bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Applying Tittle’s control balance theory to police deviance
Authors: Hickman Matthew J. , Piquero Alex R. , Lawton Brian A. , Greene Jack R.
Published: March 2004

The work of scholars who study police deviance has yet to result in the development of a substantive theory with which to frame their collective efforts. Recently, Tittle advanced a general theory of deviance that may help to fill this gap. The central premise of Tittle’s control balance theory is that the amount of control to which one is subject relative to the amount of control one can exercise (the control ratio) affects both the probability of deviance as well as the specific form of deviance. Examines the utility of control balance as a new theoretical orientation in police deviance research. Presents a framework for conceptualizing control balance within the special context of police deviance and, using data collected specifically for the purpose of operationalizing the control ratio, provides an empirical test. The data are drawn from a survey administered to 499 Philadelphia police officers. Scenario methodology was used to investigate the effects of officer control ratios on the probability of reporting a fellow officer who covers up an incident in which another officer was discovered driving while intoxicated (off duty), and second physically abuses a suspect in custody. Consistent with predictions derived from Tittle’s theory, results indicated that officers with control deficits are more likely to report fellow officers who engage in the behaviors portrayed in the scenarios. Future research directions are discussed.
Police violence in Canada and the USA: analysis and management
Authors: Hodgson James F.
Published: March 2004

Focuses on contemporary law enforcement institutions, in Canadian and US cities, to illustrate the service limitations and public conflicts that are increasingly being generated into violent encounters by the failure to move beyond the authoritarian organizational operational model. The capacity of public policing institutions to provide effective, non‐violent police services to meet the needs of the communities is determined by the nature of the police institutional and/or organizational model employed. This analysis assesses the appropriateness of current police training models, race relations training, non‐violent conflict resolution training and all other police training that may be grounded and generated from a paramilitary authoritarian hierarchical composition. This applied approach discloses much needed systemic and policy reformation by considering a more expanded understanding of this prominent social agency, the actors and the interconnectedness with other institutions.
Handgun shooting accuracy in low light conditions: The impact of night sights
Authors: Copay Anne G. , Charles Michael T.
Published: March 2004

The shooting scores of police recruits with night sights and without night sights were compared in four different lighting conditions: front‐lighted target, back‐lighted target, with a flashlight, and intermittent lights. The shooting scores of the recruits with night sights were significantly higher for the four conditions. Night sights improved the scores of both skilled and less skilled shooters. Shooting with a flashlight significantly decreased the accuracy, regardless of the type of flashlight.
The police response to the criminalization of elder abuse: An exploratory study
Authors: Payne Brian K. , Berg Bruce L. , Toussaint Jeff
Published: March 2004

When elder abuse first surfaced as a social problem, the response to the problem was grounded in the belief that the victims would be best served with as little criminal justice involvement as possible. This changed in the late 1980s and early 1990s when elder abuse was criminalized by politicians, and police were expected to treat the problem as a crime problem despite the fact that very little research had considered the best law enforcement response to elder abuse. In this research, we surveyed 119 police chiefs to see how their departments handled allegations of abuse. We also address the problems they confront in elder abuse cases and the special programs and policies they have implemented to deal with the victimization of elderly persons. Results show that traditional criminal justice techniques are followed for the most part, and only about a third of the departments implemented special elder abuse programs. Also, they confront numerous problems that are common when police are expected to enforce new laws.
Policing after ethnic conflict
Authors: Jackson Arrick , Lyon Alynna
Published: March 2004

Images of “blue helmets” and multilateral peace‐keeping missions are pervasive in today’s world. The goal of intervening parties is often to re‐establish order, one way to accomplish this is to rebuild political institutions. Rehabilitating policing agencies within failed states is an essential component to establishing a peaceful and productive society. Discusses four issues that are important to policing after ethnic conflict – police culture, democratic participation, the political environment the police operate within, and the perceptions of the population about law enforcement. Applies current perspectives on policing in stable states to some of the challenges facing creating law enforcement structures in unstable and often ethnically charged states. Argues that until we understand the impact each of these components play intervening parties will continue to lead failed governments and their policing agencies into the cycle of violence.
Cloning and characterization of the gene for a phloem‐specific glutathione S‐transferase from rice leaves
Authors: Fukuda Akari , Okada Yoshihisa , Suzui Nobuo , Fujiwara Toru , Yoneyama Tadakatsu , Hayashi Hiroaki
Published: March 2004

The N‐terminal amino‐acid sequence was determined for a major rice phloem protein with a molecular mass of 31 kDa, named RPP31. The corresponding full‐length rice EST‐clone was cloned based on the amino acid sequence. The predicted total amino‐acid sequence of RPP31 shared high similarity with plant glutathione S‐transferases (GSTs). Recombinant RPP31 produced in Escherichia coli and rice phloem sap showed GST activity. Immunocytological analysis indicated that RPP31 is localized in the phloem region of leaves. In mature leaves, the signal was restricted to sieve element–companion cell complexes, and was stronger in sieve elements than in companion cells. Although some plant GSTs are known to be induced by xenobiotics, the amount of RPP31 was not affected by treatments with an herbicide, pretilachlor, and/or its safener, fenclorim. These results suggest that RPP31 is an active GST restricted to the phloem region of normal rice leaves.
Uptake of salicylic acid 2‐O‐β‐D‐glucose into soybean tonoplast vesicles by an ATP‐binding cassette transporter‐type mechanism
Authors: Dean John V. , Mills Jennifer D.
Published: March 2004

