bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parent and Teacher Expectations for the Adult Lives of Their Severely and Profoundly Handicapped Children
Authors: Venn John J. , DuBose Rebecca F. , Merbler John B.
Published: July 2017

The parents and teachers of 10 severely handicapped children were surveyed concerning their expectations for the adult lives of the children. The children ranged in chronological age from 3 to 16 years and ranged in developmental age from 2 to 8 years. All of the children were visually impaired with at least one additional handicapping condition. A total of 10 parents and 10 teachers were surveyed In five areas: (1) education, (2) vocation, (3) living arrangement, (4) social life, and (5) potential income. Significant differences in expectations for the educational achievements of the children were observed between the parents and teachers.
Increasing Leisure Activity of Physically Disabled Retarded Persons through Modifying Resource Availability
Authors: Reid Dennis H. , Willis B. S. , Jarman Philip H. , Brown Katrina M.
Published: July 2017

The effects of altering the availability of leisure/recreational resources on the leisure behavior of 10 multihandicapped adolescents and adults were investigated in a state retardation center. Following baseline, a leisure room was provided for voluntary use of common recreational materials and equipment during a designated period during early evening hours. All residents demonstrated large increases in desirable leisure behavior while in the leisure room compared to baseline and times the resources were not available. Subsequent reversals to baseline conditions and reinstatement of leisure-room conditions replicated the results. In addition, providing the same leisure resources on the living ward was accompanied by increases in desirable leisure behavior although less than when provided in the leisure room. Examples of behaviors categorized as desirable and undesirable were socially validated through ratings by legal advocates of the residents. Results are discussed in light of legal and accreditation standards for providing leisure services for developmentally disabled persons.
Teaching a Parent in the Home to Train Self-Help Skills and Increase Compliance in Her Profoundly Retarded Adult Daughter
Authors: Fowler Susan A. , Johnson Moses R. , Whitman Thomas L. , Zukotynski George
Published: July 2017

The purpose of this study was to teach behavior management skills to the mother of a 24-year old, noninstitutionalized, profoundly retarded, noncompliant, and aggressive woman. Through the use of written instructions and verbal feedback, the mother was trained to apply a positive reinforcement and time-out program. In contrast to previous studies using this approach, this instructional program contained extensive sequenced directions that enabled the mother to systematically apply the procedures in teaching her daughter basic self-help and preacademic skills. These included hair brushing, tooth brushing, face washing, bead stringing, and ring stacking. Results indicated the program was successful in reorienting the mother's behavioral “style” of interaction with her daughter, in increasing the daughter's compliance, and in decreasing her noncompliance and aggressive responses during the self-help and preacademic training.
The Development and Implementation of Self-Care Programs with Severely and Profoundly Handicapped Children
Authors: Wambold Clark , Salisbury Christine (Hopper)
Published: July 2017

This paper describes procedures used in a program to teach self-care skills—particularly bathrooming—to severely and profoundly handicapped children. Program development, implementation, and evaluation are described. The results indicate that severely and profoundly handicapped children can become self-sufficient in particular self-care skills.
A Training Program for Selected Self-Feeding Skills for the Motorically Impaired
Authors: Banerdt Barbara , Bricker Diane
Published: July 2017

The purposes of this study were to examine the effects of proper positioning and prosthetic equipment on the acquisition of selected self-feeding skills with a young cerebral palsy child and to develop evaluation strategies and procedures that could be easily employed by a teacher or parent in a classroom or home setting. The normal developing sequence of feeding skills was used as a guide in designing the training program. Results indicated that, through proper positioning and the use of adaptive equipment, the child was able to move his arms in a manner that allowed him to begin self-feeding with minimal assistance from the staff.
Use of Function as a Consequence in Training Receptive Labeling to Severely and Profoundly Retarded Individuals
Authors: Janssen Cynthia , Guess Doug
Published: July 2017

Four severely and profoundly retarded residents of a state institution for the mentally retarded served as subjects for a study which compared two methods for training receptive labeling skills. In the label only condition, subjects were trained to point to an object in response to the label. In the function plus label training condition, the subject was again required to point to an object in response to the label; but in addition, the function of the object was used as a consequence for a correct response. Results indicated that severely and profoundly retarded individuals acquired receptive labeling skills faster by using the function plus label method of training than by training in the label only method.
The Relation between Programmed Instruction and Task Analysis in the Prevocational Training of Severely and Profoundly Handicapped Persons
Authors: Mithaug Dennis E.
Published: July 2017

