bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

The Introduction identifies what is required for a detailed theoretical framework for analyzing the language and ethics of untruthfulness in situated text. First, the scope of untruthfulness needs to be broad enough to cover perceived actual cases of discursive untruthfulness in the current social and political world without being so broad that it ceases to have analytical purpose. Second, a means of judging the ethical value of the act of untruthfulness and the speaker’s degree of culpability is needed. Finally, one needs to be able to judge acts of untruthfulness in the full complexity of their situated context. Untruthfulness necessarily involves complex relations between word, mind, and world that are not easily accessible to the analytical observer and that necessitate an interdisciplinary approach. The chapter concludes by setting out the central theoretical propositions of the TRUST framework that derive from these needs and that are explored in subsequent chapters.
Trust, Cooperation, and Insincerity
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

This chapter teases out some key theoretical issues relating to the scope, ethics, and situated analysis of insincerity, as one of the two faces of untruthfulness. It begins by grounding sincerity in an indispensable human need for trust and cooperation and notes how insincerity can breach trust. It then gives arguments for why the TRUST framework does not focus on deception. Grice’s implicature is considered fundamental to understanding insincerity within a framework of communicative cooperation, but his sincerity maxim unnecessarily narrows its scope. Instead, insincerity is viewed as the disruption of inquiry. By drawing on a psychological account of how untruthfulness works in situated discursive practice, the chapter argues that the concept of insincerity needs to be extended to cases of “editing out” where there is no textual clue to omission. This broadened conception of insincerity, which subsumes misleading and lying under withholding, is termed discursive insincerity.
Bullshit, Inquiry, and Irresponsibility
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

This chapter teases out some key theoretical issues relating to the extension of the concept of untruthfulness from sincerity to epistemic irresponsibility, or a lack of care with which speakers act in forming, retaining, and conveying their beliefs. It argues that subjective responsibility is already embedded within the nature of assertion, but that epistemic responsibility is also both an intellectual virtue and a moral commitment. The growing work on bullshitting and bullshit enrichens our understanding of epistemically irresponsible discourse, but the focus on relating bullshitting to lying and insincerity prevents us from seeing bullshit as deriving from a distinct aspect of untruthfulness. Instead, taking dogma rather than bullshit as a point of departure opens up this aspect of untruthfulness to broader epistemic concerns. The chapter closes by comparing the recent notion of “negligent false assertion” to the account of epistemic irresponsibility in the TRUST framework.
Claims of and Evidence for Untruthfulness
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

Chapter 3 focuses on the first two steps of the TRUST untruthfulness heuristic: claim and evidence. It begins by noting four principal rational motives for calling out lies and bullshit (confession, detection, self-contradiction, and falsification), but stresses that in the majority of cases one relies primarily on falsification. This is problematic because Chapters 1 and 2 stress that both discursive insincerity and epistemic irresponsibility are subjective rather than objective notions. The reliance on falsification as a starting point for analysis restricts the application of the framework primarily to “factually significant” and “falsifiable” claims. A distinction is made between “salty-type” statements that invite further investigation and “tasty-type” statements that invite agreement or disagreement but not further investigation. Only “salty-type” claims are open to a TRUST analysis. Finally, the challenge of anti-realism is taken up, and it is argued that there is more consensus about evidence than the “truth wars” would suggest.
Justified Untruthfulness
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

This chapter outlines a systematic framework for analyzing the many discursive circumstances in which speakers may justifiably suspend their commitment to truthfulness. Other approaches to ethical justifiability, such as the overtness of the communication and the epistemic categorization of conventional speech settings, are considered but rejected. The framework of suspensions set out here provides for a more flexible and nuanced analysis that does not prejudge the epistemic status of a given discursive context. Three main types of suspension—conventional, consequential, and condonable—are identified through application of the Golden Rule, and the chapter considers the conditions under which they are both justifiable in principle and justified in practice. While breach of trust is the primary determinant of whether or not a speaker’s suspension of commitment to truthfulness is justifiable in principle, there is no necessary correlation between discourse context and trust.
Epistemically Irresponsible Discourse Pathologies
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

This chapter sets out a systematic but exploratory framework for analyzing epistemically irresponsible discourse pathologies. It begins with the bridge category of bullshitting, which is both insincere and irresponsible. It then explores in turn the three main discourse pathologies: dogma, distortion, and bullshit. Dogma, or closed-minded discourse that disregards counter-evidence, underlies both distortion and bullshit. Distortion (e.g. overstatement) misrepresents the evidence and/or the epistemic confidence we can justifiably have in it. Finally, bullshit is a form of radical distortion that misrepresents the evidence by appearing to ignore altogether the need for evidential grounding. Given our susceptibility to being epistemically irresponsible, the bar is set high for moral culpability. For speakers to commit epistemic negligence, they must (a) be performing a role requiring a duty of epistemic care; (b) fail to investigate sufficiently in accordance with that duty; and (c) fail to hedge their claims in proportion to the evidence.
Poisoning and Partisanship
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

