bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Big Business and Corporate Power
Authors: Scott John
Published: November 2023

Few people appreciate the extent to which large multinational business enterprises are able to shape our lives. The products and services that we use in the course of our routine daily activities-the food that we eat, the newspapers that we read, the cars that we drive, the houses that we live in, and so on-are all today the products of mass-market business enterprises. These commodities can be produced for us only if other enterprises produce the boilers, printing presses, machine tools, and bricks that are required in their production. The majority of people in paid employment are paid by these same businesses to work in the factories, shops, and offices that produce these goods, and the production and consumption of goods requires the use of cash, credit cards, and bank accounts that are operated by large banking enterprises.
Corporate Constellations in the Anglo-American System
Authors: Scott John
Published: November 2023

The managerialist contention that there has been a separation of ownership from control in the capitalist business enterprise has been hotly debated in the United States. Berle and Means (1932) were motivated to undertake their classic study by the reflections of their contemporaries on the development of American capitalism during the first thirty years of the twentieth century. If the theory has any application, it should, surely, apply to corporate life in America. Managerialist theory posits the demise of family capitalism and the disappearance of the classic entrepreneur.
Researching the Issues
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

In setting out on this research we had three fundamental objectives in mind. First, in sharp contrast to the great majority of existing studies, we wanted to focus, not on the immediate experiences of difficulties in stepfamily life, but on its long term impact: and in particular, on what was distinctive about the experience of those members of families who in the long run fared best. It was precisely these relatively more successful experiences of stepchildhood which were and are least studied, although understanding them must be crucial to helping step family members in the future.
Introduction
Authors: Parker R H , Yamey B S
Published: November 2023

Authors of books on bookkeeping and accounts in earlier centuries some- times included short passages on the historical development of their subject. The earliest British example is James Peele. In his Pathe Waye to Pefectnes (London, 1569) he observed that the double entry bookkeeping System, then known as the Italian System, was ‘both auncient and famous’, and ‘hath bene and is frequented, by divers nacions, and chiefely by suche as hâve bene and be the most auncient and famous Merchauntes . . .’. In 1801, Dr Patrick Kelly, a well-known mathematician and astronomer, wrote in his Eléments of Book-keeping that ‘the origin of Book-keeping, like that of most useful arts, is involved in great obscurity’: he nevertheless offered his thoughts on the subject at some length. It is fair to say that most published observations on the history of accounting, in ail languages, up to (say) about 1875, were based on abstract spéculation on the origins and subséquent development of bookkeeping rather than on the study of surviving records. This was true not only of the contributions of authors who wrote treatises on bookkeeping and accounts but also of those of historians of commerce such as Anderson (1764) and Macpherson (1805).
The Evolution Of Financial Reporting In Japan: A Shame Culture Perspective
Authors: Cooke TE
Published: November 2023

Great care must be taken in interpreting the context of developments in Japan, including accounting developments, because there is a substantial Japanese literature both at the popular and the academic levels that tries to emphasize that Japan is unique. This literature is referred to as the nihonjinron (literally, discussions of the Japanese). The core of the nihonjinron is not that Japan has characteristics different from other nations-since no two countries are identical-but rather that the ‘Japanese are incomparably different [and that] the Japanese state of being is preferable [and] superior to what the rest of the world has to offer ‘ (van W olferen 1989: 264). The danger is that non-Japanese can becorne convinced that the nihonjinron is correct and can, as a consequence, make misinterpretations.
Understanding the Process of Public Service Management Change
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to develop a framework of concepts that can be used to analyse the nature of the change in public service organizations. In doing so, we will draw upon a range of thinking and analysis in social and organizational theory, but particularly on institutional theory. This theoretical approach takes a number of forms. The emphasis in the economic theories of institutions is on the way that they operate to create efficient forms of organization in different disciplines (Williamson 1975; 1985). In sociological theories of institutions there is more concern for the way that norms and incentives operate to structure action, and the role of language (Di Maggio and Powell 1983). In political science the focus tends to be upon the way that political ‘institutions’ influence social systems (March and Olsen 1989).
The Research Investigation
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have examined changes in the public sector, in particular the introduction and use of contracts, from a conceptual and theoretical perspective. The discussion has purposely been multisectoral and has sought to explore the origins and influences upon policy development. It is clear that different sectors of the public services have been directed to these policy issues at different times and that the rate of introduction has varied considerably. Therefore, although this project involves a comparative study, it is concerned primarily with the implications of implementation rather than an explicit evaluation of service outcome.
The Context of Change
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

