bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intercultural Communication Study in France
Authors: Averbeck‐Lietz Stefanie
Published: December 2017

This entry deals with the development of intercultural communication research in French academia since it took off during the 1970s. The roots of intercultural communication research can be traced back to (a) intercultural training programs initiated to improve post‐World War II relations in Europe, especially between the French and the Germans, (b) immigration to France in the wake of decolonialization since the1960s, particularly regarding intercultural pedagogics, and (c) the emerging topic of (mediatized) global communication and cultural hybridity since the 1990s. Besides practical reasons for intercultural communication research, social constructivist approaches and semio‐pragmatics are strong theoretical inputs to the diverse field of intercultural communication research in France, whereas cross‐cultural communication research as in the US tradition is not the dominant paradigm. From an ethical viewpoint, the concept of “alterity” (“alterité”) is highly relevant.
Intercultural Communication Study in Germany
Authors: Hinner Michael B.
Published: December 2017

The study of intercultural communication in Germany is, on the one hand, a relatively recent development that has been introduced from America. On the other hand, the precursors of intercultural communication studies have a long and rich tradition in Germany; in particular, in ethnology, philology, and psychology. After World War II, large numbers of migrants came to Germany and their integration into German society was initially problematic. These various factors had considerable impact on intercultural communication research and instruction in Germany. Another important characteristic of intercultural communication study in Germany is the debate on what constitutes culture and intercultural communication competence. A number of postsecondary institutions offer bachelor's and master's programs as well as courses in intercultural communication.
Intercultural Communication Study in the Middle East
Authors: Alkharusi Mohammed Juma
Published: December 2017

“Citizens of the world” is a term widely used today to describe those individuals who cross cultural boundaries for various reasons; this term should be particularly applicable to the Middle East, as the region is characterized by cultural, religious, ethnic, racial, and linguistic diversity. Examining intercultural communication in the Middle East from an Arab perspective contributes to developing a comprehensive understanding of various issues in this region, including how Middle Eastern Arabs and Muslims, in particular, view themselves and how others view (or stereotype) them. Cultural, ethnic, and religious identities frame the communication styles of Middle Eastern people and guide them in their interactions and communication with others.
Intercultural Communication Study in Poland
Authors: Bartosik‐Purgat Małgorzata
Published: December 2017

The development of education in the field of intercultural communication in Poland had its beginnings in the 17th century. World War II and its consequences influenced the fact that the current study cycle does not have a relatively long history. The main determinants inhibiting the development of the didactic offer and scientific activities in the field of intercultural communication had their grounds in the Polish political system after World War II. Since the beginning of the 1990s there has been great development in intercultural communication in many research and educational centers in Poland. Currently, intercultural communication is taught at all levels of education at leading universities in Poland. Polish scientists conduct research in this field that results in scientific publications, they are members of many international organizations dealing with intercultural communication, and they participate in and organize scientific meetings both in Poland and abroad.
Intercultural Communication Study in Portugal
Authors: Nobre Guilherme Fráguas , Filimon Nela
Published: December 2017

This entry provides a global overview of research into intercultural communication in Portugal. The key elements examined refer to the historical foundations of intercultural communication and the various ways of approaching the intercultural communication issue, encompassing the institutions involved and the related topics of thought, authors, research streams, the variety of intercultural communication concepts, and future perspectives. Overall, evidence has shown that public policies that are focused on stressing the value and importance of the Portuguese language and culture, at both national and international levels, have marked the evolution of the intercultural communication field in Portugal from its beginnings up to the present day.
Intercultural Communication Study in Spain
Authors: Filimon Nela
Published: December 2017

Due to past history, intercultural communication in Spain is grounded on two dimensions: the Mediterranean and the Hispanic. The process of political democratic transition started in 1975 had a significant impact in the academic field. The creation of the first information and communication faculties in the 1980s and the 1990s was the cornerstone for the consolidation of intercultural communication as a field of research and teaching. Intercultural communication studies embraces a multidisciplinary and multithematic nature with a special focus on immigration, cultural diversity, education, and identity. The emergence of new forms of global communication and the impact of digital technologies raise new challenges for the understanding of the concept of own‐ and other‐identity, with academia, mass media, and sociopolitical institutions all being called to play a dynamic role in this process.
Intercultural Communication Study in the United Kingdom
Authors: Woodin Jane
Published: December 2017

