bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Planning for the re-introduction of scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) and addax (Addax nasomaculatus) into Niger
Authors: Dixon Alexandra M , Mace Georgina M , Newby John E , Olney Peter J S
Published: November 2023

By the early 1980s, reports on the status of scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) and addax (Addax nasomaculatus) indicated that extinction in the wild was imminent. At the same time, populations in zoos were thriving, and co-operative breeding programmes were developing in various regional zoo associations to manage the populations for genetic diversity and demographic stability. By 1987, major threats to the wild populations from drought, war and hunting were under control or reduced in parts of the species’ historical ranges and it became clear that there was now a potential for re-introduction of captive-bred animals. This paper describes some of the ensuing plans for re-introduction, including discussions with local wildlife managers and politicians, fund-raising, identification of release sites, identification of sources of animals suitable for release, and population simulations to help formulate release strategies.
Epigenetic Inheritance and Evolution
Authors: Jablonka Eva , Lamb Marion J
Published: November 2023

This book discusses the evidence for and against the heritability of acquired characters. Does the inheritance of acquired characteristics play a significant role in evolution? In this original and potentially controversial book the authors explore an often neglected aspect of Darwinian evolution - the nature and origin of hereditary variations. The theory of evolution proposed by Jean-Baptise Lamarck (1744-1829), that characteristics developed during life by use and disuse can be inherited by offspring, lost support among Western scientists because it lacked definite proof. Jablonka and Lamb do not act as advocates or apologists for Lamarck, but they do challenge the prevailing assumption that all heritable variation is the random result of variation in DNA base sequence. Looking afresh at the evidence for and against the heritability of environmentally induced changes, the authors ask some timely questions about the importance of non-mendelian inheritance. This important work will be of great interest to all biologists and historians of science.
Interactions between genetic and epigenetic inheritance
Authors: Jablonka Eva , Lamb Marion J
Published: November 2023

In the first half of this book we have been at pains to demonstrate two things: first, that some non-genetic variations, epigenetic variations, are inherited both within cell lineages and from one generation of organisms to the next; second, that respectable biochemical mechanisms are known that show, or at least suggest, how these variations can be inherited. If it is accepted that epigenetic variations are part of what can be inherited, then it follows that they must also be part of evolution. The remainder of this book will be devoted to exploring the part epigenetic variations and their inheritance have played in evolution. Some of the topics we discuss are relatively uncontroversial. Those considered at the beginning of this chapter are an example, since no one denies that gene activity influences genetic change, even though little notice is taken of it in evolutionary theory. Some of the other topics we explore lead to conclusions and speculations that may seem a little more threatening to a conservative interpretation of Darwinism. However, all of our arguments are based firmly on Darwinian evolution. We are merely taking a somewhat less restrictive view of the nature and origin of inherited variations than that found in most present day evolutionary thinking.
Multiple inheritance systems
Authors: Jablonka Eva , Lamb Marion J
Published: November 2023

In 1958, the centenary of the first publication of Darwin and Wallace’s theory of evolution by natural selection, Donald Michie expressed the opinion that the ‘third stage’ in genetics had arrived. The first stage was that of classical Mendelian genetics, dominated by Johannsen’s genotype concept and the chromosomal theory. The second stage, which began in the post-war period, was the incorporation of the inheritance of cytoplasmic factors into genetics; it was recognized that there are cytoplasmic inheritance systems which can transmit epigenetic information germinally. The third stage, which, according to Michie, was just dawning in 1958, was a synthesis of these two: the acceptance that DNA and the cytoplasm are not independent, and that there are persistent interactions between them (Fig. 10.1).
Reproduction and development
Authors: Altringham John D
Published: November 2023

I’ll look at reproduction predominantly from an ecological and behavioural perspective, concentrating on how different strategies have evolved to meet different ecological and environmental demands. The detailed physiology of reproduction in bats is very varied, but follows the essential mammalian plan in outline, and I will not cover it in any detail. Hill and Smith (1984) give a good account of the basics. Excellent reviews on all aspects of bat reproduction have been written by Racey (1982), Tuttle and Stevenson (1982), Kunz (1987), Kurta and Kunz (1987), and Ransome (1990). Bats are placental mammals. After mating and fertilisation, the egg is implanted in the wall of the uterus and the foetus completes its development over a gestation period char acteristic of the species. All nourishment comes from the placenta, which also meets the embryo’s other physiological requirements-delivery of oxygen, removal of waste products, and immunological defence. After birth the young are protected and given shelter, fed on the mother’s milk, and possibly instructed for a period, before weaning and eventual independence. Within that framework, bats show considerable variation, and this can generally be linked to climate and feeding habits. Before looking at variations in the reproductive cycle, I need to say something about the physiological mechanisms which have evolved to enable bats to adjust the timing of the key stage in reproduction.
Conservation
Authors: Altringham John D
Published: November 2023

