bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The influence of content organization on student's cognitive structure in thermodynamics
Authors: Moreira Marco A. , Santos Carlos A.
Published: October 2006

Two different approaches to the content of thermodynamics were used in an introductory college physics course: one was the traditional organization found in most textbooks on the subject, the other was based on the learning theory of David Ausubel. The influence of these different content organizations on the student's cognitive structure was investigated using a word association test which was analysed through hierarchical clustering analysis. Research findings suggest that the approach based on Ausubel's theory influences the student's cognitive structure in such a way that their conceptual hierarchies are more coherent with the basic laws and the conceptual structure of the subject matter.
The ability of children to generalize selected science concepts
Authors: Abdullah Kemal Bin , Lowell Walter E.
Published: October 2006

The study investigated the ability of primary and elementary school subjects to generalize two science concepts, Insect and Animal with and without instruction in the form of a mental set. It also examined the effects of age, IQ, and sex on the ability of the children to generalize these concepts. Two instruments measuring the ability to generalize the concepts Insect and Animal were developed. The results indicate that of the independent variables investigated, age and mental set significantly affected the ability to generalize the concepts Insect and Animal. It was found that the younger children's concepts were least developed and with age these concepts became more developed and more conceptual in nature. The ability to use information given in a mental set was found to be a function of age. The children in this study were more able to generalize the concept Insect than the concept Animal. The results suggest that children with age and instruction axe better able to master less general concepts than more geaeral ones. In addition, the study demonstrated that children are able to improve their learning of general concepts provided a great number and variety of instances and noninstances of the concept are used in the instruction.

It was also found that the younger children were more perceptually bound than the older children. The younger children were unable to overcome the pull of perceptual attractiveness that the noninstances held for them despite instruction. The results suggest that teachers of such children should be aware of the conceptual level of the content being taught to such children to ensure appropriate and meaningful learning takes place.
The long‐term effect of intensive instruction on the open exploration behavior of ninth grade students
Authors: Wright Emmett L.
Published: October 2006

This study reports the long‐term effects of intensive instruction (II) in the cue attendance (CA) or hypothesis generation (HG) on open‐exploration behavior. The five dependent measures included: the number of observed details; the number and quality of hypotheses; and the number and diversity of questions. In the original study, Ss receiving either form of II performed significantly better than control Ss on all dependent measures. Both experimental groups performed equally well except for a large number of details observed by the II group. Fifteen months later, Ss II in CA were able to describe more details and ask more questions with greater diversity than the II in HG group or the control Ss. Ss II in HG produced more hypotheses than the control Ss and a higher quality of hypotheses than either the control Ss or the II in CA group.
The relative responsiveness of concrete operational seventh grade and college students to science instruction
Authors: Lawson Anton E.
Published: October 2006

Numerous persons have suggested that instruction should match the developmental level of the learner. Are “concrete operational” college students developmentally the same as “concrete operational” seventh grade students thus in need of identical instruction? Matched concrete operational seventh grade and college students were given identical classroom instruction in probabilistic and correlational reasoning. The college students performed significantly better on posttest measures which appeared to require greater processing of information while significant differences did not exist on less difficult items. Level of cognitive development, field independence, and fluid intelligence correlated moderately with posttest performance for the seventh grade students. Field independence and fluid intelligence correlated moderately with posttest performance for the college students but not pretest knowledge of specific biological concepts and cognitive level. It was concluded that college students are more responsive to instruction due either to (1) greater amount of experience or (2) greater information processing capacity. Implications for science teaching are discussed.
A study of the effectiveness of the primary education improvement program (science) in selected schools of Northern Nigeria
Authors: Brown Desmond P. , Reed Jack A.
Published: October 2006

The Primary Education Improvement Program (Science) developed in Nigeria from 1970–1980 adopted a “process approach” to the teaching of science for children in Classes One and Two of primary school. In that insufficient formative data were available a study was organized to evaluate the attainment of the program's major objectives in terms of the children's ability to practice process skills. The study also attempted to measure children's interest, active participation and understanding of the lessons, as well as the availability of materials and ease of preparing and teaching the lessons for the teachers. Data were collected by means of teacher opinionnaires and a children's test to measure the attainment of process skills. The teachers who completed the opinionnaires rated the program as successful in terms of all the measured criteria. Children in the experimental and control groups were tested and their performances were compared. The results indicated that there were some significant differences in total test scores in favor of the experimental group after one year of primary school but none after two years. The program, though highly rated by teachers, did not produce the intended changes in children's behavior.
Pupil participation and curriculum relevance
Authors: Ramadas Jayashree , Kulkarni V. G.
Published: October 2006

