bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A New World Energy Model An Energy Guide to the 21 st Century
Authors: Steffes Dale W.
Published: April 2022

This article presents a new energy model which significantly en-hances knowledge of the today’s global energy situation. It “mirrors,”reflects, the real world of energy.Table 1 summarizes P&FC’s new energy model. This table accountsfor regional energy production, trade, and consumption data. Elevenenergy regions were used for regional energy analysis.The table shows regional energy production, trade, and consump-tion share data, in percentages, for the entire world.The bold-faced column gives the user’s cost of energy for each of theeleven regions. It shows that the world’s energy consumers paid $2.6 tril-lion U.S. dollars for the 362 quadrillion Btus they consumed in 1999.This fueled a world economy of $34 trillion GNP and 6 billion people.No other energy model in the world accounts for the cost of energyto the consumer.The last three columns in this table show the regional shares ofPopulation, GNP, and Land Area.Figure 1 is P&FC’s “Mirror” Energy Model , reflecting the realenergy world. The world consumer energy bill shown in Figure 1 wascalculated by accounting for the cost centers for each of the 11 regions.This “Mirror” Energy Model applies to individual countries, re-gions, and the world.
An Over-the-phone Sales Pitch for a “Discount Electric Service”
Authors: Hyman Leonard
Published: April 2022

Somebody working for a firm whose named sounded an awful lotlike that of a major generating company called me up:Caller: I’m from ________ Energy. We’re offering discount electric ser-vice. Would you like to sign up?Me: What kind of discount? Who owns your company? Could you sendme the information by mail?Caller: ... (silence) ... Well, we don’t do that. We offer a discount... I’llget my supervisor.Supervisor: Hello. I understand that you’d like to sign up for our dis-count electric service.Me: No. I’d like to know who you are first, and I’d like to find out howbig the discount is. Why don’t you send me the information?Supervisor: Well, the truth is that you won’t save much money signingup with us. You can get information on suppliers from Con Edison.Me: Oh?Supervisor: (Hangs up.)It’s no wonder that electric power retailing has been such a colossalfailure.Who are these supposed retailers?What is their business proposition?A discount on what?
The First International Energy Engineering Dictionary, In 3 Languages English ... Russian... Georgian
Authors: Kandelaki Revaz
Published: April 2022

A new concept in international energy engineering competency isintroduced: An English-Russian-Georgian Energy Dictionary. It is theresult of several years of intense collaboration between members of theGeorgian (Eastern Europe) Chapter of the Association of Energy Engi-neers, and former AEE International President Konstantin Lobodovsky(1988), co-author and Editor in Chief of the new tri-language engineer-ing dictionary.The dictionary was compiled in different stages by involving Geor-gian engineers and their foreign counterparts, and encompasses widelydiversified areas of energy engineering. The result is approximately21,000 units and terms from the fields of thermal power, electric and hy-dro engineering, oil extraction, transportation, welding technology, re-newable energy sources, energy efficiency and related technical fields.
“Free” Money from Electric Deregulation:
Authors: Audin Lindsay
Published: April 2022

Amidst the ballyhoo and confusion surrounding deregulation,there is an opportunity missed by many of those who have com-plained the loudest about what a bust utility competition has been sofar. As part of that restructuring, money is now available for energyefficiency studies, upgrades, and R&D—but energy users shouldmove swiftly before it’s gone
The Role of District Energy In Future Energy Systems
Authors: Spurr Mark
Published: April 2022

This article provides an overview of district energy systems (DES)technologies including cogeneration, CHP, Combined Heat and Power,distribution systems and thermal energy storage. The role of DES as acatalyst for cogeneration and renewable energy, and as a way to reduceair pollution, greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting chemicals, is de-scribed.The benefits of DES relative to economic growth, energy securityand power grid reliability are explained.A quantitative analysis is presented which compares DES inte-grated with CHP to conventional technologies for heating, cooling andpower generation. The article draws substantially from a report pre-pared by the author for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Operation and Maintenance
Authors: Kolanowski Bernard F.
Published: April 2022

Operation of small-scale cogenerators is automatic. Whether thecogeneration system is intended to run 24 hours/day or withinhourly parameters, it will be sensitive to preset limits on time, tem-perature, or internal operating parameters. Of course, the system maybe started and stopped manually or via computer commands enteredmanually, but usually that’s only done when the system is restartingafter a manual or forced shut down
A Blueprint for Cogeneration at State Facilities
Authors: Garland Michael
Published: April 2022

