bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Innovative Solution for Cementing Across Very Low Fracture Gradient Formations
Authors: Hun Christian , El-Hassan Hassan , Husam Helou , Hasni A. Latif , Mohsen A. Hameed
Published: December 2007

Lost circulation is a common problem in the massive Simsima and Umm El Radhuma carbonate formations that extend across all United Arab Emirates fields and the Gulf countries. To minimize losses during drilling, 8.10-lbm/gal emulsion mud or aerated mud is often used.

As the result of corrosive brines presence across the formations extending to the shallow depths and causing casing corrosion problems, one of the main objectives of cementing the 9 5/8-in. casing is to ensure well integrity and casing protection by having cement to surface.

In these carbonates, multistage cementing tools have operational problems and frequently develop casing leaks over the life of a well. Top jobs do not guarantee complete linear and radial coverage of the casing along the whole interval. Complete losses are expected with conventional lightweight cement systems, and their set cement properties do not meet requirements for casing corrosion protection. These issues make successful cementing in these formations a real challenge.

To overcome the challenges, a new ultralightweight cement system (ULC) with a density close to that of water and superior set cement properties was used to ensure good casing protection and zonal isolation. This paper addresses the challenge to measure the low density of the slurry and the tools necessary to differentiate between mix fluid and the final slurry.

The new ultra-lightweight cement was evaluated using standard cement evaluation logs, and case studies are presented that confirm successful zonal isolation.
Isolation Of Problematic Zones Using a Cemented Expandable Slotted Liner
Authors: Kent Stephen , van Noort Roger
Published: December 2007

This paper is based on recent job case histories for an operator based in Oman, leading to a case for change.

Operators throughout the Middle East regularly have no option but plan to set casing strings earlier or higher than desired due to problematic geological zones.

Unstable formations can also cause casing runs not to reach depth, resulting in contingency casing strings to be used.

In both of the mentioned scenarios, as a result of being forced to run an additional casing string, the diameter of the well bore through the reservoir could be compromised resulting in a well that is unable to meet production expectations or even reach the planned depths.

The cemented expandable slotted liner is a solution to overcome the issues previously mentioned. For example, if a 9 5/8 in. casing string with an internal diameter of 8.681 in. is set higher than planned due to not being able to get to depth, the cemented expandable cemented slotted liner can be installed below this casing string isolating the problem zone but retaining a through bore of 8.681 in. or larger.

As a result of this technology, operators are able to retain hole size through the next section of the well which could make the difference between the well being commercially viable or not.

In conclusion, there is now a viable alternative to setting contingency casing strings along with a mechanism for operators to consider reducing the number of casing strings that need to be installed to reach target reservoirs. The case histories that will be discussed were completely successful and support the use of the cemented expandable slotted liner in both contingency and planned scenarios.
Development of Improved Performance Roller Cone Bits for Middle Eastern Carbonate Drilling Applications
Authors: Portwood G. , Boktor B. , Bits Smith , Munger R. , Quraini K. , Mutairi B. , Azmi B.
Published: December 2007

Carbonate rock is a predominant Middle Eastern Region geologic feature. Penetration of 16" hole sections through carbonates in the Kuwait Northern Field has in the past required the use of more than one bit. This paper describes an engineering methodology that has produced bit designs that are consistently able to complete the entire 16" Kuwait Northern Field Section with a single bit as demonstrated by production drilling over the course of many bits. Case information is included.

The new design results from a symptom / cause / remedy approach that identifies root causes of unsatisfactory bit life and suggests productive, remedial solutions. Critical drilling information for prior bits was collected and analyzed to identify roller cone bit problems (symptoms). Remedies responsive to each symptom were developed. Remedy engineering was not constrained by traditional design guidelines and certain preferred solutions are considered to be unconventional. Specific, implemented remedies described by the paper include new cutting insert carbide materials and new cutting insert shapes both optimized for Middle Eastern carbonate drilling, and use of seal / bearing systems suitable for extended operation under high WOB.
Recovery Of Lost Reserves Through Application Of Underbalanced Drilling Techniques In The Safah Field
Authors: Stuczynski Mark C.
Published: December 2007

In the pressure depleted section of the Safah Field in Oman, use of conventional overbalanced drilling techniques resulted in complete lost circulation of drilling fluid, differential sticking of the drill string and inability to drill horizontal sections.

