bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tragical Mimesis and Biblical Interpretation II
Authors: Blowers Paul M.
Published: July 2020

This chapter, following on the last, expands to other case studies of dramatic interpretation and tragical mimesis in patristic exposition of tragic narratives in the Bible beyond Genesis, in Old and New Testaments alike. The horrific story of Jephthah’s fateful vow and the “sacrifice” of his daughter (Judges 11), perhaps the best single example of tragedy in the Hebrew Scriptures, vexed its patristic interpreters by its ostensive moral senselessness and resistance to theological redeemability. The flawed character of other tragic heroes such as Samson and King Saul added to the hermeneutical perplexity, while the story of Job was largely taken as a testament of pious endurance of tragic circumstances. The New Testament meanwhile presented, to its patristic interpreters, the proto-Christian “tragic heroics” of the Holy Innocents and John the Baptist, and the “tragic villainy” of Judas Iscariot and Ananias and Sapphira, each story prompting its own questions about freedom, determinism, and divine justice. Early Christian interpreters consistently put forward and even amplified the elements of tragedy in these stories in order to educate their own audiences in confronting irrevocable evil and suffering.
Tragical Conscience
Authors: Blowers Paul M.
Published: July 2020

This chapter investigates yet another frontier of tragical mimesis in early Christian literary culture: the retraining of the Christian moral conscience to envision human existence in its graphically and concretely tragic dimension. Christians were to be educated in sustained awareness that they were a part of the same “vanity” to which all of creation had been subjected, a crucial discipline of which was the sympathetic contemplation of specific groups in their social and cultural foreground that lived under a seemingly constant tragic yoke. The bulk of the chapter concentrates on four such groups consistently brought to Christians’ attention, particularly by episcopal preachers. First were the indigent and diseased, whose suffering played out a tragedy into which all Christians were being called as dramatis personae engaging Christ himself through the poor. Second were social parasites, society’s “tragic comics” whose antics and theatrics in striving to make a living from more fortunate patrons tested Christians’ ability to overcome revulsion with compassion. Third were married people and ascetics/monastics: marrieds because the institution of marriage was a symbol of the tragic vulnerability and volatility of even the most intimate of human relationships, and ascetics/monastics because their religious vocation parodied both the tragedy and the comedy of human existence. Fourth were “unbelieving” Jews, long conceived in Christian eyes as the bearers of the tragic legacy of rejection of Jesus as the Christ.
Tragical Pathos
Authors: Blowers Paul M.
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that the Christian “tragical conscience,” as described in the preceding chapter, was a conscience that demanded its own “cleansing” (catharsis) and clarified moral vision, which further relied on the cultivation, psychologically and existentially, of a whole panoply of tragical emotions that enriched Christian response to real-life tragedies. The assessment here of the development of a Christian “tragical pathos” draws from Martha Nussbaum’s work on the “moral intelligence” of emotions in Hellenistic philosophy and from Robert Kaster’s identification of “emotional scripts” in Greco-Roman moral philosophy and ethics. The bulk of this chapter is devoted to early Christian reworking or “re-scripting” of the classic (Aristotelian) tragical emotions of fear and pity, fear being relativized and recontextualized in relation to the superior fear of God, and pity reframed as empathetic mercy. Christian moralists, moreover, expanded the repertoire of “tragical” emotions beyond fear and pity, especially by encouraging a whole gamut of emotions of grief (lamentation, compunction, etc.) that were pivotal in Christian response to the tragic realities of sin, suffering, loss, and death.
The Theological Scope of Early Christian Tragical Vision
Authors: Blowers Paul M.
Published: July 2020

