bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aby Warburg and the Secularization of the Image
Authors: Steinberg Michael P. , Ezrahi Yaron
Published: November 2017

This chapter draws attention to the anthropological imagination of Aby Warburg, the great student of world culture and comparative mythology whose “Warburg Library,” founded in Hamburg, served as the meeting place for Weimar philosophers, historians, and cultural critics. Warburg determined the library's acquisitions from 1886 until his sudden death in October 1929. In December 1933 the library (approximately 60,000 books, plus slides, photographs, other materials, as well as the collective argument of the enterprise itself) was evacuated to London, to be linked as of 1937 to the University of London and fully incorporated into the university in 1944. The Warburg Institute's second-generation principal scholars, adherents, and administrators included Erwin Panofsky, Ernst Gombrich, Rudolf Wittkower, Edgar Wind, Frances Yates, and Anne Marie Meyer. In recent years, the methods and claims of visual culture and visual studies have embraced the legacy of Warburg's critique of formalist art history.
Weimar Femininity
Authors: Matysik Tracie
Published: November 2017

The democratic revolution raised a new set of intellectual questions concerning the status of women in modern society. Specifically, theorists and activists alike had to ask what exactly the transition into political participation meant both for the political process and for conceptions of feminine subjectivity. This chapter examines efforts to contend with these questions from a variety of different perspectives: the pacifist-internationalist turn of the Nietzschean Helene Stöcker (1869–1943); the more sociologically informed intervention by Marianne Weber (1870–1954) and her concern about the bureaucratization of modern life; and a psychoanalytic contribution from Lou Andreas-Salomé (1861—1937). Together these three articulations provide a survey of the different ways in which theorists and activists interpreted feminine subjectivity amidst the transition to political participation. In their arguments we see a general struggle to affirm democracy and political participation, while using the notion of the feminine to expand the limits of political participation beyond parliamentary politics.
A Political Economy Theory of International Trade Agreements
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Milner Helen V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a theory of the domestic political conditions that lead countries to enter into formal trade agreements. More specifically, it attempts to explain the establishment of preferential trading arrangements (PTAs), institutions in which member-states reciprocally lower their trade barriers on each other's products and thereby grant each member preferential market access. The focus is on why and when countries have chosen to enter such agreements, understanding that there is substantial variability in the spread of PTAs over time and the countries that join them. Why have some countries joined many PTAs, while others have joined very few, and what explains the timing of PTA formation? The chapter first presents a rationalist theory of domestic politics to explain the pattern of PTAs. It then develops seven auxiliary hypotheses that follow from the logic of the present model to further explore the model's implications.
Regime Type, Veto Players, and PTA Formation
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Milner Helen V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter tests the theoretical propositions about domestic politics developed in chapter 2. Using a new dataset, it aims to identify the domestic and international factors that affect a country's decision to join and ratify a preferential trading arrangement (PTA). It reviews whys democratic regimes are especially likely to enter PTAs and why a large number of veto players reduce the odds that a country will join such arrangements. Then, it tests these arguments after accounting for the effects of various other economic and international variables, including those that were of greatest importance in the systemic analysis conducted in chapter 3. The results provide strong support for these claims. Both regime type and veto players significantly influence whether and when states conclude trade agreements.
Argentina: New World Producers and Old World Consumers
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes a look at the Argentinian wine industry. It first examines the growth of the industry after 1885 and its organization at the turn of the century. The chapter then examines the response of different groups to the major slump in 1901–3 and shows that although attempts to self-regulate the industry were generally successful, wine quality remained poor because consumer choice was determined by price. Finally, the chapter considers the response of different sectors to the collapse in wine prices after 1913 and shows the difficulties leading producers faced in passing the costs of adjustment on to growers and restricting supply.
Institutions and Outcomes
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes this volume's main findings with respect to persistence and mechanisms, examines the effect of state political and legal institutions on per capita income, and discusses important areas for future research. The overall focus on state per capita income is important here, because it represents an important measure of total economic activity in a society. Courts and legislatures may have other objectives, but arguably one of their functions is to maximize the size of the societal pie by offering incentives for economic activity. Moreover, the chapter argues that a better understanding of how and why institutions are persistent can inform efforts at change.
