bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Peace Richard
Published: October 2023

Dostoevsky was born in 1821 in a poor district of Moscow, where his father was a doctor at a paupers’ hospital. From an early age he was aware of poverty, illness, and eccentricity. As the second son of seven children brought up by an authoritarian father, his upbringing was strict. At the age of sixteen he left for the capital, St Petersburg, to study as a military engineer; Adele Lindenmeyr will argue that Dostoevsky’s own training as a draughtsman and his study there of architectural history are reflected on the pages of Crime and Punishment in Raskolnikov’s speculative plans for reshaping St Petersburg. Eighteen months into his course he learned of the death of his father, who was rumored to have been murdered by his own peasants. Later scholarship questions this assumption, as it does Freud’s assertion that news of his father’s death led to Dostoevsky’s first epileptic fit.
Empathy and Enmity in the Prioress’s Tale
Authors: Spector Stephen
Published: October 2023

Midway through the impassioned prayer that precedes her tale, Chaucer’s Prioress alludes to the Incarnation in terms of joined contraries conveying sublime paradox:

The force and economy with which these contradictions are joined are rhetorically heightened by the chiastic structure of the first of these lines, “O mother Virgin, O virgin Mother noble.” The following line too is structurally compressed, juxtaposing contraries in the “unburnt, burning” bush, a familiar type of Mary, who “was fyred brente not, for she was moder without losse of maydenhod.”2 In the next two lines, the Prioress astonishingly transforms the Gospel account of the Incarnation, in which Gabriel tells Mary that the Holy Spirit will come upon her, and the power of the Most High will overshadow her (Luke 1:35). In the nun’s fervent reworking, it is instead the Virgin who ravishes the Holy Ghost down from the Deity! Yet the heat and energy suggested in the word ravyshedest are paradoxically contained, like the fLames of the burning bush, within the chastity of the Conception.3 And the fact that Mary ravishes the Holy Ghost through her humility, compelling or possessing through acquiescence, further extends the paradox in this prayer. The joining of contraries in paradox is thus as crucial to the Prioress’s prayer as the joining of contradictions in irony is to her General Prologue portrait. But there is still another contradiction here: that the Prioress, whose faith and emotion seem so shallow and misplaced in the General Prologue, should utter so ardent a prayer at all.
Fighting for the Mind of Mankind
Authors: Manela Erez
Published: October 2023

On March 5, 1917, in the inaugural address of his second term in office, Woodrow Wilson once more articulated a vision for the postwar world order. The plan he outlined then included all of the practical elements that have since come to be associated with the Wilsonian, or liberal internationalist, prescription for the conduct of international relations: institutions of collective security, the reduction of armaments, free trade. International order and cooperation, he declared once again, could not last long unless it stood on the principles of the equality of nations and of government by consent, and the United States would insist both on “the actual equality of nations in all matters of right and privilege” and on the principle that “governments derive all their just powers from the consent of the governed.”
From Paris to Amritsar
Authors: Manela Erez
Published: October 2023

The men that the Indian National Congress appointed to represent India at the peace conference—Tilak and Gandhi among them—were not in attendance when the conference convened in January. The government of India did send a delegation to Paris, which could participate, the powers agreed, in deliberations that touched upon Indian interests. The delegation, however, was headed by the Secretary of State Montagu, and its Indian members, Sir (soon to be Lord) S. P. Sinha and Ganga Singh, the Maharaja of Bikanir, were handpicked by the British and represented their interests.
Business Politics
Authors: Postel Charles
Published: October 2023

John W. H. Davis grew cotton and shouldered the burdens of poverty and family sickness in the piney woods of Grimes County, Texas. In 1894 he campaigned as the People’s party nominee for county tax collector. When on the stump he articulated to his fellow farmers the relationship between local and national politics. Although concerned about the role of “political trixters and town rings” in local affairs, he explained that the problems farmers faced were primarily national. They flowed downward from Washing- ton, where the politicians had produced the most “vissous and viloness class legislation... on reccord in any country at any time.” He further explained that this political record had to be understood within the context of national commerce. To the charge that Populist demands for national reform had no place in a contest for county tax collector, Davis responded: As a young man Davis had served as a private in the Confederate Georgia Infantry, and with little formal schooling he penciled his notes with a rough and untrained hand. Yet for seven years he had devoted himself to the cause of Alliance education.
Race Progress
Authors: Postel Charles
Published: October 2023

