bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biology
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

In October 1997, an audience filed into the theater at the University of Oregon and sat down to hear a very unusual concert. A professional concert pianist, Winifred Kerner, was performing several pieces composed by Bach. Well, actually, not all of the pieces had been composed by Bach, although they all sounded like they were. This was a competition to determine who could best compose pieces in Bach’s style, and the audience’s task was to listen to three compositions, one by Bach and the others by two different composers, and then vote on which was the real thing. Yet this information age competition had a novel twist: the audience had been told that one of the composers was a computer program known as EMI (Experiments in Musical Intelligence) developed by David Cope, a composer and a professor of music at the University of California, Santa Cruz. The audience knew that of the three compositions, one would be an original Bach, one would be a composition by Steve Larson—a professor of music theory at the University of Oregon—and one would be by EMI. For each of the performances, the audience had to choose which of the three composers had generated it. The audience first voted on Professor Larson’s composition. He was a little upset when the audience vote was announced: they thought that the computer had composed his piece. But Professor Larson was shocked when the audience’s vote on EMI’s piece was announced: they thought it was an original Bach!1 After the concert, Professor Larson said “My admiration for [Bach’s] music is deep and cosmic. That people could be duped by a computer program was very disconcerting” (quoted in Johnson, 1997, p. B9). In part 3, we’ll learn about exciting new research into the contexts of creativity: the societies, cultures, and historical periods where individual creativity takes place. Individual-level explanations are the most important component of the explanation of creativity, and that’s why I started the book with them. But individuals always create in contexts, and a better understanding of those contexts is essential to a complete explanation of creativity.
Culture
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

The light dove cleaving in free flight the thin air, whose resistance it feels, might imagine that her movements would be far more free and rapid in empty space. —Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1900, p. 6) In the last chapter, we learned about the important role played by the domain and the field. In our culture’s creativity myths, the domain—the set of conventions, past works, and standard ways of working—just gets in the way of creativity. It’s too constraining; the true creator ignores the domain and breaks all of the conventions. But that’s the wrong way to think about it. Instead, creativity researchers think of the domain as a kind of creativity language. Of course, you have to learn a language before you can talk; it’s impossible to communicate without sharing a language. In the same way, it’s impossible to create anything without the shared conventions of a domain. Just because you use the same words and grammatical rules as everyone else, you still manage to create a novel utterance almost every time you speak. And just because the creator accepts the conventions of a domain doesn’t mean they aren’t creative.1 Kant’s dove can only fly because of the invisible support of tiny air molecules. There could be no flight without air. The dove might feel the air only as resistance, and wish for the air to go away; but of course, in a vacuum the dove would fall to the ground.
History
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

Time is the greatest innovator. —Francis Bacon (1561-1626) (1868, Essays, in Works Volume 12, p. 160) Paul Cezanne was one of the most important painters of the 19th century. Born in 1838, Cezanne had a long and productive career. Cezanne’s paintings became more and more valuable throughout his life; his most valuable works were painted just before his death in 1906. The later paintings sell for more, and art professionals judge them to be more important (Galenson, 2001). This makes sense; after all, painters should become increasingly skilled with age, and their works should become increasingly more influential in the art world, and more valuable on the art market. However, Cezanne’s career pattern is not universal among artists. Pablo Picasso, born in Spain in 1881, also worked primarily in Paris. Picasso also had a long productive career, working right up to his death in 1973. However, while Cezanne painted his most important works late in life, Picasso painted his most valuable and most important works early in his career—while he was still in his twenties—and his output became increasingly less important over the rest of his life (see figure 9.1).
Writing
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

It is tremendously important that great poetry be written, it makes no jot of difference who writes it. —Ezra Pound (1954, p. 10) When the young American poet T. S. Eliot published The Waste Land in 1922— while still only 24 years old—it won him an international reputation. The Waste Land has no plot, but is instead a loosely connected series of images that capture the disillusionment and disgust at the death and destruction caused by World War I. The disconnected organization of the poem reflects the fragmented and confused nature of modern urban life. Eliot later proved that he was no one-shot wonder; he had a long, productive, and influential career in the decades after this first great success, capped with a Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Most of us assume that Eliot created The Waste Land. After all, his name is on the title page, and he was the one who cashed the check for the royalties. And after all, isn’t poetry one of the most solitary, private forms of creativity? Not in this case. The Waste Land was a collaborative creation; two other poets significantly modified Eliot’s first typed manuscript: his friend and colleague Ezra Pound, and his wife, Vivien Eliot.
Acting
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

