bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cytokines and growth factors in renal bone disease
Authors: González Esther A , Martin Kevin J
Published: November 2023

Renal bone disease or renal osteodystrophy is a common complication of chronic renal failure and represents a spectrum of skeletal abnormalities ranging from high turnover states, such as osteitis fibrosa which is seen with secondary hyperparathyroidism, to states of low bone turnover which include osteomalacia and the increasingly common adynamic bone disease. While each of these abnormalities may be predominant in a specific patient, combinations of these patterns are commonly present. Histologically, osteitis fibrosa is characterized by increased bone turnover with increased osteoblast and osteoclast number and activity leading to increased bone formation and increased bone resorption. An additional feature of osteitis fibrosa, as the name implies, is the presence of endosteal and marrow fibrosis. In contrast, in adynamic bone disease, there is decreased bone turnover, with decreased number and activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
Osteoporosis in uremia
Authors: Fournier Albert , Grados Franck , Mazouz Hakim , Fardellone Patrice , Oprisiu Roxana , Brazier Michel , Solal Martine Esther Cohen , Ghazali Abderahman
Published: November 2023

As recalled by Eastell et al.,1 World Health Organization (WHO) proposed an operational definition of osteoporosis based on bone mineral density (BMD) measurement, namely BMD of 2.5 SD below its peak value, also called ‘T score at –2.5’. This definition has however limitations in clinical practice since it raises a risk factor for fracture to the status of a definition while it ignores the importance of other determinants of bone strength or of fractures like the risk of falls. Nevertheless it has the advantage to be universally accepted. When at least one fracture is present the osteoporosis is considered to be severe. The T score has to be distinguished from the Z score which is the number of SD above or below the mean BMD of an age, sex, and race-matched population. A T score between –1 and –2.5 SD defines osteopenia. These definitions have been justified by the pragmatic concern of the clinician when to start preventive intervention. Thus while ‘osteopenia’ requires only dietary and behaviorial preventive measures, ‘osteoporosis’ justifies pharmacological intervention to decrease the risk of fracture. It should be noted that the WHO definition has been validated only in women whereas there is no evidence that it is relevant in men.
Soft tissue calcification in chronic renal failure
Authors: Rostand Stephen G , Thornley-Brown Denyse
Published: November 2023

Since the days of Virchow1 soft tissue (extra-osseous or heterotopic) calcification has been observed in autopsy examinations of patients with chronic renal disease. However, with the advent of newer and better dialysis techniques that have improved the life expectancy of patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), clinicians have become more aware of the potential serious clinical consequences of soft tissue calcification, particularly those involving the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems. Moreover, the present demography of patients with advanced renal insufficiency, particularly their ever-increasing age and longevity on dialytic therapy, together with more sophisticated non-invasive diagnostic techniques, suggest that almost every patient with end-stage renal disease has at least some ectopic calcification. In this chapter we will discuss the types and distribution of soft tissue calcification in renal failure, risk factors for such calcification, and the possible cellular mechanisms underlying extra-osseous bone formation. Last, having identified some of these underlying risks, we will address the difficult and unsettled questions of prevention and management.
Estimating the costs of tobacco use
Authors: Lightwood James , Collins David , Lapsley Helen , Novotny Thomas E
Published: November 2023

Reliable estimates of the costs of tobacco use are valuable to policy-makers, particularly in planning health service provision and other items of public expenditure. However, such estimates are difficult to obtain because the methods used by different researchers vary and, in some respects, are controversial. Four types of cost analyses are compared here and the implications of different methods for results are explored. The literature on the healthcare costs of smoking is more extensive than for other types of cost and therefore forms the focus of this chapter. Estimates of the gross healthcare costs of smoking (that is, all the expenditures assodated with treating diseases attributable to smoking) for high-income countries range between CJ.10°/o and 1.1% of gross domestic product (GDP).The higher estimates occur in countries where healthcare costs account for a relatively large share of GDP. In low-income and middle-income countries, fewer studies have been performed, and often with very limited data, but the exisdn1 studies suggest that the gross costs of smoking can be as high as those in high-income countries. Studies of the net healthcare costs of smoking—which compare the lifetime healthcare costs of smokers and non-smokers and take account of the fact that smokers’ lives are usually shorter than non-smokers’ —reach more heterogeneous conclusions. This is because of major variations in the methods and assumptions used. However, the majority of these studies indicate that there are net costs from smoking. There is a clear need for refinement of the methods for making cost estimates, particularly for application in developing countries where the tobacco epidemic has yet to peak.
The economic rationale for intervention in the tobacco market
Authors: Jha Prabhat , Musgrove Philip , Chaloupka Frank J , Yurekli Ayda
Published: November 2023

