bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Expressions
Authors: Schenck Douglas , Wilson Peter
Published: November 2020

Expressions are combinations of operators and operands which are evaluated to produce a value of a specific type. Infix operators require two operands with an operator written between them. A prefix operator requires one operand with an operator written before it. (The expression syntax starts on page 208.) Evaluation proceeds from left to right, governed by the precedence of the operators. The lowest numbered precedence as shown in Table 14.1 is evaluated first. Operators in the same row have the same precedence. Expressions enclosed by parentheses are evaluated before being treated as a single operand. An operand between two operators of different precedence is bound to the operator with the higher one; e.g., −10*20 means (−10)*20. An operand between two operators of the same precedence is bound to the one on the left; e.g., 10/20 * 30 means (10/20) * 30. Exercise 14.1 Work out the intermediate steps for this expression: … −2/(4+4)*5+6… When a null value is encountered in an expression where a non-null is expected, evaluation is short circuited and a null answer is produced. Otherwise, all expressions are fully evaluated even when the outcome is known after partial evaluation. Exercise 14.2 Can you think of an expression that does not require complete evaluation to get the correct answer? The operands of an operator must be compatible with the operator and with each other. Operands can be compatible without having identical types and are compatible when any of these conditions are satisfied: • The types are the same. • One type is a subtype of the other (e.g., one is a number and the other is an integer. • Both types are strings. • Both types are binaries. • Both types are arrays which have compatible base types and identical bounds. • Both types are bags which have compatible base types. • Both types are lists which have compatible base types. • Both types are sets which have compatible base types. Operations are organized by the kind of result they produce, namely: numeric, boolean or logical, string or binary, or aggregate.
Interfacing
Authors: Schenck Douglas , Wilson Peter
Published: November 2020

Interfacing allows you to define a schema and then use some or all of the material in it to build other ones. The basic idea is simple, and common in the programming world. However, the EXPRESS rendition of the interface has some twists and turns that go beyond the simple mechanics involved of importing declarations. Note: Ada, Modula-2 and some variants of Pascal to mention a few offer similar capabilities. The introduction of the schema earlier characterized it as a container for the work you do. But, no distinctions about the kind of work was ever made. That is because EXPRESS makes no such distinction. A schema can represent a library of basic definitions, a collection gathered in preparation for assembly into a final product or the description of the information base you eventually wish to build. There is a strong connection between the properties of the information base and interfacing. Specific interface specifications are used to define those properties. EXPRESS takes the view that, in the information base, certain objects will be more important than others. Values of datatypes (an integer for example) are always seen as ‘less important.’ Values of specific entity types can be seen as ‘more important’ or ‘less important’ as need dictates. This is where the twists and turns enter the picture. In EXPRESS, the interface does more than assemble diverse objects into a whole — it also defines certain properties of them for a given context. Let’s return to the subject of less or more important objects. On one hand it is reasonable to regard an integer and an entity (no matter how complex it is) on the same level. After all, both can exist, both have well defined behavior, etc. On the other hand, we do not attach the same importance to those things as they exist in the information base. This premise can be tested by asking the questions: Will I ask for a list of all the integer values independent of how they are used? (never) versus Will I ask for a list of all the values of some entity? (sometimes yes, sometimes no). By extension, it might be possible that certain entity types should be treated in the same manner as integers while others are not.
A graphical form of EXPRESS
Authors: Schenck Douglas , Wilson Peter
Published: November 2020

EXPRESS-G is a graphical notation for the display of information models. Using the EXPRESS language, an information model is represented by sentences in the language. In EXPRESS-G, an information model is represented by graphic symbols forming a diagram. Although EXPRESS-G has been specifically developed for the graphical rendition of information models defined in the EXPRESS language, it may be used as a modeling technology in its own right. EXPRESS-G supports the notions of entity, type, relationship and cardinality. It also separately supports the notion of schema. The notation only supports a subset of the EXPRESS language as it does not provide any support for the complex constraints which can be represented in the EXPRESS lexical language. The design goals for the notation are: • The diagrams should be intuitively understandable. • The diagrams should support levels of model abstraction. • A diagram must be able to span more than one sheet of paper. • The pictures should be definable using minimal computer graphics capabilities. Further, it should be possible to print the diagrams using only non-graphic symbols, for example on a line printer. • It should be possible to develop a processor that automatically converts from EXPRESS source to the graphical description. EXPRESS-G requires almost minimal graphical capabilities, namely the ability to draw straight lines of three kinds, to draw rectangular and rounded boxes, to draw small circles, and to put text onto a drawing. Two kinds of boxes are used as symbols: Definition These symbols denote the things (i.e., concepts, ideas, etc.) which form the basis of the information model. Rectangular boxes are used for these symbols. Composition These symbols enable a model diagram to be displayed on more than one sheet of paper. Boxes with rounded corners are used for these. Three styles of lines are used by EXPRESS-G — a thin solid line, a thick solid line, and a dashed line — each of which should be readily distinguishable. For computer displays that support graphics there should be no problems in choosing suitable line styles. For displays that only support a single line width, thick lines can be drawn as two closely spaced parallel lines. For line printer type displays, the lines have to be drawn using characters rather than graphics.
EXPRESS-I Syntax
Authors: Schenck Douglas , Wilson Peter
Published: November 2020