Anyone interested in processes in the natural world would be very rewarded by a study of theatre conditions. His discoveries would be far more applicable to general society than the study of bees or ants. —Director Peter Brook (1968, p. 99) In 1992 and 1993, I was the pianist for one of Chicago’s most popular improvisational comedy groups. Three times every weekend, Off-Off-Campus would perform to a packed house of laughing fans. Along with the eight actors and the director, I arrived at the theater an hour early for the loud and vigorous warmup exercises. They exercised in a small circle, watching and listening closely to one another. All of the exercises were group activities, helping the group communicate instantly and think as a unit, building a group mind. I began each show by playing an up-tempo blues on the piano, as the stage lights came on and the actors ran to the stage, pumped with adrenaline. The show always began with a game of Freeze Tag. First, one of the actors introduced the show and asked members of the audience to shout out suggestions, asking for a location or a starting line of dialogue. Two performers then used this suggestion to begin an improvised scene. The actors accompanied their dialogue with exaggerated gestures and broad physical movements. The audience was told to shout “Freeze!” whenever they thought the actors were in interesting physical positions. Whenever anyone shouted “Freeze!” the actors stopped talking and immediately froze in whatever body position they happened to be in.
Science
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

The greatest collective work of art of the twentieth century. —Jacob Bronowski (1973, p. 328), referring to physics Are scientists really creative? After all, you might think that scientists simply discover truths by looking at the world; though of course, by using some very fancy equipment. The astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar said that when he discovered a new fact, it appeared to him to be something “that had always been there and that I had chanced to pick up” (quoted in Farmelo, 2002a, pp. xi-xii). If a good scientific theory is just an accurate reflection of reality, then a good scientist is one whose theories directly copy reality (Barrow, 2000). And it goes without saying that copying is not creative. However, this “copy theory” of science is wrong. The copy theory was famously argued by a group of mid-20th century philosophers known as logical empiricists.1 To an empiricist, science is a game of deduction: taking observations from experience and using them to derive statements about regularities in nature. However, when scholars began to study how scientists actually work, it turned out that empiricism and deduction weren’t very good explanations. Beginning with Karl Popper just after World War II, continuing with the influential analyses of science of Thomas Kuhn, through today’s studies of scientific laboratories by Bruno Latour and Karin Knorr-Cetina, we now know that scientific theories can’t be derived in any simple or mechanical way from observations.
Business Creativity
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

This process of Creative Destruction is the essential fact about capitalism. It is what capitalism consists in and what every capitalist concern has got to live in. —Economist Joseph Schumpeter (1942/1975, p. 83) According to the famous economist Joseph Schumpeter, creativity is the core of capitalism. New innovations displace the old, often leading to radical transformations, and creative destruction. Creative destruction, with rapid advances in technology, was a fact of life in the United States in the late 20th century. And by the end of the 20 th century, creativity had become the key factor driving the U.S. economy (Florida, 2002). Management scientists have discovered that you can’t explain business creativity using a strictly individualist approach. To explain any case of important innovation, we need to examine teamwork and collaboration, overall organizational structures and culture, and contextual factors such as the market and the regulatory climate. Management scientists have demonstrated what executives intuitively know: that organizational creativity occurs in complex social systems. One of the most well-known recent examples of technological innovation is the Windows operating system.1 Who created it? Many people will answer by saying that the Microsoft corporation created Windows. Microsoft released its Windows 3.1 operating system in 1990.
Risks to Healthy Development: The Somber Planes of Life
Authors: Travis Cheryl Brown
Published: November 2023

Gender is ubiquitous and at the same time nebulous—everywhere but nowhere. Often it is so embedded in everyday details as to be invisible. Yet in the aggregate, that which seems prosaic and ordinary is often compelling in ways not easily recognized. Birth announcements and clothing for newborns proclaim gender. Toys, games, and even such unlikely artifacts as lunch pails and umbrellas are codes for gender. Nonverbal gestures, postures, and mannerisms are similarly displays of gender. Gender stereotypes include prescriptions for emotional expression, temperament, competitiveness, relational style, and cognitive ability. Certain roles within the family and in society are firmly associated with gender, and exceptions usually receive a special label or designation. For example, common parlance has included the term “working mom” but not “working dad.” The universal presence of gender in so many aspects of identity and experience make it a worthwhile starting point from which to consider the disruptive and somber planes of life.
Women and Suicide
Authors: Range Lillian M
Published: November 2023

Sex differences in suicide rates indicate that girls and women have strengths, and some risks, in this area. The present chapter examines these rates, and treatment, highlighting the issues specific to girls and women. Suicide is a problem for both women and men. In 2001, a total of 30,622 people in the United States (24,672 men, 5,950 women) died by suicide (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2001). Given that the population was 285 million, that number of deaths gives a death rate by suicide of 10.73 per 100,000. Practically speaking, this number means that 1 or 2 of every 100,000 people alive in 2001 died by suicide, and these deaths were more likely to be men than women, although misclassification may mean that women are not as protected from suicide as these numbers imply (Phillips & Ruth, 1993). About .01% of the population of the United States will die by suicide.
To Your Sexual Health! Incorporating Sexuality Into the Health Perspective
Authors: Crudden, M C M C , Tolman Deborah L
Published: November 2023

