bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
XXIII. Geological Time
Authors: Goodchild J. G.
Published: September 2014

T
he
author began by making some observations upon astronomical distance, pointing out that as astronomy had been recognised as a science from an early period in the history of civilisation we had nowadays all become more or less familiar with the conception of vast intervals of space. Geology, on the other hand, was a science of very recent growth, and had hardly yet passed through stages of development which had been reached by astronomy 2000 or more years ago. While, therefore, no rational person was prepared to call in question statements regarding the distances of even the nearest of the stellar bodies, there were many who had failed to realise any true conception of what was meant by “geological time”; like those folk who, centuries ago, opposed the statements of astronomers in regard to vast intervals of space, these now dissented from the statements of geologists in regard to equally vast intervals of time. This, of course, was partly due to the fact that many of the data with which the geologist had to deal had not yet reached the stage of exactitude to which astronomical data had attained in the middle ages. Other reasons, obvious to any thoughtful person, also stood in the way.

The lecturer then dealt with some of the evidences which lead the geologist to consider that vast, if still indefinite, periods of time are implied in the development of events in the earth's past history with which it was his special province to deal. He
XXVI. The Problem of the Marginal Highlands
Authors: Macnair Peter
Published: September 2014

T
he
“Marginal Highlands” the author defined as the area lying immediately to the north-west of the great line of fault which separates the Old Red Sandstones of the Scottish Midland valley on the one hand, from the crystalline rocks of the Highlands on the other.

The writings of Murchison, Geikie, Harkness, Jameson, and Nicol upon the district were first reviewed, as well as the more recent work of the officers of the Geological Survey, including the lately issued memoir of “The Geology of Cowal,” and the present position of “the problem” was stated to be as follows:—(1st) Is there any evidence of the interposition of a belt of Lower Silurian rocks along the margin of the Highlands? (2) Are those grits and phyllites, which are seen dipping below the schists towards the east of the mountain chain, in their correct position, and do they overlie the schists of the interior, as seen in Cowal and on the N. shore of the Firth of Clyde? (3rd) Is there any evidence in Cowal to show that a great anticline of the foliation exists, and crosses an early syncline in the bedding?

The author then proceeded to enumerate six schist zones into which the rocks under review might be divided, grouping together their larger lithological features, and pointing out that they were capable of still further sub-division. He described a number of sections taken across the Highlands from Bridge of Cally on the E. to Dunoon on the W., and endeavoured from these
XXX. A Bute Post-Glacial Shell-bed. Notes on Excavations at the Rothesay Gasworks in 1896-1897
Authors: Ballantyne John
Published: September 2014

B
ute
has long been known for its post-glacial shell-beds. The first recorded was at Balnakailly Bay, Kyles of Bute, by Mr. James Smith, of Jordanhill, in 1831, where it occurs from a little above high-water mark to about half-tide level. Another was found near the centre of Rothesay in 1854 in an excavation of 19 feet for a tank at the Old Gasworks. Both deposits were described by Hugh Miller in an article entitled “The Chain of Causes.” (See his “Sketchbook of Popular Geology,” page 321.) The section of the latter is given as follows:—

Vegetable Mould or Soil, 1 foot 6 inches.

Ferruginous Gravel, (about) 7 feet.

Peat Moss, with Hazel Nuts, 1 foot 6 inches.

Fine Stratified Sea-sand, 9 feet.

Arenaceous Clay (shell-bed), so far as seen, 2 feet.

The surface was 20 feet above sea-level, so the shell-bed lay just 1 foot above it.

A third shell-deposit was found at Kilchattan Bay in 1847, where a deep clay-bed was being utilised for tile-making, though the shells do not seem to have been noticed till some years afterwards.

In 1877 a shell-bed was met with in the foundations for a sawpit and boiler at the Rothesay Sawmill, but no particulars were preserved.

Two excavations for gas tanks at the Rothesay New Gasworks, opening up a shelly clay, were made in 1896-1897, about 50 yards S. of the sawmills and 500 yards S. of the Old Gasworks deposit. The section here at 28 feet above
XXVI. On some differences in the results of Ice Action in Scotland and Switzerland
Authors: Campbell John D.
Published: September 2014

T
he
author attributed the rounded state of the Highland hills to their having been enveloped almost to their summits in a sheet of ice, while the higher Alpine peaks, on the contrary, at least in modern times, have always been elevated considerably above the glaciers, and have been worn into their present majestic forms by frost and other causes, while the glaciers acted as ravine-cutters and rubbish-carriers. He explained the nature of moraines, and the way in which they were formed on the surface of the glaciers, and gave his reasons for thinking that no mass of detritus intervened between the glacier ice and its rocky bed, but that all the stones which found their way there were quickly ground into mud, grinding the bed at the same time, and that this mud was instantly carried off by the water which is found abundantly beneath the glaciers. He admitted that there were very considerable difficulties in fully explaining the phenomena of the Boulder Clay, but suggested that, from the great coldness of the climate of Scotland in the glacial period, there would be but a small supply of water from the melting of the ice, and that in the flattish country, where the Boulder Clay is principally found, the ice sheet would not be much crevassed, so that surface water would not easily find its way beneath, and the detritus over considerable spaces might thus escape removal. The mass of mud, stones, &c., would then be powerfully compressed, and very
LXV. Scottish Geology: Its Proofs and Problems
Authors: Page David
Published: September 2014