Evaluating Model Performance and Significance
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a framework for selecting appropriate strategies for evaluating model performance and significance. It begins with a review of key concepts, focusing on how primary occurrence data can be presence-only, presence/background, presence/pseudoabsence, or presence/absence as well as factors that may contribute to apparent commission error. It then considers the availability of two pools of occurrence data: one for model calibration and another for evaluation of model predictions. It also discusses strategies for detecting overfitting or sensitivity to bias in model calibration, with particular emphasis on quantification of performance and tests of significance. Finally, it suggests directions for future research as regards model evaluation, highlighting areas in need of theoretical and/or methodological advances.
Extraction and Critical Appraisal of Data
Authors: Curtis Peter S. , Mengersen Kerrie , Lajeunesse Marc J. , Rothstein Hannah R. , Stewart Gavin B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the data extraction process, meta-analysis database, and critical appraisal of data. The efficient and accurate extraction of data from primary studies is an important component of successful research reviews. It is one of the most time-consuming parts of a research review and should be approached with the goal of repeatability and transparency of results. Careful definition of the research question and identification of the effect size metric(s) to be used are prerequisites to efficient data extraction. The extraction spreadsheet may simply be appended to a growing database stored in a single spreadsheet (also known as “flat file database”) (e.g., Microsoft Excel, Lotus, Quattro Pro), but it may be advantageous to develop relational databases (e.g., by using Microsoft Access, Paradox or dBase software), particularly for large or complex data. During the process of data extraction the investigator also has an opportunity for critical appraisal of data quality. One approach to quantitative assessment of study quality has been the use of numerical scales in which points are assigned to specific elements of the study and summed to produce an overall quality score.
Effect Sizes: Conventional Choices and Calculations
Authors: Rosenberg Michael S. , Rothstein Hannah R. , Gurevitch Jessica
Published: November 2017

One of the fundamental concepts in meta-analysis is that of the effect size. An effect size is a statistical parameter that can be used to compare, on the same scale, the results of different studies in which a common effect of interest has been measured. This chapter describes the conventional effect sizes most commonly encountered in ecology and evolutionary biology, and the types of data associated with them. While choice of a specific measure of effect size may influence the interpretation of results, it does not influence the actual inference methods of meta-analysis. One critical point to remember is that one cannot combine different measures of effect size in a single meta-analysis: once you have chosen how you are going to estimate effect size, you need to use it for all of the studies to be analyzed.
Publication and Related Biases
Authors: Jennions Michael D. , Lortie Christopher J. , Rosenberg Michael S. , Rothstein Hannah R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the increased occurrence of publication bias in the scientific literature. Publication bias is associated with the inaccurate representation of the merit of a hypothesis or idea. A strict definition is that it occurs when the published literature reports results that systematically differ from those of all studies and statistical tests conducted; the result is that false conclusions are drawn. The chapter presents five main approaches used to either detect potential narrow sense publication bias or assess how sensitive the results of a meta-analysis are to the possible exclusion. These include funnel plots, tests for relationships between effect size and sample size using nonparametric correlation or regression, trim and fill method, fail-safe numbers, and model selection.
Power Statistics for Meta-analysis: Tests for Mean Effects and Homogeneity
Authors: Lajeunesse Marc J.
Published: November 2017

The common justification for meta-analysis is the increased statistical power to detect effects over what is obtained from individual studies. For ecologists and evolutionary biologists, the statistical power of meta-analysis is important because effect sizes are usually relatively small in these fields, and experimental sample sizes are often limited for logistic reasons. Consequently, many studies lack sufficient power to detect an experimental effect should it exist. This chapter provides a brief overview of the factors that determine the statistical power of meta-analysis. It presents statistics for calculating the power of pooled effect sizes to evaluate nonzero effects and the power of within- and between-study homogeneity tests. It also surveys ways to improve the statistical power of meta-analysis, and ends with a discussion on the overall utility of power statistics for meta-analysis.
After Civil War: Bosnia and Herzegovina, El Salvador, and Lebanon
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the army building in three very different political environments: the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Lebanese civil war (1975–90), and the civil war in El Salvador (1979–92). Although the objective in both Bosnia and El Salvador was to develop a democratic army in the wake of the civil war, it has not been achieved fully in either setting. Lebanon is unique not just in the category of post-civil war army building but because it is an outlier in the entire group of twenty-seven cases studied in two important respects. First, in the first fifteen years after the civil war, a foreign army of Syria controlled some of Lebanon's territory and was instrumental in rebuilding the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF). Second, aside from the state-controlled LAF, another local, contending or complementary and yet legitimate military force has functioned in the country: the militia of Hezbollah, a Shi'a Islamist political and paramilitary organization.
