bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Carnival-Grotesque and Blok's The Puppet Show
Authors: Westphalen Timothy C.
Published: April 2006

If so many poets have been attracted by the dramatic form, this is not because it gives them the somewhat crude (and generally dearly paid for) joy of realizing their conceptions in flesh and bone amid an atmosphere of painted cardboard, but precisely because it permits them to let the profound voices they hear in their hearts speak.

–Edouard Dujardin

Of all of Blok's works, The Puppet Show (Balaganchik) is perhaps the most recalcitrant in terms of interpretation. Despite the considerable scholarship that has grown up around the play, many basic questions perplex critics. For instance, the motivation and, to a significant degree, the effect of Blok's decision to incorporate elements of the commedia dell'arte into his little "fairy play" (feeriia) remain unresolved problems. Such lacunae in our knowledge of the play stem from either biographical or socio-economic assumptions behind two traditional approaches to the play.
The Influence of the Orthodox Church on Ukrainian Dumy
Authors: Kononenko Natalie K.
Published: April 2006

Dumy, the oral epic songs of Ukraine, like other heroic poetries, have a military subject matter. One duma cycle tells of battles with the Turks and Tatars in the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries; another sings of the Khmel'nyts'kyi uprising against the Poles that began in 1648. In addition to the expected narratives about armed conflict, the duma tradition also contains a group of songs, usually called the cycle about everyday life, that deals with topics only tenuously connected to war. These songs tell of such problems as filial ingratitude and sibling disloyalty. The popularity of this "unheroic" body of dumy relative to the other cycles suggests a powerful nonmilitary influence on the Ukrainian epic tradition at some point in its development. Other content features, some unusual elements in duma form, and many unique characteristics of duma performers likewise indicate such influence.
Russia's First Income Taxes: The Effects of Modernized Taxes on Commerce and Industry, 1885- 1914
Authors: Bowman Linda
Published: April 2006

And if they have anything, they conceal all they can … as men are wont
to do where they are in fear of foreign invasion. …

Giles Fletcher, Of the Rus Commonwealth

Everyone knows that tax inspectors are monsters.

Mikhail Bulgakov, The White Guard.

During the last three decades of the tsarist regime the business tax system became the experimental vanguard of the entire tax structure. Thirty-one years before a general income tax on all estates (sosloviia) was confirmed in April 1916, Russia's first permanent income taxes on business were imposed in January 1885.
The Politicization of Labor in 1905: The Case of Odessa Salesclerks
Authors: Weinberg Robert
Published: April 2006

One remarkable feature of the 1905 Russian Revolution was the efflorescence of labor organizations that occurred throughout the urban regions of the empire. Many workers throughout the empire demonstrated their resolve to promote and defend their interests in an organized and rational manner, with the mass labor movement often cutting across craft and occupational divisions to bring all kinds of workers into joint economic and political action against both employer and autocracy. As 1905 progressed the political radicalization of urban workers inspired much of the opposition movement that nearly brought the government to its knees. As several United States historians have recently shown, in 1905 organized labor, particularly trade unions, entered the political arena as a potent force, with workers simultaneously demanding individual rights of citizenship and collective rights of association.
The Left Opposition as an Alternative to Stalinism
Authors: Daniels Robert V.
Published: April 2006

Soviet historians, roaming the wide range of speculation that glasnost has opened to them, are trying to exorcise the terrible memory of Stalinism by exploring the might-have-beens, the alternative policies and lines of development that the Soviet Union might have chosen at the critical turning point a decade after the revolution. Articles and conferences one after another on this period have been focusing on "alternatives" or "the Choice of Paths of Social Development."
Gogol' and the Muses of Mirgorod
Authors: Deutsch Kornblatt Judith
Published: April 2006

The apparent preoccupation with nonliterary arts in Mirgorod suggests that Nikolai Gogol', an uncannily successful experimenter-in-words, sought "comic prose equivalents for the effects of other media and genres." One narrator laments: "Gde voz'mu ia kistei i krasok, chtob izobrazit' raznoobrazie s'ezda i velikolepnoe pirshestvo?" But paint obviously is not needed since the pen, misleadingly condemned as "vialo, mertvo," elicits an elaborate picture on its own.
Remaking the Polish Working Class: Early Stalinist Models of Labor and Leisure
Authors: Kenney Padraic
Published: April 2006

The Stalinist revolution began to accelerate in Poland, as throughout eastern Europe, in 1947, with the implementation of multi-year plans, the repression of opposition and the enforcement of unity in the bloc; by the beginning of 1950, the transformation of the bloc was more or less complete. The construction of the Stalinist system did not occur in a vacuum but was shaped in part by societies, and the regimes which emerged were thus more complex than has been generally acknowledged. That complexity stems in part from Stalinist regimes’ interest in transforming society through mobilization and integration, rather than merely subduing it. Active participation in political and economic life was required; mere acquiescence to the demands of the regime was insufficient; and class conflict was to be eliminated, replaced by an alliance between the working class and its former adversaries.
On Good Numbers and Bad: Malthus, Population Trends and Peasant Standard of Living in Late Imperial Russia
Authors: Hoch Steven L.
Published: April 2006

