bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Commerce and Empire
Authors: Stock Paul
Published: November 2019

Chapter 9 shows how theories about commerce and empire affect ideas about Europe. Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century geography books usually argue that Europe excels at trade. In some respects, this promotes a concept of Europe based upon economic rivalry, but is also presents the continent as the centrepiece of an integrated global network. Some texts celebrate Europe’s imperial prowess and in several cases regard conquered areas as part of the continent itself rather than distinct regions. Others are critical of empire, but the majority endorse an idealized imperialism in which commerce demonstrates Europe’s presumed global pre-eminence.
History and Progress
Authors: Stock Paul
Published: November 2019

Chapter 10 discusses how ideas about historical change influence conceptions of Europe. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books typically regard history as a progression through various ‘stages’, an account which often conflates European and world history. But they also often regard the continent as an extant ideal society. This exposes uncertainty about whether to define Europe in terms of unchanging characteristics or mutable historical processes. Some geography books combine these perspectives and interpret historical change in terms of established patterns, a method which allows them to account for Europe’s malleability and its stable qualities.
Phonons
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Phonons are introduced as an example of quasi-particles that can only exist in matter. Debye’s quantum model for heat capacity of solids and comparison with experimentin different temperature ranges is presented. The dispersion relations of lattice vibration (phonons) and quantization for chains of atoms presented, revealing the optical and acoustic modes; anharmonic effects are discussed. Crystal lattice structures and Brillouin zones are introduced. Phonon scattering and the Umklapp process described. The variation of the thermal conductivity of dielectrics with temperature is interpreted. X-ray scattering studies of phonon dispersion relations are described. Coupling between phonons with photons in polaritons is explained: Raman scattering studies of GaN used to exhibit the cross-over of their dispersion relations. The Mössbauer effect, a recoilless process, and its dependence on temperature are explained.
Semiconductors
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Semiconductors are introduced. Hole kinematics are deduced. Effects of doping giving donor and acceptor levels are surveyed: silicon and AlxGa1−xAs are used as exemplars. Diode function is interpreted in terms of carrier densities. Zener diodes. Optical response, diode photon detectors and photovoltaic cells. Limitation of LEDs to direct bandgap materials is explained. The operation of ultrafast Silicon MOSFETs and 100GHz GaAs HEMTs is described. The conditions for quantum effects at the mesoscopic scale examined: the influence of coherence length, Fermi wavelength and mean free path. Cryogenic quantum point contact devices, the quantum of conductance and Landauer’s equation surveyed. Ballistic and diffusive transport contrasted. Coulomb blockade is described. Observation at cryogenic temperatures of quantum interference in disordered conducting material. Universal conductance fluctuations are presented.
Transitions
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

A derivation of Fermi’s golden rule is given: this is the interface into which matrix elements from theory can be slotted to provide a prediction testable by experiment. The example of the prediction of the 2p→1s decay in hydrogen is worked through in detail. Selection rules, spectral line shapes (Breit–Wigner and Gaussian) and broadening processes are explained. The formula for the experimental cross-section in terms of the matrix element is produced. The Born approximation is presented and applied to Rutherford scattering. Then the decay rate for allowed β-decays is calculated in Fermi’s model and fitted to the observed rates. Low energy s-wave scattering is analysed in terms of phase shift and scattering length. The example of cold alkali metal atom scattering (≤10−6eV) is treated in preparation for use later with gaseous Bose–Einstein condensates. Ramsauer–Townsend effect explained.
Quantum measurement
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Heisenberg’s back action and Robertson’s intrinsic uncertainty are presented. von Neumann’s analysis of quantum measurement is recounted. Advanced LIGO is used as an example of quantum measurement: giant Michelson interferometers achieve sensitivity to motion of 1 part in 1021. The discovery at LIGO of gravitational waves is outlined. Then the standard quantum limit is deduced. The use of cavities in the interferometer arms to increase the photon flux is described. The potential for improvement by squeezing the vacuum at the blank input port is discussed. Prospects for speed interferometry are outlined.
Symmetry and topology
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Space-time symmetries, conservation laws and Nöther’s theorem are discussed. The Poincaré group, generators and Casimir invariants are outlined. Local charge conservation and the corresponding U(1) charge symmetry underlying electromagnetism are presented, showing the roles of minimal electromagnetic coupling and gauge transformations. Experimental demonstrations of the Aharonov–Bohm effect are described and the topological interpretation is recounted. How the Aharonov–Casher effect survives in the classical world is mentioned. Berry’s revelation of geometric phase is presented. The Bitter–Dubbers experiment confirming this analysis is presented. Some comments are given on a Hilbert space with a simple topology.
Superfluid 4He
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

