bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chillingham Cattle: Dominance and Affinities and Access to Supplementary Food
Authors: Hall Stephen J. G.
Published: May 2010

A herd of cattle of natural sex ratio and age distribution, inhabiting a 134‐ha park in northern England, was studied during supplementary feeding in 4 winters. Interactions could be summarised by conventional dominance hierarchies, more strictly linear and less stable among males than among females. Personal associations among individuals were not important, but affinities among social classes were, in determining the composition of feeding groups. Dominant males often fed in the same groups as dominant females. Dominant animals were less often seen to feed alone, implying that social dominance did not confer exclusive access to food. Cattle often fed in groups of two or three; certain combinations (notably those including two males, or one male and one female, or three calves) were stable, others unstable, notably combinations of females and calves, or of two or three females. This implies that females may defend resources more vigorously against other females than males do against other males.
Individual‐ and Sex‐related Strategies of Wrestling Play in Captive Squirrel Monkeys
Authors: Biben Maxeen
Published: May 2010

The play behavior of 10 juvenile squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) was observed for 7 months in both mixed‐sex and same‐sex laboratory social groupings to identify strategies by which individuals may derive maximum benefit from play. Two types of play wrestling were identified: directional if one partner was on top of and dominating the other, and nondirectional if both partners hung from a perch and clasped each other equally. Males (N=5) wrestled more often, had longer bouts, and used proportionately more directional wrestling than did females (N = 5). Initiation Behaviors, leading predictably to play, were performed preferentially to certain partners, independent of affiliative (huddling) preferences. Both sexes performed more Initiation Behaviors to same‐sex partners. Individuals, regardless of sex, preferred play partners whom they could dominate during directional wrestling; with partners whom they could not dominate, they preferred nondirectional wrestling, where partners were equal. The observed preferences are interpreted as evidence for individual strategies maximizing winning at directional wrestling. Role reversal is discussed as a strategy encouraging play between youngsters of diverse abilities, and as a means of providing needed experience in a variety of social roles.
Tracking of Female Conspecific Odor Trails by Male Broad‐headed Skinks (Eumeces laticeps)
Authors: Cooper William E. , Vitt Laurie J.
Published: May 2010

The ability of the broad‐headed skink (Eumeces laticeps) to follow conspecific odor trails on paper substrates was investigated in y‐maze experiments. Adult males enter the trail‐containing arm at much greater than chance frequency when the odor source is female. The data support the hypothesis that males can follow odor trails of females. The often‐repeated direct contact with the trail made by tongue‐flicking as the lizard passed through the maze provided evidence that males could follow the scent. There was no evidence that males followed male odors or that females followed trails laid by either sex. It is suggested that the major selective force leading to evolution by males of the ability to trail females was an increase in reproductive success accruing to males able to locate females and guard them during a temporally limited period of sexual receptivity.
Vigilance and Group Size in Homo sapiens
Authors: Wirtz Peter , Wawra Monika
Published: May 2010

While eating, Homo sapiens frequently look up and visually scan their environment. As in many bird and mammal species studied, the frequency of looking up was negatively correlated with group size. Average duration of scanning the environment also correlated negatively with group size. At all group sizes studied (1–5), females spent less time scanning than did males. With increasing group size females reduced their rate of looking up more than did males.
How do Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus Find their Burrows?
Authors: James Paul C.
Published: May 2010

The ability of Manx shearwaters (Puffinus puffinus) to locate their nesting burrows at night was investigated using observation and experiments. Shearwaters walking to their burrows did so at random with respect to the wind direction, and did not vocalize, suggesting that visual cues are important to successful burrow homing. Experiments to test whether vision, audition or olfaction functioned in guiding birds back to burrows supported this conclusion.
Relationships between Behaviour and Antler Cycle Timing in Red Deer
Authors: Bartoš Luděk
Published: May 2010

The factors affecting the stag social hierarchy and antler cycle timing in a herd of red deer were analysed. The analysis was based on behaviour records of the herd between 1972 and 1983.

The alpha stag was not usually the oldest stag present. Changes in rank were commoner in periods of hard antler than during velvet periods. The frequency of rank changes was correlated with the number of stags present but not with the number of hinds; it was also positively related to indicators of the level of aggression such as the incidence of antler breakage, the number of harem‐holding stags per rut and the incidence of post‐casting rank loss. The number of stags killed in fights was not correlated to any of the indicators of aggression except the number of harem‐holders per rut.

Rank loss after antler casting and the change of harem‐holding stags during the rut were both relatively rare events indicating year‐round, stable social relationships in the herd.

The relationships between rank and casting date and between rank and cleaning date previously reported were related to the level of aggression among the deer. The higher the level of aggression, the closer the relationship between rank and the timing of the antler cycle. The small difference in the level of aggression between the periods of casting and cleaning is thought to be the result of the seasonally different social background.

