bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of water activity and biocides on spoilage and dry matter losses of wheat straw.
Authors: Willcock J. , Aldred D. , Magan N.
Published: November 2017

For the effective industrial use of cereal straw, the storage quality needs to be conserved over a period of 6-9 months. This study has examined the use of an automated electrolytic respirometer for quantifying the dry matter losses of cereal straw due to mixed fungal populations and individual species under different environmental conditions (0.75-0.98 water activity, aw; 10-30°C). The use of this system for screening of three different biocides for control of spoilage fungi under different environmental regimes, and for predicting levels of control, were also determined. This study has shown that dry matter losses due to fungal populations ranged up to 3.5%, while individual species on sterile straw produced up to 10% losses regardless of species used. Biocides could be effectively screened using respirometry to determine those most effective for control of fungal activity under different aw regimes. The best biocides examined could reduce dry matter loss by 50-60% at 0.95 and 0.98 aw.
Philosophy guiding current and future fumigant research.
Authors: Ren YongLin Ren YongLin
Published: November 2017

For many reasons, most fumigants have been removed from use. The only two remaining fumigants, phosphine and methyl bromide, have covered most applications for half a century. They have become established fumigants because: 1. they are already registered; 2. their reputation for multipurpose fumigation has been established; that is, they are recognized and accepted by users; 3. they are inexpensive, easy to transport and apply; and 4. fumigation using methyl bromide and phosphine is, in each case, a mature technology, with a large amount of research results, publications and practical experience supporting its usage. However, the widespread use of methyl bromide is being phased out under international agreement due to its ozone-depleting properties. Insect resistance to phosphine has occurred across the world. There is a need for research and development on alternatives to replace methyl bromide and, for resistance management, partly to replace phosphine. Here, I will mainly report on the philosophy guiding our research on alternative fumigants: The era of multipurpose fumigant/fumigation is over, to be replaced by the single purpose fumigant/fumigation. The gap between fumigants and protectants is getting ever smaller. The concepts of naturally occurring fumigants and consumer safety are important. There is an urgent need for international collaboration.
Alternative fumigants for the control of stored-product insects.
Authors: Shaaya E. , Kostyukovsky M. , Demchenko N.
Published: November 2017

Methyl bromide and phosphine are the most widely used fumigants for controlling pest infestation in grain, dry food products and quarantine insects in cut flowers. Some stored-product insects have developed resistance to phosphine and, with the proposed phase out of methyl bromide in the near future, there is an urgent need to search for suitable alternatives. This study reported here evaluated the potential of methyl iodide (CH3I), carbon disulfide (CS2), benzaldehyde (C7H6O), and several isothiocyanates against the main stored-product insects. The toxicity of the various fumigants was assessed against adults, pupae and larvae of six major stored-product insects. We report on the isolation and fumigant activity of several isothiocyanates from Cruciferae seeds. One of these, isolated from Eruca sativa, was partially identified as alkil-thio-alkil-isothiocyanate.
Biological activity of Novaluron, a new chitin-synthesis inhibitor, on the major stored product insect pests.
Authors: Kostyukovsky M. , Trostanetsky A. , Carmi Y. , Frandji H. , Schneider R.
Published: November 2017

Novaluron is a novel chitin-synthesis inhibitor from the benzoyl phenyl ureas group of insect growth regulators. It has a broad-spectrum activity on various insects, but very low toxicity to mammals (LD50>5000 mg/kg). The objective of the study reported was to evaluate the efficacy of Novaluron against the main stored product insect pests, as a possible alternative to standard pesticides for stored-product pest control. The test insects were the beetles Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha dominica, and Tribolium castaneum, and the moth Plodia interpunctella. According to the differences in the life cycle and conditions for development of the test insects, adults of S. oryzae and R. dominica, and larvae of T. castaneum and P. interpunctella, were used. Concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 10 ppm of Novaluron were mixed with three kinds of food media: whole wheat grain for the internal pests S. oryzae and R. dominica, ground grain for the external feeder P. interpunctella and flour for T. castaneum. The results showed that Novaluron at 1 ppm reduced the number of new generation adults of S. oryzae and R. dominica by 95% compared with the control, and prevented the emergence of adults of P. interpunctella. At this concentration, Novaluron also yielded total mortality of T. castaneum third instar larvae. At 0.1 ppm, Novaluron had no effect on the insects tested.
Effect of NeemAzal and other neem products on mortality, fecundity and frass activity of the larger grain borer Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) infesting maize.
Authors: Ogemah V. , Reichmuth C. , Büttner C.
Published: November 2017

