bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The political challenge of migration for West European States
Authors: LAYTON‐HENRY ZIG
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The political consequences of post‐war migration to Western Europe of political refugees and migrant workers are examined in terms of their impact on the concept of membership of West European states and the rise of racism in some European countries. It is argued that permanent settlement has taken place and that positive political steps should be taken to suppress racism and to recognise that political refugees and migrant workers are members of their countries of residence. West European countries should thus facilitate political integration by easing naturalisation procedures, recognising dual nationality and allowing long‐term residents, who do not wish to naturalise, to participate, at least in local decision‐making. The second generation, often born in Western Europe, should have the automatic right, if they so wish, to citizenship in the country of their birth and residence.
Political action of immigrants in the Netherlands: class or ethnicity?
Authors: RATH JAN
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The political action of immigrant ethnic minorities in the Netherlands is examined in an attempt to assess the relevance of the neo‐Marxist theory of the British sociologists Miles and Phizacklea, who identify three processes of political action: the black unity process, the class unity process and the ethnic organisation process. On the basis of available evidence from the Dutch case it is argued that in present circumstances neither black unity nor class unity are very likely, and that immigrants are likely to adopt an ethnic organisation perspective. Such a perspective is not due to racial exclusion within the working class. This conclusion differs from that of Miles and Phizacklea. It is shown that the theory applies to societies in which classes or class fractions can be clearly identified, but less to societies of another type such as the Dutch. Moreover, it is shown that Miles and Phizacklea tend to overemphasise the effects of native white racism on immigrant political action and neglect the dynamics of ethnicity and its mobilising force.
Political participation of Yugoslav immigrants in Sweden1
Authors: DROBNIČ SONJA
Published: May 2006

Abstract. In this article a description of political participation of Yugoslav immigrants in Sweden is presented. First, the migration flow from Yugoslavia to Sweden is described briefly in the context of large‐scale international labour migration in post‐war Europe. Further, an empirical comparative analysis is carried out on the basis of the Swedish Level of Living Survey. The aim is to compare political participation of Yugoslavs and Swedes. As a comparison could be misleading without taking into account different demographic and social characteristics of the two groups, the so called ‘twin method’ has been used which enables a more accurate comparison to be made. Political resources of Yugoslavs are thus compared only with those of the comparable group of Swedes. Different dimensions of political participation are taken into account, such as degree of trade union organization, political activities, public opinion activities, and relations with public authorities.
Welfare expansion revisited: policy routines and their mediation by party, class and crisis, 1957–1982
Authors: HICKS ALEXANDER , SWANK DUANE H. , AMBUHL MARTIN
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Post‐war welfare effort (i.e., welfare spending as a share of national income) in advanced capitalist political democracies is proposed to result from policy routines emphasized in the traditional academic literatures complemented and mediated by class‐linked factors stressed in the ‘new political economy’ literature. Both sets of factors are integrated into a single conception of state policy‐making. In this, self‐interested elite and administrative state personnel respond to their environments by means of relatively discretionary and relatively automatic policy routines, respectively. Left and non‐Left governments mediate these routines and do so differently in different long‐term institutional (strong‐union versus weak‐union) and macroeconomic (expansionary versus crisis) contexts. Welfare expansion is found to be amply explained by the proposed processes, differentiated by context. Left parties and militants are found to matter primarily in contexts marked by ‘Left corporatism’(or strong unions) and/or by relatively ‘expansionary economic climates’. Ironically, Left‐party governments in Left corporatist contexts are found to be particularly sensitive to inflation where transfer spending is concerned. Where unions are strong, policy making is generally less incremental and more flexible. After 1973, policy sensitivity to real economic growth or decline looms large, and working‐class‐linked politics are muted where unions are weak, most especially where they are decentralized.
Explaining public education expenditure in OECD nations
Authors: CASTLES FRANCIS G.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This article seeks to explain cross‐sectional variation in public education expenditure levels and change since 1960. Five possible explanations are located: the incremental push of programme inertia, demographic and related pressures, economic resource growth, the impact of party and the cultural impact of Roman Catholicism. A multivariate analysis demonstrates that educational expenditure is an arena in which monocausal explanations are wholly inappropriate. With the exception of programme inertia, each of the explanations is seen to have an important bearing on this aspect of the people's welfare.
Demographic change, labour force dynamics and employment: new problems and old politics?
Authors: WIDMAIER ULRICH
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The paper examines the problems for social protection and economic growth that arise from the development of a dualistic labour force – divided into a privileged core and a disad‐vantaged periphery – created by the dynamic interaction of labour supply rigidities and rapid technological growth. It concludes that reforms of labour market institutions have to be introduced in order to solve the existing problems.
Organizational interlocks between new social movements and traditional elites: the case of the West German peace movement
Authors: SCHMITT RÜDIGER
Published: May 2006

