bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Direct Reference and Dancing Qualia
Authors: Hawthorne John
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that there is a tension in the semantic views held by certain antiphysicalists. These philosophers accept Fregean arguments against direct-reference theories of ordinary proper names but maintain that phenomenal concepts refer directly. Against this semantic package, it is argued that the thought experiments that motivate a sense-reference distinction for ordinary proper names — roughly, Hesperus-Phosphorus stories — can be replicated at the level of direct phenomenal concepts. (A Hesperus-Phosphorus story is one in which one rationally believes both that object a has a property P and that object b lacks P, even though a = b.)
Equilibrium
Authors: Binmore Ken
Published: February 2007

After demolishing metaphysical notions of moral behavior, John Mackie's Inventing Right and Wrong argues that the way forward is through the study of anthropology and game theory. This chapter begins a review of the basic ideas of game theory by explaining both the rational and the evolutionary interpretation of Nash equilibria in various games, including the Prisoners' Dilemma, the Stag Hunt Game, the Ultimatum Game, the Centipede Game, and the Nash Demand Game.
Duty
Authors: Binmore Ken
Published: February 2007

Metaphysical moral theories can be loosely be divided into theories of the Good or Right. Naturalistic theories can be said to be theories of the seemly — what is appropriate in a particular place and time. This chapter explains how rights and duties can fit within a theory of the seemly. You have a right to do something if you do not have a duty not to do it. You have a duty to do something if you would otherwise diverge from equilibrium play in the social contract currently operated by your society.
Innateness and (Bayesian) Visual Perception
Authors: Scholl Brian J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter explores a way in which visual processing may involve innate constraints and attempts to show how such processing overcomes one enduring challenge to nativism. In particular, many challenges to nativist theories in other areas of cognitive psychology (e.g., ‘theory of mind’, infant cognition) have focused on the later development of such abilities, and have argued that such development is in conflict with innate origins (since those origins would have to be somehow changed or overwritten). Innateness, in these contexts, is seen as antidevelopmental, associated instead with static processes and principles. In contrast, certain perceptual models demonstrate how the very same mental processes can both be innately specified and yet develop richly in response to experience with the environment. This process is entirely unmysterious, as shown in certain formal theories of visual perception, including those that appeal to spontaneous endogenous stimulation and those based on Bayesian inference.
Modularity and Relevance
Authors: Sperber Dan
Published: February 2007

This chapter addresses the flexibility problem for massive modularity. It argues that massively modular architectures exhibit flexibility largely as a result of context-sensitive competition between modules for the allocation of cognitive resources. Thus, it is the cognitive system as a whole that exhibits flexibility, rather than any particular subsystem within it.
Language and the Development of Spatial Reasoning
Authors: Shusterman Anna , Spelke Elizabeth
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that human and animal minds indeed depend on a collection of domain-specific, task-specific, and encapsulated cognitive systems: on a set of cognitive ‘modules’ in Fodor's sense. It also argues that human and animal minds are endowed with domain-general, central systems that orchestrate the information delivered by core knowledge systems. The chapter begins by reviewing the literature on spatial reorientation in animals and in young children, arguing that spatial reorientation bears the hallmarks of core knowledge and of modularity. It then considers studies of older children and adults, arguing that human spatial representations change qualitatively over development and show capacities not found in any other species. Finally, it presents two new experiments that investigate the role of emerging spatial language in uniquely human navigation performance.
The Complexity of Cognition
Authors: Samuels Richard
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the scope and limits of the tractability argument. It argues for two claims. First, that when explored with appropriate care and attention, it becomes clear that the argument provides no good reason to prefer massive modularity to the more traditional rationalist alternative. Second, while it is denied that tractability considerations support massive modularity per se, this does not mean that they show nothing whatsoever. Careful analysis of tractability considerations suggests a range of characteristics that any plausible version of psychological rationalism is likely to possess. The chapter proceeds as follows: Section 1 outlines and clarifies the general form of the tractability argument. Section 2 explains how massive modularity is supposed to resolve intractability worries. Sections 3 to 7 highlight the deficiencies of the main extant arguments for claiming that nonmodular mechanisms are intractable. Section 8 concludes by sketching some of the general characteristics that a plausible rationalist alternative to massive modularity — one capable of subserving tractable cognitive processes — is likely to possess.
Resolving the Debate on Innate Ideas
Authors: Tooby John , Barrett H. Clark
Published: February 2007

