bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perspectives For Rare Earth Research
Authors: Jensen Jens , Mackintosh Allan R
Published: November 2023

During the last three decades, a remarkable transformation has occurred in our understanding of rare earth magnetism. This development has been described in the preceding chapters, and we conclude with a short epilogue, in which we attempt briefly to summarize the status of the field and the perspectives for future research in it. The close interplay between experiment and theory is particularly pronounced in rare earth research. It was measurements on pure materials and single crystals which stimulated the early development of the subject, but the construction of the standard model pointed the way to more refined and varied experiments, which in turn required more sophisticated explanations. At the moment, we appear to be in a period where the theory is in the ascendancy; it is able to account for the great majority of the observations, and also to suggest a wide variety of new investigations. Much of the following will therefore be concerned with the indication of promising directions for experimental study.
Two-dimensional excitons and non-equilibrium plasma
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G
Published: November 2023

At present, apart from the usual, straightforward procedures, non-equilibrium techniques have been widely practised in producing two-dimensional electron systems. Here, the desired conditions of electron excitation are achieved with the aid of various types of irradiation, impact ionization using an applied external electric field, etc. (Litovchenko 1980). These experimental techniques make it possible to realize some important patterns of a two-dimensional electron state, such as two-dimensional excitons and related phase transitions, to vary optical spectra in the exciton absorption region and to obtain a stable two-dimensional electron liquid (‘liquid plasma’). Under these conditions, processes of electron transport may exhibit peculiar features because non-equilibrium excitation is accompanied by a substantial variation of the population of scattering centres, by creation of the specific pressure due to collective electrons, and so on.
Surface region parameters for low charge carrier densities
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G
Published: November 2023

At rather low densities of free carriers, along with a gas-like state, another electron state is possible. Wigner (1938) was the first to find that an electron gas of low density at low temperatures may become ordered (‘crystallized’) into a non-conducting localized state (see reviews by Mott and Davis (1979), Mott and Twose (1961), Mott (1974)). Such a process may take place even in the absence of a crystalline lattice, since ordering is caused by a long-range potential of the Coulomb type, i.e. by an interaction between charged free particles. Wigner’s considerations were based on a model of a conducting solid of ‘jelly’ type, where the charge of free electrons per unit volume is compensated by the background of homogeneously distributed positive charge.
Study of the Structure of a Solution by Small-Angle Scattering
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard
Published: November 2023

Small-angle scattering is defined by the fact that the intensity of a radiation scattered by a target varies strongly over a few angular degrees in the vicinity of the incident direction. According to A. Guinier, this forward scattering was observed for the first time in 1934 by C.V. Raman, in an experiment of X-ray scattering by carbon black. It has since been observed that colloidal substances and polymers in solution also scatter X-rays in the forward direction (this is called central scattering); moreover, it appeared that the width of the central peak is inversely proportional to the size of the scattering objects.
Repulsive Chains-Old Theories
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard
Published: November 2023

It was then generally admitted, at that time, that Flory’s theory was crude but fundamentally correct. Soon, however, new difficulties emerged. In 1968, a new theory appeared, the Gaussian approximation (more general than the Brownian approximation!) which expressed in a calculable form the ideas that Flory had put forward twenty years before.
The Production of quarkonia
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun
Published: November 2023

The applications of the helicity method, which were presented up to now, dealt with processes in which either the masses were completely neglected or treated to leading order. In Chapters 4 through 6, we considered QED and QCD processes, in which the quark and lepton masses were put equal to zero, while, in Chapter 7, we studied the finite mass effects to leading order in m2• This is completely justified in the high energy limit, where these masses are small compared to the energies in the process. The technical reasons for the simplifications we encountered in the high energy limit is the concurrence of the facts that helicity states are Lorentz invariant concepts for massless particles and that the polarization vectors for the gauge particles which we introduced naturally combined with the helicity states of the fermions, because of the appearance of the combinations 1 ± γ5 in /  ϵ.
Summary of QCD formulae
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun
Published: November 2023

All the following formulae are presented in the centre-of-mass system, with total energy denoted by 2E. Unless otherwise stated, we take the positive Throughout this chapter, we neglect the effects of a finite electron and/or quark mass, except in the Sections 10.57 through 10.77, where we present the formulae for the production of heavy quarkonia. Consequently, the formulae are not valid in certain kincmatical configurations. For a discussion of the ranges of validity of the approximation, we refer to Section 3.4. We also mention that, for the QCD processes in this chapter, the possible contributions due to Z-exchange arc not taken into account.
Patterns and trends in inequalities in health: an international phenomenon
Authors: Bartley Mel , Bobak Martin , Marmot Michael
Published: November 2023