Intercultural communication study developed in the UK in the mid‐1990s across a range of institutions in the higher education sector. This development took place within an increasingly internationalized arena, with Erasmus study exchanges across Europe and a rise in the number of students from around the world, particularly from China. Intercultural communication study in the UK has itself undergone changes in focus and content, from cross‐cultural comparative approaches, a focus on mediation and the intercultural individual, to critical pedagogy and discourse approaches. It is proposed that the future will witness a development into intercultural engagement and action in the world. These developments are evident in research group activities, teaching curricula, and to some extent funding for large projects in the field.
Culture‐Based Conversational Constraints Theory
Authors: Kim Min‐Sun
Published: December 2017

Conversational constraints theory (CCT), developed by Min‐Sun Kim and her colleagues, explains why people from different cultures say what they say. In contrast with mostly descriptive research on cross‐cultural strategy choices, the main goal of this research program has been to understand, from a goals perspective, why a particular conversational strategy is chosen cross‐culturally. The theory proposes five main motives that belong to two conflicting broad categories: relationally oriented and task‐oriented. Relationally oriented constraints include (a) concern for avoiding hurting the hearer's feelings, (b) concern for minimizing imposition, and (c) concern for avoiding negative evaluation by the hearer. Task‐oriented constraints include (d) concern for clarity and (e) effectiveness. For any given encounter, cultural factors (e.g., collectivism, individualism) determine the salient constraints, which in turn determine one's preferences for conversational strategies and tactics. CCT provides a theoretical framework for understanding cultural preferences for communication tactics and the perceptions of intercultural communicative competence.
Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis
Authors: Neuliep James W.
Published: December 2017

The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis delineates two principles. One is the principle of linguistic determinism, which says that the way one thinks is determined by the language one speaks. Taken at its extreme, this principle means that, if we do not have a word for it, then we cannot think about it. The second is the principle of linguistic relativity, sometimes called linguistic diversity, which says that the languages of the world are all very different. These principles raise some important issues for cross‐cultural communication. If how one thinks is a reflection of the language one speaks, then the speakers of two very different languages must think very differently. This could render effective and successful intercultural communication extremely difficult, if not impossible. Contemporary linguists qualify the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.
Survey Research and Ecological Validity
Authors: Neuliep James W.
Published: December 2017

This entry profiles survey research and ecological validity. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the procedures and findings of a research study are generalizable and applicable to real‐life settings. This entry profiles cases where ecological validity was lacking and where it may have been too realistic.
Survey Research and Sampling Equivalence
Authors: Neuliep James W.
Published: December 2017

This entry profiles survey research and sampling equivalence. Sampling equivalence refers to the extent to which the methods used and the participants in the two (or more) cultural samples being studied are representative of the target population in that particular culture. Examples of sampling equivalence in intercultural communication research are provided.
Translation
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S.
Published: December 2017

Translation has been discussed in many disciplines of social science and humanities, and scholars have noted the difficulty of translation from multiple perspectives. Philosophers point to the paradox of translation. Scholars in the field of semiotics suggest that the more different the translated and the translatant are, the more is the opportunity for artistic reinterpretation. Psychologists note the difficulty of translation, but proceed with translation of instruments for measurement equivalence. It may not be an exaggeration to say that intercultural communication will always depend on some form of translation.
Cultural Communication, Overview
Authors: Boromisza‐Habashi David
Published: December 2017

Cultural communication is a research approach and program for the study of how communication can be used to affirm or create the distinct cultural identities of communities. Cultural communication approaches culture as code, conversation, or community, and identifies ritual, myth, and social drama as cross‐culturally relevant forms of communication that serve the purpose of affirming communal identity and belonging. A theoretical development of cultural communication, speech codes theory, opened up cultural communication toward the study of the role of cross‐cultural difference in intercultural communication. New research designed to investigate the transformative potential and new contexts of cultural communication is discussed.
Culture in Conversation
Authors: Robles Jessica S.
Published: December 2017

While there are many ways of defining and analyzing culture in communication, one approach that especially resonates with how most people experience culture in everyday life is how it arises in ordinary conversation. This entry reviews key concepts and research on culture as a feature of discourse in interpersonal interactions.
Discourse of Difference
Authors: Edgerly Louisa
Published: December 2017

