bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Eating Disorders
Authors: Richardson Jodie , Steiger Howard
Published: January 2010

Anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED)—the commonly recognized eating disorder (ED) variants—are all characterized by abnormal thoughts and behaviors surrounding eating, weight, and body image. AN is defined by an intense fear of weight gain, leading to caloric restraint and abnormal thinness. BN occurs in relatively normal‐weight or overweight individuals who display recurrent eating binges followed by such compensations as self‐induced vomiting, laxative misuse, fasting, or intensive exercise. The most widely known of other ED variants is BED, which involves regular eating binges without compensatory behaviors.
Educational Psychology
Authors: Miller Gloria , McCormick Christine , Jordan Staci
Published: January 2010

The discipline of educational psychology, broadly defined, focuses on the application of psychology to the understanding of learners and learning environments. From its inception, the field has reflected a unique interdisciplinary tapestry of interwoven textures and hues representing a balance of psychological theory with respect to learning and application for educational practice. Educational psychology has been defined as the branch of psychology concerned with “the development, evaluation, and application of theories and principles of human learning, teaching, and instruction, and theory‐driven educational materials, programs, strategies, and techniques that can enhance lifelong educational activities and processes” (Wittrock & Farley, 1989).
Emotional Disturbances
Authors: Kring Ann M. , Goodkind Madeleine S.
Published: January 2010

Emotional disturbances are found in nearly all disorders in the current version of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the official diagnostic system used by mental health professionals. These disturbances span positive and negative emotions and include excesses of emotion (e.g., too much anxiety), deficits in emotion (e.g., lack of self‐conscious emotions like embarrassment), disconnections among emotion response components (e.g., strong feelings without outward expression), emotion understanding problems (e.g., misinterpreting the emotional intent of others), and regulation problems (e.g., uncontrollable anger outbursts). Not only are emotion disturbances pervasive, but also many of these disturbances cut across traditional diagnostic boundaries.
Enuresis
Authors: Friman Patrick C.
Published: January 2010

Enuresis is the technical term used for the regular passage of urine into locations other than those specifically designed for that purpose. The diagnostic criteria in the fourth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) include repeated voiding of urine into clothing or bed at least twice a week for at least three months. If the frequency is less than that but the voiding is a cause of significant distress or impairment to social, academic, or occupational functioning, it satisfies diagnostic criteria.
E
rikson,
E
rik
H
omburger (1902–1994)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Erik Homburger Erikson was born in 1902 to unmarried Danish parents living in Germany. In 1904, his mother married a pediatrician, Theodor Homburger, who adopted Erik in 1911. Subsequently, and probably following Scandinavian traditions, he changed his name to Erik Homburger Erikson.
Eriksonian Developmental Stages
Authors: Berzonsky Michael D.
Published: January 2010

The developmental theory of Erik Erikson builds upon and extends Sigmund Freud's classical account of psychosexual stages. Noteworthy in this regard is the fact that Erikson was analyzed and influenced by Freud's daughter, Anna. According to orthodox Freudian psychoanalytic theory, personality development is completed by at least adolescence and is relatively independent from positive environmental influences. Moreover, ego development is considered to be defensive in nature; the ego emerges to control and regulate the id, which comprises biologically determined instincts, needs, urges, and the like.
Escape‐Avoidance Learning
Authors: Denny M. Ray
Published: January 2010

Avoidance learning and extinction are typically studied in rats with electric foot‐shock as the aversive stimulus. In active avoidance, the rat is often placed in a runway, the floor of which is electrified at one end and is, at least temporarily, safe at the other end. The rat must move to the opposite end to escape or avoid shock. Before shock is delivered, the subject has several seconds in which to respond. A naïve subject, however, fails to avoid and is shocked on at least one trial before escaping the shock chamber. Thus traditional avoidance learning always includes escape behavior and is appropriately called
escape‐avoidance learning
.
Exhibitionism
Authors: Morin John W.
Published: January 2010

Exhibitionism is a psychological disorder listed within the category of sexual disturbances called “paraphilias” in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Exhibitionism is characterized by “recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving the exposure of one's genitals to an unsuspecting stranger” (p. 569) that persist over a period of at least six months. A person must have acted on these urges, or the urges or fantasies must cause distress or impairment for the person to be diagnosed with the disorder.
Experimental Controls
Authors: Kidd Kathryn , Morgan George A.
Published: January 2010

Experimental controls are techniques that researchers utilize to minimize the effects of extraneous experience and environmental variables as well as to strengthen the inference that changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable (the ability to infer causality). Does, for example, Treatment X (independent variable) cause a change in Behavior A (dependent variable)? A well‐designed, well‐controlled, and well‐implemented randomized experiment is the best avenue for examining causality.
Face Validity
Authors: Holden Ronald R.
Published: January 2010

