bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Zines
Authors: Rauch Jennifer
Published: September 2017

A
zine
is an independent publication produced by an individual or collective on a low budget and distributed on a small scale primarily for personal, artistic, or social aims rather than for profit. Because zine communities arise outside of mainstream media systems, they represent ways in which people understand and engage with media that diverge from consumer capitalism. While there is some question as to whether modern self‐publishing can foster social change, scholars (as well as zine producers themselves) have observed that many common practices of zine culture are guided by democratic ideals of expression, inclusion, and participation.
Battle at Old Market Square, Winnipeg, 1934
Authors: Loewen Helmut‐Harry
Published: September 2017

The event that has come to be known as the Battle at Old Market Square is a part of Winnipeg's tradition of anti‐fascist resistance that has been all but forgotten until recently. On June 5, 1934, hundreds of anti‐fascist protesters fought with members of a Canadian fascist organization that mounted a public provocation aimed at the organized labor movement, Jews, and minority communities. After the clashes of that day, no fascist group in the city would ever find itself in a position to mount such public campaigns of discrimination. The lessons of Market Square resonated generations later when anti‐racist youth in Winnipeg recognized the importance of those events of the 1930s.
Bayer, Osvaldo (b. 1927)
Authors: Prunetti Alberto
Published: September 2017

Osvaldo Bayer is an Argentinian writer, historian, and anarchist. His work has been important to the overturning of several stereotypes of Argentinian anarchism and political immigration, while his activism has played a significant role in the fight for human rights and indigenous rights in Argentina. In 1963 Bayer was sentenced to 63 days' imprisonment for expressing his opinions about Argentine history. In 1970 he published his novel
Severino Di Giovanni
, the story of the Italian illegalist executed in 1931. The first volume of
Patagonia Rebelde
appeared in 1972, reconstructing a long revolutionary strike in Patagonia that ended with the murder of hundreds of revolutionaries in 1921.
Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770–1827)
Authors: Herscher Walter R.
Published: September 2017

Ludwig van Beethoven was a revolutionary nineteenth‐century German composer of classical and romantic music. Born in Bonn, Germany, Beethoven moved to Vienna, Austria, while in his teens. Living in Vienna during Emperor Joseph II's reforms, Beethoven often discussed liberal ideas, including those of the French Revolution, but his friendship with aristocrats, who were also needed as patrons, probably softened his politics. He espoused liberal ideas while accepting aristocratic patronage, and he remained friends with individual aristocrats while criticizing the aristocracy.
Belgium, 1959 Coal Strike
Authors: Verschueren Nicolas
Published: September 2017

In February 1959 a major revolt took place in the Borinage, the oldest coalfield in Belgium. Aware of the structural problems of the coal mines, the Belgian government had joined with France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany in an agreement to pool coal and steel resources through the Schuman Plan. With the prospect of the Common Market, Belgian coal, compared to other coal partners, was at a disadvantage. In fact, the price of coal was much higher in Belgium than in Germany or the Netherlands. Brought on by the resulting closure of the Borinage pits, this spontaneous movement marked the first sign of the unavoidable decline of the coal industry in Europe and was the first major social crisis since the start of the European Coal and Steel Community.
Belize, General Strikes, 1952
Authors: Brett Edward T.
Published: September 2017

The 1952 general strike in British Honduras played an important part in the colony's struggle for independence from British rule in that it increased the national appeal of the People's United Party (PUP), the organization that would eventually win independence for Belize.
Belize, National Independence Movement
Authors: Brett Edward T.
Published: September 2017

Belize gained full independence from Great Britain in 1981, but only after a struggle that lasted nearly a half‐century. When the English settled Belize (officially called British Honduras until 1973) the colonial government created a socio‐economic structure that assured lumber companies a cheap source of labor. The Belize Estate and Produce Company (BEC), for instance, was granted ownership to about one‐third of the colony's territory and refused to lease or sell any of its land for agricultural use. This meant that most men had little choice but to work for extremely low wages as loggers for the BEC. Salaries ranged from about $12 to $15 per month throughout the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth. Furthermore, through a variety of unjust company practices that robbed workers of the little they made, most were forced into constant debt and therefore obligated to perpetually work for the logging company. Loggers who attempted to leave their jobs before fulfilling the terms of their contracts or before paying off their debts were subject to imprisonment. The Great Depression, coupled with a devastating hurricane in 1931, only made the plight of Belizean workers and their families worse. Less global demand for Belizean lumber and other products meant large‐scale unemployment, which in turn brought many to the verge of starvation.
Benezet, Anthony (1713–1784)
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: September 2017

In 1750 a minor revolution took place among the Philadelphia Quakers that eventually eliminated slavery within the community. The most active and visible proponent of this revolution was Anthony Benezet, whose impassioned publications and personal good works put him at the forefront of change in colonial America and Great Britain. Born a French Huguenot, Benezet was educated in London and immigrated to Philadelphia at the age of 18. There he joined the Society of Friends.
Ben‐Gurion, David (1886–1973) and the Haganah
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

