bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Relationship between Coaches’ Leadership Style and Burnout
Authors: Dale Judy , Weinberg Robert S.
Published: August 2016

The literature on burnout has concentrated on the human service and helping professions, although recently some researchers have investigated the burnout phenomenon in sport. The present investigation focused on high school and college head coaches to determine if burnout is related to leadership style. Subjects (N=302) were high school coaches from Texas and college coaches from the Southwest and Southeast Conferences. Coaches completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), Social Desirability Scale (SDS), and a demographic data sheet. A MANOVA indicated a significant relationship between burnout and leadership style in four of the six subscales of the MBI. Specificially, coaches who displayed a consideration style of leadership behavior scored significantly higher in the frequency and intensity dimensions of the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization subscales. In addition, a significant gender difference revealed that male coaches scored higher in both the frequency and intensity dimensions of the depersonalization subscales. Results are discussed in terms of leadership theory, and practical implications are offered for reducing burnout in coaches.
The Social Psychology of the Benchwarmer
Authors: Rotella Robert J. , Newburg Douglas S.
Published: August 2016

Some athletes who are benched may experience identity crises, the impact of which may be long-lasting and far-reaching for them. Case-study interviews with three athletes who have experienced such crises are presented. The similarities in the case studies suggest that the bench/identity crisis may be a relatively common phenomenon. Suggestions are offered for athletes, coaches, and sport psychology consultants to help respond to such experiences effectively.
Preparing the USA Women’s Artistic Gymnastics Team for the 1988 Olympics: A Multimodel Approach
Authors: Gordin Richard D. , Henschen Keith P.
Published: August 2016

The following article explains the sport psychology program utilized with the USA Women’s Artistic Gymnastics Team. The program was developed in 1983 and was implemented over the past quadrennium. Both service and research delivery systems are explained as well as the organization of service delivery over the past 5 years. This multimodel approach to the systematic training of elite world-class female athletes is presented to illustrate the psychometrics, mental skill development, and group process techniques utilized within the U.S. Gymnastic Federation’s artistic program. Both organizational and philosophical components of service delivery are explained. The range of services and problems encountered are also discussed. Finally, a detailed account of service leading to the Olympic Games and the program’s effectiveness is presented.
Effects of a Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention on the Preshot Routine and Performance in Golf
Authors: Cohn Patrick J. , Rotella Robert J. , Lloyd John W.
Published: August 2016

The effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on adherence to preshot routines of elite collegiate golfers was evaluated using a multiple baseline (across subjects) design. Three male golfers served as subjects for the assessment of percent of mental and behavioral preshot routines completed for nine holes during baseline and treatment conditions. Players’ shots and putts were videotaped and the tapes were scored to determine the percent of behavioral routines completed. Mental routines were assessed after each round via interview format. In addition, the number of strokes, putts, fairways hit from tee, and greens hit in regulation play for nine holes were also counted. The intervention taught each golfer how to consistently align to the target, make a good decision on each shot, and be totally committed to each shot. It was effective in improving players’ adherence to both mental and behavioral preshot routines. Immediate improvements in performance did not occur. Post-treatment interviews showed that the golfers felt the intervention had a positive effect upon performance.
Perceptions of Black Intercollegiate Football Players: Implications for the Sport Psychology Consultant
Authors: Anshel Mark H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this exploratory study was to ascertain the feelings of black male intercollegiate (Division I) football athletes about racial issues of personal concern as a sport participant. Twenty-six black football players volunteered to participate in the study. Through a structured interview technique, areas that were investigated included the players’ interaction with the (white) head coach, unique behavioral styles and needs of black versus white athletes, the extent to which these needs were recognized and met, and the effect of their sport environment on skilled performance. The subjects reported a general lack of sensitivity on the part of coaches to individual and sociocultural needs of black players. In particular, receiving negative feedback, a paucity of communication in general, and the lack of honesty and trust were the areas about which the subjects felt most strongly. Blacks unequivocally perceived a sense of unfairness, racism, and a general lack of psychological support by white coaches. Implications are given for providing sport psychology counseling to black athletes, especially by white consultants.
Delivering Sport Psychology Services to a Professional Sport Organization
Authors: Neff Frederick
Published: August 2016

This paper discusses a model of providing a specialized employee assistance program, with psychological services that are far-reaching and beyond what traditional employee assistance programs offer. Three main areas in which services are deemed especially critical include working with the athletes to improve their sports performance using various mental skills techniques, providing personal counseling, and impacting the organization at an organizational level. Also discussed is the author’s current role with the team and management, both during the preseason and the official season. Further, the author evaluates his effectiveness as a sport psychology consultant and the problems encountered as well as the importance of developing and maintaining proper boundaries within the organization. In conclusion, issues related to the goodness of fit between the professional sport organization and the sport psychology consultant are addressed.
Providing Sport Psychology Consulting Services to Professional Tennis Players
Authors: Loehr James E.
Published: August 2016