In soybean (Glycine max L.), salicylic acid (SA) is converted primarily to SA 2‐O‐β‐d‐glucose (SAG) in the cytoplasm and then accumulates exclusively in the vacuole. However, the mechanism involved in the vacuolar transport of SAG has not been investigated. The vacuolar transport of SAG was characterized by measuring the uptake of [14C]SAG into tonoplast vesicles isolated from etiolated soybean hypocotyls. The uptake of SAG was stimulated about six‐fold when MgATP was included in the assay media. In contrast, the uptake of SA was only stimulated 1.25‐fold by the addition of MgATP and was 2.2‐fold less than the uptake of SAG providing an indication that the vacuolar uptake of SA is promoted by glucosylation. The ATP‐dependent uptake of SAG was inhibited by increasing concentrations of vanadate (64% inhibition in the presence of 500 μM) but was not very sensitive to inhibition by bafilomycin A1 (a specific inhibitor of vacuolar H+‐ATPase; EC 3.6.1.3), and dissipation of the transtonoplast H+‐electrochemical gradient. The SAG uptake exhibited Michaelis–Menten‐type saturation kinetics with a Km value of 90 μM for SAG. SAG uptake was inhibited 60% by β‐estradiol 17‐(β‐d‐glucuronide), but glutathione conjugates and uncharged glucose conjugates were only slightly inhibitory. Based on the characteristics of SAG uptake into soybean tonoplast vesicles it is likely that this uptake occurs through an ATP‐binding cassette transporter‐type mechanism. However, this vacuolar uptake mechanism is not universal since the uptake of SAG by red beet (Beta vulgaris L) tonoplast vesicles appears to involve an H+‐antiport mechanism.
Evidence of a cross‐talk regulation of a GA 20‐oxidase (FsGA20ox1) by gibberellins and ethylene during the breaking of dormancy in Fagus sylvatica seeds
Authors: Calvo Angel Pablo , Nicolás Carlos , Nicolás Gregorio , Rodríguez Dolores
Published: March 2004

Gibberellin 20‐oxidase (GA 20‐oxidase) is an enzyme that catalyses the last three steps in the synthesis of active GAs and is a potential control point in the regulation of GA biosynthesis. Reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction with degenerated oligonucleotides conserved among GA 20‐oxidases was used to isolate a cDNA clone for this enzyme in Fagus sylvatica L. seeds. This clone contains all the features and exhibits homology to GA 20 oxidases from several plant species. Expression of this clone, named FsGA20ox1, as a fusion protein expressed in Escherichia coli confirmed that it was able to metabolize [14C]GA12 to [14C]GA9 and [14C]GA53 to [14C]GA20. Analysis of FsGA20ox1 transcript levels showed similar low expression during stratification at 4°C and in the presence of gibberellic acid or ethephon (compound that releases ethylene in solution), treatments proved to be efficient in breaking the dormancy of beech seeds. However, there was a drastic increase of FsGA20ox1 transcript levels in the presence of paclobutrazol (PCB), a well‐known GAs biosynthesis inhibitor, or of 2‐aminoxyacetic acid (AOA), an inhibitor of ethylene biosynthesis. Furthermore, the effect of AOA was reversed by the addition of GA3 and that of PCB by ethephon. This indicates that the gene product is subjected to down‐regulation by GA and ethylene, and further suggests a cross‐talk gene regulation by these two hormones during the transition from seed dormancy to germination.
Cloning and characterization of cellulose synthase‐like gene, PtrCSLD2 from developing xylem of aspen trees
Authors: Samuga Anita , Joshi Chandrashekhar P.
Published: March 2004

Genetic improvement of cell wall polymer synthesis in forest trees is one of the major goals of forest biotechnology that could possibly impact their end product utilization. Identification of genes involved in cell wall polymer biogenesis is essential for achieving this goal. Among various candidate cell wall‐related genes, cellulose synthase‐like D (CSLD) genes are intriguing due to their hitherto unknown functions in cell wall polymer synthesis but strong structural similarity with cellulose synthases (CesAs) involved in cellulose deposition. Little is known about CSLD genes from trees. In the present article PtrCSLD2, a first CSLD gene from an economically important tree, aspen (Populus tremuloides) is reported. PtrCSLD2 cDNA was isolated from an aspen xylem cDNA library and encodes a protein that shares 90% similarity with Arabidopsis AtCSLD3 protein involved in root hair tip growth. It is possible that xylem fibers that also grow by intrusive tip growth may need expression of PtrCSLD2 for controlling the length of xylem fibers, a wood quality trait of great economical importance. PtrCSLD2 protein has a N‐terminal cysteine‐rich putative zinc‐binding domain; eight transmembrane domains; alternating conserved and hypervariable domains; and a processive glycosyltransferases signature, D, D, D, QXXRW; all similar to aspen CesA proteins. However, PtrCSLD2 shares only 43–48% overall identity with the known aspen CesAs suggesting its distinct functional role in cell wall polymer synthesis perhaps other than cellulose biosynthesis. Based on Southern analysis, the aspen CSLD gene family consists of at least three genes and this gene copy estimate is supported by phylogenetic analysis of available CSLDs from plants. Moreover, gene expression studies using RT‐PCR and in situ mRNA hybridization showed that PtrCSLD2 is expressed at a low level in all aspen tissues examined with a slightly higher expression level in secondary cell wall‐enriched aspen xylem as compared to primary cell wall enriched tissues. Together, these observations suggest that PtrCSLD2 gene may be involved in the synthesis of matrix polysaccharides that are dominant in secondary cell walls of poplar xylem. Future molecular genetic analyses will clarify the functional significance of CSLD genes in the development of woody trees.
Changes in histone H3 and H4 multi‐acetylation during natural and forced dormancy break in potato tubers
Authors: David Law R. , Suttle Jeffrey C.
Published: March 2004

