bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Eyewitness Identification
Authors: Hiestand Todd C.
Published: January 2014

Eyewitness identifications often provide valuable evidence in criminal cases. This evidence, however, may not always be accurate. Estimator variables, such as the amount of time an eyewitness has to view the subject, and system variables, such as the type of lineup used by investigators, may impact the accuracy of the identification and the confidence of the eyewitness that a correct identification was made. This entry explores these issues and provides pertinent examples of research in this area, including several case examples.
Double Jeopardy
Authors: Hiestand Todd C.
Published: January 2014

The Double Jeopardy Clause in the Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution prevents the government from retrying a criminal defendant for the same criminal offense after jeopardy has attached. The history of this relatively simple proposition is explored along with its practical complexities in modern American jurisprudence. Additionally, case examples of the application of the Double Jeopardy Clause are provided.
Gun Control Policy
Authors: McVey Randolph T.
Published: January 2014

This article examines some of the controversy surrounding gun control policy, the Second Amendment of the United States Constitution, and the history of gun control policy initiatives.
International Criminal Justice Standards
Authors: Redo Sławomir M.
Published: January 2014

Among international criminal justice standards, the United Nations (UN) crime prevention and criminal justice standards and norms are the most important. They range from law enforcement through the judiciary to alternatives to custodial measures and restorative justice. They involve the access to justice by crime victims, offenders, and children in conflict with the law; the treatment of women prisoners; noncustodial measures for women offenders; and the prevention of youth urban crime. The UN standards have far greater potential than currently realized.
Teen Courts
Authors: Ventura Miller Holly , Miller J. Mitchell
Published: January 2014

Teen court, commonly referred to as youth court, is a diversionary program for youthful offenders designed to prevent further involvement in the formal juvenile justice system. Teen court programs involve proceedings wherein young people are sentenced by their peers, typically in either a school or courthouse setting, with the cooperation of state agencies such as departments of education and juvenile justice. Teen courts are viewed as both a viable diversionary program for first‐time and minor offenders, and a less expensive alternative to the traditional family court process.
Prison Violence
Authors: Kuo Shih‐Ya
Published: January 2014

Prison settings are breeding grounds for violence. Prison violence may take different forms, such as homicides, assaults, rapes, and riots. This entry provides an overview of prison violence and its extent in the United States. Although there are different data sources on prison violence, this entry primarily focuses on data collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). Social scientists have offered numerous explanations for prison violence, with several developing theoretical models to explain prison violence. Discussed are three generally recognized theoretical models of prison violence, namely the importation, deprivation, and exploratory models. Implications of prison violence and suggestions for future studies are included.
Corporal Punishment
Authors: Scheidegger Amie R.
Published: January 2014

Corporal punishment is the purposeful infliction of physical pain upon a person. Three forms of corporal punishment are addressed in this entry: judicial corporal punishment, educational corporal punishment, and domestic corporal punishment. Judicial corporal punishment is a sanction given by the state in response to a violation of law. Educational corporal punishment is administered within a school setting in response to a violation of school policy or misbehavior. A parent or guardian administers domestic corporal punishment in response to a child misbehaving or committing any number of infractions.
Certification of Criminal Justice Academic Programs
Authors: McMurray Harvey L.
Published: January 2014

In order to ensure that colleges and universities, public and private, meet minimum standards in educating their students, a number of commissions or accrediting bodies have been established. In addition to the six regional accrediting bodies (e.g., Southern Association of Colleges and Schools/SACS), there are national accrediting bodies (e.g., Distance Education and Training Council/DETC), and specialized accrediting bodies (e.g., American Medical Association/AMA). Whatever the type or level of accreditation or certification, the core issue is one of “accountability.”
Victim Impact Statements
Authors: Hill Jennifer
Published: January 2014

Historically, victims had an important role in common law, as they were responsible for the apprehension, charge, and prosecution of offenders. Over the past several decades, the victims' rights movement has advocated for a more wide‐ranging criminal justice system, one that would allow victims to have a more prominent role in the justice process. In 1974, the idea of a victim impact statement (VIS) was first introduced in Fresno, California; however, VISs were not passed into law until Congress passed the Victim and Witness Protection Act that specifically called for introducing victim impact evidence at sentencing. The use of VISs in sentencing has been controversial since the idea was first introduced because dissenters question their complexity and effectiveness in the judicial system. VISs raise the idea that punishment is based on consequences arising from characteristics of the victim, rather than on the actions and intention of the offender. Supporters of VISs argue that indirect effects of a crime on victims' lives are equally important to consider as direct effects. Dissenters argue that specific consequences following an unlawful act that were not intended or foreseen by the offender should not be a factor when determining an appropriate sentence for the offender.
Parens Patriae
Authors: Steinke Camela M.
Published: January 2014

Parens patriaeis a doctrine adopted from English common law that is used in courts in the United States as a justification for removing juveniles from the custody of their parents for the best interests of the child. While it was originally broad in its applicability, the American court system has limited its use, providing juveniles more rights within the juvenile system.
Pretrial Diversion
Authors: Greene Carolyn , Madon Natasha S.
Published: January 2014

