bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Micro‐CT evaluation of murine fetal skeletal development yields greater morphometric precision over traditional clear‐staining methods
Authors: Oest Megan E. , Jones Jeryl C. , Hatfield Cindy , Prater M. Renee
Published: December 2008

Traditional techniques for quantification of murine fetal skeletal development (gross measurements, clear‐staining) are severely limited by specimen processing, soft tissue presence, diffuse staining, and unclear landmarks between which to make measurements. Nondestructive microcomputed tomography (micro‐CT) imaging is a versatile, well‐documented tool traditionally used to generate high‐resolution 3‐D images and quantify microarchitectural parameters of trabecular bone. Although previously described as a tool for phenotyping fetal murine specimens, micro‐CT has not previously been used to directly measure individual fetal skeletal structures. Imaging murine fetal skeletons using micro‐CT enables the researcher to nondestructively quantify fetal skeletal development parameters including limb length, total bone volume, and average bone mineral density, as well as identify skeletal malformations. Micro‐CT measurement of fetal limb lengths correlates well with traditional clear‐staining methods (83.98% agreement), decreases variability in measurements (average standard errors: 6.28% for micro‐CT and 10.82% for clear‐staining), decreases data acquisition time by eliminating the need for tissue processing, and preserves the intact fixed fetus for further analysis. Use of the rigorous micro‐CT technique to generate 3‐D images for digital measurement enables isolation of skeletal structures based on degree of mineralization (local radiodensity), eliminating the complications of blurred stain boundaries and soft tissue inclusion that accompany clear‐staining and gross measurement techniques. Microcomputed tomography provides a facile, accurate, and nondestructive method for determining the developmental state of the fetal skeleton using not only limb lengths and identification of malformations, but total skeletal bone volume and average skeletal mineral density as well. Birth Defects Res (Part B) 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
High‐Level Expression and Efficient Purification of Recombinant Somatostatin in Escherichia Coli
Authors: Notani Joji , Saitoh Yoshimasa , Terada Masafumi , Yamada Hisashi , Ishii Yoshinari , Satoh Susumu , Tomoi Masaaki , Niwa Mineo
Published: December 2008

Somatostatin (SS) was produced in Escherichia coli (E. coli) as a 110 aminoacid fused protein, C‐L‐Met‐SS, consisting of somatomedin C (Phe23Glu46) [1], human interferon‐γ (Cys1‐Leu59) [1], methionine and 14 aminoacids of SS. High‐level expression of the fused protein, C‐L‐Met‐SS, was achieved with pCLSStrpN2, a plasmid containing trp promoter. The fused protein, C‐L‐Met‐SS, which was formed as a insoluble inclusion body in E. coli, was easily cleaved with cyanogen bromide to give reduced SS (SS(R)). The SS(R) was purified efficiently by gelfiltration chromatography, refolded under dilution, and further purified by reversed phase HPLC to give biologically active SS. The yield was 6.6 mg of the purified SS/20 L culture of E. Coli.
Gelatinization Kinetics of Starch by Using Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: Kim Ik‐Hwan , Yeh An‐I , Zhao B. L. , Wang Shaw S.
Published: December 2008

After the Raman effect was discovered in 1928, Raman spectroscopy has been widely applied to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic, inorganic and biological systems. Especially for the study of biological compounds, Raman spectroscopy has advantages over the other spectroscopic methods. The advantages of Raman spectroscopy are the small sample requirement, the minimal interference by water, and the conformational sensitivity etc. The advantages enable Raman spectroscopy to be a promising tool for the study of starch gelatinization.
Polyplex formation between four‐arm poly(ethylene oxide)‐b‐poly(2‐(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) and plasmid DNA in gene delivery
Authors: He E. , Yue C. Y. , Simeon F. , Zhou L. H. , Too H. P. , Tam K. C.
Published: December 2008

Amphiphilic polyelectrolytes comprising cationic and uncharged hydrophilic segments condensed negatively charged DNA to form a core‐shell structure stabilized by a layer of hydrophilic corona chains. At physiological pH, four‐arm star‐shaped poly(ethylene oxide)‐b‐poly(2‐(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (four‐arm PEO‐b‐PDEAEMA) block copolymer possessed positively charged amine groups that interacted with negatively charged plasmid DNA to form polymer/DNA complexes. The mechanism and physicochemical properties of the complex formation were investigated at varying molar ratio of amine groups on polymer chains and phosphate group on plasmid DNA segments (N/P ratio). The capability of the star block copolymer to condense DNA was demonstrated through gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide exclusion assay. In the absence of salt, the hydrodynamic radius of polyplexes was about 94 nm at low polymer/DNA ratio, and it decreased to about 34 nm at large N/P ratios, forming a compact spherical structure with a weighted average molecular weight of 4.39 ± 0.22 × 106 g/mol. Approximately 15 polymeric chains were required to condense a plasmid DNA. The addition of monovalent salt to the polyplexes significantly altered the size of the complexes, which would have an impact on cell transfection. Because of the electrostatic interaction induced by the diffusion of small ions, the polyplex increased in size to about 53 nm with a less compact structure. In vitro cytotoxicty of polymer and polymer/pDNA complexes were evaluated, and the polyplexes exhibited low toxicity at low N/P ratios. At N/P ratio of 4.5, the four‐arm PEO‐b‐PDEAEMA showed the highest level of transfection in Neuro‐2A cells. These observations showed that the star‐shaped multi‐arm polymers offers interesting properties in self‐association and condensation ability for plasmid DNA and can serve as a nonviral DNA delivery system. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res, 2009
Surface engineering of poly(D,L‐lactic acid) by entrapment of soluble eggshell membrane protein
Authors: Lu Jian‐Wei , Li Qiang , Qi Qing‐Lei , Guo Zhao‐Xia , Yu Jian
Published: December 2008

