bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of Processing Factors and Fiber Properties on the Arrangement of Fibers in Blended Yarns
Authors: Balasubramanian N.
Published: March 2007

A study was made of the influence of processing factors on the average disposition of fibers within a section and on the intimacy of mixing, when the blending constituents differ widely with respect of fiber dimensions.

A simplified measure was developed to characterize the preferential arrangement of fibers within a cross section, and the effects of spinning factors were evaluated. It was found that long and fine fibers have a definite tendency to occupy the core, while short and coarse fibers concentrate at the surface, and of the spinning factors, only strand width at the delivery nip has a significant effect on the arrangement. Further, no significant preferential segregation of the constituents was noticed across the width of the drafted strand, indicating that the biased arrangement develops during spinning. Spinning from multiple rovings showed promise of improving the preferential arrange ment, but the average position of the constituent in the yarn section does not have any large effects on the strength or the extension of the yarn.

When blending is done prior to the card, intimate mixing of the components, close to ideal, is realized in the yarn even in blends composed of fibers that differ considerably in length and fineness. But with blending at the ring frame, the components are distributed almost independently of each other and, in such yarns, the variability in the blend proportion is of the same order as the variability in the total number of fibers. Evidence is presented to show that adjoining fibers tend to move together during drafting, and in order to minimize variation in the blend proportion longitudinally, adequate lateral intermingling of the components must be obtained.
Interrelations of Structural and Physical Properties of Untreated Cottons
Authors: Egle Clifton J. , Grant James N.
Published: March 2007

High correlation is shown to exist between crystallite orientation and tensile proper ties of bundles of cotton fibers. Statistical analyses of bundle data failed to uncover pronounced dependence of bundle tensile properties on reversal frequency. Evidence is given of the influence of heredity on reversal frequency.

Data on single cotton fibers are presented to illustrate the relationships or lack of relationships of reversals and x-ray angle to strength and elongation. X-ray angle and reversal frequency are interrelated at a very low level of significance and are shown to be related to single-fiber tenacity, elongation, and decrease in strength with increase in gage length. The tensile properties from bundle and single-fiber measurements are more strongly related to x-ray orientation than to reversal frequency.
Action of Sodium Chlorite on Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives
Authors: Kantouch A. , Hebeish A. , El-Rafie M.H.
Published: March 2007

Oxidation of cellulose, O-methyl cellulose, and partially carboxymethylated cellulose with sodium chlorite has been investigated for different concentrations, pH values, reaction times, temperatures, and natures of the substrate. It was found that decom position of sodium chlorite in presence and absence of cellulose showed the same trend. However, change in the chlorite content was nearly the same at pH 4, whereas in pres ence of cellulöse it was higher at pH 6 and 8. The oxidized cellulose showed a decrease in the D.P., a slight increase in the copper number, and an increase in the carboxyl content, depending on the reaction conditions. Oxidation of O-methyl cellulose and partially carboxymethylated cellulose is accompanied by depolymerisation, an increase in the carboxyl content, and a slight decrease in the D.S. of the former and a decrease in the carboxyl content of the latter. The oxidation of cellulose derivatives seems to be independent of the number of free hydroxyl groups, particularly in the acidic medium. A mechanism for the oxidation of cellulose with sodium chlorite is also suggested.
Quantitative Evaluation of Flame-Retardant Cotton Finishes by the Limiting-Oxygen Index (LOI) Technique
Authors: Willard John J. , Wondra Richard E.
Published: March 2007

The limiting oxygen index (LOI) technique provides a quantitative measure of reduced ftammability for fabrics over broad ranges of chemical treatment. Several conventional flame-retardant finishes for cellulosics gave linear LOI relationships with phosphorus content when compared at fixed nitrogen/phosphorus ratios. Tris(aziridinyl)phosphine oxide (APO) was an exception.

Precise measurement of the role of N in enhancing the flame-retardant effectiveness can be made with this technique. The synergistic interaction of N and P can thus be described and measured. Two chemical systems were examined in depth, and it was possible to describe LOI as simple functions of N and P contents for each system. The synergistic effect did not predominate at a specific N/P ratio.

LOI of about 0.26 is associated with a 5-in. char length in the vertical test for several fabrics, a sateen fabric being an exception. Fabric air permeability was found to be a primary factor governing chemical requirements and is probably more important than fabric weight.

Other nitrogenous durable-press reactants are less effective than melamines. Complex relationships as functions of nitrogen content were noted at different phosphorus levels.
Wool Top Analysis by an Electronic Fiber Fineness Instrument
Authors: Hourihan Mary E. , Terrill Clair E. , Neil Hugh G. , Mackey Bruce E.
Published: March 2007

A modified Electronic Fiber Fineness Instrument (EFFI) was used to obtain measurements of the average diameters and variability of 90 laboratory samples of wool tops produced from individual Rambouillet, Targhee, and Columbia fleeces and of three samples of commerciatly produced tops. The results were compared with results obtained by three laboratories which measured the same tops by the microprojection method. Least-squares procedures were utilized to test for differences between the methods, and the resulting data are presented along with correlations of results from the two methods. It is recognized that the EFFI gives slightly greater fiber-diameter readings and greater standard deviations than the short-fiber method. However, it seems that the EFFI can be used more speedily and conveniently and equally as well as the microprojection method for the measurement of fiber diameter and relative placement of samples according to diameter.
Sodium Borohydride in Vat Dyeing
Authors: Nair G.P. , Shah R.C.
Published: March 2007

