bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perception, Style, and Consumption: Specifying and Testing a Structural Model on Problem Drinking
Authors: Yu Jiang , Williford William R.
Published: November 2015

Analyzing data from the 1989 New York State Drinking and Driving Survey, the authors examined a structural model of problem drinking by people in drinking driver programs, county jails, alcoholism treatment centers, and on probation. The findings suggest that drinking style (i.e., when, where, how, and with whom) is the best predictor of problem drinking behavior, and the self-perception of alcohol drinking ability has an indirect effect on problem drinking behavior through drinking style and alcohol consumption.
Problems in the Evaluation of Treatment Programs for Drunk Drivers: Goals and Outcomes
Authors: Fitzpatrick Jody L.
Published: November 2015

Measures used in evaluating drunk driving treatment programs over the last 15 years are reviewed and critiqued in terms of construct validity. The concept of triangulation with increased use of self-report and collateral measures is recommended over the current reliance on the single outcome measure of rearrest. Greater attention to collecting data on processes and intermediate outcomes is also recommended to provide information for program improvement, dissemination, and identification of effective treatment models. Ambiguity concerning program goals and directions is cited as another related problem area which has led to unintended differences in program philosophies and methods.
From Printing Press to Pharmaceutical Representative: A Social History of Drug Advertising and Promotion
Authors: Stallings Shirley
Published: November 2015

With only a few years left in the twentieth century, a multiplicity of controversies encompass drug advertising and promotion. Have marketing techniques regarding pharmaceutical drugs, proprietary medicines, alcohol, and tobacco really changed over time and disrupted the value structure of society? Past, present, and future affect people; not one aspect of time, but all aspects, bear upon the present. Drug advertising and promotion has maintained vitality and robustness through time by promoting the public's desire for a continuity of familiar and traditional health values. By using the nature of a perpetually changing environment, advertising has advanced drugs as symbols of health. Such symbolic activity has provided hope to people regarding their own power and control over pain and illness. Through time, drug advertising became institutionalized.
Direct-to-Consumer Advertising: Today's Issues and Tomorrow's Outlook
Authors: Basara Lisa Ruby
Published: November 2015

An extensive review of pharmacy and marketing literature shows that direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) strategies have changed significantly since the first advertisements were presented in the early 1980s. The future of DTCA, however, is still uncertain as the impact of this new marketing tactic on current health care practice is not yet fully understood. Physicians and pharmacists need to be aware of and respond to the knowledgeable patient, while the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and pharmaceutical manufacturers must make cognizant decisions about the amount and the type of information that will be advertised directly to consumers. Finally, patients must understand the potential shortcomings of the information presented in prescription drug advertisements. This article will review the definition of DTCA, provide current examples of campaigns and their impact on health care communication, and predict changes that may occur as a result of FDA reconsideration of drug advertising regulations.
Tobacco in Australia—An Overview
Authors: Winstanley Margaret H. , Woodward Stephen D.
Published: November 2015

Tobacco smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease in Australia, and the major cause of drug death. Under a third of adults smoke, male rates having declined significantly following the Second World War. The publication of international reports during the 1960s causally linking tobacco with death and disease stimulated action by Australian health professionals, although governments remained unresponsive. In the 1970s, advertising bans in the broadcast media were introduced, but quickly circumvented by the tobacco companies through sport sponsorships. However, the 1980s brought increased public awareness about health issues, and legislation concerning advertising restrictions and other aspects of tobacco control. Importantly, unequivocal evidence about the effects of passive smoking also become available in this decade, signalling a battle between public health interests and the tobacco industry, which the industry can now be said to have lost. Although consumption and disease rates are falling, priority areas for action still remain.
Drugs in the Workplace: Overstating the Problems and the Cures
Authors: Crow Stephen M. , Hartman Sandra J.
Published: November 2015

Generally speaking, the American workforce's productivity is not effected by alcohol and drugs. While this statement appears to fly in the face of the prevailing wisdom, we offer evidence that it is true, consider why there is a widespread perception that drugs are a significant problem in the American workplace, and suggest implications for managers and human resource professionals.
Who's Paying for Public Substance Abuse Programs? Trends and Inter-State Variability in the Revenues of State Drug and Alcohol Abuse Agencies, from 1985 to 1989
Authors: Culhane Dennis P. , Hadley Trevor R. , Lutterman Theodore C.
Published: November 2015

This article documents shifts in the inflation-adjusted revenue sources of state drug and alcohol abuse agencies from 1985 to 1989. All revenues sources show substantial increases in contributions during this period, with the federal block grant providing the largest absolute increase to state revenues (+55%). States continue to be the largest payor for public substance abuse services, accounting for 47% of the total, with the federal government increasing its proportionate share 8%. Interstate variability in per capita expenditures on public substance abuse services is considerable, primarily due to variations in revenues provided by state governments. Future research is needed to determine the sources and effects of differences in states' relative commitment to substance abuse services.
Beyond Ideology in Drug Policy: The Primary Prevention Model
Authors: Mason Derek T. , Lusk Mark W. , Gintzler Michael
Published: November 2015

