bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

What induced Alexander to embark upon a war of conquest against Persia? How did the peoples he attacked resist him, and why? The undertaking was bequeathed to him by his father, Philip II, whose expedition to the East was cut short by his assassination. The ostensible motives, which were presented in the form of slogans concerning vengeance and Panhellenism, were those that had been promoted in the Greek world since the years that followed the invasion of Greece by Xerxes in 480/79. The target of Alexander’s counter-invasion was the Achaemenid Empire, but the apparent soft underbelly was formed by the states thought to be held in servitude by the Persian king. Indeed, the king’s subjects were generally referred to as douloi, “slaves” of their vainglorious master. But their attitudes toward “liberation” varied according to experience, and although some welcomed the Conqueror, the notion that they welcomed a new master was mistaken.
In the Face of Panhellenic War
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

The years that preceded the invasion of Asia Minor were marked by assassination and palace uprisings. Philip’s murder in 336 proved less detrimental—indeed, it brought to the throne of Macedon a man more determined to impose Greco-Macedonian rule on the East than his father was. Persia, too, had experienced the assassinations of kings and appeared weakened by the upheavals at court. Nevertheless, the basic structure of the Achaemenid Empire was sound, and the actions of some states—Ephesos, and cities on Lesbos—or local dynasts (notably Pixodarus of Caria) proved premature and were met with counter-revolution. The stage had been set for Alexander’s invasion, but there were clear signs that the Greeks of Asia Minor, and some of its barbarian rulers, were in no hurry to espouse the cause of the invader.
From the Aegean to Cappadocia
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

The Persian defeat at the Granicus opened the way for the Macedonian conquest of Asia Minor. Darius III assigned the defense of the coast to Memnon of Rhodes, whose brother Mentor had been an efficient and faithful servant of Artaxerxes III. Hellespontine Phrygia (Dascyleum), whose unsuccessful satrap had committed suicide, was the first Achaemenid satrapy annexed by the Conqueror. On the coast, would-be defectors were hesitant, weighing the chances of the Macedonians against the forces of Memnon. But Miletus fell, and Halicarnassus succumbed to a lengthy siege, despite the fact that Alexander had disbanded his fleet; Ada of Halicarnassus was reinstated as ruler of Caria, and Alexander led a portion of the army into Lycia and Pamphylia. After a victorious campaign there, he reunited with the forces under Parmenion, who had been in winter quarters. In late spring news arrived of Memnon’s death, and the Macedonian annexed Phrygia before moving to Cappadocia and Cilicia. There the Conqueror expected to encounter Darius for what he hoped would be the decisive battle of the campaign.
Persian Countermeasures
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

The Macedonian invasion force was not a large one, 50,000 men at the most. And the conquest of Asia Minor was at best superficial, with the largest and most influential cities as the main targets. It would be left for the newly appointed governors—such as Calas, Antigonus, and Asander—to secure those regions that had been bypassed or had made an insufficient show of submission. Furthermore, the fleet had been disbanded after the capture of Miletus, only to be reconstituted some months later, but by then rebels on the Greek mainland (notably the Spartans) had made contact with Memnon of Rhodes and Pharnabazus, who hoped to regain control of the Aegean. Even after the defeat at Issus, there were troops who escaped to Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. Their efforts were, however, disorganized and their numbers insufficient. Cut off from their king, who was retreating eastward, the survivors of Issus were defeated in Lydia. The naval strength in the Aegean simply melted away. In the end, the Spartan rebels could not stand up to Alexander’s regent in Greece.
The Great King and His Armies
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

Darius III, after the defeat of his forces at the Granicus and the death of Memnon of Rhodes in the following year, prepared a massive army, drawing on the forces from the heart of the empire. The number of troops was disputed, as was the soundness of the Great King’s strategy: should he fight on the open plains of northern Mesopotamia or in the restricted terrain of Cilicia? Greco-Macedonian advisers urged caution, but one of them, Charidemus, allegedly paid with his life for criticizing the king’s strategy and the quality of his troops. Darius III was also derided by the historians (both the contemporary sources and those who based their accounts on them) as inept and cowardly. Inept he may have been, but the charge of cowardice was surely unfounded and based on a misunderstanding of the Persian situation. The stage was set for the Battle of Issus.
The Campaign in Cilicia
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