This last full chapter confirms, first of all, that tragical vision and mimesis constituted a theological artform in early Christian literature, whereby literary, rhetorical, and dramatic artistry were vital to the eminently theological interests of patristic tragical visionaries and not mere artifices. The “theodramatic” interpretive paradigm of the modern theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar is introduced as a lens through which to reevaluate the compatibility of theology and tragedy in early Christian authors. Other modern Christian tragical visionaries besides Balthasar are also brought into “conversation” with patristic interpreters of the tragic character of creaturely existence, in an effort to demonstrate the theological intelligence and accountability of early Christian tragical mimesis in its various forms, and to highlight the criteria by which “the tragic” has come to be identified in the Christian tradition. It is shown that patristic interpreters often played up human experience of intractable evil and “fateful” suffering in order, paradoxically, to enhance the depths of the divine wisdom and providence operative in creation. Tragical mimesis ultimately integrated “dark” comedy in dramatizing the “folly” of the economy of salvation.
Civilian Identities under Fire
Authors: Dowdall Alex
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 charts the impact of militarization and military violence, in particular intense artillery bombardment, on civilian identities on both sides of the lines. It begins with a discussion of the Allied case, where a new form of civilian identity was clearly expressed in public representations. In both the national media and the local press, civilians at the front were represented in soldier-like terms, heroically resisting the enemy in their homes like the soldiers in the trenches nearby. Civilians at the front were urged to identify with the soldiers, but also with their local communities, which came under enemy assault. In this context, notable architectural features including churches, town halls, and cathedrals became rallying points. Private letters and censorship reports demonstrate that many civilians identified with these publicly constructed forms of identity, and used them to respond to the traumatic experience of bombardment. The result was that civilians at the front on the Allied side saw themselves as a distinct and privileged group within the national wartime community. Responses to artillery bombardment were more ambiguous under German occupation, where death and destruction came from Allied guns. The attempts of German propaganda to use bombardment to turn civilians against the Allied war effort were unsuccessful. But civilians’ reactions to Allied shelling, as they emerge in personal diaries, remained ambiguous and troubled, especially when Allied bombardment caused death and injury within the occupied populations.
Feeding the Front-Line Towns
Authors: Dowdall Alex
Published: July 2020

Chapter 5 examines the importance of food for survival at the front. The urban battlefields at the Western Front experienced particularly acute problems of food supply. This chapter explores why this was so, and the solutions implemented. But it also moves beyond bureaucratic measures, to consider the meanings attributed to shortages on both sides of the lines. In wartime, food was a key issue that tested both the state’s ability to manage limited resources equitably, and peoples’ willingness to endure sacrifices and shortages for the national effort. In France as a whole, popular debates around food supply centred on what could be considered acceptable levels of sacrifice. But near the front on the Allied side, civilians developed a localized moral economy structured around their experiences of military violence. They demanded that the state acknowledge their additional suffering under fire by granting them additional entitlements in terms of rationing, and acting swiftly to root out hoarding and speculation. Civilians on the occupied side could not make such demands, especially in a context where food supplies were tightly controlled by the Commission for Relief in Belgium and the German Army. Here, food supply was necessary for material survival; but those involved in supply risked moral reproach for the contacts they were required to nurture with the German authorities. Here, the context of occupation shaped attitudes towards food supply, and public officials and private citizens were judged harshly for perceived indiscretions in their dealings with the occupiers.
Conclusion
Authors: Dowdall Alex
Published: July 2020

The conclusion draws the various arguments of the book together, and makes a final case for the importance of the topic. It reaffirms how the book has presented an alternative picture of the Western Front—one that is urban rather than rural, and one where the soldiers are not the sole inhabitants of the battlefield, but share it with civilians. It discusses how the historiography of the First World War has demonstrated that the conflict ‘militarized’ civilian identities. But it also points out that, up until now, there has been little acknowledgement of how this was a variable process, with some civilians militarized to a far greater extent than others. The conclusion points to the wide-ranging social impacts of the experiences studied in this book. Direct encounters with military violence, and especially the traumatic experiences of artillery bombardment, military occupation, and forced displacement threatened the integrity of France’s front-line communities. War scattered communities and destroyed the physical spaces they inhabited, strained social and family bonds, generated considerable material hardships, and killed and wounded thousands of civilians. And yet, despite these intense and prolonged physical assaults on local communities, a sense of community identity remained intact throughout the war, and was of crucial importance for how civilians navigated the pressures of life in the battle zones. War did not, in other words, destroy the front-line communities, but transformed them, and shaped the sense of belonging felt by civilians.
Demand-side Models of Short-term Income Formation
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

The chapter discusses different formulations of the main behavioural equations for private consumption, investments, and money demand that are used in the advanced economies for building a short-term Keynesian aggregate demand model, and the IS-LM, AS-AD, and Mundell–Fleming models. These models are used to study the formation of the level of income over the short term in the advanced countries, under both open and closed economy conditions. As such, these models allow us to study the fluctuations of the level of income over the short term due to exogenous factors or policy shocks, for example expansionary or contractionary fiscal policies, monetary and wage policies, or changes in consumer and investor expectations. The chapter identifies the conditions implicit in such models for the success of expansionary policies in advanced countries.
Long-term Growth and Inequality in Economies Relying on Land and Natural Resources
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines the long-term economic prospects of developing countries whose growth depends to a large extent on cash crop exports, mining, and oil extraction. It analyses the causes of the slow and unstable long-term growth of such countries, including those due to the fluctuating world prices, the macroeconomic effects of the Dutch Disease, the under-investment in human capital, and an adverse political economy that favours the continued dependence on natural resource rents. It then presents a simple Solow-type model of long-term growth for such economies, and historical evidence of how public policy can moderate or offset the problems linked to this kind of productive specialization.by means of investments in technical progress, productive diversification, and the creation of stabilization funds.
Long-term Growth in Developing Countries with a Large Informal Sector
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

