bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The High Mobility Group Protein 1 Is a Coactivator of Herpes Simplex Virus ICP4 In Vitro
Authors: Carrozza Michael J. , DeLuca Neal
Published: December 2019

ICP4 is an activator of herpes simplex virus early and late gene transcription during infection and in vitro can efficiently activate the transcription of a core promoter template containing only a TATA box and an initiator element. In this study, we noted that the extent of activation by ICP4 in vitro was highly dependent on the purity of TFIID when recombinant TFIIB, TFIIE, and TFIIF were used as sources of these factors. ICP4 efficiently activated transcription with a crude TFIID fraction. However, when immunoaffinity-purified TFIID was used in place of the less pure TFIID, ICP4 activated transcription to a significantly lesser extent. This finding indicated that the crude TFIID fraction may contain additional factors that serve as coactivators of ICP4. To test this hypothesis, the crude TFIID preparation was further fractionated by gel filtration chromatography. The TFIID that eluted from the column lacked the hypothesized coactivator activity. A fraction well separated from TFIID contained an activity that when added with the TFIID fraction resulted in higher levels of transcription in the presence ICP4. Further purification of the coactivator-containing fraction resulted in the isolation of a single 30-kDa polypeptide (p30). p30 was also shown to serve as a coactivator of ICP4 with immunoaffinity-purified TFIID; however, p30 had no effect on basal transcription. Amino acid sequence analysis revealed that p30 was the high mobility group protein 1, which has been shown to facilitate the formation of higher-order DNA-protein complexes.
The Papillomavirus E1 Protein Forms a DNA-Dependent Hexameric Complex with ATPase and DNA Helicase Activities
Authors: Sedman Juhan , Stenlund Arne
Published: December 2019

The E1 protein from bovine papillomavirus has site-specific DNA binding activity, DNA helicase activity, and DNA-dependent ATPase activity consistent with the properties of an initiator protein. Here we have identified and characterized a novel oligomeric form of E1 that is associated with the ATPase and DNA helicase activities and whose formation is strongly stimulated by single-stranded DNA. This oligomeric form corresponds to a hexamer of E1.
Inhibition of Herpes Simplex Virus Replication by a 2-Amino Thiazole via Interactions with the Helicase Component of the UL5-UL8-UL52 Complex
Authors: Spector F. C. , Liang L. , Giordano H. , Sivaraja M. , Peterson M. G.
Published: December 2019

With the use of a high-throughput biochemical DNA helicase assay as a screen, T157602, a 2-amino thiazole compound, was identified as a specific inhibitor of herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA replication. T157602 inhibited reversibly the helicase activity of the HSV UL5-UL8-UL52 (UL5/8/52) helicase-primase complex with an IC
50
(concentration of compound that yields 50% inhibition) of 5 μM. T157602 inhibited specifically the UL5/8/52 helicase and not several other helicases. The primase activity of the UL5/8/52 complex was also inhibited by T157602 (IC
50
= 20 μM). T157602 inhibited HSV growth in a one-step viral growth assay (IC
90
= 3 μM), and plaque formation was completely prevented at concentrations of 25 to 50 μM T157602. Vero, human foreskin fibroblast (HFF), and Jurkat cells could be propagated in the presence of T157602 at concentrations exceeding 100 μM with no obvious cytotoxic effects, indicating that the window between antiviral activity and cellular toxicity is at least 33-fold. Seven independently derived T157602-resistant mutant viruses (four HSV type 2 and three HSV type 1) carried single base pair mutations in the UL5 that resulted in single amino acid changes in the UL5 protein. Marker rescue experiments demonstrated that the UL5 gene from T157602-resistant viruses conferred resistance to T157602-sensitive wild-type viruses. Recombinant UL5/8/52 helicase-primase complex purified from baculoviruses expressing mutant UL5 protein showed complete resistance to T157602 in the in vitro helicase assay. T157602 and its analogs represent a novel class of specific and reversible anti-HSV agents eliciting their inhibitory effects on HSV replication by interacting with the UL5 helicase.
Phosphorylation of Structural Components Promotes Dissociation of the Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Tegument
Authors: Morrison Ewan E. , Wang Yi-Fen , Meredith David M.
Published: December 2019

The role of phosphorylation in the dissociation of structural components of the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) tegument was investigated, using an in vitro assay. Addition of physiological concentrations of ATP and magnesium to wild-type virions in the presence of detergent promoted the release of VP13/14 and VP22. VP1/2 and the UL13 protein kinase were not significantly solubilized. However, using a virus with an inactivated UL13 protein, we found that the release of VP22 was severely impaired. Addition of casein kinase II (CKII) to UL13 mutant virions promoted VP22 release. Heat inactivation of virions or addition of phosphatase inhibited the release of both proteins. Incorporation of radiolabeled ATP into the assay demonstrated the phosphorylation of VP1/2, VP13/14, VP16, and VP22. Incubation of detergent-purified, heat-inactivated capsid-tegument with recombinant kinases showed VP1/2 phosphorylation by CKII, VP13/14 phosphorylation by CKII, protein kinase A (PKA), and PKC, VP16 phosphorylation by PKA, and VP22 phosphorylation by CKII and PKC. Proteolytic mapping and phosphoamino acid analysis of phosphorylated VP22 correlated with previously published work. The phosphorylation of virion-associated VP13/14, VP16, and VP22 was demonstrated in cells infected in the presence of cycloheximide. Use of equine herpesvirus 1 in the in vitro release assay resulted in the enhanced release of VP10, the homolog of HSV-1 VP13/14. These results suggest that the dissociation of major tegument proteins from alphaherpesvirus virions in infected cells may be initiated by phosphorylation events mediated by both virion-associated and cellular kinases.
Interactions between the Structural Domains of the RNA Replication Proteins of Plant-Infecting RNA Viruses
Authors: O’Reilly Erin K. , Wang Zhaohui , French Roy , Kao C. Cheng
Published: December 2019

