bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
L
atin
A
merica
Authors: Eastwood Jonathan
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a brief overview of national identity in Latin America. It begins with a general discussion of the historical sequencing of national identity's spread in the region, noting the entry of the modern idea in this part of the world in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, its relationship to the independence struggles of the Spanish American states, and its gradual, incomplete, and contested diffusion throughout these societies in subsequent years. The entry also covers general features of the relationship between national identity, race, and ethnicity in the region.
Mill,JohnStuart (1806–73)
Authors: Levy David M. , Peart Sandra J.
Published: December 2015

Mill's doctrine that we cannot logically impute differences in the type of human from observed outcomes has so triumphed that modern readers find it difficult to take seriously the nineteenth century argument that the Irish were a race apart. Mill's doctrine that we have moral rights as humans, not as the member of groups, remains the most controversial aspect of his egalitarianism.
R
astafari Movement
Authors: Price Charles
Published: December 2015

The Rastafari (or Rastafarian) movement is a religious and black nationalist community that originated in Jamaica, West Indies, during the early 1930s. The Rastafari movement significantly influenced identity, music, politics, and language in Jamaica, and worldwide. Rastafari cultural practices and symbols—Afro‐centricity, dreadlocks, language, music, art, and deification of Emperor Selassie I—have spread throughout the world. Essential to explaining the Rastafari movement's development and impact are antecedent racial and religious complexes, watershed events, and government suppression. Antecedent influences include Ethiopianism; the Myal, Native Baptist, and Revival religions; and, the Alexander Bedward and Marcus Garvey movements. Watershed events include the visit of Emperor Selassie I to Jamaica, while government suppression is exemplified by crackdowns during the 1930s and 1960s.
Cooperatives
Authors: Ratner Carl
Published: December 2015

This entry discusses cooperatives; the latter follow foundational principles articulated by the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA). It addresses the growing popularity and presence of cooperative enterprises around the globe, the institutional changes that present an opportunity for structuring supportive social and economic relations among co‐op participants, and argues that the current definition of a cooperative confuses a cooperative with a voluntary association as it provides no specific guidelines for implementing cooperation, per se. This leaves cooperatives vulnerable to inadequate forms of cooperation. The cooperative movement must improve its self‐definition in order to implement fulfilling cooperation.
Z
apatistas
Authors: Rodríguez Miles
Published: December 2015

The Zapatistas were one of the major revolutionary forces during the Mexican Revolution in 1910–20. They were the most persistent and famous proponents of agrarian reform, among the most significant social causes within the Mexican Revolution. Based in the southern‐central Mexican state of Morelos, the Zapatistas fought for village or
pueblo
land through their Plan de Ayala and Liberating Army of the South led by Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919). The Zapatistas transformed property relations and rural real estate in Morelos, and the
haciendas
in the state disappeared during their revolution. Mexico's 1917 Constitution and the government's
ejido
land reform partly recognized their struggle. Opposition movements through twentieth‐century Mexico associated their causes with the Zapatistas, often for peasant or
campesino
demands. In 1994, rebel troops in Mexico's southernmost state of Chiapas led their Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) into rebellion and adopted the namesake of the Morelos Zapatistas in their honor.
Pogroms
Authors: Michlic Joanna
Published: December 2015

The entry covers the origins of the use of the term “pogrom” and describes the nature and etiology of major pogroms against Jews at the end of the nineteenth century in the Russian empire, and the continuity of anti‐Jewish violence in the twentieth century in Eastern Europe before, during, and after the Holocaust. It also discusses the historical and theoretical writings on pogroms and provides a summary of the latest scholarly interpretations of pogroms.
Tokenism
Authors: Hirshfield Laura E.
Published: December 2015

Tokenism is the symbolic inclusion of numerical minorities within a group, usually for the sake of appearances rather than for inclusiveness or true diversity. Tokens (due to their race, gender, or other social group membership) experience myriad issues related to their token status, particularly heightened visibility, exaggeration of their differences, and role encapsulation. In addition, tokens are often expected to do extra work due to their identity or face extra pressure to perform well. All of these difficulties may result in stress, depression, and challenges and work.
Status Construction Theory
Authors: Ridgeway Cecilia L.
Published: December 2015

Status construction theory describes how structural conditions in society frame and constrain social encounters among people from socially different groups (e.g., racial, ethnic, or gender groups), so that these encounters foster the development of shared status beliefs about the social difference.
Status beliefs
are cultural beliefs that people in one category of a social difference (e.g., whites) are more socially esteemed and considered generally more competent than people in a contrasting category of the difference (people of color). The key structural condition that causes encounters to induce status beliefs is the unequal distribution between the groups of a factor like material resources or technology that allows actors from one group to become more influential in cross‐difference encounters than actors from the other group. When status beliefs about a social difference become widely shared in a population, they have widespread consequences for inequality among socially different individuals and groups.
Aging
Authors: Markson Elizabeth W.
Published: December 2015

