bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OHMSETT TESTS OF A ROPE-MOP SKIMMER IN ICE-INFESTED WATERS1
Authors: Shum J. S. , Hanger-Silas M. Borst Mason &
Published: January 2013

The increase in petroleum development activities in the arctic region has raised concerns over potential oil spills during the broken ice season. Currently, exploratory drilling for oil and gas is restricted during this season due to the lack of proven oil spill cleanup methods for broken ice fields. Test programs have been conducted at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) to determine the feasibility of cold weather testing and to evaluate various oil spill cleanup methods considered for use in the arctic. This paper describes a test program to determine the practicality of using a catamaran-mounted rope-mop skimmer for spill cleanup in broken ice fields.

An Oil Map Pollution Control, Ltd., prototype arctic skimmer was tested in the test tank under controlled conditions during January 30 to February 7, 1984. Freshwater ice cubes of 250 to 280 millimeters (mm) were used in the tests to approximate a broken ice field. During tests, a predetermined ice condition was established across the encounter width of the rope mops and oil was distributed over the ice. The oil and ice were channeled into the skimmer by two booms, which were joined to the skimmer at the bow.

Nine tests were conducted at a tow speed of 1 knot using Circo 4X light oil. During the tests, ice concentrations were varied from 0 to 75 percent of the surface area, and oil slick thickness varied from 3 to 8 mm. The test results demonstrated the spill cleanup capability of the skimmer in ice-infested waters having up to 50 percent ice coverage. At higher ice concentrations, the skimmer was ineffective due to ice jamming at the skimmer inlet.
THE EFFECTS AND IMPLICATIONS OF OIL POLLUTION IN MANGROVE FORESTS
Authors: Evans Clayton W.
Published: January 2013

The mangrove forest is important in shoreline stabilization and as a nursery for many open ocean species. Complex adaptations of the plants for existence in anaerobic conditions and salt water make the mangrove forest highly vulnerable to oil pollution. Clearly, advance protection of mangrove forests is the optimal solution to minimize oil pollution damage. The more difficult question remains: What can be done to minimize the impact of oil that has entered fringe mangrove forests? Active flushing of mangroves and passive oil collection by absorbents are moderately successful in minimizing oil contact with mangroves.
MODELING SPILLED OIL PARTITIONING IN NEARSHORE AND SURF ZONE AREAS
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Kana Timothy W. , Boehm Paul D.
Published: January 2013

The shoreline of a potential spill impact area can be divided into units, each with a specific geomorphology. As oil enters each unit, it will (to varying extents) evaporate, dissolve, interact with suspended particles and sink, biodegrade, photo-oxidize, be transported to the next unit, or strand on the shoreline. In the last case, oil will reenter the aquatic system after a given time and again be exposed to these same processes.

For modeling purposes, the world's shorelines can be divided into sedimentary beaches and tectonic rocky coasts, varying in wave energy and tidal range. The size of beach sediments can range from very coarse grained (gravels) to very fine grained (silts and clays). Coarse-grained shorelines have higher incoming wave energy than fine-grained areas. Along all coasts, several partitioning components remain relatively constant for medium to light crude oils, e.g., evaporation (30 to 50 percent) and biodegradation/photo-oxidation (0 to 5 percent). Others may vary substantially. For instance, sedimentation may reach 10 to 20 percent in fine-grained estuaries, but only 0 to 2 percent along high energy coasts having very coarse-grained bottom sediments. Similarly, along sandy beaches the stranding of oil along the shoreline may reach 25 to 35 percent, as compared to only 1 to 2 percent along steep, rocky coasts. Dissolution, in general, does not vary so radically, being approximately 10 to 15 percent along high-energy rocky coasts, as compared to 5 to 10 percent in sheltered estuaries that do not have the mixing energy to drive additional oil into the water column.
FRESHWATER OIL SPILL CONSIDERATIONS: PROTECTION AND CLEANUP
Authors: Baca Bart J. , Getter Charles D.
Published: January 2013

Oil spills occurring in freshwater (and upper estuarine) environments produce different effects than similar spills in marine environments, and thus require different considerations in protection and cleanup. Freshwater spills are primarily land- or river-based, and retention time of the oil in the environment takes one of two extremes, either very brief or very long. As in the marine environment, spills in marshes (predominantly grasses and sedges) are generally most destructive, especially when marshes have little or no flushing. The return of the marsh to a natural state is dependent upon the amount and type of oil, the amount of flushing, the type of vegetation, the type of cleanup, and the potential for natural revegetation (recovery). Spills in swamps (predominantly shrubs and trees) are influenced by similar factors and by the amount and type of understory vegetation. Spills occurring in marsh and swamp habitats in rivers are much less destructive and frequently result in oiling of the outer fringing vegetation rather than pooling or oiling of interior vegetation. Case studies of spills on the Cape Fear (North Carolina), Columbia (Washington), and St. Lawrence (New York) Rivers and in southern swamps (Louisiana and Texas) are given as examples of some points concerning freshwater spills. International examples are given by considering Nigeria and other countries. Suggestions for protection and cleanup are developed from these case studies.
FEDERAL REGION II REGIONAL CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR A DISPERSANT DECISION PROCESS1
Authors: Corbin Robert F. , Ott Gary L.
Published: January 2013

In the fall of 1983, the Third Coast Guard District began to coordinate contingency planning and develop a dispersant use decision process that would establish guidelines for considering and authorizing the use of chemical dispersants by Coast Guard On-Scene Coordinators (OSC) as an oil spill response alternative.

