bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY OF THE EQUINE DISTAL LIMB: EXPLORATORY STUDY
Authors: Spriet Mathieu , Espinosa Pablo , Kyme Andre Z. , Stepanov Pavel , Zavarzin Val , Schaeffer Stephen , Katzman Scott A. , Galuppo Larry D. , Beylin David
Published: October 2016

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a highly sensitive, noninvasive imaging technique for quantifying biological functions of tissues. However, at the time of this study, PET imaging applications had not been reported in the horse. The aim of this exploratory study was to determine whether a portable high‐resolution PET scanner could be used to image the equine distal limb. Images of the front feet and fetlocks of three research horses, with known lesions localized to the distal front limbs, were acquired under general anesthesia after administration of 18F‐fluorodeoxyglucose (18F‐FDG), with doses ranging from 1.5 to 2.9 MBq/kg. The radiation exposure measured during imaging was slightly higher than 99mTechnetium scintigraphy. However, the use of general anesthesia allowed the proximity and the contact time with the patient to be minimized for the staff involved. 18F‐FDG uptake was evident throughout the soft tissues, with the highest uptake in the coronary band and the lowest uptake in the tendons. Anatomic structures could be discriminated due to the high contrast between soft tissue and bone. Detected lesions included lysis of the flexor cortex of the navicular bone, lesions of flexor tendons and suspensory ligament, and abnormal uptake through the lamina of a laminitic subject. Findings indicated that tomographic molecular imaging is feasible in the equine distal limb and could be useful as a future diagnostic technique for clinical and research studies, especially those involving tendinopathy/desmopathy and laminitis.
Adapting Steady-State Solar Power Models to Include Transients
Authors: Abutayeh Mohammad , Alazzam Anas
Published: October 2016

Quite a few computer programs have been developed to model power plant performance. These software codes are geared toward modeling steady-state operations, which are usually sufficient for conventional power plants. Solar thermal power plants undergo prolonged transient start-up and shut-down operations due to the periodic nature of solar radiation. Moreover, the large size of the solar field brings about large residence time that must be considered to accurately lag power generation. A novel scheme has been developed to fine-tune steady-state solar power generation models to accurately take account of the impact of those transient operations. The suggested new scheme is implemented by adjusting solar radiation data input to the model and has been shown to clearly improve modeling accuracy by moving modeled results closer to matching real operating data.
Hemodynamics of Flow Diverters
Authors: Dholakia Ronak , Sadasivan Chander , Fiorella David J. , Woo Henry H. , Lieber Baruch B.
Published: October 2016

Cerebral aneurysms are pathological focal evaginations of the arterial wall at and around the junctions of the circle of Willis. Their tenuous walls predispose aneurysms to leak or rupture leading to hemorrhagic strokes with high morbidity and mortality rates. The endovascular treatment of cerebral aneurysms currently includes the implantation of fine-mesh stents, called flow diverters, within the parent artery bearing the aneurysm. By mitigating flow velocities within the aneurysmal sac, the devices preferentially induce thrombus formation in the aneurysm within hours to days. In response to the foreign implant, an endothelialized arterial layer covers the luminal surface of the device over a period of days to months. Organization of the intraneurysmal thrombus leads to resorption and shrinkage of the aneurysm wall and contents, eventually leading to beneficial remodeling of the pathological site to a near-physiological state. The devices' primary function of reducing flow activity within aneurysms is corollary to their mesh structure. Complete specification of the device mesh structure, or alternately device permeability, necessarily involves the quantification of two variables commonly used to characterize porous media—mesh porosity and mesh pore density. We evaluated the flow alteration induced by five commercial neurovascular devices of varying porosity and pore density (stents: Neuroform, Enterprise, and LVIS; flow diverters: Pipeline and FRED) in an idealized sidewall aneurysm model. As can be expected in such a model, all devices substantially reduced intraneurysmal kinetic energy as compared to the nonstented case with the coarse-mesh stents inducing a 65–80% reduction whereas the fine-mesh flow diverters induced a near-complete flow stagnation (∼98% reduction). We also note a trend toward greater device efficacy (lower intraneurysmal flow) with decreasing device porosity and increasing device pore density. Several such flow studies have been and are being conducted in idealized as well as patient-derived geometries with the overarching goals of improving device design, facilitating treatment planning (what is the optimal device for a specific aneurysm), and predicting treatment outcome (will a specific aneurysm treated with a specific device successfully occlude over the long term). While the results are generally encouraging, there is poor standardization of study variables between different research groups, and any consensus will only be reached after standardized studies are conducted on collectively large datasets. Biochemical variables may have to be incorporated into these studies to maximize predictive values.
Convective Heat Transfer of Al2O3 Nanofluids in Porous Media
Authors: Ghaziani Navid O. , Hassanipour Fatemeh
Published: October 2016

