bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Treason: “ 'Tis Worse than Murder”
Authors: Taylor Stan A. , Buchanan Kayle
Published: September 2010

This article investigates the origins of concerns about treason and the evolution of laws to prevent it. It also discusses the relationship between trust and treason and the role of trust in the development of democratic societies. The article also differentiates the legal definition of treason and the word that is more commonly used. It also discusses why traditional treason laws are rarely used to prosecute traitors as well as the development of anti-espionage laws. The article concludes with a discussion on the various motivations for treason and the changes that have occurred in those motivations.
The Role of Defense in Shaping U.S. Intelligence Reform
Authors: Clapper James R.
Published: September 2010

This article discusses the intelligence-reform movement since the 9/11 attack. It particularly places emphasis on Defense Intelligence reforms. The article also explores the role of the Defense Intelligence in shaping and implementing law and executive guidance and policy. It also discusses how long-term, trusted relationships between key intelligence officials in place during 2007 to 2008 were a critical factor in events moving successfully through a number of contentious policy issues. The article ends with some views on the future directions of research in this field in order to bring the intelligence-reform movement to fruition.
Rethinking the State Secrets Privilege
Authors: Fisher Louis
Published: September 2010

This article discusses the concept of state secrets privilege which is designed to prevent private litigants from gaining access to agency documents sought in cases involving National Security Agency (NSA) surveillance, extraordinary rendition, and other intelligence programs. Before the Reynolds case, the Supreme Court recognized the state secrets privilege. Over the past half century, federal judges gave “deference” to the executive claims on sensitivity and confidentiality of agency records without ever looking at the disputed document. However in 1953, the Supreme Court was misled by the government. Since then, there has been an interest in having Congress enact legislation to assure greater independence for the federal judiciary and provide a more even playing field for private litigants.
Accounting for the Future or the Past?: Developing Accountability and Oversight Systems to Meet Future Intelligence Needs
Authors: Farson Stuart , Whitaker Reg
Published: September 2010

This article discusses the development of accountability and intelligence culture. It begins with the contentious issues that have prevailed in the field of intelligence. It defines the use of certain terms such as accountability and responsibility within the context of intelligence. The article also looks at how systems of oversight and accountability have developed in Canada's longest and most enduring intelligence partners. The focus here is on the causes, legislative practices, and shortcomings. Following the discussion on the systems of oversight and accountability in Canadian intelligence, the article proceeds with a discussion on how Canada has developed its own systems. The emphasis here is on the external procedures and independent institutions. The purpose in this section is twofold: first, is to illustrate that even close allies have followed different paths and, second, is to show that Canada, while initially getting off to a sound start, has failed to keep pace not only with its key intelligence allies but also with the changing threat environment. Finally, the article suggests what a system of oversight and accountability that will meet Canada's future needs might look like and what it would do.
Ethics and Professional Intelligence
Authors: Andregg Michael
Published: September 2010

This article discusses the ethics in the profession of intelligence. This article begins with the order goals of true intelligence professionals as differentiated from the thieves and thugs who work for other secret institutions of today. It focuses on what distinguishes the agents of malignant and murderous police states from intelligence professionals who work for legitimate governments and for the good of all. It also discusses how the theoretically moral intelligence professional navigates severe dilemmas such as torture and assassinations in carrying out their task. The article also considers the significance of ethics in the land of deception, betrayal, and occasional death, and where the stakes are high that all rules seemed disposable.
Intelligence in the Developing Democracies: The Quest for Transparency and Effectiveness
Authors: Bruneau Thomas C. , Matei Florina Cristiana (Cris)
Published: September 2010

This article discusses the quest for transparency and effectiveness of the intelligence systems in the developing democracies. The article begins with a review of the literature on intelligence reform in new democracies. It also discusses the role of intelligence in non-democratic regimes, the legacies from these regimes in transitional democracies, and the challenges involved including the achievements in reforming intelligence in developing countries.
The Intelligence Services of Russia
Authors: Pringle Robert W.
Published: September 2010

This article discusses security and intelligence services in Russia. In Russia, the security and intelligence services of the nation have always been critical to the country's foreign and domestic policies. Both have served as a means to dig dissent at home, to frustrate enemy intelligence operations, and to provide information necessary to build nuclear weapons. This article begins with the nature of intelligence services in Russia. It also discusses the Stalin and Repression period and the role of Russia's KGB during these periods. The article also considers CHEKA's (Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counterrevolution and Sabotage) foreign intelligence. The military services, post-Soviet intelligence services, Putin, and the rise of Siloviki are also discussed.
Israeli Intelligence: Organization, Failures, and Successes
Authors: Kahana Ephraim
Published: September 2010