Contingency planning covered three areas: Background and education, the what, why, and where of dispersants Water basin tasking, who does what Communications, how to share information

This paper examines each of the three corresponding study phases and shows how a final dispersant use decision process was achieved through incorporating each phase into the Regional Contingency Plan (RCP).
DISPERSANTS: COMPARISON OF LABORATORY TESTS AND FIELD TRIALS WITH PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AT SPILLS
Authors: Nichols J. A. , Parker H. D.
Published: January 2013

Laboratory tests can demonstrate the effectiveness of dispersants relatively easily but it is far more difficult to assess effectiveness in field conditions. In many oil spills, timely application of dispersants is the best approach. It is therefore necessary to study their use in field trials and actual incidents to see what lessons can be learned about the amounts used relative to the amount of oil spilled, types of oil on which dispersants are relatively effective, methods of application, the period after release into the sea during which dispersants remain effective, and the influence of sea conditions and temperatures.

This paper discusses these questions, reviewing published data on the performance of dispersants infield trials and in actual oil spills in which staff of the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd. have been involved in recent years. Recommendations are made regarding further work in the laboratory and field that appears necessary to determine the conditions under which dispersants are likely to be most effective.
AERIAL APPLICATION OF DISPERSANTS—COMPARISON OF SLICK BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICALLY TREATED VERSUS NON-TREATED SLICKS
Authors: Lichtenthaler Rainer G. , Daling Per S.
Published: January 2013

From June 18 to 22, 1984 two series of dispersant tests were carried out off the Norwegian coast. The first series comprised 2 parallel slicks: one control and one treated with dispersant 2 hours after discharge. The second series comprised 4 parallel slicks: (1) control; (2) dispersant application after 1 hour; (3) oil and dispersant mixed prior to discharge; and (4) dispersant application 4 hours after discharge. Each slick contained approximately 10 m3 of fuel oil. The dispersant applied by aircraft was Corexit 9527. The development of the different slicks was continuously monitored by aerial surveillance using side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), infrared and ultraviolet remote sensing, and vertical color photography as well as video recording for at least 6 hours (first series) and up to 12 hours (second series) after discharge. Dispersion of oil into the water column was investigated by turbidity measurements in the water column and by analyses of oil content in water samples from different depths. Furthermore, emulsion formation and viscosity changes of the surface oil were studied in each slick.

Aerial registrations as well as water column measurements show that both the horizontal and vertical spreading of oil was significantly enhanced in dispersant-treated versus non-treated slicks. In the first series, the dispersant-treated slick covered an area 2 to 3 times larger than the control slick a few hours after treatment. Hydrocarbon concentrations in the water column were found to be up to 40 ppm in treated slicks. Viscosity of the surface oil in untreated slicks increased due to emulsion formation, while the viscosity of surface oil in treated slicks decreased, likely due to an emulsion breaking effect of the dispersant.
HALIFAX '83 SEA TRIAL OF OIL SPILL DISPERSANT CONCENTRATES
Authors: Gill S. D. , Goodman R. H. , Swiss J.
Published: January 2013

In September 1983, the Canadian Offshore Aerial Applications Task Force conducted a 3-day oil spill dispersant field trial using the commercial products Corexit 9527, Corexit 9550, and BPMA 70. A different dispersant concentrate was applied each day to one of two 15 barrel spills of 13 percent weathered Alberta crude oil using a Bell 212 transported Rotortech TC-3 spraying bucket. Both treated and control slicks were surveyed using remote sensing aircraft to determine surface area, spreading rates, and major differences in slick thickness. A water sampling program was undertaken to determine the extent of dispersant effectiveness. Sea conditions during the first two days' work (9527 then 9550) were comparable with a moderate increase in mixing energy on the third day (BPMA 700). Against these conditions, and with corresponding dispersant to oil ratios of 1:27, 1:8, and 1:9, the percentage of weathered oil dispersed into the water column was calculated to be 3.75, 20.5, and 41 respectively.
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OIL VERSUS OIL PLUS DISPERSANT ON THE LITTORAL ECOSYSTEM OF THE BALTIC SEA
Authors: Linden O. , Rosemarin A. , Lindskog A. , Hoglund C. , Johansson S.
Published: January 2013

The effects of a North Sea oil with or without the addition of dispersant were studied in a model of the littoral ecosystem of the Baltic Sea.