In this study, the performance of a heat sink embedded with a porous medium and nanofluids as coolants is analyzed experimentally. The nanofluid is a mixture of de-ionized water and nanoscale Al2O3 particles with three different volumetric concentrations: ζ = 0.41%, 0.58%, and 0.83%. The experimental test section is a rectangular minichannel filled with metal foam, which is electrically heated to provide a constant heat flux. The porous medium is assumed to be homogeneous and the flow regime is laminar. The result of heat transfer enhancement by slurry of Al2O3 nanofluid in porous media is studied under various flow velocities, heat flux, porous media structure, and particle concentration of nanofluid. The effect of particles volume fraction on heat transfer coefficient is also studied. This experimental study discovers and/or confirms the following hypotheses: (1) nanoparticle slurry in conjunction with metal foam has a significant effect on heat transfer rate; (2) there is an optimum permeability for the foam resulting in maximal heat transfer rate; (3) for a fixed particle concentration, smaller particles are more effective in enhancing heat transfer; and (4) increasing particle concentration results in some gains, but this trend weakens after a threshold.
Aerodynamics of Darrieus Wind Turbines Airfoils: The Impact of Pitching Moment
Authors: Bianchini Alessandro , Balduzzi Francesco , Ferrara Giovanni , Ferrari Lorenzo
Published: October 2016

Recent studies have demonstrated that, when rotating around an axis orthogonal to the flow direction, airfoils are virtually transformed into equivalent airfoils with a camber line defined by their arc of rotation. In these conditions, the symmetric airfoils commonly used for Darrieus blades actually behave like virtually cambered ones or, equivalently, rotors have to be manufactured with countercambered blades to ensure the attended performance. To complete these analyses, the present study first focuses the attention on the airfoils' aerodynamics during the startup of the rotors. It is shown that, contrary to conventional theories based on one-dimensional aerodynamic coefficients, symmetric airfoils exhibit a counterintuitive nonsymmetric starting torque over the revolution. Conversely, airfoils compensated for the virtual camber effect show a more symmetric distribution over the revolution. This behavior is due to the effect of the pitching moment, which is usually neglected in lumped parameters models. At very low revolution speeds, its contribution becomes significant due to the very high incidence angles experienced by the blades; the pitching moment is also nonsymmetric between the upwind and the downwind zone. For upwind azimuthal positions, the pitching moment reduces the overall torque output, while it changes sign in the downwind section, increasing the torque. The importance of accounting for the pitching moment contribution in the entire power curve is also discussed in relationship to the selection of the best blade–spoke connection (BSC) point, in order to maximize the performance and minimize the alternate stresses on the connection due to the pitching moment itself.
Application of Artificial Neural Networks for Misfiring Detection in an Annular Pulsed Detonation Combustor Mockup
Authors: Wolff Sascha , Schäpel Jan-Simon , King Rudibert
Published: October 2016

An annular pulsed detonation combustor (PDC) basically consists of a number of detonation tubes which are firing in a predetermined sequence into a common downstream annular plenum. Fluctuating initial conditions and fluctuating environmental parameters strongly affect the detonation. Operating such a setup without misfiring is delicate. Misfiring of individual combustion tubes will significantly lower performance or even stop the engine. Hence, an operation of such an engine requires a misfiring detection. Here, a supervised data driven machine learning approach is used for the misfiring detection. The features used as inputs for the classifier are extracted from measurements incorporating physical knowledge about the given setup. To this end, a neural network is trained based on labeled data which is then used for classification purposes, i.e., misfiring detection. A surrogate, nonreacting experimental setup is considered in order to develop and test these methods.
Experimental Study of Effusion Cooling With Pressure-Sensitive Paint
Authors: Wang Guanghua , Ledezma Gustavo , DeLancey James , Wang Anquan
Published: October 2016

Gas turbines overall efficiency enhancement requires further increasing of the firing temperature and decreasing of cooling flow usage. Multihole (or effusion, or full-coverage) film cooling is widely used for hot gas path components cooling in modern gas turbines. The present study focused on the adiabatic film effectiveness measurement of a round multihole flat-plate coupon. The measurements were conducted in a subsonic open-loop wind tunnel with a generic setup to cover different running conditions. The test conditions were characterized by a constant main flow Mach number of 0.1 with constant gas temperature. Adiabatic film effectiveness was measured by pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) through mass transfer analogy. CO2 was used as the coolant to reach the density ratio of 1.5. Rig computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation was conducted to evaluate the impact of inlet boundary layer on testing. Experimental data cover blowing ratios (BRs) at 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, and 2.0. Both 2D maps and lateral average profiles clearly indicated that the film effectiveness increases with increasing BR for BR < 0.8 and decreases with increasing BR for BR > 0.8. This observation agreed with coolant jet behavior of single film row, i.e., attached, detached then reattached, and fully detached. PSP data quality was then discussed in detail for validating large eddy simulation.
Application of the Continuous and Discontinuous Fields of Plastic Deformations to the Evaluation of the Initial Thickness of Bent Tubes
Authors: Śloderbach Zdzisław
Published: October 2016