Underbalanced drilling techniques were successfully utilized to add horizontal lateral sections to existing wells, complete the Shuaiba Carbonate Reservoir waterflood pattern and increase Safah Field production.
Design Considerations in Drill Cuttings Re-Injection Through Downhole Fracturing
Authors: Abou-Sayed Ahmed S. , Guo Quanxin
Published: December 2007

Upstream environmental policies require the use of best available and economically sound technology to continually reduce discharge of mud and cuttings waste resulting from drilling operations. Downhole disposal of mud and cuttings waste through hydraulic fracturing provides a zero discharge solution and eliminates future cleanup liabilities when the loop is closed. This downhole disposal technology has shown success in both onshore and offshore drilling operations and is becoming a routine disposal option of complying with environmental legislation concerning discharges of drilling waste. It also offers favorable economics.

Careful job planning, proper operation design, strict quality assurance and systematic monitoring and analysis are the key to the success of waste disposal operations. Important drill cuttings re-injection engineering design and assurance process are presented in this paper. These include job planning, data required for subsurface geology or formation description and logging analysis, criteria for disposal well and injection zone selection and requirement for slurry rheology quality control. Also presented in this paper are design guidelines for injection strategy selection and injection parameters such as injection rate, batch size, shut-in time required for fracture to close on cuttings, injection equipment requirements, and disposal capacity estimates. Issues related to risk management and commingling of drilling waste injection and produced water injection in the same well are also briefly touched.
Well Delivery Limit WDL: ADCO's Approach to Breakthrough Performance
Authors: Al-Suwaidi Abdullah , Faure Alban , Mukhalalati Talal , Al-Tawil Abdul Rahman , Bamajbour Abdul Rahman
Published: December 2007

The Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO) requires a step change in drilling performance to meet its business objectives of increasing production capacity whilst containing technical costs.

ADCO evaluated various performance management systems enabling distinctive drilling performance. The Shell DTL* approach appeared to be the most applicable to the ADCO environment and the most likely to achieve the required objectives.

ADCO is now progressing with implementation of Well Delivery Limit (WDL), a partner of Shell's Drilling The Limit philosophy. This paper describes the WDL process and its step by step implementation plan in ADCO together with results to date.

A kick-off Drilling The Limit workshop was held in January 2000 in Abu Dhabi, organized by ADNOC for their Operating Units (OU's) with support from Shell. Thereafter, ADCO took a leading role as an ADNOC Group OU by developing a three phase implementation plan.

The first phase pilot project was launched in March, 2000 by a three day "Well Delivery Limit" (WDL) workshop.

Based on this initial work, two small multidisciplinary teams of highly motivated and professional staff were formed to implement WDL on two Rigs. The teams were made up of engineers from ADCO's Drilling and Petroleum Development Divisions, Drilling Contractor and Service Companies.

The WDL pilot ran for six months and generated spectacular results, completing some 11 wells in 45% less time than the historical average. Based on the success of the pilot project, Phase-I of the WDL implementation plan was initiated in October 2000, involving a further four rigs working in two different fields.

By June 2001, a total of 55 wells had been drilled under the WDL process in the Pilot and Phase-I stages with outstanding results. The initial success of Phase-I proved that the WDL process could be rolled out to a larger number of rigs without dilution of the results.

In view of this success, a rollout plan is presently underway to spread the well delivery process to the entire ADCO rig fleet of 12 units by mid 2001.

This phased implementation is being pursued in parallel with expanding the WDL multi-functional approach to the conceptual well design phase in order to leverage quality and well productivity improvements in addition to the cost and time savings already realized.
Wall Slip Effects of Water-Based Bentonite Drilling Muds at High Pressures and Temperatures
Authors: Sadeghy K.
Published: December 2007

The effects of wall slip on the reliability of viscosity data obtained using concentric-cylinder viscometers was investigated for water-based Bentonite drilling muds. Viscosity data for a typical mud system (solid content = 8%) were found to depend on the gap width demonstrating that wall slip was occurring. The slip velocity was found to increase with wall shear stress implying that stress-induced migration might be among the mechanism involved in driving the particles away from the wall. At any given wall shear stress, an increase in pressure was realized to reduce wall slip effects but temperature rise was found to make slip effects even more pronounced.
A New and Realistic Approach to Pumping Unit Optimization through the Use of Intelligent Systems
Authors: Hosn Nadim A. , Popa Andrei S. , Popa Carrie Goddard
Published: December 2007

One of the simplest ways to increase production from a well is to optimize the pumping unit. A properly sized and configured pumping unit lifts the maximum barrels of fluid that the well is capable of producing while minimizing the wear on the rods and pump. Optimization is usually done through the use of software such as RODSTAR or ECHOMETER on a well-by-well basis. The user must input all the well parameters by hand, causing it to be a long and tedious process. This makes overall field-wide optimization extremely time-consuming for fields in which there are many wells. Moreover, the software determines theoretically the most optimal unit configuration for the well and may recommend a unit that is not readily available in the area.

