bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Netville Online and Offline
Authors: HAMPTON KEITH N. , WELLMAN BARRY
Published: July 2003

Since the mid-1850s, scholars have debated how technological innovation would affect community. The debate continues as the Internet makes it increasingly possible for people to socialize, shop, work, learn, and participate in leisure activities all from within their home. Will the movement of these previously public activities into the private realm lead to reduced participation in public activities? What will be the fate of community and social relations as a result of the growth of computer-mediated communication? Netville is a suburban Toronto development equipped with a high-speed network as part of its design. The clustering of homes within this area allowed us to study the social networks, civic involvement, Internet use, and attitudes of residents. This article explores the research approach of the Netville project and describes its main sources of data collection: surveys collected using computer-assisted interviewing and ethnographic fieldwork.
Reconstructing Technologies as Social Practice
Authors: SUCHMAN LUCY , BLOMBERG JEANETTE , ORR JULIAN E. , TRIGG RANDALL
Published: July 2003

This article provides an overview of a research program developed over the past 20 years to explore relations between everyday practices and technology design and use. The studies highlighted reflect three interrelated lines of inquiry: (a) critical analyses of technical discourses and practices, (b) ethnographies of work and technologies-in-use, and (c) design interventions. Starting from the premise that technologies can be assessed only in their relations to the sites of their production and use, the authors reconstruct technologies as social practice. A central problem for the design of artifacts then becomes their relation to the environments of their intended use. Through ethnographies of the social world, the analyses focus on just how social/material specificities are assembled together to comprise our everyday experience.
Disrupting the Field
Authors: GREEN NICOLA
Published: July 2003

This article discusses the challenges involved in constructing a field of study when the social relations in question involve multiple locations, objects, and stories about them. This article argues that the geographical, social, technical, and conceptual uncertainties presented by virtual systems problematize conventional constructions of the field and fieldwork, and require a flexible and “multisited” methodological approach. The article draws on experiences researching virtual reality technologies, and outlines the multisited ethnographic methods used in response to the methodological challenges involved. It outlines strategies of following objects, following people, and following stories to construct a flexible and multiple field of research. Such strategies are consistent with theoretical developments in feminist poststructuralism and science and technology studies that seek to deconstruct the coherence of the research process. The article argues that it is crucial to develop such methodological approaches in order to make nuanced critique of technology development, production, and consumption into the next millennium.
Life in Virtual Worlds
Authors: TAYLOR T. L.
Published: July 2003

Virtual environments present researchers with a range of methodological considerations, both new and old. With the advent of embodied online worlds, experiences with distributed presence, anonymity and multiple modes of engagement increasingly have become the norm. Avatars and their textual counterparts lead us to critically encounter how research can be most meaningfully handled given a terrain in which users are actually embodying themselves digitally, and often in multivalent ways. This article discusses some of the theoretical issues at stake in this form of research, as well as providing several grounded practices to help methodologically negotiate virtual worlds.
Nodes and Queries
Authors: HEATH DEBORAH , KOCH ERIN , LEY BARBARA , MONTOYA MICHAEL
Published: July 2003

This article, based on a collaborative research project on genetic knowledge production, examines the relations between on- and off-line field sites related to three heritable diseases: epidermolysis bullosa, chondrodysplasia, and Marfan syndrome. Field sites include the Web sites, listservs, and chat rooms run by lay health advocacy groups and biomedical professionals as well laboratories, clinics, and support groups meetings. The analysis uses the notion of location work, and the concept of the node that links different elements in a network, in describing a relational approach to multisited ethnography. The article presents three case studies that examine shifting locations between online and face-to-face relations, hyperlinks as a metaphor for interactive knowledge production, and the process of negotiating a networked ethics.
The Birth of Web Site Design Skills
Authors: KOTAMRAJU NALINI P.
Published: July 2003

The fleeting life cycle of Internet technologies poses new challenges to the pillars of scientific method, validity and reliability, in research about technology. Time compression—the concentration of numerous and rapid technological changes into shorter, erratic time cycles—affected the author's research on Web site design skill, resulting in a disappearance of data that is unexpected in the Information Age. Given the intensifying digitization of human life, the discipline of sociology increasingly confronts a tension between an imperfect, realistic data situation with which history has already made its peace, and an ideal type of scientific method that was always challenging, but now seems even more formidable. History, the past and the discipline, offers tools and insights to address the complexity of time in the digital world and its effect on evidence and methodology.
Measuring Corporate Reputation
Authors: Wartick Steven L.
Published: July 2003