Pretrial diversion practices are designed to reduce the number of offenders formally processed within the criminal justice system. Initially designed to target juvenile offenders away from formal court processing, formal diversionary efforts are now aimed at both juvenile and adult offenders in a range of criminal justice settings. This entry provides a brief overview of the development and use of pretrial diversion over time and examines some of the existing research on pretrial diversion practices.
Drug Courts
Authors: Gibbs Benjamin R. , Wakefield William
Published: January 2014

Drug courts provide an intermediate sanction that combines intensive supervision with substance abuse treatment designed to rehabilitate substance‐abusing offenders in order to reduce their recidivism. In doing so, jail and prison populations may also be reduced. Since their inception in 1989, the drug court movement has grown to over 2,000 programs that now operate in the United States. The drug court model is characterized by criminal justice monitoring of participants through frequent drug tests, contacts with supervision personnel, alcohol and drug treatment, and frequent judicial intervention. Through status hearings, the progress of participants is evaluated and rewards and/or sanctions are administered based on the extent of compliance (or lack thereof). The ultimate goal of drug courts is to reduce offender re‐arrests through the mandate of alcohol and drug abstinence.
Adversary System
Authors: Benefiel Rodger
Published: January 2014

The American criminal justice system relies on judicial restraint and adversarial advocacy to protect the rights of an individual against the power of the state. However, critics believe that such a system values victory over truth and some have advocated for a shift toward an inquisitorial system, which emphasizes an investigative approach to the determination of guilt. This overview of the adversary system contrasts it with the inquisitorial system, and includes a discussion of the differing roles of judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys in each system. While aspects of both systems can be seen to be very different, both are similar in many ways.
Drug Enforcement
Authors: Jackson Robin
Published: January 2014

Enforcement of drug control policy has been an ongoing effort in the United States since the early twentieth century. Early federal organizations such as the Narcotics Division were created to ensure that drug control policies were enforced. Current drug enforcement agencies continue to uphold drug control policy through a variety of mechanisms which include efforts to interrupt the source at the federal and state level. Federal agencies such as the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the United States Customs Service work together as well as working with state and local law enforcement to gather information about drug production and target international drug trafficking.
Drug Control Policy
Authors: Jackson Robin D.
Published: January 2014

Drug control policies in the United States have been in place since the latter portion of the nineteenth century. Early efforts to control drug use in the United States began with regulation of packaged foods with the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906. Subsequent efforts to control drugs in the United States moved from a taxation model to the current system, which is the criminalization model. The current model relies on punitive drug laws and mandatory minimum sentencing that have led to an influx of drug abusers in state and federal prisons.
Child Soldiers
Authors: Joseph Janice
Published: January 2014

In several countries around the world, children under the age of 18 years are serving as soldiers in current armed conflicts. They participate in every aspect of the war or conflict from being on the front lines of combat to acting as spies, messengers, or lookouts. Child soldiers use AK‐47s, M‐16s, and grenades because they are easy to use. Orphans and refugees sometimes see that their only hope for survival is by joining a militia.
Racketeering
Authors: Goldstock Ronald , Blakey G. Robert
Published: January 2014

The term “racketeering,” often used to connote organized crime activity, was derived from the noise (racket) that accompanied the huge dinners thrown by New York Tammany Hall politicians. Anyone seeking to participate in providing governmental goods or services was compelled to purchase tickets at prices that ensured that the organized crime‐connected politicians would substantially benefit from the evening's festivities. The term was first used in federal law in the Anti‐Racketeering Act of 1934; is now used in the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (“RICO”) Act passed by Congress in 1970 to deal with the inadequacies of the then current law on enterprise criminality, that is, crime by, through, and against licit and illicit organizations.
Deinstitutionalization
Authors: Gomez Angel , Wilson‐Boyd Tracie
Published: January 2014

Deinstitutionalization refers to the treatment of offenders in venues other than prison. Advocated by non‐interventionists, it is based on the premise that the justice system should have as little interaction as possible with offenders. Correctional agencies following this approach concentrate efforts on diverting law violators from prisons. Community‐based programs such as diversion and pretrial release provide opportunities for deinstitutionalization. It is characterized by considerable controversy with some saying it works and is the best approach to rehabilitation, an approach without the stigma of negative labels. Others believe it results in more people entering criminal justice systems; either through the process of net‐widening or imprisonment of the mentally impaired.
Therapeutic Communities
Authors: Ahmad Janice
Published: January 2014