Aging, a biological continuum beginning at birth and ending at death, is an ascribed status like ethnicity, race, and nationality. The population of the world is aging. Aged is usually defined as age sixty plus or sixty‐five plus. Although currently industrialized nations have the highest percentage of older people due to low birth and death rates, the proportion of elders in developing nations will increase dramatically by 2050. It is unlikely that a society where people were automatically respected ever existed; rather their ability to control resources gave them status and power. Like people of all ages, elders today are prey to xenophobia—individual and institutional discrimination based on minority status—ethnicity, race or nationality—influencing quality of life, opportunities, and survival. The cumulative disadvantage of poverty plus minority membership takes its toll in later life worldwide.
Arendt, Hannah (1906–75)
Authors: King Richard H.
Published: December 2015

Hannah Arendt developed her ideas about race and racism in
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(1951) in response to the collapse of European society and culture in the interwar years, preceded by the history of European expansion. The late nineteenth century was the period when modern racism first became a crucial factor in European life. All these elements crystallized into racial totalitarianism, particularly in Nazi Germany. In her adopted country, the United States, she entered the debate about school desegregation in the South and also was worried by the explicit return of race to politics furthered by black militancy. Overall, she objected to the creation of public institutions based on exclusionary principles altogether.
Passing
Authors: Rousseau Nicole
Published: December 2015

Passing is a process by which one's racial, sexual, religious, cultural, ethnic, and/or national identity crosses over from one culture or community into another, undetected. Though over generations the term has come to be applicable to many diverse communities, such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations (LGBT), as well as people of Muslim faith and/or Middle Eastern descent and other ethnic groups, the historical connotation of the term evokes the experiences of black Americans. “Passing,” “crossing over,” or “going over to the other side” typically refers to black individuals whose appearance makes it possible for them to
pass
as white. This can occur on three levels: basic, complex, and fundamental. Though
passing
is most historically linked to race and racism, the concept is also currently used to refer to a strategy used by diverse groups to contend with, and avoid, the hostilities associated with homophobia, xenophobia, and other forms of intolerance.
Islam
Authors: Fouad Allam Khaled
Published: December 2015

Islam is a complex social phenomenon whose main feature is the relationships between society, religion, and law. It is also a religion whose followers have lived in diverse societies, both those in which Muslims are a major presence and those in which they are a minority. As a result, it connects different social groups due to membership of a shared religion, but it also impacts non‐Muslim societies. Since its origin, Islam has been concerned with how to govern and negotiate ethnic, cultural, and religious difference. During its evolution, the modernization process, linked to nations and nationalism, reorganized Islamic societies but at the same time has provoked interethnic and interreligious conflicts, for example between Arabs and Berbers, Muslim Arabs and Christian Arabs, and Arabs and Turkic‐Asian peoples. However, it has been in the relationship between Islam and the west that these processes have also exacerbated conflict, so the term “Islamophobia” was born, meaning both a rejection of Islam and a claim that it is incompatible with modern democracy.
Health and Race
Authors: Rohlfsen Leah S.
Published: December 2015

Racial disparities in various health outcomes are profound and consistent. Minorities in general have higher incidence of chronic diseases, higher mortality, worse functional health, and shorter life expectancy, though the disadvantage is not consistent for all health outcomes or across all racial and ethnic minority subgroups. Elevated rates of disease and death for minorities reflect earlier onset and greater severity of disease and illness. Although part of these disparities can be explained by differences in socioeconomic status and neighborhood disadvantage, racial differences in health remain. Other important factors that contribute to racial disparities in health include access to health care, racism, migration status, gender, and age.
Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Özkirimli Umut
Published: December 2015

Derived from the Greekkosmosandpolitēs, the term cosmopolitanism literally means “citizen of the world.” As an ethical outlook, cosmopolitanism asserts that all human beings have equal moral worth. The origins of cosmopolitanism are commonly traced back to Stoicism, and later to Kant and the Enlightenment. Reflecting this heritage, contemporary moral cosmopolitans argue that the individual should be the ultimate unit of moral concern, irrespective of differences of race, ethnicity, and nationality. Political cosmopolitans suggest that this ideal can be best realized in a polity constructed on a global scale or international institutions that transcend the nation‐state. Cosmopolitanism has been criticized for being elitist, detached, and utopian. It is in reaction to these criticisms that attempts to reconfigure cosmopolitanism have come to the fore, focusing on the experiential dimensions of cosmopolitanism, or everyday cosmopolitanisms that are rooted, embodied, and in some cases emancipatory.
S
weden
Authors: Bursell Moa
Published: December 2015

