bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Atomic Scattering Factor And The Optical Potential
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

Throughout this book we have frequently encountered the concept of the atomic scattering factor and the electron scattering potential V (r) or the scaled potential U (r). In this chapter we will give a comprehensive overview of these quantities. In high-energy electron diffraction an incident electron interacts with the solid via the electrostatic Coulomb potential. To a good approximation the effects of inelastic scattering on the elastic scattering may be taken into account by representing the interaction between the incident electron and the solid by a complex potential (Yoshioka, 1957). This complex potential is usually called the optical potential (or the scattering potential as it was referred to earlier in this book), by analogy with the long-standing use of a complex refractive index often used in the description of optical properties of partially absorbing media. In an inelastic collision the incident electron loses energy while the solid is excited to a higher energy state. For high-energy electrons the probability that the inelastically scattered electron reappears in the elastic channel is very small (Rez, 1976). As far as elastic scattering is concerned, the inelastically scattered electron is ‘absorbed’, and therefore inelastic scattering is responsible for the appearance of an
The method of moments
Authors: Cowan Glen
Published: November 2023

Although the methods of maximum likelihood and least squares lead to estimators with optimal or nearly optimal properties, they are sometimes difficult to implement. An alternative technique of parameter estimation is the method of moments (MM). Although the variances of MM estimators are not in general as small as those from maximum likelihood, the technique is often simpler from a computational standpoint.
Characteristic functions and related examples
Authors: Cowan Glen
Published: November 2023

The characteristic function ϕx(k) for a random variable x with p.d.f. f(x) 1s defined as the expectation value of eikx,

This is essentially the Fourier transform of the probability density function. It is useful in proving a number of important theorems, in particular those involving sums of random variables. One can show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the p.d.f. and the characteristic function, so that knowledge of one is equivalent to knowledge of the other. Some characteristic functions of important p.d.f.s are given in Table 10.1.
Molecular Hydrogen Emission from Herbig-Haro Objects
Authors: Raymond John C
Published: November 2023

The faint emission line knots known as Herbig–Haro objects (Herbig 1951; Haro 1952) have been shown to be shock waves driven by (and in) outflows from young stars (Schwartz 1977; Dopita 1978; Raymond 1979). They are typically 0.1 pc long, with densities of order .104 cm-3. Doppler shifts and proper motions of 100–400 km s-1 arecommon, and the exciting stars are most often classical T Tauri stars.
Electronic and optical properties of GaN-based quantum wells
Authors: Suzuki Masakatsu , Uenoyama Takeshi
Published: November 2023

There is increasing interest in the use of GaN and related materials for opto-electronic devices in the short wavelength region, due to their wide direct bandgap and physical hardness. During the past few years, remarkable progress has been made in the development of optical devices based on wurtzite (WZ) GaN. At present, high-brightness blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs), based on WZ InGaN / AlGaN doublehetero (DH) (Nakamura et al. 1994) or single quantum well (SOW) (Nakamura et al. 1995) structures, are commercially available. Very recently the pulse-lasing action of multi-quantum well (MOW) laser diodes (LDs) by current injection at room temperature was reported for the first time (Nakamura et al. 1996). Furthermore, the recent development of crystal growth techniques has made it possible to obtain high-quality zincblende (ZB) crystals as well as WZ ones (Mizuta et al. 1986). However, many fundamental material and device characteristics of the III-V nitrides are less understood than conventional ZB compounds.
Speciation and hybridization of birds on islands
Authors: Grant Peter R , Grant B Rosemary
Published: November 2023

Speciation is a process of lineage transformation (anagenesis) or splitting (cladogenesis). Lineage splitting, through either division or budding, culminates in the formation of two or more non-interbreeding populations or species from an original one. We observe the results, species, and attempt to infer the process from their genetic, morphological, ecological, and behavioural characteristics. At best only parts of the process are observed, which is why there is no universal agreement on how new species are formed.
Islands in Amazonia
Authors: Prance Ghillean T
Published: November 2023

It may seem surprising to have a chapter about the Amazon basin, a continental area par excellence, in a book about evolution on islands. In fact there are hundreds of islands within Amazonia varying from Marajo Island in the Amazon delta, the size of Switzerland, to tiny islands that come and go all along the principal rivers. These islands are not of particular interest in the evolution of species, although recent work has shown their importance in creating a succession of many different types of flood plain vegetation types (Tuomisto et al. 1995), and thereby increasing the vegetational diversity of the region.
Multimode and continuous-mode quantum optics
Authors: Loudon Rodney
Published: November 2023