Therapeutic communities are associated with institutional or community‐based programs for the treatment of alcohol and other drug addictions. Clients are charged with the responsibility of being part of the treatment team as they progress through treatment phases of the program. The foci of therapeutic communities include healthy living skills, socialization, and job and educational skills. Evaluations of these programs have shown that offenders who complete these programs have lower recidivism rates compared to offenders who did not participate in therapeutic community programs. Two factors that seem to minimize recidivism rates are the length of programs and inclusion of an aftercare component.
Fourth Amendment
Authors: Jones David M.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an introduction to the history of the interpretation of the Fourth Amendment. It focuses on Supreme Court interpretations of the conditions under which the Amendment applies, to whom it applies, for what purposes it applies, and the appropriate remedies for governmental violations of the provisions of the Fourth Amendment.
Sources of Criminal Law (Statutes, Case Law, Ordinances, Regulations)
Authors: Arnson Aaron D. , Baradaran Shima
Published: January 2014

Criminal law is the body of law that defines offenses and sets penalties for the commission of those offenses. That body of law comes from one of four sources: common law, which arises out of judicial decisions and opinions; statutes, which are enacted by Congress or state legislatures; regulations, which are drafted and issued by federal or state administrative agencies; and ordinances, which, although not strictly criminal, are established by municipalities, and have a somewhat substantial impact on criminal law.
Jurisdiction
Authors: Kobrin Daniel
Published: January 2014

Jurisdiction is the power to make, enforce, and adjudicate law. Exercising jurisdiction requires exercising subject matter jurisdiction over conduct and personal jurisdiction over an individual. Subject matter jurisdiction is only exercised properly if exercised on a valid basis. Bases include the territoriality principle, protective principle, nationality principle, passive personality principle, and universality principle. In the United States, subject matter jurisdiction must also be exercised in accordance with constitutional limitations. The federal government may only exercise subject matter jurisdiction pursuant to an enumerated power, while state governments may exercise jurisdiction broadly within their territorial boundaries. Unlike subject matter jurisdiction, personal jurisdiction requires only that the individual appear before the sovereign authority. Extradition is the process by which the state commonly obtains personal jurisdiction over an individual abroad. However, under US law, a defect or illegality in the extradition process will not normally divest a sovereign authority of personal jurisdiction.
Habeas Corpus
Authors: Moore Jennifer L.
Published: January 2014

The writ of habeas corpus is a mechanism used by state or federal prisoners to challenge the legality of their confinement in federal court. While reference to habeas corpus appears in the Constitution, the procedures governing the writ are found in numerous federal statutes and Supreme Court decisions. Prisoners are only able to petition for a writ of habeas corpus when they comply with all of the necessary requirements, including time limits and restrictions on multiple applications.
Felonies
Authors: Kamali Elizabeth Papp
Published: January 2014

Felonies are serious crimes, such as murder, rape, or arson, for which the typical consequence is capital punishment or imprisonment for over a year. Etymologically, the word felony originally connoted wickedness or evil. The category of felony derives from the English Common Law, in which a felony conviction traditionally resulted in forfeiture of land and movables, as well as the death penalty. The possible consequences of a felony conviction continue to be monumental today, including disenfranchisement, termination of parental rights, and ineligibility for jury service. Some jurisdictions have done away with the felony/misdemeanor distinction, opting instead for more neutral categories such as indictable and summary offenses.
Juveniles and Criminal Procedure
Authors: Balboni Jennifer , Kittredge Jeremy
Published: January 2014

Societal conceptions of both childhood and punishment have changed considerably since the founding of the United States, with conventional wisdom about juvenile justice swinging like a pendulum from harsher, punitive punishments to more rehabilitation‐focused approaches, then back again. This entry provides an overview of criminal procedure in relation to juveniles with a focus on “high‐end” sentencing.
House Arrest
Authors: Fowler James E.
Published: January 2014

Advances in electronic monitoring technology in the 1980s contributed to increasing use of house arrest by criminal justice systems in the United States. Also known as home detention and home confinement, house arrest has become a preferred detention strategy for convicted offenders, as well as persons awaiting trial. Further, it is supported by criminal justice system administrators as well as supporters of more humane criminal justice practices. Its popularity with practitioners is mostly related to cost savings as the financial burden for this type of detention becomes the responsibility of those being detained, as well as decreasing the demand for housing in costly detention facilities. From a humanitarian perspective, detention in one's home can limit contact with known criminals, support the maintenance of family relationships, and allow detainees to maintain employment or continue in educational programs.
Causation
Authors: Li Zander
Published: January 2014

Causation is the requirement that a defendant's conduct be sufficiently linked to a prohibited result such that criminal culpability is justified. A defendant's conduct must be both the factual cause and the legal cause of the result. To be a factual cause, the defendant's conduct must be a necessary or but‐for condition of the result. To be a legal cause, the defendant's conduct must not be too attenuated from the result. Generally this means that the result must be a foreseeable consequence of the conduct and not brought about by the later intervention of another human being.
Environmental Criminology
Authors: Randa Ryan
Published: January 2014