This paper explores personal experiences in building a career in sport psychology and providing consulting services to professional tennis players. It describes the range of services provided, major client groups, and philosophy of service delivery. It reviews the overall training model used in service delivery as well as psychological assessment procedures used in consultation. It also describes how professional services were organized, type of services provided to specific client groups, and specific training components. Factors and issues influencing professional effectiveness and competence are explored. The importance of training and competence in all sport sciences are emphasized. The challenges and hardships encountered in building a successful career in this specialty are reviewed. The need for more effective and responsible applied technology and research is discussed.
Sport Psychology in the Training Room: A Survey of Athletic Trainers
Authors: Wiese Diane M. , Weiss Maureen R. , Yukelson David P.
Published: August 2016

Although athletic injury is common in sport, little is documented about the application of psychological principles to injury rehabilitation. This study surveyed athletic trainers on the use of psychological strategies with injured athletes. Athletic trainers (N = 115) responded to Likert rating scales on athlete characteristics, efficacy of psychological strategies, and perceived importance of trainer knowledge about psychological strategies. Results revealed that trainers distinguished between athletes coping most versus least successfully with injury on characteristics of willingness to listen, positive attitude, intrinsic motivation, and willingness to learn about the injury and rehabilitation techniques. Trainers rated effective psychological techniques for facilitating athlete recovery as good interpersonal communication skills, positive reinforcement, coach support, and keeping the athlete involved with the team. Knowledge about using a positive communication style, strategies for setting realistic goals, methods for encouraging positive self-thoughts, and understanding individual motivation were rated as most important.
Mental Links to Enhanced Healing: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Ievleva Lydia , Orlick Terry
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine whether athletes who healed very rapidly demonstrated greater evidence than did slower healing athletes of psychosocial factors thought to be related to enhanced healing. A survey format was used to measure the following factors—positive attitude, outlook, stress and stress control, social support, goal setting, positive selftalk, and mental imagery—as well as related items about beliefs and recommendations for enhanced healing. Thirty-two former sports medicine clinic patients with either knee or ankle injuries participated in the study. Some 19% of these athletes had exceptionally fast recoveries. These subjects evidenced high scores on all variables tested, while those in the slowest healing group evidenced low scores. The most significant results were found in the more action related factors of goal setting, positive self-talk, and the use of healing imagery. This is particularly encouraging for those working in an applied setting, as these factors are within one’s potential control.
Sports Injuries and Stress Management: An Opportunity for Research
Authors: Davis James O.
Published: August 2016

Several studies report that psychological factors, especially stress, are related to sports injuries, and while stress management techniques have often been found to facilitate sport performance, these reports have not included information about the effects of stress intervention on injury rates. This article reexamines two sport psychology programs by investigating the injury data collected by athletic training personnel before, during, and after two university varsity teams practiced progressive relaxation during team workouts. Major findings include a 52% reduction in injuries for swimmers and a 33% reduction in serious injuries for football players. Discussion focuses on methods of injury data collection by sport psychologists, questions about the nature of the stress/injury relationship, and possible interventions.
Understanding the Career Transition of Athletes
Authors: Baillie Patrick H.F. , Danish Steven J.
Published: August 2016

Transition out of a career in sports has been suggested as being a difficult and disruptive process for many athletes. An early and enduring identification, familiarity, and preference for the role of athlete may cause its loss to be a significant stressor for the elite, Olympic, or professional athlete. The purpose of this paper is to describe the various aspects of the career transition process in sports, beginning with early identification with the role of athlete and continuing through retirement from active participation in competitive sports. Athletes are often poorly prepared for the off-time event of leaving sports, and traditional theories of retirement may not be suitable. People associated with athletes (coaches, peers, management, family members, and sport psychologists) and athletes themselves need to be aware of the potential for difficulty during their career transition.
Psychological Implications of Competitive Running in Elite Young Distance Runners: A Longitudinal Analysis
Authors: Feltz Deborah L. , Lirgg Cathy D. , Albrecht Richard R.
Published: August 2016

