bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Alcohol, Outstations and Autonomy: An Australian Aboriginal Perspective
Authors: Hazlehurst Kayleen M.
Published: November 2015

It has been argued that a variety of pressures—a history of colonial exploitation, socio-economic decline, and psycho-environmental factors—have contributed to Aboriginal alcoholism and alcohol related crime. Other analyses have connected Aboriginal drinking patterns with a well established set of social relationships which support and continue to maintain Aboriginal life-style alcoholism.

In the search for effective and long-term “solutions” to this addiction the author urges a deeper understanding of Aboriginal drinking relationships and the potential of these relationships to offer real rehabilitative alternatives for Aboriginals.
Drugs & Prostitution
Authors: Marshall Norma , Hendtlass Jane
Published: November 2015

The relationship between drugs and prostitution has been studied as part of a general investigation undertaken by the Inquiry into Prostitution established by the Victorian Government in September 1984.

Prostitutes surveyed in Melbourne had similar alcohol consumption patterns to their age counterparts in the community but they were more likely to smoke tobacco and they smoked more each day.

Overall, 87% of female and 65% of male prostitutes had used drugs other than alcohol and tobacco in the last year. They used over-the-counter medicines twice as frequently as the general population but most of this overrepresentation could be attributed to vitamin pills and tonics.

Use of prescription medication was about the same as in the community.

Although most prostitutes surveyed had tried marijuana only half had used it in the last year. Similarly, one-third of the interviewees had tried heroin but less than 40% of these users, or 15% of the sample, had used heroin in the last year. This use was greater among street workers than among other prostitutes. Marijuana use usually preceded prostitution but no definite time sequence for initiation into other drug use and prostitution could be established and there was no direct evidence for a causal link between narcotic abuse and prostitution.

It is possible that the high frequency of illicit drug use among street prostitutes results from either a tendency for some young people to become associated with others engaging in generally deviant behaviour or through funnelling into a counter societal lifestyle encouraged by desire for money.
Beyond the Disease Concept of Addiction: Drug Use as a Way of Life Leading to Predicaments
Authors: Drew L.R.H.
Published: November 2015

The origins, vicissitudes and limitations of the disease concept amd medical model of drug use are examined. It is proposed that the disease concept is a reaction to the moralism or neglect of previous times. However the concept omits the human element.

‘Way of life’—a model taking into account the interaction between drug, person and environment—is proposed, drug dependence being present when drug use, as a way of life, is given a high priority.

Persons with drug dependence may find themselves in a ‘predicament’ and may need help to get their ways of life in balance again.

Various implications of this proposed model are explored.
Is Smokeless Tobacco a Wolf in Sheep's Clothing?
Authors: Scaffidi Frederick M.
Published: November 2015

For several years, smokeless tobacco has been promoted as a safe alternative to cigarette smoking. A massive ad campaign has resulted in an alarming increase in use in recent years.

Recent evidence has related the use of smokeless tobacco to oral and pharyngeal cancers as well as other gum and tooth disorders. The habit-forming properties of smokeless tobacco are similar to those found with other tobacco products.

A double standard is apparent when the use of smokeless tobacco is condoned. There is an implied acceptance of the use of this potentially dangerous, but legal, psychoactive substance. This article is a review and commentary about the status of this growing drug problem.
Introduction to “Visions of Addiction”: The Nature of the Beast
Authors: Peele Stanton
Published: November 2015

Addiction is viewed from a range of perspectives that often seem incompatible and perhaps incommensurable. This volume presents the major visions of addiction in contemporary science and therapy, including cognitive-behavior, medical-disease, adaptive, genetic, neurobehavioral, social, learning, ego-analytic, and moral models of addiction. Although we must examine the bases of these diverse visions in order to make sense of the welter of conflicting views of addiction, it is not necessary to surrender to nihilism or relativism in response to their diversity and contradictoriness.
Guilt is Soluble in Alcohol: An Ego Analytic View
Authors: McFadden John
Published: November 2015

Ego analysis, a version of Freudian theory, maintains that guilt is a sufficient cause of substance abuse. A cultural analysis reveals that self-negation is powerfully reinforced in technologically advanced societies by an unexamined moralistic belief system. In the field of alcoholism, the psychoanalytic perspective is opposed primarily by two arguments. First, researchers argue that psychodynamic factors cannot account for abuse because longitudinal studies demonstrate that symptoms of mental illness are not evident either before or after the abuse careers of many sufferers. Second, cognitive behaviorists maintain that the concept “maladaptive expectancies” explains addictions more adequately than psychodynamic theories. Freud's discovery that unconscious guilt can drive even normal people to antisocial behavior is the basis for disputing both arguments. The ego analyst's therapeutic alternative is contrasted with the conventional, abstinence-only approach and cognitive-behavioral treatment.
Context and Variation in Employer Policies on Alcohol
Authors: Staudenmeier William J.
Published: November 2015

