bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
rRNA Mutations That Inhibit Transfer-Messenger RNA Activity on Stalled Ribosomes
Authors: Crandall Jacob , Rodriguez-Lopez Milagros , Pfeiffer Michael , Mortensen Bailey , Buskirk Allen
Published: November 2009

In eubacteria, stalled ribosomes are rescued by a conserved quality-control mechanism involving transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) and its protein partner, SmpB. Mimicking a tRNA, tmRNA enters stalled ribosomes, adds Ala to the nascent polypeptide, and serves as a template to encode a short peptide that tags the nascent protein for destruction. To further characterize the tagging process, we developed two genetic selections that link tmRNA activity to cell death. These negative selections can be used to identify inhibitors of tagging or to identify mutations in key residues essential for ribosome rescue. Little is known about which ribosomal elements are specifically required for tmRNA activity. Using these selections, we isolated rRNA mutations that block the rescue of ribosomes stalled at rare Arg codons or at the inefficient termination signal Pro-opal. We found that deletion of A1150 in the 16S rRNA blocked tagging regardless of the stalling sequence, suggesting that it inhibits tmRNA activity directly. The C889U mutation in 23S rRNA, however, lowered tagging levels at Pro-opal and rare Arg codons, but not at the 3′ end of an mRNA lacking a stop codon. We concluded that the C889U mutation does not inhibit tmRNA activityper sebut interferes with an upstream step intermediate between stalling and tagging. C889 is found in the A-site finger, where it interacts with the S13 protein in the small subunit (forming intersubunit bridge B1a).
Short-Term Signatures of Evolutionary Change in the
Salmonella enterica
Serovar Typhimurium 14028 Genome
Authors: Jarvik Tyler , Smillie Chris , Groisman Eduardo A. , Ochman Howard
Published: November 2009

Salmonella enterica
serovar Typhimurium is a Gram-negative pathogen that causes gastroenteritis in humans and a typhoid-like disease in mice and is often used as a model for the disease promoted by the human-adapted
S. enterica
serovar Typhi. Despite its health importance, the only
S.
Typhimurium strain for which the complete genomic sequence has been determined is the avirulent LT2 strain, which is extensively used in genetic and physiologic studies. Here, we report the complete genomic sequence of the
S.
Typhimurium strain 14028s, as well as those of its progenitor and two additional derivatives. Comparison of these
S.
Typhimurium genomes revealed differences in the patterns of sequence evolution and the complete inventory of genetic alterations incurred in virulent and avirulent strains, as well as the sequence changes accumulated during laboratory passage of pathogenic organisms.
The N-Terminal Transmembrane Domain of λ S Is Required for Holin but Not Antiholin Function
Authors: White Rebecca , Tran Tram Anh T. , Dankenbring Chelsey A. , Deaton John , Young Ry
Published: November 2009

The λ
S
gene encodes a holin, S105, and an antiholin, S107, which differs by its Met-Lys N-terminal extension. The model for the lysis-defective character of S107 stipulates that the additional N-terminal basic residue keeps S107 from assuming the topology of S105, which is N-out, C-in, with three transmembrane domains (TMDs). Here we show that the N terminus of S105 retains its fMet residue but that the N terminus of S107 is fully deformylated. This supports the model that in S105, TMD1 inserts into the membrane very rapidly but that in S107, it is retained in the cytoplasm. Further, it reveals that, compared to S105, S107 has two extra positively charged moieties, Lys2 and the free N-terminal amino group, to hinder its penetration into an energized membrane. Moreover, an allele,

S105
ΔTMD1

, with TMD1 deleted, was found to be defective in lysis, insensitive to membrane depolarization, and dominant to the wild-type allele, indicating that the lysis-defective, antiholin character of S107 is due to the absence of TMD1 from the bilayer rather than to its ectopic localization at the inner face of the cytoplasmic membrane. Finally, the antiholin function of the deletion protein was compromised by the substitution of early-lysis missense mutations in either the deletion protein or parental S105 but restored when both S105
ΔTMD1
and holin carried the substitution.
Bistable Expression of CsgD in Biofilm Development ofSalmonella entericaSerovar Typhimurium
Authors: Grantcharova Nina , Peters Verena , Monteiro Claudia , Zakikhany Katherina , Römling Ute
Published: November 2009

Bacterial persistence in the environment and in the infected host is often aided by the formation of exopolymer-enclosed communities known as biofilms. Heterogeneous gene expression takes place in microcompartments formed within the complex biofilm structure. This study describes cell differentiation within an isogenic bacterial cell population based on the example of biofilm formation bySalmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium. We analyzed the expression of the major biofilm regulator CsgD at the single-cell level with a chromosomal CsgD-green fluorescent protein (GFP) translational fusion. In individual cells, CsgD-GFP expression is mostly found in the cytoplasm. Quantitative expression analysis and results from three different models ofS.Typhimurium biofilms demonstrated that CsgD is expressed in a bistable manner during biofilm development. CsgD expression is, however, monomodal when CsgD is expressed in larger amounts due to a promoter mutation or elevated levels of the secondary signaling molecule c-di-GMP. High levels of CsgD-GFP are associated with cellular aggregation in all three biofilm models. Furthermore, the subpopulation of cells expressing large amounts of CsgD is engaged in cellulose production during red, dry, and rough (rdar) morphotype development and in microcolony formation under conditions of continuous flow. Consequently, bistability at the level of CsgD expression leads to a corresponding pattern of task distribution inS.Typhimurium biofilms.
Asbestos fibre dimensions and lung cancer mortality among workers exposed to chrysotile
Authors: Loomis Dana , Dement John , Richardson David , Wolf Susanne
Published: November 2009

Objectives

To estimate exposures to asbestos fibres of specific sizes among asbestos textile manufacturing workers exposed to chrysotile using data from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and to evaluate the extent to which the risk of lung cancer varies with fibre length and diameter.

