bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Civic Debate on Florentine Higher Education (1460)
Authors: Brucker Gene
Published: April 2006

The recent publication by Armando Verde of a collection of documents on the Pisan Studio (1473-1503) has been recognized as a major contribution to the cultural history of Florence in the late Quattrocento. The yield from years of painstaking research in Florentine and Pisan libraries and archives is made available in four massive volumes, which document the history of the university after its transfer from Florence to Pisa in 1473. Verde has identified the professors who taught, and the 1600 students who were taught, at Pisa and Florence; he has also provided documentation, largely from archival sources, concerning the faculty and the student body: their background and education, their academic and professional careers. He has also collected information on more than one thousand young scholars who were identified in the Florentine tax records (catasto) of 1480 as having been enrolled in schools.
Unknown Greek Poems of Francesco Filelfo
Authors: Robin Diana
Published: April 2006

During the years 1457-1465 Francesco Filelfo, the first important Western European professor of Greek after Guarino Veronese, composed a remarkable collection of poems in classical Greek. On April 9, 1458 Filelfo claimed in a letter to Girolamo Castelli, Duke Borso d'Este's court poet and personal physician, that he was the first Italian to write Greek poetry. In the same letter Filelfo announced that he fully intended to compose not merely a single verse epistle in Greek, but rather several books of Greek poems: “nec id una epistola quapiam sum facturus, sed libellis, ut spero, compluribus.“ In 1457 Filelfo had already written the distinguished scholar and philosopher from Constantinople, John Argyropulos, to ask for primers on Greek prosody and the Greek dialects, particularly the Aeolic. By July 27, 1465 Filelfo wrote to Cardinal Bessarion in Rome, then the leading figure in Greek emigré circles, informing him that he had just mailed three books of his own Greek poems, amounting to twenty-four hundred lines, to the Cardinal for his appraisal.
Rabelais's Laurel for Glory: A Further Study of the “Pantagruelion”*
Authors: Rigolot François
Published: April 2006

Numerous interpretations have been given to the final episode of Rabelais'sThird Book of Pantagruel—the last four chapters devoted to the famous plant called “Pantagruelion” (Tiers Livre,chaps. 49-52). For the great editors of the early twentieth-century critical edition of Rabelais'sWorks, the Pantagruelion was a “technical enigma” meant to be deciphered by scientists as the symbol of the Renaissance belief in human progress. For some of the supporters of Rabelais's Erasmian Evangelism, on the contrary, the enigmatic formulation of the episode was the key to Rabelais's thought: the magic plant had to be decoded as a veiled message of steadfast faith in the face of persecution. For obvious political reasons Rabelais had resorted to the ingenious device of enigmatic speech; yet his message had been understood by his contemporary Christian humanists.
Humanists and Sewers: A Comment and a Coda
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: April 2006

Sometime in the later 1590s Justus Lipsius and one of his Louvain students had a nice conversation about sewers. The student thought the topic comic and stifled a giggle, but Lipsius soon set him straight. The sewers of ancient Rome had been as physically imposing as any other great Roman artifact. Moreover—and more important to the student of history—they were directly linked with the other artifacts and institutions that had provided the material basis for Rome's uniquely splendid civilization, with its powerful armies, Stoic philosophy, and inimitable literature. Only a full study of the material life of ancient Rome could explain the continuous population growth that had enabled the city to expand so far and last so long. The two of them were off, happily embarked on a long inquiry into the secret and public means that Rome had used to enlarge its population, encourage trade, and avoid corruption over the many centuries between Romulus and the Antonines (Lipsius, 161-63).
A Fifteenth-Century Dialogue on Literary Taste: Angelo Decembrio's Account of Playwright Ugolino Pisani at the Court of Leonello d'Este
Authors: Perry Jon Pearson
Published: April 2006

A short dialogue in Angelo Decembrio's De politia litteraria (1462) describes the reception accorded by Leonello d'Este and his courtly literary circle to Ugolino Pisani, writer, comedian, and wellknown entertainer in the 1430s and ‘40s. The dialogue is a unique and valuable resource. It is perhaps the earliest document of its kind to disclose so vividly how an eager dramatist of the time hoped his work would find favor with a discriminating and influential audience, and it dramatizes an encounter that we know actually took place between the writer and an audience whose patronage he sought, showing the audience's ideas and tastes on the spot and in motion, so to speak.
"she there as Princess rained": Spenser's Figure of Elizabeth
Authors: Bowman Mary R.
Published: April 2006