Economic theory starts with the assumption that a consumer usually knows what is best for him or herself—the notion of ‘consumer sovereignty’. The theory also assumes that privately-determined consumption choices, including the decision whether to consume a particular product at all within a free competitive market, will most efficiently allocate sodety’s scarce resources. Within this framework, economic theory holds that if smokers consume tobacco with full information about its health consequences and addictive potential, and bear all costs and benefits of their choice themselves, there is no justification, on the grounds of inefficiency, for governments to interfere. However, in practice, the market for tobacco is characterized by three specfic ‘market failures’-that is, features that result in economic inefficiencies and that may therefore justify public intervention. First, there is an ‘information failure’ about the health risks of smoking: some consumers do not know the risks, and, even where consumers are informed, they may not appreciate the scale of those risks or apply the knowledge to themselves. Second, there is an information failure about the addictive potential of tobacco. Many smoken, and especially adolescents, under-estimate the risk of becoming addicted and, once addicted, face very high costs in trying to quit. These two information failures result in high private costs of death and disability for smokers. The third market failure is the external costs of smoking—that is, the costs imposed by smokers on others. External costs are most clearly apparent as the health effects of passive smoking. There are several ways that governments may intervene. In economic theory, ‘first-best’ interventions, which specifically address the identified inefficiency, should ideally be pursued. In the tobacco market, the first-best interventions would probably be to educate young people about the risks of addiction and disease from smoking, or to restrict their access to tobacco.
Consumer information and tobacco use
Authors: Kenkel Donald , Chen Likwang
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses two related questions: first, are consumers well-informed about the consequences of tobacco use?; and, second, can public polides to improve consumer information reduce tobacco use? Although in many countries people are generally aware of the health risks of smoking, there are gaps in their perceptions of those risks. Individuals tend to under-estimate the risk of smoking relative to other causes of death. In addition, many smokers appear not to apply their knowledge of the health risks to themselves personally. Finally, evidence suggests that young people under estimate the addictive properties of tobacco. In some countries significant improvements in consumer information about the links between tobacco use and disease are still possible; while in other countries consumers are probably as fully informed as is realistically possible. In many countries, so-called ‘information shocks’-such as the publication of new reports on the health effects of smoking-have reduced tobacco consumption. If the experience of these countries can be applied elsewhere, consumer information polities appear to be effective instruments for tobacco control. This conclusion is buttressed by the success of specific interventions including mass-media campaigns and warning labels on cigarette packs.
Smoking cessation and nicotine-replacement therapies
Authors: Novotny Thomas E , Cohen Jillian Clare , Yurekli Ayda , Sweanor, David , Beyer Joy de
Published: November 2023

Initiatives that help smokers to quit are key components in an effective tobacco-control program. Unaided, individuals’ chances of quitting are low, but success rates are higher when smokers use nicotine-replacement therapies (NRTs) and other pharmacological therapies. The current market for NRTs worldwide is small compared with the market for cigarettes, and is mostly concentrated in high-income countries. The small market largely reflects low levels of demand, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. However, the regulation of NRTs, for example through conditions of sale, also reduces access to them. Public policy options for increasing access to NRTs include the deregulation of conditions of sale. In addition, increased public information about the hazards of smoking and the benefits of cessation appear to be important for increasing demand for NRTs. Where studied, NRTs have been found to be cost-effective. Theoretically, these therapies could be publicly financed for the poorest smokers. In practice, however, it would be difficult to target those on the lowest incomes.
Pricing and taxation
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg
Published: November 2023

Among the various strategies that states and nations use to control alcoholrelated problems, the regulation of alcohol taxes and prices has been by far the most popular. This is not simply because governments need financial resources and by tradition acquire them by taxation; regulations on taxes and prices are relatively easy to establish in law and to enforce in practice. For more than a century, taxation of alcoholic beverages by many governments has also been used to reduce rates of harm from drinking. Economic studies conducted in many developed and some developing regions of the world have demonstrated that increased alcoholic beverage taxes and prices are related to reductions in alcohol use and related problems.
Drinking–driving countermeasures
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg
Published: November 2023

The automobile age has brought with it unprecedented prosperity and freedom of movement, but at a great cost. Motor vehicles have directly caused the death and injury of millions of people. When the driver of a motor vehicle has been drinking alcohol, the risk of injury and death is substantially increased. The generally favoured term for the criminal action of driving a vehicle under the influence of alcohol is ‘drinking–driving’ (WHO 1994). Drinking–driving accidents are a problem in any country that makes substantial use of motor vehicles for transportation. For this reason a variety of drinking–driving countermeasures have been developed, and many of them have been systematically evaluated.
The international context of alcohol policy
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg
Published: November 2023

