bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MAIS SOBRE A NEGAÇÃO EM PORTUGUÊS BRASILEIRO
Authors: Cyrino Sonia Maria Lazzarini
Published: July 2024

Há um uso inovador para a negação no português brasileiro (doravante, PB), em que o marcador negativo não (doravante, não baixo) é possível na posição entre o auxiliar e o verbo não-flexionado em perífrases progressivas e perfectivas. Uma vez que a negação não pode aparecer nessa posição em outras línguas românicas, eu discuto uma possível análise para essa nova construção. Primeiramente, eu discuto as propriedades de “eventualidades inibidas” possíveis em espanhol (Fábregas; González-Rodríguez, 2019, 2020, 2021), para checar suas semelhanças e diferenças com o ‘não baixo’ do PB. Em seguida, eu considero a posição sintática para o ‘não baixo’, dadas suas propriedades e a literatura sobre posições múltiplas para a negação (Declercq, 2013). Depois, assumindo a proposta de Ramchand (2018), eu proponho que, diferentemente do inglês, os verbos auxiliares de ambas as perífrases são gerados dentro do vP em PB. Além disso, assumo que o ‘não baixo’ se tornou possível no PB porque houve a perda de movimento do verbo para uma posição funcional alta na língua. Assim, o verbo lexical sobe apenas para uma posição mais baixa (aspectual), ao passo que o auxiliar se move para uma posição mais alta (Cyrino, 2013; Cyrino; Araújo-Adriano, 2023).
Lysander
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Lysander (d. 395
BCE
) was a Spartan statesman and the son of Aristokritos.
Mardonios
Authors: Muccioli Federicomaria
Published: December 2012

Mardonios was a Persian general, the son of Gobryas and of a sister of Darius I, and the husband of Artozostres, daughter of the king.
Mausolos
Authors: Ruzicka Stephen
Published: December 2012

Mausolos, son of Hekatomnos, was a native dynast and Persian satrap of Caria from 377/6 to 353/52
bce
(his date of birth is unknown).
Memnon of Rhodes
Authors: Ruzicka Stephen
Published: December 2012

Memnon of Rhodes (d. 333bce) was an official and commander in Persian service.
Neutrality, political, Greece and Rome
Authors: Poddighe Elisabetta
Published: December 2012

The ancient notion of neutrality had a political and diplomatic connotation, but was lacking in a strictly legal definition – that is, in a standard Greek/Latin formula delimiting the concept and a code for the rights and duties of neutral states.
Oinophyta, battle of
Authors: Crowley Jason P.
Published: December 2012

The battle of Oinophyta was won by Athenian forces near the Asopus River in Boiotia, in 457
bce
.
Onomarchos
Authors: McInerney Jeremy
Published: December 2012

Onomarchos was a powerful Phokian general during the early stages of the Third Sacred War (356–346bce).
Orthagorids
Authors: Parker Victor
Published: December 2012

The Orthagorids were a dynasty of tyrants who ruled over Sikyon for a hundred years, from the late seventh to the late sixth century
bce
(Parker 1992; cf. Leahy 1968).
Ostracism
Authors: Kristensen Karen Rørby
Published: December 2012

Ostracism was an Athenian institution: in Athens a citizen could be expelled and banished from the civic community for a period of ten years, with loss of neither civic rights nor property. The name derives from theostraca,”potsherds,” which were used in the procedure of ostracism – theostracophoria. Ostracism is known to have been employed at Athens between ca. 488/7bce(Hipparchos) and 417/16 (Hyperbolos), though it was not formally abolished after this date. Only ten cases of ostracism are securely attested.
Panaitios of Leontinoi
Authors: Zambon Efrem
Published: December 2012

Although he is a mysterious figure on account of the scanty evidence on him provided by the sources, Panaitios had a primary role in the history of Sicilian politics.
Pelopidas
Authors: Larson Stephanie
Published: December 2012

Pelopidas (ca. 410–364 bce), son of Hippokles, was a renowned Theban general; he was partially responsible for the reinstatement of Theban rule in Thebes in 379 and for leading the Theban hegemony from 371 until his death.
Peloponnesian League
Authors: Jensen Sean R. , Figueira Thomas J.
Published: December 2012

The phrase “Peloponnesian League” denotes alliances between Sparta and various cities in the peloponnese; otherwise the league refers to itself as “the Lakedaimonians and their allies.” No single alliance bound all the members; rather, Sparta allied individually with each member.
Petalismos
Authors: Zambon Efrem
Published: December 2012

According to the brief definition provided by Hesychios (s.v.),
petalismos
was a form of Ostracism carried out using olive leaves. It was a legal procedure against any attempt to establish a Tyranny, used in Syracuse. The occasion for the establishment of this practice is recorded by Diodorus of Sicily (11.86.387.6). In 454
bce
civil strife broke out in Syracuse, and a certain Tyndarides, gathering the poor citizens and using them as an armed bodyguard, tried to set up a tyranny. His attempt was unsuccessful, due to the strong opposition of the prominent citizens, and he was put to death; nevertheless, to prevent further such attempts, the Syracusans decided to imitate the Athenians, writing on olive leaves the name of the most influential citizens and condemning the man who received the largest number of votes to a five‐year exile (instead of ten, as the practice was in Athens): thus they managed to curtail his influence and power in the city. Diodorus says that
petalismos
was used in Syracuse only for a short time. Since those who had civic responsibilities withdrew from public affairs and devoted themselves to a life of luxury, while the most ignoble citizens took the leading role and incited the masses to revolution, the city fell back into continuous disorder (Stasis). Social peace provided by the use of
petalismos
was temporary: it offered wealth for the citizens, but it did not educate them to concord and honesty. Therefore, the Syracusans decided to repeal it.
Pezhetairoi
Authors: Sekunda Nicholas V.
Published: December 2012

