bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Eighteenth-Century Aristocratic Histories of Ireland during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Historians, notably Carte, extolling the services rendered by members of the Clanricard and Ormond dynasties to Ireland’s governance, pronounced that Ireland’s populations would have become fully reformed had the Crown continued to act through them. Instead, the government had chosen the path of plantation that had enabled a cohort of Puritanical and disloyal English people to enrich themselves with office and land, and to alienate the population from government and reform. The counter-view, composed by Arthur Collins, concentrated on the Irish achievements of successive members of the Sidney family, crediting them with promoting reform through plantation, and with introducing to Ireland a cohort of godly families who were on the brink of completing their reform agenda. Charles Smith who, in a series of county studies, illustrated how several new Protestant families had improved society to everybody’s benefit, sustained this contention.
Re-Imagining Ireland’s Early Modern Past
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Historians—Protestant and Catholic—associated with the Nation newspaper who were identified as members of Young Ireland constructed a romantic narrative of Ireland’s history in English verse that lauded heroes who had created an Irish nation by resisting English intrusion. This successful venture was designed to cultivate national sentiment among people with limited schooling. The more serious intellectual endeavour of Young Ireland was to sponsor a reasoned prose narrative of Ireland’s past to honour all—regardless of origin or denomination—who had fashioned an inclusive Irish nation. This proved less successful because it required their Catholic members to suppress memories of past injustice. Also, Catholic Church authorities, suspicious of the liberal agenda of Young Ireland, encouraged a counter-narrative that would dwell on past sufferings and celebrate those who had become martyrs for Catholicism rather than heroes of some imaginary Irish nation state.
The Birth and Early Demise of a Liberal Interpretation of Ireland’s Early Modern Past
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Lecky, an Irish Protestant landowner, and liberal commentator on Irish affairs considered historians to be responsible to adjudicate between opposing views, having appraised the evidence. On this basis he condemned the English for harshness that provoked rebellion in 1641, insisted that no massacre had been involved, and that the Cromwellian confiscation had been falsely justified. However, he considered this injustice so ancient as to be irreversible, and he represented the government’s land reform measures as compensation for past injustice. Lecky’s call for moderation made no impression on the authors of Catholic county histories written to refute the elite narratives by insisting the landowners and Protestant were a foreign, malign presence in each county, and that memory was a surer guide to truth than documentary evidence. Protestant authors who insisted that a massacre in 1641 was well documented also decried Lecky’s views.
The Failure of the Imagination Concerning Ireland’s Pasts
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

It was hoped that disputes concerning Ireland’s early modern past would be resolved by opening the official archives to public scrutiny. Catholic-nationalist authors seemed generally satisfied with this, but hard-line Unionist authors, concerned over the evidence of continuous official malfeasance that had been uncovered in the archives, demanded that the depositions taken from Protestant survivors in the aftermath of the 1641 rebellion be declared an official source. At the same time, moderate Unionists became convinced that the history they had written of the early modern centuries had persuaded officials in London to adopt policies for Ireland that were detrimental to their interests. Under the circumstances they abandoned further investigation into Ireland’s early modern past at the same time that the interest of Nationalist historians waned because they believed their interpretations had been vindicated by such as Prendergast and Lecky. A once vibrant subject was thus abandoned and was not fully resuscitated until the 1960s.
Homing Turtles and Animal Magnetism
Authors: Stevens Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter studies the magnetic sense of animals. A magnetic sense is widespread in nature and allows a variety of animals to detect the Earth’s geomagnetic field, and to use this for orientation and navigation over short and longer distances. The chapter looks at how animals use magnetic cues and magnetic maps, which is illustrated by the much-studied sea turtles. Turtles inherit a magnetic map that allows them to calculate their position in the ocean and adjust their orientation appropriately so they can travel towards a specific goal. However, it is not only turtles that achieve remarkable feats of navigation. A number of fish species also travel great distances during different phases of their lives, often returning to natal spawning grounds to breed later on. Meanwhile, over twenty bird species have been clearly demonstrated to use magnetic information as a compass and to respond to different components of the magnetic field. The key evidence for how the avian magnetic sense works is based on a magnetite process.
Concepts and Language of Human Rights in the EU
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter evaluates the language and concepts surrounding human rights in the EU. It begins by investigating the dichotomous language of ‘human’ and ‘fundamental’ rights. Even a brief look at the EU Treaties makes immediately clear that both ‘human’ and ‘fundamental’ rights are mentioned in various parts of the text, most often as part of references to, on the one hand, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, on the other. What is less obvious from reading the Treaties is whether there is in fact a difference between the two terms or whether they are synonymous. The chapter then highlights the human rights narratives the EU tells about itself. It also looks at the close relationship of human rights with the associated concepts of the rule of law and democracy, both generally and in the EU context.
Examples of Male Mate Choice
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, what interests me most is how often male mate choice has already been documented, independent of the underlying mechanism. I am not concerned with the origin of the description: some authors express some degree of surprise that they found male preferences; other studies are motivated by theory. I also want to highlight that there is a continuum from no male contribution to the offspring to male contributions that are larger than the female contribution. Furthermore, there are differences in female quality at different levels, which can contribute to the evolution of male choice. There are many studies that infer differences in female fecundity as underlying male choice, but females can differ in many more aspects—just like males.
Mechanism of Male Choice: Sex Ratios
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

