bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ICT Sector Characterstics in Finland
Authors: Aaltio Iiris , Heilmann Pia
Published: May 2011

The ICT sector is a newcomer in the Finnish economy. The pace of growth in the Finnish electronics industry was extraordinary over the 1990s. It led to an industrial restructuring in which knowledge replaced capital, raw materials, and energy as the dominant factor in production (Ali-Yrkkö, 2001). The Finnish ICT company Nokia is a world leader in mobile communications. Nokia connects people to each other and the information that matters to them with easy-to-use and innovative products like mobile phones, devices, and solutions for imaging, games, media, and business. The net sales of Nokia totaled €29.3 billion in 2004. Nokia provides equipment, solutions, and services for network operators and corporations. The company has 15 manufacturing facilities in nine countries, and research and development in 12 countries. At the end of 2004, Nokia employed approximately 55,500 people. Nokia is a broadly held company with listings on four major exchanges (http://www.nokia.com). While Nokia’s role in the Finnish economy is considerable, there is a large number of other actors in the ICT sector: hundreds of small and medium-sized, fast-growing companies networking and cooperating with Nokia. The strong ICT sector is largely the outcome of mutually enforcing, dynamic cluster relations, which were intensified during the 1990s. ICT managers are mainly engaged in developing software. The work is largely connected to projects in which suitable applications are developed for customers’ needs. Applications are usually designed through interaction with customer representatives and software developers (Heilmann, 2004). The customers and the users of ICT in Finland are both women and men, but the majority of the workforce consists of men. At the customer’s side, there are many female ICT professionals. We can have a meeting where there are more women than men, and these women are really capable. This article considers, first, background information about the ICT sector. Then information-technology companies are analyzed as sites for women’s work. Future trends and needs of research are examined next, and finally the conclusion is presented.
IT Work in European Organizations
Authors: Webster Juliet
Published: May 2011

Employment in IT professions has increased greatly in recent years. Aside from the crisis of the dot.com crash in 2001, there has been significant growth in hardware manufacturing and particularly in software and IT services. In the European Union, employment in computer services doubled between 1997 and 2001, and grew by 10% in 1998 alone. This pattern has not been matched by a parallel increase in women’s participation in IT work. Women’s employment in IT has remained resolutely around an average of 28% across the EU; in the professional areas of IT work (as opposed to clerical and other non-professional occupations), women made up only 17% in 2001 and their representation is in fact declining (Millar, 2001; Millar & Jagger, 2001; Webster & Valenduc, 2003). It is an issue of some concern to policy makers, employers, and indeed gender equality practitioners that, despite more than 20 years of attempts to attract women into this comparatively well paid and privileged area of the labour market, women remain such a small and, worse, apparently declining, proportion of IT professionals. Why are women still so poorly represented in IT professions in the EU? What is the nature of working life in IT and what are the working conditions like? Why have more than 20 years of initiatives to get more women into technology professions had so little apparent impact?
Matrix
Authors: Aristarkhova Irina
Published: May 2011

1. Matrix = Womb. 2. The Matrix is everywhere, it’s all around us, here, even in this room. You can see it out your window, or on your television. You feel it when you go to work, or go to church or pay your taxes. It is the world that has been pulled over your eyes to blind you from the truth ... that you, like everyone else, was born into bondage ... kept inside a prison that you cannot smell, taste or touch. A prison for your mind. A Matrix. (Wachowski & Wachowski, 1999) 3. What is Matrix? Simply ... the “big Other,” the virtual symbolic order, the network that structures reality for us. (S. Zizek, 1999) What is Matrix? In the past years, the notion of the Matrix has become dominant in figurations of cyberspace. It seems as if it is the most desirable, the most contemporary and fitting equation; however, its gendered etymology is rarely obvious. On the opposite, the gender of the matrix as a notion and term has been systematically negated in such disciplines as mathematics, engineering, film studies or psychoanalysis. It is necessary thus to explore and critique the Matrix as a most “fitting” metaphor in/for cyberspace that has conceived it (cyberspace) as a free and seamless space very much like the maternal body (Aristarkhova, 2002). The challenge today, therefore, is to reintroduce the maternal as one of embodied encounters with difference, to recover the sexual difference and gender in the notion of matrix with reference to cyberspace and information technologies that support it.
Parental Suport for Female IT Career Interest and Choice
Authors: Meszaros Peggy S. , Laughlin Anne , Creamer Elizabeth G. , Burger Carol J. , Lee Soyoung
Published: May 2011

