bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chapter 9 Applied (meta)community ecology: diversity and ecosystem services at the intersection of local and regional processes
Authors: Bengtsson Janne
Published: February 2010

It is argued that community ecology should provide useful knowledge for managing ecological interactions and biological resources sustainably. In the context of managing biodiversity and ecosystem services in human-dominated landscapes, a theoretical and historical background to metacommunity ecology (Chapter 5) is presented and some case studies showing the interplay between theory and applied questions in agricultural landscape ecology are discussed. Several expectations from metacommunity theory on the effects of land use intensification are suggested, based on the fact that both local and regional processes are important for diversity and ecosystem functioning. Some rules of thumb for landscape management based on metacommunity theory and empirical studies are suggested: maintain local conditions by management; manage whole landscapes and not only single patches; maintain diversity of local conditions in region; maintain connections between patches without homogenizing landscape; maintain disturbance regimes close to natural.
Chapter 13 Mutualisms and community organization
Authors: Kothamasi David , Toby Kiers E. , van der Heijden Marcel G.A.
Published: February 2010

A major aim in ecology is to understand the determinants of plant community structure. Here we focus on mutualisms and how these positive interactions between distinct species influence plant community structure and the organization of plant communities. Although mutualisms have been described as mathematically unstable, key evolutionary events such as the origin of the eukaryotic cell, invasion of land by plants and radiation of the angiosperms have been linked to mutualism. Mutualisms can enhance diversity and influence community organization via numerous routes, including habitat modifications, the acquisition of food sources, dispersal and protection. Disruptions of mutualistic interactions can cause declines in population sizes of organisms involved in such interactions and even lead to shifts in community composition. Mutualisms provide partner species with novel options for adjusting to stress and may play a critical role in regulating organization, structure and function of communities through activities that regulate the acquisition of resources and ameliorate stresses. Mutualisms may mediate the outcome of interspecific interactions such as competition and facilitate the coexistence of competing species. In this chapter we focus on the role that mutualisms play in plant community organization.
Equation-Free Computation: An Overview of Patch Dynamics
Authors: Samaey G. , Roberts A. J. , Kevrekidis I. G.
Published: February 2010

This chapter overviews recent progress in the development of patch dynamics, an essential ingredient of the equation-free framework. In many applications we have a given detailed microscopic numerical simulator that we wish to use over macroscopic scales. Patch dynamics uses only simulations within a number of small regions (surrounding macroscopic grid points) in the space-time domain to approximate a discretization scheme for an unavailable macroscopic equation. The approach was first presented and analyzed for a standard diffusion problem in one space dimension; here, we will discuss subsequent efforts to generalize the approach and extend its analysis. We show how one can modify the definition of the initial and boundary conditions to allow patch dynamics to mimic any finite difference scheme, and we investigate to what extent (and at what computational cost) one can avoid the need for specifically designed patch boundary conditions. One can surround the patches with buffer regions, where one can impose (to some extent) arbitrary boundary conditions. The convergence analysis shows that the required buffer for consistency depends on the coefficients in the macroscopic equation; in general, for advection dominated problems, smaller buffer regions–as compared to those for diffusion-dominated problems–suffice.
On Multiscale Computational Mechanics with Time-Space Homogenization
Authors: Ladevèze P. , Néron David , Passieux Jean-Charles
Published: February 2010

The chapter deals with multiple scales in both space and time. First, the state-of-the-art is presented. Then, we discuss a family of computational approaches using time-space homogenization. Emphasis is put on the time aspects.
Multiscale Nature Inspired Chemical Engineering
Authors: Coppens Marc-Olivier
Published: February 2010

Symmetry is key in solving many scientific and engineering problems. Drawing on examples from chemical engineering, this chapter illustrates how recognizing fractal scaling and other invariant patterns that envelop multiple scales is an excellent way to bridge multi-scale gaps. Such invariants are frequently observed in biological systems, which are only able to function thanks to the conservation of microscopic properties up to macroscopic scales in a scale-free way. Similarly, by imposing such invariant distributions in engineering designs, the advantages of microscopic (micro- or nanoscale) designs are preserved for macro-scale applications, while considerably reducing complexity and increasing efficiency. This holistic view helps to simplify multi-scale problems, and is proposed as a useful supplement to atomistic, bottom-up approaches.
10 Cognitive models
Authors: Evans Vyvyan
Published: February 2010

This chapter develops the theoretical construct of the cognitive model. The cognitive model is a unit of conceptual structure which consists of a frame — or related and/or embedded frames — and gives rise to a potentially limitless number of simulations. Frames have complex structure. The chapter examines in detail the nature of two types of frames: frames for things and situations. A subset of lexical concepts — open-class lexical concepts — facilitate access to cognitive models, what is referred to as a cognitive model profile.
13 Interpretation
Authors: Evans Vyvyan
Published: February 2010

