bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multidimensional scaling representations and individual differences in concept learning of artistic style
Authors: O'Hare David
Published: April 2011

Several previous studies in which a concept learning task has been used to investigate acquisition of concept of artistic style, have noted a wide range of individual differences in performance. Tighe (1968) has proposed that these may reflect differential sensitivity to relevant dimensions of stylistic variation. INDSCAL technique of multidimensional scaling, which has previously been used to determine predominant dimensions of variation in responses to visual art was used here to determine salience of such dimensions for different individuals. These scores were then used to predict individual differences in performance on a concept formation task. results offer support for a differential cue salience explanation for individual differences in learning about artistic style. Implications for aesthetic education are discussed.
The feeling of knowing a word's meaning
Authors: Eysenck Michael W.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were presented with rare words, and required to define them. Feeling‐of‐knowing judgements were made with respect to meaning of words that could not be defined accurately. It was found that subjects’ feeling‐of‐knowing judgements accurately predicted their performance on semantic‐differential and related‐word tasks designed to measure connotative and denotative aspects of word meaning, respectively. In addition, number of semantically related words recognized was consistently related to both feeling‐of‐knowing judgements and to semantic‐differential performance. It was concluded that feeling‐of‐knowing judgements and their predictive accuracy were result of knowledge of semantic attributes or features.
Emergence of unreported stimuli into imagery as a function of laterality of presentation: A replication and extension of research by Henley & Dixon (1974)
Authors: Mykel Nan , Daves Walter F.
Published: April 2011

In Expt. 1, research by Henley & Dixon (1974) was replicated. Two experimental groups (n = 8 each) received subliminal words to right ear and 8 min of music to left ear or vice versa. Each group had its own control (n = 8 each) with only music to one ear. Categorization and ranking of imagery reported, as well as performance on a checklist containing critical, associated, and non‐related words, showed that emergence was greater with words to right ear than with no words. There was no difference between experimental and control groups with words to left ear. In Expt. 2, music was eliminated, and subjects received subliminal words to right ear (n = 8) or no words. A significant difference between groups was found when reported imagery was ranked as to emergence, and on checklist, but not when reports were categorized by judges.
Vocalization and looking behaviour of Down's syndrome infants
Authors: Gunn P. , Berry P. , Andrews R.
Published: April 2011

effect of contingent and non‐contingent vocal stimulation on vocalization and looking behaviour was investigated for 10 Down's syndrome infants. There were two experimental sessions consisting of four stages, namely 1 min base‐line, 1 min experimental condition, a further 1 min base‐line and a final 2 min experimental condition. Maternal vocal stimulation was contingent upon infant vocalization for experimental conditions of one session and was presented every 10 s independent of infant vocalization for experimental conditions of other session. Neither condition increased infant vocalization but there was a significant decrease in looking at mother during base‐line stages which followed maternal vocalization (F = 5.07, d.f. = 4, 28, P < 0.01). It is suggested that looking behaviour may be an important indication of competence in pre‐linguistic social communication for developmentally delayed infants.
Facilitating insight in a reasoning task
Authors: Roth Emilie Matarasso
Published: April 2011

Subjects were presented selection task developed by Wason (1966) using a reduced array. majority of subjects demonstrated partial or complete insight into task. Performance level remained high on a transfer selection task using a standard array. results suggest that under appropriate conditions subjects spontaneously demonstrate valid inferential processes with abstract material.
Non‐verbal and verbal judgements of length invariance by young children
Authors: Russell James
Published: April 2011

One hundred and fifty non‐conservers in length were assessed for their ability to make a non‐verbal judgement of length invariance on a task employing a train‐transfer design in which stimuli were pairs of pencils. Seventy per cent of children from group who had to respond to length equality as opposed to inequality made correct invariance judgement and could, moreover, characterize their choices in invariance language (e.g. ‘same size’) whilst still failing standard verbal task in which such phrases were used by experimenter. This is regarded as supporting hypothesis that non‐conserver's linguistic difficulty is not with framing verbal judgement but in interpreting a question which he believes has to be interpreted unidimensionally in such a context of perceptual change.
Individual differences in right and left reaction time
Authors: Annett Marian , Annett John
Published: April 2011

Experiments designed to check the absence of effects for hands and handedness in simple and two‐choice reaction time found unexpected individual differences related to stimulus laterality. The majority of subjects responded faster to the stimulus on the left and a substantial minority responded faster to the stimulus on the right in any choice pair. The right index finger was slower than the left index or the middle fingers. Choices tended to be faster between fingers on different hands than on the same hand and same‐hand choices were faster with the left hand than the right hand. There were no effects attributable to hand preference or sex.
Negative recency and measurement of primary memory
Authors: Martin Maryanne , Jones Gregory V.
Published: April 2011

