bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cyclic crack propagation at corners and holes
Authors: DHONDT G.
Published: January 2005

Cracks frequently change their shape at geometric discontinuities such as corners or holes. Using the MTU automatic fatigue crack propagation software CRACKTRACER, this phenomenon is investigated for a simple specimen with square cross section and a drilling hole. The analysis shows that a change in crack shape takes place as soon as a discontinuity is reached and can be interpreted as being triggered by the resulting change of intersection angle with the free boundary. This leads to a violation of the previously existing equilibrium conditions and a sharp increase in the local stress intensity factors (K factors). Thereupon, the crack rapidly converges towards a new equilibrium configuration.
Influence of sintered stainless steel microstructure on fatigue crack paths
Authors: IACOVIELLO F. , DI COCCO V. , CAVALLINI M. , MARCU T. , MOLINARI A.
Published: January 2005

Stainless steels are attractive materials for many applications (e.g. petrochemical industry, chemical and nuclear plants, marine environment, desalination, etc.). They are sometimes characterized by considerable difficulties from the manufacturing point of view, and powder metallurgy offers an excellent alternative to produce these steels. Sintered stainless steels are characterized by the presence of micropores and by different microstructures that depend on the sintering procedures (powders, sintering temperature and duration, etc.).

In the present work we consider five different sintered stainless steels, characterized by different microstructures: fully ferritic, fully austenitic, ferritic–austenitic, ferritic–austenitic–martensitic (two different volume fractions). Their fatigue crack propagation resistance is investigated by means of fatigue crack growth tests according to ASTM E647 standard, considering a stress ratio value (R=Kmin/Kmax) equal to 0.1. Crack propagation micromechanisms are examined through both fracture surface analyses (by means of a scanning electron microscope) and crack path profile analyses (by means of an optical microscope).
Fatigue crack initiation and growth in a 35CrMo4 steel investigated by infrared thermography
Authors: PLEKHOV O. , PALIN‐LUC T. , SAINTIER N. , UVAROV S. , NAIMARK O.
Published: January 2005

The present work is devoted to the investigation of fatigue crack initiation and growth in middle‐cycle fatigue (∼105 cycles). Smooth specimens made of 35CrMo4 quenched and tempered steel were loaded in fully reversed plane bending. Temperature field evolution in time was recorded with an infrared camera. The experimental results show that the local heating of metal under fatigue loading is a sensitive and accurate enough manifestation of small fatigue crack initiation. It is shown that the time evolution of the spatial standard deviation of the temperature field can be used to investigate the damage localization and to monitor both the crack initiation and the current location of the fatigue crack tip. This should help to investigate the behaviour of defect during cyclic loading.
Fatigue crack propagation from a precrack under combined torsional and axial loading
Authors: TANAKA K. , AKINIWA Y. , KATO T. , MIKURIYA T.
Published: January 2005

Fatigue tests of crack propagation from a precrack in thin‐walled tubular specimens made of a medium‐carbon steel were performed under cyclic torsion with and without superposed static or cyclic axial loading. The stress ratio of cyclic loading was −1. The fatigue crack‐propagation path from a precrack was compared with the predictions based on the maximum tangential stress criterion. The direction of fatigue crack propagation follows the direction of the maximum of the range of the tangential stress, Δσ*θ max, near the crack tip determined from the stress intensity factor (SIF) which was calculated by considering the contacts of crack faces at the minimum load. The SIF calculated from the actual crack path by using the body force method (BFM) showed that the mode II SIF range quickly approached zero after a small amount of crack extension. The crack‐propagation rate decreased first and then increased with crack extension. The initial dip of the crack‐propagation rate was caused by the development of crack closure with crack extension. As cracks extended a long distance, the propagation rate was faster than the uniaxial data. This acceleration of crack propagation was caused by excessive plasticity near the crack tip.
Computational simulation and experimental findings of three‐dimensional fatigue crack growth in a single‐edge notched specimen under torsion loading
Authors: BUCHHOLZ F.‐G. , JUST V. , RICHARD H. A.
Published: January 2005

In this paper, the rather complex three‐dimensional (3D) fatigue crack growth behaviour in a single‐edge notched (SEN) specimen with an inclined plane of the initial crack under torsion loading is investigated with the aid of ADAPCRACK3D programme and by application of a recently developed 3D fracture criterion. It will be shown that the computationally simulated results for fatigue crack growth in the FE model of the specimen are in good agreement with experimental findings for the development of spatially twisted and warped crack faces in the real laboratory test specimen. Consequently, also for this case with a rather complex 3D crack growth behaviour, the functionality of the ADAPCRACK3D programme and the validity of the proposed 3D fracture criterion can be stated.
Doublecortin expression levels in adult brain reflect neurogenesis
Authors: Couillard‐Despres Sebastien , Winner Beate , Schaubeck Susanne , Aigner Robert , Vroemen Maurice , Weidner Norbert , Bogdahn Ulrich , Winkler Jürgen , Kuhn Hans‐Georg , Aigner Ludwig
Published: January 2005