David Ben‐Gurion was one of the three principal leaders of the Zionist movement along with Theodor Herzl and Chaim Weizmann. He helped to found the Haganah, the precursor of the Israeli army, and served as Israel's first prime minister. He is considered by many Israelis to be the founder of his country.
Benjamin, Walter (1892–1940)
Authors: Löwy Michael
Published: September 2017

Walter Benjamin, born in Berlin on July 15, 1892 to a German Jewish middle‐class family, occupies a unique place in the history of modern revolutionary thought: he was the first Marxist to break radically with the ideology of progress. His thinking has therefore a distinct critical quality that sets his apart from the dominant and “official” forms of historical materialism.
Berkman, Alexander (1870–1936)
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: September 2017

Alexander Berkman was a leading US and Russian anarchist activist and author from the 1890s to his death in 1936. Born Ovsei Osipovich Berkman in Vilnius, Lithuania in 1870, Berkman moved to the US at age 16 following the death of his parents. He ardently embraced anarchism and syndicalism following the Chicago Haymarket Tragedy in 1886 and through his association with his lover, Emma Goldman. In the pages of his own journal
Blast
(1915–17) Berkman consistently advocated direct action and political violence as critical acts of “propaganda of the deed,” a notion that individual acts of violence could encourage mass uprisings.
Berlinguer, Enrico (1922–1984)
Authors: Stampacchia Mauro
Published: September 2017

Enrico Berlinguer was secretary of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) from 1972 to his sudden death in 1984. He strongly influenced his party by proposing “historical compromise” and “Eurocommunism,” but failed to succeed politically in both goals. Berlinguer was born in Sassari on the island of Sardinia on May 25, 1922, to a liberal democratic, anti‐fascist family that was actively involved in politics. Young Enrico enrolled in the PCI in 1943, and three years later joined the Central Committee in Sassari. From 1949 to 1956 Berlinguer headed the Young Communist Federation. He was elected deputy in 1968 and vice‐secretary of the PCI at the 12th Congress, when serving PCI secretary Luigi Longo's health was in decline.
Bernstein, Eduard (1850–1932)
Authors: Steger Manfred B.
Published: September 2017

Eduard Bernstein was a leading German social democratic politician and theorist. His life is a microcosmic reflection of the first century of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). Like the German labor movement itself, Bernstein started out as a socialist eclectic, then he “converted” to Marxist orthodoxy only to return to an eclectic position which, enriched by Marxist theory, nonetheless espoused a non‐revolutionary, democratic socialism that recognized Marxism only as one among several important theoretical sources. Reviled by his enemies as a “traitor of the working class” and celebrated by his supporters as a “champion of democracy,” Bernstein contributed more than any other pre‐World War I socialist theorist to the conceptual framework of twentieth‐century European social democracy.
Betances, Ramón Emeterio (1827–1898)
Authors: Staudenmaier Michael
Published: September 2017

Ramón Emeterio Betances was a prominent Puerto Rican nationalist and social reformer during the latter half of the nineteenth century. He is considered by some to be the “father of the nation” as a result of his leadership of the early struggle for independence from Spain. His greatest fame came as a central organizer of the insurrection later known as the “Grito de Lares” (Cry of Lares), a seminal uprising against Spanish rule in 1868. Betances also campaigned actively for the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico, which was finally achieved in 1873, eight years after the end of the US Civil War. Throughout, he was an ardent internationalist, working closely with radicals throughout the Caribbean, in the United States, and further afield in Europe.
Bezerra, Gregório (1900–1983)
Authors: Macedo Rogério Fernandes
Published: September 2017

Gregório Lourenço Bezerra was born in 1900 in Pernambuco, Brazil. In 1917, he participated in demonstrations in support of the Bolshevik Revolution as well as in the first general strikes for labor rights in Brazil, being arrested for the first time. In 1922 he joined the army, where he was taught to read and write. In 1929 he enrolled in the Sergeant School in Rio de Janeiro, and a year later he joined the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB). He was a leader of the National Alliance for Liberty (ANL), founded in 1935. After the movement's defeat, he was arrested and condemned to 27 years in prison. He received amnesty in 1945, went back to Pernambuco, and presented himself as a PCB candidate for the Federal Congress. In 1948, after the PCB had become illegal, his mandate was abrogated. Bezerra fought for agrarian reform and for rural labor organization. After the military seized power in 1964, he dedicated himself to organizing the rural army's struggle; however, he was arrested and publicly tortured on television. In 1969 Bezerra was exchanged for US ambassador Charles B. Elbrick, who had been kidnapped by the October 8 Revolutionary Movement (MR8). He went into exile in Mexico and the USSR, where he lived for ten years, before returning to Brazil in 1979 and leaving the PCB Central Committee. On October 23, 1983, he died in the city of São Paulo.
Bhutan, Protest and Revolt
Authors: Lubitz Leonard H.
Published: September 2017

