bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Neurobiology of early psychosis
Authors: Keshavan Matcheri S. , Berger Gregor , Zipursky Robert B. , Pantelis Christos , Wood Stephen J. , Pantelis Christos
Published: July 2005

Background

Neurobiological studies of the early course of psychoses, such as schizophrenia, allow investigation of pathophysiology without the confounds of illness chronicity and treatment.

Aims

To review the recent literature on the biology of the early course of psychoses.

Method

We carried out a critical appraisal of the recent findings in the neurobiology of early psychoses, using structural, functional and neurochemical imaging techniques.

Results

Brain structural alterations are present early in the illness and may predate symptom onset. Some changes, notably those in frontal and temporal lobes, can progress during the early phases of the illness. Functional and neurochemical brain abnormalities can also be seen in the premorbid and the early phases of the illness. Some, although not all, changes can be trait-like whereas some others might progress during the early years.

Conclusions

A better understanding of such changes, especially during the critical periods of the prodrome, around the transition to the psychotic phase and during the early phases of the illness is crucial for continued research into preventive intervention strategies.
Melatonin and Nocturnal Migration
Authors: FUSANI LEONIDA , GWINNER EBERHARD
Published: July 2005

Abstract:Many species of diurnal birds migrate nocturnally. Here, a series of studies of the blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) on the relationship between nocturnal restlessness and melatonin, a hormone that in birds modulates day‐night rhythms, are reviewed. Migratory populations from Sweden and Kenya were compared with resident populations from Cape Verde. In blackcaps of migratory populations, night levels of melatonin were lower during the migratory period, when birds showed nocturnal activity, than before and after this period, when birds did not show nocturnal activity. On the contrary, the occurrence of periodic or irregular phases of nocturnal activity in some nonmigratory birds from Cape Verde was not accompanied by a reduction in melatonin levels. In a second series of experiments, it was studied whether melatonin levels change when nocturnally active blackcaps are experimentally transferred from a migratory to a nonmigratory state. A long migratory flight and a refueling stopover were simulated by depriving birds of food for 2 days, subsequently readministering food. The experiments were done in autumn with birds collected in Sweden, and repeated in spring with birds collected in Kenya. In autumn, there was a suppression of nocturnal activity and an increase in melatonin in the night following food reintroduction. In spring, the effects were qualitatively similar, but their extent depended on the amount of body fat reserves. Taken together, the studies demonstrate the existence of a functional relationship between melatonin and nocturnal restlessness and of seasonal differences in the response of the migratory program to food availability.
Contractile activity of the pectoralis in the zebra finch according to mode and velocity of flap-bounding flight
Authors: Tobalske Bret W. , Puccinelli Lisa A. , Sheridan David C.
Published: July 2005

We studied flying zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata, N=12), to provide a new test of a long-standing `fixed-gear'hypothesis that flap-bounding birds use only intermittent non-flapping phases,instead of variation in muscle activity, to vary mechanical power output in flight. Using sonomicrometry and electromyography, we measured in vivo fascicle length and neuromuscular recruitment in the pectoralis as the birds flew in different flight modes (level, ascending, descending; mean velocity 1.6±0.3 m s–1) and across velocities in a new, variable-speed wind tunnel (0–12 m s–1). Synchronized high-speed digital video (250 Hz) provided a record of wing kinematics. Flight mode had a significant effect upon pectoralis strain,strain rate, fractional shortening and the relative timing of muscle activity(onset, offset and duration). Among flight velocities, we observed significant variation in pectoralis strain, fractional lengthening and shortening, strain rate, relative electromyographic (EMG) amplitude, and EMG duration and offset. In particular, variation in strain rate and relative EMG amplitude indicates that the fixed-gear hypothesis should be rejected. Instead, it appears that zebra finch vary work and power output within wingbeats by modulating muscle contractile behavior and between wingbeats using intermittent bounds. Muscle activity patterns and wing kinematics were similar between free flight and wind tunnel flight at similar speeds. Comparing flights with and without surgically implanted transducers and electrodes, zebra finch exhibited a reduction in maximum velocity (from 14 to 12 m s–1) and a significant increase in wingbeat frequency and percent time flapping. This identifies a potential limitation of in vivo flight measurements, and similar studies of bird flight should, therefore, include measurements of the extent to which flight performance is compromised by experimental protocol.
Ontogenetic effects on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during jumping in the American locust,Schistocerca americana
Authors: Kirkton Scott D. , Niska Jared A. , Harrison Jon F.
Published: July 2005

Developing vertebrates increase both their locomotory power output and endurance due to ontogenetic improvements in anaerobic and aerobic metabolic capacities. Do similar patterns hold for insect locomotion, or do longer tracheal lengths create problems for oxygen delivery in older animals? We forced developing American locust grasshoppers (Schistocerca americana) to jump repeatedly and examined the effect of development on power output, endurance, lactate concentration, oxygen consumption and the oxygen sensitivity of jump performance. As previously shown, power outputs,relative leg lengths and leg cuticular content increased with age. A key finding of this study is that both lactate concentration and aerobic metabolic rate of the jumping muscle increase with age, explaining how the increased leg cuticular stiffness can result in increased power output. After two minutes of jumping, grasshoppers rely completely on aerobic ATP production. The rise in mass-specific, active aerobic metabolic rates with age indicates that problems with longer tracheae can be overcome; however, the reduced endurance, higher lactate concentrations and increased oxygen sensitivity of locomotory performance in older animals indicate that larger/older grasshoppers have smaller safety margins for oxygen delivery during hopping.
Eastward to the Islands: The Other Diaspora
Authors: Haring Lee
Published: July 2005

