bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What Has Already Been Said about Federal Responses to State and Local Budget Crises?
Authors: Schleicher David
Published: April 2023

Chapter 1 reviews the literature on fiscal federalism and state budget crises. It argues that previous efforts mostly have focused on bailouts, either on the cost of the “moral hazard” that follows from federal bailouts, or, alternatively, on the benefits bailouts create by preventing state budget cuts during recessions. But the literature largely ignores the interest the federal government has in credit being available to states and cities. States and cities produce most infrastructure in the United States for structural political reasons. Federal policies have always tried to ensure they have the access to the credit they need to do it. During a state or local fiscal crisis, the federal government must answer other than whether to provide a bailout or not. If it does not provide a bailout, the government then has to decide whether creditors or state or local taxpayers should bear the cost, either through defaults or austerity. Defaults reduce the harm to the economy from budget cuts in the short-run, but make it harder for jurisdictions to borrow going forward. The chapter ends by laying out the fiscal federalism trilemma.
State Debt Crises through the 1840s
Authors: Schleicher David
Published: April 2023

Chapter 2 discusses two of the most well-known state fiscal crises in American History: the crisis created by Revolutionary War debt and the default by eight states and a territory after the Panic of 1837. In the 1790s, the federal government adopted Alexander Hamilton’s plan to assume state debts, propping up the economy but also encouraging lenders to support reckless state spending in the years that followed. In the 1840s, the federal government refused to assume state debts, leading to defaults. This policy reduced moral hazard, with states responding by adopting aggressive limits on future indebtedness, but it also meant states would and could not borrow to build infrastructure.
The Dual Debt Crises of the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Schleicher David
Published: April 2023

Chapter 3 discusses how the Supreme Court responded to two sets of state and local defaults in the second half of the 19th century. When hundreds of cities and counties defaulted on debts incurred to build railroads between 1860 and 1890, the Supreme Court stretched its powers to their limits to help creditors. This let bondholders enforce contracts in federal court and forced local governments to raise taxes and cut spending, even during massive recessions. In contrast, when white-dominated Southern states defaulted on debts incurred by mixed-race governments during Reconstruction, the Supreme Court radically reshaped its “sovereign immunity” doctrine, helping these states avoid their creditors. These decisions had predictable effects. Cities and counties that defaulted on railroad bonds had to engage in austerity, making economic problems and social services worse. But these cities and others were then able to borrow, allowing them to build crucial urban infrastructure during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some of which stands to this day. Southern states were spared the cost of repayment, providing short-term economic benefits. But their defaults meant they lost access to municipal bond markets, meaning they could not borrow to build critical infrastructure, harming their future economic growth.
COVID-19, the CARES Act, the MLF, and the ARP
Authors: Schleicher David
Published: April 2023

Chapter 6 discusses the federal government’s response to state and local fiscal problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. Topics covered include the size and economic impact of several major rounds of federal aid to states and cities, the potential effect state and local aid had in creating moral hazard, and the conditions put on federal aid. The chapter also discusses an innovation in this policy area during the pandemic response, the creation of the Federal Reserve’s Municipal Liquidity Facility. It shows the effect the Facility had on the bond market, analyzes why it was only used by two jurisdictions, and explains why it was structured in a more limited way than many political figures wanted.
Building Better Forms of State and Local Austerity
Authors: Schleicher David
Published: April 2023

Chapter 10 discusses how state austerity might be improved. While nothing can be said generally about what states or cities should cut from their budgets if they need to make cuts—each state and city is different—there are ways to make austerity less painful. For instance, the federal government could help administer a tax on a different tax base from the ones relied on by the federal government. The chapter also lays out a case for reforming state constitutional protections for public employee pensions.
Resilience, or Building a Better Federal System
Authors: Schleicher David
Published: April 2023

Chapter 11 discusses how to make the country more resilient against localized economic shocks. It argues in favor of relaxing land use and other regulations in rich regions in order to make inter-state mobility easier, particularly for the poor. This would make inevitable local economic crises somewhat less painful. The chapter also provides a tentative argument in favor of the income tax exemption for interest on municipal bonds as a way of avoiding “contagion,” or a situation where a default in one state or city leads to crises in many others. It also argues that the need for resilience against economic shocks provides an argument in favor of nationalizing some social welfare programs currently run on a “cooperative” basis.
Introduction
Authors: Kim Sungmoon
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces the concept of Confucian democratic constitutionalism and how it is inspired by and yet distinguished from both the premodern Confucian accounts of virtue politics and the modern discourses of Confucian constitutionalism explored by scholars such as Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong, Liang Qichao, and Liang Shuming. Unlike the old versions of Confucian constitutionalism, Confucian democratic constitutionalism does not attempt to reinstate Confucianism as the state religion or an official political idealism; recognizes pluralism as an undeniable sociological fact in contemporary East Asia; relies on the use of public reason that is embedded in Confucian values, mores, civilities, and moral sentiments; and promotes an active and institutionalized dialogue between the branches of government, especially between the legislature and the (constitutional) court in mediation of Confucian public reason. This chapter also addresses some of the key methodological problems in justifying Confucian public reason in pluralist East Asia.
Virtue, Dignity, and Constitutional Democracy
Authors: Kim Sungmoon
Published: April 2023

