bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Considerations of Noise for the Use of Compressed Speech in a Cockpit Environment
Authors: Crittenden Lorri J. , Ellis Newton C. , Koppa Rodger J.
Published: January 2012

This research investigated the feasibility of using time compressed speech in a cockpit environment by examining the effect of cockpit noise on the intelligibility and comprehensibility of compressed speech. Research participants listened to cockpit-oriented verbal messages and were required to write them down afterwards. Results revealed a significant difference in compression levels between the environment without the ambient cockpit noise and the noise environment. The primary finding of this study was an interaction between noise and compression level. Implications of this research are made for the design of advanced crew systems.
Underlying Factors in Air Traffic Control Incidents
Authors: Stager Paul , Hameluck Donald , Jubis Rebecca
Published: January 2012

As part of a continuing investigation of the conditions associated with operating irregularities in air traffic control (ATC), reports prepared during the investigation of 301 operating irregularities were analyzed in order to identify the factors most likely to precipitate air traffic control incidents. Operating irregularities were found to occur more frequently under conditions of moderate or low workload and normal complexity. A second objective of the work has been to develop a database system from which statistical data on operating irregularities and the various identified factors can be extracted. However, in order to enhance the integrity of the descriptive information in the database, the category structure that has been used to record the occurrence of ATC incidents is being revised to reflect the contemporary approaches to human error. A brief description of the proposed structure is included in the present paper.
Head-Mounted Displays and the Measurement of Performance in a Virtual World
Authors: Bennett LTC C. Thomas
Published: January 2012

This paper is part of symposium entitled “Obtaining New Perspectives with Head Coupled Simulators.” The paper's purpose is to present and discuss the problems associated with assessing visual performance during translation and rotation in a virtual world. Two studies are summarized which highlight the difficulties in defining and measuring the optical and visual variables that pilots use during the control of a craft in simulated flight.
The Effect of Increasing Task Complexity on the Field-of-View Requirements for a Visually Coupled System
Authors: Wells Maxwell J. , Venturino Michael
Published: January 2012

Ten subjects performed a task on a head-coupled simulator using various sized fields-of-view (FOVs). The task required them to visually acquire, remember the location of, monitor and shoot 3 or 6 objects. In addition they were required to perform a secondary tracking task. Performance at monitoring and shooting the objects decreased with decreasing FOV size and increasing number of objects. Secondary task performance also decreased with decreasing FOV. The ability to recall the location of objects was unaffected by changes in FOV size. However, tracking performance was degraded while subjects used smaller FOVS to find and learn the location of objects. The results indicate that although visual search performance can be maintained with small FOVs, it is done in a manner which may compromise performance at other tasks.
A General Model of Mixed-Initiative Human-Machine Systems
Authors: Riley Victor
Published: January 2012

The increasing role of automation in human-machine systems requires modelling approaches which are flexible enough to systematically express a large range of automation levels and assist the exploration of a large range of automation issues. A General Model of Mixed-Initiative Human-Machine Systems is described, along with a corresponding automation taxonomy, which: provides a framework for representing human-machine systems over a wide range of complexity; forms the basis of a dynamic, pseudo-mathematical simulation of complex interrelationships between situational and cognitive factors operating in dynamic function allocation decisions; and can guide methodical investigations into the implications of decisions regarding system automation levels.
Speech versus Manual Control of Camera Functions during a Telerobotic Task
Authors: Bierschwale John M. , Sampaio Carlos E. , Stuart Mark A. , Smith Randy L.
Published: January 2012

Voice input for control of camera functions was investigated in this study. Objectives were to (1) assess the feasibility of a voice-commanded camera control system, and (2) identify factors that differ between voice and manual control of camera functions. Subjects participated in a remote manipulation task that required extensive camera-aided viewing. Each subject was exposed to two conditions, voice and manual input, with a counterbalanced administration order. Voice input was found to be significantly slower than manual input for this task. However, in terms of remote manipulator performance errors and subject preference, there was no difference between modalities. Voice control of continuous camera functions is not recommended. It is believed that the use of voice input for discrete functions, such as multiplexing or camera switching, could aid performance. Hybrid mixes of voice and manual input may provide the best use of both modalities. This report contributes to a better understanding of the issues that affect the design of an efficient human/telerobot interface.
Analysis of Network and System Management Tasks
Authors: Scott Brenda M.
Published: January 2012

Network and system management tasks revolve around the activities necessary to establish and maintain data communication networks. This can include tasks such as:

• monitoring the network hardware and software components for problems and performance information • identifying and correcting problems in the network • planning and making changes to the network.