Why conserve bats? First and foremost, for a reason we do not see stated as often as we should in conservation arguments: because they have a right to a place on this planet. Bats are part of the global ecosystem, with a part to play in its survival and evolution. Whether we study bats as professional biologists or as amateur naturalists, or simply watch them in our gardens or on television wildlife programmes, they enrich our lives. They are another facet of the natural world to marvel at and to try to understand. The study of the natural world, and the transfer of what we learn to a wider public, is an end in itself: a part of our culture. As I hope this book shows, when we study bats we also learn more about the ways in which the natural world works. This study often has medical or economic benefits, frequently unsuspected, and basic research leads on to strategic research. However, we often place too little value on our natural heritage and the study of how it works. Wilson (1994) argues powerfully and eloquently on the need to study life’s diversity.
Testing species and provenances
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

Although eucalypt databases (Chapter 4) are rapidly becoming more comprehensive, this information will not supplant the need for species elimination and provenance trials. There are several reasons for this. Databases derive their effectiveness from an increasing body of experience with eucalypts already growing or being tested as exotics across a wide range of ecological conditions (Table 5.1 and Chapters 6-17). Little-known and rarely tested species are not represented adequately enough for the database method to be used for species selection and site matching. More likely one of the homoclime techniques described in Section 4.3.3 would be used to select a limited number of species for elimination trials.
Eucalyptus fastigata
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

Eucalyptus fastigata is confined to cool humid forests in a narrow zone running parallel to the New South Wales coast with a small extension into eastern Victoria. The species is found on moist, well-drained, fertile soils mainly on the eastern edges of tablelands and escarpments, and further inland in some places. The range of latitude is between 30°30’ and 37°20’S (Fig 9.1, Table 9.1). The range of altitude is mainly between 700 and 1200 m but the species does occur below 300 min moist gullies in the south (Fig. 9.2) and above 1400 m in the north. Frost and snow are common at higher altitudes throughout the range of the species. Rainfall between about 800 and 2000 mm is distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year in the south but there is a summer maximum in the north (Boland et al. 1984; Hall et al. 1981).
Eucalyptus urophylla
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

E. deglupta. Over most of its range E. urophylla is a forest tree usually reaching 25-45 m in height and up to 1 m diameter, with a straight bole for half to two¬ thirds of the tree height. Exceptional specimens attain 55 m in height and up to 2 m diameter. It is one of the best low-latitude eucalypts for planting in tropical areas (Turnbull and Brooker 1978; Jacobs 1981). There are extensive stands of E. urophylla on the large Indonesian island of Timor above 1000 m and throughout Wetar (Fig. 16.1). More scattered stands are found on the nearby islands of Adonara, Alor, Flores, Lomblen, and Pantar. These islands form the south-eastern end of the Sunda Archipelago. They are isolated to the north and south by the seas of Flores and Timor, so limiting the latitudinal spread of the species to between about 7° 30’S and 10°S.
Reproductive biology of eucalypts
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

A good understanding of the biology of sexual reproduction of eucalypts is necessary for the breeder to plan seed production efficiently. Because of the variation among species, it is necessary when making controlled pollinations to have detailed information on the flowering biology of the particular species of interest. It is also necessary for the eucalypt breeder collecting seed to be well aware of the extent and effects of inbreeding and hybridization. Those readers seeking an understanding of the processes involved in sexual reproduction of tree crops generally are referred to the book by Sedgley and Griffin (1989). These authors have presented details of breeding systems and of flower, fruit, and seed production in both horticultural and silvicultural crops. They examined the ecological context in which these attributes have developed and in many cases used eucalypts as examples.
Ecophysiology of the world’s most troublesome aquatic weeds
Authors: Spencer W , Bowes G
Published: November 2023

A variety of aquatic plant species, under the right conditions, can become nuisance infestations in a particular location. However, only about a dozen or so higher plant species have a global reputation as major aquatic weeds. In this chapter we will restrict our discussion to those that cause the most problems on a global scale. These include six submerged species: Ceratophyl/um demersum, Elodea canadensis, Hydrilla verticillata, Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton crispus, and P. pectinatus; three free-floating species: Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, and Salvinia molesta; and five emergent species: Alternanthera philoxeroides, Echinochloa crus-galli, Phragmites australis, Panicum repens, and Typha spp. These species, by virtue of their prolific growth and reproduction, may interfere with human utilization of freshwater resources, become aesthetically displeasing, or displace desirable indigenous vegetation. Other species of more local importance as weeds are not included, because of the general nature of this review.
Flow-resistance of aquatic weeds
Authors: Pitlo R H , Dawson P H
Published: November 2023

The Movement of water flowing in natural and artificial watercourses is influenced mainly by the following factors: (1) the dimensions of the water course (width, depth, and cross-sectional shape); (2) the slope or hydraulic gradient ofthe water course; (3) the resistance to flow (bed and bank roughness, aquatic vegetation, longitudinal changes in both cross-section and alignment).
The relation between aquatic weeds and public health
Authors: Gangstad E O , Cardarelli N F
Published: November 2023