It is now time to begin to draw the threads together. In order to do so, we shall review the evidence that we have assembled in all the earlier chapters of this study about the processes of change that have been driven by the introduction of contracts into the three service areas we have selected for examination. In doing so, we will consider how the evidence (especially the material from our case studies) helps us to answer the questions with which we started our study. From the beginning, as we indicated in our introduction, we have been concerned to identify and analyse the strategies adopted by organizations to cope with change; the new patterns of relationship and cultural shifts that have developed; and the nature of the processes that have been introduced.
The Contract Revolution: The International Experience
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

A ‘competition prescription’ (Kettl 1993: 1) has been applied across the British public sector. In Chapter 1, the changes to the National Health Service (NHS), social care, and other local government services were outlined in some detail and set in a broader context of public sector reform, with reference, for example, to changes in central government. Metcalfe (1993) sets the UK changes in the context of global trends of reform in public services, which, though prompted by particular national concerns, also have in common three factors: First, the deterioration of economic performance from the 1970s onwards made it difficult to allow increasing governmental demands on national resources.
Venture Capitalists, Buy-Outs, And Corporate Governance
Authors: Wright Mike , Thompson, Steve , Robbie Ken
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to examine and evaluate the contribution of the mechanisms involved in venture capital investments and leveraged management buy-outs to dealing with corporate governance problems in a wide variety of enterprise types. In the current debate on governance issues there is a widely articulated view (e.g. Charkham 1994) that the Anglo-American-style capital market, with its emphasis on liquidity and the separation of institutional shareholders from the firms they invest in, too often results in poor managerial accountability and substantial departures from shareholder value maximization.1 It is further suggested that neither of the principal market restraints on managerial behaviour-namely, the managerial labour market and the corporate acquisitions market--is particularly effective. The former, which might be expected to reward success and penalize failure (Fama 1980) shows, at best, a very weak average relationship between top executive remuneration and performance (see e.g. Canyon et al. 1995; Chapters 4 and 5 in this volume); whilst the market for corporate control hypothesis is flawed if managers can deploy effective costly defences, including size, or if errant managers use their discretion to pursue takeover targets.2 Concerns such as these were among those leading to the Cadbury Report (1992), whose Code of Practice has received widespread adoption in the UK, and have encouraged others to call for more far-reaching institu-tional changes.
Contracting For Health
Authors: Flynn Rob , Williams Gareth
Published: November 2023

This book presents analysis of, and evidence about, contracting in the British National Health Service (NHS) internal market. It comprises chapters by authors working in different social science disciplines who have all carried out recent empirical research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council on different aspects of contracting theory, policy, and practice. This introduction describes the context within which NHS contracting developed, and reviews briefly some of the important themes which have emerged from recent debates about contracting as a particular type of economic and social action.
Contracting In The National Health Service: Legal And Economic Issues
Authors: Barker Kit , Chalkley Martin , Malcomson James M , Montgomery Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The National Health Service (NHS) quasi-market established a conceptual and operational separation between purchasers of health services (district health authorities, health commissions, general practice (GP) fundholders in their role as purchasers of services) and the providers of those services (NHS Trust and private sector hospitals, community health service providers, GPs in their role as providers of services). It requires provision of health services to be governed by contracts between purchasers and providers. The research reported in this chapter considers what forms of contract between health authorities and providers are appropriate within the context of this quasi-market.
The Experience of Contracting in Health Care
Authors: Spurgeon Peter , Smith Paula , Straker Mary , Deakin Nicholas , Thomas Neil , Walsh Kieron
Published: November 2023

This chapter is based on work undertaken by staff from three departments in the University of Birmingham—the Department of Social Policy and Social Work, the Institute of Local Government Studies, and the Health Services Management Centre. The project was a comparative study focusing on the impact of contracting on the management of services in three sectors: local government, health, and social care. This chapter will concentrate on the experiences of the health sector.
Education and Business
Authors: Pring Richard
Published: November 2023

THE relation between the worlds of education and of business is complex and needs to be examined very carefully. The relationship is particularly problematic when there is the attempt to make education more relevant to business, or to see how those who work in industry and commerce might help to improve our schools. Furthermore, the problem is partly ethical. That is, the problem of relating the one world to the other lies in deeper, and often unacknowledged, questions about what makes life worth living, about the values which ought to guide people, about the kinds of relationship which bind people together for different purposes-indeed, about the very language through which business and educational activities might be described and evaluated.
Introduction
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