T
he
author stated that by its
proofs
he meant what was known, or at least generally admitted, by competent geologists; and by its
problems
what was still doubtful and required further investigation. His object was not to sketch the history of Scottish Geology, which, about the beginning of the century, was a mass of theories and disputations between Wernerians and Huttonians, and which at a later period was little else than a nomenclature of rocks and minerals; but he could not avoid mentioning the names of such men as Hutton, Playfair, Ure, Sir James Hall, M‘Culloch, Williams, and Jamieson, as contributing largely, even amidst these unproductive discussions, to the progress of the science. Legitimate geology could date back little more than thirty years, and during that period its advancement in Scotland was indebted in no small degree to the labours of Fleming, Smith, Cunningham, M‘Laren, Hugh Miller, and especially to those of Lyell, Murchison, Nicol, Geikie, and others who were still steadily endeavouring to unravel its many complicated physical as well as palæontological problems. He then took in review the various stratified systems, from the Laurentian up to the most recent accumulations, pointing out the known from the unknown, and from the doubtful or what required more minute investigation. Admitting the existence of Laurentian strata in the Hebrides and northwest corner of Scotland, it still required investigation to determine whether these were the true equivalents of the rocks of the St. Laurence, or were merely a set of gneissic schists
XXI.—
Age-Relations of the Epigenetic Mineral Deposits of Britain
Authors: Dunham K. C.
Published: September 2014

Finlayson’s thesis that the important British non-ferrous mineral fields were mineralized in Hercynian times is examined in the light of investigations made since 1910 and largely confirmed. It is suggested that hydrothermal fluids leaked into the Zechstein Sea and that dolomitization related to this sea preceded non-ferrous mineralization in the Southern Pennines. Pockets of “fossil” Hercynian hydrothermal waters are believed to explain certain instances of weak mineralization affecting Mesozoic strata. In Carboniferous Limestone areas deep cavernization later than the Hercynian non-ferrous epoch occurred before or during the accumulation of the ferric (haematite) ores in Tertiary times.
XVI.—
A chemical composition diagram for comparison purposes
Authors: Fraser William Elrick
Published: September 2014

The paper presents a chemical composition diagram which permits easy comparisons of igneous rock compositions on the basis of aggregate cafemic oxides, FeO + Fe
2
O
3
, FeO, MgO, MgO + CaO, Na
2
O, K
2
O, Al
2
O
3
, and SiO
2
. The paper is illustrated by ten figures depicting chemical compositions of igneous rocks from British petrographic provinces and sub-provinces; also by two figures dealing with provinces of types which are poorly represented in Britain. These figures are supplemented by a proforma, drawn to the same scale, on which new analyses can be plotted.
XVII.—
A cumulative chemical composition diagram indicating molar proportions of oxides
Authors: Fraser William Elrick
Published: September 2014

The paper presents a chemical composition diagram which indicates the molar proportions of the oxides without the necessity for re-calculation.
V.—
The late structural and petrological history of the Lewisian rocks of the Meall Deise area, north of Gairloch, Ross-shire
Authors: Bhattacharjee C. C.
Published: September 2014

The structural and petrological changes affecting the Lewisian rocks north of Gairloch during the closing stages of the Laxfordian orogenic episode include deformation that took place under the influence of a changing stress field during conditions of waning metamorphism. There were developed paracrystalline small-scale folds and post-crystalline large-scale folds with associated pseudotachylitic crush veins. Regionally metamorphosed and migmatized sediments and basites were modified and the dominant N.W.-S.E. trend of both lithological bands and foliation was re-orientated to a N.E.-S.W. direction over considerable areas.
VII. On the Aspects of Clydesdale during the Glacial Period
Authors: Bell Dugald
Published: September 2014

T
he
author said it was remarkable that some of the most difficult problems of geology should spring up and present themselves within a few feet of the surface on which we stand. After journeying with comparative sureness of footing across the vast spaces represented by the earlier formations, geologists had been arrested for more than a quarter of a century in front of the covering of loose stones, clays, and gravels spread over the whole. He need not recount all the hypotheses by which they had tried to explain what had been variously styled the
Northern Drift, Diluvium, Till,
or
Boulder Clay.
It came to be seen that these surface deposits presented a very complex problem, and that no single or transient cause, such as powerful currents, “waves of translation,” or great floods of water, could at all meet the case. By slow degrees, and after a world of labour, they had at length succeeded to some extent in unravelling the mystery of the boulder clays and associated deposits, and so deciphering a very wonderful chapter of the earth’s history, of which these are the record. He then gave an outline of the succession of events which had been made out from the dawn of the glacial epoch down to a comparatively recent geological time,—beginning with the period of land-ice and ending with the “last elevation” of the land.