At the June 3, 1980, meeting of the Governor’s Cogeneration TaskForce, Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr., challenged utilities and indus-tries to develop 6,000 megawatts (MW) of electricity in California duringthe 1980s through cogeneration. The Governor also announced that thestate will take the lead by beginning immediately to develop 400 MW ofcogeneration at state facilities.As a first step, the Governor requested the Department of GeneralServices, the Office of Appropriate Technology, and the Department ofWater Resources to prepare a blueprint for developing this capacity. TheGovernor called for identification of feasible cogeneration projects thatcan be implemented without delay; establishment of an overall time-table for additional planning, feasibility studies, design and construc-tion; and a discussion of potential sources of funds.Since the Governor’s announcement, the California Energy Com-mission, the Department of General Services, the Office of AppropriateTechnology, the University of California, and the state university andcolleges, with the cooperation of the Departments of DevelopmentalServices, Mental Health, Corrections, and Health Services have initiated,continued work on, or completed feasibility studies or engineering de-sign work for state facilities totaling more than 177 MW of cogenerationcapacity. The Department of Water Resources has conducted preliminarysite investigations at thirteen additional state facilities.
What Happens If PURPA Goes Belly-Up? Cogeneration Will Take Another Hit. Here’s What You Can Do To Protect Yourself. But You’ve Got to Move FAST.
Authors: Braquet Louis J.
Published: April 2022

With impending utility deregulation sweeping the nation, thefate of the “official” cogeneration facility may be on unsteadyground (“official” here is referenced as the facility which has ob-tained the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission’s [FERC] QF—Qualifying Facility status). While the values and protection cur-rently granted a QF under the regulated utility environment mayultimately be insignificant in the fully functional, unregulated envi-ronment, the transition between regulated and unregulated marketsmay prove difficult depending on the exact location and structureof a cogen facility.The primary reason for this concern will depend on the facility’sability to quickly and easily access the grid, power suppliers, andpower buyers in the transition to the unregulated status environment.The “systems” controlling the impacting issues are in many casesquite complex, cumbersome, and tied together with an abundanceof “red-tape” and bureaucratic processes
Restructured Electricity Markets Offer Increased Complexities... and Opportunities... For COGENERATION
Authors: Kirby Brendan
Published: April 2022

Electric industry restructuring has complicated the decisions asso-ciated with investing in and operating cogeneration facilities. On theother hand, it is starting to provide the opportunity to genuinely addvalue by allowing market signals to help optimize both the power sys-tem and the cogeneration facility. It is important to look beyond existingtariffs to the underlying physical requirements. If the cogeneration facil-ity can be designed and operated in a way that benefits both itself andthe power system, tariffs can likely be changed to compensate it for itsactions.
Another Energy Problem: Growing Demand for “Reactive Power” Challenges U.S. Transmission Systems
Authors: Zimmer Michael J.
Published: April 2022

A significant challenge to the transmission providers reported bythe National Electric Reliability Council (NERC) will be to maintainadequate levels of reactive support for the transmission system in theera of open market competition in the U.S. Unlike real power (MW),the reactive component of power (Mvar) cannot be easily transmittedover longer distances and must generally be supplied at the locallevel.Without adequate reactive power support, portions of the electricpower system can be susceptible to potential voltage collapse or insta-bility according to NERC. Sources of reactive power include generators,synchronous condensers, transmission lines, capacitors, and very spe-cialized reactive support devices generally known as static var compen-sators (SVCs).Demand for reactive power is shaped by the size and type of de-mand, power transactions across the transmission system, and the load-ing of transmission facilities. This demand for reactive power is growingnationwide
A Commercial Technology Can Help Solve the Reactive Power Capability Problem: Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Authors: Howe John B. , Zimmer Michael J.
Published: April 2022

The problem of Reactive Power Capability is vital—and it has beenlargely overlooked in the development of competitive generation mar-kets over the past couple of years. One way of solving the problem isthrough Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES), which wasdeveloped by American Superconductor. This is one of several reactivepower technologies that have been developed to meet the growingthreat to power transmission—a danger that can affect all users of elec-tricity.SMES (D-SMES) is now a fully commercial technology in use attwo sites in Wisconsin (Wisconsin Public Service Co. and Alliant), withanother system on order for installation in South Africa (Eskom), andanother for metropolitan Houston (Entergy). It basically allows utilitiesto “cache” significant amounts of real power close to customer loads,and inject large amounts of real and reactive power into grids, instanta-neously, simultaneously, and on a distributed basis. Some projects in-creased the delivery capacity into a 200-MW grid by at least 15% (30MW), allowing them to defer line construction by several years at a verylow cost
Do You Have a Packaged Boiler? Modify it to Cogenerate... and Profit
Authors: Vetterick Richard (Dick) , Whitten Patrick
Published: April 2022

Competition from deregulation is driving utilities and consumersto seek out alternate means to reduce the cost of electricity. The utilityindustry is expected to shift generation away from the traditional centralstation philosophy to dispersed generation with the formerly wastedheat to be recovered and used for industrial steam or to heat commercialbuildings. [1] Some experts suggest that the dispersed generation willtake the form of cogeneration by locating thermal electric generatorswith heat recovery steam generators alongside the thermal host.Coincidentally, there are a large number of existing boilers that canserve as waste heat receivers if properly modified. This could result insubstantial capital savings, further reducing the cost of the dispersedelectrical generation. Repowering cold windbox industrial boilerscomplements and reinforces the dispersed generation philosophy.This article will compare the economic and technical advantages ofrepowering existing small industrial boilers with conventional engine/gas turbine driven generator sets. Operating advantages in steam gen-eration reliability and flexibility will be presented
Waste Heat/Cogen Opportunities in the Cement Industry
Authors: Cunningham Paul R. , Chambers Hosea
Published: April 2022

