bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Zionism
Authors: Hirsch Dafna
Published: December 2015

Zionism is the brand of Jewish nationalism that sought to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. Zionism is not a unified ideology but a cluster of movements and ideas, all of which share the belief that the Jews are an ethnic and not merely a religious group and that Palestine (the Land of Israel) is the Jewish homeland. An international Zionist Organization was established in 1897. Building on Jewish religious attachment to the Holly Land, the Zionist movement promoted the colonization of Palestine and the establishment of a Jewish “national home” there. The growth of a Zionist community in Palestine under the British Mandate for Palestine and Jewish triumph over the Palestinians in the war of 1948 culminated in the establishment of Israel, defined as a Jewish state. Zionism was also a movement of cultural revival, which sought to shape a new, Hebrew, national culture and a “new Jewish man.”
Risorgimento and Nationalism
Authors: Banti Alberto
Published: December 2015

The Italian Risorgimento is a national movement that flourished on the Italian Peninsula during the first half of the nineteenth century and led to the establishment of a unitary Italian state (1859–61). The movement conceived the idea of a nation founded on three main principles: the Italian nation as a community of origin (blood, land, language); as a gendered community (heroic fighting men/chaste wives and mothers); and as a sacrificial community. This conception is conveyed by popular narratives spread by means of historic novels, collections of poetry, paintings, prints, and above all melodramas.
CentralAsia
Authors: Levy David
Published: December 2015

Central Asia may refer to the five former Soviet Republics that lie between Russia, China, and the Caspian Sea, the six independent nations of the region if Afghanistan is included, and, in its broadest definition, the wider interior of Eurasia, including formerly independent territories and peoples that now constitute northwestern China such as the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. This entry will focus primarily on the territories that were annexed by the Russian empire in the nineteenth century and transformed by Soviet nationalities policy during the twentieth century. The article contains a brief discussion of the pre‐Soviet history of the region, the delimitation of contemporary national boundaries under Soviet nationalities policy, and the legacy of these combined periods in the contemporary countries of Central Asia.
Brazil
Authors: Bailey Stanley R.
Published: December 2015

Racial dynamics in Brazil are shifting. Once considered a racial democracy, or a context in which the pernicious effects of race had no place, today this society has begun to officially recognize and challenge racial inequality. Part of this process involves a move away from celebrating traditional racial ambiguity to embracing racial definition: the mixed‐race termmorenohas fallen out of favor in many spheres, and the racially affirmative termnegrohas taken center stage. Most significantly, race‐targeted affirmative action policy has been instituted across the country and in various institutions, perhaps most importantly in higher education. The motor behind these shifting dynamics appears to be the coming together of state and social movement actors for strategizing and enacting racially affirmative approaches for greater social equality. At the same time, public opinion research suggests that the majority of Brazilians support this new direction.
Asylum in the Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Campbell John R.
Published: December 2015

Asylum was created by the international community in the twentieth century to provide legal protection to individuals fleeing persecution by nation‐states; but the ability to realize it has been fundamentally reshaped by sovereign national interests in the twenty‐first century.
Authoritarian Personality
Authors: Pettigrew Thomas F.
Published: December 2015

The authoritarian personality is a psychological syndrome characterized by deference to authority, aggression toward outgroups, and strict adherence to cultural conventions. Nazi Germany inspired the initial conceptualizations in the 1930s, and a 1950 US study established the theory in academic psychology. A variety of well‐founded criticisms of the study deterred development of the theory until a revival of interest in the 1980s led to new research that overcame many of the initial problems. Today a robust authoritarian personality theory has emerged as important for understanding a wide range of issues relevant to race, ethnicity, and nationalism at the individual level of analysis.
Managing Human Capital in Not‐for‐Profit Organizations
Authors: Patrasc Lungu Adelaida
Published: December 2015

Human capital in not‐for‐profit organizations encompasses skills and knowledge volunteers and employees use for the purpose of creating economic and social value. It is seen as a critical resource often generating the highest costs and revenues. Thus, human capital management, through its elements of analysis and reporting that improve decision making, is of special relevance to human resource management. While the concept of human capital is credited to have emerged out of Adam Smith's work, the 1960s have been recognized as its peak period of development. The view that human capital produces a triple impact at the individual, organizational, and societal levels is a dominant one in the field. Some of the important conceptual and theoretical differentiations are those between human, intellectual, social, and organizational capital. So far as its training is concerned, human capital is categorized as: general on‐the‐job training, specific on‐the‐job training, schooling, and other knowledge.
Immigrant Women
Authors: Remennick Larissa
Published: December 2015

