bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cervical decompression and reconstruction without intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
Authors: Traynelis Vincent C. , Abode-Iyamah Kingsley O. , Leick Katie M. , Bender Sarah M. , Greenlee Jeremy D. W.
Published: November 2011

Object

The primary goal of this study was to review the immediate postoperative neurological function in patients surgically treated for symptomatic cervical spine disease without intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring. The secondary goal was to assess the economic impact of intraoperative monitoring (IOM) in this patient population.

Methods

This study is a retrospective review of 720 consecutively treated patients who underwent cervical spine procedures. The patients were identified and the data were collected by individuals who were not involved in their care.

Results

A total of 1534 cervical spine levels were treated in 720 patients using anterior, posterior, and combined (360°) approaches. Myelopathy was present preoperatively in 308 patients. There were 185 patients with increased signal intensity within the spinal cord on preoperative T2-weighted MR images, of whom 43 patients had no clinical evidence of myelopathy. Three patients (0.4%) exhibited a new neurological deficit postoperatively. Of these patients, 1 had a preoperative diagnosis of radiculopathy, while the other 2 were treated for myelopathy. The new postoperative deficits completely resolved in all 3 patients and did not require additional treatment. The Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes for IOM during cervical decompression include 95925 and 95926 for somatosensory evoked potential monitoring of the upper and lower extremities, respectively, as well as 95928 and 95929 for motor evoked potential monitoring of the upper and lower extremities. In addition to the charge for the baseline [monitoring] study, patients are charged hourly for ongoing electrophysiology testing and monitoring using the CPT code 95920. Based on these codes and assuming an average of 4 hours of monitoring time per surgical case, the savings realized in this group of patients was estimated to be $1,024,754.

Conclusions

With the continuing increase in health care costs, it is our responsibility as providers to minimize expenses when possible. This should be accomplished without compromising the quality of care to patients. This study demonstrates that decompression and reconstruction for symptomatic cervical spine disease without IOM may reduce the cost of treatment without adversely impacting patient safety.
Laminectomy, durotomy, and piotomy effects on spinal cord intramedullary pressure in severe cervical and thoracic kyphotic deformity: a cadaveric study
Authors: Winestone John S. , Farley Chad W. , Curt Bradford A. , Chavanne Albert , Dollin Neal , Pettigrew David B. , Kuntz Charles
Published: November 2011

Object

Previous studies have shown that cervical and thoracic kyphotic deformity increases spinal cord intramedullary pressure (IMP). Using a cadaveric model, the authors investigated whether posterior decompression can adequately decrease elevated IMP in severe cervical and thoracic kyphotic deformities.

Methods

Using an established cadaveric model, a kyphotic deformity was created in 16 fresh human cadavers (8 cervical and 8 thoracic). A single-level rostral laminotomy and durotomy were performed to place intraparenchymal pressure monitors in the spinal cord at C-2, C4–5, and C-7 in the cervical study group and at T4–5, T7–8, and T11–12 in the thoracic study group. Intramedullary pressure was recorded at maximal kyphosis. Posterior laminar, dural, and pial decompressions were performed while IMP was monitored. In 2 additional cadavers (1 cervical and 1 thoracic), a kyphotic deformity was created and then corrected.

Results

The creation of the cervical and thoracic kyphotic deformities resulted in significant increases in IMP. The mean increase in cervical and thoracic IMP (change in IMP [ΔIMP]) for all monitored levels was 37.8 ± 7.9 and 46.4 ± 6.4 mm Hg, respectively. After laminectomies were performed, the mean cervical and thoracic IMP was reduced by 22.5% and 18.5%, respectively. After midsagittal durotomies were performed, the mean cervical and thoracic IMP was reduced by 62.8% and 69.9%, respectively. After midsagittal piotomies were performed, the mean cervical and thoracic IMP was reduced by 91.3% and 105.9%, respectively. In 2 cadavers in which a kyphotic deformity was created and then corrected, the ΔIMP increased with the creation of the deformity and returned to zero at all levels when the deformity was corrected.

Conclusions

In this cadaveric study, laminar decompression reduced ΔIMP by approximately 15%–25%, while correction of the kyphotic deformity returned ΔIMP to zero. This study helps explain the pathophysiology of myelopathy in kyphotic deformity and the failure of laminectomy alone for cervical and thoracic kyphotic deformities with myelopathy. In addition, the study emphasizes the need for correction of deformity during operative treatment of kyphotic deformity, the need for maintaining adequate intraoperative blood pressure during operative treatment, and the higher risk of spinal cord injury associated with operative treatment of kyphotic deformity.
Reviewing the Science and Implementation of Climate Change Adaptation Measures in European Forestry
Authors: Kolström Marja , Lindner Marcus , Vilén Terhi , Maroschek Michael , Seidl Rupert , Lexer Manfred J. , Netherer Sigrid , Kremer Antoine , Delzon Sylvain , Barbati Anna , Marchetti Marco , Corona Piermaria
Published: November 2011

