bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Automation, Self‐Service, and Analytics Improve the Customer Relationship
Authors: Casey Terrance
Published: February 2018

This article discusses new tools that are available to help water utilities manage customer relations effectively. Topics covered include: automating business processes to drive down costs; automatic notifications to keep customers informed and to extend a utility staff's reach; self‐service online customer care; how analytic tools help utilities refine efforts; and, how automated tools drive customer satisfaction.
Citizen Lawsuit Involving Chemical Spraying Can Proceed Under the CWA
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit has determined that a citizen enforcement suit brought under the Clean Water Act (CWA) that was based on the use of chemicals regulated by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) could proceed regardless of whether the alleged violation of the CWA was also a substantial violation of FIFRA.
Storm Drains Reduce Runoff, Protect Soil
Authors: Warne Keith
Published: February 2018

This article discusses a highly flexible storm drain system project in the new community of Talega, California. Drainage and environmental concerns were paramount in planning the community. The article describes how the storm drain system was designed to capture developed area flows and some of the natural flows in order to reduce flow in the natural creek and thereby control the scour of the natural creek bed.
Examining Diversity in the Drinking Water Industry
Authors: Layne Peggy
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how, as the current workforce ages, water supply professionals need to look outside traditional sources for their replacements. The data indicate that efforts are needed at the precollege level to encourage students from all ethnic groups to take the math and science courses that give them the option of pursuing technical careers. At the college level, work is needed to increase the number and the success of women and minority students in science and engineering. Specific workforce data on the water industry were not available for this article, but all employers of technical professionals should ensure that people from diverse backgrounds have the opportunity to pursue and succeed in their careers.
Forecasting Water Demand and Supply in South China
Authors: Zhu Zhaoyu , Ouyang Tingping , Deng Qinglu , Zhou Houyun , Kuang Yaoqiu
Published: February 2018

Important factors affecting sustainable regional development are the bearing capacity of water resources as well as sustainable utilization and water management. In an attempt to forecast social and economic development, the authors have calculated the volume of water demand for industrial, agricultural, and residential uses and the balance between water supply and demand in every city in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone—one of most dynamic economic areas in China as well as the world. New concepts and calculation methods on the damage coefficient of water resources, the Index of Theoretical Bearing Capacity of Water Resources (i.e., “absolute bearing capacity”) and the Index of Practical Bearing Capacity of Water Resources (i.e., “relative bearing capacity”) are proposed by the authors. Trends of bearing capacity of water resources of each city are evaluated. The three main causes of water shortage—excessive water consumption in industry, insufficient water supply, and increase in water pollution—are examined. Some suggestions for sustainable utilization of water resources are proposed.
Courts Consider Need of NPDES Permits for Conveying Raw Waters
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark
Published: February 2018

This article discusses two legal disputes currently making their way through federal courts that address the question of whether Congress intended for the pollutant discharge permit requirements of the Clean Water Act (CWA) to apply to engineered conveyances of raw waters by drinking water suppliers. Central to the dispute is whether Congress intended the CWA to consider the navigable US waters it aims to restore to be a single body of water that can be polluted only by the initial “addition” from a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)‐regulated point‐source discharge into those waters. If so, transferring any amounts within that collective water body necessarily cannot amount to new additions of pollutants subject again to NPDES permits. Of particular concern to water utilities is the fact that in both cases, courts have distinguished between intrabasin and interbasin transfers in considering the applicability of NPDES permit requirements, finding that NPDES requirements can apply to interbasin transfers involving the discharge of water from one basin into a separate one.
2004 State of the Industry Survey: a checkup and guide to good health
Authors: Runge Jon , Mann John
Published: February 2018

This article reports on the first “state of the industry” survey facilitated by the American Water Works Association (AWWA) this last spring of 2004. It is planned to be an annual comprehensive survey on the state of the water industry with a focus on trends and issues that will serve both AWWA and the broader scope of the entire water community. For AWWA, the survey identifies trends and issues that demand resources, time, and the association's vast intellectual capital. For water utilities, manufacturers, and consultants, the findings provide a current snapshot of how the water industry sees itself, establishing common footing for water industry discussions.
Implementing diversity in a meaningful way
Authors: Bruno Jeanne‐Marie
Published: February 2018

This article describes the major dimensions of diversity, highlights its business benefits, discusses steps to incorporate it into your company, and explains how to embrace diversity personally. Topics covered include: business advantages that come from supporting workforce diversity; committing to fostering a diverse organization; and, the responsibility of every employee in creating a respectful work environment.
Alternative pretreatment tests with UF yield excellent results at Tampa Bay
Authors: Siverns Steve , Maness Ron , Movahed Ben
Published: February 2018

