bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Locke at Oxford
Authors: Milton J R
Published: November 2023

John Locke’s association with the University of Oxford lasted for rather more than thirty years, from May 1652, when he was elected to a Studentship at Christ Oiurch, to November 1684, when he was expelled from the same Studentship by direct royal command. During the second half of this period his connection with the college became fairly tenuous in most respects other than the purely financial. He took great care to collect all the income due to him, but for most of the time his rooms were let and his visits to Oxford infrequent. From May 1667 until November 1675 he lived almost continuously in London, as a member of the Earl of Shaftesbury’s household Even after his return from France in 1679, when his visits to Oxford became longer and more frequent, he still kept himself to himself and played little part in the life of the college. What can properly be called Locke’s Oxford period lasted a little less than fifteen years, from the autumn of 165.2 until the beginning of April 1667
Descartes and the Historiography of Philosophy
Authors: Williams Bernard
Published: November 2023

Discussing, some years ago, different ways of approaching the thought of Descartes, I made a broad distinction between two activities that I labelled ‘the history of ideas’ and ‘the history of philosophy’.1 The two are distinguished in the first place by their product. The history of ideas yields something that is history before it is philosophy, while with the history of philosophy it is the other way round. In particular, the product of the history of philosophy, being in the first place philosophy, admits more systematic regimentation of the thought under discussion. The two activities can be distinguished also by having rather different directions of attention. The history of ideas, as I intended the distinction, naturally looks sideways to the context of a philosopher’s ideas, in order to realize what their author might be doing in making those assertions in that situation. The history of philosophy, on the other hand, is more concerned to relate a philosopher’s conception to present problems, and is likely to look at his influence on the course of philosophy from his time to the present.
Scientific Realism, Sociophonetic Variation, and Innate Endowments in Phonology
Authors: Carr Philip
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses two related questions that, I believe, lie at the heart of the conceptual and empirical foundations of phonological theory. First, in Sections 2 and 3, 1 address the question of whether, and to what extent, generative, variationist, and Laboratory Phonology approaches to phonological investigation may be said to be scientific in character. This issue is central to some of the objections to generative phonology raised by variationists and laboratory phonologists, who appear to question the putative scientific status of much generative practice. In order to examine this question, I first outline (in Section 2) the conception of scientific knowledge that I adopt here (Popper’s), which embraces falsificationism and scientific realism. Having argued that hypotheses in generative phonology are typically falsifiable, and thus scientific in character, I then address (in Section 3) certain problems that have arisen in applying scientific realism in phonological theory.
Modest Reductions and the Unity of Science
Authors: Smith Peter
Published: November 2023

The unity of science, conceived of as a programmatic ideal, is now widely held to be indefensible. Jerry Fodor’s slogan ‘The Disunity of Science as a Working Hypothesis’ is characteristic; the very idea of unity is often dismissed as symptomatic of an unjustified physicalist imperialism. And plainly, if we build enough into the programmatic ideal, then we can undoubtedly ensure that it must fail to be realized. What I want to argue here, however, is that there is a conception of the unity of science, more modest than some but still far from trifling, which remains untouched by representative arguments for disunity. In a little more detail: I will first make some outline remarks about varieties of reductionism (for intertheoretic reductions are the stuff of unity). These remarks will then motivate a certain core conception of unity; this will have to be sketched with a broad brush—but the outline will, I hope, be recognizable and contentful. We need to distinguish the core ideal from one standard way of filling it out, which we can call the ‘strong interpretation’. I readily concede, along with the majority camp, that on the strong interpretation, a general unity thesis would indeed be quite unrealistically strong: but while the strong interpretation may rightly be held to be objectionable, that doesn’t in itself damage the core programmatic ideal. Too many have rushed from legitimate worries about the strong interpretation to a blanket condemnation of the very idea of unity. And that is quite unjustified.
Why Should Anyone Want to Axiomatize Quantum Field Theory?
Authors: Streater Ray F
Published: November 2023

Quantum field theory was really invented hy Dirac in 1927. He considered classical electromagnetic fields in a cubical box with periodic boundary conditions. This theory is described by a collection of independent classical harmonic oscillators, which Dirac quantized as in the non-relativistic theory. Physical quantities are then ulti mately obtained by taking the limit, as the size of the box goes to infinity, of a corresponding quantity in the boxed theory. Dirac’s procedure leads to the prediction that light is composed of quanta which obey Bose-Einstein statistics. These days, the relativistic free fields are rather easily quantized in a rigorous way without first quantizing in a box; but in constructing fields with interaction we must still use a box and other, much more elaborate approximations.
The Mass of the Classical Vacuum
Authors: Penrose R , Beniak Édouard
Published: November 2023

This, indeed, now seems right; there is no other physical quantity that can seriously compete with mass as the true measure of total substance.
The Ethical Proposition: What it is Not
Authors: Blackburn Simon
Published: November 2023

