bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nonlinear Waves in Elastic Crystals
Authors: Maugin Gerard A
Published: November 2023

The mathematical modelling of changing structures in materials is of increasing importance to industry where applications of the theory are found in subjects as diverse as aerospace and medicine. This book deals with aspects of the nonlinear dynamics of deformable ordered solids (known as elastic crystals) where the nonlinear effects combine or compete with each other. Physical and mathematical models are discused and computational aspects are also included. Different models are considered - on discrete as well as continuum scales - applying heat, electricity, or magnetism to the crystal structure and these are analysed using the equations of rational mechanics. In this way the student is introduced to the important equations of nonlinear science that describe shock waves, solitons and chaos and also the non-exactly integrable systems or partial differential equations. A large number of problems and examples are included, many taken from recent research and involving both one-dimensional and two-dimensional problems as well as some coupled degress of freedom.
Different types of Crystals
Authors: Maugin Gerard A
Published: November 2023

This introductory chapter is descriptive in nature. It aims at defining all the ingredients of propagation of waves, which constitute the principal object of our study in this book.

The common, in fact exact, view is the following one. Materials are classified as gases, liquids and solids, depending upon their state of aggregation and their ability to deform and flow. Thus, the binding interactions and the configurations of constituents in the material and their observed dynamics typically characterize the classification of materials. Based on their structure, solids can be classified as monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous-crystalline.
Nonlinear waves in elastic chains
Authors: Maugin Gerard A
Published: November 2023

Among the wave-like manifestations of nonlinearity one must distinguish between quasi-linear dynamical processes and the truly nonlinear ones. Harmonic generation, anisochronism, intermodulation, dynamic echo, acoustic mixing and parametric interactions belong to the first category, which is extensively dealt with in another treatise (Maugin et al., 1992b) Chapter 3 on elasticity and electroelasticity. Harmonic analysis, together with the notions of small amplitude and expansion in small parameters, remains a basic mathematical tool for these processes. The second class of processes essentially consists of shock waves, solitary waves and solitons.
Continuum theory for biaxial nematic liquid crystals
Authors: Leslie F M , Laverty J S , Carlsson T
Published: November 2023

This paper presents a formulation of continuum theory for biaxial nematic liquid crystals based upon balance laws for linear and angular momentum, and derives directly expressions for stress and couple stress. The theory so obtained is more general than the earlier theory by Saupe, having more terms in the viscous stress, but by determining conditions that this stress is derivable from a dissipation function, one recovers his version, this requiring four Onsager-Parodi relations.
A Schur-complement method for sparse quadratic programming
Authors: Gill Philip E , Murray Walter , Saunders Michael A , Wright Margaret H
Published: November 2023

In applying active-set methods to sparse quadratic programs, it is desirable to utilize existing sparse-matrix techniques. We describe a quadratic programming method based on the classical Schur complement. Its key feature is that much of the linear algebraic work associated with an entire sequence of iterations involves a fixed sparse factorization. Updates are performed at every iteration to the factorization of a smaller matrix, which may be treated as dense or sparse.
On the conditioning of parameter estimation problems
Authors: Varah James M
Published: November 2023

We examine the problem of determining numerical values for parameters appearing in differential equations modelling physical phenomena. There are several factors involved in the accuracy or sensitivity of the parameters; we attempt to separate these with the intention of identifying those associated with the model itself. We also indicate means of effectively computing these conditioning factors, so that proposed models can be properly evaluated. Finally, we briefly mention recent work on non-linear statistical effects, and attempt to bring this into the same context.
Experiments in tearing large sparse systems
Authors: Arioli Maria , Duff Iain S
Published: November 2023

If one removes some variables and equations from a large sparse system of linear equations, the resulting subsystem may have characteristics which render it amenable to rapid and economic solution. There are then various methods for obtaining a solution to the original system. This class of techniques is often termed ‘tearing’ and has been widely used in several application areas including linear programming, chem¬ ical engineering, and economic modelling.
An iterative method for solving linear inequalities
Authors: Stewart G W
Published: November 2023

This paper describes an iterative method for solving the homogeneous linear inequality Ax 0. Let be an m x n matrix of rank n. In this paper we will be concerned with the problem of solving the linear inequality
Iterative refinement and reliable computing
Authors: Bjorck Ake
Published: November 2023

The classical use of iterative refinement is to compute highly accurate solutions to linear systems using residuals accumulated in double precision. The solution to be refined is assumed to have been computed by a backward stable algorithm. A different use of iterative refinement is to make an unstable algorithm numerically stable. In this case often a single step of refinement using single-precision residuals suffices. This contribution gives both a brief review of the early development and surveys more recent applications of iterative refinement of solutions to linear systems.
Products of nilpotent groups
Authors: Amberg Bernhard , Franciosi Silvana , Giovanni Francesco De
Published: November 2023