Task analysis was performed on data available from a customer case study database, (Beith, Moore, Pendley, and Percival, 1985). Models were developed for several network and system management tasks. This paper discusses one of the task models, problem determination, and presents recommendations for information structuring and task flow.
An Experimental Determination of Human Hand Accuracy with a DataGlove
Authors: Quam David L. , Williams George B. , Agnew Jeffery R. , Browne Patricia C.
Published: January 2012

A three-part experiment was conducted to determine the accuracy, repeatability and linearity of a human hand manipulating the DataGlove. Accuracy and repeatability of finger flexure were investigated with repeated measurements of three calibration positions. Linearity of finger flexure was investigated with steady finger and thumb curling motions. Accuracy and repeatability of hand location and orientation were investigated with repeated measurements of six hand positions. Finger flexure mean accuracy was 6º for the four fingers and 11º for the thumb, repeatability was 3º for the four fingers and 9º for the thumb, and linearity varied from 2 to 5º. Although the mean location accuracy was 1 inch and the mean orientation accuracy was 17º, the position and orientation receiver was observed to twist on the glove back. Across all subjects, the location repeatability was 0.5 inch, while the orientation repeatability was 9º. However, the within-subject location repeatability was 0.13 inches, while the orientation repeatability was 2º.
A Benchmark Comparison of Mouse and Touch Interface Techniques for an Intelligent Workstation Windowing Environment
Authors: Mack Robert , Lang Kathy
Published: January 2012

This study presents evidence that a prototype touch interface technology emulating basic interaction techniques of a mouse pointing device is comparable in overall usability to a conventional mouse for a direct manipulation, graphical windowing software environment. The touch technology prototype involves using either a stylus or finger, with an overlay sensitive to changes in capacitance. Users practiced each technique (mouse, stylus, finger, keyboard with no mouse), in the context of carrying out office-related tasks on the first of a two day study, and then eight similar test tasks on the second day, in a completely within-subject design. Significant effects for time on task were found for Techniques and Tasks for five practice tasks on the second day of the study. The clearest significant effect was that the stylus technique was faster than the keyboard. A qualitative analysis of errors indicates that there were problems with the precision of pointing using the finger, and to a lesser extent the stylus and mouse. User comments and ratings indicate that the stylus and mouse were preferred comparably, and were preferred to the finger and keyboard techniques.
A Comparison of Computer Input Devices: Linus Pen, Mouse, Cursor Keys and Keyboard
Authors: Mahach Karen Renee
Published: January 2012

Four input devices were compared in a data entry task by speed and accuracy scores. The input devices were: Linus pen (a handwriting recognition system), optical mouse, cursor keys, and alphabetic keys on a keyboard. Data entry consisted of twenty 5-letter words and 100 single letters. Two different screen designs (QWERTY and ALPHA) were used for the mouse and cursor keys conditions. Results showed the keyboard to be fastest and the cursor keys to be slowest in data entry. The mouse and Linus pen had comparable latency scores. Overall, five-letter words were entered faster than five single letters. Latency decreased over trials, and ALPHA conditions required more time than QWERTY conditions. The Linus pen was the least accurate input device. The cursor QWERTY condition produced the highest accuracy scores for letter entry while the keyboard produced the highest accuracy scores for word entry.
Formulation of Expert System Knowledge
Authors: Mitta Deborah A.
Published: January 2012

Expert system knowledge represents expertise obtained through formal education, training, and/or experience. Formal education provides deep knowledge of a particular domain; experience and training result in heuristic knowledge. A knowledge base defines the range of information and understanding with which the system is capable of dealing; therefore, its information must be structured and filed for ready access. The objective of this symposium is to address the challenges associated with establishment of valid expert system knowledge, specifically, knowledge to be used by expert system shells. As expert system knowledge is obtained, structured, and stored, it is formulated. In this symposium, knowledge formulation is addressed as a three-phase process: knowledge acquisition, the mechanics associated with structuring knowledge, and knowledge porting.

Knowledge acquisition is the process of extracting expertise from a domain expert. Expertise may be collected through a series of interviews between the expert and a knowledge engineer or through sessions the expert holds with an automated knowledge acquisition tool. Thus, the ultimate outcome of knowledge acquisition is a collection of raw knowledge data. The following human factors issues become apparent: documenting mental models (where mental models are the expert's conceptualization of a problem), recording cognitive problem-solving strategies, and specifying an appropriate interface between the domain expert and the acquisition methodology. The knowledge structuring process involves the refinement of raw knowledge data, where knowledge is organized and assigned a semantic structure. One issue that must be considered is how to interpret knowledge data such that formal definitions, logical relationships, and facts can be established. Finally, formulation involves knowledge porting, that is, the movement of an expert system shell's knowledge base to various other shells. The outcome of this process is a portable knowledge base, where the challenges lie in maintaining consistent knowledge, understanding the constraints inherent to a shell (the shell's ability to incorporate all relevant knowledge), and designing an acceptable user-expert system interface.