Eighteen elite young distance runners were followed over a 5-year period and examined on their perceptions of parental involvement, commitment, anxiety, and sources of worry as these variables pertained to their competitive running. Results showed that the runners received good parental support and possessed a relatively high level of commitment to running, but that both parental involvement and commitment declined over the 5 years. Fathers were seen as being more involved in their children’s running than mothers were. Also, females were somewhat more committed to running than males were. Males and females exhibited similar anxiety scores and these scores did not increase significantly over time. There was no evidence that these runners suffered excessive anxiety.
A Comparison of Mental Practice Techniques as Applied to the Developing Competitive Figure Skater
Authors: Palmer Shawna L.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the influence of two distinct mental practice techniques on figure skating performance. Twelve prenovice and novice level competitive figure skaters each performed two figures which were assessed as a pretreatment measure. In Phase 1 the subjects were assigned to one of three groups: Martin self-talk technique, paper patch technique, or a notreatment control group. Following a 4-week period of using the assigned technique, a second performance assessment revealed no significant differences between the Martin group and the control group, while the paper patch group showed significant improvements over both. In Phase 2 a multiple-comparison-across-subjects design was used. A third assessment was completed after an additional 4-week period which demonstrated that a significantly greater number of skaters using the paper patch technique improved in performance. This study reveals the importance of investigating the efficacies of different types of mental practice when applied to specific sporting or performance activities.
Positive Performance States of Athletes: Toward a Conceptual Understanding of Peak Performance
Authors: Jackson Susan A. , Roberts Glyn C.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated relationships among peak performance, flow, goal orientation, and perceived ability in an attempt to ascertain possible conceptual bases to peak performance. Collegiate athletes (N=200) answered a questionnaire that assessed mastery and competitive goal orientations, perceived ability, flow, and experience in best and worst competitive performances. It was hypothesized that the psychological process of flow underlies peak performance and is associated with a mastery oriented focus and high perceived ability. These predicted relationships were supported by both quantitative and qualitative analyses. Analysis of athletes’ best performances indicated a total focus on performance, and other characteristics of flow were key to the perception of a superior state of functioning. In contrast, overconcern with the outcome, reflecting a competitive orientation, was often associated with athletes’ worst performances. These associations suggest that investigating positive performance states from a motivational standpoint may lead to greater understanding of the underlying conceptual bases of peak athletic performance.
Relationship between Anxiety, Self-Confidence, and Evaluation of Coaching Behaviors
Authors: Kenow Laura J. , Williams Jean M.
Published: August 2016

Two experiments examined Smoll and Smith’s (1989) model of leadership behaviors in sport. The coaching behaviors of a male head coach of a collegiate women’s basketball team (n=11 players) were examined. The data supported competitive trait anxiety as an individual-difference variable that mediates athletes’ perception and evaluation of coaching behaviors. There also was support for adding athletes’ state cognitive anxiety, state self-confidence, and perception of the coach’s cognitive anxiety to the model as individual-difference variables. Athletes who scored high in trait anxiety (p<.001) and state cognitive anxiety (p<.05) and low in state self-confidence (p<.05), and athletes who perceived the coach as high in state cognitive anxiety (p<.001), evaluated coaching behavior more negatively. Game outcome may influence the effect of self-confidence in mediating athletes’ perception and evaluation of coaching behaviors. Additionally, athletes perceived several specific coaching behaviors more negatively than did the coach, and athletes drastically overestimated their coach’s self-reported pregame cognitive and somatic anxiety and underestimated his self-confidence. Overall, the results suggest that coaches should be more supportive and less negative with high anxious and low self-confident athletes.
The Use of Imagery in the Rehabilitation of Injured Athletes
Authors: Green Lance B.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this treatise is to provide an educational text that (a) cites existing literature supporting a mind-body paradigm for rehabilitation from psychophysiological and psychomotor perspectives, (b) demonstrates the application of imagery techniques within the chronology of an athletic injury, and (c) describes the performance-related criteria to which an athlete can compare his or her progress during rehabilitation. The chronology includes the period of time preceding the injury, the attention given to the athlete immediately following the injury, and the subsequent rehabilitation program leading to the athlete’s return to practice and competition. Examples of imagery experientials are used to illustrate its application throughout the chronology.
Winning after Winning: The Psychology of Ongoing Excellence
Authors: Kreiner-Phillips Kathy , Orlick Terry
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of success on athletes who reached the top of the world in their sport. Individual in-depth interviews were conducted with 17 world champion athletes, representing 7 different sports and 4 different countries. All athletes, 11 males and 6 females, had won major international competitions (World Cup, World Championships, and/or Olympic Games) between the years 1964 and 1988. The number of individual World Cup wins ranged from 1 to 86. The results indicate that athletes who became the best in their sport, subsequently experienced many additional demands. Most had little or no assistance in dealing with these demands. Approximately one third of these athletes coped well with the additional demands and continued to win. The remaining two thirds did not handle the additional demands as well and either never repeated their winning performance or took a significant amount of time to do so. Strategies to help prepare future champions to handle the demands of winning are suggested.
Goal Setting in Competitive Sport: An Exploratory Investigation of Practices of Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Burton Damon , Yukelson David , Weigand Dan
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was to explore athletes’ responses regarding the frequency, effectiveness, and importance of different types of goals to enhance their performance. Subjects (N = 678) were collegiate athletes at three NCAA Division I schools from different regions of the United States. Each athlete completed an extensive questionnaire detailing his or her perceptions regarding the use and effectiveness of a number of different goal-setting strategies. Descriptive results revealed that virtually all athletes practiced some type of goal setting to help enhance performance and that they found their goals to be moderately to highly effective. Athletes also reported that improving overall performance, winning, and having fun were their three most important goals. Many significant differences were found when comparing groups. For example, although females generally set more performance goals than males, males set more outcome goals than females. Future directions for research are offered including studying developmental differences and barriers/facilitators to achieving goals.
Sleep and Athletic Performance: Overview and Implications for Sport Psychology
Authors: Savis Jacqueline C.
Published: August 2016

