bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Development and Field Application of a Mathematical Model for Predicting the Kinematic Viscosity of Crude Oil/Diluter Mixture Under Continuous Production Conditions
Authors: Alcocer C. F. , Menzie D. E.
Published: December 2007

Experience producing medium to heavy oil areas has demonstrated that most conventional artificial production systems are inefficient. This situation has been improved by mixing diluter fluids or light crude oil with medium to heavy crude oil downhole. The mixing increases production efficiency, crude oil selling value, and conditions crude to meet minimum selling conditions.

An analytical model has been developed to analyze the behavior of crude oil/diluter mixtures under continuous production conditions. The model developed for this study has practical application in field operations. The most important applications are: To select the proper diluter fluid to be used in a specific area; to calculate the exact amount of diluter to be mixed with crude oil to obtain a specific viscosity; to forecast the amount of diluter fluid required for normal and continuous oilfield operations; to predict crude oil-diluter mixture kinematic viscosity under any proportion of the components for economic evaluation, and to calculate API gravities of the produced mixture under continuous operation. The crude oils used in this study have a gravity between 8.6°API and 14.3°API. The diluters used have a gravity between 31.4°API and 63°API.

The paper presents the analytical model and one application to Venezuelan field in the Orinoco Petroleum Belt, one of the largest oil reserves in the world. Each well in the field has a different viscosity and different production rate. The production rate was considered continuous and under exponential decline.
Field Method of Assessing Borehole Friction for Directional Well Casing
Authors: Maidla E. E. , Wojtanowicz A. K.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents a method to evaluate an overall friction coefficient between borehole and casing. The computation is done by matching hook load data, recorded in the field, with the calculated hook load obtained by assuming a friction factor coefficient. The equations for predicting surface hook loads are derived from the respective governing differential equations. The iterative nature of the calculations are handled by a computer program. One case history from a rig offshore Louisiana State, confirmed the possibility of evaluating this friction coefficient, while also describing the equipment and necessary care used to record the data.
Applications of a New Pulsed Neutron Capture Log to Middle East Reservoirs
Authors: Vasilev M. L. , Randall R. R. , Oliver D. W. , Fertl W. H.
Published: December 2007

A new pulsed neutron capture (PNC) logging system, the PDK-100,SM was placed into field operation in the Middle East in 1985. The PDK-100 (Pulse and Decay, 100 channels) is a new microprocessor-controlled version of the Neutron Lifetime Log® the first commercial pulsed neutron system introduced to the industry in 1963.1

In this paper, basic measurement concepts of the new instrument are reviewed. Particular emphasis is placed on showing how information available from the PDK-100 has broadened the range of applications of PNC logging. Log examples from the Middle East demonstrate the utility of the PDK-100 for a variety of reservoir conditions.
Interpretation and Practical Applications of Flow Phenomena in Clayey Media
Authors: Bardon C. , Jacquin C.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the 41st Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Dallas, Tex., Oct. 2–5, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

The presence of clay in sandstone reservoirs complicates the interpretation of electric logs and can influence the flow properties of fluids.

The water-clay interaction and, in particular, the double ionic layer concept has been applied to the study of macroscopic fluid flow phenomena from two points of view: [1] the mechanical driving of clay particles and [21 the ionic equilibrium which allows a generally reversible swelling of the clay to take place. In the latter case, an effective porosity has been defined in keeping with the fact that the swelling water in the double stratum does not participate in the flow, and the resulting permeability reduction has been calculated in function of the ionic concentration of the aqueous phase. Experimental proof of this theory is very effective in artificial formations.

To study the practical problems raised by clayey sandstones, sandstones containing illite and kaolinite were examined with standard electrolytes [NaCl, CaCl2, KCl].

The permeability decreases conformed to the theory and depend on the nature of the clay, its distribution in the sandstone and the nature of the compensating ion in the clay.

Clay particle driving occurred in both sandstones and artificial media, thus enabling the chances of plugging linked to salt-content variations to be evaluated.

A study of this sort brings out the precautions that should be taken in drilling into clayey reservoirs and in making petrophysical studies.

Introduction

The presence of clay in natural porous media presents drilling and production engineers with various problems linked to the nature of clays and their reactivity.