The fundamental component of any expert system is its knowledge base. The issues to be presented in this symposium are important because they address three processes that are critical to the development of a knowledge base. In addition to presenting computer science challenges, knowledge base formulation also presents human factors challenges, for example, understanding cognitive problem-solving processes, representing uncertain information, and defining human-expert system interface problems. This symposium will provide a forum for discussion of both types of challenges.
Portability of an Expert System Knowledge Base
Authors: Haverda Tony H. , Reitmeyer Peter B. , Ellis Newton C.
Published: January 2012

To ensure the widest possible use of an expert system knowledge base, the knowledge base, in its final form, must be portable to a broad spectrum of user operating environments. Demonstrating that possibility was the objective of the research reported in this paper. Three cognitive issues, knowledge representation, inference mechanisms and problem solving procedures, as they pertain to portability were examined. Structuring the portability question in terms of these cognitive issues, two commercially available expert system shells, EXSYS and TI PC+, were used to ferret out problems and suggest practical solutions. Results determined that it is possible to formulate a consistent model of domain information in a knowledge base which is portable between shells.
Differences in Performance and Preference for Object-Oriented vs. Bit-Mapped Graphics Interfaces
Authors: Mohageg Michael F.
Published: January 2012

This study used a standardized evaluation to compare two direct manipulation graphics interfaces: (1) object-oriented (vector) graphics and (2) bit-mapped graphics (object-oriented graphics interfaces are not to be confused with object-oriented programming or object-oriented data bases). Experienced and novice subjects performed objectively derived benchmark tasks appropriate for two-dimensional graphics packages. Both performance and preference data were collected. Task completion time, aborted attempts, learning effects, and errors constituted the performance measures. For the preference data, subjects completed questionnaires to rate the interfaces on both an absolute and a relative basis. Results indicate the superiority of the object-oriented graphics interface to the bit-mapped interface for most tasks, especially manipulation (e.g., scaling, moving, etc.) of graphics. The implications of these results for the use of direct manipulation graphics interfaces are discussed.
Use of Microcomputers to Teach Human-Factors Engineering: New Directions
Authors: Stricker Andrew G. , Grunzke Paul M. , Huck Schuyler , Macomber Gary
Published: January 2012

Assorted software used to assess and instruct students in human-factors courses is presented. Both in-house and commercially available software were selected on the basis of their innovative approaches to the microcomputer learning environment. Also, software samples are presented which illustrate the teaching of cognitive-behavioral skills in addition to the domain knowledge.
Risk Perception and Use of Warnings
Authors: Leonard S. David , Hill G. William , Karnes Edward W.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of the studies was to develop information about how the general public perceives the degree of danger represented by signal words in warnings. Although many organizations have guidelines for the determination of what signal words are to be used with specific hazards, these are usually unknown to the public. For 15 items that had been rated for the seriousness of risk, 288 subjects were asked to indicate which signal word they would use to inform others of the hazard. Signal words that had been found to rate high in seriousness by Leonard, Karnes, and Schneider (1988) tended to be used more with items rated as higher risks. Differences were found among age groups with older subjects using signal words that carried more serious connotations. The possible warnings that might be used were discussed.
Teleoperator Interfaces for Remote Control Centers/Test Beds
Authors: Parsons H. Mcllvaine
Published: January 2012

A survey has been conducted to create a data base of design aspects of human-machine interfaces in remote control centers and test beds for teleoperated vehicles, which are a proliferating technology challenging human factors engineers and scientists. Such vehicles, some of which carry manipulators as well as sensors, can be viewed as a subset of robotics.
MIPS and BIPS are Megaflops: Limits of Unidimensional Assessments
Authors: Banks William W. , Pihlman Michael
Published: January 2012

We believe that a failure to incorporate human performance measures into system test protocols will result in imprecise and incomplete data when attempting to estimate field test performance from a total systems perspective. Traditional methods of evaluating local area network performance generally refer to the network's throughput, time delays, data rate (BIPS), or media access protocol efficiency. These measures are quite acceptable when determining point-to-point benchmark network performance but do not take into account the more global man-machine performance issues associated with people using network systems to perform tasks and execute functions concurrently within a “total systems” context. This paper experimentally compares differences in human productivity/efficiency while using: 1) an existing data gathering system consisting of several geographically distributed, unconnected, and disparate mainframes; and 2) a prototype Intelligent Gateway (Local Area Network) connecting mainframes and offering the user less complexify in procedure execution and an easy to use interface. Tests were conducted with volunteer users in a repeated measures experimental design. Each test subject was randomly assigned to each of two conditions and required to execute routine tasks with each of two systems. ANOVA results revealed significant differences in task completion times and human error rates between the two systems. An increase in human productivity/efficiency was observed using the gateway LAN. We propose to extend the traditional computer performance measurement (monitoring) boundaries, which now encompass only the network hardware, to include an overall “input-to-output” local area network performance measure, combining both measures of user productivity and network performance. A discussion of trade-offs between unidimensional assessment methods using large sample sizes and multiple methods with small sample sizes is also presented. We further believe that without the addition of specific behavioral measures, MIPS and BIPS are truly Megaflops.
Effects of Fatigue on Muscle Groups under Dynamic Exertions
Authors: Mirka Gary A. , Sommerich Carolyn M. , Marras William S.
Published: January 2012