The Indian Ocean islands of Mauritius, Réunion, and Seychelles, named the "Mascareignes" after a Portuguese explorer, are products of an eastward African diaspora, almost invisible in the West except to a few historians. Empty of human population until European exploitation settled them with a few colonists and thousands of slaves from East Africa and Madagascar, their multicultural history demonstrates the astonishing durability of African and Malagasy cultures. Folktales provide the finest window into that history and its values. Through that window, creolization is revealed in its actual occurrence.
The Paper Bag Principle: Of the Myth and the Motion of Colorism
Authors: Kerr Audrey Elisa
Published: July 2005

This article, extracted from a larger study, is attentive to the national folk culture of African-American communities—especially rumor and legend—in a number of city centers. The study begins with Washington, D.C., as a representative model to examine the role of complexion-related lore in black neighborhoods, organizations, and institutions, and then extends outward to other urban areas. Complexion lore, the article argues, functioned as a sophisticated negotiation of racism, wherein black residents complicated American urban principles of inclusion and exclusion by integrating color notions into institutional oral history.
Recombinant Mythology and the Alchemy of Memory: Occide Jeanty, Ogou, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines in Haiti
Authors: Largey Michael D.
Published: July 2005

During the first United States occupation of Haiti, from 1915 to 1934, Haitian band composer Occide Jeanty wrote compositions for the Haitian Presidential Band that contained culturally encoded critiques of U.S. occupation forces. In his compositions, Jeanty invoked the legend of Haitian general Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the soldier who led Haiti to independence in 1804 and whose spirit was absorbed into the Vodou religion as a type of Ogou, or warrior spirit, through a process that I term "recombinant mythology," in which people in the present use mythologically oriented language to highlight praiseworthy characteristics of cultural heroes.
Repeat Performance: Dancing DiDinga with the Lost Boys of Southern Sudan
Authors: McMahon F. F. (Felicia Faye)
Published: July 2005

In folklore studies, there is a dearth of information about the transnational processes by which diasporic communities actively negotiate their identities. In this article, I examine the variables that affect the cultural performances of the DiDinga, an understudied group of southern Sudanese refugees, known in the United States by the moniker "The Lost Boys." In today's world of globalization and transnationalism, documentation and interpretation of recontextualized performances is more critical than ever before. Part of this inquiry seeks to make explicit the tensions that affect ways by which this small group of parentless male youth come to consensus about appropriate and meaningful traditions performed for the public in a new context. Drawing on public sector work with refugees, I explore how folklore research contributes to identifying internal and external forces that act on the aesthetics of recontextualized performance of diasporic groups, as well as how folklorists work effectively to present and interpret recontextualized traditions of people now residing in the United States.
Santos y Misterios as Channels of Communication in the Diaspora: Afro-Dominican Religious Practices Abroad
Authors: Sanchez Carretero Cristina
Published: July 2005

Whereas most Afro-Caribbean Creole religious practices have been the focus of scholarly studies for some time, such practices in the Dominican Republic have received considerably less attention. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork among Dominican women in Madrid and the southwestern Dominican Republic, this article presents the saints of the Dominican Vodou pantheon as actual communication agents who enable transnational practitioners to maintain communication and to solve migration-related problems. These religious practices, including veladas, horas santas, pilgrimages, funeral rites, various healing practices, and spirit possession are strategically used to maintain a transnational community, producing the revitalization of Afro-Dominican religions in the diaspora. Three examples of connection via saints and spirits are analyzed: (1) the use of Vodou to solve visa problems; (2) horas santas to prepare travelers for trips; and (3) the role of saints in narrating migration as a mythologizing experience.
New Methods to Evaluate Colocalization of Fluorophores in Immunocytochemical Preparations as Exemplified by a Study on A2A and D2 Receptors in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells
Authors: Agnati Luigi F. , Fuxe Kjell , Torvinen Maria , Genedani Susanna , Franco Rafael , Watson Stan , Nussdorfer Gastone G. , Leo Giuseppina , Guidolin Diego
Published: July 2005