The superfluid transition of 4He at 2.17K to He-II and the inference of an underlying condensate are introduced. The fountain effect is interpreted. Andronikashvili’s experiment and the determination of superfluid fraction versus temperature are discussed. Sound and second sound are described. Relationships between the condensate and superfluid fractions, and to off diagonal long-range order (ODLRO) are deduced. The revelation of topological quantization of circulation by Vinen’s experiment is recounted. Spontaneous symmetry breaking by the condensate’s phase coherence is explained. Excitations and their dispersion relations described with Landau’s interpretation, including the explanation of the critical velocity of superflow. Vortices, their interpretation in terms of quantized circulation, and their visualization are described.
Superconductivity
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Superconductivity and the associated Meissner effect are introduced, indicating that superconductors are perfect diamagnetics. Condensation energy is deduced. The London analysis showing how superconductors exclude flux is presented. The BCS microscopic theory is recapitulated: Cooper pairs of electrons are the constituents of the Bose condensate that carries the non-dissipative current. The binding energy of pairs (energy gap below the Fermi sea) is deduced and related to their size and the critical temperature. Dependence of the energy gap on temperature is shown consistent with BCS theory. The Ginzberg–Landau analysis and the spontaneous symmetry breaking in the condensate phase are recounted. Quantization of trapped magnetic flux is shown to be related to superconductor topology. Type-II superconductors are treated. Finally Josephson effects show unambiguously that the condensate is a macroscopic quantum state. Josephson applications are enumerated, including a new voltage standard, SQUIDs and preliminary versions of qubits (transmons) for quantum computing.
Quantum Hall effects
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

It is explained how plateaux are seen in the Hall conductance of two dimensional electron gases, at cryogenic temperatures, when the magnetic field is scanned from zero to ~10T. On a Hall plateau σxy = ne2/h, where n is integral, while the longitudinal conductance vanishes. This is the integral quantum Hall effect. Free electrons in such devices are shown to occupy quantized Landau levels, analogous to classical cyclotron orbits. The stability of the IQHE is shown to be associated with a mobility gap rather than an energy gap. The analysis showing the topological origin of the IQHE is reproduced. Next the fractional QHE is described: Laughlin’s explanation in terms of an IQHE of quasiparticles is presented. In the absence of any magnetic field, the quantum spin Hall effect is observed, and described here. Time reversal invariance and Kramer pairs are seen to be underlying requirements. It’s topological origin is outlined.
Particle physics I
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Particle families (quarks and leptons), their properties and their interactions are introduced. The exchange mechanism and the Yukawa potential are discussed. Natural units are explained. The cross-section for e− + e+ → μ− + μ+ is calculated using a first order Feynman diagram. Comparison with data reveals the existence of the Z0-boson and makes a link between electroweak processes. Higher orders diagrams give divergences and their removal by renormalization is described. Neutrino properties are outlined and the determination of the number of light neutrinos related. The weak interaction is discussed: parity and charge parity are seen to be maximally violated in W-boson exchange, but the product is approximately conserved. Handedness is pursued in an appendix using Dirac spinors. The neutrino mass and weak eigenstates differ and this leads to oscillations between weak eigenstates in flight. Measurements of the neutrino flux from the sun revealing this behaviour are described. Weak and strong eigenstates of quarks also differ by a unitary transformation, the CKM matrix. This difference leads to oscillations of certain neutral mesons from particle to antiparticle. This behaviour is explored for neutral K-mesons and for B0d mesons. CP violation is observed, which is required for the survival of matter in the universe.
The Voice on the Page
Authors: Richards Jennifer
Published: November 2019

The history of reading has privileged particular kinds of evidence: the marks that readers left behind in books (annotation), and the layout of a printed page/book (paratext). This chapter explores whether other marks—not just layout but also punctuation and spelling—can be understood as vocal cues for oral readers. It does this by examining the contents and layout of Edmund Coote’s schoolbook used to teach boys and girls to read English (aloud). It argues that the eye and tongue were brought into alignment in the printed books of the sixteenth century, and gives this claim a context: debates on English spelling and punctuation. It makes a case for seeing ‘marks’ as prompts that need to be interpreted creatively rather than strictly followed, exploring Matthew Parker’s advice on reading psalms.
Introduction
Authors: Richards Jennifer
Published: November 2019

The Introduction argues that the history of Renaissance reading has privileged the silent reader, even though it is acknowledged that oral reading in this period was ubiquitous. It makes a case for the ubiquity of oral reading—and of voice-aware silent reading—in a unique way, by shifting attentiovn from orality to vocality, moving our attention away from the oral/literacy debate introduced by Walter J. Ong in the mid-twentieth century. Making this shift enables us to re-focus on the question of how the physical voice brings meaning to a text. This chapter explores the patchy engagement with the voice in critical work in different disciplines, including music and post-medieval literary studies. It explains this book’s interest in voice qualities like tone and timbre. Finally, it introduces what will become a key argument: that a printed book needs to be understood as an experience as well as an object.
Latin in the Lexicon
Authors: Butterfield David
Published: November 2019

