bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sweet's syndrome after splenic irradiation for chronic myelogenous leukemia
Authors: Pertusi Raymond M. , Forman Mitchell D. , Brown Andrew C.
Published: October 2018

Sweet's syndrome is defined as acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis. Characteristic features are fever; peripheral neutrophilia; and painful cutaneous nodules and plaques on the face, neck, trunk, and limbs. Biopsy specimens of these lesions show a mature neutrophilic infiltrate of the dermis. Vasculitis is absent. Sweet's syndrome is associated with malignancy in approximately 20% of reported cases. The pathogenesis is unknown. The authors describe Sweet's syndrome in a 39year-old man 5 weeks after splenic irradiation for chronic myelogenous leukemia. Treatment with parenteral corticosteroids resulted in dramatic improvement of the patient's condition. The authors discuss the diagnosis of Sweet's syndrome and the fact that it is thought to be cytokine-induced.
Analysis of malignancy detected by needle-localized breast biopsy
Authors: Hillhouse Renee A , Norvill Keith A. , Buchanan Sam W. , McFaul Robert B. , Stone David A. , Wilson Charles T.
Published: October 2018

The medical records of 192 women with nonpalpable mammographically detected breast lesions who underwent needle-localized breast biopsy between January 1989 and January 1991 and between March 1992 and March 1994 were reviewed. Of the 192 patients examined, 100 underwent biopsy for evaluation of microcalcifications suggestive of malignancy. Ninety-two biopsies were performed for nonspecific radiodensities not inclusive of microcalcifications. This study examines the radiographic characteristics of the nonpalpable breast lesion. Although presence of microcalcifications on mammograms are an important finding in detection of breast carcinoma, it must not be considered pathognomonic. Other distinguishing factors require evaluation to assess the indication for biopsy. Central to this study was the presence of micro calcifications alone or as detected in association with a dominant mass. Cancer was discriminated in 38 (20%) of the patients studied. Mammographic findings with micro calcification, regardless of the presence of a mass, were found to be malignant in 20% of patients undergoing biopsy. Nine percent of biopsies done to evaluate rnicrocalcifications alone were malignant. The finding of microcalcification associated with a dominant mass proved malignant in 34% of patients who had a biopsy done. The authors include guidelines for increasing the effectiveness of needle-localized biopsies of the breast.
Metaplastic breast carcinoma
Authors: Smith David M. , Rongaus Val A. , Wehmann Thomas W. , Agarwal P.J. , Classen Gary J.
Published: October 2018

Metaplastic breast carcinoma, a rare entity, accounts for only about 0.02% of all breast carcinomas. It involves the transformation of mammary neoplasms into osteoid and chondroid substances. Because of the relatively small patient population and the limited number of controlled studies, there is confusion regarding its classification and staging. Its histogenesis is unknown. The authors describe a 65 year-old woman with findings consistent with metaplastic breast carcinoma. Theories as to etiology and prognosis as well as treatment are discussed.
Potential impacts of finfish aquaculture on eelgrass (Zostera marina) beds and possible monitoring metrics for management: a case study in Atlantic Canada
Authors: Cullain Nakia , McIver Reba , Schmidt Allison L. , Milewski Inka , Lotze Heike K.
Published: October 2018

Eelgrass (Zostera marina) has been designated an Ecologically Significant Species in Atlantic Canada. The development and rapid expansion of netpen finfish aquaculture into sensitive coastal habitats has raised concerns about the impacts of finfish aquaculture on eelgrass habitats. To date, no studies have been done in Atlantic Canada to examine these impacts or to identify potential monitoring variables that would aid in the development of specific conservation and management objectives. As a first step in addressing this gap, we examined differences in environmental variables, eelgrass bed structure and macroinfauna communities at increasing distances from a finfish farm in Port Mouton Bay, a reference site in adjacent Port Joli Bay, and published survey results from other sites without finfish farms along the Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia. Drawing on research done elsewhere and our results, we then identified possible metrics for assessing and monitoring local impacts of finfish aquaculture on eelgrass habitats. Our results suggest some nutrient and organic enrichment, higher epiphyte loads, lower eelgrass cover and biomass, and lower macroinfauna biomass closer to the farm. Moreover, community structure significantly differed between sites with some species increasing and others decreasing closer to the farm. Changes in the macroinfauna community could be linked to observed differences in environmental and eelgrass bed variables. These results provide new insights into the potential impacts of finfish aquaculture on eelgrass habitats in Atlantic Canada. We recommend a suite of measures for assessment and monitoring that take into account response time to disturbance and account for different levels of eelgrass organizational response (from physiological to community).
ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ РУСЛООБРАЗУЮЩИХ НАНОСОВ В РЕКАХ С ЛЕДНИКОВЫМ ПИТАНИЕМ (НА ПРИМЕРЕ Р. АКТРУ, АЛТАЙ), "Геоморфология"
Authors: Тарбеева А.М. , Виноградова Н.Н. , Крыленко И.В. , Сурков В.В.
Published: October 2018

