bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of early and late cheiloplasty on anterior part of maxillary dental arch development in infants with unilateral complete cleft lip and palate
Authors: Valentová-Strenáčiková Silvia , Malina Radovan
Published: February 2016

Objectives.The objective of this study is to compare the impact of early and late reconstruction of complete unilateral cleft lip and palate on the growth and development of the front of the dentoalveolar arch.Methods.This study was carried out in the years 2012–2015 at the Clinic of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery in Banska Bystrica. Infants with unilateral complete cleft lip and palate were divided into 2 groups according to the timing of lip reconstruction. Group A consisted of infants with early lip reconstruction–realised in the first 14 days of life. Group B consisted of infants with later lip reconstruction–realised in the third month of age. Maxillary dental casts were obtained for each child in four periods–in the first 14 days of life, in the third month, in the sixth month and in the age of one year. These were followed by the identification, measurement and evaluation of anthropometric parameters.Results.Significant differences were occurred after the reconstruction of the lips in linear and angle measurements between infants in the A and B groups.Conclusion.The early surgical reconstruction of the lips in the first 14 days of life has a positive effect on the growth and development of the anterior segment of the dentoalveolar arch. Early lip reconstruction forms a continuous pressure on the frontal segment, resulting in the earlier remedy of anatomical properties and creates appropriate conditions for the best development of this area.
Bodily action penetrates affective perception
Authors: Fantoni Carlo , Rigutti Sara , Gerbino Walter
Published: February 2016

Fantoni & Gerbino (2014) showed that subtle postural shifts associated with reaching can have a strong hedonic impact and affect how actors experience facial expressions of emotion. Using a novel Motor Action Mood Induction Procedure (MAMIP), they found consistent congruency effects in participants who performed a facial emotionidentificationtask after a sequence of visually-guided reaches: a face perceived as neutral in a baseline condition appeared slightly happy after comfortable actions and slightly angry after uncomfortable actions. However, skeptics about the penetrability of perception (Zeimbekis & Raftopoulos, 2015) would consider such evidence insufficient to demonstrate that observer’s internal states induced by action comfort/discomfort affect perception in a top-down fashion. The action-modulated mood might have produced a back-end memory effect capable of affecting post-perceptual and decision processing, but not front-end perception.

Here, we present evidence that performing a facial emotiondetection(not identification) task after MAMIP exhibits systematic mood-congruentsensitivitychanges, rather than responsebiaschanges attributable to cognitive set shifts; i.e., we show that observer’s internal states induced by bodily action can modulate affective perception. The detection threshold forhappinesswas lower after fifty comfortable than uncomfortable reaches; while the detection threshold forangerwas lower after fifty uncomfortable than comfortable reaches. Action valence induced an overall sensitivity improvement in detecting subtle variations of congruent facial expressions (happiness afterpositivecomfortable actions, anger afternegativeuncomfortable actions), in the absence of significant response bias shifts. Notably, both comfortable and uncomfortable reaches impact sensitivity in an approximately symmetric way relative to a baseline inaction condition. All of these constitute compelling evidence of a genuine top-down effect on perception: specifically, facial expressions of emotion arepenetrableby action-induced mood. Affective priming by action valence is a candidate mechanism for the influence of observer’s internal states on properties experienced as phenomenally objective and yet loaded with meaning.
Sorted gene genealogies and species-specific nonsynonymous substitutions point to putative postmating prezygotic isolation genes inAllonemobiuscrickets
Authors: Noh Suegene , Marshall Jeremy L.
Published: February 2016

In theAllonemobius sociuscomplex of crickets, reproductive isolation is primarily accomplished via postmating prezygotic barriers. We tested seven protein-coding genes expressed in the male ejaculate for patterns of evolution consistent with a putative role as postmating prezygotic isolation genes.Our recently diverged species generally lacked sequence variation. As a result,ω-based tests were only mildly successful. Some of our genes showed evidence of elevatedωvalues on the internal branches of gene trees. In a couple genes these internal branches coincided with both species branching events of the species tree, betweenA. fasciatusand the other two species, and betweenA. sociusandA. sp. nov.Tex. In comparison, more successful approaches were those that took advantage of the varying degrees of lineage sorting and allele sharing among our young species. These approaches were particularly powerful within the contact zone. Among the genes we tested we found genes with genealogies that indicated relatively advanced degrees of lineage sorting across both allopatric and contact zone alleles. Within a contact zone between two members of the species complex, only a subset of genes maintained allelic segregation despite evidence of ongoing gene flow in other genes. The overlap in these analyses wasarginine kinase(AK) andapolipoprotein A-1 binding protein(APBP). These genes represent two of the first examples of sperm maturation, capacitation, and motility proteins with fixed non-synonymous substitutions between species-specific alleles that may lead to postmating prezygotic isolation. Both genes express ejaculate proteins transferred to females during copulation and were previously identified through comparative proteomics. We discuss the potential function of these genes in the context of the specific postmating prezygotic isolation phenotype among our species, namely conspecific sperm precedence and the superior ability of conspecific males to induce oviposition in females.
Influence of whole-wheat consumption on fecal microbial community structure of obese diabetic mice
Authors: Garcia-Mazcorro Jose F. , Ivanov Ivan , Mills David A. , Noratto Giuliana
Published: February 2016