The effects of post‐harvest storage and dormancy progression on histone acetylation patterns were examined in potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Russet Burbank) tubers. Storage of field‐grown tubers at 3°C in the dark resulted in the progressive loss of tuber meristem dormancy, defined as measurable growth after transfer to 20°C for 7 days. Dormancy emergence was concomitant with sustained increases in histone H3.1 and H3.2 multi‐acetylation, and with transient increases in H4 multi‐acetylation that peaked 4–5 months post‐harvest. Treatment of dormant tubers with bromoethane (BE) resulted in rapid loss of dormancy over 9 days. Similar to cold‐stored field‐grown tubers, dormancy break in BE‐treated tubers occurred at the same time as transient rises in H4 and H3.1/3.2 multi‐acetylation, peaking at days 1 and 4, respectively. BE treatment also resulted in small increases in RNA synthesis at day 6, and a three‐fold, sustained activation of DNA synthesis thereafter. A defined sequence of epigenetic events, beginning with previously characterized transient cytosine demethylation, followed by increased H3 and H4 histone acetylation and ultimately, tuber meristem re‐activation, may thus exist in potatoes during dormancy exit and resumption of rapid growth.
Differences in structure of adventitious roots in Salix clones with contrasting characteristics of cadmium accumulation and sensitivity
Authors: Lux Alexander , Šottníková Anna , Opatrná Jana , Greger Maria
Published: March 2004

Various clones of Salix spp. have contrasting characteristics of accumulation, translocation to shoots and of sensitivity to cadmium (Cd). The aim was to investigate the structure of adventitious roots and find out if differences between groups of clones in root anatomy accounted for differences in relation to Cd. Stem cuttings of eight clones of Salix spp. with different combinations of high or low Cd accumulation, translocation of Cd to shoots and sensitivity to Cd, were cultivated for 3 weeks in hydroponics containing 100 µM Ca(NO3)2. No Cd was added in this experiment. Equal‐sized roots were selected for hand‐sectioning and fluorescence staining to detect the beginning of Casparian band formation and suberin lamellae deposition in endodermis. In addition, root apices were fixed, embedded, sectioned longitudinally and transversally, and stained. The image analysis system LUCIA was used for quantitative evaluation of tissue differences. The structure of adventitious root apices showed an intermediate‐open type of root apical meristem and the clones differed in organization of root apices. Clones with low accumulation of Cd and high Cd tolerance had smaller meristematic zones and more extensive vacuolation of cells in the root apices than clones characterized by high accumulation of, and high sensitivity to, Cd. The apoplastic barriers, exo‐ and endodermis, were developed relatively close to the apex. In both layers the first ontogenetic stage, the Casparian band development, was followed by the second stage, the suberin lamellae deposition. This process started in the endodermis, preferentially against phloem poles, which is a common phenomenon also in other plant species. However, preferential development of exodermis in the sectors against phloem poles was observed in this study for the first time in plants. Development of endodermal Casparian bands in clones characterized by high accumulation of Cd occurred more distant from the root tip than in clones with low accumulation. Furthermore, the suberin lamellae were more distant from the root tip in clones with high translocation of Cd compared with those with low translocation. This indicates that apoplastic movement of Cd into the stele and the upward translocation may vary due to the endodermal anatomy. The proportion of root apoplastic barriers, exodermis and endodermis as well as epidermis to other root tissues was significantly increased in clones with higher tolerance to Cd ions, indicating the importance of these tissues in protection of the root against toxic effects of Cd.
Development of a standard operating procedure (SOP) for the precise quantification of transgene expression levels in rice plants
Authors: James Victoria A. , Worland Barbara , Snape John W. , Vain Philippe
Published: March 2004

