bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Thomas J. W. Burgess et l'administration du Verdun Protestant Hospital for the Insane (1890–1916)
Authors: Paradis André M
Published: December 2016

Cet article porte sur les particularités administratives de l'asile de Verdun et sur le rôle central qu’y joua le docteur Burgess depuis l'ouverture de l’établissement en 1890 jusqu’à la Première Guerre mondiale. Il met d’abord l’accent sur les différences marquées entre les modalités démocratiques de gestion en vigueur à Verdun et le régime strict de la propriété privée caractéristique des asiles francophones. Il illustre aussi la façon dont était organisée la vie quotidienne des patients, les réalisations qui découlèrent de l’application systématique du traitement moral, l’importance que le docteur Burgess accordait à cette forme de traitement et les problèmes que rencontra la surintendance médicale durant ces années difficiles. L’auteur termine son tableau en montrant en quoi Burgess et ses collaborateurs contribuèrent, au Québec, au décollage de la profession de psychiatre et à la recherche médicale en matière de maladies mentales.
Accounts of Abuse of Patients at the Toronto Hospital for the Insane, 1883–1937
Authors: Reaume Geoffrey
Published: December 2016

In an effort to uncover the experiences and perspectives of patients about abuse in institutions, this article will present the writings of asylum inmates and third-party observers, including relatives and staff, on this topic. These documents consist almost entirely of material from the Toronto Hospital for the Insane, from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. References include physical, verbal, and sexual abuse. Methodological challenges when coming across this evidence will be addressed, most notably the problem of verification when charges of abuse are denied or are met with silence by hospital officials. Furthermore, this topic will include a discussion of inmates abusing other patients in an effort to compare how these episodes were reported in contrast to incidents that involved staff.
Genèse d'une profession: les pharmaciens au Québec au XIXe siècle
Authors: Collin Johanne
Published: December 2016

Bien avant que la pharmacie ne soit reconnue légalement comme profession autonome et bien avant que les pharmaciens ne soient suffisamment nombreux et organisés pour faire des représentations en ce sens, des développements plus «souterrains» marquent l’apparition du groupe dans le champ de la santé. Cet article a pour objectif d’identifier et d’analyser certains des jalons qui conduisent à l’émergence de la pharmacie comme profession distincte de la médecine au Québec, de la restructuration du corps médical à l’essor des activités commerciales et industrielles dans le champ pharmaceutique. Ces phénomènes s’avèrent essentiels pour comprendre les particularités de l’orientation de la pharmacie au Québec, mais également pour pressentir l’importance qu’acquerra le médicament dans les pratiques de santé.
What Research Tools Do Historians of Canadian Medicine Currently Use? What Do They Need and Want for the Future? Report and Analysis of a Survey, 1995–96
Authors: Craig Barbara L
Published: December 2016

In the past 20 years, the history of medicine community in Canada has become a diverse and thriving group comprising university-based teachers, research scholars, and their students, medical archivists, specialist librarians, and curators. The community is a broad church with many perspectives on the past and with equally latitudinarian interests in historical sources. The traditional base for research in medical history is the library with its collections of current and special print materials. These continue to be important sources but they have been joined by significant archives of primary materials—in textual, photographic, and other formats—from the public and private sectors. Primary sources, together with the traditional published specialist literature, underpin the historical investigation of areas as diverse as patient experiences and medical economics.
Une naissance conjointe: l'émergence de la kinésithérapie en France et l’installation de la physiothérapie au Québec. Trajectoires en miroirs
Authors: Remondière Remi
Published: December 2016

Alors qu’en France, la mise en place des pratiques manuelles reste encore très marquée par le passé d’origine populaire, au Québec elle se fait dans un territoire «vierge» de toute pratique comparable. Si la France y a laissé une imprégnation importante, c’est d’Angleterre que vont arriver les premiers praticiens diplômés que l’on appelle déjà les physiothérapeutes. Dans les deux pays, la guerre de 1914-1918 a été une période d’organisation, de reconnaissance qui a révélé la pratique comme complément de la chirurgie militaire. Au Québec, les enjeux médicaux, forts au départ, se trouvent progressivement affaiblis par une pratique libérale qui exploite les physiothérapeutes. Le dispositif de protection professionnelle montrera son efficacité en faisant reconnaître l’absence de compétence des médecins dans le traitement physiothérapique. Cette situation débouchera sur l’accès libre à la physiothérapie par les patients. Par ailleurs, la mise en place des ordres professionnels favorisera, lourd handicap, le partage des actes avec d’autres professions. En France, les enjeux médicaux restent puissants. Les médecins gardent depuis toujours le contrôle sur les kinésithérapeutes et leurs pratiques à travers la prescription médicale. Ces derniers apparaissent nettement moins menaçants pour la recherche de l’autonomie de leur profession. Par contre, l’organisation des professions de santé, reconnues par un diplôme d'État, évite l’empiétement des actes professionnels de chacune d’elles.
Gouttes de lait et soif de pouvoir. Les dessous de la lutte contre la mortalité infantile à Montréal, 1910-1953
Authors: Baillargeon Denyse
Published: December 2016

