bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg Fiscal-Military System c. 1606– 1806
Authors: Rauscher Peter
Published: September 2022

This paper analyzes the institutional-financial resources of the Holy Roman Empire and the fiscal and military aid granted by the Imperial Estates to the emperor in the context of Habsburg war-making and a standing army. The imperial court made repeated, ultimately unsuccessful attempts to enhance cameral revenues from the Empire, such as by taxing the Imperial Cities and the Jews, and regaining imperial domains. In addition, it sought financial aid from the Imperial Estates gathered in the diet in Regensburg. But direct military support came from individual princes and the Imperial Circles rather than from the Empire as represented in the diet. Especially in the conflicts with France, the emperors could neither mobilize nor control the entire financial and military capacity of the Empire. As a result, the Holy Roman Empire ceased being an integral part of Habsburg finances, as it had been during the 16th century, and became an external ally of the Austrian fiscal-military system after 1648.
Noble Enterprisers: Regimental Proprietorship in the Habsburg Army
Authors: Carl Horst
Published: September 2022

Because they stood at the interface of the military system and the economy, regimental proprietors offer an important social group for analyzing the limitations and possibilities of the fiscal-military state. This chapter examines this relationship not from the perspective of state power, but rather from that of the nobility, for which regimental proprietorship constituted a rational investment in two growing and connected markets – state and military – in the 17th and 18th centuries. The example of the Neippergs, who rose from an unexceptional family of Free Imperial Knights into leading positions of the Habsburg army in the 18th century, manifest in an exemplary way the social, cultural, and economic contexts of this fiscal-military symbiosis. The success of the fiscal-military state and the assertion of noble status were not mutually exclusive, but rather conditioned one another. At the same time, the military activity of noble regimental proprietors derived from their own economic networks, which lay outside the control of the fiscal-military state and could corrupt it.
The ‘Business of War’ in Hungary: Saltpetre Contracting during the Napoleonic Period
Authors: Szakály Orsolya
Published: September 2022

Through a case study of Baron Miklós Vay’s saltpetre contract in eastern Hungary during the Napoleonic period, this chapter demonstrates the continuing importance of the local commercial and industrial initiatives of landowning nobles in Hungary. It also illuminates the vital role played by local and Monarchy-wide personal networks in the business of war. Vay’s personal contacts at the highest level in the Aulic Chamber secured him government business. His case shows how enthusiastically and adeptly some Hungarian nobles, their constitutional reservations notwithstanding, availed themselves of economic opportunities in connection with the wider Monarchy and its armed forces. The main argument is that this arrangement benefited all involved, ultimately serving the interests of the Habsburg Monarchy by ensuring its survival at an time of near-permanent war.
Characterisation of the Degree of Musical Non-Markovianity
Authors: Mannone Maria , Compagno Giuseppe
Published: September 2022

As an aid for musical analysis, in computational musicology mathematical andinformatics tools have been developed to characterise quantitatively some aspectsof musical compositions. A musical composition can be attributed by ear a certainamount of memory. These results are associated with repetitions and similarities ofthe patterns in musical scores. To higher variations, a lower amount of memory isperceived. However, the musical memory of a score has never been quantitativelydefined. Here we aim to give such a measure following an approach similar tothat used in physics to quantify the memory (non-Markovianity) of open quantumsystems. We apply this measure to some existing musical compositions, showingthat the results obtained via this quantifier agree with what one expects by ear.The musical non-Markovianity quantifier can thus be used as a new tool that canaid quantitative musical analysis. It can also lead to future quantum computingcontrollers to manipulate structures in the framework of generative music.
Artistic research within a lab of possibilities: exploring post-digital ignorance in “a’21 amberNetworkFestival”
Authors:   Istanbul Technical University, Yetişkin Ebru , Yiğit İsmail , Ermiş Didem
Published: September 2022

During COVID-19, the emergence of collective knowledge production networking, the development of common resource pools and resilient commoning practices were thoroughly weakened. In addition, such a paradigmatic crisis has made ignorance and its consequences more visible on a planetary scale. In this article, we asked what kind of research would enable us to explore the possibilities of co-learning and critically reflect on the various forms of ignorance production for the purposes of commoning in a range of settings. Based on laboratory studies in Science, Technology and Society (STS), we aim to explore the contemporary interventions of community building and commoning practices performed in artistic research. Becoming powerful creative forces in their own right, art and technology festivals have augmented the possibilities of how various actors relate to each other, express themselves to wider society, and self-organize in order to challenge current problems on a planetary scale. Our ethnographic study, which included interviews, document analysis, participant observations, case study, game design and online focus group meetings, was based on a hybrid mode of artistic research within a’21 amberNetworkFestival, a co-curated, decentralized and translocal art and technology festival. As a self-reflexive research outcome, the findings of our study reveal that artistic research merging scientific study, online applications, gamification, and performance can be developed for the examination of ignorance production and enhance translocal commoning, co-production and co-learning in various settings. Thus, artistic research within “a lab of possibilities” can allow different communities to collaborate on a common task by providing coordination without consensus.
Hydroa vacciniforme associated with EBV infection in a Moroccan child
Authors: Abdelmouttalib Asmae , Hamich Soumaya , Elghtaibi Fatima Zahra , Senouci Karima
Published: September 2022

