bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A62 A major likelihood-based approach gives problematic estimates of diversification dynamics and rates
Authors: Di Chenlu , Meyer Andreas L S , Wiens John J
Published: August 2019

The diversity of life is shaped by rates of speciation and extinction, and so estimating these rates correctly is crucial for understanding diversity patterns among clades, regions, and habitats. In 2011, Morlon and collaborators developed a promising likelihood-based approach to estimate speciation and extinction and to infer the model describing how these rates change over time based on AICc. This approach is now implemented in an R package (RPANDA). Here, we test the accuracy of this approach under simulated conditions, to evaluate its ability to correctly estimate rates of speciation, extinction, and diversification (speciation—extinction) and to choose the correct underlying model of diversification (e.g. constant or changing rates of speciation and extinction over time). We found that this likelihood-based approach frequently picked the incorrect model. For example, with changing speciation rates over time, the correct model was chosen in only ∼10 per cent of replicates. There were significant relationships between true and estimated speciation rates using this approach, but relationships were weak when speciation rates were constant within clades. Relationships were consistently weak between true and estimated rates of extinction and of diversification. Overall, we suggest that results from this approach should be interpreted with considerable caution.
A70 Viromes of two migratory birds as support for identifying the influence of molecular biology and bioinformatics settings
Authors: Tirera S , Salmier A , Donato D , Frigerio J M , Therond S , Lacoste V , de Thoisy B , Franc A , Lavergne A
Published: August 2019

Thanks to high-throughput sequencing (HTS) and dedicated bioinformatics tools, it is possible to study all viruses present in a sample with an unprecedented detection of viral diversity. Applied to wildlife and humans, HTS becomes a powerful means to understand viral emerging infectious diseases. BLAST searches to find remote homolog sequences after an assembly of shotgun-generated sequences are often used to analyze virome datasets. However, this process might be biased by molecular biology approaches (use of whole genome/transcriptome amplification) and bioinformatics assembly that can induce chimeric sequences formation. Our objective was to identify confounding factors (molecular biology and bioinformatics) that can bias virome composition. Hence, we studied the viromes from cloacal swab samples of two migratory birds. Viral DNA and RNA were extracted using three different methods (easymag®, phenol, and trizol), followed by whole genome amplification (WGA)/WTA amplifications, before Illumina MiSeq sequencing. After trimming and assembly, sequences underwent BLAST (BLASTn and BLASTx). At the end of the first BLAST (n/x), some portions of sequences were uncovered and unassigned. We, then, implemented a novel recursive split-resubmit python program that searched for homologs of > 50 base pairs (bp), uncovering parts for a better exploitation of the datasets. Thirty-eight known viral families were detected in our samples. Circoviridae, Parvoviridae, and Microviridae were found in the majority of the results from easymag® and Phenol extracted samples, while trizol samples resulted in a majority of Picornaviridae and Coronaviridae. These results show that the viromes are of different composition depending on extraction methods. Most of the viral sequences were predominantly identified at the blastx step reflecting a high level of divergence with known viral sequences. Compared to a unique BLAST search, our resubmission pipeline allowed the assignment of up to 23 per cent of the viral sequences. Most of these sequences belonged to taxa already observed at the first blast step and few viral sequences of different families were detected. Knowing the complementarities between extraction methods and a better identification of viral sequences using our pipeline, the next step will be to get a precise position of each viral genomic segment in phylogenetic distance-based tree that will give a more accurate representation of viral diversity.
Predicting Forest Road and Bridge Construction Costs
Authors: Jackson David H. , Loveless Robert
Published: August 2019

Using market-transactions evidence revealed by transportation project contracts, the authors develop forest road and bridge cost equations. The "quality" variable for bridge contracts is bridge size. In the case of roads, the amount of excavation, clearing and grubbing, haul, culverts and surfacing (aggregate) all explain variation in winning contract bids. The resulting equations should be useful in transportation planning as well as in timber-bidding studies. West. J. Appl. For. 1:76-79, July 1986.
Firewood Use on National Forests in the Western United States
Authors: Force Jo Ellen
Published: August 2019

USDA Forest Service personnel from 81 of the 87 national forests in the 11 western states responded to an April 1984 mail survey on firewood for personal use. Firewood use increased steadily from 1970 to 1982 when 655,000 permits were issued, and forest managers estimate 2.8 million cords were cut. In 1983, there were 462,000 permits issued and an estimated 2 0 million cords cut. Forest managers say the decrease may reflect more accurate records being kept because of permit fees in 1983. Until reliable, accurate firewood use data are available, utilization of this forest resource cannot be fully understood, and the ability to predict future trends is limited. However, 93 percent of the forest managers predict that the demand for fire-wood will increase during the next five years. Managers believe the major factors influencing supply and demand are accessibility, the amount of timber harvested, and the cost of conventional fuels for home heating. Adoption of 15 firewood management practices was examined and provides guidance to forest managers responsible for the firewood resource. West. J. Appl. For. 1:111-115, Oct. 86.
Responses of Red Alder to Thinning
Authors: Hibbs David E. , Emmingham William H. , Bondi Michael C.
Published: August 2019