Cette étude montre que le développement du réseau montréalais francophone de cliniques pour nourrissons, amorcé dans les années 1910, a été à la source de sérieuses confrontations entre ses différents promoteurs, à savoir: un groupe de prêtres et de médecins, les membres de la Fédération nationale Saint-Jean-Baptiste et l’administration municipale. La sauvegarde de l’enfance, projet nationaliste propre à rassembler les élites autour d’une même cause, a plutôt dégénéré en lutte de pouvoir. Concue dans des termes différents et suivant des ambitions politiques souvent irréconciliables, l’organisation de la lutte contre la mortalité infantile à Montdal s’est avérée un puissant révélateur des dissensions qui séparaient ceux et celles qui se préoccupaient de l’avenir de la nation et aspiraient à en devenir les chefs de file.
Eugenics, McGill, and the Catholic Church in Montreal and Quebec: 1890-1942
Authors: Normandin Sebastian
Published: December 2016

Tracing the origins of eugenics in Canada and seeking to apply a national model, the article explores the juxtaposition between the movement’s origin in Britain and its popularity in the Canadian academic milieu, and its condemnation in Québécois intellectual circles. The first aspect of the movement is explored through the work of two McGill professors, Carrie Derrick and J. G. Adami. In contrast, there is both apathy and resistance from the Québécois polity—and the influence of Catholicism in forming a resistant position to the eugenics movement—to consider. The impact of works by Blais, Forest, and others are examined in this respect. The conclusion argues for a bifurcated response to eugenic ideas in Quebec, divided along linguistic-cutural lines.
La longue controverse de la vaccination antituberculeuse au Canada: le bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), 1925-1975
Authors: Malissard Pierrick
Published: December 2016

Cet article retrace l’histoire de la réception au Canada du bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), un vaccin contre la tuberculose qui a presque toujours suscité une très vive controverse. Son introduction par le CNRC en 1925 qui conduira à la formation du Comité consultatif de la recherche sur la tuberculose, dont les débats furent particulièrement acrimonieux, est analysée, de même que les différents enjeux qui amèneront ce vaccin à êtrê rejeté par les services vétérinaires du Dominion et par presque toutes les autorités sanitaires provinciales sauf celles du Québec et de Terre-Neuve. Reposant sur des sources ignorées jusqu’ici, cet article éclaire les multiples ramifications d’un aspect peu connu de l’histoire de la santé publique au Canada.
Coughing Blood: Tuberculosis Deaths and Data on the Yakama Indian Reservation, 1911–64
Authors: Trafzer Clifford E
Published: December 2016

Tuberculosis was the foremost killer of First Nations populations during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. According to data from Death Certificates collected by the Yakima County Health Department and preserved by the Office of Indian Affairs, tuberculosis among the 14 tribes of the Yakama Nation took the lives of 619 people between 1911-64. The modal age group was those Yakama between 15-19, with people between 15-39 suffering 329 (53%) deaths. Changes in contact with bacteria, diet, housing, and seasonal rounds resulting from reservation life influenced high tubercular death rates among Yakama when compared to Whites and non-Whites in the US and the population of Washington.
Major Medical Explanations for High Infant Mortality in Nineteenth-Century Europe
Authors: Knapp Vincent J
Published: December 2016

Statistics initially developed as a recognized field in the social sciences in the middle of the nineteenth century. The European medical profession first made use of mounting statistical evidence to dramatize infant mortality, one of the great social problems of the century. Those telling statistics amply demonstrated the general proportions of the problem as well as pinpointing the fact that a large percentage of the dying was neonatal in character. The medical profession also insisted that these infants were passing away from a series of ailments. Number one on their list was what they called debility, followed by respiratory disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, and convulsions. While nineteenth-century European medicine did not necessarily solve this social problem, it did evidently convince the larger society that these high tolls were morally unacceptable.
William Fulton Gillespie, 1891–1949: Transitional Figure in Western Canadian Academic Surgery
Authors: Macbeth Robert A
Published: December 2016

The professional life of William Fulton Gillespie, third professor of surgery at the University of Alberta (1939-49) and tenth president of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (1947-49), exemplifies a critical transitional period in Canadian postgraduate surgical training and in western Canadian academic surgery. This article explores the background, the training, the professional career, and the personal character of a surgical scholar and student of the humanities and arts, a man who was thrust into the professorship of surgery in a maturing western Canadian medical school following the financial restraints of the Great Depression and during the challenges faced as a result of the World War II.
George Fulford and Victorian Patent Medicine Men: Quack Mercenaries or Smilesian Entrepreneurs?
Authors: Loeb Lori
Published: December 2016