Significant progress has been made in using the waste process heatin cement plants. But the use of this process heat to generate electricityfell during past years, which saw low and steady power prices. Timesare changing. Deregulation is bringing the specter of extremely volatileelectricity prices, loss of control over power costs, and the real likelihoodthat energy prices may increase in the near term in some areas.As a consequence, it is timely to reconsider the value of usingwaste process heat to generate electricity. With cogeneration, industriescan lower costs and improve the environment.
“Green Power”: How Real Is It?
Authors: Audin Lindsay
Published: April 2022

As with many other issues arising in the competitive energymarketplace, understanding “green power” activities puts you on alearning curve. Getting up to speed on green power now will helpyou cut through the hype and avoid feeling later like you’ve been“had” by clever marketing.
Cogeneration/Combined Heat and Power An Overview
Authors: Hite Rod
Published: April 2022

Cogeneration/combined heat and power (CHP) is the sequentialuse of one fuel source to produce power and thermal energy. The en-ergy cascade provided avoids losses that occur when power is tradition-ally generated at a central station power plant and thermal energy isconsumed on-site in a boiler. CHP can be used in either a topping cycleor bottoming cycle mode with topping cycles being the most dominantapplication.CHP was used at the beginning of the 20th century, primarily forindustrial uses. With the expansion of the electric grid and cheap rawenergy, its use declined. A major expansion of the technology occurredin the eighties as a result of the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act of1978. As a result of heavy opposition by the electric utility industry, theinterest in CHP declined towards the end of the eighties. High energyprices and constrained generating capacity has renewed interest in thetechnology in 2002.
Combined Heat and Power: Equipment Options and Application Alternatives
Authors: Bloomquist R. Gordon
Published: April 2022

Combined heat and power (CHP) is the generation of electricalpower, mechanical energy, and thermal energy. By fully using the energyavailable, fuel use efficiency can exceed 80 percent while air pollutantemissions are significantly decreased. Applications include all forms ofindustrial processes, commercial and institutional complexes, and singlecommercial and residential buildings. Generation equipment includesinternal combustion engines, combustion turbines, steam turbines,Stirling engines, and fuel cells. Thermal energy is captured through theuse of a heat recovery steam generation or, in the case of a steam turbine,is extracted at various temperatures and pressures. The thermal energycan be used directly in industrial processes or used for space heating,e.g., district heating. The thermal energy can also be used for cooling.Extracted or generated steam can be used in a steam-driven chiller,absorption, adsorption, or a desiccant system. Storage has also becomean important component of many CHP systems and provides increasedreliability to both electrical and thermal systems.
Cogeneration via Magneto- Hydro-Dynamic (MHD) Power Generator
Authors: Kulkarni Manohar , Gong Xiangyang
Published: April 2022

By passing the combustion gases through magnetic field, magnetogenerator converts heat directly to electricity power without movingparts. The inherent characteristic of high efficiency and low emissionmakes Coal fired electric power generation technology attractive to be apotential alternative power generation method in the future. This articlepresents the working principle of MHD generator and describes the coalfired MHD power plant systems and the key components in these sys-tems. It also reviews the batch research of Department of Energy on coalfired MHD electric power generation—Proof of Concept Program from1987 to 1993 and states some challenges remained on the way to com-mercial use.
POLICIES AND INCENTIVES FOR BIOMASS P OWER TO BECOME A R EAL PLAYER IN THE C OMPETITIVE ELECTRICITY MARKET
Authors: Hamilton Katherine H.
Published: April 2022

Biomass has produced energy for hundreds of years, but only in thelast 20 years has the production of electricity become viable. While bio-mass is plentiful and the benefits many, the industry has not grown atthe rate of other, traditional generating sources. We will examine policybarriers renewable energy development has faced, and pose solutionsthat, in a new competitive market, could level the playing field withtraditional generation. This paper reviews the federal policies in exist-ence today, analyzes what several states have done, and discusses legis-lation that may be signed into law this fall.
N O -RISK COGENERATION
Authors: Vogt Yeager
Published: April 2022

