bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Language Change
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

This part of the monograph presents an assessment of the impact that language processing makes upon language change. The procedure will be the same as in the previous part. As before, the order of the individual sections is from phonological to higher levels. To begin with, the most basic issue will be addressed. If the germ of language change lies in the psycholinguistic principles underlying speaking and listening—if, in other words, the key to diachrony is to be found within synchrony —we should expect the patterns of language change to mirror the patterns in speakers’ and listeners’ spontaneous behaviour. By ‘patterns’ is meant not only the classificatory system that is considered appropriate to the description of the data but also the more specific characteristics that can be observed. The term’behaviour’ also requires explication. Since our interest is in the dynamics of change and since change involves the deviation from a norm, it is instructive to study deviant processing events, i.e. those outputs which do not conform to the current norm. From the production perspective, these deviations are referred to as slips of the tongue, from the perception perspective, as slips of the ear. These psycholinguistic data therefore provide the starting-point for the majority of the analyses to follow.
Discussion
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

It is now time to put together the results of the empirical work that lies behind us, to produce an overview. Overall, 45 major analyses have been performed (21 synchronic, 21 diachronic, and 3 poetic). These major analyses may be divided into 83 sub analyses (41 synchronic, 42 diachronic). (Subdivisions of the poetic sections were not made.) None of the major analyses failed completely. The psycholinguistic predictions were borne out either in part or totally. Of the sub analyses, 79 (92 per cent) matched the predictions while 7 (8 per cent) did not. Even without a precise null hypothesis, there is no question that the obtained results cannot be attributed to chance. The overwhelming majority of analyses strongly support the following main conclusion: The structure of language is shaped by the properties of the mechanism which puts it to use.This link between the processor and the final product allows us to take the former as an explanation of the latter. Language is the way it is because it satisfies processing constraints in probabilistic fashion. Psycholinguistics thus qualifies as one likely1 approach to the explanation of linguistic structure.
Implications for Psycholinguistic Theory
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: November 2023

Although the major thrust of this work is a linguistic one, it may not be off the mark to touch briefly upon the psycholinguistic significance of the empirical findings. This excursion is justified by the assumed interactivity between linguistic structure and language processing. It was argued in Chapter 3 that in order to derive the’best’ predictions it is essential to rely upon the ‘best’ psycholinguistic theory. Which theory is the’best’ is, of course, a matter of dispute. The standard method of seeking confirmation (or disconfirmation) of a scientific theory is to adduce arguments from the domain to which the theory appertains. For instance, a psycholinguistic theory is built upon psycholinguistic considerations. This methodology is perfectly acceptable; however, there is no reason not to extend the argumentative basis to areas beyond the home domain and in so doing, broaden the coverage of the theory. Linguistic findings may thus be used to adjudicate between alternative psycholinguistic theories. Clearly, one psycholinguistic theory is superior to another when the linguistic data are compatible with the one but incompatible with the other.
Linking Relationships: The Textural Semiotic
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we investigate the fourth and final semiotic, the textural semiotic, which groups together syntagmatic relationships which constitute signs of the linking type. We begin, in section 7.1, by discussing general attributes of these relationships, including their mediating role between grammar and discourse. Following this, section 7.2 discusses thematization, demonstrating how and why this phenomenon is best analysed as involving a linking relationship. Next, in section 7.3, we distinguish a class of clauses which are characterized by the fact that their only inherent grammatical relationship is a linking one (any other type of meaning they may exhibit is conveyed by lower ranking units), and which may thus be regarded as textural clauses. Sections 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7 discuss, respectively, four very important linking relationships, namely reference, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction. The final section of the chapter, section 7.8, discusses grammatical markers, including relators and category markers, these being linking items which function within the boundaries of grammatical units, specifying them as linguistic signs.
Grammar and Beyond
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

A fundamental assumption of SG, one which it shares with functional theories of language generally, is that grammar is not an autonomous system; it cannot be completely isolated in a module of its own, separate from other phenomena of human life. Interactions between what is internal to grammar and what is outside of it are multifarious and procede in both directions: from grammar outwards and from the outside world inwards. The internal organization of a language represents complex responses to the various functional needs which it serves, within the social, cognitive, and biological attributes of the human beings who speak it. At the same time, the internal organization oflanguage itself has various consequences to the ways it can be used, the uses to which it can be effectively put. For instance, its internal organization precludes its use as a vehicle for conveying instructions from a computer operating system to either the hardware or the software in a computer system.
The Nominal Strategy
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