The discourse of difference is a concept derived from studies in speech codes and the ethnography of communication tradition. The concept refers to the act of naming or remarking on social, racial, or other types of difference between individuals or groups. Such a speech event often provokes a challenge to the speaker of difference, and may involve a prolonged contestation over the meaning of the original utterance and its appropriateness. Such a contestation is called a social drama, and, in the course of it, participants often engage in talk about talk—evaluations of the speech of others—that may include explicit statements about the values, premises, symbols, and rules of speaking that are important in their community.
Ethnography of Cultural Communication
Authors: Winchatz Michaela R.
Published: December 2017

The ethnography of communication (EC) includes an approach, methodology, and theoretical perspective dedicated to describing and interpreting culturally patterned communication within particular speech communities. Using units of analysis such as speech acts, speech situations, speech events, terms of address, metacommunicative terms, ways of speaking, and speech codes, EC researchers employ ethnographic fieldwork methods to conduct data collection on language and social interaction. In order to locate, describe, and interpret the distinctive, structured, and socially consequential particularities of communicative conduct in a cultural context, EC researchers rely on the SPEAKING mnemonic, Cultural Discourse Analysis (CuDA), and Speech Codes Theory (SCT) for analytic grounding. Ethnography of communication is dedicated to understanding the localized means and meanings of cultural communicative practices from the participants' viewpoint while simultaneously providing insight into general principles of communication across cultural contexts.
Communication Modes,
F
innish
Authors: Poutiainen Saila
Published: December 2017

In order to understand Finnish cultural communication from the Finnish perspective, three modes of communication are described and discussed: silence and its multiple meanings; a matter‐of‐fact style of communication (
asiallinen
), which emphasizes a thoughtful and controlled way of speaking; and Finnishness talk (
suomalaisuuspuhe
), which is the often self‐criticizing way of talking about Finnishness among Finns themselves.
Communication Modes,
I
celandic
Authors: Kristjánsdóttir Erla S.
Published: December 2017

Iceland has developed enormously over the past century, moving from turf houses to modern buildings and from an extremely primitive lifestyle to a high‐tech lifestyle in a few decades. This entry introduces seven of the most common Icelandic values that are reflected in the communication styles, behaviors, organizational structure, and decision‐making processes. Icelanders are considered to be independent, direct, hardworking, positive individuals who live in a society where the Icelandic language gave them independence, family is important, equality exists, and the fatalistic belief that everything will work out (“it will sort itself out”) is prevalent.
Communication Modes,
I
ndian
Authors: Manian Ranjini
Published: December 2017

Communicating with and in India is significantly impacted by the diversity that characterizes the country's ethos. Yet, across these regional, ethnic, and linguistic differences, there run certain common unique challenges. These factors could serve to destabilize effective interaction with other cultures because of the scope for miscuing and misinterpretation. The challenges are rooted in factors as disparate as gender issues and the intonation of vernacular languages. However, once the areas of potential difficulty are identified, it is easy to understand and be understood. Familiarization with the unique nuances of communication modes in India is certainly worth the effort, as India is the 21st century's most happening power.
Communication Modes,Irish
Authors: Schneider Klaus P.
Published: December 2017

Communication in Ireland usually takes place in English. Irish English has a unique pragmatic profile that differs from the profiles of other varieties of the English language, for instance British English and American English. A key feature of Irish English communication is a high degree of indirectness. People in Ireland avoid disagreement, confrontation, and conflict. Hospitality, concern for the communication partner, and modesty are further important characteristics.
Communication Modes,
K
enyan
Authors: Miller Ann Neville , Booker Nancy Achieng'
Published: December 2017

This entry provides an introduction to Kenyan modes of communication. Collectivism is the key value that determines how Kenyans choose to communicate. Within the broader collectivist approach, relative status of the individuals involved and the purpose of communication in a given situation also affect the appropriate mode of communication. Indirectness, third party communication, judiciously withholding information, and use of metaphors, proverbs, and stories are characteristic of Kenyan interaction with persons of different status in society, or when conveying sensitive news. Directness is typical of close, horizontal personal relationships.
Communication Modes,
K
orean
Authors: Robinson James H.
Published: December 2017

Within Korean modes of communication,
nunch'i
is critically important. Without it, a Korean appears immature at the least. With it, a Korean is well prepared to communicate effectively in social as well as professional contexts. More often than not
nunch'i
is seen and not heard. It is measured more by silences than by words. Within Korean society,
nunch'i
is related to dualism, hierarchy,
ch'emyon
or face and
kibun
or mood. Its usage can help one escape the unpleasant for oneself, but it can also appear less than truthful to others. If you overuse it, you might appear manipulative. If you are junior in status, you need it more than if you are senior. It can help ego‐protect one's own
ch'emyon
or
kibun
as well as those of one's seniors. When two people are in the same
nunch'i
channel, communication is highly effective.
Communication Modes,
T
aiwanese
Authors: Sandel Todd L.
Published: December 2017

