bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Composites, Intrinsically Smart Structures
Authors: Chung D.D.L.
Published: November 2003

Smart structures are important because of their use in hazard mitigation, structural vibration control, structural health monitoring, transportation engineering, and thermal control. Research on smart structures has emphasized incorporating of various devices in a structure to provide sensing, energy dissipation, actuation, control, or other functions. Research on smart composites has emphasized incorporating of a smart material in a matrix to enhance smartness or durability. Research on smart materials has emphasized the study of materials (e.g., piezoelectric materials) used for making the devices. However, relatively little attention has been given to the development of structural materials (e.g., concrete and composites) that can inherently provide some of the smart functions, so that the need for embedded or attached devices is reduced or eliminated, thereby lowering cost, enhancing durability, increasing the smart volume, and minimizing mechanical property degradation (which is usually caused by embedded devices).

Smart structures are structures that can sense certain stimuli and respond to the stimuli appropriately, somewhat like a human being. Sensing is the most fundamental aspect of a smart structure. A structural composite, which is itself a sensor, is multifunctional.

This article focuses on structural composites for smart structures. It addresses cement‐matrix and Polymer‐matrix composites. The smart functions addressed include strain sensing (for structural vibration control and traffic monitoring), damage sensing (both mechanical and thermal damage related to structural health monitoring), temperature sensing (for thermal control, hazard mitigation, and structural performance control), thermoelectricity (for thermal control and saving energy), and vibration reduction (for structural vibration control). These functional abilities of the structural composites have been shown in the laboratory. Applications in the field are forthcoming.
Electrochromic Sol‐Gel Coatings
Authors: Klein L. C.
Published: November 2003

Certain inorganic compounds, especially oxides of polyvalent metals, exhibit coloration that depends on the oxidation state of their cations. This property leads to electrochromism, which is a reversible and visible change in transmittance and/or reflectance. The oxidation–reduction reactions are electrochemically induced, using low voltages of the order of ± 1 V dc.

In pursuing the development of completely sol‐gel EC devices, physical properties need to be considered, in addition to the ionic conductivity. Of course, the electrolyte has to have high electronic resistivity, high ionic conductivity and no defects. In addition, all of the layers require a film thickness less than about 1000 nm (generally less than 500 nm), high transparency across the visible range, good adhesion between adjacent layers and thermodynamic stability between adjacent layers across a wide electrochemical window. Overall, an EC device should operate under the approximate conditions of +2.5 volts (100 s)/–1.5 volts (100 s) for more than 10,000 cycles at 15 mC/cm2.

For practical EC windows, there has been significant recent progress using a variety of technologies. Sol‐gel processing is only one route under investigation. Interest continues in sol‐gel processing because precursors for all of the layers that lead to the appropriate oxide gels are readily available. The resulting gels are inorganic and rigid. In particular, the sol‐gel electrolyte operates while playing the role of a mechanical divider between the electrodes. In addition, sol‐gel processing is a logical batch process for large area coatings. Several studies show that sol‐gel coatings have the required transmittance across the visible light range. Finally, the layers have “no moving parts.”
Fluid Machines
Authors: Bullough W. A.
Published: November 2003

Smart machines can deliver a flexible array of force, velocity, and/or displacement patterns without having their geometry changed in a part‐by‐part sense. Smart fluid machines additionally utilize a liquid as the force‐power‐transmitting medium. Patterns of motion, if not changed by the adjustment of levers, belts, or gear trains, for example, can only be altered by time switching in a sophisticated manner.

Digital technology and the discovery of better magnetic materials brought about a stepper/servomachine operations scenario similar to that of the present timepiece, the digital chromometer, which carries a whole series of side functions (date, time elapsed, calculations, etc.) at the flick of a switch. All are preprogrammed and activated electronically, and they can be operated ad lib as in the calculator or time‐setting functions. A multiplicity of motor‐driven motion shapes can be generated in the same way, successfully and economically. However, not all power‐drive requirements can be achieved by purely electrical means. Some, notably linear, motion or “on‐vehicle” requirements have been traditionally met by fluid power systems.

Third‐age‐type machines will depend on hydraulic power transmission and combine the separate advantages of the mechanical and electromechanical ages in areas where other smart machines cannot compete. The last of these prerequisites derives from the modus operandi of the third‐generation machines' equivalent information technology: digital electronic switching with feedback in order to accommodate control strategies and relative insularity from the effect of any temperature excursions imposed by atmospheric conditions or a varying load cycle.
Intelligent Synthesis of Smart Ceramic Materials
Authors: Lencka Malgorzata M. , Riman Richard E.
Published: November 2003

This article is focus on the hydrothermal synthesis of smart ceramic materials that have a perovskite‐type structure. Perovskite compounds have the general formula ABO3, where the A cation is relatively large and of low valence and the B cation is relatively small.

Hydrothermal synthesis involves numerous simultaneous reactions between dissolved and solid species in an aqueous system to form anhydrous multicomponent oxides. Hydrothermal media may provide an effective reaction environment for synthesizing numerous smart ceramic materials from a variety of precursor reagents (e.g., water‐soluble salts, hydroxides, oxides) in the form of polycrystalline solids, thin films, and single crystals.