This chapter demonstrates an alternative “holistic” method of TRUST analysis in which the focus is not on individual claims or short sections of text with a few related claims, but on the general manifestation of untruthfulness with respect to a particular case. The chapter provides an extensive analysis of multiple claims regarding the poisoning of the Russian spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter Yulia in Salisbury, England, in March 2018. It opens with the prime minister’s short statement to Parliament just after the attack, which superficially but confusingly reminds us of Blair’s Preface, but this is used as a springboard for exploring various types of untruthful discourse that have emerged in relation to this international crisis. The framework thus becomes a way of structuring a much broader analysis of untruthfulness in international discourse. The study also demonstrates very clearly the role of social media in promoting epistemic partisanship.
Religion
Authors: Smith Leslie Dorrough
Published: August 2020

Many argue that religious people are hypocritical when they support an adulterous politician. This chapter examines the religious and moralistic rhetoric often featured in sex scandals to show that such rhetoric is more about creating a particular type of society than about embracing exceptional, transcendent, moral ideals. To do this, the chapter first shows how a functionalist perspective on religion and morality lets us better see their tangible social impact. Second, it discusses how “hypocrisy” is a common feature of all social groups, religions included. Finally, it explores how much of the legacy of religious (and specifically evangelical) rhetoric in American public speech is read by the public as a seemingly “neutral” moral position, but one that endorses specific types of power. To exemplify the impact of religious speech in a sex scandal, a case study compares the scandals of Mark Foley and Roy Moore.
The First Magnetoencephalography Report: 1968
Authors: Cohen David
Published: August 2020

In this chapter, the author discusses the first magnetoencephalography paper in the literature (Cohen, D. [1968]. Magnetoencephalography: Evidence of magnetic fields produced by alpha-rhythm currents. Science, 161, 784–786). The chapter presents some extra graphic material, not shown in the original paper, which are drawings of the shaker coils the author used in the shielded room; these coils, at that time, allowed significant reduction of background noise, which was mostly dealt with by signal averaging. The author also elaborates on the atmosphere surrounding this work, and some particular colleagues who influenced him, namely Professors John Hughes and Humberto Fernandez-Moran. Finally, the author provides some relevant recollections of the first days of Magnetoencephalography.
Identifying Neural Abnormalities in Schizophrenia
Authors: Edgar J. Christopher , Miller Gregory A.
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers the use of magnetoencephalography (MEG) in understanding brain dysfunction in schizophrenia. Rather than provide a comprehensive review of the MEG schizophrenia literature, this chapter focuses on MEG brain measures that have received the most attention: resting-state studies and studies examining auditory encoding processes. Studies indicate that continued research in this area is of interest, with findings suggesting a focus on resting-state and task-related low-frequency activity.
Bach the Organist
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

Bach’s duties as a Lutheran church organist included “preluding” on chorale (hymn) melodies and maintaining instruments. At Arnstadt Bach must also have been expected to accompany singers both at court and in church, and during these years he also carried out organ “tests.” It is unknown whether he wrote any vocal compositions at Arnstadt, but he doubtless wrote much keyboard music and developed his organ technique during these years. Compositions examined in this chapter include chorale preludes and praeludia (preludes and fugues), as well as the great Passacaglia for organ and several vocal works (cantatas) probably performed at Mühlhausen, including the so-called Actus tragicus.
Bach the Music Director
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

At Leipzig Bach held a double position as cantor in the St. Thomas School and music director for the city as a whole. The first was primarily educational; the second included not only composition of cantatas for the two main churches but oversight of all music in the city. This chapter examines Bach’s official work as cantor and music director as well as his growing frustration and conflicts in those capacities (as evidenced in his “Entwurf”)—and the resulting shift toward greater participation in secular music making with the Collegium Musicum. After describing his routines for producing some 150 surviving church cantatas from this period, the chapter examines selected examples, including BWV 105, 78, 103, 56, 82, 51, and 140. Also discussed are secular works, including BWV 201 and the Coffee Cantata, and the motets.
One True Cause
Authors: Platt Andrew R.
Published: August 2020