Interpreting electric logs with clay present is made more delicate when searching for oil-bearing zones. The interaction between clays and fluids in contact with each other [oil field water, mud filtrate injected water] is capable of modifying the capillary properties of the rock and, in some cases., can reduce the production capacity of wells by decreasing the permeability of the reservoir.
Lithological and Sedimentological Evaluation Using Computerized Interpretation Programs
Authors: Charara M. , Rabadi N.
Published: December 2007

Two computerized interpretation programs were applied to a well in Jordan that penetrated formations with different lithological and sedimentological characteristics. The first program is an automatic lithofacies identification approach and is based on comparing log responses to a lithofacies data base derived from geological knowledge. The second program uses high resolution dipmeter data and outputs synthetic curves that can be used for sedimentological evaluation. The combination of log-based lithological columns and dipmeter-synthetic logs have provided an overall picture about the characteristics of the various formations.
Design and Initial Performance of a Steamflood Pilot in the Marmul Field, Oman
Authors: Boutkan V. K.
Published: December 2007

The design and the initial performance of a steam flood pilot in the Marmul field (Oman) are described. The project is characterised by a very complex glacial geology, high steam temperatures of around 300°C and harsh climatological conditions. Initial production and injection rates are lower than anticipated, but are expected to increase in the future.
Source Rock Identification in the State of Kuwait Using Wireline Logs
Authors: Hussain F. A.
Published: December 2007

This study deals with the identification of source rocks within the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous sediments in the State of Kuwait. Qualitative analysis could differentiate between source and non source rocks. Qunatitative work based on mathematical equations, software program and computer application lead to the calculation of feet of source rock and volume of organic matter. Laboratory work performed on the same section gave very similar results. Published work in adjacent areas to Kuwait came in line.

Such type of work can cover large intervals in a very short time and in an economic way.
Completion Design for Ummshaif Khuff Gas Producers/Uweinat Injectors
Authors: Rizk G. A. , Gabert R. F.
Published: December 2007

The completion design of deep, sour, hot, high pressure gas producer and injector wells has created challenges to the oil industry all over the world.

For the ADMA-QPCO Khuff/Uweinat gas project, the use of low alloy API Grade steel in conjuction with corrosion inhibition systems has been compared with a corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) completion string. The latter option appeared to be simpler, safer and more economical, and was therefore chosen.
Cement Evaluation Tool and Its Applications to Communication Testing
Authors: Ataya A. A. , Youssef F. Z.
Published: December 2007

Considerable amounts of time and money are spent in attempting to establish behind casing seal between reservoirs and/or pseudo reservoirs (zonal and interzonal isolation). The Cement Bond Log "CBL" failed to solve the problem. A Cement Evaluation Tool CET * has been utilized to overcome Cement Bond Tool limitations and achieve distinction between good and bad cement bonding with good detection of behind casing channeles.

The CET tool has been field tested in all its stages: prototype, production model, and 3 different commercial versions A, B and F. Different testing and monitoring procedures were defined by ADCO to analyse and detect the effect of perforation, acidization, communication testing and remedial cement squeezes on the primary cement compressive strength and cement distribution.

In this paper a comparison has been made between CET prediction and actual communication results. Testing of the tool has been completed and results have indicated that the CET tool can provide conclusion with high degree of confidence on whether primary cementing or subsequent operations are the reasons of communication and subsequently whether cement squeezes will be successful in curing communication or not. However, the tool has a limitation in detecting fast formation arrivals.
Current Challenges To The U.S. Petroleum Industry
Authors: Stegemeier Richard J.
Published: December 2007

THE THEME OF THIS CONFERENCE IS "MANAGING THE PRESENT — PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE." THIS IS AN APT DESCRIPTION OF THE TASK BEFORE US. IF THE U.S. PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IS TO PREPARE FOR A BRIGHTER FUTURE, IT MUST FIRST COPE WITH AN UNCERTAIN PRESENT.

I DON'T NEED TO TELL YOU THAT THESE ARE TIMES OF TURMOIL FOR OUR INDUSTRY. FROM LAST DECEMBER TO APRIL, WE SAW CRUDE PRICES PLUNGE FROM ABOUT ﹩28 TO ﹩10 A BARREL — A 60 PERCENT DROP IN JUST FOUR MONTHS.

AS CONSUMERS CHEERED, AND SHORT-SIGHTED PUNDITS HEAPED PRAISE ON CHEAPER OIL, WE IN THE PETROLEUM BUSINESS KNEW BETTER. AMERICA WAS ONCE AGAIN IN AN ENERGY WAR -IT'S THIRD IN 13 YEARS.

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Modelling Faulted and Fluvial Reservoirs
Authors: Smith P. J. , Morgan D. T. K.
Published: December 2007

In this paper methods are presented for calculating:

– the reduction in permeability across faulted reservoir sections, and – the recovery factor in fluvial reservoirs.

