bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Towards a Classification of Extra-geometric Influences on the Comprehension of Spatial Prepositions
Authors: COVENTRY KENNY , GARROD SIMON
Published: January 2010

There is much empirical evidence showing that factors other than the relative positions of objects in Euclidean space are important in the comprehension of a wide range of spatial prepositions in English and other languages. However, attempts at classifying so-called extra-geometric constraints have not been forthcoming. This chapter surveys experimental evidence for extra-geometric constraints, and provides the first attempt at classifying these influences. It argues that extra-geometric influences are basically of two types: dynamic-kinematic aspects of scenes, and knowledge of the functions of objects and how they usually interact with each other in particular situations. It reviews evidence for each of these parameters across a range of types of preposition, and reports some new data showing the influence of extra-geometric variables on the comprehension of between. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications the empirical data and resultant classification have for models of spatial language comprehensions.
Path Expressions in Finnish and Swedish: The Role of Constructions
Authors: NIKANNE URPO
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the differences in those Swedish and Finnish path expressions that include more than one instance of a preposition (or locative case) referring to goal-direction without a coordinating junction ‘and’ (e.g., John ran from home to the supermarket to the bank). It turns out that these kinds of structures are allowed both in Swedish and Finnish under certain conditions. However, the same syntactic form refers to different meanings in Swedish and Finnish. In Swedish, the consecutive ‘to’-phrases refer to a sequence of places along the path (‘first to the bank then to the supermarket’) whereas in Finnish the structure refers to places one is inside the other (‘the bank inside the supermarket’).
1 Introduction
Authors: KRAMER MATTHEW H.
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter summarizes the book as a whole, and distinguishes three different dimensions or conceptions of morality: morality versus immorality, morality versus prudence, and morality versus non-normative factuality. Natural-law theorists who oppose legal positivism by insisting on necessary connections between law and morality have focused on one or more of those dimensions of morality when presenting their arguments.
4 Requirements, Reasons, and Raz: Legal Positivism and Legal Duties
Authors: KRAMER MATTHEW H.
Published: January 2010

Although Joseph Raz is in most respects a legal positivist, he shares with some natural-law theorists the view that every legal system — by virtue of its status as a legal system — claims to be possessed of morally binding authority. This chapter undertakes a critique of Raz’s view, by maintaining that perfectly credible legal systems can exist without explicitly or implicitly claiming to be possessed of any morally binding authority.
5 The Law in Action: a Study in Good and Evil
Authors: KRAMER MATTHEW H.
Published: January 2010

This chapter undertakes a defense of legal positivism against the assaults of Michael Detmold, who purports to have established the existence of important necessary connections between law and morality. It maintains that Detmold has conflated distinct dimensions of morality (which are disentangled in this book’s opening chapter), and that his natural-law theory collapses when the distinctions among those different dimensions are duly noted.
6 Also among the Prophets: Some Rejoinders to Ronald Dworkin’s Attacks on Legal Positivism
Authors: KRAMER MATTHEW H.
Published: January 2010

This chapter responds to Ronald Dworkin’s numerous criticisms of H. L. A. Hart’s legal positivism. It first lengthily challenges Dworkin’s model of adjudication and law-ascertainment, and then repels his efforts to establish necessary connections between law and morality. His efforts, like those of Detmold (examined in Chapter 5), have run together the distinct dimensions of morality.
7 Disclaimers and Reassertions
Authors: KRAMER MATTHEW H.
Published: January 2010

This chapter recapitulates some of the principal ideas developed in the preceding six chapters, with particular emphasis on the fact that legal positivists deny the existence of any significant necessary connections between law and morality but do not deny the existence of numerous contingent connections between those two phenomena. It also lays the groundwork for Chapter 9 by emphasizing that the moral status of a legal system hinges crucially on its moral superiority or inferiority to other legal systems that are reasonably attainable.
8 Elements of a Conceptual Framework
Authors: KRAMER MATTHEW H.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by offering positivist reconceptions of major juristic concepts such as formal justice, legal authority, normativity, and obligation. It then rebuts some natural-law arguments propounded by Deryck Beyleveled and Roger Brownsword, John Finnis, and Stephen Perry.
Ethnosyntax
Authors: Enfield N. J.
Published: January 2010