Cogeneration facilities, also called combined heat and power(CHP), typically achieve thermal efficiencies of 80-85 percent. The mostefficient conventional electric generation plants typically do not exceedthermal efficiencies of 50 percent. The key to cogeneration’s efficiency isthe availability of a sizable “heat load.” A heat load is the requirementfor heat, usually in the form of steam, used in the manufacture of aproduct, such as in the refining of oil, production of chemicals, or theprocessing of food. Although electric power equipment is available toanyone with sufficient capital, sizable heat loads are relatively scarce.Therefore, the availability of a heat load is the determining factor forachieving the superior efficiencies and resulting superior economics ofcogeneration facilities. All economically viable cogeneration projectstypically must satisfy heat loads of sufficient size, so that all engine ex-haust can be absorbed by the facility’s processes. Succinctly, efficient andeconomically cogenerated electric power production is a slave to its heatload.A large heat load that is not being used also to produce electricpower is a valuable, but wasted, asset that can pay its owners substantialdividends. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how heat loadowners can extract the wasted value of a heat load without contributingcapital, or assuming risk in the construction of a cogeneration facility.
STEAM T URBINE V ERSUS P RESSURE REDUCING V ALVE O PERATION
Authors: Harrell Dr. Greg , Jendrucko Richard
Published: April 2022

A question arising frequently in steam system design relates to thebenefits and drawbacks associated with passing steam through a pres-sure reducing valve or a steam turbine to supply a low pressure steamdemand. The most appropriate analysis of the economic benefits of op-erating the steam turbine utilizes an incremental systems approach.A case study analysis based on a systems approach was used todemonstrate the role of incremental fuel and electricity costs, boilerand turbine efficiencies, as well as steam flow and thermodynamicproperties on the economic performance of the turbine-generator andpressure reducing valve options. An example analysis was performedfor a boiler producing superheated steam at 600 psig and 800 °F to sup-ply a low pressure steam demand of 30,000 lbm/hr. Overall energybalances were computed for a turbine with an isentropic efficiency of40%, a 90% efficient generator and an isenthalpic pressure-reducingvalve as an alternative scheme. For a fuel unit cost of $3.00/10 6 Btuand an electricity unit cost of $0.035/kWh, it is shown that 408 kW ofelectricity can be produced while supplying the steam demand. Use ofthe turbine-generator requires the total steam flow rate to increase tosatisfy the process heating demand. The steam flow through the tur-bine would be 31,261 lbm/hr or about a 4% increase over the low-pressure process base load. Assuming that the modest additional high-pressure steam demand can be met, a net purchased energy saving of$70,000/yr. could be realized. This analysis demonstrates that a sub-stantial plant-purchased energy cost saving may be achieved for typi-cal system operating conditions when a turbine-generator is used to produce low-pressure process steam rather than a pressure reducing valve.
SOLAR E LECTRIC T ECHNOLOGIES AND A PPLICATIONS
Authors: Willey Tara
Published: April 2022

Solar electric power or photovoltaics (PV) utilize sunlight to pro-duce electricity. PV cells are connected to create modules that, along withthe balance of system, comprise a PV system. The electrical output of aPV system is determined by using design models, or measuring actualperformance over a period of time. PV is a versatile, modular technologythat can be adapted for almost any application, including residential andcommercial applications, using a variety of business strategies. The costsof PV have decreased for large applications; however for smaller sys-tems, the costs remain unstable. Cost is only one of the barriers to com-mercialization; others include interconnection, an uneducated market,and technology reliability issues. SEPA’s Solar Power Solutions programhas been designed to address these and other barriers.
SUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT AND P RIVATIZATION OF E NERGY P LANTS THROUGH ENHANCED L EASING
Authors: Simmons Michael R. , Kushnir Anatolij (Tony) , Eidson Bob
Published: April 2022

In June 2001, Deputy Secretary Dr. Leo Mackay formally dedicatedthe “Mountain Home Energy Center,” Department of Veterans Affair’s(VA) first privately financed and operated energy development and op-eration. The energy center was also a “first” in the federal government inthat it was developed and financed with minimal, short-term federal com-mitments in lieu of the traditional long-term leaseback or energy purchasearrangements. This state-of-the-art cogeneration facility, designed in har-mony with the historic Beaux Arts campus architecture at the James H.Quillen VA Medical Center (Mountain Home) in Johnson City, TN, willnot only serve the energy needs of the VA Medical Center, it will also pro-duce and sell energy products to the neighboring East Tennessee StateUniversity’s James H. Quillen College of Medicine, as well as to others inthe local community for many years to come.
E NABLING D ISTRIBUTED G ENERATION AND D EMAND RESPONSE WITH E NTER- PRISE E NERGY M ANAGEMENT S YSTEMS
Authors: Jonker Rene
Published: April 2022

An escalating demand for power has created two challenges for theenergy industry: today, the problem is lack of generation; five years fromnow, it will be bottlenecks in the transmission and distribution infrastruc-ture. Although demand response can solve the short-term problem, onlydistributed generation can solve both.Demand response and distributed generation programs are becom-ing reality thanks to breakthroughs in enterprise energy management(EEM) and alternative generation technologies. These tools can deliver thequantity, quality and cost of power mandated by an expanding digitaleconomy, growing environmental concerns and deregulation.As greater numbers of power producers enter the picture and energytraders ask for more real-time information, the decentralized monitoringand control of energy and power quality is becoming a critical require-ment. Information about every aspect of the power system is being sharedat lightning-fast speeds and all players have to react just as quickly.
Distributed Generation and Your Energy Future
Authors: Capehart Barney L. , Mehta D. Paul , Turner Wayne C.
Published: April 2022

