bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Alien plant species list and distribution for Camdeboo National Park, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
Authors: Masubelele Mmoto L. , Foxcroft Llewellyn C. , Milton Suzanne J.
Published: September 2009

Protected areas globally are threatened by the potential negative impacts that invasive alien plants pose, and Camdeboo National Park (CNP), South Africa, is no exception. Alien plants have been recorded in the CNP since 1981, before it was proclaimed a national park by South African National Parks in 2005. This is the first publication of a list of alien plants in and around the CNP. Distribution maps of some of the first recorded alien plant species are also presented and discussed. To date, 39 species of alien plants have been recorded, of which 13 are invasive and one is a transformer weed. The majority of alien plant species in the park are herbaceous (39%) and succulent (24%) species. The most widespread alien plant species in the CNP are Atriplex inflata (= A. lindleyi subsp. inflata), Salsola tragus (= S. australis) and cacti species, especially Opuntia ficus-indica. Eradication and control measures that have been used for specific problematic alien plant species are described. Conservation implications: This article represents the first step in managing invasive alien plants and includes the collation of a species list and basic information on their distribution in and around the protected area. This is important for enabling effective monitoring of both new introductions and the distribution of species already present. We present the first species list and distribution information for Camdeboo National Park.
Fluorescent Whitening Agents
Authors: McElhone Harold J.
Published: September 2009

The absorption of short‐wavelength light (violet to blue) results in a yellow cast to fabrics. Fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) absorb the invisible uv portion of the daylight spectrum and convert this energy in to the longer wavelength visible portion of the spectrum, ie, blue to blue‐violet light. Tthis can be used to replace the the light lost through absorption, thereby attaining a neutral, complete white. FWAS are dyes and the types used are stilbene derivatives, distyrylbenzenes, distyrylbiphenyls, divinylstilbenes,benzoxoazoles, pyrazolines, coumarins, benzimidazoles, and naphthalimides Intially FWAs were used exclusively in textile finisihing. The detergent and paper industries followed. The major uses at present are for the detergent industry (40%), paper industry (30%), textiles (25%), and synthetic fiber and plastics (5%).
Hair Preparations
Authors: Pohl Stanley , Varco Joseph , Wallace Paul , Wolfram Leszek J.
Published: September 2009

Hair products are normally cosmetics and are, thus, subject to all laws and regulations that control the labeling and claims of all cosmetic products. There are some variations, namely hair colorants, professional use products, and products that make drug claims. Shampoo is the largest segment of the market. The primary purpose of shampoo is to clean hair and scalp from various soils. Synthetic detergents are the backbone of shampoos. The manufacture of shampoo is quite easy requiring only a suitable kettle, heating and cooling capabilities, and a mixer. Hair conditioners are rinses, hair dressing, and intensive treatments. Conditioners provide different effects to the hair and make combing easier. Finishing sprays and fixatives help style the hair. Colorants are divided into temporary, semipermanent and permanent systems. Toxicological data is of primary importance. In the U.S. the classification of color additives is complex. Waving and straightening products are also discussed. Cosmetic products in the United States are regulated by the FDA. If a cosmetic is intended to treat a disease or affect the function of the body, it is considered a drug.
Insulation, Electric
Authors: Moscovich Armand
Published: September 2009

Insulated wire and cables represent a significant industry. The largest segments of various types and designs are building wires, electronic and data communication wires, power cables, fiber optics, automotive wires, magnet and transformer wires, and specialty wires. Power cables have the most complicated design. Depending on the voltage used, power cables can contain many layers. The electrical properties of most concern to insulation are dielectric strength, electrical resistance, dielectric constant, power factor, and corona resistance. In power cables, electrical and water treeing characteristics influence lifetimes, especially under high voltage and wet conditions In coaxial data communication wires, the dielectric constant determines the quality of the signal. Typical materials used in various wires and cables are polyethylene, polypropylene, silicone rubber, ethylene‐propylene rubber, poly(vinyl chloride), and fluoroplastics.
Niobium and Niobium Compounds
Authors: Schlewitz James E.
Published: September 2009

Niobium, also know as columbium, is used primarily as an alloy addition to steel. Ferroniobium and nickel‐niobium are the most frequently used alloys. Niobium is also vital to the formation of superalloys, and its compounds find use in nuclear fuel rods, optical glass, as ferroelectrics, semiconductors, and in superconducting material. Of primary interest is the stability of niobium metals and its alloys to corrosion. The occurrence, extraction, refining and metallurgy of niobium are described. The analytical procedures for determination of niobium and its impurities are discussed. The primary niobium compounds which range from the refractory borides and carbides through ferroelectric salts of niobic acid are discussed.
Waterproofing and Water and Oil Repellency
Authors: Howells Richard D.
Published: September 2009