Methods

3803 workers employed for at least 1 day between 1 January 1950 and 31 December 1973 in any of three plants in North Carolina, USA that produced asbestos textile products and followed for vital status through 31 December 2003 were included. Historical exposures to asbestos fibres were estimated from work histories and 3578 industrial hygiene measurements taken in 1935–1986. Exposure–response relationships for lung cancer were examined within the cohort using Poisson regression.

Results

Indicators of fibre length and diameter obtained by TEM were positively and significantly associated with increasing risk of lung cancer. Exposures to longer and thinner fibres tended to be most strongly associated with lung cancer, and models for these fibres fit the data best. Simultaneously modelling indicators of cumulative mean fibre length and diameter yielded a positive coefficient for fibre length and a negative coefficient for fibre diameter.

Conclusions

The results support the hypothesis that the risk of lung cancer among workers exposed to chrysotile asbestos increases with exposure to longer fibres. More research is needed to improve the characterisation of exposures by fibre size and number and to analyse the associated risks in a variety of industries and populations.
Evolution of scar structure, mechanics, and ventricular function after myocardial infarction in the rat
Authors: Fomovsky Gregory M. , Holmes Jeffrey W.
Published: November 2009

The mechanical properties of the healing scar are an important determinant of heart function following myocardial infarction. Yet the relationship between scar structure, scar mechanics, and ventricular function remains poorly understood, in part because no published study has tracked all of these factors simultaneously in any animal model. We therefore studied the temporal evolution of scar structure, scar mechanics, and left ventricular (LV) function in large anterior myocardial infarcts in rats. At 1, 2, 3, and 6 wk after left anterior descending coronary ligation, we examined LV function using sonomicrometry, infarct mechanical properties using biaxial mechanical testing, infarct structure using polarized light microscopy, and scar collagen content and cross-linking using biochemical assays. Healing infarcts in the rat were structurally and mechanically isotropic at all time points. Collagen content increased with time and was the primary determinant of scar mechanical properties. The presence of healing infarcts influenced systolic LV function through a rightward shift of the end-systolic pressure-volume relationship (ESPVR) that depended on infarct size, infarct collagen content, and LV dilation. We conclude that in sharp contrast to previous reports in large animal models, healing infarcts are structurally and mechanically isotropic in the standard rat model of myocardial infarction. On the basis of the regional strain patterns we observed in healing rat infarcts in this study and in healing pig infarcts in previous studies, we hypothesize that the local pattern of stretching determines collagen alignment in healing myocardial infarct scars.
Bradykinin and thromboxane A2reciprocally interact to synergistically stimulate cardiac spinal afferents during myocardial ischemia
Authors: Fu Liang-Wu , Longhurst John C.
Published: November 2009

Myocardial ischemia is a complex process leading to the simultaneous release of a number of mediators, including thromboxane A2(TxA2) and bradykinin (BK), that activate cardiac spinal afferents. The present study tested the hypothesis that TxA2and BK reciprocally interact to excite ischemically sensitive cardiac afferents. Nerve activity of single cardiac afferent units was recorded from the left sympathetic chain or rami communicantes (T2–T5) of anesthetized cats. Fifty-two ischemically sensitive afferents (conduction velocity = 0.27–3.35 m/s, 7 Aδ-fibers and 45 C-fibers) were identified. Repeated injections (1 μg) of BK into the left atrium (LA) 4 min after the administration of U-46619 (5 μg into the LA), a TxA2mimetic, induced a significantly larger cardiac afferent response than the first response to BK (0.61 ± 0.14 to 1.95 ± 0.29 vs. 0.66 ± 0.09 to 2.75 ± 0.34 impulses/s, first injection vs. second injection, n = 8). Conversely, blockade of TxA2receptors with BM-13,177 (30 mg/kg iv) attenuated the responses of eight other afferents to BK (1 μg into the LA) by 45%. In contrast, repeated BK (1 μg into the LA) induced consistent discharge activity in six separate afferents. We then observed that the coadministration of U-46619 (5 μg) and BK (1 μg into the LA) together caused a total response that was significantly higher than the predicted response by the simple addition of the individual responses. BK (1 μg) facilitated eight cardiac afferent responses to U-46619 (5 μg into the LA) by 64%. In contrast, repeated U-46619 (5 μg into the LA) without intervening BK stimulation evoked consistent responses in seven other ischemically sensitive afferents. Finally, inhibition of cyclooxygenase with indomethacin (5 mg/kg iv) eliminated the potentiating effects of BK on the cardiac afferent response to U-46619 (5 μg into the LA) but did not alter the afferent response to U-46619. These data suggest that BK and TxA2reciprocally interact to stimulate ischemically sensitive cardiac afferent endings leading to synergistic afferent responses and that the BK sensitization effect is mediated by cyclooxygenase products.
Upregulation of Na+and Ca2+transporters in arterial smooth muscle from ouabain-induced hypertensive rats
Authors: Pulina Maria V. , Zulian Alessandra , Berra-Romani Roberto , Beskina Olga , Mazzocco-Spezzia Amparo , Baryshnikov Sergey G. , Papparella Italia , Hamlyn John M. , Blaustein Mordecai P. , Golovina Vera A.
Published: November 2009