Developing adaptation measures in forestry is an urgent task because the forests regenerated today will have to cope with climate conditions that may drastically change during the life of the trees in the stand. This paper presents a comprehensive review of potential adaptation options in forestry in Europe based on three pillars: a review of the scientific literature, an analysis of current national response strategies, and an expert assessment based on a database compiled in the COST Action ECHOES (Expected Climate Change and Options for European Silviculture). The adaptation measures include responses to both risks and opportunities created by climate change and address all stages of forestry operations. Measures targeted to reduce vulnerability to climate change may either aim to reduce forest sensitivity to adverse climate change impacts or increase adaptive capacity to cope with the changing environmental conditions. Adaptation measures mitigating drought and fire risk such as selection of more drought resistant species and genotypes are crucial. For adaptation to be successful it is of the utmost importance to disseminate the knowledge of suitable adaptation measures to all decision makers from the practice to the policy level. The analysis of the ECHOES database demonstrates that this challenge is well recognized in many European countries. Uncertainty about the full extent of climate change impacts and the suitability of adaptation measures creates a need for monitoring and further research. A better understanding of how to increase adaptive capacity is also needed, as well as regional vulnerability assessments which are crucial for targeting planned adaptation measures.
A Facile and Convenient Synthesis of some Novel Hydrazones, Schiff’s Base and Pyrazoles Incorporating Thieno[2,3-b]thiophenes
Authors: Nasser Mabkhot Yahia , Barakat Assem , Al-Majid Abdullah Mohammed , Al-Othman Zeid , Alamary Abdullah Saleh
Published: November 2011

A facile and convenient synthesis of some novel hydrazones, schiff’s base and pyrazoles from thieno[2,3-b]thiophene derivatives 1 have been achieved in high yields assisted by microwave and classical methods. The structures of all the title compounds have been elucidated by elemental analysis, IR, MS, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR. Generally, these findings represent a new class of sulfur and nitrogen moieties that should also be of interest as new materials.
A COMPUTER SIMULATION OF THE EFFECT OF MUSCLE LOSS ON HIP JOINT EFFORT DURING THE STANCE PHASE OF TRANSFEMORAL AMPUTEE GAIT
Authors: Dabiri Yaghoub , Najarian Siamak , Eslami Mohammad R. , Zahedi Saeed , Moser David , Shirzad Elham
Published: November 2011

The effect of muscle loss on the energy expenditure of hip joint, and its individual muscles, during stance phase of gait, was studied using a computer simulation. With each muscle as an ideal force generator, the lower extremity was simulated as a two-degree of freedom linkage with the hip and knee as its joints. Kinematic data and ground reaction forces were recorded by a gait analysis system. The forces exerted by muscles were determined to produce recorded hip and knee joint angles. Simulation results showed that, due to muscle loss, the work done by hip joint of the transected limb is more than that of the intact limb. Also, as more muscles are removed from the transected limb, residual muscles should do more work to flex or extend the hip. This finding is in line with the common practice in transfemoral amputation, according to which, it is important to maintain the length of residual limb as much as possible.
Unravelling safety compliance in the mining industry: examining the role of work stress, job insecurity, satisfaction and commitment as antecedents
Authors: Masia Uanda , Pienaar Jaco
Published: November 2011

Orientation: Safety compliance remains a major issue in the South African mining industry. This article explores the roles of specific work-related job and attitudinal variables in predicting compliance.Research purpose: The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship of work stress, job insecurity, satisfaction and commitment to safety compliance in a mine.Motivation for the study: The study aims to predict safety compliance through work-related variables in order to manage safety better.Research design, approach and method: The researchers used a cross-sectional survey design with a convenience sample (n = 158). They distributed a survey booklet. It included a biographical questionnaire, scales for job insecurity, satisfaction, affective organisational commitment, workplace accidents and safety compliance as well as a work stress measure that comprised dimensions of role clarity, conflict and overload.Main findings: The results showed that work stress and job insecurity had a negative relationship with safety compliance. The researchers found that only job satisfaction was a significant predictor of safety.Practical/managerial implications: Although exploratory, this study suggests that promoting job satisfaction may improve safety compliance whilst job stress and job insecurity also relate negatively to safety compliance.Contribution/value-add: This study shows that job satisfaction is more important than organisational commitment, job security and work stress for predicting safety compliance.
Element/Calcium ratios in middle Eocene samples of Oridorsalis umbonatus from Ocean Drilling Program Site 1209
Authors: Dawber C. F. , Tripati A. K.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. Culturing studies and empirical-based calibrations suggest that elemental ratios in benthic foraminifera can be used as proxies to reconstruct past variations in bottom water temperature and saturation state (Δ[CO32−]). However the mechanism(s) linking elemental ratios to Δ[CO32−] are poorly constrained. We present middle Eocene records of Oridorsalis umbonatus Li/Ca, B/Ca, Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca from Ocean Drilling Program Site 1209. We apply calibrations developed from core top samples to estimate middle Eocene variations in intermediate water Δ[CO32−]. The fidelity of bottom water Δ[CO32−] reconstructions based on single element ratios are assessed by comparing the X/Ca-based reconstructions to each other and to carbon cycle proxy records (benthic foraminifera δ13C, organic carbon content, foraminifera dissolution indices), and a seawater δ18O reconstruction for Site 1209. Discrepancies in the reconstructed Δ[CO32−] values for the middle Eocene based on these different metal ratios suggests that there are still gaps in our understanding of the parameters influencing X/Ca. The downcore record of O. umbonatus Mg/Ca does not exhibit any similarities with the Li/Ca, B/Ca and Sr/Ca records, suggesting that bottom water Δ[CO32−] is not the dominant influence on Mg/Ca ratios for this species. This hypothesis is supported by the coefficients of multiple linear regression models on new and published Mg/Ca data.
Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962)
Authors: Farrell Brian P.
Published: November 2011

