bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Image Isabella
Published: August 2017

This chapter sets Hilary in his contemporary context, firstly presenting his life and then examining the currents of thought of his time. In particular, the circumstances and issues of the Trinitarian controversy in the 350s are presented, as well as an assessment of the impact of Origen’s thought. The chapter then looks at Hilary’s theological anthropology, presenting a literature review and explaining the book’s methodology, which is to compare Hilary’s commentaries on Matthew and on Psalm 118 in particular. Lastly, key research questions are presented: what are the characteristics of Hilary’s theological anthropology and how novel is it? In particular, the book will examine his theologies of the will and original sin, and locate him on the trajectory of thought between Origen and Augustine.
Constraint (1): Voluntas
Authors: Image Isabella
Published: August 2017

Like other church fathers, Hilary sometimes articulates the will as entirely competent; sin is entirely our fault because our will is strong enough to prevent it. However, the ‘anthropological household’ demonstrates another strain in his thought, where the will is affected by the Fall and is now subject to disobedience (infidelitas). Similarly, he sees that humans find it difficult to will to follow God, but suggests that God gives grace for this as long as the human shows the initiative (initium fidei). This is then compared to other early Christian writers. Although they do admit other constraints on human action, Hilary appears to be the first Latin author expressly using the fallen will. He appears to follow Origen, who does articulate constraint in terms of the will. Hilary’s expressions may thus arise under the influence of Stoic thought, which reached him through Origen’s material.
Brave Minds and Hard Hands
Authors: Wood Andy
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses upon a small but significant subgenre of dramatic work produced in the 1590s: a set of plays, including 2 Henry VI and Jack Straw, that represented plebeian rebellion and its causes. Sketching the period’s harrowing conditions for the poor, it brings to these plays the evidence of archives concerning contemporary politics and protest. With rich historical contextualization, it traces in these dramas the sustained protests of poorer commoners, against hunger, social contempt from the elite, and the fate of infinite physical drudgery. It demonstrates the period accuracy of both Shakespeare’s language of plebeian protest, and his presentation of contemporary artisans as a dangerous class, as it tracks the widespread animus against the gentry, the indictment of ruthless economic individualism, the egalitarian thematic, and the late-century nostalgia for life before the Reformation.
The Speaking Silence of Citizens in Shakespeare’s Richard III
Authors: Cartelli Thomas
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the commentative words and silences of the citizenry in Richard III, noting that although silence was customarily expected from commoners in the presence of the elite, it could also signify, in both Shakespeare’s version of Richard’s reign and Thomas More’s, the inscrutable resistance of a dissident citizenry. In London, citizen debate and discussion, informed and intelligent, comprised an important forum of Elizabethan public life; and in Shakespeare’s play, citizen non-compliance with the manipulative fabrications of Richard and Buckingham disrupts the performance/reception dynamic to undercut the bonding of the theatre’s citizen audience with the hitherto charismatic Richard. Though their speaking silence betokens the proud heritage of citizen resistance to royal and aristocratic presumption and contempt, Richard and Buckingham obtusely misread this as obtuseness, revealing themselves to be held in a kind of self-hypnosis by the public transcript, memorably subverted by Shakespeare.
The Plebeians Revise the Uprising
Authors: Longstaffe Stephen
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses the plebeian rebellion sequence in 2 Henry VI, noting that although both Quarto and Folio versions seem to derive from a lost, parent source, all modern editions of the scene are based on the Folio, and little scrutiny has been devoted to its revisions. Performing this task, the chapter demonstrates that, politically, the Quarto excises much potentially troubling matter: minimizing the confrontationalism of plebeian class anger, violence, and destruction, and making the rebellion funnier. Reducing the megalomaniac distance of Cade from his followers, it restores to him some solidarity and credibility as an authentic commons leader. In narrative content, and in the liberatingly antinomian quality of its laughter, the Quarto’s rebellion relaunches the endangered radical tradition in a mode of heightened appeal: renewing the vision of ‘Merry England’ as a realm free of gentlemen.
Rehearsing the Plebeians
Authors: Norbrook David
Published: August 2017

This chapter pursues across a wide span of intellectual history reflections on the kind of plebeian political agency so graphic in the opening of Coriolanus. Examining presentations of popular tumult in Shakespeare’s source, Livy, it tracks both Machiavelli’s republican reading of Livy and the interest in Livy’s narrative displayed by Shakespeare’s contemporary, Gabriel Harvey. The broadening of parameters recovers a line of thinkers open to relatively radical ideas about the constitution of a mixed polity, sharply contrasting the repressive anti-populism doctrinal in Elyot’s Boke Named the Governour and official Tudor discourse. Shakespeare’s play unfolds a distinctive doubleness of tone, dramatizing conflicting political perspectives rather as Livy had done, but with a prevailing darkness to its caustic and destabilizing vision. Shakespeare incorporates into this Roman yet contemporary drama a charged, emergent lexicon, deploying such relative novelties as ‘depopulate’ and ‘plebs’, and coining the term ‘Weales men’.
Experiences of Authority in The Tempest
Authors: Doty Jeffrey S.
Published: August 2017