In 1843, with the publication of the Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott, the decision to abandon the scholarly garb of Latin and opt for direct expression in the vernacular was, in its time, a remarkable one. And yet, despite almost every Greek lemma being rendered by Liddell and Scott into English, Latin plays a significant role in their Lexicon. In fact, every single page of the work, at least in its first few editions, contains some Latin. This chapter explores how and why Latin continued to play a significant role for Liddell and Scott, notwithstanding the impropriety of its allegedly ‘feeble and defective’ character. It traces a course through these different roles played by Latin in the Lexicon, before turning to the more protean—and somewhat purposeless—deployment of the language before its time was called by the editors of the ninth edition (1925–40).
Obscenity
Authors: Amy Coker
Published: November 2019

This chapter presents the author’s exploration in the Lexicon, into the less-savoury material which one might assume the editors would have wanted to avoid. It considers the topics and words which were classed as requiring censorship in the Lexicon, and traces the various strategies employed to shield the reader from material deemed to be morally dubious or dangerous. While at times an increasing prudishness about sexual matters can be observed in the Lexicon, in many respects its contents are nonetheless an astonishingly long way from the Victorian ‘buttoned-up’ stereotype, and that the work contains some surprises for the assiduous reader.
The Greek of the New Testament
Authors: James Patrick
Published: November 2019

This chapter presents the story of the treatment of the Greek of the New Testament in the Lexicon alongside a critical assessment of that treatment. It examines the internal evidence of a selection of entries for words attested in the New Testament as well as the external evidence from discussions of the Lexicon (including, for the present purpose, the various Prefaces). The chapter focuses on the development from the eighth edition of Liddell and Scott (LS8) to LSJ. LSJ marked something of a new beginning, not only in its coverage but also in its approach both to the New Testament’s vocabulary and to its Greek in general. By contrast, LS7 was in effect reprinted as LS8, the last edition from Liddell himself.
Greek Dialects in the Lexicon
Authors: Probert Philomen
Published: November 2019

This chapter considers the treatment of dialect forms in Liddell and Scott (LSJ), and the origins of LSJ’s practice. It shows that although Aeolic and Doric forms of words sometimes get their own LSJ entries, the main or most informative entry is for a non-Aeolic or non-Doric form wherever the observed data made this possible. At first sight, the obvious conclusion is that some non-Aeolic and non-Doric dialect, such as Attic, functions as the basic dialect for LSJ. On closer inspection, however, it turns out that the Lexicon is not built on a principle of treating any one variety of Greek as ‘basic’. Instead LSJ operates with the notion of a normal or default form: a form judged to be available for use in the widest range of Greek texts. By designating a form as the ‘common form’ or choosing it as the basic dictionary entry, LSJ make a judgement about the wide availability of the form in principle, not about its actual attestation.
Looking for Unity in a Dictionary Entry
Authors: Clarke Michael
Published: November 2019

The lexicographer’s engagement with a word is fundamentally a search for unity: a search for the essential idea that holds together a group of things (referents, concepts, senses, etc) that may not be straightforwardly united in the modern mother tongue that provides our metalanguage and our default assumptions. This chapter approaches the problem with the help of perspectives from prototype theory, one of the richest areas in the relatively young discipline of cognitive linguistics. Typically, work in this field is presented as a contribution to the understanding of meaning as such, of the workings of the mental lexicon as an aspect of the human language faculty. The use of prototype theory here will be more limited, avoiding any claims to truth-value and treating it as a sounding-board for new possibilities in modelling and describing the behaviour of words.
Discourse Particles in LSJ
Authors: Goldstein David
Published: November 2019

This chapter contrasts the Liddell and Scott (LSJ) account of the particle γε‎ with an approach that takes advantage of some of the conceptual tools of twenty-first century semantics and pragmatics. It begins by discussing the question of why describing the meaning of discourse particles is so challenging. From here, it homes in on the particle γε‎, ‘one of the subtlest and most elusive particles’, according to Denniston (1954). After critically reviewing its article in LSJ, it presents the results of a fresh examination of the particle in two Platonic dialogues, Meno and Cratylus, focusing on the most salient aspects of its meaning, especially phenomena that LSJ does not mention. It argues that γε‎ is characterized by two semantic properties: scalar interpretation and non-at issue semantics.
LSJ and the Diachronic Taxonomy of the Greek Vocabulary
Authors: Clackson James
Published: November 2019