The last decade has seen the widespread adoption by employers of occupational alcoholism programs designed to address the alcohol problems of employees. This innovative pattern of alcohol-related employer policy has received considerable attention in the scientific literature while other, traditional employer policies persist with relative inattention. This paper frames a broad perspective on employer alcohol policy by looking at four current patterns of policy: 1. Drinking on the Job, 2. Dry on the Job, 3. Employer Prohibition, and 4. Occupational Alcoholism Programs (including Employee Assistance Programs). The author explores the systematic variation among employers in their alcohol policies and emphasizes the relationship among alcohol-related culture, policy and practice. The existence of conflicting cultural positions on alcohol makes the United States an especially interesting case for this analysis.
Coercion into Alcoholism Treatment: Meanings for the Disease Concept of Alcoholism
Authors: Fillmore Kaye Middleton , Kelso Dennis
Published: November 2015

Selected literature is first reviewed examining the relationship between the increased use of coercion as motivation for alcoholism treatment entry and the goals of alcoholism treatment with the general conclusion reached that the increasing use of coercion is shifting the practice and ideology of alcoholism treatment. Second, criminally referred, volunteers and DWI clients in one state's publicly funded alcoholism treatment are compared on the basic precepts of the disease model of alcoholism with the general conclusion that as the operational definition of “alcoholic” has widened to include the universe of alcohol problems, there are major discrepancies between those traditionally treated for alcoholism and the newer clientele. The implications of this shift are discussed in terms of the transformation of the social function of alcoholism treatment.
Alcohol and Indian Youth: Social and Psychological Correlates and Prevention
Authors: Oetting E. R. , Beauvais Fred , Edwards Ruth
Published: November 2015

This paper relates psychosocial correlates to prevention. Young native American heavy alcohol users (ages 12 to 16) were matched with non-users. Alcohol users did not have more emotional problems, did not experience less alienation, or did not feel less self-confident or less socially accepted than non-users, but did use other drugs and were more deviant. Alcohol users came more often from broken families, felt less family caring and had fewer family sanctions against substance use, had poorer school adjustment, had less hope for the future, and had friends encouraging alcohol and drug use. Prevention programs should start very early and should focus on increasing family strength, improving school adjustment, providing opportunities for the future, breaking up deviant peer clusters and building peer clusters that discourage alcohol and drug use.
Alcohol Education Programs and Minority Youth
Authors: Globetti Gerald
Published: November 2015

Research relative to the drinking behavior of minority youth, as well as alcohol-abuse prevention programs for these youth, have been largely neglected. Moreover, the existing data on both of these subjects are limited in that they either treat minority youth as a homogeneous entity or apply a white middle-class curriculum to prevention activity. This paper examines several alcohol-education protocols within schools and how these strategies present unique problems to prevention programs for minority youth. Curricula derived from the developmental and the socio-cultural models appear most applicable to minorities.
Unethical Promotion in the Third World Countries: Understanding the Consequences
Authors: Bleidt Barry A.
Published: November 2015

One of the antecedent processes to drug giving or drug taking is an action (promotion) by pharmaceutical companies to influence these behaviors. In most countries, especially Third World countries, the promotional material is a primary source of drug information to practitioners. When this material is intentionally biased or is accompanied by other unethical practices, company ethics are rightly questioned.

Third World pharmaceutical promotional practices are examined, along with some of the consequences that occur as a result of the discovered improprieties. Several factors that impact on public's view of the pharmaceutical industry are discussed as well as their influence on member firm's reputation. The more that a company understands these factors and incorporates this knowledge into their strategic planning, the greater will be its potential for long-term growth and sustained profitability.
Ethics of Drug Giving and Drug Taking
Authors: Jonsen Albert R.
Published: November 2015

The activity of prescribing therapeutic drugs is one of the most significant features of the physician-patient relationship. This activity must be understood in moral, as well as technical terms. The ancient Greek word for drug had three meanings, providing the outline for an ethics of medication: remedy, poison and magical charm. Corresponding to these three meanings are three ethical principles: competence in therapeutic application, avoidance of harm and honesty.
Drug Use Themes for Teachers of Health
Authors: Smith Mickey , Smith Mary K.
Published: November 2015

Content analysis was conducted on twenty-one curriculum guides used in state health instruction programs. In grades 9–12, the major emphasis was placed on the applications and on the dangers of the use of medications. In grades K-8, safety considerations such as proper storage received more attention. There was little information on the mechanism of action of medications, even though the audience for the guides includes teachers. Aside from frequent mention of the value of immunizations, the benefits of modern medicines received comparatively little attention. The pharmacist was the most frequently mentioned health professional.
The Efficacy of Civil Commitment in Treating Narcotics Addiction
Authors: Anglin M. Douglas
Published: November 2015

The California Civil Addict Program (CAP) was established by the state legislature in 1961 to control and rehabilitate narcotics addicts. In the first two years of the program, a number of legal and procedural errors occurred which produced a situation wherein a natural experiment could be conducted to evaluate the program. This article describes the CAP and presents information that substantiates its effectiveness. The outcome effects of civil commitment, alone and in combination with methadone maintenance (for a subsample of CAP admissions), are presented.