This chapter traces the recent bifurcation of Confucian political theorists into two competing camps (i.e., Confucian political meritocracy and Confucian democracy) to their differing accounts of human dignity in Confucianism: inegalitarian dignity as achievement and egalitarian dignity as moral potential. It argues that the inegalitarian account of dignity is fundamentally incompatible with the principle of “equal protection of rights before law,” and this renders the alternative egalitarian conception of human dignity a far more plausible normative foundation for contemporary Confucian political theory, making Confucian constitutional democracy the only legitimate institutional arrangement. After thoroughly investigating Mencius’s and Xunzi’s accounts of human dignity, finally, it establishes two foundational rights of Confucian democratic constitutionalism—the equal right to political participation and the equal right to protection of constitutional rights—and present them as the underlying normative values of the dignity of legislation and the authority of the (constitutional) court, respectively.
Beyond the Pluralism Dilemma
Authors: Kim Sungmoon
Published: April 2023

This chapter defends Confucian democracy against the liberal critics who believe any attempt to justify Confucian democracy inevitably confronts a dilemma: that between its embrace of pluralism and its perfectionist promotion of Confucianism. It proceeds by pointing out how the liberal critics’ Rawls-inspired understanding of comprehensive doctrine fails to note the important practical distinction between partial and full comprehensive doctrines, how their formal distinction between “Confucian citizens” and “non-Confucians” with regard to the justifiability of Confucian democracy is misguided, and why their charge of oppression of or discrimination against non-Confucians is overstated. It argues that much of the liberal critics’ concern about Confucian democracy can be addressed in a satisfying way if Confucian democracy takes the form of constitutional democracy. In making this argument, this chapter pays special attention to the “horizontal view” of partially comprehensive Confucianism, which highlights the ceaseless communication between civic Confucianism and non-Confucian comprehensive doctrines.
Conclusion
Authors: Kim Sungmoon
Published: April 2023

This concluding chapter highlights the intellectual connection between Liang Qichao’s seminal idea of Confucian constitutionalism and Confucian democratic constitutionalism, at the heart of which lies the mutually constitutive relation between democratic self-government and the constitutional protection of rights. By paying renewed attention to Liang’s constitutional vision for the people’s self-government and rule of law, it challenges Confucian meritocrats who reject the ideal of democratic self-government and place rule of law beyond the reach of the people’s active political participation. It argues that given the social, cultural, and political context in which contemporary East Asians find themselves, it is too early to move beyond the early twentieth-century constitutional vision for rule by the people. Rather, what is needed is to reinvent the modern ideal of Confucian constitutionalism in a way that can better realize the ideal of democratic self-government under the pressing challenges of values pluralism and moral disagreement.
Body, Mind, and Spirit in Early Chinese Medicine
Authors: Raphals Lisa
Published: April 2023

Chinese medical texts, especially those from the tradition of the Huangdi neijing (Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine), provide an important counterpoint to philosophical debates about the relation of body and mind in early China and in particular to the understanding of the heart–mind (xin 心), since medical texts must address the role of the xin-heart as one of the visceral systems. This chapter surveys accounts of both “mind” and “spirit” (shén 神) in the Huangdi neijing 黃帝內經 and proposes a view of a person in which cognitive and affective faculties are decentralized and corporeal, rather than being centered in the mind.
Conclusions
Authors: Raphals Lisa
Published: April 2023

The Conclusions chapter surveys the arguments of the book, which link treatments of the body and embodiment to accounts of the heart–mind and self-cultivation. They offer new perspectives on mind–body dualism and suggest a tripartite structure of the person, in which the heart–mind and spirit are distinct capacities and do not align in a dualist manner. The spirit-centered texts treated here present compelling evidence that the heart–mind and spirit cannot be reduced to a dualist relation to the body, which itself is complex and multivocal. An alternative is a more nuanced position that recognizes some degree of dualism as fundamental but does not reduce understandings of personhood, cognition, and the like to it. Three brief examples of some implications of this inquiry are presented in three areas: a reconsideration of the categories of inner and outer; questions of the persistence of personal identity; and embodiment.
Tiffany’s
Authors: Barrios Richard
Published: April 2023

