bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Self-Directed T Groups for Elementary Teachers: Impetus for Innovation
Authors: Brenner Avis Manno
Published: March 2006

Recent research indicates that teachers who share ideas about professional practices are also likely to experiment with educational innovations. Yet, in many Anierican elementary schools, teachers are isolated, each in his own room, precluding effective sharing of resources. This study attempted to induce innovations by encouraging groups of teachers to discuss their professional practices during six zveekly meetings in self-directed T Groups. Memnbers used mimeographed Guide Sheets to take themnselves step by step through exercises designed to (a) develop ties of affiliation, (b) inlcrease knowledge of colleagues inventions, (c) develop norms favoring innovation, and (d) encourage actual use of new ideas. Nine elementary schools (169 teachers) in six suburban districts near New York City cooperated. In each building the faculty was divided into two experimental treatments and a control group. Procedures for both treatments were parallel, but the content was limited to classroom practices for one and to parent-teacher relationships for the other. A check of events during the T-Group meetings showed that teachers learned about colleagues' innovations in five sessions, felt closer to other members during four meetings, and tried some innovations. Norms favoring innovativeness did not develop. Reports of both treatment groups showed that they had tried significantly more innovations than had the controls during the final two weeks of the project. However, in terms of classroom practices, differential effects were found among the buildings, favoring schools where the sessions had produced more knowledge than average about new methods. As expected, once the regular group meetings stopped, all gains in both knowledge of colleagues' new ideas and in experimentation with innovations disappeared. In these schools, weekly self-directed T Groups uapparently functioned with some effectiveness to encourage the utse of innovations by elementary teachers.
A Comparison of Management Development and Organization Development
Authors: Burke W. Warner
Published: March 2006

In an attempt to dispel the confusion that has arisen about the conceptualization and practice of organization development (OD), it is here compared with a more familiar strategy for change in organizations-management development. This comparison is made with respect to six dimensions: reasons for use, goals, typical interventions, time frame, staff requirements, and values. The author concludes that the organization of today needs both strategies and that they are, in fact, complementary. Management development is conceived to be one of several interventions available in an OD effort.
Teacher Training Designs for Improving Instruction in Interracial Classrooms
Authors: Chesler Mark A.
Published: March 2006

Teacher training programs are among the variety of efforts utilized to meet the challenge of school desegregation and to improve the quality of interracial education. This article details some of the underlying assumptions of teacher retraining efforts-both inservice and preservice-and ties them into ongoing problems of racism in public schools. In addition to delineating targets of change or retraining, the article provides examples of various strategies for change, including the presentation of written and audiovisual materials, laboratory training sessions, diagnostic studies and feedback, formation of internal confrontation and problem-solving teams, and others. The strategies cannot stand by themselves, however; in use they must be integrated into other attacks on the structures of racism in our schools.
Efficacy of Empathic Communication Training Groups for Inner City Preschool Teachers and Family Workers
Authors: Bierman Ralph , Carkhuff Robert R. , Santilli Muriel
Published: March 2006

A brief empathic communication training program, integrating shaping and feedback with modeling and experiential procedures, was implemented with Head Start preschool personnel. The Head Start professionals and nonprofessionals increased their empathic responsiveness over the training period from an average starting level of essentially ignoring others' feelings to an average posttraining level of nearly reflective responsiveness to others' feelings. The trainees evaluated the communication workshops, in comparison with a seminar on preschool program content, as having made a greater contribution to their effectiveness in work and to their conceptual development.
Experimental Evaluation of Sensitivity Training
Authors: Bare Carole E. , Mitchell Rie R.
Published: March 2006

This study was undertaken to: (1) determine whether significant behavioral changes occur as a result of sensitivity training, and (2) compare the effectiveness of three sensitivity training group time patterns: spaced (an average of 30 hours spaced over a period of approximately lo weeks), massed (an average of 24 hours in one continuous training session), and a combination (a weekend, with 10 hours spent in training, followed by five two-hour sessions once a week and terminating with another weekend).

Behavioral changes were measured by individually constructed rating scales. The criterion scores included self, trainer, and group member ratings, as well as an independent assessment by outsiders who knew the individual well.