The State of Israel was established only in 1948, but in its fifty-seven years of existence, its intelligence community has been one of the most professional and effective in the world. The Israel Mossad has become the leading agency in Israel's success in the conflict with the Arab states. Its mission not only includes that of ascertaining the plans and strengths of the Arab military forces opposing Israel but also the work of combating Arab terrorism in Israel and abroad against Israeli and Jewish targets, collecting sensitive technical data, and conducting political-liaison and propaganda operations. The Israel intelligence community is composed of four separate components: the Mossad is responsible for intelligence gathering and operations in foreign countries; the Israeli Security Agency controls internal security and intelligence within the occupied territories; the Military Intelligence is responsible for collecting military, geographic, and economic intelligence, particularly in the Arab world and along Israel's borders; and the Center for Political Research in the Foreign Ministry prepares analysis for government policymakers based on raw intelligence and analytical papers. This article discusses the organization, failures, and successes of the Israeli intelligence. Particular attention is given to the huge mistakes and failures of the Israeli intelligence. Discussions included herein are: the evolution of the Israeli intelligence and the future challenges of the intelligence system.
Intelligence and National Security: The Australian Experience
Authors: Jones David Martin
Published: September 2010

From the foundation of the modern security service in 1949, to the development of the concept of security after 2001 and the announcement of the war on terror, the theory and practice of intelligence and national security has troubled Australians. All throughout this half century, the maintenance of national security posed many questions concerning its necessity as well as the most effective means of sustaining it. Indeed, the extent of sabotage and subversion and the constitutional oversight of those agencies charged with detecting and deterring it have constituted an enduring problem for Australian democratic self-understanding. This pursuit of national security exposed a paradox in the core of Australian democracy, namely, that the practice of political freedom entails the proscription of those dedicated to undermining it. The lack of conviction of successive Australian governments on the need for security and intelligence organizations and the public apathy on the part of Australians furthered this paradox. This article discusses Australian intelligence and national security. It examines the context in which the understanding of Australian national security evolved to address the unique threat environment the island continent inhabits. It also evaluates Australia's security agencies and the threats they currently confront today.
Strategic Use of Regulation
Authors: Veljanovski Cento
Published: September 2010

The focus of this article is the strategic use of regulation by industry and regulators, and the rules and procedures that have been and can be put in place to reduce wasteful attempts to ‘game the system’. Regulation exists to get industry, organisations, and individuals to modify their behaviour to gain compliance with the law, and ultimately to achieve desired outcomes. Yet it operates in a world where the law is imperfect, enforcement and compliance costly, resources limited, and the regulator has discretion. Regulation has two other features — it generates winners and losers; and its creation and enforcement are the outcome of political and legal processes. Investing in rule change can be as lucrative as maximising profits within the rules. It often ‘pays’ the industry to invest in trying to influence and respond to legislators and regulators to gain favourable regulation, or to minimise the impact of unfavourable regulation.
Meta‐Regulation and Self‐Regulation
Authors: Coglianese Cary , Mendelson Evan
Published: September 2010

The conventional view of regulation emphasises two opposing conditions: freedom and control. Government can either leave businesses with complete discretion to act according to their own interests, or it can impose regulations taking that discretion away by threatening sanctions aimed at bringing firms' interests into alignment with those of society, as a whole. This article focuses specifically on two alternatives to traditional, so-called command-and-control regulation: namely, meta-regulation and self-regulation. It defines these alternatives and situates their use in an overall regulatory governance toolkit. Drawing on the existing body of social science research on regulatory alternatives, this article identifies some of the strengths and weaknesses of both meta-regulation and self-regulation, and considers how these strengths and weaknesses are affected by different policy conditions.
Alternatives to Regulation? Market Mechanisms and the Environment
Authors: Driesen David
Published: September 2010

This article identifies a number of ongoing challenges. It focuses on the means of environmental regulation — the techniques regulators use to reduce pollution. It discusses traditional regulation (often called command-and-control regulation), the economic theory undergirding market-based environmental regulation, and increased use of market mechanisms. This treatment of market mechanisms considers them in an institutional context, showing how a multilevel governance system implements market mechanisms. Market-based instruments have become increasingly important as neoliberalism has advanced. While these instruments provide a cost effective way of realising environmental improvements, they depend on government design and enforcement for their efficacy. A concern that is shared across contributions is that such instruments are increasingly deployed in a complex context of multilevel governance and challenges multiply where market mechanisms traverse national boundaries.
Regulatory Impact Assessment
Authors: Radaelli Claudio M. , Francesco Fabrizio de
Published: September 2010