In the middle of 333, the Macedonian army invaded Cilicia, finding the difficult terrain of the Cilician Gates undefended. At Tarsus, the satrapal capital, Alexander became ill after bathing in the Cydnus River. Probably he suffered a bout of malaria. Darius, who had encamped in northern Mesopotamia, at Sochi, believed that the Macedonian king’s inaction betrayed caution, if not outright cowardice. He enter the satrapy via the Amanic Gates, to the north of Alexander’s position, and surprised the Macedonian army as it moved along the coast of the Gulf of Issus in the direction of the Beilan Pass, near Myriandrus. Alexander had to turn back to meet his enemy at a narrow place between the sea and the mountains, not far from the city of Issus. The site of the battlefield has been debated by scholars for more than a century, but it is generally believed to have been on the banks of the Payas River. Darius’ army was defeated when Alexander overcame the Persian center, where some of the best Persian troops (the Kardakes) and the Greek mercenaries were positioned. Darius found it necessary to flee in order to avoid capture. The collapse of the Persian forces all but sealed the fate of Asia Minor and allowed Alexander to threaten the Levantine coast and Egypt. Persian casualty figures are spectacular but cannot be verified.
Return to the West
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

The return from India was a mixture of disaster (in the Gedrosian desert) and refreshment, as the army made a leisurely march through Carmania. But news of misdeeds on the part of administrators, both Persian and Macedonian, detracted from the overall success of history’s most glorious expedition. Persian nobles, especially those who claimed descent from the Seven, considered themselves more worthy of power than their conqueror, especially during his absence. Greek and Macedonian administrators used the resources of their satrapies for their own debaucheries and luxurious lifestyles. Others, such as the mercenaries in the Upper Satrapies, were deluded by false reports of Alexander’s death in India into thinking they could abandon their obligations with impunity. The king called them to account. Malefactors were purged, but this was not a “reign of terror,” as some have wrongly labeled it. It was condign punishment meted out to traitors and outright criminals. Once affairs had stabilized, Alexander instituted further changes and greater racial integration. There was a predictable reaction: the troops mutinied at Opis, although they were easily overcome. Persian brides for Macedonian nobles were greeted with indifference at best and in some cases with hostility. Later, in October 324, the king’s best friend, Hephaestion, died of illness at Ecbatana. Some eight or nine months later, Alexander himself died. His accomplishments were soon undone by his own officers.
Epilogue
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: March 2020

Alexander’s conquests were both aided and hampered by internal divisions in both West and East. The rivalry of the Greek city-states, Athens, Thebes, and Sparta, limited their willingness and ability to cooperate with one another and made them easy prey for the Macedonian conqueror. And here the principle of divide and conquer came into play. In the East the checkerboard of allies and enemies worked equally well, but the fact that beyond the Indus there were very few who had had a strong allegiance to the Achaemenids, and thus equally few to transfer this allegiance to Alexander. Not surprisingly these areas were the first to test the new master, now ensconced in his new capital virtually equidistant from the fringes. In the Achaemenid heartland, the Iranian nobility, whom Alexander had indulged in the hope of creating stability, reverted to their old ways—testing the power of the central authority for their own advantage. Persia had given them a long leash, but Alexander and his Successors were less forgiving. Nevertheless, the fragmentation of the empire under the new regime resulted as much from the aspirations of those who sought to replace Alexander as from agitations for “freedom” on the part of the conquered. They had, in fact, simply changed masters, and the rest—if Alexander had not died prematurely—would have been “business as usual.”
Songs for "Great Leaders"
Authors: Howard Keith
Published: March 2020

North Korea is often said to be unknown: a reclusive and secretive state. It behaves as if the whole country is a theater that projects itself through performance. Song, together with other music and dance production, forms the soundtrack to the theater of daily life, embedding messages that tell the official history, the exploits of leaders, and the socialist utopia yet-to-come. Songs form the foundation stones of revolutionary operas, of instrumental and orchestral tone poems, and are rearranged in countless versions for use by children in kindergartens, for 50,000 young people who dance annually in celebration of the Eternal President’s birthday, and for the up to 100,000 participants of mass performance spectacles such as the Arirang Festival. North Koreans are reminded daily on state-controlled television news how their songs are beamed around the world by satellite, and songs are today routinely uploaded to YouTube and Youku. This is the first book-length account of North Korean music and dance in any language other than Korean. It is based on fieldwork, interviews, and resources researched in private and public archives and libraries in North Korea, but also in South Korea, China, North America, and Europe. It explores revolutionary songs written in the 1940s and pop songs from the 2010s, exploring in a critical but informed way not just songs, but also developments of Korean musical instruments, the creation of revolutionary operas that embed the state’s ideology of juche (self-reliance), mass performance spectacles, dance and dance notation, and composers and compositions.
Contentious Minds
Authors: Passy Florence , Monsch Gian-Andrea
Published: March 2020