This chapter presents a survey of Greek terms for living beings. The Greek vocabulary is recorded for over a three thousand year time-span, and through reconstruction of the immediate ancestor of Greek, Proto-Indo-European, it is possible to go back further still. Examination of the different classificatory terms in Greek, with their ancestry, thus allows us to test some of the hypotheses proposed by linguistic ethnobotanists. One such hypothesis concerns the effect on the terms for animals made by the development from a hunter-gatherer to a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle: Brown (2000) claims that taxonomies ‘of hunter gatherers tend to only have only one level, consisting entirely of generic classes’, and that over time ‘folk taxonomies have tended to expand up and down, adding more inclusive life-form and less inclusive specific classes to pre-existing generic categories’. The chapter sketches out the sort of contribution Greek can make to such debates.
Lessons Learned During my Time at the Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos
Authors: Meier-Brügger Michael
Published: November 2019

The Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos (LfgrE) was founded by Bruno Snell after World War II at the University of Hamburg. The chapter’s author was responsible for LfgrE from 1984 until its completion in 2010. The focus of LfgrE is the lexical semantics of the words and the semantic fields that each one occupies. This chapter presents the author’s reflections on some of the lessons learned in those years of working on the Lexikon. It presents a sample set of case studies to check the quality of the information presented in Liddell and Scott against the results obtained during the author’s life-long research in the field of Greek lexicography, with an emphasis on early epic.
Diminishing Returns and New Challenges
Authors: West Martin L.
Published: November 2019

This chapter considers the creation of a few works of intermediate character that combine the full and exact detail typical of the special lexica with coverage of a wider band of literature. An example is the vision of a Poetic Lexicon of Classical Greek, embracing epic, elegy, iambus, lyric, philosophical poetry, drama, and verse inscriptions of the pre-Alexandrian centuries. The chapter presents a few specimen entries: an interjection, an adjective, a verb, and a noun. The layout of the entries will remind the reader of Liddell and Scott (LSJ), and the model of LSJ has been followed in many respects. One difference is that where there is anything to say about etymologies it is put at the beginning.
Βάπτω‎
Authors: Thompson Anne
Published: November 2019

Words in the corpus of texts making up Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG) have links to headwords in several dictionaries. TLG released a digitized version of Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon (LSJ) in 2011; since then, Cunliffe’s Lexicon of the Homeric Dialect has been added as well as Powell’s Lexicon to Herodotus, and Trapp’s Lexikon zur Byzantinischen Gräzität (LBG). The Lexicographical Resources page also provides links to the site of Diccionario griego-español (DGE), and to dictionaries of medieval and modern Greek, enabling study of the continuing history of words. This chapter compares entries for βάπτω‎ from LSJ, The Revised Supplement and DGE.
Liddell and Scott and the Oxford English Dictionary
Authors: Considine John
Published: November 2019

This chapter focuses on the making of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). It considers the claim of language sciences historian Hans Aarsleff that the lexicography of the OED depends entirely on Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon. The story of the relationship between Liddell and Scott and the OED, which was to be published as A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED) and then came to be known from the 1890s onwards as the OED falls into three parts. The first concerns the place of Liddell and Scott in the thought of the founders of the NED/OED project in the late 1850s and early 1860s. The second concerns the Lexicon’s place in the thought and practice of the founding editor of the printed dictionary, James Murray, from the late 1870s onwards. The third concerns the relationship between editions of Liddell and Scott and of the OED in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
Relativistic Wave Equations
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter presents the wave equations that govern the behavior of quantum mechanical particles with spin 0, 1/2, and 1 in relativistic theories. These equations are the Klein-Gordon equation, the Dirac equation, and Maxwell’s equations.
The Hydrogen Atom and Positronium
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses the physics of the hydrogen atom and the electron-positron bound state positronium. It describes the energy levels of these atoms, including the fine structure and hyperfine structure. It discusses the lifetimes of the two species of positronium.
Quantum Chromodynamics
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter introduces non-Abelian gauge symmetry and the associated field equations for spin-1 particles. It proposes the gauge theory Quantum Chromodynamics as the theory of the strong interaction. It describes the property of asymptotic freedom, which explains a number of mysteries in the experimental results shown in the previous three chapters.
The Current-Current Model of the Weak Interaction
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses the representation of the weak interaction as a current-current interaction that violates parity and charge conjugation invariance. It describes the experiments that demonstrate that this violation is maximal. The resulting theory is called the V-A theory of the weak interaction. The chapter works out the predictions of the V-A theory for muon and pion decay and high-energy neutrino scattering and shows the comparison to experiment.
CP Violation
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter describes particle reactions that violate CP and T symmetry, the decay of the neutral K meson and the neutral B meson. It presents the Kobayashi-Maskawa model that explains how the Standard Model can provide a theory of CP and T violation and describes experimental tests of that model.
Introduction
Authors: Perry John
Published: November 2019