Drug policy in the United States is heavily influenced by popular and expert ideologies and a social definition of the problem. As a result, public substance abuse policies reflect an incoherent compromise between medical and criminal definitions and approaches to intervention. The effect is that in both conceptions, the problem locus is in the individual user. Thus, contemporary prevention, treatment and rehabilitation strategies fail to account for the myriad socioeconomic correlates of abuse and tend to atomize the problem by reducing it to the lowest common denominator — the drug-abusing person. Primary prevention approaches to drug abuse hold the greatest promise for remediation of this social problem because of the inclusion of macroenvironmental factors in tandem with individual risk factors to form a comprehensive approach to policy formulation.
Cofactors of Substance Use among Male Street Prostitutes
Authors: Morse Edward V. , Simon Patricia M. , Baus Stephanie A. , Balson Paul M. , Osofsky Howard J.
Published: November 2015

Two hundred and eleven male street prostitutes were surveyed using a semi-structured interview schedule and standardized self-report instruments. Information about substance use, occupational and lifestyle characteristics, levels of psychological symptomatology and self-esteem was gathered to delineate prostitutes' substance use patterns and possible cofactors to substance use. Results indicate that daily polysubstance use among male prostitutes is normative for both IDU and non-IDUs. Additionally, data demonstrate a direct link between substance use and economic dependence on prostitution. Most importantly, prostitutes' substance use was found to increase significantly while engaging in acts of prostitution and was exacerbated by the presence of psychological distress and conflicts about sexual orientation. Findings suggest that social policy surrounding interventions aimed at male prostitutes' substance use should not be conceptualized solely in terms of recreational and or addictive factors, but also as the resultant outgrowth of the need for self-medication to cope with negative feelings and/or conflicts associated with practicing prostitution.
Application of Multiple-Capture Methods for Estimating Drug Use Prevalence
Authors: Brecht Mary-Lynn , Wickens Thomas D.
Published: November 2015

The authors examine issues in applying multiple-capture methods to drug use prevalence estimation. Three published applications are first summarized to illustrate selected approaches. Important application issues are then discussed, including population definition, sampling, data characteristics, model choice, and population dynamics. Finally, three estimation approaches are compared, using simulated data.
Projecting the Impact of Law Enforcement on Cocaine Prevalence: A System Dynamics Approach
Authors: Homer Jack B.
Published: November 2015

The debate continues over the question of whether illicit drugs, including cocaine, ought to be decriminalized or legalized. At the center of this debate is the question of how law enforcement affects drug prevalence. In this article the author presents an application of an existing system dynamics model of national cocaine prevalence to determine the potential impact of policies involving a relaxation of law enforcement — represented in the model as reductions in arrests or drug seizures. Although the model's predictive ability is limited by uncertainties about input assumptions, these uncertainties are well defined, few in number, and bounded to some degree by historical and logical considerations. Even in the presence of such uncertainties, the model produces credible and valuable projections. Dynamic simulation models may prove useful as common platforms for discussion and analysis in the context of the drug enforcement debate.
Population Estimation of Illicit Drug Users in Los Angeles County
Authors: Hser Yih-Ing
Published: November 2015

The author describes the application of several methods to obtain population estimates of illicit drug users in Los Angeles County. The study applied several multiple-capture models to drug treatment data and the synthetic estimation method to arrestee data to provide separate estimates for cocaine, heroin, amphetamine, and intravenous drug users. The author demonstrates the advantages of employing complementary methods and data sources.
Public Opinion and the Legal Status of Marijuana in Australia
Authors: Makkai Toni , McAllister Ian
Published: November 2015

Since the late 1950s, when the medical use of heroin was banned in Australia, government policy toward marijuana has been based on prohibition. Despite an upsurge in the use of marijuana in the 1960s, government policy has remained virtually unchanged, except for the introduction of the expiation notice in South Australia in 1986. The authors use a wide range of opinion poll data to show that attitudes toward marijuana have remained stable over the past two decades, although the most recent data suggest that public support for reform of the legal status of marijuana may be increasing. There are notable differences in opinion between sociodemographic groups, with men, the young, and those who have been exposed to marijuana being more likely to support reform. The authors argue that as more people who have been exposed to marijuana enter the electorate and as New Politics issues become more prominent, the legal status of marijuana could become a political party issue. Data collected during the 1990 federal election among election candidates suggest that the potential for political party conflict already exists.
The Variable Effects of Religiosity and Denomination on Adolescent Self-Reported Alcohol Use by Beverage Type
Authors: Cochran John K.
Published: November 2015