Although predicate nominals are certainly not immune to takeover by the verbal or the locational strategy, they form a category which in many languages has its own encoding strategy. In such a case we will say that a language has a NOMINAL STRATEGY at its disposal. As it turns out, the nominal strategy manifests itself across languages in various different morphosyntactic ways. The forms which the nominal strategy may take will be explored in Sections 3.2-3.5. Following that, several explanatory issues regarding predicate nominal encoding can be formulated. In Section 3.7 I will develop the Principle of ldentity Pressure, which can be argued to provide an explanation of the unique typological characteristics of the nominal strategy.
Adjective-Switching
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the foregoing chapters we have concentrated on those languages in the sample which show consistency in their formal stratification of the domain of intransitive predication. These Single-Option Languages are confined to the selection of one single encoding pattern: each predicate category is either encoded by its prototypical strategy, or is taken over completely by some other strategy. However, as is shown by the frequency figures in Table (4.3), our sample also contains quite a few languages in which more than one encoding pattern is permitted. At first sight, this phenomenon of Pattern-Switching might be viewed as a ‘nuisance factor’, which blurs an otherwise clear picture. We will see, however, that pattern switching in itself constitutes a valuable body of data, which can be shown to be revealing as to the general principles which underlie the stratification of the domain.
Verb-Switching
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

The frequency figures for C-languages given in Table (4.3) indicate that complete takeover of event predicates is very rare. Thus, there are hardly any languages in which the prototypical strategy for verb encoding is lacking totally. In contrast, cases of Verb-Switching, in which the encoding of predicative verbs is taken over partially by some nonverbal strategy, are much more common. Examples of locational and nominal verb-switching will be given in Section 7.2 and Section 7.3. Locational V-switching in particular turns out to occur widely. However, I will argue that not all instances of V-switching are equally relevant or interesting from a typological point of view. Therefore, Appendix B lists only a narrow subset of cases of V-switching-namely, those which constitute an instance of Merging. This notion will be defined in Section 7.4, and instances of the merging phenomenon will be presented in Section 7.5 to Section 7.7.
Adjectives and the Tensedness Parameter
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

Within the domain of intransitive predication, adjectives form an in-between category in two respects. In the semantic ‘topography’ of the domain, adjectives constitute a transitory category between nouns and verbs, in that they occupy an intermediate position on the Time Stability Hierarchy. From the point of view of formal encoding, adjectives can be said to be ambivalent as well. As we have established in the chapters of Part One, predicative adjectives form the only category in the domain for which there does not seem to be a prototypical encoding strategy. Thus, a simple, non-supported, encoding strategy is prototypically associated with predicative verbs; a nonverbal zero strategy prototypically occurs with predicative nouns; predicative locationals typically have a full nonverbal encoding; but for adjectives, no such prototypical association with some encoding strategy can be established. In other words, predicative adjectives never have an encoding strategy which is unique to them.
Tensed Languages
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

As a first stage in the empirical validation of the tensedness universals, we will consider those languages in which the nouny status of predicative adjectives is undisputed. If the tensedness universals are to be taken seriously, we should be able to demonstrate that these languages are tensed. The set of languages at issue here can be identified as the B-languages. These are the languages in the sample which can be said to be strictly or radically nouny: their predicative adjectives are nonverbally (and, in the typical case, nominally) encoded and do not allow for a verbal-nonverbal switch.
Conclusion
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

This book explores the cross-linguistic variation in the structural encoding of the Domain of Intransitive Predication. This domain is defined as the set of non-embedded propositions which consist essentially of a one-place predicate and its argument; the typical linguistic reflection of such propositions is formed by intransitive main clauses. I assume that the domain can be seen as some ‘cognitive/ semantic space’, the topography of which is the same for all languages. Furthermore, I assume that the domain consists of four (non-discrete, and prototypically defined) subdomains, which correspond to a four-way distinction between the semantic classes of event predicates, property predicates, class predicates, and locational predicates; these four semantic predicate classes have their typical linguistic reflection in the lexical classes of verbs, predicate adjectives, predicate nominals, and predicatively used adverbials. In short, the data base of this study consists of the equivalents of English sentences such as given in (1) for each language of the sample:
Discovery
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Rapanui’s rongorongo inscriptions were to be first described to the outside world at their very demise, the honour of penning their obituary falling to the Frenchman Joseph-Eugène Eyraud (1820---68), Easter Island’s first known non-Rapanui resident (Fig. 3). From his Bolivian mining interests Eyraud had become moderately well-to-do and, emulating his missionary brother Father Jean Eyraud of China in wishing to dedicate his fortune and talents to the Congregation des Sacres-Coeurs (hereinafter SSCC), he eventually sailed on his own recognisance-legally independent of the SSCC-to Rapanui where from January till October of 1864 he tested the feasibility of an authorised Catholic mission to the island.
“How Can the Riddle Be Solved?”
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