This chapter is concerned with the final compositional process in LCCM Theory: interpretation. Interpretation involves activation of conceptual content, in a way that is in keeping with the linguistic content associated with the lexical conceptual unit(s) in the utterance, and the interpretation associated with other lexical concepts in the utterance. The chapter provides detailed exemplification of the range of principles which govern the operation of interpretation.
16 A Question of Trust: Historical Lessons for Current Development
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: February 2010

This chapter examines contemporaneous and historical evidence on the structure of financial systems in their relation with industry to draw lessons from the development of financial systems in developing economies. It discusses the role that equity markets and finance have played in early stages of development of currently industrialized countries, such as Britain and Germany, and observes that the access by industry to financial resources occurred largely in the absence of formal systems of regulation. Instead, relationships based on the local proximity of investors and institutions, such as banks and coordinators, appeared to have been important in sustaining conditions of trust. This suggests that the preconditions for the development of financial systems may be informal relations of trust between investors and enterprises rather than formal regulation. Investor protection may not always be sufficient or even appropriate while greater attention should be given to the factors that promote such trust relations.
18 Latecomer Entrepreneurship: A Policy Perspective
Authors: Hobday Mike , Perini Fernando
Published: February 2010

The conventional view of the entrepreneur as a risk-taking innovator and developer of new technology has been highly influential in modern policies towards entrepreneurship in developing countries (DCs). This chapter challenges such a conventional “Schumpeterian” view and the policies which arise from it, especially those which encourage an increase in small firm entrance as a source of entrepreneurship. In contrast with developed economies, in DCs entrepreneurship should be understood within the context of latecomer catch-up, behind the innovation frontier, and of technology acquisition from abroad. In such circumstances, entrepreneurship is largely embedded in existing enterprises of all sizes as well as the subsidiaries of transnational corporations. Thus, policies aimed at fostering entrepreneurship come together policies targeted at strengthening the domestic industrial structure and the managerial capabilities it embodies.
19 Intellectual Property and Industrial Development: A Critical Assessment
Authors: Cimoli Mario , Coriat Benjamin , Primi Annalisa
Published: February 2010

This chapter offers a sort of roadmap for the analysis of the relationship between intellectual property right protection and industrial development. The general point is that all successful catching-up episodes occurred under condition of weak IPR regimes, allowing easier knowledge acquisition and imitation. Conversely, strong IPR regimes are strongly promoted by countries on the innovation frontier. Nowadays, the latter, and in particular the US, strategically use IP protection as a mechanism to protect the rent-generating potential stemming from the technological capabilities accumulated in their firms. This is a de facto industrial policy and an “anti-developmental” one, which ought to be matched by “pro-diffusion” policies in catching-up countries.
1 Shepherd, farmer, poet, sophist: Hesiod on his own reception
Authors: Haubold J. H.
Published: February 2010

This chapter argues that Hesiod shapes the history of his own reception by way of an elaborate biographical narrative, leading his readers from a conception of knowledge as Muse-inspired poetry in the Theogony, to one that centres on the human world and which must be acquired through reflection and personal experience, in the Works and Days. This vision of intellectual progress informed the reception of Hesiod in classical Athens, and may also have had a role in the wider intellectual developments of the 5th and 4th centuries BC.
4 Hesiod in Plato: Second fiddle to Homer?
Authors: Yamagata Naoko
Published: February 2010

This chapter surveys the relationship between Homer and Hesiod in Plato's work, focusing on the ways in which different Platonic characters portray and invoke the two poets. Tabulating and analysing Platonic allusions to Hesiod, it concludes that Plato depicts Socrates as a lover of Homer, whereas his interlocutors draw more freely on Hesiod. Moreover, there appears to be a tendency among Platonic speakers to be more optimistic about the truth of ‘Homeric’ myths (i.e. myths constructed from Homeric elements) than that of ‘Hesiodic’ ones.
5 Plato's Hesiod: not Plato's alone
Authors: Koning Hugo
Published: February 2010

This chapter shows that Plato's view of Hesiod is shaped not only by a critical tradition that pairs him with Homer, but also by sophistic appropriations of a more specific kind. Prodicus in particular, with his concern for the ‘correctness of names’, recognized Hesiod as an intellectual ancestor. More generally, Hesiod could be appropriated to represent particular philosophical interests, including etymology and epistemological atomism. As such, he became a convenient target for Plato's attacks on those approaches.
8 The seductions of Hesiod: Pandora's presence in Plato'sSymposium
Authors: Kenaan Vered Lev
Published: February 2010