In the early 1950s finite products of two nilpotent groups were considered by several authors, and the conjecture arose that these groups were always soluble (Huppert 1953; Ito 1951; Szep 1951; Wielandt 1951). This seemed to be an unusually difficult problem, even for products of two abelian groups. However, in 1955 Ito, using a surprisingly short commutator calculation, obtained the following famous result, which even holds for arbitrary groups.
Splitting and conjugacy theorems
Authors: Amberg Bernhard , Franciosi Silvana , Giovanni Francesco De
Published: November 2023

In the first two sections of this chapter some definitions and properties of cohomology groups are collected. For a detailed exposition of this subject the reader is referred to the books of Mac Lane (1967) and Rotman (1979).
Linearized Oscillation Theory And Applications To Mathematical Biology
Authors: Györi I , Ladas G
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall develop and apply a linearized oscillation theory which, in a sense, parallels the so-called linearized stability theory of differential and difference equations. As in the case of stability theory, we prove that certain non-linear delay differential equations have the same oscillatory behaviour as an associated linear equation. The linearized oscillation theory has been motivated by applications.
Propositional Logic Programming
Authors: Mints G
Published: November 2023

We describe the application of propositional (mainly intuitionhtic and modal) logic in logic programming. Logic programming is understood here in the broad sense of non-procedural programming in terms of logical specifications (Tyugu 1986), so that the compilation of the result ing program (i.e., program synthesis) is performed essentially by means of automatic proof search in a suitable logical system. We review the logical features of the programming system PR1z developed at the Institute of Cybernetics of the Estonian Academy of Sciences. More detailed descriptions of the system architecture and proofs of some results can be found in Mints and Tyllgu (1982, 1987).
Error Tolerant Learning Systems
Authors: Sammutt C
Published: November 2023

We consider the task of a robot learning in a reactive environment by performing experiments. A reactive environment is one where changes occur in response to actions. Actors other than the learner may be present in the world. The robot performs experiment by modifying the environment and observing the outcome. These observations lead to a collection of concepts which constitute a theory of the behaviour of the environment, also called a world model. An experiment may either increase confidence in a theory or refute a theory, but it can never prove a theory. Therefore it is possible that the robot will develop an in accurate model of its world. This paper discusses a number of issues involved in finding and repairing faults in a world model. It also describes some preliminary results obtained from a learning program called CAP.
A Qualitative Way of Solving the Pole Balancing Problem
Authors: Makarovic A
Published: November 2023

A method is presented for designing a control rule for the well-known pole-cart system. Conventional techniques arc used to model the pole cart system by a set of differential equations. The high complexity of the model prohibits a direct derivation of the control rules. The model can be simplified by restructuring and approximating the equations. We allow very rough approximations, as long as the essence of the problem stays the same. Ultimately we get a very simple model. Designing a control rule for this model is an almost trivial problem.
Introduction
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

We informally introduce the A-calculus and introduce the reader to a number of concepts and techniques which will recur throughout the book. We start with a discussion of the role of functional abstraction in Computer Science; this leads naturally to an informal presentation of the A-calculus. The A-calculus is an example of a formal system; we include a brief introduction to formal systems. Our treatment of the material in this book is quite rigorous; we include proofs of most of the main results and where we do not, the reader is encouraged to provide them (in the exercises). The majority of proofs are inductive; we will introduce the different forms of inductive argument as required but we conclude this chapter with a revision of mathematical induction.
Notation and the Basic Theory
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

We now start our study of the A-calculus. First, we return to the question of notation and present an inductive definition of A-terms and some auxiliary notions such as free variables and subterms. Next, we present the theory. Central to the theory is the notion of substitution - the driving force behind function application - we next discuss a number of alternative approaches to defining substitution and consider some of the properties of substitution. The theory is a theory of equality between terms; as indicated in the last chapter, we are trying to capture intensional equality but we also show how the theory can be extended to capture extensional equality. Finally, we consider the consistency and “completeness” of the two theories presented. We will give an inductive definition of A-terms. This style of definition may be slightly unfamiliar to Computer Scientists so we start by illustrating the approach in the context of the (more familiar) propositional calculus.
Types
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