Ethnic relations and nationalist sentiments in Sweden have primarily evolved around two distinct phenomena: relations between native ethnic groups and relations between the dominant ethnic group and immigrant groups. Sweden is a multicultural society where ethnic Swedes constitute the ethnic majority. There are five national minority groups: Swedish Finns, Tornedal, Sami, Roma, and Jews. State relations toward its national minorities have been internal‐colonial in character, but relations have improved in recent years. Sweden is also a country of migration, 15 percent of the population has been born abroad. The largest groups originate from Finland, Iraq, Poland, former Yugoslavia, and Iran. About 3 percent of the population has two foreign born parents. Sweden is known for its generous refugee policies and integration policies, policies that on the surface seem to reflect popular attitudes. However, simultaneously, social and economic stratification in Sweden has in the past couple of decades become increasingly ethnic in character.
Stratification in the Labor Market
Authors: Arce Eric , Segura Denise A.
Published: December 2015

In advanced capitalist nations like the United States, the labor market is organized hierarchically stratified by race‐ethnicity, gender, and class. Historically, societal beliefs concerning marginalized groups including racial/ethnic groups, immigrants, women, and poor people, have fueled inequalities in the labor market. Dual labor market segmentation theories argue that workers from marginalized and oppressed groups disproportionately occupy low‐paying, unstable occupations with few opportunities for mobility or access to benefits. Conversely, white workers are overrepresented in high‐status positions characterized by promotion ladders, stability, and high wages. These disparate occupational terrains possess distinct and unequal workplace conditions, wages, discrimination, and ultimately socioeconomic outcomes.
Ainu
Authors: Lie John
Published: December 2015

Ainu is a collective term for indigenous people who inhabited the northern portion of the Japanese archipelago. Since the fifteenth century, their territory has contracted precisely as their differentiation from the ethnic Japanese population to the south has accentuated. From the late‐nineteenth‐century incorporation in the nascent Japanese empire, Ainu have suffered from forceful assimilation and entrenched discrimination. In spite of ethnic revival since the late 1960s, the Ainu population remains disadvantaged and discriminated against.
Japan, Multiethnicity in
Authors: Lie John
Published: December 2015

The ideology of monoethnic Japan dominated the post‐World WarIIdiscourses on Japan. While prewar Japan was clearly multiethnic—the Japanese empire reached well beyond the traditional ambit of the Japanese nation and there was a considerable influx of colonial migrants into the main Japanese islands—the postwar period provided a misleading portrait of Japan as an ethnically homogeneous society, owing in no small part to the silence of actually exiting minority groups. The idea of multiethnic Japan counters the long regnant monoethnic ideology, stressing that Japan has been and remains an ethnically heterogeneous society.
Korea
Authors: Lie John
Published: December 2015

Both North and South Korea were nationalist and embraced the ideology of monoethnicity for much of the second half of the twentieth century. However, not only have Korean polities been multiethnic but a significant portion of ethnic Koreans have been diasporic Koreans. Between two states and a global diaspora, the idea of Korea and Koreans remains very much in flux and contested.
Racism, Scientific
Authors: Blatt Jessica
Published: December 2015

Scientific work predicated on the assumption that racial categories reflect natural human groupings, and/or that racial differences are consequential, stable, and deep‐seated, is termed “scientific racism.” Scientific racism may locate racial difference in biology or in durable psychological or cultural patterns.
Liberia
Authors: Lama Wonkeryor Edward
Published: December 2015

Liberia's population of 4.1 million people includes Americo‐Liberians and sixteen ethnic groups, the Bassa, Belle, Dei, Gbandi, Gio, Gola, Grebo, Kissi, Kpelle, Krahn, Kru, Lorma, Mandingo, Mano, Mende, and Vai. The country's nationality law only gives citizenship to people of black African ancestry. Although enriched by ethnic diversity, its ethnic divide is characterized by the history of the conflicts between the light‐skinned and dark‐skinned settlers and between the settlers and the indigenous ethnic groups. Because citizenship was not conferred on indigenous Liberians until 1904, and a military coup and two civil wars have since occurred, Liberia is strengthening its democratic governance and nationalism in the postwar era.
Albania
Authors: Clayer Nathalie
Published: December 2015

The building of a national Albanian identity began in southern Italy and Sicily. Albanian nationalism then developed in the Ottoman empire and among the diaspora groups because of diverse factors including territorial issues and new sociopolitical relations. In 1913, the independence of an Albanian state was recognized by the great powers, but the new state included only a part of the Albanian‐speaking population, the other part becoming citizens of Yugoslavia or Greece. This was the origin of an irredentism, largely favored by Italy. After World War II, the Albanian national consciousness was fostered both in Albania and in Yugoslavia, through the schooling and political systems. With the end of the socialist regimes, Albanian nationalism, fluctuating between its regional and pan‐Albanian versions, was at the heart of the creation of an independent Kosovo, political decentralization in Macedonia, and the legitimacy of power in Albania.
Global Careers in the Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Reichel Astrid
Published: December 2015