The basic premise of this book, as laid out in Chapter 2, is that alcohol is no ordinary commodity. There was a moment in history, a century ago, when this was recognized at the international level. A series of agreements between the European colonial powers effectively controlled the market in ‘trade spirits’ by forbidding exports to Africa (Bruun et al. 1975). In recent decades, however, the operating assumption in international agreements has often been to treat alcoholic beverages as an ordinary commodity. In a world of increasing trade globalization, this operating assumption has meant that national and local alcohol policies, predicated on the extraordinary nature of alcohol, have increasingly come under pressure at the international level. This chapter describes how these pressures have arisen, and how they affect national alcohol policies and the prospects for alcohol control at an international level.
The policy arena
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg
Published: November 2023

An arena is a place where contests, and at times conflicts, take place. When applied to policy, the word takes on the connotation of a sphere of action for opposing views, contending groups, and competing interests. In Section III (Chapters 5–12), we examined the evidence with regard to a wide range of prevention and treatment strategies that could serve as instruments of alcohol policies. While there is now a growing scientific basis to support alcohol policy initiatives, there is much less understanding of the way in which different countries and communities operate within the policy arena. In this chapter, we move from the economic context of alcohol policy (Chapter 14) to the process through which policy is implemented by governments and other players at the national and local levels. This chapter also considers the constituency groups, stakeholders, and social forces that affect both the development and maintenance of effective policy as it is formulated by national and local governments. Although private organizations have policies, our analysis here applies primarily to government actions in the areas of public health, public safety, and social welfare.
Current criteria for vascular dementia — a critical appraisal
Authors: Bowler John V , Hachinski Vladimir
Published: November 2023

Three simultaneous sets of events converged to alter this. The first of these was the work of Blessed, Tomlinson and Roth who described both Alzheimer’s disease and multiple infarcts as separate causes of dementia (Blessed et al. 1968; Tomlinson et al. 1970).
Managing caries in enamel
Authors: Kidd Edwina , Nunn June
Published: November 2023

It is important to understand what caries is, to follow the logic of its suggested management. Dental caries is a process which may take place on any tooth surface in the oral cavity where a microbial biofilm (dental plaque) is allowed to develop over a period of time. Formation of the biofilm is a natural physiological process (see Chapter 4). It is important to remember that the biofilm is not a haphazard collection of micro-organisms, but a community with a collective physiology, which can solve the specific physico-chemical problems posed by the environment at the site. The bacteria in the biofilm are always metabolically active, causing minute fluctuations in pH. These may cause a net loss of mineral from the tooth when the pH is dropping. This is called demineralization. Alternatively, there may be a net gain of mineral when the pH is increasing.
Prevention of pulpal and periapical disease
Authors: Whitworth John
Published: November 2023

Apical periodontitis is a term to describe inflammatory conditions of the periodontal tissues that are caused by irritants in the pulp canal system. While the majority of these lesions develop around root apices, apical periodontitis can occur laterally or in furcal regions, associated with any natural or pathological communication between the pulp space and the periodontium.
Prevention of dental trauma
Authors: Welbury Richard
Published: November 2023

Dramatic improvements have been made over the last 25–30 years in our understanding of wound healing and the techniques available to treat traumatized teeth. Dr Jens Andreasen summarized some of these developments in the following way.
Prevention in the ageing dentition
Authors: Steele James , Walls Angus
Published: November 2023

Dental disease and tooth loss are not an inevitable consequence of increasing age, but both are almost universal and both are irreversible. Eventually, if a person lives long enough, disability through the functional impairment resulting from tooth loss will take its toll, to a greater or lesser degree. As age increases, the emphasis of dental care often moves away from preventing and managing every diseased tooth, towards a wider strategy aimed at the prevention of a more general condition: functional limitation and dental disability, which usually result from tooth loss. Preventive dentistry for older people, whether aimed at the individual or the whole population, is generally best viewed from this perspective. Preventing or minimizing this disability involves primary prevention (preventing disease, for example by fluoride use or oral hygiene), secondary prevention (preventing disease progression, for example by early detection) or tertiary prevention (preventing the impairment and disability resulting from disease, for example by treatment planning strategies and tooth replacement).
The Decline Of The Old English Monarchy
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