The technique of Waugh & Norman (1965) is widely used in measuring the capacity of primary memory. Watkins (1974) has proposed a modification of the technique which takes into account registration failure. A further modification is proposed which takes into account findings of negative recency in delayed recall.
Facilitation of reasoning by realism: Effect or non‐effect?
Authors: Manktelow K. I. , Evans J. St B. T.
Published: April 2011

A series of five experiments was performed comparing abstract and thematic materials in Wason's (1966) selection task. The first was designed to test the effect of negated rule components on the facilitated performance usually found with thematic rules. No such facilitation transpired, however, and the succeeding four experiments investigated possible variables which could account for this result. None of the experiments showed any facilitation of performance on thematic rules and the pattern of responding with both abstract and thematic rules was consistent with ‘matching bias’ (Evans, 1972a). The results are discussed with reference to previous, apparently contrary, findings.
Perception of simple figures: Implicit‐shape constancy and mental rotation
Authors: Derȩgowski J. B.
Published: April 2011

Adults were shown simple figures either drawn on their own or on a face of a depicted cube. Under each of these conditions they were required to find identical figures in an array of stimuli of either the first or the second type. The response chosen determined the next stimulus used, the figures in both being identical. Four chains of 10 responses were thus obtained. Comparison of the choices reveals that the set consisting of ‘plain’ responses to ‘cube’ stimuli diverges significantly from the other three sets. This result is discussed in the context of other studies of implicit‐shape constancy.
Individual differences in reported visual imagery and memory performance*
Authors: McKelvie Stuart J. , Demers Elizabeth G.
Published: April 2011

Seventy high school students completed the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ). Two months later, the 16 highest scores (low visualizers) and the 16 lowest scores (high visualizers) took part in a memory experiment involving abstract words, concrete words and pictures. Analyses of variance showed that high visualizers were superior to low visualizers on all three kinds of item in short‐term recall, whereas they were only superior on the concrete words and pictures in long‐term recall. Finally, both groups performed equally well on a subsequent recognition test. The results were interpreted as providing support for the validity of the VVIQ.
Socialization and the development of adult respect
Authors: Siegal Michael
Published: April 2011

An experiment is reported designed to re‐examine Piaget's (1932) claim that an increasing solidarity and mutual respect among peers liberates the child from a unilateral respect for adult‐imposed constraints. Children aged 5–11 were asked to compare identical moral acts (e.g. helping, lying) involving a grown‐up or a friend. Contrary to Piaget, there was no evidence of an increasing solidarity among peers to the extent that, e.g. children think that to lie to a friend is worse than to lie to a grown‐up.
‘Behavioural interaction’ and ‘interactional psychology’ theories of personality: Similarities, differences, and the need for unification
Authors: Staats Arthur W.
Published: April 2011

The social behaviourism theory of personality and behavioural interaction is presented and compared to interactional psychology's conception, indicating the features shared. Interactional psychology's conception is seen to be inconsistent with its person‐situation data. Social behaviourism's theory is seen to provide better analysis and stipulation of personality, situations and interaction. The social behaviourism theoretical developments should be employed in the new approaches attempting to combine behaviour principles with personality concepts of a cognitive‐emotional type. Social behaviourism's multi‐level theory and its extension into various areas of psychology provide many avenues for development. Finally, the separation of interactional psychology's development from the related principles of social behaviourism is seen as a drawback produced by the present separatism of United States psychology's preparadigmatic state of development.
Relations among symmetry, asymmetry, perceptual comprehension of numerals by kindergarten and first grade children
Authors: Cheong George S. C.
Published: April 2011

The main purpose of the study was to investigate whether or not the perceptual comprehension of symmetrically designed numerals is higher than that of asymmetrically designed ones. Other peripheral hypotheses on sex difference, differences between children of various socio‐economic classes, and the differences between kindergarteners and first graders were also examined. Seventy‐three children participated in the study. The results of the study indicated that the major hypothesis was rejected, and that some subhypotheses were accepted. Implications were drawn from the findings of the study, as they relate to the differentiated functions of the brain, the teaching of reading and art, and to other cognitive styles.
Recognition of word associates in semantic paralexia
Authors: Kapur Narinder
Published: April 2011

This study examines the processing of word associates by a patient who makes semantic paralexic responses in oral reading. His ability to extract semantic features from printed words was assessed using a task which involved the recognition of specific associates of printed words. He could recognize as many associate words as normal control patients, but was more likely to make a positive response to stimulus words unrelated to the target item. There was also a tendency to more readily accept same‐category associates as being related to target words. It is suggested that semantic paralexic patients sometimes make inadequate ‘checks’ on related words which are activated when printed words are perceived, and possible retraining procedures are suggested which may improve their checking strategies.
Sex differences in imagery vividness: An artifact of the test
Authors: Ashton Roderick , White Kenneth D.
Published: April 2011

