bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Polysiloxanes are unique among inorganic and semi-inorganic polymers; they are also the most studied and the most important with regard to commercial applications. Thus, it’s not surprising that there is an extensive literature describing the synthesis, properties, and applications of these materials, including books, proceedings books, sections of books or encyclopedias, review articles, and historical articles. The purpose of this volume is not to give a comprehensive overview of these polymers but rather to focus on some novel and interesting aspects of polysiloxane science and engineering, including properties, work in progress, and important unsolved problems. The Si-O backbone endows polysiloxanes with a variety of intriguing properties. The strength of the Si-O bond, for example, imparts considerable thermal stability, which is important for high-temperature applications (e.g., as heat-transfer agents and high-performance elastomers). The nature of the bonding and the chemical characteristics of typical side groups impart low surface free energy and therefore desirable surface properties. Polysiloxanes, for example, are used as mold-release agents, waterproofing sprays, and biomedical materials. Structural features of the chains give rise to physical properties that are also of considerable scientific interest. For example, the substituted Si atom and the unsubstituted O atom differ greatly in size, giving the chain a nonuniform cross section. This characteristic affects the way the chains pack in the bulk, amorphous state, which explains the unusual equation-of-state properties (such as compressibility). Also, the bond angles around the O atom are much larger than those around the Si, which makes the planar all trans form of the chain approximate a series of closed polygons, as illustrated in figure 1.1. As a result, siloxane chains exhibit a number of interesting configurational characteristics that impact properties and associated applications. The major categories of homopolymers and copolymers to be discussed are (i) linear siloxane polymers -SiRR’O-] (with various alkyl and aryl R,R’ side groups), (ii) sesquisiloxane polymers possibly having a ladder structure, (iii) siloxane-silarylene polymers [–Si(CH3)2OSi(CH3)2(C6H4)m –] (where the skeletal phenylene units are either meta or para), (iv) silalkylene polymers [–Si(CH3)2(CH2)m–], and (v) random and block copolymers, and blends of some of the above.
Applications
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Numerous medical applications have been developed for siloxane polymers. Prostheses, artificial organs, objects for facial reconstruction, vitreous substitutes in the eyes, tubing and catheters, for example, take advantage of the inertness, stability, and pliability of polysiloxanes. Artificial skin, contact lenses, and drug delivery systems utilize their high permeability as well. Such biomedical applications have led to extensive biocompatability studies, particularly on the interactions of polysiloxanes with proteins. There has been considerable interest in modifying these materials to improve their suitability for biomedical applications in general. Advances seem to be coming particularly rapidly in the area of high-tech drug-delivery systems. Figure 10.1 shows the range of diameters of Silastic medical-grade siloxane tubing available for medical applications. The smallest tubing has an internal diameter of only 0.012 inches (0.031 cm) and an outer diameter of only 0.025 inches (0.064 cm). Such materials must first be extensively tested (sensitization of skin, tissue cell culture compatibility, implant compatibility). There has been considerable controversy, for example, over the safety of using polysiloxanes in breast implants. The major concern was “bleeding” of low molecular polysiloxanes out of the gels into the chest cavity, followed by transport to other parts of the body. The extent to which “bleeding” occurred and its possible systemic effects on the body were argued vigorously in the media and in the courts, and led to restrictions on the use of polysiloxanes. In the case of controlled drug-delivery systems, the goal is to have the drug released at a relatively constant rate (zero-order kinetics) at a concentration within the therapeutic range. It is obviously important to minimize the amount of time the concentration is in the low, ineffective range, and to eliminate completely the time it is in the high, toxic range (figure 10.2). Figure 10.3 illustrates the use of polysiloxanes in such drug-delivery systems. The goal mentioned is approached by placing the drug inside a siloxane elastomeric capsule, which is then implanted in an appropriate location in the body. The drug within the capsule can be in the free state, in a fluid suspension, or mixed or dissolved into an elastomeric matrix.
Multispectral Imaging in Flow: A Technique for Advanced Cellular Studies
Authors: Basiji David
Published: November 2020