This chapter is organized around a simple premise: Sexuality is an integral component of psychological health. This claim is anchored in both theoretical and empirical scholarship. In 1986, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a report that stated: “Sexuality influences thoughts, feelings, actions and interactions and thereby our mental and physical health” (Coleman, 2002). In 1994, the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo declared that sexual health should be considered an important part of a person’s physical and psychological well-being (Lottes & Adkins, 2003). Similarly, in 2001, the U.S. Surgeon General issued A Call to Action to Promote Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior, in which he proposed that sexuality goes beyond the physical aspects and includes emotional, mental, and interpersonal components as well (Satcher, 2001).
The Family Environment: Where Gender Role Socialization Begins
Authors: Bronstein Phyllis
Published: November 2023

There is ample research showing that by adolescence, girls—compared with boys—are likely to report greater concern about their appearance and behavior and to have lower self-esteem and career aspirations. In addition, they are less likely to speak out in class, challenge others, or express angry feelings. It appears that by this stage in life, many girls have internalized cultural messages that their worth lies mainly in being seen as physically attractive, sociable, modest, and docile. For researchers, clinicians, and educators concerned with the detrimental effects of such gender differences on girls’ psychological health and development, important questions are how and why these differences emerge. Years of exposure to stereotyped and distorted depictions of females in magazines, television, movies, and popular music certainly contribute to the gender role conceptions that adolescent girls develop. In addition, factors within the school environment, particularly during the middle school and high school years, may amplify those cultural messages.
Adolescent Girls’ Health in the Context of Peer and Community Relationships
Authors: Reynolds Bridget M , Repetti Rena L
Published: November 2023

There’s no denying that peers are very important to an adolescent girl: a best friend who knows her deepest secrets, a clique of friends who provide her with a sense of belonging and a shared identity outside of her family, an athletic team that enhances her skills and offers experiences in group coordination and shared accomplishment. The adolescent world often seems to revolve around the peer group. It is no surprise, then, that the peer group plays a critical role in the psychological and physical health of teenage girls. Peer relationships can be the best of times for some girls and the worst of times for others. Whether peers will enhance or cause harm to a teenage girl’s development depends on the characteristics of the girls and boys with whom she spends her time and on the quality of those relationships.
Women’s Career Development
Authors: Betz Nancy E
Published: November 2023

Although it used to be assumed that women’s careers were not as important as men’s because they occupied only short periods of the adult woman’s life span, societal changes over the last 40 or 50 years have led to increased employment for women outside the home. Women’s careers have become an increasingly important part of most women’s lives and, as we now see, critically important for their mental health. Women now constitute a significant portion of the labor force in the United States and, conversely, the vast majority of U.S. women work outside the home. In the year 2000, three fifths of women were employed. Of those aged 25–44, 75% were employed. Sixty percent of women with children under the age of one year (12 months) are employed. The odds that a woman will work outside the home during her adult life are over 90%. Consequently, paid employment (vs. work inside the home) is now the rule, not the exception. There is no category of women for whom the majority is not employed outside the home.
Family and Work Balance
Authors: Crosby Faye J , Sabattini Laura
Published: November 2023

In years gone by, the problem of balancing work and family was thought to be a women’s issue. We now know better. Men live in families, too. And the welfare of families is not simply a matter of concern for individuals. Balancing paid and domestic work is a social issue. According to U.S. Census statistics, in 2001 approximately 57% of women (across ethnic groups) were working full time outside the home and about 23% worked part time (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2002, 2003). The trend toward increased labor force participation is particularly dramatic among mothers. That same year, 78.7% of single and 69.6% of married mothers with children under 18 years of age were employed (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2002).
Physical Health and Illness in Older Women
Authors: majerovitz S Deborah
Published: November 2023

Advances in health care over the last century have radically altered our experience of old age. First, average life expectancy has increased dramatically over the past century. Vaccines, antibiotics, and improved obstetric care have all but eradicated many common causes of death for children and young adults, so that the majority of people can expect to become old. Improved treatment for chronic illness has further increased life expectancy. At every age and in every country that reports health statistics, women have lower rates of mortality than men (Idler, 2003). As a result, the majority of older adults are female and this gender gap widens with age. There are several theories attempting to explain this gender gap in health and longevity, including a biologically based health advantage for women resulting from sex hormones or genetic differences, better health behaviors and use of health care, less stressful and dangerous work environments, and lower risk-taking behavior (Gold, Malmberg, McClearn, Pedersen, & Berg, 2002). Older women report more symptoms of illness and live with more chronic health conditions than men, although life-threatening chronic conditions are more prevalent among older men, even within brothersister twin pairs (Gold et al., 2002).
Older Women and Security
Authors: Markham Bonnie
Published: November 2023