The paper presents the derived equations for calculations of the initial wall thickness g0 of a tube bent to elbow. The expressions for calculating g0 are presented in a suitable measure of the “great active actual radius Rj” in the bending zone for an exact-generalized solution (continuous fields) and for three formal simplifications (discontinuous fields) of the first-, second-, and third-orders. The expressions to calculate the components of deformation for a generalized solution (continuous fields) are obtained on the basis of kinematically admissible fields of plastic deformations. In any case, a value of initial tube thickness depends on the radius and on the angle of bending αb on the external diameter of the tube, on the displacement of the neutral axis, and on the allowable (required) elbow thickness according to European, American, or other national technical standard or regulations. The initial thickness also depends on the coordinates of the point where the allowable thickness was determined and on the technological–material coefficient of the bending zone range k (defined during the tests). The obtained calculation results are presented in the form of graphs and in table.
Investigating compositional effects of atomic layer deposition ternary dielectric Ti-Al-O on metal-insulator-semiconductor heterojunction capacitor structure for gate insulation of InAlN/GaN and AlGaN/GaN
Authors: Colon Albert , Stan Liliana , Divan Ralu , Shi Junxia
Published: October 2016

Gate insulation/surface passivation in AlGaN/GaN and InAlN/GaN heterojunction field-effect transistors is a major concern for passivation of surface traps and reduction of gate leakage current. However, finding the most appropriate gate dielectric materials is challenging and often involves a compromise of the required properties such as dielectric constant, conduction/valence band-offsets, or thermal stability. Creating a ternary compound such as Ti-Al-O and tailoring its composition may result in a reasonably good gate material in terms of the said properties. To date, there is limited knowledge of the performance of ternary dielectric compounds on AlGaN/GaN and even less on InAlN/GaN. To approach this problem, the authors fabricated metal-insulator-semiconductor heterojunction (MISH) capacitors with ternary dielectrics Ti-Al-O of various compositions, deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD). The film deposition was achieved by alternating cycles of TiO2 and Al2O3 using different ratios of ALD cycles. TiO2 was also deposited as a reference sample. The electrical characterization of the MISH capacitors shows an overall better performance of ternary compounds compared to the pure TiO2. The gate leakage current density decreases with increasing Al content, being ∼2–3 orders of magnitude lower for a TiO2:Al2O3 cycle ratio of 2:1. Although the dielectric constant has the highest value of 79 for TiO2 and decreases with increasing the number of Al2O3 cycles, it is maintaining a relatively high value compared to an Al2O3 film. Capacitance voltage sweeps were also measured in order to characterize the interface trap density. A decreasing trend in the interface trap density was found while increasing Al content in the film. In conclusion, our study reveals that the desired high-κ properties of TiO2 can be adequately maintained while improving other insulator performance factors. The ternary compounds may be an excellent choice as a gate material for both AlGaN/GaN and InAlN/GaN based devices.
Atomic emission spectroscopy of electrically triggered exploding nanoparticle analytes on graphene/SiO2/Si substrate
Authors: Liu Siyang , Kim Myungji , Kim Hong Koo
Published: October 2016

The authors report a device technology that promises chip-scale atomic emission spectroscopy operating in air ambient at room temperature with low voltage pulses. Analytes are placed on top of a graphene/SiO2/Si substrate and are atomized for atomic luminescence under electrical excitation. Here, the graphene is designed to serve as an electron-transparent conducting electrode. Under proper voltage pulses applied, the thin insulating layer (10-nm SiO2) breaks down and forms nanoscale leakage channels. Electrons induced at the SiO2/Si interface then emit into the void channels and ballistically travel into the anode (graphene) side. Kinetic electrons are injected into analytes inducing explosions of analyte material. This explosive fragmentation produces atoms in various excited states. The excited atoms then relax producing characteristic luminescence.
Accuracy of dose calculations on kV cone beam CT images of lung cancer patients
Authors: de Smet Mariska , Schuring Danny , Nijsten Sebastiaan , Verhaegen Frank
Published: October 2016

Purpose

To develop a clinically feasible method for dose calculations on cone beam CT (CBCT) images of two different vendors, and to determine the accuracy of these dose calculations for lung cancer patients.

Methods

Lung cancer patients with CBCT imaging (n = 10 for Elekta, n = 6 for Varian) and a repeated planning CT scan on the same day were selected. For CBCT dose calculations, an adapted Hounsfield units‐to‐mass density table (HU table) was used which was obtained by comparing CT values of corresponding points on the CBCT and the repeated planning CT scan. Dose calculations with three different HU tables were compared: a patient‐specific, a general thorax‐CBCT, and the standard CT HU table. Planning CT data were used to compensate for the limited field of view (FOV) (Elekta) or scan length (Varian) of the CBCT. For evaluation, clinically relevant dose metrics were compared between the repeated CT and CBCT to assess the accuracy of dose calculations on CBCT for both vendors.