If with the advent of the twentieth century a revolutionary breakthrough in the decipherment of Easter Island’s classical script had been anticipated, then one was to be sorely disappointed. If anything, there still prevailed the two unproductive methods of approach to rongorongo: the gathering of informant information and the survey of possible cognate scripts. It would not be for another half century until trained epigraphers would begin to appreciate the full possibilities of an internal analysis of the elusive Easter Island script.
Formal Models of Syntactic Discontinuity
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I review a number of proposals that offer alternatives to the traditional view on the relationship between syntactic structure and surface order. The first is Pullum and Zwicky’s notion of ‘liberation’, which extends the expressive power of ID/LP grammars to allow for a greater degree of ordering variability and/or ordering relations among nonsisters. A research tradition that shares much of the intuitions is that of ‘tangled tree’ analyses, in which the usual relationship between dominance and precedence in terms of tree representations has been relaxed. Most central to the framework that will be developed in this study are the proposals by Dowty and Reape, who posit a more radical break between the combinatorial structure of a constituent on the one hand and its linear organization on the other.
Complementizers and Verb Placement
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

In much of the discussion of German clausal syntax, a close relation is assumed between the two types of root patterns, Vl and V2. I will first concentrate on the issue of verb placement, in particular its relationship with the positional properties of complementizers, and return to the issue of pre-verbal constituents in the next chapter.

Among the different approaches to verb placement, two general families can be distinguished. The first involves some kind of verb dislocation mechanism, be it in the form of head movement or the passing of gap information, while the second denies the existence of any filler-gap linkage and instead treats verb placement by means of variation in linear precedence relations alone.38
Sentence Type Determination
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

Much of the content of contemporary syntax concerns itself with issues of combinatorial well-formedness. There are, in fact, quite a few corners of syntax where this is all that one has to concern oneself with. For a cate gory such as noun phrase, the rules and principles governing its internal composition determine its grammaticality status completely. Typically, a well-formed phrase exhibits only a limited amount of interaction with its external syntactic environment. In the case of NPs, only morphosyntactic properties such as case and agreement features can limit the occurrence in certain environments if we ignore semantic anomaly here. Crucially, we do not find NPs whose internal syntax is significantly different depending on their occurrence as subjects vs. objects.

It may be for this reason that it is often assumed that the internal properties of clauses are sufficient to describe their status with respect to external distribution and/or interpretive potential. But, as I argue in this chapter, such a view forces a variety of undesirable consequences upon us, which all can be avoided if instead we view the well-formedness of clausal structures in terms of an interplay between combinatorial (internal, bottom-up) constraints and constructional (external, top-down) licensing statements.
OED and the Earlier History of English
Authors: Stanley Eric
Published: November 2023

The Oxford English Dictionary, abbreviated OED, is the title by which the book that forms the subject of this volume of studies has been known throughout the twentieth century, though it appeared on its spines and title-pages only in the twelve-volume reprint ofi933 (see also Chapter 1, note 1). Burchfield (1972-86: i, s.v. O) has as the earliest use of the abbreviation OED a quotation from E. E. Morris’s Austral English (1898). The scene for the new name was set by the loyal dedication prefixed to the third volume of the dictionary: ‘To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty this Historical Dictionary of the English Language is by Her Gracious Permission Dutifully Dedicated by the University of Oxford A.D. MDCCC XCVII.’ The lexicographers’ and the University’s pride in a great undertaking of Queen Victoria’s reign is evident in that dedication, and it is fully justified by its lexicological planning and lexicographical and typographical execution, clearly to be seen already in the words from A to E that had been published, not quite in alphabetical order, in the fascicles issued by July 1897.
Pronunciation in the OED
Authors: Macmahon Michael k. C
Published: November 2023

