bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fluid mechanics of luminal transport in actively contracting endoplasmic reticulum
Authors: Htet Pyae Hein , Avezov Edward , Lauga Eric
Published: April 2024

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), the largest cellular compartment, harbours the machinery for the biogenesis of secretory proteins, lipids, calcium storage/mobilisation and detoxification. It is shaped as layered membranous sheets interconnected with a network of tubules extending throughout the cell. Understanding the influence of the ER morphology dynamics on molecular transport may offer clues to rationalising neuro-pathologies caused by ER morphogen mutations. It remains unclear, however, how the ER facilitates its intra-luminal mobility and homogenises its content, and the minuscule spatial and temporal scales relevant to the ER nanofluidics limit empirical studies. To surmount this barrier, here we exploit the principles of viscous fluid dynamics to generate a theoretical physical model emulating in-silico the content motion in actively contracting nanoscopic tubular networks. The computational model reveals the luminal particle speeds, and their impact in facilitating active transport, of the active contractile behaviour of the different ER components along various time-space parameters. The results of the model indicate that reproducing transport with velocities similar to those reported experimentally in single particle tracking would require unrealistically high values of tubule contraction site length and rate. Considering further nanofluidic scenarios, we show that width contractions of the ER’s flat domains (perinuclear sheets) generate fast-decaying flows with only a short-range effect on luminal transport. Only contraction of peripheral sheets can reproduce experimental measurements, provided they are able to contract fast enough.
Bridging the 3D geometrical organisation of white matter pathways across anatomical length scales and species
Authors: Kjer Hans Martin , Andersson Mariam , He Yi , Pacureanu Alexandra , Daducci Alessandro , Pizzolato Marco , Salditt Tim , Robisch Anna-Lena , Eckermann Marina , Toepperwien Mareike , Dahl Anders Bjorholm , Elkjær Maria Louise , Illes Zsolt , Ptito Maurice , Dahl Vedrana Andersen , Dyrby Tim B.
Published: April 2024

We used diffusion MRI and x-ray synchrotron imaging on monkey and mice brains to examine the organisation of fibre pathways in white matter across anatomical scales. We compared the structure in the corpus callosum and crossing fibre regions and investigated the differences in cuprizone-induced experimental demyelination mouse brains versus healthy controls. Our findings revealed common principles of fibre organisation in the two species; small axonal fasciculi and major bundles formed laminar structures with varying angles, according to the characteristics of major pathways. Individual axon fasciculi exhibited tortuous paths around obstacles like blood vessels, but in a manner independent of fibre complexity and demyelination. A quantitative analysis of tissue anisotropies and fibre orientation distributions gave consistent results for different anatomical length scales and modalities, while being dependent on the field-of-view. Our study emphasises the need to balance field-of-view and voxel size when characterising white matter features across anatomical length scales.
The impact of chemical and hormonal treatments to improve seed germination and seedling growth of Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endi
Authors: Jabbour Alae Ahmad , Alzahrani Abdulaziz
Published: April 2024

Purpose

Juniper (Juniperus procera) is a common forest tree species in Saudi Arabia. The decline in many populations of J. procera in Saudi Arabia is mainly due to seed dormancy and loss of natural regeneration. This study assessed the effects of chemical and hormonal treatments on seed germination and seedling growth in juniper plants.

Methods

The seeds were subjected to either chemical scarification with 90% sulfuric acid and 20% acetic acid for 6 min or hormonal treatment by seed soaking in two concentrations (50 and 100 ppm) of three growth regulators, namely, indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellins (GA3), and kinetin, for 72 h. A control group without any seed treatment was also prepared. The experiments were performed in an incubator maintained at room temperature and under a light and dark period of 12 h for 6 w. The germinated seeds for each treatment were counted and removed from the dishes. The selected germinated seeds from different treatments were planted in a greenhouse and irrigated with tap water for another 6 weeks. The hormone-treated seedlings were sprayed with their corresponding hormone concentrations 1 w after planting.

Results

The highest percentage of seed germination was significantly recorded after seed soaking in 50 ppm GA3, whereas treatment with IAA (100 ppm) resulted in the best seedling growth. Seedlings treated with the three phytohormones showed a significant increase in photosynthetic pigments, total soluble sugars, proteins, percentage of oil, IAA, GA3, and kinetin contents of juniper seedlings compared with the control value, whereas abscisic acid content was decreased compared with chemical treatments.

