bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Psychological Assessment in School Settings
Authors: Braden Jeffery P.
Published: November 2003

Psychological assessment in school settings is distinguished from psychological assessment in other settings according to populations (e.g., students, teachers), problems (e.g., academic, social), procedures (e.g., consultation, instruction), and the setting in which assessment and intervention occurs. The purposes driving psychological assessment in schools (i.e., screening, diagnosis, intervention, evaluation, selection, and certification) are reviewed. Following this review, the current status and practice of psychological assessment in schools is described (i.e., interviews and record reviews, observational systems, checklists and self‐report techniques, projective techniques, standardized tests, and response‐to‐intervention approaches). Assessment of academic achievement is given special attention in this chapter, in relation to psychoeducational diagnosis, and in relation to the increasing use of academic achievement assessments in educational accountability and standards‐based educational reforms. The chapter concludes with a prognostication about the future of psychological assessment in schools related to four key themes: (1) aligning assessment to scientific and technical advances, (2) aligning assessment to educational standards, (3) accommodating diverse learners in assessment, and (4) the utility of assessment for intervening with students.
Psychological Assessment in Correctional Settings
Authors: Megargee Edwin I.
Published: November 2003

This chapter describes and discusses psychological assessment in adult correctional settings, emphasizing the initial assessments and evaluations mandated by professional organizations and credentialing bodies such as the American Association for Correctional Psychology and the National Commission on Correctional Health Care. It examines external and internal classification, risk assessment, mental health and psychological screening, as well as needs assessment for management and treatment programming in jails, correctional institutions, probation, and parole settings. The instruments discussed include the Dangerous Behavior Rating Scale, the Violence Risk Assessment Guide, the Spousal Assault Risk Assessment Guide, the HCR‐20, the Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool, the Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offender Recidivism, the Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide, the Sexual Violence Risk‐20, Hare's Psychopathy Checklist‐Revised, Quay's Adult Internal Management System, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory‐2, the Megargee MMPI‐2 based offender classification system, the Shipley Institute of Living Scale, the General Ability Measure for Adults (GAMA), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III (WAIS‐III), and the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE).
Psychological Assessment in Geriatric Settings
Authors: Edelstein Barry A. , Martin Ronald R. , Koven Lesley P.
Published: November 2003

This chapter addresses the clinical assessment of older adults. The principal goal of this chapter is to acquaint the reader with assessment issues that are relatively unique to older adults, with particular attention to factors that could influence the process or outcome of clinical assessment. We begin with the discussions of two intra and interpersonal variables, bias in the form of ageism and cultural competence. Ignorance of the importance and influence of these variables can lead to the corruption, contamination, and invalidation of the entire assessment enterprise. We then consider biological and medical issues that are more common among older adults that can play a significant role in the interplay between biological and environmental factors. Next, we shift to two conceptual issues, beginning with the assessment paradigms within which the clinician performs the assessment. We then address diagnostic issues and question the prudence of utilizing traditional diagnostic taxonomies with older adults. The complexities of carrying out clinical assessments are then addressed through discussions of multiple method and multidimensional assessment. We follow this with a discussion of psychometric considerations for developing or selecting assessment instruments suitable for older adults. The chapter is closed with a brief discussion of future directions in the assessment of older adults.
Assessment of Neuropsychological Functioning
Authors: Podell Kenneth , DeFina Philip A. , Barrett Paul , McCullen AnneMarie , Goldberg Elkhonon
Published: November 2003

Neuropsychology, like most other subspecialties in psychology, has undergone extensive and rapid changes and development over the past few decades. This has been particularly the case for neuropsychology within the past several years, as the 1990s were designated as the decade of the brain. Neuropsychology has been shaped by both economic pressures and changes and technological developments. These alterations in the field have lead to the development of new clinical avenues, technological progress, clinical and theoretical breakthroughs, and fundamental changes in the practice and teaching of neuropsychology. This chapter will explore these changes and developments focusing on both clinical and experimental areas, as well as offer some insight and advice regarding how these changes are affecting the field today. The chapter starts with a brief historical perspective, and then discusses the exciting and popular new clinical areas of sports‐related concussion and forensic neuropsychology. This is followed by a discussion of recent developments and issues in neuropsychological assessment and how advances in psychometric properties have improved neuropsychological assessment techniques. The final section discusses recent advances in experimental neuropsychology, mainly its role in fMRI research and transcranial magnetic stimulation, followed by an overview and ideas about the future direction of neuropsychology.
Assessment of Interests
Authors: Lowman Rodney L. , Carson Andrew D.
Published: November 2003

