bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reasons, Competition, and Latitude
Authors: Snedegar Justin
Published: July 2021

The overall moral status of an option—whether it is required, permissible, forbidden, or something we really should do—is explained by competition between the contributory reasons bearing on that option and the alternatives. A familiar challenge for accounts of this competition is to explain the existence of latitude: there are usually multiple permissible options, rather than a single required option. One strategy is to appeal to distinctions between reasons that compete in different ways. Philosophers have introduced various kinds of non-requiring reasons that do not generate requirements, even if they win the competition. This chapter rejects two familiar versions of this strategy, one appealing to merely justifying reasons and one appealing to merely commendatory reasons. It offers a new account of how reasons compete that instead appeals to a sharp distinction between the reasons against an option and the reasons for the alternatives to that option.
Approving on the Basis of Moral and Aesthetic Testimony
Authors: Wodak Daniel
Published: July 2021

While there is a vibrant debate over whether believing or acting on the basis of moral and aesthetic testimony is ‘defective’, most grant that approving on the basis of normative testimony is verboten. The main goal of this chapter is to defend such affective responses to normative testimony and it does this by arguing that philosophers have relied on the wrong comparison cases: we need to compare minimal contrastive pairs, and better and worse cases of approving on the basis of normative testimony; and once we do so, it is clear that such testimony gives us some reason to approve, and sometimes strong reasons to approve. A subsidiary goal is to show that if approving on the basis of normative testimony is not defective, this should make us optimistic that normative testimony gives us (strong) reasons to believe and act, while making the ‘fishiness’ of these responses harder to explain.
Evaluation Turned on Itself
Authors: McPherson Tristram , Plunkett David
Published: July 2021

This chapter clarifies and addresses a deep challenge to the conceptual ethics of normativity. The challenge arises from the fact that we need to use some of our own normative concepts in order to evaluate our normative concepts. This might seem objectionably circular, akin to trying to verify the accuracy of a ruler by checking it against itself. We dub this the vindicatory circularity challenge. If the challenge cannot be met, it would suggest that all normative inquiry (not just the conceptual ethics of normativity) rests on worryingly arbitrary foundations. We defend a way of answering the challenge that adapts anti-skeptical resources from epistemology. Along the way, we reject several alternative replies to the challenge. These include dismissing the challenge because it cannot be formulated with our concepts, answering it by appeal to a distinctive normative concept, and answers that appeal to certain metaphysical or metasemantic resources.
Avoiding competition: the effects of rankings in the food waste field
Authors: Arnold Nadine
Published: July 2021

Ranks are often seen as drivers for competition. This chapter critically examines the link between ranks and competition by investigating the actors’ actual desire for the highest positions. Empirically, the author examines the role of the food waste hierarchy in establishing status competition in the food waste field. This discrete ranking creates ‘winners’ at the top (the challengers that prevent food waste by generating demand for it), who respond enthusiastically to the food waste hierarchy to benefit from status gains. In contrast, the ‘losers’ at the bottom (biogas plants) show very little interest in improving their position. They do not see themselves as players in such a competitive game and direct their attention towards other competitions outside the field. The chapter argues that ranks do not necessarily induce competition, since the actors may be involved in multiple competitions and decide whether it is worth pursuing high status within each one.
The allure of prizes: how contests trap us in competitive relationships
Authors: Scroggins Michael , Souleles Daniel
Published: July 2021

Contests and prizes along with the compulsion to make winners and losers are ubiquitous features of contemporary capitalism in the USA. Combining the anthropological literature on traps and trapping, Simmel’s work on competitive relationships, film criticism, and a rereading of management consulting logic, we develop a theory of prizes as organizers and enforcers of competitive relationships. We argue that contests are traps, funnelling both the wary and unsuspecting into competitive relationships through the lure of material and symbolic rewards. Empirically, our argument proceeds through paired case studies. The first case examines how a straightforward (if technically daunting) educational project designed to teach newcomers the basics of laboratory techniques is transformed into a competitive project when a potential prize is introduced. The second case examines how people spontaneously organize and compete with each other around the promise of an amorphous and fictitious prize during the development of high-speed trading.
Reversing competition: the case of corporate governance
Authors: Foureault Fabien
Published: July 2021