This article reviews the historical origins and influences of two major instructional approaches, task analysis and programmed instruction, in order to (a) define the essential elements of each, (b) identify important similarities and differences, and (c) specify the functional relations that make programmed instruction and task analysis complementary components of an individualized training strategy. The article discusses the implications of these considerations by indicating that task analytic strategies and programmed instruction in combination are most valuable in training the specific job-related skills necessary for an imminent placement, while programmed instruction across different tasks may be most useful in developing career education plans and curricular sequences that train the generative vocational skills and worker behavior that apply to many tasks and job situations.
The Use of Mild Punishment in Combination with Reinforcement of Alternate Behaviors to Reduce the Self-Injurious Behavior of a Profoundly Retarded Individual
Authors: Murphey Robert J. , Ruprecht Michael J. , Baggio Peter , Nunes Dennis L.
Published: July 2017

A procedure involving the response-contingent presentation of a mild aversive stimulus, reinforcement of alternative behaviors, and training for stimulus control was used to suppress self-injurious behavior of a profoundly retarded individual. This procedure, implemented by several people in varied settings throughout the entire school day, produced an immediate and substantial suppression effect in the training environments. Examination of school records and extensive staff interviewing indicates that the suppression effect generalized from the training environments to the hospital living area. In addition, it was durable in both the training and nontraining settings over an 8-month interval, although 20 months after treatment termination, a large portion of the generalized suppression effect in the nontraining environment was reversed. Possible explanations for this phenomenon are presented. These records and interviews also indicate that the inhibition factor of self-injurious responding was not associated with increases in existing stereotypic behavior or the development of new stereotypic behaviors. The public school personnel who conducted the program were completely trained in one school day without disruption to their normal activities.
Sam's Day: A Simulated Observation of a Severely Handicapped Child's Educational Program
Authors: Orlansky Michael D.
Published: July 2017

This article describes several instructional activities as they might be conducted with a hypothetical severely/profoundly handicapped child. The educational procedures are critically discussed, and suggestions are offered. Teachers, administrators, and teacher educators are encouraged to periodically review and evaluate their programs, and to consider whether or not the instruction is effectively meeting the needs of their severely/ profoundly handicapped students.
Training Severely Handicapped Students to Cross Partially Controlled Intersections
Authors: Vogelsburg R. Timm , Rusch Frank R.
Published: July 2017

In this study three severely handicapped school-aged students were trained to cross the street. The students were provided preinstruction, instructional feedback, and selective repeated practice to acquire the skills to cross the street at partially controlled intersections; selective repeated practice was introduced only when physical assistance was required on those skills students found particularly difficult to learn; a rehearsal and model phase was eventually used to promote independent street crossing. Data were collected on the following training clusters: approach (walking to and stopping on the curb), look (looking behind, in front, left, and right), step (stepping off the curb when no cars were coming), and walk (walking quickly across the street and stopping on the other side). Results of the multiple baseline design indicated that instructional feedback was sufficient in training the approach and walk behaviors but selective repeated practice was required to establish the look responses. A partial reversal following withdrawal of instructional feedback suggested withdrawing all treatment components would result in total loss of behavior gains. Therefore, rehearsal in the form of performing the entire sequence with the trainer and then a trainer model was tried. This strategy increased the number of independent decisions to step and walk across the street. Generalization probes on untreated, partially controlled intersections suggested that each student used the newly acquired behaviors appropriately. Future research is suggested in the areas of training two-behavior versus four-behavior chains, using repeated practice to facilitate acquisition and teach independent decision making to severely handicapped students.
A Comparison of Three Strategies of Reinforcement on Two-Choice Learning Problems with Severely Retarded Children
Authors: Saunders Richard R. , Sailor Wayne
Published: July 2017

Three severely retarded children were given training on several two-choice discrimination problems. Each discrimination problem consisted of displaying two ordinary children's toys and asking the child to point to the toy named by the experimenter. The names consisted of three-letter (consonant-vowel-consonant) nonsense syllables. Training on each problem was conducted under one of three different reinforcement conditions. In the condition labeled “specific reinforcement,” correct choices were followed by the opportunity to play with the toy to which the child pointed. Under the “nonspecific reinforcement” condition, correct responses were followed by the opportunity to play with a toy offered by the experimenter, but which was not a part of the training pair. In the “variable reinforcement” condition, the child was offered, on correct pointing occasions, either the toy to which he or she pointed, or the toy which was not one of the pair being trained, in random order. The results indicated the level of correct responding was higher under the “specific reinforcement” condition than under either of the two other conditions, even when the latter were “weighted” for strength of reinforcement potential. It was concluded that a strategy of reinforcement which includes cue values of the discriminative stimulus may strengthen the learning process.
Elimination of Self-Injurious Behavior in a Profoundly Retarded Adolescent Using Intermittent Time-Out, Restraint, and Blindfold Procedures
Authors: Murphy Robert J. , Ruprecht Michael , Nunes Dennis L.
Published: July 2017