Brome mosaic virus (BMV), a positive-strand RNA virus, encodes two replication proteins: the 2a protein, which contains polymerase-like sequences, and the 1a protein, with N-terminal putative capping and C-terminal helicase-like sequences. These two proteins are part of a multisubunit complex which is necessary for viral RNA replication. We have previously shown that the yeast two-hybrid assay consistently duplicated results obtained from in vivo RNA replication assays and biochemical assays of protein-protein interaction, thus permitting the identification of additional interacting domains. We now map an interaction found to take place between two 1a proteins. Using previously characterized 1a mutants, a perfect correlation was found between the in vivo phenotypes of these mutants and their abilities to interact with wild-type 1a (wt1a) and each other. Western blot analysis revealed that the stabilities of many of the noninteracting mutant proteins were similar to that of wt1a. Deletion analysis of 1a revealed that the N-terminal 515 residues of the 1a protein are required and sufficient for 1a-1a interaction. This intermolecular interaction between the putative capping domain and itself was detected in another tripartite RNA virus, cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), suggesting that the 1a-1a interaction is a feature necessary for the replication of tripartite RNA viruses. The boundaries for various activities are placed in the context of the predicted secondary structures of several 1a-like proteins of members of the alphavirus-like superfamily. Additionally, we found a novel interaction between the putative capping and helicase-like portions of the BMV and CMV 1a proteins. Our cumulative data suggest a working model for the assembly of the BMV RNA replicase.
Purified, Soluble Recombinant Mouse Hepatitis Virus Receptor, Bgp1b, and Bgp2 Murine Coronavirus Receptors Differ in Mouse Hepatitis Virus Binding and Neutralizing Activities
Authors: Zelus Bruce D. , Wessner David R. , Williams Richard K. , Pensiero Michael N. , Phibbs Fenna T. , deSouza Mark , Dveksler Gabriela S. , Holmes Kathryn V.
Published: December 2019

Mouse hepatitis virus receptor (MHVR) is a murine biliary glycoprotein (Bgp1a). Purified, soluble MHVR expressed from a recombinant vaccinia virus neutralized the infectivity of the A59 strain of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV-A59) in a concentration-dependent manner. Several anchored murine Bgps in addition to MHVR can also function as MHV-A59 receptors when expressed at high levels in nonmurine cells. To investigate the interactions of these alternative MHVR glycoproteins with MHV, we expressed and purified to apparent homogeneity the extracellular domains of several murine Bgps as soluble, six-histidine-tagged glycoproteins, using a baculovirus expression system. These include MHVR isoforms containing four or two extracellular domains and the corresponding Bgp1bglycoproteins from MHV-resistant SJL/J mice, as well as Bgp2 and truncation mutants of MHVR and Bgp1bcomprised of the first two immunoglobulin-like domains. The soluble four-domain MHVR glycoprotein (sMHVR[1-4]) had fourfold more MHV-A59 neutralizing activity than the corresponding soluble Bgp1b(sBgp1b) glycoprotein and at least 1,000-fold more neutralizing activity than sBgp2. Although virus binds to the N-terminal domain (domain 1), soluble truncation mutants of MHVR and Bgp1bcontaining only domains 1 and 2 bound virus poorly and had 10- and 300-fold less MHV-A59 neutralizing activity than the corresponding four-domain glycoproteins. In contrast, the soluble MHVR glycoprotein containing domains 1 and 4 (sMHVR[1,4]) had as much neutralizing activity as the four-domain glycoprotein, sMHVR[1-4]. Thus, the virus neutralizing activity of MHVR domain 1 appears to be enhanced by domain 4. The sBgp1b[1-4] glycoprotein had 500-fold less neutralizing activity for MHV-JHM than for MHV-A59. Thus, MHV strains with differences in S-glycoprotein sequence, tissue tropism, and virulence can differ in the ability to utilize the various murine Bgps as receptors.
Polyomavirus Large T Antigen Binds Cooperatively to Its Multiple Binding Sites in the Viral Origin of DNA Replication
Authors: Peng Yu-Cai , Acheson Nicholas H.
Published: December 2019

Polyomavirus large T antigen binds to multiple 5′-G(A/G)GGC-3′ pentanucleotide sequences in sites 1/2, A, B, and C within and adjacent to the origin of viral DNA replication on the polyomavirus genome. We asked whether the binding of large T antigen to one of these sites could influence binding to other sites. We discovered that binding to origin DNA is substantially stronger at pH 6 to 7 than at pH 7.4 to 7.8, a range often used in DNA binding assays. Large T antigen-DNA complexes formed at pH 6 to 7 were stable, but a fraction of these complexes dissociated at pH 7.6 and above upon dilution or during electrophoresis. Increased binding at low pH is therefore due at least in part to increased stability of protein-DNA complexes, and binding at higher pH values is reversible. Binding to fragments of origin DNA in which one or more sites were deleted or inactivated by point mutations was measured by nitrocellulose filter binding and DNase I footprinting. The results showed that large T antigen binds cooperatively to its four binding sites in viral DNA, suggesting that the binding of this protein to one of these sites stabilizes its binding to other sites via protein-protein contacts. Sites A, B, and C may therefore augment DNA replication by facilitating the binding of large T antigen to site 1/2 at the replication origin. ATP stabilized large T antigen-DNA complexes against dissociation in the presence, but not the absence, of site 1/2, and ATP specifically enhanced protection against DNase I digestion in the central 10 to 12 bp of site 1/2, at which hexamers are believed to form and begin unwinding DNA. We propose that large T antigen molecules bound to these multiple sites on origin DNA interact with each other to form a compact protein-DNA complex and, furthermore, that ATP stimulates their assembly into hexamers at site 1/2 by a “handover” mechanism mediated by these protein-protein contacts.
Infectivity of a Pseudorabies Virus Mutant Lacking Attachment Glycoproteins C and D
Authors: Karger Axel , Schmidt Jerg , Mettenleiter Thomas C.
Published: December 2019