Sleep is generally regarded important for maintaining one’s physical and psychological well-being. For the competitive athlete, many factors may negatively impact on his or her sleep, possibly resulting in compromised athletic performance. These factors include alterations in diet, changes in ambient temperature and/or altitude, traveling across time zones, and anxiety. In this article, an attempt is made to synthesize the relevant knowledge with regard to sleep and athletic performance. Sleep and performance are highly individual specific, with many interdependent factors influencing the expression of both variables. Recommendations for future research that addresses the unique demands of athletes are presented.
Perceptions of Psychological Interventions in the Context of Sport Injury Rehabilitation
Authors: Brewer Britton W. , Jeffers Karin E. , Petitpas Albert J. , Van Raalte Judy L.
Published: August 2016

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate perceptions of three different psychological interventions in the context of sport injury rehabilitation. In Experiment 1, college students (N = 161) rated their perceptions of goal setting, imagery, or counseling as an adjunct to physical therapy for a hypothetical injured athlete. In Experiment 2, injured athletes (N = 20) received brief introductory sessions of goal setting, imagery, and counseling. Subjects’ perceptions were assessed immediately following each intervention. In both experiments, subjects displayed a preference for goal setting, although positive perceptions were obtained for all three interventions. Females’ perceptions of the interventions were significantly more positive than those of males in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2. The findings suggest that goal setting, imagery, and counseling are sufficiently credible to be examined in controlled outcome studies with injured athletes.
Developmental Sports Career Investigations in Russia: A Post-Perestroika Analysis
Authors: Stambulova Natalia B.
Published: August 2016

This article deals with the psychological description of the sports career, including the history of the topic in Russian sport psychology before and during perestroika, two theoretical models of the sports career (synthetic and analytic), and conclusions drawn from the empirical research of sports careers of more than 200 Russian athletes representing different sports specializations and levels of achievement. Seven predictable crises of elite sports careers are considered from the perspective of typical problems and difficulties of athletes in each crisis, general symptoms and possible circumstances that reinforce crisis symptoms, ways to resolve a crisis, the influence of a crisis on sport performance, forms of “payment” for failure to resolve crises, and ways of providing psychological assistance to athletes in crisis periods of the sports career.
A Feminist Perspective on Sport Psychology Practice
Authors: Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

The feminist paradigm has been advocated as an appropriate alternative framework for sport psychology theory and research. The current paper extends the feminist perspective to sport psychology practice, particularly to educational consultation. Application of a feminist perspective to sport psychology practice requires (a) an awareness of relevant gender scholarship and valuing of the female perspective, (b) a shift in focus from the personal to the social, and (c) an egalitarian, process-oriented approach. Applying the feminist perspective implies not only an awareness of relevant sport psychology scholarship but also a commitment to action to educate and empower sport participants.
An Integrative Procedure for the Diagnosis of an Elite Athlete: A Case Study
Authors: Van Mele Veerle , Vanden Auweele Yves , Rzewnicki Randy
Published: August 2016

Making diagnoses is essential if one is to provide a meaningful service to clients, in sport psychology or elsewhere. Discussion of this topic in the sport psychology literature is rare and is usually limited to the use of standardized questionnaires or unspecified interview techniques. A procedure for the diagnosis of an elite athlete is described and explained as a case study. Critical elements include (a) using an integrative diagnostic procedure where the results of one phase are used to guide the generation of further hypotheses and selection of diagnostic tools, (b) attending to an athlete’s strengths and deficiencies, (c) individualizing the procedure and materials and actively involving the athlete where appropriate, and (d) objectively examining interactions between the data at the individual level. Questionnaires, a grid, and a sequential analysis were integrated in phases to refine, confirm, contrast, and clarify points of action to optimize the athlete’s performance.
The Efficacy of Mood State Profiling with Elite Performers: A Review and Synthesis
Authors: Terry Peter
Published: August 2016