The Algerian War of Independence was one of the most controversial military conflicts associated with “decolonization,” the dismantling of European overseas empires after World War II. The great majority of Algeria's population live in a long coastal plain along the southwestern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and in mixed forest and mountain country intermingled with that coastal plain. Its location made Algeria coveted by ambitious empires throughout its history. Conflict between France and the Ottoman Turkish Empire prompted a French invasion in 1830, which framed the twentieth‐century war of independence.
AntiochusIII(241–187bce)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: November 2011

Antiochus III Megas (“The Great”) (r. 223–187BCE) extended the territory of the Seleucid Empire both to the east and the west, strengthened royal authority, improved relations with powerful leagues and cities in the rest of the Greek world, and opposed Roman penetration into Greece. His eventual defeat by the Romans signified the establishment of permanent Roman control over mainland Greece and Asia Minor.
Arab—Israeli conflict
Authors: Bregman Ahron
Published: November 2011

The Arab—Israeli conflict is usually seen as seven main wars: the 1948 war that followed Israel's independence; the Suez War of 1956; the June 1967 Six Day War; the Israeli—Egyptian War of Attrition from 1968 to 1970; the October 1973 Yom Kippur War; the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon; and finally the 2006 Second Lebanon War. There were also two major Palestinian insurgencies directed against the Israeli occupation in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank from 1987 to 1993 which came to be known as the firstintifada, and from 2000 to present which is called the second, or theAl‐Aqsa intifada.
Armored Units
Authors: Hofmann George F.
Published: November 2011

From the Western Front in World War I emerged a number of new weapons in attempts to overcome the impasse of trench warfare that dominated the landscape from the Swiss border to the English Channel for four years. The introduction of airpower and motor transportation vehicles, and especially the introduction of tanks, drastically changed the conduct of mobile warfare in the twentieth century.
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938)
Authors: Pizzo David
Published: November 2011

Generally referred to as the “founding father” of modern Turkey and the Turkish republic, Mustafa Kemal was one of the most significant statesmen of the first half of the twentieth century. Known to history as Ataturk (“father of the Turks”), he led the Turkish nationalist movement in the wake of the Ottoman Empire's disastrous defeat in World War I, and he commanded Turkish forces in their War of Independence. His military achievements and his crucial role in the establishment of the Turkish state have profoundly influenced the country and indeed the entire region ever since.
Black Hawk War (1832)
Authors: Jung Patrick J.
Published: November 2011

The Black Hawk War was the last Indian war fought in Wisconsin and Illinois between May and August 1832. The Sauk warrior Black Hawk led the Indian forces while Brigadier General Henry Atkinson commanded the US forces (which consisted mostly of militia volunteers). The war could have been avoided because Black Hawk did not intend to initiate a conflict. However, the lack of discipline exhibited by the militia brought about an escalation. Throughout the war, Black Hawk's forces were generally outnumbered by the militia and US Army regulars, and this proved decisive.
Bolívar, Simón (1783–1830)
Authors: Turner Blair
Published: November 2011

Simón Bolívar was the founder of not one, but five nations. The modern republics of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and the country which bears his name, Bolivia, all claim the great liberator as their “founding father.” In order to achieve this, he had to galvanize a populace riven by class and racial divisions. Just within his own native Venezuela,
pardos
(Latin Americans of mixed blood) fought the
criollo
(native‐born of Spanish heritage) elites as often as they did the supposed Spanish oppressors. And the independent cowboys of the eastern Venezuelan plains, the
llaneros,
fought their own independence war, sometimes against Spaniard, sometimes against
criollo.
These conflicts were repeated with greater or lesser severity all over the Americas. Bolivar's ultimate goal was to unite these rival factions into a force capable of driving the Spanish armies and militias out of all of Latin America. That he was able to do so is testimony to remarkable political as well as strategic skill.
Boxer Uprising (1899–1901)
Authors: Reist Katherine
Published: November 2011