In the early twentieth century, a time when patent medicine men were stereotyped as evil and dishonest, G. T. Fulford of Brockville, Ontario made his fortune from an iron pill called Dr. Williams’ Pink Pills for Pale People. Once successful, Fulford remained in Brockville where he served on the town council and gave generously to charities. In 1900 he was appointed by Laurier to the Senate. When he died in 1905 he was remembered as a kind and ethical man. His story, like that of several other prominent patent medicine men, conforms more with the ideals of Samuel Smiles than with the popular image of disrepute.
Borrowed Buildings: Canada’s Temporary Hospitals during World War I
Authors: Adams Annmarie
Published: December 2016

This article explores the alterations and additions made to houses, colleges, and larger public buildings in their temporary use as convalescent homes for wounded Canadian soldiers during World War I. These "borrowed buildings" anticipated and emphasized three important characteristics of subsequent hospital architecture by suggesting that domestic environments enhanced healing, that hospitals should be accessible, and that patients should be segregated according to social status and disease. The broader implications of the study are that temporarily appropriated spaces contribute to the definition of many institutions and often act as arenas of resistance to established practices.
From Home to Hospital: Parallels in Birthing and Dying in Twentieth-Century Canada
Authors: Smith Susan L , Nickel Dawn D
Published: December 2016

This article highlights the striking parallels in the history of birthing and dying as they moved from home to hospital in Canada in the twentieth century. It shows that death, like birth, has been hidden in hospitals only since mid-century. It demonstrates that the availability of paid and unpaid female caregivers was a key factor affecting the shifts in location of death, much as it was for birth. Thus, women have been the major consumers and caregivers of health services at both ends of the life cycle.
The ABCs of Survival behind Barbed Wire: Experience in the Far East, 1941-45
Authors: Roland Charles G
Published: December 2016

For many years now I have been investigating a somewhat obscure facet of our wide-ranging field of medical history. My intent is to report, as it were, on what I have been doing. On 25 December 1941, Hong Kong surrendered to the forces of the Imperial Japanese Army; the survivors became prisoners and remained so until mid-1945. In the past, the many accounts of these events have been presented, historiographically, as political or military history. My thesis is that the Hong Kong story, most particularly that portion that began on Christmas Day and ended only 44 months later - the prisoner-of-war period - should be seen not as political history or as military history, but predominantly as medical history.
Maternalism and the Homeopathic Mission in Late-Victorian Montreal
Authors: Jasen Patricia
Published: December 2016

This article examines the interactions between homeopathy and maternal values in the nineteenth century through a case study of Montreal's homeopathic community and the Montreal Homeopathic Hospital, which opened in 1894. Through an analysis of women's diverse roles within the institution, it demonstrates the variety of ways in which maternalism found expression. It argues that the maternal ideology was particularly compatible with homeopathy’s self-proclaimed mission to the poor, the emphasis it placed upon inculcating familial values within the homeopathic community, its appeal to women as patients, its claim to reduce child mortality, and the image it cultivated of the special role of the homeopathic mother.
La morale miasmatique: le Mémoire sur le choléra de Joseph-Charles Taché
Authors: Curtis Bruce
Published: December 2016

Au printemps de 1866, le gouvernement canadien craint l’imminence d’une épidémie de choléra. Une conférence de médecins-experts a lieu à Ottawa pour identifier la nature de la maladie sur la base de «faits authentiques», mais les participants sont incapables de s’entendre. Obligé de montrer aux Canadiens comment vivre en temps d’épidémie, mais incapable de définir le choléra de manière précise, le ministre adjoint de l’Agriculture, J.-C. Taché, dans son Mémoire sur le choléra, effectue le transfert des préoccupations médicales en termes de gouvernement de soi et d’autrui, préoccupations lourdement accentuées par son ultramontanisme.
L’histoire de la santé au Québec : filiations et spécificités
Authors: Guérard François
Published: December 2016

Le développement remarquable de l’histoire de la santé au Québec au cours des deux dernières décennies s’est inscrit à la confluence de deux grands courants historiographiques: le renouveau international de l’histoire de la santé, d’une part, et le remodelage du regard historien porté sur le Québec, d’autre part. De cette rencontre ont résulté des traits spécifiques que l’auteur fait ressortir. Il montre ainsi que plusieurs historiens ont remis en cause la thèse du retard de la société québécoise d’avant 1960. Se pencher, tout comme les historiens d’ailleurs, sur les rapports entre les acteurs sociaux qui participent à la production des services de santé, dévoiler la diversité de leurs intérêts et exposer leurs conflits, c’était aussi briser l’image d’une société monolithique réfractaire à la modernité.
George Spence: Surgeon and Servant of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1738–41
Authors: Toman Cynthia
Published: December 2016

At the beginning of his medical career, George Spence signed a contract with the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) as surgeon for the Fort Albany fur trading post located on James Bay in British North America. During his first three years (1738–41), Spence encountered formidable personal and professional challenges which can be partially reconstructed through examination of his surgeon’s journal for 1740–41. By unique good fortune, two other corroborating journals exist for Albany from the same year: the journal of another HBC servant and the regular post journal. Spence’s is the only surgeon’s journal in the HBC archives prior to 1846 and one of very few such journals from any period of the company’s history.

