bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biological Theories of Race beyond the Millennium
Authors: Graves Joseph L.
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides historical contextualization of the crisis faced by the social construction approach of race. It reveals that anatomically modern humans are a young species that spent the majority of their existence living in a narrow range of eastern Africa. Indeed the exit of our species has been pushed forward in time from previous estimates. Evolutionary forces of natural selection and genetic drift have differentiated human populations, but this differentiation has been small. Most of the signal of human differentiation occurs in noncoding loci that do not face the force of purifying selection. Within the coding loci, some adaptation to local conditions has occurred. This adaptation does not allow the unambiguous classification of human populations into biological races.
Americans’ Attitudes on Individual or Racially Inflected Genetic Inheritance
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer , Sen Maya
Published: May 2018

This chapter proffers a political science perspective on how Americans view the ways in which genetics affect identity. It lays the groundwork for exploring possible relationships in the eyes of the public between genetics and race, by developing hypotheses based mainly on extrapolations from popular media or American history. Next the chapter introduces a 2011 public opinion survey of approximately 4,000 US adults. The Genomics Knowledge, Attitudes, and Politics Survey includes questions designed to reveal Americans' views about the importance of genetics in explaining various traits, behaviors, and diseases. The chapter then shows that respondents' understanding of the relationships among race, genes, and phenotypes is coherent and sensible (regardless of whether it is right or wrong).
The Constructivist Concept of Race
Authors: Morning Ann
Published: May 2018

This chapter follows up on the issue of the American public's reception of constructivist ideas. Interviews were conducted with anthropologists, biologists, and undergraduate students, and a sample of high school textbooks was consulted due to their better representation of what is being taught to the general public than college-level textbooks. Most of the textbooks transmitted essentialist views of the definition of race. When undergraduate students were asked how they would define race, most equated race with culture or utilized biological descriptions. The professors with essentialist views believe the academics who see race constructively are not real or competent scientists, and vice versa. Because natural sciences hold a prestige advantage over social sciences, essentialism has the upper hand when it comes to perceptions of scientificity.
Genetic Ancestry Tests and Race
Authors: Roth Wendy D. , Lyon Katherine A.
Published: May 2018

This chapter probes genetic ancestry tests, which are being used increasingly by individuals for a number of reasons. Many are seeking ways to fill in gaps in their family tree; some are hoping to assert membership in certain groups or tribes; and others are simply curious. Nearly 500 test-takers filled out an online survey with questions attempting to form a basis of understanding about the types of people who take these tests, why they take them, and the impact the results have on their identity. There are multiple types of tests offered through various companies, including Y-chromosome tests to infer paternal haplogroup; mitochondrial DNA tests to infer maternal haplogroup; and autosomal or admixture tests, which examine nonsex chromosomes inherited from both parents. The majority of respondents claimed that the tests had an impact on some aspect of their life.
Reconsiderations of Race
Authors: Rudrappa Sharmila
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores transnational surrogacy in South Asia. India has become the prime destination for surrogacy for Western couples. It is a quicker and easier legal process than adoption, and it allows the Western parents to raise a child who is genetically similar to one of them. The babies' birth certificates have the commissioning parents' names, with no sign whatsoever of the surrogate mothers' role in the development and birth. In order to take the baby to their home country, the new parents must prove that the child is legally theirs through paternal gene testing. Some parents celebrate their children's Indian roots by way of nicknames or clothing, while others ignore the role of Indian mothers. Although users of transnational surrogacy services are moral pioneers, there is no place for egg donors or surrogate mothers in the nuclear Western family.
Conclusion
Authors: Suzuki Kazuko , von Vacano Diego A.
Published: May 2018

This conclusion discusses a shift in genomics scholarship from disinterest in race to a commitment to understanding race. It describes the issues and misconceptions emerging from this new race-related genomics research. Most of the writers in the field of race and genomics have slowly but inevitably come to the realization that, as social scientists have long known, the disconnect between the data produced by scientific studies and the way these results are interpreted and appropriated by the general public has all the allure of cognitive dissonance. Most scholars start the story of this disconnect with the advent of the very public Human Genome Project under the Clinton administration. The discoveries of the Human Genome Project failed to completely transcend race. After examining both Western and non-Western cases, this chapter illuminates six main points related to the genomics-race interface that should be highlighted in the future study of this area.
Consuming Dance
Authors: Dunagan Colleen T.
Published: May 2018