The digestive tract of mammals and other animals is colonized by trillions of metabolically-active microorganisms. Changes in the gut microbiota have been associated with obesity in both humans and laboratory animals. Dietary modifications can often modulate the obese gut microbial ecosystem towards a more healthy state. This phenomenon should preferably be studied using dietary ingredients that are relevant to human nutrition. This study was designed to evaluate the influence of whole-wheat, a food ingredient with several beneficial properties, on gut microorganisms of obese diabetic mice. Diabetic (db/db) mice were fed standard (obese-control) or whole-wheat isocaloric diets (WW group) for eight weeks; non-obese mice were used as control (lean-control). High-throughput sequencing using the MiSeq platform coupled with freely-available computational tools and quantitative real-time PCR were used to analyze fecal bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences. Short-chain fatty acids were measured in caecal contents using quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography photo-diode array analysis. Results showed no statistical difference in final body weights between the obese-control and the WW group. The bacterial richness (number of Operational Taxonomic Units) did not differ among the treatment groups. The abundance of Ruminococcaceae, a family containing several butyrate-producing bacteria, was found to be higher in obese (median: 6.9%) and WW-supplemented mice (5.6%) compared to lean (2.7%,p= 0.02, Kruskal-Wallis test). Caecal concentrations of butyrate were higher in obese (average: 2.91 mmol/mg of feces) but especially in WW-supplemented mice (4.27 mmol/mg) compared to lean controls (0.97 mmol/mg), while caecal succinic acid was lower in the WW group compared to obese but especially to the lean group. WW consumption was associated with ∼3 times higher abundances ofLactobacillusspp. compared to both obese and lean control mice. Analysis of weighted UniFrac distances revealed a distinctive clustering of lean microbial communities separately from both obese and WW-supplemented mice (p= 0.001, ANOSIM test). Predictive metagenome analysis revealed significant differences in several metabolic features of the microbiota among the treatment groups, including carbohydrate, amino acids and vitamin metabolism (p< 0.01, Kruskal-Wallis test). However, obese and WW groups tended to share more similar abundances of gene families compared to lean mice. Using an in vivo model of obesity and diabetes, this study suggests that daily WW supplementation for eight weeks may not be enough to influence body weight or to output a lean-like microbiome, both taxonomically and metabolically. However, WW-supplementation was associated with several statistically significant differences in the gut microbiome compared to obese controls that deserve further investigation.
Nuclear Engineering
Authors: Lee John C.
Published: February 2016

Key attributes and activities of nuclear engineering are described in this article, with a focus placed on basic concepts and mathematical formulations to represent the steady state and transient behavior of nuclear fission reactors. Mechanisms of neutron interaction with matter are presented and followed by neutron diffusion theory to illustrate the basic approaches for nuclear reactor analysis and design. Together with a description of key systems and components in light water reactor (LWR) plants, thermal‐hydraulic and safety analysis of LWR systems are also presented. This is followed by a discussion on nuclear fuel cycles and used nuclear fuel management. Advanced reactor physics formulations via the neutron transport equation and the development of advanced reactor designs conclude the article.
Network Design: Algorithms and Examples
Authors: Somani Arun K.
Published: February 2016

This article addresses the issues in data network design. We discuss graph models for network, issues in topology design and optimization, link and node capacity assignment, path search algorithms, and network flow assignments. The network can support point‐to‐point packet‐switched or connection‐oriented circuit‐switched or virtual circuit‐switched connections. We also address performance issues such as blocking probability, throughput, and delay and how to account for them in the design of a network. The issue of fault tolerance in network design is also examined. The design is explained using a context of wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) fiber‐optic network.
Chemical Lasers
Authors: Perram Glen P.
Published: February 2016

Chemical lasers typically integrate chemical delivery systems, a supersonic mixing nozzle, and an optical resonator to produce a high power beam of coherent light. An exothermic chemical reaction can produce the population inversion required for light amplification. The hydrogen fluoride chemical laser uses a population inversion between vibrational levels to generate laser beams with powers exceeding 1 MW at wavelengths near 2.7 μm. The chemical oxygen–iodine laser (COIL) uses a two‐phase reaction to produce electronically excited molecular oxygen and subsequent energy transfer to atomic iodine to lase at 1.315 μm. Chemical laser efficiency may be characterized by the mass flow rate required to generate a specified power, with values of greater than 100 kJ/kg achievable. Nozzle flux, or laser power per unit area of the mixing nozzle throat, is key to device size, with values of greater than 100 kW/cm2. The Airborne Laser mounted a high‐power COIL on a Boeing 747 to destroy theater missiles in the boost phase with a successful demonstration in 2010. The space‐based laser (SBL) was one of the most technologically aggressive elements of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) and the only boost phase ballistic missile defense system with global coverage.
Granular Computing: From Granules to Systems
Authors: Szczuka Marcin , Skowron Andrzej , Jankowski Andrzej , Ślȩzak Dominik
Published: February 2016