We define interests as relatively stable psychological characteristics of people that identify the personal evaluation attached to particular groups of occupational or leisure activity clusters. After discussing theories of the development of interests, we present and discuss major measures of the construct, including the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (Strong Interest Inventory), the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey, the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey, the Unisex Edition of the ACT Interest Inventory, the Self‐Directed Search, the Vocational Preference Inventory, Johansson's measures, and the Interest‐Finder. We then discuss psychometric issues (reliability and validity) across these measures, as well as observed group differences in measured interests. We then examine the relationships between interests and other domains, especially personality and ability. We also discuss future directions for research.
Assessment of Psychopathology With Behavioral Approaches
Authors: O'Brien William H. , McGrath Jennifer J. , Haynes Stephen N.
Published: November 2003

William H. O'Brien, Jennifer J. McGrath, and Stephen N. Haynes's cognitive‐behavioral conceptualizations of disordered behavior have become increasingly complex due to advances in research and a broadening of assumptions within the behavioral paradigm. As a result, contemporary behavior therapists must be able to identify and evaluate many potential relationships among target behaviors and causal variables in a typical assessment. The ability to accomplish these complex assessment tasks is partially founded on a well‐developed understanding of the many ways that target behaviors can be operationally defined and familiarity with the paths through which causal variables exert an influence on target behaviors. In addition, therapists must be familiar with sampling and assessment methods that can be used to empirically measure and evaluate relationships among target behaviors and causal variables. In this chapter, the conceptual foundations of behavioral assessment are reviewed. Following this, a discussion of the strengths and limitations of the most commonly used behavioral sampling strategies and assessment methods is presented. Finally, intuitive and quantitative data analytic techniques are critically examined.
Assessing Personality and Psychopathology With Self‐Report Inventories
Authors: Ben‐Porath Yossef S.
Published: November 2003

This chapter describes the history and development of self‐report inventories (SRIs) as measures of personality and psychopathology. Early criticisms of this technique are reviewed, with an emphasis on concerns regarding their susceptibility to distortion and limited empirical foundations for their interpretation. Current issues in SRI‐based assessment are then reviewed and discussed, including various approaches to constructing SRIs and their relative merits, approaches to and foundations for SRI interpretation including the merits of empirical and content‐based interpretation, and derivation of standard scores for SRI interpretation. Next, the concept of protocol validity is defined and threats to protocol validity, including content and non‐content‐based threats, are identified and discussed. These threats include nonresponding, random responding, fixed responding, overreporting, and underreporting. Finally, needs for further SRI research studies are identified. These include generating broader research bases to allow for a greater role for construct validity in SRI interpretation, the need to address questions regarding validity generalization in SRI interpretation, further research to clarify the potential role of configural SRI interpretation, and additional studies to guide efforts at detecting threats to protocol validity and their implications for SRI interpretation.
Current Status and Future Directions of Assessment Psychology
Authors: Naglieri Jack A. , Graham John R.
Published: November 2003

This chapter summarizes the conclusions reached by other authors in the volume. It presents a brief history of psychological assessment and discusses the current status of assessment within the disciplines of psychology and education. The use of psychological assessment in a variety of settings (child and adult mental health, geriatric, industrial/organizational, medical, forensic, correctional, and educational) is surveyed and the unique issues associated with assessments in each setting are highlighted. Current trends and important issues in various types of assessment (cognitive/intellectual, interests, neuropsychology, personality/psychopathology, interviews, behavioral and projective approaches, and self‐report inventories) are presented. The authors conclude that it is essential to demonstrate that inferences based on assessment data are related to specific uses that occur in specific applications of specific instruments. The authors make a plea for less emphasis on assessment procedures and instruments that are decades old and more emphasis on innovative approaches to assessment. They conclude that assessment psychology is alive and well and making important contributions in the settings where it is practiced and to the thousands of people who are assessed each year.
Forensic Training and Practice
Authors: Packer Ira K. , Borum Randy
Published: November 2003

The recognition by the American Psychological Association (APA) of Forensic Psychology as a Specialty is a significant landmark for the field. This recognition has resulted from the development of a substantial body of professional literature and specialized knowledge. The foundation for these advances was laid in the decades of the 1970s, with the establishment of the American Psychology‐Law Society (later recognized as Division 41 by APA) and the American Board of Forensic Psychology (which subsequently became a specialty board of the American Board of Professional Psychology).