The French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche popularized the doctrine of occasionalism in the late seventeenth century. Occasionalism is the thesis that God alone is the true cause of everything that happens in the world, and created substances are merely “occasional causes.” This doctrine was originally developed in medieval Islamic theology, and was widely rejected in the works of Christian authors in medieval Europe. Yet despite its heterodoxy, occasionalism was revived starting in the 1660s by French and Dutch followers of the philosophy of René Descartes. Since the 1970s, there has been a growing body of literature on Malebranche and occasionalism. There has also been new work on the Cartesian occasionalists before Malebranche—including Arnold Geulincx, Gerauld de Cordemoy, and Louis de la Forge. But to date there has not been a systematic, book-length study of the reasoning that led Cartesian thinkers to adopt occasionalism, and the relationship of their arguments to Descartes’s own views. This book expands on recent scholarship, to provide the first comprehensive account of seventeenth-century occasionalism. Part I contrasts occasionalism with a theory of divine providence developed by Thomas Aquinas, in response to medieval occasionalists; it shows that Descartes’ philosophy is compatible with Aquinas’ theory, on which God “concurs” in all the actions of created beings. Part II reconstructs the arguments of Cartesians—such as Cordemoy and La Forge—who used Cartesian physics to argue for occasionalism. Finally, it shows how Malebranche’s case for occasionalism combines philosophical theology with Cartesian metaphysics and mechanistic science.
Introduction
Authors: Dubler Joshua , Lloyd Vincent W.
Published: August 2020

Contemporary American culture is infused with carceral logics that foreground punishment. However, the United States also has a rich tradition of abolitionism, which catalyzes social movements against entrenched injustice. Just as American prison culture is imbued with religion, American abolition culture is also imbued with religion. For this reason, the authors ask what role religion played in underwriting the explosive growth of prisons over the last five decades, as well as what role religion plays in sustaining mass incarceration today. In doing so, the authors weave religion into stories about economics, race, and politics that are told to explain the explosive growth of prisons in the United States. For the movement to “end mass incarceration” to win, this book argues, it must embrace abolitionism, not just reform. Religious ideas and rituals have much to contribute to this process, resourcing a social movement to end the carceral state and its attendant injustices.
Prison Religion and Prison Justice
Authors: Dubler Joshua , Lloyd Vincent W.
Published: August 2020

Using trial records, court decisions, and ethnographic fieldwork, this chapter tracks how the disruptive religious practices of the prisoners’ rights era, including prison strikes, became the accommodating religious practices of America’s prisons today. In other words, it tells the story of the rise and fall of the collectivist prisoners’ religion of the 1960s and the subsequent ascendency of the depoliticized, accommodationist religious forms better suited to the controlled conditions of mass incarceration. Touching on a range of incarcerated people’s writings and rituals, including Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X and his conversion to Islam, the Church of the New Song, and the black naturalist sect MOVE, the chapter explores how highlighting the politicizing force of prison and reclaiming the political-theological voices of prisoners might allow us to see new possibilities for justice beyond the prison. With an eye toward what has been repressed, the chapter concludes with the abolitionist promise of the new surge in prisoners’ political organizing.
Linking Solar Energy Systems to Sustainable Development Goals in Africa
Authors: Adenle Ademola A.
Published: August 2020

Energy was not stated as one of the millennium development goals (MDGs) but played an indirect role in helping meet the MDGs especially in the areas of housing, health, education, and poverty reduction in Africa. In contrast, the United Nations’ 2030 agenda includes 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs), one of which is devoted to energy. SDG7 seeks to ensure “access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all,” thereby creating a vital role for the energy sector to join in the task of achieving SDGs. Renewable energy including solar energy will play a significant role in improving energy security in Africa and diversifying the energy mix by reducing reliance on fossil fuels. This chapter examines the advantages of solar technologies in the context of social, economic, and environment benefits using case studies from Kenya and South Africa. This chapter also examines some of the key challenges that are associated with the application of solar energy technologies in these countries. Finally, the chapter discusses how solar energy technologies can help meet SDGs and summarizes policy and programs targeting the promotion of solar energy technologies for the implementation of SDGs.
Comparing Renewable Energy Micro-Grids in Cambodia, Indonesia, and Laos
Authors: Schmidt Tobias S. , Blum Nicola U. , Bening Catharina R.
Published: August 2020

