bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cultural Adaptation
Authors: Morphy Howard
Published: November 2023

For much of the twentieth century the concepts of culture and adaptation have been almost equally neglected by British social anthropologists. In both cases the origins of this neglect can be traced to the rejection of the nineteenth century evolutionist paradigm and its replacement by the paradigm of structural functionalist anthropology, which in Britain was associated with the switch from a historically based subject to one that became primarily focused on the study of existing societies through fieldwork. Culture was rejected because it was too closely associated with the rag bag check list of traits that were used in a somewhat mechanistic way to order cultures in hierarchical sequences, reflecting nineteenth century concepts of progress.
Human assortative mating: evidence and genetic implications
Authors: Mascie-taylor C G N
Published: November 2023

Definition and terms

The term assortative mating refers to a departure from random mating or pan mixia; when like attracts like the mating is called positive assortative mating or homogamy. If opposites marry then negative assortative mating or heterogamy occurs. Some geneticists use the term assortative mating in the broad sense to include all types of departures from random mating. This definition would include the effects of inbreeding resulting from consanguineous matings (Cavali-Sforza and Bodmer 1971; Jacql,lard 1970). However, over the last 10-15 years it has become increasingly common to reserve the term assortative mating for unions involving phenotypically similar individuals who are not relatives.
Using within-populational variability to measure environmental optimality and adaptability
Authors: Schmitt L H
Published: November 2023

Understanding the nature and significance of variability within and between human populations is a primary concern of biological anthropology. A difficult but commonly encountered problem is trying to determine the influence of genes and environment on interpopulational differences. Biometrical genetic models are concerned with assessing variability within populations and are not designed for determining the origins of differences between populations. This chapter illustrates that, by making an assumption about the nature of genetic variability within populations, the effects of the environment on population differences can be assessed.
Child-care strategies in Nepal: responses to ecology, demography, and society
Authors: Panter-brick C
Published: November 2023

Child-care strategies are a fundamental component of human behaviour, for they have significant consequences for maternal and child health and vary enormously within and between populations. Thus many studies from the fields of social and biological anthropology, sociology, demography, psychology, or evolutionary biology have taken child-care patterns as a focus of enquiry. Arguably, the particular contribution of biological anthropology is to document the range of human life-styles and explain patterns of population variation, adopting an interdisciplinary and comparative approach to data collection, and applying the concept of adaptation to explain behaviours as responses to specific natural or social environments.
Development, Modernisation and Health Intervention
Authors: Ulijaszek Stanley J
Published: November 2023

Health is a logical indicator of development, since it reflects improved well-being of individuals and populations; however, most economists do not use it. In this chapter, the relationship between health, development, modernisation and intervention are examined, starting with a brief overview of what intervention, development and modernisation are, and how development is measured. This is followed by descriptions of development models for health improvement. Subsequently, the health impacts of development, modernisation and intervention are examined in two settings in Papua New Guinea, one in the Highlands, the other, the Highlands fringe. This analysis is then extended to consider to what extent health changes have been due to economic development and the process of modernisation which has accompanied it, and to what extent they may be attributable to specific health interventions such as primary health care and immunisation.
On the origin and dispersal of east Asian populations as viewed from HLA haplotypes
Authors: Tokunaga Katsushi , Imanishi Tadashi , Takahashi Koki , Juji Takeo
Published: November 2023

The human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) or the HLA (human leukocyte antigen) system plays an important role in the regulation of the immune response to various pathogens. The system also controls major transplantation antigens and contributes to susceptibility or resistance to various diseases. Two outstanding features of the HLA system are its very high degree of genetic poly morphism and ethnic differences in its gene distribution. Because of these fea tures HLA becomes a powerful marker in the field of human population genetics and physical anthropology.
Statistical analysis of genetic toxicology test data
Authors: Lovell D P
Published: November 2023

Genetic toxicology is the branch of toxicology which investigates the action of chemicals and physical agents on the genetical material of organisms. Ultimately, it is concerned with whether such agents may pose a risk to the human population. This chapter will briefly review the history of statistical involvement in genetic toxicology, outline David Williams’ contributions to the field both through the UKEMS guidelines and his wider influences, discuss some of the more recent statistical developments, and outline some potential areas for statistical influence in the future.
Making defense decisions: what role might a statistical perspective play?1
Authors: Chu David S C , Spruill Nancy L
Published: November 2023

Despite the vast amount of data that informs decision making in the American defense community, there is surprisingly little statistical thinking at the decisionmaking level. Reflecting the concern about the absence of a statistical perspective, the Committee on National Statistics recently organized a workshop on the matter (Rolph and Steffey 1994).
Local Sensitivity Analysis
Authors: Gustafson* P , Srinivasan** C , Wasserman* L
Published: November 2023

