bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inter‐Governmental Relations Under Yeltsin's New Federalism
Authors: Kahn Jeffrey
Published: October 2003

The fourth stage of Russia's federal transition—the ‘parade of treaties’—is the focus of this chapter. The legacy of Boris Yeltsin's presidency was the growth of institutional asymmetry, most notably in the form of bilateral treaties he negotiated with regional executives. These ad hoc, extra‐constitutional political deals simultaneously held the struggling Federation together in the short term while undercutting its prospects for long‐term stability, particularly with regard to fiscal and legal relationships between federal and regional governments. The politics of their negotiation often undercut the crucially needed federal political culture that was already in very low supply in Yeltsin's Russian Federation. The negotiation and effects of bilateral treaties are examined in detail, especially in the republics of Bashkortostan, Sakha‐Yakutia, and Tatarstan.
Federal Effects on Transitions in Russia's Republics
Authors: Kahn Jeffrey
Published: October 2003

After Yeltsin abandoned attempts to influence the course of republican transitions from authoritarianism, few republics persevered along clearly democratic paths. This chapter examines the course those transition paths followed, with particular attention paid to the drafting of republican constitutions. Who controlled that process set the political agenda by defining the ‘rules of the game’. The strong presidentialism found in virtually all of the republics is a recurring theme. Ten years of presidential and parliamentary elections are examined to discern the effect of these institutional choices. The crude sultanism that emerged in the republic of Kalmykia is examined in detail.
Facing Facts
Authors: Neale Stephen
Published: October 2003

This book is an original examination of attempts to dislodge a cornerstone of modern philosophy: the idea that our thoughts and utterances are representations of slices of reality. Representations that are accurate are usually said to be true, to correspond to the facts—this is the foundation of correspondence theories of truth. A number of prominent philosophers have tried to undermine the idea that propositions, facts, and correspondence can play any useful role in philosophy, and formal arguments have been advanced to demonstrate that, under seemingly uncontroversial conditions, such entities collapse into an undifferentiated unity. The demise of individual facts is meant to herald the dawn of a new era in philosophy, in which debates about scepticism, realism, subjectivity, representational and computational theories of mind, possible worlds, and divergent conceptual schemes that represent reality in different ways to different persons, periods, or cultures evaporate through lack of subject matter. By carefully untangling a host of intersecting metaphysical, epistemological, semantic, and logical issues, and providing original analyses of key aspects of the work of Donald Davidson, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Kurt Gödel (to each of whom a chapter is dedicated), Stephen Neale demonstrates that arguments for the collapse of facts are considerably more complex and interesting than ever imagined. A number of deep semantic facts emerge along with a powerful proof: while it is technically possible to avoid the collapse of facts, rescue the idea of representations of reality, and thereby face anew the problems raised by the sceptic or the relativist, doing so requires making some tough semantic decisions about predicates and descriptions. It is simply impossible, Neale shows, to invoke representations, facts, states, or propositions without making hard choices—choices that may send many philosophers scurrying back to the drawing board. The book will be crucial to future work in metaphysics, the philosophy of language and mind, and logic, and will have profound implications far beyond.
The End of Representation?
Authors: Neale Stephen
Published: October 2003

Introduces the criticisms put forward by philosophers such as Donald Davidson and Richard Rorty to the idea that one thing might represent another: that thoughts, utterances, and inscriptions are said to have content by virtue of their power to represent reality; and that those that do the job accurately are true, they correspond to the facts, or mirror reality—they are representations of reality. The author then outlines the deductive proof that he will present in the book to show that Davidson's and Rorty's criticisms are unfounded. The content of the proof is based on the work of Kurt Gödel and W. V. Quine, and demonstrates conclusively that (i) any supposedly non‐truth‐functional operation must satisfy an exacting logical condition in order to avoid collapsing into a truth‐function, and (ii) any theory of facts, states of affairs, situations, or propositions must satisfy a corresponding condition if such entities are not to collapse into a unity. The three main sections of the chapter: examine the case against representations made by Davidson and Rorty, including Davidson's notorious argument against facts; discuss Rorty's critique of representational philosophy (his anti‐representationalism); and consider collapsing (or slingshot) arguments that discredit the existence of facts (and are used in the critique of the fact–representation distinction), as put forward by Gottlob Frege, and developed by Alonzo Church, Quine, Davidson, and Gödel. The last section of the chapter outlines the structure of the book.
Davidson: Truth and Correspondence
Authors: Neale Stephen
Published: October 2003