This chapter describes the state of the field in terms of both practice and formalized training. The areas of practice within both Forensic Psychology (application of clinical specialties) and Legal Psychology (application of experimental specialties) are described. Current training paradigms, including graduate education, internships, postdoctoral fellowships, and continuing education activities, are discussed. Since this training is not yet formalized, recommendations are made for developing an integrated model of training, consistent with the recognition of Forensic Psychology as a Specialty. This model will continue to emphasize the importance of a basic, broad‐based clinical foundation for practice. In addition, an argument is made for the need to develop an agreed‐upon standard for “Diplomate” status.
Evaluation of Malingering and Deception
Authors: Rogers Richard , Bender Scott D.
Published: November 2003

The evaluation of malingering and other forms of deception is a cornerstone issue in forensic practice. This chapter provides both conceptual and clinical issues about the assessment of response styles. It carefully distinguishes explanatory models that address the underlying motivation for dissimulation from detection models that consider clinical methods for the identification of response styles. In particular, malingering can be unduly influenced by our misassumptions and our perspectives toward its assessment. Regarding the latter, intuitional, standard, and specialized perspectives of malingering are explored.

Clinical methods for the assessment of response styles are highly dependent on their validation. Relative contributions of different research designs (simulation, known‐groups, differential‐prevalence, and bootstrapping) are reviewed. Detection strategies are examined for dissimulation with mental disorders and feigned cognitive impairment. Specialized measures (e.g., the SIRS, PDRT, and VIP) are featured for: (1) malingering and mental disorders, (2) defensiveness and mental disorders, and (3) malingering and cognitive impairment.
Eyewitness Memory for People and Events
Authors: Wells Gary L. , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: November 2003

The two primary aspects of eyewitness testimony, namely, memory for events and memory for people, are reviewed. The chapter utilizes a metaphor that likens eyewitness memory to trace evidence. Like other types of trace evidence (e.g., crime scene blood, fibers), a major concern exists regarding how the evidence is collected. Research on memory for events is reviewed with respect to misinformation effects, planting false childhood memories, the influence of imagination on memory reports, and other suggestive procedures. Research on memory for people is reviewed with respect to variables that affect identification accuracy (such as lineup structure) and the process governing lineup identifications (relative judgments). A classification scheme is introduced that partitions eyewitness identification variables into the categories of general impairment variables versus suspect‐bias variables and crosses this categorization scheme with other categorization schemes (e.g., system versus estimator variables, witness characteristics versus event characteristics). The general thesis of the chapter is that eyewitness memory evidence needs to be collected and preserved using scientifically grounded protocols rather than using the casual and often dangerous methods that too commonly mark practices in the justice system.
Child Custody Evaluation
Authors: Otto Randy K. , Buffington‐Vollum Jacqueline K. , Edens John F.
Published: November 2003

Child custody evaluations may be the most complex, difficult, and challenging of all forensic evaluations, involving the assessment of numerous parties with respect to multiple issues or capacities. This chapter provides a broad overview of the various legal, practical, and empirical issues related to child custody evaluations. Beginning within the legal context, the family bar's perception of mental health professionals' involvement in cases of contested custody is discussed, followed by a brief overview of contemporary child custody law in the United States. After a review of existing custody guidelines and standards, the basic stages and components of custody evaluations are delineated. More specifically, the chapter summarizes information regarding appointment, notification, and consent issues, the clinical evaluation process (including evaluation of parents, evaluation of children, direct observation of parent‐child interactions, psychological testing, and gathering of third‐party information), and report writing and testimony. We conclude with a review of research that should inform custody evaluations, focusing specifically on empirical studies of parenting practices, and divorce and custody outcomes.
Assessment of Childhood Trauma
Authors: Sparta Steven N.
Published: November 2003