Granular computing (GrC) is a domain of science aiming at modeling computations and reasoning that deals with imprecision, vagueness, and incompleteness of information. Computations in GrC are performed on granules that are obtained as a result of information granulation. Principal issues in GrC concern processes of representation, construction, transformation, and evaluation of granules. It also requires aligning with some of the fundamental computational issues concerning, for example, interaction and adaptation. This article outlines the current status of GrC and provides the general overview of the process of building granular solutions to challenges posed by various real‐life problems involving granularity. It discusses the steps that lead from raw data and imprecise/vague specification toward a complete, useful application of granular paradigm.
Wavelet‐Based Image Deconvolution and Reconstruction
Authors: Pustelnik Nelly , Benazza-Benhayia Amel , Zheng Yuling , Pesquet Jean‐Christophe
Published: February 2016

Image deconvolution and reconstruction are inverse problems that are encountered in a wide array of applications. Due to the ill‐posedness of such problems, their resolution generally relies on the incorporation of prior information through regularizations, which may be formulated in the original data space or through a suitable linear representation. In this article, we show the benefits that can be drawn from frame representations, such as wavelet transforms. We present an overview of recovery methods based on these representations: (i) variational formulations and nonsmooth convex optimization strategies, (ii) Bayesian approaches, especially Monte Carlo Markov chain methods and variational Bayesian approximation techniques, and (iii) Stein‐based approaches. A brief introduction to blind deconvolution is also provided.
Structured Light Techniques and Applications
Authors: Bell Tyler , Li Beiwen , Zhang Song
Published: February 2016

Modern hardware and algorithms, developed through several decades of research in multiple disciplines, are contributing toward the continuous advancement of 3D scanning technologies. Simply put, these technologies allow for the digital capture of an object's natural surface geometry. This article presents methods concerning the 3D scanning techniques using structured light, in which different patterns or structures are projected onto the scene to be scanned. The deformation of the original structure, as it falls upon the scanning scene, can be used to recover the scene's geometry. Within structured light technologies, there are several well‐developed approaches in the design of the pattern(s) that are cast upon a scene. Some of the approaches offer significant advantages, such as the ability to capture the 3D geometry of a scene at very high accuracies at real‐time rates. Given these advantages, the adoption of such 3D structured light technologies has been increasing. Being so, this article will also detail applications in which 3D structured light techniques are currently being employed within the fields of medicine, biology, manufacturing, security, communications, remote environment reconstruction, and consumer electronics.
Oxidative Polymerization
Authors: Higashimura Hideyuki , Kobayashi Shiro
Published: February 2016

This article reviews the oxidative polymerizations of aromatic compounds, such as phenol, aniline, diphenyl disulfide, benzene, pyrrole, thiophene, and their derivatives, focusing on the reaction mechanism and coupling selectivity. The characteristics of polymers synthesized by this method, including poly(phenylene oxide)s, polyphenols, polyanilines, poly(phenylene sulfide)s, polyphenylenes, polypyrroles, and polythiophenes, are also described.
Biosensing Applications Based on Conducting Polymers
Authors: Zhu Bicheng , Hackett Alissa J. , Travas‐Sejdic Jadranka
Published: February 2016

Conducting polymers (CPs) are materials with unique optoelectronic properties that are employed in both chemical sensing and biosensing. A variety of electrochemical and optical biosensor designs have been developed based on CPs, due to their simple fabrication and direct readout methodologies. Efforts have been directed toward achieving high sensitivity, low detection limits, and superior selectivity for target molecules, which are the main considerations when evaluating a biosensor. As the capabilities of nanofabrication expand, nanoscale CP materials, such as nanowires and nanotubes, have been utilized to improve the performance of CP‐based biosensors. Simultaneously, multiple target detection through biosensor arrays has sped up developments in the field. This article gives an overview of recent designs in electrochemical biosensors utilizing CPs as active sensing elements in different formats, including array sensors. We discuss aspects of CP‐based biosensing where further research is needed to advance their performance, including sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and pretreatment of analyst.
Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) 23 gene transcription depends on actin cytoskeleton reorganization
Authors: Fajol Abul , Honisch Sabina , Zhang Bingbing , Schmidt Sebastian , Alkahtani Saad , Alarifi Saud , Lang Florian , Stournaras Christos , Föller Michael
Published: February 2016

FGF23 regulates renal phosphate and vitamin D metabolism. Loss of FGF23 results in massive calcification and rapid aging. FGF23 production is stimulated by 1,25(OH)2D3 and NFκB signaling. Here, we report that treatment of UMR106 osteoblast‐like cells with 1,25(OH)2D3, inducing Fgf23 transcription, resulted in actin polymerization which was blocked by NFκB inhibitor wogonin. Interestingly, 1,25(OH)2D3‐induced Fgf23 gene transcription was abolished by the actin microfilament‐disrupting agent cytochalasin B, as well as by the inhibition of actin‐regulating Rac1/PAK1 signaling. Our results provide strong evidence that actin redistribution regulated by the Rac1/PAK1 pathway participates in 1,25(OH)2D3 ‐induced Fgf23 gene transcription.
Climate services: Lessons learned and future prospects
Authors: Brasseur Guy P. , Gallardo Laura
Published: February 2016