Two NeemAzal products from Trifolio GmbH, Germany, and neem oil and neem seed cake powder of the Kenyan neem tree were tested for their efficacy against the storage pest P. truncatus in the laboratory at (a) low, (b) medium and (c) high rates, containing approximately 1.5, 3 and 6 mg azadirachtin A/kg maize, respectively. The maize samples were stored in 250 ml glass jars at 30°C and 70% relative humidity. After one month of storage, NeemAzal PC KG 01 (0.1% azadirachtin A) at all the tested rates and neem seed oil at high rates caused more than 80% mortality compared with 4% in the control. The two compounds also reduced weight loss to less than 20% of the loss in the control. Neem oil at high rates resulted in the highest mortality after 24 h. Most of the mortality caused by the NeemAzal PC KG 01 at all rates occurred within 7 days of treatment. Insect population increase was completely inhibited by rates of more than 7.5 ml/kg (approx. 22.5 mg azadirachtin A/kg maize) of neem oil and 3 mg azadirachtin A/kg maize of NeemAzal PC KG 01, while the lower dosage levels of neem oil also resulted in significantly fewer progeny compared with the untreated control. Neem oil caused larval mortality in their early developmental stages within the grains. These results are discussed in relation to the existing widely varied reports on the same subject.
Microwave treatment of flowing grain for disinfestation of stored product insects.
Authors: Phillips T. W. , Halverson S. , Bigelow T. , Mbata G. , Halverson W. , Payton M. , Forester S. , Ryas-Duarte P.
Published: November 2017

The research reported here used a microwave unit with a 28 GHz, 200 kW gyrotron to (1) conduct dose-response studies with flowing grain containing different insect species and life stages, to determine those most tolerant to microwaves, and (2) conduct validation studies with a near-commercial-scale applicator using power sufficient to kill 99% of tolerant insects in flowing grain. Dose-response studies used 170-g samples of wheat that each contained about 200 individuals of either eggs, young larvae, or pupae of one of the following pest species: lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica), rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) or red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum). Samples were poured through the test applicator and exposed to powers of 28 GHz microwaves that ranged from 1.8 to 15 kW. The most susceptible insects were the pupae of the rice weevil, and the most tolerant were larvae of the red flour beetle and eggs of the lesser grain borer. A test of exposure time limits showed that the energy needed for effective treatment could be delivered to flowing grain either as high-energy short bursts or lower-energy pulses in longer bursts equal to the grain residence time in the applicator. Validation studies utilized 15 kg lots of hard red winter wheat artificially infested with 150 larvae of the red flour beetle and passed through a larger applicator at near-commercial rates. No insects survived treatment, and grain showed no market quality loss as determined in milling and baking studies. Ancillary studies using 2.45 GHz applied to 15 kg of infested static wheat gave total kill of test insects, and suggested that this commonly used frequency could be applied to disifesting stored grain.
Volatile activity of plant essential oils against stored-product beetle pests.
Authors: Pascual-Villalobos M. J.
Published: November 2017

The insecticidal effects of a group of plant essential oils (caraway, coriander (Coriandrum sativum), sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) and garland chrysanthemum) were studied against the damaging legume and cereal storage pests Callosobruchus maculatus and Sitophilus granarius. Volatile toxicity was recorded by setting up a bioassay, with experimental units of 0.5 litres, which took into account the pest, the mode of oil application (vapours only, avoiding direct contact) and the stored product. Caraway oil was the most effective, causing 100 and 60% mortality in C. maculatus at 10 µl and 1 µl respectively, while 25 µl was needed to kill 68% of S. granarius adults. Other oils, such as coriander (10 µl) and sweet basil (25 µl), showed activity only against the bruchid. The practical use of such plant derivatives for stored product protection is discussed.
Cyanogen: a possible fumigant for flour/rice mills and space fumigation.
Authors: Ren YongLin Ren YongLin , Le Vu Trang Le Vu Trang
Published: November 2017

Cyanogen (C2N2) has potential for use as a fumigant in flour and rice mills, and for space fumigation. This paper compares some of the characteristics of cyanogen, methyl bromide and phosphine used as fumigants for wheat flour.
Phosphine tolerance in two bruchid beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) and C. maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).
Authors: Hasan M. M. , Reichmuth C.
Published: November 2017

C. chinensis and C. maculatus mortality induced by phosphine application was evaluated over a range of fixed phosphine concentrations (0.01-6.0 mg/litre) and exposure duration (0.25-48 h) at 25°C and 65% relative humidity. C. maculatus (reared on mung bean) was slightly more tolerant of phosphine than C. chinensis (reared on chickpea). Increases in gas concentration were more effective than increases in exposure time in achieving complete mortality. The concentrations for 50 and 99% mortality in C. maculatus were higher than the corresponding values for C. chinensis, except at 0.25 and 1.00 mg/litre concentrations and 48-h exposure period for 99% mortality. A rate-dependent mortality in both species was observed.
Laboratory bioassay and dose variation of diatomaceous earth surface treatments.
Authors: Cook D. A. , Armitage D. M.
Published: November 2017

