bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Graphical Feedback System to Effectively Support User's Task
Authors: Yoshimune Toshiya , Ogawa Katsuhiko
Published: January 2012

The book metaphor approach was created to simplify database access. The intent was to improve access speed and comfort. In 1990, we created an advanced book metaphor interface (BMI) to a set of about 300 design guidelines. The user interacts with the guidelines through a ‘book like’ screen and operations such as the table of contents, the index, or browsing. Experiments revealed, however, that the BMI did not offer a significant improvement over the equivalent printed version of the guidelines.

The BMI was more comfortable but users did not perform the task, correcting an example of a bad data input screen, any more rapidly. The problem was that novice users did not understand the tools offered by the BMI and so failed to use them in the optimum manner.

An agent was added to the BMI that monitors the user's commands and, when the user deviates from the optimum procedure, graphically suggests what the more correct procedure would be.

The subjects of the usability analysis were software designers who did not have background in human factors. They were instructed to design screens through the use of the guidelines using the BMI. The agent was provided to only half of them. The usability analysis finds that the new BMI realizes higher productivity and increased user acceptance.
Design of Simplified Television Remote Controls: A Case for Behavioral and Emotional Usability
Authors: Logan Robert J. , Augaitis Sheila , Renk Thomas
Published: January 2012

Remote controls are part of everyday life. Unfortunately, the experience of using a remote is not always pleasurable. This research documents the process of developing multiple remote control concepts that are ergonomic and enjoyable to use. As part of the design process, we researched design concepts with 147 consumers in three cities. The research yielded design-specific data, but also provided insight to some general consumer trends in remote usage and preference for children and adults. This research also suggests that an expanded definition of usability may be required for certain product categories such as consumer electronics. Central to this expanded definition are the concepts of behavioral and emotional usability. Behavioral usability refers to the traditional work related definition of usability. Emotional usability refers to additional needs, such as entertainment or enjoyment, that enhance the product usage experience.
Enhancing the Perceived Readability of Pharmaceutical Container Labels and Warnings: The use of Alternative Designs and Pictorials
Authors: Kalsher Michael J. , Pucci Shari , Wogalter Michael S. , Racicot Bernadette M.
Published: January 2012

The appropriate use of pharmaceuticals, as well as their hazards, are not commonly known to most people. In fact, the only information available to consumers is usually the material found on the product label. Unfortunately, for some consumers this method of communicating instructions and risks may be ineffective, and potentially dangerous. People may have difficulty with the labels because the print on the label is too small for them to read. Two alternative (tag and fold-out) designs were developed to increase the available surface area for information printed on a fictitious prescription drug label. The alternative label designs were compared to a standard control label. The presence versus the absence of pictorials visually depicting several instructions and warnings was also examined. Participants rated the labels on ease of reading the labels, likelihood of noticing the warnings, likelihood of reading the warnings, preference for each of the labels, and likelihood that they would recommend each label for use by a friend or family member. The results showed that participants ( n = 84) preferred the alternative label designs, especially the tag labels, and those with illustrative pictorials. Implications of these results and recommendations for future research in this area are discussed.
Applying Human Factors to Classroom Visual Aids
Authors: Shapiro Susan J.
Published: January 2012

Transparencies, slides, and computer based displays are common visual aids used in classroom presentations. This paper will outline the use of principles which improve the effectiveness of these visual aids

General principles discussed include: Organizing material, clarifying material and enhancing encoding. Gestalt principles such as simplicity, similarity, proximity, and continuation, appropriate text size and font, effective use of color and other attention getting cues, and appropriate contrast and glare reduction are considered.
Designing VDT Operator Training Programs for Preventing Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders
Authors: Robertson Michelle M.
Published: January 2012

A systems approach is essential in addressing work related musculoskeletal disorders associated with VDT work. One integral component in the systems methodology is that of designing, developing and implementing an effective VDT training program. This paper specifically focuses on the importance of a VDT training program, how the training should be comprehensive, and systematically evaluated. Elements of a successful ergonomie VDT training program are described and examples of two successful VDT training programs are given.
Auditory Monitoring of up to Eight Simultaneous Sources
Authors: Folds Dennis J. , Gerth Jeffrey M.
Published: January 2012

The present research examined visual and auditory monitoring of independent, concurrent sources. Subjects monitored from one to eight concurrent visual indicators for the occurrence of a “launch” event. Five between-groups conditions were studied: a visual-only group, plus four audiovisual groups that differed in the amount of information provided over the auditory channel. Accuracy scores were very high for all groups. Response times showed an overall increase with display density (number of concurrent sources). A significant group x density interaction revealed an advantage of one of the audiovisual conditions compared to the visual-only group at moderate density levels (5 or 6 concurrent sources), but not at lower or higher density levels. This finding probably indicates the value of an auditory signal to reduce visual search time.
Behavioral Design of Automated Systems
Authors: Meister David
Published: January 2012

