bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The missing ingredient— tilt, strings, or hot dark matter
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

The invention of cold dark matter at the end of the 1970s seemed to solve many of the problems associated with how galaxies formed. Simulations of galaxy formation in a cold dark matter universe did generate model universes very similar to the observed distribution of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. But when we come to look more closely it seems there is still a problem. It looks as if there is an additional ingredient needed to make sense of the observed clustering of galaxies and in this chapter we consider several possibilities.We still do not know what that missing ingredient might be. The initial spectrum of density fluctuations might be slightly different (‘tilted’) from the simple form we assumed in the last chapter. The universe might be pervaded by relicts from the inflationary era, of which the most likely are cosmic strings, which we encountered in Chapter 5. Or there might be an additional ingredient of dark matter in the form of hot dark matter, presumably a neutrino with a non-zero mass.
Early Approaches to Protein Folding
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

The peptide bond alone, serially connecting amino acids to one another, can structurally do no more than produce polypeptide chains: from dimers and trimers upwards, without limit to the ultimate length. Solid evidence from X-ray analysis for such polypeptide chains, extended to considerable length, existed in the case of normally insoluble protein fibres. It was easy to imagine that proteins that were water soluble contain equally long chains, but flexible rather than stiffly extended— fluidity at the molecular level reflecting fluidity in the medium in which the proteins existed.
Hydrogen bonds and the a-helix
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

The covalent bond, formed by electrons shared between atoms, was a concept created in 1916 by G. N. Lewis at the University of California and was therefore still quite new in 1920, when Wendell Latimer and Worth Rodebush, also at the University of California, first proposed hydrogen bonds, defining them as secondary interatomic links, weaker than valence bonds. From the very start they recognized the electrostatic origin of the bonds, noting that they form between atoms of high electron affinity, such as oxygen and nitrogen. Likewise, they recognized the special importance of hydrogen bonds in liquid water. The core of many ideas that were later developed quantitatively by others can be found in embryo in this first paper on the subject.
Three-dimensional Structure
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

Bernal and Crowfoot’s report in 1934 on X-ray photographs of pepsin is a classic, a historical gem that illustrates the excitement that was generated by the mere potential of getting structural information at high resolution, directly from the optical interferences and enhancements within a single crystal.
The link to Genetics
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

In this final section of our book, when we ask how the living organism synthesizes proteins, we are entering a new world in which protein science inevitably loses its proprietary identity and merges with genetics and cell biology.
After the Double Helix: the Triplet Code
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

The fact that DNA must be the carrier of genetic information had be- come universally accepted and the double-helical structure of DNA had shown, virtually by mere inspection of the structure, the probable mechanism by which the genetic material can be perpetuated, copied over and over again as cells divide. But these revelations did not immediately tell anyone how proteins are made: the difficult to sustain concept of protein templates disappeared from the scene, of course, but what was to take its place? Several good accounts of how the problem was solved were written in the mid-1960s, while actual events were still fresh in the writers’ minds. We make reference here to three that are suitable for the general reader.
Early adult life
Authors: Lewinsohn Peter M , Seeley John R
Published: November 2023

While it is clear from the previous chapters that childhood and adolescent depression commonly occurs, we know little about the continuity of such conditions into adulthood. Hammen and Garber (2001) recently noted that investigators of youth and adult depression have pursued separate tasks for the most part. That is, both fields of research have largely centered on cross-sectional or short-term longitudinal studies, with little focus on bridging the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. As a result, most approaches to the lifespan perspective have been based on disjointed, developmentally specific investigations rather than being based on longitudinal studies that span across developmental periods. According to a report by the Institute of Medicine (IOM; Mrazek and Haggerty, 1994: 116), ‘The transition to adulthood is poorly understood in spite of the fact that it is probably the age period when most adult disorders have their peak rates of incidence’.
Later Life
Authors: O’Brien John , Thomas Alan
Published: November 2023

Depression in late life remains a common condition. Snowdon (1990) observed that prevalence studies in late-life depression fall into two types: studies using recognized (usually DSM) diagnostic criteria, which yield rates of 1–3 per cent and studies assessing the presence of substantial depressive symptoms, which yield much higher rates of 10–16 per cent. These figures have been confirmed by the recent re-analysis of thirty-four community based epidemiological studies of depression in the elderly by the EURODEP consortium which found an average of 1.8 per cent for major depression and 13.5 per cent for all depressive syndromes (Beekman et al., 1999). Unlike dementia, which shows a clear association with increasing age, there is still some controversy over whether depression increases with age with the majority of studies showing that, if organic disorders such as dementia are excluded and disability controlled for, there is no change in prevalence with age (Jenkins et al., 1997; Roberts et al., 1997; Blazer, 1999).
Normative and descriptive models of decision making: time discounting and risk sensitivity
Authors: Kacelnik Alex
Published: November 2023