This book provides a new approach to the ‘ethnosyntax’ concept — the proposition that the grammar of a language is intimately linked to the culture of its speakers. It focuses on three related issues: how far culture accounts for linguistic variation; how culture and grammar are connected; and to what extent one may constitute the other. It looks, for example, at the ways in which grammatical (including semantic) resources may be constrained by social values, and at the possible sociocultural significance of grammatical devices. The chapters add to the renewed debate among linguists and anthropologists on the relationship between grammar, culture, and cognition. The book represents a wide range of research traditions, some of which have not until now explicitly addressed the grammar and culture issue. It considers the subject in the context of a wide range of cultures in North America, Europe, and Australasia.
Masculine and Feminine in the Northern Iroquoian Languages
Authors: CHAFE WALLACE
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes a morphological pattern in which there is obvious bias toward masculine gender paired with ambiguity and lack of distinctiveness in the expression of feminine gender. It then describes the ancient culture pattern in which males had a conspicuous, flamboyant, constantly changing, and individualized role that contrasted with the stable, undifferentiated, background role of women. The chapter discusses the plausibility of hypothesizing a motivational relation between the culture pattern and the morphology. Using Northern Iroquoian culture as a case study, the chapter shows that the correspondence between morphology and culture is no longer present in certain areas, and that the morphological backgrounding of feminine gender does not quite reflects the role of women in Iroquoian society.
A Study in Unified Diversity: English and Mixtec Locatives
Authors: LANGACKER RONALD W
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on unity-in-diversity in the domain of locative expressions. It discusses why languages vary greatly in how they code this fundamental aspect of human experience. The chapter examines two languages — English and Mixtec — whose representations of spatial relationships are strikingly different. A comparison of their descriptions in cognitive grammar elucidate the specific nature of both their divergence and their commonality. The frequent path of grammaticalization whereby nouns evolve into adpositions is also discussed.
English Causative Constructions in an Ethnosyntactic Perspective: Focusing on Let
Authors: WIERZBICKA ANNA
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on one area of ‘cultural elaboration’ in grammar, namely, on the elaboration of causal relations in modern English. Topics discussed include causation and patterns of social interaction, natural semantic language as a tool for studying ethnosyntax, the meaning of causatives in a cross-linguistic perspective, German lassen constructions, and English let constructions, and comparison of Russian and German.
From Common Ground to Syntactic Construction: Associated Path in Warlpiri
Authors: SIMPSON JANE
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses how one might examine the Narrow Ethnosyntax Hypothesis. It expands on Wierzbicka's suggestions for finding likely constructions and discusses pitfalls to avoid, such as alternative possible explanations for the frequency and productivity of intensifiers. The chapter illustrates a procedure for carrying out ethnosyntax using as an example the incipient grammaticalization associated path in a language whose speakers form a relatively homogeneous group, and about whom a number of ethnographies have been written.
Reading Silence: Crayonné au théâtre
Authors: Pearson Roger
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyzes the prose poem, Crayonné au théâtre, where Mallarmé reinvents journalism to show how all literature is a form of theatre. The poem may be understood as Mallarmé's ‘critical performance’ of poetry as the supreme art form, for it brings to the contingency of drama criticism the type of patterning which informs his verse and prose poems.
Rhythms of Being
Authors: Pearson Roger
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers Mallarmé's view of the theatre and the role of the poet. Mallarmé singles out certain spectacles as epitomes of his ideal theatre. Ballet is a display of ‘purs motifs rythmiques de l' être’. Ballet foregrounds the rhythms of our terrestrial being and consecrates the ‘treasured’ contingencies of our day-to-day lives in a proof. As dance brings rhythm to the contingencies of bodily movement, so the poem may bring rhyme to the caprice of our existence.
The Silence of the Object
Authors: Pearson Roger
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that Mallarmé repeatedly performs a secular ritual of praise and offering in honour of his fellow human beings. From his earliest juvenilia to his final sonnet, he is constantly dedicating his writing to others and to the triumphs of the human endeavour. For Mallarmé, the poetic act was not simply a question of forging new linguistic relationships but also of establishing connections between himself and others, and between humanity and the phenomenal reality by which it is surrounded.
The Silence of the Image
Authors: Pearson Roger
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that ‘Billet’ is more than just a poetic letter praising an ephemeral English review. It is also a homage to James McNeill Whistler, whom Mallarmé viewed as the living embodiment of his fellow American, Edgar Allan Poe.
Conclusion: Silence and the Book
Authors: Pearson Roger
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that Mallarmé viewed the phenomenal world as one which reaches out silently and directly to the poet. Moved to reverie and ‘seduced’ by what he sees, this spokesman will use words in such a way that the ‘veiled’ (mysterious) quality of the phenomenal world remains intact while having yet delivered up the now transparent ‘secret’ of its significance. The poet's linguistic journey begins in the unmediated silence of circumstances and ends in the obliquity and paradox of a silence which speaks louder than words, the ‘breathtaking’ silence created by poetry itself.
Plautus and Hannibal
Authors: LEIGH MATTHEW
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the Plautine slave and history. It adds that the Plautine moment and Hannibalic moment coincide and the two major themes are both resonant of the shock of the Second Punic War. It explains that the Plautus who emerges from this investigation is on whose comedies persistently touch the rawest of nerves in the audience for whom he writes. It offers an initial investigation of stereotypical Roman views of Carthaginian ethnicity and shows the exploitation of just such views in the Poemulus of Plautus.
City, Land, and Sea: New Comedy and the Discourse of Economies
Authors: LEIGH MATTHEW
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the potential for New Comedy to create oppositional relationships between the scenic and extra-scenic worlds. It also analyses how these might relate to polarities prominent in philosophy, rhetoric, and diatribe. Moreover, although the texts on which this study hopes to build its case are necessarily drawn from a very broad period, it aims to demonstrate their applicability to acutely contemporary concerns for the Rome of the 2nd century BC.
The International Protection of Individual Rights Before 1939
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

