bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TEACHING READING AND SPELLING: EXCLUSION AND STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE
Authors: de Rose Julio C. , de Souza Deisy G. , Hanna Elenice S.
Published: March 2006

In Experiment 1, 7 nonreading children were exposed to a program designed to teach reading of 51 training words. The program featured an exclusion‐based procedure in which the children (a) matched printed to dictated words and (b) constructed (copied) printed words with movable letters and named them. All children learned to read the training words. Five children also read generalization words and showed progress in spelling. Experiment 2 applied the program to 4 different children, omitting the word‐construction task. They also learned to read the training words, but only 1 participant read generalization words. The data support a stimulus equivalence account of reading acquisition and suggest that reading generalization may be obtained, especially when the teaching program includes word construction.
VARIANT AND INVARIANT HIGH‐PROBABILITY REQUESTS: INCREASING APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS IN CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL‐BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Authors: Davis Carol Ann , Reichle Joe
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of variant versus invariant high‐probability (high‐p) request sequences on the performance of requests to initiate a social bid by young children with emotional‐behavioral disorders. In the initial phases of the investigation, a multiple baseline design showed that the delivery of invariant sequences (i.e., high‐p requests delivered in the same sequence) produced initial increases in compliance to requests to initiate a social bid to a peer. However, increases were not maintained across the invariant condition. The delivery of variant high‐p sequences produced increases in compliance to requests to initiate social bids that were maintained across the variant condition. In a follow‐up condition, the number of requests within the pool of the variant and invariant high‐p requests were controlled. Results of the follow‐up condition replicated those found in the initial condition. Implications for applied use and future research are discussed.
AN EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT OF DRUG ABSTINENCE USING CIGARETTE SMOKING AS AN EXEMPLAR
Authors: Roll John M. , Higgins Stephen T. , Badger Gary J.
Published: March 2006

The efficacy of three different schedules of reinforcement for promoting and sustaining drug abstinence was compared in this study. Cigarette smoking was studied as an exemplar of stimulant drug self‐administration. Sixty cigarette smokers were assigned to one of three groups (progressive rate of reinforcement, fixed rate of reinforcement, and yoked control). Participants in all three groups were asked to refrain from smoking for 1 week. Participants in the progressive and fixed groups achieved greater mean levels of abstinence than those in the control group. Participants in the progressive group were significantly less likely to resume smoking when they became abstinent than participants in the other groups.
THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATCH AND CONTENT OVERLAP ON GENERALIZED READING PERFORMANCE
Authors: Daly Edward J. , Martens Brian K. , Kilmer Anna , Massie Doreen R.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of instructional match and content overlap on students' ability to generalize from passage reading instruction. Four students with mild disabilities served as participants. Using a multielement design, students were instructed with passages at two levels of text difficulty (instructionally matched vs. instructionally mismatched), and generalization was assessed with passages at two levels of similarity to those instructed (low vs. high content overlap). Results indicated that students' oral reading accuracy and fluency showed the greatest degree of generalization when instructional materials were matched to the students' skill level and assessment materials were similar to those used during instruction. Moreover, these results were maintained at 1‐month follow‐up. The implications of these findings for classroom reading instruction and the assessment of students' reading skills are discussed.
EVALUATION OF A MULTIPLE‐STIMULUS PRESENTATION FORMAT FOR ASSESSING REINFORCER PREFERENCES
Authors: DeLeon Iser G. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

We compared three methods for presenting stimuli during reinforcer‐preference assessments: a paired‐stimulus format (PS), a multiple‐stimulus format in which selections were made with replacement (MSW), and a multiple‐stimulus format in which selections were made without replacement (MSWO). Results obtained for 7 participants showed moderate to high rank‐order correlations between the MSWO and PS procedures and a similar number of identified reinforcers. In addition, the time to administer the MSWO procedure was comparable to that required for the MSW method and less than half that required to administer the PS procedure. Subsequent tests of reinforcement effects revealed that some stimuli selected in the PS and MSWO procedures, but not selected in the MSW procedure, functioned as reinforcers for arbitrary responses. These preliminary results suggest that the multiple‐stimulus procedure without replacement may share the respective advantages of the other methods.
INTERNET RESOURCES IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Plaud Joseph J.
Published: March 2006

Internet communication is becoming an important tool for both academic and clinical areas in psychology and behavior analysis. The Internet, a confederation of thousands of computer systems covering the entire globe (Plaud, 1996b), can significantly enhance behavior analysis in at least three major areas: (a) information exchange and communication among behavior analysts through list servers, (b) dissemination of empirical data and commentary through on‐line journals and information servers, and (c) promotion of programs and services in behavior analysis. This commentary provides specific examples in each of these areas and addresses the basics of connecting to the Internet.
EFFECTS OF REINFORCER QUALITY ON BEHAVIORAL MOMENTUM: COORDINATED APPLIED AND BASIC RESEARCH
Authors: Mace F. Charles , Mauro Benjamin C. , Boyajian Amy E. , Eckert Tanya L.
Published: March 2006

