bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dispersant Effectiveness and Toxicity—An Integrated Approach
Authors: Sterling M.C. , Autenrieth R.L. , Bonner J.S. , Fuller C.B. , Page C.A. , Ojo T. , Ernest A.N.S.
Published: January 2013

An integrated approach to study chemical dispersant effectiveness and dispersed oil toxicity is presented. Conventional lab scale effectiveness tests generally provide a measure of overall dispersant effectiveness. However, chemical dispersion can be viewed as two processes: (1) dispersant-oil slick mixing and (2) oil droplet transport into the water column. Inefficiencies in either process limit the overall dispersant effectiveness. This laboratory study centered on the latter process and was conducted to focus on the impacts of water column hydrodynamics on the resurfacing of dispersed oil droplets. Using a droplet coalescence model (Sterling et al., 2002), the droplet coalescence rates of dispersed crude oil was determined within a range of shear rates. A controlled shear batch reactor was created in which coalescence of dispersed oil droplets were monitored in-situ. Experimental dispersion efficiencies (C/C0) and droplet size distributions were compared to those predicted by Stokes resurfacing. Experimental C/C0 values were lower than that predicted from Stokes resurfacing. Experimental dispersion efficiency values (C/C0) decreased linearly with increasing mean shear rates due to increased coalescence rates. These results suggested that dispersed oil droplet coalescence in the water column can adversely impact overall dispersant efficiency. To avoid high control mortality in toxicity testing, the toxicity exposure chamber was designed with separate compartments for scaled mixing and organism exposure, respectively. Chamber design includes continuous re-circulation between mixing and exposure chamber. A 1-minute exposure compartment residence time was determined from tracer studies indicating virtually identical oil concentrations in the mixing and exposure compartments. In addition, the 96-hour mortality of 14-day oil Menidia beryllina varied from 2% in the no-oil control tests to 87% in the dispersed oil (200 mg/L) tests. These results show the effectiveness of the integrated vessel for the characterization and toxicity testing of oil dispersions.
Use of Surface-Washing Agents During the M/V Genmar Hector Oil Spill
Authors: Thumm Stephen J. , Henry Charlie , Gahn Julie
Published: January 2013

On 14 March 2001, the M/V GENMAR HECTOR was oiled on both the superstructure and hull after a transfer line broke during an unexpected storm event with winds gusting to 70 mph. In addition to the tanker vessel, seven other vessels, as well as floating docks and barges, were oiled at the waterline. The crude oil rapidly weathered to the point that conventional cleanup techniques were ineffective at removing residual oil from the vessels so that they could be released from the port area. Members of the Regional Response Team were convened and the use of National Contingency Plan listed surface-washing agents that had the effect of “lifting and floating” remobilized oil was approved. Using the guidance of the Regional Response Team, a test was conducted to evaluate conventional and chemically-enhanced washing techniques. It was found that pretreatment with PES-51 followed by a high pressure, hot water wash resulted in the desired cleanup level, which was, essentially, the complete removal of oil and oil stain. PES-51 was selected for this application because of its availability and the minimal contact time required before flushing. The cleaning and demobilization of oiled vessels was greatly enhanced by using a surface-washing agent.
Development of a Soil, Surface-Water, and Groundwater Remediation Program for the Accidental Crude-Oil Spill that Occurred on July 16, 2000 at the Petrobras Refinery Refinaria Presidente GetúLio Vargas-Repar, Araucária, Brazil – PR
Authors: Millette D. , Falkiewicz F. , Zamberlan E. , Carvalho F. J. P. de Campos , Neto A. C. B. , Caicedo N. O. L. , Marques David Motta , Linhares M.
Published: January 2013

On July 16, 2000, a crude oil spill occurred at the PETROBRAS refinery Refinaria Presidente Getúlio Vargas-REPAR, located in Araucária, PR, Brazil. A significant quantity of oil was retained within an area known as Ponto 0, between the spill site and Rio Barigüi, contaminating the hanks of a small stream (Arroio Saldanha), the soil adjacent to the stream, and the soil of four small wetlands, over a distance of 2 km. This paper presents an overview of the remediation program for Ponto 0, and draws preliminary conclusions regarding the efficacy of different remediation technologies. The major remediation technologies are: 1) injection and recovery trenches for free-product recovery in the sector adjacent to the spill site; 2) in situ bioremediation along the floodplain of Arroio Saldanha; and 3) a treatment wetland near the discharge of Arroio Saldanha into Rio Barigüi. The trenches appear to have removed most of the free product from the sector adjacent to the spill site. There is preliminary evidence, based on soil monitoring data, for the efficacy of in situ bioremediation, but further data will be required before a firm conclusion can be drawn. The treatment wetland was successful in restoring wetland vegetation (an essential component of this technology), and appears to be capable of removing hydrocarbons from groundwater. Data of the groundwater monitoring program indicates a general decline in TPH concentrations, over the October 2000, August 2001 and April 2002 sampling campaigns. BTEX concentrations are generally below the method detection limit.
A Strategy for Protecting Circulating Seawater Systems from Oil Spills1
Authors: Young David R. , Specht David T. , Ozretich Robert J.
Published: January 2013

