bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Morel Domingo
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces the Talent Development Program (TD), a program created in 1968 to provide college access opportunities to students of color in Rhode Island. Although the program is still in existence, only a few years after its creation, the program faced threats to its survival. What helps explain the survival of the TD Program? Moreover, in trying to understand the survival of the TD program, other questions emerge. Why was the program created in the first place, and how? What was the underlying philosophy that motivated the creation of a college access program for students of color who did not meet admissions requirements to a university? In answering these questions, the analysis of the TD Program provides a lens that reveals questions and puzzles, not just about the TD Program but about race and higher education, and American politics, more broadly.
Resisting Retrenchment
Authors: Morel Domingo
Published: February 2023

By the early 1970s, when the threat of uprisings had subsided, college access initiatives and affirmative action policies were challenged in states throughout the United States, marking a period of policy retrenchment. Despite the success of the Talent Development Program in expanding college access opportunities to students who did not meet the admission requirements to enter the University, by the early 1970s, university and state officials began to cut the program. In response to the cuts and threat to the program, students mobilized, took over the administration building, and demanded the continued support and expansion of the program. Chapter 3 provides an in-depth analysis of the student mobilization efforts of 1971 and shows how the protests, which led university officials to declare their support for the program, contributed to continuation of the program. These findings provide evidence of the important role protest can play in the process of policy maintenance.
The Work of Developing Scholars
Authors: Morel Domingo
Published: February 2023

How does a program that admits students who do not meet the traditional admissions requirements and who are not considered to be academically prepared to be at the University, help students earn a college degree? Chapter 4 turns its attention to the political and individual work the program had to undertake, and continues to undertake, to “develop scholars.” The chapter shows that the work of developing scholars who were not considered college ready requires building an infrastructure of academic, financial, and personal support that demands political attention to succeed. Additionally, the chapter shows that providing the adequate support requires building an infrastructure of support beyond college admissions, academic advising, and financial aid and includes establishing formal and informal mechanisms to support students dealing with housing and food insecurity, health concerns, immigration, and court issues, among many others.
Introduction
Authors: Duranti Alessandro
Published: February 2023

After a brief review of the main themes and theoretical assumptions of the study of politeness by linguists and anthropologists in the second half of the twentieth century, Bergson’s much earlier lecture on politeness to French high school students is shown to be an occasion for new theoretical perspectives, offered in the spirit of a dialogue with Bergson’s ideas in light of contemporary issues and concerns.
Politeness
Authors: Bergson Henri
Published: February 2023

In his lecture on politeness, the young Bergson provides a conceptual frame and a moral lesson that anticipate themes and ideas of his more mature philosophy. Starting from the question about whether politeness is “a science, an art, or a virtue,” Bergson offers his own original answer built on a tripartite classification of politeness that he borrows from the aristocratic tradition and imbues with republican ideals. In condemning obsequious hypocricy and celebrating grace, Bergson hints at his rejection of instrumental reason and his trust in intuition and sympathy as ways of knowing. His view of politeness as a virtue is meant to be a celebration of the power of philosophy to help us imagine the ideal citizen of an ideal republic.
A Sympathetic Reading of Bergson’s “Politeness”
Authors: Duranti Alessandro
Published: February 2023

After introducing some of the likely literary sources of the concept of politeness available to Bergson when he delivered his lecture to high school students at the beginning of his career, the chapter draws a connection between some of the themes of the politeness lecture with the theoretical perspective that Bergson was developing at the same time in his dissertation, where he critiqued the scientific method of using pre-established symbolic categorization to interpret human experience. Bergson’s promoting of politeness as the expression of grace and sympathy toward others (politesse de l’esprit) and as virtue (politesse du cœur) are shown to be close to the conceptualization of some phenomenologists, Emmanuel Levinas in particular, and in striking contrast with the strategic models of politeness common in anthropology, sociology, and other social sciences.
Crossed Wires
Authors: Schiller Dan
Published: February 2023