When scores from a modified Sheehan/Betts imagery questionnaire were reanalysed, previous findings ‐ that females report more vivid imagery than males ‐ were not confirmed. Because the modification affected only response bias, through changes in questionnaire format, it is argued that previously reported sex differences may be artifactual in so far as imagery vividness scores are concerned.
Conservation without conversation? An alternative, non‐verbal paradigm for assessing conservation of liquid quantity
Authors: Wheldall Kevin , Poborca Barbara
Published: April 2011

A non‐verbal paradigm for assessing conservation based on an operant discrimination learning procedure is described. Children were trained to press a button when shown two jars containing equal amounts of water and to refrain from pressing when the amounts were unequal. In this way children were taught to respond to a non‐verbal request by wordlessly signalling their evaluation of the relationship between two quantities. When criterion was reached, one of two quantities previously judged equal was poured into a different shaped jar and an evaluatory response to this transformed stimulus was non‐verbally requested. Initial results suggest that young children who could not conserve within the traditional verbal procedure were more likely to demonstrate*** conservation within the non‐verbal paradigm and that traditional Piagetian tasks are verbally biased.
Self‐report multiple mood instruments
Authors: Howarth Edgar , Schokman‐Gates Kar‐Lá
Published: April 2011

Some dozen mood measurement instruments are surveyed with an emphasis on multiplicity of mood measurement with applications reviewed under topic headings as follows: Mood scales, Group studies, Drugs and drug use, Alcohol and mood, Mood and smoking behaviour, Birth control and menstrual cycle, Mood and hypnotizability, Sleep and mood, Age, sex and mood, Mood and aesthetics, Mood state manipulation, Scale development and relationships, Recommendations. It is pointed out that any scale to be recommended to prospective users should (a) be relatively easy for self‐administration, (b) have unambiguous scales, (c) be easy to score, (d) be quite short in administration time, (e) provide the maximum possible information.
Football knowledge and the acquisition of new results
Authors: Morris Peter E. , Gruneberg Michael M. , Sykes Robert N. , Merrick Anna
Published: April 2011

Performance on a football knowledge questionnaire correlated very highly (r = 0·81) with the number of football scores correctly recalled immediately following their broadcast. This better acquistion by football enthusiasts did not result from knowledgeable guessing, since correct prior predictions of the results did not correlate significantly with the questionnaire. Football enthusiasts showed especially good recall of the English First Division. It is suggested that their better performance results from the knowledge they possess being activated in drawing the implications of the result, which leads to a richer encoding. In everyday life, knowledge already possessed may be an important determinant of new learning.
Prototype formation of faces: A case of pseudo‐memory
Authors: Solso Robert L. , McCarthy Judith E.
Published: April 2011

A series of Identikit faces were composed in which the features of hair, eyes, nose plus chin, and mouth were varied systematically. These faces were shown to subjects who later were asked to evaluate some of the original faces, some new faces, and a prototype face which was a new face embodying the features most frequently contained in the original series. Subjects misidentified the prototype face with high confidence as a formerly seen face. These findings were repeated in a second experiment in which the evaluation was delayed six weeks. The results were discussed in terms of prototype and schema theory.
Individual differences in memory organization as related to word‐association, object‐sorting, and word‐matching styles
Authors: Koriat Asher , Melkman Rachel
Published: April 2011

The aims of the study were to examine the possibility of consistent individual differences in styles of clustering in free recall, and to relate these differences to styles of organization reflected in other tasks. Fifty‐seven subjects were presented with seven repetitions of a list of 33 words which could be grouped into 11 conceptual categories or, alternatively, into 11 associative categories of three words each. Subjects were found to converge consistently upon one or the other mode of organization with successive presentations of the list. Number of words recalled was more strongly related to associative than to conceptual clustering. Individual differences in amount and style of clustering yielded complex relationships with variables derived from object‐sorting, word‐association, and word‐matching tasks. The implications of the results to the idea of different modes of organizing events were discussed.
Social desirability in the Eysenck Personality Inventory
Authors: Dunnett S. , Koun S. , Barber P. J.
Published: April 2011