In the 1970s, civil commitment in California was supplanted by other legal coercion efforts involving the emerging system of community drug treatment programs. The impact of this social policy change on the behavior of California narcotics addicts is assessed and the implications for further policy development are discussed. The reader is referred to other articles in this issue for discussion of the implementation history and results of alternate civil commitment programs in the United States.
Civil Commitment under the Federal Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act
Authors: Lindblad Richard
Published: November 2015

The Federal Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act (NARA) provided for compulsory treatment and supervised aftercare of narcotic addicts. The law was passed amid controversy as to whether addiction should be controlled by enforcement efforts or through treatment and prevention. Through NARA, treatment was permitted for offenders as a pre-trial civil commitment instead of prosecution for addicts convicted of specific crimes and for voluntary applicants. The law was complex in its implementation because each treatment category had burdensome legal and logistical particularities.

Numerous “gatekeepers” screened and selected clients for admission resulting in frequent disagreement about clients' eligibility. Because capacity was limited during preliminary program development, many potential clients were rejected from the program. The program suffered criticism because of its high rejection rate and because of perceived high program costs.

NARA was a relatively short-lived program superseded by other legislation Still, much was learned from the program and a national network of treatment providers resulted. Civil commitment proved to be an effective way of bringing narcotic addicts into treatment, and evaluations of those admitted show they did as well as or better than those treated in other settings.
The Costs of Caring for Intravenous Drug-Related AIDS Cases in New Jersey
Authors: Caplan Ronald L.
Published: November 2015

Unlike the national experience, the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic in New Jersey in primarily among intravenous drug users, their sexual partners and their children. Since the cost of caring for people with AIDS, especially these people, is high, the steadily rising number of new cases, coupled with their lack of any health insurance, will soon place a tremendous strain on state resources. New Jersey may be the first state to face an AIDS-related fiscal crisis. After estimating the costs of caring for intravenous drug-related AIDS cases in New Jersey, this paper examines the policies which have, thus far, helped New Jersey avoid such a crisis. The paper examines how escalating costs threaten these existing arrangements. It concludes with several policy recommendations.
Alternatives to the War on Drugs
Authors: Alexander Bruce K.
Published: November 2015

The War on Drugs has proved ineffective. However, it cannot simply be abandoned, for it is directed, at least in part, toward solving real social problems. This article proposes replacements for three major components of the drug war: localized, pragmatic controls to replace drug prohibition laws; valid information to replace anti-drug propaganda; and social innovations to replace bureaucratized drug treatment.
The Empirical and Theoretical Bases for an Adaptive Model of Addiction
Authors: Alexander Bruce K.
Published: November 2015

There is substantial scientific support for an adaptive model of addiction. Research reviewed in this article supports the adaptive model's assertions that failure of psychosocial integration precedes addiction; that addiction serves a number of adaptive functions; that addictive behavior is not “out of control”; that drug use generally fits the predictions of coping theory; that addictions are often transitory; that the “lessor evil” assumption of the adaptive model is compatible with current theory; that addictions are often interchangeable; and that the term “adaptive” is defined precisely in the adaptive model. The extensive support for an adaptive model of addiction, in conjunction with the wealth of recent evidence against a disease model of addiction, suggests that a major reformulation of theory about drugs and addiction is underway in the scholarly community.
Effects of Drinking Age on Reduced Consumption of Alcohol Reported by College Students: 1981–1986
Authors: Gonzalez Gerardo M.
Published: November 2015

A survey of college students who visited Daytona Beach, Florida during spring break between the years 1981 and 1986 showed a significant drop in reported consumption of alcoholic beverages. Significant reductions were found for both males and females. Since more than thirty states changed their laws raising the drinking age during the period of the study, it was assumed that some of the drop in consumption might be accounted for by the increase in the drinking age. However, an analysis of variance failed to reject the null hypothesis of no significant interaction between the age of the respondent and the year of the study as a predictor of quantity-frequency of consumption. The author suggests that meaningful evaluation studies are needed to determine whether the growth in college alcohol education and prevention programs might better account for the recent decline in student consumption of alcohol and other drugs.
Ethnicity, Communication, and Drugs
Authors: Korzenny Felipe , McClure Joyce , Rzyttki Barbara
Published: November 2015