Historians have not been at their finest in attempting to measure standard of living, and late imperial rural Russia is no exception. Given the absence of reliable measures for personal or household income or even of real wage trends—the most common proxy for the standard of living—scholars have been forced to employ a variety of other surrogates, often with unfortunate results. For Russia, recourse has been made to peasant tax arrears, mass consumption of “luxury” or nonfood items, and rye-wages. Shifts in the size of land allotments, numbers of livestock and patterns of land tenure often have been the focus of study; others have emphasized trends in net national product, grain retained in the village or grain yields generally. Diet has been assessed both quantitatively, in terms of caloric intake or protein derived from meat products, and qualitatively, underscoring harvest variability. Still other studies have looked at population trends, at times addressing the malthusian dilemma and suggesting that Russia was overpopulated. And frustration has recently led one historian to suggest we give up.
Drug Abuse in Eastern Europe: An Emerging Issue of Public Policy
Authors: Kramer John M.
Published: April 2006

Communist governments have traditionally contended that "negative" phenomena, including drug abuse, were alien to socialism and could flourish only within the exploitation, moral depravity, and spiritual vacuousness of capitalism. Recent accounts in official media of Eastern Europe–often employing lurid and perhaps hyperbolic language–now admit that the New Socialist Man can, like his capitalist counterpart, become a victim of what the media themselves often call "narcomania."1 Regimes in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, the U.S.S.R., and Yugoslavia, to varying degrees, are willing to acknowledge the existence of drug abuse in their societies. A Soviet source explains why: "Concealing an illness will not make it go away; it will only drive it inward. We have come to realize that openness is needed in the struggle against drug addiction; that we must look the truth in the eye, no matter how unsavory it is.
The Soldatka: Folklore and Court Record
Authors: Farnsworth Beatrice
Published: April 2006

The most vulnerable member of the peasant household was reported to be the soldatka, the soldier's wife. The quintessential outsider in a community based on married couples, the soldatka suffered from the general coldness of the village toward single women. Stereotyped as abused, neglected, and without resources, she was seen as a loose woman who drank and the bearer of illegitimate children. We know little about her. Popular imagination has been informed largely by the soldatka's plaintive voice in folk "recruit" laments. Historians have paid scant attention to the marginal members of peasant society. Yet focusing on the weaker persons in the peasant household provides insight into little-known subjects: family antagonisms, interpersonal relationships, and the status of women.
The Transfiguring of Context in the Work of Abram Terts
Authors: Holmgren Beth
Published: April 2006

In particular, I am very interested in the problem of prose, prose as space.

Andrei Siniavskii

In 1974, soon after his expulsion from the Soviet Union, the literary scholar Andrei Siniavskii once again deferred to his created alter ego, the writer Abram Terts, to pass provocative judgment on the Soviet literary scene. The essay ascribed to Terts, “Literaturnyi protsess v Rossii,” reviews unofficial Soviet literature to highlight its artistic (rather than moral) appeal. As Terts reads it, the punitive context of this literature—established by Stalin and enforced to a less rigorous extent through the Leonid Brezhnev era—inadvertently guaranteed art and the fate of the artist richness and power:

At this moment the fate of the Russian writer has become the most intriguing, the most fruitful literary topic in the whole world; he is either being imprisoned, pilloried, internally exiled, or simply kicked out. The writer nowadays is walking a knife-edge; but unlike the old days, when writers were simply eliminated one after another, he now derives pleasure and moral satisfaction from this curious pastime. The writer is now someone to be reckoned with. And all the attempts to make him see reason, to terrorize or crush him, to corrupt or liquidate him, only raise his literary achievement to higher and higher levels.
Trifonov'sDom na naberezhnoiand the Fortunes of Aesopian Speech
Authors: Seifrid Thomas
Published: April 2006

In both the west and the Soviet Union the reputation of the late lurii Trifonov has come to rest principally on the candor with which his works, particularly those of his Moscow cycle, examine ethical themes. To non-Soviet scholars Trifonov offers the appealing biography of a writer who, having begun his career with a Stalinist novel (Studenty, 1950), nonetheless welcomed the Thaw (Utolenie zhazhdy, 1963) and then evolved into a chronicler of the moral decline into which Soviet society was sliding under Leonid Brezhnev.
On Laughter and Vladimir Solov´ev's Three Encounters
Authors: Deutsch Kornblatt Judith
Published: April 2006