The Boxer Uprising has been variously interpreted as a rebellion, an uprising, or an anti‐foreign expression of nationalism. The Boxers were a group of poor, young, agricultural workers, peasants, and migrants who lived in the less productive areas of northwestern Shandong province. Attracted to the martial arts displays at fairs, markets, or temples, many of the poverty stricken or unemployed were intrigued by the mixture of martial arts, magic, and spirit possession that could be achieved easily by anyone. These groups began to focus on the foreign presence in the area following the Second Opium War (1858–1860) and the first Sino‐Japanese War (1894–1895), in both of which the Chinese suffered defeat. The Boxer explanation was that the foreign presence had upset the gods, whose displeasure was evidenced in the droughts and floods that plagued the area. Though never organized beyond a group of practitioners and their teacher, there were many such groups. In addition, a number of bandit or secret society organizations were identified or identified themselves as Boxers. Boxer groups were responsible for the destruction of foreign properties, especially churches, and attacks on their members or employees. By 1897 they had killed a few foreigners. By 1900 they were in Beijing and laying siege to the Legation Quarter. After fifty‐five days, the siege was relieved by an eight‐nation expeditionary force, which defeated the Boxers and any imperial troops aiding them. The Protocols that were subsequently negotiated had a devastating effect on China and especially on the Qing government.
Britain, Roman conquest of (43–96)
Authors: Hanson William
Published: November 2011

Though Caesar had crossed the Channel with his army twice, in 55 and 54
BCE
,his brief campaigns were not followed up, not least because he continued to be preoccupied with the conquest of Gaul and political events in Rome, which culminated in civil war. Thus, when the invasion proper did occur, in the reign of the emperor Claudius in 43
CE
, Britain became one of the last additions to the Roman Empire.
Bruce invasion of Ireland (1315–1318)
Authors: Duffy Seán
Published: November 2011

The Bruce invasion of Ireland is one of the most written‐about episodes in later medieval Irish history, not for what it achieved—it ultimately failed—but for what it promised: the overthrow of the English conquest of Ireland that had begun almost 150 years earlier, establishing a Scottish prince—Edward, brother of King Robert Bruce—as king of Ireland with Irish backing, and rousing of the Welsh too to rebellion against the recent English conquest of Wales.
C
hristie,
J
ohn
W
alter (1865–1944)
Authors: Hofmann George F.
Published: November 2011

Born in River Edge, New Jersey, John Walter Christie was an American civilian inventor and famous designer of armored fighting vehicles. His ideas had a significant impact on tank designs and battle tactics.
C
hulalongkorn, King (Rama
V
) (1853–1910)
Authors: Angeles J. Amiel
Published: November 2011

King Chulalongkorn “the Great” of Thailand was born on September 20, 1853, to King Mongkut (1804–1868) and Queen Debsirindra (1834–1861). Chulalongkorn was still young when he was groomed to be Mongkut's successor. He received a combined Thai and western education; he spent some time as a Buddhist monk and among his instructors was the famous Anna Leonowens. To prepare him for government, he was “apprenticed” by his father and joined him in public audiences and government business.
Colonial Wars, Dutch Indonesia (Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries)
Authors: Moor Jaap De
Published: November 2011

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the Netherlands was a small, almost inconspicuous country in the community of nations. It did, however, possess an impressive colonial empire in Asia and America, fifty times the size of the home country. While Dutch possessions in South America and the Caribbean (Surinam and the Antilles) were small, present‐day Indonesia—then called the Netherlands Indies—projected onto the map of Europe would stretch from Dublin to Moscow. On the eve of World War II, the Netherlands Indies comprised between sixty and seventy million inhabitants (at least eight times the population of the home country), most of whom were Muslims. A small upper class of around 240,000 Dutchmen and other Europeans dominated the spheres of administration, the plantations, and industry.
Congo Wars (1960s–2000s)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J.
Published: November 2011

During the 1950s Belgian colonial rulers failed to prepare Congo for independence. The many Belgians in the civil service meant that few black Congolese gained administrative experience or western education. With much of the rest of Africa moving toward independence, Congolese political movements emerged along regional and ethnic lines. When the Belgians finally decided to decolonize, they did so with only six months preparation, intending that a weak Congo would be dependent upon their assistance. In 1960, the first independent government was led by Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, a PanAfricanist from the northeast, and President Joseph Kasavubu, a Bakongo irredentist from the west. Continued Belgian control of the army quickly led to mutiny, attacks on Belgian civilians, and Belgian withdrawal from the capital. Albert Kalongi declared the diamond mining area of Kasai independent, though this was suppressed by Lumumba's new army, transported in Soviet‐supplied trucks and aircraft. In the mineral‐rich southern province of Katanga, Moise Tshombe declared secession, supported by western mining interests and the Belgians. Belgian soldiers disarmed Congolese army units in the area and organized a Katanga military with Belgian, French, South African, and Rhodesian mercenaries. While Lumumba called for United Nations (UN) assistance, international peacekeepers undermined his authority by seizing the country's airports, disarming soldiers loyal to him, and refusing to crush Katanga separation. Lumumba and Kasavubu dismissed each other, and the former was placed under house arrest by army commander Joseph Mobutu. Lumumba attempted escape but was recaptured and flown to Katanga where, in February 1961, he was killed on Tshombe's orders.
ConstantiusII(317–361)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: November 2011