In particular, phase‐pure ceramic materials that have controlled stoichiometry and morphology can be hydrothermally synthesized in a single experimental step from simple and inexpensive precursors at moderate temperatures and pressures far below those required for conventional techniques. It is important to select a precursor system that is both reactive and cost‐effective. However, the reactivity of a precursor system can be judged only by optimizing the processing variables such as reagent (precursor) concentrations and ratios, pH, temperature, and pressure, which can be extremely time‐consuming due to the large number of variables involved. To improve the efficiency of evaluating a precursor system, a comprehensive thermodynamic model that simulates hydrothermal reactions has been developed. This model is a part of the OLI software. The simulation approach discussed here has been validated for numerous perovskite‐type multicomponent oxide systems, which include alkaline‐earth titanates and zirconates, lead titanate, various solid solutions of lead zirconate titanate, lead magnesium niobate, and lead zinc niobate. In this article, modeling and experimental validation of selected hydrothermal systems are presented.
Magnetorheological Fluids
Authors: Henrie Alisa J. Millar , Carlson J. David
Published: November 2003

Magnetorheological (MR) materials are a class of materials whose rheological properties may be rapidly varied by applying a magnetic field. This change is in proportion to the magnitude of the magnetic field applied and is immediately reversible. MR material behavior is often modeled by the Bingham plastic model. Advances in the application of MR materials are parallel to the development of advanced MR materials.

Because the state of MR materials can be controlled by the strength of an applied magnetic field, it is useful in applications where variable performance is desired. Many smart systems and structures would benefit from the change in viscosity or other material properties of MR materials. Beginning with the commercialization of MR fluid rotary brakes for use in aerobic exercise equipment in 1995, application of magnetorheological material technology in real‐world systems has grown steadily. The past few years have witnessed a blossoming commercialization of MR fluid technology. MR fluid technology has been embraced by a number of manufacturers for inclusion in a diverse spectrum of products that are now commercially available. These application include brakes, dampers, shock absorbers and others.
Pest Control Applications
Authors: Draisey Sherry
Published: November 2003

The smart aspects of the piezoceramic ultrasonic application being used for pest control are just beginning to evolve. Pest control, using ultrasonics, is based on developing a pressure environment which is extremely unpleasant or deadly to the pests in question. The feedback aspect of smart structure applications involves three types of sensing: motion sensors, pressure sensors and sound sensors.

Airborne or land pests, such as some insects, spiders, rodents, and small cats and dogs are driven away by the unpleasant sound created by the noise generated by the ceramic elements. For fluid‐borne pests, the ceramic is driven to create a pressure field that includes cavitation. The release of energy from the collapse of cavitating bubbles provides the source deadly to small microorganisms.

The types of pests that have been effectively deterred by ultrasonic measures are the frequency range that has been successful for these pests, as well as the approximate coverage (or flow rate) across which they are effective are listed. The coverage is directly related to the system size and power.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has suggested that pest control devices have a deterrent effect of >60% to be considered viable.
Photochromic and Photo‐Thermo‐Refractive Glasses
Authors: Glebov L.B.
Published: November 2003

Inorganic glasses are the main transparent material, which people have long used for observation (windows in buildings, windshields in cars, eyeglasses, prisms and lenses in optical instruments), light delivery (light bulbs, projectors, lasers, optical fibers), and fine arts (crockery, bijouterie, jewelry). The ability of glasses to change coloration after exposure to sunshine was well known since the last century. Photochromic glasses that have completely reversible coloration are made of borosilicate glasses doped with microcrystals of copper and silver halides. These glasses are sensitive to near UV radiation. Photosensitivity can be extended to visible and near IR regions by cooperative breeding of color centers. Induced coloration is a wide band that covers the whole visible region. Photocontrolled waveguides can be fabricated in photochromic glasses. These waveguides can serve as attenuators and mode selectors. Photo‐thermorefractive glasses that have irreversible photoinduced refraction are aluminosilicate glasses doped with silver, cerium, and fluorine. These glasses are sensitive to near UV radiation. Their photosensitivity is comparable with the best organic and inorganic materials, it allows wide variations of exposure because of image amplification in the thermal development process, and it has high diffraction efficiency and high transparency from the UV to the IR region.
Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) (PVDF) and its Copolymers
Authors: Zhang Q.M. , Bharti Vivek , Kavarnos George
Published: November 2003

Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and its family of copolymers are arguably the best‐known examples of a class of high‐performance polymers noted for their remarkable piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties. After more than 30 years of study and development, the piezoelectricity and electromechanical properties of PVDF and its copolymers have been improved markedly. Today this class of polymer still possesses the highest electromechanical responses over a broad temperature range among known synthetic organic materials. Further, when considered along with their easy conformability, flexibility, robustness, and lightness, it is not surprising that electroactive polymers continue to be the focus of interest of the designers of high‐performance electromechanical devices. When PVDF is stretched and poled in a strong electric field, it exhibits piezoelectricity. In its piezoelectric form, PVDF finds use in transducer devices requiring the interconversion of mechanical and electrical energy. Piezoelectric PVDF can be fabricated and used in a variety of sensors and actuators such as artificial muscles and organs, medical imaging, blood‐flow monitors, microphones, smart skins, underwater acoustic transducers, seismic monitors, fluid pumps and valves, surface acoustic wave devices, robots, and tactile sensing devices. P(VDF‐TrFE) copolymers display similar and in some cases even superior properties.