Perhaps the most consistent biographical reference to the Russian philosopher Vladimir Solov'ev (1853-1900) concerns his unusual guffaw: “When he laughed, his loud infectious laughter ‘with unexpected, outrageous, and hiccup-like high notes’ would drown out all other voices.” Scholars usually explain this laughter as a sign of Solov‘ev's otherworldly perception and his occasionally inappropriate descent into our mundane realm. Observing this “infectious laughter,” Evgenii Trubetskoi found an explanation in his friend's supposed ethereal character: “He was so nearsighted that he did not see what others saw. Squinting under his thick brows, he could make out items at close range only with difficulty. But when his glance searched into the distance, it seemed to penetrate beyond the surface accessible to our external senses and to see something otherworldly, hidden from all the rest. His eyes shone with some kind of internal light and gazed directly into the soul.” Aleksandr Blok, who claimed to have been greatly affected by a chance meeting with the strange philosopher, called him “pure spirit, as if an image instead of a living man–an outline, a symbol, a sketch.”
What Did Russians Mean When They Called Themselves “Slaves of the Tsar”?
Authors: Poe Marshall
Published: April 2006

The Germans criticize the fact that here people of all ranks call themselves the “sovereign's slaves.” But they do not consider that among diem people call themselves “vassals,” and this word is not Latin, but German, and means “orphan,” and so all Germans once called themselves in their language. Similarly, the tide “knecht” was once dignified, and even today Scotsmen call their dignified cavaliers “knechts,” diat is, “slaves.“

—Iurii Krizhanich, Politika, 1663-66

The analysis of ritual plays an important role in efforts to reconstruct medieval mentalities. Often mute and always cryptic, medieval cultures rarely provide historians widi the rich programmatic texts that facilitate the study of political ideas. In response to this relative dearth of treatises and manifestoes, scholars have turned to various forms of symbolic behavior for clues concerning the character of the medieval mind. Students of Muscovy are certainly no exception. Recognizing that Old Russia was particularly “silent” (as George Florovsky put it), historians of late have turned their attention to the iconography of Russian life in an attempt to divine the nature of Muscovite ideology, and particularly political ideology.
The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress: Ethnographers and the Category Nationality in the 1926, 1937, and 1939 Censuses
Authors: Hirsch Francine
Published: April 2006

The All-Union Congress of Soviets ratified the Constitution of the USSR on 31 January 1924 and, according to traditional narratives, brought the formation of the Soviet Union to a close. The very same day, a group of leading ethnographers met at the Academy of Sciences in Petrograd to discuss a directive they had received from the Soviet of Nationalities: define nationality, determine “rational criteria” for classifying the population in the first All-Union Census, and notify the Central Statistical Administration as soon as possible. The legal formation of the Soviet Union had been completed, but the state-building process, which involved “re-imagining” the former Russian empire as a socialist federation of nationalities, was just getting under way. This essay argues that the classification of Soviet citizens by nationality in the All-Union Censuses of 1926, 1937, and 1939 was a fundamental component of the creation of the multinational state. The very establishment of the census categorynationalitymarked a critical break with the tsarist regime, which had categorized its subjects on the basis of religion and native language. Ethnographers, statisticians, and linguists from Minsk to Vladivostok who formulated questionnaires and drew up lists of nationalities for all three censuses used their expertise to divine order out of chaos and create a new definitional grid. Not only did they have to decide which tribes, clans, and peoples belonged to which nationality, they also had to figure out what “nationality” meant.
Another Kind of Fear: The Kirov Murder and the End of Bread Rationing in Leningrad
Authors: Rimmel Lesley A.
Published: April 2006

The 1 December 1934 murder of Soviet Communist Party leader Sergei Mironovich Kirov has long been considered a pivotal event in Soviet history, not least of all because of the attention it received in the USSR. But although there is much controversy over Stalin’s role in the assassination, and on the connection between Kirov’s death and the Soviet terror of the 1930s, most observers concur that once Kirov was dead, the government attempted to orchestrate public opinion of his death as a calamity with broad implications. For days after the slaying, the Soviet leadership devoted hours of radio time and pages of newsprint to mourning the loss of the 48-year-old Politburo member, Central Committee secretary, and Leningrad regional and city party leader and to denouncing those allegedly behind the murder. In turn, local party functionaries organized meetings of workers, peasants, students, and housewives to collectively mourn “Mironych” and to reflect upon his life and work, while also exhorting citizens to make donations of cash or labor in his memory. The authorities lauded Kirov as the “truest son and outstanding leader”(deiatel’)of the party; headlines proclaimed “Kirov can never be torn from our hearts” and “Until the end of our days we will remember your life and struggle, Comrade Kirov!“
Aleksei Gastev and the Metallization of the Revolutionary Body
Authors: Hellebust Rolf
Published: April 2006

Since Marx was strong on criticizing capitalism, not so strong on the practical mechanics of revolution, and rather wobbly on the communist future itself, we cannot blame his Soviet followers if their ultimate goal always remained a religious mystery, veiled by the pseudoscience of political dogma. The veil enhances the mystery; it obscures the fact that thereisa mystery—that the real transformation of society into Utopia and the individual into unfetteredhomo laboranscannot be described in scientific language at all but can only be symbolized.