The number of hinds present did not appear to affect antler casting, antler cleaning or the general indicators of the level of aggression. It is concluded that the results support the previously advanced hypothesis that behaviour modulates antler cycle timing in Cervids.
Cues Used for Localizing Food by the Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)
Authors: McQuade Denise B. , Williams Ernest H. , Eichenbaum Howard B.
Published: May 2010

We compared the use of olfactory, visual, and spatial cues for learning the location of stored food by gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis). All experimental cues were extrinsic, that is, they originated from the environment around the food rather than from the food itself. In training trials, artificial caches with one of two odors, one of two colors, and six of 12 spatial locations contained sunflower seeds. In experimental trials, the odors, colors, and sets of spatial locations associated with food were reversed one at a time, so that only two of the three training cues gave evidence of the food rewards. Consequent declines in food localization by the squirrels revealed differential use of particular cue modalities. The data show that squirrels used visual cues the most and olfactory cues the least with this design. These results, along with other evidence, suggest that gray squirrels use spatial memory in food recovery.
Mating and Residence Patterns of Male Patas Monkeys
Authors: Chism J. B. , Rowell T. E.
Published: May 2010

A longterm study of a population of patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) in Kenya indicated fluid male residence patterns. While a single adult male was present in each of the two main study groups for most of each year, several males were present and mating in groups during some conception periods. Tenures of males in heterosexual groups were generally short; some males were resident in both groups and some had more than one tenure in the same group. When not in heterosexual groups, males lived as solitaries or in all‐male associations.
An Analysis of Snake‐Scent Application Behaviour in Siberian Chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus asiaticus)
Authors: Kobayashi Tomomichi , Watanabe Munetaka
Published: May 2010

Some rodents assault live snakes by mobbing. Another snake‐directed behaviour is shown by Siberian chipmunks, Eutamias sibiricus asiaticus, when encountering a dead snake. They approach the carcass cautiously, gnaw the snake skin, and chew and apply the gnawed bits to their body fur. We have termed this behaviour “Snake‐Scent Application” (SSA). SSA behaviour is also elicited by snake urine and feces. Chemicals in snake skin and rectal and cloacal sacs release SSA. Snake urine applied to dead mice tends to suppress ingestion by snakes.
Lek Mating System and Large Male Aggressive Advantage in a Gall‐forming Tephritid Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)
Authors: Dodson Gary
Published: May 2010

Field and laboratory studies revealed that the mating system of a tephritid fly, Procecidochares sp., meets even the most stringent definition of lekking behavior. Mark‐recapture and plant‐preference experiments confirmed that newly emerged adult Procecidochares sp. left their larval host plant (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) and flew to Atriplex canescens. The flies used A. canescens solely as a mate encounter site. Sex ratios of emerging flies did not differ from unity, but sex ratios at the leks were extremely male‐biased. An advantage for larger individuals in male‐male aggressive encounters was quantified and observations suggested that females might be choosing mates based on outcomes of fights. Lekking behavior, previously reported among polyphagic tephritids, is considered exceptional for a monophagous species. Factors favoring a lek mating system in this species are discussed.
Yawning as a Stereotyped Action Pattern and Releasing Stimulus
Authors: Provine Robert R.
Published: May 2010

Yawning was induced by instructing subjects to “think about yawning.” Yawns were consistent in duration (X = 5.9 s), periodic (X interyawn interval = 68.3 s), and within‐subject stability in yawn duration and frequency was maintained for at least several weeks. These and other characteristics qualified yawning as a stereotyped action pattern. Although visually observed yawns were potent yawn releasing stimuli, “thinking about” or reading about yawning also elicited yawning and were additional vectors for its “infectiousness.” The respiratory, stretching and “imitative” aspects of yawning were also evaluated.
Decision Making and Assessment in the Fighting Behaviour of Nannacara anomala (Cichlidae, Pisces)
Authors: Enquist Magnus , Jakobsson Sven
Published: May 2010

Predictions from ESS‐theory concerning assessment of fighting ability and decision making are tested using a cichlid fish Nannacara anomala. Pairs with a pronounced difference in weight were allowed to interact. Fight duration increased when the difference in weight between the contestants decreased and the probability of an escalation from tail‐beating to mouth‐wrestling also increased when the weight difference decreased. Despite the fact that weight difference very well predicts the outcome of fights in this species it was found that fishes weighing less than 50 % of the opponent engaged in fighting, which suggests that visual assessment alone provides only limited information about relative fighting ability. The possible functions of various behaviour patterns are discussed in relation to assessment and escalation.
Aggression in Tropical Orb‐weaving Spiders a Quest for Food?
Authors: Hoffmaster Debra K.
Published: May 2010