A strategy is described for establishing a simple, inexpensive monitoring program for determining approximate levels of petroleum hydrocarbons in ambient water collected near intake structures of circulating seawater systems. The ambient water is obtained from the depth of intake using a submersible pump, which delivers the sample stream to a dockside partitioning chamber that provides instantaneous grab samples for analysis. A common hand-operated fluorometer equipped for measuring the oil content of a fluid was standardized using a locally-obtained No. 2 marine diesel fuel; oil concentrations in water samples were quantified as Marine Diesel Equivalents (MDE) in parts-per-billion. Surveys conducted along the central Oregon coast following the March 1999 beaching of the drifting freighter New Carissa off Alsea Bay were conducted in that bay, and in Yaquina Bay about 20 km to the north. No evidence of oil contamination from the beached ship was found. The highest MDE levels occurred within the estuaries, especially in an anchorage for fishing vessels in Yaquina Bay. Higher levels of MDE also were measured upstream of this anchorage in February 2001, following a highway spill of No. 6 heavy fuel from a tank truck crash. Thus, this technique appears to be useful for monitoring oil levels in ambient water near seawater intake structures, and to provide a rational basis for temporarily closing down the circulating seawater system after a local oil spill.
Using a New Dispersed Oil Model to Support Ecological Risk Assessment
Authors: Mearns Alan , Watabayashi Glen , O'Connor Caitlin
Published: January 2013

A new model is being used to support dispersant Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) workshops. User-driven output includes trajectory maps for both chemically dispersed and undispersed oil, and concentration isopleths reported by depth and over time. To help make toxicological sense of the output, oil concentration isopleths were nominally fixed at concentrations and exposure times of concern developed by consensus during past ERA workshops. Two No. 6 fuel spill scenarios, each with alternative outcomes (not dispersed vs 80% dispersed) were developed, one in open ocean water (10,000 bbls spill), and the other in an estuary (2000 bbls spill). Plume epicenter maximum dispersed oil concentrations peaked in the range of 10–20 ppm but decreased within 24 hours to 1–2 ppm or less. Average concentrations in the most contaminated portions of the dispersion area never exceeded 3 ppm in either scenario. Plankton in a small (< 25%) fraction of the open ocean plume were at moderate risk at 24 hours. These effects must be compared to those of the non-dispersion alternative, which could impact wildlife and shorelines.
Recovery of Sunken and Buried Oil in Coastal Water During the Erika Spill
Authors: Guerroué Pascale Le , Cariou Gérard , Poupon Emmanuelle , Xavier Merlin François
Published: January 2013

The Erika spilled a very high density, high PAH content persistent heavy fuel oil that impacted over 400 kms of France's West Brittany coastline resulting in a protracted period of shoreline cleanup. One of the sites oiled by the HFO was Pen Bron, located seaward of the Croisic salt marshes. This laarge and very environmentally sensitive area with extensive salt pans and bivalve production was polluted by a significant spill of sunken oil buried in the sediment. In view of the risk to local resources and amenities, operations were undertaken to remedy the sunken oil spill: the pollution was mapped and cleanup techniques studied to define the optimum technique for removing the oil that sank and was buried in an area subject to strong tidal currents. Site restoration was conducted in two stages:Sediment in the most polluted area (700 m2) was mobilized by a mechanical shovel dredge mounted on a barge and the sediment was sent to a refinery to be disposed of along with waste from other locations.Sediment from the surrounding area (10 000 m2) was removed by a pump dredger; pumping the sediment - oil - water mixture ashore to a lagoon where the oil was removed from the sediment by floatation and skimmed while the water was filtered before being released. The residual oil concentration in the sand was monitored by chemical analysis to decide on how to dispose of it best: replacing it on site or treating it as a specific waste.

This operation involved over 5,500 tonnes of sediment. Environmental impact was minimised as 85% of the sediment was reinstated safely on site, thus avoiding the risk of shoreline erosion which could have happened in the event of excessive sediment removal.
Chemical Characterization of Environmental Samples after Oil Spill in Iguassu River, Parana, Brazil, July/2000
Authors: Meniconi Maria de Fátima Guadalupe , Gabardo Irene Terezinha , Barbanti Silvana Maria , Caicedo Nelson Luna
Published: January 2013

