bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Validation of the Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool (MUST) in cancer
Authors: Boléo-Tomé Carolina , Monteiro-Grillo Isabel , Camilo Maria , Ravasco Paula
Published: December 2011

In the present study, we aimed to validate the Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool (MUST) for routine nutritional screening in the radiation oncology setting, thus enabling timely and adequate referrals of patients at risk for individualised or advanced intervention. Towards this objective, we conducted a prospective cross-sectional study in 450 non-selected cancer patients (18–95 years) referred for radiotherapy. The following were the nutritional parameters: BMI (categorised by WHO's age/sex criteria), weight loss >5 % in the previous 3–6 months, Patient-Generated Subjective Global Assessment (PG-SGA – validated/specific for oncology) and nutritional risk by MUST. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values and concordance were calculated to validate MUST v. PG-SGA and compare single parameters v. PG-SGA/MUST. BMI v. PG-SGA showed a negligible capacity to detect undernutrition: 0·27 sensitivity, 0·23 specificity, 0·35 positive predictive value and 0·31 negative predictive value. Conversely, percentage weight loss v. PG-SGA was highly effective: 0·76 sensitivity, 0·85 specificity, 0·79 positive predictive value and 0·85 negative predictive value. MUST v. PG-SGA successfully detected patients at risk: 0·80 sensitivity, 0·89 specificity, 0·87 positive predictive value and 1·0 negative predictive value; percentage weight loss v. MUST proved able to identify patients likely to be at risk: 0·85 sensitivity, 0·91 specificity, 0·90 positive predictive value and 1·0 negative predictive value. This is the first study in the radiation oncology setting to validate MUST: a simple and quick method applicable by any health professional, with a high validity for early screening, ideally to antedate a comprehensive nutritional assessment and guide for intervention. In this study, percentage weight loss in the previous 3–6 months does seem valid to predict nutritional risk, and may be the minimum in a busy routine.
Tissue-specific expression of Sprouty1 in mice protects against high-fat diet-induced fat accumulation, bone loss and metabolic dysfunction
Authors: Urs Sumithra , Henderson Terry , Le Phuong , Rosen Clifford J. , Liaw Lucy
Published: December 2011

We recently characterised Sprouty1 (Spry1), a growth factor signalling inhibitor as a regulator of marrow progenitor cells promoting osteoblast differentiation at the expense of adipocytes. Adipose tissue-specific Spry1 expression in mice resulted in increased bone mass and reduced body fat, while conditional knockout of Spry1 had the opposite effect with decreased bone mass and increased body fat. Because Spry1 suppresses normal fat development, we tested the hypothesis that Spry1 expression prevents high-fat diet-induced obesity, bone loss and associated lipid abnormalities, and demonstrate that Spry1 has a long-term protective effect on mice fed a high-energy diet. We studied diet-induced obesity in mice with fatty acid binding promoter-driven expression or conditional knockout of Spry1 in adipocytes. Phenotyping was performed by whole-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, microCT, histology and blood analysis. In conditional Spry1-null mice, a high-fat diet increased body fat by 40 %, impaired glucose regulation and led to liver steatosis. However, overexpression of Spry1 led to 35 % (P < 0·05) lower body fat, reduced bone loss and normal metabolic function compared with single transgenics. This protective phenotype was associated with decreased circulating insulin (70 %) and leptin (54 %; P < 0·005) compared with controls on a high-fat diet. Additionally, Spry1 expression decreased adipose tissue inflammation by 45 %. We show that conditional Spry1 expression in adipose tissue protects against high-fat diet-induced obesity and associated bone loss.
Testing depth-related multivariate patterns of macrofauna on the Indian continental shelf using reduced taxonomic resolution and data transformation
Authors: Joydas T.V. , Damodaran R.
Published: December 2011

Although taxonomic sufficiency (TS) was developed for rapid environmental assessments, it has recently been adopted to study the spatial patterns of macrobenthos in relation to natural environmental gradients. To accept TS as a routine approach in wider benthic studies, it needs to be valid for various taxa and geographically different water masses. This study examined the effects of taxonomic resolution on depth-related multivariate patterns of macrobenthic polychaetes on the western Indian continental shelf. An extensive data set based on samples collected from a wide geographical area (7°–22°N latitudes) covering a large depth gradient (30–200 m) has been analysed. Species level polychaete community data had shown a significant variation between shallow and deeper waters. Our results indicated that generic and family level data also can detect community shifts along a depth gradient in a similar way to species level data. The entire western continental margin (200 m depth) is lying in the oxygen minimum zone (dissolved oxygen <0.5 ml l−1). This study indicated that family level results were sufficient to document the correlations of low oxygen on macrobenthic polychaetes. This study also tested the effects of transformations on depth-related patterns of polychaetes. In multivariate analyses, transformations play a role in defining the balance between contributions from common and rare species in the measure of similarity of two samples. Our results showed that the type of transformations did not make any prominent differences in the multivariate analyses.
Functional adaptation for unique habitats in the species of intertidal limpetsPatelloida
Authors: Nakai Shizuko , Wakayama Norio , Chiba Satoshi
Published: December 2011