The history of US telecommunications bears the stamp of a divided and dominative political economy. Beginning with the Post Office at the dawn of the republic, networks have constituted both enablers and pathways of US imperialism: today’s internet thus is only the latest and fullest incarnation of an “American system” for managing cross-border telecommunications. Second, business users of networks—more than carriers and, certainly, more than residential users—have repeatedly taken a pivotal role in telecommunications system development and policymaking. Network features, services, and rate structures have reflected business users’ preeminence. Third, despite their importance for virtually every sphere of social life, networks have been consecrated above all to aiding the circulation of commodities. Not social communication needs but marketing and the movement of commodities have held primacy in investment and policymaking. Finally, though often obscured and neglected, recurrent struggles by workers, consumers, and political radicals have helped shape the contour lines of US telecommunications history. Demands to alter structures of ownership and control; to expand access to service; to improve working conditions; and to pull networks out of the orbit of US imperial foreign policy have been notable features of this reform tradition. Drawing on primary sources held in many archives, as well as on a wide secondary historical scholarship, Crossed Wires documents the full sweep of US telecommunications across these four dimensions—from the Post Office to the internet two centuries later.
Paths into an Imperial Republic
Authors: Schiller Dan
Published: February 2023

Both the US Post Office and its telegraph networks bore the common imprint of empire. From the dawn of the Republic, the postal system was built out to help occupy territory, and the telegraph joined it in this role beginning in the 1840s. These networks, however, also harbored far-reaching dissimilarities. Entangled in party patronage, by the later nineteenth century the Post Office proffered cheap, efficient, and universal service. For many Americans it thus exemplified a positive model of telecommunications provision. By contrast, corporate ownership and control of the telegraph inspired cross-class “antimonopoly” movements to seek basic change. The telegraph catered for businesses to the exclusion of household users; while its owners and investors spun a web of monopoly predation, financial corruption, and political influence-mongering. Between the 1870s and the 1900s, broad-based antimonopoly coalitions pursued sustained attempts to bring accountability to the telegraph through “postalization”: government ownership.
Telegraph Workers in Depression and War
Authors: Schiller Dan
Published: February 2023

Contending against the Depression while benefiting from the New Deal, working-class organizations advanced. Many workers in the now-beleaguered telegraph industry formed militant industrial unions, notably, the Communist-led American Communications Association (ACA), which obtained a charter from the surging, socially conscious Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). In 1937, this small union was awarded sweeping jurisdiction over the telegraph industry, the radio industry—and much of the telephone industry. Supported by the CIO, ACA grew, got Western Union’s inhouse company union legally decertified, and gained a foothold at Western Union’s New York City hub. Through political action and with rank-and-file support, ACA worked to equate labor’s interest with the wider public interest, as its tenacious struggle to fend off a job-destroying telegraph industry merger demonstrated. The merger finally occurred (1943), and a 1944 representation election at Western Union produced a lackluster result. ACA then turned full attention to the telephone industry.
Patents under Pressure, 1920s–1950s
Authors: Schiller Dan
Published: February 2023

Marshaling evidence from Freedom of Information Act requests, this chapter showcases the pivotal role of patents in telecommunications. During the Depression, proprietary corporate patent strategies for radio and other technologies sparked political controversy. New Dealers attacked AT&T’s patent control, hoping to make the telephone company prioritize job creation and mass consumption, and trying to break its monopolistic choke-hold over technology-driven economic growth. The Justice Department initiated an antitrust action in 1943, lodged a formal complaint in 1949, and settled the case against AT&T in 1956. However, its original aim—to reduce household telephone rates—gave way to a foreign policy imperative. The settlement mandated compulsory licensing for AT&T’s many thousands of patents. This ensured that the foundational technology of digital capitalism—microelectronics, an AT&T invention—would be available to the entire US industrial-military base. The settlement turned AT&T’s Bell Laboratories into a patent utility for the global Cold War.
Activists and Dissidents: The 1960s
Authors: Schiller Dan
Published: February 2023

This chapter details reform initiatives in and around telecommunications during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Many postal and telephone workers demanded higher wages, and more democratic and militant unions. In the wider society, anger spilled over against racist and sexist employment and labor policies. Campaigns for equal employment rights for Black and Latina/o workers and women made AT&T a bellwether—because the public utility framework within which AT&T operated granted them a strengthened legal basis. An unauthorized strike by postal workers was used by President Nixon to push through postal reorganization; nevertheless, Nixon conceded collective bargaining rights and postal unions emerged strengthened from the strike. Rank-and-file telephone activists staged job actions and cultivated resistance to union leaders as well as AT&T. The drive for workplace justice achieved a signal victory at AT&T, and the public utility framework seemed to offer the possibility of opening to still greater social reforms.
Innovation, Dissensus, and Reaction from Above
Authors: Schiller Dan
Published: February 2023

