bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fetal programming of blood pressure in a transgenic mouse model of altered intrauterine environment
Authors: Chiossi Giuseppe , Costantine Maged M. , Tamayo Esther , Hankins Gary D. V. , Saade George R. , Longo Monica
Published: August 2016

Key points

Nitric oxide is essential in the vascular adaptation to pregnancy, as knockout mice lacking nitric oxide synthase (NOS3) have abnormal utero‐placental perfusion, hypertension and growth restriction.

We previously showed with ex vivo studies on transgenic animals lacking NOS3 that adverse intrauterine environment alters fetal programming of vascular reactivity in adult offspring.

The current research shows that altered vascular reactivity correlates with higher blood pressure in vivo.

Our data suggest that higher blood pressure depends on both genetic background (NOS3 deficiency) and uterine environment, becomes more evident with age (> 7 postnatal weeks), activity and stress, is gender specific (preponderant among males), and can be affected by the sleep–awake cycle.

In utero or early postnatal life (< 7 weeks), before onset of hypertension, may represent a potential window for intervention to prevent future cardiovascular disorders.

Nitric oxide is involved in the vascular adaptation to pregnancy. Using transgenic animals, we previously showed that adverse intrauterine environment alters vascular reactivity in adult offspring. The aim of our study was to determine if altered vascular programming is associated with abnormal blood pressure (BP) profiles in vivo. Mice lacking a functional endothelial nitric oxide synthase (KO, NOS3−/−) and wild‐type mice (WT, NOS3+/+) were crossbred to generate homozygous NOS3−/− (KO), maternally derived heterozygous NOS3+/− (KOM: mother with adverse intrauterine environment from NOS3 deficiency), paternally derived heterozygous NOS3+/− (KOP: mother with normal in utero milieu) and NOS3+/+ (WT) litters. BP was measured in vivo at 7, 14 and 21 weeks of age. After univariate analysis, multivariate population‐averaged linear regression models were used to identify factors affecting BP. When compared to WT offspring, systolic (SBP), diastolic (DBP) and mean (MAP) BP progressively increased from KOP, to KOM, and peaked among KO (P < 0.001), although significance was not reached for KOP. Higher BP was also associated with male gender, older age (> 7 postnatal weeks), higher locomotor activity, daytime recordings, and recent blood pressure transducer insertion (P < 0.001). Post hoc analysis showed that KOM had higher SBP than KOP (P < 0.05). Our study indicates that adverse intrauterine environment contributes, along with multiple other factors, to account for hypertension; moreover, in utero or early postnatal life may represent a possible therapeutic window for prevention of cardiovascular disease later in life.
A phantom design for assessment of detectability in PET imaging
Authors: Wollenweber Scott D. , Alessio Adam M. , Kinahan Paul E.
Published: August 2016

Purpose:

The primary clinical role of positron emission tomography (PET) imaging is the detection of anomalous regions of 18F‐FDG uptake, which are often indicative of malignant lesions. The goal of this work was to create a task‐configurable fillable phantom for realistic measurements of detectability in PET imaging. Design goals included simplicity, adjustable feature size, realistic size and contrast levels, and inclusion of a lumpy (i.e., heterogeneous) background.

Methods:

The detection targets were hollow 3D‐printed dodecahedral nylon features. The exostructure sphere‐like features created voids in a background of small, solid non‐porous plastic (acrylic) spheres inside a fillable tank. The features filled at full concentration while the background concentration was reduced due to filling only between the solid spheres.

Results:

Multiple iterations of feature size and phantom construction were used to determine a configuration at the limit of detectability for a PET/CT system. A full‐scale design used a 20 cm uniform cylinder (head‐size) filled with a fixed pattern of features at a contrast of approximately 3:1. Known signal‐present and signal‐absent PET sub‐images were extracted from multiple scans of the same phantom and with detectability in a challenging (i.e., useful) range. These images enabled calculation and comparison of the quantitative observer detectability metrics between scanner designs and image reconstruction methods. The phantom design has several advantages including filling simplicity, wall‐less contrast features, the control of the detectability range via feature size, and a clinically realistic lumpy background.

Conclusions:

This phantom provides a practical method for testing and comparison of lesion detectability as a function of imaging system, acquisition parameters, and image reconstruction methods and parameters.
Influence of Test Selection on Physical Education Placement of Mentally Retarded Children
Authors: Broadhead Geoffrey D. , Church Gable E.
Published: August 2016

Intact classes of mentally retarded and nonhandicapped children were administered the Physical Dexterity scales of the System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment and the short form of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. Separate discriminant analyses of each data set revealed that the subjects comprised four distinct levels of motor performance. Although overall predicted correct classification was above 65%, misclassifications occurred in each class. Differences resulting from the separate analyses suggest differential program placement for physical education. There is a tendency for the Physical Dexterity data to predict higher levels of motor functioning than the Motor Proficiency data for half of the mentally retarded children.
Motor Ability Assessment of Populations with Handicapping Conditions: Challenging Basic Assumptions
Authors: Davis Walter E.
Published: August 2016