Many organic substances in fact exhibit a key ferroelectric property that is called polarization hysteresis. The copolymer of PVDF with trifluoroethylene (TrFE) and tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), however, is the only polymeric system that shows both a well‐defined polarization hysteresis loop and a transition to a paraelectric phase with increased temperature.
Polymers, Piezoelectric
Authors: Harrison J. S. , Ounaies Z.
Published: November 2003

Piezoelectric polymers have been known for more than forty years, but in recent years they have gained repute as a valuable class of “smart materials.”

The most popular smart materials are piezoelectric materials, magnetostrictive materials, shape‐memory alloys, electrorheological fluids, electrostrictive materials, and optical fibers. Magnetostrictives, electrostrictives, shape‐memory alloys, and electrorheological fluids are used as actuators; optical fibers are used primarily as sensors.

Among these active materials, piezoelectric materials are most widely used because of their wide bandwidth, fast electromechanical response, relatively low power requirements, and high generative forces. Piezoelectricity is a property of many noncentrosymmetric ceramics, polymers, and other biological systems. Pyroelectricity is a subset of piezoelectricity, whereby the polarization is a function of temperature. Some pyroelectric materials are ferroelectric, although not all ferroelectrics are pyroelectric. Ferroelectricity is a property of certain dielectrics that exhibit spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed in direction by applying an appropriate electric field. Traditionally, ferroelectricity is defined for crystalline materials, or at least in the crystalline region of semicrystalline materials. In the last couple of years, however, a number of researchers have explored the possibility of ferroelectricity in amorphous polymers, that is, ferroelectricity without a crystal lattice structure.
Sensors, Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors
Authors: Galipeau David W.
Published: November 2003

Surface acoustic wave microsensors are microchips that usually have a sensing film applied to the substrate surface. They differ from silicon‐based microcircuits that form the basis for most integrated circuit technology today, in that they are based on piezoelectric versus semiconductor substrates and are usually much less complex. Microsensors are usually defined as sensors of micron dimensions or are made by the same fabrication techniques that are used for integrated circuits. Microsensors have several advantages over older sensor technologies, including small size, low cost, and typically better performance. The relatively rapid development of surface acoustic wave (SAW) microsensors has resulted from the demand for low‐cost, high‐performance sensors to measure such things as hazardous gases, biological pathogens, chemical and biological weapons, automotive emissions, and indoor air quality. Additionally, there is strong interest in developing an electronic nose for both industrial and laboratory applications. As a result of these advantages and the strong demand, the development of SAW microsensors has grown rapidly during the last twenty years.
Shape‐Memory Alloys, Magnetically Activated Ferromagnetic Shape‐Memory Materials
Authors: O'Handley R.C. , Allen Samuel M.
Published: November 2003

For years it was speculated that the large strains associated with the thermoelastic shape‐memory effect, such as in NiTi alloys, could be captured by application of a magnetic field in certain martensites that are also ferromagnetic. Ferromagnetic shape‐memory alloys (FSMAs) moved from a hypothetical new class of active materials, to join piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials, upon observation of a 0.2% magnetic field induced strain in a single crystal of Ni2MnGa in 1996.

This article focuses on the application of a magnetic field to a twinned M phase that is ferromagnetic. It is necessary that the magnetic anisotropy of the M phase be large compared to the energy required for twin boundary motion and, further, that the preferred direction of magnetization changes across the twin boundary. When this is the case, application of a magnetic field results in a difference in Zeeman energy, across the twin boundary. This energy difference exerts a pressure on the twin boundary so as to grow the twin variants having the more favorably oriented magnetization. The resulting field‐induced twin‐boundary motion produces a large strain, fully within the martensitic state of an FSMA.

This article describes the crystallography and magnetism of Ni–Mn–Ga in order to explain the very large strains produced by field‐induced twin‐boundary motion in martensite. Examples of field‐induced strain by twin boundary motion in Ni–Mn–Ga FSMA samples having different twin structures are given. Martensitic Fe70Pd30has also shown field‐induced strains of 0.5%, and efforts are under way to develop other iron‐base FSMAs. These other materials are not be covered in depth. The state of theoretical modeling of strain and magnetization in FSMAs is reviewed. FSMA field‐induced strains are compared and contrasted with the thermoelastic shape‐memory effect and magnetostriction.
Shape Memory Alloys, Types and Functionalities
Authors: Van Humbeeck J. , Stalmans R.
Published: November 2003

Many systems exhibit martensitic transformation. Generally, they are subdivided into ferrous and nonferrous martensites. A classification of the nonferrous martensites is given, and ferrous alloys that exhibit a shape‐memory effect are reviewed.

Of the systems mentioned, only one system became industrially successful: Ni‐Ti(X,Y) in which X,Y are elements that replace Ni or Ti. Besides the Ni‐Ti system, a lot of attention had been given in earlier times to Cu‐based alloys and to Fe–Mn–Si alloys. Furthermore, in recent years, special attention has been given to high‐temperature shape‐memory alloys (HTSMA).