Анализируется изменение состава руслоообразующих наносов реки Актру (Северо-Чуйский хребет), берущей начало из ледников, на протяжении первых 8 км ее течения. Ледники отступают, что притворит к удлинению речной сети и формированию новых русел. На 18 пробных площадках изучались гранулометрический состав и морфология обломков. Для р. Актру, также, как и для исследованных ранее авторами рек Прильбрусья (Кавказ), характерно деление на высотные зоны, с разными продолжительностью и условиями формирования русел и наносов. В приледниковой зоне формируются первичные русла с большими уклонами и порожисто-водопадным руслом, пассивно приспосабливающимся к неровностям моренного рельефа. Они выстланы крупным материалом плохо сортированным и почти неокатанным. Зона верхнего течения или активной экзогенной переработки характеризуется уменьшением уклонов, ступенчатостью продольного профиля. Увеличение мощности потока способствует активизации транспорта наносов и интенсивности их переработки. Наносы в речных руслах формируются, в основном, в результате переработки флювиогляциальных и аллювиально-селевых отложений. Уменьшается средний диаметр материала наносов, сильно увеличивается их окатанность. Для рек Алтая, по сравнению с реками Приэльбрусья, характерны меньшие уклоны, меньшее влияние селей, меньшая крупность наносов, а протяженность приледниковой зоны больше, что обусловлено особенностями климата, рельефа и геологического строения, присущими каждому из регионов.
A
bel,
O
thenio
Authors: Smith Fred H.
Published: October 2018

Othenio Abel (1875–1946) was a leading vertebrate paleontologist during the early twentieth century. Based in Austria, he was a co‐founder of the “paleobiological” approach to the study of ancient life, which re‐envisioned paleontology as a subfield of biology rather than geology. Abel is known for proposing that pygmy mammoth remains were the source of the legend of Cyclops in Greek mythology. He was a prolific author and received many awards and citations for his work. Abel's scientific accomplishments are somewhat overshadowed by his apparently fervent anti‐Semitism and support for National Socialism.
Quantitative genetics
Authors: von Cramon‐Taubadel Noreen , Schroeder Lauren
Published: October 2018

Quantitative genetics is the study of the inheritance and evolution of continuous characteristics, coded for by many gene loci (polygenic) that interact (pleiotropy) in complex ways. Quantitative trait variation is a function of both genetic and environmental variance. The ability of a quantitative trait to respond to a selective pressure is intimately linked with its underlying additive genetic variance. Multivariate extensions of this principle take into consideration the fact that quantitative traits covary with each other (integration), thereby facilitating or limiting the effects of selection on individual traits in complex ways. Models developed to test for the effects of neutral diversification among taxa have been applied to extant primates, modern humans, and fossil hominins. In cases where such models are rejected, methods exist for establishing the effects of selection on the phenotype, taking trait covariance into account. Quantitative genetics is the basic conceptual toolkit for understanding how morphology evolves.
Admixture
Authors: Sams Aaron J. , Hawks John
Published: October 2018

Admixture is the spread of genetic material from one population into another population, which is one pattern of the more general phenomenon of gene flow. Human populations have admixed repeatedly and increasingly during their history. The study of genetic admixture is important for understanding the social determinants of historical population movements and interactions, and is increasingly a part of individual genealogical research. Ancestry informative markers (AIMs) are genetic variants that have high levels of difference between populations around the world, and thereby provide a means of examining the ancestry of people from different admixed source populations.
Allometry and body size
Authors: Plavcan J. Michael
Published: October 2018

Allometry is the study of size and its consequences. The study of allometry is fundamental to understanding how animals' shape, physiology, life history, and even behavior change with changing body size. Allometric studies focus on comparisons both across species and within species, to test hypotheses about adaptation, to discover how body size helps determine animals' form and function, and to control for the impact of body size when comparing form and life‐history characters. Allometric analyses are essential for reconstructing body size from skeletal remains, and also play an important role in understanding how shape changes with growth.
Anagenesis
Authors: Holliday Trenton W.
Published: October 2018

Anagenesis is a nonbranching form of speciation, or speciation within a single evolutionary lineage. It is not considered a valid mode of speciation by all biologists, but is widely recognized in paleontology, where lineages are broken into early and late paleospecies. These paleospecies are distinguished via their morphology, but the (often subtle) differences between them are hypothesized to be due to the gradual accumulation of microevolutionary changes over evolutionary time periods. As such, the “boundaries” between paleospecies are by definition arbitrary. Potential examples of anagenesis in human evolution include the relationship between the ca. 4.2–3.9 million‐year‐old (Ma)
Australopithecus anamensis
and later (ca. 3.8–3.0 Ma)
Australopithecus afarensis
, and between the 430 thousand‐year‐old (kya) Sima de los Huesos fossils (
Homo heidelbergensis
?) and the ca. 200–30 kya
Homo neanderthalensis
.
Andrews, Roy Chapman
Authors: Lee Christine
Published: October 2018