The human brain is the result of our evolutionary history, and this history has been driven by natural selection. This is not controversial. Nor is it controversial that human psychology, both in terms of mental experience and of overt behaviour, is under the control of the brain and consequently is itself the result of natural selection. What is less obvious and a matter of intense interest at present is the extent to which applying evolutionary thinking makes a difference to the understanding of human psychology here and now. A broad survey of different attitudes to these questions and my perspective in the matter can be found elsewhere (Betzig 1997; Kacelnik and Krebs 1997).
Cuing for context: an alternative to global matching models of recognition memory
Authors: Dennis Simon , Humphreys Michael S
Published: November 2023

While taking a rational or optimizing approach to the construction of a cognitive model can often reduce the number of assumptions required, it does not uniquely specify what the model should look like or eliminate the need for some basic architectural assumptions. This point is well illustrated by the three models of recognition memory presented in this book. The models by Chappell and McClelland, Shiffrin and the one presented in this chapter all address similar sets of data and are all rational in the sense that they assume that episodic recognition decisions are made by a system approximating an optimal Bayesian solution. They differ, however, on the key issue of how traces within the episodic system interact and it is this issue which will form the basis of this chapter.
Sorting out core memory processes
Authors: Schooler Lael J
Published: November 2023

Basic to Anderson’s (1990) rational approach is the hypothesis that human cognition optimally solves the problems that it faces. This means that if we can correctly characterize the problem the cognitive system is trying to solve and find the optimal solution to this problem, then the rational analysis makes the strong prediction that the behavior of the system should correspond to this solution.
A Bayesian analysis of some forms of inductive reasoning
Authors: Heit Evan
Published: November 2023

One of our most important cognitive goals is prediction (Billman and Heit, 1988; Anderson, 1990, 1991; Heit, 1992; Ross and Murphy, 1996), and category-level information enables a rich set of predictions. For example, you might not be able to predict much about Peter until you are told that Peter is a goldfish, in which case you could predict that he will swim and he will eat fish food. Prediction is a basic element of a wide range of everyday tasks from problem solving to social interaction to motor control. This chapter, however, will-focus on a narrower range of prediction phenomena, concerning how people evaluate inductive ‘syllogisms’ or arguments such as the following example:
Dynamics of dimension weight distribution and flexibility in categorization
Authors: Lamberts Koen , Chong Steven
Published: November 2023

As the other chapters in this volume will have explained, rational analysis attempts to understand cognition in terms of its adaptation to the environment. In this chapter, we are particularly concerned with rational analysis of categorization. The purpose of categorization is to predict category membership of objects, which in turn allows for the prediction of new object features. If one categorizes an object as a tiger, for instance, on the basis of its colour and shape, one can infer that the object is probably dangerous, carnivorous, has sharp teeth, and so forth. Ideally, categorization should take the structure of the environment into account, and exploit the regularities that can be found. Anderson (1990, 1991) has provided a detailed analysis of the structure of categorization, and has shown how a Bayesian framework can form the basis of a detailed and powerful model of category learning and categorization.
A revised rational analysis of the selection task: exceptions and sequential sampling
Authors: Oaksford Mike , Chater Nick
Published: November 2023

Results in the psychology of reasoning appear to show that people make many errors when confronted with tasks having superficially obvious logical solutions. The task most often used to illustrate this point in both the philosophical and the psychological literature is Wason’s (1966, 1968) selection task. In the selection task an experimenter presents participants with four cards, each with a number on one side and a letter on the other, and a rule of the form ifpthenq, e.g. ifthereisavowelon oneside (p), thenthereisanevennumberontheotherside (q).
Rational analysis of causal conditionals and the selection task
Authors: Over David , Jessop Alan
Published: November 2023

Classical deductive logic begins with assumptions. It takes no interest in where these come from and is unconcerned with whether they are true in the actual world. It simply guarantees that the conclusion of a valid inference must hold given the assumptions, telling us that we should be certain of our valid conclusioRs whenever we are certain of our premises. For this reason, De Finetti (1972, Iritroduction) argued that this logic was limited by merely covering ‘... the ideal case of absolute certainty’.
Rationality as optimized cognitive self¬ regulation
Authors: McGonigle Brendan , Chalmers Margaret
Published: November 2023

A central objective of our programme, motivated in no small part by Piaget’s genetic epistemology (Piaget, 1971), has been to help specify the important conditions and dimensions of growth in cognitive competences and cognitive regulation in complex (primate) systems over the course of evolution and development (McGonigle and Chalmers 1996, 1997; Chalmers and McGonigle, 1997). An ontological stance as espoused by general systems theorists (le Gare, 1987), we have developed in our own way, Piaget’s constructivist, epigenetic conception of rational systems from an ‘adaptive’ perspective, combining, where possible, formal as well as empirical approaches to the characterization of cognitive complexity. And this has led in turn to research within the programme concerned with the design of robots that can learn to learn and self-organize over an extended life history guided by research within our biological programme (McGonigle, 1991; Donnett and McGonigle, 1991; Nehmzow and McGonigle, 1993).
The Object of Fear in Pain
Authors: Morley Stephen , Eccleston Christopher
Published: November 2023