Face validity is a characteristic associated with a psychological test and its individual items. Distinct from more technical types of validity, face validity is the appropriateness, sensibility, or relevance of the test and its items as they appear to the persons answering the test. Do a test and its items seem valid and meaningful to the individuals taking the test? More formally, face validity is defined as the degree to which test respondents view the content of a test and its items as relevant to the context in which the test is being administered.
Factitious Disorder
Authors: Gregory Robert J.
Published: January 2010

Factitious disorder is defined in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
as “physical or psychological symptoms that are intentionally produced or feigned in order to assume the sick role” (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 513). It is differentiated from somatoform disorders on the basis of involuntary production of symptoms in the latter. However, in clinical practice the two types of disorders can be difficult to distinguish, since many patients present with a mixture of voluntary and involuntary symptoms (Feldman, Hamilton, & Deemer, 2001).
False Memory Syndrome
Authors: Depue Brendan E.
Published: January 2010

False memory syndrome(FMS), although not recognized as a psychiatric disorder in either theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disordersor theInternational Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, which are the two key reference manuals for mental illness throughout the world, is a term widely used in legal and scientific arenas to describe the hypothesis that recovered memories may at times be partially incorrect or altogether false. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF) first coined the term in the 1990s in reaction to an abundance of cases during the previous two decades in which patients claimed to be victims of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) or satanic ritual. These recovered memory cases led to criminal prosecutions of alleged abusers, lawsuits against therapists by former clients and parents, and even legislative reform. The 2008 website of the FMSF supplies the following definition for the syndrome.

[A] condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships are centered around a memory of traumatic experience which is objectively false but in which the person strongly believes … [T]he syndrome may be diagnosed when the memory is so deeply ingrained that it orients the individual's entire personality and lifestyle, in turn disrupting all sorts of other adaptive behavior.
Family Therapy
Authors: Mirsalimi Hamid
Published: January 2010

Professional therapists, researchers, and other students of psychotherapy have long been curious about many questions relevant to the field: What constitutes a psychological problem, how could that problem be classified, what differentiates that problem from all others, what is the etiology of the problem, what are developmental sequelae of the problem, what is the most efficacious treatment approach, what is resilience, what is mental health, and many others. One particular question of interest has had to do with the unit identified as the patient. Whereas traditionally this unit was an individual, the emergence of the family therapy movement shifted that focus away from the individual and toward the family as the unit and the focus of study and treatment.
F
estinger,
L
eon (1919–1989)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Leon Festinger received his bachelor's degree from the College of the City of New York, in 1939. He then attended the State University of Iowa, receiving the M.A. and the PhD (1942). There Festinger came under the influence of Kurt Lewin's theories and developed them further, earning a reputation in social psychology.
Fight/Flight Reaction
Authors: Berent Stanley
Published: January 2010

The fight‐flight reaction can be observed across species and represents a critically important mechanism for survival, no less so in humans than in other living organisms. At the heart of this reaction is fear, which is an immediate response to perceived threat, and anxiety, which is a response similar to fear that can be thought of as anticipation of danger, or even anticipation of fear itself. Put another way, if fear is the sensation people experience with their first bee sting, then anxiety is the emotion they feel thereafter when hearing the buzz of a bumblebee.
Firesetting
Authors: Stickle Timothy R.
Published: January 2010

Intentional firesetting by children and adolescents causes thousands of deaths, serious injuries, more than $300 million in property damage yearly, and numerous other serious consequences for children, families, and communities (Stickle & Kaufman, 2008).
Forensic Consulting
Authors: Drogin Eric Y.
Published: January 2010

Forensic consulting occurs when psychologists support one side's attempts to prevail over another in civil and criminal legal proceedings. Unlike expert witnesses, who are expected to approach each case in an unbiased fashion and to testify about their findings under oath, forensic consultants strive from the very beginning to identify helpful information and winning strategies for the party that retains them, secure in the knowledge that they will never take the witness stand.
Forensic Psychologists, Roles and Activities of
Authors: Petrila John
Published: January 2010

Forensic psychology is an increasingly popular area of practice within psychology. It has been defined as “the application of psychological research, theory, practice, and traditional and specialized methodology (e.g., interviewing, psychological testing, forensic assessment and forensically relevant instruments) to provide information relevant to a legal question” (Goldstein, 2003, p. 4). The American Psychological Association designated forensic psychology as an area of specialization in 2001 (Goldstein, 2003), and it is the subject of a rapidly growing number of books, journals, and professional conferences (Otto & Heilbrun, 2002).
Friendships
Authors: Furman Wyndol , Shomaker Laren B.
Published: January 2010