Progress in the field of neurogenesis is currently limited by the lack of tools enabling fast and quantitative analysis of neurogenesis in the adult brain. Doublecortin (DCX) has recently been used as a marker for neurogenesis. However, it was not clear whether DCX could be used to assess modulations occurring in the rate of neurogenesis in the adult mammalian central nervous system following lesioning or stimulatory factors. Using two paradigms increasing neurogenesis levels (physical activity and epileptic seizures), we demonstrate that quantification of DCX‐expressing cells allows for an accurate measurement of modulations in the rate of adult neurogenesis. Importantly, we excluded induction of DCX expression during physiological or reactive gliogenesis and excluded also DCX re‐expression during regenerative axonal growth. Our data validate DCX as a reliable and specific marker that reflects levels of adult neurogenesis and its modulation. We demonstrate that DCX is a valuable alternative to techniques currently used to measure the levels of neurogenesis. Importantly, in contrast to conventional techniques, analysis of neurogenesis through the detection of DCX does not require in vivo labelling of proliferating cells, thereby opening new avenues for the study of human neurogenesis under normal and pathological conditions.
Hierarchical processing of sound location and motion in the human brainstem and planum temporale
Authors: Krumbholz Katrin , Schönwiesner Marc , Rübsamen Rudolf , Zilles Karl , Fink Gereon R. , Von Cramon D. Yves
Published: January 2005

Horizontal sound localization relies on the extraction of binaural acoustic cues by integration of the signals from the two ears at the level of the brainstem. The present experiment was aimed at detecting the sites of binaural integration in the human brainstem using functional magnetic resonance imaging and a binaural difference paradigm, in which the responses to binaural sounds were compared with the sum of the responses to the corresponding monaural sounds. The experiment also included a moving sound condition, which was contrasted against a spectrally and energetically matched stationary sound condition to assess which of the structures that are involved in general binaural processing are specifically specialized in motion processing. The binaural difference contrast revealed a substantial binaural response suppression in the inferior colliculus in the midbrain, the medial geniculate body in the thalamus and the primary auditory cortex. The effect appears to reflect an actual reduction of the underlying activity, probably brought about by binaural inhibition or refractoriness at the level of the superior olivary complex. Whereas all structures up to and including the primary auditory cortex were activated as strongly by the stationary as by the moving sounds, non‐primary auditory fields in the planum temporale responded selectively to the moving sounds. These results suggest a hierarchical organization of auditory spatial processing in which the general analysis of binaural information begins as early as the brainstem, while the representation of dynamic binaural cues relies on non‐primary auditory fields in the planum temporale.
A unified model of presynaptic release site gating by calcium channel domains
Authors: Gentile Luigi , Stanley Elise F.
Published: January 2005

Calcium ions enter through discrete ion channels at presynaptic nerve terminals before binding to and activating transmitter release sites. Opposing models hold that release sites are gated either by calcium domains of single, closely associated channels or by extensive, overlapping domains from many remote channels. At the chick calyx synapse we find a linear relation between transmitter release and the number of open calcium channels, favouring single domain activation. This finding is consistent with results from the squid giant synapse but contrasts with steep power dependences reported in rodent synapses, suggestive of activation by extensive overlapping domains. These different reports were reconciled by plotting ‘per cent domain overlap’ against the external calcium concentration used for each species. This relationship predicts the involvement of local channels in the activation of release sites in all species. Further, it suggests that each release site is activated by calcium ions from its immediately associated channels and not by ions that enter through channels associated with a neighbouring release site.
Sequential activation of p75 and TrkB is involved in dendritic development of subventricular zone‐derived neuronal progenitors in vitro
Authors: Gascon E. , Vutskits L. , Zhang H. , Barral‐Moran M. J. , Kiss P. J. , Mas C. , Kiss J. Z.
Published: January 2005

Dendritic arbor development of subventricular zone‐derived interneurons is a critical step in their integration into functional circuits of the postnatal olfactory bulb. However, the mechanism and molecular control of this process remain unknown. In this study, we have developed a culture model where dendritic development of purified subventricular zone cells proceeds under serum‐free conditions in the absence of added growth factors and non‐neural cells. We demonstrate that the large majority of these cells in culture express GABA and elaborate dendritic arbors with spine‐like protrusions but they do not possess axons. These neurons expressed receptors for neurotrophins including p75, TrkB and TrkC but not TrkA. Application of exogenous neurotrophins, including brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotrophin‐3 (NT3) and nerve growth factor (NGF), to cultures stimulated dendritic growth and led to more complex dendritic arbors during the initial 3 days in culture. Our results suggest that these effects are independent of Trk receptors and mediated by the p75/ceramide signaling pathway. We also show that brain‐derived neurotrophic factor is the only neurotrophin that is able to influence late‐phase dendritic development via TrkB receptor activation. These results suggest that dendritic arbor development of subventricular zone‐derived cells may be regulated by neurotrophins through the activation of p75 and the TrkB receptor signaling pathways in a sequentially defined temporal pattern.
Respiratory responses evoked by blockades of ionotropic glutamate receptors within the Bötzinger complex and the pre‐Bötzinger complex of the rabbit
Authors: Mutolo Donatella , Bongianni Fulvia , Nardone Furio , Pantaleo Tito
Published: January 2005

