bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Early Years of the Yau, Chan, and Fan Lineages in Tsuen Wan
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

Tsuen Wan’s history as a Hakka district dates to the 18th century, after the lifting of the coastal expulsion order in the early Qing dynasty. It was poor and rugged, with some reclamation on the coast, and was famous for its pineapples, which could be taken by boat to Hong Kong Island. A daily coastal market developed, and connections to urban Hong Kong grew as industry developed. The district was self-governing through a body attached to the central Tianhou temple, and relatively peaceful, with many small lineages. Wealthier families often hired long-term workers to help with farming and business, but women were also known for their hard work in agriculture, and kin relationships through women helped in creating a tight-knit society. There also were strong bonds among women, expressed through their laments and mountain songs.
Tsuen Wan’s New Face
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

Some 91 leaders, both original inhabitants and immigrants, were interviewed using a standard questionnaire over a period of nine months in 1969. There were clear differences between village-based leaders and those representing immigrant groups. The gulf between the two kinds of leaders resulted from a colonial policy of granting political access to village representatives and their Rural Committee, which continued in a context that was industrial and much changed from the immediate post-war world when the system of access to government had been created. The gulf between the two populations suggested a need for political change. The ability to mobilize both groups and cooperate for political action was marked by a dispute and its resolution when changes were made to ferry schedules from Hong Kong to Tsuen Wan.
Introduction
Authors: Driessen Miriam
Published: January 2020

Exploring the everyday encounters between Chinese managers and Ethiopian laborers on the construction site in Tigray, this chapter challenges depictions of Chinese engagement with Africa as a model imposed on a practice. Chinese workers’ initial expectations of life and work in Ethiopia stand in contrast to the difficulties they face on the ground. Puzzled by the apparent ingratitude of Ethiopians, their lack of cooperation, and, worse, their repeated attempts to sabotage the building work, Chinese road builders are left disenchanted. Firm hopes of helping Ethiopians develop are offset by the bitter taste they experience in the face of repeated pushbacks, not only on the building site but also in the courtroom. Unraveling the intricacies of Chinese-led development in Ethiopia, this chapter discusses internal divisions in the Chinese community, road builders’ vain efforts to fashion Ethiopian laborers, and Chinese narratives of bitterness that address their own perceived lack of agency.
Pushed to Ethiopia
Authors: Driessen Miriam
Published: January 2020

What drives so many young Chinese to Ethiopia? Moving down to a less developed place rather than up to the developed world, Chinese migrants indicate that they are forced to move to Africa in pursuit of a better income and a chance to improve their lives and that of their (future) families. While the desire to migrate, which continues to be viewed as an avenue for upward social mobility, remains prevalent in Chinese society, the incentives for doing so have changed. Recent social, political, and economic transformations in mainland China have generated a sense of insecurity, of falling behind in a fierce competition for resources. This feeling is particularly strong among Chinese workers employed by domestic companies in Ethiopia, for whom moving to Africa is a way out. This way out, however, turns out to be one that offers no way back.
Training a National Army in Time of Civil War
Authors: Reist Katherine K.
Published: January 2020

The attempt of United States government personnel in postwar China to effect an end to the resumption of the civil war by offering military training and support to both sides foundered on the assumptions of both the Nationalists and Communists that each would be victorious in the conflict. Nonetheless an American military training mission was authorized. The American goal was to establish a democratic, economically viable nation with a modern military to offset the expansion of Soviet influence in Asia.The goals of the Nationalist government did not necessarily align with those of the United States, although support and aid were continuously sought. However, the Nationalist political and organizationalstructure was difficult to adapt to American models even when the Chinese saw an advantage in doing so. For reasons explored in this chapter, the mission failed.
The Clash of Intelligence Advocates and Critics
Authors: Hadley David P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the increasingly contested discourse over intelligence during the 1970s. Though the 1960s saw the emergence of a new generation of reporters that would challenge the CIA, that generation had not necessarily become the majority, and there continued to be strong advocates, both publicly and privately, for the CIA in major news organizations. Director of Central Intelligence Richard Helms sought to combine his predecessors’ better quality of press relations with greater conservatism in CIA activities to protect his agency. Ultimately, however, the insistence of the Nixon administration that the CIA undermine the democratically elected Salvador Allende of Chile, the crisis of Watergate, and the continuing fallout from the war in Vietnam undermined the CIA’s ability to influence the press. The New York Times reporter Seymour Hersh prompted the CIA’s greatest crisis when, at the end of 1974, he revealed the existence of an illegal CIA domestic surveillance program.
The Year of Intelligence Begins
Authors: Hadley David P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the investigations that began following the revelation that the Central Intelligence Agency operated an illegal domestic surveillance system. Three investigations emerged: a blue-ribbon presidential commission chaired by Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, a Senate Select Committee chaired by Frank Church (D-ID), and a House Select Committee chaired by Otis Pike (D-NY). The investigations were quickly sidetracked by stories about the CIA’s involvement in assassinations; ultimately, a main area of focus for the Church Committee in particular would be assassinations. The media environment reflected the tremendous controversy over the CIA and the increasingly partisan nature of politics and news coverage, as some commentators were divided between supporting the CIA and criticizing the investigations, whereas others were ambivalent and uncertain about what should be done. Even during this tumultuous period, the press was still willing to cooperate with the CIA when Director of Central Intelligence William Colby requested their cooperation in suppressing a story about the CIA’s efforts to raise a sunken Soviet submarine.
Mr. and Mrs. Smith (1941)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

