bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Impossibility of Zombies
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

Saul Kripke challenges materialists to explain why zombies should seem possible, if they are in fact impossible; and he points out that it is not plausible that this is because terms for conscious states such as “pain” refer by invoking some contingent property of their referents. In response, Papineau argues that the conceivability of zombies is no guide to any kind of possibility, and that those who suppose that it is are committed to the archaic view that direct reference involves some kind of transparent acquaintance.
Prospects for the Scientific Study of Phenomenal Consciousness
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

Many scientists hope that brain research will identify the material nature of conscious states. Papineau argues that when it comes to the “hard problem” of identifying the material referents of phenomenal concepts, scientific research can only take us so far. This is because phenomenal concepts are vague and do not point determinately to specific material states. This chapter also looks at Higher‐Order Thought (HOT) and representational accounts of consciousness.
Libertarianism without Inequality
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

The aim of this book is to vindicate left‐libertarianism, a political philosophy which combines stringent rights of control over one's own mind, body, and life with egalitarian rights of ownership of the world. The book shows how John Locke's Second Treatise of Government provides the theoretical foundations for a left‐libertarianism that is both more libertarian and more egalitarian than the Kantian liberal theories of John Rawls and Thomas Nagel. The author's libertarianism is founded on a right of self‐ownership. Unlike ‘right‐wing’ libertarians such as Robert Nozick who also endorse such a right, the author argues that self‐ownership is compatible with a fully egalitarian principle of equal opportunity for welfare. In embracing this principle, his version of left‐libertarianism is more strongly egalitarian than others which are well known. The author argues that an account of legitimate political authority based upon the free consent of each is strengthened by the adoption of such an egalitarian principle. He defends a pluralistic, decentralized ideal of political society as a confederation of voluntary associations.
Self‐Ownership and Equality
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Delineates the nature of a libertarian right of self‐ownership. Assesses Robert Nozick's claim that taxation is on a par with forced labour. Contends that the most defensible version of the Lockean ‘enough and as good’ proviso calls for acquisition of unowned natural resources that is consistent with equality of opportunity for welfare. Argues, contrary to both Nozick and G. A. Cohen, that a robust right of self‐ownership is compatible with this welfare‐egalitarian proviso across a wide range of circumstances.
Making the Unjust Provide for the Disabled
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Considers those circumstances in which self‐ownership and equality cannot be reconciled in the manner proposed in Chapter 1. Argues that, in such circumstances, liberal egalitarians and libertarians can find common ground in support of provision for the disabled by means of the coercive taxation of only those able‐bodied individuals who have committed crimes.
The Right to Punish
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Offers a Lockean account of a natural right to punish, which is grounded in a natural right of self‐protection. Endorses Warren Quinn's derivation of the right to punish from a right of self‐protection, but argues, against Quinn, that his account will succeed only if one is allowed, when justifying punishment, to appeal to the fact that the punishment of the guilty will deter others. Also argues that Quinn's account will succeed only if the right to engage in lethal measures to protect the lives of individuals against innocent aggressors is highly circumscribed.
Political Society as a Voluntary Association
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Offers a reconstruction of John Locke's voluntaristic theory of legitimate political authority with the aim of overcoming the following two problems with tacit consent via residence: that it fails to bind either because it is unfreely given or because it is offered in circumstances of inequality. Builds on the author's defence in Ch. 1 of an egalitarian version of the Lockean proviso to remedy these problems and endorses a highly voluntaristic, pluralistic, and decentralized account of legitimate political authority.
The Problem of Intergenerational Sovereignty
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: October 2003

Considers the merits of the Locke‐inspired Jeffersonian idea that laws enacted by those who once lived in one's country but are now dead have no authority over the living and hence should lapse unless they are reaffirmed by a democratic majority vote of the living. Considers and rejects consequentialist, communitarian, and Madisonian attempts to justify the authority of the dead over the living. Draws on Ch. 5 to propose and endorse an account based on unanimous Lockean consent of how the laws of the dead can legitimately bind the living.
The Population Debate in Historical Perspective: Revisionism Revised
Authors: Kelley Allen C.
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores the key aspects of the population debate that have influenced the dominance of population revisionism among scholars in the United States since the 1950s. It reviews four benchmark studies: the 1953 and 1973 United Nations Reports on The Determinants and Consequences of Population Trends, and the 1971 and 1986 National Academy of Sciences Reports. Insights on the reasons for the apparent ebb and flow of ideas centres on three hypotheses: swings in the relative number of economists in relation to other scholars participating in the populations assessments, the stimulus of Julian L. Simon’s The Ultimate Resource in 1981, and the impact of accumulated empirical evidence from the 1970s and early 1990s.
Economic and Demographic Change: A Synthesis of Models, Findings, and Perspectives
Authors: Kelley Allen C. , Schmidt Robert M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the impact of demographic change on economic growth, using convergence-type models. Demographic trends over the period 1960-95 were evaluated. It is shown that demography had a positive impact on economic growth. Fertility and mortality changes accounted for nearly 22% of changes in output growth, corresponding to 21% of 1.50%, the average growth of per capita output over the period.
Population and Poverty in Households: A Review of Reviews
Authors: Merrick Thomas
Published: October 2003