The respiratory role of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors within the Bötzinger complex (BötC) and the pre‐Bötzinger complex (pre‐BötC) was investigated in α‐chloralose–urethane anaesthetized, vagotomized, paralysed and artificially ventilated rabbits by using bilateral microinjections (30–50 nL) of EAA receptor antagonists. Blockade of both N‐methyl‐d‐aspartic acid (NMDA) and non‐NMDA receptors by 50 mm kynurenic acid (KYN) within the BötC induced a pattern of breathing characterized by low‐amplitude, high‐frequency irregular oscillations superimposed on tonic phrenic activity and successively the disappearance of respiratory rhythmicity in the presence of intense tonic inspiratory discharges (tonic apnea). KYN microinjections into the pre‐BötC caused similar respiratory responses that, however, never led to tonic apnea. Blockade of NMDA receptors by D(–)‐2‐amino‐5‐phosphonopentanoic acid (D‐AP5; 1, 10 and 20 mm) within the BötC induced increases in respiratory frequency and decreases in peak phrenic amplitude; the highest concentrations caused tonic apnea insensitive to chemical stimuli. Blockade of non‐NMDA receptors by 6‐cyano‐7‐nitroquinoxaline‐2,3‐dione (CNQX; 1, 10 and 20 mm) within the BötC produced only less pronounced increases in respiratory frequency. Responses to D‐AP5 in the pre‐BötC were similar, although less pronounced than those elicited in the BötC and never characterized by tonic apnea. In the same region, CNQX provoked increases in respiratory frequency similar to those elicited in the BötC, associated with slight reductions in peak phrenic activity. The results show that EAA receptors within the investigated medullary subregions mediate a potent control on both the intensity and frequency of inspiratory activity, with a major role played by NMDA receptors.
Development of spontaneous mouth/tongue movement and related neural activity, and their repression in fetal mice lacking glutamate decarboxylase 67
Authors: Tsunekawa Naoko , Arata Akiko , Obata Kunihiko
Published: January 2005

Spontaneous body movement starts at early fetal stage, at embryonic day (E) 12–15 in mice. In the present study, the movement of the head region was studied in E13–14 mice by in utero ultrasound imaging, together with the in vitro recording of underlying neural activities in the hypoglossal nerve and the ventral root of the upper cervical cord of an isolated brainstem–spinal cord preparation. The role of γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the generation of fetal movement was assessed using mice lacking GABA‐synthesizing glutamate decarboxylase 67 (GAD67). At E14, mouth opening and tongue withdrawal were observed independently at frequency of 14/h each. This movement was rarely observed in the GAD67‐deficient mouse. The intraventricular administration of picrotoxin or 3‐mercaptopropionic acid abolished mouth opening in the wild‐type mice. In a brainstem–spinal cord preparation, three types of neural discharge were recorded: mouth/tongue‐moving burst, respiratory burst and irregular activity on the basis of their waveform, regularity in occurrence and concomitant muscle activity. In the GAD67‐deficient mice, the occurrence of mouth/tongue‐moving burst and irregular activity was inhibited to about 15 and 40% of those in the wild‐type mice, respectively. Respiratory burst was slightly inhibited but the difference was not significant. Picrotoxin greatly reduced the frequency of mouth/tongue‐moving burst. These results indicate that GABA is involved in rhythm generation in movement of the head region and support the hypothesis that cleft palate in the GAD67‐deficient mouse is due to the impairment of mouth or tongue movement that assists palate formation.
The structure of global species–range size distributions: raptors & owls
Authors: Gaston Kevin J. , Davies Richard G. , Gascoigne Caroline E. , Williamson Mark
Published: January 2005

Aims To determine the shape of global species–range size distributions, the influence on these of island species, threatened species and patterns of latitudinal variation in range sizes, and the fit to logit‐normal distributions.

Location Global.

Methods We take the spatial distributions of the raptors and owls of the world as exemplar data sets, document the shapes of their species–range size distributions, the influence of particular groups of species and of latitudinal variation in range sizes on these shapes, and the fit of these distributions to a variety of models.