Experiments were carried out in six pools with a volume of 8 m3 each, with flowthrough seawater and an ecosystem of the shallow rocky Baltic archipelago. All major fauna and flora were transferred into the pools in normal numbers and proportions. Two of the pools were exposed to oil alone. The amount of oil was equivalent to 20 ppm assuming total mixture. Two other pools were exposed to the same amount of oil and an oil dispersant (Corexit 9550, Exxon), and two pools served as controls. The effects studied were those on abundance of heterotrophic bacteria, periphyton photosynthesis, growth of bladder wrack, phytoplankton growth, zooplankton abundance and diversity, benthic fauna, physiological responses of certain crustaceans and molluscs, and the growth of blue mussels. In addition, the total photosynthesis and respiration of the ecosystem was studied. Concentrations of oil in water and in blue mussels were monitored.

The experiments showed that almost all the measured parameters were affected. When comparing the effects between the pools, several of the results indicated a stronger response for oil alone compared to oil and dispersant. This was particularly obvious when monitoring the total production and respiration of the ecosystems. The explanation may be that the ecosystems in the pools exposed to oil and dispersant were exposed less time compared to those in the pools where oil alone was added. The oil and dispersant mixture obviously left the system much faster due to the water exchange compared to the oil without dispersant. In the latter case the oil adhered to surfaces and detritus and thus tended to stay longer in the environment.

These results may provide valuable information for decision makers faced with an oil spill in shallow waters and who have an option to use oil spill dispersant.
EFFECTS OF DISPERSANT AND OIL ON SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL SEAGRASSES
Authors: Thorhaug Anitra , Marcus Jeffry
Published: January 2013

Preliminary experiments, using the subtropical/tropical coastal and estuarine seagrasses Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and Syringodium filiforme, were carried out to examine the effects of dispersants. Experiments exposed seagrasses in vitro to concentrations of Louisiana crude oil ranging from 7.5 to 500 milliliters (mL) in 105 mL seawater at exposure times of 5 to 100 hours (seagrass not in contact with oil slick). In other experiments, the seagrasses were exposed to the dispersant Corexit 9527, which was combined with the oil in a ratio of 1 part dispersant to 10 parts oil with dispersant concentrations ranging from 0.75 to 50 mL in 105 mL seawater (dispersant plus oil forming a cloud of the substance in contact with seagrasses).

The oil or oil with dispersant treatment was removed from the seagrasses after the designated exposure periods. Thereafter, the seagrasses were monitored for 14 days. Blade length was measured as a factor of growth. Thalassia showed the greatest tolerance to dispersant plus oil of the three species tested. It was not substantially affected by any oil concentration alone; however, when exposed to oil and dispersant, growth significantly decreased with concentrations of 125 mL oil and 12.5 mL dispersant in 105 mL seawater at longer periods of exposure (100 hours), and also at much decreased exposure times (5 hours) for 500 mL oil and 50 mL dispersant in 105 mL sea water. Syringodium and Halodule were generally less tolerant than Thalassia, particularly to oil. For example, at 75 mL oil/105 mL sea water and an exposure of 100 hours, growth decreased significantly and mortality increased to 53 percent. Growth and mortality of Syringodium and Halodule were further affected by the addition of dispersant.
A SIMPLE REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM FOR THE DETECTION OF OIL
Authors: Goodman R. H. , Morrison J. W.
Published: January 2013

The surveillance and tracking of oil is an essential component of any oil spill response. There are many techniques available that are applicable under a wide variety of environmental conditions. Many of these techniques, such as Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) or line-scan based infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) sensing systems, require the use of a dedicated aircraft and a skilled operator to operate effectively and to interpret the output of the sensor packages.

As a result of new and improved technologies, simpler imaging systems have been developed and this paper will describe the use of an image-producing IR camera, together with a charge-coupled device UV sensor, to provide a simple interpreted image of thick and thin components of an oil spill under a wide variety of conditions. The system is designed so that aircraft of opportunity and unskilled operators can operate it and provide the essential information required for oil spill response.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH DISPERSED OIL AND A DISPERSANT IN AN INTERTIDAL ECOSYSTEM: FATE AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Authors: Farke Hubert , Blome Dietrich , Theobald Norbert , Wonneberger Klaus
Published: January 2013

Experiments with chemically and ultrasonically dispersed Arabian light crude oil and a dispersant (Finasol OSR 5) were carried out on an intertidal sand flat in the Wadden Sea (German Bight). “Bremerhaven Caissons,” flow through mesocosms for intertidal field experiments, allowed pollutant addition to the enclosed water during submersion time. Reiterated contaminations over a period of 12 successive tides of low concentrations of oil (10 ppm) and dispersant made it possible to study penetration and alteration processes of the dispersed oil in the sediment. Sublethal and lethal effects upon micro-phytobenthos, meiofauna, and macrofauna were observed.