This becomes clear when we move from politics to art, to the sphere of culture dominated by symbolic language. Despite its debt to the explicit Utopian tradition of Chernyshevskii and the nineteenthcentury radicals, Soviet literature limits itself to an exclusively symbolic depiction of the flowering of communism. In Christianity, a transformation of analogous importance is symbolized by the bread and wine of the Eucharist.
Industrial Politics, Peasant Rebellion and the Death of the Proletarian Women's Movement in the USSR
Authors: Goldman Wendy Z.
Published: April 2006

In December 1927 delegates to the XV Party Congress of the Soviet Union adopted the slogan, “Face toward Production.” Over the next five years, as the Party embarked on a massive effort to industrialize the country and collectivize agriculture, this slogan came to define policy in every area of life. The Party daily exhorted the people to speed up production, increase the harvest, reconstruct agriculture. Workers erected behemoths of heavy industry as artists emblazoned the image of belching smokestacks everywhere, symbols not of pollution but of the transformative promise of industrialization. Stalin and his supporters purged the unions, the planning agencies and the Party of “rightists” who were seen as obstacles to the new tempos of production and the collectivization of agriculture.
Supplicants and Citizens: Public Letter-Writing in Soviet Russia in the 1930s
Authors: Fitzpatrick Sheila
Published: April 2006

“Which one of us had never written letters to the supreme powers…If they are preserved, these mountains of letters will be a veritable treasure trove for historians.” So wrote Nadezhda Mandelstam, always a sharp-eyed anthropologist of Soviet everyday life. Historians who have encountered this treasure trove in Soviet archives newly opened over the past few years are likely to agree. The great volume of public letter-writing–the “mountains” of complaints, denunciations, statements of opinion, appeals, threats and confessional outpourings that ordinary Russians sent to Soviet political leaders, party and government agencies, public figures, and newspapers–constitutes one of the major discoveries associated with the opening of the archives.
The Balkans: From Discovery to Invention
Authors: Todorova Maria
Published: April 2006

Beyond and below what was once Czechoslovakia lie the deep Balkans. They are, it has been said, a sort of hell paved with the bad intentions of the powers

By the beginning of the twentieth century Europe had added to its repertoire ofSchimpfwörter, or disparagements, a new one which turned out to be more persistent than others with centuries old traditions. "Balkanization" not only had come to denote the parcelization of large and viable political units but also had become a synonym for a reversion to the tribal, the backward, the primitive, the barbarian. In its latest hypostasis, particularly in American academe, it has been completely decontextualized and paradigmatically related to a variety of problems.
Was There Private Property in Muscovite Russia?
Authors: Pipes Richard
Published: April 2006

In a recent article in the Slavic Review, George G. Weickhardt undertook to demonstrate that Russia "gradually developed a concept of private property for land which more or less approached that of the English 'fee simple' and that the only significant limitations on individual property in [pre-Petrine] Russia were in favor of the clan rather than the state" (665). This thesis runs counter to virtually the entire historical literature in Russian as well as foreign languages.
Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia
Authors: Bakić-Hayden Milica
Published: April 2006

This paper introduces the notion of “nesting orientalisms” to investigate some of the complexity of the east/west dichotomy which has underlain scholarship on “Orientalism” since the publication of Said's classic polemic, a discourse in which “East,” like “West,” is much more of a project than a place. While geographical boundaries of the “Orient“ shifted throughout history, the concept of “Orient” as “other” has remained more or less unchanged. Moreover, cultures and ideologies tacitly presuppose the valorized dichotomy between east and west, and have incorporated various “essences” into the patterns of representation used to describe them. Implied by this essentialism is that humans and their social or cultural institutions are “governed by determinate natures that inhere in them in the same way that they are supposed to inhere in the entities of the natural world.” Thus, eastern Europe has been commonly associated with “backwardness,” the Balkans with “violence,” India with “idealism” or “mysticism,” while the west has identified itself consistently with the “civilized world.“
Political Tendencies in Russia’s Regions: Evidence from the 1993 Parliamentary Elections
Authors: Slider Darrell , Gimpel'son Vladimir , Chugrov Sergei
Published: April 2006

Most analyses of the consequences of the December 1993 elections have focused on the State Duma that was elected and its likely role in the Russian political process at the national level. The purpose of this study is to go beyond the more obvious impact of the elections to examine underlying patterns and tendencies that could be significant for Russia's future as a federal, multiethnic state. Data on voting for the parliament by party list permit for the first time a systematic, multidimensional comparison of political tendencies in Russia's regions.
The Politics of Identity in Russia's Postcommunist Transition: The Nation against Itself
Authors: Urban Michael
Published: April 2006

Politics in postcommunist societies is in large measure a politics of identity. Central to it seem to be two mutually reinforcing moments through which national communities recreate themselves. One involves the "positive" expression of nation and concerns the recovery of those identity markers—symbols, rituals, anthems, history, literature and so forth—that had been suspended and suppressed during the communist epoch. The other moment is "negative." It appears in the act of purging the nation of like markers associated with the period of communist rule that are now openly regarded as alien. The multitude of images projected from the countries of east Europe and the former USSR at the moment of communism's collapse capture these two moments in concentrated fashion. In the crowds chanting national slogans and waving the national flag, while chiseling communist emblems from the facades of public buildings and toppling statues erected to some member of the communist pantheon, we observe a distilled version of this duplex signification: "We are not communist/communism is not us."
Understandings of Anti-Semitism in Russia: An Analysis of the Politics of Anti-Jewish Attitudes
Authors: Gibson James L.
Published: April 2006