A suitable redox titration procedure has been standardized and the effect of sodium borohydride in various vat dyebaths has been studied. An analysis of the redox curve gives valuable data on the stability of the reducing system, leucopotential of the dye, and over-all stability of the dyebaths. It is shown that sodium borohydride does not improve the stability of the dyebath against oxidation. In certain systems, it even shows adverse effects. Results indicated that sodium boro hydride cannot be a total or partial substitute for sodium hydrosulfite in current vat dyeing practice. This finding has been verified by hank-dyeing. In vatting and dyeing, the specificity of a reducing agent appears to be more important than its reduction potential.
A New Catalyst System for Cross-Linking Cotton Cellulose with Formaldehyde
Authors: Kravetz Louis , Ferrante Gerald R.
Published: March 2007

A dual catalyst system containing magnesium and fluoborate ions facilitates the cross-linking of cotton cellulose with formaldehyde. Compared with previous formaldehyde cross-linking processes, the dual catalyst system permits operating at lower temperatures, shorter curing times, and lower concentrations of formaldehyde to produce high and nonvariable wash-wear characteristics which are durable in home and commercial launderings. In addition, this dual catalyst system may be used to impart durable-press properties to cotton fabric by using either pre-cure, partial cure, or post- cure techniques.

The magnesium cation seems to be unique in the dual catalyst system, since other divalent cations, e.g., barium and zinc, do not act synergistically with fluoborate. The role of fluoborate is discussed and data are shown which indicate that boron trifluoride is the active species which accelerates the cross-linking reaction in the presence of magnesium. 14Carbon tracer studies reveal that, under equivalent processing conditions, more formaldehyde is bound to cellulose by the dual catalyst system than by a single catalyst (magnesium chloride) system.
Extent of Formation of Ether Linkages Between Tris(1-aziridinyl)phosphine Oxide and Cotton Cellulose
Authors: Roberts E.J. , Rowland S.P.
Published: March 2007

Cotton cellulose modified with tris(1-aziridinyl)phosphine oxide (APO) was prepared with and without zinc fluoborate catalyst. The modified cotton samples were hydrolyzed. Attempts to detect the expected 0-(2-aminoethyl)-D-glucopy- ranoses were complicated by reactions between the functional group at C-1 of the glucose unit and the amine function of the substituent. The ratio of substituents in the 2-0-, 3-0-, and 6-0-positions of the glucopyranosyl units in samples of APO-modified cotton cellulose could be measured when the amino groups were converted to hydroxyl groups by diazo tization prior to hydrolysis. The APO-modified cotton cellulose prepared with zinc fluoborate catalysis and containing 3.08, 5.77, and 14.62% APO exhibited substituent ratios of 0.23:0.21:1.00, 0.29:0.26:1.00, and 0.38:0.37:1.00, respec tively, at the 2-0-, 3-0-, and 6-0-positions. A sample of APO-modified cotton cellulose (6.38% APO) prepared without catalyst exhibited a substituent distribution of 0.65:0.35:1.00. The actual DS values of these samples were estimated to be 0.0040, 0.0071, 0.0084, and 0.0098 for the fabrics containing 3.08, 5.77, 6.38, and 14.62% of incorporated APO, respectively.
Measurement of Fiber Mixing in Yarns
Authors: Bogdan J.F. , Hader R.J. , Alford J.L.
Published: March 2007

A method based on a modification of the "nearest neighbor" relationship, as used in ecology, is developed for evaluating the extent of mixing of nonhomogeneous fibers in a blended yarn. The evaluation parameter is the degree of randomness in the radial fiber dispersion of a yarn. Simulated cross sections are created for study in such a manner that they feature either randomness or some imposed form of nonrandomness. The procedure for applying the method and the manner of evaluating its results are explained in detail. The method of computation has been programmed so that it can be per formed on a computer.
Some Effects of Chemical Composition on the Flammability Behavior of Textiles
Authors: Tesoro Giuliana C. , Meiser Charles H.
Published: March 2007

The oxygen index method is shown to be a valuable tool for the investigation of the flammability of textile samples as a function of their chemical composition. Measurements of limiting oxygen index (LOI) are reported for polyester/cotton blends of varying composition, and for 50/50 polyester/cotton blends in which one component fiber has been selectively treated with flame-retardant additives. LOI values are also reported for cotton fabric treated with nitrogen-containing resins at various levels of nitrogen content, in conjunction with a flame-retardant additive.
Some Properties of Viscose Rayon Fabrics Treated with Tetrakishydroxy Phosphonium Chloride (THPC) Resins
Authors: Gandhi R.S.
Published: March 2007

Data are reported on the moisture regain, water of imbibition, tear strength, elastic properties, and flame resistance of chemically modified viscose rayon fabrics.

