bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ultrasonic Effects on Electroorganic Processes. Product-selectivity in Electroreduction of Benzaldehydes
Authors: Matsuda Kazuya , Atobe Mahito , Nonaka Tsutomu
Published: April 2006

Ultrasonic irradiation to electroorganic systems resulted in significant effects on product-selectivity in the reduction of benzaldehydes and others. By the irradiation, the selectivity of reduction products formed by consuming fewer electrons was drastically enhanced. The effects were rationalized as due to not cavitation but agitation of electrolytic solutions by ultrasonic waves.
Syntheses and Crystal Structures of Triangular Rhodium and Iridium Complexes with Triply Bridging Sulfido Ligands
Authors: Nishioka Takanori , Isobe Kiyoshi
Published: April 2006

Reaction of [MCp*(NCMe)3]2+ (M = Rh, Ir; Cp* = η5-C5Me5) with Na2S in MeCN affords [(MCp*)3(μ3-S)2]2+. X-Ray structural characterization of their BF4 salts shows that they have equilateral triangle M3 core with two triply bridging sulfido ligands on both sides of the M3 plane. Cyclic voltammograms of the rhodium and iridium complexes in MeCN show three and two chemically reversible processes, respectively.
Preference of an Unusual Pathway in the Formation of 8,8-Dicyano-2,3-benzoheptafulvene from the Reaction of 2,3-Benzotropone with Malononitrile
Authors: Machiguchi Takahisa
Published: April 2006

Deuterium tracer experiment clarifies that the condensation reaction of 2,3-benzotropone with malononitrile forms 8,8-dicyano-2,3-benzoheptafulvene via reaction paths involving the preference of an abnormal (Michael type) attack of the nucleophile at the C-4 position to a normal (Knoevenagel type) attack at the C-1 position.
Structures and Magnetic Properties of Bis(hexafluoroacetylacetonato)manganese(II)Ligated with N-[3- and 4-(N-tert-Butyl-N-oxyaminophenyl)]imidazole
Authors: Ishimaru Yoichiro , Inoue Katsuya , Koga Noboru , Iwamura Hiizu
Published: April 2006

X-Ray analyses revealed that bis(hexafluoroacetylacetonato)manganese(II) forms with 1-[3- and 4-(N-tert-butyl-N-oxyaminophenyl)]imidazoles cyclic dimer complexes in cis coordination. The long-range magnetic couplings between the two spin 4/2’s resulting from the strongly antiferromagnetic short-range interaction between the Mn(II) and the ligated nitroxide radical are regiospecific: antiferromagnetic for 3- and ferromagnetic for 4-nitroxide substitution on the phenyl ring.
A New Type of Inclusion Compounds Composed of a Charge-Transfer Complex between Tetrakis(phenylethynyl)ethene and 2,4,7-Trinitrofluorenone
Authors: Taniguchi Hiroshi , Hayashi Koji , Nishioka Keiko , Hori Yuji , Shiro Motoo , Kitamura Tsugio
Published: April 2006

Tetrakis(phenylethynyl)ethene and 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone form a deep red charge-transfer complex which gives the inclusion compound with benzene. The crystal structure of the inclusion compound with benzene was determined. The inclusion compound is composed of new frameworks possessing cavities for recognition of benzene molecules. Other examples of the inclusion compound are described.
Synthesis of Protoporphyrin IX Derivatives Having Four Amphiphilic and/or Lipophilic Alkyl Chains and Their Dispersing Behavior in Phospholipid Bilayer
Authors: Komatsu Teruyuki , Yamada Kazuhiro , Yanagisawa Satoru , Nishide Hiroyuki , Tsuchida Eishun
Published: April 2006

New protoporphyrin IX derivatives having four amphiphilic and/or lipophilic alkyl chains (lipidporphyrins) were synthesized. The lipidporphyrins were efficiently incorporated into the bilayer membrane of phospholipid vesicle without a stacked arrangement. Homogeneous dispersing property of the lipidporphyrins in the bilayer membrane was maintained after polymerization of the phospholipid molecules.
Syntheses of Rare Earth Dioxymonocyanamides (Ln2O2CN2, Ln = La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd)
Authors: Hashimoto Yasuhiro , Takahashi Masao , Kikkawa Shinichi , Kanamaru Fumikazu
Published: April 2006

A series of new compounds were prepared by heating Ln2O3 (Ln = La, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd), Pr6O11, or Ce2(CO3)3·8H2O in the presence of carbon under an ammonia atmosphere. Thermogravimetric and CHN analyses revealed that these compounds are of rare earth dioxymonocyanamides (Ln2O2CN2). They are classified into two structure types depending on Ln3+ ionic radii, viz., type I (tetragonal) for Ln = La, Ce and type II (trigonal) for Ln = Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd. Ce2O2CN2 takes both structure types depending upon preparative temperature.
The costs and service implications of substituting intermediate care for acute hospital care
Authors: Mayhew Leslie , Lawrence David
Published: April 2006