Experimental subjects showed more rated behavioral change (p < .oi) than did control group subjects at the conclusion of training and after a three-month follow-up period. The data also indicate at the short post that the combination pattern of time was more effective than the spaced pattern, but no inter-pattern differences were significant at the three-month follow-up.
The Political Context of Social Change: A Case Study of Innovation in Adversity in Jerusalem
Authors: Torczyner Jimmy
Published: March 2006

This case characterizes an attempt by a group of change agents working within the system to rearrange political relationships by developing alternative, nontraditional bases of support in pursuing a social goal. The change agent, employed by a public agency, is faced with the perennial problem of adjusting and adapting what he wants to do with what he can do. The constraints are large ones indeed. Public agencies using public funds are given fairly stringent guidelines for their implementation. Policy is arrived at through a series of political, social, economic, and legal considerations. It is structured so that policy makers can control the implementation of their goals. The activist formulates policy differently. Knowing the specific circumstances and needs of the community he serves, his policy formulations are primarily directed to provide the resources to ameliorate those specific problems. Often the resultant policies conflict with the policy makers both with regard to goals as well as implementation. In such a case the advocate, seeking to work within the system, must find methods to realize his goals by developing alternative bases of support. The Jerusalem case demonstrates some of the ways in which this can be achieved and some of the organizing characteristics necessary to bring it about.

The style of the change group differed fundamentally from the style adopted by those who opposed the innovation. The opposers dealt from an established position of strength. They sought to utilize and maintain a powerful political consensus and to thwart the innovation. The change agents, having little formal authority and less active political support, sought to gain strength by appealing to a moral consensus. Despite the politics, despite coalitions, five disadvantaged youths were being mistreated. Moral issues, as this case illustrates, have a strong influence on the Israeli public. The strategy of the change agents was to demonstrate in a clear-cut manner the effects of an administrative and political decision, to "take those effects to the people," and, in the process, to develop a public force which would overcome the administrative decision-and do something to heal the social ills of a large city.
Crisis Intervention in a Municipal Agency: A Conceptual Case History
Authors: Goodstein Leonard D. , Boyer Ronald K.
Published: March 2006

This article is a conceptual case report of a consultation to the Health Department of the City of Cincinnati, an organization in crisis. The consultant's role was one of assisting the organization in the diagnosis and understanding of the current crisis and of developing action recommendations.

Despite a crisis climate which reduced their initial credibility, the consultants were able to earn sufficient temporary trust to gain access to the necessary information on the important issues facing the organization and to influence the actions taken. The authors identify consultation behaviors which enhanced the effectiveness of their intervention in this crisis situation.

A central issue in this consultation was the identification of the client to whom the consultants were responsible. Recognizing the deep-seated problems inherent in the Health Department as it then existed and the difficulties in implementing changes in such an organization, the consultants began to see their responsibility as not to the organization but to the entire community at large.2
The Experiential Group and Society
Authors: Back Kurt W.
Published: March 2006

The emergence of experiential groups is seen as an expression of society, as a message to be decoded about its nature. Using Basil Bernstein's (1970) classification of group and grid systems of organization and communication, encounter groups are shown to be an example of low group (no boundaries)/high grid (emphasis on interpersonal relations). This condition can be interpreted as a reaction to the low group/low grid condition of contemporary symbolic-rejecting society. It is usually a very unstable situation, characteristic, for instance, of intense millenarian movements. The form which the encounter group movement has taken is also an expression of the nature of the society: namely, the scientific language, the emphasis on means as contrasted with ends, and the importance of small groups. These features seem to point to necessary developments within the encounter movement, independent of the rationalizing claims of practitioners.
The Community-Based Welfare System: An Alternative to Public Welfare
Authors: Gottschalk Shimon S.
Published: March 2006

The New Society cannot be created solely among the affluent and well educated. The poor, who more than all others are victims of the present social order, must join in the invention of alternative institutions. An alternative to the existing system of Public Assisttance is proposed which seeks to institutionalize new concepts of work, employment, equality, and community. A theory of social change which leads from the identification of cognitive alternatives toward the reformulation of basic societal norms and values is implicit.
The Centerville Fund, Inc.: A Case Study in Community Economic Control
Authors: Stein Barry A.
Published: March 2006

Community development corporations (CDCs) are new institutions which substitute collective for private ownership and combine social goals and functions with economic development for the poor. In part, a response to OEO-funded community action agencies, which have not lived up to expectations, CDCs are designed to reduce local economic dependency and increase individual and community power. A specific CDC, the Centerville Fund, Inc., is described with particular regard to its relationship to the community and its attempt to combine business and social goals. Its four years of experience suggest that the idea is feasible, and that it is applicable to more affluent citizens and communities.
Time, Emotion, and Inequality: Three Problems of Participatory Groups
Authors: Mansbridge Jane J.
Published: March 2006