The data reveal that THPC behaves as if it were a derivative of formaldehyde. Under moderate curing conditions, substitution of hydroyxy groups in cellulose occurs, but when curing conditions are more severe, cross-linking takes place. Both triethanolamine and urea inhibit the reaction of THPC with cellulose and reduce acid degradation. Treatment of fabric with THPC-urea or THPC-melamine resins also leads to polymer deposition, especially at high curing temperatures. Both in the presence and absence of urea, when substantial quantities of triethanolamine are added, THPC decomposes, and the amount of phosphorus fixed is reduced. Triethanolamine appears to act in a complex manner; its effect is due not solely to its alkalinity. Only in the presence of urea does the fabric acquire flame resistance, although phosphorus is fixed even in the absence of urea. Fabric aminized with 2-amino ethyl sulfuric acid is on subsequent treatment with THPC, also flameproofed. Due to the presence of amino groups in the fabric, however, THPC reacts with fewer hydroxyl groups, and the losses in tear strength are less.
The Removal of a Synthetic Sebum from Durable-Press Fabrics
Authors: Labhard Lezlie A. , Morris Mary Ann
Published: March 2007

The effect of a durable-press finish and fiber content on the removal of a synthetic sebum during repeated soiling and laundering cycles was investigated, using glyceryl tristearate 14carbon to detect residual soil. Although the untreated cotton fabric retained less soil after one soiling-laundering cycle, significantly more tagged soil could be extracted from the untreated cotton fabric than from the durable-press cotton, the durable-press polyester/cotton blend, or the untreated polyester/cotton blend after 30 cycles.
A Degradation-Profile Comparison Technique for Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Water-Soluble Cellulose Ethers
Authors: Harless H.R. , Anderson R.L.
Published: March 2007

A degradation-profile technique has been developed for the qualitative analysis of water-soluble cellulosic ethers. The technique, is based on mass spectra obtained by thermal degradation of the ethers in a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The method allows direct comparisons of two or more of the modified cellulosic products. Differences in the profiles of methyl, hydroryethyl, and hydroxypropyl cellulose are evident. The method has been used initially to establish that certain ethers contain polypropylene glycol additives and to demonstrate that other ethers are chemically modified by propoxylation. Eight samples, representing a cross section of commercial products have been studied. The profile technique for identification is valid only when applied to samples of water-soluble celluloses and when all spectra are obtained under the same operating conditions.
Heat-Transfer Properties of Ten Underwear—Outerwear Ensembles
Authors: Fonseca George F.
Published: March 2007

The heat-transfer properties of 10 underwear-outerwear ensembles were determined in the laboratory by using a heated "sweating" sectional manikin. Theoretically, by applying the im theory to these results, a Nomex underwear-Nomex outerwear ensemble showed a slightly greater environmental range. However, little differences were found in the indi vidual clo or im clo values among the underwear combinations. The results for two ensembles having the same under wear but different outerwear indicated that the outerwear could be the deciding factor in determining the thermal char acteristics of complete clothing ensembles. It appears that underwear per se merely occupies a portion of the still air layer, and, therefore, the nature of underwear has little to do with the over-all thermal insulation, although these results may be independent of subjective comfort.
Laundering Cotton Fabric
Authors: Bubl Janet L.
Published: March 2007

In six university laboratories, white cotton fabric was repeatedly soiled with a synthetic sebum and clay and laundered in home-type equipment. Two built nonionic detergents were used at 70° and 140°F.

After 24 treatments, evidence of a buildup of soil on all samples was obtained from the increase in extracted oil and ash content, the decrease in Rd values and the increase in "b" values. The mean percentages of total soil removed varied among the laboratories. Clay soil was removed more readily than oily soil. More soil was removed by laundering at 140° than at 70°F. The regular detergent had better detersive action than the cold-water detergent. Water temperature was more important than detergent type in soil removal. Redeposition of soil onto unsoiled laundered fabrics was negligible.

Extraction and ashing gave a better indication of total residual soil than reflectance measurement.

Use of novial filter during reflectance measurement indicated the effectiveness of optical brighteners in whitening fabrics.
. Laundering Cotton Fabric
Authors: Morris Mary Ann
Published: March 2007

A cotton fabric was artificially soiled and laundered with two different types of detergents at two different wash tem peratures. Samples laundered at 140°F were rated by subjective evaluations to be whiter, softer, and smoother than fabric laundered in unheated water. The type of detergent did not affect the softness or smoothness of the fabric. Sam ples laundered in regular detergent were judged to be whiter than those laundered in cold-water detergent. Little dif ference in breaking strength, elongation, and dimensional change of the fabric due to laundering variables was noted. Data are given on the cost of heating water and detergent. Samples were laundered at six locations and differences in water quality are reported.
A Corona-Discharge Method of Producing Shrink-Resistant Wool and Mohair
Authors: Thorsen W.J. , Landwehr R.C.
Published: March 2007

A pilot-scale corona reactor that produces a high-power corona for rapid treatment of wool or mohair top was built and tested. The maximum production rate is 43 lb/hr for a 2-sec. treatment. Power consumption of the 14×24-in. corona cell is 4.5 kw at 16,150 v-2070 Hz but is greatly reduced with fractional reductions in voltage. During operation, electrode temperature is controlled by circulating thermostatted air over the back of the electrodes, which have heat-dissipating fins. Control of the corona-field atmosphere permits treatment over a wide range of humidity and chlorine con centration. The web is transported by either a single Teflon-coated wire belt or a double belt system consisting of a wire belt and a Teflon-impregnated fiberglass belt, the choice depending on processing conditions and type of fiber. Operating characteristics of the reactor are described, as well as the improvement in shrinkage resistance and spin nability that corona treatment imparts to wool and mohair.
Studies of Detergency
Authors: Komeda Yoshiaki , Mino Junryo , Imamura Tetsuya , Tokiwa Fumikatsu
Published: March 2007

The difficulty or ease of soil removal from soiled fabrics has been studied. Cotton, nylon, polyester, and wool fabrics were soiled with five oily soils and were laundered with eight different detergents under various washing conditions.