Flow cytometry is one of the most sophisticated technologies for the study of cellular biology, with the unique ability to analyze cell populations numbering in the millions. In addition to their great speed, flow cytometers can be configured with 10 or more detectors, so each cell can be characterized by multiple parameters corresponding to light scattered or emitted as they pass through the system. These capabilities have led to the development of a wide variety of applications for flow cytometry in cell biology, hematology, immunology, oncology, cell culture, and other fields. Nevertheless, a wide range of applications are not suited to flow cytometric analysis because the resulting data fail to capture cell morphology or the spatial distribution of signals within a cell. In contrast to conventional flow cytometry, microscopy can elucidate cell morphology by a number of means, including absorbed light imaging (brightfield), scattered light imaging (darkfield), and fluorescence imaging. An image of a typical mammalian cell measuring approximately 10 mm in diameter will cover over 300 pixels, assuming a detector resolution of 0.5mm per pixel. Hence, even a single cell image represents orders of magnitude more data than is acquired by a flow cytometric analysis of that same cell and therefore may represent far more information about that cell. In theory, a set of brightfield, darkfield, and fluorescence images of each cell would provide all the information of flow cytometry plus morphological features, such as the nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, membrane texture, the distribution of a fluorescent probe, and so forth. However, as a practical matter, it is difficult to acquire and compare more than a few images of a cell because of the need to change fluorescence filter combinations, reconfigure the microscope for brightfield and darkfield imaging, and register the various images to compensate for shifts and distortion from the different optical arrangements. As a result, flow cytometry and microscopy have remained complementary techniques. The goal of imaging cells in flow has been elusive, despite several approaches that have achieved various levels of success over the last several decades.
Applications of Flow Cytometry in Protein Engineering
Authors: Georgiou George , Harvey Barrett R.
Published: November 2020

In recent years, the application of evolutionary methods for protein engineering has created tremendous optimism regarding our ability to generate proteins with tailored functional properties such as ligand binding, improved stability, allostery, and catalytic activity. The power of directed protein evolution lies in its simplicity : First, a gene encoding a polypeptide is subjected to mutagenesis, and the resulting ensemble of mutated genes is expressed in a suitable cellular host. Second, the population of expressed proteins is subjected to a screening process. Often, multiple rounds of screening are required to isolate the rare clones within the population that can satisfy the functional screen. Third, DNA is isolated from the enriched clones and subjected to additional rounds of mutagenesis and screening under increasingly stringent conditions. This iterative process is repeated several times until either little functional improvement is observed between sequential rounds or proteins that satisfy the chosen criteria have been generated. There is a plethora of methods for generating an ensemble of mutated genes. Specifically, sequence diversity can be created by random mutagenesis, typically accomplished using error-prone polymerase chain reaction techniques ; by homologous in vitro recombination ; or by nonhomologous recombination. The latter involves two families of methods collectively known as incremental truncation for the creation of hybrid enzymes and sequence-homology independent protein recombination. Regardless of the means for generating sequence diversity, the next and by far the more technically challenging step in directed evolution is the screening of the resulting library of protein-expressing cells to isolate those that are expressing a protein variant that exhibits the desired function. It is fair to say that evolutionary protein design has been hampered by limitations in screening technologies. The quantitative determination of protein function for each and every clone in a library in a high-throughput fashion is a difficult and technically demanding task. In broad terms, there are four general strategies suitable for the screening of combinatorial protein libraries: phage display; biological assays that include selections and assays that use reporter enzymes [e.g., two-hybrid-like techniques for detecting interacting proteins ]; single-well assays using high-density microtiter well plates; and flow cytometry (FC) methods. Each of these methods has a different set of advantages and shortcomings.
Genetic Analysis Using Microsphere Arrays
Authors: Nolan John P. , Desphande Alina
Published: November 2020

The use of DNA microarrays to analyze simultaneously many genetic features from a sample is providing a new perspective on the effect of the genome on normal biological processes and disease states. The translation of this new perspective into new diagnostics and treatments will require development of microarray technology to enable cost-effective, high-throughput analysis of many samples. Microsphere arrays—sets of optically encoded microparticles—measured by flow cytometry are an experimentally flexible alternative to the flat-surface microarrays that are being used in a variety of biomedical analyses. In this chapter, we review the major areas where microsphere arrays are being used for genetic analysis and discuss the key experimental considerations that enable these and future applications. The human genome project and other genome projects have opened great new possibilities for biomedical research. Along with these new possibilities have come new technical challenges involving the conversion of raw DNA sequence data into useful information for basic research, diagnostic, and therapeutic applications. Applications include the discovery of new associations between diseases and specific genes, the evaluation of genetic predisposition to disease, and the prediction of the response of individual patients to drugs. In the areas of public health, addressing issues such as infectious disease, food safety, and bioterrorism can all be enhanced through molecular analysis. Perhaps the most daunting challenge involves the specific analysis of hundreds or thousands of genetic features in hundreds or thousands of individual samples. To address these challenges, a variety of analytical methods and platforms are being developed, ranging from laboratory methods such as mass spectrometry to portable microfluidic devices. Each of these assay platforms has characteristic features that determine sensitivity, throughput, and flexibility. Flow cytometry is among the most versatile of analytical platforms, providing sensitive and quantitative multiparameter fluorescence measurements of cells and microparticles with high analysis rates. These features underlie the development of several current and emerging genetic analysis tools. One of the earliest flow cytometric measurements was a genetic analysis of a sort— the measurement of relative DNA content in individual cells using fluorescent DNA binding dyes.
Analysis of GTP-Binding Protein–Coupled Receptor Assemblies by Flow Cytometry
Authors: Simons Peter , Vines Charlotte M.
Published: November 2020

