bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Church, the
Authors: Lay Robert F.
Published: January 2012

This article describes the Christian church, both the concept and the institution, as distinct from other phenomena such as the Kingdom of God and Christendom. In the spiritual realm, the Kingdom of God refers to the universal reality of God's sovereign rule. In the temporal realm Christendom refers to the society (medieval, western society) that sprang from the church and, in turn, is the context of the church's life and its mission base. The church is the fellowship of those who worship the triune God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (John 3:16; 1 Thes.1:1), and who, having received the forgiveness of their sins, are saved through the grace of Christ (Acts 15:11). As a church is comprised of members, and they
are
the church, so every local association of Christ‐followers is a member of the church universal, existing throughout time and place since its founding in the mid 30s of the lst century of the Christian era. Thus
church
refers both to the universal reality and to particular local and historical examples. While other ways of identifying the church — for example as the
visible
and
invisible
church — are described below, exploring the church's fundamental nature as both universaland particular requires an understanding of the biblical‐theological ideal, followed by an examination of historical examples.
Civil Religion, Christianity as
Authors: Alexander Paul Nathan
Published: January 2012

Rousseau is careful to distinguish Jesus and Christianity (which he claims are purely spiritual and heavenly) from the need for civil religion, for the latter is to be the religion that harmonizes all other religions for the good of the state.
Clapham Sect
Authors: Baker Dwight P.
Published: January 2012

The Clapham Sect (active 1780s through 1830s) was comprised of a group of British evangelical social and political activists and philanthropists whose founding generation included William Wilberforce, Charles Grant, Granville Sharp, Zachary Macaulay, James Stephen, and Hannah More. The group received its name, retrospectively, from the village south of the Thames where many early members lived and where regular meetings of the group took place.
Colombian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Colombia was known as New Granada in colonial times. The first Catholic diocese was established in 1534 and the first seminary in 1582. Encomiendas were set up to administer Indian settlements but missionaries often found themselves in conflict with the system because of its inhumane treatment of Indians. The church faced a severe shortage of priests and a loss of influence after the declaration of independence in 1819. Six episcopal sees were vacant during this period. The government assumed the right of patronage that had been reserved for the Spanish throne and the following decade was marked by a severe persecution of the church. In 1853 church and state were separated and civil marriage and divorce were introduced. In 1861 all church property was expropriated and church officials were exiled. The church was stripped of its juridical personality by the new Constitution of 1863. A rapprochement was begun in 1878 and completed in 1887. The Constitution of 1886 established Catholicism as the official religion of the Colombian people.
C
olumba, Saint (c.521–597)
Authors: Boyd Matthieu
Published: January 2012

The Irish version of the name is
Colum Cille
“Dove of the Church” (
Calum Cille
in Scottish Gaelic). Columba founded the abbey of Iona (an island off the western shore of present‐day Scotland) in 563. This became the head of an important monastic federation with an influential presence in Northumbria (e.g. at Lindisfarne) as well as in Ireland (at Derry, Durrow, Kells, etc.) and in what is now Scotland.
Conciliarism
Authors: Woods Thomas E.
Published: January 2012

Conciliarism teaches that the highest authority in the Catholic Church is a general council of bishops rather than the pope. Conciliarists also favored much more frequent councils than had previously been convoked throughout the history of the church.
Contemplative Life
Authors: Coulter Dale M.
Published: January 2012

The call to a life of contemplation arose from the desire to withdraw from society and its demands in order to pray, reflect, and intensify the individual's pursuit of God. Almost from the outset, this life became commensurate with leaving the daily activities, e.g. household duties, that prevent the individual from focusing exclusively on deepening religious commitment. With the removal of societal demands, the individual could engage in a life of leisure in the sense of a life devoted to the mind and spiritual development. As such, the contemplative life combined spiritual pursuits with the ancient idea of retreats for philosophical reflection.
C
halcedon, Council of (451)
Authors: Nixon John Ashley
Published: January 2012

The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth and largest ecumenical council of the ancient church. Approximately 450 bishops attended and, while the majority of these bishops came from the East, the influence of the West through Leo's
Tome
cannot be overstated. This council, like Constantinople (381) and Ephesus (431) before it, did not seek to add to the church's faith, but rather met to clarify the church's faith as it had been described at Nicaea (325) in order to make clear how the church speaks and thinks about Christ in accordance with Scripture.
Trent, Council of (1545–1563)
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

The Council of Trent (LatinTridentum) (1545–1563) was a three‐phase council spanning the pontificates of three popes convened in response to the Protestant Reformation. It is regarded as the beginning of the so‐called Counter‐Reformation, both in its anti‐Protestant effect and in the renewal it initiated in the Catholic world. It fixed many Catholic teachings and rules contrary to those of the Protestants and put an end to any effort toward a reconciliation of the confessions. For centuries it remained the only council until the First Vatican Council (1869–1870) and its effects endured until the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). Hence Catholicism prior to 1962 is referred to as Tridentine Catholicism.
Counter‐Reformation
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