Abstract.This paper deals with the question of whether the concept of elites is a fruitful category for the analysis of new social movements. It is proposed that mobilizations of new social movements are to be understood as dynamic interaction processes between mass constituencies and movement entrepreneurs, mediated by organizational communication networks. Taking the case of the West German peace movement, it is shown that such leadership roles can be identified as parts of the movement's internal division of labour. Furthermore, it is shbwn that movement entrepreneurs of the peace movement are also linked to established elite sectors.
Elite perceptions of mass preferences in The Netherlands; biases in cognitive responsiveness
Authors: DEKKER PAUL , ESTER PETER
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Several studies have shown dissimilarities between political leaders and voters in terms of political attitudes and policy preferences. Though many explanations have been offered for this phenomenon, the knowledge factor has been overlooked. The basic question of this paper is how knowledgeable politicians are of the political opinions of their voters as well as of the general public. Forty‐six national Dutch politicians were asked to estimate the percentage of the public at large and of their own voters who agree with specific political statements. These estimates were then compared with the actual distribution of opinions. Though using a rather strict criterion it has been found that politicians tend to give inaccurate estimates of the public's support for various political issues. The inaccuracy does not differ between members of the government and members of parliament, but politicians of parties in office appear to perform worse than members of opposition parties. The data do not support the hypothesis about politicians' ability to correctly estimate majority and minority opinions, or to accurately localize their own voters relative to the public at large. Furthermore it is observed that politicians overestimate rather than underestimate differences in opinion between the electorate and their own voters. No difference is found in politicians'estimates of political issues which can or cannot be classified in terms of ‘left’ or ‘right’. In addition, politicians do not judge their voters to be more right‐wing than they actually are. Contrary to our hypothesis, Social‐Democratic politicians are not more likely to show a ‘conservative bias’ in estimating their voters’ preferences compared to politicians from the Christian‐Democratic and Liberal parties. Finally, the relevance of our findings for political sciences as well as some normative consequences are briefly discussed.
Party as linkage: A vestigial function?
Authors: KATZ RICHARD S.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Until recent years, two major trends in European politics ‐ the growth of state services and increased political participation ‐ have complemented the central role of parties. This paper argues that this complementarity may have started to come unstuck, and questions the future viability of the mass party as a result of a shift in the balance of perceived advantages of the mass party by both leaders and members. The paper discusses several potential costs and benefits of party membership for leaders and members. Using membership statistics and survey data the reasonableness of these arguments is explored.
The impact of party polarization and postmaterialism on voter turnout
Authors: CREPAZ MARKUS M. L.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Previous research on voter turnout has concluded that institutional factors such as compulsory voting, registration laws and the degree of disproportionality of the electoral system have a determining impact on the number of people who cast their ballots. This article goes beyond such an institutional explanation. It is hypothesized that a diverse political landscape which offers a great menu of political choices to electors is more likely to have a higher voter turnout than a political system in which the differences between the parties are small. The greater the range of political expression available the more people are stimulated to vote. This study found that countries with a high party polarization have significantly higher turnout rates than countries with a rather narrow political spectrum. In addition, countries in which a ‘postmaterialist party’is present in the national parliament also display significantly higher voter turnout rates than countries which lack such a party. In order to explain the determinants of voter turnout, not only institutional variables but also intrinsically political variables such as the number of parties, the type of parties and party polarization have to be introduced. To solve the puzzle of varying voter turnout rates, ‘politics’has to be brought back in.
From eloquence to credulity ‐ A study of ‘demagogy’in a political message
Authors: VAN DER LINDEN GERT
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This study aims at exploring the notion of demagogy in the process of political communication in order to understand the relational processes between a politician and the public. The central concern was whether demagogy should be considered as a political phenomenon, or as a concept in the psychological definition of the word. Knowing that the political context and the notification of political involvement have changed, demagogy can be integrated in the communication process either as an attribute of an observed politician, or as an attribute of the observer. Furthermore, the question was raised whether demagogy can be linked to other personality scales. Finally, issues such as the knowledge of demagogy and its context, the influence of political labels on judgments and the influence of the discrepancy between sender and observer ‐ with regard to their party membership and attitudes ‐ were considered. Subjects of the study were 144 members of the Flemish Socialist Party. They were shown a video‐recorded political speech about the Belgian Harbour Policy. The experiment was in the form of a 2 × 3 factorial design, controlling for party‐affiliation of the speaker and the demagogic performance of the speech. Results indicate that demagogy was not known by the public at large, but only belonged to the language code of politicians. It was found that the notion demagogy ought to be handled as a psychological characteristic, and a perceptual model in which demagogy could be seen as the convergence of several behaviour‐oriented components was proposed. In regard to the influence of the political parties of the politician on the public, results confirm the classical expectations, i.e. labels affect judgments. The author also presents a psychological process, explaining the results about the discrepancy between the politician and the public.
Types of political participation: A multidimensional analysis
Authors: SABUCEDO JOSE MANUEL , ARCE CONSTANTINO
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Studies of political participation have traditionally differentiated conventional from non‐conventional, legal from illegal, modes of participation. In this paper we to develop a more complex scheme, using the technique of multidimensional scaling (MDS). We look at the perceptions that individuals hold about different forms of political participation that range from voting to armed violence and include other legal or illegal manifestations. The results show the existence of two meaningful underlying dimensions. The first relates to ‘within‐system’versus ‘out‐of‐system’activities; the second relates to ‘progressive’versus ‘conservative’activities. A cluster analysis is then used to develop a typology of political participation.
The social dimension of the Single European Market: National versus transnational regulation
Authors: RHODES MARTIN
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Labour market regulation in the 1980s was subject to transnational pressures for deregulation, especially in the form of ‘flexibilisation’. The ‘Single European Market’ project (SEM) promises further development in this direction. At the same time, proposals for a ‘Social Charter’ are meant to introduce a European level of regulation to counteract the SEM's potential destabilizing consequences. However, regulatory disputes and pressures contrary to convergence are likely to be intensified by the SEM. Still further uncertainty will be created by changes in Eastern Europe, as well as by greater opportunities for cross‐border production shifts. Neoliberal and neocorporatist variants of the ‘competition state’ will be increasingly at odds at both state and Community level, with the future of ‘social Europe’ at stake. To the extent that market integration means a globalisation of the European economy, it may effectively disintegrate its component parts, dividing those which have more solid foundations for growth ‐ the well‐regulated, high pay/high productivity areas ‐ from those which do not. The market logic of the Single European Market programme will manifestly contradict the efforts of the Community to avoid this future.
Dimensions and types of policy networks
Authors: VAN WAARDEN FRANS
Published: May 2006