The formation of the People’s party posed a racial dilemma. In the early 1890s, African Americans still clung to the right to vote in much of the South. Their choices, however, were growing increasingly narrow. The Republican party had lost its former strength in the South, and what remained often adopted “lily-white” policies of racial exclusion. At the same time, the Democratic party offered the black community small concessions in exchange for votes, with the understanding that blacks would acquiesce to the Democratic doctrines of white supremacy. For the new People’s party to have any chance of success at the polls it had to attract a section of the black vote without undermining its support among white farmers. This was a politically difficult and dangerous undertaking for the emerging People’s party across the South. In Texas the task largely rested on the able shoulders of John B. Rayner. Rayner’s trajectory was similar to that of other Populist leaders. Born in 1850, he was the son of U.S. Congressman Kenneth Rayner, whose North Carolina plantation fell on hard times after the Civil War. John studied the classics, labored in county politics, and eventually moved to Calvert, Texas, where he taught school. Along the way, he trained as a Baptist preacher and much like Harrison Ashby, S. O. Daws, and other Protestant ministers in the ranks of Populism, he took a skeptical view of both church and creed and looked to improve people’s lives in the here and now. In 1892 Rayner joined the People’s party. With his gift for public speaking, he gained renown as he campaigned across the remote country districts of eastern Texas. By 1895 he served on the party’s state executive committee. Soon thereafter, as the Populist fires cooled, he devoted his attention to farmers’ technical education.
Confederation
Authors: Postel Charles
Published: October 2023

On his arrival in Chicago in the fall of 1895, the Texas Populist John Flaherty found the reform movement in the big city mired in an ideological muddle. “To you Texas populists who have a fixed and sound idea of the political and monetary conditions,” he wrote the Southern  Mercury back in Dallas, “it is incomprehensible how people can be so blind to their own best interests.” Chicago reformers “go and hear the single tax man and shout themselves hoarse over his panacea for the public ills. They shout the same acclaim to the international bi-metalic lunatic, and roar with delight at the 16 to 1 silver tongued orator.” In a “wilderness of doubt and uncertainty,” the clutter of innovations, schemes, and proposals competing for the attention of the city dweller contrasted sharply with the “keen kernels of truth, without husk or chaff,” that the rural reform press provided its readers.
Conclusion
Authors: Postel Charles
Published: October 2023

“You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.” With this indictment of the financial establishment, William Jennings Bryan, a young congress- man from Nebraska, electrified the delegates to the Democratic Convention gathered under the hot roof of the Chicago Coliseum in July of 1896. On the fifth ballot, Bryan won a surprise nomination as the presidential candidate. The nomination marked a historic shift in party alignment, with the Democratic party embracing a platform of minting silver, a federal income tax, and other reforms demanded by rural and labor constituencies. Two weeks later, at its convention in St. Louis, the People’s party also endorsed Bryan for president. For Republicans, and a considerable number of “sound money” Democrats, the Populist endorsement confirmed their worst fears about the Bryan campaign. They viewed the Populists and their reckless currency doctrines as instruments of “anarchy” and “lawlessness.” Theodore Roosevelt, the police commissioner of New York City at the time, believed that the Populists were “plotting a social revolution,” and to check their efforts at “subversion” he proposed lining up twelve Populist leaders against a wall and “shooting them dead.”
Acquiring, Building, and Sustaining Power Black Civic Organizations in Urban Democracy
Authors: Thompson J Phillip
Published: October 2023

On December 14, 1994, the city of Baltimore passed an ordinance requiring companies bidding for service contracts with the city to pay employees on city jobs a minimum of $6.10 an hour, with annual increases totaling up to $7.70 an hour by July 1999, and, after July 1998, with wages tethered at no percent of the poverty income for a family of four. In July of 2000 this ordinance provided $8.03 an hour, $2.88 above the federal minimum wage of $5.15. For each day a new wage was unpaid, employers would be fined $50 per worker (Fine 2003, 227, 229). The Baltimore “living wage” ordinance was the first in the United States. Over the subsequent six years, similar ordinances passed in dozens of U.S. cities. The leading force in the living wage campaign was Baltimoreans United in Leadership Development (BUILD), a showcase demonstration of the power low-income groups could wield if organized and focused.
Race, Class, and ldeolouv in a New York Mayoral Election Conservative White Mobilization and Resurgent
Authors: Thompson J Phillip
Published: October 2023

Back in 1978, when Ed Koch was mayor of New York, a thirty-five-year-old businessman and community leader in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, named Arthur Miller had been “choked to death by a policemen trying to arrest him during a street confrontation.” The police had been attempting to issue a summons to Miller’s brother (Treaster 1978a). It was the fifth controversial killing in five years of a black man by police officers in Brooklyn (Raab 1978).1 When the deputy medical examiner said he found, “no evidence of excessive, savage beating” (Treaster 1978b), many in the black community complained of a cover-up. Two days later, a sixteen-year-old black youth, Victor Rhodes, was beaten into a coma by a group of whites “in Hasidic garb” in a largely Hasidic populated block, also in Crown Heights, an assault The New York Times quoted the police as describing as one of a long string of incidents in which, “members of the Hasidic patrols, who refuse to join the precinct’s patrol program, have become involved in altercations with black residents” (New York Times 1978). A black minister, Rev. Herbert Daughtry, with twenty church and civic organizations in tow, led a demonstration at city hall to protest Miller’s death.
Pandora’S Box Subjectivity, Class, and Sexuality in Socialist Feminist Criticism
Authors: Kaplan Cora
Published: October 2023