In my paper critiquing the analysis of Brym and Degtyarev, I argued that little could be gained from their analysis and indeed that their paper contributed mainly to misunderstanding anti-Semitism in Russia. In this article, I present some new survey results on anti-Semitism as a means of advancing our knowledge on this important topic. In particular, I address four questions: 1) is anti-Semitism in Russia particularly widespread? 2) are prejudiced attitudes focused specifically on Jews or are they more diffuse? 3) does a "don't know" response to survey questions mask anti-Semitic attitudes? and 4) most importantly, what are the political implications of anti-Semitism for Russian Jews?
Representing Workers and the Liberal Narrative of Modernity
Authors: Rosenberg William G.
Published: April 2006

Although the complex role of language in structuring experience and behavior is now widely recognized as a central element of historical understanding, the multiple problems of “representation” as they relate to late imperial and early Soviet politics remain a source of confusion and controversy. In particular, the role of nonworkers in organizing and leading “workers’ parties” has raised appropriate doubts about the very integrity of labor politics in these years, as well as the ways both Soviet and western historians have conceived them. Impressive new efforts have consequently been made, stimulated as well by advances in European labor history, to locate “authentic” worker voices and movements, and to contrast this socially grounded authenticity either directly or by implication with the abstracted idealizations of putative worker leaderships.
Denial of Ethnic Identity: The Political Manipulation of Beliefs about Language in Slovene Minority Areas of Austria and Hungary
Authors: Priestly Tom
Published: April 2006

A significant factor in the history—and one of the bones of contention in the historiography—of the Slovene minority in the Austrian province of Carinthia is what is known as theWindischentheorie.This pseudoacademic “theory“ was developed, on the basis of popular beliefs, during the interwar years and promulgated by those with fascist, later Nazi, sympathies and was an apparently very effective weapon in the Germanization process. The Windischentheorie changed over time; according to what may be called its “canonical” version, the language of the Carinthian Slovenes was quite different from Standard Slovene and the Carinthian Slovenes themselves were therefore ethnically distinct from Slovenes in Slovenia. Other versions of the “theory” are described below. The meaning of the wordWindisch, which had been used by German speakers to mean “Slav” for many centuries, was thereby changed radically and with important political effect.
"Democracy" in the Political Consciousness of the February Revolution
Authors: Kolonitskii Boris Ivanovich
Published: April 2006

Historians of quite diverging orientations have interpreted the February revolution of 1917 in Russia as a “democratic” revolution. Several generations of Marxists of various stripes (tolk) have called it a “bourgeois-democratic revolution.” In the years of perestroika, the contrast between democratic February and Bolshevik October became an important part of the historical argument of the anticommunist movement. The February revolution was regarded as a dramatic, unsuccessful attempt at the modernization and westernization of Russia, as its democratization. Such a point of view was expressed even earlier in some historical works and in the memoirs of participants in the events—liberals and moderate socialists. For example, just such a description of the revolution is given by Aleksandr Kerenskii, whose last reminiscences are especially significant. Kerenskii thought that “the overwhelming majority of the Russian population…were wholeheartedly democratic in their beliefs.”
All Stalin's Women: Gender and Power in Soviet Art of the 1930s
Authors: Reid Susan E.
Published: April 2006

This article will examine how the representation of gender in Soviet art during the second and third Five-Year Plans articulated relationships of domination in Stalinist society. Using female characters to stand for “the people” as a whole, painting and sculpture drew on conventional gender codes and hierarchy to naturalize the subordination of society to the Stalinist state and legitimate the sacrifice of women's needs to those of industrialization. The prevalence of female protagonists was closely connected with the promotion of the Stalin cult: women modeled the ideal attitude of “love, honor, and obedience.” As the triumph of conservative aesthetic hierarchies paralleled the restoration of traditional gender roles, I ask how women artists were to operate in these conditions.
Public Opinion and the 1996 Elections in Russia: Nostalgic and Statist, Yet Pro-Market and Pro-Yeltsin
Authors: Mason David S. , Sidorenko-Stephenson Svetlana
Published: April 2006

Between 1991 and 1996 Russia underwent a precipitous economic and social decline with decreases in production, gross national product, and wages, and increases in inequality, crime, and corruption. Most people experienced a decline in their standard of living, and many fondly recalled the security and stability of the communist era. Nevertheless, in the two main cases when the Russian electorate was confronted with a choice of directions in economic policy–the referendum of 1993 and the presidential elections of 1996–the majority chose reform. Writing about Boris Yeltsin's surprising victory in the 1996 presidential elections, aPravdacommentator mused: “Logically, he should have lost, since he was unable to fully solve any of the problems that have piled up: the stagnation of production, the impoverishment of a majority of the people, growing unemployment, the chronic nonpayment of wages, the decline in science, culture and education, the continuing conflict in Chechnya, etc. Nevertheless, Yeltsin received a majority of the electorate's votes.”
The Martens Clause, Principles of Humanity, and Dictates of Public Conscience
Authors: Mero Theodor
Published: April 2006