This paper examines everyday medical practice in one fur trading context from the perspective of HBC employees and the recipients of medical care. George spence's significance lies partially in the ordinary nature of his practice in contrast to heroic historical accounts, and partially his contribution toward knowledge of an earlier context in medical history than has been previously analyzed. I have drawn on concepts from labour and professionalization history to analyze the seemingly contradictory position of the surgeon as both an autonomous professional and a servant in relation to the HBC. While Spence successfully fulfilled his role as surgeon, he struggled to meet expectations as a servant of the company. His struggle was partially based on emerging professional ideologies, and partially based on changing labour relationships within a pre-industrial society.
Nursing and Native Peoples in Northern Saskatchewan: 1930s–1950s
Authors: Drees Laurie Meijer , Mcbain Lesley
Published: December 2016

The aim of this research is to investigate the role of nurses in northern Saskatchewan Aboriginal communities in Canada between 1930 and the 1950s. During and after the war, the federal government began sharing its responsibilities for delivering health services to Indian communities with a growing system of provincial Public Health nursing stations. In northern Saskatchewan, interaction between Aboriginal peoples and the state health care system occurred primarily through provincial Public Health nurses permanently stationed at these outpost clinics. What was the role of nurses in these communities? How did federal Indian health policy influence nurses’ behaviour? Based on the record available for Saskatchewan, it appears the outpost clinics delivered standard nursing care. It also appears that the federal government was eager to devolve its responsibilities for Indian health care to the province, and that its tenuous commitment to providing health care caused confusion in the treatment of patients.
The End of the Sacred Ritual of Anatomy
Authors: Cunningham Andrew
Published: December 2016

The positivist histories of anatomy that we currently have give very little account of the nature of the anatomical demonstration of the middle ages and early modern period. I propose here that it is helpful to look at the anatomical demonstration as a ritual, as well as a teaching event. Moreover, I propose that the ritual had sacred purposes, in that it was dedicated to celebrating the providence and workmanship of God in the high point of His creation, the body of man. Finally I give some account of the conditions under which this sacred ritual of anatomy lost its functions with the coming of the modern era.
Failed Venture: Gordon Murray and the W. P. Caven Memorial Research Foundation, 1949–74
Authors: McKellar Shelley
Published: December 2016

This paper examines the founding and operation of the W.P. Caven Memorial Research Foundation, a private Toronto laboratory, which existed from 1949 to 1974. The Caven Foundation’s Research Director was celebrated Toronto surgeon Gordon Murray (1894–1976), who, in 1949, accepted this position amidst personal and public expectations of great medical discoveries and innovations to come. For 25 years Murray carried on his research at the Caven Foundation, generating more controversy and disappointment than medical cures, before the laboratory was closed for financial reasons. What might have been a successful alternative to the university-based medical research structure in Canada resulted in a failed venture. The foundation did not become a viable research centre largely because of its Research Director and his inability to adapt to the many changes occurring in the conduct and funding of clinical research. The history of the Caven Foundation is explored here within the context of increasingly specialized research techniques and methodology, the rising predominance of the interdisciplinary research team, and the new system of grantsmanship.
“Stand up and Be Counted”: Nursing at the Calgary General Hospital after the Second World War
Authors: Richardson Sharon L
Published: December 2016

The post-second World War period of reconstruction was a time of ferment for Canadian hospitals, and consequently, for hospital nursing work and education. Demand for hospital services, especially nursing, increased dramatically. At the same time, fewer young women were willing to enrol in hospital nurse-training programs. This article is a case study of how one voluntary western hospital—the Calgary General Hospital—grappled with the post-second World War shortage of both graduate nurses and student nurses, at a time of transition from a small, cottage-type hospital into a large, complex urban institution. The analysis offers insights into today's economically driven and politically controlled health care delivery system restructuring, while illuminating the contributions of one of Canada's least known nurse leaders—Gertrude May Hall.
Ces médecins montréalais en marge de l’orthodoxie
Authors: Desjardins Rita
Published: December 2016

Au début du XXe siècle, les relations Église-État sont remises en question. C’est en reconstituant les réseaux d’appartenance que nous avons mis en évidence la division idéologique qui régnait à ce sujet, au sein de l’élite médicale montréalaise. Sur le terrain, cette division explique en partie du moins, les difficultés rencontrées dans l’application des politiques de santé et l’évolution socio-professionnelle des médecins. A plus long terme, elle explique la configuration institutionnelle déployée. L’idéologie placée au coeur de cette analyse, laisse voir l’influence des pouvoirs.
“Evil Reports” for “Ignorant Minds”? Patient Experience and Public Confidence in the Emerging Modern Hospital: Vancouver General Hospital, 1912
Authors: Gagan David , Gagan Rosemary
Published: December 2016

