bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of psychological space. This space has turned out to be so rich and important in explaining behaviour and in determining what it is like to be a particular person — her ‘subjectivity’ — that there has been a tendency in psychoanalysis to lose sight of the fact that we are animals in a real, physical world, equipped to deal with and to register what endangers us there and what helps us thrive. It is argued that any discussion of what it is to be a human ‘self’ or ‘subject’ must acknowledge four ideas that are central to psychoanalysis: (i) much mental functioning is unconscious, not necessarily through repression; (ii) memory takes different forms, which carry with them different degrees of conscious awareness; (iii) the degree of consciousness is often dictated by unconscious, defensive processes, summoned into play against pain and anxiety; and (iv) the past informs the present, often in ways of which we are unaware and over which we lack direct control. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
Freedom and Understanding
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This chapter argues that there are no good facts of a general or metaphysical nature that can establish that freedom is an empty concept. Psychoanalysis does not show that free will is an illusion, but that the peculiarly human capacity for choice is constrained by phenomena that are equally peculiar as symbol-using creatures. Psychological defences sometimes operate as givens that are, in the moment, beyond our will, governing how we choose and who we are.
Valuing Emotions
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This chapter argues that emotions are quintessentially subjective states that have important objective and public aspects. They are subjective in that the content of an emotion can be given only in the telling of a particular individual’s life story; they are objective as appraisals of reality. Emotions are orientations to the world that show how things matter to us, revealing the world in its relation to us, and ourselves in relation to the world. The difference between emotion and feeling is briefly discussed.
Self-Knowledge and Self-Discovery
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

Self-knowledge is supposed to be transforming. Yet ordinarily, knowledge by itself has no effect on the object known. This chapter discusses the phenomenon of first-person authority; ‘the ocular view’ of self-knowledge and an alternative account; and self-knowledge with regard to beliefs and to emotions. It argues that self-discovery often requires a dialectic between the first-person and the third-person points of view in relation to one’s self.
3 The Concept of God in Middle Platonism
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

This chapter deals with the philosophical school that influenced Clement most, Middle Platonism. Middle Platonist philosophy is represented by three of its main exponents: Alcinous, Atticus, and Numenius. The main focus is on how they describe the first principles.
4 Clement's Method of Concealment
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

This chapter considers certain aspects of Clement’s writing methods and his views on the written versus the spoken word. It also discusses the question of whether or not Clement teaches an esoteric doctrine.
Objectives
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with the idea that at the most general level, the goal of economic policy is to maximize long-term societal well-being in an equitable and sustainable manner. It addresses in detail the meaning and relevance of the goals of economic policy that are often put forward — from enhancing economic security and reducing unemployment, to reducing inflation, enhancing growth, and maintaining external balance. It also examines the link between stability and growth, and between short-term growth and sustainable growth. More specifically, the chapter critiques the narrow focus of the Washington consensus on price stability and emphasizes that economists should, instead, focus on long-term sustainable growth. The chapter concludes by highlighting the broader social consequences that choosing alternative economic policies may have and by emphasizing that all economic policies have trade-offs.
Capital Market Liberalization: The Arguments For and Against
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

Although there is now a general recognition that capital market liberalization failed to help developing countries achieve economic growth and stability, the important question remains of why the supporters of liberalization were so wrong. The chapter begins with the ‘debate in brief’, which presents the central arguments for and against CML. The next three sections look at the impact of capital market liberalization on stability, growth, and poverty. The chapter then discusses the impact of the international policy response to instability known as ‘bail-outs’. The sixth section presents a brief discussion on the interaction of capital market liberalization, political processes, and democracy.
Capital Market Liberalization: Summary and Remaining Debates
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines some of the other outstanding debates on capital market liberalization (CML). In particular, it focuses on when a country is sufficiently developed to risk capital market liberalization, whether all countries should make liberalization their long-term goal, and whether capital market liberalization is reversible; even if it was a mistake in the first place, should countries that have already liberalized now stick with it? For example, proponents of liberalization often argue that the issue is not whether countries should liberalize their capital markets, but rather that liberalization should occur within the ‘proper’ sequence of reforms. Critics, however, argue that CML should not necessarily be the long run goal of all countries and that there are better ways for developing countries to integrate into the global economy. The chapter also contains a section that examines the appropriateness of different techniques of capital market liberalization for countries in various stages of development.
Imitation and the Soul
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

That appetite can form beliefs is presupposed in the Republic and denied in the Timaeus.This chapter explains this development in Plato’s psychological theory in terms of new thoughts about what is involved in forming beliefs, rather than in terms of substantial changes in Plato’s conception of appetite. It is argued that the new thoughts in question are on display at Theaetetus 184-6.
Desire without phantasia
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