The measurement of contact angles is a convenient means for judging the degree of wetting or repellency for a liquid on a planar solid surface. A number of methods have been developed for estimating advancing contact angles of liquids in surfaces,. A repellent material functions by lowering the surface energy to a value such that the liquid now has a higher advancing contact angle on the surface.There are six classes of repellents textile finishes; fluorochemicals; silicones; resin‐based finishes; waxes and wax‐metal emulsions; and organometallic complexes. Fabric construction affects the performance of the water repellent. Waterproof/breathable fabrics are usually natural or synthetic fabrics that are laminated or coated in some sort of waterproof material. Leather is treated to make the surface water repellent, without reducing permeability to water vapor. Sizing agents are used to treat paper. Water resistance is an important factor in concrete and masonry construction for safety, health, and comfort of a building's occupants. Wood is subject to water infiltration by both liquids and vapors. After‐market repellents that are applied after wood structures are built, are readily available.
Computer Animation and Simulation Evidence
Authors: Frazier Leeanne
Published: September 2009

This article reviews the basic technological differences between computer animations and simulations, describes an example of current instruments used to collect and create visual digital evidence for the legal arena, and provides a brief sample of relevant American cases on the admissibility of computer‐generated animation and simulation.
Demonstrative Evidence
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

Most expert witnesses have occasion to use demonstrative evidence, which is not to be considered substantive proof of a fact, but is used solely to supplement, explain, or clarify the witness's testimony. Many do not understand exactly what the legal definition of demonstrative evidence is. This article categorizes the various items that fall into what courts call demonstrative evidence. It also touches on the circumstances under which its court use is permitted. In that regard it is important to stress that judges possess considerable discretion in making the decision whether to admit what they consider to be demonstrative evidence.
Direct Examination of Experts
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

When a witness is summoned to court to testify, he will first be questioned by the litigant who has either asked for the evidence or compelled that it be given through the subpoena process. The manner in which expert testimony is elicited at the outset of his appearance in court is called the direct examination. This article explains the purposes to be served during direct examination, the scope of the proffered testimony, and the manner in which the typical direct examination proceeds.
Discovery in the
U
nited
S
tates: Criminal Cases
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

The disclosure of expert findings to opposing parties in criminal litigation in the United States is governed by a mix of constitutional requirements, superimposed on local rules by the US Supreme Court, as well as by state and federal statutes that differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. This article sets out some of the principal requirements for both prosecutors and defense attorneys in criminal cases.
G

eneral

E

lectric v.

J

oiner
Authors: Smith Ann C.
Published: September 2009

The decision of theUnited States Supreme Court in 1997 in the case of
General Electric v. Joiner
—hereinafter
Joiner
—is the first decision of that tribunal in which it clarified its 1993
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
holding that revolutionized admissibility standards for expert opinion testimony. The
Joiner
decision may be cited by referring to any of the following law reports: 522 U.S. 136, 118S.Ct. 512, or 139 L.Ed.2d 508 (1007).

The
Joiner
opinion has less of a direct impact on forensic expert practices than other court decisions. It clarified a vexing legal question left in the wake of
Daubert
on the division of responsibilities between trial and appellate judges in evaluating the relevance and reliability of scientific evidence. The Court held that the “abuse of discretion” standard was to be applied when an appeals court reviewed a trial court's decision to exclude expert opinion evidence.
Daubert
itself had not addressed that issue.

In the process of developing its reasoning, however, the courts use language that is of particular importance to forensic experts. It relates directly to how the courts can evaluate the worth of expert opinions when the expert's sole word (“ipse dixit”) is the justification offered for its purported reliability or relevance to the disputed facts. In this article, a brief description will be given of portions of the opinion relevant to forensic practices.
Report Writing for Courts
Authors: Wheate Rhonda M.
Published: September 2009

The process of writing an expert report which will be used in legal proceedings requires an appreciation of the underlying conceptual requirements of an expert examination or assessment, in addition to the legal requirements that govern the role of an expert witness. This article examines the conceptual issues and broadly outlines the legal elements, which are required of expert witness reports in most common law jurisdictions.
Blunt Force Trauma
Authors: Pollak Stefan , Saukko Pekka J.
Published: September 2009

Blunt injuries are caused by mechanical force resulting in damage to the affected tissues mainly due to compression, traction, torsion, and shear stresses. The impact is induced either by a moving blunt object hitting the body or the victim's movement against an obstacle having a hard surface.

In forensic practice, injuries from blunt force are often seen after criminal assaults where they may be inflicted, for instance, by fist blows or kicking. They not only occur in physical child abuse and other kinds of domestic violence, in traffic, sports, and industrial accidents but also in falls brought about by the victims themselves for various reasons (e.g., in drunken, infirm, or sick persons or in suicides jumping from a height).