The process whereby the 19th-century Canadian charity hospital for the sick poor was transformed into a centre for scientific health care for the whole community was well in hand by World War I. To fund this transition, and to cope with the subsequent unrelieved demand from all social classes for accessibility to hospitalization, hospitals instituted differentiated services, offering premium care and privacy to paying patients whose fees, in turn, sustained a more economical level of open ward maintenance for indigent patients. As the record of a 1912 public investigation into patient grievances and complaints against the Vancouver General Hospital reveals, the commodification of hospital-based health care reproduced in the hospital environment the social attitudes, controls, and structures of the wider community. This development appeared to contradict the hospital’s promise of undifferentiated, scientifically- mediated, medical efficiency and efficacy for all, and its reputation as a humane and caring institution. Notwithstanding the inquiry’s conclusion that these grievances were “evil reports” designed to appeal to “ignorant minds,” they reveal a patient population of already informed consumers ready, willing, and able to discriminate between the promise and the reality of hospital-centred health care for all.
“The Rising Generation”: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents in English Canada, 1920–70
Authors: Comacchio Cynthia
Published: December 2016

During the opening years of "Canada's Century," adolescents came to constitute a "youth problem," another of the often-overlapping "social problems" of the day. Medical doctors formed a significant cohort among those authorized to identify such potential threats to the national health, in its every sense. As they successfully professionalized, modernized, and took the reins of a burgeoning child welfare movement, doctors became increasingly interested in adolescents. This essay considers the medicalization of adolescence in English Canada between 1920 and 1970. During this half-century, doctors and other "experts" shaped and shared approaches to the all-encompassing "health" of the young, in collectively theorizing a modern adolescence.
Alberta's Provincial Travelling Clinic, 1924-42
Authors: Richardson Sharon
Published: December 2016

Providing health services to sparsely populated, geographically isolated areas was a major challenge in many Canadian provinces before the advent of universal hospital insurance in the late 1950s, and universal physician insurance in the late'1960s. The task was especially daunting during the interwar depression years. Nonetheless, from 1924 to 1942, Alberta's Department of Public Health sponsored an itinerant Travelling clinic during the summer which conducted physical examinations, dental examinations and treatment, tonsillectomies and other minor surgery, and vaccination against smallpox to children in frontier areas of the province. This article analyses Alberta's Travelling Clinic from a public policy perspective and concludes that through the Travelling Clinic, the Alberta government provided a health service valued by many settlers at nominal cost to itself.
CSHM/SCHM Presidential Address, Discours Presidentiel, 26 May 2001: The Quota: “An Equally Serious Problem” for Us All
Authors: Duffin Jacalyn
Published: December 2016

The author explores the question—was a quota applied to the admission of women to the medical school of the University of Toronto? She uses a variety of sources, including class photographs, archives, statistics, personal recollections, and oral history. The existence of a quota from 1944 to 1968 is inferred from statistical patterns and confirmed by a surprising source. In closing, the historiographie implications of this project for research on other politically charged topics are considered.
“Filling the Gaps”: Canadian Voluntary Nurses, the 1917 Halifax Explosion, and the Influenza Epidemic of 1918
Authors: Quiney Linda J
Published: December 2016

During the Great War, St. John Ambulance established a reserve of approximately 2,000 casually trained nursing volunteers as Voluntary Aid Detachment nurses, or VADs, who assisted in military hospitals at home and overseas. During the 1917 Halifax explosion, and the 1918 influenza epidemic, VADs also provided substantial assistance to qualified medical and nursing personnel. This paper considers their record during these specific events, arguing that despite the potential for VADs to undermine the status and job security of qualified graduate nurses, they proved instead both a valuable asset and a positive influence for the future development of Canadian nursing.
Bandage Battles: The American Red Cross and the Politics of Emergency Response on the Eve of World War I
Authors: Hutchinson John F
Published: December 2016

A century ago, first-aid instruction enjoyed sudden popularity on both sides of the Atlantic. In Britain and the Dominions, including Canada, classes were organised by the St. John Ambulance Association, while on the European continent several sophisticated national and municipal lifesaving associations rapidly outstripped the St. John model. This article, which concentrates on hitherto neglected developments in the United States, seeks to establish similarities and differences within a comparative framework. Voluntarism, militarism, and modernity all receive attention, as does the question of bourgeois anxiety, seen by Roger Cooter as an important factor in creating "the moment of the accident."
Some high points of the medical history of Provence
Authors: Ackerknecht Erwin H
Published: December 2016

For a medical meeting in Monte Carlo I feel it appropriate to discuss the medical history of this region, the ancient Kingdom of Provence, situated mostly at the left bank of the Rhone, and especially of three places you might have passed in coming here. They have played quite a role in the history of medicine at different times: Avignon, Aix and Marseilles.
Sir James Alexander Grant, 1831–1920: Physician and politician
Authors: Collins W.E
Published: December 2016

James Alexander Grant rates high amongst the Scottish physicians who have contributed to the medical and intellectual life of Canada. In many ways his life was unique. Grant was born into a privileged family and class, a society controlled by the monarchy and the privileged few who exercised power on behalf of the crown. But in the 19th century, liberalism was rising as a reaction against the arbitrary prerogatives of these few. British liberalism stressed the rights and freedom of ordinary individuals, sought the supremacy of Parliament, with equality of opportunity and of education and economic liberty for all.
L'inoculation justifiée…vraiment?
Authors: Emch-Dériaz Antoinette
Published: December 2016