The high‐probability (high‐p) instructional sequence has been an effective treatment for noncompliance. However, treatment failures have also been reported. We hypothesized that the efficacy of the high‐p treatment may be improved by using higher quality reinforcers for compliance to high‐p instructions. The resistance of compliance to change was tested by varying reinforcer quality in two applied studies and a basic laboratory experiment. Experiment 1 tested the hypothesis that an increase in reinforcer quality for high‐p compliance will increase the effectiveness of the high‐p treatment when it fails to increase compliance. Experiment 2 assessed the effects of reinforcer quality on resistance of compliance to change by presenting successive low‐p requests following the high‐p treatment. A basic laboratory study (Experiment 3) was conducted to further isolate the relation between reinforcer quality and behavioral momentum. Two different liquid reinforcers (sucrose and citric acid solutions) were presented in a two‐component multiple variable‐interval variable‐interval schedule followed by a single extinction test session. Results of all three experiments showed a generally consistent relationship between reinforcer quality and behavioral momentum.
A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF INTERACTIVE EFFECTS BETWEEN COMMON CLASSROOM CONTINGENCIES AND METHYLPHENIDATE
Authors: Northup John , Jones Kevin , Broussard Carmen , DiGiovanni Gina , Herring Melissa , Fusilier Iantha , Hanchey Alicia
Published: March 2006

To assess the drug—behavior interaction effects with an 8‐year‐old boy with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, common classroom antecedent (e.g., seating arrangement) and consequent (e.g., peer prompts) stimuli were alternated within a school day while drug conditions (methylphenidate vs. placebo) were alternated across days. The results suggested that peer attention maintained disruptive behavior when methylphenidate was absent but not when it was present.
ACADEMIC EFFECTS OF PROVIDING PEER SUPPORT IN GENERAL EDUCATION CLASSROOMS ON STUDENTS WITHOUT DISABILITIES
Authors: Cushing Lisa Sharon , Kennedy Craig H.
Published: March 2006

We studied the academic effects on peers without disabilities of serving as peer supports for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Three peers were studied using a range of indicators, including academic engagement, coursework performance, and social validity assessments. Peers assisting a student with disabilities via curricular adaptation, assignment completion, and social facilitation constituted the multicomponent independent variable. We used withdrawal or multiple baseline designs to demonstrate positive benefits for peers for all measures used. In addition, follow‐up data for 2 peers indicated that the positive changes associated with serving as a peer support were maintained for up to 2 months. Our results are discussed in relation to the possible academic and social effects of providing peer supports in general education classrooms for students with and without disabilities.
PROMPTED VOIDING TO REDUCE INCONTINENCE IN COMMUNITY‐DWELLING OLDER ADULTS
Authors: Adkins Vincent K. , Mathews R. Mark
Published: March 2006

In‐home caregivers were taught to implement a prompted voiding procedure with 2 older adults with cognitive impairments and urinary incontinence. Results suggested that the procedures can be implemented by family caregivers, and the intervention reduced incontinence for both participants.
MULTIPLE PEER USE OF PIVOTAL RESPONSE TRAINING TO INCREASE SOCIAL BEHAVIORS OF CLASSMATES WITH AUTISM: RESULTS FROM TRAINED AND UNTRAINED PEERS
Authors: Pierce Karen , Schreibman Laura
Published: March 2006

Two children with autism and 8 typical peers participated in a study designed to replicate an earlier finding of successful social‐skills intervention for children with autism using peer‐implemented pivotal response training (PRT) and to assess the effects of using multiple peer trainers on generalization of treatment effects. During training, peers were taught PRT strategies using didactic instruction, modeling, role playing, and feedback. After treatment, children with autism engaged in increased levels of social behavior.
NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Ringdahl Joel E. , Roane Henry S. , Marcus Bethany A.
Published: March 2006

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) has emerged as a treatment package for severe behavior problems. Although concerns about potential side effects (such as incidental reinforcement) have been raised, there have been few reported negative side effects in published studies to date. In this article, we report an NCR treatment evaluation for severe aggression that produced (a) an extinction burst and (b) incidental reinforcement. These side effects were evaluated by examining within‐session response patterns and response distributions. As a solution, a brief omission contingency was added to the reinforcement schedule. The omission contingency resulted in decreased aggression rates.
EFFECTS OF CHOOSING ACADEMIC ASSIGNMENTS ON A STUDENT WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Authors: Powell Shawn , Nelson Brett
Published: March 2006

The effects of choosing academic assignments on the undesirable behaviors manifested by a second‐grade student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were analyzed. This study extended Dunlap et al.'s (1994) research on choice making as a form of antecedent control. A reversal design showed that undesirable behaviors decreased when the student was given a choice of academic assignments.
AN ANALOGUE EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT: THE ROLE OF STIMULUS PREFERENCE
Authors: Ringdahl Joel E. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Marcus Bethany A. , Roane Henry S.
Published: March 2006