Women need to feel secure, at whatever age. Minimally, physical requirements for survival must be met. To thrive, however, women need to develop confidence that the social and physical environment will adequately respond to them and can be adapted to meet their needs, at least to some degree. As girls grow into women, and as women mature, they develop increased mastery over their environment, decreased dependency, and greater self-sufficiency. These qualities also contribute to positive self-esteem. By the time a woman is in her seventh or eighth decade of life she is likely to have a stable sense of self that includes purpose, value, and control in the world, or using Susan Whitbourne’s terms, “personal power, strength, and effectiveness” (1996, p. 9). Aging and its associated changes can challenge mastery, independence, and self-sufficiency. Under the best of circumstances there is opportunity for continued growth, creativity, and fulfillment.
Survivors of Male Violence: Research and Training Initiatives to Facilitate Recovery From Depression and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Herrera Veronica m. , Koss mary p. , bailey Jennifer , Yuan, nicole p. , Lichter erika l.
Published: November 2023

Violence against women encompasses physical and sexual abuse perpetrated against a woman or female child by persons known or unknown to her, such as spouses, partners, boyfriends, fathers, brothers, acquaintances, or strangers (Saltzman, Fanslow, McMahon, & Shelley, 1999). At least one woman in three globally is beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime (Heise, Ellsberg, & Gottemuller, 1999). Because women represent 85% of the victims of the 1 million incidents of nonfatal intimate assaults that occur each year in the United States (Greenfield et al., 1998), violence is a women’s health concern, a human rights issue, and a major public health problem. The present review focuses on two predominant psychological responses among survivors of male violence: depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms.
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) Microscopy Instrumentation and Applications
Authors: Potma Eric O , Xie X Sunney
Published: November 2023

Key to the success of optical microscopy in cellular biology is the ability to detect structures with a clear chemical contrast. Identifying the distribution and dynamics of targets in the cell is accomplished only if these compounds can be visualized selectively. Fluorescence microscopy achieves this chemical selectivity through associating structures with a fluorescent tag. Thanks to the vast number of specific fluorescent probes, this recipe has unveiled many of the secrets of the living cell.
High-Speed Imaging Using Multiphoton Excitation Microscopy
Authors: Kim Ki H , Bahlmann Karsten , Ragan Timothy , Kim, Daekeun , Peter T C So
Published: November 2023

Multiphotonmicroscopy (Denk et al., 1990; Helmchen & Denk, 2002; So et al., 2000; Zipfel et al., 2003) produces three-dimensionally resolved images based on nonlinear optical interactions localized at the focus of a microscope objective. Multiphoton microscopy in the fluorescence mode is now the method of choice for in vivo deep tissue microscopic imaging because of its subcellular resolution, minimal phototoxicity, and excellent tissue penetration depth. For many tissues, penetration depths from a few hundred microns up to a millimeter have been reported (Helmchen & Denk, 2005). Multiphoton microscopy has become an invaluable tool in biomedical studies such as neuronal plasticity (Grutzendler et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2005; Lendvai et al., 2000), angiogenesis in solid tumors (Padera et al., 2002), and transdermal drug delivery (Yu et al., 2001).
Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)
Authors: Masters Barry R , Peter T C So
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we describe the theoretical and experimental basis for Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). Since the concepts of resonance and dipole–dipole interaction are integral to the formulation of both the Perrin and the Förster theories of resonance energy transfer, their qualitative and quantitative aspects are introduced in terms of classical physics and quantum mechanics.
Femtosecond Laser Nanoprocessing
Authors: König Karsten
Published: November 2023

Multiphotonmicroscopy based onthe applicationof tight-focused near-infrared (NIR) femtosecond laser beams has been considered a valuable tool for vital cell imaging (Denk et al., 1990). Typically, 80-MHz/90-MHz mode-locked titanium sapphire lasers with about 1 W mean output power have been employed as a laser source to realize two-photon fluorescence imaging and second-harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy (König et al., 2000; Mertz, 2008). The laser beam has to be attenuated to provide =< 10-mW laser power and < 130-pJ pulse energy, respectively, at the sample. However, when increasing the mean power at the sample to the range of 50 mW to 250 mW and 0.5 nJ to 3 nJ pulse energy, respectively, destructive effects occur (König, 2001; König et al., 1997, 1999; Oehring et al., 2000; Tirlapur et al., 2001). At these power and pulse energy levels, the transient laser intensity reaches the TW/cm2 range, which is sufficient to induce multiphoton ionization and plasma formation. When working near the threshold for optical breakdown, material ablation can be realized within the central part of the diffraction-limited subfemtoliter multiphoton interaction volume without any collateral effects (König et al., 1999, 2001, 2002). In fact, nanodissection and hole drilling in human chromosomes with ablation zones as low as sub-70 nm have been realized without out-of-focus effects using a laser wavelength more than 10 times larger (λ 800 nm) (König et al. 2001). Multiphoton femtosecond laser microscopy offers the possibility of breaking the “Abbe barrier” of diffraction-limited nanoprocessing and of enabling laser nanobiotechnology and laser nanomedicine. The possible diffraction-limited minimum beam spot size is inversely proportional to the laser wavelength. So far, most of laser-induced ablation, cutting, and drilling effects inthe submicronrange have beenrealized with ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The ArF excimer laser at 193 nm plays the most
Pioneering Applications of Two-Photon Microscopy to Mammalian Neurophysiology Seven Case Studies
Authors: Nguyen Q -T , Clay G O , Nishimura, N , Schaffer C B , Schroeder L F , Tsai P S , Kleinfeld D
Published: November 2023