This is the name of (members of) an elite Macedonian infantry regiment. Anaximenes
(FGrH
72 F4) tells us that one king Alexander, probably Alexander I of Macedon (Errington in Milns 1976: 131) created the
hetairoi
(”companions”) and
pezhetairoi
(”foot companions”). Theopompos
(FGrH
115 F 348) informs us that the
pezhetairoi
were chosen from the ranks of the king's spearbearers
(doryphoroi),
being the tallest and strongest among them. The
pezhetairoi
are first mentioned in a firm historical context in 349
bce
, as being in the army of Philip II of Macedon and as having “the reputation of being remarkably well trained in military matters” (Dem.
Ol
. 2.17).
Plataia
Authors: Prandi Luisa
Published: December 2012

Plataia, a small
Polis
in southern Boiotia, had over time relations with Athens, Sparta, and Macedonia: having refused to join the Boiotian League in the last quarter of the sixth century, it was constantly looking for protection against Theban expansionism.
Polykrates of Samos
Authors: Lewis Sian
Published: December 2012

Polykrates (ca. 570–522
BCE
) was tyrant (sole ruler) of Samos and renowned for his naval power and building projects.
Porus, Indian dynast
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: December 2012

The Indian rajah of the Paurava, Porus, ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) River and the Akesines (Chenab) River.
Robert, Louis (1904–1985)
Authors: Rousset Denis
Published: December 2012

Louis Robert was the most universal and the most productive Hellenist of the twentieth century.
Athenian Confederacy, Second
Authors: Dreher Martin
Published: December 2012

The Second Athenian Confederacy, otherwise referred to as the Second Athenian League (Cargill 1981), was a military alliance (Symmachia) of GreekPoleisunder the hegemony of Athens. In ancient sources it is called “the Athenians and their allies” (hoi Athenaioi kai hoi symmachoi). It existed from 378 to 338bceand was the most active and visible Hellenic alliance of the fourth century. Its fate reflects that of the classical Greekpolis‐world before the Macedonian domination of Greece.
Solon
Authors: Rosivach Vincent J.
Published: December 2012

Solon (ca. 640–ca. 560bce) was a lawgiver in Archaic Athens, a poet, and one of the Seven Sages.
Thalassocracy
Authors: Constantakopoulou Christy
Published: December 2012

“Thalassocracy” is the phonetic adaptation of a noun meaning “sea power” in Greek. Ancient Greek historians, and particularly Thucydides, used the concept of “thalassocracy” as an analytical tool in investigating the past. Thucydides (1.4) saw early Greek history as a succession of thalassocracies, starting with the mythical figure of Minos in Crete. Some effort has been put into seeing Minoan thalassocracy in the archaeological remains of Minoan Crete and of the Cyclades Islands, but it is now accepted that this is a fifth‐century historical construction rather than an accurate reflection of Minoan realities.
Thirty Years' Peace
Authors: Keim Benjamin
Published: December 2012

The Thirty Years' Peace, enacted by Sparta and Athens in 446/5
BCE
, concluded the First Peloponnesian War.
Thrasyboulos, Milesian tyrant
Authors: Lewis Sian
Published: December 2012

Thrasyboulos (fl. 610BCE) was tyrant (sole ruler) of the Ionian city of Miletos in the seventh and sixth centuries.
Thourioi
Authors: Frisone Flavia
Published: December 2012

Thourioi (Latin Thurii) was a Greek
Polis
in Magna Graecia; it was founded in 444/3
BCE
, as a Panhellenic colony replacing Sybaris.
Pentekonter
Authors: Rankov Boris
Published: December 2012

The pentekonter or pentekontor (Greekpentekontoros, literally “fifty‐oared”) became the principal type of warship of the ancient Mediterranean in the late eighth century.
Gorgias
Authors: Zeyl Donald J.
Published: December 2012

Gorgias of Leontinoi in Sicily (ca. 485–early fourth century
bce
) was a highly acclaimed rhetorician and teacher of rhetoric.
Andrew, Acts of
Authors: Schroeder Caroline T.
Published: December 2012

One of several early Christian Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, theActs of Andrewnarrates the exploits and death of one of the disciples in the years following Jesus' resurrection. According to the canonical Gospels, Andrew was Peter's brother. TheActs of Andrewwas popular in Antiquity. It was mentioned in a Manichaean psalmbook and by Christian authors as early as Origen. It was dismissed as heretical by church historian Eusebius.
Banks
Authors: Andreau Jean
Published: December 2012

Throughout Antiquity, the rich (or some of them) and the members of the elite (or some of them) would lend money at interest. At the end of the Roman Republic and under the empire, it was not prohibited, and many senators and knights were not above accepting this source of income.
Barley
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Barley (Latinhordeum, Greekkrithe) was cultivated in Mesopotamia and in Egypt (where it was used to produce “beer,” the most typical local drink, Hdt. 2.77) already in the fourth millenniumBCE; in the Mediterranean it was already grown in Neolithic times. It is attested in Mycenean tablets with the nameki‐ri‐ta.
Caelius Mons
Authors: Tucci Pier luigi
Published: December 2012

The Caelian Hill (
Caelius Mons
), located in the southeast part of Rome, was included within the first, second, and fifth Augustan regions. Its oldest name was
Mons Querquetulanus
(hill forested with oak) but, according to ancient tradition, it was replaced by the current name when the Etruscan general Caele Vibenna camped there with his army in the sixth century
BCE
.
Carrying capacity
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: December 2012