Abstract.The paper offers a refined and systematic concept of state‐business relations based on the ‘policy network’idea. The major dimensions of policy networks are presented as (1) number and type of actors, (2) function of networks, (3) structure, (4) institutionalization, (5) rules of conduct, (6) power relations, (7) actor strategies. Certain popular conventional policy making arrangements (e. g. sectoral corporation, sponsored pluralism, clientelism) are examined in terms of the network dimensions.
The structure of policy networks
Authors: SCHNEIDER VOLKER
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This paper1 compares the structure of policy networks in two different policy domains. Policy networks are seen as clusters of relatively autonomous but interdependent actors that are incorporated into the process of public policy making. Policy networks have to be seen as specific actor configurations beyond ‘policy markets’and ‘policy hierarchies’.2 Their emergence is seen as a response to an increasing societal dispersion of resources, policy growth and governmental overload. Growing governmental activities in a context of more complex policy problems and a greater dispersion of policy resources within society makes governments increasingly dependent upon the horizontal cooperation of private actors in policy formulation and implementation. Institutional devices facilitating this mode of political resource mobilization range from formal advisory bodies, semi‐institutionalized working groups to highly informal and even ‘secret’forms of cooptation of private actors (organizations and individuals) in the ‘production process’of a policy.
Electoral reform in systems of proportional representation
Authors: SHUGART MATTHEW SOBERG
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Does electoral reform produce the effects that would be expected on the basis of those features of the systems that are modified? By using knowledge from the literature on electoral systems it is possible to predict whether a reform should result in a conversion of votes into seats more proportional than that which preceded the reform or less. In each of ten cases of reform in Western Europe and Israel the reform produced the expected results. However, graphical presentation of data pooled from all ten cases suggests that party systems have the ability to adjust after just a few elections, making the effects of the new system less impressive than when it was first adopted. Graphical analysis also reveals that changes to more proportional rules tend to occur when the number of parties was already rising, while changes to less proportional rules (which would tend to decrease the number of ‘relevant’parties) occur when the number of parties has already been declining.
Empirical analysis of the distribution of a priori voting power
Authors: LEECH DENNIS
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This paper provides an empirical analysis using power indices derived by regarding the Conference and Electoral College as weighted majority games. It is shown that both main power indices, the Shapley‐Shubik and the Banzhaf, may be computed with reasonable accuracy by an approximation method based on probabilistic‐voting assumption. The results show voting power to be more concentrated than voting weight, that of some large trade unions being enhanced at the expense of smaller affiliated organisations and constituency parties (and, in the Electoral College, MPs). The results also provide insights into the comparative properties of the two classical power indices.
Green politics in Switzerland
Authors: FINGER MATTHIAS , HUG SIMON
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This article1 highlights the main shortcomings of the current dominant theories of green politics and green parties. Using Switzerland as a critical case, it explores a different approach as green politics, seen as a result of different attitudes about ways and means to solve environmental problems. The article concludes with some theoretical ideas that would lend themselves to a more comprehensive theory of green politics.
Political efficacy: A comparative study of the United States, West Germany, Great Britain and Australia
Authors: HAYES BERNADETTE C. , BEAN CLIVE S.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Although political efficacy is a key concept in theories of political participation and democratic governance, different studies have conceptualised and operationalised efficacy in different ways. Using comparable survey data from the United States, West Germany, Great Britain and Australia, this study builds upon previous research in an attempt to clarify our understanding of the dimensions of political efficacy and their relationship to socio‐demographic factors. The results suggest that ‘internal efficacy’ and ‘external efficacy’ are distinct attitudinal dimensions which are comparable in all four nations, and that each is related to certain socio‐demographic characteristics.
Social democratic parties and EC integration
Authors: LADRECH ROBERT
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This paper presents evidence of initial steps taken since 1989 towards the enhancement of social democratic transnational party co‐operation, manifesting itself on both a programmatic and an organizational level. To explain this development, a thesis based on the neo‐functionalist logic of political spillover together with a theory of party change is presented. An emerging European‐level presence is explained by increased EC policymaking since the adoption of the Single European Act, interacting with the internal preconditions for organizational innovation present in many social democratic parties. Evidence of such trends is then submitted, focusing on the French Socialist, German Social‐Democratic and British Labour Parties; the European Parliament Socialist Group; and the Socialist transnational party federation.
The rise and decline of corporatism: The case of Sweden
Authors: LEWIN LEIF
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Corporatism is a method to pacify intense minorities by giving them another opportunity to influence politics when they have no chance in parliament. This possibility helps to keep the system together; minorities get an incentive to stick to the system and social integration is promoted. During the 1980s we have, however, witnessed a gradual decline of this neocorporatist model of interest representation. Europe is approaching the American pluralist model instead. Sweden, once the prototype of the Social Democratic Corporatist State, is the best example of this change.
Feminist attitudes in times of depoliticization of women's issues
Authors: TOGEBY LISE
Published: May 2006

