bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
STRATEGY, STRUCTURE AND CULTURE: CADBURY, DIVISIONALIZATION AND MERGER IN THE 1960S*
Authors: Rowlinson Michael
Published: May 2007

This case study re‐examines the history of Cadbury, the British‐based chocolate confectionery manufacturer, to give an insight into the relationship between strategies of diversification, adoption of a multidivisional structure, and culture in relation to labour management. During the 1960s Cadbury undertook diversification, divisionalization and merger, all of which were affected by, and had an effect upon the Cadbury culture developed at the Bournville factory in Birmingham, England. Contemporaneous documentary evidence, especially the Cadbury board minutes, are used to question the prevalent view, mostly based on retrospective interviews with managers, that cultural change was the outcome of intended management strategies. Instead it is argued that the dilution of the Cadbury culture was the unintended consequence of diversification and divisionalization rather than a conscious abandonment on the part of a new generation of Cadbury directors or the influence of Schweppes after the merger with Cadbury.
LINKING COMPETITIVE STRATEGY AND MANUFACTURING PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Schroeder Dean M. , Congden Steven W. , Gopinath C.
Published: May 2007

This paper presents an empirically grounded study of the linkages between competitive strategy and manufacturing technology for 20 small manufacturers. It identifies the nature of strategy‐technology linkages, the process by which the two align, the market and customer forces driving this alignment, and the consequences of failing to adopt appropriate new technologies. the paper proposes five propositions which are developed into a dynamic strategy‐technology linkage model.
DE‐ESCALATION IN DECISION MAKING: A CASE OF A DISASTROUS PARTNERSHIP*
Authors: Drummond Helga
Published: May 2007

Decisions to persist with losing courses of action known as escalation have been widely studied, albeit mainly in an experimental context. Comparatively little is known about the conditions under which de‐escalation occurs. Utilizing a model of de‐escalation derived from the literature the present study examines, by means of a case study, a decision to withdraw from a losing predicament. It is concluded that while de‐escalation is likely to occur where the opposite conditions thought to be conducive to persistence apply, existing models under‐emphasize the importance of power. Accordingly a modified version of Bowen's two‐factor model is proposed.
Beyond Self‐Regulation: Towards A Critique of Self‐Regulation As A Control Strategy For Hazardous Activities*
Authors: Smith Denis , Tombs Steve
Published: May 2007

After highlighting some of the key issues and positions in the debate around appropriate preventive regulation, the paper presents a number of observations directed at the proponents of greater self‐regulation. These observations confront directly a number of familiar, but often unchallenged, arguments for self‐regulation. More centrally we address claims concerning, the extent to which the chemicals industries have a good and improving ‘safety’ record; and whether the sector consists of companies both motivated and capable in the context of effective crisis and disaster management. Lastly, the paper sets out some ‘new directions’ for the nature and role of regulation in the effective prevention of crises. Thus the paper indicates a number of regulatory developments which are distinct from any shift towards greater self‐regulation, but which would result in more effective crisis and disaster prevention in the UK chemicals industries and, indeed, beyond that specific sector.
PROFESSIONALIZATION AND BRITISH MANAGEMENT PRACTICEPROFESSIONALIZATION AND BRITISH MANAGEMENT PRACTICE: CASE EVIDENCE FROM MEDIUM‐SIZED FIRMS IN TWO INDUSTRIAL SECTORS*
Authors: Bresnen Mike , Fowler Carolyn
Published: May 2007

High levels of occupational specialization, problems of cross‐functional integration and distinct bureaucratic tendencies have traditionally been seen as problems endemic to British management practice. Over the last decade, these problems are expected to have disappeared ‐ or at least diminished ‐ as major developments in management and organizational theory, as well as changing economic circumstances, have redirected management thinking towards ‘new’ ideas of flatter, simpler organizational structures, increased flexibility and decentralization, improvements in the quality of inter‐functional relations and the like. Yet, despite these developments, there is comparatively little research that has investigated actual patterns of change within management and, in particular, what is happening in what could be regarded as the mainstream of British industry ‐ namely, ‘ordinary’, medium‐sized firms operating in ‘traditional’ industrial sectors. Moreover, rarely does such research focus upon the implications of management change for the strategies of professionalization adopted by competing specialist occupational groups within management. This paper sets out to help fill these gaps, by reporting the findings from case studies of four such firms, taking into account the particular contexts and historical circumstances that have helped shape any such change and drawing out the key influences on changed management practice.
ENGINEERS, MANAGEMENT AND WORK ORGANIZATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGINEERS' WORK ROLES IN BRITISH AND JAPANESE ELECTRONICS FIRMS*
Authors: Lam Alice
Published: May 2007