In 1939, there existed at the international level no universal or regional arrangements protecting individuals against their own governments. This chapter traces the institutions and arrangements which did then exist: the antecedents to the rise of international human rights protection. These included the right of humanitarian intervention, the embryonic humanitarian law of war, the notion of international personal responsibility for war crimes, the movement to suppress the slave trade, and the system of protection for minorities, originally under the capitulations, and later under treaties. It includes an account of minority protection under the League of Nations, and of the elaborate system established temporarily for Upper Silesia.
The Growing Disillusion
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

This chapter traces the history of the United Nations negotiations in 1949 and 1950, and the continuing conflicts over the drafting of the covenant, which led the British negotiators to complete disillusion with the process. By this time however Britain had transferred its attention to the European negotiations, and in 1950 the text of the European Convention had been adopted by the Council of Europe.
Ratification and its Consequences
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRIAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the rejection of the proposal by Gladwyn Jebb that the UK should now take no further part in the United Nations negotiations, and describes the US change of policy, provoked by the proposed Bricker amendment to the US constitution, which led the US to give up its leading role in human rights protection. It described the decision to extend the European Convention, but not its First Protocol, to the colonial empire, at a time when there had arisen a number of colonial insurrections, most notably in Malaya, Cyprus, and Kenya, where its provisions could not be fully implemented. It gives an account of the processes whereby, as colonies became independent, bills of rights came to be incorporated in some of their constitutions, dealing in particular with the Sudan, Ghana, Nigeria and Malaya, and with the Radcliffe proposals for Cyprus.
The First Cyprus Case
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the attempts by Greece to internationalize her dispute with the UK over the EOKA movement in Cyprus, and the allegations of human rights violations there, and of the consternation in London when Greece formerly began proceedings against the UK under the European Convention in Application 176/56. It describes the processes whereby the decision was taken to resist this application within the terms of the Convention, and gives a detailed account of the conduct of the case, the arguments on admissibility, concessions proposed and made by the UK, the texts of the documents submitted by the parties, and the attempts to achieve a friendly settlement. It describes the appointment of a sub-commission to investigate the facts, and the considerable but eventually unsuccessful attempts to prevent it visiting Cyprus.
Multilateral Arms Control
Authors: Shelton Dinah , Gualtieri David S , Kellman Barry , Williamson Richard L. Jr. , Shelton Dinah , Chayes Abram
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents three case studies that analyze the interplay between hard and soft law in the area of multilateral arms control, from nuclear weapons to land mines. The first study looks at the various key decisions taken by weapons control supplier groups to restrict transfers of specific technology. The second study analyzes the complex interweaving of hard and soft law for the protection of nuclear materials to ensure responsible control over nuclear materials and prevent nuclear weapons proliferation. The third study traces the development of the norm against anti-personnel land mines from soft law to hard law.
Energy Security and the Development of International Energy Markets
Authors: Konoplyanik Andrei
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the evolution of the concept of energy security in a broader historical perspective, from the economic, financial, and legal points of view. It addresses energy security from the energy investment cycle perspective. It notes that each particular stage of market development demands its most effective set of legal instruments to protect investors' flow of capital and energy materials and products, and to minimise volume and price risks, and thus to provide energy security. It considers the Energy Charter process and its instruments, including the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) as the first multilateral investment and trade treaty in energy. It adds that the ECT provides both security of energy supply and security of energy demand in a competitive, open, and transparent global energy market.
Shared Competences and Multi-Faceted Concepts—European Legal Framework for Security of Supply
Authors: Hancher Leigh , Janssen Sally
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines various European Community initiatives which have been adopted with a view to guaranteeing and promoting the security of energy supply. It explains that this concept includes not only physical and technical security in terms of access to resources, but also reliability, affordability, and continuity of supply. It argues that despite or even because of market integration, security of supply concerns remain paramount. It adds that as a result of legislative harmonisation, in particular following the entry into force of the new Electricity and Gas Directives, it may well be that member states will be required to pursue their energy policy objectives in relation to supply security and reliability through specific kinds of instrument. It examines the issue of the division of competences between the Community policy initiatives in the energy sector, which have a close bearing on security of supply, and discusses recent legislative measures.
Regional and National Frameworks for Energy Security in Africa
Authors: Omorogbe Yinka
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on the energy security in Africa. It describes Africa as blessed with abundant energy resources, more than enough to supply her needs. It adds that Africa is underdeveloped, with almost all the countries being classified as low in development, and half ranking amongst the least developed in the world. It notes that development is impossible, or at most an uphill task, in any place where there is no access to conventional energy. It explains that the difference between the rural dweller in a village in Africa and a city dweller lies in the amount of energy available for his use. The chapter is a discourse on energy security in Africa, primarily through the study of continental initiatives under the auspices of the African Union, and on sub-regional cooperative efforts that are aimed at addressing the issue of energy security in west and southern Africa.
Energy Security as Denmark's Heavy-Handed Regulation Loosens
Authors: Rønne Anita
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the Danish experience in energy security matters. It describes and evaluates the existing constraints, the available options, and the means chosen to meet the challenge of safeguarding energy supplies. It provides an account of the Danish resource base, where indigenous oil and gas production has had a huge impact on the development of the energy policy — which is also summarized. It then conducts a cross-sector review of crisis management systems in Denmark. The major part of this chapter focuses on the individual energy sectors. It notes that in each sector it is considered how security of supplies — be it primary or secondary energy sources — are safeguarded, and how potential shortfalls are avoided. It highlights the constraints and options for Denmark to secure energy for society.
Re-Regulating Energy Supply in the Netherlands: A Balancing Act between Energy Security and Energy Liberalization
Authors: Roggenkamp Martha M.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses that the issue of supply security is gradually becoming more important in the Netherlands. It adds that whereas the government traditionally focused on the security of oil supply, the energy liberalization process has led to an increasing interest in the security of gas and electricity supply, as well as the reliability of energy supply. It notes that one of the most important issues is the need to continue a reasonable level of investment in production facilities and energy networks. It explains that although the use of renewable resources is promoted, their inflexible nature means that wind and solar will never constitute a complete alternative for traditional primary sources like oil and gas. It examines the structure of the Dutch gas and electricity sector.
The ‘Fear Factor’: Why We Should Not Allow Energy Security Rhetoric to Trump Sustainable Development
Authors: Noé Susan Y. , Pring George (Rock)
Published: January 2010