We review several methods for assessing the effect of small changes to the prior distribution. Our emphasis is on a variety of derivative-like quantities. Some of these have deficiencies that make them unsuitable as diagnostics. We explore the reasons for this and we look at some attempts to avoid these problems.
Statistical Aspects of Failure Processes in Ceramics
Authors: Singpurwalla N D , Wilson S P , Jr. E R Fuller
Published: November 2023

This is an expository paper. It highlights some matters pertaining to the failure processes in ceramic materials. The fundamental processes of crack initiation and crack growth are described, and the relevant statistical issues put forth. The aim is to highlight a new and important area of statistical research, and to emphasise the point that a statistician’s choice of probability model should be made with regard to the relevant physical laws that govern failure rather than a purely mechanistic analysis of failure data. Accordingly, a routine use of the Weibull for describing the time to ceramic failure is questioned and reasons for this outlined.
Influence Diagrams under Partial Information
Authors: Bielza C , íos-Insua D R , íos-Insua S R
Published: November 2023

We consider influence diagrams in which only partial information is available about probabilities and utilities. Algorithms for computation of optimal alternatives in ID’s may be generalised to compute non-dominated alternatives in ID’s under partial information. Typically, the set of nondominated alternatives is too big so we introduce additional criteria to select one of those alternatives.
Functional models, duality theory, and invariant subspaces
Authors: Laursen Kjeld B , Neumann Michael M
Published: November 2023

This chapter centres around certain characterizations and applications of Bishop’s property (β) and the decomposition property (δ) for bounded linear operators on an arbitrary complex Banach space. Our main goal is to show that property (β) describes precisely the restrictions of decomposable operators to closed invariant subspaces, that property (δ) characterizes the quotients of decomposable operators by closed invariant subspaces, and that there is a complete duality between the two properties. These results fulfill the aspirations of an inquiry originated by Bishop (1959), and were obtained only recently by Albrecht and Eschmeier (1997).
Connections to automatic continuity
Authors: Laursen Kjeld B , Neumann Michael M
Published: November 2023

The theory of automatic continuity deals with the extent to which certain algebraic conditions on linear mappings imply their continuity. Typical results in this theory establish the continuity of all multiplicative linear functionals on Banach algebras and of all positive linear operators on Banach lattices. The theory is particularly well developed in the context of Banach algebras. In fact, the automatic continuity problem for homomorphisms and derivations on certain classes of Banach algebras is intimately related to the structure of general and particular Banach algebras, and has led, over the last four decades, to remarkable new insight into the theory of Banach algebras. The state of the art is well documented in the comprehensive account of Dales (2000).
Piero Della Francesca’S Perspective Treatise
Authors: Field J V
Published: November 2023

Piero della Francesca’s perspective treatise is the first of its kind-as far as we know and, it would seem, as far as Piero knew also. It is called On perspective.for painting to nuke clear that we are con cerned not with ordinary natural optics, which at this time was sometimes known as ‘common perspective’ (pcrspectiva communis), but with the special kind used by painters. As we shall see, Piero takes care to show that this new part of perspective should be seen as a legitimate extension of the older established science.
Density Estimation for Exploring Data
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi
Published: November 2023

The concept of a probability density function is a central idea in statistics. Its role in statistical modelling is to encapsulate the pattern of random variation in the data which is not explained by the other structural terms of a model. In many settings this role, while important, is a secondary one, with the principal focus resting on the nature of covariate or other effects. However, there are also situations where the detailed shape of the underlying density function is itself of primary interest. In this chapter, a number of examples of this are given and the ideas behind the construction of a smooth estimate of a density function are introduced. Some of the main issues associated with using these estimates are raised.
Time Series Data
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi
Published: November 2023

The entire discussion so far has been conducted assuming that the data are generated independently of each other. While in many situations one can safely believe that dependence is absent or negligible, it can often be the case that the assumption of independence is untenable. A typical, quite common situation where dependence is, at least potentially, a prominent feature is represented by time series, and similar data collected over time. In these circumstances, one might well question the appropriateness of the methods discussed in previous chapters. For example, some readers may have noticed that the geyser data used in Section 1.4 fall into this category, and may have objected to the fact that serial correlation has not been taken into account.
An Introduction to Semiparametric and Additive Models
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters of this book a variety of data structures have been considered. In regression problems, these have usually involved one or two covariates with possible comparisons across groups. However, it is important that any approach to modelling allows considerable generality and flexibility in the data which can be handled. In fact, many of the techniques discussed so far form the building blocks of more general tools for regression, known as semi parametric, additive and generalised additive models. Texts such as Hastie and Tibshirani (1990) and Green and Silverman (1994) provide excellent descriptions of these models. This chapter therefore aims to provide only a brief introduction, principally by illustration, to establish a link with the techniques discussed earlier.
On load balancing in Erlang networks
Authors: Alanyali Murat , Hajek Bruce
Published: November 2023