Behavioral design of computerized systems must account for the operator's changed role: from controller, to monitor, supervisor, and troubleshooter. Design guidelines will replace present fixed verbal prescriptions with mathematical curves relating relevant variables.
“De Maximis Non Curat Lex” or how Context Reduces Science to Art in the Practice of Human Factors
Authors: Moray Neville
Published: January 2012

Frequently claims are made that what the discipline of human factors and ergonomics needs are better and more detailed data bases which can be used by designers as “look up” tables to specify the properties of human beings. Several of these already exist but they seem not to be satisfactory. The experience of teaching user centered design has convinced the author that the problem lies not in the absence of appropriate data tables for designers, but in the nature of the systems we design. Unlike many other engineering disciplines human factors is extremely sensitive to context. The result is that there are no such things as context free laws in applied psychology, and hence the value of data bases and tables is restricted to certain fairly basic ergonomic problems. It is moreover not merely in small details that laws do not apply - hence the title of this paper. Increasingly the nature of advanced systems renders such data bases of little value unless we can develop equivalent data bases which describe context, not merely the properties of humans.
Carpal Tunnel Pressure during Typing: Effects of Wrist Posture and Typing Speed
Authors: Sommerich Carolyn M.
Published: January 2012

With increasing frequency, reports appear in the popular press linking hand and wrist musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) with keyboard work. Excessive ulnar deviation and self-perceived fast typing speed are two of the many risk factors identified through various epidemiological studies of upper extremity MSD symptoms among those working with keyboards. Yet no study has offered quantitative, biomechanical evidence to explain how these factors might contribute to MSD development. A study was designed to examine carpal tunnel pressure (CTP) during typing, and the effect of radial-ulnar wrist posture and typing speed on CTP. Female subjects typed on a commercially-available keyboard which was oriented in standard and in split configurations. In the split arrangement ulnar deviation was eased in all but one wrist. In the split arrangement, all subjects demonstrated a decrease in CTP concomitant with a decrease in ulnar wrist deviation. However, only one subject exhibited CTP which significantly exceeded pressure thresholds identified in the literature. CTP appeared to be subject-specific in nature. Typing speed was found to affect peak CTP in half of the subjects.
The Effects of Human Interface Design on Wrist Biomechanics during Scanning
Authors: Lehman Katherine R. , Marras William S.
Published: January 2012

Two window, or “bi-optic” scanners have ergonomic potential to minimize cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) among grocery checkers. However, not all checkers utilize both windows when scanning.

Four, two window scanners were tested to see whether the number of windows used had an effect on wrist acceleration, one of the most predictive indicators of CTD risk. Out of 32 subjects, 14 used only one window while scanning. These subjects were seen to have significantly higher cumulative peak wrist accelerations than those subjects that used both windows. In addition, the productivity of the one window users was significantly lower than two window users.

The results indicate that two window scanners can not only increase productivity, but can reduce the risk of CTDs. However, this will only occur if checkers appreciate and choose to use both windows in their scanning activity. The large number of subjects (14 out of 32) that only used one window when scanning indicates a serious human interface problem with these types of scanners.

This paper identifies the need for better scanner designs that will indicate to the user the three-dimensional scan zone created by the two windows. The design should influence one to use both windows while scanning so that wrist motions will be reduced. Most importantly, this paper identifies the importance of the relationship between cognitive and biomechanical issues when approaching a human interface problem in a product's design.
Perceived Exertion Scales: Toward Development of Improved Verbal Anchors
Authors: Angel Sue Mason , Marley Robert J. , Stadtlander Leann
Published: January 2012

An experiment documented the choices of verbal anchors or word triggers by subjects observing five different videotaped work operations. Their surveyed numeric scalings and word selections were compiled to form a list of ten words which are recommended to describe amount or degree of work being performed. This study acknowledges that there is inherent risk in applying words to work measurement scales, but the list may be helpful as a guide to choosing appropriate words to indicate work content or for job descriptions.
Ergonomic Analysis of Extension Ladders
Authors: Beyer Roman R. , McCarthy Roger L. , Wood Christine T.
Published: January 2012

Although the most serious accident mode associated with extension ladder use has always been “falling off the ladder” there has been increasing attention, recently, on “contact with electric current” or electrocution accidents primarily with aluminum ladders. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has made several recommendations to address this problem from a technical approach. They have proposed insulating and/or isolating the ladder electrically or replacing it with a fiberglass ladder. Long extension ladders are heavy, and proposed recommendations by the CPSC to make aluminum extension ladders nonconductive include replacing them with fiberglass extension ladders, which will definitely result in a heavier ladder. A heavier ladder has implications for the characteristics of the user population and for types of injury patterns.

