bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Policy and Regulation in the Face of Uncertainty: The Case of Disruptive Markets for Unconventional Natural Gas in North America
Authors: Moore M. C.
Published: February 2011

Energy markets are inherently capital intensive, and operate under the constraints of a wide range of uncertainty and risk, from project and construction, to regulatory approvals and on to market supply and demand characteristics. They reflect deliberate, long term system scale, engineering design and anticipated rates of financial return. As a consequence, the role of policy and regulatory review and approvals plays a significant role in risk profiles.

Since 1990, the substitution of gas-fired combustion for other thermal energy resources has met several key objectives including lower capital cost, lower net air emissions profiles and faster ramp rates. Reports of declining reserves of Natural Gas in North America caused this model to be re-examined recently.

However, recent technology advances have made the extraction of natural gas from so-called unconventional sources cost effective, and extended estimates of affordable supplies several decades in the future. The impact of trend may disrupt reliance on coal and nuclear for base-load electricity resources, displace some hydroelectric facilities used for load firming, and even defer the need for some alternatives such as renewable.

Recent evidence of potential seismic and water quality hazards from hydraulic stimulation of geothermal and tight gas resources suggest that the existing regulatory approval model may be unprepared to deal with the uncertainty and risk associated with these activities. Regulators may decide to either defer decisions to the future, impose uneconomic mitigation measures designed to reduce risk to nearly zero, or simply deny projects on the basis of incomplete or difficult technical presentations or solutions.

Since energy development and consequent risk assessment is highly probabilistic in nature, the deterministic process of regulatory hearings includes an inherent bias against new or innovative, typically unproven technologies and processes. This paper explores the issues that must be addressed within the structure of the regulatory process in order to fairly evaluate the potential of new unconventional gas and alternative technologies in meeting future supply needs in the electricity system.
A Comparative Simulation Study of Addition of Solvents to Steam in SAGD Process
Authors: Ardali M. , Mamora D. D. , Barrufet M.
Published: February 2011

Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) is demonstrated as a proven technology to unlock heavy oil and bitumen in Canadian reservoirs. One of the long-term concerns with the SAGD process is high energy intensity and related environmental impacts. Addition of potential alkane solvents to steam in processes such as ES-SAGD can reduce the high use of energy and green-house emissions in SAGD. However, the principal challenge is the high cost of the solvents. As a result, the economic viability of solvent assisted processes highly depends on the original reservoir and fluid properties and the operating strategy used to co-inject the solvents.

The main objective of this study is to compare the simulation results of addition of potential solvents to steam in two different types of reservoirs, cold lake and Athabasca. Propane, Butane, Pentane, Hexanes and Heptanes with different proportions from 1%-20% by weight have been co-injected with the steam. The simulations carried out in absence and presence of initial solution gas to find out the effect of solution gas on performance of SAGD and solvent assisted SAGD processes.

Simulation results show that initial solution gas reduces the oil recovery especially in Athabasca reservoir. A varying thickness non-condensable gas layer impedes heat transfer from the condensing steam to bitumen zone. Hydrocarbon additives create a high oil phase mobility zone resulting in production acceleration. Solvents heavier than butane are considered suitable candidates for Athabasca type and butane gave better results in Cold Lake type reservoir under operating conditions of this study. In addition, a detailed study is carried out on the properties of different phases such as phase mobility, saturation and viscosity at the steam solvent-oil interface to have a better understanding of the effect of presence hydrocarbon additives in the steam chamber.
Mass Diffusion Parameters in Presence of Interface Resistance in Gas-Bitumen Systems
Authors: Etminan S. Reza , Pooladi-Darvish M. , Maini B. , Chen Z.
Published: February 2011

Measurement of gas diffusivity in reservoir fluids is of interest for numbers of applications, and among different methods, the pressure decay method has received special attention due to its simplicity. In this technique, a quiescent oil column is brought in contact with diffusing gas from the top and the rate of change of gas pressure in the gas cap is recorded. The interpretation of the results is based on a solution of a forward problem, which invokes a complicated boundary condition. In this work, an analytical solution is presented for the most general form of the boundary condition, which takes into account all parameters including gas solubility, diffusion and a possible surface resistance. Effect of resistance against mass diffusion is usually neglected in modeling. One objective of this paper is to better understand the role of the skin resistance, because its inclusion could increase the degree of freedom of the backward problem, and could lead to misleading results (despite a good match of the measurements). Diffusion coefficients are needed for analysis and design of solvent based and gas injection recovery techniques. This parameter improves the prediction of compositional reservoir simulators.

Our mathematical solution reveals that depending on the permeability of the interface and magnitude of mass diffusion coefficient; the behavior of gas concentration at the interface and bitumen body changes. It was found out that once the film resistance is larger, the concentration at the interface exceeds the saturation concentration at the early time of diffusion and then it gets back to it as diffusion proceeds into the bitumen body.

