bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SET SCORES AND FORCED‐CHOICE TESTS1,2
Authors: Hofstee Willem K. B.
Published: August 2014

Forced‐choice adjective checklists of heterogeneous content, together with an intelligence test and personality questionnaire scales, were administered to samples of 448 Dutch naval and 815 army recruits. Ratings of these subjects by superiors were obtained at the end of the basic military training period. The forced‐choice tests, scored for unpopular responses, correlated significantly with the ratings in both samples; the same was true for the intelligence measure, but not for the questionnaire scales. It was concluded that desirability sets, which influence forced‐choice test response, are related to nontest behavior; and it was suggested that the forced‐choice format may derive its relative effectiveness from its sensitivity to such tendencies.
HIGH SCHOOL ATTRITION
Authors: Stice Glen , Ekstrom Ruth B.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study is to describe the high school dropout with regard to his educational, vocational, and sociological charactersitics. Data were collected from a stratified sample of 97 public high schools having 9699 tenth‐grade pupils. Two years later a follow‐up was made to determine which pupils had completed high school. Dropouts were characterized by: (1) poor achievement in school, (2) having no plans for post‐high school education, (3) low academic aptitude, (4) having a father who is not a high school graduate and who holds a job requiring little skill or training, (5) enrollment in a non‐academic curriculum, and (6) living in the South or in a large city.
THE ROLES OF INFORMATION, DISCUSSION, AND CONSENSUS IN GROUP RISK TAKING1
Authors: Wallach Michael A. , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

What situational elements can account for the enhanced risk taking typical of group relative to individual decision making? The three elements investigated were: provision of information about the risk‐taking levels favored by peers, with the implication of judgmental comparison; group discussion, with the affective involvement it can generate; and achievement of consensus, with its possible centering of commitment upon the group. The subjects were 360 undergraduates, 180 of each sex, randomly assigned within sex to one of three experimental conditions, all involving five‐person groups. The group members in the respective conditions reached decisions concerning matters of risk through discussion to a consensus, through achievement of consensus without discussion, or through discussion without the requirement of consensus. For both male and female groups, discussion with or without consensus produced substantial shifts toward greater risk taking, while consensus without discussion yielded an averaging effect. Hence, the occurrence of group discussion is both necessary and sufficient for generating the risky—shift effect.
A NOTE ON THE NORMAL OGIVE OR LOGISTIC CURVE IN ITEM ANALYSIS
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

The relation of proportion of correct answers on an item to total test score is typically not a normal ogive or logistic curve.
A STRONG TRUE‐SCORE THEORY, WITH APPLICATIONS*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

A “strong” mathematical model for the relation between observed scores and true scores is developed. This model can be used

To estimate the frequency distribution of observed scores that will result when a given test is lengthened.

To equate true scores on two tests by the equipercentile method.

To estimate the frequencies in the scatterplot between two parallel (nonparallel) tests of the same psychological trait, using only the information in a (the) marginal distribution(s).

To estimate the frequency distribution of a test for a group that has taken only a short form of the test (this is useful for obtaining norms).

To estimate the effects of selecting individuals on a fallible measure.

To effect matching of groups with respect to true score when only a fallible measure is available.

To investigate whether two tests really measure the same psychological function when they have a nonlinear relationship.

To describe and evaluate the properties of a specific test considered as a measuring instrument.

The model has been tested empirically, using it to estimate bivariate distributions from univariate distributions, with good results, as checked by chi‐square tests.
JUDGMENTS OF VARIABILITY IN TWO RESPONSE MODES1
Authors: Myers Albert E.
Published: August 2014

Ss played a shuffleboard bowling game in which the variability of their performance was manipulated by E. Two response modes were used to assess the Ss' sensitivity to differences in variability: recall of individual scores and verbal report of “consistency.” The data supported the hypotheses that statistical tests are more sensitive to differences in variability than are the responses of Ss and that most of the individual elements in a naturally occurring distribution of variances would appear indistinguishable with respect to variability.
EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF GROUP MEMBERS UPON GROUP RISK TAKING1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Wallach Michael A.
Published: August 2014

Does the risky‐shift effect observed in decision‐making groups depend upon the face‐to‐face visual component of social interaction? The study directed to this question employed a sample of 96 undergraduate males. They were constituted as five‐person groups, but each group member occupied a separate booth which precluded visual contact between the participants. All communications took place over an intercom system connecting the five booths. All subjects first made individual decisions on a 12‐item Choice Dilemmas measure of risk‐taking dispositions. Then subjects were requested to discuss each of the 12 decision situations—with a consensus requirement in half the groups and without a consensus requirement in the other half. In the former case, risk‐taking scores were available for both consensus and postconsensus judgments; in the latter, risk taking was assessed from postdiscussion individual decisions. For both experimental conditions, significant risky shifts were obtained from initial individual decisions to subsequent group decisions and/or group‐influenced individual decisions. Results were highly consistent with those previously obtained in face‐to‐face discussion groups. We concluded, therefore, that the visual component of communication is not a necessary condition for the diffusion of responsibility presumed to underlie the risky‐shift phenomenon in small groups. Rather, the vocal component is sufficient to produce the risky‐shift effect.
SCALE PROPERTIES OF THE INTEREST INDEX
Authors: HALPERN GERALD
Published: August 2014