This chapter argues that, in the Symposium, Plato not only recalls Hesiodic passages and motifs at important moments in the dialogue, but founds his portrayal of Socrates on Hesiod's Pandora. The claim is striking, even paradoxical if one thinks of Pandora as the bringer of evils. But defined, like Socrates, by the rift between interior and exterior, essence and appearance, Pandora is, like Socrates, a marvel to behold — and (also like him) a challenge to the intellect, the obvious prompt to philosophical inquiry.
East Germany's Dual Crisis: Politics and Economics on the Eve of the Wall
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: February 2010

This is a scene‐setting chapter, explaining postwar Berlin's quadripartite status within the division of Germany, the Berlin Blockade of 1948–49, the 1953 uprising, and the city's exploitation by all the occupiers for espionage purposes. The chapter then explores popular opinion within East Germany regarding the Second Berlin Crisis of 1958–62, revealing considerable uncertainty as well as hopes for a diplomatic compromise between the superpowers on the part of ordinary East Germans. With the failure of summits such as Geneva in 1959 and Paris in 1960, there was marked resignation and fear of a third World War. The chapter also addresses the economic ‘crisis behind the crisis', in other words East Germany's promise in July 1958 to overtake per capita consumer production in West Germany by 1961 and to make the economy autarkic against a possible western embargo. Mood reports suggest considerable disbelief among both blue‐ and white‐collar workers, and a regime whose foreign policy was put on the defensive by its economic failings closer to home.
The Fall of the Wall: 9 November 1989
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: February 2010

Synthesizes work on the collapse of the GDR in the fateful year of 1989, comparing economic dissatisfaction with the reform impulse given by perestroika coming from the Soviet Union. The opening of the iron curtain by Hungary in May 1989 leads to detailed reconstruction of the internal pressures on the police's travel visa departments, as citizens became ever more demanding, against the background of embassy occupations in neighbouring eastern bloc states. Liberal use is made of the reports coming to Egon Krenz, the party's Security secretary, during the hot autumn of 1989 to give a view of the embattled regime from within and its attempts to relax travel restrictions without losing political control overall. The chapter concludes with a recognition of the harmful effects for the citizens' movement of the continuing exodus to the Federal Republic, following the fall of the Wall on 9 November.
Seeking Closure: Remembering the Wall
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: February 2010

Considers how the Wall has thrown shadows into the post‐1989 era, both in the wave of nostalgic and critical films and novels, but also in the trials of border guards which took place in the 1990s. The bulk of the chapter concerns the politics surrounding memorials to the Wall. The aestheticization of the Wall through graffiti before its fall reflected a ‘western’ vision of the edifice as Cold War absurdity, but also a message board for an eclectic range of libertarian causes. Likewise, the artistic commemoration of the Wall since 1989 has been driven largely be western architects who have sometimes unwittingly prioritized the Wall ‘under western eyes'; for instance in marking in Berlin's pavements the line where the western ‘frontline’ wall ran, rather than the eastern wall which confronted East Germans. This final chapter reinforces the book's overall message of looking at the Wall with eastern eyes, both those of the party, but those of ordinary East Germans caught up in a system of real and invisible walls which deeply marked their life stories.
Geology of the European Union
Authors: Curtin Deirdre
Published: February 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of scope of the power that is exercised by actors and institutions under the auspices of the European Union (EU). It then outlines the focus of the book: the shadowy side of EU decision-making — the part that is not so visible even in the unwritten constitution, and the role multiple actors play at different levels and wearing different hats. It addresses questions such as who are they, what are they doing, and how can one even begin to structure a debate on their democratic and political embedding within a political system, at which governance level or at multiple governance levels? What is the EU precisely; how can we understand it in holistic terms; and what are these actors, European and national, doing in this context? How can we frame it so as to relate it to the institutional normative order? An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Externalizing National Executive Power
Authors: Curtin Deirdre
Published: February 2010

This chapter highlights the salience and centrality of contemporary executive power in the EU, and provides an overview of how executive power has jumped arenas over the course of time. This does not indicate a replacement of executive powers at other levels or in other arenas but rather an accumulation of executive power (or ‘executive order’). The picture is more one of overlapping orders and arenas and not neatly ordered substitution.
Balancing Executive Power
Authors: Curtin Deirdre
Published: February 2010

This chapter focuses on the internal ordering of executive power within the EU political system and discusses the manner in which executive power is balanced by the other ‘countervailing’ powers in the constitutional system of checks and balances. It focuses on the key ‘executive’ institutions in terms of their original conception and in terms of the interests they were representing, as well as the manner in which that has evolved to become what can be referred to as a composite executive order of sorts.
Transparent Executive Power
Authors: Curtin Deirdre
Published: February 2010