This study examines factors that influence aggression between orb‐weaving spiders in Panama. As a measure of a spider's tendency to invade, I randomly released 24 marked spiders near occupied webs. To assess aggression, I staged 150 interactions using 80 intruders of two species and 73 occupants of 12 species. Aggression was measured using a composite index resulting in a single measure for each combatant and each interaction. As anticipated, occupant and intruder aggression (measured by the aggressive index) were highly correlated. Surprisingly, no other variables were able to explain the remaining variation in either measure. Intruder prey deprivation, the presence or absence of prey at the beginning of the encounter and the presence or absence of mid‐sequence prey were each related to contest length. This relationship, between contest length and prey, indicates that prey are important in determining the combatants' persistence and suggests the existence of complex interrelationships between aggression and measures of prey availability.
The Feeding Behaviour of a Sit and Wait Predator Ranatra dispar (Heteroptera: Nepidae): The Effect of Prey Density and Age Structure on the Number of Prey Eaten
Authors: Bailey Paul C. E.
Published: May 2010

Functional response experiments were performed in the laboratory to examine the effect of prey density (as observed in the field) on feeding behaviour, and to measure handling‐times and attack‐rates for each instar and adult of Ranatra dispar Montandon (Heteroptera: Nepidae) feeding on five size‐classes of its common prey, Anisops deanei Brooks (Heteroptera: Notonectidae). The most generally applicable response was the Type 2, although for both the predator fifth instar and adult female and male feeding on the two smallest prey sizes, the asymptote or plateau was not observed even at the highest prey density given. Generally, the handling‐time increased as prey‐size increased, and decreased as the predator size increased. The attack‐rate surface was far more complex. For the first two predator instars (I and II), the maximum attack‐rate occurred on the smallest prey sizes (1 and 2). The maximum attack‐rate for predator instar III was almost the same for prey sizes 1 and 2, that of predator instar IV was greater for prey size 2, while in the three largest predator sizes (V, female and male), the maximum attack‐rate was found for prey size 3. Predator instar V had the largest attack‐rate values over all prey sizes, and both the predator adult female and male had lower attack‐rates for various prey sizes than instars V, IV and, to some degree, III. The results support the suggestion that small predator instars will usually compete with large instars for prey, unless they are spatially or temporally separated. Observations in the field indicate that a distinct age‐specific spatial distribution exists in R. dispar and the prey, A. deanei, with the smallest individuals being found predominantly in the shallow (littoral zone) water, while the larger individuals are found in the deeper water.
The Effects of Food Deprivation in Dyadic Encounters in Apodemus sylvaticus
Authors: Montgomery W. I. , Woods S.
Published: May 2010

The nature of dominance in relationships among male Apodemus sylvaticus was investigated using multivariate analysis and by experimental manipulation of the behaviour of dominants. The behaviour of dominant mice was typified by greater frequencies and durations of exploration, approach and pursuit of subordinates in short encounters in a small arena. The direction of encounters normally remained constant over 48 h.

When the dominant mouse in a dyad was deprived of food there was a change in its behaviour and an immediate change in the behaviour of the subordinate. Subordinates showed greater interest in starving, though known, dominants, explored more freely and indulged more in pursuit than control subordinate mice i. e. those matched with dominants on an adequate diet. Results suggest that in A. sylvaticus, dominance is associated with the inhibition of the activity of a subordinate and the relationship is maintained by the behaviour of the dominant rather than the deference of the subordinate.
Optimal Mate Searching Strategy in the Symbiotic Spider Crab Inachus phalangium (Decapoda)
Authors: Diesel Rudolf
Published: May 2010

The reproductive strategy of the symbiotic spider crab, Inachus phalangium was studied from 1981 to 1983 in the natural environment. Main study focus was the efficiency of males in search of mates.

I. phalangium females are site‐constant, and live in the protection of one anemone or group. Males travel frequently between anemones harbouring females due to spawn; they copulate and guard the females until spawning, after which the male leaves again. A male operates in a patrol area containing 3–8 anemone groups and up to 8 females, visiting each female in turn repeatedly just before it is due to spawn. Patrol areas of different males may overlap, with resulting competition to fertilize a female's next brood. Large males have higher reproductive success than small ones. Females live up to 8 months after the moult of puberty and hatch up to six broods, and males live up to 7 months as adults. A male could fertilize a calculated 26,000 eggs, whilst a female's reproductive potential is ca. 4,200 eggs. Mortality risks are higher for males than for females, probably because of increased predation while leaving the protection of anemones in order to visit females. Males learn the positions of anemones harbouring females in their patrol areas, and when these are due to spawn. This allows a male to travel with a target and arrive punctually to fertilize the next brood due in his circuit. I. phalangium is the first marine invertebrate reported to use a “schedule” of localities and times for visiting prespawning females. In this way males minimize searching time and mortality risk, and maximize the number of broods fertilized.
A Previously Undescribed Method of Song Matching in a Species with a Single Song “Type”, the Kentucky Warbler (Oporornis formosus)
Authors: MORTON EUGENE S. , YOUNG KIMBERLEY
Published: May 2010