By examining existing definitions and data sets, this article explores the current state of efforts intended to measure corporate reputation. Both definitions and data are found to be lacking, and it is argued that many deficiencies in definition and data can be attributed to the fact that theory development related to corporate reputation has been insufficient.
Assessing the Impact of Parental Expectations and Psychological Distress on Taiwanese College Students
Authors: Wang Li-Fei , Heppner P. Paul
Published: July 2003

Current research seems to underscore the impact of parental expectations on college students’ psychological distress. This study examined whether parental expectations or living up to parental expectations served as better predictors on Taiwanese college students’ psychological distress. Study 1 developed and validated a scale for measuring parental expectations and living up to parental expectations. Results supported the factorial validity and reliability of the scale. The results of Study 2 suggested that perceiving oneself as living up to parental expectations, rather than parental expectations per se, is a better predictor of psychological distress. Implications of the results for counseling interventions as well as further research are discussed.
Cleaning-up the Arctic's Cold War Legacy
Authors: SAWHILL STEVEN G.
Published: July 2003

In September 1996, the defence ministers of Norway, Russia and the United States signed a Declaration on Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation (AMEC). Formally devised as a forum for communication on military-environmental interactions, AMEC is in practice a mechanism for enhancing Russia's capacity to manage spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste from its Northern Fleet. This paper describes AMEC's development, aims, organization and activities, and discusses the environmental and political circumstances that led Norway to propose its creation. The paper examines important linkages with US strategic arms reduction and non-proliferation objectives, and argues that AMEC's early signs of success stem directly from its linkage with the US Cooperative Threat Reduction program. While this linkage provides AMEC with important benefits, it also exposes AMEC to a degree of risk within US and Russian domestic politics.
Danish CFSP Policy in the Post-Cold War Period
Authors: LARSEN HENRIK
Published: July 2003

The article examines the issue of whether Danish policy towards the CFSP is in line with the active internationalism that has characterized Danish foreign policy in general in the 1990s. It shows that Danish policy with regard to the CFSP has changed in the post-Cold War period. Denmark has begun to support the construction of the EU as an external political actor. This policy line can be explained by the dominance of a discourse within the Danish political system that views the EU as a central political actor with a role in the field of security. The dominance of this view has meant that the Edinburgh Decision agreement was not a watershed in Danish CFSP policy, although it has prevented Denmark from being part of the political inner circle. Against this background, Denmark has promoted its key foreign policy issues actively in the CFSP, also post 1992.
Explaining Variations in Regional Peace
Authors: MILLER BENJAMIN
Published: July 2003

The objective of this study is to examine the utility of three major mechanisms for regional conflict resolution. Two of the mechanisms are regional: enhancing regional legitimacy and liberalization. The third strategy is international: a concert of great powers or a stabilizing hegemon. The three strategies are deduced from the international-regional debate on the sources of regional war and peace, and also from the regional debate on democratization versus strengthening the state as the preferred strategy for generating regional peace and security. I will propose a solution to these debates by differentiating among three levels of regional peace, and relating each of the three strategies to a specific level of peace that it is expected to bring about. The pacifying value, as well as the disadvantages of the three mechanisms for regional peace, will be investigated by comparative illustrations from three regions: the Middle East, South America and Western Europe. The proposed theoretical framework will integrate the regional and international perspectives on regional peace by establishing causal linkages between different mechanisms for regional peace and the emergence of different levels of peace. I will argue that the international strategy can bring about only a relatively low level of peace (cold peace). However, cold peace can be conducive to the growing effectiveness of the regional strategies, starting from the regional legitimacy/state strength strategy resulting in normal peace. Normal peace, in turn, is conducive to liberalization and, as a result, to the emergence of the highest degree of peace-warm peace. The framework will provide an analytical tool for evaluating the current and future (short-term and long-term) progress in the Middle East peace process in comparison with past peace processes in South America and Western Europe.
The Emergence of a Regional Identity in the Kaliningrad Oblast
Authors: OLDBERG INGMAR
Published: July 2003

Contributing empirical evidence in a rather neglected research field, this article examines the emergence of a regional identity in the Russian Kaliningrad oblast since Soviet times by analysing the composition and the views of the population, official symbols, place names, architecture, history-writing as well as economic and political strivings. It is concluded that the region has developed from a militarized, closed anonymous part of the Soviet Russian empire into an exclave separated from Russia, still Russian by nationality but more open and Western than the country at large. The inhabitants are coming to terms with the region's German past and realize that they have specific political and economic interests. This emerging regional identity has so far been compatible with a wider Russian identity. But if the economic situation in the region continues to worsen in comparison with the surrounding states, and the federal centre in Moscow cannot support the region, calls for more autonomy and even separatism may grow.
United Nations Intervention by United Democracies?
Authors: ANDERSSON ANDREAS
Published: July 2003

