bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prediction of Present Participation from Children’s Gender, Past Participation, and Attitudes: A Longitudinal Analysis
Authors: Anderson Dean F. , Lorenz Fred O. , Pease Dale G.
Published: August 2016

This investigation examined the change in children’s participation and attitudes toward sport team involvement from late elementary school to the beginning of high school. A questionnaire designed to measure importance of rewards was given to all 5th and 6th graders (n = 238) from a community with an extensive sports program. Five years later, as 10th and 11th graders, 166 (71%) of the original group participated in the follow-up study. Factor analysis extracted two consistent factors at both questionnaire administrations. One was labeled “extrinsic reward” while the other was labeled “intrinsic satisfaction.” A logit analysis using weighted least squares indicated that past participation and gender as well as the interaction of the importance given to the two reward systems contributed significantly to predicting present participation. An additional model including present value given to reward systems suggested that present value for intrinsic satisfaction might improve prediction of present participation.
Pumping Irony: Crisis and Contradiction in Bodybuilding
Authors: Klein Alan M.
Published: August 2016

While the projection of ideal images is very important in American culture, it is in the subculture and sport of bodybuilding that it gets carried to the extreme. A 4-year study of bodybuilding’s mecca—Southern California—revealed a fundamental set of discrepancies between what the subculture projects as ideal and what actually goes on. These discrepancies are examined to determine which ones result from changes that have taken place in body-building and which are structural to it. It is shown that as the sport/subculture altered its image to achieve cultural respectability, it inadvertently created new problems. The shifts are examined within the context of studies of deviance and point to the need for long-term ethnography in sport sociology.
Salary Discrimination in Major League Baseball: The Effect of Race
Authors: Christiano Kevin J.
Published: August 2016

Using data on the salaries of 212 nonpitchers appearing in team lineups on major league baseball’s 1977 Opening Day, this article explores how rewards to veteran professionals are influenced by race. Multiple regression analyses and separate comparisons of regression coefficients for returns to performances by blacks and by whites reveal a single indication of salary discrimination against blacks. White infielders are apparently paid more for each home run they hit than are their black counterparts.
Marxism as a Way of Seeing: Beyond the Limits of Current “Critical” Approaches to Sport
Authors: McKay Jim
Published: August 2016

Like capitalism, Marxism constantly experiences contradictions and crises to which it reacts, adapts, and somehow survives. Currently, Marxism is under attack by post-Marxist critical theorists and certain feminist scholars. In this paper, some of the criticisms made by these writers are applied to neo-Marxist approaches to sport. It is contended that the specific critiques of Marxism need to be situated in a wider framework that is concerned with theorizing all forms of domination (i.e., economic, sexual, ethnic/racial, and political) in sport. Some recent topics researched by neo-Marxists are used to illustrate the theoretical problems raised by restricting any critical theory of sport to the Marxist paradigm.
Skirtboarders.com: Skateboarding Women and Self-Formation as Ethical Subjects
Authors: MacKay Steph , Dallaire Christine
Published: August 2016

The Skirtboarders, a Montreal-based crew of female skateboarders, purposely challenge discourses of femininity through an Internet skateboarding blog. Interviews with crew members reveal the similarity between their sporting and Internet practices and processes that Foucault (1986, p. 28) referred to as “self-formation as an ‘ethical subject’”. We draw on the four aspects that Foucault outlined by which an individual constitutes herself as an ethical subject—ethical substance, mode of subjection, ethical work and telos—to analyze the Skirtboarders’ reflexivity and critical engagement through their skateboarding blogging experiences. The results illustrate how sportswomen-driven forms of social media can become a means of individualized and collective ethical transformation.
Translation With Abusive Fidelity: Methodological Issues in Translating Media Texts About Korean LPGA Players
Authors: Kim Kyoung-yim
Published: August 2016

In this paper, I use a case study of translation of Korean media golf narratives into English to widen academic discussions on sporting language translation. I employ poststructural and postcolonial theory to analyze historically mediated and translocally grounded Korean golf narratives while elucidating the power relations embedded in these narratives. In my analysis of Korean media representations of women golfers as they are translated into English, I reveal how colonial histories and cultural hierarchies are embedded in sport narratives. The study reveals discursive links between the local and global levels, where global sport is represented in distinct ways depending on local language use even as language moves local sport into a global/transnational context. Finally, this paper invites a rethinking of translation as part of data collection/treatment and data interpretation/analysis using an anticolonial, ethical, and rigorous methodological practice.
The Writing’s on the Firewall: Assessing the Promise of Open Access Journal Publishing for a Public Sociology of Sport
Authors: Weedon Gavin
Published: August 2016