The song of male Kentucky warblers consists of several repetitions of syllables containing 2 to 7 elements within a frequency range from 1.8 to 6.0 kHz. Each male has a single, individually distinctive song type that spans part or all of this frequency range. Song responses to playbacks of songs artificially elevated or lowered in frequency by 200 Hz show that a bird is able to alter its song in two ways. It may lower or raise the frequency range of the song or put more energy into the lower or higher frequencies within the song's elements to more closely match the energy distribution of the playback song. The syllable or element structure of the song is kept constant with only the song's energy distribution among frequencies changing. Thus, Kentucky warblers are able to alter their single song type to “match countersing” in a way similar to that of species with song repertoires who switch song types to match those of rivals. The Kentucky warbler may have a single songtype because of its ability to change its song's energy distribution. This ability may perform the same functions as song matching does in species with larger repertoires. This finding is discussed in relation to ideas on the evolution of song repertoires in intrasexual competition.
Quantitative Aspects of Antenna Grooming in Bees (Apoidea: Hymenoptera)
Authors: SCHÖNITZER KLAUS
Published: May 2010

Antenna grooming in more than 100 species of bees (Apoidea), representing 34 genera of the 7 major bee families is recorded and quantitatively analysed.

Most species of bees fall into one of two groups with respect to repetitive antenna cleaning: “Uniscrapers” predominantly clean their antennae with one stroke, “biscrapers” mostly with two subsequent strokes. Uniscrapers are more consequent in their behaviour than biscrapers. Most biscrapers occasionally clean their antenna with one or three strokes. Individual variation in the ratio of stroke repetition is considerably larger in bi‐ than in uniscrapers. In several species males and females differ with respect to their antenna cleaning behaviour, females tend to be more uniscraping. Most species of the families Colletidae, Halictidae, and Andrenidae, as well as the species of the genera Ceratina and Nomada (Anthophoridae) are biscrapers. Almost all species of Melittidae, Megachilidae, Apidae, and Anthophoridae (except Ceratina and Nomada) are uniscrapers.

Bees with an antenna cleaner with ancestral (plesiomorphic) morphology are mostly, but not always, biscrapers, those with a derived antenna cleaner are always uniscrapers.

Bees with a derived antenna cleaner perform on average less cleaning actions and strokes than those with an ancestral antenna cleaner. Uniscrapers with an ancestral strigilis do on average more cleaning actions per minute than biscrapers, thus they compensate partly for the fewer number of strokes. But nevertheless the uniscrapers do fewer strokes than the biscrapers (both with an ancestral strigilis). Females clean their antennae on average more often than males.

It is interpreted that the behaviour of uniscraping and a derived morphology of the antenna cleaner result in greater efficiency than the status which is ancestral for Apoidea (biscraping and a plesiomorphic antenna cleaner).
Employing an Ethogram to Detect Reactivity of Black Bears (Ursus americanus) to the Presence of Humans
Authors: JORDAN ROBERT H. , BURGHARDT GORDON M.
Published: May 2010

There has been little quantitative research on the reactivity of non‐human species to either an observer or to the presence of humans in general. This study describes the responses of black bears (Ursus americanus) to the presence of humans. Two pairs (male‐female) and (female‐female) of same‐aged captive black bears kept at separate locations were observed in 60‐min sessions with their behavior scanned every 30 s. 146 h of systematic observation were completed over a 30‐month period.

Data for each session were collapsed into 30 two‐min blocks and linear regression analysis was performed on the rates of various behavior patterns. At a relatively remote, undisturbed location rates of many behavior patterns and groupings by activity level were highly correlated with time period within the 60‐min session. Behaviors that indicated resting or “relaxed” behavior increased from beginning to end of a session while behaviors requiring more energy decreased. Such large changes in rates of some behaviors apparently involve habituation to the presence of the observer. At the other location there was far more stimulation from sources other than the observer (tourists), and the bears' behavior was less affected by both the observer and other humans. Reactivity has been well‐studied with humans, but more systematic studies are needed with all species to develop guidelines for both evaluating and countering reactivity.
Male Calling Behavior and Female Choice in the Neotropical Treefrog Hyla microcephala
Authors: SCHWARTZ JOSHUA J.
Published: May 2010

The effect of stimulus call complexity and calling rate on the vocal responses of males and female mate choice was studied in Hyla microcephala in Panama. Males increased the number of notes in their calls in response to increases in stimulus call complexity during both playback of 1 to 8‐note advertisement calls and during natural interactions. However, precise matching of the number of notes in stimuli and responses did not occur consistently. Males also increased calling rates if stimuli were presented above prestimulus rates. Two‐stimulus choice experiments demonstrated that females prefer both higher calling rates and greater call complexity, indicating that the ways males change their vocal behavior during interactions increases their attractiveness to potential mates. Tests in which the relative intensity of a high and low rate stimulus was varied indicated that females prefer stimuli with higher total sound energy. In a natural chorus, it is likely that females simply approach males giving the most conspicuous calls.
Exploring the Social Environment: a Developmental Study of Teasing in Chimpanzees
Authors: ADANG OTTO M. J.
Published: May 2010