Variation in transgene expression levels can result from uncontrolled differences in experimental protocols. It is important to quantify and eliminate this unwanted variation as much as possible in order to attain precision in transgenic studies. Large‐scale transgenic studies could, by their design, generate additional variation. The influence of different plant growth, sampling and analysis strategies in generating spurious variation in transgene expression level quantification in rice plant populations was assessed. The use of multiple independent plant phenotypic analyses (enzymatic assays in this study) was identified as the major source of spurious variation (doubling or tripling the variation). The quantification of transgene expression levels was also found to be significantly influenced by plant age, the choice of leaf sampled and leaf size. All of these factors reduced the precision of molecular genetic studies and generated artefactual results in transgenic studies. Identification of the sources of extraneous variation allowed the development of a new standard operating procedure (SOP) for rice, designed to control spurious variation. SOP allowed the influence of differences in growth period and independent phenotypic analyses to be minimized. The coefficient of variation in transgene expression levels, between and within genetically identical rice plants, was reduced to approximately 10 to 15% using SOP. Adoption of quality assurance (QA) criteria such as SOP is key to improving the reproducibility of transgenic studies.
Rhizobial nod gene‐inducing activity in pea nodulation mutants: dissociation of nodulation and flavonoid response
Authors: Novák Karel , Lisá Ludmila , Škrdleta Vladimír
Published: March 2004

The root exudates of 24 pea (Pisum sativum L.) non‐nodulating mutants, originating from cv. ′Finale′, were tested for Rhizobium nodulation (nod) gene‐inducing activity to reveal potential differences from the wild type. The interaction with flavonoid receptor NodD of R. leguminosarum bv. viciae strain 248 was monitored as the activity of the regulated operon nodABC fused to the reporter gene lacZ. In the uninoculated plants, the only decreased exudate activity was found in the line Risnod17 and ascribed to the impaired root growth in this line. Consequently, constitutive deficiency in the flavonoid nod gene inducers is not a cause of the asymbiotic phenotypes in the studied set. On the other hand, line Risnod5 had constitutively higher nod gene‐inducing activity which might be responsible for its conditional nodulation and Fix– phenotype when the nodules are present. Monitoring of the response of wild‐type plants to inoculation revealed an increase in nod gene‐inducing activity (Ini response) starting first day after inoculation. The chosen mutant lines Risnod22 (putative locus sym9) and Risnod25 (putatively sym8) showed Ini as well indicating that the flavonoid burst can be mutationally dissociated from nodule initiation. On the other hand, absence of Ini in Risnod20 (assumed sym19) suggests branching of the signal transduction pathway downstream of this mutation and places it upstream of the two former mutations in the transduction of the bacterial Nod factor signal. More intense Ini response observed in the supernodulating mutant RisfixC, included in the study for its contrasting symbiotic phenotype, suggests common regulation of nodulation and Ini response via systemic shoot factor. The time shift in the exudation of isoflavonoid phytoalexin pisatin compared to Ini, its increased level in Risnod25 and lowered level in RisfixC are consistent with the regulatory role of plant defence in nodule initiation, which might be mediated directly by isoflavonoids as negative regulators.
Relationships between fruit exocarp antioxidants in the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) high pigment‐1 mutant during development
Authors: Andrews Preston K. , Fahy Deirdre A. , Foyer Christine H.
Published: March 2004

Development‐dependent changes in fruit antioxidants were examined in the exocarp (epidermal and hypodermal tissues) of the monogenic recessive tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) mutant high pigment (hp‐1) and its wild‐type parent ‘Rutgers’ grown under non‐stress conditions in a greenhouse. The hp‐1 mutant was chosen for this study because the reportedly higher lycopene and ascorbic acid (AsA) contents of the fruit may alter its tolerance to photooxidative stress. Throughout most of fruit development, reduced AsA concentrations in the exocarp of hp‐1 were 1.5 to 2.0 times higher than in ‘Rutgers’, but total glutathione concentrations were similar in both genotypes. Only in ripe red fruit were reduced AsA and total glutathione concentrations lower in hp‐1 than in ‘Rutgers’. The redox ratios (reduced : reduced + oxidized) of AsA in hp‐1 and ‘Rutgers’ exocarps were similar and usually > 0.9, however, the redox ratio of glutathione was lower in hp‐1 than in ‘Rutgers’ throughout development. Lycopene concentrations in ripe red fruit were about 5 times higher in hp‐1 than in ‘Rutgers’. Large increases in the specific enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1), ascorbate peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.11), and monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR; EC 1.6.5.4) occurred during fruit development in both genotypes, with an inverse relationship between the activities of these enzymes and chlorophyll content. Glutathione reductase (EC 1.6.4.2) and MDHAR‐specific activities were higher in hp‐1 than ‘Rutgers’ only at the later stages of fruit development. Dehydroascorbate reductase (EC 1.8.5.1) activities, however, were usually higher in ‘Rugters’ than in hp‐1. Catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) activities increased with fruit development until the fruit were orange/light red, when CAT was higher in ‘Rutgers’ than in hp‐1, but then declined in the ripe red fruit of both genotypes. These results suggest that elevated AsA in the exocarp of hp‐1 fruit early in fruit development may increase the tolerance of hp‐1 fruit to photooxidative injury at that time, but the increasing activities of antioxidant enzymes appear to be developmentally associated with fruit ripening.
Wheat seedlings as a model to understand desiccation tolerance and sensitivity
Authors: Farrant Jill M. , Bailly Christophe , Leymarie Juliette , Hamman Brigitte , Côme Daniel , Corbineau Françoise
Published: March 2004