This perspective paper reviews progress made in the last decades to enhance the communication and use of climate information relevant to the political and economic decision process. It focuses, specifically, on the creation and development of climate services, and highlights a number of difficulties that have limited the success of these services. Among them are the insufficient awareness by societal actors of their vulnerability to climate change, the lack of relevant products and services offered by the scientific community, the inappropriate format in which the information is provided, and the inadequate business model adopted by climate services. The authors suggest that, to be effective, centers should host within the same center a diversity of staff including experts in climate science, specialists in impact, adaptation, and vulnerability, representatives of the corporate world, agents of the public service as well as social managers and communication specialists. The role and importance of environmental engineering is emphasized.
Impact of warming events on reef‐scale temperature variability as captured in two Little Cayman coral Sr/Ca records
Authors: von Reumont J. , Hetzinger S. , Garbe‐Schönberg D. , Manfrino C. , Dullo W.‐Chr.
Published: February 2016

The rising temperature of the world's oceans is affecting coral reef ecosystems by increasing the frequency and severity of bleaching and mortality events. The susceptibility of corals to temperature stress varies on local and regional scales. Insights into potential controlling parameters are hampered by a lack of long term in situ data in most coral reef environments and sea surface temperature (SST) products often do not resolve reef‐scale variations. Here we use 42 years (1970–2012) of coral Sr/Ca data to reconstruct seasonal‐ to decadal‐scale SST variations in two adjacent but distinct reef environments at Little Cayman, Cayman Islands. Our results indicate that two massive Diploria strigosa corals growing in the lagoon and in the fore reef responded differently to past warming events. Coral Sr/Ca data from the shallow lagoon successfully record high summer temperatures confirmed by in situ observations (>33°C). Surprisingly, coral Sr/Ca from the deeper fore reef is strongly affected by thermal stress events, although seasonal temperature extremes and mean SSTs at this site are reduced compared to the lagoon. The shallow lagoon coral showed decadal variations in Sr/Ca, supposedly related to the modulation of lagoonal temperature through varying tidal water exchange, influenced by the 18.6 year lunar nodal cycle. Our results show that reef‐scale SST variability can be much larger than suggested by satellite SST measurements. Thus, using coral SST proxy records from different reef zones combined with in situ observations will improve conservation programs that are developed to monitor and predict potential thermal stress on coral reefs.
Identification of buried lunar impact craters from GRAIL data and implications for the nearside maria
Authors: Evans Alexander J. , Soderblom Jason M. , Andrews‐Hanna Jeffrey C. , Solomon Sean C. , Zuber Maria T.
Published: February 2016

Gravity observations from the dual Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) spacecraft have revealed more than 100 quasi‐circular mass anomalies, 26–300 km in diameter, on the lunar nearside. These anomalies are interpreted to be impact craters filled primarily by mare deposits, and their characteristics are consistent with those of impact structures that formed prior to, and during, intervals of flooding of feldspathic terrane by mare basalt lavas. We determine that mare deposits have an average density contrast of
 kg m−3 relative to the surrounding crust. The presence of a large population of volcanically buried craters with minimal topographic expression and diameters up to 300 km requires an average nearside mare thickness of at least 1.5 km and local lenses of mare basalt as thick as ~7 km.
Reducing the uncertainty in subtropical cloud feedback
Authors: Myers Timothy A. , Norris Joel R.
Published: February 2016

Large uncertainty remains on how subtropical clouds will respond to anthropogenic climate change and therefore whether they will act as a positive feedback that amplifies global warming or negative feedback that dampens global warming by altering Earth's energy budget. Here we reduce this uncertainty using an observationally constrained formulation of the response of subtropical clouds to greenhouse forcing. The observed interannual sensitivity of cloud solar reflection to varying meteorological conditions suggests that increasing sea surface temperature and atmospheric stability in the future climate will have largely canceling effects on subtropical cloudiness, overall leading to a weak positive shortwave cloud feedback (0.4 ± 0.9 W m−2 K−1). The uncertainty of this observationally based approximation of the cloud feedback is narrower than the intermodel spread of the feedback produced by climate models. Subtropical cloud changes will therefore complement positive cloud feedbacks identified by previous work, suggesting that future global cloud changes will amplify global warming.
On the frequency dependence and spatial coherence of PKP precursor amplitudes
Authors: Mancinelli Nicholas , Shearer Peter , Thomas Christine
Published: February 2016