Some results of formative research carried out in primary schools in rural India have been presented. The relationship between the lesson content and the participation of the pupils has been investigated. The spontaneous participation of pupils in teacher‐directed classrooms is shown to be correlated with the time spent by the teacher in relating the content of the textbook to the natural experiences of the pupils. The use of an experiment or a teaching aid is also found to be useful in drawing participation from the pupils. The results of the study are relevant for teachers working in a traditional, teacher‐dominated sytem of education.
An analysis of the current crises in the discipline of science education
Authors: Yager Robert E. , Bybee Rodger , Gallagher James J. , Renner John W.
Published: October 2006

Demographic information concerning the thirty‐five largest graduate centers for science education was collected. The information verified the decrease in the average number of graduates, number of faculty members, external support for special projects in such centers for science education. Programs have remained static over the twenty‐year period. Faculty members at the institutions are stable and possess similar backgrounds; research interests of the faculty members vary and do not represent major commitments for many. When perceptions of discipline problems are studied, lack of agreement concerning goals and objectives are most frequently cited. This is followed by perceived lack of vision and leadership in the profession. Other perceived problems include public and parental apathy toward science and science education, limited budgets and facilities, and limited dialogue among professionals and the public. Science educators have proposed solutions to discipline problems as further evidence of crisis. The most common solutions proposed include (1) development of a theory base for the discipline, (2) structuring of a rationale for the discipline, (3) greater financial and public support, and (4) improved programs, including inservice education.

As a view of the future is provided, the central issue emerges regarding the absence of goals in science education that are relevant to contemporary priorities in science, society, and education. Suggestion is made that failure to correct this deficiency will result in further deterioration in all areas of the current crisis.
The effects of ecocultural factors in operational thought among some Nigerian adolescents
Authors: Ehindero Olusola J.
Published: October 2006

…the formation of operations always requires a favourable environment for “cooperation,” that is to say the operations carried out in common (e.g., the role of discussion, mutual criticism or support, problems raised as the result of exchange of information, heightened curiosity due to the cultural influence of a social group, etc. [Piaget, 1972].
A comparison of teacher and principal perception of an outstanding biology teacher
Authors: Searles William E. , Ng Raymond W. M.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the level of agreement or disagreement between principals and teachers when using established criteria to measure the effectiveness of a biology teacher. To obtain information regarding their perceptions of an outstanding biology teacher, twenty‐two principals and forty‐one biology teachers were chosen randomly from English‐speaking high schools within a 50 km radius of metropolitan Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The measuring instrument was a modified version of Dieter's questionnaire that evolved from his doctoral study of the National Association of Biology Teachers‐Outstanding Biology Teacher Award Program. The data collected from the two populations were tested using one‐way ANOVA (analysis of variance) or by applying normal approximation. Results indicated that both the principals and teachers agree on the relative importance of most criteria, particularly those related to the teacher's classroom behavior and academic background in biology. From such results, it was possible to construct one stereotype of the outstanding biology teacher. A number of recommendations were made from the results of the study, which were directed to the (a) teachers and their professional organization, (b) principals and the school boards, (c) teacher training institutions, and (d) researchers in teacher evaluation.
A case for quantitative treatment verification in science teaching research
Authors: Leonard William H.
Published: October 2006

Educational studies that attempt to identify variables contributing significantly to student learning of science concepts often rely on careful construction of operational definitions as a means of controlling treatment variables. It is argued that this is not sufficient in a behavioral experiment such as in a science classroom because students may not behave as planned. In such research, quantitative treatment verification is necessary. A survey of the use of treatment verification in science teaching research is presented as well as one such procedure in detail. If the researcher finds significant differences between treatment groups on dependent measures, and if differences for student‐teacher behaviors between treatments are quantified and determined to differ significantly, the researcher has a much stronger case for arguing causation than if treatment verification had not been employed.
The effect of frequency of testing upon the measurement of achievement in an intensive time‐series design
Authors: Mayer Victor J. , Rojas Carlos A.
Published: October 2006