This chapter addresses the question of why many cognitive and behavioural scientists still fail to recognize the truth of nativism despite the power of poverty of stimulus arguments. It argues that this is primarily because the domains in which these arguments have hitherto been applied, for example, language or naive physics, are all ones in which the knowledge that children acquire is objectively present in their environment. Thus, the possibility always remains open that children could somehow be acquiring this knowledge from the environment through general learning. In the case of motivation, however, this last bastion of resistance is unavailable, since desires do not serve to represent information that is already present in the environment. The closest thing to a knockdown argument for nativism can therefore be developed in respect of innate motivational systems.
Innateness and Moral Psychology
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that the recent attempts to use Chomsky-style arguments in support of innate moral knowledge are uniformly unconvincing. The chapter proceeds as follows: Section 1 sets out the basic form of the central argument in the Chomskian arsenal — the poverty of the stimulus (POS) argument, as well as the conclusions about domain specificity and innate propositional knowledge that are supposed to follow. Section 2 distinguishes three hypotheses about innateness and morality: rule nativism, moral principle nativism, and moral judgment nativism. Sections 3–5 consider each of these hypotheses. It is argued that while there is some reason to favour rule nativism, the arguments that moral principles and moral judgment derive from innate moral knowledge don't work. The capacity for moral judgment is better explained by appeal to innate affective systems rather than innate moral knowledge. In the final section, it is argued that the role of such affective mechanisms in structuring the mind complicates the standard picture about poverty of the stimulus arguments and nativism. For the affective mechanisms that influence cognitive structures can make contributions that are neither domain general nor domain specific.
Ethics
Authors: Adamson Peter
Published: February 2007

Al-Kindī’s extant ethical corpus is relatively small, but sufficient to show that his ethics is an application of his Neoplatonic ideas about metaphysics and psychology. He provides the first Arabic account of Socrates, a philosophical hero who is presented as despising things of the physical world, or “external goods” — Socrates is here conflated with the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. In al-Kindī’s largest ethical treatise, On Dispelling Sorrows, al-Kindī provides a work of consolation which uses Platonist ideas to undergird a broadly Stoic or Cynic teaching on the value of external goods.
The Heavens
Authors: Adamson Peter
Published: February 2007

This chapter shows how al-Kindī interweaves ideas from Greek cosmology to give a theory that can explain the efficacy of astrology and how God’s providence is dispersed by means of heavenly influence. A concrete example is found in al-Kindī’s works on meteorology, since he thinks that weather is produced by celestial causation. The mechanics of this causation are explained differently in different works, which leads to a consideration of the authenticity of On Rays, which is ascribed to al-Kindī, and its place in his corpus. Finally, the chapter considers whether al-Kindī’s account commits him to determinism, and whether he thinks universal causal determinism is compatible with human freedom.
The Information Is in the Invariants
Authors: Sloman Steven
Published: February 2007

This chapter focuses on why cause matters. It argues that causal relations hold across space, time, and individuals; therefore, the logic of causality is the best guide to prediction, explanation, and action. Not only is it the best guide around; it is the guide that people use. People are designed to learn and to reason with causal models.
Introduction
Authors: Audretsch David B. , Keilbach Max C. , Lehmann Erik E.
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the role of entrepreneurship as a driver of economic growth in Europe following the 1990s. It then outlines the purpose of this book, which is to explain why entrepreneurship became important in the area of public policy. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
The Emergence of the Entrepreneurial Economy
Authors: Audretsch David B. , Keilbach Max C. , Lehmann Erik E.
Published: February 2007

This chapter explains how and why the economic role of entrepreneurship has changed so dramatically in the past half century. It explains how the economic role of new startups and small business in the capital (or Solow) economy was generally viewed as imposing inefficiency on the economy. It then discusses how this marginal or negative role of new and small firms in the knowledge economy was actually reinforced. The reasons why the contributions of entrepreneurship to economic growth become widely recognized only with the emergence of the entrepreneurial economy are considered. A view is proposed in which the entrepreneurial economy can be defined as an economy where entrepreneurship plays a key role in generating economic growth.
Entrepreneurial Access
Authors: Audretsch David B. , Keilbach Max C. , Lehmann Erik E.
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that providing entrepreneurial access to knowledge spillovers through geographic proximity to knowledge sources is not sufficient; external knowledge spillovers need to be absorbed. It identifies two factors facilitating the absorption of external knowledge spillovers: a spillover conduit, such as a board director or manager, and close geographic proximity. These findings suggest not only that the composition of boards is endogenous to the relative importance of absorbing external knowledge spillovers for the entrepreneurial firm, but also that the composition of boards may be influenced by factors other than their role in controlling managers to reduce agency problems.
Faith and the Presidency
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