Oil reduced the activity of microbenthic algae and the food uptake of filter feeding bivalves and a polychaete. Nematodes showed a lower diversity and decreasing abundances in some groups. No major differences between the effects of chemically and ultrasonically dispersed oil on the benthos were observed. Application of dispersant alone had no clear effects when compared with controls.
ENHANCED BIODEGRADATION OF OIL
Authors: Halmö Gerd
Published: January 2013

In a study of biodegradation of a weathered crude oil emulsion, direct addition of fertilizers to oil on shore enhanced the natural biodegradation. An oil-soluble urea fertilizer was at least as efficient as a water-soluble one containing ammonia and nitrate. In one year, the paraffins were totally degraded. Composting was studied both in aerated full-scale windrows and in model columns. Oily seaweed was mixed and composted with different oil sorbents and fertilizers to find the optimal conditions for oil degradation. The best alternative was obtained by mixing the oily seaweed with pine bark and a nutrient of urea in a microemulsion of oleic acid. Windrow composting of this mixture, with forced aeration from the bottom, resulted in approximately 65 percent degradation of the paraffins within a summer season, 70 percent over the entire year. The oil-soluble fertilizer was better retained in the windrows than the water-soluble one tried earlier, thus improving the leachate quality. Revegetation on this compost was successful.
THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICALLY AND PHYSICALLY DISPERSED OIL ON THE BRAIN CORAL DIPLOMA STRIGOSA (DANA)—A SUMMARY REVIEW
Authors: Knap Anthony H. , Wyers Sheila C. , Dodge Richard E. , Sleeter Thomas D. , Frith Harold R. , Smith S. Robertson , Cook Clayton B.
Published: January 2013

The Coroil project in Bermuda has been an intensive, multidisciplinary study of the effects of physically and chemically dispersed Arabian light crude oil on the main reef-building coral in Bermuda, Diploria strigosa.

This paper reviews the results of this three year study. Corals were exposed to dispersed oil in a flow system, using spectrofluorimetry and gas chromatography to characterize and quantify the dose. Appropriate controls were included in all experiments. The studies included effects of dispersed oil on survival and behavior, the uptake and depuration of petroleum hydrocarbons, photosynthesis by symbiotic zoo-xanthellae, and skeletal growth.

In behavioral and growth studies, corals were dosed in the laboratory or in the field. Laboratory-dosed colonies were returned to the field to determine long-term effects. Exposure to 20 ppm of chemically dispersed oil for 24 hours induced various behavioral reactions, including tentacle retraction, tissue contraction and mesenterial filament extrusion. However, effects were typically sublethal, and recovery was usually evident within four days. These symptoms were not significant in long-term transplants. Using the alizarin red staining technique, no long-term effects on skeletal growth could be detected following any of our treatments.

Depuration studies using (9-I4C) -phenanthrene and gas chromatographic analysis showed that the uptake of petroleum hydrocarbons by the tissue of Diploria was rapid, but 75 percent of the hydrocarbon dose was eliminated within 14 days. Photosynthesis studies showed a short-term inhibition of photosynthesis only by chemically dispersed oil, with lipid synthesis being most severely affected. Total recovery occurred within 24 hours of exposure.
TIDAL AREA DISPERSANT EXPERIMENT, SEARSPORT MAINE: AN OVERVIEW
Authors: Gilfillan Edward S. , Page David S. , Hanson Sherry A. , Foster Judith C. , Hotham Janet , Vallas Donna , Pendergast Erin , Hebert Sandy , Pratt Sheldon D. , Gerber Ray
Published: January 2013

On August 19, 1981, two test spills of Murban crude oil were carried out in Long Cove, Searsport, Maine. One spill was chemically dispersed; the other was not. Measurements were made to make quantitative comparisons of the chemical fates and biological effects of the two spills.

Hydrocarbon analyses were carried out on water samples, animal tissue samples, intertidal sediment samples, and subtidal sediment samples. Biological measurements were carried out at the community level, whole animal level, and biochemical level of organization.

No significant biological effects attributable to the dispersed oil spill were observed. This lack of effects is, in part, a result of changes in the physical and chemical properties of dispersed oil which help limit its availability and toxicity.

The chemical fate and biological effects of the undispersed oil spill were typical of those reported from actual oil spill sites. Oil was incorporated into sediments and animal tissue. On the community level of organization mortality, reduced diversity and evenness, increased population density, and increased dominance by opportunists were all observed immediately after the spill, and up to 1 year later. On the whole animal level of organization, no effects on scope-for-growth were observed in two filter feeding bivalves. On the biochemical level of organization, activities of two sensitive enzyme systems were elevated.
EARLY EXPERIENCES WITH A SINGLE-VESSEL OFFSHORE SPILL CLEANUP SYSTEM
Authors: Dalton William J. , Heikamp A. J.
Published: January 2013

An oil spill cleanup system was developed to operate offshore with minimal requirements for vessel and personnel coordination. This Vessel of Opportunity Skimming System (VOSS) consists of a skimming barrier towed alongside a single vessel with an outrigger. Suction hoses run to pumps on deck, which are powered by a diesel-hydraulic powerpack. Recovered fluid is pumped through an oil-water separator before being directed to storage.