Abstract.Based on data from Denmark from the end of the 1970s and 1980s the paper analyzes the development of feminist attitudes during a period characterized, on the one hand, by a high, and still growing, integration of women into the labour market and political life, and on the other, by an organizational decline of the women's movement and a decline in the politicization of women's issues. At the end of the 1970s, feminist attitudes, especially among women, were unidimensionally structured and closely related to other political factors. The most feminist were the young, the well‐educated, the politically interested, and left‐wing women. At the end of the 1980s, feminist attitudes were at the same level as ten years before, but different dimensions had emerged, a social and political dispersion of feminist attitudes had taken place, and feminism no longer influenced political behaviour. In many respects, the experience of the United States in the 1970s was reversed in Denmark in the 1980s.
Party systems and the dynamics of government support: Britain and Germany, 1960–1990
Authors: ANDERSON CHRISTOPHER
Published: May 2006

Abstract.This paper examines the impact that one feature of a country's institutional context ‐the party system ‐ has on public support for governing parties in two West European democracies, Germany and Great Britain. Specifically, it argues that models of government popularity need to take politics and institutions into account, and need to do so in a systematic fashion. Using measures of party system fractionalization and public opinion data spanning the period from 1960 to 1990, the paper demonstrates that the effects of economic conditions on government support are mediated by the choices available to citizens to express discontent with the ruling party. The greater the effective number of parties in a system, the stronger the effects of macro‐economic performance on support for the government.
Soviet ideological discourse and Perestroika
Authors: ROBINSON NEIL
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The role played by Soviet ideology during the perestroika reforms has not been fully analyzed because ideology has not been seen as a structural force influencing Soviet political life. This paper charts the effect that this neglect of ideology has had on some explanations of perestroika and seeks to redress the balance. Various ways of dealing with ideology during perestroika are examined and an alternative approach to Soviet ideology (viewing it as a discourse) is developed. This approach to Soviet ideology shows that it was a vital, but unstable, element of the Communist Party's power. The approach is then applied to the Gorbachev reforms to show how ideology played a crucial part in breaking up the power of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1985 onwards.
Explaining near‐universal turnout: The case of Malta
Authors: HIRCZY WOLFGANG
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Even though voting is not compulsory, Malta has the highest turnout of all democratic nations. This study examines characteristics of the Maltese electorate, the country's governmental institutions and electoral system, and the nature of its politics to identify the most powerful factors (or combination of factors) responsible for the high voter turnout. Among these are: (1) intense and pervasive partisanship; (2) concentration of political power in a single elective institution; (3) highly competitive elections resulting in one‐party governments despite PR.; (4) maximization of the impact of a single ballot because the number of votes a candidate needs to be elected is very low and because the voter's lower‐order preferences count under STV, and (5) unusually intense campaigning by individual candidates because they compete against other candidates of the same party, and by parties because the electorate is polarized, which leaves few uncommitted voters while rendering voter conversion unlikely, thus making mobilization of all existing supporters vital to electoral success.
Economists and electorates: The subjective economy of governing party support in Canada
Authors: CLARKE HAROLD D. , STEWART MARIANNE C.
Published: May 2006