The modern history of Bhutan can be described as a period replete with internecine fighting as this so‐called hermit kingdom's powerful figures have constantly sought to dominate their fellow citizens. Historically, this mountainous nation, which is similar in size to Switzerland, has a society dominated by clergy and wealthy landowners. The balance of the population were primarily free peasants (
kheap
), some of whom owned land, and who survived as subsistence farmers, who paid their heavy taxes to the local rulers through both currency and service. Additionally, a small portion of the population included slaves (
zasen
) and serfs, the former whose ancestors were captured in India.
Biermann, Wolf (b. 1936)
Authors: Bloem Filip
Published: September 2017

The singer‐songwriter and poet Wolf Biermann was one of the most prominent socialist dissidents of the communist regime in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). His expulsion from the country in 1976 for supporting democratization and greater individual freedom in the socialist system sparked a flood of protests among leftist dissidents in the GDR and throughout Germany.
Black Nationalism, 19th and 20th Centuries
Authors: Scharenberg Albert
Published: September 2017

As a general idea, Black Nationalism is present where African people live – on the continent as well as in its diaspora. As a social movement, however, it first surfaced about two centuries ago and has mostly been associated with the African American resistance tradition and the fight against racism and oppression in the United States. Theoretically, it can be conceptualized as a minority's “nationalism of liberation,” and politically it may be articulated either as a progressive or a reactionary program.
B
lack
P
anthers
Authors: Williams Yohuru
Published: September 2017

Born out of diverse elements of protest in the late 1960s, including the civil rights movement, a parallel Black Power movement, and third world liberation struggles, the Black Panther Party (BPP) emerged in Oakland, California in October 1966. The Panthers articulated a program that called for Marxist revolution as a remedy for the unequal distribution of wealth and rampant racism they saw at the core of American society. Through their Ten Point Program its leaders Huey Newton (1942–89) and Bobby Seale (b. 1936) demanded full employment for the black community, education reform, armed patrols of the police to insure the defense and safety of black people, and in a final summary, land, bread, peace, and justice.
Black September
Authors: Alexander Kristian Patrick
Published: September 2017

Often referred to as the “era of regrettable events,” Black September draws its lineage from the consequences of the Arab‐Israeli War of 1948 and the exodus of more than half a million Palestinian refugees to Transjordan. After the annexation of the West Bank that same year, King Abdullah of Jordan had to account for an additional 400,000 Palestinians now settled in his territory, shifting Jordan's total population to two‐thirds Palestinian. This set the stage for future clashes between a politicized majority of discontented Palestinians and the Jordanian monarchy.
Blake, William (1757–1827)
Authors: Ganev Robin
Published: September 2017

William Blake is considered one of the first and most important Romantic poets. His poetry and art are uniquely powerful and expressive against the background of elite, genteel, eighteenth‐century culture. Influenced partially by the Bible, Blake created his own mythology and his own imaginary world. Underappreciated in his own time, he was rediscovered in the 1860s and has had an immense influence on succeeding generations of poets, artists, and political radicals.
Blanc, Louis (1811–1882)
Authors: Tholoniat Yann
Published: September 2017

Jean‐Joseph‐Charles‐Louis Blanc was a French politician and historian who played an integral role in the Revolution of 1848 and its aftermath in France, emerging as an important spokesman for socialism. Born in Madrid, Spain, he was the son of a general tax inspector of King Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother. Blanc went to Paris in 1830 to study law after his family had been ruined by the Revolution of 1830. He worked two years in Arras as a private tutor and as a freelance journalist for
Le Progrès du Pas‐de‐Calais
.
Bloch, Marc (1886–1944)
Authors: Crane Richard Francis
Published: September 2017

Marc Bloch was a historian, soldier, and a member of the French Resistance during World War II. He was an influential founder of the Annales school of social and economic history, which reached prominence in the middle of the twentieth century, as well as the author of the posthumously published
Strange Defeat
, a seminal account of the 1940 fall of France to Nazi Germany. A veteran of both world wars, and a patriot devoted to French democracy, Bloch ultimately gave his life in the French Resistance.
Bloody Sunday Demonstration, 1887
Authors: Keller Lisa
Published: September 2017

Bloody Sunday was the nickname given to a violent confrontation between demonstrators and police in Trafalgar Square, London on Sunday, November 13, 1887. The clash occurred when more than 4,000 police and hundreds of special constables and armed soldiers attempted to block tens of thousands of people from protesting against unemployment and asserting free speech rights. The word “Bloody” reflects British intolerance of unjustified civil force and of public casualties. By most standards, violence was limited: three fatal injuries occurred, 75 people were hospitalized, and 50 people arrested.
Blum, Léon (1872–1950) and the Popular Front
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: September 2017

As the political landscape in Europe evolved in 1934, with the rise of Adolf Hitler and fascist riots in Paris, the French communists began to change their policies. This resulted in a unification of all political parties, left and center, into what became known as the Popular Front in 1935. In June 1936 the Popular Front won a landslide victory in France and chose Léon Blum as its prime minister, which caused an immediate protest by the political right. As the acknowledged leader of France's socialist movement, Blum was willing to shoulder a dual burden which fused a defense of the revolutionary bourgeoisie's democratic vision with a concern for the unique interests of the workers and became perhaps the symbol of the French struggle against fascism.
B
oal,
A
ugusto (b. 1931)
Authors: Schroeder‐Arce Roxanne
Published: September 2017