Several problems of current motor assessment practices and instruments used for populations with handicapping conditions, are identified from recent surveys and a literature review. Such problems are the basis for an examination of some of the theoretical assumptions underlying current instrumentation and practice. These assumptions are challenged from the perspective of emerging theories of motor control, development, and perception. The traditional standardized approach, the diagnostic approach, and the criterion-referenced approach are considered. Although the criterion-referenced approach is believed to hold the most promise, it has serious shortcomings. Substantial and radical changes in constructing assessment instruments are suggested.
Effects of Selected Types of Feedback on an Anticipation Timing Task with Moderately Mentally Retarded Children
Authors: Byde Rita , McClenaghan Bruce A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of selected types of feedback on the performance of an anticipation timing task by moderately mentally retarded children. Seventeen children, aged 10 to 16 years and classified as moderately mentally retarded (IQ = 44, range 32-54) participated as subjects for this investigation. Subjects were required to perform a key press response in anticipation to the arrival of a stimulus light. Data were analyzed utilizing a 4(treatment) × 2(gender) × 3(group) analysis of variance on the dependent variables. No significant main or interactive effects were found. Several possible explanations may account for these results including, (a) age range of the subjects may have biased the results, (b) the moderately retarded child may have had insufficient motor skills to successfully perform the tasks, (c) the personality characteristics of the subjects prevented them from perceiving their impact on performance, and/or (d) the type of feedback provided may not have been appropriately interpreted by the subjects.
A Needs Assessment Instrument for Local School District Use in Adapted Physical Education
Authors: Sherrill Claudine , Megginson Nancy
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to develop and field test a comprehensive needs assessment instrument for use in determining and prioritizing local school district adapted physical education needs. The resulting Survey of Adapted Physical Education Needs (SAPEN) was comprised of 50 items, encompassing five areas: (a) significance of physical education, (b) assessment, placement, and individualized educational programming, (c) instruction and programming, (d) personnel, and (e) other. Items were to be rated on two, 6-point Likert-type scales, relating respectively to the extent to which each adapted physical education condition now exists and should exist in one’s school district. Procedures established by Schipper and Wilson (1975) were followed in determining needs and subsequently designating them as first (most urgent), second, and third priorities to be acted upon by school district personnel. Content validity of SAPEN was established by five nationally known adapted physical education experts. Test-retest and internal reliability coefficients were determined by the Spearman Rank Correlation and Alpha Coefficient techniques respectively. Data analysis and cooperative planning follow-up procedures were field tested in a selected school district with SAPENs returned by 37 administrators, 48 physical educators, 55 special educators, and 12 parents.
Gary W., et al. v. the State of Louisiana Implications for Adapted Physical Education, Recreation, and Leisure Education
Authors: Cowden Jo E. , Wright Jennifer , Gant Sue A.
Published: August 2016

Litigation has been a major reason for the expansion of services in physical education and recreation for handicapped individuals. Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped children Act, 1975, mandated that physical education was an instructional service to be included in the child’s individual education program. Progress has been made throughout the nation in program implementation, however, educators are often met with strong opposition regarding certification standards, endorsements, or competency based plans to improve delivery of services. This recent class action suit has major implications for the rights of handicapped individuals and improvement of service delivery systems. The purpose of this article is to review the civil suit and to describe the changes which have occurred in services for the handicapped with specific emphasis on adapted physical education, recreation, and leisure.
Measuring Water Orientation and Beginner Swim Skills of Autistic Individuals
Authors: Killian Kenneth J. , Joyce-Petrovich Rosemary A. , Menna Lucille , Arena Susan A.
Published: August 2016

There is little objective evidence to support the belief that swimming is an enjoyable and valuable activity for autistic individuals. In this study, a checklist was used to record the responses of 37 autistic children and youth to water orientation and beginner swim activities. The data indicated that the autistic subjects responded in a predictable and apparently normal manner to a hierarchy of water skills. Also, the subjects displayed a low objection rate to water activities. Strong relationships (r = .95, p < .01) were shown between age and water orientation and also between prior experience and water orientation (r = .88, p < .01). The findings support the literature in that the majority of subjects responded well to, or at least tolerated, water activities. Swimming pool activities may offer potential learning opportunities for many autistic individuals and should be investigated further as an avenue for improving a variety of physical, academic, or social skills.
Sport and Exercise Psychology and Research with Individuals with Physical Disabilities: Using Theory to Advance Knowledge
Authors: Crocker Peter R.E.
Published: August 2016