Patients with chronic pain fear more than just the continuation of pain. We have a good understanding of the importance of some of these fears, such as fear of movement and (re)injury in chronic low back pain. However, outside of back pain we have advanced very little in our understanding of multiple fears. Given the chronic and relatively indiscriminate impact of pain on people’s lives, we expect that pain, especially persistent pain, can elicit a wide range of feared “objects.” In some cases the object of fear is likely to be quite specific (e.g. onset of fugue in migraine).
Central nervous system neoplasms in AIDS
Authors: Demopoulos Alexis , Abrey Lauren
Published: November 2023

Intracranial mass lesions are common in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals, especially those with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Distinguishing infectious etiologies from neoplasia is challenging and should not be done on the basis of routine imaging studies alone. Typical infectious etiologies include toxoplasmosis, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), bacterial or fungal brain abscess, and tuberculosis. Primary central nervous system lymphomas (PCNSL), gliomas, and leiomyosarcomas all occur with increased frequency in the HIV-positive population. Of these, the majority are PCNSL, which are AIDS-defining illnesses by criteria established by the Centers for Disease Control.
Alcohol and HIV-1 neuropathogenesis
Authors: Acheampong Edward , Mukhtar, Muhammad , Pomerantz Roger J
Published: November 2023

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) dementia complex (ADC) is a collective term used to describe a multitude of neurological disorders caused by viral infection of the brain. ADC is characterized by cognitive dysfunction, motor difficulties, coordination abnormalities, and other neurological signs and symptoms that develop in certain human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected-individuals (Price et al. 1988). Although we are two decades into the HIV-1 epidemic, the exact mechanisms that lead to ADC remain obscure (Lipton and Gendelman 1995). Hypotheses suggesting both direct and indirect mechanisms, based on retroviral replication in the central nervous system (CNS), have been proposed to account for ADC. Several HIV-1 gene products, especially Tat and the envelope glycoprotein gp120, have been suggested as putative neurotoxins (Venkatesh et al. 1990; Giulian et al. 1993; Dreyer et al. 1990).
Psychiatric disorders
Authors: Atkinson J Hampton , Person Cheryl , Young Corinna , Deitch, David , Treisman Glenn
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, clinical course, and treatment of the most prevalent psychiatric syndromes associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Psychiatric states in HIV can be characterized broadly as either primary, meaning the condition in all likelihood either preceded date of infection or is likely to be independent of HIV, or secondary, indicating a disorder directly or indirectly attributable to HIV itself, cofactors associated with infection, or their treatments. The most prevalent psychiatric disorders in HIV populations are major depression and dysthymia, alcohol and drug abuse or dependence (particularly injection drugs and stimulants), bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and personality disorders.
Alan Turing and the Turing Machine
Authors: Hodges Andrew
Published: November 2023

By marking its fiftieth anniversary, this volume recognizes the long-lasting influence of the Turing machine concept. By collecting together new contributions from so many fields, it signals the exceptionally wide scope of that influence. This brief essay, intended to recall and honor the person of Alan M. Turing himself, will likewise mark not only the historical moment of Turing’s publication, but will seek to convey the breadth of thought that underlay his introduction and development of the machine concept. Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, and after submitting to a traditional British upper-middle-class schooling, won a scholarship to King’s College, Cambridge University. He graduated with distinction in mathematics in 1934. Within less than a year he was elected to a Fellowship of King’s College, his dissertation being a proof of the Central Limit Theorem, and it might have appeared that his interests would focus on the theory of probability.
Turing’s Analysis of Computability, and Major Applications of lt
Authors: Kleene StephenC
Published: November 2023

The aim of this article is to present to readers, not assumed to have any previous acquaintance with Turing’s work, both (1) the basic ideas in Turing’s analysis of computability, and (2) what seems to me the most straightforward way of developing from it some significant features of the structure of mathematics. The application I use of his computability, and the path I follow in the developments from it, are somewhat different than in Turing’s own writing. Other investigators contributed.
From Universal Turing Machines to Self-Reproduction*
Authors: Arbib Michael A
Published: November 2023

Although Turing in his later years became interested in the use of reaction diffusion equations to model morphogenesis (cf. Turing 1952) my task in this essay is to trace the way in which Turing’s notion of the universal computer led to a computational theory of organism growth and reproduction. The focus, then, is on the work in the 1960’s that was spurred by von Neumann’s (1951, 1966) theory of self-reproducing automata. Turing’s result that there exists a universal computing machine suggested to von Neumann that there might be a universal construction machine A, which, when furnished with a suitable description IN of any appropriate automaton N, will construct a copy of N.
Computerizing Mathematics: Logic and Computation
Authors: Beeson Michael J
Published: November 2023