This chapter evaluates studies on the links between household demographics and welfare, focusing on factors affecting gender relations in society and within households. The studies reveal an interplay of forces that are far more complex than the links between family size and welfare outcomes. They identify reasons why parental expectations about the benefits and costs of child rearing may not be realized, or lead to a decline in their own and their children’s well-being.
Demographic Changes and Poverty in Brazil
Authors: Paes de Barros Ricardo , Firpo Sergio , Guedes Barreto Roberta , Pereira Leite Phillippe George
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the impact of demographic changes on poverty levels in Brazil. Demographic transition had an impact on poverty close to 15% of the corresponding impact of economic growth. Despite regional differences in the timing and speed of demographic change, these accounted for just a small fraction of regional differences in poverty. When families were ranked by their average income per adult, the demographic differences between poor and rich families were small.
Western Actors and the Promotion of Democracy
Authors: Smith Karen E.
Published: October 2003

Examines the particular role of Western actors in strengthening the process of democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe. The actors involved in the ‘Western project’ are individual Western states and primarily European multilateral organizations: the European Union (EU), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe and NATO. The first section of this chapter analyses the Western objectives with respect to Eastern Europe, such as helping with the economic transformation and maintaining stability thus promoting democracy. The second section discusses the instruments that the West has used to promote democratic consolidation—from aid to the conditional offer of membership in European organizations (conditionality). The third and final section evaluates the impact that the West has had on democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe.
The Impact of External Economic Factors: The Role of the IMF
Authors: Senior Nello Susan
Published: October 2003

Examines the external economic influences that have affected democratic consolidation. The analysis concentrates on the role played by external economic actors, taking as a case study the IMF and a comparison of its role with that of the EU. The first section considers the IMF provision of financial and technical assistance to facilitate the political and economic transition process. It also examines the role of the IMF in providing policy advice and acting as a catalyst to obtain financial support from other resources. The second section describes the activities of the IMF in transition countries. The third discusses links between a market‐oriented economy and democratization at a general level, while the fourth indicates how tensions may arise between the two in specific cases of post‐communist transition. The fifth section discusses IMF conditionality as applied to the transition countries with regard to the needs, objectives, and characteristics of the country itself, its ability to bargain with the international organization in question, and the international economic and political environment. The sixth section assesses how appropriate the policy descriptions of the IMF were for the economies in transition and what kind of positive and negative lessons might be drawn from applying conditionality. Lastly, the chapter discusses the implications in this context of proposals for IMF reform.
International Security and Democracy Building
Authors: Seidelmann Reimund
Published: October 2003

Describes the interrelation between security and democratic consolidation as a process in specific national and regional contexts. The analysis combines a systematic approach to hypothesis building with an empirically based discussion, and seeks to place developments in Eastern Europe into a wider analytical framework. The chapter argues that the relationship between security and democracy in Eastern Europe is based on the concept of dual conditionality. The relationship is a reciprocal one in which security conditions democratic development as much as democratic consolidation conditions regional security and peace building. Finally, the chapter discusses several caveats concerning the interrelation between security and democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe.
International Migration and the Consolidation of Democracy
Authors: Morawska Ewa
Published: October 2003

Examines the relationship between westbound international migrations and the consolidation of democracy in contemporary East Central Europe (ECE). The chapter focuses on Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. It is argued that, paradoxically, in view of the rapidly expanding connection of ECE with the West, the relationship has weakened between the westbound travel by the vast majority of migrants and democratization processes in their home countries. The chapter focuses on the common features of the migration‐democracy relationship in East Central Europe. The author seeks to initiate a conversation between specialists in transnational migration and experts in democratization. The conclusion considers some of the generalizations and lessons are drawn from the study on the relationship between migration and democracy.
Crime, Corruption, and Politics: Transnational Factors
Authors: Holmes Leslie
Published: October 2003