Alternative strategies for reducing self-injurious behavior are needed in order to provide effective service to clientele for whom such behavior is a serious problem. A procedure involving the intermittent presentation of time-out, restraint, and blindfolding produced complete suppression of self-slapping in a profoundly retarded adolescent. A variable-ratio two schedule of time-out and physical restraint contingencies was effective in reducing and maintaining a low level of self-abusive behavior. While some of the treatment effect was lost during and after exposure to a variable-ratio six schedule, the addition of a blindfold procedure to the variable-ratio two resulted in complete suppression of self-slapping. A punishment contrast effect observed during the initial return to baseline conditions was eliminated through complete suppression of the self-abusive behavior during the final intervention procedure. This behavior suppression generalized across time and settings in which the contingencies had never been applied. In addition, this suppression was associated with an increase in adaptive behavior and did not produce any undesirable collateral responding. Two-year follow-up data indicate that complete response suppression has been maintained.
The Role of Supervisory Personnel in Programs for the Severely Handicapped
Authors: Knapczyk Dennis R. , Dever Richard B.
Published: July 2017

In attempting to provide a full range of educational services to severely handicapped persons, school systems will encounter many problems over and above those which can be handled by qualified classroom teachers. Among these problems are curriculum development, staff in-service training and consultation, program evaluation, and educational program liaison with other school and community programs. To handle these problems, supervisory personnel must receive training beyond that given to regular administrative personnel. This article describes the areas in which training should be provided.
The Presence of Allergies among Severely Handicapped Persons
Authors: Knapczyk Dennis R.
Published: July 2017

The presence of allergies among severely handicapped persons is often not suspected because of the number and type of learning and behavior problems they exhibit. As a result, classroom teachers may encounter students enrolled in programs for the severely handicapped who have undetected allergies. Since allergies can produce reactions which greatly interfere with a student's ability to attend to instruction, it is essential that teachers know what an allergy is and how allergies can affect learner performance. This article describes how teachers can screen their students for allergies and participate in a treatment program.
The Effects of Physical Time-Out on the Aggressive Behaviors of a Severely Emotionally Disturbed Child in a Public School Setting
Authors: Noll Mary Beth , Simpson Richard L.
Published: July 2017

A firm physical restraint procedure was applied to a 6-year-old severely emotionally disturbed male in a self-contained special education classroom in a public school. The treatment procedure consisted of physically holding the subject, contingent on the occurrence of verbal aggression, a response frequently accompanied by physical aggression. Following each instance of verbal aggression, the subject was placed in a “basket hold”; this consisted of crossing the child's arms in front of him while the adult simultaneously stepped behind and sat him on the floor between his legs. The subject's eyes were covered by one hand of the adult to reduce external stimuli and to firmly establish the security of adult control. The subject was not released from physical time-out until all verbal and physical aggressions had ceased for a period of 30 seconds. Experimental sessions were conducted through an A-B-A-B design, where A consisted of baseline sessions and B of sessions in which physical time-out was initiated. The data indicate that the restraint procedure was effective in significantly reducing the maladaptive aggressive responses of the subject in the public school setting.
Key Force and Typing Performance
Authors: Loricchio David F.
Published: July 2017

The IBM Design Center in Boca Raton studied the operating-point key force for a portable computer keyboard. Alden, Daniels, and Kanarick (1972) report that typists prefer operating-point key forces of between 25 and 150 grams. We compared different key forces that fell within the range recommended by Alden et al. The only difference between the keyboards we studied was the amount of force required to activate the keys. The first keyboard (58 keyboard) required 58 grams of force to activate the keys. The second keyboard (74 keyboard) required 74 grams of force to activate the keys. Sixteen skilled typists used both keyboards to enter text. Input speed was significantly faster on the 58–gram keyboard. A significant number of typists preferred the 58-gram keyboard. The results suggest that the optimal key force for portable computer keyboards is less than 74 grams.
Coas: Combined Object-Action Selection: A Human Factors Experiment
Authors: Kelley J. F. , Ukelson J.
Published: July 2017

12 participants with a high level of domain experience used two different, mouse-based, interaction techniques to carry out three workstation file management tasks of varying complexity. One technique followed a standard Object-Action model; the other was a newly developed technique called COAS (Combined Object-Action Selection). There was little difference in performance on a simple task; performance for participants using the new technique was 38% faster on a moderately complex task and was 21% faster on a complex task. The file management application, interaction techniques and experiment were implemented in an OS/2 Presentation Manager style using ITS (Interactive Transaction System).
The Impact of Color Coding in Program Debugging
Authors: Widjaja T. Kiki
Published: July 2017