Responses of red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) to thinning were observed at two sites in the Oregon Coast Range. Five years after thinning in the 20-yr-old stand, mortality was observed only in control plots. Diameter growth of crop trees increased up to 54% with thinning. Trends toward less height growth at wider spacings and increased growth in basal area compared to controls appeared to be developing in thinned plots. Ten years after thinning in the 14-yr-old stand, the problems of flashback seen at year 5 in the chemically thinned plots had largely been overcome. Reduction in height growth in all thinned plots had been overcome. Net basal area growth was up to 60% greater in thinned treatments. Thinning appears effective for 10 to 15 yr in the narrow spacings and 15 to 20 yr in the wide spacings. West. J. Appl. For. 10(1): 17-23.
Effects of Bigleaf Maple Sprout Clumps on Diameter and Height Growth of Douglas-Fir
Authors: Knowe Steven A. , Carrier Byron D. , Dobkowski Alex
Published: August 2019

Diameter and height growth of 7- to 11-yr-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were examined in relation to bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) competition. Growth models were developed for plantations in Oregon and Washington by joining a distance-dependent model with a model that excluded competition effects. The fitted equations were based on Douglas-fir size at plantation age 7 yr and distance from the stump and crown diameter of the bigleaf maple clump. The models suggest that bigleaf maple clumps between 5.7-14.6 m from planted Douglas-firs decrease the latter's dbh and height growth, and that this decrease becomes greater with increasing size of the clump. A procedure is suggested to use the models to guide vegetation management prescriptions on sites with bigleaf maple sprout clumps. West. J. Appl. For. 10(1):5-11.
Pruning Costs for Four Northern Rocky Mountain Species with Three Equipment Combinations
Authors: O'Hara Kevin L. , Larvik Darin A. , Valappil Narayanan I.
Published: August 2019

A time and motion study was conducted to determine the cost to prune ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), western larch (Larix occidentalis), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) with loppers, pole saws, and Power Pruners. Costs to prune up to 8 ft ranged from $0.61 to $2.35/tree, and from $2.34 to $6.42/tree to prune to 18 ft depending upon species, equipment, and wage assumptions. Pole saws were the recommended equipment based on cost, ease of use, and damage to trees. Multivariate models were unable to explain much variation in pruning time because of the confounding effects of so many variables. Results suggest more than three trees could be pruned to a height of 9 ft for the same cost as pruning one tree to 18 ft. Pruning more trees to a 9 ft height would therefore increase clearwood production overpruning fewer trees to 18 ft, but may necessitate some modification of current log grading standards. West. J. Appl. For. 10(2):59-65.
Timber Harvesting by Nonindustrial Private Forest Landowners in Western Oregon
Authors: Cleaves David A. , Bennett Max
Published: August 2019

A survey of nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners in Western Oregon was analyzed to gain insights about their harvesting activity. Past participation in harvesting, harvest type, and future intentions for harvest were related to ownership size, tenure, residence, form of organization, method of acquisition, occupation, age, and income. Thirty percent of the respondents reported harvesting at least once during the 1979-1989 period. Higher rates of harvest participation were found for larger ownership sizes, longer tenure, corporate organization, farm ownership, and higher personal income. At least some of the influence of size on reported participation came from the natural tendency of larger ownerships to have a greater variety of acres eligible for harvest. Ownership size combined with a variety of demographic factors--tenure, residence, form of organization, acquisition method, occupation, and income--influenced whether the harvest was a clearcut or a commercial thinning. Commercial thinning and thinning/clearcutting combination harvests were more common than clearcutting. Landowners were generally willing to harvest in the future; more than two-thirds of the NIPF acreage is controlled by owners with definite harvest plans. Owners who reported no intentions to harvest had little past harvesting activity. The predominance of thinning and other forms of partial cutting by smaller NIPF owners may indicate opportunities to improve the condition of NIPFs through assistance in selective cutting. West. J. Appl. For. 10(2):66-71.
Reliability of Tanoak Volume Equations when applied to different areas
Authors: Pillsbury Norman H. , McDonald Philip M. , Simon Victor
Published: August 2019

Tree volume equations for tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) were developed for seven stands throughout its natural range and compared by a volume prediction and a parameter difference method. The objective was to test if volume estimates from a species growing in a local, relatively uniform habitat could be applied more widely. Results indicated that they could not. Diameter slope coefficients and intercepts differed at the 5% probability level. Tree height slope coefficients did not differ, but when all slope coefficients (dbh and height) were combined, a significant difference was present. Overall, volume equations from different populations were significantly different, and the general rule of matching standard volume tables to specific stands is reinforced. West. J. Appl. For. 10(2):72-78.
Porcupine Feeding Damage in Precommercially Thinned Conifer Stands of Central Southeast Alaska
Authors: Eglitis Andris , Hennon Paul E.
Published: August 2019