Mr. and Mrs. Smith was a departure for Hitchcock, a light comedy he took on for the pleasure of working with Carole Lombard. The Production Code censors objected primarily to racy dialogue and the sound of a toilet flushing. Hitchcock eliminated some, but not all, of the objectionable dialogue, retaining the word mistress and other risqu’ references, and replaced the sound of a flushing toilet with the sound of clanging pipes. The Code taboo on toilet imagery was to haunt many Hitchcock films, until he was finally allowed to film a flushing toilet in Psycho.
Suspicion (1941)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter reviews the influence of the Production Code and marketing considerations on the Cary Grant vehicle Suspicion. Marketing considerations dictated that Grant could not be a murderer, as his character was portrayed in the source novel. And Joe Breen, who took over RKO productions on a brief stint away from the Production Code Administration, sought to erase all suspicious activity from Grant’s character. Hitchcock sidestepped much of the meddling, but this movie suffered more than most of his films from Production Code interference, particularly the provisions regarding suicide and the need to punish evildoers. Nonetheless, it still managed to earn a healthy profit and a Best Actress Oscar for Joan Fontaine.
Saboteur (1942)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the influence of Production Code censors and wartime conditions on the production of Saboteur. War with Germany freed moviemakers from the shackles of the Neutrality Act, so that the common enemy could be identified without fear of censorship. Censors instead focused on several class-conscious remarks inserted in the script by left-leaning author Dorothy Parker suggesting a disdain for the police and the upper classes. The film did well at the box office and less well with critics, but Hitchcock created a memorable finale on the Statue of Liberty and succeeded in his attempt to make a thriller warning the US of the dangers of internal sabotage and the pro-German leanings of the America First Party.
Hitchcock and Transatlantic
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter traces the origins of Hitchcock’s own production company, Transatlantic Pictures, which he formed with his friend Sidney Bernstein. The director made two films for Transatlantic, Rope and Under Capricorn. The failure of the latter film led to the downfall of the company itself.
Under Capricorn (1949)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

Under Capricorn proved to be a disaster on several fronts. Hitchcock had never dealt well with costume melodramas, saying that he couldn’t imagine how people of bygone days could manage bathroom trips. He had purchased the property with Ingrid Bergman, one of the most popular female stars of the day, in mind for the lead. But Bergman proved to be a drawback: shortly after filming ended, she outraged the American public by abandoning her husband and daughter for Italian director Roberto Rossellini. The Production Code office spent more time worrying about the morality of the star than the morals of the movie, and Joe Breen wrote a letter to Bergman, later made public, asking her to reconsider her choice or risk losing her career. Bergman’s fall from grace, poor casting choices, a lackluster script, and Hitchcock’s decision to continue the experimentation with long takes he had begun with Rope all contributed to the failure of the movie, which lost over $1 million and marked the end of Transatlantic films as an independent producer.
Rear Window (1954)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

Rear Window was the first of six pictures Alfred Hitchcock would direct for Paramount under the contract negotiated by Lew Wasserman. On its first script review, the Production Code office found fault with nearly every aspect of the film, from the salty dialogue of the young screenwriter John Michael Hayes to most of the courtyard residents, including the scantily clad Miss Torso and the newly married couple whose activities represented an ‘unacceptable play on the sexual aspects of a honeymoon.’ But Breen’s reviewers reserved their strongest criticism for the suggestion of a sexual relationship between the lead characters, played by James Stewart and Grace Kelly. Hitchcock stilled many of the censors’ worries by inviting them to visit the elaborate indoor set of the courtyard, pointing out that everything happening in the apartments across the courtyard would be filmed from the viewpoint of a man in a wheelchair looking out of his apartment window, not with salacious close-ups. The censors still found fault with three major elements: the dancing of Miss Torso, the honeymooning couple’s sexual appetites, and Grace Kelly’s negligee, which was ‘too suggestive and too boldly unconventional.’ Hitchcock assuaged these fears by swapping off topless views of Miss Torso with protective footage already filmed for trade-off purposes, drawing the shades on the honeymooners, and limiting scenes with Grace Kelly’s negligee to those essential to the plot. Code officials accepted these trade-offs, and the film was a critical and commercial success.
To Catch a Thief (1955)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