Examines the internationalization of crime and corruption in post‐communist states and its serious implications for both established democracies and democratizing countries. The main hypothesis is that the post‐communist regimes have experienced legitimacy problems because of popular perceptions that the new putatively democratizing systems are often too tolerant of the new criminality, and in some cases directly involved with benefiting from it. The section of the chapter provides a brief overview of the crime situation in the region, highlighting changes in the incidence of crime. The second and third parts of the chapter are concerned with the rise of crime in terms of the interplay of domestic and international/transnational factors. In the fourth section, the implications of the rise of crime for the whole democratization and transition project are assessed. The fifth section provides an overview of international responses to crime in Central Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union states. The conclusions to the chapter locate the criminalization issue in the broader context of the problems besetting post‐communist transition and democratic consolidation.
Estonia and Latvia: International Influences on Citizenship and Minority Integration
Authors: Pettai Vello
Published: October 2003

Argues that the Baltic states, mainly Estonia and Latvia, represent examples of the complicated sequence of endogenously derived transition and exogenously influenced consolidation. These democratic transitions set certain parameters for their subsequent democratic consolidation. In particular, Estonia and Latvia opted for a nationalist, ‘legal restorationist’ view of independence. This interpretation of transition represented a somewhat problematic combination of two paths towards redemocratization—‘society‐led regime termination’ and ‘internal restoration after external reconquest’. The first section of this chapter examines this apparent contradiction. The second part examines the Estonian and Latvian cases, focusing on the major international actors involved in these transitions and the mechanisms of their engagement up to early 2000. In conclusion, it is argued that international influences (mainly from the European Union) have increased as the two countries have integrated more closely with the West. Overall, this case study of Estonia and Latvia argues that the specific path a country chooses towards democratic transition is likely to create certain path‐dependent problems that it (and the rest of the democratic community) will ultimately have to face during democratic consolidation.
Hungary: Understanding Western Messages
Authors: Valki László
Published: October 2003

Describes the Western influence on the democratic consolidation in Hungary in the 1980s and the 90s, focusing primarily on problems and conflicts, yet pointing out the historically unprecedented task of successful democratic consolidation. The West provided the Hungarian political and economic elite with an attractive democratic pattern as early as the 1980s. The chapter shows that democratic consolidation has proceeded more easily in Hungary than in most East European countries. In 1989, the Hungarian political and economic elite was relatively well prepared to establish democratic political institutions and to introduce a market economy. New reforms introduced between the 1960s and 1989 contributed to the establishment of a ‘social compromise’ reached between the political leadership and the nation. The increasing deficit in Hungary's balance of payments in the 1980s as a result of the oil crises, meant that the country had to obtain Western loans and became increasingly dependent on Western political decision makers, who used this opportunity to apply the policy of conditionality.
Poland: Compatibility of External and Internal Democratic Designs
Authors: Kamiński Antoni Z.
Published: October 2003

Points out the remarkable progress in Poland in its transition to market capitalism and liberal democracy was due in part to support from Western governments and international institutions as well as to Poland's historical compatibility with the Euro‐Atlantic liberal‐democratic political and economic order. In order to assess the role of international factors in the development of democratic consolidation, this chapter examines four areas of change in the years following the breakthrough of 1989: (1) the economic stabilization programme known as ‘Balcerowicz Programme’; (2) Poland's foreign policy reorientation; (3) civilian control over the military; and (4) the reorganization of the Polish State. The chapter also examines the determinants of domestic responses to external factors, including the limited number of such actors, a well defined set of expectations, good understanding of the problems faced by internal political actors, and a willingness of internal policy makers to adopt, and the support of domestic public opinion.
The Czech Republic: The Unexpected Force of Institutional Constraints
Authors: Vachudová Milada Anna
Published: October 2003

Describes the influence of the international institutions in shaping democratic consolidation and economic reform in the Czech Republic as a case study of an East European state that strongly wished to join those institutions. The chapter traces the changing nature of international influence on the consolidation of Czech democracy as the polity passed through four stages. The first was characterized by profound yet diffuse influence. In the second stage, Western influence was delimited by two factors: (1) ‘homemade’ reform by Prime Minister Václav Klaus, a mix of Czech provincialism, free market ideology, and political pragmatism; and (2) insufficient pressure of NATO and the EU to compel reforms. The third stage saw increased EU criticism of economic performance, corruption, and racism. The fourth stage was characterized by the weakening of the EU membership argument for difficult reforms. Overall, the Czech case shows that the conditionality of the EU depends on a certain tension between confidence in securing membership and fear of suffering rejection due to inadequate reform.
Building Democracy in Romania: Internal Shortcomings and External Neglect
Authors: Gallagher Tom
Published: October 2003