Now a full-fledged star, Monroe was cast in one of her defining roles: Lorelei Lee in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. As directed by Howard Hawks and choreographed by Jack Cole, Monroe and Jane Russell shone in both the comedic and the musical sequences. With “Diamonds Are a GIrl’s Best Friend,” Monroe moved from star to icon. Fox quickly put her in another high-profile role in the CinemaScope comedy How to Marry a Millionaire, and again she proved herself a deft performer as well as a magnetic screen presence. She closed out the triumphant year of 1953 with her only “dramatic” television appearance, in a sketch on The Jack Benny Program.
Thinking Like a Physical Organic Chemist
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

Physical organic chemists’ thinking revolutionized organic chemistry. Their model of the reaction mechanism completely changed how all organic chemists approached the identification and synthesis of new molecules. Classic physical organic chemistry experiments and their interpretation are presented in a way to display their exquisite design and philosophy. The emphasis is on how organic chemists construct models to predict the world of organic chemistry. The book helps the student in an organic chemistry class create their own chemical intuition. For the nonspecialist, the book generalizes the logic of physical organic chemistry so that these concepts can be utilized in other disciplines.
Interlude
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses some fundamentals of science. Scientists use pattern recognition to create categories. These categories help define models an alternative term to theory, which allow scientists to make broad statements and predictions. Models are judged by testing and probing, especially at the models’ edges. A key element of model building is invoke beauty and symmetry.
The Making of American Buddhism
Authors: Mitchell Scott A.
Published: April 2023

The Making of American Buddhism tells the story of how Japanese Americans in the 1950s made possible American Buddhism. Using the Berkeley Bussei, a Buddhist magazine published from 1939 to 1960, as a case study, the book demonstrates how Japanese American Buddhists argued that Buddhism was both what made them good Americans and what they had to contribute to America—a rational and scientific religion of peace. Such rhetorical constructions of Buddhist modernism were common at midcentury, and this study centers American Jōdo Shinshū Buddhists in this history. Boldly claiming an American Buddhist identity, even in the face of racial and religious discrimination, they created communities, published magazines, and hosted scholarly conventions and translation projects. In short, Nisei Buddhists built religious infrastructure. Without this infrastructure, the Buddhist modernists and Beat Generation writers who are often credited with popularizing Buddhism in the later twentieth century would not have had places to publish their ideas and communities in which to learn Buddhist practice. D. T. Suzuki, Alan Watts, Jack Kerouac, and Gary Snyder, all of whom make appearances in the Berkeley Bussei, were supported by or connected to the Nisei Buddhist community. This book recenters their experiences and the unseen labor that ultimately made possible American Buddhism.
Breaking Ground
Authors: Spalding Rose J.
Published: April 2023

Natural resource extraction, once promoted by international lenders and governing elites as a promising development strategy, is beginning to hit a wall. After decades of landscape-gutting and community resistance, mine developers and their allies are facing new challenges. The outcomes of anti-mining mobilization have varied, as increased payments, episodic coercion, and international pressures have deflected production disruptions. But operational space is narrowing in the extractive sector, as evidenced by the growing adoption of mining bans, moratoria, suspensions, and standoffs. This book tells the story of how that happened. Using controlled comparison and historical analysis of gold mining in four country case studies, Breaking Ground argues that resource politics are shaped by the interaction of three elements: elite preferences, social movement networking, and state institutional permeability. Mapping the distinctive patterns found in each case study, this book develops an innovative theory of when anti-mining efforts are likely to fail and when they are likely to succeed. It examines mining conflict in new extraction zones and reactivated territories—places where “mining as destiny” is a contested idea—and challenges deterministic assumptions about the “commodities consensus” in Latin America. Expanding the analysis of resource governance to include divergent trajectories, this book traces movement not just toward but also away from extractivism. It explores how people living in targeted communities frame their concerns about the impacts of mining and organize to protect local voice and the environment. Then it unpacks the emerging array of policy responses, including those that turn away from the extraction model.
Mining Reform in Latin America
Authors: Spalding Rose J.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 7 reviews the mining policy trajectories examined in the four case studies, and distills the findings into four models of extractivist policy. It then takes up the question about how new international instruments, including bilaal investment treaties and free trade agreements, increase the penalties for states that back away from investor-friendly rules. Briefly summarizing the three arbitration cases filed with the World Bank’s International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) that challenged new mining restrictions in Central America, this chapter concludes that investor-state dispute settlement mechanisms complicate the adoption of mining restrictions in the post-neoliberal era but do not prevent their approval. In spite of these legal pressures, increased organizing around environmental concerns and the growing call for indigenous rights and community-level consultation have allowed mining reform movements to survive and regroup. Changes being made on multiple fronts suggest that the future of environmental governance will not simply replicate the past.
Introduction
Authors: Ho Christina S.
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces the main problem that the book identifies: the problem in US discourse of the de-normalization of the right to health and the functional consequence of that de-normalization in disadvantaging health interests when they conflict with competing values. The chapter sets out the overall plan of the book and explains how each chapter functions to advance the book’s purpose. It also positions the book’s argument in relation to four common myths that have heretofore stymied the argument for health rights in the United States: the documentary premise privileging only those rights mentioned expressly in the Constitution, the centering of courts over legislatures as rights-champions, the false binary of negative liberties versus affirmative rights, and the admittedly systemic character of key state duties in the health domain, which nevertheless should not be used to dismiss the important role of health rights. This chapter explains how these myths have been selectively used to marginalize arguments for a right to health, even as Lochnerian rights have long garnered recognition. The chapter concludes by providing a working definition of the right to health consistent with Norm Daniels’s usage of the term, one which emphasizes the continuities between the right to health and the right to healthcare.
Epilogue
Authors: Ho Christina S.
Published: April 2023