This study describes feeding damage by porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) in precommercially thinned young growth stands of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) on Mitkof Island in central southeast Alaska. We examined 641 trees from 54 sampling plots along transect lines in three 12 to 20 yr old stands. Porcupine feeding was monitored each spring and fall from 1985 to 1987. Four categories of feeding damage are described: complete girdling of the bole, partial girdling (bole scars), branch clipping, and "tasting wounds" (small basal bole scars). Sitka spruce, the primary crop tree in these thinned stands, sustained significantly higher damage (52% of trees affected) than western hemlock (26% of trees affected). Porcupine feeding was greater on taller than shorter Sitka spruce. Although only 8 of 59 trees initially girdled in 1985 were killed, many later sustained additional feeding damage. Following the 1987 season 3 yr after thinning, nearly 30% of the spruce and 14% of the western hemlock crop trees had been partially or completely girdled. Issues deserving future attention include the role of thinning in predisposing stands to porcupine damage, methods of population assessment, and mechanisms of host selection by porcupines. West. J. Appl. For. 12(4):115-121.
Early Height Growth of Western White Pine Provenances in British Columbia Plantations
Authors: Meagher M. D. , Hunt R. S.
Published: August 2019

To estimate the limits of seed transfer to and within British Columbia, heights of 36 western white pine (Pinus monticola) provenances 5-13 yr after planting on 24 sites, comprising 4 studies, were analyzed for geographic patterns. Thirty-six provenances were tested, with a maximum of 17 on a site. California and Oregon sources are not recommended due to poor height growth. Percentage differences between tallest and shortest provenances varied from 16% to 31%, depending on plantation series. Washington State and Idaho sources can be used on coastal sites but are not recommended on northern-interior sites. Northern-interior provenances are recommended for local sites, especially those beyond the species' natural range. The data support establishment of separate seed orchards, one for each of the coastal and interior portions of this disjunct species. West. J. Appl. For. 13(2):47-53.
Lumber Recovery from Beetle-Killed Spruce Trees, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
Authors: Lowell Eini C. , Willits Susan A.
Published: August 2019

A four-level, visual classification system based on tree condition was developed for the beetle-killed spruce on Alaska's Kenai Peninsula. The lumber recovery study estimated lumber volume and value recovery for each of the deterioration classes. Trees were selected by dbh and deterioration class from a wide geographic range on the Kenai Peninsula. Defect present prior to attack by beetles (existing defect) played a significant role in recovery results. Both volume and value of logs from live and dead trees decreased significantly. Volume and value recovery did not statistically differ among deterioration classes 2, 3, and 4. Models were developed for each deterioration class that incorporate losses from existing defect. Each 1% of existing defect translates to a decrease of 0.3% in cubic recovery and a loss of $1.92 per hundred cubic feet (CCF) of gross log volume. The recommendation is to have two deterioration classes: one for live and infested trees and a second for dead trees. Information on individual deterioration classes is also provided. West. J. Appl. For. 13(2):54-59.
Shifting Public Values for Forest Management: Making Sense of Wicked Problems
Authors: Shindler Bruce , Cramer Lori A.
Published: August 2019

Wicked problems typify many of the natural resource debates in the United States and certainly describe the management of forestlands in the Pacific Northwest. Wicked problems are interrelated ones of organized complexity that cannot be solved in isolation from one another, but also hinge on differing sociopolitical values that clash in the political arena. Forestry professionals frequently find themselves caught up in the dilemma of making decisions in this era of social change and much scrutiny. This paper examines what shifting social values mean for forest management and research by (1) providing a conceptual context for forest policy decisions, (2) examining relevant problems facing management and research institutions, and (3) characterizing the implication for public forest management given the nature of wicked problems. West. J. Appl. For. 14(1):28-34.
Response of Planted Ponderosa Pine Seedlings to Weed Control by Herbicide in Western Montana
Authors: Uzoh Fabian C. C.
Published: August 2019

The effects of competing herbaceous vegetation on the growth of ponderosa pine seedlings with and without the herbicide Pronone were characterized in this 1987-1990 study. Study areas were established in 36 plantations across western Montana on Champion International Corporation's timberland (currently owned by Plum Creek Timber Company). The study sites were divided into three precipitation classes: low, medium, and high. Mean percent stem volume growth was calculated for 3 yr by precipitation class. Split-plot analyses of variance for precipitation class, treatment, and interaction were conducted across sites between treated and untreated seedlings to test for significant (a = 0.05) differences in growth. A two-dimensional plot of precipitation class by treated versus untreated trees was constructed to show growth rate trends. After 3 growing seasons, the treated seedlings showed significantly higher stem volume growth than their untreated counterparts regardless of precipitation class. The difference between treated and untreated seedlings was statistically significant. West. J. Appl. For. 14(1):48-52.
Growth of Douglas-Fir and Ponderosa Pine Seedlings with Foliar Applications of Methanol and Ethanol
Authors: Joseph Gladwin , Kelsey Rick G.
Published: August 2019

To test whether methanol or ethanol stimulated growth of coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii vat. menziesii) or ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) seedlings, we sprayed concentrations of 1 to 10% (v/v) on the foliage twice a week for 13 wk during the growing season. Foliar applications of methanol and ethanol neither significantly stimulated nor inhibited growth, and signs of damage at these concentrations were lacking. West. J. Appl. For. 14(4):183-185.
Boreal Plant Community Diversity 10 Years After Glyphosate Treatment
Authors: Boateng Jacob O. , Haeussler Sybille , Bedford Lorne
Published: August 2019