On skin, blunt traumatization produces abrasions, contusions (bruises), and lacerations. In some cases, a patterned configuration helps to determine characteristic features of the causative instrument. Within the body, blunt traumatization may be followed by bone fractures and laceration/rupture of vessels and organs with concomitant blood loss and potential failure of vital functions. The article shortly describes and illustrates the most important manifestations of blunt force injuries (including head trauma) under reconstructive aspects and from the medicolegal point of view.
Gunshot Wounds
Authors: Pollak Stefan , Saukko Pekka J.
Published: September 2009

This article on gunshot wounds deals with the medicolegal aspects of fatalities from firearm injuries with special emphasis on the morphological findings and their correct interpretation. For a better understanding of ballistic trauma, first, a short survey of weapon types and ammunition is given. Another section covers the interaction between the projectile and the human body and topics related to wound ballistics (stopping power, ability to act, causes of death). A major part of the article addresses the characteristics of bullet entrance/exit wounds and the classification of gunshot wounds according to the range of fire (contact shots, close‐/intermediate‐range shots, distant shots). Apart from rifled firearm injuries, wounds from shotguns, livestock stunners, blank‐cartridge guns, and explosives are also described. With respect to the criminalistic implications of firearm injuries, the principles of medicolegal documentation and the main criteria for differentiating between suicide and homicide are also discussed. Numerous photographs from the forensic autopsy material are included in order to give an overview of the great variability of firearm injuries.
Death: Time of
Authors: Madea Burkhard
Published: September 2009

Livor Mortis and Rigor Mortis are not only classical signs of death but together with supravital reactions, for instance muscular excitability and post‐mortem body cooling, they can be used for determining the time since death. The underlying principles of Livor Mortis and Rigor Mortis as well as body cooling and supravital reactions will be outlined and the practical application for the estimation of the time since death will be addressed. Especially on body cooling extensive experimental investigations have been carried out and the mathematical description of the sigmoidal shape of body cooling led to the construction of a nomogram which is the best investigated method of estimating the time since death in the early post‐mortem period.
Anthropology
Authors: Randolph‐Quinney Patrick , Mallett Xanthé , Black Sue
Published: September 2009

Forensic anthropology can be described as the analysis of human remains for the medicolegal purpose of establishing identity. It is a multidisciplinary endeavor that applies the knowledge of biological anthropology and human osteology to cases where human remains are skeletonized, or where a detailed understanding of the growth and development, morphology, or norms of the human body can assist other disciplines in positive identification. This is achieved through the use of osteobiographical markers, which aid in the determination of four primary characteristics: skeletal age, sex, ancestry, and living stature. These are supplemented by markers of personal identity, which are likely to be specific to an individual, or that may be determined so with varying degrees of statistical certainty. Such markers include both soft and hard tissue traits, some of which are biologically normal but specific to an individual, whereas others are pathological or abnormal, arising as the result of disease, trauma, surgical intervention, or cosmetic/aesthetic alteration.
Environmental Science
Authors: Cross Douglas W.
Published: September 2009

The demand for expertise in forensic ecology is expanding as environmental legislation proliferates. Many regulatory authorities have failed to keep pace, leading to weaknesses in enforcement that need to be addressed by increased professional training. Consequently, forensic expertise is in demand by defendants in criminal cases where public sector prosecutions alleging environmental pollution rely on inadequate or inadmissible evidence. Ecologists are also active in auditing compliance of projects and programs with local, national, and international legal frameworks, and play a central role in ensuring that the codes of practice of international lenders are enforced and liability avoided. In this field, circumstantial evidence, often with relatively poor provenance, is used to develop data salvage programs that generate a contextual understanding of an incident, with an emphasis on ecological processes. Where corrupt organizations oppose evidence collection by professionals, communities may employ unorthodox techniques such as community epidemiology to collect and collate data and pressurize the authorities by disseminating the results through the media. Such methods have resulted in dramatic successes in exposing serious toxicological damage within communities, especially in the face of political subversion of more conventional techniques of forensic evidence collection.
Entomology
Authors: Merritt Richard W. , Benbow M. Eric
Published: September 2009