Prolonged ouabain administration (25 μg·kg−1·day−1for 5 wk) induces “ouabain hypertension” (OH) in rats, but the molecular mechanisms by which ouabain elevates blood pressure are unknown. Here, we compared Ca2+signaling in mesenteric artery smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) from normotensive (NT) and OH rats. Resting cytosolic free Ca2+concentration ([Ca2+]cyt; measured with fura-2) and phenylephrine-induced Ca2+transients were augmented in freshly dissociated OH ASMCs. Immunoblots revealed that the expression of the ouabain-sensitive α2-subunit of Na+pumps, but not the predominant, ouabain-resistant α1-subunit, was increased (2.5-fold vs. NT ASMCs) as was Na+/Ca2+exchanger-1 (NCX1; 6-fold vs. NT) in OH arteries. Ca2+entry, activated by sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+store depletion with cyclopiazonic acid (SR Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor) or caffeine, was augmented in OH ASMCs. This reflected an augmented expression of 2.5-fold in OH ASMCs of C-type transient receptor potential TRPC1, an essential component of store-operated channels (SOCs); two other components of some SOCs were not expressed (TRPC4) or were not upregulated (TRPC5). Ba2+entry activated by the diacylglycerol analog 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl- sn-glycerol [a measure of receptor-operated channel (ROC) activity] was much greater in OH than NT ASMCs. This correlated with a sixfold upregulation of TRPC6 protein, a ROC family member. Importantly, in primary cultured mesenteric ASMCs from normal rats, 72-h treatment with 100 nM ouabain significantly augmented NCX1 and TRPC6 protein expression and increased resting [Ca2+]cytand ROC activity. SOC activity was also increased. Silencer RNA knockdown of NCX1 markedly downregulated TRPC6 and eliminated the ouabain-induced augmentation; silencer RNA knockdown of TRPC6 did not affect NCX1 expression but greatly attenuated its upregulation by ouabain. Clearly, NCX1 and TRPC6 expression are interrelated. Thus, prolonged ouabain treatment upregulates the Na+pump α2-subunit-NCX1-TRPC6 (ROC) Ca2+signaling pathway in arterial myocytes in vitro as well as in vivo. This may explain the augmented myogenic responses and enhanced phenylephrine-induced vasoconstriction in OH arteries ( 83 ) as well as the high blood pressure in OH rats.
Modulation of cardiac output alters the mechanisms of the muscle metaboreflex pressor response
Authors: Ichinose Masashi J. , Sala-Mercado Javier A. , Coutsos Matthew , Li ZhenHua , Ichinose Tomoko K. , Dawe Elizabeth , O'Leary Donal S.
Published: November 2009

Muscle metaboreflex activation during submaximal dynamic exercise in normal subjects elicits a pressor response primarily due to increased cardiac output (CO). However, when the ability to increase CO is limited, such as in heart failure or during maximal exercise, the muscle metaboreflex-induced increases in arterial pressure occur via peripheral vasoconstriction. How the mechanisms of this pressor response are altered is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that this change in metaboreflex function is dependent on the level of CO. The muscle metaboreflex was activated in dogs during mild dynamic exercise (3.2 km/h) via a partial reduction of hindlimb blood flow. Muscle metaboreflex activation increased CO and arterial pressure, whereas vascular conductance of all areas other than the hindlimbs did not change. CO was then reduced to the same level observed during exercise before the muscle metaboreflex activation via partial occlusion of the inferior and superior vena cavae. Arterial pressure dropped rapidly with the reduction in CO but, subsequently, nearly completely recovered. With the removal of the muscle metaboreflex-induced rise in CO, substantial peripheral vasoconstriction occurred that maintained arterial pressure at the same levels as before CO reduction. Therefore, the muscle metaboreflex function is nearly instantaneously shifted from increased CO to increased vasoconstriction when the muscle metaboreflex-induced rise in CO is removed. We conclude that whether vasoconstriction occurs with muscle metaboreflex depends on whether CO rises.
Strain-dependent activation of NF-κB in the airway epithelium and its role in allergic airway inflammation
Authors: Alcorn John F. , Ckless Karina , Brown Amy L. , Guala Amy S. , Kolls Jay K. , Poynter Matthew E. , Irvin Charles G. , van der Vliet Albert , Janssen-Heininger Yvonne M. W.
Published: November 2009