The two central aspects of mathematics are logic and computation. Mathematics has been used to compute the orbits of the planets and spaceships, to explain the ice ages, and to design tall buildings and majestic ships. The calculus, whose very name emphasizes calculation, was created in part to solve the problem of the calculation of longitude at sea, whose application to navigation was an important commercial problem of the era. Applied mathematics and engineering rely upon the computational aspect of mathematics.
Mental Images and the Architecture of Concepts
Authors: Makowsky Johann A
Published: November 2023

Abstract. We discuss the role of format of data, communication protocols and notational systems in computing. We use the term mental images for the internal data structure of human thinking and formal concept for an externalized data structure associated with it. Format, communication protocol and notation together are called architecture of the concept. It is argued that our current model of computability abstracts too much from the issue of architecture of concepts to provide us with a workable theory of interactive computing and data transfer. Such a future theory would have to take into account aspects of data base theory, cryptographic protocols, probabilistic complexity theory and a theory of learning which extends the statistical theory of estimation of dependencies based on empirical data. We also draw attention to anthropological studies concerning the evolution of mathematical concepts which show that such evolutions are inherently slow. This last aspect serves to dampen our hopes of a quick breakthrough in the evolution of conceptual computing.
On the Physics and Mathematics of Thought
Authors: Penrose Roger
Published: November 2023

The questions that I shall touch upon here are closely related to those that Alan Turing concerned himself with in the seminal article that this volume commemorates (Turing 1936-7). What are the essential physical actions that take place when a person thinks? Is a human brain, indeed, effectively a universal Turing machine? Is the precise material that constitutes a thinking device (such as a brain) of any real consequence? Does it much matter what physical laws are called upon in the action of such a device? Regrettably I have not time, as I write this, to develop fully the (rather incomplete) ideas that I would wish to express; nor is there really the necessary space for an adequate discussion.
Mechanisms for Computing Over Arbitrary Structures
Authors: Shepherdson John C
Published: November 2023

Abstract. Gandy 1980 has given four “Principles for Mechanisms” , which appear to be satisfied by any discrete mechanical device and are sufficient to ensure that the function computed by such a mechanism can also be computed by a Turing machine. Friedman 1971 has generalized the theory of computation to the case where the data objects are not necessarily natural numbers or finite strings, but may be elements of any relational structure, and where the operations and relations of the structure are given as basic computational operations. These approaches are combined here; Gandy’s principles are extended to deal with machines which incorporate processors for computing the operations and relations of a structure, and it is shown that functions over total structures computed by machines satisfying these principles can also be computed by a “generalized Turing algorithm” in Friedman’ssense. Structures with partially defined operations and relations are also considered. These illuminate the differences between serial and parallel procedures discussed in Shepherdson 1975. To preserve its universality over partial structures the generalized Turing algorithm needs to be given some kind of parallelism.
Form and Content in Thinking Turing Machines
Authors: Wiener Oswald
Published: November 2023

For purposes of epistemology, the crowning idea in Turing’s work on computability is the conjecture known as the Church/Turing thesis: that every “working” procedure can be formulated in terms of a Turing machine (TM). Does this mean that a mind’s knowledge of a “working” procedure takes the form of a TM or of some equivalent? Introspection clearly supports the hypothesis that understanding natural processes amounts to being capable of simulating them by some “internal” TMs-the clearest indication might perhaps be seen in our arrival at the TM concept itself.
Logic Without Structural Rules (Another Look at Cut Elimination)
Authors: Lambek Joachim
Published: November 2023

In [L 1958], Gentzen’s sequent calculus was extended from intuitionistic logic to what I then called the ‘syntactic calculus’, a form of bidirectional categorial grammar, now also seen to be the intuitionistic fragment of a non-symmetric version of Girard’s [1987] linear logic, and the cut-elimination theorem was proved in this generality. In [L 1969], this proof was lifted to the categorical level, where the sequents were interpreted as multilinear operations. Here we shall take another look at this proof and see that it becomes more transparent if in place of the operations we consider terms in an inductively defined language [L 1989].
Gradual Introduction to Type Theory
Authors: Ranta Aarne
Published: November 2023