Extensive research by John French on the Interest Index produced a 12‐scale interest test with 16 items per scale. The present study investigated certain scale properties of the Interest Index. Internal consistency coefficients were found to cluster about .91, item‐scale assignment was verified for 99% of the items, scale test‐retest correlations (three‐week interval) were found to cluster about .86, and the individual scales were found to be remarkably independent of one another. It was concluded that, on all these measures, the Interest Index performs at least as well as any comparable test and, in addition, has three advantages over most. It is a very efficient instrument (in terms of number of items per scale), it utilizes subject matter experiences familiar to most students, and it measures interest in a wide variety of subject matter course areas. Partial confirmation of the construct validity of this test is provided, and it is recommended that (a) appropriate norms be developed and (b) further validation studies be conducted.
MODIFICATION OF A JUDGMENTAL STYLE THROUGH GROUP INTERACTION1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Wallach Michael A.
Published: August 2014

Shifts in judgmental extremity were examined when experimental Ss made judgments individually, then as a group, and finally again as individuals. Control Ss made individual judgments twice. A total of 206 secondary school students (103 males and 103 females) comprised the sample. Discussion‐to‐consensus in experimental groups was followed by significant declines in postconsensus extremity, but under different confidence conditions for males and females. Interpretation of these results stressed the role of group‐mediated modification of the cognitive risks and the need for uncertainty reduction reflected in individual extremity judgments.
SINGLE SCORE VERSUS MULTIPLE SCORE READING OF THE AMERICAN HISTORY ADVANCED PLACEMENT EXAMINATION
Authors: Coffman William E. , Kurfman Dana G.
Published: August 2014

Four readers assigned to read a single essay question of the Advanced Placement Examination in American History in 1962 participated in two experiments designed to assess the differential effects of reading by an analytical method by which three different scores were assigned to a paper and by a holistic method by which a single score was assigned. Because of limited time and the small number of readers, the two experiments were conducted in an interlocking design which permitted the findings of one experiment to sharpen the interpretation of the effects observed in the other.

Analyses of variance procedures revealed significant effects attributable to differences in standards among the four readers, to differences in standards from day to day, and to fluctuations in standards of individual readers from time to time during the reading period. There was no definite evidence of differences in reading reliability from method to method.
SUSPICION OF DECEPTION: IMPLICATIONS FOR CONFORMITY RESEARCH1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N.
Published: August 2014

Subjects' suspicions were appraised about two conformity procedures–a simulated‐group version of the Asch situation and questionnaires with fictitious norms. Many subjects suspected that the purpose of both procedures was to determine whether their responses would be influenced by others, that they did not hear spontaneous responses by others in the simulated group, and that the normative answers reported on the questionnaires were incorrect. Boys were generally more suspicious than girls. The suspicion variables were highly interrelated for both sexes and, in general, negatively related to conformity measures. Correlates of the suspicion variables included acquiescence and SD response styles, ascendance, self‐esteem, and intelligence.
DEPENDENCY, MODELS, AND RECIPROCITY1
Authors: Test Mary Ann , Bryan James H.
Published: August 2014

Three hypotheses concerning the determinants of helping behaviors were tested. It was predicted that the victim's dependence upon the S, the S‘s observation of helping models, and the S‘s previous experience of being personally aided would increase her subsequent willingness to assist others. Eighty female college students were asked to compute and rate arithmetic problems. Ss either witnessed a model helping others, observed a model refuse to aid another, received help themselves, or were not exposed to a model. Half of the Ss were subsequently left with a physically disabled other who was apparently having difficulty with the assigned task. The remaining Ss were left with a healthy other. Results suggested that models have a strong influence on helping.
MAXIMIZING THE VALIDITY OF A TEST BATTERY AS A FUNCTION OF RELATIVE TEST LENGTHS FOR A FIXED TOTAL TESTING TIME
Authors: Woodbury Max A. , Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

An explicit solution is given to the problem of assigning relative lengths to the tests of a battery and to determining the corresponding regression weights so as to maximize the multiple correlation with a specified criterion when the total testing time is fixed. Uniqueness of the obtained solution is proven. A solution algorithm is given for cases in which some of the testing times are zero. Some numerical examples are given.
REASONING, RELATIONSHIPS, AND RELATEDNESS OF WORDS: A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF SOCIOCULTURAL LEVEL AND DEFINITIONS ON THE SOLUTION OF ANALOGY ITEMS
Authors: Gentile J. Ronald
Published: August 2014