The type-free A-calculus has been presented as a prototypical functional programming language. While it is true that many of the issues that we have studied have direct relevance to programming practice, the theory fails to match the practice in a number of important ways. The majority of modern functional programming languages are typed. As a consequence, we can no longer construct certain terms which play a key part in the foregoing theory. In this chapter we present three typed calculi. First we consider the simply typed A-calculus; this calculus is derived from the typefree A-calculus in a fairly direct way but has a rather different character as a result of the typing. For example ,8-reduction in the typed A-calculus is strongly normalising.
Practical Issues
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we turn to more practical aspects of the A-calculus. One form of standard reduction sequence (see Chapter 3) is a leftmost sequence (reduce the leftmost redex at each stage); this is also called normal order reduction. Lazy evaluation systems use this reduction order (see later). A redex is outermost if it is not contained in any other redex, it is innermost if it does not contain any redexes. An alternative reduction strategy, called applicative order, is leftmost innermost. The features of the various evaluation strategies have been sloganised by Mycroft in terms of the way in which parameters are treated.
Software Metrics Reviewed
Authors: Laidler Keith J
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews developments in the field of software metrics from the early 1970s to the present time. Metrics can be categorized according to the stage of software development with which they are associated. Thus we have code metrics, design metrics, and specification metrics. Although our primary interest in this book is with software designs, code measures will also be examined. The chapter indicates briefly that the area of software metrics is afflicted by a number of serious problems, a theme expanded upon in the following chapter. This chapter is a brief review of work carried out in the metrics area over the last three decades. In a number of ways both this chapter and Chapter 3, which describes three metrics in detail, present a rather bleak view of what is a potentially promising and important field of software engineering. There are several recurring themes in both the chapters. First, the majority of metrics are presented in such a fashion that it is unclear exactly what is being measured. Terms such as ‘complexity’ and ‘quality’ proliferate. As a direct result, empirical evaluations have interpreted metrics in widely differing ways. Divergent results have ensued for every metric evaluated above. Almost the only unifying feature has been the strong statistical associations with size metrics such as lines of code.*
An Approach To Metrics Modelling
Authors: Laidler Keith J
Published: November 2023

So far in this monograph we have described a number of serious problems that afflict the metrics area. Also, in the preceding chapter, we have examined some ways in which researchers have attempted to put the study of metrics on a more formal footing. This chapter first examines a promising recent approach to metrics development – the GQM method – and then outlines our approach to metrics development. This approach is based on adapting the axiomatic approach outlined in the preceding chapter and modifying the GQM method. We present a small, artificial example to describe the approach. There has been little effort directed towards development methods for software metrics, in part due to the belated realization of the problems involved in the field. Two of the few contributions of significance are the Goal – Question – Metric (GQM) paradigm of Victor Basil et al. and the constructive quality model (COQUAMO) methodology, which employs a similar hierarchic approach based around software quality factors, criteria and metrics. However, given the importance of the model for software measurement, GQM is only a partial methodology. In the final parts of this chapter we extend this metric development methodology so that it recognizes the central role of a model explicitly; and this is illustrated by a simple example. A fuller example is presented Chapter 6.
A Uni–Dimensional Model Of Design
Authors: Laidler Keith J
Published: November 2023

Synopsis In the absence of a clearly articulated model, software measurement is a fruitless exercise. In the preceding chapter we sought to remedy this situation by proposing a method to aid the development and evaluation of software metrics, together with their underlying models. This was illustrated by an extremely simple example. This chapter describes a larger software engineering problem for which we develop a model to relate software design to the quality factors of implementability, reliability, and maintainability. A formal model is developed and evaluated using the apparatus of the method outlined in the preceding chapter. Each step in the development of the model is outlined: problem identification, construction of an informal model, statement of the formal model, and axiomatization of the model. This is followed by theoretical and empirical validations. The chapter concludes that more than one model input – or multi–dimensional modelling – is necessary to improve the model performance and provide useful support for the software engineer carrying out design tasks. It is important to point out that in this chapter we are not attempting to promote one system design metric, but, rather, are using a particular metric as an example of the metric development process that was described in the preceding chapter.
A Multi–Dimensional Model Of Design
Authors: Laidler Keith J
Published: November 2023

This chapter mirrors the model development process in that it replaces the simpler model of software design described in the preceding chapter with a more sophisticated multi–dimensional model. We demonstrate our metrics development technique in deriving a metric associated with this model. A major conclusion that emerges from the chapter is that if software engineering models are to be useful, then they will require more sophistication than can be achieved by a single input or dimension. In particular, it shows that some of the weaknesses of the model of system architecture described in the preceding chapter may be overcome by extending it to incorporate a notion of module, or design component size. This permits the exploration of trade–offs between inter– and intra–modular information flows. The conclusion is drawn that the techniques employed in this and the preceding chapter enable more sophisticated and useful software models to be developed. However, this must build upon the foundation of theoretically clean and empirically observed relationships. Otherwise, our sophistication is entirely in vain.
Machine Intelligence 15
Authors: Furukawa K , Michie D , Muggleton S
Published: November 2023