After Military Rule in Latin America: Argentina, Chile, and Guatemala
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the politics following Argentina's and Chile's last bout with authoritarianism. In spite of some important similarities between Argentina and Chile, military rule and the subsequent democratization process have been dissimilar. The chapter argues that the disparate performance of the Argentine and Chilean praetorian elites yielded for them different bargains with the opposition. These different deals led to vastly different outcomes, that is, profound disparities between military politics in contemporary Chile and Argentina. In Chile, democratizers have succeeded in gradually reducing the military's political autonomy to a level acceptable by democratic standards. On the other hand, their Argentine colleagues have gone too far in what has amounted to a virtual vendetta against the military as an institution and, in the process, seriously impaired its ability to protect and project Argentine national interests. The chapter's secondary case is Guatemala, a Central American state ruled for most of the Cold War by unusually brutal military dictators.
After (Re)Unification and Apartheid: Germany, South Africa, and Yemen
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses three different but equally intriguing cases where two entities are brought together or brought together again. In that of Germany, the armed forces of the newly reunified state reflected the outcome of the Cold War: very little remained that could remind one of the former army of East Germany. In Yemen, North and South Yemen—two Cold War adversaries—fought against each other in brief wars before they became unified. South Africa is a unique case because its borders did not change though a large segment of the population previously excluded from official politics and the armed forces was not only made a part of them but became the dominantpart. The similarity in all three cases is the combining of two separate and dissimilar components in a new, single political entity. Moreover, in all three, the two parts brought together had been enemies who fought against each other or were trained to do so.
Hamlet in the Daily Discourse of Arab Identity
Authors: Litvin Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores Hamlet's meaning in today's Arabic political vocabulary. Hamlet has been invoked in reference to nearly every major and minor political crisis touching the Arab world in the past decade. Analyzing his function in recent polemical writings such as newspaper columns, speeches, and sermons, this chapter shows how Arab writers read “to be or not to be” not as a meditation on the individual's place in the world but as an argument about collective political identity. Other themes from Hamlet—words/deeds, sleep/waking, madness/wholeness—help reinforce the urgency of the crisis. However, these cries of outrage and alarm are not the only approach to the issue of historical agency. As a counterpoint the chapter offers an instance of Hamlet rewriting by the important Palestinian–Iraqi writer Jabra Ibrahim Jabra.
Metics (Metoikoi)
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to metoikoi, foreigners who, unlike xenoi, were official residents of Athens, rather than just passing through. In its broad sense, the term metoikos encompassed two subcategories of resident alien, distinguished from each other not only legally but also socially: (i) freeborn foreigners (metoikoi or metics in the narrow sense); and (ii) freed slaves, most likely those who were not (or who were no longer) bound to their previous masters. These two subcategories of metic share a number of traits, the most obvious of which was their non-Athenian origin. Both subgroups of metic also had many of the rights and obligations of citizens. They were expected to obey the city's laws and were obligated to perform military service.
Bastards (Nothoi)
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on nothoi. A nothos was defined as the child of two parents who were not legally married, hence the term's standard translation: “bastard.” Nothos status can be divided into two distinct sub-statuses of illegitimate children: (i) a child born to a citizen and a noncitizen (also called a mētroxenos if the mother was the foreigner, as was most often the case); and (ii) a child born out of wedlock to two Athenian citizen parents. In the case of recognized illegitimate children born to two unmarried citizen parents, their pure Athenian blood presumably gave them a higher status than most mixed-blood mētroxenoi. Mixed-blood illegitimate children were likely stigmatized for their impure ancestry, especially in the fourth century, when the ideology of the pureblooded Athenian became most prominent and most strongly policed.
Jews and the Military
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This book is the first comprehensive and comparative look at Jewish involvement in the military and their attitudes toward war from the 1600s until the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. The book shows that although Jews have often been described as people who shun the army, in fact they have frequently been willing, even eager, to do military service, and only a minuscule minority have been pacifists. The book demonstrates that Israel's military ethos did not emerge from a vacuum and that long before the state's establishment, Jews had a vested interest in military affairs. Spanning Europe, North America, and the Middle East, the book discusses the myths and realities of Jewish draft dodging, how Jews reacted to facing their coreligionists in battle, the careers of Jewish officers and their reception in the Jewish community, the effects of World War I on Jewish veterans, and Jewish participation in the Spanish Civil War and World War II. The book culminates with a study of Israel's War of Independence as a Jewish world war, which drew on the military expertise and financial support of a mobilized, global Jewish community. The book considers how military service was a central issue in debates about Jewish emancipation and a primary indicator of the position of Jews in any given society. Deconstructing old stereotypes, the book radically transforms our understanding of Jews' historic relationship to war and military power.