Here is the whole syntax of EXPRESS-I except for constant tokens (i.e., reserved words and such), character sets, standard constants, functions and procedures, and simple equates to tokens that create or reference identifiers. The conventions we use to name the syntax rules are explained below. The xxx referred to means Entity, Type or one of the other objects that might appear in a schema data block.
Hidden Hazards
Authors: Kasperson Roger E. , Kasperson Jeanne X.
Published: November 2020

In this last decade of the twentieth century, hazards have become a part of everyday life as they have never been before. It is not that life, at least in advanced industrial societies, is more dangerous. Indeed, by any measure, the average person is safer and is likely to live longer and with greater leisure and well-being than at earlier times. Nevertheless, the external world seems replete with toxic wastes, building collapses, industrial accidents, groundwater contamination, and airplane crashes and near collisions. The newspapers and television news daily depict specific hazard events, and a parade of newly discovered or newly assessed threats—the "hazard-of-the-week" syndrome—occupies the attention of a host of congressional committees, federal regulatory agencies, and state and local governments. Seemingly any potential threat, however esoteric or remote, has its day in the sun. How is it, then, that certain hazards pass unnoticed or unattended, growing in size until they have taken a serious toll? How is it that asbestos pervaded the American workplace and schools when its respiratory dangers had been known for decades? How is it that after years of worry about nuclear war, the threat of a "nuclear winter" did not become apparent until the 1980s? How is it that the Sahel famine of 1983 to 1984 passed unnoticed in the hazard-filled newspapers of the world press, until we could no longer ignore the specter of millions starving? How is it that America "rediscovered" poverty only with Michael Harrington's vivid account of the "other Americans" and acknowledged the accumulating hazards of chemical pesticides only with Rachel Carson's Silent Spring1? How is it that during this century a society with a Delaney amendment and a $10 billion Superfund program has allowed smoking to become the killer of millions of Americans? And why is it that the potential long-term ecological catastrophes associated with burning coal command so much less concern than do the hazards of nuclear power? These oversights or neglects, it might be argued, are simply the random hazards or events that elude our alerting and monitoring systems. After all, each society has its "worry beads," particular hazards that we choose to rub and polish assiduously (Kates 1985).
Understanding Uncertainties in Medical Evidence: Professional and Public Responsibilities
Authors: Mike Valerie
Published: November 2020

The case of Linda Loerch and her son Peter presented to the Minnesota Supreme Court raises the question of whether legal liability can extend beyond the second generation. During the pregnancy leading to Linda's birth, her mother had taken the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol, commonly known as DES. Linda herself has a deformed uterus, and her son Peter, born twelve weeks prematurely, is a quadriplegic afflicted with cerebral palsy. The family is seeking damages for the child's condition from Abbott Laboratories, the manufacturer of the drug taken forty years earlier by his grandmother (MacNeil/Lehrer 1988). The claims of this lawsuit hinge on the evidence available when the drug was prescribed. The case illustrates, with some new ramifications, the interrelated issues of ethics and evidence surrounding the practice of medicine, a major theme of this chapter. The DES story first became national news at a time that marked the rise of the new field of bioethics. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a drug alert in 1971 to all physicians concerning the use of DES by pregnant women, as an association had been found between the occurrence of a rare form of cancer of the vagina in young women and their mothers' exposure to DES. The drug had been prescribed widely since the 1940s for a variety of medical conditions, including the prevention of miscarriages. It is estimated that during this period four to six million individuals, mothers and their offspring, were exposed to DES during the mothers' pregnancy. The full dimensions of the medical disaster, the subject of continued controversy, have yet to be firmly established. DES daughters are at risk of developing clear cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina, the risk estimated to be one per one thousand by age twenty-four. Ninety percent have a benign vaginal condition called adenosis, and many have other genital abnormalities. They are at higher risk of pregnancy loss and infertility. DES mothers also may be at a higher risk for breast and gynecological cancers, and DES sons may be at an increased risk of genitourinary abnormalities, infertility, and testicular cancer. DES may, as well, have affected fetal brain development, leading to behavioral problems and learning disabilities.
Evidential, Ethical, and Policy Disputes: Admissible Evidence in Radioactive Waste Management
Authors: Colglazier E. William
Published: November 2020