Variable bath components were surfactant types, water hardnesses, detergent concentrations, and bath temperatures.

The contribution of such fabrics, soil, detergents, and bath conditions were estimated by the analysis of variance.

The contributions of these factors increase in the following order: (a) (Fabric) > (Fabric) X (Soil) > (Soil) > (Others) when water hardness is chosen as a variable; (b) (Fabric) > (Concentration) > (Fabric) X (Soil) > (Soil) > (Others) when detergent concentration is chosen as a variable; (c) (Fabric) > (Fabric) X (Soil) > (Others) when wash temp erature is chosen as a variable.

For each condition, the detergent contribution of fabric is the largest, while that of mutual interaction between fabric and soil is also very large. ,

The analysis of variance suggested that the difficulty or ease of soil removal is determined mainly by the combination fabric and soil; the type of fabric or the mutual interaction between fabric and soil is also an important factor in deter mining the degree of soil removal.

Surfactants are classified by pattern analysis, based on the detergent contribution of the various factors in detergent systems.
Structure and Properties of Cotton Fibers from Controlled Growth Environments
Authors: Grant James N. , Egle Clifton J. , Mitcham Donald , Powell Robert D.
Published: March 2007

The influences of growth environment on gross and fine structures, mechanical properties, and responses to chemical treatments were determined from cotton fibers of Rex and Texas Marker-1 varieties grown under ranges of controlled environment. Cell walls of fibers composed of cellulose deposited at constant and varying temperatures were found to differ in many of their properties. The cell wall thickens more slowly at lower than at higher temperatures and the walls are thinner even though the wall development periods are longer. Properties of fibers indicate that cellulose from the low-temperature environment is less compact and more responsive to chemical reagents than from the high temperatures. The fibers from low temperatures are weaker and more extensible. Relationships between cell wall thickness, fine structure, mechanical properties and chemical reactivities are illustrated.
Grafting of Proteins onto Wool Using Diepoxides as Cross-Linking Agents
Authors: Needles H.L.
Published: March 2007

Several commercially available proteins were grafted onto wool fabric using diepoxides as cross-linking agents and a 140-160°C cure. From 1.5 to 5.5% protein was grafted, onto the fabric to yield modified wools with moderate-to-good shrinkproofing properties, small losses in wrinkle recovery, and moderate-to-large increases in flexural rigidity. Collagen- extracted Colloid 5V grafted onto wool with glycerol diglycidyl ether (GDE) gave durable grafts with desirable properties, while other proteins (zein, casein, collagen-extracted Colloid I) with GDE gave protein-grafted fabrics with somewhat less desirable properties. Other commercial diepoxides gave unsatisfactory protein grafts to wool.
Use of the Scanning Electron Microscope in a Study of the Abrasive Properties of Textile Yarns
Authors: Egerton G.S. , Fisher K.M.
Published: March 2007

The possible mechanism of wear produced when yarn is passed over latch knitting needles is discussed. The structure of the yarn and its surface features are shown to be important factors in determining the nature of the wear process.
Abrasion Phenomena in Durable-Press Cotton Fabrics
Authors: Rollins M.L. , Degruy I.V. , Hensarling T.P. , Carra J.H.
Published: March 2007

The abrasion characteristics of representative durable-press cotton fabrics were evaluated by selected laboratory-abrasion and laundering tests and the breakdown pattern of individual fibers was surveyed by electron-microscope photographs. Samples compared were from such treatments as wet-fix, poly-set, face-coating, fiber encapsulation, and graft polymerization. Although degree of abrasion resistance, as measured by Accelerotor weight loss or Stoll flex cycles, varied with different treatments, the damage types exhibited by individual fibers differed little from treatment to treatment. In most samples having acceptable degrees of wrinkle recovery and crease retention, the major mechanism of failure was fracture of the entire fiber in a brittle break. In untreated cotton, the characteristic feature of wet abrasion was fibrillation of the fiber surface; wet abrasion of cross-linked fibers often resulted in peeling of thick slabs and ribbons of fused fibrils from the body of the fiber. Characteristic of dry abrasion of untreated fibers was smoothing of fiber surface, general crushing of the fiber, accumulation of lumps of fiber material, and occasionally a pinching-out of wedged-shaped fragments from the side of the fiber in a typical mechanical fatigue break. In cross-linked fibers, differences between dry and wet abrasion were small. Most characteristic of cross-linked fibers was abrupt fracture of otherwise undamaged fibers and brittle shattering of the fiber as in the crushing of glass. Addition of softeners and thermoplastic polymer coatings to the cross-linking treatment improved abrasion resistance, apparently by physical protection of the fiber surface from abrassive forces, but the final mechanism of the failure was nearly always of the same type-mechanical fracture of the fiber. Observations of characteristic damage types in laundering tests in a household-type washing machine were also included. Surfaces of fibers from washed and line-dried fabrics resembled more closely those of fibers from fabrics tumble-dried than of those washed and tumble-dried.
Studies of Formaldehyde-Crosslinked Cellulose
Authors: Singh Balkar , Jain C.L. , Pande A. , Chipalkatti V.B. , Parikh R.S.
Published: March 2007

Moisture sorption data of Form C samples have been obtained using a McBain-Bakr sorption balance and these were used to calculate effective area of molecular contact of the cross-linked samples with the Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) equation. A probable explanation is advanced for the maxima and minima in moisture regains of cross-linked in the swollen state samples and the effective area/HCHO relationship. Attempts have been made to infer the distribution of cross-links trom the moisture sorption data of the cross-linked samples.