This chapter summarizes our recent work on the dynamic resource allocation problem. The question of interest is the performance of simple allocation strategies which can be implemented on-line. The chapter focuses on the least load routing policy. The analysis is based on fluid limit equations and the theory of large deviations for Markov processes with discontinuous statistics.
Contemporary human diets and their relation to health and growth: overview and conclusions
Authors: Garbe R , Glazebrook K D
Published: November 2023

Recent work by Bertsimas and Nio-Mora has demonstrated the power of approaches to the analysis of controlled stochastic systems based on (generalised) conservation laws. This work is described. The utility of this theoretical framework is in part founded on its capacity to obtain the total expected return from any policy in closed form. Work is described which exploits this capacity, firstly to obtain a range of suboptimality bounds for discounted and undiscounted branching bandits (and thereby a simple dynamic programming proof of the optimality of Gittins index policies for such processes). Secondly, we obtain characterisations of the optimal return functions of controlled systems satisfying conservation laws and with linear objectives. This work suggests the use of greedy approaches to the development of solutions for a range of job selection/scheduling problems.
Steps toward the explanation of adult age differences in cognition
Authors: Salthouse Timothy A
Published: November 2023

Age-related differences have been documented in a wide variety of cognitive variables. Typical results are illustrated in Fig. 2.1 with data from a recent study involving 259 adults between 18 and 94 years of age (Salthouse, et al. 1996a). Note that roughly comparable age-related declines of about I to 1.5 standard deviation units are evident in variables representing perceptual speed (letter comparison and pattern comparison), episodic memory (paired associates and free reca11), inductive reasoning (series completion and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test number of categories), and spatial visualization (object assembly and block design) abilities. Similar patterns are apparent in many different data sets (e.g. Baltes and Lindenberger 1997; Horn 1982; Horn et al. 1981; Salthouse 1992b, 1993a, 1994a, 1996d; 1998; Salthouse et al. 1998; Schaie and Willis 1993), and thus these negative age relations can be viewed as the principal phenomenon in need of explanation by theories of cognitive aging. That is, any satisfactory theory in this area will ultimately need to account for the negative relations of age on a range of different cognitive variables. In order to be comprehensive, the theory should probably also explain why there are few or no age relations on other cognitive variables (e.g. those reflecting crystallized or product aspects of cognition largely reflecting knowledge acquired in the past), but at minimum it will need to provide an explanation for the age-related declines that have been reported across several kinds of cognitive variables.
The Hidden Structure
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) is widely regarded as one of the founders of modern neuroscience. In 1873 he discovered the 'reazione nera' - the black reaction - a histological stain which was to prove to be a revolutionary method for studying the structure of the nervous system. To this day, the Golgi stain is still widely used. For every student of medicine or biology, Golgi's name is synonymous with one of the basic structures in the cell: Golgi Apparatus, a cellular structure involved in protein glycosylation and transport. Golgi discovered the apparatus in 1898, and as a result of which, he is probably the most widely cited biologist in the scientific literature. But this is only one of Golgi's many contributions to scientific research. Amongst other things, he devised a system for the classification of neurons on the basis of axonal distribution, and identified a type of cell in the cerebellum. He identified and described the malarial cycle in the human. His discoveries were both basic, and rich with therapeutic implications. His remarkable achievements earned him a Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1906. It is enough to open any book of biology or medicine to realize that Golgi is one of the giants of 19th Century scientific endeavour. Despite this, Golgi remains a relatively unknown figure in the history of neuroscience and cell biology. This long-awaited biography, in a new translation from the Italian, is a fascinating analysis of Golgi's experiments, ideas, and personal life. It will be welcomed by anyone who has ever wondered about this brilliant Italian scientist and his seminal contributions to the fields of neuroscience, cytology and cell biology, pathology, and biochemistry today.
A small circle of Dante
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Golgi’s precarious economic situation was especially disheartening for his father, who had made many sacrifices to support him through medical studies and was following the vicissitudes of his son’s career with trepidation, worried about his future prospects. On 24 May 1871 Alessandro Golgi wrote to his brother-in-law and cousin Giulio Gioacchino Golgi, who was a civil servant at the Central Treasury Office in Florence:
Finding a way out of the labyrinth
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