To investigate the extent to which the social desirability of test items can bias Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) score profiles, a group of subjects was asked to rate the items of the EPI in terms of their social desirability. Three further groups were asked to complete the inventory honestly, or in such a way as to give a good or bad impression of themselves. Test items measuring extraversion were rated as socially undesirable, whereas those measuring neuroticism were rated as undesirable. Compared with subjects asked to respond honestly, subjects attempting to give a good impression tended to endorse items rated as socially desirable and hence to respond in the direction of stable extraversion. Similarly, subjects asked to give a bad impression tended to give socially undesirable responses and hence tended to appear as neurotic introverts. The lie scale did not effectively discriminate faking subjects from honest subjects. It is concluded that a social desirability response set can consistently bias subjects’ scores on the EPI and this is not detected by the lie scale.
The problem of reliability in the study of early communication skills
Authors: Brinker Richard P. , Goldbart Juliet
Published: April 2011

The question of the reliability of data in studies of child language has rarely been addressed although the objectivity of such observation is open to question. The social and communicative behaviour of 28 preschool children was classified in terms of pragmatic functions (for gestures and vocalizations) or semantic functions (for single words). Nineteen of these children were developmentally delayed. Each child was observed for 15 min sessions by each of four observers. Only 13 of the 40 behavioural codes were stable across these four observation sessions. Fifteen of the children were jointly observed on 27 occasions yielding 83 inter‐observer agreement comparisons among the four observers. Cohen's kappa (a measure of percentage agreement after chance agreement has been removed) ranged from 0.01 to 0.66 (mean = 0.29, SD = 0.22). Pearson correlations for the total frequency of each behaviour by each observer during a 15 min observation ranged from 0 03 to 0.99 (mean = 0.84, SD = 0.15). Four children were videotaped and transcripts of their behaviour were independently rated by two observers producing an average kappa of 0.74. Finally inter‐observer agreement from observations of developmentally delayed and normal children was compared. No statistically significant difference was found.

The results were discussed in terms of the necessity for measures of reliability, the appropriate level of data analysis in light of such measures, and the problem of inter‐subjectivity in the study of early communicative development.
Immediate free recall in early childhood autism: Another point of behavioural similarity with the amnesic syndrome
Authors: Boucher Jill
Published: April 2011

Autistic children were compared with age and ability matched controls on a test of immediate recall of word lists. Overall performance in the two groups was very similar. However, the overall recall scores were achieved differently by the two groups, the autistic subjects recalling significantly fewer earlier presented items and more later presented items than did controls. This finding is discussed in relation to the memory disabilities of adults suffering from the amnesic syndrome.
Ratings of the degree of synonymity of 279 noun pairs
Authors: Wilding John , Mohindra Naresh
Published: April 2011

Ratings were obtained from 100 subjects on a seven‐point scale of the degree of synonymity of 279 pairs of nouns, half the subjects rating the pairs presented in one order and half in the other. Alternative synonyms were also invited. Mean ratings ranged from 6.76 to 3.34. Forty‐six pairs were identical with those presented in a similar American study by Whitten et al. (1979). While the British ratings showed some differences from the American ones, the two sets of ratings were significantly correlated over these pairs.

As in the American study, order of presentation significantly affected rated similarity in some pairs, though the American and British studies were not highly consistent in this respect. No distinguishing characteristic of such pairs was apparent.
Interference effects in recalling movements
Authors: Walsh Warren D. , Russell David G. , Crassini Boris
Published: April 2011

In two experiments, the interaction of location and distance cues in the recall of pre‐selected movements was investigated. In Expt 1, separate groups of subjects were required to remember either the terminal location of, or the distance moved during, a criterion movement pre‐selected within a 30 cm response region. Following either a 5 s or 30 s unfilled retention interval, subjects were required to recall the criterion movement using the particular movement cue (i.e. location or distance) in question. In Expt 2, a similar procedure was used, except that recall of the criterion movement followed either a 5 s or a 20 s unfilled, or a 20 s filled (backward counting) retention interval. Systematic manipulation of both the direction and magnitude of the starting position for recall movements revealed that subjects were unable to make the movement uninfluenced by the ‘unattended’ movement cue. The interfering effect of this irrelevant cue was independent of the ongoing activity during the retention interval. The results suggest that memory for preselected movements is based on a combination of the two movement cues generated during production of the criterion movement.
Person memory: A semantic category model of personality traits
Authors: Hampson Sarah E.
Published: April 2011

A model of the cognitive representation of personality traits is proposed in which traits are regarded as categories which are applied to situation‐specific action units composed of situational, behavioural and motivational attributes. Evidence to support the view that trait categories vary on a dimension of trait‐behaviour associatedness and that instances of trait categories vary in terms of prototypicality is presented. The power of the model to account for previous findings in implicit personality theory, and to resolve the issue of the epistemological status of personality traits, is discussed.
‘Outcome‐counting’— Significance tests from incomplete predictions of order
Authors: Green T. R. G. , Nimmo‐Smith I.
Published: April 2011