In this short chapter I want to discuss the role of sex ratios in choosiness. So far, we have mostly reviewed intrinsic reasons for male choosiness to be expressed such as male investment and female quality; however, sex ratios may also be important drivers of choosiness. Sex ratios are important in population biology and influence the evolution and structure of mating systems. Most important for the purpose of this book is that they can change quickly in time and space. Male and female choice are sensitive to such changes and can lead to situations where females are choosy when they are rare in a population but change to courtship and competition when males are rare. There are not many examples of this process, but there are likely some that have been overlooked. Interestingly, the majority of data on preferences are collected using binary choice tests, which almost always represent a 2:1 sex ratio. Furthermore, sex ratios do not take into account differences in mate quality, as all adult individuals are classified as either male or female without making any further distinction.
Conclusion
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

Italy fought the Great War in pursuit of a Greater Italy; to that end, all the resources of nation and empire were mobilised. The end of the First World War saw the demise of the liberal emigrant model in Italy, in which diaspora communities were still colonies, in favour of a more conventional vision based solely on direct territorial control. Tracing the growth of Italian colonial ambitions from 1911 through to 1923 as against the objective decline and weakening of its real empire highlights the extent to which it was an empire of fantasy as much as reality. Nonetheless, though in many ways insubstantial, empire and above all the idea of empire exerted enormous influence on Italian attitudes, policies, and priorities in the era of the First World War, with devastating long-term consequences.
Theorizing Interorganizational Influence from the European Union
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter theorizes interorganizational influence from the European Union to other regional organizations by drawing on the diffusion literature. The framework rests on the premise that diffusion shapes institution building in regional organizations through its influence on the institutional preferences and bargaining strategies of national governments who negotiate institutional change. The chapter hypothesizes that regional institution building reflects variation in the EU’s active engagement with other regional organizations and its own institutional development, and is most likely to be relevant in those regional organizations that rest on open-ended contracts. The chapter closes with a discussion of alternative explanations of regional institution building.
Explaining the European Union’s Interorganizational Influence on Other Regional Organizations
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the European Union’s influence on other regional organizations through a statistical analysis of a dataset that contains information on the institutionalization of 36 regional organizations from 1950, or the year of their establishment, until 2017. The analysis shows that both the intensity of a regional organization’s engagement with the EU (active influence) and the EU’s own institutional trajectory (passive influence) are correlated with the level of institutionalization in other regional organizations. Second, these effects are strongest in regional organizations that are based on contracts containing open-ended commitments. Together, these findings suggest that the creation and subsequent institutional evolution of the EU has made a difference to the evolution of institutions in other regional organizations. Counterfactually, member states would have built less institutionalized regional organizations in the absence of the EU.
The EU Merger Probe into China, Inc.
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This chapter investigates the EU’s dilemma when applying the existing merger review framework to scrutinize acquisitions by Chinese companies. The EU merger review only acts on acquisitions of controlling interest. This means that Chinese state-owned enterprises (SOEs) can bypass the EU antitrust scrutiny by making minority acquisitions in Europe. However, minority shareholding in rivals can still create anticompetitive effects, as abundant economic literature has demonstrated. In fact, there is a blurred line between SOEs and privately owned enterprises in China, and a Chinese SOE could escape antitrust scrutiny entirely by employing a non-controlling subsidiary as a vehicle to acquire European assets. Given this regulatory dilemma, the chapter argues that a thoughtful response to acquisitions by Chinese SOEs necessitates a shift in regulatory focus from defining what constitutes an undertaking to understanding the effects of Chinese state ownership. It also cautions against deploying competition policy too broadly when reviewing Chinese SOE acquisitions. As the EU’s existing antitrust regulatory framework is not fully equipped to handle Chinese investments, it is not surprising to see that both the European Union and some of its Member States are tightening their foreign investment review to scrutinize Chinese takeovers.
US Scrutiny over China’s Trade Dominance
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on the US judicial inquiry into Chinese export cartels. It highlights the 2018 decision handed down by the US Supreme Court relating to a group of Chinese vitamin C producers and analyses the optimal judicial response to state-led export cartels. To make sense of the Supreme Court's ruling, the chapter draws upon insights from game theory to unravel the complicated dynamics between the importing and exporting country in export cartel cases. It argues that the optimal strategy for the United States is contingent on the strategy of the exporting country, whose strategy is in turn dependent on the United States' strategy as well as its own domestic politics and trade policy. The optimal regulatory response thus hinges not only on antitrust law but also politics. Viewed in this light, the US Supreme Court resolved the Vitamin C case pragmatically by according a high level of deference to the executive branch.
Normalizing Extreme Imprisonment
Authors: Vannier Marion
Published: July 2021