This study explored the degree to which different patterns of communication media exposure are associated with attitudes and behaviors related to drug usage, across four main diverse ethnic groups in the U.S.: whites, blacks, Hispanics and Asians. It was expected that members of these different groups would exhibit diverse patterns of correlation between their media habits and their drug attitudes and behaviors. By means of a quota sample, 171 personal interviews were completed with 45 white, 42 Hispanic, 43 Asian, and 41 black respondents in the Bay Area of San Francisco in the Fall of 1986. Of particular importance was that television exposure, Rock exposure, print and interpersonal channels behaved differently across ethnic groups. The most striking differences occurred when examining the associations between exposure to specific television shows and attitudes towards drugs and adventurous experimentation. Black and white respondents exhibited sharp contrasts which deserve careful scrutiny and understanding.
A Freer Market for Heroin in Australia: Alternatives to Subsidizing Organized Crime
Authors: Marks Robert
Published: November 2015

The problems associated with illicit drug use in general, and the illicit use of heroin in particular, have led to stringent attempts by Australian governments to enforce the laws against drug abuse. The strongest reaction of the criminal justice system has been toward heroin, with a total prohibition on heroin importation, manufacture, distribution, possession, and use. Before attempting to evaluate the extent and costs of heroin use today, this paper reviews the evolution of laws and social attitudes toward heroin in Australia. Using an economic framework for analyzing the black market in heroin, the paper examines proposals for enforcing the prohibition by tightening the supply side, and by reducing the demand for heroin. It argues that attempts to restrict the supply have had the effect of increasing the costs borne not only by the users but by society at large, through increases in acquisitive crime and police corruption. On utilitarian grounds it concludes that the costs to society of the prohibition far outweigh the costs of a policy of freer availability, and suggests that a policy of government supply of price-controlled heroin and methadone would be far preferable to today's failed policy of prohibition.
HIV, AIDS and Intravenous Drug Use: Some Considerations
Authors: Inciardi James A.
Published: November 2015

AIDS is a severe manifestation of infection with human immunodeficiency virus, a pathogen that destroys the body's immune system response. Homosexual and bisexual men represent the largest risk group for HIV and AIDS, followed by intravenous drug (IV) users. The risk factors associated with IV drug use are numerous, yet as a group, IV users are difficult to impact with AIDS prevention messages.
Intravenous Drug Abuse and the HIV Epidemic in Two Midwestern Cities: A Preliminary Report
Authors: Siegal Harvey A.
Published: November 2015

This paper reports on data being collected on Intravenous drug abusers (IVDAs), their sexual partners and the spread of HIV among them in the cities of Dayton and Columbus, Ohio. Findings are reported on some 253 subjects in Dayton and 164 subjects in Columbus. The sample in each city was predominantly black males, with a mean age of 36 years. In both cities, the reservoir of HIV infection remains quite low among IVDAs and sex partners. In Dayton among 330 tested, only 1.11% were seropositive; in Columbus among 392 tested, 1.53% tested positive for the AIDS virus. The paper discusses these findings from the perspectives of the epidemiology of the HIV, needle-use patterns, and lifestyles of the region's IVDAs and sex partners.
Venous Envy: The Importance of Having Functional Veins
Authors: Page J. Bryan , Smith Prince C.
Published: November 2015

Examination of historical background on injection of mind-altering drugs indicates that self-injection is a relatively young form of drug -taking behavior. Its antiquity is less than 150 years, and its intravenous variant may have as little as sixty years of popularity among illegal drug users. This perspective, combined with data gathered from IVDUs recruited in two projects in Dade County, Florida, concludes that commitment to introducing drugs into the vein is central to the cultural complex surrounding IV drug use. Needle use practices in this context appear to be changeable if intervention is based on clear ethnographic understanding of injection behavior.
Needle Sharing among Male Prostitutes: Preliminary Findings of the Prospero Project
Authors: Waldorf Dan , Murphy Sheigla , Lauderback David , Reinarman Craig , Marotta Toby
Published: November 2015

To date there is only sketchy information about the needle-sharing practices of IV drug users. This article reviews the existing literature on needle-sharing practices and presents quantitative findings on IV drug use, needle-sharing practices and the utilization of shooting galleries of male sex workers. Self-reports of 178 street hustlers, male prostitutes who sell sexual favors in public places, indicate a high incidence of IV drug use, particularly methamphetamines, cocaine and heroin. They also report considerable syringe sharing, as well and needle sharing in social settings such as shooting galleries, bath houses and sex clubs. Pragmatic issues, such as availability of syringes and convenience, are said to be the principle reasons to share needles. Race and ethnicity were not important factors for this group. It would appear from this preliminary data that a sizeable percentage of street hustlers in San Francisco are at risk to contract the HIV virus because of their needle-sharing practices.
Drinking in the Dorms: A Study of the Etiquette of RA-Resident Relations
Authors: Rubington Earl
Published: November 2015