Soluble eggshell membrane protein (SEP) is used to engineer poly(D,L‐lactic acid) (PDL‐LA) membrane surface by a physical entrapment method to enhance cytocompatibility. Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and contact angle measurements are used to characterize SEP‐modified PDL‐LA membrane surface and confirm the formation of an even and stable layer of SEP on PDL‐LA membrane surface. NIH3T3 cell lines are used as model cells to evaluate cytocompatibility of the SEP‐modified PDL‐LA membrane, which is much better than that of virgin PDL‐LA membrane. The enhanced cytocompatibility facilitates potential application in tissue engineering. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res, 2009
Tracing misalignment and unequal crossing over during evolution of the repetitive region of the SM50 gene in sea urchins
Authors: Hussain Sofia , Livingston Brian T.
Published: December 2008

The location of misalignment and unequal crossover involved in concerted evolution of tandemly repetitive sequences is difficult to document owing to the homogeneity of sequences that are subject to this process. However, the repetitive domain of the SM50 gene in sea urchins contains variation, within the gene itself, between alleles, and between species that has allowed us to determine where misalignment and unequal crossing over occurred during evolution of this gene. We have therefore analyzed the SM50 repeat regions in a variety of species to determine where recent changes in repeat numbers have occurred, and from this have deduced the mechanisms that lead to these changes. We next tried to determine whether recent misalignment and unequal crossover has produced allelic variation in current populations of sea urchins. We found SM50 alleles within three species that have different numbers of repeats. This marks the first reported documentation of allelic variation in the number of repeats in the SM50 gene. We also show how a single unequal crossover event could have produced the allelic variation. We have found that substitutions and small deletions in the sequences within the repeats can substantially affect how misalignment occurs, resulting in different patterns of repeats after concerted evolution. J. Exp. Zool. 311A:143–154, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A pilot study of hydroxyurea to prevent chronic organ damage in young children with sickle cell anemia
Authors: Thornburg Courtney D. , Dixon Natalia , Burgett Shelly , Mortier Nicole A. , Schultz William H. , Zimmerman Sherri A. , Bonner Melanie , Hardy Kristina K. , Calatroni Agustin , Ware Russell E.
Published: December 2008

Background

Hydroxyurea improves laboratory parameters and prevents acute clinical complications of sickle cell anemia (SCA) in children and adults, but its effects on organ function remain incompletely defined.

Methods

To assess the safety and efficacy of hydroxyurea in young children with SCA and to prospectively assess kidney and brain function, 14 young children (mean age 35 months) received hydroxyurea at a mean maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of 28 mg/kg/day.

Results

After a mean of 25 months, expected laboratory effects included significant increases in hemoglobin, MCV and %HbF along with significant decreases in reticulocytes, absolute neutrophil count, and bilirubin. There was no significant increase in glomerular filtration rate by DTPA clearance or Schwartz estimate. Mean transcranial Doppler (TCD) velocity changes were −25.6 cm/sec (P < 0.01) and −26.8 cm/sec (P < 0.05) in the right and left MCA vessels, respectively. At study exit, no child had conditional or abnormal TCD values, and none developed brain ischemic lesions or vasculopathy progression by MRI/MRA. Growth and neurocognitive scores were preserved and Impact‐on‐Family scores improved.

Conclusions

These pilot data indicate hydroxyurea at MTD is well‐tolerated by both children and families, and may prevent chronic organ damage in young children with SCA. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009;52:609–615. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Pleural fibrosis mediates shrinking lungs syndrome in children
Authors: Krych Esther H. , Fischer Philip R. , Wylam Mark E.
Published: December 2008

The etiology of restrictive lung physiology in SLS is not well‐defined, and has been hypothesized to be due to defects in lung recoil, phrenic nerve function and diaphragmatic strength. We present a case of SLS in an adolescent in whom imaging and electrophysiology studies demonstrate pleural fibrosis as the fundamental defect accounting for the restrictive lung physiology. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2009; 44:90–92. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The impact of instrumental dead‐space in volume‐targeted ventilation of the extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infant
Authors: Nassabeh‐Montazami Sepideh , Abubakar Kabir M. , Keszler Martin
Published: December 2008

Background

Volume‐targeted ventilation is increasingly used in neonatal ventilation to reduce the risk of volutrauma and inadvertent hyperventilation. However, normative data for appropriate tidal volume (VT) settings are lacking, especially in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants in whom the added dead space (DS) of the flow sensor may be important.