GTP-binding protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest family of integral membrane signal-transducing molecules in the human genome, with estimates of at least 600 members. As such, they represent the targets of approximately 30%–50% of the prescription drugs on the market. They are involved in virtually every physiological process in the human body, with ligands including light, odorants, amines, peptides, proteins, lipids, and nucleotides. Binding of these ligands on the extracellular surface of the receptor leads to conformational changes within the receptor, resulting in a multitude of cellular responses. GPCRs, as their name implies, function through the actions of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins). These G proteins then couple to a diverse array of effector molecules at the cell surface and inside the cell. GPCRs contain a common structural motif, with seven transmembrane alpha helices. With the recent description of the three-dimensional crystal structure of rhodopsin in its inactive state, a greater, though still incomplete, understanding of the functions of this receptor family has been achieved. In addition to the activation of G proteins, GPCRs undergo extensive regulation mediated primarily by a variety of kinases, including second messenger kinases and the family of G protein–coupled receptor kinases (GRKs). Following receptor phosphorylation by GRKs, additional proteins named arrestins associate with GPCRs. The traditional role of these molecules has been to serve as desensitizing agents, preventing further association of the receptor with G proteins. However, recent studies have demonstrated that arrestins can serve as adapters in the process of receptor internalization as well as scaffolds in the activation of numerous kinase pathways. Interactions between GPCRs and cellular proteins such as adaptins, rab GTPases, phosphatases, and ion channels have also been described. Thus, it has become apparent that understanding the interactions between GPCRs and their associated proteins is critical for any detailed understanding of receptor function. An overview of the activation and regulation of GPCRs is shown in figure 17.1 to provide a context for the approaches to be described in the remainder of this chapter.
Rheology of Block Copolymers
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Block copolymer consists of two or more long blocks with dissimilar chemical structures which are chemically connected. There are different architectures of block copolymers, namely, AB-type diblock, ABA-type triblock, ABC-type triblock, and AmBn radial or star-shaped block copolymers, as shown schematically in Figure 8.1. The majority of block copolymers has long been synthesized by sequential anionic polymerization, which gives rise to narrow molecular weight distribution, although other synthesis methods (e.g., cationic polymerization, atom transfer radical polymerization) have also been developed in the more recent past. Owing to immiscibility between the constituent blocks, block copolymers above a certain threshold molecular weight form microdomains (10–50 nm in size), the structure of which depends primarily on block composition (or block length ratio). The presence of microdomains confers unique mechanical properties to block copolymers. There are many papers that have dealt with the synthesis and physical/mechanical properties of block copolymers, too many to cite them all here. There are monographs describing the synthesis and physical properties of block copolymers (Aggarwal 1970; Burke and Weiss 1973; Hamley 1998; Holden et al. 1996; Hsieh and Quirk 1996; Noshay and McGrath 1977). Figure 8.2 shows schematically four types of equilibrium microdomain structures observed in block copolymers. Referring to Figure 8.2, it is well established (Helfand and Wasserman 1982; Leibler 1980) that in microphase-separated block copolymers, spherical microdomains are observed when the volume fraction f of one of the blocks is less than approximately 0.15, hexagonally packed cylindrical microdomains are observed when the value of f is between approximately 0.15 and 0.44, and lamellar microdomains are observed when the value of f is between approximately 0.44 and 0.50. Some investigators have observed ordered bicontinuous double-diamonds (OBDD) (Thomas et al. 1986; Hasegawa et al. 1987) or bicontinuous gyroids (Hajduk et al. 1994) at a very narrow range of f (say, between approximately 0.35 and 0.40) for certain block copolymers. Figure 8.2 shows only one half of the symmetricity about f = 0.5. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) have long been used to investigate the types of microdomain structures in block copolymers.
Rheology of Immiscible Polymer Blends
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