Consuming Dance examines dance in television and online advertising as both cultural product and cultural meaning-maker. The text interweaves semiotics, choreographic analysis, cultural studies, media studies, and critical theory to place contemporary dance-in-advertising in dialogue with other dance media. Grounding contemporary advertising within media and cultural history, the work both analyzes examples from early television and performs semiotic readings of historical references within later ads. Analysis of individual commercials and campaigns reveals how commercials act as rhizomatic assemblages of cultural history as traditional advertising positioning strategies engage with content, conventions, and discourses from other disciplines and cultural forms. The text explores the power of dance in advertising, examining how it generates affect and spectacle in service of both brand identity and the construction of the commodity-sign. This analysis of dance’s power, in turn, reveals advertising’s intertextuality and its contributions to social identity and the construction of the neoliberal subject. Ultimately, the text highlights advertising’s contradictions, exposing how its appropriation of dance functions as a response simultaneously to marketing needs, shifting ideologies, and growing cultural diversity all while continuing to serve the needs of neoliberal capitalism.
Introduction
Authors: Dunagan Colleen T.
Published: May 2018

Using Gap’s West Side Story campaign as an example, the Introduction lays out dance’s role in television advertising and its relation to key conceptual themes that inform the arguments of later chapters. Key aspects of disciplinary conventions, the function of spectacle in consumer culture, and the concept of affect are introduced. The chapter explains how concepts (e.g., rhizomes, planes of consistency, assemblages, deterritorialization, BwO) from Deleuze and Guattari’s critical theory inform the analysis and structure of the work. The chapter also introduces Lawrence Grossberg’s notion of cultural formations as a model for approaching popular culture as a topic of study and provides details regarding the scope of the study.
Subjectivity and Performative Consumption
Authors: Dunagan Colleen T.
Published: May 2018

Chapter Five addresses how television advertising’s dancing bodies engage in the practice of theory, modeling concepts of subjectivity, authenticity, and performance. It examines how dance and choreographic form play a central role in advertising and create a philosophical locus that highlights advertising’s concepts of subjectivity and identity. The chapter argues that in advertising, the liveness, affect, and spectacle of the dancing body informs the construction of identity, directing viewers to see movement as a form of human agency. By highlighting the body’s ability to assume and discard style, dance-in-advertising promotes consumption-as-performance-of-identity. Ultimately, the author argues that dance in advertising models subjectivity and identity as fluid and relational.
Conclusion
Authors: Dunagan Colleen T.
Published: May 2018

The Conclusion introduces an area of research that the author has not undertaken but which lingers on the edges, occasionally inserting itself for brief moments as other lines of flight are pursued. Looking at three contemporary examples of dance in advertising, it raises the question of bodily labor in relation to concepts of authorship, copyright, and political economy within the advertising industry. The hope is that the chapter points to possible future lines of inquiry and encourages alternative approaches to studying how dancing bodies negotiate consumer culture and neoliberal capitalism. In the end, while there is much the author does not tackle in this project, her goal has been to acknowledge the role advertising potentially plays in the lives of consumers and how dance participates in this relationship.
Developmental Trajectories of Relational Aggression
Authors: Fite Paula J. , Pederson Casey A.
Published: May 2018

This chapter reviews the literature pertaining to change in relational and other forms of nonphysical aggression across the lifespan. We attempt to summarize the state of the field by examining developmental trends, stabilities of behavior, and developmental trajectories of behavior. Note that given the strong conceptual overlap in relational, indirect, and social forms of aggression, we include studies that focus on any of these three forms of aggression. As the number of studies actually examining the developmental trajectories in these behaviors remains sparse, particularly when compared to what is known about physical aggression, we outline the limitations in the research and make suggestions for future directions of inquiry.
Relational Aggression and Victimization and Psychopathology
Authors: Leadbeater Bonnie , Sturgess Clea
Published: May 2018

Reviews of the cross-sectional research support the associations between relational victimization and relational aggression and the development of internalizing and externalizing problems. We review longitudinal research examining these associations and processes that may explain how relational victimization becomes linked to the development of psychopathology, particularly in late childhood and early adolescence. Longitudinal research is reviewed that locates mediators of the association between relational victimization and psychopathology in either faulty cognitive processes or problematic peer behaviors. Little research focuses on the longitudinal associations between relational aggression and psychopathology; however, research has begun to demonstrate considerable overlap of this type of aggression with other antisocial behaviors. We propose a conceptual framework that integrates the personal and social aspects of identity development in late childhood and early adolescence. We aim to advance our understanding of why peer victimization is associated with internalizing problems, and why, indeed, this association can become life threatening.
An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective of Indirect Aggression in Girls and Women
Authors: Vaillancourt Tracy , Krems Jaimie Arona
Published: May 2018