It is expected that this new analytical solution would lead to improved interpretation of pressure decay tests and more accurate estimation of mass transfer parameters.
Considerations for the Implementation of the New Underground Injection Control Program for Carbon Dioxide Geologic Sequestration
Authors: Koplos J. , Nogi J. , Kobelski Bruce
Published: February 2011

In July 2008, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a proposed rule under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regarding the geologic sequestration (GS) of carbon dioxide. The proposed rule recommends the addition of a new class of injection well, Class VI, to EPA’s existing Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program to address the unique nature of carbon dioxide injection and to ensure the protection of underground sources of drinking water (USDWs) from carbon dioxide injection-related activities.

The proposed GS Rule builds upon the existing UIC regulatory framework established under the SDWA. The final rule, anticipated in late 2010 or early 2011, will apply to owners and operators of permitted Class VI injection wells for the subsurface injection of carbon dioxide for long-term underground storage.

States interested in obtaining approval for primary enforcement responsibility ("primacy") for the new Class VI program will apply for primacy to EPA with either a new UIC program application or a UIC program revision (depending on a particular state’s existing UIC primacy status). Any state that chooses not to apply for primacy, or that has not yet received approval for their proposed Class VI program, will have the UIC Class VI program administered by EPA until such time as the state has an approved Class VI program.

EPA is developing multiple technical and programmatic guidance documents for UIC Directors and proposed Class VI injection well owners and operators to assist in meeting the new GS rule requirements. In addition, EPA will be conducting nationwide training workshops for UIC Directors on primacy application and on the technical and programmatic elements of GS Rule and its implementation. EPA is also planning for a series of webcasts focused on technical aspects of the GS rule for interested owners, operators, field service providers, UIC permit reviewers, and others to be involved in GS activities. EPA anticipates that these guidance documents, implementation tools, trainings, and other outreach efforts will assist Class VI injection well owners and operators, as well as state UIC Directors, in meeting the new GS Rule requirements.
Real-Time Completion Optimization Of Multiple Laterals In Gas Shale Reservoirs: Integration of Geology, Log, Surface Seismic, and Microseismic Information
Authors: Ramakrishnan H. , Yuyan Rioka , Belhadi J.
Published: February 2011

Multidisciplinary data integration combined with the deployment of proper technology is key to optimizing shale gas completions. This paper focuses on the real-time completion optimization of multiple laterals drilled from the same well pad in shale gas reservoirs. These laterals are spaced as closeas a few hundred feet laterally with varying vertical landing points. Though these laterals do expose more of the nanodarcy permeability shale rock and increase contact area through fracture stimulation—resulting in more efficient drainage—the challenge remains to optimize the stimulation treatment to maximize coverage around each designated lateral. The optimization process involves perforation and stage placement, sequential stimulation of these laterals, fluid and proppant schedules, treatment rates, and application of diversion technology when appropriate to achieve effective stimulation along these laterals and between the wells.

In a comprehensive multiwell completion case history from the Barnett Shale, geologic, well, and surface seismic information was integrated with log measurements using Petrel reservoir modeling software. This integrated understanding was coupled with live microseismic data, enabling reliable real-time decisions during stimulation to optimize stimulation coverage and proppant placement around these laterals. Opportunities in making changes to original designs were seized when injectivity problems were encountered early in the treatment process. This approach was executed successfully to gain injectivity and, later, to increase the conductive fracture area, allowing the frac to be managed in real time.

Observed fracture pressure responses and production from these pad wells validated the approach. Ultimately, an optimal horizontal stimulation was achieved by leveraging favorable rock properties to create a larger fracture surface contact area, thereby maximizing gas production potential and recovery.

The integrated approach presented here can be applied to any single well or multilateral shale gaswells.
Biofuels: Green Energy for the Century?
Authors: Odizuru-Abangwu Ijeoma
Published: February 2011

Energy demand and usage is continuously increasing with the development of emerging economies like China and India. Present sources of energy, largely fossil fuels, are not sufficient to meet these increasing needs. Fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal) are associated with pollution and emission of greenhouse gases, which are harmful to the environment. As a result, global warming and climate change have taken centre stage in world summits; notable is the December 2009 United Nations Climate Change conference in Copenhagen.

With increasing concerns on global warming and its attendant effects on climate change, there is a gradual shift of technologies towards greener options. The use of fossil fuels is further bedevilled with its scarcity and access issues, hence, a conscious shift towards renewable energy. Renewable energy options include solar, wind, geothermal and biomass. These energy options are critical to the protection of the environment and energy sustainability. Currently, the biggest contribution to the world's renewable energy mix is biomass. Biofuels is becoming increasingly important for transportation because it is providing the much-needed green option to fossil fuels. A recent publication stated that it could reduce carbon emissions by as much as 50-60%.