Occupational accident data show that ladder associated accidents directly related to ladder weight, such as overexertion, are more likely. If ladder weight were increased for example, by using exclusively nonconductive fiberglass ladders, overexertion would be a greater concern. A statics model was developed that uses a variety of variables relevant to the ladder erection process to determine the amount of force required of users to erect various types of extension ladders. Anthropometric data on the male and the female adult population were compared to the ladder user requirements. The percentages of males and of females capable of erecting 12.2-meter (40-foot) extension ladders were determined. Only three percent of female adults have the strength and reach height to erect 12.2-meter (40-foot) fiberglass extension ladders. Mandated use of 12.2-meter (40-foot) fiberglass extension ladders would greatly restrict the numbers of females who could perform jobs requiring the use of such ladders.
Scaling of Relative Velocity between Vehicles
Authors: Hoffmann Errol R. , Mortimer Rudolf G.
Published: January 2012

Data are presented on the ability of drivers to perceive and scale the relative velocity between their own and a lead vehicle. Experiments were carried out on four groups of subjects using Ekman's ratio-rating method. Only when the subtended angular velocity of the lead vehicle exceeded about .003 rad/s were the subjects able to scale the relative velocity. The threshold subtended angular velocity obtained in the experiments was very much affected by the ability of subjects to use the concept of a ratio – engineering students found this a simpler task than did subjects from the general population. The result of this was that the values used by engineering students were closer to the real values. The relative velocity was perceived non-linearly, with a Stevens' power law exponent of about 0.8. It was found that linear models gave as good a fit to the data. The implications of the results of the experiments are (i) traffic flow models that include human visual characteristics must consider the ‘dead zones’ in response produced by thresholds of subtended angle change and subtended angular velocity, (ii) it may be necessary to consider the non-linear relationship between perceived relative velocity and actual relative velocity (iii) In overtaking, the driver will not be able to scale the speed of the oncoming vehicle as the subtended angular velocity will be below the threshold value at the time of making the decision to overtake.
Human Factors Issues in the Maritime Industry
Authors: Hill Susan G. , Rothblum Anita M.
Published: January 2012

As a result of the Exxon Valdez accident in March, 1989, considerable attention has been focused on the role of the crew in maritime safety. It is generally recognized that human error contributes to the majority of the accidents in the aviation and nuclear industries, and recent analyses of marine safety data suggest a similar level in maritime applications. The problem areas also appear to be similar, i.e., fatigue and stress effects on performance, mismatches between levels of automation and skill, poor or inadequate procedures, and human frailty with regard to following procedures.

This session presents four papers which present research and discussion of human factors issues related to work in the maritime environment. These papers present a breadth of topics, including the mariner's interaction with automation, issues of manning, methodology and results concerning “live-aboard” work concepts, and collection of human factors-related data from marine casualties. The papers presented are either directly sponsored by, or associated with, work being carried out by the U.S. Coast Guard, which is responsible for marine safety in U.S. waters. This symposium presents human factors research and applications in the marine environment; however, the issues and results may be useful across a wide variety of transportation and safety areas.
An Evaluation of a Coast Guard “Live-Aboard” Concept: Can Crews Adapt to a Restricted Living and Operational Environment?
Authors: Carvalhais Antonio B. , Tepas Donald I. , Paley Michael J.
Published: January 2012

The present evaluation was conducted to assess whether crews can cope and adapt to a restricted living and work environment. Two United States Coast Guard small boat stations with similar environmental conditions, mission profiles, and workload levels were selected for this evaluation. At one station, shore-side facilities were replaced with a 50-foot live-aboard boat (NORCREW). The second station, maintained shore-side facilities (COMP). Survey and daily log data on human factors variables, which have been used to predict adaptation to work environments, were collected from 18 crew members. Analysis of these data did not reveal any significant adverse psychophysiological effects associated with the live-aboard concept. Data revealed time-of-day effects consistent with conventional thought and chronobiological theory which leads the authors to conclude that the live aboard concept does not appear to disrupt circadian cycles. Overall, the consistent failure to detect any differences between NORCREW and COMP on human factors variables clearly suggests that further consideration of this concept is warranted.
The Organizational Context for Decision Making in High-Hazard Industries
Authors: Carroll John S.
Published: January 2012