"The woman who has the prerogative of a goddess, who is authorized to be out of place, can best justify her authority by putting other women in their places": so concludes Louis Montrose with equal reference to Ralegh's vision of Elizabeth in theDiscovery of Guianaand Spenser's reflection of her in Britomart in the Radigund episode in the fifth book ofThe Faerie Queene.In the case of Spenser at least that conclusion is an insightful one, suggesting that Britomart's actions can in part be explained in terms of the political and ideological constraints faced by the queen.
Commentary as Social Act: Trifone Gabriele's Critique of Landino
Authors: Parker Deborah
Published: April 2006

In his prefatory letter to Cristoforo Landino's commentary to theComedy, Marsilio Ficino presents a dramatic encounter between Dante and Florence. The city's lament over Dante's long absence moves Apollo to command Mercury to possess the “pious“ mind of the “divine poet” Cristoforo Landino. Mercury then assumes Landino's countenance, arouses Dante from his sleep with a life-giving wand, and transports him to Florence. There, Dante is gloriously crowned as he prophesied inParadiso25.1-12. The significance of this elaborate mythological sequence is obvious: through the merits of Landino's commentary, Dante is honorably restored to Florence after an exile of almost two centuries.

Ficino's high expectations of the commentary's favorable reception were not unfounded. Presented to the Florentine Signoria on 30 August, 1481 in a sumptuous edition with engravings now attributed to Botticelli, Landino's commentary rapidly won the esteem and admiration of his contemporaries.
Manifesta mendacia: Erasmus' Reply to "Taxander"
Authors: Rummel Erika
Published: April 2006

Among the holdings of the Royal Library at Copenhagen are three codices containing rough drafts of letters and treatises, some in Erasmus' hand. In 1966 C. Reedijk published a detailed description of the contents of the manuscripts, identifying all of the pieces except for one short section entitled Manifesta mendacia. Speculating about the contents of this autograph, which is written in a hurried manner and difficult to decipher in places, he suggested that it might be an apologia addressed to Jacobus Stunica.
Shows in the Showstone: A Theater of Alchemy and Apocalypse in the Angel Conversations of John Dee (1527-1608/9)*
Authors: Harkness Deborah E.
Published: April 2006

On 16 November 1582 John Dee and his assistant, Edward Kelly, gathered in the study of Dee's home in Mortlake, a small town located southwest of London on the river Thames. It was five o'clock on a Friday afternoon, and the latest in a series of dramatic events was unfolding. This event, like the events that preceded it and those that followed, involved an extraordinary cast of characters and contained a significant philosophical message. In Mortlake, England's most important natural philosopher was preparing to engage in what was becoming a habitual exercise: conversing with angels, whom Dee referred to as his “scholemasters,” about matters relevant to his study of the natural and supernatural worlds.
Sovereign Counterfeits: The Trial of the Pyx
Authors: Wortham Simon
Published: April 2006

On 9 May 1611 James I broke with a royal custom that had been established for more than a century of Tudor rule. He attended the trial of the pyx at the Royal Mint in the city of London. This yearly ceremony was for the formal testing of sovereign moneys. It was designed to ensure that the manufacture of various denominations conformed to current standards set by the crown. While his Tudor predecessors had allowed previous trials to continue unattended by majesty, James's presence at the pyx in 1611 provided the occasion for a striking display of royal power.
Art and Humanism in Early Renaissance Padua: Cennini, Vergerio and Petrarch on Imitation*
Authors: Bolland Andrea
Published: April 2006

A number of passages in Cennino Cennini's early fifteenth-century craft handbook, the Libro dell'Arte, have captured the attentionof art historians — most particularly its spectacular first chapter, which defines painting in terms indebted to late medieval poetics and which praises artistic imagination in terms ultimately derived (though significantly transformed) from Horace's Ars poetica. I would like to focus critical attention on another section of the Libro that is equally rich and complex in both its sources and its transformations — Cennini's treatment of imitation and style, articulated most pointedly in chapter 27, “How to Strive to Copy and Draw from as Few Mastersas Possible.” Cennini's discussion of copying masters will be examined in relation to humanist ideas on literary imitation, and this particular aspect of the relation between painting and poetry in theLibrowill be explored in light of the author's residency in Padua during the last years of the Trecento.
Geography and Empire in the Late Renaissance: Botero's Assignment, Western Universalism, and the Civilizing Process*
Authors: Headley John M.
Published: April 2006

The article seeks to relate the emerging, new discipline of geography to the European and specifically the Iberian, Catholic experience of expansion, power, and empire in those decades of Spain's alignment with Portugal and their respective colonial enterprises. The case of Giovanni Botero, the preeminent Italian interpreter of America forthe later sixteenth century, is examined in terms of Catholic expansion, world geography, but more immediately in terms of the European civilizing process on the indigenous peoples of America as that process pertains to the pre-Columbian civilizations, Christian conversion and the concurrent practice of thereducciones.
Moving the Monarch: The Rhetoric of Persuasion in Camões's Lusíadas
Authors: De Oliveira E Silva John
Published: April 2006