Argues that the process of building democracy in Romania is dependent on a favourable external environment and active support from abroad. However, Romania has benefited far less from external efforts to promote democracy than most other ex‐Warsaw Pact States. The chapter points to some of the reasons of the retarded progress of democratization in Romania, such as a historical legacy of foreign occupation and sharp internal economic, cultural, and ethnic cleavages. The communist regime's determination to retain absolute control over politics and society and oppose any liberal initiatives in economics blocked off the possibility of any democratic transition. The activity of anti‐reformers described as ‘nomenklatura nationalists’ also contributed to the weakness of democratic consolidation in Romania. They demonstrated their ascendancy by blocking economic reforms between 1989 and 96, with the support of Russia, which sought to make Romania dependent on Russia's cheap energy supplies in return for political compliance. The author makes a case for a new approach to democracy building from domestic reformers and international organizations that recognizes Romania's special problems and pursues realistic targets.
Belarus and Ukraine: Democracy Building in a Grey Security Zone
Authors: Kuzio Taras
Published: October 2003

Compares different paths of democratic consolidation in Belarus and Ukraine since the disintegration of the USSR. The author argues that Ukraine has evolved beyond ‘Electoral Democracy’ towards ‘ Liberal Democracy’. By contrast, after 1994 Belarus has seen democratic erosion and regression from ‘Electoral Democracy’ to authoritarianism. The chapter advances three propositions. Firstly, the strength of ethnicity and national identity at the start of transition process can have a direct impact upon the choice of strategy, speed, and domestic policies adopted by the ruling elites. Secondly, the elites have little choice but to choose a foreign policy orientated towards ‘returning to Europe’—the source of security assurance and technical and financial assistance. Thirdly, the international community can play a highly positive role by providing incentives and assistance that persuade countries that have embarked on democratization to continue the process in the hope of reaching the final destination of democratic consolidation. The chapter is divided into three parts. The first places the transition in Ukraine, Belarus, and the rest of the former USSR within a theoretical and comparative framework by focusing on domestic factors. The second part discusses the international influences faced by a country that has participated in the reform process (Ukraine), and Russian influences on a country that has not done so (Belarus). The last two parts examine Ukraine's ‘return to Europe’ and Belarus’ ‘return to Eurasia’.
Leviticus as Literature
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

This is a study of Leviticus from an anthropological perspective, which presents the biblical work as a literary masterpiece. Seen from this perspective Leviticus has a literary structure that plots it into three parts corresponding to the three parts of the desert tabernacle, which in turn correspond to the parts of Mount Sinai. This completely new reading transforms the interpretation of the purity laws. The pig and other forbidden animals are not abhorrent; they command the same respect that is due to all God’s creatures. Boldly challenging several traditions of Bible criticism, Mary Douglas claims that Leviticus is not the narrow doctrine of a crabbed professional priesthood, but a powerful theological statement about a religion that emphasizes God’s justice and compassion.
The Ancient Religion
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

Leviticus is traditionally regarded as a set of instructions for the cult; the real heart of the religion is presumed to be found in other books, especially Genesis, Exodus and Deuteronomy, and the writings of the psalmists and prophets. The aim of this study is to reintegrate the book with the rest of the Pentateuch. Read in the perspective of anthropology the food laws of Moses are not expressions of squeamishness about dirty animals and invasive insects, the purity laws for sex and leprosy are not examples of priestly prurience, and the religion of Leviticus turns out to be not very different from that of the prophets and psalmists. The main new feature of this interpretation is the attitude to animals, which are protected as God’s creation, but Leviticus also reveals itself as modern religion, legislating for justice between people, God and animals. This first chapter lays the foundation for the study by looking at the ancient religion of Israel as revealed by the Pentateuch, and pointing out the differences between this and earlier religions and it also looks at the chronology of the Pentateuch.
Mountain, Tabernacle, Body in Leviticus 1–7
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