On July 16, 2000, a rupture of a pipeline occurred in the Scraper area of the PETROBRAS refinery located in Araucaria, in the state of Parana, south of Brazil. This resulted in the spill of approximately 4,000m3 (1,060,000 gallons) of a crude oil (Cusiana − 41°API). The spilled oil spread over part of the refinery area, affecting the wetlands that are crossed by the Arroio Saldanha creek before discharging into the Barigui River, which is a tributary of Iguassu River. This entire area crossed by the creek is referred to as Point Zero (PO). This paper presents the chemical data of 2 monitoring programs: the Barigui, Iguassu and Arroio Saldanha Rivers, and the groundwater of Point Zero. The programs were carried out in 2 phases: for 3 months immediately after the spill and 1 year later. They included the analyses of BTEX, TPH, PAH, n-alkanes, UCM and biomarkers for the water and sediment samples. The rivers program encompassed 13 stations along Barigui and Iguassu Rivers and 1 station at Arroio Saldanha Creek. The results in water and sediments demonstrated the efficiency of the recovering of the spilled oil from the water. That suggested that the impact of the spill on the Barigui and Iguassu Rivers was of a short duration after the spill. On the other hand, the hydrocarbon concentration data for Arroio Saldanha Creek during the 3 months after the spill revealed high levels of hydrocarbon contamination, which corroborated the visual inspection. The groundwater monitoring program in the terrestrial area of Point Zero was initiated shortly after the spill. The groundwater program included about 80 monitoring wells (piezometers) installed, along the Arroio Saldanha Creek and in the wetlands crossed by the creek. It could be observed that BTEX and TPH groundwater concentrations decreased significantly after one year.
Federal On-Scene Coordinator's Investigative Role
Authors: Stieb Captain Jeffrey D.
Published: January 2013

In the United States, the Coast Guard Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) in the role as Captain of the Port (COTP) is charged with investigating marine casualties resulting in oil spills in the coastal zone.2 The FOSC is in the challenging position of working with the responsible party as a member of the Unified Command, while simultaneously investigating the incident. Complicating the FOSC's balancing act is the likelihood that other federal, state, and local agencies will have an interest in the investigation. The parties conducting investigations (Department of Justice, National Transportation Safety Board, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Coast Guard Investigative Service, Environmental Protection Agency investigators, and state and local investigators) report to their own senior officials and are not under the direction and control of the FOSC. This article will discuss, from a Coast Guard officer's perspective, the FOSC's conflicting roles as a member of the Unified Command working closely in cooperation with the responsible party to mitigate the incident, and as a federal officer supervising at least one of the investigations. The article will describe the dynamics of significant oil spill investigations and provide recommendations on how investigative agencies should work together to conduct thorough investigations while minimizing the impact on the Unified Command's goal of working cooperatively to mitigate the effects of the spill.
Responding to Oil Spills in Louisiana's Coastal Floating Marshes: Ecology, Oil Impact, and Response Alternatives
Authors: Henry Charlie , Sasser Charles E. , Holm Guerry O. , Lynn Kevin , Brolin John , Bergeron Pat , Isham Don
Published: January 2013

Freshwater marshes cover 4000 square kilometers of the Louisiana coastal zone and are the most abundant marsh habitat type. Many of these marshes actually float as organic mats on underlying water. Some estimates suggest as much as 70% of Louisiana's coastal freshwater marsh are of the floating variety. The slow flow of water characteristic of these environments generally transports very little sediment. As a result, the marsh substrate is composed of primarily live and dead organic matter (peat formation) rather than mineral sediments. Since floating marshes are structurally different than intertidal marsh habitats, many traditional oil spill response options are ineffective or inappropriate. Access to the marsh is often limited since there is no open water ingress and the marsh structure cannot support the weight of equipment. Oil spill response options are further complicated when the source of the oil is a pipeline leak located below the floating marsh mat; spilled oil is free to travel at the interface of the underlying water and mat. Protection booming is impossible. Oil impacts often result in the death of all the living plants that are integral to the formation and sustainability of the habitat. This paper reports on two oil spills in a floating marsh near Paradis, Louisiana that occurred eight years apart. Both spills were spatially close to each other, which provided an excellent comparison for assessing potential long-term impact from oil spills in floating marshes. During both oil spill responses, unique response techniques were developed to recover spilled oil and enhance marsh recovery. An effective technique was to rake away and remove the dead oil-contaminated surface plant debris from the site and employ sorbent recovery. Lessons learned from these responses were used to develop mitigation guidance for future responses.
Recovery of Submerged oil from an Alaska Lake
Authors: Kane Don A.
Published: January 2013