Many social change organizations have in the past 10 years begun to function as "participatory democracies"-making their decisions directly, face to face, by consensus, and with a presumption of equality among the members. In spite of the practical, psychological, and moral advantages of this form of organization, certain problems recur. This essay examines three of those problems: the greater length of time involved in decision making, the greater emotional intensity of the interaction, and the persistence of ingrained inequalities of influence-and suggests concrete ways that groups may deal with the issues involved.
Interpersonally Skillful Bank Officers View Their Behavior
Authors: Leader Gerald C.
Published: March 2006

The study focuses upon two dimensions of particularly effective interpersonal behavior in an organizational setting. Bank officers who saw themselves as expressive and assertive, depending on the demands of the situation, were judged by their superiors as more interpersonally skillful than those capable of only one or neither of these two kinds of behavior. This dual ability extended to interactions with clients, colleagues, superiors, and a generalized work style. The findings for this context describe the nature and quality of interpersonal skill required for on-the-job effectiveness, and thus provide an empirical basis for improving organizational functioning through specific interpersonal behavior skill training.
Interpersonal Challenge: A Source of Growth in Laboratory Training
Authors: Andrews John D. W.
Published: March 2006

This study tests the hypothesis that growth in human relations training is furthered by working through challenging personal relationships. A high-challenge relationship is one in which the parties hold expectations that are not fulfilled by the other's behavior, so that interaction is problematic. In this study, interpersonal expectations and behavior styles were measured with Leary's Interpersonal Check List. Greater individual growth, as measured by a "Critical Incidents" Questionnaire, occurred in high-challenge dyads; groups that made the greatest progress according to trainer ratings contained many high-challenge pairings. In highgrowth groups, a greater proportion of energy and activity was focused on high-challenge relationships than in low-growth groups.
A Structural Approach to Organizational Change
Authors: Luke Robert A. , Block Peter , Davey Jack M. , Averch Vernon R.
Published: March 2006

Management strategies of organizations often rest on the assumption that close control of individuals-through various forms of reward and punishment-is the most effective way to accomplish objectives. The change effort described herein is keyed to the concept that education, training, and support can also enable an organization to accomplish its objectives. The case explains the process by which the management-attitudes, behavior, and structures-of a retail food organization underwent a change from close control of employees to a form of training and consultation for employees.

Measured by indices of profit and productivity, as well as indices of employee attitude and morale, the project was successful. The case also demonstrates that such a change in management strategy requires the involvement and commitment of people at all levels and that, in the final analysis, the real change agent is the client himself.
An Interview with Max Pages
Authors: Tichy Noel
Published: March 2006

Max Pages, 47, grew up in Paris, where he studied philosophy and mathematics at the Sorbonne, and then turned to psychology. He obtained a one-year scholarship to work and study in the U.S. The main event of that year was a summer trimester working at the University of Chicago with Carl Rogers, who had a lasting influence on his further thinking and work-in spite of many differences. Back to France in 1951, he worked for six years with CEGOS, a large consulting firm, where he tried to adapt nondirective methods to training and started social change experiments within firms (notably a 5-year program within a department store chain). In 1958 he left CEGOS and founded ARIP, an independent group of social scientists, out of a desire for a clearer professional identity and more freedom. Simultaneously he joined the University, climbed up the University hierarchy, passed his Ph.D., and published two books, L'orientation non-directive en psychothédrapie et en psychologie sociale and La vie affective des groupes. From there on he has divided his time with difficulty in three parts: teaching, active experiences in training and social intervention, and writing. His constant preoccupation has been to link his own personal and professional development with theoretical reflection, where he tries to integrate various influences, European and American, psychoanalysis, Marxism, existentialism.... He believes social scientists must overcome the tragedy of an internal split within their field, to be more able to understand and act upon the complexity of social phenomena. After the 1968 "May Revolution" in France, he underwent a deep personal and ideological crisis, out of which he left ARIP, no longer believing in a noncommitted professional role. He is now Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Paris-Dauphine and President of the Laboratoire de Changement Social. He is working on a volume entitled "Contradictions and change" and has contributed a number of articles to various books and journals in France, U.S.A., England, Italy, and Germany.
Collateral Organization: A New Change Strategy
Authors: Zand Dale E.
Published: March 2006

The claim that managerial flexibility is essential makes more sense to managers and is more relevant to organizational development than the claim that traditional forms of organization should (or will) be displaced by more humanistic, participative forms. Managers can readily understand that finding solutions to different problems calls for different modes of organization. This article outlines a new change strategy-a collateral organization; i.e., a parallel, continuously coexisting organization which a manager can use to supplement his or her existing formal organization. Collateral organizations have norms differing from those usually in force, are used to identify and solve apparently intractable problems, and are carefully linked to the "regular" organization. No new people are required.