The informal sector is an important component of the economy of many developing countries and a source of livelihood for a large section of the population. Yet, the empirical evidence shows that, despite this, the informal sector contributes little to economic growth. There is a little agreement on the origins of informality that can be explained with alternative paradigms. The chapter analyses the causes of high rates of informality, the economic efficiency of the informal sector, its relation with the formal sector, and its impact on aggregate growth. To this end, the chapter presents the Loayza model that posits a negative link between informality and the rate of growth. Other viewpoints that emphasize the impact of limited capital accumulation and overregulation on informality are also discussed.
External Financing, Gap Models of Growth, and the Macroeconomics of Relying on Foreign Resources
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

Chapter 10 reviews the factors responsible for the strong dependence of developing countries on foreign capital and foreign aid, as well as the cyclical capital inflows and long-term development problems entailed by such a situation. It then discusses a family of models, some of which were developed after the debt crisis and recession of the 1980s and 1990s. These models aim to determine the amount of foreign loans and grants required to reach a preset rate of growth of GDP. It finally assesses the macroeconomic and growth impact of high dependence on foreign finance and foreign aid.
Short-term Behavioural Equations for Developing Countries
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses the structural difference in family size, structure, location, and preferences, as well as the features of the formal and informal financial markets that determine the access to credit of various types of firms. It also reviews the role of the exchange rate, interest, rate and inflation in determining money demand. It then discusses behavioural equations for aggregate consumption, investment, and money demand that fit the reality of developing countries, and compares them with those discussed in Chapter 3 for the advanced economies. It shows that their inclusion in the IS-LM and AS-AD models often modifies the impact of policy changes and endogenous shocks in relation to those obtained in the advanced economies.
IS-LM and AS-AD with Behavioural Equations for the Developing Countries
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses the IS-LM and AS-AD models developed for developing countries, as discussed for the developed countries in Chapter 3. However, while the basic components of such models are similar to those used for the industrialized countries, their analytical specification is markedly different, as they rely on the behavioural equations discussed in Chapter 13 that reflect the structural differences of developing countries. As a result, the effects of exogenous shocks and government macroeconomic policies often differ from those derived on the basis of the conventional IS-LM and AS-AD models obtained for the advanced economies.
Modelling the Open Economy, Devaluation, and the Exchange Rate in Developing Countries
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

The chapter first examines the limitations of conventional open-economy macro models, such as the Mundell–Fleming model, when they are applied to developing countries. It discusses the Swan–Salter model and the three-sector dependent-economy model that better capture the reality of the external sector in poor countries. It then discusses the impact of devaluation under conditions of closed and open capital accounts and shows the limitation of a devaluation unaccompanied by structural measures in little diversified poor economies and in economies with large dollar liabilities. In this regard, it examines the results of the empirical literature on the contractionary or expansionary effect of devaluation in developing countries. Finally, it reviews the pros and cons of alternative exchange rate regimes, the impossible trinity theorem, and measures to control exchange rate volatility through capital controls.
Like a Hedge of Lilies
Authors: Secunda Shai
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers some of the challenges of studying late antique Jewish women and their practices through a text composed and transmitted in male-dominated contexts. It describes how menstruation made meaning through difference and differentiation in the Hebrew Bible, ancient Judaism, and rabbinic Literature. The chapter reviews new approaches to understanding the Babylonian Talmud as situated between classical (Palestinian) rabbinic literature, on the one hand, and its Sasanian context, on the other. It then closely analyzes a story about a rabbi and a heretic recorded at b. Sanhedrin 37a to illustrate the book’s main hermeneutical assumptions and potentialities.
‘Diverse folk diversely they demed’
Authors: Sawyer Daniel
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues for the variety and vitality of the reading of Middle English verse in the period c.1350–c.1500, drawing on evidence from poems themselves and from surviving evidence of their later-medieval ownership and transmission. Since some of the successful poems used as comparanda for canonical writers in this study might be less familiar to readers, the chapter briefly introduces The Prick of Conscience and Speculum Vitae, considering their origins, organization, and internal depictions of reading. It is argued that such long, anonymous poems display interesting variety, not homogeneity. Allusions, provenance evidence from manuscripts, and records in wills and inventories all show how these texts were read in combination with many other types of material, by all kinds of readers and throughout the period, in ways which modern literary history is not necessarily capable of predicting. These findings should, it is suggested, encourage caution in the extrapolation of reading tastes and habits from individual pieces of surviving evidence.
Democratic Stability in an Age of Crisis
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