Roy Chapman Andrews (1884–1960) was a zoologist, paleontologist, explorer, and author. He led the Central Asiatic Expeditions sponsored by the American Museum of Natural History across southern Mongolia from 1922 to 1928. The original purpose of the expeditions was to look for the origins of modern humans. Instead they discovered dinosaur eggs, new species of dinosaurs, and some of the earliest mammal fossils.
Angel,JohnLawrence
Authors: Buikstra Jane E.
Published: October 2018

John Lawrence Angel (1915–86) made key contributions to mid‐twentieth‐century physical anthropology through research about ancient peoples of the eastern Mediterranean and North America. He developed a problem‐oriented research program that continues to influence skeletal biology today. In addition, his astute observations of behavioral correlates in skeletal structures advanced both forensic anthropology and human osteology. Born in England, Angel was educated in the United States. He taught both anatomy and anthropology before joining the staff of the United States National Museum of Natural History, where he worked for 24 years.
Anthropogenic landscapes
Authors: Spehar Stephanie N.
Published: October 2018

Many primates live in anthropogenic landscapes dominated by human activities such as agriculture and resource extraction. Such landscapes present altered ecological challenges and primates must respond flexibly to survive. Many do, exploiting novel foods like human crops and adjusting activity budgets and habitat use—although species‐specific features such as degree of dietary plasticity can influence capacity for rapid adaptation, and natural forest remains an important source of food and shelter for all species. In addition, overlap with humans can lead to human–primate conflict and hunting and increases the chance of disease transmission, and barriers to dispersal can cause genetic isolation. However, if natural forest access and connectivity is maintained and hunting is controlled, such landscapes can harbor relatively high densities of some species and have conservation value. Studying primates in anthropogenic habitats allows insight into primate behavioral flexibility and cognition and provides guidance for conservation strategies in a rapidly changing world.
Anthropoidea: conceptual history
Authors: Gunnell† Gregg F. , Miller Ellen R.
Published: October 2018

The fact that apes and monkeys have some human‐like qualities has been recognized by Western scholars since at least the time of ancient Greece, and the similarities were certainly evident long before then to anyone who had ever encountered an “anthropoid” primate. During the centuries between the time of Aristotle and Darwin, scholars documented numerous detailed morphological resemblances of humans to other primates, particularly the apes, but humans were considered apart from other primates because they were in possession of a soul. Thomas Henry Huxley was among the first to argue that humans were not biologically “special” with regard to the other apes, and therefore humans and apes should be classified together. This position was then formalized by St. George Mivart in 1864, when he gave the name, “Anthropoidea” to the primates with distinctly “humanlike” features, that is, monkeys, apes, and humans. Since that time, the concept of Anthropoidea has remained relatively stable, particularly for the living forms. However, new knowledge from the paleontological record, genomics, enhanced imaging capabilities, and shifts in larger scientific paradigms have sometimes altered views on the place of anthropoids within Primates, and which fossil taxa should be included in the group.
A
rmelagos,
G
eorge
Authors: van Gerven Dennis
Published: October 2018

George John Armelagos (1936–2014) was an American physical anthropologist whose career spanned over half a century. He made important contributions in a wide range of areas, including skeletal biology, paleopathology, paleodemography, nutrition, and the evolution of human infectious diseases.
Aryan: conceptual history
Authors: Arvidsson Stefan
Published: October 2018

The term “Aryan” has occupied a decisive position in the intellectual history of South Asia and the modern Western world. It has moreover played a deeply menacing part in the political history of Europe. During the heyday of the term, its meaning and reference was the object of a struggle between a linguistic and humanistic understanding of “Aryan” and racial, biological‐anthropological usage. This struggle was scholarly and scientific, and at the same time intertwined with the ideological self‐understanding of different groups. This article highlights the pivotal moments in the history of the concept and its relationship to similar terms such as “Nordic” and “Caucasian.”
M
ontagu,
A
shley
Authors: Marks Jonathan
Published: October 2018

Ashley Montagu (1905–99) was an Anglo‐American anthropologist and preeminent public intellectual in the mid‐twentieth century.
A
ustralia, human evolution
Authors: Pardoe Colin
Published: October 2018

Australia was colonized between 50,000 and 65,000+ years ago. Colonization models have addressed the origin of the first Australians, while the pattern and range of biological variation have increasingly been interpreted within evolutionary processes of adaptation, gene flow, and drift. The social context of research has become increasingly central to the discipline, and this has also led to reburial of many skeletal remains. Molecular genetics plays an increasingly important part in research, using DNA from both living peoples and ancestral remains.
B
ergmann's and
A
llen's Rules
Authors: James Gary D.
Published: October 2018