Although Constantius II would eventually unite all of the Roman Empire that had been partitioned among the sons of Constantine I the Great in 337CE, his reign marked a further separation between its eastern and western parts. Generally successful militarily, he constantly had to have someone share the responsibility of controlling the empire, fighting incessant competitors andrepelling numerous foreign invasions.
Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)
Authors: Morgan Rhys
Published: November 2011

One of the most controversial figures in British military and political history, Oliver Cromwell was a minor English gentleman who rose to prominence as a parliamentarian cavalry commander during the English Civil Wars. In a military career lasting only nine years, Cromwell earned a reputation as one of England's greatest soldiers and became general of the New Model Army. He helped orchestrate the execution of King Charles I in 1649 and was made lord protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland in December 1653. He ruled until his death on September 3, 1658.
Cuban Revolution (1956–1959)
Authors: Jose María Herrera
Published: November 2011

The Cuban Revolution was a revolt led by Fidel Castro against the corrupt government of Fulgencio Batista. Though the revolution attracted broad support from the various Cuban social classes, the communists, influenced and led by Castro's brother Raúl and Ernesto Guevara, gained prominence and eventually dictated the nature of the revolution.
Decapitation strategy
Authors: Brough Gideon , D. Williams Alun
Published: November 2011

The strategy of disrupting or defeating an enemy by eliminating its military and political leadership, “decapitating” the army or society, has long been practiced in conflicts and advocated by strategists as diverse as Sun Tzu and Machiavelli. The principal benefit of decapitation is that much can be gained, immediately, from a limited operation. Removing leaders can bring victory in battle, decisively turn a campaign, or cause an entire country to fall. There are weaknesses inherent in this strategy, however; its success seems dependent on the specific context in which it is employed.
Dönitz, Admiral Karl (1891–1980)
Authors: John T. Kuehn
Published: November 2011

Karl Dönitz was born in Berlin on September 16, 1891. He enlisted in the imperial German navy in 1910 as a sea cadet and became a midshipman the following year. In 1914 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant and was aboard the cruiser
Breslau
when she made her dash for Turkey with the battle cruiser
Goeben.
He requested a transfer to the U‐boat forces in 1916. His active submarine service occurred in the Mediterranean serving under the U‐boat ace Walter Forstmann. In February 1918, Dönitz received his first U‐boat command, UC‐25. After that his career took a turn for the worse while commanding another submarine. His boat was sunk and he was taken prisoner by the British. However, he had gained an appreciation for the dangerous potential of the submarine in naval warfare. Asked to remain in the German navy after the war, Dönitz claimed he did so only when assured that the navy once again would include U‐boats.
Douhet, Giulio (1869–1930)
Authors: Michael Perry May
Published: November 2011

Giulio Douhet was one of the most influential military theorists of the twentieth century. His controversial ideas on winning command of the air, employing air power for strategic effect, and bombing civilian non‐combatants have impacted political and military policies and planning since he penned his renowned treatise
Command of the Air
in 1921. Both the publication of his ideas and their application in war fueled endless debate on the effectiveness and the morality of bombing civilians since the end of World War II.
English Civil War (1642–1651)
Authors: Wanklyn Malcolm
Published: November 2011

Civil war between Charles I and his parliament broke out in England in the summer of 1642. The context has been a perennial occasion for debate — the struggle for parliamentary democracy, the Puritan Revolution, a bourgeois revolution, a chapter of accidents, and the last baronial revolt. However, leading royalists fought for a range of motives — a strong monarchy, the Church of England as established by Elizabeth I, and a fear that a weakening of the hierarchy of landownership and power was in prospect. The supporters of parliament similarly had different agenda. Some wished to see monarchical power diminished and made accountable to parliament; others feared the resurgence of Roman Catholicism following a major uprising in Ireland in 1641; and yet others wanted the liberties of the subject enhanced or the Church of England made more Protestant. For individuals, a host of personal considerations affected choice of sides, including personal advancement, security, traditional loyalties, family connections, and past power relationships. Both sides were therefore coalitions, which for parliament became more apparent when an alliance was forged with the rulers of Scotland in September 1643.
Enver Pasha (Ismail Enver) (1881–1922)
Authors: Kangas Roger
Published: November 2011

Enver Pasha was a pivotal figure in the final years of the Ottoman Empire and in the development of the Republic of Turkey. His legacy is still debated by historians and political actors alike.
Ethics of war
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: November 2011