This is the fifteenth volume in the Machine Intelligence series, founded in 1965 by Donald Michie, and includes papers by a number of eminent AI figures including John McCarthy, Alan Robinson, Robert Kowalski and Mike Genesereth. The book is centred on the theme of intelligent agents and covers a wide range of topics, including: - Representations of consciousness (John McCarthy, Stanford University and Donald Michie, Edinburgh University) - SoftBots (Bruce Blumberg, MIT Media Lab) - Parallel implementations of logic (Alan Robinson, Syracuse University) - Machine learning (Stephen Muggleton, Oxford University) - Machine vision (Andrew Blake, Oxford University) - Machine-based scientific discovery in molecular biology (Mike Sternberg, Imperial Cancer Research Fund).
Bioluminescence in the Appendicularia
Authors: Galt Charles P , Flood Per R
Published: November 2023

Bioluminescence is a conspicuous feature of many marine organisms, and among the pelagic Tunicata it is well documented in the Pyrosomida (section 1.2.2) and in certain oikopleurid Appendicularia, whose mucoid feeding houses emit light. Giglioli (1870), who reported multicoloured luminescence from the tail of unidentified species of appendicularians, probably actually observed iridescence from the caudal muscle bands, as there is no evidence of caudal luminescence or multiple wavelength emissions from a single animal. We owe to Hans Lohmann (1899a, 1933) the first reliable accounts of light production by appendicularian tunicates. He described brilliant greenish flashes emanating from the trunks of free-swimming Oikopleura albicans as they made contact with surfaces or were otherwise agitated. He further reported that during expansion of the house a brilliant light emanated continuously from the animal’s trunk, (he speculated that such luminescence would serve to deter predators during this vulnerable operation). The expanded house (as Lohmann observed) also produces light from unknown but consistently organized sources in response to agitation or prodding. Finally, Lohmann noted that even discarded houses emitted flashes upon stimulation. Lohmann suggested that light was produced by ‘fluorescent’ secretions from the oral glands and from parts of the oikoplast epithelium. Since other species, including members of the Fritillariidae, produced similar secretions, Lohmann (1933) supposed that all appendicularians were luminescent. Harvey (1952) concluded from Lohmann’s
Multiple-foundress associations in sweat bees
Authors: Packer Laurence
Published: November 2023

A sweat bee biologist writing about multiple foundress associations faces two main problems: the wide range of subtly different organizational patterns exhibited by such societies and the dearth of detailed information on the topic. Three additional difficulties apply to any explanations of sweat bee sociobiology aimed at a more general audience. First, it is difficult to apply standard terms such as ‘queen’ and ‘worker’ to individuals in many sweat bee societies. In most eusocial Hymenoptera the queen lays most, or all, of the eggs and is often easily distinguished from workers with the naked eye. In some sweat bees the queen may have higher egg production than individual workers only by living longer (Packer and Knerer 1986) and may only be distinguished from workers through long term behavioural observation or dissection (see Michener 1990). Second, the large amount of intraspecific (even intra-population) variation in social organization makes it hard to characterize individual species as exhibiting one particular named social category. An individual colony may switch from one type of social organization to another (even on to a third, or back to the first) during one season. Lastly, halictids are a taxonomically complex group and there is no general agreement as to their higher level classification. As a result, generic name changes are common and we do not have even an approximate phylogeny at the genus level upon which to base polarity decisions for behavioural characters.
Transdifferentiation
Authors: Okada T S
Published: November 2023

Is it possible that fully differential cells, cells that have acquired specialized functions and perhaps have lost some general properties can change their nature, becoming cells of another type? Professor Okada has studied this problem extensively and introduced the term "transdifferentiation" to describe the phenomenon. The concept of transdifferentiation is extremely controversial, since it challenges a number of biological orthodoxies. The problem is important because if transdifferentiation really does occur, the process of development and differentiation must be much more flexible than previously considered. In this book the author brings together a vast amount of experimental evidence and examines it critically. This discussion clearly establishes that there is a real phenomenon to be explained and that the explanation forces us to change our understanding of a number of basic biological processes. Much of the evidence examined is derived from studies of cell biology but increasingly it has become possible to examine the process at the molecular level. Studies of gene expression provide several promising perspectives on the process of transdifferentiation. Although this monograph focuses on some rather specialized experiments and discusses questions of definition, the phenomenon is so interesting and is of such fundamental importance that it should attract a wide readership.
Examples of transdifferentiation among single or related cell classes
Authors: Okada T S
Published: November 2023

The flexibility of cell phenotypes in the nervous system has already been mentioned in the previous chapter, based on in situ observations of intact Hydra. There has been a number of reports demonstrating that an interference in normal development, which occurs in transplantation, explantation into culture, or exposure to a pathological environment, can result in a change in subclasses of neurons.
Does transdifferentiation occur in regeneration?
Authors: Okada T S
Published: November 2023

