bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electron avalanche model of dielectric-vacuum surface breakdown
Authors: Lauer Eugene J.
Published: December 2007

The model assumes that an “initiating event” results in positive ions on the surface near the anode and reverses the direction of the normal component of electric field so that electrons in vacuum are attracted to the dielectric locally. A sequence of surface electron avalanches progresses in steps from the anode to the cathode. For 200kV across 1cm, the spacing of avalanches is predicted to be about 13μm. The time for avalanches to step from the anode to the cathode is predicted to be about a nanosecond.
Circuit verification of tunneling effect in zero permittivity medium
Authors: Cheng Qiang , Liu Ruopeng , Huang Da , Cui Tie Jun , Smith David R.
Published: December 2007

We demonstrate the tunneling effect in zero permittivity medium using the multilayered printed circuit, where complementary split ring resonators have been used to produce the resonant electric response and achieve the effective zero permittivity near the plasma frequency. We have shown experimentally the existence of the transmission peak near the zero permittivity frequency. The application of such a structure as a circuit bend has been investigated, which shows the potential usage in the design of microwave and millimeter-wave integrated circuits in the future.
Very low 1∕f noise at room temperature in fully epitaxial Fe∕MgO∕Fe magnetic tunnel junctions
Authors: Aliev F. G. , Guerrero R. , Herranz D. , Villar R. , Greullet F. , Tiusan C. , Hehn M.
Published: December 2007

We report on room temperature 1∕f noise in fully epitaxial Fe (45nm)∕MgO (2.6nm)∕Fe (10nm) magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) with and without carbon doping of the Fe∕MgO bottom interface. We have found that the normalized noise (Hooge factor) asymmetry between parallel and antiparallel states may strongly depend on the applied bias and its polarity. Both types of MTJs exhibit record of low Hooge factors being at least one order of magnitude smaller than previously reported.
ZnO-on-GaN heterojunction light-emitting diode grown by vapor cooling condensation technique
Authors: Chuang Ricky W. , Wu Rong-Xun , Lai Li-Wen , Lee Ching-Ting
Published: December 2007

The growth of ZnO-on-GaN heterostructures was implemented using the vapor cooling condensation system. The technique thus developed was employed to fabricate both the p-GaN∕n-ZnO:In (p-n) and p-GaN∕i-ZnO∕n-ZnO:In (p-i-n) heterojunction light-emitting diodes (LEDs). A rectifying diodelike behavior was clearly observed from both the p-n and p-i-n heterojunction LEDs, with the forward turn-on voltage of 3V and the reverse breakdown voltage of −15V determined for the p-n heterojunction LEDs, compared to 7 and −23V, respectively, for the p-i-n heterojunction LEDs. Based on the results of photoluminescence and electroluminescence studies conducted on these LED structures, the ZnO layer responsible for the peak emission wavelength of 385nm were also verified experimentally.
Effects of Gd substitution on structure and ferroelectric properties of BiFeO3 thin films prepared using metal organic decomposition
Authors: Hu G. D. , Cheng X. , Wu W. B. , Yang C. H.
Published: December 2007

Bi Fe O 3 and Bi1−xGdxFeO3 (BGFO) (x=0.03, 0.05, 0.07, 0.10, and 0.15) thin films were deposited on Pt∕Ti∕SiO2∕Si substrates using a metal organic decomposition process. X-ray diffraction results show that a gradual phase transition from rhombohedral to pseudotetragonal structure may occur in BGFO films with the increase of Gd content. Due to the lower leakage currents resulting from the smaller grain sizes and smoother surfaces, well saturated P-E hysteresis loops, which show weak dependence of frequency in the range of 3–50kHz, can be observed in all BGFO films at room temperature. The remanent polarization for BGFOx=0.03 film is about 79μC∕cm2. In addition, no evident fatigue can be observed after 109 switching cycles.
A time dependent dielectric breakdown model for field accelerated low-k breakdown due to copper ions
Authors: Achanta Ravi S. , Plawsky Joel L. , Gill William N.
Published: December 2007

We have previously shown that the choice of J(t,L)=0 boundary condition in the model of copper ion drift causes an internal field enhancement at the cathode due to the accumulation of copper ions. The ultimate breakdown of the dielectric occurs due to a combination of the field increase exceeding the intrinsic breakdown strength as well as the intrinsic bond breakage due to thermal and field effects. Here, we show that the field dependence of the intrinsic bond breakage shows an E2 dependence in the presence of copper ions enabling an excellent fit to the failure data on Cu∕SiO2∕Si devices.
Strain-compensated AlGaN∕GaN∕InGaN cladding layers in homoepitaxial nitride devices
Authors: Czernecki R. , Krukowski S. , Targowski G. , Prystawko P. , Sarzynski M. , Krysko M. , Kamler G. , Grzegory I. , Leszczynski M. , Porowski S.
Published: December 2007