This chapter tries to identify the conditions under which a fourth party can tame competition in order to achieve cooperation. It relies on an in-depth case study of a multinational corporation acquired by a private equity firm through leveraged buy-out during the 2000s. It is shown that the private equity firm wanted to foster collaboration among competing operating units to increase firm performance but that it failed, despite the interest of many middle managers. The main reason was that top managers of these operating units, facing the great recession, strategically impeded cooperation because they thought that the private equity firm could break up the corporation in the near future, a belief inscribed in the ‘moral economy’ of managerialism. It is concluded that competition may be more easily reversed in firms with different types of owners or in other sectors where self-interested behaviour is less institutionalized.
The Enforcement of Community Plant Variety Rights
Authors: Würtenberger Gert , van der Kooij Paul , Kiewiet Bart , Ekvad Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at Part VI of the Basic Regulation that deals with civil law claims against infringements of Community plant variety rights and jurisdiction in Articles 94 to 107. It reviews Article 94 of the Basic Regulation that determines the infringing activities and the conditions under which infringement and compensation claims are given. It also analyses Article 97 that outlines the applicable law for claims regarding any gains the infringer may have made at the expense of the owner of the infringed rights. This chapter describes Community plant variety rights that have uniform effect within the territory of the Community, which can be partially guaranteed by the Basic Regulation. It explains how the application and registration proceedings result in a right that is the same throughout the EU.
Defining the Statesman by Division
Authors: Mié Fabián
Published: July 2021

Chapter 3 discusses the two main reasons for finding the initial sequence of divisions in the Statesman (258b-268d) faulty: formal failures having to do mainly with the limitations of dichotomy, and the insufficient distinction of the statesman from his rivals. This sequence of divisions is considered in detail, controverting this negative assessment and defending the method of diairesis as a useful procedure for grasping kinds. It is argued that it is not the method of division, but the model of rearing humans, that is responsible for the shortcomings of the resulting definition. The interpretation is supported with a review of the methodological remarks on division in the Phaedrus and Statesman.
Kingly Intertwinement
Authors: Murr Dimitri El
Published: July 2021

Chapter 12 discusses final section of the Statesman (308b10-311c10), where Plato applies the paradigm of weaving to elucidate the statesman’s task. This chapter examines in detail what this ‘royal intertwining’ consists in. Plato distinguishes carefully between the tasks assigned to education and those assigned to statesmanship: although these tasks are so tightly connected as to make education an art even more precious than the precious arts of rhetoric, strategy, and the judiciary, they differ nonetheless in nature and scope. In addition to supervising education and the precious subordinate arts, statesmanship is crucially involved in choosing the officeholders involved in these forms of expertise. ‘The intertwining that belongs to kingship’ (Plt. 306a1: basilikē sumplokē), which the Visitor seeks to unravel in the concluding pages of the dialogue, amounts to giving prescriptions to these officeholders with the aim of maintaining concord and friendship between the two antagonistic character types in the city.
Introduction
Authors: Näsström Sofia
Published: July 2021

The Introduction presents the main content of the book, namely how a shift from sovereignty to spirit changes our understanding of what democracy is. Itbegins by clarifying the key concept of the book: “the spirit.” With this basic conceptual vocabulary in place, it describes the overall argument about the spirit of democracy, how it emancipates us from a state of self-incurred tutelage by sharing and dividing uncertainty about the future equally. It spells out the significance of this interpretation for the corruption, disintegration, and renewal of democracy. The Introduction ends with a note on the status of the argument, and a brief description of the chapters that follow.
Social Rights
Authors: Näsström Sofia
Published: July 2021

The chapter examines the corruption, disintegration, and renewal of democracy in relation to social rights, with particular attention given to the neoliberal choice revolution in social and public services. It shows that reforms undertaken to empower citizens by making them personally responsible for private and public life pave the way for a corruption of democracy that risks ending in democratic disintegration; in a so called “market for monarchy” where individuals are encouraged to compete for status and titles. In order to turn the corruption of democracy into a call for democratic renewal, it is not more “responsibility talk” that is called for, a common response in liberal and republican thought. On the contrary, the task is to release citizens from the burdens engendered by the choice revolution, and render them free to begin anew.
Conclusion
Authors: Näsström Sofia
Published: July 2021

The final chapter of the book takes stock, and asks what light it can shed on the present crisis of democracy: What can one see or do with this new conceptualization of democracy as spirit that one could not see or do before? Conversely, what issues have been framed out of vision? The chapter goes through the major findings in the shift from sovereignty to spirit, with a specific focus on how it reorients the discussion on populism, elitism, and the resurgence of authoritarianism. It also touches upon three major issues that fall beyond the scope of the book, namely how the spirit of democracy relates to the state, the nation, and the market respectively.
The Compleat Victory:
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