This chapter concludes the book with a few words situating the project relative to the problems and temper of the current times. It opposes the book’s project to the rival project of infusing Lochnerian content of an economic libertarian cast throughout the US legal system without basis in positive law. The chapter also serves as a call to readers insofar as the false necessity of the neo-Lochnerian project and the false condemnation of the health rights project as impossible are self-fulfilling. The project of a right to the health in the United States requires belief in its own possibility, in other words, a normalization of the right to health project so that there is energy and room to invest in greater realization.
Frame Setters and Microvariation of Subject-Initial Verb Second
Authors: Greco Ciro , Haegeman Liliane
Published: April 2023

The chapter focuses on V3 patterns in West Flemish in which a subject-initial noninverted V2 clause is preceded by an adverbial adjunct which modifies temporal or modal coordinates of the associated clause, in apparent violation of the V2 constraint. The pattern is not available in many other varieties of Dutch, including Standard Dutch. The chapter summarizes the main distributional and interpretive properties of the initial constituent, focusing among other things on the fact that for its interpretation, the initial adjunct cannot be reconstructed to a clause internal position. Based on the distributional and interpretive properties of the initial constituent, it is argued that these V3 patterns are in line with V2 syntax because the initial constituent is extrasentential. The chapter develops the discourse syntax for main clause external constituents.
Why Is It So? An Analysis of the V3 Cases aftersíin Old Italian
Authors: Poletto Cecilia
Published: April 2023

In this chapter, I analyze specific sets of V3 where the second constituent is the adverb sí “so” in Old Italian. This construction is used as a picklock to show that the type of V2 phenomenology found in this language is peculiar. Old Italian V2 is different from what has been assumed in the literature for Germanic, since it appears to obey pragmatic restrictions in addition to the well-studied syntactic ones. In order to show this, I analyze sí has a deictic component, as its etymological source suggests. As such, it can function as a resumptive adverb for scene-setting elements, in particular temporal and consecutive embedded clauses.
Frank Buckland (1826–1880) and Henry Parry Liddon (1829–1890)
Authors: James Serenhedd
Published: April 2023

When Frank Buckland went up to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1844, he took his animals with him; his later adult expertise made him the most sought-after authority on zoology of his age. Drawing on contemporary literature and archival material, this chapter examines the possible influence of Buckland and his famous menagerie on his peers, particularly on Henry Parry Liddon—a member of the then-emerging Anglo-Catholic party within the Church of England—and by extension on Lewis Carroll and his anthropomorphic literary themes. In Liddon’s opposition to vivisection at Oxford in Convocation in 1885 it is possible to trace the influence of the youthful pleasure of the company of Buckland’s creatures; in turn, both he and Carroll have silently influenced many for whom the debate on vivisection at Oxford stands as an early touchstone of engagement with the issue of animal experimentation within the academy.
Incubating Communism in the Netherlands East Indies
Authors: Hongxuan Lin
Published: April 2023

This chapter explores how both Islam and Communism motivated participants in the 1926–27 uprisings against Dutch rule. It identifies the conditions facilitating the admixture of Islamic and Communist ideas that moved ordinary folk to risk their lives, and explains why these ideas were so potent. Working backward from the uprisings, it examines numerous vernacular newspapers that explicitly theorized compatibility between Islam and Communism. Two newspapers in particular, Djago! Djago! and Pemandangan Islam, showcase the sophistication of Islamic Communist discourse. This chapter then examines the PKI’s engagement with Islam, paying special attention to the discursive contributions of women. It ends with an analysis of two anticolonial novels authored by Communists with clear Islamic sensibilities. Holistically, it highlights various modalities of conciliation between Islam and Communism, their sophistry and appeal, and the historical conditions that made conciliation possible.
A Critical Ummah, a Conscious Proletariat
Authors: Hongxuan Lin
Published: April 2023