The decision to include pronunciation in the dictionary came about almost by accident. Richard Chenevix Trench, in his paper to the Philological Society in 1857, ‘Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries’, had not even broached the question (Trench 1860: 5); nor had the official Proposal for the Publication of a New English Dictionary by the Philological Society of 1859. The first formal mention of it—perhaps as an afterthought—was in the Canones Lexicographici of 1860, the set of instructions drawn up by the Society to inform members about the proposed contents of the dictionary. Readers were given guidance on how words were to be ‘collected’, and were told that ‘the Pronunciation and Accent shall be marked; and any changes which the former have undergone shall be briefly pointed out’ ( [Trench et al.] 1860: 5). Shortly afterwards, Derwent Coleridge (uncle of the dictionary’s first editor, Herbert Coleridge) spoke on the question of pronunciation, in a paper read to the Society in 1860. He expressed the view that there would be ‘some difficulties’ in tackling the orthoepical part of the dictionary, but that ‘the standard of pronunciation should be fixed by a comparison with some foreign standard or standards’ and that ‘varying pronunciations should be given, and where the preference is not decided by custom, then, and then only, it may be given in favour of the spelling or etymology’ (Coleridge 1860: 166-7, fn. 1).
‘An Historian not a Critic’: The Standard of Usage in the OED
Authors: Mugglestone Lynda
Published: November 2023

‘Every language has ... improprieties and absurdities, which it is the duty of the lexicographer to correct or proscribe’, declared Samuel Johnson on the opening page of his Dictionary (1755: A1v). The responsibilities accorded to the maker of dictionaries are, in this particular construction, indeed markedly interventionist. ‘Adulterations’ are ‘to be detected, without a settled test of purity’, and ‘modes of expression ... rejected or received’; likewise ‘confusion’ must be regulated, and choice made ‘out of boundless variety, without any established principle of selection’. Images of linguistic redemption for a language hitherto neglected and ‘suffered to spread, under the direction of chance ... exposed to the corruptions of ignorance’ predominate in Johnson’s account of the task which first confronted him.

In Trench’s systematic reassessment of lexicographic practice just over a century later, the lexicographer was, however, to assume a somewhat different form. If Johnson was ultimately brought to the recognition that, in his earlier desires to correct and embalm the language, he had ‘indulged expectation which neither reason nor experience can satisfy’ (1755: C2v), such expectations undergo a categoric rejection in Trench’s text. Descriptive rather than prescriptive imperatives inform his redefinition of the rightful role of the lexicographer. Not the ‘slave of science’ (Johnson 1755: A1v) but a scientist of language, his occupation was to be that of neutral observer, a linguistic historian impartial in the face of change and variation, the shifts of sense or spelling.
Length
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

Of all the prosodic features, length appears-at first sight at least-to be conceptually the simplest and least controversial. Speaking is a time-dependent activity; utterances take place in real time, and although articulatory events are not necessarily discrete-articulations overlap and some events are simultaneous rather than successive-there is nevertheless a temporal order to both the production and the perception of the speech signal. Thus, any part of this signal will occupy a finite portion of time, which can be measured, and the length of any such part is simply the time taken to utter it.
Introduction
Authors: Palmer John A
Published: November 2023

Parmenides is, after Socrates, the philosopher who exercised the greatest influence on Plato’s thought. Parmenides arguably had an even more profound influence than Socrates on Plato’s overall metaphysical outlook, especially in the later stages of his career. In the Sophist, Plato allows an Eleatic pupil of Parmenides’ to assume Socrates’ traditional role as the dialogue’s primary questioner. Parmenides himself, in the dialogue bearing his name, is allowed to question Socrates, posing problems for a theory similar to Plato’s own middle period theory of forms. Parmenides then undertakes an elaborate examination of his own views regarding the one being to help Socrates form a more adequate conception of the nature of intelligible reality. The historical Parmenides had also substantially influenced the theory his fictional namesake is made to criticize in this dialogue, so that understanding Plato’s engagement with Parmenides at this stage of his career is a prerequisite to understanding the later engagement. At present, the influence at neither stage is well understood.
Is Society Responsible for My Health?
Authors: Holm Søren
Published: November 2023

One of the most important issues in the field of allocation of resources for health care is the question of whether a person is responsible for his own health state. This question has been posed many times, and has prompted very detailed and deep philosophical analysis. At the same time it has often been presumed that the question put in this way has priority over the question of whether society is responsible for my health. That is, if it can be established that I am responsible for my own health, then it is at the same time established that society has no such responsibility.
HIV/ AIDS and the Point and Scope of Medical Confidentiality
Authors: Vedder Anton
Published: November 2023

It is generally assumed that workers in the field of health care and health research have a duty to respect the confidentiality of personal medical information, meaning that in principle they should not pass this information on to third parties, unless the person whom it concerns explicitly agrees or requests that such is done. The duty of medical confidentiality has a relatively long tradition and is deeply entrenched in the practice of health care and health research. Now, sometimes personal medical information can be literally of vital interest to third parties, so that disclosure to them would seem highly desirable. This seems to be the case with information resulting from HIV testing and screening which indicates that a person is HIV positive. Armed with such information, the sex contacts of that person might protect their own health and the health of others.
Can Health Care Workers Care for Their Patients and be Advocates of Third-Party Interests?
Authors: Hilhorst Medard T
Published: November 2023