Many commentators have attributed the poor performance of British manufacturing to the ‘under‐representation’ of engineers in management, and have proposed policies for bringing more engineers into management so as to develop a technologically oriented management culture. This paper argues that the under‐representation of engineers in management is a symptom not the root cause of the problem, which lies in the split between technical and managerial expertise at the enterprise level. Based on a comparative analysis of engineers’ work roles and the relationship between technical and managerial functions in British and Japanese electronics firms, the paper argues that the mechanistically structured organization systems in the British firms generate a vertical polarization between technical and managerial roles, inhibit knowledge sharing and lead to the gross under‐utilization of engineers in product development. A technologically oriented management cannot simply be achieved by getting more engineers into management. It requires, instead, organizational restructuring and changes in work practices to enable a better integration between technical and managerial expertise.
STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT WITHIN A RESOURCE‐CAPABILITY VIEW OF THE FIRM*
Authors: Kamoche Ken
Published: May 2007

This paper takes a critical look at the field of strategic human resource management and in particular the debate about the strategic value of the human resource. We identify the contribution as well as the problematic nature of the situational‐contingency perspective. Drawing from the strategic management literature and the concept of resource heterogeneity, we then posit a resource‐capability view of the firm and argue that the mutually reinforcing interaction between the stock of knowledge, skills and expertise (resources) and the organizational routines and human resource policies and practices (capabilities) generates human resource competencies whose strategic value is realizable to the extent that they are linked with core competencies. We thus offer a reconceptualization of human resource competencies which goes beyond existing trait, behavioural and systems approaches. Finally, we identify the circumstances surrounding the generation and distribution of rents arising from the utilization of human resource competencies by drawing from transaction cost theory and industrial relations.
ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT AND THE INTERPRETATION OF STRATEGIC ISSUES: A NOTE ON CEOS’ INTERPRETATIONS OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT*
Authors: Denison Daniel R. , Dutton Jane E. , Kahn Joel A. , Hart Stuart L.
Published: May 2007

This paper explores the relationship between organizational context and the interpretation of strategic issues by examining the hypothesis that CEOs' interpretations of foreign investment in the USA are influenced by the organizational context in which they are embedded. Three aspects of organizational context ‐ the global business experience of the firm; the firm's level of organizational inertia (as represented by firm age and size); and the resources available for responding ‐ are examined as predictors of CEOs' perceptions of foreign investment as a threat or an opportunity. Analysis of data from 320 organizations, controlled by industry, shows that global business experience, firm size, and perceived capability are significant predictors of the perception of threat and opportunity. the discussion addresses the implications of these findings for future research on issue interpretation and organizational context.
CONTINUITIES IN HUMAN RESOURCE PROCESSES IN INTERNATIONALIZATION AND DOMESTIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
Authors: Hendry Chris
Published: May 2007

Internationalization is often seen as posing distinctive human resource problems that are difficult to overcome. This paper takes an alternative approach by considering the processes by which firms, large and small, internationalize and the way they sustain overseas activity at different stages of their internationalization. It does so by reference to six challenges faced by firms in the course of internationalization. the result is to highlight continuities and regularities between international human resource management and the creation of an effective domestic organization, along with common underlying processes and skills centred on networking, teams and organizational learning.

It is argued that this shifts attention from the specific tasks of the human resources function to more broadly defined human resource activities and processes which affect the growth of firms internationally. Secondly, it helps firms to think more positively about becoming international and to address relevant skills. Thirdly, it identifies appropriate activities, tasks and situations that business schools need to provide as part of an international management education.

However, the paper also recognizes that internationalization involves specific differences between domestic and international business management. A number of these are rooted in country‐specific institutional factors which human resource management, the function, has to address. While processes may be common, knowledge is context‐bound.
Research In Strategy, Economics, and Michael Porter*
Authors: Foss Nicolai J.
Published: May 2007

This article links up with recent discussions of the strategy/economics nexus. In contrast to most of the proponents and opponents of economics in strategy thinking, a balanced pluralist perspective is adopted. According to this, a discipline should strike a balance between the generation of new theoretical alternatives and the selection among them. Applying this general idea, I argue that the strategy field is too pluralistic, and that the unfortunate consequences of excessive pluralism and eclecticism may be remedied by economics playing a larger role in the conversation of strategy researchers. This does not necessarily mean standard neoclassical economics or new industrial organization economics; evolutionary economics, for example, is a serious contender, too. the evolution of Michael Porter's thinking is used as a case for demonstrating some of the advantages and some of the dangers of economics in the strategy field, and for illustrating points about eclecticism and pluralism.
Early Career Outcomes of Graduate Employees: the Effect of Mentoring and Ingratiation*
Authors: Aryee Samuel , Wyatt Thomas , Stone Raymond
Published: May 2007