A 3 × 2 × 2 × 10 factorial design (three levels of sociocultural standing by two definition treatments by two item formats by ten analogy items, with repeated measures over items) was used (1) to determine the effects of providing students with definitions on their solutions of analogy items, (2) to determine whether providing definitions has differential effects on students of different sociocultural levels, and (3) to determine where in the solution process of analogy items differences in reasoning occur among students of different sociocultural backgrounds. An attempt was made also to determine whether students' rank orderings of alternative choices on analogy items could be predicted from knowledge of their ranked relatedness of the word pairs contained in the analogy items.
MULTIPLE COLLEGE APPLICATIONS
Authors: Bean Andrew G. , Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

A sample of 18,601 Virginia high school seniors was used to gather information regarding multiple college application practices. Approximately 35% of the college applicants filed one application, 26% filed two applications, 24% filed three applications and 16% filed four or more applications. Eighty‐five percent of the students who filed one application were accepted, while 91% of the four or more application group were accepted by at least one of their first three college choices.

Discriminant analysis was used to describe the academic characteristics of students filing multiple applications and to determine how these academic characteristics were related to college acceptance. Students who filed multiple applications tended to have higher SAT scores; however, they performed less well in high school than would be predicted from their SAT scores. High school performance appeared to be less important for females in gaining admission than it was for males.

The findings of this study contradict the popular beliefs that most college applicants file three or more applications and that more applications are filed by students with low academic ability.
SOME BIOGRAPHICAL CORRELATES OF PERFORMANCE FOR DISADVANTAGED ADOLESCENTS1
Authors: Freeberg Norman E. , Evans Franklin R.
Published: August 2014

Biographical information dealing with such areas as family characteristics, work experience, and education was obtained for disadvantaged male and female adolescent school dropouts enrolled in a government sponsored youth‐work training program. Scores on 17 biographical variables were intercorrelated with an experimental battery of attitudinal and intellectual tests (developed specifically for disadvantaged adolescents) and with proficiency ratings obtained from the enrollees' counselors and work‐site supervisors. Separate analyses for the male and female samples indicated that variables of educational experience, family economic status, and family structure were generally related to rated proficiency for males but not for females. Educational level was the background variable most extensively related to scores on the test battery for males, whereas, for females, family income played the dominant role. Factor analyses of the background variables produced four factors for male and female samples with the two major dimensions being readily definable as Family Stability and Adult Experiences.
WHAT'S THROWN OUT WITH THE BATH WATER: A BABY?1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Johnson Norma
Published: August 2014

Data from infants unable to complete the experimental sessions were compared to those for whom there were complete data. The results suggest that the elimination of large numbers of infants may have a potentially biasing effect on reported data.
ASYMMETRIC SYNTACTIC RECOGNITION MATRICES: A CHOICE ANALYSIS AS EVIDENCE FOR A HYPOTHETICAL STIMULUS‐SAMPLING PROCESS1,2
Authors: Freedle Roy
Published: August 2014

An extension of Luce's choice analysis of recognition experiments has been made so as to predict quantitatively the syntactic confusions that occur among simple syntactically related sentences which are heard at several times normal conversation rate (speeded speech). Two states are assumed to account for the pattern of asymmetric confusions: (a) a dimensional loss state wherein dimensional cues of the stimulus sentence are lost on a certain proportion of trials, and (b) a nonloss state wherein all relevant syntactic cues are assumed to be sampled but where confusions among stimuli are still assumed to occur in a predictable manner. Some relationships between the present model and Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance are discussed.
TESTING PRACTICES, MINORITY GROUPS, AND HIGHER EDUCATION: A REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCH1,2
Authors: Flaugher Ronald L.
Published: August 2014

This paper reviews some of the specific issues that underlie the controversy concerning the use of objective tests by institutions of higher education, as this use affects the selection and attendance by members of minority groups, or those persons designated by the term “disadvantaged.” Following a discussion of the issues, a review of the research literature attempts to reveal what is known about each of them; this is followed by some suggestions for future research efforts.
THE PREDICTION OF SPELLING DIFFICULTY: II. REGRESSION ANALYSIS MODEL ONE1
Authors: Cahen Leonard S. , Johnson Susan K. , Wiley David E.
Published: August 2014

A regression model, assuming no interactions, was developed and tested for determining the contribution of 20 linguistic dimensions to spelling difficulty. The model was tested on 333 words drawn from Greene's New Iowa Spelling Scale. Separate regression runs were made for difficulty indices at grades 2, 4, 6, and 8. The coefficients of multiple correlation were .829, .901, .877, and .818, respectively.
A GENERAL METHOD FOR ESTIMATING A LINEAR STRUCTURAL EQUATION SYSTEM*
Authors: Jöreskog Karl G.
Published: August 2014