The present study was a quantitative investigation into the substitution patterns and other fatigue-related characteristics of the muscles of the upper leg during dynamic activity. Subjects performed fatigue-inducing leg extensions under varied force and velocity conditions. Electromyographic (EMG) data revealed subject dependent muscle substitution patterns that varied as a function of force/velocity combinations. The results also indicate an interaction between leg angle dependent variables and fatigue. Explanations for these effects are discussed.
A Psychophysical Study of Two-Person Manual Material Handling Tasks
Authors: Johnson Steven L. , Lewis David M.
Published: January 2012

Over the past ten years, there has been extensive work performed on the development of guidelines for manual material handling tasks both within individual companies and within governmental agencies. However, these guidelines address only individual, one-person lifting tasks. In both manufacturing and service industries, there are many team lifting tasks, such as furniture moving and at loading docks. This paper presents the results of a study that used psychophysical methods to investigate lifting tasks that require two workers. In addition to simple lifting tasks, the study also compared one and two-person carrying tasks. The results of the study indicate that subjects' judgments of their lifting capability are significantly greater for the two-person lifts than for the individual lifts. The same relationship was observed for the carrying tasks. These results and conclusions are important to consider when it is necessary to extrapolate from the conditions used in the development of manual material handling guidelines to other situations such as team lift carrying tasks.
Glove Size and Material Effects on Task Performance
Authors: Chen Yuxiang , Cochran David J. , Bishu Ram R. , Riley Michael W.
Published: January 2012

Two experiments were conducted to measure the effect of glove size and material on task performance. The first experiment tested the glove size and material effects on a maximum torque exertion task while the second experiment tested the glove size and material effect on a small parts assembly task. The results of the first experiment showed that for the maximum exertion task, the glove size had no significant effect while the glove material did have a significant effect. For the assembly task the results indicated that glove size and material combination may be important to performance.
The Use of Force Sensing Resistors in Ergonomic Tool Design
Authors: Fellows Gerald L. , Freivalds Andris
Published: January 2012

With more leisure time and greater reliance on the fix-it-yourself approach, more and more people, will be using hand tools. The proper ergonomic design, as related to grip force exerted and fatigue generated, is an important consideration for these tools. To measure grip force distribution, Force Sensing Resistors were calibrated appropriately, placed on two different grip type (wood and foam) and interfaced to a personal computer. Results of a lopping task, indicated a very uneven distribution in grip pressure. In all cases, grip force decreased with time while forearm flexor muscle EMG increased with time, indicating fatigue buildup. Forearm EMG for the foam grip was significantly lower than for the wooden grip. Most subjects also strongly preferred the foam grip.
Validation of a Hand/Wrist Electromechanical Goniometer
Authors: Schoenmarklin Richard W. , Marras William S.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a new hand/wrist electromechanical goniometer that measures wrist angle, velocity, and acceleration in the radial/ulnar and flexion/extension planes. The research objectives of this paper were to validate the angle and motion measures from this goniometer. The results of this research show that the coefficient of variation of the angle measured by the goniometer and the angle measured by a video-based Motion Analysis system was 3%. By smoothing the voltage data three times in software, the goniometer estimated well the velocity and acceleration measures under controlled dynamic conditions. Three smoothing repetitions appear to be the best smoothing regimen for the goniometer because it reduced signal noise while still maintaining the sensitivity of the velocity and acceleration output. Overall, the goniometer is an easy-to-use, accurate system of measuring wrist angle and motion. This goniometer will be used to build a database of wrist motion in industrial tasks.
Intended versus Actual Behavior: Results from the Air Force Aviation Bonus Program
Authors: Derrick William L. , Fuller Michael J.
Published: January 2012