Together with the principle prohibiting weapons “of a nature to cause superfluous injury” or “calculated to cause unnecessary suffering,” the Martens clause, in the Preamble to the Hague Conventions on the Laws and Customs of War on Land, is an enduring legacy of those instruments. In the years since its formulation, the Martens clause has been relied upon in die Nurembergjurisprudence, addressed by the International Court of Justice and human rights bodies, and reiterated in many humanitarian law treaties that regulate the means and methods of warfare. It was restated in die 1949 Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War, the 1977 Additional Protocols to those Conventions, and the Preamble to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons, albeit in slightly different versions. The Martens clause was paraphrased in Resolution XXIII of the Tehran Conference on Human Rights of 1968, and is cited or otherwise referred to in several national military manuals, including those of the United States, die United Kingdom, and Germany. Moreover, attempts have recently been made, including by parties before die International Court of Jusdce, to invoke the clause, in the absence of specific norms of customary and conventional law, to oudaw the use of nuclear weapons.
Temporary Protection of Refugees: Elements of a Formalized Regime
Authors: Fitzpatrick Joan
Published: April 2006

Temporary protection of refugees (TP) gained surprising prominence during the 1990s as a response to forced migration, at times seeming poised to displace the regime based on the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The unprecedented Humanitarian Evacuation Programme to airlift Kosovar refugees to temporary safety in European and more distant states exemplifies TP’s appeal and adaptability. The Kosovo experience, by restoring faith that some mass influxes are genuinely temporary, may reinvigorate enthusiasm for TP, which had flagged during the endgame to the Bosnian refugee crisis.
Beyond Impunity: Can International Criminal Justice Prevent Future Atrocities?
Authors: Akhavan Payam
Published: April 2006

Although still in the early stages of their institutional life, die International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) provide a unique empirical basis for evaluating the impact of international criminaljustice on postconflict peace building. The pursuit of justice may be dismissed as a well-intentioned, but futile, ritualistic attempt to restore equilibrium to a moral universe overwhelmed by evil. Moreover, measuring the capacity of punishment to prevent criminal conduct is an elusive undertaking, especially when a society is gripped by widespread habitual violence and an inverted morality has elevated otherwise “deviant” crimes to the highest expression of group loyalty. Yet an appreciation of die determinate causes of such large-scale violence demonstrates that stigmatization of criminal conduct may have far-reaching consequences, promoting postconflict reconciliation and changing die broader rules of international relations and legitimacy.
Reference standards for determination of DNA content of plant nuclei
Authors: Johnston J. Spencer , Bennett Michael D. , Rayburn A. Lane , Galbraith David W. , Price H. James
Published: April 2006

Flow cytometry was used to compare 14 potential reference standards for plant DNA content determination. Both chicken and plant internal standards were used, as were propidium iodide (PI) and 4'‐6‐diamidino‐2‐phenylindole (DAPI) as fluorochromes. Means and standard errors of the means are presented for the 14 potential reference standards, and the means are compared to those obtained by Feulgen densitometry. Five species are recommended as an initial set of international standards for future plant DNA content determinations: Sorghum bicolor cv. Pioneer 8695 (2C = 1.74 pg), Pisum sativum cv. Minerva Maple (2C = 9.56 pg), Hordeum vulgare cv. Sultan (2C = 11.12 pg), Vicia faba (2C = 26.66 pg), and Allium cepa cv. Ailsa Craig (2C = 33.55 pg). It is recommended that the reference standard of choice be one with 2C and 4C nuclear DNA content peaks similar to, but not overlapping, the 2C and 4C peaks of the target species. We recommend PI as the fluorochrome of choice for flow cytometric determination of plant DNA content. DAPI should be used only if the estimated DNA value is corroborated by using a second stain that has no bias for AT‐ or GC‐rich sequences within genomes.
Seed abortion in Pongamia pinnata (Fabaceae)
Authors: Arathi H. S. , Ganeshaiah K. N. , Shaanker R. Uma , Hegde S. G.
Published: April 2006

In Pongamia pinnata only one of the two ovules develops into a seed in most of the pods. Since pollen was not found to be limiting and reduced fertilization could not completely explain the observed frequency of seed abortion, it implied an effect of postfertilization factors. Aqueous extracts of developing seeds and maternal tissue (placenta) did not influence abortion in vitro, suggesting that abortion may not be mediated by a chemical. Experimental uptake of 14C sucrose in vitro indicated that both the stigmatic and the peduncular seed have similar inherent capacities of drawing resources, but the peduncular seed is deprived of resources in the presence of the stigmatic seed. This deprivation of the peduncular seed could be offset by supplying an excess of hormones leading to the subsequent formation of two seeds in a pod. The prevalence of single‐seeded pods in P. pinnata seems therefore to be a result of competition between the two seeds for maternal resources. The evolutionary significance of single‐seeded pods in P. pinnata is discussed with respect to possible dispersal advantage enjoyed by such pods.
Pollination of Ipomopsis aggregata (Polemoniaceae): effects of intra‐ vs. interspecific competition
Authors: Caruso Christina M.
Published: April 2006