Studies now agree that small‐scale (∼10 km) weak (∼0.1%) velocity perturbations throughout the lowermost mantle generate the globally averaged amplitudes of 1 Hz precursors to the core phase, PKP. The possible frequency dependence and spatial coherence of this scattered phase, however, has been given less attention. Using a large global data set of ∼150,000 PKP precursor recordings, we characterize the frequency dependence of PKP precursors at central frequencies ranging from 0.5 to 4 Hz. At greater frequencies, we observe more scattered energy (relative to the reference phase PKPdf), particularly at shorter ranges. We model this observation by invoking heterogeneity at length scales from 2 to 30 km. Amplitudes at 0.5 Hz, in particular, suggest the presence of more heterogeneity at scales >8 km than present in previously published models. Using a regional bootstrap approach, we identify large (>20°), spatially coherent regions of anomalously strong scattering beneath the West Pacific, Central/North America, and—to a lesser extent—East Africa. Finally, as proof of concept, we use array processing techniques to locate the origin of scattered energy observed in Southern California by the Anza and Southern California Seismic Networks. The energy appears to come primarily from out‐of‐plane scattering on the receiver side. We suggest that such improvised arrays can increase global coverage and may reveal whether a majority of precursor energy comes from localized heterogeneity in the lowermost mantle.
Model Selection:Bayesian Information Criterion
Authors: Cavanaugh Joseph E.
Published: February 2016

This article presents an overview of the Bayesian information criterion (BIC), along with its motivation and some of its asymptotic optimality properties. It also compares and contrasts the criterion to the Akaike information criterion (AIC).
Functional Data Analysis – Theory
Authors: Ramsay James O.
Published: February 2016

When either data or the models for them involve smooth functions, and when only weak assumptions about these functions are to be made, familiar statistical methods must be modified and new approaches developed in order to take advantage of smoothness. This article considers some general issues such as characteristics of functional data, uses of derivatives in functional modeling, estimation of phase variation by the alignment, or registration of curve features and the nature of error, and describes functional versions of traditional methods such as principal components analysis and linear modeling and also mentions purely functional approaches that involve working with and estimating differential equations in the functional data analysis process.
Chain Sampling
Authors: Balamurali Saminathan
Published: February 2016

An introduction of the concept of chain sampling is first presented and the operating procedure and the conditions of applications of the ChSP1 plan are also discussed. The designing methodology of chain sampling plan proposed by various authors is reviewed. The concept of chain sampling used in variables inspection is then discussed and its operating procedure is also given. The extended versions of the chain sampling plans such as ChSP‐4, ChSP‐4A, and Bagchi's plan are also reviewed and the modified version of chain sampling plan is also discussed. The two‐stage chain sampling plan and its related literature review are also provided. The application of chain sampling plan in mixed plans and the other variations of chain sampling plan are also discussed.
Annuities
Authors: Macdonald Angus S.
Published: February 2016

An annuity is a regular series of payments made from one party to another party. Payments may be certain, or contingent upon the survival of one or more lives, or upon the performance of an underlying investment portfolio. The International Actuarial Notation includes present values and accumulations of many standard forms of annuity, but does not adequately cover modern developments such as income drawdown, longevity improvements, and cohort effects.
Life Insurance
Authors: Macdonald Angus S.
Published: February 2016

This article describes the main features and types of life insurance, meaning insurance against the event of death. Life insurers also transact annuity business.
DNA Sequence Evolution
Authors: Pearl Dennis , Kubatko Laura
Published: February 2016

DNA molecules carry the hereditary information for nearly all living things. In this entry, we describe the composition of DNA molecules, provide an overview of the laboratory and computational techniques associated with collecting DNA sequences using biological samples from present‐day organisms, and give an overview of evolutionary problems for which DNA sequence data are used. The evolutionary topics discussed are sequence alignment and assembly, models for DNA sequence evolution, estimation of gene‐ and species‐level phylogenetic trees, estimation of parameters associated with evolutionary processes at both the within‐ and between‐population levels, and use of DNA sequences for gene mapping.
Familial Correlations
Authors: Keen Kevin J.
Published: February 2016

Methods of statistical inference for correlations among members of families and pedigrees are summarized.
Genome‐Wide Significance
Authors: Siegmund David
Published: February 2016

This article discusses the problem of multiple testing that arises when many genetic markers are tested for proximity to a local genomic feature of interest. Examples include linkage, association, copy number variation, and structural variations.
Age–Period–Cohort Analysis
Authors: Holford Theodore R.
Published: February 2016

Age–period–cohort analysis refers to the interpretation of temporal trends in disease incidence or mortality rates in terms of the three time scales, age, calendar date (period), and year of birth (cohort). We present graphical and analytic methods for understanding trends in disease rates. A fundamental issue of identifiability arises in some models because of a linear constraint on these time scales: year of birth plus age equals the current calendar year. We review parametric and nonparametric approaches to estimate identifiable aspects of the data, such as the curvature of temporal trends.
Bootstrap Inference
Authors: Canty Angelo J. , Davison Anthony C.
Published: February 2016