The gendered nature of the migration process and immigrant women's experiences emerged as a research focus only in the early 1990s. This entry follows the evolution of this research domain and highlights the main intersections between gender, family roles, the labor markets, and women's exploitation and empowerment in different migration contexts.
Sociobiology
Authors: van den Berghe Pierre L.
Published: December 2015

E. O. Wilson'sSociobiology: The New Synthesis(1975) and Richard Dawkins'sThe Selfish Gene(1976) marked a paradigm shift in behavioral biology and the social sciences. Sociobiology made the gene the basic unit of natural selection and “kin selection” or nepotism between close relatives the main source of sociality. It offered an elegant model for explaining both the similarities and the differences in the entire range of animal societies, from invertebrates toHomo sapiens. Its acceptance in the human behavioral sciences was reluctant and gradual, but it has now made substantial inroads in psychology, anthropology, and to a lesser degree sociology, political science, economics, and demography.
Social Work and Race
Authors: Moore Lisa L.
Published: December 2015

Social work and its relationship to race have evolved greatly from social work's legacy of segregated settlement houses in the early nineteenth through twentieth centuries. In the United States, social work has moved on from its early history of serving the needs of European immigrants to a profession that prioritizes the recognition of race and providing service to all people regardless of their race. In response to the segregation of settlement houses, black churches created their own settlements to address the needs of black migrants. Since this period social work has embraced critical race theory and social justice perspectives as central frameworks for understanding the role of race in all forms of social work practice—clinical, mezzo, and macro. Social workers strive to recognize and understand the role of race in the empowerment of individuals, families, communities, and organizations.
R
ex,
J
ohn (1926–2011)
Authors: Tomlinson Sally
Published: December 2015

Professor John Rex raised the study of sociology, social theory, and race and ethnic relations to new scholarly levels, inspiring many scholars and activists around the world through his teaching and writing. From his upbringing in apartheid South Africa to his founding, in England, of two sociology departments and a center for the study of race and ethnic relations, he remained committed throughout his life to ideals of social justice and fairness. His classic texts
Key Problems of Sociological Theory
(1961) and
Race Relations in Sociological Theory
(1983) explained the necessity of applying sociological understandings to issues of race and ethnicity.
Genetics
Authors: Schwartz‐Marin Ernesto
Published: December 2015

Genetics is the study of hereditary traits in populations and individuals. It is generally thought to be linked with genes (i.e., portions of DNA that codify for proteins); however, it is also very much interested in noncodifying regions of the genome that are informative of the variability within and between populations. A UNESCO statement of 1950 is commonly marked as the turning point between the “old” racial typological science and a “new” population‐oriented genetic research. However, historical work comparing the pre and post‐World War II periods of genetic science in Germany and elsewhere has shown a more complex story. Thus, the entanglements between race and genetics cannot simply be framed by the opposition of a historical and outdated race science against a modern value‐free discipline that studies biogeographic populations.
Born‐Global Firms
Authors: Knight Gary
Published: December 2015

A born global is a company that undertakes international business at or near its founding. Such firms may do business in twenty or more countries. International expansion typically occurs within three years after company founding. Managers in “born globals” typically have a strongly international orientation to business. Given their young age, born globals are usually small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) with relatively limited resources. The emergence of born globals is intriguing because, historically, international business was dominated by large companies. Today, however, most international firms are SMEs, and many of them internationalized within a few years of their founding. The rise of born globals was fostered by globalization and the emergence of information and communications technologies. Born globals may internationalize due to export pull or export push. The born global phenomenon is associated with the emergence of a new academic field—international entrepreneurship.
Slurs
Authors: Couch Todd C.
Published: December 2015

Constructed to dehumanize members of a racial or ethnic group, racial and ethnic slurs serve to degrade the individual. These emotionally laden descriptives elicit emotional responses often resulting in physical, emotional, and/or psychological trauma. Additionally, racial and ethnic slurs are key elements in episodes of racially and ethnically motivated violence such as ethnic cleansing. However, attempts have been made by targets of slurs to reappropriate slurs for positive use.
K
ossuth,
L
ajos (1802–94)
Authors: Deák István
Published: December 2015

Lajos (Louis) Kossuth, who was governor‐president of Hungary for four months in 1849, came from an old but poor noble family in what was then northern Hungary and is now part of Slovakia. He succeeded through sheer effort to become first a professional journalist and then a leading reformist politician in the Austrian‐dominated kingdom of Hungary. In 1848–49, he acted as leader of the Hungarians' struggle for an independent, nationalist liberal, and modernizing country. He and his armies lost the war against Habsburg Austria and tsarist Russia, yet he himself achieved world fame as a “champion of liberty.” During his visit to the United States in 1851–52, he seemed to have conquered a nation's heart with his magnificent English language oratory. Kossuth died in exile. Although historians and even the public disagree greatly about his achievements and shortcomings, he is still celebrated as one of the greatest Hungarian statesmen.
Historiography of Race and Racism
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

