bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Student Employees and Recreational Sports Administrators: A Comparison of Perceptions
Authors: Miller Gary L. , Grayson Thomas E.
Published: August 2016

This study evaluates the differences in perceptions between student employees and recreational sports administrators over a consistent set of work tasks and responsibilities typically done by student employees in a recreational sports setting. The focus of the study was to provide a method of improving the effectiveness and efficiency by which recreational sports programs deliver their services and programs. Nine of the 11 schools in the Big Ten Conference participated in the study with a total of eighty-five participants taking part. Concept mapping, a multivariate statistical approach using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis was used to analyze the data. Ninety-five work tasks were sorted for similarity and rated on scales for importance toward attaining recreational sports goals and frequency of performance. Cluster maps, ladder graphs and go-to-zones were developed from the data defining the results of the analysis. Results were presented in a composite form for the nine schools participating in the study with the intent to provide comparison between individual schools and the conference composite as requested. Cluster maps illustrated the levels of importance among the six clusters, ladder graphs demonstrated the differences between the student employees and the recreational sports administrators and go-to zones broke out the individual tasks into areas of alignment, gap zones where either importance or frequency were below the mean, and a “?” zone where neither importance nor frequency rose to the mean rating on that scale. The results allow administrators now to compare, examine, and make decisions based each of the 95 work tasks in a guided manner.
The Perceived Barriers to Research in College Recreational Sports
Authors: Haines Danell J. , Farrell Annemarie
Published: August 2016

Research is an essential component of university recreational sports (URS) because it is needed to scientifically test interventions, defend departmental existence, and to align for further departmental growth. Current data is important documented criteria needed to substantiate an increased operating budget, to justify adding personnel, and to validate the need for additional facilities. However, very few URS professionals conduct and report research. A four-part survey was designed by the investigators to explore the barriers to conducting research, publishing, and presenting. Items were generated through the use of focus groups with college recreational sport staff. While perceived lack of time was consistently cited as a barrier to conducting research, generating publications, and preparing presentations, the study illuminates a number of potential hurdles to creating and maintaining a research culture. In light of these findings, departments of college recreation should be encouraged to examine their organizations and determine the extent to which they enhance or impede research. Finally, it is important to build research capacity within the NIRSA profession to ensure that college recreational sports run efficiently and that professionals can document outcomes, can test new interventions, and evaluate new ways of doing business.
Celebrating Your Recreational Sports Alumni: Connecting Generations for Future Success
Authors: Gaskins David A. , Rey Stephen V. , Scott David L.
Published: August 2016

Previous recreational sports employees and participants represent a tremendous source of history, knowledge, insight, collaborative potential, and life experiences. Connecting prior generations of personnel and participants can acknowledge the past, be beneficial to the present, and energize the future. The rationale for establishing an alumni network within a recreational sports department is that such a network can provide a multitude of morale, business, communication, and qualitative benefits. The development of an alumni network can also help create a sense of pride, tradition, and excellence in a recreational sports department. Finally, it can provide guest instructors with specialized expertise, open the door for sponsorship opportunities, and allow for a productive partnership with the alumni office.

Good alumni relations start with the experience that is provided to individuals while they are at the institution. Once the decision is made to introduce alumni programming, the recreational sports administrator must then determine objectives, define the target group, and collect and categorize data. Dates and times for programs and services must then be selected, communication methods identified, and specific media must be chosen. Plans for this endeavor will also be greatly influenced by the level of funding and amount of resources allotted. Examples of techniques that have been successfully implemented at various institutions include newsletters, group functions, philanthropic activities, and recognition.
Characteristics, Attributes, and Competencies Sought in New Hires by Campus Recreation Directors
Authors: Schneider Robert C. , Stier William F. , Kampf Stephen , Haines Scott G. , Wilding Gregory
Published: August 2016

Professionals and students working in college recreation departments are often involved in many facets relating to the hiring of competent employees. A review of literature revealed that various professions sought different qualities in potential job candidates. There were few examples of research relating to the qualities sought by potential employers of campus recreation personnel. Therefore, recreation directors, holding a NIRSA institutional membership, were surveyed to determine the characteristics, attributes, and competencies preferred in new hires for: (a) professional positions, (b) graduate assistantships, and (c) student employees. The findings revealed the most highly sought after qualifications in professional job candidates were excellent language/speaking skills, prior experience in campus recreation, neat overall appearance, excellent writing skills, and possession of a graduate degree. In terms of graduate assistant positions, campus recreation directors highly ranked the categories neat overall appearance, excellent writing skills, and prior experience in campus recreation. Campus recreation directors ranked the possession of certifications in first aid and CPR highly among student employee applicants.
Student Attitudes toward Sports and Fitness Activities after Graduation
Authors: Forrester Scott , Arterberry Christopher , Barcelona Bob
Published: August 2016