Homogeneous effects logistic regression is used to examine the effects of personal religiosity and denomination on adolescent self-reported frequency of alcohol use by beverage type. Survey data from a sample of 3,065 male and female adolescents in grades seven through twelve in three midwestern states are employed. The findings are somewhat consistent with a hypothesis generated from the different cultural images of alcoholic beverages. For adolescents, the use of beer and liquor are largely restricted to recreational purposes, while wine has both functional and recreational uses. Because purely recreational use of psychotropic substances violates religious standards of asceticism, the effects of religiosity on the use of beer and liquor should be stronger than on the use of wine. The results show that the effects of personal religiosity are weakest for use of wine, but are relatively identical for beer and liquor.
Drugs in the Workplace: Setting the Record Straight
Authors: Harris Michael M.
Published: November 2015

In a recent article in the Journal of Drug Issues (fall 1992), Crow and Hartman raised a number of questions concerning the magnitude of drug use in the workplace, the efficacy of drug-screening programs, and the use of employment testing in general. Although these authors raised some useful issues, they may have overstated their case. In the present article the author comments on the extent of the drug problem in the workplace and points out an additional, well-designed study that did conclude drug testing may be cost-effective. Similarly, recent federal civil rights laws may have less effect on drug-testing programs than suggested by Crow and Hartman. Finally, employment testing is far more valid and unbiased than suggested by Crow and Hartman.
Drug Use among Juvenile Arrestees: A Comparison of Self-Report, Urinalysis and Hair Assay
Authors: Feucht Thomas E. , Stephens Richard C. , Walker Michael L.
Published: November 2015

Interviews, urinalysis, and hair assay were conducted with eighty-eight juvenile arrestees in Cleveland over a two-month period. Hair assay revealed that fifty of the eighty-eight subjects (56.8%) had used cocaine; concentration levels were generally moderate to high. In sharp contrast, urinalysis results identified only seven subjects (8%) as having recently used cocaine. Crosstabulations of urinalysis and sectioned hair assay results indicate that the two detection methods are in greatest concordance for subjects who were heavy users of cocaine and who used cocaine in the last thirty days (as determined by hair assay). Even for these subjects, however, concordance is modest. The data show that self-reports of drug use yield severe underestimates of the prevalence of cocaine use in this population. Implications of the general lack of concordance of the two testing methods are discussed, especially in terms of intervention.
Drug Activity and Firearms Possession and Use by Juveniles
Authors: Sheley Joseph F.
Published: November 2015

Despite considerable public attention to the issue, little has occurred in the way of a systematic assessment of the gun-possession and gun-use profiles of young persons involved in the use and distribution of drugs. This article reports the results of an analysis of survey data collected from juveniles incarcerated in maximum security reformatories. The data pertain to firearms possession, carrying, and use, use of heroin, cocaine, and crack, the sale of drugs, and involvement in armed robbery. The findings offer no evidence of a progressive, linear relationship between level of drug use and gun possession (including number of guns owned and the routine carrying of guns) and use. However, disregarding level of drug use, when nonusers were compared with users who did not sell drugs, significant differences in involvement in gun possession and use did appear. Also, when we separated users who did not sell drugs from users who did, the latter generally displayed higher involvement in gun possession and use. Drug selling clearly increased gun-related behavior. Finally, drug users who also committed robberies exceeded drug users who did not in involvement in gun possession and use. Drug sellers who robbed similarly were higher in the same activities than sellers who did not.
Prevalence of Alcohol and other Drug Use on the Job: Cause for Concern or Irrational Hysteria?
Authors: Newcomb Michael D.
Published: November 2015

There is widespread fear, concern, and apprehension regarding the problems associated with alcohol and other drug abuse in the workplace. Serious tragedies caused by drug use on the job, such as the Exxon Valdez, have created an hysteria that such behavior is common and that intoxicated employees are pervasive in the workforce. While there are few doubts that using drugs in the workplace may have serious consequences, the true extent of such behavior is poorly documented. Prevalence data for drug use on the job are found in three sources: perceptions of supervisors and employers; reports of such behavior from those in treatment for drug abuse; and general community or workforce surveys. The first two sources of data confirm the hysteria that drug abuse on the job is rampant and out of control. However, these estimates are biased and untrustworthy. In general population surveys, a wide range of estimates are found, although most report the prevalence of drug use on the job at 10% or less; being high on the job occurs more often, but regular use of drugs in the workplace is quite rare. Therefore, the general hysteria regarding the presumed pervasive abuse of drugs on the job is unfounded, although any abuse of drugs in the workplace by those in sensitive positions can have grave and deadly consequences.
Illicit Drug Effects in Labor Arbitration Decision Making
Authors: Crow Stephen M. , Logan James W. , Fok Lillian Y.
Published: November 2015