This paper describes a new approach for field wide pumping unit optimization. The methodology described here uses a neuro-system consisting of a neural network and an intelligent swapping procedure to find the optimum pumping unit placement for the field. Since field data is used in the model, only pumping units readily available in the field are used. This method is suitable for any field with pumping wells, especially those fields in which there are many wells, thus allowing the selection of a confident data set.

Criteria and constraints are set to select the wells that are currently sufficiently optimized. These wells are used as the model data to train a confident neural network. Optimum pumping unit sizes are then predicted for those wells that are considered to be non-optimized. Finally, an intelligent swapping procedure is invoked to swap over- and under-sized units, thus providing field wide optimization.

The final goal of this study is to provide a tool that allows engineers to set acceptable, realistic criteria to optimize pumping unit size for each well and pumping unit placement on a field-wide basis. The paper presents an example of methodology applicability to a Chevron-operated oil field in California. The proposed procedure provides confident results, great flexibility, and fast optimization.
Nitrogen Coiled-Tubing Fracturing in the Appalachian Basin
Authors: Stidham J. E. , Tetrick L. T. , Glenn S. A.
Published: December 2007

Gas production from the Devonian Shale is attributed to the ability to connect the natural fracture systems that occur throughout the shale. Hydraulic fracturing has long been standard practice, and is required for most shale wells to produce appreciable gas flows. Since the mid-1980’s most operators have used straight nitrogen as the fracturing medium, believing residual water from foam fracturing treatments delays or reduces gas flow from the shale. Nitrogen fracturing, however, increases the difficulty of stimulating multiple zones perforated over long intervals, another aspect of successful shale well completion. Conventional fracturing treatments currently apply high pump rates (>50 MSCF/MIN) and ball sealers dropped throughout the job in an effort to maximize zonal coverage. However, post-frac production logs indicate that some perforated zones do not contribute to the flow. Coiled tubing operations provide a system with which each zone in a multi-zone completion can be isolated, treated and monitored individually. The ease of downhole relocation with coiled tubing allows several zones to be treated in a continuous operation. A broad range of frac gradients has been exhibited in every wellbore treated to date, indicating that conventional treatments will never achieve total zone coverage. While some gradients are so high they cannot be fractured even when isolated, zone coverage has improved by greater than 20% compared to conventional treatments. Early treatments indicate that coiled tubing fracturing offers a slight economic improvement over conventional treatments. Treatment costs have been comparable, while coiled tubing treatments have achieved marginally higher production rates. Results should improve, however, for at least two significant reasons: additional reserves are made available due to improved zone coverage; and job design is in the early stages of development. The importance of rate and volume are being assessed and early indications are that both will contribute to improved economics.
The Successful Use of Polymer-Free Diverting Agents for Acid Treatments in the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: McCarthy Scott M. , Qu Qi , Vollmer Dan
Published: December 2007

The success or failure of a gravel pack or stimulation treatment performed in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) is often times directly related to the ability of the diverting agent to force the treatment into different portions of the reservoir. Without the success of these diverter stages, entire treatments can be channeled into small portions of these "unconsolidated" reservoirs. Since most damaged intervals are often times the last intervals to be contacted by the acid, the treatment must be chemically forced to attack these intervals early in the treatment to insure proper stimulation and damage removal.

Diversion of acid treatments in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) have been predominantly accomplished by using either foam, HEC, or particulate matters to "temporarily" block off the zones and force the acid elsewhere. Foam and HEC are the preferred method of diversion due to their "low damaging" characteristics, but are severely hampered by temperature limitations. Foam diversions can also be difficult to control due to foam stability. Although HEC is essentially non-damaging, production can be hindered due to the viscous nature of HEC. Particulate matters such as carbonates, sized salts, and benzoic flakes are not as affected by temperature but can often times be difficult to remove and in some instances impede the production results.

This paper describes the development of a new "solids-free non-damaging" diverting agent based on viscoelastic surfactants. The unique fluid properties of this system allow acid diversions to be tailored to specific well conditions and formation characteristics. By incorporating an internal breaker this system does not require contact with formation fluids, brines, or acids for clean up to provide optimum production. This paper describes the fluid properties at various pH's, temperatures, and salt concentrations along with several successful case histories.
Drill-In Fluids: Identifying Invasion Mechanisms
Authors: Lomba R. F. T. , Martins A. L. , Soares C. M. , Brandao E. M. , Magalhaes J. V. M. , Ferreira M. V. D.
Published: December 2007

Fluid invasion into productive zones has been widely recognized as detrimental to well productivity. Filtrate and solids invasion can cause irreversible formation damage and permeability reduction. Drilling fluids are formulated to avoid excessive fluid penetration into productive zones. Non- damaging acid-soluble solids are usually added to drill-in fluids in order to promote pore plugging and minimize fluid penetration. Also specific polymers are used that reduce fluid invasion due to surface chemistry and viscosity effects. The development of less invasive non-damaging fluid formulations requires the knowledge of filtration mechanisms of solids containing polymeric solutions in porous media.