Conceptual and stochastic modelling methods are used to determine: the effective permeability of a faulted reservoir sequence,the effective recovery factor from a fluvial reservoir,the uncertainty in predictions implicit in using these values.

An example of a gas field is given using these methods together with a convential reservoir simulator.
Geological Modelling of the Frigg Field with Special Emphasis on Shale Mapping
Authors: Skaug M. , Gundescø R.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes a detailed geological modelling of the Frigg field. The Frigg field is a major North Sea gas reservoir composed of turbiditic sands. It has been in production since 1976. Gas-liquid contact movements, RFT pressure data and petrophysical evaluations have confirmed that the reservoir contains many barriers to vertical flow. A detailed geological mapping incorporating these barriers (shales) was required to simulate the complex field behaviour.

For that purpose, a geological model containing sand lobes and intercalating shales has been defined from the seismic and well data. Altogether ten geological units have been interpreted.

An extensive shale mapping study has been incorporated into the model. Shales have been classified into two types. The deterministic shales have been defined and mapped along reservoir layer boundaries and have been implemented in the model as horizontal flow barriers. The more discontinuous shales within reservoir layers have been modelled using statistical methods.
Geological Characteristics in Cook Inlet Area, Alaska
Authors: Kelly Thomas E.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the 41st Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Dallas, Tex., Oct. 2–5, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

The Cook Inlet basin is a narrow, elongate trough of Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments located north of latitude 59 degrees in south-central Alaska (Fig. 1). The basin covers approximately 11,000 square miles of the northern part of the Matanuska geosyncline and is bounded by the Kenai and Chugach Mountains on the east, the Talkeetna Mountains and the Copper River on the northeast, the Susitna basin on the north, the Chigmit Mountains and the Alaska Range on the west, and the Shelikof Strait on the south. In less than ten years the basin has achieved such a degree of prominence as a petroleum province that it ranks with off-shore areas in California and the Gulf Coast as the most promising future source of large domestic reserves. Oil and gas exploration in the basin has rapidly increased in the past few years and is currently at its highest level in history. Although the general characteristics of the basin are fairly well known, new informations as it is made available will cause many revisions of the stratigraphic and structural fabric before a complete geological picture is possible. This report revises and refines certain concepts of the basin which were discussed in an earlier work (Kelly, 1963). In certain aspects it may be considered a progress report that will require periodic updating as new information is made available.

PREVIOUS WORK

A list of references includes many published reports written chiefly by members of the U. S. Geological Survey who investigated the mineral resources of the Cook Inlet basin. The first indications of petroleum in the basin and the early attempts to find production were documented by Martin (1905). Mather (1925), further described the petroleum potential of the southwestern part of the basin in the Kamishak Bay area.
The Use of Pour-Point Depressant Additive in the Beatrice Field
Authors: Fielder M. , Johnson R. W.
Published: December 2007

This paper reviews the selection of PPD as the most effective solution to overcome potential transportation problems identified with the waxy nature of Beatrice crude oil.

Field operating experience led to PPD treatment being reduced to 20% of the original laboratory recommendation. More recently, field trials have enabled operation without PPD to be achieved.
Trapping Configurations for Cambrian Rose Run Production in Ohio
Authors: Coogan A. H. , Maki M. U.
Published: December 2007

Oil and gas are produced from the Rose Run Sandstone reservoirs and three other units of the Cambrian Knox Dolomite Super-group in Ohio where these rocks subcrop at or close to the Knox unconformity surface and where sufficient porosity is developed.

The Rose Run Sandstone unit, the lowest of the. Beekmantown part of the Knox Dolomite Supergroup, is a reservoir for gas in a narrow, sublinear belt near the western limit of the Rose Run subcrop below the Knox unconformity surface. Other lower formations also produce, such as the Upper Copper Ridge Dolomite which is the reservoir in the well known Cambrian oil fields of Morrow County, Ohio. Small pools have been discovered in the so-called "B" Zone, a glauconitic, sandy formation in northern Ohio. Finally, the Lower Copper Ridge Dolomite is a reservoir for gas in Wayne and Seneca counties, Ohio.
A Procedure for Optimal Hydraulic Fracturing Treatment Design
Authors: Poulsen D. K. , Soliman M. Y.
Published: December 2007