This book examines the religious beliefs, commitments, affiliation, and practices (church attendance, prayer, Bible reading, and personal morality) of eleven presidents, discusses the influences upon and nature of their faith, and assesses how it contributed to their understanding of political ideology and practice. It also analyzes how these presidents’ religious views and values helped shape the way they formulated and promoted specific policies. In addition, the book examines how presidents dealt with religious constituencies, interest groups, and leaders, evaluated religious issues (such as religious liberty, the relationship between church and the state, government support for religion, the proper place of religion in public life, and the connection between religion and public morality and civic duty), and appraised key public policy matters (such as the proper tasks of government, civil rights, education, and war and peace). The book explores social and cultural factors that influenced these presidents, but it focuses primarily on the intellectual and moral presuppositions that helped guide their understanding of political and religious issues and their actions while in office. Special attention is paid to five themes: the separation of church and state, civil religion, America as a chosen nation, the nature of their convictions, and the issue of character. Does the concept of the separation of church and state require presidents to confine their religious values to their private lives and operate from a secular perspective in fulfilling their office? Is it proper for a president’s religious convictions to direct him in performing his duties, devising a philosophy of government, and implementing his policies? How have presidents served as both the nation’s pastor and prophet, called on at times to comfort and assure Americans and at others to challenge and inspire them? To what extent has the pervasive belief that America is divinely chosen to spread democracy, individual liberty, and justice to the world influenced presidents’ actions? How have their worldviews — blueprints for understanding, explaining, and managing reality — influenced presidents’ thoughts and actions? What factors, including religious training, biblical study, and spiritual nurture, have shaped the character of these presidents?
John F. Kennedy
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

Like Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy attended church regularly while president and used religious rhetoric extensively in his speeches, especially in discussing his campaign for world peace. Eisenhower, however, provided strong governmental support for the Judeo-Christian tradition, whereas Kennedy maintained a much stricter separation between church and state. The Democrat’s vitality, idealism, powerful rhetoric, and charisma inspired many younger Americans to social activism. Kennedy’s faith is difficult to analyze. As the nation’s only Catholic president, whose religious affiliation was a major issue in the 1960 election, he is central to an examination of religion and the presidency. Moreover, his assassination and funeral evoked a torrent of religious language, analysis, and emotion and reinforced the importance of civil religion in American society. On the other hand, his faith had much less influence on his thinking and policies than that of the other presidents analyzed in this book. In addition, beneath his exuberant, commanding public persona were private vices that contradicted his Catholic faith. Given Kennedy’s pragmatic style of governing, perspective toward Catholicism, and lack of a coherent philosophy, there does not seem to be much relationship between his policies and his faith. Nevertheless, he did present moral rationales for his stances on numerous issues, including education, juvenile delinquency, women’s rights, world hunger, poverty, and the Alliance for Progress. To assess Kennedy’s approach, three issues are examined: the Peace Corps, civil rights, and the limited test ban treaty. The most intense religious controversy during Kennedy’s tenure was provoked by the 1962 Supreme Court case that ruled that school-sponsored prayers as part of a regularly scheduled devotional exercise violated the Constitution.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

Religion and politics have been deeply intertwined throughout American history, and there is a long and rich tradition of both scholarly and popular analysis of American presidents. Although numerous books explore the presidents’ personal piety and use of civil religion rhetoric, few books or articles examine, or even suggest, that their religious convictions influenced their public policies and performance as our nation’s chief executives. This book provides an in-depth analysis of the religious convictions and practices of eleven presidents who lived in different historical eras and had different denominational backgrounds. It focuses on those chief executives for whom religion was an important issue because of their own beliefs, the issues they confronted, the elections they participated in, and/or the times in which they lived. In evaluating the faith of these eleven presidents and the role of religion in their administrations, five themes are emphasized: the nature of their convictions, the separation of church and state, civil religion, America as a chosen nation, and the issue of character.
The Early Career of King Duṭugämuṇu
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on the early life of King Duṭugämuṇu. The king is depicted as a virtuous lay devotee for whom service to the Triple Gem is of paramount concern. The story begins with a short tale describing how his father, King Kāvantissa, meets his mother, Queen Vihāramahādevī, after she had been cast adrift at sea by her father to appease the gods. Duṭugämuṇu is born, along with his younger brother Tissa, to the pair in the southern kingdom of Ruhunu.
The Commencement of the Relic Shrine
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on Duṭugämuṇu's plan to build a large monastic residence for the Sangha and the Relic Shrine of Golden Garlands (Pāli: Mahāthupa) in Anurādhapura. The text extols these acts of merit and reinforces the virtue of such deeds by noting how arahants and deities lent their assistance to the king.
Religion, Twice Removed: Exploring the Role of Media in Religious Understandings among “Secular” Young People
Authors: Clark Lynn Schofield
Published: February 2007