Two cases illustrate application of the concept, which is also discussed in relation to matrix organizations, task forces, and temporary systems.
Power in Groups: Self-Concept Changes of Powerful and Powerless Group Members
Authors: Archer Dane
Published: March 2006

The failure to find unequivocal relationships between small-group participation and self-concept changes may be due, in part, to undetected mediating variables. That is, it may be that groups do not have either uniformly positive or uniformly negative effects on self-concept-but that both occur systematically in groups as a func-tion of specifiable and measurable aspects of each group member's experience.

One possible mediating variable, power or dominance, was investigated in this study of 102 members of six self-analytic groups. Power seemed to be a fairly robust antecedent or predictor of the direction of self-concept changes: those high in power changed toward a more positive self-concept and those low in power changed toward a more negative self-concept.
Power and Conflict in the Student-Teacher Relationship
Authors: Jamieson David W. , Thomas Kenneth W.
Published: March 2006

Adopting a power-conflict perspective on change, this study examines some parameters of power and conflict in the classroom. Questionnaire data were collected from high school, undergraduate, and graduate students on their teachers' bases of power and their own methods of handling conflict with teachers. Results highlight the imbalance of power between students and teachers and the prevalent use of coercion by teachers at the high school and undergraduate levels. This uise of coercive power is shown to be negatively related to student satisfaction, learning, and the extent to which teacher influence transcends the classroom. Despite considerable dissatisfaction, students at all levels report relative passivity in attempting to change what occurs in the classroom.
Litigation: A Strategy for Attaining Equality in Public Education
Authors: Sanchez David
Published: March 2006

When common sense and fairness are unable to effect change concerning a school issue, litigation finally moves the system to undo its bureaucratic red tape and alter its language admissions requirements to accommodate Spanish-speaking high-ability students who were not being treated equally in the existing system.
Power Diffusion in the Public Sector: Collaboration for Democracy
Authors: Gardner Neely
Published: March 2006

Change agents will need to make value judgments about the propriety of initiating actions that influence the balance between the survival and well-being of the government employee (public servant), the organization, and the private citizen. It is only by examining the power force-field of public sector officials and agencies that we can understand the basic difficulties and contradictions in the task of social power diffusion.
Toward a Viable Environmental Movement
Authors: Bryan William L.
Published: March 2006

An adequate and effective environmental movement must focus on resolving problems in the relationship between man and his natural environment in a way that will end human exploitation. Once the environmentalist has set overall humanitarian goals, he should follow the strategies of successful political activists, such as choosing a poputlar issue, building grassroots support, timing, crisis precipitation, flexibility, and openness to legal aid or negotiation. In short, the "environmental professional" man must become the "political" man (or woman) in order to promote human welfare, argues the authora committed activist.
Male Power and the Women's Movement
Authors: Polk Barbara Bovee
Published: March 2006

The power relationship between females and males is explored using four differing perspectives found in the contemporary women's movement: analysis of socially defined sex roles, conflicting cultures, power analysis, and the socialist perspective. The sources of male power suggested by these perspectives are identified, and the varying activities of the women's movement are discussed in terms of their potential impact on these forms of power.
Legitimate Power and Illegitimate Revolution: A Third-World Dilemma
Authors: Wilson Reginald
Published: March 2006

"Rebellion arises equally from objective and subjective conditions. The rebel perceives an imbalance in the allocation of resources or access to power, and is outraged to find that imbalance sanctified by a definition of himself as unworthy of or, more subtly, as unready for those resources or power. Relative scarcity and racist justification are thus conjoined in the rebellious upheavals of the Third World." Yet both the advantaged and disadvantaged are socialized to accept the legitimacy of the status quo. According to the author, the truly committed social or behavioral scientist must become aware of the contradictions evident in the theories he has been trained to believe in and the concrete social conditions of oppressed people. He must lead the way in rethinking the concepts of Authority and Equality for man. He must build new "conceptual mansions" that will transform Man and bring about a new Society of useful individuals and nurturing institutions.
A Longitudinal Study of Flexi-Time Effects: Some Consequences of an OD Structural Intervention
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T. , Hilles Rick , Kagno Munro S.
Published: March 2006

This study describes the implementation of a flexible work-hours program and analyzes some of its major effects, using both attitudinal and "hard" data. It thus both reports an unusual kind of OD intervention, i.e., a structural one, and discusses specific outcomes of a particular version of a design that is currently being widely applied, though typically on the basis of only anecdotal evidence and without the support of (OI) values and methods.