Dense growths of aquatic plants may have an adverse effect on public health, mainly because they provide a habitat which favours the development of vectors of human diseases. The plants give shelter to these vector organisms, provide a food source (organisms and/or detritus associated with the plants) and can also be a source of oxygen (oxygen which is present in the plant tissues). The most important vectors of human diseases which, at least during part of their life cycle, depend on the environmental conditions prevailing in dense aquatic weed vegetation are certain types of mosquitoes and aquatic snails. The disease-carrying mosquitoes which thrive under these conditions can be divided into mosquitoes with larvae which breathe at the water surface, i.e. the anopheline mosquitoes, and mosquitoes which are able to obtain oxygen from plant tissues, i.e. mosquitoes of the genus Mansonia.
Chemical control of aquatic weeds
Authors: Murphy K J , Barrett P R F
Published: November 2023

Herbicides can offer a cheap, effective, and rapid method of aquatic weed control. However, they are powerful tools which require knowledge and understanding to be used safely and effectively. If misused, they can have side effects which may be harmful to aquatic organisms, wildlife in general and, ultimately, to man. This chapter describes the main herbicides used in or near water, discusses the factors which influence their performance and indicates how they can best be used.
Ways forward
Authors: Woodruff Michael
Published: November 2023

It seems unlikely that there is much, if anything, to be gained from more radical local treatment, though it is worth asking whether we are moving too far in the opposite direction. As was pointed out in Section 6.4.2, pp. 82-84, a critical analysis of the extent to which loco-regional recurrence is the first evidence of failure of systemic adjuvant therapy should help to answer this question. If local treatment has reached its zenith, progress will depend on the development of more effective systemic treatment, to be used either alone or in combination with local treatment. Ideally, such systemic treatment should be, and should remain, cytotoxic to all the neoplastic cells in a given neoplasm but, in the dose needed to destroy the neoplasm, harmless to normal cells.
Lichen reinvasion with declining air pollution
Authors: Gilbert Oliver L
Published: November 2023

The decline of lichen floras under the impact of air pollution has been a worldwide phenomenon. So sensational is the decline that a Scandinavian worker coined the term ‘lichen desert ‘ to describe the centre of towns where trees are devoid of foliose and fruticose lichens (Sernander 1926). In the UK the degree of impoverishment was shown to correspond closely with levels of sulphur dioxide, a correlation made possible using the results of a national network of nearly 1300 air pollution gauges (Clifton 1969). Though it was not fully appreciated at the time, stable SO2 emission rates aided the calibration of semi-quantitative biological scales for estimating levels of air pollution that were constructed in the late 1960s (Gilbert 1970a; Hawksworth and Rose 1970). This was the period when ecological interactions between lichens and air pollution were most vigorously investigated. Species were listed in order of their sensitivity, the effect of environmental variables such as pH, nutrient availability, and microclimate were investigated, and a number of other air pollutants were screened to determine whether they too were having any effect. The only ones convincingly shown to be influencing lichen distribution were point source emissions of flourides, which are harmful (Martin and Jacquard 1968; Gilbert 1973b), and alkaline dust which is able to counteract SO2 producing small oases of lichen-rich vegetation (Gilbert 1976).
Phylogeny, Lifeform, And Habitat Dependence Of Ant-Defended Plants In A Panamanian Forest
Authors: Schupp Eugene W , Feener Jr D H
Published: November 2023

Facultative defence mutualisms, in which many species of ants visit and defend many species of plants but nest elsewhere, are abundant (Bentley 1977 h; Inouye and Taylor 1979; Koptur 1979; Keeler 1980a; Oliveira and Brandao Chapter I 4, this volume). These ant-defended plants attract and maintain their ‘bodyguard’ of ants (and parasitoids; see Chapter 15) with extrafloral (non-pollination) nectar and solid pearl bodies, proffered primarily on young, vulnerable, actively growing tissues (e.g. expanding leaves and shoots, flower buds, and young fruits) (Beattie 1985). In most cases, ants collecting these rewards or defending the sites of their production either actively or passively reduce herbivore damage.
Myrmecochory In Cape Fynbos
Authors: Bond W J , Yeaton R , Stock W D
Published: November 2023

In 1975, Berg reported the widespread occurrence of myrmecochory in Australian heathlands. At the time, there was considerable interest in the hypothesis of convergent evolution among the mediterranean climate regions of the world (Cody and Mooney, 1978). Berg's discovery suggested a further test of the hypothesis in the arena of reproductive biology. Myrmecochory was virtually unknown in the Cape fynbos, the closest equivalent to the vegetation studied by Berg. Was fynbos also rich in myrmecochores? A survey to address this question indicated that perhaps one fifth of the Cape flora (>1000 species), mostly of little affinity with the Australian clements, were myrmecochorous (Slings by and Bond I 981; Milewski and Bond 1982; Bond and Slingsby 1983). The discovery of this remarkable convergence in dispersal type, across diverse phylogenies, must rank as one of the more successful predictions of convergence theory. Ironically, the selective pressures which lead to the evolution of myrmecochory in diverse lineages within the Cape and Australian floras are still enigmatic.
Cannibalism in lower eukaryotes
Authors: Waddell David R
Published: November 2023

