bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Breast Cancer
Authors: Odling-Smee William
Published: November 2023

Cancer of the breast is the most common cancer in women with the UK having a high incidence. It is highest in the USA and Western Europe and lowest among the Japanese. It also causes great anxiety amongst women, and breast clinics are flooded with symptomatic women who need reassurance that they do not have breast cancer. Despite this anxiety, the results of early, adequate treatment are good in comparison to treatment of other cancers.
Tumours of the nervous system
Authors: Orr Brian
Published: November 2023

There are many tumours of the nervous system and there is still controversy over their classification. In 1993, there was a revised classification by the WHO, and this is now used worldwide. Immunostains, electron microscopy, cytogenetics, and, most recently, molecular genetics have helped to bring about a more rational classification as we have learned that some tumours form part of a wider group whereas other tumours are distinct and separate entities.
Colorectal and perianal disorders
Authors: Stonebridge Peter , Smith David , Duncan Lesley , Thompson Alastair
Published: November 2023

Bleeding per anum is an important symptom and should always be taken seriously. Blood on the stool rather than separate from it, suggests a lesion in the colon or rectum, which bleeds when stool passes. The fact that the blood is dark also means that the blood is not fresh and coming from the colon. Bleeding from piles is usually bright red (fresh) and noticed separate from the stool. Change of bowel habit is an equally important symptom. It may be caused by a partially obstructing colonic lesion. When it is due to a colonic cancer it usually indicates a tumour in the left side of the colon where stools are more solid (as water has been reabsorbed from the large bowel contents as they pass the length of the colon).
Stroke Epidemiology, Evidence and Clinical Practice
Authors: Ebrahim Shah , Harwood Rowan
Published: November 2023

Almost a decade has passed since the first edition of this book was published and the explosion of new research in stroke is very apparent. Several important themes have coloured medicine during this time: the development of evidence based health care, new optimism for acute drug treatments for stroke, the growth of new information about the human genome, a dramatic increase in the number of stroke clinicians and researchers world-wide, and the establishment of the Cochrane Collaboration. All of these trends are relevant in revising a book of this nature. Clinical epidemiology remains an essential foundation for the practice of evidence-based healthcare. The enthusiasm of the pharmaceutical industry has resulted in a large number of new trials, often too small to detect clinically important differences, and have increased the number of clinicians actively engaged in stroke research. It is even more important that these clinicians should have a good understanding of the design of trials, the rationale for randomisation and blinding, and the importance of selecting the most appropriate outcomes. Surprisingly, little of practical importance has resulted from the decade of exploration of the human genome - the best indication of a person's risk remains their phenotype and not their genotype. The impetus to organise stroke medicine into a defined speciality, with emphasis on acute stroke, is even stronger - but it is essential to bear in mind the importance of interdisciplinary working, the value of primary care, geriatric medicine, psychiatry and rehabilitation in the prevention, treatment rehabilitation and long-term care of stroke patients. The Cochrane Collaboration is currently grappling with a task of enormous size - the compression of tens of thousands of randomised control trials -and other scientific evidence- into systematic reviews of the effects of interventions. Citations to this work are made in the section on management. In this edition, there is an extra opening section entitled Epidemiology which comprises the nuts and bolts of the subject and reviews the purposes of health care for stroke patients. The remaining sections follow the format of the first edition: Diagnosis, Management, and Prognosis. All chapters have been substantially updated. The book retains its focus on epidemiology that is relevant to the clinician and attempts to use examples from stroke to illustrate many aspects of epidemiological thinking. The book aims to stimulate readers to think about their own practice, the nature of scientific evidence and the vast areas of clinical uncertainty that remain the target for research over the coming decades.
Neuroblastoma
Authors: Variend Sadick , Burchill Susan A
Published: November 2023

Neuroblastoma is the third most common solid malignant tumour of infancy and childhood, being surpassed only by neoplasms of the lymphoid tissue and cerebral tumours (1, 2). Its incidence is about 1 per 10,000 live births in the United States (3), and constitutes some 8-10% of all cancers seen in children up to the age of 15 years. It is rarely reported in Africa. Ninety per cent of neuroblastomas occur in children less than 10 years old, usually between birth and 5 years (4). The median age at diagnosis is 22 months. The tumour is slightly more common in white children than black children, and shows a higher incidence in boys than girls (5).
Primitive neuroectodermal tumours
Authors: Cullinane Catherine J , Burchill Susan A
Published: November 2023

The ESFT, including ES and pPNET are aggressive malignant tumours of children and young adults, which may arise in bone or soft tissues (4). ES is predominantly of skeletal origin, and pPNET usually presents in soft tissues. In recent years it has become apparent that they share not only similar morphological and biological features but also specific chromosomal rearrangements between the EWS gene on chromosome 22 and various members of the ETS gene family (1, 4, 5). These common, non-random gene rearrangements provide strong evidence for the common histogenesis of these tumours, and provide a valuable tool for their differential diagnosis from other small round cell tumours.
Germ cell tumours
Authors: Gray Elizabeth S
Published: November 2023