People who have AIDS, or are HIV infected, no doubt have moral duties towards other people to inform them and act in a responsible way, although the extent of these duties, and how strong they are, is open to discussion. It can be argued that health care workers (HCWs) also have moral obligations toward these ‘third parties’. These professional duties can, however, be conceived of in different ways. I will defend the view that the duties can best be seen as ‘derived’ duties: derived from the duties that can be ascribed to the infected people themselves. This view underscores a doctor’s responsibility to confront his or her possibly unwilling, irresponsible, or unreflecting patient, with justified third-party interests and be an advocate of those interests. A professional relationship should-on this view-leave room for some kind of ‘moralizing’, in which professional responsibilities can be exercised and society as a whole can be served in the fight against AIDS. The ‘derived duties view’, how ever, also implies the limits of these professional obligations and of a public policy that seeks to promote them. These limits can he found in the personal and moral views of the patient, and should be respected.
HIV Infection and the Health Care Worker: The Case for Limited Disclosure
Authors: Farsides Calliope C S
Published: November 2023

In 1993, a number of cases hit the press in which health care workers employed within the UK were found to have died of AIDS. This in itself was not the major issue. With the growing awareness of the virus, the public could only expect that members of most groups in society would at one time or another be affected. Rather, the public concern was over the risk to which these workers may have put their patients. On more than one occasion the name of the dead carre was widely publicized, former patients were contacted, and help lines set up to deal with patients’ worries and fears. We have an interest both in terms of respecting the confidentiality due to health care workers who die of HIV-related disease, and in terms of sparing patients unnecessary alarm to make sure that such occurrences do not become commonplace.
AIDS and Insurance
Authors: Sorell Tom , Draper Heather
Published: November 2023

In commercial markets for life insurance in the West, individuals apply for policies that pay very large sums of money in the event of premature death, and successful applicants are charged premiums according to the insurers’ calculations of the risks: the greater the risk, the higher the charge or premium. Certain medical conditions, leisure pursuits, and jobs are known to carry a higher risk of death than others, and policies are weighted accordingly. Thus, people with high blood pressure are charged more than people with normal blood pressure, smokers are charged more than non-smokers, and mountain climbers and skydivers are charged more than chess players. Insurance companies routinely elicit information about risky medical conditions, leisure pursuits, and jobs in deciding whether to accept applications for life insurance and in deciding how to fix levels of premiums. If it is morally permissible for them to do so, and to charge more to those whom they classify as the higher risks; if it is morally permissible for insurers even to refuse to take on some risks, is it morally permissible for them to do these things in the case of people who are at relatively high risk of contracting HIV disease?
Perplexity and the Beginning of Philosophy
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

Somewhat hidden away in Aristotle’s treatise On the Heavens (De caelo) there is an interesting puzzle toward which Aristotle displays an intriguing ambivalence. On the one hand, he devotes a great deal of attention to it; in fact he discusses it for almost two of the fourteen chapters that make up book 2 of that work. On the other hand, he is rather apologetic in the way he introduces it, as if he were a little embarrassed to be bringing it up. This puzzle, he says at 294 10-1 I, must have occurred to everybody. Anyone who has not been astonished by it, he adds, rather sarcastically, must have quite an ‘untroubled mind’ (alupoteras dianoias).
Second-Order Perplexity: Parmenides
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