The single-mode theory of Chapter 5 is inherently limited to the description of experiments that use time-independent light beams. The light is essentially nonergodic, in that its statistical fluctuations may be described by an ensemble, but these are not apparent in a time series of experiments made on the single member of the ensemble corresponding to a practical realization of the state. Identical measurements always give the same results and there are no time-dependent correlations of the kind considered in the classical theory of Chapter 3. Many of the nonclassical properties of light can be understood in terms of single-mode theory but other properties involve excitations of two or more modes. Practical observations of nonclassical effects are usually made on time-dependent light beams.
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri
Published: November 2023

Coastal areas are very fragile, and sensitive towards change, whether by human activities or because of natural event5. Coastal areas not only include beaches, or mouths of rivers, but may extend far inland, and offshore. Any form of activity inland, such as logging, damming, or erosion upstream, will affect marine ecosystems. Sedimentation from far inland may eventually kill coral reefs by smothering them and reducing light levels to a point where the corals can no longer photo synthesise.
Summary
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri
Published: November 2023

No island in Nusa Tenggara and Maluku (NT&M) is more than 20,000 km in area, and approximately 84% are less than 10,000 km. All land resources are therefore limited. Yet the region is perhaps the most diverse in Indonesia. Its myriad islands range from small atolls barely appearing above the high-tide level and flat continental-shelf islands to active volcanic islands over 3500 m asl. Mt. Rinjani is the second-highest volcano in Indonesia and Mt. Tambora one of the country’s most important geological sites. Coastal plains are often no more than a narrow fringe around mountainous centres. Each province has extensive coastlines and in fact only 10% of the province of Maluku is land (77,990 km): 776,500 km is covered by sea. The seas include shallow continental shelves and some of the deepest sea basins in the world. The complexity and vulnerability of these islands means that development and environment are inextricably linked. If this is not understood and acted upon, there is no possibility for the ecologically sustainable development of NT&M.
Bodies
Authors: Ball Philip
Published: November 2023

When Rudyard Kipling explained how the animals of Africa acquired their markings, he was tapping into a universal mythology. The Native Americans, for instance, have their own tales of how the skunk became endowed with its two-tone tail. When people see patterns in nature as striking as these, they want some means of explaining them. Darwin's theory of evolution gave us an answer for the modern age, and it was not so different in essence from Kipling's: the patterns enhance the animal's chances of survival. In the tree-dappled light of a tropical forest, a spotted leopard can merge with the surroundings, giving it a better chance of sneaking up on its prey. A striped zebra is better hidden amongst the vertical striations of the long grass and bushes on the veldt (Fig. 4.1), and an insect patterned to resemble a flower is at less risk from predators.
Communities
Authors: Ball Philip
Published: November 2023

Who wants to be considered predictable? No, I thought not. We might be happy enough to accept that patterns can emerge from wind-blown sand, running water, strange brews of chemicals and even bacterial colonies; but human activities are surely something else altogether. OK, we all have our routines, there is an element of repetition in our lives (driven in large part by biology’s exigencies of sleeping, eating and excreting)-but when it comes to interactions, to the ebb and flow of society, surely there is much too great a diversity in behavioural tendencies to establish patterns and forms of the sort with which this book is concerned? We might imagine that whatever organization in time and space our societies display is a consequence of careful planning and forethought, not an inevitable and spontaneous emergent property.
Muon Decay
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

Many relations in the SM are based, among other things, on the accurately measured muon lifetime or the Fermi coupling constant GF. Originally, the µ-lifetime was computed using the effective four-fermion Fermi Lagrangian by (Kinoshita & Sirlin 1959) and by (Berman 1958). Our approach follows closely that of (Källen 1968).
The Minimal Standard Model At One-Loop
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

This chapter will be devoted mainly to introducing some of the building blocks that are needed in order to discuss radiative corrections in any field theory. Usually the one-loop diagrams that are encountered are special in the sense that some of the masses are zero, while others are equal, or some of the internal masses are equal to certain external masses. In this case very short expressions are usually derived and some of these special examples will be presented and discussed.
Applications For Lep1/Slc Phenomenology
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

In 1995 the Z phase of LEP came to an end and, at present (beginning of 1999), the ultimate analysis of the data is imminent. This involves, in particular, the completion of the line-shape analysis, including the final LEP energy calibration. Consequently, the safest possible estimate of the theoretical accuracy is of the upmost importance.
One-Loop Corrected H Partial Widths
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall consider the one-loop corrections to the partial widths of the H boson. Before describing in detail the one-loop corrections, we will consider a short description of the main decay modes, predicted by the minimal Standard Model (MSM). The most relevant ones, are in the following channels:
One-Loop Corrections For e+e-→Vv
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