This succession, as now generally concurred in by those who had investigated the subject, was as under:—

A period when the
XIII. On the Origin of Petroleum
Authors: Anderson Richard
Published: September 2014

I
n
the opening of his paper, the author alluded to the different theories which had been propounded by geologists on the subject. There was, first, the distillation theory, that petroleum has been produced by the slow distillation, at low temperature, of coal and other bituminous substances within the earth. Next was the theory which supposed petroleum to have been produced from decayed vegetable matter by a process similar to that by which coal was formerly supposed to have been formed, viz., by the mineralisation of woody fibre which evolves marsh gas, carbonic acid, and water. The next notable theory was that petroleum in many cases must have been of animal origin, from the fact of its being found in the lower palæozoic strata, which contain no traces of land plants. Then there was Mr. Wall’s “special mineralisation” theory, that bituminous matter has proceeded from vegetable remains which have undergone a special mineralisation, not attributable to heat, nor of the nature of a distillation, but due to chemical reaction at the ordinary temperature, and under normal conditions of climate. The author then proceeded to state some of the difficulties attaching to each of these theories as a solution of the problem of the origin of petroleum. These difficulties seemed to him too great for geologists themselves to clear away, and he believed it was only when geology was studied side by side with chemistry that anything like a satisfactory conclusion on the subject could be arrived at. The first difficulty which
XIV. Geological Notes on the Cuttings in the City of Glasgow Union Railway between Bellgrove and Springburn
Authors: Neilson James
Published: September 2014

T
he
branch line connecting the College and Sighthill Stations of the North British Railway, was made principally to relieve the Queen Street terminus—long inadequate for the purpose—from the ever-increasing goods traffic. Although only about one mile and a half in length, its cost has been great, as besides heavy cuttings, with much building in and tunnelling, the Monkland Canal had to be diverted, and a new bed half a mile in length constructed.

Minerals have been long and extensively worked in the district. I remember a deserted coal pit and a sandstone quarry where the Camlachie goods station now stands, while another pit was till lately visible near the Cumbernauld Road, about 100 yards north of Duke Street. Craigpark whinstone quarry and Blochairn sand quarry are still being worked. Although, owing to the thick overlying deposits of clay, the locality has been so barren to the geologist as not to have been mentioned in the Transactions of the Society except in one instance, and then only to state that nothing of interest was to be seen, yet I do not know any place, where, within the space of a mile, there can be seen more interesting geological features,—igneous and stratified rocks, boulder clay, and other glacial deposits, besides numerous fossil remains. Unfortunately a number of the sections have been built up, but of those hereafter described, parts at Burnbank, Blochairn, and Garngad Road are still visible.

The first section worthy of note is one seen immediately after leaving the main
XV. Notes on Glacial Mounds near Balquhidder, Perthshire
Authors: Bell Dugald
Published: September 2014

I
n
this Paper the author described some remarkable glacial mounds which occur in the neighbourhood of Balquhidder, Perthshire. They had attracted his attention when passing through the district several years ago, and more recently he had had an opportunity of looking at them again. The locality, as the members were aware, is on the line of railway between Callander and Killin. Proceeding from the Bridge of Allan to Callander, we cross the great belt of the old red sandstone of Scotland, deeply covered in many places with till and “upper drift,” and strewn here and there with erratics, some of considerable size. Near Callander we come upon the conglomerate at the base of the system, which extends north-east by Crieff and Dunkeld, and south-west by Aberfoyle, and through Loch Lomond to the Firth of Clyde. Here we observe some well-marked instances of striation. Leaving Callander, we enter the schistose region at the Pass of Leny; and as we pass along the shores of Loch Lubnaig, we see striking examples of ice-work on the hill sides and along the bottom of the valley. From Callander our course has been nearly due north, but at Kingshouse the upper part of Strathyre bends sharply round to the west, extending about two miles in that direction to Balquhidder, at the foot of Loch Voil. This beautiful, lonely lake stretches some four or five miles further west towards the lofty range of mountains, several of them about 3000 feet in height, which forms the watershed
XXI. Recent Researches into the History of the Deposits known as Old Red Sandstone
Authors: Geikie
Published: September 2014

A
fter
a preliminary outline of our present knowledge on the subject, Prof. Geikie proceeded to consider the development of the Old Red Sandstone in the British Isles under its accepted three-fold division into Lower, Middle, and Upper. The Lower member, wherever its true base can be seen, is found to pass down conformably into the Upper Silurian rocks. But a well-marked line of demarcation, both by physical characters and fossil evidence, runs between the two systems. The Silurian formations continue replete with organic remains up to their uppermost zone; but on entering the red strata of the overlying system we meet with a remarkably abrupt change, for the fossils almost wholly disappear, and those which occur belong for the most part to fishes and crustaceans. The author pointed out the geological evidence in favour of great terrestrial oscillations, as explained by Prof. Ramsay, whereby the bed of the Silurian sea in our area came to be raised into land with wide lakes and inland seas. He showed that the beginnings of the movements which led to those results could be traced back a considerable way into the Silurian period, that over large tracts the Silurian deposits had been upraised before the close of that period, and that the oscillations continued during the accumulation of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, as indicated by the coarse conglomerates, the great mass of the deposits, and the unconformabilities traceable in them. Recent detailed work of the Geological Survey has brought to light the fact
V. Remarks upon Prof. Hull’s proposed Triple Division of the Carboniferous Strata, as contained in a Paper entitled “On the Upper Limit of the essentially Marine Beds of the Carboniferous System in the British Isles, and the necessity for the establishment of a Middle Carboniferous Group,” which he read before Section C of the British Association, Glasgow, 1876
Authors: Young John
Published: September 2014