Hydroa vacciniforme (HV) is a very rare photosensitivity disorder of childhood characterized by pruritic or painful vesicles in photo-distributed areas. We report a case of a seven-year-old male presenting with recurrent scars on the face with significant impact on psychological health. The history of the patient’s disease went back to when he was five years old and began to show eruptions on the face and forearms associated with a burning sensation, evolving recurrently with each exposure to the sun. Later, these lesions became confluent and crusted, then detached, leaving residual scars. A clinical examination revealed varioliform scars on the face, with scaly and crusted lesions on the nose and auricle (Figs. 1a – 1c). The rest of the examination revealed no adenopathy or organomegaly. Blood count, lymphocyte circulating levels, and immunophenotyping were normal and EBV serology was positive, with IgG+ and IgM-. The child refused to have a skin biopsy performed and did not return for another consultation.
Online Tools in Teaching Literature in Times of Troubles
Authors: Škobo Milena
Published: September 2022

Bearing in mind the fact that the number of research papers dealing with the ways in which literature can be most efficiently taught in the digital era and the ways in which the existing online educational tools can be applied to teaching literature online is rather limited, we set out to conduct a modest research aimed at tackling these issues and providing the literature teachers with more information regarding the use of digital tools specially designed to meet the needs of literature courses. The first part of the paper offers a glimpse into literature review, in which the history of using modern technologies in literature teaching is briefly presented, the second part of the paper examines the list of online tools that can be the most effectively and easily adapted to literature classes, while the third part of the paper sums up the main ideas presented and opens questions that point to the need for further research into this field.
Molecular dynamics simulation of size dependent plastic deformation mechanism of CoCrFeNiMn crystalline/amorphous dual-phase high-entropy alloys
Authors: An Min-Rong , Li Si-Lan , Su Meng-Jia , Deng Qiong , Song Hai-Yang ,   College of New Energy, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China,   College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China,   School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
Published: September 2022

Recently proposed crystalline/amorphous dual-phase high-entropy alloy is an effective strategy to obtain high-entropy, high-strength and high-toughness alloys. And the relative plastic deformation mechanism is dependent on the size of component phases. The effect of component phase size on the plastic deformation mechanism of CoCrFeNiMn crystalline/amorphous dual-phase high-entropy alloy is investigated by molecular dynamics simulation. The results indicate that the size of amorphous phase has a significant effect on the mechanical behavior and plastic deformation mechanism of high entropy alloy. For the sample with small thickness of amorphous phase, the plastic deformation is dominated by dislocation slip and phase transformation of face-centered-cubic structure to hexagonal-close-packed structure. Especially, the deformation twins and Lomer-Cottrell locks are observed in the sample with amorphous layer spacing of 1 nm. When the thickness of the amorphous layer is moderate, the plastic deformation of the dual-phase high-entropy alloy is realized mainly through the dislocation slip, phase transformation of face-centered-cubic structure to hexagonal-close-packed structure in crystalline part and shear band multiplication in amorphous part. If the amorphous layer spacing is larger, the plastic deformation of the high-entropy alloy is dominated by the formation of uniform shear bands in the amorphous phase. In addition, the amorphous phase in the dual-phase high-entropy alloy structure can stabilize the crystalline grains. The results of this study can provide a guidance for designing and preparing high entropy alloy with high performance.
The Meaning of Proofs
Authors: Lolli Gabriele
Published: September 2022

Why mathematics is not merely formulaic: an argument that to write a mathematical proof is tantamount to inventing a story.

In The Meaning of Proofs, mathematician Gabriele Lolli argues that to write a mathematical proof is tantamount to inventing a story. Lolli offers not instructions for how to write mathematical proofs, but a philosophical and poetic reflection on mathematical proofs as narrative. Mathematics, imprisoned within its symbols and images, Lolli writes, says nothing if its meaning is not narrated in a story. The minute mathematicians open their mouths to explain something—the meaning of x, how to find y—they are framing a narrative.