So far we have discussed only the tree-level cross-sections for the processes e+e-→Vv and e+e-→SV. To go further with the description of their phenomenological implications, we need to develop a complete framework for the inclusion of one loop corrections.
Four-Fermion Production In e + e- Annihilation
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

For the first time at LEP many of the events in the e + e-annihilation have four fermions in the final state and we have the unique opportunity to test a complete calculation with the experimental data, well beyond the usual approximation of computing the production cross-section ⊗ branching ratio of gauge bosons or Higgs bosons into decay products.
The evolutionary genetics of speciation
Authors: Coyne Jerry A , Orr H Allen
Published: November 2023

Any discussion of the genetics of speciation must begin with the observation that species are real entities in nature, not subjective human divisions of what is really a continuum among organisms. We have previously summ2.rized the evidence for this view and counterarguments by dissenters (Coyne 1994). The strongest evidence for the reality of species is the existence of distinct groups living in sympatry (separated by genetic and phenotypic gaps) that are recognized consistently by independent observers. To a geneticist, these disjunction groups suggest a species concept based on gene flow. As Dobzhansky (1935, p. 281) noted: Any discussion of these problems should have as its logical starting point a consideration of the fact that no discrete groups of organisms differing in more than a single gene can maintain their identity unless they are prevented from interbreeding with other groups... Hence, the existence of discrete groups of any size constitutes evidence that some mechanisms prevent their interbreeding, and thus isolate them. ‘This conclusion inspired Dobzhansky (1935) and Mayr ‘s (1942) biological species concept (henceforth ‘BSC ‘), which considered species to be groups of populations reproductively isolated from other such groups by ‘isolating mechanisms ‘genctically based traits that prevent gene exchange. The list of such mechanisms is familiar to all evolutionists, and includes those acting before fertilization ( ‘prezygotic ‘ mechanisms, such as mate discrimination and gametic incompatibility), and after fertilization ( ‘postzygotic ‘ mechanisms, including hybrid inviability and sterility).
Isaac Newton
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

This new work by one of this century's most eminent Newtonian scholars - Rupert Hall - brings together for the first time the early eighteenth century biographical notices of Sir Isaac Newton. The centrepiece of the book is a brand new translation of Paolo Frisi's biography, the first published on Newton in 1778. Also included are the biographies by Fontenelle (1727), Thomas Birch (1738), Charles Hutton (1795), and John Conduitt. Each translation is accompanied by a commentary by Professor Hall. A brief biography and a bibliography of Newton have also been included for the reader. This book will be an extremely valuable addition to the works on Newton, and provide a fascinating text for historians of science
Introduction
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

Biography as a literary form is almost as old as any narrative writing. To say nothing of Plutarch’s Parallel Lives and other well-known examples of biographies from the ancient world which served as models for later ages, we have from the earliest times of Christian civilization in western Europe such works as Bishop Asser’s life of King Alfred and Einhard’s life of Charlemagne, both composed in the ninth century. With the renaissance of learning the art of biography passed from the hands of clerics to those of the laity, a notable early English example being William Roper’s account of Sir Thomas More, his father-in-law, written soon after More’s execution (1535) but not printed before 1626. In the following century, biography was to form a rich component of English literature, at least half-a-dozen works having secured them selves permanent places.
Paolo Frisi’s Elogio
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

Paolo Frisi (1728-84) is an unsung hero of the Illuminismo in Italy. Not that he has ever been an obscure figure; his name duly appears in appropriate bibliographies and other works of reference, including the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, but the important contributions made by him to European learning-and Italian learning in particular-have neither been clearly understood, nor justly valued, nor set in their true context. Italian scholars are busy at the present time in the reinterpretation of Frisi, whose work and achievements are made difficult to comprehend by their range and volume. Only recently has much effort been devoted to Frisi ‘s large manuscript legacy. Italy was not a prime locus of scientific activity in the eighteenth century, nor was it a prime seat of that complex movement known as the Enlightenment.
Charles Huttons article
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

After the article on Newton in Biographia Britannica (1760) —either com posed by Thomas Birch or based on his General Dictionary account, but with a somewhat different selection of letters —the next significant English life of Newton, and the last to be published in the eighteenth century, was written by Charles Hutton (1737-1823) for his Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (2 vols., 1796, 1795).
James Joseph Sylvester
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2023