The study of decision making in high-hazard industries has recently shifted from the traditional focus on control room operators to other actors in the sociotechnical system, including designers and management. I discuss the importance of hierarchy and specialization in organizational decision making, drawing on research in organizational psychology, sociology, and related disciplines.
Demonstration of Power: Performance and Objective Workload Evaluation Research
Authors: Rodgers Mark D. , Manning Carol A. , Kerr Charles S.
Published: January 2012

The Federal Aviation Adrainistration (FAA) is developing a method to determine whether future air traffic control systems will provide the benefits to the National Airspace System (NAS) that were proposed when they were conceived. The purpose of this project was to develop a set of objective measures to characterize the productivity of an individual air traffic controller. Software was developed to compute measures of airspace characteristics, controller activities, and air traffic situational characteristics. This software, the Performance and Objective Workload Evaluation Research (POWER) program, computes a set of numerical measures based on routinely collected air traffic control data. The POWER program was written to interface with the Situation Assessment Through Re-creation of Incidents (SATORI) system, originally developed to re-create operational incidents (Rodgers & Duke, 1993). An engineering validation was conducted and a psychometric assessment is underway to evaluate the reliability, validity, and utility of the measures and a subset will be chosen to characterize controller taskload and performance. POWER will then be used to measure controller performance and taskload on ATC sectors to be transitioned to future systems. These baseline taskload and performance measures will be compared to taskload and performance measures obtained from future ATC systems after system implementation. POWER will also be used to evaluate alternative future systems display configurations at the Civil Aeromedical Institute (CAMI) Air Traffic Control Future Systems Simulation Laboratory.
Workload Assessment Monitor (WAM)
Authors: Wilson Glenn F.
Published: January 2012

The Workload Assessment Monitor (WAM) is a PC based system which has two functions: 1) It collects and provides on-line reduction of psychophysiological data, and 2) provides on-line classification of operator state (workload, fatigue, etc.). Each of the physiological measures can provide unique information concerning operator state and by combining these measures there is a pattern that has utility beyond the individual measures.
Jigs and Fixtures: Design Review Guidelines for the Ergonomics Engineer
Authors: Townes Maryanne
Published: January 2012

Traditionally, the ergonomics engineer has not played an active role in the design of jigs and fixtures used to manually assemble parts. This is problematic, since tool redesigns are often infeasible due to cost and production constraints. Therefore, less effective measures must be used to control ergonomic hazards, since the hazard(s) cannot be engineered out during the design process. References, guidelines and checklists used by many tool designers do not include ergonomic engineering principles and methods. In addition, many ergonomics engineers may not be schooled in the elements of jig and fixture design, which may reduce their effectiveness as part of the tool design team. The purpose of this paper is to provide the ergonomics engineer with an overview of the design process, and proffer guidelines to assist in the review of jig and fixture designs.
Beyond the Bounds of the Human Factors Tool Kit: Computer-Human Interface Design in a Complex System
Authors: Miller Douglas L. , Wolfman G. Jonathan , Mullins R. Timothy , Crehan Colin
Published: January 2012

To achieve the potential of human factors involvement in computer-human interface design, human factors engineers must transition from being isolated specialists to integrated components of the mainstream life-cycle development process. A fundamental obstacle to this transition has been the limitations associated with traditional human factors methods. The search for better methods has resulted in a recent evolution in the human factors tool kit. While this evolution has increased tool kit utility, it is not yet as robust as needed for the development of complex systems. For the past several years the human factor team at Loral Federal Systems Company has been the central focus of system design and development activities for the Tower Control Computer Complex (TCCC). The TCCC will replace most Federal Aviation Administration airport tower cab equipment with advanced workstations and software. At least five limitations have been encountered with the traditional human factors tool kit due to the complexity of the TCCC and the environment in which it will be used. This paper describes these limitations, and the alternatives that have been successfully employed to produce an operationally suitable computer-human interface as part of an integrated life-cycle effort. At the heart of these remedies were the use of a dedicated team of representative end-users and a variety of non-traditional design evaluation techniques, throughout the project life-cycle. Among these techniques was the evaluation of laboratory prototypes using a “hands-off” intellectual review process and electronically supported group-based evaluations.
Network Analysis as a Technique to Guide the Task Analysis of ATIS/CVO
Authors: Lee John D. , Raby Mireille
Published: January 2012

