bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SOCIAL CONTROL OF FORM DIVERSITY AND THE EMERGENCE OF NEW FORMS IN CHILDREN'S BLOCKBUILDING1
Authors: Goetz Elizabeth M. , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

The blockbuilding behavior of three preschool girls was analyzed in terms of the forms manifest in any completed block construction, and found to contain few different forms in baseline sessions. Social reinforcement, given contingent on the production of any form not previously constructed within the current session (i.e., every first appearance of any form within a session was reinforced but no subsequent appearances of that form within that session were), increased the number of different forms built per sessions. Social reinforcement, given for all second and later appearances within the session, decreased the number of different forms built per session. Furthermore, it was found that new forms (forms never seen before in the child's total prior sequence of blockbuilding sessions) emerged at higher rates during periods of reinforcement of different forms (first appearances) than during periods of baseline or reinforcement of same forms (second and later appearances).
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL CONTROL OVER CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES OF DEVIANT PRESCHOOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Baer Ann M. , Rowbury Trudylee , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

Differential reinforcement of compliance with teacher invitations to complete a specific academic task was applied to three extremely negativistic children in a special preschool class. For each child, this technique resulted in clear and useful increases in compliance as it was applied. In addition, the technique produced a greater diversity of sampling the available tasks by all children, enabling them to contact instructional materials they had previously avoided. The reinforcement system, contingent access to free playtime, materials, and a snack, mediated by a token, was thus demonstrated to be an effective contingency. In the case of two children whose compliance was not maximized by differential reinforcement alone, further increases in compliance were produced by combining a 1‐min timeout for noncompliance with the differential reinforcement procedure.
ACHIEVEMENT PLACE: EXPERIMENTS IN SELF‐GOVERNMENT WITH PRE‐DELINQUENTS1
Authors: Fixsen Dean L. , Phillips Elery L. , Wolf Montrose M.
Published: March 2006

One of the goals of many treatment programs for pre‐delinquent youths is the development of the skills involved in the democratic decision‐making process. At Achievement Place, one aspect of the treatment program is a semi‐self‐government system whereby the seven pre‐delinquent youths can democratically establish many of their own rules of behavior, monitor their peers' behavior to detect violations of their rules, and conduct a “trial” to determine a rule violator's guilt or innocence, and to determine the consequences for a youth who violates a rule. Two experiments were carried out to determine the role of some of the procedures in the boys' participation in the self‐government system. Experiment I showed that more boys participated in the discussion of consequences for a rule violation when they had complete responsibility for setting the consequence during the trials than when the teaching‐parents set the consequence for each rule violation before the trial. An analysis of the rule violations in this experiment indicated that the boys in Achievement Place reported more of the rule violations that resulted in trials than reported by the teaching‐parents or school personnel. The boys reported rule violations that occurred in the community and school as well as at Achievement Place, including most of the serious rule violations that came to the attention of the teaching‐parents. In Experiment II, the results indicated that more trials were called when the teaching‐parents were responsible for calling trials on rule violations reported by the peers than when the boys were responsible for calling trials. When the youths earned points for calling trials the average number of trials per day increased, but more trivial rule violations were reported. These results suggest that aspects of the democratic decision‐making process in a small group of pre‐delinquents can be studied and variables that affect participation can be identified and evaluated.
A SYSTEM FOR RECORDING INDIVIDUALIZED BEHAVIORAL DATA IN A TOKEN PROGRAM1
Authors: Milby Jesse B. , Willcutt Herman C. , Hawk Jesse W. , MacDonald Marion , Whitfield Kathy
Published: March 2006

A data matrix system used to record and summarize individual behavioral data is described. The major characteristics of the system are: (1) it provides a place to record and summarize all patient token exchanges, whether for standard contingencies or for idiosyncratic behavior; (2) it serves as a record and summary for time samples observed during a 24‐hr period and as a record of reliability data on time sample measures; (3) it provides a place where the new token balance for each patient can be calculated and recorded for use the next day; (4) it provides for calculation of an individual patient's token balance at any given moment; and (5) it is a permanent record of each patient's daily participation in the program and documents progress in terms of his economic status as well as in changes in critical target behaviors.
REWARDING PSYCHIATRIC AIDES FOR THE BEHAVIORAL IMPROVEMENT OF ASSIGNED PATIENTS1
Authors: Pomerleau Ovide F. , Bobrove Philip H. , Smith Rita H.
Published: March 2006

Different ways of modifying the aide‐patient relationship to promote improvement in psychiatric patients were investigated. Psychiatric aides were given information about the behavior of assigned patients, cash awards based on the improvement of assigned patients, and different kinds of supervision by the psychology staff; the effects of these variables on a large number of psychiatrically relevant behaviors were measured. Appropriate behavior of patients increased when the aides were given quantitative information about the improvement of assigned patients. Cash awards for aides, which were not contingent on the behavior of patients had little effect, while cash awards contingent on the behavior of assigned patients were associated with more appropriate behavior. Direct supervision of aide‐patient interactions was associated with an increase in appropriate behavior, while required consultation for the aides about assigned patients was not. Behavior of patients deteriorated when the program was terminated.
REINFORCEMENT AND RATE OF LITTER DEPOSITING1
Authors: Kohlenberg Robert , Phillips Thomas
Published: March 2006