Stories of seduction and betrayal, of orphaned, impoverished heroines of uncertain class origin, provided a narrative structure through which the instabilities of class and gender categories were both stabilized and undermined. Across the body and mind of “woman” as sign, through her multiple representations, bourgeois anxiety about identity is traced and retraced. A favorite plot, of which Jane Eyre is now the best-known example, sets the genteel heroine at sexual risk as semi-servant in a grand patriarchal household. This narrative theme allowed the crisis of middle-class femininity to be mapped on to the structural sexual vulnerability of all working-class servants in bourgeois employment. Such dramas were full of condensed meanings in excess of the representation of sexuality and sexual difference. A doubled scenario, in which the ideological and material difference between working-class and bourgeois women is blurred through condensation, it was popular as a plot for melodrama with both “genteel” and “vulgar” audiences.
“That Stormy Sisterhood” Portrait of the BrontëS
Authors: Michie Helena
Published: October 2023

This, the only surviving portrait of the three of them, groups them forever around phallic absence, the organizing principle, the painter, their brother. Branwell’s decision to erase himself from this painting of his sisters only draws attention to the figure that once represented him, now alluded to by a vertical swath of yellowish paint. In so vividly depicting his own absence, he turns himself—hesitantly—into a phallic presence, into the column that comes to stand, in Charlotte’s portraits of Brocklehurst and St. John, for the sin of male arrogance. Branwell under erasure reminds us in a way no signature could that he is the painter, that his sisters sit in reference to him. Branwell’s arrogance, however, is no simple thing; his sisters will leave their mark, and he will leave his through scarring them; Emily’s biography is especially marked by Branwell’s entrances and exits, his delirium tremens, his drunkenness, his genius, and his shameful death that some say showed the way for Emily’s own.
Introduction Broken Process
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: October 2023

On June 14, 1993, after introducing his first Supreme Court nominee to the nation in a Rose Garden ceremony, President Clinton turned the podium over to the 60-year-old Brooklyn-born judge. Ruth Bader Ginsburg gave a moving speech, including warm praise for her mother, and then closed with a touching self-challenge: “I pray that I may be all that she would have been had she lived in an age when women could aspire and achieve, and daughters are cherished as much as sons.” Tears welled up in the president’s eyes as he and the audience gave Ginsburg warm, sustained applause. He was pleased. His announcement and Judge Ginsburg’s short speech reinforced the White House’s effort to show that the president had made history by choosing the second woman to the Court and a long-time legal activist for women’s rights.
Traditional versus New Players
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: October 2023

The day President Woodrow Wilson announced the nomination of Louis Brandeis to a seat on the U.S. Supreme Court, the press cornered Brandeis at a social event and asked for his reaction. Brandeis replied: “I have not said anything and will not.” Brandeis said a lot privately about the confirmation battle that swirled around him, but he steadfastly maintained his public silence. That was 1916. Today, no Supreme Court nominee would dare make such a statement. Instead, they would be required to sit before a phalanx of senators at a hearing broadcast live to the nation and answer questions for several days. They would be expected to answer lengthy questionnaires and, if necessary, appear with the president at press conferences.
How the Process Broke The Transformation of the Supreme Court Appointment Process
Authors: Davis Richard
Published: October 2023

On July 1, 1987, President Ronald Reagan announced that his choice to replace Justice Lewis Powell was Judge Robert Bork, a well-known judge on the District of Columbia Court of Appeals and a former acting attorney general of the United States. Bork had long been the favorite of conservatives, but his nomination by Reagan signaled that the administration was willing to confront its opponents with a controversial nominee.
Drought
Authors: de Waal Alex
Published: October 2023

Darfur was stricken by drought in the early 1980s. The drought was the most obvious and immediate cause of the famine. This was not merely a one or two years’ failure of the rains. In many parts of Darfur, the drought has been unremitting for a decade and more. At the same time, Darfur has suffered ecological degradation: the bare goz that rings El Fasher town, and the bleakness of Saiyah. In the years after 1978, Sudan was also plunged into a huge economic crisis. The commercial, monetized economy which had advanced into Darfur over the preceding decades was suddenly crippled and forced into retreat.
FDR and the Reshaping of Veterans’ Benefits, 1940–1943
Authors: Altschule Glenn C , Blumin Stuart M
Published: October 2023

As was the case in the longer history of veterans’ benefits, policy innovations and debates during and after World War II were closely bound up with evolving institutions in and out-side government and with a changing array of political forces. As we have seen, a number of new contexts framed the debate over benefits for veterans of World War I, chief among them the size and disrepute of the preexisting pension program for Civil War veterans. Still earlier programs had occasionally produced justifiable charges of corruption and fiscal irresponsibility, but these were largely forgotten in the post–Civil War era, when the political climate greatly favored the enactment of increasingly generous pension laws for Union veterans. From the World War I veterans’ point of view the saviors of the Union had succeeded all too well. Former doughboys who looked to their government for material recognition of their wartime sacrifice faced five straight presidential administrations determined to lower costs and deny the special claim of veterans upon the U.S. Treasury. Aided by allies in Congress, the veterans did win some battles, but many of them believed they had fared very poorly—and unfairly so—in comparison with those of earlier wars.
Overlooked GI Joe but not Joe College
Authors: Altschule Glenn C , Blumin Stuart M
Published: October 2023