The term “Counter‐Reformation” (often also called Catholic Renewal in Catholic authors) is widely used by historians to designate the period of Catholic revival from the middle of the 16th century to the close of the Thirty Years War in 1648.
C
yril (827–869) and
M
ethodius (826–885)
Authors: Higgins Paul
Published: January 2012

The Byzantine Greek saints Cyril and Methodius, “the apostles to the Slavs,” were brothers born in Thessalonica to a family of
droungarios
. In their youth, Cyril and Methodius learned the dialect of the Slavs around Thessalonica, and could speak the language fluently. Their father, a military officer, died when Cyril was 14 and they were thereafter raised by their uncle, a Byzantine official named Theoktistos. Both brothers entered the priesthood at a relatively young age. Cyril studied in Constantinople and read widely; he was especially proficient in linguistics, and studied under Photius, who would later be named patriarch of Constantinople.
L
eonardo
D
a
V
inci (1452–1519)
Authors: Thomas David Andrew
Published: January 2012

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, the latter appellations indicating paternity and place of birth rather than surname, was born on April 15, 1452 near Vinci in the Florentine region of Tuscany, the illegitimate son of Messer Piero, a notary, and a peasant girl named Caterina. One of history's greatest geniuses, he was a master painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, inventor, mathematician, scientist, and musician. Leonardo probably more than any other is the archetypal “Renaissance man.”
D
e
F
oucauld,
C
harles
E
ugene (1858–1916)
Authors: Gallagher Robert L.
Published: January 2012

A French explorer, hermit, and missionary, Charles Eugene de Foucauld was born in Strasbourg. Although coming from a devout Catholic family, he lived a depraved life as an aristocrat and a cavalry lieutenant in Algeria and Morocco. In 1883–1884 de Foucauld secretly explored Morocco, and four years later published
Reconnaissance au Maroc
. For his scientific observations during this expedition he was honored by the Paris Geographical Society.
M
orales,
L
uis
D
e (1509/19–1585/86)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Spanish painter nicknamed El Divino. He worked from 1539 to the end of his life in Badajoz on the border with Portugal. He was one of the first wave of Counter‐Reformation painters who were influenced by the
Spiritual Exercises
of Ignatius of Loyola. He worked for the Cathedral of Badajoz and the Dominican Priory at Evora in Portugal. Many of his paintings have a Flemish appearance and an enamel‐like finish achieved by several layers of glaze. He is most famous for small devotional paintings such as
Pieta
(1560),
Holy Family
(1562),
Mater Dolorosa
, and various Madonna and the Child portraits.
Dead Sea Scrolls
Authors: Finlay Timothy D.
Published: January 2012

Between 1947 and 1956, numerous scrolls were found in 11 caves near the site of Qumran by the Dead Sea. Together with some scrolls found at other sites near the Dead Sea, such as Massada, Nahal Hever, and Murabba'at, these scrolls are known as the “Dead Sea Scrolls.” Most were written in Hebrew or Aramaic on animal hide or papyrus. The scrolls fall into three main categories: the Hebrew scriptures (especially Deuteronomy, Isaiah and the Psalms, with the only book not represented being Esther); “deuterocanonical” works known previously only in translations preserved by different Christian churches; and documents pertaining to the Qumran community itself.
Deism
Authors: Gomes Alan W.
Published: January 2012

Deism is a rationalistic, critical approach to theism with an emphasis on natural theology. The Deists attempted to reduce religion to what they regarded as its most foundational, rationally justifiable elements. Deism is not, strictly speaking, the teaching that God wound up the world like a watch and let it run on its own, though that teaching was embraced by some within the movement.
Descartes, René (1596–1650)
Authors: Ganssle Gregory E.
Published: January 2012

René Descartes was an influential French thinker who made contributions in mathematics, optics, physics, and especially, philosophy. He was educated in mathematics and physics at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. He left La Flèche in 1614 and in 1618 he met Isaac Beeckman, who kindled Descartes' interest in the sciences. He began to see mathematics as the key to unifying all knowledge. In 1633 he completed a work called The World but withdrew it from publication after hearing about Galileo's troubles with the church. In 1637 he published Discourse on Method. It was not until 1641 that his first wholly philosophical piece was published, Meditations on First Philosophy. He published this book with six sets of objections from various intellectual leaders and his replies. The objections and replies are five times the length of the original work. The Principles of Philosophy followed in 1644. Descartes accepted a job tutoring Queen Christina of Sweden. For this he had to get up at five in the morning. Soon he caught pneumonia and died in 1650.
Devotionalism and Devotional Literature
Authors: Pasquier Michael
Published: January 2012

Devotionalism refers to formal and informal relationships between human beings and sacred figures, involving an assortment of prayers, rituals, and worship practices. Devotional literature is a common feature of devotionalism inasmuch as devotees imagine and describe their contact with gods, ancestors, spirits, saints, and other holy persons in written form. Such religious activities have proven essential to the development of religions throughout human history. World religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and Islam direct their adherents to devote themselves to a variety of sacred entities, places, causes, and ideas. In all of these traditions, devotees seek to apply their knowledge of the sacred to their daily lives.
Dialectical or Crisis Theology
Authors: Hector Kevin W.
Published: January 2012