During the 1990s the polemical literature on lone mothers, which is often fiercely party political, has been vast. Right-wing ‘think tanks’ have produced a stream of material deploring the ‘end of the family’, some of it written by Left-leaning writers, who are equally upset about what they perceive as the end of stable working-class communities. The titles of the pieces that have dominated the debate in the media have stressed above all the cost of lone mother families to the state. Thus the Sunday Times ran a piece in mid-1993 entitled: ‘A Man-or the State?’ (11 July 1993). A BBC TV Panorama programme broadcast in September 1993 went out under the title: ‘Babies on Benefit’. The iconography accompanying newspaper discussion of the issue has also been striking. The Sunday Times piece showed a mother leading a man with ‘state benefits’ stamped across his face to the altar, with a number of children following on behind.
Co-operation and Trust in Inter-Firm Relations: Beyond Competition Policy?
Authors: Deakin Simon , Goodwin Tom , Hughes Alan
Published: November 2023

Competition law is an important source of regulation of inter-firm relations of both a vertical and horizontal kind. This chapter considers the implications for competition policy of a growing body of evidence to the effect that co-operation between firms is a necessary feature of productive innovation and competitive success. The focus is on vertical relationships, that is to say, linkages between firms at different points in the supply chain. These include relations between suppliers of component parts and manufacturers and assemblers of final products, on the one hand, and relations between producers and the distributors and retailers of their products, on the other. We also consider the role of horizontal links between competitor firms in the context of the activities of trade associations and the setting of industry-wide standards.
The Transition from School to Work in Australia
Authors: Jones Frank
Published: November 2023

In their analysis of Australian patterns of status attainment up to the early 1970s, Broom et al. (1980: 41-51) were struck by the problematic nature of the linkage between educational credentials and career beginnings. The extent to which basic education affected the socio-economic status of first job seemed to vary more than any other link in the chain of inheritance of social inequality between the generations and over the life cycle.
FASA Renault: Innovation in Productive Flexibility and Job Security
Authors: Charron Elsie
Published: November 2023

FASA Renault, the oldest foreign automobile firm in Spain today, plays a central role in Renault’s European strategy, as its largest subsidiary outside France. From its inception, FASA Renault was an unusual establishment for what was considered to be a Fordist company. Its production was diversified with low volumes for each model, produced on relatively flexible assembly lines, using skilled labour which enjoyed significant job security. Experiments in worker involvement in production began in the early 1970s and facilitated great increases in productivity in the 1980s. At the same time, job security was maintained by means of a system of internal mobility. This pattern did not reflect the structures of the parent firm: nor did it reflect the Spanish context, since its main characteristics were generally not present in other local firms. This chapter describes the historical evolution of this pattern of productive flexibility and employment security. It examines how, and under what circumstances, Renault’s attempts to implement a relatively conventional form of organization,
Saturn: A Different Kind of Company?
Authors: Pil Frits k. , Rubinstein Saul
Published: November 2023

During the 1970s and 1980s, General Motors suffered from tremendous import competition. Voluntary Restraint Agreements (VRAs) on Japanese vehicles provided some relief, but it did not take long before Japanese automobile makers established production facilities in the USA. One of the areas where GM faced the most serious pressure from imports was in the small vehicle arena. GM’s response was to create a new car company-Saturn. Saturn was to provide GM with a high quality small vehicle to counter import pressure. At the same time, it was to provide opportunities for testing new design, manufacturing, and distribution ideas which would diffuse to other GM nameplates, and provide an impetus for improvement throughout General Motors.
Women with Discontinuous Employment Histories
Authors: Hakim Catherine
Published: November 2023

An innovation in the 1991 Census was to obtain information on the last job held in the previous ten years (if any) for everyone not currently in work. The 1971 and 1981 Censuses had moved in this direction by collecting information on the last job of the unemployed and retired, but the 1991 Census went a lot further in collecting systematic information for a very much larger group of people who had recent work experience but no current job, either as employee or self-employed. In effect, the 1991 Census collected employment data for a ten years’ reference period as well as the usual ‘last week’ reference period (Hakim, 1995a). The change had the greatest impact on data for women, who move in and out of jobs, and in and out of the labour market over the life cycle far more frequently than men, in the USA as well as in most European countries (Hakim, 1996c).
Homework and Travel to Work Patterns
Authors: Hakim Catherine
Published: November 2023