Conclusion

The investigated different treatments had an effective role in breaking seed dormancy and improving seedling growth of J. procera, which is facing a notable decline in its population worldwide. Moreover, such an effect was more pronounced in the three phytohormones that succeeded in breaking dormancy and growth of the Juniperus plant than in the other treatments.
Идентификация переменных свойств пористого пьезоэлектрического функционально-градиентного биморфа
Authors: Соловьёв А.Н. , Чебаненко В.А.
Published: April 2024

Рассматриваются установившиеся колебания пьезоактивного биморфа с функционально-градиентными пьезоэлектрическими слоями, обладающими неоднородными свойствами по толщине. Решены прямая и обратная задачи. На основе вариационного принципа построена прикладная теория колебаний для квадратичного распределения свойств (пористости) по толщине, задача сведена к системе обыкновенных дифференциальных уравнений с граничными условиями. В ходе построения теории были приняты гипотезы Кирхгофа для механических полей. Для электрического поля была принята квадратичная зависимость распределения электрического потенциала по толщине. По длине электрический потенциал считался неизвестной функцией, зависящей от продольной координаты. Использование квадратичной зависимости распределения электрического потенциала по толщине позволяет более точно описать поведение электрического поля в задачах изгибных устоявшихся колебаний. На основе полученной прикладной теории была решена обратная коэффициентная задача идентификации параметров неоднородности (пористость в середине и на поверхности биморфа). В качестве дополнительной информации для решения обратной задачи рассматривались характеристики установившихся колебаний биморфа, которые могут быть измерены в натурном эксперименте. Обратная задача решалась на основе построения поверхностей и их изолиний зависимостей от параметров пористости: первой резонансной частоты изгибных колебаний, выходного потенциала при механическом возбуждении колебаний и амплитуды смещения свободного конца биморфа при механическом и электрическом возбуждении колебаний. Выбранной информации достаточно для однозначного определения структуры неоднородности пьезоактивного материала в классе квадратичных функций. Использование этих характеристик позволяет однозначно определить пористость в середине и на поверхности биморфа.
Clinical Characteristics and Temporal Profile of Patients Referred to a Cardiac Centre for Stress Electrocardiography (ECG) in Southern Nigeria
Authors: Nwafor Chibuike Eze , Agbamoro Jovita
Published: April 2024

Background: The stress electrocardiographic (ECG), is a dependable method for evaluating cardiovascular health and examining potential heart conditions like myocardial ischemia and arrhythmia. EST is rare in cardiac settings with limited data on diagnosis in the developing worlds. Our main goal was to determine the clinical characteristics of patients referred to our cardiac center.
Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional study of adult patients aged (>18 years old) with low or intermediate pretest symptoms referred for EST to GoodHeart Medical consultant hospital between October 2019 and January 2023. Data included medication, smoking, alcohol, medical history, and symptoms.
Results: In a study with 102 subjects (mean age: 49±16 years), 57.8% were aged 41-60, and 72.5% were males. Routine medical fitness and chest pain were common indications for EST. 80% of subjects with positive arrhythmia and 50% with positive ischemia had chest pain. None of the patient presenting for routine medical fitness had arrhythmia while 14.3% had ischemia. Arrhythmia correlated significantly with chest pain. Among those with positive ischemia, 71.4% were hypertensive and 64.2% were obese; none smoked or consumed alcohol. For positive arrhythmia cases, 70% were hypertensive and 80% were obese; 40%, 20%, and 10% smoked, consumed alcohol, and were diabetic, respectively.
Conclusion: Majority of subjects that underwent the EST has normal result and the few that had positive ischemia 13.7% were referred for angiography and angioplasty while subject with positive arrhythmia 9.8% were recommended for Holter ECG and electrophysiology studies. The occurrence of major cardiovascular events was rare.
Comparison of Straw Mulching and Herbicide Levels for Control of Various Weed Species in Maize (Zea mays L.)
Authors: Kaur Ramandeep , Kaur Charanjeet , Kaur Amandeep
Published: April 2024

Weed management in maize is one of biggest concerns for growers. To reduce dependence on chemicals and chances of herbicide resistant weeds, and to improve soil status, thus straw mulching was added as cultural component with chemicals for improving weed management in maize. Field experiments were conducted at two locations (Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, and Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur) during kharif season to find out the influence of different paddy straw mulch and herbicides for control of various weeds species in maize. The results showed that application of paddy straw mulch 6.25 t/ha effectively controlled Eleusine indica, Cynodon dactylon, Commelina benghalensis, Eragrostis tenella, Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa colona, Trianthema portulacastrum, Portulaca oleracea, Phyllanthus niruri, Euphorbia hirta, Conyza stricta and Cyperus compressus over no mulching. In addition to above weed species, paddy straw mulch 9.0 t/ha also effectively reduced density of Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Acrachne racemosa, Digera arvensis, Mollugo nudicaulis, Alternanthera philoxeroides, Amaranthus viridis and Veronica agrestis and Cyperus rotundus as compared to 6.25 t/ha and no mulch treatment. Atrazine pre emergence at 1.0 kg/ha controlled Eleusine indica, Echinochloa crusgalli, Eragrostis tenella, Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa colona, Trianthema portulacastrum, Mollugo nudicaulis, Alternanthera philoxeroides, Digera arvensis, Amaranthus viridis and Cyperus compressus compared to its lower dose (0.8 kg/ha) and control at all stages. Post emergence application of tembotrione reduced the density of all weed species compared to atrazine and unweeded control.
Epidemiology and Geography of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Steck Andrea K. , Rewers Marian J.
Published: July 2008