The study yields a substantial optimism, but one rooted in caution: Both the "hard" and the "soft" data indicate that the structural intervention "worked," but the data do not tell us how much its obvious and persistent impact was the result of the intervention as a technique and how much it was a function of the culture of the host organization, which had been exposed to a range of activities based on OD values. The researchers believe that much of that impact derived from client acceptance of OD values, which found expression not only in the work-hours design itself but also in the dynamics of the implementation of that design. It is clear at least that Flexi-Time installations are intimately affected by the culture and values of organizations in which they are located. Hence the emphasis here on caution as well as optimism, inasmuch as definitive comparative research is not yet available.
The Shadow Consultant
Authors: Schroder Marjan
Published: March 2006

To the author the term shadow consultant denotes a consultant who, at the request of a colleague and by means of a series of mutual discussions in which he uses a socio-scientific approach, helps evaluate and, if necessary, change the diagnosis, tactics, or role adopted in a certain assignment. The reciprocal responsibilities of shadow consultant and consultant and the possible pitfalls encountered by each role occupant in relation to the client are covered in this essay by a practicing professional often called upon in the "shadow" mode. Whether help to a fellow professional is more effectively given informally or on a contract basis and whether the client should be told are other issues raised in this article and the Comments that follow.
Implementing Open Housing Laws Through Social Action
Authors: Saltman Juliet
Published: March 2006

In spite of the passage of federal open housing legislation in 1968, residential segregation practices continue across the country and are extremely resistant to change. The author reports the use of survey research data-making public the results of audits of racial discrimination in housing in one city over a two-year period-as a motivating force to bring about actual compliance with the law.
Evaluation Research: Possibilities and Limitations
Authors: Angrist Shirley S.
Published: March 2006

Evaluation research offers several benefits: scientific formulation of a policy problem, measurement of key variables, and-a signal whether important social changes are occurring. Evaluation of social programs seems to answer two kinds of questions well: (a) does it matter if we choose one program over another? and (b) can we alter the number of people in a given social category? The limitations of evaluation lie in the minimal effects of most programs and in the reactive nature of both the program and the evaluation. A theory of evaluation research that indicates the possible types and amounts of impact created by various kinds of social programs, as well as the differences between long-term and short-term effects, is needed, argues the author.
Goal Setting, T-Group Participation, and Self-Rated Change: An Experimental Study
Authors: Adler Nancy E. , Goleman Daniel
Published: March 2006

Choice of a goal for self-change and participation in a T Group were varied in an orthogonal design in an experimental study of the relative effects of goal selection and T-Group participation. The Ss were high school seniors assigned for one semester to one of four conditions: I) both T Group and change goal, II) T Group but not change goal, III) neither change goal nor T Group, or IV) change goal but no T Group. At semester's end all Ss evaluated themselves on their change along the goal dimensions. It was found that students who had participated in a T Group showed significantly more change toward their selected goal than those who had not (F = 6.8, df = 1.32, p < .05). An unanticipated finding was the negative effect of the goal-setting exercise; goal selection seems to have limited the overall benefits of T-Group participation, and for those students who set a goal but did not have T-Group experience, the goal selection seems to have had a negative effect on their global change as well as on their progress toward their change goal. It was concluded that the "revolution of rising expectations" may operate on an individual as well as on a community level; potential change agents should be aware of the dangers this may create.
Social Desirability as an Intervening Variable in Interpreting OD Effects
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T. , Munzenrider Robert
Published: March 2006

The data obtained imply the usefulness of taking "social desirability" (SD) differences into account in interpreting any effects of OD interventions measured by self-reports. Broadly, SD differences can mask measurements of such effects, especially in before vs. after designs. High SD scorers seem to provide preintervention responses that reflect the socially acceptable rather than what exists, and these responses consequently constitute an unreliable benchmark against which to compare postinter-vention responses. The Crowne-Marlowe SD scale is used to assess SD differences between individuals.