In many ways, international comparative data provide the closest we will ever have to ‘clinical trials’ on public health and health inequality. People are more or less randomly selected into the country in which they happen to be born, and differential migration patterns across countries are, in reality, too small to influence the degree of health inequality.
Social determinants and public health policy in the UK
Authors: Graham Hilary
Published: November 2023

As countries like the UK have become richer, they have become healthier. Over the last 150 years, living standards and life expectancy have risen dramatically. But while national wealth and population health are at record levels in the UK, the opportunity to enjoy a long and healthy life remains unequal. As in the nineteenth century, those in more advantaged circumstances have better health than groups lower down the socio-economic ladder.
The Cochrane Collaboration
Authors: Clarke Mike
Published: November 2023

Most interventions, in public health and health care more generally, do not have very large effects on major health outcomes for either individuals or populations. Typically, we should hope for small or moderate improvements, along with an occasional dramatically effective intervention that leads to large improvements. The latter will usually be fairly obvious without large-scale research. However, the former will require large studies in which the effects of chance and bias have been minimized. Systematic reviews, in which evidence from similar studies is brought together in a standardized way, sometimes with a mathematical synthesis or meta-analysis of the results from each study, help to achieve this. This chapter discusses this and the role of The Cochrane Collaboration in working towards this aim.
Research synthesis for tackling health inequalities: lessons from methods developed within systematic reviews with a focus on marginalized groups
Authors: Oliver Sandy , Thomas James , Harden Angela , Shepherd, Jonathan , Oakley Ann
Published: November 2023

A systematic review of the effectiveness of health service interventions aimed at reducing inequalities in health (Arblaster et al. 1996) found a number of interventions that improve the health of groups who are disadvantaged by socio-economic class, ethnicity, or age and, if properly targeted, could be expected to reduce health inequalities. This review of 94 studies and 21 reviews concluded that in addition to addressing the impact on health status, attention should be given to
Editorial comment
Authors: Dennison Catherine , McCormick Geraldine
Published: November 2023

This section presents examples of how different types of evidence can be used to inform both policy and practice and address aspects of health inequalities. A wide range of case studies are presented to illustrate the multifaceted nature of evidence.
Health Action Zones
Authors: Benzeval Michaela
Published: November 2023

Health Action Zones (HAZs) were launched very early in the Labour Government’s first term in office (Dobson 1997). As such, they were one of the first area-based initiatives (ABIs) launched by New Labour, and the only one launched by the Department of Health. HAZs were central to New Labour’s strategy to tackle health inequalities. They had dual roles in this respect (Benzeval 2003a, 2005). First, they were meant to improve health outcomes and to
Editorial comment
Authors: Dennison Catherine , McCormick Geraldine
Published: November 2023

This section documents examples of tackling health inequalities at a national level, in developed countries, and the role of evidence. These countries are Finland, Sweden, Ireland, and Canada.
Bringing about social change: implications for health
Authors: Hanlon Phil
Published: November 2023

Despite economic prosperity and massive human development in the last century, peoples of every nation fail to reach their true health potential. The main reason is that the health of individuals is dependent on the health of the society that nurtures them (Marmot and Wilkinson 1999). Health emerges from an interaction of genetic inheritance, the physical circumstances in which people grow up and live (housing, air quality, working environment), the social environment (levels of support and trust), personal behaviour (smoking, diet, exercise), and, crucially, access to resources which give control over life (Evans et al. 1994). It is now well understood that these determinants operate over the whole life course (Kuh and Ben-Shlomo 1997).
The epidemiology of beliefs
Authors: Sperber Dan
Published: November 2023

I would like to bring together two sets of speculations: anthropological speculations on cultural representations, and psychological speculations on the cognitive organization of beliefs, and to put forward, as a result, fragments of a possible answer to the question ‘How do beliefs become cultural?’ I will not apologize for the speculative character of the attempt. At this stage, either the question is answered in a vague, fragmentary, and tentative way, or it must be left alone: there just is not enough sound theorizing and well-regimented evidence in the domain to do otherwise.
Conclusion: towards a new perspective on ethnic minority identity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book has been to bring together a diverse and scattered literature on ethnic minority identity. This review, of both the theory and the empirical research related to the field, has raised as many questions as it has answered and it is clear that there are many unresolved issues still to be tackled. However, the effort of this enquiry has been to clarify conceptual difficulties and to establish a number of empirical generalizations regarding the antecedent and consequent factors underlying ethnic minority identity. In this chapter an attempt will be made to sift through and integrate some of the ideas that have arisen from previous theory and research into a new perspective on ethnic minority identity. This new model will be put forward, therefore, as a framework for further research. The propositions are tentative, requiring refinement and greater precision. However, Festinger (1950b) has argued that the premature precision of a theory can lead to sterility. None the less an attempt will be made to avoid unnecessary ambiguity. Thus, the theory is presented formally only to facilitate verification or falsification in future studies.
Individual differences in musical behaviour
Authors: Kemp Anthony E
Published: November 2023