Type 1 diabetes is one of the most prevalent severe chronic diseases of childhood, affecting approximately 1.4 million people in the United States and 10–20 million people globally. In the United States, where 30 000 new cases occur each year, 1:300 children and 1:100 adults are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes during the life span. Type 1 diabetes is the leading cause of end‐stage renal disease, blindness, and amputation, and a major cause of cardiovascular disease and premature death in the general population. The economic impact of diabetes is large, with an annual average total direct cost of medical care in the United States in 1997 of $10 071 per person with diabetes compared to $2669 per person without diabetes. These expenditures include all types of diabetes and are likely to underestimate type 1 diabetes related costs. The incidence of type 1 diabetes appears to be increasing by 3–5% per year. The high incidence, associated severe morbidity, mortality, and associated health care expenditures make type 1 diabetes a prime target for prevention. Population‐based epidemiological studies as well as family studies and clinical trials have provided new insights into the pathogenesis and natural history of type 1 diabetes. Such studies are essential for appropriate diagnosis and for evidence‐based programs of prevention and treatment.
Metabolic and Molecular Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: DeFronzo Ralph A. , Mandarino Lawrence , Ferrannini Eleuterio
Published: July 2008

The maintenance of normal glucose homeostasis is dependent on a finely balanced dynamic interaction between tissue (muscle and liver) sensitivity to insulin and insulin secretion. Even in the presence of severe insulin resistance, a perfectly normal β‐cell is capable of secreting sufficient amounts of insulin to offset the defect in insulin action. Thus, the evolution of type 2 diabetes requires the presence of defects in both insulin secretion and insulin action, and both of these defects can have a genetic as well as an acquired component. When type 2 diabetic patients initially present to the physician, they will have had their diabetes for many years, and defects in insulin action and insulin secretion will be well established. At this stage, it is not possible to define which defect came first in the natural history of the disease. Nevertheless, it is now clear that in any given diabetic patient, whatever defect (insulin resistance or impaired insulin secretion) initiates the disturbance in glucose metabolism, it will eventually be followed by the emergence of its counterpart.
The Role of the Hypothalamus in the Maintenance of Energy Balance and Peripheral Glucose Control
Authors: Seeley Randy J. , Clegg Deborah J. , Schwartz Michael W. , Woods Stephen C.
Published: July 2008

Body adiposity is a regulated parameter designed to maintain adequate energy stores. Body adiposity is regulated via hormonal signals that reflect energy balance that are termed
adiposity signals
. Both leptin and insulin appear to act as adiposity signals since plasma levels reflect energy balance status they cross the blood–brain barrier where they can interact with specific receptor populations in multiple areas of the central nervous system including the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. Numerous neurochemical systems have been identified as being able to influence energy intake and/or energy expenditure and thereby could mediate the effects of adiposity signals to influence food intake and body weight. These neurochemical systems can be divided into two groups. One set are “anabolic” effectors that when activated result in increased food intake, decreased energy expenditure, and the accumulation of additional body fat. The other set are “catabolic” effectors that when activated result in decreased food intake, increased energy expenditure, and the loss of body fat. Current models of energy balance regulation posit that adiposity signals inhibit anabolic effectors while stimulating catabolic effectors such that deviations from neutral energy balance are alleviated. A variety of the specific neuropeptide systems that act as anabolic and catabolic effectors are discussed.
Alternative Routes of Insulin Delivery
Authors: Owens David R. , Bolli Geremia B. , Zinman Bernard
Published: July 2008

Identification of the pancreas as the site of the defect in diabetes mellitus by von Mehring and Minkowski in 1889 led eventually to the identification and successful extraction of insulin in 1921 by Banting and Best. The availability of insulin for therapy shortly afterwards dramatically changed the lives of patients with diabetes who previously had a life expectancy of less than 2 years. In the 80 years since, major benefits have accrued. In the year 2000 alone, it is estimated that about 4.8 million years of life were gained for patients with type 1 diabetes as a result of insulin treatment, assuming a life expectancy of 1.5 years in its absence and a global prevalence of 5.1 million. Since insulin was first introduced into clinical practice there have been major developments in its production, purification, pharmaceutical formulation, and methods of delivery. However, despite these advances, microvascular and premature macrovascular complications persist as the main cause of morbidity and mortality in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes and represent a constant reminder that current therapeutic and management strategies, for the vast majority of our patients, remain woefully inadequate. In this chapter, we describe the many attempts made to develop alternative, less invasive routes for the delivery of insulin while focusing on recent progress achieved with inhaled insulins, which may provide the first opportunity for at least partial independence from subcutaneous injections.
Implantable Pumps
Authors: Saudek Christopher D. , Chia Chee W.
Published: July 2008