The Jewish Soldier of World War I: From Participant to Victim
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the war experience of Jews in World War I and the toll the war inflicted on hundreds of thousands of Jews who fought as soldiers on all the war's fronts. Jewish sensibilities about the war shared much in common with those of non-Jews of a similar class and educational background. However, the war could be more meaningful for Jews than for most combatants, partly because of the ongoing sense of need to prove one's masculine and civic virtue in the face of antisemitic attacks, and partly because the Triple Alliance was arrayed against Russia—seen by most Ashkenazic Jews as their greatest oppressor in modern times. A specifically Jewish subculture that valorized the war was most prominent in Germany, where Jews did not allow themselves to grieve publicly over wounded Jewish soldiers and veterans, but rather commemorated only the Jewish dead, those who had made the ultimate sacrifice for their nation.
What Won’t Work
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the challenge of improving crop resource-use efficiency using biotechnology or traditional plant breeding. It argues that some of biotechnology's stated goals, such as more efficient use of water by crops, are unlikely to be achieved without tradeoffs. After providing an overview of crop genetic improvement via traditional plant breeding or biotechnology, the chapter discusses the importance of greater resource-use efficiency and increasing yield potential. It then explains how natural selection has improved the efficiency of photosynthesis as well as water-use efficiency and how tradeoffs limit biotechnology improvement of crop water use. It also assesses the potential of genetic engineering to improve nutrient-use efficiency and asserts that near-term benefits of biotechnology have been exaggerated. The chapter concludes with a review of biotechnology's possible benefits and risks.
Selfish Genes, Sophisticated Plants, and Haphazard Ecosystems
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the limitations of natural selection, arguing that the overall organization of even ancient natural ecosystems may be relatively imperfect compared to individual adaptations that have been repeatedly tested through competition. After considering the near-perfection of natural ecosystems from the perspective of agroecology, the chapter explains how natural selection improves genes and individuals, rather than ecosystems. It then compares natural ecosystems with agricultural ecosystems designed by humans in terms of their ability to improve ecosystem-wide properties. It also examines whether we can harvest more food, sustainably, from human-managed ecosystems or from natural ones by focusing on two systems: human cultivation of wild rice without fertilizer, and human management of reindeer herds (domesticated caribou).
What Won’t Work
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers four ideas—suggested by Wes Jackson and Jon Piper in the classic paper, “The necessary marriage between ecology and agriculture”—for how agriculture might attempt to mimic nature: perennial grain crops; reliance on only local sources of nutrients; polyculture or intercropping (that is, deploying crop diversity as mixtures, as in many natural ecosystems); and reliance on biodiversity to control pests. The chapter examines each of the proposals in light of the conclusion that copying landscape-scale patterns from natural ecosystems is not necessarily a good idea, arguing that all of them are representative of many self-styled “agroecologists.” It also discusses complementarity in crop mixtures, specifically spatial complementarity, temporal complementarity, and nutritional complementarity.
What Could Work Better
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines cooperation between two species and how cooperation among related individuals of one species can also help maintain cooperation between species. It presents some examples of between-species cooperation, the evolutionary tradeoffs that can undermine such cooperation, and opportunities for improvement. The chapter begins by showing that cooperation and so-called cheating commonly occur between two species. It then considers how conflict evolves and how two-species partnerships may be improved such that they will be useful in agriculture. It also explores symbiotic nitrogen fixation and the dilemma termed “tragedy of the commons,” the link between kin selection and within-species cooperation, and microbial analogs of kin selection and rhizobial mutualism. Finally, the chapter discusses the sanctions hypothesis that explains the nature of microbial cooperation with plants, along with other opportunities for improved two-species cooperation.