Histories of
racism
are to be distinguished from histories of
race
as a potential scientific concept, and from histories of
race
as a political idea. Histories of
racism
are often based on the idea of race current in the twentieth‐ or twenty‐first‐century United States. Histories of
race
struggle with the word's various uses in biology, in everyday social life, and its potential use in social science.
Johnson,JamesWeldon (1871–1938)
Authors: Cunnigen Donald
Published: December 2015

James Weldon Johnson was a leading figure in African American literature and civil rights during the twentieth century. He was the product of middle‐class upbringing in a moderate southern city, Jacksonville, Florida. Consequently his racial sensibilities were not enhanced until he entered Atlanta University and lived in Georgia. During his Atlanta years as a preparatory school and university student, he engaged in numerous debates and made a thorough examination of racial issues. His life is examined here from his early years through his later years—as diplomat in Latin American countries, as executive secretary at the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and as a noted poet, anthologist, and educator.
Antidiscrimination Laws
Authors: Solanke Iyiola
Published: December 2015

Antidiscrimination laws are used in many countries to protect individuals from disadvantageous treatment because they belong to, are associated with, or are perceived to belong to, groups that are stigmatized and marginalized. The basis of this stigmatization is a personal attribute that cannot be changed or can only be changed with great difficulty. These laws seek to secure equal treatment by preventing decisions being influenced by consideration of such attributes—such decisions are unlawful and punishable.
S
anskritization
Authors: Sadana Rashmi
Published: December 2015

Sanskritization is a theory of social change advanced by the sociologist M. N. Srinivas in 1952 to describe how upward mobility occurs in India's caste society, previously thought to be static. It is the process by which lower caste groups attempt to raise their status and position within the caste hierarchy by emulating upper caste social norms, such as the adoption of vegetarianism and the worship of Brahminical gods. The theory of Sanskritization recognizes the great regional variation of caste groups across linguistic, ethnic, and geographical boundaries, and the local power struggles that may shift a subcaste group's position in the hierarchy, even if it does not lead to any structural change in the overarching caste schema. The theory also reinforces the idea of a Brahmin‐centric society that relegates the lower castes to the role of imitators, thereby making it out of step with contemporary caste politics.
Denmark
Authors: Jensen Jason O.
Published: December 2015

Denmark is a country with a high degree of ethnic homogeneity but is now struggling with a new reality. The German‐speaking parts of the country were lost to Prussia in 1864 and Denmark was dominated by Danish ethnicity for the next century. Cultural identification with the nation is a condition of social acceptance. Since 1960 Denmark has seen a large influx of immigrants, mainly refugees and family reunions. Immigrants and their descendants now comprise 11 percent of the population, with 65 percent from nonwestern countries. The integration of immigrants is a politically charged topic and existing labor market outcomes for them are poor.
Immigration and Welfare
Authors: Simpson Bueker Catherine
Published: December 2015

Immigrant use of welfare programs is of increasing concern in many postindustrial, immigrant‐receiving societies around the world. This is the result of a confluence of factors, including increasing numbers of immigrants, the growth of the welfare state in the post‐World War II period, aging native‐born populations, and significant budget deficits resulting from a variety of economic crises in the twenty‐first century. Additionally, the diversity of immigrants, in terms of both country of origin and human capital, has increased, presenting greater challenges to host societies.
Sojourners
Authors: Grissom Valerie , Brislin Richard W.
Published: December 2015

The term “sojourner” refers to an individual who travels to another culture for a specified period of time to achieve a particular goal. Sojourners do not intend to permanently settle in another culture and plan to return to their culture of origin after completing the goals of their journey. Much of the research on sojourners has focused on the topics of acculturation, adaptation, and adjustment. All three involve continuing processes that result in changes in the sojourners in response to contact with a different culture. A number of individual‐ and societal‐level factors may influence these processes, resulting in the experience of greater positive outcomes or greater challenges. If sojourners embrace the challenges of intercultural experiences, acculturation, adaptation, and adjustment, there are benefits that may await them. To optimize sojourners' intercultural experiences, a variety of cross‐cultural training and education programs have been designed and advocated, and these have been documented to produce positive outcomes.
Beauty, Race, and Power
Authors: Mears Ashley
Published: December 2015

Like race, beauty is a social fact tied to physical perceptions of the body, which can confer or deny power. Perceptions of whiteness, beauty, and social status are linked through historic systems of racial dominance, such as colonialism and scientific racism. While beauty standards are rooted in racial oppressions, beauty practices are also means for individuals to resist racial domination, build communities, and transform the self.
N
yerere,
J
ulius
K
ambarage (1922–99) and
Ujamaa
Authors: Demulling Katrina
Published: December 2015