Sustainable development goal 7.1 aims to ensure access to electricity for approximately 800 million people who currently live without electricity. Despite its advantages over other electrification approaches, global diffusion of renewable energy-based micro-grids (RE-MG) is rather low. Typically, diffusion bottlenecks are thought to be related to issues of technological reliability; however, recent research suggests diffusion is highly related to socioeconomic factors, as well as the governance of the innovation, installation and operation of the technology. While global initiatives support many countries in their electrification strategies, often targeting RE-MG along with addressing sociopolitical and governance issues, it remains unclear to what extent and how such support should be tailored to individual country circumstances. There is little comparative research to address this question, as studies tend to focus on individual country case studies in isolation. To address this literature gap, this chapter conducts a comparative study of RE-MG innovation and diffusion in Cambodia, Indonesia, and Laos. The authors analyze each case at the international, national, and local level by using the Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) approach. The data is obtained through both desk research and fieldwork. The chapter finds that several issues exist to comparable extents in all three analyzed countries. At the global level, initiatives can address challenges similarly and facilitate best practice sharing among countries. At the national and local levels, however, important socioeconomic and cultural differences require approaches to RE-MG policy to be tailored to the national and local contexts.
Fostering Sustainable Development Goals Through an Integrated Approach
Authors: Kemp René , Never Babette , Türkeli Serdar
Published: August 2020

This chapter analyzes the potential role of science, technology, and innovation (STI) in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs), and what governments in developing countries can do to phase in STI-based solutions, especially green energy technologies, for achieving SDGs. For this purpose, the authors examined three successful phase-in experiences in solar energy and energy efficiency in two emerging economies (China and India). This is being done with the help of an integrated framework that merges political economy elements of interests, ideas, and institutions with capabilities and policy delivery. The experiences in dealing with observed difficulties (having to do with power, lock-in, weak institutions of governance, and information asymmetries) are used to outline what governments in developing countries can do to phase in green STI-based transitions by utilizing the opportunities already present that coincide with development objectives. Proposed solutions include proactive planning, rent management, use of adaptive policy mixes (informed by policy learning), and tailored implementation mechanisms.
Digital Health
Authors: Poon Simon K. , Liu Yiren , Guo Ruihua , Li Mu
Published: August 2020

Digital health is the intersection of information, computer, and medical science and healthcare, which focusses on adopting information technology (IT) within clinical and healthcare processes. In this chapter, a maturity measurement framework of digital health in China is developed. The framework is applied to contextualize different aspects of the recent progress, opportunities, and challenges of digital health in China; more specifically, to identify its potential in improving the quality and delivery of healthcare (SDG3) and the way health information is shared through new value chains in the health system. The demand of quality education, digital health literacy, and expansion of complementary skills among health professionals, patients, and the general population will become more important to ensure inclusive and equitable education and to promote lifelong learning (SDG4). Transforming health service supply through digitization (automating processes) as well as digitalization (changing to new model of care deliveries) will enable better access in rural regions and help prevent the urban–rural divide faced by many people. Progress in digital health can facilitate equality between populations and reduce inequality among different groups of population by location, health, or economic status (SDG10). This chapter discusses the recent establishment of the Chinese National Health Information Platform, also known as the 4631-2 project, and then takes a system perspective to assess the impacts by covering four dimensions: translation, education, transformation, and technology. Finally, the chapter provides future projections on the basis of the literature synthesis, including opportunities and challenges for a sustainable digital health system in China.
Responsive and Responsible Science, Technology, and Innovation for Global Health
Authors: Engel Nora , Meershoek Agnes , Krumeich Anja
Published: August 2020

In contrast to the millennium development goals (MDGs), the sustainable development goals (SDGs) entail a universal and equitable approach to global health by defining health problems as multidimensional issues. SDG3, which aims to “ensure healthy lives and promote well‐being for all at all ages,” targets a broad range of communicable diseases, mother and child health, noncommunicable diseases, mental health, substance abuse, traffic accidents, and health threats from hazardous environmental pollution, and to that end suggests supporting research and development of appropriate technology. This chapter will review how science, technology and innovation (STI) are conceptualized in the SDGs and how they are assumed to tackle health inequalities. Inspired by insights from science and technology studies, and using examples from the authors’ ethnographic studies on development and implementation of point-of-care diagnostics and development of cookstoves, it will discuss what the challenges are with the way in which STI is conceptualized in SDG policies. Based on these analyses, the authors propose a responsive and responsible approach to STI that is based on a thick description of the different stakeholder settings involved and of their perceptions and needs; takes the coproduction of knowledge, innovation, and society into consideration; and continuously reflects on the (un-)intended consequences.
Adoption of Integrated Crop Management Technology for Poverty Reduction and Food Security
Authors: Rola-Rubzen Maria Fay , Villano Renato , Estevão Marcolino , Brito Fernandes E. , Hardaker J. Brian , Dixon John
Published: August 2020

Achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) is a critical priority for East Timor. Food security, reducing poverty, and promoting environmental sustainability are among the key goals of the Timor Leste Government, which supports the identification and uptake by farmers of technologies that will improve agricultural productivity. Integrated crop management (ICM) has the potential to contribute to SDG1 (end poverty), SDG2 (end hunger), and SDG13 (combat climate change) in East Timor. This chapter analyzes the effects of ICM technology in rice farming in Timor Leste. Using a survey sample of 400 rice farmers comprised of 246 ICM farmers and 154 non-ICM farmers in two main rice growing regions in Timor Leste, a propensity score matching approach was used to obtain matched and comparable observations. The consequences of ICM technology adoption on production and outcome variables were evaluated using a treatment effects model. Results showed significant differences in outcomes between ICM farmers and non-ICM farmers, with ICM farmers having significantly higher yields and incomes; male farmers were more likely to adopt the technology than females, presumably because agricultural training sessions are mostly attended by men. Thus to promote gender equality (SDG5), training and extension should be made available to both men and women. Making extension of ICM technology to smallholder farmers (both men and women) more effective is therefore important in efforts to expand ICM adoption in the country and promote SDGs 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, and 13.
Toward Sustainable Agri-Food Systems in Brazil
Authors: Flocco Cecilia G.
Published: August 2020

Central to advancing the ambitious United Nations’ seventeen sustainable development goals (SDG) is the challenge of meeting the growing global demand for food and agricultural products while minimizing negative impacts on natural resources. Such a formidable mission requires both contributions from science, technology, and innovation (STI) to engineer sustainable production systems and the establishment of solid cross-sectoral policy frameworks supporting those efforts. This chapter identifies key leverage points across agricultural production systems, effective STI contributions, and policy frameworks aiming at meeting the global food demand in sustainable ways. The soybean production complex in Brazil is presented as a case study through which cross-sectoral efforts focused on developing sustainable agri-food systems are analyzed. Emphasis is placed on approaches contributing to harmonize agricultural production with the conservation of land ecosystems and key soil functions (SDG15, terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity), since those support the achievement of interlinked SDGs aiming to reduce poverty and hunger (SDGS 1, 2) and improve societal (SDGs 3, 6, 8) and environmental well-being (SDGs 12, 13, 15). Examples of successful partnerships (SDG17) between stakeholders across the agri-food supply chain are also discussed.
Philosophy and Policy
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

Punishment theories and policies have marched in different directions in the United States for nearly 50 years. Philosophers and others who try to understand what justice requires, policymakers who create the rules for dispensing it, and practitioners who try to achieve it don’t communicate with each other very well, or at all. They lack a common vocabulary. More importantly, they lack a shared understanding of what punishment is and does, and what it should aspire to be and to do. This is unusual. Shared understandings exist in most countries and did in the United States through the 1960s. The costs have been high. They include mass imprisonment, extraordinary injustice, assembly-line case processing, and moral impoverishment.
Proportionality
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

Proportionality theory’s influence is waning. It is beset by challenges. Some, such as difficulties in scaling crime seriousness and punishment severity, and linking them, are primarily analytical and of interest mostly to theorists. Others, such as trade-offs between proportionality and crime prevention, relate to real-world applications. Proportionality theory does support two injunctions with which most people, citizens, scholars, and professionals alike, would say they agree. First, no one should be punished more severely than he or she deserves. Second, all else being equal, people who commit more serious crimes should be punished more severely than people who commit less serious ones, and vice versa. Converting that principled agreement into real-world policies and practices is not easy. The post-Enlightenment values of fairness, equality, justice, and parsimony that underlie proportionality theory, however, are widely accepted and are likely to remain influential even if punishment paradigms once again shift. Proportionality theory is likely to be eclipsed but not to disappear.
Deep Disadvantage
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

Arguments in favor of a social adversity or rotten social background defense are substantially stronger than those against. People disagree in principle whether judges should, in appropriate cases, mitigate the severity of sentences to take account of material differences in offenders’ circumstances and characteristics. Many believe that a deeply disadvantaged background is a material characteristic. Unfortunately, informal mitigation of punishments is not enough. The severity and rigidity of American sentencing laws often deny judges the necessary authority. The moral challenges presented by deeply disadvantaged offenders cannot adequately be addressed without creation of a social adversity defense.
Prediction and Incapacitation
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

Predictions of future violence by individuals are substantially more often wrong than right. Minority offenders are more often incorrectly predicted to be violent than are white offenders. White offenders are more often incorrectly predicted to be nonviolent than are minority offenders. Use of socioeconomic status variables is per se unjust and disproportionately affects minority offenders. Use of criminal history variables exaggerates differences between minority and white offenders, and increases racial and ethnic disparities. It is unjust ever to punish someone more severely than he or she deserves because of a prediction of dangerousness (or for any other reason). Increasing the severity of a sentence on the basis of risk prediction punishes offenders in advance for crimes they would not have committed. Judges and others using prediction instruments more often disregard low-risk predictions for poor and black offenders than for affluent ones.
A History of Christian Conversion
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