Discusses the philosophy of Donald Davidson, who appears to have brought the slingshot argument to the current prominence within philosophical discussions. It examines Davidson's semantic programme, the relation between semantics and ontology that he champions, his arguments against facts and the scheme–content distinction, and the ways in which he and Richard Rorty assail the notion of representation. The chapter is arranged in nine parts: Introductory Remarks; Meaning and Truth; Reference and Ontology; Content and Other Complications; Facts and Correspondence; The Great Fact; Scheme and Content; Realism and Objectivity; and Representation.
Gödel: Facts and Descriptions
Authors: Neale Stephen
Published: October 2003

Sets out Kurt Gödel's slingshot (collapsing) argument. The original argument—or, at least, the premisses of the argument that Neale attributes to Gödel—can be found in a fleeting footnote to a discussion of the relationship between Bertrand Russell's Theory of Descriptions and Theory of Facts. Usually each theory is viewed as quite independent of the other, but Gödel argues otherwise: that the viability of the latter depends upon the viability of the former (or at least upon the viability of some non‐referential theory of descriptions). Neale summarizes Gödel's standpoint as follows: ‘if a true sentence stands for a fact, then in order to avoid the collapse of all facts into one, the friend of facts must give up either (a) an intuitive and straightforward Fregean Principle of Composition or (b) the idea that definite descriptions are expressions that purport to stand for things.’ The sections of the chapter are: Elimination (linguistic and ontological); Facts and Descriptions; Identities in the Matrix; and The Eleatic One (the collapse of all facts into one).
Gödelian Equivalence
Authors: Neale Stephen
Published: October 2003

Chs. 9 (and 8) convert the two basic forms of slingshot (collapsing) argument—one used by Alonzo Church, W. V. Quine, and Donald Davidson, the other by Kurt Gödel—into knock‐down deductive proofs that Donald Davidson's and Richard Rorty's cases against facts and the representation of facts are unfounded, and their slingshot arguments for discrediting the existence of facts unsatisfactory. The proofs are agnostic on key semantic issues; in particular, they assume no particular account of reference and do not even assume that sentences have references. Using the same procedure as in Chs. 8 and 9 shows that a slingshot argument engendered by Gödel's suggestions can be converted into a proof that delivers an exacting constraint on non‐extensional discourse—the Descriptive Constraint—and that is more general than anything Gödel appears to have had in mind. The proof of this constraint is constructed without appeal to logical equivalences, without assuming that a semantic theory must treat sentences as having references, without presupposing anything contentious about the semantics of singular terms, and without commitment to any particular semantics for definite descriptions. A constraint on facts, situations, states of affairs, and propositions—indeed on anything that is expressed or represented sententially—drops out as a trivial consequence of a constraint on non‐extensional discourse. The three sections of the chapter are: Principles of Conversion for Descriptions; Gödel's Proof in Quinean Format; and A Stronger Slingshot?
Containing Nationalism
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: October 2003

Nationalism has become a prevalent source of conflict and violence in the world. Scholarship has provided scant guidance about the prospect of containing its dark side. Departing from the usual practice of considering only a few examples of nationalism drawn from a limited geographical and historical canvas, this book is based on fundamental theoretical ideas about the formation and solidarity of groups. More specifically, Containing Nationalism offers a unified explanation of nationalism across the broad sweep of time and space. Among other things, it explains why nationalism is largely confined to modern history, why it is supported by specific forms of inequality between cultural groups, and why it is inclusive at some times and exclusive at others.

Nationalism is the attempt of culturally distinct peoples to attain political self‐determination. Such self‐determination was generally afforded by traditional states, which employed a form of governance based on indirect rule. After the late eighteenth century, the rise of the modern state led to a new form of governance based on direct rule. Containing Nationalism argues that the impetus for the most common type of nationalism arises from the imposition of direct rule in culturally heterogeneous societies. Direct rule stimulates national identity by making cultural distinctions more salient for individuals’ life chances. At the same time, it reduces the resources of local elites, giving them a motive to mobilize nationalist opposition to central authorities. All told, these effects heighten the demand for sovereignty. The book suggests that political institutions that reintroduce indirect rule offer the leaders of modern countries the best available means of containing nationalist violence within their borders.
Nationalist Puzzles
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: October 2003

The nationalism of concern here is collective action designed to render the boundaries of the nation congruent with those of its governance unit. Governance units are territorial units responsible for providing the bulk of collective goods to their members. Nations, for their part, are highly solitary, territorially concentrated, culturally distinctive groups. On the basis of these definitions, the chapter distinguishes between four analytically distinct types of nationalism: state‐building, peripheral, irredentist, and unification nationalisms.
Causes of Nationalism
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: October 2003