Although adolescents become progressively independent from their parents in the high-school years, they continue to depend heavily on parents in the area of career development (Peterson, Stivers, & Peters, 1986; Sebald, 1989). The role of parental support in children’s career choice has been demonstrated empirically in the career-development literature (Altman, 1997; Fisher & Griggs, 1994; Ketterson & Blustein, 1997; Kracke, 1997; Way & Rossman, 1996). Researchers have found that parents impact career choice more than counselors, teachers, friends, other relatives, or people working in the field of interest (Kotrlik & Harrison, 1989), but are not adequately informed about how to help (Young, Friesen, & Borycki, 1994). Although parents hold a powerful role in the career advising of both their male and female children, most of the reported studies use a male model and focus. Researchers are beginning to develop a knowledge base for the career development of girls and the unique issues they face in deciding on a career. Greater understanding of these issues is urgent, especially as females are recruited into nontraditional fields like information technology. This article will review research on parental support for female career choice, including the research findings from the Women and Information Technology (WIT, 2002-2005) project funded by the National Science Foundation.
Participation of Female Computer Science Students in Austria
Authors: Pohl Margit , Lanzenberger Monika
Published: May 2011

The situation of women in computer science education has been a major topic of feminist researchers. It has received widespread attention in many countries all over the world. In general, it can be said that in almost all the countries of the world women are underrepresented in computer science education at university level. This phenomenon is, however, a very complex one. In many industrialized countries, there was a peak in women’s participation in computer science studies in the middle of the 80s of the 20th century. After that, the number of women who studied computer science in these countries decreased again. This development has been discussed, for example, by Behnke and Oechtering (1995) for Germany, by Kirkup (1992) for Great Britain, and by the EECS Women Undergraduate Enrollment Committee (1995) for the USA. In recent years, there is some indication that the percentage of women who choose Computer science at universities is rising again, at least in Germany (Kompetenzzentrum, 2003) and in Austria (Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt, 1971-2001). Apart from that, some cultural differences can be observed. It has been mentioned in several publications that the percentage of Asian women studying computer science is often higher than that of women in Western industrialized countries (Greenhill, von Hellens, Nielsen, & Pringle, 1997). In the following text, we want to discuss possible reasons for the increase in female computer science students in the last years in a few countries. We want to analyze the reasons for this increase. Detailed information about the motivation of women who study computer science at universities should be helpful in formulating strategies to overcome the under-representation of women in this area. Such strategies should take differences between countries into account. Case studies for single countries could provide relevant information in this context. The following text describes the situation in Austria.
Reasons for Women to Leave the IT Workforce
Authors: Hoonakker Peter , Carayon Pascale , Schoepke Jen
Published: May 2011

Turnover has been a major issue among information technology (IT) personnel since the very early days of computing as well as nowadays (Moore, 2000; Niederman & Summer, 2003). IT personnel have a strong tendency to frequently switch employers. Annual turnover in the information systems (IS) field ranged between 15% and 20% during the 1960s and the early 1970s. In the late 1970s, the turnover was as high as 28% annually and around 20% in the early 1980s. By the 1990s, the turnover rate reached 25 to 33% annually (Jiang & Klein, 2002). Many large American companies had a 25 to 33% turnover rate among their IS personnel in the late 1990s (Hayes, 1998). Although women represent an increasingly important segment of the labor force, their turnover rate can exceed 2½ times the turnover rate of men (Chusmir, 1982; Cotton & Tuttle, 1986; Davis & Kuhn, 2003; Giacobbe Miller & Wheeler, 1992; Schwarz, 1989). A meta-analysis by Cotton & Tuttle (1986) of 120 datasets showed strong evidence for gender differences in turnover: women are more likely to leave their job than men. Gender differences in turnover are less consistent among nonmanagerial and nonprofessional employees, and are stronger among professional (Cotton & Tuttle, 1986). However, recent evidence suggests that educated women start resembling men with regard to turnover rate and pattern (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000; Royalty, 1998). Educated women are more likely to leave to take on another job, while less educated women are more likely to abandon the labor force (Royalty, 1998). Furthermore, part of the higher turnover rates for women can be explained by individual variables that turnover studies conducted by economists and focused on industry do not consider, such as age, tenure, marital status, occupation and salary (Giacobbe Miller & Wheeler, 1992). In this chapter, we look at gender differences in reasons why IT personnel want to leave their job, and in their intentions once they have left their job.
Strategies of ICT Use for Women's Economic Empowerment
Authors: Jorge Sonia N.
Published: May 2011