Although the effects of sexual selection on male mating competition and intrasexual aggression have been studied extensively for well over a century, female mating competition and intrasexual aggression have only begun to receive serious attention in recent decades. Here, we focus on one aspect of sexually selected competition in girls and women—rival derogation, which takes the form of indirect aggression. We argue that this tactic of intrasexual competition both reduces a rival’s ability to compete for desirable mates and helps aggressors achieve and maintain their own high social status. We further argue that physical attractiveness initiates the pathway leading to high social status, which is preserved through the use of indirect aggression and is associated with increased dating and sexual behavior.
The Peer Nature of Relational Aggression
Authors: Sandstrom Marlene J.
Published: May 2018

Relational aggression (RA), which involves the manipulation of a target’s relationships, peer status, or reputation, is an inherently interpersonal weapon. This chapter focuses on the peer context of RA, and addresses core questions about the association between RA and social constructs such as group acceptance, rejection, popularity, and friendship. What are the interpersonal costs and benefits of RA? What factors might explain why some relationally aggressive children are able to achieve and maintain popularity and social centrality despite being disliked? How does RA play out within mutual friendships? And how do the peer dynamics surrounding RA shift across development? The chapter begins with a discussion of RA in relation to group-level peer experiences (i.e., peer liking/acceptance; disliking/rejection; perceived popularity) and then turns to an exploration of RA within the context of friendships. It concludes with a discussion of selection and influence effects in regard to relationally aggressive behavior.
Relational Aggression and Bullying in a School Context
Authors: Espelage Dorothy L. , Hong Jun Sung , Merrin Gabriel J.
Published: May 2018

Relational aggression, or “indirect bullying” or “social aggression,” includes behaviors that are directed at damaging relationships or feelings of acceptance, friendship, or group inclusion. Relational aggression is distinct from physical bullying, and research evidence suggests that relational aggression perpetration and victimization may lead to behavioral problems and negative psychosocial functioning. Drawing from social cognitive theory and social-ecological perspectives, this chapter reviews the literature on correlates and predictors of relational aggression among children and adolescents. Supporting the social cognitive theory, existing literature demonstrates that impulsivity and anger are positively related to increases in relational aggression among adolescents, and empathy is negatively linked to relational aggression. Relational aggression appears to play out because of interactions between individual characteristics, family dynamics, peer relations, and school climates that foster aggression. It is imperative that anti-bullying policies and intervention programs focus on relational aggression and should include components that foster healthy relationships among youth.
Overview of Affective Determinants of Health Behavior
Authors: Williams David M. , Rhodes Ryan E. , Conner Mark T.
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides a brief introduction to the topic of affective determinants of health behavior. In doing so it analyzes each aspect of the book’s topic. It begins by outlining what is meant by “health behavior.” It then considers traditional views of the key determinants of such behaviors and the value of and need for integrating affective determinants within health behavior theories. Next, it offers a conceptualization of affective determinants in relation to health behaviors, including distinctions between/among (1) affect proper versus affect processing (the latter also known as affective judgments or cognitively mediated affect); (2) core affect versus moods and emotions; (3) integral versus incidental affect; and (4) anticipated affect, affective attitudes, implicit attitudes, and affective associations. It closes with a brief overview of measurement of affect in the context of health behavior research.
Neo-Riemannian Theory at the Movies
Authors: Lehman Frank
Published: May 2018

This chapter is dedicated to explaining the methodology of neo-Riemannian theory (NRT) and analysis. The historical background of NRT is introduced, and an inventory of transformations, including the well-known neo-Riemannian operators (L, P, and R) is laid out in a user-friendly manner. Important issues for NRT, including harmonic combinatoriality, parsimony, tonal agnosticism, and spatiality, are all introduced and connected to the analysis of film music. Special attention is given to the associative content of triadic relationships, with two progressions of particular interest to film composers—T6 and S—explored in depth. A pair of step-by-step model analyses from Waltz with Bashir and Batman: Mask of the Phantasm are presented as straightforward and difficult cases for neo-Riemannian techniques, respectively. The chapter concludes with the introduction of tonal space visualizations, such as the Tonnetz and transformation networks, and demonstrations through analysis of themes from The Da Vinci Code and Scott of the Antarctic.
Analyzing Chromaticism in Film
Authors: Lehman Frank
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides a set of small analytical case studies meant to illustrate important methodological and interpretive issues that arise in the study of chromatic film music. Five central topics organize these analyses, each with interesting ramifications for the structure and expressive content of film music: contextuality, distance, voice leading, equivalence, and patterning. Examples are drawn from a range of film composers and styles, with special emphasis placed on the idiosyncratic and influential work of Bernard Herrmann. A recurring theme throughout is that of leitharmonie—the use of chords and harmonic progressions in a motivic- and symbolic-rich fashion. Increasing emphasis is placed on hermeneutics and the issue of how music, and harmony in particular, aid listeners in structuring and interpreting filmic narrative.
Harmonious Interactions
Authors: Lehman Frank
Published: May 2018