The process of digitization has transformed the ways in which content is reproduced and circulated online, rupturing long held distinctions between production and consumption in the (virtual) public sphere. In accordance with these developments over the past fifteen years, proponents for open access publishing in higher education have argued that the (not yet absolute) transition from physical to digital modes of journal production opens up unprecedented opportunities for redressing the restrictive terms of ownership and access currently perpetuated within an increasingly untenable journal publishing industry. Through this article, I advocate that the sociology of sport community hastens to question, challenge and reimagine its position within this industry in anticipation of a reformed publishing landscape. The impetus for the paper is to ask not whether sociologists of sport should or should not publish open access, but rather as open access publishing inevitably comes to pass in some form, what say will the field’s associations, societies and members have in these changes, and how might they help invigorate a public sociology of sport?
NASSS Then and Now
Authors: Greendorfer Susan L.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents a brief overview of the growth and development of the North American Society for Sociology of Sport, beginning with its formation at the Second CIC Symposium on Sociology of Sport at Minneapolis in 1978. Although the organization’s maturation and success may not be highly correlated with the development of the subdiscipline itself, consistent interest in sport sociology topics and the absence of a forum for exchange are viewed as important factors that led to its formation. Historically, the organization has consisted of diverse perspectives which have been viewed as an organizational strength. Recently, however, a form of subtle intolerance seems to be promoting a separate identification for various scholarly perspectives. A cautionary warning is issued against the possible rise of elitism that could evolve from the creation of false cleavages.
Regional Differences in the Leisure Physical Activity of Canadians: Testing Some Alternative Interpretations
Authors: Curtis James E. , McPherson Barry D.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents the results of a multivariate analysis of the relationship between region and the extent of participation in sport and physical activities, employing data from a large (N=20,000+) survey of a national sample of Canadian adults. The region-activity relationship is one that has been suggested also by some U.S. studies; that is, the farther west the respondent’s place of residence, the more likely he or she is to report high rates of physical activity. For the U.S. results, a convenient and common interpretation has been that the more favorable climate for outdoor activities in the westerly states leads to higher activity. This interpretation is not adequate for the Canadian findings, however, because of the harsher winter climate in the western provinces. Therefore, we explore some alternative theoretical interpretations of the Canadian results. These involve the effects of regional differences in three types of factors: sociodemographic composition, socioeconomic profiles, and opportunity structures. Because these factors are shown in our analyses to have only small effects upon the region-activity relationship, we also include some proposals for still further avenues of analysis and interpretation of the regional differences.
Racial Participation and Integration in Men’s and Women’s Intercollegiate Basketball: Continuity and Change, 1958–1985
Authors: Berghorn Forrest J. , Yetman Norman R. , Hanna William E.
Published: August 2016

This article examines the relationship, over time, between the analytically separable phenomena of interracial participation and racial integration in intercollegiate basketball. A large sample of NCAA men’s and women’s teams is analyzed to determine trends between 1958 and 1985 in levels of racial participation, degrees of equal opportunity for blacks, and the extent of racial “stacking.” Comparisons are made among NCAA divisions, geographical regions, public and private schools, and men’s and women’s basketball. The findings support Kanter’s (1977) general proposition that the proportion of a minority group’s representation in an organization is an important dimension of that organization’s life.
A Methodology for Studying Stacking in Football and Baseball: A Preliminary Note
Authors: Johnson Norris R.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes an instrument developed and used with an experimental methodology in a pilot study of stacking in football and baseball. The instrument was a positional profile purporting to represent an evaluation of young athletes on a number of position-relevant traits. Respondents were asked to assign each player to a position solely on the basis of this written evaluation. The race of the profiled player was systematically varied in order to measure the impact of race on positional assignment. Preliminary results showed that coaches achieve a high degree of consensus when making assignments on the basis of the written evaluations alone, and players who have been identified as white are significantly more likely to be assigned to the quarterback position than are players identified as black. No other evidence of racial differences in positional assignment was indicated.
Perceptions of Justice in the Selection of National Teams
Authors: Stevenson Christopher L.
Published: August 2016

Two forms of justice, distributive and procedural, were used to examine athletes’ perceptions of the fairness of selections for national sports teams. Two questions were investigated: whether the athletes perceived the selections to be fair, and whether their perceptions of the fairness of the selection outcomes were related to their perceptions of the fairness of the selection procedures. Data were collected through interviews from all first-year players on six selected national teams. Three procedures were identified by which the teams selected their athletes: “board of selectors,” “national coach,” and “mixed.” The first type of selection process was associated with perceptions of unfairness of both the selection procedures and the outcomes. The second type was perceived to be fair in both its selection procedures and outcomes. The third type, mixed, occupied an intermediate position and the athletes were ambivalent about both its procedures and selection outcomes. It was concluded that the athletes’ perceptions of the fairness of the selection outcomes were indeed related to their perceptions of the fairness of the selection procedures.
English/French Canadian Differences in Types of Sport Participation: Testing the School Socialization Explanation
Authors: White Philip G. , Curtis James E.
Published: August 2016