Germ cell tumours (GCT) are a heterogeneous group of tumours presenting in all age groups including neonates; occurring in a wide range of sites; behaving as entirely benign through to highly malignant; having a variable and intriguing histology; and probably developing from at least two pathogenetic pathways and cell lines. What unites them as an entity is their typical and shared range of histological features and, when present, their shared serological markers. They are also very responsive to the platinum-based group of chemotherapeutic agents. However there is increasing evidence that GCT in infancy and childhood are different in their clinical behaviour, cell of origin, and cytogenetic profile from similar tumours in adolescents and adults.
Soft connective tissues—normal structure, function, and physiology
Authors: Benjamin Michael
Published: November 2023

The term ‘soft connective tissue’ is used here to include all connective tissues (CTs) except cartilage and bone. It is also called ‘connective tissue proper’ or ‘ordinary connective tissue’ and its subtypes are listed in Table 1. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to these tissues in a rheumatological and sports-related context.
Soft Tissue Disorders in the Occupational Setting
Authors: Helliwell Philip
Published: November 2023

Soft tissue musculoskeletal disorders are common in the community. For example, the point and annual prevalences of low back pain are roughly 20 and 40 per cent, respectively,(1) and the annual prevalences of pain in the shoulder, elbow, and wrist are 40, 12, and 23 per cent, respectively.(2) Even symptoms of such specific conditions as carpal tunnel syndrome are highly prevalent.(3) Since we spend a large part of our waking life at work, it is not surprising that many people attribute these symptoms to their work. The estimated prevalence of self-reported work-related illness, of which back and upper limb pain are by far the most common categories, in Great Britain in 1995 was 2 million people.(4) In the United States, work-related musculoskeletal disorders account for one-third of all occupational injuries reported by employers annually.(5) Low back pain is associated with large personal, social, and economic costs in all industrialized countries.
Work-Related Upper Limb Pain
Authors: O’Gradaigh Donncha , Hazleman Brian
Published: November 2023

Work-related musculoskeletal disorders comprise a heterogeneous group of conditions whose natural history is for the most part poorly understood. A variety of terms have been used in different ways. For some, ‘work-related upper limb disorders’, ‘cumulative trauma disorders’, and ‘repetitive strain disorders’ are synonymous and describe a range of conditions—some well defined, others less so—arising or appearing to arise from frequent overuse at work. For others, repetitive strain injury (RSI) refers to a particular diagnosis made by exclusion: chronic upper limb pain ascribed to overuse at work for which no clinical diagnosis can be made. The apparently simple question, ‘which musculoskeletal problems are work-related’, has proved difficult to answer. Study data are weakened by cross-sectional designs and by selection bias.
Complex Regional Pain Syndromes in The Rheumatology Clinic
Authors: Marshall Tarnya , Crisp Adrian
Published: November 2023

The differential diagnosis of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type I is wide and includes almost any other cause of regional pain (Table 1). There may be a history of trauma, including surgery, preceding the onset of symptoms, and other causes of localized pain include fracture and ligamentous injury. In view of this, fracture should be considered as a differential diagnosis. However, the two may coexist, usually with CRPS type I developing as a complication of fracture but, if a fracture is present, this must be diagnosed so that correct management may be instituted. As CRPS type I often involves a joint, the diagnosis of septic arthritis and other causes of a monoarthritis should be considered. Vascular disease may also present as regional pain associated with colour change and, as a consequence, some patients with CRPS type I present initially to vascular surgeons.
Substance misuse
Authors: Ball David , Collier David
Published: November 2023

At present the genetic and environmental dissection of alcohol dependence is more advanced than that of drug dependence, and this probably results from several factors. For example, the use of alcohol is sanctioned in most societies and generally the high rate of misuse changes slowly over long periods of time. As a result there is a relatively high prevalence of alcohol dependence, with many of those affected seeking treatment, and it is possible to recruit families and individuals for genetic studies. In contrast the legal status and occasionally faddish use of illicit drugs affect presentation, recruitment and the cooperation of family members. There has been an acceleration of interest recently in the genetics of misuse of substances other than alcohol, following clear demonstrations of genetic influences from family and twin studies and promising beginnings in molecular genetic research.
The history of lacunes
Authors: Hauw J -J
Published: November 2023

The concepts of ‘lacune’ and ‘état criblé’ have been debated at length. This fact reflects the difficulties in classifying the acquired small, deep cavities of the human brain and understanding their genesis. It is not my purpose, here, to review every citation of these terms. Such reviews were performed by Poirier and Derouesné (1985) and Besson et al. (1992). I will discuss the four critical periods in the development of our present concept of the causes and mechanisms of these lesions, and their authors. The early relevant descriptions of ‘lacune’, ‘état criblé’ and a companion lesion, ‘atrophie interstitielle du cerveau’, relied on macroscopic examination of the brain.
Classification of subcortical infarcts
Authors: Donnan G A , Norrving B , Bamford J M , Bogousslavsky J
Published: November 2023

