bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Régimen alimentario de Triturus helveticus durante el período reproductor en el NE de la península Ibérica
Authors: Fontanet Xavier
Published: April 2008

I describe the food and feeding habits of 61 adult palmate newts during their aquatic phase from three localities in NE Iberia. 1 used the stomach-flushing method to obtain the prey, of the newts with 100 % efficacy. Diptera were overall the most important prey of palmate newts. Diptera and Ostracoda were the main prey in two localities, but in the third locality only Ostracoda were the main prey. There was generally an interpopulation trophic segregation. Analyzing the data at different localities demonstrated trophic segregation at Serra de Daró and Canet d'Adri, while Podocopa dominated the diet at Fogars del Tordera.
Body temperatures and exposure to sunshine of ruin lizards Podarcis sicula in central Italy
Authors: Tosini G. , Foa A. , Avery R.A.
Published: April 2008

Body temperatures (Tbs) of adult ruin lizards, Podarcis sicula, captured near Pisa (Italy) between February and November ranged from 22.4-38.5°C. There were no significant differences between sexes. Mean body temperatures in February-April and November were significantly lower than those recorded from May-October (29.0 and 32.7°C respectively). The overall relationship between Tb and soil temperature at the point of capture (Ts) showed two components. At Ts<28°C there was a highly significant association and 98% of individuals were recorded with Tb>Ts. At Ts> 28°C the association was less clear and Tb<Ts in nearly 30% of lizards. There were diel differences in exposure to sunshine at all seasons; exposure was greatest during the morning after emergence from overnight inactivity and during the late afternoon, least during the mid-day period.
Male reproductive biology of the southeastern crowned snake (Tantilla coronata)
Authors: Aldridge Robert D. , Semlitsch Raymond D.
Published: April 2008

The spermatogenic cycle of Tantilla coronata is post-nuptial. Spermatogenesis begins in May and reaches a peak in July and August. The sexual segment of the kidney has a cycle opposite that of the testis. Hypertrophy of the sexual segment occurs in the early spring (May) and summer july-September). Mating occurs during the period of sexual segment hypertrophy. The youngest males examined (approximately 1 2 months of age) begin spermatogenesis at the same time of year as adults, and the course of spermatogenesis appears similar to adults. It appears, however, that insufficient sperm are produced to permit successful mating following the first spermatogenic season. During the second spermatogenic season, enough sperm are produced to permit mating in the summer or following spring.
Experimental analysis of lizard pause-travel movement: pauses increase probability of prey capture
Authors: Avery Roger A.
Published: April 2008

The probability that common lizards (Lacerta vivipara), which have a pause-travel locomotor pattern, would detect and capture living crickets (Acheta domestica) dropped into their immediate environment was determined for five conditions. These were when a lizard was basking (stationary for >30 s), pausing during locomotion (stationary for <0.8 s), or moving at one of three speed ranges defined as searching, standard or fleeing, at the moment when the cricket reached the substrate. The probability that prey would be captured was greatest in basking lizards, and decreased progressively through pausing, searching movement and standard movement to fleeing movement during which no prey were ever captured.
Electrophoretic analysis of the Cordylus cordylus species group in the southwestern Cape, South Africa
Authors: Brody L.S. , Mouton P. le F.N. , Grant W.S.
Published: April 2008

Allozyme frequencies were used to test a proposed hypothesis on the evolution and biogeography of the taxa in the Cordylus cordylus species group in the southwestern Cape. The population structures of the three species were also analysed. Low levels of heterozygosity were found in C.oelofseni and C.niger which have small distribution ranges, and intermediate levels in C.cordylus which has an extensive distribution range. Genetic distances were calculated among species and approximate times of divergence were estimated. These divergence times do not agree with the times suggested by other authors. Both phenetic and cladistic approaches were used to assess relationships among the three species. The results suggest that C.niger is monophyletic, but that C.oelofseni is polyphyletic, the population at Landdroskop in the Hottentots Holland Mountains being closer to C.cordylus than to the remaining C.oelofseni populations. It is demonstrated that average genetic distance is not a reliable aid in decisions regarding the taxonomic status of C.oelofseni. Proposed relationships within, as well as monophyly of this group, remain unconfirmed as conflicting results were obtained.
A re-evaluation of the taxonomic status of the Moldavian steppe viper based on immunological investigations, with a discussion of the hypothesis of secondary intergradation between Vipera ursinii rakosiensis and Vipera (ursinii) renardi
Authors: Nilson Göran , Andrén Claes , Joger Ulrich
Published: April 2008