One of the most important problems in III-nitride violet laser diode technology is the lattice mismatch between the AlGaN cladding layers and the rest of the epitaxial structure. For efficiently working devices, it is necessary to have both a high Al content and thick claddings. This leads, however, to severe sample bowing and even cracking of the upper layer. In this work, we propose a cladding structure of strain-compensated AlGaN∕GaN∕InGaN superlattice grown by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy on bulk GaN substrates. Various thicknesses and compositions of the layers were employed. We measured the radius of bowing, lattice mismatches, aluminum and indium contents, and densities of threading dislocations. The proposed cladding structures suppress bowing and cracking, which are the two parasitic effects commonly experienced in laser diodes with bulk AlGaN claddings. The suppression of cracking and bowing is shown to occur due to modified strain energy distribution of the superlattices structure.
Comparative study of organic Cd and Zn complexation in lake waters - seasonality, depth and pH dependence
Authors: Sander Sylvia , Ginon Léticia , Anderson Barry , Hunter Keith A.
Published: December 2007

Environmental context. The bioavailability of trace metals such as zinc and cadmium strongly depends on what chemical form they are in, and not simply on the total metal concentration. Zinc is an essential micronutrient, whereas cadmium is extremely toxic, but when they occur in the same environment there is potential for the two metals to compete for the same biological binding sites. In this study we have studied the trends in Cd and Zn complexation in three alpine lakes in New Zealand. We conclude that, although the total concentration of cadmium is much lower than that of zinc and copper, it bares the highest risk of toxicity for organisms.
Abstract. The variation with depth, pH dependence, seasonal variability and selectivity of strong, natural organic cadmium and zinc-binding ligands from three New Zealand alpine lakes (Hayes, Manapouri and Hauroko) have been investigated. Competitive ligand equilibration–cathodic stripping voltammetry (CLE-CSV) with APDC (ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate) was used to measure the ligand complexation by Zn2+ and anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) for complexation of Cd2+. In all lakes, the total dissolved cadmium concentration [CdT] averaged 0.040 nM (standard deviation σ = 0.114), while the average concentration of Cd-binding ligands [LCd] was 5.17 ± 1.79 nM (1σ), with conditional stability constants relative to free Cd2+, log K′Cd2+L′, that ranged from 7.92 at depth to 10.58 at the surface. Calculated concentrations of the free aquo ion [Cd2+] averaged 0.0147 ± 0.0616 nM (1σ), and showed a higher percentage of Cd complexed by strong ligands in the summer and in surface waters. The selectivity of cadmium-binding organic ligands was low, and ligand-bound Cd2+ was easily displaced by Zn2+ and Cu2+. Total dissolved zinc concentrations [ZnT] were highly variable, and ranged from 1.04 to 10.94 nM. The corresponding ligand concentrations of strong zinc-binding ligands [LZn] were between 2.14 and 15.52 nM, with conditional stability constants log K′Zn2+L′ as low as 8.78 in deep water collected in summer from Lake Hauroko, up to a maximum of 12.41 at a depth of 5 m in Lake Hayes. The calculated concentrations of the free aquo complex [Zn2+] ranged widely between 0.001 and 1.620 nM.
Do I believe in CLAW?
Authors: Huebert Barry
Published: December 2007

Environmental context. In 1987 Charlson, Lovelock, Andreae and Warren revolutionised the way we think about the Earth when they argued that marine algae, atmospheric particulate matter and clouds might be linked in such a way that they could work like a planetary thermostat. This stimulated scientists to work with colleagues outside their traditional disciplines to understand the Earth system. Twenty years later we still can’t say whether the CLAW idea is 100% correct, but we have begun to appreciate that the many parts of the Earth are linked into a living whole that cannot be understood by any branch of science working in isolation.
Male sex work and HIV risk among young heroin users in Hanoi, Vietnam
Authors: Clatts Michael C. , Giang Le M. , Goldsamt Lloyd A. , Yi Huso
Published: December 2007

The present study describes complex drug and sexual risk in a group of male sex workers (n = 79) who were recruited in the context of a larger study of young heroin users in Hanoi, Vietnam (n = 1270). Male sex workers were significantly more likely than male non-sex workers to be migrants (P < 0.001) and to have unstable housing (P < 0.001), to have lifetime exposure to marijuana (P < 0.001), 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) (P < 0.01), amphetamines (P < 0.05), cocaine (P < 0.01) and morphine (P < 0.001). Male sex workers are more likely to currently use MDMA (P < 0.05), amphetamines (P < 0.001), morphine (P < 0.05) and to ‘smoke’ as their most frequent mode of heroin administration (P < 0.01). Male sex workers are more likely to have both male and female concurrent sex partners (P < 0.001), to have a history of sexual victimisation (P < 0.001), to have had more than three different sex partners in the past 30 days (P < 0.001), and to have had partners who injected drugs before sex (P < 0.001) or who used drugs during sex (P < 0.01). In their last sexual encounter with a client partner, approximately one-third (31.1%) reported having had receptive anal sex. In nearly three-quarters of these exchanges (71.4%), no condom was used. Similarly, in their last sexual encounter with a client partner, 42.2% reported having had insertive anal sex and in nearly half (47.4%) of these encounters no condom was used. Consistent with recent data from elsewhere in the region, there is an urgent need for additional research on male sex work in South-east Asia in order to properly situate behavioural interventions for male sex workers in this region.
1. GOLLOW LECTURE: SEX AND CANCER
Authors: Jones R. W.
Published: December 2007