Through the work of Edward the Elder and his sons the ascendancy of the West Saxon dynasty was so firmly established that it survived a crisis which threatened the unity of their kingdom. After a long illness King Eadred died on 23 November 955. He had no children, and the members of the royal house who stood nearest to the succession were Eadwig and Edgar, the sons of his brother Edmund. Edgar was only twelve years of age when Eadred died, and Eadwig, who was chosen king, can hardly have been more than three years older. His distant cousin, the chronicler JEthelweard, states that the common people called him the ‘all-fair’ because of his beauty.
The Reorganization Of The English Church
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

In his attitude towards the ecclesiastical politics of his day the Conqueror took the position that it was the duty of the secular ruler to supervise the government of the church within his dominions. The reconstruction of the Norman church after the disasters of the tenth century had been the work of his predecessors. From them he inherited an ecclesiastical supremacy which enabled him not only to appoint bishops and abbots and to summon councils, but to intervene in diocesan administration. William of Poitiers, his first biographer, records that he took action as duke against bishops and archdeacons who dealt too leniently with offenders convicted in their courts. In 1066 there was no part of the Continent where the ecclesiastical authority of the ruler was more firmly established than in Normandy.
German Singularity?
Authors: Kramer Alan
Published: November 2023

German history, according to an influential interpretation, developed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries along a fateful ‘special path’. In this view, advanced by German scholars (notably Hans-Ulrich Wehler), but also in related form by Anglo-American historians (such as A.J. P. Taylor), Germany diverged from the normal path of western societies which proceeded from feudalism to capitalism and liberal democracy.
I Disappear
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

abstract

On October 20th I was lunching with Tredwell at his house with the Noyevs when a ring came at the front door. Noyev’s young daughter went to the door and was given a small note by an unknown white-haired old lady. It was written in English in red ink- and was to say that we were all to be arrested again, and ended with the unpleasant sentence: ‘For Bailey the position is especially dangerous and shooting is not out of the question.’ This was not a nice dish to be served up at lunch. The message was dated October 18th, i.e. the day before my interview with Kolesov in his car. I am sure that had Kolesov received the message at the time of our interview, he would have ordered my arrest; but such things moved very slowly in the Turkestan Government, and it was usually a couple of days before a message had been decoded and brought up for action. This was the 20th, and events might be expected at any moment.
To The Mountains
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

I Had been in Tashkent more than two months before these events happened. Apart from the soldier of the 11th Bengal Lancers who only brought private letters, I had received no communication from India or Kashgar except the wireless message ordering my return, and even this had been kept from me by the authorities and I had only heard of it secretly from not entirely reliable sources. I believed that the British force which had been supporting anti-Bolshevik Russians near Merv was coming on to Tashkent. How easy it would have been and what a welcome they would have had! I had received no news of any kind from them, consequently I was in the dark as to their intentions.
Spring Activities
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

On March 27th a special train was sent from Tashkent to Moscow with any foreigners who wished to leave the country.

I was sorry to lose several friends, though I had not seen much of them lately. The greatest loss was that of Tredwell who had been in constant touch with me and whose support and encouragement had been of great value and comfort, and whose help, if l had been captured, might have been invaluable.
Back To The Mountains
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

Private teaching such as that given by a governess was not allowed, being, as we all know, the worst form ofbouryoui activity which eventually leads to exploitation, imperialism, speculation and various other dreadful wickednesses. Private teaching, therefore, was forbidden. Many (especially Czech) prisoners of war were earning a little money by teaching music and foreign languages — among these Chuka, whose passport I had once held. A drive against this undemocratic· activity was carried out in September 1919. The teacher was called a speculator and the employer abourjoui. If you want either to learn or to teach, you should go to a school open to all. Teaching had to be on special lines; for instance in the teaching of history no mention could be made of kings. At the same time education was very keenly advocated and pushed forward. The streets were placarded with notices: ‘Education will be the saving of the Revolution’, ‘Get yourself educated’, etc. etc.
Frontier Skirmish
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