This chapter analyses Shakespeare’s delineation of the tensions in hierarchic society as embodied in the form of master–servant relations in The Tempest. In a drama where the words ‘free’, ‘freedom’, and ‘liberty’ occur twenty times, the chapter ponders the hidden injuries of class: the damaging effects on personhood of subordination and domination as revealed in the relationships of Ariel and Caliban with Prospero. Sustaining uneasy ascendancy through physical harm and threat, cowing the spritely Ariel into moments of tense, monosyllabic obedience, and deforming the irrepressibly social Caliban with a stream of contempt and taught disgust, Prospero’s rigidly hierarchic order strips master–servant relations of any sense of mutual benefit, thereby violating contemporary ideals of service.
Afterword
Authors: Patterson Annabel
Published: August 2017

This chapter reviews the volume, noting that literary critics elsewhere who have conceived the protesting commoners of Shakespeare’s drama as a ‘rabble’ have selectively reproduced the negative perspective of the plays’ patricians, whose hostility chimes with their own. It notes that early modern plebeian protest could actually prove both organized and successful, as recounted in Thomas Deloney’s Jack of Newberry, but suggests the need to investigate the possibility that a certain prudential anti-populism may have informed Folio revisions of some Quartos. Underlining Coriolanus’ introduction of the ideal of widespread manhood suffrage into early Jacobean culture, the chapter reaffirms, over a quarter of a century later, the assessment reached in Shakespeare and the Popular Voice of a dramatist substantially sympathetic to plebeian views and needs; yet it adds that final developments in his personal life may require us to recognize a somewhat hypocritical nouveau riche.
The (H)eroic Idealism of Spenser’s Faery
Authors: Borris Kenneth
Published: August 2017

Spenser bases his heroic poem The Faerie Queene upon a Platonic concept that he often cites: “hero” derives from “Eros,” so that “hero” means “born of love,” which thus inspires “great work” (Cratylus, 398c–d). For Plato in the Phaedrus and Symposium, genuine love involves a desire for beauty that promotes development of personal character through trial and stimulates heroic achievement by disclosing inspirational ideals. Invoking deities of love and his “dearest” Queen Elizabeth in the first proem, Spenser claims to perceive a sublime ideal personified as faery’s queen, that he considers the poem’s fundamental “argument” and inspiration (I.pr.1–4). He thus follows the Platonizing procedures of early modern idealized mimesis, whereby a poet seeks to imitate Ideas more than nature. Seeking to counter the antipoetic arguments of Plato’s Republic and help dispel society’s illusions with higher vision like that dialogue’s responsible philosopher in the fable of the cave, Spenser innovatively transforms the poetics, conceptual content, and scope of heroic poetry.
Introduction
Authors: Machery Edouard
Published: August 2017

There are people around who have Very Strong Views (“modal intuitions,” these views are called) about whether there could be cats in a world in which all the domestic felines are Martian robots, and whether there could be Homer in a world where nobody wrote the ...
The Empirical Findings
Authors: Machery Edouard
Published: August 2017

Chapter 2 is the first systematic review of the empirical findings suggesting that the judgments influenced by philosophical cases vary across demographic groups (culture, gender, age, SES, personality, etc.) and are influenced by the way cases are presented (order and framing effects). While the empirical record remains spotty, a striking picture is beginning to emerge. Nearly every examined philosophical case, from nearly every area of philosophy, elicits either judgments varying across demographic groups or different judgments depending on how the case is presented. While the size of the effects is rarely large, it is often philosophically significant.
Conceptual Analysis Rebooted
Authors: Machery Edouard
Published: August 2017

Chapter 7 proposes a new, naturalistic characterization of conceptual analysis, defends its philosophical significance, and shows that usual concerns with conceptual analysis do not apply to this revamped version. So understood, conceptual analysis encompasses both a descriptive project and a normative project, similar to explication or to conceptual engineering. Chapter 7 also defends the philosophical significance of this novel form of conceptual analysis and its continuity with the role of conceptual analysis in the philosophical tradition. Furthermore, naturalized conceptual analysis often requires empirical tools to be pursued successfully, and an experimental method of cases 2.0 should often replace the traditional use of cases in philosophy.
A Study in Monetary Macroeconomics
Authors: Homburg Stefan
Published: August 2017