When Deuteronomy speaks of sacrifice, sacrifice is all that it means – in its more political agenda sacrifice is less important, but Leviticus has taken sacrifice in the same spirit as the wisdom literature uses seafaring, trade or horticulture, and made it the framework for a philosophy of life. Sacrifice is one of the main figurative motifs with which it presents the principles of God’s creation, and the divine order of existence. This chapter begins by outlining various attitudes towards sacrifice, and then goes on to describe how Leviticus expresses through sacrifice its doctrine of blood, of atonement, and of the covenant between God and his people. Aspects of the rules for sacrifice are discussed in detail, including items forbidden for food (blood, suet and three other items), the rule for arrangement of meat for the burnt offering, and the doctrine of remainders (leftovers). Another section of the chapter discusses the three paradigms of the tabernacle – the tabernacle itself, the animal offering and Mount Sinai, showing the equivalences of their different parts.
The Totally Reformed Religion
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

This chapter carries on the comparison between Deuteronomy and Leviticus in two specific domains. One is the question of whether the Levitical laws supported the idea of one central shrine at Jerusalem; here it is argued that the two books are at odds. The other is the question of cults of the dead, on which they are at one. In connection with the idea of a central sanctuary, different sections of the chapter look at the covenant, sacrifice and secular slaughter, and the evidence for and against a central sanctuary (including some discussion of the different classes of animal life). The absence of cults of the dead in both Deuteronomy and Leviticus is then addressed, and a further look taken at Joseph Blenkinsopp’s (1995) analysis Deuteronomy’s legislation in the light of the discussion on cults of the dead.
Oracles Support Divine Justice
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

This chapter dips into anthropological studies of oracles to illustrate the scale of the gap made by the abolition of oracles. Two things about the priestly laws would make more sense if priestly use of oracles were allowed: one is the use of the oath to bring a private case into priestly jurisdiction; the other is the use of the oracle to supplement the judicial system at its weak points. No one knows when oracles and soothsaying were first forbidden, but if it was at a very early date, then the last editors of Leviticus would hardly know the arcane meanings of the fragments they gathered together; the difficulty is as much for the writer as for the reader – how could he present a sacrificial cult without saying a word about the working of the oracles? If the gap has not been remarked, it would be because the readers are not familiar with a sacrificial cult. This point is further discussed in sections on divination and sacrifice, knowing when to make a private sacrifice, the plausibility of oracles, priestly divination, inadvertent sin, sacrilege, and judicial uses of the oath.
Other Living Beings
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

The Leviticus writer finds the world divided into two kinds of humans, those under the covenant, and the rest, and two kinds of land animals, those under the covenant and the rest; but the rest are not evil, the picture is not painted in black and white – it was the work of the later commentators to read good and bad into the divisions between pure and impure. In the book of Leviticus only land animals (but most land animals) are unclean or defiling. For covenant some territorial principle, or at least ownership, is necessary; creatures of the air and water are not named as specifically unclean, although a separate set of rules forbids touching their dead carcasses, backed by the word translated as ‘abominable’. Taking this difference seriously has produced a completely new reading of Leviticus: Jacob Milgrom has argued from close perusal of the text that ‘impurity’ and ‘abomination’ in the book cannot be equivalent terms as they trigger different sequences of action, and this puts a very different complexion on previous commentaries that have tried to combine Deuteronomy 14 and Leviticus 11. This topic is explored further in this chapter, in which the different sections discuss: God’s care for his creation; the translation of ‘swarming’ as ‘teeming’ (in the sense of the positivity of fertility); leaven and honey as teeming life; the translation of abomination; creatures that swarm in the air; and competition in holiness in confrontation with other religions – in which the place of animals might become a sellingpoint for Judaism.
Inside the House/Book of God
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

Exodus recounts how beautifully the tabernacle was made; the psalmist extols the house of God; but Leviticus honours it in its own style, opening with God calling Moses at the entrance to the tent of meeting, and with the tabernacle remaining throughout not just the ground and pivot of all its teaching, but the actual structure on which its literary form has been projected. The narratives (stories) in Leviticus have suggested an unexpected partitioning of the book (see previous chapter): they divide it into three unequal compartments with laws filling the spaces between them. These compartments correspond to the relative size of the chambers in the desert tabernacle built according to God’s instructions in Exodus, and the result is to project the three parts of the book onto the tripartite architecture of the tabernacle, itself modelled on the threezoned proportions of the holy mountain. When the laws have been placed, as it were, in each part of the building, as prescribed by their position in the book, they turn out to describe the contents or the actions that are supposed to be performed in the appropriate compartment, or to describe the requirements for entry into it; other markers are placed along the way to confirm the parallel. The different sections of this chapter discuss macro markers, the outer court of the tabernacle, the sanctuary, atonement and pedimental composition.
Inside the Holy of Holies
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