Short of the grant of outright sovereignty, nationalist violence can be contained only by processes that inhibit nation formation, reduce the demand for autonomy or sovereignty among national minorities, and raise the costs of collective action. This chapter presents theories of group solidarity (governing the process of nation formation) and endogenous state formation (responsible for the evolution of governance units). The chapter then discusses the modernity of nationalism, the social bases of nationalist movements, and the kinds of institutions most likely to contain these movements.
Indirect Rule and the Absence of Nationalism
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: October 2003

Nationalism is principally a modern phenomenon because, for the great bulk of human history, there was no disjuncture between the boundaries of the nation and those of the governance unit. Owing to high communication costs, most premodern states were compelled to rely on indirect rule to govern spatially distant territories. Over time, this kind of rule led to an outcome in which culturally distinct territories were governed by traditional authorities. Since, over time, these local authorities usually came to share the same culture as that of their subjects, cultural differences did not tend to be a basis of political conflict.
The Demand for Sovereignty and the Emergence of Nationalism
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: October 2003

The members of any nation would prefer to be sovereign rather than to be ruled by non‐nationals because this maximizes the chance that the government will provide them with an optimal mix of public goods. This general preference is affected by the net benefit of continued affiliation with the central authority. To the degree that the centre provides minority nationals with protection, and economic and social welfare, the demand for sovereignty will be attenuated. Hence, nationalist secession is most likely to occur in multinational states whose centres are subject to military and economic setbacks. However, the demand for sovereignty also depends on the nation's capacity to engage in collective action, which is affected by state institutions.
Containing Nationalism
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: October 2003

A variety of institutional mechanisms of containing nationalist violence is considered, including consociationalism, electoral design, and federation. Federation is a viable means of containing nationalist violence, but only as long as the minority nation remains dependent on the centre for key public goods. The centre's capacity to devolve authority credibly to minority nations hinges not on value considerations, but on its adoption of institutions guaranteeing procedural justice.
Human Well-Being and the Natural Environment
Authors: Dasgupta Partha
Published: October 2003

This book explores ways to measure the quality of life, a problem pervading a number of academic disciplines, but not confined to the academic realm. Indices of human well‐being in current use are insensitive to human dependence on the natural environment, both at a moment in time and across generations. Moreover, international discussions on economic development in poor regions frequently ignore the natural resource base. In developing quality‐of‐life measures, the author pays particular attention to the natural environment, illustrating how it can be incorporated, more generally, into economic reasoning.

The discussion offers a comprehensive account of the newly emergent subject of ecological economics. Connections between biodiversity, ecosystem services, resource scarcities, and economic possibilities for the future are developed in a quantitative but accessible language. Familiar terms such as ‘sustainable development’, ‘social discount rates’ and Earth's ‘carrying capacity’ are given a firm theoretical underpinning.

The theory developed is used in extended commentaries on the economics of population, poverty traps, global warming, structural adjustment programmes and free trade. The author shows that, whether for valuing the state of affairs in a country or evaluating economic policy there, the index that should be used is the economy's wealth, which is the social worth of its capital assets. The concept of wealth adopted is comprehensive, including not only manufactured assets but also human capital, knowledge, and the natural environment. Wealth is contrasted with popular measures of human well‐being, such as gross national product and the United Nations Development Programme's Human Development Index. The theory is applied repeatedly to data on poor countries, revealing a picture that contrasts sharply with that portrayed in the contemporary literature on economic development.
Constituents and Determinants of Well‐Being
Authors: Dasgupta Partha
Published: October 2003

In order to identify usable indices, measures of well‐being are classified according to whether they are based on well‐being's constituents (e.g. health) or their commodity determinants (e.g. food and nutrition). For practical purposes, it is often simpler to construct measures based on well‐being's commodity determinants.
Current Quality of Life in Poor Countries
Authors: Dasgupta Partha
Published: October 2003

Illustrates how the concept of current well‐being can be put to work on the contemporary world. I draw upon evidence from the contemporary world's poorest countries to suggest that, interestingly, the three constituent spheres of citizenship may well be synergistically related to one another. The findings indicate that democracy and civil liberties are not only intrinsically valuable, but may even be instruments for bringing about material progress in poor countries. The fact remains though that, within democratic countries, there are enormous differences in people's life chances. Democracies in poor regions harbour malnourished people. It is argued that the malnourished are caught in poverty traps. In order to explain the findings, we are led to study institutions and the role they play in determining the allocation of resources.
Economic Institutions and the Natural
Authors: Dasgupta Partha
Published: October 2003