Why does the mind matter for joint action? Contentious Minds is a comparative study of how cognitive and relational processes allow activists to sustain their commitment. With survey data and narratives of activists engaged in three commitment communities, the minds of activists involved in contentious politics are compared with those devoted to institutional and volunteering action. The book’s main argument is that activists of one commitment community have synchronized minds concerning the aim and means of their activism as they perceive common good (aim) and politics (means) through similar cognitive lenses. The book shows the importance of direct conversational contact with individuals in bringing about this synchronization. Assessing the synchronization within communities as well as the variation between them constitutes a major purpose of this book. It shows that activists construct and enact community-specific democratic cultures, thereby entering the public sphere through collective action. The book makes three major contributions. First, it emphasizes the necessity to return the study of the mind to research on activism, Second, it calls for an integrated relational perspective that rests on the structural, instrumental, and interpretative dimensions of social networks. Finally, it advocates a substantial integration of culture in the study of social movements by effectively valuing the role of culture in shaping a person’s mind.
Introduction
Authors: Farmer Sarah
Published: March 2020

In post World War II France, the postwar drive to modernize and explosive economic growth caused the collapse of the peasantry as a social class. Peasants left the countryside en masse, villages emptied out, and fields that had been cultivated for centuries were left fallow. And yet, this book argues, rural France did not vanish in the sweeping transformations of the 1950s and 1960s. Paradoxically, postwar modernization made the French yearn for imaginative and tangible connections to the life that peasants had once lived. This, in turn, became an engine of change in its own right. Rural Inventions explores this paradox. Nostalgia for the rural is a thread that runs through the chapters of this study. Yet Rural Inventions also shows that in the postagrarian society initiated by the postwar economic boom, the rural could become a harbinger of future possibilities. Participants in France’s peasant moment of the 1960s to early 1980s reinscribed dwelling in the countryside as an essential component of contemporary modern life.
The Return of Great Power Rivalry
Authors: Kroenig Matthew
Published: March 2020

The United States of America has been the most powerful country in the world for the past seventy years, but will Washington’s reign as the world’s leading superpower continue? The U.S. National Security Strategy declares that the return of great power competition with Russia and China is the greatest threat to U.S. national security and economic well-being. Perhaps surprisingly, international relations scholarship does not have much to say about who wins great power rivalries, and many contemporary analysts argue that America’s autocratic rivals will succeed in disrupting or displacing U.S. global leadership. In sharp contrast, this book makes the novel argument that democracies enjoy built-in advantages in international geopolitics. Drawing on the writings of political philosophers—such as Herodotus, Machiavelli, and Montesquieu—and cutting-edge social science research, this book explains the unique economic, diplomatic, and military advantages that democracies bring to the international arena. It then carefully considers the advantages and disadvantages possessed by autocratic great powers. These ideas are then examined in a series of seven case studies of democratic-versus-autocratic rivalries throughout history, from ancient Greece to the Cold War. The book then unpacks the implications of this analysis for the United States, Russia, and China today. It concludes that, despite its many problems, America’s fundamentals are still much better than Russia’s and China’s. By making the “hard-power” argument for democracy, this book provides an innovative way of thinking about power in international politics and provides an optimistic assessment about the future of American global leadership.
Athens, Sparta, and Persia
Authors: Kroenig Matthew
Published: March 2020

This chapter considers the rise of Athens in the ancient world and its competitions against its rivals, Persia and Sparta. It argues that its democratic institutions were a key to its success. Athens was the world’s first democracy, and it rose to become the leader of the Greeks, with an empire that stretched from North Africa to Crimea. It was a major trading and naval power and forged a formidable alliance of Greek city-states to defeat the mighty Persian Empire. It then fought a legendary series of wars against its oligarchic rival for ascendancy in Greece, Sparta. In the end, Athens’s form of direct democracy and decision-making through tyranny of the majority was its undoing. But not before Athens reigned as a liberal leviathan for nearly a century and showcased an enduring model for how other open states could acquire international power and influence.
Experience and Cartesian Agency
Authors: Waldow Anik
Published: March 2020

Chapter 1 investigates Descartes’s account of the union of body and mind and the confusion that he takes to characterize our understanding of what we are when reflecting on the roles body and mind perform in our lives as human beings. To clarify this confusion, this chapter argues, a specific form of experience is needed, one that enables us to self-determine our thinking and acting. This experience is delivered by the Meditations, as this work’s confronting nature stirs us into action and thereby enables us to explore in a performative exercise what it means to guide one’s thinking by willful determination. Through this new experience, we can better comprehend what the mind is and what it enables us to do, thereby learning to put into practice the conduct of virtuous agents.
Natural History and the Formation of the Human Being
Authors: Waldow Anik
Published: March 2020