In the late summer and fall of 1777, after two years of indecisive fighting on both sides, the outcome of the American War of Independence hung in the balance. Having successfully expelled the Americans from Canada in 1776, the British were determined to end the rebellion the following year and devised what they believed a war-winning strategy, sending General John Burgoyne south to rout the Americans and take Albany. When British forces captured Fort Ticonderoga with unexpected ease in July of 1777, it looked as if it were a matter of time before they would break the rebellion in the North. Less than three and a half months later, however, a combination of the Continental Army and militia forces, commanded by Major General Horatio Gates and inspired by the heroics of Benedict Arnold, forced Burgoyne to surrender his entire army. The American victory stunned the world and changed the course of the war. In the end, British plans were undone by a combination of faulty strategy, distance, geography, logistics, and an underestimation of American leadership and fighting ability. Taking Ticonderoga had misled Burgoyne and his army into thinking victory was assured. The campaign’s outcome forced the British to rethink their strategy, inflamed public opinion in England against the war, boosted Patriot morale, and, perhaps most critical of all, led directly to the Franco-American alliance. Weddle unravels the web of contingencies and the play of personalities that ultimately led to what one American general called “the Compleat Victory.”
A New British Strategy
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter covers in detail British strategy development in late 1776 and early 1777. During this period, British senior leaders—King George III, Lord George Germain, Lieutenant General John Burgoyne, and General Sir William Howe—created a military strategy they hoped would win the war in 1777. Howe’s plans called for an offensive to seize Philadelphia and Burgoyne’s a three-pronged offensive to split the rebellion in half. The chapter covers the competing plans in detail, the underlying assumptions, and the failure of British leaders to reconcile and coordinate Howe’s and Burgoyne’s plans. Instead of one comprehensive strategy commanded by one leader, the British essentially unleashed two uncoordinated military strategies without unity of command. The 3,000 miles between London and Howe’s headquarters in New York exacerbated the poor coordination. An appendix lists all the key orders and meetings and demonstrates the key issues that led to the faulty British strategy.
The Fall of Fort Ticonderoga
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses Burgoyne’s successful seizure of Fort Ticonderoga, the vital American position that guarded southern Lake Champlain and Lake George approach to the Hudson River and, ultimately, Albany. The significant leadership failures by the American commanders, especially Major General Arthur St. Clair and Major General Philip Schuyler, is examined in some depth. A combination of American failures—in preparation, execution, and the retreat—and the competent British conduct of operations, including the establishing of artillery on Mount Defiance, something the Americans believed was impossible, is discussed. Improperly sited fortifications, failure to secure key terrain, and an incompetently planned and executed retreat, ensured American failure to hold the fortification.
Gates Takes Command
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the events surrounding the assumption of command of the American Northern Department and Army by Horatio Gates. When Gates replaced Schuyler on August 18, the army had mostly recovered from the Ticonderoga shock, due to Schuyler’s efforts and to reinforcements of leaders and units sent by Washington. The militia-friendly Gates was popular with the New England units. During this period, the most notable of the reinforcing units was Colonel Daniel Morgan’s riflemen. When Gates took command, he faced myriad issues, not the least of which was Schuyler’s bitter and resentful staff officers still with the army, who tried to undermine the new commander. Gates soon moved the army north to a place called Bemis Heights, overlooking the Hudson and the Albany road. On September 13, Burgoyne moved the army across the Hudson to the west bank and began to move south. The armies would soon meet.
Retreat, Pursuit, and Surrender
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the retreat of Burgoyne’s army from near Bemis Heights north to Saratoga and their surrender to Gates on October 17, 1777. After the Americans seized Burgoyne’s right flank, he had no choice but to pull out of his fortifications and retreat north. Gates followed slowly due to his innate caution and because he had lost both generals Arnold and Lincoln to serious wounds. Gates’s army continued to grow due to the influx of militia units, swelling to over 17,000 men. Burgoyne’s exhausted army soon ground to a halt and they were quickly surrounded at Saratoga (present-day Schuylerville). After several days of negotiations, Burgoyne secured favorable terms from Gates, a convention was signed, and the army surrendered on October 17. Burgoyne defended his actions in letters to Germain blaming everyone but taking no responsibility himself. News of the monumental victory soon spread throughout America and across the Atlantic.
From Disaster to Belief
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

Throughout history, climate-related disasters commonly had wide-ranging religious consequences. As climate conditions have changed over time, they have affected human affairs and shaped attitudes. At times those conditions might have promoted prosperity, abundant food supplies, fertility, and general contentment. Quite frequently, though, we can identify periods of acute harm, either short-lived, such as that of 1739–1742, or much longer-lasting, such as the repeated hammer blows during the prolonged cooling period that has been termed the Little Ice Age. This chapter describes the complex means by which climate affects human societies and thereby drives religious change, often on a revolutionary scale. It especially stresses the “apocalyptic” consequences: famine, plague, war, and death.
God’s Anger and the Demons Within
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