This study examined 10 and 12 yr posttreatment effects of broadcast and spot application of glyphosate for site preparation on structural diversity, species richness and diversity, and crop tree growth in two boreal forest plant communities in northeastern British Columbia. At the broadcast-sprayed site, reduced dominance of the tall shrub layer was associated with increased structural diversity and increased richness of the herb layer 10 yr after treatment. At the spot-sprayed site, no significant differences in plant community structure or diversity could be detected after 12 yr. At both sites, glyphosate application increased the growth of planted white spruce (Picea glauca) seedlings without eliminating deciduous trees and shrubs. The results indicate that a single application of glyphosate to prepare sites for reforestation can improve crop tree performance without adversely affecting vascular plant community diversity. West. J. Appl. For. 15(1):15-26.
Height Growth Models for High-Elevation Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, and Lodgepole Pine in British Columbia
Authors: Chen Han Y. H. , Klinka Karel
Published: August 2019

To estimate potential productivity of the high-elevation Engelmann Spruce and Subalpine Fir (ESSF) zone of British Columbia forests, the height growth models developed from low-elevation forests are currently used to estimate site indices of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). Whether these models are adequate to describe height growth of high-elevation forests is of concern. We sampled a total of 319 naturally established, even-aged, and undamaged stands with breast height age ≥50 yr (165 for subalpine fir, 87 for Engelmann spruce, and 67 for lodgepole pine) ranging widely in climate and available soil moisture and nutrients. In each sampled stand, three dominant trees were destructively sampled for stem analysis. Height growth models developed from fitting data to a conditioned logistic function explained > 97% variation in height for all three study species. Examined by residual analysis, no models showed lack of fit. These models provided more accurate estimates of site index than the currently used models developed from low-elevation stands or different species. It is recommended that the models developed in this study be applied to estimate site index of the three species in the ESSF zone in British Columbia. West. J. Appl. For. 15(2):62-69.
Cold Hardiness Testing for Douglas-Fir Tree Improvement Programs: Guidelines for a Simple, Robust, and Inexpensive Screening Method
Authors: Anekonda T. S. , Adams W. T. , Aitken S. N.
Published: August 2019

Operational methods are needed for screening genotypes in breeding programs for adaptive traits. In this article, we present a detailed description of one procedure for screening improved coastal Douglas-fir seedlings and saplings for cold hardiness, based on research results of the Pacific Northwest Tree Improvement Research Cooperative. Artificial freeze testing of detached shoots from genetic tests, followed by visual scoring of injury, has proved to be an efficient, reliable, and cost-effective method of screening large numbers of genotypes. Relevant research results are summarized, and practical details of this methodology are presented for straightforward implementation by Douglas-fir breeders and researchers. West. J. Appl. For. 15(3):129-136.
The Influence of Weeding on Growth of Browsed Seedlings in Douglas-Fir Plantations
Authors: O'Dea M. E. , Newton M. , Cole E. C. , Gourley M.
Published: August 2019

Large Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) transplants were exposed to heavy browsing pressure under various weeding regimes in two experiments continued 4 and 5 yr, respectively. Browsing had relatively little effect on seedlings that did not receive weed control because potential growth was modest. With increasing degrees of weed control, seedlings that escaped browsing grew more rapidly. Weeding facilitated escapement from reach of browsing and increased net growth significantly because of both escapement and increased rates of recovery after herbivory. When subjected to repeated browsing, seedlings were similar in size in plots weeded both the first year and for 2 yr. Seedlings in plots weeded at both levels were larger than those in unweeded plots. Intensive weeding after planting appears to be a useful and integrative method of protecting seedlings from browsing losses. West. J. Appl. For. 15(3):163-168.
Forest Service Spatial Information Use for Planning Prescribed Fires
Authors: Barrett T.M. , Jones J.G. , Wakimoto R.H.
Published: August 2019

Forest management decision support systems (FMDSS) and geographic information systems have improved the incorporation of spatial information into forest planning. However, most FMDSS have been designed to implement silvicultural treatments rather than prescribed fire and fuel treatments. Results from a survey of 277 Forest Service employees in the western US show FMDSS need modifications to be better adapted to the needs of prescribed fire planners. Survey responses indicate that, on average, prescribed fire planners would like to increase the area treated annually by 12 times current levels. Available time windows for burning provide the most severe constraint for managers, while funding and personnel constraints were rated as comparably less important. Given these results, FMDSS may be most appropriately designed to help managers develop a long-term strategy for prioritizing prescribed fire treatments. Necessary FMDSS modifications may include different methods of delineating treatment boundaries, improved integration with wildlife habitat models, emphasis on short-term costs, and flexible intervals between repeated treatments. West. J. Appl. For. 15(4):200–207.
Resource Selection by Porcupines: Winter Den Site Location and Forage Tree Choices
Authors: Zimmerling Todd N. , Croft Chad D.
Published: August 2019