These moving words of Franklin Delano Roosevelt reflecting on his participation in World War I are engraved in stone on the Roosevelt Memorial in Washington, DC. They were spoken in 1936 and encapsulate what is morally problematic, to say the least, about the waging of war. Yet it was the same Roosevelt who strove so mightily (and often furtively) not long afterwards to bring a reluctant United States into the war against Germany, only gaining his object when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in 1942. The tension between his words and his later endeavors reveals the logical space an ethics of war attempts to fill.
First Indochina War (1945–1954)
Authors: Goscha Christopher.E
Published: November 2011

The Indochina War was a colonial and civil conflict, a violent hotspot in the Cold War, as well as a social, cultural, and ideological battle. The conflict divided the French and the Vietnamese, opposed Vietnamese, engulfed the Lao and the Cambodians, and involved the Chinese, British, Soviets, and Americans, among others.
Frederick II of Prussia (“the Great”) (1712–1786)
Authors: Crosswell D. K. R.
Published: November 2011

A product of the Enlightenment — aesthete, atheist, asexual, and philosopher and composer of the second rank — Frederick II exploited the elements of the early modern military revolution to the limits imposed by the
ancien régime
state.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
Authors: Macleod D. Peter
Published: November 2011

The French and Indian War involved France, Britain, and numerous Amerindian nations in a struggle for control of northeastern North America that ended in a decisive British victory. Significant in itself, the French and Indian War was the North American component of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), which pitted France against Britain in the global struggle for empire that Winston Churchill called the “first world war.”
French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce
Published: November 2011

The French seizure of Algiers from its nominal Ottoman overlords in 1830 was not intended to be permanent, much less the prelude to a conquest of the rest of the country. Rather, it was a last‐ditch effort by the unloved Bourbon monarchy in France to avert revolution by winning glory for the nation abroad. Even so, the expedition was a substantial undertaking. Some 675 ships were assembled at the Toulon naval base near Marseille to transport the 37,000‐man assault force and its baggage across the sea to Algiers.
French Foreign Legion
Authors: Vandervort Bruce
Published: November 2011

The French military employed large numbers of foreign soldiers throughout the nation's history but none ever achieved the notoriety of the French Foreign Legion, founded in 1831 during the reign of the last French king, Louis‐Philippe, and still operating today. The Legion was originally founded to provide employment for the king's recently disbanded Swiss Guard and as a repository for worrisome political refugees living in the French capital. Subsequently, it became one of the main instruments of French imperial expansion and national defense in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The fame of the French Foreign Legion encouraged other countries to emulate it, but only one such experiment, the Spanish Foreign Legion, has endured.
Frontinus, Sextus Julius (d. 103 or 104)
Authors: Campbell Brian
Published: November 2011

Frontinus was a Roman senator of the imperial period who occupied a distinguished position in society, holding numerous important public offices, winning the favor of emperors, and being a notable writer. The Younger Pliny described him as one of the two most respected men of his day (
Letters
5.1). His origins are obscure: he may have come from southern Gaul, and his early career cannot be recovered before the praetorship held in 70. He played some part in the exciting events after the civil wars of 68/69 when Civilis, a Roman citizen and prince of the Batavians, led a revolt of his people against Roman rule; he tells us that he accepted the surrender of seventy thousand of the Lingones, who had allied themselves with Civilis, presumably during the military operations. Frontinus soon held a consulship (perhaps in 72 or 73). His next assignment was as governor of Britain, where he carried on substantial military operations, first in south Wales in putting down the revolt of the Silures, and then in north Wales against the Ordovices. The subjugation of Wales was a significant military achievement, but details are lacking.
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (“Mahatma”) (1869–1948)
Authors: Bonney Richard
Published: November 2011

Gandhi's unique contribution to nonviolent civil resistance cannot be understood without reference to the interaction of two concepts, “truth force” (satyagraha, from satya: truth; and agraha: firmness) and non‐violence (ahimsa, the avoidance of violence, a principle to be found in Hinduism and Buddhism, but particularly strongly in Jainism, for which it is a central tenet). There were strong Jain traditions in the area of Gujarat in which Gandhi was born; and the oath of purity taken by Gandhi at his mother's insistence before leaving for England was administered by a Jain seer. Gandhi, however, remained a Hindu. Gier (2004: 31) disputes the impact of Jainism on Gandhi, stating that it “was not as great as he or others have claimed.” Gandhi was also influenced by the writings of others—by Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), whose article of 1849 entitled “Resistance to Civil Government” advocated “actions through principles”; and by Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God is Within You (1894), which proposed non‐violent resistance—but his was an essentially personal synthesis, an active ahimsa, unlike the largely passive Jain concept.
General Staffs
Authors: Estes Kenneth W.
Published: November 2011

Known as “the brain of the army,” the general staff system evolved in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars (1802–1815) and continues in various forms to the present day as a collective body of military specialists dedicated to planning and executing military operations at various levels of organization.
Genghis Khan (1162–1227)
Authors: Boyd James
Published: November 2011