A legal drinking age of twenty may bisect the population of a freshman residence hall into a category of those who may drink legally and those who may not. Residential assistants, principal agents of social control in dormitories, confront a difficult task when charged with enforcing the college drinking rules under these social conditions. The present exploratory study, based on interviews with residential assistants in two freshmen residence halls, examines how RAs (residential assistants) defined, interpreted, and enforced the drinking rules during one academic year. Preliminary results suggest that through the process of mutual socialization an etiquette of RA-resident relations evolves. In effect, RAs “teach” residents on their home floors to break rules with discretion. The drinking habits of individual RAs along with architectural differences in two residential halls studies makes for two different variations in the etiquette of RA-resident relations.
A Public Health Approach to Demand Reduction
Authors: Erickson Patricia G.
Published: November 2015

Illegal drugs carry the potential for harm, and as such must be subject to some form of societal regulation. Although the high costs and dubious benefits of prohibitionist policies are well documented, it would not be useful to abandon present legal controls simply from frustration or a sense of defeat. Positive alternatives must be provided. A major objective of social policy is to find means by which to minimize health and safety risks at the lowest level of social costs. A challenge of the 1990s is to implement and test a comprehensive public health model for effective control of demand for illicit drugs.
Drug Taxes and Tax Rates: Politics, Efficiency or Justice?
Authors: Mitchell Chester N.
Published: November 2015

Tax controls are one of the leading alternatives to drug prohibition. The impact, success and acceptability of drug taxes depends, however, on which tax model is applied. This article examines political, economic and legal drug tax models and concludes that a retributive model, which is similar to an efficiency-based tax, is the best choice. The article examines revenue potential and considers how drug tax monies should be spent. Criticisms of tax controls are also considered.
Essential Factors of a Rational Policy on Intoxicant Use
Authors: Zinberg Norman E. , Shaffer Howard J.
Published: November 2015

We have outlined the elements of a social policy that could deal effectively with the drug problem. These elements include (1) treating drug abusers in areas other than just their drug abuse; (2) providing more accurate information in drug education programs; (3) providing a series of symbolic but genuine gestures that indicate our society is willing to make real changes; and (4) coordinating these measures with more pragmatic and swift law enforcement. This policy would not end drug use. Nothing can do that. Neither would it be a surrender nor just a repetition of an old policy that has not worked.
On Avoiding Folly
Authors: Beyerstein Barry L. , Hadaway Patricia F.
Published: November 2015

Inability to acknowledge the failure of the War On Drugs and repeated escalations of the war in spite of clear evidence of futility are analyzed front the perspective of research in cognitive and social psychology. Research into individual and group processes that foster flawed decisions and persistence in doomed ventures is presented to help explain how current drug policy developed and to warn reformers that they too could become trapped in inflexible, unworkable approaches to drug problems.
Discourses on Drug Use: The Social Construction of a Steroid Scandal
Authors: Blackwell Judith
Published: November 2015

At the 1988 Olympic games, a urine test on Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson left him bereft of his gold medal and nullified his record-breaking time in the 100-meter event. Immediate media reactions to this affair, shaping the popular discourse surrounding it, were distorted by the ideological constructs of the Olympic games philosophy. A national inquiry into the use of performance-enhancing substances in sports focused unyielding attention to details of the reality of Canada's athletes who had used drugs. This initiated a conceptual shift into a more familiar discourse, the demonic perspective on illicit drug use. This is a notoriously unproductive framework for policy analysis. Consequently, potentially instructive parallels among drugs on the street, drugs in medicine and drugs in sports were obscured.

Reality is socially defined. But the definitions are always embodied, that is, concrete individuals and groups of individuals serve as definers of reality. To understand the state of the socially constructed universe at any given time, or its change over time, one must understand the social organization that permits the definers to do their defining (Berger and Luckmann 1967:134).
Kids, Crack, and Crime
Authors: Inciardi James A. , Pottieger Anne E.
Published: November 2015

As part of a larger study, 254 crime-involved youths in Miami were interviewed on the street about their drug use, crimes and – in more detail – experiences with crack-cocaine. In this strongly drug- and crime–involved sample, greater participation in the crack business was clearly associated with not only more crack use and more drug sales, but also more frequent use of other drugs and more crimes against property and persons. The criminogenic influence of the crack trade is discussed in relation to both media reports and the classic drugs/crime pattern first identified for heroin users.
Narcotics Addiction: Related Criminal Careers, Social and Economic Costs
Authors: Deschenes Elizabeth Piper , Anglin M. Douglas , Speckart George
Published: November 2015