Two hundred twenty-six arbitration outcomes in alcohol and drug disciplinary cases were investigated to examine illicit drug effects on arbitral decision making. We examined these effects on arbitrators' final decisions and the standards or decision cues that arbitrators use to justify their decisions. We also examined interactions of illicit drugs and standards of proof and looked at decisions in two different time spans to determine if changing societal attitudes about alcohol and drugs might have an effect. In this study, arbitrators were less lenient with illicit drug users than with legal drug users. This finding suggests that an illicit drug effect may exist in other distributive justice scenarios.
How Social Policies Make Matters Worse: The Case of Maternal Substance Abuse
Authors: Hawk Maureen A. Norton
Published: November 2015

This article addresses the issue of maternal substance abuse and the consequences of our current punitive approach. The article initially presents information that defines the scope of the problem and then offers case illustrations of the court's attempt to deal with women who use drugs and alcohol when pregnant. The article then focuses on characteristic of interventions that have the potential for bringing about a deterioration of the problem of maternal substance abuse.
Factors Associated with Initiation of Zidovudine in a Cohort of Injection Drug Users
Authors: Solomon Liza , Vlahov David , Astemborski Jacqueline , Galai Noya , Graham Neil M.H. , Nelson Kenrad E.
Published: November 2015

To estimate the prevalence of zidovudine (ZVD) use among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositive injection drug users (IDU), and to identify predisposing factors that predicted initiation of ZVD use. Participants from an ongoing prospective cohort study who met Public Health Service (PHS) criteria for zidovudine, with a CD4 cell count of less than ≤200/μL prior to December 1990 or a CD4 count of ≤500μL, after December, 1990 and had at least one clinic visit after determination of these cell counts were included. Eligibility criteria was met for 412 individuals for ZVD use; 173 (42% used ZVD at any period. Variables significantly associated with ZVD use included CD4 cell counts less than ≤200μL (OR=3.30); two or more HIV related symptoms (OR=2.07); a child living in the participants home (OR=1.59), and, in the six months prior to eligibility for ZVD, any outpatient visit (OR=2.28) or any inpatient admission (OR=1.85). This study suggests that utilization of ZVD among IDUs remains low.
Prediction of Substance Use in the Workplace: Unique Contributions of Personal Background and Work Environment Variables
Authors: Lehman Wayne E.K. , Farabee David J. , Holcom Melvin L. , Simpson D. Dwayne
Published: November 2015

Relationships of personal and job factors with employee substance use in a sample of municipal workers were assessed. Logistic regression results showed that personal and job domains each significantly predicted substance use at and away from work, although the best fit was provided by a model including both domains. The profile of the employee most likely to be a substance abuser was a young male with low self-esteem and an arrest history, who came from a family with substance abuse problems, and associated with substance-using peers. The drug-using employee was also likely to be estranged from work and to work under risky job conditions.
Metamorphoses: Clashing Symbols in the Social Construction of Drugs
Authors: Manderson Desmond
Published: November 2015

In order to understand the nature and intensity of the debate over the reform of “drug” legislation, it is necessary to appreciate the aesthetic forces which influence attitudes to this question, and the symbolic meaning which is attached to the imagery of drugs. The “war on drugs” is a war about emotional imagery and contested symbols, and in particular about the idea of the boundary—a matter crucial to the metaphysics and social organization of Western society. At the same time, it will be argued, it is the failure to recognize that we are dealing with the symbolic realm which bedevils both drug users and legislative policy. The reification of symbols causes and perpetuates the very problems that are intended to be solved. In their fetishization of the objects of drug use, the law and the addict are far more alike than one might think.
The Construction of Risk and Protective Factor Indices for Adolescent Alcohol and other Drug Use
Authors: DeWit David J. , Silverman Gloria , Goodstadt Michael , Stoduto Gina
Published: November 2015

This paper applies the risk factor approach to assess the influence of protection and risk on five measures of substance use: overall involvement in drugs, frequent alcohol use, frequent illegal drug use, frequent drug abuse, and quantity of daily cigarette consumption. For each measure, it was hypothesized that an index of risk factors would serve to increase the likelihood of the occurrence of problem behavior and that an index of protection would result in a reduction. It was also hypothesized that under conditions of high risk the effect of protection would moderate the influence of risk factors more forcefully than under conditions of low risk. Data were obtained from a self-report questionnaire containing over 60 risk and protective measures administered to nearly 400 grade 9 students in 7 high schools located in Toronto, Canada. Measures were tested in a series of regression equations to construct indices of risk and protective factors for each substance measure. Results supported the hypothesis of separate risk and protective factor main effects for all categories of substances. Evidence of moderate to strong interaction effects (i.e., a moderating influence of protection) were also noted. Implications are discussed for methods of identifying high risk youth as well as programs designed to prevent/reduce problem behaviors among this group.
Just for Fun?: Cocaine Use among Middle-Class Women
Authors: Sterk-Elifson Claire
Published: November 2015