Regulatory impact assessment (RIA) has spread throughout the globe. It is a systematic and mandatory appraisal of how proposed primary and/or secondary legislation will affect certain categories of stakeholders, economic sectors, and the environment. This article reviews the theoretical underpinnings of this ‘recent interest’ comparing the two sides of the Atlantic. It introduces the logic of RIA and the terms of the debate in the US and Europe. It proceeds by exploring different theoretical explanations. It draws on principal–agent models but also shows their limitations and considers alternative theories of regulation. Furthermore, it moves from theory to empirical evidence and reports on the main findings and their implications. Finally, it brings together theories and empirical evidence, and introduces a framework for research.
Accountability in the Regulatory State
Authors: Lodge Martin , Stirton Lindsay
Published: September 2010

Accountability in regulation will never reach a state of ‘perfection’ and stability, but will remain, given competing values and shifting priorities, in a state of continued tension and fluidity. In other words, debates require transparency regarding the very different ideas concerning the appropriate means and ends of accountability. This article develops this argument in three steps. First, it considers the background to contemporary debates surrounding accountability, pointing to traditional concerns as well as to a change in context captured by discussions about ‘polycentric’ or ‘decentred’ regulation. Second, this article points to key components of any regulatory regime over which demands of accountability are commonly asserted, and to four ways of considering institutional design and accountability. Third, and finally, this article suggests that debates on whether the rise of the regulatory state has led to a decline or rise of accountability and transparency are misplaced.
On the Theory and Evidence on Regulation of Network Industries in Developing Countries
Authors: Estache Antonio , Wren‐Lewis Liam
Published: September 2010

The corpus of research on developing countries of the last five to ten years shows that the design of regulatory systems has to address many goals under very tight institutional capacity constraints. These goals range from standard economic concerns such as efficiency, equity, or fiscal sustainability when the networks rely heavily on subsidies to more political concerns including notably the need to ensure more accountability of the providers of the services. This article provides a brief overview of the ownership structure and organisation of regulation in developing countries. It identifies the four key institutional limitations that are found in developing countries: capacity, commitment, accountability, and fiscal efficiency. Furthermore, this article discusses their implications and the regulatory policy options available to address them. It shows some of the trade-offs and inconsistencies due to conflicts in the optimal strategy to deal with different problems. Finally, it summarises the relevant empirical results.
Pricing in Network Industries
Authors: Hauge Janice , Sappington David
Published: September 2010

This article considers how regulators set prices in network industries. Traditionally this was done by setting prices to end users for services produced by a vertically integrated electricity, postal, telecommunications, or water company; prices being set either on the basis of costs incurred or, latterly, via a process of incentive regulation which gives firms an incentive to reduce costs over time. However, more recent regulation has switched the focus to allowing entry by competitors into potentially competitive parts of the value chain, and permitting such entrants to buy access to the incumbent's monopoly infrastructure. This article reviews the principles for setting such network access prices adopted in the energy and telecommunications market places, and discusses their effects. An alternative approach is to encourage pricing agreements negotiated between providers and purchasers of such wholesale network services.
Regulation of Cyberspace
Authors: Feick Jürgen , Werle Raymund
Published: September 2010

This article deals with the regulation of cyberspace and suggests that the challenges of regulation in this area are partly reminiscent of those in other regulatory domains and partly new ones. This newness is due to the opportunities that the new technologies provide to actors and which allow them to act in very different ways — as regulators or as regulatory targets. A significant point in this field is that the distinction between those who regulate and those who are regulated can become blurred because public regulators increasingly, and more so than in other regulatory domains, depend on the co-operation of regulatory intermediaries, if public intervention is to be effective. The continuing challenge in this field is liable to centre around the norms, rules, and regulations governing this complex and dynamic space and the ways in which these are influenced by a variety of factors, parties, interests, institutions, and forces.
The Regulation of the Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Towse Adrian , Danzon Patricia M.
Published: September 2010

This article focuses on the pharmaceutical industry. The pharmaceutical industry (including biological therapies and vaccines) is heavily regulated and yet has no intrinsic natural monopoly characteristics. Indeed it is highly competitive from research through to selling. Market power is temporary and derived from public policy in the form of government-granted patents on individual products. The regulatory issues in pharmaceuticals therefore arise from a number of factors that characterise this field. This article looks at the special challenges of regulating in the face of such factors as poor observability of efficacy, high dangers of moral hazard, and the potential exclusion from desirable services of those who lack wealth. In response to the need for private sector investment in drugs and vaccines to treat Less Developed Country-only diseases, the advantages and disadvantages of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ subsidy proposals are also considered in this article.
Regulation and Sustainable Energy Systems
Authors: Mitchell Catherine , Woodman Bridget
Published: September 2010