Every proof is the story of an adventure, writes Lolli, a journey into an unknown land to open a new, connected route; once the road is open, we correct it, expand it. Just as fairy tales offer a narrative structure in which new characters can be inserted into recurring forms of the genre in original ways, in mathematics, each new abstract concept is the protagonist of a different theory supported by the general techniques of mathematical reasoning. In ancient Greece, there was more than an analogy between literature and mathematics, there was direct influence. Euclid's proofs have roots in poetry and rhetoric. Mathematics, Lolli asserts, is not the mere manipulation of formulas.
Working with AI
Authors: Davenport Thomas H. , Miller Steven M.
Published: September 2022

Two management and technology experts show that AI is not a job destroyer, exploring worker-AI collaboration in real-world work settings.

This book breaks through both the hype and the doom-and-gloom surrounding automation and the deployment of artificial intelligence-enabled—“smart”—systems at work. Management and technology experts Thomas Davenport and Steven Miller show that, contrary to widespread predictions, prescriptions, and denunciations, AI is not primarily a job destroyer. Rather, AI changes the way we work—by taking over some tasks but not entire jobs, freeing people to do other, more important and more challenging work. By offering detailed, real-world case studies of AI-augmented jobs in settings that range from finance to the factory floor, Davenport and Miller also show that AI in the workplace is not the stuff of futuristic speculation. It is happening now to many companies and workers.

These cases include a digital system for life insurance underwriting that analyzes applications and third-party data in real time, allowing human underwriters to focus on more complex cases; an intelligent telemedicine platform with a chat-based interface; a machine learning-system that identifies impending train maintenance issues by analyzing diesel fuel samples; and Flippy, a robotic assistant for fast food preparation. For each one, Davenport and Miller describe in detail the work context for the system, interviewing job incumbents, managers, and technology vendors. Short “insight” chapters draw out common themes and consider the implications of human collaboration with smart systems.
Why Is It So Difficult to Contribute to Social Inclusion Through Vocational Education and Training?
Authors: Maurer Markus , Morshed Mahboob , Spasovski Ognen
Published: September 2022

This paper compares “recognition of prior learning” (RPL) schemes in four countries, to find out the impact of VET policy reforms on social inclusion. The study finds that RPL schemes have only made limited contributions to social inclusion in these countries, for the following reasons: firstly, there are challenges in upper secondary VET, which, in all four countries, requires a substantial level of general education and transversal competencies, on which the key educational policy actors are not willing to compromise. Secondly, some countries used RPL to provide access to non-formal qualifications. Still, such schemes were only successful when those non-formal qualifications were already well-established in society and the labour market (prior to having been made accessible through RPL). The article argues that, for RPL to contribute more to social inclusion, schemes need to be less complicated and should also include complementary education and training provisions for all those who lack work experience in sectors where access to employment depends on certain qualifications.
Ética bruta: las crónicas de Pedro Lemebel
Authors:   Universidad de Salamanca, Paniagua García José Antonio
Published: September 2022

Este artículo de investigación analiza algunas crónicas del autor chileno Pedro Lemebel con el propósito de demostrar, a partir de sus características temáticas y estéticas (en especial, la memoria, la experiencia, el melodrama y la indistinción entre lo real y lo imaginario), la articulación de un proyecto de resistencia y enfrentamiento del pasado y el presente inmediato (simbolizados por una clase diferente de memoria y experiencia) que he denominado “ética bruta” y cuya fundamentación se encuentra en la especial atención que el escritor brinda al “retorno de lo sensible” (Maffesoli) como respuesta comunitaria a la pregunta por el modo de organizarse colectivamente ante la debilidad de los vínculos sociales.
El detective y la superficie: sondeos escópicos y poética noir en "La Universidad Desconocida" de Roberto Bolaño
Authors:   Universidad del Norte Barranquilla, Bolte Rike
Published: September 2022

En este ensayo nos dedicaremos a estudiar La Universidad Desconocida, de Roberto Bolaño, poniendo especial atención a lo detectivesco y al ‘detective poetizado’ que cristaliza una estética del sondeo escópico, especulativo, errático y esperpéntico. Iniciamos con las reflexiones de Siegfried Kracauer sobre el detective como figura(ción) exiliar y protagonista de una percepción analítica, para detectar finalmente al “true detective” de una poética noir hispánica: instancia desdoblada que deambula entre la presencia y la ausencia, con un gesto que subvierte el paradigma de la heroicidad.
O PROGRAMA IDIOMAS SEM FRONTEIRAS E A FORMAÇÃO INICIAL DE PROFESSORES DE LÍNGUA INGLESA: UMA REVISÃO DE LITERATURA
Authors: Theis Luiza Fronza , Bailer Cyntia
Published: September 2022