To Catch a Thief, filmed on the French Riviera, again featured suggestive dialogue by John Michael Hayes. In their review of the script, Code officials logged a number of objections, including excessive bottom pinching, bikini breast exposure, sexual innuendo, repeated scenes of French police ogling salacious postcards, a casino chip dropped down the cleavage of a female gambler, and a sensuous fireworks seduction scene between Cary Grant and Grace Kelly. Hitchcock filmed the script as planned, and then traded off several objectionable passages (bottom pinching, bikini exposure) in order to save others. He cut the French postcard scenes in order to save the fireworks seduction, but had to rescore the fireworks scene with strings instead of a sexy tenor sax in order to make the trade. Time was on his side in the bargaining phase, since the final cuts were made after Joe Breen had been replaced by the more accommodating Geoffrey Shurlock.
The Trouble with Harry (1955)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The Trouble with Harry represented a departure for Hitchcock; the film is a black comedy in which the consistently dry humor undercuts any suspense. The Code office objected to John Michael Hayes’s witty dialogue as well as the illegitimacy of the child of the Shirley MacLaine character and the description of an unsatisfactory wedding night. Hitchcock solved the problems by altering the script so that the boy’s parents were married before his father was killed and revised the objectionable description of the widowed Shirley MacLaine’s wedding night by having her new husband fail to show up because a horoscope warned him ‘not to start any new projects on that day.’ These changes satisfied the Production Code office, which allowed most of Hayes’s salty dialogue to remain as written.
The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The remake of Hitchcock’s 1934 film retained the title and certain key elements of the original, in which the child of a vacationing couple is kidnapped, including the climactic assassination attempt in Albert Hall. But the details of the story changed a great deal. The vacationing couple is American, not English, the kidnapped child is a boy, not a girl, and the wife, played by Doris Day, is a retired musical star rather than an expert marksman. The Production Code office, which had excised five minutes of a climactic gun battle from the original, had relatively few objections to the remake. Censors objected to the kidnapping of a young child, the suggestion that the child’s life might be in danger, and wanted to make it clear that the villain was only ‘posing’ as a minister, not actually a man of the cloth. Hitchcock easily accommodated these suggestions by raising the age of the child to eight and adjusting a few bits of dialogue, reflecting both the gradual weakening of the Code and the director’s increasing skill in dealing with censorship.
Topaz (1969)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

Topaz, the first film to be undertaken by Hitchcock after the decline of the Production Code, was a disaster from beginning to end. The author of the best-selling novel on which the movie was based, Leon Uris, did not get along with Hitchcock and produced an unusable screenplay, causing schedule delays that allowed Hitchcock little time for advance preparation. The novel was based on a true-life incident in which Soviet spies infiltrated the French government. Since the incident reflected poorly on the French government, permission to film in Paris was withheld until Hitchcock promised to show the government in a good light and observe the Code-like instructions that evildoers be punished. Hitchcock’s desire to film a love scene free from Code restraints was thwarted when it was discovered that both the leading man and the leading lady had surgical scars, making it necessary to film their key love scene from the shoulders up. Finally, after preview audiences hooted down the film’s initial ending, a duel in a deserted soccer stadium, Hitchcock filmed two alternative endings, one in which the lead spy gets away, angering the French government, and one in which he commits suicide. Audiences in different countries saw different endings, none of which pleased either the audiences or the producers.
Conclusion
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The conclusion summarizes Hitchcock’s experiences, strategies, and priorities in dealing with censorship to produce suspenseful thrillers. By the end of his career, Hitchcock was manipulating the censors as successfully as he manipulated moviegoers. But the harm done by the Production Code early in his career was incalculable. Although the censors’ prodding stimulated the director’s creativity in a few instances, on balance his movies were damaged by their interference. The Production Code rule that did the most damage to Hitchcock’s films was the admonition that evildoers must be punished. Blind adherence to this rule made a mockery of the death of the title character in Rebecca, implausibly absolved Cary Grant of guilt in Suspicion, forced an improbable conclusion on The Paradine Case, kept Farley Granger from fulfilling his crisscross murder bargain in Strangers on a Train, and saved Montgomery Clift from the gallows in I Confess. Toward the end of his career, the declining Production Code was little more than a nuisance to Hitchcock, but the damage done to his early US films can never be undone. And audiences will never know what other movies he might have made if he hadn’t adjusted his own sights to fit within the censors’ limitations.
Variable Heroism
Authors: Milevski Lukas
Published: January 2020