M
r
. Y
oung
stated that there were few geologists in Britain entitled to speak with more authority upon the strata of the Carboniferous system than Prof. Hull, who had long studied the relations of the strata in the coal-fields of Scotland, England, and Ireland, in connection with his work on the Geological Survey. His proposed plan is to have the system grouped into seven successive stages in an ascending series, marked A to G. These seven stages he would further group into three chief divisions—A B representing the Lower Carboniferous slates, grits, and conglomerates, and the Lower division of the Carboniferous limestone; C D E taking the Yordale beds, Millstone Grit, and Ganister beds, which form the lower division of the Upper Coal measure; F G representing the Middle and Upper Coal measures. Prof. Hull proposes this classification chiefly upon palæontological grounds. A and B contain fresh-water and estuarine organisms, which alternate with marine forms in the lower stage; marine organisms being chiefly found in the upper one. C D E are essentially a marine series of deposits, as characterised by their contained fossils. F and G are fresh-water and estuarine. This embraces the chief points of Professor Hull’s triple classification, he reserving for future detail the forms that characterise each division.

*

Mr. Young remarked that the reading of Professor Hull’s paper excited some discussion amongst the geologists present, most of them contending that there was no need for the proposed classification, especially as it is often impossible, from the character
XVI. Recent Discoveries among the Silurians of South Scotland
Authors: Lapworth Charles
Published: September 2014

N
o
sooner were these ancient strata studied in earnest by geologists, instructed by the world-renowned achievements of Murchison in Siluria, than what appeared to be clear and unmistakable proofs of a definite sequence were discovered. The earlier investigators soon recognized the fact that, when viewed upon a large scale, they dipped apparently N. and S. from an axial line running from Berwick to Dumfries. In the neighbourhood of this line they had a very ancient appearance, reminding the geologist of the strata of the Longmynd, which, in Siluria, rise out from below the base of the Silurian system. A further resemblance was found in the fact that they were similarly destitute of all traces of organic life. Precisely as in Siluria, the rocks which surmounted these barren beds in the south of Scotland were found to contain an abundance of the little understood fossils known as graptolites. These graptolite-bearing strata were subsequently ascertained to form the floor of the whole of the Uplands to the north of the unfossiliferous beds, except near the town of Girvan in Ayrshire. There certain limestones and schists were discovered, crowded with fossils, the majority of which were identical with those of the Caradoc formation of Wales, which was known to succeed the great graptolite-bearing Llandeilo formation of that country. To the north of these Girvan beds, higher Silurians were detected in the Pentland Hills and at Lesmahagow, crowded with Upper Silurian fossils, and passing upwards into rocks belonging to the succeeding system of the
XVIII. On the Jointed Prismatic Structure in Basaltic Rocks
Authors: Thomson James
Published: September 2014

T
he
views presented in the following paper have in great part been previously brought forward and published on some other occasions, but not hitherto in any such way as to become satisfactorily accessible among geologists. The fundamental ideas and primary observations on which they were based were submitted by the author to the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society in a paper read on November 26, 1862, and the subject was shortly afterwards brought under the notice of the British Association at the Newcastle Meeting in 1863, and a brief but complete account of the chief points is to be found printed in the Association’s Report for that year. A fuller account of the author’s views, with his discussion of the prevailing views of others, is printed in the Annual Report of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club for 1869-70, as an abstract of a paper read by him to that Society in November, 1869. He was afterwards requested to bring the subject before the Geological Society of Glasgow; and the present paper contains a fuller exposition than any previous one, and includes the discussion of a few facts which have later come under notice.

Basaltic Rocks, and rocks generally of the trappean class (which comprises most of those that have originated as volcanic lavas), are very frequently to be found divided into prismatic columns, more or less regular in form, and the columns are sometimes found to be divided into short lengths by cross fractures or surfaces of easy partition,
XXVI. Notes on the Metamorphic Rocks of Harris and North Uist
Authors: Thomson James
Published: September 2014

T
he
author first briefly referred to the opinions expressed by some of our most eminent observers regarding the stratigraphical arrangement of the rocks in Inverness-shire, Ross-shire, and Sutherlandshire, and he stated that M‘Culloch and Murchison had described the rocks of the Outer Hebrides as belonging to the fundamental gneiss which has been frequently spoken of by others as the oldest in the world.