The Great Recession of 2008/09 and its aftermath present a major challenge to macroeconomics. Many researchers think that prevailing models fail to grasp essential aspects of recent developments, including unprecedented monetary policies and interest rates at the zero lower bound. Approaches that focus on steady states, rational expectations, and individuals planning over infinite horizons are not suitable for analyzing such abnormal situations. This text does not criticize the traditional approach but aims at improvement. The study’s distinctive feature is a rich institutional structure that includes elements such as credit money, external finance, borrowing constraints, net worth, real estate, and commercial banks. To cope with such a complex setting, the text reduces rationality requirements but adheres to the method of dynamic general equilibrium (DGE) with optimizing agents and fully specified models. Results are derived from mathematical reasoning and simulations. Starting with a simple baseline model, the argument is developed step by step in a unified framework that covers almost everything of interest for monetary macroeconomists. The topics discussed include the superneutrality of money, the Tobin effect, monetary policy under sticky prices and wages, but also liquidity traps with borrowing constraints, Fisherian debt-deflations, housing cycles, and environments with excess bank reserves. The text addresses researchers worldwide and may prove useful for teaching postgraduate and advanced graduate courses. The principle objective is to demonstrate that a “not-too-rational” DGE approach makes it possible to develop clean models that work outside steady states and are appropriate for answering macroeconomic questions of actual interest.
Traditional Topics
Authors: Homburg Stefan
Published: August 2017

Chapter 3 covers traditional topics of monetary macroeconomics. To acquaint readers with the present methods, it starts with conversant material, such as superneutrality of money, the Tobin effect, and forced saving. A large section is devoted to interactions between monetary and fiscal policies. This passage simulates the macroeconomic consequences of sovereign insolvencies and contains a comparison of Ricardian and non-Ricardian economies, a distinction that is crucial for policy analysis. Two closing sections pertain to price and wage rigidities. They emphasize that monetary policies have real effects in the presence of nominal frictions. According to the view sponsored here, models with sticky wages and prices do not compete with flexible price settings but rather complement them in that they shift attention to the short run.
Net Worth
Authors: Homburg Stefan
Published: August 2017

Chapter 5 focuses on producers’ net worth. It joins a large strand rooted in the financial literature, which points out that under asymmetric information, producers need own equity to obtain credit. Incorporating this assumption yields scenarios with endogenous borrowing limits and shows that small variations in credit requirements have large macroeconomic consequences. A second theme concerns an unresolved problem of general equilibrium models. These determine equilibrium prices from decisions of producers and consumers who are ostensibly aware only of market prices and their own characteristics, i.e., technologies and preferences. However, consumers must also know current profits because these enter their budget constraints. As profits are determined in equilibrium, a logical circle emerges. Stock manias can be interpreted as situations where consumers overestimate profits; conversely, stock market crashes may reflect underestimations of profits. The text shows that misguided profit expectations as such do not have the expected impacts on economic activity.
Real Estate
Authors: Homburg Stefan
Published: August 2017

Chapter 6 examines real estate as a neglected feature of actual economies. It begins with an empirical overview demonstrating the preeminent role of land as a part of nonfinancial wealth. Whereas many macroeconomic models represent nonfinancial wealth by a symbol K that is interpreted as machines and equipment (if not robots), the text makes clear that such items are of minor quantitative importance. In contemporary economies, nonfinancial wealth consists chiefly of real estate. This is the proper reason so many analysts conjecture a link between house prices and the Great Recession. Changes in house prices (primarily changes in land prices) operate on the economy through their influence on nonfinancial wealth. Nonfinancial wealth affects consumption directly and investment indirectly since it relaxes or tightens borrowing constraints. Building on the results obtained in previous chapters, the text studies housing manias and leverage cycles and relates its main findings to US data.
Methods
Authors: Homburg Stefan
Published: August 2017

Chapter 8 concludes the text with methodical remarks. It defends key assumptions made in the main text and compares them, to the extent they deviate, with more conventional premises. The chapter starts with a comparison of adaptive versus rational expectations. Thereafter, it contrasts infinite planning horizons, finite planning horizons, and overlapping generations models. The third section, which is devoted to modeling money, discusses money-in-the-utility, the transaction costs approach, and more recent theories that derive money demand from a microeconomic framework. The forth section shows that assuming a highly elastic labor supply is empirically unconvincing, whereas a constant labor supply simplifies the model greatly and appears as a reasonable approximation. The final section contrasts behavioral and choice theoretic approaches to price setting.
International Labor Migration
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