The efficacy of diatomaceous earth (DE) as grain protectant was evaluated. Grain samples were scooped from the surface of treated and untreated bulks of wheat and used to set up efficacy tests under controlled laboratory conditions. Bioassays were carried out at 10, 15 and 25°C, and moisture contents of 16-17% using two mite and two insect species. The mean percentage population inhibition was calculated for surface rates of 3, 2 and 1 g DE/kg after one generation. All rates resulted in 100% inhibition of the mite species Acarus siro and Lepidoglyphus destructor, with the exception of 1 g/kg at 25 and 15°C for A. siro and 2 g/kg at 25°C for L. destructor (99.9%). Among the insects, 100% inhibition was recorded for Oryzaephilus surinamensis, but an inhibition rate of only 61-99%, depending on the rate and temperature, was recorded for the developing stages of Sitophilus granarius. This reduction in population compared to the controls showed that the treatment affected the number of eggs laid. Samples from the 2 g/kg treatment were also used to estimate the evenness of surface treatment. The rate achieved across the surface was between 0.55 and 3.46 g/kg. Although uneven, there was no indication that this affected the efficacy between paired treatments. These results also suggest that DE treatments will still give protection during different stages of cooling and against surface populations that may occur during summer warming and prolonged storage.
Lowering the moisture content of stored grain can gain extra time for cooling to prevent infestation: studies on the development, productivity and survival at two relative humidities of two insect species on whole wheat and artificial diet.
Authors: Fleming D. A. , Armitage D. M.
Published: November 2017

Comparison of the development times of recently collected UK strains of the saw-toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, and the rust-red grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, indicates that development was extended on whole wheat (cv. Mercia) grain compared with that on the usually employed laboratory diet. The reduction of the relative humidity (rh) from 70 to 50% (15-12% moisture content) substantially reduced the proportion of insects able to complete development on wheat, whereas rh had little effect when a laboratory diet was used. Only a slight variation was observed at 5°C between the survival of O. surinamensis on wheat or on artificial diet; however, at 10°C, O. surinamensis survived for a shorter time on whole grain. If temperatures below 10°C become difficult to achieve, moisture reductions may assist low temperature disinfestation. Productivity on a laboratory diet was enhanced by more than 10-fold compared with that on wheat, and while humidity had no effect on a laboratory diet, it effectively increased the lower temperature-breeding threshold on wheat.
VapomateTM: a non-flammable ethyl formate/liquid carbon dioxide fumigant mixture.
Authors: Ryan R. , Hari Krishna Hari Krishna , Epenhuijsen K. van , Grant N. , Bishop S. , Fontinha M. , Pearson D.
Published: November 2017

Ignition tests were conducted on a range of mixtures of ethyl formate, carbon dioxide and air to determine the limits of flammability for ethyl formate. A maximum of 15% v/v of ethyl formate vapour in carbon dioxide gas was inert in all proportions with air. A safe maximum rate of 12.5% v/v is recommended based on literature and experimental values for the lower explosiveness limit of ethyl formate.
Laboratory selection for resistance to diatomaceous earth.
Authors: Fields P. G.
Published: November 2017

Three selection methods were used to evaluate the development of resistance to diatomaceous earth (DE) in 3 stored products pests. In the first method, the insects were constantly cultured on wheat with a low rate of DE. In the second method, the insects were constantly exposed to DE at a rate two-fold higher than the previous rate applied only to the top half of wheat. In the third method, the adults were exposed to a high DE rate for 10-14 days. DE resulted in 50-80% insect mortality at approximately every 2-3 months. Three insect species were tested: Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle), Cryptolestes ferrugineus (rusty grain beetle) and Sitophilus oryzae (rice weevil). In the first method, DE was applied at 200, 30 and 100 ppm for T. castaneum, C. ferrugineus and S. oryzae, respectively. The initial DE rates using the third method were 500 ppm for T. castaneum, 100 ppm for C. ferrugineus and 300 ppm for S. oryzae. Constant exposures to sublethal concentrations of DE, either mixed wheat sample or in only the top half, did not increase tolerance to DE over a three-year period. Occasional high rates of DE that killed 50-80% of the population increased the tolerance of all three insect species. At the end of the three years of selection, the LD50 value was 1004 (831-1143) ppm (two-fold higher than that of the control) for T. castaneum, 379 (321-501) ppm (three-fold higher than that of the control) for C. ferrugineus, and 1286 (1198-1375) (four-fold higher than that of the control) for S. oryzae. The results suggest that the method of using DE will affect the rate at which DE-resistant populations develop.
Can reduced concentrations of chlorpyrifos-methyl be combined with other products to effectively control stored grain pests?
Authors: Bonjour E. L. , Phillips T. W. , Pitts J. T.
Published: November 2017