Progress in the development of an intensive time‐series design for use in classroom situations has raised several questions regarding the validity of the data obtained. One such question is related to the effect of frequency of testing upon the data. This study was designed to determine the presence of such an effect. Use of the design with eighth grade students studying a unit on crustal evolution indicated that the frequency of data collection did not adversely affect student attitudes toward the science class nor did it have any measurable effect upon class achievement data. The results of a previous study were also replicated, giving increased confidence in the validity of the data yielded by the intensive time‐series design as used in these studies.
A comparison of the personalized system of instruction and a conventional biology course on the achievement of junior college freshmen
Authors: Gifford Vernon D. , Vicks Joann
Published: October 2006

The effect of using a Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) method in teaching freshman biology in junior college and the relationship between biology achievement and selected variables were investigated. The sample of eighty freshmen was divided into two groups, experimental and control, and data were collected after one semester of treatment. Adjusted scores on the post‐test were significantly different for the class using the PSI method. There was no significant difference between the sexes. Career motivation was the only significant factor between males and females. The significant predictors of biology achievement were college grade point average, treatment group, and the California Achievement Test composite score. The next group of predictors consisted of career motivation, fear motivation, and family size.
Curriculum materials, teaching, and potential outcomes for students: A qualitative analysis
Authors: Kilbourn Brent
Published: October 2006

This is a qualitative analysis of a teaching episode in biology and shows the interplay between substantive content issues and pedagogical issues relating to the teacher's intentions, performance, and potential outcomes for students. The concept “epistemological flatness” is developed as a way of characterizing salient aspects of the curriculum materials and teaching, as revealed in the analysis. The conclusion of the article reflects on the function of the qualitative analysis itself.
Priorities for research in science education: A survey
Authors: Abraham Michael R. , Renner John W. , Grant Rosalie M. , Westbrook Susan L.
Published: October 2006

In 1979, all members of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST) were asked to list in order of priority what they believed to be the five most needed areas of research in science education. A total of 101 members−13% of the membership‐responded and listed 398 statements of needed research. Six general classes of research needs were identified from the 398 needed research statements. Those classes contained 31 unique categories of needed research. Three categories of needed research emerged as the greatest concern of the NARST members responding to the survey. Those categories are instructional strategy, learning, and student and teacher attitudes. Earlier work done on the identification of research needs was compared with the present work and many similarities were found. The research concluded that when research needs were identified by the membership of the NARST the results are different than when especially appointed ad hoc committees identifies research needs.
Understanding the dynamics of initiating individualized science instruction
Authors: Kapuscinski B. Phyllis
Published: October 2006

Traditional research comparing the effects of individualized instruction and conventional modes of instruction has been inconclusive. Naturalistic research dealing with the process of innovation as a critical issue was proposed as an alternative. Thus, the purpose of the study was to investigate the dynamics of change at the classroom level through identifying factors influencing change, as perceived by administrators, teachers, pupils, and investigator‐observer. Ten teachers participated in an in‐service experience in individualized instruction, which consisted of a series of workshops and regular classroom visits conducted by the investigator‐observer. Additional data were obtained from teachers' diaries, informal pupil reactions, and interviews with a comparison group of teachers and administrators. Factors influencing change at the classroom level were identified. Naturalistic research was shown to be functional and valuable in that it suggested new patterns of organization in studies on individualized instruction, particularly the role of the pupil in educational change.
The nature of advanced reasoning and science instruction
Authors: Lawson Anton E.
Published: October 2006

Although the development of reasoning is recognized as an important goal of science instruction, its nature remains somewhat of a mystery. This article discusses two key questions: Does formal thought constitute a structured whole? And what role does propositional logic play in advanced reasoning? Aspects of a model of advanced reasoning are presented in which hypothesis generation and testing are viewed as central processes in intellectual development. It is argued that a number of important advanced reasoning schemata are linked by these processes and should be made a part of science instruction designed to improve students' reasoning abilities.