Normalizing Extreme Imprisonment offers a new explanation for how penal reforms and those driving them can end up normalizing, in the sense of making the public view as acceptable, incredibly severe punitive practices. Since its introduction in 1978 as an alternative to the death penalty, there has been a dramatic increase and expansion of life without parole (LWOP) in the United States, including beyond the scope of capital crimes for which it was originally conceived. Despite this growth, limited attention has been given to this punishment and very few attempts made to narrow its scope or curtail its proliferation. Emerging scholarship suggests the punishment has been ‘normalized’, in part because of how some death penalty abolitionists have framed and used LWOP. Drawing upon a range of evidence and using the development of LWOP in the Californian death penalty context over 40 years as an example, this book significantly deepens and extends this claim to offer a new explanation for how extreme forms of imprisonment become normalized. To discuss the extent to which some opponents to the death penalty may have facilitated, participated in, or perhaps even animated the three main normalizing mechanisms (visibility, denial, and routinization), this book focuses on three sites where death penalty abolitionists have lobbied, campaigned, pled and settled, for LWOP, namely Congress, the broader political sphere, and courtrooms. The book then contrasts these representations of LWOP’s severity with prisoners’ lived experiences detailed in an exceptional set of 299 letters.
Persian Breakthrough
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The Persian breakthrough into northern Syria (610) and Asia Minor (611) is attributed in part to disruption occasioned by the final stage of the Heraclian revolution. The foreboding induced by the Persian advances can be gauged from the Lives of two contemporary holy men. Two Roman failures—the escape of the raiding army of Shahen, which had been trapped in Caesarea in Cappadocia (611–12), and the defeat of Heraclius by Shahrbaraz outside Antioch (613)—marked the end of a first Roman fightback. Then came the sack of Jerusalem (May 614) which shook the Christian world. The circumstances (a riot-cum-pogrom which killed members of the Persian control commission) and consequences (execution of the pogrom leaders, deportations, and a Roman propaganda campaign) are re-examined. The extension of Persian direct rule over Palestine is dated two years later.
The Middle East in the 620s
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The narrative halts temporarily, for some analysis of structures. The steep decline of urbanism documented later in the Roman successor state (Byzantium) had not yet set in, but a first stage in the centralization of government functions was already discernible. The costs of the war bore heavily on both belligerents, but there was more strain on Roman finances. The Sasanians were able to draw on the resources of the occupied Roman provinces, but were careful not to increase the rate of taxation. They also showed sensitivity in handling local elites and minimizing changes to administrative practices. At home confidence grew in ultimate victory and preparations were made for its commemoration in monumental rock reliefs.
Opening of the Battle for Survival
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

In this chapter the spotlight is on Heraclius who trained his troops in Bithynia before leading them against a Persian army in northern Asia Minor (622). He was forced to break off the campaign in midsummer after a minor success because of news from the west. It is not known whether the Avars were inspired directly by the Persians, but they had taken up arms and laid siege to Thessalonica, already under pressure from their Slav subjects. They had to be bought off that year, and, again, at huge cost (an annual tribute of 200,000 solidi), in 623 after a failed attempt to capture Heraclius when he was lured from Constantinople on the pretext of signing a peace treaty. The Persians continued to push forward by land and sea in 623.
The Difficult Road to Peace
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The news of Khusro’s fall finally reached Heraclius on 3 April 628, marking the end of the war. There followed two years of negotiations with three successive Persian regimes. The threat from the Turks strengthened the Roman position until their sudden disappearance in 629. Under the terms finally agreed with Khusro’s daughter Boran, the Persians disgorged all his conquests and accepted the pre-war frontier. Victory was celebrated in Constantinople, when Heraclius’ final dispatch was read out in St Sophia (15 May 628). Two triumphal ceremonies were staged, the first at Constantinople on the occasion of Heraclius’ return in June 628, the second at Jerusalem on 21 March 630, when Heraclius brought back the fragments of the True Cross taken by the Persians in 614 from Calvary in the church of the Holy Sepulchre. Close attention is paid to the texts and works of art which commemorated the victory.
X-Ray Diffraction
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