Julius Kambarage Nyerere was the first president of Tanzania. Nyerere's legacy is complicated. Revered as
the
Tanzanian nationalist, his policies did not result in economic success. His
ujamaa
ideology was a core aspect of what made Tanzania unique among African nations. He used this word to describe his desire for the whole nation to live as one family.
Armenians
Authors: Balakian Peter
Published: December 2015

Armenians have lived in the south Caucasus since the sixth century
bce
. Their lands were repeatedly overrun and plundered, and were often a battleground for competing empires. When, ca. 301
ce
, Armenia adopted Christianity as its state religion, the Armenian Apostolic Church became largely responsible for the continuity of Armenian culture. After the sixteenth‐century Ottoman Turkish conquest of Armenian lands, Christian Armenians, like all non‐Muslims in the Ottoman empire, were denied the rights afforded the Muslim population. An attempt by Armenians to negotiate better conditions with the crumbling empire intensified anti‐Christian enmity, leading to the 1915 genocide that left 1.2 million Armenians dead, and scattered the survivors. Despite the overwhelming historical evidence of genocide, the Turkish government denied its intention to eliminate its Armenian population, and continues to do so. Yet Armenian identity and culture survive, in the Republic of Armenia (1991), and sixty diasporan communities.
G
amio,
M
anuel (1883–1960)
Authors: Gutierrez Chong Natividad
Published: December 2015

Manuel Gamio was the founder of twentieth‐century indigenismo—a state policy regarding the assimilation of indigenous populations—an outstanding promoter in advancing the development of the nation‐state, along with Mexican nationalism, and he was a pioneer in the professionalization of anthropology in Mexico. Gamio created the first national anthropological institutions in the country and was an advocate for the social causes of the Mexican indigenous populations.
Massive Resistance
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

When the US Supreme Court issued itsBrown v. the Board of Educationdecision declaring an end to segregated schools, the south, under the banner of “massive resistance” challenged the ruling and declared that the south would resist any attempt to desegregate southern schools. Labelling racial segregation as a part of its southern heritage, Virginia sought to rally the south and threatened to close all public schools rather than desegregate. Despite the fervor of the movement only one school district, Prince Edward County in Virginia, opted to close its public school system.
D
u
B
ois,
W
.
E
.
B
. (1868–1963)
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was a sociologist, historian, and philosopher born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. He attended Fisk University, where he received his BA in 1888; then he received a second BA from Harvard University in 1890, which also awarded him an MA in 1891 and a PhD in 1895 for the dissertation
The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870
. Between 1892 and 1894 Du Bois studied at the University of Berlin. This experience would have enduring consequences on both his personality and his scholarship, though by his own testimony both Fisk and Harvard had already shaped much of his views on race, class, sociology, history, and philosophy. Du Bois's scientific and philosophical astuteness is clearly seen in his prophetic and prescient statement that the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color‐line.
Reparations
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

Reparations refer to the actions of an aggrieved nation, group, or individual to seek redresses and compensations for the loss of land, money, works of art, jewelry, or other valuable objects, due to the actions of a country, group, or another individual. The claim of those seeking redresses or reparations is that their property was knowingly and willfully stolen and they now seek a just payment for their loss.
Immigrants, Undocumented
Authors: Tracy Natalicia R.
Published: December 2015

Labor migrants follow the global distribution of economic opportunity across transnational space, becoming undocumented when they fall foul of national immigration laws governing entry, residence, work, and citizenship. Immigration statuses are frequently homologous with ethnoracial hierarchies, with barriers maintained against unwanted ethnoracial groups and official favoritism shown toward privileged groups. Termed undocumented, irregular, or unauthorized, these migrants are deeply integrated into the host society's social and economic life; in labor markets; through incorporation into “mixed status” kinship networks; and in service roles to host society families, homes, businesses, and property. They are often under surveillance, and everyday life activities such as driving, eating out, working, and taking public transportation can become criminalized and carry risk of detention and deportation. Racialization, discrimination, and exclusion are ever present in the shifting regimes of immigration policy that construct particular ethnoracial migrations as undocumented or “illegal.”
Settler Societies
Authors: Pearson David
Published: December 2015

Settler societies were historically formed from the colonization of territories and peoples by empires, predominantly but not exclusively European, whose migrants had intentions to settle and build self‐sustaining states and subsequent distinct nations. The descendants of these settlers have generally remained politically dominant over indigenous populations and other immigrant ethnic minorities, although various political strategies and modes of exclusion and inclusion have developed within increasingly diverse racial, ethnic, and class‐divided societies. These circumstances have generated ongoing debate about whether such states should be considered decolonized, post‐settler societies or postcolonial situations reflecting enduring settler domination.
Senghor (1906–2001)
Authors: Vaillant Janet G.
Published: December 2015