Chapter 6 compares Herder’s and Kant’s accounts of history and how it serves to present humans as part of nature. For Herder, it holds that humans have history because they have reason, while he conceives of reason as a capacity that emerges out of nature itself; human history thereby turns into a subchapter of a general history of nature. For Kant, reason stands outside of nature. Since this is so, Kant also holds that empirical investigations, which build on what we can experience in the realm of nature, necessarily fail to explicate what is crucial about human existence: namely that humans are governed by the capacity to be rational and free. More generally, this comparison reveals that changing conceptions of what human reason is, and where it comes from, motivated a change in the methods deemed suitable for the study of human existence.
Ethical Autonomy
Authors: Swaine Lucas
Published: March 2020

This book examines the importance of personal autonomy for democratic citizenship and for good lives. It charts the evolution of autonomy and analyzes the proliferation of autonomy in free societies. The book pinpoints serious deficiencies in received ideals of autonomy for individual persons. It delivers an extended critique of personal autonomy, noting the excessive openness and lack of moral structure that personal autonomy provides. It elaborates an argument in favor of ethical autonomy, an alternative kind of autonomy that integrates individual self-rule with moral character. Ethical autonomy includes important restraints on an autonomous individual’s imagination, deliberation, and will. It supports central liberal commitments, it fits with reasonable pluralism, it enhances active and astute forms of democratic citizenship, and it is grounded in fundamental principles of liberty of conscience. This novel understanding enriches the values of freedom, toleration, respect, individual rights, limited government, and the rightful rule of law.
Introduction
Authors: Anderson Abraham
Published: March 2020

The introduction investigates the literature on Kant’s awakening by Hume. It begins by considering the view, which goes back to Vaihinger and Kemp Smith, that Hume woke Kant by challenging the causal principle defended in the Second Analogy, the principle that every event has a cause. It then takes up the attempts of Kuehn and then of Gawlick and Kreimendahl, in the 1980s, to reconcile Kant’s declaration of his debt to Hume with a later assertion that it was the Antinomy that woke him. Finally, it addresses the rich literature on the topic that has developed in the present century, and in particular the views of Hatfield, Watkins, Forster, and De Pierris and Friedman.
Hume’s Attack on the Rationalist Principle of Sufficient Reason in the Enquiry
Authors: Anderson Abraham
Published: March 2020

Chapter 3 investigates more precisely where in the Enquiry Kant finds Hume showing that we cannot know causal connections via pure concepts, and thus that we cannot know the principle of sufficient reason. Hume’s rejection of the principle of sufficient reason comes to a head at 4.13, and Hume returns to it at 12.29 note (d). 12.29 note (d) is directed not, as Hume pretends, against Lucretius’s principle Ex nihilo, nihil fit, but against the causal principle that Descartes, Locke, and Clarke had used to prove the existence of God. This is confirmed by reading 12.29 note (d) against the background of Bayle’s “Spinoza.” Descartes’s Ex nihilo, nihil fit is equivalent, for our purposes, to the principle of sufficient reason found in Wolff, Baumgarten, and the early Kant. The chapter addresses Michael Della Rocca’s argument that Hume failed in his attack on the principle of sufficient reason.
Hume’s Attack on the “Impious Maxim” as the Hidden Spine of the Critique
Authors: Anderson Abraham
Published: March 2020

Chapter 5 tests the proposal that it was Hume’s attack on the principle of sufficient reason that first interrupted Kant’s dogmatic slumber and set Kant on the path to the Critique by looking, in the Critique, for echoes of Enquiry 12.29 note (d). It finds such echoes in the Transcendental Ideal, the Postulates of Empirical Thought, the Analogies of Experience, and the Antinomy of Pure Reason. It seeks to explain how Enquiry 12.29 note (d) might have helped suggest the solution to the Antinomy, transcendental idealism. It discusses Boehm’s view that the Antinomy is a reply to Spinoza. Kant is indeed responding to Spinoza, but also to Clarke; his response to both is inspired by Hume.
The Nature of Love
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

Researchers have found that people in love enjoy many advantages: love is known to improve psychological, emotional, and physical health. When things go badly, however, lovers may suffer the pangs of rejection, jealousy, sadness, and anger. People can learn from both the joy of fulfilling relationships and the pain they suffer from the affairs that go wrong. This chapter discusses the joys of love and the troubles of love, as reflected in studies of the neuroscience of love and loss and of unrequited love. It also reports on the physiological and psychological effects of jealousy and vengeance.
The Kentucky, Ohio, and Allegheny (1851–60)
Authors: Haw Richard
Published: March 2020