Intermediate care is part of a package of initiatives introduced by the UK Government mainly to relieve pressure on acute hospital beds and reduce delayed discharge (bed blocking). Intermediate care involves caring for patients in a range of settings, such as in the home or community or in nursing and residential homes. This paper considers the scope of intermediate care and its role in relation to acute hospital services. In particular, it develops a framework that can be used to inform decisions about the most cost-effective care pathways for given clinical situations, and also for wider planning purposes. It does this by providing a model for evaluating the costs of intermediate care services provided by different agencies and techniques for calibrating the model locally. It finds that consistent application of the techniques over a period of time, coupled with sound planning and accounting, should result in savings to the health economy.
Variables Influencing the Presence of Subyearling Fall Chinook Salmon in Shoreline Habitats of the Hanford Reach, Columbia River
Authors: Tiffan Kenneth F. , Clark Loreley O. , Garland Rodney D. , Rondorf Dennis W.
Published: April 2006

Little information currently exists on habitat use by subyearling fall Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha rearing in large, main-stem habitats. We collected habitat use information on subyearlings in the Hanford Reach of the Columbia River during May 1994 and April–May 1995 using point abundance electrofishing. We analyzed measures of physical habitat using logistic regression to predict fish presence and absence in shoreline habitats. The difference between water temperature at the point of sampling and in the main river channel was the most important variable for predicting the presence and absence of subyearlings. Mean water velocities of 45 cm/s or less and habitats with low lateral bank slopes were also associated with a greater likelihood of subyearling presence. Intermediate-sized gravel and cobble substrates were significant predictors of fish presence, but small (<32-mm) and boulder-sized (>256-mm) substrates were not. Our rearing model was accurate at predicting fish presence and absence using jackknifing (80% correct) and classification of observations from an independent data set (76% correct). The habitat requirements of fall Chinook salmon in the Hanford Reach are similar to those reported for juvenile Chinook salmon in smaller systems but are met in functionally different ways in a large river.
Fallback by Adult Sockeye Salmon at Columbia River Dams
Authors: Naughton George P. , Caudill Christopher C. , Keefer Matthew L. , Bjornn Theodore C. , Peery Christopher A. , Stuehrenberg Lowell C.
Published: April 2006

We implanted radio transmitters into sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka in 1997 to determine the (1) fallback percentage and rate at eight Columbia River dams, (2) effect of fallback on adult counts at each dam, (3) relations between spillway discharge and fallback, (4) relations between injuries and fallback, and (5) relations of fallback and survival to spawning tributaries. The rate of fallback, that is, the total number of fallback events at a dam divided by the number of fish known to have passed the dam, ranged from 1.9% to 13.7% at the eight dams. The rate of fallback was highest at Bonneville Dam, the dam with the most complex fishway. Fallback produced overcounts of 2% to 7% at most dams. Fallback was weakly related to spill volume at Bonneville Dam. Significantly more sockeye salmon with head injuries fell back than fish without head injuries. About 40% of the sockeye salmon had injuries from marine mammals, but these injuries were not associated with the rate of fallback. The rate of survival was similar between fish that fell back (68.0%) and fish that did not fall back (67.5%). We suggest that fisheries managers adjust counts for fallback but note that these relationships were obtained under high-discharge conditions. We conclude that fallback biases dam counts and that the relationship between spawning success and fallback should be an area of future research.
Proximal and Distal Antecedents of Funeral Attitudes: A Multidimensional Analysis
Authors: Hayslip Bert , Booher Suzanne , Riddle Russell , Guarnaccia Charles A.
Published: April 2006

This study examined proximal and distal antecedents of funeral attitudes among 436 volunteers aged 18 to 88. Based upon a factor analysis which yielded two factors representing attitudes toward funerals, labeled Pragmatic and Emotional Impact, results suggested a multidimensional structure of funeral attitudes. As hypothesized, for both of these factors, as well as the measures defining them, proximal antecedents (e.g., grief and funeral specific variables) accounted for more unique variance in funeral attitudes than did distal antecedents (e.g., personality and sociodemographic characteristics). Implications for the funeral as an intervention in the larger context of bereavement adjustment are discussed.
Fulfillment as Sanders' Sixth Phase of Bereavement: The Unfinished Work of Catherine Sanders
Authors: Doka Kenneth J.
Published: April 2006

Prior to her death, Catherine Sanders was interested in modifying her earlier work on the phases of grief. She had begun to explore the conceptualization of a sixth phase of the grieving process that she tentatively termed fulfillment. This conceptualization not only reflected her research but her own personal grief journey. This article both presents Sanders' early theorizing about this phase and places it in the context of her life and her life's work.
Industrial Relations Policies Of American Management 1900–1933
Authors: Wood Norman J.
Published: April 2006