Environmental criminology has quickly become a widely recognized perspective on crime, providing an umbrella under which several theories find a home. One common theme among theories of environmental criminology is that they are a departure from traditional criminology. The tradition has concentrated on exploring crime from the sociological or psychological perspective, focusing on understanding criminality, or the sum of motivations, drives, pushes, and pulls driving an individual toward criminal behavior. Environmental criminologists, on the other hand, seek to understand and explore crime by focusing on the criminal event by concerning themselves more with the places, spaces, and objects that either facilitate or prevent a crime from occurring. Approaching crime from this point of view prompts the researcher to focus on the opportunity constructs for crime and the patterns in which crimes occur rather than social or psychological motivations. Quite literally, environmental criminology is a criminological perspective which, in many respects, considers the causes of crime to be highly related to the nature of the physical environment. That is to say that the very nature of neighborhoods, structures, and objects can have an impact on crime directed in them, at them, and around them.
Necessity
Authors: Toledano Enbar
Published: January 2014

This essay addresses the defense of necessity, highlighting first the history of the doctrine in Anglo‐American criminal jurisprudence, then the elements commonly required to raise the defense in most American jurisdictions, followed by the types of case in which the necessity defense has been applied and rejected, and finally the procedural aspects of presenting the defense of necessity to a jury.
Wilson, James Q.
Authors: Berry Carolyn D.
Published: January 2014

James Q. Wilson was most recognized for his work with George Kelling and the development of broken windows theory. Their ideas became the groundwork for introducing community policing in law enforcement agencies across the United States. Though trained as a political scientist, his work is well known and debated in criminology and sociology. Wilson also was recognized for his commonsense public policy approach and his insistence that government officials disregard the opinion and needs of citizens.
Reasonableness Standard
Authors: Taslitz Andrew E.
Published: January 2014

The reasonableness standard guides many legal judgments about whether to impose criminal liability. Causing harm, such as another's death, through unreasonable or negligent behavior may itself constitute a crime. But reasonableness can be a defense to crime too, as occurs, for example, in self‐defense, where a reasonable belief in the need to use deadly force can sometimes justify a crime. Reasonableness is sometimes only a partial defense, reducing the potential maximum sentence because a defendant's emotions, while not desirable, were “understandable.” What is “reasonable” may turn on majority views or on normative judgments. The standard is also always one of how the reasonable person would behave “under the circumstances.” What circumstances to count—such as a person's physical infirmities, temperament, race, or gender—is generally a normative question. Juries usually decide reasonableness, though some thinkers see this as a process of masking value judgments as “facts.”
Geis, Gilbert
Authors: Pontell Henry N.
Published: January 2014

Gilbert Geis's (1925‐2012) research contributions, spanning more than six decades, cover a range of topics that have had an incomparable influence on criminologists and other social scientists. One of his most well‐known articles in white‐collar crime is the “White collar crime: The heavy electric equipment antitrust case of 1961.” After the publication of the case study, his work in white‐collar crime examined deterrence, consumer fraud, victimization, corporate violence, and medical fraud. Geis's scholarship in all areas is likely the most far‐reaching in criminology.
Exclusionary Rule, Exceptions to
Authors: Gann Shaun M.
Published: January 2014

This essay focuses on the numerous exceptions to the Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule, which states that illegally obtained evidence may not be used in a subsequent criminal trial. The exceptions are collateral use, attenuation, independent source, inevitable discovery, and good faith. The United States Supreme Court cases on which the various exceptions are based are discussed, as well as how the exceptions have evolved over time.
Prejudicial Pretrial Publicity
Authors: Ellison Jared M. , Brennan Pauline K.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the relationship between prejudicial pretrial publicity and jury decision making. In doing so, this entry begins with a brief discussion of the constitutional principles involved in media reports of pretrial material. From there, the landmark case of
Sheppard v
.
Maxwell
(1966) is used to provide an illustrative example of the consequences of negative pretrial publicity. Findings from studies on the effects of PTP on juries are then discussed. That discussion is followed by an overview of procedural safeguards that may be used to minimize the effects of PTP on the defendant's right to a fair trial.
Protection of Human Subjects
Authors: Conway Ayana , Harrison Lynne M.
Published: January 2014

The Office for Human Research Protections regulates agencies that conduct research where human beings are involved as research subjects/participants. Public, private, and other research institutions, including colleges and universities, establish and maintain formal, regulatory committees known as Institutional Review Boards (IRB). Such boards oversee research performed by faculty, staff, and students when the research subjects are humans. IRBs conduct risk‐benefit‐analyses, both in advance and by periodic review, aimed at reducing the risk of harm to subjects.
Drug Trafficking
Authors: Markovic Vesna
Published: January 2014

This entry on drug trafficking provides a thorough overview of the main drugs that are trafficked by organized crime groups worldwide, discusses some social and health issues related to drug trafficking, discusses where cultivation and production of various drugs occurs, common routes used for trafficking, methods used by organized crime groups in trafficking the drugs globally, and links with terrorist organizations.
Careers in Courts and Adjudication
Authors: Guido Jeri M.
Published: January 2014