Like many other medieval and Renaissance works, the Lusíadas by Luis de Camões can be profitably interpreted as a work of rhetorical persuasion. Although rhetoric was a primary feature of the educational curriculum of the time, this line of reasoning has been missing from the critical studies of the poem, most of which are committed instead to historical, biographical, and ideological approaches. In each narrative surface of the Lusíadas, a royal audience is cajoled, admonished, guided, or taught by an eloquent petitioner who may lack the credentials of power but manifestly possesses those of experience, wisdom, virtue, and love. Finally, this petitioner, whether in the form of a historical or mythological personage, Vasco da Gama the protagonist, or some projection of the inspired poet-orator, accesses a wide range of rhetorical strategies, among them the popular and efficacious Aristotelian categories of ethos, pathos, and logos, in order more effectively to move and persuade.
Scenes from Provincial Life: History, Honor, and Meaning in the Tudor North*
Authors: Palmer William
Published: April 2006

The early Tudor North is often regarded as a lawless and disordered society where leading magnates depended upon violence and codes of honor to maintain order. These codes of honor compelled magnates to fight to maintain their reputations and also to assert their independence from central authority. Through an examination of several episodes in northern history, however, most of them brought to light by the most famous historian of the region, Mervyn James, it can be shown that northern magnates did not have a code of honor and usually shrank from violence as a way of settling disputes.
Equity and Ideas: Coke, Ellesmere, and James I*
Authors: Fortier Mark
Published: April 2006

This article argues that in the English legal disputes of 1616, specifically the conflict between common law and equity, the principles and systems of ideas, at least as much as the characters, of Coke, Ellesmere, and James were determinative of the triumph of equity. The first part of the essay traces the legal reasoning in the key cases of the dispute. The second part traces James's political theory from his time in Scotland through his dealings with the English Parliament to his pronouncements on the law in his Star Chamber speech of 1616. The article argues that there is a consistent line of principle which can be traced from Scotland to the Star Chamber speech and that James's thought has consequently had its most lasting effect on the relation in Anglo-American jurisprudence between common law and equity.
The Total S.A. Case: Meaning of “Investment” under the ILSA
Authors: Zedalis Rex J.
Published: April 2006

On March 7, 1995, Conoco oil company of Houston, Texas, announced that it had entered into a contract with Iran to have a Netherlands-based affiliate assist in the development of the Sirri Island oil field. In response, the Clinton administration issued Executive Order No. 12,957, prohibiting participation by U.S. entities in the development of Iranian petroleum resources. Eventually, Conoco withdrew from its contract, but in early May of 1995 the administration stepped up its pressure on Iran by issuing Executive Order No. 12,959, prohibiting U.S. entities from using foreign entities they owned or controlled to make investments in or conduct trade transactions with Iran. On July 13 of that year, the French oil company Total S.A. entered into an agreement with Iran to replace Conoco in developing the Sirri Island field, and over the next several months Iran struck nearly a dozen petroleum development agreements worth in excess of $50 million each with other foreign oil companies. Within a couple of months, both Houses of the U.S. Congress took up consideration of proposals to complicate Iran’s ability to develop its hydrocarbon resources. By the end of 1995, the proposals, which even extended to wholly foreign entities organized and operating outside the United States, had come to include Libya as well. Final passage of one of the proposals, specifically, H.R. 3107, took place in the Senate and the House in July 1996. It was signed into law as the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) on August 5.
Letter to the Editors of the Symposium
Authors: Koskenniemi Martti
Published: April 2006

As I started to think about how to respond to your kind invitation to participate in the symposium on method in international law, and what to write to the readers of the Journal, I soon noticed that it was impossible for me to think about my—or indeed anybody’s—“method” in the way suggested by the symposium format. This was only in part because I felt that your (and sometimes others’) classification of my work as representative of something called “critical legal studies” failed to make sense of large chunks of it whose labeling as “CLS” might seem an insult to those in the American legal academy who had organized themselves in the 1970s and early 1980s under that banner. You may, of course, have asked me to write about “CLS” in international law irrespectively of whether I was a true representative of its method (whatever that method might be). Perhaps I was only asked to explain how people generally identified as “critics” went about writing as they did. But I felt wholly unqualified to undertake such a task. Dozens of academic studies had been published on the structure, history and ideology of critical legal studies in the United States and elsewhere. Although that material is interesting, and often of high academic quality, little of it describes the work of people in our field sometimes associated with critical legal studies—but more commonly classed under the label of “new approaches to international law.“1 In fact, new writing in the field was so heterogeneous, self-reflective and sometimes outright ironic that the conventions of academic analysis about “method” would inevitably fail to articulate its reality.
International trade—WTO—quantitative restrictions—environmental protection—endangered species—U.S. import ban on shrimp
Authors: Oxman Bernard H. , Shaffer Gregory
Published: April 2006

United States—Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products.