Implantable insulin pumps (IIPs) have been under development for a number of years now, with a variable rate, externally programmable IIPs now having been used for as long as 15 years. The major obstacles in its development, including an insulin manufacturing change that caused increased aggregation and some pump module adjustments, have been largely overcome. Medtronic MiniMed Corp. is the sole manufacturer at present developing the implanted pump, and is using a new model that features a battery life expectancy of 8 years and a smaller, faster external programmer. The majority of implanted insulin pump experience has been accrued in France, where excellent data on safety and efficacy have been gathered. A randomized clinical trial conducted in US Veterans Affairs Medical Centers demonstrated that compared with multiple‐dose insulin regimens, implanted insulin pumps caused less hypoglycemia, less weight gain, and improved quality of life.
Complications of Insulin Therapy
Authors: Fineberg Samuel Edwin , Anderson James H.
Published: July 2008

Insulin allergic reactions were seen in the first insulin preparations used for therapy of diabetes mellitus. The use of highly purified animal insulins, semisynthetic, and recombinant DNA human insulins has resulted in a dramatic reduction in the immunological complications of insulin therapy. However, subcutaneous human insulin administration with biosynthetic insulins has been shown to incite antibody responses in nondiabetic individuals as well as in diabetic individuals via subcutaneous, respiratory, and peritoneal routes. Further, anti‐insulin antibodies commonly precede the appearance of type 1 diabetes, especially in children. Hypertrophy of subcutaneous fat at sites of repeated insulin injections continues to be a common nonimmunological complication of therapy. In addition, hypertrophy of omental fat has been reported to be a cause of catheter occlusion during the course of intraperitoneal delivery of concentrated insulin by implantable insulin pumps. Edema associated with insulin therapy is an unusual and usually self‐limited disorder. Hypoglycemia secondary to insulin therapy is the expected outcome of a mismatch between nutrients, insulin levels, insulin action, and glucose counterregulatory mechanisms. This chapter reviews insulin immunology and the immunological and nonimmunological complications of insulin therapy.
Endothelial Function and Dysfunction
Authors: Stehouwer Coen D.A. , Schalkwijk Casper G.
Published: July 2008

The endothelium is an important locus of control of vascular functions, and reasonable but not perfect methods exist for assessing endothelial function
in vivo
in humans. Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes complicated by micro‐ or macroalbuminuria is generalized, in that it affects many aspects of endothelial function. The close linkage between microalbuminuria and endothelial dysfunction in diabetes is an attractive explanation for the fact that microalbuminuria is a risk marker for atherothrombosis. In type 1 diabetes, endothelial dysfunction precedes and may cause diabetic microangiopathy, but it is not clear whether endothelial dysfunction is a feature of the diabetic state
per se
. In type 2 diabetes, endothelial function is impaired from the onset of the disease and is strongly related to adverse outcomes. It is not clear whether impaired endothelial function is caused by hyperglycemia or by other factors. Regardless of the presence of diabetes, impaired endothelial function is closely associated with and may contribute to insulin resistance. Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes originates from three main sources. First, hyperglycemia and its immediate biochemical sequelae
directly
alter endothelial function. Second, hyperglycemia influences endothelial cell functioning
indirectly
by the synthesis of growth factors, cytokines, and vasoactive agents in other cells. Third, the components of the metabolic syndrome can impair endothelial function.
Screening for Diabetes and Glucose Intolerance
Authors: Shaw Jonathan , Dowse Gary , Zimmet Paul , Alberti K.G.M.M.
Published: July 2008

This chapter reviews the available evidence on screening for type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes, as well as data on screening for impaired glucose tolerance. Screening for a disease should only be undertaken when well‐established principles are satisfied. Most importantly, treatment should be of proven efficacy, and the disease should have serious consequences and a prolonged asymptomatic phase. Ideally, a screening program should be tested in randomized controlled trials. For type 2 diabetes, there is now mounting evidence that targeted screening may be valuable in preventing the disease or reducing the likelihood of developing its complications. In the absence of any preventative therapy, screening for type 1 diabetes, however, cannot be justified outside clinical trials. Screening for gestational diabetes is widely practiced, but disagreement remains on diagnostic thresholds and screening strategies.
The Economics of Diabetes Care: Australia and New Zealand
Authors: Overland Jane
Published: July 2008