To evaluate the effects of environmental enrichment on stereotypic self‐injurious behavior (SIB), we conducted an assessment of preference for manipulating alternative stimuli rather than engaging in SIB. First, for each of 3 participants, a functional analysis of SIB was conducted in Phase 1. Participants were selected for Phase 2 if the functional analysis showed that SIB persisted in the absence of social consequences. In Phase 2, a preference assessment was conducted in which participants were observed manipulating preferred stimuli in a free‐operant format. A measure was taken of time spent manipulating each stimulus and time spent engaging in SIB. In Phase 3, environmental enrichment was evaluated using stimuli that were preferred over the target response, and alternative treatments were evaluated in the event of environmental enrichment failure. Results suggested that the free‐operant preference assessment (a) predicted the efficacy or inefficacy of an environmental enrichment procedure and (b) suggested possible treatment alternatives when environmental enrichment was ineffective. Collectively, the results may provide a basis for interpreting the idiosyncratic effects of environmental enrichment and a rationale for treatment selection when behavioral function is unknown.
AN ANALYSIS OF REINFORCER SUBSTITUTABILITY USING OBJECT MANIPULATION AND SELF‐INJURY AS COMPETING RESPONSES
Authors: Shore Bridget A. , Iwata Brian A. , DeLeon Iser G. , Kahng SungWoo , Smith Richard G.
Published: March 2006

The concept of reinforcer substitutability proposes a continuum of interactions among reinforcers in a given situation. At one end of this continuum, reinforcers are substitutable, with one reinforcer being readily traded for another. We conducted an analysis of reinforcers that were substitutable with those produced by self‐injurious behavior (SIB). Three individuals with profound developmental disabilities, whose SIB appeared to be maintained by automatic reinforcement, participated. Results of three experiments showed that (a) object manipulation and SIB were inversely related when leisure materials and SIB were concurrently available, with participants showing almost complete preference for object manipulation; (b) attempts to reduce SIB using the preferred objects as reinforcers in differential reinforcement contingencies were unsuccessful for all 3 participants; and (c) participants' preferences for SIB or object manipulation systematically changed when reinforcer cost (the amount of effort required to obtain the object) was varied. Results of the three experiments illustrate the importance of examining interactions among concurrently available reinforcers when conducting reinforcer assessments.
EFFECTS OF HIGH‐PREFERENCE SINGLE‐DIGIT MATHEMATICS PROBLEM COMPLETION ON MULTIPLE‐DIGIT MATHEMATICS PROBLEM PERFORMANCE
Authors: Belfiore Phillip J. , Lee David L. , Vargas Andrès U. , Skinner Christopher H.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a sequence of three single‐digit (1 digit × 1 digit) multiplication problems on the latency to initiate multiple‐digit (3 digit × 3 digit) multiplication problems for 2 students in an alternative education school. Data showed that (a) during the preference assessment, both students selected the single‐digit problems in a majority of the sessions, and (b) intervention resulted in a decrease in latency between problems for both students. Results are discussed in relation to using high‐preference sequences to promote behavioral momentum in academic content areas.
ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR DISORDERS
Authors: Smith Richard G. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

The influence of antecedent events on behavior disorders has been relatively understudied by applied behavior analysts. This lack of research may be due to a focus on consequences as determinants of behavior and a historical disagreement on a conceptual framework for describing and interpreting antecedent variables. We suggest that antecedent influences can be described using terms derived from basic behavioral principles and that their functional properties can be adequately interpreted as discriminative and establishing operations. A set of studies on assessment and treatment of behavior disorders was selected for review based on their relevance to the topic of antecedent events. These studies were categorized as focusing on assessment of antecedent events, antecedent treatments for behavior disorders maintained by either positive or negative reinforcement, and special cases of antecedent events in behavior disorders. Some directions for future research on antecedent influences in the analysis and treatment of behavior disorders are discussed.
ON THE RELATIVE REINFORCING EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND DIFFERENTIAL CONSEQUENCES
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Thompson Rachel H. , Piazza Cathleen C. , Crosland Kimberly , Gotjen Deidre
Published: March 2006

Research on the reinforcing effects of providing choice‐making opportunities to individuals with developmental disabilities (i.e., allowing them to choose reinforcers or tasks) has produced inconsistent results, perhaps because the mechanisms underlying such effects remain unclear. Choice may produce a reinforcement effect because it is correlated with differential consequences (i.e., choice may increase one's access to higher preference stimuli), or it may have reinforcement value independent of (or in addition to) the chosen stimulus. In Experiment 1, we used a concurrent‐operants arrangement to assess preference for a choice condition (in which participants selected one of two available reinforcers) relative to a no‐choice condition (in which the therapist selected the same reinforcers on a yoked schedule). All 3 participants preferred the choice option. In Experiment 2, we altered the schedules so that the participant selected one of two lower preference reinforcers in the choice condition, whereas the therapist selected a higher preference stimulus for the participant either half or all of the time in the no‐choice condition. Participants typically allowed the therapist to select reinforcers for them (i.e., they allocated responding to the no‐choice condition) when it resulted in greater access to higher preference stimuli.
TOWARD A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PRIVATE VERBAL SELF‐REGULATION
Authors: Taylor Ian , O'Reilly Mark F.
Published: March 2006