The first VOSS units were installed aboard the LOOP Vigilance, a shrimp boat modified for oil spill response by the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP). The use of these units in two small offshore spills is described. This field experience helped to identify operational practices for maximum system efficiency in various spill situations. System improvements have been made and areas for further development determined.
THE BAFFIN ISLAND OIL SPILL (BIOS) PROJECT: A SUMMARY
Authors: Sergy Gary A.
Published: January 2013

After four years of multidisciplinary experimental investigations in the Canadian Arctic, the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project has successfully completed studies which address oil spill fate, effects, and countermeasures. In particular, the findings are relevant to decisions on the nearshore use of chemical dispersants and the cleanup of oiled shorelines. Much of the information gathered can be extrapolated to other geographic areas.

Within the context of the project design, the experimental results offer no compelling ecological reasons to prohibit use of dispersants on oil slicks in the arctic nearshore environment and they enable recognition of situations in which dispersant use would be advisable. The results also suggest that for much of the arctic coastline the cleanup of stranded oil is not essential. Shoreline cleanup efforts should focus on low energy beaches with characteristics conducive to the long term retention of oil, but there will be many situations where cleanup will be severely limited and impractical.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON THE EFFECTS OF OIL AND DISPERSANT ON MANGROVES
Authors: Getter Charles D. , Ballou Thomas G.
Published: January 2013

Field experiments were conducted to determine the effects of oil and dispersant on red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle). Two experimental sites were chosen on the basis of their biological and physical similarity and treated with either undispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil or with Prudhoe Bay crude and dispersant Corexit 9527. Short- and long-term effects on biota were monitored to determine the effects of using dispersants on spilled oil in mangrove forests. Significant differences were noted in effects on seedling and adult mangroves, most notably in survival and growth of adults. Undispersed oil caused significantly lower survival and growth of seedlings, and significantly lower growth and foliage cover in adults. Addition of dispersant to crude oil greatly increased its mobility in the water column, and decreased its residence time in the intertidal zone. Retention of oil within the mangrove forest was the primary factor in controlling impacts to mangroves, and dispersants appeared to greatly reduce the amount of oil retained in the intertidal zone of the mangrove forest. Additional research is underway to investigate the impact of dispersed oil on the subtidal communities associated with mangrove forests.
MONITORING AN OIL SPILL EXPERIMENT WITH THE SWEDISH MARITIME SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM
Authors: Fäst Olov
Published: January 2013

As part of the long-term agreement between the Swedish Coast Guard and the Swedish Space Corporation concerning further development of the airborne remote sensing system for maritime surveillance, a scanning microwave radiometer for oil spill thickness measurements has been integrated into the system. An overview of the capabilities of the system is given. Registrations of one experimental oil spill using all the different sensors are presented, with emphasis on the microwave radiometer registrations. Further experiments will be carried out, notably in conjunction with synthetic aperture radar registrations from the space shuttle.
GAOCMAO—INDUSTRY'S APPROACH TO COOPERATIVE SPILL RESPONSE IN THE ARABIAN GULF
Authors: Ryan P. Bernard , Brown Derek J. S.
Published: January 2013

In 1972, a group of oil companies operating in the western half of the Arabian Gulf came together to form an organization for the purpose of improving their capability to combat oil pollution. The companies sought to establish a joint oil spill response capability, not by setting up a separate, operational response group like other more conventional cooperatives, but instead by utilizing the principle of mutual assistance in times of need. The resulting organization, kown as the Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation (GAOCMAO), has proved its effectiveness in several major oil pollution incidents over its twelve years of existence and has gained recognition as a credible and responsible representative of the oil industry's views on matters relating to marine pollution in the Gulf region.

Subsequent to the establishment of GAOCMAO, environmental awareness in the Gulf area generally has increased very significantly. Regional and state organizations have been set up by the various Gulf states' governments to monitor the environmental effects of industry of all kinds, including oil, and to develop appropriate control measures. To some extent, these changes have been reflected in an expansion of GAOCMAO's interests to areas outside those purely of oil spill response, but the primary commitment to joint response capability through mutual aid has not diminished.

This paper describes the history and development of GAOCMAO since its formation, examines the manner in which it functions, and describes some of the incidents to which it has responded. The growing interaction between GAOCMAO and the various national and regional environmental groups in the Gulf area is examined and an attempt made to put into perspective the relative responsibilities, in terms of oil spill response, of the Gulf area's oil companies and the corresponding governmental organizations.
RESULTS OF A FULL-SCALE SURPRISE TEST OF SUN'S MAJOR SPILL RESPONSE PLAN
Authors: Kazmierczak Leon J. , Crawford Thomas A.
Published: January 2013

Sun Transport, the Marine division of Sun Refining and Marketing Company, a subsidiary of Sun Company, Inc., has conducted a series of drills to assess the effectiveness of its Oil Spill Response Plan. The latest drill, third in the series, was conducted in September 1982. Papers presented at the 1979, 1981, and 1983 Oil Spill Conference describe the plan, its rationale, and the previous two drills. This paper reviews the training progression of the previous exercises and reports on the findings and experiences of this latest exercise.