The coleoptiles of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings of cultivar Trémie are desiccation tolerant when 3 days old, although the roots are not. Cutting some of the coleoptiles open prior to dehydration rapidly increased the drying rate. This rendered the coleoptiles sensitive to desiccation, providing a useful model with which to study desiccation tolerance. Both sensitive and tolerant seedlings were dehydrated to 0.3 g H2O g−1 dry mass (g.g) and thereafter rehydrated. Sensitive tissues accr‐ ued the lipid peroxidation products H2O2and MDA, and substantial subcellular damage was evident in dry tissues. H2O2 and MDA accumulated slightly only in dry tolerant coleoptiles and no subcellular damage was evident. The activity of antioxidant enzymes glutathione reductase (EC1.6.2.4), superoxide dismutase (EC 1.14.1.1) and catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) increased on drying in both tolerant and sensitive tissues, but were sustained on rehydration in only the tolerant tissues. It is proposed that free radical damage sustained during rapid drying exceeded the ameliorating capacity of antioxidant systems, allowed accrual of lethal subcellular damage. Slow drying enabled sufficient detoxification by antioxidants to minimize damage and allow tolerance to drying. Three LEA‐ (p11 and Asp 52) and dehydrin‐ (XV8) like proteins were detected by western blots in tolerant coleoptiles dried to 3.0 g.g and below. Only one (Asp 52) was induced at low water content in rapidly dried sensitive coleoptiles. None were present in root tissues. XV8 RNA (northern analyses) was induced on drying only in tolerant coleoptiles and correlated with protein expression. These stress‐putative protein protectants (and XV8 transcripts) appear to be down‐regulated during germination but wheat seedlings temporarily retain the ability to reproduce them if drying is slow. Sucrose accumulation during dehydration was similar for both sensitive and tolerant tissues, suggesting that this sugar has little role, or is not effective in isolation, in protecting against desiccation damage in wheat seedlings. In summary, the slower rate at which tolerant coleoptiles were dried allowed for the mobilization of protection mechanisms with which to survive desiccation. Rapid drying of tissues precluded induction of some putative stress protein protectants and caused damage in excess of the ameliorating capacity of the antioxidant protection systems.
Polyamines and somatic embryogenesis in two Vitis vinifera cultivars
Authors: Bertoldi Daniela , Tassoni Annalisa , Martinelli Lucia , Bagni Nello
Published: March 2004

Polyamine content and activities of enzymes of polyamine biosynthesis were assayed during somatic embryogenesis in Vitis vinifera callus cultures of Chardonnay and Brachetto ‘a grappolo lungo’ (Brachetto g.l.) cultivars. The analyses were carried out on embryogenic callus samples, embryos at different stages and developing plants. Polyamine content, both in the free and PCA‐soluble conjugated form, was higher in Brachetto g.l. than in Chardonnay, and putrescine was present at higher concentrations than the other polyamines. In all samples of both cultivars, ornithine decarboxylase activity (ODC, EC 4.1.1.17) was higher than arginine decarboxylase (ADC, EC 4.1.1.19), with a maximum in developing plant roots. S‐Adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (SAMDC, EC 4.1.1.50) activity displayed a similar trend. The activities of all three enzymes were detected both in the supernatant and pellet fractions, indicating for the first time the presence of SAMDC activity in the particulate fraction. Particularly in the Chardonnay cultivar, an increase in the mRNAs expression patterns of ODC and SAMDC during morphogenesis from small embryos to plantlets was detected by northern blot, suggesting a direct correlation with enzymatic activities.
Seasonal dynamics of non‐structural carbohydrates in bulbs and shoots of the geophyte Galanthus nivalis
Authors: Orthen Birgit , Wehrmeyer Andreas
Published: March 2004

Seasonal dynamics of non‐structural carbohydrates were studied in Galanthus nivalis L. over a 2‐year period. The plants were collected in the field and separated into above‐ and below‐ground biomass. The polysaccharide fraction of the bulbs consisted of fructans and starch. Seasonal variations suggest that the polysaccharides were utilized for carbon and energy supply for re‐growth and flower development. With the re‐sprouting of the bulbs in autumn the fructans within the bulbs were depolymerized and an increase of low degree of polymerization fructans as well as sucrose was observable. Within shoots the major polysaccharides were fructans, the starch content was much lower. Gas liquid chromatography and high‐performance, anion‐exchange chromatographyanalysis of the fructan fraction revealed that the fructans within the shoots were predominantly those with a low degree of polymerization. In addition to the two polysaccharides the other dominant sugar in shoots was sucrose. During the period of slow re‐growth and flowering, fructan and starch pools were depleted to different degrees. Calculation of the difference between the carbohydrate content at the start of visible growth and at the time of lowest content revealed that the starch pool showed a higher depletion than the fructan pool. During the re‐growth periods in 1996/97 and 1997/98 fructans were catabolized by 39 and 32% only, whereas the starch pool was depleted by 92% (1996/97) and 79% (1997/98), respectively. During rapid shoot growth and fruiting, the bulbs and above‐ground organs appeared to be competing sinks for the photosynthetically fixed carbon. Refilling of the bulbs carbohydrate reserve started in February/March In shoots, the period of refilling the bulbs was characterized by a low content of oligosaccarides and a high content of hexoses.
Changes in strain and deposition of cuticle in developing sweet cherry fruit
Authors: Knoche Moritz , Beyer Marco , Peschel Stefanie , Oparlakov Boyko , Bukovac Martin J.
Published: March 2004