This chapter draws together theoretical and methodological threads from the rest of the book while proposing a broader analytical model, in which various tonal styles—not only pantriadicism—interact. This model is based on a conception of triadic tonality space in which three paradigmatic axes (diatonicity, centricity, and functionality) create numerous distinct and modifiable tonal styles. These distinct styles are shown to harbor persistent associations in mainstream film music. It is argued that wondrous harmony often involves motion through triadic tonality space. A cinematically well-established example of this is the chromatically modulating cadence (CMC); the role of cadences in general for organizing film time is emphasized. The dialectic between tonal idioms has been mined for its connotative power by composers wishing to portray the various wondrous affects, and a variety of examples drawn from films that dramatize the “beatific sublime” are investigated, concluding with Alfred Newman’s The Song of Bernadette.
Crime and Prosperity
Authors: Bergman Marcelo
Published: May 2018

This chapter lays out the foundations of the book. It starts with a brief overview of criminality in Latin American countries over the last twenty-five years and then poses the central question: Why has crime, particularly property crime, risen? It goes on to develop the toolkit, the theoretical approach, to discern between high crime and low crime equilibria and the different trajectories of countries. Special emphasis is put on the emergence of crime as an industry, which was not held in check by weak institutions that provided only erratic deterrence. The chapter ends with an analysis of several social, political, and economic implications of the current wave of criminality.
Trends and Patterns in Latin American Criminality
Authors: Bergman Marcelo
Published: May 2018

This chapter presents a comprehensive evaluation of Latin American trends in violent and property crime over the past twenty-five to thirty years, displays short and long time series for different countries, and describes various types of crimes in the region. Different data sources depict the clear upward trend in criminality and country differences in the intensity of crime. This chapter also discusses the merits of transcending homicide data to fully assess the social transformations occurring in the region. Finally, it describes the dependent variable of this book.
Drug Business and Crime
Authors: Bergman Marcelo
Published: May 2018

This chapter studies illegal drugs, that have created the most profitable of all illicit markets. It, analyzes this industry within the broader framework of the book, which examines the effects these markets have on crime and how states have responded. It argues that the dramatic profit drugs produce has diluted the consolidation of strong deterrence from states. By examining the business aspects of trafficking, the structural organization of the illegal drug industry, and the enforcement capacities of state agencies, this chapter explains why large or small organizations rise, under what circumstances violence can erupt, and how the type of crime equilibrium that results affects states and their capacities. The conditions that elicit the emergence of lethal violence are especially emphasized, as are the ways in which different equilibria are established. Finally, the chapter studies the indirect effect of US drug policies on crime in the region.
The Sad Story of Prisons
Authors: Bergman Marcelo
Published: May 2018

This chapter reviews the role of prisons in Latin America and the meager effects they have in containing crime and imposing deterrence, documenting the dramatic rise in incarceration in every Latin American country over the last two decades. Based on evidence from inmate surveys and from official records, it examines the failure of rehabilitation, incapacitation, and of deterrence, which backfires once released inmates get back to the streets and crime. It analyzes the “substitution” effect, whereby offenders locked up in prisons are replaced by others in the criminal networks of stolen goods and narcotics industries, so that incarceration barely has any impact on crime, particularly under HCE. Original data depicts the poor state of prisons in the region, the link between inmates and crimes committed outside the prisons, the high rates of recidivism, and many other indicators of poor prison policies.
Jurisdictional Immunities of States and International Organizations
Authors: Okeke Edward Chukwuemeke
Published: May 2018

This book covers the relationship between the jurisdictional immunities of States and international organizations, addressing their similarities and dissimilarities. Their relationship with diplomatic immunity is also examined. It considers that the immunity of international organizations was historically conceived in terms of diplomatic immunity and State immunity. The major aim of this book is to clarify the conceptual confusion that has often bedeviled the understanding of the law of the (different but interrelated) jurisdictional immunities of both States and international organizations. The approach is to holistically analyze and synthesize select and relevant opinions of international courts and national courts. To achieve this, the book focuses more on what the law is than on what it should be. An understanding of the law is more useful to a practitioner than a criticism of it. The book is not an exegesis on everything immunity. The distinct jurisdictional immunities of heads of State and of diplomats are beyond the scope of this book, and are only tangentially examined. The book concludes by making the case that the jurisdictional immunities of States and international organizations are not only sustainable but also necessary for the international legal order to foster international relations and cooperation. The author intends to position the book to be of use both to scholars and to practicing lawyers and legal advisers in government and international organizations, as well as to lawyers whose practice concerns issues and laws of privileges and immunities.
Competing or Conflicting Norms, and Related but Different Doctrine
Authors: Okeke Edward Chukwuemeke
Published: May 2018