Experimenters testing models usually predict that some treatment effects will be greater than others, but they do not as a rule feel able to predict the exact ordering of treatment effects. A useful significance test for such incomplete order predictions can be obtained by comparing the number of possible outcomes (orderings) with the number that satisfy the predictions. The difficulty is to count the outcomes satisfying the predictions, which can be a lengthy task if there are many treatments. A straightforward method of outcome‐counting is derived from simple algebra and examples of its use are given.
Intuiting strength of association from a correlation coefficient
Authors: Oakes Mike
Published: April 2011

Correlation statistics, although more useful than test statistics, are prone to misinterpretation. In particular, Pearsonian and rank‐order correlation coefficients of moderate size may be derived from bivariate distributions where the strength of association is surprisingly small. Psychologists asked to construct a bivariate distribution exhibiting a correlation of + 0·5 gave systematically inaccurate responses. The median obtained correlation was 0·76. A different sample of psychologists was confronted with a bivariate distribution where the correlation was + 0·5 and gave a median response of 0·25 when asked to estimate the strength of association present. It is concluded that care should be exercised in the interpretation of an obtained value of a correlation coefficient.
Effects of Transcendental Meditation on self‐identity indices and personality
Authors: Turnbull Michael J. , Norris Hugh
Published: April 2011

Transcendental Meditation (TM) is an increasingly popular mental technique producing relaxation. To assess specific personal effects, a role construct repertory grid and an Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) were completed by subjects, once before and twice after starting the regular practice of TM. Comparison subjects did not learn TM and were assessed in the same ways at the same times. Initially the two groups differed only in that meditation subjects tended to judge other people to be more unlike their ideal selves than did comparison subjects. This difference was maintained.

With meditation subjects the grid results showed a systematic pattern of significant changes over the three tests. These indicate that meditators came to perceive their actual‐selves as being increasingly similar to their ideal‐ and social‐selves and that they developed a more strongly defined concept of their actual‐selves. The strength of definition of self concepts was indicated by the newly defined index ‘Self Defining Polarization’ (SDP). EPQ results showed increased extraversion in meditators. Comparison subjects did not show consistent or significant changes between tests on any measure.

Subjects practising Transcendental Meditation appear to have experienced consistent and definable changes of a generally beneficial nature. The value of TM as a therapeutic tool is thereby suggested.
Effects of stress and conflict difficulty on arousal and conflict resolution
Authors: Smith Barry D. , Principato Frank
Published: April 2011

The present study was concerned with the effects of conflict type and shock stress on arousal and conflict resolution. Subjects were randomly assigned to either stress (random shock) or non‐stress conditions. Each subject was exposed to three trials of each of the four Lewinian conflict types and three control trials, interspersed among additional non‐conflict trials. Resolution performance was assessed in terms of speed of resolution and error frequency. Phasic electrodermal responsivity served as a measure of arousal. Results supported several hypotheses. It was found that both stress and conflict increased the magnitude of electrodermal responses and that larger responses occurred under more difficult conflicts. In addition, increased conflict difficulty produced lower speeds, and stress increased errors. Finally, stress caused a greater increase in error frequency on conflict than on control trials. Results were discussed in terms of arousal and stress hypotheses found in the theories of Lewin and Dollard & Miller.
Asymmetries in moving faces
Authors: Campbell Ruth
Published: April 2011

One hundred and two right‐handed judges viewed a series of 16 frontally displayed moving faces. They reported which side of each face appeared to move more when the faces were seen (a) speaking and (b) performing face exercises (pulling faces).

The left‐of‐face was judged more mobile than the right at pulling faces, while there was no asymmetry in the judged movement of the speaking face. Viewing conditions (mirror‐reversed/normal orientation) affected judgements of exercising faces, but not of speaking faces. There was a leftward bias in judgements of exercising faces, so that a greater left preference obtained when viewing mirror‐reversed rather than normally oriented faces. These results are interpreted with reference to explanations of asymmetries in facial expression and interpretation involving notions of cerebral lateralization.
Changing faces: Visual and non‐visual coding processes in face recognition
Authors: Bruce Vicki
Published: April 2011