One of the more surprising aspects of his 1873 paper in the Gazzetta Medica Italiana is the cautious and vague description of the new method. There is no information about the duration of exposure to the two reagents, the optimal temperature, or how to prepare the tissues. However, Golgi had presented his study as a ‘preliminary report’. The brevity of the methods section can be explained in part by the fact that in this early phase he was still unable to master satisfactorily the black reaction and therefore could not be precise about the optimal procedure. Two years later, in evaluating various techniques for the study of the nervous system, he wrote (italics added):
Professor at Pavia
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

On 5 February 1876 in the Anatomical Amphitheatre of our University, I initiated, with an opening lecture, the regular course of Histology that I then continued without interruption. I closed the opening lecture of that course affirming that I would be faithful to the flag carrying the motto’Work, unrelenting work!’
Seemingly a matter of priority
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Golgi conceived of histology as a’science of organization’. For him, however, the rigorous description of living forms was not an end in itself, but a necessary precondition of a physiological interpretation of life phenomena, following the motto ‘the structure unveils the function’. Thus, he could not content himself with the resounding international recognition of his discovery of ‘facts’ (which, on the other hand, he worshipped in the most classical Pavian tradition).
Visual attention mediated by biased competition in extrastriate visual cortex
Authors: Desimone Robert
Published: November 2023

According to conventional neurobiological accounts of visual attention, attention serves to enhance extrastriate neuronal responses to a stimulus at one spatial location in the visual field. However, recent results from recordings in extrastriate cortex of monkeys suggest that any enhancing effect of attention is best understood in the context of competitive interactions among neurons representing all of the stimuli present in the visual field. These interactions can be biased in favour of behaviourally relevant stimuli as a result of many different processes, both spatial and nonspatial and both bottom—up and top—down. The resolution of this competition results in the suppression of the neuronal representations of behaviourally irrelevant stimuli in extrastriate cortex. A main source of top—down influence may derive from neuronal systems underlying working memory.
Converging levels of analysis in the cognitive neuroscience of visual attention
Authors: Duncan John
Published: November 2023

Experiments using behavioural, lesion, functional imaging, and single neuron methods are considered in the context of a neuropsychological model of visual attention. According to this model, inputs compete for representation in several visually responsive brain systems—sensory and motor, cortical and subcortical. Competition is biased by advance priming of neurons responsive to current behavioural targets. Across systems competition is integrated such that the same, selected object tends to become dominant throughout. The behavioural studies reviewed concern divided attention within and between modalities. They implicate within-modality competition as one main restriction on concurrent stimulus identification. In contrast to the conventional association of lateral attentional focus with parietal lobe function, the lesion studies show attentional bias to be a widespread consequence of unilateral cortical damage. Although the clinical syndrome of unilateral neglect may indeed be associated with parietal lesions, this probably reflects an assortment of further deficits accompanying a simple attentional imbalance. The functional imaging studies show joint involvement of lateral prefrontal and occipital cortex in lateral attentional focus and competition. The single unit studies suggest how competition in several regions of extrastriate cortex is biased by advance priming of neurons responsive to current behavioural targets. Together, the concepts of competition, priming and integration allow a unified theoretical approach to findings from behavioural to single neuron levels.
Neural representation of objects in space: a dual coding account
Authors: Humphreys Glyn W
Published: November 2023

I present evidence on the nature of object coding in the brain and discuss the implications of this coding for models of visual selective attention. Neuropsychological studies of task-based constraints on: (i) visual neglect; and (ii) reading and counting tasks reveal the existence of parallel forms of spatial representation for objects: within-object representations, where elements are coded as parts of objects, and between-object representations, where elements are coded as independent objects. Aside from these spatial codes for objects, however, the coding of visual space is limited. We are extremely poor at remembering small spatial displacements across eye movements, indicating (at best) impoverished coding of spatial position per se. Also, effects of element separation on spatial extinction can be eliminated by filling the space with an occluding object, indicating that spatial effects on visual selection are moderated by object coding. Overall, there are separate limits on visual processing reflecting: (i) the competition to code parts within objects; (ii) the small number of independent objects that can be coded in parallel; and (iii) task-based selection of whether within-or between-object codes determine behaviour. Between-object coding may be linked to the dorsal visual system while parallel coding of parts within objects takes place in the ventral system, although there may additionally be some dorsal involvement either when attention must be shifted within objects or when explicit spatial coding of parts is necessary for object identification.
Detection and characterization of enzyme intermediates: utility of rapid chemical quench methodology and single enzyme turnover experiments
Authors: Anderson Karen S
Published: November 2023