Research into the relationship between mood profiles and athletic performance has produced equivocal results. It appears that athletic populations tend to show more positive mood profiles than the general population, but that mood profiles are ineffective in differentiating between athletes of varying achievement levels. POMS appears to have greater discriminatory power among homogeneous ability groups in terms of differentiating between successful and unsuccessful performances. In this paper, a number of conditions that increase the predictive capability of preperformance mood profiling are proposed. In addition, measurement issues, factors influencing crosssectional and intraindividual comparisons, and proposed uses of mood profiling among elite performers are discussed. It is concluded that further research is required to fully understand how intraindividual mood fluctuations influence athletic performance, and to understand the impact of preperformance and intraperformance mood trends upon performance.
Coping by Competitive Athletes with Performance Stress: Gender Differences and Relationships with Affect
Authors: Crocker Peter R.E. , Graham Thomas R.
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated patterns of coping, relationships between coping and negative and positive affect, and gender differences in coping and affect in competitive athletes. A sample of 235 female and male athletes reported recent stressful performance situations and indicated appraisals related to performance goals, coping, and affective responses. Lack of goal attainment (goal incongruence) was used as a measure of stress. Group means for coping indicated that athletes primarily used strategies such as increasing effort, planning, suppressing competing activities, active coping, and self-blame. Females used higher levels of seeking social support for emotional reasons and increasing effort to manage goal frustration. Males experienced higher levels of positive affect. For positive affect, regression analysis found a significant five-variable solution (R2 = .31). For negative affect, there was also a significant five-variable solution (R2 = .38). The gender differences were not congruent with views that males would use higher levels of problem-focused coping.
The Development of Consulting Practice in Applied Sport Psychology: Some Personal Perspectives
Authors: Simons Jeffery P. , Andersen Mark B.
Published: August 2016

The history and development of applied sport psychology practice has not received the same attention and documentation as that of academic sport psychology. After a brief introduction to the literature on the history and professional development of applied sport psychology, some personal perspectives from consultants who have been practicing “in the field” over the last two to four decades are provided. Eleven well-known practitioners discuss how they got started, how their consulting has developed, what significant experiences they have had, and what lessons they have learned along the way. They relate their views on the progression of professional practice and what the future may hold. Finally, they offer some encouragement, cautions, and words of wisdom for fellow and future colleagues in sport psychology consulting.
Body Image Concerns in Female Exercisers and Athletes: A Feminist Cultural Studies Perspective
Authors: Krane Vikki , Waldron Jennifer , Michalenok Jennifer , Stiles-Shipley Julie
Published: August 2016

A feminist cultural studies framework was employed to better understand the relationships among body image, eating, and exercise in female exercisers and athletes. Participants (N=18) engaged in focus group interviews regarding their ideal body image, eating and exercise patterns, and feelings associated with eating and exercising. The athlete interviews also included questions concerning their coach, performance issues, and comfort with their uniforms. Results revealed that most of the women in this study desired an unrealistic ideal body: a toned body with minimal fat. The exercisers emphasized being toned, yet they also avoided too much muscularity. These women constantly were balancing their physical activity and eating: if they exercised, they gave themselves permission to eat and if they ate too much, they punished themselves with exercise. The athletes’ ideal body was dependent upon the social context. Their body satisfaction and concomitant mental states and self-presentation varied depending upon whether the athletes were considering their bodies as athletes or as culturally female.
Towards a Richer Understanding of Girls’ Sport Experiences
Authors: Gilbert Elizabeth D.
Published: August 2016