NF-κB activation in the airway epithelium has been established as a critical pathway in ovalbumin (Ova)-induced airway inflammation in BALB/c mice (Poynter ME, Cloots R, van Woerkom T, Butnor KJ, Vacek P, Taatjes DJ, Irvin CG, Janssen-Heininger YM. J Immunol 173: 7003–7009, 2004). BALB/c mice are susceptible to the development of allergic airway disease, whereas other strains of mice, such as C57BL/6, are considered more resistant. The goal of the present study was to determine the proximal signals required for NF-κB activation in the airway epithelium in allergic airway disease and to unravel whether these signals are strain-dependent. Our previous studies, conducted in the BALB/c mouse background, demonstrated that transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative version of IκBα in the airway epithelium (CC10-IκBαSR) were protected from Ova-induced inflammation. In contrast to these earlier observations, we demonstrate here that CC10-IκBαSR transgenic mice on the C57BL/6 background were not protected from Ova-induced allergic airway inflammation. Consistent with this finding, Ova-induced nuclear localization of the RelA subunit of NF-κB was not observed in C57BL/6 mice, in contrast to the marked nuclear presence of RelA in BALB/c mice. Evaluation of cytokine profiles in bronchoalveolar lavage demonstrated elevated expression of TNF-α in BALB/c mice compared with C57BL/6 mice after an acute challenge with Ova. Finally, neutralization of TNF-α by a blocking antibody prevented nuclear localization of RelA in BALB/c mice after Ova challenge. These data suggest that the mechanism of response of the airway epithelium of immunized C57BL/6 mice to antigen challenge is fundamentally different from that of immunized BALB/c mice and highlight the potential importance of TNF-α in regulating epithelial NF-κB activation in allergic airway disease.
Chronic hypoxia augments depolarization-induced Ca2+sensitization in pulmonary vascular smooth muscle through superoxide-dependent stimulation of RhoA
Authors: Broughton Brad R. S. , Jernigan Nikki L. , Norton Charles E. , Walker Benjimen R. , Resta Thomas C.
Published: November 2009

Rho kinase (ROCK)-dependent vasoconstriction has been implicated as a major factor in chronic hypoxia (CH)-induced pulmonary hypertension. This component of pulmonary hypertension is associated with arterial myogenicity and increased vasoreactivity to receptor-mediated agonists and depolarizing stimuli resulting from ROCK-dependent myofilament Ca2+sensitization. On the basis of separate lines of evidence that CH increases pulmonary arterial superoxide (O2−) generation and that O2−stimulates RhoA/ROCK signaling in vascular smooth muscle (VSM), we hypothesized that depolarization-induced O2−generation mediates enhanced RhoA-dependent Ca2+sensitization in pulmonary VSM following CH. To test this hypothesis, we determined effects of the ROCK inhibitor HA-1077 and the O2−-specific spin trap tiron on vasoconstrictor reactivity to depolarizing concentrations of KCl in isolated lungs and Ca2+-permeabilized, pressurized small pulmonary arteries from control and CH (4 wk at 0.5 atm) rats. Using the same vessel preparation, we examined effects of CH on KCl-dependent VSM membrane depolarization and O2−generation using sharp electrodes and the fluorescent indicator dihydroethidium, respectively. Finally, using a RhoA-GTP pull-down assay, we investigated the contribution of O2−to depolarization-induced RhoA activation. We found that CH augmented KCl-dependent vasoconstriction through a Ca2+sensitization mechanism that was inhibited by HA-1077 and tiron. Furthermore, CH caused VSM membrane depolarization that persisted with increasing concentrations of KCl, enhanced KCl-induced O2−generation, and augmented depolarization-dependent RhoA activation in a O2−-dependent manner. These findings reveal a novel mechanistic link between VSM membrane depolarization, O2−generation, and RhoA activation that mediates enhanced myofilament Ca2+sensitization and pulmonary vasoconstriction following CH.
Shear stress stimulates nitric oxide signaling in pulmonary arterial endothelial cells via a reduction in catalase activity: role of protein kinase Cδ
Authors: Kumar Sanjiv , Sud Neetu , Fonseca Fabio V. , Hou Yali , Black Stephen M.
Published: November 2009

Previous studies have indicated that acute increases in shear stress can stimulate endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity through increased PI3 kinase/Akt signaling and phosphorylation of Ser1177. However, the mechanism by which shear stress activates this pathway has not been adequately resolved nor has the potential role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) been evaluated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine if shear-mediated increases in ROS play a role in stimulating Ser1177 phosphorylation and NO signaling in pulmonary arterial endothelial cells (PAEC) exposed to acute increases in shear stress. Our initial studies demonstrated that although shear stress did not increase superoxide levels in PAEC, there was an increase in H2O2levels. The increases in H2O2were associated with a decrease in catalase activity but not protein levels. In addition, we found that acute shear stress caused an increase in eNOS phosphorylation at Ser1177 phosphorylation and a decrease in phosphorylation at Thr495. We also found that the overexpression of catalase significantly attenuated the shear-mediated increases in H2O2, phospho-Ser1177 eNOS, and NO generation. Further investigation identified a decrease in PKCδ activity in response to shear stress, and the overexpression of PKCδ attenuated the shear-mediated decrease in Thr495 phosphorylation and the increase in NO generation, and this led to increased eNOS uncoupling. PKCδ overexpression also attenuated Ser1177 phosphorylation through a posttranslational increase in catalase activity, mediated via a serine phosphorylation event, reducing shear-mediated increases in H2O2. Together, our data indicate that shear stress decreases PKCδ activity, altering the phosphorylation pattern catalase, leading to decreased catalase activity and increased H2O2signaling, and this in turn leads to increases in phosphorylation of eNOS at Ser1177 and NO generation.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and neutrophil infiltration: role of cigarette smoke and cyclooxygenase products
Authors: Profita Mirella , Sala Angelo , Bonanno Anna , Riccobono Loredana , Ferraro Maria , La Grutta Stefania , Albano Giusy Daniela , Montalbano Angela Marina , Gjomarkaj Mark
Published: November 2009

