bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Recent advances in multidentate anion complexation
Authors: Katz Howard E
Published: November 2023

Organic chemists in general, and readers of previous chapters of this series in particular, are well aware of the dramatic advances that have been made in host-guest chemistry. Besides the substantial synthetic challenges that have been posed and met, a wide range of applications have been profitably investigated. The fundamental trait of recognition inherent in the interaction between hosts and guests enables selective sensing, separation, and transport. Altered properties of complexed species relative to separated entities include improved solubility in otherwise incompatible media, such as crown ether-salt complexes in relatively nonpolar solvents and lipophilic organic compounds in water; more favourable crystal packing effects leading to facile production of crystals or amenability to X-ray diffraction, such as in cryptate salts of organometallic anions; or extraordinary chemical reactivity, such as the very high basicity and nucleophilicity of crown-separated anions and the susceptibility of cyclophane-bound substrates to hydrolyses. In the limit of high selectivity and reactivity, hosts may even mimic naturally occurring enzymes or act as specialized ‘unnatural’ catalysts.
Clathrate hydrates at high pressures
Authors: Dyadin Yuri A , Bondaryuk Inna V , Zhurko Fridrich V
Published: November 2023

Although the parameters of pressure and temperature are equally important from the thermodynamic point of view, the former is much less commonly used in the chemistry of condensed substances because of technical difficulties. Therefore, in spite of the fact that interest in high pressures has recently grown, binary systems studied at high pressures are few in comparison with those studied under normal conditions. Systems displaying clathrate formation are very convenient as models for studying the evolution of phase diagrams at varying pressures, because with volume changes, common for a condensed state, the small heats of reaction make these systems pressure-sensitive.
Treating Disorder and Solvent Molecules in Refinement
Authors: Spek A L
Published: November 2023

Probably the best practical advice that can be given in relation to significantly disordered structures is to avoid them whenever possible. When results of high accuracy are desired such structure determinations are rarely fully satisfactory. Unless one is really committed to a particular structure the study of a related compound is recommended. Either a chemical modification or crystallization from a different solvent or crystallization under different conditions could be attempted. Ordered structures are likely to refine smoothly with good data to parameter ratios and good estimated standard deviations of the refined parameters, suitable for the detailed study of bonding effects for example. In contrast it is in general elaborate and hard work to devise and refine an adequate disorder model. Even when one succeeds in this task there often still remain the associated problems of low data to parameter ratio, high estimated standard deviations on the refined parameters and relatively high final R-values. The latter is often the only reason for the rejection of the associated interesting paper by certain journals. A good reason for such a journal policy could be that it is in such cases usually difficult to distinguish real structural effects from artifacts. In fact the pitfalls with which not only the novice crystallographer is confronted here are many. A few will be discussed briefly in the next section.
Torands
Authors: Bell Thomas W , Tidswell Julia L
Published: November 2023

Torands are a class of macrocyclic ligands having perimeters that are completely formed by smaller, fused rings. This chapter describes the synthesis of the simplest known example of the class, dodecahydrohexaazakekulene 1. This fused-ring analogue of sexipyridine 39 is also the parent system for a series of substituted torands, such as tributyldodecahydrohexaazakekulene 2 (TBDK). Larger ring, ‘expanded’ torands are also known, such as 4. Syntheses of torand 1 and sexipyridine 3 were reported in the original communications, but little is known about their complexation properties. On the other hand, sufficiently large quantities of tributyltorand 2 have been synthesized to permit investigation of the structures and stabilities of alkali metal complexes as well as the spectroscopic effects of complexation. Torand 2 forms extremely stable complexes with metal cations, while expanded torand 4 binds the larger, triangular guanidinium cation.
Introduction
Authors: Gardner Julian W , Bartlett Philip N
Published: November 2023