Diabetes will undoubtedly be one of the major health problems facing Australia and New Zealand in the twenty‐first century. In the last two decades alone, the number of Australians with this disease has increased by more than 300%, from 250 000 in the early 1980s to a current level of 1 million. Moreover, the landmark Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study has shown that one in four Australians either has diabetes or is at high risk of developing diabetes in the next 5–10 years. Similar predictions have been made for New Zealand, with the total number of people diagnosed with diabetes expected to grow in the next 20 years by 20% in Europeans, 50% in the Maori population, and a staggering 130% for people of Pacific Islands descent. While this paints a bleak picture, research from the last decade offers hope. As discussed in other chapters, there is now convincing evidence from overseas studies that treatment to lower blood glucose as well as blood pressure and lipid levels can reduce the risk of death, disability, or morbidity due to diabetes. In many cases, these treatments are cost‐effective. However, unless people have access to this care the personal and economic toll of diabetes will continue to rise.
Propylene Oxide and Higher 1,2‐Epoxide Polymers
Authors: Gagnon Steven D.
Published: July 2008

Polymeric derivatives of propylene oxide (PO) and higher epoxides are very important in polymer chemistry. Low molecular weight homopolymers of PO and copolymers of PO and ethylene oxide are used in polyurethanes, hydraulic fluids, lubricants, surface active agents, and chemical intermediates. They are known as polyether polyols, polyethers, or polyols. Low molecular weight polyethers are prepared via acid or base catalysis. Propylene oxide is manufactured by either the chlorohydrin process or the peroxidation process. Polymerization mechanisms (anionic, cationic, and coordinate) are described. Details of polyol manufacture are given, such as stoichiometry, processing, removal of catalyst, and stabilization, for example. The most important chemical property of poly(propylene oxide) in polyurethane applications is the primary or secondary hydroxyl end group. Properties of various polyols are given. A number of block and random copolymers are known. Propylene oxide is highly reactive and is a primary irritant. Toxicities of selected epoxides are given.
Living Polymers
Authors: Pispas Stergios
Published: July 2008

Living polymers and living polymerizations have attracted the intense interest of polymer chemists in the past 50 years. This is due to the fact that well‐defined polymeric, as well as hybrid materials, can be obtained through utilization of living polymers. In this article, the basic concepts pertaining to living polymers, and living polymerization mechanisms are presented. Emphasis is also given to the applications related to living polymers, including the synthesis of block copolymers, end‐functionalized polymers, and polymers with complex architectures. Grafting of planar surfaces and nanoparticles with living polymers and the concept of surface‐initiated polymerizations are also discussed.
Active Server Pages
Authors: Sandvig J. Christopher
Published: July 2008

Active Server Pages (ASP) and ASP.NET are two popular server‐side programming technologies developed by Microsoft Corporation. They are used for Web‐based applications such as online storefront, Web‐based e‐mail, human resources systems, inventory systems, online banking, and informational sites. The ASP framework was introduced in 1997 and quickly gained popularity due to its relative ease of use. ASP.NET was introduced in 2002 and offers rich functionality through a large “base class library” of built‐in objects. It is a central component of Microsoft's .NET strategy and has extensive support for Web services using XML and SOAP. It is designed to offer the scalability, reliability, security, and functionality required by large‐scale corporate information systems.
Biometric Authentication
Authors: Wayman James. L.
Published: July 2008

This chapter treats the topic of biometric authentication, including its history, uses, and system architectures. I consider testing methods and results, recent standards activities, and two large public applications. I also consider briefly the implications for privacy and the future of biometrics on the Internet.
Bluetooth™–A Wireless Personal Area Network
Authors: Miller Brent A.
Published: July 2008

This chapter explores Bluetooth™ wireless technology, a short‐range, low‐power radio frequency communications mechanism, focusing on its application in wireless personal‐area networks (WPANs). I discuss the origins of the technology and the associated Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). I describe WPANs and various usage scenarios and applications for Bluetooth wireless technology and present a technical overview of the Bluetooth specification—both the protocol stack and the profiles. I also offer a brief comparison of Bluetooth communication to other wireless technologies. This chapter should provide a general understanding of Bluetooth technology, its applications, its principles of operation, and how it relates to other forms of wireless communication. It also provides references that offer more detailed discussions of various aspects of the technology.
Business‐to‐Business (
B
2
B
) Internet Business Models
Authors: Nguyen Dat‐Dao
Published: July 2008

Business‐to‐business (B2B) e‐commerce refers to transactions between business entities conducted electronically via Internet, extranet, intranet, and/or private networks. B2B commerce existed before, with private telecommunication networks. These networks require costly investments in infrastructure and operation. With the advent of Web‐based technologies, data communication over the Internet has become affordable for many businesses, maximizing the efficiency of their business communication internally as well externally. Together with business‐to‐consumer (B2C) e‐commerce, one observes booming B2B e‐commerce in the e‐marketplace. It has been asserted that both buyers and suppliers benefit from transactions over the Internet. B2B e‐commerce models address effectively issues in supply chain management and customer relationship management. Companies have reached a larger pool of buyers/suppliers, making better deals in purchases/sales. B2B e‐commerce has reduced related administrative/logistic costs and simplified paperwork. It has also reduced human error and expedited the purchase/sale cycle. This article reviews major B2B e‐commerce business models, their merits and limitations, critical success factors for implementation, and enabling technologies and services.
Capacity Planning for Web Services
Authors: Oshana Robert
Published: July 2008