Key insights into protein structure-function studies and structure-based drug design can be provided by an understanding of how enzyme catalysis is occurring at the enzyme active site. This, in turn, requires knowledge of the structure(s) of enzyme transition states along the reaction pathway in the conversion of substrate(s) to product(s). Although steady-state kinetic studies are informative in providing an initial characterization of the enzyme, these studies cannot be used to derive detailed mechanistic information. A more informative approach that will allow one to directly examine events occurring at the enzyme active site, involves the use of rapid transient kinetic techniques (1). In order to examine these catalytic processes directly, one must look on a millisecond time scale since enzymes often turn over many molecules of substrate per second. A common transient kinetic approach used to directly examine the formation of an enzyme intermediate is the utilization of rapid chemical quench methodology.
The biotin regulatory system—kinetic, thermodynamic, and structural interrogation of a biological switch
Authors: Beckett Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Biological regulation frequently involves functional switches in one or more of the macromolecules that participate in these processes. Examples of these switches are ubiquitous in signal transduction pathways (1) and transcription regulatory systems (2). In order to gain understanding of the detailed molecular mechanisms of any regulatory process it is necessary to probe the structural, thermodynamic, and kinetic features of the macromolecules that contribute to them. The Escherichia coli biotin regulatory system is a complex biological regulatory circuit that is important for both retention of biotin in the cell and regulation of biosynthesis of the vitamin. The macromolecular interactions that contribute to this regulatory process have been examined using kinetic, equilibrium thermodynamic and structural tools. The body of data obtained from application of these multiple probes has revealed the essential molecular details of the functional switch that dictates the biology of this system.
Time resolved spectral analysis
Authors: Palfey Bruce A
Published: November 2023

Chromophoric prosthetic groups are central to the chemistry of a large number of enzymes, such as those utilizing flavins, heme, cobalamin, iron-sulfur centres, and pyridoxal. Prosthetic groups generally participate by direct chemical reaction with substrates causing changes to the absorbance spectra that allow the reactions to be monitored in real time by stopped flow methods. Not only can the kinetic schemes and rate constants be determined, but the absorbance spectra of the species in the reaction scheme can also be obtained. Most common derivatives of prosthetic groups have either been characterized in bioorganic or bioinorganic model studies, or in studies on other enzymes, allowing the facile and reliable identification of many transient reaction intermediates. This chapter will focus on methods for extracting absorbance spectra from stopped flow data. The approaches given here can often be applied or adapted to other kinetic methods (e.g. temperature-jump) and to other types of spectroscopy(e.g. circular dichroism).
Exactness Criteria at Work
Authors: Boffi Giandomenico , Buchsbaum David A
Published: November 2023

Since the time that the structure theorems of the last chapter appeared, there have been any number of applications and refinements of these results. What we have tried to do is to select some area in which these theorems have played an essential role, and in which there are still lurking some fascinating, only partially explored areas of investigation.
Introduction to Complex Analysis
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

Complex analysis is a classic and central area of mathematics, which is studies and exploited in a range of important fields, from number theory to engineering. Introduction to Complex Analysis was first published in 1985, and for this much-awaited second edition the text has been considerably expanded, while retaining the style of the original. More detailed presentation is given of elementary topics, to reflect the knowledge base of current students. Exercise sets have been substantially revised and enlarged, with carefully graded exercises at the end of each chapter.
Holomorphic functions
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

Complex analysis may be summarized as the study of holomorphic functions. Holomorphic means—almost—the same as differentiable, but there is a critical distinction between the two concepts. This comes from the role played by open sets. h has different limiting values when h approaches O from different directions. A similar situation can arise in real analysis: a real-valued function defined on an open interval of ℝ is not differentiable at x if its left-hand and right-hand derivatives at x exist but have different values.
Integration in the complex plane
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

This chapter continues the study of paths begun in Chapter 4. It contains basic material on integrals along paths which underpins the presentation of Cauchy’s theorem in Chapters 11 and 12.

To qualify as a path, the function γ is required to satisfy a rather technical differentiability condition. Intuitively, we may interpret this condition as telling us that the image γ* is made up of finitely many smooth sections (as the image of a contour certainly is). Essentially, the definition of a path is set up so that we are able to apply the theory of integration of continuous functions, piecewise, to the finitely many smooth paths which join to form γ We assume familiarity with integration of real-valued functions on compact intervals in JR, at least at a fairly basic level. Specifically, we take for granted simple techniques for evaluating real integrals, elementary properties of integrals (such as linearity) and the fact that, at the least, continuous real-valued functions on compact intervals in JR are integrable. [Here ‘integrable’ may be interpreted as having the meaning it has in any treatment of basic integration theory, whether a Riemann-style approach or a more sophisticated one leading to the Lebesgue integral.]
Zeros of holomorphic functions
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

where an otherwise holomorphic function fails to be holomorphic). Integrating a function round a contour inside which it has one or more singularities will in general give a non-zero result (recall 10.4 and the Cauchy formulae). Understanding, and exploiting, singularities will be the thrust of Chapters 17-22.