A study was conducted concerning the frequency of litter deposits in a single experimental trash receptacle located in a high‐use, urban park setting. There were four two‐week periods of alternating no‐contingency, contingency conditions during which reinforcement and incentive were evaluated. It was found that reinforcement resulted in the highest rates of behavior and improvements in the aesthetic appearance of the area.
APPLICATION OF THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE TO THE BEHAVIORAL CONTROL OF EXTREMELY INACTIVE SCHIZOPHRENICS1
Authors: Mitchell William S. , Stoffelmayr Bertram E.
Published: March 2006

The four most inactive schizophrenic patients were selected by an observational technique from a ward of severely ill chronic patients. Of the four, two patients repeatedly refused to accept any dispensable rewards. Applying Premack's principle of reinforcement, consistent work behavior was shaped and maintained, using sitting as the reinforcer. The results indicate that the strict application of Premack's principle may have considerable therapeutic potential for those patients who, by refusing all tangible rewards, fail to respond to a reinforcement regime.
THE EFFICACY OF STIMULUS FADING AND CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT IN THE TREATMENT OF ELECTIVE MUTISM: A CASE STUDY1
Authors: Wulbert Margaret , Nyman Barry A. , Snow David , Owen Yvonne
Published: March 2006

Stimulus fading techniques were compared to those of contingency management in the treatment of a 6‐yr‐old, electively mute girl. Experimental periods consisted of the mother rewarding the child for verbal and motor responses to scheduled tasks, while a stranger slowly entered the room and then gradually administered the task items as mother left the room. A timeout contingency for non‐response to task items was also employed. Control periods consisted of a stranger administering the same tasks to the child under the same contingencies but without the presence of the mother or the use of stimulus fading. Experimental and control periods were alternated during each treatment hour. The stimulus fading procedure was found to be a necessary component of the treatment process. While the timeout contingency for non‐response was found to facilitate treatment if combined with stimulus fading, it was completely ineffective without the stimulus fading.
THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP AND INDIVIDUALLY CONTINGENT FREE TIME WITH INNER‐CITY JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS1
Authors: Long James D. , Williams Robert L.
Published: March 2006

A major purpose of the study was to assess the relative effects of group versus individually contingent free time in modifying student behaviors. Other purposes were to determine the effectiveness of well‐planned lesson activities and tokens without back‐up reinforcers. Eight students in an inner‐city seventh‐grade class of 32 blacks served as subjects. Well‐organized lesson activities and success feedback via tokens did not produce high levels of desirable behavior. In contrast, group and individually contingent free time produced substantially higher levels of appropriate behavior than did the baseline conditions. The group reinforcement procedure appeared to be slightly more effective than individual reinforcement.
MODIFICATION OF DEFICITS IN READING FOR COMPREHENSION
Authors: Lahey Benjamin B. , McNees Michael P. , Brown Cathy C.
Published: March 2006

Subjects were asked to read a passage orally and then to answer questions about the passage. When praise and pennies were given for correct answers, the percentage of correct answers increased in two sixth‐grade subjects whose reading for comprehension was tested to be 2 yr below grade level. The behavior of these subjects was compared to that of two subjects whose reading for comprehension was tested to be on grade level. Although no evidence for changes in the accuracy of answering comprehension questions is found in the previous literature, the percentage of correct answers in the children with deficits increased to approximately the same level as the children tested to be on grade level.
SELF‐RECORDING AND STUDENT TEACHER SUPERVISION: VARIABLES WITHIN A TOKEN ECONOMY STRUCTURE1
Authors: Knapczyk Dennis R. , Livingston Gary
Published: March 2006

A token system was used to attempt to increase the accuracy with which special education students answered questions about reading assignments. In the token system, students recorded their own data, received toy money for accurately completing assignments, and were allowed to spend their toy money at the end of the week for educational activities. The accuracy with which students answered questions was higher when the token system was in effect than when it was not. When student teachers were used to manage the token system and when the self‐recording feature of the system was removed, only slight changes in the accuracy of the student performance were obtained.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERBAL CONTROL OVER BIZARRE GESTURES OF RETARDATES THROUGH IMITATIVE AND NONIMITATIVE REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES1
Authors: Weisberg Paul , Passman Richard H. , Russell James E.
Published: March 2006