I explain my basic claim: Frege’s doctrine that sentences embedded in indirect discourse and propositional attitude reports refer to Thoughts, their customary senses, put the philosophies of mind and language on a detour. The doctrine reflected and reinforced a picture of the attitudes as consisting in relations to propositions. The alternative picture for which I argue is that the attitudes are rather episodes that have truth-conditions that can be classified in a variety of ways. The propositions we take to be “what is said” or “what is believed” give only a partial description of these truth-conditions. I then lay out the plan for the book, and discuss issues of terminology.
Solving the Identity Problems
Authors: Perry John
Published: November 2019

I return to the problems concerning identity that plagued Frege’s Begriffsschrift and eventually led to the theory of sense and reference. I claim that within a flexible theory of the truth conditions, what I call the “reflexive-referential” theory, there is a common sense solution.
Disarming the Slingshot
Authors: Perry John
Published: November 2019

The slingshot is an argument, due to Alonzo Church, in favor of Frege’s decision to take truth values to be the denotations of sentences, ruling out circumstances for this honor. I argue that a reflexive-referential analysis show the slingshot to be unconvincing. I discuss different conception of circumstances and the use that Quine made of the slingshot.
The Discovery of a Masterpiece
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 1 presents a first-person account of the discovery of the Salvator Mundi, from its appearance as a copy at an American auction to its establishment as the lost original painting by Leonardo da Vinci. Robert Simon presents a chronological account of his involvement with the acquisition, research, conservation, and scholarly verification of the work over the period from 2005 to 2011, when the painting was included in the landmark exhibition at the National Gallery, Leonardo da Vinci Painter at the Court of Milan. The modern provenance of the painting is reviewed, focusing on its tenure in the Cook Collection of Richmond, its sale in 1958, and its reappearance in New Orleans. The conservation of the painting by Dianne Dwyer Modestini is discussed, as well as the research process, and the introduction of the painting to art historians, Leonardo specialists, the press, and, eventually, the public.
‘Christ in the Manner of God the Father’
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 3 looks at the iconography of the image now called the Salvator Mundi, though this is not a name used at the time for images of Christ blessing and holding the globe of the world. Texts from the gospels of St Matthew and St John portray Christ as the benign comforter of the world’s inhabitants. The bands across Christ’s chest evoke the ‘yoke’ that the biblical Christ invites us to take up. The orb appears in Renaissance paintings in many guises, including metal spheres and terrestrial globes. The genre grew in popularity in the fifteenth century, not least in emulation of images by Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden. The stock frontal presentation of Christ related to a supposed eyewitness account and miraculous images made without human intervention. The direct stare is explained by Cusanus (Nicholas of Cusa) as expressing the ubiquitous nature of God’s gaze. There are also less common variants of the Salvator Mundi as a young Christ.
Drawings and Dates
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 4 examines the two surviving drawings for Christ’s draperies at Windsor, their attribution, and their place in the chronology of Leonardo’s drawing styles. The use of red chalk on red paper favours a later date for the drawings, as does the system of hatching, but the development of his drawing style is complicated, as indicated by a review of his drapery studies. A copy formerly in the Yarbrough collection shows Christ’s right sleeve, as in the Windsor drawing but not as in the final painting, suggesting that the copyist knew Leonardo’s painting at a point before it was finished.
Patronage, Some Copies, and Other Versions
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 6 discusses possible patronage of Leonardo’s Salvator Mundi, without arriving at any favoured conclusion. The presence of a ‘Christ in the manner of God the Father’ in the list of paintings owned in 1524 by Leonardo’s pupil, Salaì (Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno), indicates that the painting was never delivered to a patron. The evidence of some early copies is reviewed, including that formerly in the de Ganay collection, which, on the grounds of execution and the infrared reflectogram, cannot be credited to Leonardo himself, though it is of better quality that most of the copies. The Leonardesque version of the young Christ as Saviour in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow and related pictures might be associated with Isabella d’Este’s attempts to secure a painting of the young Christ from Leonardo. The chapter concludes that the ex-Cook painting is the only one that manifests Leonardo’s painterly and intellectual brilliance.