On November 26, 1997, the M/V Kuroshima was anchored near Unalaska, Alaska when extreme weather conditions dislodged it from its anchorage. Winds exceeding 90 miles per hour and waves exceeding 25 feet forced the vessel onto rocks, where its hull was punctured. Approximately 39,000 gallons of heavy fuel oil (IFO 380) were discharged into marine waters, onto adjacent shorelines, into a creek, and into Summer Bay Lake. Shoreline cleanup was implemented immediately following the spill, but was suspended until spring due to harsh weather conditions, safety concerns, and inefficient cleanup operations. Because the oil had a very high viscosity, was stranded high on the shoreline and winter had set in, the oil did not present an immediate environmental or human health threat. It was suspected that some of the discharged oil mixed with sand as it moved through the surf zone and sank when it entered the lake. During the winter, state and federal agencies and the responsible party developed a plan to survey the lake and creek for submerged oil. In early spring, divers conducted visual surveys of the lake bottom along 6.5 miles of transect to locate submerged oil. Transect locations were identified using a Differential Global Positioning System and the bottom was videotaped. A survey approach similar to that used to conduct a shoreline cleanup assessment was employed to characterize the lake bottom and the nature and spatial extent of the submerged oil. An oil recovery plan and cleanup criteria were developed and implemented. This case study describes the approach and technology utilized to survey for submerged oil and presents the survey findings and oil recovery and disposal methods employed. The challenges presented by the remote location, difficult working conditions, and natural resource concerns are also discussed.
Best Practices on Performing a Tactical Port Security Risk Assessment Using Risk-Based Decision-Making1
Authors: Bailey Robert E. , O'Neil Chris T.
Published: January 2013

In the wake of September 11, 2001, Captains of the Port (COTPs) nationwide set into motion various security measures to protect potential targets (referred to as an “asset” throughout this paper) located in, on or near navigable waterways. However, the way in which these measures were carried out and the degree to which they were enforced were vastly different from port to port and raised much speculation in the U.S. maritime community over what the security landscape of the future would look like. Over one year later, maritime security practices remain a widely debated issue and one that will continue to challenge COTPs to answer the constantly looming questions of, “what is an adequate level of security for my port?,” “what level of security can I maintain at predefined Maritime Security (MARSEC) Conditions?” (USCG, 2002) and “how can I defend my assertions?” It is widely agreed in maritime security circles that concepts such as MARSEC Conditions and Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) (USCG, 2002) are essential components of the port security posture of the 21st century, but most of this community will concede that they do not have a clear cut strategy on how to bridge the gap between transforming these lofty concepts into clearly defined, tactically sound and implementable security solutions. The purpose of this paper is to describe such a bridge, or a port security risk assessment methodology if you will, that is based on factual data that is verified by Coast Guard personnel and that synthesizes security concepts and Risk-Based Decision-Making (RBDM) methodologies (USCG, 2001) into systematic assessment phases that have been developed and tested by U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Office (MSO) St. Louis, Missouri. Moreover, it describes how the analysis of the data gained from the assessment phases provided the COTP St. Louis with tangible and accurate data results that can now be used by Port Security Committees (PSCs) (USCG, 2002) as a foundation for tactical planning and the development of Port Security Plans (PSPs) (USCG, 2002). These PSPs meet the guidelines established in the U.S. Coast Guard's Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular (NVIC) 9–02 entitled, “Guidelines for Port Security Committees, and Port Security Plans Required for U.S. Ports.” Once proven in broad applications, this tool can be consistently implemented by COTPs nationwide providing them with detailed port risk characterizations. Armed with this tactical analysis, COTPs can then accurately prioritize high-risk assets and maximize the use of PSC resources to stem potential terrorist threats or attacks.
Oil Spill Response Centers in Brazil – a New Experience
Authors: Arroio Luiz Antônio , Wegner Isaac Rafael , da Cruz Flavio Torres
Published: January 2013

It has been noticed, in the latest Brazilian oil spill emergencies, that the time of arrival of equipaments in the emergency site, due to some differents facts (Brazilian dimensions, transport infrastructure, Customes etc) was of 48–60 hours. Furthermore, one may notice that all the Brazilian oil spill response equipment was not enough for Tier 2 and 3 emergencies. Petrobras has decided to install a total of nine Oil Spill Response Centers, strategically located throughout Brazil, thus increasing its response capacity for potential oil spills. Each of the Centers is equipped with special barges, oil recovery boats, skimmers, sorbents, containment and sorbent booms. Equipments and logistic support can be rapidly dispatched to any area in Brazil where an emergency might occur. The CDAs operate with about 250 trained technicians, available 24 hours per day. This provides regularly trained skills, together with Petrobras technicians and the local communities, in order to guarantee readiness in the event of a spill. Some data about how and where the Centers have been working after two years operation are now shown. In fact, the CDAs have been participating in a lot of response calls, although most of them are inspections for prevention, supporting the Petrobras’ units operations, other companies’ emergencies and ocasional oil spills. However, it should be noted that Brazil has more capacity to face oil-related emergencies than before.
The Importance of Distinguishing Dissolved-Versus Oil-Droplet Phases in Assessing the Fate, Transport, and Toxic Effects of Marine Oil Pollution1
Authors: Payne James R. , Driskell William B.
Published: January 2013