The potential of using color as a program debugging aid was investigated in this research. The study assessed program debugging performance of eighteen subjects in three different color coding conditions: black and white, color-grouping that arranged loops and nested structures in five shades of green, and color-flagging that highlighted potential error areas in orange. Completion time, accuracy, and types of error detected, subjective preferences, and rate of visual comfort for each condition was recorded. This research suggested that color coding substantially improved error detections in C programms.
Understanding the Image Functions for Icon Design
Authors: Lin Rungtai , Kreifeldt John G.
Published: July 2017

Because icons vary from very representational to extremely abstract symbols in a user interface, an important issue faced by designers when designing an icon is how to select an appropriate design style for the image. There are no simple rules that can be followed by designers to determine the design style. The present study is intended to help designers to choose a proper design style for the icon at an early design stage. First, a classification of icons is summarized and the levels of stylization are discussed and demonstrated with examples. Then, thirty icons from several drawing packages and generally used symbols are selected, and a matching test is conducted to obtain the correct matching rates. The results are presented with some explanations for icon recognition and confusion, and finally how to select the right image function for icon design is discussed.
Multiple Monitors vs. Windowing Presentation Styles for Shop-Floor Controls
Authors: Hsu Shang H. , Shen Chou
Published: July 2017

Windowing systems seem to provide promising alternatives to display massive information for multi-tasking and real-time control systems. However, the benefits of windowing systems might be offset by the workload resulting from window management. The purpose of this study was to compare the relative advantages of tiled window, overlapping window, and twin monitors for high-demand and low-demand information-processing shop-floor control tasks. It was found that tiled windowing system was superior to the other two for high-demand tasks while twin monitors was the best for low-demand tasks.
An Evaluation of Computer-Supported Backtracking in a Hierarchical Database
Authors: Vargo Cortney G. , Brown Clifford E. , Swierenga Sarah J.
Published: July 2017

This study was designed to investigate whether computer-supported backtracking tools reduced navigation time over manual backtracking and to compare navigation times among a subset of four backtracking tools. Each tool was evaluated in the context of an experimental, hierarchical, direct-manipulation database. Trials consisted of an information retrieval task requiring subjects to answer multiple-choice questions about the contents of the database. The independent variables included the backtracking tool and the backtrack navigation Task Length. The dependent measures included navigation time, the frequency with which the computer tool was selected and used over manual backtracking (a Table of Contents), and questionnaire responses. Backtracking with any of the four computer-supported tools resulted in a significantly reduced navigation time over manual backtracking using the Table of Contents. When provided with a history list, subjects had significantly smaller navigation times when backtracking at the higher of two levels in the database hierarchy. There were no differences between computer tools in rated efficiency, ease of use, or objective or subjective preference measures.
Maintaining Stasis: Why Oser Acceptance of Advanced Technology is So Hard to Get (and What to do about it)
Authors: Greitzer Frank L. , Spalding Nancy J.
Published: July 2017

The focus of this paper is on user-centered systems engineering activities supporting the acquisition, requirements gathering, and preliminary design of a major technology advancement for an operating commercial command and control system. Major activities included establishment of user-centered customer and developer organizations, knowledge acquisition, human-machine interface design and prototyping, scenario and system simulation development, and demonstration of the proposed system. Because the system was designed with substantial user input, it received a high degree of user acceptance.
Does the Fidelity of Software Prototypes Affect the Perception of Usability?
Authors: Wiklund Michael E. , Thurrott Christopher , Dumas Joseph S.
Published: July 2017

The objective of this study was to investigate whether the aesthetic refinement of a software prototype is related to subjects' ratings of the usability of the prototype. We purchased a commercially available electronic device offering the functions of dictionary, calculator, and thesaurus (hereafter referred to as the Dictionary). We created four user interface prototypes of the Dictionary using line art, half-tone, gray scale, and color images of the product. The prototypes varied in the degree to which the displayed image resembled the physical look of the real product in terms of depth, tone, color, etc. All of the prototypes were interactive in that subjects could, with a mouse, make the prototypes operate like the Dictionary. Five groups of ten subjects each then made their ratings and performed tasks using either one of the prototypes or the Dictionary. The subjects rated ease of learning and use, forgiveness of mistakes, and aesthetics for the version they used, before and after performing tasks. Subjects who used a prototype also repeated a task using the real product and compared the two in terms of similarity of interaction and aesthetics. The results indicated that the aesthetic quality of prototypes within the range we varied did not bias users for or against the prototype's perceived usability. However, we learned that half-tone prototypes should be avoided when their coarse shadings decrease legibility. In addition, we found that making prototypes mimic the response time of a product or a design concept is important. When the real product produces slower response times, prototype performance may give an overly optimistic picture of the product's usability.
Ideal: A Software Tool to Evaluate Interface Usability
Authors: Ashlund Stacey , Hix Deborah
Published: July 2017