For many species of insects and animals a sense of smell determines their day-to-day survival. For mankind the strength of social interactions has been determined for centuries by bodily odours and, as a consequence, perfumed materials—ranging from frankincense and myrrh to Chanel No. 5—have been significant creators of wealth. Today, as national boundaries lose their significance, the development of acceptable smells to meet international markets is a major concern for a wide range of industries, including those involved in the production of foodstuffs and beverages, personal products, and in service industries.
Utilizing autotrophic resources: the grazers
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D
Published: November 2023

Algal production is utilized in two ways: herbivores eat the living plants, while detritivores eat the dead remains. The distinction is, however, diffcult to make on rocky shores because most animals have a wide range of food sources. The gastropods that rasp bioIlms off rock surfaces take in microalgae, germlings of macroalgae, fungi, and probably algal detritus. Similarly, sea urchins may ingest both live and dead macroalgae and even some invertebrates. Here, therefore, we consider all these categories under the title ‘grazer’.
Clinical Pathology
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

Pathology is a key component of any medical or dental undergraduate's course, yet it is a subject that students often struggle with due to the overwhelming amount of information there is to assimilate in a short space of time. Clinical Pathology provides the ideal solution. The text focuses on aspects of pathology relevant to students and junior doctors, avoiding unnecessary (and often intimidating) detail. The reader is carefully guided through the subject, starting with basic pathological principles, followed by explanations of core diseases in a systems based format. Finally the laboratory aspects of pathology relevant to the newly qualified junior doctor are covered, along with numerous case studies that bring the pathology to life and test one's knowledge. The book seamlessly integrates all pathology disciplines in one sensibly sized volume. The style is purposely informal and friendly, with plenty of interesting insights and thoughts. No knowledge is assumed - problematic terminology is explained in special "jargon buster" boxes, and common areas of difficulty are acknowledged and tackled head on rather than ignored. Clinical Pathology is ideal for medical students on pathology courses and as an accompaniment to medical and surgical attachments. It is also of great value to junior doctors brushing up their basic knowledge for postgraduate exams. Online Resource Centre: Lecturer resources: Image bank of line drawings and photographic images from the book (including Electron Micrographs) Collection of scenario based pathological problems to pose Student resources: Self-assessment resources, including a wealth of MCQs (some picture based) 'Ask the author' forum for questions and answers
Nervous, sensory, and neurosecretory systems
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

The sensory receptors and organs, and neurosecretory system of millipedes are among the better-studied areas of myriapod biology. These topics are covered in detail in this chapter in Sections 6.2 and 6.3. However, apart from anatomical descriptions (e.g. Newport 1843), little is known of the fine structure and function of the nerves of millipedes. Direct recording of nerve impulses has rarely been attempted. In the few cases where the ultrastructure of the nerves has been examined, they have been shown to be structurally similar to those of other terrestrial arthropods (Saita and Candia-Carnevali 1978). More research is required on this topic. Some of the more contentious questions concerning myriapod (and arthropod) phylogeny may be solved at the ultrastructural, rather than the anatomical, level.
Systematics and morphology of the Gasterosteiformes
Authors: Bowne Patricia S
Published: November 2023

One goal in studying the evolution of sticklebacks, or any other group, is to suggest causes for the evolution of traits. This is commonly done by identifying environmental or other factors correlated with the presence of the trait in question, and hypothesizing that these factors promote evolution of the trait. The mere identification of a correlation between supposed causative factors and a trait’s presence, however, leaves some important questions unanswered. Did the factors actually predate the trait’s appearance? Did organisms exposed to the factors actually evolve the trait more often than those not exposed, or does their joint possession of it reflect a single evolutionary event? Such questions can only be answered if the history of the group is known, or reconstructed through phylogenetic analysis.
The diversity of heterotrophic euglenids
Authors: Larsen Jacob , Patterson David J
Published: November 2023

The diversity of heterotrophic flagellates is reviewed to the level of genus. Heterotrophic euglenids are more diverse and abundant than commonly recognized, and are particularly common in sediments. Recent insights indicate that traditional taxonomic criteria require revision.
The Industrialization of Scientific Information
Authors: Richardson B J
Published: November 2023