Forensic entomology is the use of arthropod evidence in legal investigations. Most often, forensic entomologists assist homicide investigations by estimating the time of death using information on the biology and ecology of arthropods. Insects play an important role in the natural decomposition process of carrion, and therefore are inherently attracted to a decomposing body. Because of this, a decaying body is naturally colonized by a predictable succession of arthropod species, and their developmental rates can be used to make estimates of the postmortem interval, or the time between death and corpse discovery. Blow flies are generally the most important group of insects in this process, for they complete their life cycle on a decomposing corpse. By examining insect life stages and using temperature data for the time period preceding corpse discovery, a forensic entomologist back‐calculates to the time when a body was initially colonized by insects. Because colonization usually occurs shortly after death, this may be a close approximation of the time of death. Environmental factors that may delay insect colonization, such as cold temperatures, darkness, rain, burial, etc., will affect the estimate of the postmortem interval. Insects also can be useful in providing toxicological and pathological information in an investigation.
Histology
Authors: Saukko Pekka J. , Pollak Stefan
Published: September 2009

Forensic histology deals with the assessment of histopathology in any forensically‐pertinent context and the significance of a given finding as forensic evidence. It deals with basic phenomena such as postmortem changes in cells and tissues, with vitality, timing, and causes of injuries, whether of mechanical or physicochemical origin, as well as exclusion or confirmation of any pathological changes in establishing the cause of death.

Complete histological examination of all major organs is an essential part of every postmortem be it a hospital (clinical) or a medicolegal autopsy. In a medicolegal context, in particular, it should be obvious that omission of any pertinent ancillary investigation may decrease the level of certainty of the results of the investigation and endanger the individual rights of the parties involved.

This short introduction aims to deal with the principal aspects of forensic histology and how it may differ from general histopathology. Some methods are mentioned as examples, as detailed and extensive coverage would be beyond the scope of this article. Answers to specific questions should be sought for in textbooks of forensic pathology, histology, and histological techniques.
Luminol
Authors: Lewis Simon W. , Barni Filippo
Published: September 2009

Luminol has been effectively employed for more than 40 years as a presumptive test for the detection of latent bloodstains at crime scenes. This article provides an overview of the forensic application of luminol. Operational use of the luminol reaction, including issues with substrates and interferences, is discussed.
Botany
Authors: Robertson James , Fiddian Susan
Published: September 2009

We live in a world surrounded by plants of all different shapes, sizes, and form. There is almost no environment in which plants are not present. Plants, or plant parts, also end up in food, in clothing, and a multitude of end uses. Hence, it is inevitable that plants will end up on items being examined in a forensic context. In this article, the scope of what is possible from a forensic examination of botanical material is described. Specific issues confronting the forensic botanist are considered. Examples are given to demonstrate the types of questions to which forensic botany may provide answers. Finally, the emerging role of DNA analysis is considered.
Missing Persons and Paternity:
DNA
Authors: Weir Bruce S.
Published: September 2009

If a perpetrator leaves biological tissue at the scene of a crime, then the DNA profile of the tissue should match the profile of the perpetrator. Matching DNA profiles are therefore used to associate suspects with crime scenes. Because DNA profiles have a genetic basis they are similar when they are taken from related people. Similarity of profiles from relatives is less stringent than complete matching and the quantification of the degree of similarity is used in parentage and missing person situations. In a case of disputed paternity, the probability of the DNA profiles from mother, child, and alleged father are calculated under the alternative hypotheses that the alleged father is or is not the true father. In a case of a missing person where some remains are available, the probability of the profiles of the remains and of family members of the missing person are calculated under the alternative hypotheses that the remains are or are not those of the missing person. In all these situations, relatedness may refer to membership of the same family or membership of the same population.
Earprints: Interpretation of
Authors: Meijerman L. , Thean A. , Maat G.J.R.
Published: September 2009

We aim at providing an overview of the theoretical and practical issues concerning the use of earprints in forensic research. A limited account of the history of earprints in forensic investigations and their use as evidence in the court is provided. Criticism of the use of earprints for individualization is addressed and fundamental questions that require further attention are summarized. Approaches to automatic classification and matching are discussed. Finally, we summarize the results of various studies that we have performed on earprint variation.
Glass Evidence:
B
ayesian Approach to
Authors: Curran James M. , Hicks Tacha N.
Published: September 2009

When examining glass evidence, forensic scientists can be asked to reconstruct a course of events (modus operandi) or to associate broken glass found at a crime scene with material recovered from a victim or a suspect. We will show how glass evidence has been assessed and interpreted. First, we will discuss the preassessment of the case and the importance of establishing working propositions before looking at the physical evidence. Second, we will continue with the comparison of measurements (refractive index and elemental analysis) and the interpretation of the results. We will cover the likelihood ratio approach and others. Surveys on parameters such as transfer, persistence and glass recovered as background will be presented. We will conclude with a brief presentation of the software available.
Handwriting and Signatures, Interpretation of Comparison Results
Authors: Day Stephen P.
Published: September 2009