The chapter offers decisive reasons for thinking that Aristotle does not take the view that desire-formation always requires some suitable exercise of phantasia, and that he is committed to rejecting the view that every creature capable of desire must be capable of phantasia. The overall interpretation that emerges yields a sharpened view of the role Aristotle assigns to phantasia in the production of animal movement. It also resolves two apparent contradictions in the De Anima.
Goodman's Progress
Authors: Kulvicki John V.
Published: September 2006

With the worries about Goodman on the table, this chapter introduces an alternative set of conditions: a modified form of Goodman’s relative repleteness, syntactic sensitivity, and semantic richness. These three are necessary for a representational system to be pictorial and they make no reference to the perception of pictures, but they are not sufficient for a representational system to be pictorial. They accommodate digital pictures comfortably, but are much too broad to capture what makes pictures pictures.
Deliberating in the Real World
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: September 2006

This book attempts to solve two problems in deliberative democratic theory and practice: How can agreements reached inside deliberative forums be legitimate for those who did not take part? And why should people with strongly-held views participate in the first place? The solution involves rethinking deliberative theory, but also draws on lessons from practical experience with deliberative forums in Britain’s National Health Service. The book discusses the competing representation claims that different participants make, the pros and cons of different approaches to democratic accountability, and different conceptions of rationality and public reasoning. It concludes by rejecting the idea that we can have authentic, legitimate deliberation in any one forum. Instead, authentic, legitimate deliberation can only result from linkages between different kinds of institutions, drawing on different kinds of participants, at different points of a decision-making cycle. That is, it promotes a macro, society-wide view of deliberative democracy quite different from the micro, deliberative-forum view which dominates thinking on the subject in the UK. The book sketches the outline of such a deliberative system, suggesting how various institutions in civil society and elected government might link together to create public decisions, which are both more rational and more democratic.
4 Representation and Representativeness
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: September 2006

This chapter explores the ideas of representation, the first broad solution to the legitimacy problems in deliberative democracy. It considers the nature, strengths, and weaknesses of three different types of representation claims made by participants in the cases, namely random selection, self-selection, and elected representation. It argues that elected representatives have the strongest claims simply because they can be removed from decision-making posts, but this strength depends on there being strong communicative relationships between representatives and the represented. It concludes that while representation claims are important, no one kind of representative has perfectly legitimate authority.
8 Questions and conclusions
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: September 2006

This chapter presents a brief conclusion which summarizes the main argument: that fully legitimate, deliberative, and democratic decision making can only be of the macro kind, not the micro. It poses questions for future research and answers a hypothetical question from the Leicester case, giving a group of protestors six reasons to think that the outcome of the citizens’ jury was legitimate, and one reason — its restricted, local scope — to think that it was not.
Introduction
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter introduces the long-run structural approach to modelling. It makes brief comparisons with the key alternative approaches, namely large-scale simultaneous equation models, unrestricted and structural VARs, dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models, and New Keynesian models. The strengths of the long-run structural modelling approach are summarized and the organization of the book is described.
An economic theory of the long run
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter describes a specific theoretical framework for the macroeconomic modelling of a small open economy, emphasizing stock-flow equilibria, accounting identities, and arbitrage conditions. It describes how the framework can be embedded within a macroeconometric model, noting the testable restrictions on the long-run relations suggested by the theory.
Global modelling and other applications
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter describes some recent extensions of the model and some other applications. These include an introduction to the development of a model of the global macroeconomy using the long-run structural modelling approach; the application of the global model to the analysis of credit risk; the description of a monthly version of the UK model; and an analysis of financial distress in the UK financial sector.
Concluding remarks
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

The final chapter provides some concluding comments, including a summary of the main contributions of the book and an invitation to others to apply the methods in new contexts using the data and code provided in the Appendices.
Measuring Development Prospects by ‘Greening’ the National Accounts
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

This chapter reviews income and welfare measurement and examines the central topics of assets and sustainability with the evaluation of key conceptual and theoretical literature. It also outlines the methods of asset accounting and presents selected empirical results from ‘greening’ the national accounts. Linkages to policy are explored, followed by broad conclusions on some basic questions: To what extent has the promise of environmental accounting been realized? Which approach has the greatest policy significance? And where is environmental accounting likely to be most useful? Finally, it studies the recent empirical results from Southern Africa and explores policy linkage with concluding remarks.
Impacts of Macroeconomic Policies on the Environment, Natural Resources, and Welfare in Developing Countries
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses relationships between the macro economy and economic policy, and the environmental and resource situation in developing countries. It focuses on the distortive effects of energy and resource subsidies, poorly managed monetary policy leading to exchange rate instability and high interest rates, and financial crises which often lead to too shortsighted policies and behavior regarding the management of environment and resources.
Structural Adjustment and Sustainable Development
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