This paper discusses the benefits of using theory-driven research in sport and exercise psychology using individuals with physical disabilities. The cognitively oriented theories of transactional stress and emotion (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), attributional theory (Weiner, 1985), and theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985) are outlined. Relevant research with individuals with physical disabilities is examined. The paper addresses how integrating these three theories with research with this population can stimulate research ideas, improve the generality of theories used in sport and exercise psychology, and provide meaningful knowledge about their experiences.
Motor Behavior and Individuals with Disabilities: Linking Research and Practice
Authors: Reid Greg
Published: August 2016

Physical activity participation of persons with disabilities might be enhanced by careful application of motor behavior research to instructional settings. However, it is argued that this research is not easily stated in terms that are useful to practitioners. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between theoretical research and practice, and to suggest research strategies that will translate findings into helpful information for instruction. A number of applied research strategies are proposed, intended to gradually move from laboratory-inspired problems to issues applicable in typical instructional settings. These strategies include a clear conceptual rationale for including people with disabilities in the research, task modifications, a powerful initial study, replications, investigating interactions, conducting comparative studies, modifying the unit of analysis, generalization, and instructional considerations.
The Perils of Averaging Data in Adapted Physical Activity Research
Authors: Bouffard Marcel
Published: August 2016

This paper is a criticism of typical group research designs in which the data are analyzed by using standard analysis of variance structural models. A distinction is made between lawful relationships about averages and lawful relationships about people. It is argued that propositions about people cannot necessarily be derived from propositions about the mean of people because the patterns found by aggregating data across people do not necessarily apply to individuals. To find lawful universal relationships about people, data analysis strategies should recognize the person as a basic unit of analysis. Implications of this view for research conducted in adapted physical activity are outlined.
Gross Motor Assessment of Preschool Children with Special Needs: Instrument Selection Considerations
Authors: Zittel Lauriece L.
Published: August 2016

Accurate gross motor assessment of preschool children with special needs is necessary for quality intervention. This paper will identify critical factors for the selection of a preschool gross motor assessment instrument. Nine commercially available tools that purport to measure gross motor skill are critiqued, in table form, according to identified criteria. The criteria include purpose of the assessment, technical adequacy of the tool, nondiscriminatory factors, administrative ease, instructional link, and ecological validity of the instrument. Key features within each of the criteria will be used to review and analyze each instrument. This review illustrates that assessment tools vary in their ability to meet the assessment needs of preschool children suspected of having motor delays, and such tools therefore must be carefully selected.
Reliability of Concentric and Eccentric Muscle Testing of Adults with Cerebral Palsy
Authors: Holland Leona , McCubbin Jeff , Nelson Ewen , Steadward Robert
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability of eccentric and concentric strength of adults with cerebral palsy (CP) as measured on the Kin-Corn. Fourteen subjects performed four eccentric and concentric contractions of shoulder adduction and abduction, and knee flexion and extension at a speed of 60°/s during three testing sessions. Peak and average torque were calculated for each type of contraction for each of the four movements. Generalizability coefficients were high for all scores (r = .79 to .96) except average eccentric extension of the knee (r = .26). The variance components revealed that differences between test sessions were large (8.5%–65.8%) compared to the differences between trials (0.0%–5.8%). These data indicate that the Kin-Corn is a reliable mode for testing average and maximal concentric muscular strength, and maximal eccentric contractions on adults with CP, following an initial orientation session.
Heart Rate Responses to Two Field Exercise Tests by Adolescents and Young Adults with Down Syndrome
Authors: Varela Ana Marie , Pitetti Kenneth H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to determine the reflexive HR responses of 10 young adults (mean age = 18.6 ± 3 years) with Down syndrome (DS) to short, intense field tests, and (b) to compare the HR responses of the subjects in this study to previous studies that reported peak HR responses of young adults with DS during maximal treadmill exercise tests. Each subject performed a 300-yd (274-m) run and the Leger and Lambert shuttle run twice on separate days. Heart rates were recorded by telemetry every 50 yd (45.7 m) during the 300-yd run and every minute for the shuttle run. The mean HRs seen throughout both field tests were equal to or higher than peak HRs previously reported. The peak HRs observed were 10 to 30 bpm higher than those peak HRs previously reported for persons with DS of similar age during a maximal treadmill exercise test. The results of this study suggest that low peak HRs may not be specific or unique to the condition of DS.
APAQ at Ten: A Documentary Analysis
Authors: Raid Greg , Broadhead Geoffrey D.
Published: August 2016

This paper documents the contents and development of APAQ over its first decade of publishing. It has two major sections. The first is an analysis of the topics and authorship of APAQ articles. For example, it was found that articles on mental retardation have been published more frequently than articles on traditional disability categories, although articles that are not disability specific have been most common. Not surprisingly, perhaps, a large percentage of authors are from the U.S. and Canada. The second section of the paper outlines changes in policy and function associated with These include modifications to editorial board membership, upgrading of the manuscript review process, and growing internationalism.
Physical Education Least Restrictive Environment Continua Used in the United States
Authors: Decker Jim , Jansma Paul
Published: August 2016

