Digital Phenotypes of Mobile Keyboard Backspace Rates and Their Associations With Symptoms of Mood Disorder: Algorithm Development and Validation
Authors: Liu Qimin , Ning Emma , Ross Mindy K , Cladek Andrea , Kabir Sarah , Barve Amruta , Kennelly Ellyn , Hussain Faraz , Duffecy Jennifer , Langenecker Scott A , Nguyen Theresa M , Tulabandhula Theja , Zulueta John , Demos Alexander P , Leow Alex , Ajilore Olusola 
Published: October 2024

Background

Passive sensing through smartphone keyboard data can be used to identify and monitor symptoms of mood disorders with low participant burden. Behavioral phenotyping based on mobile keystroke data can aid in clinical decision-making and provide insights into the individual symptoms of mood disorders.

Objective

This study aims to derive digital phenotypes based on smartphone keyboard backspace use among 128 community adults across 2948 observations using a Bayesian mixture model.

Methods

Eligible study participants completed a virtual screening visit where all eligible participants were instructed to download the custom-built BiAffect smartphone keyboard (University of Illinois). The BiAffect keyboard unobtrusively captures keystroke dynamics. All eligible and consenting participants were instructed to use this keyboard exclusively for up to 4 weeks of the study in real life, and participants’ compliance was checked at the 2 follow-up visits at week 2 and week 4. As part of the research protocol, every study participant underwent evaluations by a study psychiatrist during each visit.

Results

We found that derived phenotypes were associated with not only the diagnoses and severity of depression and mania but also specific individual symptoms. Using a linear mixed-effects model with random intercepts accounting for the nested data structure from daily data, the backspace rates on the continuous scale did not differ between participants in the healthy control and in the mood disorders groups (P=.11). The 3-class model had mean backspace rates of 0.112, 0.180, and 0.268, respectively, with a SD of 0.048. In total, 3 classes, respectively, were estimated to comprise 37.5% (n=47), 54.4% (n=72), and 8.1% (n=9) of the sample. We grouped individuals into Low, Medium, and High backspace rate groups. Individuals with unipolar mood disorder were predominantly in the Medium group (n=54), with some in the Low group (n=27) and a few in the High group (n=6). The Medium group, compared with the Low group, had significantly higher ratings of depression (b=2.32, P=.008). The High group was not associated with ratings of depression with (P=.88) or without (P=.27) adjustment for medication and diagnoses. The High group, compared with the Low group, was associated with both nonzero ratings (b=1.91, P=.02) and higher ratings of mania (b=1.46, P<.001). The High group, compared with the Low group, showed significantly higher odds of elevated mood (P=.03), motor activity (P=.04), and irritability (P<.05).

Conclusions

This study demonstrates the promise of mobile typing kinematics in mood disorder research and practice. Monitoring a single mobile typing kinematic feature, that is, backspace rates, through passive sensing imposes a low burden on the participants. Based on real-life keystroke data, our derived digital phenotypes from this single feature can be useful for researchers and practitioners to distinguish between individuals with and those without mood disorder symptoms.