The polymer industry has been challenged to produce new polymeric materials by blending two or more homopolymers or random copolymers or by synthesizing graft copolymers. To meet the challenge, various methods have been explored, namely, (1) by synthesizing a new monomer, polymerizing it, and then blending it with an existing homopolymer or random copolymer, (2) by copolymerizing existing monomers and then blending it with an existing homopolymer or random copolymer, (3) by chemically modifying an existing homopolymer or random copolymer and then blending it with other homopolymers or copolymers already available, or (4) by synthesizing new compatibilizer(s) to improve the mechanical properties of two immiscible homopolymers or random copolymers that otherwise have unacceptable mechanical properties. There are numerous monographs (Cooper and Estes 1979; Han 1984; Paul and Newman 1978; Platzer 1971, 1975; Sperling 1974; Utracki 1990) describing various aspects of polymer blends. In the 1970s, Han and coworkers (Han 1971, 1974; Han and Kim 1975; Han and Yu 1971a, 1971b, 1972; Han et al. 1973, 1975; Kim and Han 1976) conducted seminal experimental studies on the rheology of immiscible polymer blends and related the observed rheological behavior to blend morphology. Independently, in the same period, Vinogradov and coworkers (Ablazova et al. 1975; Brizitsky et al. 1978; Tsebrenko et al. 1974, 1976; Vinogradov et al. 1975) conducted a series of experimental studies relating the blend rheology to blend morphology. Van Oene (1972, 1978) also pursued, independently, experimental studies for a better understanding of rheology–morphology relationships in immiscible polymer blends. Since then, using different polymer pairs, numerous researchers have conducted experimental studies, which were essentially the same as, or very similar to, the previous experimental studies of Han and coworkers, Vinogradov and coworkers, and van Oene in the 1970s. It is fair to state that those studies in the 1980s and 1990s have not revealed any significant new findings.
Rheology and Processing of Polymeric Materials: Volume 2: Polymer Processing
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Volume 2 presents the fundamental principles related to polymer processign operations including the processing of thermoplastic polymers and thermosets. The objective of this volume is not to provide recipies that necessarily guarantee better product quality. Rather, emphasis is placed on presenting a fundamental approach to effectively analyze processing operations. The specific polymer processing operations for thermoplastics include plasticating single-screw extrusion, morphology evolution during compounding of polymer blends, compatibilization of immiscible polymer blends, wire coating extrusion, fiber spinning, tubular film blowing, coextrusion, and thermoplastic foam extrusion. The specific polymer processing operations for thermosets include reaction injection molding, pultrusion of fiber-reinforced thermosets, and compression molding of thermoset composites.
Flow of Polymeric Liquid in Complex Geometry
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

The flow geometry encountered in many polymer processing operations of industrial importance is often far more complex than that in cylindrical or slit dies. As will be shown in the following chapters, the industry manufactures polymeric products using very complex flow geometries. For instance, the fiber industry produces “shaped fibers,” which have cross sections that are noncircular. What is most intriguing in the production of shaped fibers is that a desired fiber shape is often produced by spinneret holes whose cross-sectional shape is quite different from that of the final fiber produced. Hence, an important question may be raised as to how one can determine, from a sound theoretical basis, the cross-sectional shape of spinneret holes that will produce a fiber with a desired cross-sectional shape. In extrusion and injection molding, a polymeric liquid invariably passes through a large cross section before entering into a small cross section, and such a flow is referred to as “entrance flow.” The entrance flow of polymeric liquids, due to their viscoelastic nature, is quite different from that of Newtonian liquids. Similarly, the flow behavior of viscoelastic polymeric liquids near the exit of a die, commonly referred to as “exit flow,” is quite different from that of Newtonian liquids. A better understanding of the unique characteristics of both entrance and exit flows of viscoelastic polymeric fluids is essential for successful design of extrusion dies and molds, as well as to solve difficult technical problems related to a particular processing operation. Before presenting specific polymer processing operations in following chapters, in this chapter we consider the flow of polymeric liquids through complex geometry: (1) fully developed flow through a rectangular channel with uniform channel depth; (2) fully developed flow through a rectangular channel with a moving channel wall; (3) flow through a rectangular channel with varying channel depth; (4) flow in the entrance region of a rectangular die having constant cross section; (5) flow through a tapered die; (6) flow in the exit region of a cylindrical or slit die; (7) flow through a slit die having side holes; and (8) flow through a coat-hanger die.
Compatibilization of Two Immiscible Homopolymers
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

More often than not, the mechanical properties (e.g., impact and tensile properties) of immiscible polymer blends are very poor owing to the lack of adhesion between the constituent components, which originates from strong repulsive thermodynamic (segmental) interactions. Therefore, in the past, a great deal of effort (Barlow and Paul 1984; Fayt and Teyssie 1989; Fayt et al. 1981, 1987, 1989; Gupta and Purwar 1985; Ouhadi et al. 1986a; Park et al. 1992; Schwarz et al. 1988, 1989; Srinivasan and Gupta 1994; Traugott et al. 1983) has been made to improve the mechanical properties of two immiscible polymers by adding a third component (e.g., a block copolymer). In this chapter, we confine our attention primarily to the situations where a nonreactive third component is added to two immiscible homopolymers in order to improve their mechanical properties. A polymer blend consisting of two immiscible homopolymers (say, A and B) has a very narrow interface, as schematically shown in Figure 4.1, because they have strong repulsive segmental interactions giving rise to a positive value of the Flory–Huggins interaction parameter (χ), i.e., χAB > 0. Helfand and Tagami (1971, 1972) derived the following expression relating the interfacial thickness d of a pair of immiscible homopolymers of infinite molecular weight to χ: . . . d = 2b/(6χ)1/2 (4.1). . . where the Kuhn length b is assumed to be the same for both components. They also derived an expression for the interfacial tension γ between two immiscible homopolymers: . . . γ = (χ/6)1/2bρokBT . . . in terms of χ, where kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature, and ρo is the reference density (the inverse of monomeric volume of a reference component). Equation (4.1) indicates that the interfacial thickness between two immiscible homopolymers will be larger when the extent of repulsive segmental interactions is less, and Eq. (4.2) indicates that the interfacial tension between two immiscible homopolymers will be lower when the extent of repulsive segmental interactions is less.
Wire-Coating Extrusion
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