We developed a methodology, derived from the theoretical literatures on rule‐governed behavior and private events, to experimentally investigate the relationship between covert verbal self‐regulation and nonverbal behavior. The methodology was designed to assess whether (a) nonverbal behavior was under the control of covert rules and (b) verbal reports of these rules were functionally equivalent to the covert rules that control nonverbal behavior. The research was conducted in the context of teaching shopping skills to persons with mild intellectual disabilities using a self‐instruction training format. In Phase 1, 4 participants were successfully taught to perform shopping skills using overt and covert self‐instructions. The self‐instructions were then blocked under overt and covert self‐instruction conditions, which resulted in a reversal of shopping skills to baseline levels. This indicated that the overt and covert self‐instructions might be controlling responding. In Phase 2, we demonstrated that the self‐instructions, when used as external directives, produced successful shopping with 3 other participants. By demonstrating that self‐rules can produce correct responding when used as external directives, we were more confident that it was the self‐instructions and not other verbal or nonverbal behavior that controlled responding under overt, covert, and blocking conditions in Phase 1.
EMERGENCE OF REINFORCER PREFERENCE AS A FUNCTION OF SCHEDULE REQUIREMENTS AND STIMULUS SIMILARITY
Authors: Deleon Iser G. , Iwata Brian A. , GOH Han‐Leong , Worsdell April S.
Published: March 2006

Tustin (1994) recently observed that an individual's preference for one of two concurrently available reinforcers under low schedule requirements (concurrent fixed‐ratio [FR] 1) switched to the other reinforcer when the schedule requirements were high (concurrent FR 10). We extended this line of research by examining preference for similar and dissimilar reinforcers (i.e., those affecting the same sensory modality and those affecting different sensory modalities). Two individuals with developmental disabilities were exposed to an arrangement in which pressing two different panels produced two different reinforcers according to progressively increasing, concurrent‐ratio schedules. When two dissimilar stimuli were concurrently available (food and a leisure item), no clear preference for one item over the other was observed, regardless of the FR schedules in effect (FR 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20). By contrast, when two similar stimuli were concurrently available (two food items), a clear preference for one item emerged as the schedule requirements were increased from FR 1 to FR 5 or FR 10. These results are discussed in terms of implications for conducting preference assessments and for selecting reinforcers to be used under training conditions in which response requirements are relatively high or effortful.
DISPLACEMENT OF LEISURE REINFORCERS BY FOOD DURING PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS
Authors: Deleon Iser G. , Iwata Brian A. , Roscoe Eileen M.
Published: March 2006

Identification of reinforcers for individuals with developmental disabilities is often based on the outcome of preference assessments in which participants make selections from among a variety of items. We determined the extent to which individuals might show a general preference for food items over leisure items during such assessments and whether leisure items that are “displaced” by food items might nevertheless function as reinforcers. Arrays consisting of food items only and then nonfood items only were presented separately to 14 participants and then were ranked to determine preference. The top selections from these initial assessments were subsequently combined in a third assessment, and preferences were again established. All but 2 participants showed a general preference for food items, such that selection of nonfood items in the combined arrays was displaced downward relative to selection of nonfoods in the nonfood‐only arrays. Two of the participants were exposed to a condition in which a nonfood item was delivered contingent on the occurrence of an adaptive response, and increased rates of responding by both individuals were observed. Results are discussed in terms of limitations posed by using only food items as reinforcers and the resulting need to take precautionary measures when attempting to identify nonfood reinforcers.
BEHAVIORAL CUSPS: A DEVELOPMENTAL AND PRAGMATIC CONCEPT FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Rosales‐Ruiz Jesús , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

Most concepts of development explain certain behavior changes as products or markers of the invariable succession of emerging periods, stages, refinements, or achievements that define and order much of an individual's life. A different but comparable concept can be derived from the most basic mechanisms of behavior analysis, which are its environmental contingencies, and from its most basic strategy, which is to study behavior as its subject matter. From a behavior‐analytic perspective, the most fundamental developmental questions are (a) whether these contingencies vary in any systematic way across the life span, and thus make behavior change in a correspondingly systematic way; and (b) whether some of these contingencies and their changes have more far‐reaching consequences than others, in terms of the importance to the organism and others, of the behavior classes they change. Certain behavior changes open the door to especially broad or especially important further behavior change, leading to the concept of the behavioral cusp. A behavioral cusp, then, is any behavior change that brings the organism's behavior into contact with new contingencies that have even more far‐reaching consequences. Of all the environmental contingencies that change or maintain behavior, those that accomplish cusps are developmental. Behavior change remains the fundamental phenomenon of development for a behavior‐analytic view; a cusp is a special instance of behavior change, a change crucial to what can come next.
PROMPTING PATRON SAFETY BELT USE AT A SUPERMARKET
Authors: Engerman Jennifer A. , AUSTIN John , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