Initiation of herpesvirus infection requires attachment of virions to the host cell followed by fusion of virion envelope and cellular cytoplasmic membrane during penetration. In several alphaherpesviruses, glycoprotein C (gC) is the primary attachment protein, interacting with cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Secondary binding is mediated by gD, which, normally, is also required for penetration. Recently, we described the isolation of a gD-negative infectious pseudorabies virus (PrV) mutant, PrV gD
−
Pass (J. Schmidt, B. G. Klupp, A. Karger, and T. C. Mettenleiter, J. Virol. 71:17–24, 1997). In PrV gD
−
Pass, attachment and penetration occur in the absence of gD. To assess the importance of specific attachment for infectivity of PrV gD
−
Pass, the gene encoding gC was deleted, resulting in mutant PrV gCD
−
Pass. Deletion of both known attachment proteins reduced specific infectivity compared to wild-type PrV by more than 10,000-fold. Surprisingly, the virus mutant still retained significant infectivity and could be propagated on normal noncomplementing cells, indicating the presence of another receptor-binding virion protein. Selection of bovine kidney (MDBK) cells resistant to infection by PrV gCD
−
Pass resulted in the isolation of a cell clone, designated NB, which was susceptible to infection by wild-type PrV but refractory to infection by either PrV gCD
−
Pass or PrV gD
−
Pass, a defect which could partially be overcome by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced membrane fusion. However, even after PEG-induced infection plaque formation of PrV gCD
−
Pass or PrV gD
−
Pass did not ensue in NB cells. Also, phenotypic gD complementation of PrV gCD
−
Pass or PrV gD
−
Pass rescued the defect in infection of NB cells but did not restore plaque formation. Glycosaminoglycan analyses of MDBK and NB cells yielded identical results, and NB cells were normally susceptible to infection by other alphaherpesviruses as well as vesicular stomatitis virus. Infectious center assays after PEG-induced infection of NB cells with PrV gD
−
Pass on MDBK cells indicated efficient exit of virions from infected NB cells. Together, our data suggest the presence of another receptor and receptor-binding virion protein which can mediate PrV entry and cell-to-cell spread in MDBK cells.
Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein B Contains Autonomous Determinants for Vectorial Targeting to Apical Membranes of Polarized Epithelial Cells
Authors: Tugizov Sharof , Maidji Ekaterina , Xiao Jianqiao , Zheng Zhenwei , Pereira Lenore
Published: December 2019

We previously reported that human cytomegalovirus (CMV) glycoprotein B (gB) is vectorially transported to apical membranes of CMV-infected polarized human retinal pigment epithelial cells propagated on permeable filter supports and that virions egress predominantly from the apical membrane domain. In the present study, we investigated whether gB itself contains autonomous information for apical transport by expressing the molecule in stably transfected Madine-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells grown on permeable filter supports. Laser scanning confocal immunofluorescence microscopy and domain-selective biotinylation of surface membrane domains showed that CMV gB was transported to apical membranes independently of other envelope glycoproteins and that it colocalized with proteins in transport vesicles of the biosynthetic and endocytic pathways. Determinants for trafficking to apical membranes were located by evaluating the targeting of gB derivatives with deletions in the lumen, transmembrane (TM) anchor, and carboxyl terminus. Derivative gB(Δ717-747), with an internal deletion in the luminal juxtamembrane sequence that preserved the
N
- and
O
-glycosylation sites, retained vectorial transport to apical membranes. In contrast, derivatives that lacked the TM anchor and cytosolic domain (gBΔ646-906) or the TM anchor alone (gBΔ751-771) underwent considerable basolateral targeting. Likewise, derivatives lacking the entire cytosolic domain (gBΔ772-906) or the last 73 amino acids (gBΔ834-906) showed disrupted apical transport. Site-specific mutations that deleted or altered the cluster of acidic residues with a casein kinase II phosphorylation site at the extreme carboxyl terminus, which can serve as an internalization signal, caused partial missorting of gB to basolateral membranes. Our studies indicate that CMV gB contains autonomous information for apical targeting in luminal, TM anchor, and cytosolic domain sequences, forming distinct structural elements that cooperate in vectorial transport in polarized epithelial cells.
CD40 Ligand-Mediated Interactions Are Involved in the Generation of Memory CD8+Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) but Are Not Required for the Maintenance of CTL Memory following Virus Infection
Authors: Borrow Persephone , Tough David F. , Eto Danelle , Tishon Antoinette , Grewal Iqbal S. , Sprent Jonathan , Flavell Richard A. , Oldstone Michael B. A.
Published: December 2019