Timing of Breeding
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that the timing of the initiation of a single breeding event, or the initiation of the first of multiple breeding events within the same breeding season, is completely dependent on the female-specific reproductive process of timing of egg production and egg-laying. It discusses how early-season events are critical in determining timing of breeding; fitness consequences of timing decisions; selection on timing of breeding; sex-specific response mechanisms for timing of breeding; physiological mechanisms associated with photoperiod (day length) as a proximate factor; physiological mechanisms associated with temperature as a proximate factor; and physiological mechanisms associated with food availability as a “proximate” factor.
Egg Size and Egg Quality
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with variations in egg size and egg quality. Egg size is a highly variable life-history trait, with up to twofold differences in egg mass among individual females within a population. Larger eggs contain absolutely more major egg components (shell, albumen, yolk) and absolutely more of several minor egg components (maternally derived antibodies and antioxidants), and, in this regard, egg size is a good proxy for egg quality. Many studies assume that high-quality females produce large, high-quality eggs, but it is equally plausible that individual females produce eggs of the optimum size and quality for their phenotype or genotype. Either way, the aspects of a female's phenotype that would determine maximum or optimum egg size are unknown, although these are not primarily factors such as age, experience, body condition, or mate quality that continue to be the focus of much current work.
Parental Care
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on individual variation in parental care, the relationship between individual variation and maternal fitness, and the physiological mechanisms underlying this variation. For example, does individual variation in incubation behavior (e.g., the timing of onset, intensity, constancy) determine the number and quality of chicks at hatching? Or, does individual variation in chick-provisioning or other components of parental investment (e.g., brooding, guarding, feeding) explain the number and quality of chicks that fledge and ultimately are recruited to the breeding population? If there are fitness consequences of variation in parental care, then what are the physiological mechanisms that underpin individual variation in parental effort?
Scattering with Interference
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies wave interference. Light does not bend in a lens, it does not bounce off the surface of glass, and it does not spread out after passing through a small hole. All of these are illusions. It only appears that light bends, bounces, and spreads out. The effects that people see—reflection, refraction, colors in soap bubbles—come from the fact that photons interact with one another in an unusual way. The interaction is often referred to as wave interference because it can be described mathematically much like the interference of water waves, but the reality of it is considerably stranger. The strangeness is discussed in more detail in the last chapter, but a hint of it can be seen from the fact that photons appear to interfere with one another even if they are emitted one at a time, which water waves obviously do not do.
Polarization
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines polarization. As with radiometry, polarization can be a confusing topic. Unfortunately, unlike radiometry, its complexity is not primarily due to confusing units. The physics of polarized light is genuinely tricky. This is another subfield of optics that is made easier by thinking of light as a wave. Polarized light in nature is a scattering phenomenon. However, not all scattering is equally effective at polarizing light. Two kinds work best. The first is single scattering by particles much smaller than a wavelength of light. The other way in which scattering can create polarized light is via coherent scattering—in particular, reflection from smooth substances such as glass, water, and many leaves or structurally colored objects like iridescent butterfly wings.
Moral Responsibility and the Culture of Honor
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by presenting stories that illustrate attitudes about responsibility and justice that do not cohere with any contemporary philosophical theory in the literature. Separated by thousands of miles and thousands of years, the characters in these stories have one thing in common: they belong to groups that anthropologists and cultural psychologists have termed “honor cultures.” The chapter examines the differences between the perspectives of honor cultures and non-honor cultures towards responsibility and punishment. It begins by examining the origins of retributive attitudes and of behavior in general. It then considers the different functions that retributive norms have in honor and non-honor cultures. Finally, it shows how the different functions may give rise to different beliefs about the conditions for moral responsibility and just punishment.
A Metaskeptical Analysis of Libertarianism and Compatibilism
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines the author's arguments for versions of libertarianism and compatibilism that are consistent with the broader metaskeptical thesis. It considers the “all-things-considered” cases for both compatibilism and libertarianism for members of his “intuition group”—people with starting intuitions and attitudes about responsibility that resemble his own. He argues that libertarianism is an implausible alternative because its epistemic costs outweigh its alleged pragmatic and moral benefits. The more promising case for compatibilism relies on questionable assumptions. He continues to challenge those assumptions in the final chapter as he develops the case for eliminativism about moral responsibility.