Senghor was the first African elected to the prestigious French Academy and the first postindependence African president voluntarily to give up power. He was a much‐published poet, wrote political and philosophical essays, and served as a prominent leader of French West Africa's independence movement. He became Senegal's first president in 1960. Senghor developed and tirelessly promoted the concept of negritude, arguing that black Africans possessed a distinctive identity and culture that had much to offer the world. His poetry presents his experience as an African, a black man in a world dominated by Europeans, and a pioneer into the multicultural world of the late twentieth century.
World Conflict
Authors: Fellman Gordon
Published: December 2015

Wars of the past century or so address economic and political conflicts and, increasingly, ethnic and religious conflicts. The scope of war seems to be decreasing from a level of “macro‐war”) to a level “micro‐war,” as terrorism and drone attacks replace massive civilian deaths and warriors' deaths in conventional war. Drone attacks are “proactive” by promoting (so far) policy objectives of governments, while terrorism seems more commonly to be “reactive” against economic and political effects of the world economic order culminating in globalization. At the basis of this change are the structural realities of the ending of the Cold War, the downsides of globalization, social–psychological realities of the anger that fuels “conflict structures,” and yearnings for community. Cross‐cutting all these forces and structures is the growing appeal and influence of nonviolence as an alternative method for resolving world conflicts.
T
urkey
Authors: Çitak Zana
Published: December 2015

Turkish nationalism emerged in the first quarter of the twentieth century as a response to minority nationalisms that struck the Ottoman empire in the nineteenth century and in competition with other approaches such as Ottomanism and Islamism. Whether Turkish nationalism is civic or ethnic has long been debated. Given the many contradictions it displays, it is perhaps best to define it as an ambivalent type. Since the 1990s, Turkish nationalism has been challenged by identity politics, bringing to the fore particularly Islamist, Kurdish, and Alevi demands for recognition.
Russia
Authors: Tolz Vera
Published: December 2015

Perceptions of the concepts of ethnicity, nation, and race in Russia have historically been shaped by two factors: the specificity of the imperial state framework and a dialogue that Russian intellectual and political elites have been conducting with their European counterparts. The concept of nation was borrowed from Western Europe in the eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth wide‐ranging debates began about how to define the Russian nation in relation to an ethnically and socially diverse dynastic empire. Post‐1917, the Soviet state launched an unprecedented project of fostering the ethnonational identities of its population at the substate level, unwittingly preparing for the eventual disintegration of the country along ethnic lines. In the post‐Soviet period, Russia's leaders have been confronted with the task of resolving a historically rooted contradiction between an inclusive vision of multiethnic Russia as a community of all its nationalities and Russia as primarily an ethnic Russian homeland.
European Union
Authors: Westin Charles
Published: December 2015

The European Union (EU) is a supranational organization of twenty‐eight sovereign European states. This entry gives a brief historical background to the EU, focusing on territorial enlargement and political and organizational consolidation. Important treaties establishing the EU are listed and the seven institutions of governance are presented. The Schengen agreement on the borderless internal area and the European Monetary Union are mentioned as examples of supranational achievements. European legislation against discrimination, human rights issues, and the fight against racism are mentioned in closing.
Romanians
Authors: Leustean Lucian N.
Published: December 2015

Romanians have inhabited the territories of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, Crişana, Maramureş, Banat, Bukovina, Bessarabia, and Dobrudja since the Middle Ages. Romanian nationalism was the political product of various factors, such as the political interests of the European empires in southeastern Europe, the political opportunism of the Romanian elite, and historical circumstance. The Romanian communities were situated at the intersection of the geopolitical interests of the Russian, Ottoman, and Habsburg empires. Unification of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 is considered the starting point of the Romanian state‐building process, which reached its climax in 1918 when the Romanian‐inhabited territories united to form Greater Romania. After World WarII, Romanians embarked on a distinctive form of national communism during the People's Republic (1947–65) and more assertively during the Socialist Republic (1965–89).
Martial Races
Authors: Rand Gavin
Published: December 2015

Under imperial rule, various South Asian communities were identified as “martial races” and extensively recruited to the colonial military. Recruits from these communities, including Nepalese Gurkhas and Punjabi Sikhs, provided the bulk of the military forces that sustained British rule in India through the late‐nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Several such communities continue to provide significant sources of recruits. Martial race theories—which posited that only certain Indian groups were capable of undertaking military service—were widely circulated in imperial culture. Such theories reflected contemporary notions of “racial science” but also helped to rationalize imperial reliance on native recruits.
S
panish–
A
merican
W
ar of 1898
Authors: Kapcia Antoni
Published: December 2015