Changes in surface area, deposition and elastic strain of the cuticular membrane (CM) were monitored during development of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) fruit. Fruit mass and surface area (‘Sam’) increased in a sigmoidal pattern between 16 and 85 days after full bloom (DAFB) with maximum rates of 0.35 g day−1 and 0.62 cm2 day−1, respectively. Rates of total area strain, namely the sum of elastic plus plastic strain, were highest in cheek and stem cavity regions followed by stylar and suture regions. Rates of total uniaxial strain were higher in transverse, namely perpendicular to the stem/stylar axis, than in longitudinal direction, namely parallel to the stem/stylar axis. On a whole fruit basis CM mass remained essentially constant during fruit development. Mass of CM, dewaxed CM and wax per unit surface area decreased during development, particularly between 43 and 71 DAFB. There was no change in wax content of isolated CM. Up to 43 DAFB the surface area of isolated CM was similar to the area prior to excision indicating little elastic strain, but markedly decreased thereafter. Calculating elastic and plastic components of total strain of the CM revealed, that initial deformation up to 22 to 43 DAFB was mostly plastic. Thereafter, elastic strain was evident and both, elastic and plastic deformation, increased linearly with an increase in total strain. There was no consistent difference in the relative contribution of elastic strain to total strain between transverse and longitudinal directions, but both total and elastic strain were larger in the transverse direction. Abrading the CM had only little effect on fruit turgor. However, turgor decreased when the exocarp was cut indicating that the exocarp provided a significant structural shell of a mature sweet cherry fruit (‘Regina’). Our data demonstrate, that (1) surface area expansion in sweet cherry fruit causes elastic and plastic strain of the CM, and (2) the onset of elastic strain coincided with the cessation of CM formation.
Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase genes in cucumber (Cucumis sativus) – differential expression during somatic embryogenesis†
Authors: Malinowski Robert , Filipecki Marcin , Tagashira Norikazu , Wiśniewska Anita , Gaj Paweł , Plader Wojciech , Malepszy Stefan
Published: March 2004

Defined changes in the cell wall directed by many proteins accompany every morphogenetic process in plants. Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase proteins (XTH; EC 2.4.1.207) have the potential to modify the hemicellulose matrix within the cell wall. Cs‐XTH1 and Cs‐XTH3 genes, which encode XTH proteins, were found among numerous genes that are differentially expressed after the induction of cucumber somatic embryogenesis. The expression of these genes increased during somatic embryogenesis. The Cs‐XTH1 gene was localized on the second chromosome near the centromere region, whereas Cs‐XTH3 was found in the middle of the fifth chromosome's longer arm. Northern blot hybridization showed that both genes were preferentially expressed in roots. We also observed higher accumulation of both transcripts in somatic embryos than in the proembryogenic mass. The localization of mRNA by in situ hybridization revealed that the Cs‐XTH1 transcripts were largely accumulated in the presumptive cotyledon primordia of somatic embryos. The XTH gene family consists of a number of genes with a high degree of structural similarity. Screening a cucumber genomic library has identified other members of this gene family. The intron/exon structure, sequence similarities and the close chromosomal distance between some members suggest their common evolutionary origin. The involvement of XTH‐related genes in somatic embryo formation is discussed.
The role of phosphorus in aluminium‐induced citrate and malate exudation from rape (Brassica napus)
Authors: Ligaba Ayalew , Shen Hong , Shibata Koichi , Yamamoto Yoko , Tanakamaru Shigemi , Matsumoto Hideaki
Published: March 2004

Exudation of organic anions is believed to be a common tolerance mechanism for both aluminium toxicity and phosphorus deficiency. Nevertheless, which of these stresses that actually elicit the exudation of organic anions from rape (Brassica napus L) remains unknown, and the combined effects of Al toxicity and P deficiency on rape have not been reported before. Therefore, in the current study, Brassica napus var. Natane nourin plants grown with or without 0.25 mM P were exposed to 0 or 50 µM AlCl3 and several parameters related to the exudation of organic anions from the roots were investigated. Eight days of P deficiency resulted in a significant growth reduction, but P deficiency alone did not induce exudation of organic anions. In contrast, Al strongly induced organic acid exudation, while simultaneously inhibiting root growth. Increased in‐vitro activity of citrate synthase (CS, EC 4.1.3.7), malate dehydrogenase (MDH, EC 1.1.1.37) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC, EC 4.1.1.31), together with reduced root respiration, indicated that the Al‐induced accumulation and subsequent exudation of citrate and malate were associated with both increased biosynthesis and reduced metabolism of citric and malic acid. Phosphorus‐sufficient plants showed more pronounced aluminium‐induced accumulation and exudation of organic anions than P‐deficient plants. A divided root chamber experiment showed the necessity of direct contact between Al and roots to elicit exudation of organic anions. Prolonged exposure (10 days) to Al resulted in a decrease in the net exudation of citrate and malate, and the rate of decrease was much more rapid in P‐deficient plants than in P‐sufficient plants. It is concluded that P nutrition affects the level of Al‐induced synthesis and exudation of organic anions. However, the mechanism needs further investigation.
Comparative study of the expression profiles of the Cor/Lea gene family in two wheat cultivars with contrasting levels of freezing tolerance
Authors: Kobayashi Fuminori , Takumi Shigeo , Nakata Mineyo , Ohno Ryoko , Nakamura Toshiki , Nakamura Chiharu
Published: March 2004