Results

For both vendors, isodose lines and dose volume histograms were very similar between dose calculation on CBCT and CT. For Varian, average differences between CT and CBCT dose calculations were 2%–3% for most dose metrics when the standard CT HU table was used. A better agreement was observed when a thorax‐CBCT HU table was used, with differences of 1%–2%. No added value was found by using a patient‐specific HU table, showing similar results as the general thorax‐CBCT HU table. For Elekta, the dose metrics showed large deviations when the CT HU table was used, but using a patient‐specific HU table resulted in similar accuracy as for Varian CBCT dose calculations, with average differences between repeated CT and CBCT dose metrics below 3%, and for most dose metrics even below 2%.

Conclusions

Differences between Elekta and Varian CBCT, including hardware, reconstruction software, HU calibration, FOV, and scan length, resulted in different challenges for CBCT dose calculations for the different vendors. For Elekta CBCT scans, the procedure with a patient‐specific HU table resulted in similar accuracy as for Varian CBCT dose calculations with a general HU correction for all thorax patients. The vendor‐specific corrective methods used in this study resulted in dose calculations feasible for treatment re‐evaluation for both Elekta and Varian CBCT scans.
Temporal fine structure mediated recognition of speech in the presence of multitalker babble
Authors: Nambi Pitchai Muthu Arivudai , Mahajan Yatin , Francis Nikita , Bhat Jayashree S.
Published: October 2016

This experiment investigated the mechanisms of temporal fine structure (TFS) mediated speech recognition in multi-talker babble. The signal-to-noise ratio 50 (SNR-50) for naive-listeners was measured when the TFS was retained in its original form (ORIG-TFS), the TFS was time reversed (REV-TFS), and the TFS was replaced by noise (NO-TFS). The original envelope was unchanged. In the REV-TFS condition, periodicity cues for stream segregation were preserved, but envelope recovery was compromised. Both the mechanisms were compromised in the NO-TFS condition. The SNR-50 was lowest for ORIG-TFS followed by REV-TFS, which was lower than NO-TFS. Results suggest both stream segregation and envelope recovery aided TFS mediated speech recognition.
Targeting nuclear export in cancer
Authors: Foley John F.
Published: October 2016

KRAS
mutant lung cancer cells are sensitive to inhibition of the nuclear exporter XPO1.
Sorting Out Antibiotics' Mechanisms of Action: a Double Fluorescent Protein Reporter for High-Throughput Screening of Ribosome and DNA Biosynthesis Inhibitors
Authors: Osterman Ilya A. , Komarova Ekaterina S. , Shiryaev Dmitry I. , Korniltsev Ilya A. , Khven Irina M. , Lukyanov Dmitry A. , Tashlitsky Vadim N. , Serebryakova Marina V. , Efremenkova Olga V. , Ivanenkov Yan A. , Bogdanov Alexey A. , Sergiev Petr V. , Dontsova Olga A.
Published: October 2016

In order to accelerate drug discovery, a simple, reliable, and cost-effective system for high-throughput identification of a potential antibiotic mechanism of action is required. To facilitate such screening of new antibiotics, we created a double-reporter system for not only antimicrobial activity detection but also simultaneous sorting of potential antimicrobials into those that cause ribosome stalling and those that induce the SOS response due to DNA damage. In this reporter system, the red fluorescent protein gene
rfp
was placed under the control of the SOS-inducible
sulA
promoter. The gene of the far-red fluorescent protein,
katushka2S
, was inserted downstream of the tryptophan attenuator in which two tryptophan codons were replaced by alanine codons, with simultaneous replacement of the complementary part of the attenuator to preserve the ability to form secondary structures that influence transcription termination. This genetically modified attenuator makes possible Katushka2S expression only upon exposure to ribosome-stalling compounds. The application of red and far-red fluorescent proteins provides a high signal-to-background ratio without any need of enzymatic substrates for detection of the reporter activity. This reporter was shown to be efficient in high-throughput screening of both synthetic and natural chemicals.
Polyomaviruses
Authors: Cook Linda
Published: October 2016

Over the last 10 years, the number of identified polyomaviruses has grown to more than 35 subtypes, including 13 in humans. The polyomaviruses have similar genetic makeup, including genes that encode viral capsid proteins VP1, 2, and 3 and large and small T region proteins. The T proteins play a role in viral replication and have been implicated in viral chromosomal integration and possible dysregulation of growth factor genes. In humans, the Merkel cell polyomavirus has been shown to be highly associated with integration and the development of Merkel cell cancers. The first two human polyomaviruses discovered, BKPyV and JCPyV, are the causative agents for transplant-related kidney disease, BK commonly and JC rarely. JC has also been strongly associated with the development of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a rare but serious infection in untreated HIV-1-infected individuals and in other immunosuppressed patients including those treated with monoclonal antibody therapies for autoimmune diseases systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, or multiple sclerosis. The trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSAPyV) may be the causative agent of the rare skin disease trichodysplasia spinulosa. The remaining nine polyomaviruses have not been strongly associated with clinical disease to date. Antiviral therapies for these infections are under development. Antibodies specific for each of the 13 human polyomaviruses have been identified in a high percentage of normal individuals, indicating a high rate of exposure to each of the polyomaviruses in the human population. PCR methods are now available for detection of these viruses in a variety of clinical samples.
Aerobic Actinomycetes of Clinical Significance
Authors: Mochon A. Brian , Sussland Den , Saubolle Michael A.
Published: October 2016