The history of US landpower since September 11, 2001, has been a history of change as policy-makers sought to impose alterations on landpower, only to be forced to adapt to new conditions. The spirit of post-heroic warfare, stemming from the 1990s, influenced American understanding of landpower during the initial invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, leading to transformation and the practice of post-heroic landpower. This interpretation and employment of landpower did not survive the rising challenges of insurgency, forcing landpower to return to its heroic roots. With the election of President Obama, US strategy returned to a post-heroic phase, with landpower largely excluded as a major instrument for the pursuit of US grand strategy, only for new challenges to rise, such as Russia, which seem to demand yet another return to the classical heroism of landpower.
Mountain Storm
Authors: Westermeyer Paul , Balboni Mark
Published: January 2020

This chapter discusses Marine Corps force structure and operations during the Global War on Terrorism with a focus on conducting expeditionary operations. Limited changes to Marine Corps structure have allowed the Marine Corps to maintain their vision of employing a Marine Air-Ground Task Force as the preferred method to support limited land combat operations. Along with a summary of Marine Corps operations since 2001, the chapter highlights the 22nd MEU(SOC) support to Operation Mountain Storm in 2004, from deployment to operations to the aftermath of the failure to provide follow-on forces to reinforce the unit's successes.
On Headquarters
Authors: Bonin John A.
Published: January 2020

This chapter discusses how the US Army since 11 September 2001 has had to face the harsh reality that the complexities of the employment of landpower in modern warfare, especially with allies, require large staffs in its headquarters. However, the leaders of the Department of Defense and the Army are often at odds with that reality, as the United States frequently seeks to focus on combat units at the expense of "unnecessary overhead," especially in its theater army headquarters. In addition, the Army found itself wholly unpreparedforthese headquarters to provide contractors for the unprecedented level and complexity of support utilized in recent military operations. As the Army continues adapting to the current environment, it must heed insights from the past sixteen years of conflict. The Army must ensure that it is not exacerbating the problem of employing landpower by eliminating the brains of an army, its essential land component command headquarters capabilities.
The Limits of Liberal Internationalism
Authors: Higgin Hannah
Published: January 2020

This chapter addresses how Fulbright’s views on race complicated American exchange programs with African nations in the 1960s. At the height of the civil rights movement, Presidents Kennedy and Johnson sought to improve relations with newly decolonized African nations, and Fulbright’s influence over exchange programs complicated that pursuit. Though Fulbright believed that boosting mutual understanding through exchange was the world’s best hope for creating and maintaining peace, he did not believe that all people—not least Africans—would be able to grasp the liberal, Western ideals he wished to spread. Though he was known as a racial moderate, his outlook on policy was hemmed in by the color line at home and abroad, a fact that constrained the US government’s African exchange programming. He preferred that the focus of exchange programs remain on Europe.
Nice to meet you, President Tito …
Authors: Konta Carla
Published: January 2020