Three systems of rights to natural resources are studied in Ch. 7: private, communal, and state. Institutional failures are shown to be the cause of inefficiencies and inequities, both in momentary allocations of resources and in the inter‐generational transfer of resources. It is argued that in the world we have come to know, there is a bias in the use of the natural environment, in that use at any moment is excessive, not insufficient. Since observed prices frequently do not reflect the social worth of natural resources, use should be made of notional prices, called accounting prices.
Places, Natural Places, and the Power of Place
Authors: Morison Benjamin
Published: October 2003

Motion is the most important type of change. Everything is somewhere, in some sense of ‘somewhere’. The most evident type of change of place is replacement: when one thing replaces another. All motion in nature is a case of replacement or displacement. The four elements (earth, water, air, and fire) all have their own places, known as ‘natural places’ that are referred to in the very definitions of those elements. These natural places exist and are defined independently of us or our orientation.
Being in
Authors: Morison Benjamin
Published: October 2003

Something is said to be in a place, and so its place is one of the things in which it is. If x is in y, then y contains x. Something may contain something else either derivatively, or in its own right. I am in the universe derivatively, because there is something else in which I am, namely the air, such that anything in the air is in the universe, but not vice versa. The air is one of my broad places. There is a place in which I am, such that I am the only thing in that place: this is my proper place. There are many different ways of being in something: containment is only one of them, but it is the central way in which something is in something else.
Zeno's Paradox of Place
Authors: Morison Benjamin
Published: October 2003

Eudemus and Alexander of Aphrodisias provide valuable evidence for the reconstruction of what Zeno's paradox of place is. Everything is somewhere: so places are in a place, which is in turn in a place, etc.; this generates an infinite regression. Aristotle thinks this infinite regression deprives us of the possibility of saying where something is, or answering where‐questions properly. He solves the paradox by giving different senses to the word ‘somewhere’.
Three Possibilities for Place: Matter, Form, and Space
Authors: Morison Benjamin
Published: October 2003

Because something's proper place is the first thing that surrounds it, one might think that something's place is its outer boundary, i.e. its shape or form. Equally, some philosophers have thought that places are extended and the same size as their occupants, which suggests that something's place is its extension or matter: Plato argued this in the Timaeus. Finally, one might think that the interval occupied by something (but existing separately from it) is also its place––this is close to what we call ‘space’. Aristotle argues that on this theory, there are an infinite number of overlapping places.
Explaining Normativity: On Rationality and the Justification of Reason
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

Explaining normativity requires, amongst other things, an examination of the relationship between rationality and reasons and the connection between reasons and principles of reasoning. Essentially, explaining normativity will consist in demonstrating what it is to be a reason and solving related puzzles about reasons. The capability to reason, to justify our reasons for acting, whether we require substantive principles of reason, and the standing of formal reason is considered. The claim that normativity should be defended and justified amounts to a demand for the justification of reason.
Explaining Normativity: Reason and the Will
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

The relation between reason and the will is explored in reference to the nature of reasons and of normativity. Must we hold beliefs for decisive reasons? Can we be unreflectively motivated by reasons? It is maintained that one need not necessarily be motivated by all the reasons that apply to an agent (i.e. to conform to reason does not entail knowing all the reasons that apply to you). Reasons are argued to be optional to the extent that the fact that there are reasons for a certain response make it an eligible response, but not one that is wrong not to adopt. The mediation of the will helps to explain how we are governed by our rationality.
Notes on Value and Objectivity
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

An examination of why people are guided by valuable aspects of the world. From this, an examination of the possibility of there being value in the world is taken. It is argued that the existence of types of valuable objects and options, particularly those whose existence depends on shared social practices with shared meanings provides a good account of how we might construe the objectivity of value.
Mixing Values
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

Under what conditions can one compare the strength of conflicting reasons for and against an action where they are a function of irreducibly different values that its performance manifests, contributes to, or detracts from? Two sets of conflicting reasons are incommensurable when neither is at least as weighty as the other, and so are the actions they are the only reasons for. It is argued that it is a conceptual truth that one has reason to realize value, and that the greater the value, the more stringent the reason. Moreover, belief in value explains why the action was done and makes its performance intelligible. The extent to which social practices are relevant to the existence or validity of at least some values is also explored.
On the Moral Point of View
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

The existence and nature of a moral point of view is explored. There is a philosophically deep way of dividing considerations into moral and non‐moral such that even thought other context‐dependent, uses of the terms are legitimate marks the correct or significant delineation of morality. Moral considerations are a distinct type, distinct in how we find out about them and in what makes them into considerations with a call for our attention. A powerful argument for the distinctness of the moral point of view is provided, and it is one that is relevant to the thesis that there are internal and external reasons for action, and to forms of agent‐relativism, which depend on it.
The Amoralist
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