Este artigo reporta os resultados de uma pesquisa de iniciação científica cujo objetivo era sistematizar a literatura publicada sobre o Programa Idiomas sem Fronteiras (IsF) e a formação de professores de língua inglesa no IsF. Para tanto, conduzimos uma pesquisa de cunho qualitativo bibliográfico e buscamos publicações a partir de palavras-chave em portais acadêmicos. Classificamos as 42 publicações encontradas a partir dos resumos e selecionamos 13 trabalhos com foco na formação de professores de língua inglesa no IsF. Os resultados destacam a relevância do programa para a formação de professores de línguas, constituindo-se como uma comunidade de prática em que professores aprendem a ser professores a partir de práticas e especialmente da reflexão sobre práticas.
Violence and the Carceral State
Authors: Mitchell Roger A. , Aronson Jay D.
Published: September 2022

This Viewpoint reports the disproportionate rate of firearm-related deaths in US Black communities; emphasizes the urgency of addressing this issue; and details the causes of these deaths in the context of community, law enforcement, and in custody.
Alienation and Contemporary Social Movements
Authors: Langman Lauren
Published: September 2022

For Karl Marx, in his writings on alienation, workers not only suffered from the objective realities of poverty, squalor, and poor health, but, neither owning their tools nor the products of their labor sold for wages, were alienated, estranged from themselves, their full human potentials, and Nature. They were powerless, without freedom. They were denied recognition, objectified, rendered dehumanized things, simply costs of production. Marx expected such conditions would lead to mass mobilizations to overthrow capitalism. But by the time the 1844Manuscriptshad been discovered in the 1920s, capitalists, responding to worker's actions, pressures, and demands, had provided higher wages, along with benefits and entitlements that quelled working‐class discontents. Then came eclectic powered tools and machines, interchangeable parts, and continuous assembly lines enabling mass production that, pioneered by Ford, came to be known as “Fordism.” Better wages for workers enabled mass consumption, workers could own cars, however modest, and the “new” electric appliances; revolutionary fervor waned.
Barricades
Authors: OfferlÉ Michel
Published: September 2022

The accumulation of objects as an act or tactic of political protest makes its debut in history during the “Day of the Barricades” (
Journée des barricades
) of 12 May 1588. Cordons were set up to protect Paris from social unrest and people barricaded themselves in, notably with hogsheads (
barriques
). The same phenomenon plays itself out again on another “Day of Barricades” – 27 August 1648 – the first “Fronde” (insurrection) against the young Louis XIV. Subsequently, the practice of erecting barricades is not reported in France until the end of the French Revolution, during the days of Prairial year III (May 1795), when the French revolutionaries, who had exclusively used offensive tactics since 1789, deployed barricades as a defensive action.
Catnets
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: September 2022

The expression “catnet” merges two distinct concepts, “categories” and “networks.” It was forged by Harrison White in the context of his attempt to develop an approach to the study of social structure that departed from the Parsonian view of attitudes and values as the driving forces behind patterns in human behavior. Alternatively, and also distancing himself from purely interactionist views of structure, White proposed that the building blocks of social structure be collectivities constituted by the intersection of specific patterns of interaction and categorical traits, on which boundary definition could be founded.
Case Studies and Social Movements
Authors: Snow David A.
Published: September 2022

A case study is one research strategy for studying social movements and movement‐related processes. Other research strategies include ethnography, participant or organizational surveys, experimentation, life histories, and protest event research via newspaper and other media sources. This entry distinguishes the case study from these and other research strategies by sketching its defining characteristics, and then discussing the ways in which case studies can vary, with illustrations drawn from case studies of social movements.
Cause Lawyering
Authors: Agrikoliansky Eric
Published: September 2022

All social movements have, at one point or another in their development, been confronted with the question of legality. This may come about either because the movement aims to change the law, or because it is itself facing legal repression. This could reflect that the law is as much a tool for action as a constraint for the state. Legal victories of the civil rights movement led to increased interest in the study of how the law is used by protesters. However, the effects of such legal strategies remain the subject of debate.
Civil Society
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: September 2022

Until the late 1980s, the term “civil society” was largely absent from the political and social lexicon. The restart of interest in this idea has been spurred by a number of quite heterogeneous, if parallel, developments. In the crumbling socialist regimes of Eastern Europe in the 1980s, “civil society” was hailed, in a classic Lockean sense, as the locus of citizens' autonomy and resistance to an authoritarian, invasive state. In Western neoliberal democracies, civil society has been seen as one possible alternative to the financial crisis of the welfare state, and as the embodiment of the virtues associated with cooperation and generalized trust and solidarity. The European Commission has repeatedly stressed the possible contribution of civil society to reducing its (real or perceived) “democratic deficit.” Its 2001 EU White Paper on Governance paid a lot of attention to the role of citizens and associations, although it remains an open issue whether significant increases in rates of active participation from the citizenry would actually be sustainable for the policy process.
Coalitions
Authors: Van Dyke Nella
Published: September 2022