This paper uses newly available Canadian data to address long‐standing debates on the rationality of the political economy of party support. We find that the subjective economic variable driving governing party support is sociotropic, not egocentric, and,pacerecent American and British studies, prospections do not dominate retrospections. Rather, models using national economic evaluations encompass rivals employing national expectations, personal expectations and perceived trends in personal expectations. Egocentric considerations are not irrelevant; rather, their effects on party support are indirect. We argue that these findings are consistent with an image of voters whose party‐support decisions are governed by a ‘rough‐and‐ready’ rationality appropriate to the information available to them and the politico‐economic systems of contemporary Western democracies.
Rationality and party activism: Encompassing tests of alternative models of political participation
Authors: WHITELY PAUL F. , SEYD PATRICK
Published: May 2006

The purpose of this paper is to test a rational actor model of political participation against rival models to see which provides the best theoretical account of participation. This is done using data from the first panel survey of Labour party members in Britain. The tests use encompassing methodology, an approach to model building which arises out of recent developments in applied econometrics. The rational choice model is tested against a social‐psychological model, and a ‘general incentives’ model which has been utilized in earlier research to explain party activism. The results show that while the rational choice model has important explanatory power, it provides an incomplete account of participation. A ‘reduced form’ model is developed which encompasses the other models, and provides the best explanatory account of party activism.
Anti‐party sentiment ‐ Conceptual thoughts and empirical evidence: Explorations into a minefield
Authors: POGUNTKE THOMAS
Published: May 2006

The literature about ‘crisis of party’ or ‘decline of party’ abounds, but most studies in this genre refer to underlying social changes when trying to explain these phenomena. Normative reservations about political parties have thus far been widely neglected in this debate. This article argues that more attention should be given to the interaction between elite theorizing about, and mass orientations towards, political parties. Even though direct survey evidence on popular attitudes towards political parties is largely unavailable, these attitudes can be indirectly measured using several attitudinal and behavioural indicators. Based on a survey of longitudinal data for 13 Western democracies, this article shows that signs of anti‐party sentiment have become more visible as we have moved into the 1980s; but that sweeping generalizations are unfounded.
Anti‐partyism in the USA and support for Ross Perot
Authors: OWEN DIANA , DENNIS JACK
Published: May 2006

This article provides an initial exploration into the phenomenon of anti‐sentiment in the USA. It explores the meaning and measurement of anti‐partyism, and introduces a series of empirical measures which tap three distinct dimensions of anti‐partyism ‐ dissatisfaction with the existing political parties, a preference for third party alternatives, and a desire to diminish the role of parties in the American political process. After using survey data to establish the basic trends in citizens’ feelings about parties, we probe the current nature and level of anti‐partyism in the American system. As a final step, we show how in the 1992 presidential election anti‐party sentiment was associated with support for Ross Perot and his grassroots political movement.
Ethanol and Polyamine Metabolism: Physiologic and Pathologic Implications: A Review
Authors: Sessa Angela , Perin Antonio
Published: May 2006

This review summarizes the effects of ethanol on the metabolism of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine), which are endogenous polycations required for cell physiology, growth, and differentiation. Polyamines regulate DNA, RNA, and protein syntheses; stabilize ribosomes, membranes, and nucleic acids; and protect the cell against lipid peroxidation. Polyamine biosynthesis and catabolism may change after acute and chronic ethanol treatment, thereby playing a negative or positive role in the ethanol‐induced injury on liver, extrahepatic tissues, embryo, and fetus.
Quick Method for Confirmation of Quantitative Trait Loci
Authors: Bennett Beth , Beeson Mary , Gordon Lena , Johnson Thomas E.
Published: May 2006

Numerous algorithms for the identification and genetic mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL) have been developed. Methods for confirming QTL maps involve either examination of independent segregating populations or the construction of congenic lines differing only in the QTL of interest. Because these projects require a minimum of several years or thousands of marker assessments in laboratory mice, an alternative, faster congenic method has been pro: posed. In a preliminary study, we tested this method for confirming QTLs identified in crosses between the ILS and ISS selected lines of mice for differential sensitivity to the hypnotic effects of ethanol. Herein, we report the construction of “segregating congenic” strains in which each QTL is made homozygous in a single generation, whereas the remainder of the genetic background is allowed to segregate. Sensitivity to ethanol among the progeny of such mice is consistent with predictions. Phenotypic variation is high, as expected, due to the background segregation, and statistical significance was attained in only 2 of 7 comparisons. Such segregating congenic populations may be a valuable research tool for confirming QTL map positions and for subsequent assessment of individual pathways and mechanisms of action of individual QTLs.
Increased Ethanol Self‐Administration after a Period of Imposed Ethanol Deprivation in Rats Trained in a Limited Access Paradigm
Authors: Heyser Charles J. , Schulteis Gery , Koob George F.
Published: May 2006