This entry explains a number of communication styles that diverge from those found in China, and which differ within Taiwan. Taiwanese speak a distinct form of Mandarin, called Taiwan Guoyu, and often code‐switch and speak Taiwanese. Within Taiwan, people in the south tend to speak more Taiwanese and may be seen as local or “tai,” while those in the north speak more Mandarin, and may use a more feminine and cute style of discourse. Taiwanese perceive themselves as living on a beautiful and small island that requires protection; they are a society that is multilingual and multicultural, open and welcoming of immigrants. Finally, many in Taiwan express admiration for Japan, and see the past Japanese colonial legacy positively.
Hate Speech
Authors: Haas John
Published: December 2017

Hate speech is one of a family of concepts that refer to speech that is designed to offend and denigrate members of a group. Initially, most definitions of hate speech included forms of expression that dehumanize members of racial, religious, or ethnic groups. That view of hate speech has expanded to include additional categories such as gender, age, sexual orientation, and physical capacity. A long tradition of research has sought to explain hate speech as one rational outcome of the communication process when people base their communication with others on group membership.
Hatred
Authors: Osborne Randall E.
Published: December 2017

Hate or hatred, as nouns, are defined as “intense hostility and aversion usually deriving from fear, anger, or sense of injury.” From this definition, we derive both an explanation for primary causes of hate and advice on what one might do to diminish or combat hate. As research on the topic of hatred has evolved over the last several decades, efforts have been made to assist individuals in understanding that “hate” is not something that “other people do” but something that all human beings are capable of feeling and expressing. Implications of this shift in thinking for work on combating hatred must be explored.
Intergroup Conflict and Reconciliation
Authors: Bar‐Tal Daniel , Vered Soli
Published: December 2017

Intractable intergroup conflicts are demanding, stressful, exhausting, and costly both in human and material terms. Societies involved in this type of conflict develop appropriate sociopsychological conditions which enable them to adapt to the conflictual situation, survive the stressful period, and struggle successfully with the adversary. Changing the nature of relations between rival sides to an intractable conflict requires much more than reaching its official settlement. The establishment of stable and lasting peaceful relations between the former adversaries necessitates the formation of an ethos of peace and the construction of peace culture through processes of peacemaking and reconciliation. This is the peacebuilding process, which involves major societal change designed to enable the structuring of a new relationship based on mutual trust and acceptance, cooperation, and consideration of mutual needs. Success in this long and challenging societal process is a necessary condition for establishing life without bloodshed and suffering.
Intergroup Contact Theory
Authors: Joyce Nick
Published: December 2017

Intergroup contact theory states that when an individual is allowed to communicate with someone who belongs to another group, their prejudices toward this other group will be reduced. This theory has been extensively supported by hundreds of empirical studies using a variety of methodologies and in numerous intergroup contexts. This entry discusses how researchers conceptualize intergroup contact and how this conceptualization has been expanded over time, details support for the basic effects of contact, and discusses variables that change intergroup contact's effectiveness (moderators), as well as variables that may be mechanisms of those effects (mediators).
Intergroup Media
Authors: Abrams Jessica R.
Published: December 2017

Intergroup media is the transactional relationship between media engagement, media content, and group identity. These three processes are presented and discussed, and the relationships between the three should be understood as bidirectional rather than unidirectional. A model representing the relationships is offered. Because the nature of the relationships will vary based on a specific group identity, the relationships are broadly addressed. New avenues for research are also offered.
Neuroscience of Intergroup Communication
Authors: Cargile Aaron Castelán
Published: December 2017

Intergroup communication emerges when individuals perceive themselves or others as belonging to a social category. During most of the 20th century, scholars were left to infer this internal shift, from interpersonal to intergroup, based solely on external behaviors and self‐reports. But technological advancements in the form of electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have more recently presented scientists with the capacity to peer inside the living human body, most particularly at the brain. As a result, neuroscientific research has mushroomed beyond the borders of medicine to offer a tantalizing and tentative look at internal events believed to be responsible for intergroup communication.
Power in Intergroup Communication
Authors: Ng Sik Hung , Stolte John F.
Published: December 2017