It is commonly assumed, although insufficiently acknowledged, that major advances in neuroscience are spurred by methodological innovations. Novel techniques may appear quite daunting at first, but their successful application not only places them among mainstream methods, but also stimulates further developments in new directions. Such is the case for two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) (Denk et al., 1990), which was introduced in neuroscience in the early 1990s (Denk et al., 1994). Since that time, the impact of TPLSM in neurobiology hasbeen nothing short of remarkable. Several excellent reviews on TPLSM have already covered the general aspects of this technique (Denk et al., 1995; Denk & Svoboda, 1997; Stutzmann and Parker, 2005; Zipfel et al., 2003), details of the instrumentation (Tsai et al., 2002), and recent advances (Brecht et al., 2004). The object of this chapter is to showcase seminal applications of TPLSM in neuroscience, with a particular emphasis on mammalian neurobiology. The seven case studies presented here not only expound the broad range of applications of TPLSM but also show that TPLSM has been used to resolve significant issues in mammalian neurobiology that were previously unanswered due to lack of an appropriate technique.
Nonlinear Microscopy Applied to Dermatology
Authors: Masters Barry R , Peter T C So
Published: November 2023

The application of nonlinear optical microscopy for tissue imaging has an early start in dermatology and is the subject of an increasing number of studies that are based on nonlinear optical microscopy. The term “dermatology” (Greek derma [skin] Greek logos [study]) was created in the late 1700s (Holubar & Schmidt, 1992). The early adaptation of nonlinear microscopy in dermal studies originates from two factors. First, unlike many internal organs, the accessibility of skin allows nonlinear microscopic imaging in the format of standard laboratory microscopes and does not require surgery or the use of endoscopic technology. Second, skin is a highly scattering tissue with large layer-by-layer variation in refractive index. Therefore, while there is good progress in noninvasive skin imaging using linear optical technology, the superior performance of nonlinear microscopy in highly scattering materials enables more rapid progress to be made in this field. For biomedical applications, the ideal case is to study in vivo human skin using minimally invasive optical imaging and spectroscopy techniques. In practice, this is not always possible, as in vivo imaging techniques do not provide resolution and biochemical information content comparable to that of traditional histology. Furthermore, some measurements, such as the determination of tissue genetic expression profiles, inevitably require specimen excision. When optical imaging can be obtained together with histological skin preparations from the same body region, very good comparison can still be made (Rajadhyaksha, González, et al., 1999). Alternatively, a better understanding of skin physiology can also be obtained by using two different in vivo optical techniques, including nonlinear optical microscopy methods, to study the same region of human in vivo skin (Masters & So, 1999, 2001). In this chapter, we are discussing human skin unless otherwise stated.
The Second Barrier
Authors: Hillary Sir Edmund
Published: November 2023

In His Carefully Planned scheme of acclimatisation, Hunt had allowed for rest periods at lower altitudes after a spell of hard work. Some of us didn’t feel particularly like a rest, but Hunt wisely insisted that we take it. We all descended to Lake Camp, and although it snowed heavily every afternoon, we spent quite a pleasant time resting, writing letters, and mending our gear. Several days later we returned to the attack. Our first task was to make the icefall route sufficiently safe and easy to enable our band of porters to get up it. Some of the party, working from Base Camp, concentrated on the lower portion. Long pine poles had been brought up from the valleys, and these, together with sections of our aluminium ladder, were used to bridge the more difficult crevasses. Fixed ropes were placed on ‘Mike’s Horror’ and ‘Hillary’s Horror’, and some of the more threatening of the séracs were cut away. But, despite all this work, the route never really became either easy or particularly safe. The daily falls of snow continually wiped out the tracks, and the ‘Atom Bomb’ area usually managed overnight to provide a new crevasse or widen an existing one. The icefall was in constant movement, so it needed constant attention.
Summit
Authors: Hillary Sir Edmund
Published: November 2023

At 6.30 A.M. We crawled slowly out of the tent and stood on our little ledge. Already the upper part of the mountain was bathed in sunlight. It looked warm and inviting, but our ledge was dark and cold. We lifted our oxygen on to our backs and slowly connected up the tubes to our face-masks. My 30-lb. load seemed to crush me downwards and stifled all enthusiasm, but when I turned on the oxygen and breathed in deeply, the burden seemed to lighten and the old urge to get to grips with the mountain came back. We strapped on our crampons and tied on our nylon rope; grasped our iceaxes and were ready to go.