Experiencing Leonardo
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 9 considers incidences of direct contact with Leonardo’s works by Britons abroad and at the Caroline court in London; that is, first-hand experience of the artist. Although the opportunity to view or handle drawings, manuscripts, or paintings attributed to Leonardo was extremely rare, an examination of the wider matrix of these experiences provides a sense of a less tangible aspect of the early English reception. Key episodes include: Charles, Prince of Wales and Leonardo’s codices belonging to Juan de Espina (Madrid, 1623); George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, Rubens, and Leonardo’s Mona Lisa (Paris, 1625); Queen Henrietta Maria, Inigo Jones, and ‘Ginevra de’ Benci’ (London, 1636); Abraham van der Doort, Roger de Plessis, Duke of Liancourt, and Leonardo’s St John the Baptist (London, 1630); John Evelyn (Paris, 1644). The chapter concludes with a discussion of three works attributed to Leonardo or his immediate followers documented in the Caroline Royal Collection before 1639.
Appraising Leonardo
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 10 discusses the appraisal of paintings relating to Leonardo and his school in seventeenth-century England and the state of understanding and connoisseurship of the artist at that time. The chapter focuses on the paintings relating to Leonardo documented in the Caroline collection, tracking their description in inventories and lists between 1639 and c. 1666. This provides context for the descriptions of the two paintings of Christ as Salvator Mundi attributed to Leonardo in the seventeenth-century British Royal Collection. The chapter identifies, where possible, the specific locations of these paintings within the complex of Stuart royal palaces, with particular reference to the manor of Greenwich. Since Greenwich was in the jointure of Queen Henrietta Maria, we examine whether there is any evidence to support the theory that the painting was brought from France on the occasion of her marriage in 1625. It concludes with an analysis of an important sighting of a Salvator Mundi type, attributed to Leonardo, recorded in the collection of the Duke of Hamilton, c. 1638. This introduces the possibility of a third Salvator Mundi attributed to Leonardo at the Stuart courts.
After the Original: Hollar and Leonardo’s Salvator
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 12 reviews the Bohemian artist Wencelaus Hollar’s 1650 etching of Leonardo’s Salvator Mundi, which, he stated, was made from the original painting. Can we identify Hollar’s model, and on what basis did he attribute it to Leonardo? From a comparison with the closest extant compositions—the Cook, Naples, and Ganay paintings—the chapter examines the consonances and dissonances between the respective paintings and the etching. Since the Ganay painting has been championed (without acceptance) as Leonardo’s original, a history of the scholarly appraisal of this painting, together with some clarifications of its pre-twentieth-century provenance, is presented here. Hollar’s etching is dated 1650, but the location of execution is not given. Can we pinpoint the location in 1650 of any of the prime contenders, and if so, can Hollar be placed in proximity? The chapter proposes that Hollar, perhaps acting for the agent of Cardinal Mazarin, copied Leonardo’s Salvator Mundi at the Commonwealth Sale in 1650.
‘Capitanus Stone’
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 13 examines the administration of the Commonwealth Sale and the identity and political activities of Capt. John Stone, leader of the Sixth Dividend, to whom a Salvator Mundi attributed to Leonardo da Vinci was disbursed on 23 October 1651. Stone, traditionally understood as a Royalist sympathizer, is unveiled as a member of Oliver Cromwell’s Council of State. The chapter reviews the fate of royal goods disbursed to Stone, their locations during the Interregnum, and the goods returned at the Restoration in 1660 from documentary evidence contained in a master inventory of goods disbursed to the Sixth Dividend between 1651–3 and Parliamentary papers. A ‘virtual inventory’ of goods belonging to the Sixth Dividend is provided in the Appendix.
The clitic doubling parameter
Authors: Fischer Susann , Navarro Mario , Vilanova Jorge Vega
Published: November 2019