Many studies have shown that physical environmental factors cause phenotypic diversity in limpets. However, no studies have documented how substrate conditions (surface shape and topology) affect adhesive force and how they regulate shell morphology in limpets. The intertidal limpetPatelloida pygmaea, having a flat shell, is found exclusively on oyster shells, whileP. conulus, with an extremely high shell, is found onBatillaria cumingi. The adhesive force on theB. cumingiwas significantly greater inP. conulusthan inP. pygmaea, whereas the force on the oyster shell showed no significant difference between these species. On theB. cumingi, a significantly positive correlation was found between adhesive force and volume inP. conulus, and no significant correlation was found inP. pygmaea. In contrast, on the oyster shell, a significant positive correlation was found between adhesive force and volume in both of the two species. These results suggest that the shell ofP. conulusbecomes higher with increasing own shell size by keeping aperture area relative to body size as small as possible. These morphological differences are most likely due to an adaptation to utilize different habitats and adhere to substrates with different structure and topology.
Against all odds: the birth of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1955–1958
Authors: Hicks Stephen , Storey Bryan , Smith Philippa Mein
Published: December 2011

When the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition 1955–1958 advance party sailed from the Millwall Docks in November 1955, bound for the Weddell Sea, their departure was the product of five years of intensive effort on the part of Vivian Fuchs to achieve the first overland crossing of the Antarctic continent. This paper investigates the many obstacles that had to be overcome leading up to Theron sailing and explains the manner in which they were overcome by the Fuchs-Wordie-Clifford triumvirate. The British Foreign Office was particularly opposed to the expedition with the office's focus on sovereignty rather than science while an alternative proposal from Duncan Carse raised a unique set of difficulties. The withdrawal from involvement by the Scott Polar Research Institute Director, Colin Bertram, indicated further disaffection. Most important, if political and financial goals were to be met, was the need for participation by several Commonwealth countries of which New Zealand was the essential partner. Fortunately, the vigorous efforts of a few Antarctic enthusiasts in New Zealand were successful in moving their government to assert its long dormant position in the Ross Dependency. New Zealand's commitment turned the tide of commonwealth apathy towards the TAE. Although the TAE preceded the IGY, events, including the dominating IGY presence of the United States, caused the two projects to become tightly interwoven. For these reasons the years leading up to the departure of Theron were as intriguing as the crossing journey itself.
Acquisition de la morphographie flexionnelle du français: Retard de jeunes adultes en formation professionnelle
Authors: MOUT TIPHAINE , BRISSAUD CATHERINE
Published: December 2011

Cet article présente une analyse comparative des compétences orthographiques de jeunes adultes français en formation professionnelle, âgés de 15 à 18 ans et présentant de grandes difficultés en orthographes, et d'élèves français tout-venant âgés de 8 à 15 ans. Ces élèves ont été testés sur un des points orthographiques du français les plus difficiles à maitriser: les finales verbales homophones en /E/. L'objectif de cette recherche est de savoir si les jeunes adultes en difficulté orthographique se situent sur des chemins d'apprentissage identiques aux élèves tout-venant, mais avec un retard; ou bien s'ils construisent des procédures différentes de celles des apprentis scripteurs.
Moral Obligation
Authors: Pick Thomas
Published: December 2011

Moral philosophy characteristically sees moral standards as reasons. That an action would be kind or just or in some way morally admirable is supposed to give us a reason for performing it. And surely there is something right about the thought that moral standards imply reasons for conforming to them. For we offer the morality of an action as a relevant consideration in practical argument— a consideration to support that action's performance. You should provide the help, because it would be kind, or just, and so forth. And an argument, surely, is in the business of offering reasons for what the argument supports.
Coalition Government in Northern Ireland: Social Policy and the Lowest Common Denominator Thesis
Authors: Gray Ann Marie , Birrell Derek
Published: December 2011

In analysing governance and social policy in Northern Ireland in the period of devolution 1999–2002 Eithne McLaughlin described and predicted the dominance of a lowest common denominator approach to the formulation of social policies. This paper examines the period of restored devolution 2007–11 using this thesis. It identifies the trends in the development of social policies after 2007 and examines social policy-making by the government under five categories. Having established the reasons for this complex approach to social policy formulation, consideration is also given to the outcomes of the policy process.
Low Income Households: Casualties of the Boom, Casualties of the Bust?
Authors: Whitfield Grahame , Dearden Chris
Published: December 2011

This article reflects on research undertaken with low income households over a 12 month period following the ‘credit crunch’, a period characterised by rapid change to the financial landscape in the UK. It argues that people living on persistent low incomes were casualties of the economic ‘boom’ as they did not benefit from economic growth and of the ‘bust’ in that they most keenly felt the impact of the recession and the reaction of financial institutions to the new financial landscape. It concludes by arguing that, reflecting on the complexity of people's lives, addressing indebtedness requires a multi-faceted approach.
Groundwater nitrate pollution in intensively farmed regions
Authors: Balcerak Ernie
Published: December 2011