Two retardates, manifesting hand gestures and minimal instructional control, were trained by imitative reinforcement procedures to imitate a response that was in contrast to gesturing. Next, with the contrast response continuing to be imitatively reinforced, gesturing was reduced by nonimitative reinforcement procedures; while providing facial and gesture cues, the adult said, “Do not do this”. Imitative and nonimitative procedures were found to have the same effects on the contrast response as on the gesturing response, such that imitative procedures increased both responses, whereas nonimitative procedures decreased both. Nonperformance of gesturing was further maintained when (1) explicit verbal directions for nongesturing were superimposed upon the demonstrational‐facial‐verbal cues as these collective stimuli were faded out and (2) food reinforcers for nongesturing were gradually removed while social consequences continued to be administered.
SOCIAL PUNISHMENT IN THE MODIFICATION OF A PRESCHOOL CHILD'S “AUTISTIC‐LIKE” BEHAVIOR WITH A MOTHER AS THERAPIST1
Authors: Moore Benjamin L. , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

The mother of a 3‐yr‐old girl who showed “autistic‐like” behavior was cued via an FM wireless microphone systematically to approve and disapprove of her child's behavior. After baselines were taken on two categories of problem behavior (Pre‐Academic and Social Behavior), the social contingencies were applied successively to each category. The Pre‐Academic task was quickly established in the child when the mother applied these social contingencies. This result was replicated with requests for social interaction. In the final phase, cueing was withdrawn from both situations and the mother was able to maintain the child's improved behavior. An analysis of the mother's behavior suggested that her increased use of social punishment for inappropriate behavior was the key factor in the child's increasing responsiveness. Follow‐up seven months later indicated that the improvements maintained.
METHODOLOGICAL AND ASSESSMENT CONSIDERATIONS IN EVALUATING REINFORCEMENT PROGRAMS IN APPLIED SETTINGS1
Authors: Kazdin Alan E.
Published: March 2006

The extensive use of reinforcement programs in applied settings has led to experimentation that often fails to consider potential problems in design. The logic of the within‐subject design is reviewed and specific designs employed in reinforcement programs are discussed. For each design (ABAB, or multiple‐baseline design across behaviors, individuals, or situations), effects are discussed that make that design less powerful with respect to demonstrating the effect of the experimental variable. Problems in interpreting results of experiments in this area of inquiry are evaluated from the standpoint of internal and external validity. The issue of control groups is presented with considerations as to situations that require their use. Finally, the assessment strategy for evaluating operant programs is discussed and recommendations are made for measurement of behaviors in addition to the target response.
ACHIEVEMENT PLACE: DEVELOPMENT OF THE ELECTED MANAGER SYSTEM1
Authors: Phillips Elery L. , Phillips Elaine A. , Wolf Montrose M. , Fixsen Dean L.
Published: March 2006

A series of experiments was carried out to compare several administrative systems at Achievement Place, a family style behavior modification program for pre‐delinquent boys. One aspect of the motivation system at Achievement Place was the token economy in which the youths could earn or lose points that could be exchanged for privileges. Several arrangements for assigning routine tasks and for providing token consequences for task performance were compared for their effectiveness in accomplishing the tasks and for their preference by the boys. The independent variables studied included: (1) individually assigned tasks versus group assigned tasks; (2) consequences for individual performance versus consequences for group performance; (3) a peer managership that could be earned by the highest bidder versus a peer managership that could be determined democratically by the peers. The results suggested that among those systems studied the system that best met the criteria of effectiveness and preference involved a democratically elected peer manager who had the authority both to give and to take away points for his peers' performances.
EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING AND CONSEQUENCES ON THE MATH PERFORMANCE OF ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM STUDENTS1
Authors: Harris V. William , Sherman James A.
Published: March 2006

The effects of unstructured peer‐tutoring procedures on the math performance of fourth‐ and fifth‐grade students were investigated. Students' performances in two daily math sessions, during which they worked problems of the same type and difficulty, were compared. When students tutored each other over the same math problems as they subsequently worked, higher accuracies and rates of performance were associated with the tutored math sessions. The use of consequences for accurate performance seemed to enhance the effects of tutoring on accuracy. The results from an independent‐study control condition, which was the same peer‐tutoring except that students did not interact with each other, suggested that interactions between students during the tutoring procedure were, in part, responsible for improved accuracy and rate of performance. When students tutored each other over different but related problems to those that they were subsequently asked to solve, accuracies and rates during tutored math sessions were also higher, suggesting the development of generalized skills in solving particular types of math problems.
MODIFICATION OF INTERACTIVE BEHAVIORS IN CHRONIC MENTAL PATIENTS1
Authors: Bennett Pamela S. , Maley Roger F.
Published: March 2006