This qualitative study was an examination of organized sport experiences of girls eight to thirteen years of age. The purpose was to determine, through the perceptions of the girls in this study, the factors which led to more satisfying sport experiences. In-depth interviews were conducted to probe for information concerning the girls’ current and past experiences with sport participation. The interviews addressed issues related to the girls’ initial involvement, such as who or what influenced them to participate in sports. In addition, questions were asked which addressed issues related to the influences which positively and negatively affected the nature and quality of the girls’ sport experiences. By presenting the direct quotes of the girls, the reader is allowed a first-hand examination of the components girls described as positively and negatively influential in their organized sport experiences.
Moving on? Elite Hong Kong Female Athletes and Retirement from Competitive Sport
Authors: Chow Bik C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the research was to study the transitional experiences of elite female athletes who are going through the process of athletic retirement. Using a life history approach, six former and six current athletes in Hong Kong were interviewed. Semi-structured interviews were utilized based on the Schlossberg’s (1981, 1984) transition model. Data were analyzed using typology and constant comparison methods. Diversity and commonality in the experiences of women withdrawing from elite sports competition were found. The life history approach was effective in illustrating the ways in which Hong Kong female athletes feel and think about career end, with a transition from competition to retirement evident as part of career passing. Content analysis of interviews revealed several salient themes related to sports retirement. Key distinctions across projected and experienced retirement were associated with a woman’s being an immigrant athlete, entering early into sport, and pursuing an education. Athlete status also affected transition to retirement and lifestyle after an elite sports career.
Attitudes of Elite Athletes Toward Female Coaches in Hong Kong
Authors: Leung Mee lee
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the attitudes of 130 male and female athletes toward female coaches in Hong Kong. Athletes, selected from 14 individual sports, responded to a questionnaire that included 34 attitudes’ items using a 5-point Likert Scale and a question involving preference, in which subjects indicated their preferences toward male or female coaches. An independent t-test analysis (p < .05) revealed that athletes reported a favorable attitude toward female coaches. Chi-Square analysis revealed that athletes preferred a male coach to a female coach.
Eating Attitudes, Body Image, and Nutrient Intake in Female Triathletes
Authors: Wethington Holly , Flowers Claudia , Turner Michael , DeBate Rita DiGioacchino
Published: August 2016

Focusing on female triathletes, this study was an exploration of behaviors and attitudes that may lead to disordered eating among female triathletes. One hundred and eighty-eight female triathletes residing in the U.S. completed an Internet-based questionnaire comprised of measures for disordered eating, body size distortion and dissatisfaction, and food consumption. Statistically significant relationships were identified regarding Preoccupation with Weight and Food Consumption (r= 0.52, p=0.005), Oral Control and Food Consumption (r= 0.32, p=0.04), and Food Restriction and Food Consumption (r= −0.30, p=0.04). Body Size Distortion was also significantly correlated to Food Consumption (r= −0.19, p=0.01), especially among the Sprint distance competitors (r= −0.21, p=0.02). Based upon the findings we suggest food restriction, body size distortion, and disordered eating attitudes are apparent among female triathletes, especially those who are club level athletes and short distance competitors.
Femininity to the Extreme: Body Image Concerns among College Female Dancers
Authors: Reel Justine J. , Jamieson Katherine M. , SooHoo Sonya , Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

Dancers, like other athletes and performers, are faced with the pressure to obtain a particular body shape and size that stems from varied etiological factors (e.g., personality characteristics, demands of the dance environment) (Robson, 2002). This study examined specific concerns for college dancers by utilizing quantitative and qualitative forms of inquiry. The purpose of the initial phase was to assess weight-related pressures, social physique anxiety, and disordered eating in college female modern dancers (N=107) using the Weight Pressure in Dance (Reel & Gill, 1996), Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989), and The Eating Disorder Inventory (Garner, 1991). An overwhelming majority (76%) of the dancers reported pressures to lose weight with the most commonly cited stressor being the mirror followed by costumes, performance advantage, comparison to other dancers, and landing the best roles. The mean social physique anxiety score was moderate, but 35 dancers exhibited a high degree of social physique anxiety. In addition, the dancers had a lower tendency toward disordered eating compared to college females (Garner, 1991). The second phase of the study confirmed that modern dancers experience unique pressures. Through qualitative inquiry, the participants’ individualized experiences related to body image and the culture of modern dance could be shared.
Mujeres (In)Activas: An Exploratory Study of Physical Activity among Adolescent Latinas
Authors: Jamieson Katherine M. , Araki Kaori , Chung Yong Chul , Kwon Sun Yong , Riggioni Lisa , Musalem Victoria Acosta
Published: August 2016

Recently, a significant growth in immigrant populations has influenced the social, cultural, and political landscape of many local communities. Understanding such changes in U.S. and local demography are central to effective efforts toward reducing physical inactivity, and associated health risks and diseases. In part to document the ways that physical activity currently fits into particular women’s lives, and as critique of the essentialized notions of immigrant communities as deficient in their health standards, we set out to investigate just how physically active Latinas in local communities were. The research was guided by the following two questions: 1) What are the social conditions under which adolescent Latinas make choices about physical activity? 2) To what extent are adolescent Latinas involved in physical activity? Centering on these two questions we administered questionnaires that measured current physical activity involvement, and individual and family background factors. Survey data indicate that Latina physical activity scores increase when home and work related physical activity is included in a self-report measure.
“Scary Dykes” and “Feminine Queens”: Stereotypes and Female Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Kauer Kerrie J. , Krane Vikki
Published: August 2016