Results The global species–range size distributions of both raptors and owls are extremely right skewed on untransformed axes. They are not lognormally distributed, as has commonly been stated for species–range size distributions, nor logit‐normally distributed as has been suggested might be the case. For raptors, departures from either a lognormal or a logit‐normal are little mitigated by excluding groups of species that might be thought to distort the observed species–range size distribution, nor by the latitudinal gradient in geographical range size. For owls, the effects of excluding island and threatened species are more marked, with the fit of the species–range size distribution to a lognormal or a logit‐normal becoming much closer.

Conclusions A simple general description of the shape of species–range size distributions remains elusive. This constitutes a significant constraint on the development of theory as to how they are determined. Whilst in principle the fit of any given mechanistic model can be tested against one or more empirical data sets, whatever their form, a simple general mathematical description of species–range size distributions would make the process of rapidly testing the appropriateness of mechanistic models more straightforward.
Categorizing Australian landscapes as an aid to assessing the generality of landscape management guidelines
Authors: Hobbs Richard J. , McIntyre S.
Published: January 2005

Aim  A key question in ecology and ecological management is the extent to which management guidelines developed in one location can be generalized to other areas. Landscapes differ in their biophysical characteristics and the degree of human alteration imposed on them. Our aim was to develop a conceptual framework of Australian landscapes, on the basis of a few simple indicators, that can be used to enhance the communication of information in planning and managing landscapes, particularly for biodiversity conservation.

Location  The project considered landscapes across the continent of Australia.

Methods  The project was a desktop exercise and the approach was to identify the minimum set of variables, and levels within variables, that are most meaningful from the perspective of Australian landscapes and their management. This involved the identification of the key environmental axes and development of a proposed set of matrices involving various combinations of the axes, which was revised following consultation with stakeholders.

Results  We developed a framework based on the primary variables of climate and vegetation. For climate, we used an agro‐climatic classification incorporating a moisture index, growth index and seasonality, with climate classes aligned to existing bioregions. Vegetation was broadly classified on the presence or absence of a tree layer and whether the understorey was grassy or shrub‐dominated. Secondary variables were the degree of landscape alteration and modification. The sensitivity of broad categories to ecosystem dysfunction was assessed, and the relative abundance of different categories across Australia was determined. Not all categories need to be considered since not all combinations of variables occur.

Main conclusions  The framework provides a set of broad categories of landscapes with differing characteristics. We can then assess the importance of different types of threat in the different categories. By pulling together the potential threats in a systematic way across categories, we can start to consider what appropriate management responses might be in each case. Further, by providing a convenient way to compare landscapes in different categories, it becomes possible to see where generalizations among different landscapes may be possible and where they are definitely not likely to be helpful.
Does energy availability influence classical patterns of spatial variation in exotic species richness?
Authors: Evans Karl L. , Warren Philip H. , Gaston Kevin J.
Published: January 2005

Aim At macroecological scales, exotic species richness is frequently positively correlated with human population density. Such patterns are typically thought to arise because high human densities are associated with increased introduction effort and/or habitat modification and disturbance. Exotic and native species richness are also frequently positively correlated, although the causal mechanisms remain unclear. Energy availability frequently explains much of the variation in species richness and we test whether such species–energy relationships may influence the relationships of exotic species richness with human population density and native species richness.

Location Great Britain.

Methods We first investigate how spatial variation in the distributions of the 10 exotic bird species is related to energy availability. We then model exotic species richness using native avian species richness, human population density and energy availability as predictors. Species richness is modelled using two sets of models: one assumes independent errors and the other takes spatial correlation into account.

Results The probability of each exotic species occurring, in a 10‐km quadrat, increases with energy availability. Exotic species richness is positively correlated with energy availability, human population density and native species richness in univariate tests. When taking energy availability into account, exotic species richness is negligibly influenced by human population density, but remains positively associated with native species richness.

Main conclusions We provide one of the few demonstrations that energy availability exerts a strong positive influence on exotic species richness. Within our data, the positive relationship between exotic species richness and human population density probably arises because both variables increase with energy availability, and may be independent of the influence of human density on the probability of establishment. Positive correlations between exotic and native species richness remain when controlling for the influence of energy on species richness. The relevance of such a finding to the debate on the relationship between diversity and invasibility is discussed.
Regionalized nitrogen budgets in forest soils for different deposition and forestry scenarios in Sweden
Authors: Akselsson Cecilia , Westling Olle
Published: January 2005

Aim  The aim of this work was to estimate on a regional scale the effects of nitrogen (N) deposition and harvest intensity on N‐budgets in forest soils as a basis for strategies of emission reduction and sustainable forest management methods.

Location  The calculations were applied to Sweden, a country with a managed forest area of 23 × 106 ha.

Methods  Mass balance calculations, including N‐deposition, N‐fixation, N‐loss through harvest, and N‐leaching, were performed on a GIS platform using 5 × 5 km grids. Modelled deposition data together with spatial data obtained from the National Forest Inventory served as the basis for the calculations. Four different scenarios were run: a ‘base scenario’ involving present deposition and conventional forestry (stem harvest only); a ‘whole‐tree harvesting scenario’ with present deposition and the harvesting of stems, branches and needles; a ‘decreased deposition scenario’; and a ‘whole‐tree harvesting and decreased deposition scenario’.