This article discusses problems with the pretreatment system at the Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Facility. Currently the plant uses a two‐stage dual sand filtration pretreatment system to remove turbidity, algae, organic material, and other particulate matter from the incoming raw seawater and ensure optimum performance of the plant's reverse osmosis (RO) system. The manufacturer's recommended silt density index (SDI) for the RO membranes is typically < 4; however, the current pretreatment has not been able to consistently meet these parameters to protect the RO system. As a result, the RO membranes foul too quickly, and the plant cannot achieve peak water production. The desalination plant also faces more frequent cleaning of the RO membranes, significantly increased operating costs through higher energy consumption, increased chemical usage for cleaning, and more frequent RO membrane replacement. Moreover, the plant only operates intermittently and produces less drinking water than it is designed to deliver. The article discusses the selection of ultrafiltration (UF) membranes as the solution, specifically Veolia Water North America's bid for ZeeWeed membranes, and explains the benefits of ZeeWeed membranes in a RO system.
Regaining a water resource for communities along the Lake Mead shoreline
Authors: Nelson Jerry
Published: February 2018

This report discusses a project to upgrade four small water treatment plants on the shores of Lake Mead National Recreation Area. Construction involved replacing the old dual‐media gravity filtration systems with new plants using the latest in filtration technology. The project also addressed the efficiency of irrigation systems by replacing existing flood irrigation systems with a more efficient drip system and by reducing the use of membrane filtration reject into the irrigation system to reduce potable water use. A combination microfiltration/nanofiltration treatment processes was selected for the replacement treatment plants. The article discusses the creation of a desert water team by the contractor to manage all four projects as one program with project oversight being provided from one central office where all documentation and data control were conducted. The article also describes how trouble‐shooting in the desert required creative solutions, and the problems that were encountered when the treatment plants were due to start‐up.
Innovate or Stagnate?
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr describes how change, or innovation, is rapidly becoming the normal mode of operation for most organizations. He describes the innovative organization as having characteristics that include communicating the vision of an innovative culture, developing people, championing cross‐functional teams, and always finding solutions rather than fixing blame.
Optimizing System Operations
Authors: Jentgen Larry , Conrad Steve , Lee Tony
Published: February 2018

For many reasons, including growth, increasing environmental awareness, and mounting local, state, and federal regulations, managing a water system has become more complex. Having the right tools is essential to properly managing a water system in this environment. An operations optimization system is such a tool that offers water utilities a strategic opportunity to provide the most effective overall management of operations. Implementation of an operations optimization system can be done over time with minimal initial investment. It addresses the entire water system, from the initial raw resource to the customer. Benefits may include lower energy costs for pumping; reduced cost of water supplies; consistent, high‐quality water; and, lower capital costs by coordinating operations optimization with water system planning.
Water suppliers applauding DWSRF gain
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the federal spending legislation that provides a slight boost in funding for drinking water infrastructure in the fiscal year that begins October 1, 2005. Topics covered include: infrastructure survey calculates greater need; Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) allocations revised; increase likely in U.S. Department of Agriculture water funds; House, Senate retain Community Development Block Grants (CDBG) program; Reclamation budget in the works; and, Senate bill seeks to boost infrastructure funds. A list of internet resources is provided.
Public Affairs as a Strategic Management Function
Authors: Tennyson Patricia A. , Snyder Karen P.
Published: February 2018

This article features the AWWA Public Affairs Council (PAC), which plans and coordinates public information and outreach programs and assists other councils with incorporating community perspectives and public outreach strategies into their work programs and products. The article discusses several methods of incorporating public outreach into an organization as an integral management function such as a strategic communication plan, proactive education and outreach, and incorporate public outreach funding into all major project budgets. Available tools and resources are provided.
Is Your Surface Water Plant Optimized?—Part 2
Authors: Fraser Dan L. , Steiner Joe
Published: February 2018

This is Part Two of a two‐part column on surface water treatment plant optimization. Last month's column outlined some measurement criteria for optimization that are typically applied to conventional water treatment plants, and then noted some commonalities of systems that are struggling to meet optimization goals. This month's column looks at how optimized plants are managing to achieve their performance goals. The article discusses several commonalities between a large number of successfully optimized surface water treatment plants, along with a case study of the Long Beach, Washington, Water Treatment Plant, giving a brief description of some of the utility's optimization accomplishments. Specifically, the article discusses significant design problems at the plant that limited performance. Several educational resources for WTP optimization are provided.
Funding Large Rural Water Infrastructure Projects
Authors: White Stephanie , Oamek Gearge , Martinek Jennifer
Published: February 2018