Because of the large volume of potential data available, the short time frames set for their integration, and the user-driven nature of modern environmental databases, their development often requires an industrial rather than research orientation. This paper considers some of the issues involved in developing such systems. The establishment of national and international information systems of biological information requires careful planning (systems analysis) if work is not to be wasted. Failure of such systems can be due to unreal expectations, or to unexpected changes in user requirements before the system is established. It is important that any such information system be designed with the needs of the users clearly in mind. A first step therefore may be to decide who the users are.
Survey and Conservation Status of Indian Plants
Authors: Mandal S
Published: November 2023

Conservation of wildlife and the environment is vital if our society is to survive. However, a large number of species are now endangered. Factors such as sustained pressure on forests result in habitat destruction, and diverse human socio-economic problems have contributed considerably to the deteriorating status of our magnificent wildlife. Fortunately, recent trends in some states of India have created a keen awareness among the general public of the need to conserve wild natural habitats and forest wealth, and also to protect endangered wild animals and plants. Investigations into the population status of certain wild plants and animals in different Indian forests have been carried out. The present paper illustrates the survey and conservation status of the natural plant life of India based on a detailed analysis of vegetation types and other sources of published information.
Phylogenetic Diversity: a general Framework for the Prediction of Feature Diversity
Authors: Faith Daniel P
Published: November 2023

The phylogenetic diversity of a subset of species is defined as the sum of the lengths of those branches from the estimated phylogeny that are spanned by the species subset. This measure of diversity has useful properties. Its cladistic/ phylogenetic basis means that it can be expected to predict underlying feature diversity patterns among taxa. In conservation evaluation, giving priority to that species subset that maximises represented feature diversity is justified as a form of maximizing ‘option value’. Further, because the goal or criterion of this measure is explicit, its performance is vulnerable to testing and evaluation. Phylogenetic diversity provides a framework for conservation evaluation that is applicable over a realistic range of information availability, extending from basic information from existing classifications to well-corroborated phylogenetic patterns among taxa.
A Scientific basis for Establishing Networks of Protected Areas
Authors: Margules* C R , Cresswell† I D , Nicholls* A O
Published: November 2023

A method is proposed for identifying networks of protected areas to maximize the likelihood that they sample biological diversity. Environmental regionalization is followed by the use of iterative heuristic algorithms to determine where protected areas should be located within regions so that all known species, communities, or environments are represented. While there is no single best solution, iterative procedures incorporate the principle of complementarity and offer the advantages of flexibility, efficiency, and explicitness. The most urgent scientific challenge is to improve the quality of the data bases on which these algorithms operate.
Economic aspects: ‘blooms’, nuisance species, and toxins
Authors: Moestrup ØJvind
Published: November 2023

Blooms of haptophytes have been described since the 1800s, the best known bloom-forming species belonging to Emiliania, Phaeocystis, and Prymnesium. More recently Chrysochromulina and Corymbellus were added to the list. Some species produce potent toxins with severe effects on the environment. Toxins have been identified in a few species of Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium as galactolipids, but the toxicity is expressed only under certain conditions, notably when the cells are in the stationary phase of growth. Considering that most species of Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium species remain poorly studied, it is likely that many more species are potentially toxic. Economic losses caused by Phaeocystis blooms (tourism, fishing) and blooms of Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium (mainly fishkills) can be substantial. These genera and most species are distributed worldwide.
Palaeontological perspectives
Authors: Young Jeremy R , Bown Paul R , Burnett Jackie A
Published: November 2023

Haptophytes are represented in the fossil record by a phenomenal abundance of coccoliths and cryptic nannoliths. The biological information available from this record is outlined here. In particular palaeontological perspectives on coccolith based taxonomy and phylogenetic inferences are described. It is shown that the geological record of coccoliths is selective, but very complete for the selected species. Research on exceptionally preserved fossil coccoliths, the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, palaeoceanography, and Milankovitch cyclicity is outlined.
Adaptive walks
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