When the results of the 1981’National Survey of Homeworking were published (Hakim, 1984, 1985, 1987b, 1988a), they aroused controversy because they revealed a picture of homeworking very different from the one being offered at the time by local and national pressure groups (Rubery, 1989: 52; Phizacklea and Wolkowitz, 1995: 31-2). There was feminist and left-wing political resistance to the conclusions that many homeworkers were men; that most women homeworkers did not have young children at home; that white-collar jobs greatly outnumbered low-paid manufacturing homework jobs; that rates of pay and earnings varied a great deal rather than homework being universally poorly paid work; that the majority of homeworkers seemed to be self-employed and often worked for a variety of employers rather than being clear-cut cases of dependent labour working for a single employer on a continuous basis; that most homeworkers were satisfied with their jobs; and that homeworkers had negative views of trade unions, seeing them as organizations that served the interests of well-paid male workers, with little or no interest in the problems of low-paid female workers, especially if they worked part-time and on an intermittent basis at home.
The Drug Dealers: A Case Study of Pharmacy, an Integrated Occupation
Authors: Hakim Catherine
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the 1% census SAR is used for a case study of pharmacists. Looking at a particular occupational group allows us to draw together the themes of previous chapters, to provide a more rounded view of one example of an integrated occupation, and to consider the links between themes. Chapters 9 and 10 synthesize the analysis and draw conclusions. The approach here is an empirical synthesis, via a strategic case study, while Chapter 10 focuses on theoretical conclusions and policy implications.
The Dynamics of the Lebanese Christians: From the Paradigm of the cammiyyat to the Paradigm of Hwayyek
Authors: Picard Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

The reason why it is pertinent to consider the political dynamics of the Lebanese Christians is that these dynamics seem to be even more seriously blocked in the last few years, since the cease-fire (October—December 1990), than during the war (1975-90). The crisis of Lebanese Christians, which has occupied the headlines since the Zouk attack in 1994, is deeper than the term inbāt (disenchantment) implies. There are many causes and many aspects of it. The demographic factor is important, as well as the socio-economic aspects, but the cultural aspect must not be ignored either. Above all it derives from the thorny question of the relationship between the State and the communities throughout Lebanese history, particularly after the adoption of the Taëf agreements at the end of the war (October 1989). The crisis of the Christians is therefore not so much a marginal question concerning only a specific and limited group, but a precursory sign of the recomposition going on in the political sphere in the Middle East.
The Practice of Soka Gakkai Buddhism
Authors: Hammond Phillip E , Machacek David W
Published: November 2023

WE have already described how chanting, study, and the goal of world peace through individual enlightenment are three main pillars of Sok.a Gakkai Buddhism. However, any religion as it is actually practiced and understood by the members themselves can vary considerably from what is officially prescribed. This chapter describes Sok.a Gakkai Buddhism as it is practiced and understood by the members who responded to the 1997 survey. We begin by classifying respondents according to their degree of involvement in SGI. Two dimensions of involvement —private and social —are identified and used to categorize respondents as core, general, or marginal members. As might be expected, the respondents’ understanding of their religion and their commitment to its practices vary with degree of involvement.
Encounter, Recruitment, and Conversion
Authors: Hammond Phillip E , Machacek David W
Published: November 2023

IN 1996, 1 out of every 8 respondents to the General Social Survey replied “none” when asked about their religious preference. This means that about 12 percent of all Americans are unchurched and, in a sense, potentially available for recruitment to a religious organization. In the last chapter, we learned that up to 24 percent of all Americans fit the “transmodern” value profile. Taken together, therefore, about 3 of every 100 people (12 percent x 24 percent) SGI-USA members encounter randomly in their daily lives are potential recruits to Sok.a Gakkai Buddhism.
Discretion and Control
Authors: Tomlinson Duncan Gallie Michael White Yuan Cheng Mark
Published: November 2023

On the evidence of the previous chapter, there were strong trends in the early 1990s for employees to gain increased discretion in their work. Does this mean more than a change in the way work is organized and carried out? Does it mean that employers are now prepared to trust their employees more than they did in the past, to permit them a greater degree of autonomy, and to rely primarily on the individual’s own commitment? Does this, in short, herald a transformation of the relationships between the employer and the employee, the manager and the subordinate? and the subordinate? Certainly, the late 1980s and early 1990s witnessed a transformation in the vocabulary of management.
The Flexible Workforce? The Employment Conditions of Part-Time and Temporary Workers
Authors: Tomlinson Duncan Gallie Michael White Yuan Cheng Mark
Published: November 2023