World Trade Organization, Appellate Body, October 12, 1998.

In May 1996, the United States effectively prohibited imports of shrimp and shrimp products from all countries that do not require commercial shrimp trawlers to use turtle-excluder devices (TEDs) to permit endangered species of sea turtles to escape from trawling nets to avoid drowning. In January 1997, India, Malaysia, Pakistan and Thailand requested that the WTO Dispute Settlement Body establish a panel to determine whether this import ban, among other things, violates the prohibition on quantitative restrictions in Article XI of GATT (1994). The United States maintained that its import ban was permitted under the exceptions set forth in paragraphs (b) and (g) of GATT Article XX. Four turtle species that migrate in and out of waters subject to the complaining parties’ jurisdiction are listed as endangered under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and are covered by the relevant U.S. regulation.
Reconciling Extradition with Human Rights
Authors: Dugard John , Van den Wyngaert Christine
Published: April 2006

The human rights movement, which has had such a powerful impact on international law and relations in the post—World War II period, has in recent years turned its attention to extradition. Treaties, executive acts and judicial decisions on extradition have all been affected. At the same time, transnational and international crime has increased. The international community has responded by creating new institutions and expanding the network of bilateral and multilateral treaties designed to outlaw transnational crime, promote extradition, and authorize mutual assistance. Inevitably, there is a tension between the claim for the inclusion of human rights in the extradition process and the demand for more effective international cooperation in the suppression of crime, which resembles the tension in many national legal systems between the “law and order” and human rights approaches to criminal justice. As in domestic society, it is necessary to strike a balance between the two so as to establish a system in which crime is suppressed and human rights are respected. This was stressed by the European Court of Human Rights in the leading case on extradition and human rights, Soering v. United Kingdom, when it stated:

[I]nherent in the whole of the [European] Convention [on Human Rights] is a search for a fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual’s fundamental rights. As movement about the world becomes easier and crime takes on a larger international dimension, it is increasingly in the interests of all nations that suspected offenders who flee abroad should be brought to justice. Conversely, the establishment of safe havens for fugitives would not only result in danger for the State obliged to harbour the protected person but also tend to undermine the foundations of extradition. These considerations must also be included among the factors to be taken into account in the interpretation and application of the notions of inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment in extradition cases.
Important Improvements in the Functioning of the Principal Organs of the United Nations that Can be Made Without Charter Revision
Authors: Sohn Louis B.
Published: April 2006

In the last few years, many proposals have been made requiring either changes in the administration and financing of the United Nations or a revision of the Charter of the United Nations. While some progress has been made in the first category of problems, to the extent that they require primarily changes in the working of the United Nations Secretariat, it became quite obvious that a revision of the Charter is not likely to be made in the near future. It may be possible, however, to achieve important changes in the functioning of the principal organs of the United Nations—the Security Council, the General Assembly and the International Court of Justice—without revision. Pending a change in the international situation, various steps can be taken in the interim that would considerably improve the functioning of these organs, and achieve some of the desirable goals by measures that, while not ideal, will provide practical solutions for a few important problems. Several such solutions are investigated in the three sections of this essay.
Recent Practice of the Inspection Panel of the World Bank
Authors: Bissell Richard E.
Published: April 2006

The creation of the independent Inspection Panel in 1993 by identical resolutions of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association (World Bank or Bank) has been well analyzed elsewhere. What has not been noted is the actual practice of the Inspection Panel, as well as the evolving impact on international law of the cases brought before this innovative institution associated with the World Bank.
Application of Fifth Amendment to U.S. Constitution in international context—fear of foreign prosecution as ground for invoking privilege against self-incrimination—relevance of growing international law enforcement cooperation—role of U.S. judiciary in foreign relations
Authors: Oxman Bernard H. , Amann Diane Marie
Published: April 2006

United States v. Balsys. 118 S.Ct. 2218.

U.S. Supreme Court, June 25, 1998.

Resolving a long-open question, the U.S. Supreme Court held in this 7-2 decision that a witness in a domestic proceeding may not invoke the constitutional privilege against self-incrimination if the witness fears that the testimony may be used in a prosecution outside the United States. Although grounded in domestic law, the three opinions in Balsys reveal tension between the judiciary's traditional deference to the political branches in foreign relations matters and its concern over the risk that individuals subject to prosecution abroad will suffer deprivation of liberty because of that deference.
The Paradox of Melancholy Insight: Reading the Medical Subtext in Chekhov's “A Boring Story”
Authors: Gatrall Jefferson J. A.
Published: April 2006