The taxonomic level and phylogenetic relationship of the Moldavian steppe viper was investigated using blood serum electrophoresis, immunological comparisons of blood serum albumin and morphological comparisons. The traditional hypothesis that the Moldavian steppe viper is a secondary intergradation between Vipera (ursinii) renardi and V. ursinii rakosiensis could not be verified. Although morphologically similar (but not identical) to these two taxa, it has a closer immunological distance to the Balkan mountain subspecies, V. u. macrops and V. u. graeca. Specific antisera against serum albumins of V. u. graeca, V. u. ursinii (wettsteini) and V. u. eriwanensis were available, and the three vipers to be tested: rakosiensis, renardi and the Moldavian steppe viper branch off from different stems: rakosiensis seems close to ursinii, V. (u.) renardi appears fairly close to eriwanensis, both of which share a common stem with the rakosiensis-ursinii lineage. The Moldavian steppe viper shows high distance to both ursinii and eriwanensis, but low distance to graeca. The electrophoretic pattern show great differences from all other geographic forms tested (seven). We conclude that the Moldavian steppe viper represents a separate subspecies: Vipera ursinii moldavica ssp.n.
Serum T3 and T4 levels during tail regeneration in the gekkonid lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis
Authors: Ramachandran A.V. , Swamy M.S. , Abraham S.
Published: April 2008

Circulating levels of serum T3 and T4 have been assayed by radioimmunoassay during tail regeneration in the gekkonid lizard Hernidacylus flaviviridis. In general the level of serum T3 was lower than that of T4; both hormones showed phase-specific alterations. The immediate post-autotomy periods (first week) were marked by elevated T4 levels; the later phases of regeneration, corresponding to peak histodifferentiation (15-40 days), were marked by elevated T3 levels. These changes in serum T3 and T4 indicate the participation of the thyroid gland in lizard tail regeneration and are discussed in relation to changes in systemic, metabolic and haematologic variables characteristic of lizard tail regeneration.
Eumeces algeriensis, a full species of the E. schneiderii group (Scincidae): karyological and morphological evidence
Authors: Caputo Vincenzo , Odierna Gaetano , Aprea Gennaro , Capriglione Teresa
Published: April 2008

Eumeces algeriensis has been considered either a full species or a parapatric race of E. schneiderii. A review of morphological and karyological data indicates that E. algeriensis is reproductively isolated from E. schneiderii, and hence is a good biological species. The two taxa could have originated by an allopatric speciation process, and are clearly now represented by different cytotypes arising from pericentric inversion.
Activity patterns and body temperatures of two sympatric lizards (Tropidurus torquatus and Cnemidophorus ocellifer) with different foraging tactics in southeastern Brazil
Authors: Bergallo Helena Godoy , Duarte Rocha Carlos Frederico
Published: April 2008

Nós estudamos a biologia termal e comparamos os padròes termais e de atividade de dois lagartos simpátricos com diferentes táticas de forrageamento (Tropidurus torquatus e Cnemidophorus ocellifer) num habitat de restinga na Reserva Florestal Vale do Rio Doce, Linhares, Brasil. Os dados mostraram que as temperaturas corporais de ambas as espécies relacionaram-se positiva e significativamente com a temperatura do substrato. A espécie forrageadora ativa, C. ocellifer, teve temperaturas médias corporais significativamente maiores (37.6 ± 2.0°C) do que o senta-e-espera T. torquatus (35.6 ± 1.9°C), e permaneceu ativo no habitat numa porçào menor de tempo (entre 8:30 e 15:00 h) do que T. torquatus (entre 7:00 e 18:00 h). Nossos resultados estào de acordo com a premissa de que espécies forrageadoras ativas teriam maiores temperaturas médias corporais e permaneceriam ativas no habitat por periodo de tempo relativamente mais curto do que espécies forrageadoras sedentárias.
Mechanisms of differentiation in the sex chromosomes of some Lacertidae
Authors: Capriglione T. , Olmo E. , Odierna G. , Kupriyanova L.A.
Published: April 2008

Cytological and molecular evidence is provided to characterize the sex chromosomes of several species of Lacertidae. Observations on pachytene and lampbrush stages show that sex chromosomes have different condensation cycles and are only partially paired during meiosis. Bkm probe hybridization to Pst I-treated genomic DNA of Podarcis sicula and Lacerta vivipara shows the same pattern both in males and females. In situ hybridization of the same probe to Lacerta vivipara chromosomes shows no preferential localization of this DNA sequence. The results obtained clearly exclude the possible involvement of Bkm in sex-chromosome differentiation in the species investigated.
Oviposition site selection in three species of European Newts (Salamandridae) genus Triturus
Authors: Miaud Claude
Published: April 2008

Oviposition site selection in Triturus helveticus, T. alpestris and T. cristatus was studied both in natural and laboratory situations. In a natural breeding site, eggs of the three species were not laid equally on several plants: T. cristatus laid practically all their egges on only one plant (Nasturtium officinale) while T. helveticus eggs were collected on four plant species. In laboratory experiments, plastic and cotton fabric supports made it possible to test ovipositing female selectivity according to flexibility and shape of support and egg-laying distance below the surface. In all three species, a high proportion of eggs were laid on supports of linear shape (as opposed to arborescent shape) and egg frequency decreased as a function of depth (from 0 to 40 cm below the surface). Selection according to flexibility was also observed, the smallest species (T. helveticus) laying more eggs on the thinner supports. The role of support selectivity during oviposition in Triturus is discussed, in term of proximate (i.e. female protection against predators, breathing necessity) and ultimate (i.e. egg survival) factors, and related to new ecology.
Evidence from tooth surface morphology for a posterior maxillary origin of the proteroglyph fang
Authors: Jackson Kate , Fritts Thomas H.
Published: April 2008