In the folklore of mathematics, James Joseph Sylvester (1814-1897) is the eccentric, hot-tempered, sword-cane-wielding, nineteenth-century British Jew who, together with the taciturn Arthur Cayley, developed a theory and language of invariants that then died spectacularly in the 1890s as a result of David Hilbert's groundbreaking, `modern' techniques. This, like all folklore, has some grounding in fact but owes much to fiction. The present volume brings together for the first time 140 letters from Sylvester's correspondence in an effort to establish the true picture. It reveals - through the letters as well as through the detailed mathematical and historical commentary accompanying them - Sylvester the friend, man of principle, mathematician, poet, professor, scientific activist, social observer, traveller. It also provides a detailed look at Sylvester's thoughts and thought processes as it shows him acting in both personal and professional spheres over the course of his eighty-two year life. The Sylvester who emerges from this analysis - unlike the Sylvester of the folkloric caricature - offers deep insight into the development of the technical and social structures of mathematics.
Integration and Measure
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

Until 1900 the integral is conceived as the limit of Riemann sums, objects that may be traced back to Archimedes. A function admitting a finite integral is termed summable or integrable. The concept has two major defects preventing it from satisfying traditional properties: A function may admit a non-integrable derivative; one cannot conveniently handle convergence processes under the integration sign. The situation changes radically when Lebesgue defines his integral for a much larger class of functions.
Probability
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

Rather than a collection of separated theories like set theory, topology, and algebra, each one with its own specific fundamental statements, mathematics constitutes a coherent ensemble.
The Calendar
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

Some have likened the calendar to a clock; this is, of course, a mistake. A calendar hangs by my desk but there is no way I can tell the date just by looking at it. The calendar is more abstract; it is a systematic way of naming the days by allocating each to a year and a month and maybe a week. It enables us to label the days in the past and in the future and to arrange them all in order. If we know the date of two events we know which was the earlier and which the later; the calendar enables us to make or impose unambiguous commitments for the future; without a calendar, a diary would be a muddle. In another meaning of the word, a calendar is an almanac, a program of future events or a record of past events, each assigned to a day or a year.
Time and the Clock
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

Time which stretches from the remote past into the unforseeable future may bemuse philosophers, but we are only concerned with its measurement. You and I can remember at least some of our past experiences and, with greater or lesser difficulty, we can arrange them in temporal order--a task made easier if we know the times and dates of events. We may then note the minute, the hour, the day, the year of events as they happen. Their order is then obvious a matter which may be of crucial importance (for example, did you arrive at the scene of the crime before or after the murder?).
ThVeariety of Calendars
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

Men have ordered their affairs by the phases of the moon and the seasons for as long as records exist. Even before calendars had been invented they could have told their wives that they would be back three days after the next full moon or remarked that their son was born three winters ago. Such perhaps were the beginnings of calendars. Later, men counted the days between moons and solstices, and were better able to anticipate a day in the future or to remember the past. But they still needed to observe the moon or the solstices to determine when a new month or a year began. As astronomy developed, it became possible to foresee the new moons or the solstices with increasing precision, and calendars as we know them today began to take shape.
ThMeayan and Aztec Calendars
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

Man reached the Americas from Asia about 20 ooo years ago. Civilization, or at least agriculture, has flourished in Mesoamerica-Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico---since 1500 BC, and possibly much earlier. Different peoples, speaking different languages, have successively risen and fallen from dominance. We are interested mainly in the Maya and the Aztecs, who developed an advanced civilization with writing and a calendar.
ThFerench Republican Calendar
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

An aim of the Revolution in France of1789 was to produce a brand new calen dar; instead, it succeeded in resurrecting the oldest calendar of all. This was introduced not to correct some astronomical discrepancy but to mark a break with the past. The Church-the guardian of the calendar with its feasts and fasts and saints’ days-was one of the sources of power of the hated ancient order; it had to be done away with.
ThCeonversion of Regular Calendars
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

All the calendars, except for those based on the Egyptian wandering year, require the intercalation of a leap day at regular intervals; this defines a cycle of intercalation, generally of four years. These intercalated days are inserted at the end of some particular month, which need not necessarily be the last. For instance, in the Julian calendar they are inserted at the end of February, the second month.
EV simulation
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T
Published: November 2023

Computer simulation has been widely accepted to be a powerful tool in different fields of research. Its key role is to provide virtual analysis of physical system behaviour before performing any expensive prototyping or time-consuming experimentation. Increasingly, it enables engineering designers to evaluate their designs thoroughly, and to identify some problems that are not easy to observe by measurement or experimentation. This tool can save the development cost in the order of millions of dollars that might otherwise be spent to correct flaws in later stage of engineering and manufacturing (Chau, 1996).
EV infrastructure
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T
Published: November 2023