Ecogeographic rules developed by Karl Bergmann and Joel Asaph Allen in the nineteenth century were derived from a geometric evaluation of the most efficient form for maintaining core body temperature under varying thermal conditions. Bergmann's rule states that within a wide‐ranging morphologically variable homeothermic (warm‐blooded) species, larger body‐size variants will be found in the colder parts of the range and smaller variants will be found in the warmer parts of the range. Allen's rule similarly states that in wide‐ranging homeotherms, the length of appendages (arms, legs, etc.) is shorter in variants from colder climates, while they are longer in those from warmer climates. Several studies comparing populations globally appear to confirm that human morphological variation conforms to Bergmann's and Allen's rules. Fossil hominins appear to follow the rules as well. Results from most but not all physiological functional studies also support the rules.
Bertillon,Alphonse
Authors: Altes Kristina B. , Ost Andrea , Perez Dorianis , Constantino Audrey , Carpenter Kelsey , Ferguson Dreana , Bohne Carrie
Published: October 2018

Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914) developed the “signaletic” anthropometric system known asbertillonagethat was used to identify criminals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.Bertillonageis based on 11 anthropometric measurements, the combination of which was thought to be unique to the individual.Bertillonageas a criminal identification tool was eventually replaced by fingerprint analysis, which requires less training and equipment, is more individualizing, and can be performed in the absence of the individual in question. Alphonse Bertillon is also notable for introducing the “mug shot” photographic standard, and for pioneering forensic photography.
Bioarchaeology
Authors: Larsen Clark Spencer
Published: October 2018

Bioarchaeology is the study of human skeletons from archaeological contexts. When viewed in temporal, spatial, social, cultural, and environmental contexts, human skeletal remains provide a fund of information about the lives, lifeways, and living conditions of human ancestors. Bioarchaeologists study human remains in order to develop an understanding of behavior and behavioral inferences about conditions of life, including from individuals and from populations of individuals from cemeteries, regions, continents, and the world. These inferences are documented from an array of biomarkers employed to assess, in various ways, health and general well‐being; injuries sustained from accidents, interpersonal violence, and warfare; activity, workload, and mobility; masticatory and nonmasticatory functions of the teeth and jaws; diet and nutrition; and biological relatedness and social identity. The age‐at‐death of individuals comprising assemblages of skeletons and the growth, stasis, or decline of population size give meaning for understanding long‐term sustainability of communities and regions.
Biodistance
Authors: Stojanowski Christopher M.
Published: October 2018

Biodistance analysis uses skeletal phenotypes, most often of the cranium and dentition, to infer evolutionary processes and aspects of individual and group relatedness in archaeological contexts. The use of the skeleton as a genetic proxy has a long and complicated history in anthropology tied to typological approaches and race science. Modern biodistance research incorporates population genetic models more explicitly and avoids framing research questions in a typological manner. Biodistance has been used at multiple scales of analysis, from the global to the intracemetery. Larger scales of analysis address broad questions of migration and modern human emergence. Regional or site‐specific analyses are more bioarchaeological in orientation, and reconstruct patterns of gene flow, population boundaries, and site formation processes. Although an imperfect proxy, previous work at multiple scales of analysis has shown biodistance to approximate genetic signatures within human populations.
Biological determinism
Authors: Ellison George T. H. , de Wet Thea
Published: October 2018

Biological determinism is the tendency to view human social phenomena (at the individual, group, and societal level) as the products of biological causes. It can be traced back to the earliest philosophical ideas regarding the biological basis of human nature, and it has played an important role in the interpretation of scientific advances in human anatomy, physiology, and genetics. By privileging biological over environmental causes, biological determinism plays a key role in the “nature versus nurture” debate—suggesting that social phenomena are essential, natural, and immutable and therefore only subject to limited modification by the contexts from which these have emerged and in which these are expressed. These features have placed biological determinism at the center of scientific and popular claims regarding the biological nature of social divisions, including gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and disability (among others). The limits these claims place on individual (and group) agency have been criticized on both scientific and philosophical grounds—first, because many such claims mistake phenotypic and genotypic traits as predominantly prescriptive and insensitive to environmental modification; and second, because they involve logical fallacies and cognitive errors that are prone to social and political bias, and serve to “naturalize” pernicious social effects.
Biomechanics/mechanobiology
Authors: Ryan Timothy M.
Published: October 2018

Bone serves important structural and metabolic roles in vertebrates. While biomechanical analyses of bone provide insights into the functional adaptations of organisms using the methods and theories of engineering mechanics, mechanobiology seeks to understand the underlying cellular and tissue level mechanisms of mechanotransduction, bone modeling and remodeling, and bone functional adaptation. Skeletal elements are made up of two types of bone tissue—cortical bone and trabecular bone—and it is the size, shape, and distribution of cortical and trabecular bone that largely determines the structural and mechanical behavior of bones. Studies of bone biomechanics and skeletal variation within biological anthropology provide insights into morphological adaptations and behavioral patterns in the archaeological and paleoanthropological records.
Bipedalism
Authors: DeSilva Jeremy M. , McNutt Ellison J.
Published: October 2018