Although the front-fanged venom delivery system of the Elapidae is believed to be derived from an aglyphous or opisthoglyphous colubroid ancestor, opinion is divided as to the end of the maxilla on which the proteroglyph fang originated. This study was undertaken to determine whether the evolutionary precursor of the proteroglyph fang was (a) a grooved posterior fang which migrated anteriorly, or (b) an enlarged anterior tooth which secondarily developed a groove for the conduction of venom. The surface morphology of the maxillary teeth of colubrid genera was examined using scanning electron microscopy. Ridges present on the lingual and labial surfaces of anterior maxillary teeth and on the anterior and posterior surfaces of posterior maxillary teeth were identified as morphological markers of potential value in distinguishing the anterior and posterior maxillary teeth of colubrid snakes, and in determining the origin of the proteroglyph fang. Patterns of ridges on the surfaces of elapid fangs examined were found to be consistent with the hypothesis that the evolutionary precursor of the proteroglyph fang was an opisthoglyph fang which migrated anteriorly.
A review of the Usambara forest snake Geodipsas vauerocegae and the Uluguru forest snake G. procterae
Authors: Rasmussen Jens B. , Howell Kim M. , Andersen Mogens
Published: April 2008

Variation in external and internal characters of the endemic Tanzanian species Geodipsas vauerocegae and G. procterae have been examined. On the basis of the small sample sizes, no significant geographical differences can be demonstrated. Three recently collected specimens from the Udzungwa Mountains, however, seem to have slightly lower numbers of ventrals than those from the Uluguru Mountains. All available knowledge on the natural history of the species has been summarized.
Cranial ossification in the northern alligator lizard, Elgaria coerulea (Squamata, Anguidae)
Authors: Good David A.
Published: April 2008

An analysis of patterns of ontogenetic ossification of cranial elements in the northern alligator lizard, Elgaria coerulea, was conducted and those patterns are described here both from the point of view of individual elements and from the point of view of the overall pattern of ossification of the skull. Ossification in Elgaria is then compared with patterns in other squamates.
Differential testosterone sensitivity of forelimb muscles of male leopard frogs, Rana pipiens: test of a model system
Authors: Blackburn D.G. , Darrell R.S. , Lonergan K.T. , Mancini R.P. , Sidor C.A.
Published: April 2008

Certain forelimb muscles of anurans exhibit sexual dimorphism in mass and fiber composition, offering potential for studies of the effects of hormones on muscle characteristics. Androgen-responsiveness of major forelimb muscles of male leopard frogs, Rana pipiens, was evaluated by quantifying the effects of testosterone cypionate administration and castration on lyophilized muscle mass. The coracoradialis, pectoralis epicoracoideus, and pectoralis sternalis muscles were highly-responsive to testosterone treatment, showing a mean dry mass increase of approximately 50% over control values. However, the pectoralis abdominis muscle was unaffected by testosterone administration, and castration had no effect on any of the muscles. Testosterone sensitivity reflects both the degree of sexual dimorphism and the inferred functional roles of the muscles. Because their forelimb muscles vary markedly in androgen-sensitivity, leopard frogs show considerable promise as a model system for clarifying hormonal regulation of muscle characteristics.
Further investigations on Discoglossus bioacoustics
Authors: Vences Miguel , Glaw Frank
Published: April 2008

Advertisement calls of Discoglossus galganoi jeanneae from two localities in southern Spain and D. pictus scovazzi from Ceuta were analyzed. Call duration as well as ratio of pulse group intensities and durations clearly group D. pictus scovazzi with the other subspecies of D. pictus (pictus and auritus). The calls of the taxon jeanneae show some differences to calls of populations of D. g. galganoi from northern Spain, but are more similar to calls of D. g. galganoi than to those of D. pictus scovazzi. These data support the status of jeanneae as subspecies of galganoi.
Divergent male androgen patterns in two sympatric species of Leptodactylus from subtropical South America
Authors: Cei J.M. , Ibanez N. , Alvarez B.B. , Carnevali O. , Mosconi G. , Polzonetti-Magni A.M.
Published: April 2008

Leptodactylus ocellatus L. is sympatric with L. chaquensis Cei on the banks of the Parana river, yet does not show evident gametogenic discontinuity or cyclical variation of secondary sex characters compared with the striking and well-defined seasonal rhythm found in L. chaquensis. The endocrine mechanisms regulating the seasonal reproductive cycle in the male of both species in their sympatric area have been studied through assessment of plasma androgens, related to the morphological examination of testis. A sudden intense spermatogenic activity was recorded in the testes of L. chaquensis in spring months (September-October), but this ceased in late November, and was followed by a strikingly long summer rest. Conversely, few morphological changes in L. ocellatus were found, since the mating period is more irregular and extensive. The androgen plasma changes paralleled the morphological observations. The plasma androgens behaved differently in the two species, since in L. chaquensis the androgen peak values occurred at the end of the intense spermatogenic activity, accompanied by dramatic increase of testicular weight and spermiation, while in L. ocellatus, the highest androgen plasma levels, occurring in August, seemed to indicate a precocious reproductive activity in this species. These data are discussed, in view of the pivotal role played by androgens in regulating the discontinuous reproductive cycle of L. chaquensis.
Advertisement call variation in the Leptodactylus mystaceus species complex (Amphibia: Leptodactylidae) with a description of a new sibling species
Authors: Heyer W. Ronald , García-Lopez José M. , Cardoso Adao J.
Published: April 2008