Controversy has surrounded the categorization of infarcts in the subcortex for many years and, in particular, the relevance of the concept of lacunar infarction. If anything, the introduction of sophisticated imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has intensified the debate because the original classification was essentially a clinical one based on limited clinico- pathological correlations; latterly, the more recent and frequent clinico-radiological correlations have exposed the frailty of this classification. Specifically, it has been shown that a number of different pathologies may express identical clinical syndromes, the best example of which is the myriad of reported pathologies causing pure motor hemiplegia. The burgeoning number of publications in this area suggests that there is a real need to develop a structure for their classification and terminology. This may enable patients with common clinical, radiological, and perhaps pathological features to be grouped more precisely to allow the study of pathogenesis, prognosis, and, hopefully, treatment. The genesis of the proposed classification came from a meeting on ‘Lacunar and Other Subcortical Infarctions’ held in Lausanne, Switzerland in 1992. The major participants are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Leukoaraiosis
Authors: Ward N S , Brown M M
Published: November 2023

Leukoaraiosis is a term coined by Hachinski et al. (1987) from the Greek roots ‘leuko’ (white) and ‘araiosis’ (rarefied) to describe the radiological appearances of patchy or diffuse abnormalities in the deep white matter, which appear as low attenuation on computed tomography (CT) or high intensity signals on T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences. The abnormalities are seen characteristically in the periventricular regions, especially around the horns of the lateral ventricles, and in the centrum semiovale.
Carotid angiography in patients with subcortical ischaemia
Authors: Kappelle L J , Gijn J van
Published: November 2023

Since direct puncture of the carotid artery and injection of sodium iodide was introduced by Moniz in 1927 (Moniz 1940), angiographic techniques have been replaced by much safer procedures. Nowadays, intra-arterial digital subtraction angiography (IDSA), performed via the femoral artery, is the most informative method to visualize the cervico-cranial vasculature. Unfortunately, this procedure is associated with a 1 per cent overall incidence of neurological deficit and a 0.5 per cent incidence of persistent neurological deficit or death (Grzyska et al. 1990, Hankey et al. 1990, Heiserman et al. 1994, Derdeyn et al. 1995). During the last years, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) and spiral computed tomography (CT) angiography have been introduced (Marks 1996, Neumann Haeflin et al. 2000). These methods are safe and, therefore, are being used more and more for visualization of the arteries in the neck and the intracranial arteries (Magarelli et al. 1998). To date, there are no studies comparing ISDA with MRA or spiral CT angiography in patients with subcortical infarcts.
About lacunes
Authors: Millikan C H
Published: November 2023

‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said in rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more or less.’ ‘The question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean so many different things.’ The word ‘lacune’ (dictionary definition—cavity, pit, hole, lake) exemplifies the inaccuracy presumed in Alice’s comment! Bogousslavsky (1991a) wrote that the term ‘lacunar infarct’ is used for a least six different things. Phrases such as ‘lacunar syndrome’, ‘lacunar stroke’, ‘lacunar dementia’, or ‘lacunar infarction’ have become meaningless. The only common denominator found in the literature for the definition of lacune, whether used by a pathologist, clinician, or radiologist, is that it is small (Millikan and Futrell 1990). Faulty understanding of the fact that the size of the lesion is small has led C.M. Fisher (1991) to completely ignore the writings of Walter C. Alvarez about ‘little strokes’ (Alvarez 1946, 1948, 1955a,b). Beginning in 1946, Alvarez wrote extensively concerning what he referred to as ‘little strokes, brief strokes, silent strokes, transient ischaemic attacks, and so on’.
Lacunar syndromes—are they still worth diagnosing?
Authors: Bamford J
Published: November 2023

In the past, the clinically defined lacunar syndromes (LACS) have been central to the debate about the importance of lacunar stroke. Nevertheless, the concept that a significant subgroup of strokes may be distinguished primarily by clinical means has always seemed to rest uncomfortably in the minds of many physicians, perhaps reflecting the increasing tendency in most branches of medicine to highlight the fallibility of clinical assessments, while being less critically accepting of the results of investigative techniques. Indeed, C.M. Fisher who, through his seminal clinico- pathological papers in the 1960s brought the issue of lacunar stroke into mainstream clinical practice, wrote that ‘... MRI has made dependence on clinical detail more or less obsolete’ (Fisher 1991).
Thalamic infarcts
Authors: Freitas G R de , Bogousslavsky J
Published: November 2023

Infarcts restricted to the thalamus account for 11 per cent of vertebrobasilar infarcts, and the thalamus is involved in 27 per cent of vertebrobasilar infarcts (Bogousslavsky et al. 1988b). While the thalamus is involved in about one-third of patients with basilar artery occlusion (Labauge et al. 1981), 10–20 per cent of patients with embolism distal to the middle third of the basilar artery may have isolated thalamic infarcts (Goto et al. 1979, Fisher 1986).
MRI changes as a risk factor for intracerebral haemorrhage
Authors: Fazekas F , Roob G
Published: November 2023