This paper reports on the design, prototype implementation, and formative evaluation of a software tool—IDEAL (Interface Design Environment and Analysis Lattice). IDEAL integrates usability engineering techniques and behavioral task representations with a graphical hierarchy of user tasks to support formative evaluation of an evolving user interface. Representative users of IDEAL—interface designers and evaluators—participated in two phases of formative evaluation of IDEAL. Empirical evaluation showed IDEAL to be useful as an automated tool for managing the interrelated tasks of user interface development, including interaction design, usability specification, creation of benchmark tasks, and formative evaluation, that are currently performed manually.
Graphical Interfaces to Complex Systems: Separating the Wheat from the Chaff
Authors: Flach John M. , Bennett Kevin B.
Published: July 2017

There seems to be a clear consensus that graphical interfaces provide an opportunity to integrate data from complex process in a way that can greatly enhance the problem solving ability of human operators in the future. However, this consensus is maske by a proliferation of terms to express this position in the basic and applied research literatures (e.g., “integrality,” “configurality,” “proximity-compatibility,” “visual momentum,” “direct manipulation,” and “ecological interface”). While the subtle nuances that distinguish among these terms are of academic interest, designers have greater concern for the general principles that might be gleaned from across the subtle distinctions. Base on a thorough review of the basic and applied literature (Bennett & Flach, In press), we argue that there is one basic characteristic of graphical representations that is critical for supporting problem solving. A good graphical display is one whose geometric (space/time) constraints reflect the functional constraints in the proess being represented. In this presentation, we will demonstrate what we mean by a “functional constraint” in a process and a “geometric constraint” in a display. We will demonstrate alternative mappings from “functional constraints” to “geometric constraints.” We will also discuss the implications of these mappings for the type of processing (cognitive versus perceptual) required of the human operator.
An Ecological Approach to Human-Machine Systems
Authors: Flach John M. , Hancock Peter A.
Published: July 2017

Human Factors is unlike other traditional divisions of knowledge and is more than the mere haphazard interdisciplinary collaboration between psychology and engineering. As such, it requires a unique theoretical structure that reflects the opportunities and constraints intrinsic to emergent complex dynamical operational spaces derived from the interplay of human, machine, task, and environment.
Monitoring Automation Failures: Effects of Single and Multi-Adaptive Function Allocation
Authors: Mouloua Mustapha , Parasuraman Raja , Molloy Robert
Published: July 2017

Adaptive function allocation has been proposed to allow the advantages of task automation to be realized without some of the disadvantages of “static” automation. However, few empirical studies of the efficacy of adaptive allocation have been reported. The effects of adaptive function allocation on monitoring for automation failure during multi-task flight simulation were examined in two experiments. The first study examined the use of two methods of adaptive function allocation as a possible counter-measure to automation-induced monitoring problems. Subjects were required to perform a tracking and fuel management task while monitoring an automated system monitoring task for possible failures. For the “model-based” and “performance-based” adaptive groups, a single 10-minute block of fully manual performance on the monitoring task was allocated to subjects in the middle of a session. For the control group system monitoring was automated throughout all sessions. All three groups had low probabilities of detection of automation failures for the first 40 minutes spent with automation, before the adaptive function allocation change. However, detection probabilities were higher for both adaptive groups than for the control group following the function allocation change. The second study found that multiple adaptive changes (repeated function allocation) sustained these performance benefits over a longer automation period. These results clearly indicate that adaptive function allocation can improve detection of automation failures and that the improvement can be sustained over long periods of automation cycles.
A Cognitive Systems Engineering Application for Interface Design
Authors: Klinger David W. , Gomes Marie E.
Published: July 2017

Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) is primarily a blend of technological opportunities, findings from cognitive research, and Cognitive Task Analysis. Using CSE, we were able to produce an efficient and effective redesign of the AWACS Weapons Director (WD) station. The design effort was completed in a relatively short period of time.

A Cognitive Task Analysis was performed using two interview techniques: Concept Mapping and the Critical Decision method (CDM). The information obtained using these methods pinpointed specific cognitive areas which any redesign of the WD interface must address. A revised interface was developed and evaluated.