Whereas morphological analysis of populations recognized as Leptodactylus mystaceus indicates there is one species with modest geographic variation, analysis of advertisement calls indicates there are at least two or perhaps three species involved. The differences found in advertisement calls are sufficient to act as species isolating barriers to recognize at least two species, which action is taken. A consequent result is the description of a new sibling species. The significance of sibling species in the genus Leptodacytylus is discussed briefly.
Comparative life histories of a low- and a high-elevation population of the common frog Rana temporaria
Authors: Ryser Jan
Published: April 2008

Common frogs from a breeding pond in the Swiss Alps (1930 m) were studied by skeletochronology and life history traits were compared to a previously described lowland population. Snout-vent lengths ranged from 63 to 85 mm (males) and 65 to 94 mm (females). Ages varied from 4 to 13 years with means of 6.6 (males) and 8.3 years (females). Growth of immature frogs was slow. Immature males grew faster than females, but the reverse was true for adult frogs. Egg numbers ranged from 784 to 1616 and were not correlated with snout-vent length. Egg diameters (1.83-2.19 mm) were positively correlated with snout-vent length. Frogs from the Alps differed from the lowland population in slower growth to maturation, resulting in higher ages, but similar sizes, at first reproduction. I argue that the alpine life history pattern was shaped by two environmentally determined traits, slow growth and high annual survival.
Allozyme variation in populations of Lacerta raddei and Lacerta nairensis (Sauria: Lacertidae) from Armenia
Authors: Bobyn Michèle L. , Darevsky Ilya S. , Kupriyanova Larissa A. , MacCulloch Ross D. , Upton Darlene E. , Danielyan Felix D. , Murphy Robert W.
Published: April 2008

Lacertca raddei and Lacerta nairensis have been recognized as two separate species based on morphology and behavior, and each has been implicated as a sexual parent of different parthenogenetic forms. However, recent mitochondrial DNA work failed to distinguish these two as separate species. We examined genetic diversity at 36 allozyme loci from six populations of L. nairensis and four populations of L. raddei. There were no fixed allelic differences between the two. Mean heterozygosity was slightly higher among populations of L. raddei than among populations of L. nairensis. A Distance Wagner phenogram showed that the northernmost population of L. raddei clustered with the L. nairensis populations; the other L. raddei populations clustered together. We suggest that L. raddei and L. nairensis may not be separate species, a finding which has important implications for determining the origins of some parthenogenetic Lacerta.
Vocalisation and larval transportation of male Colostethus subpunctatus (Anura: Dendrobatidae)
Authors: Fandiño María Claudia , Lüddecke Horst , Amézquita Adolfo
Published: April 2008

We studied calling activity, tadpole transportation and deposition of Colostethus subpunctatus males in the high mountains of Colombia. Calling as well as tadpole transportation and deposition occurred during daylight and night hours. The reproductive activity was found to be well adjusted to rainfall pattern. Males began to call before the start of the rainy season, but tadpole transportation coincided with the first heavy rains when small puddles used for tadpole deposition remained filled. Reproductive activity ceased soon after the period of heavy rains. The number of tadpoles on the back of individual males encountered in the field was highly variable because tadpoles leave the male's back one after another and not all in the same puddle. Some possible functions of this behaviour are discussed. An understanding of the relationships between parental care patterns in the genus Colostethus may be achieved by considering their physiological and behavioural components.
On the Stridulation of Scorpions
Authors: Alexander Anne J.
Published: April 2008

1. The stridulation of the scorpions Opisthopthalmus latimanus and O. nitidiceps is described; one of the two mechanisms previously suggested for sound production is shown to contribute almost nothing to the noise. An examination of the responses of a number of small mammals to the stridulation suggests that its biological significance is that of a threat. 2. The caudal stridulation of Parabuthus planicauda is described and it is suggested that it may have arisen from an intention movement of stinging. 3. Reports of stridulation in other genera are examined and it is concluded that the stridulatory movements of scorpions may, in general, be regarded as elaborated from intention movements or displacement activities associated with threat.
Spawning and Parental Behavior in Female Pairs of the Jewel Fish, Hemichromis Bimaculatus Gill
Authors: Greenberg Bernard
Published: April 2008