During the parliamentary democracy period (1950–59), Indonesians were deeply invested in the idea of cultivating an Indonesian national community that would organically develop its own way forward in an uncertain postwar world. Their desires for a “critical” ummah or a “conscious” proletariat militated against blindly accepting whatever the local Imam said in the mosque on Friday, or uncritically believing whatever Pravda printed. Instead, the discursive climate of parliamentary democracy encouraged intellectual independence and inquiry, allowing pious Muslims to explore and selectively incorporate Marxist ideas, while also allowing avowed Marxists to formulate distinctly Indonesian approaches to socialism. This chapter examines confluences of Islam and Marxism both within and without parliament, among the republican elite and the nascent middle class, and in fiction as well as reality. Sources used include books published by Masjumi parliamentarians, transcripts of debates held in the Constitutional Assembly, memoirs of pious Communists, newspapers affiliated with minor Marxist parties and civil society organizations, as well as 1950s Islamic poetry and leftist arts magazines.
Ideal Theory: What It Was
Authors: Schmidtz David
Published: April 2023

Philosophers and political theorists recently have had a common project: to reflect on the merits of realism and idealism in political theory. No one opposes being realistic or idealistic per se. The serious question is, what would make one attempt to articulate ideals better than another? Let’s say realism studies the human condition as it is, while idealism studies the human condition as it could be. Thus described, realism and idealism are compatible. No one objects to studying the human condition—as it is or as it could be. What divides scholars is not whether to theorize about ideals, but how to do it competently.
Navigating the Terrain of Reasons
Authors: Schmidtz David
Published: April 2023

There are reasons for doubting the validity of what the author called “The Argument” that ends are reasons for the actions that serve them. Some are more cogent than other others. For example, consider that beliefs about means—end relations are sometimes not merely mistaken but seemingly crazy. Bill believes he has inherited the fortune of a foreign prince he never heard of; all he needs to do is to give his credit card information to an internet stranger. Does Bill have a reason to give a stranger access to his credit card? The author considers, in turn, problems posed by immoral ends, crazy ends, overridden ends, underdescribed ends, mistaken beliefs, and the selection of means to ends that serve the end well enough even though better means were available.
Ecological Justice
Authors: Schmidtz David
Published: April 2023

Humanity lives in a sea of politics as fish live in water. The human ecological niche is inherently political. That people decide for themselves (and, therefore, cooperating requires negotiation) is a political fact. People share an interest in avoiding collision but otherwise have destinations of their own. Justice, even as an ideal, is never about pretending otherwise. Since people began to settle in large communities, being of one mind has not been an option. Even diverse ideas about how to resolve conflict are a source of conflict. And, disturbing though it may be for a theorist to admit it, theories do not help. It is a political fact that everyone lives among people who have theories of their own, who do not find each other’s theories compelling, and who are perfectly aware that there is no reason why they should.
Toward a Realist Morality
Authors: Schmidtz David
Published: April 2023

Plato had a conception of justice somewhat unlike ours. While justice was about what people are due, it also was a properly functional relation of parts to a whole. Justice within a person was a matter of parts of a soul staying in their proper place. Justice within a polis was a matter of citizens minding their own business and tending to their proper roles within society. This conception may seem archaic now, yet it retains some resonance and Plato’s conception is recognizably as an ancestor of the present conception. No one is justly tasked with doing everything worth doing. Instead, in a thriving society, people develop specialties: plumbers have a job, teachers have a job, and the rest depend on them to internalize role-specific standards of excellence and integrity. In any case, for Plato, justice is a matter of people staying in their lanes.
Occupation without Exit #2
Authors: Pinfold Rob Geist
Published: April 2023

This chapter scrutinizes Israel’s non-withdrawal from the Golan Heights. The territory represents a paradox, in that it lacks the West Bank’s holy sites and multiple Israeli administrations have negotiated to return the territory to Syria. Yet Israel annexed the entire Golan in 1981, thereby operationalizing an intent to never leave the territory. Thus, Israeli policy in the Golan has been more intransigent and hard-line than any of the other cases examined here, including the West Bank. In explaining this research puzzle, this chapter demonstrates that Israel’s non-exit from the Golan is entirely rational. Compared to the cases of exit examined here, the international arena exerted demonstrably less pro-withdrawal pressure. Within the bilateral arena, neither Israel nor Syria felt the status quo was particularly costly or a withdrawal’s benefits particularly high. Correspondingly, domestic opinion remained hard-line, with the lack of a pro-withdrawal majority exerting critical agency in averting an Israeli withdrawal.
Background 1
Authors: Stein Nathanael
Published: April 2023