The first third of the twentieth century completely transformed the practice of industrial relations in American business. Three principal motivating forces may be identified. These not only fluctuated in time, place, and influence, but have received unequal and less than impartial historical attention.
Losses to the Public in The Insull Collapse: 1932-1946
Authors: Taylor Arthur R.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study is to trace the disposition of stockholder securities and to estimate the losses incurred by investors as a result of the collapse of Samuel Insull's utility complex.
British Railroads and Engineers and the Beginnings of American Railroad Development
Authors: Carlson Robert E.
Published: April 2006

Practical demonstrations in Great Britain led some observers to conclude that the railroad would soon introduce “a new era in the business and arrangements of Society.” Thus inspired, promoters of the first American rail ventures began to draw heavily, both for practical information and equipment, upon the resources of the British pioneers, whose response was magnificently cooperative.
Behind The Lines: The La Crosse Packet Company during the Civil War
Authors: Toole Robert C.
Published: April 2006

River transport was for a time a critical link in the upper Mississippi Valley transportation system, bridging diminishing gaps in the railroad network and linking those river-axis trade centers through which were pouring the human and commodity tides of war and frontier development. Riverboat operations in such an environment offered limitless challenges to management and provided opportunities for both disaster and great profit.
A. A. Berle, Jr. Student of the Corporation 1917–1932
Authors: Kirkendall Richard S.
Published: April 2006

In the intellectual career of one precocious scholar may be traced the course of jurisprudence and philosophy that joined law with economics, dealt with the fundamental problem of democratic restraints upon corporate power, and influenced in basic ways the direction of the New Deal program.
Stock Ownership in the Early New England Textile Industry
Authors: Davis Lance Edwin
Published: April 2006

The unique features of ownership patterns in the early New England textile industry have long been recognized. Hitherto it has been the interlocking or horizontal relationships that have been studied. This article deals, instead, with the vertical pattern — describing ownership in terms of occupational groupings of all the investors rather than the kinship of the dominant owners. Conclusions are drawn in respect to such important points as the principal sources of textile capital, the rate of mercantile capital reinvestment in manufacturing, the relationship between investment and industry integration, and the increasing importance of nonbusiness and institutional vested interests.
Public Accounting in the United States from 1928 to 1951
Authors: Edwards James Don
Published: April 2006

Public accounting practice and the nature of the accounting profession itself has, in the years under consideration, been shaped by a series of external forces. The Great Depression stimulated codification and regulation of practice. Further refinements of auditing procedures were introduced in the wake of the McKesson & Robbins case. The basic question of who was authorized to practice received almost continuous attention, and was the subject of much legislation and some important legal action. World War II introduced new practices, added responsibilities, and certain difficulties. And finally, the emergence of a strong national organization provided the profession with a means for achieving internal consistency and the capacity for co-ordinated reaction to rapid external change.
The Augusta (Georgia) Manufacturing Company in Peace, War, and Reconstruction, 1847–1877
Authors: Griffin Richard W.
Published: April 2006

The potential advantages of the South over New England as a textile manufacturing region were recognized early in the nineteenth century, but it remained to be proved whether the disadvantages were insuperable. The success of a few mills like the Augusta Manufacturing Company provided the necessary precedent and inspiration, and precipitated the migration of an entire industry. The process of recording this episode is in itself of interest, for the pertinent company records have long since disappeared.
One-Price Policy among Antebellum Country Stores
Authors: Norris James D.
Published: April 2006

While “higgling” always occurred to some degree in most country stores, this article establishes evidence that, for many basic commodities, a system of standard prices existed in some country stores long before the Civil War.
Great Independent: The Lincoln Telephone Company, 1903–1908
Authors: Torrence William D.
Published: April 2006

It was not in the nature of the local American entrepreneur to concede to monopolistic power. Technical competence, good controls, and appeals to local pride were potent weapons in the struggle of a small company to succeed in the face of competition with the giant Bell system.
Supreme Life: The History of a Negro Life Insurance Company, 1919–1962
Authors: Puth Robert C.
Published: April 2006

The history of Supreme Life Insurance Company, now the third largest black insurance firm in the United States, is representative of its industry as a whole. In this first study of an individual Negro life insurance firm, Professor Puth suggests that Supreme Life may also serve as a barometer of future trends as black firms compete with larger white companies now being drawn into the formerly segregated market by falling mortality rates and rising incomes among Negroes.
Government-Business Relations: A Domestic View
Authors: Johnson Arthur M.
Published: April 2006

In this second special issue devoted to government-business relations, the focus is exclusively on the United States' experience, just as the Spring, 1964 issue concentrated solely on experience abroad. This approach is in keeping with the Editors' view that business history is international in scope, that there are virtues in comparative approaches to the subject, and that public authority has formed and will continue to form significant parameters for private business decision-making.
The National Shawmut Bank Consolidation of 1898
Authors: Sears Marian V.
Published: April 2006