Martin-Löf designed his type theory to be a language usable in mathematics. His motivation was ‘to make explicit what is usually implicitly taken for granted’ (Martin-Lof 1984, pp. 3-4). The contrast indicated by ‘usually’ is the metamathematical treatment of logic: At the present time, when formalisms are not only used by intelligent agents, who have the background knowledge spelt out in the metalanguage, but also run in computers, there is a new need of explicitness, up to Frege’s standard of leaving no room for guesswork. This has been realized in programming languages. In contemporary logic, the first explicit formalisms were the Automath languages designed by de Bruijn for the purpose of computerized mathematical reasoning (see de Bruijn 1970). Automath comprises classical logic, but it shows some central features of constructive type theory, such as a version of the propositions as types principle, and a notation for assertions in addition to propositions.
Anaphoric Expressions
Authors: Ranta Aarne
Published: November 2023

Many of the sentences formalized in the previous chapter contain pronouns, like he and it. This chapter will focus on the formalization of pronouns and, more generally, of anaphoric expressions, expressions interpreted in the context created by the foregoing text. They include, in addition to pronouns, definite noun phrases, like the man, and modified definite phrases, like the rich man, but also the zero sign, that is, ellipsis. All these expressions are introduced by type-theoretical rules followed by sugaring procedures. Thus we follow the new strategy of sugaring discussed at the end of Section 3.6, deriving different anaphoric expressions with the same interpretation from different but definitionally equal type-theoretical expressions.
Neogene
Authors: Hallam Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Neogene comprises the Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene epochs. Since the Holocene began only about 10 000 years ago it is commonly grouped together with the Pleistocene as the Quaternary. The biogeographic literature on the Quaternary vastly exceeds that on the Miocene and Pliocene, and deals almost exclusively with extant species. Here the Quaternary is treated in a more balanced way as a small, albeit highly interesting, part of the Neogene, and emphasis is placed, as in previous chapters, on what is indicated by the changing distributions of fossil taxa.
Major Factors Influencing The Distribution Of Organisms
Authors: Hallam Anthony
Published: November 2023

The most important factors affecting the large-scale distribution of organisms are climate, the relative positions of continents and oceans, and sea level (Hallam 1981a). Before these and other factors are discussed it is desirable to pay some attention both to diversity and the varying migration potential of different types of organism. Diversity is a measure of taxonomic variety. The two most widely used diversity indices, that combine both the number of species and their relative abundance, are the Shannon-Wiener and Simpson indices. Brown (1988) gives four reasons why their value in biogeographic studies is very limited:
Major temporal changes through the Phanerozoic
Authors: Hallam Anthony
Published: November 2023

Since time considerations are necessarily intrinsic to historical studies, the search for dynamic patterns of change through time is a fundamentally important aspect of palaeobiogeographic research. Before the biogeography of successive geological periods is considered it is desirable to outline some of the major geological and biological changes through Phanerozoic time, some of which also have a geographic component.
Palaeogene
Authors: Hallam Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Palaeogene or Early Tertiary, comprising the Palaeocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs, can be said to mark the time when the major outlines of the modem world, in terms of palaeogeography, climate, and biota, became progressively established. As in previous chapters attention will be paid to the geology before turning to organic distributions.
The Chalk as an aquifer
Authors: Price M , Downing R A , Edmunds W M
Published: November 2023

Some aquifers and petroleum reservoirs consist of porous rock which is traversed by fissures. It is common for the rock mass to possess significant porosity but low to moderate permeability, and for the fissures to contribute little to the total porosity of the rock but to contribute most of the permeability. The Chalk is an example of these aquifers or reservoirs, which are said to possess dual porosity or double porosity. The porosity and permeability components contributed by the fissures are referred to as the fissure (or fracture) porosity and permeability. The blocks bounded by the fissures are usually described as matrix blocks, and the non-fissured fraction of the porosity and permeability as the matrix (or matric) components (Fig. 3.la).
The Chalk as a hydrocarbon reservoir
Authors: D’Heur M
Published: November 2023

Below the North Sea, in the central part of the Tertiary basin, the Chalk is a major hydrocarbon reservoir. Oil and gas were first discovered in 1966 in chalks of Cretaceous and. Palaeocene ages in Well A-lx drilled in the Danish sector but the find was not considered to be commercial. Further north, in the southern part of the Norwegian sector, Well 2/11-1, drilled in 1969 on the flank of the Valhall structure, penetrated 17 m of hydrocarbon-bearing chalk which flowed at 900 barrels per day. Again, at that time, this was not regarded as a commercial discovery and the Valhall Field was actually not developed until 1976.
Cainozoic basins: western and southern Indonesia
Authors: Hutchison Charles S
Published: November 2023

The North Sumatra Basin occupies a roughly triangular area of approximately 55 000 km2, mostly onshore, and extending into the Straits of Malacca and Andaman Sea. It is separated from the Central Sumatra Basin by the Asahan Horst (Fig. 2.1).
Coal and lignite deposits
Authors: Hutchison Charles S
Published: November 2023