Friendships are important relationships in all cultures and throughout the lifespan. Friendships are characterized by several defining features: (1) they are dyadic relationships, (2) there is a reciprocated, affective bond, (3) they are voluntary relationships, (4) they are typically egalitarian in nature, and (5) almost all friendships entail shared activities and companionship. Friendships often meet other functions as well, such as serving as a source of support and providing opportunities for self‐disclosure and intimacy.
Gambling Addiction
Authors: Meyers Andrew W. , Steenbergh Timothy A.
Published: January 2010

The past three decades have witnessed significant increases in legalized gambling opportunities in the United States, with all but two states allowing some form of legalized gambling. These opportunities have been accompanied by record levels of gambling expenditures. For example, Americans spent over $90 billion on legal gambling activities in 2006, which represented a 7.7% increase over record expenditures in 2005 (Christiansen, 2007).
Gender Differences
Authors: Jenkins Sharon Rae
Published: January 2010

The study of psychological gender differences (GDs) originated with the earliest studies linking brain structures to differences in behavior, especially in the area of intellectual performance. These lines of research purported to explain sex differences in behavior by comparing brain structures of men and women that were believed to account for them (Shields, 1975). These inquiries represented one facet of the continuing “nature–nurture” debate over the relative impact of genetic heritage and environmental influences as causes of behavior. Present‐day neuroscience research has found evidence for neural plasticity that supports a biopsychosocial interactionist view, which is gaining acceptance over earlier monocausal models (Halpern et al., 2007). However, in the presence of ideological and political commitments to differing views of “human nature,” debates continue over how much of a difference is a just‐noticeable difference, as this depends on who is doing the noticing, and over what is a functionally important difference, as this depends on the function, its context, and its consequences.
Gender Identity Disorder
Authors: Burgess Kristen A. , Gillespie Charles F.
Published: January 2010

Gender identity is a psychological concept that refers to one's subjective sense of being male or female. The intensity of gender identity exists along a continuum and therefore may vary between individuals. Gender identity disorder is a mental disorder in which gender identity is incongruent with anatomical sex (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). As a consequence, individuals with gender identity disorder experience varying degrees of dissatisfaction with their designated anatomical birth sex. In extreme cases (transsexualism) they express and pursue their desire to live and have the body of a person of the opposite sex as well as be viewed socially as a person of the opposite sex.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Treanor Michael , Roemer Lizabeth
Published: January 2010

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a clinical anxiety disorder that is centrally characterized by excessive, pervasive, and chronic worry. Worry is a cognitive activity that involves repeatedly thinking about potential negative future events, such as “What if I can't finish this task?” “What if I never graduate?” “What if I have some type of illness?” According to the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), in order to warrant a diagnosis of GAD an individual must experience excessive and uncontrollable worry for at least 6 months, as well as three or more associated symptoms that are present, more days than not, over this time period. These associated symptoms include restlessness, being easily fatigued, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, or sleep disturbances (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep). Consistent with other DSM‐IV diagnostic criteria, both the worry and associated symptoms must cause clinically significant distress or impairment.
Gerontology
Authors: Haley William E. , Kwak Jung
Published: January 2010

Significant improvement in public health and advancement in medical technology in the twentieth century led to increasing life expectancy and remarkable growth in the older adult population. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 35 million older Americans, 12.4% of the U.S. population, is over the age of 65. With the aging of the baby boom cohort, there will be 70.3 million Americans over age 65 in the year 2030. The rapid growth of the older population and significant changes associated with multiple aging, physical, psychological, and social dimensions suggest that knowledge about gerontology (the scientific study of the process of aging and aging experience) and geriatrics (the branch of medicine studying clinical aspects of aging) will become vital for researchers, clinicians, and policy makers.
Gestalt Psychology
Authors: Verstegen Ian
Published: January 2010

Gestalt psychology refers to the school of psychology that was formed in Berlin by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) and that continued to have influence throughout the twentieth century at universities where it was particularly practiced, namely the New School for Social Research in New York, Swarthmore College in Philadelphia, the University of Münster in Germany, and the Universities of Padua and Trieste in Italy. After a period of neglect and misunderstanding, the principles of the school are once again central to psychological discussion, especially in perceptual psychology.
H
all,
G
.
S
tanley (1844–1924)
Authors: Hilgard Ernest R.
Published: January 2010

G. Stanley Hall is honored as the founder and promoter of organized psychology as a science and profession. He founded the American Psychological Association in 1892, was its first president, and in 1887 founded the first psychological journal in America, the
American Journal of Psychology.
He also founded other journals: the
Pedagogical Seminary
(later the
Journal of Genetic Psychology
) in 1894, the
Journal of Religious Psychology
in 1904, and the
Journal of Applied Psychology
in 1917.
Haptic Perception
Authors: Lederman Susan J. , Kitada Ryo , Pawluk Dianne
Published: January 2010