We examined the importance of tree species composition and tree size-class distribution in determining the selection of winter den sites and forage trees by porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum). Porcupines selected winter den sites with a higher composition of sitka spruce, in all diameter size classes. However, statistically significant selection was found only for the 15.0–19.9 cm dbh size classes of sitka spruce. Porcupines displayed a statistically significant avoidance of 5.0–9.9 cm dbh and 10.0–14.9 cm dbh western hemlock trees when selecting winter den sites. When foraging around the den sites, porcupines showed a statistical avoidance of amabilis fir in all size classes and selected western hemlock, except the smallest size class (5.0–9.9 cm dbh). The results of this study indicate that porcupines do not choose winter den site locations based on the availability of preferred forage resources. Porcupines appear to choose den sites based on within-stand, patch variation in the proportion of sitka spruce and small dbh western hemlock. Forage trees are then selected, nonrandomly from specific resource categories around the den site. Porcupines in this study were found to feed on a mean of 0.54 new forage trees/day. Regression analysis revealed a positive linear relationship between new forage trees used/day and porcupine midwinter weight (y = 0.15x–0.54; r2 = 0.73). The results indicate that larger porcupines may produce a larger proportion of observed conifer tree feeding damage in second growth stands, as compared to smaller porcupines. West. J. Appl. For. 16(2):53–57.
Susceptibility of Foxtail Pine and Western White Pine to Limber Pine Dwarf Mistletoe in Northern California
Authors: Mathiasen Robert L. , Daugherty Carolyn M.
Published: August 2019

This study confirms that foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana) should be classified as an occasional host and western white pine (P. monticola) as a secondary host of limber pine dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium cyanocarpum) in northern California. Thirty temporary circular plots (6 m radius) were established around dominant, severely infected western white pines near Mount Eddy, Trinity County, CA. Within these plots, species, diameter at 1.3 m above the ground, and dwarf mistletoe rating (6 class system) were determined for each live tree over 1.37 m in height. Thirty-five and 75% of the foxtail pines and western white pines, respectively, sampled near large, severely infected western white pines were infected. None of the Low's fir (Abies lowiana) or Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi) observed in the plots were infected, and these species are classified as immune to limber pine dwarf mistletoe. West. J. Appl.For. 16(2):58–60.
Veneer Recovery from Beetle-Killed Spruce Trees, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
Authors: Lowell E.C.
Published: August 2019

A four-level, visual classification system based on tree condition was developed for beetle-killed spruce on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. The veneer recovery study estimated volume and value of veneer recovered from trees in all but the most deteriorated class (class 4). Trees were selected by dbh and deterioration class from plots spanning the peninsula. Results showed significantly lower recovery of both volume and value for logs from dead trees compared to logs from live trees. Volume and value recovery did not statistically differ between deterioration classes 2 and 3. There was about a 6% difference in cubic recovery between logs and veneer blocks from live (class 1) and dead (classes 2 and 3) trees. Defect present before beetle attack (existing defect) played a significant role in recovery results. Models were developed by deterioration classes incorporating losses from existing defect. Each 1% of existing defect translated to a decrease of 0.4% in cubic recovery and a loss of $1.96/CCF of gross woods-length log volume. The recommendation is to have two deterioration classes: one for live and infested trees and a second for dead trees. These two classes are sufficient for evaluating veneer recovery. West. J. Appl. For. 16(2):65–70.
Incidence of Infection and Decay Caused by Heterobasidion annosum in Managed Noble Fir on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Oregon
Authors: Sullivan Kelly F. , Filip Gregory M. , Arena John V. , Fitzgerald Stephen A. , Tesch Steven D.
Published: August 2019

On the Warm Springs Indian Reservation in north-central Oregon, a 70- to 80-yr-old noble fir stand that was thinned 26 yr prior to sampling exhibited 72% incidence of H. annosum infection for wounded trees and 83% for unwounded trees. Decay volume averaged 6% in wounded trees and 1% in unwounded trees. In a similar stand that was thinned 7 yr prior to sampling, incidence of infection was 94% for wounded trees and 80% for unwounded trees. Decay volume averaged 3% in wounded trees and 0% in unwounded trees. Trunk wounds and stumps created from thinning both appeared to be effective infection courts. We developed a regression model that demonstrates increasing decay volume with increasing wound age and thinning stump diameter. Only the S-type intersterility group H. annosum was detected in our isolates using isozyme analyses. Vegetative compatibility (VC) tests in one stand revealed an average of 2.7 VC groups/tree. Multiple VC groups in individual trees suggest that wound infection by H. annosum spores is significant in managed noble fir. Our results support the common recommendations to treat stumps with boron-containing products and avoid trunk wounding during harvest to minimize subsequent spore infections by H. annosum. West. J. Appl. For. 16(3):106–113
Association of Black Stain Root Disease with Roads, Skid Trails, and Precommercial Thinning in Southwest Oregon
Authors: Hessburg Paul F. , Goheen Donald J. , Koester Harv
Published: August 2019