During the evaluation, the training of the participants on the revised interface was quite brief (4.5 hours). As a result, the WDs did not achieve the same degree of familiarity or automatization with the revised interface that they have with the current interface. Yet, when WDs were using the revised system their performance improved. This was indicated by an increase in performance for a number of process and outcome measures. Also, a skilled WD provided blind ratings of WD performance. These global ratings were significantly higher for the revised interface.

The effectiveness of the revised interface suggests that it is possible to pinpoint cognitive task requirements and to make these the driving factors in a design effort. Moreover, these Cognitive Systems Engineering activities do not consume a great deal of time or effort. The use of CSE may be a feasible aspect of the design process, enabling system developers to achieve a much stronger effectiveness at relatively low cost.
An Evaluation of the Visual Environment in Aircraft Inspection
Authors: Reynolds Jacqueline L. , Drury Colin G.
Published: July 2017

Aircraft inspection is still primarily a visual activity, thus the accuracy and efficiency of this visual inspection is ultimately determined by the adequacy of the visual environment. Based upon site visits to various commercial aircraft sites, the existing visual environment in aircraft inspection has been found to be generally inadequate. This study demonstrates a procedure which can be utilized to assist in selecting the appropriate lighting equipment for aircraft tasks. An evaluation was undertaken at a single commercial aircraft maintenance facility which included task analyses of typical inspection jobs combined with photometric evaluations of the ambient and task lighting. Portable and personal lighting sources were sampled and evaluated in the laboratory and on the hangar floor for both photometric performance and ease of use. In addition, inspector perceptions were collected from four facilities to obtain a wider base for comments and concerns related to the personal and portable lighting and the visual environment. Recommendations are made based upon the task demands, visual requirements, and other selected lighting considerations.
Responses of Pilots and Nonpilots to Color-coded Altitude Information in a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
Authors: Beringer Dennis B. , Allen Robert C. , Kozak Keith A. , Young Grant E.
Published: July 2017

The effective use of cockpit displays of traffic information is largely dependent upon the degree to which vertical status and trend information can be presented simply and unambiguously to the pilot. The traditional use of plan-view displays has been challenged by other representations, each having its own unique advantages and disadvantages. Although perspective-view displays, for example, may be very useful, they suffer from potential overlaid symbology causing obscuration or clutter along specific viewing vectors. An alternate approach is to use color encoding techniques to represent vertical trend information in a plan-view horizontal situation display. Static and dynamic color coding techniques were used in such a display where stratified vertical sectors were represented by stereotypic colors (green/safe; yellow/caution; red/danger) with an additional color cue for intruder above/below. The static representation depicted the symbol in the appropriate color or a 50/50 combination of colors to represent transitions between zones. The dynamic presentation used a continuously changing ratio of colors within the symbol to show this same transition between altitude zones as an attempt to provide rate and depth-of-penetration cues. Performances of nonpilots and pilots using these displays were obtained in a simulation setting and compared with performances obtained using numeric/symbolic encoding of the same information. The color-encoded conditions generally produced faster and more accurate classification responses than did the numeric/symbolic condition. Pilot course tracking behavior, however, was not affected differentially across display formats.
Toward an Empirically Based Helmet-Mounted Display Symbology Set
Authors: Geiselman Eric E. , Osgood Robert K.
Published: July 2017

The helmet-mounted display (HMD) affords continuous availability of critical flight information independent of head orientation. With appropriate information presented on a HMD, aircraft control can be maintained regardless of where the pilot is looking. This research addresses the development of an empirically based HMD symbol set. Three attitude formats and three altitude formats were evaluated within a composite fixed-wing HMD symbology layout. The attitude formats varied in basic form and symbol compression ratio. Symbol compression ratio is the ratio of the angle represented by the symbol to the symbol's subtended visual angle. High symbol compression results in symbols which represent large angles, and therefore have slow rate-of-motion relative to their uncompressed counterparts. The altitude symbologies were formed of both vertical scale and dial formats and included vertical velocity indicators. Subjects performed a flight-path maintenance task within sessions of differing “real” horizon presence and orientation. The formats were evaluated under a task which was designed to require high-accuracy flight-path maintenance. This type of task is traditionally thought to require less symbol compression. The results showed that performance was influenced by the manipulation of the attitude symbology formats. The results also suggest that symbol compression may be advantageous.
Properties of Computer-Generated Scenes Important for Simulating Low-Altitude Flight
Authors: Kleiss James A.
Published: July 2017