This entry combines the concepts of “career” and “global” into a definition of global careers. Expatriation and alternative forms of working internationally, such as international commuting, self‐initiated moves, immigration, and global management, are presented as roles or positions that can be part of global careers.
Nation
Authors: Dieckhoff Alain
Published: December 2015

Nation is a concept with several meanings. It can refer both to a cultural/historical community and a political community. Thus, two sets of theories of the nation have developed. The ethnicist approach stresses the ethnic basis of the nation and the element of continuity. In contrast, the modernist approach stresses the situational dimension of the nation and the element of change.
E
llington,
D
uke (1899–1974)
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

Duke Ellington was America's most celebrated composer, pianist, and orchestra leader. For almost fifty years he composed and arranged music that captured the mood and tempo of the ever‐changing American social, cultural, political, and economic landscape. Ellington placed a particular emphasis on the wit, joys, hopes, and sorrows of African Americans. He captured the spirit and consciousness of a people and illustrated how this shaped the social and musical psyche of the American nation and other nations across the globe. His energy and creativity are seen in the breadth and scope of his music, including short melodies, long orchestral works, suites, symphonic poems, sacred concerts, musical revues, and his incomplete opera,
Queenie Pie
. Ellington's level of productivity enabled him to become one of the few contemporary musicians whose name and music transcended the local and national and became global and international.
Trade Unionism and Racism
Authors: Wrench John
Published: December 2015

Trade unions in industrialized countries have exhibited ambivalent attitudes toward migrant workers, have adopted both racist and antiracist stances, and have shown a variety of responses with regard to the key dilemmas they have faced. One is the “equal versus special treatment” dilemma—should unions implement special policies and services for migrants and minorities, and allow a degree of self‐organization for migrant bodies within unions? Or would such policies bring a danger of resentment by the indigenous membership and fuel separatism and divisions in the working class? Over time the classic Marxist justification for “no special treatment” has become less dominant in Europe, and trade unions have become more open to a variety of special policies of antiracism and antidiscrimination.
Urban Renewal and Redevelopment
Authors: Deitrick Sabina E.
Published: December 2015

Over sixty years have passed since the Housing Act of 1949 began a quarter‐century of federal urban renewal programs in cities across the United States. Many neighborhoods were transformed by urban redevelopment projects in those years as the urban fabric was dramatically transformed, and many residents lost both their homes and their communities through urban renewal projects, often in devastating fashion.
Residential Segregation
Authors: Timberlake Jeffrey M.
Published: December 2015

Residential segregation refers to the separation of two or more socially defined groups in residential space. Analyses of residential segregation generally track temporal trends and geographic patterns in segregation, and attempt to understand the causes and consequences of segregation. In the United States, African Americans are highly segregated from whites in most metropolitan areas, though levels of black–white segregation have been declining slowly over the past four decades. In contrast, although levels of Latino–white and Asian–white segregation are generally lower, there have been few noticeable declines in segregation for these groups over time. Scholarship has linked segregation to the concentration of poor families in neighborhoods, which is thought to be associated with a variety of deleterious consequences for children and families residing in those neighborhoods.
W
est
I
ndians
Authors: Vickerman Milton
Published: December 2015

Although the exact meaning of “West Indies” is subject to debate, the term is commonly used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean archipelago and the territories in Central and South America that exhibit cultural, economic, historical, and political ties to these islands. Migration to the United States restricts West Indians more narrowly to individuals with anglophone Caribbean and Haitian origins since they dominate this movement. In contrast, Spanish‐speaking islanders are often lumped into the larger Hispanic population. West Indians identify by nationality but readily agree with American society's blurring of these national identities under the pan‐ethnic label “West Indian.” This, the country's racial history, the immigrants' complex view of race, and transnational migration complicate West Indians' incorporation into American society. The question is whether they will incorporate as ethnics or as African Americans. The trajectory of the second generation implies that they will do the latter.
Boundaries
Authors: Wimmer Andreas
Published: December 2015

The study of ethnic and racial boundaries is intimately connected to the constructivist view on race and ethnicity. Rather than individual ethnic or racial “groups” themselves, their history, culture, and social organization; the boundaries between such groups; and the mechanisms of their production and transformation move to the foreground. This implies a shift away from concerns with the given culture, identity, and social cohesion of ethnic groups, toward strategies of boundarycreationand transformation as they relate to the strategies of other individuals and groups.
Elias,Norbert (1897–1990) and Established–Outsider Relations
Authors: Loyal Steven
Published: December 2015