We used a reversal (ABAB) design to assess the effects of a personal prompt on safety belt usage by grocery store patrons. A personal prompt delivered by grocery carriers resulted in a 12% increase in the number of patrons exiting the parking lot with their safety belts buckled. This simple, low‐cost intervention offers potential savings to society from increased safety belt use.
RELAX AND TRY THIS INSTEAD: ABBREVIATED HABIT REVERSAL FOR MALADAPTIVE SELF‐BITING
Authors: Jones Kevin M. , Swearer Susan M. , Friman Patrick C.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effectiveness of an abbreviated habit reversal procedure to reduce mal‐adaptive oral self‐biting in an adolescent boy in residential care. Treatment involved a combination of relaxation and two competing responses. Results of a withdrawal design and two posttreatment medical evaluations indicated that the intervention eliminated the biting and the tissue damage it caused.
WRITTEN LISTS AS MEDIATING STIMULI IN THE MATCHING‐TO‐SAMPLE PERFORMANCES OF INDIVIDUALS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
Authors: Stromer Robert , Mackay Harry A. , McVay Alison A. , Fowler Thomas
Published: March 2006

Students with mental retardation learned to write lists in order to perform a matching task that they could not do otherwise. After an initial assessment phase, reinforcement was arranged in the computerized tasks to follow selection of the six pictures that were identical to those in the six‐picture samples presented. In Study 1, even though the participants wrote a list of the names of the six sample pictures on each trial, read a list, or did both, they often made errors when a brief delay preceded picture selection. In contrast, performance was nearly perfect when a list was written, read, and remained available at the time of picture selection, suggesting that the list served to mediate the delays. Study 2 examined the stimulus control by two‐ and six‐picture samples over the list writing. Early during testing, 1 participant refrained from writing lists on two‐picture trials but wrote lists on six‐picture trials, thereby maximizing reinforcement and minimizing its delay; the other participant showed this pattern of list writing after supplemental training. The studies suggest methods for establishing a rudimentary repertoire of mediating behavior that has relevance for teaching instruction‐following skills in natural settings.
THE EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF AGGRESSION MAINTAINED BY ATTENTION AND AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Thompson Rachel H. , Fisher Wayne W. , Piazza Cathleen C. , Kuhn David E.
Published: March 2006

In the current investigation, we used direct and indirect methods to assess and treat several topographies of aggression that were hypothesized to have separate operant functions in a young boy with severe mental retardation and pervasive developmental disorder. First, a functional analysis of aggression, using the methods described by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982/1994), was conducted and produced inconclusive results. Next, indirect methods were used to develop a second functional analysis, which showed that chin grinding (firmly pressing and grinding his chin against the skin and bones of others) persisted independent of social contingencies and that the other topographies of aggression (e.g., hitting, kicking) were maintained by social positive reinforcement (attention). A treatment designed to decrease aggression maintained by attention—functional communication training with extinction—reduced all forms of aggression except chin grinding. This latter topography of aggression, which we hypothesized was maintained by automatic reinforcement, was reduced when the response‐reinforcer relation was interrupted through response blocking and the child was provided with an alternative form of chin stimulation.
USING A SELF‐CONTROL TRAINING PROCEDURE TO INCREASE APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Dixon Mark R. , Hayes Linda J. , Binder Lisa M. , Manthey Sharon , Sigman Connie , Zdanowski Darlene M.
Published: March 2006

The present study evaluated a technique for teaching self‐control and increasing desirable behaviors among adults with developmental disabilities. Results showed that when participants were initially given the choice between an immediate smaller reinforcer and a larger delayed reinforcer, all participants repeatedly chose the smaller reinforcer. Concurrent fixed‐duration/progressive‐duration reinforcement schedules then were introduced in which initially both the smaller and larger reinforcers were available immediately. Thereafter, progressively increasing delays were introduced for the schedule associated with the larger reinforcer only. When initial short‐duration requirements for access to the larger reinforcer were gradually increased, participants repeatedly selected the larger reinforcer, thereby demonstrating increased self‐control.
CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS BY INDIVIDUALS WITH MODERATE MENTAL RETARDATION: DEVELOPMENT OF ARBITRARY RELATIONS VIA MATCH‐TO‐SAMPLE TRAINING WITH COMPOUND STIMULI
Authors: Lane Scott D. , Critchfield Thomas S.
Published: March 2006

This study explored whether an identity‐matching‐based stimulus equivalence procedure could be used to teach vowel and consonant stimulus classes to 2 adolescent females with moderate mental retardation. Delayed match‐to‐sample trials presented a compound sample stimulus consisting of printed letters and a spoken word (“vowel” or “consonant”). The correct comparison stimulus matched only one of the letters in the compound sample. Subsequently, test trials assessed whether arbitrary relations had formed among the individual stimuli from each compound sample and whether stimuli from different compound samples had merged into larger stimulus classes. Both participants acquired five‐member classes of vowel and consonant stimuli, which subsequently generalized to vocal classification and to identification in the context of four‐letter words. Follow‐up tests showed that the generalized performances remained intact after 6 weeks. These procedures suggest an economical approach to stimulus class development.
CREATING SINGLE‐SUBJECT DESIGN GRAPHS WITH MICROSOFT EXCEL™
Authors: Carr James E. , Burkholder Eric O.
Published: March 2006