The efficacy of different concentrations of chlorpyrifos-methyl and cyfluthrin, singly and in combination, against stored grain beetles and their progeny was evaluated (experiment 1). A new product, Storcide, containing both insecticides was also evaluated for residual activity in preventing infestations (experiment 2). In experiment 1, the insects were exposed to treated wheat at 1 day, or 4, 13 or 27 weeks after insecticide application. In experiment 2, treated wheat stored in drums were exposed to natural, fluctuating temperatures in a storage shed located in Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA, from 14 July 1999 to 12 July 2000. Grain samples were collected from the drums at 0, 4, 12, 24, 36 or 48 weeks after treatment. The beetles used were Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae and Tribolium castaneum. Adult mortality was evaluated after a 7-day exposure. Progeny production was studied after seven weeks. All treatments that contained cyfluthrin effectively controlled R. dominica. S. oryzae was not controlled by either cyfluthrin or chlorpyrifos-methyl when used alone. When cyfluthrin at 2 ppm was combined with chlorpyrifos-methyl at 0.5-6 ppm, mortality of S. oryzae adults was more than 80%, and only a few progeny were produced at the lowest concentrations. T. castaneum adults were the most difficult to kill, even at the highest combinations. However, very few progeny were produced in any treatment. Treatment with Storcide (3 ppm chlorpyrifos-methyl and 2 ppm cyfluthrin) resulted in nearly 100% adult mortality for R. dominica and S. oryzae at all time periods. No R. dominica progenies were produced and there was only one S. oryzae adult produced at 48 weeks. Storcide effectiveness against adult T. castaneum decreased through time, but no progeny was produced with this treatment. Storage at warm temperatures did not appear to affect the residual activity of the insecticides. Combining insecticides at lower rates rather than applying singly may be an effective strategy for controlling stored grain insects.
Carbonyl sulfide fumigation of hay.
Authors: Weller G.
Published: November 2017

Penetration into highly compressed bales, sorption and desorption of carbonyl sulfide (COS) were evaluated in the laboratory and during a fumigation of a shipping container of oat hay in Bowmans, South Australia. The results indicate that COS is suitable for the fumigation of highly compressed hay. However, the slow diffusion of the gas out of the hay following a fumigation necessitates an airing procedure, and the extended time of fumigation over methyl bromide will require a higher level of gas-tightness of shipping containers used for this purpose.
The mortality of stored product insects following exposure to gaseous ozone at high concentrations.
Authors: Leesch J. G.
Published: November 2017

Ozone as a toxicant was evaluated against the stored product pests Plodia interpunctella and Tribolium confusum. Ozone was introduced into the continuous air stream flowing through a chamber made of high-density polyethylene and polycarbonate. By decreasing the flow of ozone and/or air in the chamber, various concentrations of ozone were obtained. The eggs, larvae and pupae were exposed to ozone at varying duration (1 to 18 h). The developmental stages exhibited delayed reactions to toxicity. Even high concentrations of 200-500 ppm (v/v) required up to 18 h to kill the insects. Mortality was first observed among the adults, followed by larvae, pupae and eggs. Carbon dioxide and reduced pressure were also evaluated for the stimulation of the opening of the spiracles of the insects as a means to increase the penetration of ozone into the insects. All the stages responded to the treatment except the eggs, which were unaffected. The pupal and larval stages were the most susceptible.
Deltamethrin resistance in Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) in Brazil.
Authors: Lorini I.
Published: November 2017

Samples from some uncontrolled and other populations of R. dominica were collected to investigate the extent of their tolerance to deltamethrin. Eleven strains were bioassayed with deltamethrin using the standard FAO method for resistance to pesticide and wheat grain as food. Ten strains, originating from Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, were designated BR1 to BR10, and one originating from the UK was designated UK1. The evaluation of tolerance to deltamethrin revealed two very resistant strains, BR6 and BR7, and two susceptible strains, BR4 and UK1, whereas the remaining strains showed intermediate tolerance. Selection pressure (deltamethrin insecticide applied in the laboratory for 21 generations) increased the resistance of BR7 strain by 29 937-fold.
Evaluation on the efficacy of spinosad dust against major storage insect pests.
Authors: Mutambuki K. , Ngatia C. M. , Mbugua J. N. , Likhayo P.
Published: November 2017

Laboratory bioassays were conducted to compare the efficacy of spinosad dust (0.125%) admixed with shelled wheat grains with that of a cocktail of pirimiphos-methyl (1.6%) and permethrin (0.3%) as actellic super dust against Sitophilus zeamais, Tribolium castaneum, Rhyzopertha dominica and Prostephanus truncatus. Spinosad dust was applied at 0.35, 0.7 and 1.44 ppm, and actellic dust at 10.5 ppm. All treatments were significantly (P=0.05) better than the control except when applied against T. castaneum. Spinosad at 0.7 and 1.44 ppm controlled S. zeamais over the 24-week period. All treatments gave good control of P. truncatus and R. dominica, with no apparent significant differences (P=0.05) between treatments on the latter. On P. truncatus, spinosad showed better performance than actellic super dust (P=0.05). All levels of spinosad dust appeared to perform better on P. truncatus compared to actellic super; however, spinosad dust, unlike actellic super, was unable to control T. castaneum. The results suggest that spinosad dust may have potential in controlling major storage insect pests, with special applicability against the destructive larger grain borer, P. truncatus.
Use of diatomaceous earth for insect control in paddy rice stored in silos.
Authors: Paula M. C. Z. , Lazzari F. A. , Lazzari S. M. N.
Published: November 2017