Desiderata for a theory of causality are extracted from Aristotle’s criticisms of his predecessors’ views. These are varied, and many of them have to do with the kinds of appearance/reality distinctions he thinks they draw. A common source of many of the defects he sees in their views is what we may call explanatory reductionism, which assumes that any legitimate causal explanation must somehow appeal to a special metaphysics, typically in the form of a special ontology and a privileged relationship to such an ontology. Aristotle thinks that this kind of reductionism does not yield the kind of explanatory power its proponents think it does, and that the entities and relationships they posit are not metaphysically adequate to ground the phenomena.
Causes, Kinds, and Transformations
Authors: Stein Nathanael
Published: April 2023

Aristotle does not specify a category for causes and effects, but his theory of categories allows him to frame a relatively compact range of phenomena that are subject to intrinsic causal explanation, which we can label Transformations, Beings, and Activities. He distinguishes between pre-theoretical and theoretical definitions for a wide range of explananda, and the theoretical definitions are to be framed in terms of causes. This is made clear by examining the two different discussions of change, one in Physics book III and one in Physics book V. The book V discussion deals with change in a pre-theoretical way, and it shows how they are to be given pre-theoretical definitions. The book III discussion deals with change using the concepts of natural science, and it shows how to give theoretical definitions of changes. Aristotle follows precisely this model in other works such as the Meteorology.
Liberal Freedom Is Not the Issue
Authors: Hussein Waheed
Published: April 2023

Chapter 2 develops and defends the “institutional perspective,” as a way of thinking about markets, distinguishing it from questions about liberal freedom, private property, and other broadly Lockean accounts of the nature of economic power. It explains the ways in which a market is to be understood as an institution, showing that market processes are the exercise by individuals of institutionally conferred powers, and explains the relation between such institutional powers and the protection of basic liberties that are fundamental to the moral assessment of social institutions. Some of the institutionally defined powers that citizens exercise in a market society are constitutive of the basic liberties. As such, economic institutions must incorporate certain features, such as the powers of personal property and certain forms of authority with regard to purchasing decisions. But once the basic liberties have been secured, economic institutions in a modern liberal democracy must answer to a different justifying rationale. Once personal property and the types of property that are central to financial markets are distinguished in this way, the importance of personal property to liberty does not provide a compelling argument in favor of an unrestricted role for markets. It introduces and defends the “indifference thesis” according to which the requirements of freedom do not dictate specific economic arraignments.
Social Coordination through a Dynamical System
Authors: Hussein Waheed
Published: April 2023

Chapter 3 discusses the idea that an advanced market economy is a coordination mechanism. When members of a political community adhere to the requirements of the arrangement, their production activities and consumption activities form a dynamical system, one that constantly adjusts and readjusts to changing circumstances in order to maintain a pattern that is economically efficient (i.e., Pareto optimal). The process of adjustment works through prices, which constantly change the option sets open to individuals so as to draw them into efficient patterns. But these changing option sets draw individuals into patterns of activity in a way that bypasses their private judgments about the merits of these patterns.
Authoritarianism in a Coordination Mechanism
Authors: Hussein Waheed
Published: April 2023

Chapter 4 discusses the idea that the changing option sets generated by market processes draw individuals into patterns in a way that bypasses their private judgments about the merits of these patterns. The chapter explains why this judgment-bypassing process raises three distinctive moral problems: First, there is a lack of reason sensitivity, because people are channeled into activities contrary to their own reasons. Second, it violates the requirement of transparency, because nobody is in a position to understand the reasons that they are being directed in particular ways. Third, it undermines the trustworthiness of market arrangements, because participants in them have no reason to expect that they will be directed in appropriate ways. Together, these make the process objectionably authoritarian, even in the absence of a central planner directing everyone’s activities.
Reason Sensitivity, Transparency, and Trustworthiness
Authors: Hussein Waheed
Published: April 2023

Chapter 5 discusses the main problems that arise from the market as a judgment-bypassing mechanism and explains how each problem relates to failures of reciprocal respect between free and equal citizens. After outlining a Kantian conception of freedom and equality, it argues that the only way a coordination mechanism can express that conception is if it meets the requirements of reason-sensitivity, transparency, and trustworthiness for each participant. The chapter concludes by returning to the similarities and differences between market and traffic mechanisms as systems of coordination.
Does a Liberal Market Democracy Satisfy the Anti-Authoritarian Ideal?
Authors: Hussein Waheed
Published: April 2023