An ongoing study of the impact of democracy on the incidence of state commitment to UN interventions is examined, with a focus on state participation in UN interventions. It is hypothesized that, of potential committing states, democracies show the greatest propensity to participate in UN interventions. In contrast to the existing literature, which comprises mainly case studies, basic descriptive statistics are utilized in this article to probe the hypothesis on polity and commitment to UN interventions. The less-democratic states are less committed to UN interventions. Overall, the hypothesis is supported by the empirical results in that (a) democracies commit more than other polities to UN interventions, (b) the difference between democracies and anocracies is relatively small and ambiguous in significance compared to the difference between autocracies and democracies/anocracies, and (c) the empirical track record is by and large consistent with previous research on the effect of polity within the realms of war and conventional interventions.
An Alternative Theoretical Approach to EU Foreign Policy
Authors: FILTENBORG METTE SICARD , GÄNZLE STEFAN , JOHANSSON ELISABETH
Published: July 2003

Events in the vicinity of the European Union are constantly challenging the EU's foreign policy, but complex internal governance processes have been hampering the EU from responding coherently. This analysis of the Northern Dimension Initiative considers whether the EU is compensating for this dilemma by adopting an innovative network governance strategy to integrate those external actors in the European North who can bring complementary resources to the policy-making processes. The formulation and execution of EU foreign policy may thus be alleviated, and the lack of internal problem-solving capacity does not automatically lead to failure in foreign policy-making.
The Dynamics of EMU Ideas
Authors: MARCUSSEN MARTIN
Published: July 2003

With a view to better understanding why the `Maastricht EMU' — contrary to various proposals for Economic and Monetary Union from early history of European monetary integration — gives priority to `sound money and finances' and central bank independence over other macro-economic objectives, it is suggested that the EMU be considered as being the very last stage of an `ideational life-cycle' that took off at the end of the 1970s. Contrary to approaches which focus on the strategic negotiations during the Intergovernmental Conference at the beginning of the 1990s, it is argued that EMU ideas can be better understood if the major areas of agreement, consensus, shared knowledge structures, or simply causal ideas, are studied rather than areas of conflict and disagreement. It is argued that the ideational life-cycle helps us to grasp why there was in fact so little controversy among European elites by the end of the 1980s about such basic issues as central bank independence, price stability, and sound finance convergence criteria. EMU ideas are results of uncontroversial and transnational agreement at the elite level rather than strategic bargaining.
Superintendents’ Dialogue in a Professional Development Model
Authors: Cicchelli Terry , Marcus Sheldon , Weiner Max
Published: July 2003

The complexity of political, economic, and social challenges in large urban districts weighs heavily on the professional and personal lives of urban superintendents and may contribute to the difficulty of attracting able leaders to these districts. The Fordham University/New York City Superintendents’Network since 1995 has provided a forum for the approximately 46 practicing community and high school superintendents in New York City whereby superintendents engage in dialogue about their work in a context where professional development activities are designed and implemented through a planning model. While models have their limitations in that they cannot accommodate for all possible variables in a process, they do provide us with a kind of blueprint, if you will, for program activities that are responsive and creative, offering superintendents opportunities for dialogue while interacting with each other. Dialogue among peers supports reflection, collaboration, and over time an inter connectedness. Optimistically, these dynamics are encouraging to superintendents working together in their turbulent lives as urban leaders.
Racial Gap in Teachers’ Perceptions of the Achievement Gap
Authors: Uhlenberg Jeffrey , Brown Kathleen M.
Published: July 2003

Why does the achievement gap exist, and what should we do about it? Ogbu and Simons suggested that urban minority parents “hold teachers and schools, rather than their children, responsible for poor academic performance.” Other adults focus on the children and families, commenting on such things as poverty and lack of parental concern. And then there are the students who talk about being underestimated, dismissed, or just bored. The purpose of this study is to examine Black and White teachers’ perceptions of possible causes and potential solutions to the achievement gap. Similarities and differences in their perceptions are highlighted. Our study suggests that before we can take a discussion of solutions to the next level, teachers must first examine and move past their personal assumptions and strive to understand the whole reality.
Gaining Access to the Superintendency: Headhunting, Gender, and Color
Authors: Tallerico Marilyn
Published: July 2003