Cannibalism is taxonomically widespread among lower eukaryotes (Sandon 1932), although most reports have been anecdotal. The first report of cannibalism in lower eukaryotes was in the ciliateOxytricha(Haime 1853). It was subsequently reported in several other species of ciliates, includingOnychodromus grandis(Maupas 1888),Pleurotricha laceolata(Joukowsky 1898),Stentor coeruleus(Gelei 1925),Blepharisma undulans(Dawson 1929), andStylonychia curvata(Giese and Alden 1938). Although generally widespread among the ciliates, it is notable that cannibalism has not been reported for the most commonly studied smaller ciliatesTetrahymenaandParamecium,which generally feed upon bacteria. However, two species,Tetrahymena vorax(Buhse 1966; Buhseet al.1978) andT. patula(Williams 1960) can undergo a transformation from a form which feeds upon bacteria to a carnivorous form which feeds on other cilates. The transition to the large form capable of feeding upon larger prey involves the resorption of the oral apparatus and the formation of a larger one by a process known as oral replacement. Cannibalism does occur in the form with the larger oral apparatus (N. E. Williams, personal communication).
Sexual cannibalism in spiders and other invertebrates
Authors: Elgar Mark A
Published: November 2023

A variety of animals, but most notably certain species of praying mantids, scorpions, and spiders, have gained some notoriety for attempting to consume their mates, with descriptions of this behaviour making good copy for popular articles on courtship and mating in animals. However, the evolutionary basis of this form of cannibalism has received little empirical or theoretical attention in the biological literature, and descriptions are usually anecdotal or associated with general descriptions of courtship and mating. For example, many textbooks state that cannibalism of sexual partners has been responsible for the evolution of elaborate courtship behaviour in many spiders (e.g. Manning 1972; Gould 1982; Cloudsley-Thompson 1988), despite the lack of either within-species or comparative evidence. Cannibalism of sexual partners may have been ignored in the past because it did not accord with the traditional view of courtship and mating as largely cooperative and harmonious ventures, a view that is being replaced by the idea that there are conflicts of interest between the sexes (e.g. Krebs and Davies 1987). Because cannibalism of sexual partners represents an extreme form of the conflict of interests between males and females, it offers an interesting model system for understanding animal mating and courtship behaviour.
Cannibalism in amphibians
Authors: Crump Martha L
Published: November 2023

The complex life cycle of most salamanders and anurans (frogs and toads), involving an aquatic larval stage and a semi-terrestrial or terrestrial adult stage, creates a complicated web of potential intraspecific interactions that include cannibalism. Cannibalism is defined here as the killing and consumption of live conspecifics, and therefore will exclude from discussion the consumption of already dead conspecifics or parts of a conspecific (e.g., tails, limbs, and gills, Borland and Rugh 1943; Petranka 1989).
Pup-cannibalism in rodents: causes and consequences
Authors: Elwood Robert
Published: November 2023

Rodents are usually thought of as primarily vegetarian, but studies of the natural diet increasingly demonstrate the omnivorous nature of many species. For example, ground squirrels Spermophilus beldingi, hunt both insects and small mammals and feed on carrion (Sherman 1981); grasshopper mice Onychomys spp., feed on insects and small vertebrates; common hamsters Cricetus cricetus, hunt insects, lizards, frogs, mice, young birds and even snakes; doormice (family Gliridae) eat insects, spiders, and earthworms; and Wagner’s gerbil Gerbillus dasyurus, feeds on snails, leaving piles of shells near burrow entrances (Macdonald 1984). Some rodents that specialize in aquatic habits use crustaceans and fish as their primary food source (e.g. fish-eating rats and mice, tribe Ichthyomyini) (Macdonald 1984). The use of animal matter in the diet thus appears to be widespread amongst rodents, even if it forms a minority constituent in most species (e.g. Prakash 1962; Hansson 1985).
Factors influencing an individual’s competitive success
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

I now turn to the question of what might influence a female’s success in competing for habitat and a male’s success in competing for mates, particularly the effects of body size, age, and familiarity with a territory. Wing length was measured from the carpel joint to the tip of the longest primary, with the wing closed and pressed flat against a rule held along the long axis of the bird’s body (Fig. 5. la). Comparing all individuals measured at all ages, males had longer wings than females and in both sexes wing length increased from year 1 to year 2 but thereafter there was no further change (Fig. 5.2a). Measurements of individual changes with age supported this conclusion, with males and females who were measured in both year 1 and year 2 showing significant increases in wing length, but individuals measured in years 2 and after showing no change.
Horsfield’s or western tarsier
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