Power and cognate concepts of dependence, influence, control, authority, legitimacy, and dominance abound in sociology, psychology, and other social sciences. This entry integrates major conceptions of power, and presents an overview of key perspectives on power in intergroup communication, emphasizing theories of social exchange, social identity, and speech. Finally, it explores complementarities among these perspectives that promise to expand understanding of power and intergroup communication.
Secondary Transfer Effect of Intergroup Contact
Authors: Lolliot Simon
Published: December 2017

This entry provides an overview of the state of the research programme for the secondary transfer effect of contact. Rooted in Gordon Allport's contact hypothesis—that intergroup contact will reduce prejudice—the secondary transfer effect of contact describes the process whereby contact with one outgroup reduces prejudice towards different outgroups. To date, four mediating mechanisms of the secondary transfer effect have contributed to our growing theoretical and empirical understanding of this effect. These mediators include attitude generalization, deprovincialization, intergroup anxiety, and perspective‐taking. The mediating mechanisms of attitude generalization, intergroup anxiety, and perspective‐taking all enjoy consistent support, whereas the deprovincialization hypothesis has, to date, received mixed evidence, partially owing to its narrow operationalization. Further theoretical development of the deprovincialization hypothesis is warranted. Similarly, more experimental and multiwave longitudinal research is needed to solidify both the underlying causality of the secondary transfer effect and to test the latest set of moderation and mediation hypotheses.
Social Identity Theory
Authors: Schmid Katharina
Published: December 2017

Since its inception in the early 1970s, social identity theory has become one of the leading social psychological theories on group dynamics and intergroup relations. This entry provides an overview of the main tenets of the theory, with reference to key research findings. The theory explains how and when social categorization, social comparison, and social identification processes lead to intergroup discrimination and ingroup favoritism. Individuals categorize themselves and others into ingroups and outgroups, and strive for a positively valued social identity. Depending on the perceived status relations between the ingroup and the outgroup, the perceived stability and legitimacy of these status differences, and the perceived permeability of group boundaries, individuals may engage in three strategies to either achieve or maintain a positive identity, which have direct implications for understanding intergroup relations: individual mobility, social creativity, and social competition.
Sports, Culture, and Intergroup Communication
Authors: Giles Howard
Published: December 2017

Sport is largely a social construction that sustains a plethora of cultural forms, ideologies, and communicative practices. Indeed, some commentators claim one cannot understand a culture adequately if they do not appreciate its distinctive sports and attending histories. Sport reflects societies' attitudes, with the latter shaping the former and often being associated with nationalistic ideals and militarism. Intergroup dynamics are readily observed in fans' dress styles, fanzines, expressed values, and the nature of their rivalries, to name but a few. Different sports, and the way they are mediatized and commodified, are changing every year, and this presents an exciting challenge for intergroup theory development.
Culture‐Specific and Culture‐General Training
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S.
Published: December 2017

Intercultural training programs are called culture specific when they focus on a particular country and culture general when they include material that prepares people to work anywhere in the world by discussing issues that are relevant for sojourners. There is much debate about what approach is more appropriate to prepare people for international assignments, and a combination of both types of trainings offer an optimal package. Culture‐general training consists of personal safety, principles of culture learning, culture theories, and sociopolitical and economic aspects. Culture‐specific consists of country‐, industry‐, and organization‐level knowledge and skills.
Intercultural Competence Development
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S.
Published: December 2017

Intercultural competence development is used interchangeably with other constructs like intercultural sensitivity, intercultural expertise, cultural intelligence, and perspective taking. These concepts are used to capture the ability of sojourners and immigrants to adapt in the host culture where they are domiciled for a long period of time. Such long‐term assignments require cultural adaptation for the sojourners to be effective in their assignments. Intercultural competence calls for a set of abilities: the ability to observe cultural differences, the ability to empathize, and the ability to modify one's behavior to act appropriately in the host culture.
Intercultural Games and Simulations
Authors: Wiggins Bradley E.
Published: December 2017

The entry presents intercultural games and simulations in the context of their use as a training and learning tool for the purposes of improved or enhanced intercultural competency. It also introduces conceptual differences between cross‐cultural and intercultural, game and simulation, non‐digital and digital. Metaphors common to intercultural games and simulations illustrate their necessity in the entry in terms of bridging the conceptual complexity of culture with real‐world application. Prior to a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of national and synthetic cultural representation in simulations and games it is necessary to review a series of common intercultural simulations and games. Finally, several learning elements common to intercultural simulations and games are presented.
Borderlands
Authors: Cooks Leda , Zenovich Jennifer A.
Published: December 2017