Nearing death, Nikolai Stepanovich of Anton Chekhov's “A Boring Story” struggles with the question of whether his newfound pessimism results from recent illness or belated insight. While the novella's physiologistprotagonist never reveals his self-diagnosis, it can be surmised from a careful reading of his scattered symptoms in light of contemporary medical intertexts that he fears he is suffering from a diabetes of nervous origin, the etiology of which was first hypothesized by his real-life colleague, Claude Bernard. The search for a historical disease concept, however, far from resolving Nikolai Stepanovich's crisis of identity, opens onto an expanse of further problems, including the reduction of mind to body in post-Griesinger psychiatry as well as the social pathology of fin-de-siècle “neurasthenia.” Caught between the options of illness and insight, Nikolai Stepanovich follows the course of his own spiraling thoughts, which—in a paradox typical of a tradition of melancholia extending from Aristode to Sigmund Freud—seem to grow more penetrating the more his marasmus advances, yet unearth less meaning from his life the deeper they penetrate.
Italian Architects and Fascist Politics: An Evaluation of the Rationalist's Role in Regime Building
Authors: Ghirardo Diane Yvonne
Published: April 2006

The relationship between the thought and architecture of Italian Rationalists and the new Fascist state is commonly presented as a battle between revolutionary modernism and a reactionary regime. Most historians have ignored the ardent Fascism of the best architects, while others simply avoid the issue altogether and study the buildings as stylistic phenomena. This attitude in part derives from a post-war desire to extricate the best architects and their architecture from a thoroughly discredited political system. Consequently, the architects' own words about their architecture and their ideas about Fascist culture and the purposes for which their state-funded buildings were designed are ignored. Historians acknowledge that the Modern Movement in other European nations encompassed social programs, but Italian architecture of the inter-war period has been strangely exempt from discussion on this level. Despite years of heated polemics and debates during the 20s, Rationalists, traditionalists, and moderates in Italy reached a consensus on political and social objectives. The Fascist state claimed to offer revolutionary social programs, and the various architectural factions merely argued about the appropriate forms within which to house these programs. This article discusses the differences between the various groups of architects, examines the work and writings of some leading Rationalists with particular reference to Fascist notions of hierarchy, order, and collective action, and discusses the ways in which Rationalist architecture celebrated Fascism. It also offers an explanation for the fact that Modern Movement architecture received substantial state support in Italy as it did from no other major power in the decade before World War II.
The Matter of Metaphor: Literary Myths of Construction
Authors: McClung William Alexander
Published: April 2006

Since classical times, the dialectic of Art and Nature has found expression in architectural theories and practices that have claimed for the preeminent craft of Architecture the discovery of a system of correct design, construction, and ornament grounded in natural laws. The intellectual arguments that have made such systems plausible are rooted in assumptions about legitimacy in the choice and use of materials of construction, and assumptions about the right relationship of materials to structural function. Imaginative and ethical literature have most fully articulated these assumptions, although modernist architectural rhetoric sustains and renews them. In the Stoic eye, all craft is suspect as an illegitimate reordering of natural forms and natural processes; medieval esthetic systems may classify architecture as the bastard child of man and nature. The most effective and pervasive mechanism by which architecture has circumvented such strictures is the functionalist formula that in essence requires identity of content with form, of dweller with dwelling, of hollow with shell, as both a physical and a metaphysical unity. Such a metaphoric formula is realized fully only in imagination, finding its fullest expression in English estate poetry of the 17th century. There, a complex set of literary devices permits the formulation of ideal structures in conformity with natural law, however defined, drawing on broad paradisal myths as well as narrower historical and architectural quarrels to establish a permanent dichotomy between the "natural," "functional" structure and its contrary. In the exaltation of form over content, and in the rehabilitation of luxury in construction, modern architectural theory and practice has radically modified the classical formula, while retaining its essential terms.
The Vittoriale degli Italiani
Authors: Licht Fred
Published: April 2006

The relationship between art and politics has rarely been more deeply troubled than during the first half of our century. In the Vittoriale degli Italiani we have a peculiarly pure example of the insidious links between major trends of modern cizilization to the power-politics of Italian Fascism. Gabriele d'Annunzio's transformation of Nietzschean ideas into a degraded article of mass consumption and his adroit use of sensuous seduction give the Vittoriale the power to transmit even today some of the blandishments that allowed Fascism to flourish during the twenties and thirties. Whereas literary testimony of the era has lost its persuasive force, the more idiosyncratic visual vestiges of the period still exercise a dangerous but possibly also salutary fascination.
La Casa Baraccata: Earthquake-Resistant Construction in 18th-Century Calabria
Authors: Tobriner Stephen
Published: April 2006