Popular entertainment media are implicit (and sometimes explicit) means by which a culture describes itself, including the images and ideas, stories, and fantasies that draw from and supply its religious imagination. Using in-depth interviews with 71 young people who describe themselves as not very religious, this chapter explores the role of these media in young peoples’ understandings of religion and spirituality. Most of these teens freely and energetically explore the “what if?” world of the entertainment media. Some are fascinated by supernatural spiritual images that echo the “dark side” of evangelicalism’s emphasis on sin and punishment. Others see in films and television programs signs of spiritual comfort. And a few, the true secularists, see nothing spiritual at all.
Redefining the Boundaries of Belonging: The Transnationalization of Religious Life
Authors: Levitt Peggy
Published: February 2007

In the 21st century, many people will live transnational lives, belonging to several societies and cultures at once, and they will use religion to do so. This chapter discusses how immigrants from Pakistan, India, Ireland, and Brazil living in the Boston area are reshaping the religious landscape and, by so doing, calling into question fundamental assumptions about nations, immigration, and religion.
When a Funeral Isn't Just a Funeral: The Layered Meaning of Everyday Action
Authors: Munson Ziad
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that the common social science focus on identifying a singular authentic meaning of social phenomena leads us to misunderstand the role of religion in contemporary life. Using data drawn from a national study of the American pro-life movement, it argues that the religious sphere frequently and easily overlaps with everyday domains such as politics and the family. In this overlap, events take on a polysemous character; they contain within them multiple, irreducible meanings that become available to both participants and outside observers. Ultimately, such polysemy is more than just an intellectual curiosity or problem of categorization; it is a key site of human agency in creating new possibilities for meaning and action.
Introduction
Authors: Glannon Walter
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the field of neuroethics, which can be defined roughly as the study of ethical issues pertinent to information about the brain. It then discusses the mind–body problem. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Science and Mammon
Authors: Resnik David B.
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes the financial and economic aspects of modern science. It discusses industry and government funding of research, as well as technology transfer. It also examines some significant case studies involving money and science, such as the Human Genome Project, Nancy Olivieri, Merck and Vioxx, tobacco research, Jesse Gelsinger’s death in a gene therapy clinical trial, John Moore’s cell line, and embryonic stem cell research. An overview of the book is also provided.
Conflicts of Interest
Authors: Resnik David B.
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes the different kinds of interests that may affect scientific research and defines conflicts of interest for individual scientists and for research institutions. It explores how conflicts of interest can undermine scientific objectivity as well as the public’s trust in research. It discusses three basic strategies for dealing with conflicts of interest: disclosure, management, and prohibition. In many cases, disclosure is all that is required to deal with conflicts of interest, but prohibiting the conflict may be required in cases.
Publication
Authors: Resnik David B.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines some of the ethical problems that can arise when the pursuit of profit and prestige affect scientific publication, including bias, duplicate publication, salami science, problems with access to data and materials, and undeserved authorship. To address these concerns, scientific journals, research institutions, professional associations, and funding agencies should develop policies and guidelines for scientific publication. Granting agencies should continue their support for research, education, and policy development pertaining to ethics and integrity in scientific publication. Universities, colleges, and government and private laboratories should sponsor educational and training programs that address the ethics of scientific publication.
Introduction
Authors: Brydon Michael
Published: February 2007

This introduction crystallizes the debates in the last twenty years regarding the theological positioning of Hooker. It posits that although there has been a tendency to locate his Anglican identity amongst the 19th-century advocates of the Oxford Movement, it is actually a creation of the 17th century. Through a study of printed material, a programme of chronological analysis is outlined from the Jacobean period to the death of Queen Anne.
3 The Establishment of Anglican Triumphalism
Authors: Brydon Michael
Published: February 2007