This article discusses the extent to which regulation has a role to play in the development and operation of sustainable energy systems, in other words, the extent to which regulators' decisions should be shaped by broader policy goals on sustainability, and how regulators might devise frameworks to encourage the deployment of sustainable technologies and practices. Its basic premise is that the development of sustainable energy systems is vital in the public interest and that economic regulators can play a key role in delivering such systems. This article highlights that inherent conflicts between policy and regulatory objectives, especially in an area that seeks to incentivise investment, achieve goals in terms of climate change commitments and enhance efficiency. It points to the tensions that arise between levels of government as well as in terms of allocation of decision-making authority between government departments and supposedly independent regulatory agencies.
Regulation Inside Government: Retro‐Theory Vindicated or Outdated?
Authors: Lodge Martin , Hood Christopher
Published: September 2010

Regulation is a word that has gained a wide currency in discussions of public sector reform over the past thirty years or so. Many have claimed that increased formal regulation of public sector activity reflects deep-seated ‘modernist’ changes in the functioning of state machinery. This article scrutinises regulation within government. To put the modern use of the R-word (to signify oversight of government) into context, this article begins by pointing out the relatively modest incidence and growth of articles using this term in some of the leading international journals on executive government and law and society over the last decade. This article questions whether accounts, are still able to offer much leverage over the contemporary regulation of government by itself. It also suggests that past commentators may have been rather too optimistic about the ease with which government could regulate the private sector.
The Future of Regulation
Authors: Baldwin Robert , Cave Martin , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2010

The financial crisis that led to a global recession in the first decade of the twenty-first century offers much potential for reconsidering the practice and study of regulation. Throughout this volume, the aspiration has been to present contributions that strengthen cross-disciplinary conversations across social science disciplines. Innovation often occurs on the boundaries and not the centre, as the centre is blinded by methodological and theoretical straitjackets that define or discipline a discipline. This cross-disciplinary scenario encourages regulation research to move outside the ‘comfort zones’ of established areas of investigation. A vision of greater cross-disciplinarity is likely to provide for innovative answers to the traditional questions in the study of regulation, and it is also likely to trigger its own questions. In that way, the study of regulation will be in an even better position to supply relevant answers to the concerns of the post-recession world.
Effects of Ice Structuring Proteins on Freeze‐Thaw Stability of Corn and Wheat Starch Gels
Authors: Li Lingling , Kim Yangsoo , Huang Weining , Jia Chunli , Xu Baocai
Published: September 2010

The effect of ice structuring proteins (ISP, 0.5%, starch weight basis) on the freeze‐thaw stability of corn and wheat starch gels (CS and WS, respectively) was studied. Syneresis measurement, hardness, thermal properties using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X‐ray diffractions, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were determined with starch gels (SG) subjected up to nine freeze‐thaw cycles (FTC). The gelatinized SG were stored at –20°C for 22 hr and thawed at 30°C for 2 hr. As the number of FTC increased, syneresis was increased; however, ISP significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the syneresis for all FTC except at FTC 1. Hardness was increased up to FTC 4, then decreased for both SG. ISP significantly lowered the hardness of both SG. The ice melting enthalpy (ΔHice sample) of SG increased as FTC increased but SG with ISP had significantly lower enthalpy. The retrogradation ratio (RR) from DSC was significantly increased as the number of FTC increased. ISP reduced RR but most of RR was not significantly different for the corresponding FTC. The X‐ray diffraction patterns showed less recrystallization of WS with addition of ISP. The microstructures from SEM showed that the addition of ISP reduced the size of ice cell cavities.
Physical and Chemical Characterization of Fuel Ethanol Coproducts Relevant to Value‐Added Uses
Authors: Bhadra R. , Muthukumarappan K. , Rosentrater K. A.
Published: September 2010

One of the fastest growing industries in the United States is the fuel ethanol industry. In terms of ethanol production capability, the industry has grown by more than 600% since the year 2000. The major coproducts from corn‐based ethanol include distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and carbon dioxide. DDGS is used as a livestock feed because it contains high quantities of protein, fiber, amino acids, and other nutrients. The goal of this study was to quantify various chemical and physical properties of DDGS, distillers wet grains (DWG), and distillers dried grain (DDG) from several plants in South Dakota. Chemical properties of the DDGS included crude ash (5.0–21.93%), neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (26.32–43.50%), acid detergent fiber (ADF) (10.82–20.05%), crude fiber (CF) (8.14–12.82%), crude protein (27.4–31.7%), crude fat (7.4–11.6%), and total starch (9.19–14.04%). Physical properties of the DDGS included moisture content (3.54–8.21%), Aw (0.42–0.53), bulk density (467.7–509.38 kg/m3), thermal conductivity (0.05–0.07 W/m·°C), thermal diffusivity (0.1–0.17 mm2/sec), color L* (36.56–50.17), a* (5.2–10.79), b* (12.53–23.36), and angle of repose (25.7–47.04°). These properties were also determined for DWG and DDG. We also conducted image analysis and size determination of the DDGS particles. Carbon group characterization in the DDGS and DDG samples were determined using NMR spectroscopy; O‐alkyl comprised >50% of all DDGS samples. Results from this study showed several possibilities for using DDGS in applications other than animal feed. Possibilities include harvesting residual sugars, producing additional ethanol, producing value‐added compounds, using as food‐grade additives, or even using as inert fillers for biocomposites.
Effect of Ultrasonic Treatment of Brown Rice at Different Temperatures on Cooking Properties and Quality
Authors: Cui Lu , Pan Zhongli , Yue Tanli , Atungulu Griffiths G. , Berrios Jose
Published: September 2010