This entry discusses the evolution of theorizing the border and borderlands in intercultural communication scholarship. The entry focuses on the usefulness of these concepts in theorizing cultural interaction in the spaces where cultures overlap. We trace the use and tensions between these two terms and then offer a few conclusions about the possibilities that the border and borderlands provide for studying spaces of and for identity in intercultural communication scholarship.
Cultural Imperialism Theories
Authors: Potter Rich , Valdivia Angharad N.
Published: December 2017

The cultural imperialism thesis developed in relation to dependency theory during the late 1960s and influenced geopolitical dynamics during the 1970s and 1980s, including the debate over a new world information and communications order (NWICO) and socialist policy, especially in Latin America. By the mid‐1980s, enthusiasm for the cultural imperialism thesis had been tempered by geopolitical trends, especially the accelerated integration of markets within a neoliberal framework, as well as a reorientation of global communications research toward active audiences and hybrid identities. As a result, the focus of cultural imperialism theories shifted from the influence of individual nation‐states to that of capitalism as a world system. Debates persist, but the recognition of uneven flows of information and media within a hegemonic system remains central to the field.
Cultural Nationalism
Authors: Cai Shenshen
Published: December 2017

After defining the concept of cultural nationalism, this entry compares cultural nationalism and state/political nationalism with regard to their respective emphasis on the function and significance of culture and state in nation building and survival, together with an explanation of the function and potential of cultural nationalism in supporting national subsistence and prosperity in a globalized world. Then the entry looks at a brief case study of cultural nationalism in contemporary China to further illustrate its most recent development in the biggest developing country and economic superpower in the world.
Cultural Studies
Authors: Gajjala Radhika , Dillon Jeanette M.
Published: December 2017

The definition of culture is complex, and the debate regarding this is central to cultural studies. This entry examines various approaches to the study of culture that have influenced the evolution of cultural studies as it developed first as British, then as American, and extended to postcolonial and inter‐Asian cultural studies.
Diaspora and Diasporic Identity
Authors: Drzewiecka Jolanta A.
Published: December 2017

This entry provides an overview of approaches to diaspora and diasporic identity in communication. The key elements of diaspora are connections and activism across borders, multiple belonging, and deployment of primordial and fluid identities in different contexts. Scholars examine how diasporic groups construct and authenticate their identification with historic homes, how they maintain connections across borders, the forms of activism, and diasporic media and media use. The latter is the largest and fastest‐growing area.
Double Consciousness
Authors: McPhail Mark Lawrence
Published: December 2017

Double consciousness is the term used by William Edward Burghardt Du Bois to describe the sense of “two‐ness” that marked African American life and culture at the turn of the 20th century. For Du Bois, the defining characterization of black life was the paradoxical condition of being both included and simultaneously excluded from the American polity. The concept has had a significant influence on theoretical and critical scholarship that explores the intersections of difference and identity within African American scholarship and beyond, and offers a powerful perspective for interrogating and transforming the forces of social and symbolic domination and exclusion.
Identity Politics
Authors: Daugherty Jacqueline , Jackson Ronald L.
Published: December 2017

Identity politics is a concept used to describe the distribution of resources and rights, based on a claim to a particular biologically, socially, or self‐defined identity. This concept is predicated on two important assumptions: people who share an identity have common political/social/economic interests, and identity is a somewhat stable and measurable construct, which creates both ingroup and outgroup members. Identity politics is both a common political organizing strategy and an outcome of major theoretical movements.
Postcolonial Approaches to Intercultural Communication
Authors: Schwartz‐DuPre Rae Lynn
Published: December 2017

Postcolonial intercultural communication is an intellectual, cultural, and political movement committed to two interrelated projects: (a) critiquing and resisting inequities, power imbalances, Eurocentric research methods, master narratives, universal theories of culture, spatial homogenization, and temporal teleology; and (b) an interventionist methodology that actively promotes decolonizing present scholarship, thereby creating space for new theories of knowledge production and understandings.
Postmodernism
Authors: Holliday Adrian
Published: December 2017

Postmodernism represents a paradigm change in intercultural communication studies. It maintains that cultures as objectively bounded and describable domains of behavior are socially and politically constructed. As an example, the supposedly objective distinction between more individualist and more collectivist national cultures is instead a Western construction of superiority and deficiency respectively. The purpose of intercultural communication research and awareness cannot therefore be an objective focus on cultural difference, but rather a subjective exploration of the Self and Other politics of how difference is constructed, possibly in relation to prejudice and race, and of how such constructions can therefore be managed.
Third Space
Authors: Kelly Michael
Published: December 2017