Migration is the exception rather than the rule, but international labor migration is likely to increase because of persisting demographic and economic inequalities at a time when revolutions in communications, transportation, and rights make it ever easier to learn about opportunities abroad, move to them, and stay abroad. When faced with migration crises, the default management tool of governments involves adjusting the rights of migrants, prompting clashes with UN agencies and non-governmental organizations that urge equal rights for migrants. In an ideal world, there would be few barriers to migration and equal rights for migrants, but this ideal world is unlikely until the differences between countries that encourage migration are reduced.
Labor Markets and Migration
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

Labor markets have the three R functions of recruiting workers, remunerating them to encourage them to perform their jobs satisfactorily, and retaining experienced and productive workers. Employers in one country and jobs in another complicate these three Rs, especially recruitment, which is why both employers and workers often turn to private recruiters to act as intermediaries between jobs and workers. Recruiters are most deeply involved in the second phase of the four-phase labor migration process—matching workers with jobs. Indeed, the fact that recruiters rarely visit the workplaces to which they send workers, and do not always expect to send more workers to particular employers, reduces their incentives to make good worker–job matches.
Migration Costs of Returning Workers
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

This chapter analyzes data on what workers—interviewed as they returned from jobs in Gulf Cooperation Council countries—paid several years earlier at home to get their jobs. The most important finding is the big difference in cost by corridor. The gap between the highest and lowest cost corridor was 9 to 1, reflecting the average $4,400 paid by Pakistanis returning from Saudia Arabia versus the $500 paid by Filipinos returning from Qatar. Earnings gaps were much smaller, ranging from a low of $350 a month for Ethiopians returning from Saudi Arabia to $600 for Indians returning from Qatar. The fact that costs vary much more than earnings suggests that differing conditions in migrant-sending countries might explain why some workers pay much more than others.
Employers, Recruiters, and Workers
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

Low-skilled migrant workers often pay high fees to work abroad, which reduces the remittances they can send to their families and is regressive because low-skilled workers pay more than high-skilled workers. No one knows exactly how much workers pay, justifying more data on this in order to reduce worker-paid costs. Media exposés of workers who paid a year’s foreign earnings to get a two-year contract may leave the impression that all workers pay such high fees, although the data collected from workers in diverse corridors do not support such a conclusion. Since the number of low-skilled workers often exceeds the number of jobs, worker willingness to pay can be a way of allocating scarce jobs among workers, although government efforts to limit what workers pay can drive payments underground.
Is Well-Being Measurable?
Authors: Alexandrova Anna
Published: August 2017

Among the scientists and policymakers, measurability of well-being is now almost uncontroversial—only the individual measures are. Philosopher Daniel Hausman, however, argues that well-being in the proper sense is too person-relative and hence heterogeneous. It is not a quantity that can be measured on the population level. This chapter agrees that there is a sense of well-being—the all-things-considered individual well-being—on which it is likely not measurable but disagrees that therefore well-being is not measurable in any sense. Crucial to measurement is the existence of generalisations between core components of well-being and observable indicators. Such generalisations are available if well-being is predicated of kinds of people, rather than of individual lives. Assuming this focus on well-being of kinds, validity of most existing measures of well-being is secured by the process of construct validation, whose logic relies on a plausible ideal of balancing all evidence.
Psychometrics as Theory Avoidance
Authors: Alexandrova Anna
Published: August 2017

In theory construct validation secures good measurement by balancing all available evidence. But does it do so in practice? This chapter argues that validation of well-being scales as currently practiced is unduly selective about what evidence counts. It is not enough to check whether a measure correlates with other measures and indicators that background theory deems relevant if this background theory does not include normative and conceptual considerations about the nature of well-being. In this sense psychometrics commits theory avoidance. Its root is a disciplinary convention of evidential subjectivism, which reduces the big philosophical questions to technical exercises in statistics and factor analysis or reformulates them as reports of subjects’ opinions. To overcome these problems philosophical considerations need to be given a more central place in validation.
Fantasy, Denial, and Virtual Reality in Mahler’s Fourth Symphony
Authors: Davies Benjamin K.
Published: August 2017

The Fourth Symphony has almost invariably been seen as innocent and optimistic: an evocation of past elegance and a vision of future happiness. In this context the literary and musical text of the last movement is seen to prompt ‘retrospective enlightenment’ in performance, causing us to reappraise our understanding of the first three movements. Yet the musical surface is not entirely placid and untroubled: even the exposition of the first movement is rife with discontinuities in texture, orchestration and thematic development. This chapter will suggest that the first movement of the Fourth might profitably be seen as an elaborately-realised illusion. Seemingly hermetic, it resists outside threats, but is undermined from within by a corruption of its own processes. Various possible interpretations of the ‘threat’—suggested by historical and cultural circumstances—are offered.
Mining the Past for New Expressions
Authors: Breckling Molly M.
Published: August 2017