Results  There was a sharp N‐accumulation gradient with an increase in accumulation in the direction of the south‐western part of Sweden. In the ‘base scenario’, N‐accumulation appeared in the country as a whole, apart from certain small areas in the northern part. Whole‐tree harvesting led to net losses in extensive areas located mainly in northern and central Sweden. In most parts of the country, whole‐tree harvesting combined with decreased deposition was found to result in net losses.

Main conclusions  The intensity of the forestry has a strong impact on the N‐budget. Conventional forestry in combination with the present deposition level results in a high net accumulation of N in the south‐western parts of Sweden and accordingly, in a risk of unwanted environmental effects such as increased N‐leaching. With whole‐tree harvesting, the N‐balance is negative in parts of Sweden, mainly in the northern and central parts. N‐fertilization may become necessary there if the present level of forest production is to be maintained.
Local infiltration of high‐ and low‐molecular‐weight RNA from silenced sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) plants triggers post‐transcriptional gene silencing in non‐silenced plants
Authors: Hewezi Tarek , Alibert Gilbert , Kallerhoff Jean
Published: January 2005

Using grafting procedures, we have characterized post‐transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in transgenic sunflower expressing β‐glucuronidase (GUS) activity. Silencing was observed as early as 2 weeks after grafting of non‐silenced scions on to silenced rootstock. Transmission of the systemic signal occurs solely from stock to scion, is independent of the physiological age of the rootstock and is not heritable. Furthermore, we report, for the first time in plants, an easy and low‐cost method of activating RNA silencing by infiltration of purified RNA from silenced plants. Local application of total RNA derived from silenced sunflower plants to leaves of non‐silenced plants induces PTGS in newly developed leaves above the point of infiltration, as shown by reduced GUS activity and mRNA levels. Silenced plants contain 21–23‐nucleotide RNAs hybridizing to transgene target sequences, in contrast with leaves of non‐silenced plants. However, de novo production of GUS‐specific short RNA in non‐silenced plants can be activated by leaf infiltration of low‐molecular‐weight RNAs isolated from leaves of silenced plants. Significant levels were detected as early as 2 weeks after infiltration, peaked at 3 weeks and declined 5 weeks after infiltration. Our results provide evidence that RNA infiltration in sunflower induces transient silencing and is not transmitted to offspring. This approach could be of major use in dissecting the mechanisms involved in PTGS.
Predictable activation of tissue‐specific expression from a single gene locus using the pOp/LhG4 transactivation system in Arabidopsis
Authors: Baroux Célia , Blanvillain Robert , Betts Hazel , Batoko Henri , Craft Judith , Martinez Alberto , Gallois Patrick , Moore Ian
Published: January 2005

The pOp/LhG4 transcription factor system was used to determine whether the synthetic pOp promoter, integrated at one position in the Arabidopsis genome, could be efficiently and faithfully activated by the heterologous transcription factor, LhG4, expressed in a variety of different patterns. This is a precondition for the development and exploitation of large collections of LhG4 activation lines that direct predictable tissue‐specific expression of transgenes. We selected a pOp‐GUS reporter insertion that was efficiently activated after crossing to an activator line that expressed the synthetic transcription factor LhG4 from the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter. This reporter line, pOp‐GUS(g2), was then combined with activator loci that expressed LhG4 from one of seven different promoters, each with a different tissue specificity. pOp‐GUS(g2) was activated faithfully in combination with six of these seven activator constructs, but generated an unexpected expression pattern in combination with the seventh construct, a fusion to a cyclin promoter (CYC‐LhG4). The aberrant expression pattern could be attributed to the pOp‐GUS(g2) insertion site, as the CYC‐LhG4 activator lines directed the expected pattern of expression from a second pOp‐GUS insertion. These results show that it is feasible to construct an activator collection in which LhG4 is expressed from diverse promoters or enhancer traps, but that individual pOp reporter loci can vary in their competence to respond to certain activator patterns. We discuss the implications for the design and use of mis‐expression technology in Arabidopsis.
Expression of the sweet protein brazzein in maize for production of a new commercial sweetener
Authors: Lamphear Barry J. , Barker Donna K. , Brooks Christopher A. , Delaney Donna E. , Lane Jeffrey R. , Beifuss Katherine , Love Robert , Thompson Kevin , Mayor Jocelyne , Clough Rich , Harkey Robin , Poage Miranda , Drees Carol , Horn Michael E. , Streatfield Stephen J. , Nikolov Zivko , Woodard Susan L. , Hood Elizabeth E. , Jilka Joseph M. , Howard John A.
Published: January 2005