Our second reason for investigating zeros is more theoretical. Taylor’s theorem implies that holomorphic functions are locally representable by power series, with the coefficients expressible in terms of the derivatives. The consequences of this fact are surprising and far-reaching.
Holomorphic functions: further theory
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

Here we present some additional results about holomorphic functions and about conformal maps. These are all important tools for more advanced theory. While this chapter is not designated as ‘advanced track’, it could be omitted by readers eager to reach the applications-oriented later chapters.

Since the integrand is continuous and is non-negative, it must be identically zero if the integral is to vanish.
The Fourier transform
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

The Fourier transform is, from a theoretical point of view, more fundamental than the Laplace transform; we introduced the latter first because it has a greater wealth of elementary applications. Here we concentrate on the evaluation, by contour integration techniques, of Fourier transforms arising out of probability theory. We also present sufficient basic theory, parallel to that we presented for the Laplace transform, to be able to demonstrate how the Fourier transform can be used to solve certain ordinary and partial differential equations.
Structural magnetic resonance imaging
Authors: McIntosh Andrew , Lawrie Stephen M
Published: November 2023

The technique of nuclear magnetic resonance originated before the use of computed tomography. Initially used to image small quantities of biological tissue (Lauterbur 1973), it was much longer before it found a clinical application (Budinger and Lauterbur 1984). The superior spatial resolution of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enabled clinicians to visualize demyelinating lesions and was subsequently used to examine the brains of individuals with schizophrenia, in the hope that it might aid diagnosis and further our knowledge of pathophysiology. There were good grounds to think that this would be the case, since the inferior technique of computed tomography (CT) had consistently showed the presence of cortical ‘atrophy’ and ventricular enlargement.
IID Sampling using Self-Avoiding Population Monte Carlo: The Pinball Sampler
Authors: Mengersen Kerrie L , Robert Christian P
Published: November 2023

This is now a popular method of choice for computation in many fields. For instance, particle filters are currently used in sequential settings such as tracking a moving target (see, e.g., Gilks and Berzuini, 2000; Doucet et al. , 2001) or in static settings with large datasets as exploratory tools (see, e.g., Berzuini and Gilks, 2001; Chopin, 2001). Various improvements have occurred in the past years with the introduction of additional moves based on MCMC techniques, as detailed in Doucet et al. (2001).
A Variant Version of the Pólya-Eggenberger Urn Model
Authors: Wechsler Luis G Esteves Sergio , Iglesias Pilar L , Pereira Antônio L
Published: November 2023

We present a new version of Polya urn scheme via the introduction of a prior probability distribution for the initial composition, that is, for the initial numbers of black and white balls in the urn. We also determine conditions for an exchangeable process taking values on {0,1}00 to be well approximated by a suitable Polya process with unknown initial composition. The predictivistic features in such processes are also discussed.
Finite Element Methods for Structures with Large Stochastic Variations
Authors: Elishakoff Isaac , Ren Yongjian
Published: November 2023

The finite element method (FEM) can be successfully applied to various field problems in solid mechanics, fluid mechanics and electrical engineering. FEM is a numerical method widely used in computer aided engineering, which allows for modelling and analysis of engineering and mathematical problems, e.g. safety testing. This reference text is the first to discuss finite element methods for structures with large stochastic variations. Stochastic variations are those that follow a random probability distribution or pattern and whose behaviour may be analysed statistically but not predicted precisely. Graduate students, lecturers, and researchers in mathematics, engineering, and scientific computation will find this a very useful reference. This book is the latest in the Oxford Texts in Applied and Engineering Mathematics series, which includes texts based on taught courses that explain the mathematical or computational techniques required for the resolution of fundamental applied problems, from the undergraduate through to the graduate level. Other books in the series include: Jordan & Smith: Nonlinear Ordinary Differential Equations: an introduction to dynamical systems; Sobey: Introduction to Interactive Boundary Layer Theory; Scott: Nonlinear Science: emergence and dynamics of coherent structures; Tayler: Mathematical Models in Applied Mechanics; Ram-Mohan: Finite Element and Boundary Element Applications in Quantum Mechanics.
The Expansion of the Universe
Authors: Weinberg Steven
Published: November 2023