Because single‐subject design methodology is the cornerstone of behavior‐analytic research, behavior analysts are often engaged in the practice of graph production. There are a variety of computer software packages on the market that can be used to create graphs; however, not all of them are suitable for producing single‐subject design line graphs. Microsoft Excel 97 for Windows 95/NT and MacOS operating systems contains a variety of features that are conducive to producing reversal, multiple baseline, and multielement graphs (among others) that conform to many of the technical recommendations for publication in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. We present detailed instructions on creating these graphs using Microsoft Excel.
COMPUTERIZED SYSTEMS FOR COLLECTING REAL‐TIME OBSERVATIONAL DATA
Authors: Kahng SungWoo , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

Advances in computer technology have led to the development of a number of semiautomated systems for collecting real‐time observational data. We conducted a survey of 15 developers of computerized systems and summarized the features of each system. Many of these systems have incorporated laptop or handheld computers as well as bar‐code scanners. Most systems used IBM‐compatible (DOS or Windows) software, although a few were designed for either the MacOS or some other operating system. The range in prices started from free to more complete systems costing over $1,500. Data analysis programs were included with most programs; however, only about a third of the systems included a program to compute interobserver agreement.
IDENTIFYING WORK PREFERENCES AMONG INDIVIDUALS WITH SEVERE MULTIPLE DISABILITIES PRIOR TO BEGINNING SUPPORTED WORK
Authors: Reid Dennis H. , Parsons Marsha B. , Green Carolyn W.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated a prework assessment for predicting work‐task preferences among workers with severe multiple disabilities prior to beginning supported work. The assessment involved comparing worker selections from pairs of work tasks drawn from their future job duties. Results of workers' choices once they began their jobs in a publishing company indicated that the assessment predicted tasks that the workers preferred to work on during their job routines. Results are discussed regarding other possible means of determining preferred types of supported work.
ON THE EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT DELIVERY OF DIFFERING MAGNITUDES OF REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Carr James E. , Bailey Jon S. , Ecott Cheryl L. , Lucker Kim D. , Weil Timothy M.
Published: March 2006

We conducted a parametric analysis of response suppression associated with different magnitudes of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR). Participants were 5 adults with severe or profound mental retardation who engaged in a manual response that was reinforced on variable‐ratio schedules during baseline. Participants were then exposed to NCR via multielement and reversal designs. The fixed‐time schedules were kept constant while the magnitude of the reinforcing stimulus was varied across three levels (low, medium, and high). Results showed that high‐magnitude NCR schedules produced large and consistent reductions in response rates, medium‐magnitude schedules produced less consistent and smaller reductions, and low‐magnitude schedules produced little or no effect on responding. These results suggest that (a) NCR affects responding by altering an establishing operation (i.e., attenuating a deprivation state) rather than through extinction, and (b) magnitude of reinforcement is an important variable in determining the effectiveness of NCR.
APPLYING BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS TO CLINICAL PROBLEMS: REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF HABIT REVERSAL
Authors: Miltenberger Raymond G. , Fuqua R. Wayne , Woods Douglas W.
Published: March 2006

This article provides a review and analysis of habit reversal, a multicomponent procedure developed by Azrin and Nunn (1973, 1974) for the treatment of nervous habits, tics, and stuttering. The article starts with a discussion of the behaviors treated with habit reversal, behavioral covariation among habits, and functional analysis and assessment of habits. Research on habit reversal and simplified versions of the procedure is then described. Next the article discusses the limitations of habit reversal and the evidence for its generality. The article concludes with an analysis of the behavioral processes involved in habit reversal and suggestions for future research.
THE USE OF AN ENHANCED SIMPLIFIED HABIT‐REVERSAL PROCEDURE TO REDUCE DISRUPTIVE OUTBURSTS DURING ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
Authors: Allen Keith D.
Published: March 2006

An enhanced simplified habit‐reversal procedure was used with a 14‐year‐old boy who presented with a long history of disruptive, angry outbursts during tennis matches. Initial treatment involved simplified habit‐reversal procedures delivered in a multiple baseline design across settings. Modest results led to additional supporting contingencies, including response cost. Results showed elimination of disruptive outbursts during both nontournament and tournament matches and highlight the importance of adding additional supporting contingencies to simplified habit reversal for some self‐control problems.
AN ANALYSIS OF TRENDS IN JABA AUTHORSHIP
Authors: Dunlap Glen , Clarke Shelley , Reyes Lilliane
Published: March 2006