Two experiments examined the effect on recognition accuracy and latency of changing the view of faces betwen presentation and test. In Expt 1, all the faces were unfamiliar to the subjects. Faces at test were either unchanged, or changed in angle (e.g. full face to 3/4), expression (e.g. smiling to unsmiling) or both. Unchanged faces were recognized more quickly and accurately than faces with a change in angle or expression which were in turn better than faces with both changed. In Expt 2, half the faces were highly familiar to the subjects, and at test unfamiliar and familiar faces were either unchanged or changed in both angle and expression. Unfamiliar faces were recognized more slowly and less accurately if changed at test, while familiar faces were recognized more slowly though no less accurately if changed (though performance was effectively at ceiling). Familiar faces were recognized more quickly and accurately than unfamiliar, though false positive rates and rejection latencies were similar for familiars and unfamiliars. The results are discussed in terms of the combination of information from ‘pictorial’, ‘structural’, ‘semantic’ and ‘name’ codes.
The effects of priming on picture recognition
Authors: Warren Clive , Morton John
Published: April 2011

In two experiments we show that the prior presentation of a picture serves to facilitate the recognition of that picture in a tachistoscope up to 45 minutes later. Facilitation of recognition also occurred with prior presentation of a different picture with the same name. This cannot be explained in terms of a response bias, since the presentation of a word, which the subject read aloud, had no effect whatsoever upon the subsequent recognition of the picture. The data are interpreted in terms of a categorization stage for pictures which is completely independent of the verbal system. Data from other experimental paradigms are also examined. Our categorization model enables consistent interpretation of these data, which otherwise appear contradictory.
Social interaction and cognitive conflict in the development of spatial coordination skills
Authors: Emler Nicholas , Valiant Gayle L.
Published: April 2011

In a recent experiment, Doise & Mugny (1979) have shown that pairs of children working on spatial representation tasks make more subsequent progress than children who work alone on such tasks. This appears to lend support to Piaget's claims about the effects of social interaction upon the development of operational thought. In the first of the two experiments reported here the effects of working in pairs on spatial representation problems but from opposing perspectives were examined with respect to subsequent improvement in individual performances. Such paired training resulted in more improvement than solitary practice but was no more effective than training designed to induce intra‐individual conflict. The second experiment demonstrated that the effect of working in pairs upon subsequent improvement was related to the amount of disagreement that occurred during training between partners. Again, however, working in pairs was overall no more effective than training based on intra‐individual conflict.
Spelling as a source of information about children's linguistic knowledge
Authors: Smith Philip T. , Baker Robert G. , Groat Anne
Published: April 2011

Two studies of English speakers' understanding of the English spelling system are discussed. The first study is Groat's (1979) investigation of seven‐year‐old children's ability to assign stress appropriately to two‐syllable nonsense words embedded in otherwise normal sentences. This work is compared with an earlier study of university students' performance on a similar task (Smith & Baker, 1976) and suggests that seven‐year‐olds are as sophisticated as adults in extracting many of the linguistic factors (vowel quality, syllable structure, syntactic category) which influence stress assignment, but they lack the ‘heterogeneous’ structure of the lexicon that is characteristic of the adult (i.e. a lexicon where different classes of word are subject to different rules). Furthermore it is shown that experience with Pitman's initial teaching alphabet (i.t.a.) leads to subtle differences in children's performance in this task, suggesting that children taught to read with i.t.a. are using different print‐to‐sound conversion rules even after they have transferred to traditional orthography.
The IQ advantage of the heavier twin
Authors: James William H.
Published: April 2011

The monozygotic twin member with the larger birth weight later has a slight IQ advantage over the lighter co‐twin. The question arises whether this is due to interconnected foetal circulations (which in extreme cases cause the twin transfusion syndrome). An attempt is made to clarify this hypothesis.
Orientation and spatial representation within multiple frames of reference
Authors: Smyth Mary M. , Kennedy Jane E.
Published: April 2011

The maintenance of orientation while walking through an unfamiliar route within a larger familiar environment was investigated by having subjects count backwards while walking, instructing others to attend to orientation and giving no instructions to a third group. Instructions made no difference to accuracy of location of landmarks, but backwards counting led to larger increases in error. After counting, some subjects were able to recognize the shape of a simple route although they could not use this information to help them orient. The results are interpreted in terms of the use of different frames of reference while constructing a representation of a new space and it is suggested that normal orientation within complex real‐world environments may not be best understood by studying performance in artificial mazes, or by limiting the frames of reference which can be used.
Towards a conceptualization of hand preference
Authors: Beukelaar L. J. , Kroonenberg P. M.
Published: April 2011

In the present study, we have investigated the structure of hand preference by means of a questionnaire of 51 items, using the data from 977 persons. On the basis of the scores over a larger part of the items, the respondents were divided into three groups, right‐handers (523), left‐handers (412) and those impossible to classify (42). The items were subjected to a cluster analysis for the left‐handers and right‐handers separately.