A Very Tentative Metaskeptical Endorsement of Eliminativism about Moral Responsibility
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that moral responsibility is not a mind-independent property like “transparent” that can be assigned objectively or universally when certain conditions are met. The answer to the question of whether we can be morally responsible boils down to a subjective all-things-considered judgment that takes many factors into account, including the ethical and practical consequences of each alternative. It examines the case for first-order skepticism or eliminativism about moral responsibility, and offers a very tentative endorsement of this position in the context of our environment, historical period, and circumstances. It begins by examining the moral and practical implications of denying moral responsibility and adopting the objective attitude on an exclusive basis. Next, it considers arguments that attempt to explain away or debunk the intuition that people can be morally responsible for their behavior. Finally, it discusses an important concession to compatibilism, one that prevents the author from arriving at a more confident endorsement of the eliminativist conclusion.
Legitimating the Credit Infrastructure
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses credit access. By the 1960s, credit access was deemed to be unequivocally beneficial. Credit use, far from marking one as immoral or unthrifty as it might have in the 1910s, denoted high social status and personal responsibility. In the 1960s, those without credit agitated for more “fair” or “equal” access. By the end of the decade, as access to credit became a social marker of independence and prosperity, various credit activists for women and people of color demanded access to credit. As such, congress passed laws to guarantee impartial access to credit. At the same time, these laws legitimated practices that would have seemed usurious two generations earlier. By the 1970s, consumer credit—legitimated as fair through federal policy—grew to an unprecedented volume and creditors extended it to all Americans with uncertain consequences for the country's economic future.
Debt as Choice, Debt as Structure
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This epilogue argues that the dependence on credit was the creation, intentional and unintentional, of the sometimes unlikely choices of government, business, and consumers. Over the first half of the twentieth century, government and business fashioned a new legal network of credit institutions and offered most American consumers a choice of whether or not to use this debt in their daily lives. By the end of the century, however, the choice to opt out of the credit system no longer remained. Three corporations assigned every American a credit rating. Their opinions governed consumers' ability to rent and to buy housing, to afford an education, to shop for clothes and food, to commute to work, and even to receive medical care—that is, the basic materials of daily life. Even to get a job, a worker needed good credit. Ultimately, the choice of whether or not to use credit ceased to exist for the American consumer.
The Space Betwen
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the government efforts to regulate, tax, and restrict transborder movement and enforce jurisdictional boundaries within the context of social and economic integration. As the threat of Apaches and filibusters faded, the border shifted from a site where the state proved its power through military defense of its territory to one in which sovereignty was measured in customs collected, immigrants rejected, and bandits arrested. All of these responsibilities demanded that U.S. and Mexican officials attempt to control who and what crossed it. As such, the U.S. and Mexican governments resurveyed the boundary line and established new ports of entry along it. They also dispatched a growing force of customs, immigration, and law enforcement officers to the border to enforce a growing number of conditional restrictions. With these efforts the nation-states increased their presence in everyday life along the border and laid the foundation for the modern border control apparatus.
Internal Gravity Waves
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on internal gravity waves in a stable thermal stratification. When the amplitude of the fluid velocity is small relative to the amplitude of the phase velocity, a linear analysis, which neglects advection, provides insight to the relation between the wavelength and frequency of internal gravity waves. Furthermore, when thermal and viscous diffusion play relatively minor roles the system can be further simplified by neglecting diffusion. The chapter first describes the linear dispersion relation before discussing the computer code modifications and simulations. In particular, it explains what modifications would be needed to convert one's thermal convection code to a code that simulates internal gravity waves, including the nonlinear and diffusive terms. Finally, it considers the computer analysis of wave energy.
Scattering Problems: Beltrami Fields and Solvability
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the solvability of time-harmonic electromagnetic wave scattering by an obstacle: either the obstacle or the environment in which it is embedded, or both, is (are) occupied by a chiral material. It assumes that the scatterer and its surrounding space are homogeneous: thus allowing the use of the boundary integral equation methods for the study of the considered problems. This chapter considers two kinds of problems: first, the scattering of plane electromagnetic waves propagating in chiral space by a perfectly conducting obstacle, and second, the scattering of plane electromagnetic waves by a penetrable obstacle; either the scatterer or the surrounding space, or both, may be filled with a chiral material.
Scattering Problems: A Variety of Topics
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter continues the study of scattering problems in the case where the considered fields have harmonic time dependence and the involved chiral media are homogeneous. It begins by containing various important concepts of scattering theory. Next, the chapter deals with the establishment of the reciprocity principle, the general scattering theorem, and the optical theorem for the chiral obstacle in an achiral environment problem; moreover, a study of the spectrum of the far-field operator and its relation to that of the T-matrix is included. Hereafter, the chapter deals with the generalisation of the Atkinson–Wilcox expansion theorem to the perfect conductor in a chiral environment problem and presents results on chiral Herglotz wave functions. It also exhibits infinite Fréchet differentiability of the mapping from the boundary of the scatterer onto the far-field patterns. Finally, the chapter discusses topics related to chiral media.