When the second screen (narrative) in Leviticus has been passed the reader is standing, as it were, inside the holy of holies. This is the apotheosis of the principle of containing forms: Jerusalem is the centre of the world, in the centre of Jerusalem is the tabernacle, and in the centre of the tabernacle is the ark of the covenant. The virtual pilgrim with book in hand knows that he has arrived at this hidden place because in Leviticus 26 the Lord God proclaims his covenant no less than eight times (26: 9, 15, 25, 42 (three times), 44, 66). Another elaborate literary construction makes Leviticus 25 and 27 into a massive frame for honouring Leviticus 26, which provides the terms of the covenant itself: strict reciprocity, honourable dealings and simple fairness. This chapter looks at the great proclamation of liberty, where in the innermost, holiest part of the tabernacle, under the shadowing protective wings, the testament of the covenant lies in the coffer, or ark. It then goes on (briefly) to read Leviticus through Genesis on body covering (and the ark of the covenant as another cover), and to offer a new reading, again through Genesis, of the scapegoat ceremony (Leviticus 16) and the scapebird rites for cleansing from leprosy (Leviticus 14).
Date of Composition
Authors: Plumer Eric
Published: October 2003

Explains why Augustine's Commentary on Galatians, which he says was written while he was still a priest and not yet a bishop, should be assigned a date of 394/5.
The Purpose of Augustine's Commentary
Authors: Plumer Eric
Published: October 2003

Although a first reading of Augustine's Commentary suggests that his purpose was simply to expound the meaning of the Letter to the Galatians line by line in a clear and concise manner, closer reading uncovers implicit polemic against Manicheism, Donatism, Arianism, and paganism. Nevertheless, Augustine's Commentary is not essentially polemical, but pastoral. Comparison with his monastic Rule demonstrates that the Commentary was written for Augustine's monastic community as its primary audience and that Augustine's immediate concern was to discover ways in which Paul's directives for Christian living could be implemented within that community. Success within the monastic community would enable Augustine as parish priest to implement Paul's directives within the wider community of his parishioners at Hippo and beyond.
The Four‐Dimensional Picture
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: October 2003

Four‐dimensionalism may be made vivid by pictures: an object with temporal parts persisting through time is like a road with spatial parts extending across space. The attraction of this picture emerges informally from consideration of change, statues, and lumps of clay, and the Ship of Theseus.
Against Presentism
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: October 2003

The ‘B‐theory’ of time says that all temporal facts ‘reduce’ to tenseless facts about a manifold of equally real past, present, and future objects; the ‘A‐theory’ denies this reduction. Presentism is a version of the A‐theory that denies the existence of part of the B‐theorist's manifold: the part containing merely past and future objects. Some say that the B‐theory cannot account for the irreducibly temporal nature of our psychological attitudes, but this is incorrect. B‐theorists can defend temporal versions of well‐known theories of ‘indexical’, or ‘de se’, attitudes. Presentism, on the other hand, is vulnerable to powerful objections: (1) The irreducible tense‐operators to which presentists must appeal are objectionably ungrounded in reality. (2) Presentists cannot account for the fundamental ‘cross‐time spatial relations’ that ground the structure of space‐time, and thus cannot account for spatiotemporal continuity, acceleration, and other states of motion. (3) Presentism conflicts with the special theory of relativity.
Three‐ and Four‐Dimensionalism Stated
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: October 2003

Four‐dimensionalism may be given a rigorous and canonical formulation acceptable to both its supporters and opponents; meaningful debate as to the truth of this thesis may then proceed. This is more difficult for three‐dimensionalism, since its defining slogan ‘objects are wholly present’ seems either trivial (‘at any time at which an object exists, anything that is then part of it exists’) or too strong (‘at any time at which an object exists, anything that is ever part of it exists’). Nevertheless, several theses in the neighbourhood of three‐dimensionalism may be stated, even if none is a canonical formulation. Finally, the three‐dimensionalism/four‐dimensionalism debate is orthogonal to the debate over presentism: both presentists and non‐presentists can articulate versions of three‐ and four‐dimensionalism whose truth may then be debated.
Learning in Social Networks and Contraceptive Choice
Authors: Kohler Hans‐Peter
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the role of social learning in contraceptive decision‐making, and it investigates the dynamics of word‐of‐mouth communication and knowledge diffusion under different assumptions about the information conveyed in conversations. In particular, this chapter asks when social learning is consistent with the diversity of contraceptive patterns across communities and social strata that is frequently attributed to this process in empirical studies. The analysis suggests that regional diversity and social stratification arise because of informal or ‘imprecise’ conversations rather than in‐depth discussions about fertility control. The ability to learn from one's friends and neighbours is confounded because there is unobserved heterogeneity with respect to tastes and characteristics. Only if this heterogeneity is not completely revealed in conversations, is social learning consistent with the empirical observation of persistent diversity.
The Density of Social Networks and Fertility Decisions: Evidence from South Nyanza District, Kenya
Authors: Kohler Hans‐Peter
Published: October 2003