Faut-il encore s'occuper de la querelle de l'inoculation, maintenant que l'Organisation mondiale de la santé a proclamé l'éradication de la variole? Certainement oui, car non seulement la motivation des esprits querelleurs et les arguments employés dans la controverse sont propres à éclairer un point important de l'histoire de la médecine du XVIIIe siècle, c'est-à-dire, la première tentative d’immunisation contre une grave maladie contagieuse, mais encore permettent-ils de mieux cerner certains aspects de ce que l'on appelle le tournant des mentalités. L'argumentation de la querelle met en évidence les préoccupations caractéristiques de la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle, et cet article se propose d'en donner une illustration à travers des documents pour la plupart inédits. L'emploi d'arguments médicaux, théologiques, philosophiques ou moraux et certainement l'entrée en jeu de la méthode statistique et expérimentale tiennent une place importante dans la nouvelle mentalité encyclopédiste, mentalité qui en quelques dizaines d'années induira des changements profonds en politique aussi bien qu'en médicine.
Models and Microbiology: Pasteur and the Body
Authors: Hanley James G
Published: December 2016

Louis Pasteur developed a model of the body as a culture vessel in the late 1870s as an explanation of both natural and acquired immunity, and other investigators quickly applied the model in the explanation of other microbiological phenomena, principally the tissue tropism seen in the normal and the pathological flora. This paper will argue that although Pasteur quickly abandoned the model, it persisted as an explanation of tissue tropism for nearly 70 years, structuring the interpretation of data by and guiding the research of a diverse group of microbiological researchers.
The Turning Point from an Archaic Arab Medical System to an Early Modern European System in Jerusalem according to the Swiss Physician Titus Tobler (1806–77)
Authors: Lev Efraim , Amar Zohar
Published: December 2016

Until the end of the Ottoman period the Hippocratic-Galenic doctrine, which had been improved by medieval Muslim medicine, was the predominant medicine in the Holy Land. The penetration of modern medicine into the region was a slow process, advancing step by step over the years until it was established around the end of the 19th century.

Dr. Titus Tobler, a Swiss physician of many talents, first visited Jerusalem in 1835, then again in 1845, 1857, and 1865.. He reported his experiences and impressions in several books and articles. His publications portray the condition of medicine in the city before the advent of the European physicians, their arrival, and the establishment of the first hospitals in the city. Thanks to his endeavours, a professional description of the medical conditions prevailing in Jerusalem in the mid-19th century is available to the public. Tobler's writings include descriptions of the healers, blood-letters, quacks, medicinal substances and their market, and the diseases and illnesses from which the inhabitants suffered. In addition, Tobler produced a detailed report of the different hospitals, pharmacies, European phYSicians, and their experiences. A digest of Tobler's information, its fresh systematic arrangement, and its comparison with other historical sources, 'early as well as recent, produces a better picture than ever previously available of the medical conditions of the city in the final years of the ascendancy of Arab medical systems and in the early stages of early modern European medicine in Jerusalem and the Holy Land.
“German Methods,” “Unconditional Gifts,” and the Full-Time System: The Case Study of the University of Toronto, 1919-23
Authors: FEDUNKIW MARIANNE
Published: December 2016

At the end of 1919, The University of Toronto got word that the Rockefeller Foundation was looking to give the university a gift of one million dollars (US) to "aid medical education." This was in addition to a gift of $500,000 (Canadian) from merchant millionaires Sir John Craig and Lady Eaton. The implementation of the full-time system of clinical instruction made possible by these large gifts touched off a fiery debate among the medical profession and prompted a provincial government inquiry that would have thwarted long-awaited innovations in medical teaching and threatened the autonomy of the entire university. Much has been written about the full-time system of clinical medical education, most of it dealing with the United States. Some have documented cases where donor dollars were scorned in aiding the shift to full-time clinical teaching. Less well known is the tale of the University of Toronto. "The Provincial University" is an unique case study of a public university that tried to satisfy donor conditions even as it served its constituency—the people of Ontario. The challenge of implementing a new medical pedagogy between 1919 and 1923 was that Toronto lay at the centre of three poles: private versus public funding; "research" or laboratory medicine versus "experience" or "practical" medicine; and those who wanted to try the full-time system versus the established "old guard."
Blurring the Boundaries of Space: Shaping Nursing Lives at the Red Cross Outposts in Ontario, 1922–1945
Authors: Elliott Jayne
Published: December 2016

Historians and other scholars interested in the history of hospitals have investigated the links between medical architecture and the organization of space with the evolution of modern medicine. The transformation over time in the architectural form of medical institutions has tended to reflect developments in medical science and therapeutic efficiency as well as elements in the broader social climate. Some authors, however, have argued for the agency of structure and spatial organization, to consider that they are not just containers within which human activities take place, but which also actively construct or constitute social practices and relations. Most studies of this nature have centred on large medical buildings especially in urban areas, and have examined the impact of architectural arrangement in relation to administrators and architects, physicians and patients. Few have considered the interconnections of form and space with nurses, despite the prominence of institutional nursing labour since the late 19th-century.