This article provides information on how rural areas have addressed financial needs in developing adequate infrastructure, and gives case studies. The article discusses several federal funding programs for rural water and sewer systems, including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) Clean Water State Revolving Fund, the USEPA's Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Rural Utilities Service (RUS) Water and Waste Disposal (WWD) Loan and Grant program. The article lists the major funding steps of rural water systems and shows how they coordinate with traditional engineering. Also, the article lists suggestions for early action items for communities that may be in need of a rural utility coalition or are thinking along those lines.
UF membranes squeeze high performance and quality into small plant
Authors: Worthen Taigon , Schuler Paul
Published: February 2018

This report discusses an innovative retrofit of advanced ultrafiltration (UF) membranes to increase capacity and improve water quality at the WaterPro Water Treatment Plant (WTP) in Draper, Utah. Utilities with aging or underperforming conventional treatment plants are increasingly evaluating and implementing granular media basin membrane retrofits. The report discusses treatment challenges in Draper, other upgrade options examined by WaterPro, selection of ZENON Environmental Engineering Inc.'s ZeeWeed® 1000 UF membranes, WaterPro's UF process, automated functionality, capital and operational efficiencies, and meeting more stringent future regulations.
Numerical methods for modeling transient flow in distribution systems
Authors: Wood Don J. , Lingireddy Srinivasa , Boulos Paul F. , Karney Bryan W. , McPherson David L.
Published: February 2018

The authors compared two numerical methods, one Eulerian‐based, the other Lagrangian‐based, for modeling hydraulic transients in water distribution systems. The method of characteristics (MOC), considered to be the most accurate of the Eulerian methods in its representation of the governing equations, requires a number of steps or calculations to solve a typical transient pipe flow problem. The wave characteristic method (WCM), a Lagrangian approach, tracks movement and transformation of pressure waves and computes new conditions either at fixed intervals or only at times when a change actually occurs. The WCM requires orders of magnitude fewer pressure and flow calculations, allowing large systems to be solved in an expeditious manner. Furthermore, because the method is continuous in both time and space, it is less sensitive to the structure of the network and to the length of the simulation process, resulting in improved computational efficiency. Results indicated that both the MOC and WCM provide fast and accurate results for small pipe systems of short duration transients. However, WCM was superior for transient analysis of large distribution systems because it yields accurate results in a fraction of the computational time required for MOC. Pressure transients can adversely affect the quality of treated water because of potential intrusion by pathogens associated with transient events. Accurate modeling studies can help utility managers determine adequate surge protection, strengthen the integrity of their systems, and minimize costly disruptions to service.
The Growing Role of Private Equity in the Water Industry
Authors: Maxwell Steve
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the expanding strategic and investment interest in the water industry and how it has created growing interest in an ownership role on the part of the private equity (PE) community. The article discusses the PE community in more detail, along with the pros and cons of greater PE involvement in the water industry.
Beyond SRF: Loans, Grants, and Technical Assistance for small water systems
Authors: Bickel Blaine W.
Published: February 2018

Small water utilities face increased costs of providing clean water because of regulation, urbanization, and customer demands. As the need for water financing increases, so does the competition for available capital. Many managers turn first to the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF), which is the largest government environmental infrastructure loan program available. However, a number of other low‐cost loans and grants are available to small water systems that offer a viable funding alternative to the DWSRF. The author identifies several funding alternatives available through entities such as the Rural Business Cooperative Service, the Rural Utilities Service, and Community Development Block Grant Programs. The author also explains that knowledge of the utility's financial health is important and describes how to track basic financial ratios, which can indicate the current financial shape of the utility and help establish the steps needed to build a strong foundation for the future.
Diagnosing corrosion problems through differentiation of metal fractions
Authors: Cantor Abigail F.
Published: February 2018

This article hypothesizes how uniform and pitting corrosion are expressed in the dissolved and particulate metals concentrations of water samples. Three case studies highlight examples of how a metals differentiation technique was used in corrosion investigations. The technique offers insight into the nature and sometimes the cause of the corrosion, leading to selection of control strategies not necessarily suggested in standard corrosion reference books or the federal corrosion regulations. Additional research is needed to definitively show correlations between metal fractions and various corrosion and environmental mechanisms.
The role of water conservation in a long‐range drought plan
Authors: Deoreo William B.
Published: February 2018