Temuchin, better known as Genghis Khan, meaning “great ruler,” overcame adversity and hardship to unite the Mongol people and forge the largest empire the world has ever seen. A ruthless warrior who endured great suffering as a child, he was a charismatic individual who attracted fierce devotion and grew into an outstanding military leader and an astute politician.
Grant, General Ulysses
S
. (1822–1885)
Authors: Crosswell D. K. R.
Published: November 2011

Commander of Union armies in the Civil War, Ulysses S. Grant served two terms as American president (1868–1876). His friend and trusted subordinate, William Sherman, considered Grant “the greatest soldier of our time if not all time.” Sherman also identified another salient element to Grant's success: Grant more perfectly embodied the extant American character “than any other living man.”
Great Companies
Authors: Jones Robert
Published: November 2011

The Great Companies was the name given to and used by the loose confederation of soldiers active in France and Spain between the signing of the Treaty of Brétigny by the French and English crowns in 1360 and their resumption of hostilities in 1370.
Great Northern War (1699–1721)
Authors: Stevens Carol B.
Published: November 2011

The Great Northern War was the decisive and final conflict in a series of wars beginning in 1558 with Muscovy's attack on the collapsing Livonian Order. Five countries—Denmark, Sweden, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Brandenburg–Prussia, and Muscovy—contested power at the eastern end of the Baltic on‐and‐off for roughly the next century and a half. Russian victory in 1721 proved unequivocal, marking Russia's emergence as a European power, the destruction of Poland–Lithuania's military might, and the precipitous decline of the Swedish Empire. Although Sweden tried in the eighteenth century to recapture some of its lost territories, this transformation of northern Europe proved lasting.
Guderian, General Heinz (1888–1954)
Authors: Lieb Peter
Published: November 2011

General Heinz Guderian is often considered to be the father of modern armored warfare and his name is closely linked to the successfulBlitzkriegtactics of the German army during the first half of World War II. These tactics were characterized by speed and surprise, thereby allowing the ruthless exploitation of the enemy rear areas once a breakthrough had been achieved. This concept provided the foundations of what is today termed “maneuver warfare” in the English‐speaking world.
Guomindang (Kuomintang)
Authors: Reist Katherine
Published: November 2011

The Guomindang (GMD) or Nationalist Party began as an amalgamation of Sun Yatsen's United League with four other parties in the wake of the revolution of 1911. As Sun's ideas and power were undermined by the military commander Yuan Shikai, Sun returned to Guangzhou and organized the GMD, which won the subsequent parliamentary elections. Yuan dissolved the parliament, ruled as a military dictator, and died a few years later. His subordinates maintained control over areas of China as warlords from 1916 to 1927. Sun, aware of the chaos in China, tried to organize an effective government and military in order to unify the country. Requests for western aid having failed, Sun was relieved by a Soviet offer of party and military advisors and aid, the only condition being the acceptance of individual Chinese Communist Party (CCP) members into the GMD, as the first United Front. Since both parties were small and had similar goals for unification and modernization, their union was initially successful. However, differences in means and ends became apparent by 1927, not only between the GMD and CCP, but within the GMD itself. Many factions and leaders challenged those who had taken over after the death of Sun, particularly Jiang Jieshi, who had trained many in the officer corps of the revolutionary army. Unity of a sort was achieved and the GMD, having purged the CCP from the party, began to govern from their capital at Nanjing.
Gustavus Adolphus, Gustav
II
Adolf (1594–1632)
Authors: Crosswell D. K. R.
Published: November 2011

At Breitenfeld, the threads of the military revolution intertwined, providing the first authentic glimpse of modern war fighting. None of the political, administrative, or military reforms originated in Sweden—all derived from imitations and improvements on European models—but the state and military structures fashioned during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus represent the first bridge from early modern developments toward a revolutionary mode of warfare.
Hague Conventions (1899, 1907)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: November 2011

The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 marked the first significant attempts to codify the international law of war and the opening of the modern era of efforts toward international disarmament. The First Hague Conference (May 18–July 29, 1899) adopted three conventions and three declarations: the Convention (I) for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, the Convention (II) with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, and the Convention (III) for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention of August 22, 1864; and the Declaration concerning Asphyxiating Gases, the Declaration concerning Expanding Bullets, and the Declaration to Prohibit for the Term of Five Years the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons, and Other New Methods of a Similar Nature. The Second Hague Conference (July 15–October 18, 1907) adopted 13 conventions and one declaration: the Convention (I) for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, the Convention (II) respecting the Limitation of the Employment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts, the Convention (III) relative to the Opening of Hostilities, the Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, the Convention (V) respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land, the Convention (VI) relating to the Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities, the Convention (VII) relating to the Conversion of Merchant Ships into War‐Ships, the Convention (VIII) relative to the Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines, the Convention (IX) concerning Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War, the Convention (X) for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention, the Convention (XI) relative to Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War, the Convention (XII) relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court, and the Convention (XIII) concerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War; and the Declaration Prohibiting the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons. The principles laid down in the various Hague conventions (in combination with the Geneva conventions) underpinned the international law regulating armed conflict throughout the twentieth century and indeed continue to do so into the present.
Hamilcar Barca (ca. 285–229/8 BCE)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: November 2011