Norbert Elias's theory of insider–outsider relations, or what he preferred to call “established–outsider relations,” was outlined inThe Established and Outsiders(2008 [1965]), written with John Scotson. The book was based on a study undertaken between 1958 and 1961 of a community on the outskirts of Leicester that was then ethnically homogeneous, white, and working class. But it has proven to be highly relevant and illuminating when applied to the effects of the mass migrations that have taken place in the world since then.
Colonialism and Neocolonialism
Authors: Go Julian
Published: December 2015

“Colonialism” refers to the direct political control of a society and its people by a foreign ruling state. Essentially it is a political phenomenon. The ruling state monopolizes political power and keeps the subordinated society and its people in a legally inferior position. But colonialism has had significant cultural, social, and economic correlates and ramifications. “Neocolonialism” is the continued exercise of political or economic influence over a society in the absence of formal political control.
Developmental State
Authors: Williams Brad
Published: December 2015

A developmental state is one that strongly influences the direction and pace of economic development by directly intervening in the development process rather than simply relying on market forces to allocate economic resources. American scholar Chalmers Johnson is widely credited with coining the term in his seminal work
MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975
(1982), although the notion of state intervention in the market to ensure growth was not necessarily new. Johnson's book subsequently triggered a boom in studies of the state's role in the economy.
Civil Rights Movement
Authors: Morris Aldon
Published: December 2015

Fifty years ago African Americans were severely oppressed. Not only were they unable to enjoy many of the basic citizenship rights guaranteed by the US Constitution but also, under Jim Crow, blacks were denied the franchise, barred from interacting with whites in public spaces, and trapped at the bottom of the economic ladder, where they were relegated to the poorest paying and least desirable jobs. The modern civil rights movement, a major social force in the mid‐1950s, was the vehicle through which African Americans and their supporters overthrew Jim Crow. Partly as a response to this groundbreaking movement, scholars have constructed a new concept of social movements where organization, strategic thinking, cultural traditions, and political encounters figure largely as explanatory factors in analyses of social movements.
Democracy and Organization
Authors: Courpasson David
Published: December 2015

This entry explores the different definitions of democracy and the complex problems of democratic rule. These issues are then related to the dynamics of corporate governance and the extent to which democratic arrangements can offset hierarchy, oligarchy, and bureaucracy in modern organizations.
Anderson, Benedict (1936–)
Authors: Hearn Jonathan
Published: December 2015

Benedict Anderson is a leading specialist in Southeast Asian history and politics whose bookImagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism(1983) has been one of the most influential in the nationalism studies literature. Anderson argues that the nation was a peculiarly modern conception of political community that originally took shape in the colonial Americas, and was made possible by the spread of literacy and printing in vernacular languages, and the decline of religious and dynastic authority.
J
apanese‐Style Management
Authors: Mouer Ross
Published: December 2015

This entry traces the rise and fall of interest in a model known as “Japanese‐style management.” To benefit from sharing experiences in a wide range of areas, members of the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development began a series of country reviews in the 1970s. Attention regarding industrial relations came to focus on Japan. Its economic success during the 1960s and 1970s—in its high growth rates with low unemployment rates, reduced levels of industrial disputation, and seeming immunity to the oil shocks of the 1970s—led observers to consider Japan's approach to work organization as a model that might be emulated in other countries. However, with a better understanding of that model and Japan's economic stagnation in the 1990s, the model lost its attractiveness as Japanese society evolved in response to higher levels of affluence at home and to the forces of globalization abroad.
Social Change
Authors: Sekulić Duško
Published: December 2015

Through the whole history of western thought the analogy of historical development with the life cycle has played a great role. From the nineteenth century until modern times the dominant model underlying the explanation of social change was evolutionary theory. One group of theories derived its inspiration from an analogy with biological evolution whereas the other group regarded history as endowed with some internal mechanism leading to change. The representative of the first approach was Herbert Spencer. The second group of theories was usually unilinear and proclaimed that history would progress until the “final stage” (the positive stage for Comte or communism for Marx) is reached. In modern perspectives the grand schemes aiming at finding the explanatory principles of history have been abandoned. A more relativistic perspective tends to be embraced where change is explained by the complex interplay of ecological, social, and economic factors as developed by Lenski, Diamond, and Tainter.
Somalia
Authors: Kusow Abdi M.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a brief and critical analysis of the historical and social organization of Somali society. The entry specifically explores how the development of Somali nationalism and national identity ignored the existence of social diversity and inequality by imposing a hyper‐homogenized greater Somalia identity, and how this imposition led to the slow disintegration of Somalia.
T
aiwan
Authors: Wang Fu‐Chang
Published: December 2015