Antagonized by the sociopolitical discontent of the late 1960s and early 1970s, business and political elites sought to counter rank-and-file dissidence, social movement activism, and organized labor’s institutional strength. Jettisoning the previous administration’s approach, the Nixon administration engaged these issues as well as the technological innovations occurring in networking by radically redirecting the course of electronic telecommunications. Nixon opened telecommunications to a liberalizing, deregulatory process of computerization on behalf of big business users, who were demanding access on privileged terms to specialized new network equipment and services. Increasingly bipartisan, liberalization spelled an erosion of public utility telecommunications. As proprietary data networks proliferated, the corporate infrastructure for processing and exchanging information was stripped of accountability—while unions possessed declining leverage as their jurisdiction narrowed. This transition into digital capitalism elevated the credo that corporate decision-making freedom should drive network modernization both domestically and internationally.
Historical Research
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces historical research, the study of people (e.g., biographies), pedagogy (e.g., curriculum), places (e.g., schools), organizations (e.g., state music associations), events (e.g., contests), and less tangible phenomena (e.g., philosophical perspectives) of the past and their effect on the present and future in music education. Historical research can contribute to the field today by providing (a) a basis for understanding the past, (b) perspectives for decision-making and policy formulation, (c) a context for understanding current conditions or practices, and (d) information to formulate solutions to modern problems and avoid repeating previous mistakes. Historical research can also (e) assist in identifying past trends and applying these to current and future trends and (f) function as a storehouse of great ideas that serve as a basis for progressive ideas. Historical researchers use various frameworks, including narrative history (organizing material into chronological order), comparative history (comparing phenomena across different times and places), quantitative history (using numerical data to study the past), content analysis (examining materials over a long period), historical sociology (investigating social structures and processes over time), anthropology and ethnohistory (focusing on the ordinary and everyday life of people without documented histories), gender history (studying relationships between males and females), and public history (examining history in the public sphere).
Conducting Philosophical Research
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter includes discussion of a variety of issues pertinent to conducting philosophical research: categories of philosophical questions, sources to support philosophical arguments, reasoning processes, and philosophical fallacies. Ontological questions address the nature of being and reality. This might include the nature of music making, for example. Epistemological questions address the nature of understanding and knowing. For example, does mastering a musical skill, such as playing a B-flat scale, mean that a student understands music? Axiological questions address issues related to valuation. For example, should some forms of music making (e.g., art music or jazz) or pedagogical practices be valued over others? Aesthetic questions address matters related to beauty. Researchers addressing aesthetic questions consider what should be considered beautiful rather than what currently is considered beautiful. Ethical questions address issues of right and wrong. Are some teaching practices or musical experiences more ethical than others? More recently, issues related to social justice, such as LGBTQIA+ concerns and antiracist pedagogy, have informed key ethical questions within the profession. Political questions address matters related to governance and social order. For example, a philosophical researcher might consider how current music teaching and learning settings prepare students for future civic participation.
Characteristics of Qualitative Inquiry
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter includes a description of the types of research questions for which qualitative approaches to inquiry are well suited and provides an overview of characteristics that typify qualitative research studies. Qualitative approaches are appropriate for investigating research questions that are broad and open-ended, as well as for pursuing underexplored questions for which the precise variables of interest remain unclear. The central phenomenon, or main focus, of a qualitative study is likely to include complex webs of interrelated variables that may be challenging to operationalize or disentangle from one another, making a holistic view desirable. Accordingly, qualitative researchers investigate a few cases of a phenomenon in order to explore the many variables encompassed therein in depth. Qualitative research most often occurs in naturalistic settings (e.g., a music classroom) rather than in a laboratory, affording an opportunity to delve deeply into contextual features surrounding a phenomenon. Another distinguishing feature of qualitative studies is an emphasis on participants’ perspectives and experiences. Qualitative research designs, and the research questions themselves, may evolve as the researcher engages in fieldwork and learns from participants. The research report offers a holistic view of, and supports theorization about, the phenomenon of interest.
Qualitative Case Study Research
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter presents foundational aspects of case study research. Case study research is an approach defined by its focus on a single bounded system, or case, rather than a prescribed set of methodological procedures. Because of the case study’s ubiquity in music education research and its accessibility to new researchers undertaking their first studies, this chapter is devoted to treating case study approaches in detail. It begins by presenting definitions from several methodological experts that collectively illuminate characteristic features of case studies. Given that a diversity of procedures can be adopted in a case study, the chapter does not put forth a definitive method for conducting one. Instead, examples from music education research are presented to illustrate an array of possible case study types. As with all qualitative research, case studies do not aim to promote statistical generalization, nor are cases intended to be representative of a broader population. Rather, case studies provide rich illustration, promote vicarious experience, afford a view of a case’s uniqueness, illuminate a broader issue or phenomenon, and/or support theorization about that phenomenon.
Additional Qualitative Approaches
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces four approaches to inquiry—grounded theory, narrative, phenomenology, and ethnography—that, together with case study, comprise five primary qualitative research designs. The purpose of grounded theory is to develop a unified theoretical explanation for a process, action, or interaction. The theory is “grounded” in data generated with participants who have experienced that process, as opposed to being adopted from existing literature. “Stories lived and told” are the focal point of narrative inquiry. Inquirers elicit, interpret, and report detailed stories of individuals’ life experiences in order to illuminate phenomena or raise questions for readers’ consideration. In phenomenological research, the study’s central phenomenon will be some kind of human experience, such as grief or enjoyment. Analysis focuses on identifying the essence of that phenomenon for individuals who have experienced it. In ethnography, the researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of a culture-sharing group. The product of inquiry is a rich, complex description of the culture-sharing group at the heart of the study. Exemplar studies drawn from music education illustrate the common types and key features of each design.