Seven homosexual female pairs were observed on 17 occasions in a total of 22 spawnings. On six occasions the paired females spawned together. Four of the pairs synchronized so well in laying that they deposited rows of eggs alternately or simultaneously on the same site. In fifteen of the spawnings, the behavior of the "partner" of the first spawning female could be summarized as follows: seven ate the eggs and did not spawn until 3.5 days later; three ate eggs but spawned the same day ; three skimmed (or fanned) but did not spawn until 5 or more days later; and two skimmed (or fanned) and then spawned 10 and 45 minutes later, respectively. Hence the partners regarded the eggs as food (majority) or as offspring (minority). None of the partners could be regarded as showing male behavior since their skimming did not resemble the fertilizing movements of the male, except when both laid eggs. Pair formation depended on willingness of the females to inhibit their attacks on each other and to co-operate while maintaining a territory. Responses that seemed to check aggressiveness in the pair mate included the "estrous stance" and quivering. Homosexual groups that did not inhibit aggressiveness developed hierarchies and partial territories instead of pairs. On 11 of the 17 occasions of spawning, both females fanned the eggs and exhibited other parental behavior similar to that of heterosexual pairs. Twice, succcessful exchanges were made for fertilized spawn of Acquidens portalegrensis. These two pairs raised the young competently for 18 and 21 days, respectively, or fully as long as the heterosexual pairs maintained their young under our experimental conditions. It is concluded that female pairs of H. bimaculatus spawn in accordance with the chance synchronization of their separate estrous cycles, although some acceleration or inhibition of the cycle of the partner may result from the activities of the first to spawn. Since bisexual behavior could not be demonstrated, it appears likely that cichlid species performing the Hemichromis type of courtship have only one neuromuscular mechanism that with slight modifications is used by both sexes.
Incubation and Nest Building Behaviour of Black-Headed Gulls. I: Incubation Behaviour in the Incubation Period
Authors: Beer C.G.
Published: April 2008

I. Descriptions are given of the elements of the behaviour performed by Black-headed Gulls on the nest during the time between laying of the third egg and hatching of the first egg. 2. With three eggs in the nest it is found that the majority of settling sequences are complete, the majority of sitting spells are relatively long, and the eggs are covered for almost all of the available time. Also most of the relatively long sitting spells are preceded by complete settling sequences and most of the short sitting spells are preceded by incomplete settling sequences; most of the complete settling sequences lead to long sitting spells and most of the incomplete settling sequences lead to short sitting spells. 3. The frequency of settling, the proportion of complete settling sequences, and the total amount of time spent sitting, are used in comparing the behaviour in different situations. It is found that more or less than three eggs in the nest, eggs of abnormal shape or size, fixed eggs, disturbed nest material, scaring stimuli near the nest, presence of the mate, and the early stage of the sitting bout, produce incubation behaviour which differs from the standard pattern; the birds rise and settle more often, spend less total time sitting, and, with the exception of the last two cases, complete less of their settling sequences. On the other hand different times of day, different stages of the incubation period, differences in weather conditions, eggs of abnormal colour or markings were not associated with differences in the incubation pattern in my observations. 4. It is concluded that stimuli relayed from the brood-patches are particularly important in determining the pattern of settling and sitting behaviour. 5. Some problems connected with the use of the concepts of incubation "drive" and incubation "tendency" are discussed. 6. Stimuli to the feet and legs probably play a part in the release of shifting. 7. Quivering while sitting is probably stimulated by disturbed or "novel" contact between brood-patches and eggs.
Exploratory Behaviour in the Short-Tailed Vole Microtus Agrestis
Authors: Shillito Elizabeth E.
Published: April 2008

Short-tailed voles know the area of their range in detail and this knowledge is maintained by regular exploratory activity, which occurs at frequent intervals in familiar surroundings as well as in new situations. Observations of this behaviour in voles, suggest that is is an instinctive behaviour pattern. There is an exploratory drive present for the animal to know the topography of its surroundings. The appetitive phase of the drive, called reconnaissance behaviour, takes the form of more or less random movements through the range, during which the animal reacts to anything different from that previously experienced and confirms old objects, so that memory is refreshed. The presence of a "new object" elicits investigation which may follow a set pattern. In the vole this is approach, nose and touch with withdrawals at some stage. The drive is satisfied by reception of sensory stimuli from objects or situations after a certain time of exposure to them. The periodic recurrence of reconnaissance behaviour is believed to be due to a fading of the effects of the sensory stimuli on the animal.
Observations On the Mental and Manipulative Abilities of a Captive Baboon (Papio Doguera)
Authors: Bolwig Niels
Published: April 2008

The present paper is a description of the various performances of a baboon, and how it learned to solve various problems. 1. The animal noticed when strings were not connected with the bait or interrupted. In its choice it was not appreciably disturbed by strings crossing the correct one. 2. Sticks were favourite tools for raking in food. They were also balanced on end while the animal climbed up them to reach overhead bait. 3. If the stick available was not long enough to rake in some food it was used for raking in a longer stick which could be used to get the food. 4. The animal learned, after a few trials, to push one end of a bar to one side to receive food from the other end of the bar. It also learned, without difficulty, to drop a stone into a "slot machine" to obtain food. 5. A case is described in which the animal apparently deliberately set a banana swinging in a certain direction by throwing sticks at it. Having got it swinging it tried to reach it from an upright pipe. 6. It was found that practically all performances and solutions of problems were based on a very small innate repertoire of behaviour and that the manipulative abilities were very limited due to the anatomical structure of arm and hand. 7. Actions not conforming with the innate repertoire could in most cases be learned with difficulty only, or not at all. 8. The animal was able to combine two actions learned separately into one sequence to solve a problem. 9. The ability to manipulate sticks and use them as tools is not innate but a result of learning. The animal becomes familiar with the possibilities of sticks during its play with them.
Behavioural Effects of Electrical Stimulation in the Forebrain of the Pigeon
Authors: Akerman Bengt
Published: April 2008