The aim of this chapter is to explain the emergence and distribution of clitic doubling (CLD) in Romance. On the basis of newly assembled diachronic and synchronic data, the chapter argues that the development can be analysed as a cycle of five different stages. The emergence of the CLD parameter (Fischer and Rinke 2013) is connected to the grammaticalization path of the clitic itself and the verb’s ability to move to the front of the sentence, which in turn affects the A’-positions in front of the verb that are available for the object. CLD in Spanish and Catalan is argued to have taken over partially the information-structural meaning expressed by word order in the Old Romance languages.
What kind of constructions yield what kind of constructions?
Authors: Blümel Andreas , Coniglio Marco
Published: November 2019

The chapter investigates the properties and diachrony of the much-debated German was-für construction based on data from historical corpora. It is argued that this construction originated from the was ‘what’ plus partitive genitive construction. The latter is claimed to be a construction stretching over two DPs, the first one consisting of a wh-element and a null noun, the second one being a genitive noun. Given the absence of phonetical evidence for the presence of a null noun in the first DP, it is shown that, during the Early New High German period, this binominal construction was reanalysed as a mononominal construction consisting of the wh-element was in combination with an indefinite NP. A number of properties of this construction (absence of partitive interpretation, possibility to split, etc.) can be explained straightforwardly by means of the diachronic development sketched.
Introduction
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter introduces the major themes of the book as well as the cast of characters: the over one hundred writers and intellectuals whose work and activities are the focus of what follows in the seven chapters. It dwells considerably on the ethos of retreat—otium—as a governing principle of men and women of letters in this period following the Wars of Religion. It also deals with the historiographical background of this study, acknowledging several generations of historians and literary scholars. The chapter also presages other themes that will follow: honnêteté, Gallicanism, as well as the literary and intellectual sociability of Paris in the generations following the Wars of Religion.
Aristocrats and Writers
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter, building on the last, argues that the motivation for writers to reform French and create a new literary culture largely had to do with their relationship to the Parisian elite—the aristocratic ladies and gentlemen who, in the generation following the Wars of Religion, resettled in the capital, thus transforming urban culture according to their new tastes, values, and interests. The chapter briefly looks at the physical and demographic transformation of the city in this period and then proceeds to examine the myriad relationships between writers and aristocrats, both individually and collectively. It emphasizes in particular patronage, and also the importance of appealing to women as fundamental to this culture. It ends with a consideration of the “invention” of honnêteté as a code of behavior and values that writers fashioned out of various sources in service to their aristocratic betters.
A Culture of Discretion
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines the range of ways, mostly in terms of language and public expression, the cultural regime of this period was governed by pronounced notions of discretion, guardedness, self-censorship, dissimulation, and even duplicity. Much evidence is offered to demonstrate this claim, with specific examples drawn from various texts and through notable events. The chapter also attempts to explain why this “culture of discretion” emerged in this period, referring in particular to the lessons learned from the Wars of Religion, which were retrospectively blamed (in part) on the excessive volubility and license that prevailed, especially with regard to religious matters.
Richelieu and Writers
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

The first part of this chapter deals with the founding of the Académie française. It argues against the traditional image of this institution as Richelieu’s creation and as the embodiment of “cultural absolutism,” instead strenuously asserting that it was more a matter of a movement already afoot among a generation of writers, which Richelieu then co-opted. The second part of the chapter presents a “gallery” of writers and their relationship with Richelieu: some were intimates, some served him with their erudition, some offered him panegyric texts, some served his interests while challenging orthodox thinking, some resisted his vehement efforts to secure their services. In almost every case, these writers and intellectuals brought their own perspectives and interests to the position, suggesting that in some respects, they were using the cardinal as much as he was using them.
The Rambouillet Salon
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter focuses on the famous Rambouillet salon, the most important gathering spot for aristocrats—both men and women—and writers in the early decades of the seventeenth century. Presided over by the Marquise de Rambouillet and, especially, her daughter Julie, this institution was deliberately conceived as a refuge from the royal court, which was considered by many as lacking in refinement and politesse. It fostered intense interactions between a privileged and cultivated Parisian elite and up-and-coming writers. Indeed, for the latter, the salon was their primary “public.” The chapter looks particularly at several aspects of these interactions, from theatrical productions and literary pastimes to several textual representations. As a premier locus of “retreat,” the salon affords a particularly revealing example of how this ethos informed the cultural dynamics of the day.
Conclusion
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter summarizes the main themes of the book and speculates on some of the implications for our broader understanding of historical development. It reviews the previous seven chapters and offers some thoughts about the motivations and meanings of the emergence of new intellectual and literary communities in seventeenth-century Paris.
‘The machine man of 1925’
Authors: Saunders Max
Published: November 2019

This chapter moves beyond the human sciences, to develop the exploration (launched in the Introductions and Chapter 1) of the re-imagining of human nature and potentiality. It investigates the representation of the machine in the series, contrasting the volumes concerned with the dehumanizing effects of mechanized mass production with those taking a more nuanced and original line, arguing that the machine liberates human thought and creativity (a topic of evident relevance to today’s discussions of human-computer interaction and AI). It argues that To-Day and To-Morrow’s presentation of technology as prosthesis offers a more benign vision of mechanized futurity than the ‘prosthetic modernism’ of writers like Marinetti and Wyndham Lewis. H. Stafford Hatfield’s Automaton: or, The Future of the Mechanical Man (1928) is examined for the way in which it floats the possibility of a ‘mechanical brain’, yet is indicative of a general inability to predict the imminent electronic computer—thus raising a question of the limits of prediction in relation to thought-paradigms. A line is suggested from the series’ running together of technology, media and psychology, to the development of media studies, especially as articulated by Marshall McLuhan.
To-Day and To-Morrow, Literature, and Modernism
Authors: Saunders Max
Published: November 2019

This chapter investigates the two-way traffic between To-Day and To-Morrow and modern literature and the arts. The preliminary section considers three outstanding volumes: Scheherazade; or, The Future of the English Novel (1927) by ‘John Carruthers’; Geoffrey West’s Deucalion; or, The Future of Literary Criticism (1930), which contrasts John Middleton Murry with I. A. Richards; and John Rodker’s The Future of Futurism (1926), which discusses Anglo-American literature. It argues that the series’ largely undervalues modernism, and barely attends to the visual arts or to modern music. It surveys the volumes dealing with English, poetry, drama, music, and censorship. The major section is devoted to other ways in which the series is relevant to modern and modernist literature, looking at how other writers responded to it. It turns out the series was followed by a surprising number of important literary figures. The key case studies here are Robert Graves, Aldous Huxley, Joyce, Eliot, Lewis; and Waugh.
Predictably Misleading Evidence
Authors: Horowitz Sophie
Published: November 2019