This chapter explores examples where the rhetoric of ‘energy security’ has been used to justify developments that ignore sustainability and result in and/or threaten grave environmental and social harms, while making scant contribution to any real, long-term energy security. It illustrates that there is a problem inherent in an over-emphasis on energy security standing alone. It explains that energy security is an important factor, but one which cannot be the overriding concern that takes precedence over national and international sustainable development requirements for the protection of human rights and the environment. It discusses that the purpose of the case studies shown in this chapter is to present examples of energy development projects in various countries which have had, or are, predicted to have enormous adverse social and environmental consequences, but that have been justified by proponents based on the overriding concern of ‘energy security’.
Grammaticalization, Reanalysis, and CP Layering
Authors: MUNARO NICOLA
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that grammaticalization phenomena can function as the trigger of a process of reanalysis leading to a change in a given derivational path. The relevant empirical evidence is provided by the development of the distributional properties of the two wh-items che and cossa in some northern Veneto dialects, insofar as it is detectable diachronically from the 16th century up to the 20th century. The wh-item cossa, which had initially an exclusively nominal use, has gradually taken up, in the course of the last centuries, the function of interrogative operator; this process is strictly connected to the change in the distributional properties of the wh-item che: while in the first stages che occupied the initial position of a main wh-question, it appears in sentence internal position in modern dialects. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.2 summarizes the diachronic development of the two wh-items che and cossa; Section 2.3 discusses some issues concerning the wh-items parché and parcossa; and finally, Section 2.4 contains a few concluding remarks.
Verb Movement and Clitics: Variation and Change in Portuguese
Authors: PIRES ACRISIO
Published: January 2010