This investigation, framed in feminist and social identity perspectives, examined female athletes’ interpretations and reactions to the stereotypes ascribed to women in sport. Interviews with 15 female collegiate athletes revealed that the primary stereotypes directed at them were that they were lesbian and masculine. These stereotypes seemed to emanate from the athletes’ lack of conformity to hegemonic femininity (Choi, 1998; Krane, 2001a). Initially, the athletes responded to being typecast with anger and they used social mobility strategies (e.g., distancing from an athletic identity, performing femininity) to avoid negative perceptions. Both heterosexual and lesbian/bisexual athletes coped with being stereotyped and grew more comfortable with their own sexual identities and those of their teammates. This led to the development of inclusive team environments, collective esteem, and empowerment, with athletes speaking out against homonegative comments in other settings.
“There's No Sex Attached to Your Occupation”: The Revolving Door for Young Women in Sports Journalism
Authors: Hardin Marie , Shain Stacie , Shultz-Poniatowski Kelly
Published: August 2016

In the first part of a longitudinal study to explore the factors that impact career longevity of women in sports journalism, women who have worked in the field for less than two years were interviewed about barriers and opportunities in regard to their career success. Three general themes emerged during the interviews: (a) being a woman is not a barrier but is instead an (unfair) advantage; (b) the world of sports is a man’s world; and (c) family responsibilities will likely change, or perhaps end, their careers. The outlook of participants is grounded in the belief that gender roles, which will force these women from their careers, are natural. These interviews suggest that it no longer takes locker-room harassment to turn women away from practicing sports journalism; it simply takes the prospect of having a family.
The Effect of an 8-Week Educational Curriculum and Physical Activity Program on Attitudes Toward Physical Activity and Body Image of Urban Adolescent Girls
Authors: Ciccomascolo Lori E. , Grossi Linda M.
Published: August 2016

Adolescent girls are becoming less physically active and are experiencing more body image issues compared to adolescent boys. Furthermore, adolescent girls maintain physical activity levels well below recommended guidelines, especially girls in urban environments. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an 8-week after-school educational curriculum, GoGirlGo!, and physical activity program on urban adolescent middle school girls’ attitudes toward physical activity and body image. Twenty-five girls ranging in age from 12 to 14 years of age (M = 12.34 years, SD = 2.1) were randomly placed into two groups: (a) GoGirlGo! intervention and physical activity, and (b) physical activity only. The GoGirlGo! group increased their attraction to physical activity and lowered scores in weight dissatisfaction and desire to be slim compared to the physical activity only group. Based on the data, the GoGirlGo! curriculum is effective in improving attitudes about physical activity and body image among urban adolescent girls.
Gender Differences in Print Media Coverage of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece
Authors: Pratt Judith , Grappendorf Kris , Grundvig Amy , LeBlanc Ginger
Published: August 2016

All Summer Olympics articles from The New York Times and The Los Angeles Times newspapers were analyzed (August 14–30, 2004). Column inches, placement (front, front of sports page, or inside sports section), focus (male/female star or team), and media regard (number of quotes, speaker) differed by gender. Articles on female athletes were more often placed inside the sports section as opposed to the front pages of the newspaper or the sports section. Articles on male athletes focused on a male star or team; however, articles on female athletes were significantly more likely to focus on the team and not the female star. Men were quoted more than expected based on the number of male athletes. Men were more quoted even in articles focused on female athletes.
BCS Conference Coverage: An Investigation of the Gender Coverage Provided on Intercollegiate Athletic Websites within a Major NCAA Power Conference
Authors: Cooper Coyte
Published: August 2016

The current study was an investigation of the gender coverage provided on intercollegiate athletic websites within a major BCS conference during the 2005-06 academic year. Due to Title IX and ethical concerns, the expectation was that the BCS sites would provide equitable gender coverage because the athletic departments were part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Overall, the results revealed that females received highly favorable article (41.2%) and photographic (46.0%) coverage allocations when compared to past content analyses on not-for-profit media outlets. Despite this fact, the results demonstrated that there was a statistically significant difference in the coverage provided to females and males within each of the units of measurement analyzed. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that females received their least favorable coverage allocations within the following units of measurement: advertisements (15.5%) and multimedia (2.5%).
Website Coverage of NCAA Basketball: Are Women Getting Equal Playing Time?
Authors: Redmond Michelle L. , Ridinger Lynn L. , Battenfield Frederick L.
Published: August 2016

Opportunities for girls and women to participate in sports have been increasing since the enactment of Title IX; however, the media attention given to female athletes and women’s sports has lagged behind. Media coverage of female athletes has been investigated extensively in newspapers and magazines; however, few studies have examined the attention given to women’s sports on the Internet.