X-rays diffraction is fundamental to understanding the structure and crystallography of biological, geological, or technological materials. X-rays scatter predominantly by the electrons in solids, and have an elastic (coherent, Thompson) and an inelastic (incoherent, Compton) component. The atomic scattering factor is largest (= Z) for forward scattering, and decreases with increasing scattering angle and decreasing wavelength. The amplitude of the diffracted wave is the structure factor, Fhkl, and its square gives the intensity. In practice, intensities are modified by temperature (Debye-Waller), absorption, Lorentz-polarization, and the multiplicity of the lattice planes involved in diffraction. Diffraction patterns reflect the symmetry (point group) of the crystal; however, they are centrosymmetric (Friedel law) even if the crystal is not. Systematic absences of reflections in diffraction result from glide planes and screw axes. In polycrystalline materials, the diffracted beam is affected by the lattice strain or grain size (Scherrer equation). Diffraction conditions (Bragg Law) for a given lattice spacing can be satisfied by varying θ or λ — for study of single crystals θ is fixed and λ is varied (Laue), or λ is fixed and θ varied to study powders (Debye-Scherrer), polycrystalline materials (diffractometry), and thin films (reflectivity). X-ray diffraction is widely applied.
Transmission and Analytical Electron Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Transmission electron microscopy provides information on all aspects of the microstructure — structural, atomic, chemical, electronic, magnetic, etc. — at the highest spatial resolution in physical and biological materials, with applications ranging from fundamental studies to process metrology in the semiconductor industry. Developments in correcting electron-optical aberrations have improved TEM resolution to sub-Å levels. Coherent Bragg scattering (diffraction), incoherent Rutherford scattering (atomic mass), and interference (phase) are some contrast mechanisms in TEM. For phase contrast, optimum imaging is observed at the Scherzer defocus. Magnetic domains are imaged in Fresnel, Foucault, or differential phase contrast (DPC) modes. Off-axis electron holography measures phase shifts of the electron wave, and is affected by magnetic and electrostatic fields of the specimen. In scanning-transmission (STEM) mode, a focused electron beam is scanned across the specimen to sequentially form an image; a high-angle annular dark field detector gives Z-contrast images with elemental specificity and atomic resolution. Series of (S)TEM images, recorded every one or two degrees about a tilt axis, over as large a tilt-range as possible, are back-projected to reconstruct a 3D tomographic image. Inelastically scattered electrons, collected in the forward direction, form the energy-loss spectrum (EELS), and reveal the unoccupied local density of states, partitioned by site symmetry, nature of the chemical species, and the angular momentum of the final state. Energy-lost electrons are imaged by recording them, pixel-by-pixel, as a sequence of spectra (spectrum imaging), or by choosing electrons that have lost a specific energy (energy-filtered TEM). De-excitation processes (characteristic X-ray emission) are detected by energy dispersive methods, providing compositional microanalysis, including chemical maps. Overall, specimen preparation methods, even with many recent developments, including focused ion beam milling, truly limit applications of TEM.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) focuses an electron beam to a sharp probe, with its diameter, which depends on the acceleration voltage and the aberration coefficients of the probe-forming lens, determining SEM resolution. This electron beam is scanned over the specimen and signals arising from a variety of beam-specimen interactions are recorded to form images using different detectors positioned in the specimen chamber. Secondary electrons, detected with the Everton-Thornley detector, reveal the topography and electrical properties; back-scattered electrons provide information about the average atomic number and local crystallography of the specimen. Ferromagnetic materials alter the trajectory of secondary (Type I) and back-scattered (Type II) electrons to provide magnetic contrast. The magnetic polarization of the secondary electrons can also be analyzed directly (SEMPA) to image domains. The electron beam also excites characteristic X-rays for chemical microanalysis. Luminescent specimens produce light (Cathodoluminescence); these photons provide information on the electronic structure, particularly the defect states, of the specimen. Environmental SEMs, with differential pumping, image the specimen in a gaseous environment and/or under hydration for biological materials. A SEM combined with a focused ion beam (FIB) column is used for nano-fabrication, including preparation of electron-transparent TEM specimens.
The Roles of Professionals
Authors: Hennessey Patrick , Kuhn Philippe
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses professions that are traditionally concerned with building and engineering works, such as architects, engineers, and quantity surveyors. It analyses how project managers are being added to the group of construction professionals engaged by employers. It also probes the work of construction professionals in England, Wales, and Scotland that is subject to the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 (HGCRA). This chapter cites a construction contract in the HGCRA as an agreement to do architectural, design, or surveying work or provide advice on building, engineering, interior decoration, or exterior decoration to construction operations. It looks at traditional forms of contract that is responsible for the design of the works and the contractor for the construction.
Mistake, Misrepresentation, and Frustration
Authors: Ghaly QC Karim
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on mistake, which can be described as an erroneous belief of parties that wish to enter into a contract. It explains that mistakes determine whether a contract comes into existence at all or whether a written contract is to be interpreted in a manner that appears to run contrary to its text. It also discusses the distinction of mistakes between mistakes as to the terms of the contract or the identity of the contracting parties and mistakes as to the factual and legal assumptions that underlie the contract. This chapter elaborates that mistakes as to terms or identity may give rise to a wide range of legal consequences, depending on the nature of the mistake. It clarifies that a mistake as to the facts or law that underlie an agreement can only affect an apparent contract in a very narrow set of circumstances.
Guarantee and Indemnity
Authors: McCarthy Hannah
Published: July 2021