I looked at the way ahead. From our tent very steep slopes covered with deep powder snow led up to a prominent snow shoulder on the South-east ridge about a hundred feet above our heads. The slopes were in the shade and breaking trail was going to be cold work. Still a little worried about my boots, I asked Tenzing to lead off. Always willing to do his share, and more than his share if necessary, Tenzing scrambled past me and tackled the slope. With powerful thrusts of his legs he forced his way up in knee-deep snow. I gathered in the rope and followed along behind him.
Detecting Selection at the Molecular Level
Authors: Nachman Michael W
Published: November 2023

Selection acts on the phenotype but can leave its signature at the molecular level. For example, if a new mutation arises at a locus and confers a fitness advantage, it may spread quickly to all individuals in a population and thereby eliminate all preexisting variation at the locus. Because selection is a deterministic process, patterns of DNA variation caused by selection can often be distinguished from patterns caused by other processes, such as genetic drift or migration. This basic idea has led to a proliferation of theoretical and empirical studies aimed at detecting the effects of selection at the molecular level.
The Evolution of Reproductive Isolating Barriers
Authors: Johnson Norman A
Published: November 2023

Much of evolution occurs on time scales that are too long for humans to observe. Thus, as in many other branches in science, evolutionary biologists often must infer process from observed patterns. The study of speciation, how one species becomes more than one species, is no exception as the process usually takes place over thousands of generations. In this chapter, I will highlight some of the recent progress in uncovering patterns about speciation and discuss what inferences can be drawn from those patterns. In this chapter, I will define species based on the Biological Species Concept (BSC) (Dobzhansky 1937; Mayr 1963). Following the BSC, two populations are separate species if they lack the potential to interbreed and are the same species if they can interbreed. Thus, by this definition, reproductive isolation (non-interbreeding) is the essence of species. Based on the BSC and its variants, the process of speciation consists of diverging populations accumulating genetic changes that result in reproductive isolation. Note that such reproductive isolation is intrinsic to the organisms; two geographically isolated (allopatric) populations that do not exchange genes solely owing to their geographic isolation would be of the same species. As speciation is a process, there is a continuum between one interbreeding species and two completely reproductively isolated species. This continuum has made it possible for geneticists to do crosses between taxa at various stages along the way to them becoming completely reproductively isolated.
Genetics of Reproductive Isolation and Species Differences in Model Organisms
Authors: Michalak Pawel , Noor Mohamed A F
Published: November 2023

The two attributes most commonly used to identify and define species are distinct phenotypic differences and reproductive isolation between groups of organisms, respectively. Because of this usage, understanding the genetic basis of these attributes is of fundamental importance in evolutionary genetics. The two phenomena are not independent of each other: phenotypic differentiation may cause reproductive isolation and reproductive isolation may allow further phenotypic differentiation (Orr 2001). Despite our realization of the importance of these attributes and that they interact, we have only begun to scratch the surface of their underlying genetic complexity.
Theory of Phylogenetic Estimation
Authors: Egan Ashley N , Crandall Keith A
Published: November 2023

The genetic makeup of an organism (genotype) provides a blueprint for its physical existence (phenotype)-from morphological characteristics to biochemical constituents and processes characterizing the organism as a unique individual, unlike any other in the world. Yet there are obvious biological similarities among different organisms. Scientists have noted these similarities and differences and endeavored to use them to reconstruct historical relationships between extant species. The observations and endeavors of past scientists to understand the evolution of life have led to the scientific discipline of phylogenetics.
Evolutionary Genetics of Host-Parasite Interactions
Authors: Kover Paula X
Published: November 2023

Parasites include a broad group of organisms: from viruses to parasitic fish, including a few plant species. While some parasites have little or no effect on their hosts, most have been shown to significantly affect host traits such as morphology, life history, and mating system (Kuris 1974; Clay & Putten 1999). Consequently, parasites have the potential to significantly affect host fitness and exert strong selective pressure on host traits. Likewise, parasite fitness is dependent on the defense strategies deployed by hosts. Thus, evolutionary changes in the host can also have an effect on pathogen fitness. This interdependence between host and parasite fitness can lead to a coevolutionary process, where reciprocal, adaptive changes occur in both host and parasite.
Mourning, Melancholia, and Sylvia Plath
Authors: Schultz William Todd
Published: November 2023