Designing Experimental Research
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter is about experimental research design, or the way an experiment is organized. One must critically consider methods for reducing or eliminating threats to internal and external validity. “Internal validity” refers to a concern about whether an experimental treatment did, in fact, make a difference in the outcome of an experiment. “External validity” refers to generalizability, whether the results of an experiment can be applied broadly or apply only to a specific population and the situations circumscribed by the experimental procedures. Threats to external validity are more difficult to resolve with experimental design features. One approach is to conduct a delimited experiment with reasonable controls of the threats to internal validity that represents one population, one treatment approach, one compelling outcome, and one setting, and then—should that experiment yield promising results—conduct more research to systematically expand the generalizability of the findings by varying the population, treatment, outcome, or setting one step at a time. Pre-experimental designs lack controls over threats to internal validity and should rarely be used. True experimental designs are the strongest designs since they are the most resilient to threats of internal validity. Quasi-experimental designs are not quite as strong as the true experimental designs, but they do offer many useful possibilities.
Measurement
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter addresses measurement, the assignment of numbers to variables. Applying measurement scales to information creates a way to quantify phenomena, such as attitudes or behaviors, objectively. Four levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Nominal data represent names or labels of categories; even when numbers are assigned, they have no quantitative meaning (e.g., 1 = pianists and 2 = singers). Ordinal data can be ranked, but the distance separating one value from another on a scale is not necessarily consistent (e.g., first chair, second chair). Interval data communicate both order and quantity, and the intervals between data points are assumed to be equal along a scale. With interval data (e.g., many test scores), it is possible to perform mathematical operations and there are many suitable statistical analyses. Ratio-level data are assumed to be from a scale that has a true absolute zero. Reliability and validity are critical to measurement. “Reliability” refers to the consistency of measurement. “Validity” generally refers to the extent to which a measurement tool measures what it is supposed to. If a measurement tool is unreliable (i.e., inconsistent), we have no confidence that scores represent true values. If a measurement tool does not measure what it is supposed to (i.e., is inaccurate), it is invalid.
Correlational Statistics
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter explains how correlational statistics are used to summarize and describe associations between variables. Music teachers are often curious about how various phenomena relevant to music teaching and learning may be related to each other. Although identifying correlations among variables can yield important insights, it is important to remember that correlation does not equal causation. That is, just because two variables are related does not mean that one necessarily caused the other. Much can be learned about the nature of a relationship between interval- and/or ratio-level variables by creating a scatterplot. The most common statistical tool used for investigating correlation (i.e., the direction and degree of a relationship) between two interval- or ratio-level variables is the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson coefficient or Pearson’s r). The coefficient can range from –1 to +1, with negative coefficients (i.e., less than 0) indicative of an inverse relationship and positive coefficients (i.e., greater than 0) indicative of a positive relationship. Common ranges are –.30 to 0 or 0 to .30, described as weak relationship; –.70 to –.30 or .30 to .70, described as moderate; and –1.0 to –.70 or .70 to 1.0, described as strong. Information is also given about the visualization and statistical analysis of relationships using ordinal and nominal data.
Determining Differences with Inferential Statistics
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter provides information about inferential tests that could be used to analyze differences between groups. Quantitative researchers typically rely on inferential statistical procedures for testing hypotheses pertaining to differences between sets of scores. Although researchers nearly always find mathematical differences in scores from different groups, determining whether these differences are statistically significant requires inferential tests. Before deciding on a particular test, you must consider whether your data are nominal-, ordinal-, interval-, or ratio-level since different tests are suitable for each level. Also, you need to consider whether your data come from independent or dependent samples. Independent samples generally are gathered from groups that consist of different individuals. Dependent samples are gathered from the same group of individuals on multiple occasions. Specific details are provided for a variety of statistical procedures. For determining differences with interval- or ratio-level outcome data researchers typically use independent samples t-test, dependent samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance, repeated-measures analysis of variance, and post-hoc analyses. For ordinal data researchers may use the Mann-Whitney U test, the Wilcoxon test for paired samples, the Kruskal-Wallis test, and Friedman’s test. For nominal-level data the Chi square test of independence and McNemar’s test can be used.
Action Research
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces the aims, history, and key features of action research. The chapter also includes discussion of published examples of action research. Action research includes a diverse family of inquiry approaches teachers use to study practice. Action researchers study what is going on now and make plans for or take action within their inquiries. In addition to the reflection that practitioners engage in every day, action researchers intentionally and systematically look at issues with the aim of making a difference in specific ways. Action researchers may utilize either qualitative or quantitative approaches; what distinguishes action research is the spiral of action that includes multiple cycles of look-think-act to systematically study and build sustainable change in the communities under study. Three epistemological beliefs connect various approaches. First, individuals working and living in the setting participate in the research process as participants or co-researchers. Second, one’s professional context is the site for inquiry (e.g., a classroom). Third, through successive cycles of thought, action, and reflection, participants provide recommendations, address issues, and make improvements themselves. Action researchers rarely work alone; many developed their projects in partnership with co-researchers who offered staying power when the realities of overfull teaching schedules made the work challenging.
Disseminating Research
Authors: Miksza Peter , Shaw Julia T. , Kapalka Richerme Lauren , Hash Phillip M. , Hodges Donald A. , Cassidy Parker Elizabeth
Published: February 2023