Moral philosophers like to concentrate on an object of thought, some thing that we can ponder and know to be true: the moral proposition.1 For people who want to think of themselves as objectivists, absolutists, and realists, the moral proposition is a genuine aristocrat, something sublime, authoritative, an independent object of attention. For them, it is vitally important to recognize these propositions as true when they are. They have their own truth-conditions, and magnetize our wills. Kant wrote that two things command our respect and wonder the more we think of them: the starry heavens above and the moral law within. Moral truths make up the law. Only it is not a human law, or even a divine law, but sits in judgement on all manufactured laws, human or divine. For we can always ask of those whether they measure up, whether they are as they ought to be. When we focus on the moral proposition, we focus on a true sovereign.
The Relationship between Syntax and Semantics Revisited
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

An important conclusion from the discussion of the semantics of event predicates is that the Decompositional markers which capture the semantic content of predicates do not correspond to the thematic roles posited by the thematic theories. A Decompositional approach to the representation of events is thus incompatible with a thematic approach to these representations.
Chomsky’s Theory of Government and Binding
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

Thematic roles occupy a central position in Chomsky’s current syntactic theory of principles and parameters, first described in Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB). This centrality is a recent development in the theory: Standard Theory did not refer to thematic roles at all (the term is not even mentioned in Aspects, published in 1965); the Extended Standard Theory, a further development of the Standard Theory, referred to thematic roles only marginally as a means to preserve deep-structure grammatical relations which may be obscured on surface structures as a result of substitution.
Jackendoff’s Thematic Theory
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

Jackendoff’ s Thematic Theory is Non-restrictive: it does not derive syntactic structures from thematic representations but contains, instead, two independent levels of syntactic and semantic representations. These are linked by means of mapping rules, which associate the syntactic complements of verbs with their corresponding semantic arguments. Since there is no reliance on thematic roles for syntactic derivations, the theory is free of the syntactic problems encountered by Fillmore’s and Chomsky’s theories.
Science and the Pursuit of Virtue in the Aberdeen Enlightenment
Authors: Wood P B
Published: November 2023

Responding in September 1739 to Francis Hutcheson’s pointed criticism of the manuscript of Book III of A treatise of human nature, David Hume observed that “[t]here are different ways of examining the Mind as well as the Body. One may consider it either as an Anatomist or as a Painter; either to discover its most secret Springs & Principles or to describe the Grace & Beauty of its Actions.I imagine it impossible to conjoin these two views.” (HL i. 32.) Although moralists like Hutche son would not have recognized any incompatibility between the roles of the anatomist and the painter, with his customary acuity Hume here rightly identified a tension which lay at the heart of moral philosophy in the eighteenth century. For even though Hutcheson and his philosophi cal contemporaries in the Scottish universities typically combined the two roles, the imperatives of metaphysical inquiry did not always mesh comfortably with the demands of moral instruction and the pursuit of virtue. But despite the significance of this structural tension within moral philosophy which Hume so perceptively discerned, historians have, until very recently, paid little attention to the complex, and sometimes uneasy, relations between metaphysics and morals in the Scottish Enlightenment.
Metaphysics and Physiology: Mind, Body, and the Animal Economy in Eighteenth-Century Scotland
Authors: Wright John P
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of his Institutions of medicine William Cullen defined “PHYSIOLOGY, or the Doctrine of the Animal Oeconomy” as “the doctrine which explains the conditions of the body and of the mind necessary to life and health’’.’ Commenting on the same definition in his Edinburgh medical lectures in 1770, he noted that while physiologists normally discussed mental conditions it was not usual to include the mind in the definition of physiology. Some people had criticized him for introducing metaphysics into medicine. In response, Cullen employed a distinction which was also made by his friend David Hume, between two meanings of ‘metaphysics’. It can mean “subtile Disquisitions”: like Hume, he wanted to avoid metaphysics in this sense. However,
The Myth of Original Intentionality
Authors: Dennett Daniel C
Published: November 2023

John Searle has proclaimed that ‘strong’ Artificial Intelligence is impossible because the brain has certain special causal powers, and ‘no formal computer program by itself’ would ever be sufficient to produce these causal powers. I will not take time to discuss the well-known ‘Chinese Room’ thought experiment with which Searle attempts to establish his case, since its host of fallacies have been pointed out many times by many people. (To my mind the definitive diagnosis of what is wrong with Searle’s example is Hofstadter and Dennett (1981), pp. 348-82). Infact, I don’t know anyone except Searle who believes he has a good argument, but I know many people who think that, nevertheless, his conclusion is true. A frontal assault on the conclusion is what is required.
Modelling the Mind
Authors: Wilkes K V
Published: November 2023