The process of coating a wire with a polymeric material is basically an extrusion operation in which either the molten polymer is extruded continuously over an axially moving wire or the wire is pulled through the extruded molten polymer. As schematically shown in Figure 5.1, the typical wire-coating unit consists of a pay-off device, a wire preheater, an extruder equipped with a cross-head die, a cooling trough, and a take-off device. Various control and measuring instruments are utilized in the commercial line (Griff 1962). The two basic wire-coating dies are pressure-type dies and tubing-type dies, as shown schematically in Figure 5.2. The tubing-type dies are annular in cross-section. The flow geometry outside the tubing die is important from the point of view of obtaining a coating with better mechanical and electrical properties and surface smoothness. However, little effort has been spent on studying this particular aspect of the process. The pressure-type wire-coating die is an annulus, the side surface of which is the wire to be coated, moving at a constant speed. The flow through this type of die is analogous to the flow through an annulus formed by coaxial cylinders with the inner cylinder moving in the axial direction. In the past, analysis of wire-coating extrusion for pressure-type die has been carried out for Newtonian and power-law fluids (Bagley and Storey 1963; Bernhardt 1962; Carley et al. 1979; Han and Rao 1978; McKelvey 1963). Like in the film coextrusion process presented in Chapter 9, in wire-coating coextrusion two different polymers may be concentrically coated on the wire in a single step (LeNir 1974). Tough abrasive-resistant nylon, for example, can be coated over a much less expensive polyethylene core, or one can have a thin coat of color compound over unpigmented insulator, thus taking advantage of the different properties of two components at a reduced cost. Considerable savings in the cost of processing can be achieved by applying two coats in a single step.
Risk Management of Stalking
Authors: Knoll James
Published: November 2020

This chapter will address the clinical, legal, and practical methods that may be used to manage the risk of stalking behaviors. Multiagency interventions and victim safety strategies are stressed. Practical security approaches and appropriate responses to stalkers’ harassment are discussed. The special issue of managing the stalking of clinicians is addressed. Finally, psychiatric treatment of the stalker is discussed as a method of managing risk. The chapter concludes with a case example and discussion of practical methods of stalking risk management. The effective risk management of stalking is a dynamic process that requires skill and experience in many of the areas previously discussed. Understanding stalking from a medico-legal perspective (see chapter 7) as well as a risk assessment perspective (chapter 3) is necessary for an effective and comprehensive approach to risk management. This special knowledge is often necessary in addition to a skilled approach to psychiatric diagnosis and treatment due to the high rates of major mental illness observed in stalkers (Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, & Williams, 2006). Because stalking can have a substantial impact upon victims, we have devoted a separate chapter to victim management and considerations (see chapter 5). This chapter will address the clinical, legal, and practical methods that may be used to manage the risk of stalking behaviors. Multiagency interventions and victim safety strategies are stressed. Finally, psychiatric treatment of the stalker is discussed as a method of managing risk. Any well-reasoned risk management approach to stalking behavior must first address the “intervention dilemma” (White & Cawood, 1998). The intervention dilemma involves the consideration that taking direct action toward the stalker to reduce stalking may actually increase the risk of violence, and in some cases, no direct action may be preferable. An active response by law enforcement or others may have three possible outcomes: (1) risk reduction, (2) risk enhancement, or (3) no effect. In some cases, an active intervention may actually enflame the stalker by challenging or humiliating him or her. For this reason, there can be no single “best approach” to risk management. Rather, risk management approaches must consider the significance of individual-specific nuances and preferably involve the input of different disciplines.
Trends in Antistalking Legislation
Authors: Kapley David J. , Cooke John R.
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines antistalking statutes in the United States and abroad. All state and the federal governments have adopted legal mechanisms to address stalking. These enactments attest to the growing awareness of stalking with its associated suffering and economic losses. The statutes are remarkable for both their innovation and their diversity, as different jurisdictions have chosen a wide variety of approaches. In the United States, this variety can be attributed in part to the division of law-making power inherent in federalism, as well as linked to the challenging nature of a problem whose characteristics and effects are just now coming into focus. International legal strategies also vary. In both U.S. and international statutes, criminal law is most often invoked, but civil remedies are increasing. The latter includes injunctions and protection orders, as well as civil rights of action, notice provisions, stalker surveillance, stalker registries, victim compensation, and mental health evaluations and treatment. The murder of the television actress Rebecca Schaeffer in 1989 drew a great deal of media attention to the problem of stalking; in 1990 California became the first state to adopt an antistalking law. The movement progressed rapidly: by 1996, all 50 state legislatures and the U.S. Congress had passed antistalking legislation. There is considerable variation in the existing antistalking laws. Academic commentators have raised questions concerning the constitutionality of these laws under the state and federal constitutions. Early concerns were that limiting a stalker’s contact with his victim might unreasonably intrude on the stalker’s First Amendment rights of free speech and assembly. Statutes were criticized as being vague and overbroad in limiting these rights (Faulkner & Hsiao, 1993). In general, however, state courts have not been receptive to such claims (see, e.g., Bouters v. State, 1995). For example, the Supreme Court of Montana upheld the constitutionality of that state’s antistalking statute against an argument that the law violated the defendant’s free speech rights, finding that the law was not unconstitutionally vague since certain undefined terms had an accepted common usage (State v. Martel, 1995).
Tools of the Trade
Authors: Jordan Robert B.
Published: November 2020