The results show a clear grouping of items for left‐handers, and a vaguely similar grouping for right‐handers. The clusters can be characterized by the muscle groups and joints which are involved in performing the tasks. Some attention is given to the question of whether hand preference can be better viewed as a natural dichotomy or a single continuum.
The effects of noise and time on task on recall of order information
Authors: Smith Andrew P.
Published: April 2011

Recent evidence has suggested that noise may improve recall of order information, although one should note that certain experiments have found either no effect of noise or an impairment in noise. The first experiment showed that the effect of noise on recall of order changed during the course of the task, performance being slightly improved by noise in the first half but impaired by noise in the second. Thus, the usual finding of improvement in recall of order is especially likely to be obtained with short experiments.

Another experiment was carried out to determine whether the later impairment by noise was due to previous exposure to the noise, practice at the task, or both. Taken together, the results of the two experiments showed that both noise and practice were necessary to produce the later impairment of order recall.
An experimental analysis of fearlessness and courage
Authors: Cox D. , Hallam R. , O'Connor K. , Rachman S.
Published: April 2011

In an attempt to assess the performance under stress of people who had received awards for gallantry, the subjective, behavioural and psychophysiological reactions of a group of seven decorated bomb‐disposal operators were measured during a conflict test. Compared to a group of seven equally experienced and successful, but non‐decorated, bomb‐disposal operators, the decorated subjects maintained a lower cardiac rate when making difficult discriminations under threat of shock. There were no differences between the groups on subjective reactivity or on their performance under stress. Both groups of bomb‐disposal operators reported having experienced fewer fearful reactions than did a small number of comparison subjects. The implications of the results for theories of fear and of courage are considered.
Erratic sequential eye‐movements in dyslexics: Comments and reply to Stanley et al.
Authors: Pavlidis George Th.
Published: April 2011

The results of the Pavlidis' dyslexia studies are consistent with the existing literature and have also been recently replicated using the same subject selection criteria, instructions to subjects, experimental procedures, tests and analyses.

Stanley et al.'s: (a) subject selection criteria, (b) instructions to subjects, (c) experimental procedures, (d) temporo‐spatial characteristics of the sequentially illuminated LEDs and (e) data analysis procedures differ from those used in the Pavlidis' studies and, therefore, also differ their results.
Sir Cyril Burt and typography: A re‐evaluation
Authors: Hartley James , Rooum Donald
Published: April 2011

Sir Cyril Burt contributed to five main areas of typographical research: spacing words and text; the use of serifs; the effects of typefaces, typesizes and line‐lengths on reading comprehension; and aesthetic preferences. Hearnshaw (1979) assessed this contribution as worthy of ‘well‐merited acclaim’. In this article we examine what Burt had to say on each of these issues, and how far what is said is applicable to typographic practice today. It appears, despite the wisdom of some of the sentiments expressed, that many of them were opinions which were not supported by the data that Burt presented. Indeed there is possible evidence of deceit. We conclude, therefore, (and Hearnshaw accepts) that Burt's contribution to typographic practice was marred by the same defects that one can find in his other work.
Effects of conflict and field structure on arousal and motor responses
Authors: Smith Barry D. , Principato Frank
Published: April 2011

Psychodynamic, learning and field theories have postulated that conflict increases arousal. Lewin has further suggested that more difficult conflicts produce proportionately greater arousal increments and that arousal is also a function of field structure, hypotheses that are consistent with optimal level theory. Moreover, studies involving open conflict fields and those involving maze fields differ importantly in findings. The present study measured both arousal and motor responses as a function of conflict type and field structure. Using paper‐and‐pencil fields, subjects performed under four different types of conflict and a control condition. Results showed that arousal increased significantly with increasing conflict complexity and were habitual over repeated trials, though arousal did not differentiate field conditions. Response speed was higher in the open field than in the maze field, and the relative speeds of the several conflict types varied as a function of field condition. In addition, speed increased over trials, but the rate of increase was greater for some conflicts than others. Response adequacy was greater in the open field than in the maze field condition, and response mode differentiated significantly between field types on early trials. Relevant results were partially supportive of hypotheses derived from optimal level and Lewinian theories.
Age, sex and time of day effects on the duration of the movement after‐effect
Authors: Harris J. P.
Published: April 2011

The duration of the movement after‐effect (MAE) was measured in 90 males and 64 females, aged from 7 to 87 years, between 10.30 and 17.00 h. MAE duration was an inverted U‐shaped function of age, with subjects in their 30s reporting longest effects. MAEs were longest in mid‐morning and declined throughout the day. Females reported shorter MAEs than males.
Specific reading retardation and working memory: A review
Authors: Jorm Anthony F.
Published: April 2011