On the eve of the merger mania at the turn of the century, the reversal of the first two words in the name of the Shawmut National Bank made it the successor in a consolidation of ten national banks in Boston. Many of the characteristics of this consolidation are exceptions to common generalizations about corporations and control; mergers and motivations.
Torrey's Frontier Post No. 2: A Business History
Authors: Nielsen George R.
Published: April 2006

One of thousands of business enterprises which dotted the frontiers of nineteenth-century North America, Torrey's post and its history illustrate the economic and political roles of frontier businessmen and their need for constant adaptations to an unstable environment.
Land Grants to American Railroads: Social Cost or Social Benefit?
Authors: Mercer Lloyd J.
Published: April 2006

Every schoolboy knows that a large fraction of the American public domain was granted to pioneer railroads in the nineteenth century. But was the federal land-grant policy socially beneficial? Professor Mercer provides one imaginative answer based upon an analysis of the economic issues involved and estimates of the private and social rates of return on the investment in the subsidized railroads.
“Dependência do Imperialismo:” Foreign Investment in Brazil, 1935
Authors: Berson Theodore M.
Published: April 2006

Prepared for the Brazilian Ambassador to the United States, this document is a review of all foreign investment in that South American nation in 1935. However, as Mr. Berson points out in his introduction, omissions are just as important as inclusions, especially in light of the trade and commerce treaty then being negotiated between the two countries.
American Businessmen and Consular Service Reform, 1890's to 1906
Authors: Paterson Thomas G.
Published: April 2006

This study demonstrates how business desires to improve information regarding foreign operations and a genuine interest in America's image abroad combined with civil-service reform sentiment to effect change in a vital branch of government service.
Planning the Black Ball Line, 1817
Authors: Albion Robert G.
Published: April 2006

A manuscript letter of prime significance in maritime history has recently come into the possession of The Marine Historical Association, Mystic, Connecticut. Contained in the letter copybook of Jeremiah Thompson, who took the prime initiative in developing the Black Ball Line of sailing packets and of bringing southern cotton up the coast to New York to provide eastbound cargoes for them, is a letter pertaining to the inauguration of the first line of regularly scheduled sailing packets. In this particular letter, reproduced below, Thompson and his three Quaker associates outline in detail to the two firms who, they hoped, would handle the Liverpool end of the shuttle, their plans for their project which would have the all-important effect of introducing the principle of “line” or “berth” service, with ships sailing on regular schedule between two ports.
Entrepreneurial Cooperation on the Great Lakes: The Origin of the Methods of American Grain Marketing
Authors: Odle Thomas
Published: April 2006

The abilities of Western grain merchants to adapt their business practices to changing market conditions are revealed in this analysis of mid-nineteenth century developments.
Foreign Interest Remittances by the United States, 1785–1787: A Story of Malfeasance
Authors: Tailby Donald G.
Published: April 2006

In servicing the foreign-held debt of the United States during 1785–1787, public policy delegated a considerable portion of the process to private businessmen. The results certainly question the efficacy of the private conduct of public affairs in the financing of the new American nation.
The Organizational Structure of Mitsubishi and Mitsui Zaibatsu, 1868–1922: A Comparative Study
Authors: Morikawa Hidemasa
Published: April 2006

As their enterprises expanded at the turn of the century, the leaders of two of the most famous Japanese zaibatsu worked continually to maintain the delicate balance between centralization and decentralization so essential to continued growth. Professor Morikawa chronicles and analyzes the most important organizational developments in these gigantic family firms.
A Note on Japan Business History Review and Recent Books
Authors: Yamamura Kozo
Published: April 2006

Professor Yamamura offers a critical evaluation of the recently established Journal of Japanese business history and of five important new books on Japanese business, entrepreneurial, and economic history.
Recent Trends in the Business History of Latin America
Authors: Baughman James P.
Published: April 2006

It would be folly to defend the conception “Latin America” too strongly. In a large area of twenty-odd republics, diverse in geography, resources, and ideologies, and wherepersonalismohas been both a national and individual creed, generalizations tend to crumble when wielded too forcibly. Yet there are common ties of hemisphere, colonial heritage, language, law, and, to some extent, experience. The history of “Latin America” and its constituents is a recognized field of endeavor and will always sustain further study.
The “Industrial-Military Complex” in Historical Perspective: World War I
Authors: Koistinen Paul A. C.
Published: April 2006

Because of a scarcity of economically informed and managerially experienced personnel within the government, a large share of American mobilization during World War I was planned and executed by businessmen in temporary federal service. By focusing on the crucial question of military procurement, Professor Koistinen illuminates the war's legacy for government-business relationships.
The Project Literature: An Elizabethan Example
Authors: Muchmore Lynn
Published: April 2006

Professor Muchmore analyzes and edits an interesting Elizabethan document typical of a large body of economic literature in Tudor-Stuart England.
Steamboating on the Mississippi, 1810–1860: A Purely Competitive Industry
Authors: Haites Erik F. , Mak James
Published: April 2006