Virtually all social movements involve coalitions, formal or informal alliances between individuals or organizations which work together on a common task. Coalitions take many forms; sometimes they are formal and endure for years; at other times they involve only temporary alliances that disband at the conclusion of an event. No matter what their form, coalitions are critically important for collective action, and a complete understanding of social movement dynamics is impossible without knowledge of alliances and the factors that inspire or inhibit their formation. This entry presents an overview of the factors that shape coalition formation.
Collective Efficacy
Authors: Klandermans Bert
Published: September 2022

Although it would be hard to deny that people who take part in protest activities are aggrieved, grievances do not provide a sufficient reason to participate in collective action. Resource mobilization theorists argue that grievances abound, whereas collective action does not. Therefore, they reason, the key question that needs to be addressed is not whether people are aggrieved, but why some aggrieved people become mobilized, while others do not. Resource mobilization and political process theorists have suggested respectively that the availability of resources and the presence of opportunities play a key role. Groups that have more resources and more opportunities are more likely to succeed in mobilizing collective action. Furthermore, Klandermans has shown that people are more likely to participate in movement activities when they believe that this will help to redress their grievances at affordable costs. Simon and colleagues have labeled this the instrumental pathway to movement participation. For the instrumental pathway the key component is collective efficacy – an individual's expectation that collective action participation can make a difference and bring about the desired changes. The more effective an individual believes collective action participation to be, the more likely s/he is to participate.
Commitment
Authors: Nepstad Sharon Erickson
Published: September 2022

Once individuals have been recruited into a social movement, their ongoing engagement is dependent on a number of factors, including the strength of their commitment. Movement commitment is shaped by individual‐level factors as well as movement practices.
Consensus and Action Mobilization
Authors: Klandermans Bert
Published: September 2022

Much social movement research concerns processes of mobilization; understandably, because mobilization is the mechanism that brings demand and supply of protest together. Without mobilization there will be no action even in circumstances of high demand. The study of mobilization concerns such matters as the effectiveness of persuasive communication, the mobilization channels employed, the influence of social networks, and the perceived costs and benefits of participation. As for the effectiveness of communication, organizers must solve a crucial problem, namely, which are the people in demand of protest and how can they be reached. Sometimes this problem is easy to solve, if for example, it regards the inhabitants of a neighborhood or the workers in a company, but often there are no such easy solutions. Under stark repression mobilization is extremely difficult and indeed dangerous. Censorship makes newspapers, radio, and television unusable, while organizers and movement activists run the risk of being imprisoned or worse. Oppressive societies offer examples of people high on demand but low on supply of protest and failing mobilization. Once protest movements come out into the open and mobilization can no longer be oppressed, the system quickly collapses.
Co‐Optation
Authors: Coy Patrick G.
Published: September 2022

As social and political movements gain enough strength to seriously challenge the more powerful forces that legitimate and protect status‐quo arrangements in a country, a society, an institution, an agency, an organization, or other social system, those in authority who are being challenged may try to bring the challengers into the system as participants but without granting equal influence or substantive power, or significant policy changes. Such appropriation may lead to neutralization and demobilization of the movement. This formalized but restricted and conditioned inclusion of challengers into the authority system that they are challenging is the essence of co‐optation.
Demonstrations
Authors: Walgrave Stefaan
Published: September 2022

Demonstrations are legal or illegal gatherings of people in the public domain (squares or streets) voicing economic, social, or political claims. When these people move from point A to B in the public space we call this a demonstration; when they are static we instead call them “rallies.”
Discourse Analysis and Social Movements
Authors: Johnston Hank
Published: September 2022

The discourse of a social group or community is the whole of its verbal and textual production. It represents its communicative repertoire and the symbolic space and structure of that repertoire. Regarding social movements, it is common that oppositional discourse draws upon the conflicts, struggles, and divisions of the broader social, political, and cultural environment, and articulates these elements to make the ideas it expresses both challenging to opponents and familiar to potential supporters. Analysts sometimes use the plural form,
discourses,
to emphasize that what is being discussed and acted upon is never unanimous, but often challenged and negated by opposing groups. These researchers sometimes stress the emergent and agentic character of textual production, variably called the rhetorical approach, the rhetorical turn, or the dialogic perspective. These approaches treat meaning as context‐specific, multifaceted, ever evolving, and contested, which is widely recognized to be true. The operative question, however, is if these qualities make traditional social‐science analysis that focuses on the measurement of causal variables and relationships suspect.
Ecological Conditions/Determinants
Authors: Zhao Dingxin
Published: September 2022