Biofuels are fuels derived from organic sources (biomass). This paper discusses the sources of biofuels and its classifications into first, second and third generation biofuels. It also gives an overview of associated technologies used in conversion of biomass to biofuels and raises awareness on its economic, environment and technical benefits, as well as issues and challenges surrounding its use as a green energy option.
Sustenance and Management of a Matured Waterflood - A Niger Delta Case Study
Authors: Olayemi Sarah , Ileagu Charles , Opusunju Augusta , Kalio Samuel , Olabisi Akadiri
Published: February 2011

The field started production in 1965, it is structurally complex, comprising of several structural closures contained within three major fault blocks. The flooded reservoir block discussed in this paper came into production in 1965. Rapid pressure decline (55 psi per 1 % of STOIIP produced) was observed in the early production life of the reservoir.

The rapid reservoir pressure decline caused shrinkage losses and expansion of the gas cap; this in turn resulted in production problems. A case for water injection was made & full-scale water injection commenced in 1978 with 3 injection wells taking water from a shallow aquifer through 2 source water wells. In addition to arresting further reservoir pressure decline, the project protects a reservoir production rate of 3.5kbopd and safeguards up to 10 MMstb remaining reserves.

The water injection project like many matured waterflood systems operated under matrix conditions was plagued by frequent loss of injectivity & surface facility integrity issues coupled with the peculiar security situation of the Niger Delta.

This paper describes;

How well & surface challenges with the water injection project have been resolved Continuing operational and performance monitoring methods to sustain and optimally manage the peripheral water injection
The Role of Petroleum Engineering Education in the Enhancement of Oil and Gas Production
Authors: Ogbonna Festus C. , Chukwu Godwin
Published: February 2011

Education is a primary concern of the international oil and gas industry at present (Ronalds, 2002). Quantitative competence is important, but will not likely separate professionals from their fellow competitors. There is a limit to the progress to be made in the petroleum profession based on technical competence alone. This paper investigates and creates a better understanding of those basic elements which must form part of a petroleum engineer's education in the new millennium to enhance production and meet demands. In the backdrop of the identified challenges faced by industry, the elements discussed include critical reasoning, business & uncertainty management, leadership, teamwork skills, ethics and professionalism, the humanities, and communication. These help to understand how the petroleum engineer's education should evolve so as to cope with the changing environment and ensure career success.

This study reveals that the petroleum engineer's soft skills and knowledge of these elements require expansion. Creation of an expanded curriculum is necessary to tap into the subjects that engage the younger generation. Model curricula in selected top petroleum universities are studied to identify areas for emulation and for improvement. Educational models that could help transfer competence to the Third World institutions are proposed.
Use of Critical Multiphase Flow Correlation for Bean Surveillance
Authors: Nnanna Erasmus , Akaeze Raphael , Mbanefo Edith , Opusunju Augusta
Published: February 2011

A simple technique for investigating choke erosion based on critical multiphase flow correlation has been developed. It utilizes the coefficient (C-constant) in the correlation for determining whether the bean is being eroded or plugged. The coefficient remains fairly constant for a given well but only deviates if the bean is being subjected to erosion or plugging or if the well's operating point is in the sub-critical flow region. Bean erosion and plugging were simulated using a surface facility-coupled well model constructed with Prosper software. The model showed that the C-constant decreased when the bean was being eroded and increased when the bean was experiencing plugging. Test performance for cases of bean plugging was not available and therefore, the study focussed on bean erosion alone. Actual production test data were used from different fields where choke erosion has been reported in verifying the concept. The technique was also used to back-calculate the effective bean sizes for the wells with eroded bean. It was evident that the wells have been produced with effective bean sizes outside the desired operating window with the attendant reservoir management consequences.

This paper recommends the use of this technique for verifying production test to ascertain the integrity of the reported bean size for reservoir management. The analysis can also be used to advise on the priority wells for bean box checks/bean change out. It can also be used to expedite calibration of integrated production system models (IPSM) with the right bean sizes.
Pipeline Laser Imaging and Metrology Using Laser Smart Pig
Authors: Ekpemu U. , Aloba S.
Published: February 2011

This paper describes a novel technology at the final development stage using laser optical sensor technology for pipeline inspection. Laser profiling systems have previously been developed for surface applications, but they have not been available for practical subsea use. SLD has worked on several subsea laser profiling technologies and demonstrated the potential of the Laser Smart Pig (LSP1) not only on surface applications but also on underwater applications. This is an offset of the known Magnetic Flux Leakage Inline Inspection tool (MFL-ILI), where the smart pig is used to inspect the pipeline with sensors and records the data for later analysis.