There can be no doubt that our reverence for the GI Bill is shaped primarily by the college tuition and subsistence program examined in the previous two chapters. To many Americans, the GI Bill means the opening of college and the opportunities afforded by a college degree to men and women returning from the Good War. The higher-education provisions of the bill were indeed the keys to a prosperous middle-class life for large numbers of veterans and were a major force in the rapid postwar expansion of higher education that made college part of the life experience of vast numbers of young Americans, veterans and nonveterans alike, in subsequent generations. Nonetheless, it was not the chance to attend college that attracted the attention of most new veterans as they leafed through their VA booklets. Only a minority of them had finished high school before they went to war, and nearly 30 percent had only a pre–high school education.
Finding a Home the VA Mortgage
Authors: Altschule Glenn C , Blumin Stuart M
Published: October 2023

Buying a home was not the first priority of most veterans of World War II. Finding work or getting into college or some kind of job training—and in the meantime picking up mustering-out pay and perhaps that weekly or monthly readjustment allowance—came first even for large numbers of veterans eager to marry long-missed sweethearts or to return to brides and the “goodbye babies” many of the newlyweds of 1941 and 1942 had produced before the long and dangerous separation of war. College-bound veterans settled into dormitory rooms or makeshift married students’ housing for periods as long as four years and did not begin to look for a private home until a postcollege job was secured. Other former GIs, many of them still quite young, headed for parental homes, some bringing new wives or husbands with them, some joining wives and babies already living there throughout the war years. The war—and the Depression before it—had taught many American families how to share small living spaces in this way, and for large numbers of immigrant families, only now ready to produce their second generation of American-born children, this was a lesson that did not need learning. With some exceptions, returning veterans squeezed into living spaces not their own while they began to sort out a future that suddenly was. Two external conditions contributed to the continuation of this space squeeze beyond the immediate postwar period. The most important was an acute housing shortage that would take a number of years to alleviate. As we noted earlier, the numbers of new homes built in the United States declined precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression and fell off again during the war. Housing starts had actually started to drop as early as 1926; indeed, economic historians point to the reduction from 937,000 new homes in 1925 to only 509,000 in 1929 as a harbinger and even a significant cause of the misery to come.
Litigation Strategies
Authors: Rettig Richard A , Jacobson Peter D , Farquhar Cynthia M , Aubry Wade M
Published: October 2023

The second aspect of our legal analysis is a case study of litigation strategies. At its heart, the litigation reflected dramatically different moral, legal, and scientific views of the world. For patients with metastatic and high-risk breast cancer, high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation (HDC/ABMT) represented perhaps their only chance. Clinicians were divided: Breast cancer oncologists and bone marrow transplanters supported the procedure, while academic physicians wanted to wait for the results of clinical trials. For insurers, the procedure represented an unproven treatment that if used could actually adversely affect the patient’s quality of life and lifespan.
Entrepreneurial Oncology
Authors: Rettig Richard A , Jacobson Peter D , Farquhar Cynthia M , Aubry Wade M
Published: October 2023

In the early 1990s, it became clear to many that the high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation (HDC/ABMT) procedure for breast cancer would diffuse rapidly into clinical practice. Increasing utilization might be slowed but not stopped by health insurers and health plans. Physicians claiming that the procedure represented standard of care, desperate patients persuaded that it was their best hope for cure, highly visible litigation in the courts, and media coverage of the drama associated with denials of coverage ensured that HDC/ABMT was well under way to becoming the treatment of choice for patients with metastatic and high-risk breast cancer. In this chapter, we examine national HDC/ABMT utilization data for the treatment of breast cancer. Then, in the context of the business of oncology, we analyze the effort of one for-profit corporation, Response Oncology, to provide the HDC/ABMT treatment in community settings. We also consider the provision of the procedure by not-for-profit oncology providers.
Dénouement
Authors: Rettig Richard A , Jacobson Peter D , Farquhar Cynthia M , Aubry Wade M
Published: October 2023