This chapter addresses competing or conflicting norms, as well as the related but different doctrine of Act of State. It examines the various approaches courts employ in dealing with the very contentious issue of whether human rights and jus cogens norms trump the rule of State immunity. The chapter discusses the nature of the Act of State doctrine, including its jurisprudence, applicability and rationale, and exceptions or limitations. The Act of State doctrine, which is sometimes confused with State immunity, is a matter of justiciability, not jurisdiction. The chapter concludes by discussing an analogy between the rule of State immunity and the Act of State doctrine.
Legal Status of International Organizations
Authors: Okeke Edward Chukwuemeke
Published: May 2018

The legal status of international organizations matters because issues of their jurisdictional immunity would not arise, a priori, if they did not have both international personality and legal personality. This chapter addresses the legal status of international organizations under both international and national laws, examining their international and legal personalities that enable them to participate in international and national life. To carry out their functions, international organizations must have the requisite legal status, which also has a bearing on their jurisdictional immunity. The chapter also includes a discussion of the difference between international personality and legal personality.
Cutting Skin
Authors: Bailey Doug
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides a detailed description, discussion, and interpretation of the performance artist Ron Athey’s 1994 show 4 Scenes in a Harsh Life, and the controversy that it caused at local, national, and international levels. Discussion places that performance in the contexts of Athey’s other work, and the broader practice of performance art of the body, and then argues for the relevance of the Athey work for understanding the Neolithic pit-houses at Neolithic Măgura. Primary articulations of relevance are the previously under-represented role of the digger-as-performer, of the audience-as-witness and spectator, and of visibility and ephemera in performance. The chapter ends with a discussion about types of questions that we might now ask about pit-house sites such as Măgura.
Cutting Holes
Authors: Bailey Doug
Published: May 2018

This chapter presents a detailed review and discussion of recent and current research into the philosophy of making holes in surfaces (i.e., pits are holes in the ground), and into the psychology of the visual perception of concave shapes (i.e., pits are creations of concave spaces). Discussion focuses on categories of holes, the definition of surfaces, the (in)significance of hole-fillings, the existential paradox of holes as objects, the disruptions caused by holed surfaces, and the visual advantages of convex (versus concave) shapes. The chapter ends with a discussion of the relevance of the philosophy and psychology of holes to Măgura and other pit-house sites like it, suggesting that the reader will benefit from thinking in potentially metaphysical terms about pit-houses.
Cutting Words
Authors: Bailey Doug
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides a detailed discussion of recent and current work in linguistic anthropology, particularly in the ways in which different extant language groups talk (and thus think) about the actions, tools, and consequences of cutting and breaking. Discussion presents results of recent fieldwork in ten languages or language groups: Germanic languages, Ewe (Southern Tongo), Tzeltal (Mexico), Mandarin (China), Jalonke (Ghana), Hindi and Tamil (India), Chontal (Mexico), Yélî Dnye (Papua), and Tidore (Papua). From this research, the chapter identifies critical components that distinguish the ways that different communities conceptualize cutting and breaking: the predictability of the break/cut, the action of cutting and breaking, the material that is cut or broken, and the consequences of the cut or break. The chapter ends with a discussion of how these results change the way that we understand the pit-houses at Măgura and at other similar sites.
Cutting Space
Authors: Bailey Doug
Published: May 2018

This chapter presents a detailed description and discussion of the tagli and buchi made by Italian artist Lucio Fontana in the middle of the twentieth century. Discussion examines the origins of these series in the artist’s career, with particular emphasis on the method of creation and the artist’s intentions. Investigation includes Fontana’s concept of Spatialism, fourth-dimensional art, infinity, and the role that light played in the works that he created. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how Fontana’s works and philosophy can help the reader see the pit-houses at Măgura in terms of perspective, light, gesture, and display.
Leipzig, Saxony, and Lutheran Orthodoxy
Authors: Sposato Jeffrey S.
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the dominance of Lutheran orthodoxy in Leipzig from the beginning of the German Reformation to the nineteenth century. Lutheran orthodoxy was an older, more Catholic form of Lutheranism that was closer to Luther’s earliest teachings. Saxony was divided between Albertine Saxony (Catholic) and Ernestine Saxony (Lutheran). Because it was an important Catholic city, Leipzig’s adoption of Lutheranism in 1539 retained all aspects of Catholic liturgy that were not in direct conflict with Reformation theology. In 1697, the conversion of Elector Friedrich August I created a situation of a Catholic monarch in Dresden ruling over the Reformation stronghold of Saxony. This paradox would influence church theology and music for centuries, including the retention of a sixteenth-century liturgy that resembled the Catholic liturgy, along with corresponding music. Pietism and rationalism were also threats to Lutheran orthodoxy. Church Superintendent Johann Georg Rosenmüller would modernize the liturgy beginning in 1785.
How Rival States Employ Cyber Strategy
Authors: Valeriano Brandon
Published: May 2018