Horsfield’s tarsier is found in northern and western parts of Borneo, eastern Sumatra, parts of Java, and on the islands of Bangka and Belitung (Mackinnon 1986; Wolfheim 1983). It has been classified as endangered but is not rare in North Borneo (Wolfheim 1983). MacKinnon (1986) estimated the total population at about 10 million, and it is not currently classified as threatened (IUCN, 1990).
Common baboon
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

There is some debate concerning the classification of baboons. The common or savanna baboon (also known as the yellow or olive baboon) is widely distributed in the African continent, and inhabits savanna, woodland, and the forest edge. This species is not threatened at present, but the Hamadryas baboon Papio hamadryas and the Gelada baboon Theropithecus gelada are both listed as rare (Lee et al. 1988).
Western black and white colobus monkey
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

Some authorities consider this species, which occurs in the countries of the southern coast of West Africa from Senegal to Nigeria, to be distinct from C. angolensis which occurs in central Africa (Wolfheim 1983). Others have classified these as one species (Napier and Napier 1967). ISIS includes angolensis with polykomos and recognizes 12 subspecies. The western black and white colobus has been described as common in some parts of Ghana and the Ivory Coast but it is very rare or extinct in Togo and Nigeria (Wolfheim 1983). These forest animals are found in a wide range of forest types (Wolfheim 1983). They are largely arboreal, only descending to the ground for salt or other minerals (Ormrod 1967). The black and white colobus was seriously threatened by the European fur trade at the end of the nineteenth century (Brandon-Jones 1984) and it is still hunted for fur and meat (Booth 1979; Wolfheim 1983; Oates et al. 1987). Habitat destruction is also threatening the status of C. polykomos in parts of its range (Struhsaker and Leland 1987). Lee et al. (1988) classified the species as not threatened, and it is not included in the IUCN red list.
Behavioural Ecology of Teleost Fishes
Authors: Godin Jean-Guy J
Published: November 2023

Teleost (bony) fishes represent the most abundant taxonomic group of vertebrates. They are found in all conceivable types of aquatic environment and are extremely diverse behaviourally. Their evolutionary success as a taxonomic group is partly due to their striking behavioural plasticity. As such they are also extremely useful organisms on which to test mechanistic and functional models of behaviour. Considerable progress has been made over the past decade in understanding how behaviour, ecology, and genetics interact to determine individual survival and reproductive success in fishes, and thus the evolution of their behaviour. Behavioural Ecology of Teleost Fishes reviews the latest advances in behavioural adaptations for survival and reproduction in fishes, and proposes new directions and approaches for future research. The book focuses on behavioural strategies and tactics of habitat selection and space use, foraging, predator avoidance and evasion, and reproduction. It also considers how the behaviour of individuals affects ecological processes at population and community levels. The text will benefit all those with a general interest in behavioural ecology, and will be required reading for students, teachers, and researchers interested in the behaviour and ecology of fishes. It will also be a valuable reference source for biologists, aquaculturists, and conservationists.
Fish migration: an evolutionary perspective
Authors: Dodson Julian J
Published: November 2023

The study of fish migration has been dominated by the description of migratory trajectories and of the proximate control of orientation behaviour (e.g. Harden Jones 1968; McCleave et al. 1984; McKeown 1984; Smith 1985). Although fascinating in themselves, these themes are generally not concerned with the most central assumption of behavioural ecology, that individuals behave so as to maximise their reproductive success or, rather, their inclusive fitness (Krebs and Davies 1993). The purpose of this chapter is to relate migratory behaviour to reproductive success in fishes. The coverage of the subject is more selective than exhaustive. Although I focus principally (but not exclusively) on ‘diadromous’ migrations (between freshwater and marine habitats), I have not dealt with the ultimate causes of variability in the rates of homing to and straying from natal habitats. The reader is referred to Quinn (1985) and Kaitala (1990) for a treatment of the latter. The population genetic consequences of varying levels of gene flow among locallyadapted populations is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Diet selection
Authors: Hughes Roger N
Published: November 2023

In his classic work on the ecological energetics of freshwater fishes, Ivlev (1961) related feeding behaviour, through diet (prey) choice, to subsequent growth. At that time, a proximate, physiological emphasis was placed on the energy budget, and although this approach generated experimental direction and considerable insight, it eventually ceased to break new ground. Fresh impetus was given by the emerging discipline of evolutionary ecology (Krebs and Davies 1991). Seeking to explain behavioural and life-history phenomena in terms of natural selection, the evolutionary ecologist would view growth as one of many possible surrogate measures of fitness. Thus, by experimentally determining the effect of diet on growth, one can begin to relate behavioural patterns affecting diet selection to fitness. The evolutionary approach continues to have a powerful influence on the questions asked by behavioural ecologists and on the experiments they perform. It is my purpose in this chapter to illustrate the potency of the evolutionary approach as a framework for the study of diet selection in fishes. To do this, I have chosen examples that I know well and that have generality.
Avoiding and deterring predators
Authors: Smith R Jan F
Published: November 2023