The human sense of touch consists of two principal subsystems. One of them, the “cutaneous” or “tactile” system, uses sensory information from mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors embedded in the skin. The other, known as the “haptic” system, relies on all the sensory inputs used by the tactile system in combination with information from position and movement receptors in joints and muscles and force receptors in tendons. Haptic perception typically involves active manual exploration, although other parts of the body, such as the foot and tongue, may also be used for “touching.” When people use their haptic system, they tend to focus on their experiences of the external world of surfaces and objects and their properties (e.g., roughness, compliance, shape, weight, and so forth). In contrast, when their tactile system is passively stimulated, people tend rather to focus on their own internal subjective sensations, such as pressure, vibration, and warmth.
Hoarding
Authors: Frost Randy O.
Published: January 2010

Hoarding has been widely recognized as a serious problem by elder service workers but has been almost completely ignored in the research literature until very recently. Frost and Hartl (1996) defined hoarding as (1) acquisition and failure to discard a large number of possessions; (2) clutter that precludes activities for which living spaces were designed; and (3) significant distress or impairment in functioning caused by acquisition, difficulty in discarding, and clutter. In addition to these primary features, people who hoard tend to be highly perfectionistic, have problems with decision‐making, and experience ADHD‐like symptoms including extreme disorganization. Hoarding has been associated with impairment in activities of daily living as well as marked problems with occupational and role functioning (Steketee & Frost, 2003). The difficulties caused by hoarding can be extreme and can endanger the health and safety of the individual as well as anyone living nearby. Despite the dearth of information about hoarding, a recent epidemiological survey reported a weighted lifetime prevalence of serious hoarding problems of over 5% (Samuels et al., 2008).
Homosexuality
Authors: Herek Gregory M.
Published: January 2010

Homosexuality refers to sexual behaviors, desires, attractions, and relationships among people of the same sex, as well as to the culture, identities, and communities associated with them. The term encompasses at least five phenomena that are often though not always related. First, it is used to describe specific instances of sexual behavior with a person of one's same sex. Second, it refers to ongoing patterns of sexual or romantic attraction to people of one's own sex, which may or may not be expressed behaviorally. Both homosexual and heterosexual behaviors and attractions are common across human societies.
Hope
Authors: Ritschel Lorie
Published: January 2010

All humans are goal‐directed beings by nature. Whether we seek food, jobs, social connection, relaxation, or better health, much of our behavior is organized around the pursuit of a particular end state. Successful goal attainment requires three elements: a clearly articulated goal, a plan, and motivation to put that plan into action. According to Snyder and colleagues, these three elements constitute hopeful thinking.
H
ull,
C
lark
L
. (1884–1952)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W.
Published: January 2010

Clark L. Hull's most important contribution to psychology lies in his theory of learning, considered one of the most important learning theories of the twentieth century. He received his PhD in 1918 at the University of Wisconsin. Early in his career he was interested in the field of aptitude testing, an area he abandoned because he did not see much future in it. He then turned to the field of hypnosis and suggestibility. In 1929 he accepted an appointment as research professor at Yale University, a post he held until his retirement.
Human Development
Authors: Diehl Manfred , Chui Helena , Youngblade Lise M. , Qualls Sara H.
Published: January 2010

Theory and research in lifespan psychology rest on the key assumption that human development occurs from conception to death and involves lifelong adaptive processes (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006). Thus, human development is the result of biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences that mutually affect each other and shape how individuals develop over the lifespan (Baltes et al., 2006; Li, 2003). With regard to individual development (ontogenesis), lifespan psychologists focus on (1) how single individuals change over time (intraindividual change); (2) differences between individuals during different developmental periods (interindividual differences); (3) differences in individuals' patterns of change over time (interindividual differences in intraindividual change); and (4) how between‐person variability in within‐person change is brought about as a consequence of biocultural coconstruction (Li, 2003). Moreover, lifespan psychologists agree on a set of core assumptions from which they study human development. These assumptions state that human development is a process that involves continuity and discontinuity, multidirectionality, gains and losses, plasticity, and contextual embeddedness (Baltes et al., 2006).
Hypochondriasis
Authors: Taylor Steven , Asmundson Gordon J. G.
Published: January 2010

Hypochondriasis is defined by a preoccupation with the fear of having, or the idea that one has, a serious disease, based on misinterpretation of one or more bodily sensations or changes (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). Fear persists even though the person receives ample reassurance from physicians that there is no evidence of serious disease and despite the fact that frightening bodily changes or sensations the person believes to be symptomatic of disease rarely become progressively worse. People with hypochondriasis usually resist the idea that they are suffering from a psychiatric disorder. To be diagnosed with hypochondriasis, one has to have its symptoms for at least 6 months.
Idealization
Authors: Cooper Steven H.
Published: January 2010