An important aspect of the image analysis of immunocytochemical preparations is the evaluation of colocalization of different molecules. The aim of the present study is to introduce image analysis methods to identify double-labeled locations exhibiting the highest association of two fluorophores and to characterize their pattern of distribution. These methods will be applied to the analysis of the cotrafficking of adenosine A2A and dopamine D2 receptors belonging to the G protein–coupled receptor family and visualized by means of fluorescence immunocytochemistry in Chinese hamster ovary cells after agonist treatment. The present procedures for colocalization have the great advantage that they are, to a large extent, insensitive to the need for a balanced staining with the two fluorophores. Thus, these procedures involve image processing, visualization, and analysis of colocalized events, using a covariance method and a multiply method and the evaluation of the identified colocalization patterns. Moreover, the covariance method offers the possibility of detecting and quantitatively characterizing anticorrelated patterns of intensities, whereas the immediate detection of colocalized clusters with a high concentration of labeling is a possibility offered by the multiply method. The present methods offer a new and sensitive approach to detecting and quantitatively characterizing strongly associated fluorescence events, such as those generated by receptor–receptor interaction, and their distribution patterns in dual-color confocal laser microscopy.
DAPI Fluorescence in Nuclei Isolated from Tumors
Authors: Krishan Awtar , Dandekar Payal D.
Published: July 2005

In DNA histograms of some human solid tumors stained with nuclear isolation medium-4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (NIM-DAPI), the coefficient of variation (CV) of the G0/G1 peak was broad, and in nuclear volume vs DNA scattergrams, a prominent slope was seen. To determine the cause for this, nuclei from frozen breast tumors were stained with NIM-DAPI and analyzed after dilution or resuspension in PBS. In two-color (blue vs red) analysis, most of the slope and broad CV was due to red fluorescence of nuclei stained with NIM-DAPI, which was reduced on dilution or resuspension in PBS, resulting in elimination of the slope and tightening of the CV.
The Dirty Dozen: 12 Myths That Undermine Tobacco Control
Authors: Frieden Thomas R. , Blakeman Drew E.
Published: July 2005

Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. The health risks of smoking are well documented, as is the effectiveness of clinical and public health interventions to prevent and reduce smoking. However, many myths about smoking either encourage people to begin or continue smoking or deter them from quitting.

Some myths stem from a misapplied understanding of what might seem to be common sense; others are deliberately promulgated by the tobacco industry to induce people—especially children—to start smoking and to keep them smoking as adults. These myths undermine tobacco control. However, comprehensive tobacco control programs that include anti-smoking public education campaigns can effectively counter these myths and prevent illness and premature death.
Patents
Authors: Lang Christian
Published: July 2005

This article provides an overview on patents and protective rights in general. First of all information is given which protective rights exist and what can be protected by these rights. Afterwards, general principles of patent law are presented which are common to many national patent laws and international treaties regarding industrial property throughout the world. A main focus of this presentation is directed to the description of the proceedings according to the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) and the European Patent Convention. Furthermore, the particularities of US patent law are considered.

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Industrial Property and Types of Protective Rights

2.1.

Technical Protective Rights (Patents, Utility Models)

2.2.

Trademarks

2.3.

Design Patents/Industrial Designs

2.4.

Copyright

2.5.

Others

3.

Basic Principles of Patents

3.1.

Invention

3.2.

Exclusive Privilege

3.3.

Principle of Territoriality

3.4.

Period of Protection

3.5.

Ways of Establishing Patents

3.6.

Priority

3.7.

Novelty

3.8.

Inventive Step/Nonobviousness

3.9.

Industrial Application

4.

System of International Treaties

4.1.

Paris Convention

4.2.

Patent Cooperation Treaty

4.3.

Regional Treaties

5.

Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT)

5.1.

Application

5.2.

Search

5.3.

Preliminary Examination

5.4.

Entry into National/Regional Phase

6.

European Patent Convention

6.1.

Member States

6.2.

Application Proceedings

6.2.1.

Application

6.2.2.

Examination Procedure

6.3.

Opposition Proceedings

6.4.

Appeal

7.

U.S. Patents

8.

Other National Law
Marine Fuels
Authors: Reders Klaus , Mundt Torsten
Published: July 2005

The article contains sections titled:

1.

History

2.

Specifications

3.

Composition

4.

Properties

5.

Outlook
Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation
Authors: Fried Josef W.
Published: July 2005

Optical and mechanical designs of ground‐based astronomical telescopes for the visible region are reviewed, including special‐purpose telescopes and planned new designs for very large telescopes. The efforts to increase the angular resolution by adaptive optics are described. An overview is given of the instrumentation that is attached to telescopes to analyze and register the light collected by the telescope.
Cathodoluminescence
Authors: Steeds John W.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated overview article

.
Chemiluminescence
Authors: Vo‐Dinh Tuan
Published: July 2005

See also the updated overview article.
Electroluminescence
Authors: Ono Yoshimasa A.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated overview article.
Biomedical Imaging Techniques
Authors: Hendee William R.
Published: July 2005

Biomedical images are used extensively for noninvasive exploration of the internal anatomy, physiology, and metabolism of patients suffering from virtually every disease and injury known to humankind. These images are a prototypical example of “high‐tech” medicine and are produced in many different ways, from receipt of X rays transmitted through the patient to detection of radio‐frequency signals emitted from tissues subjected to intense magnetic fields. In the past three decades, major advances in medical imaging have occurred, including X‐ray and emission‐computed tomography, real‐time, gray‐scale and Doppler ultrasound imaging, computer and digital projection radiography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Several additional imaging techniques are under exploration, including laser optical imaging, electrical impedance tomography, infrared and microwave thermography, acoustothermometry, and electrical and magnetic source imaging. Whether these or a completely new imaging technique may emerge as a significant imaging modality remains to be seen. In the meantime, additional applications of existing medical imaging methods continue to be identified, such as the use of functional magnetic resonance and emission‐computed tomography for planning and monitoring radiation treatments for cancer.
Interferometry
Authors: Hariharan Parameswaran , Creath Katherine
Published: July 2005