Legally contested issues involving children may include a variety of traumatic events. Forensic referrals regarding childhood trauma differ in purpose, including, but not limited to, those associated with personal injury litigation, child abuse cases, child custody conflicts (including allegations of child abuse or domestic violence), special education eligibility, and delinquency cases in which PTSD may be relevant to the offense or the potential for rehabilitation. Forensically relevant referrals can represent a wide variety of interpersonal and noninterpersonal forms of trauma. How a child reacts to a stressful event is a function of a complex biopsychosocial process, including, but not limited to, the level of stress, the nature of the traumatic event, the child's coping ability, predisposition for autonomic arousal, the child's personality, and the availability for constructive support following the trauma. The forensic assessment is different in scope, purpose, and method than the traditional clinical evaluation, including the use of assessment instruments and interview formats consistent with the nature of the trauma being considered and the child's stage of developmental functioning. Each type of referral demands knowledge of the specifically relevant law of the applicable jurisdiction, developmentally appropriate understanding about the nature of the trauma, and must focus on the relevant psycho‐legal questions. Trauma‐related evaluations which are objectively performed, utilizing multimodal assessment methods, and integrate specialized knowledge about trauma and its effects upon children can provide the trier of fact with valuable information necessary to a decision.
Personal Injury Examinations in Torts for Emotional Distress
Authors: Greenberg Stuart A.
Published: November 2003

Public policy usually allows persons who have been harmed to claim compensation from the perpetrators of that harm, even when the harm is not a crime. At first, the law only allowed compensation for physical harm. As the law has evolved, most jurisdictions also allow compensatory damages for psychological harm under a variety of legal conditions. The plaintiff must persuade a jury, to a preponderance of the evidence, that he or she was psychologically damaged in a legally qualifying way. The jury then considers what compensation would be just in returning the plaintiff to the equivalent of his or her condition before the claimed event. This legal conceptualization requires that the forensic examiner consider the plaintiff's functioning prior to the claimed event, the degree of distress likely to be engendered by the event, areas of resiliency and impairment in the plaintiff's functioning after the event, the likely cause of any psychological impairment in the plaintiff's functioning, and the plaintiff's likely future status and need for care to ameliorate the impairments caused by the defendant. This chapter reviews the legal bases of such examinations, describes how to conduct the examinations, and provides model testimony for how to explain the results of these examinations to juries.
Assessing Employment Discrimination and Harassment
Authors: Vasquez Melba J. T. , Baker Nancy Lynn , Shullman Sandra L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter reviews the legal basis for discrimination complaints. It provides a brief review of the history of discrimination law; forms of legal discrimination claims; harassment and, in particular, sexual harassment as a form of discrimination; employer liability, hostile environments, and evolving legal standards. In addition, the authors describe an overview of the psychological literature. This includes a review of the psychological research to date on sex discrimination, sexual harassment, racial discrimination, the intersection of race and gender, and the effects and remediation of discrimination. Psychologists’ roles in court and the assessment process in employment discrimination and harassment are also addressed. A discussion of future legal and psychological issues are also provided.
Substituted Judgment: Roles for the Forensic Psychologist
Authors: Drogin Eric Y. , Barrett Curtis L.
Published: November 2003

Substituted judgment involves the replacement of an individual's decision making with that of guardians, conservators, curators, surrogates, executors, or other appointed persons or agencies. Depending upon timing, impairment severity, and available resources, substituted judgment may occur on the basis of expressions of personal choice or as the result of adversarial legal action. Determining the need for substituted judgment is an expanding area of practice and research for forensic psychologists. Substitutions for an individual's prior judgment involve a varied palette of advance directives (including living wills, durable powers of attorney, and health care surrogacies). Substitutions for present judgment address a person's right to refuse treatment and the related doctrine of informed consent. Substitutions for future judgment concern the related interventions of guardianship and conservatorship, pertaining to personal and financial affairs, respectively. Historically, these determinations were dominated by adversarial models of legal decision making, without benefit of adequately developed scientific methodology. Today, forensic psychologists may draw from a growing arsenal of standardized tests, structured interviews, and investigative protocols. Advances in mental health scholarship and practice have contributed to the promulgation of statutes and regulations that provide greater flexibility of individual rights, while offering an extended range of protections for persons with disabilities.
Competence to Confess
Authors: Oberlander Lois B. , Goldstein Naomi E. , Goldstein Alan M.
Published: November 2003

Confessional evidence typically is highly persuasive in criminal trials, especially when it is the primary source of evidence offered by the prosecution. Prior to obtaining a confession from a suspect, police investigators are obliged to provide aMirandawarning if they anticipate the confession will be introduced into evidence at a criminal trial. We describe the origins of theMirandawarning, perspectives on its utility and relevance, and how the warning has changed over time. Recent developments in constitutional law relevant to theMirandawarning and relevant to judicial determinations of the credibility of confessions are summarized. We review historical and recent case law relevant to “coerced” confessions and the credibility or trustworthiness of confessions. We describe changes over time in judicial interpretations of what constitutes coercion and credibility, issues with special populations, and the recent focus in case law on individual factors that might impairMirandacomprehension or that might impair a suspect's capacity to provide a credible or reliable confession. Empirical research on factors associated with impairments inMirandacomprehension and impairments related to the tendency in some individuals to provide false confessions is considered. Case law rulings and empirical research are integrated into suggested practices for the forensic assessment of abilities related toMirandacomprehension and the trustworthiness of confessions.
Assessment of Competence to Stand Trial
Authors: Stafford Kathleen Powers
Published: November 2003