Mr. Thomson then described the characteristics of the rocks of Harris, including granite, granitoid-gneiss, gneiss, and conglomerate. The latter he had found interstratified with the gneiss and granitoid-gneiss. He referred to a paper by Dr. James Geikie, in the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,
and said that a more faithful and graphic account of the results of ice-action he had never read; but he was surprised that Dr. Geikie had not spoken of the conglomerates found interstratified with the gneissic rocks.

At Loch Maddy, in North Uist, these rocks are much of a similar character to those of Harris, and the conglomerate rocks are seen exposed close to the pier and in front of the inn, and from this point they extend southward. Their contained fragments, pebbles, and boulders, consist of hornblende, gneiss, and granitoid rocks; while the basic rock consists of a dull blue-grey felspathic rock, with numerous patches of vitreous quartz. These erratics do not resemble fragments which had fallen from cliffs, neither do they appear to have been exposed to the action of water upon a coast line, but have a great resemblance
XXXVI. On Graptolites
Authors: Lapworth Charles
Published: September 2014

I
n
the first edition of his famous work, the “Systema Naturæ,” published in 1736, the great Swedish naturalist, Linnæus, proposed the name
Graptolithus
for certain natural markings occasionally found upon stones, which are not true fossils, but are mere superficial stainings, having the deceptive appearance of being organic remains. In the twelfth edition of the “Systema,” however, Linnæus unwittingly figured and described two true fossils under the head of
Graptolithus.
One of these, his
Graptolithus scalaris,
was founded upon some strange markings found upon pieces of broken stone collected in Scania, in the south of Sweden. In 1821, Dr. Wahlenberg collected some specimens of the
Graptolithus scalaris
from Linnæus’ original localities. These he submitted to a careful examination, and reached the conclusion that they were the remains of fossil Orthoceratites. Through the subsequent researches, however, of Nilsson, Portlock, and Barrande, who discovered and studied many genera and species of fossils of the same type as the original
Graptolithus scalaris,
it has been demonstrated that these so-called
Graptolithus
or
Graptolites
are the petrified remains of Hydroida, allied to the modern Zoophytes of our sea-coasts.

These fossil Graptolites are all plant-like forms, and are of many different shapes—linear, leaf-like, tree-like; simple and compound. They all show peculiar notches or teeth upon their outer margins, and are now transformed into shining carbonaceous matter. They are separated by palæontologists into two main groups—the
Rhabdophora
and the
Cladophora.
The
Rhabdophora
stand almost alone in the animal world in the possession of a peculiar rod or
X. Notes on the Silurian Rocks of the Muirkirk District
Authors: Forsyth David
Published: September 2014

T
his
paper was suggested by that delivered to the Society by Dr. Hunter on the Silurian Rocks of the Logan Water, Lesmahagow.

*

The Silurian strata of the Muirkirk district are but combinations of those of the larger Lesmahagow area, which are best seen in the neighbourhood of Logan Water. My remarks may, therefore, be regarded as supplementary to Dr. Hunter's paper, and should be read in connection with it.

I.
General Position
.—The Muirkirk valley stretches from north-east to south-west, through Carboniferous strata, bounded by Old Red Sandstone rocks to the north, east, and south. The connection between the Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone formations is, however, interrupted by two long ridges of felspathic traps to the north and south-west, and by faults to the south, although their relation to each other is more readily seen to the south-east, on the shoulders of Cairntable. Two long narrow areas of upper Silurian strata occur in the parish, stretching nearly parallel to each other, one to the north-west, the other to the south-east of the Muirkirk or Ayr valley. The general strike of the beds is that which characterises most of the Silurian strata of the south of Scotland, from SW. to NE.

II.
The Northern or Larger Area
.—From a glance at the accompanying sketch map, it is evident that the connection of the Lesmahagow and Muirkirk Upper Silurian strata is here complete. They stretch from the head of the Logan and Nethan Waters, their broadest part, to the Greenock Water, where they
XXXIX. Review of the Southern Silurian Question
Authors: Macconochie Arthur
Published: September 2014

T
he
author remarked at the outset it might safely be asserted that, at present, only two readings of the order of succession among the complicated rocks of the Southern Uplands claimed the attention of geologists, namely—that adopted, after careful and detailed mapping, by the officers of the Geological Survey, and that of Prof. Lapworth, to whose splendid work among the Silurian rocks of the Moffat and Girvan areas attention was more particularly directed, giving first a brief recapitulation of the chief points in the Moffat paper—how the Moffat black shales are subdivided into Lower, Middle, and Upper, or into “Glenkilns,” “Hartfells,” and “Birkhills.” The lowest, or “Glenkilns,” yields in abundance a large variety of Graptolites, to which the genera
Cœnograptus, Didymograptus
and
Thamnograptus
are peculiar; while the species
Dicranograptus ziczac, D. formosus,
and
Dicellograptus divaricatus
appear to have an equally restricted range in that district. Next the “Hartfells,” the lower half of which is made up almost entirely of black anthracitic shales charged every here and there with a profusion of Graptolites,
Dicellograptus, Pleurograptus, Amphigraptus,
and
Diplograptus
being the commonest forms. The upper half of the “Hartfells” is made up of some 50 to 100 feet of greyish and greenish shales, the well-known “Barren Mudstones,” which yield few Graptolites. One or two genera only Prof. Lapworth found to pass up into the succeeding Birkhill division, the fauna of which differs very markedly from the Glenkiln-Hartfells. Simple, single forms, which to the uninitiated look as if there had been a universal
XV. The Geology of the Territory of Idaho, U.S., and the Silver Lode of Atlanta
Authors: Thomson James
Published: September 2014