The aim of this article is mainly an introduction to industrially applicable shape‐memory alloys; the following alloy systems are reviewed:

Fe‐based alloys

Cu‐based alloys

NiTi alloys

HTSMA

other systems
Spin‐Crossover Materials
Authors: Miller Joel S.
Published: November 2003

Smart materials respond to their environment as illustrated by photochromic eyeglasses, that darken upon exposure to ultraviolet light to attenuate additional ultraviolet light. Hence, materials that have fast reversible responses to environmental stimuli are sought as components of smart systems. Similar to photochromic materials, thermochromic materials reversibly respond to heat and exhibit substantial color changes upon small changes in temperature. Spin‐crossover materials are a class of thermochromic materials that possess fast, reversible color changes amenable to display and memory devices. These color changes can also be induced by light (photochromic) or pressure (piezochromic) as well as heat. Due to the nature of the mechanism of their thermo‐, photo‐, or piezochromic responses (i.e., redistribution of the electron density at a metal ion site within the molecule), they are extremely fast and reversible. As a consequence of the fast color change, strong contrast between colors, and the intermolecular interactions within the solid, the differing colors can be maintained for a long period of time, and due to the lack of moving parts, these materials are completely recyclable and amenable to fast, low power‐consuming, high‐data‐density display and storage devices and “smart” materials and systems of the future.
Thermoresponsive Inorganic Materials
Authors: Evans John S.O.
Published: November 2003

The effect of temperature on the vast majority of materials is well known—as materials are heated, they initially expand in volume before eventually melting, subliming, or decomposing. Thermal expansion is often viewed as a deleterious property. Thermal expansion can, however, also be put to good use. It has long been known that the walls of bowed buildings can be pulled back into shape by a cooling iron bar; steel tires can be shrink‐fitted onto the wheels of railway carriages. Although these examples represent a technologically useful response to the stimulus of increased (or decreased) temperature, they do not quite fall into the category of “smart.” However, the very simple concept of coupling together two materials, one that has a large and one a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion to produce a bimetallic strip can certainly be considered to create a smart composite body. Here, the strains induced by the higher expansion of one material cause the strip to bend as temperature is increased, leading to a simple temperature‐sensing/responsive device.

The vast majority of materials known and used in technological applications have a positive coefficient of thermal expansion; the reasons for this behavior are discussed. Certain materials, however, display the opposite property and contract in volume when heated. These materials thus have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion, which has led to their somewhat confusing description as “negative thermal expansion” (NTE) materials. The properties of these materials and the origin of these effects form the main topic of this article.

Materials that have this unusual thermoresponse have a number of important technological applications. Applications related to specific materials are discussed. The first major area of application is in producing composite bodies. By mixing normal materials with a negative thermal expansion phase, one can achieve a composite that has a precisely controlled positive, negative, or even zero coefficient of expansion. Second, certain of the materials discussed can be chemically doped to control their expansion properties. Thus, one can envisage a single material that could be adjusted to have zero overall expansion. Such materials are of use where repeated thermal shock might lead to mechanical failure (an everyday example is oven‐to‐table cookware) or in optical devices such as high precision mirrors where any thermal expansion might distort optical properties. Materials that have strong intrinsic thermal contraction are most likely to be used as compensators for the positive expansion of other phases. In “negative thermal expansion” materials considered in the remainder of this article, there will always be an underlying expansive component caused by vibrational modes that tend to increase bond distances. In certain circumstances, however, these modes may be dominated by other more exotic effects.
Truss Structures with Piezoelectric Actuators and Sensors
Authors: Bravo Rafael , Vaz Anthony Faria , Dokainish Mohamed
Published: November 2003

There are two possible ways of dealing with flexibility in a structure: use stiffer structural members, which increase weight, or augment the inherent damping in the structure. Due to weight restrictions, only the second approach is feasible.

In this article, the analytic and experimental development for the active vibration suppression of a flexible truss structure with piezoelectric actuators and sensors is explained. The structure is said to be smart, as it incorporates sensors, actuators and the intelligence to react to disturbances. Finite element modelling and modal decomposition techniques are used to obtain an accurate model of the complex dynamics. The relations that govern the response of the piezoelectric sensors and the influence of the piezoelectric actuators are derived. These relations are presented in such a way that they are easily integrated into the finite element modelling framework. Piezoelectric actuators and sensors are used as components of an active control system for the truss structure that is designed using robustH∞optimal control theory. Stimulations are performed on both the open and closed loop dynamics to assess the amount of additional damping obtained by the active control system. Simulation results show that the controller significantly increases the damping of the structure. The active controller has been implemented on an experimental truss structure. The experiments performed on the structure closely matched the simulation results.
Genetically Engineered Microorganisms for Biodegradation of Recalcitrant Compounds
Authors: Duque Estrella , Esteve‐Núñez Abraham , Michán Carmen , Abril María Angeles , Ronchel M. Carmen , Segura Ana , Ramos‐González María‐Isabel , Ramos Juan L.
Published: November 2003

Key Concepts

Hybrid Pathways for Metabolism of Chloroorganic Compounds

Modified Pathways for Alkylaromatics

Hybrid Pathways for Nitroaromatics

Removal of Organomercurials

Improved Removal of Pollutants in the Plant Rhizosphere

Tracking GEMs in Microcosms and Behavior of Recombinant Microbes
Petroleum Reservoirs, Influence, Activity and Growth of Subsurface Microflora in
Authors: Bass Catherine , Lappin‐Scott Hilary
Published: November 2003

Origins of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

Oil‐Bearing Rock Formations as Microbial Habitats

Microbiology of Oil‐Bearing Rocks

Microbial Consequences of Oil Reservoir Exploitation

Application of Microbial Technology for Exploitation of Petroleum Reservoirs
Biofiltration and Bioodors
Authors: Devinny Joseph S. , Chitwood Derek E.
Published: November 2003

Odors in Biological Treatment Systems

Odor Treatment by Biofiltration

Microbiological Aspects of Biofiltration
Coliform Bacteria as Indicators of Water Quality
Authors: Geldreich Edwin E.
Published: November 2003