Intensified agricultural practices that have developed during the past century have helped improve food security for many people but have also added to nitrate pollution in water supply. Balancing the water needs for agriculture with the need for clean groundwater for drinking requires understanding factors such as the routes by which nitrate enters the water supply and how long nitrate remains in the water. The Thames River catchment provides a good study example because the water quality in the river, which supplies drinking water to millions of people, has been monitored for the past 140 years, and the region has undergone significant agricultural development over the past century. Howden et al. studied nitrate transport from agricultural land to water in the Thames basin using a simple model that considers an estimate of the amount of nitrate that could leach the groundwater based on land use practices along with an algorithm that determines the route nitrate would take to reach surface water or groundwater from agricultural areas.
Modeling ice stream flow
Authors: Balcerak Ernie
Published: December 2011

Ice flow speed within an ice sheet can vary from a few meters to thousands of meters per year. Fast flowing ice streams can affect sea level, and their flow variation is one factor that determines whether an ice sheet is gaining or losing mass. But different ice streams exhibit different behaviors, and these spatial and temporal variations are not well understood, causing uncertainty about sea level change when ice streams stop or accelerate. Bougamont et al. used a three‐dimensional ice sheet model coupled with a model of the underlying subglacial environment to investigate the relationship between ice flow and basal till properties. This new coupled model reveals new and significant complexities in ice stream behavior, which are related to the spatial and temporal evolution of bed properties. Furthermore, they found that even small differences in the subglacial hydrology can significantly influence ice stream flow. Their results also reveal that ice streams may well have a memory insofar as their current flow is conditioned by their previous behavioral history and physical condition. The study is a step toward understanding the complex behavior of Antarctic ice streams. (Journal of Geophysical Research‐Earth Surface, doi:10.1029/2011JF002025, 2011)
Ionospheric scintillation over Antarctica during the storm of 5–6 April 2010
Authors: Kinrade J. , Mitchell C. N. , Yin P. , Smith N. , Jarvis M. J. , Maxfield D. J. , Rose M. C. , Bust G. S. , Weatherwax A. T.
Published: December 2011

On 5 April 2010 a coronal mass ejection produced a traveling solar wind shock front that impacted the Earth's magnetosphere, producing the largest geomagnetic storm of 2010. The storm resulted in a prolonged period of phase scintillation on Global Positioning System signals in Antarctica. The scintillation began in the deep polar cap at South Pole just over 40 min after the shock front impact was recorded by a satellite at the first Lagrangian orbit position. Scintillation activity continued there for many hours. On the second day, significant phase scintillation was observed from an auroral site (81°S) during the postmidnight sector in association with a substorm. Particle data from polar‐orbiting satellites provide indication of electron and ion precipitation into the Antarctic region during the geomagnetic disturbance. Total electron content maps show enhanced electron density being drawn into the polar cap in response to southward turning of the interplanetary magnetic field. The plasma enhancement structure then separates from the dayside plasma and drifts southward. Scintillation on the first day is coincident spatially and temporally with a plasma depletion region both in the dayside noon sector and in the dayside cusp. On the second day, scintillation is observed in the nightside auroral region and appears to be strongly associated with ionospheric irregularities caused by E region particle precipitation.
Preventing hereditary cancers caused by opportunistic carcinogens
Authors: Friedenson Bernard
Published: December 2011

Objectives

Previous studies reported inherited BRCA1/2 deficits can cause cancer by impairing normal protective responses. Opportunistic carcinogens can exploit these deficits by causing chronic inflammation, constant cell death and replacement in a mutagenic environment, DNA crosslinking or double strand breaks. Some of the resulting cancers may be prevented if opportunistic carcinogens are identified.

Methods

The literature was systematically searched for carcinogens capable of exploiting deficits in BRCA1/2 pathways. Search criteria were common exposure, available information, required BRCA1/2 pathway repairs, increased risks for any cancer, and effects on stem cells.

Results

Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are closely related carcinogens and common pollutants that seem everywhere. Alcohol metabolism also produces acetaldehyde. High levels of either carcinogen overwhelm normal detoxification systems, cause inflammation, inhibit DNA repair and produce DNA cross links as critical carcinogenic lesions. Searching model system studies revealed both carcinogens activate stem cells, BRCA1/2 pathways and connected BRCA1/2 pathways to myeloid leukemia. For example, the BRCA1-BARD1 complex is required for proper nucleophosmin functions. Nucleophosmin prevents a major subset of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Next, these concepts were independently tested against risks for myeloid leukemia. Epidemiologic results showed that BRCA2 gene defects inherited on both chromosomes increased risks so dramatically that AML occurs in most children. Using data from 14 studies, known/potential heterozygous BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations increased risks for myeloid leukemias by at least 3 fold in 7 studies and by at least 50% in 12.Acetaldehyde occurs in breast milk. In model studies, excessive acetaldehyde/alcohol exposure affects estrogen metabolism and stimulates alternate alcohol detoxification pathways. These pathways can also cause DNA cross linking by releasing oxygen species and activating procarcinogens. Acetaldehyde in rats’ drinking water increased incidence of leukemias, lymphomas, pancreatic tumors and fibroadenomas. Six human epidemiologic studies support an association between alcohol related genotype or alcohol consumption and early onset breast cancers, including those in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers.