When a drought hits, which water system best survives the crisis: the system that relies on short‐term restrictions or the one that has planned ahead and instituted conservation measures before the drought's onset? This article looks at the various factors that complicate the relationship between water conservation and drought. These include baseline water‐use patterns, system growth rates, water supplies and water rights, storage capacity, and the nature of the drought itself. A mathematical model was used to simulate a 25‐year history for a “typical” water system serving an average community of residential customers. Total annual household use was calculated, as well as annual average indoor use and outdoor use. The model also assigned a system supply level and storage capacity. In the ninth year of its “history,” the community experiences the onset of what eventually becomes a long‐term drought. The model generates two scenarios in response to this event. In the first, the water provider is unprepared for the drought and relies on restrictions to make up for dwindling supplies. In the second, system managers begin adopting conservation measures in the first year of the community's history and continue implementing them gradually. By the time the drought hits, water use has been reduced sufficiently enough that the system is able to successfully weather the crisis. In most cases, a long‐range water conservation and efficiency program will outperform water rationing and restrictions as a response to drought.
Forecasting Wholesale Demand and Conservation Savings
Authors: Levin Ellen R. , Maddaus William O. , Sandkulla Nicole M. , Pohl Heather
Published: February 2018

With the goal of understanding future water demand and conservation potential for the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission's (SFPUC's) wholesale customer service area, an end‐use water demand model was used to conduct a series of comprehensive evaluations. Using a water demand forecasting model that focuses on end uses such as toilets and showerheads allows analysts to isolate the effect of plumbing and appliance codes on demand projections and potential water savings. In this study, the model was applied to each wholesale customer service area individually to first project total water demand in 2030 and then to evaluate the cost‐effectiveness of implementing a range of conservation measures. The study found that current plumbing and appliance codes would reduce 2030 total water demand (estimated at 324 mgd) in the SFPUC wholesale customer service area by about 7.8%. The modeling further showed that additional water conservation measures could reduce total water demands by an extra 2‐6%.
Measuring quality—The development of methods to assess drinking water
Authors: Weinberg Howard S.
Published: February 2018

This article focuses on the development of methods to assess drinking water quality. Topics covered include: evolution of water quality testing; introduction of standardized methods; advances in instrumentation; environmental concerns; and future advances.
Protecting the security of our nation's water systems: Challenges and successes
Authors: Linville Thomas J. , Thompson Kenneth A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the security of our nation's water systems, particularly after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Topics covered include: post 9/11 security developments and federal security initiatives; features of an effective security system; water contamination detection, assessment, and response; and, development of threat‐based security standards.
Ion exchange for the remediation of perchlorate‐contaminated drinking water
Authors: Tripp Anthony R. , Clifford Dennis A.
Published: February 2018

This research explored options for removing perchlorate from drinking water using commercially available ion exchange resins. Experimental data provided perchlorate selectivity, capacity, and thermodynamic properties of the resins. With these data, computer models using equilibrium multicomponent chromatography theory evaluated treatment options based on different water chemistry and operating characteristics; computer predictions were validated by bench‐scale tests. Three treatment approaches emerged as viable options for removing perchlorate to concentrations below proposed maximum concentration limits: (1) partial exhaustion‐regeneration using polyacrylic resins, with a process similar to current nitrate treatment techniques, (2) partial exhaustion–regeneration using polystyrene resins with elevated temperature regeneration, and (3) use of highly perchlorate‐selective resins with resin replacement following exhaustion.
A field sample concentration method for rapid response to security incidents
Authors: States Stanley , Wichterman Jennifer , Cyprych Georgina , Kuchta John , Casson Leonard
Published: February 2018

Intentional contamination of public water supplies is a serious concern for the water industry. With thousands of people potentially at risk within a short period of time, a determination of the credibility of a contamination threat must be made and effective response measures taken in a matter of hours to minimize the potential consequences for public health. A critical tool in the threat‐assessment process is rapid analysis of water samples in the field. Although several rapid analytical techniques are being considered for use by response teams, questions have emerged about the ability of these methods to detect contaminants at levels of public health significance. This study investigated the detection limits of several field analytical methods (immunoassay and polymerase chain reaction analyses) and identified a simple concentration method that significantly improves analytical sensitivity in the field.
125 Years of Getting Better
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr celebrates the 125th Anniversary of the American Water Works Association (AWWA). He relates some statistics from member tracking surveys that are done to learn more about who we are, what we like about AWWA, and what we would like to see AWWA do better.
Ductile‐iron Pipe Goes a Different Direction—Is That Normal?
Authors: Ingram Charlie
Published: February 2018

This report describes the procedure for horizontal directional drilling (HDD) and the benefits of pulling a pipeline through a borehole as opposed to digging a trench and lowering the pipe into it. A case study is mentioned where water department officials in Normal, Illinois, used HDD during the installation of 4,100 ft of new water main. The Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association (DIPRA), is highlighted in the article.
Water: Resource or Commodity?
Authors: Wodraska John (Woody)
Published: February 2018