Iodine accessibility values of formaldehyde-crosslinked fibre and dye pickup studies of formaldehyde-crosslinked fabric support an earlier assumption that the primary wall is ruptured under Form W conditions.
The Dimensional Properties of Knitted Wool Fabrics
Authors: Knapton J.J.F. , Fong W.
Published: March 2007

Tumble-drying from the wet fabric state is shown to be a reasonable means of fully-relaxing rib structures. By this technique, an approximate discrimination can be made between dimensional changes due to relaxation and felting of all- wool rib structures. Upon washing from the fully-relaxed state, untreated fabrics felt immediately due primarily to loop-length changes and not by changes in loop shape. Felting rates depend strongly on machine tightness factor (MTF) and to a lesser extent on fiber quality and yarn twist.

To ensure machine washability of rib structures to within the limits of ± 8% area shrinkage and ± 5% linear shrinkage over 10 machine-wash and tumble-dry cycles, yarns must be treated against felting at a high level of treatment. Further dimensional changes in washing from the fully-relaxed state are due to residual relaxation and not felting. Occasional fabrics, particularly loosely knit structures, exceed these chosen shrinkage limits. To guarantee machine washability of rib structures, a fully-relaxing procedure of two cycles of wetting and tumble-drying is recommended.

Under most conditions of relaxation and washing, the dimensional behavior of shrink-resist-treated rib structures is anisotropic, i.e., length shrinkages are generally associated with width expansion. A possible reason for this behavior is presented in this paper.
The Effect of Heat-Setting on the Bending Behavior of Woven Fabrics
Authors: Skelton John
Published: March 2007

Fabrics woven from synthetic fibers are usually heat-set in order to improve their hand and other performance characteristics. During the heat-setting process, the inter-yarn forces are relaxed and, as a consequence, the bending hysteresis of the fabric is reduced. An experimental method is described that permits the continuous measurement of the bending hysteresis of fabrics over a range of temperatures up to the melting point of the polymer. By this means, the variations of fabric properties during the heat-setting process may be followed and compared with measurements made on fabrics that have been heat-set and allowed to cool. Results are presented for nylon, Dacron, polypropylene, and Nomex fabrics, and the significance of the various behavior characteristics is discussed.
A Study of the Spectral Distributions of Sun-Sky and Xenon-Arc Radiation in Relation to the Degradation of Some Textile Yarns
Authors: Wall Marjorie J. , Frank Grace C.
Published: March 2007

The effects of xenon-arc radiation, using an Atlas Weather-Ometer and a clear glass pyrex filter system, on the breaking strength, extension-to-break, and the energy-to-break for several nylon, polyester, and polyester/cotton yarns were compared to these of outdoor exposure behind window glass. Both types of exposure resulted in similar, related rates of loss for these properties for all yarns. Lamp age in the Weather-Ometer intluenced degradation rates in some cases. All nylon yarns degraded slowly during Weather-Ometer exposure and rapidly outdoors behind window-glass, in com parison to polyester, while the polyester/cotton yarns degraded at similar rates in both locations. Yarn-denier variation and the presence of an optical, brightener had no detectable effect on degradation rates. Sensitization by anatase in nylon and polyester yarns occurred during outdoor exposure, but not during Weather-Ometer exposure.
A Study of the Spectral Distributions of Sun-Sky and Xenon-Arc Radiation in Relation to the Degradation of Some Textile Yarns
Authors: Wall Marjorie J. , Frank Grace C. , Stevens J.R.
Published: March 2007

The spectral distributions of xenon-arc radiation using several filter systems were compared to August sun-sky radiation measured behind window glass. By locating the main bond-dissociation energies of polyester and nylon at their equivalent photon energies on the spectral distribution curves it was possible to explain the discrepancies in degradation rates, reported in Part I of this work, which occurred between the xenon-arc and outdoor exposures. These differences in spectra may also account for degradation sensitization by anatase during the outdoor exposures.
Fibers from Polyhexamethylene Terephthalamide
Authors: Quynn Richard G.
Published: March 2007

On treatment with a variety of swelling agents, polyhexamethylene terephthalamide (nylon 6-T) fibers undergo char acteristic changes in tensile properties, x-ray pattern, and dyeability. Microscopically visible voids are permanentlv removed and the uptake of acid and disperse dyestuffs is increased in that portion of the fiber penetrated by the swotting agent. The molecular rearrangement which occurs during this "relaxation" consists of disorientation and probably in volves a change in the relative positioning of successive hydrogen-bonded sheets. It is suggested that the change in dyeing behavior on relaxation consists in general of an increase in extent of the so-called "overdyeing" resulting from the genera tion of additional "vacancies."
Photobleaching of Wool Regardless of Yellowness Cause
Authors: Launer Herbert F.
Published: March 2007