The group of Gram-positive bacillary organisms broadly known as “aerobic actinomycetes” consists of heterogeneous and taxonomically divergent genera. They are found in a wide variety of natural and man-made environments but are rarely considered a part of the normal human flora, with infections normally originating from exogenous sources. An extensive number of genera have been described, but only a minority of these has been associated with human or veterinary health. The association with human disease is usually of an opportunistic nature, either through accidental means of inoculation or through involvement with immunocompromising conditions in the host. They cause a wide spectrum of diseases in humans, which may differ greatly between the genera and even between species, but which also may have a great amount of overlap. The occurrence of such infections is probably greater than appreciated, since many may go unrecognized. Etiologic prevalence of specific genera and species varies geographically within the United States and worldwide. Traditional phenotypic identification methods for separation of the many genera and species of aerobic actinomycetes have found great difficulties. Recent use of chemotaxonomic analyses and emerging technologies such as molecular analysis of nucleic acids, and more recently proteomics for identification to the genus/species level, has provided a far more robust technique to understand the organisms’ relatedness, distribution, epidemiology, and pathogenicity in humans.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Authors: Armstrong Wendy S. , Guarner Jeannette , Kraft Colleen S. , Caliendo Angela M.
Published: October 2016

In this chapter we will discuss the diagnosis and monitoring of individuals with HIV infection. The application and interpretation of these tests does not change dramatically when used in the immunocompromised host. The principal approach to the diagnosis of HIV infection involves serologic testing, although nucleic acid amplification tests play an important role in the diagnosis of acute HIV infection. The algorithm for diagnosis of HIV continues to evolve with newer assays that are able to detect infection within an earlier timeframe after HIV transmission. Viral load testing for HIV-1 is the cornerstone for monitoring patients on antiretroviral therapy. Genotypic and phenotypic resistance tests are employed when antiretroviral resistance is suspected and results help guide therapy. The tropism assay must be performed to determine the efficacy of CCR5 chemokine receptor antagonists. Next-generation sequencing methods are an innovative approach to assessing archived antiretroviral resistance in patients with virologic suppression. The success of antiretroviral therapy with improved long-term outcomes has made transplantation in HIV-infected patients a reality.
Selected Topics in Aerobic Bacteriology
Authors: Hall† Geraldine , Carroll Karen C.
Published: October 2016

Aerobic Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can be important pathogens in the immunocompromised host. These bacteria can be found in many environments, as part of the normal microbiota of the human host and animals, in soil and water, on plants, on fomites in the hospital, and on hospital equipment. This review provides information from relevant studies about what are the most common aerobic bacteria associated with patients who have cancer and/or are being treated for it, or who have other diseases which lead to immunodeficiencies, such as HIV, multiple myeloma, aplastic anemia, chronic diseases, and aging. A discussion of the appropriate laboratory tests needed for diagnosis of aerobic infections and information about antibiotics and susceptibility testing are also included.
Paleomicrobiology: a Snapshot of Ancient Microbes and Approaches to Forensic Microbiology
Authors: Rivera-Perez Jessica I. , Santiago-Rodriguez Tasha M. , Toranzos Gary A.
Published: October 2016

Paleomicrobiology, or the study of ancient microorganisms, has raised both fascination and skepticism for many years. While paleomicrobiology is not a recent field, the application of emerging techniques, such as DNA sequencing, is proving essential and has provided novel information regarding the evolution of viruses, antibiotic resistance, saprophytes, and pathogens, as well as ancient health and disease status, cultural customs, ethnic diets, and historical events. In this review, we highlight the importance of studying ancient microbial DNA, its contributions to current knowledge, and the role that forensic paleomicrobiology has played in deciphering historical enigmas. We also discuss the emerging techniques used to study the microbial composition of ancient samples as well as major concerns that accompany ancient DNA analyses.
The NADPH Oxidase and Microbial Killing by Neutrophils, With a Particular Emphasis on the Proposed Antimicrobial Role of Myeloperoxidase within the Phagocytic Vacuole
Authors: Levine Adam P. , Segal Anthony W.
Published: October 2016

This review is devoted to a consideration of the way in which the NADPH oxidase of neutrophils, NOX2, functions to enable the efficient killing of bacteria and fungi. It includes a critical examination of the current dogma that its primary purpose is the generation of hydrogen peroxide as substrate for myeloperoxidase-catalyzed generation of hypochlorite. Instead, it is demonstrated that NADPH oxidase functions to optimize the ionic and pH conditions within the vacuole for the solubilization and optimal activity of the proteins released into this compartment from the cytoplasmic granules, which kill and digest the microbes. The general role of other NOX systems as electrochemical generators to alter the pH and ionic composition in compartments on either side of a membrane in plants and animals will also be examined.
G Protein-Coupled Receptors in Macrophages
Authors: Lin Hsi-Hsien , Stacey Martin
Published: October 2016