Conversion has played a central role in the history of Christianity. In this first in-depth and wide-ranging narrative history, David W. Kling examines the dynamic of individuals, families, and people groups who turn to the Christian faith. Global in reach, this book progresses from early Christian beginnings in the Roman world to Christianity’s expansion into Europe, the Americas, China, India, and Africa. Although conversion is often associated with a particular strand of modern Christianity (evangelical) and a particular type of experience (sudden, overwhelming), it is, when examined over two millennia, a phenomenon far more complex than any one-dimensional profile would suggest. No single, unitary paradigm defines conversion, and no easily demonstrable process accounts for why people convert to Christianity. Rather, a multiplicity of factors—historical, personal, social, geographical, theological, psychological, and cultural—shape the converting process. A History of Christian Conversion not only narrates the conversions of select individuals and peoples. It also engages current theories and models to explain conversion and examines recurring themes in the converting process: gender, agency, motivation, testimony, coercion, self-identity, “true” conversion, music, communication, the body, and divine presence. Accessible to scholars, students, and those with a general interest in conversion, Kling’s book is, to date, the most satisfying and comprehensive account of conversion in Christian history; this major work will become a standard must-read in conversion studies.
When the Nerds Go Marching In
Authors: Gibson Rachel K.
Published: August 2020

When the Nerds Go Marching In shows how digital technology has moved from the margins to the mainstream of campaign and election organization in contemporary democracies. Combining an extensive review of existing literature and comparative data sources with original survey evidence and web content analysis of digital campaign content across four nations—the United Kingdom, Australia, France, and the United States—the book maps the key shifts in the role and centrality of the internet in election campaigns over a twenty-year period. The chapters reveal how these countries have followed a four-phase model of digital campaign development which begins with experimentation, and is followed by a period of standardization and professionalization. Subsequent phases focus on increasingly strategic activities around the mobilization of activists and supporters, before switching to micro-targeted mobilizing of individual voters. The changes are mapped over time in each country from the perspective of both the campaigners (supply side), and that of voters (demand side), and the four nations are compared in terms of how far and fast they have moved through the developmental cycle. As well as providing the most comprehensive narrative charting the evolution of digital campaigning from its inception in the mid-1990s, the book also offers important insights into the national conditions that have been most conducive to its diffusion. Finally, based on the findings from the most recent phase of development, the book speculates on the future direction for political campaigns as they increasingly rely on digital tools and artificial intelligence for direction and decision-making during elections.
Introduction
Authors: Gibson Rachel K.
Published: August 2020

This chapter provides a general introduction and overview to the book. It sets out the main contention that digital technology has moved from being an afterthought for campaigns to being at the core of current practice, and how this has occurred over a twenty-year period. It introduces the four-phase model of campaign change that anchors the book, and structures the analysis in the subsequent chapters. It explains the concepts of apoliticos and hypernormality that inform the key conclusions of the study. Finally, it presents a summary of the chapters and explains how they develop and how they apply the four-phase model to the four national case studies.
Stacking the Deck
Authors: Hiskey Jonathan T. , Moseley Mason W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter evaluates the proposition that patterns of citizen engagement with politics in dominant-party enclaves will reflect the incentives and punishments meted out by the machine itself. The authors present an analysis of three forms of political participation—voting, protest, and local civic activism. This analysis reveals that across each of these forms of participation, the profile of individuals living in dominant-party systems who are most likely to engage in such activities is distinct from the profile of likely participants living in multiparty systems. Most important, participation in dominant-party systems appears to be, in part, a function of one’s support for the machine, while in multiparty systems, the profile of participants more closely approximates that of the active participant in established democracies. Further, the chapter finds distinct patterns of political efficacy among dominant-party and multiparty citizens.
A Leader Normalizes White Extremist Rhetoric
Authors: Fording Richard C. , Schram Sanford F.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 5 provides evidence from Trump’s speeches to show that he was indeed the leading race-baiter and exploited the changed political landscape in ways that not only garnered him a loyal base of white supporters but also greatly facilitated in legitimating the mainstreaming of racism. The chapter provides evidence that Trump mainstreamed established white nationalist thinking by echoing the major themes of the new racial outgroup hostility through his repeated targeting of African Americans, Latinx immigrants, and Muslims in his campaign rhetoric.
The Fascist Turn in the Dance of Serge Lifar
Authors: Franko Mark
Published: August 2020