Bootstrap methods are powerful and widely useful simulation procedures, whose applications include assessing the uncertainty of a statistical estimator, constructing a confidence interval, and computing the significance probability associated with a hypothesis test.
Cluster Analysis: Overview
Authors: Lowrimore Gene , Manton Kenneth G.
Published: February 2016

This article discusses analysis techniques for clustering objects into hopefully meaningful sets. Hierarchical methods are presented for clustering both variables and cases. Examples are presented for variations on the methods. A nonhierarchical method,k‐means, is discussed for continuous data. An example comparing the results ofk‐means clustering to an ad hoc method using principal components analysis is given. Finally, an example is given usingk‐means clustering in conjunction with a grade of membership fuzzy clustering.
Overdispersion
Authors: Dean Charmaine B. , Lundy Erin R.
Published: February 2016

Count data analyzed under a Poisson assumption or data in the form of proportions analyzed under a binomial assumption often exhibit overdispersion, where the empirical variance in the data is greater than that predicted by the model. This entry illustrates how overdispersion may arise and discusses the consequences of ignoring it, in particular, the underestimation of standard errors of covariate effects. Straightforward methods for ascertaining whether overdispersion is evident are presented. Simple methods for incorporating overdispersion within the framework of quasi‐likelihood estimation are reviewed as well as generalized linear mixed models, which form a broad scheme for model‐based analysis when overdispersion is present.
Optimal Biological Dose for Molecularly Targeted Therapies
Authors: Ahn Chul , Kang Seung‐Ho , Xie Yang , Zhang Song
Published: February 2016

Phase I cancer clinical trials are small dose‐finding studies designed to rapidly identify the optimal dose of a new anticancer agent. The optimal dose has been defined as the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) for conventional cytotoxic anticancer drugs, and this dose is typically recommended as the phase II dose. In the past two decades, a new approach for cancer treatment has emerged. This approach, now widely referred to asmolecularly targeted therapyis designeda priori, based on the knowledge of various physiological molecules that have been obtained by the development of molecular biology. Most molecularly targeted agents slow or stop the growth of tumors. Such agents are, in general, less toxic than conventional cytotoxic agents; as a result, the maximum therapeutic effect may occur at doses well below the MTD. With the emergence of a growing number of molecularly targeted agents, approaches to early drug development are changing. We present dose‐finding designs for phase I clinical trials of molecularly targeted drugs. There is an increasing need to develop designs to find the optimal biological dose (OBD) for molecularly targeted agents, and the utility of designs needs to be prospectively evaluated in future clinical dose‐finding trials for a variety of molecularly targeted agents.
Bayesian Graphical Models
Authors: Jensen Finn V. , Nielsen Thomas D.
Published: February 2016

Mathematically, a Bayesian graphical model is a compact representation of the joint probability distribution for a set of variables. The most frequently used type of Bayesian graphical models are Bayesian networks. The structural part of a Bayesian graphical model is a graph consisting of nodes and edges. The nodes represent variables, which may be either discrete or continuous. An edge between two nodes and indicates a direct influence between the state of and the state of , which in some domains can also be interpreted as a causal relation.

The widespread use of Bayesian networks is largely due to the availability of efficient inference algorithms for answering probabilistic queries about the states of the variables in the network. Furthermore, to support the construction of Bayesian network models, learning algorithms are also available. We give an overview of the Bayesian network formalism and some of the algorithmic developments in the area.
Extrapolation, Risk‐Analytic
Authors: Hertzberg Richard C.
Published: February 2016

Quantitative extrapolation refers to a process where inferences about data‐poor scenarios are developed from studies of data‐rich scenarios. For dose–response relationships in environmental risk assessment, several different kinds of extrapolation are used so that whatever information is available can be incorporated in a reasonable manner to inform risk management decisions. Examples of such extrapolation include estimating human health risk at low doses from rodent toxicology data at high doses, or estimating response to a mixture of chemicals knowing only the dose–response information on the individual chemicals. The examples discussed in this article are for human health risk assessment but most of the principles apply to ecological risk assessment as well.
Predictive Distribution (de Finetti's View)
Authors: Fortini Sandra , Petrone Sonia
Published: February 2016

In Bayesian statistics, the “predictive distribution” is defined as the conditional distribution of future observations, given past observations. The predictive approach to inference highlights the centrality of predictive distributions, both for model assignment and inference. The relevance of the predictive approach is twofold. Starting from de Finetti, it is a cornerstone of the philosophical foundation of Bayesian statistics. Moreover, it has shown to be extremely fruitful, for model construction, in research areas with strong applied motivation, such as Bayesian nonparametrics and machine learning.
Starting Values
Authors: Deutsch Roland C.
Published: February 2016

Starting values are an essential component of most optimization problems that use search algorithms. As such algorithms are mostly iterative and deterministic, they require some form of a starting point. In many cases, the choice of the starting point can have great impact on the success of the search algorithm. Common ways of determining starting values are informed guesses, solving systems of linear equations, linearization, and reducing dimensions.
Lower and Upper Specification Limits (
LSL
,
USL
)
Authors: Zappa Diego
Published: February 2016