Cigarette smoke is the main cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), where it can contribute to the observed airway inflammation. PGE2is produced within human airways, and both pro- and anti-inflammatory activities have been reported. We quantitated PGE2concentrations in induced sputum supernatants from different groups of subjects and correlated the obtained values to neutrophil infiltration as well as to the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Cigarette smoke extract (CSE) was used to evaluate the effect of smoking on COX-2 and PGE2receptor expression as well as on PGE2release in neutrophils and alveolar macrophages (AM) obtained from normal donors. The effects of PGE2and of PGE receptor agonists and antagonists were evaluated on the adhesion of neutrophil to a human bronchial epithelial cell line (16HBE). PGE2levels, COX-2 expression, and neutrophil infiltration were significantly higher in normal smokers and COPD smokers ( P < 0.0001) compared with controls and COPD former smokers. Induced sputum supernatant caused neutrophil adhesion to 16HBE that was significantly reduced, in COPD smokers only, by PGE2immunoprecipitation. In vitro experiments confirmed that CSE increased PGE2release and COX-2 and PGE2receptor expression in neutrophils and AM; PGE2enhanced the adhesion of neutrophils to 16HBE, and a specific E-prostanoid 4 (EP4) receptor antagonist blunted its effect. These results suggest that CSE promote the induction of COX-2 and contributes to the proinflammatory effects of PGE2in the airways of COPD subjects.
3. The Community Context in Political Newswriting
Authors: Dovring Karin
Published: November 2009

An important distinction exists between totalitarian and democratic news-handling. But the mass society causes both to simplify news and immerse it in a community myth. Content analysis must reach this myth-fact syndrome, while remaining quantitative.
4. Validity of Records in the South Seas
Authors: Meller Norman
Published: November 2009

In the isles of the Pacific tropics the informal approach to living is paralleled by an equally informal approach to the matters of government and government reports.
6. The Administrative Assistant
Authors: Barber Bernard
Published: November 2009

A tentative analysis of the formal and informal behavior of the increasingly encountered phenomenon of the "administrative assistant," with suggestions for study. Describes the conflict resulting as "selflessness" is required of men in a position of vantage. Some of the perplexities created in the hierarchy are also indicated.
12. A Program of Legal and Political Philosophy
Authors: Thompson Kenneth W.
Published: November 2009

An outline of the objectives of the Rockefeller Foundation's program in stimulating speculative thought on law and politics.
13. The Research Program of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
Authors: Marcy Carl
Published: November 2009

PROD is interested in the full development of the great potential of committees of the Congress for systematic social research (see "Congress and the Support of Behavioral Science," in Vol. I, No. 5, May 1958). The work of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, published below, is therefore of double interest to our readers: it invites their research plans and it documents the research possibilities inherent in the legislative branch of government.
Constitutionalizing the Corporation
Authors: Miller Arthur S.
Published: November 2009

A favorable legal climate has resulted in corporate concentrations (including labor unions) that, as private governments, wield power over individuals and large social sectors. If these private power centers are to be moderated they must be constitutionalized, that is, they must be brought within the ambit of the constitutional concept of State action. Judicial and other means of doing so need study. The author is presently undertaking such a study at the request of The Fund for the Republic, and invites suggestions and criticisms.
The Social Sciences at Yale
Authors: Miller John Perry
Published: November 2009

This article, one of three in this issue originating at Yale, presents a kaleidoscope of the state and development of social science in and among the several fields. Graduate training at Yale is flourishing and there is a luxuriant growth of interdisciplinary projects. The writer also suggests that more social scientists turn to the study of universities themselves, as well as armies, corporations and governments. An earlier form of the article appeared in the Yale alumni bulletin.
Societal Coordination by Occupational Leaders
Authors: Kriesberg Louis
Published: November 2009

"Leaders of various occupational groups, as compared to the rank-and-file members of the occupational groups, are more likely to accept the legitimacy of other occupational groups and their leaders, and/or are more tolerant in general, and/or are actually more similar to other leaders than the rank-and-file are like their counterparts in other occupational groups." This would seem to conflict with Whyte's " organization man" thesis about leader's conformity. The author suggests leader and ordinary-member comparisons in a number of groups and case studies of policy formation in such groups.
Outline of a Typology of Adherence to Communism
Authors: Braga Giorgio
Published: November 2009