Brazilian theater activist/theorizer Augusto Boal is best known for his development of the Theater of the Oppressed during the 1950s and 1960s. The primary objective of his life's work was to incite audiences into action, emphasizing the inherent nature of theater and performance. Boal was engaged in theater from a young age, and his earliest professional work was at the Arena Theater in southern Brazil. It was at the Arena where Boal began to explore interactive and political theater, which led to his arrest, torture, and ultimate exile to Argentina in 1971. Greatly influenced by Paulo Freire's book
Pedagogy of the Oppressed
, Boal titled his first text
Theater of the Oppressed
, an exploration of how theater gives voice to subjugated peoples. The book attacked Aristotelian elitist ideals, insisting that the Greek philosopher's theories were coercive, paralyzing people rather than inspiring them to proactive ideas and behavior. Boal's text, eventually translated into 25 languages, shared his preliminary theories on employing theater to foster social change and transformation through protest and activism.
B
olivarianism,
V
enezuela
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

Bolivarianism refers to Simón Bólivar (1783–1830), Venezuelan liberator and general who fought for independence throughout South America and promoted the unification of the continent. Bolivarianism occurred in various South American countries, but its heart and stronghold is in Venezuela, where most movements and the government define themselves as Bolivarian and the transformation process is called Bolivarian Process or Bolivarian Revolution. In twenty‐first‐century Venezuela Bolivarianism has become a set of political ideas and collective experiences and values without a clearly defined program or theoretical framework, and thus is a work in progress rather than a meticulous ideology or theory.
Bolivia, Protest and Repression, 1964–2000
Authors: John S. Sándor
Published: September 2017

The year 1964 marked a turning point for Latin America. In March, a military coup ousted the left‐nationalist regime of João Goulart in Brazil. The Brazilian military junta was heavily backed by the US government, which placed counter‐insurgency at the center of its regional policy, and became a linchpin of the “Southern Cone model” of hard‐line dictatorships using techniques taught at the US Army's School of the Americas then located in the Panama Canal Zone.
Bolivia, War of the Pacific to the National Revolution, 1879–1952
Authors: John S. Sándor
Published: September 2017

In 1879, war broke out, pitting Chile against the alliance of Bolivia and Peru. Bolivia's weak central government had done little to prepare for the conflict, and suffered a decisive defeat. The outcome was the loss of Bolivia's sea‐coast, a national humiliation that would leave the country landlocked and provide material for revanchist agitation up to the present day.
Bolivian Neoliberalism, Social Mobilization, and Revolution From Below, 2003 and 2005
Authors: Hahn Dwight R.
Published: September 2017

The implementation of neoliberal “shock therapy” in 1985 with President Victor Paz Estenssoro's New Economic Policy, through Presidential Decree 21060, followed by privatization via the 1994 Law of Capitalization promoted by President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, had initially turned Bolivia into something of a model for neoliberal development. Among the first of the developing countries to throw out a state‐centered economic development model, Bolivia became an early test case for the effects – economic and political – of relatively rapid neoliberal implementation within the institutional context of an electoral democracy.
Bonaparte, Louis‐Napoleon (1808–1873)
Authors: Harison Casey
Published: September 2017

Louis‐Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, seemed an unlikely heir to his uncle's legacy. Conspirator, politician, and then emperor of France, Louis‐Napoleon established a political system whose closest counterpart is Mussolini's Italy of the twentieth century. Louis‐Napoleon's ambiguous personal and political history has been the subject of scholarly debate ever since.
B
onifacio,
A
ndres (1863–1897)
Authors: Navarro Atoy M.
Published: September 2017

Andres de Castro Bonifacio was a Filipino patriot and revolutionary, considered the “Father of the Philippine Revolution” against Spanish colonialism in the Philippines. Recognized as the leader of the first revolution in Asia and the first independent government of the Philippines, he is regarded as a national hero and his birthday is commemorated as a national holiday known as Bonifacio Day.
B
ookchin,
M
urray (1921–2006)
Authors: Price Andy
Published: September 2017

Murray Bookchin was a political philosopher and activist and the intellectual founder of the school of social ecology. Active in the communist movement of interwar New York City in his youth, he came to argue that the radical remaking of society would require an analysis and a politics that transcended class, and that the ultimate crisis of capitalism would not be economic, as Marxism had held, but ecological.
B
orge,
T
omás (b. 1936)
Authors: Ewald Kerstin
Published: September 2017

Tomás Borge was the only founding member of the Nicaraguan Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) to survive the revolutionary process leading to the Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979. As a socialist activist and guerilla commander within the FSLN, he took part in various steps to overthrow the Somoza regime in Nicaragua, including the unification of the popular movement and a nearly 20‐year‐long guerilla conflict. After the revolution and until his party was deselected in 1990, he was Nicaragua's minister of the interior. After the FSLN was reelected in 2006, he was delegated as the Nicaraguan ambassador to Peru.
Brazil, Peasant Movements and Liberation Theology
Authors: Löwy Michael
Published: September 2017