Chapter 6 assesses one type of social coordination mechanism—an advanced market economy—in terms of the anti-authoritarian ideal set out in chapters 4 and 5. It explains why an advanced market economy is not able to satisfy the requirements of reason sensitivity, transparency, and trustworthiness as a stand-alone mechanism. Moreover, even if a liberal market democracy embeds an advanced market economy in a more complex system, including both regulatory process and legislative process to address other concerns, it remains unable to satisfy the three requirements. This chapter summarizes the arguments of chapters 3–5 and argues that a liberal market democracy must supplement the regulatory process and democratic legislative process with social governance mechanisms that go the rest of the way toward satisfying the three requirements.
The Dynamical View of Business Corporations
Authors: Hussein Waheed
Published: April 2023

Chapter 7 addresses normative questions about the business corporation in light of the theory laid out in earlier chapters. Many theorists think of business corporations as stand-alone authority structures on the model of the state. Thinking of the corporation this way leads to an overly personal view of the moral subordination of individuals in an advanced market economy. Moral subordination in a market society is significantly subordination to this impersonal process. The “dynamical view” of the business corporation shows that corporations come together and break apart as part of the market coordination process the way that the price system maintains an efficient pattern of production and consumption in society. The right way to structure a market economy focuses on the internal authority structure of business corporations and various features of corporate law as parts of a wider coordination mechanism that must satisfy the requirements of reason sensitivity, transparency, and trustworthiness.
Consciousness Reflects the Mind, the Mind Reflects Consciousness
Authors: Shevchenko Dimitry
Published: April 2023

This chapter explores the philosophical traditions of Sāṃkhya and Yoga, which developed a notion of mirror reflection to explain the illusory interaction between consciousness and the mind, regarded as ontologically distinct entities. These two schools made an implicit connection between mental representation of external objects by the mind and mental representation of consciousness. The chapter discusses early theories of external objects reflected in the mind, consciousness reflected in the mind, and the mind reflected in consciousness. It also sheds new light on the later Vācaspati Miśra’s (tenth-century) theory of reflection of consciousness in the mind and Vijñānabhikṣu’s (sixteenth-century) theory of mutual reflection of consciousness in the mind and then back in consciousness. Finally, it engages, for the first time, with the philosophically creative, but little-known interpretation of theories of reflection in Sāṃkhya and Yoga by Krishna Chandra Bhattacharyya.
One Consciousness, Many Mirrors
Authors: Shevchenko Dimitry
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the non-dualist tradition of Advaita-Vedānta, which holds that the multiplicity of individual selves is nothing but reflections of one transcendent self. This school develops the notion of ahaṃkāra (the “I-maker”) as an entity supervenient upon the illusory identity between the mind and consciousness and mediating between the two. The chapter examines, for the first time, Śaṅkara’s (seventh to eighth centuries) non-dualist reinterpretation of the Sāṃkhya model of consciousness reflected in the mind, its development by Padmapāda (eighth to ninth centuries), with further elaborations by Prakāśātman (eleventh to twelfth centuries), as well as later developments (mirror models of one consciousness reinterpreted in terms of identity between the god and individual selves, reported by Appayya Dīkṣita in the sixteenth century). The texts composed by these philosophers, representing what came to be known as the Vivaraṇa sub-school of Advaita, have been seriously understudied to date.
Fear and Trembling
Authors: Miller Richard J.
Published: April 2023

Are animals conscious beings? How do their conscious states compare to those of humans, and how does this impact their usefulness as experimental models? Recent research has demonstrated that animals such as mice use complex facial expressions and sounds to communicate. Animals also show complex behaviors involving empathy and planning. Animals are clearly conscious, but their experiences are unique to the species in question. Animals are not just incomplete versions of humans. The specific nature of animal consciousness, like that of another human being, is difficult for us to comprehend. Current research has demonstrated that conscious processes and physiological/pathological states constantly interact with one another. Hence, animal specific consciousness makes them poor models for many human diseases. This has resulted in very poor returns when using animals to model human diseases.
I Want to Be Your Dog
Authors: Miller Richard J.
Published: April 2023

It is clear that humans have had close associations with animals, including pet keeping, which date back to antiquity. However, it wasn’t until the sixteenth century that the French philosopher Michel de Montaigne began to raise the issue as to the true nature of animal intelligence and the lack of human uniqueness. Subsequently, other writers such as Rousseau and Locke and artists such as Blake and Hogarth supported this idea. The first attempts to make cruelty to animals illegal took place in England at the start of the nineteenth century. Subsequently, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and several antivivisection societies were formed. Opposition to scientific research in particular began with the Brown Dog affair, when activists infiltrated medical school classes and disclosed what they had seen. This was followed by a series of demonstrations and counterdemonstrations launching the animal welfare movement in its modern form.
Ontic Injustice
Authors: Jenkins Katharine
Published: April 2023