Applications of Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) and Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO) include technology ranging from simple sensors and alarms to complex combinations of databases and displays. This range of technology will impose a variety of task demands on drivers, and these demands need to be cataloged. Without a means of focusing the task analysis describing these systems, a complete description of all possible interactions among the potential functions of ATIS/CVO systems would be intractable. To address this problem, we have adopted network analysis techniques from sociological and anthropological studies of social groups as a tool to examine complex systems and to guide a task analysis. Network analysis provides a quantitative analysis of information flows that link system functions that can focus a task analysis on important functions and critical interactions between these functions. This paper describes measures of centrality and clusters and how these measures can guide any complex task analysis in the same way it focused the task analysis of ATIS/CVO systems.
An Integrative Bargaining Paradigm for Investigating Multidisciplinary Design Tradeoffs
Authors: Brown Clifford E. , Selvaraj Jonathan A. , Zaff Brian S. , McNeese Michael D. , Whitaker Randall D.
Published: January 2012

In design teams, decision making entails negotiation among parties pursuing common goals with potentially divergent interests and objectives (Bucciarelli, 1988). In multidisciplinary design teams, these parties negotiate from perspectives further biased by their respective backgrounds, expertise, and roles. System design can be improved if we better understand how technical data are communicated and assimilated, how mutually advantageous tradeoffs are discovered, and how the managing of design tradeoffs can best be supported.

As part of our larger research effort in Collaborative Design Technology, we are examining the processes by which integrative design tradeoffs are realized, in preparation for enhancing these processes through data visualization and communication tools facilitating mutual understanding and consensual decision making. This initial report describes our work to date in creating and validating an experimental paradigm to serve as a testbed for subsequent studies of multidisciplinary design practice. This paper describes the paradigm and the initial attempts to demonstrate its ecological validity. This initial validation effort involved a comparison of novices and experts in the field of design and their performance on the design decision making task. We found that experts performed better than novices on the design task, which provided initial validation support for the experimental paradigm.
Driver Acceptance of Unreliable Route Guidance Information
Authors: Hanowski Richard J. , Kantowitz Susan C. , Kantowitz Barry H.
Published: January 2012

Human factors research can be used to design safe and efficient Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) that are easy to use (Kantowitz, Becker, & Barlow, 1993). This research used the Battelle Route Guidance Simulator (RGS) to examine two important issues related to driver behavior and acceptance of ATIS technology: (1) the effect of route familiarity on ATIS use and acceptance and (2) the level of information accuracy needed for an ATIS to be accepted and considered useful. The RGS included two 486 computers that provided drivers with real-time information and traffic reports. Drivers used a touch screen to select routes on one computer monitor and watched the results of their selection (i.e., real-time video of the traffic) on a second computer monitor. Drivers could use the system to obtain information about the traffic conditions on any link before traversing a route. In this experiment, subjects were exposed to four experimental conditions involving manipulation of the driver's familiarity with the route and the reliability of the traffic information obtained from the RGS (i.e., 100%, 71%, and 43% accuracy). The driver's goal was to reach the destination as quickly as possible by avoiding heavy traffic. The results indicated that drivers were able to benefit from system information when it was reliable, but not when it was unreliable. Trust ratings for the 43% accuracy group were significantly higher at the beginning of the four trials than at the end. Also, drivers were more apt to rely on the ATIS and accept information given in an unfamiliar traffic network versus a familiar one.
The Critical Incident Technique: 40 Years Later
Authors: Shattuck Lawrence G. , Woods David D.
Published: January 2012

This year marks the 40th anniversary of the publication of John Flanagan's paper entitled “The Critical Incident Technique” in Psychological Bulletin. In the years since its publication, much has happened in the field of human factors. The critical incident technique is still a common tool among human factors practitioners, though it has often been modified. With a new generation of practitioners in training, it is important to consider what they are learning about this tool. A survey conducted with future human factors professionals highlights some misconceptions concerning the critical incident technique. These misconceptions seem to originate from two sources: the treatment of the technique in human factors textbooks and handbooks, and the use of the technique in current research and application work. Some modern variations of the critical incident technique are discussed. The critical incident technique is viewed as an instance in which human factors specialists are shaping their tools to meet their needs. A set of principles is proposed to guide today's human factors practitioners in conducting cognitively oriented field research
Strategy-to-Task: Human Factors Operational Test and Evaluation at the Task-Level
Authors: Andre Terence S. , Charlton Samuel G.
Published: January 2012