As in previous drills, the planning committee and a few others were the only people in Sun Company with any prior knowledge of the drill. This simulation was the most extensive. It involved simultaneous and separate call-out scenarios, full-scale use of contractor cleanup crew and equipment, chartering aircraft, and participation by representatives of the Clean Caribbean Cooperative, the Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement Concerning Liability for Oil Pollution (TOVALOP), and the U.S. Coast Guard.

The realism provided by this exercise allowed each participant to experience firsthand the problems on-scene at a major cleanup operation and to come away with confidence in managing them.
AN INLAND OIL SPILL CONTROL COURSE: A NEED PERCEIVED AND MET
Authors: Callaway Joe R. , Burkholder John W. , Olsen Peter F.
Published: January 2013

Texas A&M University's Engineering Extension Service, in order to meet the need for well trained personnel equipped to evaluate and respond to hydrocarbon spills in inland areas, has implemented an Inland Oil Spill Control Course offered in College Station, Texas. The curriculum is based on a 40-hour training program, with course objectives and goals, using practiced training techniques and equipment. Problems containing inland spills are discussed with special emphasis on those encountered with inland waterways. Methods and equipment specifically designed for groundwater contamination detection, monitoring, and recovery are presented. Discussions of specialized techniques are enhanced by photographs and diagrams. The program is adjusted and modified to meet industry needs and to allow for future growth and expansion.
PLANS FOR INTEGRATING DISPERSANT USE IN CALIFORNIA
Authors: Pavia Robert , Onstad Lindon A.
Published: January 2013

Since the early 1970s both the effectiveness and efficiency of oil spill dispersants have been improved while the toxicity of these chemicals has been reduced. Although a large body of research has been published in the last five years which supports these claims, there has been little experience with the use of dispersants in the United States. This lack of experience has been created, in part, by a cumbersome dispersant approval process and the reluctance of spill responders to invest in dispersants and related application equipment.

The Region IX Regional Response Team has identified four prerequisites for effective use of dispersants: informed decision-makers; a functional decision-making process; coordinated contingency plans; and effective, region-specific application capabilities. This paper explores the approach taken by government and industry to fulfill these prerequisites. The goal of these efforts, which include sponsoring workshops, implementing a dispersant application test program, and requiring specific dispersant contingency planning efforts, is to fully integrate dispersants into the oil spill control efforts of the region.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE ROTATING DISC SKIMMER
Authors: Christodoulou Marios S. , Turner John T.
Published: January 2013

Flow visualization experiments have produced qualitative information about the flow field set up by a rotating disc skimmer. Subsequently, performance data for the recovery rate of the skimmer when operated in oil-only and thin-film conditions was obtained. Based upon this detailed study and the improved understanding of the parameters which govern the performance of the skimmer, it has been possible to construct a system1 showing gains of up to 600 percent, dependent upon the operating conditions. Further investigation of a multiple disc arrangement leads to conclusions about interference effects between adjacent discs which have a bearing on the design of practical skimmer systems.
COMBATING OIL WITH SIDE-FITTED SWEEPING BOOMS
Authors: Blomberg Erling
Published: January 2013

Oil spill cleanup systems using side-fitted sweeping booms are developed to operate offshore with minimal requirements for vessels and personnel. The system takes advantage of the boundary layers created by the oil recovery vessel, thus simplifying the handling of booms, skimmers, and the oil recovery operation itself.
FIRST AFRICAN OIL SPILL COOPERATIVE: CLEAN NIGERIA ASSOCIATES
Authors: Omene Godwin E. , Odogwu E. C. , Allen Tom E.
Published: January 2013

In November 1981 the petroleum companies operating in Nigeria formed a cooperative with the general purpose of developing an oil industry-sponsored organization for combating oil spills. The organization was named Clean Nigeria Associates (CNA).

Individual oil companies operating in Nigeria now have and have had in the past the capability to combat oil spills, but most were unprepared to handle major oil spills. Thus, the main thrust of the cooperative was to develop an equipment stockpile and response capability commensurate with major spill risks. Through competitive bidding, Halliburton Nigeria, Ltd. was selected as the cooperative contractor.