For over 15 years it has been public policy to educate students with disabilities, to the maximum extent possible, in the least restrictive environment (LRE) alongside their peers without disabilities. However, scarce empirical data exist documenting nationwide efforts to comply with the LRE mandate. The purpose of this study was to determine what types of LRE continua are in use in physical education throughout the United States. Subjects were physical education personnel in 452 schools throughout the United States. Data were collected regarding the usage of physical education LRE placement continua across enrollment level, grade range, metro status, and geographic region. Results indicate that while numerous (N = 26) physical education LRE continua were used during the 1988-89 school year, in most cases students with disabilities received physical education in a regular class setting with little or no access to adapted physical education. These results indicate that the utility of traditional physical education LRE placement continua may be suspect.
Ventilatory Threshold during Wheelchair Exercise in Untrained and Endurance-Trained Subjects with Quadriplegia
Authors: Bhambhani Yagesh N. , Burnham Robert S. , Wheeler Gary D. , Eriksson Peter , Holland Leona J. , Steadward Robert D.
Published: August 2016

In this study we compared the ventilatory threshold (VT) between 8 untrained and 8 endurance-trained males with quadriplegia during simulated wheelchair exercise. Each subject completed an incremental velocity test in his personal wheelchair mounted on a customized roller system designed to provide velocity and distance feedback. VT was identified by two trained evaluators using established respiratory gas exchange criteria. A significant interevaluator reliability coefficient of .90 (p < .01) was observed for the detection of VT. Relative oxygen uptake (V̇O2, ml · kg-1 · min-1) at VT and peak V̇O2 were significantly (p < .05) higher in the endurance-trained compared to untrained subjects. However, no significant difference (p > .05) was observed between the two groups when VT was expressed as a percentage of peak V̇O2. Significant correlations of .86 and .81 (p < .01) were observed between VT and peak V̇O2 in the untrained and trained groups, respectively. It was concluded that endurance training improves both VT and peak V̇O2 during wheelchair exercise in male subjects with quadriplegia but does not improve VT when it is expressed relative to peak V̇O2.
A Comparison of Rail-Trail Preferences between Adults with and Without Disabilities
Authors: Moore Roger , Dattilo John , Devine Mary Ann
Published: August 2016

This study compared the trail setting preferences of a group of users having disabilities and a group without. On-site interviews and follow-up mail surveys were used to gather data from 1,705 men and women age 16 and older who were using one of three multipurpose rail-trails in Iowa, California, and Florida. Preferences for 27 setting attributes of such trails were measured using 7-point Likert-type scales. Preferences between the two groups were found to differ significantly (.05 level) for only 7 attributes. Findings indicated that people with and without disabilities are more similar than different in their usage and preferences for outdoor recreation. It was concluded that there is a need for research examining ways to enhance the inclusion of people with disabilities in outdoor recreation settings.
A Critical Examination of Selected Hand-Held Dynamometers to Assess Isometric Muscle Strength
Authors: Aufsesser Peter , Horvat Michael , Croce Ron
Published: August 2016

This paper provides a critical review of objective hand-held dynamometers (HHDs) in assessing muscle strength in children and individuals with disabilities. In the past few years, numerous studies have examined the reliability and validity of HHDs as an objective method of measuring muscle strength. However, the standardization of testing protocols, which is paramount for the effective use of HHDs in clinical and educational settings, is lacking. This paper compares two commonly used HHDs, the Nicholas Manual Muscle Tester and Microfet, to provide the practitioner with the most current information.
Knowledge and Skill of Ball Catching in Children with Cerebral Palsy and Other Physical Disabilities
Authors: Kourtessis Thomas , Reid Greg
Published: August 2016

Knowledge and skill of ball catching was assessed in 16 children with cerebral palsy and other physical disabilities (CPPD) and 16 nondisabled children, ages 6 through 12 years. Skill was measured by 15 ball-catching tasks. As expected, nondisabled children demonstrated higher scores in ball catching than children with CPPD. Higher scores in ball catching also were shown by older nondisabled children compared to their younger nondisabled peers, as well as by ambulatory children with CPPD compared to their nonambulatory peers. Knowledge of factors influencing ball catching was assessed by a 14-item multiple choice questionnaire. The two groups exhibited very similar knowledge of ball catching. Moreover, no differences regarding knowledge were found between older and younger nondisabled children or between ambulatory and nonambulatory children with CPPD. Within the limitations of this study, it was suggested that skill and knowledge do not develop at the same rate, and a deficit in skill does not necessarily mean that a deficit in knowledge about the activity exists.
Autonomic Dysreflexia and Boosting in Wheelchair Athletes
Authors: Long Kimberly , Meredith Shawn , Bell Gerald W.
Published: August 2016