At the Restoration, the avant-garde interpretation of the Polity emerged triumphant. This was briefly challenged by an un-Anglican biography produced by John Gauden, until Isaac Walton produced a suitable corrective. Walton’s biography not only established the image of the peaceable faithful divine, but also discreetly marginalized Book VII, with its unacceptable belief that episcopacy only enjoyed divine approbation, and Book VIII’s belief in an original political compact.
Artworks as Artifacts
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This second essay is concerned with the intentional-historical account of art, focusing on the nature of the artifactuality of artworks presupposed by the account. It develops ideas on the artifactuality of artworks in counterpoint with recent contributions on the subject by Paul Bloom and Amie Thomasson. Against Bloom — who seeks to extend the intentional-historical account to all artifacts — it defends the claim that artworks remain a distinctive sort of artifact in possessing, perhaps alone of all artifact kinds, only intentional-historical necessary conditions. Against Thomasson — who maintains that artifact-making necessarily involves a substantive conception of what is being made — it defends the claim that the conception of artwork necessarily involved in art-making, although not without content, is about as insubstantive as an object concept can be.
Evaluating Music
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay attempts to identify plausible mid-level principles by reference to which one might conceivably justify an evaluation of some music as good, where mid-level principles are ones whose specificity lies between the extremes of, on the one hand, music's being good if it affords appropriate listeners worthwhile experiences, and on the other hand, music's being good if it displays this or that set of technical features held to be productive of musical worth, such as monothematic structure or coherent harmony. The essay draws on the perspective developed in an earlier essay, ‘What Is Aesthetic Pleasure?’, which proposed that the distinctive mark of aesthetic satisfaction in art is that it is satisfaction deriving from attention that focuses on the relation of content to form and form to content in the given work of art. The mid-level principles of musical evaluation arrived at are illustrated in connection with one of Schubert's piano sonatas, the Sonata in A major, D. 959.
Musical Thinking
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay, which begins with a commentary on Wittgenstein's scattered remarks on musical understanding, poses the question of whether there is a distinctive, non-verbal form of thinking that music, or alternatively, the composing or performing of music, might be said to exemplify. A positive answer is returned, and three candidates for such distinctively ‘musical’ thinking are sketched. These are illustrated with a number of musical examples, most notably, Beethoven's ‘Tempest’ Sonata and Stan Getz's rendition of ‘The Girl from Ipanema’.
Two Notions of Interpretation
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay brings into relief a distinction among semantic interpretations or among activities of semantic interpreting, which cuts across verbal and non-verbal phenomena. The distinction is between interpretations that aim to answer the question ‘Whatdoessuch and such mean?’ and those that aim to answer the question ‘Whatcouldsuch and such mean?’, the former exemplifying thedeterminativemode and the latter theexploratorymode of interpreting. The essay also investigates the relationship between determinative and exploratory interpretation in a given inquiry, and the varying, sometimes interlocking, motivations with which determinative and exploratory interpretations are undertaken.
Hypothetical Intentionalism: Statement, Objections, and Replies
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay briefly restates the view, which locates the meaning of a literary text not in what its author intended it to mean (what one can call ‘utterer's meaning’), nor in what the text might be said to mean as a piece of language in the abstract (what one can call ‘textual meaning’), but roughly in what an appropriate audience would most reasonably hypothesize the contextually situated author to have meant by composing precisely the text that he or she did (what one can call ‘utterance meaning’). It then considers a fair number of objections to the view in the literature and attempts to respond to them.
Schopenhauer's Aesthetics
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay explores Schopenhauer's relationship to Kant, and stresses the extent to which the great pessimist's aesthetic philosophy relies on Kant's metaphysics even more than it does on Kant's aesthetics. It highlights the breadth of Schopenhauer's vision of the role of art and of the liberating aesthetic experiences it makes possible. It addresses the puzzle of how the art of music — which according to Schopenhauer presents us with blind, ceaseless, and hateful willing in its most unvarnished form — can yet provide aesthetic experience of the highest order, justifying Schopenhauer's according to music the foremost position among the arts.
Common Projects
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

This chapter attempts to understand the widespread and plausible treatment of loyal caring for good common projects — for their own sake and not just for their contribution to the well-being of individuals — as a manifestation of a moral virtue. The relation of common projects to human good is explored, and it is argued that being for a good common project for its own sake is commonly an excellent way of being for one's associates as persons, even if not exactly for their well-being as such.
A Future for Presentism
Authors: Bourne Craig
Published: February 2007