Carrying capacity is a concept with several different meanings. It originated about 1845 to signify what is now more generally termed the tonnage or payload of ships. Later in the nineteenth century it entered the nascent field of ecology, where it came to be used in at least three different ways: as an attribute of living organisms in their natural ecosystems; as the limit of natural growth of the population of a biological species, symbolized as K; and as the number of people that the earth as a whole, or a particular part of the world, can support (Sayre 2008).
Charcoal
Authors: Olson S. Douglas
Published: December 2012

Charcoal (Greek
anthrax
, Latin
carbo
) –the solid residue that remains when wood or other organic matter is “carbonized” under controlled conditions in a closed space such as pit or kiln –produces far more heat per kilogram than dry wood does.
Coinage, Near East
Authors: Zournatzi Antigoni
Published: December 2012

Although the use of precious metal by weight as money is attested as early as the third millennium
BCE
in the Near East, the earliest coins appeared in western Asia Minor in the second half of the seventh century
BCE
.
Colonate
Authors: Grey Cam
Published: December 2012

The term “colonate” provides a convenient shorthand for a phenomenon that has long been a staple in debates over the transformation of rural labor relations in Late Antiquity.
Confiscation
Authors: Efsthathiou Athanasios
Published: December 2012

Confiscation is found either as a part of political measures imposed by democratic and oligarchic regimes, especially in periods of transformation, or as a penalty in a law court.
Connectivity
Authors: Pettegrew David K.
Published: December 2012

“Connectivity” is a concept recently adopted in ancient studies to describe the nature, state, and degree of interaction within and between populations and regions of the Mediterranean basin, Europe, and Near East.
Donkey, mule
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Donkeys were widespread in the Near East in the fourth millennium
BCE
(in particular they played a very important role in Egypt), and reached Greece by the late third millennium: they are attested in Mycenaean and Late Minoan settlements.
Drought
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

The Mediterranean area shows much regional climatic variability and interannual change. Theophrastus refers twice to the proverbial saying “it is the year, and not the field, that bears” (Hist. pl. 8.7.6;Caus. pl. 3.23.4).
Economy, Greek
Authors: Bubelis William S.
Published: December 2012

No account of the Greek economy could hope to be reasonably accurate without confronting the deep tension between the limits of our evidence and the modes by which we either inquire into its significance or articulate a theoretical framework with which to understand it.
Economy, Hellenistic
Authors: Archibald Zosia H.
Published: December 2012

The economies of “Hellenistic” societies (polities contemporary with or emerging as a consequence of Alexander III, the Great's conquests between 331 and 323BCE) have attracted a resurgence of scholarly interest since the 1990s.
Economy, Near East (Hellenistic)
Authors: van der Spek Robartus J.
Published: December 2012

The economy of the Hellenistic Near East does not exist.
Eisphora
Authors: Schmitz Winfried
Published: December 2012

Eisphora
is a general word for payment, revenues, and income, including yields (Xen.
Oec
. 7.40).
Emporion
Authors: Petropoulos Elias K.
Published: December 2012

The Greek termemporion(pluralemporia) derives from the wordemporosmeaning trader.
Fertilizer
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: December 2012

Fertilizer is necessary for high crop yields in agriculture.
Forum
Authors: Goodman Penelope J.
Published: December 2012

In the western half of the Roman Empire, cities founded by Rome or aspiring to the form of urbanism generally associated with Rome were usually designed around a central meeting place known as the forum.
Hacksilber
Authors: Kroll John H.
Published: December 2012

This German term refers to finds of cut pieces of silver that were collected for the storage of wealth and used as currency in economies that preceded, or lacked, coinage.
Hellenotamiai
Authors: Baron Christopher
Published: December 2012

“Treasurers of the Greeks,” thehellenotamiaiwere the treasurers of the Delian League, established in 478/7, responsible for receiving the funds (phorosor tribute) collected from league members (Thuc. 1.96.2).
Hinterland
Authors: Goodman Penelope J.
Published: December 2012

“Hinterland,” a term originally drawn from the field of economic geography, describes the area immediately around a city or settlement with which it is particularly closely linked through the medium of trade.
Houses, housing, household formation, Greece and Rome
Authors: Schmitz Winfried
Published: December 2012

In the eighth centuryBCE, clay and wickerwork houses were replaced with stone architecture, at least in the lower parts.
Ianiculum
Authors: Craver Scott
Published: December 2012

Ianiculum was the name of the high ridge on the right bank of the Tiber, extending northward toward the Vatican Valley and descending southward into the Transtiberim Plain.
Infrastructure
Authors: Schneider Helmuth
Published: December 2012

Infrastructure is a modern term that was initially used in the military sphere; transferred to the civilian domain, the term denotes structures that are necessary preconditions for the production and exchange of commodities. It refers primarily to buildings and technical facilities. A broader definition, which also includes institutions such as an education or health system as part of the infrastructure of modern societies, is seldom applied when describing ancient infrastructure. Apart from the economic significance of infrastructure, its effects on welfare are also to be indicated; in antiquity, this primarily applies to water supplies. Among the commonly shared characteristics of infrastructural constructions is their joint planning and financing by cities, communities, and rulers and their use by the populace, to a large extent free of charge.
Iron
Authors: Haarer Peter
Published: December 2012

Iron was a fundamental material in antiquity from the first millenniumBCEonward.
Kapelos
Authors: Gottesman Alex
Published: December 2012

The termkapelosgenerally describes someone who sells products in a marketplace directly to consumers, a local shopkeeper. The most common meaning of the term is “retailer.” Greek sources contrast thekapeloswith theemporos, a term which can be translated as “trader,” someone who bridges supply and demand across significant distances, usually by ship.
Labor, compulsory
Authors: Hoffmann‐Salz Julia
Published: December 2012