Writing an essay on Sylvia Plath is a lot like taking up the subject of Marilyn Monroeor Hitler. One has the feeling of arriving late or, worse, uninvited to a party packed with people, all nursing finely wrought opinions of one sort or another for which they might even be willing to die. There is, one quickly senses, an enormous amount of catching up to do. What ‘s left to say that can be the least bit unexpected, the slightest bit revisive? And when one combs the margins, and as the margins grow ever more marginal, so too do most ideas residing there. In fact, the more limited the aim, the more precise the question asked, the more jejune it proportionally becomes. Slim chance for a large statement, in other words.
Edith Wharton and Ethan Frome: A Psychobiographical Exploration
Authors: Anderson James William
Published: November 2023

An Isolated ChildhoodThe novelist Edith Wharton published an autobiography that never gets beneath the surface. But she also left behind some unpublished pages that are far more revealing. These begin: My first conscious recollection is of being kissed in Fifth Avenue by my cousin Dan Fearing. It was a winter day, I was walking with my father, & I was a little less than four years old, when this momentous event took place. My cousin, a very round and rosy little boy, two or three years older, was also walking with his father; & I remember distinctly his running up to me, & kissing me, & the extremely pleasant sensation which his salute produced. With equal distinctness, I recall the satisfaction I felt in knowing that I had on my best bonnet Thus I may truly say that my first conscious sensations were produced by the two deepest-seated instincts of my nature—the desire to love & to look pretty. (Wharton, 1990, p. 1071)
Freud as Leonardo: Why the First Psychobiography Went Wrong
Authors: Elms Alan C
Published: November 2023

Sigmund Freud ‘s book on Leonardo (1910/ 1957b) is widely regarded as the first genuine psychobiography. Other researchers, including Möbius and Sadger, had previously concerned themselves with the psychology of “great men, “ but their main goal was to arrive at a specific diagnosis of psychopathology. In Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood (originally published in 1910), Freud went much further: He applied a systematic theory of personality to the entire span of a creative individual ‘s life, and he provided psychological explanations for certain of Leonardo ‘s achievements as well as his failures. Almost a century later, Freud ‘s book remains in several regards a model psychobiography. He chose one of the most important and challenging biographical subjects in the history of the human race. He provided methodological guidelines for psychobiography, by prescriptive ex-ample and by proscriptive statement, that are valid today. Through a close reading of small as well as large clues about Leonardo ‘s life and work, and through the application of a coherent theoretical system, Freud was able to explain aspects of Leonardo ‘s character that had long puzzled art historians. Even Leonardo scholars who are not psychoanalytically inclined continue to acknowledge Freud ‘s insights.
From the Book of Mormon to the Operational Definition: The Existential Project of S.S. Stevens
Authors: Nicholson Ian
Published: November 2023

In 1935, Harvard psychologist S.S. Stevens published a landmark paper in the history of American psychology. Titled “The Operational Definition of Psychological Concepts, “ the paper laid out a philosophical formula for transforming psychology into a truly empirical science, and it introduced psychologists to a now ubiquitous term: the “operational definition “ (Stevens, 1935a). Stevens ‘s basic idea was to eliminate ambiguity by tying linguistic statements of psychological phenomena to observables. “Operational doctrine, “ Stevens wrote, “makes explicit recognition of the fact that a concept, or proposition, has empirical meaning only if it stands for definite, concrete operations capable of execution by normal human beings “ (p. 517). By rigorously policing the relationship between what we see, and the linguistic terms that we use to describe our observations, Stevens believed that psychologists could be “rid of the hazy ambiguities which result in ceaseless argument and dis- sension “ (p. 517).
Phage Ecology
Authors: Abedon Stephen T
Published: November 2023

Phage ecology is the study of the interactions between phage and their environments. These interactions are consequential, particularly to the extent that they affect bacteria. During traditional molecular phage characterization, however, only minimal consideration of ecology is made. Contrasting this tendency, here I consider phage organismal, population, community, and ecosystem ecology (Table 5-1). For additional approaches to the review of phage ecology, as well as the related field of phage environmental microbiology, see (7, 8, 10, 18, 20, 26, 39, 41, 49, 53) together with various reviews of aquatic and ecosystem phage ecology (38, 56, 59, 68, 69, 78).
The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) in the Study of Emotion and Attention
Authors: Bradley Margaret M , Lang Peter J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we discuss the development and use of picture stimuli incorporated in the International Affective Picture System (IAPS, pronounced “eye-aps”; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2005), a large set of emotionally evocative color photographs that includes pleasure, arousal, and dominance ratings made by men and women. The IAPS is currently used in experimental investigations of emotion and attention worldwide, providing experimental control in the selection of emotional stimuli, facilitating the comparison of results across different studies, and encouraging replication within and across psychological and neuroscience research laboratories. Numerous studies in our laboratory over the past 15 years have explored subjective, psychophysiological, behavioral, and neurophysiological reactions when viewing these affective stimuli. Basic findings from these studies, which will be informative for researchers considering or using the IAPS stimuli, are briefly summarized in this chapter.
Emotion Elicitation Using Dyadic Interaction Tasks
Authors: Roberts Nicole A , Tsai Jeanne L , Coan James A
Published: November 2023