After his success at Niagara, John tried to secure further railroad suspension bridge contracts, yet his only success proved to be an absolute albatross. In 1853, he received a contract to build a railroad suspension bridge over the Kentucky River, but he got no further than building the bridge’s towers. The project lingered on for many years, with hope but no money. A similar situation prevailed in Cincinnati. The necessary funding and legislation were secured by 1856, and John was summoned. The project was shut down two years later after the panic of 1857 left the bridge company’s coffers empty. John finally abandoned his two unfinished towers in 1861, there to stand as lonely witnesses to the presence of a coming war. Better news and better financing came to John out of Pittsburgh, where the St. Clair Street Bridge needed replacing. John was offered the contract, and he completed the bridge on time and under budget in 1860.
Musical Identity
Authors: Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: March 2020

Chapter 2 proposes a theory of adolescent musical identity based on the experiences of 30 American adolescents, ages 12-18. Musical identity is organized in four developmental periods: (1) active construction, (2) emerging, (3) developing, and (4) focusing. Each developmental period is described in detail with subcategories. Important others who contribute to musical identity include parents and family members, peers, music educators, private lesson instructors, and community music facilitators. The chapter highlights the central experience of musical identity development as feeling musical, a pivotal moment where adolescents described making music for themselves. At the end of the chapter, a visual figure situates musical identity as a dynamic process traveling from externalized to internalized identity construction.
Experiencing Community
Authors: Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: March 2020

Chapter 6 explores how scholars define the word community within community psychology and cultural and cognitive anthropology. The chapter begins with how individuals see themselves in groups using David McMillan and David Chavis’s psychological sense of community. Next, the reader is introduced to Edith and Victor Turner’s communitas to speak to how communities work for individuals. Etienne Wenger and Jean Lave’s communities of practice is then discussed to aid educators’ understanding of how communities are built. The chapter encourages readers to consider the action cycle of Jeff Duncan-Andrade and Ernest Morrell’s critical counter-cultural communities of practice. At the end of the chapter, challenges to building and sustaining community are proposed, with questions for reflection.
Greenovation
Authors: Fitzgerald Joan
Published: March 2020

Collectively, cities take up a relatively tiny amount of land on the earth, yet emit 72 percent of greenhouse gas emissions. Clearly, cities need to be at the center of any broad effort to reduce climate change. This book argues that too many cities are only implementing random acts of greenness that will do little to address the climate crisis. It instead calls for “greenovation”—using the city as a test bed for adopting and perfecting green technologies for more energy-efficient buildings, transportation, and infrastructure more broadly. Further, the text contends that while many city mayors cite income inequality as a pressing problem, few cities are connecting climate action and social justice—another aspect of greenovation. Focusing on the biggest producers of greenhouse gases in cities, buildings, energy, and transportation, the book examines how greenovating cities are reducing emissions overall and lays out an agenda for fostering and implementing urban innovations that can help reverse the path toward irrevocable climate damage. Drawing on interviews with practitioners in more than 20 North American and European cities, the book identifies the strategies and policies they are employing and how support from state, provincial, and national governments has supported or thwarted their efforts.
Energy Efficiency
Authors: Fitzgerald Joan
Published: March 2020

This chapter presents a continuum of building-level actions cities are taking in light of the political and economic constraints they face. It begins by explaining the continuum of building-efficiency standards cities are using as well as a continuum of action that runs from individual buildings to all buildings in a defined district. It examines two categories of standards: those for constructing new buildings and those for retrofitting existing buildings. The chapter also considers the question of who gets to occupy green buildings—with the reduced energy costs they make possible—highlighting how some cities are building green low-income housing using methods that are then taken statewide. Finally, it examines how cities, in collaboration with the private and nonprofit sectors, are serving as test beds for technical, financing, and equity greenovations that can be scaled for policy in larger political geographies and for private market participation.
Beyond the Building
Authors: Fitzgerald Joan
Published: March 2020

This chapter explains the technology behind district heating and cooling, which has the potential to be used throughout the world, and examines how it can be more widely deployed in North America. It explores the different approaches to district energy employed in Copenhagen, London, and Vancouver. It then examines the ice-cooled system in Austin, Texas, and Toronto’s deep-lake cooling. The cases illustrate different regulatory barriers, funding and ownership models (municipal vs. private utilities), and technologies. It is shown that district energy, at its best, is integrated with land use, transportation, community development, and energy planning. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the policy needed at the regional, national, and local levels for broader implementation of both technologies.
Cities and a Green New Deal
Authors: Fitzgerald Joan
Published: March 2020