This chapter tackles guarantee or bond, which has no definitive judicial definition but is widely held to be a contract in which the guarantor agrees to be answerable for the debt or default of another to a third party. It cites the primary obligation of a third party that is underwritten by the guarantor as an essential characteristic of a guarantee. It also explains how the guarantor becomes answerable for the faults of the third party. This chapter talks about the indemnitor that undertakes a primary liability to another party in order to indemnify the other party against a specific event, which may or may not involve the act or default of a third party. It points out that the indemnity contained in construction sub-contracts is the most frequently used form of indemnity in the construction industry.
Loss and Expense
Authors: Hughes QC Adrian , Thomas Gethin
Published: July 2021

This chapter identifies standard forms and bespoke forms of contract that provide a mechanism whereby the employer can order changes to the work to be done. It discusses the power to order varied work that is used frequently by employers who have often not had all their requirements sorted out at the time of the letting of the contract. It also distinguishes limitations upon the employer’s right to vary the work pursuant to a normal variation clause, such as the limitation in which the change ordered cannot alter the essential characteristic of the contract itself. This chapter covers the limitation in which the employer may not order the omission of work simply in order to instruct another contractor to do the same or almost the same work. It describes claims for sums due under the contract that are dealt with non-contentiously.
Limitation of Actions
Authors: McParland QC Michael , David Stephanie
Published: July 2021

This chapter reviews the operation of the statutory restrictions on the prosecution of stale claims that caused Parliament to pass acts of limitation designed to prevent the bringing of claims after a certain period to eliminate the injustice of unduly delayed claims. It analyses the operation of key domestic statutory limitation periods applicable to common construction law disputes and the policy justifications behind them. It also reviews the application of foreign limitation periods. It emphasizes the essential procedural nature of a limitation defence under English law, which requires that any applicable time bar must be pleaded by a defendant if it is to be effective.
Litigation
Authors: Denis-Smith John , Hurst Peter
Published: July 2021

This chapter deals with construction litigation as the litigation of claims by or against contractors, sub-contractors, and construction professionals that usually takes place in the Technology and Construction Court (TCC). It explains that the TCC is a branch of the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court. It also mentions the TCC Guide that provides guidance as to the practices of the court and sets out information specific to proceedings in the TCC. This chapter cites rule 60.1(2) of the Civil Procedure Rules, which identifies a claim heard in the TCC as a ‘TCC claim’ that involves issues or questions that are technically complex. It looks at the non-exhaustive list of the categories of cases tried by the TCC that is set out in the Practice Direction.
Second positions
Authors: Roberts Ian
Published: July 2021

This paper is based on three central analytical ideas. First, following Roberts (2010), I assume that narrow-syntactic head-movement is a reflex of the Agree relation where the Goal is defective in relation to the Probe, in the sense that the Goal’s features are a subset of those of the Probe. Second, following Chomsky (2008), I assume that phase heads drive all narrow-syntactic operations in virtue of their uninterpretable formal features and their Edge Features (EF). Third, owing to the nature of head-movement as a purely Agree-based operation, head-movement to a phase head PH cannot satisfy PH’s EF. The third assumption has the important consequence that second-position (P2) effects arise where C’s uninterpretable formal features attract the verb or clitic under Agree/head-movement, and so C’s EF must attract some XP to its edge, subject to a discourse interpretation. The paper applies these ideas to the analysis of various cases of second-position effects across languages, mainly Romance and Germanic.
Against complementizers
Authors: Poletto Cecilia , Sanfelici Emanuela
Published: July 2021