This chapter deals with the issue of ‘transparency’ and the manner in which this principle has evolved, both in law and in practice, to constitute a salient part of the evolving operating system of the EU. It provides clear examples of how the notion of openness or transparency is now, in the contemporary understanding of the EU as a political system, regarded as necessary to confer greater legitimacy on the institutions in the eyes of the citizens.
Chapter 1 Constitutional Anomie
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

During 1997–2007 the constitution of the United Kingdom was modified but not fundamentally reformed. New Labour suffered from constitutional anomie predominantly due to intra‐executive confusion regarding what it was seeking to achieve. Constitutional anomie is a debilitating condition. Its symptoms include the introduction of reforms in a manner bereft of any underlying logic or explicit principles combined with the inability to adopt a strategic approach which is sensitive to the inter‐related nature of any constitutional configuration. It is therefore an ailment of both mental and physical health vis‐à‐vis the body politic. Social and political anxiety, confusion, and frustration emerge with the result that reforms that were designed to enhance levels of public trust and confidence in politics, politicians and political institutions can actually have the opposite effect.
Chapter 5 V1. Party System
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

There is no such thing as the party system in the United Kingdom but an embryonic multi‐levelled hierarchy of party systems. The existence of different party systems, founded and perpetuated by electoral systems that have been designed to inculcate a quite different value‐set, raises questions about the long‐term stability of the polity, while also providing the first empirical evidence of a bi‐constitutional statecraft.
Chapter 10 V6. Federal–Unitary Dimension
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

The federal‐unitary dimension of politics altered significantly during 1997–2007. Devolution was, however, implemented within the contours of the Westminster Model and has also overlooked by far the largest component of the United Kingdom—England. The asymmetrical nature of devolution and the existence of anomalies and dynamic‐tensions complements arguments concerning constitutional anomie.
Chapter 11 V7. Unicameralism–Bicameralism
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

Reform of the House of Lords provides critical insights not just into the nature of New Labour's statecraft but also into the challenges of constitutional political analysis. This examines empirical and analytical debates and concludes that change on the Index of Bicameralism has been marginal.
Chapter 13 V9. Judicial Review
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

The logic of legal constitutionalism promotes the role of judges as external regulators of political behaviour. It therefore seeks to increase the degree of constitutional rigidity by seeking to locate some basic rights, values, or principles beyond the reach of elected politicians. New Labour sought to embrace elements of legal constitutionalism while maintaining a ‘political constitution’. The outcome is a confused and anomalous element of the broader bi‐constitutionality argument.
Aberrations of the Realism Debate
Authors: Devitt Michael , Devitt Michael
Published: February 2010

This chapter begins by arguing that contrary to received opinion, the issue of realism about the physical world has almost nothing to do with semantic issues about truth. It follows that it is an aberration to identify the two issues (Dummett), to dismiss the realism issue out of hostility to correspondence truth (Rorty, Fine), to think that the realism issue is one of interpretation, or to argue against realism by criticizing various claims about truth and reference (Putnam, Laudan). It is also an aberration to identify realism with nonskepticism (Margolis), truth-as-the-aim-of-science (van Fraassen), or scientific convergence (Blackburn). Realism is an overarching metaphysical issue which should be settled before any of these epistemological and semantic issues.
Resurrecting Biological Essentialism
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: February 2010

This chapter defends the doctrine that Linnaean taxa, including species, have essences that are, at least partly, underlying intrinsic, mostly genetic, properties. The consensus among philosophers of biology is that such essentialism is deeply wrong, indeed incompatible with Darwinism. The chapter argues that biological generalizations about the morphology, physiology, and behaviour of species require structural explanations that must advert to these essential properties. The objection that, according to current ‘species concepts’, species are relational is rejected. These concepts are primarily concerned with what it is for a kind to be a species and throw little light on the essentialist issue of what it is for an organism to be a member of a particular kind. Finally, the chapter argues that this essentialism can accommodate features of Darwinism associated with variation and change.
Intuitions
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: February 2010

Intuition mongering is common in the theory of reference and in philosophy generally. Why is this appropriate? And why is it appropriate for linguists to take intuitions as the main evidence for a grammar. The Chomskian answer to the latter question is that the intuitions are derived by a rational process from a representation of linguistic principles in the mind. Stich has suggested (although not endorsed) an analogous answer to the question about referential intuitions. This chapter takes a different view, arguing for a naturalistic and non-Cartesian view of intuitions in general. They are empirical central-processor responses to phenomena differing from other such responses only in being immediate and fairly unreflective. The view yields a naturalistic view of the characteristic method of ‘armchair philosophy’.
On Determining What There Isn't
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: February 2010