The green economy is booming and many cities are connecting climate action with economic development. Although cities making this link are not necessarily topping the most sustainable city charts, the strong economic link can pave the way for more aggressive climate action. This chapter begins by examining how solar and wind technology production has shifted internationally, and how China has become the dominant player in solar and a leader in wind. It then moves to three historically industrial cities that are seeking to transition to different green economy sectors: New York State is paying $750 million of the $900 million cost to build the nation’s biggest new solar production facility in Buffalo; Cleveland has continued its efforts to develop offshore wind on Lake Erie; and Los Angeles is linking electrification of its buses and development of subways to manufacturing.
The Elements of Greenovation
Authors: Fitzgerald Joan
Published: March 2020

This chapter focuses on the “success factors” that define greenovation. Underpinning all of them is a power struggle that will ultimately determine whether the battle to save the planet is winnable. Will the fossil-fuel companies determine whether we move to renewable energy, or will an energy democracy movement embedded in cities win? Will for-profit utilities determine whether we have district heating and distributed energy, or will the remunicipalization movement expand? Will China become the world’s leader in producing most of the green technology? Some of the answers will be determined by which side mobilizes public opinion. Some will be determined purely by economics. The chapter discusses these questions in the context of the success factors of greenovating cities.
From the Bigot in Our Midst to Good People with Hidden Biases
Authors: McClain Linda C.
Published: March 2020

This chapter examines two significant stages in the scientific study of prejudice and intergroup relations as a resource for understanding bigotry. It illustrates the first, the post–World War II period, with Gordon W. Allport’s foundational The Nature of Prejudice (1954). The chapter explores the tension in Allport’s work between viewing the bigot as a distinct personality type and viewing prejudice and stereotypes as the outgrowth of ordinary cognitive processes. It analyzes other relevant features of Allport: the social contact hypothesis; the argument that “stateways” (antidiscrimination law) could change “folkways” by enlisting conscience to fight prejudice; and religion’s role in fostering but also condemning bigotry. The chapter explains how social scientists measured prejudice through people’s attitudes toward intermarriage. The second stage the chapter evaluates is study of implicit (or hidden) bias and unconscious cognition (“the bigot in your brain”). Such study maintains that people can recognize and fight those biases.
You Are Waging a Fight of Morality and Conscience
Authors: McClain Linda C.
Published: March 2020

This chapter examines religious arguments criticizing and supporting Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled “separate but equal” unconstitutional in public education. The chapter contrasts competing theologies of segregation and integration. It shows that segregationists rebutted charges of bigotry by appealing to morality, conscience, and scripture to condemn race mixing and intermarriage. Integrationists enlisted conscience to argue that segregationists distorted scripture and morality. Both sides, the chapter shows, also appealed to science, reason, and American political ideals. The chapter highlights the role of these competing theologies in controversies over Brown by revisiting a case study of the competing responses of the clergy to the 1957 school desegregation crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas. It then examines how Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and other pro–civil rights clergy spoke of redeeming the segregator and rescuing the bigot. Civil rights clergy also worried about the church being on the wrong side of the desegregation issue.
The Three-Process Model of Implicit and Explicit Emotion
Authors: Smith Ryan
Published: March 2020

The integrated memory model (IMM) proposed that the change process in psychotherapy involves the joint activation and reconsolidation of episodic memory, semantic memory, and emotional responses. The IMM did not thoroughly elaborate on what was meant by “emotional responses,” but a key concept was the distinction between implicit and explicit emotion. This chapter reviews the three-process model (TPM) of implicit and explicit emotion and its implications for extending the IMM. The TPM provides a detailed characterization (at cognitive, computational, and neural levels of description) of the processes associated with an emotional response. These processes include (a) situation appraisal and the subsequent generation of an affective (bodily, cognitive, and automatic skeletomotor) response, (b) the subsequent internal representation of that response (in terms of bodily sensations and emotion concepts), and (c) the role of salience, attention, and goal relevance in moderating whether or not one becomes aware of their emotions. After introducing the TPM, the author illustrates its utility in clarifying the nature of emotional responses in the IMM. The chapter also illustrates how the TPM can provide insight regarding the specific processes targeted by therapeutic interventions and how they could promote more adaptive emotional functioning.
Stress and Sleep Interact to Selectively Consolidate and Transform Negative Emotional Memories
Authors: Payne Jessica D.
Published: March 2020