A central theme of the literature on the changing structure of employment has been the rapid expansion of a flexible or peripheral sector of the workforce. This is seen as a consequence of the greater competitiveness and volatility of advanced capitalist economies that resulted from the energy crises of the 1970s, the growth of competition from the cheaper labour economies of the third world, and the pressures of European integration. These changed economic conditions, it is argued, have led employers to abandon the relatively secure employment policies of the early post-war decades in favour of the construction of a two-tier workforce.1 With advanced technologies there is still a need for a core of skilled employees, with a high level of job security.
Employment Commitment and Job Expectations
Authors: Tomlinson Duncan Gallie Michael White Yuan Cheng Mark
Published: November 2023

Up to this point, we have been looking primarily at changes in the nature of work-in the work task, in forms of control, and in the level of job insecurity. In the final chapters of the book, we focus on employees’ responses to these changes. How did the trends towards higher skill levels, more pervasive control, and heightened insecurity affect people’s sense of satisfaction and involvement in the work they were doing? What were their implications for levels of work strain and psychological well-being? How did they affect employees’ sense of commitment to their organizations? The impact of changes in work is likely to depend, at least in part, on the centrality of work to people’s lives.
Chosen Peoples: Why Ethnic Groups Survive*
Authors: Smith Anthony D
Published: November 2023

The persistence of ethnic communities is a neglected area of research. The study of ethnies over long time-spans requires comparison of different pat-terns of ethnic survival, in terms of symbols and myths of ethnic election. Such myths can be found in the ancient Near East, in Judea, Greece, Armenia, Persia, as well as Byzantium, Russia and Western Europe, mobilizing and inspiring ethnic survival. Four main patterns of ethnic survival are outlined: imperial-dynastic, communal-demotic, emigrant-colonist and diaspora¬ restoration. In each case, modern nationalism reinforces and politicizes the old myths of ethnic election and its forms and intensity can be explained in terms of these patterns of ethnic survival.
National Identity and the Idea of European Unity*
Authors: Smith Anthony D
Published: November 2023

Since the project of European integration began, at issue has always been whether a European political identity could develop to underpin political unification. Is a genuine European identity possible? Anthony Smith takes up the question from the standpoint of his work on nationalism. Why is it that we are witnessing a revival of nationalism even as the globalizing trends of post-industrial society become clearer? Established cultures are essentially antithetical to the development of a cosmopolitan culture, he writes, which poses problems for a European identity. If this is to do more than coexist weakly alongside national and subnational identities, it may come at a dangerous price-only if Europe defines itself exclusively against other world actors.
Pluralism and Religion: USA and Britain
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

HAVING outlined the rational choice approach and made some critical comments, I would now like to look closely at the evidence for it presented by its exponents. In this chapter I will consider what is known about the effects of diversity on religious vitality in the USA, Canada, Australia, and Britain. The focus of the next chapter will be the European situation.
Theories of Managerial Action and their Impact on the Conceptualization of Executive Careers
Authors: Alvarez Jose Luis
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I intend to show how the diffusion of new organizational forms makes theories of action a fruitful perspective to address the challenges presented by the careers of executives in contemporary organizations. The chapter has affinities with Weick’s (1996) argument that trends towards the softening and fragmentation of organizational structures favor the impact on social systems of enactment attempts by career actors. In other words, in the absence or lesser salience of external cues provided by strong, hierarchical structures, such as clear lines of command or detailed instructions for performance, actors such as managers ought to rely more on internal guides. Psychological dispositions will be more important than external organizationall scripts.
Living Lives of Change: Examining Facets of Women Managers’ Career Stories
Authors: Marshall Judi
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I shall explore various facets of women managers’ career stories. I shall reflect on senior women managers’ career patterns and decision making by examining content themes that appear in the stories of women who have experienced significant career transitions or reviews. I shall also look at what forms these accounts took and aspects of how they were told. I am working critically with an interest in narrative. There is currently abundant attention to the notions of narrative and story and their relevance to researching people’s lives (e.g. Rosenwald and Ochberg 1992; Mumby 1993; Lincoln and Denzin 1994; Lincoln 1997; Denzin 1997). Understanding narratives as constructions of truth generated through complex, active (individual, interpersonal, and social) processes of sensemaking, self-presentation, and interpretation is seen by many as a pathway beyond the social realism we can no longer claim in our research (Lincoln and Denzin 1994). I approve this general direction, but am also concerned that working with narrative can become as conventionalized and stylized as any other form of inquiry.
Introduction
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