Colleges and universities have generally been seen as environments where physical activity can be facilitated and promoted. Most colleges and universities offer programs and facilities that promote participation in recreational sports, physical activity, and overall physical health. This study was designed to examine the relationship between recreational sports involvement, satisfaction, interpersonal and group, physical health and well-being, and academic benefits of involvement and the importance of sports and fitness activities after graduation. Surveys were randomly distributed to students ( N = 718) participating in a variety of recreational sports programs. Multiple regression was used to analyze the relationship between the predictor variables (involvement, satisfaction, and benefits of involvement) and the outcome variable (importance of sports and fitness activities after graduation). Only physical health and well-being benefits and the combined measure of recreational sports involvement were significant predictor variables in the regression equation. Understanding the impact of campus programs devoted to influencing positive health behavior, including physical activity, is a critical component in understanding the benefits of recreational sports involvement. Suggestions for future research are made in the context of the limitations of the study.
Campus Recreational Sports Internships: A Comparison of Student and Employer Perspectives
Authors: Ross Craig M. , Beggs Brent A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine differences between senior-level students and campus recreational sport directors in their perceptions of recreational sport management internships. Using a web-based survey of 48 items, the study explored how students and practitioners differed in their view regarding the role of the internship experience, role of the internship agency, intern abilities, and factors in selecting an internship. Overall, the results of the study revealed that students and practitioners were in agreement with the majority of items asked (39 of 48 items). Nine significant differences were found and discussed in the paper.
Communities of Practice in Campus Recreation: A Framework for Developing Student Intramural Officials
Authors: Faircloth Summer , Cooper Nelson
Published: August 2016

Campus intramural sports officials often participate in external officiating experiences beyond campus intramural contests, such as community sport programs, middle and high school sports, and even intercollegiate sports. While these external opportunities may enhance an official's skills and abilities, there are concerns that the demand from external agencies and competing salaries result in campus intramural programs being left with underdeveloped officials. This in turn contributes to the critique that encouraging external officiating experiences does not contribute to the college or university mission of learning, research, and professional development. The purpose of this article is to present a justification why campus intramural sports officials should engage in sports officiating experiences beyond campus intramural and extramural contests. A conceptual framework known as Communities of Practice (Wenger, 1998) is presented to illustrate how external officiating experiences may contribute to the college or university mission of learning, research, and professional development. Benefits of participating in external officiating experiences are also presented.
Exploring the Relationship between Recreational Sports Employment and Academic Success
Authors: Hackett Matthew W.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between part-time student employment in a recreational sports department and academic success as measured by grade point averages (GPA) and number of credit hours enrolled. Three hundred and thirty undergraduate recreational sports student employees were compared to a random sample of 350 undergraduate students who were not employed by the department of recreational sports. A positive connection was identified between employment with the recreational sports department and academic success. Freshmen and junior recreational sports employees had statistically significant higher GPAs than the freshmen and juniors in the general student population. However, working with the recreational sports department did not have an effect on the number of credit hours enrolled.
Environmental Correlates of Physical Activity: Implications for Campus Recreation Practitioners
Authors: Cooper Nelson , Theriault Daniel
Published: August 2016

Recent research has illustrated that young people tend to develop poor physical activity behaviors before the college years and maintain poor behaviors throughout the college experience. The undergraduate experience (ages 18–24) is an opportunity to affirm positive physical activity behaviors. Campus recreation facilities and programs are positioned to contribute to this effort because they provide easily accessible recreation opportunities to students, faculty, and staff. This being the case, campus recreation professionals should consider the factors that encourage and promote physical activity. One set of factors, environmental, might be of particular interest to campus recreation professionals. Although environmental factors are often considered for the purposes of operation and safety, their correlation with physical activity might not be considered as much. The current article presents a literature review of 3 environmental correlates of physical activity: proximity, access, and aesthetics. Implications for campus recreation professionals are also presented.
Establishing a Learning Outcomes Plan for Campus Recreation
Authors: Cooper Nelson , Flood Joseph , Gardner Eric
Published: August 2016