Long‐term data on the occurrence of “teasing” in young chimpanzees living in the Arnhem Zoo chimpanzee colony are presented. They strengthen the hypotheses—presented in earlier papers—concerning the existence of two functional forms of this so‐called quasi‐aggressive behaviour and provide insight into the way in which they develop. Developmental changes are visible both in the performance of quasi‐aggressive behaviour and in the effects evoked by the behaviour. The purpose of the reducing uncertainty type of quasi‐aggressive behaviour, performed by male and female youngsters towards adult females, is to obtain more predictable responses. As youngsters grow older, they engage in this behaviour also to gain control over the responses of the target animals. Eventually, the quasi‐aggressive behaviour of male youngsters develops into adult‐like bluff and attack behaviour the purpose of which is to establish dominance relationships. The investigating authority type of quasi‐aggressive behaviour, directed towards adult males, is associated increasingly with the exercise of power by the target males. The youngsters increasingly behave submissively towards the males and direct quasi‐aggressive behaviour especially towards the alpha‐male at moments when he is bluffing or involved in other conspicuous social interactions. These and other changes in the relationship between adult males and male youngsters are already visible well before the onset of puberty in the youngsters.

It is discussed in how far the development of these exploratory aggression types involves social learning processes and how this fits in with current concepts concerning the development of aggressive behaviour.
Locale‐specific Vocal Behaviour of the Tamarin (Saguinus I. labiatus)
Authors: Maeda Tomoko , Masataka Nobuo
Published: May 2010

A quantitative acoustic analysis of long calls of red‐chested moustached tamarins (Saguinus l. labiatus) was undertaken after capture in the primary forest of Northwestern Bolivia, comparing two populations. Two acoustic parameters are statistically significantly different. Acoustic properties distinguishing individual heterogeneity are quite consistent between the groups and completely different from cues separating population variability. As these two study groups were only 27 km apart when trapped, and as no geographical barriers prevented genetic exchanges between them, we assume populational vocal variability comparable to dialects in birds.
Constraints on the Structure of Combinatorial “Chick‐a‐dee” Calls
Authors: Hailman Jack P. , Ficken Millicent S. , Ficken Robert W.
Published: May 2010

“Chick‐a‐dee” calls of the black‐capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) constitute a combinatorial system of animal communication, apparently the only such system yet described. Four note‐types, which may be omitted or repeated a variable number of times, occur in a fixed sequence (A–B–C–D) to constitute calls. Quantitative analyses determining the nature of departures from first‐order transitional probabilities between successive notes revealed a variety of results that point consistently to two underlying features of calls. (1) Some constraint operates to limit the length of calls, as manifest in shortening of repetition‐strings and omitting of note‐types expected to follow. (2) There is an opposing tendency to include at least one or two D‐notes at the end of a call, regardless of the overall length. The second feature suggests important semantic properties of D‐notes, especially the ratio of D s to other note‐types and the flock‐specific acoustical structure of D‐notes. The constraint on length of call does not appear intimately related to semantic causes, but may instead be determined by the maximum duration of continuous phonation, in parallel with the fundamental breath‐group of human speech. In this respect, a “chick‐a‐dee” call resembles an entire “natural sentence” of spoken human language.
Intrasexual Competition and Mate Choice in Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep
Authors: Hogg John T.
Published: May 2010

Rocky Mountain bighorn (Ovis canadensis canadensis) rams employed three distinct mating tactics. When tending, rams defended single estrous ewes. In coursing, rams forced copulations with defended ewes, and, in blocking, rams sequestered ewes from more dominant rams. Ewes utilized a traditional area when tended, attempted to escape to this area when blocked, and resisted coursing ram attempts to force copulations. Between‐year variation in the dispersion of estrous ewes about the tending area strongly influenced the consort and probably mating success of dominant rams. Thus, ewe spatial predictability during estrus — achieved by clustering in tended estrus and resisting blocking rams — appears to be an important mechanism of mate choice in this species. Ewes apparently did not gain material or risk‐related benefits by mating dominant rams. That such males provide ewes with “good genes” is an attractive remaining possibility.
Horse Fly Harassment and the Social Behavior of Feral Ponies
Authors: Rutberg Allen T.
Published: May 2010