A sustained and definitive radioactive waste management policy has been a elusive goal for our nation since the beginning of the nuclear age. An atmosphere of contentiousness and mistrust among the interested parties, fed by a long history of policy reversals, delays, false starts, legal and jurisdictional wrangles, and scientific overconfidence and played out against the background of public concern with nuclear power and weapons issues generally, has dogged society's attempts to come to grips with the radioactive waste-management issue. The policy conflicts have become so intense and intractable that Congress has been forced to deal with the issue periodically. The year 1982 was one watershed year for congressional action on high-level nuclear waste, and 1987 proved to be another. This chapter will examine ethical and value issues in radioactive waste management (RWM), with a special emphasis on disputes about scientific evidence. Controversies over evidence have been particularly important because of the many scientific uncertainties and problems inherent in trying to ensure that nuclear waste in a geological repository will harm neither people nor the environment for the thousands of years that the waste will remain hazardous. This requirement of guaranteeing adequate safety over millennia is an unprecedented undertaking for our regulatory and scientific institutions. The first section of the chapter will provide a brief historical overview of the national policy disputes in radioactive waste management, and the second section will discuss some of the key value issues that have been at the heart of the controversies. Our approach is to delineate key policy issues and to separate the value components of each into three categories: procedural, distributional, and evidential. Key stakeholders—Congress, federal agencies, the nuclear industry, utilities, environmental groups, state governments, Native American tribes, local communities—take particular policy positions justified in part on the basis of procedural, distributional, and evidential values. Procedural values refer to who should make what decision for whom and by what process. Distributional values concern what is a fair allocation of costs, benefits, and risks to the affected parties and to society as a whole. Evidential values refer to what counts as evidence, for example, what type and degree of scientific evidence is sufficient and admissible in making a particular societal decision, especially in the face of large scientific unknowns and significant social and scientific debate. Categories of "value concerns" thus include fairness and appropriateness of process, outcomes, and evidence.
Liquid-liquid interfaces
Authors: Schmickler Wolfgang
Published: November 2020

When we defined electrochemistry in Chapter 1, we made a special case for including the interface between two immiscible solutions (ITIES) because they show many similarities with the more usual electrochemical systems. Much of the interest in these interfaces resides in the fact that they can serve as models for membranes, but they are also interesting systems in their own right. In a certain sense the field is still in its infancy: Little is known about the structure of the interface, and most of our secure knowledge relies on thermodynamics. However, these systems pose intriguing problems. Almost all the published work is based on classical electrochemical methods based on the measurements of current, potential, and surface tension. If techniques yielding structural information (see Chapter 15) can be applied to ITIES - and at least a few optical techniques look promising - we may expect the field to grow rapidly during the next decade. Most of the liquid-liquid interfaces that have been studied involve water and an organic solvent such as nitrobenzene or 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCE). Although these systems form stable interfaces, the solubility of one solvent in the other is usually quite high. For example, the solubility of water in 1,2-DCE is 0.11 M, and that of 1,2-DCE in water is 0.09 M. So each of the two liquid components is a fairly concentrated solution of one solvent in the other. It is therefore unlikely that the interface is sharp on a molecular level. We rather expect an extended region with a thickness of the order of a few solvent diameters, over which the concentrations of the two solvents change rapidly. The lower the solubility of one solvent in the other, the thinner this interfacial region should be. These expectations are supported by the indication that the dipole potentials at these interfaces seem to be small, at least near the pzc, but spectroscopic information is lacking at present. Many of the processes that are familiar from ordinary electrochemistry have an analog at ITIES; so these form a wide field of study.
Nontraditional techniques
Authors: Schmickler Wolfgang
Published: November 2020