Handwriting comparison has been used as a means of identification for centuries but it has recently come under scientific scrutiny because of the advent of more robust methods of interpretation used in DNA and challenges made to its expert status in US courts. Application of a logical approach using likelihood ratios to handwriting and signature comparisons helps the practitioner to explain the scientific logic behind the interpretation of the observations made. However, a particular difficulty in handwriting is caused because it can be deliberately altered (disguised) or simulated (copied). To be able to arrive at a useful estimate of the likelihood ratio, it is necessary to adopt a two‐stage process in the interpretation of handwriting. The examiner must first act as an investigator before moving on to the role of evaluator. The result is an assessment of the likelihood ratio, but without numbers—the values of the denominator and the numerator both depend on the experience and skill of the examiner. However, the approach provides a more robust interpretation of the evidence, a common language for handwriting examiners to discuss the strength of a conclusion and places handwriting interpretation on a more scientific footing.
Identification and Individualization
Authors: Champod Christophe
Published: September 2009

After defining the commonly used terms
identity, identification,
and
individualization
, the article focuses on the individualization of sources. First, it shows that the commonly accepted definition invokes the exclusion of all other potential sources systematically. This is named the
Earth population
paradigm. Within that paradigm, the probabilities involved for a conclusion regarding individualization are explored to conclude that realistically no sets of features will ever allow such a level of discrimination. Hence, individualization conclusions are out of reach and cannot be easily substantiated, either in the classic identification fields (such as fingerprint evidence) or in DNA profiling. The scales of conclusions commonly proposed and used are criticized because of their lack of logical foundation, and a method for reporting all identification evidence using a likelihood ratio (LR) framework is suggested.
Paint: Interpretation
Authors: Massonnet Geneviev̀e , Monnard Florence
Published: September 2009

This article concerns the interpretation of paint evidence, both automotive and domestic. Paint interpretation is mostly based on the frequency of occurrence of different measured characteristics. Very common paint types will have less evidential value than very rare paints. Thus, an estimate of the frequency of occurrence of the different characteristics measured for each paint type is very important. The article is mostly a review of the different existing surveys that may help the expert to evaluate his or her evidence based on frequency of occurence. Paint found at random and surveys on paint traces are also described, as well as transfer and persistence phenomenon. Finally, an example of a likelihood ratio approach is presented within a hierarchy of propositions.
Sampling and Estimation of Quantities
Authors: Aitken Colin G. G.
Published: September 2009

Criteria for the determination of the sizes of samples from populations of discrete units are described. These include Bayesian and frequentist approaches and methods for small samples where exact approaches are needed and large samples where approximate methods may be used. Frequentist and Bayesian approaches to the estimation from samples of quantities of drugs in consignments are also described.
Speaker Recognition
Authors: Meuwly Didier
Published: September 2009

The aim of forensic speaker recognition is to establish links between individuals and criminal activities, through audio speech recordings. This field is a multidisciplinary area combining predominantly phonetics, linguistics, speech signal processing, and forensic statistics. On the basis of these, expert‐based and automatic approaches have been developed to analyze the recordings, normally coming from anonymous calls or wiretapping procedures. Most of the forensic laboratories still opt for one of these two approaches, even if, in many respects, they appear to be complementary. The main requirements for these methods are to be independent of the text, able to handle minimal length recordings and to have a superior robustness regarding noise, channels, and variations in recording conditions. Forensic speaker recognition can be considered as a forerunner in the implementation of a logical inference framework to estimate the value of the evidence from the analytical results. The principal limits of forensic speaker recognition are the absence of display of highly discriminatory features in speech yet, the limited quality of the audio recordings captured in forensic conditions and to apply recognition approaches in the absence of any known underlying model to symbolically describe the speaker‐dependent information.
Sampling Trace Evidence
Authors: Giblin Mary
Published: September 2009

Sampling occurs throughout the forensic process from the crime scene to the laboratory. Sampling of trace evidence includes selection, recovery, and removal of trace material. Trace evidence types covered include paint, glass fibres, hairs, soil, and particulates.

This review discusses the principals of sampling trace evidence, population determination, sampling plans used for trace evidence, sampling questions, and methods of trace evidence sample recovery.
Particles: Form
Authors: Schneck William M.
Published: September 2009

Form refers to the external three‐dimensional outline, appearance, or configuration of a particle. The study of form and shape is known as
morphology
. The descriptive morphology of a particle is vital in making a correct identification and determining its source and history. The majority of particle forms can be classified using microscopy. Each scientific discipline has specific nomenclature in describing particle form. Many common attributes used in describing particle form include size, roundness, angularity, crystallinity, ductile
versus
brittle, fibrous
versus
nonfibrous, and glassy state.
Fire: Scene Investigation
Authors: Lentini John J.
Published: September 2009