Objective

To quantify the effect of instrumental dead‐space (IDS) on ventilation and to obtain normative data for initial VT associated with normocapnia in ELBW infants ventilated with volume guarantee (VG) ventilation.

Design/methods

Set and measured VT, respiratory rate (RR) and arterial blood gas values (ABG) were extracted from charts of babies <800 g born between January 2003 and August 2005, who were ventilated with VG. Data were collected at the time of each ABG during the 1st 48 hr of life. Theoretical alveolar minute ventilation (AMV) was calculated as (VT − DS) × RR. IDS was measured by filling with water a 2.5 mm endotracheal tube cut to 10 cm with attached hub of the inline suction catheter and flow sensor. We added 0.5 mL/kg to this value to account for distal tracheal/mainstem bronchi DS (anatomical dead space). Descriptive statistics and linear regression were used for analysis.

Results

The measured IDS was 2.7 mL. Mean combined DS (instrumental + anatomical) was 3.01 mL. There were 344 paired observations of VT and ABG with PaCO2 in the normocapnic range in 38 infants (mean birth weight 625 g ± 115 g SD, range 400–790 g) during the study period. The mean pH was 7.30 ± 0.06 (SD), mean PaCO2 43.4 ± 5.4 Torr. The mean target VT was 3.11 ± 0.64 mL and the measured VT was 3.17 ± 0.73 mL. Despite normocapnia, 47% of the VT were equal to or less than estimated DS. Mean theoretical AMV was only 8.7 mL/kg/min. The VT/kg needed for normocapnia was inversely related to weight (r = −0.70, P < 0.01), indicating some effect of the fixed IDS. Mean VT/kg of infants <500 g was 5.9 ± 0.3 mL, compared to 4.7 ± 0.5 mL for those >700 g (P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Effective alveolar ventilation occurs with VT at or below calculated DS. This can be explained by the fact that at the high flow rates seen in these tiny infants who have extremely short inspiratory times, fresh gas penetrates through the dead space gas, rather than pushing it ahead. Therefore there is no need to forego synchronized and volume targeted ventilation because of dead space concerns. In infants <800 g, initial VT of 5–6 mL/kg was associated with normocapnia when using assist/control or pressure support ventilation. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2009; 44:128–133. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Role of Sho1p adaptor in the pseudohyphal development, drugs sensitivity, osmotolerance and oxidant stress adaptation in the opportunistic yeast Candida lusitaniae
Authors: Boisnard Stéphanie , Ruprich‐Robert Gwenaël , Florent Martine , Silva Bruno Da , Chapeland‐Leclerc Florence , Papon Nicolas
Published: December 2008

In yeast, external signals such as high osmolarity or oxidant conditions activate the high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade pathway, which consists of two upstream branches, i.e. Sho1p and Sln1p and common downstream elements, including the Pbs2p MAPK kinase and the Hog1p MAPK. We recently showed that the Candida lusitaniae SLN1 gene, potentially encoding a histidine kinase receptor, is crucial for oxidative stress adaptation when the fungus grows as budding yeast and during the early steps of pseudohyphal development. In the current study, we characterized the SHO1 gene of this opportunistic fungus. Complete loss of SHO1 function causes profound defects in pseudohyphal differentiation, especially in high osmolarity and oxidative stress conditions, suggesting a crucial role of SHO1 in the pseudohyphae morphogenetic transitions. Moreover, when grown as budding yeast, the sho1Δ mutant revealed a sensitivity to compounds that interfere with the cell wall assembly, pointing to a potential role of Sho1p in cell wall biogenesis. However, the sho1Δ mutant does not display evident cell‐wall architecture modifications, such as aggregation phenotypes. Although not hypersusceptible to antifungals of clinical relevance, the sho1Δ mutants are susceptible to the filamentous fungi‐specific antifungals dicarboximides and phenylpyrroles. Finally, our findings highlight some significant phenotypic differences when the C. lusitaniae sho1Δ mutant is compared with the corresponding mutants described in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. The GeneBank Accession No. for C. lusitaniae SHO1 gene is EU797514. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Random Item IRT Models
Authors: De Boeck Paul
Published: December 2008

It is common practice in IRT to consider items as fixed and persons as random. Both, continuous and categorical person parameters are most often random variables, whereas for items only continuous parameters are used and they are commonly of the fixed type, although exceptions occur. It is shown in the present article that random item parameters make sense theoretically, and that in practice the random item approach is promising to handle several issues, such as the measurement of persons, the explanation of item difficulties, and trouble shooting with respect to DIF. In correspondence with these issues, three parts are included. All three rely on the Rasch model as the simplest model to study, and the same data set is used for all applications. First, it is shown that the Rasch model with fixed persons and random items is an interesting measurement model, both, in theory, and for its goodness of fit. Second, the linear logistic test model with an error term is introduced, so that the explanation of the item difficulties based on the item properties does not need to be perfect. Finally, two more models are presented: the random item profile model (RIP) and the random item mixture model (RIM). In the RIP, DIF is not considered a discrete phenomenon, and when a robust regression approach based on the RIP difficulties is applied, quite good DIF identification results are obtained. In the RIM, no prior anchor sets are defined, but instead a latent DIF class of items is used, so that posterior anchoring is realized (anchoring based on the item mixture). It is shown that both approaches are promising for the identification of DIF.
Rehabilitating Psoas Tendonitis: A Case Report
Authors: Edelstein Jaime
Published: December 2008