In this paper we investigate the syntax of complement clauses in some Romance and Germanic languages by focusing on word order asymmetries and extraction phenomena. We argue that complement clauses are relative clauses, as proposed in Manzini & Savoia (2003, 2011) and Kayne (2010). However, differently from the previous proposals, we claim that as in relative clauses (see Poletto & Sanfelici 2018a), the ‘complementizer’ partially spells out either the nominal element internal to the relative/complement clause, resulting thus into a raising derivation of the relative/complement clause, or the external nominal modified by the relative/complement clause itself, leading to a matching derivation. This difference in the raising vs. matching derivation accounts for a series of well-known asymmetries between some Romance and Germanic languages. In addition, we show that this proposal may be suitable to derive the different extraction patterns exhibited in ‘traditional’ relative clauses and complement clauses.
New prepositions in the house
Authors: Börjars Kersti , Vincent Nigel , Wolfe Sam
Published: July 2021

In the literature on semantic and categorial change French chez and Mainland Scandinavian hos are often cited together as parallel examples of locative prepositions deriving from nouns referring to the concept ‘house’. In this paper we compare in detail the philological records and the more recent development of the two items as well as that of the cognate Insular Scandinavian hjá. We show that while there are similarities in the development of Latin CASA / French chez and hos, as frequently suggested in the literature, there are also significant divergences. We argue in favour of a reevaluation of the origin of hos aligning it with hjá rather than casa as suggested in Noreen (1892), and show that if so revised, the differences can be shown to arise from the different meanings of the source terms: Latin casa ‘hut, house’ and later ‘place’ as opposed to Old Swedish hos and Old Icelandic hjá ‘group of people, company’. We then go on to explore the consequences of these different diachronic trajectories for our general understanding of the connected semantic and syntactic developments and the time course of categorial change.
‘Have’ in English and Romance
Authors: Smith John Charles
Published: July 2021

This paper compares and contrasts the forms and usage of the verb ‘have’ in different varieties of English and Romance. ‘Have’ may serve as a verb of possession, a perfect auxiliary, a deontic modal, and a presentative in both English and Romance. However, its English uses as an epistemic modal, as a dynamic light verb, and as a causative have no counterparts in Romance, whilst the ‘double perfect’ of many Romance varieties is absent from English. Although restricted to certain varieties, parallels may be noted between English and some Romance languages (dissociation of auxiliary and possessive ‘have’; progressive loss of past participle agreement and of the competing auxiliary ‘be’ in the perfect; apparent ‘aoristic drift’). The paper concludes by discussing the significance of the data for the distinction between main verbs and auxiliaries; the status of ‘have’, particularly as a verb of possession; and the nature of grammaticalization.
Philosophical Arguments for Individuals, Memberships, and Collectives in States of Guilt or Shame
Authors: Fredericks Sarah E.
Published: July 2021

While there is ample evidence that people experience collective guilt and shame, many philosophers and laypeople reject such experiences as unjustified either because they reject emotions as significant realms of experience or because they dismiss the possibility of collective agency and therefore find guilt or shame feelings about collective acts, like those leading to climate change, absurd. Chapter 4 addresses these concerns, building an account of collective agency, responsibility, and identity that demonstrates the importance of moral emotions including those of collectives. This argument draws on but extends the work of multiple philosophers and theologians including Karl Jaspers, Larry May, and Tracy Lynn Isaacs to argue that individuals, memberships, and collectives can be guilty and shameful and that collective and individual guilt and/or shame do not reduce to each other. Collectives have identity, agency, and a form of intent that is more than the sum of their constituent agents. Collectives include both well-defined collectives, such as corporations or nations, and diffuse collectives such as people living resource-intensive capitalist lives and/or supercollectives––those which are larger than but not reducible to collectives. They may contribute to climate change alongside individuals, membership groups, and well-defined collectives. The chapter also argues why in some cases it is not only possible but also appropriate to experience environmental guilt and shame about climate change as an individual or collective.
Logic
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

The main question here is how logic is to be conceived. Borrowing terms from Warren Goldfarb, two conceptions are considered: universalism, schematicism. There is also a perhaps third conception. Borrowing a term from Frege, it is called the Verschmelzung conception. A question, then, is what conception fits the ‘logic’ expressed in Begriffsschrift in Grundgesetze v. I. The answer is, ‘strictly speaking neither’. Grundgesetze is an unfolding of the idea that the law-likeness of being true is, in first instance, at the level of Bedeutung. This creates a predicament for Frege, which he deals with only partly successfully. Frege sees himself as unfolding an insight that the laws of truth operate in first instance at the level of Bedeutung. His elaboration, however, makes for serious problems.
Introduction
Authors: Kopley Emily
Published: July 2021