Autonomic dysreflexia (AD), which occurs in individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCI) above T-6, is caused by an exaggerated sympathetic nervous system (SNS) response to a noxious stimulus. Blood pressure (BP) elevation is a chief symptom of acute AD; this rise in BP makes AD potentially life threatening. Autonomic dysreflexia is also referred to as autonomic hyperreflexia. For this discussion, autonomic dysreflexia will be the term used. It is estimated that approximately 90% of competitive athletes with quadriplegia have intentionally induced AD in order to enhance performance (Burnham et al., 1994). This practice, which is called “boosting,” appears to be an effective, but potentially dangerous, performance enhancement technique. Individuals who work with athletes with SCI above T-6 should be aware of the symptoms, dangers, and treatment of AD, as well as the practice of boosting in order to ensure the safety of these athletes.
Enhancing the Physical and Social Self through Recreational Activity: Accounts of Individuals with Physical Disabilities
Authors: Blinde Elaine M. , McClung Lisa R.
Published: August 2016

The impact of participation in recreational activities on perceptions of the physical and social selves of individuals with physical disabilities was explored. Eleven women (ages 19 to 54) and 12 men (ages 20 to 36) participated in individualized recreational programs including horseback riding, swimming, fitness, weightlifting, racquetball, bowling, tennis, fishing, walking, and tai chi. Tape-recorded interviews were conducted with these individuals following participation. Content analyses of the interview responses indicated that participation impacted four aspects of the physical self: (a) experiencing the body in new ways, (b) enhancing perceptions of physical attributes, (c) redefining physical capabilities, and (d) increasing perceived confidence to pursue new physical activities. Modifications in respondents’ perceptions of the social self were reflected in two themes: (a) expanding social interactions and experiences, and (b) initiating social activities in other contexts. The gains discussed by respondents suggest that individuals developed an enhanced sense of control in both their physical and social lives.
Inclusion Practices of Effective Elementary Specialists
Authors: LaMasfer Kathryn , Kinchin Gary , Gall Kimerly , Siedentop Daryl
Published: August 2016

Full inclusion refers to educational practices where all students with disabilities are educated in regular classes along with nondisabled peers. Six elementary physical education specialists (5 females, 1 male) were studied to obtain their views of inclusion practices and perceived outcomes. Teacher interviews and observations revealed four main themes: (a) multiple teaching styles, (b) student outcomes, (c) teacher frustrations, and (d) differences in inclusion practices. Results indicated that schools provided little support, and teachers reported that they were inadequately prepared to teach effectively with inclusive classes. These teachers had strong feelings of guilt and inadequacy as they continued to try to be effective for all children.
A Documentary Analysis of Research Priorities in Disability Sport
Authors: Reid Greg , Prupas Andrea
Published: August 2016

Seven research priorities for disability sport were identified by the Committee on Sports for the Disabled, of the U.S. Olympic Committee (DePauw, 1986). The purpose of the present article is to assess progress achieved in each priority area. Electronic and manual searches of journals from 1986 to 1996 produced 436 articles. They were categorized into the seven priorities and subdivided as data-based research or review publications. There was a distinct disparity of output across the seven areas, some attracting only scant attention from the scientific community. With 149 articles, the legal/philosophical/historical priority was most common. When publications were analyzed according to disability category, the majority were nonspecific; that is, they addressed the more general athlete with a disability. It was concluded that the disability sport community should reassess the seven priorities, identify new areas, and seek ways to foster high priority research.
Bone Mineral Density, Body Composition, and Muscle Strength in Premenopausal Women with Mental Retardation
Authors: Felix Manny , McCubbin Jeff , Shaw Janet
Published: August 2016

Many women with mild to moderate mental retardation (MMR) exhibit low levels of physical activity, muscle strength, and muscle mass, which place these individuals at risk for osteoporosis. Bone mineral density (BMD), the primary index of osteoporosis, of the femoral neck and the whole body was measured in premenopausal women with (M age = 28.14 ± 8.43) and without (M age = 29.64 ± 10.86) mental retardation (MMR and NMR, respectively). Multivariate analyses revealed no differences (p > .05) between groups (MMR = 16, NMR = 16) for BMD values. Significant differences existed (p < .05) between groups on body composition and muscle strength variables. In the MMR group, significant positive relationships (p < .05) were found between lean muscle mass and both femoral neck (r = .74) and whole body (r = .81) BMD. Unaccounted lifestyle factors may have contributed to nonsignificant BMD values between groups.
A Content Analysis of CBS’s Coverage of the 1996 Paralympic Games
Authors: Schell Lea Ann “Beez” , Duncan Margaret Carlisle
Published: August 2016