For years, it has been known that oil released in seawater partitions into dissolved and oil-droplet phases; however, there has been little effort to discriminate between the phases in oil spill Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) programs. In 1999, portable field equipment was built for this task. By filtering 3.5 L volumes of seawater at the time of collection, method detection limits are improved and it is possible to discriminate between the phases, thereby improving understanding of oil fate and transport processes and providing more accurate toxicological assessments. First utilized in response to the M/V New Carissa oil spill at Coos Bay, Oregon, this approach proved highly successful in discriminating the phase signatures. The resulting data demonstrated that while the dissolved-phase signal appeared in places such as crab tissue and interstitial water on an otherwise clean beach, the oil-droplet phase appeared in tissues of filter-feeding Coos Bay mussels and oysters. In Port Valdez, Alaska, the portable sampler was used to assess the phase signatures in effluent from the Ballast Water Treatment Facility (BWTF) at the Alyeska Marine Terminal. The signatures were then used to reveal differential seasonal uptake in mussels at several sites within the port. During the winter, when the water column is unstratified, both dissolved- and oil-droplet phase contaminants from the BWTF diffuser can reach the upper water column, where they are transported as a surface microlayer by winds and surface currents throughout much the fjord. In the late spring, summer, and fall, when the water column is highly stratified, only the dissolved-phase components are observed in the mussels along the shoreline, as the oil droplets are preferentially trapped below the thermocline. These findings have compelled a reassessment of monitoring methods for oil spill NRDA efforts, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitting, and general environmental monitoring.
Developing Geographic Response Strategies: A Model Approach
Authors: Mutter Douglas L , Robertson Tim , De Cola Elise , Munger Mike , Gardner Dale
Published: January 2013

A critical element of an oil-discharge/hazardous-substance-release contingency plan is its utility in guiding protection of priority sensitive areas following a discharge or release. This paper discusses a cooperative effort to develop such a tool, the Geographic Response Strategy (GRS), that may be used by other regions in their own contingency plans. A GRS combines local knowledge of sensitive areas with proven operations and logistics into a document with specific guidance for rapid response that can be used in the field. A GRS includes a site map, photograph, and table of associated information describing the resources to protect, operational tactics to carry out the protection, equipment and personnel needs, and site access. Sites are selected based on their environmental sensitivity, the risk of a discharge/release, and the ability to protect the site. Natural resource trustee agencies make preliminary site selections. After consideration of public comments, a GRS Work Group selects the GRS sites. An Operations/Tactics Subgroup designs the response strategy using basic response tactics. GRSs are field tested, when possible, to verify operational feasibility and to ensure that proposed response actions do not inadvertently harm sensitive resources. Completed GRSs for a subarea are compiled into an addendum to the appropriate federal/state subarea contingency plan. The collaborative process to create GRSs is a recent development in Alaska. Concepts framed at a 1998 workshop in Anchorage coalesced early work on site-specific response plans into a common approach that was accepted by the Alaska Regional Response Team. Since 1999, over 145 site-specific GRSs have been prepared for high-risk sensitive areas by work groups consisting of representatives of oil industry; spill response organizations; federal, state, and local agencies; tribal entities; and citizens groups. The GRS process helps stakeholders and the public understand what actions may be feasible during a response.
Controlling Oil Spills in Fast Currents with the Flow∼Diverter
Authors: Coe Tom , Mackey Jim , Marine Hyde
Published: January 2013

Sixty nine percent (645 million tons annually) of the oil transported in United States waters is on waterways where currents routinely exceed one knot. Conventional skimmers and booms lose their effectiveness when current speeds exceed 1 knot. The US Coast Guard recognized that this threat could not be easily controlled, and so they initiated a project that led to the successful development of a novel spill control device, the Oil Spill Flow~Diverter. The Flow~Diverter system is effective at diverting and converging oil at speeds up to 5+ knots. In more moderate currents it can also be used in place of an anchor, towboat or outrigger arm to deploy and position the outboard end of a deflection boom. It may also have application to dispersant and in-situ burn operations. The diverter is a unique stable catamaran design that consists of two hulls each comprised of symmetrical foils with integral buoyancy. The foils are pinned to a rigid connecting structure such that they can pivot but always remain parallel to each other. Two or more diverter catamarans can be connected together with cables to increase the total sweep width of the system. Two control lines are anchored to shore or secured to a boat and are used to deploy the system by adjusting the foils’ angle to the oncoming water. With the control lines securely anchored, the system is launched into the current and “flies out” into a stable operating position. It remains in equilibrium, balanced by the hydrodynamic lift forces of the passing water and the tension in the lines. The foils create a strong transverse surface current downstream to achieve the desired diversion and consolidation affect on floating oil. Unlike most skimmers and deflection boom, the diverters are not adversely affected as currents increase. The oil is diverted by the same lateral distance irrespective of the current or speed of advance. This paper presents the development of the Flow~Diverter prototype, its testing and operational evaluations. Several applications of the diverter technology in various response tactics are discussed. Use of the Diverter during a recent US Coast Guard Spill Exercise on the Ohio River is also presented. Production model enhancements are presented that will enhance performance in 7+ knot currents and shallow water applications.
Comparing Oil Spill Rates Using Different Data Sources1
Authors: Stalcup Dana , Yoshioka Gary , Black Elizabeth , Carpenter Madelyn
Published: January 2013