The concept of idealization has been elaborated as part of a process that allows for identification and eventual separation from parents during development as well as a part of the therapeutic process. Whereas idealization was once regarded as a homogenous phenomenon, most current psychological approaches consider there to be a variety of kinds of idealization that may serve multiple functions both during development and the therapeutic process.
Identification with the Aggressor
Authors: Parker Martin M.
Published: January 2010

In the early 1970s, four Swedish men were held captive in a bank vault for six days during a robbery attempt. The captives reported an emotional bonding with their captors, essentially identifying with their aggressors; this phenomenon was dubbed the Stockholm syndrome.
I
ndia, Psychology in
Authors: Barnes Blanche
Published: January 2010

Beginning early in the twentieth century, psychology emerged as one of the most popular professional disciplines in India. It has deep philosophical roots, far more ancient than one might suspect. In the beginning, modern Indian psychology was influenced mainly by the Wundt–Titchener tradition, which was introduced by N. N. Sengupta at Calcutta University in 1915. At about this same time, G. Bose (1886–1953) was instrumental in initiating a postgraduate course of study in psychoanalysis at this very same university. Psychoanalysis subsequently took firm roots in Indian soil when Bose established the Indian Psychoanalytical Society in 1921 in Calcutta. In the south, M. V. Gopalaswamy (1896–1957), a protégé of Spearman, instituted efforts to standardize tests of higher mental functions on the basis of Western constructs. He also spearheaded an independent Department of Clinical Psychology at the All‐India Institute of Mental Health in 1955 (AIIMH, now called NIMHANS, Bangalore). In this institute, M. V. Govindaswamy (1904–1961) subsequently brought to bear the rigor of Johns Hopkins University in the United States and the Maudsley Hospital in London in the education and training of qualified clinical psychologists in India.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Authors: Landy Frank J.
Published: January 2010

Industrial and organizational psychology (I‐O) has a long history of research and application in both the United States and abroad. In America, its earliest roots are found in the work of Hugo Munsterberg, a colleague of William James and chair of the Department of Psychology at Harvard at the beginning of the twentieth century. Munsterberg was a pioneer in industrial selection, which is still a core activity of I‐O psychologists. He developed tests to hire applicants for jobs such as telephone operator and trolley driver (Landy, 1992). There has been an unbroken development of testing technique and theory for the 100 years since then. Two additional major figures in the early development of I‐O psychology (circa 1910–1940) were Walter Dill Scott and Walter Van Dyke Bingham (Landy, 1993, 1997). The early history of I‐O psychology was one of application of more general psychological principles, such as learning, without much emphasis on theory development (Viteles, 1932). By 1960, this had changed, and I‐O psychology then and to the present day has adopted an integrated scientist‐practitioner model for academic training, practice, and research.
Insight
Authors: Huprich Steven K.
Published: January 2010

Most schools of psychotherapy and psychological treatment recognize the importance of insight as part of what makes psychotherapy effective (Castonguay & Hill, 2007). Insight has been conceptualized in many ways, but the general consensus is that insight provides patients with a new way to understand their inner mental life, their interpersonal conflicts or troubles, or a new understanding of those factors that contribute to an individual's difficulties. The complexities of the construct of insight have been succinctly summarized by Castonguay and Hill: “Insight can vary considerably in terms of content (e.g., links between past and present, links between conscious thoughts and underlying assumptions). Insight also seems to involve several dimensions (e.g., emotional vs. intellectual, explicit vs. implicit, sudden vs. gradual)” (2007, p. 4). Insight is often stereotypically described as when a patient has an “Aha” experience—for instance, the patient may state, “Wow, this is what has been going on! It makes so much sense. This really helps.” However, it would be rare to find a psychologist who thinks of insight strictly in this manner. Most psychologists and patients report that insight occurs emotionally rather than intellectually, explicitly and implicitly, as well as gradually—and sometimes, suddenly.
Insomnia
Authors: Belleville GeneviÈVE , Morin Charles M.
Published: January 2010

Insomnia entails a spectrum of complaints reflecting dissatisfaction with the quality, duration, or continuity of sleep. These complaints may involve problems with falling asleep initially at bedtime (initial insomnia), waking up in the middle of the night and having difficulty going back to sleep (middle insomnia), awakening prematurely in the morning with an inability to return to sleep (late insomnia), or a perception of nonrestorative sleep. In order to fulfill the American Psychiatric Association (APA) diagnostic criteria of an insomnia disorder (e.g., Primary Insomnia, Insomnia related to another mental disorder), the sleep disturbance or its daytime consequences (e.g., fatigue) have to cause significant psychological distress or impaired functioning (APA, 2000). More than one third of the adult population reports insomnia symptoms, whereas 6% suffer from an insomnia disorder (Ohayon, 2002).
Instrumental Conditioning
Authors: Grau James W.
Published: January 2010