Humans are the only extant mammals that are obligate bipeds. This unique form of locomotion frees the hands from locomotor responsibilities and is energetically economical, but is not without its costs. The fossil record clearly indicates that habitual bipedalism had evolved approximately 4 Ma; however, there is tantalizing evidence that upright walking may go farther back into the Pliocene, or even into the Miocene. Recent fossils demonstrate that the evolution of bipedalism was not a simple, linear process, but that there was diversity in bipedal locomotion among Plio‐Pleistocene australopiths, and even among the genus
Homo
. Despite gains in our understanding of bipedal evolution, many questions remain, including when exactly our ancestors took their first steps, the bodily form from which bipedalism evolved, and why this unusual form of locomotion was selectively advantageous.
Blood groups
Authors: Meier Robert J.
Published: October 2018

Human blood groups have been under study since the original discovery of the ABO system in 1900. Over the years, some 35 blood groups have been found, and many of these have been of particular interest to biological anthropologists, such as the Rh, MNSs, Diego, Duffy, and HLA systems. An early application of blood group data was to classify human races. However, this approach has been discarded in favor of employing genetic information derived from blood typing to investigate microevolutionary processes (natural selection, gene flow, mutation, and random genetic drift) that have operated within and between human populations. Another application has been to examine the associations that have been found between blood groups and diseases. These associations occur in terms of increasing both the susceptibility to and the protection from certain diseases. With the advancement of molecular methods, DNA sequencing of blood groups offers increased precision in population study and disease association research.
Body fat patterning
Authors: Bender Richard L.
Published: October 2018

Body fat patterning refers to the distribution of adipose (fat) tissues throughout the human body. Fat is not uniformly distributed throughout the body. Adipose tissues can be found in varying proportions in the limbs (arms and legs) versus the trunk (chest and abdomen), or in the upper body versus the lower body. Furthermore, adipose tissues may variously be deposited under the surface of the skin (subcutaneous) or concentrated between the major organs of the abdominal cavity (visceral). Anthropologists use anthropometric measures such as subcutaneous skinfold thicknesses and body circumferences to assess body fat patterning. Important indices include the subscapular:triceps skinfold ratio, a measure of trunk versus limb fat deposition, and the waist circumference, a measure of abdominal fat deposition. Adult females and males differ in body fat patterning, with female adipose tissues concentrated in the lower body and breasts, and male adipose tissues concentrated in the trunk. Population‐level differences in body fat patterning are mediated by socioeconomic status, diet, and lifestyle factors. Body fat patterning is linked to differential health outcomes, with centralized visceral adiposity being a strong predictor of hypertension, type II diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease.
Brachiation: conceptual history
Authors: Tuttle Russell H.
Published: October 2018

The agent‐noun “brachiator” was first employed by Richard Owen in 1859 to distinguish gibbons from knuckle‐walking great apes. Subsequent application of the term and its derivatives expanded to include a variety of monkeys and theoretical human ancestors. Observations on forest‐dwelling gibbons and a host of other primates indicate that the forelimb suspensory locomotion of gibbons is unique, and the morphological features that functional morphologists thought were primarily related to arm‐swinging locomotion more commonly facilitate vertical climbing and versatile foraging among flexible branches. Current fossil evidence does not strongly support theories of hominid evolution that include major stages of brachiation (sensu stricto) and knuckle‐walking.
Brain development
Authors: Sherwood Chet C.
Published: October 2018

The primate brain undergoes developmental changes in morphology, cellular composition, connectivity, and molecular expression. During ontogeny, environmental and social factors shape the maturation of brain structure and function. Primates are especially dependent on learning to navigate their complex social world, requiring neural plasticity. Evolutionary changes in the timing of developmental events, such as brain growth rate, synaptogenesis, and myelination, might underlie differences in cognition and learning among primate species.
Brain evolution (primate)
Authors: Preuss Todd M.
Published: October 2018

Modern neuroscientific research has begun to reveal the evolutionary specializations of primate brains. The evolution of ancestral primate brain organization, as reconstructed from comparative data, involved not only brain enlargement but also profound changes in internal brain organization, including the addition of new cortical areas, modifications of old areas, and the evolution of new cortical systems. These structures and systems were modified further in anthropoid evolution. Evolutionary specializations of primates and primate subgroups have been identified at every level of brain structure and involve virtually every functional domain, including sensory, motor, limbic, and higher‐order regions. Some of the most prominent changes involve the visual system and changes in higher‐order transcortical networks involving the prefrontal, parietal, and temporal association regions. These modern findings challenge traditional ideas about the continuity of neural and mental organization across species.
Broom,Robert
Authors: Cartmill Matt
Published: October 2018