Horse flies (Tabanidae) on and around feral ponies in harem groups were counted at Assateague Island National Seashore, Maryland, U.S.A., between June and August 1985. Harem stallions attracted the most flies; adult mares showed intermediate fly numbers, while few flies landed on foals under any circumstances. The use of thermal and chemical cues by flies selecting a host may have helped create this disparity. When flies were abundant, ponies reduced spacing within the group. Ponies in larger groups suffered from fewer flies than ponies in smaller groups. There was, however, no evidence that ponies merged into larger groups in response to fly harassment, suggesting that biting flies play little role in structuring pony social organization.
Investigations on the Olfactory Discrimination Exhibited by the Females in the Male‐induced Implantation Failure (the Bruce Effect) in Laboratory Mice
Authors: Rajendren G. , Dominic C. J.
Published: May 2010

Direct contact with the alien male pheromone for 7 days before mating significantly decreased the rate of male‐induced implantation failure (the Bruce effect) in newly inseminated female mice. By contrast, females housed with alien males for 7 days before mating so that physical contact with the latter was prevented exhibited a high rate of implantation failure following exposure to alien males after mating. Exposure to an air‐borne pheromone produced by alien males induced oestrus (the Whitten effect) in a significant number of grouped females. The results do not support the suggestion that the inability of the stud male to block implantation is due to his original induction of oestrus. The results also do not support the view that the key factor in the induction of the Bruce effect is the ability of the female to identify the stud as an individual which prevents her from responding to him but allows her to react to a new male with hormonal changes leading to implantation failure and return to oestrus. It is suggested that the olfactory discrimination exhibited by the female in the Bruce effect is influenced by her overall olfactory experience before and after mating. The results are consistent with the view that the male‐originating pheromone involved in the Bruce effect is distinct from the one involved in the Whitten effect.
Age, Experience and the Development of Adaptive Variation in Anti‐predator Responses in Three‐spined Sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus)
Authors: Tulley J. J. , Huntingford F. A.
Published: May 2010

Stickleback fry (approx. 10 mm in length) were collected from two sites in Scotland, one with abundant predatory fish and birds and the other free of predation. The fry were reared in the laboratory until they reached a length of about 30 mm, at which time fry of the same length were caught from the two study sites. 10 fish from each size and rearing category (10 mm fry, 30 mm labreared fry and 30 mm wild‐caught fry) and from each population were exposed singly to a silhouette of an avian predator moved above the surface of the tank. On average 50% of the fish jumped away on sighting the model, and there were no differences between the groups in the proportion of fish giving this response. Other aspects of the anti‐predator repertoire of sticklebacks (in particular, remaining motionless after an encounter) were absent in 10 mm fry from both sites. Protective responses appeared (in fish from the predated but not the unpredated site) by the time they reached a length of 30 mm, regardless of whether they were laboratory‐reared or wild‐caught. Thus adaptive behavioural differences between these two populations arise as sticklebacks from the heavily predated site develop responses that fail to appear in those from the unpredated site and that are independent of direct experience of predatory attack.
Behavioral Correlates of Song Types of the Northern Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos)
Authors: DERRICKSON KIM C.
Published: May 2010

The primary songs of four male northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) were recorded along with simultaneous descriptions of behavior. Individual song types were identified spectrographically and the more commonly occurring song types in their extensive repertoires investigated for behavioral correlates. For each male, song types were distributed non randomly between categories in two behavioral dichotomies; flight versus non‐flight and associating with mate versus not associating.

In species in which individuals possess large song repertoires, it commonly is assumed that all song types provide the same information. This appears not to be the case in northern mockingbirds. The difficulties in documenting behavioral correlates of song types are discussed and the various ways male mockingbirds make information available are described. These various aspects of singing differ in the specificity of information they make available and should require different time investments by the recipient to comprehend.
Richtungsbevorzugungen von Mönchsgrasmücken (Sylvia atricapilla) während der Herbstzugunruhe. Vergleich zweier Populationen mit verschiedenen Zugrichtungen
Authors: NEUSSER VERENA E.
Published: May 2010

Directional Preferences of Autumnal Migratory Restlessness in Two Populations of Blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla) with Different Migratory Directions

The directional preferences in the orientation behavior of blackcaps, Sylvia atricapilla, were investigated. Two populations on different sides of the migratory divide were studied; one which flies in a SE direction in autumn and one which flies in a SW direction. The populations were from Lake Constance in the F.R.G. and Lake Neusiedl in Austria. Directional preference during fall migratory restlessness was determined by using Emlen funnels. The birds were hand‐raised from the nestling phase on under identical conditions.

The results demonstrated significant differences between the populations in the autumnal directional preferences. For SW migrants it was 240.7° and for SE migrants 185.0°. One can conclude from these results that there are population‐specific differences in the innate directional preferences of fall migratory restlessness.

A number of possibilities are discussed as causes for the extreme westward orientation of the birds from Lake Constance:

The WSW orientation of the Alps could be genetically programmed into the pattern of migration.

It could have been the result of a compensation for the transport from Lake Constance to Lake Neusiedl and therefore explained by goal area navigation.