Of all the possible elicitors of human emotion, interactions with other people may be the most powerful. Coworkers, friends, romantic partners, family members, and children can make us feel any type or intensity of emotion, ranging from mild joy to extreme frustration. Thus social interaction can be a rich source of spontaneous emotion, even in laboratory settings. By bringing two people (a dyad) into the laboratory and asking them to participate in an emotionally charged discussion (a dyadic interaction), researchers are able to observe a variety of emotions that closely resemble those that occur in everyday life. When used effectively, dyadic interaction tasks can offer researchers a wealth of information about the nature of emotion.
Continuous Measurement of Emotion:The Affect Rating Dial
Authors: Ruef Anna Marie , Levenson Robert W
Published: November 2023

Measurement of an individual’s subjective experience of emotion has long been a key component of emotion research, but it presents some unique challenges. Researchers have developed a number of different methods to assess the subjective emotional experiences of study participants, each of which has its strengths and limitations. Self-report measures such as the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) are well established and easy to complete and provide useful information; however, administration of any written measure necessitates an interruption in the flow of an experiment and does not allow frequent or continuous sampling of affective states. More involved methods, such as interviewing, give a detailed and comprehensive picture of a person’s emotions, but they are time-consuming and can provide only a retrospective report of affect. The interactive computer version of the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) Scales (Bradley & Lang, 1994) allows online assessment of both emotional valence and arousal levels, but it, too, does not provide a continuous record of affect.
L’Chaim and Its Limits: Why Not Immortality?
Authors: Kass Leon R
Published: November 2023

You don’t have to be Jewish to drink L’Chaim, to lift a glass “To Life.” Everyone in his right mind believes that life is good and that death is bad. Butjews have always had an unusually keen appreciation of life, and not only because it has been stolen from them so often and so cruelly. The celebration of life-of this life, not the next one-has from the beginning been central to Jewish ethical and religious sensibilities. In the Torah, “Be fruitful and multiply” is God’s first blessing and first command. Judaism from its inception rejected child-sacrifice and regarded long life as a fitting divine reward for righteous living. At the same time, Judaism embraces medicine and the human activity of healing the sick; from the Torah the rabbis deduced not only permission for doctors to heal, but also the positive obligation to do so. Indeed, so strong is this reverence for life that the duty of pikuah nefesh requires that Jews violate the holy Shabbat in order to save a life. Not by accident do we Jews raise our glasses “L’Chaim.” Neither is it accidental thatJews have been enthusiastic boosters of modern medicine and modern biomedical science.
Fractured Minds
Authors: Ogden Jenni A
Published: November 2023

Fractured Minds introduces the reader to clinical neuropsychology through vivid case descriptions of adults who have suffered brain damage. At one level, this is a book about the courage, humour, and determination to triumph over illness and disability that many "ordinary people" demonstrate when coping with the extraordinary stress of a brain disorder. On another level, it is a well-referenced and up-to-date textbook that provides a holistic view of the practice of clinical neuropsychology. Included are reader-friendly descriptions and explanations of a wide range of neurological disorders and neuroscientific concepts. Two introductory chapters are followed by 17 chapters that each focus on a specific disorder and include research, clinical assessment, rehabilitation, and a detailed case study. Disorders range across the full spectrum from common ones such as traumatic brain injury and dementia, to rare disorders such as autopagnosia. Each of the 16 chapters retained from the first edition has been revised to reflect current research and clinical advances. Three new chapters on multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease incorporate discussion of important current topics such as genetically-transmitted diseases, genetic counselling, gene transplantation, functional neurosurgery, and the complex ethical issues that go hand-in-hand with these new techniques.
Fitting data with nonlinear regression
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

Nonlinear regression is used to fit data to a model that defines Yas a function ofX. Y must be a variable like weight, enzyme activity, blood pressure or temperature. Some books refer to these kinds of variables, which are measured on a continuous scale, as “interval” variables. For this example, nonlinear regression will be used to quantify the potency of the drug by determining the dose of drug that causes a response halfway between the minimum and maximum responses. We’ll do this by fitting a model to the data.
Introducing models
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

A model is a mathematical description of a physical, chemical or biological state or process. Using a model can help you think about such processes and their mechanisms, so you can design better experiments and comprehend the results. A model forces you to think through (and state explicitly) the assumptions behind your analyses. Linear and nonlinear regression fit a mathematical model to your data to determine the best-fit values of the parameters of the model (e.g., potency values, rate constants, etc.).