We examined the landmark American television coverage of the 1996 Paralympic Games. Using a methodological framework developed by Duncan (1983, 1986) and drawing on critical concepts in the disability literature, we conducted a content analysis of the entire 4-hr prerecorded broadcast. Empowering and disempowering portrayals of athletes were identified. Some commentary contained many examples of stereotyping and positioned Paralympians as victims of misfortune, as different, as Other. Other commentary characterized Paralympians as “normal” and as no different from nondisabled athletes. The brevity of the coverage, the poor production values, and the absence of commentary about rules, strategies, and physical mastery suggested that the Paralympic Games were less than, not parallel to, the Olympics. A “hierarchy of (social) acceptability” was useful in explaining differences among the way Paralympic athletes were portrayed by television coverage.
Midline Crossing Behavior in Children with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Woodard Rebecca J. , Surburg Paul R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to compare children with and without learning disabilities (LD), ages 6–8 years, on midline crossing inhibition (MCI). Participants were 44 children (24 boys and 20 girls) in two groups (LD and non-LD), matched on age and gender. MCI was operationally defined as significantly slower contralateral movement when choice reaction time (CRT) and movement time (MT) performance were examined for ipsilateral, midline, and contralateral tasks with both upper and lower extremities. Participants completed 12 days of tests (30 trials each day) using a protocol developed by Eason and Surburg (1993). A 2 (Group) × 2 (Extremity) × 3 (Direction) repeated measures MANOVA revealed significant difference for each dependent variable. Children with LD displayed MCI, whereas children without LD did not.
Assessing Physical Activity during Wheelchair Pushing: Validity of a Portable Accelerometer
Authors: Washburn Richard A. , Copay Anne G.
Published: August 2016

We assessed the validity of the Computer Science and Applications, Inc. (CSA) accelerometer as a measure of energy expenditure during wheelchair pushing. Participants completed three timed pushes over an indoor course at three different speeds while wearing a CSA accelerometer on both wrists. Pushing speeds were assigned in a random order and separated by a 5–10 min rest. Heart rate and energy expenditure were measured using an Aerosport TEEM 100. Results indicated pushing speed, heart rate, and oxygen consumption increased significantly over the three conditions (p < .01). Significant associations (p < .01) were noted between CSA readings from both wrists and energy expenditure over the three pushing speeds (left wrist, r = .66, right wrist r = .52). These results suggest that the CSA accelerometer worn at the wrist may provide a useful measure of physical activity in persons who use wheelchairs as their primary mode of locomotion.
Attainment of Motor Proficiency in School-Aged Children with Down Syndrome
Authors: Jobling Anne
Published: August 2016

This longitudinal research examined the development of motor proficiency in 99 children with Down syndrome born in Brisbane from 1973 to 1984. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP) was used to assess motor proficiency, and the Stanford-Binet L-M was used to obtain a measure of general intelligence. Although significant progress on the BOTMP subtest scores occurred with age for most subtests, this was related to mental age (MA) rather than chronological age (CA). Progress related to CA was associated with upper limb coordination and upper limb speed and dexterity subtests from CA 10 to 12 years, not from 12 to 16 years. There were considerable inter- and intraindividual differences on subtest items. A cluster analysis of 263 assessments revealed no one profile of strengths and weaknesses. Two distinct profiles were found with high scores in either the visual–motor or the running speed and agility subtests, with balance scores at a low level of proficiency in both clusters. Across the study groupings, sex differences were also evident.
Factors Influencing the Physical Activity Levels of Youths with Physical and Sensory Disabilities
Authors: Longmuir Patricia E. , Bar-Or Oded
Published: August 2016

This study examined gender, disability type, age, and specific diagnostic category in relation to habitual physical activity levels (HPA), perceived fitness (PF), and perceived participation limitations (PPL) of youths, ages 6 to 20 years, in Ontario, Canada. Data collected through a mailed survey (Longmuir & Bar-Or, 1994) were reanalyzed using ANOVA and chi square statistics to provide new information. The 458 girls and 499 boys were classified by disability type: physical, chronic medical, visual, and hearing. Significant differences (p < .01) were between (a) HPA and disability type, specific diagnostic category, and age; (b) PF and disability type; and (c) PPL and disability type. Gender did not influence the results. Youths with cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, and visual impairment had the most sedentary lifestyles.
Cross Validation of the 20-m Shuttle Run Test for Children and Adolescents with Mental Retardation
Authors: Fernhall Bo , Millar A. Lynn , Pitetti Kenneth H. , Hensen Terri , Vukovsch Mathew D.
Published: August 2016