A sample of 279 male heroin addicts admitted to methadone maintenance programs in Southern California, interviewed between 1978 and 1980, reported high rates of drug trafficking and over 250,000 property crime-days, which resulted in 6,251 arrests. Analyses indicate that offense rates and related social and economic costs were at their highest during periods of addiction. The aggregate cost to society, including criminal justice system and drug treatment intervention, is conservatively estimated at $85 million, averaging $20,000 per subject per year. These findings provide an empirical basis against which to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of alternative interventions.
A Classification of Narcotic Addicts Based on Type, Amount and Severity of Crime
Authors: Nurco David N. , Hanlon Thomas E. , Balter Mitchell B. , Kinlock Timothy W. , Slaght Evelyn
Published: November 2015

Structured, confidential interviews were conducted with 250 male narcotic addicts attending methadone maintenance treatment centers in Baltimore and New York City during 1983 and 1984. Detailed information was obtained regarding the type and amount of criminal activity committed during periods of addiction to narcotics. These data were factor analyzed, and results of the factor analysis were subsequently used to derive a typology of narcotic addicts. Numerical taxonomic methods yielded nine types. Descriptions of types, in terms of the kind, amount, and severity of criminal activity, and the relationship of the resulting classification to demographic and background characteristics are provided. Implications of the findings for social policy makers are discussed.
Attitudes of Personnel Managers toward Substance Abuse Policies
Authors: Kohut Gary F. , Geurin Virginia T.
Published: November 2015

Substance abuse has been identified as one of the major problems in business and industry. While companies have been attempting to address the problem through policies and programs, little has been done empirically to examine the issue.

This study investigated the perceptions of personnel managers toward substance abuse policies in the Fortune 500. Results indicate a high level of satisfaction with present policies, but suggest that the communication about them throughout the company is inadequate.

Recommendations for modifications follow: avoid overreacting, implement the program slowly and involve legal counsel at an early stage. Furthermore, they suggest involving employees and top management from policy development to implementation. Finally, they recommend that treatment be emphasized over punishment.
Familial and Individual Functioning in a Sample of Adult Cocaine Abusers
Authors: Kang Sung-Yeon , Kleinman Paula H. , Todd Thomas , Kemp John , Lipton Douglas S.
Published: November 2015

This paper examines the relationships between individual and familial functioning among adult cocaine abusers, using the FACES III scales to determine family functioning, and the Beck Depression Inventory, the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-90, and SCID to determine individual functioning. The correlations between family cohesion and the three different measures of psychological impairment consistently show that persons who are psychologically the most functional are part of the most cohesive families, while the relationships between adaptability and the measures of psychological functioning are found to be inconsistent. The Olson “circumplex” model hypothesis is not confirmed for families in this sample.
Social Constructions of Bleach in Combating Aids among Injection Drug Users
Authors: Broadhead Robert S.
Published: November 2015

Following decades of corporate strategy promoting common household bleach as essential for peoples' health and happiness, a use for bleach was finally discovered in 1986 that actually achieved life-saving proportions for a certain population: injection drug users in preventing the spread of AIDS. Since then, substantial promotional efforts have surfaced – corporate, governmental, and community-based – to downplay or obstruct the public definition of bleach as a major AIDS prevention weapon. An analysis is offered of four competing social constructions of bleach that have emerged since 1986: bleach as a public health breakthrough; bleach as a liability; bleach as an endorsement for drug abuse; and bleach as a social policy copout.
Does Phencyclidine (PCP) Use Increase Violent Crime?
Authors: Kinlock Timothy W.
Published: November 2015

Phencyclidine (PCP) has obtained a notorious reputation for provoking violent behavior. Because of this reputation and a number of methodological weaknesses in PCP-violence studies, the recent research literature on the relationship between PCP use and violent crime was reviewed. Studies were organized according to types of subjects studied (PCP users in treatment; PCP users in the criminal justice system; and PCP users at large in the community). Within each category, studies were evaluated in terms of the logical rigor of their research design and measurement. Of the three categories, investigations involving PCP users in the criminal justice system tended to have fewest problems. However, methodological weaknesses in some studies and contradictory findings in others did not allow one to adequately answer the question of whether PCP use increased violent crime. Unanswered questions and suggested directions for future research in the PCP-violence field are presented.
The st. Oswald's Day Celebrations: “Carnival” versus “Sobriety” in an Australian Drug Enthusiast Group
Authors: Dance Phyll , Mugford Stephen
Published: November 2015