The interwar period has left a deep impression on later generations. This was an age of crises where representative democracy, itself a relatively recent political invention, seemed unable to cope with the challenges that confronted it. It has recently become popular to make present-day analogies to the political developments of the 1920s and 1930s. This book asks whether such historical analogies make sense and why some democracies were able to cope with the stress of interwar crises whereas others were not. Focusing on democratic stability in Europe, the former British settler colonies, and Latin America, the book emphasizes the importance of democratic legacies and the strength of the associational landscape (i.e., organized civil society and institutionalized political parties) for the chances of democratic survival. Moreover, the book shows that these factors where themselves associated with a set of deeper structural conditions, which on the eve of the interwar period had brought about different political pathways.
An Age of Crisis
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

To understand what interwar democracies were up against, we need to recognize that a number of mutually linked crises affected social and political life in the 1920s and 1930s. Besides the Great Depression between 1929 and 1933, these interwar crises included the aborted attempt at communist world revolution in 1917–20, the legacies of World War I in general and the Versailles and Trianon Treaties in particular, the post-war economic slump of the early 1920s, the advent of fascist and Nazi ideologies and mass movements, and the breakdown of the liberal world order in the 1930s. All of these crises had the potential to undermine democracy.
Pillars of Democratic Stability
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

On the eve of the interwar period, a set of interrelated structural factors (i.e. socio-economic development and state- and nation-building processes) had created a distinction between resilient democracies installed before the end of World War I and fragile new democracies. Our theoretical framework proposes that these deep structural conditions were linked to interwar democratic survival via a set of more proximate factors, namely, democratic legacies and a strong associational landscape (i.e. vibrant civil societies and institutionalized parties). These factors increased the likelihood that political actors would comply with the democratic rules of the game via a number of mechanisms, such as democratic learning, mutual trust among key political actors, and the capacity to channel the ideas and frustrations of opposing societal groups via the established political institutions. Anti-democratic forces had only little support and room to manoeuvre in cases with firm democratic legacies and associational landscapes. On the contrary, where these factors were absent, democracies broke down after a few years. Finally, where they were partly present, democracies went through prolonged crises only to eventually break down, often during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
Uruguay and France
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

Uruguay and France are examples of cases situated somewhere in-between the two extremes of resilient and fragile democracies. The case study of Uruguay shows that crisis could in fact terminate interwar democracies, even if they had a pre-war legacy of electoral competition for political power. This was possible because civil society was underdeveloped vis-à-vis the parties. However, the Uruguayan case also shows how democracy was quickly reintroduced in such a situation, once the economic crisis was over. French democracy was more challenged than those of Denmark and the United Kingdom in the crisis-ridden 1930s. However, despite less institutionalized parties, especially on the right, and a somewhat less organized civil society, the regime could still rely on the broad recognition of republican ideals among key political actors. Indeed, our analysis of the French case questions the widespread notion that this was a ‘near miss’, where democracy came on the verge of breaking down in the 1930s.
Martin Luther and the Theology of the Two Kingdoms
Authors: Bain William
Published: July 2020

This chapter explores the nominalist orientation of Martin Luther’s separation of sacred and secular, signified by his two kingdoms framework. The aim is to show that his thinking about the nature of God, character of creation, and authority of Scripture resonates with the theory of imposed order. Luther gives priority to the will, as against reason, which follows from his preoccupation with God’s freedom and power. This points to an inner unity in Luther’s thought, whereby his theology informs a parallel understanding of reality that emphasizes the contingency of singular things, a system of external relations, and explanation in terms of efficient causes. Luther’s importance in this context is not discerned in what he contributes to political theory; he transmits the nominalist way of knowing and explaining reality that others would use to theorize political order. Consequently, his separation of the earthly kingdom and the spiritual kingdom does not de-theologize politics as much as signal the ascendency of the theory of imposed order and its theological commitments. In this respect, he contributes indirectly to a way of thinking and speaking about political order that stresses the nominalist vocabulary of will and artifice.
John Philoponus
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses John Philoponus, the major Christian philosopher of the sixth century. A first section discusses his special position as a Christian philosopher who taught Aristotelian and Platonic philosophy at Alexandria. The account then turns to his contributions to the Christological debate, primarily his Arbiter. This writing advances a remarkably irenic proposal for a new Patristic philosophy that could bring together Chalcedonians and miaphysites. While his introduction of particular natures follows the logic of miaphysitism, Philoponus in other ways adopts positions connected at the time with Chalcedonian thought. The third section of the chapter introduces the tritheistic controversy. This debate indicates for the first time that adaptations applied to the Cappadocian theory in the interest of Christology had consequences for the original trinitarian settlement. Philoponus’ role in the controversy is discussed in detail. Contrary to most scholars’ views, it can be largely explained within the context of Patristic philosophy.
From the Council of Constantinople to the Monenergist Controversy
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes
Published: July 2020