T
he
Territory of Idaho is situated on the north-west extremity of the United States of America. It is bounded on the south by Utah, on the west by Oregon, on the north-west by Washington, on the north by British Columbia, on the east by Montana, and on the south-east by Wyoming. Its geological phenomena are varied and interesting. Immediately after crossing the boundary between Idaho and Utah there is an extensive sheet of vesicular lava, which extends for 340 miles across the territory in rolling undulations which resemble Atlantic waves. The long axes of these ridges trend from south to north, and are here and there broken by circular depressions which prove on examination to be the mouths of extinct volcanic craters. Around their margins the lava is covered by a thin vitrified crust with minute undulations, like the ripple marks on a sandy shore, which are deflected in every direction, indicating that the flow of lava had been in some way obstructed.

The Snake River, resembling with all its turnings and windings the coils of an enormous serpent, has cut a deep channel, and its escarpments present an unbroken face of vesicular lava. Near the surface the vesicles are minute—in this respect like recent pumicestone—but become larger and more irregular as we descend in the sections. Near the middle of this dreary waste, turning to the east at Mountain Home, the rough pathway lies across the surface of the lava for fully 30 miles. About midway the party crossed
Optimal Rules for Single Machine Scheduling with Stochastic Breakdowns
Authors: Gu Jinwei , Gu Manzhan , Gu Xingsheng
Published: September 2014

This paper studies the problem of scheduling a set of jobs on a single machine subject to stochastic breakdowns, where jobs have to be restarted if preemptions occur because of breakdowns. The breakdown process of the machine is independent of the jobs processed on the machine. The processing times required to complete the jobs are constants if no breakdown occurs. The machine uptimes are independently and identically distributed (i.i.d.) and are subject to a uniform distribution. It is proved that the Longest Processing Time first (LPT) rule minimizes the expected makespan. For the large‐scale problem, it is also showed that the Shortest Processing Time first (SPT) rule is optimal to minimize the expected total completion times of all jobs.
Enhancing Resourcefulness to Improve Outcomes in Family Caregivers and Persons with Alzheimer’s Disease: A Pilot Randomized Trial
Authors: Gonzalez Elizabeth W. , Polansky Marcia , Lippa Carol F. , Gitlin Laura N. , Zauszniewski Jaclene A.
Published: September 2014

This pilot randomized trial tested an intervention aimed at enhancing resourcefulness in family caregivers of persons with dementia, postulating that caregivers’ emotional outcomes (anxiety and depression) and role outcomes (reward, strain, mutuality, and preparedness) would be improved, and problem behaviors in the care recipients (persons with dementia) would be reduced as a result of the intervention. Subjects were stratified by race (white or African American) and by baseline resourcefulness (high or low). Family caregivers were randomly assigned to an intervention group in which subjects attended six resourcefulness training sessions, meeting for 2 hours weekly over 6 weeks, or to a control group that received no treatment. Small to medium effects were shown for the intervention program on resourcefulness, anxiety, and preparedness of the caregivers and on frequency of behavior problems in the care recipients. Caregivers in the intervention group reported significantly more resourcefulness skills, with a medium effect at week 6 and a small effect 12 weeks later, compared with the control group. Persons with dementia had fewer behavior problems in the intervention group compared with control, although the difference was not significant. Caregivers’ anxiety was reduced in the intervention group at 12 weeks.
Factors Associated with HIV Testing History among Pregnant Women and Their Partners in Georgia: The ANRS 12127 Prenahtest Trial
Authors: Butsashvili Maia , Kajaia Maia , Kamkamidze George , Tchendjou Patrice , Desgrees du Loû Annabel , Dabis François , Orne-Gliemann Joanna
Published: September 2014

Despite the benefits of timely diagnosis of HIV infection and the wide availability of VCT services, the acceptance of HIV testing and counseling still remains a challenge in Georgia. The goal of our study was to assess the history of HIV testing and associated factors among pregnant women. The recruitment of study participants took place during routine antenatal care visits at one of the large Maternity Hospitals in Tbilisi, capital of Georgia. A total of 491 pregnant women were included in the sample. More than a third of women (38.5%) reported that they were tested for HIV before the current pregnancy and almost all of them (91.5%) were tested during previous pregnancies. Bivariate analysis revealed statistically significant association of women’s history of HIV testing with age, education level, remunerated activity, history of STI, and multiparity. In multivariate analysis, the only independent predictor of being HIV tested was ever being pregnant. In conclusion, HIV testing history among women at reproductive age was poor in Georgia. Women mostly received HIV testing at prenatal centers. Efforts should be made to promote HIV testing in primary care settings, which would increase its acceptability and overall testing rate in the population.
An Analytical Model for Rotation Stiffness and Deformation of an Antiloosening Nut under Locking Force
Authors: Jiang X. J. , Hong J. , Shao G. Q. , Zhu L. B. , Zhu Y. S.
Published: September 2014