Distributed generation (DG) is electric or shaft power generation ator near the site of use as opposed to central power station generation.Combined heat and power (CHP) takes advantage of this site location torecover the normally wasted thermal energy from power generation andutilizes it beneficially to increase the total system efficiency. This articleexplores the rapidly developing world of DG and associated CHP. Firstthe article shows why DG is necessary in the US power future and thatDG is going to happen. Then, the article briefly looks at the differenttechnologies that might be employed and their relative advantages anddisadvantages. The article then explores who should be the major de-signers and implementers of DG and CHP technologies, and develops astrong argument that in many cases this should be an Energy ServiceCompany (ESCO). Finally, the reasons for selecting either an indepen-dent ESCO or a local utility affiliated ESCO are discussed, and in particu-lar, opportunities for the local utility ESCO (the local grid) to be a majormoving force in this effort are examined in depth
HOW S ELF- GENERATION P ROJECTS CAN WORK FOR ESCOS
Authors: Warren Kevin W.
Published: April 2022

This article examines the current market for customer-sited electric-ity generation, or “self-generation,” activity in California and elsewhereas it relates to energy services companies (ESCOs). Solar photovoltaic(PV) and small combined heat and power (CHP) systems of less than 1MW in commercial and institutional facilities are discussed. Incentiveprograms in several states that are contributing to brisk activity and thefactors that seem most important to closing sales are also presented.While some CHP technologies can be sold on the basis of simple paybackperiod, fuel cells and PV projects typically require more creative ap-proaches. Several of the techniques that are used to justify PV projectsare explained. The old sales adage that you “sell the sizzle, not thesteak,” meaning that you must sell the benefits rather than the attributesof a product, holds true for self-generation (SG) projects, but it is impor-tant to know which attributes are worth selling.
HOW D IRECT C OUPLING SUCCEEDS
Authors: Savage Paul
Published: April 2022

Nextek has substantially improved the commercial efficiency of allforms of distributed generation (DG), but especially solar photovoltaic(PV) systems, by the invention of a multi-source power module. Onepath in the module allows for the Direct Coupling ® of PV to a direct-current (DC) load, eliminating the inversion to alternating current (AC)that is required in standard solar PV systems. Because PV is a relativelyinherently low-yielding power source, ridding these systems of conver-sion losses make a large measurable difference in the system output. Ifthe load requires more power than the distributed resource, othersources such as the grid or stored electricity, are combined with the DCto service the load. In this way, the threshold losses of inversion areavoided, and the contribution of the DG is a greater percentage of thetotal power delivered. Consumers therefore realize a dramatic accelera-tion of the payback of PV-powered building applications.The power module outputs highly regulated DC by prioritizing itsthree inputs, 1) DC from a distributed generation source such as PV, 2)AC from the utility grid, and 3) optional battery storage. Precise meter-ing, monitoring and control can also be performed at the module
C OMBINING DISTRIBUTED G ENERATIONAND E NERGY M ANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES TO ACHIEVE E NERGY C OST SAVINGS
Authors: Eberly David A.
Published: April 2022

Applying energy management systems to building control systemsprovides the capability to merge several conventional and non-conven-tional cost reduction strategies.Energy consumption reductions are derived from conventionalstrategies such as temperature resets in air and water handling systems,chiller plant optimization, HVAC scheduling optimization, and automa-tion of lighting system operation. These activities alone represent a sig-nificant potential for energy savings at a facility.In the current era of deregulation, both the natural gas and electricutility suppliers find themselves in a changing and more competitivebusiness environment. As a result, creative rate options have been devel-oped to retain current customers and to attract new ones.Electric utility rates, including RTP (real time pricing), and inter-ruptible service (IS) have been available to PJM (Pennsylvania, New Jer-sey, and Maryland) customers since 1994. On-site power generation sys-tems have been utilized by many facilities to take advantage of theserates to reduce electric costs. Energy management systems are also usedto manage the operation of on-site power generation systems, conven-tionally for power outages or to improve power quality.This article describes the installation of a 2,000 kW on-site powergeneration system, and the integration of its capabilities with a facilityenergy management system to exploit an interruptible electric servicerate. These systems are installed at a 600-acre corporate campus site,located in central Pennsylvania. There are 28 buildings occupying thesite, enclosing approximately 1,000,000 square feet of conditioned space By combining capabilities of the EMS (energy management system) andon-site power generation systems, the subject facility can interrupt morethan 70 % of its on-peak summer electric load, within 2 hours after a curtail-ment request, utilizing minimal staff, and causing minimal noticeablechange to employees working at the site. The application of these sys-tems has reduced the Campus annual electricity costs by more than 25%since implementation in July 2001.
520 K ILOWATT SOLAR P HOTOVOLTAIC A RRAY SEWERAGE COMMISSION— O ROVILLE REGION, C ALIFORNIA
Authors: Thompson Dan , Sousa Ray
Published: April 2022