Robert Broom (1866–1951) was a physician, anatomist, and paleontologist of Scottish birth who worked most of his life in South Africa, where he made important collections and analyses of fossils representing early stem groups of the synapsids (the reptilian ancestors and relatives of early mammals) and the hominins (the australopithecine “man‐apes”).
Bushmeat
Authors: Jost Robinson Carolyn A.
Published: October 2018

The term bushmeat refers to any wild meat or game meat derived from wildlife species. While the term bushmeat is meant to include nonhuman primates, other mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, large‐bodied, terrestrial, and/or arboreal mammal species are most typically referenced. The representation of bushmeat and “the bushmeat crisis” as a primate‐centered issue stems primarily from the fragility of targeted slow‐reproducing ape species, specifically the African apes. “Crisis” representations are also tied to increasing demand, wealth, and burgeoning global economies of wildlife beyond habitat countries. Globally, bushmeat represents a major source of food and income for both rural and urban human populations. Research also demonstrates the fundamental importance of bushmeat to human nutrition and health in communities throughout the tropics. The cultural significance of food, specifically bushmeat, to local diets results in greater challenges for management programs which must integrate complex sets of information across ecologies, economies, and cultures.
Cladogenesis
Authors: Holliday Trenton W.
Published: October 2018

Cladogenesis is branching speciation, in which a parental species gives rise to two or more daughter species. It is responsible for all of the taxonomic diversity among Earth's organisms. Cladogenesis is subdivided based on geography as follows: (1) sympatric speciation, in which the daughter species evolve in the same region as the parental species; (2) parapatric speciation, in which the daughter species evolve in an area contiguous to that of the parental species; and (3) allopatric speciation, in which the daughter species evolve in an area different from that of the parental species. Allopatric speciation is considered the most common mode of speciation, and can be divided into mode I allopatry, in which the daughter species are roughly equivalent in population size to the parental species, or mode II allopatry (peripatric speciation) in which a small peripheral isolate buds off the larger parental population. As cladogenesis is the emergence of species, there is a need to define what a species is, but there is little agreement among biologists on this point. In fact, some biologists have argued that the concept of species has outlived its usefulness.
Cladogram
Authors: Strait David S.
Published: October 2018

A cladogram is a branching diagram used to depict phylogeny, the pattern of evolutionary relationships between taxa. A cladogram provides information about recency of common ancestry, but does not provide direct information about the time during which the diversification of taxa may have taken place, or about any ancestor–descendant relationships between any of the taxa of interest. Rather, taxa in a cladogram are said to be closely related to each other when they are descended from a recent common ancestor, but are distantly related to each other when they are descended from a distant common ancestor.
Cognition (primate)
Authors: Dufour Valérie
Published: October 2018

Work from recent decades indicates that animals build some representation of their physical and social world. However, can animals reason from abstractions, concepts, and unobservable forces? Primates can extract general rules from observed or experienced associations. In the physical domain, they can reason about missing elements, plan ahead for future needs, and may even consider the role of causal agents. In the social domain, they also categorize relationships, deceive competitors, and know what others see or intend to do. One of the limits that can be detected in both the physical and social domains, however, is the lack of capacity to call upon unobservable forces such as gravity, solidity, or belief of others to explain their world.
Communication
Authors: Waller Bridget , Micheletta Jérôme
Published: October 2018

Communication is a crucial part of the life of primates. Primates communicate using various senses (sight, sound, touch, and smell) in order to negotiate their rich and complex social lives. Studying primate communication is important to help us understand how such complex communication arose in humans, and also to identify the key social and ecological pressures that have shaped the behavior of primates.
Cooperation and competition
Authors: Sussman† Robert W.
Published: October 2018

It is generally believed that competition drives evolution. Over generations, those individuals within a species who are stronger, prettier, or sexier or have specific “adaptive” traits have more offspring and thus pass on more genes for those traits. However, many results from behavioral, ecological, hormonal, and brain‐imaging studies offer a new perspective on social animals, especially primates and humans, and their proclivities for cooperation, sociality, and peace.
Copy number variants (CNV)
Authors: Klegarth Amy R. , Eisenberg Dan T. A.
Published: October 2018

Copy number variants (CNVs) are variants within the genome that arise from either duplication or deletion of a subset of an organism's genome. Within the human genome CNVs are now considered much more extensive than single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and are formed via a number of genomic mechanisms. Changes in CNVs influence phenotypes across a variety of organisms in both positive and detrimental ways, often via dosage effects of gene products. CNVs can be characterized using cytogenetic approaches, including karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and now microarray and next‐generation sequencing techniques. A particularly important CNV in primates was selected for during dietary shifts in hominin evolution that coincided with increased starchy diets, resulting in selection of additional copies ofAMY1in humans compared to extant ape species. CNVs have also been implicated in contributing to many diseases, including autism, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.
Craniology
Authors: von Cramon‐Taubadel Noreen
Published: October 2018