The evolution of our understanding of cervical cancer as a sexually transmitted disease will be presented. Professor Jones will also acknowledge the contributions made by several Australians in this field.
10. THE CHECK IS IN THE MAIL: A NOVEL APPROACH TO CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS TESTING USING SELF COLLECTED, MAILED SPECIMEN
Authors: Skinner M. B. , Muller R. , Bialasiewicz S. , Debattista J.
Published: December 2007

Background: The progress in chlamydia testing/management seems to have stalled in Australia over the last years with persistent high prevalences observed in known risk groups. A novel approach is needed to lower the barriers to testing especially in those who are socially isolated and/or live in rural or remote locations.
Aim: To develop, implement and evaluate a novel approach to chlamydia testing in the form of a 'self-collection testing kit' that is easily accessible, confidential, free of charge, easy to use, and allows for home self-collection of specimens, their transportation by regular mail and the central management (notification, treatment and follow-up) of results.
Methods: The developed 'kit' consists of all necessary items and instructions to obtain a sample. A network of 'kit' distribution sites at locations frequented by the target population has been established in urban as well as rural and remote areas. The 'kits' can also be requested via an advertised website and a 1800 phone number. Specimens are returned via reply paid mail. A centralised system for the management of results and follow up of individuals has been developed. Test results are conveyed to participants by the method of their choice including email, SMS and phone. Treatment is organised via a network of health care providers in various locations.
Results/Discussion: First promising results and experiences from the implementation phase of this novel approach to chlamydia testing will be presented covering distribution and uptake of 'kits', return of specimens as well as management and follow up.
If eventually proven successful, this approach to chlamydia testing will provide significant opportunities for increasing access to testing across Australia especially in rural and remote areas. An extension to gonorrhoea testing is possible.
This project is supported by the 'National Chlamydia Pilot Program' funding of innovative chlamydia projects.
14. GENITAL HERPES ONLINE RISK SURVEY
Authors: Mindel A. , Christie E. , Chung C. , Berger T. , the Australian Herpes Management Forum (AHMF)
Published: December 2007

Background: Genital herpes is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide. In Australia, a population-based survey revealed that 16% of women and 8% of men over 25 had antibodies to HSV-2. The majority of people infected with HSV-2 are asymptomatic. With increasing availability of web-based technology for use as an information and education tool, we established a web-based survey to determine risk for genital herpes and encourage people who maybe at risk to attend a health care professional for HSV testing.

Methods: A web-based genital herpes risk assessment quiz was established on the AHMF web page. The quiz was based on epidemiological data derived from a national population-based survey and other epidemiological studies and consisted of 16 questions, each with a numerical weighting. Factors were weighted according to age, country of origin, gender, sexual history, condom use, symptoms suggestive of herpes and whether the individual was of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (ATSI) origin. Scores were added up and individuals allocated a risk score of low, medium or high.

Results: By the 24th May 2007, 2639 questionnaires had been completed, 52% were male and 48% female and 87% from Australia. 18% were classified as low risk for genital herpes, 46% as medium risk and 36% as high risk. Women had a higher mean risk score than men (p�<�0.001) and were less likely to report condom use than men (p�<�0.001), however, men were more likely than women to have had sex with someone they knew had herpes (p�=�0.018). ATSI participants had a higher mean risk score than non-ATSI participants. Detailed analyses of risk scores and comparisons between groups will be presented.

Conclusions: On-line risk surveys are a useful way for individuals to determine their risk of genital herpes. Similar tools should be developed for other STIs.
21. GONORRHOEA INFECTION IN SYDNEY WOMEN
Authors: Emerson C. R. , McDonagh P. , McNulty A. , Freedman E.
Published: December 2007

Background: Gonorrhoea is associated with undesirable reproductive health outcomes in women including pelvic inflammatory disease and tubal factor infertility. However there is low prevalence in the general community and some authors have suggested that only those women with risk factors should be tested. But can we predict who will have a positive gonorrhoea result?
Methods: A retrospective, case controlled, study was undertaken in an inner Sydney public Sexual Health clinic between January 2000 and December 2005. Cases were all women with culture proven cervical n.gonorrheoea infection in the time period. These were case matched with subsequent women with a negative gonorrhoea culture test. Variables examined included demographics, sex worker status, country of birth, injecting drug use (IDU) status, presence of symptoms and concurrent STIs.
Results: There were 40 women who were n.gonorrhoea culture positive during the study period and 27 cases and 23 controls reported any genital symptoms. (what were the confidence intervals?) The relative risk of having gonorrhoea if discharge was described was 1.75 (p�<�0.05). The cases had a high rate of concurrent STI including chlamydia.
Conclusions: The only significant predictor of gonorrhoea in this group was the symptom of vaginal discharge. Thus in our clinic population behaviour, demographic data or cannot be used to determine who gets tested for gonorrhoea.
22. IS HELICOBACTER PYLORI A STI? - A PILOT STUDY
Authors: Sawleshwarkar S. , Eslick G. , Chung C. , Jones R. , Mindel A.
Published: December 2007