We were now nearing the Persian frontier. Wells and inhabitants had been comparatively frequent. We left Gumbezli well at about nine in the evening and travelled along the direct and fairly well marked track leading to Sarakhs, the town on the Persian frontier. We could not travel directly there. A Russian town with a Bolshevik garrison stood on this side of the river which formed the frontier here. So after going for some way along this track, we left it and steered due west by the stars. We once passed a shepherd’s camp and hailed the people, asking them to let us have some grain for our horses. They were terrified of us and said they had none, that there was a well half an hour’s journey off in the direction we were taking, and that if we did not go at once they would shoot. We never found this well and I doubt whether it existed. This was serious, as we were getting desperate; we had given the very last of our grain to our ponies and had been hoping to buy some in this slightly more populous region. Soon after this we crossed a track of real desert twenty versts wide, on which nothing grew. The people called it Kerk, but whether this was a name for this peculiar type of land or the name of the locality I did not find out. We could not halt on this as there was no fuel and it was terribly cold. There was a moon shortly after midnight. By its light we saw that we crossed a well-worn track cutting across our direction. Our guides knew this and said it led to Sarakhs. At two-forty a.m. we came on saxaul bushes again and halted, lit fires, warmed ourselves and slept. The Russians spent a long time preparing tea, time which I think would have been better spent in sleep. We had travelled sixty-four versts this day — about forty-two miles.
Summer–Autumn 1940
Authors: Diamond Hanna
Published: November 2023

Awitness, then a child living in the small village in the Pyrenees, wrote the following account of the departure of the refugees from Trie-sur-Blaise:In July those going to other areas of the non-Occupied Zone departed. The proper process of repatriation took place in August. The people from Verdun who were staying with me left on 6 August by train. The Belgians who were with my grandmother went to Lourdes on 8 August and from there were taken back to Belgium in coaches. Some wrote back that the return journey was much harder than the exodus had been. Departures were spread out across the whole of August. Some stayed much longer, notably the foreign Jews who lived off American subsidies until they were rounded up and we never heard from them again.
Crashing out
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

Sleepiness can be fatal during driving. In fact, this is the most likely reason why sleepiness and sleep loss is harmful to health, and is a topic of much public interest and one where sleep research can be of particular benefit to society. Much of my own work has been in this area and is the reason why this chapter delves into what, at first glance, may seem to be straightforward issues. Until recently, and on dull and monotonous roads, such as UK motorways, US freeways, and European autobahns, many sleep-related crashes were simply attributed to ‘driver error’ or ‘inattention’. It is only in the last few years, with more careful investigations, that it has been realized that there is often more to this inattention than meets the eye, and in the UK, at least, falling asleep at the wheel accounts for around one in five crashes on these dull and monotonous roads.
Time travellers
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

About one in six working adults is a shift worker of one sort or another, and on various shift patterns. It takes about 10 days of continuous nights for the body clock and sleep to become fully adapted to night work, sleeping normally by day. Unfortunately, this is impractical for all except those who enjoy being on permanent nights. One alternative is for a rapidly rotating shift system, with no more than two, perhaps three, successive periods on any one shift. The body clock cannot possibly adapt to this and simply gives up doing so, staying where it is, and one copes as best as one can. Until recently one of the most common shift patterns was an eight-hour, rapidly rotating shift system of ‘earlies’ (starting about 6am), ‘lates’ (2pm), and nights (10pm), entailing two or three periods on each shift. It has the advantage not only of allowing for some additional overtime, but of being able to incorporate at least 24 hours (including a good recovery sleep) for a changeover from one shift to another.
REM sleep
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

The link between eye movements and dreaming was first suggested a long time ago, with one of the earliest accounts appearing in 1892, from a Professor G.T. Ladd, a professor of mental and moral philosophy at Yale University. He reported, through pure introspection about his own sleep, that during deep dreamless sleep his eyes were stationary, but during dreaming sleep he was ‘inclined also to believe that, in somewhat vivid visual dreams, the eyeballs move gently in their sockets, taking various positions . . .’. How he came up with this idea is a mystery because neither Ladd nor his associates actually watched the eyes of sleepers.
Or REM wakefulness?
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

Earlier, I mentioned that the similarity between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and wakefulness is the reason why, for most other mammals, REM sleep is also called ‘paradoxical’ sleep. Whereas the EEG of human REM sleep is slightly different, being more like that of very light sleep, in both humans and other mammals there are striking similarities between REM sleep and wakefulness. For example, other types of EEG activity in the brain, called ‘gamma’ and ‘hippocampal theta’ waves, normally found in alert wakefulness, are also to be seen in REM sleep, but not in the remainder of (non-REM) sleep. Hip- pocampal theta appears when an animal intends to move, and gamma activity indicates that different parts of the cortex are co ordinating themselves for action.
The long, the short, and the less
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

With good sleepers of any age there will be some who naturally sleep longer or shorter than the average, and I am excluding those who have insomnia. For adults aged between 20 and 70 years, the average sleep is between 7 and 8 hours a night, and this is what we found in our study of 400 people (see Chapter 12). In fact, the average sleep length was about 7 hours 10 minutes for men and 7 hours 30 minutes for women. Women reporting sleeping around 20 minutes longer than men is a common finding worldwide. Figure 15 shows the distribution of this sleep for all our participants, who reported their nightly sleep lengths for a total of 5,718 nights out of the possible 6,000.
Are we chronically sleep deprived?
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

So began the British Medical Journal editorial of 29 September 1894 (p 719). All that needs to be done is to change the writing style a little to fit the modern idiom and the message is fit for today!