To assess the validity of survey data collected from computer assisted telephone interviews (CATI) for the prediction of retention behavior, data from 754 AF pilots were collected at two points in time. In January 1988 these pilots took part in a CATI study that revealed their intentions to sign contracts for additional years of military service in return for bonus payments of up to $12,000 per year. Beginning in January 1989, these pilots were offered aviation bonus contracts, similar to those studied with the CATI, under the Aviator Continuation Pay (ACP) program enacted by Congress. Two key variables from the survey—career intent and bonus intent—were very accurate in predicting ACP behavior at both the aggregate and the entity levels.
Technology for Computer-Supported Meetings
Authors: Mack Lisbeth A.
Published: January 2012

The emerging field of computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) encompasses many different aspects of group work, from face-to-face meetings to video-conferences to asynchronous collaboration. Support for meetings as one form of group work has been the object of some important early CSCW research. Several existing facilities have been designed for computer-supported face to face meetings using advanced computer hardware, software and audio/visual equipment. Technology for supporting other aspects of CSCW is also beginning to emerge. Plans for the Collaboration Technology project, a joint venture between Andersen Consulting, The University of Michigan and Steelcase, Inc., include flexible and friendly computer support for meetings and for other aspects of group work.
Ergonomic and Environmental Aspects of Computer Supported Cooperative Work
Authors: Cornell Paul , Luchetii Robert
Published: January 2012

In this paper we review the contribution that ergonomics and environments make to CSCW facilities. The environments of five leading labs are discussed and summarized. The design objectives and requirements that have guided our approach are presented. Two early prototype workstations are described and critiqued. The second generation design is also described. Our plans for future workstations and environments conclude the paper.
Stress and Cognitive Performance in Trainee Pilots
Authors: Stokes Alan F. , Raby Mireille
Published: January 2012

The study reported here is part of a continuing program of research into pilot decision-making based on an information processing model of human decision-making under task-related stress. This model posits, inter alia, that experts and novices in a knowledge domain adopt different cognitive strategies in solving decision problems, and that these strategies are differentially affected by stress. The present experiment examined the effect of task-related stress upon aviation-relevant cognitive skills in trainee instrument pilots using SPARTANS, an automated test battery. The battery was administered under stress and control conditions, providing data on the effects of the stress manipulation upon putative cognitive components of decision-making independent of the criterion task - simulated flight using the MIDIS microcomputer system. The results provide evidence of stress related decrements in working memory, flexibility of closure, and spatial processes, but not in the retrieval of declarative knowledge. These results are discussed in the light of the model's predictions and previous empirical results using MIDIS.
Relationship between Intelligence and Criterion Task Set Performance
Authors: Gilliland Kirby , Schlegel Robert , Dannels Sharon , Mills Scott
Published: January 2012

Intelligence has been shown to be a mediating factor in the performance of many tasks. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) scores and performance on a multi-task performance battery, the USAF Criterion Task Set (CTS). Performance scores for high and low WAIS-R groups (N=26/group) were compared across each task component of the CTS. Results of this study indicate that there is a fairly strong relationship between intelligence, as measured by WAIS-R, and performance on the CTS central processing tasks. Subjects scoring high on the WAIS-R are likely to be more accurate and faster in their responses than subjects who scored low on the WAIS-R. Verbal and performance subscales of the WAIS-R did not appear to mediate task performance differentially. In general, WAIS-R performance does not seem to be related to perceptual input tasks or motor/output tasks of the CTS battery.
Consumer Product Warnings: Review and Analysis of Effectiveness Research
Authors: DeJoy David M.
Published: January 2012

This paper provides a critical review of recent research (1984-1988) on the effectiveness of consumer product warnings. The majority of available data come from laboratory studies of college students, and wide variations in effectiveness have been reported. The perceived hazardousness of the product, its familiarity, and the ease of complying with the warning all appear to be important factors. Some preliminary trends have emerged concerning the contribution of various message attributes; however, these factors do not appear to be as important as the user's product-related expectations. The implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.
A Laboratory Simulation of Selected in-Field Influences on Hearing Protector Performance
Authors: Park M. Y. , Casali J. G.
Published: January 2012

Overestimation of hearing protector noise attenuation, as based on laboratory-obtained data, combined with several in-field factors which often degrade protector performance, poses the threat of underprotection for the user. This research investigated the effects of several work-related factors, including wearing time, movement activity, and fitting procedure, on the frequency-specific attenuation achieved with a foam cushion earmuff, two types of earplugs, (slow-recovery foam and flanged polymer), and an earmuff over foam earplug combination. Using a real-ear-attenuation-at-threshold testing procedure, attenuation data were collected from 40 subjects at nine test frequencies. Occluded thresholds were obtained before, during, and after the movement activity task, so that the effects of wearing time and task activity could be determined. The tasks were designed to elicit movements akin to those performed in the typical industrial workplace. The results indicated that achieved attenuation was significantly decreased as a function of time, and that trained-fit provided noticeably greater attenuation than subject-fit without training, though these changes were device-specific. Overall, the study illuminated the strong influence of in-field factors on hearing protector effectiveness, and demonstrated the need for laboratory attenuation tests which yield more realistic results.
The Nature and Causes of Human Errors in a Medical Intensive Care Unit
Authors: Gopher Daniel , Olin Miriam , Badihi Yehuda , Cohen Gilat , Donchin Yoel , Bieski Michal , Cotev Shamay
Published: January 2012