Human activities are always undertaken in certain places. The natures and the spatial configurations of those places, either as built or natural environments, will shape the ways in which the places are used and understood. More specifically, they shape the spatial activities of the people who live in or use the place, pattern the ways in which information is transmitted and people are encountered, and affect the feeling and understanding of people toward the places. We may call the patterns of interaction between humans and the physical (built or natural) environment, as well as the patterns of interactions among humans under a certain physical environment, ecological determinants.
Emotion Work
Authors: van Troost Dunya M.M.
Published: September 2022

Emotion work has been defined as the action people take when they try to change in degree or quality an emotion or feeling. The concept, first coined by sociologist Arlie Hochschild, describes the efforts people make in their private lives to manage and control their emotions in agreement with the social situation in which they are expressed. Hochschild's theory of feeling rules and emotion work puts forward the notion that social rules apply to the experience of emotion. These feeling rules are “guidelines for the assessment of fits and misfits between feeling and situation,” meaning that cultural and social aspects influence the appropriateness of emotions we feel. In Hochschild's words: “Emotion work can be done by the self upon the self, by the self upon others, and by others upon oneself.” Important to note is that emotion work refers to the effort of trying to change an emotion or feeling, not whether this effort was successful and the emotion actually changed.
Europeanization and Social Movements
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: September 2022

“Europeanization” indicates not only the construction of the institutions of the European Union (EU), but also changes in the politics and policies of member states. Studies of Europeanization look at the impact of the European Union on the national systems of member states, addressing processes of resistance, transformation, and adaptation to EU policies and norms in member states, shifting attention from the supranational level to multi‐level governance. Linked to this is the notion that public policies are produced in a complex system where several norms and implementing agencies interact.
Factions/Factionalism
Authors: Kretschmer Kelsy
Published: September 2022

A faction is a subgroup within a larger organization that is in conflict with other members of that organization. Factions occur when a subset of organizational members begin to develop a distinct collective identity that is at least partially at odds with other members. Factionalism refers to this conflict between an organizational faction and other members, or between competing organizational factions. Strictly speaking, factionalism refers to intra‐organizational conflict. However, many social movement scholars have used the concept of factionalism to understand interorganizational conflict within a broader social movement. In other words, we can use the language of factions to understand a wider range of phenomena, including how different branches of a social movement form and interact. Scholars have paid attention to the ways factions originate, to how they disperse or strengthen over time, to the different outcomes of factionalism, and to the consequences of factionalism for social movements generally.
High‐ and Low‐Risk/Cost Activism
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: September 2022

Lost in the generic concept “social movement” is the extraordinary diversity of types of movements (e.g. revolution, terrorism, religious revivals, peasant insurrections, cults, etc.). Similarly, movement activism comes in a dizzying variety of forms. While the term “movement activist” tends to conjure up images of marchers in the street or maybe even suicide bombers, the concept applies equally well to someone who signs an online petition in support of a movement initiative or makes a $10 donation to the Sierra Club.
Identity Politics
Authors: Bernstein Mary , Taylor Verta
Published: September 2022

The term “identity politics” refers to activism engaged in by status‐based social movements organized around such categories as gender, race/ethnicity, and sexuality, in contrast to class‐based movements. The term also applies to any mobilization related to politics, culture, and identity. It is sometimes used in a derogatory manner to criticize movements as exclusionary and focused on individual rather than societal change. Debates about the validity of identity politics reveal competing theoretical ways to understand the relationships among experience, culture, identity, politics, and power.
Internet and Social Movements
Authors: Carty Victoria
Published: September 2022

The emergence of new information communication technologies (ICTs) such as the internet and the digital media boom in general have strongly affected scholarship on social movements. The internet has fueled a new source of political energy that posits a new relationship between ICTs, political struggle, and public life. Electronic social movement organizations (SMOs) and online activists are redefining political struggle across the dimensions of contentions politics in terms of recruitment, mobilizing, strategizing, fundraising, and protest activities. The explosion of e‐movements, e‐protests, and e‐activism highlights the importance of the internet as an organization tool for the dissemination of information and wired activism, and shows it has become a significant, if not essential, repertoire for social movement actors. Many scholars therefore argue that the novel intricacies of the ICT‐driven “network society” require a fundamental reconceptualization of social movement mobilization that was originally formulated for face‐to‐face contact.
Marxism and Social Movements
Authors: Barker† Colin
Published: September 2022