The threat of predation has profound and pervasive effects on prey fishes. If we begin with structure, the body shape, size, the degree and type of body armour, and the size and arrangement of spines are all subject to selection by predators. Colours that may attract mates can also make an animal conspicuous to predators, leading to seasonal changes in appearance or to colours that may be less than optimal for mate attraction. Control of seasonal colour changes is probably a physiological response to predation, as is the production of toxins and venoms. Behavioural responses to predation are very diverse and include avoiding dangerous areas, hiding at certain times of day and recognising predators and fleeing or hiding from them, as well as evasive tactics at the moment of attack.
The cell cycle
Authors: Sorrentino V
Published: November 2023

The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of a series of processes at the end of which one cell gives rise to a pair of genetically identical daughter cells. This is achieved by correct coupling of two events, DNA replication and chromosome segregation, which are temporally separated in the eukaryotic cell cycle. The synthesis of DNA takes place during the S (synthetic) phase, while chromosome segregation occurs during mitosis (M). In most cell types there are usually intervals between S and M phases called gaps. The first gap, G1, is observed between mitosis and the S phase, and the second gap, G2, follows the S phase and leads to mitosis. Mitosis comprises prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (1, 2). Although cell division usually follows mitosis, some exceptions to this rule exist such as in early stages of Drosophila embryo, when a few cycles of DNA replication and mitosis occur before cell division is executed. In a similar fashion, multinucleate cells in Physarum polycephalum may be formed through a series of mitoses not followed by cell division (3). In the cell cycle there are two interacting components: (1) the ‘mechanical’, which refer to DNA replication, mitosis, and cytokinesis; and (2) the ‘regulatory’, which refer to events in G1 that control entrance into the S phase and those in G2 that regulate entry into mitosis. The accuracy of the cell cycle events depends primarily on accurate chromosome replication and segregation, which is achieved by carefully controlling that the preceding steps are completed before others begin. Cells have therefore to complete DNA replication before they enter mitosis, and must accurately align all chromosomes in the mitotic spindle before segregating them. Damage to these mechanisms, which results in failure to control accurately cell cycle events, can cause alterations and mutations that may cause cell death or cancer.
The fibroblast growth factor family: multifunctional regulators of cell proliferationt‡
Authors: Burgess W H , Winkles J A
Published: November 2023

Polypeptide growth factors are modulators of cellular proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These functions are thought to be mediated primarily by extracellular binding to high-affinity cell surface receptors and subsequent alterations of cellular metabolism and gene expression. The complete cascades of growth factor-induced signal transduction are not known and are likely to be different for the various growth factor families. The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family presently consists of eight structurally related polypeptides. These proteins have been referred to under many different names (Table 7.1). A variety of cell surface FGF receptors (FGFR) has also been characterized. A comprehensive review of all aspects of the FGF family is beyond the scope of any chapter. In the following we attempt to outline the most general features of this growth factor family and focus detailed discussion on the areas most directly related to the themes of this volume and those of our own research.
The real world
Authors: Humphries Christopher J , Parenti Lynne R
Published: November 2023

We have established as one aim of cladistic biogeography production of area cladograms--hierarchical relationships of areas derived from cladograms of taxa. Inherent in our support for this aim is the principle that biogeographic studies must be based on sound systematics, a notion nearly universally upheld by other biogeographers (e.g. Darlington 1957, 1965; Croizat 1964; Good 1964; Brundin 1966; Rosen 1976; Nelson and Platnick 1981; Vari and Weitzman 1990; Brooks and McLennan 1991). Where vicariance and cladistic biogeographers diverge most significantly from dispersalist biogeographers is in the conviction that schemes of relationship of taxa (cladograms) within a biota are basic and fundamental to any biogeographic study, rather than are, for example, hypotheses of dispersal capabilities (vagility) of individual taxa, or estimates of centres of origin (e.g. Briggs 1984, 1986, 1995).
Aquatic and Wetland Plants of India
Authors: Cook Christopher D K
Published: November 2023

This volume is a reference and identification manual for the vascular plants found in permanent or seasonal fresh water in the subcontinent of India south of the Himalayas. About 660 species are described and the style of the text is accessible both to experts and to those with only a little botanical training. All the plants are illustrated by line drawings showing the diagnostic features. The importance of wetlands to life on Earth is now generally accepted. This is the first such Flora to cover wetland plants for this entire geographical area, replacing and supplementing many local Floras. It will enable scientists and conservationists to identify the plants with accuracy and to build on this information to promote conservation. This is a most valuable contribution to systematic botany by an international recognized scientist.
Ecology and Evolution in Anoxic Worlds
Authors: Fenchel Tom , Finlay Bland J
Published: November 2023