Multivariate analyses are presented showing, for the mid-1970s, the comparative propensities of Canadian anglophones and francophones to participate in forms of competitive sport and sport outside the family. Presented are data consistent with the values-differences perspective, which holds that there are differences in orientation toward achievement and the family across the Canadian linguistic groups. The analyses focus on a test of a specification of the values-differences thesis—the school-socialization interpretation, which holds that sport involvement patterns result in part because of differences in how competitive sport is organized in the schools in French Canada versus English Canada. It was found that differences in competitive sport participation were smaller after controls for respondents’ experience with sport during the school years. However, there remained significant francophone/anglophone differences in orientation to competitive and extra-family sport after controls for the effects of school experience and other social background factors.
The Ethnographic Imperative in Comparative Olympic Research
Authors: MacAloon John J.
Published: August 2016

Ethnographic method in social science research has commonly been portrayed as imposing a dilemma between values of scale and values of context. In comparative sport studies today—with their emphasis on multinational organizations, state-level agencies, commercial and media conglomerates, and mass publics of interpreting consumers as the most visible social actors—little place has been found for the practices of extended participant observation. While true with respect to other sociological communities as well, the absence of formal fieldwork methods is particularly diagnostic of sport investigators within cultural reproduction and hegemony theory and “British cultural studies.” I suggest that such methodological choices are intensely revealing of theoretical, epistemological, and political presuppositions, in particular of quite opposed conceptions of “comparative studies.” I argue that dichotomizing between experience-near methods and political analysis of large-scale institutional structures is misleading and pernicious. Sustained ethnography may be the only means of generating certain data necessary to truly comparative sociological study of the cultural and economic politics of international sport.
Sport and Socialism in Britain
Authors: Hargreaves John
Published: August 2016

This paper attempts to explain the relationship between socialism and sport in Britain using a historical and comparative analysis of developments in Europe to identify the particular sociopolitical conditions and processes pertaining in the British case. It argues that a distinctively socialist sports culture failed to develop in Britain due to the interaction between two sets of forces: the powerful economic, political, and cultural constraints that are characteristic of Britain’s development, and the character of British socialism’s response to those constraints. It pinpoints the ways in which features specific to British socialism disabled socialists from adequately grasping the significance of sport in popular culture, from responding effectively to the way class, sex and gender, and national identities are formed in sporting activity, and from influencing processes of conflict and accommodation taking place around sport between dominant and subordinate groups.
Highland Gatherings, Balmorality, and the Glamour of Backwardness
Authors: Jarvie Grant
Published: August 2016

The argument presented here is that cultural studies interventions on sport in British social development are parochial and have grown out of a certain reading of Gramsci’s work. The work of Tom Naim provides the basis for (a) a substantive discussion on the relationship between the Scottish Highland Gatherings, the monarchy, and Highland culture during the Victorian period, and (b) developing a nationalist/socialist reading of Gramsci and consequently a nationalist/socialist critique of cultural studies accounts of sport in Britain.
Sports and Immigrant, Minority and Anglo Relations in Garden City (Kansas) High School
Authors: Grey Mark A.
Published: August 2016

This article considers the role of sports in relations among immigrant and established-resident minority and Anglo students in Garden City, Kansas, High School. Sports activities form the most direct link between the school and community, and many Garden City residents consider sport to be one of the school’s most important functions. Many perceive sports, particularly football, as a catalyst for successful academic school years. However, emphasis on student participation in sport works to alienate those who do not take part. Student participation in established sports and other school activities is encouraged under the pretext that students will more readily establish an identity with the school. Because most immigrant and many other minority students are not involved in established American sports, and do not even attend games, they risk being perceived as unwilling to assimilate on “American” terms, and they are generally given lower status in the school’s social hierarchy.
Rule Changes and the Earnings of National Football League Field Goal Kickers
Authors: Harris William T.
Published: August 2016

In 1974 the National Football League Rules Committee changed the way the ball was turned over after a missed field goal attempted beyond the defending team’s 20-yard line. As a result of this change, it is postulated that more accurate placekickers would become relatively more valuable to a team and receive higher earnings. The available evidence suggests that no measurable increase has occurred since the rule change in the relative earnings of more accurate long distance placekickers. Possible reasons for this result are discussed.
A Psychological Skills Educational Program for Closed-Skill Performance Enhancement
Authors: Boutcher Stephen H. , Rotella Robert J.
Published: August 2016