Higher expectations among campus recreation professionals for establishing and tracking learning outcomes have become essential components of effective program planning and assessment. This has been motivated by college/university accreditation procedures, the increased expectation to illustrate performance of all college/university services, and the growing transparency of college/university administrative decision making. The demand for quantifiable learning outcomes has exposed the need for continued training of staff and highlighted the need for cultural change among campus recreation programs. Illustrations of a systematic evaluation of learning outcome efforts can provide guidance to campus recreation professionals to make progress toward implementing their own systems. This article presents an example of establishing learning outcomes assessment as part of a campus recreation challenge course program. A general overview of establishing a learning outcomes plan is presented followed by an overview of the challenge course case in point.
Perceived Constraints of Greek University Students' Participation in Campus Recreational Sport Programs
Authors: Masmanidis Theophilos , Gargalianos Dimitris , Kosta George
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to investigate: a) the influence of perceived constraints on recreational sport participation of Greek university students, b) the relationship between constraints dimensions and sport participation or non participation; and c) the relationship between constraint dimensions and frequency of sport participation, as well as intentions for participation. The methodology employed included review of relevant literature and administration of a specifically designed questionnaire, the University Sport Constraints Questionnaire (USCQ). The sample consisted of 3,041 students from 7 Greek universities. The results showed that there were 9 factors which explained 69.75% of overall variance. The most important constraint that affects participation was found to be “Accessibility,” followed by “Lack of Knowledge.” It was concluded that to increase the students' participation rate, campus recreation administrators need to develop effective strategies to design and promote campus sports and recreational programs.
Use of Nutritional Supplementation among University Recreation Users
Authors: Jackson John , Lyons Thomas S. , Roberts Jessica L. , Geary Colleen , Williams Josh
Published: August 2016

Use of nutritional supplements and ergogenic aids among various user groups has been well documented over the years. One area that is lacking in current research is the use of these nutritional supplements among campus recreation facility users. This population is a prime target market for those in the sport supplement industry. There are many reasons people participate in campus recreation facilities and most would benefit from the use of nutritional supplementation if the claims made by the manufacturers of these supplements is true. However, the nutritional supplement industry is not very strictly regulated and the potential for risk to users is ever present. Obviously the risks vary among manufacturers and also with the type of supplement being taken. It is in the best interest of anyone contemplating taking a nutritional supplement to research the risks, benefits and potential side-effects. It would be beneficial for campus recreation administrators to have an understanding of what types of nutritional supplements their patrons are taking and the risks involved with such. It would also be of benefit to have an understanding of where the patrons obtain information regarding nutritional supplements so that nonbiased educational interventions can be developed with the goal of reducing risks associated with patron of these products. 200 users of a campus recreation facility were surveyed using an instrument designed by Scofield & Unruh (2006) to assess the prevalence of use of nutritional supplements, the types of supplements being used, and where they obtain their information regarding these supplements.
The Aggie Blue Bikes Program: Implications of Leisure Involvement toward Bicycle Commuting
Authors: Norling Jonathan C. , Wells Mary Sara , Christensen Adam
Published: August 2016

This study was conducted at a campus recreation department through the Aggie Blue Bikes (ABB) program. The purpose of this study was to determine changes in bicycle commuting involvement level in a pretest-posttest design, and to determine predictors of ABB participation level conducted in a regression analysis. The results were significant change scores for a unidimensional measure of involvement and for involvement subscales (centrality, identity expression and identity affirmation dimensions), but not significantly so for attraction and social bonding dimensions. ABB participation was predicted by involvement, motor vehicle ownership, and gender, but route safety and weather were not significant predictors. These findings may be of importance to researchers in active transport, city planning, and recreation and leisure. Campus recreation professionals can use the information toward increasing physically active students through bicycle commuting.
The Effects of a Sportsmanship Education Program on the Behavior of College Intramural Sports Participants
Authors: Mathner Robert P. , Martin Christina L.L. , Tatum Shane A. , Chouti Deepak
Published: August 2016

The study's purpose was to examine the potential impact of a sportsmanship education program on behaviors of students who participated in collegiate intramural sports. In an effort to decrease unsportsmanlike incidents and as a mandatory component for participation in the university's intramural sports program, all intramural athletes were required to complete a sportsmanship education program. Data were collected from intramural sports program incident reports over two academic years. Descriptive statistics indicated the total number of unsportsmanlike behaviors decreased over the two academic periods. However, an independent t test revealed no significant differences existed in the perceived severity of unsportsmanlike incidents during this time. Although the study yielded non-significant findings, further research should continue in the area of sportsmanship among collegiate intramural programs. Specifically, research design should be prioritized in an effort to gather more revealing data. Ultimately, such information can be used to implement systems that focus on curbing unsportsmanlike behaviors.
Developing a Fitness Center-Based, Self-Guided Instructional Program Using mp4 Player Technology
Authors: Blunt Gina H. , King Kristi M.
Published: August 2016