An Italian scholar, Giorgio Braga, here presents a model by which to analyze Communistic expansion in industrialized and non-industrialized nations. He distinguishes between traumatic tensions, which result from unemployment and poverty, and "paretian" tensions, which arise from a lack of social mobility. There are various responses to trauma, e.g., submission, aggression and evasion. In these terms he discusses tensions in contemporary and historical societies, and considers the means by which Communism and other political and social movements try to resolve them. Natural and functional elites in working-class movements are analyzed, with special references to Communist elites.
Practical Introduction to Notarial Sociology
Authors: Poisson Jean-Paul
Published: November 2009

Notarial records, which have been maintained for many centures in a number of European countries, contain a wealth of data that is just beginning to be used in social scientific research. In France such work is being done by members of a new discipline, notarial sociology. Sociological, economic, demographic and psychological questions that can be answered by notarial data are suggested, and methods of studying marriage contracts, acts of sale and acts of loan are outlined.
Freudianism-A Reactionary Manifestation of Bourgeois Ideology
Authors: Fedotov D.
Published: November 2009

Among the many Soviet artifacts brought back recently by Dr. Hadley Cantril is this article, in which Professor Fedotov deplores the biological determinism and "historical idealism" of Freudian theory. A number of subtle anti-scientific tricks characterize the writing; the main point for those not alone interested in the physiological cortex is that "scientific materialism" is "bell, book and candle." Interestingly, after severely criticizing the Freudian concept of the subconscious, the author calls upon Soviet scientists to investigate many of the features of the subconscious that intrigue the Freudians.
The University and Contract Research
Authors:   The Academic Freedom Committee, American Civil Liberties Union
Published: November 2009

PROD presents here the full text of a statement released on November 24, 1959, by the Academic Freedom Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union. Committee members chiefly responsible for the substance of the report are Julian Sturtevant (chemistry, Yale), Lyle Borst ( physics, N. Y. U.), and Arthur Murphy, committee co-counsel. They outline the effects of contract research on the university, and ask, "Is it in the interest of society to permit the universities to lose a large measure of their authority in shaping the development of their own affairs?" The objective review of the situation for which they call falls well within the scope of the political researcher.
The Quantitative Content Analysis of Judicial Opinions
Authors: Kort Fred
Published: November 2009

Some rules of law can be restated in quantitative terms. Their quantitative restatement provides a precise understanding of their meaning, which cannot be obtained from their conventional verbal statement, and it permits predictions about their application that-without a reliance on their quantitative formulation—are precluded.
The Institute for Research in Social Science
Authors: Scofield Carleton F.
Published: November 2009

A psychologist and research administrator describes a successful 35-year-old research institution at the University of North Carolina, basing his notes upon printed materials and a recent visit to the Institute. The Institute apparently has found the means for achieving stability under conditions of short tenures and resource-indeterminacy.
Landholders and Monopolies: The New and Old Feudal Elite of Republican Cuba
Authors: Pino Santos Oscar
Published: November 2009

A Cuban economist and official of the National Institute for Agrarian Reform documents the concentration of Cuban sugar-production and cattle-raising in the hands of a relatively small number of producers. He uses the data to support the demand for agricultural reform. Especially strong are his points that the sugar industry does not make full use of its lands; that it has contributed to unemployment and the failure to develop a subsistence economy; and that the large cattle-raisers have apparently limited production in a successful effort to increase prices. It is noteworthy that the 28 largest sugar companies control 22.7% of the total land area of Cuba, the thousand largest cattle ranches another 11%. Still lacking is the extent of Cuban latifundium ownership in comparison with American and other foreign ownership.
Fictions in American Politics
Authors: Mitchell William C.
Published: November 2009

Political fictions are interpreted as a special category of social fictions, and the author lists some garden-variety examples. Political fictions are functional both for the system and for the direct participants, but they may also be dysfunctional to the extent that they encourage disbelief and scorn for the leaders who must employ them. The topic has received a relatively small amount of attention in recent political research.
Toward a General Theory of Communication
Authors: Braga Giorgio
Published: November 2009

Some highly abstract elements in communication theory are presented by Professor Braga, who invites correspondence from our readers, in English, French, or Italian. He considers communication as the formal aspect of action, simplifies the problem of meaning, and introduces models for elementary analysis.
Report of the Special Committee
Authors: Weaver Warren
Published: November 2009

The vice president of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation suggests a simplified procedure for reporting on the status and needs of scientific activity "X." It is hoped that his proposal will meet the favor of government agencies, research institutes, and foundations. The article originally appeared in SCIENCE, Vol. 130 (November 20, 1959), pp. 1390-91, and is reprinted by permission.
Political Life in the Urban Centers of Senegal: A Study of a Period of Transition
Authors: Mercier Paul
Published: November 2009

Senegal and Sudan presently comprise the Mali Federation, which is in the process of achieving sovereignty within the French Community. Senegal itself is one of the most urbanized West African regions, and its cities have been characterized by a gradual growth of modern political life. The author presents some major findings on its urban political activity, based on extensive interviews made in the mid-1950's. The oldest urban elite, almost entirely assimilated into the French way of life, has been only partially successful in developing party organizations that satisfy the interests of the newer urban residents. As a consequence, the most active and radical post-war political activity has been centered in "non-political" bodies, notably labor unions. Also, urban political activity has been increasingly challenged by rural political developments, which have drawn their framework from urban politics. African specialists will note that Senegalese political development has much in common with such development elsewhere in Africa; it also has a number of distinctive features.
Bibliography
Authors: Barman R.K. , Tandon J.C. , Singh Dalip
Published: November 2009