The visible universe seems the same in all directions around us, at least if we look out to distances larger than about 300 million light years. The isotropy is much more precise (to about one part in 10−5) in the cosmic microwave background, to be discussed in Chapters 2 and 7. As we will see there, this radiation has been traveling to us for about 14 billion years, supporting the conclusion that the universe at sufficiently large distances is nearly the same in all directions.
Quantitative measurement using fMRI
Authors: Hoge Richard D , Pike G Bruce
Published: November 2023

Recent developments have permitted the extension of magnetic resonance imaging into the realm of quantitative physiological monitoring. Previously, noninvasive quantitative measurement of physiological processes in internal structures such as the brain was almost the exclusive domain of techniques requiring the introduction of radioactive tracers via injection or inhalation, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Currently, radioisotope-based methods retain the advantage of offering absolute quantitation of many variables in physical units (e.g. ml/lO0g/min for blood flow) compared with MRI-based techniques that offer only relative quantitation of most physiological parameters.
Overview of FMRI analysis
Authors: Smith Stephen M
Published: November 2023

After an fMRI experiment has been designed and carried out, the resulting data must be passed through various analysis steps before the experimenter can get answers to questions about experimentally-related activations at the individual or multi-subject level. This chapter gives a brief overview of the various analysis steps, whilst Chapters 12-16 cover these areas in greater detail.
Statistical analysis of activation images
Authors: Worsley Keith J
Published: November 2023

Statistical analysis is concerned with making inference about underlying patterns in data that often contain a large amount of random error. This is certainly the case with £MRI data, where the effect of a stimulus may be as little as 1 per cent of the BOLD signal. However, by careful averaging of the data over time, such as averaging the BOLD response at the times when the stimulus is ON, and subtracting the average when the stimulus is OFF, we are often able to detect such a small signal in the presence of considerable background noise. More complex experimental designs require more complex analysis. The type of analysis can be guided by constructing a model for the way in which the BOLD response depends on the stimulus. Such a model must include a component of random error which explains how the observations vary even if the experiment is repeated on the same subject under exactly the same conditions. Statistics can be used to best estimate the parameters in the model, including the variability of the errors. It is this random variability of the errors that can then be used to assess the random variability, or standard error, of the estimated parameters themselves.
Dynamic functional neuroimaging integrating multiple modalities
Authors: George John S , M.Schmidt David , M.Rector David , Wood Chris
Published: November 2023

The past few decades have witnessed extraordinary progress in the development of techniques for noninvasive structural and functional imaging of the human brain. However, despite this progress, no existing medical imaging modality provides all of the information required for best clinical practice or cutting edge research. MRI is the premier technique for characterizing the soft tissue anatomy of the human brain, but it has significant limitations for defining the geometry of the skull. Functional MRI provides detailed pictures of spatial patterns of neural activation based on associated haemodynamic changes, but does not capture the characteristic temporal dynamics of electrophysiological activation. MEG and EEG provide excellent temporal resolution of neural population dynamics but are limited in spatial resolution by the ambiguity and ill-posed nature of the source reconstruction problem.
p-adic Numbers
Authors: Villegas Fernando Rodriguez
Published: November 2023

A continuous function f : Zp Zp is uniquely determined by its values f (n) at integers n Zp as any p-adic integer is a limit of rational integers. A precise form of this fact is given by the following theorem due to Mahler ([20], p. 307).
Frobenius maps and finite groups of Lie type
Authors: Geck Meinolf
Published: November 2023

In all of this chapter, k will be an algebraic closure of the finite field with p elements, where p 0 is a prime number. We shall consider affine varieties and algebraic groups over k which are defined by polynomials with coefficients in the finite field 𝔽q ⊆k (where q is a power of p). For example, this is the case for all the classical groups that we considered in Chapter 1.
Neurobiology of human spatial attention: Modulation, generation and integration
Authors: Driver Jon , Eimer Martin , Macaluso Emiliano , Velzen José van
Published: November 2023

Studies of human spatial attention using neurobiological measures (i.e. functional imaging, event-related potentials, or magnetoence phalography) have transformed the field, in conjunction with single-cell studies of behaving primates. We review how such empirical work has altered the theoretical framework originally developed in pioneering information processing models. Modulation of sensory processing by spatial attention has now been shown at cortical stages even earlier than envisaged by ‘early’ selection, although attenuated information may still feed into higher stages. Activity in sensory brain areas may also be modulated by spatial attention prior to stimulus presentation.
The Stokes Equations
Authors: Elman Howard C , Silvester David J , Wathen Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Of primary importance in this chapter is that the Stokes equations represent a limiting case of the more general Navier-Stokes equations, which are studied in Chapter 7.
Solution of Discrete Stokes Problems
Authors: Elman Howard C , Silvester David J , Wathen Andrew J
Published: November 2023