Coliform Subgroups as Indicators
Conditioning Films in Aquatic Environments
Authors: Schneider René P. , Leis Andrew
Published: November 2003

Definition

Sources of Organic and Inorganic Compounds in Environmental Waters

Investigating Conditioning Films

Conditioning Film Analysis

Physicochemistry of Conditioning Film Formation

Composition of Conditioning Films

Modification of Substratum Surface Physicochemistry by Conditioning Films

Kinetics of Conditioning Film Deposition

Effects of Conditioning Films on Microbial Adhesion

Conditioning Films as Sources of Nutrients for Bacteria
Septic Tank Systems
Authors: Butler David , Smith Stephen R.
Published: November 2003

Design

Operation

Process Microbiology

Performance Enhancement
Genomics, Environmental
Authors: Nelson Karen E. , Paulsen Ian T. , Heidelberg John F. , Fraser Claire M.
Published: November 2003

Microbial Genome Sequencing and Annotation

The Environmental Applications of Genomics

Understanding Phylogeny and Evolution

Bioremediation

Industrial Applications

Understanding Environmental Pathogenesis

As Environmental Model Systems

What the Future Holds in Store

Genomic Engineering

Bioinformatics Applications

Comparative Genomics

Exploring Microbial Diversity on Earth
Isospora
Authors: Lindsay David S.
Published: November 2003

Classification

Structure and Development

Clinical Disease and Epidemiology
Water Treatment Plants: Removal of Pathogenic Microbes by Granular High Rate Filtration
Authors: Au Kwok‐Keung , LeChevallier Mark W.
Published: November 2003

Process Description

Filter Performance

Filtration Model
Data Analysis and Modeling
Authors: Almeida Jonas S.
Published: November 2003

Data Analysis Scheme

The Right Kind of Data

Exploratory Analysis

Discriminant Analysis
Sustainable Agriculture: Role of Microorganisms
Authors: Kennedy Ann , Doran John
Published: November 2003

High‐Intensity Agriculture and Society

Soil—An Essential Link in the Cycle of Life

Soil Health and Sustainable Management

Microbes and Sustainable Agriculture

Disturbance and Soil Microorganisms

Strategies for Sustainable Management
Aerobic Endospores: Application in Monitoring of Drinking Water Treatment
Authors: Nieminski Eva C.
Published: November 2003

Background

Surrogates for Protozoa in Drinking Water

Aerobic Spores as Surrogates for Removal of Protozoan Parasites

Analysis of Water Samples for Aerobic Spores

Occurrence of Pathogens, Aerobic Spores, and Other Surrogates in Surface Waters

Presence of Aerobic Spores in Treated Drinking Water

Using Aerobic Spores in the Assessment of Treatment Plant Effectiveness in Removing Particulates and Microbial Contaminants
Bioremediation of Soils
Authors: Beaudette L. A. , Cassidy M. B. , England L. , Kirk J. L. , Habash M. , Lee H. , Trevors J. T.
Published: November 2003

Why Bioremediation?

Natural Attenuation

Environmental Constraints to Soil Bioremediation

Contaminant Variables That Affect Their Degradability in Soil

Microbiological Factors

Monitoring Bacteria Introduced into Soil

Enhancing Bacterial Degrading Genes Through Molecular Biology

Encapsulation of Microbial Cells for Use in Soil Bioremediation

Monitoring of Biodegradation Rates

Metals and Radionuclides

Phytoremediation
Extremophiles: Life in Extreme Environments
Authors: Bertoldo Costanzo , Grote Ralf , Antranikian Garabed
Published: November 2003

Microorganisms Living at Low Temperature

Microorganisms Living at High Temperature

Microorganisms Growing at Extremes of pH

Microbial Life at Elevated Salt Concentrations
Viruses and Protozoan Parasites in Food, Including Methodology
Authors: Deng Ming Qi , Cliver Dean O.
Published: November 2003

Food Vehicles of Viruses and Protozoa

Problems in Testing for Viruses and Protozoa in Foods

Extraction and Concentration of Viruses from Food

Extraction and Concentration of Protozoa from Food

Viability (Infectivity) Criteria in Testing

Interpretation of Results
Identification of Airborne Fungi
Authors: Cruz Patricia
Published: November 2003

Classification of Fungi

Terminology and Definitions

Fungal Habitats

Nutrients

Culture Media and Incubation Conditions

Spore Dispersal

Methods of Identification

Identification Criteria

Processing and Identification of Samples

Safety Precautions

Tools of Identification

Common Environmental Fungi
Gene Exchange in Biofilms
Authors: Wuertz Stefan
Published: November 2003

Mechanisms of Gene Transfer

In Situ Frequencies of Gene Exchange
Fungi in Marine/Estuarine Waters
Authors: Newell Steven Y.
Published: November 2003

The Marine‐Decomposer Ascomycetes and Straminipiles

Marine Adaptation of Eukaryotic Mycelial Decomposers

Biomasses and Productivities

Fates

Pollution and Marine Fungi
Bioleaching of Metals
Authors: Roberto Francisco F.
Published: November 2003

History of Bioleaching

The Microbiology of Sulfide Mineral Leaching

Commercial Practice

The Future

Terminology and Definitions
Sampling Techniques for Environmental Microbiology
Authors: Piceno Yvette M. , Davis Greg A.
Published: November 2003

Sampling Strategy

Sample Quantity

Sample Size (Number of Samples)