Almost every business today, large or small, realizes the benefits of taking part or all of their business to the Internet. The success of this endeavor is dependent on many factors, such as advertising, marketing, and the trends of the consumer. Success is usually measured in the amount of goods or services sold as well as pages viewed and registered users. As this success grows, the challenge is to provide a system that is not overengineered but at the same time is robust enough to provide the required services at an acceptable level of performance. In this sense, the development of a Web‐based system is an exercise in optimization that balances cost versus performance and benefit to the end customer or consumer. This optimization exercise is referred to as capacity planning. This chapter explores the discipline of capacity planning and describe some of the key components, tools, and processes used to perform effective capacity planning.
Collaborative Commerce (C‐commerce)
Authors: Heisterberg Rodney J.
Published: July 2008

Collaborative commerce (c‐commerce) is a strategy for the next stage of electronic business (e‐business) evolution. C‐commerce business practices enable trading partners to create, manage, and use data in a shared environment to design, build, and support products throughout their life cycles, working separately to leverage their core competencies together in a value chain that forms a virtual enterprise. The hallmark of c‐commerce architecture is the integration hub, which is the e‐business platform that facilitates the sharing of information between trading partners as either a private trading exchange or public e‐marketplace. Integration hub messaging services, such as inventory visibility, event notification, and performance measurement, provides the fundamental enabling technology for real‐time decision making in a virtual enterprise.

C‐commerce strategies are being built around collaborative product commerce (CPC) and collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment (CPFR) business models. While CPC scenarios are most prevalent in the industrial products sector for build‐to‐order solutions, CPFR was created to solve supply chain problems in the consumer packaged goods market space. The e‐business transformation that is being realized via c‐commerce can be described in terms of management decision making processes that leverage feedback using real‐time information throughout the value chain. The two key adaptive strategic planning processes are: building the virtual enterprise infrastructure using integration hubs and making decisions to optimize value chain business performance. As c‐commerce evolves as the mainstream e‐business strategy for effective value chain management, the reengineering of management decision making processes becomes the critical success factor for enterprise profitability and growth in the 21st century.
Consumer Behavior
Authors: Wolfinbarger Mary Finley , Gilly Mary C.
Published: July 2008

The number of consumers shopping and making purchases online continues to grow. Consumers make online purchases largely for goal‐oriented reasons; in particular, shopping online is convenient and accessible, provides rich information, offers extended selection and inventory, and can be accomplished without contact with others, including retail sales help or shopping partners such as spouses and children. Although most online shopping is goal‐oriented, some consumers shop experientially online at auction sites and at sites related to special interests or hobbies. The U.S. population can be segmented “technographically” into 10 groups utilizing three consumer attributes: (a) attitude toward technology, (b) income, and (c) primary motivation for using the Internet—career, family, and community or entertainment. We review the importance of several online shopping attributes, including web site design (usability, information availability, product selection, and appropriate personalization), fulfillment, customer service, and privacy/security.
Consumer‐Oriented Electronic Commerce
Authors: Chan Henry
Published: July 2008

Generally speaking, e‐commerce concerns the sale and purchase of goods and services by electronic mechanisms in general and on the Internet in particular. This chapter provides an overview of e‐commerce with a focus on consumer‐oriented applications. A number of consumer‐oriented e‐commerce models with real‐life examples are presented to illustrate how e‐commerce can be used to buy and sell different types of goods or services. The enabling technologies or technical building blocks for consumer‐oriented e‐commerce systems also are described. Finally, two ongoing developments in consumer‐oriented e‐commerce are discussed. It is expected that the current consumer‐oriented e‐commerce system will evolve to a ubiquitous system with many more intelligent functions through the use of mobile computing and software agent technologies.
Convergence of Data, Sound, and Video
Authors: Krug Gary J.
Published: July 2008

Data convergence brings together several representational forms into single locations and presentations. This combination of text, sound, images, and video create new kinds of messages that are facilitated by the development of new digital technologies. This convergence has emerged out of ongoing histories of several media as well as diverse technologies. The social and aesthetic consequences of the new multimedia forms are still unclear, but they carry with them both the long waves of historical trends as well as new developments in using media for diverse purposes.
Copyright Law
Authors: Ferrera Gerald R.
Published: July 2008