“St. Oswald's Day” is celebrated each year in Canberra, Australia, in a day devoted to drug using and excess. “St. Oswald” is an invention of a group of illicit drug users, who parody orthodox religion and satirise straight society in the celebration. The group are drug enthusiasts — that is, while not dependent users of any illicit drug their drug use, in both its variety and intensity, is much more than recreational. Drawing on both interview data with twenty-seven “Oswaldians” and participant observation with the group, the article outlines the nature of St. Oswald's Day, followed by a discussion of the methods used and of the group itself. It is shown that the group, while very unconventional, exhibits social solidarity and organisation, in strong contrast to the images of anomie, disorganisation and pathology emphasised in conventional accounts of drug use. The article closes by discussing how St. Oswald's Day confronts the “sobriety” of modern society (an epitomisation of the Protestant Ethic) with an image of “carnival” (epitomising the Hedonist Ethic) and suggests that much conventional treatment of drug use is blind to questions of historical context and social structure.
Research into Brief Interventions for Excessive Alcohol Consumers and Cigarette Smokers in Australia
Authors: Heather Nick , Richmond Robyn
Published: November 2015

Over the past five years there has been a strong move toward the development, evaluation and implementation of brief interventions for smokers and excessive drinkers. In this article we review some of the issues related to brief interventions which include: the range of the methods used, the channels and settings of their delivery, the evidence available for their effectiveness, and some recent research priority-setting exercises. We conclude with likely further directions.
Community Control and Liquor Licensing: A Public Health Issue in New Zealand
Authors: Stewart Liz , Casswell Sally
Published: November 2015

Community interest in controlling the sale and supply of alcohol and reducing alcohol-related problems has seen a number of responses in New Zealand and elsewhere. These have included the growth of popular temperance movements last century, sometimes accompanied by votes for national or local prohibition. In some regions in New Zealand the local population instituted community-owned licensing trusts to operate licensed premises upon restoring alcohol sales to their districts. Government reviews of licensing law have responded to public dissatisfaction with drinking conditions. A recent substantial review of the sale of liquor in the late 1980s revived public interest in the control of alcohol. Submissions from a public health perspective concentrated on restricting access. The final legislation, however, saw a liberalising of availability and deregulation of the licensing system. Nevertheless, emphasis is given to the control of alcohol-related problems, highlighted in the object of the act. The response of licensing and enforcement agencies to that objective will have important implications for the control of problems in the community.
Community Alcohol Action Programme Evaluation in New Zealand
Authors: Duignan Paul , Casswell Sally
Published: November 2015

This article is concerned with two evaluations of community alcohol action programmes in New Zealand. The first programme was a demonstration programme using a quasi-experimental design to examine the effect of a media campaign and alcohol community organisers in provincial New Zealand cities for a two-year period in the early 1980s. The second was a project run in one city for three months in 1987, consisting of enforcement of drunk -driving laws and community coordination. This article sets out a summary of the programmes; distinguishes between evaluation of demonstration programmes versus other potentially less research-driven programmes; highlights the importance of an individual assessment of what evaluation is appropriate for any such programme; and stresses using a range of appropriate formative, process and outcome evaluation methods right across the lifecycle of a programme.
Types of New Zealand Drinkers and Their Associated Alcohol-Related Problems
Authors: Martin Carey , Wyllie Allan , Casswell Sally
Published: November 2015

Alcohol consumption and contextual data collected from a sample of 983 men and 894 women were analysed using multivariate statistical methods in an attempt to identify different types of drinkers. The sample was derived from three thousand face-to-face interviews randomly conducted in Auckland, the major metropolitan centre of New Zealand. The multivariate analysis was based on those who had consumed alcohol in the week preceding their interview. Factor analysis was used as a form of data reduction, while cluster analysis was used to assign individuals into groups characterised by particular aspects of their drinking practices that were different from average. The clusters were cross-tabulated by demographic and alcohol-related problem variables. Twelve male and ten female clusters were identified. The choice of target clusters for health promotion activities is discussed.
A Factor Analytic Approach to Modeling Aids Risk Behaviors among Heterosexual Injection Drug Users
Authors: Booth Robert , Watters John K.
Published: November 2015

To assess the underlying association of sexual and injection risk behaviors, found in earlier research to be related to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a factor analytic approach was used with a sample of 296 heterosexual drug injectors from three cities. The analysis produced seven factors accounting for 69% of the variance. The content of the factors and their inter-correlations revealed them to be highly discrete from one another, an indication of the heterogeneity of individuals engaging in these risk activities. The utility of this approach as a tool to assess risk was demonstrated through the profiling of individual participants in the study. Results suggested the need for individualized strategies with this target population of drug injectors.
Risk Behavior for HIV Infection of Intravenous Drug Users and Their Sexual Partners Recruited from Street Settings in Philadelphia
Authors: Liebman Jon , Mulia Nina , McIlvaine Deborah
Published: November 2015