The traditional electrochemical techniques are based on the measurement of current and potential, and, in the case of liquid electrodes, of the surface tension. While such measurements can be very precise, they give no direct information on the microscopic structure of the electrochemical interface. In this chapter we treat several methods which can provide such information. None of them is endemic to electrochemistry; they are mostly skillful adaptations of techniques developed in other branches of physics and chemistry. The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an excellent device to obtain topographic images of an electrode surface . The principal part of this apparatus is a metal tip with a very fine point, which can be moved in all three directions of space with the aid of piezoelectric crystals. All but the very end of the tip is insulated from the solution in order to avoid tip currents due to unwanted electrochemical reactions. The tip is brought very close, up to a few Ångstroms, to the electrode surface. When a potential bias ΔV, usually of the order of a few hundred millivolts, is applied between the electrode and the tip, the electrons can tunnel through the thin intervening layer of solution, and a tunneling current is observed. The situation is illustrated in Fig. 15.2: A potential energy barrier exists between the tip and the substrate. Application of a bias potential shifts the two Fermi levels of the tip and of the substrate. Electrons can tunnel from the metal with the higher Fermi level through the barrier to empty states on the other metal. Roughly speaking, electrons with energies between the two Fermi levels can be transferred. A detailed calculation shows that the current is proportional to the electronic density of states at the Fermi level of the substrate. The tip is moved slowly in the yz direction parallel to the metal surface, and simultaneously the distance x from the electrode is adjusted in such a way that the tunneling current is constant (constant-current mode).
Introduction
Authors: Lehmann Scott
Published: November 2020

I doubt that Woody Guthrie had public lands specifically in mind when he wrote “This land is your land.” But I am sure he’d be pleased that each American citizen, through the agency of the federal government, is part owner of some six hundred million odd acres, roughly one quarter of the nation’s land. To be sure, a good deal of it would strike most of us as uninviting and not at all “made for you and me.” Guthrie couldn’t have been thinking of the Great Basin when he wrote of “the sparkling sands of her diamond deserts.” Even so, his words do fit the public lands. There we may be uplifted by natural wonders such as the Grand Canyon and what’s left of the “redwood forest.” There we are free to roam and ramble, for the signs read not “Private Property—No Trespassing” but “Please close the gate.” There, far horizons and the “endless skyway” can release us for a time from the narrowness of our lives. The federal estate is also rich in resources of a more conventional and coveted sort: timber, minerals, coal, oil, livestock forage, damsites, etc. Of course, sharing title with a couple hundred million other people would not give you or me much to say about how these lands and resources are used, even if they were managed by public referendum and not, as they are, by federal agencies. Except for weapons test sites and other military reservations, the public generally has free access to federal lands, but that does not mean that we may do whatever we like there. Private use is regulated in various ways. Rights to graze livestock, strip-mine coal, cut sawtimber, gather firewood, drill for oil, develop a ski resort, backpack into certain areas, excavate a prehistoric site, and so forth, are controlled by permit or lease, and some areas are closed to activities that some of us would dearly love to pursue. Extensive public lands and resources, whose use is governed by regulations rather than the wishes of those willing to pay most to satisfy their desires, may seem anomalous in a country ideologically committed to individual freedom, private property, and the free market.
The Case for Privatization
Authors: Lehmann Scott
Published: November 2020

Should groves of quaking aspen in the National Forests of southwestern Colorado be maintained for those who delight in them, “so vibrant with light and motion, forever restless, always whispering, in tune like ballerinas to the music of the air,” and for ranchers, whose cows perhaps delight in the grass and shade they provide? Or should the trees be sold to Louisiana Pacific, which has figured out how to turn them into a cheaper substitute for plywood, thereby providing jobs in a not-too-prosperous area? Should portions of BLM land in the Mohave Desert be open to motorcycle races that draw thousands of participants, who “really love this sort of thing” and spend a lot of money in local communities? Or should they be withdrawn from off-road use as “critical habitat” for the endangered desert tortoise? Answers to questions like these may add up to one sort of answer to the question, “How should public lands be managed?” Insofar as the uses proposed for different parcels are consistent (so that, for example, silt from a logging operation doesn't destroy a downstream fishery), these answers will constitute a coherent plan of use for public lands. But this is not the kind of answer privatization advocates give. They do not argue directly for some pattern of use, local or global. Instead, they maintain that a system in which resources are private and individuals decide how theirs are to be used is better than one in which the private use of public resources is regulated by collective decisions. That is, they take the question “How should public lands be managed?” to ask not for a giant management plan that specifies the best use of each acre, but for a description of the institutions which best constrain decisions about use. Privatization advocates do propose to judge land-management institutions by results, but not by how closely these results fit some pattern they are prepared to specify in advance. Like politicians who tailor their pitch to their audience, they may suggest to each of various groups—environmentalists, loggers, ranchers, and others—that their interests in public lands will be better served by private management.
Intermolecular Dynamics and Bimolecular Reactions
Authors: Bernstein Elliot R.
Published: November 2020