This is a book about the natural history of oxygen-free environments and their microbial inhabitants. Life originated in the pre-oxic world, and anoxic conditions still persist in many places on Earth such as lake sediments, the guts of ruminants, and the deep waters of some marine basins. The authors draw on evidence from geology, biochemistry, ecology, and evolutionary systematics to describe the forces which shape the structure, function, heterogeneity, and evolution of anaerobic communities, and also to discuss the nature of early life on Earth.
Invasion of predators
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

Predators include carnivores such as lions and tigers, herbivores such as zebras and elephants, and omnivores such as humans and apes. Predation exists not only among mammals, but in all levels of species including birds, fishes, insects, bacteria, etc. As we saw in Chapter 2, because of the extensive damage to agriculture, cases of invasion by herbivorous insects have been well documented. Parasites or parasitoids which lay eggs in the larvae of such plant-eating pests can also be considered as predators. Insect pests can be biologically controlled by introducing parasitoids which are their natural enemies. Although massive outbreaks of insect pests are rarely seen in their native land, when an insect pest is introduced to a new location it is usually unaccompanied by its natural enemy, and thus is often able to multiply without control (Pimentel, 1986). A successful example of pest control by introducing its natural enemy is seen in the control of the Icerya purchasi outbreak in California.
Birds of paradise in human tradition and culture
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael
Published: November 2023

Ships’ crews of the earliest intrepid voyages to reach the shores of New Guinea were the first to witness the degree to which the indigenous cultures venerated and used birds of paradise. As exploration of the region and observation of local cultures increased it became apparent that the birds of paradise represented an important source of wealth and custom, as well as spiritual totems; their displays, behaviour, and forest life history served as a source of myth and religion.
What can phylogenetic patterns tell us about the evolutionary processes generating biodiversity?
Authors: Philippe Hervé , Adoutte André
Published: November 2023

Although perhaps not fully appreciated by all ecologically oriented evolu tionary biologists, there is a deep and necessary inter-relationship between the knowledge of pattern (i.e. phylogeny) and process (i.e. mechanisms) in all studies of comparative biology and especially in those devoted to the analysis of biodiversity and adaptation. This has been eloquently argued in several papers and manuals (Felsenstein 1985; Coddington 1988; Brooks and McLennan 1991; Harvey and Pagel 1991; Hillis and Bull 1991; Stearns 1992; Lauder et al. 1993; Avise 1994) and we do not intend to rephrase all the arguments here. Instead, after briefly summarizing these arguments, we will take the proposal one step further: we will ask whether, in some instances, a phylogenetic pattern cannot in itself be indicative of an underlying evolu tionary process. We will reverse the usual procedure in which one seeks in the phylogeny a framework, a confirmation, or a control to an adaptive hypothesis, and we will focus instead on cases where the evolutionary hypothesis is actually revealed by the pattern. More specifically, we will focus upon the unresolved multifurcations which are found in an increasing number of molecular phylogenetic trees, and we will ask whether these correspond to explosive evolutionary radiations. If such is the case, then the analysis of the phylogenetic pattern will provide a major clue about the generation of biodiversity. The idea of extracting information on tempo and mode of evolution from molecular phylogenies is largely due to Harvey and co-workers (Nee et al. 1992, 1994). These authors have devised powerful methods to infer birth and death rates from the knowledge of the phylogeny of extant species (Harvey et al. 1994). Here, we will limit ourselves to the question of radiations as seen through molecular phylogenies, with special emphasis on the identification and elimination of possible artefacts leading to unresolved branching orders.
Colony-level variation of sex ratios
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka
Published: November 2023

We have so far seen that the intrinsic asymmetries of relatedness in most social insect groups have probably been involved in the evolution of eusociality itself, and certainly have led to a fundamental conflict of interest between queens and workers. In the development of the theory dealing with these phenomena we have touched on the importance of the interaction between colonies in populations: such interactions between colonies of different characteristics affect the sex allocation pattern of each. We close this book by considering this topic directly.
Maternal investment and post-natal growth in bats
Authors: Kunz Thomas H , Stern April A
Published: November 2023

We analysed post-natal growth data for body mass from 33 species of free-ranging and captive bats, using the logistic growth equation. When these data were examined by means of linear regression and covariance analysis, we found that growth rates decreased linearly with increasing asymptotic body mass. When we removed the effect of body mass, growth rates showed no significant differences with respect to diet (insect or fruit), taxonomic affiliation (Megachiroptera or Microchiroptera), growth condition (captive or free-ranging), or basal metabolic rate. Climate (tropical or temperate) was the only variable that had a significant effect on post-natal growth rates, with temperate bats growing faster than tropical species. This climatic effect was also evident when insectivorous bats were examined separately. While post-natal growth rates may provide a valuable index of maternal investment, milk energy output of females during lactation should provide the most direct link between the environment and growth of pups. Milk composition and milk-energy output as indices of maternal investment have been investigated in only a few species of bats. From the limited dat available it appears that the milk of insectivorous species contains a higher percentage of dry matter, fat and protein than does that of frugivorous species.
Lactation in vespertilionid bats
Authors: Wilde Colin J , Kerr Marian A , Knight Christopher H , Racey Paul A
Published: November 2023