We investigated needle use and sexual risk behavior for HIV infection and transmission among 723 intravenous drug users (IVDUs) and 113 non-IVDU sexual partners of IVDUs recruited from street settings in Philadelphia. We found a very high prevalence of risk behavior among both IVDUs and their sex partners, and considerable sexual interaction between these two groups and the larger community of non-IVDUs. Study participants were fairly knowledgeable about AIDS, yet inaccurately perceived themselves to be at low risk for infection. In spite of this, a substantial minority of both groups have incorporated risk reduction behaviors, such as the use of bleach for needle sterilization and condoms, suggesting that some AIDS prevention efforts are already being undertaken by drug users who are not in treatment.
Treatment Fees and Retention on Methadone Maintenance
Authors: Maddux James F. , Prihoda Thomas J. , Desmond David P.
Published: November 2015

Several reports have suggested that required treatment fees impair retention on methadone maintenance. In a controlled study, 152 illicit opioid users admitted to methadone maintenance were randomly assigned to fee or nofee status. The fee subjects were required to pay a fee of $2.50per day and the no-fee subjects were required to pay nothing. Elimination of fees significantly increased retention. Only 34% of the fee subjects but 54% of the no-fee subjects were retained for one year. Of those retained for one year, the fee subjects and the no-fee subjects showed only small and nonsignificant differences on urine test results and measures of social performance. Interviews per month with caseworker were inversely related to retention. Increased interviews and decreased retention may both have reflected treatment problems of subjects.
Antidrug Legislation in Italy: Historical Background and Present Status
Authors: Di Gennaro Giuseppe
Published: November 2015

Antidrug legislation in Italy is examined since its origin. The historical and political issues which have influenced past decisions are examined and evaluated in their practical consequences. The 1975 legislation, which brought in force the concept of “modica quantità,” was a very advanced form of legislation, which did not survive mainly for political reasons. The 1990 modification of this law, however, has been rejected by a national referendum; as of this time, clear regulations have not been enacted.
The Criminal Responsibility of Drug and Alcohol Abusers
Authors: Ferracuti Stefano , Marasco Maurizio
Published: November 2015

This article examines how the Italian legal system regulates the criminal responsibility of persons who have committed offenses while under the influence of drugs or alcohol. It points out the legal system's limitations and the options available to the expert in the context of decision-making by the forensic psychiatrist. In general, Italian law regards persons who have committed offenses while under the influence of drugs as fully criminal responsible. It excludes only those whose acts relate to involuntary consumption or to a state of severe chronic intoxication. It equates the consumption of drugs to the consumption of alcohol, and gives the court the option of judging such behaviors as socially dangerous, thus opening the gates of special criminal mental institutions. The overall result is far from satisfactory and new and revised legislation is badly needed.
Evaluation of Needle Exchange Using Street-Based Survey Methods
Authors: Guydish Joseph , Clark George , Garcia Delia , Bucardo Jesus
Published: November 2015

This paper describes the demographic and drug use characteristics, and levels of HIV-related risk behavior, for a sample of injection drug users (N=50) participating in the San Francisco needle exchange program. Exchange patrons were recruited as they approached the street-based exchange program, and were interviewed immediately to minimize drop-out. Clients reported high levels of satisfaction with exchange services, and many reported decreasing HIV risk behavior since participating in the exchange. Regular participation in the exchange was associated with lower levels of HIV risk behavior, but number of months since first visiting the exchange was not. Participation in needle exchange may negatively impact drug use behavior for a small minority of clients, and this issue warrants further study.
Perceptions of Intoxication and Impairment at Arrest among Adults Convicted of Driving under the Influence of Alcohol
Authors: Lewis Matthew W. , Merz Jon F. , Hays Ron D. , Nicholas Ronald
Published: November 2015

Making the decision to drive after drinking potentially involves assessing personal levels of intoxication and impairment. This paper reports driving under the influence (DUI) convictees' recalled perceptions of their intoxication, impairment, and reported blood alcohol concentration (BAC) on the day or night of their arrest. Respondents' recalled levels of intoxication and impairment corresponded to their reported BAC across self-labeled categories of drinking patterns. No significant differences in these perceptions were found by gender or age. A factor analysis revealed, among other things, a factor for “cogent risk-taking” on the part of many drivers: People were aware of their level of intoxication and impairment and still drove. We propose a simple model of the stages and decisions leading to a DUI episode. We conclude by examining how the data informs the model and by discussing directions for future research and potential future interventions.
Living and Dying in an Employee Assistance Program
Authors: Denzin Norman K.
Published: November 2015

A contextual natural history, case study analysis of what happened to an Employee Assistance Program (EAP) at Midwestern University is offered. Personal narratives depicting the consequences of this change are presented and analyzed.