Utilization of high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation (HDC/ABMT) for breast cancer plummeted after the negative reports at the 1999 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) meeting. The two U.S. trials reported by Stadtmauer and Peters influenced American clinical practice most strongly, but Scandinavian and French trial reports reinforced that effect. The Philadelphia trial had concluded that HDC/ABMT was no better than conventional treatment for metastatic breast cancer. William Peters, the foremost advocate for the procedure, had reported that it was no better for high-risk patients in overall survival. The Autologous Blood and Marrow Transplant Registry stopped indicating breast cancer in the total number of transplant procedures it counted. Response Oncology suffered revenue losses and steadily closed a number of its centers. Finally, some insurers acted on coverage policy to withdraw what had been extended earlier. In mid-February 2000, for example, Aetna/US HealthCare informed physicians that it would no longer reimburse HDC/ABMT treatments of breast cancer for its 1.6 million members (Kolata and Eichenwald 2000). Left unanswered, however, was how two South African trials, the first reported in 1995 and the other presented at the 1999 ASCO meeting, had produced positive results.
Four Big Problems
Authors: Sunstein Cass R
Published: October 2023

In Colorado, deliberation made liberals more liberal on global warming, affirmative action, and civil unions for same-sex couples; it also made conservatives more conservative. At least one of these sets of shifts must have been wrong. For both liberals and conservatives, deliberation could not possibly have reflected full use of dispersed information. As we shall now see, deliberating groups typically suffer from four problems. They amplify the errors of their members. They do not elicit the information that their members have. They are subject to cascade effects, producing a situation in which the blind lead the blind. Finally, they show a tendency to group polarization, by which groups go to extremes. Each of these problems threatens to dash the hopes of those who want deliberating groups to take advantage of dispersed information. As a result, deliberation often fails to ensure that groups end up knowing what their members know; recall the cases of the CIA and NASA.
Perfect Markets and the “World of Truth”
Authors: Harford Tim
Published: October 2023

You might not expect Jim Carrey films and economics to have much in common, but in fact there is much we can learn from the rubber-faced comedian. Consider the film, Liar, Liar, which tells the story of Fletcher Reede. As a result of his son’s birthday wish, Fletcher Reede finds that he is compelled to tell the truth for twenty-four hours. This is problematic for Fletcher because he is a lawyer—or a liar, as his son understands it—and hilarity predictably ensues as a horrified Fletcher incriminates himself by helplessly blurting out truthful answers to every question he is asked. They don’t make as much of a feel-good movie, but free markets are just like Fletcher Reede’s son—they force you to tell the truth. Yet while the results were humiliating for Jim Carrey’s character, we will discover that a world of truth leads to a perfectly efficient economy, one in which it is impossible to make someone better off without making someone else worse off.
Why Poor Countries Are Poor
Authors: Harford Tim
Published: October 2023

They call Douala “the Armpit of Africa.” The description is perfect. Lodged neatly beneath the bulging shoulder of West Africa, the malaria-infested city of Douala is humid, unattractive, and it stinks. But if you live in Cameroon, Douala is where the action is. Cameroon is a very poor country indeed; the average Cameroonian is eight times poorer than the average citizen of the world and almost fifty times poorer than the typical American. In late 2001 I went to Douala to find out why.
Beer, Fries, and Globalization
Authors: Harford Tim
Published: October 2023

Once upon a time there was a prosperous trading city called Bruges, nestling on the Zwin estuary in what is now Belgium. Bruges grew up around a castle built in the late ninth century by the founder of the Duchy of Flanders. A century later Bruges was Flanders’s capital, and it began to grow wealthy as trade expanded across Northern Europe. Bruges was a center for the manufacturing of cloth, and ships sailed up the Zwin estuary to buy the fabric, bringing with them English cheese, wool, and minerals, Spanish wine, Russian furs, Danish pork, and silks and spices from the East, traded through the mighty Italian cities of Venice and Genoa. The queen of France herself visited Bruges in 1301 and is reported to have commented, “I thought I alone was queen, but I see that I have six hundred rivals here.”
Introduction
Authors: Leiner Frederick C
Published: October 2023

IN 1762, when the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau famously began The Social Contract with the observation that man, who was born free, is everywhere in chains, the “chains” he referred to were the constraints imposed by living in a society with laws and government. His words might also have been taken literally, because almost everywhere in the eighteenth century, men were in chains. Slavery, or something akin to it, was a common feature of Rousseau’s world and had existed from time immemorial. The Hebrew Bible, the Christian New Testament, and the Muslim Koran all accepted slavery, albeit with restrictions to ameliorate its hardships. By the time Rousseau was writing, the transatlantic trade in black Africans had been a fixture for more than two hundred years and ultimately would ship ten to twelve million people in chains to the Americas. But slavery was not limited to blacks nor to the New World. In Russia, millions of serfs lived a brutish existence tied to the land and at the sufferance of their manorial lords until Tsar Alexander II freed them in 1861.
Unfinished Business
Authors: Leiner Frederick C
Published: October 2023

After Making His Treaty, Decatur and some of his officers and men went ashore to see the sights and scenes of Algiers. Norderling entertained four of the U.S. captains at dinner on July 2, and when Decatur went ashore, the Algerine authorities respectfully saluted him with five guns from the fort. But even with the American slaves now freed and safely aboard the squadron, the squalor of the European slaves working at the mole depressed the American sailors. One Venetian slave—“in most wretched condition” according to Peter Potter, with chains attached to his legs— managed to escape and jumped into one of the Guerriere’s liberty boats at the mole. The overseer with an armed party approached the American naval officer in charge at the landing and demanded the return of the slave. The officer, without orders, did not know what to do, and surely did not want to create an incident in a foreign and hostile port; he gave up the man, despite his screams and begging for help.
Higher-Level Overviews: Review Articles
Authors: Mann Thomas
Published: October 2023