Sample Transport and Storage

Further Considerations by Sample Matrix
Petroleum and Other Hydrocarbons, Biodegradation of
Authors: Prince Roger C.
Published: November 2003

The Composition of Crude Oil

Other Hydrocarbons

Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons in Aerobic Environments

Biochemical Pathways of Aerobic Hydrocarbon Degradation

Overall Rates of Aerobic Biodegradation

Role of Surfactants

Anaerobic Degradation of Crude Oil

Biochemical Pathways of Anaerobic Hydrocarbon Degradation

Fate of Hydrocarbons in the Environment

Application
Flow Cytometry and Cell Sorting for Monitoring Microbial Cells
Authors: Deere Daniel , Vesey Graham , Gauci Mark , Ashbolt Nicholas
Published: November 2003

Basics of FC

Applications

Rapid Methods Using FC
Solar Salt: Involvement of Microorganisms in Salt Production from Seawater
Authors: Davis Joseph S.
Published: November 2003

Historical Sketch

Modern Methods

The Physical System of Solar Saltworks

Types of Solar Salt Works

The Biological System

Proactive Management
Protistan Communities in Groundwater
Authors: Kinner Nancy E.
Published: November 2003

Studies of Protozoa in Soils and the Subsurface

Types, Abundance, and Enumeration Methods for Protozoa

Protozoan Transport in the Subsurface

Protozoan Role in the Subsurface

Impact of Protozoa on Contaminant Biodegradation in Aquifers
Seagrasses Communities
Authors: Currin Carolyn
Published: November 2003

Seagrass Ecology

Distribution of Microorgansims in Seagrass Ecosystems

Nitrogen Fixation in Seagrass Ecosystems

Microbial Decomposition of Seagrass Detritus
Oxygen: Effect on Marine Microbial Communities
Authors: Revsbech Niels Peter , Finster Kai W.
Published: November 2003

Historical Record of O2in the Sea

Oxygen Toxicity

The Distribution of Oxygen in Water and Sediment

Oxygen and Photosynthesis

Effect of Oxygen on the Iron and Manganese Cycles

Oxygen and the Sulfur Cycle

Analysis of Oxygen at a Scale Relevant to the World of Microorganisms
Permafrost
Authors: Gilichinsky David
Published: November 2003

Parameters of Permafrost Microbial Habitat

Chemical Composition and Organic Matter

The Correlation Between the age of Permafrost Environment and the Age of Viable Microorganisms

Permafrost Biodiversity

Response of Microbial Communities to Permafrost Environment

Metabolic Activity in Permafrost Environment

Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions

The Perspectives for Future Study and Possible Applications
Soil Nitrogen Cycle
Authors: Myrold David D.
Published: November 2003

Forms of Soil Nitrogen

The Nitrogen Cycle and Nitrogen Balances

Dinitrogen Fixation

Ammonification

Assimilation

Net Production and Consumption of NH4+

Nitrification

Denitrification

Environmental Consequences of Nitrogen Cycling
Adhesion (Primary) of Microorganisms onto Surfaces
Authors: Boonaert Christophe J. P. , Dufrêne Yves F. , Rouxhet Paul G.
Published: November 2003

Terminology

Methods to Study Microbial Adhesion

Physicochemical Aspects of Primary Adhesion

Complexity of Microorganism—Substratum Interfaces
Phototrophic Purple and Green Bacteria in Marine and Hypersaline Environments
Authors: Imhoff Johannes F.
Published: November 2003

General Ecology of Phototrophic Bacteria in Saline Habitats

Phototrophic Bacteria Isolated from Marine and Hypersaline Habitats

Phylogeny of Marine and Halophilic Phototrophic Bacteria

Salt Requirement and Osmotic Adaption
Wastewater and Biosolids as Sources of Airborne Microorganisms
Authors: Dowd Scot E.
Published: November 2003

History of Aeromicrobiology and Wastewater

Aerosols Originating from Wastewater Treatment Plants

Bioaerosols Associated with Sprinkler Irrigation Using Wastewater

Bioaerosols Associated with Land Placement of Biosolids

Miscellaneous Sources of Wastewater Aerosols
Biocontrol, Microbial Agents in Soil
Authors: Chet Ilan , Chernin Leonid
Published: November 2003

Biocontrol of Soilborne Diseases

Biocontrol of Nematodes

Mechanisms of Biological Control

Formulation and Delivery of Biocontrol Agents

Combined Usage of Biocontrol Agents

Integrated Pest Management

Molecular Approaches for Improvement of Existing, and Creation of New Biocontrol Agents
Desert Environments: Biological Soil Crusts
Authors: Garcia‐Pichel Ferran
Published: November 2003

Structure, Development, Composition, and Diversity

Functional Aspects and Biogeochemistry

Environmental Impact and Conservation Efforts
Halophiles: Anaerobic Prokaryotes from Hypersaline Environments
Authors: Garcia Jean‐Louis , Ollivier Bernard , Patel Bharat K. C.
Published: November 2003

The Environments and Physicochemical Characteristics

Characteristics, Taxonomy, and Phylogeny
Planktonic Algae in the Marine Environment
Authors: Brand Larry E.
Published: November 2003

Habitat Characteristics

Phylogenetic Relationships

Systematics

Evolutionary History and Fossil Record

Morphological Characteristics

Physiological Adaptations

Ecological Distributions

Effects on Biogeochemistry

Products from Marine Microalgae

Methods
Bioaerosols in Agricultural and Outdoor Settings
Authors: Levetin Estelle
Published: November 2003