Background: Helicobacter pylori is responsible for chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer disease and is associated with an increased risk of developing stomach cancer. The seroprevalence of Helicobacter pylori in the Australian-born adult population is about 20% and increases with age. The exact mode of transmission of Helicobacter pylori infection remains unknown and it has been suggested that sexual transmission may be important. This study is a preliminary investigation into a possible association between sexual risk factors and Helicobacter pylori infection.
Subjects and methods: All patients aged 18 and above, presenting to the Parramatta Sexual Health Clinic and were having blood taken for any other purpose, were eligible for the study. Blood samples were collected for Helicobacter pylori serology using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect Helicobacter pylori IgG. Demographic information and data regarding sexual behaviour and risk factors for sexually transmitted infections was obtained. The sample size to detect a 15% difference between the study population and the general Australian population with 90% power was 105. To allow for minor variations we plan to recruit 125 participants.
Results: To date, 65 patients (75.4% males) have been enrolled in the study and 10 (7 males and 3 females) (15.4%) were positive for Helicobacter pylori. One additional result was equivocal. 24.6% of the participants were born outside Australia and out of 8 who belonged to middle and low-income countries, three had positive serology. The full results of the study, including seroprevalence and the demographic and sexual risk factors, will be presented.
23. IMPACT OF TRIAGE ON PATIENT PRESENTATIONS AT A LARGE PUBLICLY FUNDED SEXUAL HEALTH SERVICE
Authors: Knight V. , Barrington V.
Published: December 2007

Introduction/Background: Increasing prevalence of sexually transmissible diseases in Australia has led health authorities to require publicly funded sexual health services to target services to those most in need. Nurse triage has previously been shown to improve efficiency of sexual health services. Nurse triage of all new patients telephoning SSHC for an appointment was implemented in 2004. A priority tool was developed to guide the process that delegated the types of clients and client presentations appropriate for the Centre.
A review was conducted of medical record data in the patient database to ascertain the percentage of patient presentations triaged into SSHC who did not fit the priority categories in the tool. This was conducted for a full year in 2206 and for comparison pre implementation of the triage system in 2001.
Results: In 2001 a total of 23% of 1422 new patients did not fit the criteria of patient presentations appropriate for the Centre. In 2206 this percentage more than halved to 10% of 1039 patient presentations.
Conclusions: Telephone triage has been effective in increasing the percentage of priority presentations at SSHC.
3. NON CONSUMMATION
Authors: Dennerstein L.
Published: December 2007

This presentation will examine the relationship between women's acceptance of their own anatomy and the clinical condition of non consummation of relationship. The lecturer will utilise case examples from 35 years of clinical experience in treating sexual dysfunction to describe women's feelings about their own bodies, those of their partner and the sexual act. The resultant vaginismus, apareunia and duspareunia are well known but the aversive aspects also need to be addressed.
32. EXPERIENCE OF EARLY MEDICAL ABORTION IN A REGIONAL CENTRE
Authors: Russell D. B. , McNamee H. , Lim C. , Leamy J. , de Costa C.
Published: December 2007

Access to abortion services is often severely limited in parts of regional Australia, including north Queensland. In December 2005 one of the authors made a joint application to the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) for approval to prescribe and supply the drug mifepristone (RU486) for the purpose of induced abortion. This was successful, and to date 10 medical abortions using a combination of mifepristone and misoprostol have been carried out.
Clinicians at the Cairns Sexual Health Service have been unable to prescribe mifepristone, but since April 2006 have been using a combination of methotrexate and misoprostol to perform medical abortions up to 9 weeks' gestation. To date 16 have been performed. The mean age of patients undergoing the procedure was 25 (range 17-36) with the indications being for mental health and/or psychosocial reasons. The gestational age at abortion ranged from 4-8 weeks. One woman required a surgical abortion for an unsuccessful medical abortion.
The procedure, whether using mifepristone of methotrexate, is generally well-tolerated and has been shown to be safe. The clinical outcomes will be presented in detail.
36. VULVOVAGINAL CANDIDIASIS IN AUSTRALIA: LET'S TAKE A LOOK 'DOWN UNDER'
Authors: Hilmi S. C. , McCloskey J. , Tenni P. , Hughes J.
Published: December 2007

Objectives: To determine: 1) The accuracy in patient self-diagnosis and medical diagnosis of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) in Western Australia; 2) The contributing factors for self-diagnosing rather than seeking a medical diagnosis.
Methods: A cross-sectional cohort community-based study, over a 13-month period, was conducted. All women wishing to purchase a topical antifungal product for their personal treatment of presumed VVC, from participating community pharmacies within a nominated division of general practice in Perth, Western Australia, were invited to participate in the study. Participants completed a detailed questionnaire prior to their immediate referral for evaluation and examination by an experienced medical practitioner, and underwent a range of laboratory tests to determine the cause of their symptoms. Chi-square testing for association was performed for univariate comparisons with that of culture proven VVC.
Results: Ninety-four symptomatic women aged between 19 and 79 years were recruited. Of the 88 women who completed all aspects of the study, 41 (47%) were confirmed to have VVC by culture. The remaining 47 (53%) women either had another infectious cause (10 [11%]: urinary tract infection [4]; bacterial vaginosis [2]; chlamydia [2]; or genital herpes [2]) or their symptoms were not secondary to an infection (37 [42%]). Sixty-three percent of presumptive diagnoses made by medical practitioners were concordant with laboratory proven VVC. The women avoided seeking medical advice for a number of reasons.
Conclusions: Over half of the study population self-diagnosed VVC incorrectly. The proportion of correct presumptive diagnoses made by medical practitioners was only slightly greater. Diagnosis based on presenting signs and symptoms alone could result in an incorrect diagnosis and a proportion of STIs being missed. Improving the management of VVC will be dependent on addressing factors influencing women's reluctance to seek medical advice and in addressing the current diagnostic processes. Over-the-counter antifungals, whilst convenient, may well compromise women's health.
37. MONITORING HIV TRANSMISSION AMONG MEN SEEN AT METROPOLITAN SEXUAL HEALTH CLINICS IN AUSTRALIA, 1996-2005
Authors: McDonald A. , Kaldor J. M.
Published: December 2007