Underpinned by the growing recognition of influence processes or a careerist orientation in the determination of career success, this study examined the effect of career‐oriented mentoring, ingratiation and their interaction term on the career success measures of salary, number of promotions received and career satisfaction. Data were obtained through structured questionnaires from graduate employees (N= 432) working full‐time in Hong Kong. Results of the ordinary least‐squares regression analyses revealed a non‐significant effect of career‐oriented mentoring, ingratiation and their interaction term on salary. Career‐oriented mentoring was, however, significantly positively related to number of promotions received and career satisfaction. Although the results reinforced the dominance of the traditional determinants of career success, the significant effect of career‐oriented mentoring on two of the career success measures may help to paint a more realistic picture of the process of career success in organizations. Limitations of the study, directions for future research and implications of the findings are discussed.
The Role of Networks In the Diffusion of Technological Innovation*
Authors: Robertson Maxine , Swan Jacky , Newell Sue
Published: May 2007

This research considers the diffusion of computer‐aided production management (CAPM) technology in the UK manufacturing sector during the mid to late 1980s, focusing on the role of inter‐organizational networks in the diffusion process. Research on innovation diffusion has tended to adopt a ‘pro‐innovation bias’ such that adoption of prescribed best practice technologies is always considered to be the best policy. In the UK, one particular form of CAPM (MRP/MRPII) has been heavily promoted by technology suppliers as best practice. However, the notion of ‘best practice’ de‐emphasizes the importance of decisions about technology design when users attempt to develop firm‐specific solutions. Crucial to these decisions are the inter‐organizational networks through which potential adopters learn about relevant technologies. Using three case companies, where the introduction of CAPM occurred at approximately the same time, decisions regarding adoption, design and subsequent implementation, are explored in order to establish the influence of inter‐organizational networks on the diffusion and subsequent appropriation of CAPM technologies. These cases revealed that potential adopters engaged in a range of inter‐organizational networks through which they learned about new technologies. However, the knowledge diffused through many of these networks was shaped by technology suppliers who were promoting similar ideas about best practice. Thus, while involvement in inter‐organizational networks gave potential adopters access to information about new technology, this information tended to reinforce supplier images of best practice and did not always lead these firms to develop appropriate technological solutions. Problematic relationships between the suppliers of the technology and the users was seen here to limit the redesign and further diffusion of CAPM.
Employee Shareholders Or Institutional Investors? When Corporate Managers Replace Their Stockholders*
Authors: Useem Michael , Gager Constance
Published: May 2007

During the past decade, the shares of publicly traded companies moved increasingly into the hands of institutional investors. As large investors pressed companies to restructure, companies were observed in turn to restructure their shareholder base. Drawing on a 1989 survey of 761 US publicly traded companies, firms facing a hostile takeover environment or with large institutional holdings are found to seek greater employee stockholding. Large firms and those that had adopted takeover defences are more likely when threatened with takeovers or short‐term pressures to seek more employee and less institutional stockholding. Though managers are employed by owners, investor efforts to discipline their managers can lead the latter to replace the former.
Multinational Management Strategy and Human Resource Decision Making In the Single European Market*
Authors: Walsh Janet
Published: May 2007

There has been considerable academic interest in the consequences of European integration for multinational companies and their subsidiaries, and the co‐ordination and control of human resource decision making. Against the backdrop of this debate, this paper examines the impact of European integration on management organization and human resource decision making in 13 British multinational companies. Although there were partial moves towards the development of European managers, a European‐wide approach to human resource matters was not yet a conspicuous feature of this sample of multinationals. the global preoccupations of the companies, as well as the persistence of national variations in consumer markets and modes of product regulation, were clearly major constraints on the emergence of European forms of corporate organization and underpinned the lack of enthusiasm for distinctively European approaches to employee management.
Ceo Locus of Control and Small Firm Performance: an Integrative Framework and Empirical Test*
Authors: Boone Christophe , De Brabander Bert , Van Witteloostuijn Arjen
Published: May 2007