The war between Spain and the United States was actually the final stage in a struggle between Cuban rebels and Spanish colonialism, which had produced two previous rebellions and a growing involvement of Cuba's black population. In 1895, a third rebellion began and soon spread across the island, despite a gross inequality between the combatant forces. The destructive tactics of the rebels and the ruthlessness of the Spanish strategy aroused concern in the United States, where Cuba had long figured prominently in political and strategic debates. That concern was now fanned by a growing lobby for territorial expansion and by the new popular press, campaigning about the (then) mysterious explosion of the
USS Maine
in Havana. The resulting US war was brief and, though more evenly matched on land, decisive at sea. But the outcomes for all three combatant peoples were very different.
M
artineau,
H
arriet (1802–76)
Authors: Masters Patricia A.
Published: December 2015

Harriet Martineau was a major contributor to the emerging discipline of sociology in the nineteenth century. For over a century, Martineau's work was unrecognized, and it was not until 1962 when Seymour Martin Lipset published an edited and abridged version of Martineau's 1838 book,
How to Observe Manners and Morals
, that she received recognition as the first woman sociologist. Martineau's contribution to the new discipline included a comprehensive guide to conducting systematic qualitative sociology. Her guide is as useful for contemporary sociologists going into the field as it was for early sociologists. Martineau was a prolific observer and author, and her books and articles laid the foundations for the major subfields of sociology: religion, gender and racial inequality, occupations, and disabilities. The focus of this entry is her work on slavery and her emergence from curious observer to strong advocate for abolition in the antebellum period.
Black Spirituals
Authors: Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

Black spirituals, also known as Negro spirituals, have a rich history and heritage in the Americas. Referred to as “the sorrow songs of slavery” by W. E. B. Du Bois, many believe black spirituals contained coded languages and symbols that helped slaves communicate with each another and relate their stories of triumph and salvation. These stories were passed down from generation to generation and served as pivotal elements of the ethnic, cultural, and religious foundations of the African American community. Black spirituals continue to play a role in the African American community in the twenty‐first century, and there are continuous and seamless ties that link the spirituals sung in the Americas and the spirituals sung in Africa and other parts of the world populated by people of the African diaspora.
A
frica, Sub‐Saharan
Authors: Kaye Julie , Kaye Tony
Published: December 2015

Theories of ethnicity and identity formation in Sub‐Saharan African appear on a continuum between primordial and constructivist perspectives. While primordialist theories attest to the lasting nature of ethnic identity, the constructivist approach opposes the notion of ethnic rigidity by recognizing the relative historical context at work in shaping perceptions of self and racial identity. In response to claims that the primordialist–constructivist dialectic fails to supply foundational knowledge of ethnic identities, a third, syncretistic, stream of research in racial identity avoids the epistemological deadlock by including both constructed and essential aspects in ethnicity.
Aryan
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

The word “Aryan” was used in the early nineteenth century to identify a language. Some authors then employed it to identify an ancient people and speculated that they had been a superior race. The word's meaning was infected by the prominence accorded to it in Nazi racial theory.
Civilizing Processes
Authors: Mennell Stephen , Górnicka Barbara
Published: December 2015

The theory of civilizing processes originated in the writings of Norbert Elias (1897–1990) and has been considerably developed by “figurational process sociologists” in the research tradition following in his footsteps. The concept of civilizing processes is widely misunderstood in sociology today. In this entry we explain the technical and actual meaning of the concept, as well as the theory of “established–outsiders relations,” which arose from the concept of civilizing processes and is directly linked to the studies of race and ethnic relations.
B
angladesh
Authors: Zeitlyn Benjamin
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a brief introduction to national identity in Bangladesh. It begins with a description of the emergence of the notion of a unified Bengali people linked to the land of Bengal, a reaction to colonialism that merged western ideas of nationhood with local concepts. This is followed by a discussion of nationalism in Bangladesh, linked to the political history of the country, noting the relationships between nationalism and religious, linguistic, and ethnic identities. These relationships define different and contested interpretations of nationalism in contemporary Bangladesh and frame how they map onto political positions. Finally the article examines exclusions from mainstream nationalism in Bangladesh.
Myths of Ethnic Descent
Authors: Smith Anthony D.
Published: December 2015

Myths of ethnic descent are essential components of ethnogenesis, the processes through whichethnies(ethnic communities) are formed and persist. At a later stage, they may remain central myths of the ethnic culture of the “ethnic core,” or dominantethnie, of nations. As with all myths, these are often fictive elaborations of ancient traditions of ancestral clan origin. Widely believed and deeply embedded, myths of ethnic descent are instrumental in defining the ethnicity of the community. Myths of ethnic descent of nations tend to be more complex, layered, and overlapping. But some of these ethnic myths are more ideological than genealogical: they trace their ancestry through cognate sets of ideas. Hence, myths of ethnic descent chart both fissures and rival national projects in the community and the contrapuntal interplay of competing ideologies that ultimately serve to strengthen the solidarity of the community and the distinctiveness and authenticity of the nation.
Race, Changing Historical Conceptions of
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