Information and communication technologies (ICT) provide a great development opportunity by contributing to information dissemination, providing an array of communication capabilities, and increasing access to technology and knowledge, among others. Access to and the cost of ICT continue to be a major development obstacle, particularly in the developing world. Despite the growth in mobile telephony, peri-urban2 and rural areas—home to a great majority of women and poor populations—continue to lack infrastructure and ICT services in general. For ICT to become meaningful development tools, ICT policy and programs must address the needs of women and the poor in general. This article discusses the main challenges and obstacles faced by women, suggests practical strategies to address those challenges and provides recommendations on how to proceed to improve the conditions leading to women’s economic empowerment.
Women's Role in the Development of the Internet
Authors: Repucci Shirine M.
Published: May 2011

The majority of the literature written about the history of the Internet has focused on chronicling only the technical milestones that led to its development. In doing so, most have overlooked a significant period in the Internet’s history, the period bounded by the retirement of the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s network (ARPANET) in the late 1980s and by the commercialization of the network and the excitement over the World Wide Web browser in the mid-1990s. The historical accounts, as a result, include little more than a passing mention of the National Science Foundation Network backbone project (NSFNet) and Merit Network, Inc., which conducted the transfer of this technology to society at large from 1985 to 1995. Additionally, the literature holds little evidence of women as a force in the Internet’s early development. For example, in Inventing the Internet, the most thorough book published to date on the history of the Internet, Abbate (2000) mentions more than 60 different men who were involved in the Internet’s development but does not recognize a single woman other than to show a female model advertising a computer. The contribution women made to developing the Internet is similarly neglected in Kristula’s The History of the Internet (2001), Griffiths’ From ARPANET to World Wide Web (2002), and Castells’ The Internet Galaxy (2001). Overall, readers of the Internet’s history are left with the impression the Internet was developed solely by men. This impression is incorrect, as is the impression that the Internet’s success is solely the result of a series of technical achievements. This article presents evidence that many women were employed in the Internet industry prior to the mid 1990s, filling in gaps in the literature on this point. In addition, it suggests that, collectively, women may have held a key role in the extraordinarily successful transfer of the internet technology from a small circle of academics and governmental researchers to society at large. The findings presented here are part of a larger body of work examining the role women held in the Internet’s development, carried out at Eastern Michigan University for the completion of a master’s thesis in interdisciplinary technology (Repucci, 2004).
Ontologies for Location-Based Services
Authors: Brantner Matthias , Helmer Sven , Kanne Carl-Christian , Moerkotte Guido
Published: May 2011

A user of a mobile business application is usually not interested in technical data, but its meaning (which may also vary from user to user). We discuss how ontologies can help in translating this technical, location-based data (e.g. geographical coordinates) into semantic information. Taking a practical point of view, we first define typical requirements of location-based services, develop an ontology for locations, and show how this ontology can be integrated into existing technologies.
Review of Wireless Technologies and Generations
Authors: Bhattar R. K.
Published: May 2011

The concept of wireless communication i.e. exchange of any type of electronic content (audio, video, data, etc.) without the use of any physical medium like cables, wires etc, is not new. It started almost a century back with “radio and telegraphs” and has made rapid progress over the period of time. Looking at the present trend, it is obvious that the field of wireless communication will continue to move far ahead than one could imagine. To encourage adoption and advancement in technology, a standardization process was required. Different standards have evolved, over the period of time, to accommodate the new technologies as they emerged. The era during which technologies are popular and are used by businesses is generally termed as Generations. This chapter presents a brief history of wireless communication and different phases of technologies and standards involved in it. A discussion of the communication technology generations not only provides an understanding of the past history of these technologies, but also creates basis for understanding their future. This chapter provides brief introduction and description of all generations, starting from the first generation mobile communications to future generation mobile communications.
Orthogonal Complex Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OCQPSK) Spreading for 3G W-CDMA Systems
Authors: Mishra S.
Published: May 2011

A variety of digital modulation techniques are currently being used in wireless communication systems. In 3G (third generation) spread-spectrum systems, such as W-CDMA (3GPP) and cdma2000 (3GPP2), the handset can transmit multiple channels at different amplitude levels. Modulation schemes such as OQPSK or GMSK do not prevent zero-crossings for multiple channels and are no longer suitable. There is a need for a modulation format or a spreading technique that can accommodate multiple channels at different power levels while producing signals with low peak-to-average power ratios. OCQPSK (Orthogonal Complex Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) has been proposed as the spreading technique for W-CDMA and cdma2000. OCQPSK is a complex spreading scheme that is very different from the modulation formats commonly used until now. The objective of this Chapter is to provide an overview of OCQPSK and explain how to start making modulation quality measurements on the reverse link (uplink) of 3G spread-spectrum systems. This chapter starts with the basic structure of the reverse link (uplink) for W-CDMA and cdma2000 with no scrambling, and explains the transition through complex scrambling to OCQPSK. The block diagrams shown are generic block diagrams for OCQPSK that are not particular to either W-CDMA or cdma2000. The chapter then describes: (1) why complex scrambling is used and how it works, and (2) why OCQPSK is used and how it works. Finally, this chapter provides how to measure modulation quality on the reverse link of 3G systems and a complete downlink physical layer model showing various results of BER and BLER calculation and also various time scopes and power spectrums.
Administration of Wireless Software Components
Authors: Barier F.
Published: May 2011