This entry describes the changing meaning of “ethnic groups” in Chinese terms after 1987 and how the idea of the “four major ethnic groups” was conceived around 1990 in Taiwan. The four ethnic groups of Taiwanese now commonly accepted are the aborigines, the Holo, the Hakka, and mainlanders. Besides the groups' historical origins and cultural characteristics, the new ethnic concept also emphasized their unequal social relations. In fact, ethnic group boundaries based on shared disadvantaged social positions rather than shared cultural traits were proposed. A unique feature of Taiwan's ethnicity is that in the early 1990s all ethnic groups claimed to have ethnic minority statuses in some aspects and demanded equal treatment based on their citizenship. Also important have been the close connections between ethnicity and Chinese and Taiwanese nationalistic politics. From the mid‐1990s, international marriages increased rapidly. Many now consider the more than half a million foreign spouses to be Taiwan's fifth ethnic group.
Jewish Ethiopian Israelis
Authors: Seeman Don
Published: December 2015

Ethiopian Jews are the descendants of an ethnic and religious community known as Beta Israel or Falasha. Historically concentrated in the highlands of northern Ethiopia (Gondar and Tigre) they were in some cases denied the right to hold land unless they converted to Christianity. In modern times, intense Christian missionary efforts paradoxically helped to bring Ethiopian Jews into closer contact with foreign Jewish communities. In the past half‐century nearly the whole Ethiopian Jewish community has migrated to Israel, where they have faced significant challenges and opportunities. Questions about their status under Jewish law have led to political conflicts of various kinds. In addition, the most recent groups of immigrants includes many whose ancestors converted to Christianity but have sought to return to Judaism in the context of migrating to Israel. The community has integrated into Israeli life but has also simultaneously taken its place as part of the global Ethiopian cultural diaspora.
Bosnia
Authors: Sekulić Duško
Published: December 2015

Bosnia and Herzegovina became an independent state as the result of the disintegration of the socialist Yugoslavia. It is ethnically heterogeneous state and no ethnic group has an absolute majority. The most numerous are Bošnjaks, a national group that emerged as the result of the Islamization of the local Slavic population during Ottoman rule. After the disintegration of the Ottoman empire, Bosnia was annexed by Austria in 1908. From the beginning of the nineteenth century the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina became contested ground between competing Croatian and Serbian nationalisms. Religious affiliation primarily influenced the local population's acceptance of Serbian, Croatian, or Muslim/Bošnjak labels. Bosnia and Herzegovina kept its cultural uniqueness despite its political status under the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, and the Yuvoslav state. With the disintegration of the Yugoslav state, a war between the three main groups ensued, with shifting alliances. The war ended as the result of international pressure, resulting in the Dayton Agreement.
Armstrong, Louis (1901–71)
Authors: Harold Wilson Frank
Published: December 2015

Louis Armstrong established jazz as an improvisational music form that emphasized individual expression over technique. His individual expression included unusual energy, intensity, and zest for living. Armstrong's playing style made the trumpet a vehicle for primary musical creativity and, while he was in his prime, the trumpet moved to the forefront of developments in jazz. The growth and mainstream acceptance of jazz music parallelled Armstrong's musical career. His later career was largely influenced by the commercialization and popularization of his music and image, and his celebrity came to overshadow his music. His balancing act between jazz music and popular entertainment offended some jazz purists during the post‐World War II years. The novelist Ralph Ellison described Armstrong's jazz as a process of making lyrical poetry out of being invisible. According to Ellison, Armstrong was man and mask, with sophistication and taste hiding behind clowning and crude manners.
Taoism (Tao)
Authors: Cheuk Yin Lee , Chee Kiong Tong
Published: December 2015

Taoism comprises a philosophical tradition associated with Master Laozi'sDaode Jing(Classic of the Way and Virtue), Master Zhuangzi's work, and other texts; a religious tradition with an organized doctrine, formalized cult activities, and institutional leadership; and a popular religious tradition with a syncretic mix of Taoist beliefs, folk customs and rituals (including ancestor worship), and elements of Confucianism and Buddhism.
Frazier,E.Franklin (1894–1962)
Authors: Jo Deegan Mary
Published: December 2015

Edward Franklin Frazier was a groundbreaking scholar on the African American family, social classes, youth, and community. He taught at Fisk University and Howard University and trained many sociologists. He personally challenged Jim Crow laws, but his work was used to show political conservatism toward black women in the Moynihan Report.
Terrorism
Authors: Kellner Douglas
Published: December 2015