Previous research indicates two properties of real-world scenes are important to pilots for visual low-altitude flight: (a) vertical development mediated by presence or absence of hills and ridges, and (b) discrete objects exemplified by large objects or groups of objects. The present investigation sought to determine whether these scene properties can be represented with adequate perceptual fidelity in flight simulator visual scenes. The stimuli were sixteen computer-generated scenes exhibiting variation in both properties described above. Subjects rated the visual similarity of scenes with regard to properties useful for visual low-altitude flight. Ratings were analyzed using multidimensional scaling. A two-dimensional spatial configuration captured orderly variation in both scene properties. Unlike previous results using real-world scenes, discrete objects were relatively more important than vertical development in computer-generated scenes. Also, groups of trees were no more salient than randomly scattered trees in computer-generated scenes. Thus, properties important in real-world scenes can be effectively modeled in computer-generated scenes although some differences remain.
Assessment of Pilot Situational Awareness: Measurement via Simulation
Authors: Metalis S. A. , Rivera Pico
Published: July 2017

While pilots have an intuitive understanding of situational awareness (SA), researchers have had difficulty defining and measuring SA for practical ends such as pilot selection, training and cockpit design evaluation. To achieve the latter end a model of SA is proposed and a measurement technique is described. Specifically, SA appears to involve the development and maintenance of a highly dynamic mental representation of critical aspects of the flying environment. Using this system the pilot makes judicious decisions in a timely manner with little conscious effort. To render SA measurable, SA may be modeled as a computer system with elements and processes which serve to develop and maintain an extremely fast, efficient database. Computer systems are assessed via benchmark tests. To measure SA, the pilot flies a benchmark test which consists of a standardized mission in a medium fidelity simulator under progressively increasing assigned airspeeds. The pilot's SA is measured via techniques including objective metrics such as flying performance and responses to “unexpected” events, as well as subjective metrics such as ratings and knowledge elicitation. All must of necessity be indirect measures of SA, for the pilot's actions reflect not only SA but the adequacy of the data initially available as well as the quality of training, talent, and the vehicle itself. A statistically weighted combination of these measures is used in order to improve sensitivity and minimize their individual limitations.
Application of quantitative EEG analysis to workload assessment in an advanced aircraft simulator
Authors: Sterman M. B. , Kaiser D. A. , Mann C. A. , Suyenobu B. Y. , Beyma D. C. , Francis J. R.
Published: July 2017

A fully portable quantitative EEG assessment system was used to evaluate workload in an advanced technology aircraft simulator. Air refueling and landing approach tasks were each performed at two difficulty levels in 15 Air Force pilots. Averaged and trended EEG spectral data were compared in the 8-12 Hz band to identify functional requirements for increased workload within and between tasks. A progressive suppression of 8-12 Hz activity at medial and right parietal sites accompanied increased workload in the air refueling task, while a sustained suppression at right and left temporal sites was associated with increased workload in the landing task. These findings suggest a potential electrophysiological index for workload. They also identify specific and differential cortical responses to visual integration in air refueling and working memory in ILS approach as primary correlates of the cognitive requirements for these tasks in these subjects.
Cognitive Modeling of Crm Assessment Expertise: Identification of the Primary Assessors
Authors: Seamster Thomas L. , Edens Eleana S.
Published: July 2017

A cognitive model of instructor Crew Resource Management (CRM) assessment was developed as an integral component of a prototype CRM assessment expert system. The cognitive model provides an instructor-centered approach to CRM assessment in the multi-tasking, time-constrained environment of recurrent Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT). This cognitive modeling is based on systematic analysis of how experienced instructors are able to attend to key crew behaviors and derive consistent CRM assessments in the complex simulator-based training environment. Concept sorting data, collected from recurrent training instructors, was subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis. The analysis identified the mental organization or knowledge structures required to make efficient CRM assessments in the time-constrained LOFT environment. There were three primary assessment clusters that experienced instructors had in common. These clusters of assessment concepts were used to develop the architecture and content of the assessor modules for the prototype CRM assessment expert system. That expert system provides an efficient CRM assessment that is similar to the process and output of the experienced recurrent training instructor. These findings have operational implications for the feasibility of an instructor CRM assessment tool and for making the CRM assessment process more systematic.
Visual Scanning, Memory Scanning, and Computational Human Performance Modeling
Authors: Liu Yili
Published: July 2017