The central question of this book is: how do states use cyber strategies to influence their rivals? This chapter introduces a theory of cyber coercion that considers the three main types of cyber strategies: disruption, espionage, and degradation. As a form of covert action, cyber coercion can represent ambiguous signals designed to probe adversary intentions and manage escalation risks. This chapter dissects the core logic of coercion and coercive diplomacy as they apply to cyber operations. After defining coercion and establishing the expected threshold of concessions based on surveying multiple studies, it then highlights debates about power and resolve in the traditional coercion literature to extract important considerations for empirical investigation. The inherent ambiguity, primacy of signaling, and temporary effects in cyber operations distort power and resolve in the digital domain.
China and the Technology Gap
Authors: Valeriano Brandon
Published: May 2018

The discourse on Chinese cyber security practices often fails to match the reality of actual behavior. This chapter examines how Beijing uses the digital domain in rival interactions. First, it unpacks the literature on how China uses cyber capabilities to shape the international system and enable its rise as a great power, highlighting how threat inflation crowds out empirical perspectives that demonstrate stability and predictability. Second, it situates Beijing’s approach to the digital domain in Chinese strategic theory, illustrating China’s early focus on innovation and preemption and its evolution toward using digital power to control the domestic population and seek information advantages. Third, it uses these insights to analyze empirically all publicly attributed Chinese cyber incidents. This portrait highlights the unique leverage, and limitations, of cyber espionage as a form of coercive bargaining between rival states.
The United States
Authors: Valeriano Brandon
Published: May 2018

This chapter analyzes US cyber strategy and coercion against rival states. First, the chapter situates the US approach to cyber in the larger intellectual history surrounding a preference for precision strike and how it alters the character of war for US strategists. Second, the chapter connects this logic to the emergence of information warfare concepts in the early 1990s, when US practitioners began to integrate cyber into larger visions of precision strike. Next, the chapter shifts to outline the American approach to cyber coercion. We offer a portrait of how the leading cyber power uses covert coercive cyber actions to shape rival behavior in the digital domain. These insights highlight the importance of the reconnaissance-strike as a strategic construct. They also demonstrate the US approach toward cyber espionage and turning defensive measures into attack vectors through deception.
Conclusion
Authors: Valeriano Brandon
Published: May 2018

This book emerges from a critical gap in the cyber security literature. Scholars and policy makers alike have struggled to examine cyber coercion empirically. Despite limitations inherent in collecting data on covert action, without systematically examining cyber exchanges it is difficult to understand contemporary strategic competition. What is the purpose of cyber coercion? How do rival states align ends, ways, and means? Does it work? There are constraints and challenges in applying new methods of influence to coerce a target to change their behavior. Compellence is difficult and costly, requiring an accumulation of efforts to achieve effects. This suggests scholars should take an evolutionary perspective on the utility of new weapons and their ability to leverage power and influence. The key for states seeking to avoid dangerous escalation is to create new norms, share information on attacks and vulnerabilities, and encourage public-private multilateral frameworks that help restrain our worst tendencies.
The Biotechnology Industry
Authors: Schweitzer Stuart O. , Lu Z. John
Published: May 2018

Beginning with the definition of biotechnology, this chapter provides a systematic review of the industry’s growth and transformation over almost half a century, both in the United States and around the world. The scientific, technological, regulatory, economic, and financial developments contributing to its current state are discussed in detail. It contrasts the characteristics of the young biotechnology industry with those of the traditional pharmaceutical industry in earlier years. It also highlights the inevitable trends by which economic and market forces, such as mergers, acquisitions, and partnerships, have resulted in the two sectors being no longer distinct and separate but rather part of the modern biopharmaceutical industry. Several case studies on the success and failure of early pioneer biotechnology firms, including Amgen, Genentech, and Cetus, are provided at the end of the chapter.
The Global Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Schweitzer Stuart O. , Lu Z. John
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the supply of pharmaceuticals worldwide, including production and sales, R&D, traditional medicines, and international trade. Worldwide consolidation of drug manufacturers, a trend dating back to the early 1990s, will also be examined. The discussion focuses on the unique characteristics of the industry in several key regions and countries, including the Europe Union, China, Japan, India, and Brazil. This chapter also looks at the impact of government price control on pharmaceutical R&D in Canada and Australia. Issues regarding access to innovative medicines in developing nations, including possible causes and recommended solutions, are covered at the end of chapter.
Pharmaceuticals and Public Policy: A Look Ahead
Authors: Schweitzer Stuart O. , Lu Z. John
Published: May 2018