Small vessel disease is not only a frequent cause of ischaemic cerebral tissue damage with lacunar infarcts and leukoaraiosis but is also associated with a greater tendency for rupturing vessel walls and subsequent bleeding into the brain parenchyma. This aetiology of intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) has been documented primarily for hypertensive small artery disease (Cole and Yates 1967, 1968, Fisher 1971, 1972). Vessel wall changes consistent with fibrinoid necrosis due to impaired endothelial transport of plasma proteins and vessel wall fibrosis have been found in regions of hypertensive ICH, and in some instances pathologists also observed outpouchings of the arterioles (Cole and Yates 1968, Fisher 1972).
Oxford Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Therapy
Authors: Grahame-Smith D G
Published: November 2023

The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Therapy continues to provide medical students and clinicians with a unique insight into why drugs have their therapeutic effects, by presenting the basic pharmacological principles of pharmacology as they affect the patient. An understanding of these clinical pharmacological principles is essential for rational, safe, effective, and economical prescribing. The text shows how knowledge of the scientific basis of drug action is applied in a clinical context to devise the most effective treatments for disease and to maximize the therapeutic effects of the drugs being used. This new edition includes an appraisal of the value of evidence-based medicine and a greater discussion of issues in genetics. There are specialist contributors for areas of infectious disease, gastrointestinal disorders, blood disorders, general anaesthesia, cancer chemotherapy, and immunosuppression. The revision also includes updates to both the pharmacopoeia and the drug therapy section to reflect new developments in both available drugs and ineir their use.
Placebos
Authors: Grahame-Smith D G , Aronson J K
Published: November 2023

The earliest known medical definition of ‘placebo’ (from the Latin word meaning ‘I shall please’ or ‘I shall be popular’) is found in George Motherby’s New Medical Dictionary (second edition, 1785): ‘a commonplace method or medicine’, a definition that does not suggest the modern meaning of the word. However, in Robert Hooper’s Medical Dictionary (1811), it was defined as ‘any medicine adapted more to please than benefit the patient’. This suggests that a change in meaning took place at about the start of the 19th century. Since then, the concept has broadened further.
Synaesthete extraordinaire?
Authors: Harrison John
Published: November 2023

The cognitive revolution, or more precisely the cognitive renaissance, allowed psychologists the luxury of once again discussing what is interesting about psychology, those unseen but suspected cognitive skills. A second renaissance occurred at about the same time, the rebirth of neuropsychology, another branch of the broad church of psychology, though the cause of neuropsychology’s death was very different to that of cognitive psychology. More on this later. The science of synaesthesia discussed in this chapter shares much in common with the methodology of neuropsychology, a similarity described in the next section.
The closet door opens
Authors: Harrison John
Published: November 2023

As an undergraduate I had the good fortune to be placed at the Institute of Psychiatry in London’s Denmark Hill, located close to the Maudsley Hospital, a centre known and respected throughout the world. I also had the excellent good fortune to be supervised by Dr Laura Goldstein, a clinical psychologist whose guidance and supervision during that summer proved invaluable. My lowly student status meant that I could not, for insurance reasons, test patients. I would therefore not get the chance to gain first hand experience of psychological testing. However, Laura found a means by which I could gain experience of testing, chiefly as a result of some research conducted by her office mate, Dr Simon Baron-Cohen.
Pathology and theory
Authors: Harrison John
Published: November 2023

At the end of Chapter 1, in which I outlined the theory of synaesthesia proposed in Synaesthesia: Classic and Contemporary Readings, I promised to describe and evaluate other theories that have been posited by various individuals during the last hundred years. In previous chapters, especially Chapters 2 and 3, it was suggested that there is evidence to suppose that certain brain injuries and diseases are capable of causing synaesthesic states. A number of these reports contain theories on the genesis of acquired synaesthesias, and the overlap between pathology and theory suggests that they be dealt with in the same chapter.
From romantic neurology to the ISA
Authors: Harrison John
Published: November 2023

In the last decade or so the synaesthesia story has come a long way, and many of the comments and claims made in the classical literature have been tested and largely found to be true. As a result of this renaissance of interest there are now several research groups around the world examining synaesthesia and related conditions. In this last chapter some of the work that is being carried out is discussed. Increased interest in the condition is valuable, as there is still a great deal about synaesthesia that requires explanation. In this final chapter some of the issues that require further investigation are summarized. Considerable text is devoted to one issue in particular, a solution for which even now eludes me after more than ten years of contemplation and research. It is simply this: what is it like to have synaesthesia? Before launching into these issues, let us take stock and summarize what we now know about the condition.
Ben Franklin Stilled the Waves
Authors: Tanford Charles
Published: November 2023