Liberation theology is the expression of a vast social movement that emerged at the beginning of the 1960s. It is best expressed in a body of writings produced since 1970 by Latin American figures like Gustavo Gutiérrez (Peru), Hugo Assmann, Carlos Mesters, Leonardo and Clodovis Boff, Frei Betto (Brazil), Jon Sobrino, Ignacio Ellacuria (El Salvador), Pablo Richard (Chile/Costa Rica), Ruben Dri (Argentina), and Enrique Dussel (Argentina/Mexico) – to name only some of the best known. The theology began to emerge, however, well before these writers began to describe it. It involves significant sectors of the church (priests, religious orders, bishops), lay religious movements (Catholic Action, Christian University Youth, Young Christian Workers), popularly based pastoral networks (workers pastoral, peasants pastoral, urban pastoral), ecclesiastic base communities (CEBs), and several popular organizations created by CEB activists: women's clubs, neighborhood associations, and peasant or workers' unions. This social movement helped facilitate the emergence of a new workers' movement in Brazil and the rise of revolutions in Central America and Chiapas.
B
razil, Rebellions from Independence to The Republic (1700s–1889)
Authors: Pinheiro Diogo L.
Published: September 2017

The history of the process through which Brazil achieved independence is unique in the world. It is the only case of a colony becoming the
de facto
head of an empire. Independence was achieved almost bloodlessly in 1822, when the son of the Portuguese monarch was crowned Emperor of Brazil. Brazil became a republic in 1889.
Bread and Puppet Theater
Authors: Bennett Terri
Published: September 2017

The politically radical Bread and Puppet Theater was founded in the early 1960s on the Lower East Side in New York City by Peter Schumann, and has been based on a farm in Glover, Vermont since the 1970s. The theater's name stems from its practice of distributing free bread during its performances. Themes of the performances, circuses, or pageants address contemporary social and political issues and serve as a means of communicating information, publicly resisting social injustices, and building community. The act of distributing bread to its audiences is a symbol of a basic tenet of the theater: that art, like bread, is a necessity.
Bread Riots, Britain, 1795
Authors: Davis Michael T.
Published: September 2017

The bread riots of 1795 were a series of extensive disorders in Britain over the scarcity and high price of provisions, especially wheat and bread. Traditionally, food riots tended to be localized and transient in nature, but the bread riots of 1795 and into 1796 were more prolonged and outbreaks occurred in most regions of Britain. Palmer (1988: 141) counts some 74 disturbances in the period 1795–6, which the most significant set of disturbances since the 1760s and 1770s.
Bread and Roses Strike
Authors: Mattina Anne F.
Published: September 2017

The Lawrence, Massachusetts Woolen Mills Strike of 1912, popularly known as the Bread and Roses Strike, had its roots in protective legislation enacted by the state of Massachusetts, reducing the hours of labor for women and children from 56 per week to 54, causing a
de facto
reduction in wages. On January 11, women in the Everett Mills walked out upon discovering their pay was short. By the end of the next week, 10,000 workers had joined them, and by the end of the strike, 30,000 were out.
B
recht,
B
ertolt (1898–1956)
Authors: Green Christina Suszynski
Published: September 2017

Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright, poet, librettist, and dramaturge during the early twentieth century. Born in 1898, in Augsburg, Germany, Brecht lived to be one of the most celebrated and controversial playwrights of his time. The frequency with which his dramas were performed in the 1950s rivaled that of Shakespeare and Schiller in western Europe. Yet the combination of his narrative style, dramaturgical choices, and critical theory earned him more than a few adversaries. Brecht was a proponent of social change through the theater, believing that if he could present the contradictions driving modern Western societies (both politically and socioeconomically), audience members would cease to be passive receivers of empty entertainment, and process such contradictions as a dialectic for the mind to contemplate with seriousness. This process is what Brecht considered to be the removing of the
fourth wall
, a screen of illusion between the performance and the audience. Such a direct relationship with the action of the stage would then, Brecht posited, cause audiences to form connections between the stage and the outside world, leading to uprising action on the street.
B
rigantaggio, 1860–1870
Authors: Coscione Marco
Published: September 2017

The Brigantaggio was a social‐political peasant rebellion concentrated in southern Italy, organized as a form of social banditry that converged into a movement that was ultimately brutally suppressed by the government by military force.
Britain, Post‐World War I Army Mutinies and Revolutionary Threats
Authors: Oram Gerard
Published: September 2017