This technology is built on the skills and vast years of experience of the research team in SLD who are developing new formats of Subsea laser dimensional information and imaging systems. The technology uses two lasers and a camera to collect enough data in order to produce a 3D reconstruction of the inside of the pipeline within 1mm resolution. It detects corrosion, erosion and any geometric deformation with a very good accuracy inside the pipeline. This tool can be deployed in pipelines on land, and underwater. With the growing number of pipelines underwater in Nigeria and on surface, accurate dimensional information and images of pipelines which the LSP1 provides, is essential for the early detection of faults which could lead to a shortening of the life of the pipeline.
Integrated Formation Resistivity Forward Modeling; A Case Study Of A Carbonate Reservoir
Authors: Affandi Ridho , Kunto Tri Widyo , Nurali Yusup , Darmawan Ganesha Rinku , Setiawan Adjie
Published: February 2011

Challenging situation happens in development of a carbonate reservoir (Kujung Formation) in ‘X’ Field, East Java, Indonesia, in contrast with overpressure and sloughing shale above it. The presence of sour gas with 7000 ppm of H2S increased the level of complexity in drilling operations. The actual carbonate top formation (Top Kujung Formation) is difficult to be predicted only from seismic data, as in some area of deposition there are development of "reef talus" which could lead to wrong interpretations and premature casing set which could bring unwanted consequences. One well was facing premature casing set, the other well was drill thru the carbonate and facing severe losses and cannot be cured by loss circulation material and cement which increased the drilling cost. Learning from previous drilling operations, a formation Resistivity forward modeling which including real time modeling with Logging While Drilling (LWD) and integrated with rock cutting analysis. Formation Resistivity modeling was developed based on four wells previously drilled in the structure. Two different Resistivity models that might be encountered during drilling and model update during drilling operation is a must to avoid drilling deeper into the carbonate. Upper layer easily recognized using log correlation, followed/calibrated with confirmation from mud logging cutting data by real time correlation and forward modeling with LWD geoVISION Resistivity and Array Resistivity Compensated (GVR-ARC mark of Schlumberger) from 50 - 100 meters from the expected top carbonates. This paper provide detailed method of precise top carbonate determination in this case Top Kujung Formation for the one recently drilled wells in the structure "X", improving zone isolation with precise casing setting depth, integrated with Resistivity forward modeling where this method has been successfully implemented.
Magnetized Water for Improve Sweep Efficiency
Authors: Effiong G. M. , Appah D. , Abbey T. M.
Published: February 2011

Mature oil and gas fields are difficult to rehabilitate effectively because of the economics and declining production. Many fields are abandoned prematurely when their life could be prolonged significantly through application of new technology. Based on this notion, mechanisms of petroleum recovery by magnetized water injection were taken into consideration. Advantages and disadvantages of its injection in the petroleum reservoirs have been reviewed and compared with water flooding. The magnetized water flooding result was remarkable when compared to ordinary water and saline water flooding result.

During the course of the study, a mathematical model of the forces involved in magnetized water flooding was developed and the result of the model was validated in the laboratory experimentally. Based on the extensive studies it was observe that the laboratory result was in agreement with the mathematical model developed. From the result gotten, it is strongly convinced that the technique of using magnetized water to flood pressure depleted reservoirs hold promise in the future. If adequately applied can recover up to 45 − 60 percent of the total oil in place.
An Economic Approach to Gas Flare-down in a Selected Field in Nigeria
Authors: Adewale D. , Joshua Ogunrinde O.
Published: February 2011

The paper evaluates the economic and financial viability gy of flaring reduction options in a selected field in Nigeria. ia. Consequently, this research will focus on Identifications of current options in gas utilization.Factors affecting the selection of a particular option.

Nigeria flares 17.2 billion m3 of natural gas per year in i the Niger Delta. The natural gas flared is more than any ther country in the world. Nigeria has reserves of about 187 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and 3.5 billion cubic feet (1,000,000,000.m3) of Associated Gas (AG) produced ann annually, 2.5 billion cubic feet (70,000,000m3), or about 70% is wasted as a result of flaring. This equals about 25% of UK's total natural gas consumption and it's the equivalent of about 40% of the entire African continents gas consumption in 2001. The annual gas wasted due to flaring g is estimated to cost the country about $2.5 billion annually. This gas flaring expends huge amount of energy and causes environmental degradation and this paper focuses on the benefits that can be derived from gas and its impact on the local economy and the environment. Global Gas Flaring Reduction (GGFR) initiative was used to perform an economic and financial analysis. Using inputs like, daily gas production, price of diesel and fuel, distance to power grid amongst others.