The inf-sup stability condition associated with mixed approximation of the Stokes problem is of central importance when it comes to finding fast and reliable iterative solution methods. Indeed, although it is not always necessary to use stable approximations to compute an accurate velocity field, it is crucial for the construction of fast convergent iterative methods. This is the subject of this chapter.
Introduction to Applied Statistics
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

This text is aimed at students in medicine, biology, and the social sciences, as well as those planning to specialise in applied statistics. It covers the basics of the design and analysis of surveys and experiments and provides an understanding of the basic principles of modelling and inference. Practical advice is provided on how to design a study, collect data, record observations accurately, detect errors, construct appropriate models, and interpret the results. The text contains many illustrative examples and exercises relating statistical principles to research. A companion website is available with links to data sets, R codes, and to an instructor's manual with teaching hints and solutions.
Categorical data
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Observations that involve only nominal or ordinal variables (Section 1.1.2) are called categorical data. In this chapter, I shall concentrate on the special meth­ods of model construction for such data, and specifically on the case when the response variable is categorical. These models have the major advantage that few assumptions are made in constructing them. On the other hand, when possible, stronger and more informative conclusions can usually be drawn from models constructed using more assumptions, if they are appropriate. However, I shall de­lay presentation of models incorporating such further assumptions until Chapter 4.
The enactive mind, or from actions to cognition: lessons from autism
Authors: Klin Ami , Jones Warren , Schultz Robert , Volkmar Fred
Published: November 2023

Normative-IQ individuals with autism are capable of solving explicit social cognitive problems at a level that is not matched by their ability to meet the demands of everyday social situations. The magnitude of this discrepancy is now being documented through newer techniques such as eye tracking, which allows us to see and measure how individuals with autism search for meaning when presented with naturalistic social scenes. This paper offers an approach to social cognitive development intended to address the above discrepancy, which is considered a key element for any understanding of the pathophysiology of autism. This approach, called the enactive mind (EM), originates from the emerging work on ‘embodied cognitive science’, a neuroscience framework that views cognition as bodily experiences accrued as a result of an organism’s adaptive actions upon salient aspects of the surrounding environment. The EM approach offers a developmental hypothesis of autism in which the process of acquisition of embodied social cognition is derailed early on, as a result of reduced salience of social stimuli and concomitant enactment of socially irrelevant aspects of the environment.
Towards an understanding of the mechanisms of weak central coherence effects: experiments in visual configural learning and auditory perception
Authors: Plaisted Kate , Saksida Lisa , Alcántara Josè , Weisblatt Emma
Published: November 2023

The weak central coherence hypothesis of Frith is one of the most prominent theories concerning the abnormal performance of individuals with autism on tasks that involve local and global processing. Individuals with autism often outperform matched nonautistic individuals on tasks in which success depends upon processing of local features, and underperform on tasks that require global processing. We review those studies that have been unable to identify the locus of the mechanisms that may be responsible for weak central coherence effects and those that show that local processing is enhanced in autism but not at the expense of global processing. In the light of these studies, we propose that the mechanisms which can give rise to ‘weak central coherence’ effects may be perceptual. More specifically, we propose that perception operates to enhance the representation of individual perceptual features but that this does not impact adversely on representations that involve integration of features. This proposal was supported in the two experiments we report on configural and feature discrimination learning in high-functioning children with autism. We also examined processes of perception directly, in an auditory filtering task which measured the width of auditory filters in individuals with autism and found that the width of auditory filters in autism were abnormally broad. We consider the implications of these findings for perceptual theories of the mechanisms underpinning weak central coherence effects.
Autism and movement disturbance
Authors: Mari Morena , Marks Deborah , Marraffa Catherine , Prior Margot , Castiello Umberto
Published: November 2023

Autism is associated with a wide and complex array of neurobehavioural symptoms. Examination of the motor system offers a particularly appealing method for studying autism by providing information about this syndrome that is relatively immune to experimental influence. In this article, we considered the relationship between possible movement disturbance and symptoms of autism and introduced an experimental model that may be useful for rehabilitation and diagnostic purposes: the reach-to-grasp movement. Research is reviewed that characterizes kinematically the reach-to-grasp movement in children with autism compared with age-matched ‘controls’. Unlike the age-matched children, autistic children showed differences in movement planning and execution, supporting the view that movement disturbances may play a part in the phenomenon of autism.