Throughout the region there are numerous Tertiary basins which contain lignite and sub-bituminous coal. However, within the older continental core of Sundaland, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic formations contain coal and anthracite. The distribution of the main deposits is shown in Fig. 7.1.
Other deposits
Authors: Hutchison Charles S
Published: November 2023

The broad SE Asian region contains examples of all the major types of bauxite deposits. Australia is the world’s major producer of bauxite (more than 33%), with major producing centres on the southern margin of SE Asia at Weipa on the Cape York Peninsula and in the Gove Peninsula of the Northern Territory (Hutchison, 1983a). The bauxite is in the form of lateritic residual caps upon Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary formations.
From Muscovy Towards St Petersburg 1598–1689
Authors: Torke Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2023

The seventeenth century has long been a focus of historiographic debate. Impressed by the broad-ranging reforms of Peter the Great (1689–1725), most early historians tended to emphasize the ‘break’, juxtaposing a traditional Muscovy of the seventeenth century to a Westernizing state of the eighteenth. But for over a century specialists have realized that the Petrine reforms built upon changes initiated by his predecessors in the seventeenth century.
Russia In War And Revolution 1914–1921
Authors: Orlovsky Daniel
Published: November 2023

The years separating the outbreak of war in 1914 and the announcement of the ‘New Economic Policy’ in 1921 form a critical watershed in modern Russian history. The revolutions of 1917, while not an unbridgeable caesura, fundamentally transformed the polity and social order. This era also had a profound impact on the ‘bourgeois’ West, which in the coming decades had to contend with the spectre of a socialist Prometheus in the East.
Constraints
Authors: Culicover Peter W
Published: November 2023

The preceding two chapters provide linguistic evidence for the position that a learning mechanism for language must be able to accommodate a substantial range of variation in syntactic generality. Many linguistic phenomena are very general, perhaps even falling under the designation ‘Affect a’, and these have formed the basis of ‘core grammar’. Many phenomena are not general, as I have argued, but are no less part of the language and constitute knowledge of language as much as the more general phenomena do. It is of course natural to try to account for the apparent exceptionality of apparently idiosyncratic phenomena as following from the interaction of general principles, thereby requiring the minimal special stipulations in the grammar of a particular language. However, I have argued that it is impossible to eliminate entirely the need for special stipulations. Moreover, I have suggested that the phenomena that require special stipulations do not fall into a special class for which a special learning mechanism is required, but are merely instances of the kinds of sound/meaning correspondences that are found in the lexicon and in syntax for all degrees of generality.
Noun and Adjective Suffixes
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the suffixes whereby nouns and adjectives are derived from other nouns and adjectives. Diminutives. The diminutive suffixes are -rek, -cek, -ceğiz, -cik, and -ce, of which the first two are no longer productive. Before these suffixes, adjectives invariably and nouns usually drop final k. -rek, the ancient comparative suffix (III, 4), survives with diminutive force in acrak ‘rather bitter’ (ac ‘bitter’), bozrak ‘light grey’ (boz ‘grey’), küçürek ‘rather small’ (küçük ‘small’), ufarak ‘rather tiny’ (ufak ‘tiny’), alçarak ‘lowish’ (alçak ‘low’).
Pronouns
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In pre-nineteenth-century texts the usual forms of the third person are: (sing.) ol, an, ann, ana, anda, andan; (pl.) anlar, anlar, etc. It will be noticed that the table exhibits some anomalies: the m in the genitive of the first-person singular and plural; the change from e to a in the dative of the first- and second-person singular; in the third person the n before the case-suffixes of the singular and before the -lar of the plural. The most plausible explanations of these anomalies are: the original beniŋ and biziŋ became benim and bizim under the influence of the pronominal suffixes -im and -imiz, helped perhaps by the labial b.
Numerals
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Numbers are compounded by simple juxtaposition: yüz bir ‘a hundred and one’; üç milyon dört yüz yirmi bin sekiz yüz doksan alt ‘three million four hundred and twenty thousand eight hundred and ninety-six’. In the numbers from 11 to 19 inclusive (which may be found written as one word), the accent is on the on. In higher numbers the last syllable of the unit is accented. Whereas ‘one hundred’ and ‘one thousand’ are yüz and bin respectively, ‘one million’ and ‘one milliard’ (i.e. an American billion) require bir.
Postpositions
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

General observations. The functions of some English prepositions are performed in Turkish by the case-suffixes. Those of the rest are performed by postpositions, which follow the word they govern. A few of them can appear as suffixes, but the majority are independent words. Those listed as primary are variously construed with the absolute, genitive, dative, and ablative cases. What may be termed a postposition taking the accusative is the obsolescent müteakip [A] ‘following’, as in PaŞann vefatn müteakip ‘sub-sequent to the Pasha’s demise’. Those listed as secondary postpositions are nouns in the dative, locative, or ablative case, linked by izafet to the word they govern. An English analogy would be to call ‘in’ and ‘before’ primary, and ‘on the inside of’ and ‘in front of’ secondary prepositions.
Adverbs
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