This article reviews the field of interferometry. It begins by outlining the fundamentals of two‐beam and multiple‐beam interference. The rest of the article discusses the applications of interferometry for measurement of length, optical testing, fringe analysis, interference microscopy, interferometric sensors, interference spectroscopy, nonlinear interferometers, interferometric imaging, space‐time and gravitation, holographic interferometry, Moiré techniques, and speckle interferometry. Each section provides a referenced (and cross‐referenced) overview of the application area.
Laser Photochemistry
Authors: Engelking Paul
Published: July 2005

See also the updated article.
Molecular Spectroscopy
Authors: Ramsay D. A.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated article.
Microscopy
Authors: Hellmuth Thomas
Published: July 2005

Principles, methods, and applications of light microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy are described and complemented by related techniques such as ultrasound microscopy, field‐emission microscopy and X‐ray microscopy. Advanced methods such as Raman microscopy, low‐energy electron microscopy, and scanning near‐field microscopy representing new trends in the field of microscopy are discussed.
Optical Materials
Authors: Jellison Gerald E.
Published: July 2005

Transparent optical materials are used in a variety of applications ranging from the very common, such as corrective lenses, to the very sophisticated, such as fiber‐optic communications. As common as these applications are, optical materials possess many interesting and complicating properties, which are often ignored. For example, all optical materials absorb light in some spectral regions, and all materials experience dispersion, where the refractive index is a function of the wavelength of light. In this chapter, the basic physics of light interaction with optical materials is presented, primarily to explain many of these commonly observed phenomena. The emphasis of the chapter is on materials that are transparent in the region from the ultraviolet (down to ∼120 nm) to the mid‐infrared (up to ∼40 microns). Perturbations of the basic optical properties of materials, such as those due to external strain and electric fields, will also be discussed. The properties of several specific optical materials will be discussed with the intent of demonstrating the basic physics and not to present a comprehensive listing of optical data. Thin films (that is, films with thicknesses on the order of the wavelength of light) are also discussed with the intent of understanding the physics of these materials and how they interact with light to produce the desired affects, such as reducing or enhancing the amount of light transmitted through or reflected from an optical device.
Atmospheric Optics
Authors: Bohren Craig F.
Published: July 2005

Colors of the sky and colored displays in the sky are mostly a consequence of selective scattering by molecules or particles, absorption usually being irrelevant. Molecular scattering selective by wavelength—incident sunlight of some wavelengths being scattered more than others—but the same in any direction at all wavelengths gives rise to the blue of the sky and the red of sunsets and sunrises. Scattering by particles selective by direction—different in different directions at a given wavelength—gives rise to rainbows, coronas, iridescent clouds, the glory, sun dogs, halos, and other ice‐crystal displays. The size distribution of these particles and their shapes determine what is observed, water droplets and ice crystals, for example, resulting in distinct displays.

To understand the variation and color and brightness of the sky as well as the brightness of clouds requires coming to grips with multiple scattering: scatterers in an ensemble are illuminated by incident sunlight and by the scattered light from each other. The optical properties of an ensemble are not necessarily those of its individual members.

Mirages are a consequence of the spatial variation of coherent scattering (refraction) by air molecules, whereas the green flash owes its existence to both coherent scattering by molecules and incoherent scattering by molecules and particles.
Geometric Optics
Authors: Shack Roland
Published: July 2005

This article reviews the most elementary theory of optics, namely geometric optics, and describes its connection to quantum optics and other high‐level theories. The basics of light propagation in the form of rays and wave‐fronts are described. The main emphasis is on optical image‐forming systems and system aberrations. This article provides basic knowledge for any optical engineer.
Photoluminescence
Authors: Benoit À La Guillaume Claude
Published: July 2005

See also the updated overview article

.
Radiation Detectors, Infrared
Authors: Winnewisser Brenda P.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated article

.
Radiation Interaction with Molecules
Authors: Lombardi John R.
Published: July 2005