A general method for estimating the unknown coefficients in a set of linear structural equations is described. In its most general form the method allows for both errors in equations (residuals, disturbances) and errors in variables (errors of measurement, observational errors) and yields estimates of the residual variance‐covariance matrix and the measurement error variances as well as estimates of the unknown coefficients in the structural equations, provided all these parameters are identified. Two special cases of this general method are discussed separately. One is when there are errors in equations but no errors in variables. The other is when there are errors in variables but no errors in equations. The methods are applied and illustrated using artificial, economic and psychological data.
A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY OF THE CARDIAC RESPONSE TO STIMULUS ONSET AND OFFSET DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE1
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Almost no work exploring the effects of stimulus onset and offset is to be found, especially if one looks at the problem in a developmental manner. In order to investigate this problem, a total of 62 infants within the first year of life were seen: 22, 20, and 20 subjects at 12, 24, and 52 weeks respectively. Each infant received seven trials, 30 seconds in duration, with a 30‐second intertrial interval. The first six trials consisted of the same auditory signal–a C chord at 65 db–while the seventh trial was either a C tone or a C chord with the base notes muted (dull), both at 65 db. Heart rate was continuously monitored along with other measures not reported in this paper. Amount of deceleration was used as the primary response.

The data indicate several important results: (1) a consistent and rather large degree of deceleration; this for both onset and offset. (2) For 3‐ and 6‐month‐olds the terminal OR is less than the onset OR, while the 12‐month‐olds show greater terminal than onset OR. (3) Habituation of the onset OR follows a developmental pattern, with 3‐month‐olds showing the least habituation and 12‐month‐olds showing the most. (4) Habituation of terminal OR also shows a developmental trend, with the 3‐ and 6‐month‐olds showing habituation while 12‐month‐olds showed little habituation. The recovery data results for the seventh trial indicate that some changes are more effective than others.
COLLEGE GRADING PRACTICES: AN OVERVIEW1
Authors: Warren Jonathan R.
Published: August 2014

While grades and grading procedures have become issues of widespread interest and controversy in recent years, the interest has been directed primarily toward questions of external form and the prediction of later grades from earlier grades. More important questions concerning the purposes and effectiveness of grades have continued to be neglected. Nontraditional forms of grading currently being tried are usually Pass/Fail systems, but Pass/No Record and descriptive grading are also used.

The most commonly stated purposes of grades are for selection to more advanced educational programs and employment, for motivating students, and for providing students with information about their performance. Consideration of purposes, however, seldom enters decisions about form. Grades are charged with distorting both learning and teaching and undesirably affecting students' attitudes and emotional states, yet evidence either for or against these charges is sparse. Education is commonly viewed as a vehicle for social and economic mobility, but a contrary view of the educational system as a device for the restraint of mobility and the maintenance of the existing social class structure has also been presented. Neither view can point to convincing evidence in its support, but grades have a major role in both.

Although grades are often charged with being unreliable, those charges usually refer to grades assigned to individual pieces of student work, such as test papers or themes. Course grades and grade‐point averages have shown high internal consistency and good temporal stability up to about a year. Treating academic performance as a single dimension represented by grades is therefore justifiable. Nevertheless, situations probably exist in which the widely presumed but infrequently demonstrated multidimensional nature of academic performance should be acknowledged and put to use.
A MULTITRAIT‐MULTIMETHOD MODEL FOR STUDYING GROWTH1
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Jöreskog Karl G. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

The logical structure of the Campbell and Fiske (1959) multitrait‐multimethod approach is applied to the problem of studying growth and its determinants. The resulting model is a special case of Jöreskog's (1970a) general model for the analysis of covariance structures. The relationships of traditional psychometric formulations to this model are detailed.
A CONGENERIC MODEL FOR PLATONIC TRUE SCORES1
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Linn Robert L. , Jöreskog Karl
Published: August 2014

To resolve a recent controversy between Klein and Cleary and Levy, a model for dichotomous congeneric items is presented which has mean errors of zero, dichotomous true scores that are uncorrelated with errors, and errors that are mutually uncorrelated.
TRANSFORMING CURVES INTO CURVES WITH THE SAME SHAPE12
Authors: Levine Michael V.
Published: August 2014

Curves are considered to have the same shape when they are related by a similarity transformation of a certain kind. This paper extends earlier work on parallel curves to curves with the same shape. Some examples are given more or less explicitly. A generalization is used to show that the theory is ordinal and to show how the theory may be applied to measure sensation. The problem of actually transforming curves into curves with the same shape is reduced to the problem of rendering another set of curves parallel. Connections with groups and rings are developed to place the work in a familiar context. These connections and the earlier work on parallel curves are used to obtain necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of transformations, to study the uniqueness of transformations and to show how transformations can be calculated.
INTERACTION BETWEEN COLLEGE EFFECTS AND STUDENTS' APTITUDES
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Baird Leonard L. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

The effects of college environments on student achievement on three GRE area achievement tests, when the initial ability of students was controlled, were studied. A wide variety of environmental measures for 95 colleges were included. The method computed within‐school regression lines, then colleges were clustered on regression lines, using a taxonomic technique, and multiple group discriminant functions using college descriptive variables were computed.