This book concerns the nature of time. It shows how presentism, the view that only the present exists, can be defended. Part I of the book shows how presentism is the only viable alternative to the tenseless theory of time. It then develops a framework for solving problems traditionally associated with the position, such as finding truthmakers for past‐tensed statements; McTaggart's argument; the need for other times other than the present time; how to give the proper semantics for future contingent statements; how to deal with transtemporal relations between the past and the present; how we can meaningfully talk about past individuals; and how accounts of causation relations can be formulated. Part I concludes with a discussion of the direction of time and causation, the decision‐theoretic problem known as ‘Newcomb's problem’, and the possibility of time travel and causal loops. Part II focuses on the problems for presentism raised by relativity theory. It begins by giving a self‐contained exposition of the concepts of special relativity and its philosophical implications. The last two chapters focus on certain cosmological models of general relativity: namely, the expanding universes, and Gödel's infamous model. The necessary physics is explained, with the aid of diagrams.
Introduction
Authors: Aghion Phillippe , Banerjee Abhijit
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the authors’ dissatisfaction with other economists’ positions regarding the instability of capitalist economies. The development of a model of the aggregate economy is described. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
Endogeneizing Volatility: Pecuniary Externalities and the Credit Channel
Authors: Aghion Phillippe , Banerjee Abhijit
Published: February 2007

This chapter shows how volatility can emerge endogenously, in a world where credit constraints sometimes bind. An elementary theoretical framework is developed, which generates endogenous and persistent volatility in a growing economy with credit constraints. The basic mechanisms are the interaction of credit constraints and endogenous changes in market prices. It is argued that the model can account for a number of observed facts about lending booms and crises in emerging market economies. It also provides additional arguments in favour of countercyclical budgetary policies in less financially developed economies.
Endogenous Volatility in an Open Economy
Authors: Aghion Phillippe , Banerjee Abhijit
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that financial liberalization introduces a new problem: Now the real exchange rate, which is the relative price between nontradable and tradable, becomes a source of instability. It goes up in a boom, squeezing profits, which limits borrowing and hence investment and brings the economy down. The fact that the economy is open to capital inflows may actually make things worse, since it allows investment demand to grow very fast in a boom.
Further Background Issues
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter explains three background issues additional to those presented in Chapter 1. First, it contrasts three senses of ‘sentence’ — syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic — and draws attention to three corresponding senses of ‘elliptical’. Second, it defends a commitment to an open evidence-base for the philosophical study of language, in the face of arguments that take off either from the nature of mind, or from the ontology of language. Finally, it briefly notes a commitment to an empirical thesis about the mind, viz. that it is structured into faculties, including in particular, one specific to language.
Semantic Ellipsis
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter looks at semantic ellipsis: expressions that are not syntactically sentential, but nevertheless have characters that yield propositional contents given a context. Relevant examples include ‘Attention!’ and ‘No shirt, no shoes, no service’. The idea is to use such cases to explain away apparently sub-sentential speech: an attempt is made to assimilate the cases under discussion (like ‘Nice dress’ and ‘On the stoop’) to commands such as ‘Attention!’. This attempted assimilation is rejected on two fronts. First, it would require that human languages contain masses of semantically elliptical sentences. Second, postulating these masses of elliptical sentences would introduce lots of new ambiguities — which would be otiose, since a language that lacked such ambiguities would be used in just the ways we actually observe.
Syntactic Ellipsis
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses the plausibility of syntactic ellipsis in abstraction, surveying data-based arguments both for and against an ellipsis account (from case assignment, binding phenomena, licensing conditions, etc.). It is shown that the evidence against syntactic ellipsis heavily outweighs the evidence for it. It is argued that sub-sentential speech acts cannot be explained away as really involving syntactically elliptical sentences. Hence,premise one of the two-premise argument still stands: namely that speakers genuinely can utter ordinary words and phrases in isolation, and thereby perform full-fledged speech acts.
THE PRACTICAL GO OF IT
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: February 2007

Many ‘pre-pragmatist’ opponents of the classical picture begin with a suspicion that such doctrines place unrealistic demands upon human capacity: that when we grasp a collection of vocabulary, its syntax rarely becomes as firmly attached to the world as the classical story promises. In overreaction, thinkers such as W. V. Quine frequently become sceptical that the world independently possesses attributes to which language might potentially attach at all. Such doubts are impossibly radical, but a pre-pragmatist can plausibly argue on engineering grounds that it is not easy to set classical-style semantic attachments in place. Confronted with these practical impediments, over time language often develops into more complicated forms of semantic arrangement than classical thinking anticipates.
LINGUISTIC WAYFARING
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: February 2007