Recently, there have been many reports of German blackcaps wintering in Holland, England and Ireland. It is possible that a number of the experimental birds had already chosen this direction and with their WNW preference, the overall preference is shifted westward.
Male Cheetah Social Organization and Territoriality
Authors: CARO T. M. , COLLINS D. A.
Published: May 2010

Patterns of territory ownership in male cheetahs inhabiting the Serengeti Plains are described, and factors affecting territorial behaviour are examined. Body size and age were factors influencing whether males became territorial, and single males usually had to join up with others in order to oust residents. Both size of male coalition and body size of its members were associated with length of tenure on territories. Limited data suggest that territory owners were probably no more likely to encounter females than were non‐territorial males but there was a suggestion that they suffered lower survivorship costs than non‐territorial males.
Benefits and Costs of Social Foraging and Optimal Flock Size in Goldfinches (Carduelis carduelis)
Authors: GLÜCK ERICH
Published: May 2010

During the breeding season, the costs and benefits of social foraging of goldfinches (Carduelis carduelis L.) feeding in groups of different sizes was evaluated. With increasing flock size (up to six individuals) individuals became less alert: the individual head‐jerk rate decreased but the whole group vigilance level increased. The handling time for the consumption of a Rumex seed was simultaneously reduced. Compared with individuals feeding alone, in a group of six birds the consumption of corns amounts to 20 % more within the same period of time. However, with increasing group size, the individuals have to fly greater distances to reach another profitable plant, which consumes more time. Another cost of flocking may be that larger flocks are more easily spotted by predators. Thus, flocking involves benefits in shortening handling time of the consumed seeds but also causes costs in having a larger travelling time to the next plant stem. Besides plant density calculated optimal foraging group size depends on the number of seeds provided by one seed head.
Superiority and Inferiority: a Morphological Analysis of Free and Stimulus Bound Behaviour in Honey Badger (Mellivora capensis) Interactions
Authors: YANIV YONA , GOLANI ILAN
Published: May 2010

In analyzing motor behaviour, we use a method of gestalt perception that relies less on intuition and more on rational processes. The elementary building blocks of behaviour in this study are single movements — distinct changes of relation between two adjacent parts of the body. The single movements are performed in groups around specific axes: whole body rotations around the vertical absolute axis, whole body rotations around the longitudinal axis of the body, and whole body rotations around the side‐to‐side axis of the body. In their full blown form these rotations amount, respectively, to pivoting, rolling and tumbling. During “ritualized fighting”, these rotations are incorporated into the behaviour of the badger in a fixed sequence, yielding a fugue of rotations. “Ritualized fighting” is comprised in the badgers of five higher level (whole body) building blocks: the three whole body rotations, squatting, and forward walking. These building blocks are termed in the present study component‐variables. At a still higher level of analysis we reveal the effect of the environment (the moving partner), on the performance of these component‐variables. We record continuously the parts of the bodies of the two partners that touch or almost touch each other. In this way, we specify the tactile and visual input which impinges on each of the partners at any one time in the course of the interaction. Then, we examine the effect of the very same input, on the types of response performed by the badgers. This method allows us to assess the freedom of movement, i.e. the number of different responses available to each of the partners when confronted with the same stimulus situation.

The five component‐variables generate four composite profiles of actual behaviour (the “inferior” female, the “inferior” male, the “superior” female, and the “superior” male). They form a common denominator in all the profiles, but vary systematically in amount, amplitude, and frequency from one profile to the next, yielding a gradient.

Part of the gradient was also described in “ritualized fighting” in wolves, and in other species and situations. In wolves and badgers it involves a gradual transition from relative immobility in the most inferior, to extensive mobility in the most superior partner. We show, that the same stimulus situations elicit in the inferior the most fixed response sequences, and in the superior, the most variable ones. Inferiority consists of relative immobility and stimulus bound behaviour; superiority consists of extensive mobility and relatively free behaviour. The difference between fixed response sequences and “voluntary” behaviour is of degree, not of principle.
Aversions of Starlings and Sparrows to Unfamiliar, Unexpected or Unusual Flavours and Colours in Food
Authors: GREIG‐SMITH PETER W.
Published: May 2010

Captive starlings Sturnus vulgaris and house sparrows Passer domesticus were studied to explore the effects of previous experience on birds' aversions to quinine sulphate in blue‐coloured food. Daily food consumption and feeding behaviour were monitored for four groups of birds: (1) Control—birds trained to associate blue with quinine; (2) Unfamiliar—never having previously encountered blue or quinine; (3) Unexpected—trained to regard blue as palatable; (4) Anomalous—familiar with quinine in red, but not in blue food.