Perceptions surrounding literary genres and forms can influence writing practice. If poetry is perceived as exalted, one might read and write it for the challenge or the cachet, or avoid it out of intimidation. If novels are perceived as unpretentious, one might read and write them to join the mainstream, or prefer other genres precisely to avoid the mainstream. The career of Virginia Woolf offers an excellent case study of how cultural associations with literary genres and forms influence reading and writing practice. The Introduction to Virginia Woolf and Poetry traces the long rivalry between prose and verse, and more particularly the novel and poetry. It then describes the genre rivalry among British and American modernist writers, and surveys Woolf’s knowledge of the poetry of her time. It concludes by acknowledging the relevant scholarship.
“why is poetry wholly an elderly taste?”
Authors: Kopley Emily
Published: July 2021

Woolf’s sense that the novel must respond to poetry is manifest in her first three novels—The Voyage Out (1915), Night and Day (1919), and Jacob’s Room (1922). In the first, she shows a keen ear for the sound of language, but poetry figures as patriarchal and arguably deadly. In the second, she explores conflicting attitudes toward the English poetic tradition, and poetry occupies a dual role, at once burden and aphrodisiac. And in the third, poetry serves as a tool Woolf adapts for her own use in prose. For four reasons, by 1922 Woolf was able to appreciate poetry of the past: a familiarity with contemporary poetry gained by printing at The Hogarth Press, the deaths of family members who had nurtured poetry’s discouraging associations, an interest in elegy after the personal loss of her brother and the collective loss during World War I, and a comfort with poetry’s techniques in the wake of the form’s diminished power. Strong evidence of Woolf’s turn toward poetry lies in the poetry books in her extant library.
The Male Siskin and his Dear Aunt
Authors: Kopley Emily
Published: July 2021

Julian Bell, a poet and Woolf’s nephew, was a friendly aggravation generative to some of Woolf’s most significant work. Both the content and the form of The Waves (1931) owe much to Woolf’s relationship with him. With regard to content, the book’s depiction of college life and of young male poets derives in part from Bell’s social world and personality. With regard to form, Woolf’s association of poetry with metaphoric thought was reinforced by Bell’s literal verse. The drafts of The Waves and of a lampoon Woolf wrote on Bell inform the latter argument. This chapter then shows that in writing “A Letter to a Young Poet” (1932), Woolf had in mind her nephew’s “The Progress of Poetry: A Letter to a Contemporary” (1930). This chapter concludes with a study of the manuscript draft of “A Letter to a Young Poet.” Here Woolf writes as though the poet and the novelist have the same task—which, I argue, they do not.
Normal ways to die
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

Familiar endemic diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) are rarely seen as health emergencies, even though they kill millions of people each year. This chapter describes a variety of ways to remedy the neglect, illustrated by TB, including: highlight new dangers from old hazards, such as the emergence of multi-drug resistant strains; eliminate the prevention–cure dichotomy by exploiting the benefits of ‘treatment as prevention’, when drugs that cure illness also prevent the transmission of infection to others; neutralize major risks for TB, such as co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), in settings where these risks cause a high proportion of cases and deaths; and mitigate the large number of weaker TB risks that have benefits for other health conditions (diabetes, undernutrition) and for society more widely (homelessness, crowding). This wider context aligns the specific aims of neglected disease control with the larger goals of Universal Health Coverage and the Agenda for Sustainable Development.
The burden of choice
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

Consumers are ultimately responsible for ‘behavioural’ risks to their health, but the behaviours in question are also those of manufacturers and governments, and the burden of choice on consumers is lighter when shared. Governments, in particular, have the motives, means, and powers to intervene between commercial supply and consumer demand. Among the most effective instruments of government are taxation and regulation, especially for the control of single, major causes of illness such as tobacco and sugar. Taxes put a value on the future, today: consumers and manufacturers can choose to pay immediately for the costs incurred to society in future, or switch to healthier lifestyles and business practices. In practice, governments under pressure from lobbyists tend to under-tax harmful commodities, so other enticements are needed too. In this context, empirical studies show health promotion is complementary to disease prevention—making health gains while avoiding health losses—especially when the joint benefits for health are large.
The Policing Board
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