After summarizing the key ingredients within a facade, this chapter reexamines the standard cases of philosophical puzzlement that were introduced in earlier chapters employing these structural possibilities, emphasizing the factors that lead us to overlook the patch-to-patch realignments typical of facade organization. It is emphasized that the fine grain of a facade-based usage rarely represents the result of original linguistic preparation, but arises later in silent adaptation to environmental pressures.
Against Singularism
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

Because of the power and significance of first-order logic in its traditional form, restricted to distributive predication, it has been natural to try to express non-distributive plurals within that framework. Two approaches leap quickly to the mind of the student of standard first-order logic who is trying to come to terms with non-distributive plurals. The first is ‘the multiple relations idea’. The second is the adoption of some variety of singularism, representing plurals by a single object that encompasses many. This chapter presents some initial considerations for the case that it will ultimately be better to reconsider the underlying logic.
Natural Language Issues
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter connects formal language more explicitly with some problems in formal representation of English sentences. This provides a better understanding of the formal apparatus, and it also indicates the direction of some applications in the semantics of natural language. A major development is the use of quantifiers as the basis for representing distributive predication.
Set Theoretic Semantics
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents the development of the semantics within a set-theoretic context. It also provides a base for reconsidering limitations of the set-theoretic approach.
THE: The Basic Logic
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter develops a formal treatment of definite descriptions indicating how the singular and plural descriptions are related and exactly how they differ from (and are analogous to) mass descriptions. The formal theory is applied to produce a natural solution to a puzzle about plurals connected with Philip Bricker.
THE: Context Sensitivity
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter considers the significance of the context sensitivity of definite descriptions (singular and plural) and suggests some ways of understanding it. It argues that many uses of definite descriptions are ‘incomplete’. That is, the explicit definite description does not uniquely specify an individual or, in the plural case, some maximally inclusive individuals; we rely on context to provide the additional resources that make the description uniquely applicable. Two processes of contextual supplementation are important here. One is predicate supplementation: a brief definite description stands proxy for a longer definite description that can be constructed by adding predicates that are explicit in the discourse context. The other is domain restriction: the context restricts the domain for the definite description, with uniqueness achieved within that smaller domain.
Hellenistic Ethics and Philosophical Power
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

The peculiarity of Hellenistic ethics is explored to understand its special significance. The issue is approached as a question concerning the intellectual history of Hellenistic philosophy in its formative years. A comprehensive answer would have to include subsequent developments of the Hellenistic schools, their reception at Rome, and their entry into the Renaissance. The focus of this chapter is the investigation of what it was about the ethical projects of the innovative Hellenistic philosophers that prepared the way for this curious legacy.
Arcesilaus in His Time and Place
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

No philosopher in the early Hellenistic period is more intriguing than Arcesilaus of Pitane, and few are of comparable historical significance. Arcesilaus in effect was the founder of Greek scepticism as a methodology for demonstrating that every claim to knowledge or theoretical belief could be met with a counter-argument of equal strength. By his rejoinders to Stoic theses, Arcesilaus ensured that Stoic philosophers must be constantly on the alert against sceptical challenges. Arcesilaus' formative years and relation to Stoics, and his dialectical methods and Socratic persona are discussed.
Lucretius on nature and the Epicurean self
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

This chapter treats some of the ways in which Lucretius integrates the subjective and objective aspects of the Epicurean self. The term ‘integrates’ is used because there has been a tendency to regard Lucretius' objective voice as a register seriously at odds with his violent metaphors and alleged endorsement of a highly subjective view of nature. The issue of interest is not Lucretius' literary integrity or brilliance, but his effectiveness as an Epicurean expositor and missionary. It is shown that in seeking to come to terms with nature, Epicurus and Lucretius have a conception of the normative self that is thoroughly in line with the mainstream tradition of Greek philosophy.
Seneca on the Self: Why Now?
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

In urging himself and Lucilius to cultivate a ‘good mentality’ (bona mens), Seneca's principal point is that objective human excellence and authentic happiness depend intrinsically and essentially on the state of one's mind, and only instrumentally and contingently on the health and condition of one's body. This division between mind and body involves the folk psychology recognized in everyday consciousness; and it is compatible with the strict physicalism endorsed both by Stoicism and by most modern theorists. Seneca, moreover, taps completely into the contemporary world when one moves from the academy into popular culture.
Epictetus on Understanding and Managing Emotions
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues, using the example of Epictetus, that ancient moral psychology can still be very good to think with because it addresses problems that human beings of any time or place encounter. Yet, Epictetus is embedded in his own time and place and Stoic doctrines. Thus, all his ideas should not be accepted as completely applicable to ourselves.
The Nature of Vagueness: Humpty Dumpty Gets His Due
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: February 2007