In this chapter, a range of Chalcedonian thinkers is discussed. They all are historically obscure but probably flourished between the Council of 553 and the monenergist controversy beginning in the 730s. All these individuals, Pamphilus the Theologian, Theodore of Raïthu, and Leontius of Jerusalem find themselves confronted with the need to adapt inherited philosophical principles to respond to the twin challenge of the advanced Christological controversy and the new threat of tritheism. As a result, they show surprising willingness to innovate. Pamphilus and Theodore closely follow Leontius of Byzantium in making the substance central at the level of the individual too. By contrast, Leontius of Jerusalem reconstructs Cappadocian philosophy largely as a philosophy of the hypostasis. The chapter also discusses a fascinating anonymous text of Patristic philosophy, contained in Codex Coislin 387. While the contextualization and interpretation of all these texts poses major difficulties, they are remarkable for their intellectual creativity and inventiveness.
The Climax of Chalcedonian Philosophy
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses the philosophical contributions of Maximus Confessor and John of Damascus. Confronted with dramatic political and cultural ruptures, they both produced remarkable philosophical syntheses. Both emerge from this analysis as representatives of Chalcedonian philosophy but in rather different ways. Maximus represents the most radical attempt to return to the spirit of the original Cappadocian theory. He leaves largely unaddressed the conceptual conundrums that caused the various philosophical innovations among his immediate predecessors and instead sought to develop a system on Cappadocian foundations, read through the spectacles of ps.-Dionysius the Areopagite. The Damascene, by contrast, is a more natural end-point of the transformation of Cappadocian philosophy in the service of Christology. His thought is radically centred on the concept of hypostasis as pure existence and, as such, the ontological basis of all other being. In John of Damascus, Patristic philosophy comes close to introducing a duality of essence and existence.
Introduction: Textbook and Essay
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille
Published: July 2020

This introductory chapter briefly situates the rise of modern positive law as an affordance of a specific information and communication technology (ICT)—namely the printing press, which is better described as an information and communication infrastructure (ICI). One of the challenges that modern positive law faces is the transformation of the ICI from books and mass media to a digital and computational ICI. Cyberspace here refers to cyber (steering) and connects with cybernetics (remote control of one's environment by means of feedback loops). This highlights that the new ICI is fundamentally different from speech, writing, printing, and mass media. Cyberspace is not merely a digitized version of physical space, but refers to an architecture with two novel characteristics: its hyperconnectivity and its computational pre-emptions.
Domains of Law: Private, Public, and Criminal Law
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers the three major domains in law and the study of law: private, public, and criminal law. These domains have their own principles, vocabularies, and structures, each geared to the type of relationships they aim to regulate and constitute. This chapter first explains how these domains differ based on a set of conceptual distinctions, such as absolute and relative rights, legal subjects and legal objects, mandatory and default law. After describing law as a unity of primary and secondary rules and their underlying principles (in chapter 2), this chapter describes law as a system of legal relations between legal subjects, with regard to legal objects. This understanding provides the foundations for the introduction of the core structure, vocabulary, and underlying principles of each domain, highlighting the difference between supposedly horizontal relations in private law and the vertical relations of public and criminal law. This, for instance, connects with the prominence of the legality principle in constitutional, administrative, and criminal law, whereas individual autonomy, fairness, and societal trust inform the rules and principles of private law.
International and Supranational Law
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille
Published: July 2020

This chapter turns to international and supranational law. It focuses on international law in the context of the Council of Europe (CoE) and on supranational law in the context of the European Union (EU). The chapter first discusses the concept of jurisdiction and its formative status in national, international, and supranational law, after which it provides a more in-depth overview of international law and supranational law. This involves a discussion of the relationship between national constitutions and the binding force of international treaties, the role of consent and custom in the force of international law, and the legal effect of fundamental principles and mandatory law that no state can ignore. Next, the special case of the supranational EU jurisdiction is introduced, notably the distribution of sovereignty between the member states and the Union and the most important legislative instruments: regulations and directives. Finally, the mutually constitutive relationship between internal and external sovereignty is connected with the idea of an international rule of law that addresses states as fiduciary agents of the international legal order.
Privacy and Data Protection
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille
Published: July 2020