Empirical studies show extraordinarily high rates of return to investments in human and environmental public goods. This chapter demonstrates empirically, however, that the majority of governments in developing countries fail to invest sufficiently in public goods such as research and development, human capital, and the management of the environment. Such underinvestment causes a major distortion that partially explains the triple curse of slow growth, large social inequities and poverty, and environmental destruction that has typified most developing countries over recent decades. The chapter examines the contribution of IMF and World Bank supported structural adjustment, such as fiscal deficit reduction, privatization of state enterprises, and trade liberalization, in the light of the above framework. Rather than analyzing how each of the reforms may affect the environment, the chapter focuses on whether structural adjustment is likely to correct the under investment in human capital and environmental capital discussed above, and whether there are specific policies within structural adjustment that are likely to particularly affect such under investment.
The Economics of Terrestrial Biodiversity Conservation in Developing Nations
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

Scientists and governments recognize the importance of biodiversity and its value to society. However, the unprecedented loss of biodiversity in this century signals a serious failure of policy to protect the plethora of species in the environment. As biodiversity loss is fundamentally an economic problem, economic theory and empirical analyses can play an important role in helping to protect biological diversity in developing nations. This chapter focuses on the use of economic analysis to develop better policy portfolios for biodiversity conservation, discusses biodiversity as a whole rather than a species in particular, and emphasizes land management and habitat protection to achieve conservation.
Conservation of Tropical Forests: Addressing Market Failure
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

Tropical forest conservation and sustainable natural forest management both imply benefits and invoke considerable costs. The spatial and temporal mismatch of such benefits (which might not materialize until far in the future and could be shared by many parties) and costs (which often occur at a local scale and must be borne in the short term) prevents an efficient forest management at the national level. While the international community has developed a variety of instruments to align global and national incentives, the implementation of such policies needs to take into account national property right regimes and the recent trend towards the devolution of rights and responsibilities to communities and private individuals, which has a significant impact on the relative importance of different types of market failures and policy effects. This paper summarizes existing literature on the causes of deforestation and the magnitude of various forest benefit components, discusses the usefulness of forest valuation exercises for guiding policy choices regarding forest management and conservation, and highlights the key role of market failure in tropical forest conservation. It explores the various policy options that exist for the rest of the world to address market failure, and concludes with conditions necessary for improving current systems.
Can Anesthetic Technique for Primary Breast Cancer Surgery Affect Recurrence or Metastasis?
Authors: Exadaktylos Aristomenis K. , Buggy Donal J. , Moriarty Denis C. , Mascha Edward , Sessler Daniel I.
Published: September 2006

Background

Regional anesthesia is known to prevent or attenuate the surgical stress response; therefore, inhibiting surgical stress by paravertebral anesthesia might attenuate perioperative factors that enhance tumor growth and spread. The authors hypothesized that breast cancer patients undergoing surgery with paravertebral anesthesia and analgesia combined with general anesthesia have a lower incidence of cancer recurrence or metastases than patients undergoing surgery with general anesthesia and patient-controlled morphine analgesia.

Methods

In this retrospective study, the authors examined the medical records of 129 consecutive patients undergoing mastectomy and axillary clearance for breast cancer between September 2001 and December 2002.

Results

Fifty patients had surgery with paravertebral anesthesia and analgesia combined with general anesthesia, and 79 patients had general anesthesia combined with postoperative morphine analgesia. The follow-up time was 32 +/- 5 months (mean +/- SD). There were no significant differences in patients or surgical details, tumor presentation, or prognostic factors. Recurrence- and metastasis-free survival was 94% (95% confidence interval, 87-100%) and 82% (74-91%) at 24 months and 94% (87-100%) and 77% (68-87%) at 36 months in the paravertebral and general anesthesia patients, respectively (P = 0.012).

Conclusions

This retrospective analysis suggests that paravertebral anesthesia and analgesia for breast cancer surgery reduces the risk of recurrence or metastasis during the initial years of follow-up. Prospective trials evaluating the effects of regional analgesia and morphine sparing on cancer recurrence seem warranted.
Quantifying the Effect of Antiplatelet Therapy
Authors: Agarwal Seema , Coakely Margaret , Reddy Kalpana , Riddell Anne , Mallett Susan
Published: September 2006

Background

Antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel is known to confer protection against ischemic events. Increasing numbers of patients are presenting for surgery while taking these drugs. This may lead to an increase in perioperative blood loss, particularly in those who have a heightened response to the drugs. Identifying these patients preoperatively would allow us to plan appropriate management.