The question of what an agent has reason to act on is approached via the question of what it is that an agent values. The distinction between acting for moral versus non‐moral reasons is argued to be obscure and not overly helpful. What we should attempt to demonstrate is the relations between the reasons that agents standardly act on. By taking this approach, we find that we no longer feel the need to advance a defence of moral reasons as categorical reasons for action.
The Central Conflict: Morality and Self‐Interest
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

Self‐sacrifice does not necessarily involve conflict between morality and self‐interest, and when making sacrifices we do not necessarily harm our self‐interest. While people may reasonably care about their own well‐being, a person's well‐being is not, for that person, a source of value or reasons for action. People act for reasons, i.e. for what appears to them to be adequate reasons, regardless of whether or not they serve their well‐being. Sometimes, the reasons that appear to be conclusive, even when conforming with them affects the agent adversely, are moral reasons.
Discrete State‐Space Methods for the Study of Dynamic Economies
Authors: Burnside Craig
Published: October 2003

A number of numerical methods are discussed for solving dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models that fall within the common category of discrete state‐space methods. These methods can be applied in situations where the state space of the model in question is given by a finite set of discrete points; in these cases the methods provide an ‘exact’ solution to the model in question. However they are frequently applied in situations where the model's state space is continuous in which case the discrete state space can be viewed as an approximation to the continuous state space. Discrete state‐space methods are discussed in the context of two well‐known examples: a simple one‐asset version of Lucas's (1978) consumption‐based asset pricing model and the one‐sector neoclassical growth model. The discussion does not aim to exhaust the list of possible discrete state‐space methods as they are very numerous; rather it describes several examples that illustrate the basic principles involved. The main sections of the chapter describe the basic principles of numerical quadrature underlying most discrete state‐space methods, show how they can be applied in a very straightforward way to problems in which the state space consists entirely of exogenous state variables, and describe methods that can be used when there are endogenous state variables. The last section notes the several files associated with the chapter for use with MATLAB.
Finite‐Difference Methods for Continuous‐Time Dynamic Programming
Authors: Candler Graham V.
Published: October 2003

Introduces some of the methods and underlying ideas behind computational fluid dynamics—in particular, the use is discussed of finite‐difference methods for the simulation of dynamic economies. A standard stochastic dynamic programming model is considered of a macroeconomy. Finite‐difference methods are applied to this problem (model), resulting in a second‐order nonlinear partial differential equation that has some features in common with the governing equations of fluid dynamics; the idea is also introduced of ‘upwind’ or solution‐dependent differencing methods, and the stability of these is discussed through the analysis of model problems. An implicit solution to the nonlinear dynamic programming problem is then developed and tested, with the motivation of reducing the computer time required to solve it. Finally, the extension of the finite‐difference method to a two‐state dynamic programming problem is considered.
Optimal Fiscal Policy in a Linear Stochastic Economy
Authors: Sargent Thomas J. , Velde François R.
Published: October 2003

The Lucas and Stokey (1983) economy without capital is used to exhibit features of the Lucas and Stokey model of optimal taxation, and show how they compare with Barro's (1979) tax‐smoothing model. Computation of optimal fiscal policies for Lucas and Stokey's model requires repeated evaluations of the present value of the government's surplus, an object formally equivalent to an asset price. The functional equation for an asset price is typically difficult to solve. A linear quadratic version of Lucas and Stokey's model is specified, which makes both asset pricing computations and optimal fiscal policy calculations easy. Martingale returns on government debt are discussed, and examples and extensions of Lucas and Stokey's model given. Two appendices describe and discuss: the key steps for two basic kinds of stochastic process (a stochastic first‐order linear difference equation and a Markov chain), and time consistency and the structure of debt. Lastly, details are given of the appropriate MATLAB programs.
Computing Models of Social Security
Authors: İmrohoroğlu Ayşe , İmrohoroğlu Selahattin , Joines Douglas H.
Published: October 2003

A core topic of current economic research (and policy debate) is the evaluation of social security systems and their possible reforms. Shows how models of social security can be computed in economies where agents have uncertain lifespans and earnings profiles. In particular, it shows how to solve stationary equilibria and (within a linear quadratic formulation) how to solve transitional equilibria, such as the transition following a reform of the system. The two main sections of the chapter present: a model of social security with heterogeneous agents, which is related to several recent large‐scale general equilibrium, overlapping generations models; and a linear quadratic model of social security. These are both versions of an overlapping generations model with incomplete markets, and both assume that private annuity markets are missing, but they differ in their preference structures and certain other respects.
Computation of Equilibria in Heterogeneous‐Agent Models
Authors: Ríos‐Rull José‐Víctor
Published: October 2003