This chapter takes personality studies as its central focus. My reasons for this reflect the view that aspects of personality interrelate with, if not drive, most aspects of individual differences. Besides, this chapter might help redress the notorious neglect of personality psychology by most music psychologists. If one scans the range of published material which has mushroomed in recent years in the field, a fact that cannot be overlooked is its main preoccupation with music cognition and the virtual exclusion of dynamic psychology and concerns with people’s less cognitive musical responses. Clearly musicians engage in highly cognitive processes and execute exceedingly complex skills, but the view developed here is that the development of these, in many respects, is dependent upon the existence or acquisition of unusual combinations of personality factors. By considering musicians’ personality and temperament we may well open up new ways of understanding their motivational drives, their single-mindedness, and their investment of so much of their self-concepts in music.
Autism: deficits in folk psychology exist alongside superiority in folk physics
Authors: Baron-Cohen Simon
Published: November 2023

This volume concerns our everyday understanding of other minds, and how neuro-developmental factors can interfere with this ability. Our understanding of other minds is sometimes referred to as our folk psychology. According to Pinker, among others, the evolution of the human mind should be considered in terms of its evolved adaptedness to the environment (Pinker 1997). On this view, the brain needed to be able to maximize the survival of its host body in response to at least two broad challenges: predicting the physical and the social environment. The specialized cognitive domains of folk physics and folk psychology can be seen as adaptations to each of these. In this chapter I explore the possibility that a cognitive profile of superior folk physics alongside impaired folk psychology could arise for genetic reasons. This assumes that some brains are equally well adapted to understanding both the social and physical environment, whilst others are better adapted to understanding the physical environment and yet others are better adapted to understanding the social environment. Both clinical and experimental tests of this profile in children with autism and Asperger’s Syndrome (AS) will be reviewed.
Pretending, imagery, and self-awareness in autism
Authors: Harris Paul L , Leevers Hilary J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we examine the idea that children with autism suffer from an impoverished imagination and lack awareness of their own mental states. Our starting point is the deficit in pretend play that Kanner included in his original description of the syndrome (Kanner 1943). We review evidence showing that although children with autism can engage in pretence and appear to understand its special logic, they do play in a restricted or stereotypic fashion. We then consider recent, longitudinal studies that have focused on the development of pretend play in the second year of life. When pretend play has not emerged by eighteen months, and is combined with social difficulties, notably problems in establishing joint attention, a subsequent diagnosis of autism is likely. However, evidence from older children shows that the problem with pretend play is not just a by-product of the social difficulties of children with autism.
Theory of mind in action: developmental perspectives on social neuroscience
Authors: Klin Ami , Schultz Robert , Cohen Donald J
Published: November 2023

‘You, the neurotypicals, believe that autistic people have no feelings, no beliefs, not even sexual thoughts. Who are the ones without a theory of mind? Because we don’t talk as much about these things, you assume that your beliefs about us are true. Well, this is a false belief, if I am allowed to make a little pun, another thing I am not supposed to be able to do because I am autistic.
Theory of mind in other clinical conditions: is a selective ‘theory of mind’ deficit exclusive to autism?
Authors: Corcoran Rhiannon
Published: November 2023

If this book is testimony to one thing, it is that the majority of specialists who work with people with autism know that these children and adults have enormous problems when they are asked to appreciate, or attend to, the contents of someone else’s mind. Fifteen or so years of elegant empirical research, summarised in various chapters of this book and its earlier edition, have left little room for doubt about this. However, controversy still surrounds several issues about the nature and extent of the mind-reading problem and its specificity to autism. It is this latter debate which this chapter addresses. Is it really correct to argue that a ‘theory of mind’ (ToM) deficiency is exclusive to autism? Phrased in this way the answer has to be one typical in psychology: yes and no. Of course, the problem lies with the question. It lacks definition. If we were to ask instead whether it is justified to argue that autism is the only condition (we know of) in which a failure of neurodevelopment has resulted in an apparently selective inability to think about other’s thoughts, then the answer is ‘yes’. If, on the other hand, we ask whether theory of mind deficits are only ever seen in association with autism or the autistic spectra, the answer might well veer towards ‘no’ with interest.
E. coli 0157, Central Scotland 1996
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

Wishaw is a medium-sized town near Glasgow. It owes its existence to coal and iron. In the middle of the nineteenth century it was one of the most prosperous places in the world. Economic migrants came from the Highlands, England, Ireland, Poland, and the Baltic states.
Unlearned Lessons
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