Following the Bolshevik revolution that overthrew its Russian allies, the British government – increasingly fearful of similar threats – placed responsibility for monitoring and managing “industrial and revolutionary unrest in the United Kingdom” in the hands of the army, a role it would fulfill from the end of 1917 to 1920. As well as civilian unrest, the army's Intelligence Branch (A2) concerned itself with the growth of trade unionism in the army and with the attitude of troops toward labor unrest and strikes (Englander 1987: 24–32). Unlike his wartime equivalent, the postwar soldier was less concerned with his immediate survival and instead looked more to the future – a future in which few envisaged continuing military service – and many were prepared to use collective bargaining to this end. But a great fear developed within the government and A2 surrounding a potentially politicized or revolutionary soldier.
B
ritain, Strikes, 1905–1926
Authors: Rogers Edmund
Published: September 2017

The 1905 bootmakers' march, industrial unrest over 1910–14, and the 1926 General Strike have been perceived as defining moments in British working‐class consciousness, demonstrating labor's capacity to organize to achieve social change, with workers across various trades united in sympathy in shared battles between labor and capital. These strikes were, however, less revolutionary than many writers have recorded.
B
rixton
R
iots, 1981
Authors: Høgsbjerg Christian
Published: September 2017

From April 10 to 12, 1981, about 1,000 Londoners, mainly black youth, fought the police in the Brixton Uprising. The Brixton Riots brought violence to Britain's capital on a level unseen for a century, and saw the first use of petrol bombs against the British state on the streets of Britain. They were the most explosive events in an arc of black‐led but multiracial riots in anger at unemployment, poor housing, and institutional police and state racism that had begun in Bristol in 1980, and would soon spread to engulf Liverpool and other towns and cities of Britain.
B
rown,
J
ohn (1800–1859)
Authors: Hatmaker Amy
Published: September 2017

Believing from a young age that God had destined him to destroy the institution of slavery, John Brown lit the fuse that sparked the American Civil War. He also brought a level of violence to the anti‐slavery campaign that has historians even today debating the morality of his actions and the stability of his mind. The staunchest of abolitionists, he waged a bloody battle against the pro‐slavery forces in the struggle over Kansas and led the failed raid at Harper's Ferry, Virginia.
B
rundtland,
G
ro
H
arlem (
b
. 1939)
Authors: Ribberink Anneke
Published: September 2017

In addition to being a famous prime minister of Norway in the 1980s and 1990s and the director‐general of the World Health Organization (WHO) (1998–2003), Gro Harlem Brundtland was an important leader of the environmental and feminist movements of the 1970s and 1980s. Born in 1939 to a prominent family of social democrats, Gro Harlem grew up with politics. Her father, who became a cabinet minister twice in the 1950s and 1960s, was a physician who taught his children to care about the health of nature and of society. Gro Harlem's parents raised their children in an egalitarian way, without distinguishing between sons and daughters. When Gro Harlem was a mature woman, she was convinced of the equality of men and women and of the social importance of good health. Like her father, she studied medicine and became a physician. As a university student in the early 1960s she discovered that sexism existed in society. Soon she was attracted to the feminist movement arising in that decade. As a physician and as a social democrat she became an active member of the abortion rights movement, helping women who wanted to get an abortion in a time (before 1978) when it was not yet legalized in Norway. Because of her activism in the abortion rights movement and because of the fact that she repeatedly spoke out on environmental subjects, Brundtland was asked to become a cabinet minister for the environment by Prime Minister Trygve Bratteli in 1974. She remained in this position until 1979, when she had to leave Odvar Nordli's cabinet because of her outspoken feminist views.
B
ulgaria, Anti‐Soviet Movements
Authors: Paraskevov Vasil
Published: September 2017

The Soviet declaration of war on Bulgaria on September 5, 1944 and the coup d'état by the Fatherland Front coalition four days later put the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) in control of critical government ministries. With Soviet backing the BCP gradually eliminated their partners in the coalition, suppressed dissent, and consolidated control over the country. Although the initial Fatherland Front coalition had been broadly representative of political factions in Bulgaria, by the end of the Soviet occupation in 1947 political power was concentrated entirely in the BCP, economic resources had been nationalized, and the opposition had been completely suppressed.
B
ulgaria, Independence Movement, 1830–1835
Authors: Todorov Todor
Published: September 2017

Bulgarian nationalism emerged in the early nineteenth century as the Ottoman Empire was beset by pressures domestically and internationally. In 1830 the once‐dominant Ottoman Empire was under pressure from political and economic competition from the colonial expansion of England and France, gradually eroding the apparatus of the Turkish central authorities in Constantinople. Known as the sick man of Europe, the Ottoman Empire's passive partnership with Russia under the Treaty of Hünkär Iskelesi, in which it agreed to control the Dardanelles on Russia's behalf, was just one example of the loss of political power and status within the region.
B
ulgaria, Protests Against Economic Hardships, 1990s
Authors: Paraskevov Vasil
Published: September 2017