Previous research on the impact of chief executive officer (CEO) locus of control is mainly based on simple and partial mappings of bivariate associations between CEO locus of control and organizational outcomes. In addition, distinct substreams have emerged in which intricately related phenomena are studied separately. to overcome this fragmentation and polarization, we provide and empirically test an integrative framework based on previously tested hypotheses on the impact of CEO locus of control. Our approach differs from prior research in two ways. First, it simultaneously takes account of strategic choice and firm performance in order to assess the extent to which strategy mediates the relationship between CEO locus of control and organizational performance. Second, we consider the CEO to be both a formulator and implementor of organizational strategies. Besides the observation that CEO locus of control seems to matter a lot in terms of explaining organizational performance in the present sample, our results demonstrate that an integrative approach increases our insight into the impact of CEO locus of control by revealing why some CEOs achieve higher organizational performance than others.
A SIMPLE CORRECTION FOR LOCAL MISSPECIFICATION
Authors: Orme Chris
Published: May 2007

In this note a method of updating, or correcting, ML estimates is outlined1 when departures from the assumed model are detected but believed to be small. These corrections have a particular simple regression interpretation and are thus easily obtained from standard regression packages by the applied worker. Inferences may also be drawn based on the same regression.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODELS OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DIFFERENTIATION
Authors: Anglin Paul M.
Published: May 2007

This paper shows how to derive the income and substitution effects of a price change in a differentiated goods model. In the process of doing so, I show how to convert a model of a vertically differentiated market into one of horizontally differentiation by constructing two market‐specific functions. One of these functions would represent the acknowledged ranking of types if the market were vertically differentiated; the other is a simple function representing the disutility associated with consuming a non‐ideal type.
RESERVATION WAGES AND THE UNION JOB QUEUE: A SAMPLE SELECTION APPROACH
Authors: Hampton Mary B. , Heywood John S.
Published: May 2007

This paper uses a unique data set of unemployed semi‐skilled workers to examine the relationship between reservation wages and the decision to queue for a union sector job. Estimation of selected reservation wage equations indicates that the failure of all previous estimates to model the queuing decision results in biased coefficients. Those workers who queue for a union job are subject to a distinct reservation wage formation process which differs from those not queuing. Moreover, a structural estimate of the queuing decision demonstrates that workers with the greatest differences between estimated reservation wages in the union and non‐union sector are the most likely to queue. This estimate of the queuing decision stands as one of the few which focus on unemployed workers. Among other results, women and minorities are more likely to queue for union jobs, all else equal.
MONETARY POLICY CHANGES AND UNIT ROOT STATISTICS
Authors: Pain Nigel
Published: May 2007

Conventional unit root tests are biased towards non‐rejection of the null when applied to variables characterized by a one‐time change in their mean. Suggested modifications allowing for a break point require identification of an exogenous change initiated at the time of the break and not subsequently reversed. This paper suggests that modified tests are particularly useful in dealing with legislative changes. Two UK examples are given; the abolition of exchange controls in 1979 and the changes in monetary policy in 1980. Results suggest that allowing for a break changes the apparent order of integration of portfolio shares and real interest rates.
SAVING AND SOCIAL INSURANCE
Authors: Eisenhauer Joseph G.
Published: May 2007

In a model which is both intertemporal and uncertain, this paper shows that risk averters increase saving in response to increases in the probability of income losses and reduce saving in response to social insurance.
EQUILIBRIA IN NON‐COOPERATIVE GAMES II: DEVIATIONS BASED REFINEMENTS OF NASH EQUILIBRIUM
Authors: Sadanand Asha B. , Sadanand Venkatraman
Published: May 2007

In any Nash equilibrium no player will unilaterally deviate. However, many games have multiple Nash equilibria. In this paper, we survey some refinements of Nash equilibria based on the hypothesis that any player may consider a deliberate deviation from a Nash equilibrium vector while expecting other players to respond optimally to this deviation. The concepts studied here differ in the expectations players have about other players' responses to a deviation. This sort of deviations philosophy is predicated on the thought process of players. Therefore, the validity of a particular equilibrium concept to an economic model may depend upon the relevance of the thought process implied by the concept.
EXCHANGE RISK IN THE EMS: SOME EVIDENCE BASED ON A GARCH MODEL*
Authors: Hassapis Christis
Published: May 2007

The paper attempts to detect any changes in the exchange risk as measured by the conditional variance of exchange rate changes before and after foundation of the EMS. The analysis is based on estimation of an econometric model in which the conditional variance is allowed to follow an autoregressive pattern. The results indicate a significant decrease in the volatility of the conditional variance and the risk premium for the EMS countries over the EMS period. No such changes are detected for the non‐EMS countries.
CAN THE SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS USED TO SIGN THE GLOBAL EFFECT OF RISK BE USED TO SIGN THE MARGINAL EFFECT OF RISK?*
Authors: Simpson Wayne , Sproule Robert , Hum Derek
Published: May 2007