Screw fasteners are undoubtedly one of the most important machine elements due to their outstanding characteristic to provide a high clamping force just with a simplified design. However, the loosen vibration is their inherent and inevitable fault. The friction locking approach is one of the basic locking fastener categories by enhancing the bearing load on the contact surface of thread by applying a locking force on an antiloosening nut. This locking force may cause more severe deformation in the nut. The contact stress distribution on the nut would be changed and that can cause the variation of the friction torque for the bolt joint. However, there exists no established design calculation procedure that accounts for the rotation deformation and its stiffness of the antiloosening nut under the locking force. The main objective of the work is to develop an analytical solution to the rotation deformation problem encountered in the antiloosening nut. The proposed model is supported by comparison with numerical finite element analysis of different sizes of joint elements and different applied forces.
Macrostomia: A Review of Evolution of Surgical Techniques
Authors: Gunturu Srikanth , Nallamothu Ranganadh , Kodali Rama Mohan , Nadella Koteswara Rao , Guttikonda Leela Krishna , Uppaluru Vijayalakshmi
Published: September 2014

Macrostomia is a congenital deformity resulting from failure of fusion of maxillary and mandibular process. It is a rare congenital deformity with an incidence of 1 in 60,000 to 1 in 300,000 live births. Transverse facial clefts are more common on right side of face in unilateral cases. Males are more affected than females. Various surgical techniques have been described in the literature for the correction of these defects. We report a case of macrostomia corrected with Z-plasty closure for skin, overlapping muscle closure, and triangular mucosal flap for commissure, with a review on existing techniques.
Design of Elliptic Reflective LED Surgical Shadowless Lamps Using Mathematical Optical Tracing Algorithms
Authors: Pan Cheng-Tang , Chen Yi-Chian , Yang Tsung-Lin , Lin Po-Hsun , Lin Po-Hung , Hsieh C. C.
Published: September 2014

Traditional surgical shadowless halogen lamps are generally designed as projection type with many light bulbs, which can produce not only mercury pollution but also heat radiation that are serious problems to patient. The study utilized Runge‐Kutta methods and mathematical algorithms to design and optimize the freeform lens. The LED (light‐emitting diode) was adopted to replace the traditional halogen lamp. A uniform lens was designed and fabricated based on the energy conservation. At first, the light field of LED is concentrated through the freeform lens to improve the optical efficiency. Second, the three‐shell elliptic curves are applied to the reflective surgical shadowless lamps, where only few LED chips are needed. Light rays emitting from different directions to the target plane can achieve the goal of shadowless. In this study, the LED’s luminance flux is 1,895 lm. The shadow dilution on the target plane is 54%. Ec (central illuminance) is 114,900 lux, and the d50/d10 is 57% which is higher than the regulation by 7%, whereas the power consumption is only 20 W. The energy of reflective surgical shadowless lamps can save more than 50%, compared with the traditional projective one.
Combination of Biorthogonal Wavelet Hybrid Kernel OCSVM with Feature Weighted Approach Based on EVA and GRA in Financial Distress Prediction
Authors: Huang Chao , Gao Fei , Jiang Hongyan
Published: September 2014

Financial distress prediction plays an important role in the survival of companies. In this paper, a novel biorthogonal wavelet hybrid kernel function is constructed by combining linear kernel function with biorthogonal wavelet kernel function. Besides, a new feature weighted approach is presented based on economic value added (EVA) and grey relational analysis (GRA). Considering the imbalance between financially distressed companies and normal ones, the feature weighted one‐class support vector machine based on biorthogonal wavelet hybrid kernel (BWH‐FWOCSVM) is further put forward for financial distress prediction. The empirical study with real data from the listed companies on Growth Enterprise Market (GEM) in China shows that the proposed approach has good performance.
Fitness Estimation Based Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm for Layout Design of Truss Structures
Authors: Xiao Ayang , Wang Benli , Sun Chaoli , Zhang Shijie , Yang Zhenguo
Published: September 2014

Due to the fact that vastly different variables and constraints are simultaneously considered, truss layout optimization is a typical difficult constrained mixed‐integer nonlinear program. Moreover, the computational cost of truss analysis is often quite expensive. In this paper, a novel fitness estimation based particle swarm optimization algorithm with an adaptive penalty function approach (FEPSO‐AP) is proposed to handle this problem. FEPSO‐AP adopts a special fitness estimate strategy to evaluate the similar particles in the current population, with the purpose to reduce the computational cost. Further more, a laconic adaptive penalty function is employed by FEPSO‐AP, which can handle multiple constraints effectively by making good use of historical iteration information. Four benchmark examples with fixed topologies and up to 44 design dimensions were studied to verify the generality and efficiency of the proposed algorithm. Numerical results of the present work compared with results of other state‐of‐the‐art hybrid algorithms shown in the literature demonstrate that the convergence rate and the solution quality of FEPSO‐AP are essentially competitive.
A MOLP Method for Solving Fully Fuzzy Linear Programming with LR Fuzzy Parameters
Authors: Yang Xiao-Peng , Zhou Xue-Gang , Cao Bing-Yuan , Nasseri S. H.
Published: September 2014