A numerical procedure for determining proppant schedules for hydraulic fracturing treatments has been devised. This procedure uses previously developed fracture conductivity distribution curves1 to minimize the amount of proppant used in a treatment. Coupling this procedure to a fractured-well simulator and a fracturing treatment economics model allows the optimization of different aspects of a fracturing treatment.
A Patchy-Charge Model for the Surface Conductivity of Clays
Authors: Cohen R. R. , Radke C. J.
Published: December 2007

To provide a critical assessment of electrical resistivity logging measurements in shaly sands, a theoretical, patchy-charge model is derived to quantify the surface conductivity of clay minerals. The proposed model instills a molecular rigor into the general framework of the widely-used, semi-theoretical approach of Waxman and Smits. The most significant contribution of the patchy-charge model is its physical explanation for the characteristic convex curvature observed from experimental measurements on the change of the effective conductivity of water-saturated shaly sands with the change of the conductivity of the equilibrating brine. We attribute the major portion of the extra conductivity to two-dimensional translation of counterions along the inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). By representing isomorphic substitution within the clay lattice as patches of periodically varying charge, an electrical activation barrier to migration along the IHP is identified. It is the variation of this electrical barrier to surface diffusion with changing ionic strength which gives rise to the curvature seen in the experiments. The patchy-charge model predictions for overall reservoir formation conductivities yield excellent agreement with experimental data on water-saturated shaly sands over a bulk conductivity range from 0.1 S/m to 10 S/m with the benefit of only one adjustable parameter. Model calculations are readily extended to predict oil saturations for measured resistivity ratios of shaly reservoir formations.
Fifth Comparative Solution Project: Evaluation of Miscible Flood Simulators
Authors: Killough J. E. , Kossack C. A.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents the results of comparisons between both four-component miscible flood simulators and fully compositional reservoir simulation models from seven different participants for a series of three test cases. These cases varied from scenarios dominated by immiscible conditions to scenarios in which minimum miscibility pressure was maintained or exceeded throughout the simulations. In general, agreement between the models was good.

For a test case in which reservoir pressure was maintained above the minimum miscibility pressure, agreement between four-component simulators, with the assumption of complete mixing of solvent and oil, and compositional simulators was excellent based on cumulative oil production as a function of cumulative water injection. For cases in which immiscible conditions dominated, the four-component models tended to be pessimistic compared to fully compositional models because condensible liquids were not considered to be carried in the gaseous phase in the four-component simulations. Relative permeability treatment, especially near the injection well, tended to dominate the timing of recovery and injectant breakthrough.
Application of a Multiple Porosity/Permeability Simulator in Fractured Reservoir Simulation
Authors: Lee B. Y. Q. , Tan T. B. S.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents the modelling of naturally fractured reservoirs using a multi-porosity multi-permeability thermal simulator. An iterative solution technique that allows connection between any pair of blocks is used.

Dual-porosity and triple-porosity systems are simulated. Results follow those of the analytical methods. Simulation of a thermal recovery scheme using a horizontal steam injector and a horizontal producer in a naturally fractured heavy oil reservoir is presented as an example.
A More Flexible Approach of Dynamic Local Grid Refinement for Reservoir Modeling
Authors: Han D. K. , Han D. L. , Yan C. Z. , Peng L. T.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes a new and more flexible approach of dynamic local grid refinement, which can also be used to subdivide the grid block fixedly in any desired parts of reservoir. The amount of fundamental blocks and subblocks can be minimized by using a step-by-step scheme of subdivision almost without any restriction.

Moreover, it is shown that the specially developed system of ordering scheme and data management of this method is very simple and effective. Especially in dynamic grid refinement, no inactive grid block is produced in the process of ordering, and just a little of additional running time is needed to execute this system in computer.

This paper reports that the results produced by using the dynamic grid refinement is very close to those obtained with the conventional fine grid system, and the running time are much lower.
Explosive Technology A New Tool In Offshore Operations
Authors: De Frank Pete , Robinson Reginald L. , White Bill E.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the 41st Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Dallas, Tex., Oct. 2–5, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

Hurricanes Carla (1961) Hilda (1964), and Betsy (1965) played havoc with the offshore oil industry. Physical damage has been estimated over $200 million, excluding loss of production estimated at 10 million barrels resulting from Hurricane Betsy alone. Resulting navigation hazards also necessitate temporary and later permanent salvage or removal of thousands of tons of debris from drilling and production facilities.

In many areas use of conventional methods to repair damage or clear away debris was not feasible due to safety precautions or physical condition of the structures. Technological advances in the use of explosives have permitted their successful use for restoration of wells and salvage of equipment in underwater operations.