The computer model of mind is just that-a model (or meta phor; or analogy). As such, there is nothing to be said against it. Any model that does any good is for that reason a good model; all the sciences use and have to use dozens of models, sometimes several at a time, sometimes temporarily for a particular purpose, sometimes models that are incompatible with each other. Different models suggest different methodological strategies, and each brings out different aspects of the phenomenon under study.
Language Selection and Switching in Strasbourg
Authors: Chloros-Gardner Penelope
Published: November 2023

The term `code-switching' is used to describe the mixing of different language varieties which often results from language contact. Penelope Gardner-Chloros presents the first full-length study of code-switching in a European context. Throughout history, Alsace has been a meeting point of the Roman and Germanic worlds. In spite of its marked regional character, it has been alternately claimed by France and Germany, each anxious to assimilate the region to its own national and linguistic identity. Today most of the population still speak a Germanic dialect, alternating with French which is the language of public life, education, and the media. The author lived in Strasbourg from 1981 to 1988. She describes this exemplar of code-switching not only as a linguist, but also as someone attuned to the many layers of significance which this mode of speech has in the Alsatian community.
Conversational Analysis
Authors: Chloros-Gardner Penelope
Published: November 2023

One of the most revealing method of collecting data on code-switching is the recording, transcription, and analysis-not merely grammatical analysis-of spontaneous interactions. This method was used in the present study to complement the interviews and surveys; while it is arguably the most indispensable of the three techniques, it gains much by being used alongside them. Its usefulness is also largely dependent on an understanding of the context of and implications within each conversation.
The Inner Freedom of Virtue
Authors: Engstrom Stephen
Published: November 2023

Kant holds that virtue is a kind of strength. Virtue, he says, is ‘a moral strength of the will’ (MS 6:405), ‘the strength of a human being’s maxim in the observance of his duty’, a strength that is known only through the hindrances it is able to overcome, which lie in opposing natural inclinations (MS 6:394). In presenting this view of virtue, Kant does not fancy himself to be an innovator, but rather supposes that strength is what the ancient authors generally had in mind when they praised the virtue of the sage. Moreover, when he introduces the idea of virtue in The Metaphysics of Morals, he seems clearly to be taking for granted that his readers understand that it goes without saying, as a matter of the very meanings of the terms, that virtus is Jortitudo moralis, and that Jortitudo is ‘the capacity and considered resolve to oppose a strong but unjust opponent’ (MS6:380).
Love and Respect in the Doctrine of Virtue
Authors: Baron Marcia W
Published: November 2023

In speaking of laws of duty (not laws of nature) and, among these, of laws for human beings’ external relations with one another, we consider ourselves in a moral (intelligible) world where, by analogy with the physical world, attraction and repulsion bind together rational beings (on earth). The principle of mutual love admonishes them constantly to come closer to one another; that of the respect they owe one another, to keep themselves at a distance from one another; and should one of these great moral forces fail, ‘then nothingness (immorality), with gaping throat, would drink up the whole kingdom of(moral) beings like a drop of water’ (if l may use Haller’swords, but in a different connection). (MS 6:449)
Free Will and Illusion
Authors: Smilansky Saul
Published: November 2023

Saul Smilansky presents an original treatment of the problem of free will, which lies at the heart of morality and human self-understanding. He maintains that we have most of the resources we need for a proper understanding of the problem; and the key to it is the role played by illusion. The major traditional philosophical approaches are inadequate, Smilansky argues: their partial insights need to be integrated into a hybrid view, which he calls Fundamental Dualism. Common views about justice, responsibility, human worth, and related notions are radically misguided, and the absurd looms large. We do, however, find some justification for enlightened moral views, and grounding for some of our most cherished views of human nature. The bold and perhaps disturbing claim of Free Will and Illusion is that we could not live adequately with a complete awareness of the truth about human freedom: illusion lies at the centre of the human condition. The necessity of illusion is seen to follow from the basic elements of the free will issue, helping keep our moral and psychological worlds intact. Smilansky offers the challenge of recognizing the centrality of illusion and trying to free ourselves to some extent from it; this is not only a philosophical challenge, but a moral and psychological one as well.
Options for Consequentialism
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: November 2023

There are many ways Consequentialists might respond to the Demanding- ness Objection. We can introduce these by breaking the objection down into a cluster of separate arguments of the following form: Consequentialism makes demand D; D is an unreasonable demand for a moral theory to make; therefore, Consequentialism makes unreasonable demands. For any argument of this form, Consequentialists can deny either premiss. Faced with any alleged demand, they can either deny that Consequentialism makes that demand, or deny that this is unreasonable. As we shall see, most Consequentialist responses to the Demandingness Objection combine these two moves.
The Morality of Reciprocity
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: November 2023

This chapter revisits the discussions of Part Two in the light of the distinction between the two moral realms. This discussion will play three roles. It serves: to illustrate the significance of the different realms; to explain why Collective Consequentialism fails; and to show how Collective Consequentialist theories can nonetheless be successfully incorporated into the new Consequentialist moral theory to be developed in the final chapter.
The Messalian Controversy: History And Texts
Authors: Stewart Columba
Published: November 2023