Because the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis is recognized as a prominent journal in applied behavior analysis, a description of authorship trends may be important for discerning developments in the discipline. The analyses reported herein address trends from 1975 through 1997 in the publication of articles by new authors and the appearance of articles authored by frequent contributors. The data reveal a trend away from the appearance of new authors with an increase in the publication of works by frequent contributors. These trends are shown to be more conspicuous than in comparison data from the American Journal on Mental Retardation.
FIXED‐TIME SCHEDULES ATTENUATE EXTINCTION‐INDUCED PHENOMENA IN THE TREATMENT OF SEVERE ABERRANT BEHAVIOR
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Progar Patrick R. , Lalli Joseph S. , Van Camp Carole M. , Sierp Barbara J. , Wright Carrie S. , Nastasi Julia , Eisenschink Kevin J.
Published: March 2006

We compared the effects of extinction (EXT) and fixed‐time (FT) schedules as treatment for severe problem behavior displayed by 3 individuals with developmental disabilities. First, functional analyses identified the reinforcers maintaining aberrant behavior for all 3 individuals. Next, EXT and FT schedules were compared using a multielement design. During EXT, the reinforcer maintaining problem behavior was withheld. During FT, the reinforcers were presented response independently at preset intervals. Results showed that FT schedules were generally more effective than EXT schedules in reducing aberrant behavior. FT schedules may be used in situations when extinction‐induced phenomena are problematic.
ESTABLISHING DISCRIMINATIVE CONTROL OF RESPONDING USING FUNCTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE REINFORCERS DURING FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Kuhn David E. , Thompson Rachel H.
Published: March 2006

Functional communication training (FCT) is a popular treatment for problem behaviors, but its effectiveness may be compromised when the client emits the target communication response and reinforcement is either delayed or denied. In the current investigation, we trained 2 individuals to emit different communication responses to request (a) the reinforcer for destructive behavior in a given situation (e.g., contingent attention in the attention condition of a functional analysis) and (b) an alternative reinforcer (e.g., toys in the attention condition of a functional analysis). Next, we taught the participants to request each reinforcer in the presence of a different discriminative stimulus (SD). Then, we evaluated the effects of differential reinforcement of communication (DRC) using the functional and alternative reinforcers and correlated SDs, with and without extinction of destructive behavior. During all applications, DRC (in combination with SDs that signaled available reinforcers) rapidly reduced destructive behavior to low levels regardless of whether the functional reinforcer or an alternative reinforcer was available or whether reinforcement for destructive behavior was discontinued (i.e., extinction).
INCREASING COMMUNICATIVE INTERACTIONS OF YOUNG CHILDREN WITH AUTISM USING A VOICE OUTPUT COMMUNICATION AID AND NATURALISTIC TEACHING
Authors: Schepis Maureen M. , Reid Dennis H. , Behrmann Michael M. , Sutton Kelly A.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of a voice output communication aid (VOCA) and naturalistic teaching procedures on the communicative interactions of young children with autism. A teacher and three assistants were taught to use naturalistic teaching strategies to provide opportunities for VOCA use in the context of regularly occurring classroom routines. Naturalistic teaching procedures and VOCA use were introduced in multiple probe fashion across 4 children and two classroom routines (snack and play). As the procedures were implemented, all children showed increases in communicative interactions using VOCAs. Also, there was no apparent reductive effect of VOCA use within the naturalistic teaching paradigm on other communicative behaviors. Teachers' ratings of children's VOCA communication, as well as ratings of a person unfamiliar with the children, supported the contextual appropriateness of the VOCA. Probes likewise indicated that the children used the VOCAs for a variety of different messages including requests, yes and no responses, statements, and social comments. Results are discussed in regard to the potential benefits of a VOCA when combined with naturalistic teaching procedures. Future research needs are also discussed, focusing on more precise identification of the attributes of VOCA use for children with autism, as well as for their support personnel.
TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR BASED ON SCATTER PLOT ANALYSIS
Authors: Kahng SungWoo , Iwata Brian A. , Fischer Sonya M. , Page Terry J. , Treadwell Kimberli R. H. , Williams Don E. , Smith Richard G.
Published: March 2006