Dialectical theology arose early in the 20th century, in response to the liberalism then dominant in German theology. The so‐called theology of Krisis was ignited by an actual crisis, namely, the outbreak of World War I. Many young theologians and church leaders were appalled when Germany's leading theologians signed an open letter endorsing German war aims, and concluded that there was something fundamentally wrong with a theology that was incapable of standing against the popular cultural tide. Dialectical theologians traced the fundamental problem back to liberal theology's (alleged) anthropocentric starting point: as Karl Barth, one of the leading dialectical theologians, put it, liberals thought they could talk about God by talking about human beings in a loud voice, which meant that they were ultimately left empty‐handed when the time came to say “No” to a culture's self‐perception.
D
odd,
C
harles
H
arold (
C
.
H
.
D
odd) (1884–1973)
Authors: Smith Jay E.
Published: January 2012

Charles Harold Dodd, a renowned British New Testament scholar of the 20th century, was born on April 7, 1884 at Wrexham, North Wales. He was ordained into the Congregational Church and held academic posts at Mansfield College, Oxford (1915–1930), University of Manchester (1930–1935), and Cambridge University (1935–1949). After his retirement in 1949, Dodd remained active as a lecturer, author, and as the General Director of the New Translation of the Bible — making him the driving force behind the New English Bible (NEB). He died on September 22, 1973.
Doukhobors
Authors: Parsons William H.
Published: January 2012

This religious group originated in the 18th century in Russia as a protest against the Russian Orthodox Church and the Tsarist government. The name Doukhobors means “spirit wrestlers” in Russian and was used as a derogatory term by the Orthodox Church. They preached a “simple” Christianity, rejecting the authority of the priesthood and the government. They believed in communal values, advocated the equality of all men, and practiced non‐violence. They faced persecution in Russia, and later in Canada, the country to which many emigrated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Doxology
Authors: Thompson John
Published: January 2012

A doxology (Greek doxa and logos, speaking glory) is generally a short verse or hymn of praise to God that usually begins with the words “Glory to.” Doxologies are often added at the end of canticles, psalms, and hymns.
Drama, Early and MedievalChristian
Authors: Roark Carolyn D.
Published: January 2012

The efforts of church councils to discourage the practice eventually peaked with ace398 decree by the Council of Carthage recommending excommunication for those who missed services on holy days in favor of going to plays.
D
uccio di
B
uoninsegna (1255/60–1318)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Sienese painter. He is infused with the spirit and intensity of the Franciscan and Dominican revival. His first work was the Rucellai Madonna (Uffizi), the 14 foot high altarpiece commissioned by the Florentine church of Sta Maria Novella. But his masterpiece was the even larger Maesta painted between 1308 and 1311. It presented two faces: The front of the Panel represents the Madonna and the Child enthroned in majesty surrounded by the saints, while the back of the panel, 12 feet by 14 feet, has a number of smaller panels from the Passion. Originally there were saints and apostles in the small pinnacles but they have either disappeared or been dismembered. In the front panel four angels stand behind the throne tenderly gazing at the Madonna and the Child. Saints stand in a row with four kneeling at the front and there are more angels in rows behind them. The back of the altarpiece was clearly visible to the congregation. Its 14 panels tell the entire story of the Gospel of which 12 panels are divided into two, making 26 narratives in all. The story begins with Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem and successive panels show his arrest and trial, the Resurrection, and the Risen Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene. In the last panel the risen Christ appears incandescent with gold in the folds of his garment. The crowning panels in the front of the Maesta illustrate the life of the Virgin from the Annunciation to the Dormition and the predella tells the story of Christ's Nativity and his journey to the Temple. John White describes it as the “most important panel ever painted in Italy and certainly the most beautiful.” Other works attributed to him include the exquisite gemlike panel entitled Madonna of the Franciscans.
D
udley‐
S
mith,
T
imothy (b. 1926)
Authors: McElwain Randall D.
Published: January 2012

English hymnwriter, born in Manchester, England on December 26, 1926, Timothy Dudley‐Smith served as Archdeacon of Norwich and Bishop of Thetford in the Church of England until his retirement in 1991. He lives in Salisbury, England. Dudley‐Smith wrote more than 300 hymn texts between 1961 and 2001 and was awarded an Order of the British Empire for “services to hymnody” in 2003. In addition, he received widespread recognition for his two volume biography of John Stott, a leader in the 20th century evangelical Anglican movement.
D
ufay,
G
uillaume (1400–1474)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Franco‐Flemish composer, the most acclaimed musician of the 15th century. More than 200 of his works survive, including 84 songs, 90 motets and hymn settings, eight complete Masses, 13 isorhythmic motets, single Mass movements, and works in honor of the Virgin Mary. He is best known for his development of the cyclic Mass as a musical genre. His liturgical music helped to create the lyrical melodies of the Burgundian chanson. He is believed to have been a priest. Between 1428 and 1433 he sang at the papal court and had two patrons: Eugenius IV and Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy.
D
urufle,
M
aurice (1902–1986)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