Competence to stand trial is a constitutional prerequisite to adjudication of criminal cases and essential to preserving the fairness, accuracy, dignity, and autonomy of criminal proceedings. Psychologists are called upon to address the issue of competence more often than any other issue in the criminal law. Increasingly, case law developments and psychological formulations of the concept of trial competence have focused on not only the knowledge‐based or foundational aspects of competence, but the decisional aspects as well. Competency assessment instruments, multiple sources of data, and psychological measures of cognitive functions, personality, and malingering contribute to the evaluation of competency. The task is complicated by the need to consider the relationship between psycho‐legal impairments and symptoms of psychopathology and by the fluid nature of competency across time and across specific case demands. The empirical literature on correlates and factors associated with competence provides some support for the validity of psychological opinions regarding trial competence. Treatment, the needs of special populations, competency assistance strategies, and the problem of the permanently incompetent defendant are further considerations in the evaluation of competence. Psychology makes a significant contribution to the understanding of trial competence through the development of measures, theoretical and empirical research, assessment and treatment, and consultation with courts and attorneys.
Child Sexual Abuse Evaluations
Authors: Kuehnle Kathryn
Published: November 2003

Accurate estimates of true and false child sexual abuse evades researchers and the determination of whether sexual abuse has occurred is a complex problem. In recent years, the research community has been polarized over whether child victims of sexual abuse or nonabuse are grossly misidentified, to what degree children are suggestible, and whether false positive or false negative errors create the greatest harm. This chapter describes the scientific‐practitioner model for evaluating allegations of child sexual abuse, a model previously proposed by the author. According to this model, conclusions regarding child sexual abuse are based upon empirically established relationships between data and the behavior in question, rather than on subjective opinions. To address critical issues in these assessments, this chapter reviews two sources for information: published research and the law. Child sexual abuse is defined, focusing on risk factors for abuse and the meaning of symptoms. Studies citing the incidence and prevalence of child sexual abuse are reviewed. Topics include early memories, the impact of stress on memory, and the development of autobiographical memory. Since recall is subjected to the effects of suggestibility, research on this topic is considered. The structure of the assessment interview and a review of the research on the three most frequently used evaluation tools (anatomical dolls, projective instruments, and drawings) is described.
Evaluation of Sexual Predators
Authors: Mary Alice Conroy
Published: November 2003

The chapter begins with an historical review of the development of sexually violent predator (SVP) statutes and the judicial response culminating with the U. S. Supreme Court decision inKansas v. Hendricks. Specifics of this ruling, established “mental abnormality or personality disorder,” rather than the more familiar mental illness or mental disease, as a constitutionally acceptable basis for civil commitment. However, the Court further indicated that the particular abnormality must impair the individual's behavioral control, making psychodiagnostics in this context challenging. Principles of risk assessment are discussed as they are applied to sexual offenders. Special problems in this arena of risk assessment include the inherent difficulty of establishing a reasonable base rate, the lack of consistent definition of such basic terms as “sexual offense,” and the innate heterogeneity of this population. A number of psychometric and actuarial instruments recently developed to assist in conducting SVP risk assessments are compared. Risk management strategies are then explored, and the efficacy of a variety of approaches is discussed. Although many studies evaluating the effectiveness of sex offender treatment have been published, deficits in research methodology have left us without a definitive answer as to what will reduce recidivism in this population. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the professional and ethical issues confronting the forensic psychologist presenting testimony to the court regarding sexual predators.
Battered Woman Syndrome in the Courts
Authors: Follingstad Diane R.
Published: November 2003