Agreements were formally signed in September 1984. Since that time the equipment required by the association was procured by Halliburton and put in place at two locations, Warri and Port Harcourt. These two locations were selected because of their proximity to major production areas. Bases were established at Nigerian Ports Authority facilities which were set aside for oil field operations. Thus, equipment warehouses are in excellent positions to respond to marine spills, and to respond to land spills by road. The equipment stockpile consists of 27,000 ft of booms, 28 skimmers—both for protected waters and offshore, 4,000 bales of sorbents, 26 pumps, 14 boats (ten 15 ft and four 49 ft) and an assortment of vehicles and other support equipment. CNA has a dedicated staff of 38. The staff consists of management, equipment operators, mechanics, boat crews, and support personnel. Since December 1984, training of national personnel on spill response and safety has been a high priority and has continued to this date.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN THAILAND
Authors: Bender Klavs , Taylor Robert
Published: January 2013

In 1986, an oil contingency plan was developed for the Kingdom of Thailand. The plan includes several aspects, such as:Important fishing grounds, and breeding areas for species of fish, shellfish, and crustaceans of commercial valueAquaculture and mangrove forest areas along the coast of ThailandDistribution of coral reefAreas with rare and endangered reptiles and mammalsSocio-economic information, i.e. amenity beaches and other tourist areas, marine parks, seabird colonies, and industrial sitesDescription of wind patterns, surface current, seawater temperatures, and hydrocarbon levels in marine water and sedimentsAn assessment of the risk of oil pollution in Thai waters, including an evaluation of the frequency and size of a range of possible hydrocarbon releases in Thai waters

The results of the study cover an evaluation of the existing oil spill control capabilities in Thailand as well as recommendations for a national oil spill contingency plan including organization, staffing, reporting, alarm and communication arrangements, oil spill control equipment, recommendations for training and exercises and a cost estimate for the implementation.

A separate manual for oil spill combating operations has been developed as well.
CANADIAN-U.S. SPILL RESPONSE COOPERATION ALONG THE GREAT LAKES
Authors: Kaiser Ted , Godon Wilma , Whitehorne Ron , Gundlach Erich R. , Baca Bart J.
Published: January 2013

The United States and Canada share more than 1,400 miles of aquatic border between the St. Lawrence River and western Lake Superior. To effectively deal with regional oil and hazardous material spills that can equally affect either side of the border, Canadian and U.S. agencies have formed a cooperative agreement under the CANUSLAK plan to share resources and information before and during spill occurrences. Primary agencies involved include the Canadian and U.S. coast guards, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Canadian Environmental Protection Service (Emergencies Program). Examples of prespill cooperation, as discussed in this paper, include the joint preparation of contingency plan annexes and shoreline sensitivity atlases for the St. Lawrence River, Detroit-St. Clair River area, and St. Marys River. Cooperation during spills, also discussed, is illustrated by the exchange of information either by direct participation of both countries during response and cleanup or by advisory representation.
INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS ON COOPERATION IN COMBATING MARINE POLLUTION,
Authors: Edwards David T.
Published: January 2013

The severe nuclear accident in Chernobyl at the end of April 1986 highlighted the importance of early notification of any accident having major transboundary environmental consequences and the need to facilitate international assistance and mutual cooperation in dealing with such an accident. Since 1969 many coastal countries have been entering into regional intergovernmental multilateral and bilateral agreements providing for the timely notification of marine pollution emergencies and mutual assistance and cooperation in responding to such incidents involving oil and other hazardous substances.

To date, there are 11 such regional agreements either in effect or under development. This paper discusses the fundamental elements common to them and their status. Current oil company cooperatives or similar arrangements are briefly described as well as activities of the European Economic Communities (EEC). There will be occasions when major marine pollution incidents are beyond the collective response capability of a region. The role of the main international organizations in responding to requests for assistance and recent attention given by the International Maritime Organization to the problems of developing countries in dealing with major marine pollution incidents also are discussed. Although the effectiveness of such agreements largely depends on the capability of the individual participating countries, they all serve to enhance the overall ability of the international community to combat marine pollution through the sharing of knowledge and experience and the pooling of resources.
METHOD FOR MAKING DISPERSANT-USE DECISIONS BASED ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CONSIDERATIONS
Authors: Trudel B. K. , Ross S. L.
Published: January 2013

A method for making dispersant use decisions on the basis of environmental impact considerations has been developed. It involves formulating and then comparing predictions of the impact of a given spill if treated with dispersants or if left untreated in order to determine whether the use of dispersants might reduce the overall effects of the spill. A workbook describing the method has been used in numerous workshops in Canada and the U.S.A. to train environmental managers, and has served as a basis for the development of a quick, map-based, decision-making system for the Canadian Beaufort Sea. A similar system is currently being developed for the U.S. Gulf of Mexico.
EMULSION INHIBITORS: A NEW CONCEPT IN OIL SPILL TREATMENT
Authors: Buist I. A. , Ross S. L.
Published: January 2013