Various aspects of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter are explored. The fundamental interaction involves the response of matter to electric and magnetic fields generated by the radiation. Any collection of charged particles will respond through its polarizationP, which may be expanded in increasing powers of electric fieldEasP = χ(1)E + χ(2)E2 + χ(3)E3. The term χ(1)is called thelinear susceptibility(or more commonly thepolarizabilityα), and is the term responsible for the linear refractive index as well as for linear absorption. The first order susceptibility is shown to be responsible for normal one‐photon spectroscopy, and we examine microwave, infrared, and optical spectroscopy as tools to obtain information as to the rotational, vibrational, and molecular orbital nature of molecules. Rydberg states, vibronic interactions, and magnetic resonance spectroscopy are also considered. χ(2)is the second‐order polarizability, sometimes called thehyperpolarizabilityβ. This is responsible for hyper‐Rayleigh scattering and second‐harmonic generation, as well as the hyper‐Raman effect. These are often termedtwo‐photon effectsowing to the quadratic dependence on the electric field. Three‐photon effects are obtained from the third‐order polarizability χ(3)or γ. Stimulated Raman spectroscopy and four‐wave mixing are some of the most important consequences of this term. These involve coherent anti‐Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) as well as Raman‐induced Kerr‐effect spectroscopy (RIKES).
Raman Spectroscopy Instrumentation
Authors: Edwards Howell G. M.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated article.
Photochemistry
Authors: Stevenson Kenneth L. , Horváth Ottó
Published: July 2005

This article presents a systematic introduction to theoretical and experimental aspects of photochemistry, along with typical examples and applications. It gives a survey of photochemical laws and fundamental principles of photophysics and photochemistry, including multiphoton processes that occur at high light intensity laser irradiation. Descriptions of experimental techniques are given for both continuous irradiation and flash photolysis, including laser spectroscopy and femtochemistry. Detailed discussions of the important theories and representative reactions in the photochemistry of organic, inorganic, and coordination compounds are also presented. Finally, some of the more significant roles photochemistry plays in nature and in modern life, such as photosynthesis, information storage, and phototherapy, are briefly introduced.
Information Processing, Optical
Authors: Javidi Bahram , Horner Joseph L.
Published: July 2005

This article presents a brief review of the fundamentals of optical information processing. We discuss optical information processing techniques, materials and devices for optical processing, optical pattern recognition, optical security, optical neural computing, and optical memory. Optical image processing algorithms and architectures as well as basic hardware concepts such as the fundamentals of optical spatial light modulators are reviewed.
Spectrometers, Infrared
Authors: Kauppinen Jyrki K. , Hollberg Matti R. , Keens Axel
Published: July 2005

This paper is a review‐type article dealing with infrared (IR) spectrometers and their applications. The paper represents general aspects of IR spectrometry and general principles of IR spectrometers. Performance properties of IR spectrometers and especially detectors are defined and described. More detailed descriptions are given for prism, grating, Fourier transform (FT), and laser spectrometers. Because nowadays most of the IR spectra are recorded by FT‐IR spectrometers, the main attention of the paper is aimed at FT‐IR instruments. The advantages of FT spectrometers as compared with grating spectrometers are also demonstrated. The paper gives a large number of typical examples of applications of FT‐IR spectrometers in science and practical analysis.
Tunable Dye Lasers
Authors: Dienes Andrew , Yankelevich Diego R.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated article.
X‐ray Optics
Authors: Michette Alan
Published: July 2005

This article describes the difficulties inherent in the optical manipulation of X‐ray beams and how they may be overcome. Related issues, such as X‐ray emission processes and sources, the ways in which X rays interact with matter, and the applications of focused X‐ray beams are also discussed.
Electroluminescence: Addendum
Authors: Ono Yoshimasa A.
Published: July 2005

See also the updated overview article

.
Spectroscopy,Raman
Authors: Edwards Howell G. M.
Published: July 2005

This article describes the origins of Raman scattering and the important parameters upon which its application depends, in particular, its dependence upon molecular species concentration, molecular and crystal orientation, polarizability changes, and the wavelength and power densities of the laser excitation. The instrumentation used to record Raman spectra from the ultraviolet to the near‐infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and the minimization of sample fluorescence is reviewed. Finally, some current applications of Raman spectroscopy to the characterization of materials are highlighted in the fields of biomedical diagnostics, archaeological science, art history, industrial process control, environmental science, and astrobiology. The interdisciplinarity of modern Raman‐spectroscopic technique applications is illustrated by the efforts now being made in the miniaturization of Raman spectrometers for planetary exploration as part of instrumentation suites on robotic landers—projects that bring together teams of chemists, applied spectroscopists, biologists, physicists, astronomers, space scientists, and astrobiologists.
Interferometric Techniques
Authors: Schmit Joanna , Creath Katherine
Published: July 2005

See also the updated article.
Optical Techniques for the Analysis and Characterization of Chemicals and Materials
Authors: Andrews David L.
Published: July 2005

Optical methods are widely used by industry, academia, medicine, and the military for the analysis and characterization of chemicals and materials. Prominent amongst these techniques are measurements based on infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy, molecular fluorescence, and Raman scattering. Microscopy and imaging procedures are also leading features in the analysis of heterogeneous samples, and a variety of laser‐based diagnostic methods are applied for specialized applications. In this account, the fundamental and technical issues for optical characterization are first examined, and then each of the major techniques is discussed in detail. Examples range from flame analysis to the determination of protein structures, surface optical nonlinearity, and chiral characterization.
Microoptics
Authors: Grunwald Rüdiger
Published: July 2005