Lack of knowledge on how to properly use resistance training equipment and the confidence to perform exercises correctly are major barriers to beginning an exercise program. Creating fitness instructional videos for use on an MPEG 4 (mp4) player provides visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning opportunities in a real world setting. Exercise equipment demonstrations and short exercise routines are presented in their natural settings with the incorporation of Techy Trainer videos on mp4 player technology. This article discusses how to develop, edit, and post self-guided video training, download to mp4 players, and evaluate client confidence and learning.
Fit into College: A Program to Improve Physical Activity and Dietary Intake Lifestyles among College Students
Authors: Topp Robert , Edward Jean S. , Ridner S. Lee , Jacks Dean E. , Newton Karen , Keiffner Patricia , Woodall Deborah , Conte Kathleen P.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a 10-week program could improve physical activity, physical fitness, body weight, dietary intake, and perceptions of exercise and diet among college 30 healthy college freshmen. Outcomes were measured at baseline, and following the 10-week program. The weekly sessions incorporated constructs of the Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change and were administered by fitness interns who were junior or senior college students enrolled in health-related majors. The participants presented with low physical activity, physical fitness, and poor dietary intake, and 50% were overweight/obese (BMI > 25). Participants demonstrated gains in their physical fitness and their perceived benefits to engaging in exercise and decreased their perceived barriers to engaging in exercise and a healthy diet. College freshmen presented with low levels of physical activity, poor dietary intake, and excess body weight. A peer-administered program can improve these measures and favorably change perceptions of exercise and diet.
Impact of a University Recreation Center on Social Belonging and Student Retention
Authors: Miller John J.
Published: August 2016

While studies have been conducted to determine the social-emotional development and learning outcomes associated with participation in sport clubs, very few similar studies have been done on the recreational sports environment as a whole. It is important to know why college recreation centers are important to student life as well as to understand what overall benefits students receive from the program as a whole. This study revealed that students who used the student recreation center more frequently were more likely to be attend the university, experience place bonding, social belonging to the recreation center and the university, integration into the university and hence retention at the university. From a practical perspective, the findings provide information for the university to better understand how to attract and retain students throughout their academic careers by the presence of a student recreation center.
The Benefits and Satisfaction of Participating in Campus Recreational Sports Facilities and Programs among Male and Female African American Students: A Pilot Study
Authors: Lindsey Robert R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the benefits and satisfaction of participating in campus recreational sports facilities and programs among male and female African American students. A convenience sample of students from classes in the Department of Health and Human Performance at a small southeastern private historically black college and university was used in the study. The instrument consisted of a modified version of the National Intramural-Recreational Sport Association's Quality and Importance of Recreational Services Survey. Independent samples t test and analysis of variance were used to test for differences between gender and the benefit of participation questions (α = .05). It was determined that 80% benefitted with communication skills, 79% benefitted with a sense of belonging/association, and 76% benefitted with leadership skills. In terms of gender, 79% of the males benefitted from self-confidence, 90% benefitted with a feeling of physical well being, 78% benefitted with a sense of accomplishment, and 81% benefitted with respect for others. Eighty-five percent were satisfied with their overall academic experience and 73% with satisfied with their overall experiences with other student services programs and activities. Males scored higher than females when it came to reporting the following benefits from participating in recreational activities: feeling of physical well-being, sports skills, fitness, physical strength, stress reduction, and balance/coordination. Although limitations to the study exist, the results provide further evidence that students report that participating in campus recreational sports has an impact on their benefits and their satisfaction with their academic experience and their experiences with students' services programs and other activities. This is a finding that can only serve to increase the practitioner's understanding of those who use such facilities and programs. More studies are needed to further examine the benefits of campus recreational facilities and programs on African American students.
An Integrative Review of Published Research in the Recreational Sports Journal, 1998–2010
Authors: Sweeney Thomas Patrick , Barcelona Robert J.
Published: August 2016