The history of the Messalian controversy up to 431 can be divided into three phases. First, there is the emergence into public view of groups labelled as ‘Messalian’, described in sources datable to the 370s. It should be noted at the outset that the term ‘Messalian’ will be used in this study below when and as it appears in the sources, without suggesting a uniform taxonomy for all groups labelled as such. During the initial period these ‘Messalians’ were active in Mesopotamia, perhaps particularly in Osrhoene. Second, there are condemnations of Messalian ideas and leaders by local councils c.380-90. The trial of a Messalian leader at Antioch is the major event noted in the sources, but there is also clear evidence of the spread of people and ideas described as Messalian to Armenia and Pamphylia. Third, in the 420s and 430s there is the most intense period of anti-Messalian activity, directed by Asian bishops and ratified at the highest levels of ecclesiastical authority.
Frequencies and Forms of Phrasal Lexemes in English
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

This chapter reports some of the findings of research into English phrasal lexemes and their behaviour as evidenced in corpus text. This research was carried out in 1992–3, while I was working for Oxford University Press on a research collaboration, the Hector Project, with Digital Equipment Corporation’s Systems Research Center in Palo Alto, California.
Modern Lexicography: An Introduction
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

Dictionaries of the national language of a country are an essential and quite frequently controversial part of social life and learning. This is an account of how such dictionaries are made, how they are used, and the issues and problems that face their writers and editors. It is wide-ranging, scholarly, and readable. The author gives a concise history of the general-purpose dictionary, describing both the main approaches to dictionary making and the main kinds of dictionary . After comparing the different lexicographical traditions of Great Britain and the USA, and considering the roles of dictionaries in those countries, Dr Béjoint explores the linguistic problems in such matters as distinguishing meanings, writing definition, providing synonyms, etc. He ends with a discussion of current lexicographical trends.
Null Subjects and Control
Authors: Gary Miller D
Published: November 2023

The standard, albeit problematical, assumption that PRO and pro are distinct is retained as a working hypothesis. Safir (1996: 84ff.) discusses criteria to differentiate PRO and pro: (i) pro, but not PRO, can be a resumptive pronoun in relative clauses in null subject languages; (ii) pro, but not PRO, can be an expletive; (iii) the same arbitrary interpretation of PRO is required in each member of a conjoined clause (type to raise the rent is to irritate the tenants). Moreover, PRO does not show weak crossover effects, in contrast to pro and lexical subjects. Also, pro has inherent phi features, PRO does not, which explains why pro is associated with person agreement in languages with inflected infinitives but PRO is not. Finally, pro behaves like a lexical D/NP in needing case, while PRO requires only licensing.
The Development of Locative Markers in the Changsha Xiang Dialect
Authors: Wu Yunji
Published: November 2023

There has recently been a renewal of lively debate on the history of Chinese locative prepositions.
A Typology of Evidential Markers in Sinitic Languages
Authors: Chappell Hilary
Published: November 2023

In this study, I argue that the experiential aspect marker in Sinitic languages should be reclassified as an evidential marker based on its semantic characteristics. The analysis shows that the relevant marker in each Sinitic language is used to express the speaker os commitment to the truth of the proposition, specifically, certainty about prior occurrence of an event in its core use. Furthermore, this is founded on either direct observation or knowledge, if not an inference from an observable result state which is made by the speaker.1 On the basis of data from eight Chinese languages, I first discuss why the experiential aspect is, in essence, an evidential marker; next, I outline the two main paths of grammaticalization in Sinitic languages; and finally, I address core and non-core semantic features as a reflection of morphosyntactic and semantic variation within Sinitic languages. I use the framework of prototype theory to analyse the evidential in terms of a radial category (Jurafsky 1997). This is the first study to analyse this grammatical category in Sinitic languages as a whole.
Verb Complement Constructions in Chinese Dialects: Types and Markers
Authors: Lamarre Christine
Published: November 2023

This study of verb complement (or buyu ;ff!iil\!f ) constructions in Chinese dialects deals particularly with the postverbal markers introducing these complements from the point of view of comparative dialectal grammar. The discussion thus includes most of the complements (C) introduced by particle DE 1f in Standard Mandarin, such as the complements describing the manner of the action expressed by the verb (V), or the complements that express the extent reached by this action (or state).
Markers of Predication in Shang Bone Inscriptions
Authors: Djamouri Redouane
Published: November 2023

In this analysis, I examine five markers in the Shang bone inscriptions of the Pre-Archaic Chinese period which enable us to formally identify a predicate. The definition adopted here for the notion of predicate is that proposed by the struc turalist point of view, notably in the tradition of Tesniere (1959) and Reichenbach (1966).
Aspects of Historical Comparative Syntax: Functions of Prepositions in Taiwanese and Mandarin
Authors: Li Ying-Che
Published: November 2023