A predominant feature in human alcohol abuse is the reported desire or “craving” to consume ethanol along with frequent episodes of drinking after periods of abstinence. These and other factors may be responsible for relapse to uncontrolled ethanol drinking. When relapse occurs after a period of abstinence, ethanol drinking has been shown to be temporarily increased. Two aspects of drug dependence could contribute to these increases. One may be the development of a need state; the other may involve changes in the perception of the positive reinforcing effects of ethanol when reinforcer access is limited. To investigate this phenomenon further, the present study was conducted to examine in nondependent rats the effect of forced time‐off on oral ethanol self‐administration in a limited access paradigm (30 mid/day). Male Wistar rats were trained to respond for ethanol (10% w/v) or water in a two‐lever, free‐choice condition using a saccharin fading procedure. After the establishment of stable baseline responding for ethanol, various ethanol deprivation periods (3, 5, 7, 14, or 28 days) were imposed, during which no ethanol was available. Responding for ethanol increased as a function of the duration of the deprivation period when compared with baseline levels. This increase was temporary and returned to baseline levels within 2 to 3 days. Given that the shortest time‐off period was 5 days and the rats showed no signs of withdrawal, this transient increase in ethanol responding does not seem to be related to the manifestation of dependence and withdrawal, and may be related to changes in ethanol's reinforcement properties. These results with rats may provide a useful tool to elucidate mechanisms underlying human alcohol seeking behavior and relapse.
Endogenous Production of Methanol after the Consumption of Fruit
Authors: Lindinger W. , Taucher J. , Jordan A. , Hansel A. , Vogel W.
Published: May 2006

After the consumption of fruit, the concentration of methanol in the human body increases by as much as an order of magnitude. This is due to the degradation of natural pectin (which is esterified with methyl alcohol) in the human colon. In vivo tests performed by means of proton‐transfer‐reaction mass spectrometry show that consumed pectin in either a pure form (10 to 15 g) or a natural form (in 1 kg of apples) induces a significant increase of methanol in the breath (and by inference in the blood) of humans. The amount generated from pectin (0.4 to 1.4 g) is approximately equivalent to the total daily endogenous production (measured to be 0.3 to 0.6 g/day) or that obtained from 0.3 liters of 80‐proof brandy (calculated to be 0.5 g). This dietary pectin may contribute to the development of nonalcoholic cirrhosis of the liver.
Adolescent Risk Factors and the Prediction of Persistent Alcohol and Drug Use into Adulthood
Authors: Bates Marsha E. , Labouvie Erich W.
Published: May 2006

Adolescence is a time of heightened risk for relatively intensive alcohol and other drug use behaviors. However, heavy use is often “adolescence‐limited,” giving way to moderation or cessation in adulthood. We examined individual differences in risk factors at age 18 that were predictive of alternative alcohol and drug use trajectories from adolescence to adulthood. Data were collected prospectively on four occasions from participants in the Rutgers Health and Human Development Project. Subsets of individuals representing three prototypical trajectories of (1) consistently low alcohol and drug use during adolescence and early adulthood; (2) heavier alcohol or drug use during adolescence, but not during adulthood; and (3) persistent heavier alcohol or drug use from adolescence into adulthood were found to differ significantly on a number of intrapersonal, behavioral, and environmental risk factors, with the adolescence‐limited group consistently scoring between the other two groups. Based on these results, a composite risk index was constructed. In the total sample, however, when the effect of alcohol and drug use behaviors at age 18 was controlled, the composite risk index was unrelated to adult (age 28 to 31) levels of alcohol and drug use and consequences. Thus, in this community sample, well‐documented risk factors assessed in adolescence did not exhibit any direct, longterm effects on use intensity and problems in adulthood. It is concluded that the assessed risk factors (disinhibtion, cognitive structure, play, deviant coping, friends' deviance, and stressful life events) are not immutable, but subject to individual and normative changes during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. More research is needed to determine the long‐term stability of risk factors, and how changes in risk factors over time, discontinuities in what constitutes risk in adolescence versus adulthood, and proximal adult protective factors that Compensate for early risk contribute to developmental patterns of use.
Energy Expenditure, Substrate Oxidation, and Body Composition in Subjects with Chronic Alcoholism: New Findings from Metabolic Assessment
Authors: Addolorato Giovanni , Capristo Esrneralda , Greco Aldo V. , Stefanini Giuseppe Francesco , Gasbarrini Giovanni
Published: May 2006