French organist and composer. After serving as an organist at Ste Clotilde and Notre Dame he was appointed organist at St. Etienne‐du‐Mont in 1930. His output was relatively small, and most of his works were for the church. In these he used chant and chant‐like melodies in harmonic and contrapuntal settings. His first major work for organ was Prelude, Adagio, and Chorale variations on the chant, Veni, Creator (1930). A second composition in three movements entitled Suite followed in 1934. Among his vocal works is the composition Requiem for Soloists, Choruses. Orchestra and Organ in 1948 which contains “Domine Jesu.” There are also four Latin motets for Gregorian melodies and a Mass entitled Messe “Cum Jubilo” which was designed for liturgical use.
Early Christian Beliefs and Traditions
Authors: Heintz Michael
Published: January 2012

An account of early Christian beliefs and traditions might usefully be arranged in terms of three interrelated aspects of Christian life in the first several centuries of the Common Era:kerygma(preaching and teaching),latreia(worship), andmartyria(martyrdom).Kerygmaexpresses conceptually the mystery experienced and made present inlatreiaand which is enacted most fully inmartyria.
Early Church Art and Architecture
Authors: Tucker J. Brian
Published: January 2012

Until the 2nd century early church art and architecture were indistinguishable from the art and architecture of the broader Greco‐Roman culture. Thus, there was no discernible material identity for the Christ‐movement before this time. Artistic representations that may be classified as early church art and architecture began to appear around 180 and the first archaeologically identifiable church was in Dura‐Europos in Syria around 241–256. The earliest textual reference concerning early church art was by Clement of Alexandria (
Paed.
, 3.11). He employed symbols current in Greco‐Roman culture and redeployed their artistic resources for pedagogical purposes within the church (e.g. dove, anchor, boat, fish, fisherman, and lyre). Clement also indicated there were discussions concerning the usefulness of certain images and their impact on the Christian community (
Paed.
, 3.57–60).
Economics and Christianity
Authors: Cowan David
Published: January 2012

The world today is dominated by a single economic system, namely the global market economy or capitalism. Contemporary civilization is at an economic stage where, as Michael Novak points out, “We are all capitalists now, even the pope. Both traditionalist and socialist methods have failed; for the whole world there is now only one form of economics” (1993: 101). In response, many theologians and ethicists argue that economic decisions cannot be taken strictly according to rationalist economic principles. A tension exists between an economic argument that the economy is value neutral and a moral argument that seeks economic justice. This is not new, since Christian reflection on economic matters is primarily a history of suspicion. Apart from the Bible, Christian economic thinking draws deep from the well of the earliest moral theorist Aristotle, though his economic reflections cover a scant few pages, and the economy he analyzed was of a quite different order.
EgyptianChristianity
Authors: Farag Lois
Published: January 2012

Egyptian Christianity is also known as Alexandrian Christianity and Coptic Christianity: Alexandrian, because the city of Alexandria is the official seat of the Patriarchal See of the Egyptian Church; Coptic, because Egyptian Christians came to be called Copts after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Some scholars use these names interchangeably, while others assign Alexandrian Christianity to the Roman era (till 641) and Coptic Christianity to the post‐Roman era. Some use Egyptian Christianity to refer to the modern era, while others use any of the titles to include all eras. Here Egyptian Christianity is used to cover the whole history of Christianity in Egypt.
E
lizondo,
V
irgilio (
b
. 1935)
Authors: García Alberto L.
Published: January 2012

Born on August 28, 1935 in San Antonio, Texas to Mexican immigrant parents. Elizondo has distinguished himself as a priest, educator, and theologian. He is regarded as the father of US Hispanic theology. He has been recognized by Time Magazine as one of the spiritual innovators of the 21st century.
Ephesus, Council of (431)
Authors: Nixon John Ashley
Published: January 2012

In the early part of the 5th century Nestorius of Constantinople questioned the church's traditional use of the title “Bearer of God” (Theotokos) for Mary, the mother of Jesus. He may have also described the incarnation as the joining together of God the Word and a human person so that two separate persons resided in Christ. The Bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, rebuked and sought to correct Nestorius' way of speaking and thinking about the incarnation. Cyril spoke of the Word of God, who prior to the incarnation possessed only a divine nature, but who by means of the incarnation took to himself possession of his own human nature. Whereas this description distinguished the two natures, it emphasized their true union. A bitter political and theological controversy ensued in which Nestorius accused Cyril of teaching Apollinarianism and Cyril charged Nestorius with teaching an extreme form of Antiochene theology.
E
phrem the
S
yrian,
S
aint (
c
.306–c.373)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Ephrem is the most celebrated writer in all of the Syriac‐speaking Christian tradition and the most eloquent representative of Christianity expressed in its native Semitic milieu. Until around 363, he was active in Nisibis, on the eastern border of the Roman Empire; thereafter he worked in Edessa, also in Mesopotamia. He wrote in Syriac, the local Aramaic dialect, which at an early date had been adopted as the main literary language of Aramaic‐speaking Christianity throughout the region.
Episcopacy
Authors: Fatokun Samson Adetunji
Published: January 2012