The notion of the Third Space was developed in the 1990s to provide a theoretical tool for understanding intercultural contact in increasingly diverse cultural environments. It attempts to account for complex and contradictory patterns of interaction, to present a dynamic and dialogic understanding of intercultural exchange, to reduce presumptions of confrontation, and to avoid essentialist tendencies in intercultural relations. The concept has been useful in the areas of cultural criticism, mediation, and education, particularly language education. It has resolved some of the problems around traditional accounts of intercultural communication, but has also raised issues that have led to some resistance. Third Space is a fruitful concept, based on openness, but may be under pressure from hardening national and ideological attitudes.
Transnationalism
Authors: Kapoor Priya
Published: December 2017

Transnationalism gives intercultural communication more than just an idiom for scattered migrant flows or for border crossing between sovereign nations. It also considers the affective domain accompanying relocation and dislocation, as social, economic, technological, and political linkages between people continue to grow. Transnationalism has become a turgid term that sheds light on the political‐economic‐cultural aspects of the study of human and social movements. New transnational frames evaluate the territorial and ideological resilience of nation‐states unevenly differentiated by their development policies, economic power, and military might. Theorizing transnationalism is an essential task within the field as it examines extant knowledge production in academia and presents possibilities of change from an economic regime—neoliberal globalization—that has seen few viable alternatives, other than transnational advocacy networks. With transnationalism comes a deep acknowledgment that the power dynamics in the world have shifted, and therefore new linkages of ideas and knowledges need new scholarship that defines them.
Communication Styles in English and German
Authors: House Juliane
Published: December 2017

In this entry cultural differences in communicative styles preferred by speakers of German and English are presented, and their impact on intercultural misunderstandings is discussed. Concretely, five dimensions contrasting these cultural differences are introduced and exemplified. The value and legitimacy of their explanatory power for culture clashes and for the perception of misunderstanding are investigated. These five dimensions are the outcome of a large number of empirical contrastive studies using a variety of different data sets and methodologies.
Conflict Management Styles across Cultures
Authors: van der Zee Karen , Hofhuis Joep
Published: December 2017

Due to globalization, interactions at work increasingly occur in an intercultural context. When members of different cultures meet at work, conflicts are not only more likely to occur, so is the chance that the way conflict partners respond to conflict will lead to incongruences. This entry presents an overview of cultural dimensions which have been identified as influencing negotiation strategies. Moreover, it discusses a number of social and psychological processes that are at play when conflict occurs between members of different cultural groups. The entry ends with some practical implications.
Cultural Assumptions in
C
hina and the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Prosser Michael H.
Published: December 2017

Both Chinese and Americans accept cultural assumptions that are sometimes similar and often different from each other. Foundational concepts derive in the Chinese context from such ancient individuals as Confucius in his
Analects
with an emphasis on benevolence (
ren
) and ritualistic and moral behavior (
de
and
li
). Despite cultural lapses during the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, ancient Chinese philosophies' logic stressed implicit, ritualistic, and harmonious behavior. Over time, Chinese logic became more intuitive, circular, and high context. Confucianism remains a current major cultural assumption for Chinese citizens, including the youth today. Based originally on the Greco/Roman/Judao/Christian philosophical tradition, Western, and especially American, cultural assumptions and values stress democracy, freedom, independence, truthful discourse, wisdom, ideal knowledge, justice, happiness, rule of law, and the good life. John Locke had a profound influence on the Western perspective, contributing ideas that were foundational to Jefferson's Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution, and the French Revolution's views of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Jefferson essentially copied Locke's views of humans' highest rights and values: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Although the influence of religious traditions and beliefs significantly continue an ongoing decline in Western and American society, the Bible remains the best‐selling book in the United States and it has an important influence in American life, including religious assumptions and traditions.
Email Communication Styles across Cultures
Authors: Holtbrügge Dirk , Berning Sue Claire
Published: December 2017

Email communication is recognized as the most often used communication method in international companies' operations. This computer‐mediated communication technology constitutes a further layer of intercultural communication in the global workplace. Variations in email communication styles exist due to cultural differences and can be explained by E. T. Hall's dimensions of context, time, and space orientation. Particularly, cultural background has a significant impact on the preference for formalness, promptness, preciseness, task orientation, and relationship‐relatedness in email communication.
Listening Behavior inJapan and theUnitedStates
Authors: Miller Laura
Published: December 2017