Although plants may simultaneously experience intra‐ and interspecific competition for pollination, their relative strength has rarely been experimentally evaluated. Yet because intra‐ and interspecific competition can be caused by different mechanisms, their effect on the ecology and evolution of plants may differ. To determine the relative strength of intra‐ and interspecific competition for pollination, I manipulated the presence of heterospecifics and density of conspecifics using Ipomopsis aggregata as the focal species. All plots contained I. aggregata and Castilleja linariaefolia, but C. linariaefolia inflorescences were removed from half of the plots to create the heterospecifics‐absent treatment. Within each plot, all I. aggregata inflorescences were removed from a 5‐m radius around a focal plant to create a low conspecific density experimental unit, and a group of 12 I. aggregata plants/1 m2 was designated as a high conspecific density unit. Conspecific pollen deposition was reduced when C. linariaefolia was present but was not influenced by I. aggregata density. Although seed set per fruit was reduced by 17% when C. linariaefolia was present, it was not significantly influenced by either treatment. Interspecific competition for pollination is stronger than intraspecific competition in the I. aggregata–C. linariaefolia system, but neither process appears to influence plant fitness.
Impact of saltwater spray andsand deposition on the coastal annualTriplasis purpurea (Poaceae)
Authors: Cheplick Gregory P. , Demetri Harry
Published: April 2006

Pioneer coastal plants occur in areas where sand movement and airborne salt are common. The objectives of this study were to (1) quantify natural levels of salt and sand deposition in relation to distance from the shoreline of Staten Island, New York, and (2) experimentally determine the impact of saltwater sprays and partial sand burial on growth and reproduction of the native dunegrass Triplasis purpurea. This summer annual matures most seeds in cleistogamous spikelets on leaf sheath‐enclosed axillary panicles along culm internodes. Levels of salt deposition onto T. purpurea shoots over 6 d were determined with a conductivity meter to be 175 μg/cm2 at 39 m from shore in 1997, but declined rapidly with increasing distances to 90 m. Sand deposition over 1 mo in the summer averaged 30 mm at 72–90 m from shore. In a greenhouse factorial experiment, seedlings were unburied, buried to 50% height, or buried to 75% height and simultaneously subjected to no sprays, two sprays/wk, or six sprays/wk of seawater over the summer. Sand deposition increased plant size and seed production, but seawater sprays were mostly detrimental, reducing plant size, seed production, and seed mass. However, T. purpurea tolerated moderate levels of salt deposition. The stimulation of growth and reproduction in partially buried plants is adaptive on the sandy soils. Prolific seed production and tolerance to moderate levels of airborne salt allow this annual to maintain high population densities close to shore.
Effects of irradiance and spectral quality on leaf structure and function in seedlings of two Southeast AsianHopea(Dipterocarpaceae) species
Authors: Lee David W. , Oberbauer Steven F. , Johnson Paulette , Krishnapilay Baskaran , Mansor Marzalina , Mohamad Haris , Yap Son Kheong
Published: April 2006

We studied the development of leaf characters in two Southeast Asian dipterocarp forest trees under different photosynthetic photon flux densities (PFD) and spectral qualities (red to far‐red, R:FR). The two species,Hopea helferiandH. odorata,are taxonomically closely related but differ in their ecological requirements;H. helferiis more drought tolerant andH. odoratamore shade tolerant. Seedlings were grown in replicated shadehouse treatments of differing PFD and R:FR. We measured or calculated (1) leaf and tissue thicknesses; (2) mesophyll parenchyma, air space, and lignified tissue volumes; (3) mesophyll air volumes (Vmes/Asurf) and surfaces (Ames/Asurf); (4) palisade cell length and width; (5) chlorophyll/cm2anda/b; (6) leaf absorption; and (7) attenuance/absorbance at 652 and 550 nm. These characters varied in response to light conditions in both taxa. Characters were predominantly affected by PFD, and R:FR slightly influenced many characters. Leaf characters ofH. odoratawere more plastic in response to treatment conditions. Characters were correlated with each other in a complex fashion. Variation in leaf anatomy is most likely a consequence of increasing leaf thickness in both taxa, which may increase mechanical strength and defense against herbivory in more exposed environments. Variation in leaf optical properties was most likely affected by pigment photo‐bleaching in treatments of more intense PFD and was not correlated withAmax. The greater plasticity of leaf responses inH. odoratahelps explain the acclimation over the range of light conditions encountered by this shade‐tolerant taxon. The dense layer of scales on the leaf undersurface and other anatomical characters inH. helferireduced gas exchange and growth in this drought‐tolerant tree.
RAPD marker diversity within and divergence among species of Dendroseris (Asteraceae: Lactuceae)
Authors: Esselman Elizabeth J. , Crawford Daniel J. , Brauner Soren , Stuessy Tod F. , Anderson Gregory J. , Silva O Mario
Published: April 2006