Stich points out that typical arguments for eliminativism about the mind presuppose a description theory of reference. His gloomy view of theories of reference leads him to a gloomy view of ontological issues in general. What has gone wrong? Stich thinks that the mistake came in looking to such theories to settle ontological issues. This chapter argues that Stich is right about that, but for the wrong reasons. We should not share his gloom about theories of reference, taken as proto-science. Still, an appropriately modest view of the accomplishments of this proto-science counts against using it to settle ontological issues. We should put metaphysics first. How then are we to settle ontological issues? Stich's answer is very much along the right lines. We do not have any principles adequate to help us with the difficult cases and it may be that some of these are indeterminate.
The Neo-liberal State
Authors: Plant Raymond
Published: February 2010

This book has two central aims. The first is to give a fair, comprehensive, and analytical account of the central features of the neo‐liberal view about the role and limits of the state in the modern world. It considers important ideas such as the contrast between a state based on rules and the one based on outcomes, the implications of this contrast for the rule of law, for the ideas of freedom, social justice, and rights. It provides a full account of the neo‐liberal view of the relationship between the state and the economy and to civil society and voluntary organizations. It draws upon a wide range of works by neo‐liberal thinkers to build up the theoretical case for this conception of the role of government and politics. The thinkers at the heart of this part of the study are Hayek, Buchanan, Mises, Menger, as well as others who while not regarding themselves as neo‐liberals nevertheless have contributed to neo‐liberal ideas. These include Oakeshott, Nozick, and Rothbard. The study also looks at the public policy implications of neo‐liberal ideas in relation to the role of the welfare state and other forms of public sector provision. The second part of the book provides a detailed critical appraisal of some of the central neo‐liberal doctrines particularly in relation to the core ideas of freedom, justice, rights, the role of collective organizations in civil society, and the provision of welfare. The book argues that contrary to neo‐liberal arguments there is no coherent way of providing a sharp and categorical distinction between neo‐liberalism and Social Democracy on the one hand and libertarianism on the other.
Chapter 1 The Nature of the Neo-liberal State and the Rule of Law
Authors: Plant Raymond
Published: February 2010

This chapter does two related things. First of all it sets out the neo‐liberal case for thinking that the state should be conceived largely in terms of rules and procedures instead of delivering certain types of outcomes and goals. To use the terminology of Oakeshott, endorsed by Hayek, the state should be seen as nomocratic and not telocratic. The neo‐liberal state embodies a set of basic rules about mutual non‐coercion as well as contract keeping rather than embodying the pursuit of a specific goal such as social justice, welfare, or a particular understanding of national identity. It looks at the close relationship between these ideas and the neo‐liberal idea of the rule of law. Neo‐liberals are critical of legal positivism and in contrast believe that the rule of law is in fact a moral ideal.
Chapter 2 The Foundations of the Rule of Law as a Moral Ideal
Authors: Plant Raymond
Published: February 2010

Given that the rule of law as embodied in the basic nomocratic order of the neo‐liberal state is based upon a moral ideal, and given that these rules as constitutional rules can be seen as a constraint on majoritarian democratic decision making, it is important that the moral ideal on which these rules are based should be of a particularly compelling sort. This chapter considers the ways in which different neo‐liberal thinkers have approached this issue. The rather different ideas in play here of Hayek and Buchanan (both Nobel Laureates), Mises, Nozick, and Rothbard are considered in an attempt to see whether there is common ground between neo‐liberals to provide the basis of a nomocratic constitutional order.
Chapter 3 Freedom, Coercion, and the Law
Authors: Plant Raymond
Published: February 2010

This chapter provides an analysis of neo‐liberal views about the idea of freedom. It is important for neo‐liberals that the absolutely central ideal of freedom should be compatible with a nomocratic order rather than embodying some controversial moral goods. This means that freedom has to be understood in a negative rather than a positive sense – that freedom is to be seen as the absence of coercion rather than being related to capacities and capabilities. This means that the idea of coercion also has to be subjected to close analysis since it is the absence of coercion which creates negative freedom. Again it is centrally important for the neo‐liberal that the idea of coercion should be free of positive moral content and has to be defined in a wholly empirical manner.
Chapter 5 Neo‐liberal Rights
Authors: Plant Raymond
Published: February 2010

This chapter deals with two broad themes. The first is the account of the nature and scope of rights adopted by the neo‐liberal. Obviously, an account of the nature of rights has to be made compatible with the general nomocratic and rule‐governed nature of the neo‐liberal conception of the role of the state. Rights basically protect negative freedoms if they are to be at all compatible with the rule of law and separated from disputed moral conceptions. The second theme is the critique of social and economic rights, which social democrats have tended to favour as part of the pursuit of social justice within society. This is rejected by the neo‐liberal partly because the pursuit of social justice is seen to be a mirage in Hayek's own word and because there are other compelling arguments against the conception of social and economic rights.
Chapter 9 Government, Money, and Taxation
Authors: Plant Raymond
Published: February 2010