This case report describes the examination and physical therapy intervention for a woman with anterior hip pain whose medical diagnosis following magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was bilateral labral tears and psoas tendinitis. Her physical therapy evaluation revealed findings consistent with psoas tendonitis. Utilizing theories of neuromuscular patterning and knowledge of normal muscle function, the patient was successfully treated in physical therapy following six physical therapy sessions, once a week for 6 weeks. The patient was found to have an overactive psoas muscle, as indicated by hip flexion being the primary mover in her movement patterns, and dysfunctional abdominal and pelvic floor muscles. Functionally based therapeutic exercise and electrical stimulation were used to reeducate the muscles of the abdomen, pelvic floor, and hips in order to create muscular balance and correct muscle dysfunction.
Nanoscale 3D contour map of protein assembly within the astrocyte porosome complex
Authors: Cho Won Jin , Ren Gang , Lee Jin‐Sook , Jeftinija Ksenija , Jeftinija Srdija , Jena Bhanu P.
Published: December 2008

The astrocyte porosome complex, the secretory machinery at the plasma membrane of astrocytes, is a 10–15 nm cup‐shaped lipoprotein structure possessing a central plug. Since the porosome is a membrane‐associated, multi‐protein complex, it has precluded the generation of 3D crystals for X‐ray diffraction studies, nor structural analysis at the atomic level using the solution NMR. These limitations were partially overcome in the current studies, furthering our understanding of the porosome structure in astrocytes. Using atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy, and electron density and 3D contour mapping, finally provides at the nanoscale, the structure and assembly of proteins within the astrocyte porosome complex. Results from this study demonstrate a set of protein units lining the porosome cup, each connected via spoke‐like elements to a central plug region within the structure. In contrast to the neuronal porosome, which possess eight globular proteins at the outer rim of the complex, the porosome complex appear to possess 12 such globular structures. Nature has designed the porosome as the universal secretory machinery, but has fine‐tuned its use to suite secretion from different cell types. The isolation of intact astrocyte porosomes for near‐atomic resolution using cryo‐electron diffraction measurements, is finally possible.
Myosin light chains are not a physiological substrate of AMPK in the control of cell structure changes
Authors: Bultot Laurent , Horman Sandrine , Neumann Dietbert , Walsh Michael P. , Hue Louis , Rider Mark H.
Published: December 2008

MINT‐6800264: smMLCK (uniprotkb:P11799) phosphorylates (MI:0217) MLC (uniprotkb:P08590) by protein kinase assay (MI:0424)

MINT‐6800252: AMPK (uniprotkb:Q13131) phosphorylates (MI:0217) ACC2 (uniprotkb:000763) by protein kinase assay (MI:0424)
Constitutively active GPR6 is located in the intracellular compartments
Authors: Padmanabhan Shalini , Myers Amanda G. , Prasad Balakrishna M.
Published: December 2008

We used multiple imaging assays to test the hypothesis that GPR6, a constitutively active Gs‐coupled receptor, is present on the cell surface. A pHluorin tag at the N‐terminus of rat GPR6 expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells was not accessible to protons, chymotrypsin or anti‐green fluorescent protein antibody, demonstrating that GPR6 is primarily located in intracellular compartments. Similar intracellular localization of pHluorin‐tagged GPR6 was found in striatal neurons, where endogenous GPR6 is expressed. Confirmation of Gs‐mediated constitutive activity in HEK293 cells and striatal neurons led us to conclude that GPR6 can signal from intracellular compartments.
Ile90Met, a novel mutation in the cardiac troponin T gene for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a Chinese pedigree
Authors: XU CHAO , WEI MENG , SU BIN , HUA XUE-WEI , ZHANG GUO-WEI , XUE XIAO-PEI , PAN CUN-MING , LIU RONG , SHENG YAN , LU ZHI-GANG , JIN LI-REN , SONG HUAI-DONG
Published: December 2008

To identify the disease-causing gene for a large multi-generational Chinese family affected by familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHCM), genome-wide screening was carried out in a Chinese family with FHCM using micro-satellite markers, and linkage analysis was performed using the MLINK program. The disease locus was mapped to 1q32 in this family. Screening for a mutation in the cardiac troponin T (cTnT) gene was performed by a PCR and sequencing was done with an ABI Prism 3700 sequencer. A novel C→G transition located in the ninth exon of the cTnT gene, leading to a predicted amino acid residue change from Ile to Met at codon 90, was identified in all individuals with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). The results presented here strongly suggest that Ile90Met, a novel mutation in the cTnT gene, is causative agent of HCM in this family.
Can, may, mustandshould: A Relevance theoretic account
Authors: Groefsema Marjolein
Published: December 2008