The word episcopacy has its root in the Greek word
episkopos
(variously translated bishop, overseer, and superintendent). It refers to a system of church government by bishops, commonly believed to be the continuation of the institution of the Apostolate by Christ. The office of bishop is the highest of the “threefold order of ministry” (namely orders of deacon, priest, and bishop) in the Christian church. There was at first no clear difference between the office of elder and that of bishop. In the apostolic age, the term was used interchangeably with elder (Greek
presbuteros
). While in the Jerusalem church the office of elder ranked highest after that of apostle, in Gentile Christian communities the word bishop was substituted for elder. The elders of Ephesus were equally referred to as bishops (Acts 20: 17–28). In later times, the term
episkopos
(bishop) was restricted to the presiding elder of a church and was considered to denote a separate order higher than that of elder. The office of bishop became restrictedly used of the overall administrative head or a presiding elder of a group of local churches in a particular geographical locality. The first indication of this administrative office as a distinct order of clergy was found in the Epistles of St. Ignatius, bishop of the church of Syrian Antioch, in about
ad
115, on his way to martyrdom in Rome, through which he solicited for the obedience and loyalty of the churches of Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia, Smyrna, and so on, to their different bishops — who were known as monarchical bishops. This system of government (that is, ruling of the church by one bishop) is called “monarchical episcopacy.” The duties of monarchical bishops included exposition and protection of church beliefs against heresy, feeding of the flock with undiluted word, discipline of erring clergy and laity under his jurisdiction, protecting and counseling the church in times of persecution, promoting good relations among churches, overseeing the general welfare of the members, administration of sacraments, commissioning and ordination of church officers, and so on.
Eusebius Pamphili (c.265–c.339)
Authors: Thompson Glen L.
Published: January 2012

Eusebius studied at, and later became bishop of, Caesarea Maritima (Palestine) a half‐century after the famous bible scholar Origen had worked there. Eusebius took the additional name Pamphili (“son of Pamphilus”) in honor of his teacher, with whom he co‐authored a
Defense of Origen.
Making use of the outstanding library of Pamphilus, Eusebius committed himself to elucidating the historical context of Scripture.
Euthanasia
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

The Christian church in all its branches has been opposed to suicide and assisted suicide. Every instance of suicide in Holy Scripture is related to spiritual collapse, from Saul to Judas (1 Sam. 31:4; 2 Sam. 17:23; 1 Kings 16:18–20; Matt. 27:5; Acts 1:18).
Evil
Authors: Jones Clay Butler
Published: January 2012

Just as dark is defined in regard to the absence of light, so in Christian thought evil has often been defined as the absence of good, or, to use Augustine's (354–430) words, as the privation of good (
privatio boni
). Evil is what ought not to be, for evil is, at best, unpleasant, and at its worst, harmful or deadly (as in cancer or murder). Historically, in Christian thought evil has been referred to in two ways, as moral evil (for example, lust, lying, rape, and murder), and as natural evil (for example, tsunamis, earthquakes, measles, and cancer). Further, many Christians consider that all natural evil results from moral evil — primarily the moral evils committed by Satan's rebellion and those committed by earth's first inhabitants, Adam and Eve. When Adam and Eve rebelled and ate from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, they plunged their descendants into a lifelong education of good and evil. God punished their disobedience by cursing the ground, increasing the pain of childbirth, and removing them from the Garden of Eden, which also removed them from the rejuvenating power of the Tree of Life (Gen. 3). Natural evil thus followed moral evil.
Exclusivism
Authors: Wilson William Renay
Published: January 2012

Strictly defined, exclusivism is the insistence that one perspective is uniquely true while conflicting perspectives are necessarily false. In Christian theological discourse, exclusivism asserts the unique truthfulness of Christianity and the categorical falsity of dissenting religious viewpoints. More specifically, such exclusivism contends that individual salvation is only obtained through a conscious personal faith in Jesus Christ.
Existential Theology
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Existentialism is generally regarded as having its modern origins in the thought of Danish Lutheran lay theologian Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). In reaction both to “dead orthodoxy” in the state church and even more to Hegelian “essentialism” (one can rationally come to understand the cosmos), Kierkegaard argued that it is in fact impossible to get beyond one's own finite and sinful “existence.” In Kierkegaard's celebrated aphorism, “truth is subjectivity.” To think that one is capable of setting forth a necessarily true universal metaphysic is to misunderstand the human condition of estrangement and angst and to fall into egoistic hubris. The only hope for fallen mankind is to recognize one's fall from essence to existence and to seek personal, existential salvation through Jesus Christ.
Exorcism
Authors: Abate Eshetu
Published: January 2012

The English term “exorcism” comes from the Latin
exorcismus
, and from Greek
exorkizo
— which means “to adjure or charge under oath.” Exorcism in the New Testament is the driving out of demons or evil spirits from a possessed person by commanding them in the Name of Jesus Christ. Other religions and cultures also use exorcism but largely as magical or superstitious means.
Faith
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