Presenting a poster, giving a talk, and publishing an article are the primary ways of distributing your research. Each has its own advantages and possibilities, and over a period of years, you will likely want to engage in all three activities. Presentations generally include sharing research during a poster session or in a lecture-type format at state, national, or international conferences. Research poster sessions have specific guidelines, and it is important that you follow directions exactly. Specific ideas for how to prepare and present a research poster are given, along with several examples. The amount of time available to give spoken presentations varies widely, so paying attention to this and other requirements (e.g., technology support available) is critical. Researchers often choose to illustrate a presentation with a computer slide show. This chapter includes many helpful tips for creating an effective presentation. It also discusses preparing handouts and publishing a presentation in a book of proceedings. Publishing a research paper is an important outcome of scholarly work, and this chapter focuses on finding a journal, publication guidelines, editor’s response to submission, the revision process, and publication. The chapter also describes important ethical considerations for both publications and presentations.
Free people keep something wild in them
Authors: Norton Anne
Published: February 2023

The theses in this section explore the promise and limits of citizenship for the free. Free people hate to follow and they hate to lead but they do both things well. They have the arrogance of leaders, the discipline of soldiers, and the humility of subjects. They keep something wild in them. That wildness enables them to return to the roots of democracy in anarchy and revolution. These theses affirm popular sovereignty and argue that it does not only “hover above the people” as some thinkers have argued, but is held in the bodies of the living people. Other theses in this section argue against empire and the desire for glory and show the historical costs of imperialism. They identify empire and imperialism as the enemies of democracy.
After Furno
Authors: Mortensen John J.
Published: February 2023

This chapter lists and explains many additional bass motions in common use in the eighteenth century (beyond those taught in Furno). Motions include Fauxbourdon, 8-7-6, 10-9-8, Corelli Leapfrog, Romanesca, DP10, Perfidia, Monte Principale, Dolareti, Domirefa, Falling Thirds, Monte, Lamento, Valente Chromatic Ascent, Fenaroli Chromatic Ascent, Über-Lamento, and Martini. Each motion is explained in detail, followed by guided exercises at the keyboard.
Partimento Imitation and Fugue
Authors: Mortensen John J.
Published: February 2023