Actions belonging to the reproductive behaviour have been released by means of electrical stimulation in the forebrain of unanaesthetized, freely moving pigeons (Columba livia). The following behaviour items, which normally are closely associated with courtship behaviour, were obtained: the bowing action, preening movements - particularly displacement preening, the pecking and the nest demonstration. The different actions were released both in females and males but the aggressive bowing action was induced in considerably more males than females while the nest demonstration was observed in a higher frequency in the females. The positive sites of stimulation were concentrated in the preoptic nuclear complex. Solitary active points were located in nuclei bordering the preoptic area, such as the anterior hypothalamic, the anterior diencephalic paraventricular and the septal. The active zone bordered and partially overlapped the substrate for actions belonging to other categories of instinctive behaviour such as food and water intake and defence and escape. The rather restricted field for courtship actions extended medially up into the paleo-, neo- and hyperstriatum. The responses from the striatal level were generally less complete and intense than those from the more basal level. Stimulation in males at the preoptic and anterior hypothalamic level generally induced an intense bowing action with all normal components, and confrontation with adequate external stimuli released a complete aggressive action. The bowing could also be transformed into nest demonstration via displacement preening indicating a change in motivation from aggressiveness to sexual, which is a clear parallel to the introductory male courtship behaviour. The females also showed parallels to the precopulatory behaviour. The induced response was nest demonstration, preening movements - mainly displacement preening and pecking. The results show that in birds, as in mammals, it is mainly the preoptic area which takes part in the regulation of actions serving reproduction. Evidence has been produced that in birds striatal areas of the telencephalon are also involved in the coordination of such actions. The principle of organisation that can be traced in these experiments shows some interesting similarities to basic elements of animal behaviour and in a broad sense with the principles of the organisation of instinctive behaviour patterns according to TINBERGEN (1951).
Celestial Orientation of Fowler's Toad b uFo Fowleri
Authors: Ferguson Denzel E. , Landreth Hobart F.
Published: April 2008

Young Fowler's toads from on and near the shores of a lake were tested in a circular pen 60 feet in diameter. Under a variety of conditions (e.g. including group tests, individual tests, simultaneous testing of two groups from different shores, long distance displacement, and transit to the test pen both in view of the sky and in lightproof containers), the toads oriented under the sun to a compass direction (Y-axis) corresponding to a line bisecting the home shoreline at right angles. This orientation persisted after 72 hours in darkness, indicating the existence of an internal clock mechanism. Reorientation to a new shore was evident in 24 hours and was virtually complete after 48 hours. Orientation failed or was partially inhibited in small toads tested under dense cloud cover, at noon, and after sunset. Also, the type of orientation exhibited under the sun was evident at night under the moon, but to a lesser extent under starry skies. These mechanisms are useful in foraging and in dispersal from nursery shores. Adults are oriented at night to the breeding site even without benefit of a chorus for reference. Adults oriented to the Y-axis of the breeding site. A recorded chorus distracted migrating adults pursuing a compass course toward a pond. Non-breeding adults compensated for a displacement made in view of the sun. Celestial orientation is considered a basic orientational mechanism which most likely developed early in anuran history.
Effects of Competition On the Aggressive Behavior of Squirrel and Cebus Monkeys
Authors: Plotnik Rod , King Frederick A. , Roberts Lamar
Published: April 2008

The social dominance structure and aggressive patterns in a group of four male adult squirrel monkeys and four adolescent cebus monkeys were analyzed across different test conditions. The effects on frequency and direction of aggressive interaction as well as on social dominance structure were assessed after systematically varying the size of testing area, presence or absence of reinforcement, kind of reinforcement (food or shock), and after the monkeys in each established group were separated for two weeks. Under all test conditions, the squirrel monkey's social dominance structure consisted of a dominant boss monkey and an almost completely linear hierarchy for the group. The cebus monkey's social structure consisted of a dominant boss monkey and an almost nonlinear hierarchy for the group. The presence of reinforcement, kind of reinforcement, and size of testing area were shown to have important effects on frequency but not on the direction of aggressive interactions in both the mature squirrel monkey group and immature cebus monkey group.
Social Attachment in Rats By Odor and Age
Authors: Marr John N. , Lilliston Lawrence G.
Published: April 2008