When Benjamin Franklin, the 18th-century American statesman and scientist, watched the calming effect of a drop of oil on the waves and ripples of a London pond, he was observing what Pliny the Elder and generations of seafarers had done before him. Franklin, though, was the first to wonder exactly what was happening to the oil, and to investigate this strange phenomenon. Following Franklin ‘s lead, a motley crowd of scientists over the next two centuries and more chose to investigate the nature of atoms and molecules through the interaction of fluid membranes. They included Lord Rayleigh, an altruistic English Lord, Agnes Pockels, who conducted experiments in her kitchen and became one of the earliest women to make lasting contributions to science, the renowned Dutch pediatrician Evert Gorter, and Irving Langmuir, one of America ‘s greatest industrial scientists. Building on Franklin ‘s original experiments, their work has culminated in the discovery of the structure of cell membranes, research that continues to bear fruit today. Ben Franklin Stilled the Waves is far more than the story of oil on water; it is a voyage into the very nature of science and its place in our history.
The Early Christian Community
Authors: Chadwick Henry
Published: November 2023

The earliest Christian communities were marked out by their allegiance to Jesus of Nazareth. They believed that in his teaching and life, God had 'visited his people' and sent a prophet and more than a prophet, an example and teacher of the way of truth and righteousness surpassing John the Baptist; the 'Messiah' or anointed leader of ancient expectation.
From Rome to the Barbarian Kingdoms (330-700)
Authors: Markus Robert
Published: November 2023

If one were writing the history of W estem Europe in the period from about 330 to about 700 AD, there would, inevitably, be two major themes. The first would tell of the late Roman empire and its fate after the reorganization by the Emperors Diocletian and Constantine, until mo!it of its W estem provinces were superseded by barbarian kingdoms.
The West: The Age of Conversion (700-1050)
Authors: Mayr-Harting Henry
Published: November 2023

The period which here concerns us is not notable for great theologians, great popes, or great heretics. The Christian achievement turns less on individual geniuses than in any other period of remotely comparable length in the history of this ever fermenting religion. The Emperor Charlemagne (768-814) is said to have lamented to the leader of his court school, the York man Alcuin, that he had not twelve learned men like Jerome or Augustine.
Christianity and Islam
Authors: Johns Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The relationship between Christianity and Islam during the Middle Ages is usually seen, in the West, in terms of military conflict, and, in the East, in terms of the Arab contribution to Western culture. It is symptomatic of the past (and of the continuing) relationship between the two faiths, that each focuses upon an issue which the other regards as peripheral.
The Late Medieval Church and its Reformation 1400-1600
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

The past is another country. Where, apart from libraries and archives, should the historian of late medieval religion travel in order to understand with that understanding which is sight, hearing, and sensation the meaning of the Christianity which we have lost, what it once meant to be religious? The answer must be 'nowhere'. But twentieth-century India might help.
Enlightenment: Secular and Christian (1600-1800)
Authors: McManners John
Published: November 2023

The two centuries preceding the French revolution were marked by the growing secularization of West European society, culture, and thought. It was not just a change from a 'Christian' to a 'secular' order. Indeed, Jean Delumeau has argued that medieval life was 'Christian' only in so far as every secular passion and inspiration had to be expressed in Christian forms; take away compulsion, routine, impractical renunciation of the world, magical beliefs, and fear·of hell, and there was less true Christian belief and conduct in medieval times than now.
The Expansion of Christianity (1500-1800)
Authors: McManners John
Published: November 2023

BY the year 1800, Christianity girdled the globe from China to Peru. Yet three hundred years earlier, it had been the religion of Europe alone, hemmed in on the east by militant Islam, to the south by the desert, to the north by barren tundra, and to the west by the great ocean. Islam ruled in the land where Christ had been born and crucified. It had swept away the Christian communities of the North African coast, and its pressures were driving the Monophysite Copes of Egypt to convert to the Prophet; the sister Coptic church in Ethiopia survived only because of its wild remoteness in the mountains. In the Sudan, where Christianity had once been dominant, the faith of the Qur'an now prevailed.
Africa
Authors: Hinchliff Peter
Published: November 2023

Until after the Second World War histories of Africa had a tendency to treat the continent as though it were simply a setting for the actions of white men (and a few white women). This was because they were written, for the most part by people of European stock who had been taught that history should be based on parliamentary reports, Civil Service minutes, and the private correspondence of those who possessed power and influence.
Asia
Authors: Kenneth  , Ballhatchet Helen
Published: November 2023

The history of Christianity in Asia during the nineteenth century and much of the twentieth was dominated by the growth of missionary activity. This activity built on what had gone before, but there were two new factors. One of these was the emergence of Protestant missions as a significant force; the other was the development in the West of military, technological, and commercial capabilities which were clearly superior to anything in Asia.
What Christians Believe
Authors: Wiles Maurice
Published: November 2023