During 2001, the state of California experienced frequent poweroutages coupled with rapidly rising electric rates. Even prior to 2001,the Sewerage Commission—Oroville Region located in northern Cali-fornia saw its energy costs skyrocket by 41%. In this uncertain energyenvironment, the superintendent of the sewerage commission investi-gated alternative energy sources that would stabilize its energy supplyand reduce energy expenses. Normally, cost increases would bepassed on to the rate payers in the form of higher utility bills. Theresult was the installation of a 520-kW solar photovoltaic (PV) array,consisting of 5,184 panels on three acres of unused land adjacent tothe treatment ponds. The solar system combined with the utility creditreduced annual net power bills by over 80%. The PV system wascommissioned and went on line in November 2002. The solar array isthe largest dual-tilt array in the world and one of the largest PV ar-rays in the United States. It is also the only wastewater treatmentplant in the U.S. to be primarily powered by solar energy.
M ARIN C OUNTY O FFICE E NERGY C ONSERVATION, P OWER P RODUCTION AND COST SAVINGS
Authors: Harris Arno , Roper Marc
Published: April 2022

In 2003, Marin County took an important step towards itssustainability and energy conservation goals by installing an 89-kilowatt(kW) solar photovoltaic (PV) system on its General Services Building inSan Rafael, California. After completing a competitive selection process,the county brought in Prevalent Power and RWE SCHOTT Solar Inc.(RSS), which together engineered a PV system that would zero thebuilding’s electricity bills and eliminate harmful emissions.Using RSS’ SunRoof FS™ flat-roof system, the companies engi-neered a non-penetrating mounting solution for the photovoltaic mod-ules.The PV system was designed to replace 92% of the building’s en-ergy* usage. Using a combination of net metering and time-of-use rates,the county will zero the building’s annual energy bill even thoughthey’re not completely replacing its energy usage. The system was fi-nanced using a combination of rebates and low-interest state energyloans. Over its lifetime, the system will generate $1.1 million in directenergy cost savings. The result is a system payback period of 12 years. This case study article provides an inside look at the PV engineer-ing process, presents a set of best practices in PV system design andinstallation, and examines the economic and environmental rationale forpurchasing the system.
C OMPETITIVE BIDDING IN THE ELECTRIC P OWER INDUSTRY
Authors: Dismukes David E.
Published: April 2022

Competitive bidding is certainly not a new mechanism used byregulators to secure resources for their retail customers. Actually, theoriginal processes and experiences were developed during a period oftraditional, tight regulation of vertically integrated utilities. Since then,wholesale markets have become increasingly more competitive. Thisarticle explores the opportunities, challenges and issues associated withcompetitive bidding for wholesale power resources.
THE B USINESS C ASE FOR C OMBINED H EAT AND P OWER
Authors: Elliott Neal
Published: April 2022

In an environment of increasing energy prices and market volatility,combined heat and power (CHP) offers the energy manager both thepotential for cost savings and increased flexibility to better deal with andrespond to changes in energy markets. CHP should be viewed as asource of thermal energy that also produces power as a byproduct. Inmost cases, CHP will have difficulty competing with utility-scale genera-tion in wholesale power markets, but can be attractive offsetting pur-chased power while increasing power reliability and constituting animportant element in a corporate energy risk management portfolio.
ENERGY -SAVINGS SYSTEMS FOR C OMMERCIAL BUILDING CHP AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE H EAT APPLICATIONS
Authors: Wagner Dr. Tim
Published: April 2022

Electricity in the United States is typically obtained from “the grid,”a collection of central power plants and transmission and distributionnetworks. Because of inefficiencies in generation and distribution, only1/3 of the energy input to U.S. power plants reaches the end customer.Systems employing thermally activated technologies (TATs) can providesignificantly higher efficiencies by integrating TAT equipment with ei-ther on-site power generation or available waste heat sources. In thisarticle, two alternatives to central power plant generation will be de-scribed and operational experience with the systems will be presented.
T HE MEXICAN POWER SECTOR AND ITS D EPENDENCE ON N ATURAL G AS
Authors: Terrés Armando Llamas , Brown Federico A. Viramontes , Probst Oliver , Caamaño Ruth Elizabeth Reyna , Ruelas Aníbal Morones , Chapa Manuel Ángel González
Published: April 2022

The price of electricity and fuels directly affects the competitiveness of energy-intensive industries. The expansion of the Mexican electric power sector is planned via natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants. This leaves the power sector more susceptible to the behavior of this particular fuel. In recent years, the price of natural gas showed high values and volatility. It would be wise to consider alternatives in order to have a reliable supply of energy. The integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technology presents an opportunity to diversify the in- stalled capacity, its main disadvantage compared to NGCC is higher CO 2 emissions. Self-supply has been able to secure the electric power supply. However, in some cases it has not been successful at providing electric power at a lower rate than CFE.
RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES IN T URKEY
Authors: Kaya Durmus
Published: April 2022