Increasingly, it is being claimed that seven to seven and a half hours of sleep per night, typical for many healthy adults, is insufficient, and that chronic sleep debt is becoming endemic in western populations. Seemingly, many of us are largely unaware of this apparent chronic sleepiness, and to avoid this state of affairs we should be taking up to nine hours of daily sleep. It is perhaps ironic that, whereas many physicians are prepared to believe a patient’s self- diagnosis of insomnia, and then to prescribe treatment without any further assessment, a healthy person not complaining of sleepiness or inadequate sleep may have this opinion disregarded in favour of a chronic sleep debt and be professionally advised to take more sleep.
On Horseback Through Asia Minor
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

In the savage winter of 1876 Captain Frederick Burnaby rode 1,000 miles eastwards from Constantinople to see for himself what the Russians were up to in this remote corner of the Great Game battelfield. With wars between Turkey and Russia imminent, he wanted to discover, among other things, whether the Sultan's armies were capable of resisting a determined Tsarist thrust towards Constantinople. Frederick Gustav Burnaby was no ordinary officer. For a start he was reputed to be the strongest man in the British Army. Nor was he all brawn, being fluent in seven languages and possessing a vigorous and colourful prose style--as readers of this Great Game classic will discover. With his servant Radford, he spent five months riding across some of the cruellest winter landscape in the world before hastening home to write this best-seller.
chapter VIII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE road became more level. We encountered caravans of camels, the animals not being led by a cord attached to a peg through the nose, but by a halter loosely fastened round the neck.

They were fine beasts and covered with shaggy hair. This, I was informed, is cut off them at certain seasons in the year, and is then converted into a material for tents and rugs. Each caravan was headed by a man riding a donkey, the pace of the latter being if anything a little superior to that of the huge camels behind them.

We continued along the left bank of the river Sakaria, a rapid stream, sixty yards wide and with steep banks; presently we crossed it on a stone bridge, very much out of repair. The centre part had fallen away. This had been replaced by wooden beams covered with loose earth. Presently we came to a large valley abounding with corn, vines, and mulberrytrees, and I halted for the night in the village of Geiweh. The Mudir, a sort of local mayor, came out to meet us, and insisted that I should be his guest. He was a very communicative man, and informed me that Yakoob Khan was about to bring an army of 50,000 men to assist the Sultan.
chapter XIII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

BY this time the guests had consumed many cigarettes, smoked numerous Nargilehs, and drank freely of the liqueurs. The host, rising, proposed that we should adjourn to the dining-room. There we found three musicians with instruments much resembling banjos.

“We are to have some music,” said the Bey, the Pacha’s son, who was one of the guests. “I am afraid that it will not be much to your taste. Our melodies are very different to those which you are accustomed to hear in Europe.”

He was quite right; Turkish melodies are very different. There is a wildness and pathos about many of them which strikes the stranger accustomed to the more regular measure which distinguishes European music. Now they resounded so plaintively that the guests involuntarily ceased talking. Another instant the instruments, bursting forth with a startling crash, half deafened us with the clamour.
chapter XXVI
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE following day I walked across the square to the prison. I had not said anything to the authorities in Sivas about my intended visit to this establishment. I wished to see it under its everyday aspect, and at the same time to find out if there were so many Christians prisoners as the Armenians in Yuzgat would have had me believe.

I found the gaoler seated in the doorway, he was smoking a long pipe.

“Can I see the prison?” I asked. “Certainly, Effendi.”

Going before me, he led the way to a lofty but narrow room. Here there were twenty-seven prisoners, clothed in rags and tatters; each man had his wrist fastened to his instep by a light iron chain. No gaoler slept in this room with the prisoners. They would not have had any difficulty in freeing themselves from their manacles had they tried to do so.
chapter XXVIII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE following day I rode to an Armenian monastery, which is known by the name of the Monastery of Nishan or of the Cross. It stands on a rising slope, about two miles from Sivas. Its Gothic towers, more than 500 years old, look down upon the town and neighbouring villages, and can be seen for many miles around.

A large garden, over thirty acres in extent, enclosed by a high wall made of dry clay, supplies the monks with fruit and vegetables. It bounds the monastery upon one side; on the other there are several farms, which furnish cattle, sheep, and such other live stock as may be required.