Software components embedded in mobile and wireless devices, as ordinary components deployed in distributed systems, have to be managed in order to recover faults, to trace and analyze behaviors, to enable business services such as online maintenance, customer practice understanding and so on. Despite the existence of management standards and platforms, the implementation of management facilities inside components as well as the possibility to access and operate these facilities by means of appropriate interfaces (a configuration interface for instance in order to instrument dynamical re-configuration) are not actually available. In this scope, this chapter discusses and provides a design method and an associated Java library in order to have manageable and self-manageable components specific to mobile and wireless environments.
A Novel Fuzzy Scheduler for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
Authors: Shanmugavel S. , Gomathy C.
Published: May 2011

As mobile computing gains popularity, the need for ad hoc routing also continues to grow. In mobile ad hoc networks, the mobility of nodes and error prone nature of the wireless medium pose many challenges, including frequent route changes and packet losses. Such problems increase the packet delays and decrease the throughput. To meet with the dynamic queuing behaviour of Ad hoc networks, to provide QoS and hence to improve the performance, a scheduler can be used. This chapter presents a novel fuzzy based priority scheduler for mobile ad-hoc networks, to determine the priority of the packets. The performance of this scheduler is studied using GloMoSim and evaluated in terms of quantitative metrics such as packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay and throughput.
Developing Smart Client Mobile Applications
Authors: Gan Jason
Published: May 2011

This chapter examines the convergence of mobile technologies based on smart client architecture. To improve the usability and accessibility of mobile applications and services, the smart client architecture extends the capabilities of the mobile computing platform with support for mutimodal interfaces, smart client database and synchronization, presence awareness, location awareness and identity management. Its broad impact on business communication and productivity is highlighted as a tangible benefit.
Understanding Mobile Web Services (MWS) and Their Role in Integrating Mobile Devices
Authors: El-Masri Samir
Published: May 2011

Web services (WS) have become the industry standard tools for communication between applications running on different platforms, and built using different programming languages. The benefits, including the simplicity of use, that Web services provide to developers and users have ensured integration of Web services architecture by almost all IT vendors in their applications. As expected, with the proliferation of mobile phones, PDAs and other wireless devices, the same requirements of making applications talk across platforms has become necessary on mobile devices. This has lead to the mobile Web services (MWS), which are based on the Web services and related technologies like XML, SOAP and WSDL, and which provide the best choice to be used in the architecture for integration of Web services in mobile devices. This chapter discusses WS and MWS in the context of integration architecture, together with their advantages and disadvantages in usage. Since MWS is deployed using wireless technologies and protocols, they are also presented and explained in this chapter.
Business Process Mobility
Authors: Alag Harpreet
Published: May 2011

This chapter introduces the concept of business process mobility. Mobility in this case refers to the ability of a human resource to work from multiple locations and in non-office environments; business process mobility involves enabling that resource to carry out specific aspects of a business process while mobile. It attempts to explain where and how mobile enabling processes and systems can benefit. The chapter argues the need for redesigning business processes to support mobility instead of simply adding mobile systems. It further attempts to explore the approach for analyzing and redesigning processes to support mobility. The author also hopes to provide an understanding of mobile systems and their role in enterprise mobility. The chapter touches upon the essentials of mobility strategy and concludes by discussing key contents for a business case for mobile enabling business processes.
Factors Influencing Segmentation and Demographics of Mobile-Customers
Authors: Ranft Anne-Marie
Published: May 2011

This chapter addresses important factors for consideration when readying a mobile commerce business for global business, addressing both regional differentiation in demographics that influence classifications of customer segments, and differentiation in demographics within a region. Globally, not all customer segments have regular access to mobile commerce facilities, and even for those that do, other demographic factors can impede their potential as mobile-customers. When starting from an Anglo-centric perspective, it is vital to have awareness of global differences in culture, language, payment options, time zones, legal restrictions, infrastructures, product needs, and market growth that could either improve or inhibit mobile-customer uptake, and in the worst case, result in unexpected litigation.
The Mobile Network as a New Medium for Marketing Communicaitons
Authors: Karjaluoto Heikki , Leppaniemi Matti , Salo Jari , Sinisalo Jaakko , Li Feng
Published: May 2011