It is evident that the particular causal circumstances which played key roles in the Croydon and Hazelnut yoghurt botulism outbreaks, the Piper Alpha disaster and the Rrn1 disaster cannot be invoked to explain what went wrong at Barr’s. Maintenance failures, shift handover problems, ill-thought-out recipe changes and lack of communication within the business were not specifically responsible.
E.coli O157
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

The first recorded human E.coli 0157 infection occurred in California in 1975, when it was isolated from a woman with bloody diarrhoea and abdominal cramps. This case came to light during a retrospective search for the organism in a collection of more than 3000 E. coli strains isolated from patients in the USA between 1973 and 1982 made by the Centers for Disease Control at Atlanta.
The Science of TSEs
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

It is gratifying that such a complex disease as CJD has such a seemingly simple explanation. But to reach it scientists have trodden several very different and complicated pathways. Their journeys have been difficult and slow. They are far from finished. Much of the knowledge about transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), the family name for diseases such as CJD, comes from work on scrapie. Scrapie is a disease of middle-aged sheep.
BSE-Why Things went Wrong
Authors: Pennington T Hugh
Published: November 2023

For many years ‘remoteness’ was acted on as if it was a scientific fact. Why? The brilliant analysis of the Polish microbiologist and immunologist Ludwik Fleck provides the answer. In his 1935 book, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, he explained how science works as a collective enterprise. Discoveries are not made in a vacuum.
Finite Element and Boundary Element Applications in Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

This book introduces the finite element and boundary element methods (FEM & BEM) for applications to quantum mechanical systems. A discretization of the action integral with finite elements, followed by application of variational principles, brings a very general approach to the solution of Schroedinger's equation for physical systems in arbitrary geometries with complex mixed boundary conditions. The variational approach is a common thread through the book and is used for the improvement of solutions to spectroscopic accuracy, to adaptively improve finite element meshs, to develop a time-dependent theory, and also to generate the solution of large sparse matrix eigenvalue problems. A thorough introduction to BEM is given using the modelling of surface plasmons, quantum electron waveguides, and quantum scattering as illustrative examples. The book should be useful to graduate students and researchers in basic quantum theory, quantum semiconductor modeling, computational physics, mathematics and chemistry.
2D elements and shape functions
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

In progressing from one-dimensional to two-dimensional problems we encounter a number of new issues in the formulation of the finite element method (FEM). The physical region has to be discretized into finite elements, which are now 2D elements, such that these elements must tessellate the physical region in its entirety. For example, if straight-edged elements are used along a curved boundary, the elements would not faithfully represent the physical regions along the boundary, and this could lead to incorrect boundary conditions (BCs) being implemented for the problem at hand. A large number of elements with straight edges would have to be invoked on the boundary to overcome this. A similar problem could arise when elements with curved sides are used in the interior since all adjacent elements must then have compatible sides with no gaps or overlapping coverages in the tessellation. We assume that such geometrical issues are taken into account adequately and focus on other aspects of the 2D FEM.
Matrix solvers and related issues
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to review methods for the solution of linear matrix equations and for the solution of complex Hermitian generalized eigenvalue problems when the matrices are of large dimension. For example, within the framework of the finite element method (FEM) the Galerkin approach to scattering problems can generate a matrix equation for the scattering amplitude with matrix dimensions N 2’. 10. Similarly, bound state problems in two or three dimensions give rise to matrix eigenvalue equations of comparable dimensions. The matrices generated in the FEM are banded and sparse. As a very rough criterion for sparseness we can suppose that matrices with element occupancy of say, Na, CY’.;:::’1.2, may be considered to be sparse matrices.
Quantum Chaos and Billiards
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa
Published: November 2023

The dynamics of billiard balls and its role in physics have received wide attention since the monumental lecture by Lord Kelvin (the man whose name is used as the unit of absolute temperature) at the turn of the 19th century. We shall begin with a brief review of his lecture [31].
Quantum Interference in Single Open Billiards
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa
Published: November 2023

As we said in Chapter 1, an accumulation of experiments has reported the presence of anomalous fluctuations in the mesoscopic (nanoscale) world. These fluctuations are distinct from those arising from thermal noise or impurity potentials, but are taken as a quantal hallmark of chaos, i.e., quantum chaos. It is now becoming one of the big themes in mesoscopic physics to capture quantum chaos. In fact, by applying nanotechnology, quantum dots such as stadium billiards and antidots such as Sinai billiards have been fabricated at the interface of GaAs/AlGaAs semiconductor heterojunctions. In quantum dots, an electron is colliding with the inner side of concave billiard walls, whereas in antidots electrons collide with the outer side of convex billiard walls. The linear dimension of these systems is less than the electronic mean free path, and each electron there exhibits a deterministic motion like a ballistic missile except when it bounces elastically off the billiard wall.
Orbit Bifurcations, Arnold Diffusion, and Coulomb Blockade
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa
Published: November 2023