The availability of foods low in sugar content yet high in flavour is critically important to millions of individuals conscious of carbohydrate intake for diabetic or dietetic purposes. Brazzein is a sweet protein occurring naturally in a tropical plant that is impractical to produce economically on a large scale, thus limiting its availability for food products. We report here the use of a maize expression system for the production of this naturally sweet protein. High expression of brazzein was obtained, with accumulation of up to 4% total soluble protein in maize seed. Purified corn brazzein possessed a sweetness intensity of up to 1200 times that of sucrose on a per weight basis. In addition, application tests demonstrated that brazzein‐containing maize germ flour could be used directly in food applications, providing product sweetness. These results demonstrate that high‐intensity sweet protein engineered into food products can give sweetener attributes useful in the food industry.
Politician control, agency problems and ownership reform
Authors: Xu Lixin Colin , Zhu Tian , Lin Yi‐min
Published: January 2005

Using data from a recent national survey on the ownership reform of state‐owned enterprises in China, we study the effects of reducing politician control and agency problems on a number of reform outcomes. Taking into account the endogenous nature of the reform, we find that these outcome measures of the reform's success are positively affected by the lessening of politician control through increasing the firm's flexibility in labour deployment and by the mitigation of agency costs through the introduction of more effective corporate governance mechanisms such as one‐share one‐vote and shareholding‐based board structure composition. Ownership structure also matters: relative to shareholding by the state, foreign ownership has a positive effect on reform outcomes; individual (mostly employee) shareholding has a negative or insignificant effect. Somewhat surprisingly, operating autonomy (excluding labour deployment flexibility) has a negative effect on firm performance, suggesting serious agency problems in the reformed enterprises.
Export variety and economic growth in East European transition economies*
Authors: Funke Michael , Ruhwedel Ralf
Published: January 2005

Utilizing panel data for 14 East European transition economies, we discuss the link between product variety and growth. The empirical work relies upon some direct measures of product variety calculated from 5‐digit OECD trade data. On balance, the results suggest that the growth patterns of the East European transition countries may be best represented by Ventura's (1997) model of outward orientation and integration with the world economy.
Re‐entering Europe: Does European Union candidacy boost foreign direct investment?
Authors: Clausing Kimberly A. , Dorobantu Cosmina L.
Published: January 2005

This study examines the ability of the Central and Eastern European countries to attract foreign direct investment during the first decade of transition. After considering a model of profit maximizing firms, we undertake an empirical investigation of the factors that determine multinational firms’ location decisions within Europe. We find empirical support for the traditional market size and cost factors. In addition, we examine the effect of key European Union announcements regarding the accession process. Results indicate that the announcements had statistically significant and quantitatively important effects on foreign direct investment in the Central and Eastern European candidate countries.
Trade integration and synchronization of shocks*
Authors: Babetskii Ian
Published: January 2005

According to the European Commission (1990), closer integration leads to less frequent asymmetric shocks and to more synchronized business cycles between countries. However, for Krugman (1993) closer integration implies higher specialization and, thus, higher risks of idiosyncratic shocks. Drawing on the evidence from a group of transition countries, this paper tries to determine whose argument is supported by the data. This is done by confronting estimated time‐varying coefficients of supply and demand shock asymmetry with indicators of trade intensity and exchange rates. We find that (i) an increase in trade intensity leads to higher symmetry of demand shocks: the effect of integration on supply shock asymmetry varies from country to country; and (ii) a decrease in exchange rate volatility has a positive effect on demand shock convergence. The results confirm ‘The European Commission view’ and also the argument by Kenen (2001) according to which the impact of trade integration on shock asymmetry depends on the type of shock.
Does fiscal redistribution discourage local public investment?
Authors: Matheson Thornton
Published: January 2005

This paper studies the determinants of regional (oblast‐level) public investment in transitional Russia, focusing on the effects of federal fiscal redistribution. A model of local government expenditure in the presence of regional asymmetries shows that revenue redistribution from wealthy to poor regions discourages local public investment. Random‐ and fixed‐effects estimation of regional panel data for 1994–97 supports the existence of a disincentive effect from fiscal redistribution on regional public investment, which varies according to a region's federal status and wealth: non‐republics have a lower propensity to invest out of transfers than out of own income, as do regions with above‐median per capita income. Republics reduce public investment more than current spending in response to higher federal taxation. Russia's ‘asymmetrical federalism’ thus creates different fiscal incentives for different types of regions.
Targeting child benefits in a transition economy
Authors: Edmonds Eric V.
Published: January 2005