The study of clusters has taken the path that is quite typical in physical chemistry research for a newly discovered system or state of matter: (1) elucidation of energy eigenstates, both experimentally and theoretically, (2) elucidation of structure through experiments and calculations of various degrees of sophistication, (3) exploration of system dynamics, and (4) explorations of chemical reactivity within the new system. Indeed, previous review volumes covering cluster research have dealt mostly with eigenstates and structure, with some attention given to the dynamics and reactions of clusters (Bernstein 1990; Halberstadt and Janda 1990; Jena et al. 1987; Weber 1987). The study of all aspects of cluster energy levels, structure, and behavior is both important and useful on a number of different levels. First, cluster research is performed because clusters themselves are a fascinating system in which to study intermolecular interactions and solvation behavior. Second, and perhaps more useful, cluster investigations can lead to a far better understanding of condensed phase and surface systems. With regard to condensed phase dynamics and chemical reactions, clusters provide three very important components for the basic data set: (1) clusters can generate the minimum irreducible set required for a dynamical event or reaction to occur, (2) clusters provide an excellent proving ground for the comparison between experiment and theory because both sets of results can be based on exactly the same systems, and (3) an isolated cluster of minimum size with regard to a dynamical event or reaction is an ideal entity in which to investigate a dynamical or reaction coordinate, its dimensionality, and its dependence on system properties. Of course, clusters are not simply small condensed phase systems: they can express behavior quite different from condensed phase systems. For example, reactions that occur in condensed phases may not occur in clusters; however, these differences can be understood and related to the different properties of the two systems.
Mathematical Dynamical Systems and Computational Systems
Authors: Giunti Marco
Published: November 2020

The main thesis of this chapter is that a dynamical viewpoint allows us to better understand some important foundational issues of computation theory. Effective procedures are traditionally studied from two different but complementary points of view. The first approach is concerned with individuating those numeric functions that are effectively calculable. This approach reached its systematization with the theory of the recursive functions (Gödel, Church Kleene).This theory is not directly concerned with computing devices or computations. Rather, the effective calculability of a recursive function is guaranteed by the algorithmic nature of its definition. In contrast, the second approach focuses on a family of abstract mechanisms, which are then typically used to compute or recognize numeric functions, sets of numbers, or numbers. These devices can be divided into two broad categories: automata or machines (Turing and Post), and systems of rules for symbol manipulation (Post). The mechanisms that have been studied include: a. Automata or Machines 1. gate-nets and McCulloch-Pitts nets 2. finite automata (Mealy and Moore machines) 3. push-down automata 4. stack automata 5. Turing machines 6. register machines 7. wang machines 8. cellular automata b. Systems of Rules 9. monogenic production systems in general 10. monogenic Post canonical systems 11. monogenic Post normal systems 12. tag systems. I call any device studied by computation theory a computational system. Computation theory is traditionally interested in studying the relations between each type of computational system and the others, and in establishing what class of numeric functions each type can compute. Accordingly one proves two kinds of theorem: (1) that systems of a given type emulate systems of another type (examples: Turing machines emulate register machines and cellular automata; cellular automata emulate Turing machines, etc.), and (2) that a certain type of system is complete relative to the class of the (partial) recursive functions or, in other words, that this type of system can compute all and only the (partial) recursive functions (examples of complete systems: Turing machines, register machines, cellular automata, tag systems, etc.). All different types of computational systems have much in common. Nevertheless, it is not at all clear exactly which properties these mechanisms share.
Forced Justice
Authors: Armor David J.
Published: November 2020