Human factors operational test and evaluation (OT&E) at the function/characteristic level has not always provided an appropriate balance of addressing both the needs of the system user and the decisionmaker. System users are primarily concerned with the characteristics and capabilities of their system. Acquisition decision-makers, on the other hand, are more concerned with force structure and how potential military systems fit within the national military strategy. Human factors OT&E has traditionally considered the user of the system by testing human factors at a characteristic, rather than mission or operational task-level. In order to address the needs of the decision-maker, OT&E has adopted a strategy-to-task formulation that can have the undesirable side effect of decreasing the visibility of human factors test results. Because human factors measures are considered at the system function/characteristic level, significant human performance/human-machine interface issues are not always visible at the level of higher task elements and missions. Systems which require significant human-in-control or human-in-the-loop operability may lend themselves to consideration at the task-level. Testing human factors at the task-level within the strategy-to-task framework provides both the decision-maker and user with the necessary information to buy and properly operate the system.
Workload Context Effect: An Elusive Phenomenon
Authors: Fischer Douglas S. , Moroney William F. , Biers David W.
Published: January 2012

The effect of workload context on subsequent performance and workload ratings has crucial implications regarding workload transition. However few studies have examined workload context effects; and those that have, report contradictory results. This study attempts to determine if the failure to find evidence of workload context effects might be attributable to methodological factors such as task duration, task difficulty, and experimental design. Twelve subjects “flew” three sessions of three trials on a computer-based flight simulator, and rated the workload after each trial. A pre-post experimental design presented the first and third trials at a medium level of difficulty while the second (experimental) trial was of low, medium, or high difficulty. Crosswinds of 2, 12, and 22 knots created the levels of low, medium, and high task difficulty. Analyses of the performance and workload data did not reveal significant differences in Trial 3 as a function of prior task difficulty presented in Trial 2. The inability to find workload context effects in the present study suggests that previous inconsistent findings can not be attributed to differences in task duration and experimental design. Rather, it appears that contradictory results may be attributable to differences in the range of task difficulty employed, the workload measurement tool, or both.
Side Effects and Aftereffects of Immersion in Virtual Environments
Authors: Lampton Donald R. , Kolasinski Eugenia M. , Knerr Bruce W. , Bliss James P. , Bailey John H. , Witmer Bob G.
Published: January 2012

Immersive Virtual Environment (VE) technology, also known as virtual reality, is being touted as an important new medium for education and training. Other potential applications involve communications, medicine, architecture, astronomy, data handling, teleoperation, and entertainment. A threat to the successful application of this technology is that some users of VE systems suffer unwanted side effects and aftereffects similar to, but not limited to, symptoms of motion sickness. These effects may degrade training effectiveness and jeopardize user safety and well-being. This paper describes the incidence and severity of symptoms we recorded during four different experiments which examined VE training applications. The experiments involved a variety of tasks, simulated environments, and VE systems. We administered a 28 item questionnaire that addressed symptoms related to nausea, eye strain, and dizziness. Significant variation was observed across individuals. In each experiment some users, between 4 and 16%, experienced discomfort to the extent that we terminated their participation. Most users enjoyed the VE experiment but reported some level of discomfort. Our findings indicated that sickness resulting from VE immersion is a potentially serious problem which may not be completely eradicated by improvements in equipment. This paper describes the patterns of effects we observed, discusses the challenges of measuring effects, and outlines future research.
Training to Reduce the Disruptive Effects of Interruptions
Authors: Hess Stephen M. , Detweiler Mark C.
Published: January 2012

Two multi-session experiments are described in which a complex problem-solving task was interrupted at different stages of practice. In Experiment 1, subjects practiced the main problem-solving task for three sessions, with intermittent interruptions during each session. By the end of Session 3, interruptions which were similar to the main task, in terms of type of material processed and processing demands, no longer disrupted performance as they had in Sessions 1 and 2. In Experiment 2, subjects practiced the same problem-solving task for two sessions without interruptions. The same types of interruptions used in Experiment 1 were introduced in Session 3. Although the main task was well learned by the third session, the interruptions disrupted subjects' main-task accuracies dramatically. These results suggest that training tasks under uninterrupted conditions can lead to excellent performance, but may not allow subjects to develop the kinds of strategies needed to flexibly recover from interruptions when they occur.
Team Skill Acquisition: Team and Individual Performance Effects of Feedback
Authors: Weaver Jeanne L. , Urban Julie M. , Maniam Nalini , Bowers Clint A.
Published: January 2012