CD8+cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) play a key role in the control of many virus infections, and the need for vaccines to elicit strong CD8+T-cell responses in order to provide optimal protection in such infections is increasingly apparent. However, the mechanisms involved in the induction and maintenance of CD8+CTL memory are currently poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the involvement of CD40 ligand (CD40L)-mediated interactions in these processes by analyzing the memory CTL response of CD40L-deficient mice following infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). The maintenance of memory CD8+CTL precursors (CTLp) at stable frequencies over time was not impaired in CD40L-deficient mice. By contrast, the initial generation of memory CTLp was affected. CD40L-deficient mice produced lower levels of CD8+CTLp during the primary immune response to LCMV than did wild-type controls, despite the fact that the LCMV-specific effector CTL response of CD40L-deficient mice was indistinguishable from that of control animals. The differentiation of naı̈ve CD8+T cells into effector and memory CTL thus involves pathways that can be discriminated from each other by their requirement for CD40L-mediated interactions. Expression of CD40L by CTLp themselves was not an essential step during their expansion and differentiation from naı̈ve CD8+cells into memory CTLp; instead, the reduction in memory CTLp generation in CD40L-deficient mice was likely a consequence of defects in the CD4+T-cell response mounted by these animals. These results thus suggest a previously unappreciated role for CD40L in the generation of CD8+memory CTLp, the probable nature of which is discussed.
Characterization of Unusual Escape Variants of Hepatitis B Virus Isolated from a Hepatitis B Surface Antigen-Negative Subject
Authors: Grethe Stefanie , Monazahian Masyar , Böhme Ingo , Thomssen Reiner
Published: December 2019

Hepatitis B virus DNA was extracted from serial serum samples of a hepatitis B surface antigen-negative patient with antibodies to the core protein as the only marker of an infection with hepatitis B virus. This patient showed no symptoms of hepatic injury. Sequencing of the amplified viral DNA demonstrated multiple amino acid changes clustering in surface-exposed regions of the surface protein. Synthesis and association of the middle (M) and small (S) surface proteins could be shown in vitro. The variant surface antigens were recognized neither by monoclonal antibodies to the surface antigen nor by the vaccinee’s sera. Consequences for hepatitis B surface antigen testing and vaccine development are discussed.
Identification ofNitric Oxide Synthase 2as an Innate Resistance Locus against Ectromelia Virus Infection
Authors: Karupiah Gunasegaran , Chen Jian-He , Nathan Carl F. , Mahalingam Surendran , MacMicking John D.
Published: December 2019

To assess whethernitric oxide synthase 2(NOS2) fulfills the criteria of an innate resistance locus against an acute viral infection, we inoculated genetically deficient NOS2−/− mice with virulent ectromelia virus (EV), the causative agent of mousepox. NOS2−/− mice proved highly susceptible to EV yet showed no diminution in other well-characterized anti-EV immune responses, i.e., gamma interferon secretion and NK cell and EV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte activities. Thus, theNOS2locus can be considered a critical monogenic determinant of EV resistance that contributes to host survival.
Genetic Dissociation of the Encapsidation and Reverse Transcription Functions in the 5′ R Region of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1
Authors: Clever Jared L. , Eckstein Daniel A. , Parslow Tristram G.
Published: December 2019

The efficient packaging of genomic RNA into virions of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is directed by
cis
-acting encapsidation signals, which have been mapped to particular RNA stem-loop structures near the 5′ end of the genome. Earlier studies have shown that three such stem-loops, located adjacent to the major 5′ splice donor, are required for optimal packaging; more recent reports further suggest a requirement for the TAR and poly(A) hairpins of the 5′ R region. In the present study, we have compared the phenotypes that result from mutating these latter elements in the HIV-1 provirus. Using a single-round infectivity assay, we find that mutations which disrupt base pairing in either the TAR or poly(A) stems cause profound defects in both packaging and viral replication. Decreased genomic packaging in a given mutant was always accompanied by increased packaging of spliced viral RNAs. Compensatory mutations that restored base pairing also restored encapsidation, indicating that the secondary structures of the TAR and poly(A) stems, rather than their primary sequences, are important for packaging activity. Despite having normal RNA contents, however, viruses with compensatory mutations at the base of the TAR stem were severely replication defective, owing to a defect in proviral DNA synthesis. Our findings thus confirm that the HIV-1 TAR stem-loop is required for at least three essential viral functions (transcriptional activation, RNA packaging, and reverse transcription) and reveal that its packaging and reverse transcription activities can be dissociated genetically by mutations at the base of the TAR stem.
Sendai Virus Infection Induces Apoptosis through Activation of Caspase-8 (FLICE) and Caspase-3 (CPP32)
Authors: Bitzer Michael , Prinz Florian , Bauer Manuel , Spiegel Martin , Neubert Wolfgang J. , Gregor Michael , Schulze-Osthoff Klaus , Lauer Ulrich
Published: December 2019