The work was carried out in two ways: solids with different particle size distributions and concentrations were added to a polymeric base formulation and the filtration behavior of the fluids through unconsolidated porous media was evaluated using computer tomography scanning. Along with the solids investigation, different types of polymeric solutions exhibiting different shear and extensional rheological properties were tested using the same procedure and technique. The extent of the invaded zone could then be measured and the performance of the different types of material could be evaluated.

The results from the lab tests will be used to support the development of a filtration model to calculate filtration flow rates and depth of penetration accounting for non-newtonian rheology and type of bridging agent on filtration mechanism.
Successful Scale Stimulation Treatment of a Subsea Open hole Gravel-packed Well in the North Sea
Authors: Klepaker Jan , Andrews Jamie , Vikane Olav , Hagen Thomas Hille
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the operations and production gains observed from 2 separate scale treatment stimulations in an open hole gravel-packed well (33/9-L-2 H) on the Statfjord Øst Field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. This case history is interesting not only in that it describes how sub sea wells can be stimulated for scale deposition relatively cheaply by avoiding rig/boat mobilization but also because it presents data on productivity decline in an open hole gravel-packed well due to scaling. Such completions are generally deemed very robust to formation damage caused by deposition of scaling or fines.

33/9-L-2 H was completed as an open hole gravel-packed well high on the structure in the Tarbert Fm. October 1996 with an initial production rate of 2600 Sm³/d and a PI of app. 800 Sm³/d/bar. Formation and sea water breakthrough occurred simultaneously in August 2000 resulting in a concomitant drop in productivity. This was the first severe productivity drop due to scale (BaSO4) deposition in an open hole gravel-packed well ever observed by Statoil and perhaps in the world wide oil industry?

A combined scale dissolver and inhibitor squeeze treatment was initiated where the treatment was to be pumped through the 6 km methanol service line from the Statfjord C (SFC) platform. The PI had at this stage dropped to 150 Sm³/d/bar. To maximize Barium sulphate load capacity, a two- step dissolver and back flow sequence was designed for. This was then followed by an inhibitor treatment. The volume of the inhibitor squeeze was conservative due to formation damage precautions. The operation was successfully conducted February 2001 in a total of 6.6 days (incl. well L-3 H). The PI increased above its initial value to 1100 Sm³/d/bar. Single well testing revealed an increase in oil rate of 2050 Sm³/d. Due to limiting flowline capacity when all 3 wells were once again on stream, the final collectively obtainable production gain was somewhat less; 1370 Sm³/d.

The treatment effect was relatively short lived and the well productivity decreased to 250 Sm³/d/bar by late May 2001. A second scale treatment was performed in June 2001. The design included the same dissolver sequences as in February, but larger volumes of chemicals were included in the squeeze to extend the effect, and again the well responded very well to the treatment. Post operational testing revealed a PI of over 800 Sm³/d/bar and an oil rate of 4120 Sm³/d. This represented a ‘single well’ - increase of 1270 Sm³/d of net oil as a result of the stimulation operation. Due to limiting flowline capacity the final collectively obtainable production gain was somewhat less (620 Sm³/d) in the L- flowline.

The payback time was less than one week in both treatments performed and gave NPV of respectively 100 MNOK (11.5 MUSD) and 20 (2.5 MUSD) MNOK.
Iron Phosphonate Stabilized Emulsion and Formation Damage During an Adsorption Squeeze Treatment for Scale Mitigation
Authors: Lynn J. D. , Nasr-El-Din H. A. , Hashem M. K.
Published: December 2007

Starting in 1997, calcium carbonate scale was found on gravel pack screens and production equipment in a shallow Saudi Arabian sandstone formation. A campaign of scale control measures was initiated using several types of treatment programs. These programs included forced precipitation, adsorption squeezes, and encapsulated scale inhibitors. These methods have been well described in the literature.1,2 The scale mitigation treatments are preceded by screen de-scaling with HCl.3 The wells are routinely lifted and returned to production to evaluate the de-scaling operations, prior to performing the scale squeeze.

During the first attempt at an adsorption squeeze, using a vendor designed program, the well lost productivity quickly after being brought back to production. The squeeze consisted of three stages: The pre-flush contained surfactants and mutual solvents. The main stage consisted of a 15% by volume of a proprietary scale inhibitor (organophosphonate) chemical prepared in 7-weight% KCl for clay control. The overflush was diesel containing mutual solvents and water-wetting surfactants. The well was shut-in for 96 hours to allow the chemical to adsorb onto the rock surface. Upon being returned to production, the well lost production over the course of several hours and was shut-in.