This chapter attempts to explain certain robust aspects of (diachronic) syntactic variation in Portuguese, focusing specifically on Brazilian Portuguese (BP), especially regarding verb movement and clitic placement. Analysing these phenomena is especially relevant for the evaluation of theories of diachronic and parametric syntactic variation in Romance and other languages. The chapter is organized as follows. First, it summarizes a possible analysis of the properties that distinguish different Romance languages regarding the placement of clitics. Second, it argues that BP lost V movement to a position higher than the inflectional head. It shows that the loss of V movement in BP had different consequences in BP, especially in the placement of clitics. The chapter addresses the question of possible triggers for the kinds of change that took place in BP. It concludes by discussing other aspects of the change in clitic placement that took place in BP.
Changes in Clausal Organization and the Position of Clitics in Old French
Authors: LABELLE MARIE , HIRSCHBÜHLER PAUL
Published: January 2010

From the perspective of language change, grammaticalization is generally viewed as the process whereby ‘a lexical item or construction in certain uses takes on grammatical characteristics’. Roberts and Roussou (1999) account for this type of change as resulting from the reanalysis of lexical heads into functional heads. This chapter discusses the diachronic changes that do not fall under this definition, viewed as exemplifying a type of grammaticalization whereby illocutionary features come to be associated with distinct functional heads. It analyses the changes in the clausal organization of Old French as following from the fact that the Topic/Focus functional head common to all clause types of the first stage gives way to a system with a number of separate illocutionary heads. The chapter argues that the weakening of the Tobler–Mussafia (TM) constraint excluding object clitic pronouns from initial position in main clauses in Old French (OF) results from a gradual replacement of a common representation for V1 initial clauses by a new system where (1) satisfaction of a discourse-related [Top]/[Foc] feature by V is minimized, and (2) there is a reanalysis of the CP layer, with grammaticalization of illocutionary type features.
Reanalysis and Conservancy of Structure in Chinese
Authors: WHITMAN JOHN , PAUL WALTRAUD
Published: January 2010

The relegation of syntactic variation to lexical features under the Minimalist Programme has led to a growing awareness that syntactic change should be characterized in the same way: by changes in the discrete features of individual lexical items. This insight has given rise to the following distinctively minimalist typology of syntactic change: (a) loss or gain of a feature driving movement; (b) grammaticalization as shift ‘up the tree’ to a functional category; and (c) reanalysis as relabelling: lexical items change categorial or projection ([±max, ±min]) features under preservation of hierarchical (c-command) relations. This chapter applies this typology to several well-known examples of syntactic change in Chinese. It shows that earlier analyses exaggerate the scope of syntactic change in the long-documented history of Chinese languages. The changes that are in fact attested can be characterized as featural change, without rearrangement of hierarchical structure.
Accusative Alternation in Old and Modern Romance
Authors: KAUFMANN ANNA BARTRA
Published: January 2010

This chapter investigates the evolution of the argument structure of (psychological) transfer verbs from Latin to Romance. It proposes that the original Latin structure — a construction labelled as accusative alternation in parallelism with the locative alternation or the dative alternation — consists of a small clause selected by the verb and headed by a final coincidence abstract preposition that relates two NP arguments. The Latin abstract preposition would be replaced by a lexical preposition in Romance as a consequence of the loss of case noun morphology and the extension of the use of prepositions. This change would yield in Old Romance two alternating structures that semantically differ in the SOURCE or GOAL meaning of the preposition. This semantic difference becomes crucial to the development of the argument structure in Modern Romance.
Parametric Comparison and Language Taxonomy
Authors: GUARDIANO CRISTINA , LONGOBARDI GIUSEPPE
Published: January 2010

It is still a widely held opinion that the contribution of formal syntactic theories to modern linguistics is essentially focused on synchronic generalizations and that it does not extend to the most classical problems of the historical paradigm. Such a belief is beginning to fade away as a consequence of increased work in diachronic syntax. This chapter argues that the generative theory of syntactic parameters might interestingly renovate another stronghold of the historical study of language, phylogenetic taxonomy, and undermine the Humboldtian received distinction between the latter and grammatical typology.
Clause Type Asymmetries in Old English and the Syntax of Verb Movement
Authors: HAEBERLI ERIC
Published: January 2010