The odor of rat litter-mates was experimentally modified from 3-10, 11-18, or 22-29 days of age. Acetophenone or ethyl benzoate were used during the experimental period and the natural odor was present during the other two periods. After living in the natural odor colony for another 2 weeks, Ss were compared on duration of time near each olfactory stimulus animal in an eight hour test. Ss preferred the stimulus animal characterized by the experimental odor with which they were reared. Age of exposure was not a significant factor. These results indicate that the odor of the species is learned, that the intensity of the odor is important, but that age is not a critical variable in the early learning of the species odor in the rat.
Stimulus Generalization and Responses To "Supernormal" Stimuli in the Unrewarded Pecking Behavior of Young Chicks
Authors: Goodwin Elizabeth Bird , Hess Eckhard H.
Published: April 2008

1. Young chicks were tested daily from the age of one to nine days for unrewarded pecking preferences. 2. Those tested on stars differing in number of points pecked the most at stars having 3 or 9 points and showed a decreasing preference for intermediate stars with the 7-pointed star pecked at the least. Preference for different stars appears to be influenced by size. 3. There was a failure to obtain classical stimulus generalization effects in the groups shown a series of diamonds or a series of ovals. 4. Preference rankings for "supernormal" stimuli consisting of circles edged in different ways suggested that the preference hierarchy for two-dimensional forms may be very different when the forms are in extremely tiny size.
Nest Building in the Bengalese Finch
Authors: Slater Peter J.B.
Published: April 2008

Attempts to induce carrying of nest material in isolated male Bengalese finches by injecting testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone or prolactin were ineffective. Neither prolactin nor progesterone in the doses used appeared to affect incubation behaviour. There was a suggestion that prolactin depressed song numbers. Inexperienced birds are in general slower than experienced ones in settling down and starting to build. Monosexual male pairs start to carry more quickly when both partners have been kept in the same small group before pairing, than when they are from different groups. Most birds with previous breeding experience and which had been in the same group as their partners before pairing began to carry at a high rate immediately after pairing. The slight increase in carrying in the few days thereafter is probably attributable to the need to settle down in the new situation and to practice making a higher rate of carrying possible. It is probable that the hormonal state is appropriate for carrying at the time of pairing but that the 75% of males which do not carry in isolation are only stimulated to do so by the presence of a known mate, a nest site and an uncompleted nest. The main control of carrying thus appears to lie with external stimuli acting directly on the nervous system rather than through the meditation of endocrine changes. In the discussion it is suggested that direct effects of external stimuli may be more important in inducing long term behaviour changes during reproduction than has previously been supposed.
Sexual Initiating Behaviour By Female Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca Mulatta) Under Laboratory Conditions
Authors: Michael Richard P. , Zumpe D.
Published: April 2008

Observations were made on oppositely-sexed pairs of adult rhesus monkeys during 60-min tests when females were both intact (215 tests) and ovariectomized (196 tests). Three special gestures, named the hand-reach, head-duck and head-bob were described in female rhesus monkeys, and evidence is put forward that, like the well-known "presentation" gesture, they too served as female sexual invitations. They occurred most frequently immediately before and during the mounting sequence and ceased abruptly after the male's ejaculation. Although individually less effective than presentations in stimulating mounting by males, hand-reaches, head-ducks and head-bobs together initiated a larger total number of mounts: thus, they were important invitational gestures. Ovariectomy resulted in a dramatic decrease in the numbers of these sexual invitations as female receptivity declined. Hand-reaches, head-ducks and head-bobs possessed some of the stereotyped properties of reflexes and, unlike presentations, never occurred in non-sexual behavioural situations or in response to a non-sexual stimulus (e.g. male threat) ; they may thus provide a more direct indication of the female's motivational state.
Snake Avoidance in Feral and Laboratory Reared Squirrel Monkeys
Authors: Murray Sarah G. , King James E.
Published: April 2008

The latency of food retrieval and other behaviours in the presence of a live boa constrictor and other snake-like stimuli was observed in three groups of squirrel monkeys (adult feral, adult laboratory reared, and immature laboratory reared). The principal results were as follows: 1. Both of the laboratory reared groups retrieved food within about five or fewer sec in the presence of any stimulus, including the live snake. 2. The retrieval latencies of the adult feral group were longest in the presence of the live snake, the next longest in the presence of rubber snakes painted either gray or an approximation of the boa constrictor markings, and shortest in the presence of various rubber tubes or a gray block. This result suggests that avoidance of some snake like stimuli in the adult feral squirrel monkey is determined more by shape than by markings. 3. The habituation of the snake avoidance response was rapid for all stimuli, but occurred more slowly for the live snake than for the two rubber snakes. 4. Of the various behaviors observed in the interval between the presentation and the retrieval of food, visual scanning was predominant and occurred during 74 percent of this time.
A Study of the Postural Variations in the Foreleg of Ranatra Linearis (Insecta Heteroptera)
Authors: Cloarec Ann
Published: April 2008