There are many questions in economics for which heterogeneous‐agent dynamic models (i.e. models populated by agents that are different from each other) have to be used to provide answers. The first such model presented is one with infinitely lived agents subject to uninsurable idiosyncratic shocks to earnings; a very simple version of such a model is used to address the distribution of wealth under both a steady state and a non‐steady state situation. The second type of model presented is the overlapping generations model, which represents the situation where every year some agents die and new agents are born; such models are embodied in a neoclassical growth model structure with capital accumulation. Once again, both steady state and non‐steady state situations are considered. Finishes with a section on dynamic voting models; these are models that endogenously generate government policies as part of a Markov equilibrium, and are starting to be used to study positive policy issues such as redistributional policies. All the models are posed in such a way that they are susceptible to computation, and in all of them, the different agents are central in the sense that the question that the models are used to answer requires heterogeneity.
The Incarnation: The Critical Issues
Authors: O'Collins Gerald
Published: October 2003

Gerald O’Collins outlines 12 issues: the particular, historical truth of the union of divinity and humanity in the one person of Jesus Christ; his personal pre‐existence; the paradox in holding the Chalcedonian teaching of Jesus being truly divine and fully human; the objection that the incarnation entails unfairness on the part of God; the divine and human wills and minds of Christ in their sinless harmony; the virginal conception as the way the incarnation actually happened; God's reasons for the incarnation; its revelatory and redemptive impact; the relationship of the incarnation to the crucifixion and resurrection; the incarnation being possible only for the Word of God; the incarnation as a once and for all occurrence; and the credibility of the incarnation.
Theophany, Anthropomorphism, and the Imago Dei: Some Observations About the Incarnation in the Light of the Old Testament
Authors: Dearman J. Andrew
Published: October 2003

Andrew Dearman examines two elements in the OT: the anthropomorphic presentation of God in theophany and the creation of humankind in the imago Dei. Anthropomorphism was a way that divine presence could be apprehended by people, and theomorphism indicated both a basis on which humankind understood its divinely mandated tasks and one way in which the divine‐human relationship could be represented. In spite of anti‐anthropomorphic traditions elsewhere in the OT, these two elements influenced the presentation of Christ in the early church and both may contribute to a modern understanding of the incarnation.
Jesus' Self‐Understanding
Authors: Wright N. T.
Published: October 2003

Tom Wright challenges the view that no first‐century Jew could think of incarnation, let alone believe himself to be the incarnate Son of God. Wright argues that Jesus understood his own journey to Jerusalem and what he would do and suffer there as the long‐awaited coming of YHWH to his Temple. Jesus believed himself called to do and be things that Israel's God was to do and be. This self‐understanding provides the deepest historical root for the growth of NT faith.
The Incarnation and Virtue Ethics
Authors: Zagzebski Linda
Published: October 2003

Linda Zagzebski proposes a formal framework for an ethical theory in which the incarnation is central and the imitation of Christ the basic normative idea. Her formal framework of exemplarism makes it possible to utilize the advantages of narrative ethics within a formal theory. She then sketches a practical form of exemplarist virtue theory that she calls Divine Motivation (DM) theory. In this theory, all evaluative concepts are derived from the concept of a good motive, and God's motives are the metaphysical ground for all value. Zagzebski argues that DM theory is more distinctively Christian than such law‐based theories as divine Command theory and Natural Law theory.
In Search of Dynamic Capabilities: The Origins of R&D Competence in Biopharmaceuticals
Authors: Pisano Gary P.
Published: October 2003

The chapter seeks to shed some light on the issue of creating firms’ unique organizational capabilities by reporting the findings of an in‐depth, field‐based, longitudinal analysis of the evolution of process development capabilities in the pharmaceutical industry. The chapter presents a simple conceptual framework for learning across development projects that highlights the dual ‘outputs’ of development projects: the technology that is implemented in a new process (or product design) and the knowledge that becomes available for future projects. It is argued that the latter can push technical and organizational learning that become part of a firm's knowledge base and which, in turn, influence strategies chosen for and performance achieved on future projects. In the example of four biotechnology organizations is explored the dynamic interaction between the organization's knowledge base, its capability for different development strategies (e.g. learning by doing versus learning before doing), and changes in project performance over time (e.g. lead time).
Managing the Development and Transfer of Process Technologies in the Semiconductor Manufacturing Industry
Authors: Appleyard Melissa M. , Hatch Nile W. , Mowery David C.
Published: October 2003