Conclusions

Although it is difficult to prove direct causation, BRCA1/2 mutation carriers may reduce cancer risks by avoiding excessive formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. Broader genetic testing and pharmacologic/nutritional detoxification are possible.
LogMap 2.0: towards logic-based, scalable and interactive ontology matching
Authors: Jimenez-Ruiz Ernesto , Cuenca Grau Bernardo , Zhou Yujiao
Published: December 2011

In this paper we present a much improved version of LogMap, a highly scalable ontology matching system with ‘built-in’ reasoning and diagnosis capabilities. LogMap 2.0 is not only more scalable and robust than its predecessor, but it also provides the necessary infrastructure for domain experts to interactively contribute to the matching process.
Some Practical and Statistical Aspects of the Comparative Evaluation of Microbiological Culture Media
Authors: Jarvis B.
Published: December 2011

Quality assessment of culture media for use in a laboratory is an essential requirement of laboratory accreditation procedures. Over some years a number of procedures have been developed to permit comparison of the performance of batches of both liquid and solid culture media, whether made in the laboratory or purchased from outside suppliers. These procedures include estimation of the productivity ratio (PR), selectivity factor (SF) and other parameters for which various acceptance criteria have been recommended. However, such criteria have not been set in a systematic manner that recognises the need for statistical appraisal of the data. This has resulted, for instance, in confusion as to whether or not the counts of colony forming units (cfu) should be compared before or after mathematical transformation. This chapter discusses statistical aspects of the tests, their shortcomings and benefits and illustrates simple ways in which data can be compared.
Culture Media Used in the Detection and Enumeration of Coagulase-positive Staphylococci
Authors: Zangerl Peter , Becker Heinz
Published: December 2011

The availability of highly productive and selective media for the detection and enumeration of coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS) is of great importance in routine food surveillance programmes. Staphylococcus aureus has a prominent place among the CPS. Thus, selective media for detecting CPS primarily detect S. aureus. In this chapter, selective and diagnostic media for S. aureus and other CPS are reviewed. Baird-Parker agar is widely accepted as the most satisfactory medium for the enumeration of CPS in foods. Productivity is high, especially in the case of stressed cells. However, tellurite reduction and egg yolk reaction are poor diagnostic systems when testing many foodstuffs and the medium is not very selective. This may give unreliable results in samples with high levels of competitive flora. Attempts have therefore been made to replace the egg yolk by animal plasma in order to differentiate CPS directly on the plate from other competing microorganisms. Commercially available rabbit plasma fibrinogen agar is a suitable medium for enumerating CPS in foods without the need for cumbersome and time-consuming confirmatory tests. Baird-Parker agar and rabbit plasma fibrinogen medium are recommended by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Baird-Parker agar is used also as the official method by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States. Selective liquid media that use MPN techniques are available for detecting low numbers of CPS (<100 cfu g−1). Studies have shown that in most samples recoveries of CPS are similar after enrichment in tryptone soya broth with 10% NaCI and 1% sodium pyruvate (PTSBS), Giolitti–Cantoni broth with Tween 80 (GCBT) and liquid Baird-Parker (LBP). However, significant differences in selectivity have been observed. Highest numbers of competing flora were observed in PTSBS, leading to problems in identifying CPS when streaked onto Baird-Parker agar. Selectivity was superior in LBP than in GCBT. While PTSBS is recommended by the FDA, the ISO favours the use of GCBT.
Culture Media for Enterococci
Authors: Klein Günter , Reuter Gerhard
Published: December 2011

Enterococci, formerly classified as faecal streptococci, belong with few exceptions to the Lancefield group D streptococci. They are contaminants of various foods, especially those of animal origin. The genus Enterococcus comprises to date 40 known species. Most of them have their habitat in the intestine of man and animals. Serologically based grouping does not constitute a reliable definition for these bacteria. The same applies to the term “faecal streptococci” and it seems reasonable therefore to look for enterococci sensu stricto.

Food hygiene monitoring systems use enterococci as indicators for faecal contamination and such use requires reliable methods for selective cultivation and identification of marker strains. More than 100 modifications of selective media have been described in the past for isolating faecal streptococci or enterococci from various specimens. The selection of a medium requires consideration of the specimen type (solid or liquid), the method of cultivation (pre-enrichment/enrichment, plate count or membrane filter technique) and whether the specimen is heavily contaminated with other organisms. The choice of media is made more difficult as commercial versions of the same culture medium may vary in formulation and/or performance from producer to producer. Therefore, reviewing the literature may help in the choice of medium and of confirmatory tests.