In this analysis of the comparison of major categories of prepositions in Taiwanese Southern Min and Mandarin, I discuss three main areas: (1) syntactic functions and membership; (2) certain observed differences in the historical development of these prepositions in the two languages; and (3) observations from the perspectives of competing change (W. S.-Y. Wang 1969). The third topic includes consideration of syntactic re-analysis, degree of refinement through expansion and other means, special diachronic incorporation processes, and distance in historical relationship due to genetic subgrouping and syntactic differences. The Min dialects are spoken by forty million people in Fujian province; Taiwan; and other parts of southern coastal China, while Mandarin is spoken by more than 700 million people in northern, central, and south-western China (Ramsey 1987).
Phonology, Phonetics, and Cognition
Authors: Durand Jacques , Laks Bernard
Published: November 2023

Phonetics and phonology have emerged as independent disciplines during the twentieth century. For somebody who does not know the field of language studies, the existence of two disciplines which are so similar and yet so different, both dedicated to the study of sounds, is rather strange. At least two types of explanation are possible for this state of affairs: one consists in invoking the accidental juxtaposition of historical persons and events, the other in invoking substantive issues and research programmes.
Fossil Markers of Language Development: Phonological ‘Deafnesses’ in Adult Speech Processing
Authors: Dupoux Emmanuel , Peperkamp Sharon
Published: November 2023

Recent research has demonstrated that language acquisition begins at a very early age and proceeds at an amazingly fast pace. During the first year of life, infants find out important parts of the phonological structure of their maternal language and begin to recognize and store frequent words. One crucial question for models oflanguage acquisition concerns the mechanisms underlying these developments. The names of the authors are in alphabetic order. Research for this chapter was supported by a Fyssen grant to the second author. We would like to thank Leticia Maria Sicuro Correa, Anne Christophe, Frarn;:ois Dell, Jacques Mehler, Marina Nespor, and Franck Ramus for comments and discussion.
Syllabic Constraints and Constraint Conflicts in Loanword Adaptations, Aphasic Speech, and Children’s Errors
Authors: Paradis Carole , Béland Renée
Published: November 2023

In a longitudinal case study, Beland and Paradis (1997) compared the syllabic errors-defined as segment insertion and deletion (as opposed toWe would like to thank the audience at the ‘Current Trends in Phonology II’ Conference, held at the Abbey of Royaumont near Paris in 1998, where a preliminary version of this chapter was presented. We are particularly grateful to Steve Anderson, John Goldsmith, Janet Pierrehumbert, Jean-Frarn;:ois Prunet, and Annie Rialland for their illuminating comments and challenging questions. We are also deeply indebted to Isabelle McClish and Joel Macoir for their work with the second aphasic patient of our study, to Claudine Blouin, Andre Courcy, Yannique Laplame, and Myriam Baba’i for their work with the children of our study, and to Darlene LaCharite for her feedback on this version of the article vis-a-vis both substance and exposition. We acknowledge SSHRC grants 4ro-97-r446 (C.P.) and 4ro-96-r467 (R.B.) and FCAR grant 98-ER-2305 (C.P. and R.B.).
Phonology in a Theory of Perception-for-Action-Control
Authors: Schwartz Jean-Luc , Abry Christian , Boë Louis-Jean , Cathiard Marie
Published: November 2023

The whole story told in this book is likely to be a story of boundaries and links. The cognition programme was basically based on links between disciplines, while the phonology programme, on the contrary, started with the elaboration of boundaries . . . hence the interest of the present book. In fact, it is our deep belief that the whole story of speech itself is a story of links, and we shall attempt here to present an integrated framework in which it is the relationships between perception, action control, and phonology which are at the core of the study, rather than perception, action, or phonology independently of each other.
Lexicalist Connectionism
Authors: Macwhinney Brian
Published: November 2023

Linguistic behaviour is governed by a rigid set of social conventions or ‘rules’. If we wake up one morning and decide deliberately to throw all these conventions to the wind, no one would understand us. Indeed, even our best friends might think we had gone quite insane. In everyday language, we could say that we had decided to ‘break the rules’ of English grammar. Of course, force of habit keeps us from striking off on this iconoclastic course. Having spent so many years of our lives cooperatively following ‘the rules’, it is easier to continue to follow them, rather than wandering off into new territory. This view of linguistic rules as social conventions and habits is grounded firmly on everyday experience and common sense. I think it is a view that virtually everyone accepts.
Mechanisms of landmark use in mammals and birds
Authors: Cheng Ken , Spetch Marcia L
Published: November 2023