The first major period of climate shock to be studied was the early fourteenth century, especially the years between 1310 and 1325. This involved a broad and lasting era of climatic change, a time of global cooling that marked the onset of the so-called Little Ice Age. Societies around the world suffered times of shocking paranoia and conspiracy-mongering. They responded with persecutions of minorities and dissidents, leading to purges and expulsions on an appalling scale. Whole populations suffered bitter times of exile and diaspora, and those changes did much to create our familiar maps of the great faiths and their geographical concentrations. In Europe, modern ideas of witchcraft were born.
A Faded Sun and a Wider World
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

The period from 1675 through the end of the century constituted one of the very coldest and most ruinous periods of that Little Ice Age. Most writing on the so-called General Crisis of the seventeenth century focus sharply on the parlous decades of the 1640s and 1650s and says little about that later crisis. Yet the religious consequences of those latter years were just as far-reaching, not least in redrawing frontiers between faiths. Unlike in the fourteenth century, Europeans now lived in a world of far-flung sea travel and colonial possessions, and persecuted populations amply exploited these opportunities to seek safe haven. Settlements in foreign lands also offered the prospect of new concepts of religious liberty removed far from the motherland, opening a dramatic new phase in attitudes to religious freedom and spiritual experimentation.
An Overview of Urban Self-Help Organizations
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

The self-help literature is almost half a century old, attesting to its longevity, and reviewing this literature is beyond the scope of this book. Its evolution now encompasses urban gun violence, introducing a new need and geographic context. Although gun violence does not have to have heavy racial overlays, in this instance, it does, making it significantly different from its predecessors, which ostensibly were a-racial and non-urban specific. It brings a geographical setting that historically was not emphasized by previous self-help movements. This chapter introduces readers to this field and how gun violence represents the latest evolution of the self-help movement.
Three Case Illustrations (Boston, Chicago, and Washington, D.C.)
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

It is hoped the cases that are the focus of this chapter will inspire hope, with the passion they bring being contagious beyond their geographical confines. These illustrations, based in Boston, Chicago, and Washington, D.C., are not representative or generalizable across the country; they highlight key findings specific to the sites. Although themes are highlighted, combined with the scholarly literature presented in the next chapter implications for practice and disciplines interested in urban gun violence are presented. They represent different budgets, missions, developmental histories, staffing, and futures. Self-help organizations are best appreciated within a historical context. Healing and caregiving are topics rarely associated with communities of color, and nothing could be further from the truth. Even in the most dangerous communities, there are people who are fearless and have taken the challenge of helping, and sometimes risking and losing their lives in the process, and there are institutions that have also assumed this role.
Understanding the Crisis of Urban Gun Violence
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

There is a place for a statistical portrait of urban gun violence, particularly when deconstructing how it is manifested at a neighborhood or community level, and this chapter provides it. This portrait provides the backdrop or canvas on which to better place and understand the stories associated with gun violence. Numerous publications provide a statistical portrait of gun violence to further pursue if interested. This chapter highlights key aspects from national and urban perspectives, including subjects that must be a part of any urban gun violence strategy, setting the stage for the introduction of key constructs in the following chapter that influence urban practice, research, and scholarship. This chapter’s statistical portrait is one dimensional but critical in shaping the argument about the saliency of gun violence in the communities served. This picture can best be conceptualized as a backdrop to the social, economic, political, and cultural perspectives, allowing for a more in-depth appreciation for the challenge ahead for those embracing this social justice mission. The narratives embraced to bring this subject to light can use statistics as a backdrop.
Social, Political, Economic, and Cultural Perspectives
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

Urban gun violence knowledge is evolving and promises to gain steam as it garners more attention. Interventions will necessitate a grounding in the social sciences and the urban practice experience, positioning professions to advance the knowledge base on how best to address gun violence at a neighborhood and social network level. This chapter provides a broad social-economic-political-cultural context for understanding the origins and broad reach of gun violence in the nation and its cities and touches on aspects rarely the focus of attention yet playing a prominent role in helping understand how urban gun violence emerges. Four viewpoints are covered in this chapter (social, political, economic, and cultural), allowing coverage of usual and unusual aspects of urban gun violence. These perspectives are not ranked in order of importance and must be present in any analysis of urban gun violence and search for solutions, more so when seeking a nuanced and localized approach. These perspectives interact in a highly dynamic manner; when one is particularly impacted, the others react accordingly. Gun violence permeates society, with few urban segments escaping its grasp.
From the Coin’s Point of View
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