Methods

The antiplatelet effect of aspirin and/or clopidogrel was measured using two point-of-care monitors: the platelet function analyzer (PFA-100; Dade, Miami, FL) and the modified thromboelastograph (mTEG; Haemoscope Corp., Niles, IL). This was compared with optical light transmission aggregometry.

Results

All people taking aspirin displayed a definitive aspirin effect on aggregometry (n = 20). Ninety percent of these were identified by modified thromboelastography (n = 18). Seventy percent were identified by the platelet function analyzer (n = 14). Fifty percent of people taking clopidogrel displayed a definitive response to the drug on aggregometry. Seventy percent of these were identified on modified thromboelastography (n = 7). None were identified by the platelet function analyzer. There was good agreement between the results of the aggregometry and modified thromboelastography in clopidogrel patients (kappa = 0.81).

Conclusion

The search for a point-of-care monitor of platelet function has been the focus of much research. This study has shown that the modified thromboelastograph can be used for monitoring the effect of clopidogrel as well as aspirin. It potentially has a wide scope to be used for the monitoring of effectiveness of therapy as well as a possible predictor of perioperative bleeding.
Airway Management with Endotracheal Tube versus Combitube® during Parabolic Flights
Authors: Rabitsch Werner , Moser Doris , Inzunza Michelle R. , Niedermayr Monika , Köstler Wolfgang J. , Staudinger Thomas , Locker Gottfried J. , Schellongowski Peter , Wulkersdorfer Beatrix , Rich James M. , Meyer Brigitte , Benumof Jonathan L. , Frass Michael
Published: September 2006

Background

Training of National Aeronautics and Space Administration space shuttle astronauts revealed difficult airway management with endotracheal tubes (ETTs) under microgravity conditions. The authors performed a randomized comparative study of ETT and Combitube (ETC; Tyco Healthcare, Pleasanton, CA). The aim of the study was to evaluate ease, time of insertion, and success rates during normogravity and parabolic flights using mannequins.

Methods

After normogravity experiments, four flyers performed intubation on a mannequin during the flights. Sixty-two intubation attempts were performed using the ETC (normogravity, 29; microgravity, 33), and 58 intubation attempts were performed using the ETT (each 29 attempts, both conditions). Time to completion of the intubation procedure, success rate, and ease of insertion were recorded.

Results

The ETC performed equally well between normogravity (median, 18 s; range, 17-25 s) and microgravity (median, 18.5 s; range, 17-28 s), whereas the ETT performed significantly slower under microgravity (median, 20 s; range, 17-27 s) as compared with normogravity (median, 18 s; range, 16-22 s; P = 0.019). One hundred nine of 120 (90%) were successful. The ETT and ETC were comparable with respect to successful intubations, under normogravity or microgravity, respectively.

Conclusions

Both the ETC and ETT perform comparably well. Slight differences could be found with respect to time of insertion in favor of the ETC. Because this is the first experiment using the ETC on the KC-135, it is shown that there is enough time to perform the insertion procedure. Because the ETC airway requires less training and is easier to insert than an ETT, it is recommended for further study as an alternative airway to what is currently on the shuttle.
Risk Factors for Ventilator-associated Pneumonia by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Presence of Recent Antibiotic Exposure
Authors: Rello Jordi , Allegri Camilla , Rodriguez Alejandro , Vidaur Loreto , Sirgo Gonzalo , Gomez Frederic , Agbaht Kemal , Pobo Angel , Diaz Emili
Published: September 2006

Background

To facilitate the decision-making process for therapy and prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in patients undergoing recent antibiotic exposure, this study investigated whether the development of VAP episodes caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa or other pathogens are related to different risk factors, thereby distinguishing two risk population for this serious complication.

Methods

A 5-year retrospective case-control observational study was conducted. Cases of VAP caused by P. aeruginosa were compared with those caused by other pathogens. Univariate and multivariate analysis was performed using SPSS 11.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).

Results

Two groups were identified: P. aeruginosa (group P) was isolated in 58 (63.7%) episodes, and 33 episodes served as controls (group C), after a median of 12 days (interquartile range, 4-28 days) and 9 days (interquartile range, 3-12.5 days) of mechanical ventilation, respectively. P. aeruginosa was identified in 34.7% of episodes with early-onset pneumonia and in 73.5% with late-onset pneumonia. In a logistic regression analysis, P. aeruginosa was independently associated with duration of stay of 5 days or longer (relative risk = 3.59; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-12.35) and absence of coma (relative risk = 8.36; 95% confidence interval, 2.68-26.09). Risk for pathogens different from P. aeruginosa (group C) in early-onset pneumonia associated with coma was estimated to be 87.5%.