A four-phase psychological skills educational program for closed-skill performance enhancement is outlined. The four phases of the program are sport analysis, individual assessment, conceptualization/motivation, and mental skill development. The sport analysis phase involves analyzing the unique characteristics and demands of a particular activity or sport. The individual assessment phase entails establishing an individual profile of the athlete’s strengths and weaknesses. The conceptual/motivational phase provides information on the athlete/athletic situation interaction, the kind of commitment needed to change inappropriate behaviors, and the importance of establishing an efficient goal-setting strategy. The final phase focuses on the development of general and specific mental skills. Sources and examples of data-gathering techniques, questionnaires, and mental skill enhancement strategies are described.
Research and Interventions in Sport Psychology: Issues Encountered in Working with an Amateur Boxer
Authors: Heyman Steven R.
Published: August 2016

Sport psychology has had an internal debate about whether to conduct research in the field or in the laboratory. At the same time, concerns have been raised about interventions (particularly for performance enhancement) being performed without any reasonable evaluation of their outcome. This paper reviews the issues in consultation with an athlete and a coach, the development and modification of interventions, and the attempt to develop a single-case experimental design to assess the utility of the intervention. Although some situations caused the design to be less complete than would be desirable, the data obtained from behavioral observations and subjective ratings showed good reliability and validity and provided useful information. It is suggested that better designs can be developed but that events in the actual sport situation may require adjustments in the intervention and evaluation processes.
Psychological Foundations of Coaching: Similarities and Differences among Intercollegiate Wrestling Coaches
Authors: Gould Daniel , Hodge Ken , Peterson Kirsten , Petlichkoff Linda
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to assess the psychological principles used by coaches and to determine if various categories of coaches differed in the psychological skills and strategies they employed. Intercollegiate wrestling coaches (N=101) completed an extensive survey that assessed their opinions concerning the importance of, use of, frequency of problems arising with, and degree of success they feel they have had in changing or developing 21 psychological skills. Descriptive statistics revealed that the psychological attributes of mental toughness, positive attitude, individual motivation, and attention-concentration were judged to be most important for success in wrestling. Anxiety-stress control, attention-concentration, lack of confidence, and mental toughness were reported as the areas in which wrestlers most frequently experienced problems. The coaches indicated that the strategies most easily developed with their athletes were goal setting, team cohesion, and mental practice-imagery. Finally, the coaches felt they were most successful in enhancing team cohesion and communication, and developing sportsmanship and goal setting. Discriminant function analyses revealed that coaches who had attended USA wrestling sport science certification clinics significantly differed on several psychological principles from coaches who had not attended clinics. Coaching education implications of the results are discussed, and future research recommendations are forwarded.
The Relationship between Goal Orientation, Beliefs about the Causes of Sport Success, and Trait Anxiety among High School, Intercollegiate, and Recreational Sport Participants
Authors: White Sally A. , Zellner Scott R.
Published: August 2016

Goal perspective theory assumes that personal goals serve as organizing principles, influencing the meaning of activities and how individuals respond to achievement experiences (Nicholls, 1989). This study examined the link between an individual’s personal goals, wider views about how sport operates, and trait anxiety level prior to or during competition. This investigation also determined the relation of gender and sport group to goal orientations, beliefs about the causes of success in sport, and multidimensional trait anxiety among sport participants. The sample consisted of 251 male and female high school, intercollegiate, and college-age recreational sport participants who completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda & Nicholls, 1992), the 21-item Beliefs About the Causes of Sport Success Questionnaire (BACSSQ; Duda & Nicholls, 1992), and the 21-item Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, & Schultz, 1990). Canonical correlation analysis revealed that sport participants higher in ego orientation than task orientation were more likely to experience concentration disruption prior to or during performance and believed that taking an illegal advantage, such as blood doping, would lead to success in sport. In general, women were more task oriented than men, and reported worrying and being somatically anxious prior to or during competition. Overall, high school athletes were more ego oriented than intercollegiate athletes. College-age recreational males were more apt than intercollegiate males and high school females to equate effort as the way to success in sport. Further, high school male athletes were more apt than intercollegiate males and all the female athletic groups to believe using an illegal advantage, such as performance-enhancing drugs, would lead to success in sport.
Orthogonality of Achievement Goals and Its Relationship to Beliefs about Success and Satisfaction in Sport
Authors: Roberts Glyn C. , Treasure Darren C. , Kavussanu Maria
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the relationship between dispositional achievement goal orientations and satisfaction and beliefs about success in sport. Participants were 333 students who were administered the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) (Roberts & Balague, 1989,1991; Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1995), Beliefs about Success, and Satisfaction/Interest/Boredom Questionnaires (Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Consistent with theory (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) and previous research, task and ego goal orientations were found to be orthogonal. Following an extreme group split of the task and ego subscales of the POSQ, results of a 2 X 2 (High/Low Ego; High/Low Task) multivariate analyses of variance revealed a significant interaction effect between task and ego orientation. Specifically, participants high in ego and low in task orientation believed effort to be less a cause of success while high tasMow ego-oriented individuals were the least likely to attribute success to external factors. The findings are discussed in terms of their motivational implications for athletes.
Applying Social Psychological Perspectives to the Sport Psychology Consulting Process
Authors: Brustad Robert J. , Ritter-Taylor Michelle
Published: August 2016