Memory consolidation processes can be highly selective. For example, negative emotional aspects of events tend to be consolidated more readily than other, more neutral, aspects. This chapter discusses evidence that the sleeping brain provides an ideal environment for memory consolidation, and that active, as opposed to passive, sleep-based consolidation processes are particularly important in explaining why emotional memories are retained so well. I also review evidence that elevated levels of stress hormones (cortisol, norepinephrine), particularly during the time of the initial experience, support downstream emotional memory consolidation. The chapter then proposes a working model that describes why arousal and stress at encoding may set the stage for sleep to etch emotional memories in the brain on a long-lasting basis and presents recent data to support this model. However, in addition to promoting the consolidation and stabilization of emotional memories, evidence suggests that sleep and stress also transform memories—in both adaptive and maladaptive ways. Memory for negative emotional experiences, while adaptive in general, can also contribute to the etiology and perpetuation of clinical conditions such as depression and anxiety. Thus, I argues that it is possible to have “too much of a good thing” and suggests ways that the transformative nature of stress and sleep might be used to restructure maladaptive memories in the clinic.
Neuroscience of Enduring Change and Psychotherapy
Authors: Lane Richard D. , Smith Ryan , Nadel Lynn
Published: March 2020

The model of enduring change in psychotherapy featuring memory reconsolidation and emotional arousal was based on recent neuroscientific advances that were presented originally from a predominantly psychological perspective. This chapter translates the components and processes of the model into evidence-based neural systems terms. This neural circuitry model highlights what is known and not known and where new research is most urgently needed. The authors then consider the research agenda, emphasizing what they consider to be the most important knowledge gaps. The basic science research agenda focuses on a variety of topics pertaining to memory and memory reconsolidation as well as interactions between emotion and memory. The clinical science research agenda focuses on the most pressing issues pertaining to the processes and mechanisms contributing to enduring change in psychotherapy. The potential exists to develop a new taxonomy of clinical interventions based on what problems are being targeted, how intractable they are, and how long-lasting the intervention needs to be.
Hiding Your “Scuzzy Bits”
Authors: Kant Tanya
Published: March 2020

This is the first of three chapters to scrutinize the horizon of possibilities that algorithmic personalization creates for users at the level of everyday life. The site of investigation that takes the focus of this chapter is Ghostery: a browser extension and privacy tool that allows web users to see and block the commercial data trackers that harvest, manage, and monetize the personal data that web users produce as they surf the web. Taking Ghostery’s rhetorical sum of “knowledge + control = privacy” as a conceptual starting point, this chapter draws on interviews with a selection of Ghostery users to explore their struggles for personal privacy in the context of algorithmic personalization. The author finds that Ghostery users’ negotiations with algorithmic personalization have implications in relation to autonomy, epistemic anxiety, and the protection—as well as potential “erosion”—of selfhood against data tracking.
Autoposting the Self into Existence
Authors: Kant Tanya
Published: March 2020

This chapter shifts focus from personalizing processes that threaten an inner self to algorithmic personalization practices that have the power to (re)write the self. To do so, the chapter examines the “autoposting” activities of Facebook’s third-party apps: commercial applications such as Spotify that can automatically post Facebook status updates on the user’s behalf to that user’s Facebook News Feed. These apps are discursively framed by Facebook as tools that aid user self-expression—and yet the author’s findings reveal that autoposting apps can be better considered as actors capable of (re)writing users’ identity performance on Facebook—and beyond. Drawing on the accounts of Facebook users, the chapter argues that this form of personalization can bring the self into existence in ways that require fresh interrogations of cultural capital, data commodification, and online context collapse.
Apprenticeships and Career Pathways
Authors: Noworol Czesław
Published: March 2020

Although there is vast diversity in apprenticeship concepts and practices in Europe, the United States, and other regions of the world, all apprenticeships are designed to support both the professional growth of workforce participants and business growth. Apprenticeships offer an efficient path to gaining valuable credentials and qualifications and thus are an important component of many career pathways. This chapter focuses on apprenticeships as a promising form of acquiring skills and credentials needed to fill the qualification gap of both white-collar and blue-collar workers. It provides a brief history of apprenticeship concepts, and it covers topics such as alignment of career pathways with apprenticeship concepts and trends. It illustrates the main ideas with examples of apprenticeship concepts and systems in several European countries and in the United States. It concludes with some considerations concerning future directions for research and practice.
Giving Manufacturing Career Pathways a LIFT
Authors: Sullivan Myriam , Kobes Deborah
Published: March 2020