The Policing Board sits at the heart of the intersection between human rights law and politics. As a corporate body, the Policing Board has a statutory duty to monitor police compliance with the HRA. This chapter argues that regardless of the Policing Board’s statutory duty to monitor policing based on the standards of the HRA, for the political members on the Policing Board, human rights are a vessel harbouring deep sentiments and concerns at the heart of which are competing histories of the conflict, legacies of policing and understandings of Northern Ireland’s imperfect peace. These narratives swirl around, and at times directly contradict, the official police voice, further demonstrating the elasticity of human rights to stretch to fit the visions of different actors. The examination of alternative official narratives by political parties in Northern Ireland is developed across three sections, inspired by the dimensions of the ‘political life’ of human rights set out in Chapter 1. These three dimensions are: the role historical context plays in structuring the ambit and style of human rights contestation involving social actors; human rights as an articulation of a much wider array of interests, fears and aspirations that find expression through rights narratives; and how human rights can be used by groups to actively construct claims with the hope of achieving legal gains in specific fields
‘Arrest, Arrest, Arrest’
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

The focus of the empirical account of human rights in Part IV is on the suspect’s right to liberty in the context of police custody. In keeping with the style adopted in Part III, the discussion that follows seeks to closely analyse how particular aspects of police practices and decision-making interact with human rights law standards. The aim in this chapter is to explore how the three statutory safeguards established in PACE to protect the suspect’s right to liberty have fared in the face of organizational pressure to detect and ‘clear up’ crime. Using the three due process safeguards established in PACE to form a framework for this chapter’s analysis, the chapter explores how officers apply, dismiss, interpret and reconstruct each of these safeguards in their everyday work. Once again, the richness of this analysis, specifically its appreciation for how law and practice do (or do not) interact, is enhanced by paying close attention to the development of lines of authority in the case law that have, it is argued, watered down the legal standards officers must apply. This analysis of the case law is based on recent judgments from the High Court and Divisional Court of Northern Ireland, as well as from the Court of Appeal in England and Wales.
The Life and Death of Literary Forms
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the life and death of literary forms, considering information theory and focusing on genres. Recognition of genre depends on associating a complex of elements, which need not all appear in one work. But invariably external forms will be among the indicators: structure, or formal motif, or rhetorical proportion. Genres are also limited by the intellectual capacities of readers. At least, no genre has ever been open to all social groups regardless of their level of education. The most fundamental change a genre can go through is change of status in the generic hierarchy. The chapter then details the phases of generic development, as well as modal transformation. Genres may directly generate modes and hence, indirectly, new genres. They may also die; in which case their components disintegrate.
The ‘Better Marks’ of Jonson’s To Penshurst
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter analyses To Penshurst, which first appeared in print in 1612 as the second poem of Ben Jonson’s The Forest. To Penshurst established an emergent English genre: the country-house poem. In To Penshurst, as in Jonson’s poetry generally, many readers are aware of a special relation between the ideal and the real. Penshurst, a house that had developed through the accretions of centuries, could offer no ideal significances; and that is why Jonson credits it instead with ‘better marks’, or symbols. These he finds in the beauties and advantages of its estate: most of the poem goes to show that the estate of Penshurst possesses as much order and symbolism as the prodigy houses, but in land and use rather than in architectural display. The chapter then looks at Jonson’s arrangement of the items in Penshurst, which he has ordered according to several independent organizational ideas: spatial, temporal, hierarchical, numerical, and rhetorical. The moral character of this well-ordered structure is displayed both in direct examples and in emblems.
‘Paradise Regained’
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on John Milton’s Paradise Regained, looking at the alleged defects in its style. Several critics have spoken of a barer Miltonic style, found in Paradise Regained and in some other of his works, which contrasts with the grand style of Paradise Lost. This barer style is deliberately plain, and on principle avoids the ornate epic magniloquence of ‘swelling epithets thick-laid’. Indeed, Paradise Regained exhibits some low-style features, such as laconism. However, another approach has been to see Paradise Regained as reflecting a new personal phase in Milton’s development. The chapter then argues that the style of Paradise Regained was innovative, considering the characteristics of this new style. The style of Paradise Regained may be bare by some criteria; but it is incomparably rich in mimetic effects—richer, indeed, than most of Paradise Lost.
The Formation of Genres in the Renaissance and After
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter analyses the formation of genres in the Renaissance period and after. It is true that the early modern historical context made possible the revival of several ancient genres and the fresh invention of new ones. Explorations and new world discoveries, for example, stimulated a return to classical georgic, which appealed to the appetite for practical information on the one hand and on the other for images of exotic places. Again, the development of a print culture was a prerequisite for several important kinds. For the most part, however, ‘formation’ may be misleading. The Renaissance was not always characterized by new forms; often it worked by adapting old forms or imparting to them a new spirit. The majority of the principal kinds had already been available in the Middle Ages. Occasionally, a new genre had no ancient precedent, so that one had to be faked. This was the case with the ‘poetics’ genre; its social basis was the novel activity of literary criticism. The chapter then considers genre metaphors, as well as the writing metaphor.