There is a host of reduplicated adverbial expressions, including onomato-poeic words like horul horul; see XIV, 30. Some verbs have reduplicated cognate adverbs ending in m: sürüm sürüm sürünmek ‘to grovel grovellingly’, i.e. to drag out a wretched existence; burum burum burulmak ‘to be contorted gripingly’; kvrm kvrm kvrlmak ‘to writhe convulsively’. The adverb için için ‘inwardly’ must not be confused with the postposition için ‘for’.
The Subjunctive
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Clauses of purpose. Clauses of purpose containing a subjunctive may, but need not, be introduced by ta ki (sometimes written tâ ki) or by ki alone: o vakit, bir sağa bir sola baŞvurmağa baŞlyorsunuz; tâ ki daldğnz bu toprak deryas içinden kendinize bir iz bulup çkasnz (Yakup Kadri) ‘then you begin to cast about, now to right, now to left, so that you may find a track for yourself and emerge from this ocean of earth into which you have plunged’. oturdum ki bir dakika dinleneyim ‘I sat down so that I might rest a minute’. Note that there is no ‘sequence of tenses’; the main verb in the past tense is followed by the present subjunctive. herkesten çok koŞacaksn ki paçay kurtarasn ‘you will run more than everybody so that you may save your skin’. Şimdi uyuyun ki, sabah kalknca dinç kafayla çalŞasnz ‘now sleep, so that when you get up in the morning you may work with a sound head’.
Conditional Sentences
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Open conditions. These are expressed by the conditional form of the appropriate tense.

present: halkmz gerçekten seviyor-sak, onun için çalŞyoruz derken yalan söylemiyor-sak, onu kuŞkulardan korkulardan kurtarmak ilk iŞimiz olmal ‘if we truly love our people; if, when saying we are working for them, we are not telling lies, our first task ought to be to deliver them from doubts and fears’.
The ethnography of everyday life
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

The title for this chapter suggests both an approach and a subject matter. The intention is to explore how the approaches and methodologies of sociocultural anthropology have been applied to the study of the everyday phenomena of social life in early modern Italy. The use of such approaches, beginning in the 1970s, reflected a desire among historians to reach where other approaches did not: to explore the social relationships and interactions among historical persons, people who actually existed and experienced life as a series of events. It was made all the more attractive for Italian historians by the existence of a strong, often quite historically minded, Italian ethnographic tradition. At the same time, it implied a whole new range of theoretical concepts, as well as a new way of going about research, analysis, and presentation.
Introduction: Republic and nation in the belle époque
Authors: McMillan James
Published: November 2023

In 1880 the French Third Republic had been in existence for ten years. That it was destined to fulfil the revolutionary dream of creating a viable democratic polity and go on to become the longest-surviving regime since 1789 was, however, far from self-evident. French national life had been fractured by conflicting ideas of the nation since 1789, and if anything the advent of the Republic in 1870 served only to deepen the ideological divide.
France, Europe, and the world: international politics since 1880
Authors: Watson David
Published: November 2023

This topic is treated here primarily in the form of an account of policies followed by French governments over this period. Whatever the future may hold, in the year 2002, as in the year 1880, France is a nation state, a community which has a sense of identity, and which is represented by a government with the task of defending the national interest. The primary element of this task is defence of the national territory, and of its inhabitants: second is safeguarding the economic basis of their existence.
The transformation of society
Authors: Horne John
Published: November 2023

If there is a ‘peculiarity’ of French social history since 1880, it is the opposite of that sometimes attributed to Germany. The industrial revolution transformed German society, eventually producing a cataclysm in a political system still rooted in the ancien régime. France possessed a democracy inspired by the Revolution, yet society and the economy changed more slowly than in Germany, with periods of stagnation.
Women: distant vistas, changed lives
Authors: Reynolds Siân
Published: November 2023

If one of the indexes of modernization is an increase in women’s rights, France has seen remarkable moves in this direction since the belle époque, when the formal rights of women—whatever their unofficial power and weight in society—were extremely restricted. There are several possible ways to approach this history. A list of key dates would have all the virtues of clarity, charting every barrier broken down, every ‘first’ achievement such as Marie Curie’s becoming the first woman professor at the Sorbonne in 1906, and every anti-discriminatory law, as so many milestones on the road towards women’s emancipation.
The traditional society
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

To Europeans of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment the Chinese Empire seemed to show the possibility of a polity based on reason without hereditary privilege or religious authority, ruled by a philosopher-king counselled by philosophers. Yet by the start of the next century, China had come to symbolize almost the opposite: a polity stifled by the power of a self-perpetuating élite who were both the guardians of a quasi-religious tradition and the servants of an arbitrary despot.
The radicalization of Chinese politics
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