A considerable literature on firm‐level differences in capabilities deals with product innovation, whereas intra‐firm management of process innovation has received less attention. This paper analyses the management of the new process technologies in the semiconductor industry. It shows that successful development and introduction of new process technologies relies on the replication of complex ‘routines’ within a firm, since in many cases a new manufacturing process is developed in an R and D facility and then transferred to a manufacturing site. Firm‐specific differences in the management and organization of process innovation, as well as in the degree of coordination of new product and new process development strategies, appear to be significant and influence performance.
The ‘Abominable Ohno Production System’. Competences, Monitoring, and Routines in Japanese Production Systems
Authors: Coriat Benjamin
Published: October 2003

The chapter is concerned with the differences between Japanese automobile manufacturers and American manufacturers, with the focus largely on the period between the 1950s and 1960s, and the late 1980s and early 1990s. Toyota is taken as an archetypal Japanese automotive producer, while the Ford Motor Company is chosen as archetypal American automotive manufacturer. The chapter concentrates on the differences in their own right insofar as they reveal two different organizational archetypes and also tries to shed the light upon the concept of ‘routines’ through the examination of these differences. The author emphasizes that prevailing routines, in addition to serving to organize work and problem‐solving patterns, reflect the governance structures, modes of control, and compromises regarding competing interests, that prevail in an organization.
Evolution of Manufacturing Systems and Ex Post Dynamic Capabilities: A Case of Toyota's Final Assembly Operations
Authors: Fujimoto Takahiro
Published: October 2003

The chapter focuses on changes that have occurred in the Toyota production system over the last decade, the factors including these changes, and the processes of change. It is proposed that, while foreign observers often had assumed that production workers at Toyota were generally pleased with the work environment that was in place in the late 1980s, this was not completely so, and a tightening of the Japanese labour market provided strong incentives to Toyota to revise their production system. The paper shows that the process of changes at Toyota involves a combination of a broadly oriented ‘vision’, a considerable amount of trial and feedback learning, a considerable amount of discussing in order to get broad agreement on what is desirable and acceptable and what is not, and revision of the vision to provide a rationale for the evolving consensus. The chapter treats Toyota's continuing success, in the face of periodic external changes and continuing internal ones, as an indication of the fact that it has achieved strong dynamic capabilities.
Transfer and Replication of Organizational Capabilities: Japanese Transplant Organizations in the United States
Authors: Florida Richard , Kenney Martin
Published: October 2003

Organizational theory has long held that it is difficult to transfer organizations from one environment to another and that organizations that are transferred will take on characteristics of the new environment. The authors argue that organizations have the capabilities and the resources to transfer and to some degree replicate key capabilities in a new environment, and further to alter those environments in light of their functional requirements. We explore the question of organizational transfer and replication through the lens of a specific class of transplant organizations—Japanese automotive assembly plants and their suppliers in the US. We believe that these transplant organizations provide an ideal case to explore such questions because they represent organizations which are being transferred from a supportive to a foreign environment. We find that these Japanese automotive transplants have effectively transferred and to some degree replicated key organizational forms and capabilities at both the intra‐ and inter‐organizational levels.
Incentives and Political Economy
Authors: Laffont Jean-Jacques
Published: October 2003

This book presents a detailed exposition of models of incentives in political economy using the tools of contemporary information economics. The emphasis is on small, loosely connected models that describe the rationale behind many of today's political procedures, while paying attention to the intellectual history of the ideas that are discussed. A number of topics in constitutional design are detailed including corruption, separation of powers, and reciprocal supervision. The book is also concerned with the relationship between economists and politicians and looks at the trade‐off between discretion and economic efficiency. Topics in industrial policy and environmental policy are reconsidered from a political economy point of view, emphasizing the role played by politicians, elections, and interest groups in the choice of policy instruments. Additionally, the optimal choice of government centralization is discussed.
The Complete Contract Approach to Constitutional Design
Authors: Laffont Jean‐Jacques
Published: October 2003

This chapter introduces a simple supervision model based on Tirole's methodology in which the Constitution has to be designed, given the need for informed politicians who act as supervisors. It is shown how an optimal Constitution will have to create incentives so as to avoid the capture of politicians by interest groups. Also, improved supervision is shown to increase welfare and decrease corruption.
An Incentive Theory of the Separation of Powers
Authors: Laffont Jean‐Jacques
Published: October 2003