This study focused on one sports news website to examine and compared the coverage of female and male athletes and coaches in one specific sport, college basketball. A content analysis was conducted on ESPN.com during the 2007 NCAA Men’s and Women’s Basketball Tournaments. Results showed that women and men do not receive the same attention on the main page; however, equity was evident when the webpage for women’s college basketball was compared to the webpage for men’s college basketball.
Ableism and Body Image: Conceptualizing How Individuals Are Marginalized
Authors: Reel Justine J. , Bucciere Robert A.
Published: August 2016

According to stigma theory, individuals with disabilities possess “discrediting attributes” that prevent them from meeting culturally constructed standards of beauty. An individual with a disability may find that his or her body is viewed as being somehow defective, deviant, or grotesque. Persons with disabilities feel that they are unable to achieve the societal ideal and that their masculinity or femininity may be questioned (Bucciere & Reel, 2009). As a result, individuals with physical and intellectual disabilities face a decreased sense of self worth, poor body image, and in some cases may be vulnerable to eating disorders.
Women with Disability, Paralympics, and Reasoned Action Contact Theory
Authors: Sherrill Claudine
Published: August 2016

The underrepresentation of women in the Paralympics movement warrants attention as the world prepares for Atlanta 1996, when Paralympics (conducted after the Summer Olympics) will attract approximately 3,500 athletes with physical disability or visual impairment from 102 countries. Barriers that confront women with disability, the Paralympic movement, and adapted physical activity as a profession and scholarly discipline that stresses advocacy and attitude theories are presented. Two theories (reasoned action and contact) that have been tested in various contexts are woven together as an approach particularly applicable to women in sport and feminists who care about equal access to opportunity for all women. Women with disability are a social minority that is both ignored and oppressed. Sport and feminist theory and action should include disability along with gender, race/ethnicity, class, and age as concerns and issues.
Examining the Impact of Journalists’ Gender in Online and Newspaper Tennis Articles
Authors: Kian Edward M. , Fink Janet S. , Hardin Marie
Published: August 2016

This study examined content differences in the framing of men’s and women’s tennis coverage based on the sex of sports writers. Articles on the 2007 U.S. Open in six popular Internet sites and newspapers were examined. Results showed both female and male writers wrote a higher percentage of articles exclusively on men’s tennis than on women’s tennis. Female journalists accounted for more overall newspapers articles than male reporters, whereas online articles were mostly written by male authors. Framing results showed female journalists largely reinforced hegemonic masculinity through the use of sexist and stereotypical descriptors that de-valued the athleticism and accomplishment of female athletes. In contrast, male journalists were more likely to challenge the traditional gendering of sport media content by praising the athleticism of female athletes. The contrasts suggest the potential presence of subtle shifts in traditional, masculine framing of sports by male reporters, who dominate the ranks of sportswriters.
Environmental versus Biological Influences on Gender Differences in the Overarm Throw for Force: Dominant and Nondominant Arm Throws
Authors: Williams Kathleen , Haywood Kathleen M. , Painter Mary A.
Published: August 2016

Both environmental and biological factors have been cited to explain large gender differences in throwing. Because differences are observed as early as three years, some researchers have suggested biological differences may be a primary factor (Nelson et al., 1986). To explore the contribution of these factors more carefully, three groups of children, 7-8 years, 9-10 years, and 11-12 years, were videotaped performing ten forceful overarm throws each with their dominant and nondominant hands. Resultant ball velocities were computed across all trials for each hand. Five trials for each arm, for each participant were categorized using Roberton’s (Roberton & Halverson, 1984) movement components for the overarm throw. Overall significant age differences were obtained for ball velocities for both dominant and nondominant arms, but gender differences were demonstrated only for the dominant arm. Ball velocity differences for the nondominant arm were not evident. Minimal differences in form occurred for the nondominant arm. When the nondominant arm exhibited coordination patterns and performances typical of an unpracticed performer, we suggest that nonbiological factors are important in explaining the large gender differences in throwing widely noted in the literature.
From Leagues of Their Own to an Industry of Their Own: The Emerging Lesbian Sports Industry
Authors: Pitts Brenda G.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine if there is an emerging lesbian sports industry. Definitions and indicators of industry and sport industry were used to analyze existing data from a current on-going study. Based upon the results there is abundant evidence that: there is a wide variety of lesbian sports products, there is horizontal growth as well as vertical growth, there are existing and potential lesbian sports buyers, there are correlated indicators, and there is recognition of value. The conclusion is that there is an emerging lesbian sports industry.