Hamilcar Barca was a noted Carthaginian general in the First Punic War, who afterwards became
de facto
leader of Carthage and initiated her recovery as a great power. He was born before 280
BCE
, for by 240–238 he had two marriageable daughters, while his eldest son Hannibal was born in 247. “Barca” was not a surname—Carthaginians had none—but a nickname meaning “lightning‐bolt” or perhaps “blessed” in Punic. He was appointed general in 247 over the now meager Punic forces in western Sicily: 17 years of largely unsuccessful war with Rome had curtailed both Carthage's possessions there—these now comprised solely the ports of Drepana and Lilybaeum (Trapani and Marsala)—and her resources.
Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945)
Authors: Bendersky Joseph
Published: November 2011

Among the most infamous dictators in history, Adolf Hitler emerged from the streets of Vienna and Munich to become political master of Germany between 1933 and 1945. Motivated by extreme racial ideology, this shrewd, opportunistic political figure led the Nazi Party in overthrowing the Weimar Republic and ruling Germany until defeat in World War II. He achieved domestic successes in reviving the economy and national morale at the expense of freedom and human decency, and through a terror state notorious for its racial and anti‐Semitic repression. Seeking a racial empire in Europe, Hitler swiftly conquered most of the continent by 1942, causing destruction, suffering, and death to millions, before bringing total destruction on Germany at the hands of western and Soviet forces in 1945.
Howe, General William, 5th Viscount Howe (1729–1814)
Authors: Conway Stephen
Published: November 2011

William Howe, commander in chief of the British army in North America during the War of Independence, was born on August 10, 1729, the third surviving son of Emanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, and his wife Mary Sophia Charlotte, the daughter of Johann Adolph von Kielmansegg. William entered the British army as a cornet of dragoons in 1746. He was quickly promoted to lieutenant, and by the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) he was a captain in the 20th Foot. Howe was given the rank of major in the newly formed Royal American Regiment, and became lieutenant colonel of the 58th Foot in 1757.
Imjin War (1592–1598)
Authors: M. Swope Kenneth
Published: November 2011

The common designation for this conflict comes from the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese designation for the year 1592. It is also known as the Japanese invasion of Korea, Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, the Campaigns of 1592 and 1597 (in Japan), the Rescue of Korea, the Eastern Expedition (in China), and the First Great East Asian War. This war was one of the seminal events in east Asian history and was the largest conflict in the world in the sixteenth century in terms of the numbers of soldiers involved. While the contemporary War of the Spanish Armada featured approximately fifty thousand combatants, this war featured an excess of three hundred thousand.
Imperial war cabinet (1917–1918)
Authors: R. Woodward David
Published: November 2011

Shortly after becoming prime minister, David Lloyd George told the House of Commons (December 19, 1916) that “the time has come when the Dominions ought to be more formally consulted as to the progress and course of the War.” India and the Dominions had become essential partners in the war against the Central Powers, furnishing British armies in France, Gallipoli, Palestine, and Mesopotamia with approximately one million men. But the British government now sought even more imperial reinforcements, especially from India. In 1911 Lloyd George had been impressed with the involvement of the Imperial Conference (composed of Dominion representatives) after its members had participated in secret discussions in the Committee of Imperial Defence. But the Imperial Conference had no provision for secret sessions and excluded India, which was not a self‐governing Dominion. To get around this difficulty Lloyd George wanted a “special war conference of the empire” composed of representatives of the Dominions as well as India to meet jointly with his new war cabinet, a small inner‐governmental body that effectively supplanted the cabinet and exercised oversight of the war effort.
improvised explosive devices
Authors: Estes Kenneth W.
Published: November 2011

The use of explosives or items of explosive ordnance such as rockets, bombs, and shells in unconventional ways in order to inflict harm or cause damage probably dates from the very invention of gunpowder and its associated devices. Petards were used ingeniously to batter down protective walls, and the unwary engineer mishandling such an artifice was said to be “hoist on his own petard,” something contemporary bomb‐makers have experienced in their own right.
Indo‐Pakistani Wars (1947–1948, 1965, 1971)
Authors: Barua Pradeep.P
Published: November 2011

India and Pakistan became independent nations in 1947. Almost at their very inception the two nations went to war over the disputed territory of Kashmir. The Kashmir conflict would lead to war again in 1965, and in 1971 the creation of the new nation of Bangladesh was cause for yet another war. These three wars have been a defining factor in relations between the two countries and the region in general.