Of Mahler’s Des Knaben Wunderhorn songs, eighteen possess the characteristics traditionally associated with the ballad as defined by Goethe: telling a story that passes through time with a discrete beginning, middle, and end that uses any combination of epic, dramatic, and lyrical narrative voices, excepting the purely lyrical. Mahler utilised numerous poetic and musical methods to bring these stories to life in his ballads, one of the most unique being the use of traditional song forms as a device to convey the overarching narrative. At his most complex, Mahler was forced to abandon the traditional formal models, creating ballads that unfold like miniature scenas to best convey the narrative material at hand. With his ballads from Des Knaben Wunderhorn, Mahler refashioned tools that song composers had used for over a century, as a further layer of narrative reinforcement, tangling the old with the new, and modernising by way of nostalgia.
‘Pedester ist der Musikstoff, sublim der Vortrag’
Authors: Schneider Mathieu
Published: August 2017

Mahler developed the scherzo throughout his symphonic output, starting with a Beethovenian approach to the genre in his First Symphony and culminating in a highly original conception with his Ninth. The scherzo was one of the most appropriate genres for experimenting with new approaches to musical form, since it offered formal freedom and was based on dance-like and popular motives and rhythms. Irony has been a part of the scherzo since its beginnings, playing an important role in the deconstruction of musical material and form in Mahler’s music. Innovations in rhythm, the use of hypermetres, and the orchestration in the scherzos of the First and the Ninth symphonies are analyzed here, highlighting the increasing discrepancy between the kitsch of the musical material and the music on which it is constructed. Mahler offered in his scherzos new perspectives for the twentieth and the twenty-first centuries.
Idyllic Masks of Death
Authors: Péteri Lóránt
Published: August 2017

Mahler’s orchestral song ‘Das himmlische Leben’ (1892) includes references to the chanson of Aristaeus from Act I of Offenbach’s Orphée aux Enfers (1858)—an opéra bouffon Mahler conducted twice in Kassel, between 1883 and 1885. The archaisms of melodic line, part-writing, harmonisation and orchestration in Mahler’s song are at least partly inspired by the direct historicism of Offenbach’s fake pastoral. Irony also has a crucial role in the rhetoric strategies of both works. Jean Paul’s definition of humour as ‘the inverted sublime’ can just as well be applied to Offenbach’s parody of a myth as to the childish and worldly joys of Paradise depicted in ‘Das himmlische Leben’. A comparison with another Humoreske of 1892 by Mahler, ‘Wer hat dies Liedlein erdacht?’, demonstrates that the subversive quotation or allusion, which involves a duality of naivety and chicanery, the lofty and the lowly, is a virtually indispensable feature of the genre.
Popular Music and the Colloquial Tone in the Posthorn Solos of Mahler’s Third Symphony
Authors: Freeze Timothy
Published: August 2017

The posthorn solos in the trios of the third movement of Mahler’s Third Symphony have polarised critical and scholarly opinion regarding their stylistic origins. My examination places the posthorn solos in the context of the popular music of Mahler’s day. Drawing on contemporary reviews, sheet music, and military band manuscripts in Austrian and German archives, I uncover palpable references, since forgotten or neglected, both to the genre of sentimental trumpet solos, common in salon music and band concerts, and to posthorn stylisations distinctive to popular music. Mahler demonstrably knew these repertoires, and critics often cited them in reviews. These allusions do not negate the solos’ likenesses to folk song and the sound of actual posthorns. Rather, Mahler’s score refers to multiple musical styles without being reducible to any one of them.
Abridging Mahler’s Symphonies
Authors: Mugmon Matthew
Published: August 2017