In this paper I argue that the polysemy view is not capable of giving a unified account of the meanings of CAN, MAY, MUST and SHOULD, whereas the unitary meaning view does not encounter the problems facing the polysemy view. I propose unitary meanings which are rich enough to account for the range of interpretations these modals can have, but which are specific enough to account for why they get these interpretations and not others. Proposing unitary meanings implies that we have to look for a theory of pragmatics which can explain how we achieve the different interpretations of these modals in use. I will argue that adopting the Relevance theory view of what drives interpretation gives us the basis for such an explanation.
Constraints on the agentless passive
Authors: Weiner E. Judith , Labov William
Published: December 2008

This paper is a quantitative study of the factors that determine the selection of passive constructions over active ones by English speakers. By examining a large body of passives used in spontaneous speech, together with the sentences that show an opposing choice, we are able to throw light on the crucial question of which syntactic and which semantic features of the environment act to constrain the choice and whether syntactic or semantic factors predominate in this case. In the course of the analysis, we will also have something to say about the social factors that have been reported to determine the use of the passive.
Paradigm economy
Authors: Carstairs Andrew
Published: December 2008

The inflexional paradigm, as a linguistic entity or concept, has not been a major preoccupation of theoretical linguists (at least in the English-speaking world) for several decades. For example, it is scarcely mentioned by Zellig Harris in his classic Methods in structural linguistics (1951). Nor have generative grammarians devoted much attention to it. Being interested originally in syntax, semantics and phonology to the almost total exclusion of morphology, they had no immediate incentive to reconsider such a squarely morphological concept. Quite apart from this, a positive reason for continuing to neglect, or reject, the paradigm seemed to flow from their approach to phonology. If phonological organization and phonological change were properly understood (they thought), then it could be seen that there was no need to invoke explicitly non-phonological factors such as ‘paradigm pressure’ or ‘analogical levelling’ in order to account for ‘exceptions’ to ‘sound laws’.
The demise of the Old English impersonal construction
Authors: Fischer Olga C. M. , Van Der Leek Frederike C.
Published: December 2008

Jespersen (1894) was the first to attempt to provide an account of the changes that the Old English (OE) impersonal construction was subject to over a period of time, finally ending in its disappearance from the language. The analysis that he proposed, and that he worked out in greater detail in Jespersen (1927), has essentially been taken over by other linguists writing on the subject since then, the only difference lying in the type of explanation they had to offer for the loss of the construction. It seems to have been generally taken for granted that Jespersen's choice of data on which to base the explanation for the disappearance of the construction is correct. As Tripp (1978: 177) puts it, ‘The discussion of the loss of impersonal constructions has reached a point where additional data seem unlikely to alter competing explanations of their disappearance.’ We have a radically different view of the matter in that we claim that all previous explanations of the loss of the impersonal construction (that we know of) are based on the same incorrect starting-point, i.e. a data base that is unduly limited and consequently an incorrect view of the changes involved in the loss of the construction, therefore inevitably leading to the wrong explanation. Rather than assuming, with Jespersen and others, that ‘impersonal’ verbs had one meaning in OE and another, the converse, meaning in New English (NE), we uphold that in OE both meanings existed side by side, systematically associable with different syntactic constructions.
Focus, mode and the nucleus
Authors: Gussenhoven Carlos
Published: December 2008

This article argues for the hypothesis that the location of the nucleus of the intonation contour is rule-governed. The term ‘nucleus’ is taken to refer to what has elsewhere been discussed as the ‘nuclear syllable’ (Crystal, 1969), ‘tonic’ (Halliday, 1967a), ‘sentence stress’ (Schmerling, 1976), ‘[I stress]’ (Chomsky & Halle, 1968), and ‘Designated Terminal Element’ (Liberman & Prince, 1977) (ignoring certain differences of analysis, such as that between double-nucleus and single-nucleus interpretation of some contours). Drawing on the facts of English and Dutch, it does so by attempting to identify the linguistic options available to speakers that are relevant to the location of the nucleus. The main argument hinges on the assumption that the chief functions of the location of the nucleus are (1) to signal the focus distribution of the sentence and (2) to signal whether the sentence is or is not meant as a counter-assertion, with the proviso that in many instances the location of the nucleus allows of more than one interpretation of one or both variables. Section 1 devotes some discussion to the problem of predictability, while the concepts of ‘focus’ and ‘normal stress’ are explored in Sections 2 to 4. Section 5 states the sentence accent assignment rule (SAAR), giving illustrations of its application. In Section 6, special attention is devoted to the pragmatic effects of SAAR in subject + predicate sentences. Section 7 attempts to give a fuller definition of the constituents the rule refers to and puts a general condition on its application. Section 8 introduces the variablemode, while Section 9 defines the problem of the location of the nucleus in sentences with minimal focus and introduces another accent assignment rule (PFR). A summary in the form of a set of propositions concludes the article. I should like to point out that most of the examples in this article are attested; it is only the more pedestrian ones that have been made up for the purpose of illustrating certain points.
Perfect and pluperfect: what is the relationship?
Authors: Salkie Raphael
Published: December 2008