This chapter explains how contrapuntal structures are implied in many partimenti, and provides instruction in discovering these structures. Points of imitation are explained, shown in partimenti, and studied through exercises. Partimenti by Nicola Sala, Fedele Fenaroli, Niccolò Zingarelli, Giovanni Paisiello, Giacomo Insanguine, Giacomo Tritto, and Leonardo Leo appear in this chapter. The reader encounters the technique of partimento fugue and is led through exercises in realizing them.
Episode
Authors: Mortensen John J.
Published: February 2023

This chapter explains the technique of creating a fugal episode. Topics covered include motives, thematic and non-thematic episodes, and inverted subjects. A wide variety of fugue subjects are presented, and the implications for each are explored. Exercises allow the reader to practice this chapter’s concepts at the keyboard.
Improvising Fugue
Authors: Mortensen John J.
Published: February 2023

In this concluding chapter, all the techniques of fugue are brought together. The reader is invited to practice improvisation fugues that draw upon all the accumulated ideas from the entire book. Exercises along with suggested fugue subjects are provided.
Emergencies: Waiting and Watching in the Palliative Present
Authors: Johns Fleur
Published: February 2023

This chapter argues that digital interfaces alter the temporalities of humanitarianism through their reshaping of humanitarian emergencies. That is, digital interfaces modulate: the time frame within which an emergency is perceived; the pace and intervals at which action is invited in and on that emergency; and its apparent relation to past, present, and future times. Watching and waiting in the near term is, above all, the activity that digital humanitarian interfaces are shown to encourage. Further action is always anticipated by them, mainly in the interests of idealized future beneficiaries. Yet humanitarian emergencies are made cyclical and recurrent by these interfaces and demanding of continual vigilance. Through the emphasis that they place on continual watchfulness and forbearance in the present for the benefit of future generations, the digital interfaces described in this chapter are shown to foster practices of deferral, expectations of self-reliance, and conditions of “chronic waiting.” This may incline users toward acceptance of moderate management over agitation for change.
Conclusion
Authors: Braver Joshua
Published: February 2023

What may have seemed a peripheral problem in the distant Andes region today threatens to engulf Western liberal democracies around the world. The conclusion discusses the relevance of South America and extraordinary adaptation for the present. Citizens are convinced that the system is rigged and are calling upon populist leaders to scrap them in favor of more direct forms of governance. Extraordinary adaptation began in the United States before migrating centuries later to South America. With the current crisis of liberalism, it may be time for it to return home to the United States and onto Europe. If popular constitutional change becomes inevitable in these countries, extraordinary adaptation will be the appropriate response. Extraordinary adaptation provides hope that the yearning for revolution can be fulfilled without a descent into chaos or authoritarianism.
Internal Security and India’s Constitution
Authors: Vakil Raeesa
Published: February 2023

The law governing India’s internal security framework occupies the interstices of the Indian Constitution. Conscious acts of deferral during the drafting of the Constitution created room for the Indian executive branch to fill constitutional gaps with laws that frequently contradict the exercise of constitutional rights. The Supreme Court is compliant with this expanding executive power, rarely holding the government to account, and the central legislature is often engaged in short-sighted, reactionary law-making, rarely deliberating on such expansion before allowing it. The consequence has been a severe compromise of civil liberties, now exacerbated by modern security measures that include mass surveillance. A re-commitment to constitutionalism will require the courts and legislature to stand for individual civil rights, not only in their own efforts, but also as a counterbalance to the executive.
Security Labor and State Suppression of Police Worker Politics
Authors: Jauregui Beatrice
Published: February 2023

This chapter conceives police constables in India as security laborers who suffer exceptionally poor living and working conditions with few viable avenues to critique or transform those conditions. Drawing on ethnographic and historical data sources, I demonstrate how the everyday experiences of insecurity by police personnel themselves work to reproduce insecurity among the public at large. This structure of relations is rooted in colonial forms of knowledge and administration that figure rank-and-file police as expendable “security laborers” and reflect broader forms of structural violence and social inequality. Analyzing how the Indian state has continuously suppressed attempts by police to unionize or find other avenues for voicing labor concerns, the chapter concludes by suggesting that fundamental changes in relational structures may realize substantive improvements in police practice and effectiveness, which in turn could enhance both “internal security” and social justice in the world’s most populous democracy.
Yearning and Refusal
Authors: Moussa Hadiza , de Sardan Jean-Pierre Olivier
Published: February 2023