This paper therefore concludes that the local livelihood in the Niger Delta will be significantly improved by promoting a shift from gas flaring to gas gathering for use as a gaseous fuel and for electricity generation. Also, environmental prone diseases will be reduced and agriculture will be enhanced in the Niger delta area. Although there is a great technical and cost involvement, this project is a worthy investment. The gas flare-down will also help to combat Global climate change which United Nations Environment programme (UNEP) is advocating throughout the world in Copenhagen in December 2009 which is mostly caused by global warming.
Improving Oil Production and Recovery Using Reservoir (Fluid) Surveillance Mapping: Niger Delta Example
Authors: U Ileagu Charles , Yahaya Ismael , Arit Igogo , Marcel Onyekwe
Published: February 2011

As the oil production of mature reservoirs declines and budget constraints continue to limit rig-based well interventions and infill drilling, the need for practical and cost effective methods of identifying and recovering remaining resources become increasingly essential. The Reservoir Surveillance Mapping (RSM) method, also referred to as ‘the poor engineer's simulator’, provides a result-oriented means of identifying and accelerating oilrecovery.

This paper describes practical aspects of RSM efforts in a Niger Delta asset, that involved an integrated reservoir-wide management process with the objective of not only understanding subsurface dynamics during production but also delivering a future work programme for the asset's reservoir blocks.
Diagnosing Wellbore Failures What are We Doing Wrong?
Authors: Dosunmu Adewale , Bose Ekeinde Evelyn
Published: February 2011

Assessment of wellbore failure involves several parameters for which data may be readily available. Since wellbore failure problems in exploration and production drilling cost the drilling industry certainly more than $100 million per year worldwide and may approach one billion dollars annually.

The rock mechanic input data required for analysis are complicated and costly to acquire which causes failure in the analysis and as a result leads to wellbore collapse. This project presents a computer model software which takes into account mud chemistry, Mohr-Coulomb model, Mogi-Coloumb model, Drucker-Prager and Modified Lade Model and uses the latest Microsoft. Net Technology (Microsoft Visual Basic 2008) as the software backbone.

Most of the overburden consists of shale formations. In highly reactive shale sections, mud chemistry is of extreme importance in addition to the mechanical aspects of the instability. The mud composition changes as shales slough and disperse into the mud column, or by chemical interactions between the minerals in the formation and the mud. This indeed will alter mud property and rheology and cause well bore failure.

Mohr model involves only the maximum and minimum principal stress and assumes that the intermediate stress has no influence on rock strength.

Results from the software indicate that modified Lade criteria tend to be more realistic than the Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager model.

Furthermore, the software shows that for any rock type an increase in borehole inclination angle increases the rock borehole instability. Sensitivity analyses by the software confirm the reliability of the models reviewed.
Successful Application of Formation Pressure Testing While Drilling in High Temperature Tight Gas Field in South Sea China
Authors: Guo Shusheng , Niu Yuqiang , Song Ju , Lim Lee Chin , Yang Xingwang , Zhou Jiasheng , Wang Renyi , Peng Wenfeng
Published: February 2011

Formation pressure and mobility measurements play a critical role in the development and management of compartmentalized reservoirs. Conventionally, wireline formation tester (WFT) tool has been used for such appliations. However, reservoir evaluation becomes challenging in high temperature environment, due to the unchangeable temperature limitations of WFT tools.

This paper presents a case study where formation pressure and mobility are acquired by applying formation pressure testing while drilling (FPWD) at a high temperature (HT) offshore gas well in South Sea, China. With a thermal gradient of as high as 4.5 degC/100m, the estimated formation temperature is higher than the maximum temperature rating of the wireline tools. By integrating detailed pre-job design maintaining the working temperature at acceptable range and real-time monitoring including data quality control and measurement optimization ensuring the functionality of hardware and the quality of measurement, FPWD has successfully revealed the formation properties.
Successful Execution of ‘D Field Compressed Gas Capacity Enhancement Integrated Turnaround’ (DuCIT), Peninsular Malaysia Operations, PETRONAS
Authors: Ismail Firdaus , Razizad Afiq Syazwan , Awang M Zaki , Razali Nasaruddin , Osman Azmee , Hadi Sriyanta
Published: February 2011