Conclusions

Risk factors in episodes under recent antibiotic treatment caused by P. aeruginosa or other microorganism are not the same, a fact that could have implications for preventive and therapeutic approaches for this infection.
Recurrent Hypoxia in Rats during Development Increases Subsequent Respiratory Sensitivity to Fentanyl
Authors: Moss Immanuela Ravé , Brown Karen A. , Laferrière André
Published: September 2006

Background

In children with a history of significant obstructive sleep apnea who undergo adenotonsillectomy, postsurgical administration of opiates has been alleged to be associated with an increased risk for respiratory complications, including respiratory depression. The authors hypothesize that this association is due to an effect of recurrent hypoxemia that accompanies more severe obstructive sleep apnea on altered responsiveness to subsequent exogenous opiates.

Methods

The current study was designed to test the effect of recurrent hypoxia in the developing rat on respiratory responses to subsequent administration of the mu-opioid agonist fentanyl. Rats were exposed to 12% oxygen balance nitrogen for 7 h daily for 17 days, from postnatal day 17 to 33, a period equivalent to human childhood. After 17 additional days in room air, rats were given a fentanyl dose and tested for their respiratory response to fentanyl using a whole body plethysmograph. Rats undergoing similar protocols without recurrent hypoxia served as controls.

Results

As compared with controls, rats preexposed to recurrent hypoxia displayed a more profound depression with fentanyl in minute ventilation, respiratory frequency, tidal volume, and tidal volume divided by inspiratory time that represents respiratory drive. These results indicated an increased respiratory sensitivity to fentanyl after recurrent hypoxia.

Conclusions

Previous recurrent hypoxia increases respiratory sensitivity to subsequent opiate agonists. If these findings are applicable to humans, opiate dosing in children must be adjusted depending on history of recurrent hypoxemia to avoid respiratory depression.
Prey choice and cannibalistic behaviour in the theropod
Coelophysis
Authors: Nesbitt Sterling J , Turner Alan H , Erickson Gregory M , Norell Mark A
Published: September 2006

Direct evidence of prey choice in carnivorous dinosaurs is rare in the fossil record. The most celebrated example pertains to purported stomach contents in the carnivorous dinosaur
Coelophysis bauri
, which besides revealing prey choice, also points to cannibalistic behaviour as being commonplace (
Colbert 1989
, 1995). Here, we test this hypothesis by conducting the first comprehensive anatomical and histological examination of the famed
Coelophysis
‘cannibals’. The results unequivocally show that the gut contents derive from early crocodylomorphs rather than juveniles of
Coelophysis
. These findings suggest that this taxon is not cannibalistic and bring into question the commonality of this behaviour among non-avian dinosaurs.
The Portrait of Dr William Harvey in the Royal Society Since 1683
Authors: Keynes Milo
Published: September 2006

A portrait of William Harvey in the Royal Society since 1683 is a copy by an unknown artist after a portrait, now lost, painted by Sir Peter Lely
ca
. 1650. Three other unattributed copies besides a copy bought from Lely's studio on his death by the Earl of Bradford have been located. The present labelling of the Royal Society portrait should be corrected.
Field statistics in nonlinear composites. II. Applications
Authors: Idiart Martín I , Ponte Castañeda Pedro
Published: September 2006

Part I of this work provided a methodology for extracting the statistics of the local fields in nonlinear composites, from the effective potential of suitably perturbed composites. In particular, exact relations were given for the first and even moments of the fields in each constituent phase. In this part, use is made of these exact relations in the context of the ‘variational’, ‘tangent second-order’ and ‘second-order’ nonlinear homogenization methods to generate estimates for the phase averages and second moments of the fields for two-phase, power-law composites with isotropic and transversely isotropic microstructures. The accuracy of these estimates is assessed by confronting them against corresponding exact results for sequentially laminated composites. Among the nonlinear homogenization estimates considered in this work, the second-order estimates are found to be, in general, the most accurate, especially for large heterogeneity contrast and nonlinearity. Thus, these estimates are able to capture, for example, the strong anisotropy in the strain fluctuations that can develop inside nonlinear porous and rigidly reinforced composites.
Theory of free surface flow over rough seeping beds
Authors: Bose Sujit K , Dey Subhasish
Published: September 2006