This chapter discusses the mobile network as a new medium for marketing communications. It illustrates that the mobile medium, defined as two-way communications via mobile handsets, can be utilized in a company’s promotion mix by initiating and maintaining relationships. First, by using the mobile medium companies can attract new customers by organizing SMS (short message service) -based competitions and lotteries. Second, the mobile medium can be used as a relationship building tool as companies can send information and discount coupons to existing customers’ mobile devices or collect marketing research data. The authors explore these scenarios by presenting and analyzing a mobile marketing case from Finland. The chapter concludes by pondering different future avenues for the mobile medium in promotion mix.
Applying Mobility in the Workforce
Authors: Johnstone Bradley , Vaghjiani Khimji
Published: May 2011

There have been significant advances in mobile technologies in recent years. The euphoric technology void left by the dot-com crash in early 2000 soured many technology users; however mobile computing has provided much needed enthusiasm for both technologists and business users. In this chapter we focus on aspects of mobile technology, from both a business user perspective and a technology view point. Aspects such as total cost of ownership, return on investment and capital investment have been discussed from a financial perspective. Technical aspects of running and maintaining a mobile technology infrastructure have also been explored. The chapter concludes with a review of potential areas of application for mobile technology. The area discussed is mobile technologies in banking; however, many of the aspects covered could easily be applied to any other business vertical.Finally, this chapter is not meant to be a holy grail for mobile computing. It is simply a glimpse of the need to explore the power of this emerging technology.
Mobile GIS - Challenges and Solutions
Authors: Sharma Pramod , Nugent Devon
Published: May 2011

This chapter focuses on Mobile GIS (MGIS), which uses wireless networks and small screen mobile devices (such as PDAs and smartphones) to collect or deliver real time, location specific information and services. Such services can be divided into field and consumer (location based services) GIS applications. The use of wireless networks and small screen devices, introduce a series of challenges, not faced by desktop or wired internet GIS applications. This chapter discusses the challenges faced by mobile GIS (e.g. small screen, bandwidth, positioning accuracy, interoperability, etc.) and the various means of overcoming these problems, including the rapid advances in relevant technologies. Despite the challenges, many efficient and effective Mobile GIS applications have been developed, offering a glimpse of the potential market.
The Evolution of Theory and Practice of Marketing in Light of Information Technology
Authors: Andreini Daniela
Published: May 2011

Marketing is a discipline that concentrates on the process of exchange between two market groups, and for this reason, it has been immediately involved with developments in the Internet—understood as a suitable phenomenon for discovering new opportunities and possible threats to modern business management (Burke, 1996) and as a commercial business tool (Alba et al., 1997; Quelch & Klein, 1996). The aim of this chapter is to highlight the marketing elements that, according to an accurate review of international literature, have been involved in the development of new information technology and, in particular, the Internet. The investigation concerns in particular • customers: the buying behavior of Internet users compared to traditional behavior; • relations and communication: in this section we try to understand what are the barriers to the development of these relations: trust, safety, and manipulation are some of the obstacles examined; • marketing research: an accurate review of international scientific literature highlights the online research techniques and tools that are of greater use to companies; • marketing management: products, prices, place (distribution), and promotion are unequivocally decided by the company but may become an area of negotiation between companies and customers thanks to new multimedia tools; and • marketing performance: this section illustrates what are the best performance indicators for measuring the activities carried out by an e-commerce project.
Swarm Intelligence and the Taguchi Method for Identification of Fuzzy Models
Authors: Khosla Arun , Kumar Shakti , Aggarwal K. K.
Published: May 2011

Nature is a wonderful source of inspiration for building models and techniques for solving difficult problems in design, optimisation, and control. More specifically, the study of evolution, the human immune system, and the collective behaviour of insects/birds have guided the origin of evolutionary algorithms, artificial immune systems, and optimisation techniques based on swarm intelligence, respectively. In this chapter, we present the use of particle swarm optimisation (PSO) and the Taguchi method for the identification of optimised fuzzy models from the available data. PSO is a member of the broad category of swarm intelligence (SI) techniques based on the metaphor of social interaction. It has been used for finding promising solutions in complex search spaces through the interaction of particles in a swarm, and is especially useful when dealingwith a high number of dimensions and situations where problem-specific information is not available. However, caution needs to be exercised in selecting PSO, as the performance of PSO largely depends on their values. In this chapter, a systematic reasoning approach based on the Taguchi method is also presented to quickly identify PSO parameters. The Taguchi method is a robust design approach that helps in optimisation, and which requires relatively few experiments. Although we focus here on the use of PSO and the Taguchi method for fuzzy model identification, these techniques have much broader use and application. In order to validate our approach, data from the rapid Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery charger developed by the authors were used. The results are based on real data and illustrate the viability and efficiency of the approach.
Statistical Uncorrelation Analysis
Authors: Zhang David , Jing Xiao-Yuan , Yang Jian
Published: May 2011