Rapid technological changes, an increasingly global economy, and employment’s changing nature require a workforce that is not only trained prior to embarking upon a career but also remains current through lifelong learning. Advanced manufacturing is one of many industries in the United States in which employers face challenges finding sufficient workers with necessary skills. This chapter presents a case study that explores the way the Industrial Manufacturing Technician (IMT) apprenticeship supports workers’ and companies’ needs, focusing on three factors: (1) harnessing the apprenticeship’s potential, (2) implementing it, and (3) future options. Six months after the Labor Institute for Training helped the Benteler Automotive Corporation launch its IMT program, employee turnover declined from 33% to 11%. In addition, the IMT includes inclusive strategies while creating access to wages averaging $24 per hour. The case study shows that developing accessible and equitable apprenticeships for culturally diverse and underserved populations offers a solution to employers and unemployed individuals.
Introduction
Authors: Drutman Lee
Published: March 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the current two-party system in America. While America has always had a two-party system in name, for most of their history, the two parties have been capacious, incoherent, and overlapping. This overlap lent a certain stability to American national politics, and it worked with, rather than against, their compromise-oriented political institutions. This modern era is qualitatively different: Two distinct, national party coalitions organized around two distinct visions of American national identity, each claiming to represent a true majority. A fully divided two-party system without any overlap is probably unworkable in any democracy, given what it does to people’s minds. Without a high degree of national consensus, it leads people to see their fellow citizens not as political opponents to politely disagree with, but as enemies to disregard and destroy. Moreover, a fully divided two-party system is completely unworkable when the division is over the character of national identity, as it is today. This raises the stakes impossibly high and makes compromise impossible. It poses an existential threat to the future of American democracy. This book then assesses how America can become a multiparty democracy and break the destructive binary.
The Paradox of Partisanship
Authors: Drutman Lee
Published: March 2020

This chapter examines the paradox of partisanship. In 1950, the American Political Science Association put out a major report arguing for a “more responsible two-party system.” The two parties—the Democratic Party and the Republican Party—were then largely indistinguishable coalitions of parochial local parties, and the political scientists argued that too little, rather than too much polarization, was the problem. This sets up a paradox: Some party division is necessary, but too much can be deadly. Various traditions in American political thought have tried to resolve this paradox. Antipartisans have urged consensus above all. Responsible partisans have urged competition above all. Meanwhile, bipartisans have urged compromise above all. Consensus is impossible. However, both compromise and competition are essential to democracy. Only the neglected multiparty tradition can solve the paradox with the right balance of competition and compromise.
The Future of American Democracy
Authors: Drutman Lee
Published: March 2020

This concluding chapter presents a vision of a future multiparty America and makes a final plea for reform. If Americans do not change their electoral system, they are in big trouble. Democracies die when the country splits apart into two sides who distrust and fear each other so much that one side blows up norms of fair play to keep the other party out of power. Once that happens, it is tricky to restore a stable equilibrium. Unfortunately, this is where America’s doom loop of toxic two-party politics is headed. Electoral reform is the solution. Modest proportional representation with ranked-choice voting will scramble the winner-take-all incentives. Moreover, a new electoral system can create space for entrepreneurial politicians to find new, creative solutions to hard public problems and can re-orient partisan identities so America can have the healthy kind of identity politics again where identities cross-cut each other, instead of cumulate. In addition, multiparty democracy is a proven solution. It has produced stable and productive governance in many countries-including the United States. When American democracy operated more like a multiparty system, American democracy was more stable.
How Hegemonic Orders Unravel
Authors: Cooley Alexander , Nexon Daniel
Published: March 2020

This chapter identifies three drivers of hegemonic unraveling and transformation in international orders: great-power contestation and alternative order building; how the dominant power’s loss of its “patronage monopoly” enhances the bargaining leverage of weaker states; and the rise of counter-order movements, especially transnational ones, that weaken support for existing international arrangements—sometimes within the leading power itself. Because analysts tend to focus their attention on the relationship between power transitions and great-power wars, they have only recently begun to appreciate the significance of these three processes. This chapter shows that these challenges—from above, below, and within—played a key role in past power transitions and transformations in international order, including the decline of Spanish hegemony, challenges to British hegemony before World War I, the rise of fascism and Bolshevism during the interwar period, decolonization, and the collapse of the Soviet system.
When the World Laughs
Authors: Costanzo William V.
Published: March 2020

This is a book about the intersection of humor, history, and culture. It explores how film comedy, one of the world’s most popular movie genres, reflects the values and beliefs of those who enjoy its many forms, its most enduring characters and stories, its most entertaining routines and funniest jokes. What people laugh at in Europe, Africa, or the Far East reveals important truths about their differences and common bonds. By investigating their traditions of humor, by paying close attention to the kinds of comedy that cross national boundaries and what gets lost in translation, this study leads us to a deeper understanding of each other and ourselves. Section One begins with a survey of the theories and research that best explain how humor works. It clarifies the varieties of comic forms and styles, identifies the world’s most archetypal figures of fun, and traces the history of mirth from earliest times to today. It also examines the techniques and aesthetics of film comedy: how movies use the world’s rich repertoire of amusing stories, gags, and wit to make us laugh and think. Section Two offers a close look at national and regional trends. It applies the concepts set forth earlier to specific films across a broad spectrum of sub-genres, historical eras, and cultural contexts, providing an insightful comparative study of the world’s great traditions of film comedy.