The ancient world knew many forms of compulsory labor. Slaves, of course, had to do any work assigned to them by their masters. Prisoners of war could be forced to work in mines and quarries or as public slaves. Herodotus tells us that the Egyptian Pharaoh Rameses II used prisoners from his Near Eastern campaigns to build the canals and waterways of Egypt (Hdt. 2.108). Later, we find Athenian prisoners in the quarries at Syracuse (Plut.
Nic
. 29) and Syracusan ones in the Athenian stone pits at Piraeus (Xen.
Hell
. 1.2.14). The Romans sent prisoners from the revolt in Judaea to the mines in Egypt (Joseph.
BJ
6.418). Slaves and citizens of the lower classes (
humiliores
) convicted of offenses such as fraud were also often sentenced to forced labor in the mines, quarries, or public works like road building.
Liturgy, Greece and Rome
Authors: Garnett Sterling
Published: December 2012

The liturgy (
leitourgia
, “work for the people”) was an institution of compulsory public service in the classical Greek world, best known from Athens, in which the wealthiest citizens (and, for certain liturgies, metics) were compelled to shoulder the financial burden of some project or activity of benefit to the
polis
.
Luxury
Authors: Ray Nick M.
Published: December 2012

Luxury is a socio‐cultural construct that is variable depending on the agents involved.
Maritime loans
Authors: Schmitz Winfried
Published: December 2012

Maritime loans (nautikàornautikonà dnàeionin Greek;pecunia traiectitiaorpecunia nautikain Latin) were a particular type of loan (dàneia mutua) that was established to finance overseas trade journeys.
Mediterranean harbors
Authors: Pettegrew David K.
Published: December 2012

In antiquity, harbors were both the principal points of interaction between inhabitants and their connecting sea as well as shelters from winds, waves, and currents.
Modernism
Authors: Conison Alex
Published: December 2012

Modernism, or better still, economic modernism is used within the field of Ancient History to describe a heterogeneous set of approaches for studying ancient economic behavior.
Palace economy
Authors: Jursa Michael
Published: December 2012

In its most general sense, the term “palace economy” designates an economy embedded in a patrimonial, hierarchical society and geared towards financing a small elite including the ruler (king or chief) and his household.
Perioikoi
Authors: Gallego Julián
Published: December 2012

The ancient Greeks used the termperioikoito designate groups whose social status could differ from one place to another (Sparta, Elis, Crete, Argolis, Thessaly, etc.).
Persepolis tablets
Authors: Henkelman Wouter F. M.
Published: December 2012

Two archives of clay tablets were excavated at Persepolis, a major Achaemenid residence in southwestern Iran: the Persepolis Fortification archive (PFA), in the northeastern Fortification (1933), and the Persepolis Treasury archive (PTA), in the Treasury building (1936/38). They are a cornerstone of primary evidence on the Persian Empire (ca. 550–330BCE).
Price formation
Authors: Nappo Dario
Published: December 2012

The importance of studying the formation of prices was explained many decades ago by: “If, then, we regard the economic system as an enormous conglomeration of interdependent markets, the central problem of economic inquiry becomes the explanation of the exchanging process, or, more particularly, the explanation of the formation of price.” According to one of the oldest principles in economics, prices are the result of a balance between “supply and demand,” a model that applies to all competitive markets.
Primitivism
Authors: Cascio Elio Lo
Published: December 2012

The term “primitivism” denotes a specific manner of estimating the performance of the ancient economy in comparison with that of medieval and modern Europe, one that challenges the perspective adopted by the so‐called modernist or modernizing historians.
Quarries
Authors: Pope Spencer
Published: December 2012

Cut stone became the preferred material for large‐scale construction and sculpture in the Greek World in the seventh centuryBCE.
Rational actor models
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

“Rational actor models,” drawn from the social sciences, provide a way of understanding human behavior that has implications for a wide variety of issues in the ancient world. Its premise, based in economics, is that people seek to make “rational” or informed choices to maximize their utility.
Royal land
Authors: Manning Joseph
Published: December 2012

In Ptolemaic administrative papyri,gê basilikê, “royal (or crown) land” was a fiscal and administrative category of land characterized by direct control by the state, primarily through leases.
Rural economy
Authors: Kron Geof
Published: December 2012

The prosperous lifestyles of urban Greeks, Phoenico‐Carthaginians, and Romans both demanded and fostered a productive rural economy. Urban demand drove agricultural intensification and diversification, and the productivity of agriculture and the efficiency of the trade infrastructure supported an exceptionally large non‐agricultural population.
Shādūf
Authors: Cook R. James
Published: December 2012

The Shādūf is the earliest attested mechanical water‐lifting device.
Sharecropping
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

Sharecropping represents a basic form of land tenure in the ancient world, as it does in many other societies.
Shipwrecks, exploration of
Authors: Morriss Veronica
Published: December 2012

Ancient diving weights discovered off the first‐centuryBCEMadrague De Giens shipwreck indicate that long ago, salvors (urinatores) had mastered the art of recovering precious cargoes from sunken ships.
Slavery, Greece
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: December 2012

Classical Greece has been called one of very few genuine “slave societies” in world history.
Symmoria
Authors: Oliver G.J.
Published: December 2012

Asymmoria(plural:symmoriai) was a group of individuals assessed to pay taxes in Classical Athens. At Hellenistic Teos they were sub‐divisions of the civic body.
Terracing
Authors: Kvapil Lynne A.
Published: December 2012