This article describes the basic steps to be followed in carrying out a fire investigation. Fire investigators need to understand why they have been asked to investigate a particular fire. They need to approach the fire with an open mind, and a presumption that the fire, like most fires, was the result of an accident. The investigation needs to be carefully planned, and safety of the investigator is of prime importance. The scene must be documented, reconstructed, and documented again before a credible origin hypothesis can be put forward. Origin determination is difficult and error prone. Artifacts that tend to validate an origin hypothesis include finding evidence of electrical damage near the origin, and ultimately identifying a cause within that area. During the processing of the scene, investigators need to be mindful of the fact that other parties may have an interest in viewing the evidence. Care should be taken in documenting and collecting any evidence removed from the scene. Finally, a general reporting procedure, compliant with ASTM E 620 that is theStandard Practice for Reporting Opinions of Technical Experts, is described.
Fire: Chemistry of
Authors: Lentini John J.
Published: September 2009

The behavior of fire determines the postfire artifacts that the fire investigator will observe. Knowledge of the chemistry and physics of fire will allow for a more valid interpretation of the evidence.

To correctly interpret the meaning of postfire artifacts, it is necessary that the field fire investigator possess a basic understanding of the fundamental behaviors of materials exposed to fire, and the interaction of a fire with its surroundings. A rudimentary grasp of the processes involved in the production of fire artifacts may be obtained through training, but a basic education in chemistry and physics is a prerequisite for a true understanding of fire behavior. This article describes the basic chemical reactions taking place in a fire.
Explosion Debris: Laboratory Analysis of
Authors: Lancaster Sarah L. , Marshall Maurice , Oxley Jimmie C.
Published: September 2009

The forensic scientist investigating the scene of an explosion must start with the determination of whether a bomb or some mishap caused the event. Locating pieces of the explosive device or explosive residue aids in fixing the event as a bombing. The investigator is advised that proper evidence collection requires preparation before the bombing as to how to locate the most useful evidence, how to avoid contamination, how to sift explosion debris, how to conduct the chemical analyses, and what questions he must answer in a court of law. Examples from actual bombings are given and a compendium of literature references is offered.
Fire Investigator: Standardization, Accreditation, and Certification
Authors: Lentini John J.
Published: September 2009

As with many forensic disciplines, standardization is an evolving process. Standard methodologies exist for both laboratory analysis of fire debris and field investigation of fires. Accreditation exists for forensic laboratories that carry out chemical analyses, but there is no accreditation of fire or explosion investigative agencies. In the United States, certification programs are available for both laboratory fire debris analysts and fire investigators. Despite the existence of these programs, there is no requirement that the individuals who investigate fires and explosions be certified, or that they work for an accredited institution. Even though compliance with the available consensus standards is voluntary, case law in the United States has developed to the point where investigators or analysts who do not use the available standard methodologies are likely to have their opinion excluded. The consumers of forensic services, represented by the American Bar Association House of Delegates, have resolved that all forensic science activities be conducted according to standard methodologies by certified individuals working in accredited facilities. Implementation of this resolution may take some time, but it is likely to happen in the near future.
Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Bernet William , Ray Neelanjan
Published: September 2009

Child sexual abuse is an important medical, psychological, social, and legal topic. It affects young people of all ages and families of all colors, ethnic groups, and social classes. This article discusses the epidemiology of child sexual abuse, intrafamilial and extrafamilial patterns of abuse, clinical features of child abuse victims, the physical examination, and the forensic psychiatric and psychological evaluation of children who may have been abused. The forensic evaluator should follow a standardized process for interviewing the alleged victim in order to collect accurate data. The forensic evaluator should consider the various reasons why a child might make false allegations of abuse as well as false denials of abuse.
Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation
Authors: Smarty Sylvester
Published: September 2009

The child sexual accommodation syndrome was introduced as a clinical concept by Ronald C. Summit in 1983. His aim was to assist mental health practitioners to better understand the abnormal behavioral characteristics of some children who have been the victims of sexual abuse. Over the years, the syndrome has been misunderstood especially in the legal arena. This has led to some cynicism about the scientific authenticity of the syndrome. This article reviews the major clinical characteristics of the syndrome and its legal applications.
Children: As Defendants
Authors: Thompson Christopher , Kenan Joseph
Published: September 2009