A new theory is developed for the steady free surface flow over a horizontal rough bed with uniform upward seepage normal to the bed. The theory is based on the Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations applied to the flow domain that is divided into a fully turbulent outer layer and an inner layer (viscous sublayer plus buffer layer), which is a transition zone from viscous to turbulent regime. In the outer layer, the Reynolds stress far exceeds viscous shear stress, varying gradually with vertical distance. Near the free surface, the velocity gradient in vertical direction becomes lesser giving rise to wake flow. On the other hand, in the composite inner layer close to the bed, the viscous shear stress exists together with the turbulent stress. Thus, for the outer layer, a logarithmic law having modified coefficients from the traditional logarithmic law is obtained for the streamwise velocity, whereas for the inner layer, a fifth-degree polynomial including effective height of protrusions holds. The exact velocity expressions for inner and outer layer, which contain principal terms in addition to infinitesimally small terms, are in agreement with the experimental data obtained from laboratory measurements through an acoustic Doppler velocimeter. The experiments were run on two conditions of no seepage and a low upward seepage. Expressions for the Reynolds stress are also derived and computed for validation by the experimental data.
Attraction independent of detection suggests special mechanisms for symmetry preferences in human face perception
Authors: Little Anthony C , Jones Benedict C
Published: September 2006

Symmetrical human faces are attractive and it has been proposed that humans have a specialized mechanism for detecting symmetry in faces and that sensitivity to symmetry determines symmetry preferences. Here, we show that symmetry preferences are influenced by inversion, whereas symmetry detection is not and that within individuals the ability to detect facial symmetry is not related to preferences for facial symmetry. Taken together, these findings suggest that symmetry preferences are indeed driven by a mechanism that is independent of conscious detection. A specialized mechanism for symmetry preference independent of detection may be the result of specific pressures faced by human ancestors to select high-quality mates and could support a modular view of mate choice. Unconscious mechanisms determining face preferences may explain why the reasons behind attraction are often difficult to articulate and demonstrate that detection alone cannot explain symmetry preferences.
How do pathogen evolution and host heterogeneity interact in disease emergence?
Authors: Yates Andrew , Antia Rustom , Regoes Roland R
Published: September 2006

Heterogeneity in the parameters governing the spread of infectious diseases is a common feature of real-world epidemics. It has been suggested that for pathogens with basic reproductive number
R
0
>1, increasing heterogeneity makes extinction of disease more likely during the early rounds of transmission. The basic reproductive number
R
0
of the introduced pathogen may, however, be less than 1 after the introduction, and evolutionary changes are then required for
R
0
to increase to above 1 and the pathogen to emerge. In this paper, we consider how host heterogeneity influences the emergence of both non-evolving pathogens and those that must undergo adaptive changes to spread in the host population. In contrast to previous results, we find that heterogeneity does not always make extinction more likely and that if adaptation is required for emergence, the effect of host heterogeneity is relatively small. We discuss the application of these ideas to vaccination strategies.
Action spectroscopy of and D
2
H
+
using overtone excitation
Authors: Glosík Juraj , Hlavenka P , Plašil R , Windisch F , Gerlich D , Wolf A , Kreckel H
Published: September 2006

The

ion and its deuterated isotopologues H
2
D
+
, D
2
H
+
and

play an important role in astrophysical and laboratory plasmas. The main challenge for understanding these ions and their interaction at low temperatures are state-specific experiments. This requires manipulation and a simple but efficient
in situ
characterization of their low-lying rotational states. In this contribution we report measurements of near infrared (NIR) absorption spectra. Required high sensitivity is achieved by combining liquid nitrogen cooled plasma with the technique of NIR cavity ringdown absorption spectroscopy. The measured transition frequencies are then used for exciting cold ions stored in a low-temperature 22-pole radiofrequency ion trap. Absorption of a photon by the stored ion is detected by using the laser-induced reactions technique. As a monitor reaction, the endothermic proton (or deuteron) transfer to Ar is used in our studies. Since the formed ArH
+
(or ArD
+
) ions are detected with near unit efficiency, the stored ions can be characterized very efficiently, even if there are just a few of them.
Hyzone
Authors: Larsson Mats
Published: September 2006

I discuss in this short paper the origin of the name ‘hyzone’ given to the molecules

and H
3
, and how this name was forgotten, never to appear again in the scientific literature.
Dissociative recombination of cold and its interstellar implications
Authors: McCall Benjamin J
Published: September 2006

plays a key role in interstellar chemistry as the initiator of ion–molecule chemistry. The amount of

observed in dense interstellar clouds is consistent with expectations, but the large abundance of

seen in diffuse clouds is not easily explained by simple chemical models.

A crucial parameter in predicting the abundance of

in diffuse clouds is the rate constant for dissociative recombination (DR) with electrons. The value of this constant has been very controversial, because different experimental techniques have yielded very different results, perhaps owing to varying degrees of rotational and vibrational excitation of the

ions. If the value of this rate constant under interstellar conditions were much lower than usually assumed, the large

abundance could be easily explained.