Is water a resource to be used for public benefit or an owned commodity that can be bought and sold? The debate has raged for years. Yet, during that time, little has changed. The need for new water supplies is becoming more critical, and no uniform model that can be used to manage water resources exists. The author encourages the water industry to leave the old debate behind and find a new model that unites a respect for water with options for fair, efficient delivery to all users ‐ agricultural, industrial, and urban. A model called managed stewardship is proposed as a jumping off point for further discussion. Managed stewardship is characterized by a regulatory administrative system that balances demand with long‐term public interest, the management of water use on a watershed basis, the preservation of riparian rights for trustworthy water stewards, increased conservation, creative solutions to the urban‐rural water allocation issue, and the support provided by legislation and consistent funding.
Optimizing source water blends for corrosion and residual control in distribution systems
Authors: Imran Syed A. , Dietz John D. , Mutoti Ginasiyo , Xiao Weizhong , Taylor James S. , Desai Vimalkumar
Published: February 2018

Utilities must understand the issues involved when multiple source waters are blended, particularly the effect on distribution system water quality. This article describes a multiobjective technique that can help evaluate blends to identify acceptable water quality for simultaneous control of lead, copper, iron, and monochloramine levels in distribution systems. Blends of three source waters—groundwater, surface water, and desalinated water—were evaluated. Modeling results indicated that different pipe materials often have conflicting water quality requirements for release abatement. For example, corrosion of copper and lead pipes was increased by increasing alkalinity, whereas increasing alkalinity was beneficial in reducing the release of iron corrosion products from pipes. Increasing sulfates reduced lead release but increased iron release. These conflicting water quality requirements for lead, copper, and iron release mean that utilities must evaluate the tradeoffs between water quality and corrosion response.
Sequential Manganese Desorption and Sequestration in Anthracite Coal and Silica Sand Filter Media
Authors: Gabelich Christopher J. , Gerringer Fredrick W. , Lee Connie C. , Knocke William R.
Published: February 2018

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California carried out a study to evaluate manganese (Mn) desorption from filter media during biological filtration startup. Mn contamination of the filter media was a by‐product of prior use of ferric chloride (FeCl3), which contains Mn, for coagulation and free chlorine exposure. During pilot‐ and full‐scale testing at pH 6.5, FeCl3 coagulation (without chlorine) released soluble Mn at nearly four times the level released by aluminum sulfate (alum; 105 μg/L for FeCl3 and 27 μg/L for alum). Pilot‐scale experiments demonstrated that Mn was present in the filter column in three valence states [Mn(II), Mn(III), and Mn(IV)]. Mn(II) in the filter influent was from the FeCl3. Mn on the anthracite media was hypothesized to be Mn(II)/Mn(IV) and first physically displaced by ferric iron, aluminum, and hydrogen, and then catalytically oxidized to Mn(IV) by silica sand.
Development of a field speciation method for inorganic arsenic species in groundwater
Authors: Karori Saqib , Clifford Dennis , Ghurye Ganesh , Samanta Gautam
Published: February 2018

This research describes the development of a dual preservation and field speciation technique for the arsenic species arsenite [As(III)] and arsenate [As(V)] using ion exchange field speciation of a sample preserved with EDTA and acetic acid. The new method is compared with existing speciation methods and is shown to be simple, robust, free of hazardous chemicals, and capable of recovering >90% of As(III) and As(V) despite possible interference from ferrous iron in the sample. The method was further refined through testing on 20 drinking water wells in five states. Results indicated that As(III) measured by field speciation agreed with subsequent lab speciation (conducted two to four days later) on the preserved sample with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.997.
Networking and Collaboration: The Keys to Success in Grant Funding for Water Sector Preparedness
Authors: Wenner Molly , Jacobs Jack , Wilson Rande , Newberry Debbie
Published: February 2018