Utilizes new data gathered in South Nyanza District, Kenya, that includes egocentric social networks and measures of contraceptive prevalence among friends and investigates whether social learning or social influence constitutes the dominant mechanism through which social networks affect an individual's contraceptive decisions. This chapter argues that these mechanisms can be distinguished by analysing the density of the social network and its interaction with the proportion of contraceptive users among network partners. Our analyses indicate that in areas with high market activity, social learning is most relevant, whereas in regions with only modest market activity, social influence constitutes the dominant mechanism of how social networks affect women's contraceptive use. The chapter concludes with the development of a theoretical model of social interactions and fertility.
From Individual Behavior to Aggregate Fertility Dynamics
Authors: Kohler Hans‐Peter
Published: October 2003

Shifts the emphasis from individual behaviour in the presence of social interactions to aggregate fertility dynamics. In particular, the chapter considers the implications of using non‐linear models in empirical and theoretical models of social interactions and fertility. We show that with non‐linear models, there may be both low and high contraceptive‐use equilibria rather than just one equilibrium as in linear models. A sustained fertility decline can occur if a population experiences a transition from a low to a high contraceptive‐use equilibrium. These transitions occur at a rapid pace—consistent with the empirical findings on past and present fertility declines—and they are often irreversible once they are initiated.
Fertility Decline as a Coordination Problem
Authors: Kohler Hans‐Peter
Published: October 2003

This chapter is devoted to the role of social networks for the selection of equilibria in situations in which fertility decline constitutes a coordination problem. We show that the effect of networks depends on the particular interaction among individuals and on the prevailing socioeconomic conditions: `information networks’ can only speed up a fertility transition that would also take place in the absence of social interaction, while `coordination networks’ can facilitate demographic change in societies that would otherwise be caught in a Malthusian situation. Coordination networks, however, are limited by a temporal window of opportunities. During this period, social networks and collective action can initiate a fertility transition. Afterwards, population growth increases the stability of a traditional equilibrium and prevents endogenous demographic change. The media and its interaction with social networks emerges an alternative that can overcome the social coordination problem even in large populations when coordination networks fail.
Social Interactions and Fluctuations in Birth Rates
Authors: Kohler Hans‐Peter
Published: October 2003

Shows that the relevance of social interaction is not restricted to developing countries with relatively high levels of fertility. In particular, fluctuations in birth rates in developed countries have been considerably less regular than many explanatory theories suggest. This chapter argues that social interaction is relevant even in developed countries, where increased individualism has been associated with changing demographic behaviour. The analysis shows that social interaction can emerge in both market and non‐market situations, ranging from the evolution of social norms and values to imperfections in the labour market. A formal model for investigating the dynamic consequences of social interaction in developed countries is developed, and its aggregate implications are tested using a Markov switching regression model applied to net reproduction rates since 1930. The findings show that social interaction can lead to fluctuations in birth rates that are swift and difficult to foresee, and that these fluctuations are likely to be asymmetric: spells of low fertility have a considerably higher persistence than spells of high fertility.
Contests for Corporate Control
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

This book is based on detailed historical research in the USA and Germany, and represents a challenge to current orthodoxy on corporate governance. It is a challenging and informed examination of the links between the general business environment and the operations, decisions, and organizations of firms. The author also explores the links between corporate governance and innovation. The eight chapters are: Innovation, resource allocation, and governance; Transforming the debates on corporate governance; The foundations of managerial control in the USA; The post‐war evolution of managerial control in the United States; Challenges to post‐war managerial control in the USA; US corporate responses to new challenges; From managerial to contested control in Germany; and The emerging challenges to organizational control in Germany.
Innovation, Resource Allocation, and Governance
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