Quot homincs, tot sentcntiae: there arc as many opinions as there are people. It is tempting to adapt the old adage and say that there are as many beliefs as there are Christians. In one sense that is true. For beliefis a personal matter, and each of us believes in his or her own unique way. But belief is also a communal matter. We do not invent or develop our beliefs on our own. We draw upon the beliefs of the community to which we belong for both the substance and the form of our believing.
Meningitis
Authors: Bannister Sir Roger
Published: November 2023

Infection through the bloodstream. Sometimes meningitis is the only or the principal manifestation of a bacteraemia, as in meningococcal meningitis and some cases of pneumococcal meningitis, or the infection of the meninges may be secondary to focal infection elsewhere in the body, for example, pneumonia, empyema, osteomyelitis, enteric fever, etc. Tuberculous meningitis may be part of a general miliary dissemination of the infection. Sometimes meningitis is secondary to a blood-borne infection that first settles in the brain, as in the case of metastatic cerebral abscess or tuberculoma. It is probable that the infection is blood-borne in most cases of meningitis caused by a virus.
Syphilis of the nervous system
Authors: Bannister Sir Roger
Published: November 2023

Neurosyphilis was becoming an uncommon disease after the introduction of penicillin but recently there has been an increased incidence in parts of the United States and possibly other countries as a result of promiscuity in urban societies, in particular among male homosexuals. Only a small proportion—perhaps 10 per cent—of persons infected with the Treponema pallidum subsequently show evidence that the organism has invaded the nervous system. However, 30 per cent of patients with secondary syphilis have an abnormal cerebrospinal fluid. This may occur as early as during the secondary stage. Early invasion of the nervous system may be followed by an asymptomatic period of several years while the infection remains dormant. On both clinical and pathological grounds, a distinction must be made between two groups of tertiary manifestations of neurosyphilis, one of which is known as meningovascular, or cerebrospinal syphilis, the other, which comprises tabes dorsalis and general paresis, being distinguished as parenchymatous syphilis.
Toxic and deficiency disorders
Authors: Bannister Sir Roger
Published: November 2023

In starvation and malabsorption neurological symptoms and signs may be caused by a wide variety of deficiencies. In addition to lack of vitamins, there may be a lack of glucose and minerals, particularly calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, or iron. The relationship of dietary deficiency to toxic factors is sometimes complex. For example, excessive cyanide intake from foods or from smoking may play a part in the production of the neurological symptoms of ‘tobacco’ amblyopia and Leber’s optic atrophy, because vitamin Bu is concerned in the detoxication of cyanide. Cyanide may also play a role in the production of neurological symptoms in vitamin B12 neuropathy. In some neurological syndromes found in the tropics it is difficult to separate dietary factors and the effects of certain chronic inflammatory diseases, such as syphilis.
Silver Spoons and Golden Genes: Talent Differentials and Distributive Justice
Authors: Steiner Hillel
Published: November 2023

To set the context for the argument I want to advance, it may be helpful to say a few general words about both distributive justice and talents. Distributive justice is concerned with judgements about who should get what and who should give what. But it is not concerned with all such judgements. Rather, only those gettings and givings which are thought to be justifiably enforceable fall within its domain. And while this may cover quite a lot of morally desirable interpersonal transfers, most persons would regard it as not exhausting them.
The Natural World
Authors: Briggs Julia
Published: November 2023

The Elizabethans inherited the notion that the universe consisted of a complex but ultimately ordered and stable ladder of existence, harmonious and benevolent to human beings, since it had been designed specifically for them. Any shortcomings were due to human, rather than to divine agency. Sir Thomas Elyot ‘s Boke named the Governour (1531) makes the case for God ‘s tidiness in its first chapter: Behold also the order that God hath put generally in all his creatures, beginning at the most inferior or base, and ascending upward ... so that every kind of trees, herbs, birds, beasts and fishes, beside their diversity of forms, have (as who sayeth) a peculiar disposition appropered unto them by God their creator; so that in everything is order, and without order may be nothing stable or permanent; and it may not be called order, except [unless] it do contain in it degrees, high and base, according to the merit or estimation of the thing that is ordered. (Book I, ch. i) Thus a highly hierarchical and graduated society imagined the universe in its own image, and, as Elyot ‘s emphasis on order suggests, the order supposed to be visible in the natural world was then used as an argument to defend the stratified social structure. The elaborate ramifications of the ordered universe might even be used as evidence that the social system, as it had evolved, was essential or even inevitable.
The Theatre
Authors: Briggs Julia
Published: November 2023

Of the age ‘s many forms of representation, drama was the most vital, fully responsive both to general human emotions and experiences and to the particular pressures, ideas, philosophies, and attitudes of the day. Though audiences, as well as their language, culture, and religion, have altered substantially, Renaissance plays are still performed and enjoyed today. Their vigour was largely due to their commercial character: the need to please London audiences allowed the drama to reflect contemporary problems and behaviour with few constraints, and freed it from voicing establishment views (unlike the literature that sought for court patronage), so that it could respond to wider and, on occasion, more critical or subversive social forces. There was a price to be paid for such freedom: the Lord Chamberlain, through the Revels Office, imposed censorship on plays, and this might range from the excision of a few words to cutting passages and scenes, and sometimes to the suppression of an entire play, as seems to have happened in the case of Sir Thomas More (1595), where the ‘Evil May Day ‘ riot of apprentices against aliens was too topical to be acceptable to the Master of the Revels.
Fidelio First Performance of the Fifth Symphony Second Journey to Holland Mahler as Diplomat The Third Symphony in Leipzigand Vienna (August-December 1904)
Authors: Louis De La Grange Henry
Published: November 2023