Four chronic mental patients, residents of a token economy treatment unit, were randomly assigned to an experimental or control condition and attended 10 thirty‐minute treatment sessions. For the two experimental subjects, contingent reinforcement was received for interacting with each other according to instructions in four distinct phases of interpersonal behavior: talking to another person, attending and talking to another person, asking and answering questions in a dyad, and working cooperatively in the dyad to solve problems. The two control subjects were instructed to perform the same behaviors but received non‐contingent reinforcement. The results indicated a strong contingent reinforcement effect on the performance of the treatment sessions' target behaviors. Several baseline, treatment, and post‐treatment response measures indicated that the treatment effects had generalized to other areas of social behavior away from the treatment setting.
TRAINING TWO SEVERELY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS TO ASK QUESTIONS1
Authors: Twardosz Sandra , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

Two retarded boys were taught to discriminate items they knew how to label (training items) from items they did not know (probe items), to respond appropriately by naming any training items, and to ask a question about any probe items. The boys did not learn to question when appropriate questioning was modelled by the experimenter; however, when they were prompted and rewarded for asking questions about some training items, they then began asking questions about probe items. Both the modelling‐ and prompting‐reinforcement procedures were introduced in an across‐subject, multiple baseline design.
THE USE OF A “TOKEN HELPER” IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND IN TEACHER TRAINING1
Authors: Ringer V. M. J.
Published: March 2006

A grade‐four class teacher was trained in the use of token and verbal reinforcement by an experienced “token helper”, who demonstrated the procedures in the classroom. The introduction of a simple token system resulted in significant decreases in the disruptive behavior of 10 pupils in two morning periods. When the token helper withdrew from the classroom, the teacher managed the token system and maintained disruptive behavior at lower than baseline levels.
THE EFFECT OF VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT ON ATTENTIVE BEHAVIOR IN THE CLASSROOM1
Authors: Kazdin Alan E.
Published: March 2006

The effect of social reinforcement delivered to target subjects on the attentive behavior of adjacent peers was examined in a classroom setting. In a combined reversal and multiple baseline design, two pairs of mentally retarded children were sequentially exposed to three reinforcement phases. After baseline rates of attentive behavior were obtained, praise was delivered to the target subject in each subject pair for attentive behavior. After a reversal phase, praise was delivered contingently to target subjects for inattentive behavior. In a final phase, contingent praise for attentive behavior was reinstated for the target subjects. Throughout the study, nontarget subjects received no direct reinforcers. The results indicated a vicarious reinforcement effect Reinforcing attentive behavior of target subjects increased this behavior in adjacent peers. However, reinforcing inattentive behavior of target subjects also increased the attentive behavior of adjacent peers. The effects obtained through vicarious reinforcement were considered to reflect the discriminative stimulus properties of reinforcement, which may serve as a cue for the performance of nonreinforced peers.
ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROGRAMMED GENERALIZATION1
Authors: Cone John D.
Published: March 2006

Issues related to assessing change and retention of change were discussed. An alternative analysis was suggested for the data of a recent study by Walker and Buckley (1972). These authors had found that peer reprogramming, equating stimulus conditions, teacher training, and control groups maintained 77, 74, 69, and 67%, respectively, of appropriate behavior produced in a token economy. Their analysis made no use of baseline levels. Two analyses incorporating baseline scores were suggested. One involved change scores; the other, analysis of covariance using baselines as the covariate. Problems with the data made a clear preference difficult, but it was concluded that either analysis would have resulted in conclusions different from those of Walker and Buckley.
THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTER'S INSTRUCTIONS, FEEDBACK, AND PRAISE ON TEACHER PRAISE AND STUDENT ATTENDING BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Cossairt Ace , Hall R. Vance , Hopkins B. L.
Published: March 2006

Systematic use of experimenter's instructions, feedback, and feedback plus social praise was used to increase teacher praise for student attending behavior of three elementary school teachers. Experimenter's verbal interactions with teachers, teacher's verbal praise for student behaviors, and pupil attending behavior were recorded during baseline conditions. As the three successive experimental conditions were introduced first with Teacher A, then with Teacher B, in a multiple baseline design, behaviors of the experimenter, the two teachers, and eight students were measured and recorded. In the cases of Teachers A and B, experimental condition one (Instructions) and experimental condition two (Feedback) produced inconclusive results. Experimental condition three (Feedback Plus Social Praise) produced more teacher praise for student attending behavior. The entire “Package” of Experimenter's Instructions, Feedback, and Feedback Plus Social Praise was introduced to Teacher C in a single experimental condition. As in the cases of Teachers A and B, behaviors measured were: (1) the experimenter's verbal interactions, (2) the teacher's praise of students, and (3) the student's attending behavior. Introduction of the “Package” also produced more teacher praise for student attending behavior.
THE EFFECTS OF A TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURE ON BUS RIDERSHIP1
Authors: Everett Peter B. , Hayward Scott C. , Meyers Andrew W.
Published: March 2006