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were used to measure genetic diversity within and divergence among species of Dendroseris (Asteraceae: Lactuceae), a genus endemic to the Juan Fernandez Islands, Chile. Results were compared to previous studies employing allozymes. For five of the species, RAPD banding patterns distinguished all individuals examined, and different mutilocus genotypes were found even in species exhibiting no allozyme diversity. RAPD band diversities ranged from 0.003 to 0.022 within species; >90% of total diversity was among species and <10% within them. Relative levels of allozyme and RAPD diversity were similar for some species, particularly those with highest and lowest diversities, but overall there was no significant correlation. Relationships inferred from a neighbor‐joining tree generated from RAPD bands were similar to results obtained from morphology, chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) restriction site mutations, and sequences from the internal transcribed spacer regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS), but somewhat better resolution was achieved. Relationships shown by allozymes differed from trees based on other data; this ostensibly is a result of the sharing of ancestral alleles and the absence of alleles generated subsequent to speciation. Dendroseris represents an example where RAPD markers, because of their greater variability, provide a useful alternative to allozymes for assessing diversity in rare species endemic to oceanic islands and for resolving relationships among the species.
Wind pollination and reproductive assurance in Linanthus parviflorus (Polemoniaceae), a self‐incompatible annual
Authors: Goodwillie Carol
Published: April 2006

Wind pollination was experimentally demonstrated in Linanthus parviflorus (Polemoniaceae), a predominantly beefly‐pollinated, self‐incompatible annual. Seed set in plants enclosed in mesh tents that excluded pollinators but allowed airborne pollen flow provided evidence for wind pollination, and the extent of seed set due to wind pollination was compared to that in open‐pollinated controls and pollen‐supplemented treatments. Additional controls were included to test for possible confounding effects of the mesh tent. Mean seed number in open‐pollinated plants was 72.8–81.1% of that in pollen‐supplemented plants, while wind pollination alone produced 49.5–52.2%, a smaller but substantial proportion of seed set with pollen supplementation. Further evidence for wind pollination was found in a comparison of sites differing in the extent of wind exposure in two populations of L. parviflorus. Airborne pollen counts were higher in exposed sites than in protected sites, and the difference was marginally significant. Seed set was significantly pollen limited in protected sites, but not in exposed sites. Taken together, the data suggest that wind pollination provides some reproductive assurance in this obligately outcrossing species. Wind pollination is hypothesized to represent an alternative to selfing as an evolutionary solution to the problem of temporal or spatial variation in pollination visitation.
Genetic diversity and gene flow in the morphologically variable, rare endemics Begonia dregei and Begonia homonyma (Begoniaceae)
Authors: Matolweni Luzuko Orlyn , Balkwill Kevin , McLellan Tracy
Published: April 2006

Begonia dregei and B. homonyma (Begoniaceae), rare plants endemic to coastal forests of eastern South Africa, are two closely related species with high levels of variation among populations in the shape of leaves. Distribution of genetic variation and genetic relatedness were investigated in 12 populations of B. dregei and seven of B. homonyma using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Twelve of the 15 enzyme loci examined were polymorphic, but only seven loci were polymorphic within at least one population. Genetic diversity measures indicated that the among‐population gene differentiation represents >90% of the total genetic component in both species considered individually or combined. This indicated restricted gene flow, consistent with the limited dispersal abilities of Begonia generally and the ancient separation of isolated forest patches. Genetic distances among populations are much higher than usually found within species. Allozyme data provide no support for the recognition of B. dregei and B. homonyma as distinct species.
Developmental instability in hybrids betweenLychnis viscariaandLychnis alpina(Caryophyllaceae)
Authors: Siikama¨ki Pirkko
Published: April 2006

Developmental instability shown by increased fluctuating asymmetry can be caused by either genetic or environmental stress. Genomic coadaptation and heterozygosity are the genetic factors that are commonly assumed to increase the level of developmental stability. Therefore, in hybrid populations the level of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) can be lower due to higher heterozygosity or higher due to disruption of coadapted gene complexes, depending on the degree of divergence between hybridizing taxa. Here I present data on FA in petals from hybrids betweenLychnis viscaria(Caryophyllaceae) andLychnis alpinaand from parental species grown in a common garden environment. Petal asymmetry of hybrids was clearly higher than that of either parental species grown in common environment. Between the two parental species petal asymmetry did not differ. The mean size of the petals in hybrids was about the same as inL. viscaria,thus indicating no heterotic effect. Therefore, it seems that hybrids betweenL. viscariaandL. alpinado suffer from the disruption of coadapted gene complexes as indicated by higher developmental instability.