This paper covers development and field applications of new explosive devices and techniques which resulted in a safe, time reducing, and economical method of remedial well applications and debris removal. Details of operations covering the successful control of blowing wells are presented. Also discussed are applications and procedures using explosive devices to remove conductor strings and platform pilings for abandonment remove hurricane damaged structures, and salvage underwater pipelines.

The potential of explosive devices in other offshore and underwater operations is covered, emphasizing the variety of applications of underwater explosive technology as a safe, economical, and useful tool in offshore operations.

Introduction

Offshore petroleum activities have prompted development of radically new equipment, tools, and operating procedures. This development has been accelerated with worldwide offshore activities now being conducted in over 60 countries. Occasionally some unforeseen and dramatic event occurs which acts as a catalyst in the development tools and equipment.
Application of Parallel (MIMD) Computers to Reservoir Simulation
Authors: Scott S. L. , Wainwright R. L. , Raghavan R. , Demuth H.
Published: December 2007

The application of parallel computers to reservoir simulation is studied with the aid of two recently introduced Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD) computers. The problems posed by reservoir simulators are shown to be particularly well suited for such parallel computers* Fundamental parallel programming techniques using Fortran are presented for the Hetrogeneous Element Processor (HEP) produced by Denelcor and the iPSC Hypercube produced by Intel. These techniques are then applied to two of the most time consuming tasks in reservoir simulation: forming the matrix coefficients and producing a sparse matrix solution. The problem of parallel formation of sparse matrix coefficients is addressed for the single and multiphase cases using both black oil and compositional fluid models. Parallel sparse matrix solution is addressed by considering D4 ordered Gaussian elimination, and the multigrid, conjugate gradient, and Successive Over-Relaxation (SOR) methods. Three parallel algorithms based on SOR are developed to illustrate the possible diversity of parallel algorithms. The red-black and multicolored SOR methods which are often used on vector machines are shown to be easily adaptable to parallel MIMD machine. Matrix partitioning and a new method of iteration pipelining are also presented as parallel SOR methods. The various SOR algorithms, in parallel form, are mapped onto the HEP to illustrate the speedups currently possible on an MIMD machine. Projections are made on the future importance of these types of machines to reservoir simulation.
Pressure Decay Measurement
Authors: Rudd Neilson
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the 41st Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Dallas, Tex., Oct. 2–5, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

Measurements of permeability in core samples of inhomogeneous rock are susceptible to errors resulting from inadequate sample size and defects inherent in the existing techniques.

This paper presents an experimental method of radial permeability determination which permits rapid measurements on whole core samples with minimum bias from sampling and measuring procedures.

The technique is analogous in many respects to permeability calculations from pressure buildup data. Pressure in the sample cell is increased abruptly and the time required for gas in the pore space to reach pressure equilibrium with the chamber pressure is measured by electronically monitoring the decaying cell pressure. This time is proportional to permeability. In addition to permeability data, the configuration of the pressure decay curve may yield insight into such useful core characteristics as pore size distribution.

Introduction

Geological formations are not normally homogeneous with regard to lithology and structure. Since, in the past, we have dealt largely with oil and gas production, most of which is derived from the least variable lithologies, we are not well equipped to deal with the more inhomogeneous formations now becoming important in gas storage, waste disposal, and lower grade oil and gas reservoirs.

Part of our problem is the immense computational complexity which arises from the addition of more independent variables to our reservoir performance equations. This, however, is susceptible to solution by use of the modern high speed computer.

The real "bottleneck" is in the acquisition of enough reliable data upon which to base our more sophisticated approach to reservoir studies.

The subject of the present paper is not a major "breakthrough" but serves, we hope, as an example of the kind of review and refinement of techniques which is required from those of us who are concerned with data gathering to support the efforts of those of you who are involved in the prediction and control of reservoir performance.
The Petroleum Industry A Look Backward....And Forward
Authors: Hill Kenneth E. , Coqueron Fred G.
Published: December 2007

In early 1956 the Petroleum Department of The Chase Manhattan Bank published a lengthy study entitled "Future Growth and Financial Requirements of the World Petroleum Industry. "This report was the result of a year's work by a group of petroleum experts working under the guidance of Joseph E. Pogue, distinguished petroleum economist. Its aim was stated succinctly in the first paragraph as follows:

"The purpose of this report is threefold:

To measure the tremendous growth that lies ahead for the world petroleum industry; To determine in broad terms the changing patterns of supply which will be necessary to satisfy the anticipated needs; and To express the growth in terms of capital required and examine the ways in which the capital funds may be generated."