This chapter covers the basic terminology and theory related to the types of studies that are commonly used to provide information about a reaction mechanism. The emphasis is on the practicalities of determining rate constants and rate laws. More background material is available from general physical chemistry texts and books devoted to kinetics. The reader also is referred to the initial volumes of the series edited by Bamford and Tipper. Experimental techniques that are commonly used in inorganic kinetic studies are discussed in Chapter 9. As with most fields, the study of reaction kinetics has some terminology with which one must be familiar in order to understand advanced books and research papers in the area. The following is a summary of some of these basic terms and definitions. Many of these may be known from previous studies in introductory and physical chemistry, and further background can be obtained from textbooks devoted to the physical chemistry aspects of reaction kinetics.
The Fall and Rise of Extraterritoriality
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2020

The opening decades of the twentieth century were a period of great change in international politics. The First World War led not only to a reallocation of territorial possessions—the empires of the great powers had reached their zeniths—but also to a reallocation of power in world politics. Leadership began to flow from Great Britain, the “weary titan,” to the comparatively wealthy and vibrant United States. The newly formed League of Nations sought to manage international conflict but, with the United States refusing to join, was soon overwhelmed by rising violence. Nations turned inward, no longer willing to pursue the economic interdependence of the late nineteenth century. In E. H. Carr’s famous words, a “twenty years’ crisis” began at the close of the “war to end all wars”; the crisis culminated in the onset of another, even deadlier, war in 1939. These were also decades of ferment at home. The Progressive movement was recasting American politics, while the voting franchise expanded. At the same time the federal government was becoming a much more significant force in American life. The role of the federal government had long been limited. What scholars call the administrative state was quite small until the early twentieth century. By the 1940s, by contrast, the federal government comprised a rich and powerful array of agencies and departments, many devoted to regulating economic and social relations. These regulatory agencies, and the laws they implemented, provided a new frontier in the development of norms and rules of territoriality. The onset of comprehensive national regulation had many causes. Industrialization, the nationalization of the economy, and the Depression and its associated political upheaval—all these and more contributed to a remarkable shift in the role of government. In a wave of lawmaking that began in the 1890s, and accelerated dramatically with the New Deal, the United States promulgated a myriad of new laws aimed at subjecting economic and social activity to government power. One of the first examples of this new genre of statutes was the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890.
Territoriality’s Evolution
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2020

At the turn of the last century Americans heatedly debated whether their constitution followed the flag. Did the United States possess a “home-stayin’ constitution,” as the satirist Finley Peter Dunne suggested at the time, or did its foundational rules extend wherever and whenever the federal government governed? Perhaps the newly muscular nature of American power in an overtly imperial age had changed the answer; perhaps the flag was now, in Dunne’s clever words, “so lively that no constitution could follow it and survive.” In the century that followed, of course, the flag became livelier than anyone at the time could have imagined. With the presidential election of 1900 couched as a referendum on the Constitution and the flag, the victory of William McKinley over the anticolonial William Jennings Bryan signaled a new American willingness to embrace empire in places like the Philippines. McKinley’s campaign had declaimed that the flag “has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory, but for humanity’s sake.” McKinley nonetheless did not disappoint the substantial interests that favored more territory. The subsequent ratification by the Supreme Court of a peculiarly American form of imperialism facilitated this expansion. Yet by holding that only some rights applied in the new island possessions, whereas others lost their strength at the water’s edge, the early-twentieth-century Insular Cases cobbled together an odd and unstable marriage of imperialism and constitutionalism. Although it deeply polarized the United States at the time, this debate over the Constitution and the flag is now largely forgotten. Yet as the previous chapter detailed, a very similar debate emerged almost exactly a century later. Whether Guantanamo Bay was a “legal black hole” or a legitimate detention center for dangerous enemy combatants became a topic of often passionate argument the world over. Despite a very different political and legal context, the dispute over Guantanamo focused attention on the geographic reach of American law with an intensity not seen since the early 1900s.
The Recovery Movement and Its Implications for Transforming Clinical and Rehabilitative Practice
Authors: Davidson Larry , Rowe Michael , Tondora Janis , O'Connell Maria J. , Lawless Martha Staeheli
Published: November 2020