This research studied developing quick cooking brown rice by investigating the effect of ultrasonic treatment at different temperatures on cooking time and quality. The medium grain brown rice was ultrasonically treated in water at temperatures of 25, 40, and 55°C for 30 min and then dried by air at 25°C to its initial moisture content (11.0 ± 0.6%, wb) before cooking. The microstructure of rice kernel surface, chemical composition, and optimal cooking time of treated brown rice were determined. The pasting and thermal properties and chemical structure of flour and starch from treated brown rice were also examined. The results showed that the optimal cooking times were 37, 35, and 33 min after treatment at 25, 40, and 55°C, respectively, compared to the control of 39.6 min. The ultrasonic treatment resulted in a loss in natural morphology of rice bran, allowing water to be absorbed by a rice kernel easily, particularly at high‐temperature treatment. Even through rice flour still maintained an A‐pattern in the pasting properties, the crystallinity significantly increased after treatment at 55°C. Ultrasonic treatment increased the peak, hold, and final viscosities and decreased the onset temperature (To) and peak temperature (Tp), significantly. Thus, ultrasonic treatment could be used for reducing cooking time of brown rice.
Application of RVA and Time‐Lapse Photography to Explore Effects of Extent of Chlorination, Milling Extraction Rate, and Particle‐Size Reduction of Flour on Cake‐Baking Functionality
Authors: Kweon Meera , Slade Louise , Levine Harry , Souza Edward
Published: September 2010

Three factors (extent of chlorination, milling extraction rate, and particle‐size reduction) in cake‐baking functionality of Croplan 594W flour were explored using a Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) and time‐lapse photography. The extent of chlorination and milling extraction rate showed dramatic effects, but postmilling to reduce flour particle size was a less significant factor. RVA results showed that starch pasting was accelerated, and both peak and set‐back viscosities were enhanced, with increasing extent of chlorination. These effects were exaggerated by the high sugar concentration relevant to cake baking, compared to the same effects in water. Cake baking with chlorinated flours, in a formulation with 50% sugar (%S) and 275 parts total solvent (TS), showed that, as the extent of chlorination increased, cake moisture content and edge height decreased. Cake center height and shape factor were curvilinear, with maxima near flour with pH 4.6. Dramatic collapse occurred for cakes baked with unchlorinated flour samples, due to delayed starch pasting, as documented by time‐lapse photography and comparison to the geometry of the final cooled cakes. Starch pasting and egg white setting occurred too early for the cakes baked with excessively chlorinated flour (pH ≤4.0), but too late for the cakes baked with unchlorinated or insufficiently chlorinated flours (pH ≥4.9), compared to the ideal starch pasting and egg white setting behavior with appropriately chlorinated flours (pH >4.0 and <4.9). Informal sensory texture evaluation showed that cake mouthfeel was related to both moisture content per se and the relationship between moisture content and cake relative humidity (%RH). Excessive flour chlorination resulted in unacceptably dry cake mouthfeel.
Polar Lipids from Oat Kernels
Authors: Doehlert Douglas C. , Moreau Robert A. , Welti Ruth , Roth Mary R. , McMullen Michael S.
Published: September 2010

Oat (Avena sativa L.) kernels appear to contain much higher polar lipid concentrations than other plant tissues. We have extracted, identified, and quantified polar lipids from 18 oat genotypes grown in replicated plots in three environments to determine genotypic or environmental variation in these lipids. Validation experiments indicated a solid phase silica gel extraction step elution provided excellent and clean separation of extracted lipids into neutral lipid, glycolipid, and phospholipid fractions. Analysis of phospholipids by HPLC (normal phase, diol column) indicated phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylinositol, and lyso‐ forms but very little genotypic or environmental variation. Di, tri and tetragalactosyl‐diacylglycerols were quantified in the glycolipids, along with their mono‐, di‐, and triacyl estolides. Most of these exhibited significant genotypic variation. Molecular species analysis of the glycolipids in the Morton cultivar by direct infusion electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry confirmed the enormous diversity of galactosyl‐lipids in oats. Analyses indicated total lipid of ≈8.3% (dry weight basis), of which ≈10% was phospholipid and 11% was glycolipids. These results indicate that oats are a rich source of polar lipids and contain an extremely rich diversity of galactosyl‐lipids.
Relationship Between Malting Quality Traits and Hordeins as Affected by Timing of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application
Authors: Ajith A. , Labuschagne M. T. , Malan A. F. , van Biljon A. , Wentzel B.
Published: September 2010