So far as is known this was the first published long-range report which estimated the probable growth in demand for a full decade ahead, then postulated the pattern of supply for these needs and determined the capital requirements. Doubtless some large petroleum companies were making such studies for their private use at that time, but none were published. But now we have a multitude of forecasts, for every large company has an economics and planning department which makes forward estimates each year, and a summary of expected demand growth for five or ten years is included in most annual reports.

In 1955 The Chase Petroleum Department became quite interested in the longer range outlook because it appeared the growth in petroleum consumption might continue upward at the same dynamic rate experienced since World War II— nearly 6% in the United States and twice that abroad. Furthermore, tremendous new low-cost discoveries of crude oil in the Middle East, Canada and Venezuela had been brought into production and were seeking a market not only in Europe, but in the United States. And at about this time most large oil companies were recognizing the rapidly increasing- finding costs in the United States and the inadequate return on such investments. Because of the need to meet the voracious product requirements of the first post-war decade, the money requirements for capital
Characterization of Polyacrylamine-Cr+6 Gels Used for Reducing Water/Oil Ratio
Authors: Nanda S. K. , Kumar R. , Sindhwani K. L. , Goyal K. L.
Published: December 2007

Polyacrylamide-Cr+6 gels are being used for reducing water-oil ratio with varied success. Out of many factors affecting the process of water control, chemical characterization of the gels plays an important role. Present paper describes the phenomenon of gelation with special reference to its characterization which is carried out through following laboratory studies:

Yield optimization Thermogravimetric studies Elemental analysis I.R. studies X-ray differaotion studies Stability of gels and Solubility of gels

The present studies reveal that gelation process of polyacrylamide with chromium ions takes place through co-ordination bonding with nitrogen. The optimization studies have indicated that better results are expected in the following concentration ranges of the reactants:

Polymer = 2.0 – 3.0 g/L Reducer = 1.5 – 2.0 g/L Oxidiser = 1.5 – 2.0 g/L

In addition, the gels formed at neutral pH, have been observed to be comparatively stable and sustain the reservoir temperature for 50 days. Solubility in chemicals like HCl, mud acid, hydrogen peroxide indicates that these chemicals can be used as breakers.
Effect of Salt Composition on Clay Release in Berea Sandstones
Authors: Kia S. F. , Fogler H. S. , Reed M. G.
Published: December 2007

The effect of salt composition of fluid injected into clay-bearing Berea sandstones on the water sensitivity phenomenon has been studied. Experiments were carried out with solutions of sodium and/or calcium ions which are the type of ions commonly found in formation environment. The fresh water flooding of sandstones previously exposed to sodium salt solutions results in the release of clay particles and a drastic reduction in the permeability. However, the permeability reduction is reduced when calcium ions are also present in the salt solution. Formation damage is virtually eliminated when the solution composition is adjusted to give calcium surface coverages of greater than a critical value of 75%. The effect of the fluid composition on the damage process is explained by the double-layer interactions between the surface of the clay particles and the pore walls.
The Development and Application of a Detectable Polymeric Scale Inhibitor To Control Sulfate Scales by Squeeze Applications
Authors: Burr B. J. , Howe T. M. , Goulding J.
Published: December 2007

A new labelled polycarboxylic acid scale inhibitor has been used successfully to control deposition of mixed sulphate scale in North Sea Oilfield reservoirs and downhole tubulars. The concentration of this new inhibitor in produced water has been monitored successfully under field conditions, allowing mass balance calculations to be carried out.
Interpretation of Dynamic Oscillatory Measurements for Characterization of Well Completion Fluids
Authors: Knoll S. K. , Prud'homme R. K.
Published: December 2007

Dynamic oscillatory rheological measurements may be used as a diagnostic tool for the characterization of microstructure (e.g. crosslink density of a gel or degree of association for a dispersion). The petroleum industry has historically used steady shear viscosity measurements to characterize completion fluids because these measurements can be made to mimic shear flows believed to exist in the well bore and reservoir. However, steady shear measurements are limited in the information they provide because it is difficult to deduce information about fluid structure or the evolution of structure from steady shear data alone. An understanding of the contributions of viscosity from steady shear measurements and elasticity from dynamic oscillatory measurements is critical to:

predicting suspension capabilities of a fluid evaluating the effects of chemical modification in developing improved fluid systems and identifying those factors which are necessary for accurately predicting flow properties in the field.