Artificial terracing is used to ameliorate the slope of the natural terrain while creating or extending level ground. Terraces usually consist of dry stone wall that retains a leveling fill consisting of sediment mixed with stone that is capped with alayer of earth or stones. Terraces can support structures, open spaces, or cultivated land.
Via publica
Authors: Tilburg Cornelis Van
Published: December 2012

Avia publica, as opposed to avia privata, is a road accessible for all traffic: wheeled, mounted, and pedestrian. Avia publicacan be a thoroughfare, but also a cul–de–sac (diverticulum).
Wage labor
Authors: Mac Mahon Ardle
Published: December 2012

In the Greco‐Roman world, wage labor was seen as sordid and those that performed it as servile. The writings of philosophers and orators, such as Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero, suggest a deep disdain for work, and manual labor in general (Balme 1984; Treggiari 1980). Not only were those that labored believed to be slaves to necessity, they were incapable of high‐mindedness and lacked a willingness and time to take part in the affairs of the state. However, the literary sources were not the product of those who performed services, and for the elite to admit their importance would undermine their own position.
Water meter
Authors: Nikolic Milorad
Published: December 2012

Measuring water is an important prerequisite for proper timing of human interference with naturally occurring changes in water availability and for adequate sizing of hydraulic installations.
Wheat
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Wheat (Greekpyros/sitos, Latintriticum/frumentum) was cultivated in Mesopotamia from the eighth millenniumBCEonwards and appeared in Greece by the beginning of the Neolithic period.
Winnowing
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Winnowing is the action of separating grain from chaff and legumes from husks. The simplest way is leaving the grain exposed to the wind, which blows away the chaff (Colum. 2.20.5). But different kinds of winnowing‐fans were used to make the process faster. One was a sort of basket (Latin
vannus
, Greek
liknon
) which was shaken to bring the chaff towards a shallow end and let it fall down (e.g., Arist.
Met
. 368b; Xen.
Oec
. 18.6–8). Another was a sort of shovel (Greek
ptyon
, Latin
ventilabrum
), often with teeth (Greek
thrinax
or
likmeterion
) with which the grain was thrown in the air (e.g., Hom.
Il
. 5.499–505; 13.587–90; Varro
Rust
. 1.52.2;
Ling
. 5.138; Colum. 2.10.14). The third instrument was a sieve (Greek
koskinon
, Latin
cribrum
) known through Servius (
G
. 1.166), and also in Diocletian's Price Edict (15.60a), which registers also
velabra
and
threinaces
(15.48–51). The winnowing‐fans, and in particular the
liknon
, were used in various religious rites (e.g., Theocr.
Id
. 7.155–7), such as the Eleusinian mysteries, and appear as a divine attribute of agricultural deities as well as Dionysos (Verg.
G
. 1.166; Plut.
Alex
. 2.9);
Liknites
was also an epithet of Dionysos (Plut.
De Is. et Os
. 35). According to Servius, winnowing was a symbol of a soul's purification, and the
Liknophoria
were purification rituals. In the Christian tradition winnowing could be a metaphor for separating good and bad (e.g., Mt:12).
Wood and woodworking
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Wood was one of the most important and widespread materials in the ancient world.
Irrigation, Greece and Rome
Authors: Hollander David B. , Spanier Ethan
Published: December 2012

Irrigation is the provision of water for agricultural purposes by artificial means, usually from rivers, streams, and springs diverted by means of dams, canals, aqueducts, or ditches.
Alexandria (Egypt)
Authors: Capponi Livia
Published: December 2012

Alexandria was the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, then of the Roman province Aegyptus with a prefect in residence.
Berenike I, wife of Ptolemy I
Authors: Llewellyn‐Jones Lloyd
Published: December 2012

Berenike I, queen of Egypt, and wife of Ptolemy I, was born around 340
BCE
to Antigone, a Macedonian noblewoman from the house of Antipater, and a nobleman named Magas.
Berenike II, wife of Ptolemy III
Authors: Llewellyn‐Jones Lloyd
Published: December 2012

Berenike II (ca. 267/6–221BCE), wife of Ptolemy III, was the daughter of Magas of Cyrene.
Berenike, Egypt
Authors: Sidebotham Steven E.
Published: December 2012

Berenike (23° 54.62' N/35° 28.42' E), a Ptolemaic‐Roman port (third centuryBCE–sixth centuryCE), lies on the Egyptian Red Sea coast, approximately 825 km south of Suez (Clysma‐Cleopatris‐Arsinoe‐Qolzoum) and 260 km east of Aswan (Syene). Ptolemaic Berenike imported elephants by sea; Roman‐era Berenike was a commercial link between the Mediterranean basin and Red Sea–Indian Ocean littorals.
Cleopatra Selene
Authors: Llewellyn‐Jones Lloyd
Published: December 2012

Cleopatra Selene, one of the most determined and long‐lived of the Ptolemaic royal women, was born around 135–130
BCE
, the daughter of Ptolemy VIII and his niece‐wife, Cleopatra III. She was one of three daughters (with Cleopatra IV and Tryphaina) and two sons (Ptolemy IX and Ptolemy X), and may have been the youngest of the royal siblings. During her life she was both one‐time queen of Egypt and of Syria, and the wife and mother of several successive kings.
Crocodile
Authors: Verhoogt Arthur
Published: December 2012

Of all crocodilians, the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) was most prominent in the ancient world. Just as in many parts of Africa today, the Nile crocodile was a terrifying presence along the borders of the River Nile. With its rather impressive appetite for larger prey, crocodiles could not do otherwise than impress the humans who came into contact with this ferocious hunter.
Defensor Civitatis
Authors: Frakes Robert M.
Published: December 2012