To most people the word “faith” is mostly seen as a religious concept. But in the English‐speaking world, it also has some non‐religious meanings, for instance, when someone says, “He acted in good faith.” The present essay focuses only on how faith is used in religious contexts today.
Feminist Biblical Interpretation
Authors: Köstenberger Margaret E.
Published: January 2012

Feminism finds its roots in the women's movements of 17th century Europe and the United States. Becoming more entrenched from the 1960s onwards, it includes today: 1) secular feminists; 2) radical or goddess feminists; 3) reformist or liberationist feminists; and 4) evangelical or biblical feminists (Cottrell 1992). Feminists' use of Scripture ranges from: 1) non‐use (secular feminists); to 2) the rejection of Scripture as irredeemably patriarchal (radical feminists); to 3) a selective use of passages highlighting the positive contributions of women in Scripture (reformist) that can be used to advocate women's liberation from male oppression (liberationist); and 4) the comprehensive use of Scripture understood as teaching the full equality of women and men in both personhood and ecclesiastical and familial roles (evangelical or biblical feminists; M. E. Köstenberger 2008).
Fifth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Smith David E.
Published: January 2012

Four major dynamics of 5th century Christianity were to affect Christian civilization permanently. At the start of the century, the church experienced a major theological dispute. Called the Pelagian controversy, it involved a serious disagreement between Pelagius, a British monk, and Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in north Africa. The debate concerned the nature of sin: was sin something that people inherited from Adam and Eve and their descendants, something that compelled people to commit acts contrary to the will of God, or were people born neutral, with no predisposition toward evil at all? Upon his arrival in Rome in 400, Pelagius was troubled by his perception of the low moral state of the Christians there. He then encountered the famous prayer of Augustine in his
Confessions
: “Command what You will and grant what You command.” Pelagius thought this kind of theology was inspiring moral laziness, for the prayer implied that people were incapable of obeying God.
First Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Jesus Christ rose from the dead on Easter Sunday in about
ad
28. Forty days after his resurrection he ascended to heaven (Acts 1:3), and ten days later, or fifty days after Easter, the Christian church was born in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost. According to Acts 2, it was on this day Christ's chosen disciples and some other followers received the Holy Spirit. And it was also on this day that Peter preached his sermon moving 3,000 individuals to repent and be baptized, making them members of Christ's church (Acts 2:41).
F
rederick the
W
ise (1463–1525)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

This pious duke, who insisted on having daily Mass, even when he was away hunting or traveling, was born in 1463 and became Elector of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire when his father died in 1486. In 1493, he went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, posing as a commoner to obtain special absolution. By 1520, he had reportedly amassed a collection of more than 1,700 religious relics.
F
ry,
E
lizabeth (1780–1845)
Authors: Brunmeier Tess
Published: January 2012

Elizabeth Gurney Fry was a Quaker woman who worked for prison reform in her native British Isles and beyond. She was born on May 21, 1780 in Norwich, England to wealthy Quaker parents John and Catherine Gurney, the third of 12 children. Her parents educated her in both scholastics and philanthropy. In 1800, Elizabeth married Quaker Joseph Fry (1777–1861). Together they had 11 children, yet Elizabeth tirelessly campaigned for prison reforms.
Gabrieli, Giovanni (1556–1612)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Gabrieli was the outstanding figure in the Venetian High Renaissance and the master of the polychoral style. He succeeded his uncle Andrea as organist at St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice. In 1585 he was appointed organist to the religious confraternity of the Scuola Grande di S. Rocco in addition to his duties at St. Mark's. Here he developed the
cori spezzati
form with the idiomatic use of instruments, increased use of dissonance, and contrasting sound and texture. His works include Masses and motets and also works for Christmas such as
Hodie Christus natus est
and
O Jesu mi dulcissime
. He composed ceremonial music for the cathedral and was the first to compose vocal works with independent instrumental parts. He composed nearly 100 motets, a large number of Mass sections including one complete Ordinary, many works for instrumental ensembles, and some organ pieces. His major vocal works were assembled and published in 1597 and (posthumously) in 1615 as
Sacrae Symphoniae
. Gabrieli cultivated the art of contrast in his music, especially the art of contrasting sonorities. In his earlier works, such as
Magnum Mysterium
and
O Domine Jesu Christe
, he introduced antiphonal choirs in a diatonic idiom. He also relied on thematic brevity and speech rhythms. In his later works he specified the instrumental parts and differentiated their style from the vocal parts and the style of solo vocalists from choral singing. He used tone‐painting through heightened use of dissonance and chromaticism. In his concertato‐like motet
In Ecclesiis benedicite Domino
(In the Congregation, Praise the Lord) he employed two soloists, two four‐part choirs, and a six‐part instrumental ensemble to achieve maximum contrasts of thematic material, texture, meter, and sonority, all unified by a recurring Alleluia chorus.
Gadamer,Hans‐Georg (1900–2002)
Authors: Emerick Christopher C.
Published: January 2012