The focus of this article is on middle-class female cocaine users. It explores the women's perspective and challenges the notion of cocaine use being a problem of poor, minority populations. The women were either introduced to cocaine by a male or female friend, mostly in the context of “just for fun.” Although all women continued to use cocaine, they had to develop their own cocaine connections and their use became less linked to personal relationships. Most women stressed that they had a “controlled” habit, although the nature of their use indicated that they were addicted. The women linked their control to the resources available to them to hide and support their cocaine use. They put much time and energy into trying to maintain these resources, however, they are not always successful. The findings reveal a need for further studies exploring drug use among middle-class women and the link between drug use and power or control.
Hidden in the Light: Occupational Norms among Crack-Using Street-Level Sex Workers
Authors: Maher Lisa
Published: November 2015

This article explores the “hypersexuality” hypothesis and, in particular, the phenomenon of sex-for-crack exchanges, by drawing on recent ethnographic research with women crack users engaged in street-level sex work in New York City. Viewing sex work as work, the study identifies the existence of a hitherto hidden set of occupational norms which cohere around the concept of discrimination as a central organizing principle in street-level prostitution. The article describes the ways in which established norms in relation to price, sex acts, clients, and bartering practices govern commercial sex transactions at the street level and examines their effects in regulating both individual and collective conduct. The analysis draws attention to the deficits of previous research and, specifically, the absence of context and the lack of attention to shared cultural practices and occupational norms which have made possible the erasure of agency from representations of these women's lives.
“Smartness,” “Toughness,” and “Autonomy”: Drug Use in the Context of Gang Female Delinquency
Authors: Brotherton David C.
Published: November 2015

This paper, based on data from interviews with a selective sample of self-identified gang females, compares the practices and characteristics of three gangs, highlighting the interrelationship of drugs, delinquency, and social context. Using themes developed from the classical gang delinquency study of Walter Miller in 1958 (Journal of Social Issues, XIV, no. 3), this paper argues that just as he was able to discern major “focal concerns” among lower-class gang males, the same might be said of gang females. However, during the era in which Miller was writing, gang females were still considered mere “appendages” of male gangs and left unanalyzed. This paper refocuses attention on the importance of gang female agency, showing how the degree of autonomy obtained by gang females is shaped by the entrepreneurial success of their delinquent activities, especially in the field of drug sales.
The Efficacy of Network-Based HIV/AIDS Risk Reduction Programs in Midsized Towns in the United States
Authors: Trotter Robert T. , Bowen Anne M. , Baldwin Julie A. , Price Laurie J.
Published: November 2015

Combining current psychosocial theories with social network outreach and prevention paradigms is an effective mechanism for reducing both drug-related and sexual risks for HIV transmission in active drug users in midsized towns in the United States. Five hundred and seventy-nine individuals were recruited in two towns, one of 50,000 and one of 10,000 population. Three approaches to intervention were tested. These approaches included: (1) an intensive outreach program using indigenous outreach workers providing reinforcement of an HIV risk reduction program, and (2) a low intensity outreach program combined with a more intensive office-based HIV risk reduction program. Both conditions were compared with the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) recommended standard intervention. Each of the enhanced interventions produced a reduction in HIV-related risk taking reported by the participants. The intensive outreach combined with office intervention and the intensive office intervention without outreach reinforcement each produced significant reductions in sexual risk taking in active drug users, beyond the reductions reported for the NIDA standard program. The enhanced risk reduction programs produced differential impacts for males and females, respectively, between the two high and low intensity outreach models.
Community Attitudes to Cannabis Use in Western Australia
Authors: Lenton Simon , Ovenden Claudia
Published: November 2015

This paper presents results of a telephone survey of 400 Western Australians regarding attitudes to laws relating to possession of cannabis for personal use. Over a third of respondents believed cannabis should be made as legal as alcohol. Support for decriminalization increased from 64.0% to 71.5% when possible penalties associated with decriminalization were described. When penalties were described, more women than men favored decriminalization but age, political affiliation, and city or country residency no longer predicted attitudes to decriminalization. Almost two-thirds of respondents believed that many people used cannabis without experiencing serious problems and that the court system was overburdened by minor cannabis offenses. Half the sample believed it would not be a bad thing for the community if people were legally able to grow cannabis for their personal use. Results suggest there is considerable community support for removing criminal penalties for simple cannabis offenses.
The Structural Relationship between Drug Use, Drug Dealing, and other Income Support Activities among Women Drug Sellers
Authors: Sommers Ira , Baskin Deborah , Fagan Jeffrey
Published: November 2015