Recognized as a critical infrastructure, the water sector is eligible for a portion of the $1.7 billion that the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) will be allocating in fiscal year (FY) 2006 under Homeland Security Grant Programs (HSGP). These grants will enhance the nation's ability to prepare for and respond to malevolent, accidental, or natural events. Utilities of all sizes can be successful in obtaining federal grant dollars following a stepwise collaborative approach. This article presents a case study of a successful collaboration, along with steps for obtaining grant funding.
Do we have a water problem?: The use of social marketing as a problem solver
Authors: Hoffman Jeffrey R.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how social marketing in the environmental field is concentrating on changing behaviors, attitudes, lifestyles, and ideas. Social marketers can be credited for use of behavioral change campaigns within diverse socioeconomic cultures in product groups such as health care and medicine, smoking and tobacco use, and water quality and water use management. The primary focus of social marketing is on the public, educating people to practice good behaviors rather than persuading them to buy what we happen to be selling. This article discusses several elements to be considered when planning a social marketing campaign. The article presents an example of a social marketing solution recently implemented for a water use management district in the Southeast.
The Quiet Crisis in Municipal Government
Authors: Dudek Frank
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how the impending demographic shift in the workforce will hit the public sector harder than the private sector. According to the International City/County Management Association (ICMA), Boomers represent a higher percentage of the public workforce. The article describes how the more aggressive public agencies are addressing the staffing issue through programs to improve traditional recruiting and also by recruiting candidates from the private sector and the military. Incentives offered to those who stay past age 60 are discussed, along with consideration of the foreign talent available through the temporary H‐1B visa program most often associated with the U.S. high‐tech industry. The benefits of using the extension‐of‐staff public/private partnership are listed.
Economies of scale in community water systems
Authors: Shih Jhih‐Shyang , Harrington Winston , Pizer William A. , Gillingham Kenneth
Published: February 2018

Data sets from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 1995 and 2000 Community Water Systems surveys were used to examine the production costs of water supply systems. The authors estimate water supply economies of scale by estimating the elasticities of both the total unit cost and the individual component costs. For total unit cost, they found that a 1% production increase reduced unit costs by a statistically significant 0.16%. For individual component costs, higher economies of scale in capital, materials, outside services, and other costs and lower, but still positive, economies of scale in labor and energy costs were found. These economies of scale may reflect production economies or suggest that larger systems are better than smaller systems at bargaining and receiving services and materials at a lower unit cost. Importantly, bargaining gains and some production economies do not necessarily depend on water systems becoming physically interconnected.
Green Valley upgrade gets to the root of disinfection by‐product problem
Authors: Nestlerode Franz , Teply Milos , Bourke Michael
Published: February 2018

This report describes how the city of Vallejo, California, installed a magnetic ion exchange (MIEXμ) treatment system to bring its Green Valley Water Treatment Plant (WTP) into compliance with the US Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule (D/DBPR). The report discusses other solutions that were considered such as chloramine disinfection, enhanced coagulation, and granular activated carbon (GAC), and describes a trial of the MIEXμ process and full‐scale performance.
Enhanced Softening: Effects of Source Water Quality on Nom Removal and Dbp Formation
Authors: Kalscheur Kathryn N. , Gerwe Caroline E. , Kweon Jihyang , Speitel Gerald E. , Lawler Desmond F.
Published: February 2018

Jar tests were conducted on six source waters from softening plants throughout the United States to evaluate the extent of softening, natural organic matter (NOM) removal, and reduction in disinfection by‐product (DBP) formation achieved by varying lime doses. Results demonstrated the effect of source water characteristics, e.g., specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA), bromide, and total organic carbon (TOC) on the potential for softening to remove NOM and reduce DBP formation. The source water exhibiting the lowest SUVA value had the lowest degree of NOM removal, and the source water with the highest bromide concentration showed substantial formation of bromine‐substituted DBPs. These results confirmed previous observations that enhanced softening improves removal of dissolved organic carbon, decreases SUVA values, and decreases formation of dissolved organic halogen. The research also showed that both calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are responsible for NOM removal in softening. With the exception of Lake Austin (Texas) source water, the waters studied would require softening to the point of magnesium hydroxide precipitation to meet required TOC removals and (in some cases) to meet the maximum contaminant level for total trihalomethanes and the sum of five haloacetic acids with lime softening alone.
Ground Water Rule marked by many unknowns
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the final Ground Water Rule (GWR), promulgated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) on November 8, 2006. The article states that concerns by AWWA regulatory staff about the vagueness of the final GWR were recently spelled out in comments concerning a notice of data availability issued by USEPA earlier this year, where staff reiterated its belief that the rule as proposed failed to meet two of three Safe Drinking Water Act criteria required for a rulemaking to proceed. The article goes on to relate how USEPA defends the GWR, and explains the details of the GWR as they relate to monitoring sources for fecal indicators, and guidance documents to aid states and utilities in implementing the rule's requirements related to microbial contaminants in groundwater supplies. The article has an accompanying sidebar that discusses the five general requirements that systems that are subject to GWR requirements must comply with.
Effects of Media, Backwash, and Temperature on Full‐Scale Biological Filtration
Authors: Emelko Monica B. , Huck Peter M. , Coffey Bradley M. , Smith E. Franklyn
Published: February 2018