There is some controversy as to the effect of ethanol on body weight and alcohol energy contribution to body mass. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of alcohol addiction on resting energy expendhrre (REE) and body composition. Twelve patients with current alcoholism (A) without severe liver disease or lipid and carbohydrate malabsorption were compared with a group of healthy social drinkers (B) matched for sex, age, and height. Their caloric intake was computed on the basis of a food diary. REE was measured with indirect calorimetry, and body composition was assessed by both anthropometry and bioimpedance. A significant decrease in fat mass in A compared with B was found (14.8 ± 5.39 vs. 19.0 ± 3.50 kg; p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in fat‐free mass (FFM) or in total body water between the two groups. A showed higher REE values normalized by FFM than B (35.5 ± 2.97 vs. 33.0 ± 2.95 kcal/kgFFM; p < 0.05). The nonprotein respiratory quotient was significantly lower in A than in B (0.76 ± 0.03 vs. 0.86 ± 0.03; p < 0.001), and A showed significantly higher lipid oxidation and lower carbohydrate oxidation than B (p < 0.05). The daily caloric intake provided only by food ingestion was found to be significantly higher in controls, but because the percentage of alcohol calories of total energy intake was 46.3 ± 6.80 in alcoholics and 13.6 ± 3.59 in controls (p < 0.0001), the total caloric intake, computed as food intake plus alcohol intake, was higher in alcoholics than in control subjects. No statistical differences were found in urinary nitrogen excretion and fecal loss between groups. Patients with alcoholism showed an increased REE over predicted values and a preferential lipid oxidation with respect to controls; these findings could be related to induction of microsomal ethanol oxidizing system and to mitochondrial function adaptation secondary to chronic alcohol abuse. In either case, the effects of such changes in energy metabolism may contribute to alcohol associated hepatic injury.
Ethanol and Natural Killer Cells. I. Activity and Immunophenotype in Alcoholic Humans
Authors: Cook Robert T. , Li Feng , Vandersteen Daniel , Ballas Zuhair K. , Cook Brian L. , LaBrecque Douglas R.
Published: May 2006

The human lymphocyte fraction with the greatest fresh killing activity against K562 targets is phenotypically the CD3−CD19−CD56+ subset There have been reports of reduced natural killer (NK) activity in human alcoholics, but overall consistency is lacking and phenotypic monitoring has been inadequate to allow reliable estimates of changes in the active cell fractions. We have evaluated a range of cell surface markers and fresh NK activity in controls and alcoholics, and now report abnormalities in both phenotype and function in some alcoholics, but a normal profile in others. Patients without evidence of active liver disease (AWLDs) tend to have normal fresh basal activities and phenotypic profiles. Patients with alcoholic liver disease (ALDs) have fewer Lin− lymphocytes that are CD56+. Three of 14 ALDs assayed in the present work had absent NK activity, whereas others were activated. In normal controls and in AWLDs, the presence of monocytes in the lytic assay consistently inhibits lysis; but, in some patients with ALD, the presence of monocytes is stimulatoty to NK activity. In alcoholics as one group, there is a statistically significant dative increase in a novel Lin− subset of unknown function; this subset has a phenotype of Lin−CD56−CD45RO+.
Ethanol Promotes Cell Death by Inhibition of the Insulin‐Like Growth Factor I Receptor
Authors: Cui Shi‐jun , Tewari Manorama , Schneider Tim , Rubin Raphael
Published: May 2006

The mechanism by which chronic alcohol abuse induces widespread cell and tissue damage is unknown. Insulin‐like growth factor I (IGF‐I) is an important inhibitor of apoptosis in many cell types, in addition to its ability to stimulate proliferation. We have demonstrated previously (J, Biol. Chem. 268:21777–21782,1993; Lab. Invest. 71657–662, 1994) that ethanol in low concentrations inhibits the tyrosine auto‐phosphorylation of the IGF‐I receptor (IGF‐IR) and IGF‐I‐mediated cell proliferation. We now demonstrate that ethanol reverses the antiapoptotic action of the IGF‐IR in a tumor necrosis factor‐a (TNF‐α) model of apoptosis. In serum‐depleted medium, IGF‐I markedly protected BALB/c3T3 cells from TNF‐α‐induced apoptosis. Ethanol reversed the protective action of IGF‐I, but did not enhance TNF‐α killing in the absence of IGF‐I. Hatf‐maximal effective concentrations of ethanol were 5 to 10 mM. In the presence of 5 to 10% fetal bovine serum, TNF‐α was cytotoxic for 3T3 cells only in the presence of ethanol. Mouse embryo fibroblasts with targeted knockout of the IGF‐IR were completely insensitive to ethanol, in contrast with the ethanol‐induced potentiation of apoptosis in wild‐type cells. These results indicate that ethanol directly interacts with cellular factors that inhibit apoptosis and could provide a novel mechanism for ethanol‐induced cytotoxicity in general.
Behavioral Effects and Pharmacokinetics of Low‐Dose Intravenous Alcohol in Humans
Authors: Davidson Dena , Camara Paul , Swift Robert
Published: May 2006