Interviews were conducted with 156 women drug sellers from two New York City neighborhoods with high concentrations of drug selling, neighborhoods that had active heroin markets in the 1970s and were sites for the growth of cocaine and crack markets a decade later. Structural equations models were estimated to test the relationships over two time periods between drug use and income generation activities including drug dealing, crime, legal work, and public transfers. Dependent variables included self-reports of income and expenses together with criminal career parameters. Results showed that the effects of prior drug expenses on subsequent crime, drug, and work incomes were nonsignificant. Overall, drug dealing appears to suppress future non-drug crime activity. Prior drug selling has a facilitating effect on later drug use and significant negative effects on subsequent crime income generation and legal work. Selling also helped women avoid the types of street hustling, including prostitution, and other crimes that characterized women's income strategies in earlier drug eras. Drug use careers are influenced less by earlier drug use patterns than by income growth from dealing that appears to increase opportunities to expand drug use.
No Pain No Gain, Establishing the Kunming, China, Drug Rehabilitation Center
Authors: McCoy Clyde B. , Lai Shenghan , Metsch Lisa R. , Wang Xue-Ren , Li Cong , Yang Ming , Yulong Li
Published: November 2015

The Yunnan Province in China may be experiencing the highest incidence of heroin use in China, in part because of its proximity to the Golden Triangle. This high incidence, as elsewhere, threatens to increase associated problems in China, including the spread of HIV. Furthermore, the high purity of heroin used in this Province leads to rapid addiction and increased difficulties in treating the symptoms of withdrawal. One response to this epidemic is the development and implementation of the Kunming Drug Rehabilitation Center. The Center, with a capacity for 620 addicts, is grounded in a recovery-oriented perspective that is based on the Therapeutic Community model and modified for the Yunnan Province and China. It is referred to as the Kunming Model and is known for the development of its own medicine for detoxification and its individualized psychological, psychiatric, medical, and biosocial program. Similarities and differences between the Kunming Center and treatment programs in the United States are discussed and implications for universal approaches to drug treatment are addressed.
Problems and Prospects of Implementing Harm Reduction for HIV and Injecting Drug Use in High Risk Sub-Saharan African Countries
Authors: Adelekan Moruf L. , Stimson Gerry V.
Published: November 2015

The use and misuse of a broad spectrum of psychoactive substances, including heroin and cocaine, is of growing concern in many African countries. Approximately one-third of global HIV and AIDS cases are reported from Africa, but injecting drug use has not yet been documented as a causative factor. The drug supply control strategy has recorded only limited success in Africa, and the currently adopted demand reduction programs are beset with many problems. In this paper we review possible constraining and facilitating factors in the adoption of harm reduction approaches in high risk sub-Saharan African countries. We conclude that appropriate needs assessments are urgently required to establish the extent of problem drug use and of injecting. This exercise may identify clinical and psychosocial problems that could benefit from an intervention approach based on a combination of the principles of harm reduction and demand reduction.
Immigration and HIV among Migrant Workers in Rural Southern Florida
Authors: Weatherby Norman L. , McCoy H. Virginia , Bletzer Keith V. , McCoy Clyde B. , Inciardi James A. , McBride Duane C. , Forney Mary Ann
Published: November 2015

We studied HIV seropositivity among a targeted sample of migrant workers who used drugs, primarily crack cocaine, and their sexual partners in rural southern Florida from 1993 to 1995. We enrolled men and women who were born in the United States (n = 369) or in other countries (n = 174). Overall, 11.2% of the sample were HIV positive, including 18% of Blacks from the United States, and about 8% of non-Hispanic whites from the United States, Blacks from the Caribbean, and persons from Central or South America. No Hispanics from the United States or the Caribbean, but 3.4% of Hispanics from Mexico, were HIV positive. In logistic regression analyses, race/ethnicity, gender, and age were most highly associated with HIV seropositivity. Immigration status, current drug use, and current sexual activity were not related to HIV seropositivity. HIV prevention programs must help reduce heterosexual transmission of HIV associated with drug use both locally and where migrants travel and work.
Recruitment into Treatment of Homeless, Mentally Ill, Chemical Abusing Men
Authors: Rahav Michael , Nuttbrock Larry , Rivera James J. , Ng-Mak Daisy
Published: November 2015