Estimates of costs and revenues for steamboating in the Louisville-New Orleans trade indicate that after the 1820's the steamboat transport market experienced the long–run equilibrium characteristic of purely competitive industries.
Recent Trends in Canadian Business and Economic History
Authors: Porter Glenn
Published: April 2006

Canadian history has traditionally received relatively little study outside Canada itself, despite the fact that the Canadian past is a fascinating and rich story indeed, one which has generated an admirable body of historical literature. And, as those interested in the history of business and the historical interaction of business and society would expect, within Canadian historiography there has traditionally been relatively little emphasis on business history The publication of the present collection of essays has a twofold purpose – to increase, however modestly, non-Canadians' knowledge of Canadian history, and to extend the body of scholarly work devoted to Canadian business and economic history.
Another Anti-Trust Tradition: Canadian Anti-Combines Policy, 1889–1910
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: April 2006

Professor Bliss suggests that the Canadian anti-trust tradition was much more similar to the British experience than to the policies adopted in the United States. At no time, he argues, did Canadian legislation significantly expand the common law prohibition of undue or unreasonable restraints of trade, and the few prosecutions after 1900 had no significant effect in inhibiting the thrust of business resistance to market forces.
A Note on Interest Paid on New York Bankers' Balances in the Postbellum Period
Authors: James John A.
Published: April 2006

This study reports interest rates on New York Bankers' balances and argues that their stability in periods of generally falling interest rates was a sign of a highly competitive financial system.
The National Association of Manufacturers and Public Relations during the New Deal
Authors: Tedlow Richard S.
Published: April 2006

The National Association of Manufacturers was influential in establishing public relations as a permanent fixture in American corporate life. The Association took up the use of public relations in the depths of the depression, promoted its use strongly, and increased its stature.
Firm Structure, Government Policy, and the Organization of Industrial Research: Great Britain and the United States, 1900–1950
Authors: Mowery David C.
Published: April 2006

An important factor in the poor performance of the British economy in the twentieth century is the low level of investment by British firms in research and development. In this article, Professor Mowery compares the development of industrial research in Great Britain and the United States between 1900 and 1950, focusing on the reasons for the much lower levels of industrial research investment in Britain. He concludes that the substantial British lag can be attributed to differences in corporate structure, educational systems, and government policy.
The Potomac Company: A Misadventure in Financing an Early American Internal Improvement Project
Authors: Littlefield Douglas R.
Published: April 2006

The failure of the Potomac Company—the first interregional internal improvement project attempted in the United States—has been largely neglected by historians. From the mid 1780s to the 1820s, this company struggled unsuccessfully to link the East Coast with the Old Northwest by enhancing the navigability of the Potomac River. In this article, Mr. Littlefield examines this little-known episode, describing how the project was overwhelmed by a combination of factors that included an unstable American economy, unreliable government aid, and interstate rivalries. He concludes that the Potomac Company's failure demonstrated how the absence of federal support could cripple a large-scale internal improvement project, and suggests that its example spurred the U.S. government to become directly involved in the economic development of the young republic.
Planning and Building the British Bomber Force, 1934–1939
Authors: Smith Malcolm
Published: April 2006

Students of planning may profitably ponder the myriad difficulties faced by the British aircraft industry in the decade before the outbreak of World War II. On a small civilian aircraft industry, provided with hardly any opportunity to gain military aircraft experience between World War I and the early 1930s, the Air Ministry tried to impose a nearly anarchic system of strategic military planning in which the very philosophy of the use of aircraft in war was at issue. Forced to work under conditions that included a “shadow industry” of civilian plant space that was theoretically capable of quick conversion to military aircraft production and that in the meantime turned out automobiles, the aircraft industry somehow ended up with two superb heavy bombers, the Halifax and the Lancaster, and a highly dependable prime contractor, A. V. Roe. Basing his narrative on both government and industry sources, Dr. Smith concludes that this was an outstanding example of British wartime “muddling through.”
Toward Systematic Management: Alexander Hamilton Church
Authors: Jelinek Mariann
Published: April 2006

Dominated as it is by the powerful personality of Frederick W. Taylor, the history of scientific management thought has neglected important figures like Alexander Hamilton Church. Professor Jelinek shows that whereas Taylor's contribution was to move thinking down one “level of abstraction” to concrete shop operations, Church moved it up one level to construct a pattern of observations useful for management planning and evaluation.
The New Deal and the Modernization of Small Business: The McCreary Tire & Rubber Company, 1930–1940
Authors: Fricke Ernest B.
Published: April 2006