In the early 1990s Bulgaria began a slow transition from the former communist state‐directed economy to the market economy. Initially, the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), the former Communist Party, took the responsibility to lead the country after electoral success in the first free elections held in June 1990. However, economic conditions in Bulgaria became worse and undermined the domestic and international prestige of the government led by Andrei Lukanov – in April 1990 the Cabinet stopped payment of the foreign debts of the country, the level of foreign investments was low, and reforms did not begin. Social discontent grew in the autumn of 1990 because of lack of basic foodstuffs. In September queues in the shops began and the government set up coupons for certain foodstuffs. In this situation in November 1990 street protests and strikes began. The demonstrators wanted the resignation of the government. The trade union Podkrepa organized a political strike in the entire country which increased the tension and threatened social turmoil. On November 29, 1990 Lukanov resigned.
B
ulgaria, Social Movements and Institutional Control, 1944–1989
Authors: Deyanova Liliana
Published: September 2017

The two major Bulgarian “revolutions” (or “regime changes”), the transition after the advent of the communist‐controlled government of the Fatherland Front on September 9, 1944, and the post‐communist transition after November 10, 1989, reveal the diverse and often contradictory influences of the country's civil movements through political uses of protest.
Bulgaria 20th‐Century Leftist and Workers' Movements
Authors: Paraskevov Vasil
Published: September 2017

The agrarian and workers' movements were the most significant challenges to the monarchy and bourgeoisie in Bulgarian society in the beginning of the twentieth century. The workers' movement drew upon the Marxist‐social democratic tradition, while the agrarian movement adopted some of the ideological tenets of Marxism, but looked to the peasants rather than factory workers as the source of social and political transformation. Differences in the demographics the movements appealed to, and communist rejection of the agrarian movement because it sought reform within the bourgeois economic system rather than its overthrow, ultimately set the two movements in conflict with one another rather than in alliance against their common enemies.
B
ulgaria, World War II Resistance and the Rise of Communism
Authors: Paraskevov Vasil
Published: September 2017

By 1941 Bulgaria was already strongly allied with Germany. Cultural ties had existed since before World War I, Bulgaria's economy was entwined with Germany's, and Tsar Boris's tight management of political representation and control over elections ensured that the National Assembly was dominated by ministers who shared his own pro‐German sentiments. In 1939 the previous prime minister had declared Bulgaria Germany's “natural ally” since they had both been victims of injustice after the war. Cultural exchanges had been established between the two countries and Nazi‐like celebrations were conducted in Bulgaria. In deference to Hitler, laws imposing restrictions on Jews had been under consideration in Bulgaria since July 1940, and in January 1941 the Law on the Protection of the Nation subjected Bulgarian Jews to many of the disabilities they suffered in Germany. Bulgaria formally joined the Axis powers in March 1941, intending to limit its military involvement to the Balkans and reclaim the territories it had lost in World War I: neither would be the case.
B
urdett,
S
ir
F
rancis (1770–1844)
Authors: Arnold Victoria
Published: September 2017

Sir Francis Burdett was one of the most important reformers of his period. A controversial figure, particularly in his early career, Burdett played a significant and leading role in several of the most popular agitations of the early nineteenth century.
Burma, National Movement Against British Colonial Rule
Authors: Dasgupta Nupur
Published: September 2017

The genesis of the Burmese nationalist movement can be traced to the urban‐elitist Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) movement of 1906. However, Adas (1974), Ghosh (2000), and others have located anti‐British protests in nineteenth‐century rural uprisings, stigmatized as banditry. This changed perception relates to the agency of the vast rural mass in Burma, who lost their political voice over the years under the British military state.
Burschenschaften
Authors: Conn Matthew B.
Published: September 2017

Burschenschaften
refer to German student fraternities or clubs that became politically active following the Napoleonic wars of national liberation. The first political student fraternity formed at Jena on June 12, 1815, and its members sought freedom and national unity. Branches also formed in Berlin, Halle, and Heidelberg. Members demonstrated their nationalism by expressing the motto: “Honor, Freedom, and Fatherland.” They wore traditional German costumes, and adopted the colors worn by patriotic volunteers in the Wars of Liberation – black, red, and gold. Important leaders such as Karl Follen drew inspiration from the French Revolution and its ideals, in particular, popular sovereignty.
Bussa (d. 1816) and the Barbados Slave Insurrection
Authors: Rome Trevor
Published: September 2017

Bussa is the architect of Barbados's African Rebellion of 1816, an uprising that was crushed by the British colonial authorities and failed in the immediate objective of abolishing slavery, but which demonstrated the long‐term effectiveness of popular insurrection in bringing the system to an end. Bussa's Rebellion of 1816 is a signal event in the fight toward emancipation in Barbados.
Cabanagem of Grão‐Pará,Brazil, 1835–1840
Authors: da Silva Newton Ferreira
Published: September 2017

Cabanagem was one of the most important insurrections in Brazil's history. It took place in the province of Grão‐Pará (currently the States of Pará and Amazonas) during the years 1835–40 and is known for the violence implemented in its ruthless suppression, during which 30,000 people – more than 35 percent of Grão‐Pará's population in 1819 – were killed.
Calvin, John (1509–1564)
Authors: Hatmaker Amy
Published: September 2017