Microoptics is a generic term for miniaturized refractive, reflective, diffractive or hybrid components with characteristic dimensions in submillimeter range but larger than the wavelength. For their fabrication, subtractive, modifying or additive technologies can be used. Compared to macrooptics, scale‐variant properties have to be taken into account for the system design. Arrays of microlenses enable a multichannel processing of light and are of particular interest for many applications like collimation, focusing, imaging, guiding or coupling of light from lasers, light emitting diodes (LED), waveguides, fibers, or other sources. The progress in nanooptics, microstructured fibers, or adaptive optical devices will lead to more complex optical systems with microoptical building blocks as an essential part within.
Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers: High‐Power Operation
Authors: Zellmer Holger
Published: July 2005

Since their invention in the beginning of the 1960s, fiber lasers have been improved from a helical shaped laser rod with an embedded waveguide structure to highly sophisticated laser systems that caused a revolution in telecommunications. In four decades of development, the wavelength range has been extended to the visible, ultraviolet, and mid‐infrared regime applying different rare earth–doped host glasses. Whereas diode laser pumped fiber lasers with emission in the visible spectral range became of great interest for applications in multimedia, measurement technique, medicine, and photofinishing, high‐power infrared, and high‐energy short‐pulse fiber lasers have been qualified for applications in thermal printing, marking, and material processing.

However, nonlinear effects and the damage threshold of standard laser fibers hampered a straightforward scaling of the output power. Research is focused on these issues to develop scaling techniques for high‐power operation of infrared and visible upconversion fiber lasers in cw and pulsed modes. Nonlinear effects and power resistant fiber cores are factored into the fiber laser design.

The fundamentals and the current state of the art of fiber lasers operating in the visible and infrared spectral ranges will be discussed in this work.
Optoelectronics
Authors: Kasap Safa O.
Published: July 2005

It is useful to view today's optoelectronics in terms of various functional categories, most important of which are the generation of light, modulation of light, transmission of light and its connection between devices, amplification of light, switching of light, isolation of light, filtering of light, wavelength multiplexing and demultiplexing of light, and detection of light. The corresponding devices that implement these functions are light emitters (or light sources), modulators, waveguides and connectors, optical amplifiers, optical switches, optical isolators, optical filters, multiplexers and demultiplexers, and detectors. This introductory article reviews the principles of operation and characteristics of a number of selected devices to provide a general introduction to the field of optoelectronics with an emphasis on optical communications—a major area of application.
South Amerindian craniofacial morphology: Diversity and implications for Amerindian evolution
Authors: Sardi Marina L. , Rozzi Fernando Ramírez , González‐José Rolando , Pucciarelli Héctor M.
Published: July 2005

The most compelling models concerning the peopling of the Americas consider that modern Amerindians share a common biological pattern, showing affinities with populations of the Asian Northeast. The aim of the present study was to assess the degree of variation of craniofacial morphology of South American Amerindians in a worldwide context. Forty‐three linear variables were analyzed on crania derived from American, Asian, Australo‐Melanesian, European, South‐Saharan African, and Polynesian regions. South America was represented by seven Amerindian samples. In order to understand morphologic diversity among Amerindians of South America, variation was estimated using regions and local populations as units of analysis. Variances and FST values were calculated for each unit, respectively. Both analyses indicated that morphologic variation in Southern Amerindians is extremely high: an FST of 0.01531 was obtained for Southern Amerindians, and values from 0.0371–0.1205 for other world regions. Some aspects linked to the time and mode of the peopling of the Americas and various microevolutionary processes undergone by Amerindians are discussed. Some of the alternatives proposed to explain this high variation include: a greater antiquity of the peopling than what is mostly accepted, a peopling by several highly differentiated waves, an important effect of genetic drift, and gene flow with Paleoamericans. A combination of some of these alternatives explains at least some of the variation. Am J Phys Anthropol 127:, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Secondary metabolic effects in complex I deficiency
Authors: Esteitie Nayla , Hinttala Reetta , Wibom Rolf , Nilsson Helene , Hance Nicole , Naess Karin , Teär‐Fahnehjelm Kristina , Von Döbeln Ulrika , Majamaa Kari , Larsson Nils‐Göran
Published: July 2005

The objective of this study was to investigate clinical, biochemical, and genetic features in 7 probands (a total of 11 patients) with nicotine‐amide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenase (complex I) deficiency. We screened the mitochondrial DNA for mutations and found pathogenic mutations in complex I genes (mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit (MTND) genes) in three probands. The 10191T〉C mutation in MTND3 and the 14487T〉C mutation in MTND6 were present in two probands with Leigh's‐like and Leigh's syndrome, respectively. Four siblings with a syndrome consisting of encephalomyopathy with hearing impairment, optic nerve atrophy, and cardiac involvement had the 11778G〉A mutation in MTND4, previously associated with Leber hereditary optic neuropathy. These findings demonstrate that mutations in MTND genes are relatively frequent in patients with complex I deficiency. Biochemical measurements of respiratory chain function in muscle mitochondria showed that all patients had a moderate decrease of the mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate production rate. Interestingly, the complex I deficiency caused secondary metabolic alterations with decreased oxaloacetate‐induced inhibition of succinate dehydrogenase (complex II) and excretion of Krebs cycle intermediates in the urine. Our results thus suggest that altered regulation of metabolism may play an important role in the pathogenesis of complex I deficiency. Ann Neurol 2005
Design, Synthesis, and Preliminary Evaluation of Gabapentin‐Pregabalin Mutual Prodrugs in Relieving Neuropathic Pain
Authors: Shi Weiguo , Liu He , Zhang Yanping , Zhong Bohua , Yang Hongju
Published: July 2005