“Money talks” is an old adage in need of a fresh interpretation. Building upon the foundational narratives of modern novelists, numismatists may now use theories of memes and object agency to explain the behaviors of coins as if our money were independent of human control. This exercise allows the reader to think of coinage in an entirely new way, giving coins an active life cycle that is Darwinian in its struggles to survive and replicate. This explains in turn some odd human behaviors, such as deferring important decisions to flipped coins, manufacturing coins that cost far more than their face value, idling large amounts of change into “nuisance jars,” and making most coins round for the past 2,600 years.
Social Enterprises as Integrative Resources, Strategies, and Models
Authors: Miesing Paul
Published: July 2021

This chapter on “Social Enterprises as Integrative Resources, Strategies, and Models” provides the framework for the rest of this section and text. It first describes the global social and economic problems that neo-conservative orthodoxy and public policy have not been able to correct. That is followed by articulating the basic premise that enterprises that simultaneously pursue both financial and social objectives achieve greater impact. The next section presents characteristics of business models and social enterprises, along with a template to create a social business model. The “strategy tripod” integrates these strategy and organization aspects by considering the micro (enterprise resources and core competences), macro (national institutions), and mezzo (industry forces) levels of enterprise strategy. Last, 10 exemplars are provided that have synthesized these concepts to alleviate a variety of disparities in different countries. The conclusion provides general lessons, and Appendix A outlines the salient elements that a social enterprise plan should contain.
Displacement
Authors: Gross Kelly J.
Published: July 2021

Through a literature review of economic development strategies and unintended negative consequences, including social entrepreneurship projects, this chapter on “Displacement: A Typology to Inform Social Entrepreneurs” categorizes and explains displacement induced by development projects. The typology can help to inform social entrepreneurs regarding the resulting harms of displacement dynamics. This knowledge can guide social entrepreneurs, compelling them to prevent displacement-induced harms by being attentive during the planning and implementation phases of projects. The harms in the proposed typology include those involving displacement of loci or place; community or social capital; resources, including natural resources; and financial systems. The typology defines each type of displacement, drawing on a case study, and further illuminates the effects of each type on communities. Recommendations are offered that address ways to prevent and interrupt displacements during social entrepreneurship projects while promoting more inclusive, participatory, locally sustainable development. In addition, this chapter focuses on the importance of informal networks and economic sectors.
Organizational Entrepreneurial Orientation
Authors: Wales William J. , Gupta Vishal K.
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses “Organizational Entrepreneurial Orientation: Implications for Social Impact and Social Enterprise.” All too often social entrepreneurship is focused on celebrating individual entrepreneurs while excluding organizations with impactful change-making missions. Rather than being developed fully by a single entrepreneurial “hero,” impactful solutions are likely developed through social interactions aided by organizational frameworks. This research raises and explores several important questions. How is a strategic orientation toward entrepreneurial activity, or entrepreneurial orientation (EO), conceptualized in social enterprises? What are the antecedents and outcomes of EO within social enterprises? And how do we measure EO within social enterprises? Addressing these questions is important to understanding organizational entrepreneurship within the context of social enterprises pursuing prominent social missions. In sum, this chapter examines the critical manifestation of EO within social enterprise.
Immigrant Entrepreneurship
Authors: Lee Wonhyung , Black Stephanie L.
Published: July 2021

Many immigrants move to a new country seeking to create a new life with the hope of having more opportunities for themselves as well as other family members. Some of these immigrants use their former experience and ambition to create small businesses, which is often the only viable means available to them to achieve economic prosperity. In this chapter on “Immigrant Entrepreneurship: Economic and Social Development” the authors discuss immigrant entrepreneurship in the context of commercial and social entrepreneurships, focusing on the trends in the past three decades in the United States. First, the authors examine the contributions that these immigrant entrepreneurs make both on a local as well as national basis. Second, they discuss immigrant entrepreneurship in terms of social enterprise development. The authors then provide a discussion on the implications for research and practice.
UAlbany’s Small Enterprise Economic Development (SEED) Program as an Exemplar
Authors: Lee Wonhyung , Brigham William , Wacholder Stephanie H. , Baker Katherine , Stanley Bruce R.
Published: July 2021