Researchers are especially well advised to look for a particular type or subset of journal articles called review articles. These should not be confused with book reviews. Review articles are a “type of literature” unto themselves (see Chapter 15) in which an author tries systematically to read all the relevant literature on a subject, sometimes also to interview experts in the field, and then to organize, synthesize, and critically evaluate the range of information. His or her goal is to provide a state-of-the-art assessment of knowledge in the particular field, and sometimes to indicate areas that need further research. A literature review article is somewhat like an encyclopedia article in trying to present an overview of a subject, but there are two important differences: (1) a review article is usually written for specialists rather than lay people and so may assume familiarity with technical jargon; and (2) its bibliography will usually be exhaustive rather than selective or merely introductory. In other words, if you are doing serious research and can find a literaturereview article on your subject, you’re in great shape. The important point is that you have to look specifically for this type of literature; if you don’t focus your search, review articles can easily be overlooked or become lost in the retrieval of much larger sets of citations. There are several ways to focus your inquiries.
The Causes And Prevention Of Cancer Gaining Perspectives on the Management of Risk
Authors: Ames Bruce N , Gold Lois Swirsky
Published: October 2023

Epidemiological studies have identified several factors that are likely to have a major effect on reducing rates of cancer: reduction of smoking, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and control of infections. Other factors include avoidance of intense sun exposure, increased physical activity, and reduced consumption of alcohol and possibly red meat. Humans can already reduce risks of many forms of cancer, and the potential for further reductions is great. In the United States cancer death rates for all cancers combined are decreasing if lung cancer-90 percent of which is due to smoking-is excluded from the analysis. In this chapter we review the latest research on the causes of cancer, show why much cancer is preventable, and offer a scientific perspective on the management of risk.The idea that traces of synthetic chemicals such as DDT are major contributors to human cancer is not supported by the evidence. Pollution appears to account for less than 1 percent of human cancer; yet public concern and resource allocation for chemical pollution are very high, in good part because standard risk assessment uses limited data from high-dose animal cancer tests. Scientists do those tests at the maximum tolerated dose of a substance, and the tests are typically misinterpreted to mean that low doses of synthetic chemicals and industrial pollutants are relevant to human cancer. About half the chemicals tested, whether synthetic or natural, are carcinogenic to rodents at such high doses.
Modeling Risk At Low Levels Of Exposure
Authors: Hendee William R
Published: October 2023

This chapter considers the case of ionizing radiation as an example of the evolution of risk assessment and its consequences. Ionizing radiation-from X-rays, from nuclear explosions, from uranium mines­ can cause cancer at high doses. That is clear from the Japanese populations exposed to the atomic bomb explosions in 1945. But it is another question altogether whether far lower doses are damaging. The answer to that question has great consequences. The chapter explores the history of scientific efforts to assess the risk of radiation and the gradual emergence of a “no-threshold model.” This says, in effect, that there may be danger in even very small doses of radiation. The danger is inferred by a straight-line, or linear, extrapolation from the evident risks at high doses. The consequences of the no-threshold model are high-cost efforts to limit radiation (for example, the hugely costly clean up of U.S. government nuclear weapons facilities) and the forgoing of some medical and other potential benefits from low-level radiation. Yet we do not know, and probably cannot know with certainty, whether low doses cause any damage at all. Numerous studies of humans exposed to low doses of radiation have failed to show any statistically significant adverse health effects.
Risk Assessment As An Indicator For Decision Making
Authors: Goldstein Bernard D
Published: October 2023

This chapter seeks to bring the art of risk assessment into perspective. Risk assessment is neither a sure-fire scientific means of reaching correct regulatory decisions, nor a technique so seriously plagued by data imperfections and personal bias as to be useless. Risk assessment can be very valuable if its limitations are realized and it is not asked to do too much. Both critics and practitioners of risk assessment often present it as an abstruse cabalistic exercise of incredible complexity. Risk assessment is in fact a reasonably straightforward attempt to apply scientific principles to estimate endpoints of concern to policy makers and the public. As such, the tool is similar to commonly used economic indicators such as the unemployment level or the gross domestic product. Those economic indicators are not presented as absolutely true-in fact, they are frequently revised without any presentation of error bounds or other estimates of uncertainty. Rather they are measures that inform policy makers and the public, allow priority setting to occur, and provide the basis for an informed debate on policy matters. Any indicator that is to be used for decisions on complex issues must be performed according to guidelines that lay out a standard estimation approach so that the numbers are understandable in context and not open to partisan distortion by altering the estimation process.
The Founders: 1640-1670
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