The purpose of this research is to examine superintendent search and selection practices in terms of equity for females and people of color. Gatekeeping and career mobility theories are used to inform this case study of one of the largest and most diverse states in the nation, New York. Findings illustrate how particular elements of school board and head-hunters’ routine practices, the professional norms of school administration, and dominant ideological and sociocultural values combine to facilitate the access of nonminority males and limit the access of others to the superintendency.
Sexism, Silence, and Solutions: Women Superintendents Speak Up and Speak Out
Authors: Skrla Linda , Reyes Pedro , Scheurich James Joseph
Published: July 2003

Women as a group continue to be underrepresented in the ranks of American public school superintendents. Since the mid-1970s, researchers have attempted to account for the continued domination of the public school superintendency by men, but even in research that has moved beyond traditional paradigms, barriers to gaining insight into women superintendents’ experiences from their own viewpoints have persisted. The qualitative case study on which this article is based was designed to break down some of those barriers by using a participatory research design that included the women participants’own analyses of their experiences and that explored their proposed solutions for the problems surrounding their inequitable treatment. The authors discuss three interrelated parts of the study results—the sexism that is part of the culture of the superintendency, the silence of the educational administration profession about women superintendents’discriminatory experiences, and the study participants’proposed solutions for the problems of sexism and silence.
Organizing the Field Toimprove Research Oneducational Administration
Authors: Ogawa Rodney T. , Goldring Ellen B. , Conley Sharon
Published: July 2003

In early discussions, the Task Force on Inquiry and Research in Educational Administra-tion considered the possibility that scholarship in the field might be improved by organiz-ing or coordinating the efforts of scholars. The purpose of this article is to examine this issue. The authors explain that researchers in educational administration already are organized in two ways. First, they tend to focus on common topics, although the focal top-ics shift rapidly. Second, researchers coordinate their work both formally and infor-mally. This might be taken to suggest that organizing is not an effective strategy for enhancing inquiry and research in our field because new knowledge typically is the prod-uct of individual scholars who consistently focus on one topic. The authors argue other-wise, explaining that researchers might focus on enduring conceptual problems while studying timely topics from the field. The authors also suggest that different collabora-tive structures may offer different advantages in encouraging and facilitating the research of individual scholars.
Knowledge Generation in Educational Administration from the Inside Out: The Promise and Perils of Site-Based, Administrator Research
Authors: Anderson Gary L. , Jones Franklin
Published: July 2003

This article is part of an American Educational Resource Association Division A task force focus on how to improve the research base and knowledge production in educa-tional administration. It represents an exploratory study of the potential for educational administrators to generate knowledge out of their own practice settings. The database consists of published articles, dissertation abstracts, and interviews with administrator researchers. The study describes the various topics they studied, the methods they used, and the practical, epistemological, and political dilemmas they encountered. Unlike the traditional notion of a knowledge base that is created by formal researchers and then dis-seminated to practice settings, the authors argue that insider research is both created and used in the same setting and therefore represents a powerful lever for personal, pro-fessional, and organizational transformation. A discussion is provided on the use of both outsider and insider research and how together they can contribute to a rethinking of the notion of a knowledge base in educational administration.
Shifting Approaches to Supervision: The Case of Mathematics Supervision
Authors: Nelson Barbara Scott , Sassi Annette
Published: July 2003

Standards-based instructional reform has been occurring in all major school subjects. However, administrators’ supervisory practices have generally not taken account of subject-matter content but have focused primarily on pedagogical process. This article addresses how administrators can better support standards-based instruction by shifting their approaches to supervision to attend to the intersection of process and content. The article reports on a study that looked at what administrators thought significant when viewing the same videotape of a fifth-grade mathematics lesson at the beginning and end of a professional development seminar on supervision. It describes the different interpretations of the same events at these two times to illustrate the emergence of new principles to guide the exercise of administrators’ professional judgment in classroom observation and supervision. The article concludes that there is a need to bring adequate subject-matter knowledge to the process of supervision and suggests several possible directions for achieving this shift.
Problem-Based Learning and Prospective Principals’ Problem-Framing Ability
Authors: Copland Michael Aaron
Published: July 2003

This article reports on an exploratory study that inquired about the teaching and learning of administrative problem-framing skills in a problem-based learning (PBL) administrator preparation program. A literature-based definition of problem-framing ability is developed, and a conceptual framework for the study, rooted in theories of cognition and social psychology, is introduced. Incorporating the use of a quasi-experimental study design, the problem-framing skills of three successive student cohorts with graduated levels of exposure to PBL are assessed. An ANCOVA reveals that all three cohorts differ significantly in problem-framing ability associated with their level of exposure to PBL. Finally, the implications of the findings for instructional practice and future research on administrator preparation are explored.
School Characteristics and Educational Outcomes: Toward an Organizational Model of Student Achievement in Middle Schools
Authors: Sweetland Scott R. , Hoy Wayne K.
Published: July 2003