Lactating pipistrelle bats (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) feed one, occasionally two, young from two thoracic mammary glands for about four weeks. Throughout lactation, suckling is interrupted each night as the bats forage for food, sometimes over considerable distances. The energetic costs of milk secretion and aerial foraging are considerable and, particularly at times of food shortage, are accommodated by a reduction in body temperature and torpor in the lactating animal. The mammary gland is also subject to this fall in temperature, so that milk secretion is likely to undergo pronounced diurnal variation, a situation similar to that in rodents, where it is dependent on the daily feeding pattern. Milk secretion is tailored to the intermittent suckling pattern by local regulatory mechanisms within the mammary gland, which respond to the frequency or completeness of milk removal. This mechanism is shared by other species but appears to be a predominant influence in bat mammary tissue, so much so that the developmental changes it induces obscure those changes usually associated with stage of lactation.
Synchrony and seasonality of reproduction in tropical bats
Authors: Heideman Paul D
Published: November 2023

Reproductive synchrony and seasonality appear to be typical of most species of bats in the tropics (Racey 1982). Reproductive synchrony and seasonality will be favoured under two conditions. First, the environment must have pre dictable seasonal variation and second, individuals must be able to maximize fitness by timing a critical reproductive stage to coincide with the season of optimal conditions for that stage. Because the terms synchrony and seasonality
The physiological ecology of hibernation in vespertilionid bats
Authors: Thomas Donald W
Published: November 2023

Chiropteran hibernation is characterized by prolonged bouts of torpor punctuated by periodic returns to endothermy. Laboratory studies indicate that these arousals are energetically very costly and, in the absence of feeding, they account for over 75% of winter fat depletion. Thus, knowledge of the organization and factors causing arousals is central to any analysis of winter energy balance.

To examine the organization of torpor and arousals, I placed temperature-sensitive radio tags on 18 hibernating Myotis lucifugus and monitored their superficial body temperatures over a 30-40-day period. Bats roused during all times of the day and there was no evidence for any significant temporal clustering of arousals. The first arousal provoked by handling lasted significantly longer (13.9 h) than subsequent natural arousals (5.0 h). During most first torpor bouts (10 of 11), but few subsequent bouts (one of 17), body temperature showed a slow positive drift of 0.82 °C/day up to a mean of 3.0 °C above ambient temperature. Torpor bouts accompanied by a drift in body temperature were significantly shorter (4.9 days) than those where body temperature fluctuated around 0.5 °C above ambient temperature (15.1 days). This study indicates that hibernating bats do not exhibit an endogenous circadian rhythm regulating the timing of arousals. Handling results in an increase in energy expenditure of 11.8 kJ above that typical of a 15.3 day torpor-arousal cycle. I examine the regulation of arousals and the energetic constraints that bats face during hibernation.
Conservation biology of an endangered species: field studies of greater horseshoe bats
Authors: Jones Gareth , Duverge P Laurent , Ransome Roger D
Published: November 2023

We overview an autecological study of the endangered greater horseshoe bat Rhinolophus ferrumequinum in south-west England. Bats from a woodland site generally emerged earlier than did bats from an exposed roost, except in early spring when tree leaf cover was minimal. Foliage around the roost may benefit bats by extending foraging time and reducing predation. Bats older than one year foraged between 2 and 4 km from their day roosts. Hence conservation of foraging habitats within this range is important. Ancient semi-natural deciduous woodland was used intensively by foraging bats during spring, while during late summer the bats fed mainly over pasture. Woodland was usually warmer than pasture, and the relative temperature difference between the two habitats was greatest at low temperatures. Insect abundance increased rapidly above 6-10 °C. Hence, in spring, it may be more profitable for bats to forage in woodland. The shift to feeding over pasture was associated with the dominance of Aphodius dung beetles in the diet during summer. Juveniles foraged independently of their mothers before weaning. Prime foraging habitat close to the maternity roost is probably important to initial and long-term juvenile survival. The hibernation requirements of R. ferrumequinum are briefly reviewed. Insights into the foraging needs (e.g. commuting distances) of other species may be gained from predictions based on flight morphology.
Genetic population structure of the noctule bat Nyctalus noctula: a molecular approach and first results
Authors: Mayer Frieder
Published: November 2023

The noctule Nyctalus noctula is widespread throughout northern Europe and migrates several hundred or even more than a thousand kilometres south for hiberna tion.