It was found that in all three achievement areas one group or cluster of colleges could be identified as being more effective than the remaining groups of colleges. In the humanities areas the most effective group was characterized by a higher proportion of faculty with doctorates, greater selectivity, and a larger budget. In social sciences and the natural sciences, emphasis on subject matter area as measured by the proportion of majors in the appropriate fields of study was the only variable which demonstrated some discrimination between the most and least effective groups.
INFANT DISCRIMINATION OF ORIENTATION1
Authors: McGurk Harry
Published: August 2014

Infants in four age groups—3, 6, 9 and 12 months—were exposed to an experimental procedure designed to assess the extent to which such subjects were capable of discriminating between different orientations of the same form, and the extent to which they were capable of recognizing the identity between different orientations of the same form. Results revealed that from at least as early as 6 months infants manifest both kinds of perceptual ability.
FIXED‐WIDTH CONFIDENCE INTERVALS IN LINEAR REGRESSION WITH APPLICATIONS TO THE JOHNSON‐NEYMAN TECHNIQUE
Authors: Aitkin Murray A.
Published: August 2014

Fixed‐width confidence intervals for a population regression line over a finite interval of x have recently been derived by Gafarian. The method is extended to provide fixed‐width confidence intervals for the difference between two population regression lines, resulting in a simple procedure analogous to the Johnson‐Neyman technique.
CHILDREN'S COMPONENT SELECTION WITH VARYING DEGREES OF TRAINING1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Taweel Suzanne S.
Published: August 2014

With the component selection measure developed by Hale and Morgan (1971), children's tendency to exercise selective attention was assessed at six different levels of training, ranging from under‐training to overtraining, and this function was examined at each of ages 4, 8, and 12. It was observed that, as the children learned the task, they maintained a relatively wide focus of attention, acquiring information about a secondary component of the stimuli, color, as well as the more salient dimension, shape. Thus, contrary to the model presented by James and Greeno (1967), the children's attention did not appear to become more selective as learning proceeded to criterion. Also contrary to the model, overtraining did not generally tend to “broaden” attention, as the children acquired little stimulus information beyond the point at which criterion had been reached.
EQUATING THE SCALES OF THE SPANISH‐LANGUAGE PRUEBA DE APTITUD ACADÉMICA AND THE ENGLISH‐LANGUAGE SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST OF THE COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD*
Authors: Angoff William H. , Modu Christopher C.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to establish score equivalencies between the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and its Spanish language equivalent, the College Board Prueba de Aptitud Académica (PAA). The method of the study involved two phases: the selection of test items, equally appropriate and useful for Spanish and English speaking students, for use in the equating of the two tests; and the equating analysis itself. The method of the first phase was to choose two sets of items, one originally appearing in Spanish, the other originally appearing in English; to translate each set into the other language; and to administer both sets in the appropriate language mode for pretest purposes to both types of students. These administrations were conducted in the fall of 1970 with samples of candidates taking the PAA or the SAT at regularly scheduled administrations. They provided data regarding the difficulty and discrimination power of each item for each of the two groups and, what was of special interest, an index of appropriateness of each item for both groups.

On the basis of the analyses of these data two sets of items, one in Verbal and the other in Mathematical, were chosen and assembled as “common items” to be used for equating. In the second phase of the study these “common items,” appearing in Spanish and also in English, were administered in the appropriate language along with the operational form of the PAA in November 1971 and with the operational form of the SAT in January 1972. The data resulting from the administrations of these “common items” were used to calibrate for differences in the abilities of the two groups of candidates and permitted both linear and equipercentile equating of the two tests. Conversion tables relating the PAA‐verbal scores to the SAT‐verbal scores and the PAA‐mathematical scores to the SAT‐mathematical scores are given below. These conversions represent an average of the linear and equipercentile results. Because of the scarcity of data at the upper end of the distribution of PAA scores, score equivalencies are permissible, strictly speaking, only as high as the mid‐700's. Score equivalencies beyond the mid‐700's were obtained by extrapolation.
ON ACCURACY IN RELIABILITY ESTIMATION
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This study in parametric test theory deals with the statistics of reliability estimation when scores on two parts of a test follow a binormal distribution with equal (case 1) or unequal (case 2) expectations. In each case biased maximum‐likelihood estimators of reliability are obtained and converted into unbiased estimators. Sampling distributions are derived. Second moments are obtained and utilized in calculating mean square errors of estimation as a measure of accuracy. A rank order of four estimators is established. There is a uniformly best estimator. Tables of absolute and relative accuracies are provided for various reliability parameters and sample sizes.
THE EFFECT OF PICTORIAL INTEGRATION ON CHILDREN'S INCIDENTAL LEARNING1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Piper Richard A.
Published: August 2014