We begin with a snapshot of the world we hope to leave behind. While it may not be necessary to reiterate the reasons why transformation is needed for most readers—who, as we noted in the Introduction, may be only too familiar with the challenges presented by our current systems of care—we think it useful nonetheless to establish a point of departure. We also strive throughout this volume to make our ideas concrete through the use of stories derived from our own experiences, putting a human face on what might frequently appear to be abstract or idealistic concepts. In our experience, and in our previous publications (e.g., Davidson, Stayner, et al., 2001), there has been very little about mental health concepts of recovery that are either abstract or idealistic. In fact, we have consistently stressed the everyday nature of recovery (Borg & Davidson, 2007), fi nding it embodied and exemplifi ed in such mundane activities as washing one’s own dishes, playing with a child, or walking a dog. We strive to continue this concrete focus in what follows, alternating our exposition of principles and practices with descriptions of real-life examples from our practice. This not only is our own preference in teaching and training but was strongly encouraged by the reviewers of an earlier draft of this book. We are happy to oblige. Passage of legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 held great promise for individuals with disabilities, especially in relation to their opportunity to participate fully in all aspects of community life. Unfortunately, it is now widely recognized that the implementation of these acts for persons with serious mental illness lags far behind parallel efforts in the broader disability community, with expectations for expanded access and opportunity largely still to be realized (Chirikos, 1999; Fabian, 1999; Hernandez, 2000; Wylonis, 1999). In response to this national tragedy, several recent calls have been made for radical reforms to the mental health system. The Surgeon General’s Report on Mental Health, for example, called for mental health services to be “consumer oriented and focused on promoting recovery” (DHHS, 1999, p. 455).
Overview of Psychiatric Symptoms and Syndromes
Authors: Rabins Peter V. , Slavney Phillip R.
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an overview of psychiatric symptoms and syndromes that can be seen with neurologic diseases. Our goal is not to discuss every psychiatric disorder that might occur but to focus on those that are the most common. Important characteristics of this condition include: • Intermittently sad mood • Identifiable precipitant • Absence of major depression Just as grief is a normal response to loss, demoralization is a normal response to adversity. When bad things happen, our spirits fall. Because adversity is common with neurologic diseases, so is demoralization. Thus, patients may become demoralized when they learn they have a neurologic disease (eg, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease), when they experience the symptoms of such a disease (eg, blindness, aphasia, pain), or when they develop the side effects of treatment for the disease (eg, weight gain from prednisone, dyskinesias from levodopa). Demoralization is not linked to any particular group of neurologic diseases, but it tends to be more common in those that are chronic, progressive, painful, debilitating, or disfiguring. Demoralized patients are almost always sad, but they may also be frustrated, irritable, pessimistic, or anxious. These unpleasant emotions are directly related to the patient’s situation and diminish as that situation improves. Someone who is demoralized by pain cheers up when the pain is relieved. Even when patients are demoralized by circumstances that cannot be reversed, their mood often improves when they discover that they are not powerless in the face of adversity. In this way, patients who become demoralized when they are told that they have a terminal illness may feel better as they start to focus on what they can do with the time left to them, and patients who become demoralized by the onset of a paraplegia may brighten as they begin to make progress in rehabilitation. This direct relationship between the patient’s mood and his or her situation helps distinguish the sadness of demoralization from that of major depression, because in the latter condition the patient’s mood remains low despite improving circumstances. Other features of a demoralized state also help differentiate demoralization from major depression.
Merchants and Heroes, 1500 BC–1250 BC
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