The articel presents the main outcomes and conclusions of a two year research effort directed to study the causes of human errors in a Respiratory Intensive Care Unit (ICU). In the course of the study, doctors and nurses recorded errors in treatment routines that were committed during their daily work. Over a period of 4 months we collected 554 errors, which were independently judged for their criticality. In addition, 46, twenty-four hour, observations were conducted, of all activities at a patient bed. A total of 8178 activities were recorded over the 46 observations. We also performed: a detailed human factors analysis of the patient bed as a work station. It was found that the dominant cause of errors are problems related to complete and clear documantation and transfer of information between staff members. Additional causes were lack of standatization in equipment composition and layout, as well as absence of adequate marking and labeling. These problems seems” to be equally relevant to other ICU's visited by the team. Remedial steps are presently being implemented.
Night Time Shape Recognition of Reflectorized Warning Plates as a Function of Full Reflectorization, Borders Only Reflectorization and Target Brightness
Authors: Zwahlen Helmut T. , Yu Jing , Xiong Shaolin , Li Qi , Rice John W.
Published: January 2012

A study, using 11 subjects sitting in a stationary car on an unused airport runway with low beams on, was conducted to determine the distance at which a shape coded, white, reflectorized warning plate can be recognized at night as a function of the amount of reflectorization (either fully reflectorized or borders only reflectorized) and as a function of target brightness. Recognition distances were recorded for a balanced and randomized combination of 30 experimental conditions consisting of 3 different specific intensity levels of target brightness (high, prismatic sheeting material, 1080 cd/fc/sg ft at .2 degree observation angle and −4 degrees entrance angle; medium, encapsulated lens, 305 cd/fc/sq ft; and low, embedded or enclosed lens, 105 cd/fc/sq ft), 5 different target shapes of equal area (18 square inches, rectangle, square, triangle, circle and octagon), and two different types of reflectorization (targets that were fully reflectorized and targets that had only 4.25 square inches along their borders reflectorized). A car heading of −3 degrees to the left was used for the experiment to maximize target illumination. The results indicate that increasing target brightness had either no effect or only a small detrimental effect on correct target recognition distances for both the full reflectorization and borders only reflectorization, and that the triangle (the object with the fewest and longest sides) was recognized at the largest distance and with the fewest errors for both the full reflectorization and borders only reflectorization. The embedded or enclosed lens sheeting material transmitted the most information and produced the highest percentage of correct responses. Targets with the borders only reflectorized were also recognized further away than the fully reflectorized targets (15% futher for 23.6% reflectorization). Implications of these results for the design of shape coded reflectorized warning plates for night use for both traffic and industrial settings are discussed.
Recognizability and Effectiveness of Warning Symbols and Pictorials
Authors: Mayer David L. , Laux Lila F.
Published: January 2012

In this study we sought to determine the relative effectiveness of pictograms for a group of 139 subjects ranging in age from 17 to 83. We gave a pictogram identification task for 16 pictograms from the Westinghouse Product Safety Label Handbook (1981) to subjects. Pictogram identification ranged from 100% to completely unrecognizable. Generally, pictorials which depicted simple, clearly identifiable hazards or protective equipment were more identifiable than symbols. Pictograms which showed the injury occurring to a hand rather than the entire human figure were also more recognizable. Finally, to explore more than simple pictograms identification, we presented subjects with three pictograms: We asked half of the subjects to list all of the ways they could be hurt, injured or killed as well as any precautions they would take while using a product displaying one of the pictograms. The other half of the subjects endorsed precautions that they would observe on a checklist of possible precautions. In general, subjects were able to name at least one of the hazards associated with each graphic, but they generally did not name all of the hazards for a given pictogram. Sex and age effects are commented on in the paper.
A Developmental Analysis of Warning Signs: The Case of Familiarity and Gender
Authors: Goldhber Gerald M. , deTurck Mark A.
Published: January 2012