Over the past two centuries, terrorism has been a contested and volatile category. Those accused of terrorism are vilified as enemies of the state, but many labeled “terrorists” insist that they are “freedom fighters,” strugglers for national liberation, or
mujaheddin
(holy warrior) or
fedayeen
(prepared for martyrdom), ready to die for righteous causes. Many decry terrorists' indiscriminate violence against civilians and the state, while some critique state use of violence and terror. Sociologically, terrorist groups recruit disaffected individuals, who are often motivated by strong ideologies such as nationalism or religion. In the twenty‐first century, governments throughout the world have attempted to more precisely define and criminalize terrorism, while terrorist activities multiply. As weapons of destruction become more deadly and widespread, social divisions between haves and have‐nots multiply, and conflict rages throughout the world, terrorism will likely continue to be a major issue and problem of the present era.
P
ark,
R
obert
E
. (1864–1944) and
E
rnest
W
.
B
urgess (1886–1966)
Authors: Kivisto Peter
Published: December 2015

This entry reviews the contributions of two central figures associated with the Chicago School of sociology, Robert E. Park and Ernest Watson Burgess.
Bell Curve, The
(Herrnstein and Murray)
Authors: Nielsen François
Published: December 2015

The Bell Curve
, published in 1994 by Harvard psychologist Richard Herrnstein and public policy analyst Charles Murray, is about the role of intelligence in US society. Its discussion of racial differences in intelligence, especially, generated much controversy. This entry summarizes the book's content and discusses its impact.
Balkans
Authors: Sekulić Duško
Published: December 2015

Geographically, the Balkans comprises the southeastern part of the European landmass. The term has always had a broad geopolitical meaning. Initially it included territories under the control of the Ottoman empire. The evolution of the negative connotation of the Balkan in modern political discourse can be connected with the period of decline of the Ottoman empire and the resulting social and political instability. The nineteenth century was a time of nationalist revolutions undermining the Austro‐Hungarian and Ottoman empires. It was also a period in which nations were created from the ethnic mixtures and religions cohabitating in the territories of the empires. The delayed national awakening and the strong influence of nationalist ideologies projecting the present identities into the past and interpreting medieval states as precursors of modern nation‐states are permanent sources of conflict over “historically” justified borders and the “correct” partitioning of people into national groups.
Conflict Management in Organizations
Authors: Busch Dominic
Published: December 2015

Conflict management in organizations is a field of research that looks for instruments and strategies to cope with conflict in organizational settings. These attempts are based on the assumptions that conflict in organizations is omnipresent, that it may shorten an organization's success, and that, instead, success can even be extended if conflict is used to find solutions with synergies. What is seen as competent conflict management in interethnic and intercultural settings depends on the underlying cultural theory. Cultural anthropology, interethnic and intercultural communication, mediation, and management research all contribute their stakes and approaches. Essentialist and constructivist concepts of culture as well as culture seen as knowledge versus as values may influence normative advice on competent conflict management. Western forms such as mediation and concepts from alternative dispute resolution need to be carefully checked for aspects of ethnocentrism and for the management of postcolonial power relations.
S
hintoism
Authors: Nakano Tsuyoshi
Published: December 2015

Shinto, which literally means “the way of the gods,” is generally considered to be an indigenous Japanese religion that developed before Buddhism was introduced in the sixth century. But Shintoism as a religious–cultural system was formed when
Nihon shoki
(
Chronicles of Japan
) was compiled in the eighth century in order to consciously designate traditional forms of worship of the emperor, which were inherited from the ancestors, to those related to
kami
(“god” or “gods”) and not to Buddhism. This feature of Shintoism reemerged as the State Shinto closely related to the worship of the emperor in modern Japan after the Meiji Era of the nineteenth century. As a result of the Japanese defeat in World War II and the occupation by the Allied Powers thereafter, Shintoism has been liberated from the state and continues to exist in various forms such as Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto.
Banal Nationalism
Authors: Benwell Matthew C.
Published: December 2015

Banal nationalism focuses on the mundane, daily reminders of national identity and belonging. Material objects, representations, language, and everyday practices all serve to reproduce national identities in ways that often go unnoticed by citizens and, in the past, academic scholars. Those with an interest in nationalism had previously been drawn to “hotter” expressions of nationhood associated with separatist movements outside Europe and the United States, yet the idea of banal nationalism shows how national identity can be constructed and lived daily in all nations. Recent research has become concerned with everyday performances of nationhood, alongside the predominant interest in visual and discursive representations of nationalism and the varied reception of national narratives by citizens within the nation.
Postmodern Social Theory
Authors: Michael Ryan J.
Published: December 2015

Postmodern social theory is a field that is both difficult to define and rejects being defined. It is, in fact, a field that struggles against definitions, against norms, against protocols. Instead, it seeks to deconstruct, decenter, and delegitimize scientific claims to universal truths. With these characteristics in mind, it is easy to understand why defining such a field would be a difficult, if not counterproductive, task. Various authors have sought to overcome this difficulty by relying on common characteristics of various postmodern theories, others have defined the field by those who work in it, and still others—particularly those who work in the field itself—have avoided any attempts to define it at all. Regardless of which of these approaches one takes, however, there is no denying that something called postmodern social theory was at one time a flourishing presence in sociology (and elsewhere).
S
umner,
W
illiam
G
. (1840–1910)
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: December 2015