Empowerment is defined and measured in terms of teachers’ power to control critical decisions about teaching and learning conditions. This research first considers the relationship between school climate and teacher empowerment and then the relationship between teacher empowerment and school effectiveness, which includes measures of mathematics and reading achievement in 86 middle schools. The results support the pivotal importance of teacher empowerment in the effectiveness of schools. Finally, a theoretical model is proposed to explain the linkages between organizational characteristics and student achievement.
Organizational Health and Robust School Vision
Authors: Licata Joseph W. , Harper Gerald W.
Published: July 2003

This article reports a significant positive relationship between teachers’ perceptions of organizational health and the relative robustness of their school vision. Subsequent regression analysis indicated that academic emphasis and institutional integrity were the school health themes that characterized the overall association with robust school vision.
Conditions Fostering the Implementation of Large-Scale Innovation Programs in Schools: Teachers’ Perspectives
Authors: Geijsel Femke , Sleegers Peter , van den Berg Rudolf , Kelchtermans Geert
Published: July 2003

This research examines the conditions fostering the implementation of large-scale innovation programs through the eyes of teachers. The implementation of two innovation programs by teachers from two sectors of Dutch agricultural education was studied. Structural equation modeling was applied to the survey data of the two groups of teachers. Results show dimensions of transformational leadership and participation in decision making along with teachers’ feelings of uncertainty and professional development activities to influence the extent to which teachers change their practices according to the principles of the current innovation program and also the extent to which teachers agree with the principles. It is argued that school improvement research should pay more attention to the complex relationships between the conditions fostering innovation. The importance of analyzing conditions in the context of different innovation programs and the importance of recognizing feelings of uncertainty for school improvement research are discussed in greater detail.
Counting on Colleagues: New Teachers Encounter the Professional Cultures of Their Schools
Authors: Kardos Susan M. , Johnson Susan Moore , Peske Heather G. , Kauffman David , Liu Edward
Published: July 2003

Within the context of an impending teacher shortage, this article considers the professional cultures that new teachers encounter in their schools. Using new entrants’ accounts, we characterized three types of professional cultures or subcultures within schools: veteran-oriented cultures, novice-oriented cultures, and integrated cultures. In veteran-oriented cultures, new teachers described norms of professional interaction determined, in large part, by the veterans, with little attention to the particular needs of beginning teachers. In novice-oriented cultures, on the other hand, new teachers described norms of professional interaction determined by novices, thus leaving them with little experienced guidance about how to teach. However, in integrated professional cultures, new teachers described being provided with sustained support and having frequent exchanges with colleagues across experience levels. Principals proved to be important in developing and maintaining integrated professional cultures where the particular needs of new teachers were both recognized and addressed.
Explaining the Negative Impact of the Transition from Middle to High School on Student Performance in Mathematics and Science
Authors: Rice Jennifer King
Published: July 2003

This article draws on 5 years of data from a nationally representative sample of students to explore how institutional discontinuities between middle and high schools affect the mathematics and science progress of students with varied backgrounds. The study finds evidence that changes in safety, academic environment, teacher push, and student autonomy to select courses affect student progress across the transition. The analysis found little evidence of a differential impact based on student background characteristics; only the measure of the degree to which parents participate in nonschool activities surfaced as a predictor of student progress across the transition, reaffirming what other studies have found about the importance of this variable. Recommendations focus on targeting education policy in ways that can ease this problematic transition for students.
Teacher Supervision through Professional Growth Plans: Balancing Contradictions and Opening Possibilities
Authors: Fenwick Tara J.
Published: July 2003

This article uses a micropolitical perspective to analyze the mandatory implementation of teacher professional growth plans (TPGPs) in Alberta, Canada, drawing upon findings of a qualitative study. Teachers and principals interviewed after 3 years of implementing this policy appeared to work within three basic contradictions related to the intersections of power and knowledge: (a) promoting teacher self-direction while increasing surveillance; (b) honoring individual teachers’ ways of knowing while narrowing teacher learning to a technicist model; and (c) focusing on teacher risk taking, creativity, and personally meaningful learning while increasing alignment with school and district goals and provincial teaching standards. However, principals and teachers found productive ways to balance these three tensions or work around them. This article describes strategies exercised particularly by administrators to implement the policy within these tensions, and it concludes by discussing this model of TPGPs in terms of negotiation of control.
Teachers’ Multiple Roles and Skill Flexibility: Effects on Work Attitudes
Authors: Rosenblatt Zehava
Published: July 2003