School desegregation and "forced" busing first brought people to the barricades during the 1960s and 1970s, and the idea continues to spark controversy today whenever it is proposed. A quiet rage smolders in hundreds of public school systems, where court- ordered busing plans have been in place for over twenty years. Intended to remedy the social and educational disadvantages of minorities, desegregation policy has not produced any appreciable educational gains, while its political and social costs have been considerable. Now, on the fortieth anniversary of the Supreme Court's epic decision, Brown v. Board of Education, the legal and social justifications for school desegregation are ripe for reexamination. In Forced Justice, David J. Armor explores the benefits and drawbacks of voluntary and involuntary desegregation plans, especially those in communities with "magnet" schools. He finds that voluntary plans, which let parents decide which school program is best for their children, are just as effective in attaining long-term desegregation as mandatory busing, and that these plans generate far greater community support. Armor concludes by proposing a new policy of "equity" choice, which draws upon the best features of both the desegregation and choice movements. This policy promises both improved desegregation and greater educational choices for all, especially for the disadvantaged minority children in urban systems who now have the fewest educational choices. The debate over desegregation policy and its many consequences needs to move beyond academic journals and courtrooms to a larger audience. In addition to educators and policymakers, Forced Justice will be an important book for social scientists, attorneys and specialists in civil rights issues, and all persons concerned about the state of public education.
Introduction: The Desegregation Dilemma
Authors: Armor David J.
Published: November 2020

Despite nearly four decades of controversy and debate over school segregation, the desegregation dilemma is still largely unresolved. The “busing” problem has received less national attention in recent years, and there are no riots, bus burnings, and school boycotts, as witnessed in earlier decades. Yet current events reveal the depth of a dilemma that has divided educators, parents, jurists, social scientists, and many other groups since the beginning of the civil rights movement. Indicators of the current desegregation dilemma are numerous. Hundreds of school districts throughout the country still impose busing for desegregation purposes, many under court orders that are now more than twenty years old. Although the types of desegregation plans have evolved to some extent, with increased emphasis on school choice, many plans still compel children to attend schools that their parents would not choose, solely for the purpose of racial “balance.” Further, after a period of quiescence, school desegregation was again the subject of several major Supreme Court decisions in 1991 and 1992. The decisions affected the length of time and the conditions under which a school district has to maintain a court-ordered busing plan. Although these decisions dispelled a common misconception that school systems have to maintain desegregation plans “in perpetuity,” it is still unclear how many school districts can or will end their busing plans. Finally, new desegregation litigation and controversies continue to surface. In 1989 a lawsuit was initiated in a Connecticut state court by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to compel desegregation between the city of Hartford and its suburban districts. A similar city suburbs desegregation strategy failed in the federal courts, but the Hartford lawsuit seeks to build on the success of school equal-finance cases under state constitutions. In 1991 the school board of La Crosse, Wisconsin, adopted a busing plan to equalize economic (rather than race) differences among schools. Reminiscent of the busing controversies of the 1970s, all board members who supported the busing plan were voted out of office in a regular and a recall election, reflecting the widespread community opposition to busing for the purpose of achieving socioeconomic balance in schools.
Radioactive Methods
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

Radioactive decay can best be explained by accepted models of atomic or microscopic structure. By the mid 20th century most people understood that the atom was the smallest particle to which a homogeneous macroscopic sample could be subdivided and retain the physical characteristics of the original sample. The atom was called a microscopic particle because its dimensions were on the order of 10-8 cm. It is now known as mesoscopic, and the microscopic world is the subnuclear, or less than 10-13 cm, the distance across most nuclei. Physicists develop their intuitive feel for nature using such characteristic distances as 10-8 cm, called an angstrom (abbreviated Å). If you lived at the mesoscopic or microscopic level, you would choose this distance unit because it would be convenient. Today these levels are discussed as the nanoworld or nanostructure level.1 We shall refer to the microscopic/nanoscopic under the general term microworld. The energy required to separate two atoms coupled together is of the order of 0.1 electron volts. This is an energy unit characteristic of atoms, abbreviated as eV. In the macroscopic world, whose dimensions are most familiar to us, characteristic distances are of the order of 1 cm, which is 100 million times that of the microworld. The macroworld energy unit we are most familiar with is the food calorie, which is 1,000 heat calories, which is, in turn, about 4,180 joules. In the microworld, the electron volt is 1.6 X 10-19 joules. In the microworld, atoms consist of nuclei, which are about 10-13 cm across and which contain almost all of the mass of the atom. The nuclei, in turn, consist of protons and neutrons. These are two of the four elementary particles with which we will be concerned. Nuclei can be thought of as built up of nucleons or baryons, members of the larger class of elementary particles, hadrons. Baryons are composed of even smaller particles known as quarks. Particles like electrons, muons, and neutrinos are known as leptons.
Radiation-Damage, Cosmogenic, and Atom-Counting Methods
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