The development of EVs has advanced rapidly over the past decade. Researchers and engineers have concentrated on the improvement of EV performance through the advances in batteries, motors, converters, controllers and relevant auxiliaries. Now, it comes to the stage of commercialization. To support the publicity of EVs, an EV infrastructure is the underlying foundation, which includes the basic facilities and services to support the operation of a large number of EVs (Olsen, 1996). The development of EV infrastructure is a huge project, and no single party can afford the total cost and do it alone. Moreover, an EV infrastructure is a long-term investment and we need to spend many years for the development before getting any rewards. Both public and private sectors such as government, organizations, automotive companies, power utilities, battery manufacturers should work together for the development of EV infrastructure (Muntwyler, 1996; Nowicki, 1997).
Virus dynamics
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

We know, down to the tiniest details, the molecular structure of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Yet despite this tremendous accomplishment, and despite other remarkable advances in our understanding of individual viruses and cells of the immune system, we still have no agreed understanding of the ultimate course and variability of the pathogenesis of AIDS. Gaps in our understanding like these impede our efforts towards developing effective therapies and preventive vaccines. Martin Nowak and Robert M May describe the emerging field of theoretical immunology in this accessible and well- written text. Using mathematical modelling techniques, the authors set out their ideas about how populations of viruses and populations of immune system cells may interact in various circumstances, and how infectious diseases spread within patients. They explain how this approach to understanding infectious diseases can reveal insights into the dynamics of viral and other infections, and the interactions between infectious agents and immune responses. The book is structured around the examples of HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis B virus, although the approaches described will be more widely applicable. The authors use mathematical tools to uncover the detailed dynamics of the infection and the effects of antiviral therapy. Models are developed to describe the emergence of drug resistance, and the dynamics of immune responses, viral evolution, and mutation. The practical implications of this work for optimisation of the design of therapy and vaccines are discussed. The book concludes with a glance towards the future of this fascinating, and potentially highly useful, field of study.
Simple Antigenic Variation
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

Soon after the discovery of HIV, in the mid-1980s, it was realized that the virus was characterized by extensive genetic variability. Beatrice Hahn and George Shaw, at first working with Robert Gallo at the NIH and later at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, were among the first to show that isolates of HIV differ extensively both when taken from different patients and when taken from the same patient at different time points. It became clear that HIV was changing continuously during the course of an infection, that the virus entering a patient was not the same as the virus one or several years after infection.
Notations and Definitions
Authors: Ng Michael K
Published: November 2023

This chapter gives some basic definitions and notations that are to be used in subsequent chapters.

Let ℂn(respectively ℝn) denote the vector space of all complex (respectively real) n-vectors. We denote by O and 1 the vectors of all zeros and all ones respectively.
Circulant Preconditioners
Authors: Ng Michael K
Published: November 2023

A circulant matrix is a special form of Toeplitz matrix where each row of the matrix is a circular shift of its preceding row; see (1.6). Because of the periodicity, circulant systems can be solved efficiently via a deconvolution by discrete Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs); see Section 3.2.1. Circulant approximations to Toeplitz matrices have been used for some time in signal processing (Pearl, 1973; Steimel, 1980), time series analysis (Brockwell, 1991; Sherman, 1995), and image processing (Andrew and Hunt, 1977; Biemondet al.,1990; Katsaggelos, 1991). However, in these applications the circulant approximation so obtained is used to replace the given Toeplitz matrix in subsequent computations. In effect, the matrix equation is changed and hence is the solution.
Perspectives
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

Humanity is a mote in the eye of the universe. Man has been a distinct species for one-thousandth of the age of the universe. The fragility of life bodes ill for the future. The most minuscule of cosmic impacts between the Earth and a wandering asteroid could readily erase all traces of life on Earth.

But we have survived so far, over billions of years. That is no mean accomplishment, and one that inevitably prompts some hard questions. By what circuitous route did we get here? As a cosmologist, I go as close to the beginning of the universe as theory allows. Whatever my theory, there is always a point of departure. Our knowledge of physics only takes us back so far. Before this instant of cosmic time, all the laws of physics or chemistry are as evanescent as rings of smoke. Speculation runs rife, among theologians and philosophers as much as among astrophysicists.
The Universe of Galaxies
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

Galaxies such as our Milky Way system have somehow succeeded in maintaining a youthful appearance for billions of years. The Sun takes about 100 million years to orbit the Milky Way, and we can think of a solar orbit as lasting a galactic year. Our galaxy is about 100 galactic years old. By any measure of the rate at which the gas clouds in the galaxy have collapsed, there should be little gas remaining. By all accounts it should be a decrepit assemblage of old and dying stars. Yet it is blossoming with the vitality of youth, as new stars are born. Indeed, our Milky Way is a fertile breeding site for stars.
The Invisible Cosmos
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