This study investigated the mediating effect of teachers’skill flexibility (the mastery and utilization of various skills) on the relationship between holding multiple roles (extrateaching school roles) and work attitudes (burnout, tendency to quit, and organizational commitment). In this study, skill flexibility was composed of three components: skill utilization, skill variety, and multiskilling orientation. SEM path analysis revealed that skill utilization mediated the effect of holding multiple roles on all three work attitudes, and skill variety mediated the effect of holding multiple roles on burnout. Multiskilling orientation added little explanation to the final model. Skill flexibility components also mediated the effects of demographic variables (age, education, nationality, and school size) on all three work attitudes. These results contribute to the conceptualization of skill flexibility, which has been relatively underresearched in the organizational literature. Implications for teachers’work design are discussed.
Can Schools be Communities? The Tension between Shared Values and Inclusion
Authors: Strike Kenneth A.
Published: July 2003

This article considers a central dilemma associated with school communities, the tension between the need for shared values that are constitutive enough to serve as the basis for community and the premises of liberal inclusiveness. The author evaluates 3 candidates for school-community values—comprehensive doctrines, caring, and democracy—and concludes that, if a value is a constitutive one, then it cannot be consistent with liberal inclusiveness. He suggests a middle ground based in variants of these values that are thick, but vague, and more freedom of association within the public school system around these values.
Using Interdependent Contingencies with Groups of Students: Why the Principal Kissed a Pig
Authors: Skinner Christopher H. , Skinner Carl F. , Skinner Amy L. , Cashwell Tammy H.
Published: July 2003

Educational administrators at the school level can use a variety of techniques to encourage desired behavior from students. Recently, various media have carried stories about school principals engaging in some unusual behavior, such as kissing a pig at a school-wide assembly and reading books on the school roof. For the most part, these administrators have been employing interdependent group contingencies to reinforce desired behaviors. In this article, interdependent group contingencies are described and analyzed. Applied examples are provided to make school administrators aware of strengths and limitations associated with these procedures. Recommendations are provided for implementing interdependent group contingencies in educational settings that should allow school leaders to alter the behavior of students without inadvertently occasioning inappropriate student behaviors.
Number-Right, Item-Response, and Finite-State Scoring: Robustness with Respect to Lack of Equally Classifiable Options and Item Option Independence
Authors: Rogers W. Todd , Ndalichako Joyce
Published: July 2003

The robustness of number-right; one-, two-, and three-parameter item-response; finite-state; and partial-credit scoring was examined with respect to the violation of the equally classifiable options and option independence made in finite-state scoring. All other assumptions underlying the use of these scoring models were met for each of four sub-tests that varied in terms of the violations. Analysis of the responses of 1,232 high school seniors on the subtests revealed that the number-right and one-, two-, and three-parameter scoring methods were equally sensitive to the presence of best answers (lack of option independence) and that the number-right and one- and two-parameter methods were equally sensitive to the presence of absurd option and stem-option connections (unequal classification of options) and pairs of similar or opposite options (lack of option independence, unequal classification of options). The three-parameter model and the finite-state scoring models were adversely sensitive to the presence of testwiseness.
Defining and Measuring Empowering Leader Behaviors: Development of an Upward Feedback Instrument
Authors: Konczak Lee J. , Stelly Damian J. , Trusty Michael L.
Published: July 2003

Empowerment is a popular management practice, but there has been little research to identify empowering behaviors of leaders. The present article discusses the development of an instrument designed to measure empowering leader behavior (Study 1) and the relationship of the instrument to several theoretically relevant variables (Study 2). Confirmatory factor analyses supported a six-dimension model of empowering leader behavior. Furthermore, psychological empowerment mediated the relationship between six dimensions of empowering leader behavior and two outcome variables, job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Reliability: Rejoinder to Thompson and Vacha-Haase
Authors: Sawilowsky Shlomo S.
Published: July 2003

Thompson and Vacha-Haase (in this issue) examined the statement “ the reliability of the test” with emphasis on the following three words: (a) the first “the,” (b) “test,” and (c) the second “the.” I focus instead on the word reliability.
Assessing the Reliability of Beck Depression Inventory Scores: Reliability Generalization across Studies
Authors: Yin Ping , Fan Xitao
Published: July 2003