A long low passage with damp walls led the way, with many a winding turn, to the apartment which had been reserved for my use.
chapter XXXI
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE baggage-horse was very little the worse for his long march of ten hours on the previous day. Yarbasan was not a lively place to stop at; I determined to push on to Divriki.

We passed a range of hills-red-coloured stones lying in profusion along the track-and, descending a deep incline, arrived on the banks of the river Dumrudja (Kumer Su), a rapid stream, here about fifty yards wide. A quantity of wood was floating on the waters. This had been cut in the pine-forests higher up the channel, and afterwards been tossed into the river to find its way to Divriki. There was no bridge over the stream, the water being more than four feet deep. A consultation took place amongst the Zaptiehs.
chapter XLV
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

IT was bitterly cold at Erzeroum. The thermometer had fallen below zero. The half-clad recruits could be seen running up and down in front of their barracks, endeavouring to keep themselves warm. There were at that time about 12,000 troops in the town. The number was continually changing, every week fresh battalions of redifs arrived from the interior, and then the older soldiers were marched off in the direction of Bayazid, Kars, or Ardahan.
chapter XLVI
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

WHEN I arrived at Mr. Zohrab’s residence, I found that gentleman and his boys, two English-looking lads with ruddy cheeks, prepared for a journey to the centre of the earth, if the subterranean passage would only lead us there; and riding by a Turkish cemetery, which is just on the outskirts of Erzeroum, we proceeded onward towards our destination-a hill a short distance from the walls of the city.
chapter LII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

WE turned our backs upon Mount Ararat, and, ascending a low range of hills covered with loose rocks and boulders, arrived at a Yezeed (devil-worshippers) village. The houses were built in the sides of a hill. Cone-shaped huts made of tezek, and filled with that fuel, showed that the inhabitants had no objection to heat in this world, however hot they might expect to be in the next.
chapter LVI
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

I ARRIVED at the bazaar. It is a very large building, arched over in many places, and here and there is constructed of bricks. It was a hot afternoon. The bazaar was delightfully cool; many of the inhabitants had gone there merely with the object of lying in the shade. At almost every step we took, we came upon the forms of some recumbent Persians. It was rather dark. The idlers’ ribs must have suffered. A muttered curse would be the only sign of the men’s disgust; they would turn over and be asleep again in another minute.
chapter LVIII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE following morning I walked with the commandant to see the artillery at practice. The drill was fairly done. The guns were horsed with fine-looking animals from 15-3 to 16 hands high, mostly greys, and brought from European Turkey. The officer who commanded took great pride in his battery. A few hours after the drill was over, he accompanied me through the stables. The steel was bright, and the harness In the official’s opinion 23,000 liras would cover the entire loss; and from what I afterwards saw of the ruins of the bazaar, and judging from the small area over which they extended, I am inclined to believe that he had fairly estimated the damage. The Armenian newspapers, probably instigated by Russian agents, had declared that the Turkish troops stationed in Van had first set fire to the bazaar, and then pillaged it in the confusion. The commissioner, after the most searching inquiries, was unable to discover that the troops were in any way implicated in the affair. Several Armenians kept petroleum and lucifer matches in their warehouses: his idea was that the fire originated either by spontaneous combustion, or through some one accidentally dropping a lighted match.
chapter LXI
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

MY landlord was not a sweet creature to look upon. The sheik who was his guest had a still more forbidding countenance; the latter gentleman, with his deep-set eyes, high, narrow forehead, coming almost to a point where it reached his skull, and long cockatoo-like nose, having a very demoniacal appearance. My host had two daughters, who had been deputed to wait upon the sheikh. They followed him about like spaniels, and vied with each other in obeying his commands.
The Military Orders,1312–1798
Authors: Luttrell Anthony
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the fourteenth century the formal status of the professed members of a military order of the Latin church had changed little since these organizations had originated in the twelfth century, despite the progressive codification of canon law and the passing of new statutes and other legislation within individual orders.
Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Siberry Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

After the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, the immediate threat of a Turkish invasion of central Europe had passed. It was therefore possible to take a more relaxed view of the Muslim East. The letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689– 1762), wife of a British ambassador to the Ottoman court at Constantinople, which described details of Turkish life, proved popular when published in 1763, and there was a club known as the Divan Club, reserved for those such as the elegant Sir Francis Dashwood (1708–81), who had been to the Ottoman Empire.
Danger and Desperation
Authors: Robinson Jane
Published: November 2023