Sendai virus (SV) infection and replication lead to a strong cytopathic effect with subsequent death of host cells. We now show that SV infection triggers an apoptotic program in target cells. Incubation of infected cells with the peptide inhibitor z-VAD-fmk abrogated SV-induced apoptosis, indicating that proteases of the caspase family were involved. Moreover, proteolytic activation of two distinct caspases, CPP32/caspase-3 and, as shown for the first time in virus-infected cells, FLICE/caspase-8, could be detected. So far, activation of FLICE/caspase-8 has been described in apoptosis triggered by death receptors, including CD95 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-R1. In contrast, we could show that SV-induced apoptosis did not require TNF or CD95 ligand. We further found that apoptosis of infected cells did not influence the maturation and budding of SV progeny. In conclusion, SV-induced cell injury is mediated by CD95- and TNF-R1-independent activation of caspases, leading to the death of host cells without impairment of the viral life cycle.
Human Herpesvirus 6 Latently Infects Early Bone Marrow Progenitors In Vivo
Authors: Luppi Mario , Barozzi Patrizia , Morris Christine , Maiorana Antonio , Garber Richard , Bonacorsi Goretta , Donelli Amedea , Marasca Roberto , Tabilio Antonio , Torelli Giuseppe
Published: December 2019

We have studied the in vivo tropism of human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) for hemopoietic cells in patients with latent HHV-6 infection. Having used a variety of cell purification, molecular, cytogenetic, and immunocytochemical procedures, we report the first evidence that HHV-6 latently infects early bone marrow progenitor cells and that HHV-6 may be transmitted longitudinally to cells which differentiate along the committed pathways.
Search for the Mechanism of Genetic Variation in the
pro
Gene of Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Authors: Rouzine I. M. , Coffin J. M.
Published: December 2019

To study the mechanism of evolution of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease gene (
pro
), we analyzed a database of 213
pro
sequences isolated from 11 HIV type 1-infected patients who had not been treated with protease inhibitors. Variation in
pro
is restricted to rare variable bases which are highly diverse and differ in location among individuals; an average variable base appears in about 16% of individuals. The average intrapatient distance per individual variable site, 27%, is similar for synonymous and nonsynonymous sites, although synonymous sites are twice as abundant. The latter observation excludes selection for diversity as an important, permanently acting factor in the evolution of
pro
and leaves purifying selection as the only kind of selection. Based on this, we developed a model of evolution, both within individuals and along the transmission chain, which explains variable sites as slightly deleterious mutants slowly reverting to the better-fit variant during individual infection. In the case of a single-source transmission, genetic bottlenecks at the moment of transmission effectively suppress selection, allowing mutants to accumulate along the transmission chain to high levels. However, even very rare coinfections from independent sources are, as we show, able to counteract the bottleneck effect. Therefore, there are two possible explanations for the high mutant frequency. First, the frequency of coinfection in the natural host population may be quite low. Alternatively, a strong variation of the best-adapted sequence between individuals could be caused by a combination of an immune response present in early infection and coselection.
Analysis of the Critical Domain in the V3 Loop of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 gp120 Involved in CCR5 Utilization
Authors: Hung Chia-Suei , Vander Heyden Nancy , Ratner Lee
Published: December 2019

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection of CD4
+
lymphocytes and macrophages involves interaction of the surface subunit of the envelope protein (gp120) with coreceptors. Isolates have been found with specific tropism for macrophages and/or T-cell lines, through the utilization of chemokine receptor CCR5 (R5) or CXCR4 (X4). The third hypervariable loop (V3 loop) of gp120 is the major determinant of tropism. Using chimeric envelopes between HXB2 (X4) and ADA (R5), we found that the C-terminal half of the V3 loop was sufficient to confer on HXB2 the ability to infect CCR5-expressing cells. A sequence motif was identified at positions 289 to 292 allowing 30% of wild-type levels of infection, whereas full activity was achieved with the conversion of Lys to Glu at position 287 in addition to the above motif. Moreover, V3 loops from either SF2 (X4R5) or SF162 (R5) also allowed infection of CCR5-expressing cells, supporting the importance of V3 loops in influencing CCR5 utilization. The effects of amino acid changes at position 287 on the level of infection via CCR5 showed that negatively charged residues (Glu and Asp) were optimal for efficient interaction whereas only bulky hydrophobic residues drastically reduced infection. In addition, sequences at the N terminus of the V3 loop independently modulated the level of infection via CCR5. This study also examined the susceptibility of chimeric envelopes to neutralization by anticoreceptor antibodies and suggested the presence of differential interaction between the chimeric envelopes and CCR5. These findings highlight the critical residues in the V3 loop that mediate HIV-1 infection.
Perturbation of Cell Cycle Progression and Cellular Gene Expression as a Function of Herpes Simplex Virus ICP0
Authors: Hobbs William E. , DeLuca Neal A.
Published: December 2019

Herpes simplex virus type 1 is capable of inhibiting host cell DNA synthesis following lytic infection. However, the mechanism and nature of potential effects on cell cycle progression have not been described. In this report, we characterize the dysregulation of the cell cycle following infection with the replication-incompetent virus
d
106, where immediate-early gene expression is restricted to infected-cell polypeptide 0 (ICP0) and the expression of all other viral genes is dramatically reduced or is not observed. Infection with
d
106 resulted in the accumulation of cells in both the G
1
/S and G
2
/M compartments, consistent with cell cycle arrest at both checkpoints. The isogenic variant
d
109, which does not express any viral proteins, failed to induce this phenotype, suggesting that the expression of ICP0 is crucial for cell cycle arrest. Analysis of global cellular gene expression patterns following infection with
d
106 and
d
109 revealed that a relatively small subset of cellular genes were induced as a consequence of ICP0 expression. A number of these genes induced in the presence of ICP0 are classically considered p53-responsive genes, including
p21
,
gadd45
, and
mdm-2
. However, infection with
d
106 of cells with both alleles of p53 deleted resulted in the same cell cycle arrest phenotype and similar cellular gene expression patterns, suggesting that the expression of ICP0 results in cell cycle arrest potentially via p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms. In addition, it was found that the effects of infection with
d
106 on viral and cellular gene expression were similar to the effects observed following treatment of cells with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A.
Lymphotropic Virions Affect Chemokine Receptor-Mediated Neural Signaling and Apoptosis: Implications for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Associated Dementia
Authors: Zheng Jialin , Ghorpade Anuja , Niemann Douglas , Cotter Robin L. , Thylin Michael R. , Epstein Leon , Swartz Jennifer M. , Shepard Robin B. , Liu Xiaojuan , Nukuna Adeline , Gendelman Howard E.
Published: December 2019