Mahler’S summer holidays with his family in Maiernigg invariably ended with his returning alone to Vienna, leaving Alma and the children to enjoy further weeks away from the hustle and bustle of the capital. These separations always gave rise to a stream of letters or postcards from Mahler to Alma. There is no trace of such correspondence at the end of the summer of 1904. For once, therefore, Alma must have returned at the same time as her husband. He no doubt wanted to have her by his side while he was preparing two major events scheduled to take place in the early autumn-the new production of Fidelio, and the first performance of his Fifth Symphony in Cologne, rehearsals for which were to begin in Vienna. Fidelio was for Mahler the finest work in the entire repertory. He devoted all his strength and ‘recreative’ genius to this ‘opera of operas’, and had set the date of the premiere to coincide with the Emperor’s name day celebrations on 4 October.
Mahler in Vienna (XXII)-Salome in Graz-Premiere of the Sixth Composition of the Eighth-Salzburg Festival-Mahler in his maturity (May-August 1906)
Authors: Louis De La Grange Henry
Published: November 2023

Although his main preoccupation for several months had been the restaging of the Mozart operas, Mahler had not forgotten Salome, the first modern theatrical masterpiece to have come his way since he had arrived in Vienna. But time was passing, and the Habsburg censorship had still not given way. The premiere had taken place in Dresden on 9 December 1905, and had been followed by performances in Prague and Breslau, and Strauss now wrote to Mahler to ask him if he had any objections to the Breslau production being brought to Vienna. Mahler replied in mid-March: Dear friend! I have neither the right nor the desire to stand in the way of the Breslau project. Under certain circumstances it would perhaps be the best way of making my opponents in the matter see reason.
Mahler in Vienna (XXIV)-The Third in Berlin-Encounters with Strauss The Fourth in Frankfurt-The First in Linz The press campaign against Mahler Die Walkiire and lphigenie en Aulide-Messchaert’s recitals-Schoenberg premieres (January-March 1907)
Authors: Louis De La Grange Henry
Published: November 2023

People are wholly unaware of the inaccessible kind of fortress a man lives in if he is truly dedicated to himself and to his cause ... MAHLER’S brief but frequent absences from the Vienna Opera to conduct his works were now increasingly held against him. In 1907 the first attack came on 1 January, when Hans Puchstein published a thoroughly negative summary of his recent activities in the Deutsches Volksblatt. His complaints were not new. He began by listing the composers absent from the repertory (Lortzing, Marschner, Gluck, Weber, Berlioz, Donizetti, Tchaikovsky, Smetana, Boieldieu, Flotow, Herold, and Kreuzer); emphasized the shortcomings of some of Mahler’s assistants at the Opera, particularly Bruno Walter; and deplored the Director’s ‘moody character ’ and’changes of taste’with regard to his proteges. Puchstein believed that all this made him unfit to direct the Vienna Opera, and voiced the opinion that the time ‘was ripe for a change’. He also criticized some of the singers.
The History of the Flute
Authors: Morris Gareth
Published: November 2023

The origin of the flute is lost in the darkness of prehistory, so no actual person can be credited with its invention or discovery. It probably owes its existence to Pan; when Syrinx transformed herself into a reed to escape his attentions he plucked it and made a flute, to play his sorrows away. This prototype of all wind instruments consisted of a single tube which produced a musical sound when air was directed across its open end, and the next stage in its development was the addition of several shorter and longer pipes whose pitches formed a primitive scale.
Annotated Fingering Charts
Authors: Morris Gareth
Published: November 2023

Tables of fingerings for the three flute registers are provided in Section B (ii) of Chapter 2. These will enable a disciplined technique to be acquired, and they must be scrupulously adhered to until every major and minor scale has been mastered in all octaves. It is then permissible to consider the use of alternatives that are acceptable in certaincircum stances. Nevertheless, two fingerings have already been allowed for a few notes:
Introduction
Authors: Quine Hector
Published: November 2023

A Book with the title ‘Guitar Technique’ needs to begin with a definition of the word ‘technique’, since the term is frequently misunderstood or misapplied. Guitarists arc often heard to refer to a player as having a ‘good technique’ when all that he has in reality is a measure of finger dexterity or the stamina to play pieces of acknowledged difficulty —usually at a rather faster speed than musical coherence suggests. This is the kind of ‘virtuoso’ of whom Beethoven said: ‘All reason and feeling are generally lost in the nimbleness of his fingers.’ A century earlier, Couperin expressed much the same view but in different terms: ‘I declare in all good faith, that I am more pleased with what moves me than with what astonishes me.’
The Physiology of Technique
Authors: Quine Hector
Published: November 2023