The efficacy of diatomaceous earth (DE) against the insect pests of stored rice was evaluated in a rice storage facility in Massaranduba, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Rice stored in four 1875-t silos were treated with diatomaceous earth (DE) at 1000 g/t applied to the grain as powder, or with pirimiphos-methyl at 12 ml/t sprayed on the conveyor belt. The treatments were evaluated every 15 days for 5 months based on insect captures with probe traps. The results were not very consistent and varying numbers of insects were captured in all silos, noticeably when new lots of rice were being received, and probably due to cross infestation from the field. The rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus was the most common species captured in the traps.
Spinosad: an effective replacement for organophosphate grain protectants.
Authors: Subramanyam B. , Toews M. , Fang L.
Published: November 2017

Spinosad is a bacterial fermentation product that has low mammalian toxicity. It exhibits both stomach and contact activities against insects. Spinosad is commercially registered on 250 crops in more than 24 countries. It is not registered for use on stored grains. Laboratory and field tests on wheat and maize have shown that this product is effective against the lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica), rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes pusillus), rusty grain beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus), confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) and larvae of the Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) at 1 mg/kg. On stored grain, adults of the red flour beetle (T. castaneum) and saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis) are less susceptible to spinosad than other species. In farm bins, spinosad on wheat at 0.1-6 mg/kg was stable for one year. This was confirmed by residue data and bioassays against the lesser grain borer and red flour beetle. The trend in species susceptibility was consistent among grain types (maize and wheat), but varied among wheat classes. On concrete, steel, floor tile and waxed floor tile surfaces, spinosad provided >98% mortality of adults of eight stored product beetles exposed for 24 h to deposits of 0.05 and 0.1 mg/cm2. Activity against a variety of stored product insects, persistence in farm-stored grain, and low mammalian toxicity make spinosad a viable alternative to currently registered organophosphate grain protectants, such as malathion, chlorpyrifos-methyl and pirimiphos-methyl.
Sorption and insect toxicity of propylene oxide in dried fruits and nuts.
Authors: Zettler J. L. , Hartsell P. L. , Allred D. B. , Muhareb J. S. , Hurley J. M. , Gill R. F.
Published: November 2017

Dried fruits and nuts were fumigated with a mixture of propylene oxide (PPO) and CO2 (8%:92% w/w) in 28.42-litre chambers to determine PPO sorption rates in these products and toxicity to a variety of postharvest insect pests. A 48-h fumigation using a rate of 45 mg/litre at 38°C resulted in more than 97% sorption in almonds, pecans and walnuts, and induced 100% mortality of mixed life stages of the following insects: Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella), red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), confused flour beetle (T. confusum), warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variabile), cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne), lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) and saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis). The 48-h fumigations resulted in PPO residues in the nuts that were below the tolerance level (300 ppm). The residues dropped to undetectable levels following aeration for 3 days. A 24-h fumigation of walnuts, raisins and figs infested with P. interpunctella, Trogoderma variabile and dried fruit beetle (Carpophilus hemipterus) using a rate of 75 mg/litre at 26.7°C resulted in 78, 95 and 93% sorption, respectively, but failed to provide complete mortality of the insects. Susceptibility to PPO was C. hemipterus > P. interpunctella > T. variabile. The rate of PPO sorption into walnuts, raisins and figs was independent of rate.
Combinations to enhance the efficacy of diatomaceous earth against the larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Horn).
Authors: Stathers T. E.
Published: November 2017

Combinations of Protect-It (diatomaceous earth; DE) with low levels of pyrethroids, plant extracts or soil bacteria metabolites were evaluated against P. truncatus on maize. Deltamethrin and permethrin exhibited a high knockdown effect and prevented progeny emergence of P. truncatus at 0.025 and 2.00 mg/kg, respectively. No further effects from the addition of Protect-It (500, 1000 or 2500 ppm) were observed. The combinations of DE and plant extracts or soil bacteria metabolites, formulated as "All Natural" and "Spindeba", also prevented progeny emergence of P. truncatus at 50-100 ppm. The results are discussed in the context of improving the efficacy of DE against P. truncatus for use by small-scale producers in developing countries.
Adaptive discounting control: a new aeration control method.
Authors: Darby J.
Published: November 2017