John Calvin radically changed religious interpretations, restructured church organizations, and altered the relationship between the church and community governance. He was born July 10, 1509 in Noyon, France to a staunch Roman Catholic family. His father served as a bishop's secretary, and this relationship resulted in Calvin interacting with aristocrats and other influential people. Calvin received a humanist education in Paris. He studied theology and planned for the priesthood until his father requested in 1527 that he study law. That same year he switched to Lutheranism. Calvin completed his law degree in Orléans in 1532. When several of his reformist associates were persecuted for heresy, Calvin fled Paris. HisInstitutes on the Christian Religion, a defense of French Protestants, was published in 1536 in Basel. Following this he planned to move to Strasbourg; however, he was detoured through Geneva where a leading reformist Guillaume Farel used the threat of God's wrath to convince him to stay in Geneva and aid their struggle to make Geneva a Protestant city.
Camejo, Josefa (1791–1862)
Authors: Ross Catherine
Published: September 2017

Josefa Camejo, also known as Doña Ignacia, was born in Curaidebo, Pueblo Nuevo in the province of Coro (Estado Falcón, Venezuela). Admired and honored for her brave role in combating the Spanish colonialists in the nineteenth century, she is one of the main female heroines in Venezuelan history. In 1821 she provoked the so‐called Revolution of Paraguaná which, although having been defeated at the first stage, finally led to the independence declaration of Coro. It was also an encouraging sign for the following Battle of Carabobo, which represented the last core battle on the way to Venezuelan independence in 1821.
Cameroon, Popular Anti‐Colonial Protest
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: September 2017

Cameroon came under French rule in 1919, having been seized from German control during World War I. It remained a Mandate Territory until it was redesignated a Trust Territory after World War II. Of all French controlled territories in sub‐Saharan Africa, it was the most economically viable, with a considerable number of educated elites and imbued with huge French economic and infrastructural investments. Indeed, Cameroon was seemingly a favored territory in the comity of French colonies. Against this backdrop, Cameroon was the territory with the most radical nationalist movement in black Africa and the only one where the French colonial regime was engaged in armed rebellion.
C
anada,
I
ndigenous
R
esistance
Authors: Hall Anthony J.
Published: September 2017

Indigenous peoples have reacted to various forms of colonization and imperialism in Canada with accommodation, adaptation, and resistance. Early on, indigenous resistance to the expropriation of land and the tyranny imposed by European settlers was passive and conciliatory, commonly involving alliances and treaties with the empire‐builders themselves. In time, the governments with whom the First Nations held treaties reneged on their promises; indigenous peoples were forced onto reservations and into Indian boarding schools, and poverty, exploitation, and social iniquity plagued the indigenous communities that had managed to survive. Indigenous resistance during the first half of the twentieth century often involved lobbying and other forms of top‐down political engagement with the state. With the ascendance of the civil rights movement in the 1950s, however, indigenous organizers became more militant in their demands for civil and treaty rights, and more recalcitrant in their methods.
Canada, Law and Public Protest: History
Authors: Ceric Irina
Published: September 2017

Moments of protest and rebellion have always challenged systems of power and authority, but particularly since the rise of the liberal democratic state, laws and legal institutions have mediated the tensions and contradictions between individuals, social movements, and the existing order. In the Canadian context, the ongoing history of law and social protest has been shaped by the evolution of a legal framework inherited from England but continually altered by the demands of settlement and nation building, and more recently, by constitutional rights guarantees. While criminalization of dissent, particularly of street demonstrations and other forms of collective action, remains a key issue in studies of the relationship between law and protest, law has also become a tool of resistance in itself, either in conjunction with or instead of other forms of mobilization.
C
annon,
J
ames
P
. (1890–1974) and American Trotskyism
Authors: Palmer Bryan D.
Published: September 2017

Growing up in Rosedale, Kansas in the 1890s, James P. Cannon was the son of Irish immigrants. But he would have fit comfortably in a Mark Twain novel, his Midwestern twang and homespun aphorisms marking him as very much a native son. By 1911, however, he was a self‐identified professional revolutionary, committed to the creation of a world in which the exploitation of the working class was brought to a decisive halt.
C
árdenas,
L
ázaro (1895–1970)
Authors: Ávila‐Espinosa Felipe Arturo
Published: September 2017

Lázaro Cárdenas del Rio was president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. He was born in Jiquilpan, Michoacan to a rural family. At 18 he joined the Mexican Revolution on the side of the constitutionalist troops and participated in several campaigns in central Mexico. In 1915 he joined the troops of future president Plutarco Elias Calles in Sonora, where they fought Pancho Villa and his followers, the Villistas, until 1917. After Calles gained the presidency, Cárdenas became governor of his home province in 1928 and gained a reputation as a progressive reformer. This reputation carried over into his presidency.
Caribbean Protest Music
Authors: Neely Daniel Tannehill
Published: September 2017

In the West Indies, music plays an important social role. Symbolically, it is a part of how people construct reality and helps give life to both the dominant and oppositional ideological aspects of Caribbean society and culture. As a means for protest and contestation, music plays a particular role by giving voice to the oppressed and helping to develop ideological and social solidarity among those with common values and kindred social identities.