Deregulation will not necessarily lead to increased competition across all Japanese industries. Rather, as Japan’s postwar industrial policy regime crumbles and the regulating ministries become less potent, many industries rely more than ever on the practice of “self-regulation” (jishu kisei)—using trade associations to enforce trade rules and market controls. As argued here, “post-developmental” Japan will be characterized by increasing self-regulation through trade associations. As a result of self-regulation, many markets will remain as restricted as they are today, but this restriction will be based more on trade practices established by trade associations and less on government intervention in the marketplace. Thus, the demise of ministerial regulatory power and the process of deregulation are unlikely to have a positive impact on Japan’s trade relations with other nations, because most associations remain exclusive in nature. Many Japanese industries will continue to use their domestic markets as profit sanctuaries.
Japan’s Trade Associations in the 1990s
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

To understand fully why self-regulation is so important and how it is administered, it is necessary to take an in-depth look at the structure and function of Japan’s trade associations. This chapter outlines how many trade associations there are in Japan, how large they are, how they are organized, and what they do. The Japanese Fair Trade Commission defines a trade association (jigyosha dantai) as “a combination (or federation of combinations) of two or more firms that has as one of its principal purposes the furtherance of common business interests” (JFTC 1995: 7). The definition’s focus on business interests excludes scientific societies, public service organizations, and religious organizations from this group.
Antitrust Policy and Industrial Policy in the Postwar Period
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

The economic development of Japan in the postwar years can be divided into three major parts: the period of “rapid growth” (1955-72), the period of “moderate, stable growth” (1977-87), and the “bubble and post-bubble recession” (1987-97). The goals of economic policy and the ways in which these policies were implemented changed significantly during these phases. Moreover, while antitrust policy was clearly trumped by the goals of industrial policy between 1955 and 1975, the “oil shock” of the early 1970s and the subsequent revision of the Antimonopoly Law in 1977 gave the Japan Fair Trade Commission (JFTC)1 more power to object to MITI-sponsored cartels. Yet, even in the 1990s the JFTC was not an independent, strong antitrust watchdog. To understand how the forces between the industrial ministries and the JFTC played out in the 1990s and how these developments influenced industry self-regulation, it is important to examine the background of the current situation.
Self-Regulation and the Antimonopoly Law
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

The political prerogatives established by industrial policy and the national effort to “catch up” have limited the political standing and independence of Japan’s Fair Trade Commission (JFTC) over time. In addition to the political constraints, the JFTC’s power to enforce antitrust policy is also constrained by the wording of the Antimonopoly Law (AML) itself, and the interpretation and processes of implementation that developed around the law during the postwar period. By explaining the logic of the Japanese antitrust system, this chapter shows how and why existing legal doctrine makes it difficult for the JFTC to prosecute anti-competitive behavior, in particular regarding the multifaceted activities of self-regulation. While protective self-regulation aims at closing markets and restraining competition, and is thus largely outlawed by the antitrust law, many parts of administrative self-regulation, too, can easily result in entry barriers or other restrictions of exchange. Thus, even the rule-making activities of trade associations sometimes entail boycotts, refusals to deal with nonmembers and similar market constraints. Antitrust law calls such market restrictions “unfair trade practices”, and while they are outlawed in Japan, these practices have not been prosecuted stridently.
The Evidence—Antitrust Enforcement and Self-Regulation in Postwar Japan
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

In November 1991, Japan’s Fair Trade Commission announced that it would launch a criminal investigation into the behavior of the eight vinyl wrap companies, given their repeated violations of the antitrust law. At the time, Denka had a market share of less than 10% and was involved in a battle with Nihon Carbide and Riken Vinyl for the Number 4 position in the industry. A price fixing agreement was therefore disadvantageous to the company, and many wondered why Denka’s “prudent” managers would allow themselves to get wrapped up in this cartel at a time when collusion was detrimental.
Data Analysis: Trade Associations and Self-Regulation
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

While the case studies have suggested that self-regulation is widespread and that antitrust policy is less than effective in stopping its increase, there remains a question about how prevalent such activities are, and how industries differ in the extent to which they self-regulate. If differences exist, what explains them? More important, are there predictors of self-regulation that help us determine, for example, which industries are most likely to be strongly cooperative? Understanding predictors of self-regulation also permits us to forecast the likely effects of changes in the overall economic situation or in organizational stucture on an association’s activities. For instance, how is self-regulation affected if an industry agrees on standardized product characteristics? And are there organizational features of trade associations that support self-regulation and can thus be used as identifiers of such activities? The policy implications of these findings are obvious: being able to predict the degree of self-regulation in an industry using trade association data offers a new way of gauging how closed a certain product market is, and how effective it would be to push for market opening, either as a competitor or through political means. Foreign firms that want to enter Japan’s markets may find it useful to analyze the existing situation of self-regulation prior to making substantial investments.
The Implications
Authors: Schaede Ulrike
Published: November 2023