Aeration is a common and flexible grain storage tool that is experiencing increased demand in Australia at present. This is due to interest in drying wet grain, preserving specific quality attributes, non-chemical insect suppression, and preventing spoilage during storage. For most benefits, an aeration system must change the grain moisture or temperature at the time of inloading to suitable levels throughout the whole store. Different levels are required for different aims. The grain-conditioning performance of any aeration system is dependent on the local weather, and a key part is the control of the air-selection process. The climate of most grain-producing areas across Australia allows properly sized aeration equipment to condition grain to beneficial moistures and temperatures, if the air-selection process is controlled accordingly. However, control methods that specifically target moistures and temperatures are not currently available. A new aeration-control method that conditions grain to moisture and temperature targets is described in this paper. This new method is called adaptive discounting control (ADC) and will implement all modes of aeration: drying, cooling and maintenance. The method offers the capacity to target out-turned grain moisture and/or temperature conditions, high thermodynamic efficiency, a 'user friendly' interface, and a simple but sound technical basis. The ADC method is based on the sequential propagation of fronts through the grain bulk until the target average grain condition is achieved. A 'discounting' action adjusts the air-selection process to maximize the propagation rate and 'smooth out' the grain conditions at the target values selected. The air-selection process is linked to the size of the aeration system without feedback sensing by entering some basic system parameters during installation of the controller. Some results are presented of two trials carried out in different locations in Australia for drying and cooling actions. Results to date illustrate that the method is effective. Commercial licences with 3 companies are being pursued for manufacture of the control method.
Commercial development of STORECHECK, fully integrated PC-based aeration monitor, controller and decision support for UK grain stores.
Authors: Cook D. A. , Watts P.
Published: November 2017

Laboratory and field experiments demonstrated the feasibility of accurately controlling low-volume aeration and monitoring physical conditions, integrated with decision support. The system under development comprises sensors networked to PC software that can be operated remotely, with feedback for fan relays. Logged temperatures in CSV format allowed detailed record keeping and analysis using Microsoft Excel software. Automatic fan control based on grain/ambient differentials achieved the fastest cooling profile, falling well within the cooling rate recommended for UK grain stores. Alternative methods for avoidance of condensation were evaluated. Accurate online moisture content measurement was achieved by psychrometry. Sample decision-support modules to provide an encyclopaedia and risk assessment were constructed and evaluated. The developing system is commercially available from Robydome Electronics Ltd., UK under the brand name of STORECHECK.
QualiGrain expert system for stored grain quality maintenance: planning optimal storage technical routes.
Authors: Ndiaye A. , Ndiaye S. , Fleurat-Lessard F.
Published: November 2017

The maintenance of cereal quality is a complex problem due to the interaction between biotic and abiotic factors in the stored grain ecosystem. The biotic factors (germination, insects, moulds and mites) provide information on the quality of the grain. The abiotic factors (time, temperature, moisture content, impurities and insecticides) influence the dynamics of biotic factors and provide information on grain storage conditions. The planning problem is to control the abiotic factors with a view to keeping storage conditions safe. The QualiGrain preventive approach includes four steps: assessment of the initial quality and condition of the grain; planning the optimal storage technical route; monitoring grain condition during storage; and re-planning the storage technical route if the grain condition drifts out of safe storage conditions. In the planning module, we use the biotic factors as state variables, the abiotic factors as control variables and the storage actions as actions of the plan. A storage action (drying, cooling, cleaning, treating with an insecticide or selecting a bin) is executable if the equipment and/or chemical(s) needed are available. 'Dry grain using the medium drier MD1 to reach 14.5% of moisture content' and 'Store grain in the vertical bin VB4', for example, are executable storage operations. The planning method is hierarchical, with two levels: (a) generation of generic storage plans, and (b) refining the generic storage plans taking into account time, the equipment available and the consumables allowed. An optimal storage technical route gives a plan of the storage actions to be executed during the storage period with the estimated safe storage interval after each action of the plan. A prototype of an expert system, QualiS, has been developed, running on Windows on a personal computer. The advice afforded by the decision support system has been validated by storage specialists before and after pilot-scale experiments in Denmark and the UK.
The performance of an isothermal desiccant bed system for cooling stored grains.
Authors: Thorpe G. R. , Chen L.
Published: November 2017

This paper describes a system that is based on an open-cycle desiccant bed cooling system that can reduce the wet-bulb temperature of ambient air. The energy consumption of the device is approximately 0.7 kWh of electrical energy per tonne of grain cooled and the thermal energy consumption is approximately 35 MJ per tonne. It is estimated that this thermal energy can be supplied by transpired solar collectors that have an area of 0.1 m2 per tonne of grain cooled.
Assessment of a relative-humidity sensor for the monitoring of moisture-content changes in stored malting barley through sorption equilibrium models.
Authors: Ndiaye A. , Berhaut P. , Niquet G. , Jacobsen E. E.
Published: November 2017