This chapter covers privacy and data protection. This entails a series of legal requirements for development and design, for the default settings, and for the employment of computer architectures. In addition, the chapter defines the right to privacy as a subjective right, attributed by objective law, which may be national (constitutional) law, international human rights law, or supranational law (EU fundamental rights law). The chapter first confronts the landscape of human rights law at the global, national, and EU level. It then inquires into the right of privacy, as guaranteed under the ECHR and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFREU), and finally provides an extensive analysis of the new fundamental right to data protection, as guaranteed by the CFREU and protected by the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
Copyright in Cyberspace
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille
Published: July 2020

This chapter is an introduction to the domain of intellectual property (IP) rights, notably copyright. For computer scientists, the most relevant part of copyright law concerns copyright on computer programs, or software. Copyright on software is the enabling precondition for the General Public Licence (GPL) and the open source initiative. Before discussing copyright on software, however, this chapter first investigates the position of IP law in the context of constitutional democracy and clarifies that IP law is private law. From there, the chapter provides an overview of the various types of IP that are most relevant, after which it turns to the history, objectives, and scope of copyright protection. Finally, this chapter discusses EU copyright law and the issues of open source and free access.
Introduction
Authors: Verhaart Floris
Published: July 2020

This chapter introduces the debate on classical learning, as well as some of the key players in these debates, such as Jean Le Clerc (1657–1736), Pieter Burman (1668–1741), Richard Bentley (1662–1742), and Charles Rollin (1661–1741), against the background of the culture wars of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The opposing approaches to Latin and Greek texts are discussed. On the one hand, we find a more text-critically oriented focus that was associated by contemporaries with scholars either operating in the United Provinces or in close contact with Dutch peers. The other approach was associated with French scholars and focused on the historical and moral content of texts. This opposition is helpful in understanding the culture wars at the turn of the eighteenth century as it guards us from simplifying the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns to a straightforward clash between ‘old’ and ‘new’.
Sex and Scholarship
Authors: Verhaart Floris
Published: July 2020

This chapter looks at examples of scholars who, in the early eighteenth century, worked on texts that were highly controversial from a moral perspective. The focus is on Pieter Burman’s edition of Petronius (1709) and Bentley’s work on Horace. Looking at this material from a perspective of textual criticism allowed Burman and Bentley to avoid delving too deeply into passages of a sexually loaded nature. Nevertheless, political and scholarly opponents of both men tried to blacken their reputation by connecting their research interests with their private lives. It is demonstrated that the association of textual critics with immorality was a commonplace in early modern Europe and that the tensions between in particular Burman and his opponents reveals a struggle to make classical philology a more independent field of enquiry versus other disciplines, such as theology.
The Quest for Civic Virtue
Authors: Verhaart Floris
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on those eighteenth-century students of ancient history and literature who were mainly interested in Latin and Greek writings as moral edification. Recent decades have witnessed a growing awareness of the role played by models drawn from classical antiquity in the advancement of the concept of politeness in the eighteenth century. Much less attention has been paid to the connection between the popularizing works on antiquity that were read by the social and intellectual elites to form a conception of these classical models and contemporary scholarly debates. In order to tackle this question, I will discuss two eighteenth-century bestsellers. The first of these was the History of the Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero by Conyers Middleton (1683–1750) and the second was the Histoire Romaine (1738–48) by the Jansenist Charles Rollin (1661–1741). Although these men had vastly different religious outlooks—Middleton was a deist and Rollin a Jansenist—they each made an important contribution to the popularization of classical culture in the eighteenth century. It will be demonstrated that the life and work of both men was deeply influenced by the moralizing and popularizing approach to classical texts (philosophia), and that they created a conception of antiquity that found its way into the works of some of the foremost philosophes of the eighteenth century, such as Voltaire and Montesquieu.
Introduction
Authors: Chinca Mark
Published: July 2020

Christian devotional culture took very seriously the instruction of the Bible maxim “In all thy works remember thy last end [memorare novissima tua] and thou shalt never sin” (Sirach 7:40). From it were derived all kinds of practices and schemes for meditating on the so-called “last things”: death, judgment, hell, heaven, and (once the belief was codified dogmatically) purgatory. The introduction explains why the period from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century was crucial for the dissemination and transformation of instructions for meditating on death and the afterlife, and draws attention to the importance of written texts in enabling and supporting individual believers in their daily routines of devotion and meditation.
Out of This World
Authors: Chinca Mark
Published: July 2020