The Oxford dictionary defines physiology as ‘the science of normal functions of living things’. This definition sums up what I believe to be the fundamental principle of all ‘mechanical’ techniques-whether of playing the guitar, or any other activity which involves trained actions by the human body. The word ‘mechanical’ may not please everyone, because most people do not like to think of themselves as machines, but the human body is, in reality, a superbly designed and constructed piece of engineering with all the attributes of a machine. (It goes without saying that it also has many other qualities which machines lack.)
Left Arm and Hand
Authors: Quine Hector
Published: November 2023

The right hand may be considered as the artist in guitar playing, and the left as the artisan whose work consists almost entirely of preparing notes for articulation by the right hand. Though the functions of the hands are so different, the same physiological principles govern the operation of both. The right arm’s weight is supported by the guitar, while the left arm appears to have to support itself through tension in the biceps muscle. Although this is partly true, if, with shoulder and upper arm held loosely, the forearm is raised from the elbow and the thumb is allowed to lean against the guitar neck, some support is gained. If the wrist is also allowed to relax, the hand is brought forward in front of the fingerboard-where it needs to be-and pressure of the thumb in opposition to the fingers can be clearly felt; the arm is also prevented from pulling backwards.
Act ors and Actresses
Authors: Sarris Andrew
Published: November 2023

Greta garbo remains the most enduringly and endearingly mesmerizing after-image of the MGM star system. Garbo s art dissolves in her myth, and her myth seems to transcend even the cinema that first gave it form. The spine-tingling death scene in Camille (1937) transforms cinema into sculpture. The masthead close-up of Queen Christina (1933) flattens out the cameraman’s perspective from the transparency of a screen to the opaqueness of a canvas. Without benefit of the perpetually avant-garde mannerism of stop-motion, Garbo stops the flow of images on the screen by enslaving the memory of the spectator. Her demoralizing beauty corrupts the optical habits of the wariest critic. After all, the art of cinema is concerned with montage and camera movements and spatial relationships and deep focus and the composition of images— but what are all these trappings of mise-en-scene to Garbo or Garbo to mise-en-scene? Let us say simply and finally that Garbo is and always has been her own mise-en-scene.
Guilty Pleasures
Authors: Sarris Andrew
Published: November 2023

Let us now praise the B-picture. But what is it exactly? Or, rather, what was it? In an age of inflation and instant insights, there is nothing on the screen to which we can point and say: This is a B-picture. A Z-movie, perhaps, but not a B-picture. There is too much ambition at one end, too little craftsmanship at the other, and the bottom has fallen out of the middle. Nor is there today in the nineties any genre lowly enough to be dismissed out of hand by the critical establishment. Kungfu, porn (soft-core and hard-core), Damon and Pythias squad-car serenades, revisionist westerns, regressive Disneys, black-power fantasies, disaster and doomsday spectacles: all have their sociological and even stylistic rationales. The snobberies that afflicted supposedly serious film criticism in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s have been superseded in more recent decades by an open-mindedness that errs on the side of credulity. Another problem in finding a B-picture in the present is that the notion of the A-picture is more nebulous than ever, and you can’t have Bpictures without A-pictures. Indeed, with the disappearance of the predetermined double feature in the seventies, it became hard even to remember the once familiar refrain: “I liked the second feature better than the main one.” Nowadays a double feature is more likely to consist of two failed A-pictures, with the older one on the bottom of the bill.
Tales from Tom’s Town
Authors: Driggs Frank , Haddix Chuck
Published: November 2023

Originally A Wild-And-Wooly River Town, established ahead of the great westward migration, Kansas City grew into a center of commerce and entertainment, becoming nationally known by the late 1930s as the “Paris of the Plains “—a comparison drawn, not for Kansas City’s broad boulevards and fountains, but its immoderate nightlife and laissez-faire attitude. “Kansas City is more like Paris, “ syndicated columnist Westbrook Pegler observed. “The stuff is there, the gambling joints and the brothels, including among the latter a restaurant conducted in the imitation of that one in Paris, more haunted than the Louvre, where the waitresses wear nothing on before and a little less than half of that behind. But like Parisians, the people of Kansas City obviously believe that such things must be and, also like the Parisians, are proud of their own indifference. “1 Edward Morrow advised readers of the Omaha World-Herald, “[I]f you want to see some sin, forget Paris and go to Kansas City. With the possible exception of such renowned centers as Singapore and Port Said, Kansas City has the greatest sin industry in the world. “2 Ironically, the local government, run by a Democratic machine headed by Boss Tom Pendergast, fostered the vice and corruption. Kansas City Jazz flowered in this intemperate atmosphere. A stocky bull of a man with piercing blue eyes, Boss Tom dominated Kansas City and Missouri state politics from 1911 until his 1939 indictment for income tax evasion.