Many animals face the problem of returning to a place that they have visited before. The place may be a home, a food site or a nest for one’s offspring. The female digger wasp, for example, digs nests in the ground in which she lays eggs. The future larvae must be provisioned with food, and thus the wasp faces the problem of returning to her nests after foraging for food. For the digger wasp, reproductive success depends heavily on place finding. Food-storing birds must return to a number of places at which they have stored food (see Sherry and Healy, Chapter 8). And any home-based animal that ever ventures forth faces the problem of returning home. Diverse place-finding mechanisms are thus commonly found in the animal kingdom.
Places and landmarks: an arthropod perspective
Authors: Collett Thomas S , Zeil* Jochen
Published: November 2023

Many arthropods lead complex lives in which they need to travel regularly between several familiar places. Significant places for an arthropod include those where it can gather food, water and nest material, sites for mating and aggregation, perching sites, communal sleeping sites and, most importantly, nest sites. The variety of activities and resources associated with these different places emphasises that it is not sufficient to know and to remember topography. In some way there must be an association of particular sites with the resources that they offer. We start with a brief survey of the arthropods’ use and knowledge of places. We then go on to consider how arthropods employ landmarks for finding and recognising places.
Ammonium, oxonium and sulfonium ylides
Authors: West Frederick G , Clark J Stephen
Published: November 2023

Generation of ammonium ylides from tertiary amines and metallocarbenes offers several advantages over other methods. In contrast to stepwise approaches involving initial N-quaternization followed by either deprotonation or desilylation, the carbenoid method furnishes the desired ylide intermediates directly. Moreover, there is no ambiguity as to the site of ylide formation, whereas deprotonation of quaternary ammonium salts may occur at more than one site. On the other hand, carbene-based methods lead to chemoselectivity concerns, as addition to heteroatom lone pairs is only one of many possible reaction pathways. In this regard, metallocarbenes are superior to thermally or photochemically generated ‘free’ carbenes, as their reactivity is moderated sufficiently to permit selective reaction with the most electronrich moiety available (typically the basic amine).
Pharmacology of cytokines
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

Cytokines are polypeptide mediators which act as communication signals among cells of the immune system as well as among other cells and tissues in the body. They are a heterogeneous and complex group and include interferons, tumor necrosis factor and chemokines. They play a key role in homeostasis and in host defence and are involved in such inflammatory and autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis as well as infectious diseases such as HIV infection and septic shock. Modulation of the production and action of cytokines, as well as their exploitation as therapeutic agents, has been the object of intense and competitive research. This book overviews the field of cytokine research and describes the various approaches that have been taken to develop the pharmacology of these novel mediators. The pharmacology of cytokines is an exploding area which is entering the clinical arena. The book, in the framework of the immunobiology of cytokines, examines the interactions with the cytokine system of a variety of compounds ranging from simple synthetic chemicals to biotechnological products. In addition to examining individual agents and approaches, the book examines the pathophysiology of individual body systems and analysis specific contexts for the pathophysiology of these mediators as well as pharmacological approaches for their control.
The Molecular and Supramolecular Chemistry of Carbohydrates: Chemical Introduction to the Glycosciences
Authors: David Serge
Published: November 2023

There is currently a great deal of interest in carbohydrate research among chemists and biologists, in both academic and industrial laboratories. One reason is the involvement of oligosaccharide molecules in many recognition phenomena in the living world. Another reason is the growing demand for chiral synthesissugars are an amazingly cheap source of chirality but must be efficiently processed. Thirdly the role of conformation in carbohydrate interactions has stimulated much experimental and theoretical work. There are causal links between advances in each of these fields, from molecular orbitals to immunochemistry, so that no research worker in his narrow specialisation can afford to ignore what is going on elsewhere. Thus a body of knowledge has been built from what is now called the 'glycosciences'. This book attempts to describe glycosciences in their true perspective. Organic chemistry is the backbone of the presentation, but carbohydrate chemistry offers a wealth of supramolecular associations. This book is unique, among similar texts on carbohydrates, in that half its content is devoted to the description of important examples of such interactions. The opening chapters deal with the problems of configuration, conformation, derivatization, and modifications of monosaccharides, with examples on their utilization in total synthesis. The anomeric effectthe most popular of all stereoelectronic effects, and a gift to carbohydrate chemists and chemists in generalis discussed at length. The following chapters deal with oligosaccharides; the essentials of enzymic synthesis, with its high performances; and the sialic acids, which are at the forefront of carbohydrate research. The author describes recognition reactions, including blood group phenomena, interactions involving sialic acids, the active site of heparin, tumour markers, and selectins. The association of sugars with small molecules, notably with inorganic species, is the subject of another chapter. Throughout the book, great attention has been given to practical details especially in the description of experiments involving unfamiliar techniques. Many tables, figures, diagrams, experimental protocols and a survey of the literature up to March 1996 will help the reader to understand the salient facts and visualize a broad spectrum of ideas.
Profinite Groups
Authors: Wilson John S
Published: November 2023