Thedefensor civitatis(or “defender of the municipality”) was an important judicial office in the later Roman Empire. The office went through several phases and provides an interesting example of administrative development in the fourth and early fifth centuriesCE. Diocletian may have founded an early phase of the office (in title if not in function) as part of his sweeping municipal and administrative reforms. At this stage thedefensorseems to have collected petitions and grievances at the local level and forwarded them to superiors. Constantine expanded the judicial focus of the office in the 320s, possibly as an attempt to provide cheaper access to justice. At this time,defensoreswere drawn from local elites and seemed to work in a parallel fashion to the offices of thecurator civitatisand theexactor civitatis(both part of Diocletian's municipal reforms). Later, under Valens and Valentinian in either 364 or 368, legislation (surviving asCT1.29.1) specified thatdefensoresshould have no connection with local elites (presumably to provide more impartial judicial decisions), and should focus on providing fair justice to poorer litigants.
Elephantine, Ptolemaic and Roman
Authors: Manning Joseph
Published: December 2012

Elephantine was the northernmost island (24°05′ N, 32°53′ E) at the first cataract of the Nile at modern Aswan and the traditional southern frontier of Egypt.
Ethnicity, Greco‐Roman Egypt
Authors: Fischer‐Bovet Christelle
Published: December 2012

Immigration to Egypt after Alexander's conquest raises questions as to the nature of the relationship between Egyptians, Greeks, and other ethnic groups from the entire Mediterranean.
Monasteries, in the East
Authors: Delattre Alain
Published: December 2012

Eremitism (or anchoritism) and cenobitism are the two main monastic lifestyles; both appeared in the fourth centuryCE. Eremitism is most associated with Antony the Great (ca. 251–356); it is an individual form of monasticism: the hermit lives alone or with a disciple in an isolated cell. The monks of such a monastery meet only once a week, during the weekend, for a common meal and the Mass. In cenobitic monasticism, whose central figure is Pachomius (ca. 292–346), the life of the monks is communal: they live together every day, under the strict direction and supervision of the superior of the community. These two kinds of monasticism are not, however, mutually exclusive: hermits could be members of cenobitic monasteries, and there was a spectrum of lifestyles between the fully solitary and the strictly communal. Nevertheless, differences can be seen betweenlaurae(semi‐anchoritic monasteries) andcoenobia(in cenobitic monasticism).
Mons Claudianus
Authors: Bülow‐Jacobsen Adam , Cuvigny Hélène
Published: December 2012

Mons Claudianus was at today's Jabal Fatira (26° 48′ 32'' N, 33° 29′ 14'' E) and was a Roman quarry settlement in the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
Pelusium
Authors: Lefebvre Ludovic
Published: December 2012

Pelusium was an ancient city of Lower Egypt. We know very little about its origin, in particular with regard to the pre‐Assyrian period, our knowledge drawing both on myth and historical facts. Its foundation seems to date back to the end of the Ethiopian period or the beginning of the Persian period. It is known by different names and is currently located in Tell el‐Farama.
Ptolemy IX Soter II
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy IX Soter II (r. 116–107 and 88–81/80), nicknamed “Lathyros” (“chickpea”), was the oldest son of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III.
Ptolemy XV Caesar
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy XV Caesar (Greek: Kaisar) (co‐ruler 44–30
BCE
) was born on June 23, 47 (Stele Louvre 335) as the son of Cleopatra VII Philopator and possibly Julius Caesar (Heinen 1967: 203).
Twins
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: December 2012

In Greco‐Roman antiquity the birth of two or more offspring from the same pregnancy represented a rare and unexpected event that aroused ambivalent reactions.
Alexander historians
Authors: Popov‐Reynolds Nadejda V.
Published: December 2012

Alexander iii, the Great (356–323BCE) inspired many histories, both during his lifetime and in subsequent periods.
Ammianus Marcellinus
Authors: Rohrbacher David
Published: December 2012

Ammianus Marcellinus (ca. 330s‐after 391CE) is the author of a history, in Latin, of the Roman Empire from the Principate of Nerva Augustus to the death of Valens (96–378). His highly rhetorical and allusive work was written in particular to celebrate the emperor Julian. Ammianus was the last of the Latin historians to follow in the grand tradition of historiography exemplified by Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus.
Antiquarianism
Authors: Cunnally John
Published: December 2012

The term “antiquarian” or “antiquary” was once commonly applied to persons who collected and studied the material remains of the past, including coins, inscriptions, old manuscripts, statues, household objects, tools, weapons, and similar artifacts.
Appian of Alexandria
Authors: Bucher Gregory S.
Published: December 2012

Appian (ca. 85–95 to ca. 165CE) tells us, in thePrefaceto hisRoman History(RH), thatAlexandriawas his homeland and that he had risen to the first rank there. He goes on to say that he argued cases in Rome “under the Emperors,” until they deemed him worthy to be a procurator, a high‐ranking bureaucratic position for which Roman citizenship and equestrian rank were requisite. There is little doubt that he was quite wealthy. Appian concludes by mentioning an autobiography that has either been lost or was never written.
Res gestae
of Augustus
Authors: Stem Rex
Published: December 2012

Augustus'
Res Gestae
presents the emperor's own account of his achievements, written in the first person and designed to be inscribed after his death on two bronze pillars adjacent to his mausoleum in Rome (Suet.
Aug
. 101.4; Cass. Dio 56.33.1).
Aulus Gellius,Attic Nights
Authors: Clay Andrew W.
Published: December 2012

Aulus Gellius (b. ca. 125CE) was a second century Roman author whose miscellany work, theAttic Nights (Noctes Atticae=NA), is an important source for intellectual life and culture during the Antonine period and for ancient authors no longer extant.
Biography
Authors: Stadter Philip A.
Published: December 2012

