Population genomics ofCryptococcus neoformansvar.grubiireveals new biogeographic relationships and finely maps hybridization
Authors: Rhodes Johanna , Desjardins Christopher A. , Sykes Sean M. , Beale Mathew A. , Vanhove Mathieu , Sakthikumar Sharadha , Chen Yuan , Gujja Sharvari , Saif Sakina , Chowdhary Anuradha , Lawson Daniel John , Ponzio Vinicius , Colombo Arnaldo Lopes , Meyer Wieland , Engelthaler David M. , Hagen Ferry , Illnait-Zaragozi Maria Teresa , Alanio Alexandre , Vreulink Jo-Marie , Heitman Joseph , Perfect John R. , Litvintseva Anastasia , Bicanic Tihana , Harrison Thomas S. , Fisher Matthew C. , Cuomo Christina A. 
Published: May 2017

Cryptococcus neoformansvar.grubiiis the causative agent of cryptococcal meningitis, a significant source of mortality in immunocompromised individuals, typically HIV/AIDS patients from developing countries. Despite the worldwide emergence of this ubiquitous infection, little is known about the global molecular epidemiology of this fungal pathogen. Here we sequence the genomes of 188 diverse isolates and characterized the major subdivisions, their relative diversity and the level of genetic exchange between them. While most isolates ofC. neoformansvar.grubiibelong to one of three major lineages (VNI, VNII, and VNB), some haploid isolates show hybrid ancestry including some that appear to have recently interbred, based on the detection of large blocks of each ancestry across each chromosome. Many isolates display evidence of aneuploidy, which was detected for all chromosomes. In diploid isolates ofC. neoformansvar.grubii (serotype A/A) and of hybrids withC. neoformansvar.neoformans(serotype A/D) such aneuploidies have resulted in loss of heterozygosity, where a chromosomal region is represented by the genotype of only one parental isolate. Phylogenetic and population genomic analyses of isolates from Brazil revealed that the previously ‘African’ VNB lineage occurs naturally in the South American environment. This suggests migration of the VNB lineage between Africa and South America prior to its diversification, supported by finding ancestral recombination events between isolates from different lineages and regions. The results provide evidence of substantial population structure, with all lineages showing multi-continental distributions demonstrating the highly dispersive nature of this pathogen.

Author Summary

Cryptococcus neoformansvar.grubiiis a human fungal pathogen of immunocompromised individuals that has global clinical impact, causing half a million deaths per year. Substantial genetic substructure exists for this pathogen, with two lineages found globally (VNI, VNII) whereas a third has appeared confined to sub-Saharan Africa (VNB). Here, we utilized genome sequencing of a large set of global isolates to examine the genetic diversity, hybridization, and biogeography of these lineages. We found that while the three major lineages are well separated, recombination between the lineages has occurred, notably resulting in hybrid isolates with segmented ancestry across the genome. In addition, we showed that isolates from South America are placed within the VNB lineage, formerly thought to be confined to Africa, and that there is phylogenetic separation between these geographies that substantially expands the diversity of these lineages. Our findings provide a new framework for further studies of the dynamics of natural populations ofC. neoformansvar.grubii.