The story of Richard Lee, the family’s founder in Virginia, glows with success. His achievement was the sort many residents of seventeenth-century England yearned to duplicate. They peered across the Atlantic, drawn by hopes for wealth and eminence said to be found along the James River. Of course, there were other colonists whose careers are too easily ignored. For some, Virginia was a last hope, an outlet for desperation, while many had not even a choice in the matter. They often arrived in chains with no future except to toil for their betters. But of those who came freely, carrying ambition, talent, and industry, few who survived the New World’s rigors had the good luck that transformed Richard Lee from a Britisher of modest beginnings into a Virginian of highest standing.
The Partners: 1700-1750
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

As he died, Richard the Scholar may have feared his male line faced extinction in Virginia. His eldest son Richard lived in England, while Philip, the second in line, had settled in Maryland. Daughter Ann was busy continuing the name of another Virginia family, the Fitzhughs. Son Francis, the physician, gave no promise of male offspring. This left only Thomas and Henry, whom their father must have looked upon as settled bachelors when they cared for him in his last days. After burying their parent, the pair continued with brother Richard’s consent to reside at Machodoc. Since the house had at least ten rooms, the two need not get in each other’s way. The younger, Henry, was more like his father, quiet and mostly devoted to home. The elder, Thomas, by the manner in which he combined materialist and political zeal, would be a reincarnation of his grandfather, Richard the Founder. Barely past twenty-one, Thomas Lee already held two lucrative posts, positions awarded to him through help from his father and his uncles. In 1712, when the elderly Richard wearied of responsibility as naval officer for the South Potomac district, one of six such offices in the colony, Governor Alexander Spotswood informed London: “I thought I could not better reward his [Richard’s] merit than by bestowing that employment upon his son.”
Romance in Philadelphia: 1760–1788
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

Alice Lee Shippen happily received her youngest brother Arthur upon his arrival in America late in 1780. It seemed natural that he should seek her for consolation. Alice was the nearest to a mother Arthur could remember after the death of his parent, Hannah, in 1750. Even at age forty, a little boy peeped from Arthur’s correspondence with Alice. He would implore “dearest sister” to choose a wife for him, so long as the selection was “young, beautiful, and good.” On his return from Paris, Arthur took from his sister what he most needed: words of praise. Alice liked to say how much she admired her youngest brother “as the citizen and the patriot.” She spoke scathingly of the sinister “villains,” led by the despised Benjamin Franklin, who, she charged, had so cruelly mistreated Arthur. Another appeal of Alice’s household for Arthur was the comfort of hearing her husband Dr. William Shippen repeat a favorite refrain: “It matters not what the world will say.” Characteristically, Arthur had not been certain what he should say when, in October 1779, Congress had notified him that he was “at liberty to return to America.” As he prepared to sail home in 1780, one part of Arthur boasted that Congress “cannot disgrace a man who is shielded by innocence and evidence against every accusation.” He directed Richard Henry to begin a libel suit against Silas Deane, the damages to be 200,000 pounds. (The defendant fled out of reach to Europe.)
“The World See Crazy”: 1780-1797
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

Alice’s seclusion at Mount Peace occurred at the same time her brother William struggled with his own enforced retirement. He and his wife Hannah had remained in Europe when Arthur sailed for America. They did not wish to expose their children to a wartime voyage home. There were now three youngsters: William, Portia, and Cornelia. A second son, Brutus, had recently died. The last birth had been that of Cornelia. With her arrival, Hannah’s difficult childbearing days ended at age forty-three. Stuck in Brussels, repudiated by Congress, and given no chance to defend himself, William should have been miserable. And, indeed, he was often wrathful over what he considered the many injustices done him, as well as over the victory of his enemies. But he also recognized the pleasure in domesticity, and pledged that “my family and books will employ my whole time, until some business is undertaken.” William preached that “the care of a wife and family is amply sufficient to employ a man’s whole time.”
“Last of the Stratford Lees”: 1786-1817
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

It happened that Alice Shippen’s son Tommy was visiting Virginia when Uncle Frank died at Menokin. From there Alice heard the sad news that she was, as Tommy put it, “the last of the Stratford Lees.” Of all the family who grew up at Thomas Lee’s proud house on the Potomac, she was now the only survivor. Astonishingly, Alice lived two more decades, long enough to see a new generation come to humiliation at Stratford. But by then, Alice had also watched the sorrows of her own children multiply. Neither her son nor her daughter would brighten the lives of their parents. One of the causes for Alice’s bout with depression in the 1780s had been the tug-of-war over Peggy Livingston, Alice’s granddaughter. “Poor little Peggy,” Uncle Arthur Lee had observed, “it should be flattering to her to know what a contention there is for her company.” Not only Nancy and Old Lady Livingston wished to have the six-year-old, but Nancy’s husband Henry Livingston was still demanding to have her. Again, he urged reunion with Nancy, claiming he had reformed.
... Calamity: 1794-1827
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