Concerning students' development and use of formal reasoning, Linn (1982) calls for research into practical issues such as the roles of task‐specific knowledge and individual differences in performance, roles not emphasized by Piaget in his theory and research. From a science teacher's point of view, this is good advice. Accordingly, this article will expand upon some of the issues raised by Linn in a discussion of the nature of advanced reasoning which attempts to reconcile the apparent contradiction between students' differential use of advanced reasoning schemata in varying contexts with the notion of a general stage of formal thought. Two key questions will be discussed: Does formal thought constitute a structured whole? And what role does propositional logic play in advanced reasoning? The underlying assumption of the present discussion is that, among other things, science instruction should concern itself with the improvement of students' reasoning abilities (cf. Arons, 1976; Arons & Karplus, 1976; Bady, 1979; Bauman, 1976; Educational Policies Commission, 1966; Herron, 1978; Karplus, 1979; Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972; Moshman & Thompson, 1981; Lawson, 1979; Levine & linn, 1977; Pallrand, 1977; Renner & Lawson, 1973; Sayre & Ball, 1975; Schneider & Renner, 1980; Wollman, 1978). The questions are of interest because to date they lack clear answers, yet clear answers are necessary if we hope to design effective instruction in reasoning.
Utilizing formative evaluation to enhance the understanding of chemistry and the methods and procedures of science
Authors: Pizzini Edward L. , Treagust David F. , Cody John
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not formative evaluation could facilitate goal attainment in a biochemistry course and produce desired learning outcomes consistently by altering course materials and/or instruction. Formative evaluation procedures included the administration of the Inorganic‐Organic‐Biological Chemistry Test Form 1974 and the Methods and Procedures of Science test to course participants over three consecutive years. A one group pretest‐post‐test design was used. The statistical analysis involved the use of the Wilcoxon matched‐pairs signed‐ranks test. The study involved 64 participants. The findings indicate that the use of formative evaluation can be effective in producing desired learning outcomes to facilitate goal attainment.
Simultaneous effects of allowed time, teaching method, ability, and student assessment of treatment on achievement in a high school biology course (ISIS)
Authors: Burkman Ernest , Brezin Michael , Griffin Patrick
Published: October 2006

The simultaneous effects of teaching method (self‐directed, group directed, and teacher directed), allowed time for study, and two student variables (academic ability and assessment of treatment implementation) are described for student achievement in a high school biology course (ISIS). The variable student assessment of treatment implementation was viewed as a particularly important variable for two reasons: (1) in research by Stayrook, Corno, and Winne (1978) it has accounted for as much variance in achievement as the assigned treatment; and (2) it provides a means for controlling the range of implementation of teaching methods. A between‐student analysis resulted in a description of effects complicated by interactions among all the variables. While the interactions were particularly strong in the student‐directed method, it may generally be concluded that as time allowed for study decreased, students who perceived the treatment as being well implemented tended to have higher achievement. Also, it was found that the main effect of ability was quite strong. The results confirmed the importance of student assessment of treatment implementation as a descriptive variable. Additionally, the results suggest a qualification in the conclusion of Cronbach and Snow (1971) that individualized instruction tends to favor high‐ability students; that conclusion may need to be modified to situations in which students fully perceive their autonomy.
Science processes
Authors: Finley Fred N.
Published: October 2006

During the past twenty years, research, curriculum development, and instruction in science education have been influenced by Gagne's conception of science processes. This article reports an investigation of the epistomologic foundations of this conception. The results indicate that a commitment to inductive empiricism pervades the presently held view of science processes. A major tenet of this commitment is that conceptual knowledge results from the application of science processes in understanding natural phenomena and solving problems. Criticism of the commitment in light of recent developments in the philosophy of science reveals that there is limited philosophical support for this view. The implication is that if science educators continue to use the presently held view of science processes, the conception needs to be reformulated. Otherwise, there is a clear danger that students will be presented an inaccurate and inadequate view of science processes. The alternative is to view the exact nature of science processes as being dependent upon the conceptual knowledge that is used to understand a particular phenomena or problem.
Effects of individualized assignments on biology achievement
Authors: Kremer Philip L.
Published: October 2006