A hundred years after Gustav Mahler’s death, it is widely considered blasphemous to cut any notes from the composer’s symphonies. In recordings and live performances, the symphonies generally remain intact. In discographies, the few recordings listed in which material has been cut—including well-known ones by Hermann Scherchen in the 1960s—are viewed as curiosities that reflect the values of certain idiosyncratic conductors at specific moments in time. But the documentary evidence surrounding American performances of Mahler’s works in the fifty years after his death in 1911—a time before his music became widely accepted—tells a different story. Performing scores, newspaper reports, and materials in orchestra archives demonstrate that cutting Mahler was a tradition with deep roots, and that several noted conductors regularly made significant deletions in Mahler’s music. Special attention is given here to Wilhelm Gericke’s performances of the Fifth Symphony and Serge Koussevitzky’s premiere of the Ninth.
Who Hears the Particular Appeal?
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines panel selection and explains that it is not only who is appointed to a court that matters, but also who hears particular appeals. Does it make a difference whether all judges hear each appeal en banc, or whether certain subsets of judges hear particular appeals? Indeed it does matter a great deal, and judges tend to influence each other through “panel effects.” This chapter looks at the whether the identity of the judges on the panel matters, including whether courts have no or high discretion in choosing the panel. It holds for the next chapter the relationships between the judges on a given panel.
Norms, Leadership, and Consensus
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines how judges are influenced not only by formal rules of how the court is to arrive at decisions, but also by norms of decision-making. It discusses the existence and strength of norms of consensus on different courts. Courts vary to a surprising extent in the size and causes of disagreement amongst judges. The two most extreme cases in our sample are the US Supreme Court, with over half of the cases having at least one dissent, and the Indian Supreme Court where only about 5 percent of cases involve a dissent. We find evidence that, depending on the country, a judge is influenced in whether she dissents by policy differences with other judges and her own workload. However, a judge’s decision to dissent also appears related to the background norms of whether it is acceptable to dissent, and the leadership of the chief justice or president of the court.
Socialism and Socialist Intellectuals in French History
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

This chapter sets out the specific historiographical basis for a new study of the French socialist movement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It argues that one particular framework—that of the reluctant relationship of socialism with power in the capitalist state—has dominated our approaches to writing the history of French socialism, and suggests that a new focus on temporalities, particularly exploring the clash between revolutionary, future-focused socialism, and present-minded socialism, opens up a new range of cultural, intellectual, and biographical sources for understanding the French socialist movement. It provides the specific intellectual context for understanding how historians in France today are seeking to rethink their intellectual inheritance from left-wing writers of earlier generations.
Socialists and their History
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

This chapter provides the first detailed survey of the multi-author work, led by Jean Jaurès, to write a socialist history of modern France. It explores the specific context in which the work was produced, restoring the intellectual networks and personal connections that made the project possible, and then focuses in particular on the way Jaurès’ collaborators wrote about the social movement from the 1790s to 1900. There was a concern through most of the volumes to try and understand the flow of time in the nineteenth century as being different from that of the twentieth century; the socialist historians wanted to mark their own era as being different to that of the revolution, but also thereby to recapture the moments of past injustice and suffering in a popular, widely read narrative.
Socialism and the Flow of  Time in Modernity
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

This chapter asks wider questions about the flow of time as it was explored in this historical writing. It focuses on Jaurès’ philosophy of history, initially through a brief discussion of his doctoral thesis and the essay entitled ‘Le bilan social du XIXème siècle’ that he provided at the end of the Histoire socialiste, then through the work of three of his collaborators, Gabriel Deville, Eugène Fournière, and Georges Renard. One of the most important challenges for socialists in the early twentieth century was to understand the damage and division caused by revolution, while not losing the transformative mission of their socialism. With these elements established, the chapter returns to Jaurès, and in particular the long study of nineteenth-century society in chapter 10 of L’Armée nouvelle. Jaurès advanced an original vision of the nineteenth century and its meaning for the socialist present.
Léon Blum
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

This chapter offers a fresh reading of the intellectual work of one of the towering figures of French modern history. By connecting the ideas of Léon Blum to Jewish concepts of justice in the present, and by situating Blum in the multi-faceted heritage of French socialism that included both Jaurès and Marcel Sembat but also the idealist Malon, it suggests that concepts of the present might be a deep-rooted connecting theme throughout Blum’s intellectual reflections on socialism, from his Nouvelles Conversations de Goethe avec Eckermann, through articles and journalism in the interwar years, to the famous essay À l’Échelle humaine, written in captivity in 1941. It assesses Blum’s reflections on socialism less through his political leadership in the Popular Front government of 1936 and more through personal moments when he was himself ‘out of time’ in the Second World War.
Secondary emission and gain
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Secondary-electron emission generates gain in conventional vacuum photomultipliers with discrete dynodes. This is a cascade process involving between 6 and 20 elements. Generally, the higher the number of stages, the higher is the gain and similarly for applied voltage. Gain is dependent on the composition of the dynodes, with SbCs and activated BeO being the most common materials. There are ten different dynode types, each of which serves a particular purpose: for example, operation in high magnetic fields and high temperature. The continuous channel dynode is available as a single unit and as a multichannel structure, the microchannel plate. The quality of a dynode system is described by its single-electron response. Discrete dynodes produce a spread in output size whereas the channel devices are generally operated in saturation. Gain may be quoted as DC, G, and pulsed ‹g› and methods for measuring these parameters are given.
Measurement of low light flux
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