The reliability estimates for the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores across studies were accumulated and summarized in a meta-analysis. Only 7.5% of the articles reviewed reported meaningful reliability estimates, indicating that the logic of “test score reliability” generally has not prevailed in clinical psychology regarding application of BDI. Analyses revealed that for BDI, the measurement error due to time sampling as captured by test-retest reliability estimate is considerably larger than the measurement error due to item heterogeneity and content sampling as captured by internal consistency reliability estimate. Also, reliability estimates involving substance addicts were consistently lower than reliability estimates involving normal subjects, possibly due to restriction of range problems. Correlation analyses revealed that standard errors of measurement (SEMs) were not correlated with reliability estimates but were substantially related to standard deviations of BDI scores, suggesting that SEMs should be considered in addition to reliability estimates when interpreting individual BDI scores.
Reliability Generalization of the Neo Personality Scales
Authors: Caruso John C.
Published: July 2003

A reliability generalization of 51 samples employing one of the NEO personality scales was conducted. Reliability generalization is a meta-analytic method for examining the variability in the reliability of scores by determining which sample characteristics are related to differences in score reliability. It was found that there was a large amount of variability in the reliability of NEO scores, both between and within personality domains. The sample characteristics that are related to score reliability were dependent on NEO domain. Agreeableness scores appear to be the weakest of the domains assessed by the NEO scales in terms of reliability, particularly in clinical samples, for male-only samples, and when temporal consistency was the criterion for reliability. The reliability of Openness to Experience scores was low when the NEO-Five Factor Inventory was used. The advantages of conceptualizing reliability as a property of scores, and not tests, are discussed.
WPerfit: A Program for Computing parametric Person-Fit Statistics and Plotting Person Response Curves
Authors: Ferrando Pere J. , Lorenzo Urbano
Published: July 2003

A program is described for computing different person-fit measures under different parametric item response models for binary items. The indices computed are the standardized log-likelihood index l z, the standardized extended caution index ECI4 z, and the chi-square statistic of Trabin and Weiss. These indices can be computed for the Rasch model and the two- and three-parameter logistic models. The program can plot person response curves, which allow the researcher to investigate the kind of nonfitting response behavior that is present in examinees who are detected as inconsistent.
A Quantitative Review of the Effect of Computerized Testing on the Measurement of Social Desirability
Authors: Dwight Stephen A. , Feigelson Melissa E.
Published: July 2003

A meta-analysis was conducted to determine the extent to which the computer administration of a measure influences socially desirable responding. Social desirability was defined as consisting of two components: impression management and self-deceptive enhancement. A small but statistically significant effect ( d = -0.08) was found for impression management, with impression management being lower when assessed by computer. Correlational analysis revealed, however, that the strength of the effect of computer administration on impression management appeared to diminish over time such that more recent studies have found small or no effects. Consistent with its conceptualization, reports of self-deceptive enhancement did not differ by testing format. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of how they contribute to the explication of the construct of social desirability and cross-mode equivalence.
Effects of Stem and Likert Response Option Reversals on Survey Internal Consistency: If You Feel the Need, There is a Better Alternative to Using those Negatively Worded Stems
Authors: Barnette J. Jackson
Published: July 2003

The controversy with regard to using reverse or negatively worded survey stems has been around for several decades; it is a practice of questionable utility intended to guard against acquiescence or response set behaviors. A 2 × 3 design in which item stem direction and item response pattern direction were crossed was used to determine effects on internal consistency reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha. The condition having the highest alpha was when all directly worded stems were used with bidirectional response options. Alpha was higher and accounted for at least 10%, and in one case 20%, higher internal consistency as compared with any of the three conditions in which negatively worded stems were used. This would indicate that the use of all directly worded stems and half of the response options going in one direction and half going in the other direction may be a better way of guarding against acquiescence and response set behaviors than the use of items with negatively worded stems.
A Validity Study of Scores on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Based on a Sample of Academically Talented Adolescents
Authors: Worrell Frank C.
Published: July 2003

This study examined the validity of scores on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) in a group of 275 academically talented adolescents attending a summer enrichment program. The two-factor solution reported by Phinney was essentially replicated with this sample using exploratory factor analysis. Factor I (Ethnic Identity) scores had a reliability coefficient of .89, and Factor II (Other Group Orientation) scores had a reliability coefficient of .76. Although the replication of Phinney’s results provides supportive evidence for the factor structure of the MEIM, the instrument would benefit from work on its psychometric soundness, particularly as ethnic identity is hypothesized to be related to many important variables in adolescence.
Using SPSS/PC for Higher Order Factoring
Authors: Johnson William L. , Johnson Annabel M.
Published: July 2003

Many researchers do not perform higher order factoring because they do not know the procedures for the analyses or they do not have the factor rotation codes. This article builds on a previously published article in Educational and Psychological Measurement to provide the SPSS/PC code for factor rotations.
Sample Compositions and Variabilities in Published Studies versus Those in Test Manuals: Validity of Score Reliability Inductions
Authors: Vacha-Haase Tammi , Kogan Lori R. , Thompson Bruce
Published: July 2003