Chemokine receptors pivotal for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection in lymphocytes and macrophages (CCR3, CCR5, and CXCR4) are expressed on neural cells (microglia, astrocytes, and/or neurons). It is these cells which are damaged during progressive HIV-1 infection of the central nervous system. We theorize that viral coreceptors could effect neural cell damage during HIV-1-associated dementia (HAD) without simultaneously affecting viral replication. To these ends, we studied the ability of diverse viral strains to affect intracellular signaling and apoptosis of neurons, astrocytes, and monocyte-derived macrophages. Inhibition of cyclic AMP, activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, and apoptosis were induced by diverse HIV-1 strains, principally in neurons. Virions from T-cell-tropic (T-tropic) strains (MN, IIIB, and Lai) produced the most significant alterations in signaling of neurons and astrocytes. The HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein, gp120, induced markedly less neural damage than purified virions. Macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) strains (ADA, JR-FL, Bal, MS-CSF, and DJV) produced the least neural damage, while 89.6, a dual-tropic HIV-1 strain, elicited intermediate neural cell damage. All T-tropic strain-mediated neuronal impairments were blocked by the CXCR4 antibody, 12G5. In contrast, the M-tropic strains were only partially blocked by 12G5. CXCR4-mediated neuronal apoptosis was confirmed in pure populations of rat cerebellar granule neurons and was blocked by HA1004, an inhibitor of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, protein kinase A, and protein kinase C. Taken together, these results suggest that progeny HIV-1 virions can influence neuronal signal transduction and apoptosis. This process occurs, in part, through CXCR4 and is independent of CD4 binding. T-tropic viruses that traffic in and out of the brain during progressive HIV-1 disease may play an important role in HAD neuropathogenesis.
Stoichiometry of Monoclonal Antibody Neutralization of T-Cell Line-Adapted Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1
Authors: Schønning Kristian , Lund Ole , Søgaard Lund Ole , Stig Hansen John-Erik
Published: December 2019

In order to study the stoichiometry of monoclonal antibody (MAb) neutralization of T-cell line-adapted human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in antibody excess and under equilibrium conditions, we exploited the ability of HIV-1 to generate mixed oligomers when different
env
genes are coexpressed. By the coexpression of Env glycoproteins that either can or cannot bind a neutralizing MAb in an
env
transcomplementation assay, virions were generated in which the proportion of MAb binding sites could be regulated. As the proportion of MAb binding sites in Env chimeric virus increased, MAb neutralization gradually increased. Virus neutralization by virion aggregation was minimal, as MAb binding to HIV-1 Env did not interfere with an AMLV Env-mediated infection by HIV-1(AMLV/HIV-1) pseudotypes of CD4
−
HEK293 cells. MAb neutralization of chimeric virions could be described as a third-order function of the proportion of Env antigen refractory to MAb binding. This scenario is consistent with the Env oligomer constituting the minimal functional unit and neutralization occurring incrementally as each Env oligomer binds MAb. Alternatively, the data could be fit to a sigmoid function. Thus, these data could not exclude the existence of a threshold for neutralization. However, results from MAb neutralization of chimeric virus containing wild-type Env and Env defective in CD4 binding was readily explained by a model of incremental MAb neutralization. In summary, the data indicate that MAb neutralization of T-cell line-adapted HIV-1 is incremental rather than all or none and that each MAb binding an Env oligomer reduces the likelihood of infection.
Adeno-Associated Virus Type 2 Protein Interactions: Formation of Pre-Encapsidation Complexes
Authors: Dubielzig Ralf , King Jason A. , Weger Stefan , Kern Andrea , Kleinschmidt Jürgen A.
Published: December 2019

The nonstructural adeno-associated virus type 2 Rep proteins are known to control viral replication and thus provide the single-stranded DNA genomes required for packaging into preformed capsids. In addition, complexes between Rep proteins and capsids have previously been observed in the course of productive infections. Such complexes have been interpreted as genome-linked Rep molecules associated with the capsid upon successful DNA encapsidation. Here we demonstrate via coimmunoprecipitation, cosedimentation, and yeast two-hybrid analyses that the Rep-VP association also occurs in the absence of packageable genomes, suggesting that such complexes could be involved in the preparation of empty capsids for subsequent encapsidation steps. The Rep domain responsible for the observed Rep-VP interactions is situated within amino acids 322 to 482. In the presence of all Rep proteins, Rep52 and, to a lesser extent, Rep78 are most abundantly recovered with capsids, whereas Rep68 and Rep40 vary in association depending on their expression levels. Rep78 and Rep52 are bound to capsids to roughly the same extent as the minor capsid protein VP2. Complexes of Rep78 and Rep52 with capsids differ in their respective detergent stabilities, indicating that they result from different types of interactions. Rep-VP interaction studies suggest that Rep proteins become stably associated with the capsid during the assembly process. Rep-capsid complexes can reach even higher complexity through additional Rep-Rep interactions, which are particularly detergent labile. Coimmunoprecipitation and yeast two-hybrid data demonstrate the interaction of Rep78 with Rep68, of Rep68 with Rep52, and weak interactions of Rep40 with Rep52 and Rep78. We propose that the large complexes arising from these interactions represent intermediates in the DNA packaging pathway.
SPI-1-Dependent Host Range of Rabbitpox Virus and Complex Formation with Cathepsin G Is Associated with Serpin Motifs
Authors: Moon Kristin B. , Turner Peter C. , Moyer Richard W.
Published: December 2019