Despite the absence of a formal definition of the relationship between the marginal and the global effects of risk, in the literature termed the economics of uncertainty, intuition would suggest it unjustifiable to presume that these two concepts are categorically independent. This paper demonstrates in two steps that such intuition is (in some degree) correct. First, a special case of the marginal effect is defined and called the ‘marginal effect in the small’. Second, it is demonstrated that the sign of the marginal effect in the small is identical to the sign of the global effect of risk. In an effort to further establish the significance of this result, it is observed that (by implication) sufficient conditions used for signing the global effect can concomitantly serve as sufficient conditions for signing the marginal effect in the small (as well as the converse). In addtition, three applications are considered.
THE SCOPE FOR COLLUSION AND COMPETITION IN A REGULATED VERTICALLY INTEGRATED INDUSTRY*
Authors: Damania D.
Published: May 2007

This paper investigates the competitive implications of input price controls in a partially regulated industry where a vertically integrated firm has exclusive control over an input with natural monopoly characteristics. Such industry structures are commonly encountered in activities such as telecommunications, railways, electricity and water supply. It is shown that in a Cournot game such input price controls are unambiguously benefical to consumers. However, it is further demonstrated that there exist circumstances in which these controls may make the non‐integrated firm worse off. Thus if the objective of input price regulation is to protect the non‐integrated firm, such controls may prove to be counterproductive.
CONTROLLING GREENHOUSE GASES: A SURVEY OF GLOBAL MACROECONOMIC STUDIES*
Authors: Clarke Rosemaiy , Boero Gianna , Winters L. Alan
Published: May 2007

A conceptual framework which identifies the main determinants of the macroeconomic costs of abating greenhouse gases is developed. This is used to survey long‐term quantitative studies of abatement, especially their modelling approaches and choices of key parameters. These studies suggest that each 20% abatement below business‐as‐usual emissions is likely to cost approximately 1% of gross world product.
OPTIMAL CAPITAL TAXES FOR PUBLIC GOOD PROVISION*
Authors: Michael Michael S.
Published: May 2007

This paper constructs a general equilibrium trade model of a small open economy that produces many traded private goods and one non‐traded public consumption good. Trade in goods is free, but the country taxes the internationally mobile capital to finance the provision of the public good. Within this framework, the paper identifies the conditions under which the optimal policy on the internationally mobile capital calls for a tax. Under the assumptions that (i) the welfare function is concave with respect to the tax rate, and (ii) the net revenue‐maximizing capital tax rate is positive, it is shown that the marginal cost of the public good always understates its social marginal cost.
FROM DISCRETE‐TIME MODELS TO CONTINUOUS‐TIME, ASYNCHRONOUS MODELING OF FINANCIAL MARKETS
Authors: Boer Katalin , Kaymak Uzay , Spiering Jaap
Published: May 2007

Most agent‐based simulation models of financial markets are discrete‐time in nature. In this paper, we investigate to what degree such models are extensible to continuous‐time, asynchronous modeling of financial markets. We study the behavior of a learning market maker in a market with information asymmetry, and investigate the difference caused in the market dynamics between the discrete‐time simulation and continuous‐time, asynchronous simulation. We show that the characteristics of the market prices are different in the two cases, and observe that additional information is being revealed in the continuous‐time, asynchronous models, which can be acted upon by the agents in such models. Because most financial markets are continuous and asynchronous in nature, our results indicate that explicit consideration of this fundamental characteristic of financial markets cannot be ignored in their agent‐based modeling.
The development of an Experience Inventory: an aid to the effective use of technical manpower
Authors: Wright P. L. , Wathen J. R. , Baker A. G.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. A Management Information System relating to technical manpower resources has been developed at the Unilever Research, Port Sunlight, Laboratory over the past two years. Data concerning areas of technical expertise were obtained from the scientists themselves and collated in the form of an Experience inventory. Application of the Inventory in the fields of personnel development, personnel placement, expert location and manpower planning in general are discussed. Although based upon subjective data, it was concluded that the system was sufficiently robust to justify its use in these areas. Staff reactions to the concept were, on the whole, favourable and initial experience of its use has been encouraging. The system would therefore seem to provide a valuable aid in the vital area of human resource utilization.
Preconceptions and reconceptions in the administration of science
Authors: Gordon Gerald
Published: May 2007

Abstract. Despite the rise in the importance of science as a daily concern of modern man, until recently factors affecting the conduct of scientific research have not been objectively studied. We found that over 80% of the publications from 1950 to 1961 dealing with the administration of research were based on speculation rather than on objective evidence. These speculative publications, for the most part, tended to reinforce, rather than to critically examine, prevalent conceptions of science and its administration.