This book is an examination of neoclassical ballet initially in the French context before and after World War I (circa 1905–1944) with close attention to dancer and choreographer Serge Lifar. Since the critical discourses analyzed indulged in flights of poetic fancy a distinction is made between the Lifar-image (the dancer on stage and object of discussion by critics), the Lifar-discourse (the writings on Lifar as well as his own discourse), and the Lifar-person (the historical actor). This topic is further developed in the final chapter into a discussion of the so-called baroque dance both as a historical object and as a motif of contemporary experimentation as it emerged in the aftermath of World War II (circa 1947–1991) in France. Using Lifar as a through-line, the book explores the development of critical ideas of neoclassicism in relation to his work and his drift toward a fascist position that can be traced to the influence of Nietzsche on his critical reception. Lifar’s collaborationism during the Occupation confirms this analysis. The discussion of neoclassicism begins in the final years of the nineteenth-century and carries us through the Occupation; then track the baroque in its gradual development from the early 1950s through the end of the 1980s and early 1990s.
Folklore and Parade from Jean Cocteau and Paul Valéry to André Varagnac
Authors: Franko Mark
Published: August 2020

This chapter reflects upon the commentary of two literary observers who were also in different ways practitioners of French ballet of the 1920s and 1930s—Jean Cocteau and Paul Valéry—and, of one anthropologist—André Varagnac—who developed the notion of folklore, and folkloric dance in particular as a form of popular innovation or, in other terms, an emergent rather than residual form. With all three, the notion of the popular in dance stood in implicit opposition to the academicism of Russian émigré critics in Paris—notably André Levinson and André Schaïkevitch—who advanced the idea of neoclassicism as the dominant form of dance in modernity. While the Russo-French neoclassicists emphasized the importance ballet’s exploration of its founding technical principles these French commentators had recourse instead to the historical notion of parade or sideshow. This chapter uncovers the dual face of neoclassicism, one formalist and idealist, the other populist. Both Cocteau and Valéry have significant connections with the popular, which I propose to elucidate through the notion of parade or sideshow.
Testing Hearing
Authors: Hui Alexandra , Mills Mara , Tkaczyk Viktoria
Published: August 2020

This introduction frames Testing Hearing: The Making of Modern Aurality by showing how the modern cultural practices of hearing and testing have emerged from a long interrelationship. Since the early nineteenth century, auditory test tools and the results of hearing tests have fed back into instrument calibration, human training, architecture, and new musical sounds. Hearing tests received a further boost around 1900 as a result of injury compensation laws and professional demands for aptitude testing. Applied on a large scale, tests of seemingly small measure—of auditory acuity, of hearing range—helped redefine the modern concept of hearing as such. During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the epistemic function of hearing expanded. Hearing took on the dual role of test object and test instrument; in the latter case, human hearing became a gauge by which to evaluate or regulate materials, nonhuman organisms, equipment, and technological systems. Testing hearing has been an enduring cultural technique in the modern period, situated between histories of scientific experimentation and fields of application.
Testing Hearing with Speech
Authors: Mills Mara
Published: August 2020

If to measure is to “assign numerals to events,” queried audiologist Ira Hirsh in 1952, “what are the observable events in hearing?” In the newly professionalized field of audiometry, the test material for a typical audiogram—a set of individual tones—lent itself to precise electronic control, but it did not reflect everyday hearing situations and capacities. This chapter examines the use of speech to test hearing, from preliminary clinical applications of phonograph recordings in the late nineteenth century, to mass “screenings” with electrical recording and playback machines in the 1930s, to postwar diagnostic tests in which speech itself—from nonsense syllables to spondees to sentences—was forged into an objective measuring tool. The chapter argues that the quantification of “hearing loss for speech” derives from articulation testing in the field of telephone engineering. More specifically, the molding of speech sounds into yardsticks of “useful hearing” arose in the historical context of quality control, as did the notion that human hearing should be “screened” and inspected in industrial fashion.
To Hear as I Do
Authors: Hsieh Jennifer
Published: August 2020

As part of democratic liberalization in the late 1970s and 1980s, noise abatement signified the Kuomintang (KMT) regime’s attention to the quality of life of local Taiwanese residents. However, the use of scientific, objective indicators for noise, such as decibels, also had the effect of subjecting individual, human experience to the standardizing techniques of quantification and measurement. This chapter examines the application of Western technologies of audiometry and noise abatement in the context of Taiwan’s transition to a postauthoritarian state. Through an analysis of audiometric testing of hearing health among schoolchildren and neighborhood-wide socioacoustic surveys that assessed noise tolerance levels, this chapter asks how hearing and noise became interests of the state—as both a source of state authority and a symbol of liberal governance.
Testing Spatial Hearing and the Development of Kunstkopf Technology, 1957–1981
Authors: Krebs Stefan
Published: August 2020