Comparisons of these groups are discussed in relation to the way in which aversions are established, their implications for understanding birds' food selection behaviour, and the use of chemicals as bird deterrents in crop protection.
Bower Building and Decoration by the Bowerbird Amblyornis inornatus
Authors: DIAMOND JARED
Published: May 2010

Bowers of the little‐known bowerbird Amblyornis inornatus are the most elaborately decorated structures erected by an animal other than humans. I studied populations in two mountain ranges. South Kumawa bowers consisted of a tower of sticks glued together, up to 2.6 m high, resting on an almost perfectly circular mat of black moss. Decorations were black, brown, or grey: leaves, snail shells, acorns, sticks, stones, and elytrae. The mat, decorative sticks, and elytrae were painted shiny black, possibly with an oily material in excrement. Another group of bowers 8 km distant differed in also using colored fruits as decorations. Wandamen bowers differed drastically in the much lower stick tower, woven but not glued, covered with a stick hut up to 2 m in diameter, resting on an unpainted green moss mat, and decorated with colored fruits, flowers, fungi, butterfly wings, and leaves. Objects tended to be grouped by color, with certain types of objects at specific locations. Within either mountain range there was individual and age‐related variation among bowers. Many or most decorations were objects commonly available in the forest. Decorations turned over from day to day.

Wandamen birds were tame. The diverse vocalizations included vocal mimicry. Males raided each others' bowers and chased off other bird species. Bowerbirds may modify their environment by dispersing fresh fruits used as decorations, dispersing seeds of fruit eaten, and caching fruit.

Colors of objects used as decorations are not a passive sample of locally available objects, nor do they necessarily match the plumage of females or of rival males, nor are they necessarily rare or habitat‐specific. Instead, color preference and many other features of bower design appear to be arbitrary characteristics of species or populations. I suggest that bower style is partly learned, and that geographic variation in bower style may depend upon culturally transmitted behavior, analogous to geographic variation in bird song dialects.
Measures of Relatedness
Authors: BENNETT BETH
Published: May 2010

Measures of genetic relatedness are essential to models of evolution by kin selection and determinations of inclusive fitness. Under a kin selection paradigm, individuals are expected to distribute actions influencing the fitness of relatives based on the relatedness of these relatives. In addition, it is necessary to have an accurate measure of relatedness to estimate heritability (h2) of phenotypic characters and to predict the efficacy of selection. Relatedness is often defined as the genotypic correlation between individuals. Assessed on the basis of common ancestry, relatedness can only be determined sensu strictu from pedigree analysis. Recent methodological and statistical advances allow the estimation of relatedness from allele frequency data. Many coefficients of relatedness can be found in the literature; I review and evaluate these, with emphasis on situations for which each is appropriate.
Structure and Function of Hindquarter Presentations in Yellow Baboons (Papio cynocephalus)
Authors: HAUSFATER GLENN , TAKACS DAVID
Published: May 2010

This paper summarizes analyses of the structure and function of 775 presentation sequences obtained during 603 h of observation on two groups of Amboseli baboons (Papio cynocephalus). Hindquarter presentations among Amboseli baboons could in most cases be unambiguously assigned to one of six categories—Submissive, Sexual, Mixed Sexual‐Submissive, Affiliative, Abbreviated and Grooming—based on accompanying behavior elements, posture, context and response. Nearly half of all presentations were categorized as Submissive and in these sequences the presenter was generally subordinate to the recipient.

Nearly one‐third of all presentations were categorized as Sexual or Mixed Sexual‐Submissive and the presenter in these sequences was a sexually‐cycling adult female proportionately more often than expected from the number of such females in the study groups. Additionally, pregnant females directed proportionately more Submissive presentations than expected both toward adult males and toward other adult females, and lactating females received proportionately more Affiliative presentations than expected from other adult females. The response of adult males to Sexual presentations by adult females was influenced most strongly by the reproductive history of those females (nulliparous vs. multiparous), but was also influenced by both male and female rank.

These findings suggest that over the course of primate evolution the primary function of hindquarter presentation has been modified from that of copulation solicitation to that of preemption of aggression. Additionally, for individuals between whom rank relations are both highly discrepant and clear‐cut (e.g., adult male/adult female; adult male/subadult male, etc.), hindquarter presentation appears to play an important role in the establishment and maintenance of social bonds.
Reproductive Synchrony and Extra‐pair Copulation in Birds
Authors: BIRKHEAD T. R. , BIGGINS J. D.
Published: May 2010

We present a model which explores the idea that females may reduce their risk of suffering a forced extra‐pair copulation, by breeding synchronously with other females in the population. Information from three bird species with contrasting ecology and behaviour shows that synchrony does not automatically confer an advantage on females: synchrony is only advantageous to females if certain conditions pertain. We identify three main factors which influence female extra‐pair copulation risk, these are: (i) whether or not males can identify fertile females, (ii) male and female ‘availability’ (e.g. in some seabirds copulation and extra‐pair copulations occur only at the colony: females may be absent for long periods and hence are unavailable for extra‐pair copulations), (iii) the timing of extra‐pair copulations by males, relative to when their partners lay.