This is the first book to be dedicated entirely to profinite groups, an area of algebra with important links to number theory and other areas of mathematics. It provides a comprehensive overview of the subject; prerequisite knowledge is kept to a minimum, and several major theorems are presented in an accessible form. The book would provide a valuable introduction for postgraduate students, or form a useful reference for researchers in other areas. The first few chapters lay the foundations and explain the role of profinite groups in number theory. Later chapters explore various aspects of profinite groups in more detail; these contain accessible and lucid accounts of many major theorems. Prerequisites are kept to a minimum with the basic topological theory summarized in an introductory chapter.
Zinc(II) Reagents
Authors: Oguni Nobuki
Published: November 2023

There are two kinds of organozinc compounds: Grignard-type reagents and dialkylzincs. Organozinc reagents have been used for the carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions, for example, Reformatsky and Simmons-Smith re actions. Nevertheless dialkylzinc compounds have been little used for organic reactions except organometallic component of Ziegler catalyst. After our first report of the discovery in 1883 on the enantioselective addition of diethylzinc to benzaldehyde catalyzed by chiral 13-aminoalcohols, this field of asymmetric carbon-carbon bond forming catalytic reaction was developed largely by many researchers. Also the asymmetric amplification, that is extreme amplification in enantioselectivity was found in this reaction and gave the extensive effect for all enantioselective catalytic reactions.
Chiral titanium complexes for enantioselective catalysis
Authors: Mikami Koichi , Terada Masahiro
Published: November 2023

Enantioselective catalysis is an economical and environmentally benign process, since it achieves ‘multiplication of chirality’1 thereby affording a large amount of the enantio-enriched product, while producing a small amount of waste material, due to the very small amount of chiral catalyst used. Thus, the development of enantioselective catalysts is a most challenging and formidable endeavour for synthetic organic chemists.2 3 Highly promising candidates for such enantioselective catalysts are metal complexes bearing chiral organic ligands. Thus, the choice of the central metal and the molecular design of the chiral organic ligand are most crucial for the development of enantioselective catalysts.
Tin Lewis acid
Authors: Kobayashi Shu
Published: November 2023

The element tin has played an increasingly important role in organic chemistry as well as organometallic chemistry, serving as a source of new reagents for selective transformations.1-3 The main activity in these fields has been focused for a long time on tin(IV) compounds, and tin(II) compounds have been used primarily as reductants of aromatic nitro compounds to aromatic amines.4 During the last decade, asymmetric synthesis has been developed increasingly, and in this field tin(II) reagents have served main roles rather than tin(IV) reagents.
Electrochemical generation and reaction of zinc reagents
Authors: Périchon Jacques , Gosmini Corinne , Rollin Yolande
Published: November 2023

The formation of organozinc compounds by reaction of zinc metal with organic halides often requires both the activation of Zn metal and the use of reactive organic halides, i.e. iodides or activated bromides. The alternative transmetallation method between a zinc salt and an organomagnesium or -lithium com¬ pound is incompatible with the presence of sensitive functional groups on the organic moiety. Then the electrochemical approach may offer a useful alternative to the conventional chemical routes. Indeed, the electroreduction of a zinc salt at between -0.8 and -1.4 V/SCE, depending of the nature of the organic solvent, generates a divided nascent zinc. This electrolytic zinc, how¬ ever, only reacts with organic halides which are easily reduced, so the reaction (Equation 8.1) is restricted to reactive organic halides, such as a-bromoesters, or allyl or benzyl bromides.
Palladium and nickel catalysed reactions of organozinc compounds
Authors: Negishi Ei-Ichi
Published: November 2023

Although organozinc compounds represent some of the earliest examples of organometallic reagents,1 their use in organic synthesis had been rather limited until recently. This largely stemmed from the fact that their reactivity as nucleophiles towards various common electrophiles, including carbon electrophiles, such as organic halides, carbonyl compounds, and epoxides, is generally much lower than that of the corresponding Grignard and organolithium reagents.2 However, over the last few decades the use of transition metal catalysts, especially those containing Pd and Ni, has converted otherwise unreactive or sluggishly reactive organozincs into highly reactive reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds.
Binary mixtures
Authors: Clifford Tony
Published: November 2023

Binary mixtures will here be considered as a mixture of a fluid substance, such as those described in Chapter 1, which will be always called component 1, and a second substance, component 2. The binary mixtures that are important in supercritical fluids broadly fall into two areas, d pending on the molar mass and critical temperature of component 2. In the first general area the second component has a molar mass and critical temperature mostly above, but not far above, those of component 1. In these cases the second component is added often in sizeable amounts to modify the solvation character of the fluid or, for example, to provide a reagent. Cases where the molar mass or the critical temperature of component 2 is lower than that of component 1 include the addition of a gas, such as hydrogen, to act as a reagent. The second area where consideration of binary mixtures is important is when involatile solutes of higher molar mass are dissolved in the fluid in the process of carrying out extraction, separation, or chemical reaction. The molar masses and critical temperatures of these second components will be typically much higher than that of component I. In summary there are two areas of binary mixtures: in the first the component 2 is a modifier of relatively low molar mass; and in the second component 2 is a heavy solute.
Fringing Reefs
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