Controllability
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents some issues concerning the controllability of the Maxwell equations for complex media in the time domain. It uses a fixed point approach, which is based on the controllability problem for the Maxwell equations and which treats the integrodifferential terms in the constitutive relations for the complex media as a perturbation. The chapter also presents some results on the controllability of the Maxwell system that are essential in the study of the controllability problem in complex media. Details on the solution of the controllability problem are provided. And though the main approach of this chapter is a constructive one, it also provides an abstract approach to controllability based on semigroup arguments. Moreover, the chapter briefly discusses the problem of boundary controllability as well as the problem of optimal control for Maxwell equations. Finally, miscellaneous results concerning controllability for time-harmonic problems are presented.
Homogenisation
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter formulates the homogenisation problem for a complex electromagnetic medium. It presents a formal two-scale expansion that motivates this chapter's approach, enabling a prediction of the form of the homogenised system. Next, this chapter provides a rigorous approach to the homogenisation problem for media in the optical response region, which is then generalised for dispersive media. The convergence of the evolution equations for the fields in periodic media to those for a homogenised medium is proved and the coefficients of the homogenised medium are identified in terms of auxiliary elliptic problems. Lastly, this chapter collects some general comments and alternative approaches to the homogenisation problem.
Arabi, Mongolia and Beyond: Contemporary Pagans in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies accounts of contemporary paganism circulating in Eastern and Northern Europe from the eleventh century onward. In the mid-thirteenth century, when the Mongols had conquered a vast empire, two Franciscan travellers, John of Piano Carpini and William of Rubruk, were received by the Great Khan and wrote about the life and traditions of a pagan society at first hand. Medieval readers also knew a mass of partly fantastical material, much of it inherited from antiquity, about the remote lands of Asia and their pagan inhabitants. In the mid-fourteenth century, an anonymous writer wove this material together with the reports of genuine travellers into The Book of John Mandeville, a medieval best seller which takes a surprisingly deep and original look at the Problem of Paganism. In addition, this chapter takes a look at Willehalm, a Middle High German poem written c. 1210–20 by Wolfram von Eschenbach.
University Theologians on Pagan Virtue and Salvation
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the different trajectories taken by discussions among (mainly) university theologians of pagan virtue, before turning to the topic of salvation in the rest of the chapter. After the discussions on pagan virtue, the chapter turns to the theories devised in the period up to William of Ockham in the early fourteenth century. It then focuses on discussions about the salvation of particular pagans (such as Aristotle himself), before finally moving on to the theoretical developments which took place in the mid- and later fourteenth century and set the stage for the debates which would go on to 1700 and even later.
Langland and Chaucer
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to another pair struggling with the Problem of Paganism: William Langland and Geoffrey Chaucer. For Langland, the Problem is an issue addressed directly, with the focus on the salvation of virtuous pagans. But, despite the explicit doctrinal discussion, Langland is not simply doing the same thing in vernacular verse as the university theologians: the complex form of his poem makes the positions he takes less clearly defined, but allows him to adumbrate daring ideas outside the range of the scholastic discussions. By contrast, Chaucer avoids the theological problems almost entirely; more perhaps than any other medieval writer, he explores the Problem of Paganism by imagining himself within a pagan world, whilst aware, as his readers too would be, that there is an external Christian perspective on it, which is only partly accessible from his viewpoint on the inside.
Leibniz and China
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This epilogue discusses Leibniz's particular interest in China. Like his predecessors, Leibniz's preferred virtuous pagans were also ancient philosophers, but he was partial to those of China. Leibniz had showed an interest in China from the mid-1670s and, from 1689, roughly in the middle of his career, he began to conduct a correspondence with a number of the Jesuit missionaries to China, seeking information about Chinese writings, thought and language, as well as current news about political and religious developments. His intense interest in China and his voracious reading of all he could find out about it grew from these correspondences, and his fullest thoughts about Chinese religion are expressed in one of his last works, a letter On the Natural Theology of the Chinese, written in 1716 — the year of his death.