The genre of ancient biography, defined as a self‐sufficient account of the kind of life led by a historical person that also evaluates the subject's character, goals, and achievements, though closely related to history, is distinct from it.
Chronography
Authors: Feeney Denis
Published: December 2012

Chronography was a crucial part of Greek and Roman scholarship and historiography, since the ancient world had no one calendar or universally shared system of charting past time.
Commentarii
and
hypomnemata
Authors: Popov‐Reynolds Nadejda V.
Published: December 2012

In the original meaning,
commentarii
– in the Roman world – and
hypomnemata
, their Greek equivalent, refer to memoranda: official and unofficial records and notes of any kind kept by private individuals and groups, whether on a regular basis (e.g., diaries, military campaign notes of generals) or for specific purposes (e.g., speech notes of orators, lecture notes). As such, most
commentarii
/
hypomnemata
were mere lists of raw data and could not be considered literary or historical works. Some private individuals'
commentarii
and
hypomnemata
were, however, more polished, and form a veritable sub‐genre of ancient historiography.
Ennius
Authors: Fantham Elaine
Published: December 2012

Born at Rudiae in Calabria, Ennius (239–169BCE) was Messapian in origin, but his first language was Oscan.
Eumenes of Kardia
Authors: Anson Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Eumenes (361–315BCE) was a Greek from the city of Kardia in the Thracian Chersonese (Gallipoli peninsula), who became royal secretary and head of the state chancellery first to Philip II of Macedon and subsequently to Alexander III, the Great. To the latter he also served as a close personal advisor, and after the Conqueror's death in 323 he was a major contender for power in the early years of the warfare that ushered in the Hellenistic Age. In his position of royal secretary, Eumenes joined Alexander in his invasion of the Persian Empire in 334. By the later stages of the Asian campaign, Eumenes had been advanced to the position of cavalry commander of one division of the elite Macedonian companion cavalry. After Alexander's death Eumenes became a satrap (governor) and the confidant of Perdikkas, the regent acting for Alexander's heirs. In the struggle for power that began in late 321, Eumenes commanded a sizable force and defeated two distinguished Macedonian commanders; but the regent's death during a campaign against Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt, precipitaded Eumenes' betrayal by one of his own commanders and his subsequent defeat at the hands of the leading general of the victorious coalition, Antigonos I Monophthalmos (“the One‐Eyed”). Later Eumenes came to terms with Antigonos by becoming officially his subordinate. But in 318 he broke with him and, with the support of a new coalition of satraps and generals, he renewed his war against his former master. Both armies withdrew to the east. After two indecisive battles at Paraitakene and Gabiene in late‐316, Eumenes was betrayed by his own troops – to Antigonos, who had him executed early in 315.
Excerpta Antiqua
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

Excerpta Antiqua
is the name of a collection of abridged fragments from Books 6–18 of Polybius's
Histories
, contained in several of the surviving manuscripts of his work.
Fannius, Gaius
Authors: Beck Hans
Published: December 2012

Gaius Fannius was a Roman historian in the age of the Gracchi.
Florus, Lucius Annaeus
Authors: Serrati John
Published: December 2012

Lucius Annaeus Florus authored a history of Rome from the foundation of the city through to the Imperial period.
Hellenica Oxyrhynchia
Authors: Nicolai Roberto
Published: December 2012

The work's current title,
Hellenica Oxyrhynchia
, does not go back to its original author: the term
Hellenica
was used as a generic title for works dealing with Greek history that could have a variety of different subjects and approaches.
Herodotus
Authors: Cartledge Paul
Published: December 2012

That Herodotus, the historian of the Greco‐Persian wars of 490 and 480–479BCE, did not succumb to Hellenocentric triumphalism is one of the many glories that commend him more and more to scholars in the field.
Licinius Macer, Gaius
Authors: Clark Jessica H.
Published: December 2012

Gaius Licinius Macer (ca. 110–66BCE) wrote an annalistic account of early Rome in Latin.
Momigliano, Arnaldo 1908–1987
Authors: Briggs Ward
Published: December 2012

Arnaldo Momigliano devoted his career to revealing the entwined cultural heritage of Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Jews throughout the ancient world and to understanding not only the intellectual forces at work on the ancient figures he studied, like Philip II of Macedon and the emperor Claudius, but also on great scholars in the field of ancient history.
Naevius, Gaius,Bellum Punicum
Authors: Fantham Elaine
Published: December 2012

Dramatic and epic poet, Naevius is said to have been a Campanian and served in the First Punic War (i.e., before 240BCE;).
Philinos of Akragas
Authors: Champion Craige B.
Published: December 2012

Philinos of Akragas, the Roman Agrigentum (mod. Agrigento), was a pro‐Carthaginian, Sicilian Greek historian of the First Punic War (264–241
BCE
).
Publication
Authors: Avlamis Pavlos
Published: December 2012

The publication of a text in a manuscript culture was not defined by a single moment of mechanical mass production, as in post‐print modernity.
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus)
Authors: Champion Craige B.
Published: December 2012

Born in 86BCE, the historian Sallust was of Italian provincial origins, from the municipal aristocracy of Amiternum.
Sisenna, Lucius Cornelius
Authors: Clark Jessica H.
Published: December 2012

Lucius Cornelius Sisenna (ca. 119–67
BCE
), Roman orator and magistrate, is best known for writing
Histories
in Latin.
Suda
Authors: Kellogg Danielle L.
Published: December 2012

The
Suda
is a Greek‐Byzantine lexicon compiled in the tenth century
CE
, possibly in the reign of the emperor John I Tzimiskes (r. 969–976
CE
).
Tacitus
Authors: Rutledge Steven H.
Published: December 2012