The chapter explores the political backgrounds, strategic interests, and diplomatic consequences of Senator J. William Fulbright’s visit to socialist Yugoslavia in November 1964 to chair the signing of the Yugoslav Fulbright agreement. The mission tackled two issues: as a US senator, Fulbright repaired misunderstandings and low points of previous US-Yugoslav bilateral relations; as a politician who was intellectually committed to liberal internationalism, he confirmed his support for Yugoslav independence from the Soviet Union and, by observing the Yugoslav Communist regime, convinced himself of a different solution for Vietnam’s emerging tangle. By examining Fulbright and Yugoslav papers, the chapter argues that Yugoslav experimentation with national communism and its possible bridge function between East and West framed the senator’s politics of dissent over Vietnam on the assumption that Communist movements were not as monolithic as most US policy makers viewed them. America’s soft approach to Yugoslav communism corroborated Fulbright’s convictions and persuaded him that Yugoslavia could serve as a case study for the impasse in Vietnam.
Cultural Imaging of the French “Other”
Authors: McLaughlin Sean J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the roots of American francophobia into the early twentieth century. Historically, Americans had long been cautious of conniving French diplomats, alarmed at France’s sexual and racial permissiveness, and dismissive of France’s supposedly weak republican system of government. Set against the backdrop of Social Darwinism, intense nationalism, Anglo-Saxonism, and conceptions of a racial hierarchy, the parent generation of the future men of the Kennedy administration began to ascribe hard, negative attributes to France and the French that they passed down to their offspring. By casting the French as overly emotional, excessively proud, vain, cruel, conservative, backward, and effeminate, these elites were better able to rationalize their own perceived racial superiority and legacy as inheritors of sound British traditions. This chapter sets out to explain the evolution of American views of France with the intention of illustrating the perceptions and stereotypes that were common currency during Kennedy’s formative years. The candid notations in Kennedy’s 1937 diary from his summer trip to Europe—during which he spent several weeks in France—clearly illustrate that he had absorbed many of the popular francophobic themes in circulation during the interwar years.
Building the Perfect Candidate
Authors: McLaughlin Sean J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores Kennedy’s pre-presidential political career. By the end of World War II he had emerged as a well-connected Harvard graduate, author of a popular book, a decorated navy veteran of the Pacific War, and a budding young journalist with the Hearst chain. His political career began in 1946 when he was elected Representative for Massachusetts’s 11th Congressional District. In 1952 he was elected to the Senate, where he gained a reputation for sharp anti-colonial rhetoric that often targeted French policy. Throughout his pre-presidential political career, from 1946 to 1960, Kennedy’s most biting commentary was consistently reserved for the French in Vietnam and later Algeria. While Britain had negotiated its way out of India and later ran a successful counterinsurgency campaign against communist Malayan rebels, Kennedy worried openly that French colonial rule would drive the most rebellious of the Fourth Republic’s subjects toward the Sino-Soviet camp. Early postwar decolonization cemented Kennedy’s perception that the British were clear thinkers with long-term vision, while the French by contrast were characterized by a toxic mixture of short-sightedness, stubbornness, and indifference to the collective interests of the West.
Ignoring Nosey Charlie
Authors: McLaughlin Sean J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter surveys transformations in the international system from the summer of 1962 to Kennedy’s assassination in November 1963. In Vietnam, the Diem regime’s bloody repression of Buddhists and student protesters in mid-1963 sparked American revulsion and widespread distaste for the Kennedy administration’s wayward client state. As the situation in South Vietnam grew increasingly tumultuous, American embassy telegraphs out of Saigon revealed a profound distrust of French motives. The administration fixated on the notion that Roger Lalouette, the French ambassador, was plotting with the president’s brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu, to arrange a cease-fire with the Viet Cong and potentially secure a reunification deal with the North in exchange for the removal of American forces. Lalouette was indeed working with Nhu, but he was trying to hammer out a deal that would give the Kennedy administration a “peace with honor” and an opportunity to exit the country before the situation spiraled out of control. The Kennedy administration was unable to accept that French efforts to foster North-South dialogue were the logical byproduct of a long-standing regional peace policy, interpreting Lalouette’s actions instead as part of a sinister Gaullist conspiracy to drive Americans out of Southeast Asia.
The Field Shapes Up
Authors: Lee Peter
Published: January 2020

By the beginning of a horse’s three-year-old season, owners and trainers generally know whether they have a Kentucky Derby contender, and Bud Delp knew that he had a special horse in Spectacular Bid. He told everyone about it, too. This chapter chronicles Bid’s winter and spring prep races leading up to the Derby, where he was the odds-on favorite.
One More for the Crown
Authors: Lee Peter
Published: January 2020

People are all but giving the Triple Crown to Spectacular Bid before the Belmont Stakes, but he faces some strong competition from a horse named Coastal. On the morning of the race, Bid steps on a safety pin. He is judged to be sound and uninjured after being examined by trainer Delp and veterinarians, but during the race, jockey Ron Franklin sends him to the lead too quickly. He tires toward the end of the race, finishing third. Was the safety pin an issue?
The Streak
Authors: Lee Peter
Published: January 2020

After being beaten by Affirmed, Bid wins one more race as a three-year-old and then tears through his four-year-old season, winning every race en route to an undefeated season and a ten-race winning streak. This streak includes a world record for a mile and a quarter in the Charles H. Strub Stakes in California—a record that still stands. No one wants to race the horse—not even for second-place money—and his last race, the Woodward Stakes, is a walkover. Bid runs around the track all by himself—the first time this had happened since 1949.
Introduction
Authors: Li Xiaobing
Published: January 2020

The introduction provides an outline of the book by answering four questions. The first question addresses China’s intention, strategy, and defense policy toward Vietnam in 1950. The study seeks to elucidate the origins of and changes to Chinese strategy by examining how the PRC defense policy evolved in the 1950s. The second question relates to China’s commitment to and the capacity of its military aid to Vietnam in 1950–1965, when China faced its own serious economic difficulties. The third question concerns aspects of Sino-Vietnamese military relations, including cooperation, negotiation, and conflict. China’s strategic culture can be better understood beyond the history of the Cold War since it is deeply rooted in the past. The fourth question is about current literature on the topic and sources used in the book. Due to a lack of readily available sources for Western researchers, few areas in international military history pose more difficulties than a study of Communist foreign assistance. This volume is supported by Chinese primary and secondary sources made available only in recent years.
Advisors and Aid
Authors: Li Xiaobing
Published: January 2020