In an attempt to pin down this crucial rate constant, we have performed DR measurements at the CRYRING ion storage ring in Stockholm, using a supersonic expansion ion source to produce rotationally cold

ions. These measurements suggest that the DR rate constant in diffuse clouds is not much lower than usually assumed and that the abundant

must be due to either a low electron fraction or a high ionization rate.
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity and early onset of cannabis use
Authors: Huizink Anja C. , Ferdinand Robert F. , Ormel Johan , Verhulst Frank C.
Published: September 2006

Aims  To identify early onset cannabis users by measuring basal hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity, which may be a risk factor for early onset substance use when showing low activity.

Design  In a prospective cohort study, adolescents who initiated cannabis use at an early age (9–12 years), those who initiated at a later age (13–14 years) and those who did not use cannabis by the age of 14 were compared with respect to HPA axis activity.

Setting and participants  Data were used from the first and second assessment wave of the TRacking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS), that included 1768 Dutch young adolescents aged 10–12 years who were followed‐up across a period of 2 years.

Measurements  Cortisol was measured in saliva samples at awakening, 30 minutes later and at 8 p.m. at age 10–12. Self‐reported age at first cannabis use was used.

Findings  The early onset group had lower cortisol levels 30 minutes after awakening than the late onset group (OR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.86–0.99). Furthermore, compared to non‐users, the early and late onset cannabis users had higher levels of cortisol at 8 p.m. (OR = 1.25, 95% CI: 1.03–1.53 and OR = 1.21, 95% CI: 1.01–1.45, respectively).

Conclusions  Some evidence was found for HPA axis hypo‐activity at awakening in adolescents with early onset of cannabis use compared to late onset users, which might indicate an increased risk for early onset users of seeking stimulation to restore arousal levels by using substances.
Transient over‐expression of barley BAX Inhibitor‐1 weakens oxidative defence and MLA12‐mediated resistance to Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei
Authors: EICHMANN RUTH , DECHERT CORNELIA , KOGEL KARL‐HEINZ , HÜCKELHOVEN RALPH
Published: September 2006

BAX Inhibitor‐1 (BI‐1) is a conserved cell death suppressor protein. In barley, BI‐1 (HvBI‐1) expression is induced upon powdery mildew infection and when over‐expressed in epidermal cells of barley, HvBI‐1 induces susceptibility to the biotrophic fungal pathogen Blumeria graminis. We co‐expressed mammalian pro‐apoptotic BAX together with HvBI‐1, and the mammalian BAX antagonist BCL‐XL in barley epidermal cells. BAX expression led to cessation of cytoplasmic streaming and collapse of the cytoplasm while co‐expression of HvBI‐1 and BCL‐XL partially or completely, respectively, rescued cells from BAX lethality. When B. graminis was attacking epidermal cells, a green fluorescent protein fusion of HvBI‐1 accumulated at the site of attempted penetration and was also present around haustoria. Over‐expression of HvBI‐1 in epidermal cells weakened a cell‐wall‐associated local hydrogen peroxide burst in a resistant mlo‐mutant genotype and supported haustoria accommodation in race‐specifically resistant MLA12‐barley. HvBI‐1 is a cell death regulator protein of barley with the potential to suppress host defence reactions.
Organic carbon and microbial biomass in two soil development chronosequences following glacial retreat
Authors: Conen F. , Yakutin M. V. , Zumbrunn T. , Leifeld J.
Published: September 2006

Retreating glaciers successively expose mineral substrate which is colonised within a few years by soil biota, lichens and plants. Two such successions which cover the first five decades after exposure were studied in the Swiss Alps. Sites differed in parent material and precipitation. At each site, five strata of different age were dated by distance from the current glacier gate and records of annual retreat. The proportion of fine material (< 63 μm) differed by a factor of 2 between sites and a factor of 3 within sites. From the youngest to the oldest stratum, plant cover increased from < 5 to > 85% and organic carbon content (Corg) in the bulk material increased by 6 times at the wetter site and by 16 times at the drier site. Even so, partitioning of Corg between particle size fractions 2000 to 63 μm and < 63 μm was the same at both sites (6 : 4), and so was the proportion of microbial C (Cmic) in Corg (5%). Coefficients of variation across all 10 strata studied were only 22% for Corg partitioning and 21% for the proportion of Cmic in Corg. Soil carbon models frequently apply prescribed partitioning factors in simulating organic matter input into soil. Our findings lend support to such an approach.
Trophic transfer and trophic modification of fatty acids in high Arctic lakes
Authors: HESSEN DAG O. , LEU EVA
Published: September 2006

1. A comparative study of fatty acid (FA) profiles in particulate matter (seston) and the key grazer Daphnia was performed in six high Arctic ponds (79°N, Svalbard). The ponds were all small and shallow, but followed a strong gradient with respect to nutrient content and optical properties.