Hans‐Georg Gadamer's life spans three centuries. He was born on February 11, 1900, in the same year that Nietzsche (1844–1900) died and precisely 250 years following the death of Descartes (1596–1650), against whom much of Gadamer's philosophy contends. He died in remarkably good health for his age in 2002. His father was a successful chemistry professor and his mother died when Gadamer was only 4 years old. Gadamer benefited from a solid education, completing his doctoral degree in 1922 with his dissertation on Plato. That same year Gadamer was afflicted with polio, which left him with an occasionally considerable limp for the rest of his life. During the many months he spent in bed battling the disease, Gadamer read Edmund Husserl's (1859–1938)Logical Investigations, which piqued his interest in phenomenology.
Gifts of the Spirit
Authors: Lamp Jeffrey S.
Published: January 2012

Various catalogs of gifts of divine origin are specified in the Bible, particularly in the New Testament (Rom. 12:6–8; 1 Cor. 12:8–10, 28–30; Eph. 4:11). The term “gifts” derives from the Greek
charismata
, a cognate term with
charis
(grace), indicating that these spiritual endowments are freely given by God, Christ, or the Holy Spirit on no basis other than divine pleasure. That these manifestations of divine gifting occurred in the apostolic church is a given; what is at issue in subsequent Christian history is whether they are operative in the postapostolic church. Some groups known as “cessationists” see the gifts as appropriate only for the founding of the Christian movement, their operation having ceased with the passing of the original apostolic circle. Other groups, typically of Pentecostal‐Charismatic orientation, believe that they continue to operate at the direction of the Holy Spirit throughout church history. As such, the gifts form an integral part of the spiritual identity and practice of Pentecostal‐Charismatic Christians.
Global Christianity
Authors: Irvin Dale T.
Published: January 2012

Two thousand years ago a small band of followers of a Jewish teacher and healer named Jesus of Nazareth set out from Jerusalem to bring the message of his life, death, and reported resurrection to a wider world. Their charge, as they understood it to be from him, was to preach “in the whole world” (Mt. 24:14), thereby making disciples from among “all the nations” and joining them to the community that was gathered in his name (Mt. 28:19). Although they could not have imagined all that it would eventually entail, their goal was nothing less than to reach “the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8).
Glossolalia
Authors: Cartledge Mark J.
Published: January 2012

The term “glossolalia” is derived from the Greek phrase “glossais lalein,” which means to speak (in) tongues (literally: “tongues to speak”). It is normally associated with the day of Pentecost and the reception of the Holy Spirit by the 120 disciples (Acts 2:1–4). This language is used most frequently by Paul in 1 Corinthians 14, although variations can be found in the longer ending of Mark's Gospel (16:9–20) and the Acts of the Apostles. In addition, the word xenolalia (or xenoglossa) is sometimes used to refer to the same phenomenon but in terms of speaking unlearned real human languages. It is sometimes contrasted with glossolalia, which is then regarded as a gibberish language or a form of pseudo‐language. However, many commentators on tongues speech now tend to use glossolalia as the most basic term for the phenomenon, and when they wish to construe the linguistic nature of the speech as real unlearned human languages then they use the term xenolalia as a further descriptor.
Great Commission
Authors: Kreider Alan
Published: January 2012

Great Commission: a modern term designating Jesus' mandate at the end of Matthew's gospel (28:18–20) to his disciples. As they go they must make disciples of all nations, baptizing them and teaching them to observe all that he commanded. In Mark's gospel's longer ending (16:15–18) there is a parallel commission: as Jesus' disciples go they must proclaim the good news to the entire creation, baptizing those who believe; their proclamation will be accompanied by signs — exorcizing demons, speaking in tongues, picking up serpents without hurt, and healing the sick.
P
ratt Green, Fred (1903–2000)
Authors: McElwain Randall D.
Published: January 2012

The English hymn writer Fred Pratt Green was born in Roby, England on September 2, 1903, and died in Norwich, England on October 22, 2000. His obituary offers a fitting summation of his contribution to Christian hymnody: “Prolific hymn writer who put Christianity's social concerns to verse” (
Guardian
, October 31, 2000). He recognized the hymn writer's responsibility to relate Christianity to society and sought to meet this responsibility faithfully.
Gregorian Chant
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

Monodic and rhythmically free melody based on one of eight ecclesiastical modes whose nomenclature has come to reference western plainchant, Gregorian chant was a refinement of Roman chant that was developed by Frankish cantors. King Pippin III (r. 751–768), under the influence of Pope Stephen II (pope 752–757), called for the complete abandonment of the diverse Gallican liturgy in favor of a single rite to encourage a uniform worship practice. Pippin and his ancestors Charlemagne (r. 768–814) and Louis the Pious stood in favor of the
cantus romanus.
Gregorian/Julian Calendar
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

The Gregorian calendar is the commonly used modern method to measure time and to calculate dates in history and for the future. Ancient methods were based upon the naturally occurring lunar phases and the length of the solar year. The disharmony of these two systems, the former with just over 354 days, and the latter with 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds, led various groups to seek a suitable means by which to reconcile the two events. Ultimately, the Egyptians abandoned use of lunar phasing altogether and developed a formula for the cycle of the sun with 12 months of 30 days each, plus five additional days each year, and a “leap” day every four calendar years.
G
regory
I
(Gregory the Great) (
c.
540–604; Pontificate from 590)
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