NOTE : This bibliography on Indo-Pakistani relations consists of two parts. Part I, prepared by Miss R. K. Barman, lists the various books and pamphlets in the English language dealing with the subject, as also such general works on the foreign policies and relations of the two states as have some portions devoted to it. In most cases the relevant pages have been indicated. Part II, prepared by Mr J. C. Tandon and Mr Dalip Singh, presents selected periodical articles published in India and Pakistan, as well as in other countries, in a classified arrangement. The compilers have tried to make this bibliographical survey as comprehensive as possible.

In addition to the scholarly journals, journals of opinion representing various shades of political opinion, especially in this country, ranging from the Jana Sangh on the one hand to the Communist Party of India on the other have been surveyed. Several foreign weeklies like the New Statesman and The Economist have also been covered extensively for comments, rather than any scholarly exposition of the issues under dispute between the two States.

The major topics covered include defence and security, border incidents, India-Pakistan conflict of I965, minorities, economic relations and the river-waters disputes. The foreign relations in general and the Kashmir question have been covered in much detail; the two issues have been further highlighted by placing the world, Indian, and Pakistani opinions in juxtaposition.
Commonwealth Africa, From Colonial Status To Independence: a Bibliography of Source Material
Authors: Ansari S.
Published: November 2009

The following bibliography is a section of a more comprehensive survey of Commonwealth literature in the field of social science intended to meet the specific needs of the library of the Indian School of International Studies.
Critical Political Economy in Focus for the Middle East
Authors: Thompson H.M.
Published: November 2009

The premises from which we begin are not arbitrary ones, not dogmas, but real premises from which abstraction can only be made in the imagination. They are the real individuals, their activity and the material conditions under which they live, both those which they find already existing and those produced by their activity. 1
Armaments, Detente, and Bureaucracy
Authors: Rattinger Hans
Published: November 2009

This study explores the extent to which defense spending of the European nations of NATO and of the Warsaw Pact since 1950 can be characterized as an action-reaction process. Since the level of armament expenditures in any state is an outcome of organizational processes, a model is introduced that represents the “normal” growth of defense spending as a function of bureaucratic momentum. Deviations from these expected levels are then treated as reactions to the potential adversary's pattern of military spending and/or to the fluctuations of tension in Europe. The most important findings are (a) the comparatively low influence of action-reaction and international tension–as opposed to that of bureaucratic momentum, and (b) the differential impact of the hostile alliance's armament expenditures and of tension on, respectively, the NATO nations and the Warsaw Pact countries.
Newcomb's Problem and Prisoners' Dilemma
Authors: Brams Steven J.
Published: November 2009

The relationship between Newcomb's problem, which involves an apparent paradox of prediction, and Prisoners' Dilemma is explicated. After describing a resolution to Newcomb's problem, due to John A. Ferejohn, that renders the two contradictory principles of choice in Newcomb's problem (dominance and expected utility) consistent, I show Prisoners' Dilemma to be a “symmetricized” version of Newcomb's problem in its payoff structure. The assumption about predictability of choice made for one player in Newcomb's problem, when applied to both players in Prisoners' Dilemma–one considered as a leader and the other as a follower–offers a resolution to this dilemma that, while consistent with the resolution offered by metagame theory, rationalizes the existence of a metagame solution within a probabilistic, rational-choice framework. The relevance of the mutual-predictability assumption to the solution of arms races, and tragedy-of-commons situations generally, is discussed.
Random Strategies and Sex Differences in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Smith Nancy S. , Vernon Charles R. , Tarte Robert D.
Published: November 2009

Forty-eight male and 48 female subjects were randomly assigned to same-sex or mixed-sex simulated other dyads and played a reiterated Prisoner's Dilemma game consisting of 10 trials at either 80% cooperative or 20% cooperative, randomly programmed, followed by 50 trials of within trial tit-for-tat. Significant differences were found for trial blocks (p <.001), trial blocks by sex of partner (p <.01), trial blocks by pretreatment (p <.05), and trial blocks by sex of subject by pretreatment condition (p <.001). When all experimental groups were combined, there was an increase shown in cooperative behavior from the initial pretreatment to the final block of trials. Male partners elicited a higher level of cooperation than female partners when the initial interaction was cooperative. The 80% cooperative groups cooperated at a higher level than the 20% cooperative groups. And finally, the female groups cooperated at a higher level than the male groups in both pretreatment conditions.
When Martyrdom Pays
Authors: Braver Sanford L. , Rohrer Van
Published: November 2009