Achieving solutions to environmental problems that we face todayrequires long-term potential actions for sustainable development. In thisregard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of most efficientand effective solutions. Although, Turkey has substantial reserves of re-newable energy resources, actual utilization of these resources is quitelow.The aim of this study is to investigate the renewable energy policiesand the political organizations that shape these policies. In these con-cepts, the renewable energy potential of Turkey, the effective utilizationof this potential, the energy politics, the political organizations, incen-tives, pricing and buying mechanisms, research and development stud-ies, and barriers for development of renewable energy are investigated.In conclusion, proposals and recommendations are given to overcomethe problems.
Power Conundrums: Electrical Resources in the NYC Load Pocket
Authors: Bobker Michael
Published: April 2022

Power system deregulation has introduced new investment marketdynamics into the development of electrical resources. Under deregulation,load pockets present various special, inter-related investment decision-making problems. A variety of examples are provided. A game theoreticapproach suggests that large project development is constrained byuncertainties about other projects and that, as a result, decisions arenot made in the timeframe that energy system planners had becomeaccustomed to under regulated regimes. This is consistent with observedrecent behavior in the New York metropolitan area power market. Theperformance of power plant developers with approved Article X sites isreviewed. Delays today in project investment and construction are shownto result in predictable power shortages five to seven years in the future.An argument is presented that smaller, demand-side type investmentsavoid the investment-decision uncertainties of large supply-side projectsand bring desirable, more economically efficient investment behaviorsinto the power market. The quantified potential of demand-side resourcesin New York City is assessed in relation to projected demand growth. Itis observed that the reduced ability to control power plant investment ina deregulated market makes the mobilization of demand-side resources amore critical part of market performance.
Measuring the Savings from Energy Control Window Film Installation Using IPMVP Options C and D
Authors: DeBusk Steve
Published: April 2022

Building owners and property managers have provided numerousreports of the energy savings obtained from the retrofit installation ofenergy control window film to existing buildings. In many cases, sub-stantial energy savings are reported with simple paybacks often withinone to four years. However, such claims have not been produced usingthe rigorous methods prescribed by the International Performance Mea-surement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP, see www.ipmvp.org).To provide for more definitive evidence of the savings from the useof energy control window films, CPFilms undertook a demonstrationproject to install window film on a mid-size commercial office buildingand then measure the resulting energy savings using two separateIPMVP methods. The measurement of savings involved the use ofIPMVP Option C (whole-building method using utility bill analysis) andOption D (calibrated simulation). During the twelve months followingfilm installation, Option C measured savings of 8.8 percent wereachieved, which includes savings over both the cooling and heatingseasons. This compares favorably to Option D, calculated savings of 8.4percent that were estimated prior to film installation. Both estimates ofenergy savings demonstrate a simple payback in less than three years.
Turning Backup Generators into Green Engines with Biodiesel
Authors: Barrett Larry B.
Published: April 2022

Backup emergency generators represent a valuable resource inmeeting fluctuating power needs throughout the country. Biodiesel hasthe potential to turn these units into “green generators” and increaseusage of the generators and biodiesel fuel. Biodiesel is produced fromvarious vegetable oils, especially from soybeans, as well as from animalfats and used cooking oil. Biodiesel offers many advantages in terms ofhandling and storage, engine performance and maintenance, as well asenvironmentally. Biodiesel also carries operational, environmental andeconomical concerns. However, these concerns are being addressedamong facility managers, utilities and environmental agencies. The neteffect is that biodiesel represents a largely untapped opportunity, up tonow, to turn otherwise unproductive standby generator assets into morevaluable renewable resources. There is growing experience around theUnited States. with biodiesel in standby generators to make this a realenergy management option.
U.S. Postal Service Brings Energy Efficiency, Solar Power to Northern California Processing Facility
Authors: Petty Ralph ,
Published: April 2022

As part of its ongoing drive to optimize efficiency and conservenatural resources, the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) completed major energyefficiency upgrades and one of the largest federal solar power installationsin the nation, at the USPS’s West Sacramento Processing & DistributionCenter. The 573,000-square-foot mail facility is a major Postal Service hubin Northern California, employing more than 1,200 people and processing8 to 10 million pieces of mail daily, around the clock. Chevron EnergySolutions developed, engineered and constructed the project, whichincluded a solar photovoltaic system mounted on a new parking structure;energy efficient lighting systems; heating, cooling and ventilation systems;air compressors; and energy management controls.The improvements will reduce the facility’s annual electricitypurchases by more than $615,000 and its power consumption by morethan 33 percent, or about 5.5 million kilowatt-hours per year. The projectwill also lower natural gas use by about 43,000 therms per year. Together,these reductions translate to avoided local electric utility emissions ofabout 3,900 tons of carbon dioxide annually, the equivalent of planting1,100 acres of trees.The project’s completion was celebrated in October 2004 at anevent that was held in the shade of the solar-paneled parking canopyand attended by USPS and other government officials. The 403-kilowattsolar electric system, a product of PowerLight Corporation, is the larges
Distributed Generation and Energy Management: Reducing Energy Costs
Authors: Priddy Mr. Ritchie
Published: April 2022