By the onset of the Great Depression, the big four tire manufacturers had long become the dominant force in the American rubber industry; yet they did not have a monopoly. A substantial number of smaller firms had managed to survive, however tenuously, although their decline had continued through the hard times of the 1920s and their plight grew worse with the onset of the Depression. Like their giant rivals, however, the small, unintegrated firms serving limited markets sought to survive at least in part through the help of new federal agencies as well as with the aid of traditional institutions. In this article, which analyzes the story of the McCreary Tire & Rubber Company, Professor Fricke presents a view of the economic crisis from the perspective of small enterprise. If the experience of this manufacturer can be generalized, as Fricke suggests, small business not only had a different attitude toward the expanded role of government but also emerged from the Depression changed in the ways that it did business, a result of its experience with the new federal agencies and the economic crisis itself.
British Company and Mexican Community: The English at Real del Monte, 1824–1849
Authors: Randall Robert W.
Published: April 2006

While it lost some five million dollars operating in Mexico between 1824 and 1849, the British Real del Monte Company conducted its business without major interruption from the political turbulence that characterized the new nation. In this article, Professor Randall shows how the company finessed most of the political risk that it potentially faced by keeping administrative distance between itself and the ever-changing central governments and by conducting political relations at the local level as community relations. Despite business rivalries with mine owners, labor-management conflict, and incidents of individual and institutional friction, the English firm and the Mexican town of Real del Monte generally maintained positive community relations. Accommodation as much as conflict accompanied foreign penetration into newly independent Mexico.
The Gramophone Company: An Anglo-American Multinational, 1898–1931
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: April 2006

In this article Dr. Jones traces the history of the Gramophone Company—an early British multinational—between 1898 and 1931. Drawing on hitherto untapped archival sources, he provides a detailed narrative of the firm's history while at the same time placing it within the context of British multinational expansion as a whole. Of particular interest is his discussion of the firm's “special relationship” with the American-based Victor Company—a relationship that demonstrates how restrictive international agreements could affect the dynamics of multinational growth.
“Giants of an Earlier Capitalism”: The Chartered Trading Companies as Modern Multinationals
Authors: Carlos Ann M. , Nicholas Stephen
Published: April 2006

Much has been written about late-nineteenth-century multinationals and their relationship to the transnational firms of the present, but both historians and economists have largely discounted the relevance of the earlier chartered trading companies to this discussion. In an article emphasizing transaction cost analysis and the theory of the firm, Professors Carlos and Nicholas argue that the trading companies did meet the criteria of the modern MNE—the growth of a managerial hierarchy necessitated by a large volume of transactions and of systems to control those managers over space and time.
Multinational Competition in the British Advertising Agency Business, 1936–1987
Authors: West Douglas
Published: April 2006

American multinational advertising agencies first made inroads into the British advertising industry in the early twentieth century. Some were pioneers, but most came to Britain to service the advertising of American–based multinational companies. Their impact on British advertising was significant, particularly from 1945 until the late 1970s, years when American multinational agencies dominated the top end of the business. The British staged a major counter-challenge in both the British and American markets in the early 1980s, however, with considerable success. The basis of the British challenge was improved access to capital, which permitted expansion through acquisition, rather than the servicing of British–based multinational companies. Professor West places these developments in the context of multinational enterprise theory, using new data and evidence drawn largely from trade sources.
Sources for Mining Company History in Africa: The History and Records of the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation (Ghana), Ltd.
Authors: Dumett Raymond E.
Published: April 2006

The history of mining enterprise has recently become an important growth industry in both African and British Commonwealth business history. A number of important multinational mining corporations have in recent years opened their archives on assimilated or restructured parent companies active in overseas enterprise in the first half of this century. In the following essay, Professor Dumett surveys the extensive holdings of the leading British gold mining company in West Africa, the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation.
American Investment in Tropical Mexico: Rubber Plantations, Fraud, and Dollar Diplomacy, 1897–1913
Authors: Schell William
Published: April 2006

The following article examines U.S. investment in Mexico at the turn of the century, focusing on the tropical plantation companies and their promises of enormous profits. Viewed in the light—or shadow—of Dollar Diplomacy, the usual interpretation of such events has been that American investors exported profits and undermined internal development while the U.S. government established political hegemony. This article calls both of these outcomes into question.
The Decline of the Piece-Rate System in California Canning: Technological Innovation, Labor Management, and Union Pressure, 1890–1947
Authors: Brown Martin , Philips Peter
Published: April 2006

In the following article, Professors Brown and Philips examine two questions concerning wage payment systems. First, has the prevalence of incentive systems been affected by the rise of the modern corporate enterprise? Second, what has been the effect of institutionalized unionism on the prevalence of incentive systems? Brown and Philips explore these issues through a historical case study of the decline of the piece-rate system in the California canning industry, from which they conclude that in the context of Chandlerian industrial development piece-rate systems tend to give way to more complex incentive and hourly wage-rate systems. They explore this hypothesis further through an examination of historical data on wage payment systems for American manufacturing as a whole.
Business Associationalism, the Legitimation of Enterprise, and the Emergence of a Business Elite in Nineteenth-Century Brazil
Authors: Ridings Eugene W.
Published: April 2006