Tokens, exchangeable for a variety of back‐up reinforcers, were delivered for several days to all persons boarding a clearly marked campus bus. This procedure increased ridership to 150% of baseline. The experiment was carried out to demonstrate the applicability of operant techniques to urban transportation problems. In this study, a token reinforcement procedure was introduced in an attempt to increase bus ridership while holding the costs of reinforcers to a minimum and circumventing the problems of individual satiety and preferences and of delivering cumbersome reinforcers. A methodology for establishing a token‐exchange procedure in an “open‐field” behavior setting, where the subject population size, geographic location, preferences, age, sex, preferred hours of mobility, etc. are unspecified, is also presented.
BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT OF DEVIANT SEX‐ROLE BEHAVIORS IN A MALE CHILD1
Authors: Rekers George A. , Lovaas O. Ivar
Published: March 2006

This study demonstrated reinforcement control over pronounced feminine behaviors in a male child who had been psychologically evaluated as manifesting “childhood cross‐gender identity”. The clinical history of the subject paralleled the retrospective reports of adult transsexuals, including (a) cross‐gender clothing preferences, (b) actual or imaginal use of cosmetic articles, (c) feminine behavior mannerisms, (d) aversion to masculine activities, coupled with preference for girl playmates and feminine activities, (e) preference for female role, (f) feminine voice inflection and predominantly feminine content in speech, and (g) verbal statements about the desire or preference to be a girl. The subject was treated sequentially in the clinic and home environments by his mother, trained to be his therapist. The mother was taught to reinforce masculine behaviors and to extinguish feminine behaviors, by using social reinforcement in the clinic and a token reinforcement procedure in the home. During this treatment, his feminine behaviors sharply decreased and masculine behavior increased. The treatment effects were found to be largely response‐specific and stimulus‐specific; consequently, it was necessary to strengthen more than one masculine behavior and weaken several feminine behaviors, in both clinic and home settings. A multiple‐baseline intrasubject design was used to ensure both replication and identification of relevant treatment variables. Follow‐up data three years after the treatment began suggests that the boy's sex‐typed behaviors have become normalized. This study suggests a preliminary step toward correcting pathological sex‐role development in boys, which may provide a basis for the primary prevention of adult transsexualism or similar adult sex‐role deviation.
READING‐RELATED BEHAVIOR IN AN OPEN CLASSROOM: EFFECTS OF NOVELTY AND MODELLING ON PRESCHOOLERS1
Authors: Haskett G. J. , Lenfestey William
Published: March 2006

Eight preschool children were exposed initially to an unstructured (open) classroom in which, among other objects, a dozen different books were continuously available. Samples of the subjects' behavior over several weeks documented a very low frequency of reading‐related activity (attention to books). Introduction of novel books into the classroom increased some children's reading‐related behavior, but adults who modelled reading by reading aloud produced larger and more stable increases of such behavior. There was also a relative increase in frequency of independent and a relative decrease in mutual‐peer reading‐related activity, possibly as a result of modelling. The study calls attention to the need to evaluate the open‐classroom setting in a manner compatible with the experimental analysis of behavior in other applied settings—a manner that is also consistent with the real aims of open education.
INCREASING RURAL HEAD START CHILDREN'S CONSUMPTION OF MIDDLE‐CLASS MEALS1
Authors: Madsen Charles H. , Madsen Clifford K. , Thompson Faith
Published: March 2006

Rural black, economically impoverished Head Start children, whose normal diets were deficient in nutritional requirements, were not consuming the nutritional breakfasts of, to them, unfamiliar foods provided by the county school system. This study investigated a positive simple method to increase the amount of food consumed and thereby ensure proper nutrition. Teachers dispensed sugar‐coated cereal and small candies paired with praise contingent on eating behaviors and rewarded children who finished the entire meal with additional treats and praise. Substantial increases were produced in the proportion of meals consumed and in the number of children observed engaged in eating behaviors. These simple traditional behavioral procedures are readily available for any staff working with economically impoverished children as one method of increasing their sampling and consumption of unfamiliar nutritious foods.
EFFECTS OF CONTINGENCY CONTRACTING ON STUDY RATE AND TEST PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Bristol Marie M. , Sloane Howard N.
Published: March 2006

A contingency contracting program designed to increase study rate and subsequent test performance was implemented with a group of undergraduate psychology students. The function of the contingency contracting program in producing increased study rate was evaluated by individual experiments with each student in an experimental contracting group. The overall effect of the program on test performance was assessed by comparing the final scores for the course earned by the experimental group with those earned by two matched control groups. A reversal procedure established that contingency contracting did significantly increase the study rate of students of a wide range of ability. However, it was selectively effective in improving the test performance of below‐average students only. Study rate gains in contracted courses did not generalize to noncontracted courses. Self‐recording of study time in the absence of scheduled differential consequences did not improve test performance. Study rate under no‐consequence conditions varied with test schedule. For both consequence and no‐consequence groups, the correlation between study time and final score for the course was only moderate.
A COMPARISON OF THREE METHODS FOR ELIMINATING DISRUPTIVE LUNCHROOM BEHAVIOR1,2
Authors: MacPherson Evelyn M. , Candee Benjamin L. , Hohman Robert J.
Published: March 2006