There are three experimental methods for quantifying the flux of light incident on a photocathode: counting the anode output pulses initiated by photoelectrons—known as photon counting; measuring the DC current flowing at the anode—referred to as analogue detection, or charge integration; and determining the rms noise in the anode current—known as shot noise power detection. The statistical performances of the three methods, based on weighting factors, are compared, revealing the theoretical superiority of the photon-counting method. Optimal time allocation between signal and background measurement is derived for photon counting. An amplifier discriminator is the simplest and preferred instrumentation for photon counting, but setting the optimal counting threshold is ultimately a matter of judgement. This is because the plateau has a different slope for signal, background, and afterpulses. Rudiments of signal recovery instrumentation covering boxcar integrators, lock-in detection, and synchronous signal averaging are given.
Linear performance
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

This chapter is concerned with a single consideration: the degree of proportionality between a light signal and its resulting electrical output. This is formally referred to as linearity, which depends on the suitability of the chosen PMT and the mode of operation (pulsed or analogue). Applications fall into two groups: analogue operation (DC) and transient applications. Linearity in a pulsed mode of operation concerns both pulse height (charge) and the rate of events. Generally, in the DC mode, only the mean anode current is relevant. Methods for determining both forms of non-linearity are presented, based on actual measurements. Test methods using multiple light sources, bootstrapping, single step (piggyback), and shot noise are investigated. A method for uncovering non-linearity in high-Z scintillators by using coincident gamma emissions (60Co) is demonstrated. An analytical means for correcting results at the 1 % level is provided.
Signal-induced background
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Signal-induced background has a time dependence that distinguishes it from the sources discussed in Chapter 6. These events refer to a progression in which a signal generates a subsequent one, correlated in time to the initial detection. The timescale for correlated background ranges from nanoseconds to days. The earliest signal is a prepulse generated by a photon incident on d1. Late pulses relate to the k-to-d1, and k-to-anode transit time. The next category, the afterpulses, spans ~100 ns to 10 μ‎s, with a peaked time distribution. There is a long-lived source of photons, extending to days and caused by exposure of a photomultiplier to bright light or to nuclear radiation. Afterpulses contribute to the slope of a photon-counting plateau characteristic, distort fluorescent decay, and pulse shape discrimination measurements. They also affect resolution, and processes of a statistical nature.
The Defensive Coalition on the Offensive
Authors: Shadlen Kenneth C.
Published: August 2017

This chapter analyses the political economy of continuity in Argentina’s minimalist response to the new global order in intellectual property. The choices made in the 1990s facilitated Argentina’s largest drug firms’ adjustment to the eventual introduction of drug patenting. Accumulated resources allowed the local sector to shape the Argentinean patent system in the 2000s, as the focal point of conflict moved from how to introduce pharmaceutical patents to how the patent system functions. Argentina continued to buck external pressures for over-compliance, and the patent office’s procedures for examining pharmaceutical patent applications underwent changes too. Argentina’s local firms worked closely with the Executive to secure these outcomes. The chapter also considers the downside of extensive producer power, and the limitations of Executive agency, by considering the Health Ministry’s inability to reform other aspects of the pharmaceutical market against the wishes of the local sector.
Legitimation
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

The prolific intellectual activity of early Judaism in the creation of increasing varieties of theodicy was destined to generate eventual conflict. The insurgent approaches that emphasized resurrection met with significant headwinds of skepticism and denial. Literary evidence from the Second Temple era reveals at least three tendencies that legitimated the emerging hope in resurrection within this context. First, Jews utilized the language of earlier prophecy when describing resurrection. Second, they frequently appealed to the paradigm of the creation as a precedent for God’s power to “recreate” the human in the resurrection life. Finally, some also insisted that resurrection was an essential, not merely optional, affirmation of divine justice. These tendencies toward enshrouding the hope in earlier tradition granted resurrection a sanction precisely in a context in which it was still an emerging and controversial belief.
Denial
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

As resurrection increased in its reception among a range of groups within the second century BCE, it did so against a cultural backdrop in which other attitudes toward death already occupied a traditional role within Jewish society. The present chapter examines the rationale for denial of an afterlife. Jews who resisted hope in an afterlife viewed life and death within the creation differently; they valued the continuity of the Jewish people on earth; and they held differing claims about divine justice. Negations of the afterlife were not the minority view of a narrow aristocratic cadre of Sadducees, but had strong and widespread precedents in earlier tradition. Reconstructing the rationale of denial helps to set the resurrection hope into deeper contextual relief: those who affirmed resurrection advanced a more insurgent and controversial theodicy that posed inherent contradictions with earlier tradition.
The Dead Sea Scrolls
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