Evidence can be misleading: it can rationalize raising one’s confidence in false propositions, and lowering one’s confidence in the truth. But can a rational agent know that her total evidence supports a (particular) falsehood? It seems not: if we could see ahead of time that our evidence supported a false belief, then we could avoid believing what our evidence supported, and hence avoid being misled. So, it seems, evidence cannot be predictably misleading. This chapter develops a new problem for higher-order evidence: it is predictably misleading. It then examines a radical strategy for explaining higher-order evidence, according to which there are two distinct epistemic norms at work in the relevant cases. Finally, the chapter suggests that mainstream accounts of higher-order evidence may be able to answer the challenge after all. But to do so, they must deny that epistemic rationality requires believing what is likely given one’s evidence.
Higher-Order Defeat and Evincibility
Authors: Lasonen-Aarnio Maria
Published: November 2019

Does ‘higher-order evidence’ that one’s belief is rationally flawed defeat its status as rational (as justified, as knowledge)? Such a view is committed to two claims. First, it is possible to acquire misleading evidence about the normative status of one’s doxastic states. Second, such evidence has defeating force with respect to the belief. My aim is to do two things. First, I outline a view I call normative evincibility, according to which one always has a kind of epistemic access to the normative status of one’s doxastic states (intentions, actions, etc.). I show how commitment to higher-order defeat incurs a commitment to a form of normative evincibility. Second, I argue that the idea that it is possible to acquire misleading evidence about the normative status of one’s doxastic states is in tension with evincibility. Hence, there is a deep tension inherent in views committed to defeat by higher-order evidence.
The Puzzles of Easy Knowledge and of Higher-Order Evidence
Authors: Neta Ram
Published: November 2019

The goal of this chapter is to provide a unified solution to two widely discussed epistemological puzzles: the puzzle of easy knowledge and the puzzle of higher-order evidence. The chapter begins by setting out each of these two puzzles. It then briefly surveys some of the proposed solutions to each puzzle, none of which generalizes to the other. Finally, the chapter argues that the two puzzles arise because of a widespread confusion concerning the relation of substantive and structural constraints of rationality: or, in the epistemic domain, the relation of evidence and coherence. Clearing up this confusion allows us to clear up both puzzles at once.
Higher-Order Defeat and the Impossibility of Self-Misleading Evidence
Authors: Skipper Mattias
Published: November 2019

Two attractive theses about epistemic rationality—evidentialism and the enkratic principle—jointly imply that a certain sort of self-misleading evidence is impossible. That is to say, if evidentialism and the enkratic principle are both true, one’s evidence cannot support certain false beliefs about what one’s evidence supports. Recently, some epistemologists have argued that self-misleading evidence is possible, since misleading higher-order evidence doesn’t have the strong defeating force needed to rule out this possibility. The goal of this chapter is to offer an account of higher-order defeat that does indeed render self-misleading evidence impossible. Central to the account is the idea that higher-order evidence acquires its normative significance by influencing which conditional beliefs it’s rational to have. What emerges is an independently plausible view of higher-order evidence that allows us to reconcile evidentialism and the enkratic principle.
Higher-Order Defeat and Doxastic Resilience
Authors: Steglich-Petersen Asbjørn
Published: November 2019

It seems obvious that when higher-order evidence makes it rational for one to doubt that one’s own belief on some matter is rational, this can undermine the rationality of that belief. This is known as higher-order defeat. However, despite its intuitive plausibility, it has proved puzzling how higher-order defeat works, exactly. For example, higher-order defeat seems to defy being understood in terms of conditionalization; and higher-order defeat can sometimes place agents in what seem like epistemic dilemmas. This chapter seeks to make progress on these issues by drawing attention to an overlooked aspect of higher-order defeat, namely that it can undermine the resilience of one’s beliefs. The notion of resilience was originally devised to understand how one should reflect the ‘weight’ of one’s evidence. But it can also be applied to understand how one should reflect one’s higher-order evidence.
Dative case in Old English
Authors: Allen Cynthia L.
Published: November 2019

This chapter provides an overview of the uses of dative case in constructions other than dative external possessors, such as ‘ethical’ datives and dative objects of transitive and ditransitive verbs. Constructions traditionally analysed as ‘impersonal’ as well as constructions with copulas that use dative case present particular challenges of analysis, as do the dative complements of adjectives and nouns. While this study focuses on attributive possession, the use of dative case in predicative discussion is discussed in this chapter. In addition to delimiting the scope of the present investigation, the chapter provides background for the discussion in Chapter 7 of the relationship between the loss of functions of the dative case generally and the loss of dative external possessors in Middle English.