Psychological processes in sport are inextricably linked to the social contexts within which they occur. However, research and practice in applied sport psychology have shown only marginal concern for the social dimensions of participation. As a consequence of stronger ties to clinical and counseling psychology than to social psychology, the prevailing model of intervention in applied sport psychology has been individually centered. Focus at the individual level has been further bolstered by cognitive emphases in modem psychology. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the need for a balanced consideration of social and personal influences. Four social psychological dimensions of interest will be explored, including athletic subculture membership; athletic identity concerns; social networks of influence; and leadership processes. The relevance of these forms of influence will be examined in relation to applied concerns in the areas of athlete academic performance, overtraining and burnout, and disordered eating patterns. At minimum, consultants need to address contextual and relational correlates of psychological and performance issues.
Changing Attributions with an Attribution Training Technique Related to Basketball Dribbling
Authors: Orbach Iris , Singer Robert N. , Murphey Milledge
Published: August 2016

There is a shortage of research in which the effect of attribution training interventions on sport performance has been investigated. Therefore, the primary goal of this study was to determine the influence of an attribution training program on individuals who attribute their sport performance to dysfunctional attributions. Sixty college recreational basketball players were oriented to perceive their performance in a basketball skill task as due to (a) controllable, unstable factors, (b) uncontrollable, stable factors, or (c) no specific factors. Dependent variables included attributions and performance time. Using MANOVA and repeated measures factorial ANOVAs, results revealed that it is possible to modify attributions and performance in regard to a basketball performance task. The data are supportive of the potential influence of attribution training in a sport setting and the use of a controllable, unstable dimensional orientation as a means to improve performance.
Optimism and Sport Confidence as Correlates of Slump-Related Coping among Athletes
Authors: Grove J. Robert , Heard N. Paul
Published: August 2016

Sport performers (N = 213) completed either a questionnaire measure of dispositional optimism or a questionnaire measure of trait sport confidence and then provided information about how they cope with performance slumps. The use of task-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance-oriented coping strategies was assessed with a slump-referenced version of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS; Endler & Parker, 1990a). Results indicated that both personality measures were positively related to the use of problem-focused strategies and negatively related to the use of emotion-focused strategies. These findings are discussed in relation to previous research on confidence in sport and a model of sport-related coping proposed by Hardy, Jones, and Gould (1996). Practical implications for the effective management of performance slumps are also addressed.
The Goal Effectiveness Paradox in Sport: Examining the Goal Practices of Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Burton Damon , Yukelson David , Weinberg Robert , Weigand Daniel
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this exploratory study was to identify how frequently and effectively collegiate athletes set goals and goal strategies and assess differences in goal practices across effectiveness groups. Participants were 321 male and 249 female college athletes participating in 18 sports at four universities, who completed the Collegiate Goal Setting in Sport Questionnaire. Descriptive results indicated that most athletes set goals but rated them as only moderately effective. MANOVA findings revealed that highly effective goal setters used all types of goals and implementation strategies more frequently and effectively than their less-effective counterparts. Discriminant analysis results revealed that the frequency of product-related goals and goal implementation strategy usage and the effectiveness of process-related goals best discriminated between effectiveness groups. Discussion focuses on the need to educate practitioners about the value of goals and how to use them most effectively.
The Influence of Type of Sport and Time of Season on Athletes’ Use of Imagery
Authors: Munroe Krista , Hall Craig , Simms Sharon , Weinberg Robert
Published: August 2016