In order to monitor industrial processes, control charts are often employed. They are graphical displays of estimates of a key quality process parameter. It is said that a process is working under control when the estimates fall within the range delimited by control limits, which define feasible process values that guarantee high standard quality levels. In practice, a product may work even if its quality parameters lie outside the control limits, within a range delimited by the so‐called specification limits, that is, those limits that guarantee a product to be delivered and sold to customers. In such cases, the product quality will not be excellent, nevertheless adequate. In this contribution, we will give a definition of specification limits and where they are used in statistical quality control.
Iron‐Catalyzed Regioselective Oxo‐ and Hydroxy‐Phthalimidation of Styrenes: Access to α‐Hydroxyphthalimide Ketones
Authors: Zhang Ji‐zong , Tang Yu
Published: February 2016

This paper describes the aerobic oxidation of styrenes catalyzed by iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) to form β‐keto‐N‐alkoxyphthalimides in fair to good yields. This oxidative process employs mild conditions with green and atom efficient dioxygen (O2) as the oxidant.

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In‐situ Synthesis of Stabilizer‐Free Gold Nanocrystals with Controllable Shape on Substrates as Highly Active Catalysts for Multiple Use
Authors: Fu Yanpeng , Lu Yan , Polzer Frank , Lux‐Steiner Martha Ch. , Fischer Christian‐Herbert
Published: February 2016

Recyclable gold nanocatalysts with controllable morphology are in‐situ formed on the solid substrate by a facile ultrasonic spray pyrolysis method. The Au nanoparticles on Mo substrates form spheres, while on Si icosahedra, or after addition of Cu ions to the precursor solution, decahedra are obtained. The catalytic properties are studied for the reduction of 4‐nitrophenol as a model reaction and compared with those of several stabilized colloidal Au catalysts. Due to the absence of any stabilizers on the surface and the good adhesion to the solid support, the substrate‐immobilized Au nanoparticles exhibit excellent catalytic activity and stability as well as simple reuse without activity loss and easy recyclability. Furthermore, it is shown that by this spray pyrolysis process also the inner walls of a tube can easily be coated. The efficiency of this resulting flow‐through reactor is investigated. Finally, naked Au nanoparticle films enable a unique comparative investigation of the catalytic reaction rate in the presence of typical ligands used for the stabilization of colloidal nanoparticle catalysts. Only with the films of naked Au nanoparticles is a constant Au base available, while different ligands lead to different sizes and probably shapes of colloidal particles thus not allowing an exact comparison. It turns out that all investigated stabilizers reduce the catalytic efficiency.

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Cyclische hypervalente Iodreagentien für Atomtransferreaktionen – jenseits der Trifluormethylierung
Authors: Li Yifan , Hari Durga Prasad , Vita Maria Victoria , Waser Jerome
Published: February 2016

Hypervalente Iodverbindungen nehmen als Reagentien in der organischen Synthese aufgrund ihrer außergewöhnlichen Reaktivität eine Sonderstellung ein. Unter ihnen ragen cyclische Derivate wegen ihrer erhöhten Stabilität heraus. Sie finden zwar weitreichende Anwendung als Oxidationsmittel, die Erforschung ihrer Möglichkeiten zum Transfer funktioneller Gruppen begann jedoch erst kürzlich. Während die Verwendung von Benziodoxol(on)en zur Trifluormethylierung (Togni‐Reagens) schon weitgehend anerkannt ist, erfuhren vor kurzem auch andere Transformationen große Aufmerksamkeit. Der vorliegende Aufsatz bespricht die Entwicklungen auf diesem Gebiet seit 2011. Nach einer kurzen Zusammenfassung der Methoden zur Synthese von Benziodoxol(on)reagentien wird ihre Verwendung zum Aufbau von Kohlenstoff‐Heteroatom‐ und Kohlenstoff‐Kohlenstoff‐Bindungen diskutiert. Äußerst erfolgreich war die Einführung von Alkinen mithilfe von Ethinylbenziodoxol(on)(EBX)‐Reagentien. Durchbrüche bei der Einführung von Alkoxy‐, Azido‐, Difluormethyl‐ und Cyangruppen werden ebenfalls vorgestellt.
Innovationen im Holzbau – Der Holzhallenbau der Firma Christoph und Unmack/Niesky
Authors: Rug Wolfgang
Published: February 2016

Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts entwickelten mutige Zimmerer, Holzbauunternehmer und holzbauinteressierte Architekten bzw. Ingenieure den Holzbau zu einer leistungsfähigen Bauweise in Europa. Will man die heute noch stehenden Zeugnisse dieser Entwicklung substanzschonend erhalten, so ist das nur bei ausreichender Kenntnis über die konstruktive und technische Entwicklung möglich. Der Autor berichtet in diesem Beitrag über den Hallenbau der Firma Christoph und Unmack.
Low‐temperature Conductivity Detection for Ultrasensitive Ion Chromatography
Authors: Eom Jiwon , Lee Dong Soo
Published: February 2016