The definition, validity, and applicability of the Battered Woman Syndrome to legal cases were reviewed to determine the current status and meaningfulness of this concept for battered women's cases. In light of definitional problems and research investigating factors considered markers of this syndrome, the Battered Woman Syndrome appears unsupportable as a true syndrome or as a well‐defined and validated concept. The usefulness of this syndrome for court cases is considered along the following issues: problems with syndrome evidence in general, problems with placing this syndrome within the context of legal defenses of justification vs. excuse, problems with clarifying the uses of and purposes for the syndrome in these cases, and potential negative effects of introducing the Battered Woman Syndrome as it currently is conceptualized. The article addresses whether applying Battered Woman Syndrome to battered women defendants is a questionable practice both in terms of its validity and its direct links to legal concepts. While commentators generally conclude that the Battered Woman Syndrome is not a valid or useful concept, research data concerning battered women is still potentially applicable to inform aspects of battered women's cases. Examples of the usefulness of research about battered women for court cases are given. Ideas for assessment of battered women in reference to mental status issues in these cases were provided.
Pathologies of Attachment, Violence, and Criminality
Authors: Meloy J. Reid
Published: November 2003

The clinical and forensic investigation of the relationship between attachment, violence, and criminality is quite recent and very promising. This chapter summarizes the origins of attachment research, and explores the psychology of attachment as a biologically based, species‐specific behavioral system which is present throughout the life cycle. Pathologies of attachment, moreover, such as the preoccupied, fearful, dismissive, and disorganized types, are being increasingly linked to intimate partner violence and other forms of violent criminality. Research in this area is explored, with particular attention paid to the work of Dutton, Fonagy, Holtzworth‐Munroe, Gottman, and Babcock. The author suggests that four findings emerge: (1) insecure attachment is a risk factor for intimate partner violence and other violent criminality, (2) secure attachment may be a protective factor against violent criminality, especially when a child is raised in a deprived environment, (3) the “reflective function” may be an important mediating variable for understanding affective violence in particular, and (4) dismissive and disorganized pathologies of attachment may correlate, respectively, with constitutional and traumagenic pathways to violent criminality. New avenues of research are suggested by applying attachment theory and research to the specific “preoccupied” crime of stalking and the quite distinctive and dangerous character of the “dismissive” psychopath.
Therapeutic Jurisprudence
Authors: Daicoff Susan , Wexler David B.
Published: November 2003

Therapeutic jurisprudence is an innovative, interdisciplinary field that integrates law and the social sciences by studying the role of law as a therapeutic agent. Therapeutic jurisprudence (TJ) acknowledges that law is a social force with inevitable effects on the mental health and psychological functioning of people. TJ recognizes that legal rules, legal procedures, and legal actors intentionally or unintentionally produce therapeutic or antitherapeutic consequences. TJ explicitly seeks to maximize the therapeutic consequences and minimize any countertherapeutic effects, so long as due process and other important values are fully respected. It therefore focuses on individuals' psychological and emotional well‐being. TJ is equally relevant to legal reform, legislative efforts, appellate courts' opinions, lawyering methods and strategies, and the work of judges, police officers, and probation officers. TJ's insights have led to proposals for new laws, for changes in the way judges, lawyers, and other legal actors interact with others, and for changes in the processes by which existing laws are administered, applied, and enforced. TJ's applications have expanded from traditional mental health topics such as the insanity plea, civil commitment, the right to refuse mental health treatment, and competence to stand trial to many substantive areas such as: correctional law, criminal law, family law, juvenile law, disability law, labor and employment law, health law, evidence law, personal injury law, contract law, commercial law, probate law, the legal profession, mediation, and alternative dispute resolution. This chapter reviews the vast literature on TJ and explores its insights, challenges, and future.
Job and Work Analysis
Authors: Sackett Paul R. , Laczo Roxanne M.
Published: November 2003

Job analysis a broad term commonly used to describe a wide variety of systematic procedures for examining, documenting, and drawing inferences about work activities, worker attributes, and work context. Following a conceptual overview of the range of choices facing the individual conducting a job analysis, the chapter discusses important changes and challenges to job analysis that have emerged over the last decade. The first is the development of the Occupational Information Network (O*NET); a comprehensive job analysis system designed to replace theDictionary of Occupational Titles. Second, we discuss the growing trend toward the incorporation of personality variables in job analysis, paralleling the growth of interest in personality within the field of I/O psychology overall. Third, we examine the growth of competency modeling, which is often presented as an alternative to or replacement for job analysis. Fourth, we review developments in the field of cognitive task analysis, which involve efforts to understand unobservable cognitive processes. Fifth, we examine the growth of strategic job analysis, which focuses on analysis for changing job situations and projections about work in the future. Sixth, and finally, we discuss recent developments focusing on the topic of sources of inaccuracy in job analysis.
Job Performance
Authors: Motowidlo Stephan J.
Published: November 2003