Sources of Airborne Fungi

Dispersal Mechanisms

Transport in the Atmosphere

Deposition

Types of Fungal Spores in the Air Spora
AtlanticCoastalPlain Aquifers and Other Uncosolidated Subsurface Sediments: Microbiological Aspects
Authors: Pfiffner Susan M. , Sobecky Patricia A. , Phelps Tommy J. , Palumbo Anthony V.
Published: November 2003

Sites

Sampling the Subsurface

Methods for Community Analysis

Presence, Abundance, and Diversity of Microorganisms in Atlantic Coastal Plain Sediments
Legionellain the Environment: Persistence, Evolution, and Pathogenicity
Authors: Harb Omar S. , Kwaik Yousef Abu
Published: November 2003

Legionellae; Historical Perspective and Public Health Issues

The Transmission and Ecology of Legionellae

The Life Cycle of Legionellae Within Their Protozoan Host Cells

Detection and Disinfection of Legionellae
Bottled Water, Microbiology of
Authors: Rosenberg Fred A.
Published: November 2003

Why Do People Drink Bottled Water?

Where Does Bottled Water Come from?

Regulation of Bottled Water

Growth Media for Bacteria in Bottled Water

Types of Bacteria Normally Found in Source Waters

Treatment of Water

Nomenclature of Waters

Bacteria in the Finished Product

Plastic and Glass Containers

Shelf Storage

Pseudomonads in Bottled Water

Antibiotic Resistance of Pseudomonads

Carbonated and Noncarbonated Water

Artificial Inoculation of Waters with Bacteria

Aeromonassp.

Viability of Bacteria Without Multiplication

Isolation of Amoebae from Mineral Waters

Fluoride in Bottled Water

Bottled Water Dispensers

Use of Bottled Water for Cleaning Contact Lenses

Endotoxin in Bottled Water

New Techniques in Bottled Water Microbiology
Carbon Transformations and Activity in Biofilms
Authors: Leis Andrew , Flemming Hans‐Curt
Published: November 2003

Diversity of Strategies for Carbon Metabolism by Biofilm Organisms

Syntrophy and Antagonism in Biofilms

Sources of Natural Organic Carbon Substrates

Assimilable Organic Carbon and Bioavailability Concepts

Microbial Transformations of Diverse and Dilute Substrates

Measurement of Transformations and Activity in Biofilms
Sediments: Sulfate Reduction in Marine Sediments
Authors: Hines Mark E.
Published: November 2003

Biogeochemical Cycling

Metabolic Diversity

Diversity of Sulfate‐Reducing Bacteria

Interactions with Macroorganisms
Subsurface Microbial Communities: Diversity Of Culturable Microorganisms
Authors: Balkwill David L.
Published: November 2003

Phylogenetic Bacterial Diversity in Selected Types of Subsurface Environments

Specific Groups of Well Characterized Subsurface Bacteria

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
Modeling the Transport of Bioaerosols
Authors: Yates M. V.
Published: November 2003

Bioaerosol Survival Models

Dispersion Models
Phosphorus Cycling in Aquatic Environments: Role of Bacteria
Authors: Ammerman James W.
Published: November 2003

Background

Bacterial P Cycling in Nature
Invertebrates and Protozoa (Free‐Living) in Drinking Water Distribution Systems
Authors: van Lieverloo J. Hein M. , van der Kooij Dick , Hoogenboezem Wim
Published: November 2003

Significance

Drinking Water Fauna

Ecology

Abundance

Control
Nitrifying Bacteria in Drinking Water
Authors: Wolfe Roy L. , Lieu Nancy I.
Published: November 2003

Biology and Physiology

Ecology and Occurrence in Potable Water

Prevention and Control
Survival of Microorganisms in Subsurface Sediments
Authors: Kieft Thomas L.
Published: November 2003

Energy Sources in the Subsurface

The Nature of Starved Subsurface Microorganisms

Laboratory Studies of Microbial Survival

Field‐Based Studies of Microbial Survival

Special Cases
Weathering: Mineral Weathering and Microbial Metabolism
Authors: Ullman William J. , Welch Susan A.
Published: November 2003

The Geochemistry of Weathering

The Biogeochemistry of Weathering

Evidence for Microbially Mediated Mineral Weathering

Global Geochemistry and Microbially Mediated Weathering
Viruses in the Marine Environment
Authors: Fuhrman Jed
Published: November 2003

What are Viruses and what do they do?

Distribution of Viruses

Viral Activities

Comparison to Mortality from Protists

Roles in Food Web

Effects on Species Compositions

Resistance

Genetic Transfer
Fecal Contamination, Sources of
Authors: Parveen Salina , Tamplin Mark L.
Published: November 2003

Microorganisms Used for Detecting Sources of Fecal Contamination

New Approaches for Differentiating Bacterial Strains

Multiple Antibiotic Resistance (MAR)

O‐Serogrouping

Pulsed‐Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)

Ribotyping
Deep High‐Temperature Sedimentary Environments, Microbiology of
Authors: Colwell Frederick S. , Yao Q.‐J. , Onstott T. C. , Murphy Ellyn
Published: November 2003

Deep Sedimentary Basins Containing Microorganisms

Piceance Basin

Microbiology of Other Deep Sedimentary Strata
Thermophiles, Diversity of
Authors: Rising Margaret L. , Reysenbach Anna‐Louise
Published: November 2003