Recognizing that the past often does not predict the future well, this chapter nevertheless offers prescience for the pharmaceutical industry in the next five to ten years. Using the standard economics paradigm of supply, demand, and market equilibrium, it considers the future of the industry in the following aspects: industrial organization, the nascent biosimilar sector, the promise of personalized medicine and digital healthcare information, artificial intelligence, the prospects for outpatient bundled payment programs, the setting of pharmaceutical prices, and the role of the FDA. The most important among them will be the scope and nature of health care reform in the United States and the jurisdiction of the FDA in the coming years.
Sapphic Memnon
Authors: Rosenmeyer Patricia A.
Published: May 2018

Chapter 5 concentrates on four epigrams by Julia Balbilla, comprising fifty-four lines of Greek elegiac verse—the largest corpus on the colossus by any single author. While most visitors chose to model their language on Homer’s, Balbilla’s style and Aeolic dialect are unmistakably Sapphic (although her elegiac meter is borrowed from epigram rather than lyric). This chapter assesses what it means for Julia Balbilla to imitate Sappho while at the same time honoring her royal patrons in the public context of dedicatory inscriptions. Previous scholars have derided the quality of Balbilla’s poetry, but this chapter recuperates her as a talented poet, a skilled diplomat, and a model for two other women who wrote on the colossus. This chapter argues that Balbilla’s poems testify to the power of the colossus to engage different segments of society: male and female visitors, of high and middle rank, and with varying degrees of literacy.
Smartphones, Caste, and Intersectionalities
Authors: Tenhunen Sirpa
Published: May 2018

This chapter 7 examines differences in phone use, especially in the way people use smartphones and access the internet. The availability of internet-ready phones in Janta has not turned all people into direct internet users. College-educated men and women are able to browse the textual content of the internet with the help of their smartphones, whereas the majority of people find smartphones useful for listening to music and watching films. They buy downloaded content on phone memory chips instead of browsing the internet independently. When the benefits of phones are assessed on the basis of their educational impact, they do not appear particularly transforming. However, accessing entertainment using phones can also be transformative because sharing of entertainment content contributes to social interaction and the capacity to aspire.
Whatever Happened to Theolinguistics?
Authors: Crystal David
Published: May 2018

The branch of linguistics known as theolinguistics developed in the 1980s following two decades of popular and academic debate over the forms and functions of religious language. This paper describes the early initiatives, explains the nature of the contribution coming from linguistics, and draws a contrast between the hitherto very limited development of the subject by professional linguists and the large amount of descriptive and analytical work that still needs to be done. Particular attention is paid to the need for a global perspective, involving all languages, and to the role of pragmatics in explaining the choices made in religious discourse within individual languages. The approach is illustrated by a case study of the influence that the King James Bible had on English. The paper concludes by outlining the stages in a typical theolinguistic enquiry, and suggests that the subject has, after all, a future.
Speaking about God in Universal Words, Thinking about God outside English
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: May 2018

The chapter argues that vocabulary that is not intelligible to many “ordinary speakers” and not translatable into most languages of the world imprisons its users in a conceptual space defined by culture-specific English words and prevents genuine cross-cultural dialogue about God and religion. It seeks to demonstrate that it is possible to speak about God without relying on such complex and culturally shaped concepts and to think about God and religion afresh, in a new conceptual language based on the lexical and grammatical common core of all languages. As a result of a programme of cross-linguistic investigations, researchers believe that we now have a very good idea of what the shared lexical and grammatical core of all languages looks like and believe that different language-specific versions of this common core can function as minimal languages and be used for furthering understanding across cultures without bias.
Metaphor in Religious Transformation
Authors: Bisschops Ralph
Published: May 2018

Interpreting sacred notions of the Hebrew Bible in a figurative sense was part of the hermeneutical manoeuvres of Early Christian writers. They proceeded by deliteralisation and metaphorisation. Paul’s notion of the ‘circumcision of the heart’, which is intimately linked to that of the ‘inner Jew’, was an attempt to internalise Jewish law-abidingness whilst abolishing its initial dignity. The chapter develops a two-phase model behind Paul’s metaphorisations. First the initial values (Jewishness and ritual circumcision) are projected onto a newly created target, namely inwardness. Subsequently, the original value is abolished. This process can be termed a value-shift, in contradistinction to similar instances which should be seen as value-extensions the source value being preserved and merely extended. . Corollaries of value-shift and value-extension are duty-shift and duty-extension. From a socio-religious perspective, metaphorisation goes along with a widening of the religious community. In the last resort, however, it reveals itself to be a moment in the genesis of new theological and even philosophical concepts such as inwardness as the locus of redemption.
Cognitive Pragmatics and Multi-layered Communication
Authors: Unger Christoph
Published: May 2018