The body of inquiry in the field of recreational sport management has continued to expand over the past decade; however, there have been few, if any, systematic evaluations of the body of knowledge in the field. The purpose of this paper was to conduct an integrative review of the research studies published in the Recreational Sports Journal ( RSJ) to identify the themes and trends in recreational sports research since the journal's inception in 1998. Results of this review indicated that RSJ would benefit from more theoretically-driven, empirical studies, studies that move beyond examining participation motivations and constraints, and studies that employ more diverse and rigorous research methodologies. These findings, as well as others related to research methodology, sample size, and topic selection, provide a snapshot of the trends and gaps in the body of knowledge in recreational sport management, and have implications for future research efforts in the field.
A Longitudinal Study of Recreational Sport Participation and Constraints
Authors: Spivey Laura M. , Hritz Nancy M.
Published: August 2016

Knowledge of what encourages and limits recreational experiences is essential to an overall healthy lifestyle and promotion of long term wellness. Findings from 1857 surveys in this longitudinal study suggest students enrolled at a midsize, Southeastern university experience limited constraints to their recreational sport participation, and identify with many positive benefits of regular recreational sport and fitness participation. Most respondents identified highly with the benefits of recreational sports participation. Notably, they identified with improved fitness (73.3%), development of healthy lifestyle habits (66.4%), enhanced mood (71.5%), and improved attitude toward fitness (69.4%). The respondents did not identify with many limits, or constraints to participation with the exception of time. 54% agreed or strongly agreed they did not have enough time to participate. Only 12% agreed or strongly agreed that their participation was due to lack of a support network.
Developing a Student Employee Leadership Program: The Importance of Evaluating Effectiveness
Authors: Tingle Jacob K. , Cooney Christina , Asbury Seth E. , Tate Sheldon
Published: August 2016

Outstanding student employees are essential for campus recreation programs to achieve organizational goals. To that end, this study examined the effectiveness of a leadership development program in which three groups of campus recreation (rec sports) student employees participated at various levels in the following: on-campus training, an off-site retreat, a scavenger hunt, and biweekly meetings. Using a quasi-experimental design, data were collected in two phases from 51 students and measured the growth of each student's leadership capabilities as reported using the Student Leadership Practices Inventory. Statistical analyses revealed that group membership did significantly affect growth in the student's leadership capacity, F(2, 48) = 7.07, p = .002, η2 = .228. Campus recreation programs are increasingly held accountable and rec sports professionals must understand assessment is vital. The results of this study reveal that rec sports professionals can impact the development of student leaders. Specifcally, the findings indicate that growth does not occur with condensed training. Indeed lasting, meaningful growth transpires only when leadership lessons are embedded using a sustained approach. Implications for research and practice are presented.
A Comparative Analysis of Perceived Benefits of Participation between Recreational Sport Programs
Authors: Lower Leeann M. , Turner Brian A. , Petersen Jeffrey C.
Published: August 2016

This study examined recreational sports, with a focus on a comparative analysis of the overall, social, intellectual, and fitness perceived benefits associated with participation in three separate recreational program areas: group fitness, intramural sport, and sport clubs. A survey instrument, based upon the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Quality and Importance of Recreational Services (QIRS) perceived benefit scale, was administered to 1,176 students at a postsecondary institution. Results revealed a significant difference in perceived benefits between recreational program areas, with sport clubs reporting the greatest mean in all four perceived benefit groups (overall, social, intellectual, fitness). The study also found a significant positive correlation between all perceived benefit groups. These findings have implications for practitioners in terms of perceived benefit differences, suggesting advantages of the sport club program structure and the potential multiple effects of enhancing a perceived benefit group.
Collegiate Recreation Participation and Retention
Authors: Kampf Stephen , Teske Eric J.
Published: August 2016

Colleges and universities have been focusing on the rising costs to attend college and their impact on current and future students. Recruitment and retention of students is critical in justifying programmatic and academic offerings. In addition, recruitment and retention have an impact on the institution's bottom line. This article attempts to prove a correlation between a collegiate recreation program and retention. Specifically, first year retention rates were examined on students who participate in club sports, use the student recreation center, and are employed by the campus recreation department. The results of this study can be useful to the collegiate recreation practitioner to answer the question of “does your program have an impact on retention?” It is the hope that this study is duplicated to further emphasize the relationship of collegiate recreation programs and their positive relationship on retention.
Interscholastic Athletic Participation and Delinquent Behavior: An Empirical Assessment of Relevant Variables
Authors: Segrave Jeffrey O. , Hastad Douglas N.
Published: August 2016