Previous research (e.g., Barr & Hall, 1992) suggests that imagery is used differentially throughout an athlete’s competitive season. The influence of time of season (early vs. late) and type of sport (team vs. individual) on athletes’ use of imagery was examined. Male and female varsity athletes representing 10 sports completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, in press) early and late in a competitive season. Results indicated that cognitive specific (CS) imagery significantly increased for fencing, field hockey, rugby, soccer, and wrestling. Motivational Specific (MS), Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M), and Motivational General-Arousal (MG-A) imagery showed a significant increase from Times 1 to 2 for rugby, soccer, and wrestling. Most sports demonstrated a significant increase in MS imagery. For all sports, except badminton, cognitive general (CG) imagery increased. Results indicate that imagery use changes during the competitive season, but this depends on the sport.
Can Associative and Dissociative Strategies Affect the Swimming Performance of Recreational Swimmers?
Authors: Couture Roger T. , Jerome Wendy , Tihanyi Jeno
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of association and both internal and external dissociation on the performance, perceived fatigue, and rate of exertion of recreational swimmers during two swimming trials. Before the first swim, 69 participants completed a self-report questionnaire. After the first swim, participants were assigned to one of four groups equated with swim performance times: control, associative, internal dissociative, and external dissociative groups. After completing both the first and second swims, participants completed the Rate of Perceived Exertion, Perceived Fatigue Test, and Subjective Appraisal of Cognitive Strategies. Results showed that the group assigned to the associative strategy swam significantly faster (p < .05) than the control group. No changes were found in perceived fatigue and perceived rating of exertion among the groups between the first and second swim. These findings support the position that associative thinking is an important cognitive strategy in timed performances.
The Sport Psychologist-Athlete Relationship: Implications for Training
Authors: Petitpas Albert J. , Giges Burt , Danish Steven J.
Published: August 2016

The quality of the counseling relationship has proven to be the most significant factor in facilitating treatment adherence and positive counseling outcomes. The authors of the present article contend that the dynamics of the sport psychologist-athlete relationship are quite similar to those of counselor-client relationship. They offer suggestions for the training of sport and exercise psychology graduate students that borrow extensively from the research and training strategies used in counselor education. In particular, a possible interface between sport psychology and counseling psychology training and practice is suggested, a brief overview of research on the qualities of the counseling relationship is presented, and several training strategies are provided.
Mood and Cycling Performance in Response to Three Weeks of High-Intensity, Short-Duration Overtraining, and a Two-Week Taper
Authors: Berger Bonnie G. , Motl Robert W. , Butki Brian D. , Martin David T. , Wilkinson John G. , Owen David R.
Published: August 2016

This study examined changes in mood and performance in response to high-intensity, short-duration overtraining and a subsequent taper. Pursuit cyclists (N = 8) at the United States Olympic Training Center completed the POMS and simulated 4-km pursuit performance tests throughout a six-week period. The six-week period included a baseline week, three weeks of overtraining that consisted primarily of high-intensity interval training, and a two-week taper. Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) scores displayed a quadratic polynomial effect across the three weeks of overtraining (p < .01), with the highest TMD scores occurring in the second week. Average TMD scores were lower during the taper than at baseline (p < .02) and lower at taper than overtraining (p < .0005). Cycling performance (pursuit time and average power output) improved during the three weeks of overtraining; additional improvements were observed during the taper. There were no significant correlations between TMD and performance. However, pursuit time, average power output, and mood disturbance scores were at optimal levels throughout the taper period. These findings suggest that high-intensity, short-duration overtraining may not result in an overtraining syndrome in 4-km pursuit cyclists.
Successful English Channel Swimming: The Peak Experience
Authors: Hollander Daniel B. , Acevedo Edmund O.
Published: August 2016

The unique experience of swimming the English Channel is a test of mind and body to overcome multiple challenges. The purpose of this study was to examine psychological characteristics and reflective meanings of these swimmers. Eight English Channel swimmers were interviewed. Inductive and deductive analyses compared interviews and interpretations with the coinvestigator and swimmers. Themes included the cognitive orientations of mental toughness, while cognitive strategies included goal setting, Compartmentalization of time, and/or swimming distance, and self-regulation. Descriptions of the experience of the swim included an ease of swimming at the beginning, more aversive experiences in the middle, and a paradoxical euphoria and letdown upon completion of the swim. Several swimmers noted the perception of increased occupational effectiveness, self-confidence, and an awareness of unlimited potential. Whereas, other swimmers noted a more competitive post event focus. Reflective experiences supported Maslow’s notion that the meaning associated with a peak experience augments daily life.
Multicultural Training in Applied Sport Psychology
Authors: Martens Matthew P. , Mobley Michael , Zizzi Samuel J.
Published: August 2016