This report deals with a measurement issue, and specifically in relation to Likert's Profile of Organizational Characteristics. The results apply strictly to uses of the Profile, which is a prominent measuring instrument in OD work. However presumptively, the present findings are also meant to "cast their shadow" on interpretations of various other self-reports used to measure OD effects.
Differential Effects of Multiple Interventions in an Organization
Authors: Nadler David A. , Pecorella Patricia A.
Published: March 2006

An organization development effort spanning several years in one organization is reexamined in order to assess the differential effects of interventions. The findings illustrate how organizational change efforts can have different effects upon different groups within an organization. Significant differences among hierarchical levels of the organization are found in satisfaction with several aspects of the work environment, the most important finding being the relatively low levels of satisfaction among supervisory and technical workers. Supporting clinical data identify the lack of an integrated change program, the failure to adequately structure supervisors into change activities, and problems in the management of participation as possible sources of the differential effects. Recommendations for the design of interventions are made, and the conclusion is reached that there is a need for the application of more systemic models of change combined with more comprehensive measurement of the effects of interventions.
Perceptions of Others After a T Group
Authors: Hofstede Geert
Published: March 2006

Sixty managers attending an executive course responded to questionnaires specifying their perceptions of the needs for improvement of themselves and of their bosses. Half of the group, randomly assigned, answered before participating in a 3-day T-Group program and the other half, immediately after. When the responses were compared, it was seen that the perception gap between perceived "self" and "boss" improvement needs in the interpersonal area was wider after training than before. From this finding and an analysis of the literature, it is argued that T-Group programs tend to have a negative influence on perceptions of outsiders and that this effect may be functional as well as dysfunctional in Organization Development.
OD Reaches Adolescence: An Exploration of Its Underlying Values
Authors: Friedlander Frank
Published: March 2006

"I am trying to understand the identity, potentialities, struggles, and dilemmas of OD by exploring a set of values and philosophies which underlie it and have contributed to its development. The interplay of three values-rationalism, pragmatism, and existentialism-is described as a means toward this understanding. All three values are essential ingredients of OD; yet each lends to OD a different and sometimes contradictory identity.
Social Scientists in the Poicy Process
Authors: Frank James E. , Smith Richard A.
Published: March 2006

Concern with how social scientists can participate more fully in the policy process has led to the development of a number of normative models of participation. These models differ significantly in prescribing the types, range, and timing of inputs by social scientists into the formulation of policy. Three such models described in this paper are viewed as inadequate prescriptions because they fail to account fully for the political nature of the policy process and the conditions under which social science knowledge may be needed but not demanded within a political environment. The authors argue that social scientists must pay increasing attention to the conditions under which a demand for their inputs may be generated. Demand for information is discussed in terms of some of the factors that may stimulate it, including various combinations of means-ends consensusldissensus. It is suggested that each of the normative models of social science inputs is appropriate only under different conditions of consensus.
Measuring Change and Persistence in Human Affairs: Types of Change Generated by OD Designs
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T. , Billingsley Keith , Yeager Samuel
Published: March 2006

There is a truism about applied research that an inadequate concept of change leads to diminished or misguided applied research. Hence this paper urges distinguishing kinds of change, distinctions which are suggested by experience and also are supported with evidence generated by exotic statistical and computational techniques in which we have been engaged. An immediate pay-off of making such distinctions is more definite reliance on existing research findings, whose interpretation is necessarily related to their underlying concept of change. More central still, the goal is to facilitate the design and evaluation of efforts to improve the human condition and the quality of life, especially in organizations.

Initially, conceptual clarification of "change" will show that at least three kinds seem distinguishable. Later, data from a study of a "successful" Flexi-Time intervention will be used to test these conceptual clarifications. Detailed statistical analysis will support the broad position that a unitary concept of change is inappropriate and may be seriously misleading.
Applied Social Research in Industrial Organizations: An Evaluation of Functions, Theory, and Methods
Authors: Van De Vall Mark , Bolas Cheryl , Kang Tai S.
Published: March 2006

Intervening variables are analyzed for their impact on the transformation of social science intelligence into organization policies. Functions, structures, theories, and methods of applied social research are found to have a direct bearing upon the type and degree of utilization of research results in organizational decisions. Each of the four variables illustrates differences not only in procedures or instruments but also between the values and goals of applied and academic social research. The growing emphasis in academic circles upon methodological perfection and the growing integration of applied social research into organizational policies is bound to widen the discrepancy in values between the two professions, argue the authors. The message for the social researcher who wishes his data to be utilized is implied in the concluding section of this paper, which draws upon the results of a study of applying social science research to organizational change projects in the area of industrial and labor relations in The Netherlands.
Analysis of Group Composition Research and Theory for Psychotherapeutic and Growth-Oriented Groups
Authors: Melnick Joseph , Woods Martha
Published: March 2006