Three NO DIVING signs were placed at one middle and one high school in suburban Buffalo and one middle and one high school served as controls (no signs). A total of 864 students participated in the study. It was found that males were more likely than females to notice the signs, but that males tended to perceive less danger associated with shallow water diving than females. High school males were much more likely than females to dive into the shallow end of their school's pool, especially when the NO DIVING signs were present. In addition, students with a history of diving into the shallow end of their school's pool were much more likely to notice the NO DIVING signs than students who never dove into the shallow end of the pool. Moreover, compared to students who never dove into the shallow end of their school's pool, students with a history of diving into the shallow end of their school's pool tended to perceive less danger and were more likely to dive into the shallow end of the pool again. It appears that warning signs are less effective with high school students than with middle school students.
MPTS Methodology in the Navy: Enhanced Hardman
Authors: Malone Thomas B.
Published: January 2012

Enhanced HARDMAN constitutes the Navy's implementation of the DoD Directive 5000.53 “Manpower, Personnel, Training and Safety (MPTS) in the Defense System Acquisition Process”. Enhanced HARDMAN integrates the domains of human engineering, manpower, personnel and training (MPT), and life support and safety through: 1) a front-end analysis applicable to all domains and to the integration of domain requirements; 2) a consolidated data base applying to all domains; 3) acquisition of lessons learned for all domains; and 4) application of Enhanced HARDMAN measures of effectiveness and T&E activities addressing all domains. The elements of Enhanced HARDMAN are: a standardized and formalized Enhanced HARDMAN process addressing MPTS activities and products at each phase of the weapon system acquisition process; a consolidated Enhanced HARDMAN data base; automated Enhanced HARDMAN analysis tools; Enhanced HARDMAN analyst productivity tools; and a report generator for producing Enhanced HARDMAN plans and reports.
Human Factors Engineering Methodologies in Submarine Combat Systems Concept of Operations Experiments
Authors: Kanter Mark F. , O'Brien Frank J.
Published: January 2012

Concept of Operations Experiments (COOPEXs) are conducted at the Naval Underwater Systems Center to evaluate submarine combat system operability through structured walkthroughs of submarine missions in a full-scale replica of the combat system environment. Data were collected from one COOPEX for the purpose of piloting human factors engineering methodologies. Partial results based on a different COOPEX scenario are reported and compared. The data reduction and analysis procedures of digraph analysis, Q-analysis, multidimensional scaling and crew density were applied to assess combat system information flow and configuration effectiveness. Results revealed the potential for significantly enhancing submarine combat system performance when applied to larger, more complex data sets. Plans for subsequent research are discussed.
The Case for Micro-models
Authors: Glenn Floyd
Published: January 2012

This paper examines the appropriate role of human performance micro-models in simulations of human-machine system operations. Requirements for general human micro-models are considered relative to the objectives of simulation studies, the conditions under which simulations are constructed and used, the status of human performance data bases and models, and the features provided with general-purpose simulation software. This investigation focuses particularly on a new simulation tool for simulating human-machine systems; it is known as the Human Operator Simulator – Version V (HOS-V). A general design principle of HOS-V has been to provide embedded human performance micro-models for the basic performance processes that seem most pervasive and interactive with other processes. These include representations for processes of body movement, cognition, and attention. Key to these representations are the substructures in each area. Body movement models describe locations of body parts and constraints on their movement. Cognition models describe how the human processes information through perception, memory, decision-making, and action initiation. The attention model describes how a limited attentional resource is allocated to the various body movement and cognition processes, each of which has a defined attentional requirement. Plans for implementation of micro-model components of HOS-V are discussed.
A Measure of Effectiveness (MOE) Method and Software Aid, with a Case Study of a Soviet Artillery Unit
Authors: Connelly Edward M. , Myers Kent C. , Golden Michael G.
Published: January 2012

A Measure of Effectiveness (MOE) is a criterion. A system that scores well according to the criterion will be accepted as effective, meaning that it achieves what is intended. This seems simple, but in fact well-meaning managers can fail to find an adequate measure, are unclear about what is intended for the system, and may even misidentify the system. The method described here is a means to help avoid common mistakes.

With the method, a manager or analyst (a user) builds a model of his or her own effectiveness assessment strategy using specially designed interactive software. The user enters data prompted by the software and views feedback consisting of graphs and ordered lists describing the user's inputs in various ways. Feedback gives the users alternative viewpoints for their inputs.