Allegory is a figure of speech that is frequently used in Christian religious discourse, not only in the Christian Scriptures, but also in theological and homiletic literature throughout history. However, its use has also been viewed with suspicion by various schools of Christian thought. That is, allegory as a figure of speech is perceived as both being a useful tool for religious discourse and beset by limitations. This double-sided perception of the utility of allegory is rooted in the cognitive complexities that the comprehension of allegory involves, according to Unger (2017). Processing allegory involves our ability to detect and process multiple layers of communication in one act of ostensive communication. Thus, allegory has the potential for being effective for communicating complex thoughts in an elegant and effective way; at the same time, it runs the risk of inviting the audience to overinterpret the communication event.
Metaphor and Metonymy in Language and Art
Authors: Barcelona Antonio
Published: May 2018

Interpreting sacred notions of the Hebrew Bible in a non-literal sense was part of the hermeneutical manoeuvres of Early Christian writers. They proceeded by deliteralization and metaphorization, meta-linguistic speech acts by which a word usually understood in its literal sense receives a non-literal meaning. The author develops a two-phase model of Paul’s notion of the ‘circumcision of the heart.’ First the initial values (Jewishness and ritual circumcision) are projected upon a newly created target, inwardness. Then the original value is abolished. This process can be termed a value-shift, versus similar instances which should be seen as value-extensions, the source value being preserved and extended to other realms. Corollaries of value-shift and value-extension are duty-shift and duty-extension. From a socio-religious perspective, metaphorization accompanies a widening of the religious community; it reveals itself to be a moment in the genesis of new philosophical concepts, such as inwardness as the locus of redemption.
Doing Good and Doing the Best
Authors: McMahan Jeff
Published: May 2018

It is sometimes argued that, even when it is supererogatory to give to charity at all, once one has decided to give a certain amount, one is then required to give in the way one has reason to believe will do the most good, or prevent the most harm, among the options of which one is aware. This chapter argues that once one has incurred the cost of preventing some harm and one then has a choice between preventing a greater harm and preventing a lesser harm, one is required to prevent the greater harm, if other relevant considerations are equal. But if one has not yet incurred any cost and one can prevent a greater harm or a lesser harm, each at the same cost, it is in general permissible to prevent the lesser harm. Most instances of charitable giving are of the latter sort.
Integrity, Identity, and Choosing a Charity
Authors: Boesch Brandon
Published: May 2018

This chapter argues that there are additional reasons, beyond mere utility, that should enter into the practical decision-making of an agent, including those reasons that constitute various moral commitments and identities. A concern for integrity requires that the reasons that constitute these identities be given due consideration in an agent’s practical decisions about charity choice. A failure to bring these commitments into play will result in both the agent’s actions being alienated from herself and the partial destruction of her commitments. The consideration of a few short vignettes shows that some of the relevant commitments in charity choice, including citizenship, moral identities, and relationships of piety or gratitude. These constitute examples of some good, nonarbitrary, nonutilitarian considerations that should be part of an agent’s decision-making.
Out of Context
Authors: Bronstein Michaela
Published: May 2018

How do novels travel through time? How might they endure in a changing world in order to reach the unknowable readers of the future? Modernist writers were obsessed with questions like these, and eager for their books to reach out to people, times, and cultures beyond their own. In recent years, scholars of modernism have focused on pinning them down: putting these books in their context and these authors in their place. We do so because we fear that any ambition to reach the future will make literature disengaged, irresponsible, and apolitical. We worry that literature cannot escape its own moment without also evading the hard truths of history itself. This book argues instead that literature can travel through time: not by transcending history, but by adapting to historical change. Each chapter pairs a modernist author with a reader who heard these old novels calling his or her name. In each case, these future readers are also novelists—who read with an eye to form and craft, and who put what they see to new use in their own novels. Their rewritings of the past treat the literary canon not as an object of antagonistic critique, but as a set of resources and tools to move new generations of readers.
Introduction
Authors: Kitts Margo
Published: May 2018

All of the terms in this volume’s title may be contested, not the least of which is “suicide.” Broadly condemned as cowardice across the world’s moral codes, suicide under different rubrics—such as martyrdom, self-sacrifice, or self-immolation—is conferred a dynamic quality in a number of religious legends, some tragic and others uplifting. Audiences respond to those legends presumably because choosing death in certain circumstances is seen as heroic and often as catalyzing redemption, for the individuals who die, for their communities, or for humanity. Yet this choice is rarely unambiguous. This chapter surveys some of those ambiguities. It ponders the themes and controversies associated with each of the title’s terms, as well as the religious ardor implicated in some celebrated elective deaths.