Women’s fertility in Africa has been a major concern of demographers, global health organizations, and national governments. Yearning and Refusal sheds light on reproductive health issues that affect many women and couples but are overlooked, underestimated, or hidden: infertility, the challenges of accessing contraception, and abortion. Society often places the blame and responsibility on women to find solutions to infertility, and governments and global health organizations provide minimal support to them. At the same time, other women wish to limit their fertility, at least temporarily, and find themselves negotiating with a wide range of actors and institutions, each with their own assumptions and priorities. More common than publicly recognized, inhospitable medical personnel and social norms limiting access to contraception sometimes leave women with no choice but to induce abortion. The problems faced by those with fertility conditions are particularly profound in the Republic of Niger, where producing children is central to being considered a woman, a wife, and a person. Drawing on rare first-hand observations in health clinics and in-depth interviews with women seeking reproductive health services in Niamey, Yearning and Refusal examines the emotional and social consequences of yearning for children and refusing to bear them and the ways women use their agency to maneuver through a patriarchal medical system and society.
The Infertile Body
Authors: Moussa Hadiza , Kang Alice J. , Cooper Barbara M. , Kammerer Natalie
Published: February 2023

This chapter discusses popular understandings of the infertile body and the social representations that surround it in the city of Niamey in Niger. Women are held responsible for a couple’s infertility, while men’s sterility is shielded from view. Fertility is positively associated with the female body and with agricultural abundance. Infertility is associated with death. A sterile woman is the object of both sympathy and condemnation. The stigma of infertility invites accusations of witchcraft, masculinity, and selfishness. The marriage contract implies that in exchange for material support from the husband’s family, in particular food, the wife must provide the family with children. Women who fail to produce children are assumed to have transgressed social norms in some manner. The burden of responsibility for infertility falls heavily upon women as wives.
Negotiating Biomedical Contraception
Authors: Moussa Hadiza , Kang Alice J. , Cooper Barbara M. , Kammerer Natalie
Published: February 2023

This chapter explores the microstrategies women employ to gain access to biomedical contraception despite spousal, familial, and religious opposition to its use. Social institutions in Niger privilege a pro-natal impulse. Politicians yield to the demands of vocal Islamist groups opposed to contraception, which they cast as an immoral Western intrusion. Opposition makes it difficult for women to openly use contraception without suspicion of adultery, particularly on the part of in-laws. Women make use of “women’s tricks” to circumvent the conjugal debt: illness, fake menstruation, fatigue, and, more rarely, sex strikes. They may take the pill on the sly with the assistance of relatives, friends, and itinerant pharmacists. Some prefer injectable contraception because of its greater convenience and discretion. However, none of these strategies openly confronts the power and domination of husbands.
Conclusion: Fertility Management in Niger
Authors: Moussa Hadiza , Kang Alice J. , Cooper Barbara M. , Kammerer Natalie
Published: February 2023

The conclusion brings together the findings of Yearning and Refusal about infertility and contraception use in Niamey, Niger, to offer a more holistic study of women’s reproductive health for scholars and practitioners in anthropology, demography, public health, and sociology. The interview, ethnographic, and linguistic analyses allow the author to shed light on the challenges that women encounter in managing their fertility. The author observes that women’s bodily autonomy is likely to continue to be contested with the ascendance of conservative interpretations of Islam. Women have agency in seeking less-than-ideal solutions—including adultery, sexual abstinence, and abortion—albeit sometimes with tragic consequences; and some pursue alternative visions of womanhood, but the weight of childlessness in a country where assisted reproductive technology is not commonly available is a heavy burden.
Prisoners of War (POWs) in Proxy Warfare: The Application of Geneva Convention III to Organized Armed Groups Detaining POWs of Territorial States or Detained as POWs by Territorial States
Authors: Sassòli Marco , Duss Eugénie
Published: February 2023