As a part of a program for the development of specific analgesics in relieving neuropathic pain, the purpose of the present study was to investigate a new concept that involves the conjugation of two drugs, gabapentin and pregabalin, as mutual prodrugs using a chemical modification approach. A series of gabapentin‐pregabalin diester compounds were synthesized using linear or branch bis‐hydroxyl linkers. Their pharmacological properties for treating neuropathic pain were investigated in a rat model of chronic sciatic nerve constriction injury (CCI). In‐vivo evaluation demonstrated that 1a and 1b composed of two gabapentin molecules as well as 3a composed of gabapentin and pregabalin with the short linear linker, were effective in reversing tactile allodynia in CCI rats. Compounds with longer or side‐branched linkers showed lower efficiencies and severe adverse effects.
Synthesis of Some Floctafenine Derivatives of Expected Anti‐inflammatory/Analgesic Activity
Authors: Hegazy Gehan Hegazy , Taher Azza , El‐Zaher Asmaa Ahmed
Published: July 2005

New derivatives related to floctafenine were synthesized and representative examples were screened for their anti‐inflammatory and analgesic activities. All compounds tested were found to exhibit anti‐inflammatory and analgesic activities and some were more potent than the references, floctafenine and indomethacin, in carragenan‐induced rat's paw edema. None of the tested compounds showed an ulcerogenic effect on the p‐benzoquinone‐induced writhing test in mice.
Convenient Synthesis of Fused Heterocyclic 1,3,5‐Triazines from Some N‐Acyl Imidates and Heterocyclic Amines as Anticancer and Antioxidant Agents
Authors: Bekircan Olcay , Küxük Murat , Kahveci Bahittin , Kolaylı Sevgi
Published: July 2005

N‐Acyl imidates (2), reacting with 5‐amino pyrazole (3), 2‐aminobenzimidazole (4), 3‐amino‐1,2,4‐triazole (5), 3,5‐diamino‐1,2,4‐triazole (6), and 5‐aminotetrazole (7) give pyrazolo[1,5‐a][1,3,5]triazine (8), benzo[4,5]imidazo[1,2‐a][1,3,5]triazine (9), [1,2,4]triazolo [2,3‐a][1,3,5]triazine (10), [1,2,4]tri azolo[2,3‐a][1,3,5]triazin‐5‐ylamine (12), and tetrazolo‐[1,5‐a][1,3,5]triazine (14) derivatives, respectively. The synthesized compounds were characterized on the basis of IR, 1H‐NMR, 13C‐NMR, and mass spectral data and elemental analyses results. Five of the newly synthesized compounds, 8a, 9a, 10a, 12a, and 14a, were selected by National Cancer Institute and screened for their anticancer activity against three cancer cell lines MCF7, NCI‐H460, and SF‐268, where 12a exhibited moderate anti‐proliferation potential. 12a was, thus, further tested for anticancer activity against 60 human cancer cell lines and showed moderate growth inhibition potency. 12a showed a high growth inhibitory activity against A498 renal cancer cell line. All of the newly synthesized compounds 8‐10, 12 and 14 were tested for their antioxidant capacity where they exhibited very high activity, even higher than the widely used reference antioxidants butylated hydroxytoluene and 6‐hydroxy‐2,5,7,8‐tetramethylchroman‐2‐carboxylic acid (Trolox®) Compound 12a also showed the highest antioxidant activity.
A Note on the Antitubercular Activities of 1‐Aryl‐5‐benzylsulfanyltetrazoles
Authors: Adamec Jan , Waisser Karel , Kuneš Jiří , Kaustová Jarmila
Published: July 2005

A set of 32 1‐phenyl‐5‐benzylsulfanyltetrazoles substituted on the phenyl ring as well as on the benzyl moiety was synthesized. The compounds were evaluated for in vitro antimycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The activity against M. tuberculosis becomes higher with increasing electron‐accepting properties of the substituents on the phenyl ring. On the other hand, any substitution on the benzylic moiety decreases the activity.
Synthesis of Some New 2‐(6‐Methoxy‐2‐Naphthyl)‐ 5‐Aryl‐1,3,4‐Oxadiazoles as Possible Non‐steroidal Anti‐inflammatory and Analgesic Agents
Authors: Narayana Badiadka , Vijaya Raj Kuniyil Kulangara , Ashalatha Badiadka Valamale , Kumari Nalilu Suchetha
Published: July 2005