Craniology is a general term referring to the study of cranial (skull) form. Today, biological anthropologists and bioarchaeologists use measurements of human and nonhuman primate skulls (craniometry) to study a variety of phenomena, such as taxonomy, phylogeny, evolutionary processes, and population relatedness. However, craniology has a long history within anthropology, particularly as it relates to the creation and justification of human “racial types.” A combination of these racially‐motivated endeavors and a growing interest in comparative anatomy catalyzed the 19th‐century creation of large museum collections of primate skulls, as well as detailed schemes for measuring and characterizing variation in (primarily human) crania. Although the philosophical approach to craniology has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, anthropologists still make use of the cranial collections, specialist equipment (e.g., cranial calipers), and measuring schemes that resulted from these early craniological studies.
D
arwin,
C
harles
R.
Authors: Falk Dean
Published: October 2018

Charles Robert Darwin (February 12, 1809–April 19, 1882) was a British naturalist and geologist whose 1859 book
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
provided a seminal foundation for modern evolutionary theory. Darwin was from a wealthy family and was well educated. Many of his published revelations stemmed from a five‐year round‐the‐world voyage (1831–36), which he enjoyed as a young man on the HMS
Beagle
. During the voyage, Darwin collected and shipped home many scientific specimens, including the bodies of the birds (finches) he famously used to illustrate the concept of natural selection. While traveling, Darwin took copious notes and formulated ideas about the natural, as opposed to miraculous, origins of life and about the nature of the evolutionary processes that shaped different organisms through time.
The Origin of Species
generated international excitement among naturalists, the clergy, and the public. Darwin's theory was eventually combined with Gregor Mendel's discovery of the laws of genetics (unknown to Darwin) into a comprehensive theory that forms the backbone for contemporary evolutionary biology.
Developmental plasticity
Authors: Kuzawa Christopher
Published: October 2018

Developmental plasticity involves environmentally triggered change in the growth or development of a bodily or behavioral trait, and is generally nonreversible. It is an important source of human variation, and allows adaptation to diverse environments while also modifying risk for many diseases. The most plastic systems generate adaptations via an initial overproduction of redundant variants, which are retained if they are used, and removed if not. The central nervous and immune systems, and to a lesser extent traits like bone and muscle, develop from this principle. Fine‐tuning of developing structures in response to use and disuse allows few genes to generate many possible phenotypes in response to an individual's unique experiences. Other systems show heightened sensitivity during narrow windows of early development called critical periods, during which factors like nutrients or hormones permanently alter trait development. In mammals many critical periods occur during fetal life, creating opportunities for an intergenerational form of plasticity in which maternal experiences alter, and possibly guide, offspring development. Although developmental plasticity may slow the pace of genetic adaptation, recent work recognizes that new traits may first appear through plasticity, which leads the way for the gradual fixation or fine‐tuning of the trait through genetic adaptation.
Dominance and recessivity (genetic)
Authors: Quillen Ellen E.
Published: October 2018

Dominance was first described and named by Gregor Mendel in his well‐known studies of pea plants. In modern terms, Mendel's Law of Dominance describes the interaction between the two alleles of a gene in a given individual such that the dominant allele masks the influence of the recessive allele on the individual's phenotype. In addition to completely dominant and recessive, alleles may be incompletely dominant—resulting in an intermediate phenotype—or co‐dominant—resulting in the expression of both alleles simultaneously.
D
ryopithecus
Authors: Begun David R.
Published: October 2018

Dryopithecus
is a genus of Miocene ape known from Europe. In the past the nomen
Dryopithecus
was used for most fossil apes in Asia and Africa as well as Europe, in part to distinguish them from a few Miocene apes that were thought to be more directly related to humans. While
Dryopithecus
today technically refers to just one or perhaps a few species with very limited distribution, close relatives of
Dryopithecus
, the dryopithecins, were widespread in Europe from about 12.5 million years ago (Ma) to 9.5 Ma. This article summarizes the paleobiology and phylogeny of the dryopithecins. The author's research has led him to conclude that many Middle and Late Miocene apes from Europe should be included in the dryopithecini, a tribe of the Homininae (African apes and hominins).
D
ubois,
E
ugène
Authors: Shipman Pat
Published: October 2018

Eugène Dubois (1858–1940) was a Dutch anatomist who went to the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) to search for what was then known as the “missing link” between apes and humans. Against all odds, he discovered human remains on Java that he called
Pithecanthropus erectus
, now referred to as
Homo erectus
. Basing his interpretation on the femur that he discovered, he claimed that the individual walked bipedally, which is the source of the trivial name for the species. From the cranium, he estimated brain size at about 1,000 cc. His discovery and resulting report were met with skepticism by the scientific community in Europe, and he died before his work was fully accepted.
Homo
, early
Authors: Antón Susan C.
Published: October 2018