A pretest‐posttest, randomized, two groups, experimental, factorial design compared effects of detailed and nondetailed assignments on biology achievement over seven and a half months. Detailed assignments (favoring field independence and induction) employed block diagrams and stepwise directions. Nondetailed assignments (favoring field dependence and deduction) virtually lacked these. The accessible population was 101 tenth grade preparatory school male students. The 95 students enrolled in first year biology constituted the sample. Two by three ANOVA was done on residualized posttest score means of the students. Totally, the detailed students achieved significantly higher than the nondetailed students. This significantly higher achievement was only true of detailed students in the middle thirds of the deviation intelligence quotient (DIQ) range and of the grade point average (G.P.A.) range after the breakdown into upper, middle, and lower thirds of intellectual capability (ability and achievement). The upper third detailed DIQ grouping indirectly achieved higher than its peers, whereas the lower detailed DIQ third achieved lower than its peers. Thus, high capability students apparently benefit from flow and block diagrams, inductions, field independence, and high structure, whereas low capability students may be hindered by these.
Overprompting science students using adjunct study questions
Authors: Holliday William G.
Published: October 2006

Overprompting students by providing them with strong hints to answers of questions can do learners more instructional harm than good. The selective attention model was used to explain the effects of overprompting students provided with study questions adjunct to a complex flow diagram describing scientific cyclical schema. Tenth‐grade students were randomly assigned to an unprompted‐question, no‐question, prompted‐question, and a placebo control group. Analysis showed that strongly prompting students to the answers of such questions was less effective than an unprompted question treatment, p < 0.05. The no‐question treatment did not significantly outperform the prompted treatment. The information presented in the flow diagram was operationally related to comprehension study and posttest questions. The theoretical discussion and the present findings suggested that science teachers should use prompting techniques with extreme caution.
Students' recall from science text
Authors: Fmley Fred N.
Published: October 2006

A major feature of instruction in science education is the assignment of reading materials; yet relatively little is known about what students' recall from their reading. The purpose of this study was to develop a description of what students recalled from‐reading expository science text and to search for different groups of students who recalled the same propositions. The expectation of different groups was based on recent developments in schema theory. Thirty‐eight grade 11 physics students read and then recalled content related to energy transfer. Each student's recall was tape recorded and analyzed to identify the propositions recalled. Cluster analysis procedures were used to identify groups of students who recalled the same propositions. There were four groups of students found, each organized around a different empirical event students recalled from the text. Two groups recalled an elaborated description of an even that actually had been only briefly described in the text. Notably absent in all groups was the theoretical content related to the main theme of the text.
The effects of new science curricula on student performance
Authors: Shymansky James A. , Kyle William C. , Alport Jennifer M.
Published: October 2006

This study summarizes the results of a quantitative synthesis of the retrievable primary research dealing with the effects of new science curricula on student performance. This study synthesizes the results of 105 experimental studies involving more than 45,000 students and utilizes the quantitative synthesis perspective to research integration known as meta‐analysis (Glass, 1976). A total of 27 different new science curricula involving one or more measures of student performance are included in this meta‐analysis. Data were collected for 18 a priori selected student performance measures. The results of this meta‐analysis reveal definite positive patterns of student performance in new science curricula. Across all new science curricula analyzed, students exposed to new science curricula performed better than students in traditional courses in general achievement, analytic skills, process skills, and related skills (reading, mathematics, social studies and communication), as well as developing a more positive attitude toward science. On a composite basis, the average student in new science curricula exceeded the performance of 63% of the students in traditional science courses.
Differences in science students' view of ideal and actual role behavior according to success and gender
Authors: Kauchak Don , Peterson Ken
Published: October 2006

Information about how success and gender affect students' views of ideal and actual classroom role behavior can help both researchers and teachers better understand classroom components such as achievement and curriculum. A 20‐item double Q sort was used to measure differences in perceptions of high school science students according to letter grades and gender. Individual Q sort item rankings of 160 students were tested for significant differences according to letter grade received; item ratings were compared according to gender for 215 students. Differences in perception according to success were found for both ideal and actual behavior; 8 and 5 items, respectively, out of each 20‐item sort were found to be significant at the p = < 0.05 level. No such overall patterns of difference in view were found between boys and girls, although three ideal student items and one actual self‐report item were found to be significantly different at the p = < 0.05 level.
Teacher management behaviors and pupil task involvement during small group laboratory activities
Authors: Beasley Warren
Published: October 2006