This chapter shows a special LDA approach called optimal discrimination vectors (ODV), which requires that every discrimination vector satisfy the Fisher criterion. After introduction, we first give some basic definitions. Then, uncorrelated optimal discrimination vectors (UODV) are proposed. Next, we introduce an improved UODV approach, and offer some experiments and analysis. Finally, we summarize some useful conclusions.
Complete Kernal Fisher Discrimination Analysis
Authors: Zhang David , Jing Xiao-Yuan , Yang Jian
Published: May 2011

This chapter introduces a complete kernel Fisher discriminant analysis (KFD) that is a useful statistical technique applied to biometric application. We first describe theoretical perspective of KPCA. Then, a new KFD algorithm framework, KPCA plus LDA, is given. Afterwards, we discuss the complete KFD algorithm. Finally, the experimental results and chapter summary are given.
2D Image Matrix-Based Discriminator
Authors: Zhang David , Jing Xiao-Yuan , Yang Jian
Published: May 2011

This chapter presents two straightforward image projection techniques — two-dimensional (2D) image matrix-based principal component analysis (IMPCA, 2DPCA) and 2D image matrix-based Fisher linear discriminant analysis (IMLDA, 2DLDA). After a brief introduction, we first introduce IMPCA. Then IMLDA technology is given. As a result, we summarize some useful conclusions.
Feature Fusion Using Complex Descriminator
Authors: Zhang David , Jing Xiao-Yuan , Yang Jian
Published: May 2011

This chapter describes feature fusion techniques using complex discriminator. After the introduction, we first introduce serial and parallel feature fusion strategies. Then, the complex linear projection analysis methods, complex PCA and complex LDA, are developed. Next, some feature preprocessing techniques are given. The symmetry property of parallel feature fusion is analyzed and revealed. Then, the proposed methods are applied to biometric applications, related experiments are performed and the detailed comparison analysis is exhibited. Finally, a summary is given.
Control of Man-Machine FES Systems
Authors: Davoodi Rahman , Loeb Gerald E.
Published: May 2011

Movement disabilities due to spinal cord injury (SCI) are usually incomplete, leaving the patients with partially functioning movement system. As a result, functional electrical stimulation (FES) systems for restoration of movement to the paralyzed limbs must operate in parallel with the residual voluntary movements of the patient. In the resulting man-machine system, the central nervous system (CNS) controls the residual voluntary movements while the FES system controls the paralyzed muscles of the same limbs. Clearly, these two control systems must work in synchrony to benefit the patient. In this chapter we will discuss different methods for cooperative control of man-machine FES systems and use a clinical FES system to demonstrate the successful application of these strategies.
Dynamic Pattern Recognition in Sport by Means of Artificial Neural Networks
Authors: Perl Jürgen , Dauscher Peter
Published: May 2011

Behavioural processes like those in sports, motor activities or rehabilitation are often the object of optimization methods. Such processes are often characterized by a complex structure. Measurements considering them may produce a huge amount of data. It is an interesting challenge not only to store these data, but also to transform them into useful information. Artificial Neural Networks turn out to be an appropriate tool to transform abstract numbers into informative patterns that help to understand complex behavioural phenomena. The contribution presents some basic ideas of neural network approaches and several examples of application. The aim is to give an impression of how neural methods can be used, especially in the field of sport.
Estimation of Muscle Forces About the Ankle During Gait in Healthy and Neurologically Impaired Subjects
Authors: Bassett Daniel N. , Gardinier Joseph D. , Manal Kurt T. , Buchanan Thomas S.
Published: May 2011

This chapter describes a biomechanical model of the forces about the ankle joint applicable to both unimpaired and neurologically impaired subjects. EMGs and joint kinematics are used as inputs and muscle forces are the outputs. A hybrid modeling approach that uses both forward and inverse dynamics is employed and physiological parameters for the model are tuned for each subject using optimization procedures. The forward dynamics part of the model takes muscle activation and uses Hill-type models of muscle contraction dynamics to estimate muscle forces and the corresponding joint moments. Inverse dynamics is used to calibrate the forward dynamics model predictions of joint moments. In this chapter we will describe how to implement an EMG-driven hybrid forward and inverse dynamics model of the ankle that can be used in healthy and neurologically impaired people.
On Emergent Phenomena
Authors: Trajkovski Goran
Published: May 2011