Chapter 2 examines what the Viet Minh needed from China and Mao’s determination to support Ho’s war effort. It discusses Mao’s concerns about national security since Josef Stalin was not ready to send Soviet forces to defend Chinese borders against a foreign invasion. Mao therefore decided on a self-reliant, proactive defense to stop the Western powers outside the Chinese borders in neighboring countries like Vietnam and break the US military encirclement of China in East and Southeast Asia. Although external Cold War factors may appear to be one of the motives behind Mao’s decision, his strategy also was driven by significant internal factors. China’s power status depended more on its political stability and military strength than on its foreign relations. In this sense, Mao may have perceived China’s involvement in the French Indochina War as a chance to continue the Communist movement at home and to project New China’s power image abroad. The PLA’s victory in the civil war gave Mao and his generals confidence in their ability to help the Viet Minh drive the French Army out of Indochina and later to help Kim Il-sung to drive the UN force out of the Korean peninsula.
Dien Bien Phu
Authors: Li Xiaobing
Published: January 2020

Chapter 6 reveals that Beijing increased its military aid and advisory assistance to the Vietnamese Communists in their war efforts against the French in 1953–1954 to meet the new goal. Beijing sent political advisors to Vietnam in early 1953 to supervise the land reform. The large rural movement spread in the north and many provinces in the south. As a result of the land reform, more poor peasants supported the Vietnamese Communist Party, officially the Vietnamese Workers’ Party (VWP), and joined the PAVN. The peasants’ enthusiasm would bring about the PAVN’s final victory at Dien Bien Phu. The PLA sent Korean veterans to Vietnam after the Korean War ended in July 1953, including engineering, artillery, and AAA officers and troops, who played an important role in the siege of Dien Bien Phu in January-March 1954.
Intuition & Calibration
Authors: Weinberg Jonathan M. , Crowley Stephen , Gonnerman Chad , Vandewalker Ian , Swain Stacey ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: January 2020

The practice of appealing to intuitive judgments concerning esoteric cases, long standard in analytic philosophy, has recently fallen on hard times. Various recent empirical results have suggested that philosophers are not currently able to distinguish good intuitions from bad. This paper evaluates one possible type of approach to this problematic methodological situation: calibration. Both critiquing and building on an argument from Robert Cummins, the paper explores what possible avenues may exist for the calibration of philosophical intuitions. It is argued that no good options are currently available, but leaves open the real possibility of such a calibration in the future.
Towards a Non-Rationalist Inflationist Account of Intuitions
Authors: Langkau Julia ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: January 2020

In this paper, I first develop desiderata for an ontology of intuitions on the basis of paradigmatic cases of intuitions in philosophy. A special focus lies on cases that have been subject to extensive first-order philosophical debates but have been receiving little attention in the current debate over the ontology of intuitions. I show that none of the popular accounts in the current debate can meet all desiderata. I discuss a view according to which intuitions reduce to beliefs, Timothy Williamson's (2004, 2007) account of intuitions as beliefs or inclinations to believe, and traditional rationalist accounts of intuitions. I then show that a widely ignored account of intuitions as appearance states can meet the desiderata best.
Philosophy as a Private Language
Authors: Gibran Ben ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: January 2020

Philosophy (and its corollaries in the human sciences such as literary, social and political theory) is distinguished from other disciplines by a more thoroughgoing emphasis on the a priori. Philosophy makes no claims to predictive power; nor does it aim to conform to popular opinion (beyond ordinary intuitions as recorded by ‘thought experiments’). Many philosophers view the discipline’s self-exemption from ‘real world’ empirical testing as a non-issue or even an advantage, in allowing philosophy to focus on universal and necessary truths. This article argues otherwise. The non-instrumentality of philosophical discourse renders it into a collective private language, impairing the discipline’s ability to judge the quality of its own output. The natural sciences and other technical disciplines offer the non-expert ‘windows of scrutiny’ into their respective methodologies, through numerous findings that can be easily and independently tested by amateurs. Such outside scrutiny provides a mechanism of external quality control, mitigating the internal effects of cognitive bias and institutionalised conformity upon the discourses of technical disciplines. In contrast, the conclusions of philosophy are not testable without in-depth knowledge of the methods by which they are arrived at; knowledge which can apparently only be gained through an extensive program of study, in philosophy. This epistemic circularity renders the program (even one of self-study) into a ‘black box’ in which the internal influence of cognitive biases and conformity effects cannot be independently assessed. The black box of philosophy is, in all relevant respects, analogous to the black box of the Cartesian mind that is the subject of Wittgenstein’s private language argument.
Freshest Advices on What To Do With the Historical Method in Philosophy When Using It to Study a Little Bit of Philosophy That Has Been Lost to History
Authors: Gilbert Bennett ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: January 2020

The paper explores the question of the relationship between the practice of original philosophical inquiry and the study of the history of philosophy. It is written from my point of view as someone starting a research project in the history of philosophy that calls this issue into question, in order to review my starting positions. I argue: first, that any philosopher is sufficiently embedded in culture that her practice is necessarily historical; second, that original work is in fact in part a reconstruction by reinterpretation of the past and that therefore it bears some relation to historiographic techniques for the restoration of damaged objects and texts; and third that the special oddities of the relations of present and past do not fail to ensnare the philosopher, who must restore the past but freely break from it. I describe this relationship as proleptic. Finally, I argue that this is a moral imperative in writing philosophy, derived from the imperative to be honest.
Interest as a Starting Place for Philosophy
Authors: Talbot Brian ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: January 2020