The problem of the flexibility in cell differentiation originally stemmed from two main sources, one from medical observations of metaplasia, and the other from zoological studies of regeneration in various animals. In early regeneration studies, it was taken for granted that the major cellular basis for the dramatic changes during regeneration should be metaplasia, or the conversion of pre-existing cell types. The introduction of labelling techniques to mark precursors of regenerating cells has shown that a switch of differentiation pathway, or transdifferentiation, of the precursors is not an universal occurrence. Nevertheless, unequivocal demonstrations of transdifferentiation have also been gained from observations of regeneration in some systems. The aim of this chapter is to critically review the occurrence of transdifferentiation in regeneration.
African–American relationships in the Acridians (Insecta, Orthoptera)
Authors: Amedegnato C
Published: November 2023

The first fossils resembling insects, the Collembols, date back to the Devonian. The first fossils of well diversified true insects are from the Carboniferous. In this chapter we are mainly concerned with the Order Orthoptera, an ancient order which shows many primitive characters. It occurs as early as the Carboniferous, bearing the same morphological features as now. It is apparent from known fossils that the diversity of phyla, most of which survive to the present day, has been very great, the major extant groups having originated at the beginning of the Palaeozoic
Life history decisions during the breeding season
Authors: Ens Bruno J , Briggs Kevin B , Safriel Uriel N , Smit Car J
Published: November 2023

According ro current evolutionary insights, animals in a stable population should behave in such a way that they maximize the number of offspring they produce during their lifetime. Yet, field studies have revealed a remarkably high variation in lifetime reproductive success between individuals, with only a minority producing most of the young (CluttonBrock 1988; Newton 1989). This variability demands an explanation: what prevents the many unsuccessful individuals from raising more offspring? On the principle of individual optimization, each animal should make the choices during its development and later life which, in current conditions, are most likely to maximize its expected lifetime reproductive success. Instead of expecting each bird to show the same optimal behaviour (Lack 1968), it is now assumed that each individual will fine tune its behaviour to optimally exploit its own particular characteristics and circumstances under which it lives.
Summary, conclusions, and a glimpse into the future
Authors: Shoshani Jeheskel , Tassy Pascal
Published: November 2023

Skeletal remains of extinct proboscideans from all over the world have been the sine qua non for our understanding of this mammalian order. This prerequisite was noted by Simpson (1945, p. 244) when he wrote ‘Classification within the order [Proboscidea] is obviously a task for paleontology rather than neontology’. These fossil remains, together with features of the living species, provide us with the foundation upon which researchers have been constructing the phylogeny and classification of the Proboscidea.
The environmental impact of badgers (Meles meles) and their setts
Authors: Neal E G , Roper T J
Published: November 2023

The setts of badgers Meles meles vary widely in size and complexity and in the way they are used. Some setts have many entrances, consist internally of a maze of tunnels and sleeping chambers, and constitute the permanent residence of an entire social group of badgers; others consist of a single tunnel with one entrance, and are used only occasionally by single animals. Intermediate levels of size and complexity are found between these extremes.
The Evolution of Insect Flight
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

This is the first book on this subject since J W S Pringle's classic Insect Flight was published in 1957. Much has been written since on applied and ecological aspects of flight, but consideration of the question of the origin of wings and flight has been largely confined to armchair speculation in a scattered literature. To make matters worse, much of the recent empirical work has only appeared in Russain. A,K. Brodsky is a leading Russian authority on insect flight, a pioneer in the use of empirical aerodynamic techniques to unravel the mechanisms which underlie insect flight and hence its origins. By uniting fossil, structural, and phylogenetic information with his empirical studies, he draws a coherent, well-substantialed picture of the evolution of insect flight. The text is illustrated by numerous fine line drawings. The first book on insect flight since J.W.S. Pringle's classic Insect Flight was published in 1957 Written by leading Russian authority in the field - provides Western world with access to much previously unpublished material Draws togther the diverse strands of fossil evidence, structure, phylogeny, aerodynamics, and behaviour to form a coherent picture Beautifully illustrated with numerous fine line drawings
Indian Flowers In European Gardens
Authors: Desmond Ray
Published: November 2023