A central theme of this chapter is the role of monetary theory within the neo‐liberal account of the role of the state. For a neo‐liberal thinker such as Mises, monetary theory consists of a set of a priori truths derived from the concept of money itself. Thus, the quantity of money theory or monetarism is not one hypothesis among others within economics, but has a more profound status and basis than that. Such a monetary theory when allied to the points made in the first part of Chapter 8 along with other economic theories (such as crowding out and neo‐liberal microeconomic theories) undermine in a fundamental way Keynesian ideas. Such ideas have been central to Social Democracy and again therefore such a critique of Keynes is an attempt to undermine a basic means of arriving at social democratic ends such as social justice which have already been the subject of critical analysis. One central role for the state from a neo‐liberal view is the provision of public goods that is to say goods which rely on cooperation to produce but which cannot be partitioned so that only those who cooperate in their production can benefit (clean air would be an example). The market will not produce such goods because each individual has a strong incentive from a rational utility maximizing point of view not to contribute and they will therefore not be produced. The details of this argument are considered and analysed.
Iambosin Aristotle's Works
Authors: Rotstein Andrea
Published: February 2010

What is the place of iambos in Aristotle's history of poetry? How does the genre of iambos relate to psogos? What does Aristotle really mean by the expression iambike idea? Ancient and modern perceptions of the nature and function of ancient Greek iambos have been largely shaped by Aristotle's statements in the Poetics. This chapter looks afresh at those statements and offers a reconstruction of Aristotle's conceptualization of iambos.
Ancient Theories ofIambos
Authors: Rotstein Andrea
Published: February 2010

This chapter explores the various historical ‘ways of seeing’ the genre of iambos in ancient scholarship after Aristotle. It begins with an overview of the Hellenistic scholarship on iambos and the views emerging from ancient etymologies, before turning to late antique definitions of the genre. Since generic concepts are explicit in works that belong to what the ancients considered the realm of grammar rather than philology, in order to find iambos within something akin to systematic treatments of genres, we will have to go backwards and forwards in time: from the grammarian Diomedes (4th cent. BCE), to Photius' (9th cent. CE) summary of a handbook by Proclus (5th cent. CE, or 2nd cent. CE), and back to the late Hellenistic period through the testimony of Philodemus of Gadara (1st cent. BCE). Three main historical ways of conceptualizing literary genres and the ensuing views of iambos are proposed.
The Pen and the People
Authors: Whyman Susan
Published: February 2010

The Pen and the People shows how 18th-century men and women learned to write letters, why and how they used them, and the impact of letter writing on their lives and the wider culture. Based on over sixty unknown collections of family papers discovered over a ten year period, it tells the stories of middling and lower-sort people — a Yorkshire bridle maker, a domestic female servant, a Derbyshire wheelwright, an untrained woman writing poetry and short stories, as well as merchants and their families — all over many generations. Their ordinary backgrounds and extraordinary writings challenge accepted views that popular literacy was rare in England before 1800. This democratization of letter writing could never have occurred without the development of the Royal Mail. New information gleaned from personal letters tells a very different story about the development of the Post Office, which had altered the rhythms of daily life long before the 19th century. Yet the popularization of letter writing not only affected individuals, it had social, economic, and political impacts on 18th-century society. Its unique influence on literary culture, especially on reading and the rise of the novel, is reassessed from an historical point of view. Whyman's fresh approach captures actual dialogues of people telling stories about their lives. Easy to read tables present the newly-discovered archives, biographical details of principal letter writers, and the topics and social relationships revealed in thousands of letters.
Introduction
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: February 2010

This introductory chapter shows how a culture of letters and literacy that included lower and middling-sort letter writers was created in England by 1800. It examines the epistolary tradition in English culture and the rise of the post office. The concept of epistolary literacy is introduced and defined. The discovery of thousands of letters in unknown archives below the rank of gentry provided the source material for the book. They will be used to show why people wrote letters, how they used them, and their impact on individuals, families, and society.
Letters and Literacy
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: February 2010

This chapter presents case studies of farmers and workers in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Cumbria which show how villages without schools could produce competent letter writers. The case studies are linked to the economic and social conditions of northern England including transportation, communication, and the industrial revolution. The surprising fluency and literary culture of lower-sort letter writers complicates notions of a literacy gap between north and south, as well as agricultural and urban areas. Hidden types of informal education and unlicensed schools are shown to have existed. The importance of family and community support in achieving literacy is discussed. The chapter questions accepted views that literacy was rare in England before 1800.
Conclusion: Letter‐Writing and Eighteenth‐Century Culture
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: February 2010