Poor Mrs Judson: there was nothing she could do but endure the loneliness. For some women—like the lady from whom you will hear first—the whole business of being an emigrant involved endurance. Being away from home was a bloody nuisance from start to (longed-for) finish, and the best way to get through it was to close the eyes, grit the teeth, lie back, and think of England.
Fascism
Authors: Griffin Roger
Published: November 2023

When this century was stillyoung, a brand-new ideological force which came to be known as ‘fascism’ burst upon a Europe just recovering from the body-blows of the First World War and the Russian Revolution. Before long it had brutally put paid to any dreams which liberals, democratic socialists, and communists might have had that a new era of international progress and harmony had dawned in the wake of so much pointless suffering and death. It might have seemed that after the horrors of Nazism and the Second World War the time of fascism had passed, yet it hassurvived to become a permanent, if generally highly marginalized, partof the political subcultures of most Westemized countries. Indeed, as we approach the end of the twentieth century it appears to be actually increasing in virulence wherever local socio-economic conditions fail to sustain the ideal of the multiethnic civil society. It even shows signs of contaminating the discourse of a number of party politicians of the extreme and not-so-extreme right on matters of immigration and cultural identity.
Ugo spirito, Fascist Corporativlsm as the Key to a New International Order
Authors: Griffin Roger
Published: November 2023

The distinctiveness of the new corporative concept when compared to liberalism and socialism can perhaps be seen best in the international sphere. If the term international is taken to mean in concrete terms the relationship between nations, it can definitely be asserted that only under corporativism can there be any serious talk of an ‘International’. The liberal and socialist international were really only anti-national. The truth of this assertion is demonstrated especially in economics, where the major problem has emerged and various solutions have been attempted. The laissezfaire school of traditional economics denied the existence of frontiers and therefore of nations: at least as far as everything to do with economic life is concerned (that is, the immediately concrete and visible interests of each citizen), the nation has no significance.
Introduction
Authors: Griffin Roger
Published: November 2023

he General Introduction to this volume has already set out the criteria which have been used to distinguish fascist from non-fascist movements. Accordingly Part III omits the many authoritarian and ‘para-fascist’ regimes so often referred to asfascist, especially by the left, such as Franco’s Spain and Peron’s Argentina. It also ignores the ‘foreign’ Fascist and Nazi groups which could be found wherever there were significant concentrationsof expatriate Italians and Germans (which could be as far afield as the USA, Canada, and Australia). Similarly it takes no account of the essentially mimetic (and in the main negligible) fascist movements modelled on Fascism or Nazism which surfaced in the inter-war period in countries not referred to here, such as Iceland, the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Switzerland, even if the Sudeten-German and Austrian Nazi groups came to have a major role on political events. As for other movements closely associated with fascism: the Austrian Heimwehren (home defence leagues) have been omitted because in the main they stopped short of full-blown fascism, allowing themselves to be absorbed by the para-fascist regime of Dollfuss and Schuschnigg.
Towards a Critical Sociology of Freedom
Authors: Rose Nikolas
Published: November 2023

I want to propose that we distinguish freedom as a formula of resistance from freedom as a formula of power. I want to suggest some ways of understanding freedom in this second sense: freedom as it has been articulated into norms and principles for organizing our experience of our world and of ourselves; free¬ dom as it is realised in certain ways of exercising power over others; freedom as it has been articulated into certain rationales for practising in relation to ourselves. My concern, that is to say, is with freedom as it has been made technological. A critical sociology of freedom in this sense would examine the various ways in which these relations between power and freedom have been established.
Narratives of Class
Authors: Joyce Patrick
Published: November 2023

Recent research on the vocabulary of class suggests that this did not emanate chiefly from the new economic conditions and outlook of rapid industrialisation.’ The political context seems to have been crucial, particularly that of the period of the Napoleonic Wars (for the designation ‘middle class’) and that of the Reform agitation of the early 1830s, in which ‘middle’ and ‘working’ classes became equally prominent. Moderate opposition to war split the ranks of property, the liberal Friends of Peace, for instance, being led from the idea of a political middle to that of an economistic social middle as the putative hinge around which society was articulated. Appropriated by the Liberal opposition in the 1790s, Dror Wahrman argues that the terms of class had by the 1810s become directed against radicalism; the term ‘middle class’, for instance, be¬ coming politically tamer, and associated less with social critique and more with political stability and conservatism. In the early 1830s all political sides sought to appropriate the notion of the ‘middle class’ for themselves. Class identities were, therefore, a product of arguments about meanings, arguments which were primarily political in character. Class does not seem to have been the collective cultural experience of new economic classes produced by the Industrial Revolution.