The following discussion begins an exploration of these concepts within the rural environment. Between 1922 and 1984, the Ontario Division of the Canadian Red Cross Society administered an outpost program in which it operated small hospitals and nursing stations in isolated communities throughout the northern reaches of the province. This article will focus primarily on the one nurse stations that the Division managed during the interwar years and the nurses that it hired to staff them. The interior spatial organization of these outposts, which led in particular to their multiple functions as tiny hospitals, community health centres and nurses’ homes, not only shaped both the professional practice and the social or private lives of the Red Cross nurses but also contributed to the diffusion of contemporary precepts in health and medical care throughout a remote population.
The Material of Practice: The Canadian Nursing History Collection
Authors: Bates Christina
Published: December 2016

The Canadian Nursing History Collection is a special holding of over 1500 artifacts at the Canadian Museum of Civilization and the Canadian War Museum. The most significant of its kind, the collection includes uniforms, pins, diaries, instrument kits, and military medals. Researchers and the public will access the collection through an on-line catalogue, a major exhibition, and a book.

The material culture of nursing represented by this collection provides nursing historians with a whole new body of evidence for insights into nursing history. The sample of hospital uniforms, from 1900 to the present, for example, raises new questions and theoretical approaches.
The Changing Face of Hospital Care in 18th-Century Upper Normandy: The Hospital of Caudebec and the Arrival of “Paying Inmates” (1693–1789)
Authors: Robichaud Marc
Published: December 2016

This article questions the view that hospitals in early modern France were static and inflexible institutions. The small-town hospital of Caudebec in present-day Upper Normandy underwent three major transformations during the course of the 18th century. Founded in 1693 as a “local” hospital, the institution was designated as an hôpital général in 1724 and began incarcerating beggars and vagrants. Later, with the influx of sick and wounded soldiers brought on by the Seven Years' War, the hospital took on the functions of a small military hospital. On the eve of the French Revolution, the hospital's "civilian" population contained a growing number of individuals who offered to pay for the cost of their care. The arrival of these groups of “paying inmates” shows that the Caudebec hospital was capable of adapting to changing circumstances and was able to respond to the new priorities of the State.
Quarantine in Question: The 1913 Investigation at William Head, B.C.
Authors: Ambrose Linda M
Published: December 2016

The Canadian government operated a quarantine station at William Head B.C. from 1881 to 1958. In the spring of 1913, a ship arriving from the Orient was detained because of smallpox. Subsequently, the station's medical inspector, Dr. A. T. Watt, became the subject of a Royal Commission of Inquiry established to investigate his medical and administrative practices. That summer Watt committed suicide, but was posthumously exonerated from all the charges. This paper explores the conflicting class and racial questions that arose from this incident and the political reactions of those involved including the detainees, the government, and the media.
L’interprétation de la phtisie pulmonaire au XVIIIe siècle.
Authors: Bernier Jacques
Published: December 2016

Ce texte porte sur la tuberculose pulmonaire au XVIIIe siècle alors qu'elle avait pris des proportions alarmantes en Europe. Il traite plus particulièrement de la façon dont la médecine savante se représentait alors les causes de cette maladie en Grande-Bretagne et en France. L'étude consiste dans l'analyse de douze traités, écrits par des médecins, et traitant en totalité ou en partie de cette maladie. Quatre modèles étiologiques nous semblent avoir dominé la pensée médicale à son sujet : les théories qui mettent l'accent sur la contagion; celles qui attribuent la cause à des désordres physiologiques; celles qui situent l'origine dans des prédispositions héréditaires; enfin celles qui y voient un lien avec les comportements et les modes de vie. Il ressort aussi de cette étude que l'une de ces théories a fini par s'imposer au tournant du XIXe siècle au point de devenir la pensée dominante durant la plus grande partie du XIXe siècle : la théorie héréditaire. Le texte se termine en montrant comment le succès de cette thèse s'inscrit dans le contexte de l'affirmation progressive des idéologies libérales et individualistes de cette époque.
Passion and Profession, Doctors in Skirts: The Letters of Doctors Frieda Fraser and Edith Bickerton Williams
Authors: Perdue Katherine
Published: December 2016