Astronomers used to be extraordinarily biased. Our eyes and telescopes, at least until a half-century ago, were limited to optical wavelengths. In fact, the visible part of the spectrum, spanning the colours of the rainbow, violet to red, is only a tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light invisible to the human eye is produced by cosmic sources over a vast span of wavelengths, from tens of metres to trillionths of a metre, from radio waves to gamma rays. An X-ray survey of the sky reveals a totally different vista from that visible to the optical astronomer on a dark night. An infrared view is completely different from both.
Clusters and Clustering
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

To probe the past effectively, we need to study galaxies. These are fossils from the past, because their properties have changed little since formation. Clusters of galaxies are relatively pristine collections of galaxies. Clusters have not changed much since birth, and contain any debris that galaxies may have ejected in their youth. All galaxies in a cluster are more or less coeval, unlike a random collection of galaxies in the field. The study of galaxy clusters is an important step in our exploration of the past.
Origins
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

To astronomers of antiquity, and indeed until the first three decades of the twentieth century, the universe was static. It was inconceivable to imagine it being in a state of expansion. Even Edwin Hubble, who discovered the law that relates distance to redshift, refused throughout his life to accept that the universe was expanding. But Hubble notwithstanding, there was a paradigm shift. Too many facts were explained by the hypothesis of the expanding universe. It became mainstream cosmology within decades after Hubble’s law was announced. How did this radical change in our view of the cosmos come about?
From Time to Time Machines
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

Scientists are not very concerned about the philosophical or metaphysical implications of an infinite universe, but are willing to debate the limitless opportunities for the development of alternative forms of life and society. I will borrow freely in the following example of what may seemingly be more science fiction than science, but with ideas that are firmly rooted in physics and biology.

First we should address the key issue that faces would-be time travellers. Time travel leads to the matricide paradox. Suppose one were to meet one’s mother as a young girl, and kill her. The logical inconsistency seems a devastating argument that would prevent such a journey from ever occurring. The matricide problem has a possible solution. Consider a billiard ball on a trajectory that allows it to fall down a wormhole. It re-emerges in its past, to collide with its earlier self, knocking itself on to a different trajectory. But this cannot happen. Nature, or rather physics, abhors and, some say, forbids causality violation. The wormhole’s gravity defocuses the billiard ball’s path. When it emerges, the ball has a high likelihood of missing itself.
Where Next?
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

Prediction is dangerous. The Danish physicist Neils Bohr allegedly said ‘Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future.’ But this sort of view has never stopped us from speculating.

I expect the third millennium will bring in the long sought-after Theory of Everything, or something close to it. This is the Holy Grail of physics, a theory of matter and energy, of space and time, which will leave few questions unanswered or at least unanswerable. We will know how our universe began, and what there was before the Big Bang.
Injection and extraction
Authors: Wille Klaus
Published: November 2023

In circular accelerators, particularly storage rings, the particles follow a rather complicated path from source to experiment. This path may be traced in the diagram of Fig. 4.1. A particle source, depending on its type, produces either electrons or ions with very low initial energies. A pre-accelerator — a linac or a microtron — is then used to bring the particles up to sufficiently high energy to allow injection into the circular main accelerator with as few losses as possible. Here they are raised to the required final energy and then ejected out of the ring, at which point they are either sent straight to the experiment or injected into a storage ring. In storage rings this process is repeated many times in order to accumulate large beam currents, as we have seen in Section 1.4.2.
Luminosity
Authors: Wille Klaus
Published: November 2023

In Section 1.4.2 we saw that for a high-energy physics experiment at a collidingbeam storage ring, the rate of particle production is given by the simple expression Here σp is the interaction cross-section of the physical process under study. This is a property of nature and so is fixed. is the luminosity, which describes how effectively the accelerator performs. The luminosity of course depends on the machine parameters, and so can be varied in different regions of the accelerator.
Molecular order in soft condensed matter-crystaIIinity in polymers
Authors: Jones R A L
Published: November 2023

Most of the materials that are studied in the field of ‘hard’ condensed matter physics– metals, semiconductors, and ceramics– are crystalline; the atoms or molecules of which they are composed are arranged with near-perfect longranged order over distances that are many orders of magnitude greater than the distance between molecules. Single crystals of metals or semiconductors of macroscopic size are not uncommon, but even where these materials are described as ‘polycrystalline’ the fraction of the molecules that does not partake in the long-ranged order is very small (though, of course, this small fraction of atoms associated with grain boundaries and defects such as dislocations may have an effect on bulk properties out of proportion to their number).
Environments
Authors: Blundell Stephen
Published: November 2023