Japan’s system of political economy and regulation is unlikely to converge with the U.S. system, at least in the medium run, because changes brought about by deregulation are not leading to the adoption of a more transparent, accessible system. Instead, the supposedly market-opening effects of deregulation are being offset by increasing self-regulation through trade associations. Self-regulation refers to a system whereby the leading firms of an industry, through their association, design the rules of trade for their industry and enforce these rules through self-designed sanctions. The primary objectives of self-regulation are to “self-promote”, i.e., to increase firms’ competitiveness, or to “self-protect”, i.e., to shield an industry from competition. The resulting “cooperative system” in Japan is markedly different from the Anglo-Saxon market model as it allows incumbent firms to contain competition. It also deviates from continental European patterns where industry, while influential, has less power in the regulatory processes than in Japan.
The Cultural Consequences of Cults
Authors: Hammond Phillip E
Published: November 2023

The prospectus sent to participants in the conference on the future of new religious movements included the statement that we were ‘to anticipate what the future holds for these groups and, by extension, for American society as a whole’. Those highlighted words are the subject of this essay, the only essay in the originally published volume that blithely ignores the new religious movements (NRMs) themselves, so to speak, and instead speculates generally about the US in the twenty-first century in light of the fact that NRMs came on the scene during the final third of the twentieth.
Introduction
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel
Published: November 2023

There are many who consider that logic, as a branch of mathematics, has a some what special status that distinguishes it from all the others. Curiously, both its keenest adversaries and some of its most enthusiastic disciples concur with this conception which places logic near the margin of mathematics, at its border, 01 even outside it. For the first, logic does not belong to ‘real’ mathematics; the others, on the contrary, see it as the reigning discipline within mathematics, the one tha1 transcends all the others, that supports the grand structure.
Propositional calculus
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel
Published: November 2023

Propositional calculus is the study of the propositional connectives; these are operators on statements or on formulas. First of all there is negation, which we denote by the symbol − which is placed in front of a formula.
Boolean algebras
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel
Published: November 2023

When we identify logically equivalent formulas of the propositional calculus, we obtain a set on which, in a natural way, we can define a unary operation and two binary operations which correspond respectively to negation, to conjunction, and to disjunction. The structure obtained in this way is an example of a Boolean algebra. Another example of a Boolean algebra is provided by the set of subsets of a given set together with the operations of complementation, intersection, and union (which, by the way, are often called Boolean operations).
Growth And Fabrication Of Semiconductor Devices For Hot-Electron Research
Authors: Harris J J , Foxon C T
Published: November 2023

The performance of many electronic devices is influenced by, and in some cases dependent on, hot-electron effects. With the advent of highly controlled epitaxial deposition systems such as molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and metallorganic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE), coupled with the development of lithographic processes capable of submicron definition, not only has the realization of many novel device structures become possible, but the topic of hot-electron behaviour has been opened up to a wide variety of investigative techniques. Electronic devices can be thought of as being composed of basic building blocks such as p-n junctions, electrostatic or heterojunction barriers, carrier drift regions, etc., and the related hot-electron research has largely been concerned with studying electron (or hole) motion through, or light emission from, such structures. (Carrier heating by absorption of radiation has also been much studied, but will not be considered here.) Generation techniques for hot carriers can be broadly divided into two categories, (a) acceleration and drift under an applied electric field, and (b) carrier injection from a high-energy emitter into a low-energy region. Within these classifications, a range of semiconductor structures has been applied to the study of hot-electron effects, and this chapter will describe the basic concepts involved, the materials and growth methods used, the implications of the designs for the structural and electronic properties of the grown materials, and the fabrication techniques necessary to produce such structures.
Non-equilibrium phonons and instabilities in quantum wells
Authors: Balkan N
Published: November 2023