Three methods of controlling disruptive lunchroom behaviors of elementary school children were compared: basic modification procedures, basic modification procedures plus punishment essays, and basic modification procedures plus mediation essays. During an in‐service workshop, six paraprofessional lunch aides received training in these methods to modify three classes of disruptive lunchroom behaviors. They then applied the methods in a counter‐balanced design. Fourth‐ and fifth‐grade elementary school pupils were observers and made reliability counts of the target misbehaviors under the various methods. Results indicated that during the periods when aides had been directed to use basic modification procedures plus mediation essays, target misbehaviors were almost totally eliminated and occurred significandy less often than during the periods when they had been directed to use basic modification procedures alone or basic modification procedures plus punishment essays.
EFFECT OF CUEING ON SELF‐CONTROL OF CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Glynn E. L. , Thomas J. D.
Published: March 2006

Behavioral self‐control procedures, composed of self‐assessment, self‐recording, self‐determination and administration of reinforcement, were introduced into a regular third‐grade classroom immediately after a baseline period. The procedures produced a small and unstable increase in the level of on‐task behavior in eight of the nine subjects. After a second baseline period, a cueing procedure was introduced, using a chart specifying on‐task behavior. This enabled within‐lesson changes in on‐task behavior to be posted clearly for the children. The cueing procedure combined with the self‐control procedures produced a high and stable increase in on‐task behavior in all subjects.
FACILITATION OF THE ACQUISITION AND RETENTION OF SIGHT‐WORD VOCABULARY THROUGH TOKEN REINFORCEMENT1
Authors: Lahey Benjamin B. , Drabman Ronald S.
Published: March 2006

Two groups of second‐grade children were taught to read orally 30 words and were later tested for retention. One group of subjects received verbal consequences, while the other group received verbal consequences plus token reinforcement. The token group reached criterion in significantly fewer trials and correctly read significantly more words on the retention tests after the longer retention intervals.
REDUCING AGGRESSIVE AND SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR OF INSTITUTIONALIZED RETARDED CHILDREN THROUGH REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER BEHAVIORS1
Authors: Repp Alan C. , Deitz Samuel M.
Published: March 2006

Aggressive and self‐injurious behaviors of four retarded children were reduced by combining various techniques with the differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO). In one study, aggressive responses of a severely retarded child were reduced when DRO was combined with a 30‐sec timeout. In a second study, various aggressive classroom behaviors were reduced when the child was told “no” for an inappropriate response but earned puzzle pieces for periods of time when inappropriate responses did not occur. Exchangeable tokens were given to a third subject for every 15 min in which aggressive responding did not occur, while each inappropriate response resulted in the loss of all tokens accrued. Responding was decreased to a level far below baseline. For a fourth child, self‐injurious responses were followed by “no”, and intervals of time in which no self‐injurious responding occurred earned candy. The rate of this behavior reduced significantly. In each case, the DRO procedure combined with the other techniques proved to be manageable for the teacher and successful in reducing the inappropriate behavior.
ELIMINATION OF BEDTIME THUMBSUCKING IN HOME SETTINGS THROUGH CONTINGENT READING1
Authors: Knight Martha F. , McKenzie Hugh S.
Published: March 2006

Reading stories at bedtime was made contingent upon nonthumbsucking for girls 3, 6, and 8 yr old. According to their mothers, all had been persistent thumbsuckers since infancy. Two had accompanying dental disorders. During baseline conditions, continuous noncontingent reading occurred. During experimental conditions, reading terminated on each occasion thumbsucking was observed and resumed immediately when thumbsucking ceased. High percentages of thumbsucking occurred during baseline conditions when reading was noncontingent, and low percentages occurred during experimental conditions when reading was contingent. Bedtime thumbsucking was eliminated for all three girls.
AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY IN A PERSONALIZED INSTRUCTION COURSE AND IN A LECTURE COURSE1
Authors: Born David G. , Davis Michael L.
Published: March 2006

The rapid proliferation of courses based on Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) calls for a prompt evaluation of the relative costs involved in PSI and more traditional forms of college instruction. To determine the cost in student time required by a course taught with PSI relative to lecture, students did their studying in a special Study Center where course materials could be used but not removed. Students in the PSI section spent an average of about 50% more time in the Study Center (46 hr) than did students in the lecture section (30 hr), but that difference was made up by the lecture students spending an average of 20 hr attending lectures. Thus, total preparation time was about the same. PSI students scored slightly higher on common course exams, and while college entrance exam scores correlated highly with course exam scores, Study Center time was reliably related to course exam score only for PSI students. An analysis of the study records of individual students revealed that PSI produced fairly regular patterns of study by all students, while lecture students varied greatly in their patterns.
GENERALITY AND SIDE EFFECTS OF OVERCORRECTION1
Authors: Epstein Leonard H. , Doke Larry A. , Sajwaj Thomas E. , Sorrell Sue , Rimmer Betty
Published: March 2006