As a result of a two year program involving bench-scale, small-scale, and meso-scale testing, a new class of oil spill treating agents has been identified. These agents, called emulsion inhibitors, are highly oleophilic surfactants, which, when applied onto oil spills in very low concentrations, not only prevent mousse formation for significant periods of time but also cause a large reduction in oil-water inter-facial tension. Both of these promote the dispersion of the oil into the water column. The best chemicals to effect these results were found to be surfactants normally sold as oil spill “demulsifiers” (that is, surfactants that “break” oil spill mousses once collected). The best of these, a European-manufactured product, was found to prevent emulsification at dosages as low as one part inhibitor to 20,000 parts of fresh oil at 20° C. At dosages on the order of 1:1000, at temperatures higher than 10° C, the chemical also results in significant and rapid dispersion of the oil. For very low temperatures or highly weathered oil the performance of the chemical falls off sharply.
PRELIMINARY MORTALITY EFFECTS OF SEVEN DISPERSANTS ON SUBTROPICAL/TROPICAL SEAGRASSES
Authors: Thorhaug Anitra , Marcus Jeffry H.
Published: January 2013

One of the most critical habitats throughout the Atlantic subtropics and tropics is seagrasses. Seagrasses function as fisheries nursery habitats, food, and erosion control. If seagrasses are removed, hundreds of fisheries organisms disappear. We carried out toxicity testing on important seagrasses in the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Greater Caribbean. Seven dispersants were tested for 100 hours on three seagrasses. Methods had previously been established. Results showed dispersant mortality effects differed among seagrasses and among dispersants. We recommend oil spill cleanup plans, and, specifically, spell out exact dispersants and concentrations to be used in areas containing seagrasses.
EVALUATION AND CALIBRATION OF A DISPERSANT APPLICATION SYSTEM1
Authors: Shum J. S. , Nash J. H.
Published: January 2013

A commercially available dispersant application system of state-of-the-art design was selected for study, to improve dispersant application techniques and equipment designs for spraying from boats. Areas of concern included calibration and application rate control.

Calibration of the dispersant application equipment was performed at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility in Leonardo, New Jersey. Initial calibration in November 1984 showed that flow rates among the nozzles varied significantly. The causes for the observed problems were later identified as plugged and defective nozzle internals. Following correction of these problems, the equipment was recalibrated in February 1986.

The study shows that unless the system has been properly calibrated, the dispersant application rate cannot be accurately determined. Dispersant application rate estimates based on spray nozzle manufacturers' published data may be erroneous owing to production variance, defective product parts, or differences in the fluid viscosity. For the specific equipment tested in this study, the flow meter integral to the system was inaccurate. The dispersant application equipment otherwise functioned well for dilute dispersant spraying. In the undiluted spraying mode, the dispersant application capacity decreased with increasing fluid (dispersant) viscosity. With fluid viscosity above 200 cs, the system developed operating difficulties. Spray application was accompanied by severe vibration at the pump unit and with greatly reduced spray angle at the nozzles.

Using the calibration data, operating charts were formulated for using the dispersant application equipment aboard a 20 m utility boat. After field installation, the dispersant spray equipment would be available for field trials and experiments with dispersants in future research programs. The equipment would also be available for use in actual spill responses.
EFFECTIVENESS OF A TYPE III DISPERSANT ON LOW-ENERGY SHORELINES
Authors: Little D. I. , Scales D. L.
Published: January 2013

The objective of this experiment was to assess the effectiveness of a new Type III chemical dispersant on stranded, lightly weathered crude oil and emulsified medium fuel oil (mousse). The oils were applied to field plots on contrasting sediment shorelines (salt marsh and sand flat), where both oils had been shown to be persistent.

On the salt marsh, dispersant-treated oils usually were detected at lower sediment total hydrocarbon (THC) concentrations than were the untreated oils. However, clear trends were not visible until heavy rain removed the oiled, dead vegetation. Subsequently, the THC concentrations measured in the treated crude plots were reduced by half, and stable, lower concentrations were measured in the mousse plots. On the sand flat, the dispersant-treated mousse was detected at consistently lower THC concentrations than was the untreated mousse. The crude-oil-treated plots showed more temporal variability than the mousse-treated plots. Dispersant-treated crude ultimately was detected at half the concentration found in the untreated crude plots.

Although on the salt marsh both dispersant-treated oils were more damaging in the short term to the plant community, the longer-term effects of higher untreated oil concentrations may prove more destabilizing to the salt-marsh habitat as a whole. After erosion, untreated oil may be resuspended to form oil slicks, when public interest in the original spill and the sense of responsibility for its cleanup have all but disappeared.

Under the slightly higher-energy conditions of the sand flat, dispersant use did not dramatically alter the fate of most of the oil. The approximately 10% that remained in the beach was less obvious visually and was removed faster than the untreated oil. The practical implication of this is that if the cleanup authorities can resist amenity and conservationist pressures to disperse the residual oil, such tidal flats will eventually self-clean.

Earlier formulations of chemical dispersant either have been relatively ineffective or have increased contamination on low-energy sediment shores. Several explanations may be advanced for the effectiveness of this dispersant on both oil types. First, it helped prevent the formation of surface oiled pavements and, thus, the burial of oil layers. Second, the contact time of oils and dispersant (>2 hours pre-tidal coverage) may have contributed to the reductions in oil concentrations. Third, at both sites there was sufficient energy input to assist dispersion.