Serpins are a superfamily of serine proteinase inhibitors which function to regulate a number of key biological processes including fibrinolysis, inflammation, and cell migration. Poxviruses are the only viruses known to encode functional serpins. While some poxvirus serpins regulate inflammation (myxoma virus SERP1 and cowpox virus [CPV] crmA/SPI-2) or apoptosis (myxoma virus SERP2 and CPV crmA/SPI-2), the function of other poxvirus serpins remains unknown. The rabbitpox virus (RPV) SPI-1 protein is 47% identical to crmA and shares all of the serpin structural motifs. However, no serpin-like activity has been demonstrated for SPI-1 to date. Earlier we showed that RPV with the SPI-1 gene deleted, unlike wild-type virus, fails to grow on A549 or PK15 cells (A. Ali, P. C. Turner, M. A. Brooks, and R. W. Moyer, Virology 202:306–314, 1994). Here we demonstrate that in the absence of a functional SPI-1 protein, infected nonpermissive cells which exhibit the morphological features of apoptosis fail to activate terminal caspases or cleave the death substrates PARP or lamin A. We show that SPI-1 forms a stable complex in vitro with cathepsin G, a member of the chymotrypsin family of serine proteinases, consistent with serpin activity. SPI-1 reactive-site loop (RSL) mutations of the critical P1 and P14 residues abolish this activity. Viruses containing the SPI-1 RSL P1 or P14 mutations also fail to grow on A549 or PK15 cells. These results suggest that the full virus host range depends on the serpin activity of SPI-1 and that in restrictive cells SPI-1 inhibits a proteinase with chymotrypsin-like activity and may function to inhibit a caspase-independent pathway of apoptosis.
Nonrandom Distribution of Hepatitis C Virus Quasispecies in Plasma and Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Subsets
Authors: Afonso Anne Marie Roque , Jiang Jiaji , Penin François , Tareau Claire , Samuel Didier , Petit Marie-Anne , Bismuth Henri , Dussaix Elisabeth , Féray Cyrille
Published: December 2019

The existence of an extrahepatic reservoir of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is suggested by differences in quasispecies composition between the liver, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and serum. We studied HCV RNA compartmentalization in the plasma of nine patients, in CD19
+
, CD8
+
, and CD4
+
positively selected cells, and also in the negatively selected cell fraction (NF). HCV RNA was detected in all plasma samples, in seven of nine CD19
+
, three of eight CD8
+
, and one of nine CD4
+
cell samples, and in seven of eight NF cells. Cloning and sequencing of HVR1 in two patients showed a sequence grouping: quasispecies from a given compartment (all studied compartments for one patient and CD8
+
and NF for the other) were statistically more genetically like each other than like quasispecies from any other compartment. The characteristics of amino acid and nucleotide substitutions suggested the same structural constraints on HVR1, even in very divergent strains from the cellular compartments, and homogeneous selection pressure on the different compartments. These findings demonstrate the compartmental distribution of HCV quasispecies within peripheral blood cell subsets and have important implications for the study of extrahepatic HCV replication and interaction with the immune system.
Human Cytomegalovirus 86-Kilodalton IE2 Protein Blocks Cell Cycle Progression in G
1
Authors: Wiebusch Lüder , Hagemeier Christian
Published: December 2019

The 86-kDa IE2 protein of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is an important regulator of viral and host cell gene expression. Still, besides its function as a transcription factor, little is known about the biological activities of IE2. Here, we show that IE2 can induce a G
1
arrest in several different cell lines, including HCMV-permissive U-373 cells. The known transcriptional activation domains of IE2 are dispensable for G
1
arrest, favoring a posttranscriptional mechanism mediating this cell cycle effect. We show that like human primary fibroblasts U-373 cells arrest in G
1
upon infection with HCMV. This G
1
arrest occurs within 24 h after infection and in proliferating cells depends on viral gene expression. Our data therefore suggest that IE2 is at least partially responsible for blocking the transition from G
1
to S phase, which is induced when cells are infected with HCMV.
Requirements for RNA Replication of a Poliovirus Replicon by Coxsackievirus B3 RNA Polymerase
Authors: Bell Yolanda C. , Semler Bert L. , Ehrenfeld Ellie
Published: December 2019