In the years around 1500 BC Crete experienced not just massive economic changes but very significant political changes. The arrival of a Greek dynasty on the island occurred around the time that many settlements such as Arkhanes were abandoned; Knossos alone survived among the great palaces, and one Minoan site after another was destroyed. Earthquakes and fires have been blamed; so too have invaders from Greece. Since no one really knows who was to blame, clever attempts have been made to integrate the explanations with one another, and to argue that the Greeks took advantage of chaos within Crete to seize charge; or perhaps the Cretans were in need of strong leaders who would take charge, and turned to the Greeks. Unarguably, though, Minoan Crete was drawn into the developing world of the Mycenaean Greeks. An area which had been of relatively minor importance in the trade networks of the Early and Middle Bronze Age now became the focus of political and possibly commercial power in the Aegean: the great centres of Mycenaean culture and power were a line of settlements along the edges of eastern Greece, and a little way inland, from Iolkos (Volos) in the north, through Orchomenos, Thebes, Mycenae, Tiryns, and down to Pylos in the south-west. Early signs of success were already visible in the early fifteenth century, when the kings of Mycenae were laid to rest in Grave Circle A (as it has come to be known), their faces covered by masks of hammered gold that seem to copy their bearded features, and which suggest an attempt to imitate the infinitely grander gold masks of the buried Pharaohs. Still, Mycenae ‘rich in gold’ retained its special role and reputation. By the twelfth century BC, if we are to believe the evidence of Homer’s ‘Catalogue of Ships’ (an archaic text incorporated in the Iliad), these statelets generally recognized as their leader the wanax or ruler of Mycenae. Descriptions of the Minoans merge imperceptibly with accounts of the Mycenaeans.
The Purple Traders, 1000 BC–700 BC
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

Recovery from the disasters of the twelfth century was slow. It is unclear how deep the recession in the Aegean lands was, but much was lost: the art of writing disappeared, except among the Greek refugees in Cyprus; the distinctive swirling styles of Minoan and Mycenaean pottery vanished, except, again, in Cyprus; trade withered; the palaces decayed. The Dark Age was not simply an Aegean phenomenon. There are signs of disorder as far west as the Lipari islands, for in Sicily the old order came to an end in the thirteenth century amid a wave of destruction, and the inhabitants of Lipari were able to preserve some measure of prosperity only by building strong defences. The power of the Pharaohs weakened; what saved the land of the Nile from further destruction was the falling away of raids from outside, as the raiders settled in new lands, rather than any internal strength. By the eighth century new networks of trade emerged, bringing the culture of the East to lands as far west as Etruria and southern Spain. What is astonishing about these new networks is that they were created not by a grand process of imperial expansion (as was happening in western Asia, under the formidable leadership of the Assyrians), but by communities of merchants: Greeks heading towards Sicily and Italy, consciously or unconsciously following in the wake of their Mycenaean predecessors; Etruscan pirates and traders, emerging from a land where cities were only now appearing for the first time; and, most precociously, the Canaanite merchants of Lebanon, known to the Greeks as Phoinikes, ‘Phoenicians’, and resented by Homer for their love of business and profit. So begins the long history of contempt for those engaged in ‘trade’. They took their name from the purple dye extracted from the murex shellfish, which was the most prized product of the Canaanite shores. Yet the Greeks also recognized the Phoenicians as the source of the alphabet which became the basis of their new writing system; and Phoenicia was the source of artistic models which transformed the art of archaic Greece and Italy in an age of great creative ferment.
Akdeniz – the Battle for the White Sea, 1550–1571
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

Jean de Valette was a Knight of St John who had led slave raids in the days when the Hospitallers were based on Rhodes. Several years after the evacuation of Rhodes, whose capitulation he had witnessed, he was appointed governor of Tripoli, granted to the Knights along with Malta; then in 1541 his galley, the San Giovanni, had an altercation with Turkish pirates, and he was captured and put to work as a galley slave at the ripe age (for those times) of forty-seven. He survived the humiliation for a year, until the Knights of Malta and the Turks effected a prisoner exchange. Back in Malta he rose up the hierarchy of the Order; he was known for his occasional bursts of temper, but he was also admired as a brave, imposing figure. He was emerging as a potential leader of the Order just as Turkish power edged ever closer to Malta, and indeed Sicily. In 1546, Turgut, or Dragut, one of the most capable naval commanders in Turkish service, captured Mahdia on the Tunisian coast, though the Spaniards recaptured it in 1550. Turgut clashed with Andrea Doria’s fleet off Jerba, but he escaped just when Doria seemed to have trapped him; he sailed to Malta and Gozo, laying waste the home islands of the Knights, before a victorious assault on Tripoli, lost after over forty years of Christian occupation. The Spaniards attempted to swing the balance back in their favour, and in 1560 they despatched a fleet of about 100 ships (half of them galleys) in the hope of finally capturing Jerba. Andrea Doria was now elderly, and command was entrusted nepotistically to his heir and great-nephew, Gian Andrea Doria, who was unable to impose on his captains the strict discipline that was needed to hold the line in the face of the Turkish naval counter-attack led by Piyale, a talented young admiral of Christian ancestry. It has been claimed that Piyale’s order to hoist sail and run down the Spanish fleet ‘ranks among the great snap decisions in naval history’.