This paper discusses a puzzle about philosophical beliefs. Core philosophical beliefs that are widely shared among philosophers, such as the belief that skepticism is false, are often held with extreme confidence. However, this confidence is not justified if these beliefs are based on what are traditionally seen as the sources of philosophical evidence, such as intuitions or observation (or reasoning on these bases). Charity requires that we should look for some other basis for these beliefs. I argue that these beliefs are based on our knowledge of what we find interesting. Further, I argue that this is a good basis for belief. Knowing what we find interesting allows us to tune our inquiry in ways we could not otherwise.
Experimental Philosophy and Philosophical Disputes
Authors: Sytsma Justin , Livengood Jonathan ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: January 2020

One view of philosophy that is sometimes expressed, especially by scientists, is that while philosophers are good at asking questions, they are poor at producing convincing answers. And the perceived divide between philosophical and scientific methods is often pointed to as the major culprit behind this lack of progress. Looking back at the history of philosophy, however, we find that this methodological divide is a relatively recent invention. Further, it is one that has been challenged over the past decade by the modern incarnation of experimental philosophy. How might the reincorporation of empirical methods into philosophy aid the process of making philosophical progress? Building off of the work of Sytsma (2010), we argue that one way it does so is by offering a means of resolving some disputes that arise in philosophy. We illustrate how philosophical disputes may sometimes be resolved empirically by looking at the recent experimental literature on intuitions about reference.
The State of the Job Market for Pathologists: Evidence From the College of American Pathologists Practice Leader Survey
Authors: Gross David J. , Black-Schaffer W. Stephen , Hoffman Robert D. , Karcher Donald S. , Estrada Edith Lopez , Robboy Stanley J. , Cohen Michael B.
Published: January 2020

Context.—

Disagreement exists within the pathology community about the status of the job market for pathologists. Although many agree that jobs in pathology were harder to come by earlier this decade, recent evidence suggests improvement is occurring.

Objective.—

To assess the state of the job market for pathologists.

Design.—

We analyzed data from the 2018 College of American Pathologists Practice Leader Survey. This survey contains data from 253 practice leaders on practices' hiring (and retrenchments) in 2017, the skills and level of experience being sought, success in filling those positions, and expectations for hiring in the next 3 years.

Results.—

Among the surveyed practice leaders, 115 (45.5%) sought to hire at least 1 pathologist in 2017, and together tried to fill 246 full-time equivalent positions that year, of which 93.5 full-time equivalents (38%) were newly created. This hiring was not limited to larger, academic-based practices, but also occurred among smaller practices and practices based in nonacademic hospitals, independent laboratories, and other settings. Although some practices retrenched (60 full-time equivalents in 2017), the net increase was a healthy 187 full-time equivalents. Practices most frequently sought pathologists who had at least 2 years of experience, but the level of experience identified with the “optimal” candidate varied by desired areas of subspecialty expertise. Practice leaders also reported expected growth in hiring, with the number of positions they hope to fill in the next 3 years exceeding those vacated by retirement.

Conclusions.—

Our findings support the proposition that the demand for pathologists is strong, at least at the current time.
The Middle East in Music History: An Ethnomusicological Perspective
Authors: Stokes Martin
Published: January 2020

A glance at the ethnomusicology of the Muslim-majority Middle East might suggest it is peculiarly exposed to historiographical problems now familiar thanks to decades of orientalism critique. Namely, that music is understood in this part of the world via a peculiarly objectivising colonial ethnography, that it is understood in ways that deny its historical circumstances, and that it is subject to a relentless aestheticisation, which is to say, treated in analogous way to the Islamic art objects and miniatures ripped out of context and put on display in the museums of the western metropolis. The history of ethnomusicology suggests a long line of exceptions to this ‘rule’. The chapter explores the work of Villoteau, Lachmann and more recent work in and around sound archives asking to what extent we might see this work prefiguring recognisably modern and critical dispositions towards ethnography.
Mysticism’s Musical Modalities: Philosophies of Audition in Medieval Persian Sufism
Authors: Strohm Reinhard
Published: January 2020