Old English exhibits main clause/subordinate clause word order asymmetries comparable to those found in modern West Germanic languages such as Dutch or German. Finite verbs generally occur near the beginning of a main clause whereas they tend to occur towards the end of subordinate clauses. Furthermore (in contrast to modern West Germanic), it has been observed that conjoined main clauses often have subordinate clause word order in Old English. This chapter addresses the question of how these clause type asymmetries can be accounted for. Section 16.2 presents the main word order properties of Old English and some quantitative data concerning the distribution of finite verbs in different types of clauses. Section 16.3 presents recent proposals for the structural analysis of the Old English word order patterns, and discusses some problems for the treatment of subordinate clauses. Section 16.4 presents a solution to these problems; the remainder of the chapter explores some consequences of this approach with respect to the analysis of conjoined clauses and the development of verb movement in the history of English.
Is there Gradient Phonology?
Authors: COHN ABIGAIL C.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by explaining why there might be gradience in the phonology. It then briefly discusses the nature of phonology versus phonetics. It considers the status of gradient phonology, that is, phonological patterns best described in terms on continuous variables. It explores some possible ways in which gradience might exist in the phonology, considering the various aspects of phonology such as contrast, phonotactics, morphonemics, and allophony. A fuller understanding of the status of gradience in the phonology has wider implications for our understanding of the nature of the linguistic grammar in the domain of sound patterns and their physical realizations.
Gradedness: Interpretive Dependencies and Beyond
Authors: REULAND ERIC
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that gradedness is not a unified phenomenon and that understanding gradedness may explain the division of labour among the systems underlying language and its use. It then categorizes gradedness. It also discusses the issues in binding and co-reference.
Degraded Acceptability and Markedness in Syntax, and the Stochastic Interpretation of Optimality Theory
Authors: VOGEL RALF
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that violation profiles can be employed to predict contrasts among expressions in empirical investigations, and that markedness is the grammar-internal correlate of (some) phenomena of gradedness that is experienced in empirical studies. In contrast to other empirically oriented work within optimality theory (OT), this chapter claims that a standard OT grammar is already fitted for showing gradedness. It then talks about gradedness and categoricity within the tradition of generative grammar, especially in its relevance for the competence/performance distinction. It introduces a particular case of syntactic markedness — case conflicts in argument free relative constructions. It presents data from an experimental study and demonstrates how an OT grammar inferred in the way described in this chapter can predict the observed gradient data.
Effects of Processing Difficulty on Judgements of Acceptability
Authors: FANSELOW GISBERT , FRISCH STEFAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter highlights the effect of processing difficulty on acceptability. It analyses evidence demonstrating that parsing problems often reduce acceptability. It shows that the fact that processing difficulty may increase acceptability is less obvious, but this probability is nonetheless borne out. The preferred interpretation of a locally vague construction can have a positive influence on the global acceptability of a sentence even when this is later abandoned. The occurrence of the positive impact of local ambiguities in a domain that goes beyond mere syntactic feature differences is confirmed by the experiments focusing on long wh-movement. Thus, local acceptability perceptions during the parsing process influence the global acceptability of a sentence.
What’s What?
Authors: ERTESCHIK-SHIR NOMI
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that the source of graded acceptability judgments cannot be purely syntactic. Instead, such data area forecasted by information structure (IS) constraints. The chapter argues that extraction is completely determined by IS constraints, in particular that only focus domains are apparent for purposes of extraction. It concludes that any phenomenon which differs with context among and across speakers cannot have a syntactic account. An account in terms of IS is aided to predict this kind of variation. Thus, a syntactic constraint violation will be ungrammatical, a violation of an IS constraint will allow contextual variation and will thus result in gradience. There will be no weak syntactic constraints, only strong ones. A theory of IS, — f(ocus)-structure theory — geared to interact with syntax, phonology, and semantics, is introduced and viewed as an essential part of grammar.
East Timor: Trials and Tribulations
Authors: Bertodano Sylvia de
Published: January 2010

One of the major issues facing the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) when it arrived in East Timor in October 1999 was the question of how those responsible for the violence of the preceding ten months were to be brought to justice. UNTAET created the Special Panels for Serious Crimes (composed of national and international judges) in East Timor's capital Dili, to try suspects in East Timor. These panels are the first specially constructed internationalized courts which have tried serious crimes within a local justice system. However, due to a lack of commitment in terms of funding, personnel, and political will, the success of this experiment has been limited. This chapter reviews the experiment in internationalized justice taking place in Dili. In an attempt to provide an overall assessment, it also discusses the progress of the ad hoc tribunal in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Getting Untrapped, Struggling for Truths: The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation (CAVR) in East Timor
Authors: Lyons Beth S
Published: January 2010

Truth commissions have become an almost ubiquitous policy option in the range of accountability mechanisms for human rights violations. In East Timor, the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation (CAVR) is only one of multiple processes to deal with human rights violations of a past regime. It co-exists with criminal trials conducted by the Serious Crimes Panel, and an ad hoc Human Rights Court established by Indonesia. The CAVR, established by a United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) Regulation, is an independent state-sanctioned entity whose objective is ‘to promote national reconciliation and healing following the years of political conflict in East Timor, in particular, following the atrocities committed in 1999’ by ‘establishing the truth regarding the commission of human rights violations’. This chapter examines the CAVR, and identifies some of the potential areas of tension which it faces, particularly in its function as an accountability mechanism for human rights violations.
Internationalized Courts and their Relationship with Alternative Accountability Mechanisms: The Case of Sierra Leone
Authors: Schabas William A
Published: January 2010

A Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established in Sierra Leone in order to: create an impartial historical record of violations and abuses of human rights and international humanitarian law related to the armed conflict in the country; address impunity; respond to the needs of the victims; promote healing and reconciliation; and prevent violations and abuses in the future. Both the TRC and the Special Court began operations in mid-2002. Although they operated in parallel for more than 18 months, the work of the TRC was essentially completed by the time actual trials of the Special Court commenced in June 2004. Both the TRC and the Special Court fit within the palette of transitional justice options being used to address impunity in post-conflict situations. This chapter compares the two organizations in terms of legal status and functions, mandates, and jurisdictions. Some of the issues that may arise in the relationship between them are examined.
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for Prosecuting Crimes Committed by the Khmer Rouge: Jurisdiction, Organization, and Procedure of an Internationalized National Tribunal
Authors: Meijer Ernestine E.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses certain aspects of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; namely, their jurisdiction, organization, and procedure. It examines the last phase of the negotiations between the United Nations (UN) and the Cambodian government, which led to the adoption of the Agreement between the UN and the Royal Government of Cambodia concerning the Prosecution under Cambodian Law of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea (the UN-Cambodia Agreement). The relationship between the UN-Cambodia Agreement and Cambodian law is discussed, along with general principles of criminal law, and settlement of disputes between the UN and Cambodia.
The Financing of Internationalized Criminal Courts and Tribunals
Authors: Ingadottir Thordis
Published: January 2010

One of the most important departures of the internationalized criminal courts and tribunals from typical full international tribunals is the way in which they are funded. While the bulk of the cost of the international panels in Kosovo and East Timor is incorporated in the budget of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)/United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET) respectively, important budgetary items were left to national authorities. These tribunals have also brazenly accepted voluntary contributions, whether in terms of personnel or equipment. The Special Court in Sierra Leone became the first internationalized tribunal to be funded solely by voluntary contributions.
Some Tentative Remarks on the Relationship Between Internationalized Criminal Jurisdictions and the International Criminal Court
Authors: Benzing Markus , Bergsmo Morten
Published: January 2010

This chapter identifies preliminary issues and possible difficulties in the relationship between the International Criminal Court (ICC) and internationalized criminal jurisdictions in terms of policy, law, and practical aspects. Although all of the hybrid jurisdictions presently operating or about to start operation in the near future are concerned with crimes that were committed prior to the entry into force of the Rome Statute, and a conflict between these institutions and the ICC would not seem to be possible, such courts may serve as models for future hybrid tribunals. Questions concerning the relationship the ICC and such possible future courts could arise in connection with: an assessment of the efficacy, validity, or independence of such jurisdictions; a consideration of how multiple hybrid tribunals could affect the ICC's aspiration to be a permanent, universal institution; possible future cooperation between the ICC and such jurisdictions; and in terms of the ICC's complementarity regime.
Geographical and Jurisdictional Reach of ICC: Gaps in the International Criminal Justice System and a Role for Internationalized Bodies
Authors: Colitti Mariacarmen
Published: January 2010

On July 1, 2002, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) came into force. The establishment of the ICC can be considered a great achievement in the work for prosecution of gross violations of humanitarian law and human rights by individuals. Its purpose is to provide a permanent criminal forum, potentially with universal reach, to try war crimes and gross violations of human rights. On the other hand, the internationalized courts and tribunals in Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and East Timor were created in the interregnum between the adoption of the Rome Statute and its entry into force. This chapter examines the range of the ICC's jurisdiction to determine to what extent, and in which instances, internationalized criminal bodies might help try the most horrendous crimes.
Internationalized Courts: Better Than Nothing…
Authors: Pellet Alain
Published: January 2010

In some respects, internationalized criminal courts and tribunals combine all the advantages and disadvantages of both national and international criminal courts. However, this would probably not give a true picture. This is because such tribunals are highly heterogeneous; the circumstances of their creation in Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and East Timor are extremely different; their degree of ‘internationalization’ is far from uniform; the scope of their jurisdiction varies; and their modes of functioning are hardly comparable. In addition, their common characteristics, in particular their ‘ad hocism’ and their semi-internationalization, raise specific issues compared with national courts, as well as with truly international bodies such as the International Criminal Court.
Introduction
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter discusses the nature and significance of oracle consultation and curse writing for ordinary men and women of the ancient world. It considers these two activities together, in the belief that they share certain characteristics and a particular cultural role: that is, both were strategies for the individual and collective expression and management of aspects of future uncertainty and risk in everyday life. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
A Lapse into Unreason
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