The reason, we should recall, that Socrates in book 7 of the Republic had not been at all puzzled about how something could seem to be both hard and soft, or light and heavy, is that Socrates had learned to distinguish the Forms themselves from the things that participate in them. Thus he had learned to distinguish hardness (‘the hard itself’) and softness (‘the soft itself’) from the various things in this world of coming-to-be and passing-away, such as loaves of bread things that are now soft and later hard as a rock, or, like a bed, hard in one part, say, its frame and soft in another, say, its mattress. The notion seemed to be that hard or soft things in the sensible world, being only reflections of the Forms, are for that reason only imperfectly hard or soft, whereas the Form, hardness, is perfectly hard, and the Form, softness, perfectly soft. Once we are clear about this distinction, we are to be no longer perplexed about how sensible things can be both hard and soft, or now one and now the other.
Socratic Perplexity and the Nature of Philosophy
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters I have made an effort to redirect the way we think about Socratic perplexity in the dialogues of Plato. I have also tried to awaken a new appreciation for the importance of perplexity to philosophy, and to enhance our understanding of the variety of ways perplexity may be used, treated, or appealed to, in doing philosophy. Let me elaborate a bit on each of those two aims. First, let’s consider afresh the role of perplexity in the dialogues of Plato.
On the Roles of Optimality and Strict Domination in Language Learning
Authors: Tesar Bruce
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the possible contributions to language learnability of two defining properties of Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky 1993): optimization and strict domination. The fact that Optimality Theory is based upon the optimization of harmony makes it possible to adapt some optimization-based ideas from statistical learning theory to the questions of language learning. The important properties of optimization-based learning procedures are discussed in Section 16.2. Strict domination among the violable constraints makes it possible for a learner to efficiently identify a ranking making a particular candidate optimal. This is because strict domination restricts the possible ways for constraints to interact (as compared to, say, distinguishing the relative importance of constraints by assigning numeric values). As a result, if a hypothesis ranking does not make the correct description optimal, it is possible to quickly determine a way of changing the ranking to one which is closer to the correct ranking. By indicating the direction in which to move in the hypothesis space, strict domination guides learning so that it may reach the correct ranking quickly. Section 16.3 discusses how strict domination may be exploited, and presents an algorithm for learning constraint rankings from grammatical structural descriptions.
Scope of the Case Study
Authors: May Simon
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this second part of the book is to examine in detail Nietzsche’s critique of the value of truth-that is, of the truth that we possess in propositional, conscious knowledge1-in order more fully to understand how, employing his standard of ‘life-enhancement’, he goes about evaluating a value to Which traditionally such supreme importance has been attached and, hence, how he ‘revalues’ it. Since Nietzsche attacks not values as such, but only their employment for life-denial, this suggests that, unless a value is not susceptible of any life-enhancing function, he seeks not its demise, but, on the contrary, how it can, by his standard, be better valued. This is so, at any rate, for our ‘highest’ values-for, in defining our identity as individuals or as an ethical community, these are values which reflect ‘what we are’ and which, when maximally employed in the service of ‘lifeenhancement’, are therefore crucial to ‘becoming what We are’.
[L] Nasal Vowels and Vowel Nasalization: Preliminaries
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

Vowel nasalization is a process which has operated widely in Romance. Amongst the standard varieties, French and Portuguese have been particularly affected and they have developed a series of independent nasal vowel phonemes. Romance is consequently well represented in the modest set of present-day European languages possessing nasal vowel phonemes (others include Polish, Albanian, Irish, Gaelic, and Breton). In the remaining standard varieties of Romance, nasalization has not led to the creation of nasal vowel phonemes, but in many cases it has exercised a considerable influence on patterns of vowel evolution. A similar picture emerges when non-standard varieties of Romance are considered; vowel nasalization has had a widespread impact, and in some cases it has been great enough to result in the creation of nasal vowel phonemes. The different varieties of Romance thus provide a rich quarry for the investigation of nasal vowels and their evolution.
Gallo- Romance I: French
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

No Romance language has received as much attention in the investigation of vowel nasalization as French. It is therefore appropriate that the first area of Romance to be considered in our review should be Gallo- Romance within which the French language fits. In fact, the patterns of vowel nasalization which emerge vary a good deal from region to region. It will therefore be helpful to divide the coverage of Gallo-Romance into three sections. In this chapter, the focus of attention falls on northern French, and more specifically on the developments which have occurred in the variety which became the standard language. In the following chapter, general patterns of vowel nasalization in non-standard northern varieties are examined, and in Chapter 6 the major developments in southern varieties of Gallo-Romance are considered.
Gallo-Romance II: Non-Standard Varieties of langue d’oï·l
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

The impact of nasalization on vowel evolution has been no less profound in non-standard varieties of langue d’oïl than it has in the standard language. All varieties have been affected to a considerable degree, but nasalization has modified patterns of vowel evolution in differing ways from one region to another. In this section, we will outline some of the major lines of development which are found.
Gallo- Romance III: Occitan
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

The Gallo-Romance spoken in the southern half of France evolved rather differently from the langue d’o ï l of the north. The southern varieties, which are collectively known as langue d’oc or Occitan (we will normally use the latter term), have certainly experienced vowel nasalization but its effect on their phonetic evolution has generally been rather more limited. The main patterns of nasal vowel development in Occitan are explored in this chapter, but to set these into their proper background some brief general historical comments may usefully be made.
Ibero- Romance I: Catalan and Spanish
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