Publius Cornelius Tacitus (55–ca. 120CE) is considered among Rome's greatest historians.
Varro, Marcus Terentius
Authors: Stem Rex
Published: December 2012

The writings of the polymath Marcus Terentius Varro, whose long life (116–27BCE) spanned most of the final century of the Roman Republic, fundamentally organized the Romans’ understanding of the origins and development of their cultural habits and traditions.
Aristoboulos of Kassandreia
Authors: Prandi Luisa
Published: December 2012

Aristoboulos, son of Aristoboulos, followed Alexander in Asia; he became citizen of Kassandreia (founded in 316
BCE
, on the site of Potidaia) and composed a work about the conquest (
FGrH
139); neither title nor extent are preserved.
Ethnography and ancient history
Authors: Vivero Manuel Albaladejo
Published: December 2012

Romanticism is the starting point of modern scientific historiography in the field of Greek ethnography. Müller, steeped in the intellectual climate of his time, wrote of the “spiritual nature of a people,” in reference to the Dorians, and attempted an approach to the literary sources that in certain respects foreshadowed the positivist school.
Alexander III, the Great
Authors: Wiemer Hans‐Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Alexander III of Macedon (356–323BCE), son of king Philip II of Macedon and of Olympias, conquered and transformed the Achaemenid Empire, creating a new and purely personal monarchy that quickly fell to pieces after his early death in Babylon on June 10, 323.
Antiochos II Theos
Authors: Iossif Panagiotis P.
Published: December 2012

Antiochos II (ca. 286–246), second son of Antiochos I Soter and Stratonike, became co‐regent of the Upper Satrapies in 266 (
OGIS
222), after the execution of his elder brother (Trogus
Prologus
26, as recorded by Justin) and occupied this position until his father's death in 261.
Antiochos IV Epiphanes
Authors: Mittag Peter
Published: December 2012

Antiochos IV (ca. 210–164), born Mithridates, marks a turning point in Seleucid history by adopting theepithetaTheos Epiphanes Nikephoros. At one end of the spectrum, he was the first and last Seleucid king who was able to defeat the Ptolemies and conquer all Egypt; at the other end, the Maccabean revolt (seeMaccabees, Books of which led to the end of Seleucid rule in southern Syria, started during his reign.
Ariarathid Dynasty
Authors: Michels Christoph
Published: December 2012

Ariarathes is the Greek form of the royal name of the rulers of a dynasty which ruled Hellenistic Cappadocia and was succeeded by the Ariobarzanid Dynasty.
Attalos III
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Attalos III Philometor (ruled 138–133BCE), king of Pergamon, was a son of Eumenes II (died 158) and Stratonike.
Bithynia
Authors: Kleu Michael
Published: December 2012

Bithynia was a geographical region and a Hellenistic kingdom in northwestern Asia Minor. In Roman times it was part of the provincePontus et Bithynia. The population of Bithynia was predominantly Thracian.
Chrysippos of Soloi
Authors: Haake Matthias
Published: December 2012

The philosopher Chrysippos of Soloi was the third head of the Stoa “Porch” =the Stoic school in Athens;.
Cleopatra III
Authors: Capponi Livia
Published: December 2012

After the dynastic war which broke out on the death of Ptolemy VI Philometor, around 141/0BCEPtolemy VIII Euergetes II married his sister and Philometor's widow Cleopatra II and, around 135–130, also his niece, Cleopatra III, only a teenager.
Crete
Authors: Chaniotis Angelos
Published: December 2012

A major cultural and economic player in the eastern Mediterranean during the Bronze Age and a significant contributor to Greek culture from the ninth to the seventh centuriesBCE, Crete played a less significant role in the Classical and Hellenistic periods, rising again to prosperity under Roman rule.
Decree (psephisma)
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

The termpsephisma(ψήφισμα) is mainly associated with the politics of the Greek world and literally means “things voted,” although a ballot vote did not necessarily have to take place.
Demetrios of Phaleron
Authors: Haake Matthias
Published: December 2012

Demetrios of Phaleron (mid‐350s–late 280s
BCE
) was an Athenian politician and Peripatetic philosopher, who originated from a probably wealthy but completely unknown family.
Diodotos Tryphon
Authors: Ehling Kay
Published: December 2012

Diodotos, called Tryphon, was at first thestrategos(general) of the Seleucid king Demetrios I, and after the latter's fall he served Alexander Balas in the same function and, together with Hierax, was the commandant of Antioch.
Epicurus and Epicureanism
Authors: Gordon Pamela
Published: December 2012

Epicurus (341–270BCE) was a Hellenistic Greek moral philosopher who identified the goal of life as happiness. The study of science was an essential but subsidiary component of his all‐encompassing system, which attracted Greek and Roman practitioners for centuries.
Eumenes II
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Eumenes II, king of Pergamon (r. 197–158BCE), was the eldest son of Attalos I and Apollonis.
Hermogenes
Authors: Mylonopoulos Ioannis
Published: December 2012

It is a scholarly
topos
that Roman authors did not appreciate Hellenistic sculptors or architects. Hermogenes, an architect from Asia Minor, was, however, a striking exception. Vitruvius refers to the Hellenistic architect five times in the course of
De architectural
, always in the most eulogistic ways (3.2.6; 3.3.8–9; 4.3.1–2; 4.3.8; 7.praef.2). After long debates, architectural historians now date the apogee of Hermogenes' activity to around 220–190
BCE
. Hermogenes, like Pytheos, the celebrated fourth‐century architect, advocated the superiority of the Ionic over the Doric order, especially on account of the corner conflict in the latter, which undermined the idea of perfect symmetry, a principle that apparently dominated his practical and theoretical work.