This chapter defines job performance as the total expected value to the organization of discrete behaviors that an individual carries out over a standard period of time. Several taxonomic performance models in the literature describe categories of behavior believed to have organizational value. The categories have been defined either according to their manifest behavioral content (Campbell, 1990), their organizationally relevant consequences (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993), their motivational antecedents (Organ, 1988; Sackett, in press), or other antecedents such as ability and personality traits (Viswesvaran, Schmidt, & Ones, 2000). Performance antecedents include both direct determinants, such as knowledge, skill, motivation, habits, and situational opportunities and constraints, and indirect determinants, including individual differences in ability and personality and some types of situational variables. The direct determinants are presumed to mediate effects of the indirect determinants on job performance through causal mechanisms that involve capacity to learn, opportunity to learn, motivation to learn, and dispositional fit. An important implication of the performance definition presented in this chapter, taxonomic structures of behavioral dimensions of job performance, and its direct and indirect antecedents is that different traits, learning processes, motivational mechanisms, and situational constraints might have different effects on different behavioral dimensions of job performance.
Recruitment Research in the Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Rynes Sara L. , Cable Daniel M.
Published: November 2003

Research on recruitmentpractices(recruiters, recruitment sources, administrative procedures, vacancy characteristics, and selection standards) and recruitmentprocesses(time‐related, social, information‐related, and interactive processes plus applicant self‐selection and person‐organization fit) is reviewed, and increments to knowledge about recruitment over the past decade are summarized. Trends in recruitment practices are noted, along with their potential implications for organizations and organizational researchers. A call is made for increased cross‐level recruitment research, as well as recruitment research at the organizational level of analysis.
Intelligence and the Workplace
Authors: Drasgow Fritz
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides a broad review of theories and research on intelligence with particular emphasis on its importance in the workplace. Psychometric theories of intelligence, beginning with Spearman and concluding with Carroll, are described. Spearman's (1904) original theory emphasized the importance of general cognitive ability, which he denoted asg; after a century of research and controversy, Carroll's massive reanalysis of the available data placedgat the apex of a three‐stratum model. The information‐processing approach to intelligence and the neuropsychological perspective is also summarized. Then research on the relation of intelligence and performance is reviewed. Laboratory studies of skill acquisition, as well as field studies of workers, clearly show the critical role of intelligence for job performance. Interestingly, it has been argued that specific facets of intelligence, such as reading comprehension and quantitative reasoning, provide little incremental validity over general cognitive ability. A limitation on this line of argument is that it has focused on the prediction of task performance; effectiveness in interpersonal activities that contribute to organizational effectiveness has been considered to a lesser extent. Broadening the conceptualization of performance to include both task performance and contextual performance suggests that social intelligence or situational judgment may add substantially to the validity of prediction. Finally, avenues for future research are described.
Use of Personality Variables in Work Settings
Authors: Hough Leaetta M. , Furnham Adrian
Published: November 2003

This chapter describes the history of personality theory, taxonomies, constructs, and their role in I/O psychology. Taxonomies have been critically important in enabling researchers to summarize and examine the importance of personality variables, resulting in better theories and understanding of workplace behavior and performance. More than twice the variance in supervisory ratings of overall job performance is accounted for when personality variables are included in our performance models. When customer service, interpersonal effectiveness, and integrity, for example, are important to the job, personality variables become even more useful for predicting behavior and performance, with predictive accuracy of personality variables increasing when predictors and criteria are matched in terms of complexity and theoretical relevance. The chapter also summarizes evidence regarding potential moderator variables, such as intentional distortion and item frame‐of‐reference (e.g., contextualization), and describes methods for increasing validity. Methods and issues of personality measurement are discussed according to self‐report/self‐evaluation, others' reports and descriptions, objective measures, interviews, mode of assessment, and culture and language. In addition, legal issues and their implications and evidence related to use of personality inventories in the workplace in the United States are presented.
Perspectives on Training and Development
Authors: Kraiger Kurt
Published: November 2003

This chapter covers theory and practice relative to the nature and role of training and development in work organizations. After stressing the importance of training within a brief historical treatment of the forces and pressures facing modem work organizations, three themes are developed: training as instruction, as learning, and as embedded in planned organizational change. Several key areas that continue to present challenges to those involved in research or practice are examined in detail, including training needs assessment, training design, transfer of training, and training evaluation.
Strategic Industrial and Organizational Psychology and the Role of Utility Analysis Models
Authors: Boudreau John W. , Ramstad Peter M.
Published: November 2003