Full‐scale biofiltration experiments demonstrated that good removal of biodegradable organic matter (BOM) following ozonation could be achieved without compromising particle removal. BOM removal by granular activated carbon (GAC) filter adsorbers and dual‐media filters was measured using total organic carbon (TOC) and certain BOM components (carboxylic acids). The authors investigated how filter backwashing with water, water and air scour, and water and air scour at collapse‐pulsing conditions affect filter biomass, BOM removal, and particle removal. At 21‐24°C, the media type did not affect BOM removal. At 1‐3°C, GAC provided substantially better removal of oxalate and TOC than did anthracite. For both media types, cold water oxalate removals were significantly impaired, compared with those achieved in warm waters. BOM removal was more resilient than particle removal to changes in backwash protocol. Phospholipid biomass concentration was not directly related to BOM removal by filters.
Chlorite removal with GAC
Authors: Collivignarelli Carlo , Sorlini Sabrina , Belluati Mario
Published: February 2018

Chlorite is the dominant degradation by‐product of chlorine dioxide reactions. Compliance with the maximum concentration of 700 μg/L established by new Italian regulations for drinking water can be achieved by reducing chlorine dioxide dosage during water treatment or by removing chlorite. This work investigated granular activated carbon (GAC) as a technology for chlorite removal. Research focused specifically on the interference between chlorite and organic matter removal on GAC active sites and the applicability of a “chemical regeneration” process to improve GAC removal efficiency for organic matter and chlorite. Batch and column tests were performed on both distilled water and surface water spiked with chlorite; virgin, exhausted, and thermally regenerated carbon provided by a surface water treatment plant; and exhausted GAC after chemical regeneration by means of acid, base, and base–acid solutions. Results demonstrated that GAC can be an efficient method for chlorite removal.
Effects of blending on total copper release in distribution systems
Authors: Xiao Weizhong , Hong Seungkwan , Tang Zhijian , Taylor James S.
Published: February 2018

The effects of water quality on total copper release in drinking water distribution systems were investigated in a field study using pilot distribution systems (PDSs) that distributed different finished waters produced from groundwater, surface water, and saline sources. Finished groundwater was produced by conventional treatment (i.e., aeration, disinfection, and stabilization), softening, and nanofiltration. Finished surface water was produced by enhanced coagulation–ozone–biological granular activated carbon and nanofiltration. Finished desalinated water was simulated by reverse osmosis filtration of groundwater and sea salt addition. PDS water quality was varied quarterly over one year by blending different finished waters. Total copper release was found to be dependent on blended water quality, increasing as alkalinity, sulfate levels, and temperature increased and decreasing as pH and silica increased. Calcium, chloride, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm did not affect total copper release in these investigations. Total copper release was accurately described by nonlinear regression models as a function of water quality.
Magnetic ion exchange drinking water treatment in a large–scale facility
Authors: Warton Ben , Heitz Anna , Zappia Luke R. , Franzmann Peter D. , Masters David , Joll Cynthia A. , Alessandrino Michael , Allpike Bradley , O'leary Bernie , Kagi Robert I.
Published: February 2018

Although the magnetic ion exchange(MIEX®) process for treating drinking water has been studied at both laboratory and pilot scale, it had not been demonstrated in a large‐capacity plant until recently. This article describes the world's first large‐scale application of the MIEX process at the Wanneroo Groundwater Treatment Plant—which has a capacity of 225 ML/d—in Perth, Western Australia. At Wanneroo, the MIEX drinking water treatment process is followed by conventional alum coagulation (MIEX‐C), and this combined process operates in parallel with an enhanced coagulation (EC) treatment process with alum. On two occasions (summer and winter) with different influent water quality, water samples were collected from various points throughout the treatment plant and subjected to a range of analyses. The purpose of this study was to investigate the changes in the amount and type of organic carbon at various stages in the MIEX and coagulation treatment processes. Biologically available organic carbon was of particular interest. Overall, the MIEX‐C process produced higher‐quality water than the EC process. The MIEX pretreatment step appeared to increase the efficiency of the EC process for reducing dissolved organic carbon concentration and chlorine demand.
A Vision and Direction for Water Sector Security and Preparedness Initiatives
Authors: Morley Kevin M.
Published: February 2018