One of the most entrenched of these conceptions is the importance ascribed to the differences between basic and applied research. It is my contention that the dichotomy, basic and applied (and such related dichotomies as limited and fundamental, theoretical and action, etc.), hinders rather than advances our knowledge of the relationship between organizational structure and scientific accomplishment. The distinction between basic and applied research is not directly related to the research process and therefore can only be of limited value in research administration. Further, the mystique around the terms ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ appears to have led to patterns of research administration based on misconceptions rather than on knowledge. Two other distinctions, urgency and predictability of the research, are suggested as more viable distinctions than the basic‐applied dichotomy. Using recent research findings from small group research and the sociology of science, we have attempted to show how these distinctions can serve as guidelines in the administration of science.
The use of Research Planning Diagrams
Authors: Quickenden M. A. J. , Davies G. B. , Woods M. F.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. The use of Research Planning Diagrams as an aid for project planning and evaluation is described. A computerized simulation technique for the analysis of the probabilities associated with a diagram is illustrated by means of a worked example.
the evaluation of innovation projects
Authors: Edge H. A. , Roesler F. C. , Sherlock E.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. Any realistic assessment of research projects must allow for possible failures. Scaling down the Potential gain from each project by its probability of achievement ignores the expenditure on unsuccessful projects and is therefore misleading. The method proposed here is more sound: it uses a concept termed the Survival Probability Function, which is simply the probability that a Project will still exist at various times in the future. This function can be derived from estimates for the survival factors and durations of project stages. The function can then be used to calculate the statistics of project successes and failures, and can be employed in a standard Risk Analysis. More simply, if can be used as a weighting function for cash flow patterns. This leads to a comparison method for projects with different risks and different potential returns, and thus to project portfolio selection.
Project management and communication patterns in industrial research
Authors: Walsh V. M. , Baker A. G.
Published: May 2007

A pilot study has been carried out on one project: (a) to develop a suitable methodology for studying communication; (b) to see whether the findings of external studies apply to the laboratory; (c) to examine a part of the communication pattern of the laboratory. Results showed that for the project studied: (a) the needs of the project dominated the communication; (b) previous external findings on “technological gatekeepers” and “distance stopping communication” did not apply in the project studied; (c) a suit able methodology has been developed.
Strategies for deveIopment projects: an empirical study*
Authors: Abernathy W. J. , Goodman R. A.
Published: May 2007

This paper summarizes results from a study of strategy choices and outcomes in one government laboratory over a fifteen‐year time period. Several considerations associated with the effectiveness of a parallel strategy are presented and discussed. These include different types of uncertainty encountered in a given problem and their effect on the rate of learning. Contrary to observations in other studies, the present results suggest that the rate of learning is often slow and may not be facilitated by the use of many parallel approaches in only early project stages. In many instances major uncertainties are not reduced until the product is evaluated in the operational environment.
Independence and accountabiIity after RothschiId
Authors: Williams R.
Published: May 2007

Debate on the Rothschild report having become concentrated on the future of the Research Councils, there has been relatively little analysis of the wider implications of the core issue of the report, ‘accountability’ versus ‘independence’, This article offers a preliminary assessment of these two concepts, and especially of ‘accountability’. It is shown that while Rothschild's ‘customer‐contractor principle’ is likely to present new and serious difficulties for government departments, it may also lead to an important strengthening in their capabilities. The essay seeks overall to initiate a full discussion of the procedures associated with the principle and underlines the need for further detailed consideration of the accountability‐independence balance.
Qualitative aspects of the evaluation and control of research and development projects
Authors: Bradbury F. R. , Gallagher W. M. , Suckling C. W.
Published: May 2007

Decisions in research and development are usually based on a variety of data inputs. Some of these will be concerned with the returns offered by projects in money terms. Others will relate to more qualitative aspects of research work such as, perhaps, the establishment of a base in a new area of technology or the achievement of a stronger market position. This paper describes and illustrates how checklists may be used to assemble qualitative data for purposes of decision. These were formulated in an industrial R & D laboratory and the illustrative examples in the text make reference to real projects. The checklists described are an integral part of a comprehensive system of project evaluation and control in R & D which includes an analysis of the financial implications using net present value or discounted cash flow rate of return of the project risk, analysis and sensitivity tests. The detail of this part of the scheme is conventional and is therefore omitted from the paper.
The organization of applied R & D with particular reference to the customer‐contractor situation
Authors: Griffiths D. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