National surveillance for newly diagnosed HIV infection indicates an increasing trend in Queensland, South Australia and Victoria but not in New South Wales. It was not clear if trends in newly diagnosed HIV infection were due to different patterns of HIV antibody testing. We report the pattern of HIV antibody testing among people seen through a network of sexual health clinics in Australia.
Six public metropolitan sexual health clinics (Sydney Sexual Health Centre (SSHC), South West Sexual Health Centre (SSWSHC), NSW; Brisbane Sexual Health Clinic (BSHC), Gold Coast Sexual Health Clinic (GCSHC), QLD; Clinic 275, SA; Melbourne Sexual Health Centre (MSHC), VIC) provide annual tabulations of the number of people seen, the number tested for HIV antibody, and the number with newly diagnosed HIV infection, broken down by sex, exposure category and testing history.
The number of men seen at the clinics ranged from 17 138 in 1996 to 19 184 in 2005. Among men seen, the percentage who were tested for HIV declined from 62% in 1996 to 50% in 2001 and increased to 56% in 2005. HIV prevalence remained stable in 1996-2005 at 0.5% and was highest at SSHC (0.7-1.1%) and among homosexually active men (1.8% in 1996 and 1.6% in 2005). The percentage of men retested within 12 months of a negative test increased from 41% in 1996 to 44% in 2005. At SSHC, retesting among homosexually active men declined from 56% in 1996 to 44% in 2001 and increased to 58% by 2005. At Clinic 275 and MSHC, 50-60% and around 50% of homosexually active men were retested in 1996 - 2005 and in 2004-2005, respectively. HIV infection was newly diagnosed in 0.4% (8) in 1996 and in 0.8% (26) in 2005.
While HIV antibody testing patterns vary between the clinics, incidence of newly diagnosed HIV infection has remained low.
39. MAYISHA NZ: TOWARDS AN EVIDENCE BASE TO INFORM HIV PREVENTION INTERVENTIONS IN NEW ZEALANDS MIGRANT AFRICAN COMMUNITIES
Authors: Davidson O. R. , Birukila G.
Published: December 2007

The second social group most affected by HIV in New Zealand is that of the migrant African communities. As is the case in many resource-rich countries, the number of new HIV diagnoses assumed to have occurred through heterosexual sex has now caught up with those new diagnoses assumed to have occurred through men who have sex with men (MSM). While there is good behavioural surveillance of HIV-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (KAB) in New Zealand's MSM population (the GAPSS Surveys), there is very little data available on African migrant communities to provide an evidence base with which informed decisions can be made regarding HIV primary and secondary prevention interventions within these communities.
The Mayisha I and II Projects in the UK have been successful in developing community based research collaborations that have resulted in valuable HIV-related KAB data being obtained from their migrant African communities. Such a model of working is now being developed within New Zealand.
This paper reviews the UK Mayisha models and how such behavioural surveillance data is being utilised by HIV prevention stakeholders in the UK. It then describes how the model is being modified and developed within the New Zealand context.
53. GENITAL WARTS AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH CARE USE IN GENERAL PRACTICE IN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Conway E. L. , Stein A. N. , Pirotta M. , Garland S.
Published: December 2007

The introduction of the quadrivalent vaccine (HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18), GARDASIL, in the National HPV Vaccination program has the potential to eliminate a substantial proportion of the health burden of external genital warts (EGW), currently the most common sexually transmitted viral disease in Australia. Approximately 60% of cases of EGW are managed in general practice. In this study both new and existing EGW cases were identified in the BEACH (Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health) database from April 2000 to September 2006. Extrapolating to the Australian population, there are approximately 34�000 new cases of EGW each year managed through general practice, accounting for 96�000 GP visits. Incidence extrapolated from new cases showed a peak in females in the age groups 15-19 and 20-24 years (5.6 and 6.6 per 1000 annually respectively) and a later peak in males in the age group 20-24 and 25-29 years (4.8 and 5.7 per 1000 respectively). Ablative therapies were the most common form of treatment applied at 33-40% visits for females and 30-64% visits for males (new and repeat visits respectively). Topical medications were prescribed in ~14% of cases. Assigning average costs, the direct health care costs, including GP visits, medications, other treatments and referrals, are at least ~$290 per case.
This study confirms the considerable individual and clinical burden of this common disease.
56. TAKE THE SEX OUT OF STI SCREENING! VIEWS OF GPS AND YOUNG WOMEN ON IMPLEMENTING CHLAMYDIA SCREENING IN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Pavlin N. , Parker R. , Gunn J. M. , Fairley C. K. , Hocking J.
Published: December 2007