The scatter plot is a commonly used assessment tool for identifying temporal patterns in the occurrence of behavior problems. However, the extent to which such patterns are frequently observed is unknown because little research has evaluated the general utility of the scatter plot. We conducted a large‐scale analysis of within‐ and across‐day occurrences of problem behavior by conducting continuous observations of 20 individuals living in four residential facilities. Data were recorded during 30‐min intervals throughout participants' waking hours for 30 days by direct care staff and were converted into scatter plot formats. Five sets of data were excluded from further analysis due to poor interobserver agreement (below 80%). Visual analysis of the remaining 15 scatter plots indicated that none showed any reliable temporal pattern of responding. However, when the data were transformed into aggregate “control charts” based on statistical process control procedures, 12 of the 15 sets of data revealed one or more 30‐min intervals during which problem behavior was more likely to occur. Results are discussed in terms of the practicality of applying statistical analyses to scatter plot data and of collecting data for the length of time needed to show statistical significance. It was concluded that detailed functional or descriptive analyses, which would reveal cause‐effect or correlational relationships between behavior and specific environmental events, may be both more precise and more efficient forms of assessment.
EVALUATION OF A BRIEF STIMULUS PREFERENCE ASSESSMENT
Authors: Roane Henry S. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Ringdahl Joel E. , Marcus Bethany A.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the utility of a brief (5‐min) stimulus preference assessment for individuals with developmental disabilities. Participants had noncontingent (free) access to an array of stimuli and could interact with any of the stimuli at any time. Stimuli were never withdrawn or withheld from the participants during a 5‐min session. In Experiment 1, the brief preference assessment was conducted for 10 participants to identify differentially preferred stimuli, and reinforcer assessments were conducted to test the reinforcing efficacy of those stimuli identified as highly preferred. In Experiment 2, a comparison was conducted between the brief preference assessment and a commonly used paired‐stimulus preference assessment. Collectively, results demonstrated that the brief preference assessment identified stimuli that functioned as reinforcers for a simple operant response, identified preferred stimuli that were differentially effective as reinforcers compared to nonpreferred stimuli, was associated with fewer problem behaviors, and required less time to complete than a commonly used paired‐stimulus preference assessment.
A COMPARISON OF NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT AND SENSORY EXTINCTION AS TREATMENTS FOR SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR
Authors: Roscoe Eileen M. , Iwata Brian A. , Goh Han‐Leong
Published: March 2006

We compared the effects of two treatments, noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and sensory extinction (EXT), on the self‐injurious behavior (SIB) exhibited by 3 individuals with developmental disabilities. Results of a functional analysis indicated that their SIB was not maintained by social reinforcement, as indicated by undifferentiated responding across assessment conditions or higher rates of responding in the alone condition. Prior to treatment, leisure probes were conducted to identify highly preferred items for use in the NCR condition, and equipment probes were conducted to identify devices that produced the greatest behavioral suppression for use in the EXT condition. Following baseline, treatment was implemented in a multiple baseline across subjects design, and the effects of NCR and EXT were compared in a multielement format. During NCR sessions, participants had continuous access to a highly preferred item. During EXT sessions, participants wore equipment (gloves or protective sleeves) that seemed to attenuate stimulation directly produced by their SIB, while still allowing the behavior to occur. Results indicated that both procedures were effective in reducing SIB, although NCR was associated with either more rapid or greater overall response suppression.
EFFECTS OF CONTINGENT REWARD AND INSTRUCTION ON ORAL READING PERFORMANCE AT DIFFERING LEVELS OF PASSAGE DIFFICULTY
Authors: Noell George H. , Gansle Kristin A. , Witt Joseph C. , Whitmarsh Ernest L. , Freeland Jennifer T. , LaFleur Lynn H. , Gilbertson Donna N. , Northup John
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of reinforcement contingencies designed to increase the performance of existing reading skills as well as the effects of instruction—modeling and practice—designed to increase skill level for oral reading fluency across three levels of reading materials. Results showed that a combination of contingencies, modeling, and practice was effective in producing substantial increases in reading fluency for all participants at their assigned grade levels. These results demonstrate one strategy for experimentally determining those instructional components that are required to increase oral reading rate.
EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT TIMING ON MATHEMATICS PROBLEM COMPLETION RATES IN AFRICAN‐AMERICAN THIRD‐GRADE ELEMENTARY STUDENTS
Authors: Rhymer Katrina N. , Skinner Christopher H. , Henington Carlen , D'Reaux Robyn A. , Sims SanPier
Published: March 2006

A multiple baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of Van Houten and Thompson's (1976) explicit timing procedure on problem completion rates and accuracy levels in African‐American third‐grade students. During the explicit timing phase, students were told that they were being timed and were instructed to circle the last problem completed at each 1‐min interval. Results showed that the explicit timing procedure increased problem completion rates. A decreasing trend in percentage of problems correct also occurred. Exploratory data analysis suggested that decreases in accuracy were not caused by the explicit timing procedure and did not occur in students who had attained high levels of preintervention accuracy. Discussion focuses on recommendations for educators who wish to use timing procedures to increase students' rates of accurate responding.
THE USE OF NONCONTINGENT ESCAPE TO REDUCE DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIORS IN CHILDREN WITH SPEECH DELAYS
Authors: Coleman Carrie L. , Holmes Peter A.
Published: March 2006

Noncontingent escape (NCE) was used to reduce disruptive behavior in 3 children during regularly scheduled speech therapy sessions. Results showed rapid decreases in disruptive behavior and accompanying increases in compliance across children. Findings suggest that speech therapists with little expertise in behavior analysis can effectively implement NCE.
COMBINING STIMULUS FADING, REINFORCEMENT, AND EXTINCTION TO TREAT FOOD REFUSAL
Authors: Freeman Kurt A. , Piazza Cathleen C.
Published: March 2006

The food refusal of a 6‐year‐old girl with destructive behavior was treated using stimulus fading, reinforcement, and escape extinction. Intake increased and compliance with prompting procedures remained relatively stable despite the increased consumption requirement.