Glycopeptide-resistant strains of enterococci are a cause of nosocomial infections. Enterococci in the food chain may function as transmitters from animals to man. Hence, the detection and identification of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) is needed in food microbiology and special media and procedures are required.

The selectivity and productivity of some commonly used or cited media are reported here: citrate azide Tween carbonate (CATC) agar, kanamycin aesculin azide (KAA) agar, M-Enterococcus (ME) agar, aesculin bile azide (ABA) agar, and thallous acetate tetrazolium glucose (T1TG) agar. In clinical literature, ABA is mostly called Enterococcosel (ECS) and ME known as Slanetz and Bartley agar. No medium is completely selective and productive for all strains of enterococci, but some media are more selective for some Enterococcus species, e.g. E. faecalis and E. faecium, which serve as indicators of faecal contamination or which are primarily responsible for nosocomial infections.

Confirmatory tests must be performed where the selectivity of the medium is not sufficient to exclude the growth of other bacteria like pediococci or Leuconostoc. Selective media for enterococci should be used only after or while simultaneously checking their selectivity (false positive) and productivity (false negative) against appropriate test organisms which are representative of the kind of specimen.
Culture Media for Non-sporulating Gram-positive, Catalase-positive Food Spoilage Bacteria
Authors: Gardner G. A. , Holley R. A.
Published: December 2011

Conditions for the isolation of Gram-positive, catalase-positive, food-spoilage bacteria are discussed and media for the selective isolation of Micrococcaceae and Brochothrix thermosphacta are described. No selective media are available for the isolation of Microbacterium, Kurthia, Brevibaterium or Propionibacterium spp. An outline scheme for identification is proposed.
Culture Media for Leuconostoc gasicomitatum
Authors: Vihavainen Elina J. , Johanna Björkroth K.
Published: December 2011

Leuconostoc gasicomitatum and the closely related species L. gelidum cause spoilage of various foods stored chilled in modified atmosphere. This chapter describes methods for their detection and identification. There is no selective medium available, although these bacteria grow on media suitable for lactic acid bacteria. Phenotypic methods of identification are not suitable for distinguishing between different Leuconostoc species, and several alternative methods are described.
Culture Media for Detection and Enumeration of “Total” Enterobacteriaceae, Coliforms and Escherichia coli from Foods
Authors: Manafi M.
Published: December 2011

Recent developments in enrichment and selective media for the isolation and enumeration of “total” Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, faecal coliforms and E. coli from foods are described and effects of time and temperature of incubation discussed. Coliforms and E. coli are both important indicators of food contamination; both therefore need to be detected in the same medium. Several attempts have been made to detect coliforms and E. coli simultaneously and novel methods have been introduced, based on the detection of β-d-galactosidase (β-D) and β-D-glucuronidase (GUD) using enzymatic methods. Factors to be considered in the selection of media for this group of organisms are noted, based on the results of comparative studies.
Culture Media for the Isolation of Salmonella
Authors: Mooijman K. A.
Published: December 2011

Isolation of Salmonella in food microbiology is accomplished using cultural methods and needs several steps. For this, media for pre-enrichment, selective enrichment, isolation and confirmation have been developed. Several official organisations for standardisation have developed reference methods for the isolation of Salmonella. In general, these use one pre-enrichment medium, one or two different selective enrichment media and two or more isolation media. Finally, presumptive Salmonella colonies are confirmed by biochemical and serological tests. In this chapter the main media used for isolation of Salmonella are reviewed. and some recent developments in culture media for Salmonella are described. Modified pre-enrichment media are sometimes required for specific cases. Modifications include addition of supplements such as antimicrobial compounds, ferrioxamine E or Oxyrase™ to standard media or through the development of new media. For the selective enrichment procedure, motility enrichment in semi-solid media shows equal or better results than the use of the standard liquid selective media. A semi-solid medium has recently been incorporated in an amendment to the International Standard for the detection of Salmonella. New developments try to combine the non-selective pre-enrichment and selective enrichment procedures in one step. Furthermore, chromogenic substrates have become more important in isolation media and new selective agents, such as Inhibigen™, have been developed and used in isolation media.
Culture Media for the Isolation of Yersinia enterocolitica from Foods
Authors: Boer Enne de
Published: December 2011

Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis are recognised as food-borne pathogens, and outbreaks and sporadic cases of yersiniosis have been reported in many countries, especially in the northern hemisphere. Many selective enrichment and plating media for the isolation of Yersinia enterocolitica from foods have been described. Use of many of these results in the isolation of non-pathogenic as well as pathogenic Yersinia strains. At present, no single isolation procedure is optimal for the recovery of all pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica. Cold enrichment in phosphate-buffered saline plus 1% sorbitol and 0.15% bile salts (PBSSB) and two-step enrichment with tryptone soy broth (TSB) and bile oxalate sorbose (BOS) broth are useful methods for the recovery of a wide spectrum of Y. enterocolitica serotypes. Enrichment in Irgasan ticarcillin chlorate (ITC) broth is the most efficient method for recovery of strains of biotype 4/serotype 0:3, the most prevalent clinical bio/serotype of Y. enterocolitica in Europe. Post-enrichment alkali treatment often results in higher isolation rates. Cefsulodin Irgasan novobiocin (CIN) agar and Salmonella-Shigella deoxycholate calcium chloride (SSDC) agar are the most frequently used plating media. Selection of the proper isolation procedure will depend on the bio/serotypes of Yersinia spp. sought and on the type of food to be examined. Use of more than one medium for both enrichment and plating will result in higher recovery rates of Yersinia spp. from foods. Biotyping and serotyping is essential for differentiation between pathogenic and nonpathogenic Yersinia strains. The International Organization for Standardization method for the detection of presumptive pathogenic Y. enterocolitica includes parallel use of the following two isolation procedures: (1) enrichment in peptone, sorbitol and bile salts (PSB) broth for 2–3 days at 22–25°C with agitation or 5 days without agitation, then plating on CIN agar directly, alkaline treatment and incubation for 24h at 30°C; (2) enrichment in ITC for 2 days at 25°C; plating on SSDC agar and incubation for 2 days at 30°C.
Culture Media for Isolating Cronobacter species (Enterobacter sakazakii)
Authors: Iversen Carol , Druggan Patrick
Published: December 2011

Cronobacter is a newly proposed genus containing five species and is contaxic with Enterobacter sakazakii. These organisms persist in dry environments, including powdered foods. There is concern about their presence in powdered infant formula, following links between neonatal infections and contaminated formula. Methods for the isolation and detection of Cronobacter have been complicated by the sensitivity of a number of strains to selective agents commonly used in media for Enterobacteriaceae, such as bile salts, dyes and antibiotics. Differentiation of Cronobacter colonies from those of non-target organisms can be achieved using a combination of sucrose fermentation, ornithine decarboxylation and hydrolysis of chromogenic α-D-glucosidase substrates. Development of a horizontal EN ISO standard is currently ongoing and validation of proposed detection methods is being undertaken by AOAC International.
Culture Media for the Isolation and Enumeration of Pathogenic Vibrio Species in Foods and Environmental Samples
Authors: Oliver James D.
Published: December 2011

The genus Vibrio contains over 70 described species, of which 12 are known human pathogens; of these, eight are food associated. The vibrios are normal microflora in estuarine waters, and thus occur in high numbers in seafood. V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus are the most important vibrios worldwide, causing diseases ranging from mild gastroenteritis to rapidly fatal infections. A large number of media have been developed over the last 45 years, both for the selective enrichment and for the isolation of these pathogens. Of these, alkaline peptone water (APW) and thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose agar are the most commonly employed for the enrichment and isolation of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus. The most widely used selective medium for V. vulnificus is cellobiose polymyxin colistin agar and several of its modifications. These media, numerous others which have been described, their modes of action, their use, and typical results, are the topic of this review.
Culture Media for Food-associated Genera in the Family Flavobacteriaceae
Authors: Hugo Celia J. , Jooste P. J.
Published: December 2011

The taxonomy of the flavobacteria has undergone many changes over the past 10 years and has rapidly expanded in the past five years. This may lead to confusion when deciding on culture media for this group of bacteria. This chapter is organised so that it orientates the reader in terms of the taxonomy of the family and then deals with the media that can be suggested for the isolation, cultivation, maintenance and differentiation of the members of the Flavobacteriaceae family that may be of significance to the food microbiologist. The most useful isolation media for this group of bacteria are nutrient agar, standard plate count agar, trypticase soy agar, Reasoner's 2A medium, marine agar and Anacker and Ordal agar.
Culture Media for Detecting and Enumerating Yeasts and Moulds
Authors: Beuchat Larry R. , Deak Tibor
Published: December 2011