In-depth face to face interviews were carried out with a randomly selected sample of 20 General Practitioners (GPs) and 24 young women from across Victoria. We aimed to determine the attitudes of GPs and young women to chlamydia screening, what systems and education would be required to support chlamydia screening in general practice in Australia and in particular to explore how young women feel about being asked to test for chlamydia when they attend a GP for any reason.
Both GPs and young women accept age-based screening for chlamydia and screening during a sexual health related consultation in general practice. Both feel that a large scale public education program, encompassing the high prevalence of chlamydial infection in young people in Australia, the asymptomatic nature of infection and the potential consequences if untreated, will be essential in ensuring the success of a chlamydia screening program in Australia. For the women, trust in their GP, was a major factor in the acceptability of chlamydia screening. They also felt chlamydia screening should be offered to all young women rather than targeted at 'high risk' women based on sexual history and they particularly emphasised the importance of normalising chlamydia screening. Women were clear that they did not want to be asked to provide a sexual history as part of being asked to have a chlamydia test. This finding has not been widely published in the literature and is worthy of comment. There is considerable evidence suggesting that GPs also regard sexual history taking as a barrier to STI testing in general practice.
Chlamydia is an STI and notification and treatment of sexual partners is important. Understanding these concepts promotes young women's acceptance of chlamydia screening. However, is a detailed sexual history really an important precursor to a chlamydia test? Our study suggests maybe not.
60. THE RIGHT THING TO DO: PATIENTS' VIEWS AND EXPERIENCES OF TELLING PARTNERS ABOUT CHLAMYDIA
Authors: Temple-Smith M. J. , Hopkins C. A. , Fairley C. K. , Tomnay J. E. , Pavlin N. L. , Parker R. M. , Russell D. B. , Bowden F. , Hocking J. S. , Pitts M. K. , Chen M. Y.
Published: December 2007

Partner notification for patients diagnosed with chlamydia is recommended to assist in controlling the increasing incidence of this often asymptomatic but treatable infection. Few studies, however, have ascertained the views on partner notification from those who are often expected to perform it - the individuals who have been diagnosed with chlamydia. As part of a larger combined qualitative-quantitative methods study of partner notification, 40 in-depth telephone interviews were conducted with people diagnosed with chlamydia from clinics in Victoria, ACT and Queensland. Reactions to chlamydia diagnosis, as well as reasons for, and feelings about, telling their sexual partners about this infection were explored. Common reactions to initial diagnosis were surprise, shock and shame, as well as relief about being able to put a name to symptoms. Many spoke of relief on learning the condition was treatable. Both men and women commonly saw partner notification as a social duty, and cited concerns about their own health and the health of others as a reason for telling partners and ex-partners about the diagnosis. An infrequent reason offered for partner notification was to confront a partner to clarify fidelity. Reasons for not contacting a partner were typically fear of reaction, or a lack of contact details. Although participants reported sexual partners exhibiting a variety of reactions when told of the diagnosis, results showed that for almost everyone, the experience of notifying their partner was better than they had expected. Views about taking antibiotics to the partner varied according to the currency of the relationship, with some feeling it could be offered as appeasement, and others feeling it might be seen as intrusive. Overall, the findings from this study suggest that partner notification by people diagnosed with chlamydia is achievable, with many of these results likely to be transferable to other settings.
66. MENAGE A TRIOS: SEXUAL HEALTH, SEXUAL ASSAULT AND FORENSIC MEDICINE
Authors: Parekh V.
Published: December 2007

Objectives: Small jurisdictions often require clinicians to work in more than one speciality. The aim of this paper is to explore the commonalities between sexual health, sexual assault and forensic medicine that make this possible.
Methods: Exploration of (1) common attributes of clinicians who provide these services, (2) characteristics the client groups, (3) administrative aspects and (4) gains for participating clinicians.
Results: Clinicians in all three specialties practice within a public health model of care, have a good understanding of confidentiality, sexual wellbeing, other intimate concerns and social justice issues. They have experience working with non-medical groups and are experienced in teaching students and non-clinicians.
Clients attending all three of services are commonly victims, vulnerable, marginalised, poor and less able to access traditional medical services. They commonly exhibit high-risk behaviours pertaining to sex and drug and alcohol use.
Administrative systems commonly found in sexual health centres such as independently held and secured files and coded filing systems and protocols and practices concerning confidentiality and appropriate interactions with other services allow clinical forensic medicine to be easily incorporated.
Clinicians gain from participating in these services by refreshing and developing specialist skills in the management of simple injuries, acute drug and alcohol withdrawal and in the law (forensic evidence collection, minors and custody issues).
Conclusions: The similarities between the practise of sexual health, sexual assault and forensic medicine make the transition between the specialties smooth and relatively easy. Indeed the practice of one enhances the other two for clients and clinicians alike.
68. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS [STIs] AND PREGNANCY
Authors: Garland S.
Published: December 2007