As the largest receptor gene family in the human genome, with >800 members, the signal-transducing G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play critical roles in nearly all conceivable physiological processes, ranging from the sensing of photons and odorants to metabolic homeostasis and migration of leukocytes. Unfortunately, an exhaustive review of the several hundred GPCRs expressed by myeloid cells/macrophages (P.J. Groot-Kormelink, L .Fawcett, P.D. Wright, M. Gosling, and T.C. Kent,BMC Immunol12:57, 2012,doi:10.1186/1471-2172-13-57) is beyond the scope of this chapter; however, we will endeavor to cover the GPCRs that contribute to the major facets of macrophage biology, i.e., those whose expression is restricted to macrophages and the GPCRs involved in macrophage differentiation/polarization, microbial elimination, inflammation and resolution, and macrophage-mediated pathology. The chemokine receptors, a major group of myeloid GPCRs, will not be extensively covered as they are comprehensively reviewed elsewhere.
Paul Ehrlich and the Early History of Granulocytes
Authors: Kay A. Barry
Published: October 2016

Paul Ehrlich’s techniques, published between 1879 and 1880, for staining blood films using coal tar dyes, and his method of differential blood cell counting, ended years of speculation regarding the classification of white cells. Acidic and basic dyes had allowed him to recognize eosinophil and basophil granules, respectively, work that was a direct continuation of his discovery of the tissue mast cell described in his doctoral thesis. Ehrlich went on to develop neutral dyes that identified epsilon granules in neutrophils (“cells with polymorphous nuclei”). He also speculated, for the most part correctly, on the formation, function, and fate of blood neutrophils and eosinophils. Before Ehrlich, a number of important observations had been made on white cells and their role in health and disease. Among the most notable were William Hewson’s studies of blood and lymph; the early descriptions of leukemia by Alfred Donné, John Hughes Bennett, Rudolf Virchow, and others; as well as seminal observations on inflammation by William Addison, Friedrich von Recklinghausen, and Julius Cohnheim. Eosinophils were almost certainly recognized previously by others. In 1846, Thomas Wharton Jones (1808-1891) described “granule blood-cells” in several species including humans. The term “granule cell” had also been used by Julius Vogel (1814-1880), who had previously observed similar cells in inflammatory exudates. Vogel, in turn, was aware of the work of Gottlieb Gluge (1812-1898), who had observed “compound inflammatory globules” in pus and serum that resembled eosinophils. Almost 20 years before Ehrlich developed his staining methods, Max Johann Schultze (1825-1874) performed functional experiments on fine and coarse granular cells using a warm stage microscopic technique and showed they had amoeboid movement and phagocytic abilities. Despite these earlier observations, it was Ehrlich’s use of stains that heralded the modern era of studies of leukocyte biology and pathology.
Mathematical Modeling Tools to Study Preharvest Food Safety
Authors: Lanzas Cristina , Chen Shi
Published: October 2016

This article provides an overview of the emerging field of mathematical modeling in preharvest food safety. We describe the steps involved in developing mathematical models, different types of models, and their multiple applications. The introduction to modeling is followed by several sections that introduce the most common modeling approaches used in preharvest systems. We finish the chapter by outlining potential future directions for the field.
Preharvest Food Safety in Broiler Chicken Production
Authors: Alali Walid Q. , Hofacre Charles L.
Published: October 2016

Preharvest food safety in broiler production is a systematic approach to control the introduction, propagation, and dissemination of
Salmonella
and
Campylobacter
from breeder flocks to the end of their progeny (broilers) life cycle. New and revised more stringent performance standards for these pathogens at the processing plant level require continuous evaluation of the preharvest management practices and intervention strategies used by the poultry industry. The implementation of stricter biosecurity plans, vaccination of breeder flocks for
Salmonella
, and usage of feed that is free of animal by-products are some of the measures recommended to control the pathogens. Interventions shown to be effective in experimental settings need to be assessed for their cost-effectiveness and efficiency when applied at the farm level.
Preharvest Food Safety Challenges in Beef and Dairy Production
Authors: Smith David R.
Published: October 2016

Foods of animal origin, including beef and dairy products, are nutritious and important to global food security. However, there are important risks to human health from hazards that are introduced to beef and dairy products on the farm. Food safety hazards may be chemical, biological, or physical in nature. Considerations about protecting the safety of beef and dairy products must begin prior to harvest because some potential food safety hazards introduced at the farm (e.g., chemical residues) cannot be mitigated by subsequent postharvest food processing steps. Also, some people have preferences for consuming food that has not been through postharvest processing even though those foods may be unsafe because of microbiological hazards originating from the farm. Because of human fallibility and complex microbial ecologies, many of the preharvest hazards associated with beef and dairy products cannot entirely be eliminated, but the risk for most can be reduced through systematic interventions taken on the farm. Beef and dairy farms differ widely in production practices because of differences in natural, human, and capital resources. Therefore, the actions necessary to minimize on-farm food safety hazards must be farm-specific and they must address scientific, political, economic, and practical aspects. Notable successes in controlling and preventing on-farm hazards to food safety have occurred through a combination of voluntary and regulatory efforts.
Mouse and Guinea Pig Models of Tuberculosis
Authors: Orme Ian M. , Ordway Diane J.
Published: October 2016