Dilution plating techniques are designed to determine populations of viable fungal, i.e. yeast and mould, propagules per unit weight or volume of food. Direct plating techniques, on the other hand, are designed to assess the internal mycoflora of individual pieces of foods, e.g. seeds, nuts or dried fruits, and results are expressed as a percentage of infected pieces. Both techniques are used by industry and regulatory agencies to monitor fungal contamination at various stages of food handling, storing, processing and marketing. Peptone (0.1%) water is commonly used as a diluent for samples to be homogenized, pummelled or blended. Buffered diluents containing up to 30% glycerol, 40% glucose or 60% sucrose are recommended for enumerating xerophiles. No one medium is satisfactory for detection or enumeration of all yeasts and moulds in all foods. Antibiotic-supplemented media are superior to acidified media for general enumeration of yeasts and moulds. Dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol agar is most suitable for this purpose. Dichloran 18% glycerol agar performs well for enumerating moderately xerophilic yeasts and moulds. Fastidious xerophiles require media containing high concentrations of sugars and/or sodium chloride. Media have been formulated to detect potentially aflatoxigenic aspergilli and mycotoxigenic strains of penicillia, fusaria and other moulds, but media are needed with increased selectivity and specificity for detecting mycotoxigenic moulds. Ascospores of heat-resistant moulds often require heat treatment prior to plating in order to activate the germination process. The spread-plate technique is strongly preferred over the pour-plate technique for enumerating yeasts and moulds. The recommended incubation temperature is 25°C, but incubation time between plating and counting colonies ranges from 5 days for determination of general populations of mycoflora to 4 weeks or more for fastidious xerophiles. There is a need for new and improved media for selectively isolating various groups, genera, species and/or strains of fungi capable of growing only under specific environmental conditions, e.g. low aw, low pH, low oxygen tension or, in the case of sublethally injured cells, under conditions which facilitate resuscitation. Improved media are needed which accurately detect moulds capable of producing specific mycotoxins in a wide range of food types.
Culture Media for the Detection and Enumeration of Legionella Species in Water
Authors: Veld Simon in't , Veenendaal Harm
Published: December 2011

Legionella species are common in aquatic habitats. At least 49 species of the genus Legionella have been described, of which approximately 40% have been implicated in human disease. The transmission route is via aerosols containing Legionella and can cause “legionnaires’ disease” or a milder form, “Pontiac fever”. Owing to the complexity of the heterogeneous group of Legionella species and the diversity of water samples, there is no gold standard for the isolation of Legionella species from water. Cultivation of Legionella requires special media supplemented with the amino acid L-cysteine. This amino acid, together with BCYEα (buffered charcoal yeast extract agar with α-ketoglutarate), forms the base for Legionella culture media. Depending on the source of the water to be analysed, it is necessary to use different combinations of antibiotics. Therefore different types of media have been developed since the first Legionella was cultured in 1977. The history of the development of various culture media for the isolation of Legionella species is described in this chapter.
Culture Media for the Isolation and Enumeration of Microorganisms from Waters
Authors: Watkins J. , Sartory D.
Published: December 2011

A brief history of the development of water testing media, together with a discussion of the rationale of indicator organism selection, isolation of pathogens where required, and the optimisation of confirmatory tests for water analysis are presented here.
Solar Energy Utilisation
Authors: Pace Ron , Krausz Elmars
Published: December 2011

The relevant properties of, as well as subsequent factors influencing, the net solar irradiance incident at the Earth's surface are examined. The methods currently employed (and those under near term development) able to convert solar energy into other usable energy forms, such as thermal, electrical and chemical energy, are surveyed. The efficiencies and likely cost structures of these conversion processes are compared. The direct conversion of solar energy to heat is identified to be the most efficient process (>70%) and employs well-established technologies which are generally cost competitive with other heat sources when sited in favourable locations (at latitudes below 45°). Additionally, the solar powered generation of electricity is shown to be of comparable cost and overall efficiency (∼20–30% of incident flux on the area utilised), whether based on the latest implementations of ‘conventional’ silicon Generation I photovoltaic technologies or high temperature concentrating solar heat capture systems when coupled to thermal engines driving electric generators. Exotic, but more efficient (>30%), non silicon multi-junction (Generation II) photovoltaic technologies are further from practical application and are not cost effective unless combined with solar concentration systems. Generation III (for example organic photovoltaic) technologies hold promise for low cost/unit area but are currently less efficient (<5%) than semi-conductor photovoltaics. Bio-solar approaches, employing natural photosynthetic organisms, allowing the conversion of solar energy to fuels, particularly hydrogen, have the lowest overall efficiencies of those technologies examined (∼1–2% maximum). The use of biomimetic catalysts to enhance hydrogen production using solar generated electricity is considered.
Substrate and Product Channels in Photosystem II
Authors: Ho Felix M.
Published: December 2011

During oxygenic photosynthesis, the oxidation of water to molecular oxygen and a proton is catalysed by the enzyme Photosystem II (PSII). The reaction takes place at a CaMn4 cluster that is found within the PSII protein matrix, shielded from the external environment. It has been proposed that dedicated channels and pathways exist in the protein complex for the passage of the substrate and product molecules to and from this active site. In this chapter, the rationales for the possible existence of such pathways are considered, and the various biochemical, spectroscopic and computational studies for identifying their possible locations and functions are reviewed. The different approaches and techniques employed and their influences on the respective results and conclusions are also compared and discussed.
Molecular Ru and Ir Complexes Capable of Acting as Water Oxidation Catalysts
Authors: Sala X. , Escriche L. , Llobet A.
Published: December 2011

The main objective of this report is to describe the key chemistry related to water oxidation catalysis by molecular transition metal complexes. The nature of a few mononuclear and polynuclear Ru complexes that are of interest from a mechanistic perspective is illustrated. Furthermore, the main intermediates proposed in their corresponding catalytic cycles is also discussed together with the existing parallel chemistry with Ir complexes. Finally, the potential applications of these water oxidation catalysts for light induced water splitting devices is also succinctly presented.
Theoretical Studies of O–O and H–H Bond Formation in Enzymes
Authors: Siegbahn Per E. M.
Published: December 2011