Different sources of data on past oil spill incidents contain different kinds of information about each incident and different degrees of accuracy. The appropriate data can be used to develop spill statistics and spill rate relationships. This paper examines data on reported oil spills that have occurred in the United States. Characteristics studied include the number of spills, spill sizes, spill sources, and the types of oil spilled. Studying characteristics of past spills can help government and industry to determine the scope of oil spill prevention policies and response planning methods. The main data sources used for this paper include the Oil Spill Intelligence Report's International Oil Spill Statistics annual summaries and the National Response Center online database. This report provides a discussion of the accuracy of information from sources of oil spill data, to help support the development of spill statistics and spill rate relationships.
Developing an International Oil Spill Policy Strategy for the U.S.
Authors: Adams Michael
Published: January 2013

As called for under the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC), “Parties to the OPRC convention are required to establish measures for dealing with pollution incidents, either nationally or in co-operation with other countries.” As a signatory to OPRC the U.S. Government (USG) has pledged to assist other countries in the development of their own oil spill response capabilities and while USG has many agreements that meet the guidelines of assisting other countries, there is no formal engagement strategy for developing further agreements, no agency championing this effort, and there are many still requiring assistance. However, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) is uniquely positioned to perform the role of drafting an engagement strategy and working with the global community to assist those countries that have yet to develop an adequate oil spill response system of their own due to the lack of resources, expertise or both. There are many hurdles to enabling USCG to assume the OPRC assistance banner that have been previously addressed (Adams, IOSC 2001), which this paper will not seek to readdress. However, if USG does decide to move forward with an integrated policy there remains the need to develop an adequate engagement strategy. This strategy is necessary to ensure the limited resources available for foreign assistance are expended in the most cost effective, ethical and responsible manner possible. There are three alternative strategies I will analyze in an effort to determine the best suited for implementation of this policy. These three strategies are based primarily on 1) environmental need, 2) geographical proximity, and 3) political/economic interests. The goal of this strategy is to effectively implement the oil spill assistance policy alluded to previously in support of the U.S.'s pledge under OPRC. This paper will analyze the success of each strategy making a recommendation on which one USG should pursue.
Histopathology as an Approach to Evaluate the Effect of an Oil Spill on Fishes of the Arroio Saldanha and Rio Iguaçu (Brazil)
Authors: Boeger Walter A. , Guimarães Ana Tereza Bittencourt , Romão Silvia , Ostrensky Antonio , Zamberlan Ernani , Falkiewicz Fernando Henrique
Published: January 2013

In July of 2000, an accident occurred at the Presidente Getúlio Vargas Refinery (REPAR), located in the Municipality of Araucaria, Southern Brazil which involved the spilling of about 4 million liters (25,160 barrels) of crude oil. This was considered the largest oil spill in the history of Brazil. Despite of the use of containment barriers, the oil slick reached a small creek (Arroio Saldanha) and, further downstream, two important rivers in the region (Rio Barigüi and Rio Iguaçu). In this stretch, the Rio Iguaçu and the Rio Barigui are highly polluted, having crossed Curitiba, a city that has 2+ million inhabitants, and several industrial areas. The histopathological study of the gills and liver of 2 species of fishes was used to evaluate the impact of the oil on the fish fauna in the affected rivers. The choice of fish species reflects their year-around availability and their predicted roles in the ecosystem. Astyanax sp. is mainly pelagic and Corydoras paleatus is demersal; these fish species should, therefore, indicate the environmental health of these two compartments of the streams. The spatial and temporal distribution of histological alterations was analyzed from up to 10 specimens of each species of fish from collections made in 5 sites. A relative impact index (Ri) was determined by assigning a weight to the extent of each pathology observed in sections of each organ/fish (ii = 1 or 2, for moderate or severe pathologies, respectively). The Ri of each organ and fish specimen was calculated as the average impact of the observed histological injuries using the formula: Ri = Σii/n. Variations of the gill and liver Ri suggest a relative regeneration of the environmental health of the impacted streams. A better understanding of the impact caused to the aquatic system by the oil spill is greatly hindered by the presence of other persistent or sporadic events of environmental aggression to which these streams are submitted.
Habitat Recovery in an Oil-Contaminated Salt Marsh Following Biorestoration Treatments
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Wohlgeschaffen Gary , Cobanli Susan E. , Venosa Albert D. , Suidan Makram T. , Garcia-Blanco Susana , Greer Charles W. , Tremblay Gilles H. , Doe Kenneth G.
Published: January 2013