Richard Bland Lee’s first campaign for a wife failed dismally. He sought to win a daughter of King Carter’s grandson and namesake, Robert Carter of Nomini Hall, a great Potomac estate situated near Lee Hall. At Christmas time 1790, Carter loftily rejected Richard’s suit. Ostensibly, the reason was Carter’s disagreement with Congressman Lee’s political views. Perhaps equally harmful to Richard’s cause was that Carter knew all about the Lees and the rising problem at Stratford. The prospect of a daughter married to a brother of Harry Lee could not have appealed to the Carter family. After this rebuff, Richard wasted no time in trying his luck else where. The result was impressive. He found a mate in the Philadelphia residence of Stephen Collins, one of the city’s most successful merchants and financiers. One wonders if Richard knew that Collins was numbered among Harry Lee’s impatient creditors and that as recently as August 1790 a discouraged Collins had reminded Harry: “I have wrote you several letters on the score of your note to me . . . and yet you take no notice of it.” Fortunately for Richard Lee, Stephen Collins was kind by nature and deferred to his daughter Elizabeth’s wishes that Richard be allowed to court her, even if he was Harry’s brother. Miss Collins was an unusually attractive and intelligent woman of twenty-five when she first welcomed Richard’s visits. The Collinses were good friends of Alice and Billy Shippen, and Elizabeth was one of Dr. Shippen’s admiring and admired patients, a relationship which may have helped foster her union with the Lee family.
Farewell to Stratford: 1787-1829
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

Light-Horse Harry Lee left a record with some redeeming features. Compassionate friends remembered his brave Legion in the Revolution. Others recalled his plea for the federal Constitution’s adoption, or his stirring eulogy of George Washington. Unfortunately when Harry’s son Henry Lee died, in 1837, there was nothing edifying in his past. This grandson of Colonel Phil and son of the Divine Matilda at Stratford earned a derisive title as “Black-Horse Harry Lee.” His family called him Henry. Two children had survived from the union of Matilda and Light Horse Harry. Lucy Grymes Lee, the elder of the pair, and Henry Lee, who was fourth in descent to bear that name. Both appear to have had serious personality disorders which spoiled their lives. Stuck in the limited province imposed upon a nineteenth-century woman, Lucy’s escapades were necessarily more limited than her brother’s. In a step Lucy apparently considered a lark, at age seventeen she married Bernard Moore Carter. He was Ann Carter Lee’s brother, so the wedding made Lucy a sister-in-law to her step-mother, and an aunt to her half-brothers and sisters.
Hiding in Paris: 1829-1840
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

As she said goodbye to Henry, Lucy Carter urged that he “treat Ann with the utmost tenderness. It would be well to humour her peculiarities if she has any. Then they would wear off.” Lucy chose to add: “If I have said anything offensive, you must forgive me for it, as be assured the best motives dictate what I have said.” For themselves as Lees, Lucy said she could not avoid the conclusion “that we are both unfortunate.” Henry’s brother and agent, Carter Lee, was more concerned that Henry live prudently while abroad. He warned Henry to manage within his salary. What little income there was from the rental of Ann’s slaves must go to helping pay creditors in America. Ann’s property must be sacred, Carter admonished: “It would be wrong in you to attempt to diminish it.” At least Henry now had a steady, if modest, stipend as an employee of the United States government-or so the consul in Algiers and his brother assumed. But this security vanished in March 1830 when the United States Senate, by unanimous vote, denied Henry Lee his federal appointment. The senators discussed the nomination in secret session, using materials apparently supplied by Virginia’s senator John Tyler with the aid of Ann and Betsy’s uncle William Robinson. Thanks to Tyler and Robinson, evidently Henry’s adultery with Betsy was graphically recounted on the floor of the Senate.
“My Country”: 1846-1861
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

By serving in the Mexican War, Robert E. Lee was parted from his family for two years, 1846 to 1848, an interval that affected him more than any other experience before 1861. He did not approve of the war, confiding to Mary his belief that America’s incitement of hostilities “disgraced” their country. As a staunch Whig, he shared the partisan view that the war with Mexico was a Democratic scheme. Believing he would die in Mexico, Captain Lee prepared his will before leaving Arlington. The document displayed how fruitful his discipline and economy had been. By living on his soldier’s pay, and by evading Carter Lee’s costly gambles, Robert could list $38,750 in stocks and bonds, notably shares in the Bank of Virginia. His slave Nancy and her children, all of whom he had inherited from his mother, were to be freed as soon as possible-both Robert and Mary were supporters of the American Colonization Society. His share of worthless western land he noted only in passing. All of Robert’s estate was left to Mary, and after her decease to their children equally. He pointed out that, with a sightless eye, daughter Annie “may be more in want of aid than the rest.” She must therefore “be particularly provided for.” In a letter to Mary, written 13 August 1846, Robert urged that the income from the stocks and bonds, usually amounting to $2000 per year, be used to educate their children.