We cross validated the 20-m shuttle run test of aerobic capacity in children and adolescents with mild and moderate mental retardation (MR) using the population specific formula of Fernhall et al. (1998). Nine boys and 8 girls (age = 13.7 yr) completed a maximal treadmill protocol (measured V̇O2peak) and a 20-m shuttle run (predicted V̇O2peak). The measured peak oxygen consumption (V̇O2peak) was 39.4 ml kg-1 min-1. The relationship between measured and predicted V̇O2peak was r = .86 with an SEE of 6.2 ml kg-1 min-1. Multiple regression and Bland-Altman analyses showed that there was little bias, but the Bland-Altman analysis indicated highly variable limits of agreement (Bland & Altman 1986). Thus, the traditional approach (regression analysis) to concurrent validity revealed that the 20-m shuttle run is a valid indicator of V̇O2peak in these participants. The accuracy of prediction (Bland & Altman, 1986), however, was lower than expected in a population without MR.
Perspectives on Publication Among Highly Productive Women Adapted Physical Activity Scholars
Authors: Buswell Deborah J. , Sherrill Claudine , French Ronald , Myers Bettye
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to examine perspectives on publication of highly productive women adapted physical activity scholars. In-depth interviews were conducted with 13 women from three countries, and data were analyzed utilizing constant comparison methodology. Profiles of two groups, significantly different on publication productivity, emerged and were named highest high producers (HHP) and other high producers (OHP). Similarities between the two groups included affective domain qualities, facilitating factors, and overcoming barriers. Differences were mainly in degree of self-determination, prioritization of writing relative to significant others, collaboration, and collegiality. Based on thematic analysis of interview data, we posited the following: high publication productivity of women adapted physical activity professionals is associated with internal motivation to write, which is enhanced by positive interactions with other professionals, supportive home environments, and supportive work environments.
Effects of a Leisure Education Program on Activity Involvement and Social Interaction of Mentally Retarded Persons
Authors: Anderson Stephen C. , Allen Lawrence R.
Published: August 2016

A 9-week leisure education program to increase activity involvement and social interaction of institutionalized mentally retarded adults was investigated. A disproportional stratified (by residential unit) random sampling technique was employed to select 40 subjects from a total population of 243 mentally retarded persons. Subjects were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The hypotheses were that there would be no significant increase in activity involvement or social interaction of the subjects who participated in the treatment. Four ANCOVAs were conducted utilizing frequency and duration as the dependent variables for both social interaction and activity involvement. Length of institutionalization was the covariate. The grouping variables were treatment/control and level of retardation. The findings revealed the treatment had a significant effect only on frequency of activity involvement.
Cardiovascular Responses of Three Profoundly Retarded, Multiply Handicapped Children during Selected Motor Activities
Authors: Mulholland Richard , McNeill Alexander W.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of physical activities on the cardiovascular performances of three institutionalized, profoundly retarded, multiply handicapped children. Heart rates were recorded during the completion of selected motor activities using a combination of telemetered electrocardiograms (ECG) and standard wireless microphone/video technology. Each subject participated in the experiment for a minimum of 6 weeks. The relationships between mean heart rates and performance times for each subject were evaluated throughout the experiment. Based upon the data collected, it was concluded that gross motor activities may have a significant effect on the cardiorespiratory functioning of profoundly retarded, multiply handicapped children, provided the activities are performed for an extended period of time and on a regular basis. The activities selected for use in this study were developmentally based, and no special consideration was given to their aerobic demands on the subjects. The subjects’ level of functioning dictated the use of developmental criteria rather than other, more fitness oriented, criteria that are usually applied to nonhandicapped individuals.
Motor Learning Theory and Mentally Retarded Individuals: A Historical Rewiew
Authors: Hoover John H. , Wade Michael G.
Published: August 2016

This paper traces the rare intertwining of motor learning theory and research undertaken with mentally retarded (MR) individuals. Some of the broad themes in the research are outlined from a historical context, and their impact on motor learning in MR persons is examined. If for no other reason than the sheer volume of the work, traditional information processing theory is emphasized within its historical context. The review treats as subject matter the main theoretical developments leading to the adoption of the information processing model. Rationale for the widespread use of the model to account for rather than describe the performance of MR persons is outlined, particularly as it relates to theoretical development. Further, some comment on the state of knowledge is added along with conjecture about the future of motor control research with MR individuals.
Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factor Differences between Special Olympians and Non-Special Olympians
Authors: Draheim Christopher C. , Williams Daniel P. , McCubbin Jeffrey A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study is to determine whether cardiovascular disease risk factor differences exist between Active Special Olympians, Inactive Non-Special Olympians, and Active Non-Special Olympians. Resting blood pressure, total and abdominal body fat, fasting cholesterol profiles, and fasting insulin were measured in 145 (72 women, 73 men) adults with mild mental retardation. Active Special Olympians (n = 45) possessed lower diastolic blood pressures, body fat percentages, abdominal fat, triglycerides, and insulin than Inactive Non-Special Olympians (n = 38) and possessed lower body fat percentages than Active Non-Special Olympians (n = 62). Active Non-Special Olympians possessed lower triglycerides and insulin than Inactive Non-Special Olympians. Future prospective trials are needed to determine whether Special Olympics participation may be one effective component of community-based physical activity programs aimed at reducing cardiovascular disease risk.
Professional and Disciplinary Status of Adapted Physical Activity
Authors: Reid Greg , Stanish Heidi
Published: August 2016