As a case study, an MOE was constructed for a Soviet artillery unit within an attacking regiment.
Motion as an Instructional Feature in Maintenance Training
Authors: Llaneras Robert E. , Swezey Robert W. , Allen John A.
Published: January 2012

This paper draws upon both an extensive review of the literature, and a series of experiments manipulating motion-based (videotaped) versus static (35-mm slide) presentations of instructional material across a variety of instructional conditions. Performance measures in the experiments included both hands-on tasks and conceptual knowledge tests. Results indicated that electromechanical maintenance performance did not differ significantly between statically and dynamically trained groups across a variety of types and complexities of electromechanical maintenance tasks and instructional strategy conditions.
Training Potential Witnesses to Produce Higher Quality Face Composites
Authors: Marwitz D. Bradley , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

This study attempted to determine if training and familiarization with a face composite system would improve the quality of the produced composites. Subjects were trained in the use of the Mac-a-Mug Pro system over two sessions during which they constructed eleven composites (six from memory and five with the face in view). The results indicate that the composites produced while the target face was in view were significantly better than the composites produced from memory, and that both improved with practice. Initial training with the composite system prior to exposure to the first face or after the first face did not affect composite quality. These results have implications for the training of personnel at high risk of witnessing a crime.
Taming Complexity: Attempts at Analyzing and Documenting Operator Tasks for Sophisticated Software-Based Systems
Authors: Richards R. E.
Published: January 2012

As more and more work makes use of computers, the need for simple usable methods for analyzing and documenting computer-based operator tasks is increasing. Computer-based tasks can be very complex and difficult to analyze, describe, and train. Traditional methods for describing tasks are often inadequate. The purpose of this paper is to present two cases where methods were borrowed from software requirements definition and design and applied to analysis and documentation of operator tasks for complex software-based systems. The situation associated with each case is described. The methodology borrowed and adapted is then described and comments are made concerning the effectiveness of the approach. Finally, some summary comments are made.
Hue and Disparity Interactions in Advanced Stereoscopic Aircraft Displays
Authors: McClain James E.
Published: January 2012

With the increased complexity of aircraft systems and their environment, 3-D stereoscopic system/control displays will offer great advantage over conventional two-dimensional (2-D) displays by presenting information more consistent with the pilot's 3-D perceptual experience and stereotypes. For such displays the interaction of Chromostereopsis (perceived depth created by hues) and stereopsis (depth effect created by disparity between the left and right visual fields of the observer) is important. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the interaction of chromostereopsis and artificially stimulated stereopsis on a stereoscopic CRT by determining the level of accuracy with which subjects can properly interpret the relative depth differences of adjacent symbols containing one of a combination of six levels of hue and seven stereoscopic disparities.

This research demonstrated that hue, disparity, and the interaction of hue and disparity significantly influenced one's perception of depth on a stereoscopic monitor and that caution should be exercised by the stereoscopic 3-D display format designer when choosing hues to represent images located in close proximity on a stereoscopic display.
The Effects of Spatially Displaced Visual Feedback on Remote Manipulator Performance
Authors: Smith Randy L. , Stuart Mark A.
Published: January 2012

The objective of this preliminary investigation was to quantify the effects of spatially displaced visual feedback on the operation of a camera-viewed remote manipulation task. Operators performed a remote manipulation task while exposed to the following different viewing conditions: direct view of the work site (baseline condition); normal camera view (zero-degree displacement); reversed camera view (180-degree lateral displacement); inverted/reversed camera view; and inverted camera view. The task completion performance times were statistically analyzed with a repeated measures analysis of variance and it was determined that there was statistical significance ( p < 0.05) due to the main effect of the viewing conditions. A Newman-Keuls pairwise comparison test was then administered to the data and it was revealed that the performance times for the inverted camera view condition was significantly ( p < 0.05) worse than all of the other viewing condition times.
Attention in Dichoptic and Binocular Vision
Authors: Kimchi Ruth , Rubin Yifat , Gopher Daniel , Raij David
Published: January 2012

The ability of human subjects to mobilize attention and cope with task requirements under dichoptic and binocular viewing was investigated in an experiment employing a target search task. Subjects were required to search for a target at either the global level, the local level, or at both levels of a compound stimulus. The tasks were performed in a focused attention condition in which subjects had to attend to the stimulus presented to one eye/field (under dichoptic and binocular viewings, respectively) and to ignore the stimulus presented to the irrelevant eye/field, and in a divided attention condition in which subjects had to attend to the stimuli presented to both eyes/fields. Subjects' performance was affected mainly by attention conditions which interacted with task requirements, rather than by viewing situations. An interesting effect of viewing was found for the local-directed search task in which the cost of dividing attention was higher under binocular than under dichoptic viewing.
Multiple Resources versus Information Integration
Authors: Goettl Barry P. , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

The present study investigates the applicability of an information integration hypothesis developed by Wickens and Boles (1983), to display format and response configuration. Twenty paid subjects performed either a dual-task or an integration task. The tasks were similar in all respects with the exception of information integration requirements. Proximity was manipulated via display format and response configuration. Results of the display format manipulation supported a multiple resources interpretation while the effects of response configuration were consistent with the integration hypothesis. These results point to a possible limitation in applying the integration hypothesis to resource demands of displays, but suggest that the hypothesis may apply to response configuration.