Wetlands are among the most sensitive of habitats to oil spills. A field experiment was conducted on a salt marsh in Atlantic Canada to determine the significance of bioremediation by nutrient enrichment in enhancing wetland restoration. Six experimental treatments were monitored: (1) unoiled control (2) unoiled control + nutrients, (3) oil with no treatment (natural attenuation), (4) oil + nutrients, (5) oil + nutrients with plants cut back, (6) oil + nutrients with disking (tilling) to enrich oxygen penetration. Remediation success was quantified by determining changes in the composition and concentration of the residual oil, plant recovery and reduction in sediment toxicity. The experimental results advocate natural attenuation as the clean-up strategy for the ecotype under study. Within the untreated plots, significant recovery of the predominant plant species within the marsh (Spartina alterniflora) was observed after 20 weeks and approximately 90% of the resolved n-alkanes and 70% of the parent and alkyl-substituted polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were biodegraded.
A Trajectory Analysis Planner for Puget Sound, Washington1
Authors: Mora David G.
Published: January 2013

Washington State's Puget Sound is perhaps the Pacific Northwest's most precious resource, a resource likely to be seriously damaged should a major spill event occur. For response planners to protect Puget Sound from oil spills it is important to know: 1) Where spills will likely go; 2) How much time will there be to respond; 3) How large will impacts likely be; 4) How much sensitive shoreline will likely be impacted; 5) How many response resources will likely be needed to protect sensitive areas; and 6) Where will spills likely come from that threaten particular sensitive areas? As discussed in previous papers, NOAA's Trajectory Analysis Planner (TAP) can be used to help answer these questions (Hall et al, 2001). In 2000–2002 the Washington State Department of Ecology in conjunction with NOAA developed a Trajectory Analysis Planner for Puget Sound Washington, the most comprehensive TAP produced to date. The Puget Sound TAP shows that with sufficient effort this approach can be used over sizable geographic areas. This paper briefly reviews the concept of TAP, what is behind the Puget Sound TAP, and how the Puget Sound TAP can help answer important planning questions.
DEVELOPMENT OF A DYNAMIC MODELING TOOL FOR OILED WILDLIFE FACILITY DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATIONS
Authors: Ziccardi Michael H. , Campbell Susan M.
Published: January 2013

The planning and construction of oiled wildlife facilities can be a daunting task both before and during oil spill responses. The understanding of the general activities involved in such work, in combination with an appreciation for the infrastructure necessary to complete these activities, is necessary in order to develop a care center able to provide adequate care for impacted animals. To address this need, this paper reviews the overall flow of oiled animals through a spill center, and details the requirements (in terms of space and utilities) of each of the defined areas in a facility. It also presents a recently-created dynamic modeling tool designed to better plan and establish such facilities, and tests this model by presenting the results of three separate scenarios where changes to care protocols and available resources were included to test how such alterations impact the overall success of an oiled wildlife response.
PHYTOTECHNOLOGY APPLIED TO A SEVERELY OILED SHORELINE
Authors: Whelan Ann , Rock Steven
Published: January 2013

Northwest Indiana has been the home of oil refining since 1890. Historic practices of dumping waste oil into the ground, releases from aged and/or abandonned infrastructure, and reoiling from groundwater, and oil sediments have created a shoreline comprised of 15–35% oil. Conventional wisdom has been that oil can be neither bioremediated nor phytoremediated if the oil exceeds 8%.

This three year study was conducted in both the green house and the field. Trees, grasses and tuberous plants were investigated to determine if any of them would grow, if they would stay alive and if they actually were able to degrade oil.

The field study determined that plants could survive living in this environment, although certain cultivars as well as certain species performed much better than others. We chose the strongest cultivars and planted larger sections with them in the second year. We were able to show that biological activity in the soil was augmented by between 2–5 orders of magnitude. We were also able to show similar biological activity at the waters edge in the rhizosphere of native, naturally occuring tuberous plants.

The green house portion of the study allowed us to compare the oil degradation rates of the different plants and trees.

In the third year, we have a mixed planting to simulate a more natural habitat. This mixed planting scheme also seeks to use the most appropriate plants in order to treat the oil at multiple interfaces: the top foot of soil with grasses, the deeper soil and groundwater with trees, and the water's edge with tuberous plants.

This approach, although more time-consuming, is substantially less expensive than tradiational means of oil removal. It provides habitat to the birds and animals already using the area. It rapidly creates a barrier of plant litter, and creates soil thereby buffering wildlife from casual oil contamination.
SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION AND CONTAMINATION LEVELS OF TOTAL PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT AT ALANG[-]SOSIYA SHIP SCRAPPING YARD, GULF OF CAMBAY, INDIA
Authors: Reddy M. Srinivasa , Basha Shaik , Joshi H. V. , Ramachandraiah G.
Published: January 2013