Adapted physical activity has debated its professional and disciplinary status, but agreement has not been achieved. As a means of objectively evaluating the field for evidence of discipline status, the contents of APAQ (all issues between 1984-2000) and Clinical Kinesiology (1991-2000) were reviewed and compared against four criteria of a discipline: unique knowledge base, methodology, theoretical framework, and terminology. The review indicated that adapted physical activity has a distinct knowledge base but borrows considerable terminology, research methodology, and theory from allied fields. This is likely a reflection of our history, which has been tied to medicine, kinesiology, physical and special education, and some therapies. We conclude that adapted physical activity is a professional field of study with a crossdisciplinary knowledge base, rather than a discipline in its own right.
The Lived Experience of Physical Awkwardness: Adults’ Retrospective Views
Authors: Fitzpatrick David A. , Watkinson E. Jane
Published: August 2016

The investigation explored 12 adults’ past experiences of physical awkwardness. Hermeneutic phenomenology, a descriptive and interpretative methodology, uncovered feelings and meanings associated with childhood reminiscences of physical awkwardness, from 18 semi-structured interviews. Findings focus upon four themes, namely: “failing and falling,” “hurt and humiliation,” “worrying and wondering,” and seeking ways of “avoiding awkwardness” in the future. A heightened awareness of the subjective lived experience of those who are awkward in physical activity and sport situations would alert teachers, coaches, and others of the potential emotional and social consequences associated with it and the need to address the problem of physical awkwardness, in particular, during early growth, maturation, skill development, and learning.
Performance of Bimanual Circles and Lines by Adults with Down Syndrome
Authors: Ringenbach Shannon D. , Ericsson Annica B. , Kao James C.
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to investigate differences among information that varied in interference during drawing tasks in adults with DS. Adults with DS and two comparison groups (Mental Age = MA; Chronological Age = CA) drew bimanual circles and lines coordinated with 3 decreasing rate metronomes: visual information in front of the participant (visual interference), visual information under the hands (reduced visual interference), and auditory information (no visual interference). There were no group differences between metronome conditions, although adults with DS maintained a constant rate despite changing metronome rates. For measures of between hand coordination, the MA group was more variable than adults with DS and the CA group and circles were more variable than lines. These results suggest that adults with DS have difficulty following timing information, regardless of type, for repetitive tasks.
Further Evidence to Change the Medical Classification System of the National Wheelchair Basketball Association
Authors: Doyle Tim L.A. , Davis Ronald W. , Humphries Brendan , Dugan Eric L. , Horn Bryon G. , Shim Jae Kun , Newton Robert U.
Published: August 2016

A number of researchers have long questioned systems used for classifying athletes with disabilities. Wheelchair basketball players have gained much attention from researchers. Despite this, no change to the NWBA classification system has been made since it was first adopted in 1984. This study investigated the NWBA classification system. At two summer basketball camps, 46 players were tested to assess player sprint performance and stratification under the NWBA medical classification system. The group consisted of Class 1, 2, and 3 players. Electronic timing gates were used to collect 20 meter sprint-times. Results indicate that Class 1 players were significantly slower compared to Class 2 and 3 players (p < .05) with no difference between Class 2 and 3. The results of this study support a change to this system.
Metacognitive Processes Underlying Psychomotor Performance in Children with Differing Psychomotor Abilities
Authors: Martini Rose , Wall A.E. Ted , Shore Bruce M.
Published: August 2016

The use of metacognition differs with different levels of cognitive ability, but it is not known whether children of different psychomotor abilities use metacognition differently. This study used a think-aloud protocol to compare the active use of metacognition in children with different psychomotor abilities—high skill, average, developmental coordination disorder (DCD)—during a ball-throwing task. Children with DCD did not verbalize fewer or different metacognitive concepts than either the average or high skill children; however, relative to their counterparts, a significant median proportion of the concepts verbalized by children with DCD were found to be inappropriate or inaccurate. These findings reflect ineffective metacognitive processing by children with DCD during a psychomotor task.
Introduction to the Brockport Physical Fitness Test Technical Manual
Authors: Winnick Joseph P.
Published: August 2016

Health-related criterion-referenced physical fitness has developed into an important domain for all youngsters in American schools. Although considered important for youngsters with or without disabilities, much less attention has been given to measuring and assessing health-related physical fitness of youngsters with disabilities. The Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT) was developed as a healthrelated criterion- referenced test of fitness as a part of a federal grant entitled Project Target: Criterion-Referenced Physical Fitness Standards for Adolescents with Disabilities. This special issue of the Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ) presents the conceptual framework for the BPFT and the technical information used as a basis for the selection of test items and standards associated with the test. Technical information is presented in separate articles covering aerobic functioning, body composition, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility/range of motion. This first article introduces the reader to health-related fitness testing, Project Target, the BPFT, the general organization of information in this issue, and key contributors to Project Target and the development of the BPFT.