2. A distinct locality‐specific pattern was detected by principal component analysis of FA profiles, where samples from each locality clustered both with regard to seston and Daphnia. Linear discriminant analysis using nine sestonic fatty acids as discriminant functions gave on average a correct prediction of the Daphnia lake membership in 47% of cases, with very high predictability in some lakes but poor predictability in others.

3. No significant correlation was detected between FA and nutrient concentration or levels of dissolved organic carbon. The major determinant of FA profiles as judged from a redundancy analysis was the taxonomic composition of phytoplankton communities, notably the biomass of Chlorophyceae.

4. The FA profiles of Daphnia were for some FAs strongly enriched relative to the seston, while diluted for others. Among the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), a pronounced magnification of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20 : 5 n‐3), and to some extent 18 : 3 n‐3 and 20 : 4 n‐6 was found, while docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22 : 6 n‐3) contributed in general less to FAs in Daphnia than in seston and was hardly detectable in Daphnia from most localities.

5. The overall content of PUFAs in Daphnia was consistently high, close to 40% of total FA in all investigated localities, despite major differences in seston PUFA content. Daphnia thus acts as a regulator with regard to overall PUFAs, reflecting its physiological constraints and relatively fixed demands for PUFAs in general. The distinct locality‐specific profiles in Daphnia strongly suggest a kind of FA‐fingerprint, but our data do not allow strict statements on the use of specific FAs as trophic markers.
Self‐organisation in streams: the relationship between movement behaviour and body condition in a headwater salamander
Authors: LOWE WINSOR H. , LIKENS GENE E. , COSENTINO BRADLEY J.
Published: September 2006

1. When movement behaviour is correlated with traits affecting fitness, it may affect population performance directly, independent of extrinsic habitat conditions.

2. In a previous 3‐year, capture–recapture study, upstream movement by the salamander Gyrinophilus porphyriticus compensated for low reproduction in the upper 500 m of Merrill Brook, a first‐order stream in northern New Hampshire (U.S.A.). This immigrant subsidy resulted from excess reproduction in the downstream section (i.e. the lower 500 m of stream length) and from consistently upstream‐biased movement by salamanders. Reproduction in the two stream sections was positively correlated with mean body condition. Using 6 years of capture–recapture data, this study examines whether the movement behaviour of G. porphyriticus is related to body condition and thereby directly influences mean body condition and reproduction in the two sections of Merrill Brook.

3. Upstream‐biased movement and greater mean body condition in the downstream section were consistent across 6 years of data collection. In Merrill Brook and four other streams, however, individuals with high body condition were more likely to move upstream and low‐condition individuals were more likely to move downstream. Movement direction was unrelated to the size, sex and initial location of individuals. Body condition was positively related to growth rate, further supporting its link to reproductive potential, and positively autocorrelated through time in individuals that moved.

4. Results of this 6‐year study suggest that the movement behaviour of G. porphyriticus partially compensated for environmental factors differentiating mean body condition and reproduction along Merrill Brook and illustrate the potential for this form of self‐organisation to occur in linear habitats such as streams and rivers.
The effect of seed morphology on the potential dispersal of aquatic macrophytes by the common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
Authors: POLLUX B. J. A. , DE JONG M. , STEEGH A. , OUBORG N. J. , VAN GROENENDAEL J. M. , KLAASSEN M.
Published: September 2006

1. The potential for seed dispersal by fish (ichthyochory) will vary among aquatic plants because of differences in seed size and morphology.

2. To examine how seed morphology influences the probability of dispersal by the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), we studied seed ingestion, retention time and subsequent egestion and germination of seeds of Sparganium emersum and Sagittaria sagittifolia, two aquatic plant species with similar sized but morphologically different seeds.

3. We compared dispersal probabilities between the two plant species, in which the probability of dispersal is assumed to be a function of the probabilities of seed ingestion, egestion and germination, and the dispersal distance is assumed to be a function of seed egestion rate over time.

4. We found that, although the soft seeds of S. sagittifolia had an approximately 1.5 times higher probability of being ingested by the carp than the hard seeds of S. emersum (83.15% ± 1.8% versus 56.16% ± 2.7%, respectively), the latter had an almost twofold higher probability of surviving the passage through the digestive tract (38.58% ± 2.7% versus 20.97% ± 1.5%, respectively). Patterns of seed egestion over time did not differ between the two plant species, despite the difference in seed morphology. Gut passage had a different effect on seed germination between plant species. Compared with non‐ingested controls, seeds of S. emersum showed a 12.6% increase in germination and a 2.1 day acceleration in germination rate, whereas seeds of S. sagittifolia displayed a 47.3% decrease and 5.1 day delay, respectively.

5. Our results suggest that seed morphology affects the dispersal probability and postdispersal establishment, but not the dispersal distance, of aquatic plants that are dispersed by fish.