Tudor England grew plants mainly from Western and Central Europe, the Mediterranean region, and the colonies in North America; in the absence of reliable facilities for keeping plants alive during long sea voyages or the means for protecting them in northern winters, comparatively few came from the tropics. Such tender exotics that did arrive were consigned to wooden huts heated by coal pans or placed in a dung bed and covered by mats, cloth, or straw. Some miraculously survived this treatment long enough to flower briefly and be included in such works as Gerard’s Herball (1597). He was familiar with the ‘Tree of sorrow’ (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis) (Fig. 20.1), a very common Indian shrub: ‘most odoriferous and sweet smelling flowers, of the colour of Saffron, which flourish and shewe themselves only in the night time, and in the day time looke withered and with a mourning cheere’. Pierandrea Mattioli (1501-77) saw pepper growing in the gardens of Naples and Venice. When the Portuguese Viceroy of India, Joao de Castro returned home in 1548, he planted Indian trees and shrubs in his terraced garden at Pehna Verde near Sintra. Some of the Indian flowers painted by Pieter van der Borcht, the principal artist of the Antwerp printer, Christopher Plantin, may have been growing in the Leiden botanical gardens, supervised by Clusius.
Epidemiology of HPV and cervical cancer
Authors: Woodman Ciaran
Published: November 2023

Over the last 12 years a stream of imaginative and resourceful laboratory based research has established an impressive, almost overwhelming, set of oncogenic credentials for human papilloma virus (HPV). So well has HPV prospered at the bench that there is now considerable enthusiasm for a vaccine development programme. This chapter does not attempt to reprise these exciting developments, which are dealt with elsewhere in the book, but rather to chronicle the efforts of epidemiologists and others to more precisely define the role of this virus in the etiology of squamous neoplasia and to illustrate where scientific uncertainty still persists. In an attempt to improve communication between epidemiologists, clinicians, and molecular biologists, more reference has been made than is usual to the basic principles which underpin the design and analysis of epidemiological enquiries of cervical neoplasia.
The Proctotrupoid Families
Authors: Masner Lubomir
Published: November 2023

The superfamily Proctotrupoidea was traditionally a catch-all group for small non-chalcidoid Apocrita not readily assignable to other taxa. The Ceraphronidae and Megaspilidae have been removed to a separate superfamily (Masner Dessart, 1967), and the Loboscelidiidae were transferred to the Chrysididae (Day, 1978), thus leaving 12 families (Naumann and Masner, 1985, Kozlov, 1994).
The cynipoid families
Authors: Fergusson Nigel D M
Published: November 2023

The Cynipoidea share many similarities (parallelisms-especially reduction states) with the other ‘microhymenoptera ‘ (Chalcidoidea and Proctotrupoidea s.l.). However, the structure of the cynipoid mesosoma is most similar to that of the Proctotrupoidea s.s. (Gibson, 1985, 1986a). Lilrnwise the cynipoid wing is similar to that of certain proctotrupoid families. This similarity in venation has been emphasized by the recent discovery of fossil cynipoids, the Archaeocynipidae, from very early Cretaceous strata (Rasnitsyn & Kovalev, 1988). The small and linear pterostigma of these fossils is similar to that of Austroserphus and Acanthoserphus (Proctotrupoidea s.s.) and suggests that the cynipoids lost their (possibly linear) pterostigma by gradual reduction. The closed discal cell of the Archaeo cynipidae is particularly reminiscent of the venation of the proctotrupoid families Proctotrupidae, Heloridae, Roproniidae and Vanhorniidae. Thus it is suggested that the Cynipoidea plus at least some of the was often subdivided into six families, the Cynipidae, Ibaliidae, Liopteridae, Figitidae, Charipidae and Eucoilidae (e.g. Quinlan, 19 79), but previous classifications have tended to upgrade all taxa without adequate justification. Fergusson (1990) has recently undertaken a phylogenetic reconstruction, which provides a very different classification that is robustly supported by morphological, palaeontological, biogeo-graphical and biological evidence.
Taxa described by J. E. Collin
Authors: Verrall G H , Collin J E , Pont Adrian C
Published: November 2023

ACARTEROPTERA Collin, 1933a: 8 (key) and 32. Type-species: Acarteroptera recta Collin, 1933, by original designation. HYBOTIDAE.

ACLONEMPIS Collin, 1926d: 216 (subgenus of Rhamphomyia Meigen). Type-species: Rhamphomyia albohirta Collin, 19 26, by original designation. EMPIDIDAE. ALLOCHROTUS Collin, 1933a: 9 (key) and 192. Type-species: Empis poecila Philippi, 1865, by original designation. EMPIDIDAE.