In this review, computational studies of water oxidation and reversible H–H bond formation in enzymes are described. These types of studies, using density functional theory, have been performed the past 10–15 years with a gradually increased understanding of these processes. For water oxidation in photosystem II, a mechanism has been reached with good agreement for all observations made, including structural ones. The O–O bond is suggested to be formed between a terminal oxygen radical in the center of the OEC and a bridging oxo-ligand. For H–H bond cleavage in NiFe-hydrogenase and H2 bond cleavage in FeFe-hydrogenases, a similar level of understanding has been obtained. For both these systems, unusually low oxidation states, Ni(i) and Fe(i), respectively, play important roles.
Wired Reaction Centers
Authors: Lubner Carolyn E. , Bryant Donald A. , Golbeck John H.
Published: December 2011

New methods to generate alternative fuels, specifically through light driven reactions, are of major contemporary interest. Dihydrogen is a particularly attractive alternative fuel since it contains no carbon and thus does not contribute to increased levels of greenhouse gases. This chapter highlights progress in the utilization and exploitation of naturally-occurring reaction centers to generate dihydrogen. Photosynthetic reaction centers carry out the conversion of solar energy into chemical bond energy with high efficiencies and high quantum yields. In addition, the standard biochemical midpoint potential of the final product of Photosystem I is poised at an appropriate Gibbs free energy to carry out the reaction: 2H++2e− → H2(g). Due to these properties, Photosystem I is an appropriate photochemical module that, when coupled to a catalytic module, shows promise in reducing protons to dihydrogen. Various light-to-hydrogen systems will be discussed, from the use of whole organisms to purified protein constructs. A major challenge is the transfer of the electrons between the photochemical module and the catalytic module. To address this problem, several unique attachment strategies have been employed, including a novel technology that directly wires together the electron transfer chains of the photochemical and catalytic modules. We conclude with a section on the attachment of these systems to electrode surfaces, which is ultimately a necessity for incorporation of these modules into a useable bio-inspired device, as well as future prospects and applications for these technologies.
Future Perspectives on Solar Fuels
Authors: Faunce T. A.
Published: December 2011

This chapter examines the future perspective that artificial photosynthesis (with timely and coordinated academic, governmental and corporate encouragement) may become a global phenomenon equitably providing inexpensive local (household and community) generation of fuels and basic foods from the simple raw materials of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. The challenge to rapidly develop nanotechnologically-based artificial photosynthesis according to such principles is first extrapolated by giving a future perspective on the scientific challenges considered in the three sections of this book: Light Capture (including light-harvesting complexes, synthetic pigment arrays and dye-sensitive solar cells), Photochemical Conversion (including structure of the photosynthetic reaction centres, optimizing photochemical quantum yield) and Energy Storage (including optimization of photosynthetic water oxidation and catalysis). The potential role of a Global Artificial Photosynthesis (GAP) Project in promptly advancing such areas according to the virtues and principles of social equity and environmental sustainability is evaluated.

A future perspective on solar fuels emphasizing such virtues and principles is by no means a certainty. It is just as likely that the dissemination of artificial photosynthetic systems will be restricted through, for example, corporate claims of intellectual monopoly privilege, as well as national struggles to secure technological advantage. Governance strategies for minimization of such obstacles to GAP and its benefits will be critically analyzed.
Membrane integration of a mitochondrial signal-anchored protein does not require additional proteinaceous factors
Authors: Merklinger Elisa , Gofman Yana , Kedrov Alexej , Driessen Arnold J. M. , Ben-Tal Nir , Shai Yechiel , Rapaport Doron
Published: December 2011

The MOM (mitochondrial outer membrane) contains SA (signal-anchored) proteins that bear at their N-terminus a single hydrophobic segment that serves as both a mitochondrial targeting signal and an anchor at the membrane. These proteins, like the vast majority of mitochondrial proteins, are encoded in the nucleus and have to be imported into the organelle. Currently, the mechanisms by which they are targeted to and inserted into the OM (outer membrane) are unclear. To shed light on these issues, we employed a recombinant version of the SA protein OM45 and a synthetic peptide corresponding to its signal-anchor segment. Both forms are associated with isolated mitochondria independently of cytosolic factors. Interaction with mitochondria was diminished when a mutated form of the signal-anchor was employed. We demonstrate that the signal-anchor peptide acquires an α-helical structure in a lipid environment and adopted a TM (transmembrane) topology within artificial lipid bilayers. Moreover, the peptide's affinity to artificial membranes with OM-like lipid composition was much higher than that of membranes with ER (endoplasmic reticulum)-like lipid composition. Collectively, our results suggest that SA proteins are specifically inserted into the MOM by a process that is not dependent on additional proteins, but is rather facilitated by the distinct lipid composition of this membrane.