This article describes the development of a strategic plan for integrating existing and future water sector security efforts under a single all‐hazards risk management framework, embodied in the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP). The plan, finalized by the Department of Homeland Security (DHA) in 2006, establishes the processes for combining consequence, vulnerability, and threat information to produce a comprehensive, systematic, and rational assessment of national or sector‐specific risk that drives activities for protecting critical infrastructure sectors and key resources (CI/KR). During the past year, the Water Sector Coordinating Council (WSCC) has worked in collaboration with the DHS, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the Government Coordinating Council (GCC) on the development of the Water Sector Specific Plan (Water SSP). The GCC includes federal and state governmental agencies with oversight of water sector CI/KR. At the core of the Water SPP is a vision statement, the Security Vision, and a series of goals and objectives that will help drive development and implementation of protective programs for the water sector based on the NIPP risk management framework and other supporting HSPD initiatives. This article discusses four goals that include: sustain protection of public health and the environment; recognize and reduce risks in the water sector; maintain a resilient infrastructure; and, increase communication, outreach, and public confidence.
Understanding the basics of tap water taste
Authors: Burlingame Gary A. , Dietrich Andrea M. , Whelton Andrew J.
Published: February 2018

The content of anions and cations (as minerals) in tap water can positively and negatively affect taste. Undesirable tap water taste can arise from levels of anions and cations above or below regulatory limits, from minerals without regulatory limits, and from a lack of minerals in water. However, no thorough investigation of the interactions of the human sense of taste, drinking water quality, and water treatment has been conducted. Tap water taste has, historically, not caught the attention of the drinking water industry at large. However, it is becoming an important issue because water treatment techniques such as reverse osmosis are gaining more applicability and can strongly influence tap water taste. Therefore, drinking water practitioners, designers, and regulators need to better understand how water quality and water treatment can affect the taste of water.
Energy Optimization at the City of San Diego Water Department
Authors: Fikhman Tatyana
Published: February 2018

This article begins by profiling the City of San Diego Water Department, and focuses on energy optimization programs that the water department has implemented such as a bid‐to‐goal and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001 programs. The two main goals of these programs are to reduce treated water purchases and decrease energy consumption. Since energy was a major expense for the water department, the staff initiated changes that resulted in a more cost‐effective service.
Process‐train profiles of NOM through a drinking water treatment plant
Authors: Sohn Jinsik , Amy Gary , Yoon Yeomin
Published: February 2018

The aims of this study were to track variations in natural organic matter (NOM) and bromide (Br‐) through various treatment processes (coagulation, sand filtration, ozonation, and biological activated carbon [BAC]) comprising a process train in a full‐scale drinking water treatment plant, to describe seasonal variations of NOM and Br‐ and to investigate disinfection by–products (DBPs) formation associated with NOM and Br‐ changes. In addition, relationships between chlorination DBPs and NOM properties were evaluated. Samples were collected from one French water treatment plant across treatment processes comprising a process train and throughout different seasons. NOM profiles were defined using various methods, including ultraviolet (UV) absorbance spectra, nonionic resin fractionation, and high‐performance liquid chromatography/size exclusion chromatography with UV absorbance and on‐line dissolved organic carbon detection. Coagulation was found to strongly affect the molecular weight distribution of NOM. However, ozonation has more impact on aromaticity and imparts hydrophilic properties. Changes in NOM properties through sand filtration and BAC were relatively small. Br‐ passed conservatively through the process train except for ozonation and BAC processes. Both trihalomethanes (61%) and haloacetic acids (69%) were significantly reduced through the treatment processes.
On‐Line Rehabilitation of Large‐diameter Water Mains in Hong Kong
Authors: Vickridge Ian , Shou Stephanus , Habibian Ahmad
Published: February 2018

This article reports on one of the largest pipeline rehabilitation programs in the world, replacing approximately 3,000 km of Hong Kong's water mains in four stages at an estimated total cost of approximately HK$14 billion (US$1.78 billion). The article specifically details a section of the first stage of construction work, rehabilitation of approximately 3 km of 700‐mm‐ and 800‐mm‐diameter water mains that run directly beneath the traffic lanes of Tolo Highway, one of the most important transportation links between Hong Kong and mainland China. Project constraints are discussed, along with the evaluation of alternatives to using conventional open‐trench methods. The option of close‐fit on‐line rehabilitation was selected using a polyethylene (PE) liner pipe. Liner design considerations, installation, and benefits are discussed.
Chloride‐to‐sulfate mass ratio and lead leaching to water
Authors: Edwards Marc , Triantafyllidou Simoni
Published: February 2018

Experimental tests and utilities' practical experience highlighted the importance of chloride‐to‐sulfate mass ratio (CSMR) in the control of lead leaching to potable water. The effect of higher CSMR was demonstrated in bench‐scale experiments using brass coupons and lead solder‐copper pipe joints, with the amount of lead leaching to water increasing by factors of 1.2–2.7 and 2.3–40.0, respectively. Anion exchange treatment, a switch in coagulant type, and other seemingly innocuous treatment steps can result in significant changes in CSMR. Practical data collected at three US utilities confirmed that alterations in CSMR can trigger serious lead contamination incidents.