As they present few immediate references to resurrection, scholars have questioned the extent to which this was important to the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls. This chapter provides a reading of scrolls that do feature resurrection, especially the Messianic Apocalypse and Pseudo-Ezekiel. Other scrolls, like the Thanksgiving Hymns, suggest that the discourse of resurrection was known among the authors of the scrolls, yet frequently utilized in more metaphorical ways. Taken together, the evidence suggests the profile of a religious movement that was still in the dynamic process of receiving the resurrection hope, as it increased its exposure during the late second to early first centuries BCE. The scrolls challenge assessments that resurrection was central to early Judaism or that its appeal was universal. Resurrection remained an emerging and appealing belief—yet one that still remained somewhat peripheral among the religious concerns of this particular community’s literary collection.
Linkages in International Law Affecting Intellectual Property
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter gives a cursory review of situations where the rules of international intellectual property (IP) law interface with those of other rule-systems in international law. Mapping these relationships is challenging, given the multitude of rules, institutions, and actors in international law. Those have increased dramatically in number since the foundations of international IP law in the form of the Berne Convention (BC) on the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the Paris Convention on the Protection of Industrial Property. These interfaces, however, give evidence of a wider phenomenon which is commonly referred to as ‘fragmentation’ on the global level. Such fragmentation has provoked a debate in social, political, and legal science on how to perceive and describe this phenomenon and what responses (in particular in terms of ways to resolve conflicts or tensions between branches of international law) it calls for.
Trips and Later Inter-Se Agreements
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter focusses on how ‘Free Trade Agreements’ (FTAs) fit within the existing multilateral framework, primarily with the Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement which most FTAs take as basis and benchmark from which the contracting parties modify rules among another (inter-se). In this context, the most prominent issue is the effect the continuous strengthening of the standards of intellectual property (IP) protection and enforcement has on the optional provisions and flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement. The chapter examines whether and how the TRIPS addresses such further increases in protection and enforcement. It also looks at conflict clauses in FTAs and how they perceive their relation with the multilateral IP rules, especially the TRIPS Agreement. The principal question here is whether rule-relations within the international IP system are still primarily determined by harmonious interpretation — or if conflict resolution rather functions by choosing one rule over another.
Intellectual Property and International Investment Agreements
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines selected issues on the scope of intellectual property (IP) protection under international investment law and contrasts this with the approach of the international IP system. It first reviews the extent to which IP amounts to a protected investment. The chapter then analyses the operation of national treatment and most favoured nation (MFN) in international investment agreements (IIAs) and international IP treaties. Some of the absolute standards of treatment owed by a host state to a foreign investor under most IIAs are examined in their application to IP rights. Finally, this chapter scrutinises the extent to which obligations from the international IP system can be subject to investor–state dispute settlement (ISDS).
The Protection of Intellectual Property in International Human Rights Law
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the human rights system and the way it deals with human creations and innovations that are the traditional core subject matter of intellectual property (IP) rights. It begins by reviewing the scope for protection under Article 27 (2) Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and Article 15 (1) (c) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The chapter moves on to the protection of property in human rights law, especially on the regional, European level. It examines how IP can be protected as property under the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) and under the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (EU Charter). Finally, the chapter looks at some of the overlaps with international IP rules and the conflict norms in the human rights system to address such overlaps.
Investment and Human Rights Perspectives
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter provides a selective reading of the Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, which amounts to an attempted regime capture where human rights lawyers occupy and colonise space within the intellectual property (IP) system, using its tools to achieve their goals. It attempts to connect international investment and human rights law in their approaches to IP protection. By using IP tools, human right lawyers can offer World Trade Organisation (WTO)/IP lawyers with acceptable arguments to integrate and take into account human rights objectives within their own system, relying on their own tools. Given that there has been no meaningful international forum to litigate compliance with creator’s and access rights, it is understandable that those in charge of these rights take them into fora where they hope for better, even if indirect, compliance. Whether the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) can provide a meaningful alternative within the human rights system remains to be seen.
Conflict Rules and Integration Principles in the International IP System
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter first looks at the (few) formal conflict rules in the international intellectual property (IP) system. It focusses on those found in the Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement. It then assesses those rules and principles that are not about directly allowing other international norms to prevail, but rather indirectly allow states implementing IP treaties and adjudicative bodies interpreting them to take into account external norms and the interests and objectives they protect. Next, the chapter provides an overview of three different areas where the international IP system has either provided specific responses to its intersections with other areas of international law, or where such a response is under negotiation in international IP fora. Finally, this chapter turns to the main horizontal tool in TRIPS and other IP treaties that allows states to take into account other interests and objectives that coincide or conflict with IP protection: the so called ‘three-step-test’.