“Emergence” is itself emergent; although originating in the context of the “sciences of complexity” — i.e., life sciences, cybernetics, multiagent systems research, and artificial life research — “emergent thinking” has spread to other parts of the academy, including the social sciences and business. Utilizing examples drawn from popular culture, this chapter looks to the ways IT has proven influential in other cultural contexts, but not without a price. The second part of the chapter interrogates the transportation of emergent thinking into these other discourses, taking them to task for not embracing the promises inherent in emergence and, in fact, merely reproducing the old under the sign of the emergent new. Finally, by borrowing notions of “surprise” from robotics and multiagent systems, I suggest new possibilities for emergence to lead to genuine paradigm shifts in the ways we think.
On a Software Platform for MASIVE Simulations
Authors: Trajkovski Goran
Published: May 2011

Pattern-Aided Simulated Interaction Context Learning Experiment (POPSICLE) Agent Simulator began as a sample project in object-oriented agent programming, but quickly grew into a complete framework for the simulation of agent behavior based upon an associative memory model. The system began its implementation as a Java 2 (J2SE 1.4) application, but was later migrated to a Java 5 application (J2SE 1.5) to utilize the type-safe collections and enumerated types that became available in the latest Java version. Various design patterns were employed in the development; the most predominate being the Model/Controller/View (MCV) architecture. As we will see later, the system also relies heavily on delegation and observers.
Toward Noninvasive Adaptation of Metaphores in Content
Authors: Tretiakov Alexei , Kaschek Roland
Published: May 2011

Web information systems (WIS) can be considered as media. These media implement a tool language that enables access to content. Accessing that content aids users in achieving their goals. The language in which that content is given nowadays is often natural language or very close to it. Consequently the content involves metaphors. As the Web is open to virtually everyone, the users of WIS are likely to differ from each other with respect to ethnicity, language, gender, age, culture, education, preferences, physical or mental handicaps, and so forth. Consequently users are likely to respond differently to the metaphors occurring in the content. This chapter, therefore, proposes an approach to adapting the employed metaphors to user types for improving the value that the WIS offers to its users. This is expected to result in both increased useracceptance and number of business transactions. Therefore, an increased return on investment for the WIS is expected as well. We propose a conceptual model for user type and context-aware mapping of concepts in a target domain to concepts in a source domain. The respective mapping is used for modeling metaphors. We formalize that mapping in terms of the Higher-Order Entity-Relationship Modeling (HERM) language and in the Web Ontology Language (OWL). The conceptual model we provide can be used as a basis for hot generation of content representation such that the metaphors occurring in the content are adapted to the types of the users interacting with the WIS. As a step toward implementation, we formulate a high-level architecture that enables us to noninvasively adapt the metaphors in the WIS content to the types of the users. We report our experiences regarding exploration of the feasibility of the architecture. These experiences result from implementing a prototype that shows how metaphors—in a noninvasive manner, that is, without changing its code or content—can be added to the contents of an already-existing WIS. The chapter is completed by presenting the results of formal user evaluation which demonstrate the user acceptance of the respective metaphors.
Participatory GIS and Community Planning
Authors: Elwood Sarah
Published: May 2011

This chapter examines participatory approaches to GIS (PPGIS) in community planning. The discussion examines current and emerging trends in PPGIS practices, issues of access and participation that have shaped PPGIS development in the past decade, and new developments in technologies and participatory planning processes that will shape its future trajectory. The chapter concludes by suggesting practical strategies for addressing some of the challenges of facilitating and sustaining PPGIS in community planning, and identifying key areas of current GIScience research that may inform and enhance PPGIS in the future.
An Experimental Study Using SDS Tools for a Participatory Approach to Local Land Use Planning
Authors: Jankowski Piotr , Stasik Milosz
Published: May 2011

Participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) have been touted as a technology to democratize local decision making. The promise of PGIS has been largely pinned on the assumption that maps as tools of communication are rich in informational content, and capable of fostering shared understanding and analytical thinking. Whether maps alone can indeed be the medium for supporting shared understanding and analytical thinking in participatory decision making is still an open question. Much of our knowledge in this area is still anecdotal, and there is a need for empirical work to supply the evidence. In an attempt to test the applicability of maps, decision models, and Internet-based communication tools for PGIS, software called spatial understanding and decision support system (SUDSS) was built using asynchronous spatiotemporal environment, and tested in a realistic setting representing public land-use planning debate. This chapter provides a description of the software and the experiment, followed by the discussion of its results and their significance for the future development of similar public participation spatial-decision support tools.
A Survey on Various Applications of Artificial Neural Networks in Selected Fields of Healthcare
Authors: Schollhorn Wolfgang I. , Jager Jörg M.
Published: May 2011