The word “race” has been used in Western European languages since the fifteenth century. The meaning given to it has changed. It was first used in the sense of “lineage.” Then, in the nineteenth century, there was a fierce dispute about whether race was equivalent to “species” or “variety” in the Linnean taxonomy. After Darwin, conceptions of race divided into the biological and the social. In the twentieth century race was replaced in biology by the concept of “phenotype.” In social life, it gave rise to the conception of “racial relations” and to the use of “race” in laws against discrimination. Its place within sociology is disputed.
V
olk
Authors: Leerssen Joep
Published: December 2015

Volk
is the German equivalent of “nation.” This entry charts its meaning and the checkered history of its political usage, ranging from radical democracy to Nazi racism.
C
havez,
C
esar E. (1927–93)
Authors: Orosco José‐Antonio
Published: December 2015

Cesar Estrada Chavez was a Mexican American labor leader and, along with Dolores Huerta, a founder of the United Farm Workers union. Chavez was known for his philosophy of pacifism and his commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience, especially hunger fasting.
Migration, Ethnic Conflicts, and Racism
Authors: Scherschel Karin
Published: December 2015

This entry describes some of the main research topics in migration studies and related fields such as ethnic conflict and racism. Migration studies emerged as an area of sociological research at the beginning of the twentieth century. Since then a broad range of approaches has been developed. Migration, ethnic conflict, and racism are multidimensional social phenomena. The complex nature of the interaction between these phenomena invalidates any simple model to explain their relationship. Migration, racism, and ethnic conflict are part of the globalization process and should be studied in the context of social inequality.
W
illiams,
F
annie
B
arrier (1855–1944)
Authors: Jo Deegan Mary
Published: December 2015

Fannie Barrier Williams was an innovative and controversial orator, activist, and writer who analyzed the lives of African Americans, especially women, in America. She studied the “new Negro” woman and her clubwork, community activism, and leadership established the foundation for the Chicago renaissance.
NationalAssociation for theAdvancement ofColoredPeople (NAACP)
Authors: Sartain Lee
Published: December 2015

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is the longest operating civil rights organization in the United States. It was established in 1909 and continues into the twenty‐first century fighting modern forms of racism. The NAACP is best known for arguing the US Supreme Court caseBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, decided on May 17, 1954, which legally desegregated schools in America. Working in conjunction with other organizations such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the NAACP was a central tenet of the civil rights movement. It has provided both legal expertise in the constitutional battle for rights and the financial resources in the direct‐action campaigns of the 1960s.
Transnationalism and Citizenship
Authors: Robertson Shanthi
Published: December 2015

Transnationalism is both a theoretical and a methodological position. It rejects the nation‐state as the boundary unit of social analysis and foregrounds the connections and practices linking social actors and institutions across national borders (Vertovec 2009). Transnational approaches to the study of international migration and ethnicity since the 1990s have transformed ideas of citizenship. They have destabilized concepts of citizenship as a singular and territorially bound form of political membership and as a manifestation of political agency that occurs primarily at local and national levels. This has given rise to new questions about the changing relationship between states, territories, and transnational subjects.
Quebec
Authors: Zubrzycki Geneviève
Published: December 2015

Nationalism in Quebec can be divided into three periods: Canadiens' republican nationalism (1800s–1840s), French Canadian ethnoreligious nationalism (1840s–1960), and Québécois territorial and linguistic nationalism (1960s–). After the failure of republican insurrections in 1837–38, the national project was reoriented around ethnocultural survival, with Catholicism becoming an important national marker. During the 1960s' Quiet Revolution a new generation of activists advocated the modernization of the nation though the provincial state, whose functions and institutional infrastructure were radically expanded. It was during that decade that French Canadians living in Quebec adopted the name “Québécois” to reflect a new secular, territorially based identity primarily articulated around language. In the mid‐1970s, proposals for sovereignty entered mainstream politics. Two referenda were held on the question but lost (1980, 1995). After the focus on language policies in the 1970s–1990s, the most significant debates today concern the place of religion in the public sphere.
B
ritain
Authors: Linstrum Erik
Published: December 2015