The research on group composition for psychotherapeutic and growthoriented groups is reviewed and analyzed. The survey of the literature consists of a sampling of clinical observations and reports and a review of premature termination studies, group-therapy process studies, and laboratory group research. The social microcosm, dissonance, cohesion, and supportplus-confrontation models of group composition are presented and evaluated. Lastly, the findings and their implications for the composition of groups are discussed.
The Effects of Specific Cognitive Structure on Early Group Development
Authors: Bednar Richard L. , Battersby Charles P.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of three pregroup cognitively mediated messages on early group development. The different messages focused on (a) goal clarity, (b) behavioral instructions, and (c) persuasive explanations. After receiving different combinations of these content messages, all subjects participated in an experiential workshop on interpersonal relationships. The study employed a randomized design with a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Analyses of variance and co-variance procedures revealed that specific behavioral instructions were associated with higher levels of group cohesion, more favorable attitudes toward group experiences, higher frequencies of work-oriented interpersonal communications, and lower frequencies of conventional and socially appropriate communications.
Consultation in Institutions for Child Development
Authors: Glaser Edward M.
Published: March 2006

The study upon which this paper is based explores how child-care institutions implement new programs and practices. Specifically, in what ways do institutions that develop and implement exemplary programs differ from those that do not? And how can consultation help the less effective institutions improve their practices? Subsequent questions deal with what conditions should hold before an organization can be expected to profit from consultation and the probable influence of each consultant's theory base, orientation, and personal style on the process and outcomes of a consultation. Four child-care institutions were selected to receive consultation. To each institution was assigned a professional consultant. Although each differed from the others in theoretical approach and operational style, all agreed on a common goal: to help the institution become more effective in terms of its stated mission vis-a-vis providing services to children. Each institution had approximately 40 days of direct consultation. Subsequent to the series of consultations, an independent evaluation assessed the outcomes. The course of each of the consultations, the evaluator's findings, and the insights derived from the entire study are discussed.
The Effects of Feedback and Commitment to Change on the Behavior of Elementary School Principals
Authors: Burns Mildred L.
Published: March 2006

This article reports an experimental study of the effects of feedback and commitment to change on administrative behavior. The experiment was designed to test the differential effectiveness of giving three kinds of feedback, both Ideal and Actual, Ideal-Only, and Actual-Only, in initiating positive behavior change, and to examine the effects of those treatments under three "commitment" conditions. It was conducted in a stratified random sample of public elementary schools of California. Chi-square analyses and examination of patterns of positive change show that Ideal-Only was the most effective and Actual-Only the least effective type of feedback given. In some instances, Actual-Only Feedback appeared to inhibit positive change. The condition of stated commitment to "work on" particular principal behaviors tended to inhibit positive change.
Participation and Influence in the Planning of Educational Change
Authors: Firestone William A.
Published: March 2006

In this study, personal interviews of key people, observation of documents and events, and a mail-out survey were used to piece together the opportunities for participation and influence which teachers actually had (or thought they had) in a rural district school system that was planning an educational innovation and competing for federal funds to finance it. The barriers to staff influence are detailed, as well as social control mechanisms used by management (in this case the superintendent and the federal government), in order to gain their particular-sometimes divergent-objectives. The consequences of staff participation without influence for later implementation are documented, and some strategies to reduce resistance to change by lower staff are suggested.
Rural Poverty and Economic Development: Lessons from the War on Poverty
Authors: Bould Sally
Published: March 2006

The operation of antipoverty programs in rural areas is investigated in the context of the assumptions and objectives of the President's Commission on Rural Poverty as well as in the light of Gans's theory concerning the "positive functions" of poverty. Specific evaluations of Community Development Corporations, rural manpower programs, and rural low-income cooperatives suggest that these efforts have not been successful in reducing rural poverty. Further evidence, in connection with Nixon's proposed Family Assistance Plan and also the federal farm programs, lends support to the hypothesis that local elites have not only resisted changes in the rural status quo but successfully lobbied against them in both the legislative and the bureaucratic process. If the future is to be more successful than the past, policy researchers must be involved in program redesign, implementation, and feedback; ultimately, however, achievement of the desired goals requires more successful lobbying on the part of all those interested in social change.
Marginality and the OD Practitioner
Authors: Browne Philip J. , Cotton Chester C. , Golembiewski Robert T.
Published: March 2006