The English (present) perfect (e.g.I have gone) has been extensively studied in the theoretical literature on tense and aspect. The pluperfect (I had gone) has by contrast received relatively little attention, and the relationship between the present perfect and the pluperfect has been virtually ignored. Descriptive grammars of English also tend to say little about the latter two issues, beyond distinguishing cases such as (1)–(6), where the pluperfect seems to be the ‘past of the perfect’, from instances like (7)–(11), where the pluperfect is the ‘past of the past’ (cf. Thomson & Martinet, 1969: 112–13; Berland-Delépine, 1971: 95–6; Guitard, 1966: 206–7; Palmer, 1974: 54):
Notes on transitivity and theme in English Part I
Authors: Halliday M. A. K.
Published: December 2008

It is planned to publish this paper in three parts, in this and the two subsequent issues of the Journal of Linguistics. The three parts will consist respectively of the numbered sections 1–3, 4–7 and 8–10; references to section 4 onwards are thus to forthcoming parts of the paper. Sections 1–3 contain observations concerning transitivity; 4–7 deal with what is here referred to as ‘theme’, a general term for all those choices involving the distribution of information in the clause; in 8–10, transitivity is reconsidered in the light of certain further problems and of what has been said about theme, and some generalization is attempted.
A Government-Binding perspective on the imperative in English
Authors: Beukema Frits , Coopmans Peter
Published: December 2008

Culicover (1976:152) states that ‘the imperative is an idiosyncratic construction in most languages’. One of the aims of this article is to show that as far as this construction in the English language is concerned, this is an overstatement if we give careful consideration to the structural properties of this construction in a restrictive framework such as Government-Binding theory. Given the proposals in current generative grammar concerning the relations between COMP, INFL, V and their corresponding projections, it is worth investigating what the syntactic representation of the imperative may look like.
Phonological events
Authors: Bird Steven , Klein Ewan
Published: December 2008

One of the major innovations within post-SPE generative phonology has been the development of frameworks where phonological units are organized in a non-linear fashion. Taking autosegmental phonology (Goldsmith, 1976) as our main exemplar of such frameworks, we wish to address the following question: What is the appropriate interpretation of autosegmental representations? There is, of course, a further question about what we mean by INTERPRETATION: formal, phonetic or computational interpretation? Although we will concentrate on the first of these, we believe that all three aspects should be regarded as closely inter-connected and mutually constraining. The question of interpreting autosegmental representation has in fact been recently posed by Sagey (1988), and we shall take her proposal as our starting point. While it is uncontroversial to suppose that the relationship between units on a given autosegmental tier is one of temporal precedence, Sagey claims that it is more problematic to pin down what is meant by association between tiers. She argues, cogently we believe, that if association is taken to be a relationship of simultaneity between durationless units, then standard analyses of complex segments and gemination lead to logical inconsistency. Instead, association should be taken as temporal OVERLAP between units with duration.
The ambiguity of the English present perfect
Authors: Michaelis Laura A.
Published: December 2008

This study examines grammatical and discourse-pragmatic reflexes of the existential and resultative readings of the English present perfect. I present both negative and positive arguments in favor of the claim that the present perfect is ambiguous (rather than vague) with respect to these readings. In particular, I argue that the resultative present-perfect represents a formal idiom: a morphosyntactic form characterized by idiosyncratic constraints upon grammar, meaning and use. Certain constraints upon the resultative present-perfect, in particular that which prevents it from denoting a pragmatically presupposed event proposition, can be MOTIVATED with respect to a discourse-pragmatic opposition involving the preterite. However, such constraints cannot be PREDICTED from functional oppositions or any general semantic principles. Finally, I suggest that mastery of aspectual grammar crucially entails knowledge of such idiomatic form-meaning pairings.
Lexical storage and retrieval in language-impaired children
Authors: Kail Robert , Hale Catherine A. , Leonard Laurence B. , Nippold Marilyn A.
Published: December 2008

We tested 20 language-impaired children, 20 age-matched normal children, and 20 language-matched normal children. In free recall, children simply remembered as many words possible; in cued recall, the experimenter provided the category names as retrieval cues; in repeated free recall, children recalled the list three times in succession. The principal results were that (1) language-impaired children recalled fewer words than their agemates in both free and cued recall, and (2) the pattern of repeated free recall suggested that language-impaired children were less likely than their agemates to store a word when presented, and were less consistent in their retrieval of words. Our discussion concerns the roles of lexical acquisition and lexical retrieval in language-impaired children's word-finding problems.
Prelexical and postlexical features in language production
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: December 2008