The incidence and severity of black stain root disease (BSRD) were evaluated in a two-stage sample of 500 precommercial-aged Douglas-fir plantations on 5 Resource Areas of the Medford District, Bureau of Land Management. Black stain was widely distributed throughout the western half of the District. Nearly 19% of the susceptible-aged (10- to 30-yr-old) plantations were infected with black stain, but mortality losses were low. In both the extensive and intensive surveys, BSRD was more often distributed in precommercially thinned than unthinned plantations. Black stain occurred with significantly greater frequency adjacent to roads and major skid trails than in the main body of plantations. Roadside strips displayed significantly more injured trees and recent soil disturbance than the main body of plantations. BSRD incidence was high in comparison with other root diseases, but there was minimal impact to precommercial stand management. Low disease severity is somewhat unique among managed forests within this area of known high BSRD hazard. The lack of widespread damage from BSRD was associated with a lack of extensive tractor yarding and an apparent lack of precommercial thinning. Forest managers within high BSRD hazard areas can maintain low mortality levels by minimizing site disturbance and tree injury associated with timber harvesting, road building, and road maintenance activities and by timing precommercial thinning to avoid vector insect emergence and flight periods. Increased disturbance and injury to precommercial-aged stands will likely result in increased disease. West. J. Appl. For. 16(3):127–135.
Response of Nontarget Species to Underground Strychnine Baiting for Pocket Gopher in Southwest Oregon
Authors: Nolte Dale L. , El Hani Abderrahim , Mason J. Russell , Bulkin Stephen
Published: August 2019

Pocket gophers (Thomomys spp.) impede reforestation efforts in the Pacific Northwest and strychnine baiting is used to reduce their populations. We conducted a capture and release program in southern Oregon to determine whether strychnine baiting negatively impacted nontarget small mammal species. Two nontarget species dominated the program: golden mantled ground squirrels (Spermophilus lateralis) and yellow pine chipmunks (Tamias amoenus). There was a short-term decline in ground squirrel populations after baiting, but yellow pine chipmunk populations were not adversely affected. We conclude that underground baiting with 0.5% strychnine treated grain is unlikely to cause long-term adverse effects on nontarget wildlife species in southwest Oregon. West. J. Appl. For. 17(1):9–13.
Height Growth Models for Western Larch in British Columbia
Authors: Brisco David , Klinka Karel , Nigh Gordon
Published: August 2019

British Columbia's foresters currently use height growth curves developed with data from Montana to estimate the height and productivity of western larch (Larix occidentalis). The ability of the presently used curves to accurately predict the height growth of British Columbia's larch population is unknown. The production of new curves with local data could improve our ability to predict heights and allow increasingly precise yield projections in British Columbia. Data from 105 western larch stem analysis plots were collected from across the natural range of larch in British Columbia. The measured plots were naturally established, fire-origin, even-aged, and exhibited no indications of suppression or disease. A Richards function was fit to the data from each plot and used to generate height-age and site index information. Four models were fit to the plot data: conditioned logistic, Chapman Richards, conditioned Chapman Richards, and conditioned Weibull. The Chapman Richards model had the best fit to the data, although all four models had similar fit statistics. Overall, the Chapman Richards model is slightly more accurate at estimating heights than the currently used model. West.J. Appl. For. 17(2):66–74.
Coarse Woody Debris in Oak Woodlands of California
Authors: Tietje William D. , Waddell Karen L. , Vreeland Justin K. , Bolsinger Charles L.
Published: August 2019

An extensive forest inventory was conducted to estimate the amount and distribution of coarse woody debris (CWD) on 5.6 million ac of woodlands in California that are outside of national forests and reserved areas. Woodlands consist primarily of oak (Quercus spp.) types and are defined as forestland incapable of producing commercial quantities of traditional forest products because of adverse site and tree morphophysiology. Approximately 671 million ft3 of CWD were estimated to occur over the study area. Almost 3 million ac of woodland (52% of the sampled area) were estimated to have no CWD. The large-end diameter of CWD was <12 in. on 67% of all logs sampled. Blue oak (Q. douglasii) CWD occurred over the largest area and gray pine (Pinus sabiniana) produced the most volume (164.1 million ft3) of CWD. An average of 115 ft3/ac, 1.2 tons/ac, 21 logs/ac, and 56.8 linear ft/ac were estimated for CWD across all woodland types. The coast live oak (Q. agrifolia) type produced the largest per-acre measure of CWD volume (164.1 ft3/ac). The California laurel (Umbellularia californica) type produced the highest log density (48 logs/ac) and the most linear feet per acre of CWD (131.8 ft/ac). CWD was most abundant in the central coast and least abundant in the northeastern portion of the state. Results of this study suggest that CWD is not common across much of California's woodlands. More detailed research is needed to evaluate the amount and distribution of CWD, affects of land-use, and the implications for wildlife. West. J. Appl. For. 17(3):139–146.
An Analysis of “24-Hour Pay” for Forest Fire Suppression Personnel
Authors: Gebert Krista M. , Schuster Ervin G.
Published: August 2019