D Field is a major oil field located about 130 km offshore Terengganu, eastern Peninsular Malaysia with a water depth of 76 meters in the South China Sea (Refer to Figure 1). The facilities within the field include oil and gas processing plant, water and gas injection facilities, gas compression system and a Floating Storage and Offloading (FSO) where the crude oil is exported (Refer to Figure 2). The field was brought to production in March 1991 with an average oil production of 45,000 barrels of oil per day (BOPD) and peaked at approximately 75,000 BOPD. Water injection has been implemented for pressure maintenance and as part of the field life journey; water alternating gas (WAG) injection will be introduced to enhance oil recovery within the field. Fulfilling the WAG requirement particularly on gas injection, an additional gas compression module called the Compressed Gas Capacity Enhancement (CGCE) was installed to increase the gas compression capacity. In March 2010, D field has successfully completed two major jobs, the CGCE module installation and field turnaround simultaneously under a campaign called ‘D-field CGCE Integrated Turnaround’ (DuCIT). CGCE module installation comprises of the installation of a 900 metric tonne module onto the existing platform and the turnaround execution manages to complete planned activities including surface facility maintenance and well related works within the same period. DuCIT involved two major parties, D field Operations and the CGCE Project Management. With a huge challenge in coordinating a total of 400 personnel and controlling concurrent activities in a high risk operation, the team manages to complete the turnaround ahead of schedule with zero Loss Time Injury (LTI). DuCIT has been recognized as the best turnaround adhering to the requirements of PETRONAS standards on plant operation and capability. Analysis presented in this paper describes important key success factors in DuCIT execution; they are 1) proper turnaround planning, 2) developing excellent teamwork and 3) prominent operation coordination. The paper also describes the mitigation plans that were in place.
Thick Black Liquid Formation in Production Facilities Centrifugal Gas Compressors' Discharge: A Case Study
Authors: Al-Mehthel Rashed , Carvalho Wilfred , Mehdi Mauyed
Published: February 2011

Problem Statement

A thick black hydrocarbon formation was found on centrifugal gas compressors’ discharge end wall and in the downstream discharge isolation valves that were installed in one of Saudi Aramco’s gas-oil separation plants (GOSPs) shortly after the plant commissioning. This phenomenon instigated a thorough process and material compatibility investigation. The mechanical part of this paper explores the reasons behind the compressors’ end wall and discharge isolation valves’ O-rings failure despite the fact that these were made of a material designed to withstand higher than actual and design discharge temperatures. The process section looks at sources of the residue formation at the compressor’s discharge, in particular, the compressor’s suction knock out drums demisters pad design.

Background

The problem was encountered in a gas-oil separation plant (GOSP) that compresses associated gas to a discharge pressure of 450 psig and an operating temperature that can reach 340 °F during the summer season. Thick black liquid was observed leaking from the barrel of the discharge end flange of two high-pressure (HP) gas compressors about a year after the plant commissioning.

The liquid was also observed at the compressor’s balance line (discharge end) on both compressors. A third compressor that operates at a lower discharge pressure and temperature, 105 psig and a maximum temperature of 300 °F, did not develop any symptoms of leaks in spite of operating under sour conditions. After nearly two years of operations, one of the HP gas compressors was dismantled and overhauled to investigate the source of the problem.
The Role of Project Management Team in Waterflood Pilot Project as a Plan for Full Project Development
Authors: Ardianto Reza Nur , Simamora John Hisar
Published: February 2011

Business management of oil and gas in Pertamina, state oil enterprises, was handed over to one of its subsidiaries, Pertamina EP (PEP). With a vast working area of 140,000 km2, consists of 214 field where 80 percent is an old field (mature field or brown field), The conditions that have to be faced are as follows: production from existing field is declining, data is collected and interpreted over a long time period, huge amount of production data, and reservoir model and simulation are not frequently updated

The issue of maintaining production with small investment has changed due to the management and government board that urged to increase oil & gas production as result from national production increasing program. To get better recovery of those brown fields, it is necessary to have a long term project such as EOR. Some screening criteria had been completed to select an appropriate method which could be applied in certain field. It is obvious that the potential increase in oil reverse through EOR is quite significant. Pertamina EP is currently preparing a program Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) to be applied in some oil field with subsurface and surface potential consideration.

The implementation of waterflood project in Rantau field was initiated by EOR Department, Pertamina EP. The pilot project which was proposed in two patterns and it was successfully executed in January 2009. The increase in oil recovery by waterflooding results from displacement efficiency and volumetric sweep efficiency when injected water maintains reservoir energy and displaces remaining oil to production well ahead of advancing water.
First Multi-Stage Swell Packers Open Hole Completion in Rub’ Al-Khali Empty Desert: Case Study
Authors: Ekpe Joseph , Kompantsev Andrey , Al-Thuwaini Jamal , Mohammad Emad , Ashoor Ayman
Published: February 2011

Many "poor" gas prospects-particularly ultralow-permeability and porosity unconventional rocks such as tight sand-become economic success when hydraulic fractures are created in the pay zone. The fractures allow a single well bore to contact many thousands of square feet reservoirs. Using swellable packer technology has mechanically simplified fracture job. Using multiple packers ensures the entire zone is treated; or in other words, knowing where the fracture fluid goes once it exits the casing, and how each set of fractures is isolated from another is a key in a successful hydraulic fracture design.