Alcohol has physiological effects on the human central nervous system at blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) as low as 9 mg/dl. It is unknown, however, if humans can perceive the effects of such low doses of alcohol. Furthermore, low BACs can be difficult to measure. The purpose of this experiment was to: (1) assess the ability of humans to perceive subjective effects of low BACs; (2) measure behavioral effects of low BACs on a psychomotor performance task; and (3) test the sensitivity and accuracy of the transdermal alcohol sensor (TAS) for measuring low BACs from skin. Five men and seven women were administered single‐blind intravenous infusions of ethyl alcohol in 5% dextrose/water to achieve peak BACs of 0,10,20, and 40 mg/dl. Subjective intoxication scales and a computer administered continuous performance task (CPT) were used to assess alcohol effects. BACs were estimated from skin, blood, and breath. The only alcohol‐induced sensation significantly increased during the alcohol infusions was anesthesia measured by the Alcohol Sensation Scale on the descending limb of the BAC curve. The subjective positive‐reinforcing stimulant and mood effects of alcohol were not reported until subjects were administered the 40 mg/dl alcohol infusion. Other measures of subjective intoxication and sedation, and the CPT were unaffected by the alcohol infusions. The TAS provided a noninvasive method for estimating BACs that was comparable with estimates obtained from blood and breath, although delayed in time.
Chronic Alcohol Ingestion Enhances Tumor Necrosis Factor‐α Expression and Salivary Gland Apoptosis
Authors: Slomiany Bronislaw L. , Piotrowski Jerzy , Slomiany Amalia
Published: May 2006

We investigated the extent of induction in sublingual salivary gland cells apoptosis and tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) expression with chronic ethanol ingestion. The experiments were conducted on rats pair‐fed for 8 weeks with alcohol‐containing and control liquid diet. The animals were killed, their sublingual glands dissected, and the glandular tissue used for quantitization of TNF‐α expression and the assays of acinar cells apoptosis employing sandwich enzyme immunoassay for histone‐associated DNA fragments. The mean value for TNF‐α in sublingual gland of the control group was 22.3 pg/mg of protein and showed a 1.6‐fold increase in the chronic ethanol diet group to 36.5 pg/mg of protein. In comparison with the controls, the sublingual gland of the chronic ethanol diet group also exhibited a 3.4‐fold enhancement in acinar cell apoptosis. These findings suggest that chronic ethanol ingestion causes the enhancement in TNF‐α expression and leads to the induction in salivary gland acinar cells apoptosis. Thus, the diminished secretion of saliva in alcoholics may be a direct result of increased salivary gland apoptosis.
I. Functional Consequences of Intragastrically Administered Ethanol in Rats as Measured by the 2‐[14C]Deoxygluocse Method
Authors: Williams‐Hemby Lisa , Porrino Linda J.
Published: May 2006

The 2‐[4C] deoxyglucose (2DG) method was used to examine the effects of the acute, intragastric (IG) administration of ethanol on rates of local cerebral glucose utilization (LCGU) in male Sprague‐Dawley rats. The 2DG technique was initiated 3 min after the administration of 0.25,1.0, or 2.0 g/kg ethanol. Each dose of ethanol examined produced a discrete pattern of change in functional activity. The administration of 0.25 g/kg ethanol increased LCGU in structures of the mesocorticolimbic and nigrostriatal circuits. The administration of 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg ethanol, however, produced a more limited pattern of changes in LCGU, with increases observed primarily in the mesocorticolimbic circuit. The increases in functional activity observed after the administration of the 0.25 g/kg ethanol dose were more widespread, and generally of larger magnitude, as compared to the 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg ethanol doses. These data indicate that structures of the mesocorticolimbic system are particularly sensitive to the effects of both low and high doses of ethanol when the effects are measured on the ascending limb of the blood ethanol curve.
d‐Cycloserine Blocks the Effects of Ethanol and HA‐966 in Rats Tested in the Elevated Plus‐Maze
Authors: Moraes Ferreira Vânia Maria , Morato Gina Struffaldi
Published: May 2006

Previous studies from our laboratory have shown gender‐related behavior in rats tested in the elevated plus‐maze under the influence of ethanol and other drugs. The present study investigated the effects of pretreatment with the NMDA‐receptor partial agonist at the glycine site d‐cycloserine (DCS; doses 3 to 9 mg/kg for females; 3 to 12 mg/kg for males, intraperitoneally) on the effects of ethanol (1.2 g/kg, ip; 14% w/v) and (±)‐3‐amino‐1‐hydroxy‐2‐pyrrolidone (HA‐966; 2 or 4 mg/kg, ip), an antagonist at the glycine site of the NMDA receptor complex in rats submitted to the elevated plus‐maze test. The results showed that DCS, at doses that did not affect the behavior of control animals, significantly (p < 0.05) prevented the increase in the percentage of open‐arm entries and the time spent in the open arms of elevated plus‐maze test induced by ethanol, exhibiting a U‐shaped dose‐response curve. Similarly, DCS blocked the anxiolytic effects of HA‐966 in animals of both gender. Data confirm our previous results, suggesting that the NMDA‐receptor system contributes significantly to the anxiolytic effect of ethanol. Furthermore, the similarity between the blockade by DCS of anxiolysis induced either by ethanol or by HA‐966 strengthens the suggestion that ethanol acts on the glycine site of the NMDA receptor complex.