A chimeric poliovirus type 1 (PV1) genome was constructed in which the 3D RNA polymerase (3D
pol
) coding sequences were replaced with those from coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3). No infectious virus was produced from HeLa cells transfected with the chimeric RNA. Processing of the PV1 capsid protein precursor was incomplete, presumably due to inefficient recognition of the P1 protein substrate by the chimeric 3CD proteinase containing CVB3 3D sequences. The ability of the chimeric RNA to replicate in the absence of capsid formation was measured after replacement of the P1 region with a luciferase reporter gene. No RNA synthesis was detected, despite efficient production of enzymatically active 3D
pol
from the 3D portion of the chimeric 3CD. The chimeric 3CD protein was unable to efficiently bind to the cloverleaf-like structure (CL) at the 5′ end of PV1 RNA, which has been demonstrated previously to be required for viral RNA synthesis. The CVB3 3CD protein bound the PV1 CL as well as PV1 3CD. An additional chimeric PV1 RNA that contained CVB3 3CD sequences also failed to produce virus after transfection. Since processing of PV1 capsid protein precursors by the CVB3 3CD was again incomplete, a luciferase-containing replicon was also analyzed for RNA replication. The 3CD chimera replicated at 33°C, but not at 37°C. Replacement of the PV1 5′-terminal CL with that of CVB3 did not rescue the temperature-sensitive phenotype. Thus, there is an essential interaction(s) between 3CD and other viral P2 or P3 protein products required for efficient RNA replication which is not fully achieved between proteins from the two different members of the same virus genus.
Repeated Delivery of Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors to the Rabbit Airway
Authors: Beck Suzanne E. , Jones Lori A. , Chesnut Kye , Walsh Scott M. , Reynolds Thomas C. , Carter Barrie J. , Askin Frederic B. , Flotte Terence R. , Guggino William B.
Published: December 2019

Efficient local expression from recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)-cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) vectors has been observed in the airways of rabbits and monkeys for up to 6 months following a single bronchoscopic delivery. However, it is likely that repeated administrations of rAAV vectors will be necessary for sustained correction of the CF defect in the airways. The current study was designed to test the feasibility of repeated airway delivery of rAAV vectors in the rabbit lung. After two doses of rAAV-CFTR to the airways, rabbits generated high titers of serum anti-AAV neutralizing antibodies. Rabbits then received a third dose of a rAAV vector containing the green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene packaged in either AAV serotype 2 (AAV2) or serotype 3 (AAV3) capsids. Each dose consisted of 1 ml containing 5 × 109DNase-resistant particles of rAAV vector, having no detectable replication-competent AAV or adenovirus. Three weeks later, GFP expression was observed in airway epithelial cells despite high anti-AAV neutralizing titers at the time of delivery. There was no significant difference in the efficiency of DNA transfer or expression between the rAAV3 and rAAV2 groups. No significant inflammatory responses to either repeated airway exposure to rAAV2-CFTR vectors or to GFP expression were observed. These experiments demonstrate that serum anti-AAV neutralizing antibody titers do not predict airway neutralizationin vivoand that repeated airway delivery rAAV allows for safe and effective gene transfer.
Construction and Preliminary Characterization of a Library of “Lethal” Preterminal Protein Mutant Adenoviruses
Authors: Schaack Jerome , Ho William Y. , Tolman Shawna , Ullyat Elizabeth , Guo Xiaoling , Frank Nina , Freimuth Paul I. , Roovers Dick J. , Sussenbach John S.
Published: December 2019

Adenoviruses containing lethal in-frame insertion mutant alleles of the preterminal protein (pTP) gene were constructed with cell lines that express pTP. Thirty in-frame insertion mutant alleles, including 26 alleles previously characterized as lethal and 4 newly constructed mutant alleles, were introduced into the viral chromosome in place of the wild-type pTP gene. The viruses were tested for ability to form plaques at 37°C in HeLa-pTP cells and at 32°C and 39.5°C in HeLa cells. Two of the newly constructed viruses exhibited temperature sensitivity for plaque formation, one virus did not form plaques in the absence of complementation, seven additional mutants exhibited a greater than 10-fold reduction in plaque formation in the absence of complementation, and another eight mutants exhibited stronger phenotypes than did previously characterized in-frame insertion mutants in the plaque assay. These mutant viruses offer promise for analysis of pTP functions.
Molecular Characterization of a Porcine Enteric Calicivirus Genetically Related to Sapporo-Like Human Caliciviruses
Authors: Guo M. , Chang K. O. , Hardy M. E. , Zhang Q. , Parwani A. V. , Saif L. J.
Published: December 2019

Porcine enteric calicivirus (PEC) is associated with diarrhea in pigs, and to date it is the only cultivable enteric calicivirus (tissue culture-adapted [TC] PEC/Cowden). Based on sequence analysis of cDNA clones and reverse transcription-PCR products, TC PEC/Cowden has an RNA genome of 7,320 bp, excluding its 3′ poly(A)
+
tail. The genome is organized in two open reading frames (ORFs), similar to the organizations of the human Sapporo-like viruses (SLVs) and the lagoviruses. ORF1 encodes the polyprotein that is fused to and contiguous with the capsid protein. ORF2 at the 3′ end encodes a small basic protein of 164 amino acids. Among caliciviruses, PEC has the highest amino acid sequence identities in the putative RNA polymerase (66%), 2C helicase (49.6%), 3C-like protease (43.7%), and capsid (39%) regions with the SLVs, indicating that PEC is genetically most closely related to the SLVs. The complete RNA genome of wild-type (WT) PEC/Cowden was also sequenced. Sequence comparisons revealed that the WT and TC PEC/Cowden have 100% nucleotide sequence identities in the 5′ terminus, 2C helicase, ORF2, and the 3′ nontranslated region. TC PEC/Cowden has one silent mutation in its protease, two amino acid changes and a silent mutation in its RNA polymerase, and five nucleotide substitutions in its capsid that result in one distant and three clustered amino acid changes and a silent mutation. These substitutions may be associated with adaptation of TC PEC/Cowden to cell culture. The cultivable PEC should be a useful model for studies of the pathogenesis, replication, and possible rescue of uncultivable human enteric caliciviruses.