We must now return to 1913 in order to look more closely at the parallel events in the south, and the gradual consolidation of the Nationalist regime. From 1913 Sun struggled to maintain a foothold amid the military and political rivalries of the south and south-west. His first problem was that opposition to Yuan Shikai was by no means unanimous even among his own supporters. While the Guomindang in the south favoured war, most of the parliamentary party opposed it. Among the provincial military commanders only one, Li Liejun of Jiangxi, was determined to resist; his colleagues in Hunan, Anhui, and Jiangsu were prevented from effective action by disagreement among their officers, who were as split on the issue as public opinion generally. These circumstances account for the easy victory of Yuan Shikai’s Beiyang commanders.
The Chinese People’s Republic 1949–1957
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

The new Chinese People’s Republic was proclaimed in Tian An Men Square, Beijing, on 1 October 1949. Mao Zedong from the rostrum announced, ‘China has stood up.’ It was the nationalist message which most Chinese wanted to hear; to most of his vast audience, socialism in 1949, as in 1919, was first and foremost a means to national revival. The institutions which were created by the conquerors were ostensibly in this spirit. They expressed Mao’s view, held since the days of the May Fourth Movement, that the vast majority of the Chinese people could unite behind revolution, and that its only opponents would be the landlords and the handful of businessmen whose fortunes, he believed, depended upon the exercise of foreign economic privilege.
The Great Leap Forward
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Free criticism during the Hundred Flowers period had culminated in demands for the fulfilment of the democratic rights offered in the 1954 constitution, but no Chinese leader was willing to interpret these rights as offering anything analogous to Western Democracy. Mao went further in this direction in 1957 in permitting criticism, approving protest, emphasizing the distinction between Party and State, and defending the right to strike even though the constitution did not legalize strikes.
Reaction and renewed reform
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Jiang Zemin was from Shanghai which, recently opened to foreign trade on much the same terms as Shenzhen, had a strong interest in continued economic reform. Nevertheless, the conservative veterans, with Li Peng as their protégé, had for the moment regained power. A period of attempted reaction followed. They issued orders for continued retrenchment and recentralization. Price controls were reimposed.
Power and Disempowerment
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa
Published: November 2023

The focus on alienated individuals exploring their subjectivity in the writing of the 1980s and 1990s can be traced in the earlier writings of those marginalized by the discourses of the regime. As is evident from the preceding discussion of the construction of the family, women were identified exclusively with the domestic sphere in the family model of National Catholicism. Novels by women highlight the restrictions imposed on them by this paradigm and present a challenge to the discourses of the regime, and the institutions which implemented them, through a variety of strategies which emphasize the use of language, or paradoxically silence, as a tool of empowerment.
Introduction
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

The origins of parliament lay in the monarch’s need for counsel and consent, and the giving and receiving of advice was the main purpose of a parliament. Edward I’s writ of summons to the earl of Cornwall in 1295 made this clear: For monarchs, parliaments were occasions on which they could consult a wider range of their subjects than was normally available. Parliaments were not, of course, the only occasions on which the king could consult his most influential subjects-he might summon some of his nobles, or a group of merchants, or a ‘great council’, that is, an assembly of nobles with a sprinkling of specially invited humbler persons-but parliaments were the most important of such occasions. This was because many of the matters on which the king sought advice involved the levying of taxation, for which the consent of parliament was necessary. The principle had been established long before the Tudors that the king could raise money from his subjects as a whole only with their consent: a meeting of parliament had from the fourteenth century been recognized as the means by which that consent was given.
Material Resources and Economic Constraints
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

Implicit in the concept of an economy is an awareness that constraints of resources, time, and knowledge limit the potential of human groups for happiness and prosperity. In the course of history certain of those constraints have been eased—and that is what constitutes economic development—but they are never removed, and often new ones are created in the process of change. That being so, it is important, before embarking on a discussion of Britain’s economy between the eleventh and the sixteenth centuries, to survey the material restrictions on its potential for development. Economies before 1530 contrast with those of the present day in the much lower level of energy inputs available for productive use; they lacked the means for converting mineral fuels such as coal and oil into generating power mechanically.
Merchants and their Trade
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

The development of long-distance, especially seaborne, trade is one of the most demonstrable sources of British urban growth between 1050 and 1300. It was chiefly beneficial to eastern England and Scotland, whose economies it integrated into the expanding North Sea trading area; northern France (including Flanders) and the Rhineland were the principal trading partners. A statistical assessment of the magnitude of change is only possible in part; the evidence of customs accounts becomes available for English ports from 1275, for Welsh ports from the beginning of the fourteenth century, and for Scottish ports from 1327. Comparison between English customs returns of the years 1304–5 with customs dues recorded in a royal exchequer account of 1204 suggests that over that hundred years the value of English overseas trade may have tripled in real terms.