There are many individuals who work within the court system. Judges, attorneys, administrative staff, security personnel, and counselors are just a few. This entry will explore some of the most popular positions and careers within the court system. These positions can be everything from entry‐level positions to positions requiring some type of very specialized graduate education and/or experience.
Social Disorganization Theory
Authors: McNeeley Susan
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the evolution of social disorganization theory. It discusses neighborhood‐level correlates of crime, including poverty, residential instability, and ethnic heterogeneity, as well as the mechanisms through which these factors influence crime rates. The entry also gives a summary of the empirical support for social disorganization theory.
Victimization Surveys
Authors: Rojas‐Gaona Carlos E.
Published: January 2014

Victimization surveys are measurement tools designed for data gathering that rely on information provided by individuals concerning their criminal victimization experiences, as well as the context and detailed characteristics of these events. The main goal of victimization surveys is to estimate the level and change in criminal victimizations across time, which requires the estimation of annual rates of victimization.
Corpus Delicti
Authors: Gleicher Lily
Published: January 2014

Corpus delicti, directly translated from Latin, means the “body of the crime.” Every type of crime has its own corpus delicti. The term details the elements that need to exist in order for an act to be legally defined as a crime. There are five elements required before an act can legally be defined as a crime. Two of those elements, actus reus and mens rea, are of more importance in establishing the precise corpus delicti, while the remaining three are of more general application. The “corpus delicti rule” requires the prosecution to present independent evidence—more than a confession—of the corpus delicti. However, over the past 50 years, the acceptance of the corpus delicti rule has changed in some states to a less restrictive “corroboration rule.”
Criminology
Authors: Spiegel Stephanie N.
Published: January 2014

This entry is on the topic of criminology, providing a broad overview of schools of thought within the discipline. This entry begins with a description of criminology, followed by a historical review of the great traditions within the field. Finally, a discussion of the most important work and key theoretical insights that have contributed to the development of criminological theory is offered.
Intoxication Defense
Authors: Cubellis Michelle A.
Published: January 2014

In the United States, a large number of crimes are committed by offenders under the influence of some type of intoxicant. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, between 1997 and 2008, alcohol was a factor in 19–37% of all crimes. While the prevalence of alcohol‐related crimes has decreased over the plast several decades, alcohol is still linked to crimes resulting in injury. Intoxication has increasingly become an important factor in determining the culpability of an offender due to the influence of intoxicating substances on the mental state of the individual at the time of the criminal act. Evidence of intoxication is also used in determining whether the offender had the required mens rea to be held responsible for their actions. The intoxication defense is only relevant in crimes which require mens rea, such as those requiring malice, planning, deliberation, foresight, and awareness, as a person's level of intoxication can influence these elements.
Dueling
Authors: Myers Roz
Published: January 2014

A duel is a prearranged battle stemming from a prior insult, accusation, or quarrel, fought between two persons using deadly weapons. At stake in a duel is the honor of the challenger, whose reputation has been publicly brought into question. In its time, one's honor in the community and reputation for good character were the “credit” on which all dealings whether in personal relationships or in commerce were based. The delicate rules of the ritual were outlined in a Code Duello, which describes every step of the protocol.
Roaring Twenties
Authors: J. Brooker Dale
Published: January 2014

While US history is filled with colorful moments, one key decade that stands out in a variety of ways is the Roaring Twenties. The Roaring Twenties was preceded by World War I, which left many Americans questioning various aspects of their moral lives and dealing with the harsh reality of significant unemployment, staggering inflation, and a questionable future. It was an uncertain time in terms of the political climate, where radicalism had been sparked with a fear of communism. Adding to this was a significant amount of labor tension, with the reduction in the work hours of many workers and a focus on unionization.
Sutherland, Edwin
Authors: Valcore Laura
Published: January 2014

Edwin Sutherland stands out as one of the most influential and prestigious sociologists and criminologists of our time. Among his many works, his development of differential association theory is considered a substantial contribution to explanations of why people commit crime. Additionally, he is widely recognized as the first scholar to bring attention to a long ignored area of criminal behavior—white‐collar crime.
Mistake of Fact/Mistake of Law
Authors: Burke Jennifer M.
Published: January 2014

Mistake of fact can excuse criminal liability. Its use as an excuse is, however, subject to several exceptions. Specifically, mistake of fact never excuses strict liability or attempt crimes. In contrast, mistake or ignorance of the law is theoretically harsh:ignorantia legis neminem excusat—ignorance of the law excuses no one. Nonetheless, exceptions to this maxim have developed, including the fair notice exception, reliance on an official statement exception, and an exception excusing action when there is a misunderstanding about the effect of a different civil law on behavior regulated by a criminal statute. Moreover, statutes can create a mistake of law excuse by indicating that a person must not only intend his action, he must also know that his action is prohibited. This exception arises where statutes, and particular tax laws, prohibit willful violations as opposed to merely knowing violations.
Capital Punishment and Deterrence
Authors: Pina John D.
Published: January 2014

The ongoing debate about the state's use of capital punishment to deter crime can be traced to the emergence of ‘the state.’ Discussed are methods of execution, general and specific deterrence, research findings regarding its ability to deter crime, criminologists' perspectives about capital punishment as a deterrent, impact of capital punishment on society, and regional differences in the use of capital punishment.
Evaluating a New Core‐Sheath Procedure for Processing Hard Metals by Equal‐Channel Angular Pressing
Authors: Shahmir Hamed , Nili‐Ahmadabadi Mahmoud , Mansouri‐Arani Mojtaba , Khajezade Ali , Langdon Terence G.
Published: January 2014