Under the assumption that the treatment of substance abuse begins well before substance abusers actually enroll in treatment, this paper conceptualizes the process of recruitment into treatment, and investigates attrition of treatment seeking clients during the treatment recruitment stage. The paper identifies two stages prior to treatment enrollment, treatment exploration and treatment recruitment, and presents the results of a study of 1,924 homeless, mentally ill, chemical abusing men who looked for community-based treatment in New York City between 1991 and 1996. Only 326 of these men actually entered treatment. The rest were lost either prior to or during the recruitment stage. The paper focuses on the 823 men who reached the treatment recruitment stage, and attempts to correlate their sociodemographic, psychological, and substance abuse characteristics with the different types of attrition during treatment recruitment. The results show that certain client characteristics predict rejection and certain other characteristics predict acceptance by the treatment programs.
Measuring Substance Abuse among the Deaf
Authors: Lipton Douglas S. , Goldstein Marjorie F.
Published: November 2015

This paper presents results from 2 years' experience in attempting to measure the extent of substance abuse within the deaf community, and preliminary findings of substance abuse incidence and prevalence from that effort. It also describes a new technology, the Interactive Video-Questionnaire, developed to interview deaf persons using questionnaires in multi-media format that are manually signed on a computer screen in American Sign Language and Signed English, as well as mouthed in Speechreading—all of which are simultaneously captioned in English text with Touchscreen™ input and automatic data capture. This technology emerged as one product of a Small Business Innovative Research grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse designed to overcome the difficulties associated with surveying the deaf population and specifically targeted at addressing the extent of substance abuse among the deaf populations in New York and New Jersey.
The Teenage Transition: From Adolescent Recreational Drug Use to the Young Adult Dance Culture in Britain in the MID-1990s
Authors: Measham Fiona , Parker Howard , Aldridge Judith
Published: November 2015

This paper gives an overview of some of the most recent research surrounding the use of prohibited or illicit drugs by young people in Britain. Current research on the prevalence of illicit drug use identifies an unprecedented rise in such use by increasingly diverse groups of young people of all socioeconomic backgrounds. Presenting here for the first time 4 years of data from the University of Manchester northwest longitudinal study of English adolescent drug use, the paper looks at patterns of use of different drugs, differential experiences with these drugs, and characteristics of use and non-use throughout the mid-teens. Along with this transformation in adolescent drug use has been a similar rise in the prevalence of drug use by young adults, which is located in the context of the dance party or ‘rave’ scene in Britain, linked to the ‘dance revolution’ and to a wider youth culture that reflects an acceptance of drug use both by users and non-users as a part of young people's leisure. This has led the authors to identify a process of ‘normalization’ of recreational drug use among young people with resulting legal, education, employment, and health implications.
Drug-Related Identity Change: Theoretical Development and Empirical Assessment
Authors: Anderson Tammy L. , Mott Joshua A.
Published: November 2015

Our study targets an understanding of the drug-related identity change process, which may offer important sociological insights into the etiology of drug abuse. Our work is grounded in symbolic interactionism, cultural studies, and an extant drug-identity model (Anderson 1994). We use a quantitative survey instrument and retrospective accounts to test our model with a representative sample of white and black females and males seeking treatment for drug abuse in mid-Michigan.

Our data show that for many drug-related identity change began in childhood and early adolescence with marginalizing experiences that helped create ego identity discomfort and lost control in defining an identitybefore drug use. Identification with a drug subculture offered alternative identities to resolve such predicaments. Additionally, we found that identification with a drug subculture significantly reduced ego identity discomfortduringdrug use, which, thereby, substantiates the claim that subcultures can act as solutions to individual problems and predicaments.
Accessing Drug-Abuse Treatment: Perceptions of Out-of-Treatment Injectors
Authors: Farabee David , Leukefeld Carl G. , Hays Lon
Published: November 2015

The Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic (1988) developed a 10-year plan in 1987 that recommended: “Expanded drug abuse treatment programs sufficient to admit all IV drug users who desired services and, until that occurred, short-term detoxification and low-dose methadone for those on waiting lists.” This study presents data collected from a sample of 2,613 out-of-treatment and non-incarcerated injection drug users in 21 U.S. cities to examine their drug-treatment access during the past year. Analyses on injectors who tried but were unable to enter treatment revealed that program-based reasons (e.g., no room, too costly, or stringent admission criteria) are the most commonly given barriers to drug treatment (72%). However, a notable number of injectors (20%) also reported that individual-based reasons are important for not accessing drug treatment. Injectors giving program- and individual-based reasons for not entering treatment are profiled using logistic regression.
A Global Empirical Review of Drug Crop Eradication and United Nations' Crop Substitution and Alternative Development Strategies
Authors: Farrell Graham
Published: November 2015

Under international law, the cultivation of opium poppy, coca bush, and cannabis plant is allowed only for limited medical and scientific purposes. All other cultivation of these plants is marked for removal via eradication or other means, and strategies to implement these laws are reviewed. Globally, the annual risk of eradication is consistently below 10% for each crop. Evidence regarding socioeconomic development policies is taken from over two decades of United Nations programs in 11 countries. Using any measure of performance, they have had little impact. Even with marginal revisions in their methodology, the likelihood of these policies achieving their aims in the near future seems minimal.
The Potency of Illegal Drugs
Authors: Thornton Mark
Published: November 2015