Expression profiles of a set of Cor/Lea genes were assessed during early stages of cold acclimation in seedlings of two wheat cultivars, which showed contrasting levels of freezing tolerance. These Cor/Lea family members consisted of three EST clones and 13 previously identified cDNA clones of wheat and rye. Northern blot analysis using RNA extracted from seedling leaves and roots showed that most of the genes exhibited a quite similar time‐course of expression, although with different expression levels: They rapidly responded to low temperature and their transcript levels reached high plateaus within 3–5 days. The overall gene expression profiles were correlated with the time‐dependent development and the level of freezing tolerance under low temperature in the two cultivars. Western blot analysis of protein accumulation further verified this observation. Abscissic acid response was proved for at least four genes. Light was stimulatory to most of the genes, and this positive light response associated with low temperature occurred not only in leaf‐specific genes but also in leaf/root‐expressed genes. Taken together, the present results suggest that the Cor/Lea gene family represents a major group of downstream genes involved in the ABA‐dependent and ‐independent signal pathways and that most of them are co‐regulated in determining freezing tolerance in wheat seedlings.
Comparison of the pharmacokinetic profiles of two locally administered doxycycline gels in crevicular fluid and saliva
Authors: Kim Ti‐Sun , Klimpel Homa , Fiehn Walter , Eickholz Peter
Published: March 2004

Background:  Controlled‐release delivery systems enable the clinician to extend the half‐life period of locally administered antibiotics in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) significantly. The aim of this split‐mouth study was to compare the pharmacokinetic profile of two different doxycycline gels (DOXY and ATRI) for topical subgingival application. Pharmacokinetics of both doxycycline gels were analyzed in GCF and saliva.

Methods:  In 10 patients suffering from severe periodontitis, 10 pairs of contralateral defects (pocket depth 5 mm/bleeding on probing or 6 mm) were randomly assigned either to the first application of DOXY or ATRI. Fourteen days after the topical application of the first antibiotic gel, the application of the second gel in the contralateral defect took place. Clinical examinations at baseline showed no significant differences between sites treated with DOXY and ATRI. Samples of GCF and saliva were drawn baseline, 2, 5 and 24 h after application, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 and 11 days after application. Separation and quantitative measurement of both doxycycline‐gels was performed with HPLC‐ and UV‐detection at λ=260 nm.

Results:  In saliva specimens, time‐dependent changes of mean doxycycline concentration were almost identical for both doxycycline‐gels and declined from a maximum 2 h after application (ATRI: 6653.90±3096.14 μg/ml; DOXY: 5386.60±1542.02 μg/ml [arithmetic mean±SEM]) to zero values 9 days after application. In crevicular fluid specimens, sites treated with ATRI exhibited a faster decrease of mean doxycycline concentration (1085.30, 264.00, 273.94, and 258.00 μg/ml measured 2, 5, 24, and 48 h after application) than sites treated with DOXY (1388.38, 1300.40, 803.73, and 235.10 μg/ml). The faster decrease of ATRI compared with DOXY could not be proved to be statistically significantly different.

Conclusions:  Both doxycycline gels showed pharmacokinetics of controlled‐release delivery systems.
Changing Strategies and Tactics for New Product Development
Authors: Ettlie John E. , Subramaniam Mohan
Published: March 2004

There has been a considerable amount of effort and writing devoted to improving the new product development process during the last two decades. Although there have been some surprises in this literature and in reports from the field on how to manage this complex business process, we now have a good view of the state‐of‐the‐art practices that work and do not work to accelerate commercial success of new ventures. We know much less about how firms change their strategies for new product development.

In this article, we report on a study to investigate how companies change the way they originate and develop new products in manufacturing. We made no prior assumptions about what best practices might be for changing the direction of the new product development process, but we reasonably were sure there would be trends in how companies were attempting to create this strategic change. Even though one size does not fit all, there were significant trends in our findings.