The Gutzwiller-type semiclassical trace formula and the semiclassical Kubo formula work well only when there is no overlapping among saddle points, namely, when periodic orbits are isolated from each other. Otherwise, we should improve these original formulas. In fact, periodic orbits can show bifurcations when the system’s parameters (e.g., magnetic or electric fields or billiard table shapes) are varied. At the point of bifurcations, periodic orbits become degenerate and improved semiclassical formulas should be invented.
Nonadiabatic Transitions, Energy Diffusion and Generalized Friction
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we have investigated time-independent stationary states. In this final chapter, we treat a time-dependent problem. Any quantum dot, to which a free-electron gas is confined, has so far been assumed to have fixed boundary wall with its position (say, X) being time-independent. If the wall were to move as illustrated in Fig. 10.1, what should happen to the free-electron gas confined by it? With X fixed, the solution of the time-independent Schrodinger equation affords a set of energy levels. A small change of X induces small shifts of individual energy levels. Repeating this procedure, one obtains a parameter (A")-dependent energy spectrum as in Fig. 10.2, which is called the adiabatic spectrum.
Perturbed Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

Perturbed problems are the most difficult part of the theory of dynamical systems and a possibility of solution of (3.1) or even a description of some features of the solution is still far from complete.
Chaotic Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

Speaking about ‘chaotic dynamics’, we have in mind a kind of randomness or, more accurately, the idea that trajectories of particles or systems can be indistinguishable from some random process. This means that there exists an exact or approximate equivalent between solutions of some stochastic equation and, for example, the Newton equation, without anything random in the latter one.
Sensorimotor Entrainment Of Respiratory And Orofacial Systems In Humans
Authors: Barlow Steven M , Finan Donald S , Park So-Young
Published: November 2023

The motor system is regarded as part of the infrastructure of the body, enabling the organism to locomote, feed, fly, respire, and, in humans, produce speech. The assembly of the neuronal machinery in a number of animal species has shown that motor behavior evolves from dynamic changes that take place at the molecular, cellular, and network level ( Grillner 2001). Some motor behaviors are mediated by central neuronal circuits known as central pattern generators (CPGs). Numerous CPGs have been analyzed, and it is clear that a wide variety of cellular, synaptic, and network properties are involved in modulating the output characteristics of these local networks (Pearson and Gordon 2000).
Introduction to Modern Analysis
Authors: Kantorovitz Shmuel
Published: November 2023

This text is based on lectures given by the author at the advanced undergraduate and graduate levels in Measure Theory, Functional Analysis, Banach Algebras, Spectral Theory (of bounded and unbounded operators), Semigroups of Operators, Probability and Mathematical Statistics, and Partial Differential Equations. The first 10 chapters discuss theoretical methods in Measure Theory and Functional Analysis, and contain over 120 end of chapter exercises. The final two chapters apply theory to applications in Probability Theory and Partial Differential Equations. The Measure Theory chapters discuss the Lebesgue-Radon-Nikodym theorem which is given the Von Neumann Hilbert space proof. Also included are the relatively advanced topics of Haar measure, differentiability of complex Borel measures in Euclidean space with respect to Lebesgue measure, and the Marcinkiewicz' interpolation theorem for operators between Lebesgue spaces. The Functional Analysis chapters cover the usual material on Banach spaces, weak topologies, separation, extremal points, the Stone-Weierstrass theorem, Hilbert spaces, Banach algebras, and Spectral Theory for both bounded and unbounded operators. Relatively advanced topics such as the Gelfand-Naimark-Segal representation theorem and the Von Neumann double commutant theorem are included. The final two chapters deal with applications, where the measure theory and functional analysis methods of the first ten chapters are applied to Probability Theory and the Theory of Distributions and PDE's. Again, some advanced topics are included, such as the Lyapounov Central Limit theorem, the Kolmogoroff "Three Series theorem", the Ehrenpreis-Malgrange-Hormander theorem on fundamental solutions, and Hormander's theory of convolution operators. The Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics series aim is to publish textbooks suitable for graduate students in mathematics and its applications. The level of books may range from some suitable for advanced undergraduate courses at one end, to others of interest to research workers. The emphasis is on texts of high mathematical quality in active areas, particularly areas that are not well represented in the literature at present.
Banach algebras
Authors: Kantorovitz Shmuel
Published: November 2023