Although several studies have reported a negative association between interscholastic athletic participation and delinquent behavior, research has failed to take account of the social psychological processes underlying the relationship. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to analyze the dynamic processes underlying the relationship between participation in interscholastic athletics and delinquent behavior. The study evaluated the relative contribution of 12 socio-psychological variables in the etiology of delinquent behavior among male and female athletes and nonathletes. Of the total sample of 1,693 high school students, 788 (442 males and 346 females) were classified as athletes. Overall, the results indicated that a similar pattern persists in the etiology of delinquent behavior among male and female athletes and nonathletes. Several differences were also found in the etiology of delinquent behavior among male athletes and nonathletes, female athletes and nonathletes, and male and female athletes.
Outside the Frame: Newspaper Coverage of the Sugar Ray Leonard Wife Abuse Story
Authors: Messner Michael A. , Solomon William S.
Published: August 2016

This article analyzes the print media’s ideological framing of the 1991 story of boxer Sugar Ray Leonard’s admission of having physically abused his wife and abused cocaine and alcohol. We examined all news stories and editorials on the Leonard story in two major daily newspapers and one national sports daily. We found that all three papers framed the story as a “drug story,” while ignoring or marginalizing the “wife abuse” story. We argue that sports writers utilized an existing ideological “jocks-on-drugs” media package that framed this story as a moral drama of individual sin and public redemption. Finally, we describe and analyze the mechanisms through which the wife abuse story was ignored or marginalized.
Violence, Risk, and Liability in Male Sports Culture
Authors: Young Kevin
Published: August 2016

A recent growth in victimological studies has examined violence done to workers in a number of professional and occupational settings. This paper begins by detailing the complex relationship of athletes to the culture of their workplace. This is an arena that requires routine violence done both by and to athletes, and ultimately guarantees injury, but is one that also paradoxically privileges only the healthy contributor. In addition to suggesting how athletic work may be linked to broader processes of gender ordering, and how meaning is derived by male participants, the paper examines how the various rewards of such work appear to coexist with subjugation and disablement. This occupationally experienced dialectic is discussed in terms of the legal notion of volenti, or voluntary assumption of risk, and of player attempts to correct workplace injustices.
Use of Symbols for Defining a Role: Do Clothes Make the Athlete?
Authors: Casselman-Dickson Marsha A. , Damhorst Mary Lynn
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine whether cyclists at different levels of involvement in the sport differ in their use of cycling clothing for role definition A social psychological model provides the theoretical framework for the study of 56 female bicyclists. Lower involved cyclists did not show a tendency to use dress to compensate for lack of achievement in the sport role. In addition, no differences were found between higher involved and lower involved cyclists in their expression of individuality through dress and conforming behavior to other cyclists. Possible intervening factors, such as gender role socialization, subcultural norms and traditions, experience, and achievement motivation, as evidenced in previous and present research, were discussed as to how they may confound applicability of the model.
The Sport/War Metaphor: Hegemonic Masculinity, the Persian Gulf War, and the New World Order
Authors: Jansen Sue Curry , Sabo Don
Published: August 2016

Sport/war metaphors during the Persian Gulf War were crucial rhetorical resources for mobilizing the patriarchal values that construct, mediate, and maintain hegemonic forms of masculinity. Theory is grounded in an analysis of the language used during coverage of the war in electronic and print news media, as well as discourse in the sport industry and sport media. Various usages of the sport/war metaphor are discussed. It is argued that sport/war metaphors reflected and reinforced the multiple systems of domination that rationalized the war and strengthened the ideological hegemony of white Western male elites.
Sport as a Site for Women’s Group and Societal Empowerment: Perspectives from the College Athlete
Authors: Blinde Elaine M. , Taub Diane E. , Han Lingling
Published: August 2016

This exploratory study examines the potential of intercollegiate sport participation to empower women at the group and societal levels. Telephone interviews were conducted with 24 women athletes from various sport teams at three Division I universities. Findings demonstrate that at the group level, sport facilitates female bonding and the development of a group identity and common goals. Empowerment at the societal level was noted when athletes indicated that their participation in sport challenged societal perceptions of women as well as making them more aware of gender inequalities in sport. However, the sport context did not appear to be an effective vehicle in enhancing athletes’ consciousness as women or encouraging their activism in support of women’s issues.
The All American Girls Professional Baseball League, 1943–1954: Gender Conflict in Sport?
Authors: Weiller Karen H. , Higgs Catriona T.
Published: August 2016