This study investigated the role of word class and gender during lexical access in language production. It was predicted that word class would constrain lexical access because it acts as the interface between the syntax and the lexicon. Gender, in contrast, should not constrain lexical access because it is a linguistic category that does not correlate with any semantic or syntactic information. These predictions were tested against contextual and noncontextual word substitution errors in a corpus of German slips of the tongue, as well as against verbal paraphasias produced by a German-speaking aphasic patient. The results indicated that in all three subsets, both word class and gender influenced the search through the mental lexicon to a reliable degree, with word class making a greater impact than gender. The model that best captured the empirical effects centered around the distinction between prelexical and postlexical features, assigning word class to the former and gender to the latter group. This distinction could be most naturally implemented in a parallel-interactive processing network. The creation of nodes and connections in this type of model was shown not only to respect functional principles, but also to occur on purely structural grounds. On the assumption that the information would be transmitted more or less reliably from one node to another, the aphasiological and speech error data could be readily accommodated within the same psycholinguistic model.
Foreign language aptitude and intelligence
Authors: Wesche Marjorie , Edwards Henry , Wells Winston
Published: December 2008

Notwithstanding the predictive value of foreign language aptitude measures, the underlying ability or abilities tapped by them and their relationship to measures of intelligence are not well understood. This study provides a partial characterization of the nature of language aptitude through correlations and factor analyses of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and the Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMA). The subjects of the study were 793 English-speaking Canadian public servants at various stages of intensive French language training. The results revealed substantial redundancy among the subtests of the MLAT and PMA batteries and a Kaiser's Little Jiffy factor analysis yielded a one-factor solution at the second-order level. A principal factors solution, however, identified three interpretable second-order factors, characterized respectively as first language verbal knowledge, abstract reasoning ability, and ability to learn new language elements and associations. A unitary third-order factor was also identified, probably approximating Spearman's g. Taken together, the findings of the study are compatible with the conceptualization of language aptitude according to a hierarchical model which subsumes specific abilities of importance in the language classroom under a more encompassing general ability, or general intelligence.
Linguistic precocity and the development of reading: The role of extralinguistic factors
Authors: Dale Philip S. , Crain-Thoreson Catherine , Robinson Nancy M.
Published: December 2008

The language and literacy skills of 21 children (aged 6;6), who were selected for linguistic precocity at age 1;8, are reported here. Verbal abilities remained high, and in contrast to the findings at 4;6 (reported in Crain-Thoreson & Dale, 1992), reading achievement is now at a superior level. Overall, the results are consistent with a two-phase model of reading development, in which the second phase is more closely related to language ability than the first. Phonological awareness, as indexed by a phoneme deletion task, appears to emerge as a consequence, rather than a cause, of early reading. There also appears to be a complex relationship among early interest in reading, instruction, and reading development. Differences in child interest in books and book reading may evoke variation in literacy-relevant experiences.
Lexical influences on nonword repetition
Authors: Dollaghan Christine A. , Biber Maureen E. , Campbell Thomas F.
Published: December 2008

The present investigation explores the hypothesis that lexical information influences performance on nonword repetition tasks. The subjects – 30 normally achieving, school-aged boys – repeated multisyllabic nonword pairs, constructed to vary only in the lexicality of their constituent stressed syllables. Nonwords with stressed syllables corresponding to real words were repeated significantly more accurately than nonwords with non-lexical stressed syllables; stressed syllable lexicality primarily influenced repetition of the remaining unstressed syllables. Subsequent analyses revealed that the overwhelming majority of repetition errors operated to transform non-lexical sequences into real words, even when doing so violated both strong acoustic cues and articulatory ease. We conclude that lexical long-term memory information intrudes on nonword repetition performance, including stimuli that are within the limits of immediate memory span. These results suggest a number of caveats concerning the construction and interpretation of nonword repetition tasks and raise questions about the role of such tasks in assessing phonological working memory.
Down the Garden Path: Inducing and correcting overgeneralization errors in the foreign language classroom
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Herron Carol
Published: December 2008

In this study we compared two methods for teaching grammatical exceptions in the foreign language classroom. Thirty-nine students in two sections of an introductory college French course served as subjects. Eight target structures, exemplifying “exceptions to a rule,” were randomly assigned to one of two teaching conditions for a section taught in the spring; each structure was assigned to the opposite teaching condition for a section taught the following fall. In one condition we simply taught the students the exception as an exception. In the other – what we called the Garden Path condition – we presented canonical exemplars encouraging students to induce the rule; we then asked them to generate the form (which we knew to be an exception) and then corrected their resulting overgeneralization error. Analysis of subsequent formal testing showed that students learned the exception better in the Garden Path condition and that this advantage persisted throughout the semesterlong course. We hypothesized that this technique helped students to focus attention both on the rule and on the features of the particular structure that marked it as an exception.
Contexts of antonymous adjectives
Authors: Charles Walter G. , Miller George A.
Published: December 2008

The method of sorting is used to compare sets of adjectival contexts. Contexts of directly antonymous adjectives are found to be highly discriminable, both with sentential and phrasal contexts. These results are used to argue that words with different meanings normally appear in discriminably different contexts, and that the cue for learning to associate direct antonyms is not their substitutability, but rather their relatively frequent co-occurrence in the same sentence.
Language-impaired children's real-time comprehension of spoken language
Authors: Montgomery James W. , Scudder Rosalind R. , Moore Christopher A.
Published: December 2008