We have assessed a relative humidity sensor in five storage bins equipped with temperature sensors and filled with malting barley. Three bins were aerated with ambient air and two were not aerated. The moisture content (m.c.) of grain was measured and also calculated from automatically measured relative humidity and temperature, using the modified Chung-Pfost equation and a new one, the Jacobsen equation. The Jacobsen equation gives better results than the modified Chung-Pfost equation. The greatest discrepancy was under adsorption (cooling aeration) conditions. The difference from the measured moisture content is +2.3% m.c. to the calculated moisture content using the modified Chung-Pfost equation and +1% m.c. using the Jacobsen equation; a gap of 1.3% m.c.
Wet maize (Zea mays L.) drying under continuous nitrogen flow.
Authors: Valentini S. R. de T. , Cia P. , Muñoz V. R. S. , Castro M. F. P. P. M. de , Vitali A. de A.
Published: November 2017

The adoption of a combined system for drying and storage of grain using continuous nitrogen flow is a technological advance that combines distinct steps of pre-processing. This results in a reduction of postharvest costs, as continuous flow is applied directly to the freshly harvested grain, stored in drying silos, where it is kept until put on the market. The present work aims to evaluate the efficiency of continuous N2 flow at ambient temperature, at a concentration of 99%, in the drying of freshly-harvested maize with an initial m.c. of 19.5% (wet basis). The flows applied were 4 and 8 litre/minute, and drying was achieved in a minimum of 24 h and a maximum of 144 h. As N2 has low vapour pressure, it is necessary to first establish the flow pressure of the gas and then to recirculate it through the product to achieve uniform drying and avoid overdrying the grain in the lower layers. From the results, it is concluded that N2 had drying potential in a combined system for drying and storage of maize. Further studies have to be carried out to verify the effect of N2 flow during drying, and later in storage under modified atmosphere, on toxigenic moulds and insect pests.
"Silobag": evaluation of a new technique for temporary storage of wheat in the field.
Authors: Bartosik R. E. , Rodriguez J. C. , Malinarich H. E. , Maier D. E.
Published: November 2017

During the past five years, Argentine farmers have faced a shortage of storage capacity and high costs of sending grain to the elevator during the harvest. To reduce costs and get some extra profit through grain segregation, farmers in increasing numbers are choosing to store grain in the field in 67-m long plastic 'silobags', each holding approximately 200 tonnes of grain. During 2001, more than 1.5 million tonnes of maize, soyabeans and wheat were stored this way, and it is expected in the coming years that this will increase to approximately 7 million tonnes. In January 2001 (summer) two bags were filled with wheat at 12.5 and 16.4% average moisture content. The grain was stored in the field for six months until winter. Temperature, moisture content, test weight, germination, baking quality, CO2 concentration and insect activity were the main evaluation parameters. Wheat stored at 12.5% moisture content suffered no deleterious effects in any of the quality parameters during storage. Wheat stored at 16.4% moisture content was negatively affected with respect to baking quality and seed viability. There was no increase of the grain temperature due to self-heating, and no insect activity was detected during the storage period.
Management of community grain stocks in dryland areas of Andhra Pradesh, India.
Authors: Jayaraj K. , Reddy T. , Adolph B. , Hodges R. J.
Published: November 2017

In Indian villages, many households rely for their food security on the government-sponsored Public Distribution System (PDS) that offers relatively poor quality rice or wheat at low prices. However, even in the medium term, the cost of public sector grain management to ensure food security is unsustainable. For this reason, central and state authorities in India have encouraged research into policy and practical guidelines for village-level food security. The approach was to develop grain banks with groups of landless women in dryland areas of Andhra Pradesh, India, where the cereal staple is Sorghum. These self-help groups were formed with the help of a local NGO. The research partners in this exercise were seeking to understand the situation, characteristics and needs of the village communities, recognizing that any initiative in community storage should be developed through a process in which demand is established and the way of working elaborated within the group. The sustainability of this approach will become apparent over next few years. The strong emphasis on group formation and the development of appropriate systems by the group itself should encourage a high degree of "ownership" and give a greater chance of success than experienced with grain banks in the Sahel since the 1970s.
Value of spatial analysis in pest management, from the perspective of a pest control operator.
Authors: Weier J. A.
Published: November 2017

Spatial analysis to identify and locate stored product insect infestations is a valuable tool, but the economics of the pest control industry mean that its application in retail grocery and pet stores is limited by cost. The possible integration of spatial analysis into smaller scale integrated pest management in this sector is discussed, with some pointers to further research to extend the usefulness of the technique. A trial conducted from 1999-2001 comparing high-density and low-density trapping of Plodia interpunctella in a raw food commodity warehouse to establish moth spatial distribution is described.
Soil quality of organically managed citrus orchards in the Mediterranean area.
Authors: Canali S.
Published: November 2017