If X is a Banach space, the Banach space B(X) (cf. Notation 4.3) is also an algebra under the composition of operators as multiplication.
Unbounded operators
Authors: Kantorovitz Shmuel
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we deal with (linear) operators T with domain D(T) and range R(T) in a Banach space X; D(T) and R(T) are (linear) subspaces of X. The operators S, Tare equal if D(S) = D(T) and Sx = Tx for all x in the (common)domain of Sand T. If S,Tare operators such that D(S) C D(T) and Tlv(S) = S, we say that T is an extension of S (notation: S C T). The algebraic operations between unbounded operators are defined with the obvious restrictions on domains.
Electronic and Optical Properties of Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

Conjugated polymers have important technological applications, including solar cells and light emitting displays. They are also active components in many important biological processes. In recent years there have been significant advances in our understanding of these systems, owing to both improved experimental measurements and the development of advanced computational techniques. The aim of this book is to describe and explain the electronic and optical properties of conjugated polymers. It focuses on the character and energetic ordering of the electronic states and relates these properties to experimental observations in real systems. A number of important optical and electronic processes in conjugated polymers are also described.
Introduction To Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

Research into the electronic, optical, and magnetic properties of conjugated polymers began in the 1970s after a number of seminal experimental achievements. First, the synthesis of polyacetylene thin films (Itoˆet al.1974) and the subsequent success in doping these polymers to create conducting polymers (Chiang et al.1977) established the field of synthetic metals. Second, the synthesis of the phenyl-based polymers and the discovery of electroluminescence under low voltages in these systems (Burroughes et al.1990) established the field of polymer optoelectronics.
π -Electron Theories Of Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to introduce some of the language and notation used throughout this book. We begin by discussing the many body Hamiltonian that describes the electronic and nuclear degrees of freedoms in polymers. Then we introduce the Born-Oppenheimer approximation which treats the nuclear degrees of freedom adiabatically and leads to the Born-Oppenheimer Hamiltonian for the electronic degrees of freedom. Next, we introduce the concept of sp(n) hybridization that decouples the higher energy σelectronic processes from the lower energy πelectronic processes. This leads to the concept of π-conjugation and allows us to introduce the π-electron models of conjugated polymers.
Interacting Electrons
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we begin to describe the effects of electron-electron interactions in conjugated polymers. We first discuss broken symmetry ground states before focussing on the character and excitation energies of some of the important lowlying states. A particularly important consequence of electron-electron interactions for neutral one-dimensional systems is the formation of bound particle-hole excitations, or excitons. This subject will be briefly discussed in this chapter, but fuller descriptions of excitons will be given in the next chapter.
Electron-Lattice Coupling Ii: Interacting Electrons
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

It has been recognized for some 30 years that neither electron-phonon interactions nor electron-electron interactions alone are capable of explaining the electronic properties of conjugated polymers. In transpolyacetylene, for example, it is impossible to consistently predict the values of the bond alternation and the optical gap within a no interacting framework for reasonable values of the electron-phonon coupling constant (Ovchinnikov et al.1973). In fact, as described in this chapter, the bond alternation depends crucially on the strength of the electronic interactions (Horsch 1981), with the optical gap being significantly enhanced.
Optical Processes In Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

There are many excellent accounts of both the theory of optical processes in general (Ziman 1972; Butcher and Cotter 1990; Mukamel 1995 and Loudon 2000), and optical processes in organic (Pope and Swenberg 1999) and inorganic materials (Henderson and Imbusch 1989), in particular. It is the purpose of this chapter to describe some of the important linear and nonlinear optical processes that enable us to establish a connection between the theories of electronic states described in this book and their experimental consequences.
Electronic Processes In Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

A number of important electronic processes in conjugated polymers are introduced in this chapter. The emphasis is on describing electronic processes in single or weakly coupled polymers. We describe exciton (or energy) transfer, excited molecular complexes, charge transfer, and a theory of what determines the singlet exciton yield in light emitting polymers. Only in Section 9.4, where we describe screening of intramolecular excitations, are bulk systems considered.
Linear Polyenes And Trans –Polyacetylene
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

The many unusual properties of transpolyacetylene have already been described in this book in the context of understanding the roles of electron-electron and electron-lattice interactions in π-electron models. These have been described in Chapters 4 and 7, in particular. In this chapter we describe some experimental observations and show how these are explained within a framework of correlated electrons with strong electron-lattice coupling. The chemical structure of transpolyacetylene is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
Light Emitting Polymers
Authors: Barford William
Published: November 2023