A new design of billet, based on a core–sheath configuration, was used for the processing of Ni, Fe, and a NiTi alloy by equal‐channel angular pressing (ECAP) at room temperature. This configuration involves inserting metal cores within Fe sheaths prior to processing and it is designed especially for use with hard‐to‐deform materials. Billets were processed through one or two ECAP passes at room temperature and the microhardness values were recorded across the transverse directions within the cores to evaluate the flow process. As in conventional ECAP, the hardness increased significantly after the first pass and there were regions of lower hardness along the bottom surfaces of each core. The gradient of hardness decreased with increasing core diameter but the average microhardness values remained unchanged. Three‐dimensional finite element simulations were used to evaluate the flow behavior after one pass of ECAP using different core metals. These simulations show the lower areas of the cores undergo less deformation than the upper areas and the homogeneity increases with increasing levels of friction at the core–sheath interface.
Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology for Drug Delivery
Authors: Yan Li , Yang Yang , Zhang Wenjun , Chen Xianfeng
Published: January 2014

Many biological barriers are of great importance. For example, stratum corneum, the outmost layer of skin, effectively protects people from being invaded by external microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Cell membranes help organisms maintain homeostasis by controlling substances to enter and leave cells. However, on the other hand, these biological barriers seriously restrict drug delivery. For instance, stratum corneum has a very dense structure and only allows very small molecules with a molecular weight of below 500 Da to permeate whereas most drug molecules are much larger than that. A wide variety of drugs including genes needs to enter cells for proper functioning but cell membranes are not permeable to them. To overcome these biological barriers, many drug‐delivery routes are being actively researched and developed. In this research news, we will focus on two advanced materials and nanotechnology approaches for delivering vaccines through the skin for painless and efficient immunization and transporting drug molecules to cross cell membranes for high‐throughput intracellular delivery.
A Streamlined Synthesis of 2,3‐Dihydrobenzofurans via the ortho‐Quinone Methides Generated from 2‐Alkyl‐Substituted Phenols
Authors: Wu Bo , Chen Mu‐Wang , Ye Zhi‐Shi , Yu Chang‐Bin , Zhou Yong‐Gui
Published: January 2014

A facile method for the stereoselective synthesis of trans‐2,3‐dihydrobenzofurans from ortho‐quinone methides in situ generated from readily available 2‐alkyl‐substituted phenols using silver oxide‐mediated oxidation has been developed. Additionally, the 2,3‐dihydrobenzofurans can be further transformed into the aromatized 2,3‐disubstituted benzofurans in the presence of DDQ.

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Synthesis of 2‐Acylthiophenes by Palladium‐Catalyzed Addition of Thiophenes to Nitriles
Authors: Jiang Tao‐Shan , Wang Guan‐Wu
Published: January 2014

A direct synthesis of 2‐acylthiophenes has been developed through palladium‐catalyzed addition of thiophenes to nitriles. The reaction proceeded well under the palladium(II) acetate/2,2′‐bipyridine system and using D‐(+)‐camphorsulfonic acid as the additive. In addition, the obtained 2‐acylthiophenes could undergo further coupling reactions to generate novel products.

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Distribution of an allele associated with blond hair color across northern island melanesia
Authors: Norton Heather L. , Correa Elena A. , Koki George , Friedlaender Jonathan S.
Published: January 2014

Pigmentation of the skin, hair, and eyes is a complex trait controlled by multiple genetic loci. Recently a non‐synonymous mutation in the pigmentation candidate gene TYRP1 was shown to be significantly associated with a blond‐hair phenotype in populations from the Solomon Islands. The distribution of this mutation in the islands of Northern Island Melanesia, where the blondism phenotype is also prevalent, was unknown. Here, we present data describing the distribution of this allele in 550 individuals sampled from across this region, and test for associations between genotype at this locus and quantitatively measured skin and hair pigmentation phenotype. We report that the frequency of the 93C allele is notably lower than observed in the Solomons (0.12 vs. 0.26). The allele exhibits significant geographic heterogeneity across the islands sampled (χ2 = 108.4, P < 0.0001). It is observed at its highest frequencies on the islands of New Ireland and New Hanover, while being almost completely absent from the large island of New Britain. Using linear regression with age, sex, and island as covariates we report that, as in the Solomons, the 93C allele is significantly associated with a decrease in hair pigmentation but not skin pigmentation. We discuss the distribution of the 93C allele across the Southwest Pacific in light of its possible place of origin and dispersal. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:653–662, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Peierls‐verzerrtes monoklines MnB4mit einer Mn‐Mn‐Bindung
Authors: Knappschneider Arno , Litterscheid Christian , George Nathan C. , Brgoch Jakoah , Wagner Norbert , Beck Johannes , Kurzman Joshua A. , Seshadri Ram , Albert Barbara
Published: January 2014