The application of nitrogen (N) fertilizer in malting barley is necessary to obtain good yield, but it also influences kernel protein content, which affects malting quality. The negative correlation between kernel protein content and malting extract is due to the hordein proteins. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of N application timing on hordein fractions and how this influences malt quality. Reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography (RP‐HPLC) was used to determine the hordein fractions in the two‐ and six‐row barley parents and their doubled‐haploid progeny, for two seasons for one location, and two locations in the second season. There were no changes in hordein level in response to timing of N application over years and locations. The two‐row parent had the lowest hordein level and the six‐row progeny had the highest. Total hordein content of the two‐row progeny and six‐row parent were similar. The supply of additional N in the form of fertilizer rather than the timing of all N applications influenced the production of all hordein fractions. There were significant correlations between hordein fractions and malting quality that also were reported in other studies. Kernel plumpness showed significant negative correlations with D, C, and B hordeins and total hordein content when half of the fertilizer was applied at planting and the other half at the six‐leaf stage. Absorption showed significant positive correlation with C hordeins and a negative correlation with the B‐to‐C ratio, also when the second half of the N was given at the six‐leaf stage.
Stability of Native Folate and Added Folic Acid in Micronutrient‐Fortified Corn Masa and Tortillas
Authors: Chapman J. S. , Steele F. M. , Eggett D. L. , Johnston N. P. , Dunn M. L.
Published: September 2010

Degradation of added folic acid and native folates in micronutrient‐fortified corn masa and tortillas was evaluated using masa prepared from either nixtamalized corn flour or fresh nixtamal. Variations in masa pH, masa holding time at an elevated temperature, and iron source failed to show significant differences in folate loss in corn flour masa prepared in the laboratory. Masa was subsequently prepared from fresh nixtamal in a commercial mill in Mexico, and fortified with one of two different micronutrient premixes containing iron, zinc, B‐vitamins, and either unencapsulated or lipid‐encapsulated folic acid. Folate loss in commercial masa increased significantly with prebake masa holding time for both premixes. Unencapsulated folic acid showed a 73% loss after 4 hr of holding, compared to 60% loss for encapsulated. The difference was statistically significant, indicating a protective effect from the lipid coating. No significant differences in folate levels were found between prebake masa and baked tortillas. Holding baked tortillas for up to 12 hr also had no effect on folate levels. Native folate showed no significant losses throughout the process. Results from the commercial tortilla mill indicate that most of the loss in added folic acid occurs during prebake holding of masa, possibly from microbial degradation.
Elective affinities: a Tudor–Aubergine tale of germline partnership
Authors: Vourekas Anastassios , Kirino Yohei , Mourelatos Zissimos
Published: September 2010

In Drosophila melanogaster and many other metazoans, the specification of germ cells requires cytoplasmic inheritance of maternally synthesized RNA and protein determinants, which are assembled in electron-dense cytoplasmic structures known as germ or polar granules, found at the posterior end of the oocytes. Recent studies have shown that the formation of germ granules is dependent on the interaction of proteins containing tudor domains with the piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA)-binding Piwi proteins, and such interactions are dependent on symmetrically dimethylated arginines (sDMAs) of Piwi proteins. Tudor–Piwi interactions are crucial and are conserved in the germ cells of sexually reproducing animals, including mammals. In the September 1, 2010, issue of Genes & Development, Liu and colleagues (pp. 1876–1881) use a combination of genetics, biochemistry, and crystallography to uncover the molecular and structural details of how Tudor recognizes and binds the sDMAs of the Piwi protein Aubergine.
The GATA-type transcription factors GNC and GNL/CGA1 repress gibberellin signaling downstream from DELLA proteins and PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORS
Authors: Richter René , Behringer Carina , Müller Isabel Karin , Schwechheimer Claus
Published: September 2010