This paper reports on certain aspects of the management of R & D in three types of establishment: contract research organizations, research associations and industrial research laboratories. Discussions with the directors of twenty‐five establishments revealed that a number of important changes had occurred over a relatively short period of time, particularly with regard to the management of work of a more applied nature. These changes include the introduction of a number of new and separately identifiable roles within the organizational structure, and a movement towards a more market‐oriented, profit‐centred approach on the part of senior personnel. The study suggests that these changes have in general been accepted and are bringing benefits to all parties.
Interaction between management and R & D: chemical industry in Europe
Authors: Olin J.
Published: May 2007

The paper summarizes the results of interviews, primarily with the R & D manager, in 43 chemical companies in France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the U.K. covering questions concerned with the background and attitude of various levels of management and their interaction with R & D. The results are presented in quantitative and qualitative terms, and differences between various categories of chemical industry and between various national practices are discussed.
A study of the textile industry and trade in Europe: An account of the methods and problems of carrying out a study of the European textile scene
Authors: Catling H. , Grimshaw J. R.
Published: May 2007

The Technical Economy Department of the Shirley Institute has carried out a detailed study of the textile industries in Germany, France and Italy, their production, trade, productivity, industrial structure and regional policy. In some areas, performance has been compared with that of the U.K. An account is given of the approach, methods and problems encountered in the gathering of the necessary data.
Applications of computers in R & D management
Authors: Thain W.
Published: May 2007

R & D Managers use computers extensively in solving technical problems. This paper examines the use they make of computers in solving Management problems. Applications of computers to various aspects of R & D programme formulation, project planning, technical information storage and retrieval, management information systems, and computer‐aided training have been investigated by many companies and, in some cases, have been implemented. Some of the techniques have become well established but others are still at a development stage. No attempt has been made to evaluate the techniques described.

This topic was the subject of a study by a Working Group of the European Industrial Research Management Association (EIRMA), and a report ‘Computers as Aids to R & D Management’ was distributed to members of the Association. EIRMA has now agreed to release information contained in that report and this paper is based on that information updated by the author, who was Chairman of the EIRMA Working Group.
Management structure in an industrial research laboratory
Authors: Wilkinson J. B.
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe relation between the need to maintain an efficient research resource and the need to use it effectively for the benefit of the business is best met by a matrix structure. The example of a single laboratory in a large organization is discussed.
The relationship between the planning and technical functions: Part 1—The short to medium term
Authors: Wilkinson A.
Published: May 2007

In this paper the work of the technical function, along with that of the other functions is outlined in developing the Business Unit concept, put forward in the previous paper on Planning. It mainly covers the ongoing activities of the Business Unit and the work which can be seen as a natural evolution of its present activity. What it does not cover is the identification by both the Planning and Technical Functions of the longer term developments of a company or its Business Units, and also possibly the fields for still wider diversification. These will be dealt with in Part II.

In many cases, however, a surprisingly high proportion of the Technical Function budget is spent on the natural extension of the present business and a means of analysis by business unit objectives is proposed so that other functions can participate in the setting of objectives and evaluating progress. Close identification with business unit objectives will be found helpful in eliminating waste and often identifying new problems for the Technical Function to pursue.
Equitable payment in the R & D function
Authors: Husband T. M.
Published: May 2007

This paper discusses the problems associated with constructing equitable salary structures for Senior R & D employees. The use of job evaluation and performance appraisal are both considered. It is suggested that the decision band method of job evaluation is particularly useful in this context and a case study of its application within the R & D division of a large manufacturing firm is presented. Job grading and salary structuring in terms of decision‐making responsibility are demonstrated. It is argued that the decision band approach assists rational administration of R & D in a number of ways including analysis and, perhaps, restructuring of the function. Methods of rewarding individual performance and measuring career development within R & D are also discussed in terms of the decision band concept.
A utility approach to R & D decisions
Authors: Monks J. G.
Published: May 2007

The traditional monetarily based economic model is inadequate as a guide to responsible R & D decisions. Modern utility theory, on the other hand, can incorporate intangible factors and has a value system base. Both techniques are compared via a case example, which results in some social implications of utility based decisions.
Managing growth and change in an R & D organization: the role of dynamic modeling
Authors: Addison L. E. , Litchfield J.W. , Hansen J. V.
Published: May 2007

A system dynamics model of its R & D organization has been developed by Battelle Northwest to serve as a basis for improved management planning and policy making. This model was designed to be applied in an interactive man–model environment. Thus far, the model has proven useful in forecasting future resource demands under various contingencies; and, importantly, it has improved management's understanding of the structure and dynamics of its organizational environment.
O.R. in Research and Development—a critical review
Authors: Thompson P. N. , Vincent D.
Published: May 2007