An investigation into the problem determined that the proprietary scale chemical precipitated iron phosphonate in the presence of high levels of soluble iron. The iron was generated from dissolution of iron bearing minerals in the formation (ankerite, siderite, chlorite, and iron oxides) and during the acid clean-out. More critically, the precipitated iron phosphonate stabilized a tight emulsion that prevented flow of the well. High levels of iron were noted in core floods during vendor-sponsored studies of the chemical, but were not believed to be significant.

A successful multi-staged treatment was designed in-house using HCl and a combination of mutual solvent and nonionic water-wetting surfactants to remove the damage, and return the well to full production capacity. The treatment was applied in the field, and the well successfully returned to production. In the final analysis, the failed treatment can be traced to incomplete evaluation of the reaction characteristics of the squeeze chemical, and incomplete assessment of the environmental conditions of the wellbore, and formation mineralogy.
Development and Application of Insulating Packer Fluids in the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Javora P. H. , Gosch S. , Berry S. , Pearcy R.
Published: December 2007

Undesired heat loss from the production tubing or uncontrolled heat transfer to outer annuli can be detrimental to the mechanical integrity of outer annuli, reduce the achievable productivity from the well due to deposition of paraffin and asphaltene materials, and contribute to the formation of gas hydrates. This paper presents both laboratory and field data on the development of specialized insulating packer fluids designed to be solids free, non-damaging, environmentally friendly, and highly insulating. Heat losses from produced fluids due to conduction and convection can be reduced by more than 90% when compared with conventional packer fluids. Flow characteristics of the insulating packer fluid system permit the fluid to be easily pumped and placed into the packer annulus, and if ever needed, removed by conventional displacement methods. Field experiences are presented which demonstrate the effectiveness of this system especially when coupled with vacuum insulated tubing.
A Systematic Approach to Improve the Performance of Acid-Fracturing Treatments in Low-Pressure, Low-Temperature Wells
Authors: Kritzler T. , Yaseen M. , Dutta B. K. , Chacon E.
Published: December 2007

A fracturing treatment is defined as treating a formation above matrix rate and pressure, i.e. above the limits dictated by Darcy's Law. Under this condition, the rock cannot take the fluid and is "split" or fractured to accept the fluid at the delivery rate. Several different acid fracturing procedures and treatments are well known and established in the industry1,2,3 and have been used with varying success.

These procedures have been applied to several acid fracturing treatments that were performed on depleted wells in the Middle East. Shortly after the treatment, very high production rates were observed. However, these production rates declined steeply after the initial improvement.

This paper will describe how these treatments were improved with a systematic engineering approach and how production of the wells was quadrupled with stabilized production rates. After initial optimization of the fluids system (such as introducing density-controlled treatments), a core analysis was performed to further optimize acid concentration and chemical loading. The next step involved a buildup analysis to determine fracture half length and skin values. The analysis showed that, even though effective etched fracture lengths were obtained, a positive skin was present in the matrix along the frac length, indicating treatment fluid retention problems due to the low BHFP.

Since foamed acid treatments were not economically justifiable, the readily available gas used for lifting was injected several days before each treatment. The formation was therefore supercharged and able to produce the injected fluid back out of the formation, leaving a negative skin behind.
Enhancing Well Productivity with a New Perforating Gun System
Authors: Markel Daniel , Yang Wenbo , Fayard Alfredo , Grove Brenden , Jones Claude
Published: December 2007

Optimum perforating gun systems require: 1) sufficient downhole penetration to shoot well beyond any formation damage, 2) phasing, which maximizes communication with all regions of the formation surrounding the wellbore, and 3) maximum shot density. Within any gun system, there are obvious tradeoffs among these attributes. Increasing shot density beyond a certain number results in a substantial decrease in penetration. This reduced performance is a system constraint within the service industry, usually known as interference. This is most pronounced in phased capsule systems. Thus, until recently, 6 shot per foot (spf) phased capsule guns had penetrations significantly less than their 6- spf zero-degree phased counterparts.