The effects and side effects of overcorrection for self‐stimulatory behaviors of two children in a specialized day‐care program were evaluated. For one child, a “hand” overcorrection procedure involving arm and hand exercises was introduced contingent upon inappropriate hand movements and later contingent upon inappropriate foot movements. After “hand” overcorrection was withdrawn for inappropriate foot movements, a “foot” overcorrection procedure involving foot and leg exercises was introduced contingent upon inappropriate foot movements. For a second child, the “hand” overcorrection procedure was introduced contingent upon inappropriate hand movements during a free‐play period, and later contingent upon inappropriate vocalizations at naptime. “Hand” overcorrection was withdrawn and then re‐introduced sequentially for both behaviors. Several concurrent behaviors were measured to assess multiple effects of treatment. Results for both children indicated the “hand” overcorrection procedure suppressed inappropriate hand movements and inappropriate behaviors that were topographically dissimilar. In addition, inverse relationships were observed between the second child's inappropriate hand movements and appropriate toy usage during free play and between his inappropriate vocalizations and inappropriate foot movements during naptime. Results suggest that overcorrection procedures that are effective for one behavior can be used to reduce the frequency of topographically different behaviors. This finding is discussed in terms of its practical implications for therapists.
GENERALIZATION OF VERBAL CONDITIONING TO VERBAL AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR: GROUP THERAPY WITH CHRONIC PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS1
Authors: Tracey Dorothy A. , Briddell Dan W. , Wilson G. Terence
Published: March 2006

Twelve chronic hospitalized female patients received token reinforcement contingent on two separate classes of verbalizations: (a) positive statements about optional activities available in the hospital setting, and (b) positive statements about people. Cross‐class generalization of reinforced verbal responses about activities to overt behavior was tested by actual participation in activities; within‐class generalization of verbal responses about people to verbalizations in another stimulus setting was assessed in a structured interview situation. A multiple baseline design with contingency reversals was employed to demonstrate experimental control of both classes of verbalizations in the group sessions. Positive statements about activities generalized to actual participation in activities, while generalization of positive statements about people to verbalization in the extra‐group setting did not occur.
RECREATION AS A REINFORCER: INCREASING MEMBERSHIP AND DECREASING DISRUPTIONS IN AN URBAN RECREATION CENTER1
Authors: Pierce Charles H. , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

It is presumed that recreation activities have a variety of functions for people, from tension reduction to citizenship development; however, a recreation activity's most empirically obvious function is as a reinforcer. This study demonstrates how two recurrent problems of urban recreation programs—recruitment of members and reduction of disruptive behaviors within the program—can be handled simply by contingently adjusting the amount of time the recreation activities are available. When extra time in the recreation center was provided to those youths who brought new members, dramatic increases in membership were achieved. On the other hand, when the closing time for each evening's recreation program was publicly moved forward by a few minutes for each offense, disruptive behaviors were nearly eliminated. Recreation used as a reinforcer can thus improve the basic operation of a recreation center and might similarly enhance other presumed and desired functions of recreation.
GROUP CONTINGENCIES FOR GROUP CONSEQUENCES IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: A FURTHER ANALYSIS1
Authors: Greenwood Charles R. , Hops Hyman , Delquadri Joseph , Guild Jacqueline
Published: March 2006

The relative effects of rules, rules + feedback, and rules + feedback + group and individual consequences for appropriate behavior were investigated in three elementary classrooms during reading and mathematics periods. The consequences were individual and group praise, and group activities. The total intervention package (rules + feedback + group and individual consequences) was most effective in increasing appropriate behavior. Rules + feedback produced increased appropriate behavior in two of the three classrooms. Rules alone produced no change in classroom behavior. Maintenance of appropriate classroom behavior was noted approximately three weeks after the program ended. Teacher's correct use of praise was also maintained for two of the three teachers at levels generated during the total package condition.
ARTICULATION TRAINING OF TWO HEARING‐IMPAIRED GIRLS1
Authors: Bennett Clinton W.
Published: March 2006