Die Tetraboride von Chrom und Mangan zeigen ein ungewöhnliches Boratomgerüst, das hypothetischem tetragonalen Diamant ähnelt. Es wird angenommen, dass sie sehr hart sind. Jetzt wurden Einkristalle von MnB4erhalten. Die Verbindung kristallisiert im monoklinen Kristallsystem (P21/c) mit einer Struktur, die vier kristallographisch unabhängige Boratom‐Positionen aufweist, was in Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen der11B‐MAS‐NMR‐Spektroskopie steht. Ein unerwartet kurzer Abstand zwischen Mn‐Atomen deutet auf eine Mn‐Mn‐Doppelbindung hin und wird durch Peierls‐Verzerrung verursacht. Die Struktur wurde mit Gruppe‐Untergruppe‐Beziehungen bestimmt. DFT‐Rechnungen lassen auf MnIund Paramagnetismus schließen, letzterer wurde durch magnetische Messungen bestätigt. Die Zustandsdichten zeigen eine Pseudo‐Bandlücke am Fermi‐Niveau; für MnB4wurde halbleitendes Verhalten beobachtet.
Steuerung der intrazellulären Proteinmenge durch niedermolekulare Modulatoren des Ubiquitin‐Proteasom‐Systems
Authors: Buckley Dennis L. , Crews Craig M.
Published: January 2014

Im Bereich der chemischen Biologie werden biologische Sonden‐ und Wirkstoffmoleküle klassischerweise genutzt, um die Aktivität von Proteinen (wie Enzymen und Rezeptoren) zu modulieren, die sich verhältnismäßig leicht durch niedermolekulare Verbindungen beeinflussen lassen. Der verbleibende Rest, der die Mehrheit des Proteoms stellt, galt lange Zeit als für Wirkstoffe unzugänglich (“undruggable”). Mithilfe niedermolekularer Modulatoren des Ubiquitin‐Proteasomsystems (UPS) ist es möglich, statt der Proteinaktivität die Proteinmenge zu modulieren, was die Anzahl der zugänglichen Zielmoleküle erhöht. Während ein Angriff auf das Proteasom selbst zu einer globalen Erhöhung der Proteinmenge führen kann, lässt sich durch das Ansteuern anderer Komponenten des UPS (z. B. der E3‐Ubiquitinligasen) in gezielter Weise eine Erhöhung von Proteinmengen erreichen. Als Alternative dazu beginnen sich verschiedene Strategien zur Induktion des Proteinabbaus mittels niedermolekularer “Sonden” abzuzeichnen. Durch die Fähigkeit, den Abbau bestimmter Proteine zu induzieren und/oder zu inhibieren, besitzen niedermolekulare Modulatoren des UPS das Potenzial, den für Wirkstoffe zugänglichen Anteil des Proteoms über klassische Zielstrukturen wie Enzyme und Rezeptoren hinaus in signifikanter Weise zu erweitern.
Single Mutations in Tau Modulate the Populations of Fibril Conformers through Seed Selection
Authors: Meyer Virginia , Dinkel Paul D. , Luo Yin , Yu Xiang , Wei Guanghong , Zheng Jie , Eaton Gareth R. , Ma Buyong , Nussinov Ruth , Eaton Sandra S. , Margittai Martin
Published: January 2014

Seeded conversion of tau monomers into fibrils is a central step in the progression of tau pathology in Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Self‐assembly is mediated by the microtubule binding repeats in tau. There are either three or four repeats present depending on the protein isoform. Here, double electron‐electron resonance spectroscopy was used to investigate the conformational ensemble of four‐repeat tau fibrils. Single point mutations at key positions in the protein (ΔK280, P301S, P312I, D314I) markedly change the distribution of fibril conformers after template‐assisted growth, whereas other mutations in the protein (I308M, S320F, G323I, G326I, Q336R) do not. These findings provide unprecedented insights into the seed selection of tau disease mutants and establish conformational compatibility as an important driving force in tau fibril propagation.
Enantiomerenreine [M6L12]‐ oder [M12L24]‐Polyeder aus flexiblen Bis(pyridin)‐Liganden
Authors: Gütz Christoph , Hovorka Rainer , Klein Christoph , Jiang Qian‐Qian , Bannwarth Christoph , Engeser Marianne , Schmuck Carsten , Assenmacher Wilfried , Mader Werner , Topić Filip , Rissanen Kari , Grimme Stefan , Lützen Arne
Published: January 2014