Kaur and Kumar, 2013, use Mehar’s method to solve a kind of fully fuzzy linear programming (FFLP) problems with LR fuzzy parameters. In this paper, a new kind of FFLP problems is introduced with a solution method proposed. The FFLP is converted into a multiobjective linear programming (MOLP) according to the order relation for comparing the LR flat fuzzy numbers. Besides, the classical fuzzy programming method is modified and then used to solve the MOLP problem. Based on the compromised optimal solution to the MOLP problem, the compromised optimal solution to the FFLP problem is obtained. At last, a numerical example is given to illustrate the feasibility of the proposed method.
Two-Phase Dechlorination/Detoxification of Lindane (Hexachlorocyclohexane)
Authors: Ghaffar Abdul , Tabata Masaaki , Mashiatullah Azhar
Published: September 2014

Dechlorination of lindane was carried out in a two-phase reaction. In first phase Devarda’s alloy and sodium borohydride were used in aqueous/ethanol reaction media. The reaction duration and temperature were optimized. In first phase higher dechlorination (78%) was achieved at 80°C with 40-minute reaction time and the products were chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzene, and chlorocyclohexane. In second phase, Ca(OH)2 and sulfur were added in reaction media. The reactions conditions like temperature and reaction time were optimized. After 30 minutes, dechlorination was enhanced from 78% to 94% and the final products were benzene, phenol, catechol, benzenethiol, cyclohexane, cyclohexanol, and cyclohexanethiol. The results suggested that dechlorination of lindane in first and second phase was carried out through hydrodechlorination and substitution reactions, respectively. The developed method was applied for lindane containing real wastewater and higher dechlorination (91%) was achieved under optimized reaction conditions.
Bone Glue Modified Asphalt: A Step towards Energy Conservation and Environment Friendly Modified Asphalts
Authors: Rizvi Hashim Raza , Khattak Mohammad Jamal , Gallo August A.
Published: September 2014

Asphalt has been modified for the past several decades using various additives, including synthetic polymers. Polymer modification improves structural and engineering characteristics of the binder, which is a result of improvement in rheological characteristics of binder as well as its adhesion capability with the aggregate. Such enhancement inevitably enhances the performance characteristics of hot mix asphalts (HMA) such as fatigue life, resistance to rutting, and thermal cracking. Even though polymer-modified HMA is popular in North America and European countries, its use is still limited in developing countries of Southeast Asia due to high costs associated with its manufacturing, processing, and energy consumption. In this study, a new kind of asphalt modifier derived from animal wastes, such as bones, hides, and flesh commonly known as Bone Glue, is studied. This biomaterial which is a by-product of food and cattle industries is cheap, conveniently available, and produced locally in developing countries. The results of the research study showed that the bone glue can easily be mixed with asphalt without significantly altering the asphalt binder’s viscosity and mixing and compaction temperatures of HMA. Additionally, improvements in complex shear modulus for a range of temperatures were also determined and it was found that complex shear modulus was improved by bone glue modification.
Analysis of Relativity Premium in Bonus‐Malus System Based on Optimal Linear Method
Authors: Chen Yu , Li Long
Published: September 2014

A bonus‐malus system plays a very important role in actuarial mathematics through determining its relativity premium, which is extensively used in automobile insurance. There are many ways including Bayesian estimator and ordinary linear estimator to calculate the relativity premium. There is no
doubt that Bayesian estimator is the most accurate estimator; however, it is undesirable for commercial purposes for its rather irregular pattern. This paper aims to introduce an optimal linear estimator for relativity premium, which has a simple pattern and is obtained under the quadratic loss function such that the result is close to Bayesian method. The Loimaranta efficiency of such an optimal linear estimator has been studied and compared with the two methods mentioned above.
Time‐Varying Integral Adaptive Sliding Mode Control for the Large Erecting System
Authors: Zheng Xie , Jian Xie , Wenzheng Du , Liang Li , Yang Guo
Published: September 2014

Considering the nonlinearities, uncertainties of large erecting system, and the circumstance disturbances in erecting process, a novel sliding mode control strategy is proposed in this research. The proposed control strategy establishes the sliding mode without reaching phase using an integral sliding surface. Thus, robustness against uncertainties increases from the very beginning of the process. Furthermore, adaptive laws are used for the controller to estimate the unknown but bounded system uncertainties. Therefore, the upper bounds of the system uncertainties are not required to be known in advance. Then, the time‐varying term is applied to ensure the global robustness. Moreover, the boundary layer method is used to attenuate the high frequency chattering. The experiment results demonstrated that the proposed strategy could effectively restrain parametric uncertainties and external disturbances and improve the tracking accuracy in the erecting process. In addition, the control performance of the proposed control strategy is better than that of the PID control and the conventional sliding mode control.