The present study assesses the distribution and contamination levels of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHCs) in surface seawaters during three successive seasons, (summer, monsoon and winter), and polyeyelie aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in intertidal sediments along the worlds largest Alang-Sosiya ship-scrapping yard. The pollution levels at this coast are evaluated and compared with those at one reference station (Mahuva, 60 km away from this yard towards south) in this region and similar ship scrapping yards in Asia. The concentrations of TPHCs in seawater were high in winter season followed by summer and monsoon which were relatively, much higher, about six times in winter and five times in summer/monsoon as compared to the reference station at Mahuva. The TPHCs concentrations in the coastal waters of Alang-Sosiya region are nearly 10–100 times higher on compared with other regions. The levels of PAHs found in the Alang-Sosiya sediments are between four and nine times higher than these prescribed levels by OSPAR commission. The overall levels of PAHs show the low content in Alang-Sosiya compared to values reported from Chang Jiang in China while the concentrations were nearly three times higher than Aliaga in Turkey. The relationships between the content of PAHs and %TOM (total organic matter) in sediments are discussed.
EXAMINING THE FATE OF EMULSION BREAKERS USED FOR DECANTING1
Authors: Buist Ian , Lewis Alun , Guarino Allan , Mullin Joe
Published: January 2013

Skimmers operating in waves often recover a large amount of water, both in the form of water-in-oil emulsions and free water. Recovered water dramatically reduces the temporary storage capacity available for oily fluids offshore. The addition of chemical emulsion breakers to the recovery system has been shown to increase the amount of water that can be quickly decanted when recovering emulsions. A significant potential impediment to the application of emulsion breakers to extend temporary storage capacity is the ultimate fate of the emulsion breaking chemical(s). If they end up in the separated water, they will be discharged into the marine environment when the water is decanted.

The objective of this study was to research the partitioning of emulsion breakers injected into an oil spill recovery system at both lab-scale and mid-scale, at Ohmsett. The experiments were designed to simulate the conditions in an offshore oil spill recovery operation. The ability of emulsion breaker addition to reduce water contents of the recovered fluid and the effects of demulsifier addition of the oil content of decanted water were also assessed.

The formation of micelles by the surfactants in the water at high concentrations and the resulting limitations of the analytical technique used to measure high concentrations of the demulsifiers in the decanted water make definitive, quantitative conclusions about the partitioning of the demulsifier between oily and water phases impossible. The following general conclusions could be made:A large fraction of the demulsifier injected into the recovered fluid stream appears to end up in the decanted water.The concentrations of demulsifier in the decanted water are well in excess of 100 ppm and could be as high as 1000's of ppm.

The use of a demulsifier injected into a recovery system, combined with decanting, substantially reduced the volume of water in temporary storage tanks and the water content of emulsions for disposal/recycling. The efficacy of the demulsifier was a strong function of free water content: if the free water content exceeded approximately 55%, the effect of the surfactant was substantially reduced. The degree of emulsion breaking increased with increasing mixing energy applied to the fluid. Increasing the flow rate (and hence turbulence level) and increasing the length of the flow path both resulted in increased emulsion breaking. Primary break occurred in only a few minutes: the application of demulsifier did not appear to affect the time required compared to previous tests without demulsifiers. The results indicated that the use of a demulsifier increased oil droplet concentrations in the decanted water by approximately a factor of two compared to similar tests without demulsifier.
PAHS AND OTHER CONTAMINANTS IN EFFLUENTS FROM ARTIFICIALLY WEATHERED OIL ON GRAVEL
Authors: Pearson Walter H.
Published: January 2013

Several recent studies report that low parts per billion (ppb) concentrations of petroleum polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are toxic to marine fish embryos and that crude oil toxicity increases as it weathers. Such claims for Pacific herring embyros derive from two experiments by Carls et al. (1999) in which herring eggs were exposed to seawater passed through gravel coated with artificially weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil. The experiments differed in the extent of weathering of the oil on gravel. Carls et al. reported that developmental abnormalities in herring embryos occur during chronic exposure to PAH levels as low as 0.4 ppb in seawater passed through the oiled gravel. Earlier studies had shown that effects are observed at low PAH levels only when oil droplets or films adhered to the herring eggs. To better understand Carls et al. experiments, we examined effluent from a gravel bed prepared following Carls et al. and report that ammonia, sulfides, and oil droplets were present in the effluent from oiled gravel generators that were shut down between two 16-day trials (as was done by Carls et al.). Oil droplets (0.5 to 1 mm) were intermittently present in effluent from oiled gravel generators even when the flow was continuous. Two hours after restarting flow, low dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and sulfides were present in the generators and in the effluent. Droplets, ammonia, and sulfides all induce developmental abnormalities of the types seen by Carls et al. The presence of ammonia and sulfide in the effluent after shutdown is a laboratory artifact and constitutes clear evidence of anaerobic biodegradation of the oil on gravel. Evidence of anaerobic biodegradation suggests that the exposure regime of Carls et al. did not effectively simulate field conditions. Our results demonstrate that the presence of confounding toxicants in the Carls et al. experiments cannot be dismissed. There is no basis to conclude that aqueous exposure to low ppb PAH levels affects herring eggs or that weathering increases oil toxicity to fish eggs without additional experiments that specifically account for the potential confounding factors and all chemicals in effluents from oiled gravel columns.