The incidence and effects of vowel nasalization have been far from uniform in the three major linguistic areas of the Iberian Peninsula. In the west, Galician Portuguese has experienced considerable influence from nasalization. The effect of nasalization has been most intensely felt in Portugal and nasal vowel phonemes have developed in almost all varieties of Portuguese. Nasalization also operated significantly on vowel evolution in Galician but nasality has proved less tenacious. Today, phonemically nasal vowels have been preserved in only one relic area of Galician, although high levels of allophonic nasality are found in all varieties.
Italo-Romance
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

The impact of vowel nasalization in Halo-Romance has been varied. In the standard language and in non-standard varieties of the centre and south, vowel evolution has scarcely been influenced at all by the effect of nasality. However, a very different picture presents itself in northern dialects. Here high-level nasalization has occurred widely and in some cases nasal vowel phonemes were created. The main developments in northern dialects are considered in section 10.4 after a brief look at circumstances in the standard language (10.2) and central and southern dialects (10.3).
Is medical ethics lost?
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

one would think that medical ethics is in good shape. They have a fairly secure feel for what they should and should not do to. or for, their patients. They get this feel from colleagues and from their training. On the whole it leads them to look after their patients as they should, and no trouble ensues. On the other hand, if one looks at the media, in Britain and even more in the United States, one gets a different impression. It looks as if nobody knows what the duties of doctors are. A great many people have strong opinions about this, differing wildly from one another: and it would be a bold doctor who thought he could be certain about the rightness of any of them. The position is worse with the more controversial questions: about abortion and euthanasia; about the preservation of life and the definition of death; and about various kinds of experimental procedures. But the trouble can easily spread from these controversial questions and infect the general practice of medicine.
Language Evolution: Basic Mechanisms
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

The millions of species of the biological world have all gradually diverged from some inconceivably distant common ancestor. The lion and the cheetah share a relatively recent parent in an undifferentiated African big cat, but they have by now become so distinct that they can no longer interbreed, and would not ordinarily be mistaken for each other. The horse and the donkey have gone less far down the same road; they can still mate, but the resulting mules are sterile and thus unviable.
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)
Authors: Sprigge T L S
Published: November 2023

Opinions differ over why such strong action was taken against him. One view is that the peculiar religious position of the Marranos had encouraged scepticism and laxity in Jewish practice and that the rabbis felt that they must affirm the religious unity of their community (there were some other similar ffierems’). Others emphasize the need to reassure the city fathers that the Jewish community was committed to the same basic theism as Christianity.
David Hume (17n–1776)
Authors: Broackes Justin
Published: November 2023

Scottish philosopher, essayist, and historian. Perhaps the greatest of British philosophers since Locke, Hume aimed to place “Logic, Morals, Criticism, and Politics’ on a new foundation: the “science of man’ and the theory of human nature. Famous for his scepticism in metaphysics, Hume also emphasized the limits that human nature places on our capacity for scepticism. In morals, Hume insisted on the reality of moral distinctions, though our judgements are ultimately founded only in human sentiment. In these and other areas, his concern was to expose the limitations of reason, and to explain how we none the less make the judgements we do, careless of the absence of rational support.
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: November 2023

John Stuart Mill, the son of James Mill, was the greatest British philosopher of the nineteenth century, bringing Britain’s traditions of empiricism and liberalism to their Victorian apogee.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914)
Authors: Hookway C J
Published: November 2023

AMERICAN philosopher who is perhaps best known as the originator of pragmatism. He was educated at Harvard, where his father was a mathematics professor. His greatest philosophical influence was Kant, and he saw himself as constructing the philosophical system that Kant might have developed had he not been so ignorant of logic. But the influence of Thomas Reid and other common-sense philosophers became increasingly important: in late writings, the two influences were combined in his “critical common-sensism”. Describing himself as a logician, Peirce made major contributions to formal logic (independently of Frege he and his students developed a logic of quantifiers and relations after 1880) and to the study of the logic of science. Indeed, he lectured on these topics at Harvard in the late 1860s and held a lectureship in logic at Johns Hopkins University from 1879 until 1884. But he also served as an experimental scientist, working at the Harvard laboratory after he had graduated in chemistry, and being employed for over twenty years by the United States Coastal Survey.
Naturalizing Music
Authors: Sharpe R A
Published: November 2023