A major concern of many beginning and experienced teachers is that of classroom management and control. This article describes recent research into defining classroom management procedures that are used by high school science teachers and their relationship to pupil ontaskness. The classroom is conceptualized as a manipulable behavioral system. This construct arises directly from Barker's (1968) ecological psychology, the classroom and its occupants being conceptualized as a behavior setting. The behaviors of the teacher and the pupils are an integral part of the unit (behavior setting), which in turn coerces certain behaviors from its participants. Thus settings, and, in particular, subsettings, are seen as more important determiners of social behavior than the personality of individual teacher or pupil. The methodology employed in this research has involved the extensive use of video in naturalistic science classrooms. Tapes of both teacher and pupil behaviors were continuously and independently recorded. Intensive analysis using electronic recording instruments interfaced with the computer has allowed the collection and sophisticated analysis of the observational data. Data relating to teacher management behavior in small group settings have been analyzed and the relationships to pupil task involvement have been explored.
Interaction of wait time feedback and questioning instruction on middle school science teaching
Authors: Swift J. Nathan , Gooding C. Thomas
Published: October 2006

Wait time, the duration of teacher pauses after questions, is an important variable in research on science teaching. This project investigated the effects of increasing teacher's wait times on general questioning skills in science teaching. In previous research, the influence of wait time training has been confounded with instruction in general questioning skills, making it difficult to test the hypothesis that increasing the wait time will by itself improve classroom discussions. In this project, these variables were separated through the use of four treatment groups made up of science teachers. One group received instruction in wait time using a newly developed electronic feedback device that monitors the duration of teacher and student pauses; a second group received instruction in general questioning skills; a third group received both types of instruction; a comparison group received no instruction of either type. The tape recordings were coded and analyzed for classroom interaction data. Comparisons were made using discriminant analysis, analyses of variance, and correlational relationships. The wait time feedback devices facilitated the production of wait time means consistently superior to baseline performance, albeit slightly below the 3‐second criterion sought. Regardless, the feedback groups did produce a large number of the hypothesized changes. Significant effects were found from a comparison of the discriminant function scores. Effects consistently favored the groups with the feedback devices. The presence of the guides seemed to make little difference. The groups with the devices used greater numbers of high‐level questions, especially those of the evaluative level. There were more contributions from students, as measured by length of answers, frequency of volunteered contributions, numbers of relevant student words, and percentages of student talk.
The effects of instructional organization and locus of control orientation on meaningful learning in high school biology students
Authors: Sherris Jacqueline D. , Kahle Jane Butler
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the effects on meaningful learning achievement of concept‐related instructional organization and locus of control orientation. Two five‐week instructional treatments were developed, one which explicitly stressed concept relationships and one which did not. Five hundred and forty‐one subjects at six Indiana high schools were involved in the study. Analyses of covariance of posttest and six‐week retention test scores with treatment as the independent variable showed no significant treatment effect. Analyses of variance of test scores with locus of control orientation as the independent variable resulted in highly statistically significant differences. Subjects with an internal locus of control orientation achieved more than externally oriented subjects. A two‐way analysis of covariance by treatment and locus of control orientation resulted in a statistically significant treatment/locus of control interaction effect for retention test scores. Externally oriented subjects who were exposed to the concept‐related treatment generally retained more than those in the comparison group. Internally oriented subjects retained about the same amount of information regardless of treatment group. When the male and female subjects were analyzed separately, the interaction effect appeared greater for females than for males.
The influence of activity‐based elementary science programs on classroom practices: A quantitative synthesis
Authors: Bredderman Ted
Published: October 2006

The results of 11 studies of classroom practices used with the activity‐based elementary science programs, ESS, SCIS, and SAPA, were combined quantitatively. All studies included control groups and employed techniques for coding lesson events. A composite category system was developed for combining study results. It was found that teachers using activity‐based programs spent about 10% more time on student activity and 10% less time on talk than teachers using traditional methods. More direction giving, more higher level questions, and less lecturing were also reported. Teachers trained in program use spent less time giving directions, more time on activities, and less time on talk than untrained teachers using the programs. On the average, researchers coded slightly less student talk and slightly less student‐initiated talk in activity‐based classrooms.
The effect of method and format on the responses of subjects to a Piagetian reasoning problem
Authors: Staver John R. , Pascarella Ernest T.
Published: October 2006