The concept of Kunstkopf (artificial head) recording emerged in the 1930s, but it was not until the 1960s that three German research groups started to build new dummy heads. They had different research agendas and experimental setups. Artificial heads captured sounds for listening tests but were also used for electroacoustic measurements. Initially, testing with and of the Kunstkopf neatly combined scientific with industrial agendas. This chapter describes how the research teams conceptualized and investigated the epistemic and technical aspects of Kunstkopf technology. It shows both that artificial heads were deployed to render listening tests more reliable and that the Kunstkopf itself was tested to construct an equivalence relationship between binaural technology and human spatial hearing. Tests and measurements constituted a complex process of argumentation in which the Kunstkopf played different roles in the experimental system: epistemic object, technical instrument, black box replacing human test subjects, and commercial sound reproduction system.
Of Silent Sirens and Pied Pipers
Authors: Bruyninckx Joeri
Published: August 2020

Animal hearing has long served as a model for understanding human hearing. Yet conversely, animal hearing can only be imagined through human hearing. This chapter shows how, building on techniques for testing human hearing, experimental psychologists in the 1930s and 1940s turned to determining the absolute (upper) frequencies of hearing for various other mammal subjects. Showing the domains of animal auditory perception to be overlapping but rarely congruous with that of humans, these measurements began to lead lives of their own in the subsequent decades. Propelled by various scientific, military, and commercial interests, fascination with the ultrasonic stirred imaginaries of sonic control. The threshold of hearing, this chapter argues, is also a threshold to the imagination, as expressed in the simultaneous success and failure of mundane technologies such as the “Ultrasonic Pied Piper” or the “Bird-E-Vict.”
Matrices
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

A matrix organizes categories along two dimensions, such as actions and objects, to combine both dimensions. The periodic table of elements is an example that greatly advanced the science of chemistry. The National Institute of Mental Health’s Research Domain Criteria creates the future challenge of combining units of analysis with functional dimensions of behavior. Units of analysis include biological units such as genes, molecules, cells, and circuits. Dimensions of behavior include emotion, cognition, social processes, and arousal/regulatory systems. Matrices also aid design when it is necessary to satisfy multiple constraints such as the priority of stages in a manufacturing process and use of the same resources.
Hierarchies
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Hierarchies are networks that begin with a top node and always add nodes below other nodes. There are no lateral connections so there is only one path connecting any two nodes. Although typically depicted as tree diagrams, hierarchies can also be represented as embedded rectangles. The semantic network model was initially constructed as a hierarchical network model that proposed reaction times to verify statements required retrieving categories and their associated features from hierarchically stored knowledge. Hierarchies also store intuitive ontologies that may differ from scientific ontologies. The different characteristics of hierarchies, networks, and matrices provide a basis for selecting an appropriate diagram for representing knowledge. One characteristic that should influence the selection is whether there are no paths (matrices), one path (hierarchies), or multiple paths (network) between concepts.
Dynamics
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Dynamics is concerned with movement as occurs in metals even at very low temperatures. Designs in nature facilitate flow in physical systems such as in the branching of rivers and the circulatory system. The evolution of animals from the sea to the land to the air enhanced movement. Dynamics also applies to the resolution of conflicts in which positive and negative attractors either facilitate or impede progress. The appointment of a devil’s advocate may remove the detrimental effects of group coherence by challenging proposals and closer spatial proximity can create informal interactions to help resolve group differences. A comparison of the dynamical systems and information-processing perspectives is possible by mapping a state space to a problem space, a positive attractor to a productive subgoal, a negative attractor to an impasse, a latent attractor to implicit cognition, and nonincremental change to insight.
Information Sciences
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

The information sciences provide tools for deductive reasoning to supplement the classifications made by the data sciences and the explanations made by explanatory models. Formal ontologies provide a unifying framework for organizing definitions, research findings, and theories. One of the primary purposes of a formal ontology is to use deductive reasoning to answer questions submitted to computer. A general or upper oncology is required to integrate more specialized domain ontologies. The Suggested Upper Merged Ontology is particularly helpful because it consists of 20,000 concepts with connections to both WordNet and FrameNet. WordNet is an electronic dictionary while FrameNet captures co-occurrences of words to provide a thematic context in which words occur. Together, WordNet, FrameNet, and the Suggested Upper Merged Ontology provide an integration of three major information science tools.