Imagine aliens visiting the earth for the first time. Much of what they see they could explain if they had some grasp of the laws of physics and some knowledge of evolution and natural selection. Thus they might be able to offer some explanation of the cycle of the seasons, why birds pair off, build nests, and sit on eggs, and of the growth and decay of plants and animals. They might not always get the explanation right, of course; but what is going on need not be unintelligible. They might even come to see that human beings need family groups to nurture the young. They might find it odd that rites of passage should take the form they do, but that there should be crises in people’s lives might not be so surprising.
Music, Rhetoric, and Oratory
Authors: Sharpe R A
Published: November 2023

I began the first chapter by imagining aliens trying to understand the human practices of making and listening to music. I now ask you to focus on one particular time in the history of Western music. In the sixteenth-century, composers began to develop substantial pieces of instrumental music which could take five or more minutes to perform. Sixteenth-century keyboard composers provide the earliest familiar examples of such music. How could they organize a piece in a way which would both hold the listener’s interest and impose a unity on the music? The answer to this question has a double significance. I shall suggest that the formal models for musical structure were, in part, drawn from classical discussions of rhetoric. But, as we shall see, rhetorical models have a pro-founder significance, for they provide the basis for a solution to the problem which has occupied us till now, the question of musical expression.
The Motivations for Musical Ontology: A German Ideology
Authors: Sharpe R A
Published: November 2023

As I have already hinted, in the rest of this book I shall argue that quite general ideas about music, its history and its performance, infiltrate our musical experience. So, from arguing that a causal account of how we describe music fails to take into account the roles played by form and structure, and that concepts drawn from rhetoric explain the structures we find in music and are the vocabulary in terms of which we describe its expressive power, I move to the role played by ideas like progress, authenticity, and formalism in the judgements we make about music. These are general, in that they apply across the board to a wide variety of music, but particular in being part of what musicologists have latterly begun to call ‘ideology’.
Performance
Authors: Sharpe R A
Published: November 2023

In due course I shall return to the broader ‘cognitive’ issues of the last chapter, but the intervening discussion of performance and authenticity is not entirely alien country. As we shall see, these issues are impregnated with questions about the music’s intellectual milieu.

But first, some background. Romantic aesthetics such as that of Schumann and Schweitzer took the real work of art to be a private mental affair which was then externalized in a publicly accessible form as a piece of music or a painting or a poem. The tradition is more familiar to English readers through the work of

R. G. Collingwood, who provided us with a form of expressionism: the doctrine that art is the expression of a mental state of the creator, which is communicated via the arte fact to the audience. Now, as I remarked earlier, expressionism has few contemporary adherents. The objections are familiar. Where there is evidence of the creator’s mental state, it may be at odds with the character of the work as experienced. Whether he is exuberant or troubled, sad or serene, is only contingently connected with the character of the work.
Music’s Ruling Myths
Authors: Sharpe R A
Published: November 2023

I closed the last chapter with the observation that ‘authenticity’ in music has a wider as well as a narrower sense. Not only do we debate the merits of authentic performance in playing older music, but we sometimes charge composers with inauthenticity or ‘insincerity’, to give it its more familiar description. Suppose we describe music as insincere. Perhaps we level this charge at Strauss’s Arabella or Puccini’s La Bohème or Górecki’s Third Symphony. Why does the charge of ‘insincerity’ matter to us? Would it make so much difference if we found that the composer did ‘mean’ it after all? Suppose that Górecki ‘believes in’ his work. Would this exculpate him? I think not. The accusation that the music is insincere, inauthentic, or manipulative is independent of the composer’s mental state.
Kant and the sea-horse: An essay in the neurophilosophy of space
Authors: O’Keefe John
Published: November 2023

In a previous publication, Nadel and I (O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978) argued that there were several ways in which the brain represented space. Some of these representations were egocentric, locating entities within spatial frameworks fixed to body parts: the eye, the head, the body; at least one was allocentric, incorporating a framework centred on the environment itself. The former neural representations of space were to be found in several different parts of the brain, most notably in neocortical areas such as parietal lobes, while the latter was centred on a more primitive cortical structure, the hippocampus.
Extrapolating and remembering positions along cognitive trajectories: Uses and limitations of analogies to physical motion
Authors: Cooper Lynn A , Munger Margaret P
Published: November 2023

Both our everyday experience in the world and certain aspects of skilled performance suggest that our perceptual systems are remarkably accurate in extracting and using information about the motion of objects in space. Behavioural expressions of this competence include our abilities to locomote without colliding with stationary or moving objects, and to anticipate the trajectories of transforming objects in order to intercept, to follow or to avoid them. These ordinary perceptual abilities become more impressive when we realize that predictions about the current and continuing motion of objects are generally based on quite incomplete information about the structure of objects and events. Movement of our bodies and our eyes, as well as relationships of occlusion among objects,