Operating in an economy that was still primarily export-import based and in a cultural environment suspicious of all business interests, members of Brazil's nineteenth-century business elite laced many obstacles to legitimizing their activities. Ironically, erforts to win acceptance tended to fragment business groups and eventually opened the way for a new industrial bourgeoisie at the expense of the overseas traders.
Industrial Home Work of the Dennison Manufacturing Company of Framingham, Massachusetts, 1912–1935
Authors: Vollmers Gloria
Published: April 2006

Dennison Manufacturing Company let work out into private homes in surrounding communities and paid piece rates for it for many decades. This work, primarily attaching strings to tags, benefited both the company and the community but contained the potential for abusive child labor. Home work declined when machinery could be substituted for hand labor, but machinery capable of replacing all handwork was never developed. Social and political pressures to reduce or eliminate child labor increased the incentives to end home work; but not until the depression of the 1930s, when national efforts to put men back to work gained momentum, did home manufacture end in the tag and other industries. This article uses internal company documents spanning the period 1912 to 1935 to illuminate the company's policy towards this work. It also relies on the recollections of many of those who performed the work when they were children. This research contributes to a substantial body of literature on home work by providing a case study on one company and enriching it with human testimony.
Toxic Purity: The Progressive Era Origins of America' s Lead Paint Poisoning Epidemic
Authors: Warren Christian
Published: April 2006

This paper examines a pivotal moment in the history of the built environment in America. At the beginning of the twentieth century, factions within the American paint industry fought in state and federal legislatures over the definition of paint: What was pure paint? Were new paint formulations to be encouraged, or labeled “adulterated”? Was the known toxicity of lead to be a consideration? Despite some opponents' recourse to a rhetoric of toxicity and public health, all sides agreed that the best paints contained a significant quantity of lead, and that government should stay out of setting industry standards. This accord all but assured that Americans would apply tons of lead paint on the walls of their homes.
Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s,The Visible Handafter Twenty Years
Authors: John Richard R.
Published: April 2006

Two decades have passed since the publication ofThe Visible Hand, Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, magisterial account of the rise of the modern business enterprise in the United States. Although Chandlers pathbreaking work has been widely hailed as a landmark in business history, only rarely has anyone considered systematically its influence on the large body of historical scholarship on related topics. This essay is intended to help fill this gap. It is divided into two sections. The first section reviews Chandlers argument, touches on the relationship of Chandlersoeuvreto his personal background, and locatesThe Visible Handin the context of American historical writing. The second considers how three groups of historians have responded to Chandlers ideas. These groups consist ofchampionswho creatively elaborated on Chandler's intellectual agenda;criticswho probed anomalies between Chandler's argument and their own research; andskepticswho rejected Chandlers analysis outright.
The Dynamics of Standing Still: Firestone Tire & Rubber and the Radial Revolution
Authors: Sull Donald N.
Published: April 2006

Business historians have illuminated how first movers in many emerging industries secure an enduring leadership position, but have devoted less attention to the processes by which industry leaders relinquish their dominance. This paper examines why rubber industry leader Firestone Tire & Rubber failed to respond effectively to new technology and foreign competition. The author argues that Firestone did not respond by doing nothing, but rather accelerated activities that had contributed to its past success. Firestone's response was constrained by managers' existing strategic frames and values, and the company's processes and long-standing relationships with customers and employees.
Markets, Management, and Merger: John Mackintosh & Sons, 1890–1969
Authors: Fitzgerald Robert
Published: April 2006

John Mackintosh, incorporated in 1899, emerged as one of Britain's major confectionery firms, gaining national prominence through the manufacture and marketing of distinct products. A number of interrelated factors marked its growth. Dominated by a single family, the motivations and contributions of its leading members were formative, and its history inevitably engages with debates on Britain's “personal capitalism” and its failings. Considering the importance of marketing to a consumer products manufacturer, capabilities in this critical function are entangled with issues of ownership and management. During the 1930s, the firm ended its reliance on toffee lines, replacing them with innovative, highly advertised brands that mixed toffee with chocolate. These product breakthroughs were fully exploited in the postwar consumer boom. The timing and nature of Mackintosh's achievements can be compared to those of its rival, Rowntree, but there were important differences in their implementation. The story of this firm is an important addition to the history of the British confectionery industry and its development, offering insights into the evolution of marketing techniques. The case of Mackintosh is additionally useful because it clearly reveals an unexplored theme. A long-term perspective on its growth highlights the distinction between “early” and “mature” markets and shows how changes in demand influenced, and then tested, the efficacy of marketing approaches.
Certificates and Computers: The Remaking of Wall Street, 1967 to 1971
Authors: Wells Wyatt
Published: April 2006