This paper presents the interpretation of dynamic oscillatory shear data on well completion fluids, including water soluble polymers, crosslinked polymers, and gelled hydrocarbons to demonstrate the utility of these measurements in different applications. Data show that gel formation and degradation can be monitored by observing the frequency and strain dependence of the viscous and elastic components of stress Data also show that shear and temperature decrease crosslink density and as a result affect the fluids ability to transport particles. The effects of sample preparation, chemical modification, or the addition of chemical additives, such as crosslink delayers, on fluid structure will be discussed.
Production Techniques for Aquifer-Type Storage Fields
Authors: McMinn R.E.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the Society of Petroleum Engineers Gas Technology Symposium to be held in Omaha, Nebr. Sept. 15–16, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon requested to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers Office. Such discussions may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

The use of aquifers for storage of natural gas and peak shaving during temporary high demand periods has been practiced for 10 or 15 years. Most of the work in connection with production technology has been in the areas of well completion and reservoir characteristics.

This paper defines areas of surface production phases as wellhead, gathering system, and dehydration and reviews production equipment types used in these phases. Operating problems encountered are defined and design techniques used to overcome these problems are summarized. Economics of equipment costs., operations, and maintenance are presented where available.

Introduction

Development of natural gas markets in the heavily populated areas of the northern and eastern sections of the United States has resulted in extensive efforts of obtaining higher yearly load factors from existing pipelines. Work in this direction has been particularly intense in the past 10 years because of rapidly escalating costs of installing new pipelines. The basic problem facing pipelines supplying new markets is one of supply and demand. Systems are alternately lightly and heavily loaded during corresponding periods of low and high gas sales which are usually associated with climatic conditions. This situation is particularly aggravated during periods of peak demand which, although occurring at more or less infrequent intervals during the year and for relatively short periods of time, require deliverability rates in excess of the capabilities of the pipeline and its ancillary equipment.

One of several methods to upgrade pipeline load factors is the utilization of aquifers as a storage reservoir. Gas is injected during periods of relatively light demand. During periods of heavy demands the aquifer reservoir is used to feed into the pipeline and supplement deliverability.

In most if not all cases gas is delivered to the aquifer by way of compression from a pipeline, and as such has been dehydrated and sweetened.
The Effect of Pore Structure on Non-Darcy Gas Flow in Some Low-Permeability Reservoir Rocks
Authors: Noman R. , Archer J. S.
Published: December 2007

The present work was carried out to investigate the effect of pore structure on non-Darcy gas flow to enable a better understanding of the relationship between the inertial coefficient and various rock properties. Measurements of porosity, permeability, inertial coefficient and capillary pressure were made on some 40 core samples, as well as visual observations under optical and scanning microscopes.

The results obtained using this integrated approach helped to explain the wide scatter observed in conventional inertial coefficient – permeability correlation plots. It is shown that the inertial effect is not only a function of porosity and permeability, but is also controlled by other factors such as aspect ratio, coordination number, heterogeneities, surface roughness etc.
Performance Comparison of Vertical and Horizontal Hydraulic Fractures and Horizontal Boreholes in Low Permeability Reservoirs: A Numerical Study
Authors: Sung W. , Ertekin T.
Published: December 2007

A single/two-phase, multi-dimensional, finite-difference numerical reservoir simulator, which had been validated through history matches against field data, was used to investigate and compare the production performances of horizontal wells and hydraulically stimulated vertical wells. In the case of vertical wells performance characteristics of vertically and horizontally fractured systems were studied.

In the mathematical formulation of the transport problem a multi-mechanistic flow mechanism which is obtained by superposition of the Darcian and Fickian flow components is implemented to describe the flow of gas in tight porous media. The non-linear system of equations resulting from the finite-difference approximation are solved by using fully implicit generalized Newton-Raphson procedure.

In order to verify the accuracy of the hydraulically stimulated vertical well formulations, the results generated by the numerical model were compared against the existing analytical solutions in the literature. These comparisons exhibited excellent agreements between the numerical and analytical solutions.