This article describes the nature of the host response toMycobacterium tuberculosisin the mouse and guinea pig models of infection. It describes the great wealth of information obtained from the mouse model, reflecting the general availability of immunological reagents, as well as genetic manipulations of the mouse strains themselves. This has led to a good understanding of the nature of the T-cell response to the infection, as well as an appreciation of the complexity of the response involving multiple cytokine- and chemokine-mediated systems. As described here and elsewhere, we have a growing understanding of how multiple CD4-positive T-cell subsets are involved, including regulatory T cells, TH17 cells, as well as the subsequent emergence of effector and central memory T-cell subsets. While, in contrast, our understanding of the host response in the guinea pig model is less advanced, considerable strides have been made in the past decade in terms of defining the basis of the immune response, as well as a better understanding of the immunopathologic process. This model has long been the gold standard for vaccine testing, and more recently is being revisited as a model for testing new drug regimens (bedaquiline being the latest example).
Non-Human Primate Models of Tuberculosis
Authors: Peña Juliet C. , Ho Wen-Zhe
Published: October 2016

Among the animal models of tuberculosis (TB), the non-human primates, particularly rhesus macaques (
Macaca fascicularis
) and cynomolgus macaques (
Macaca mulatta
), share the greatest anatomical and physiological similarities with humans. Macaques are highly susceptible to
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection and manifest the complete spectrum of clinical and pathological manifestations of TB as seen in humans. Therefore, the macaque models have been used extensively for investigating the pathogenesis of
M. tuberculosis
infection and for preclinical testing of drugs and vaccines against TB. This review focuses on published major studies that exemplify how the rhesus and cynomolgus macaques have enhanced and may continue to advance global efforts in TB research.
Human Immunology of Tuberculosis
Authors: Scriba Thomas J. , Coussens Anna K. , Fletcher Helen A.
Published: October 2016

Immunology is a central theme when it comes to tuberculosis (TB). The outcome of human infection withMycobacterium tuberculosisis dependent on the ability of the immune response to clear or contain the infection. In cases where this fails, the bacterium replicates, disseminates within the host, and elicits a pathologic inflammatory response, and disease ensues. Clinical presentation of TB disease is remarkably heterogeneous, and the disease phenotype is largely dependent on host immune status. Onward transmission ofM. tuberculosisto new susceptible hosts is thought to depend on an excessive inflammatory response causing a breakdown of the lung matrix and formation of lung cavities. But this varies in cases of underlying immunological dysfunction: for example, HIV-1 infection is associated with less cavitation, while diabetes mellitus comorbidity is associated with increased cavitation and risk of transmission. In compliance with the central theme of immunology in tuberculosis, we rely on detection of an adaptive immune response, in the form of interferon-gamma release assays or tuberculin skin tests, to diagnose infection withM. tuberculosis. Here we review the immunology of TB in the human host, focusing on cellular and humoral adaptive immunity as well as key features of innate immune responses and the underlying immunological dysfunction which associates with human TB risk factors. Our review is restricted to human immunology, and we highlight distinctions from the immunological dogma originating from animal models of TB, which pervade the field.
Choosing the observational likelihood in state-space stock assessment models
Authors: Albertsen Christoffer Moesgaard , Nielsen Anders , Thygesen Uffe Høgsbro
Published: October 2016

Data used in stock assessment models result from combinations of biological, ecological, fishery, and sampling processes. Since different types of errors propagate through these processes, it can be difficult to identify a particular family of distributions for modelling errors on observations a priori. By implementing several observational likelihoods, modelling both numbers- and proportions-at-age, in an age-based state-space stock assessment model, we compare the model fit for each choice of likelihood along with the implications for spawning stock biomass and mean fishing mortality. We propose using AIC intervals based on fitting the full observational model for comparing different observational likelihoods. Using data from four stocks, we show that the model fit is improved by modelling the correlation of observations within years. However, the best choice of observational likelihood differs for different stocks, and the choice is important for the short-term conclusions drawn from the assessment model; in particular, the choice can influence total allowable catch advise based on reference points.
Utilizing reflex impairment to assess the role of discard mortality in “Size, Sex, and Season” management for Oregon Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) fisheries
Authors: Yochum Noëlle , Stoner Allan W. , Sampson David B. , Rose Craig , Pazar Alan , Eder Robert
Published: October 2016