The design of a complete Constitution is further augmented by focusing on the need for separation of powers to avoid regulatory capture. The economic concepts used are yardstick competition and Bayesian Nash behaviour. A number of models using different assumptions regarding separation between politicians and/or regulatory agencies are explored and an equilibrium involving excessive bribery is found to be robust. Additionally, the social costs of side‐contracting are shown to be limited by the separation of powers.
Collusion and Decentralization
Authors: Laffont Jean‐Jacques
Published: October 2003

This chapter models the optimal degree of delegation and centralization of government as the degree of availability of communication between periphery and centre in a hierarchy. Under bounded rationality, delegation is shown to be superior as it uses more information than centralization. Under delegation with risk‐averse agents, it is shown that new transaction costs are introduced since the risk‐averse agent will require a risk premium for incentive compatibility.
1 Introduction
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Defines terms (section 1), introduces the book's main arguments (section 2), and provides and outline of the book's structure (section 3).
Commercial Policies in the 1930s
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Describes the collapse of the international economic system during the 1930s as governments disrupted the flow of international trade and turned trade increasingly into bilateral channels. Section 1 analyses the move to higher tariffs, especially following the 1930 tariff increase by the USA and Britain's abandonment of free trade in 1931. Section 2 analyses the growing use of non‐tariff barriers to international trade, including exchange controls. Section 3 addresses the revival of Imperial Preference among the British dominions and colonies at the 1932 Ottawa Conference. Section 4 analyses the consequences of 1930s trade policies in terms of increased bilateralism and regionalization of trade. Section 5 looks ahead by describing moves already underway by the late 1930s to reverse the trade policy errors of the decade.
Non‐Discrimination in the GATT
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Examines the treatment of discriminatory trade policies in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Despite a strong commitment to unconditional MFN treatment, the GATT allowed some exceptions under a grandfather clause for Imperial Preferences (Sect. 1), Article XXIV for customs unions (Sect. 2), Article XIX to deal with market disruption (Sect. 3), and for other reasons (Sect. 4).
Discrimination in International Trade, 1947–1985
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Discusses the erosion of adherence to the non‐discrimination principle between 1947 and 1985. Section 1 analyses the discriminatory removal of quantitative restrictions on intra‐European trade during the 1950s, and why this did not have any lasting effect in eroding the MFN principle. Section 2 analyses Western European Economic Integration, and Sect. 3 analyses the European Union's external trade polices. Section 4 analyses the less‐developed countries’ attitudes to the GATT, focusing on preferential trading arrangements among LDCs and on tariff preferences granted by high‐income countries to imports from LDCs. Section 5 describes the USA's principled support for the non‐discrimination principle during the 1960s and 1970s, and the erosion of this position during the 1980s. Section 6 describes other discriminatory trading arrangements and trade policies.
The Mainstream from Viner to the JCM Proposition
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Deals with mainstream customs union theory, starting with the Vinerian concepts of trade creation and trade diversion (Sects. 1–3). Section 4 analyses differences between customs unions and free trade areas, and the phenomenon of trade deflection. Section 5 provides a general equilibrium framework, pioneered by Vanek and Kemp.
The New Regionalism
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Analyses the new regionalism that emerged in the mid‐1980s. By downplaying the significance of trade diversion and emphasizing scale‐based and pro‐competitive benefits of integration, the new regionalism had a more positive vision of RTAs than mainstream customs union theory had. Section 1 introduces economies of scale and imperfect competition. Section 2 analyses non‐tariff barriers to trade. Section 3 covers ‘new areas’ of foreign investment, competition policy, and monetary integration, which had not featured in mainstream customs union theory. Section 4 deals with rules of origin, which had emerged as a major trade policy issue in the 1980s and 1990s.
North America
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Deals with empirical work on North American regional trading arrangements. Section 1 reports estimates of the impact of a free trade area between the USA and Canada. This literature was innovative in trying to account for scale economies and general equilibrium effects of an RTA. The remainder of the chapter deals with the effects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on the three signatories (Sect. 2) and on non‐member countries (Sect. 3). Section 4 draws conclusions.
Other Free Trade Areas and Customs Unions
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Other free trade areas and customs unions have been less intensively studied than the EU or NAFTA. RTAs among developing countries have not had a great impact, often because paper agreements were not fully implemented, or where they have had an impact they have not survived, sometimes because they involved trade diversion that turned out to be costly for some members. Section 2 deals with RTAs among centrally planned economies.
Consequences for the International Trading System
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Examines the systemic effects of RTAs on the global economy. Discusses why RTAs tend to proliferate as well as why the multilateral trading system's basis in non‐discriminatory trade policies is resilient. Finally, addresses the question of whether RTAs are building blocks or stumbling blocks in the construction of a liberal international trading system.