For many Persian poets, Sufis in particular, the ethereal modes through which music communicates with its listeners embodied the somatic ‘taste’ (ẕauq) of the suprasomatic divine realities. Through a dialectic of revelation and concealment—or in the Qur’anic terms often employed by the Sufis, ẓāhir and bạ̄tin, exoteric and esoteric—proper musical experience (samāᶜ) becomes both a means of accessing the transcendent harmonies of the cosmos and conduit to the very transcendence of music itself. Proper hearing is not delimited by the audible range of the material ear, for this external sense (ḥiss-i ẓāhir) must yield to an internal sense (ḥiss-i bāṭin), signified by the gūsh-i jān and gūsh-i dil, the ‘ear of the soul’ and ‘ear of the heart’. These auricular metaphors express a deeply Pythagorean but specifically Persianate philosophy of audition, one not (only) grounded in the rationality of mathematical ratios, but (also) modelled upon Pythagoras’ cosmic auditory powers, bestowed through ritual purity.
Bridging the Safavid–Ottoman Divide
Authors: Wright Owen
Published: January 2020

In both Persian and Turkish art-music traditions, despite their significant current differences, the musical idiom of the 15th-century Timurid court is regarded as a significant forbear. Late 15th-century theoretical literature, however, refers to regional variations across the Middle East; these were exacerbated by a lack of continuity in Safavid and Ottoman court patronage during the 16th century, resulting in loss of repertoire and eventual replacement. Yet in the late 17th century commonalities between Safavid and Ottoman art-music practices re-emerge. Although not identical, indeed partly divergent, these practices share a core of frequently used modes and rhythmic cycles and use the same structures for complex song-settings; they even have elements of vocal repertoire in common, while certain Ottoman instrumental pieces are labelled ‘Persian’. There is evidence for the maintenance in both traditions of aesthetic constants in the domains of modulatory practice and formal articulation that can be observed much earlier.
Maud MacCarthy: ‘The Musicking Body’
Authors: Ghuman Nalini
Published: January 2020

This chapter highlights the pioneering work of Maud MacCarthy and its reception. Drawing on century-old field notes, transcriptions and manuscripts, it demonstrates that MacCarthy absorbed Indian music through immersion and practice in India; upon her return to Britain in the 1910s, she initiated cross-cultural collaborations and influenced figures such as Arthur Fox-Strangways and Gustav Holst. Photographs, lecture-recital scripts and press cuttings suggest that MacCarthy became a ‘musicking body’, exemplified by the dynamic hand gestures which accompanied her singing. The chapter contextualises the dismissal of her work within the nationalist Indian and British colonial discourses which sought to proscribe gesture, the body and, by extension, women, in classical music. It was the MacCarthy-Foulds ‘Indo-European Orchestra’ which broadcast from 1930s Delhi, which Ravi Shankar took up, unacknowledged, when he became director of the station. Although erased from the history of East–West musical interactions, MacCarthy’s work has thus had an enduring effect.
The Morean Legacy at St Monica’s
Authors: Van Hyning Victoria
Published: January 2020

This chapter investigates the importance of women’s education and Latinity to the first chronicler of St Monica’s, who composed anonymously, but whom I have identified as Mary Copley, a descendant of Sir Thomas More. Copley was well-educated, and descended from a long line of well-educated men and women whose learning, she believed, was critical to the survival and flourishing of English Catholicism after the Reformation. Copley’s attention to More’s legacy at St Monica’s is more sustained than would have been possible had she written under her own name. Writing anonymously, she subsumes her concerns into the stories and voices of the other women and their family members who are represented in this significant early modern chronicle. Copley’s is the first of four detailed case studies of what I call ‘subsumed autobiography’: when an anonymous author, through the very vehicle of her anonymity, shapes a text around her own experiences, politics, theology or ideology to such a degree that the work can be read as an expression and exploration of the author’s selfhood. The case of Copley’s authorship rests on combined analyses of prosopographical, manuscript, and textual data, and provides a methodology for identifying anonymous authors.
The Prioresses’ Tales
Authors: Van Hyning Victoria
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines how Prioresses could tightly control chronicle and governance literature in their lifetime, subjugating history to their own views, and yet how vulnerable these strategies were after their death. Prioress Lucy Herbert is the most versatile and prolific author studied here, and the most controversial. Through a combination of wealth, status, acumen, treachery, and determination, Herbert acquired property, extended the convent and school, transformed the nuns’ garments and sung Office, changed the school governance literature, and consolidated the power of the Prioress. Her voluminous anonymous manuscript output includes governance literature and a long stint in the ‘Chronicles of Nazareth’, all of which attest to her focus on benefactors, the convent’s reputation, and strengthening the power of the Prioress. Herbert’s focus on benefaction, and her printed works, can be partly credited with the convent’s survival in Bruges to this day. Case studies of Herbert’s successors, Prioresses Mary Olivia Darell and Mary Augustina More, explore how Herbert’s exploitation of anonymous subsumed autobiography in the chronicle and governance literature, her printed works, and cultivation of benefactors had lasting consequences for chronicling and governance practices at Nazareth. Darell and More’s responses to Herbert’s legacy expose the limits of anonymous and subsumed autobiography.