The chapter examines the earliest set of instructions in the vernacular for meditating on death and the afterlife. First included in a handbook of practical and pastoral theology dating from the 1270s called the Miroir du Monde, these instructions achieved widespread diffusion through all classes of laypeople and clergy in the revised version of the Miroir by Friar Laurent d’Orléans, the Somme le Roi (1279). The instructions exhort readers to “go out of this world” once a day by imagining that they have died and their souls have gone first to hell, then to purgatory and paradise, in order to see what punishments and rewards await human beings in the next life. The chapter discusses the epistemology of meditative vision, and its background in Augustine’s theory of corporeal, spiritual, and intellectual vision; it examines how readers’ meditative visualization of the afterlife is facilitated by key metaphors of the text, sometimes accompanied by manuscript illustrations; it also describes the linguistic consequences of a daily implementation of the exercise.
Grace, Faith, Scripture, Spirit
Authors: Chinca Mark
Published: July 2020

The chapter examines the prolific quantity of writings on death and the afterlife that Lutheran authors produced in the second half of the sixteenth century, and argues that the constitutive presuppositions of their discourse came to be centered on four of Luther’s famous sola principles. Sola gratia, “by grace alone,” gave a new prominence among the last things to death, since it was through acknowledging the fact of her own finitude that a person came to realize that the present time was the kairos, the “time of grace” in which salvation is freely available to all believers. Sola fide, “by faith alone,” meant that elaborate regimes of spiritual exercise of the kind followed by Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits were regarded with suspicion by Lutherans, since exercise could easily become a self-justifying work. Sola scriptura held that “scripture alone” was the authoritative guide for faith, and that it required only to be heard and believed; meditation accordingly became reduced to the simple hearing and believing of God’s Word. The principle of solo spiritu, which states that the Word becomes effective in the believer “by the Spirit alone,” is reflected in exhortations to readers to let the Spirit enter their hearts and minds, and even take over their language, as they learn to replace their habitual words for death with the vocabulary of peaceful sleep and repose that the Spirit uses in the Bible.
Institutional Expression
Authors: Stahn Carsten
Published: July 2020

The chapter demonstrates that the very act of reacting to atrocities, and institutionalization itself, has expressive meaning. Institutions rely on symbolism, rituals, and mimetic practices in order to ensure their own survival. This also applies to international criminal courts and tribunals. Sometimes the ‘medium is the message’. Throughout history, the establishment of institutions has sent different signals, such as memory and remembrance, shame and apology, renewal of community relations, hope and belief or protest. International criminal justice relies on action. Speech act theory is helpful to understand the various meanings of institutional action. Acts, such as jurisdictional determinations (e.g. complementarity), preliminary examinations or investigations, arrests, or cooperation create new narrative subjects, entail commands or incentives for action, or convey attitudes. Outreach and legacy strategies involve strong didactic rationales. They are often more geared towards one-sided expression rather than two-way communication or mutual learning
Tying the Universe
Authors: Mucciarelli Elena , Oberlin Heike
Published: July 2020

This contribution aims at giving an account for the complexity of Kūṭiyāṭṭam, which brings together elements coming from different traditions. In particular, there are possible parallels between these structures of Kūṭiyāṭṭam and Vedic rites: Kūṭiyāṭṭam has developed over centuries in Kerala’s orthodox temples and thus is strongly influenced by its Brahmanic patrons who, apart from that, still attend and preserve Vedic traditions. Similarly, Kūṭiyāṭṭam is strongly permeated by a ritual attitude: in the past it was considered the kuladharma (‘family duty’) of specific groups (Cākyārs, Naṅṅyārs, Nampyārs) and had its fixed time and place in the temple. Thus, this contribution examines possible bidirectional influences between these two traditions as they can be seen especially in Mantrāṅkam. Furthermore, it exemplifies the methodological issue of overlapping boundaries linking ‘ritual’ and ‘theatre’.
The World of Hanumān
Authors: Cohen Einat Bar-On
Published: July 2020

The author gives a full-fledged report on a performance of Aṅgulīyāṅkam lasting 29 nights that she witnessed in 2012 at the Nepathya centre in Moozhikkulam. She posits interesting connections with the different cultural devices used during the performance, especially the ritual ones, and she shows that there is no opposition between ritual and aesthetic, but, on the contrary, that it is precisely the ritual aesthetic that permits the smooth world of Kūṭiyāṭṭam to work. The anthropological approach offers an in-depth reflection on the idea of ‘continuous’ and ‘non-representation’ as triggers of the motility and constant need of sustaining action in and of Kūṭiyāṭṭam: linearity, directionality and causality become merely one out of a myriad of options. She describes the traumatic life experiences that the audience relives during and after the twenty-second day’s performance. Even the actors tell of changes in their mode of consciousness on stage and during the entire period of the play.
Knowing and Being
Authors: Devadevan Manu V.
Published: July 2020