Copyright law has been thrust to the forefront of intellectual property by the use of digital content in e‐commerce. Copyright management has thus become an essential process for an e‐company. Words, graphics, videos, and music transmitted over the Internet can all be the appropriate matter of copyright protection. The Copyright Act allows the author of “original works fixed in a tangible medium of expression” to register those works in the United States Copyright Office. The copyright owner has exclusive statutory rights to reproduce the copyrighted work or to transfer the work by a licensing agreement to another party. Because the development and maintenance of a Web page in e‐commerce is an expensive proposition, effective copyright management should be an ongoing process. Copyright law is designed to provide a balance between the exclusive rights of the copyright owner and limited use, under certain circumstances, of the copyright work by the general public. This article reviews copyright law and its application to digital content as legally protected material.
Customer Relationship Management on the Web
Authors: Winer Russell S.
Published: July 2008

The essence of the information technology revolution and, in particular, the World Wide Web is the opportunity afforded companies to choose how they interact with their customers. The Web allows companies to build better relationships with customers than was previously possible in the offline world. This revolution in customer relationship management (CRM) has been referred to as the new “mantra” of marketing. A problem, however, is that CRM means different things to different people. This chapter develops a comprehensive CRM model incorporating seven phases: database creation, analysis of the database, customer selection, customer targeting, relationship marketing, privacy issues, and new metrics necessary for evaluating the CRM effort. In the early 21st century, all of these activities are facilitated by the Internet. The chapter also discusses the implications of CRM for future marketing organizations.
Cyberlaw: The Major Areas, Development, and Provisions
Authors: Powers Dennis M.
Published: July 2008

When the storm of Internet technology first swept over the Net into the United States and the world, the World Wide Web practically and for all legal purposes was the “Wild Wild West.” This country and others have always been regulated by a fundamental system of laws that had evolved over the centuries, however, and with later statutory and court refinements, these basic legal concepts proved adaptable to the latest extensive technological advancement, just as they had during the then‐startling “new” age of the telephone, telegraph, xerox, and television. Prime substantive legal areas such as torts, contracts (now e‐commerce), and criminal law continued in importance in this new medium, and others gained in significance—intellectual property rights (i.e., copyrights and trademarks), domain name conflicts, linking, rights of privacy, conflicts of law, and alternative dispute resolution. This chapter analyzes these areas, their development, and their effect in the United States and elsewhere in the world. The legal system is meeting this challenge, but our world will never again be the same.
Denial of Service Attacks
Authors: Schultz E. Eugene
Published: July 2008

This chapter focuses on the very serious problem of denial of service (DoS) attacks against computer systems and networks. DoS attacks are attacks designed to disrupt, overwhelm, and/or damage computing resources and data. These attacks are aimed not against confidentiality of data or integrity of systems and data, but rather against availability of systems and data. Attackers launch DoS attacks for a wide variety of reasons. The probability of success is high, due in large part to the fact that the Internet itself has not been designed for security. The cost of DoS attacks is often high—several well‐known attacks have reportedly cost organizations billions of dollars. Many types of DoS attacks have surfaced so far, including resource starvation attacks, buffer overflow attacks, and packet fragmentation attacks. Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, attacks in which programs planted in multiple systems cooperate, represent an even higher level of threat. Preventing DoS attacks is difficult in the first place due to a plethora of reasons; limiting the potential for damage and disruption is often the most cost‐effective strategy. Hot sites, cold sites, use of uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) and Redundant Array of Independent Drives (RAID) solutions, and other measures can limit the damage from DoS attacks. Using properly configured and maintained firewalls is one of the best single prevention measures. Additionally, using packet filters on systems, keeping up with patches, limiting services that run on these systems, and using other measures go a long way in helping prevent susceptibility to DoS attacks.
Developing Nations
Authors: Levinson Nanette S.
Published: July 2008

There continues to be a gap in access, policies, and usage between developed and developing nations with regard to the Internet. This chapter examines approaches to and strategies related to the Internet in developing nations. Particular attention is paid to factors hindering and facilitating Internet development and policy making in such nations. Examples indicate the increasing prevalence of alliances amidst developing nation governments as well as with private sector, international, regional, and nongovernmental organizations in order to bridge the global digital divide and contribute to social and economic development.
Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures
Authors: Panko Raymond R.
Published: July 2008

To be legally binding, print documents must be signed. The absence of electronic signature laws has made the legality of electronic documents uncertain in the past. New laws are making various forms of electronic signatures valid, including simple typed signatures, scanned written signatures, clicking on “I agree” buttons, and more advanced forms of electronic signatures, including digital signatures and message authentication codes. All forms of electronic signatures make documents legally valid. However, many electronic signature methods can be counterfeited so easily that they may be useless for enforcement in court. We focus especially on digital signatures, which are forms of electronic signatures that are difficult to counterfeit when used with digital certificates. In addition, digital signatures, when used with digital certificates, provide nonrepudiation, which means that the sender cannot plausibly deny that he or she sent the message.
Electronic Funds Transfer
Authors: Gate Roger , Nacamuli Alec
Published: July 2008