We now report enhanced penetration in phased capsule guns. Six-spf, phased 2 1/8-in. capsule guns have American Petroleum Institute (API) penetrations equal to 90% of their zero-degree unidirectional counterparts. Using new and innovative energy-absorbing barriers that significantly reduce shocks affecting charge performance attains this improvement. Furthermore, the 6-spf phased system shows a minimal reduction in performance when compared to the equivalent 4- spf phased capsule gun. Simulations for the improved 6-spf phased capsule guns show productivity improvements of 8% for no wellbore damage and 15% with 10 in. of wellbore damage compared to existing 4-spf phased capsule guns. Productivity improvements of 9% are realized for both no damage and with 10 in. of damage when comparing the enhanced spiral system to equivalent size unidirectional systems.
Complying with Industrial Effluent Regulations in Venezuela: Comparing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Three Different Technologies for Achieving Compliance
Authors: Silverstone Mark , Rodulfo Roger , Halley Shane , de Medina Omaira , Blanco Antonio
Published: December 2007

Venezuela's waste management regulations have evolved considerably in the past 2 years with respect to both their nature and their enforcement. In order to effectively manage water runoff as a result of industrial and residential discharges and to prevent further degradation of fresh water sources, the Venezuelan government now demands that industries test and, if necessary, treat water that is discharged from operations bases, especially those bases that support oilfield operations.

At the same time, Venezuelan engineers are developing more cost-effective means to treat these effluents and offer a better service to companies affected by strict enforcement of these regulations.

Three different water treatment strategies were tried and evaluated in Venezuela. Each one has advantages and disadvantages depending on location, local regulation and available technical expertise. One technology employs the use of an automated filtration system, another employs simple flocculation and gravity removal of resultant flocs, and a third applies an emulsion breaker that assists flotation and removal of oily particles. Results are presented on water quality relative to discharge regulations, system performance and reliability, space and technical requirements, initial and operations costs.

Evaluating these technologies and deciding on the most appropriate for a particular application is not sufficient to maintain a cost-effective and legally compliant system. The objective of hazardous waste generators must be to establish partnerships with contractors and regulators to develop improved waste management processes in Venezuela. Furthermore, this process of developing practical, new technologies is crucial for dealing with these and other remediation problems in areas where the best available technology for one location may not be the best for another, even one with similar problems.
The Importance of QHSE-Related Research and Development Projects
Authors: van Adrichem Willem P. , Thomeer Hubertus V.
Published: December 2007

Historically, research and development (R&D) expenditure has always been dominated by technology's ability to expand the capabilities of service applications, tools or systems. The benefit for the end user was their ability to expand applications or use them more effectively.

The increasing emphasis from the operators on cost savings, Health Safety and Environment (HSE) issues, and the optimization of process efficiencies has resulted in a different R&D portfolio makeup for most service companies.

Many products and technologies are currently being developed that directly target improved safety, reduce environmental impact, lower operational costs and improve efficiency.

Since most Quality and HSE (QHSE) issues are process related, technology development has partly shifted to process engineering. Process engineering in the oil industry can be considered an "opportunity-rich" environment. Many conventional operations in the oil industry have been optimized over many years without keeping pace with technological advancements in other industries.

Rethinking complex processes and optimizing them using ergonomic specialists and process control technologies have resulted in some amazing success stories. This paper discusses this shift in technology development and gives some detailed examples in diverse areas such as coiled tubing wellsite delivery and cementing. Comparisons are made to typical R&D portfolios in the early 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.
Water to Value – Produced Water Management for Sustainable Field Development of Mature and Green Fields
Authors: Khatib Zara , Verbeek Paul
Published: December 2007

Produced water is an inextricable part of the hydrocarbon recovery process. As fields mature, they tend to produce increasing amounts of water. Worldwide, daily water production in 1999* was quoted to be over 33.4 m3/d (210 million barrels) some 3 times the world oil production. Water production within several operating units in the Shell group has increased steadily from roughly 350,000 m3/ d in 1990 to over 1,000,000 m3 /d today. Figure 1 shows the historic picture of water produced by Shell's operating units. Doubling the quantity of water in next decade will lead to the increase in unit technical cost due to increased operating costs and costs for replacement and expansion of existing water handling facilities.

Excessive production of water is the main criterion to abandon oil and gas wells, leaving large volumes of hydrocarbons behind. Field development scenarios using optimised water management have unlocked and will unlock additional recoverable reserves. Although in water flooding projects, produced water is an enabler for improved hydrocarbon recovery, produced water becomes a major issue due to its sheer volume, its high handling cost and its environmental impact.

Across the Shell operating units, some 55% of the water is reinjected whilst the rest is discharged to open surface waters particularly in offshore operations. Most of discharged water requires treatment because of contamination with traces of oil, heavy metals, boron, and corrosive fluids like H2S, CO2 , salt and solids. Treatment and disposal of the current water volume costs the Shell OU's over US $400 Million per annum ($0.15/ m3 to as much as $15/ m3 depending on volumes and location). This cost is inline with an average cost of US $0.578/bbl for handling water production ranging from 3181 to 31,810 m3/d. Figure 2 shows typical process cost distributions of the water lifecycle cost*. This water handling cost includes capital and operating expenses, utilities and chemicals for lifting, separation, de-oiling, filtering, pumping and injection. These costs are expected to further increase when traditional discharge routes, such as dumping overboard and shallow re-injection are phased out.
Evaluation of Emergency Medical Care Provider Skills in Remote or Developing Areas
Authors: Ross Craig A.
Published: December 2007

Conducting business in remote or developing areas presents special challenges not only for the operation of the business, but also may have a severe impact on the quality of emergency healthcare. The training and skills that many national healthcare providers have in emergency medicine varies greatly. It is critical to assess whether these skills will meet the needs of expected emergencies. Determining and upgrading the provider skills before an actual emergency could dramatically change the outcome of an incident and its impact on employees and the community.