We are entering a new energy era in the United States, one that isforcing—or will force—end-users to become much more energy-minded,efficient and more mindful of energy costs and uses. In other words, theywill need to become fairly sophisticated energy managers, or be willingto outsource their energy purchasing needs. There are a number of driv-ers to suggest that this scenario will, indeed, play out. Such drivers in-clude:• The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) mega-Noticeof Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR RM01-12-000) issued in July, 2002states that the FERC is placing equal weight on all potential electrictransmission solutions, including distributed generation.• A formal or informal national energy policy that reflects the threatof energy shortfalls within two decades. This strategy will equallyfocus on conservation, efficiency improvements and alternativeenergy as well as domestic production;• Lack of investments in grid infrastructure (and subsequent eventssuch as the August blackout);• The popularity of existing demand response programs;• Volatile energy prices resulting in rising prices over time in someenergy markets;

• Market rules that require much more sophistication in order tobenefit from deregulation, including nominations and compliancepenalties;• Automated meter reading (AMR) growth;• Rapid adoption of internet-connected devices;• Energy service companies’ continued growth; and,• An emerging liability issue.While the status of the FERC mega-NOPR is unclear, the demandresponse aspect will likely gain acceptance in other forums. Together,these drivers have the potential to help shape and deliver the long-awaited distributed generation (DG) market 1 . Of course, the current“hybrid” model of regulation—stuck somewhere between open andclosed markets—and other barriers (emissions, interconnect, etc.) willcontinue to be the determining factors in the short-term. But, the overalltrend suggests that DG will, indeed, finally emerge as a resource ac-cepted by all parties—regulators, utilities and end-users.Notice that the majority of drivers are demand side focused, andnot supply oriented!The strategy of the future is one of risk management. This is adramatically different business model from the one that is now in placebecause it could lead to fewer operating hours (peaking vs. base load),thus increasing paybacks. But, it could also lead to much wider accep-tance of DG as one more solution to manage customers’ energy bills. Theenabling technologies for this transformation include new generations ofcontrols and energy management systems that will seamlessly bring DGand load management together.Winning products will include low-cost, hassle-free, plug and playand clean DG/CHP; retrofit emissions controls; and sophisticated, reli-able, affordable controls.
Renewable Energy and Emissions Reductions
Authors: Kelly Patrick J.
Published: April 2022

The influence of environmental legislation in many states has be-come common partners in creating a unique environment for renew-able energy to step up to the plate. This environment offers opportuni-ties that lead down many environmental paths and opens up economicconditions for marketplace advancement of renewable energy sources.Since 2000, more than 1100 MW of wind farm (WF) electrical powerhas been added or announced to be added to the Texas electrical grid.New Mexico is now experiencing the benefits of renewable energy,with more than 200 MW being installed by the end of 2003. NewMexico has even entered the marketplace with wind power crossingthe borders of ERCOT in a daring bid to power the U.S. Environmen-tal Protection Agency’s (EPA) own laboratory in Houston with Green-etagged blocks of renewable energy from Clovis, NM. Oklahoma willinstall more than 175 MW, finally opening its door to what could be amost notable crossroads in wind power development.Now, overlay major environmental issues of another kind in wa-ter pollution and air pollution issues in rural and metropolitan areascoupled with changes in the national emissions inventory. The effect isthat three new target areas come in the picture. These are concentratedanimal feeding operations (CAFO) with new rules as of March 2003,publicly owned treatment works (POTW) who must now report emis-sions in more detail, and municipal solid waste landfills (MSW-LF)with the 2004 changes in landfill design of “bioreactors.” These olderfacilities create more than 500 million tons of manure, more than 110million tons of municipal solid waste and more than 50 million tons ofhuman waste for treatment. With more than 650 million tons of waste,energy projects on small and large scales are possible. The logistics are straight forward, and management in the industry does not alwaysunderstand needs and methodology that must be followed to be a suc-cessful. The opportunities in developing resources lay in a shift inwhich regulations and recent shifts in environmental credits for renew-able energy and energy efficiency for environmental progress.
Combined Heat and Power: A Successful Past Meets a Bright Future
Authors: Burka Beth
Published: April 2022

This article presents information related to the author’s experiencewith combined heat and power (CHP) systems. Topics covered include:why and when to evaluate CHP, applications in a Midwestern city andutility policies that effect CHP applications. Studying successful, long-standing CHP applications, examining the benefits the owners receivedand current equipment/policies is an excellent starting point for evalu-ating CHP and making a good “case” for new projects. Gas transporta-tion rates and electric curtailment programs are discussed and the con-cept of a tolling contract for CHP is introduced