AMYDRONEURA Collin, 1926d: 216 (subgenus of Rhamphomyia Meigen). Type-species: Rhamphomyia erythrophthalma Meigen, 1830, by original designation. EMPIDIDAE.
Fecundity and fertility
Authors: Leslie Paul W , Campbell Kenneth L , Campbell Benjamin C , Kigondu Christine S , Kirumbi Leah W
Published: November 2023

The primary goals of this chapter are to describe the level and pattern of fertility in Turkana and to identify the most important determinants of fertility. We concentrate on the physiological and environmental influences on reproduction. Consideration of more specifically cultural influences on fertility, such as polygyny, and of the relationship between fertility and other demographic processes (nuptiality, mortality, migration) are deferred to the following chapter. The consequences of sedentism for fertility are taken up in Chapter 17.
Population replacement and persistence
Authors: Leslie Paul W , Dyson-Hudson Rada , Fry Peggy H
Published: November 2023

Persistence of a population involves both replacement of people, a biodemographic process, and of domestic units, a socio-demographic process. In the preceding chapter we considered Turkana fertility in some detail, with an emphasis on the biological side. Here we consider other demographic and life-history phenomena, primarily nuptiality and mortality, that influence fertility but more generally are important for understanding population replacement and persistence. The other major influence on population replacement is migration into or out of the pastoral sector. Aspects of this process are treated in Chapters 15 (Migration) and 17 (Settled Turkana).
Ferroics
Authors: Rao C N R , Rao K J
Published: November 2023

Ferromagnetism is a well-known phenomenon wherein solids exhibit spontaneous magnetization even in the absence of an external magnetic field. An important characteristic of ferromagnetic materials is the hysteresis loop found in the relationship between magnetization and magnetic field. The electrical analogue of ferromagnetic materials are ferroelectric materials1 which show a hysteresis loop in the relationship between polarization and electric field, and exhibit spontaneous polarization in the absence of an external electric field. These materials therefore possess permanent dipole moments, the dipoles arising from the absence of a centre of symmetry. A wide variety of compounds are known to exhibit ferroelectricity.7 These include oxides of perovskite structure (e.g. BaTi03), hydrogen bonded solids (e.g. Rochelle salt, KH2P04), tungsten bronze type structures, pyrochlores, simple salts (e.g. (NH4)2S04, NaN02, KN03), alums, organic compounds (e.g. thiourea, glycine sulphate) and binary compounds as simple as HCl, FeS, GeTe, and V3Si.
The Mechanics Of An Atom In A Molecule
Authors: Bader Richard F W
Published: November 2023

Schrodinger’s belief in the ability of his ‘wave mechanics’ to provide a description of the properties of matter as demonstrated in the opening quotation was well founded and his mechanics has been used to understand phenomena unknown in 1926. The roles of the charge and current densities in quantum mechanics go beyond their use in the description of the electrical and magnetic properties of matter. The charge density provides a description of the distribution of charge throughout real space and is the bridge between the concept of state functions in Hilbert space and the physical model of matter in real space. Schrodinger subscribed to this same view, pointing out in his fourth paper wherein he defines the electric density at a point in real space, ‘that the Ψ function itself cannot be and may not be directly interpreted in terms of three-dimensional space—because it is in general a function in configuration space, and not real space.’ The zero-flux boundary condition, as stated in terms of the gradient vector field of the charge density, defines a single atom and objects made from collections of atoms. As demonstrated in this chapter, the form and ultimately the properties of an object, microscopic or macroscopic, are determined by its distribution of charge.
Van der Waals and Molecular Science
Authors: Kipnis A Ya. , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S
Published: November 2023

The development of molecular physics and physical chemistry cannot be understood without a knowledge of the work of Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals. His doctoral thesis of 1873 was the first theory of liquids and gases in which the essential differences and similarities of these two phases were interpreted in terms of the properties of the constituent molecules. This view contradicted the work of Mach, Ostwald, Duhem and other "energeticists" and provides the foundation for our current understanding of fluids. In the years since the end of World War II, there has been a re-appraisal of van der Waals's work, which has established his historic place as one of the founders of molecular science. This is the only biography of Johannes van der Waals and should be read by anyone with an interest in the history of physics and chemistry, and its most important innovator.
An assessment
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S
Published: November 2023

The middle of the 1890s marks a new period in van der Waals’s life. He was approaching his sixtieth birthday, his main scientific work was behind him, and so one might have expected him to rest on his laurels. This was not the case, however; it seemed rather as if he had got his second wind. The publication of the Molecular Theory and then of Capillarity marked his return to the international scientific community. His election as General Secretary of the Academy brought about a further change in his life and made it hard for him to carry out properly his University duties at a time when the number of students was growing steadily. He sought and obtained the establishment of a second (extraordinary) professor to take over the lectures in experimental physics. In 1897 a student of Kamerlingh Onnes’s, Remmelt Sissingh (1858—1927) was appointed to this post. He specialized in optics and later revised part of Bosscha’s textbook into a two-volume treatise called simply Light (1902-7). He was quickly followed by another student of Kamerlingh Onnes’s who joined van der Waals as a lector. This was Pieter Zeeman (1865—1943), who was appointed the year after he discovered the remarkable splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field. Zeeman soon took over the supervision of the practical classes although at first, as he recalled later [205, p. 110], van der Waals had merely wanted him to assist in the classes that van der Waals himself was conducting. Zeeman also lectured on certain topics, for example the optics of crystals, and continued his research with better equipment than had been available to him in Leiden. In 1902 he and Lorentz, who had developed the theory of the Zeeman effect, were the first Dutch physicists to receive Nobel Prizes.
The teacher and his school
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S
Published: November 2023