Although team development research has, to some extent, addressed the various components of team functioning, later studies have failed to sufficiently clarify what influences teams as they acquire the various skills that constitute complex team performance. Similarly, research regarding team structure, as of yet, has failed to fully determine how teams under various structures should be trained in order to optimize their ability to perform complex (i.e., both team and individual) tasks. Thus, there is a need to investigate differential developmental trends in teams of varying structure. Additionally, research is required to identify interventions which might optimize the developmental process. Although the effects of feedback are becoming increasingly well investigated, there has been relatively little investigation regarding the impact of feedback given on multiple task performance. The current study investigates the impact of feedback given, over time, regarding team vs. individual tasks in teams of two structures: non-hierarchical vs. product. Results supported the hypothesized differential effects of feedback type during skill acquisition under varying levels of structure.
The Type and Timing of Feedback within an Intelligent Console-Operations Tutor
Authors: Farquhar John D. , Regian J. Wesley
Published: January 2012

Feedback has remained a useful construct through a shift from a behavioristic explanation of learning to a more cognitive understanding. Research in the use of feedback in education suggests that corrective feedback, or feedback that provides the correct answer, is more effective than feedback that simply indicates an error. However, contrary to an information-processing theory of learning, these studies generally find no efficacy for feedback of a more elaborative nature such as the use of additional explanatory information. The study described in this paper investigated the type and timing of feedback within an intelligent console-operations tutor. Results indicate that when immediate feedback is employed during the acquisition of console-operation skill, elaborative feedback yields greater accuracy of the skill over the use of corrective feedback.
Effects of Symbol Type, Selection Tool and Information Density on Tactical Display Visual Search Performance
Authors: Nugent William A.
Published: January 2012

This study compared the relative effectiveness of two color-coded symbol sets and two selection tools in performing a tactical display visual search task. Performance data were obtained for 36 symbols (called target tracks), 12 in each of three warfare areas. Each target track was presented under four levels of overlap by adjoining or occluding it with non-target (distracter) symbols of the same or different color. Performance measures, which included speed, accuracy, number of selection tool uses and time-outs, were obtained for 144 trials per participant. Results showed color-filled NATO symbols yielded faster, more accurate performance than stroke-drawn NTDS symbols for all but the total overlap condition. Significant two-way interactions were also obtained between the symbol set and selection tool factors, with results showing poorer overall performance for participants in the NTDS-click tool condition. The practical applications and design implications of these findings are discussed, along with specific recommendations for improving operator performance when using color-filled NATO symbols in dense tactical track environments.
Distance Perception of Stereoscopically Presented Virtual Objects Optically Superimposed on Physical Objects by a Head-Mounted See-Through Display
Authors: Ellis Stephen R. , Bucher Urs J.
Published: January 2012

The influence of physically presented background stimuli on distance judgements to optically overlaid, stereoscopic virtual images has been studied using head-mounted stereoscopic, virtual image displays. Positioning of an opaque physical object either at the perceived depth of the virtual image or at a position substantially in front of it, has been observed to cause the virtual image to apparently move closer to the observer. In the case of physical objects positioned substantially in front of the virtual image, subjects often perceive the opaque object as transparent. Evidence is presented that the apparent change of position caused by interposition of the physical object is not influenced by the strengthening of occlusion cues but is influenced by motion of the physical objects which would attract the subjects ocular vergence. The observed effect appears to be associated with the relative conspicuousness of the overlaid virtual image and the background. This effect may be related to Foley's models of open-loop stereoscopic pointing errors which attributed the stereoscopic distance errors to misjudgment of a reference point for interpretation of retinal disparities. Some implications for the design of see-through displays for manufacturing will also be discussed briefly.
The Effects of Display Layout on Monitoring and Updating System States
Authors: Hess Stephen M. , Detweiler Mark C. , Ellis R. Darin
Published: January 2012

Information-display issues are described in the context of a complex memory-updating task similar to Yntema's (1963). Subjects performed the updating task with two types of graphic interfaces. In one condition, the interface provided invariant spatial information which could be used to support task performance; in the second condition, the same information was presented in a single spatial location. The results suggest that 1) the mapping effect (one-to-many vs. many-to-one) found by Yntema did not occur when the response sets being updated were composed of the same response alternatives; 2) the type of screen layout used to support the updating task had a large impact on both accuracy and time to respond; and 3) the type of screen layout used interacted with the task's cognitive demands, including length of lag between an update and a response, and the number of variables being monitored. These results suggest that the design of information displays requires consideration of the abstract representational requirements of the task being supported.
The Role of Visual Attention in Head-Up Displays: Design Implications for Varying Symbology Intensity
Authors: May Patricia A. , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