Events in the late 1960s reshaped the securities industry. Trading volume increased sharply, with the number of shares changing hands on the New York Exchange growing from five million a day in 1965 to twelve million a day in 1968. This expansion overwhelmed the mechanisms brokers used to transfer securities and keep records, which relied heavily on paper and pen. They responded by purchasing computers, but these machines were expensive and demanded more sophisticated management than most firms could provide. Accordingly, many companies botched the process. Moreover, trading volume declined sharply in 1969 and 1970, cutting deeply into brokerage revenue. These factors combined to create a crisis that had, by the end of 1970, forced nearly a sixth of the nation's brokerage firms out of business. Yet this crisis also opened the way for large, integrated companies, which, by the 1990s, dominated the securities industry and conducted business on a scale unimagined thirty years earlier.
U.S. Commercial Banking: A Historiographical Survey
Authors: Schweikart Larry
Published: April 2006

In this wide-ranging essay, a banking historian surveys the major debates in the historiography of U.S. commercial banking. Touching on various controversies in the field—old, new, and brewing, from financing the Revolution to the savings and loan crisis—the article serves as a guide to the parameters of debate and provides an introductory bibliography to acquaint interested readers with banking literature from colonial times to the present.
Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880–1930
Authors: Scranton Philip
Published: April 2006

The following case studies and analysis of the machine tool and jewelry manufacturing industries attempt to set the stage for a reconsideration of “the other side of industrialization” in the United States during the Second Industrial Revolution—the custom and batch production sectors. Recognizing that much work remains to be done in this area, the author nevertheless concludes that the diversity of circumstances and responses characterizing these industries makes it unlikely that one theory can be adduced to explain their highly contingent world.
Capital-Budgeting Systems and Capabilities Investments in U.S. Companies after the Second World War
Authors: Baldwin Carliss Y. , Clark Kim B.
Published: April 2006

The authors of this article argue that companies' high cost of capital or short investment horizons do not explain the decline in global competitiveness of many U.S. industries in the 1970s and 1980s. Instead, they find the source of malaise in the capital-budgeting and financial-planning systems that arose after the Second World War. Although they allowed managers in large companies to evaluate some aspects of their business efficiently and comprehensively, these systems also obscured the value of investment in organizational capabilities, because such investments were hard to quantify—indeed, even to describe—within the financial models in widespread use. As a result, companies often invested vigorously—but in the wrong things. The authors define a set of desirable capabilities and, using case studies, describe both the problems of the recent past and the requirements for successful investment in the future.
Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline: The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880–1920
Authors: Lloyd-Jones Roger , Lewis Myrddin J.
Published: April 2006

Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., has maintained that the persistence of the personally managed firm in Britain may be a cause of that nation's long-run industrial decline. This article contributes to the debate over decline through a detailed exploration of the business role of personally managed firms in a strategic sector of the Second Industrial Revolution: the metal and metal-making trades of Sheffield. Our study shows that the business strategies of Sheffield firms, based on quality production and flexible technology, had close similarities to those of American companies described by scholars such as Philip Scranton. Many of the Sheffield firms were not lacking in enterprise; they demonstrated tenacity and, in certain key segments of the metal trades, enjoyed a high degree of business success. Our examination of personal capitalism in Sheffield suggests that the terms of the debate over Britain's industrial decline may require further refinement.
The Comptoir Sidérurgique de France, 1930–1939
Authors: Barbezat Daniel
Published: April 2006

The French inter-war steel cartels were characterized by contemporaries as powerful trusts, restricting output and raising steel prices. The cartels were cited as a cause for the length of the French depression, the low productivity of the 1930s, and the rapid rise in steel prices after 1936. This paper shows that the formation and development of the French steel cartels was problematic and argues that the French industry was not structurally conducive to widespread collusion and was further harmed by governmental policies. Steel cartels were unable to police their arrangements effectively among members and were unable to stop outsiders from undercutting prices. It is not at all clear that firms in the cartel achieved higher profits. The increase in prices that did occur after 1936 was not due to firms colluding and profiting from the increased demand for steel due to the anticipation of Nazi aggression; rather, these price increases occurred because of input price increases caused by government action that raised the costs of production.
The Suppression of Convocation in the Church of England
Authors: Switzer Gerald B.
Published: April 2006

“Let the Church be free and hold her rights and liberties inviolate.” Disregarding this opening dictum of England's time-honoured Magna Charta, Henry VIII stamped Erastianism lastingly upon the Church of England. By three epoch-making Acts of parliament, the second Tudor monarch established the judicial, legislative, and appointive supremacy of the crown in ecclesiastical affairs. Since his time the Church of England has known no hour of complete ecclesiastical autonomy. In recent years the Prayer Book controversy has brought this arresting circumstance clearly to the light. What is more important about a church than its Prayer Book. its forms of worship, its articles of faith, its liturgies? Yet in 1927 and again 1928 the world witnessed the strange spectacle of a British House of Commons comprising men of every faith, Roman Chatolic, Protestant, Christian Scientist, and even the Parsee Communist, Shapurji Saklatvala, carefully weighing and sifting theological niceties and in a single spectacular debate decisively rejecting the overwhelming opinion of the church courts, diocesan, provinical, and national.