Worse Than a Monolith
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

In brute-force struggles for survival, such as the two world wars, disorganization and divisions within an enemy alliance are to one's own advantage. However, most international security politics involve coercive diplomacy and negotiations short of all-out war. This book demonstrates that when states are engaged in coercive diplomacy—combining threats and assurances to influence the behavior of real or potential adversaries—divisions, rivalries, and lack of coordination within the opposing camp often make it more difficult to prevent the onset of regional conflicts, to prevent existing conflicts from escalating, and to negotiate the end to those conflicts promptly. Focusing on relations between the Communist and anti-Communist alliances in Asia during the Cold War, the book explores how internal divisions and lack of cohesion in the two alliances complicated and undercut coercive diplomacy by sending confusing signals about strength, resolve, and intent. In the case of the Communist camp, internal mistrust and rivalries catalyzed the movement's aggressiveness in ways that we would not have expected from a more cohesive movement under Moscow's clear control. Reviewing newly available archival material, the book examines the instability in relations across the Asian Cold War divide, and sheds new light on the Korean and Vietnam wars. While recognizing clear differences between the Cold War and post-Cold War environments, the book investigates how efforts to adjust burden-sharing roles among the United States and its Asian security partners have complicated U.S. security relations with the People's Republic of China since the collapse of the Soviet Union.
The Benefits of Communist Alliance Coordination and the Continuing Costs of U.S. Alliance Formation, 1951–56
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the mixed blessing of enhanced communist coordination during the mid-1950s. During this period, a relatively well-coordinated and organized communist alliance allowed for more moderation and clearer signaling during the negotiations that ended fighting in the Korean War and the conflict in Indochina. The chapter considers the United States' formation of regional alliances and how the Taiwan Strait crisis erupted in 1954. It shows how a relatively unified allied position on Southeast Asia in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China (PRC) served as a restraint on the most aggressive members of the alliance, the local communists involved in civil wars: Kim Il-sung and Ho Chi Minh. Aside from Beijing's nationalistic reaction in the Taiwan Strait, Chinese foreign policy would be relatively moderate in the middle 1950s and fully in tune with Soviet designs for a breathing spell in the Cold War.
From Escalation in Vietnam to Sino-American Rapprochement, 1964–72
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how Sino-Soviet tensions served the United States' regional and global interests and facilitated rapprochement between Washington and Beijing during the period 1964–1972. The competition between the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China for the loyalties of the Vietnamese communists would begin in earnest following U.S. escalation in the Vietnam War from late 1964 to early 1965. Ho Chi Minh was able to exploit Chinese and Soviet jealousies of one another to gain maximum support for his revolutionary goals in South Vietnam. From 1965 until early 1968 the rivalry between Beijing and Moscow also served to scuttle multiple Soviet-inspired proposals for peace talks between the Vietnamese communists and the United States. The chapter shows how the intensifying disillusionment and competition between the Soviets and the Chinese rendered the containment of communism through coercive diplomacy more difficult for the United States, particularly in Indochina.
The First Modern Jew
Authors: Schwartz Daniel B.
Published: November 2017

Pioneering biblical critic, theorist of democracy, and legendary conflater of God and nature, Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) was excommunicated by the Sephardic Jews of Amsterdam in 1656 for his “horrible heresies” and “monstrous deeds.” Yet, over the past three centuries, Spinoza's rupture with traditional Jewish beliefs and practices has elevated him to a prominent place in genealogies of Jewish modernity. This book provides a riveting look at how Spinoza went from being one of Judaism's most notorious outcasts to one of its most celebrated, if still highly controversial, cultural icons, and a powerful and protean symbol of the first modern secular Jew. Ranging from Amsterdam to Palestine and back again to Europe, the book chronicles Spinoza's posthumous odyssey from marginalized heretic to hero, the exemplar of a whole host of Jewish identities, including cosmopolitan, nationalist, reformist, and rejectionist. The book shows that in fashioning Spinoza into “the first modern Jew,” generations of Jewish intellectuals—German liberals, East European maskilim, secular Zionists, and Yiddishists—have projected their own dilemmas of identity onto him, reshaping the Amsterdam thinker in their own image. The many afterlives of Spinoza are a kind of looking glass into the struggles of Jewish writers over where to draw the boundaries of Jewishness and whether a secular Jewish identity is indeed possible. Cumulatively, these afterlives offer a kaleidoscopic view of modern Jewish culture and a vivid history of an obsession with Spinoza that continues to this day.