We found that crab discarded from Oregon (USA) commercial and recreational fisheries for Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) have lower postrelease mortality than previously estimated. This aligns with the goals of the “3-S” management strategy currently employed for these fisheries, to protect discarded sublegal male (Size), female (Sex), and soft-shell (Season) crab. We found that for the commercial ocean Dungeness fishery, overall discard mortality rates (5 days after release) were 0.080 (95% confidence interval: 0.061–0.100) for females; 0.012 (95% confidence interval: 0.002–0.022) for hard-shell males; and 0.092 (95% confidence interval: 0.026–0.157) for soft-shell males. The overall discard mortality rate for the recreational bay fishery (from a boat) was estimated to be 0.009 (95% confidence interval: 0–0.018). A reflex action mortality predictor relationship, which relates reflex impairment to mortality probability, was created and utilized to estimate mortality rates. Our study highlights the importance of looking not only at discard and mortality rates to evaluate 3-S fishery management, but also the mortality- and bycatch-per-retained ratios and temporal trends relative to changes in effort, animal condition, and catch composition.
Use of unmanned aerial system to assess wildlife (Sus scrofa) damage to crops (Zea mays)
Authors: Michez Adrien , Morelle Kevin , Lehaire François , Widar Jérome , Authelet Manon , Vermeulen Cédric , Lejeune Philippe
Published: October 2016

Damage caused by ungulates to agricultural areas is difficult to evaluate because the real extent of the damage remains usually poorly described and potentially leads to conflicts. Recent advances in unmanned aerial systems (UAS) provide new versatile mapping and quantification possibilities in a wide range of applications. We used crop fields (Zea mays) damaged by wild boar (Sus scrofa) and compared the extent of the damage by means of three methods: (i) traditional ground-based assessment; (ii) UAS orthoimages with operator delineation; and (iii) UAS crop height model with automatic delineation based on height threshold. We showed for the first time that UAS can be applied for assessing damage of ungulates to agriculture. The two methods using UAS imagery provide coherent and satisfactory results and tend to underestimate the damage area when compared to in-use ground-based field expertise. However, we suggest that performance of UAS should further be tested in variable conditions to assess the broad application of this tool. Our study describes the potential of UAS as a tool for estimating more accurately the damage area and subsequently the compensation costs for wildlife damage. The proposed approach can be used in support of local and regional policies for the definitions of compensation for farmers.
Better Balance by Being Biased
Authors: Austrin Per , Benabbas Siavosh , Georgiou Konstantinos
Published: October 2016

Recently, Raghavendra and Tan (SODA 2012) gave a 0.85-approximation algorithm for the M
ax
B
isection
problem. We improve their algorithm to a 0.8776-approximation. As M
ax
B
isection
is hard to approximate within α

GW

+ ε ≈ 0.8786 under the Unique Games Conjecture (UGC), our algorithm is nearly optimal. We conjecture that M
ax
B
isection
is approximable within α

GW

− ε, that is, that the bisection constraint (essentially) does not make M
ax
C
ut
harder.

We also obtain an optimal algorithm (assuming the UGC) for the analogous variant of M
ax
2-S
at
. Our approximation ratio for this problem exactly matches the optimal approximation ratio for M
ax
2-S
at
, that is, α

LLZ

+ ε ≈ 0.9401, showing that the bisection constraint does not make M
ax
2-S
at
harder. This improves on a 0.93-approximation for this problem from Raghavendra and Tan.
Query Complexity of Approximate Nash Equilibria
Authors: Babichenko Yakov
Published: October 2016

We study the query complexity of approximate notions of Nash equilibrium in games with a large number of players
n
. Our main result states that for
n
-player binary-action games and for constant ε, the query complexity of an ε-well-supported Nash equilibrium is exponential in
n
. As a consequence of this result, we get an exponential lower bound on the rate of convergence of adaptive dynamics to approximate Nash equilibria.
Truthful Mechanisms for Combinatorial Allocation of Electric Power in Alternating Current Electric Systems for Smart Grid
Authors: Chau Chi-Kin , Elbassioni Khaled , Khonji Majid
Published: October 2016

Traditional studies of combinatorial auctions often only consider linear constraints. The rise of smart grid presents a new class of auctions, characterized by quadratic constraints. This article studies the
complex-demand knapsack problem
, in which the demands are complex valued and the capacity of supplies is described by the magnitude of total complex-valued demand. This naturally captures the power constraints in alternating current electric systems. In this article, we provide a more complete study and generalize the problem to the multi-minded version, beyond the previously known ½-approximation algorithm for only a subclass of the problem. More precisely, we give a truthful polynomial-time approximation scheme (PTAS) for the case φ ϵ [0,π / 2 - δ] and a truthful fully polynomial-time approximation scheme (FPTAS), which
fully
optimizes the objective function but violates the capacity constraint by at most (1 + ϵ), for the case φ ϵ (π / 2, π - δ], where φ is the maximum argument of any complex-valued demand and φ, δ > 0 are arbitrarily small constants. We complement these results by showing that, unless P=NP, neither a PTAS for the case φ ϵ (φ / 2, φ - δ] nor any bi-criteria approximation algorithm with polynomial guarantees for the case when φ is arbitrarily close to π (that is, when δ is arbitrarily close to 0) can exist.