This chapter gives an overview of artificial neural networks as instruments for processing miscellaneous biomedical signals. A variety of applications are illustrated in several areas of healthcare. The structure of this chapter is rather oriented on medical fields like cardiology, gynecology, or neuromuscular control than on types of neural nets. Many examples demonstrate how neural nets can support the diagnosis and prediction of diseases. However, their content does not claim completeness due to the enormous amount and exponentially increasing number of publications in this field. Besides the potential benefits for healthcare, some remarks on underlying assumptions are also included as well as problems which may occur while applying artificial neural nets. It is hoped that this review gives profound insight into strengths as well as weaknesses of artificial neural networks as tools for processing biomedical signals.
The Role of Neural Networks in Computerized Classification of the Electrocardiogram
Authors: Nugent Chris D. , Finlay Dewar D. , Donnelly Mark P. , Black Norman D.
Published: May 2011

Electrical forces generated by the heart are transmitted to the skin through the body’s tissues. These forces can be recorded on the body’s surface and are represented as an electrocardiogram (ECG). The ECG can be used to detect many cardiac abnormalities. Traditionally, ECG classification algorithms have used rule based techniques in an effort to model the thought and reasoning process of the human expert. However, the definition of an ultimate rule set for cardiac diagnosis has remained somewhat elusive, and much research effort has been directed at data driven techniques. Neural networks have emerged as a strong contender as the highly non-linear and chaotic nature of the ECG represents a well-suited application for this technique. This study presents an overview of the application of neural networks in the field of ECG classification, and, in addition, some preliminary results of adaptations of conventional neural classifiers are presented. From this work, it is possible to highlight issues that will affect the acceptance of this technique and, in addition, identify challenges faced for the future. The challenges can be found in the intelligent processing of larger amounts of ECG information which may be generated from recording techniques such as body surface potential mapping.
The Use of Artificial Neural Networks for Objective Determination of Hearing Threshold Using the Auditory Brainstem Response
Authors: Davey Robert T. , McCullagh Paul J. , McAllister H. Gerry , Houston H. Glen
Published: May 2011

We have analyzed high and low level auditory brainstem response data (550 waveforms over a large age range; 126 were repeated sessions used in correlation analysis), by extracting time, frequency, and phase features and using these as inputs to ANN and decision tree classifiers. A two stage process is used. For responses with a high poststimulus to prestimulus power ratio indicative of high level responses, a classification accuracy of98% has been achieved. These responses are easily classified by the human expert. For lower level responses appropriate to hearing threshold, additional features from time, frequency, and phase have been used for classification, providing accuracies between 65% and 82%. These used a dataset with repeated recordings so that correlation could be employed. To increase classification accuracy, it may be necessary to combine the relevant features in a hybrid model.
Validation and Verification of Software Systems Using Virtual Reality and Coloured Petri Nets
Authors: Almeida Hyggo , Silva Leandro , Ferreira Glauber , Loureiro Emerson , Perkusich Angelo
Published: May 2011

Validation and verification techniques have been identified as suitable mechanisms to determine if the software meets the needs of the user and to verify if the software works correctly. However, the existing verification techniques do not support friendly visualization. Also, validation techniques with friendly visualization mechanisms do not allow the verification of the system’s correctness. In this chapter, we present a method for the validation and verification of software systems through the integration of formal methods and virtual reality. Furthermore, a software tool associated with such a method is also described along with an embedded system case study.
Generic Model of the Business Model and Its Formalization in Object-Z
Authors: Daniele Marcela , Martellotto Paola , Baum Gabriel
Published: May 2011

This chapter shows the generic model of the business model, represented graphically with a UML class diagram, product of the analysis of the artifacts that compose the business model and their relationships, according to rational unified process (RUP) (2000). Moreover, the chapter defines a set of rules that the model must verify. It has been demonstrated that graph modeling is useful to visualize, specify, build, and document the artifacts of a system, offering a common language, easy to understand and apply. However, it lacks a precise semantics, which causes problems of ambiguities that in turn generate incorrect or different interpretations. In order to improve upon this, the generic model is translated into a formal specification language. This translation, carried out in Object-Z, allows the expression of a specific business model in a particular domain without ambiguity, and it facilitates the analysis of the properties of the system, showing possible inconsistencies, ambiguities, or incompleteness.
Web Page Design
Authors: DiMarco John
Published: May 2011

This chapter focuses on digital design for the Web using Adobe Photoshop and Macromedia Fireworks. It’s time to review the storyboards that you created in Chapter IV. Your goal at this point is to use the storyboard designs that you sketched to create Web page screens. You want to utilize the content you gathered and developed while working in the last chapter. After successfully completing this chapter, you will have Web page screen designs that will be output into table- or layer-based HTML files. The files you will generate are going to be HTML files, but will not be functional Web pages. They will not have working links, pop-up windows or multimedia. The pages that are generated in this stage come from Macromedia fireworks or Adobe Photoshop.