A properly designed emergency medical drill is one way to determine if the required skills are present in the selected providers. The "victims" for the medical drill exhibit the types of injuries that would be expected for the business operation. The use of "moulage" (makeup to simulate real injuries) adds an atmosphere of realism to the drill. An experienced trauma physician observes the care given by the local providers and assesses the treatment of various injuries.

Once the drill is complete, a debriefing is held to communicate the strengths and weaknesses of the observed triage. A skills update class can be given at the conclusion of the debriefing to upgrade identified deficiencies. If multiple deficiencies are noted it may be necessary to update the most critical skills at this time and schedule other training and drills at a later time.

The sharing of practices in emergency medicine between providers from different cultures serves to increase the effectiveness of healthcare delivery. The use of emergency medical drills is an effective way to communicate the best practices in an efficient manner, while maintaining cultural sensitivity.
Innovations in Aerial Dispersant Application Technology for the Offshore Industry
Authors: Salt David
Published: December 2007

Recent developments in aerial spraying technology to meet offshore legislative requirements and new technology to improve global response to major spill incidents.

Within the past two years the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) has introduced new legislation and response guidelines on offshore operators within the United Kingdom Continental Shelf (UKCS) to provide improved surveillance and aerial dispersant response systems to offshore spills incidents. Over the years various aircraft types have been equipped with either dedicated or non-dedicated aerial dispersant systems to provide an aerial dispersant spray response. The main determining factor of system and aircraft choice typically has been the operating cost of the aircraft, leading in the main to the use of older aircraft. The paper will describe and illustrate innovative technology used by the Industry to satisfy these requirements in an efficient and cost effective manner using more modern aircraft types, optimising the utilisation of the aircraft and minimising the cost to the operators.

The application of dispersants must be carried out as quickly as possible to be effective; to respond to remote spills it is necessary to get the equipment on site as soon after the event as is practicable. The paper describes an innovative technology development to provide a cost-effective rapid response tool for oil spill incidents.
The Management of Drilling Engineering and Well Services Software as Safety-Critical Systems
Authors: Sawaryn S. J. , Sanstrom B. , McColpin G.
Published: December 2007

Routinely, specialist software is used to perform tasks such as casing design and directional anti-collision scans. If undetected, a serious failure in the development or use of any one of these products could result in loss of life or catastrophic environmental damage. Such an event would jeopardise the oil company's licence to operate1 and seriously damage the software vendor's credibility.

The Drilling and Well Services software industry has matured over the last five years. During this period we have witnessed many commercial and technical changes, including further consolidation of the oil majors, the meteoric growth of web based tools, and increased complexity of the software and types of wells being drilled. Commercial pressures also mean fewer resources are available to perform these tasks. Unless managed, it is clear these changes greatly increase the risk of a serious incident.

BP and Landmark have conducted a series of joint audits to gain a detailed understanding of both the operator's and software vendor's working practices in relation to this software. The paper contains a description of the conclusions and recommendations arising from the audits. Desired improvements in testing, core competencies, and independent verification were identified. Details of the audit process are included to enable other parties to conduct similar audits for themselves. The risks and potential loss imply that critical applications should be managed formally as "Safety Critical Systems." Examples are used to justify the extension of the concepts to other safety-critical petrotechnical software and to business-critical software. It is also concluded that close collaboration between operators and software vendors is needed for the management process to be effective.
Implementing a Consistent HSE Management System Groupwide in a National Oil Company – Corporate Challenges
Authors: Pillai Gopinadhan , Kho Morris
Published: December 2007

The PETRONAS HSE Management System has been adopted throughout the PETRONAS group of companies to manage Health, Safety and Environment issues in a structured manner consistently. Having a system developed alone is not enough. The present expectations include implementing the system effectively and demonstrating that the controls instsituted by the management system actually work. At the corporate level in PETRONAS the challenges include acceptance of a consistent HSE management system throughout the group as well as in implementing the controls required in managing HSE effectively.
Application and Uses of Occupational Health Inspection Guidelines in Upstream Operations
Authors: Liew Keng Cheng , Samad Abu Hasan
Published: December 2007

Occupational Health (OH) Inspection Guidelines for Remote Upstream Operations was initially developed by the parent company for inspection of remote upstream operations e.g. exploration rigs at a remote site. This OH Inspection Guideline had been previously presented at the Sixth SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in Venezuela. As a sequel to the presentation, this paper describes how the OH Inspection Guidelines was adopted by the affiliate company in Malaysia as the "best practice" OH checklists and its innovative applications and uses to other upstream operations activities.