Instrumental conditioning represents a form of behavioral change that depends on the temporal relationship (contingency) between a response and an environmental outcome. The response might correspond to pressing a bar, lifting a leg, turning a wheel, or navigating a maze. In the laboratory, the outcome is typically a biologically relevant event, such as food, water, or a frightening shock. Outside the laboratory, behavior can be modified by a variety of events including social praise, access to a sexual partner, or a stimulus that has acquired value (e.g., money). Outcomes capable of modifying an organism's behavior are sometimes called reinforcers, and the process through which they influence behavior is known as reinforcement. Examples of an instrumental contingency include praising a child for waiting quietly or providing a food pellet to a rat whenever it presses a bar. According to Thorndike's law of effect, these contingencies should bring about a lasting change in behavior, leading the child to stand quietly and increasing the frequency with which the rat presses the bar.
Intelligence Quotient
Authors: Girard Todd A.
Published: January 2010

What is an intelligence quotient (IQ)? Intelligence is a theoretical construct with many definitions. The definition is further complicated by the belief of many that there are multiple types of intelligence. The IQ forms the most common operational definition as a cognitive and behavioral measure of global intellectual capability. Like intelligence, the IQ is best viewed as a multifaceted construct, but one that can be quantified by summing scores across tasks or subtests that comprise an intelligence test. In this way, the IQ is traditionally considered an index of Spearman's
g
, a general ability factor reflecting that how a person performs one task is likely similar to how well they score on others.
Intelligence Testing
Authors: Saklofske Donald H. , Drefs Michelle
Published: January 2010

The idea of intelligence and intellectual abilities underlying human behavior is neither new nor limited to the Western world. However, this elusive construct has received considerable attention in the last 100 years, particularly from psychologists but also from other disciplines and fields ranging from behavior genetics and cultural anthropology to education and business. Intelligence is essentially a “latent” trait describing a complex set of human characteristics that psychologists and others contend is useful in describing individual differences across many of human behaviors ranging from skill in solving mathematics problems to success in the workplace. Measuring such an abstract construct is a demanding task and draws from theory, research evidence, and professional practice needs. Furthermore, fully understanding intelligence necessitates a multidisciplinary perspective drawing from all fields in the social and biological sciences, and a mixed methods approach to researching intelligence, including longitudinal and cross‐sectional, and correlational and experimental strategies.
Interests
Authors: Lowman Rodney L.
Published: January 2010

Interests refer to individual difference characteristics of people that influence the types of occupations and leisure activities that they will find attractive, fulfilling, and enjoyable. Interests motivate people to pursue certain activities and not to pursue or persist with others (e.g., Crites, 1999). Lowman (2003) defined interests as follows: “Interests are relatively stable psychological characteristics of people which identify the personal evaluation (subjective attributions of ‘goodness' or ‘badness,’ judged degree of personal fit or misfit) attached to particular groups of occupational or leisure activity clusters” (p. 478).
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
Authors: Weissman Myrna M.
Published: January 2010

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a time‐limited, evidence‐based psychotherapy, specified and described in a manual. It was initially developed for patients with major depressive disorder and later adapted for other disorders. Designed for administration by trained mental health professionals, it has been taught to mental‐health workers with less professional training. The original manual detailed the empirical and theoretical basis of IPT (Klerman & Weissman, 1984) and was updated in 2000 (Weissman, Markowitz, & Klerman). The most recent manual is oriented to clinicians and contains numerous clinical examples (Weissman, Markowitz, & Klerman, 2007).
Interpersonal Relationships
Authors: Kowalski Robin M.
Published: January 2010

Although most people like to be alone at times, most also choose to spend the majority of their time involved in relationships with other people. So important are relationships that, when asked about the factors that give their life meaning, participants in one study rated most highly their interpersonal relationships with others (Klinger, 1977). The nature of these relationships can take a number of different forms, including casual acquaintances, friendships, family relationships, working relationships, and romantic relationships. The duration of these relationships may be short‐term or long‐term. People's intense desire to affiliate and form relationships with others stems from an innate need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Much of people's behavior is driven by their desire to be included by others and to avoid being excluded by them. As anyone who has ever been ostracized or excluded can attest, the consequences of being excluded from important interpersonal relationships can be severe and include both psychological and physical problems.
Interrogation
Authors: DeClue Gregory
Published: January 2010

This article addresses interrogations by police and by military and intelligence agencies.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Authors: Johnson Susan K.
Published: January 2010

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a complex, multidetermined syndrome involving altered gut reactivity, altered pain perception, and brain‐gut dysregulation that is modulated by psychosocial and biological factors (Palsson & Drossman, 2005). The symptomatology of IBS is a combination of abdominal pain or discomfort, rectal distension, and altered bowel habit (i.e., diarrhea or constipation).
Isomorphism
Authors: Wertheimer Michael
Published: January 2010