Researchers interested in studying the effects of subjects' reasoning levels, as defined by Piaget (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958), on science achievement or other dependent variables face two measurement problems. First, the traditional clinical method is time‐consuming and impractical for large numbers of subjects. Second, alternative methods of assessment, although reliable and valid, may over‐ or underestimate subjects' reasoning levels. The objective of this investigation was to determine the effects of various methods and formats of administering a Piagetian task on subjects' performance. The task chosen for this investigation was the Mr. Short‐Mr. Tall problem (Karplus & Lavatelli, 1969; Karplus et al., 1977). The task was presented using four methods: (1) individual clinical interview, (2) group presentation of task followed by paper‐and‐pencil problem with illustration, (3) group administration of paper‐and‐pencil instrument with illustration, and (4) group administration of paper‐and‐pencil instrument without illustration. Each method included four formats: (1) completion answer with essay justification, (2) completion answer with multiple‐choice justification, (3) multiple‐choice answer with essay justification, and (4) multiple‐choice answer with multiple‐choice justification. Three hundred seventy‐six students who were enrolled in a freshman level biological science class participated in the study. The research design was a 4 × 4 factorial design with method and format of assessment as the main effects. The participants were in 16 distinct laboratory or discussion sections, and each section was randomly assigned to a cell in the research design. Regression analysis with the individual as the unit of analysis showed that neither method nor format of assessment accounted for a significant amount of variance in student performance. The overall interaction remained nonsignificant. Regression analysis with sections as the unit of analysis revealed similar findings. The inter‐rater agreement in the scoring of the reasoning task was 98.4%. The principal conclusion is that neither method nor format of task administration influenced the performance of subjects, and this lack of influence is similar for various combinations of method and format. Discussion focused on the importance of this nonsignificant finding for using alternative methods of Piagetian assessment. Implications for teachers are also discussed.
Relationships among gender, age, and intellectual development
Authors: De Hernandez Lilian , Marek Edmund A. , Renner John W.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among gender, age, and intellectual development. Random samples of 70 females and 70 males were selected with each sex group equally divided into a low‐age and a high‐age group. The low‐age group ranged in age from 16.25 years to 16.75 years and the high‐age group from 16.76 years to 17.25 years. The Piaget tasks selected to measure cognitive development were: Conservation of Volume, Separation of Variables, and Equilibrium in the Balance and Combination of Colorless Chemical Liquids. Data from this research produced these findings: (1) males demonstrate a higher level of intellectual development than females, (2) males mature intellectually earlier than females, (3) the value of the conservation of volume task as a component of a battery of formal tasks depends upon whether the decisions are to be made on the basis of the total‐task results or on individual task performance, and (4) there appear to be factors other than age and gender that are related to the development of formal operational reasoning. These investigators hypothesize that experiences is another important factor.
Student task involvement in activity oriented science
Authors: Tobin Kenneth
Published: October 2006

The focus of this investigation was on relationships between teaching behaviors and student engagement in 13 middle school science classes. The results indicated that seven managerial variables and four instructional variables were significantly related to student engagement rates. Also the types of tasks allocated by teachers in science lessons were significantly related to the types of tasks undertaken by students. A canonical correlation analysis indicated significant relationships between three allocated task dimensions and three student engagement dimensions. Although teachers allocated adequate time for students to engage in investigation planning, data collecting, and data processing, the results indicated that overt engagement was prevalent only when data were collected. Attending was the predominant type of student engagement when investigations were planned and data were processed. The percentage of student time on task was approximately 63%. Rates of student off task behavior tended to be consistently high across all types of allocated tasks.
Mendelian genetics: Paradigm, conjecture, or research program
Authors: Oldham V. , Brouwer W.
Published: October 2006

Kuhn's model of the structure of scientific revolutions, Popper's hypothetic‐deductive model of science, and Lakatos's methodology of competing research programs are applied to a historical episode in biology. Each of these three models offers a different explanatory system for the development, neglect, and eventual acceptance of Mendel's paradigm of inheritance. The authors conclude that both rational and nonrational criteria play an important role during times of crisis in science, when different research programs compete for acceptance. It is suggested that Kuhn's model, emphasizing the nonrational basis of science, and Popper's model, emphasizing the rational basis of science, can be used fruitfully in high school science courses.
Creativity in a cooperative group setting
Authors: Foster Gerald W. , Penick John E.
Published: October 2006