Fission-track dating, one of the more recent techniques involving the use of radioactivity, has developed one of the widest ranges of applications. Dates of objects have been obtained ranging from 6 months to 109 years BP. Volcanic tephra, obsidian, man-made and basaltic glass, meteorites, and mica have been dated. A more apt term is nuclear-track dating because fissionable elements do not have to be present in the material. Fission, which produces one form of nuclear track, is a rare mode of radioactive decay. A more common decay is alpha decay, which produces a different type of track. Uranium 238 fissions spontaneously and has a well-defined half-life. It also fissions in the presence of neutrons such as are produced by reactors, accelerators, or neutron "howitzers." About 99.27% of all uranium is uranium 238. Robert L. Fleischer, Paul B. Price, and Robert M. Walker, who have done most of the original work in this field, have determined that most minerals contain this isotope in amounts from a few parts per billion (ppb) to many parts per million (ppm). These researchers devised a chart which characterizes the ease of use of this technique as a function of the uranium concentration. A high uranium concentration allows an "easily measured" age where the observer spends an hour at the microscope counting chemically etched fission tracks. For "considerable labor," 40 hours of such work is assumed. Ancient synthetic glass typically contains 1-2 ppm of uranium, so most glasses older than 8,000 years are datable. Most pottery clay contains about 5 ppm of uranium in either the clay itself or other minerals that occur as inclusions. It is very probable that some pottery clays or the mineral inclusions, such as zircon, might contain higher concentrations than this, which would make the age measurement lie between "easily" and "with considerable labor." It is important to point out that mineral inclusions such as zircons or micas act as solid-state detectors in that they register fissions as a track on the surface in contact with the pottery clay. Both fission and alpha events can do this.
Microstructures in Elastic Media
Authors: Phan-Thien Nhan , Kim Sangtae
Published: November 2020

This monograph describes various methods for solving deformation problems of particulate solids, taking the reader from analytical to computational methods. The book is the first to present the topic of linear elasticity in mathematical terms that will be familiar to anyone with a grounding in fluid mechanics. It incorporates the latest advances in computational algorithms for elliptic partial differential equations, and provides the groundwork for simulations on high performance parallel computers. Numerous exercises complement the theoretical discussions, and a related set of self-documented programs is available to readers with Internet access. The work will be of interest to advanced students and practicing researchers in mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, applied physics, computational methods, and developers of numerical modeling software.
Coordination of Biblical and Scientific Information
Authors: Emery K. O. , Neev David
Published: November 2020

Much knowledge of biblical events is from narratives of ancient oral tradition that justify analysis and respect because they may reflect genuine and unique historical information. The problems involved with such study are demonstrated by descriptions of three different events related in the stories of Sodom and Gomorrah, Jericho, and the narrative of Noah’s Flood. All three are associated with two processes: geologictectonic activity of vast areas with resulting submergence of soils or destruction of settlements. The first two tell about tectonism within the Dead Sea region at south basin and Jericho where many sites are identifiable. The Sodom and Gomorrah event could have happened only at the end of Early Bronze III, as implied from archaeological chronology and outline of the biblical story. The same could be true also for Jericho if not for a significant difference in chronology of the two stories. Expulsion of rebellious Asiatic tribes from Egypt is recorded in Egyptian history to have taken place during the 13th century B.C. At least some of these seminomadic ex-slaves reportedly invaded Canaan from the east near the end of the Late Bronze age (Kenyon, 1979, pp. 205, 210) and conquered Hazor and other cities. No archaeological data were found to indicate the existence of defense walls or of a large densely populated city at Jericho during Late Bronze so the question of conquest remains open. Invasions by nomadic tribes from the east and conquests of Jericho had occurred earlier—for example, 1,000 years prior to the end of Early Bronze III (Kenyon, 1979, p. 91). Evidence for collapse of Jericho’s defense walls during earthquakes and for fires during conquests in late Early Bronze III were found by archaeologists. The importance of the capture of Jericho after the Exodus was so great for Judaic history that the story may have been enhanced by inclusion of information from earlier oral traditions of the Sodom and Gomorrah earthquake.
Problem Solving
Authors: Blum Bruce I.
Published: November 2020