One of the challenges facing the field of applied sport psychology involves addressing the needs of athletes of various racial/ethnic backgrounds. An important step in facing this challenge is providing sport psychology graduate students with training in multicultural issues. A review of current models of sport psychology graduate training reveals a lack of emphasis on multicultural training. In this article we offer a description of multicultural training. We also provide a rationale for its inclusion in sport psychology programs and present several models and ideas for implementing multicultural training.
Situating Action Research: A Response to Gilboure
Authors: Evans Lynne , Fleming Scott , Hardy Lew
Published: August 2016

This brief paper is intended to develop the epistemological and methodological discussion stimulated in the last edition of this journal. In the journal, our paper, “Intervention Strategies with Injured Athletes: An Action Research Study,” was published in the Professional Practice section alongside a response from David Gilbourne, “Searching for the Nature of Action Research: A Response to Evans, Hardy and Fleming” (unless otherwise indicated, citations of Gilbourne’s work in the present paper are from this source). In his critique of our paper, Gilboume addressed a set of themes and issues relating to the fundamental under-pinning principles of action research.
Routines, Rituals, and Rugby: Case Study of a World Class Goal Kicker
Authors: Jackson Robin C. , Baker Julien S.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents a case study of the most prolific rugby goal kicker of all time. In the first part of the study, the consistency of his preperformance routine was analyzed over kicks of varying difficulty. Results indicate that while certain physical aspects of his routine remain consistent, both his concentration time and physical preparation time increase with kick difficulty. In the second part of the study, the participant was interviewed about his physical and mental preparation for rugby goal kicking in competitive situations. The interview revealed that the participant incorporates a number of psychological skills into his routine, including thought stopping, cueing, and imagery but does not do so consistently. However, he perceives the timing of his routine to be highly consistent. Implications of these findings for the recommendation that performers strive for temporal consistency in their routines (Boutcher, 1990) are discussed.
An Ethnographic Study of Cohesiveness in a College Soccer Team Over a Season
Authors: Holt Nicholas L. , Sparkes Andrew C.
Published: August 2016

Based on an ethnographic study of a collegiate soccer team over an eight-month season, the purpose of this paper is to identify and examine the factors that contributed to team cohesion. Data were collected via participant observation, formal and informal interviews, documentary sources, a field diary, and a reflexive journal. The description-analysis-interpretation approach recommended by Wolcott (1994) framed the data analysis. Four key themes that influenced cohesion were clear and meaningful roles, selfishness/personal sacrifices, communication, and team goals. The fluctuating nature of these themes are discussed in relation to the multidimensional heuristic for cohesion presented by Cota, Evans, Dion, Kilik, and Longman (1995).
Feminist Sport Psychology: A Guide for Our Journey
Authors: Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

Feminist sport psychology encompasses many approaches and has many variations. The articles in this special issue reflect that variation but also reflect common themes outlined in this introductory article. The feminist framework for this article begins with bell hooks’ (2000) inclusive, action-oriented definition of feminism as “a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression” (p. viii). The following themes, drawn from feminist theory and sport studies scholarship, provide the supporting structure: (a) gender is relational rather than categorical; (b) gender is inextricably linked with race/ethnicity, class, and other social identities; (c) gender and cultural relations involve power and privilege; and (d) feminism demands action. Gender scholarship in sport psychology is reviewed noting recent moves toward feminist approaches and promising directions that incorporate cultural diversity and relational analyses to move toward feminist practice. The other articles in this issue reflect similar feminist themes and present unique contributions to guide us toward feminist sport psychology.
The Effects of Hypnosis on Flow States and Three-Point Shooting Performance in Bastketball Players
Authors: Pates John , Cummings Andy , Maynard Ian
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of hypnosis on flow states and three-point shooting performance in 5 collegiate basketball players. The investigation utilized an ideographic single-subject multiple baselines across subjects design combined with a procedure that monitors the internal experience of the participants (Wollman, 1986). The method of intervention utilized in this study involved relaxation, imagery, hypnotic induction, hypnotic regression, and trigger control procedures. The results indicated that all five participants increased both their mean basketball three-point shooting performance and their mean flow scores from baseline to intervention. There were no overlapping data points between the baseline and intervention for either performance or flow state. Additionally, each participant indicated that they had felt the intervention was useful in keeping them confident, relaxed, and calm. These results support the hypothesis that a hypnosis intervention can improve three-point shooting performance in basketball players and increase feelings and cognitions that are associated with flow.
The Effect of Imagery Function and Imagery Direction on Self-Efficacy and Performance on a Golf-Putting Task
Authors: Short Sandra E. , Bruggeman Jared M. , Engel Scott G. , Marback Tracy L. , Wang Lori J. , Willadsen Anders , Short Martin W.
Published: August 2016