Pope, theologian, reformer, author, last of the four Latin “Doctors of the Church,” and one of two popes to be surnamed “the Great,” Gregory I was one of the most influential popes of history and arguably one of the creators of the medieval papacy.
G
rotius, Hugo (1583–1645)
Authors: Maclean Iain S.
Published: January 2012

Grotius, born in Delft on April 10, 1583, also known by the name Huig van Groot, was a famed 17th century Dutch jurist and theologian, known as a founder of international law, particularly law governing war, and for proposing criteria for the role of religion in the political sphere.
Hadewijch (Mid 13
th
Century)
Authors: Roberts Michelle Voss
Published: January 2012

The Flemish beguine Hadewijch was one of the loveliest flowers of the beguine movement in northern Europe in the 13th century. Very little is known about the historical Hadewijch. Her dialect and the location of her manuscripts place her near Brabant. Her mastery of Dutch and Latin, her apparent familiarity with French, and her facility with the customs and genres of the court suggest aristocratic descent. She was likely the leader of an early community of beguines, pious laywomen who committed to contemporary ideals of apostolic renewal (poverty, chastity, service, and contemplation), but without taking formal or permanent vows. She contributed to the late medieval flourishing of vernacular literature by writing visions, spiritual letters, and poetry (
Poems in Stanzas
and
Poems in Couplets
) in her native Middle Dutch. According to Paul Mommaers, Hadewijch “created a new genre — [she] is the first in Western European literature to write mystical love lyric” (Mommaers and Dutton 2004).
Hagiography
Authors: Hevelone Suzanne
Published: January 2012

Hagiography (or hagiology) refers to a meta‐genre of literature regarding the lives of the saints. The word hagiography comes from the Greekhagios(holy) andgraphe(writings). A misuse of the word hagiography sometimes refers exclusively to the lives of the saints (vitae), but the scholars now recognize the lives of the saints as just one of many genres comprising hagiography. Other subgenres which fall into the category of hagiography include miracle accounts, sermons, poetry, autobiography, romantic legend, accounts of the translation of relics, and bulls of canonization. Some scholars also consider visual art commemorating the saints to be hagiography.
Handel, George Frederick (1685–1759)
Authors: Whytock Jack C.
Published: January 2012

One of the greatest Christian composers of the Baroque age, George Frederick Handel is regarded as the originator of the English oratorio. In contrast to Bach, who was born the same year, Handel came from a nonmusical family, and his father wanted him to pursue law. However, the young Handel's musical genius was soon recognized. He received his early training from the noted Halle organist and composer Zachow. He studied organ, harpsichord, violin, and oboe; his ability on the organ was regarded by many as supreme. He performed and wrote for the Hamburg opera house.
H
arnack,
A
dolf
V
on (1851–1930)
Authors: Adams Sean A.
Published: January 2012

Adolf von Harnack was born in Dorpat, the son of Theododius Harnack, who was an orthodox theologian teaching at Dorpat and Erlangen. Although he began his studies at Dorpat, Harnack soon transferred to Leipzig to complete his doctoral dissertation on the history of gnosticism. He began his teaching career in Leipzig in 1874 and became a professor at Giessen in 1879. In 1886, Harnack accepted a position at Marburg; however, after a bitter controversy he moved to Berlin to become the professor of Church History there in 1888. From 1905 until 1921 Harnack was the director of the Royal Library. He was elevated to the German nobility in 1914, and was the last scholar to whom this honor was given.
Healing
Authors: King Paul L.
Published: January 2012

Claims of healing have taken place throughout church history. Although some accounts of healing may involve superstition and exaggerated legend, many reports of healing are still accepted at face value by church historians. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches have always believed in the miraculous, while after the Reformation some Reformed groups embraced a cessationist position, believing that the miraculous was only for the early church.
Hell
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

Hell is defined as the place and state of eternal punishment reserved for those, and only those, who reject God. The two broad categories of inhabitants are, first, Satan and his demons — angels who rejected God before the creation of the material world — and, secondly, human beings who die in a state of unrepented, personal mortal sin. This article considers first the exist‐ence of hell, then the nature of the punishments therein inflicted, and finally the eternity of those punishments.
H
enry
VIII
,
K
ing (1491–1547)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

When Arthur, born in 1486, the first son of Henry VII, died in 1502 at not quite 16 years of age, it meant his brother Henry, born in 1491, was next in line for the throne, and when his father died in 1509, Henry VIII became England's king at the young age of 18. The same year Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon, the auburn‐haired widow of his brother Arthur who had married her when he was 15 and she was 16. Catherine was six years older than Henry.
H
erbert,
G
eorge (1593–1633)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward
Published: January 2012

The British priest and poet George Herbert was born in Montgomery, Wales, on April 3, 1593. His father was Richard Herbert, of a promin‐ent English family. His mother, Magdalene, was the patron of John Donne. Though sometimes in the shadow of that metaphysical poet, to whom he has stylistic affinities, George Herbert became one of the greatest religious poets in the English language.