One distinctive feature of Marxist thought is that it yokes together three ideas: class struggle, social movements, and social revolution. For Marx and Engels, struggle between classes was both a characteristic of exploitative modes of social production, but also the means by which class society could be abolished. Marxism thus generates a central theoretical and practical question. How can humanity emancipate itself from the toils of existing capitalist society and begin creating a new and different form of society?
Modular Protest Forms
Authors: McPhail Clark
Published: September 2022

Tarrow's concept of “modular protest” is an improvisation on Tilly's concept of protest repertoire. Tilly frequently compared his concept to the repertoires of jazz musicians and street theater troupes whose players improvise on familiar tunes or stories to produce pleasing sounds or humorous scenarios. Of protest repertoires Tilly argued that regardless of time and place, the range of collective actions employed by people is clearly defined and fairly limited when compared with the range of actions that are theoretically available. Thus, particular times, places, and populations have their own repertoires of collective action. Modularity was not yet in Tilly's own published theoretical repertoire.
Movement/Countermovement Dynamics
Authors: Dillard Maria K.
Published: September 2022

Movement/countermovement dynamics refers to the patterns of interaction between the originating social movement and the responding countermovement. A recognition of the importance of this dynamic came about with the concept of countermovements, which arose when scholars recognized that opposition to the movements of the 1960s bore a striking resemblance to social movements in both form and function. Scholars have since identified the interaction of social movement and countermovement as an important aspect of the political context and of democratization. Movement/countermovement dynamics span a range from direct influence of the opposing side to indirect changes to the political context in which the other side operates. Countermovements (CMs) and social movements (SMs) have been distinguished from one another on several key dimensions, including goals, ideology, tactics, membership, and location in the social structure. SMs and CMs engage with each other on each dimension. Movement/countermovement dynamics include the ways in which SMs contribute to CM emergence, relationships of SM, CM, and the state, and patterns of interaction.
Movement Society
Authors: Meyer David S.
Published: September 2022

The term “social movement society” represents a theory to unify a series of observations about social protest in the contemporary era. Offered by David S. Meyer and Sidney Tarrow in their introduction to an edited collection on contemporary social movements, it makes a series of claims about how protest movements have changed, and raised a series of questions to provoke subsequent scholarship.
Social Movements in Organizations/Fields
Authors: Morrill Calvin , Chiarello Elizabeth
Published: September 2022

At first glance, research on social movements and research on organizations appear to have little in common. Social movement scholars focus on change while organizational scholars focus on structure. Social movement scholars examine collective action aimed at the state while organizational scholars examine private bureaucracies. But more than 40 years of research suggests that these areas of scholarship have much to offer one another.
Movies and Movements
Authors: Andits Petra
Published: September 2022

Film has been recognized for its potential social and political impact since its beginning (see, for example, the debate between Walter Benjamin and Theodor Adorno). Therefore, film, and in particular documentary film, can also be seen as an instrumental tool of social movements to bring about social and political change. Although generally ignored by social movement scholars, films can have a wide range of important impacts on the public, social movement organizations, and policymakers. Social movements continually attempt to create public space for debate of the issues they consider important, and films can become a crucial part of that struggle as they create a forum in which the public can encounter issues. Activist documentaries may provide a sense of shared identification around the issue at stake and this in turn can mobilize citizens, as was the case after the screenings of
Panama Deception
, a film about the 1989 US invasion of Panama. Activist films may also influence the activist communities themselves. The production process itself can stimulate greater communication among individuals and organizations and can strengthen organizational networks. For example, labor organizations have mobilized their members by educating them about the long history of labor activism in the southeastern US through
The Uprising of '34
(a film about the 1934 textile strike). In addition, documentary films have proven to be powerful tools in influencing public policy. For example, the documentary
Yes, In My Backyard
, exploring the dependence of one American farming town on the prison industry, helped spark debates about policy and reframe the policy agenda.
Narratives
Authors: Polletta Francesca
Published: September 2022

A narrative or story is an account of a sequence of events in the order in which they occurred to make a point. Scholars have studied stories to account for movements' emergence and impacts. Treating storytelling as a persuasive resource, they have also probed the challenges that activists face in using stories to mobilize participants, raise funds, and secure reforms. One challenge lies in conforming to the institutional demands of the settings in which activists are asked to tell their stories. Another lies in countering the familiar background stories against which activists' stories are heard, and which may make activists' accounts seem incredible or idiosyncratic.
Organizations, Community‐Based
Authors: Walker Edward T.
Published: September 2022