This article describes two studies that were conducted as part of a systematic effort at the University of Michigan to develop computational and comprehensive models of complex human performance and to improve the scientific basis for these models. The focus of the first study was the integration of models of divided attention and models of selective attention in performing complex tasks. Two experiments were conducted, which required the subjects to perform a simple information acquisition task in the first experiment and a complex information integration task in the second experiment. The two types of tasks were performed either alone or concurrently with a tracking task, and involved either spatial or verbal material. The location of the relevant spatial and verbal material was displayed with 4 levels of spatial uncertainty, but with approximately the same expected distance for visual scanning. The results demonstrated the strengths and limitations of existing models. The potential value of power functions in quantifying different aspects of task interference was proposed in the paper. A queuing network model, that was proposed recently (Liu, 1993a) as an unifying theory and an integrated computational model of human multi-task performance, was also tested in this study. In the second study, a computational model was derived from models of memory scanning and visual scanning and evaluated through an experiment to examine the integration of the two aspects of human performance modeling. We report here the first of a series of experiments of the study, which required the subjects to search through an organized array of circles to decide whether any of the circles carried any of the memorized items in their working memory. The joint effects of two experimental factors were investigated: the number of items in working memory and the number of circles need to be searched.
The Effect of Peripheral Visual Cues on the Control of Self-Stabilization in Roll
Authors: James Melanie R. , Coldwell Jon N. , Belyavin Andrew J.
Published: July 2017

This paper reports a programme of laboratory research to assess the potential of a new form of aircraft attitude indicator. The Ambient Attitude Indicator (AAI), designed to exploit the characteristics of the ambient visual system, provides a continuous source of world-stabilized orientation information to the pilot's ambient visual system.

In laboratory experiments, the first of which is reported here, the effects of peripheral visual cues on subjects' control of continuous self-stabilization in roll are assessed. Subjects, seated on a roll turntable, were required to null a continuous quasi-random forcing function using a velocity-control joystick. Their objective was to maintain a stable upright orientation. Three visual conditions were studied: no visual cues, world-stabilized peripheral visual cues, and turntable-stabilized peripheral visual cues. Significant effects of visual condition were found for measures of joystick RMS displacement, turntable RMS error, and frequency of changes of direction of the turntable. World-stabilized conditions resulted in the highest joystick RMS displacement, the lowest turntable RMS error, and the highest frequency of changes of direction of the turntable. A linear transfer function, with autoregressive noise process to represent the remnant, was fitted to the data using maximum likelihood estimation. Details of subjects' frequency response are presented and the effects of practice on these measures are also considered.
Remote Conference Interpreting Using ISDN Videotelephone: A Requirements Analysis and Feasibility Study
Authors: Böcker Martin , Anderson Donald
Published: July 2017

The introduction of videocommunications via the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) offers the potential of significant changes in the working conditions of a variety of professions including conference interpreters. A study was conducted aiming at identifying the special videocommunications requirements of professional conference interpreters and establishing whether ISDN videotelephony offers a sufficient audio bandwidth and image resolution to support the interpreters in their work.

To this aim, a requirements analysis was conducted and four videotelephony systems were set up each implementing a different ISDN combination of audio bandwidth and picture quality. Five professional interpreters took part in the study. Each performed a simultaneous interpretation task of 30 minutes under each of the four conditions (set-ups). Stimulus material to be interpreted consisted of videotapes of conference presentations and TV interviews. Data on the dependent variables (task difficulty, benefits of the picture, sound quality, Social Presence, performance, and acceptance) were collected by means of questionnaires.

The most important conclusion is that remote interpreting using ISDN videotelephony is possible only at a cost in terms of both increased fatigue and less satisfaction of the interpreters with their work. Remote interpreting requires at least the image quality that can be provided by a 384 kbit/s transmission rate (until better coding algorithms are available for lower transmission rates) and an audio bandwidth of at least 7 kHz. It is further recommended to conduct a field study with standardized interpreting equipment using more realistic input material.
Communicative Presence in Videocommunications
Authors: Böcker Martin , Mühlbach Lothar
Published: July 2017

This paper deals with factors affecting Communicative Presence in videocommunications. Communicative Presence is defined as the capacity of a system to transfer mutual communicative signals of interlocutors. The experiment the paper reports on examined the effects of various features of videoconferencing systems in terms of several aspects, such as the conferees' feeling of being individually addressed by non-verbal signals (e.g. eye-contact), the flow of conversation, user satisfaction, and the willingness to use videoconferencing systems. One system feature that was systematically varied was the degree of vertical and horizontal eye-contact angles. In order to reduce the horizontal eye-contact angles for the two test subjects acting as conferees at one site of the experimental set-up, two different images (one per conferee) which were in accordance with the perspectives the conferees would have in a similar face-to-face meeting were displayed (“view-per-person” principle). Another feature that was examined was the spatial resolution of the displayed images. The results showed that large eye-contact angles as well as a low resolution decrease the feeling of Communicative Presence. Within the framework of the experiment, the hypothesis concerning the benefits of a view-per-person representation could not be verified.