We studied eight manufacturing firms using in‐depth, open‐ended interviews and were surprised to find that most of these companies are beginning to develop products that are new to the firm, industry, and the world (nearly half, or 10 of 21 new product projects), where they had not been eager for radical change in the past. These newer products likely are to be driven by a combination of market and technology forces, with general requirements being directed by internal forces: middle and top management. Results also indicate significantly that being able to marshal resources and capabilities is easier if change is less demanding and less radical, but when middle managers are driving the conversion of general requirements into specifications, resource issues have yet to be resolved. Implications of these findings are discussed for companies aspiring to change the entire process of new product development in their firms based on these significant results.
Links between Internal and External Cooperation in Product Development: An Exploratory Study*
Authors: Hillebrand Bas , Biemans Wim G.
Published: March 2004

While there is an overwhelming amount of publications on cooperation in product development projects, they mainly focus on cooperation between business functions within an organization (internal cooperation) or on cooperation between organizations (external cooperation). Yet the relationship between internal and external cooperation has received only scarce attention. This article studies how internal and external cooperation relate. Following an extensive literature study and 12 exploratory interviews with managers in eight organizations, a case‐research design was set up. More specifically, six product development projects were studied in depth, combining data from interviews, questionnaires, and information from secondary sources. Based on these cases, the authors present four different links between internal and external cooperation: (1) Internal cooperation may serve as a mechanism to coordinate external cooperation; (2) Internal cooperative norms are similar to external cooperative norms; (3) External cooperation may stimulate internal cooperation; and (4) Internal cooperation may be an essential part of organizational learning from external partners. The results of this exploratory study prove the interaction between internal and external cooperation to be a subject worthy of investigation and demonstrate that in order to appreciate fully the quality of a firm's external cooperation efforts, they should be studied in combination with the firm's internal interfaces. The authors also show the managerial implications of these links, as well as some directions for further research.
PERSPECTIVE: Ranking the Technology Innovation Management Journals*
Authors: Linton Jonathan D. , Thongpapanl Narongsak (Tek)
Published: March 2004

A citation analysis of the 10 leading technology and innovation management (TIM) specialty journals is conducted to gain insights into the relative ranking of the journals. The journals are ranked based on number of citations, citations adjusted for publication frequency, citations corrected for age, citations corrected for self‐citation, and an overall score. The top 50 journals in management of technology based on citation analysis are listed. Overall, the top 10 journals based on citation analysis are Journal of Product Innovation Management, Research Policy, Research‐Technology Management, Harvard Business Review, Strategic Management Journal, Management Science, Administrative Science Quarterly, R&D Management, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, and Academy of Management Review. The top 10 specialty journals in the technology innovation management specialty are Journal of Product Innovation Management, Research Policy, Research‐Technology Management, R&D Management, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, International Journal of Technology Management, Technovation, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, and Journal of Engineering and Technology Management. It is found that many of the TIM journals, although focused on TIM, have additional foci based on traditional management disciplines. Each of the 10 leading TIM specialty journals is considered from the perspective of traditional management disciplines; how the journals relate to each other and the related implications of these findings are considered.
Union Activism, Workers’ Satisfaction and Organizational Change
Authors: Cappellari Lorenzo , Lucifora Claudio , Piccirilli Giulio
Published: March 2004

Abstract.  This paper investigates the reaction of active union members towards workplace organizational changes. We use micro‐data from a large firm and estimate an empirical model which deals explicitly with the potential endogeneity of the union activist status. The data indicate that workers who become union activists are more likely to complain than members. Moreover, after proper allowance is made for the endogeneity of union activism, we find this effect to be reinforced. This result suggests that activists are not inherently against organizational changes, as compared to non‐activists, though they report higher dissatisfaction in anticipation of the greater loss in union rents that is likely to be associated with the change.
Employment Protection and the Incidence of Unemployment: A Theoretical Framework
Authors: Guelfi Anita
Published: March 2004

Abstract.  The present paper aims to analyse the effects of employment protection on a heterogeneous labour force. To this end, a standard matching model with employment protection has been extended to allow for the existence of two types of workers differing from each other only in the probability of becoming less productive while holding a job. In working out the model it turns out that in equilibrium workers with a relatively higher probability of becoming less productive face both a higher turnover and a longer duration of unemployment. Therefore, employment protection here raises the unemployment rate of this worker category, a result which looks consistent with consolidated evidence but contrasts with standard theoretical results.
Risk Aversion and the Efficiency Wage Contract
Authors: Chouikhi Ouassila , Ramani Shyama V.
Published: March 2004

Abstract.  The efficiency wage model of Shapiro and Stiglitz (American Economic Review 74: 433–444, 1984) has not always been confirmed by empirical investigations. This could be due to informational problems. Reformulating the Shapiro and Stiglitz model as a sequential game, this paper examines the relations between the terms of the efficiency wage contract offered by a firm and the responses of a worker, under incomplete information about the degree of risk aversion of the firm and the worker. It shows that under incomplete information about the degree of risk aversion of the worker, shirking can emerge as an equilibrium phenomenon. For any efficiency wage contract, a worker will shirk if the degree of risk aversion of the worker is less than that corresponding to the contract.
Firm‐level Consequences of Large Minimum‐wage Increases in the Czech and Slovak Republics
Authors: Eriksson Tor , Pytlikova Mariola
Published: March 2004

Abstract.  After an initial decline in the level of real minimum‐wage rates, there were series of unusually large increases in their levels — 70 and 50 per cent — during the years 1999–2002 in the Czech and Slovak Republics, respectively. Using information from matched employee–employer data sets, we look at the impact of minimum‐wage hikes on both wages and employment. Our results suggest that there are some, but not substantial, job losses in reaction to minimum‐wage hikes and that the impact on firm wages is rather large, implying that further increases of similar magnitude might very well have negative consequences for employment.