The phytohormone gibberellin (GA) regulates various developmental processes in plants such as germination, greening, elongation growth, and flowering time. DELLA proteins, which are degraded in response to GA, repress GA signaling by inhibitory interactions with PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR (PIF) family transcription factors. How GA signaling is controlled downstream from the DELLA and PIF regulators is, at present, unclear. Here, we characterize GNC (GATA, NITRATE-INDUCIBLE, CARBON-METABOLISM INVOLVED) and GNL/CGA1 (GNC-LIKE/CYTOKININ-RESPONSIVE GATA FACTOR1), two homologous GATA-type transcription factors from Arabidopsis thaliana that we initially identified as GA-regulated genes. Our genetic analyses of loss-of-function mutants and overexpression lines establish that GNC and GNL are functionally redundant regulators of germination, greening, elongation growth and flowering time. We further show by chromatin immunoprecipitation that both genes are potentially direct transcription targets of PIF transcription factors, and that their expression is up-regulated in pif mutant backgrounds. In line with a key role of GNC or GNL downstream from DELLA and PIF signaling, we find that their overexpression leads to gene expression changes that largely resemble those observed in a ga1 biosynthesis mutant or a pif quadruple mutant. These findings, together with the fact that gnc and gnl loss-of-function mutations suppress ga1 phenotypes, support the hypothesis that GNC and GNL are important repressors of GA signaling downstream from the DELLA and PIF regulators.
Overlapping codes within protein-coding sequences
Authors: Itzkovitz Shalev , Hodis Eran , Segal Eran
Published: September 2010

Genomes encode multiple signals, raising the question of how these different codes are organized along the linear genome sequence. Within protein-coding regions, the redundancy of the genetic code can, in principle, allow for the overlapping encoding of signals in addition to the amino acid sequence, but it is not known to what extent genomes exploit this potential and, if so, for what purpose. Here, we systematically explore whether protein-coding regions accommodate overlapping codes, by comparing the number of occurrences of each possible short sequence within the protein-coding regions of over 700 species from viruses to plants, to the same number in randomizations that preserve amino acid sequence and codon bias. We find that coding regions across all phyla encode additional information, with bacteria carrying more information than eukaryotes. The detailed signals consist of both known and potentially novel codes, including position-dependent secondary RNA structure, bacteria-specific depletion of transcription and translation initiation signals, and eukaryote-specific enrichment of microRNA target sites. Our results suggest that genomes may have evolved to encode extensive overlapping information within protein-coding regions.
The Dynamics of Embolism Repair in Xylem: In Vivo Visualizations Using High-Resolution Computed Tomography
Authors: Brodersen Craig R. , McElrone Andrew J. , Choat Brendan , Matthews Mark A. , Shackel Kenneth A.
Published: September 2010

Water moves through plants under tension and in a thermodynamically metastable state, leaving the nonliving vessels that transport this water vulnerable to blockage by gas embolisms. Failure to reestablish flow in embolized vessels can lead to systemic loss of hydraulic conductivity and ultimately death. Most plants have developed a mechanism to restore vessel functionality by refilling embolized vessels, but the details of this process in vessel networks under tension have remained unclear for decades. Here we present, to our knowledge, the first in vivo visualization and quantification of the refilling process for any species using high-resolution x-ray computed tomography. Successful vessel refilling in grapevine (Vitis vinifera) was dependent on water influx from surrounding living tissue at a rate of 6 × 10−4 μm s−1, with individual droplets expanding over time, filling vessels, and forcing the dissolution of entrapped gas. Both filling and draining processes could be observed in the same vessel, indicating that successful refilling requires hydraulic isolation from tensions that would otherwise prevent embolism repair. Our study demonstrates that despite the presence of tensions in the bulk xylem, plants are able to restore hydraulic conductivity in the xylem.
Protein Association and Dissociation Regulated by Extension Peptide: A Mode for Iron Control by Phytoferritin in Seeds
Authors: Yang Haixia , Fu Xiaoping , Li Meiliang , Leng Xiaojing , Chen Bin , Zhao Guanghua
Published: September 2010

Most of the iron in legume seeds is stored in ferritin located in the amyloplast, which is used during seed germination. However, there is a lack of information on the regulation of iron by phytoferritin. In this study, soluble and insoluble forms of pea (Pisum sativum) seed ferritin (PSF) isolated from dried seeds were found to be identical 24-mer ferritins comprising H-1 and H-2 subunits. The insoluble form is favored at low pH, whereas the two forms reversibly interconvert in the pH range of 6.0 to 7.8, with an apparent pKa of 6.7. This phenomenon was not observed in animal ferritins, indicating that PSF is unique. The pH of the amyloplast was found to be approximately 6.0, thus facilitating PSF association, which is consistent with the role of PSF in long-term iron storage. Similar to previous studies, the results of this work showed that protein degradation occurs in purified PSF during storage, thus proving that phytoferritin also undergoes degradation during seedling germination. In contrast, no degradation was observed in animal ferritins, suggesting that this degradation of phytoferritin may be due to the extension peptide (EP), a specific domain found only in phytoferritin. Indeed, removal of EP from PSF significantly increased protein stability and prevented degradation under identical conditions while promoting protein dissociation. Correlated with such dissociation was a considerable increase in the rate of ascorbate-induced iron release from PSF at pH 6.0. Thus, phytoferritin may have facilitated the evolution of EP to enable it to regulate iron for storage or complement in seeds.
Europeanisation, mesogovernments and ‘safety nets’
Authors: MORENO LUIS
Published: September 2010