This essay, a highly original study of Kūṭiyāṭṭam as an historical phenomenon and developing art form, offers an ontology of performance in relation to a highly specific epistemology embedded in the Kūṭiyāṭṭam tradition. The author distinguishes Kūṭiyāṭṭam in general and Mantrāṅkam in particular from other performative traditions in South India on the basis of the distinctive truth-value that emerges on stage (in relation to other philosophical streams such as the Advaita). He also reviews the historical evidence on dating and proposes a new hypothesis about the historical moment when Kūṭiyāṭṭam as we know it took shape. He talks about the two manuals that were known from the early period, the Dhananjayadhvani and the Saṃvaraṇadhvani and outlines their impact on the performance of Sanskrit drama in Kerala.
An Actor in Red and White
Authors: Arzony Sivan Goren
Published: July 2020

The author focuses on the major Maṇipravāḷam campus and prabandhams composed mostly in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Kerala. These very often include detailed parodic descriptions of social reality and thus allow us a glimpse of Kerala society seen from within at this moment of critical cultural formation. Since Mantrāṅkam has remarkably similar segments in which large parts of the proto-urban and village societies are described in mostly parodic terms, we need to read the play in relation to the primary literary texts of this period. This is a pioneering essay with powerful implications for our understanding of the cultural milieu in which Mantrāṅkam was created.
The Natal Indian Congress (NIC) and the Transition to a Non-racial Democracy
Authors: Desai Ashwin , Vahed Goolam
Published: July 2020

Founded by Gandhi in 1894, the NIC was the predominant political organisation among Indians through the twentieth century. Its history is a fascinating one as the NIC got into an alliance with the ANC in the 1950s, breaking the mould of racially exclusive mobilizations. This chapter pays particular attention to the unbanning of the ANC in 1990 and the decision by the NIC not to constitute itself as a political party but to throw its support behind the ANC. The consequences of this decision for the ‘Indian vote’ and present debates about minority representation are explored in this chapter.
Waiting for Change
Authors: Desai Ashwin , Vahed Goolam
Published: July 2020

Through the story of the life histories of Indian waiters who dominated the trade historically, we show how, historically, working class waiters used their closeness to whites to solicit jobs for their children, develop sporting interests, and even secure state housing. This chapter, through developing oral histories, provides fascinating insights into how waiters made a life both inside and outside the industry and how the de-racializing of the trade by the hiring of cheaper black labour meant that they could not hand down jobs to their children and broader family. Today, Indian waiters are a rare phenomenon but some keep old networks going, supporting each other in times of need.
The Hopscotch of Life
Authors: Desai Ashwin , Vahed Goolam
Published: July 2020

In this chapter, we delve into the lives of working class women, many of whom obtained jobs in the clothing and textile industry from the 1960s, and whose incomes were crucial for upward mobility. It reveals how they negotiate life in an environment of extended families and patriarchal relations and how paid work offered them freedoms from the strictures of home life. Of particular relevance is showing how post 1990 the opening of the economy to cheap imports affected the lives of working class women and in turn, what consequences this had for Indian family life.
Kudankulam
Authors: Kaur Raminder
Published: July 2020

The book tells the many stories that circulate around a nuclear power plant in Kudankulam in the southern peninsular region of Tamil Nadu in India from the late 1980s. The tales are by way of fishermen and women, farmers, environmentalists, activists, writers, scholars, teachers, journalists, priests, children, as much as they are of lawyers, scientists, state officials and the author drawing upon an interdisciplinary field as the subject compels. They show how peninsular residents contended with the prospect of one of Asia’s largest nuclear enterprise being built on their doorstep. They reveal what role the nuclear plant plays in contested discourses of development, democracy, and nationalism in multiple spaces of criticality. Based on over a decade of historical and ethnographic research, we learn about the anti-nuclear campaign’s part in ‘right-to-lives’ movements, the (re)production of knowledge and ignorance in the understanding of radiation, and tactics to create an evidence base in response to the otherwise unavailable or inaccessible data on radiation and public health in India. In the process, the author casts a lens on how national and transnational solidarity was both received and curtailed, where processes of neo-liberalization and national security led to the hardening of the ‘nuclear state’. This phenomenon came with the direct and indirect repression of the anti-nuclear movement with the engineering of ‘death conditions’ for its protagonists. Altogether, this is one of the few books that has at its heart the many facets of a grassroots movement for energy justice in the global south from the 1980s that, three decades on, went on to become an international cause célèbre.