Prior to this adoption, the company was using a numerous Industrial Hygiene (IH) checklists each customized to the needs of different OH inspections and assessments. It is difficult to maintain so many IH checklists as required by the company Operations Integrity Management System (OIMS). For ease of maintenance of the OH checklists, we decided to adopt a single best practice OH checklist for all operations assessments and inspections. The OH Inspection Guidelines for Remote Upstream Operations was chosen as it was concise, yet comprehensive in OH and simple for field personnel to use. Under the OIMS, field personnel with limited OH knowledge are also expected to consider OH in conducting integrated safety, health and environment (SHE) inspection or assessments. The OH checklists was also promoted as a guide for non-OH personnel in inspection of construction & fabrication yards, drilling production rigs and offshore platforms. The OH checklists was also used by other non-OH field personnel in conducting their SHE assessments or inspections. The OH checklists were also used for conducting scenario based risk assessment by non-OH risk assessor; for periodic SHE inspections at contractor's facilities by SHE coordinators, for inspection of offshore catering facilities by company contract coordinators, and for self-inspection of their facilities by site personnel and contractors. The paper also compares the experiences in using the single OH checklists for all upstream operations versus having a number OH checklist for each type of upstream inspections.
Injury Prevention: A Systematic Approach
Authors: Adams Bruce , Cotello Jose
Published: December 2007

As safety programs in the oil and gas industry evolve, many companies are realizing they have reached a plateau in their ability to effectively reduce lost time injury rates. Past progress in reducing rates was made primarily by introducing new tools and equipment that made the work place safer. The advent of safety management systems, which provide a structured approach to how companies address safety, brought about the next significant reduction in injury rates.

Even with these significant advancements in safety programs, injuries related to stepping, handling and lifting still account for more than 70% of all injuries recorded in the oilfield service industry. Realizing this, one major oilfield service company, with more than 80,000 employees, is addressing the problem with a systematic approach rather than with individual programs.

This paper shows how the service company's eight-element management system model has been applied to reduce injuries related to stepping, handling and lifting. This systematic approach is built upon training modules designed to educate employees on how to reduce and eliminate the hazards they encounter on a daily basis. By introducing significant change in how injury prevention is addressed at all levels of the organization, the company is effectively moving to the next level in safety management. Practical details of the initiatives undertaken in each element of the management system are given, along with progress to date. The paper concludes by describing how this management system approach affects the company, including strengthening the 24/7 safety culture that was created when this same approach was applied in 1998 to reduce driving risks.
The Role of HSE in Field Testing – A Case History for the World's First Well Construction System Using Composite Pipe
Authors: Coats E. Alan , Disatell Joel , Coram Howard , Veley Carl D.
Published: December 2007

Field-testing of new drilling tools introduces increased health, safety, and environmental (HSE) risks due to the unfamiliarity of the personnel with the new equipment and its operation. This paper presents a unique overview of the HSE challenges that were faced when an entirely new drilling system, not just the individual components, underwent its first field trial.

The Advanced Well Construction System (AWCS) introduced many new technologies, including Advanced Composite Coiled Tubing (ACCT), a downhole propulsion unit, and a hybrid rig design. By using a lightweight carbon-fiber pipe, the system was designed for geological steering of complex, slimhole wellpaths. The system incorporates three major subsystems: digitally controlled and automated surface equipment, a 3 ⅛-in. composite drillstring with embedded wires, and an electronically controlled bottomhole assembly (BHA). This system is designed to economically harvest hydrocarbon zones that were previously bypassed and to find and exploit new reserves from existing idle offshore wells.

Beginning with the initial feasibility study, both the oil company and the service company made a commitment to adhere to the highest HSE standards in all phases of the project. The resulting HSE program was derived from the knowledge, experience, and established procedures and processes of professionals throughout both organizations.

This case history presents details of the HSE program jointly developed and implemented by the service company and the oil company as part of a qualification program for this unprecedented drilling system. Evolution of the HSE program from project planning, through the HAZID/HAZOP processes, and on to full implementation during the drilling phase is examined. A detailed description of the cultural, engineering, and logistical challenges that were overcome during the implementation of the HSE program is provided. A discussion of the HSE program summary results and "lessons learned" during the project is also included.