This chapter summarizes the basic concepts and developments in domestic and international EFT systems prior to the advent of the Internet, before examining new requirements dictated by E‐commerce. It then summarizes security developments, with particular emphasis on the new trust schemes that are viewed as indispensable for the development of E‐commerce. Developments in EBPP and e‐EFT are then described for the retail (B2C, P2P) and wholesale (B2B) sectors, examining potential disintermediation threats to the banking system. The article concludes with the authors' views on opportunities for financial institutions, and future perspectives.
Extensible Stylesheet Language (
XSL
)
Authors: Heines Jesse M.
Published: July 2008

The extensible stylesheet language (XSL) is an XML‐based technology for transforming XML documents from one form to another. It uses a declarative programming paradigm and a specific XML namespace that gives programmers full access to all XML components ‐ elements, attributes, and text ‐ and the ability to manipulate them in ways that go far beyond the capabilities of cascading style sheets. XSL can be used to control the rendition of XML data, selectively filter the data items selected for transformation, convert data from various incompatible forms into a single, standard form, or implement just about any other operation that one might want to perform on XML data without changing the original XML source. Various parts of XSL are now industry standards (known as “Recommendations” by the World Wide Web Consortium) and are therefore highly usable even in today's ever‐changing Web environment. This chapter presents the basic concepts and techniques used in XSL. It provides a variety of examples of XSL transformations (XSLT), XPath expressions (the language used to refer to collections of XML nodes for processing by XSLT), and XSL formatting objects.
Feasibility of GlobalE‐business Projects
Authors: Raven Peter , Fleenor C. Patrick
Published: July 2008

The global imperative calls for e‐businesses to act globally. However, an Internet business must plan and develop appropriate strategies for its global markets. Not all global markets are equally attractive or suitable for e‐business. Several factors are addressed for global e‐businesses to use in assessing potential international markets. A discussion of the different ways in which e‐business has grown in diverse regions provides a framework for understanding specific and regional markets. Finally, the strategies and tactics e‐businesses should consider are discussed. While there continue to be barriers to e‐business in many developing parts of the world, there are also many opportunities both there and especially in the more developed regions. The future for well‐planned e‐businesses using appropriate global strategies appears very bright indeed.
Global Issues
Authors: Gupta Babita
Published: July 2008

The Internet not only is transforming the way business is conducted but also is influencing the social and cultural aspects of our lives and has emerged as another enabling technology in the process of globalization and global business expansion. Although Internet technology has spread across the world at a phenomenal rate, this growth has been uneven across world regions. Recent statistics indicate that North America is the dominant region in electronic commerce, with almost three‐fourths of worldwide electronic commerce being conducted in the United States today. Clearly, then, growth of e‐commerce in a country is impacted by economic, geopolitical, legal, and cultural factors. This chapter looks at the various issues that describe the growth of global electronic commerce across world regions.
HTML
/
XHTML
(Hyper
T
ext Markup Language/Extensible Hyper
T
ext Markup Language)
Authors: Michael Mark
Published: July 2008

The World Wide Web marks its birth at the introduction of the HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and its companion protocol, HTTP. Still the predominant language for publishing documents on the Web, HTML grew quickly in power and importance. Initially, it could merely display text and hyperlinks. In a few years, it could incorporate multimedia, scripts for interactivity, and style definitions for formatting. It came to be looked upon as being primarily concerned with the presentation of content. Overly forgiving browsers encouraged sloppy programming and, in turn, a general lack of logical structure in HTML documents; this limits how documents can be mined and manipulated. Additionally, growing diversity among platforms, applications, and audiences revealed the inability of HTML to adapt.

Enter the Extensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML), the World Wide Web Consortium's plan for continually accommodating new ways of marking up new types of content for rendering on new devices. Major changes already undertaken are enforcement of well‐formedness, separation of content and presentation, and modularization. Of these, the last is perhaps the greatest contributor to the flexibility essential to the continued development of the Web.
Human Resources Management
Authors: Stone Dianna L. , Salas Eduardo , Isenhour Linda C.
Published: July 2008

This chapter reviews the impact of the Internet on several human resources (HR) processes, including recruitment, selection, performance management, compensation, training, and HR planning, and discusses a number of benefits and problems associated with using Web‐based HR systems. First, our review indicates that use of the Internet promises to (a) reduce cycle time for many HR processes, (b) increase the flexibility and effectiveness of these systems, and (c) may provide better service to internal customers (e.g., employees and managers) than traditional HR systems. Second, although the Internet is believed to offer numerous advantages for the HR functions in organizations, we highlight a number of potential problems for organizations using Web‐based systems, including employee perceptions of invasion of privacy, adverse impact, and the depersonalization of many HR processes. Implications for practitioners, as well as directions for future research, are offered.