‘However great he is as a scientist, he is, perhaps, no less great as a teacher,’ wrote Kohnstamm [206, p. 3]. ‘In him, wrote Zeeman in the first lines of his obituary, ‘the Netherlands has lost perhaps the best of its teachers’ [205]. Van der Waals was first and foremost a teacher in the eyes of his countrymen. Formally this was so throughout his whole career, from being a teacher in a primary school through to becoming a university professor. He maintained a vivid interest in secondary education in the natural sciences all his life and used his official positions to ensure a high standard of teaching, especially in the HBS. When in The Hague he was for many years a member of the examination committee for secondary education [186, p. 133], and in Amsterdam he was chairman of a supervisory committee. A former student recalled [224] that van der Waals thus stayed true to his ideals, making heavy demands on both the teachers and their pupils. He opposed the simplification of lessons, or making them easier so that they were more palatable, believing that it was the role of the middle schools to select their best pupils for entry to the higher schools. He tried to help gifted young men to enter a university, but did not want to open the way for mediocrities who would subvert the high standards he sought to maintain.
Molecular physics
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S
Published: November 2023

Clausius was careful to add that Hirn, his long-standing opponent who had never accepted the kinetic theory, meant m to be the ‘sum of the atomic volumes’ and l to be the ‘sum of the internal actions’ or an ‘internal pressure’. He scrupulously recorded that the Munich physicist Georg Recknagel had also made a more accurate analysis of the problem in 1872, that is, in the year before the publication of van der Waals’s thesis. (His paper [2] is dated October 1872, although it was not published until 1874.) Like van der Waals, he used the virial theorem in the derivation of his equation, although Clausius rather surprisingly makes no mention of this.
Conclusion
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S
Published: November 2023

Three points of view have been implicit in this presentation of van der Waals’s life and work. There is nothing new in the assertion that science has both a national and an international aspect and he was right to emphasize the particular character of Dutch science while recognizing always its place in the wider world. To these two aspects of his work we must add a third, the personal point of view that arises from the circumstances of his life and character. His whole work is a shining example of the fruitful synthesis of these three aspects. His single-mindedness left its stamp on his work with its particular emphasis on its continuity. There are few if any other cases in the history of science where the whole of a scientist’s life work has flowed so smoothly from his first piece of research. The idea of continuity carries with it, however, its opposite, that of discreteness, and both formed significant themes in his work. We recall Poincare’s saying that ‘science is always doomed to periodic transitions from atomism to continuity and back again.’
Inclusion by acetylenic alcohols and some other novel host compounds
Authors: Toda Fumio
Published: November 2023

Host compounds can be assigned to either the monomolecular class, members of which are cyclodextrins and crown ethers, or to another class, polymolecular, exemplified by urea and deoxycholic acid, for which the host molecule possesses no central void. Hosts of the latter type can be further classified as those which form crystalline host lattices which include guest compounds in a stoichiometric ratio, as opposed to those for which non-stoichiometric host-guest ratios are found. Our work has centred around stoichiometric guest inclusion within crystalline polymolecular host systems. Guest inclusion in the majority of our hosts, which almost invariably have hydroxy or amide groups, involves the formation of hydrogen bonds. We have, however, also been studying some hydrocarbon hosts, for which the only intermolecular forces promoting inclusion are of the van der Waals type. In this chapter, we describe inclusion experiments using host compounds studied by our research group.
New hosts for the molecular recognition and encapsulation of guest compounds
Authors: Ebmeyer Frank , Vogtle Fritz
Published: November 2023

The past decade has witnessed an upsurge of interest in molecular recognition processes. Whereas the syntheses of new host structures initially stood to the fore, more recent studies have concentrated on the selectivity of supramolecular structures, on hydrophobic interactions, base pairing due to hydrogen bridges, hydrogen bridging in the interior of molecular niches, complexation of anions, and highly selective and extremely efficient cation complexation. Whilst simple cation complexation by use of crown compounds, cryptands, and podands is understood quite well at the present time, and is used synthetically, more complex synthetic host structures often exhibit surprising properties. Triply bridged macrobicyclic host structures, constructed according to a modular building concept, have aroused special interest. They allow the construction of tailor-shaped host cavities, which encapsulate the guest almost completely. If intraannular donor functions are present, varying receptor capabilities are obtained. Yet, unfunctionalized molecular niches allowing hydrophobic interactions have also attracted attention.