After a series of earthquakes in 1783 destroyed thousands of buildings in Calabria, the Bourbon government which ruled southern Italy introduced a system of construction designed to minimize future damage and to save lives. The building system, called la casa baraccata, was based on the sophisticated notion that structures must respond to seismic disturbances as units. The system was based on an internal framework of wood members embedded in the rubble construction which was common in Calabria. Height limitations, foundations, and special "x" bracing to counter lateral forces were also part of the system that was invented in Calabria and promulgated as the construction code in 1785. It represents one of the earliest concerted responses to earthquake danger and one which was lauded by early 20th-century engineers as a practical means of providing safe construction in earthquake country.
William of Sens and the Original Design of the Choir Termination of Canterbury Cathedral 1175-1179
Authors: Draper Peter
Published: April 2006

The aim of this paper is to discuss the surviving evidence of William of Sens's original design for the east end of Canterbury Cathedral following the fire of 1174. The few published comments are reviewed, and hitherto neglected archeological evidence (here fully illustrated) is brought forward in an attempt to define the successive stages in the building history in order to reconstruct the designs that were superseded by the executed scheme. The present form and extent of the Trinity chapel are accepted as the work of William the Englishman but the correlation of the archeological evidence with Gervase's text shows that it was William of Sens who made the decision to raise the level of the Trinity chapel. By this means the shrine of Thomas Becket, by then the object of popular pilgrimage, could be elevated to a more honorable and conspicuous position in the church.
H. P. Berlage and the Amsterdam School, 1914-1920: Rationalist as Expressionist
Authors: Rovinelli H. Paul
Published: April 2006

After 50 years of neglect, the architecture of the Amsterdam School has been rediscovered. Increasing numbers of articles and exhibitions are evidence of a growing interest in this bizarre architectural movement which flourished briefly after World War I in the Netherlands, fueled by ambitious postwar emotions and subsidized by a sympathetic local government. The sources of this architecture are wide and varied-among them, the Art Nouveau, the English Arts and Crafts Movement, Dutch vernacular architecture, and even Indonesian art-but another, crucial, inspiration was certainly the work of H. P. Berlage. The question of an older architect's influence upon the generation that follows him is a classic topic in art history and, indeed, many writers on the Amsterdam School have discussed Berlage's contribution to the formal concerns of the movement. But little attention has been given to the influence that the work of the younger architects had in turn upon that of Berlage-an intriguing example of a teacher learning from his students. In fact, it appears that between 1914 and 1920, Berlage significantly expanded the metaphysical scope of his art, as an investigation of his work from those years makes clear.
"I Ragionamenti"-Visualizing St. Peter's
Authors: Licht Meg
Published: April 2006

Thirteen architectural drawings by four architects-Bramante, Baldassare Peruzzi, Giuliano da Sangallo, and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger-all dating from the period between early 1505 to 18 April 1506, all except one in the Gabinetto dei Disegni e Stampe of the Uffizi, and all connected with the earliest proposals for the new St. Peter's, are examined to establish their authorship and date and the exact sequence in which they were executed. Beyond that, the chronological alignment of the drawings enables us to follow the process of visualizing and creating a building of an unprecedented type and an extraordinary scale. The ground plans of several small-scale prototypes-such as the Audience Hall of the Piazza d'Oro at Hadrian's Villa, the Oratorio of Santa Croce (a tiny 2nd- or 5th-century structure that stood near the Lateran Baptistery until the end of the 16th century), and the 9th-century San Satiro in Milan-are combined with elements of larger-scale prototypes such as San Lorenzo in Milan and the cathedrals of Milan, Pavia, and Florence in the search for a plan and elevation that are both spacious and structurally sound, that sum up both Roman architectural achievement and the heightened unities of Renaissance church design. The main concern in most of these drawings is the delineation of the crossing, the baldacchino formed by the great piers and the dome they support, protecting the tomb of St. Peter and the altar of the Early Christian church. Although in nearly every drawing some attention is paid to the outer perimeters of the building and its internal spatial divisions, many of those decisions are left in suspense, particularly the question of whether the building is to be centralized or longitudinal. Bramante's main concern was to establish the scale of the crossing, the size and shape of the piers and their distance from each other. This nucleus, constructed up through the pendentive level during his lifetime, set the scale for everything that was to follow. In the absence of a definitive plan attributable to the Bramante/Peruzzi team, the pier designs of Uff. 529 A verso and of f. 1466 verso of the Rothschild drawing book, and the interior of the crossing as it appears in the perspective drawing Uff. 2 A, are the best evidence of Bramante's permanent contribution. The drawings considered here trace the experiments with shape and scale that led to the establishment of these elements.
Robert de Cotte and the Baroque Ecclesiastical Façade in France
Authors: Neuman Robert
Published: April 2006