Two 4‐yr‐old hearing‐impaired girls were trained to articulate correctly /f/ and /sh/ phonemes in the initial position of words in response to pictures. They were first trained to imitate, and then to respond on demand of “what's this?” As a result, both girls generalized correct articulation to words requiring both phonemes in the initial and final positions.
TREATMENT OF PSYCHOTIC CHILDREN IN A CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT: I. LEARNING IN A LARGE GROUP1
Authors: Koegel Robert L. , Rincover Arnold
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate systematically the feasibility of modifying the behavior of autistic children in a classroom environment. In the first experiment, eight autistic children were taught certain basic classroom behaviors (including attending to the teacher upon command, imitation, and an elementary speaking and recognition vocabulary) that were assumed to be necessary for subsequent learning to take place in the classroom. Based on research documenting the effectiveness of one‐to‐one (teacher‐child ratio) procedures for modifying such behaviors, these behaviors were taught in one‐to‐one sessions. It was, however, found that behaviors taught in a one‐to‐one setting were not performed consistently in a classroom‐sized group, or even in a group as small as two children with one teacher. Further, the children evidenced no acquisition of new behaviors in a classroom environment over a four‐week period. Therefore, Experiment II introduced a treatment procedure based upon “fading in” the classroom stimulus situation from the one‐to‐one stimulus situation. Such treatment was highly effective in producing both a transfer in stimulus control and the acquisition of new behaviors in a kindergarten/first‐grade classroom environment.
SUPERVISING PARAPROFESSIONAL TUTORS IN A REMEDIAL READING PROGRAM1
Authors: Barnard James D. , Christophersen Edward R. , Wolf Montrose M.
Published: March 2006

Applied researchers increasingly report the use of paraprofessionals to implement key program components. However, despite such apparent advantages as increased availability and lower salaries, problems in maintaining acceptable levels of on‐the‐job performance in these workers have been reported. This study assessed the effects of a supervisory package on the work behavior of five paraprofessional tutors in a remedial reading program. The package consisted of written handouts and instructions, tests of tutor understanding, a video tape, mention of tutor performance by supervisors, and publicly posted feedback on work performance. One randomly chosen tutor received feedback each day on (1) his degree of completeness in tutoring one student's answers to comprehension‐check questions, (2) his accuracy in tabulating that student's data sheet, and (3) his promptness in beginning the first student's tutorial session. The supervisory package produced marked improvement in completeness, some improvement in accuracy, but no improvement in promptness. Application of the supervisory package seemed practical, as an average of nine daily tutorial sessions (approximately 270 min of tutoring) required a total daily average of only 28 min of supervision. It was concluded that completeness performance by nondegreed, paraprofessional tutors was closely related to the extent to which they were supervised. Despite the fact that no improvement was observed in tutor promptness, and only partial improvement was observed in tutor accuracy, the improvement to near‐perfect levels in tutor completeness suggests that further research is warranted to develop supervisory packages that might ensure the reliable and efficient use of paraprofessional workers.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF MODELLING ON MORPHEMIC AND SYNTACTIC FEATURES AS A FUNCTION OF FAMILY INCOME AND AGE1
Authors: Lahey Benjamin B. , Lawrence James H.
Published: March 2006

Children were asked to describe pictures in alternation with an adult model who used either descriptive adjectives in one condition or no adjectives in another condition. No reinforcement or instructions to imitate were given. The variables of age and family income were also studied in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design. The effect of modelling on the children's use of adjectives was significant, as were the main effects for family income and age. All two‐ and three‐way interactions were also significant. The significant interactions reflect the fact that the modelling effect was less strong for the preschool children, especially for those from low‐income families. Inspection of the individual data for these subjects suggests that the effect was weak and inconsistent across subjects. These results only partially confirm the stronger effects found by Lahey (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1971, 4, 19–22) using a similar population. Clear modelling effects on descriptive adjectives were found with second‐ and fourth‐grade children at both economic levels, however. In the second part of the experiment, the effect of modelling on prepositional constructions was studied using the same procedure and design. Although a statistical test of the modelling effect was significant, no clear evidence for the influence of modelling on prepositional constructions was found.
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS, CONSEQUENCES, AND CLASSROOM PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL STUDIES AND MATHEMATICS1
Authors: Harris V. William , Sherman James A.
Published: March 2006

Elementary school students who frequently answered questions incorrectly in class were given daily homework assignments in social studies and math, but they rarely completed the assignments accurately and their classroom performance in social studies and math was only slightly better than when they did not have homework assignments. However, consequences provided for accurate completion of homework assignments increased the number of students completing homework and the accuracy with which homework assignments were completed. Further, assignments of homework with consequences for accuracy were associated with more accurate classroom performance.
INCREASING SPONTANEOUS PLAY BY SUPPRESSING SELF‐STIMULATION IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN1
Authors: Koegel Robert L. , Firestone Paula B. , Kramme Kenneth W. , Dunlap Glen
Published: March 2006

Appropriate play with toys was studied in two autistic children with high occurrences of self‐stimulatory behavior. Each child participated in the experimental sessions in an A‐B‐A design, where “A” refers to baseline sessions and “B” refers to self‐stimulation suppression sessions. It was found that: (a) during the baseline sessions, the children exhibited low levels of play and high levels of self‐stimulatory behavior; (b) the per cent of unreinforced, spontaneous, appropriate play increased when self‐stimulatory behavior was suppressed; and (c) when the suppression of self‐stimulation was discontinued, the per cent of self‐stimulation and that of appropriate play approached their presuppression levels. These results seem particularly significant because they identify a set of conditions under which spontaneous appropriate behavior, uncommon in autistic children, occurs at an increased level.