Routine antenatal screening tests currently recommended in Australasia and endorsed by the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (RANZCOG) include rubella, varicella-zoster, group b streptococcus [GBS], asymptomatic bacteriuria, as well as the following STIs: Treponema pallidum (syphilis), Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Hepatitis B virus (HBsAg), Chlamydia trachomatis (adolescent pregnancies) and offer of hepatitis C virus (HCV).
Infections can infect the foetus or neonate by various routes (intrauterine, intrapartum and /or postnatal) and cause potentially serious disease. Such infections in the mother may be mild or commonly subclinical, yet can result in miscarriage, preterm birth, foetal damage, or even death, depending on the pathogen and stage of pregnancy. Consequently, diagnoses should be made definitively by instituting appropriate laboratory tests to ensure effective treatment and follow-up of the woman and her infant, as well as her contact(s). Specific treatment of the mother, where applicable, can prevent most of the impact on the fetus and newborn. The principles for the use and choice of screening tests are (1) if maternal infection occurs, there is a significant risk of fetal or neonatal infection and damage, or other adverse pregnancy outcome; (2) there are sensitive, specific, and inexpensive screening and confirmatory tests; (3) there is a safe, effective intervention and/or treatment regimen which can reduce morbidity and mortality in the fetus and/or the mother.
9. DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A NOVEL GEL-BASED URINE TRANSPORT SYSTEM FOR USE IN CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS PCR BASED DIAGNOSIS
Authors: Bialasiewicz S.
Published: December 2007

Background: Chlamydia trachomatis infection rates have increased within Australia over the past several years, including persistently high incidences in known risk groups. The development of novel C. trachomatis detection methods which can be self-collected and mailed in a plain envelope presents significant opportunities for increasing access to urine testing across Australia, particularly those who are geographically or socially isolated and have limited or impeded access to mainstream health services.
Aim: The purpose of the study was to develop a urine transportation system which retains comparable sensitivity to standard sampling methods, is easy and safe to use by the average person within a home setting, and which complies with regulations concerning the transport of biological specimen through regular mail.
Results/Discussion: An expanding-matrix based method was developed in which a small amount of urine is applied to a dry mixture of a super absorbent polymer and nucleic acid stabiliser, yielding a dry gel. The gel can then be subsequently treated in the diagnostic laboratory to release the reconstituted urine, from which nucleic acid can be extracted using standard methods. Once extracted, the sample can be utilised in a nucleic acid amplification based C. trachomatis diagnostic assay.
The clinical sensitivity of the gel-matrix was found to be comparable to that of standard urine transport methods. The applicability of the gel for use by the public in a home collection setting was deemed appropriate due to the non-toxic nature of the matrix materials, ease of use, and the basic packing and postage requirements. The dry gel form of the urine and packaging complied with Australia Post standard postage requirements. Results of the initial development and validation of the gel matrix will be presented.
Adiabatic operation of a molecular machine
Authors: Astumian R. Dean
Published: December 2007

Operation of a molecular machine is often thought of as a “far from equilibrium” process in which energy released by some high free energy fuel molecule or by light is used to drive a nonequilibrium “power stroke” to do work on the environment. Here we discuss how a molecular machine can be operated arbitrarily close to chemical equilibrium and still perform significant work at an appreciable rate: micrometer per second velocities against piconewton loads. As a specific example, we focus on a motor based on a three-ring catenane similar to that discussed by Leigh [Leigh DA, Wong JKY, Dehez F, Zerbetto F (2003)
Nature
424:174–179]. The machine moves through its working cycle under the influence of external modulation of the energies of the states, where the modulation is carried out slowly enough that the state probabilities obey a Boltzmann equilibrium distribution at every instant. The mechanism can be understood in terms of the geometric phase [Berry MV (1990)
Phys Today
43(12):34–40] in which the system moves adiabatically around a closed loop in parameter space, completing, on average, nearly one-half mechanical cycle each time it does so. Because the system is very close to equilibrium at every instant, the efficiency can approach 100%.
Principles underlying energetic coupling along an allosteric communication trajectory of a voltage-activated K
+
channel
Authors: Sadovsky Evgeniya , Yifrach Ofer
Published: December 2007

The information flow between distal elements of a protein may rely on allosteric communication trajectories lying along the protein's tertiary or quaternary structure. To unravel the underlying features of energy parsing along allosteric pathways in voltage-gated K
+
channels, high-order thermodynamic coupling analysis was performed. We report that such allosteric trajectories are functionally conserved and delineated by well defined boundaries. Moreover, allosteric trajectories assume a hierarchical organization whereby increasingly stronger layers of cooperative residue interactions act to ensure efficient and cooperative long-range coupling between distal channel regions. Such long-range communication is brought about by a coupling of local and global conformational changes, suggesting that the allosteric trajectory also corresponds to a pathway of physical deformation. Supported by theoretical analyses and analogy to studies analyzing the contribution of long-range residue coupling to protein stability, we propose that such experimentally derived trajectory features are a general property of allosterically regulated proteins.
Genomic drift and copy number variation of sensory receptor genes in humans
Authors: Nozawa Masafumi , Kawahara Yoshihiro , Nei Masatoshi
Published: December 2007