Light was found to bleach wool that had yellowed from a wide variety of causes. The spectrum of the bleaching light and, to a lesser extent, the chemistry of the pigment determine the rate. For rapid bleaching, light should contain no uv below 360 mμ, and preferably no uv at all, as this causes competitive yellowing. Photobleaching of wool previously exposed to uv at 254 mμ was found to be some 20,000 times faster than spontaneous dark bleaching (or reversion).
Tensile, Shear, and Recovery Properties of Cotton Fibers and Fabrics Treated to Impart Differences in Wet and Dry Wrinkle Recoveries
Authors: Hassenboflfr Charles B. , Harper Robert J. , Grant James N.
Published: March 2007

Tensile, shear, and recovery properties of single cotton fibers chemically modified by pad-dry-cure with and without potyethytene glycol additive and by the Form W (formaldehyde) process have been compared with wrinkle recovery and shear properties of similarly modified fabrics. Fiber recovery from twisting was more reliable than recovery from longi tudinal strain in predicting the fabric recovery. The high recovery from twisting the wet fiber given the Form W treat ment was consistent with the high wrinkle recovery of the wet fabric. The mechanical properties from longitudinal straining failed to indicate the low crease recovery of wet fabric of pad-dry-cure with additive. The glycol had no effect on dry wrinkle recovery of pad-dry-cure fabric. Mechanical properties of fibers were related to wrinkle recoveries of wet and dry fabrics. Water decreased the shear angle for fabrics, when swelling exceeded the luhrication effects of liquid at the interstices. Moisture was principally a lubricant for mercerized fabric. A relationship of fabric wrinkle recovery to symmetrical arrangement and separation of fibers in yarns of treated fabric was photographically illustrated.
Photochemistry of Azo Dyes on Synthetic Fibers
Authors: Irick Gether , Pacifici J.G.
Published: March 2007

The relationship between photodegradation rates and dye concentrations were determined by extraction, reflectance, and visual methods. Polyester and cellulose ester fabrics dyed with 4-[N-(2-cyanoethyl)-N-(ethylamino)]-4'-nitroazo benzene at various concentrations were exposed to either a carbon-arc or a mercury-arc lamp, and the amount of dye de struction, as a function of time, was determined by the various methods. Correlations were found between visual lightfastness ratings on the fabrics, dye loss determined by reflectance methods, and concentration of dye in the fabric. Extraction methods were useful for determination of dye content of dyed fabrics before and after extensive photodegra dation, but they lacked the sensitivity required for determination of small dye losses resulting from photolysis. Neither the fading kinetics nor the reflectance spectra indicated extensive aggregation of dye in the fabrics.
Some 3-Substituted Benzofulvenes
Authors: Irick Gether
Published: March 2007

A novel type of fiber reactive dye is described which eliminates chloride, alkoxide, or arylovide ions to produce a dyed fiber in which the amino groups of the fiber constitute a part of the chromophoric system. 3-Chloro-, 3-alkoxy-, and 3-aryloxy-Δ 1.α-indenemalononitriles and Δ1,2'-indene-1,3-indandiones had weak absorption maxima below 300 nm and dyed cellulose ester and polyester fabrics had pale yellow-orange shades. Dyeings on nylon 66 resulted in displacement of the 3-suhstituents by the amino groups of the fiber to give intense violet or blue dyeings. These compounds are members of a new class of fiber-reactive dyes.
Some Mechanical Properties of Wool Fibers in the "Hookean" Region from Zero to 100% Relative Humidity
Authors: Feughelman M. , Robinson M.S.
Published: March 2007

At 20°C and for all moisture contents, the mechanical behavior of wool fibers up to 1% extension in the Hookean region is linear viscoelastic. The equilibrium Young's modulus, based on the wet cross-sectional area of the wool fiber, is inde pendent of moisture content and is equal to 1.4X 1010 dynes-cm2. The dynamic or transient behavior of a fiber at any moisture content at 20°C can be replaced by a spring contributing a fixed stiffness of 1.4X 1010 dynes/cm2 to the dynamic Young's modulus together with a viscous dashpot in parallel and having moisture-dependent characteristics. The action of water, which in the original two-phase matrix-microfibril model, was proposed to weaken the matrix, must now be con sidered to increase the segmental mobility of the molecular structure of the matrix. Further, mechanical equilibrium between matrix and microfibril is taken to exist for the wet wool fiber, rather than the dry fiber.
Flammable Fabrics and the Cost of Consumer Protection
Authors: Mcdonald K. , Smith B.F. , Dardis R.
Published: March 2007

Since the passage of the Flammable Fabrics Act Amendment in 1967, there has been considerable interest in the problem of apparel burn injuries and actions which might be taken to reduce them. Decision theory was employed in this study to evaluate alternative courses of action such as protective clothing and education. The results indicate the necessity for improvements in technology for textile fire retardance, if protective clothing is to become a feasible alternative for many consumers. More information concerning the relationship between program costs and effectiveness is also needed, if the decision maker is to select the appropriate course of action.
The Influence of Geometric and Cord-Load Design Parameters on the Profile Shape and Cord Tensions in Inflated Pneumatic Tires
Authors: Zorowski Carl F. , Dunn Stanley E. , Shah Narendra M.
Published: March 2007