Information was given subjects in the five experimental conditions about how their opponent-to-be in a forthcoming Prisoner's Dilemma game had played and fared in a game played previously. The information implied that the opponent-to-be had (1) played in a mutually cooperative game; (2) behaved as an exploited martyr; (3) successfully exploited his previous adversary; (4) made an unsuccessful attempt to exploit his previous adversary; or (5) been forced, by his previous adversary, to protect himself by competitive responses. A control condition gave no information about the previous game. Subjects tended to cooperate in conditions 1, 2, and 5, i.e., with opponents who appeared worthy of trust, and to compete in conditions 3, 4, and the control, i.e., with opponents who appeared to be exploitative. The high level of cooperation accorded the martyr was the most interesting result and was interpreted as behavior motivated by the equity norm.
Attitude Similarity, Social Goals, and Cooperation
Authors: McNeel Steven P. , Reid Edward C.
Published: November 2009

Exceptions to the general rule that perceived attitude similarity is related to enhanced cooperation suggest that the subject's goals and the behavior of the other person are important constraints of the relationship. The present study categorized subjects according to their dominant social goal; 80% of 238 female subjects had predominantly individualistic or competitive social goals. Subjects made choices in a series of different decomposed prisoner's dilemma games, interacting with a conditionally cooperative accomplice who began with either a cooperative or a competitive first choice. The attitude similarity of the accomplice was manipulated at three levels: similar, neutral, and dissimilar. Similar accomplices received a significantly higher level of cooperation only when the subjects had individualistic goals and the accomplice's first choice was competitive. The discussion focuses on conditions which facilitate or suppress cooperative behavior in mixed-motive situations.
Unconventional Approaches to Conflict Resolution
Authors: Lipsitz Lewis , Kritzer Herbert M.
Published: November 2009

We discuss various approaches to nonviolent conflict resolution and specifically the views of Gene Sharp and Erik Erikson as developed in their recent books on the subject. Both authors have in common a concern with the sources of obedience and the processes by which people come to question authority and the use of force. We explore the insights and limits of each approach and suggest aspects that need further clarification in the discussion of nonviolence. Sharp's encyclopedic effort draws together much material and is a valuable source. Erikson develops a set of poetic and telling conclusions from Gandhi's career that provide a deeper sense of how nonviolent campaigns can be waged and what they are all about.
Violent Nations, and Others
Authors: Gurr Ted Robert , Bishop Vaughn F.
Published: November 2009

A nine-fold typology of conceptions of “violence” is suggested, ranging from least to most inclusive and from the individual to the transnational level. Eight of the nine different facets of violence are then measured for 86 nations as expressed in the form of 31 variables, referring mainly to conditions and events in the 1950s and 1960s. These 31 measures are factor-analyzed, revealing eight distinct dimensions of “violence” among contemporary nations. It is thus possible to refine the initial typology by making a series of successive differentiations between internal and transnational types of physical violence, between structures of coercion and structures of denial, and so on. Finally individual and composite “violence” profiles are presented for the 86 nations examined in this study.
The Uniform N-Person Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Goehring Dwight J. , Kahan James P.
Published: November 2009

The familiar two-person prisoner's dilemma (PD) game can be considered a special case of a general family of games with more than two players. This family of games is of particular interest, having been suggested as a model for a variety of social conflict situations. A subset of this family of games, called the uniform PD, is defined, for which the members of the subset may be scaled along a dimension of competitiveness for any given number of players. An index of competitiveness was derived and tested for the three-person case. Sixty volunteer subjects played one of five three-person uniform PD games, chosen to vary across the range of values of the index. Each triad played 150 trials of the same game for points which were converted to cash at the end of the experiment. Subjects were run in triads homogeneous with respect to sex; effects due to that variable were absent. The obtained proportions of cooperative response were found to be strongly related to the value of the index. The approach offers a theoretical basis for assessment of behavior in multiperson conflict situations of the PD variety.
Borrowing Versus Migration as Selection Factors in Cultural Evolution
Authors: Naroll Raoul , Wirsing Rolf
Published: November 2009

This paper reports a measurement of the relative importance in cultural evolution of the spread of human culture through peaceful borrowing on one hand and warlike migration on the other. From the worldwide sample of 852 societies in the Ethnographic Atlas, a set of 78 triads was selected by matching from an alphabetized list. Each triad consisted of (1) a base society, (2) a nearby society belonging to a different language family from that of the base society, and (3) a distant society belonging to the same language family as that of the base. Similarities between base and nearby society were compared to similarity between base and distant society with respect to 11 culture traits. Nearby societies tended to resemble base societies more than distant societies but this tendency was not nearly so marked as would have been expected from an earlier study of the same problem by a different method. Conclusion: eliminating warlike migration as a selection factor would somewhat slow down cultural evolution, but peaceful borrowing alone is believed to offer an adequate selection mechanism.
Rational Theories of Participation
Authors: White Louise G.
Published: November 2009

In assessing the usefulness of economic models for political analysis, it is necessary to begin by defining the elements in the models. The present study looks at various ways to define “utility” or the goals of political activity, and how to operationalize the difference between private and public goals. Only when these are made precise can economic models be useful in predicting when and why people will act on their interests in politics. Some research is presented to explore the merits of different definitions of utility. The conclusion drawn is that economic models are most useful when they work with limited and clearly specified definitions of goals for political activity. In this way they can perform a predictive and diagnostic function. At the same time, it is likely that substantive changes in our collective life will have to emerge from other models of human behavior.