Lukoil Saudi Arabia started an exploration campaign in the Rub’Al-Khali Empty Quarter in 2006 targeting Non Associated Gas and nine wildcat exploration wells have been drilled and evaluated. It was found during the early stages of the exploration that the gas accumulations in LUKOIL Saudi Arabia exploration Area (Block-A), were typically trapped in tight to ultra-tight reservoirs (see Fig. 1). These gas discoveries in the Empty Quarter have occurred in High Pressure and High Temperature (HPHT) horizons at depths between 12,000 and 20,000 ft, where the stress and temperature are extremely high in addition to micro-Darcy levels of reservoir permeability. This has made the exploration activity more challenging.

Figure 1 Location of Project Area in Rub Al-Khali Desert
Well Engineering for Oman Deep Gas: Planning and Drilling the Deepest Well in the Sultanate of Oman
Authors: Al-Saadi Khamis bin , Smith Matt , Dhawan Sandeep , Al-Mawali Salim , Al-Shidani Ibrahim
Published: February 2011

As part of ongoing gas exploration efforts, Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) is currently executing a fast-track four well drilling campaign targeting deep, high temperature and potentially high pressure prospects (CITHP>10,000 psi, BHST >170° C), using under-balanced drilling in the Fahud Salt Basin in the Sultanate of Oman.

In early 2009, a co-located, ring-fenced multi-disciplinary team including two Well Engineers was set-up. The objective was to spud the first well before the end of 2009 and complete the four well campaign within two years. This paper describes the process followed to progress well designs, procure materials and get the rigs and people in place in only 8 months from project kick-off to spudding the first well. Recognized industry standards indicate that such projects typically take more than 18 months to deliver.

Using PDO's experience in deep gas exploration it was possible to standardize well components and only introduce additional items where unavoidable. To further accelerate the project, the two campaign rigs were upgraded with Top Drive Systems and 7500 psi mud circulating capability.

The paper goes on to present the drilling challenges and learnings gathered from the first two wells., Both wells were a technical success and delivered within the planned time and cost. The deepest well at 7145 m AH set Sultanate of Oman records for total depth and bottom-hole temperature. The key challenges faced were downhole tool reliability, directional control in a long slim hole reservoir, drill string dynamics, short planning interval, just in time material delivery and bit and downhole drive optimization. Significant future time and cost reduction is expected to be possible by applying the key learning’s on future wells.
Assessing Gas-Lift Capability to Support Asset Design
Authors: Hall James W. , Jaralla Mubarak A.
Published: February 2011

Qatar Petroleum (QP) produces hydrocarbons from the onshore Dukhan Field and two offshore oil fields (Bul Hanine and Maydan Mahzam). After producing via natural flow for an extended period, pressure depletion and water influx have led to the use of artificial lift. The lift method of choice in QP-operated oil fields is continuous flow gas lift, for both technical and economic reasons.

The time of transition from natural flow to artificial lift for an oil field presents significant challenges and also great opportunity. A number of aspects of the operation need to be updated, to suit the new conditions imposed by artificial lift requirements. Successful adaptation to the new requirements delivers great benefit. Similarly, failure to determine and adapt to the new requirements can lead to early abandonment of a field. The task of determining the requirements for the organization, people, systems, and hardware is facilitated by a structured multi-disciplinary approach to achieve the best results.

In order to evaluate the existing capabilities in the field of gas lift, a team of technical specialists conducts a series of interviews with selected staff. The goal of these interviews is to first establish the current perceived capability in gas lift across the stakeholder directorates. After establishing this current state perception, those interviewed are then asked to articulate their vision of where the organization should be in the future, to achieve maximum recovery / benefit from the producing assets. This methodology has been successfully applied for other initiatives in the recent past.

After reconciling the differences between perceived "As-Is" and actual state, and also perceived "To-Be" with technically feasible targets, a "Road Map" is developed. The road map outlines the path to development of capability related to organization, people, systems, and hardware to deliver the vision for long term gas lift production of the assets. The combined road map elements define specific functionality which is incorporated into the design of the facilities.

This integrated, multi-disciplinary approach facilitates communication between organizational segments and supports the inclusion of critical components in the design and operational practices of the new infrastructure to support gas lift operations. Facilities designed with consideration for the long term goals of the business will serve to reduce operating costs, reduce HSE exposure, and improve ultimate recovery.
Cleveland Formation - Recent Results and Lessons Learned During Horizontal Re-development of a Mature Field
Authors: Bumbaugh David
Published: February 2011