Given the centrality of the process of innovation to the performance of dynamic economies, the types of corporate governance that will promote economic performance can be determined only within a conceptual framework that integrates an analysis of the economics of innovation. In Sect. 1.2, theoretical and empirical research on the economics of innovation is reviewed in order to identify the key stylized facts of the process through which resources are developed and utilized in the economy; innovation is specifically characterized as a process that is cumulative, collective, and uncertain. In Sect. 1.3, it is argued that these characteristics imply that innovation requires an allocation process that is (1) developmental––resources must be committed to irreversible investments with uncertain returns, (2) organizational––returns are generated through the integration of human and physical resources, and (3) strategic––resources are allocated to overcome market and technological conditions that other firms take as given. In Sect. 1.4, the critical characteristics of innovative resource allocation are contrasted with neoclassical resource allocation, which is reversible, individual, and optimal. Section 1.5 discusses the relationships between resource allocation and corporate governance, emphasizing that in spite of continuing attempts by heterodox economists to introduce one or more of the characteristics of resource allocation discussed in Sect. 1.4 to a theory of economic performance (in particular, developmental, organizational, and strategic characteristics), it is only by taking all of these characteristics together that the profound implications they have for the governance of corporations can be seen, implying the need for organizational control over the allocation of resources in the economy.
The Foundations of Managerial Control in the United States
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

In historical perspective, market control over the allocation of US corporate resources stands out as a recent phenomenon, since for most of the twentieth century, salaried managers have exercised control over resource allocation by US corporate enterprises. In this chapter, the lengthy and complex historical process through which the institutional foundations of managerial control emerged in the US corporate economy is discussed. The focusing, in particular, is on the role of the integration of managers as members of business organizations, the diffusion of share ownership, the changing interaction between the stock market and the public corporation, and the transformation of corporate law in facilitating the separation of beneficial ownership of corporate stock from strategic control over the allocation of corporate resources. The main sections of the chapter are: 3.2, The historical foundations of managerial control; 3.3, Managerial control and the Great Depression; 3.4, and New deals, old deals––which discusses changes in corporate governance, workers’ rights and unionism, and defence of the corporate manager's right to manage.
The Post‐War Evolution of Managerial Control in the United States
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

This chapter has two main sections, which contrast the post‐war development of managerial control in the USA in the mass production industries, and the high‐technology industries––as exemplified by the electronics industry. The first, Sect. 4.2, The post‐war governance of mass‐production enterprises, discusses the trend towards strategic segmentation––the emergence of conglomerations and resulting impact on performance, and the emergence of core corporate enterprises. The second, Sect. 4.3, The electronics complex and the governance of innovation, discusses the roles of the federal government and of venture capital, and the abiding importance of the innovative corporation.
Challenges to Post‐War Managerial Control in the United States
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

Beginning in the 1970s, the previously dominant US corporate enterprises faced an intensification of competition in both the mass‐production and high‐technology industries. The nature and gravity of the competitive threat varied, partly because of differences in resource allocation governance, yet in both types of industry, fundamental challenges to the technological and economic supremacy of the USA were posed by enterprises in different social environments that developed and utilized broader and deeper skill bases to generate higher‐quality, lower‐cost products. In the case of the Japanese especially, the challenges came from enterprises that integrated into processes of organizational learning not only managerial employees (as the Americans had done), but also shop‐floor employees and employees of subsidiary enterprises that functioned as suppliers and distributors. These competitive challenges demanded a response from US corporate enterprises, but as they struggled with what was going on in the productive sphere, the ground had also shifted in the financial sphere: in particular, with the rise of institutional investors, and the increasing pressures that they placed on corporate enterprises to deliver higher returns on their corporate stocks, the commitment of financial resources to corporate strategies came under considerable pressure. The two main sections of this chapter address these issues: Sect. 5.2 discusses the productive challenges and the rise of the new competition, and Sect. 5.3 discusses the growing pressures for financial liquidity, which manifested themselves in a particularly aggressive form in the 1980s with the rise of a market for corporate control, and when that market collapsed in the late 1980s, in leading institutional investors seeking other levers for influencing corporate resource allocation in a movement that has been characterized as the rise of institutional investor activism.
US Corporate Responses to New Challenges
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

The growing demands for financial liquidity, combined with the productive challenges discussed in the previous chapter, created significant pressures on the stability of the post‐war system of managerial control in the USA. In the 1980s and 1990s, the US corporate economy reacted to these combined pressures in what, in historical perspective, were dramatic ways. The most striking dimension of the general corporate response was the growing propensity of US corporations in that period to downsize their workforces and to distribute corporate revenues to stockholders. The strategy to ‘downsize and distribute’ stands in contrast to the historical norm for these corporations of favouring the retention of corporate revenues for reinvestment in plant, equipment, and personnel. This chapter has two main sections that (1) address the factors that underlay the prevalence and persistence of strategies to downsize and distribute among US corporate enterprises, and (2) assess the implications of the strategies to downsize and distribute.