This concluding chapter summarizes epistolary patterns that emerged from the case studies in relation to age, gender, class, geographical location, and religion. It presents the varied roles of letters over time. Letter writing acquired its purpose, format, and conventions from an older classical tradition. During the 18th century, it shed many formalities and adopted aspects of middling-sort culture. A national letter form that employed the merchant's round hand gradually became the norm. It embodied plain-spoken English virtues instead of flamboyant mannerisms of French letters. The ideal letter grew more informal, and the gap in expertise between letters of men and women disappeared. Yet the inherent tension between the rigid conventions of the letter form and the impulse to write naturally was never wholly resolved. The democratization of letter writing not only affected individuals and families, it had social, economic, literary, and political impacts on the English nation.
Writing, Performance, and Authority in Augustan Rome
Authors: Lowrie Michele
Published: February 2010

This book examines how the Romans conceived of their poetic media. Song has links to the divine through prophecy, while writing offers a more quotidian, but also a more realistic way of presenting what a poet does. In a culture of highly polished book production where recitation was the fashion, to claim to sing or to write was one means of self-definition. This book examines the stakes of literary claims to one medium or another. Generic definition is an important factor. Epic and lyric have traditional associations with song, while the literary epistle is obviously written. But issues of interpretability and power matter even more. Vergil's Sibyl resists the submission to the divine that song entails and would rather write up her prophecies, but the winds blow these around and make them uninterpretable. Song has advantages, but comes at a price. The choice of medium contributes to the debate about the relative potency of rival discourses, specifically poetry, politics, and the law. Writing offers an out from the social and political demands of the moment by shifting the focus toward the readership of posterity. This book fills two needs in the scholarship by focusing on the importance of the media in literary and political self-definition during this period and by providing an account of Augustan literature in its cultural setting. Speech act theory provides a tool for analyzing the interrelation of writing, utterance, and performativity.
8 Love and Semiotics
Authors: Lowrie Michèle
Published: February 2010

This is the first in a series of chapters on the Augustan literary epistle, where the advantages of writing come to the fore. A brief treatment of Catullus 50 outlines some of the semiotic issues of communication in absence as an introduction to the heroine epistles of Propertius and Ovid. Although separation is a source of frustration for all the literal or metaphorical lovers in these poems, their situations provide an occasion for their respective poets to explore the gap between the insufficiency of writing as a medium of communication between lovers and its great advantages for reaching a more general reader. The power of representation, of imagination, as well as concerns that anticipate modern speech act theory are addressed.
12 Auctoritas and Representation: Augustus' Res gestae
Authors: Lowrie Michèle
Published: February 2010

This is one of two chapters to analyze actual monuments at Rome. Augustus' Res gestae was an inscription erected on pillars outside his Mausoleum on the Campus Martius but also copied and disseminated across the empire. As such, it is a document with a strong affiliation with writing, iteration, and death. Nevertheless, Augustus describes his own power in this document as auctoritas, a word with a strong performative dimension. The performative discourse theory of Pierre Bourdieu, Jacques, Derrida, and Judith Butler helps analyze authority's need for representation and how a productive interrelation between the media helped Augustus articulate his consolidation of power. The exemplum emerges as a figure of thought that brings together ideology, representation, pragmatics, and transmission.
1 The English Public Lawyers' Constitution
Authors: McLean Iain
Published: February 2010

Sir Alan Lascelles states the constitution (except the bits we are not allowed to know about) in an anonymous letter ‘The doctrine of parliamentary supremacy since Blackstone’. Bagehot; Dicey; Low; Amery; Jennings; Laski. The rule of law.
2 A Fresh Start: Veto Players, Win Sets, and Constitutional Moments
Authors: McLean Iain
Published: February 2010

Veto players and win sets in a pluralitarian democracy, compared to those in a proportional regime; and in a unitary compared to a federal regime. Duverger's Law. Constitutional moments in the United States. The unconstitutionality of the great constitutional changes there.
3 1707 and 1800: a Treaty (Mostly) Honoured and a Treaty Broken
Authors: Mclean Iain , Mcmillan Alistair
Published: February 2010

Union of England and Scotland 1707: Darien; succession crisis; trading issues; nature of the treaty. Church establishment in both countries. Union of Great Britain and Ireland 1800–1: United Irishmen 1798; French wars; trading issues; Pitt's plan and George III's veto.
4 Why Should We Be Beggars with the Ballot in Our Hand?
Authors: Mclean Iain , Nou Jennifer
Published: February 2010

1909 Budget and Lords' veto. Land tax. Lloyd George's strategy: partial success 1909 and failure 1914. What the Permanent Secretary was up to. Parliament Act 1911 and royal vetoes. Temporary expansion in number of veto players.
7 Causes and Consequences of the Unionist Coup d'État
Authors: Mclean Iain
Published: February 2010