This entry describes the verbal listening styles found among speakers of Japanese and speakers of English in the United States. Speakers of these languages will hold implicit assumptions about appropriate listening behavior, and differences in these models of communication may have an impact during intercultural conversations. Japanese listeners provide verbal listening tokens that normally overlap a speaker's talk, a pattern that differs slightly from that of English speakers in the United States, who provide listener tokens in pauses or near turn transition points in the speaker's talk. Attention to listening behavior contributes to the demystification of social concepts such as empathy, interpretations of which often form the basis for ethnic stereotyping.
Nonverbal Communication across Cultures
Authors: van de Vijver Fons J. R.
Published: December 2017

Much of our communication is nonverbal. This type of communication is based on a socially shared meaning system beyond language. Cultural variation has been mainly studied using two classifications: Hall's high‐ versus low‐context cultures and Hofstede's individualism versus collectivism. Nonverbal expressions are more common in high‐context, collectivistic cultures. A number of traditional fields in nonverbal communication are reviewed: gestures, expression of emotions, proxemics (personal space and crowding), and a recent field of increasing importance: nonverbal computer‐mediated communication. It is concluded that the field is rich in data, has some domain‐transcending themes (e.g., delineating universal and culture specific aspects in nonverbal communication) but lacks theories that can integrate domains of nonverbal communication.
Politeness across Cultures
Authors: Feng Hairong
Published: December 2017

Comparing politeness forms and practices across cultural groups has been prevalent. The major theories of politeness have focused primarily on explicating how politeness arises within particular cultures, and then making comparisons of these politeness formats and practices across cultures. Brown and Levinson's politeness theory has taken a primary role in guiding cross‐cultural politeness research with a focus on how an individual chooses speech acts in interactions. Among the general and specific criticisms, a consistent theme is that this politeness account misses the social, cultural, historical, and contextual conditions that shape the formation and use of language and politeness. There are regional, class, and gender variations in politeness norms which have been constantly reflected in interactions. These variations in politeness norms within cultures raise questions about intercultural politeness research in contrast to the popular cross‐cultural politeness research.
Speech Act of Promising across Cultures
Authors: Beller Sieghard , Bender Andrea
Published: December 2017

Promises are speech acts, and thus a communicative tool by which a speaker declares to act in an addressee's favor. They are often used to induce a change in the addressee's behavior. To describe how promises function, five levels are distinguished: themotivational levelof why a promise is made, thelinguistic levelof how it is formulated, thedeontic levelcapturing the speaker's commitment, thebehavioral levelof the actions taken, and theemotional levelencompassing affective reactions. As a type of social contract, it is assumed that promises have an evolutionary background and thus a universal core. Nonetheless, cross‐cultural variation is observed on all levels. Some aspects vary, for example, with the construal of the self as either independent or interdependent; others vary with cultural norms and values. This variation suggests that the understanding and use of promises is shaped by a person's cultural background and individual learning.
Virtues and Vices across Cultures
Authors: van Oudenhoven Jan Pieter , Lahmann Cornelia
Published: December 2017

Whereas values form an important area of research for psychologists, psychologists show little interest in virtues and even less in vices. This is remarkable because virtues and vices probably have an equally strong effect on human behavior. This entry gives an overview of virtues and vices on the basis of empirical data from a broad range of nations. Contemporary virtues and vices refer more to social behavior than classical virtues, which rather refer to individual moral excellence. Research also shows that virtues differ to some extent from nation to nation or to clusters of nations that share a language. Vices appear to be—to some extent—the opposites of virtues.
Preparations, Characteristics and Applications of the Functional Liquid Metal Materials
Authors: Wang Qian , Yu Yang , Liu Jing
Published: December 2017

As new generation functional materials, the recently emerging low‐melting liquid metals have displayed many unconventional properties superior to traditional materials. Various methods, such as alloying, oxidizing, adding metals, or non‐metallic materials and so on, have been developed to prepare desirable functional materials based on the gallium or more other metals. These methods could not only change the form of the materials, but also endow the original liquid metals with rather diversified performances, which have further expanded the application range of the low‐melting liquid metals to meet various needs. This article aims to review and summarize on the fabrication methods, characteristics, and applications of the functional liquid metal materials. Furthermore, the future outlook in this field, including challenges, routes, and related efforts, has also been illustrated and interpreted.