We have seen in the previous chapter that the magnetic properties of many crystals containing rare earths can be deduced by considering the rare earth ions to be behaving as completely free ions without interacting with each other or their surroundings. However, for magnetic ions in certain crystals one cannot usually ignore such interactions and for many materials they are large and significant. In this chapter we will consider the interactions between an atom and its immediate surroundings. In the following chapter we shall consider the direct magnetic interactions between a magnetic atom in a crystal and its neighbouring magnetic atoms.
Interactions
Authors: Blundell Stephen
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider the different types of magnetic interaction which can be important in allowing the magnetic moments in a solid to communicate with each other and potentially to produce long range order.
Pulse endor
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

Apart from the ESEEM methods described in the previous two chapters, electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopyl ‘l is the other well-established magnetic resonance technique for measuring nuclear transition frequencies of paramagnetic compounds. In this chapter, we describe the basic principles of pulse ENDOR and examine in which situations it is better suited than c.w. ENDOR or ESEEM to obtain nuclear frequency spectra (§12.1). We then discuss in some detail the two standard pulse schemes, Davies and Mims ENDOR, which are based on polarization transfers by r.f. pulses(§12.2). By extending these schemes to triple resonance, relative signs of hyperfine couplings can be determined and nuclear frequencies of the same site in a crystal or same orientation in a disordered system can be correlated. Another simple extension, multiple quantum ENDOR, can be used to estimate the number of coupled nuclei. ENDOR schemes based on coherence transfer by r.f. pulses, in particular, hyperfinedecoupled ENDOR are discussed in §12.3. We then examine in which cases time-domain ENDOR schemes provide a resolution enhancement or can be used in 2D correlation experiments (§12.4). Finally the correlation of nuclear frequency spectra to the more simple hyperfine spectra is discussed as a strategy for increasing both resolution and information
Other techniques
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we present a collection of methods and phenomena which are somewhat off the track of the main subject of this monograph. Some of these methods, such as EPR imaging, the linear electric field effect, and multiple photon EPR, have counterparts in c.w. EPR, whereas others, as for example, EPR with stochastic excitation cannot be clearly classified as a c.w. or pulse technique. Phenomena such as self-induced transparency and dark resonance were originally observed in coherent optics and have since found their equivalent in magnetic resonance. Finally, we give a brief survey of detection methods used in EPR which do not make use of the direct observation of magnetization based on induction.
The morphology and natural history of atherosclerosis
Authors: Yuan Xi Ming , Brunk Ult T , Hazell Linda
Published: November 2023

Atherosclerosis is a pathological process leading to several important human vascular disorders, including coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, and diseases of the aorta and the peripheral arterial circulation. These disorders are responsible for more deaths than any other diseases in humans.
Growth factors and cytokines in atherogenesis
Authors: Khachigian Levon M , Geczy Carolyn L
Published: November 2023

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory-fibroproliferative process that typically evolves over decades and involves the local action of cytokines and growth factors, among other molecules, in the vessel wall These classes of regulatory molecules are produced by endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells (SMCs), mast cells, as well as by lymphocytes (see Chapter 11) and monocytes recruited from the circulation in early atherogenesis. These cells may be activated either by direct cell-cell contact or by a wide array of factors including modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL), advanced glycosylation end products (AGE), lipid mediators, infectious agents, oxidants, growth factors, and cytokines.
Lipoprotein influx and efflux in the atherosclerotic intima
Authors: Kritharides Leonard , Redgrave Trevor G
Published: November 2023

Influx and efflux of lipids in the arterial wall are life-long phenomena. Progressive focal accumulations of lipid could even perhaps be regarded as physiological, since aortic fatty streaks are observed in infancy and are present in all individuals by I0 years of age Coronary lesions are detected by the age of 15_(2) These early lesions consist mostly of cholesteryl esters, and undoubtedly originate mainly by influx from plasma lipoproteins_< l Influx is probably continual for low-density lipoprotein (LDL), but may be episodic for post-prandial remnant particles. Net accumulation in the arterial wall reflects the balance between influx and efflux.
Inhibition of the cytokine-induced expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules by high-density lipoproteins
Authors: Baker Paul , Clay Moira , Rye, Kerry-Anne , Barter Philip
Published: November 2023

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) protect against the development of atherosclerosis.<1l In human populations the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) correlates inversely with the concentration of HDL cholesterol and, in intervention studies in humans, treatment that increases the HDL level is accompanied by a reduction in future coronary events.<7l In studies of atherosclerosis-prone animals, the increase in HDL cholesterol level that follows the introduction and over-expression of the human apolipoprotein (apo) A-I gene results in a marked reduction in the extent of the atherosclerosis.8-10
Antioxidants and co-antioxidation in lipoproteins and the intima
Authors: Stocker Roland , Upston Joanne M
Published: November 2023

