics and international affairs. If nothing else, the debate surrounding this vexed issue has demonstrated that we have left behind the so-called oxymoron problem: there is no reason now to be defensive about bracketing the terms “ethics” and “international relations.” One can hardly talk about Bosnia, Rwanda, Haiti, Somalia, or any cases of possible outside intervention, without recognizing from the very beginning that ethical dilemmas abound in the way we define our goals, our interests, and the means we use to pursue them. Even Samuel P. Huntington, not usually known to be a moralist, has asserted that “it is morally unjustifiable and politically indefensible that members of the [U.S.] armed forces should be killed to prevent Somalis from killing one another.” Whether or not one agrees with that assertion (I do not), one may note that Huntington speaks in terms of moral justification and regards his view of morality to be, in effect, self-evidently true. Thus even archrealists invoke morality in urging their preferred policies.

The discussion in this essay proceeds in three unequal stages. First, I present a brief and oversimple sketch of the objective and subjective changes in the broader milieu of international relations as they relate to humanitarian intervention. Second, and more substantially, I survey and analyze the arguments justifying or opposing the notion of humanitarian intervention from realist and liberal perspectives. Finally, I offer the beginnings of my own argument and consider the enormous difficulties of undertaking humanitarian intervention with any degree of effectiveness and consistency.
Postmodern Ethical Conditions and a Critical Response
Authors: Crawford Neta C.
Published: September 2006

Postmodern, poststructural, and critical theorists say that there are no universally valid foundations for norms. Whether or not we think that ethics exists in international life, or ought to, these theorists maintain that there are no firm grounds for any particular ethical belief. Rather, they argue, ethics is contextual.

Many, perhaps most, students of international ethics believe that such approaches have little to offer considerations of international ethics. Christopher Norris says postmodernists are nihilists: “Postmodernism is merely the most extreme (or as some would say, most consistent and consequent) version of this desire to have done with all truth-claims beyond what is presently and contingenty ‘good in the way of belief.‘” Ken Booth argues: “If one scratches a committed post-modernist one will almost certainly find a comfortably well-off Western urban liberal. Those who live against the wall, or who have emancipated themselves from such a position, do not hold these views.… The reason for this is obvious, and relates to the fact that post-modernism—certainly that of a doctrinaire variety—does not deliver an ethics for the emancipation of victims across the world.”
More Than Anyone Bargained For: Beyond the Welfare Contract
Authors: Goodin Robert E.
Published: September 2006

From British debates over the 1832 New Poor Law to the near present, the notion of “desert” has long had a clear referent in discussions of social welfare policy. The designation “deserving poor” was reserved for those with legitimate grounds for not supporting themselves through paid employment. Invariably among them were the very young, the very old, and the mentally and physically very disabled—people who literally could not work for a living. Also included were various categories of people who, according to the varying conventions of the day, were socially excused from paid labor—widows in the Victorian era, students in the postwar era, and so on. Anyone who could and should work for a living but refused to do so was traditionally deemed to be among the “undeserving poor.” Those were the people whose “welfare dependency” has long been the target of welfare reformers, most recently Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, Bill Clinton and Tony Blair.
The Land Ethic: A New Philosophy for International Relations
Authors: Barkdull John , Harris Paul G.
Published: September 2006

The 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment brought world leaders together for the first time to discuss the environmental challenge. Since Stockholm, environmental diplomacy has addressed many issues, with varying results. Some success has been achieved, but in general the record shows the inadequacy of international cooperation to meet the environmental challenge.
Toward a Moral System for World Society: A Reflection on Human Responsibilities
Authors: Maxwell Mary
Published: September 2006

Twenty-four former presidents and prime ministers, representing five continents and calling themselves the InterAction Council, have produced a landmark proposal for global ethics. Reflecting this year's 50th anniversary of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, their document is called the Universal Declaration of Human Responsibilities (a text of it is appended to this article). A key point of interest is that these ex-leaders of governments sought advice from a range of religious leaders and philosophers.
Acting on Belief: Christian Perspectives on Suffering and Violence
Authors: Lynch Cecelia
Published: August 2006