Temporary increase in number of veto players. Revolt of the landed class. Marxist explanation. Unionism and the British Empire. Primordial unionism. Bonar Law: the first non‐Anglican to lead the Conservative Party. Ireland: in the Union, but its opinions not to count.
11 Unelected Houses
Authors: McLean Iain
Published: February 2010

‘The House of Peers throughout the war/Did nothing in particular/And did it very well.’ The Levellers and the case for an elected parliament. The Lords since 1909. Remaining conditional vetoes. The Lords and the landed interest. Evolution of the Salisbury–Addison convention. Its fall since 1999. Mackay Commission. Wakeham Commission. Weakness of arguments for an unelected house. Contradictory votes in the Commons. The effectiveness (but doubtful legitimacy) of the post‐1999 Lords. Powers and composition of a (predominantly) elected chamber.
14 We the People
Authors: Mclean Iain
Published: February 2010

Summary of previous discussion. Can Diceyanism be revived without Dicey? The case for Parliamentary sovereignty—but that must entail an elected Parliament. The case for counter‐majoritarianism. Strong entrenchment of EU law. Justified on pragmatic, not democratic, grounds. EU polices supranational public goods and bads, and therefore needs some supranational powers. Weak entrenchment of human rights law: the model for entrenchment of other constitutional laws. What is a constitutional statute?—the list in Thoburn. Discrete and insular minorities. Origin of the phrase in the United States; its applicability in United Kingdom. Comity between courts and parliament. How we the people of the United Republic might ordain to ourselves a constitution.
Is more aggressive treatment of pediatric traumatic brain injury worth it?
Authors: Tilford J. Mick , Raja Ali I.
Published: February 2010

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health problem worldwide and is often referred to as the ‘silent epidemic’. The uncertainty faced by clinicians in treating children with severe brain injuries is controversial with important clinical and social implications. This chapter weighs the costs and consequences of aggressive treatment of pediatric TBI. It is organized into three sections. First, the physiology and treatment of TBI in children is described. Second, a cost-effectiveness analysis evaluating technology improvement in the treatment of pediatric TBI is presented. This analysis incorporates quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) using published data on preference-weighted health outcomes for children with TBI. Finally, the implications and clinical policy relevance of the analysis are discussed and additional research that could inform clinical policy is outlined.
Economic evaluation of childhood vaccines
Authors: Walker Damian G. , Beutels Philippe , Hutubessy Raymond
Published: February 2010

The last twenty years have seen an explosion in the number of new vaccines for children. This chapter identifies and discusses the factors that influence the cost-effectiveness of childhood vaccines, including the perspective of the evaluation, the time frame and analytic horizon, the discount rate, the choice of outcome measure, and the price per dose. It then considers some of the main challenges in undertaking economic evaluations of these technologies such as vaccination-specific costing issues and modeling the impact of vaccines. It discusses the use of cost-effectiveness evidence in immunization policy decision-making, and examines other criteria to consider when making such decisions.
Economic evaluations of interventions for children in the developing world: The WHO-CHOICE approach
Authors: Edejer Tessa Tan-Torres , Aikins Moses , Black Robert , Wolfson Lara , Hutubessy Raymond , Evans David B.
Published: February 2010

There are logistical and analytical challenges when conducting economic evaluations in the developing world, ranging from lack of data on costs to determining generalizability. This chapter describes the WHO-CHOICE approach, a generalized form of cost-effectiveness analysis. By using the ‘null’ scenario which assumes an absence of interventions for treating or preventing a condition of interest, this method allows existing and new interventions to be analysed at the same time. Cost-effectiveness analysis for child health interventions are presented including oral rehydration therapy, case management for pneumonia, Vitamin A and zinc supplementation and fortification, provision of supplementary food during weaning with nutrition counseling, and measles vaccination using the WHO-CHOICE approach. Methods for costing interventions and assessing the population impact of the interventions are presented. Results are expressed in terms of cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the value of the WHO-CHOICE approach to inform resource allocation.
What do we know about the role of health care technology in driving health care expenditure growth?
Authors: McGuire Alistair , Serra-Sastre Victoria
Published: February 2010

This chapter positions the debate of technology change in health care in the context of health systems reform. It discusses definitions of technological change and innovation, and their impact in driving health system change and output (expenditures). It summarizes an aspect of the literature and contains important insights that need to be accounted for when examining health care technological change and expenditure trends.
Insurance and new technology
Authors: Pauly Mark V. , Isen Adam
Published: February 2010

There is a correlation between growing real income and growing medical spending, but the process that might link the one with the other is unknown. This chapter explores whether and how the linking mechanism is affected by health insurance. It hypothesizes that changes in health insurance in individual countries and variations in health insurance across countries might be expected to influence the pace, shape, and cost of technological change. It derives some economic models of the relationship between insurance, and the demand for and supply of new technology in a market-based setting with a private supply of both medical care and insurance.