In this paper we consider why formalized project selection systems are inappropriate to the difficulties of deciding what should constitute the R & D programme for the National Coal Board. We suggest that mostof these objections would apply to programme planning in any of the major industries generally referred to as ‘the public utilities'. We propose that the area of greatest need for O.R. work in this field is in providing a scenario of the physical characteristics of the industry in the period 10–15 years ahead and to use this scenario to indicate the relative acuteness of the technological problems the industry will face.
A company model for research and development
Authors: Jarvis P. E. J. , Rippin D. W. T.
Published: May 2007

A company model is presented which may be used to assess the effecton future company performance of the level of investment in research and development. A distinctive feature of the model is the postulation of research return curve which relates the available return on potential new capital investments to the amountof capital invested and the size of a research pool. The latter is related to past R & D expenditure. It is shown how the research return curve may be adjusted to represent different types of industry and how a suitable form for this curve may be derived from company records. Examples are given of the use of the model for sensitivity and optimization studies.
Innovation strategies for successful product and process commercialization in Government R&D
Authors: Higgins T.
Published: May 2007

This study examines the rate at which product and process innovations emerging from Government R&D have been commercialized by the Irish dairy industry. Success rates for both product and process commercialization, which are high by international standards, were found. The study identifies two criteria which appear to influence success and failure. Some product and process differences were found and the data suggest that a user dominated innovation strategy may be best for products, while a technology dominated strategy appears to be best for process innovations. Remarkably high rates for product success can be achieved in Government R&D provided industry activates the R&D. On the other hand R&D activation by research staff, without any industry involvement in the conduct of the R&D, appears to have a very poor chance of success. However, research staff can activate and achieve high success rates, particularly for process innovations, provided industry involvement in the R&D is secured.
Communication networks: tools for the efficient management of R&D
Authors: Ritchie E.
Published: May 2007

There have been many studies which have investigated technical communication flow in R&D laboratories. Despite this effort, it is still not clear how the actions of management affect technical communication and research productivity. In this paper it is shown how the tools developed in communication studies can be used by laboratory management to assess the consequences of their actions in terms of changes to the pattern of technical communication flow. These tools are described in some detail. It is suggested that by their use, management may achieve a better degree of control over technical communication and achieve those conditions which best suit their own particular set of circumstances.
Transferring process equipment innovations from user‐innovators to equipment manufacturing firms
Authors: von Hippel Eric
Published: May 2007

Abstract Product users are not usually thought of as product innovators. We have found, however, that 67|X% of the significant process equipment innovations in the two fields of semiconductor manufacture and electronic subassembly manufacture were in fact developed by equipment users rather than equipment manufacturers. Our analysis of the process by which these user innovations are transferred to the first firm to manufacture them commercially shows three major patterns: 46|X% transferred by multiple user‐manufacturer interactions; 21|X% transferred via a direct purchase order from the inventive user; 8|X% manufactured by a user firm for commercial sale. A final 25|X%, we found, were apparently not transferred, but were reinvented by the equipment manufacturing firm.

Inventive user firms and adopting equipment manufacturing firms are characterized, and the implications of our findings discussed.
Introduction of a matrix structure into an R & D establishment
Authors: Gunz H. P. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

Matrix organization is increasingly being written about in terms which suggest that it is almost axiomatic that it is the best way of structuring an R & D lab. In this paper we wish to introduce a note of scepticism into the discussion, for the following reasons. Firstly, we suspect that not everyone has the same thing in mind when discussing matrix organizations. Secondly, we believe that there are many circumstances under which it clearly is not the best way of organizing, although there are plenty under which it is. Thirdly, we have seen in use many variants of the structure, suggesting to us that while there is an underlying, unifying concept at work, it needs to be much modified in most cases before it can successfully be applied. Finally, any reorganizing is a hazardous business, and a change to matrix involves particular difficulties of its own which need highlighting.
Experience in the use of research planning diagrams in a synthetic fibres R & D unit
Authors: Longbottom D. A. , Hay S. J. D.
Published: May 2007

Abstract. This paper describes the introduction and use of the Research Planning Diagram (RPD) notation in ICI Fibres Limited. Experimenting with the approach has led to the conclusion that it is very useful for planning and controlling development projects but we do not think it serves a real purpose when applied to basic research with a high level of technical content. Support is provided for the view that the RPD notation should be used to give prominence to decisions and that it can be employed as a communications link between different functions in a business area responsible for the successful completion of a project. The paper explains how the RPD notation is used on a routine basis in the management of development projects and describes the benefits that have been derived from its implementation. An illustration is included to show how the notation has been modified to permit criteria and data, relevant to the analysis of key decisions, to be added to the diagram.