This chapter provides a simplified account of how vagueness arises in language and is manifested in the use of language. It is a commonplace that the extensions of vague terms vary with such contextual factors as the comparison class and paradigm cases. A person can be tall with respect to male accountants and not tall (or even short) with respect to professional basketball players. A person can be wealthy with respect to local business tycoons, but not wealthy with respect to CEOs of major software companies. The main feature of the present account is that the extensions (and anti-extensions) of vague terms also vary in the course of a conversation, even after the external contextual features, such as the comparison class, are fixed. A central thesis of the view is that, in some cases, a competent speaker of the language can go either way in the borderline area of a vague predicate without sinning against the meaning of the words and the non-linguistic facts.
Refinements and Extensions I: So-Called “Higher-Order Vagueness”
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: February 2007

Problems with the simplified account and some unnatural features of the model theory lead to refinements of the philosophical account, the model theoretic semantics, and perhaps the logic as well. This chapter deals with what passes for higher-order vagueness — vagueness in the notions of ‘determinacy’ and ‘borderline’. The philosophical picture is developed, by extending and modifying the account presented in Chapter 1. This is followed with the required modifications to the model theory, and the central meta-theorems.
The Two Functions of Political Philosophy
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter sets out the reasons why it is often thought that the Platonist philosophers of late Antiquity have no political philosophy. A preliminary definition is given of ‘political philosophy’ and it is shown that ‘political virtue’ can have two functions with regard to the goal of Late Antique Platonism (the divinization of the soul): preparing, as a preliminary stage, the divinization of the soul; and divinizing the state as a context providing this preparation. These two functions will be elaborated in Parts I and II of this book.
Divinization in Greek Philosophy
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter shows briefly that divinization is often the goal of Greek philosophers, be they Plato, Aristotle, Epicurean, or Stoic. It describes the variety of ways in which the goal of divinization is understood, the range of degrees of divinization, and of divine life conceived in Late Antique Platonism.
Political Science: Legislative
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter considers topics in the first branch of political science as conceived in Neoplatonism, legislative science. These topics include the question of the goal of political life, different degrees in political reform, the use of models in political reform, the importance of law, and the political value of different constitutional structures.
The Limits of Political Action
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

What limits political action? To what extent is it autonomous? To what external factors is it subjected? These questions are discussed as Neoplatonist philosophers approached them, as are the themes of the nature of practical wisdom, its relation to action, and the criteria of what counts as success and failure in political action.
Introduction
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of Kant's views on the analytic tradition and the exact sciences. It then analyzes the two images problem and scientific naturalism, the critical philosophy, and the primacy of human nature thesis.
Direct Perceptual Realism II: Non‐Conceptual Content
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter explores the ‘direct’ aspect of direct perceptual realism, and in particular, Kant's theory of non-conceptual perceptual content. A cognition is direct in the Kantian sense if and only if it refers ‘immediately’ (unmittelbar) to an object, and in turn, a cognition refers immediately to an object if and only if it is non-epistemic (belief-independent), non-conceptual (concept-independent), and otherwise unmediated (in the sense that it does not, or at least need not, refer by means of any other sort of representational faculty, representational content, psychological intermediary, or physical intermediary). Since all beliefs intrinsically contain concepts, then non-conceptuality is both necessary and sufficient for a cognition's being non-epistemic. It is argued that non-conceptuality is also both necessary and sufficient for a perception's being otherwise unmediated. Thus, non-conceptuality is both necessary and sufficient for the directness of perception.
1 Introduction
Authors: Reilly Benjamin
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of democratization in the Asia-Pacific region during the closing years of the 20th century. The major themes analyzed in the book; the issues of diversity, ethnic politics, political engineering; and the structure of the book are described. An overview of the chapters included in the volume is then presented.
2 Democratization and Internal Conflict in the Asia‐Pacific
Authors: Reilly Benjamin
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the interrelationship between democratization and ethnic conflict in the Asia-Pacific region. It begins by considering the divergent paths from authoritarian rule to democracy that different Asian and Pacific states have followed. It then examines the various internal conflicts afflicting states of the region. It concludes by considering which political strategies and institutional choices may be most appropriate for states facing the twin challenge of democratization and conflict management.