Soil quality can be defined as the capacity of a soil to function, whilst maintaining the environmental quality and promoting plant and animal health. It also refers to the capability of soil to function at present and in the future for an indefinite period of time. Soil quality is a basic concept in the sustainable management of any agricultural system aimed at producing, avoiding or reducing negative effects on the environment, preserving resources and saving energy on a medium- or long-term basis and its assessment might be considered a means for the evaluation of the environmental sustainability of agricultural systems. A study was conducted to evaluate the contribution of the introduction of organic farming system to the environmental sustainability of organic farming in Southern Italy, with the assessmentof soil quality of conventionally and organically managed citrus orchards. The study was carried out by a field survey, based on a comparative approach at a regional basis and by a farm-level experimental trial. The results obtained indicated an increase of the soil quality on organically managed citrus orchards, thus indicating that the introduction of an organic farming management system may contribute to the increase of the environmental sustainability of citrus production in Southern Italy.
Energy balance comparison of organic and conventional farming.
Authors: Dalgaard T. , Kelm M. , Wachendorf M. , Taube F. , Dalgaard R.
Published: November 2017

This paper presents five examples with energy balance comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems (in crop production and dairy farming) in Denmark and Germany. In general, the examples show that conversion to organic farming leads to a lower total fossil energy use and, consequently, to lower greenhouse gas emissions. However, the exemplified organic farming practices also resulted in a lower amount of production per area of agricultural land, a different product quality, and eventually another product price than per unit of similar conventional products. Therefore, direct comparisons of the two systems are difficult. It is recommended that policy makers include fossil energy issues in the evaluation of impacts from organic compared to integrated or conventional farming systems. The examples from intensive farming systems in Denmark and Germany show promising results, where conversion to organic farming might serve as a measure to conserve fossil energy resources for the use of future generations and for the development of less industrialized areas of the world. The challenge is to find the optimal type and extent of conversion, matched with other environmental and socioeconomic consequences.
The organic market in OECD countries: past growth, current status and future potential.
Authors: Hallam D.
Published: November 2017

This paper considers some features of the market for organic foods in OECD countries and the consumer attitudes towards organic products and their implications for future market development. It draws on findings of a major FAO study of world markets for organic fruit and vegetables and on recent preliminary work on market developments for organic meat and dairy products. It is concluded that, in general, further growth in the market for organic foods is to be expected and demand growth might be expected to exceed supply growth, resulting in a continuation of premium prices for organic products. However, this does not preclude the possibility of the emergence of excess supplies and falling prices at particular times and locations. More importantly, expansion of the market involves changes in its nature, and specifically, differences in the attitudes of consumers and the dominant types of business. These are likely to lead to pressure on prices, narrowing the gap between organic and conventional products. They also pose challenges to marketers to attract new consumers and to producers to control costs and improve competitiveness.
Organic agriculture: the consumers' perspective.
Authors: Pedersen B.
Published: November 2017

It is suggested, from a consumer standpoint, that the overall goal of supporting organic agriculture is to stimulate sustainable production and consumption patterns. Organic agriculture is also expected to provide a number of benefits to consumers including: environmental benefits; health-related benefits; and ethical and moral benefits.
The role of government standards and market facilitation.
Authors: Merrigan K.
Published: November 2017

This paper provides an update on the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA) organic standards implementation process, offers reflections on organic controversies, and outlines the opportunities for government intervention to facilitate the marketing of organic products.
Organic agriculture and national legislation in Turkey.
Authors: Özkan M.
Published: November 2017

Turkey is one of the most suitable countries for organic agriculture due to its ecological and climatological conditions. Organic agriculture in Turkey started in the 1980s due to demand from importing countries. Dried sultanas, apricots and figs were the first exported crops grown organically. Most of the products are grown in the Aegean region. Since then, organic production has expanded to all regions and various crops have been grown. However, dried fruits are still the main products for export. Until 1994, organic agricultural production and exports in Turkey were regulated according to EU Regulation 2092/91. In 1994, a national regulation on organic agriculture was prepared and published in harmony with the EU regulations. The National Regulation of 1994 was revised according to the amendments of the EU Regulation and a new Turkish regulation named "Regulation on Principles and Application of Organic Agriculture" was published on 11 July 2002.
Organic agriculture in Japan: development of a labelling scheme and production policies.
Authors: Yokoi Y.
Published: November 2017

Policy development on organic agriculture and future perspectives in Japan are discussed. The general public is now greatly concerned about food safety issues owing to the recent incidents of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and the detection of excess pesticide residues and the use of prohibited pesticides. Policies on organic farming and organic food have been developed in terms of the "JAS Organic" accreditation system and technological support of organic farming. While there is potential for further shifts to organic agriculture, more technical support will be needed. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, having shifted agricultural policy to give high priority to consumers, is to provide more administrative as well as technical support for organic agriculture.