A correlation between the foreleg postures of Ranatra linearis, specific states of its alimentary canal linked with intestinal transport (checked by direct observation and dissection), and its responsiveness to an alimentary stimulus is described. The emptier the midgut, the more the forelegs are bent backwards towards the head and the further apart these two forelegs are one from the other. A study of the extinction of prey capture behaviour shows that the more the forelegs are bent backwards towards the head, (the smaller the coxa-femur angle) and the further apart the two forelegs one from the other, the more numerous the responses to repeated presentations of an alimentary stimulus will be. For a specific initial posture the responses to repeated presentations of an alimentary stimulus are less numerous if the model is presented in the part of the perceptual space above the forelegs (stimulating the visual receptors only) than if it is moved through the entire perceptual field (stimulating femoral mechanoreceptors as well as visual receptors). For a specific initial foreleg posture these responses will be more numerous if the behavioural sequence is interrupted nearer the beginning. The first responses in a series of presentations of an alimentary stimulus are always more complete than later responses. The duration of the intervals between two successive responses in a given series varies according to the initial posture of the forelegs, and so does the quantity of food eaten.
The Development of Prey Recognition and Predatory Behaviour in the American Kestrel Falco Sparverius
Authors: Mueller Helmut C.
Published: April 2008

Nine hand-reared American kestrels were exposed to a series of objects, stationary and moving, ranging from a tissue-paper ball, a crude tissue-paper mouse, through stuffed and dead mice, and finally live mice. Only one bird responded consistently to paper models, and only to moving mouse-models. All birds attacked live mice, including five that had not responded to models or dead mice. Two of the five inexperienced birds attacked their first live mouse in less than 10 sec. Attacks on paper models were desultory and disoriented and are believed to represent play rather than predatory behaviour. Attacks on live mice were intense, rapid, sustained and well-oriented, with the mouse being grasped by the thorax, neck or head and biting directed to the head or neck. Eight of nine birds attacked their first mouse (live, dead, or stuffed) expertly and all nine birds achieved consistent, expert perfonnance in less than six trials. The inference is drawn that experience plays a minor role in the development of recognition, capturing and killing of mice by kestrels.
Courtship of Drosophila Melanogaster : Rejection Without Extrusion
Authors: Cook Robert
Published: April 2008

1. The experiments reported were designed to study the courtship behaviour of male D. melanogaster with virgin and inseminated decapitated females, which do not extrude their genitalia in response to courtship, and do not move. 2. Two new elements of behaviour which occur during the male's courtship were described. The names suggested for these are 'grasping' and 'rubbing'. 3. A clear distinction was seen in the behaviour of males towards virgin and inseminated decapitated females. Fewer males courted the latter, and those males which did court did so for a shorter period. 4. The courtship to the inseminated females contained a relatively lower proportion of attempted copulation than that to virgin females. 5. Operations were conducted on the tarsi of the fore legs and sex combs of the males to elucidate aspects of their possible role in courtship. 6. Males lacking both tarsi and sex combs performed very little courtship either to virgin or to inseminated decapitated females. Males with tarsi removed below the sex combs, and those with the tarsi of the hind legs removed did not court significantly less than normals, but the relative frequency of attempted copulation in courtship was changed. 7. Removal of the sex combs, leaving the tarsi intact, led to the total absence of attempted copulation, although other elements of courtship occurred frequently. 8. Hypotheses are offered concerning the evolution of the behaviour of extrusion, and concerning the possible roles of the sex combs in courtship.
Chemical Prey Preference Polymorphism in Newborn Garter Snakes Thamnophis Sir Talis
Authors: Burghardt Gordon M.
Published: April 2008

Newborn, previously unfed garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) respond with prey attack and tongue flicking to water based extracts prepared from the surface substances of normally eaten prey and presented on cotton swabs. The present experiments demonstrate reliable individual differences in preferred stimuli among members of the same litter. (I) Of 12 snakes tested on six different days with redworm extract, minnow extract, and distilled water, six responded reliably more to worm and one reliably more to minnow. Redworm was overall more effective than minnow. Using two ranking procedures, individual responsivity to redworm was not correlated with responsivity to minnow. Although distilled water was relatively ineffective, correlations of individual snake scores to extracts and water were high and often significant, in contrast to the low correlations between extracts. (2) Of an entire litter of 13 snakes tested on seven days with extracts from two species of earthworms and two species of fish, 11 responded significantly more to worm extracts and one significantly more to fish extracts. The two worm extracts gave almost identical overall scores and the same occurred for the two fish extracts, with the worm being more effective. While individual responsivities to the two worm or two fish extracts were highly correlated, responsivities across worms and fish were not. A few snakes discriminated between individual worm or fish extracts. (3) In 15 sibling newborn snakes tested on three concentrations (100%, 10%, 1%) of earthworm and fish extracts, most responded more to worm regardless of concentration, a 1% worm extract being more effective than 100% fish. The method of limits was used in both ascending and descending sequences. (4) In all three litters, the snakes could be divided into a few discrete groups based on the relative preference for fish or worm extracts. However, there was wide individual variation in attack frequency, attack latency, and tongue flicking in absence of prey attack. (5) The results are discussed in terms of a genetically based perceptual polymorphism. The phenomenon's possible role in the natural history and evolution of snakes, especially the interaction with feeding experience, is elaborated.