Abstract. This article examines two processes: the adaptation of national systems of social protection to operate within a European framework and the decentralisation of ‘safety net’ policies at the meso‐level in order to favour territorial subsidiarity and democratic accountability. It reviews the concepts and assumptions involved in welfare state research before moving on to reflect upon the so‐called ‘European social model’. Decentralisation and a greater regional say in areas of policy making closer to citizens’ perceptions, such as the creation of ‘safety nets’, have often been linked to cultural or identity considerations. However, demands are also based on claims for policy innovation and more effective management, as illustrated by Spain's devolution of welfare powers to the regions. This article concludes that in order to build up a macro‐community based on trust in the ‘Old Continent’, more attention should be paid to the increasing role of medium‐size layers of government.
Analyzing Greens in power: Setting the agenda
Authors: RIHOUX BENOÎT , RÜDIG WOLFGANG
Published: September 2010

Abstract. What are the key questions that political scientists investigating Green parties in government have to address? What are the possible contributions of a variety of theories and approaches to the explanation of the Green governmental experience, in a cross‐national context? The international experience with Green party governmental participation is reviewed, followed by a discussion of past work and future challenges to explain Green parties' entry into government, their performance in government, the impact of government on them, and the conditions for their survival in or exit from government.
An Extension of the Traditional Theory of Customer Discrimination: Customers Versus Customers
Authors: Crofton Stephanie O.
Published: September 2010

This study provides an extension on the traditional theory of customer discrimination. The traditional theory looks at customer discrimination via a case in which customers discriminate against a certain type of employee. This paper considers a case of customer discrimination in which customers discriminate against another group of customers. This paper argues that if women choose to attend an all‐women college, they are engaging in this previously unexamined form of customer discrimination. Economic theory predicts that firms catering to customers who discriminate will charge higher prices. Thus, this study tests for the existence of customer discrimination by estimating a tuition equation at women's colleges and coeducational schools using ordinary least squares and a dummy‐interaction technique. This study finds that, all else held constant, women's colleges do charge higher tuition rates.
Measuring Employer‐Based Discrimination Versus Customer‐Based Discrimination: The Case of French Canadians in the National Hockey League
Authors: Longley Neil
Published: September 2010

This paper examines alternative hypotheses as to why French Canadians are underrepresented on National Hockey League teams based in English Canada relative to their representation on teams based in the United States.

Using panel data, the paper accounts for the idiosyncratic behavior of specific teams by using a fixed‐effects model. With these fixed‐effects accounted for, the paper tests the degree to which the representation of French Canadians on a team is related to that team's location—either in English Canada or the United States—versus the degree to which the representation is related to the ethnic origin of that team's coach and general manager.

It finds the ethnic origin variables to be unable to explain the representational patterns, leaving the team location variable as the only significant explanatory variable. These statistical findings thus support a “customer discrimination” explanation of the underrepresentation, as opposed to an “employer discrimination” explanation. Identifying this source of any potential discrimination is important, since different sources will have different implications for the prospects of reducing such discrimination.
Hiring Practices in Finance Education: Linkages Among Top‐Ranked Graduate Programs
Authors: Bair Jeffrey H.
Published: September 2010

The top‐ranked graduate programs in finance, based on a national survey of deans and top administrators, were linked to one another by hiring one another's graduates. It is suggested that this linkage helps these programs to maintain and enhance their prestige.
The Return to Women's Human Capital and the Role of Male Attitudes Toward Working Wives: Gender Roles, Work Interruption, and Women's Earnings in Taiwan
Authors: Chuang Hwei‐Lin , Lee Hsih‐yin
Published: September 2010

This study empirically investigates women's work interruption behavior in Taiwan and this behavior's influence on women's earnings. The most striking finding from our analysis of women's work history patterns is that a husband's negative attitude toward a working wife will more greatly discourage his wife from attaching to the labor market than will the presence of young children in the family. Thus, it is critical to educate men to give up their traditional attitudes toward gender roles in order to raise the female labor force participation rate in Taiwan. As to the effect of work interruption on earnings, a depreciation rate of 2.8% is found for women with at least a high‐school level of education, while no penalty of foregone experience is shown for less‐educated women. Since this depreciation effect may discourage women from re‐entering the labor market, government programs encouraging self‐employment should be helpful, as self‐employed women find it easier to overcome the conflict between family obligations and work needs.