In response to an increase in juvenile violent crime in the late 1980s, most jurisdictions in the United States have adopted a more punitive stance toward juvenile offenders. Juveniles face increasing sanctions in juvenile court and are being transferred to adult criminal court in greater numbers, where they face serious penalties. Unfortunately, policymakers often failed to consider that certain characteristics of juveniles (e.g., psychosocial/developmental immaturity) may affect their adjudicative competence and culpability. Additionally, minors likely to become involved in the juvenile justice system have additional characteristics (e.g., higher rates of mental illness and substance abuse, lower IQs) that might further compromise or affect these domains. Fairly recent research has helped provide evidence that juveniles with particular characteristics, such as young age and low IQ, may be at increased risk of having their legal rights violated at numerous points in the adjudicative process, thereby undermining the fundamental fairness of the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems. Other research has shown that adolescents' psychosocial immaturity significantly affects their criminal decision making. Neuroimaging has proved a powerful tool in helping elucidate a potential neuroanatomical basis for poor decision making in adolescents. Because adolescents are likely somewhat less culpable than adults for similar criminal acts and because most individuals limit their antisocial behavior to adolescence, the wisdom of indiscriminately giving minors (or even young adults) long prison sentences is questionable.
Children: As Witnesses
Authors: Perry Sylvia , York Catherine , Bottoms Bette L. , Block Stephanie , Goodman Gail S.
Published: September 2009

Child witness accuracy is of great concern to psychologists, legal and social service authorities, attorneys, judges, and society as a whole. In this article, we summarize scientific research on children's eyewitness testimony, including child factors, social circumstances, and interview characteristics that affect children's memory and suggestibility; interview techniques that encourage accurate eyewitness reports; courtroom accommodations to reduce stress and increase accuracy for child witnesses; jurors' reactions to children's testimony; and future directions in child witness research.
Confessions: Evidentiary Reliability of
Authors: Kassin Saul
Published: September 2009

Contradicting the commonsense belief that “I'd never confess to a crime I did not commit”, false confessions are a contributing factor in roughly one quarter of all post‐conviction DNA exonerations. Voluntary, compliant, and internalized false confessions are distinguished and a sequence of three processes is articulated as responsible for these confessions and the adverse legal consequences that follow. First, police often target innocent people for interrogation on the basis of confident but erroneous judgments of truth and deception made in a preinterrogation interview. Second, innocent people sometimes confess during interrogation as a result of certain dispositional vulnerabilities (such as compliant and suggestible personalities, mental illness and retardation, adolescence, and the phenomenology of innocence) and/or the use of certain coercive tactics (prolonged isolation, the false evidence ploy, and minimization). Third, people cannot accurately distinguish between true and false confessions, and jurors fail to discount even those confessions they see as coerced. As a matter of policy, it is suggested that police should videotape entire interrogations using a neutral, “equal focus” camera perspective and that psychological experts can help to educate judges and juries about the various risk factors.
Hallucinations
Authors: Leong Gregory B. , Silva J. Arturo , Weinstock Robert
Published: September 2009

Hallucinations involve perceptions generally involving the primary senses of hearing, vision, smell, taste, and touch in the absence of actual external sensory stimuli. Hallucinations are symptoms of underlying psychiatric or medical conditions. In a variety of clinical and forensic contexts, the presence of hallucinations may be particularly relevant. In addition, malingering of hallucinations as well as denial of actual hallucinations may complicate clinical or forensic assessment.
Insanity: Defense
Authors: Scott Charles L. , Pinals Debra A.
Published: September 2009

The insanity defense is based on the premise that some mentally ill individuals are not legally culpable due to their underlying illness and therefore should not be criminally punished. Tests of insanity have evolved over time and vary significantly by jurisdiction. Evaluators must conduct a careful retrospective analysis of the defendant's mental state at the time of the offense and use available collateral data to determine whether or not the defendant meets the specific test of insanity.
Jury Dynamics
Authors: Greene Edie , Studebaker Christina
Published: September 2009

In most cases, jury verdicts are related to the strength of the evidence; whichever side has the more compelling evidence is likely to prevail. In addition, judges tend to agree with the verdict that a jury returns. These two empirical findings suggest that jury verdicts are usually defensible and reasonable. On occasion, though, jurors' decisions are influenced by personal biases and predilections, and jurors can have difficulty in understanding complicated evidence and applying abstract legal concepts. Various reforms of trial procedures, such as giving pretrial instructions, allowing jurors to take notes, and presenting jury instructions in simpler language, enhance jurors' abilities to return fair and predictable verdicts.
Serial Homicide
Authors: Knoll James L. , Ressler Robert K. , Hazelwood Robert R. , Burgess Ann W.
Published: September 2009

After the FBI began its formal study of serial murder in the 1980s, both public and forensic interest in the subject grew exponentially, as evidenced by the proliferating number of movies, books, and case studies over the following decades. Behavioral science has proposed a number of hypotheses on the etiology and psychology of serial murder. Attempts to develop serial murder typologies have become progressively more specific to offender characteristics and victim selection. The psychiatric features of serial murderers reveal many common themes such as psychopathy, sexual sadism, and other paraphilias. This article addresses the historical origins of serial murder, and what is currently known about the motivations, behaviors, and psychology of these offenders. Finally, the issue of prevention and assessment is discussed, with particular attention to interviewing strategies.
Stockholm Syndrome
Authors: Smith Delaney M.
Published: September 2009