This study estimates the overall percentage difference in total personnel compensation between the current pay system for forest fire suppression and a system of 24-hour pay, where employees are paid their regular rate of pay for 24 hours per day while on fire duty. Using a random sample of USDA Forest Service employees, divided among fire types, pay grades, and job types, we simulated the effect of 24-hour pay by recalculating pay from actual pay records. We also investigated how changes in shift length (the number of hours worked in a 24-hour period) and hazard pay rates would affect compensation and how changing the pay system would affect different types of employees. Findings show that changing to a system of 24-hour pay would result in a substantial increase in salary costs. Restricting shift length to 12 or 14 hours further increases salary costs under 24-hour pay, as does the addition of hazard pay. In addition, increased employee compensation under 24-hour pay is unevenly distributed among job categories and pay grades. West. J. Appl. For. 17(4):183–188.
Impact of Pruning Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana)
Authors: Schmidt Thomas L. , Wardle Tom D.
Published: August 2019

In recent years, eastern redcedar has been the most rapidly expanding tree resource in the Great Plains from Oklahoma to South Dakota, primarily in rangelands and pastures. Based on these increases and potential management-related problems, eastern redcedar is perceived as a threat to the rangeland resource. Pruning eastern redcedar can allow for increased herbaceous growth under the eastern redcedar's crown, improve livestock handling, maintain the species for diversity and habitat contributions, and improve wood quality for potential future utilization by forest industries. To determine the effect of pruning to different heights on tree growth, we compared unpruned trees' total height and diameter to trees pruned from ground level to heights of 60, 90, 120, and 150 cm. No significant differences in the total height were found for all pruning treatments over all time periods. After more than 10 yr, trees pruned to 60, 90, and 120 cm had smaller diameters at ground level than unpruned trees. There were no differences in ground diameters for trees pruned to 150 cm compared to unpruned trees after 4 yr of growth. There were no significant differences in dbh for eastern redcedar trees pruned to all heights. Management of eastern redcedar, including pruning, is recommended as an alternative to control measures. West. J. Appl. For. 17(4):189–193.
The Effect of Hexazinone, Sulfometuron, Metsulfuron, and Atrazine on the Germination Success of Selected Ceanothus and Rubus Species
Authors: Rose Robin , Ketchum J. Scott
Published: August 2019

This study documents the impact pre-emergent forestry herbicides have on germination of some selected seral woody competitors in the Pacific Northwest. Four commonly used pre-emergent soil-active herbicides (hexazinone, sulfometuron, metsulfuron, and atrazine) typically used for herbaceous weed control were applied at six rates over stratified seed of Ceanothus velutinus (CEVE) and Ceanothus integerrimus (CEIN) in a greenhouse efficacy trial. In addition, hexazinone and sulfometuron were applied over stratified Rubus ursinus (RUUR) and Rubus parviflorus (RUPA) seed and sulfometuron over stratified seed of Rubus spectabilis (RUSP) at the same six rates. Numbers of seed to successfully germinate and develop true leaves were counted over a 9 wk period immediately following herbicide application. The hexazinone treatments reduced germination and growth of CEVE, CEIN, and RUPA. The RUUR species was tolerant of the hexazinone herbicide at low rates but at higher rates was strongly affected. The sulfometuron treatments had less effect on survival probability than hexazinone but strongly reduced the average dry weight of plantlets of all species. Seedling dry weight decreased with increasing rate of both metsulfuron and atrazine. Increasing the metsulfuron rate reduced the probability for CEVE seedlings to survive but not CEIN. Finally, atrazine sharply reduced the plantlet survival and reduced dry weight of both CEVE and CEIN even at low rates.West. J. Appl. For. 17(4):194–201.
A Method for Evaluating Fixed-Radius Plot Size When Sampling Western Juniper Seedlings and Saplings
Authors: Azuma David L. , Bednar Larry
Published: August 2019

This note outlines a method for evaluating plot size selection for an inventory of western juniper woodlands in eastern Oregon. The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the USDA Forest Service in Portland, Oregon, used this method to evaluate several plot sizes to measure seedlings and saplings in the 1998 inventory of eastern Oregon. By choosing a 5 m radius plot, the probability of tallying no seedlings or saplings on four subplots is less than 10% for the three sample densities (0.01, 0.02, and 0.03 trees/m2) used. West. J. Appl. For. 17(4):207–208.
DamQuick: A New Method for Rapidly Assessing Residual Stand Damage During Partial Timber Harvests
Authors: Han H-Sup , Steele Thomas W. , Kellogg Loren D.
Published: August 2019