A mathematical model for the bias-ply pneumatic tire is presented. Based on the linear-membrane theory of thin shells of revolution, the present model exhibits greater generality in development and flexibility in use than previous models. As presented here, the model has the capability of defining meridian profiles as a function of geometric and cord-load parameters designated at any point on the tire carcass. The result is a model capable of effecting parametric studies for the effects of tire design and construction constraints on carcass shape and cord load.
Dye-Fiber Bond Stabilities of Some Reactive Dyes with Wool
Authors: Rouette H.K. , Wilshire J.F.K. , Yamase I. , Zollinger H.
Published: March 2007

Wool was dyed with seven reactive dyes having the same chromophoric group (1-amino-4-anilino-anthraquinone-2- sulfonic acid) but different reactive groups and then thoroughly extracted so that all noncovalently bound dye was re moved. The wool was treated with buffer solutions in the pH range of 1.6-10.6 at 70°C. The hydrolysis rate of the dye-fiber bonds was estimated by colorimetric measurement of the buffer solution.

Reactive dyes containing the α-bromoacrylamide or the difluoromonochloropyrimidyl system gave the highest fixation on wool, whereas those containing a mono- or di-chloro-s-triazine, trichloropyrimidine, or vinylsulfone group gave lower values. Poor fixation was obtained with the β-hydroxyethylsulfone sulfuric acid ester and the β-hydroxyethylsulfona mide reactive group. Since only 2-10% dye-fiber bond hydrolysis was observed after 24 hr at 70°C, it must be concluded that the dye-fiber bond stability of all the reactive groups now available is sufficient for wool dyeing. The washfastness of reactively dyed wool is, therefore, not dependent on the nature or stability of the dye-fiber bond but on the fixation ratio, (i.e., the fraction of covalently bonded dye relative to all dye on the fiber) obtained during dyeing.
The Sensitivity of Cotton Fabrics to Wrinkling During Changing Moisture Regain and its Dependence on Setting and Cross-Linking Parameters
Authors: Liljemark N. Thomas , Åsnes Harald , Kärrholm Marianne
Published: March 2007

Moist cross-linking eliminates almost completely the tendency of cotton fabrics to wrinkle more, simultaneously with moisture change. It is shown that this treatment gives optimal results if the moisture regain during the cross-linking corresponds to the lower part of the humidity interval within which it is meant to decrease the wrinkling (normally about 30-65% RH, the interval which corresponds to the humidity conditions in actual wear).

Earlier data of the wrinkling and recovery of cotton fabrics in the wet and "half-dry" state, i.e., conditions corresponding to laundering, spin-drying, and tumble-drying, are reviewed. New results are presented, which show that the low wrinkle recovery after wrinkling in the "half-dry" state, as observed earlier, depends more on changes in moisture rather than the mere existence of an especially critical moisture regain range.

The main conclusion is that for the wrinkling behavior of cotton fabrics at regains lower than complete swelling, the general tendency to wrinkle more during moisture changes than at moisture equilibrium is of fundamental importance.
Color Reversions in Wool After Exposure to Light or Heat
Authors: Launer Herbert F.
Published: March 2007

Unbleached wool appears to resist color changes by heat or light, in that the yellowing or bleaching caused thereby lessens during storage, the color tending to revert to the original. Reflectance measurements and visual comparison show that wool, after being yellowed by heat, by 315-m μ uv (or greened by 254-m μ uv, as shown previously) loses much of its pigment with time. In contrast, pigment eliminated during bleaching by 365 m μ uv, by 436 m μ visible blue-violet, or by total Berkeley sunlight is regained with varying rapidity during storage. These reversions in either direction can be so rapid and extensive that they cause large errors in measurement and can make results misleading. The reversions are simultaneous with, and opposite to, the primary color changes and, when too rapid, cannot be evaluated easily. Rever sion, a little-known phenomenon, may be general—not confined to wool, type of treament, or color. An awareness thereof may lessen errors by proper timing of measurements.
Some Reactions Between Wool and Formaldehyde
Authors: Reddie R.N. , Nicholls C.H.
Published: March 2007

An investigation was undertaken of the variation in the reaction extent of formaldehyde with wool at the various re action sites as a function of variation in the formaldehyde content and/or the conditions of treatment. It was found that primary amino groups, tyrosyl residues, and tryptophyl residues reacted extensively and contributed in different extents to the total formaldehyde uptake by the wool. Tyrosyl and tryptophyl residues reacted more extensively at low and high pH levels than at intermediate levels. Amino groups showed less variation in reaction extent with pH than did the other two types of residue. It was demonstrated that some of the amino groups reacted with formaldehyde to give products which were stable to rinsing in distilled water at room temperature but which were broken down by aqueous pyridine at 100°C.
Graft Copolymerization of Methyl Methacrylate on Wool by Periodate Ions
Authors: Kantouch A. , Hebeish A. , Bendak A.
Published: March 2007

The ability of periodate ions to induce graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate on wool was investigated. The amount of grafting is dependent on the concentration of monomer and initiator, and on the pH of the reaction medium. The periodate consumption during grafting and oxidation are comparable. Acetylation and dinitrophenylation of wool resulted in graft yields and periodate consumptions which are significantly lower than those of unmodified wool, indi cating perhaps that amino as well as hydroxyl groups act as sites for grafting.
Benzoylation of Cotton in Relation to Its Properties
Authors: Chatterjee S.M.
Published: March 2007

Yarn spun from Indian cotton was partially benzoylated to three low DS values, averaging from 0.2 to 0.6, to retain the fibrous structure and other desirable properties of cotton. Benzoylation of the cotton yarn was carried out in both stretched condition to maintain the original length and unstretched condition to permit free contraction.