Microlending provides small amount of loans to those entrepreneurs who are typically considered unbankable. These individuals lack collateral, steady employment, and a verifiable credit history and therefore cannot meet the minimal qualifications to gain traditional credit. While a number of microlending and microenterprise development programs exist that aim to serve low-income populations in the United States, only a few practice “character-based” lending, which focuses on the character of potential clients relative to other traditional components. This chapter on “UAlbany’s Small Enterprise Economic Development (SEED) Program as an Exemplar” discusses a collaborative project among a local university, a credit union, and a state agency which has provided microloans and business opportunities to underserved populations. This chapter discusses the SEED story from the process of creating such an innovative and unique program to the current model and status, including some lessons for those who hope to replicate its model.
Social Entrepreneurship and Corporate Social Responsibility in the Russian Federation
Authors: Sadyrtdinov Ruslan
Published: July 2021

Implementing social entrepreneurship and corporate social responsibility (CSR) concepts in Russia is discussed in this chapter. CSR and social enterprises have been developing dynamically in Russia since the mid-2000s, and the author believes that they can be used to foster further social and economic transition. The issues related to the Russian success stories of social enterprises and socially responsible corporate behavior are outlined. An emphasis is made on identifying government and private institutions and instruments supporting the social activity of profit and nonprofit organizations. Techniques for evaluating CSR in Russia are described. Due to incomplete data in nonfinancial reports it is difficult to derive a cost-benefit analysis for CSR projects. Instead, indicators for nonfinancial reports are selected and indices are constructed by measuring the quality and frequency of their disclosure. The chapter concludes by outlining the main challenges and potential drivers to promote further development.
Social Entrepreneurship in Argentina
Authors: Mucarsel Leila , Bhat Meera , Ramos Blanca M.
Published: July 2021

This chapter, “Social Entrepreneurship in Argentina: The Role of Mission-Driven Organizations on the Pathway to Inclusive Growth,” presents an overview of Argentina’s socioeconomic trends and examines its social entrepreneurship ecosystem by analyzing key players, challenges, and opportunities. The authors find that the sector’s organizations bridged social and pro-employment policies with marginalized groups, channeled key social and environmental issues that inspired new public policies, and piloted social innovations within the development sector. The chapter highlights the need to increase their participation in policy since this is key to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals, which require social legitimacy and bottom-up experimentation. Globally, many nations seeking to boost economic growth while tackling such complex issues as climate change and inequalities. This poses the question: How can growth become more inclusive, sustainable, and “smart” (innovation-led)? The Argentine experience illustrates how and why social enterprises and civil society organizations can play a strategic role in this agenda.
The Odd Couple
Authors: Taylor Henry-Louis
Published: July 2021

This chapter on “The Odd Couple: ‘Incomplete Socialism’ and Social Enterprises in Cuba,” uses an incomplete socialism and social enterprise framework to examine the impact of the 2011 Guidelines of the Economic and Social Policy of the VI Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba on Cuban society. It posits that market elements will exist in socialist societies throughout the age of capitalism, but that these market forces can be harnessed and used to produce desirable social outcomes. The 2011 Guidelines produced market forces and social policies that weakened egalitarianism in Cuba, triggered increments in racism, and increased hardship among Afro-Cubans, but they did not spark capitalist restoration. Cuba kept its eyes on the prize of social and human development and made improvements in these areas despite economic challenges. The conclusion is that market reforms will not necessarily generate capitalist restoration because they can be used to complement socialist construction by generating positive social outcomes.
Four Internets
Authors: O'Hara Kieron , Hall Wendy , Cerf Vinton
Published: July 2021

The book describes the Internet, and how Internet governance prevents it fragmenting into a ‘Splinternet’. Four opposing ideologies about how data flows around the network have become prominent because they are (a) implemented by technical standards, and (b) backed by influential geopolitical entities. Each of these specifies an ‘Internet’, described in relation to its implementation by a specific geopolitical entity. The four Internets of the title are: the Silicon Valley Open Internet, developed by pioneers of the Internet in the 1960s, based on principles of openness and efficient dataflow; the Brussels Bourgeois Internet, exemplified by the European Union, with a focus on human rights and legal administration; the DC Commercial Internet, exemplified by the Washington establishment and its focus on property rights and market solutions; and the Beijing Paternal Internet, exemplified by the Chinese government’s control of Internet content. These Internets have to coexist if the Internet as a whole is to remain connected. The book also considers the weaponization of the hacking ethic as the Moscow Spoiler model, exemplified by Russia’s campaigns of misinformation at scale; this is not a vision of the Internet, but is parasitic on the others. Each of these ideologies is illustrated by a specific policy question. Potential future directions of Internet development are considered, including the policy directions that India might take, and the development of technologies such as artificial intelligence, smart cities, the Internet of Things, and social machines. A conclusion speculates on potential future Internets that may emerge alongside those described.
Governing the Internet
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes some of the controversies around the large US influence on Internet governance, and the attempts by the International Telecommunication Union Working Group on Internet Governance to exert more influence on behalf of other national governments, not least China and Russia. Internet governance multistakeholderism is described, with its mix of governments, NGOs and private sector organizations, using technology (code), regulation, and norms, and we see how the Internet decomposes into a stack of protocols. The discussion is exemplified by ICANN’s governance of the Domain Name System (DNS), and by the difficulties of the move from IPv4 to IPv6. The dual functions of openness as both an engineering standard and a moral standard are described. Openness implies transparency, bottom-up, permissionless innovation, the end-to-end principle, efficient data transport, resilience, redundancy, interoperability, scalability, and generativity.
The Vision of the Open Internet
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