The number of sensory receptor genes varies extensively among different mammalian species. This variation is believed to be caused partly by physiological requirements of animals and partly by genomic drift due to random duplication and deletion of genes. If the contribution of genomic drift is substantial, each species should contain a significant amount of copy number variation (CNV). We therefore investigated CNVs in sensory receptor genes among 270 healthy humans by using published CNV data. The results indicated that olfactory receptor (OR), taste receptor type 2, and vomeronasal receptor type 1 genes show a high level of intraspecific CNVs. In particular, >30% of the ≈800 OR gene loci in humans were polymorphic with respect to copy number, and two randomly chosen individuals showed a copy number difference of ≈11 in functional OR genes on average. There was no significant difference in the amount of CNVs between functional and nonfunctional OR genes. Because pseudogenes are expected to evolve in a neutral fashion, this observation suggests that functional OR genes also have evolved in a similar manner with respect to copy number change. In addition, we found that the evolutionary change of copy number of OR genes approximately follows the Gaussian process in probability theory, and the copy number divergence between populations has increased with evolutionary time. We therefore conclude that genomic drift plays an important role for generating intra- and interspecific CNVs of sensory receptor genes. Similar results were obtained when all annotated genes were analyzed.
Ubc13/Rnf8 ubiquitin ligases control foci formation of the Rap80/Abraxas/Brca1/Brcc36 complex in response to DNA damage
Authors: Wang Bin , Elledge Stephen J.
Published: December 2007

The Brca1 A complex contains Brca1/Bard1, Abraxas, Rap80, and Brcc36; however, with the exception of the Brca1–Abraxas interaction, how the A complex is assembled is not known. The A complex is localized to sites of DNA damage through the UIM domains of RAP80, which bind K63-linked polyubiquitin chains. In this study, we identified an FHA domain RING finger E3 ubiquitin ligase, RNF8, and an E2-conjugating enzyme known to form K63–polyubiquitin chains, Ubc13, each of which is required to recruit the Brca1 A complex to sites of DNA damage. Rnf8 localizes to sites of DNA damage through an FHA-domain-containing region. We found that Rap80 contains an Abraxas interaction domain [AIR (Abraxas-interacting region)], required for association of Rap80 with Abraxas, Brca1, and Brcc36. Abraxas and Brcc36 associate through coiled-coil domains on each protein. These data suggest a model through which Ubc13 and Rnf8 are recruited to sites of DNA damage through DNA-damage-induced phosphorylation of a chromatin-associated protein and generate polyubiquitin chains that then recruit Rap80 and the entire Brca1 A complex to DNA-damage foci. This sequential E3 ubiquitin ligase recruitment constitutes a ubiquitin ligase cascade required for DNA repair and checkpoint signaling.
Women and Depression: A 30 Year Learning Curve
Authors: Wilhelm Kay , Parker Gordon , Geerligs Liesbeth , Wedgwood Lucinda
Published: December 2007

This paper reviews 30 years of longitudinal research, initially undertaken to examine gender differences in rates of major depression and psychosocial risk factors for depression. The research focus has broadened to include the impact of anxiety on depression onset, coping styles for stress and depression, genetic and environmental influences on depression onset, and more recently, a shift towards examining positive mental health. The original cohort consisted of a socially homogenous group of postgraduate teacher trainees and does not attempt to represent the normal variability in an adult population. However, the issues raised by this research provide many insights about real and artefactual factors that contribute to the rate and experience of depression. The study findings are supplemented by data from other studies undertaken by this research team that are pertinent to the topic and add weight to some of the observations from the Teachers’ Study.
Preliminary Findings from the National Register of Antipsychotic Medication in Pregnancy
Authors: Kulkarni Jayashri , McCauley-Elsom Kay , Marston Natasha , Gilbert Heather , Gurvich Caroline , de Castella Anthony , Fitzgerald Paul
Published: December 2007

Objective: Following the presentation of a case study and an overview of current data highlighting the need for further research into the use of antipsychotic medication during pregnancy, the aim of the present paper was to outline the establishment of, and present preliminary data from, the National Register of Antipsychotic Medication in Pregnancy (NRAMP).

Method: Australian women with a history of psychosis, including schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder with psychosis, schizoaffective disorder and first-episode psychosis, who are pregnant, are currently being invited to participate. The confluence of speculated national pregnancy rates and epidemiological data regarding child-bearing-age women with psychosis suggested an enrolment target of 100 women over a 24 month period. Details of antipsychotic medication are recorded throughout the pregnancy and for 1 year postnatally. Interviews with the mother are conducted 6 weekly antenatally, and then at 6 and 12 weeks, and 6 and 12 months postnatally, to assess symptoms of psychosis and depression, and attitudes towards parenting. In addition, consultations are conducted with the women's health-care providers to collate information regarding pharmacology and related side-effects, obstetric outcomes, psychiatric diagnoses and symptoms during pregnancy and for 1 year after delivery, and the provision of details on the baby's health and well-being.

Results: NRAMP was launched in 2005. Ethics approvals have been gained at 14 sites nationally. Thirty women have consented, and 11 have completed. Data including demographics, health-care provision and medication for the first 30 participants are presented.

Conclusions: The establishment of NRAMP is an important strategy in improving the management of serious mental illness such as schizophrenia and related disorders, in women who are pregnant. This project involves extensive collaboration between many different clinical groups and industry, and shall culminate in an important resource to improve the quality of life for both patients and future generations.