The increase of women workers in industry during World War II coincided with an increase in sport participation and competition. From 1943 to 1954, the All American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) allowed talented women athletes a chance to play professional baseball. The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of women’s professional baseball and its connection with the social, cultural, and economic roles for women in society. An open-ended questionnaire allowed former players to respond to the social and cultural forces that impacted on women in society and sport during this era. The players of the AAGPBL were respected and admired professional women athletes in a male-dominated sport.
The Local and the Global in English Soccer and the Rise of Satellite Television
Authors: Williams John
Published: August 2016

This article is concerned with unpacking some of the important dimensions of the developing relationship in Britain between satellite television and sport. The article discusses (a) the rise of Rupert Murdoch’s BSkyB network and the central role of Sky’s exclusive deal with the new Football Association Premier League for soccer in cementing the future for satellite broadcasting in Europe, and (h) the role of sport and television in constructing national identities and in promoting some of the conditions for the enactment of effective forms of citizenship. The discussion concludes with some comments on recent trends in the commercialization of sport and on the possibilities for the mediation of new forms of spectator attachments to sport.
Stacking and “Stoppers”: A Test of the Outcome Control Hypothesis
Authors: Johnson Brett D. , Johnson Norris R.
Published: August 2016

One explanation for stacking in sports is that minorities are excluded from positions with the greatest opportunity for determining the outcome of the competition, with the place kicker in football cited as an example. This paper postulated that the short relief pitcher in baseball also has high outcome control, and it hypothesized that minorities would be underrepresented in that position as well. We classified major league pitchers from the 1992 and 1993 seasons as starters, stoppers, or others and tested whether race or ethnicity was a factor in assignment to these positions. The hypothesis was not supported for either African American or Latin American pitchers. Minority group members were equally underrepresented in all categories of the pitcher position.
Sexing the Athletes
Authors: Hood-Williams John
Published: August 2016

Sociologists, like the International Olympic Committee (IOC), have believed that the guarantor of sexual division lies in the natural differences of the human body. The key sociological problematic that has dominated discussion in this area for over 20 years turns on a distinction between “sex,” which is conceived of as natural, and “gender,” which is conceived of as constructed. But it is argued in this article that sex is no less a discursive construct than gender. Modern discussions of sex derive from a two-sex model of the body that is no more (and no less) “true” than the preceding monomorphic model. The article discusses the claims of the sex/gender problematic, presents arguments that demonstrate the existence of a one-sex model, and examines recent claims of geneticists. It is argued that such claims are tautological and that there never will be a true sign of a true sex, whatever the hopes of the IOC.
Gender, Sport, and the Construction of Community: A Case Study from Women’s Ice Hockey
Authors: Theberge Nancy
Published: August 2016

This paper examines the construction of community on a women’s ice hockey team. The analysis is based on fieldwork and interviews with an elite-level team. Within an organizational context in which men play central roles in the management of team affairs and the circle of team supporters, the dressing room provides a space where players come together as hockey players and as women. The analysis suggests that the construction of community on a woman’s hockey team is grounded in members’ shared identity as hockey players and their commitment to the sport. This common focus and interest unite women from diverse backgrounds and social locations.
The State and Sport Development in Alberta: A Struggle for Public Status
Authors: Pitter Robert
Published: August 2016

This paper contributes to research on and theories of the state’s role in Canadian sport development by examining factors that led the Alberta government to create the Alberta Sport Council, Canada’s only Crown corporation with a sport mandate. The data used were collected from interviews and numerous documentary sources. The analysis drew from theories of the welfare state and from Claus Offe’s discussions of corporatism and the attribution of public status to private interest groups. Accordingly, the study identified key individuals, organizational factors, and the unique political and economic characteristics of Alberta that influenced the council’s creation. The paper concludes that despite this organization’s uniqueness, it reflects the same contradictory form of sport intervention found in other Canadian governments.
Age and Gender Patterns of Sport Involvement among the Swiss Labor Force
Authors: Lamprecht Markus , Stamm Hanspeter
Published: August 2016