Ecological Niches of Thermophiles

Physiological Diversity

Phototrophs

Chemolithoautotrophs

Heterotrophs
UVDisinfection—Theory to Practice
Authors: Malley James P.
Published: November 2003

Background

Effectiveness of UV Disinfection

Factors Effecting UV System Performance

Important Considerations in UV System Design

Acknowledgments
Biofouling in the Marine Environment
Authors: Maki James S. , Mitchell Ralph
Published: November 2003

The Biofouling “Sequence”

Molecular Fouling

Microbial Fouling‐Biofilm Formation

Macrofouling: Invertebrate Larvae

Macrofouling: Algal Spores
Biofouling of Industrial Systems
Authors: Flemming Hans‐Curt
Published: November 2003

Occurrence of Biofouling

Countermeasures

Prevention of Biofouling
Cyclospora: Basic Biology, Occurrence Fate and Methodologies
Authors: Ortega Ynes R. , Cama Vitaliano A. , Prisma A. B.
Published: November 2003

Taxonomy

Basic Biology

Waterborne Outbreaks

Food‐Borne Outbreaks

Environmental Sampling

Control Measures
Vadose Zone Microbiology
Authors: Brockman F. J. , Bradley S. N. , Kieft T. L.
Published: November 2003

Physical and Chemical Conditions

Microbiological Properties

Special Considerations for Vadose Zone Microbial Studies

Practical Importance of Vadose Zone Microbiology
Helicobacter Pylori
Authors: Rice E. W.
Published: November 2003

Description and Function ofHelicobacter pylori

Culture Difficulties

Mode of Transmission

Epidemiologcal Studies
Filamentous Bulking in Activated Sludge, Control of
Authors: Wanner Jiri
Published: November 2003

Well‐Settling Activated Sludge

Activated Sludge Separation Problems

Basic Selection Mechanisms for Filamentous Bulking Control

Application of Bulking Control Principles to the Design and Operation of Activated Sludge Plants

Nonspecific Bulking Control Methods

Notation
Protozoan Ciliates in Freshwater Ecosystems
Authors: Crisman Thomas L.
Published: November 2003

Sampling and Laboratory Approaches

Seasonality

Relation of Ciliate Biomass and Size to Trophic State

Control of Ciliate Populations

Nutrient Cycling

Mixotrophy

Ciliates and the Microbial Loop

Ciliates as Early Warning Bioindicators of Ecosystem Change
Thermophiles: Anaerobic Alkalithermophiles
Authors: Wiegel Juergen
Published: November 2003

Definition of “Extreme”

Mesophilic and Thermophilic Alkaliphiles have been Studied Only Recently

Alkalithermophiles

Thermophilic “Superbugs” Among Validly Described Species of Extremophiles

Biogeography and Biogeochemistry

Some Comments on Methods for Studying Anaerobic Alkalithermophiles

Anaerobic Alkalithermophilic Bacteria and their Habitats Known Thus Far

Archaeal Species and their Known Habitats

Possible Correlation between the Shortest Observed Doubling Times for a Species and the Type of Habitat from Which the Alkalithermophiles were Isolated
Stress Response in Archaea
Authors: Macario Alberto J. L. , de Macario Everly Conway
Published: November 2003

Terminology

The Three Domains of Life

The Beginnings

Gene Cloning

Discontinuous Distribution of thehsp70(dnaK)Gene within the Domain Archaea

Stress Proteins in Archaea

The Molecular Chaperone Machine

The Chaperonins

The Cochaperones

Prefoldin

Other Stress Proteins and Antistress Mechanisms in Archaea

The Proteasome and Proteolysis

Multicellular Structures

Future Prospects
The Importance of Prognosis in Cancer Medicine
Authors: Mackillop William J.
Published: November 2003

Prognostic judgment remains an essential element of modern, medical practice. It meets patients' needs for information about the future that they can use to plan their lives, and it provides a basis for rational medical decisions. In the future, the importance of prognosis in oncology is likely to increase as new predictors of the prognosis permit increasingly accurate predictions of the outcomes of treatment. Over the last 30 years, advances in clinical epidemiology have greatly improved the practice of oncology; we understand much better today how to establish the “generalizability” of clinical observations. In future, however, the challenge will be to increase the “particularizability” of medical knowledge in such a way that the individual characteristics of the patient and the tumor are appropriately factored into treatment decisions. This will require characterizing patients, not only in terms of the diagnostic group to which they belong, but also in terms of all those individual characteristics that may influence the outcome of treatment. Hence, the importance of continuing to study prognostic factors in oncology, and learning to use them correctly.
Statistical Methods for the Analysis of Prognostic Factor Studies
Authors: McShane Lisa M. , Simon Richard
Published: November 2003

Prognostic factor studies in cancer relate covariates describing clinical features and tumor characteristics to clinical endpoints such as therapy response, disease recurrence or progression, or survival. Examples of covariates in cancer prognostic factor studies include tumor size, nodal status, presence of metastases, and tumor‐specific measurements such as expression levels of certain proteins, presence of chromosomal aberrations, or gene mutations. Typically, the relationship between the covariates and the clinical endpoints is examined by development and testing of a prognostic model. The modeling approaches discussed in this chapter include logistic regression for binary endpoints, Cox proportional hazards regression for survival outcomes, and neural networks and recursive partitioning for both binary and survival outcomes. In the final section, techniques for model validation are discussed.