An armed group that is under overall control of a foreign state fighting against the territorial state is required to comply with international humanitarian law of international armed conflicts. This chapter raises the question whether this is realistic concerning the treatment of prisoners of war (POWs), both by the proxy-armed group and by the territorial state. This implies an inquiry whether soldiers of the territorial State who have fallen into the power of the proxy are POWs; and how the Third Geneva Convention has to be interpreted to allow the proxy to respect it. Next, there is an analysis whether members of the proxy-armed group who have fallen into the power of the territorial States are POWs; and, if so, how they can be treated in conformity with the Third Geneva Convention. In both situations, particular attention is paid to the question when and how such POWs are to be released and repatriated.
Detention of Suspected Terrorists in Connection with Armed Conflict: A Focus on Release and Repatriation
Authors: Kilibarda Pavle , Gaggioli Gloria
Published: February 2023

Detention of suspected terrorists in times of armed conflict poses a unique challenge because of the difficulties in discerning the end of armed conflicts involving designated terrorist groups. Doctrinal works have largely focused on the applicable framework, legal basis, and grounds for detention and internment in such situations, but the question of release and repatriation of detainees has been largely neglected. These issues are crucial to avoid potentially indefinite deprivation of liberty. The chapter looks into the different stages of security detention and the relevant procedural safeguards from the perspective of different legal frameworks, namely the international humanitarian law of international and non-international armed conflicts, human rights law, and counterterrorism law, and offers practical guidance for a law-compliant internment regime that also allows States to protect their legitimate security concerns.
The Updated ICRC Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention
Authors: Arman Jemma , Henckaerts Jean-Marie , Hiemstra Heleen , Krotiuk Kvitoslava
Published: February 2023

Since their publication in the 1950s and 1980s respectively, the Commentaries on the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 have become a major reference for the application and interpretation of those treaties. The International Committee of the Red Cross, together with a team of renowned experts, is currently updating these Commentaries in order to document developments and provide up-to-date interpretations of the treaty texts. This chapter highlights key points of interest covered in the updated Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention. It explains the fundamentals of the Convention: the historical background, the personal scope of application of the Convention, and the fundamental protections that apply to all prisoners of war (POWs). It then looks at the timing under which certain obligations are triggered, those prior to holding POWs, those triggered by the taking of POWs and during their captivity, and those at the end of a POW’s captivity. Finally, the article summarizes key substantive protections provided in the Third Convention.
A Perspective on the Updated Third Geneva Convention Commentary from a United States Practitioner
Authors: Meier Michael W.
Published: February 2023

In June 2020, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) launched its updated Commentary to the Third Geneva Convention. The updated Commentary complements the 1960 Commentary to reflect changes in law and practice over the past seventy years. This chapter examines several aspects of the 2020 Commentary to the Third Convention from the perspective of a U.S. practitioner. The chapter examines the “authoritative” status of the Commentary and the ICRC’s methodology. The chapter also includes a comparison between the ICRC’s interpretation of certain articles with United States state practice, and the implications of the revised Commentary for U.S. military and government practitioners who must interpret the Third Geneva Convention.
Health
Authors: Levitt Peggy , Dobbs Erica , Sun Ken Chih-Yan , Paul Ruxandra
Published: February 2023

Chapter 4 focuses on health care, the sector that is perhaps the most transnational and hybridized. This chapter explores the transnational dynamics of care from six perspectives: (1) health care professionals on the move, (2) medical institutions that operate transnationally, (3) individuals accessing medical care through remittances, (4) the provision of health care for undocumented migrants, (5) medical tourism and travel, and (6) the global governance of health care in the context of transnational migration. This analysis reveals the core tension at the heart of the emergent hybrid transnational social protection regime: increased social protection for some may come at the expense of increased precarity for others, whether a public health system in the Global South decimated by brain drain or the shift of health care resources away from local patients to well-heeled international patients. In the middle of these competing factions lies the state, and as the COVID-19 pandemic has made clear, governments and their citizens ignore the integral role of transnational actors in public health—both as providers and as patients—at their own peril.
Conclusion
Authors: Levitt Peggy , Dobbs Erica , Sun Ken Chih-Yan , Paul Ruxandra
Published: February 2023

This book argues that a new set of social arrangements, hybrid transnational social protection has emerged creating enhanced protections for some, increasing precarity for others, and raising new policy conundrums for governments and citizens around the world. Whatever we, as citizens and policymakers, decide to do moving forward, we must recognize that a fundamental shift in the organization of social life is already well underway. It is up to us to reimagine the communities to which we belong and to which we are responsible and to redefine our rights and obligations accordingly.