The open vision of the Silicon Valley Open Internet is described and shown to be an exceptionalist view of the uniqueness of cyberspace. Openness is described in terms of standards, transparency, interoperability, decentralization, and permissionlessness, and illustrated by the debates between UNIX and GNU in the 1980s, leading to the development of the Linux operating system. Companies like Google and Facebook have reasons to be both open and closed. The Open Internet is related to the idea of information as a public good, with open data and freedom of information. Net neutrality, the idea that all data should be treated equally as it travels through the Internet, is introduced.
Turning to the Dark Side
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: July 2021

Chapter 3 deals with the dark side of Spiritual Warfare by examining the noncanonical popular saints and witches whose supernatural powers some Mexicans seek out for illegal activities or for the kinds of transactions that they believe fall on the other side of the Manichaean divide between good and evil—a repost to contemporary challenges that both draws from and innovates from traditional popular religiosity. It is only natural that we include both here, since they regularly meet on the battlefield of spiritual contestation, as Pentecostal practices such as Spiritual Warfare resignify social problems, conflict, and often “traditional” cultural as literally demonic in origin.
Earthquakes, Trauma, and Celestial Remedies
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: July 2021

Chapter 4 examines the effects of trauma on religion, both as a spiritual refugee and as a source of conflict and encounter between competing cosmological epistemologies. It pursues this through an examination of Pentecostalism in Haiti, where many thousands of Haitians flocked to churches in the aftermath of the catastrophic earthquake of January 2010. Many Haitians used these spaces as spiritual safe sites from which they could begin to cope with psychological and physical trauma. At the same time, Haiti’s Pentecostal spiritual warriors, placing blame for the earthquake and its many other historical woes on Haiti’s Vodou religion, declared “celestial war” on Haiti’s native religion, setting off an embodied turf war for Haiti’s soul.
East Asia: The Commercial Peace
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: July 2021

China has ended the post–Cold War peace in East Asia by claiming, contrary to international law, sovereignty over most of the western Pacific Ocean, by rapidly increasing its military capability, and by bullying its neighbors. China’s aggressive policies stem from the Chinese version of nationalism, which sees China as having the right to exercise dominance in the region. Chinese aggression stems also from Xi Jinping’s desire to maintain public support for, or at least tolerance of, the dictatorship of his Communist Party—which the slowing of economic growth threatens—by presenting himself as China’s champion against foreign enemies. China has also increased the threat to the region through its support for North Korea, with its nuclear weapon program.
The Middle East
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: July 2021

The undeniable threat that Iran poses to the other countries of the Middle East has its roots in the fundamentalist Islamist ideology that the ruling clerics there espouse. The clerics aspire to evict the long-engrained military forces, aid, and other influences of the United States from the region and to thus become the dominant power. In pursuit of these ambitious goals, Iran has trained and sponsored various proxy forces and terrorists in other nearby countries and has sought to acquire nuclear weapons for the state. Ultimately, these efforts have served to undermine the prospects of building peace in the region.
Groundwork for the Public
Authors: Holcomb Jesse
Published: July 2021

Public-facing research institutions and university centers have played an outsized role in collecting and disseminating knowledge about local news trends in the United States. Philanthropic support, attention by policymakers, and a sense of urgency around the crisis facing local journalism have incentivized the emergence of this particular kind of research that sits adjacent to, but not fully inside, the scholarly environment. This material is well positioned to engage and activate interventions aiming to help address the crisis in local journalism and provide empirical grist for deeper scholarly work. At the same time, however, this line of public scholarship is sometimes unmoored from theoretical considerations, highly descriptive, and exists outside of peer review systems. Many of these institutions setting the agenda for research about local journalism are bound by their own norms and cultures from making robust normative claims about how the industry should respond and adapt to their findings. This chapter traces the brief history of para-scholarly groundwork mapping local news, outlines the strengths and weaknesses of this model, and suggests collaborative practices going forward that connect this important groundwork with theory-driven and peer review practices.
Advocating for Journalism Studies’ Impact on Policymaking
Authors: Weber Matthew S.
Published: July 2021