Transition economies use their child benefit programmes to provide additional economic support for families with children. However, budgetary pressures limit social spending in many countries. Therefore, targeting child benefit programmes to the poorest households may be a sensible solution to the problem of supporting families with children when social spending is in decline. Few transition economies have attempted to target child benefits. Hence evidence on the efficacy of means‐testing for child benefits is scarce. This study considers the implementation of one of the few means‐tested child benefit programmes in a transition economy and finds relatively little evidence of targeting problems. Moreover, means‐testing for child benefit substantially alters the distribution of benefits in comparison with the distribution in the more typical universal child benefit programme.
Pathways to conscience: early mother–child mutually responsive orientation and children's moral emotion, conduct, and cognition
Authors: Kochanska Grazyna , Forman David R. , Aksan Nazan , Dunbar Stephen B.
Published: January 2005

Background:  Associations between early mother–child mutually responsive orientation (MRO) and children's conscience have been previously established, but the mechanisms accounting for those links are not understood. We examined three such mediational mechanisms: (a) the child's enhanced enjoyment of interactions with the mother, (b) increased committed, self‐regulated compliance with the mother, and/or (c) a decreased need for maternal use of power assertion. Children's conscience was seen as a complex system encompassing moral emotion (guilt), conduct, and cognition.

Methods:  In a longitudinal design, MRO was observed in mothers’ and children's multiple naturalistic interactions at 9, 14, and 22 months. The mediators were observed at 33 months. Children's conscience was observed at 45 months (moral emotion) and at 56 months (moral conduct and cognition).

Results:  The mediating paths were different for the three components of conscience. MRO had a direct, unmediated effect on moral emotion. MRO influenced moral conduct through two mediational paths: by promoting the child's enjoyment of interactions with the mother and by enhancing committed compliance. MRO influenced moral cognition by promoting the child's enjoyment of mother–child interactions. Maternal power assertion did not mediate the relation between MRO and conscience once the influence of the other mediators was considered.

Conclusions:  The impact of the early mother–child relationship on future conscience appears to be a complex process that progresses along distinct paths.
The development of arithmetical abilities
Authors: Butterworth Brian
Published: January 2005

Background:  Arithmetical skills are essential to the effective exercise of citizenship in a numerate society. How these skills are acquired, or fail to be acquired, is of great importance not only to individual children but to the organisation of formal education and its role in society.

Method:  The evidence on the normal and abnormal developmental progression of arithmetical abilities is reviewed; in particular, evidence for arithmetical ability arising from innate specific cognitive skills (innate numerosity) vs. general cognitive abilities (the Piagetian view) is compared.

Results:  These include evidence from infancy research, neuropsychological studies of developmental dyscalculia, neuroimaging and genetics. The development of arithmetical abilities can be described in terms of the idea of numerosity – the number of objects in a set. Early arithmetic is usually thought of as the effects on numerosity of operations on sets such as set union. The child's concept of numerosity appears to be innate, as infants, even in the first week of life, seem to discriminate visual arrays on the basis of numerosity. Development can be seen in terms of an increasingly sophisticated understanding of numerosity and its implications, and in increasing skill in manipulating numerosities. The impairment in the capacity to learn arithmetic – dyscalculia – can be interpreted in many cases as a deficit in the concept in the child's concept of numerosity. The neuroanatomical bases of arithmetical development and other outstanding issues are discussed.

Conclusions:  The evidence broadly supports the idea of an innate specific capacity for acquiring arithmetical skills, but the effects of the content of learning, and the timing of learning in the course of development, requires further investigation.
What have we learned from 15 years of free‐air CO2 enrichment (FACE)? A meta‐analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2
Authors: Ainsworth Elizabeth A. , Long Stephen P.
Published: January 2005

Free‐air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments allow study of the effects of elevated [CO2] on plants and ecosystems grown under natural conditions without enclosure. Data from 120 primary, peer‐reviewed articles describing physiology and production in the 12 large‐scale FACE experiments (475–600 ppm) were collected and summarized using meta‐analytic techniques. The results confirm some results from previous chamber experiments: light‐saturated carbon uptake, diurnal C assimilation, growth and above‐ground production increased, while specific leaf area and stomatal conductance decreased in elevated [CO2]. There were differences in FACE. Trees were more responsive than herbaceous species to elevated [CO2]. Grain crop yields increased far less than anticipated from prior enclosure studies. The broad direction of change in photosynthesis and production in elevated [CO2] may be similar in FACE and enclosure studies, but there are major quantitative differences: trees were more responsive than other functional types; C4 species showed little response; and the reduction in plant nitrogen was small and largely accounted for by decreased Rubisco. The results from this review may provide the most plausible estimates of how plants in their native environments and field‐grown crops will respond to rising atmospheric [CO2]; but even with FACE there are limitations, which are also discussed.