The discovery of electroluminescence in poly(para-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) (Burroughes et al.1990) has led to a re-awakened interest in conjugated polymers. This interest is partly driven by a desire to understand the electronic properties of the phenyl-based light emitting polymers in order to exploit them for a wide range of technologies. These technologies include cheap and flexible light emitting displays, photovoltaic devices, optical switching, and field-effect transistors.
Introduction: what are signals?
Authors: Smith John Maynard , Harper David
Published: November 2023

This introduction can be treated as a menu outlining what is to come. There is no shortage of recent reviews of animal signals: for example, books by Hauser (1996), Bradbury and Vehrencamp (1998) and, more idiosyncratically, Zahavi and Zahavi (1997), and reviews such as Hasson (1994), Johnstone (1997), and Maynard Smith and Harper (1995). What need can there be for yet another? The answer is that despite, or perhaps because of, the multitude of reviews, there is widespread and often unrecognized confusion about the kinds of signal that exist, the mechanisms responsible for their evolution, and the terms to be used to describe them. The aim of this book is to clarify some of these confusions. We do not report any new facts, and in general we rely on previously published theories; we do attempt to bring order out of chaos.
The great studies of smoking and disease in the twentieth century
Authors: Thun Michael J , Henley Jane
Published: November 2023

Much of what is known about the harm caused by tobacco use was learned from large prospective epidemiologic studies conducted during the second half of the twentieth century in the United Kingdom and United States. To understand why these studies were so important in documenting the deleterious effects of smoking, one must appreciate the pervasive grip that tobacco, particularly cigarette smoking, held on the United Kingdom and its former Western colonies at the close of the Second World War. The culture of cigarettes was sustained not only by nicotine addiction and by the political and economic power of the tobacco industry, but also by the symbols and imagery with which advertising had imbued it, and by prevailing social norms. How could an apparently ordinary behavior, practised by so many people with so little evidence of acute toxicity, prove to have such severe chronic effects?
The changing cigarette: Chemical studies and bioassays
Authors: Hoffmann Ilse , Hoffmann Dietrich
Published: November 2023

In 1953 the first successful induction of cancer in a laboratory animal with a tobacco product was reported, with the application of cigarette tar to mouse skin (Wynder et al. 1953). (Throughout this chapter, the term ‘tar’ is used as a descriptive noun only.) The particulate matter of cigarette smoke generated by an automatic smoking machine was suspended in acetone (1:1) and painted on to the shaven backs of mice three times weekly for up to 24 months. A clear dose response was observed between the amount of tar applied to the skin of mice and the percentage of animals in the test group bearing skin papillomas and carcinomas (Wynder et al. 1957). Since then, mouse skin has been widely used as the primary bioassay method for estimating the carcinogenic potency of tobacco tar and its fractions, as well as for particulate matters of other combustion products (Wynder and Hoffmann 1962, 1967; Hoffmann and Wynder 1977; National Cancer Institute 1977a, b, c, 1980; International Agency for Research on Cancer 1986a).
Behavioral pharmacology of nicotine reinforcement
Authors: Garrett Bridgette E , Dwoskin Linda , Bardo, Michael , Henningfield Jack E
Published: November 2023

A key feature of drug addiction is compulsive and highly controlled drug seeking and self-administration, which often occur, despite the users’ awareness of harmful effects (O’Brien 1996; American Psychiatric Association 1994; World Health Organization 1992). Addictive drugs, in turn, are defined in part by their ability to act as reinforcers as a result of their actions in the brain; these actions are often associated with desirable alterations of mood and feeling state (O’Brien 1996; US DHHS 1988).
Tobacco in Great Britain
Authors: White Patti
Published: November 2023

The British love affair with tobacco began in the sixteenth century with the pipe smoking Elizabethan pirates who sailed with Hawkins and Drake. While many mid-sixteenth century Europeans were exploring the supposed curative properties of tobacco, the English seized upon this new import from the Americas as a substance to be enjoyed. By the end of Elizabeth I’s reign, smoking was observed in all classes of society (Corti 1931). Elizabeth’s successor, James I, is renown for fulminating against smoking in his A Counterblaste to Tobacco (1604) but, not for the last time, the commercial value of tobacco ultimately overcame all objections. The sale of tobacco grown in the Jamestown colony became the saviour of the whole English colonial enterprise in America (Borio 1998). By the late 1620s about 500000lbs of Virginia tobacco were being imported into London every year; the tobacco trade was a major business by the second half of the century (RCP 2000).
The epidemic of tobacco use in China
Authors: Honghuan Yang
Published: November 2023

Tobacco use was first introduced into China during the sixteenth and seventeenth century from the west, via the Philippines and Vietnam, to the south of China, and via Korea to the Northeast of China (Wu and Zhang).
Smoking and cancer of the oesophagus
Authors: Negri Eva
Published: November 2023