What type of ethics should guide our behavior in contemporary conflicts? Religious groups working in many parts of the world are deeply involved in providing practical and theological answers to that question. This article examines two types of Judeo-Christian perspectives that stress the imperative to act to relieve suffering and transcend violence: liberation theology and the “religious humanitarian perspective.” Both perspectives draw linkages between ethical guidelines and action, and both have influenced broader political debates. The essay poses the following questions:

What are the ethical bases of action for contemporary activists and theologians in these traditions, and have these changed with political circumstances?; and

Are there ethical and practical connections between contemporary religious humanitarianism and liberation theology, and can they provide us with a coherent ethic of action to relieve suffering and reduce violence in the world?

These questions are analyzed in light of current theological conceptions of evil, religious pluralism, and the uneasy boundaries between violence and nonviolence.
The Laws of War: A Military View
Authors: Nash William L.
Published: August 2006

I served as a lieutenant in Vietnam. In June 1969, after being in the country for about ten days, I saw my first combat action and it was typically confusing. My platoon was on a reconnaissance mission as part of a larger force when some members of the unit saw a few Vietcong soldiers and began to pursue them through the jungle and marshland countryside. The enemy soldiers were quickly cornered, one was captured, and at least two more cowered in a streambed about 100 yards away. In circumstances I do not fully understand to this day, there was gunfire, many vehicles raced back and forth, and the two radios I was required to monitor broadcast a confusion of chatter. Suddenly, on the higher command radio, I heard the voice of our colonel: “Stop shooting; that's murder,” he ordered. The soldiers did stop shooting, the prisoners were secured, and we continued our mission. But that single, short order had great impact on me. It taught me more than any schoolhouse instruction ever could have about the laws of war and how professional soldiers behave in combat.
The Style of the New War: Making the Rules as We Go Along
Authors: Lopez George A.
Published: August 2006

It is curious to note the evolution of discussions about the moral and legal rules that apply in the fight against terrorism. Immediately after September 11, when it was clear that the United States was going to focus its new war within Afghanistan, the first question that arose was how the United States was going to assess the deaths of Afghan civilians as collateral damage . A second, major set of legal and ethical issues developed around the Bush administration's declaration that those captured in the war would face trial before military tribunals. And as the major campaigns of the war have come to a close, the celebrated issue has become the present and future legal status of the quite different fighters, supporters, and operatives of al-Qaeda and the former Taliban government who are in U. S .custody.
For a Cautious Utopianism
Authors: Burke Anthony
Published: August 2006

I thank Professor Elshtain for her response to my article, and the editors for inviting me to make some clarifications and engage in what is emerging as a profound normative dispute about the underlying hopes and worldview of “just war” thinkers and various post-Kantian tendencies. This dispute is centered on our view of the role of war in international society, the normative promise and understanding of “peace,” and, to a lesser extent, on critiques of sovereignty and the state. If our exchange has any value, it will be to highlight the considerable stakes of this dispute, which might have otherwise remained hidden in a few short pages of Elshtain's important Women and War.
A Moral Critique of the Cosmopolitan Institutional Proposal
Authors: Lee Steven
Published: August 2006

Preventive intervention, though an old practice, has recently come under widespread discussion due to concerns about international terrorism and the potential availability to rogue states or terrorists of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). With the 2003 war in Iraq, the Bush administration made preventive intervention part of United States military policy. In a recent issue of Ethics & International Affairs, Allen Buchanan and Robert Keohane argued that the preventive use of military force may be justified in some circumstances. In this essay I take issue with their argument.
Justifying Preventive Force
Authors: Buchanan Allen , Keohane Robert O.
Published: August 2006

Steven Lee offers a probing and fair minded critique of our effort to show that the preventive use of military force could be justified if the decision to undertake preventive action was reached through an appropriate institutional process. Our responses to his thoughtful criticisms will help to clarify both the moral-philosophical arguments and the institutional proposal presented in our earlier paper.