Stockholm syndrome was initially used to describe the experience of hostages in Stockholm, Sweden, who expressed positive feelings toward their captors. High profile cases including that of Patty Hearst have peaked the publics' interest in this phenomenon. There are many psychological explanations for the formation of this unexpected bond between captive and captor including identification with the aggressor and learned helplessness. This article discusses some examples of Stockholm syndrome that have been discussed in the media as well as factors that contribute to the development of Stockholm syndrome and psychological theories that have been used to explain it.
Eyewitness: Suggestibility of
Authors: Toglia Michael P. , Goodwin Kerri A. , Neuschatz Jeffrey S.
Published: September 2009

The accuracy of eyewitness accounts is critical in the criminal justice system. Numerous studies over the past 100 years have produced a variety of results on the processes that enhance and impair eyewitness memory. Groundbreaking advances include Binet's distinction between suggestion and autosuggestion, Bartlett's theory that memory is reconstructive, Loftus' pivotal work that produced the misinformation effect, and Brainerd and Reyna's fuzzy trace theory (FTT). Although eyewitness memory can be quite accurate, a variety of factors can interfere with accurate retention. For example, conversing with cowitnesses and autosuggestion are potential sources of misinformation that can adversely affect the accuracy of eyewitness memory. Time delays, such as those intervening between experiencing an event and a subsequent police interview, and false memories, due to autosuggestion or overt implantation, must also be considered when evaluating the memory of a witness. Fortunately, warnings against both misinformation and the potential for false memories can improve accuracy. DNA testing has resulted in many exonerations for those convicted because of inaccurate eyewitness memories, and as a result, those in the criminal justice system are becoming more aware of the importance of improving eyewitness accuracy. In this article we identify some of the key factors that affect adult eyewitness memory in forensically meaningful ways.
Alterations: Erasures and Obliterations of Documents
Authors: Mohammed Linton A.
Published: September 2009

Forensic document examiners (FDEs) are often tasked with examining documents for alterations, obliterations, or erasures. Furthermore they are asked to restore or decipher any entries that were changed. The FDE uses several techniques that incorporate microscopy, various lighting methods including infrared and ultraviolet radiation in combination with filters, indented impression processing, imaging software, and other miscellaneous equipment to determine what has been altered, obliterated, or eradicated. This article reviews some of these methods.
Ink Analysis
Authors: Cantu Antonio A.
Published: September 2009

Ink analysis is performed to determine if two inks are similar or different, to determine the manufacturing source of an ink, and to date an ink. For the latter two tasks, it is necessary to have a collection of reference standards; it is also needed when inks are found to be similar and one needs to know how rare or common that ink is. The dating of inks is the most challenging and is done via two approaches. The first uses a collection of reference standards. Here a match suggests the identity of an ink for which one has the manufacturing information such as the first date of production. The second involves the examination of features that change with age such as the evaporation of ink solvents and the degradation of dyes. Within this approach, there are two subapproaches. One estimates the age of an ink by comparing the ink with itself before and after inducing aging (e.g., by heating). The other determines the relative age of inks (some of which are of known age) that are of the same formula and appear on the same paper.
Firearms: Bullet and Cartridge Case Identification
Authors: Dutton Gerard
Published: September 2009

The examination and microscopic comparison of fired bullets and fired cartridge cases allows the expert to determine if a suspect firearm or firearms were, or were not, discharged in a shooting incident. This is achieved by using a combination of class and individual characteristics. If no suspect firearms are forthcoming, the number of firearms discharged in an incident is usually able to be determined, along with how many times each was discharged. A list of potential firearms that could have discharged a bullet and/or a cartridge case can also be identified during the investigative stage in the absence of a suspect firearm.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Databases
Authors: Baldwin David
Published: September 2009

Over the past 20 years, considerable time and effort has been spent on the development of footwear databases, which can provide significant information to aid a police investigation and can also help in the assessment of the evidential value of a footwear comparison. The structure and important features such as the coding of footwear marks and the underlying principles and processes are considered.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Overview
Authors: Hammer Lesley
Published: September 2009

Both footwear and foot impressions are important types of physical evidence. A person committing a crime almost always has to arrive, move through, and leave the scene of a crime spending at least some of the time traveling on their feet. These feet may be clad with footwear, leaving impressions of shoe or boot outsoles, or they may be bare or clad with stockings, leaving impressions of the shapes of the feet. Although often difficult to detect, footwear and/or foot impressions should be expected, and searched for, at all scenes of crime.