Under the influence of the Sport for All movement the sport system in Switzerland has changed. Sport has become a leisure-time activity for an increasing number of people and has gained new meanings and forms. Many traditional limitations to participation appear to have been removed. By focusing on gender and age, this study, based on a survey of 1,103 employees, explores the extent to which particularisms and inequalities in contemporary recreational Swiss sport still exist. Although the involvement in sport by men and women, and involvement of different age groups, are quite similar in terms of frequency, their forms and meanings remain different. Using correspondence analysis we identify different sports fields and different sporting patterns by gender and age in terms of motives, places, and activities.
The Cause and Effect Rule for Percentaging Tables: An Overdue Statistical Correction for “Stacking” Studies
Authors: Leonard Wilbert M. , Phillips John
Published: August 2016

“Stacking” is one of the oldest and most thoroughly studied phenomena in the sociology of sport. Because of this tradition, the literature is replete with tabular demonstrations of the stacking phenomenon. Many of these data arrangements violate an important convention in table presentation: Percents should be computed in the direction of the causal factor. This procedure allows one to contrast the distribution of the dependent variable between/among categories of the independent variable and enables determining what differences, if any, exist between/among categories of the independent variable. The consequences of this violation for stacking studies is that, technically, position appears to affect race whereas, logically, race affects position played. Because so many competent researchers have published tables that run the “wrong way,” it is appropriate to examine the rationale behind the cause and effect rule for percentaging tables and instances in which this “rule” may be broken.
A Twist of Race: Ben Johnson and the Canadian Crisis of Racial and National Identity
Authors: Jackson Steven J.
Published: August 2016

This study maps the media discourses surrounding Ben Johnson’s life “in the fast lane” to further understand one particular aspect of a contemporary crisis of identity (or, more accurately, identities) in Canada. Specifically, this study provides: (a) a context within which to locate Johnson’s rise and fall from hero to scapegoat as articulated to the 1988 crisis of Canadian identity; (b) a chronology of the twist of race, or changing racial discourses which serve to define and redefine Ben Johnson’s racial and national identities; and (c) a discussion of the politics of identity in relation to multiculturalism and the representation of Ben Johnson as the “other” in Canada. The results reveal that Ben Johnson’s identity was the subject of a range of representations including those linked to racist stereotypes. Moreover, the results suggest that the discourses defining Ben Johnson are constituted by, and constitutive of, broader debates about identity in Canada.
The Sociology of Risk, Pain, and Injury: A Comment on the Work of Howard L. Nixon II
Authors: Roderick Martin
Published: August 2016

This paper presents a sociological assessment of Howard L. Nixon II’s work on risk, pain, and injury in sport. Nixon employs a variant of social network analysis in order to understand the “culture of risk” which, he claims, constrains athletes to play with pain and injuries. By drawing on aspects of figurational sociology, one might expand Nixon’s work and account for the broader social processes connected to the development of modern sport and, concurrently, the networks of relationships in which athletes are bound up. His notion of the “sportsnet” is examined, and further research is recommended to enable an understanding of how socially appropriate modes of behavior in sport come to be embedded at subconscious levels for all members of the sportsnet.
Turning the Closets Inside/Out: Towards a Queer-Feminist Theory in Women’s Physical Education
Authors: Sykes Heather
Published: August 2016

One of the ways heterosexuality maintains its privileged status is through the discursive figure of “the closet,” where everyday speech normalizes heterosexuality while silencing lesbian sexuality. In this paper, feminist and queer theories are used to explain why the closet has featured so prominently in women’s physical education. The paper also contains a poststructural analysis of how the closet was constructed in the life histories of 6 lesbian and heterosexual physical educators. Excerpts from the life histories illustrate how silences inside the closet acquired meaning only in relation to everyday talk about heterosexuality. Finally, deconstruction is used to suggest how heterosexuality can sometimes find itself inside the closet, thereby undermining the boundaries between inside/outside, silence/speech, and lesbian/heterosexual.
Fictional Denials of Female Empowerment: A Feminist Analysis of Young Adult Sports Fiction
Authors: Kane Mary Jo
Published: August 2016

Scholars have argued that sport is a highly gendered space where dominant and subordinate groups engage in struggles of resistance and counter-resistance. There are two limitations with this research. First, the majority of investigations have been confined to adult women; examinations of adolescent females are virtually nonexistent. Second, most research has focused on print and broadcast journalism. The influence of one important medium—young adult sports fiction—has been neglected. This investigation analyzed “lone girl” novels (where adolescent female protagonists try out for boys’ teams), as well as books focusing on women’s team sports. Findings revealed lone girl novels characterized female protagonists as going against their “true nature.” Novels featuring women’s team sports undermined female solidarity by equating it with heterosexual desire. These results constitute a fictional denial of sport as a site of resistance and empowerment for athletic females.