This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; and Motivation - General Mastery, MG-M) and two imagery directions (facilitative, debilitative) on self-efficacy and performance in golf putting. Eighty-three participants were randomly assigned to one of 7 conditions: (a) CS + facilitative imagery, (b) CS + debilitative imagery, (c) MG-M + facilitative imagery, (d) MG-M + debilitative imagery, (e) CS imagery only, (f) MG-M imagery only, (g) no imagery (stretching) control group. A 3 (imagery direction) X 3 (imagery function) X 2 (gender) ANCOVA with pretest scores used as the covariate was used. Results showed a main effect for performance; means were higher for the facilitative group compared to the debilitative group. For self-efficacy, there was a significant imagery direction by imagery function by gender interaction. These findings suggest imagery direction and imagery function can affect self-efficacy and performance and that males and females respond differently to imagery interventions.
Athletes’ Use of Imagery in the Off-Season
Authors: Cumming Jennifer , Hall Craig
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of competitive level on athletes’ use of imagery in the off-season and to examine whether their use of imagery was related to their physical and technical preparation. A total of 324 athletes completed a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) that was designed to reflect an athletes’ use of imagery in the off-season. MANOVAs indicated that competitive level differences existed in athletes’ use of imagery in the offseason as well as in their use of physical and technical preparation for the upcoming season. More specifically, provincial and national level athletes engaged in significantly more imagery, regardless of the function, and physical and technical preparation than regional level athletes. In addition, bivariate correlations indicated that the more physical and technical preparation athletes engage in during the off-season, the more imagery they use.
Training and Performance Self-Efficacy, Affect, and Performance in Wheelchair Road Racers
Authors: Martin Jeffrey J.
Published: August 2016

In the current study, social cognitive theory was examined with athletes with disabilities. More specifically, hierarchical and self-regulatory performance self-efficacy, self-regulatory training self-efficacy, outcome confidence, and affect were examined with wheelchair road racers (N = 51). In accordance with social cognitive theory, moderate to strong significant relationships among 3 types of self-efficacy and outcome confidence were found (rs = .41 - .78). All forms of self-efficacy and positive affect (rs = .39 - .56) were also related providing additional support to social cognitive theory and the important relationships among training and performance related efficacy and affect in sport.
Metaphoric Description of Performance States: An Application of the IZOF Model
Authors: Hanin Yuri L. , Stambulova Natalia B.
Published: August 2016

This study examined feeling states prior to, during, and after best ever and worst ever competition in 85 skilled Russian athletes using metaphor-generation method (Hanin, 2000). Six situations elicited 510 idiosyncratic and functionally meaningful metaphors (67% animate and 33% inanimate agents) and 922 interpretative descriptors. Metaphors and descriptors reflected high action readiness in best ever competition and low action readiness in worst ever competition. Athletes used different metaphors to describe their feelings prior to, during, and after performance. Accompanying idiosyncratic descriptors had multiple connotations with different components of psychobiosocial state. Aggregated content of descriptors had high scores on optimal and low scores on dysfunctional state characteristics in best ever competition but not in worst ever competition. Future research directions and practical implications are suggested.
Procedures and Principles of Sport Psychological Assessment
Authors: Beckmann Jürgen , Kellmann Michael
Published: August 2016

In this paper we discuss some of the factors sport psychologists should consider before administering questionnaires or other formal assessment instruments to athletes. To be used effectively, assessment instruments need to be (a) reliable and valid for the individual athlete or sport group in question, (b) seen as useful by the athlete(s) completing the instrument, and be (c) completed honestly by the athlete(s). Additional objectives sport psychologists should strive to achieve include a clear identification of the purpose of the assessment instrument, the commitment of athlete and coach to the assessment process, and the maintenance of a clear channel of communication with coaches and athletes throughout the period of psychological assessment, training, feedback, evaluation, and adjustment.
Gender Differences in Psychosocial Factors Associated with Athletic Success during Childhood
Authors: Holt Nicholas L. , Morley David
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were to (a) identify psychosocial factors associated with athletic success by talented English school children and (b) examine potential gender differences in their perceptions of athletic success. Thirty-nine athletically talented English children (20 females, 19 males, M age = 13 years, SD = 1.4 years) participated in structured interviews, which were transcribed verbatim and subjected to an inductive-deductive analysis procedure. Results revealed nine categories (comprising 28 themes) of psychosocial factors associated with athletic success during childhood: Ambitions, Choice of Sport, Motives, Success Attributions, Sacrifices, Obstacles, Emotional Support, Informational Support, and Tangible Support. Gender differences are considered and findings are compared to previous talent development and youth sport research.