I begin my exploration of ecological design by examining the nature of the individuals engaged in the design process. There are two principal concerns. First, design is a human activity that seeks to alter the human environment. Therefore, an understanding of human behavior in a problem-solving context is essential. In particular, we are interested in the extent the which the proposed solutions are rational (i.e., derivable through the use of clearly stated principles and formalisms) and accurate (i.e., descriptive of solutions that, when available, produce the desired results). Although there may be social and political biases that affect the decisions, the principal focus of this chapter is individual problem solving. How good are people at solving problems? How rational are they, and are there limits to rational analysis? Design depends on the interpretations of those who describe what is needed and those who create the desired products. It is essential that we know where we can be certain and where uncertainty is unavoidable. The second reason for studying human decision making complements the first; it has to do with the form of the final decision. Recall that the software process begins with an informal recognition of a need (in-theworld) and ends with the formal expression of a response to that need (in-the-computer). One of the products of science (and rational argument) is models of the world (i.e., instruments) that can be expressed in-the-computer. Progress is made as more instruments become available. Although the criterion of relevance may result in the disuse of some of the available instruments, clearly an increase in the number of potentially relevant instruments offers the possibility of improving productivity and/or enlarging the technology’s scope (i.e., the class of problems for which the models may be relevant). Therefore, we have a second set of questions to be answered. To what extent are there rational problem-solving mechanisms that can be modeled in the computer, and how may they be modeled? Are some decisions contextually determined, thereby requiring information never available in-the-computer? what are the limits in expressing design knowledge? This chapter đdoes not provide answers to these questions; I doubt that any consensus answers can be formulated.
Participatory Design
Authors: Blum Bruce I.
Published: November 2020

The theme of the book now becomes clearer. Design is the conscious modification of the human environment. As with all selfconscious change, there will be benefits—both projected and fortuitous—and deficiencies—both expected and unanticipated. In the modern world, change is unavoidable; thus, if we are to enter into a new era of design, we should seek methods and tools that maximize the benefits as they minimize the deficiencies. Of course, in the real world of systems there will be neither maxima nor minima. Here we can only measure qualitatively, not quantitatively. Consequently, we must rely on collective judgments and accept that any reference points will become obscured by the dynamics of change. Thus, few of our problems will be amenable to a static, rational solution; most will be soft, open, wicked, and, of course, context and domain specific. This final chapter of Part II explores design in-the-world with particular emphasis on how it affects, and is affected by, the stakeholders. I use the title “Participatory Design” to distinguish this orientation from the historical approach to product development—what I have called “technological design.” In technological design, we assume that an object is to be created and, moreover, that the essential description of that object exists in a specification. The design and fabrication activities, therefore, are directed to realizing the specification. How well the specified object fits into the real world is secondary to the design process; the primary criterion for success is the fidelity of the finished product with respect to its specification. we have seen from the previous chapter, however, that this abstract model of technological design seldom exists in practice. Even in architecture, where a building must conform to its drawings, we find excellence associated with flexibility and accommodation. Thus, in reality, technological and participatory design are complementary projections of a single process. Although I will emphasize computer-based information systems in this chapter, I open the discussion with an examination of a typical hardware-oriented system.
The Software Process
Authors: Blum Bruce I.
Published: November 2020

Now that the foundation has been laid, I can turn to the principal concern of this book: software design. I use the word design in its most expansive sense. That is, design is contrasted with discovery; it encompasses all deliberate modifications of the environment, in this case modifications that employ software components. Thus, software design should not be interpreted as a phase in the development of a product— an activity that begins after some prerequisite is complete and that terminates with the acceptance of a work product. The context of software design in Part III is extended to include all aspects of the software process from the design of a response to a real-world need (which ultimately may be expressed as a requirements document) through the design of changes to the product (i.e., lifetime maintenance). This broader use of “design” can be confusing, and the reader may think of software design as the equivalent of the software process. In what follows, the goal is to discover the essential nature of software design, which I also shall refer to as the software process. what of the foundation constructed so laboriously during the first two parts of the book? It is not one of concrete and deep pilings. Rather it is composed of crushed rock. It can support a broad-based model of software design, but it may be unstable when it comes to specifics. The foundation has been chipped from the monolith of Positivism, of Technical Rationality. Its constituents are solid and cohesive models, but they defy unification and resist integration. we interpret them as science, technology, culture, philosophy, cognition, emotion, art; they comprise the plural realities from which we compose human knowledge. Unfortunately, my description of the foundation holds little promise of broad, general answers. Indeed, it suggests that science may be of limited help to design and that we may never discover the essence of design. That is, we must accept design as a human activity; whatever answers we may find will be valid within narrow domains where knowledge is determined by its context. Thus, Parts I and II prepare us to accept that the study of software design may not be amenable to systematic analysis.