In psychology, the term “isomorphism” is identified with the classical Berlin school of Gestalt psychology, which used the word to characterize the Gestaltists' approach to the mind/brain problem. They argued that the objective brain processes underlying and correlated with particular phenomenological experiences are isomorphic with (that is, have functionally the same form and structure as) those subjective experiences.
Israel, Psychology in
Authors: Tibon Shira
Published: January 2010

With repeated experiences of warfare and terror threats and a wide range of social problems, psychology in Israel might be described as linking together general and country‐specific science and practice. This description can be found in documents dating back to 1935, when Kurt Lewin negotiated his candidacy for establishing the first academic psychology department in what was then Palestine, at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.
Japan, Psychology in
Authors: Tanaka‐Matsumi Junko
Published: January 2010

Japan is located in the Pacific Ocean in East Asia, off the east coast of China, Korea, and Russia. Japan's population reached 127,777,000 in 2005. Nearly 76% of high school graduates attend a post‐secondary institution of some kind. About 32% of individuals in that age group attend a university. Psychology is one of the most popular majors for both undergraduate and graduate students.
J
ones,
M
ary
C
over (1896–1987)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Mary Cover Jones was an undergraduate at Vassar and graduated in 1919. She received a PhD from Columbia in 1926. Most of her career was spent at the Institute of Human Development of the University of California at Berkeley. Much of her later work on longitudinal studies of development was in collaboration with her husband, Harold E. Jones, whom she met and married (1920) during graduate school at Columbia. Although best known for her early work on fear conditioning in children, her most lasting contribution was as a pioneer in the design and completion of developmental psychology.
J
ung,
C
arl (1875–1961)
Authors: Haynie N. A.
Published: January 2010

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst and the founder of analytical psychology. Born and raised in Switzerland in an unhappy family, he learned early to depend upon his own inner resources for guidance and encouragement. He graduated in 1900 with a medical degree from the University of Basel. He was appointed to the University of Zurich psychiatric clinic to work under Eugene Bleuler, noted for his interest in schizophrenia. Jung also studied with Pierre Janet, the French psychiatrist known for his work in hysteria and multiple personality. In 1905, Jung was lecturer in psychiatry at the University of Basel, but after several years he resigned to concentrate on private practice, research, and writing. From 1932 to 1942 he was professor at the Federal Polytechnical University of Zurich. Illness forced his resignation; his last years were spent in writing and publishing books about analytic psychology.
Juvenile Delinquency
Authors: Schoeny Michael E. , Tolan Patrick H.
Published: January 2010

Juvenile delinquency generally refers to acts committed by a child or adolescent that would lead to prosecution if committed by an adult (e.g., theft, battery, homicide). Status offenses, which are acts that are illegal for minors but not for adults (e.g., tobacco use, truancy, curfew violations) are often included in research definitions of delinquency. Despite the broad range of delinquent behaviors, a particular emphasis has been placed on addressing the problem of more serious forms of juvenile delinquency, especially youth violence.
Jealousy
Authors: Hepburn James M.
Published: January 2010

Jealousy is typically defined as an emotional response to the threat of losing a valued relationship to a rival. Although it is not considered to be a primary emotion, such as fear, sadness or joy, jealousy reflects a vital emotional process that is clinically and socially relevant to psychologists. Jealousy is found in every culture and has been recorded throughout history as an integral component to human relationships. Although it is neither desired nor essential for healthy relationships, it is nevertheless a common, even ubiquitous response. All people experience jealousy at some point in their lives. Unfortunately, some people's experience of jealousy involves intense psychological turmoil that can lead to aggressive or maladaptive responses. A majority of violent crime involving intimate partners—including murder, stalking or domestic abuse—can be attributed to feelings of jealousy.
Language Comprehension
Authors: Clifton Charles , Ashby Jane
Published: January 2010

The ability to comprehend language comprises a fascinating collection of uniquely human skills. These include our ability to recognize speech and read words, our ability to understand sentences by combining the meanings of the words they contain, and our ability to relate the meanings of sentences to one another in texts, to our beliefs, and to the world around us. We exercise these skills quickly and seemingly effortlessly, but in doing so we use an immense amount of information about the structure of our language, the structure of our recent discourse, and the state of the world.
Late‐Life Forgetting
Authors: Abeles Norman
Published: January 2010

On the basis of a recent literature review of the relationship between subjective memory complaints in older adults and quality of life (Mol et al., 2006), it was concluded that forgetfulness is a serious concern that negatively impacts quality of life. APA guidelines for the evaluation of dementia and age‐related cognitive decline (1998) note that the consequences of aging include declines in memory and cognitive abilities. The guidelines suggest that these normal, developmental changes should be labeled as age‐consistent memory decline.
Latin Square Design
Authors: Kirk Roger E.
Published: January 2010

A Latin square of order
p
is a
p
×
p
array of ordered letters or symbols in which each letter or symbol appears once in each row and once in each column. An example of a 3 × 3 Latin square is shown here.