It is often said that class is to Britain what race is to America—the original sin that warped politics and culture in the past and remains the central division of social life today. But this commonplace suggests a portrait of racial and ethnic homogeneity that is far from accurate. In fact, the shifting boundaries of the British polity have contained a multitude of identities across the centuries. Two forces in particular have contributed to this diversity: the union of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland in a multinational state and the existence of a vast overseas empire that encompassed diverse populations across the world. Ideas about race, ethnicity, and nation took shape in response to the juxtapositions and contradictions of British life: provincial and polyglot, unified and fractious, insular and global.
Outsider‐Within
Authors: Michael Ryan J.
Published: December 2015

Patricia Hill Collins's idea of the outsider‐within has quickly become a classic among feminist theories. Developed primarily in her book
Fighting Words: Black Women and the Search for Justice
(1998), the term was originally used to describe the location of individuals who find themselves in the border space between groups; that is, who no longer have clear membership in any one group. Rather than static positions, these locations contain a number of contradictions for the individuals who occupy them. While individuals in these unique locations appear to be members of the dominant group based on possession of the appropriate qualifications for, and apparent rights of, member standing, they do not necessarily enjoy all of the experiential benefits afforded to formal members. Collins uses the example of blacks in the United States; while they have basic citizenship rights, they are often treated as second‐class citizens.
Basques
Authors: Irujo Xabier
Published: December 2015

The land of the Basques has been inhabited ever sinceHomo sapiensarrived in what today we call Western Europe. While the origin of the Basques remains a mystery, most authors agree that they were the first inhabitants of Europe and that their language is not related to any other in the world. Guided by utilitarianism, the Basques organized and regulated labor in line with the concept ofauzolan(cooperativism) and are known to have produced one of the first proto‐democratic legal systems in the European Middle Ages. The fact that Basque women have had a superior legal and socioeconomic status than women in other European societies has led various authors to argue that the Basque culture was and still is a matriarchy. Two centuries of political conflict have provoked a massive Basque exile to the Americas, home of the Basque diaspora for the hundreds of thousands of Basques living outside their homeland. Proud of their culture, the Basques are currently immersed in the process of engineering a prosperous social and economic future for their people as a means to keep their language and traditions alive in the new pan‐European political arena.
V
erwoerd,
H
endrik (1901–66)
Authors: Hammett Daniel
Published: December 2015

Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, South African academic and prime minister, was recognized as the chief architect of apartheid. Drawn into politics through his involvement with white poverty and Afrikaner nationalism, Verwoerd was a pivotal figure within the National Party, a driving force in the Department for Native Affairs in the 1950s, and a key advocate of separate development. While prime minister he oversaw South Africa's move to a republic and suppressed internal dissent and African nationalism. Having survived an assassination attempt in 1961, he was killed by a parliamentary messenger in 1966.
Australia, White Australia Policy
Authors: Moran Anthony
Published: December 2015

The White Australia Policy was a series of policies excluding and discriminating against non‐European nonwhites from the beginning of Australia's federation in 1901 through to the late 1960s. It was based on beliefs about race and its importance for national unity. The aim of the policy was to defend Australia as a white, British nation. Apart from beliefs about race, the Australian labor movement also supported the White Australia Policy because it was believed that the presence of nonwhite labor would drive down wages and conditions. Restrictions on nonwhite immigrants became politically difficult after World War II, leading to the gradual dismantling of the White Australia Policy.
State Corporatism
Authors: Ho Ming‐Sho
Published: December 2015

State corporatism, which encompasses the long‐standing theory and practice of interest organizing, is a form of authoritarian control where the government preemptively organizes social members into exclusive associations claiming to be their sole legitimate representative. The modern definition of the concept was coined in a 1974 article by Phillipe C. Schmitter who saw it as a system of representation of political and economic interests, although subsequent scholarship adopted a less structural perspective by seeing it as a form of political exchange. More recent views focus on the demise of state corporatism as a consequence of the process of democratization which empowers challengers to dismantle this device of control from the bottom up.
Ethnicity versus Race
Authors: Lee Shiao Jiannbin
Published: December 2015

Ethnicity versus race is a conceptual distinction between different criteria for classifying humans, the social processes that transform those criteria into social realities, and positions in a debate on the goals of ethnic/racial studies.
Black Middle Class in
S
outh
A
frica (“Black Diamonds”)
Authors: Ballard Richard
Published: December 2015

The transition from apartheid to democracy has been associated with the changing class structure of South Africa and, in particular, the growth of the black middle class. The upward mobility of particular sets of “native,” “bantu,” “African,” or “black” people (as they were variously named) was an economic and social fact since colonization. However, twentieth‐century politics was ultimately defined by the promotion of “European” or “white” upward mobility ahead of other racial groups. Since this political project ended in 1994, the growth of the black middle class is seen as positive, not only because it undoes these social hierarchies but also because it brings into being a virtuous set of people who can contribute to the development of the country. Yet the transgressive nature of this group also results in its place in society being questioned.