Twenty pilots from the University of Illinois flew a low fidelity simulator during cruise flight. The intensity of the display symbology was manipulated in three different weather conditions to influence the discriminability of the instrumentation. The symbology was displayed in either head-up or head-down locations, with equivalent optical distances and display formats. Half of the subjects flew with a conformal symbology set, while the other half flew with a partially conformal symbology set. Responses to near and far domain events were measured, and tracking error of the three axes of control was calculated. The results revealed a head-up advantage to the far domain event detection and a head-down advantage to the near domain event detection. Performance in the head-up condition approached that of the otherwise superior head-down condition when an appreciable contrast between the symbology and the background environment was provided. The results are discussed in terms of an effect of the modulation of focused attention.
Electronic Ergonomic Audit System for Maintenance and Inspection
Authors: Meghashyam Gopinath
Published: January 2012

This paper describes an ergonomic auditing software system, one of the tools used for performance enhancement of aircraft inspectors. This tool was developed at Galaxy Scientific Corporation, in cooperation with the State University of New York at Buffalo, for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The purpose of the development task was to integrate a variety of ergonomic audit tools into a comprehensive package. This ergonomic auditing system called “ERgoNomic Assessment Program” (or ERNAP), carries out an ergonomic evaluation for maintenance and inspection operations. ERNAP can also be used to help designers build ergonomically efficient procedures and systems. ERNAP evaluates existing/proposed tasks and setups in the application of human factors/ergonomic principles, and suggests ergonomic interventions. The package consists of a user interface, an inference engine, a printing module, and a reference database. The user interface supports user learning, helps guide the user through the steps, describes the less familiar ergonomic principles, allows the user to access on-line help, and is simple to use. The inference engine evaluates the user inputs based on the reference database and different models of analysis. This package maintains consistency with the Human Factors Guide for Aviation Maintenance which is reported within this session.
“From Tool to Agent”: The Evolution of (Cockpit) Automation and Its Impact on Human-Machine Coordination
Authors: Sarter Nadine B. , Woods David D.
Published: January 2012

In a variety of domains, researchers have observed breakdowns in human-automation coordination and cooperation. One form of breakdown is a lack of mode awareness which can result in ‘automation surprises’. These are, in part, related to a lack of adequate feedback on system status and behavior. The need for effective and timely feedback has become even more pressing with the evolution of systems that operate at increasingly high levels of authority and autonomy. In the absence of improved feedback design, however, the gap between required and available information has widened. To explore the impact of this trend towards ‘strong yet silent’ machine agents, a line of research was conducted on pilot-automation coordination on the Airbus A-320, an aircraft that exemplifies these trends. This research involved a survey of pilots' line experiences with the A-320 automation, observations of transition training to the airplane, and an experimental simulation study on pilots' mode awareness and pilot-automation coordination. The results of this work indicate a trend from mode errors of commission (which represented a more frequent problem on early generation ‘glass cockpit’ aircraft) to errors of omission. In other words, pilots were more likely to fail to observe and interfere with uncommanded and undesired automation and aircraft behavior. Such errors of omission also seem to have played a role in recent incidents and accidents. They illustrate the need for improved communicative abilities in autonomous and powerful systems to enable them to actively support the coordination between human and machine.
Hardware and Human Factors Issues for Military Automatic Brightness Controls
Authors: Gallimore Jennie J. , McCracken James , Gerace Janet
Published: January 2012

Electronic displays have replaced many mechanical displays in aircraft. The “glass” cockpit continues to advance. Electronic displays required adjustment of luminance (often referred to as brightness) and contrast as the ambient environment changes. Requiring pilots to manually control brightness creates additional pilot workload. Instead, automatic brightness controls (ABCs) have been suggested. The purpose of this paper is to summarize a research plan for the development of an ABC for military aircraft.
Auditory Spatial Cueing in Visual Search Tasks: Effects of Amplitude, Contrast and Duration
Authors: Strybel Thomas Z. , Boucher Jan M. , Fujawa Greg E. , Volp Craig S.
Published: January 2012

The effectiveness of auditory spatial cues in visual search performance was examined in three experiments. Auditory spatial cues are more effective than abrupt visual onsets when the target appears in the peripheral visual field or when the contrast of the target is degraded. The duration of the auditory spatial cue did not affect search performance.
Head-Up Auditory Display Research at NASA Ames Research Center
Authors: Begault Durand R.
Published: January 2012

The use of spatialized (“3-D”) audio techniques for head-up auditory displays for commercial aircraft has been investigated at NASA Ames Research Center since 1989. Results from two completed studies are presented, where a 3-D audio Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) was designed and evaluated in a full mission simulation context. An experiment-in-progress evaluates the application of 3-D audio for gate identification and collision avoidance with other aircraft, as part of NASA's Terminal Area Productivity-Low Visibility Landing and Surface Operations (Lo Vlaso) program.