Community‐based organizations (CBOs) are local organizations, active in low‐ or moderate‐income communities, which mobilize individual community members in order to develop the civic and political power of local residents. They do so mainly through canvassing and outreach to individual members more than building upon preexisting community institutions. Although the term “community organizing” refers to a broad range of organizations, the focus in this entry is not on organizations that use congregations as recruitment blocs. CBOs have become an important part of US national civic and political discourse, especially in the period immediately after the 2008 election of Barack Obama, which brought community organizing into the national spotlight.
Participatory Budgeting
Authors: Röcke Anja , Herzberg Carsten
Published: September 2022

Participatory Budgeting (PB) is a process that directly involves local people in the definition of priorities and/or spending for a defined public budget. PB represents an institutional form of civic engagement implemented by an official body, but possibly involving social movement organizations in different ways. At the end of the 1980s, PB was jointly invented by local SMOs and members of the newly elected Workers' Party in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil. It was based on neighborhood assemblies and thematic meetings that take place throughout the year and involve volunteers (principle of grassroots democracy). Allocation criteria were used in discussions about local infrastructure in order to redistribute funds to those with the greatest needs (principle of social justice). Boards of citizen delegates, trained by independent NGOs, ensured that, to the greatest extent possible, local issues are prioritized in the budget (principle of citizen control). In Porto Alegre, this process has involved large parts of the (poor) population, reduced corruption, and rendered public administration more efficient and transparent. However, after an overall shift to the right of the political spectrum during the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro, there is a crisis of PB in Brazil and an overall regressing dynamic in South America, while PB is at the same time expanding in other parts of the world.
Petitions
Authors: Contamin Jean‐Gabriel
Published: September 2022

Petitions are usually defined as “protest texts which are intended to be signed by a number of persons, at least one of whom has not the opportunity to amend it.” This element of the repertoires of collective action has rarely been studied in sociology because it seemed too obvious. But, because it might be less obvious than it appears, it might be a fruitful opening to questioning social movement theory.
Political Alignments and Cleavages
Authors: Damen Marie‐Louise
Published: September 2022

In social sciences, cleavages are a way to describe the political landscape along the fault lines of society. Cleavages structure the organizational field and its constituency, creating a supply and demand for politics. Cleavage theory occupies a central place in literature on conventional political participation, but is remarkably absent in literature on unconventional political participation. In explanations of conventional political behavior, cleavages supposedly affect party politics and citizens' political beliefs and attitudes. Transposed to unconventional political behavior, cleavages shape mobilization potential, or the “demand‐side” of protest, and mobilizing structures, or the “supply‐side” of protest. Thus, cleavages can be found in both conventional and unconventional politics. In order to understand political conflicts, we have to study cleavages in both conventional and unconventional politics.
Political Economy and Social Movements
Authors: Stanley Jason , Goodwin Jeff
Published: September 2022

The analysis of the interplay of capitalism and politics – in other words, political economy – played an extremely important role in many of the seminal English‐language studies of social movements and revolutions written by social scientists during the 1970s and 1980s. These studies had the effect of radically reorienting the academic study of movements, revolutions, and political conflict generally. The field moved away from primarily psychological and social‐psychological treatments of political protest – studies that often cast a very negative light on protest – to more sympathetic analyses that emphasized the importance of resources, power, solidarities, and opportunities for movements. But all this is now common wisdom among students of movements. What has been largely forgotten is that these same studies tended to emphasize the effects of capitalism on movements. The dynamics of capitalism figure prominently in these studies, sometimes constraining and sometimes inciting or enabling disruptive collective action. By capitalism, these authors generally mean a mode of production in which a class that owns the means of production (capitalists) employs a class that must sell its labor power in exchange for a wage or salary (workers), and in which market competition among capitalists leads them to reinvest part of the surplus (or profits) in the production process (i.e. capital accumulation). The dynamics of capitalism that these authors emphasize include processes directly linked to market competition and capital accumulation, especially the proletarianization (or commodification) of labor, the commodification of productive forces generally, the concentration and centralization of capital, and periodic crises.
Politicized Identity
Authors: van Stekelenburg Jacquelien , van Leeuwen Anouk , van Troost Dunya
Published: September 2022

Politicization of identities is key to the dynamics of contention. Protest movements are built on politicized identities and they are populated by people with politicized identities. Politicization of identities is simultaneously a characteristic of collectivities and people. There exists a division of labor between students of politicization of identities. Sociologists tend to study politicization at the collective level on the supply side of contentious politics, while social psychologists typically focus on the individual level of politicization at the demand side of politics. The politicization of the supply side of protest refers to the characteristics of protest movements. Is it a movement people can identify with? Is a movement able to frame personal problems into political claims? The politicization of demand refers to the potential of protestors in a society. It relates to the problems people perceive in a society and whether people attach political meaning to these problems. In order to understand how the division of labor conceptually and empirically affects the study of this phenomenon, this entry elaborates on the concept of identity.