Research into the memory deficit of retarded readers is examined within a working memory framework. Although much of the evidence in this area is confusing, there is fairly consistent evidence that reading retardation can be associated with a deficit in long‐term storage of phonological information. This deficit may affect retarded readers' ability to utilize the articulatory loop, a short‐term store which appears to play an important role in certain aspects of normal reading acquisition. On the other hand, there is fairly consistent evidence that retarded readers perform normally at storing non‐verbal information and the semantic aspects of verbal information in long‐term memory. Problems with current research strategies are discussed and suggestions for future research directions are made.
Intelligence and inspection time in normal and mentally retarded subjects
Authors: Hulme Charles , Turnbull Jennifer
Published: April 2011

The present experiments explore the generality of some recent findings relating IQ to a measure known as Inspection Time (IT) ‐ the exposure duration necessary to judge which of two briefly presented straight lines is the longer. In the first study IT and verbal and performance IQ scores were obtained from a large group of normal six‐ and seven‐year‐old children. In contrast to some previous suggestions verbal IQ and full‐scale IQ did not correlate significantly with IT, and performance IQ showed only a weak correlation with IT (r = −0.29). In the second experiment IT was found to correlate much more highly with performance IQ in a sample of mentally retarded subjects (r = −0.71). Some possible implications of these results for theories of intelligence and of mental retardation are discussed.
The mote in thy brother's eye, and the beam in thine own: Predicting one's own and others' personality test scores
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Henderson Monika
Published: April 2011

This experiment was concerned with the similarity between subjects' ratings of themselves and others, and their scores on various psychological tests of personality, social skills and beliefs. The literature on the accuracy of self‐ratings, the acceptance of personality feedback, the accuracy of person perception and self‐other attributional errors was reviewed. Sixty‐three subjects estimated their own and a friend's score on five standard psychological tests. The results revealed that subjects were able to correctly estimate several of their own personality (extraversion, neuroticism, psychotism and self‐monitoring) and social anxiety scores, though they were able to correctly estimate only two scores of another person that they knew well (extraversion and neuroticism). They did however believe themselves to be significantly similar on all eight dimensions to their nominated friend, thereby showing attributional errors. The results are discussed in terms of person perception and attribution theory, and the significance of the results for psychological assessment are explored. Limitations in research of this kind are also considered.
Effects of lateral reversal on recognition memory for photographs of faces
Authors: McKelvie Stuart J.
Published: April 2011

Recognition memory for photographs of faces, which were initially shown in the normal orientation, then tested either normally (unchanged) or laterally reversed (changed), was examined in four experiments involving different experimental designs (between and within group) and different methods of testing (yes‐no and forced‐choice). Although the overall effect of the transformation was not as powerful as others (e.g. hairstyle change) which have been applied to faces, and even failed to attain statistical significance in a fifth experiment in which all the photographs were initially reversed at presentation then tested unchanged or changed back to their normal orientation, the main findings were as follows: (a) subjects recognized fewer reversed (changed) than normal (unchanged) photographs whether or not they were informed of the transformation; (b) the adverse effect of reversal occurred on faces looking straight ahead (full‐faces) and, to a slightly lesser extent, on those looking to the left of the observer (left‐lookers); (c) left‐lookers and right‐lookers (the left‐lookers initially reversed in Expt 5) were less well recognized than full‐faces; and (d) subjects had difficulty identifying orientation, where accuracy fell almost to chance level. These results are taken as support for a feature (rather than Gestalt) model of facial recognition in which the two sides of the face are differentiated in its memory representation.
Predictability of shock and human choice behaviour: A brief report of a simulated experiment
Authors: Evans P.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were asked to imagine anticipating shocks of varying probability and intensity, and to choose between two hypothetical activities: monitoring for an auditory warning stimulus, or listening to distracting music. In addition subjects were asked to rate how much anxiety they felt while imagining the scenes. Results of the simulation closely followed those reported in a real version of the experiment. Subjects offered control over the shock chose to monitor more than those with no control. More monitoring was associated with more probable or more severe shock threat. Post hoc results suggested that individual differences, in particular neuroticism and sex, may play a greater role in responding than has previously been reported. It is argued that simulated experiments may prove fruitful in future research involving the use of aversive procedures.
The source of intuitive errors in Wason's THOG problem
Authors: Griggs Richard A. , Newstead Stephen E.
Published: April 2011

Two explanations for the intuitive errors that occur in Wason's THOG problem are considered in this paper. The first claims that subjects make an incorrect assumption about the critical properties involved in the rule, but then proceed to reason logically. The second claims that subjects respond on the basis of non‐logical perceptual matching to the properties in the designated positive instance. The results from three experiments gave unequivocal support to neither explanation. It was concluded that perceptual matching is the better explanation of intuitive errors on this task, but that it may be used only when subjects are confused by the logic of the problem and have recourse to no other basis for responding.