Instabilities associated with non-linear transport in semiconductors have been investigated from the beginning of transistor physics in the 1940s. See for a review Balkan et al. (1993). Hot-electron instabilities that occur as a result of any particular form of negative differential resistance (NDR) are discussed in detail by Ridley and Hess in Chapters 1 and 2, respectively, of this book. These instabilities are often associated with self-generated temporal current or oscillations, and self-organized spatiotemporal pattern formation like high-field domain formation, or more complex spatiotemporal dynamics. These are discussed by Scholl in Chapter 9.
Monte Carlo simulation of hot electrons in semiconductor devices
Authors: Jacoboni C , Abramo A , Brunetti* R
Published: November 2023

The Monte Carlo (MC) method is a very general mathematical tool for the solution of a large variety of problems (see e.g. Binder 1984). The techniques used by this method are based on the selection of random numbers according to given probability distributions. In its present form, the method was developed by Fermi, von Neumann, and Ulam, for the Manhattan project.
Basic Concepts Of High-Energy Electron Diffraction
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

The phenomenon of electron diffraction was discovered by Davisson and Germer (Davisson and Germer, 1927) in the USA and independently by Thomson and Reid (Thomson and Reid, 1927) in Scotland, who observed that electrons scattered by a crystal form an interference pattern similar to the pattern formed by light waves scattered by a diffraction grating. These observations provided the most convincing and straightforward test of the basic principles of wave mechanics, and the technique of electron diffraction has since undergone extensive development and found many fields of application. Among the diffraction methods commonly used in the analysis of crystal structures, which include X-ray, neutron and electron diffraction, the latter exhibits the highest level of sensitivity. Electrons interact with a solid between 100 to 1000 times more strongly than do X-rays or neutrons.
Dynamical Theory I. General Theory
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

Elastic scattering of high-energy electrons is described by the one-particle SchroÖ-dinger equation (1.17). This equation was derived using the Born–Oppenheimer approximation and the independent electron approximation. The Born–Oppen-heimer approximation states that it is possible to separate the degrees of freedom corresponding to the motion of electrons and ions in the material. Since the mass of an electron is about four orders of magnitude smaller than that of an ion, typical electron velocities are much higher than those of ions. Since ions move much more slowly than electrons, we can assume that at any moment of time the electron system remains in its ground state corresponding to the instantaneous positions of ions (see for example (Ashcroft and Mermin, 1976)). The coordinates of ions enter (1.17) as parameters determining the form of the potential energy term V (r) in this equation.
Dynamical Theory Iii. Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

In their pioneering experiments leading to the independent and simultaneous discovery with Thomson and Reid (Thomson and Reid, 1927) of the phenomenon of electron diffraction, Davisson and Germer (Davisson and Germer, 1927) used the reflection geometry of diffraction and investigated how the intensities of reflected beams vay as a function of the primary beam energy.
Resonance Effects In Transmission And Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

Resonance scattering of electrons is probably one of the most remarkable and fundamental phenomena known in electron diffraction. In its simplest manifestation resonance diffraction gives rise to a dramatic increase of the reflectivity of a flat crystal surface that occurs in a certain relatively narrow range of angles of incidence. A typical reflection electron diffraction pattern (of which Fig. 6.1 is an example), in addition to Bragg diffraction spots, also shows a system of intersecting parabolic and semi-circular Kikuchi lines. These lines are associated with resonance scattering of electrons. Both the shape of resonance Kikuchi lines and their brightness make them very distinct and unusual, and the reason why they appear in a diffraction pattern requires a careful and thorough examination. Understanding the nature of resonance effects also helps in interpreting a number of closely related phenomena: for example, the rapid variation of the cross-section of inelastic scattering of electrons observed in the vicinity of resonance conditions (Horio and Ichimiya, 1983, Marten and Meyer-Ehmsen, 1988, Spence and Kim, 1988, Horio, 1998).
Diffuse And Inelastic Scattering – Multiple Scattering Effects
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we showed that fluctuations of the crystal potential associated with thermal vibrations of atomic nuclei, randomly distributed lattice defects, and electronic excitations give rise to diffuse scattering of high-energy electrons. Using perturbation theory we derived an explicit expression for the amplitude of scattering of electrons by the fluctuation part of the potential. This expression takes into account the fact that the cross-section of diffuse scattering is affected by the presence of the average periodic potential of the crystal. Generalizing the approach developed in the previous chapter, we can now give a classification of processes of scattering that occur when a high-energy electron propagates through a thin crystalline specimen. Diffraction is the most important of these processes in the sense that it is observed even in the case where incident electrons are scattered by a very thin crystal. Diffraction is a coherent process and in order to evaluate the relevant amplitude of scattering it is sufficient to solve the SchrÖodinger equation describing the interaction of the high-energy electron with atoms forming the crystal lattice.