Language-impaired children have been shown to exhibit a variety of post-sentence comprehension deficits. Comprehension, however, may also be assessed as it develops rather than after it has occurred. The present investigation compared the real-time language processing abilities of language-impaired and normal children using a word recognition reaction time paradigm. Children's reaction times across three word positions in three sentence type conditions were measured. Results showed that the language-impaired children used linguistic context to facilitate word recognition, but were slower to do so than their normally developing peers. The results were interpreted to suggest that language-impaired children are less proficient than normal children at using their linguistic knowledge to develop linguistic representations of sentence meaning. An on-line retrieval deficit or deficient connections among processing units (e.g., Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986a, 1986b; Waltz & Pollack, 1985) are suggested as likely sources of the language-impaired children's language processing difficulties.
Interlingual identification and the role of foreign language experience in L2 vowel perception
Authors: Bohn Ocke-Schwen , Flege James Emil
Published: December 2008

This article examines the perception of four English vowels (/i, i, ε, æ/) by adult native speakers of German. From the standpoint of German, it appears that English /i, i,ε/ are perceptually similar, if not identical, to German /i, i, ε,/ whereas /ε/ is a “new” vowel for German learners of English. The role of foreign language experience in the perception of second language vowels was examined through labeling responses to members of synthetic continua (beat-bit, bet-bat) in which vowel duration and spectrum were varied factorily. The subjects were relatively experienced and inexperienced second language (L2) learners and a monolingual English control group. The results suggest that L2 experience did not affect perception for the continuum with the two “similar” vowels /i/ and /I/. However, for the continuum involving the “new” vowel /æ/, the experienced Germans more closely resembled the native English speakers than the inexperienced Germans. The predominant use of duration cues in differentiating the English /ε/–/æ/ contrast by the inexperienced Germans suggested that when spectral cues are insufficient to differentiate an L2 vowel contrast, duration will be used.
Narrative as an index of communicative competence in mildly mentally retarded children
Authors: Hemphill Lowry , Picardi Nancy , Tager-Flusberg Helen
Published: December 2008

This study compared the narrative abilities of mildly mentally retarded and nonretarded children. Twenty mildly mentally retarded children and 20 nonretarded children, matched on mental age, PPVT-R scores, and SES were audiotaped while narrating a wordless picture book story. Results showed no differences between the groups in narrative length, use of tense and conjunctions, and use of narrative devices. However, there were significant differences in use of reference, with the mildly retarded children using more definite article + noun character introductions, showing more pronoun confusion, and more often pronominalizing all references to the story protagonist. Control of reference in narrative is discussed as presenting a particularly challenging set of discourse abilities because it requires the child to integrate knowledge across a number of linguistic and nonlinguistic domains.
Social biases toward children with speech and language impairments: A correlative causal model of language limitations
Authors: Rice Mabel L. , Hadley Pamela A. , Alexander Amy L.
Published: December 2008

This study explores adults' attitudes toward children with limited linguistic competency. Four groups of adult judges participated in this study: kindergarten teachers, women matched for age and education level with the teachers, undergraduate college students, and speech-language pathologists. The judges listened to audiotaped samples of preschool children's speech. Two triads of children were formed, matched for age, gender, and intelligence, but differing in communication abilities. The adults responded to questionnaire items addressing child attributes (e.g., intelligence, social maturity) and parental attributes (e.g., education level, SES). Systematic biases were revealed toward children with limited communication abilities. The biases are interpreted as reflective of adults' expectations for children's language.It is argued that adults call upon a correlative causal model of language acquisition to interpret individual differences in children's language abilities. Negative social and academic consequences of such misinterpretations are discussed. The visual similarity of the error to the target word was also determined. The RD group at all ages produced significantly fewer phonologically accurate misspellings than the children with normal achievement scores, whether the constrained or the unconstrained scoring system was used. The AD-poor spellers and the RD group produced significantly fewer phonologically constrained, accurate misspellings than the NA group. Using the unconstrained measure, the AD-poor spellers at the youngest age level displayed as much difficulty using rudimentary sound-symbol conversion rules as the RD group, while at the older age levels, they did as well as the NA group. AD-good spellers performed as well as the NA group on both measures at all age levels. Children who were good readers and spellers (Good RS) were compared with children who were poor readers and spellers (Poor RS) and with children who were good readers and poor spellers (Mixed RS). Mixed RS produced significantly more phonologically and visually accurate misspellings than Poor RS. In summary, subtypes of learning-disabled children use spelling strategies that are significantly different from each other. RD children have the most difficulty acquiring the knowledge of soundspelling correspondence rules that are necessary for English spelling skills. The performance of AD children depends on the complexity of the scoring system, age, and spelling ability. Those students whose knowledge of sound-spelling correspondence rules is sufficiently well developed for reading but not for spelling (good readers/poor spellers) develop their phonetic skills more slowly than the good readers/good spellers. The understanding and use of phonological rules varies according to the subtype of learning disability, with children with a reading disability performing the most poorly at all age levels.