The effects of conductivity detection temperature on calibration sensitivity and linearity in suppressed ion chromatography using hydronium or hydroxide eluent were investigated. Theoretical calibration curves for lithium and nitrate ions at 0–35 °C were calculated and compared with experimental data. As the detection temperature was lowered, both sensitivity and linearity of calibration at low concentrations were improved due to the reduced interference by water autoionization equilibrium; 4.3‐ and 1.3‐fold increases in linear regression slopes were observed in the 0–1 µmol/L range when the temperature was lowered from 35 to 5 °C for lithium and nitrate, respectively, along with significant increases in the correlation coefficient. Any remaining water autoionization effect was near completely removed by using eluents contaminated with rubidium or bromide ion at 0.1 µmol/L.
Size Monitoring in the Synthesis of Silica Nanoparticles Using Asymmetrical Flow Field‐Flow Fractionation (AF4)
Authors: Han Sujeong , Choi Jaeyeong , Yoo Yeongsuk , Jung Eui Chang , Lee Seungho
Published: February 2016

Particle size is one of the important parameters that determine the characteristics (and applicability) of silica nanoparticles. An accurate sizing technique is therefore required for quality control during the synthesis of silica nanoparticles. Unlike other sizing techniques, the field‐flow fractionation (FFF) provides size‐based separation of colloidal particles, and allows an FFF elution profile, which can be converted to a size distribution directly. Synthesis of silica nanoparticles having narrow size distributions is not trivial, as there are many parameters affecting the characteristics of the synthesized particles. In this study, silica nanoparticles were synthesized by emulsion polymerization, where ethanol, ammonium hydroxide, and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) were mixed at room temperature. First, silica nanoparticles were synthesized in a smaller scale with a total reaction volume of 175 mL. Then the effect of various reaction parameters on the particle size distribution (PSD) was systematically investigated using asymmetrical flow FFF (AF4), a member of FFF family. The synthesis scale was then increased to the total reaction volume of 3 L. It was observed that, as the concentrations of TEOS and ethanol increased, the size of the silica nanoparticles tended to decrease, while as the concentration of ammonium hydroxide increased, the size tended to increase. Silica nanoparticles of about 100 nm having a relatively narrow size distribution could be obtained in a large scale with the concentrations of TEOS, ethanol, and ammonia solution of 95, 95, and 15%, respectively. The results suggest that AF4 is a useful tool for fast and accurate size monitoring of silica nanoparticles.
Development and validation of a reliable and rapid LC‐MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of sacubitril and valsartan in rat plasma and its application to a pharmacokinetic study
Authors: Chunduri Raja Haranadha Babu , Dannana Gowri Sankar
Published: February 2016

A selective, sensitive and rapid liquid chromatographic method with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometric detection has been developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of sacubitril and valsartan in rat plasma using telmisartan as internal standard (IS). The analytes were extracted by deprotenization of 50 μL of plasma sample using 200 μL of acetonitrile. In a short chromatographic run of 1.50 min run time, separation was achieved on a Hypersil Gold C18 column using a mobile phase composed of 0.1% formic acid in Milli‐Q water–0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile in gradient elution mode. The quantification of target compounds was performed in a positive electrospray ionization mode and multiple reaction monitoring. Response was a linear function of concentration in the ranges of 0.5–20,000 ng/mL for both analytes, with r2 > 0.9997. The intra‐ and inter‐day precision and accuracy results were <15% and acceptable as per US Food and Drug Administration guidelines. Stability of compounds were established in a battery of stability studies, i.e. bench‐top, autosampler and long‐term storage stability as well as freeze–thaw cycles. The validated method can be used as a routine method to support pharmacokinetic studies. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The effect of price discounts on green consumerism behavioral intentions
Authors: Tseng Chung‐Hui
Published: February 2016

Green consumerism encourages consumers to demonstrate environmentally friendly behavior for protecting the environment and health of human beings. For example, if consumers wish to purchase take‐out beverages, they are encouraged to bring their own cups or water bottles rather than use disposable cups. This study, through 2 experiments, discussed the use of price discounts for encouraging green consumerism behavioral intentions. Experiment 1 examined the relationships among a green promotion setting, perceived nonmonetary and monetary sacrifice, and purchase intention toward the list price. The results of hierarchical regression models based on 120 valid questionnaires showed that perceived nonmonetary sacrifice fully mediated the relationship between a green promotion setting and the purchase intention toward the list price. Experiment 2 investigated the relationship between price discount levels and frames and a green or general promotion setting used by take‐out beverage shops. The results of the analysis of variance based on 900 valid questionnaires demonstrated that (i) the variation in consumer purchase intention in response to green consumerism promotion was lower than that in response to general promotion; (ii) the price discount threshold used in green consumerism promotion was 20%, which was higher than that in a general promotion setting; and (iii) consumers preferred a percentage discount offered during green consumerism promotion; however, they preferred a discount with a specific dollar amount in a general promotion setting. These results provide suggestions for improving green marketing and green consumerism. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.