Evidence regarding children's incidental learning has been derived largely from tasks in which the incidental stimulus features have been independent of the task‐relevant information. In contrast, the present study examined children's incidental learning with compound pictorial stimuli under conditions in which the relevant and incidental features were (a) depicted together in an action relation (two types–weak action and strong action), (b) depicted together in a static relation, or (c) represented as independent entities. These materials were compared in two experiments–one involving 8‐, 11‐, and 14‐year‐old children and the other involving 8‐ and 14‐year‐olds (the static condition was excluded in the second experiment). Following a learning task requiring attention to a single element in each stimulus, incidental learning was measured by having the subjects, in effect, reconstruct the compounds. While incidental learning was found to be higher with the action materials than in the standard condition, the developmental trend in incidental learning scores was little affected by the pictorial integration. On one hand, these results extend the generality of the finding that children's incidental learning undergoes little change with age. On the other hand, the results contrast with evidence obtained from two sources–one shoving that stimulus integration of another type can influence the developmental trend in incidental learning, and the other showing an increase with age in the effects of action portrayal on intentional (paired associate) learning of pictorial associations.
A NOTE ON LAWLEY'S FORMULAS FOR STANDARD ERRORS IN MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Jennrich Robert I. , Thayer Dorothy T.
Published: August 2014

Evidence is given to indicate that Lawley's formulas for the standard errors of maximum likelihood loading estimates do not produce exact asymptotic results. A small modification is derived which appears to eliminate this difficulty.
THE INVERTED STUDENT DENSITY AND TEST SCORES
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

The inverted student density is one whose contour lines are spheroidal as in the normal distribution, but whose moments differ from those of the normal in that its conditional arrays are not homoscedastic, being quadratic functions of the values of the linear regression functions. It is also platykurtic, its measure of kurtosis ranging from that of the normal to that of the uniform depending on the value of a parameter: as that parameter increases the inverted student distribution approaches normality. Measures of kurtosis are given for distributions of scores on a number of cognitive tests, and they are almost all seen to be platykurtic. Data are presented showing that a quadratic term contributes substantially to the regression of conditional variances on test scores in a bivariate distribution. These data suggest that the inverted student distribution may provide a better description of distributions of test scores than does the normal.
AGE DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREN'S PERFORMANCE ON MEASURES OF COMPONENT SELECTION AND INCIDENTAL LEARNING1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Taweel Suzanne S.
Published: August 2014

Children of ages 5 and 8 years were given one of three learning tasks: (a) a component selection problem, in which two stimulus components were redundant and (b) two incidental learning tasks, in which one component of the stimuli was task‐relevant and the other was incidental. A posttest, measuring the children's recall for information about each component separately, was assumed to reflect the degree of attention directed to each component during learning. Attention to the nondominant component was found to increase with age when this feature was redundant with the dominant component and could thus serve as a second functional cue (component selection task), but not when it was incidental. These results suggest a developmental increase in the flexibility of attention deployment, as the tendency for children to exercise selective attention varies with the requirements of the task.
THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF TWO TESTS AS A FUNCTION OF ABILITY LEVEL*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

A new formula is developed for the relative efficiency of two tests measuring the same trait. The formula expresses relative efficiency solely in terms of the standard errors of measurement and, surprisingly, the frequency distributions of true scores. Approximate methods for estimating relative efficiency may make this function routinely available. A numerical illustration compares new and old estimates of relative efficiency for subtests from the Scholastic Aptitude Test.
DIMENSION PREFERENCE AND COMPONENT SELECTION: ALTERNATIVE MEASURES OF CHILDREN'S ATTENTION TO STIMULUS COMPONENTS1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Lipps Leann E. T.
Published: August 2014

As children grow older they show an increasing preference for classifying objects on the basis of shape rather than color. To clarify the nature of this “dimension preference,” children of ages 3½ to 6½ years were given a method of triads test of dimension preferences, followed (after a week's delay) by a component selection task (see Hale & Morgan, 1973).