The increasing frequency of partial timber harvest prescriptions has created the need for an efficient and accurate method of assessing residual stand damage. In this study, we developed and tested a new sampling method that exploits the general pattern of residual stand damage being concentrated near primary transport routes. The method, termed DamQuick, consists of systematic belt transects located immediately adjacent and parallel to the harvesting operation's extraction corridors. Plot measures of tree wounding are scaled by sampling intensity and a concentration factor to yield stand-level estimates of residual damage. The method was evaluated for a skyline thinning operation in western Oregon. DamQuick damage estimates were compared with actual damage levels obtained from a 100% survey for three thinning treatments—30, 60, and 100 residual trees/ac. The mean DamQuick estimates were statistically similar to actual stand damage levels (t = 0.366–0.651, P = 0.531–0.725) for all thinning treatments, with mean estimation errors (standard errors) ranging from 0.7% (0.9%) to 2.1% (4.4%). Operationally, DamQuick was easy to implement. The primary transport routes provided ready stand access, which facilitated plot location and establishment. West. J. Appl. For. 18(2):81–87.
Evaluation of Selenium as a Systemic Vole Repellent in Hybrid Poplars
Authors: Moser Brain W.
Published: August 2019

The ability of a systemic selenium compound (SeO2) to reduce vole damage in hybrid poplars was tested in a feeding trial using captive voles. Selenium was applied to the soil around the base of trees twice during the growing season as 1000 mg SeO2 in 30 ml water. Treated cuttings achieved selenium concentrations of 6.43 ppm, over 9 × greater than controls (P < 0.001). Cuttings were taken from these treated and control trees, and offered to captive voles in a two-choice feeding trial. No significant differences (P = 0.205) in feeding were found between the selenium-treated and control cuttings. Although treated trees had higher levels of selenium than control trees, it appears that the concentrations tested did not reduce vole feeding on hybrid poplars. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):163–165.
Structural Characteristics of Forest Stands Within Home Ranges of Mexican Spotted Owls in Arizona and New Mexico
Authors: Ganey Joseph L. , Block William M. , Ackers Steven H.
Published: August 2019

As part of a set of studies evaluating home-range size and habitat use of radio-marked Mexican spotted owls (Strix occidentalis lucida), we sampled structural characteristics of forest stands within owl home ranges on two study areas in Arizona and New Mexico. Study areas were dominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)–Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) forest (Arizona) or mixed-conifer forest (New Mexico). We describe structural characteristics of forest stands used by spotted owls for both foraging and roosting, in terms of central tendencies and variability in structural characteristics among stands. Our results indicated that stands used for foraging were more variable than stands used for roosting. Observed distributions of structural variables were consistent with recommendations in the recovery plan governing management of owl habitat with a few potentially important exceptions. We also provide additional recommendations for application in forest management, based both on observed data and on extensive collective experience with the owl and its habitat. West. J. Appl. For. 18(3):189–198.
Effects of Western Balsam Bark Beetle on Spruce-Fir Forests of North-Central Wyoming
Authors: McMillin Joel D. , Allen Kurt K. , Long Daniel F. , Harris Jeri Lyn , Negrón José F.
Published: August 2019

Western balsam bark beetle, Dryocoetes confusus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), has caused widespread mortality of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) in western North America throughout the past decade. The objectives of this study were to document the effects of this mortality, relate mortality to pre-existing stand conditions, and investigate the role of storm-damaged fir in beetle population dynamics in north-central Wyoming. Transect cruise lines and pairs of infested and uninfested plots were installed to detect changes in the forest overstory and understory and to determine associations between stand conditions and beetle-caused fir mortality. On average, beetles killed more than 70 trees/ac over the last several years. This mortality resulted in significant decreases in: subalpine fir basal area, trees per acre, stand density index, and the percentage of subalpine fir stems in the overstory. Small, but significant increases were detected in the understory; herbaceous plant abundance increased in the infested plots compared with the noninfested plots. Moreover, significant positive linear relationships were found between the amount of fir mortality and the percentage of subalpine fir trees in a stand, subalpine fir basal area, and subalpine fir stand density index. In addition, a significant positive linear relationship was found between the percentage of wind-caused downed fir logs in an area and the percentage of logs utilized by western balsam bark beetle. The blowdown events that occurred in the mid-1990s in combination with a high percentage of fir component has provided ideal conditions for continued beetle expansion. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):259–266.
Log and Lumber Grades and Value from a Douglas-Fir Stand 20 Years after Thinning and Biosolids Fertilization
Authors: Briggs David , Sonne Edie , Turnblom Eric , Becker Gero
Published: August 2019

Three replications of four treatments: biosolids fertilization, thinning, thinning plus biosolids fertilization, and untreated control were established in 1977 in a dense, low site, 55-yr-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stand in western Washington. In 1998, 12 trees from each treatment were harvested, bucked into logs, and sawn into visually graded lumber. Taking into account effects of treatments on stand yield and log grades, biosolid fertilization only, thinning only, and thinning combined with biosolids increased log value/ac by $1,142 (19%), $3,642 (62%), and $9,069 (155%), respectively, over the untreated control. When treatment effects were viewed in terms of changes in lumber yield and quality, per acre gains over the control were $2,107 (26%), $5,683 (70%), and $10,708 (132%), respectively. Willingness to pay analysis indicates that if the landowner intends to manage the stand to a rotation of about 75 yr, each of the treatments, and especially the combination of thinning and applying biosolids, appears to be financially attractive at both 5 and 9% interest rates. However, if the rotation had been set at 55 yr, only the thinning/biosolids combination at 5% interest rate would entice management to delay immediate harvest. West. J. Appl. For. 19(1):34–41.