Low permeability, single-phase and two-phase (gas-water) natural gas reservoirs have been selected as the target of this study. A series of numerical exercises in a systematic manner were conducted by sifting through the parameters associated with the reservoir characteristics and stimulation strategies in order to understand those which most significantly affect the production from low permeability gas reservoirs. These parameters are reservoir thickness, permeability, isotropicity of the formation, penetration lengths of horizontal boreholes and hydraulic fractures.
The Influence of Reservoir Properties and Geologic Setting on Coalbed Fracturing and Production: A Preliminary Evaluation of the TEAM Project
Authors: Reeves S. R. , Wallace J. A. , Beavers W. M.
Published: December 2007

The Energen Corporation initiated the TEAM coalbed methane production project in the Black Warrior Basin in 1986. Thirty wells in the Oak Grove Degasification Field were drilled, completed and stimulated in the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coal seams. An agressive technology development plan was implemented which included detailed geologic studies, reservoir characterization, fracture treatment design evaluation and early post-fracture production analysis. The results of these investigations are presented in this paper.
Depositional Setting and Production Characteristics of Low Permeability Sandstones, Upper Cretaceous Olmos Formation, South Texas
Authors: Tyler N.
Published: December 2007

The upper Cretaceous Olmos Formation has produced 157 million barrels of oil equivalent from deltaic and shore-zone sandstones in South Texas. Much of the production (2.8 million barrels of oil and condensate and 200 billion cubic feet of gas) is from low-permeability delta-front, shoreface, and shelf sandstones that compose two immature exploration plays. Recent improvements in well stimulation technologies have resulted in production increases 2.5 times to an order of magnitude greater than prestimulation yields.
Real-Time Hydraulic Fracturing Simulation Using a Portable Microcomputer
Authors: Buharali A. M. , Wright T. B. , Willis R. M.
Published: December 2007

A rugged, very compact microcomputer, with a co-processor, has been developed for real-time, high-speed monitoring and simulation of field operations. The development of the computer was funded by the Gas Research Institute for supervision of hydraulic fracturing of gas and oil wells. The system handles data acquisition, data basing, running of process simulator codes, and extensive operator Interface.

The computer is a fully compatible PC clone and uses a passive backplane architecture for easy repair and maintenance. Two Independent processors are used: a 4.77-MHz Intel 8088- and a 25-MHz Motorola 68020 32-bit Microprocessor. This reliable low cost, high performance system brings the power of large minicomputers such as a VAX 11/780 into the field.

Data acquisition is performed by a built-in board which enables sampling 16 (expandable to 256) channels of analog data directly from standard field Instrumentation. Alternatively, connection can be made to most service company vans, with isolation filters preventing intrusion into their electronics. Serial data can also be transferred from an independent data acquisition computer. Acquired data is stored in the data base where it is accessible to process simulation codes during the current Job and for comparison on future jobs.

The Integrated 3-Dimensional Fracture Models running on the system are the most comprehensive simulations developed for real-time operation. Rapid, repeated running of the process models during the early stages of the job permits best estimates of uncertain reservoir parameters to be obtained. This real-time "history matching" is facilitated by extensive on-line help facilities, a totally menu-driven user interface, and high-resolution, high-speed dynamic graphics capabilities. These features also improve operator awareness of current Job status and add significantly to the quality control.

The system has been tested on dozens of field operations. It has been selected for use by a major oil company and is under consideration by several other majors.
A Microcomputer Model for Cutting Transport in Air Drilling
Authors: Sharma M. P.
Published: December 2007

A microcomputer program has been developed for determining the pressure drop caused by the pneumatic transport of drilled cuttings in air drilling operations. The program helps in estimating the volume requirement of air for such operations. The results of the microcomputer program are compared with other calculation methods, experimental data and field data. The comparison establishes the validity and usefulness of this model.
A Numerical Solution to Two-Parameter Representation of Production Decline Curve Analysis
Authors: Agbi B. , Ng M. C.
Published: December 2007

A method to numerically solve the two-parameter non-linear hyperbolic decline curve equation utilized in petroleum engineering is presented. The method only requires the initial production rate and cumulative production at two points in the decline trend to calculate the decline curve exponent 'n' and the initial decline rate Di. The proposed method eliminates the need for a trial and error estimation of 'n' or the need for type-curve or graphical analysis to determine the value of 'n'. This paper demonstrates that the decline curve exponent 'n' lies between negative infinity and positive infinity and includes the exponential (n=0) and harmonic (n=1) decline cases. The results of the application of the method to both published and field data, and a comparison of the results is presented.

As an adjunct to this work and for comparison, a two-dimensional, non-linear least squares regression analysis was used to calculate the two parameters, 'n' and Di. The regression analysis was based on a GAUSS-NEWTON type iterative technique which is capable of generating its own initial values. The results of using this regression analysis approach to the determination of 'n' and are in excellent agreement with the new numerical solution.