This study was to determine whether cooperative small groups would stimulate creativity of fith and sixth grade students more than an individualized learning environment. Student aptitudes for creative and academic work were assessed on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (Verbal Form A), analysis of student created electrical circuit diagrams, and a batteries and bulbs prediction test. A measure of student perceptions was also used to indicate any changes in attitudes toward the science activity and learning environment. A posttest control group design was used with 11 I fifth and sixth grade students. Half of the population worked by themselves, while the other half (experimental) worked in a student‐structured environment on the same science activity which involved creating as many different types of electrical circuits from a given set of batteries and bulbs as possible. An overall conclusion is that fifth and sixth grade students working within small cooperative groups can be more creative as measured by a figural creativity test with electrical circuits than students working alone. The implication of this study is that small cooperative groups as well as individualized groups should be used in elementary science classes when creativity is one of the instructional objectives.
The effects of classroom climate on college science students: A replication study
Authors: Haukoos Gerry D. , Penick John E.
Published: October 2006

This replication studied the effect of two specific classroom climates on learning of science process skills and content achievement in college science classes. Two classroom climates were established and designated as discovery classroom climate (DCC) and nondiscovery classroom climate (NDCC). The term discovery denotes the degree of freedom the teacher established in classroom interactions, both verbal and nonverbal. Verbal interactions were monitored with the Science Laboratory Interaction Categories. These data indicate that students in the two classroom climates achieved equally as well on learning of biological content of the course and on scores in science process skills as measured by the Welch Science Process Inventory. This study indicates students in the less directive discovery climate learned as much content as a more directive comparison class—they lost nothing of what is traditionally sought in a college science class. Differences between the original and the replication study on the Science Process Inventory were noted.
The effects of controversy, concurrence seeking, and individualistic learning on achievement and attitude change
Authors: Johnson Roger , Brooker Charlotte , Stutzman James , Hultman Donald , Johnson David W.
Published: October 2006

The effects of cooperative‐controversy, cooperative‐concurrence seeking, and individualistic learning were compared on motivation, achievement, and attitudes toward the science subject being studied. Eighty‐four fifth‐grade students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for sex and reading ability. In all three conditions students studied whether wolves should or should not be a protected species. The results indicate that cooperative‐controversy resulted in the highest achievement, greatest motivation to learn more about wolves, more positive attitudes toward the wolf, and more positive attitudes toward controversy.
Prediction of the science inquiry skill of seventeen‐year‐olds: A test of the model of educational productivity
Authors: Rakow Steven J.
Published: October 2006

The study was designed to investigate the influence of student characteristics and classroom characteristics on students' inquiry skill. The sample consisted of a national stratified random sample of 1955 17‐year‐olds who were assessed as part of the 1981‐1982 national assessment in science. The dependent variable was a 17‐item measure of students' inquiry skill. The independent variables were selected from the available data using the Model of Educational Productivity as a guide in the selection of the variables. The first purpose of the study was to test the effectiveness of the Model of Educational Productivity for predicting the inquiry skill of 17‐year‐olds. The results of this study indicate that this model was capable of accounting for between 24 and 32% of the variance in inquiry skill for the general population of 17‐year‐olds. More specifically, students' reporting of their general ability alone accounted for between 17 and 22% of the variance. The second question posed by this study asked whether the prediction of inquiry skill differed for males and females. While there was some difference in the contribution of the minor predictors, there was very little difference in the prediction of inquiry skill for males and females using the Model of Education Productivity. The third question posed by this study asked whether the prediction of inquiry skill differed for white and nonwhite students. For nonwhite students, the Model of Educational Productivity accounted for only 18% of the variance in science inquiry skill. Thus, it would appear that there is a great deal that is not known about the factors that contribute to the science inquiry skill of nonwhite students.
The effects of matching instructional strategy with selected student characteristics on ninth grade physical science students' attitudes and achievement
Authors: Trout John S. , Crawley Frank E.
Published: October 2006

The study investigated the benefits of a matching model of instruction for students enrolled in ninth grade physical science classes in one high school in a small, urban school district. Based on social learning theory, three independent variables were identified for purposes of matching: need level, cognitive style, and locus of control; attitude and achievement outcomes served as the dependent variables. Results of separate analyses of covariance revealed that attitude toward science in general improved with matching, but achievement, attitude toward physical science, attitude toward instruction, and attitude toward the teacher did not improve. Recommendations for subsequent “matching” experiments are discussed in light of the findings in this investigation.