Contents

Summary
351

I.
What is FACE?
352

II.
Materials and methods
352

III.
Photosynthetic carbon uptake
353

IV.
Acclimation of photosynthesis
356

V.
Growth, above‐ground production and yield
358

VI.
So, what have we learned?
360

Acknowledgements
361

References
361

Appendix 1. References included in the database for meta‐analyses
364

Appendix 2. Results of the meta‐analysis of FACE effects
368
Hybrid speciation in plants: new insights from molecular studies
Authors: Hegarty Matthew J. , Hiscock Simon J.
Published: January 2005

Abrupt speciation through interspecific hybridisation is an important mechanism in angiosperm evolution. Flowering plants therefore offer excellent opportunities for studying genetic processes associated with hybrid speciation. Novel molecular approaches are now available to examine these processes at the level of both genome organization and gene expression – transcriptomics. Here, we present an overview of the molecular technologies currently used to study hybrid speciation and how they are providing new insights into this mode of speciation in flowering plants. We begin with an introduction to hybrid speciation in plants, followed by a review of techniques, such as isozymes and other markers, which have been used to study hybrid species in the past. We then review advances in molecular techniques that have the potential to be applied to studies of hybrid species, followed by an overview of the main genomic and transcriptomic changes suspected, or known, to occur in newly formed hybrids, together with commentary on the application of advanced molecular tools to studying these changes.
Consumer transactions with SMEs: implications for consumer scholars
Authors: McGregor Sue
Published: January 2005

Historically, the consumer movement has defined business as big business. This paper proposes that we shift the focus to consumer transactions with small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). After SMEs are defined, facts about the realities of SMEs are used as stepping stones to develop the idea that consumer interactions with SMEs are different than those with large firms and merit the attention of consumer scholars. Thirteen recommendations are tendered for future research including rethinking our traditional approach to consumer behaviour theory, consumer policy, and consumer movement theory.
The effect of sunlight and drying methods on the strength of Ghanaian Real Wax printed fabrics
Authors: Fianu Docea A.G. , Sallah Richard A. , Ayertey Augusta
Published: January 2005

The effect of sunlight and drying methods on the strength of Real Wax printed cotton fabrics produced in Ghana was determined. Warp and weft specimens were washed using the Standard Launder‐Ometer (Gyrowash 315). Each laundered or unlaundered specimen was aired or dried on a flat surface or on clothesline in the sun or shade for 42 h. The breaking strengths of controlled and treated specimens were determined using the tensile testing machine (Hounsfield H5K‐S) and the average percentage loss in strength calculated. The analysis of variance and least significant difference for the separation of means were used to test significant differences between the treatments. Whether dried or aired, sunlight caused more loss in strength than shade. Laundered specimens lost more strength in the sun or shade than those unlaundered. Specimens dried or aired on a flat surface in the sun or shade lost more strength than those on clothesline. There were significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) as a result of the different treatments in the warp direction. For the weft specimens, there was a significant difference between only the aired and washed specimens. Conclusions and future research directions are discussed.
Reliability and validity of a short credit card attitude scale in British and American subjects
Authors: Yang Bijou , James Simon , Lester David
Published: January 2005

Short scales to measure affective, cognitive and behavioural attitudes toward credit cards developed from a longer scale were administered to respondents in Great Britain and the United States and found to be highly reliable and valid.
Meat labels: consumer attitude and meat consumption pattern
Authors: Rimal Arbindra
Published: January 2005

This paper addressed consumers’ attitude towards food labels and the influence of different aspects of meat labels on beef, poultry and seafood consumption using data from a national survey in the USA. Approximately 70% of the respondents reported that food labels helped in the purchases of beef and other meat products. While 50% thought that the present level of information on meat labels was about right, about 30% thought that it was insufficient. Similarly, 80, 81, 60, and 80% of the respondents thought that it was very important that meat labels contain information regarding nutrition, ingredients, health claim, and production process respectively. Those respondents who thought that nutrition and ingredient information on food labels were very important also thought that meat labels helped them select beef and other meat products. Consumer preferences for nutrition and ingredient information on food labels were positively related with meat consumption frequency.
Exploring convenience orientation as a food motivation for college students living in residence halls
Authors: Marquis Marie
Published: January 2005

The main objective of this paper is to study the concept of convenience orientation among young adults. A project was conducted among students living in residence halls, where information on their food motivation and behaviour was obtained. Data were collected using a self‐administered questionnaire filled out by 319 students. Convenience ap‐pears  to  be  the  most  important  food  motivation  followed by price, pleasure, health and concern about weight. Positive correlations were obtained between convenience and: deciding what to eat, having a varied diet and lack of time, all of which were considered to be difficulties associated with living in residence. Negative correlations were obtained between convenience and total time spent cooking per day and having learned to be autonomous in the kitchen. For male, the perception of eating well, having a varied diet, and maintaining weight were negatively correlated to convenience. For female, the correlation between convenience and the difficulty of eating enough was significant and positive. Negative correlations were obtained between convenience and fresh vegetables, potatoes, eggs, fresh meat, fresh fish and fresh poultry, herbal tea and alcohol. Positive correlations were obtained between convenience, frozen foods and foods brought from the parents’ home. Findings are discussed from both a health and a family perspective.