It has been estimated that in the year 2000 there were in the world about 280 000 new cases of oesophageal cancer (OC) among men and 130 000 among women (Ferlay et al. 2001). The great majority of these cases (220 000 men and 120 000 women) occur in less developed countries. The age-standardized rate in men is twofold in less developed areas compared to more developed areas of the world (12.8/100 000 vs 6.7/100000). In women the ratio between rates in less and more developed areas is 5 (6.2/lO0000vs 1.3/100000).
Smoking and lung cancer
Authors: Giles Graham G , Boyle Peter
Published: November 2023

The establishment of the causal link between smoking and lung cancer was an epidemiological triumph won against considerable resistance marshalled by the tobacco industry. This chapter reviews how the evidence that smoking causes lung cancer was accumulated and weighed against criteria adopted to establish the causal significance of epidemiological associations between an exposure and disease. The history of elucidating the association between lung cancer and smoking is now fundamental to modern epidemiological thinking and practice but in the early to mid-twentieth century the science of epidemiology was new and in the making, and the research on smoking and lung cancer contributed to the development of epidemiology as a discipline (White 1990). In addition to the evaluation of epidemiological evidence, the case for causality was strengthened by evidence from human pathology and by evidence from experimental studies using animal models. Much of this material has been reviewed previously elsewhere (IARC 1986) to which the interested reader is referred for more detail than can be given here.
Smoking and other disorders
Authors: Hackshaw Allan
Published: November 2023

Given that smoking consists of several thousand chemicals and toxins it is no wonder that it is associated with a wide range of diseases. Since the first epidemiological studies linking smoking with lung cancer, there has been an abundance of studies (epidemiological and biological) that have shown smokers to be at a higher (or in a few cases, lower) risk of developing certain disorders. Smoking is an established cause of several cancers, respiratory disease, and cardiovascular disease; these are described elsewhere in this book. Here, I describe disorders other than those just mentioned and provide an overview of published reviews and the results of published meta-analyses where available.
Lessons in tobacco control advocacy leadership
Authors: Pertschuk Michael
Published: November 2023

There are, of course, volumes of lessons in policy advocacy. Indeed, there are available through GOBALink and other tobacco control web-sites sound strategic and tactical guides on every conceivable advocacy challenge. Here, then, in these few pages, let us look at a few of the central strategic issues in building, sustaining, and winning a national or regional tobacco control policy campaign.
Overview
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P
Published: November 2023

As physical scientists, we are concerned with the behaviour of matter in all its forms. We want to know what matter does and why. This is our goal in studying the primordial universe, the tenuous interstellar medium, the gaseous atmosphere of the Earth, the ionized plasma of the Sun’s corona, the mundane liquids and solids of our human surroundings, and the exotic dense matter within a molecule, an atomic nucleus, or a proton. This book is about a tiny subset of this vast range of forms of matter: structured fluids. Structured fluids are liquids, i.e., condensed matter in which the atoms are adjacent but freely mobile on a local scale.
First-order phase transition kinetics
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

Let us consider a planar interface between two pure liquid and solid phases at thermodynamic equilibrium. The change in thermodynamic potential is written as increase, which can be achieved by moving the interface from the solid to the liquid phase. Let us now consider a stable liquid phase while progressively decreasing the temperature. As soon as phase transition is a first-order one, liquid–solid interfaces must be present for the solid phase to spread.
Forms without surface tension
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

In many problems of electrostatics, magnetism or hydrodynamics the domains limited by a polygonal contour are particularly important. Let us consider for instance a two-dimensional potential flow of velocity U which separates at a vertical rod of length l. The relation of conservation of mass of the fluid leads to an expression of the potentialé as a harmonic function.
Pattern formation and growth rate
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

We will limit ourselves to the experiments determining the velocity of a Saffman– Taylor finger and a free dendrite, for which precise and reproducible results have been obtained. These experiments indicate that a curved shape, such as a Saffman- Taylor finger or a dendrite, grow at a well-defined velocity determined by the control parameters. More precisely, as long as those parameters are fixed, the final velocity of propagation of the curved shape does not depend on the initial conditions of the experiment.
Stability of a curved shape
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

At high velocity of propagation the stationary shape of the Saffman–Taylor finger becomes unstable. We observe several modes or types of deformation of the curved shape. The first one, secondary branching, appears close to the tip and grows on one side of the finger (figure 9.1a). This deformation, which almost stays at rest in the reference frame of the laboratory, moves backwards with respect to the tip at the same velocity as the finger. The second mode occurs by the splitting of the tip intotwo equivalent parts (figure 9.1b). The two resulting parts compete for the growth, one is stopped and the process re-occurs.