The changes in physical properties in most cases were affected by the DS and tensional forces on the yarn during modifi cation. The benzoylated cotton yarn retained many of the desirable mechanical properties of the original cotton. It showed increases in linear density, yarn diameter, elongation at break, wet strength, coefficient of friction, and resistance to micro-organisms, but decreases in tensile strength, loss of strength on oven drying and moisture regain, while retaining tensile strength after cyclic loading. Stretched yarn exhibited superiority in strength over unstretched yarn.
Activated Carbon Fiber and Fabric Achieved by Pyrolysis and Activation of Phenolic Precursors
Authors: Arons Gilbert N. , Macnair Richard N.
Published: March 2007

Phenolic textiles (fiber or fabric) were pyrolyzed in a nitrogen atmosphere at 500°C for up to 4 hr. One hour of pyrolysis gave optimum carbonization based on weight loss. The resulting carbon textiles were activated at 900°C in a carbon dioxide atmosphere for up to 31/2 hr. The level of activity attained was determined routinely by carbon tetrachloride vapor sorption. Surface area, pore diameter, and pore volume determinations were conducted on representative samples. Surface areas as high as about 2800 m2/g were attained.
The Effect of Corona Treatment on Wool Whiteness
Authors: Wakelyn P.J. , King J.A.
Published: March 2007

Corona treatment in air and air/chlorine atmospheres, does alter the wool fiber so it appears visually significantly more yellow than the untreated wool. The yellowness of wool after corona treatment, particularly that done in the presence of chlorine, may be reduced to the yellowness associated with non-corona treated, unbleached wool by scouring or solvent treatment. The amount of material extractable from wool is not greatly increased by corona treatment, suggesting that corona treatment is restricted to the surface layer of keratin fibers.
Hydroxymethanesulfonic Acid as a Catalyst for Durable Press Finishing
Authors: Reid J. David , Cashen Norton A. , Kullman Russell M.H. , Reinhardt Robert M.
Published: March 2007

Hydroxymethanesulfonic acid (HMS) is effective as a catalyst for durable-press finishing of cotton and polyester /cotton fabrics by pad-dry-cure, mild cure, and one-step dry-cure treatments. The catalyst is readily formed upon addition of sulfurous acid to pad baths containing free formaldehyde although it can be prepared separately. HMS is a strong acid and can be used in relatively small concentrations. The catalyst appears to be "self-limiting." It dissociates into volatile components during the curing treatment which makes afterwashing unnecessary to prevent changes in strength or wrinkle resistance.

HMS catalysis of treatments with dimethylol methyl carbamate and formaldehyde crosslinking agents produced fabrics with high levels of durable-press properties. Mild-cure finishing at 100°C, and pad-dry-cure and one-step dry-cure finishing at 120-140°C were effective with this catalyst.
The Sites of Reaction of Wool with Formaldehyde
Authors: Caldwell J.B. , Milligan B.
Published: March 2007

A method for the characterization of the products of the reaction between wool and formaldehyde is described. The method involves the use of a mild procedure to hydrolyze the formaldehyde-treated wool using digestion with proteolytic enzymes, and subsequent chromatographic separation of the resultant amino acids. Lysine and glutamine side chains have been identified as two of the sites of reaction.
Lea Count Variation in Yarn
Authors: Ratnam T.V. , Ranganathan K. , Govindarajulu K.
Published: March 2007

The study analyzes the causes for lea count variation on the basis of experiments in the pilot mill, detailed investiga tions at mill level, and theoretical considerations. The extent of influence of various sources of count variation is studied. A relationship between count C.V. and strength C. V. is derived.
Recurable Durable-Press Fabrics
Authors: Franklin W.E. , Madacsi J.P. , Rowland S.P.
Published: March 2007

Polycarbcxylic acids having three or more carboxyl groups per molecule were used as coreactant curing catalysts with a series of N-methylol crosslinking agents. Strongly acidic, water-soluble acids were found to be effective catalysts for the curing reactions, while less soluble or weaker acids were poor catalysts, as were partially neutralized polycarhoxylic acids. The X-methylol crosslinking agents which responded most favorably to catalysis by the carboxylic acids were those which formed ethers that were most stable to acid-catalyzed hydrolysis. The N-methylol crosslinking reagents which formed ethers less stable to acidic hydrolysis gave poor wrinkle recovery angles when applied to cotton fabrics with carboxylic acid catalysts.
The Effect of Rate and Temperature of Drawing on the Properties of Nylon 6,6 Fibers
Authors: Bell James P.
Published: March 2007

Higher rates and lower temperatures of cold-drawing nylon 6,6 result in both increased fiber strength and an increased amount of the non-recrystallizable Form II endotherm, as measured by differential scanning calorimetry. This may be explained in terms of mobility of the molecular chains in the neck region; long times and high temperature in the neck favor formation of the recrystallizable Form I material, whereas short times and low temperatures, which result in lower mo lecular mobility, favor the non-recrystallizable and stronger Form II. Because of the temperature effect on the drawing a draw pin temperature rise due to friction and work of drawing can have a variable, detrimental effect on yarn strength at a given draw ratio.