William Graham Sumner was a versatile scholar whose contributions to the understanding of race, ethnicity, and nationalism included the concept of ethnocentrism and descriptions of ingroup–outgroup relations among various groups. Sumner was a dynamic teacher and offered the first course designated “sociology” in the English‐speaking world. His work set the stage for future students of cross‐cultural issues.
Occupational Segregation
Authors: Huffman Matt L.
Published: December 2015

Occupational segregation refers to the separation of people into different occupations in a labor market. Using sex as an example, the stronger the tendency for people to work in occupations with others of their sex, the more segregation there is. Segregation is important because it facilitates the unequal distribution of many work‐related rewards, and, as such, sustains the wage gap and other group disparities. Many measures of segregation have been developed, with strong debates over their relative strengths and weaknesses. To account for segregation, researchers often differentiate between supply‐side explanations, which focus on workers' characteristics and preferences, and demand‐side explanations, which focus on employer behavior, discrimination, and the practices and policies of workplaces.
Cameroon
Authors: Socpa Antoine
Published: December 2015

As elsewhere in sub‐Saharan Africa, debates on ethnicity and nationalism are crucial both in the intellectual and political arenas. Cameroon is in this respect a striking case because the fight for political independence from 1945 to 1960 gave rise to severe ethnic and political clashes between those opposing and those in favor of independence. These conflicts were even provoked by the French and British former colonial administrators. Moreover, the reemergence of political ethnicity occurred after 1990 with the reestablishment of multiparty politics. This entry explores the historical and current developments in Cameroon as far as ethnicity and nationalism are concerned. First, a synopsis of ethnic relations, including the more than to 250 ethnic groupings, is outlined and second, the diverse role of nationalism is analyzed during precolonial, colonial, early postcolonial periods and in the present day.
Poland
Authors: Zubrzycki Geneviève
Published: December 2015

Polish national identity has been shaped by long periods of statelessness and colonial subordination. The disappearance of the Polish state in 1795 stifled an emerging civic definition of the nation and reoriented it along messianic notions of suffering and redemption to be gained through national independence. By the end of the nineteenth century, however, the nation had been reconfigured as a community of language, culture, and faith. After Poland regained independence in 1918, Polishness and Catholicism were merged into the hyphenated category of Polak‐Katolik. That vision was fervently challenged by the secular left. As a result of World War II, the Holocaust, border shifts, ethnic cleansing, and state‐sponsored purges, Poland's population is now approximately 95 percent ethnically Polish and Catholic. That demographic situation, coupled with the church's resistance to communism, further tightened the association between Polishness and Catholicism, an association that has been rigorously challenged since the fall of communism.
Mills,C.W. (1916–62) on Ethnicity andPuertoRicans
Authors: Javier Treviño A.
Published: December 2015

C. Wright Mills was interested in the character structure of Latino populations during the 1940s.The Puerto Rican Journey, which he coauthored, is a study of the ethnic relations and racial composition of Puerto Rican migrants to New York City. It became the standard‐bearer for similar studies. Mills and his coauthors categorized the racial makeup of Puerto Rican migrants as white, intermediate, or Negro. They identified the highest predisposition for the migrants' adaptation to the metropolis as “inconspicuous functioning with psychic contentment.” The most important factors in adaptation were language proficiency, money troubles, and contact with official agencies. There was beginning to emerge a pan‐ethnic identity among the migrants as they increasingly identified with other Latinos.
Color Line
Authors: Elias Sean
Published: December 2015

A primary feature of the modern social world is the color line, the socially constructed and material separation of people based on skin color that has developed broadly within nation‐states and among nations since at least the late sixteenth century. In 1881, Frederick Douglass first introduced the idea of a national color line in the United States. Several decades later, W. E. B. Du Bois identified an international or global color line that cut across the United States and other nations, noting the large and looming problems associated with this human‐made divide, which was the product of European slavery and colonialism. The concept of the color line is still widely used among contemporary scholars of race, ethnicity, and nationalism, who demonstrate how the color line continues to operate in and shape the contemporary social world.
S
ami
Authors: Julie Semb Anne
Published: December 2015

The Sami population in Norway consists of approximately forty to forty‐five thousand persons. For several decades, the Sami were subject to a systematic policy of assimilation that was known as Norwegianization. This policy led to a decline in the use and command of Sami languages, which traditionally have been the most important markers of Sami ethnicity. The Alta affair in Norwegian politics triggered large‐scale changes in the relations between the Sami and the Norwegian state. Several separate Sami institutions have been established. They have contributed to creating a new Sami public space and correspondingly greater visibility for the Sami.