This chapter identifies a distinctive form of injustice—ontic injustice—in which an individual is wronged by the very fact of being socially constructed as a member of a certain social kind. To be a member of a certain social kind is, at least in part, to be subject to certain social constraints and enablements, and these constraints and enablements can be wrongful to the individual who is subjected to them, in the sense that they inflict a moral injury. The chapter sets out the concept of ontic injustice, elaborates on the nature of the wrong involved, and highlights some benefits of adding the concept of ontic injustice to our philosophical toolkit.
Against the Ontology-First Approach to Gender Recognition
Authors: Jenkins Katharine
Published: April 2023

This chapter offers a response to the concern that in acknowledging the existence of some gender kinds that do not align with people’s gender identities, the account defended in earlier chapters is likely to have political effects that run counter to trans liberation in the current social context. It begins by identifying a widespread assumption to the effect that settling questions about the current ontology of gender kinds will automatically determine what shape our gendered social practices ought to take. This is the ‘Ontology-First approach’ to gender recognition. The chapter shows how the Ontology-First approach fuels disagreements about gender recognition and contributes to the perpetuation and amplification of transphobia, and it argues that the account defended in earlier chapters helps to dispel the Ontology-First approach. Overall, this suggests that the account of the ontology of gender kinds and of ontic oppression is conducive to trans liberation.
The Belle Époque: Railroads and Telegraphy
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 5 examines critical aspects of the period from 1860 to 1890. The chapter traces the impact of railroads, steamships, telegraphy, paper pulp, and the printing press on multiple aspects of society and the economy. It shows how the modern world at the turn of the nineteenth century was one in which people, goods, and ideas could be carried at previously unimaginable speeds, across large expanses of space—even oceans. Every part of social life was transformed, from media, to shopping, to trade and finance. Railroads, steamships, printing technologies, and the telegraph represented the triumphal spirit of the new age. Through them a new cult had taken shape, whose sacred pillars were modernization, progress, and expansionary growth.
The Turn Inward
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the rise of nativism and fascism in both periods. It shows how the left- and right-wing politicians were able to capitalize on escalating anti-immigration sentiment, angst over international terrorist violence, and fear of economic decline. Nativism became widespread in right-wing circles but also some segments on the left. These messages resonated especially with people not benefiting from the modern economy, whose standard of living was most in jeopardy—elites in the nineteenth century, and the Rust Belt in the twenty-first. Right-wing political leaders also fomented anger over broader changes in society. In both eras, political liberalism was gaining ground. Gender equality movements, such as women’s enfranchisement and gay marriage were particularly threatening. Right-wing politicians tapped into growing resentments over what was perceived as an assault on the traditional family and religion. Anti-liberal, anti-rationalist movements sprung up in both centuries; they were the early signs of fascism.
How Taxation Increases Accountability Demands
Authors: Martin Lucy E. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 3 introduces a new theory to explain why and how taxation increases the accountability pressures governments face. It argues that citizens expect to receive their earned income, and that taxation induces a sense of loss. Theories of loss aversion imply that, when individuals are below their reference point, their utility functions are more sensitive to changes. We should therefore expect that citizens care more about the level of public goods provided, and will be more upset if government misspends tax dollars. If citizens’ willingness to engage in political actions like voting or protesting is linked to this perception of losses and the negative emotions they can cause, then taxed citizens should be more likely than untaxed citizens to demand better performance from leaders, and to take action when dissatisfied. The chapter appendix presents the formal model on which the chapter is based.
Introduction
Authors: Owolabi Olukunle P.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 1 presents the core empirical questions that motivate this study: how did forced-settlement colonies, where European colonists established large-scale agricultural plantations with enslaved African labor, emerge from colonial rule with favorable development outcomes relative to colonies of occupation, where Europeans dominated indigenous nonwhite populations that predate the onset of Western overseas colonization? The chapter highlights the distinctive patterns of state-building and the liberal institutional reforms that facilitated the long-term development of forced-settlement colonies following the abolition of slavery in the New World. By contrast, European colonists established harsh and arbitrary “native legal codes” that undermined the legal rights and political agency of indigenous nonwhite colonial subjects following the abolition of slavery in the New World. This chapter presents the book’s core arguments, empirical results, and the research methodology that is used to measure and explain the favorable developmental legacies of forced settlement relative to colonial occupation across multiple colonial empires.