This section of the book introduces the various fringing coral reefs and their distribution throughout the archipelago. For the sake of’ clarity we follow the classical Darwinian division as closely as possible. The reader is urged to refer to Hopley (198’.L) and Guilchcr (1988) for an in-depth treatment of coral reef geomor-phology. The above publications will place our cursory treatment of this complex subject in perspective.
Patch Reefs
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

Guilcher (1988) used the term bank reefs to classify a number of reef types within a single group, of which the patch reefs were considered to be the smallest.. We take a slightly different approach, 2nd .fr>Uow the classification system proposed by Hop Icy (l 98 , 198’.’l) h>r the reefs of the Grca.t Barrier Reef. liopky”s (l 982) classification system is applicable, not only to barrier-reef,-associated reefs, but, to shelf red’s in general.
Atolls and Raised Islands
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

Perhaps no geologic structure made by living organisms has fascinated coral reef scientists during the past 150 years as much as have the atolls, jewels of the oceans. Atolls are widely scattered throughout the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific, with a few in the tropical western Atlantic. Darwin (1842) provided the first detailed account of these magnificent structures, and proposed a genetic theory for their formation through subsidence of their foundations. It took 109 years to prove Darwin’s theory, when in 1951 a deep borehole sunk at Enewetak Atoll penetrated through Eocene reef limestone and struck the underlying volcanic foundation, as Darwin predicted. Stoddart (1965) reported that there are about 425 known atolls in the world’s oceans.
Mangroves
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

Mangroves are complex and dynamic coastal evergreen formations, generally restricted to subtropical and tropical regions. Their widest latitudinal distribution occurs in the western Pacific, where they extend from the warm temperate parts of southern Japan through the tropics to New Zealand (Chapman 1977). Their world distribution in fact parallels those of scleractinian corals and seagrasses (McCoy and Heck 1976). Mangroves are highly productive intertidal ecosystems found mainly in sheltered coastal, estuarine and deltaic environments, where they often form distinct vegetational units at the junction of the land and the sea. Due to their intertidal habitat, mangroves are influenced by the tides and subjected to wide environmental fluctuations, notably, salinity gradients controlled partly by climatic factors (i.e., rainfall and evaporation).
The Pelagic System
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

The Indonesian Archipelago plays a key role in global biogeochemical cycles, and forms a barrier as well as a passage for pelagic organisms between the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Brinton 1979; Schalk 1987). In addition to their significance in global ocean productivity, the archipelagic seas contain important biogeographical zones that are still poorly understood (van der Spoel and Heyman 1983). Many early expeditions to the Indonesian Archipelago (e.g., Challenger, Siboga, Dana, Snellius, Galathea, Rumphius, 110E, Monsoon) collected a wealth of information on the flora and fauna of this vast tropical region, yet our knowledge of the biological processes in the offshore waters remained relatively poor.
Behavior
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

Cuckoos are solitary, skulking birds, more often heard than seen. Their calls in forests and wood lands are among the most conspicuous and compelling sounds of the tropics. As a group the cuckoos are arboreal and spend their time in trees, although several couas of Madagascar, most coucals in the tropics and some cuckoos in semi desert areas are terrestrial. Many cuckoos live by themselves and call only in the breeding season, while a few kinds of cuckoos live in social groups, leaving their group perhaps only once throughout their lives, when they disperse and join another social group. Cuckoos are mainly diurnal, but both the nesting cuckoos and the brood-parasitic cuckoos call at night along with the nocturnal owls and nightjars. It is in their social and parental behaviors that cuckoos are particularly variable, with monogamous pairs that rear their own young, cooperative breeding birds that rear each others ‘ young, and brood-parasitic cuckoos that leave their young to be reared in the nests of other species of birds.
Crotophaginae
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

ADULT: Sexes alike, appearance shaggy, head ochre with dark shaft streaks, crest orangerufous, upper back brown, feathers streaked with a white shaft and light gray edges.Wing coverts dark brown with white edges, wing dark brown with inner vane of wing feathers rufous, outer vane brown with a pale gray edge, giving a frosted appearance. The lower back is white. the rump is buff. Tail blackish with a yellowish base and a broad white band at the tips of T2 to T4, Tl dark brown with a yellowish base: Below pale ochre to whitish, throat and breast streaked brown, under wing whitish, darker on the secondaries; bare facial skin yellow to pea green; iris yellow to orange; bill orange to yellow; legs bluish gray.