The study on which this article is based demonstrates the usefulness of exploring the cognitive maps of OD practitioners, especially their marginality orientations in relating to groups. The approach taken differs from the usual approach to marginality, which stresses its negative and undesirable features. The authors' contrasting view is that marginality can be associated with personal qualities of neutrality, open-mindedness, and flexibility in processing information, all of which can be useful and desirable, both personally and organizationally. A new topological approach measures the perceptions of marginality of a large sample of internal and external OD practitioners. The results indicate that significantly more external OD practitioners report marginal orientations than do internal OD practitioners.
Individual and Organizational Correlates of a Temporary System
Authors: Keith Pat M.
Published: March 2006

Futurists predict increasing use of temporary systems and hypothesize concomitant stress, strain, and altered role relationships. This exploratory study considered individual and organizational correlates of a temporary system designed to effect change in 24 metropolitan schools. Findings, based on interview and questionnaire data from participating teachers, indicated that performance of a new, temporary role in a diversified role set was correlated with job-related tension. Turnover in the temporary system created a group of perpetual neophytes with accompanying liabilities of newness for the organization. Settings of high turnover were characterized by more role strain among participants and lower productivity.
It Doesn't Matter If You Win or Lose, Unless You're Losing: Organizational Change in a Law Enforcement Agency
Authors: Boss R. Wayne
Published: March 2006

This study reports the results of a 4-year organization development project in the Metro County Sheriff's Department. Interventions included confiontation team-building sessions, management training, process consultation, survey feedback, thirdparty consultation, technological interventions, methods of increasing accountability, and changes in the organization structure, the physical setting, and the policy formulation procedures. Results include considerable improvement in organization climate and leader effectiveness, a marked decrease in employee turnover and jail breaks, a significant improvement in the managerial ability of the Department administrators, and a substantial increase in resources allocated to the organization.
The Decline in Confidence in Amenrca: The Prime Factor, a Research Note
Authors: Etzioni Amitai , Diprete Thomas A
Published: March 2006

Over the past two decades Americans have been losing confidence in a variety of institutions, including business, government, medicine, and education. However, a statistical analysis shows that two-thirds of variance is not due to specific institutional attributes-but shared by all those studied. Also, as expressions of great confidence in institutions decline, the percentages of individuals scoring high on an alienation index, which reflects general rather than specific attitudes towards society and its leaders, increase. Thus, declining confidence is, to a large extent, not institution specific, but reflects disaffection with American society as a whole. Efforts to restore confidence, therefore, must focus on this comprehensive disaffection. They should uproot alienation by encouraging a firm sense of identification with social purposes and a strong commitment to fulfilling them. This dual sense of purpose and commitment will not be effective if it is the product solely of national elites, but will have a comprehensive impact only insofar as it results from widespread individual and group action directed at increasing the overall responsiveness of society to its citizens.
Evaluating the Impact of Federal Human Service Programs with Locally Differentiated Constituencies
Authors: Edwards Patricia Klobus , Orden David , Buccola Steven T.
Published: March 2006

Evaluations of large-scale federal programs require innovative methodological approaches for several reasons: (1) funds are often allocated by jurisdiction as opposed to needs; (2) local interpretation of program goals may vary widely; (3) target populations are often locally differentiated; (4) administrative organization and strategies for service delivery vary at the local level. A study of federally subsidized small-farm programs revealed a broad diversification of strategies and a range of client attributes both within and between local target populations, suggesting the need for an analytical model which would address program variation.

Typical-client profiles were developed based on expectations that a given strategy would have differential effects dependent on client characteristics. Regression analysis was then used to assess the effect of program attributes on outcomes for each client group. Our results indicate that the strength of the relationship between program strategies and outcomes varies by group. The methodological approach used here should have broad application for the evaluation of large-scale human service programs.
Self-Expression at Work: A Theory-Based Questionnaire Instrument
Authors: Markham William T. , Bonjean Charles M. , Corder-Bolz Judy
Published: March 2006

This paper describes the development, validation, and application of a theorybased questionnaire instrument for the measurement of the congruence of organizational conditions with individual predispositions toward work. Using data from 829 employees in six offices of a government agency, an instrument grounded in personality and organization theory was shown to be useful in organizational assessment and development. The instrument was shown to be internally consistent and to provide a measure of self-expression in organizational participation which related to other variables as predicted by personality and organization theory.