The façade of St. Roch, Paris (erected 1736-1738), the last major work by Robert de Cotte, is often viewed as anomalous in an oeuvre devoted almost exclusively to the design of secular buildings. However, the recent discovery in Paris of certain drawings and related documents from de Cotte's studio (Bibliothèque Nationale; Archives Nationales; Bibliothèque de l'Institut) makes it clear that he confronted the problem of the Italianate ecclesiastical façade throughout his career, although only a few of the commissions were actually carried out. The various solutions, while rooted in French tradition, betray a strong interest in Italian church portals of the Late Renaissance and Baroque. The notes and drawings made by the architect during his Italian sojourn of 1689-1690 confirm this interest. A chronological review of the projects reveals that the design for the St. Roch portal was closely related to de Cotte's earlier experiments for church façades in Paris, Dijon, and Orléans; the Premier Architecte relied particularly on precedents set by Jules Hardouin Mansart, as well as on his own unexecuted project for St. Louis de Versailles (1724).
Sixtus V and the Scala Santa
Authors: Witcombe Christopher L. C. Ewart
Published: April 2006

Soon after his election as Pope in 1585, Sixtus V initiated the demolition of the ruinous Patriarchium Lateranense in order to build in its place the present Lateran Palace. Although much of the old palace was destroyed, the Chapel of St. Laurence, known as the Sancta Sanctorum, was preserved intact, and the Holy Stairs (the Scala Santa) were moved to a new location before it. It is argued in this study, using both published and unpublished documents and the visual evidence of frescoes depicting the Scala Santa in the Vatican Library, that the original project called for a simpler plan than that finally built, comprising only the Sancta Sanctorum, the Holy Stairs, and the two original lateral stairways from the Patriarchium Lateranense. In late 1587, it would appear, in order to accommodate Sixtus V's decision to upgrade the status of the sanctuary, this plan was enlarged to include two large rooms with chapels either side of the Sancta Sanctorum, and two additional lateral stairways. A chronology for the project is established and the dates for the decoration of the structure clarified.
Earthquake-Resistant Construction and the Wrath of the "Earth-Shaker"
Authors: Driessen J. M.
Published: April 2006

The writer investigates possible anti-seismic construction techniques used in Minoan architecture on Bronze Age Crete. The frequency of earthquakes in the Aegean seems to imply the presence of such techniques. Starting by noting the methods still in use in Turkey and other dangerous areas, the writer looks at the practice of projections and setbacks, the near absence of windows, room dimensions, roof and floor construction, the presence of partition walls, the size and number of stories, town planning, the presence of cornices and ring beams, and other construction details which helped to improve the anti-seismic capability of Minoan houses. Attention is given to the location of houses and to the question of whether or not the Minoans used these methods consciously. The writer believes they did, not only because of the frequency of these earthquakes but also because of the religious connotations and the existence of an architectural koiné in earthquake-stricken areas in the ancient Mediterranean and Near East, in contrast with Egypt.
The Westminster Hall Roof: A Historiographic and Structural Study
Authors: Courtenay L. T. , Mark R.
Published: April 2006

The great hall roof of the medieval palace at Westminster, which now adjoins the British Houses of Parliament, was erected c. 1395 by Hugh Herland and stands as one of the great achievements of English monumental carpentry. When the roof was built to span the vast un-aisled interior of nearly 68 feet, it was 50 percent wider than any previously known hall in England. Hence, this unique framing of unprecedented scale has long been regarded as a technological tour de force uniting engineering skill and visual elegance. For the last century and a half, Herland's framing, combining a great arch with a "hammer-beam" bracket, has been discussed for its remarkable structure, and a number of ideas have been suggested by English and Continental experts concerning how the great weight of the roof is sustained and which members of the truss are structural as opposed to those which are mainly decorative. Yet, despite recent analyses by prominent engineers, there is no consensus of opinion as to how the frame actually carries its load. From a review of the major literature, which forms the first part of our study, a number of important questions arise concerning the nature of the timber frame, the function of its primary members, and, particularly, the precise structural relationship between the roof and its supporting masonry. In order to address and resolve the major structural and historiographical issues, we have undertaken a new and more complete study of the Westminster roof that combines archaeological and historical research with two types of interactive model analyses. The initial model was carefully constructed of timber at 1:10 scale to conform as closely as possible to a transverse frame of Herland's truss. This model, instrumented with electric-resistance strain gauges, was used to determine the general behavior of the truss under loading and with three kinds of support conditions, corresponding to the conflicting theories examined in the literature. Using the data from the timber-model testing as a guide, we then refined the analysis with a numerical (computer) model. Our results have clearly resolved the major questions raised by previous studies and indicate that the roof derives its primary support from the masonry wall at the level of the heraldic corbels, upon which rest the massive timber wall posts. The load of the roof is carried nearly halfway down the walls by the combined action of the heavy hammer posts and the great arch rib. We also found that the angel hammer beams are in tension and that they function, significantly, to take horizontal forces off the top of the wall. Moreover, these findings are consistent both historically and structurally with other examples of English carpentry that preceded Herland's brilliant design for Westminster Hall.
Lutyens's Cenotaph
Authors: Greenberg Allan
Published: April 2006