The most notable results were these: (a) as expected, children below and above the median age differed in frequency of shape preference, (b) for children below the median age, higher component selection test scores were observed for the preferred dimension, although all scores were considerably above chance level and (c) no age difference was found in the relative magnitudes of the component selection scores. The results suggest that a “preference” for a particular dimension does not necessarily indicate a high degree of selective attention to that dimension. Also, the age difference in children's dimension preferences may be attributable to factors unrelated to selective attention.
AN INVARIANCE OF PARTIAL CORRELATIONS IN DISTRIBUTIONS WITH ELLIPTICAL CONTOURS
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

For distributions with elliptical contours, the variance‐covariance matrix of variables X1 conditioned on variables X2 takes the form of a matrix of parameters, multiplied by a scalar function of X2. Therefore, the matrix of partial correlations depends only on distribution parameters and is invariant over the domain of X2.
A BROAD‐RANGE TAILORED TEST OF VERBAL ABILITY
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

Two parallel forms have been built of a broad‐range tailored test of verbal ability. The test is appropriate from fifth grade through graduate school. Simulated test administrations indicate that the 25‐item tailored test is at least as good as a comparable 50‐item conventional test. At most ability levels, the tailored test measures much better.

An offer is made to provide upon request item characteristic curve parameters for 690 widely used Cooperative Test items, in order to facilitate research.
THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN FIELD DEPENDENCE AS A FACTOR IN LEARNING AND MEMORY1
Authors: Goodenough Donald R.
Published: August 2014

The literature relating individual differences in field dependence to learning and memory is reviewed in four areas: (1) the effects of cue salience in discrimination learning; (2) participant vs. spectator roles in learning; (3) repression as a factor in forgetting and (4) the effects of interpersonal orientation on acquisition of social information and on the effectiveness of social reinforcers.
KINESTHETIC AFTEREFFECT: CAN THIS SIMPLE TACTUAL TASK REALLY PREDICT PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES?
Authors: Baker A. Harvey , Mishara Brian L. , Kostin Irene W. , Parker Laurence
Published: August 2014

Kinesthetic Aftereffect (KAE), once a promising personality index, has been abandoned by many investigators because of poor retest reliability and intermittent validity. In challenging this current consensus, we argue: first session KAE is valid; poor retest reliability simply reflects later‐session bias; hence, multi‐session studies should not be used to assess validity without taking this bias into account.

Those recent studies which failed to support KAE validity were each multi‐session in design. If our bias contention is correct, these studies should be ignored and the claim of intermittent validity is thus rebutted. Reanalysis of the most recent major multi‐session, nonsupportive validity study (Weintraub, Green, & Herzog, 1973) indicates: Session 1 validity; later‐session bias; and later‐session validity when multi‐session scores are combined to avoid bias. Yes, KAE validly measures personality.
A NOTE ON A SIMPLE PROBLEM IN INFERENCE
Authors: Rubin Donald B.
Published: August 2014

A simple example is presented in which an event has taken place that is very rare (in some sense). Useful Bayesian and likelihood inferences are simple to obtain and yet in cases of interest do not agree with simple sampling distribution inferences. Useful sampling distribution inferences seem to be difficult to obtain in these cases.
WORD ASSOCIATIONS OF STUDENTS AT PREDOMINANTLY WHITE AND PREDOMINANTLY BLACK COLLEGES
Authors: Campbell Joel T. , Belcher Leon R.
Published: August 2014

This study compared word association responses for college students in three geographic areas from four different kinds of colleges: (1) selective predominantly white colleges, (2) less selective predominantly white colleges, (3) selective predominantly black colleges, and (4) less selective predominantly black colleges. Stimulus words were chosen from those used in GRE verbal analogy and antonym items. Responses were tabulated separately by sex.

There were a few words which evoked different responses from males and females, but geographic area apparently made no difference. A few stimulus words, mostly those relating to the “black experience,” evoked different association patterns from students at predominantly black and predominantly white colleges, but most stimulus words yielded similar response patterns from both kinds of college.

There was a comparatively high level of “no response” for those stimulus words with a Thorndike‐Lorge word frequency count of 9 or fewer per million counted words. This most frequently happened at the non‐selective colleges, and particularly at the predominantly black non‐selective colleges. It was hypothesized that most often this occurred because the student was not acquainted with the word.

A number of responses seemed to come from the student having mistaken the stimulus word for one of similar appearance.
THE TIP‐OF‐THE‐TONGUE PHENOMENON: A DECODING FAILURE ACCOUNT
Authors: Ryan Michael P.
Published: August 2014

It sometimes happens that one is unable to recall a word or name that he feels he knows very well. This state of frustrated recall is referred to as a tip‐of‐the‐tongue (TOT) experience. Two experiments were devised to compare the ability of a weak trace and a decoding‐failure model to predict the conditions under which TOT reports would be most likely. A weak trace model asserts that TOTs will be more frequent when there is partial retrieval of the forgotten information or when easy items and good recallers are tested. A decoding failure model predicts instead that the TOT state represents the accessing of an undecodable retrieval plan and is more likely to occur for materials encoded by elaboration strategies than by rehearsal strategies. Analysis of feeling‐of‐knowing ratings and recall performance for elements in word matrices and for paired associates revealed that TOTs are more likely to be reported for elaboratively encoded stimuli and that this effect cannot be attributed to the increase in trace strength typically afforded by mnemonic strategies. These data suggest that it is the failure to decode an elaborated retrieval plan that generates the TOT experience.
DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES IN RECALL AND OUTPUT ORGANIZATION
Authors: Ornstein Peter A. , Hale Gordon A. , Morgan Judith S.
Published: August 2014