Die koordinationsgetriebene Selbstorganisation ist eine der leistungsfähigsten Strategien zum Aufbau nanometergroßer diskreter (supra‐)molekularer Aggregate. Hier berichten wir über die Verwendung von zwei konstitutionsisomeren Bis(pyridin)‐Liganden auf der Basis von BINOL zu diesem Zweck. Je nach Substitutionsmuster des BINOL‐Gerüsts bilden sich bei der Koordination an PdII‐Ionen enantiomerenreine, endo‐ oder exo‐funktionalisierte sechs‐ oder zwölfkernige metallosupramolekulare Polyeder mit einem chiralen Gerüst. Die Aggregate wurden mittels NMR, MS, DLS, TEM und EELS sowie ECD charakterisiert. Die außergewöhnlich hohen molaren Circulardichroismen der Komplexe konnten durch den Vergleich experimenteller ECD‐Daten mit simulierten Daten (vereinfachte Tamm‐Dancoff‐Näherung zur zeitabhängigen DFT) nachvollzogen werden. Hervorzuheben ist ferner, dass die Selbstorganisationsprozesse vollständig selektiv im Sinne einer “narzisstischen” Selbsterkennung ablaufen, obwohl die Liganden ein hohes Maß an Rotationsfreiheit um die zentrale Aryl‐Aryl‐Bindung aufweisen.
Enantiomerically Pure [M6L12] or [M12L24] Polyhedra from Flexible Bis(Pyridine) Ligands
Authors: Gütz Christoph , Hovorka Rainer , Klein Christoph , Jiang Qian‐Qian , Bannwarth Christoph , Engeser Marianne , Schmuck Carsten , Assenmacher Wilfried , Mader Werner , Topić Filip , Rissanen Kari , Grimme Stefan , Lützen Arne
Published: January 2014

Coordination‐driven self‐assembly is one of the most powerful strategies to prepare nanometer‐sized discrete (supra)molecular assemblies. Herein, we report on the use of two constitutionally isomeric BINOL‐based bis(pyridine) ligands for this purpose. Upon coordination to PdII ions these self‐assemble into enantiomerically pure endo‐ and exo‐functionalized hexa‐ and dodecanuclear metallosupramolecular spheres with a chiral skeleton depending on the substitution pattern of the BINOL core. These aggregates were characterized by NMR, MS, DLS, TEM, and EELS as well as ECD. Furthermore, experimental ECD data could be compared to those obtained from theoretical simulations using a simplified Tamm–Dancoff approximation to time‐dependent DFT to rationalize the extraordinary high molar circular dichroisms. Despite the rotational freedom around the central aryl–aryl bond of these ligands, the self‐assembly process happens completely selective in a “narcissistic” self‐recognition manner.
Peptide Ligands Stabilized by Small Molecules
Authors: Chen Shiyu , Bertoldo Davide , Angelini Alessandro , Pojer Florence , Heinis Christian
Published: January 2014

Bicyclic peptides generated through directed evolution by using phage display offer an attractive ligand format for the development of therapeutics. Being nearly 100‐fold smaller than antibodies, they promise advantages such as access to chemical synthesis, efficient diffusion into tissues, and needle‐free application. However, unlike antibodies, they do not have a folded structure in solution and thus bind less well. We developed bicyclic peptides with hydrophilic chemical structures at their center to promote noncovalent intramolecular interactions, thereby stabilizing the peptide conformation. The sequences of the peptides isolated by phage display from large combinatorial libraries were strongly influenced by the type of small molecule used in the screen, thus suggesting that the peptides fold around the small molecules. X‐ray structure analysis revealed that the small molecules indeed formed hydrogen bonds with the peptides. These noncovalent interactions stabilize the peptide–protein complexes and contribute to the high binding affinity.
A B–C Double Bond Unit Coordinated to Platinum: An Alkylideneboryl Ligand that Is Isoelectronic to Neutral Aminoborylene Ligands
Authors: Brand Johannes , Braunschweig Holger , Hupp Florian , Phukan Ashwini K. , Radacki Krzysztof , Sen Sakya S.
Published: January 2014

The reaction of [Pt(PCy3)2] with Br2B‐CH(SiMe3)2 resulted in generation of the first alkylideneboryl complex, trans‐[Br(Cy3P)2Pt{BCH(SiMe3)}], with concomitant elimination of Me3SiBr. The trans bromide ligand of the alkylideneboryl complex was readily substituted by a methyl group upon treatment with methyllithium, leading to another alkylideneboryl complex, trans‐[Me(Cy3P)2Pt{BCH(SiMe3)}]. Various spectrochemical techniques, single‐crystal X‐ray crystallography, and quantum chemical calculations confirmed the formulation of a double bond between the boron and the carbon atom. The theoretical studies also provided evidence for the stronger trans influence of the alkylideneboryl ligand over iminoboryl and oxoboryl ligands.
Total Synthesis of (±)‐Aspidophylline A
Authors: Ren Weiwu , Wang Qian , Zhu Jieping
Published: January 2014

A total synthesis of aspidophylline A, a pentacyclic akuammiline‐type monoterpene indole alkaloid, is described. The synthesis features: 1) rapid access to a fully functionalized dihydrocarbazole through the desymmetrization of readily available 2‐allyl‐2‐(o‐nitrophenyl)cyclohexane‐1,3‐dione; 2) an intramolecular azidoalkoxylation of an enecarbamate to install both the furoindoline ring and the azido functionality; and 3) an intramolecular Michael addition for the construction of the 2‐azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane ring system.