The Cleveland formation is a mature tight gas reservoir which has been developed since the 1950’s with vertical wells and 2003 with horizontals. Continued development and subsurface evaluation has enhanced the understanding of this mature field and the experience gained within this field has been applied to other tight gas plays. This paper will discuss four main areas of recent work and studies. The recent 2008 Coiled Tubing re-entry horizontal sidetrack program utilized a large stock of existing vertical wells to drill horizontal wells. Global expertise in CTD was applied to meet the unique challenges of this project. Operational insights, well results and performance will be presented. Secondly, advancements in Open Hole Multiple Packer completion systems have allowed operators to drill longer laterals and isolate an increasing number of horizontal intervals for independent fracture treatments. Now that a significant number of wells have been on production for several years using these systems, we may better understand the relationship between lateral length, number of frac stages, and EUR of these wells. Actual well performance and reservoir simulation modeling will be discussed. Thirdly, the global economic recession has impacted the development of this field. Costs to drill and complete a well changed and the robust oil prices and low gas prices have altered the focus in this complex "gas" play to areas with higher oil content and where the gas has a richer BTU content and therefore higher NGL yields. The impact and results of horizontal development in the oilier areas once avoided will be discussed. Finally some of the results and conclusions from the ongoing subsurface evaluations will be presented. Evaluation techniques of the reservoir from production and pressure data, modeling and rock type analysis may yield information relevant not only in understanding this tight reservoir but others too.
Methodology for the assessment of the greenhouse gas impact of wastewater sludge treatment
Authors: Åkerman A. , Massagué A. , Mehier S. , Senante E. , Escaler I. , Martel J. L. , Audic J. M.
Published: February 2011

Nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) emissions from the wastewater sector represent the second largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the waste sector. A protocol has been developed to measure GHG from sewage sludge treatment. GHG measurements were performed on two industrial sewage sludge composting plants. Measurement campaigns showed GHG emissions range between 0.18 to 3.40 kgCH4\t dry sludge and 0.74 to 0.48 kg N2O\t dry sludge. Converted to CO2 equivalent to assess climate change impact, emission factors of CH4 range between 4.5 and 85 kg eq.CO2\t dry sludge and N2O range between 143 and 221 kg eq.CO2\t dry sludge when calculated with global warming potentials (GWP) of 25 and 298, respectively. In terms of climate change impact, N2O emissions contribute much more than CH4 because of its higher GWP. N2O is linked to the treatment of nitrogen and produced during the nitrification and denitrification biological processes. Process emissions measured on the two sites were compared with indirect emissions linked to operational energy use.
Comments by the Auditing Standards Committee of the Auditing Section of the American Accounting Association on IIA’s Exposure Draft of 2010 International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing
Authors: Bierstaker James , Abbott Lawrence , Parker Susan
Published: February 2011

SUMMARY: Recently, the Institute of Internal Auditor’s (IIA) Internal Audit Standards Board (IASB) conducted a comprehensive review of the International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing (Standards). The IIA proposed changes to some of the Standards and also recommended new Standards. The IIA provided for a 90-day exposure period (from February 15, 2010, to May 14, 2010) for interested parties to examine and provide comments on the proposed changes and new Standards. The Auditing Standards Committee of the Auditing Section of the American Accounting Association provided the comments in the letter below to the IIA on the 2010 International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing exposure draft.
Identification of hypercoagulability in dogs with primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia by means of thromboelastography
Authors: Fenty Renee K. , deLaforcade Armelle M. , Shaw Scott E. , O'Toole Therese E.
Published: February 2011

Objective—To evaluate whole blood hemostasis by means of thromboelastography in dogs with primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA) to determine whether these dogs had evidence of hypercoagulability prior to the administration of immunosuppressant medications, blood transfusion products, or anticoagulant agents.

Design—Evaluation study.

Animals—11 client-owned dogs admitted to a teaching hospital for management of primary IMHA and 20 clinically normal dogs.

Procedures—Citrated whole blood samples were obtained from all dogs for performance of kaolin-activated thromboelastography. Citrated plasma was harvested from blood samples of dogs with IMHA for plasma-based coagulation testing, including activated partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, D-dimer concentration, fibrinogen concentration, and antithrombin activity.

Results—Compared with control dogs, dogs with primary IMHA had evidence of hypercoagulability as indicated by a significantly lower median (range) clot formation time (0.8 seconds [0.8 to 2.0 seconds] vs 1.9 seconds [1.3 to 3.8 seconds]), higher median angle (76.1° [59.2° to 84.6°] vs 64.0° [45.4° to 71.0°]), higher median maximum amplitude (75.9 mm [66.3 to 86.3 mm] vs 55.7 mm [49.9 to 63.6 mm]), and higher median clot strength (15,000 dyne/cm2 [9,900 to 31,400 dyne/cm2] vs 6,100 dyne/cm2 [4,900 to 8,700 dyne/cm2]).

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Dogs with primary IMHA had hypercoagulability as demonstrated by thromboelastography at the time of initial diagnosis and prior to treatment. Such hypercoagulability may be a precursor to clinically evident thrombosis as a complication of the disease process.