Third‐ and seventh‐grade children were given a free recall task either with unrelated pictures or with pictures representing members of common categories. Mean number of items recalled increased with age for both related and unrelated lists. However, whereas the tendency to cluster related items increased with age, use of subjective organization with unrelated materials did not increase. The lack of developmental change in subjective organization was observed not only with Bousfield and Bousfield's (1966) traditional index of pairwise consistencies, but also with Pellegrino's (1971) measures of higher‐order organization. The data suggest that developmental increases in the amount of information recalled is not solely a function of age differences in amount of output organization.
SOME ITEM ANALYSIS AND TEST THEORY FOR A SYSTEM OF COMPUTER ASSISTED TEST CONSTRUCTION FOR INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

Under stated conditions: conventional testing and CGRT are equally‐effective for estimating examinee ability; CGRT is more effective than conventional testing for estimating the mean ability level of a group; CGRT is less effective for estimating ability differences among individuals. These conclusions are drawn from domain‐referenced test theory, as distinguished from norm‐referenced test theory.
STATISTICAL ISSUES RAISED BY TITLE IX REQUIREMENTS ON ADMISSION PROCEDURES1
Authors: Reed Cheryl Wild
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this paper is to discuss statistical issues raised by Title IX requirements on selection and admission procedures. Literature is reviewed which indicates that prediction systems used for selecting students into college do frequently differ for males and females. Usually women's criterion scores are underpredicted using regression equations developed from combined groups of males and females. Major field of study, sufficiency of the predictor battery, and systematic differences in male and female samples are discussed as possible reasons for differences in regression equations. It is concluded that admissions procedures that use a single regression equation developed from a combined male and female group may be unfair to female college applicants. Methods for investigating and minimizing unfair selection procedures are discussed.
RELATING TESTS GIVEN TO DIFFERENT SAMPLES
Authors: Rubin Donald B. , Thayer Dorothy
Published: August 2014

Suppose a collection of standard tests is given to all subjects in a random sample, but a different new test is given to each group of subjects in nonoverlapping subsamples. A simple method is developed for displaying the information the data set contains about the correlational structure of the new tests. This is possible to some extent even though each subject takes only one new test. The method uses plausible values of the partial correlations of the new tests given the standard tests in order to generate plausible simple correlations among the new tests and plausible multiple correlations between composites of the new tests and the standard tests. The real data example included suggests that the method can be useful in practical problems.
THE EFFECT OF EGOCENTRIC VS. GRAVITATIONAL INSTRUCTIONS ON THE ROD‐AND‐FRAME TEST
Authors: Sigman Eric , Goodenough Donald R. , Flannagan Michael
Published: August 2014

It has previously been shown that a tilted frame induces a shift in perceived body position opposite in direction to the frame tilt. If this illusion of self‐tilt is involved in rod‐and‐frame test performance, then instructions to adjust the rod to the body midline (egocentric instructions) should result in less rod adjustment error than the standard instructions for the rod‐and‐frame test to adjust the rod to the gravitational vertical. In effect, egocentric instructions should subtract the gravitational component from the total rod‐and‐frame effect. Nine relatively field‐dependent subjects made rod adjustments under both instructional conditions and while seated in erect and tilted positions. Significant differences between instructional conditions were found, as expected. Other rod‐and‐frame studies are discussed in view of these findings.
KINESTHETIC AFTEREFFECT, ORGANISMIC STATE, AND RETEST RELIABILITY
Authors: Kostin Irene Wolk , Baker A. Harvey , Mishara Brian L. , Parker Laurence
Published: August 2014

Earlier research demonstrated that exposure to the first administration of the Kinesthetic Aftereffect (KAE) task differentially biases second (and later) session KAE scores. This bias results in low retest reliability. Here we explore the hypothesis that variation in organismic state also affects KAE retest reliability. A significant retest correlation was found for subjects classified as consistent in organismic state (r = .349), but not for those subjects classified as inconsistent in organismic state (r = ‐.076). If, as these findings indicate, KAE scores reflect state variance, can they also constitute an adequate measure of trait? None of the relevant prior one‐session KAE validity studies controlled for state variance, yet most had significant findings. Although KAE scores are evidently influenced by state variables, this does not contraindicate continued use of KAE as a measure of trait.