Journalism has had difficulty to connect outside of the academy. Journalism Studies scholars are positioned with policy to connect disparate areas of knowledge and to forge connections that advance policymaking. In order to explore the issue, first, this chapter will explore the ways in which Journalism Studies have focused on policy issues. Second, it will advocate for the role of journalism researchers in policymaking, specifically on building on research focused on the brokerage of knowledge, meaning, translating research findings into policy and serving as key connectors who can bridge the gap between academic research and industry practice—and should take on this role more directly. And third, this chapter makes connections to broader epistemological conversations about the use of research evidence as a policymaking mechanism.
Sharing Research Amidst the Cat Videos and Clickbait
Authors: Toff Benjamin
Published: July 2021

This chapter makes the case that the task of engagement for journalism researchers is far more challenging than is typically appreciated. Even provocative research findings must ruthlessly compete for the attention of highly distracted audiences. This chapter outlines results from a small study examining relative rates of social media interactions (e.g., comments, shares, and likes) on Facebook posts made by three organizations that seek to bridge the divide between academia and professional communities of practice—the Columbia Journalism Review, Nieman Journalism Lab, and the Poynter Institute. Analysis of what posts do (and do not) receive attention show that although some scholarly research attracts engagement, it pales in comparison to other posts circulated by these same organizations. The findings suggest that translating research in the contemporary media environment requires more innovative and proactive outreach strategies.
Why News Literacy Matters
Authors: Tully Melissa
Published: July 2021

News literacy efforts address news content, production, consumption, and contexts to holistically explore the role of news in society, with a particular focus on the importance of news for informing self-governing citizens. Although news literacy is not a cure-all, it should be part of a broader solution to developing a media system that provides audiences with news and information that is relevant to their lives. With this in mind, we, as researchers, educators, practitioners, and professionals, need to think about how to teach news literacy and encourage its application. Research and practice should strive to improve news literacy, increase confidence in individuals’ abilities, and convince audiences that news literacy is applicable to their lives.
Introduction
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 begins by presenting an overview of the vicissitudes of descriptive representation in state legislatures for women and men from the four largest racial groups in the United States, from 1996 to 2015. The chapter then previews the book’s main finding: factors related to representation and candidate emergence, such as the relationship between district populations and descriptive representatives or political ambition, are shaped by race and gender simultaneously. To account for the persistence of underrepresentation among women and minorities, Chapter 1 then advances the intersectional model of electoral opportunity. The model accounts for external and internal, multilevel pressures that constrain and facilitate the realistic candidacy opportunities for white women, white men, men of color, and women of color. The chapter closes by discussing the necessity of studying Asian American women and men, and Latinas and Latinos, in order to better understand representation in a nation shaped by immigration and immigrant communities.
The Court in a Polarized World
Authors: Devins Neal , Baum Lawrence
Published: July 2021

This chapter tracks the period after 1985, a time when party polarization transformed both presidential appointments to the Supreme Court and the elite social networks that the Justices were a part of. Starting with the 2010 appointment of Democrat Elena Kagan to fill the seat of liberal Republican John Paul Stevens, the Court’s ideological divide is also a partisan divide. This chapter explains the circumstances that propelled today’s partisan divide—circumstances that make it likely that the divide will persist. In particular, ideology is now a dominant feature of judicial nominations. Correspondingly, the conservative legal network and, with it, the Federalist Society plays a critical role in all aspects of the nomination process for Republican presidents. Once a conservative Republican joins the Court, moreover, the Federalist Society reinforces his or her conservativism through social interactions, speaking engagements, and much more. For their part, Democratic Justices are part of left-leaning social and political networks.
The Socialist Cemetery
Authors: Sprigge Martha
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 charts the development of new mourning rites in East Germany, focusing on the role that music played in these ceremonies. Death rituals articulated a new death culture for the socialist state. This chapter examines three aspects of East German death culture: the reestablishment of ceremonies to honor communist heroes from the Weimar Republic, state burials for East German politicians, and manuals published for funeral planning intended for the general public. Visually and rhetorically, state ceremonies were political displays that marginalized the emotional needs of the mourning community. But the music in these services intoned the new country’s connections to customs that the ruling party were explicitly attempting to displace: the Nazis’ heroic burial customs and the mourning rituals of the Lutheran church. In early efforts to fashion a socialist sepulchral culture across multiple artforms, a gap emerged between political ideology and musical reality that allowed composers, performers, and audiences to enact the work of mourning through music.