In the Ancient Greek world, engagements with the supernatural were mundane, many, and varied: a spectrum of interactions at different social levels, involving different mortal and supernatural personnel and conducted with a variety of intentions. Alongside state-organized events, there was a vast market in supernatural services, offered both by institutions and individuals. This chapter examines the nature of this market, from the ritual specialists (male and female) who sold oracles, binding spells/curses, healing spells and initiations into mysteries, to the many different kinds of oracular sanctuaries scattered across the Greek landscape; as well as examining how modern attitudes to, and understanding of, these activities have changed over time.
The Dwelling of the Spirit
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter provides more specific information about the oracle of Zeus and Dione at Dodona, in Epiros in northwest Greece. It examines its geographical and socio-political context, the development of the role of the sanctuary over time, and the methods of consultation that may have been used at the site.
A Catalogue and Summary of Published Questions by Individuals and Responses from the Dodona Oracle
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents a catalogue of questions (and the very few answers that seem to have survived) that men and women posed to Zeus at his oracle at Dodona. The catalogue, organized in categories (question topics, and the formulae of inquiry), includes the published texts, as well as a few as yet unpublished, provided by the late Professor Christidis of Thessaloniki University.
The Best Defence
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on judicial curse tablets, which offer a unique viewpoint on Ancient Greek litigation, revealing the fears of those going to court. At the same time, they add to the understanding of the legal process, the different roles played by its personnel, and the actual and symbolic significance of litigation within the city. The curse texts indicate that litigation was likely to have been fought in teams, suggesting that current versions of Athenian litigation as consisting simply of one-on-one power struggles between elite politicians are too limited. The range of personnel bound on the curse tablets suggests that not only more people, but more kinds of people (including women) were involved. But this study also questions how we categorize curses as judicial, and argues that for a number of curses usually placed in this category, the context of their creation is far from certain; it suggests other possible explanations for their creation.
Curses and Risk
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter summarizes the findings of the chapters on curses, arguing that interpreting curses as attempts to manage sources of risk allows the reader to acknowledge and explore the complexity and ambiguity of the relationships presented across the texts, something that the current popular explanation of competition, usually of a political nature, tends to constrain or ignore. It suggests that other explanations of motivations for cursing must be considered; for example, the breakdown of social relations because of phthonos or envy. If we examine these curses with the social construction of risk in mind, then a range of individual and cultural concerns emerge, illuminating surprising aspects of personal and social life in this period, providing insights into the nexus of values, relationships, and institutions that underpinned life in the ancient Greek city.
2. The Pediments of the Aphaia Temple
Authors: Burnett Anne Pippin
Published: January 2010

The lords of Aigina engaged in an act of mythic manipulation that was grandiose, arrogant, and antagonistic to Athens, in which the exploited Aiakids were not small cult statues but enormous pieces of sculpture, and they were not sent abroad but conspicuously hoisted up during the construction of an imposing local building. This was the new temple of Aphaia, put up in the 490s at the north-eastern tip of the island, on the site of an older temple that had burnt c.500 BC. Aphaia represented a combination of land and sea, being both nymph and naiad, and as divine inventor of the net she was a patron divinity of fishermen. She was close to Artemis and perhaps to Hekate, and votive figurines from her temple prove that, like her Olympian doublet, she was a virgin protector of children. This chapter examines the pediments of the Aphaia temple and its use as a place for cult activities.
12. Nemean 7: Neoptolemos at Delphi
Authors: Burnett Anne Pippin
Published: January 2010

In the ode Nemean 7, Pindar ostensibly praises a boy named Sogenes, the first Aiginetan to win the boys' pentathlon at the games held for Zeus at Nemea. It is a highly polished epinician performance on a grand scale, but thanks to a remark made by a Hellenistic commentator it is often read as if Pindar had here indulged in an act of private self-vindication. Nemean 7 ceases to be Pindar's contorted defence of himself and becomes instead an extended and inventive celebration of Sogenes. In its course, Nemean 7 moves its boy victor from birthchamber to palaistra, transferring him from the care of Eleithyia to that of Herakles. Such transfer is achieved, as one would expect, by way of an Aiakid, and it occurs under the patronage of a second female figure, that of Aigina. For critics ancient and modern, however, it has been Neoptolemos at Delphi who opens any discussion of Nemean 7.