The beginning of the twenty‐first century poses an interesting paradox for I/O psychology and strategic human resource management. Leading I/O psychology journals, especially in the United States, have reduced attention to utility analysis at a time when the quantitative measurement of human capital is receiving unprecedented attention. This chapter admonishes scholars and practitioners in I/O psychology and human resource management to integrate their disciplines, and create a more strategic approach. We show how the logic and methods of utility analysis provides a framework for I/O psychology to be more strategic, and for strategic human resource management to be more operationally rigorous. We review developments in utility analysis research since 1991, but propose a new perspective based on decision support. We address the “criterion problem” inSDyresearch with this decision‐based perspective, as an alternative to the traditional I/O focus on measurement and psychometrics, to show how the decision‐based perspective reveals opportunities to link human capital and organizational success. We present a model, HC Bridge™, that links human capital and organizational performance, and use it to describe new directions for research on utility analysis estimation, acceptance, and decision making. Finally, we addressSDymeasurement from a strategic perspective, to show howSDyaddresses a fundamental gap in human resource strategy.
Motivation
Authors: Mitchell Terence R. , Daniels Denise
Published: November 2003

This chapter reviews the topic of motivation. We start with a definition of this construct and how it fits with other constructs like effort, persistence, and performance. The underlying organizing idea for the chapter is various tensions in our field. We then proceed to review different motivational approaches that represent the different perspectives represented by the tensions.

We start with a review of theories that highlight motivational mechanisms that are internal to the person. The rational theories like expectance theory, self‐efficacy, and goal setting are contrasted with the nonrational approaches that focus on personality and emotions. We then discuss theories that focus more on social or external factors that motivate individuals. Included here are justice and reinforcement theories.

We close with a discussion of the ways that these motivational approaches could be organized using different perspectives than the tension idea. Included here are discussions of the extent to which theories have a future, past, or present time perspective; the extent to which the motivational process is seen as malleable; and the ease with which the approaches can be implemented in organizations.
Job Attitudes
Authors: Hulin Charles L. , Judge Timothy A.
Published: November 2003

This chapter discusses the theoretical and empirical literatures on job attitudes instantiated as job satisfaction. Job satisfaction, generally defined as a set of affective responses to job characteristics, is assessed as judgment‐based, cognitive evaluations of characteristics or dimensions of jobs. Several theoretical models of antecedents and consequences are reviewed; relations involving constructs representing antecedents and consequences of job attitudes are emphasized. These models emphasize job and environmental antecedents that influence relevant frames of reference, job characteristics, models derived from social information processing, and models emphasizing personality and self‐evaluations as antecedents of job satisfactions. There is much overlap between social and job attitudes but conceptual similarities mask many differences. Empirical relations between job satisfaction and many job behaviors and estimated behavioral constructs demonstrate differences between job and social attitudes. The importance of broad measures of constructs, the strength and generality of relations between job attitudes and behavioral constructs, and new directions for research are explored. It is argued that reintegrating affect in addition to cognitive evaluations into an overall construct of job attitudes would expand understanding and usefulness of the job attitude construct and increase the range of behaviors likely to be related to expanded assessments of job attitudes.
Leadership Models, Methods, and Applications
Authors: Avolio Bruce J. , Sosik John J. , Jung Dong I. , Berson Yair
Published: November 2003

Over the last decade, the leadership field has grown in a number of new directions. The models of leadership being developed and intensively studied today focus more on what constitutes charismatic or transformational leadership, as opposed to the transactional models of leadership. More of the literature is being generated from overseas as the discipline of leadership globalizes. Methodologies used to study leadership are expanding and include quantitative and qualitative strategies. Leadership is now being modeled and investigated across levels of analysis, including individual, dyadic, collective or shared, and strategic. And more attention is being directed towards examining leadership in the ‘new’ organizational forms.

We've attempted to capture the pace of change in the leadership field and to highlight areas where future research discoveries are needed. Our goal was not to simply review the literature on leadership published since last handbook. Instead, we began by outlining areas that clearly require further exploration like the emerging area of virtual team leadership. We've also highlighted the need to study the complex process of leadership development, given the vast amount of attention and resources being dedicated to this area, as well as the opportunity to have ubiquitous leadership development with support from advanced information technology.

We've attempted to cover where leaders come from, who they are, what they do, who follows them, and how the context affects what they are able to accomplish. We've included followers in our discussion of leadership, since without followers the field of leadership would be a glass half full.