The high potency of narcotics is used as a justification for making them illegal. An economic analysis of drug potency shows that public policies such as excise taxes and prohibitions provide the incentives to make and consume more potent drugs and that such policies provide an economic “gateway” for the introduction of new, highly potent drugs. Historical evidence from national alcohol prohibition and the war on drugs supports these findings.
Economic Issues in Cigarette and Alcohol Advertising
Authors: Saffer Henry
Published: November 2015

The effects of advertising on cigarette and alcohol consumption are controversial, and research on the subject has produced mixed results. An economic theory underlying the general relationship between advertising and consumption can help explain what type of data is needed to study this question. Studies that use national data on annual advertising expenditures measure advertising at a high level with little yearly change and are likely to find no effect on consumption. In contrast, studies that use local-level data measured over the course of a year find wide variation in the level of advertising and are likely to conclude that advertising increases consumption. To mitigate consumption increases, some countries and localities have tested advertising bans or counteradvertising campaigns. Studies of advertising bans show a decrease in consumption to some degree when intervening factors are controlled. Counteradvertising likewise is found to reduce consumption. Policymakers can choose from various combinations of advertising bans, counteradvertising, and advertising taxation to curb consumption.
Probation, Race, and the War on Drugs: An Empirical Analysis of Drug and Non-Drug Felony Probation Outcomes
Authors: Johnson W. Wesley , Jones Mark
Published: November 2015

During the recent war on drugs, large numbers of drug offenders were sentenced to probation. Critics of this policy argued that drug offenders belonged in prison. This analysis uses logistic regression to compare 1993 individual level data on felony and non-drug felony probationers. The results of this analysis provide some justification for the general fear presented in the public media that felony drug probationers threaten communities. However, when the performance of African-American men on probation for felony drug offenses is partitioned, analysis results indicate that they are not the threat to public safety to the extent indicated by the media or envisioned by the American public.
Varieties of Drug Trafficking Organizations: A Typology of Cases Prosecuted in New York City
Authors: Natarajan Mangai , Belanger Mathieu
Published: November 2015

This paper examines a sample of 39 drug trafficking organizations prosecuted in New York City federal courts. Using a new two-dimensional typology based on organizational structure and tasks/roles, a considerable variety of organizational types was found. This result has important implications for future research. In particular it suggests the need for caution in generalizing from the findings of single case studies. These studies need to be located in the broader framework provided by the typology. The typology also permits the systematic sampling of trafficking organizations for detailed study. This is particularly important for policy since interventions must be closely tailored to the nature of criminal enterprises.
Drug Paraphernalia Laws and Injection-Related Infectious Disease Risk among Drug Injectors
Authors: Bluthenthal Ricky N. , Kral Alex H. , Erringer Elizabeth A. , Edlin Brian R.
Published: November 2015

Drug paraphernalia laws in 47 U.S. states make it illegal for injection drug users (IDUs) to possess syringes. It has been suggested that these laws lead to syringe sharing by deterring IDUs from carrying their own syringes. We examined the relationship between concern about arrest while carrying drug paraphernalia and injection-related risk behaviors among street-recruited IDUs in Northern California. In 1996, 424 IDUs were interviewed, of whom 76 percent were African American, 36 percent were female, and 15 percent were HIV positive. Thirty-five percent (150) reported concern about being arrested while carrying drug paraphernalia. In multivariate analyses that controlled for potential confounders, IDUs concerned about being arrested were significantly more likely than other IDUs to share syringes (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] =2.28; 95 percent confidence interval [Cl]=1.19, 4.34) and injection supplies (AOR= 3.23; 95 percent Cl=2.03, 5.13). These data suggest that decriminalizing syringes and needles would likely result in reductions in the behaviors that expose IDUs to blood borne viruses.
The Cutting of Heroin in the United States in the 1990s
Authors: Coomber Ross
Published: November 2015

This paper explores the nature of drug adulteration and dilution (‘cutting1’) practices relating to illicit drugs and heroin in particular in the US in the 1990's. The conventional model which assumes that the cutting of drugs takes place down through the chain of distribution is no longer applicable to the drugs trade in the US. In recent years the purity of heroin available in the US has risen tenfold and its availability increased. Changes in adulteration/dilution practices have accompanied this shift. New data shows that rather than adulteration being systematic and predictable it is in fact unsystematic and likely to be undertaken by a minority of those involved in its distribution for a whole variety of reasons. Evidence is also presented which suggests that the majority of adulteration/dilution is carried out prior to importation and that this is with comparatively harmless substances.