Nearly three million years ago, in Africa, a new genus of hominins arose, the last surviving members of which are the recent humans (
Homo sapiens
). While modern human fossils are easily recognizable, identifying the early members of the genus and dividing them into species is more contested. Fossils attributed to early
Homo
from East and South Africa date between 2.8 and 1.44 Ma. The earliest specimens are of uncertain species designation, but between ∼2.0–1.5 Ma at least three species (
H. habilis
,
H. rudolfensis
, and
H. erectus
) likely existed. Early members of the genus appear to differ from
Australopithecus
by having relatively smaller jaws and teeth and, on average, relatively larger brains and bodies; however, there is a great deal of overlap across species and genera in the earliest part of the record. Key events in the evolution of the genus are broadly coincident with archaeological signals of behavioral change and with periods of climatic variability. Thus the origin and evolution of our genus may relate to how we adapted physically and behaviorally to these changeable environments.
East Asian fossil record
Authors: Athreya Sheela
Published: October 2018

The fossil record in East Asia extends from the Early to the Late Pleistocene and consists of over 75 sites throughout China, Mongolia, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. The species
Homo erectus
and
Homo sapiens
are represented, as well as taxonomically indeterminate remains from the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Soon after the initial dispersal out of Africa, early
Homo
occupation is restricted to Mainland China. At the end of the Middle Pleistocene the fossil record expands to Korea and Taiwan. Also at this time, the morphological pattern shifts from
H. erectus
to more derived forms. In the Late Pleistocene,
H. sapiens
exhibits a combination of derived and ancestral traits in China; in Japan the earliest populations of 32,000 years ago exhibit Australasian affinities.
ElliotSmith,G.
Authors: Holloway Ralph L.
Published: October 2018

Grafton Elliot Smith (1871–1937) was a prodigious neuroanatomist best known for his works on comparative neuroanatomy, particularly regarding the lunate sulcus. His early works on Egyptian mummies were the first to use radiographic methods and are still cited today. He mistakenly regarded the Piltdown endocast as primitive, and his hyper‐diffusionist views of the influence of Egyptian civilization upon the rest of the world's civilizations have not proven correct.
Developmental defects of enamel
Authors: Goodman Alan H.
Published: October 2018

Developmental defects of enamel (DDEs) provide unique insights into the early lives of individuals and human groups. Because enamel develops sequentially, one can read a chronological record of physiological perturbation (stress) by the location of DDEs. Enamel defects have emerged as a common tool for reconstructing past lives as well as gaining insights into living individuals and primates' life histories.
Facial reconstruction/ reproduction
Authors: Ubelaker Douglas
Published: October 2018

The terms facial reconstruction/reproduction and facial approximation refer to the process of estimating the facial appearance of an individual from recovered remains. In forensic practice, the technique is employed when human remains are recovered and are of recent origin, and positive identification has not been made. In such cases, the estimated facial image is provided to the public in search of information that might contribute to identification. In this mixture of art and science, methodology can employ clay modeling and sketching, as well as digital approaches.
Fisher,RonaldA.
Authors: O'Rourke Dennis H.
Published: October 2018

Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890–1962) was an English statistician, geneticist, and evolutionary theorist who made fundamental contributions to the modern evolutionary synthesis, the origins of population genetics, statistical analyses, and the design of experiments. Trained at Cambridge, he held positions at Rothamsted Research Station, University College London, and Cambridge University. He retired to Australia in 1959 and continued his research work in association with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
Fixation
Authors: Rubicz Rohina
Published: October 2018

Fixation is the loss of all but one allele at a particular locus in a population. This may be due to genetic drift (including founder effect and bottleneck) or to selection. The result is a loss of genetic variation in the population. Fixation index (Fst) measures the differentiation of a population due to substructure. The Aleut population of Bering Island, Russia is fixed for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup D. The ancestral Aleut population has both A and D mtDNA types, and fixation of mtDNA D likely resulted from a founder effect associated with historic establishment of the community.
Flores
Authors: Smith Fred H.
Published: October 2018

Flores is a mountainous Indonesian island in the Lesser Sunda Archipelago east of Wallace's Line. Modern humans arrived there after 11 kya, but prior to that Flores was inhabited by a unique, small‐bodied hominin currently classified asHomo floresiensis, and possibly also byH. erectus. The island's relatively low carrying capacity led to insular dwarfism in its largest land mammal, an extinct elephant form, and possibly explains the reduced body size ofH. floresiensis. The strata containingH. floresiensisat Liang Bua cave, the only site that yields this hominin form, date to between 60 kya and 100 kya and contain objects from a distinctive stone tool industry and evidence of hunting. Key features ofHomo floresiensisinclude a very small brain size (at least in one individual), certain very primitive postcranial features, and a skull that appears to have its closest relationships with earlyHomovarieties, namely withH. habilis and H. erectus. Considerable debate continues as to whetherH. floresiensisis a dwarfed Erectine, a descendant of earlierHomo, or the representative of a modern human population of small individuals, at least one of whom exhibits a cranial pathology. Flores is also home to earlier sites, with stone tools and fossil remains in the Soa Valley.