Oxidative damage to lipoproteins within the arterial intima, by an (as yet) undefined mechanism, is widely purported to contribute to and/or initiate atherosclerosis.<1, 2l This damage is most likely to occur when the balance between antioxidants and prooxidants shifts in favour of the latter. Many substances may prevent, or significantly delay, the oxidation of other substrates. However, an antioxidant is characterized as being effective against oxidative damage when present in much smaller quantity than the substance that is protected. In atherosclerosis, vascular antioxidants need to protect against a range of oxidative mechanisms, as studies suggest that both radical (one-electron) and two-electron oxidants are produced (Table 16.1).
Oxysterols in atherogenesis
Authors: Lyons Malcolm A , Brown Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Cholesterol oxidation products, or oxysterols, are derivatives of cholesterol that have been modified by addition of one or more oxygen functional groups (Table 17.1, Fig. 17.1). Ever since they were first discovered in atherosclerotic lesions more than 50 years ago, controversy has surrounded their role in atherosclerosis. In this chapter, we will critically evaluate the evidence for oxysterols playing a role in the initiation and/or development of atherosclerosis. For a more comprehensive and general discussion of oxysterols, the reader is referred elsewhere.<‘
Dispersal and parasitism
Authors: Boulinier Thierry , McCoy Karen D , Sorci Gabriele
Published: November 2023

Host and parasite dispersal are among the most important factors affecting the evolutionary ecology of host-parasite interactions. Early epidemiological models have recognized the role of spatial processes in host-parasite interactions, and recent theoretical approaches have shown that host and parasite dispersal are key factors for the evolution of parasite virulence and host local adaptation. Conversely, from an empirical point of view, very little is known on the reciprocal role of parasite and host dispersal on the ecology and evolution of the association. Most knowledge on the role of dispersal in host-parasite interactions involves systems where there is a strong spatial subdivision of host and parasite populations.
Dispersal and the genetic properties of metapopulations
Authors: Whitlock Michael C
Published: November 2023

Real populations vary in time and space in demographic parameters such as size, emigration and immigration rate, extinction probability, distance to other populations, etc. Similarly, individuals vary substantially in their properties. In particular, dispersing individuals may differ on average from the others in the population from which they come and from the individuals in the deme to which they go.
Notation for Chapters 1–4 and 7–10
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

Latin symbols
Mean-Field Theories for Simple Models
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we deal with two microscopic mean-field theories, the Weiss theory of magnetism and the Debye–Hückel theory of electrolytes, respectively. Both of these theories are also self-consistent theories, and in our exposition we are careful to emphasize the difference between the mean-field and self-consistent assumptions. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of the Landau theory of critical phenomena.
Perturbation Theory Using a Control Parameter
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

We have given a formal (if simplified) treatment of perturbation theory in Section 1.3, and we shall presently make use of this when we apply it to nonlinear differential equations in Chapter 5. However, in the present chapter we can cheat a little by simply expanding out the exponential form in the partition function.
Momentum-Space Renormalization Group
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we again use the linearized analysis of Chapter 8 in order to investigate the fixed points associated with renormalization group (RG) equations. But this time, instead of performing simple coarse-graining operations on a discrete set of lattice spin sites, we integrate out high-wave number modes from a continuous spin field. We then rescale the coarse-grained field in order to maintain the invariance of the Hamiltonian and this results in the RG equations.
Field-Theoretic Renormalization Group
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

A full theory would require us to work out every critical exponent as a power-series in ηand, although we shall not give every detail, in this chapter we shall explain how this is done. In the process we shall show how the field theory can be renormalized by the introduction of renormalized versions of the mass, the coupling constant and the scalar field.
Dephasing by Coupling with the Environment, Application to Coulomb Electron-Electron Interactions in Metals
Authors: Imry Yoseph
Published: November 2023

Many of the interesting effects in mesoscopic systems are due to quantum interference. Among these are, for example, the weak localization corrections to the conductivity (section 5, chapter 2), the universal conductance fluctuations (chapter 5), persistent currents (chapter 4), and many others. These effects are known to be affected by the coupling of the interfering particle to its environment, for example, to a heat bath. The way such a coupling modifies quantum phenomena has been studied for a long time, both theoretically (Feynman and Vernon 1963, Caldeira and Leggett 1983), and experimentally. The effect of the coupling to the environment is often characterized by the “phase breaking” time, τ ϕ, which is the characteristic time for the interfering particle to stay phase coherent as explained below. A more physical characterization is obtained by using the dephasing rate (typically l /τ ϕ), which is the rate of the diminishing of the interference signal.