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0499:xm1
Learned Helplessness
Authors: Peterson Christopher
Published: January 2010

Learned helplessness was discovered when researchers immobilized a dog and exposed it to electric shocks that could neither be avoided nor escaped. Twenty‐four hours later, the dog was placed in a situation in which electric shock could be terminated by a simple response. The dog did not make this response; instead, it just sat passively. This behavior was in marked contrast to dogs in a control group that reacted vigorously to the shock and learned to turn it off.
Likert Scales
Authors: Nicholls Michael E. R.
Published: January 2010

On a scale of 1 to 5, is this encyclopaedia very useful? Surveys containing questions like this one play a pivotal role in conducting research and making decisions. Likert scales are important to a broad range of disciplines and are used to assess everything from the taste of wine to the efficacy of new anaesthetic techniques. Typically, Likert scales contain five levels of response, ranging from (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree and (5) strongly disagree. The number of response categories within a question can vary from 5 and 10, apparently with little effect on the construct validity of the question (Dawes, 2008). Sometimes a visual analogue scale is used on which respondents are free to place a mark anywhere along a line between the response extremes.
Linear Regression
Authors: Aiken Leona S. , Coxe Stefany
Published: January 2010

Linear regression characterizes the relationship of a set of independent variables or
predictors X
1
,
X
2
,
…X

p

to a single dependent variable or
criterion Y
. The goals of linear regression are (1) to characterize the overall strength of the relationship of the set of predictors to the criterion and (2) to identify those individual predictors or subsets of predictors that contribute to this overall relationship. Through a multiple regression analysis, all the predictors are combined into a composite
predicted score
Ŷ (“Y hat”) that has the highest possible linear correlation with the observed criterion
Y
. The square of this correlation, termed the
squared multiple correlation

, is the overall effect size measure for a regression analysis and measures the proportion of variation in the criterion accounted for by the set of predictors. In general, regression analysis, of which linear regression analysis is one example, can be used for (1) description (i.e., to summarize the relationship of predictors to the criterion); (2) prediction (i.e., to make judgments about the future based on the predicted score of an individual); or (3) theory testing (i.e., to examine whether relationships predicted by theory are, in fact, supported).
Loneliness
Authors: Lavelle Leah , Hawkley Louise C.
Published: January 2010

Loneliness is a feeling of distress that accompanies perceived deficiencies in social relationships. Loneliness often occurs in conjunction with social isolation, but a person can be socially isolated without feeling lonely and can feel lonely without being socially isolated. In contrast with social isolation, loneliness is more closely related to the perceived quality than quantity of social relationships. Historically, emotional loneliness, defined as deficiencies in relationships with a close other such as a spouse, has been distinguished from social loneliness, defined as deficiencies in social networks or feelings of belonging (Weiss, 1973). Recent empirical evidence supports three distinct dimensions of loneliness reflecting perceived deficits in intimate, relational, and collective connections. Thus, not being married, having few friends and relatives and/or little contact with them, and not taking part in any voluntary groups are examples of specific risk factors for intimate, relational, and collective loneliness, respectively (Hawkley, Browne, & Cacioppo, 2005).
Long‐Term Potentiation
Authors: Eichenbaum Howard
Published: January 2010

Virtually all notions about memory hold dear the central notion that learning relies on the modification of synaptic function. In recent years considerable attention has focused on one particular form of use‐dependent synaptic plasticity known as long‐term potentiation (LTP). LTP was first discovered by Terje Lomo, who observed that repetitive high‐frequency electrical stimulations of the pathway from the cortex to the hippocampus resulted in a steeper rise time of the excitatory synaptic potential as well as recruitment of spike activity from a greater number of cells. Moreover, these changes in synaptic and cellular responses to subsequent single shocks lasted several hours, suggesting the possibility of a lasting memory mechanism.
Malingering
Authors: Payne Joshua W. , Rogers Richard
Published: January 2010

Evaluations of mental disorders rely extensively on the assumption of accurate symptom reporting. However, intentional distortions of symptoms by examinees are common during psychological evaluations. The assumption of genuine disclosures becomes particularly questionable in forensic contexts, given the far‐reaching consequences of their legal outcomes. The base rates of malingering are substantial but highly variable in forensic evaluations (Rogers, 2008). In civil forensic contexts, base rates of one third are possible when malingering is broadened to include lesser cases of symptom exaggeration.