“Passion and Profession; Doctors in Skirts,” is based on the extensive correspondence between Dr. Frieda Fraser and Dr. Edith Bickerton Williams, two Canadian women who were lovers from 1924 and life partners from 1937, until the death of Dr. Williams in 1979. Dr. Fraser became a prominent researcher and lecturer of Microbiology at the University of Toronto. Dr. Williams was one of the first women in North America to graduate as a Veterinarian. Dr. Frieda Fraser’s medical training afforded her the freedom to foster a same-sex relationship with her partner Edith. Her freedom was constrained however, as women interns were placed in institutions thought appropriate for their sex, and prospects of private practice for a woman doctor were bleak. The letters’ candid accounts of conflicts with male authority, challenges to ideas about sexuality, and the pervasiveness of prejudice, often reinforced by the scientific community, are important to the History of Medicine. The paper demonstrates that the same-sex relationship and identity, developed in the course of the Fraser/Williams correspondence, proved a primary source of strength in the face of the doctors’ tribulations and triumphs as professionals in the medical field.
Les debuts de l’éducation sanitaire au Québec: 1880–1901
Authors: Desrosiers Georges , Gaumer Benoît
Published: December 2016

Les découvertes bactériologiques du dernier tiers du XIXe siècle ont donné lieu à un changement radical de la conception des causes des maladies infectieuses et des moyens de lutte contre celles-ci. Au Québec, entre 1880 et 1900, des médecins par leurs écrits et une association par son engagement social en faveur des femmes vont prendre le leadership de ce qui est considéré comme le premier mouvement d’éducation sanitaire de la population. Le contexte de la naissance de ce mouvement est d’abord présenté. Le contenu du Journal d’hygiène populaire, principal instrument de communication de ces médecins vulgarisateurs, est ensuite analysé en dégagent ses principaux thèmes et en les resituant dans le contexte des nouvelles connaissances médicales des deux dernières décennies du XIXe siècle. La contribution parallèle d’une association féminine au renforcement de ce mouvement est enfin dégagée, dans le cadre du Québec de ces mêmes années.
Beyond the Bricks and Mortar: The Role of Residences in Opening Doors to Nursing Education and Practice
Authors: Zerr Sheila Rankin
Published: December 2016

The stand-alone women’s residences played an important role in advancing women’s history and professional nursing. The nurses’ residence represents a part of women’s struggle for a respected occupation. The women’s movement, in the late 1800s, promoted the concept of the separate women’s residence as a place for women to be free of domestic responsibilities in order to pursue higher education. Nursing leaders joined this movement to promote improved living and learning conditions for pupil nurses who were often housed within the hospital buildings. This paper identifies the added benefit of residence life by examining the networks of lifelong professional ties and friendships that resulted from the nursing residence experience.
Disease and Domesticity on Display: The Montreal Tuberculosis Exhibition, 1908
Authors: Minnett Valerie
Published: December 2016

This article explores ideas about tuberculosis in early 20th-century Montreal by looking at one particular event: The Montreal Tuberculosis Exhibition of 1908. An analysis of the layout and design of this exhibition reveals that objects were manipulated to convey specific messages. Domestic spaces were showcased as being particularly troublesome. The exhibition suggested thatthe home was a potentially dangerous agent of disease, thereby revealing a relationship between disease and everyday life.
Containing and Preventing Contagious Disease: Montreal’s Protestant School Board and Tuberculosis, 1900–1947
Authors: Poutanen Mary Anne
Published: December 2016

In this period, Montreal was the most unhealthy city in Canadaowing to widespread poverty, abysmal living conditions, inadequate publichealth, and a dependence upon private charities to provide health and welfare services. While Montreal’s Protestant school board assumed a pivotal role in thewar on tuberculosis by early identification of consumptive pupils, educating those in treatment, and prevention, these initiatives were tempered by a conservativeview that equated poverty with moral degeneration. School boardminutes provide a window onto commissioners’ construction of health, thenature of the relationship between a school and its community, and the factorswhich influenced their decisions.
“Not a Shack in the Woods”: Architecture for Tuberculosis in Muskoka and Toronto
Authors: Adams Annmarie , Burke Stacie
Published: December 2016

This paper explores architecture as a primary source in the history oftuberculosis. In comparing five Ontario sanatoria built between 1897 and 1923,we identify a range of types and a growing resemblance of ex-urban TB sanatoriato urban hospitals. Existing literature on Canadian TB hospital architecture suggests the endurance of picturesque architecture, but the cottage plan wasonly one of the types deemed appropriate for consumptives in the early 20thcentury, even in Muskoka. Furthermore we argue that urban and ex-urban TB ideologies actually coalesce about 1923, best illustrated in the boldly modern architecture of Muskoka’s new Gage pavilion.
Medicine Circles Defeating Tuberculosis in Southern California
Authors: Trafzer Clifford E
Published: December 2016

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, two medicine circles existed in Indian country: one Native and one Euro-American. Traditional doctors among First Nations peoples approached disease in spiritual ways and also used herbal medicine to treat their patients. First Nations people tried to treat infectious diseases brought by newcomers through plant medicine, ritual, and ceremony. Generally unsuccessful, First Nations people and doctors of California learned from practitioners of Western medicine to care for tubercular patients, to avoid the bacteria, and to remove active tubercular patients to sanatoria. Native agency and Western medical practices intersected and worked successfully from 1928-48 to reduce cases and deaths caused by tuberculosis.