The synthesis of some new 2‐(6‐methoxy‐2‐naphthyl)‐5‐aryl‐1,3,4‐oxadiazoles (4a–k) has been described. Ethyl‐6‐methoxy‐2‐naphthoate (1) yielded on treatment with hydrazine hydrate to 6‐methoxy‐2‐naphthoic acid hydrazide (2). Compound 2 reacted with substituted aromatic carboxylic acids (3a–k) in phosphorus oxychloride yielded 2‐(6‐methoxy‐2‐naphthyl)‐5‐aryl‐1,3,4‐oxadiazoles (4a–k). Newly synthesized compounds were characterized by IR, 1H‐NMR and mass spectral data. All the compounds were screened for their anti‐inflammatory and analgesic activity. Compound 4j exhibited promising anti‐inflammatory and analgesic activities.
Chromatin Modifications as Targets for New Anticancer Drugs
Authors: Schäfer Stefan , Jung Manfred
Published: July 2005

Chromatin proteins undergo diverse posttranslational modifications, esp. acetylation and methylation, that contribute to the control of transcriptional processes. The result of these modifications in its various states is called the histone code. This review presents an overview of those modifications of chromatin proteins that affect the side chains of lysines and arginines and define variations of the chromatin acetylome and methylome. The relevant enzymes are presented and the feasibility to influence their activity by inhibition or activation is discussed. The manipulation of these enzymes is an exciting strategy towards an increased understanding of their role in the functionality of a cell. Additionally, this may lead to new approaches for the treatment of diseases that are based on a dysregu lation of transcription, especially cancer.
Modeling of sodium acetate recovery from aqueous solutions by electrodialysis
Authors: Fidaleo Marcello , Moresi Mauro
Published: July 2005

The main engineering parameters (i.e., ion transport numbers in solution and electro‐membranes; effective solute and water transport numbers; effective membrane surface area, membrane surface resistances, and limiting current intensity) affecting the recovery of sodium acetate from model solutions by electrodialysis (ED) were determined in accordance with a sequential experimental procedure. Such parameters allowed a satisfactory simulation of a few validation tests carried out under constant or step‐wisely variable current intensity. The performance of this ED process was characterized in terms of a current efficiency (Ω) of about 93% in the constant‐current region, a water transport number (tW) of about 15, and a specific energy consumption (ε) increasing from 0.14 to 0.31 kWh/kg for a solute recovery yield of 95% as the current density (j) was increased from 112 to 337 A/m2. The specific resistance of the anion‐ or cation‐exchange membranes were found to be three or two times greater than those measured in aqueous NaCl solutions and are to be used to design and/or optimize ED stacks involved in the downstream processing of acetic acid fermentation broths. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Light‐responsive bioconjugates as novel tools for specific capture of biologicals by photoaffinity precipitation
Authors: Desponds Arnaud , Freitag Ruth
Published: July 2005

Light‐responsive bioconjugates are synthesized by a two‐step protocol calling first for cotelomerization (chain‐transfer polymerization) of N‐isopropylacrylamide and N‐acryloxysuccinimide. The desired bioligand (biotin) is used in modified form as chain‐transfer agent in this step. As a consequence, 100% of the produced bioconjugates carry this group. In a second step, the cotelomers (bioconjugates) are rendered photoresponsive by linking a chromophore ((3‐aminopropyloxy)azobenzene) group to the N‐acryloxysuccinimide side chains. The resulting structures show a critical solution temperature in pure water of 16°C when the azo groups in the side chains are predominately in the (stable) trans state. Irradiation with UV light (330 nm) switches the azo group into the more hydrophilic cis state, and the critical solution temperature rises to 18°C. Irradiation with visible light (> 440 nm) switches the group back to the trans state. Adjusting the temperature to an intermediate level, the bioconjugates are used to demonstrate the concept of photo affinity precipitation, i.e., the specific capture and recovery by light‐induced precipitation of a target molecule (avidin) from a serum‐containing cell‐culture supernatant. The avidin was obtained in highly purified form; no nonspecific copurification of protein impurities was observable. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
High density cultures of embryonic stem cells
Authors: Oh Steve K.W. , Fong Wey Jia , Teo Yawen , Tan Heng Liang , Padmanabhan Jayanthi , Chin Angela C.P. , Choo Andre B.H.
Published: July 2005

Embryonic stem cells (ESC) have the unique ability to differentiate into a variety of tissue types. However, the realization of regenerative medicine will require the production of large quantities of ESC which subsequently have to be differentiated into the final phenotype. Thus, we sought to develop a simple and scaleable bioprocess to increase densities of ESC to achieve this goal. Using mouse embryonic stem cells (mESC) as a model, by combining automated feeding and culture of mESC on petriperm dishes, cell densities were enhanced up to 6.4 × 106 cells/cm2 compared to conventional petri dish culture which only reached 0.2 to 1.4 × 106 cells/cm2. It was found that mESC from all experiments maintained excellent viability, pluripotency, and genetic stability after growing for 6 days in petriperm cultures with automated feeding. The expression of Oct‐4 transcription factor was observed in all cultures, mESC formed embryoid bodies in differentiated cultures and teratomas in SCID mice, confirming their pluripotency, and karyotype of the cultures was normal. This culture method was stable for routine passaging and a second mESC cell line was shown to perform in a similar manner on petriperm with automated feeding. This work represents an important step towards achieving high density cultures of ESC. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.