As measurement specialists, we have done a disservice to both ourselves and our profession by habitually referring to “the reliability of the test,” or saying that “the test is reliable.” This has created a mind-set implying that reliability, once proven, is immutable. More important, practitioners and scholars need not know measurement theories if they may simply rely on the reliability purportedly intrinsic within all uses of established measures. The present study investigated empirically exactly how dissimilar in both composition and variability samples inducting reliability coefficients from prior studies were from the cited prior samples from which coefficients were generalized.
Analysis and Class Validation of a Measure of Parental values Perceived by early Adolescents: An Application of a Latent Class Model for Rankings
Authors: Decarlo Lawrence T. , Luthar Suniya S.
Published: July 2003

A Parental Values scale, in which students ranked the top 5 of 10 items in terms of how important they perceived the items as being to their parents, was analyzed using a latent class ranking model. A model with three latent classes was considered adequate, based on the Bayesian information criterion and the interpretability of the results. The three classes were interpreted as consisting of students who perceive their parents as valuing personal happiness, those who perceive their parents as valuing concern for others, and those who perceive their parents as valuing academics and attending a good college. Some evidence as to the validity of the latent classes was obtained by comparing scores on a Parental Expectations scale; the scores were higher for the academic latent class as compared to the other two classes. The analysis suggests which items might be useful in a revised version of the scale.
Assessment of the Measurement Equivalence of a Spanish Translation of the 16PF Questionnaire
Authors: Ellis Barbara B. , Mead Alan D.
Published: July 2003

The differential functioning of items and tests (DFIT) framework was used to examine the measurement equivalence of a Spanish translation of the Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered in English to English-speaking Anglo-Americans and English-dominant Hispanic Americans and in Spanish to Spanish-dominant Hispanic Americans and Spanish-speaking Mexican nationals. As expected, the compensatory differential item functioning/differential test functioning (CDIF/DTF) procedure, which accounts for CDIF at the scale level, flagged fewer items as differential functioning than did the noncompensatory differential item functioning (NCDIF) procedure. Results did not support the hypothesis that DIF would be greatest in the Anglo versus Spanish-speaker comparison followed by the Hispanic versus Spanish-speaker comparison and least in the Anglo versus Hispanic comparison. Advantages of using the DFIT framework in assessing test translations, especially for test developers, are discussed.
Computerized Adaptive Testing for Classifying Examinees into three Categories
Authors: Eggen T.J.H.M. , Straetmans G.J.J.M.
Published: July 2003

The objective of this study was to explore the possibilities for using computerized adaptive testing in situations in which examinees are to be classified into one of three categories. Testing algorithms with two different statistical computation procedures are described and evaluated. The first computation procedure is based on statistical testing and the other on statistical estimation. Item selection methods based on maximum information (MI) considering content and exposure control are considered. The measurement quality of the proposed testing algorithms is reported. The results of the study are that a reduction of at least 22% in the mean number of items can be expected in a computerized adaptive test (CAT) compared to an existing paper-and-pencil placement test. Furthermore, statistical testing is a promising alternative to statistical estimation. Finally, it is concluded that imposing constraints on the MI selection strategy does not negatively affect the quality of the testing algorithms.
Type I Error Rate Comparisons of Post Hoc Procedures for I j Chi-Square Tables
Authors: MacDonald Paul L. , Gardner Robert C.
Published: July 2003

The authors used Monte Carlo methods to assess the per-contrast and experimentwise Type I error rates of two post hoc tests of cellwise residuals and four post hoc tests of pairwise contrasts in 3 4 chi-square contingency tables. The six post hoc procedures were evaluated under three sample sizes and under the null hypotheses of independence and homogeneity. Results of the study indicate that the cellwise adjusted residual method provided adequate experimentwise Type I error rate control when appropriate adjustments to the alpha level were made, and the Gardner pairwise post hoc procedure provided several advantages over the other pairwise procedures. This was true for both the independence and homogeneity models.
Group Differences Based on Irt Scores: does the Model Matter?
Authors: DeMars Christine
Published: July 2003

In this study, effect sizes based on simulated groups were compared for the one-parameter and three-parameter logistic IRT models. Data were generated based on a three-parameter model, and item estimates were obtained from the simulated data based on both the one-parameter and three-parameter models. Abilities were estimated using both maximum likelihood and expected a posterior methods. The data fit the three-parameter model much better, but there were only minimal differences between the effect sizes based on different models.