The Cenotaph was one of a number of temporary structures erected on the route of the Peace Day Parade in London on 19 July 1919 to officially celebrate the end of World War I. Immediately after the unveiling ceremony, the base of the memorial was covered with flowers. For weeks after the parade there were queues of people waiting to place wreaths there. Pressure from the public to retain this memorial mounted. By the end of July the cabinet decided to recreate the structure in permanent materials and designate it Britain's official war memorial. This is a rare example of public acclaim for a design and of government acknowledging and responding to this expression of approval. The paper describes the history of the Cenotaph, charts the development of the design, and attempts to understand why it evokes such a positive public response.
The Geometries of S. Andrea al Quirinale
Authors: Smyth-Pinney Julia M.
Published: April 2006

The unusual complexities of the oval plan of Bernini's S. Andrea al Quirinale result from a series of variations founded in traditional Renaissance geometric method. Through the comparative analysis of new measured drawings of the church and existing archival evidence, the development of the design is traced from its initial Serlian beginnings to its final innovative resolution. Analysis of the drawings in conjunction with historical documents confirms Bernini's use of conservative geometric procedures and reveals the reasons for his subsequent departure from strictest practice. The manipulation of geometry, proportion, and dimension arose not only out of Bernini's concern for conceptual clarity and theoretical orthodoxy, but also from a desire to use geometry in the support of spatial organization. The geometry of the final design illuminates and underlines the essential simplicity of the interior and gives us a better understanding of Bernini's intentions for the viewer's visual experience.
Form and Function of the Side Chambers of Fifth- and Sixth-Century Churches in Ravenna
Authors: Smith Janet Charlotte
Published: April 2006

Side chambers-rooms flanking the apses of churches-occur throughout broad geographical areas in the Christian East, and within a wide chronological span, ranging from the 5th through 12th centuries. This article, however, will carefully examine the side chambers of only six 5th- and 6th-century churches clustered in the Ravenna/Classe region of the Western Empire. The side chambers of these churches have usually been seen as forming a close typological and chronological group whose existence is thought to prove the Byzantine influence on this late capital of the Western Empire. For this reason, the side chambers are often erroneously referred to as pastophoria. These chambers were not pastophoria, as the word is commonly used by architectural historians when referring to the side chambers of Middle Byzantine churches with specific liturgical requirements. Instead, they vary widely in both form and function; they seem not to be liturgically required; and they seem to have a specific iconography.
A Rereading of the Interior Elevation of Hadrian's Rotunda
Authors: Loerke William C.
Published: April 2006

The Pantheon, in particular the interior of the Rotunda, has posed a paradox: unrestrained praise for its overall effect; severe criticism for its interior elevation. The criticisms were rooted in a Renaissance perception of Roman imperial architecture, a perception based too heavily on a Vitruvian view of Hellenistic trabeate architectural design, largely irrelevant to the Rotunda. This view of the critiques of San Gallo the Younger, Michelangelo, Desgodetz, and Viollet-le-Duc leads one to the Roman aims of the Roman architect who designed this interior. I wish to show how the Hadrianic state of the Rotunda may be taken as a projection of the Roman idea of the templum mundi.
A Japanese Inspiration for Frank Lloyd Wright's Rigid-Core High-Rise Structures
Authors: Hearn M. F.
Published: April 2006

Frank Lloyd Wright's rigid-core high-rise structures, initiated with the project for the National Life Insurance Company building of 1924, have their closest structural and iconographical analogue in one type of Japanese pagoda, exemplified by that at Horyu-ji. This association signals a previously undetected instance of Japanese influence on Wright's work.
Julian of Ascalon's Treatise of Construction and Design Rules from Sixth-Century Palestine
Authors: Hakim Besim S.
Published: April 2006

This is a study of a treatise by Julian of Ascalon, an architect and a native of the Byzantine Palestinian coastal city of Ascalon and a contemporary of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (A. D. 483-565; reigned 527-565). There is some consensus that the treatise was written during the years 531-533, when the codification of Roman law that resulted in the influential Corpus Juris Civilis was undertaken upon Justinian's order. Julian's treatise is a compilation of construction and design rules that address the prevention of nuisances and potential damages to proximate neighbors resulting from building activities associated with change and growth in the built environment. The influence of the treatise endured intermittently for almost 1,400 years, first in Constantinople, then in the eastern territories of the Byzantine empire, and later in some Slavic countries; in Greece it survived well into the twentieth century. This is the first study to analyze the rationale and technical aspects of the prescriptions and design rules in Julian's important work.