We have seen in Chapter 8 that the process of maturation of the immune response i8 equivalent to evolution on a cellular scale. Once a B cell is triggered by encountering enough antigen, it enters a phase of rapid proliferation, during which the genes coding for the variable region on the antibodies produced by the B cell mutate at an enhanced rate, thus increasing the chances that an antibody with even higher affinity for the antigen will be produced. One theoretical framework which has proven useful in analysing evolving systems is that of the adaptive walk.
What’s it all about?
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

Computers are amazing. They seem to have it all. They ﬂy air- craft and spaceships, and control power stations and hazardous chemical plants. Companies cannot be run without them, and many medical procedures cannot be performed in their absence. They serve lawyers and judges who seek judicial precedents, and help scientists and engineers to perform immensely involved mathematical computations. They route and control millions of simultaneous telephone calls and man- age the remarkable movement of Internet data in enormous global networks. They execute tasks with great precision – from map-reading and typesetting to image processing, robot- aided manufacturing and integrated circuit design. They help individuals in many boring daily chores and at the same time provide entertainment through computer games or the delight of surﬁng the Web. Moreover, the computers of today are hard at work helping design the even more powerful computers of tomorrow.
The Third Man of the Double Helix
Authors: Wilkins Maurice
Published: November 2023

Francis Crick and Jim Watson are well known for their discovery of the structure of DNA in Cambridge in 1953. But they shared the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the Double Helix with a third man, Maurice Wilkins, a diffident physicist who did not enjoy the limelight. He and his team at King's College London had painstakingly measured the angles, bonds, and orientations of the DNA structure - data that inspired Crick and Watson's celebrated model - and they then spent many years demonstrating that Crick and Watson were right before the Prize was awarded in 1962. Wilkins's career had already embraced another momentous and highly controversial scientific achievement - he had worked during World War II on the atomic bomb project - and he was to face a new controversy in the 1970s when his co-worker at King's, the late Rosalind Franklin, was proclaimed the unsung heroine of the DNA story, and he was accused of exploiting her work. Now aged 86, Maurice Wilkins marks the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of the Double Helix by telling, for the first time, his own story of the discovery of the DNA structure and his relationship with Rosalind Franklin. He also describes a life and career spanning many continents, from his idyllic early childhood in New Zealand via the Birmingham suburbs to Cambridge, Berkeley, and London, and recalls his encounters with distinguished scientists including Arthur Eddington, Niels Bohr, and J. D. Bernal. He also reflects on the role of scientists in a world still coping with the Bomb and facing the implications of the gene revolution, and considers, in this intimate history, the successes, problems, and politics of nearly a century of science.
Sense-Perception: Hume’s Assessment of the Problem and his Strategy for Eliminating Current Solutions
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

It may seem that he is asking us to take too much for granted at the beginning of a philosophical discussion of perception. However, when he speaks of ‘body5 in this passage, he is not thinking of physical objects as things lying beyond our sense-impressions and causing them. Nor, of course, is he thinking of them as sense-impressions contrasted with external physical objects. He is trying to express the pre-theoretical belief in body as it would be held by non-philosophers, who, he thinks, never ask themselves in which of the two ways they think of body. His idea is that the difference between treating bodies as irreducibly physical and reducing them to a mental basis is one that never even occurs to ‘the vulgar’. They simply take what is given as it comes without making any attempt to categorize it.
The Introduction of Probability into Physics
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: November 2023

It is to our great advantage to be able to predict reliably what will hap pen in the future. In certain, very exceptional, cases we can predict that the future will have one and only one outcome, say, when we predict the future position of one of the planets from its present condition and the dynamical laws of motion. In many cases, we have only the vaguest idea of what the future will bring. There is a special set of cases where we cannot tell with assurance which of a number of possible outcomes will occur, but where we can have reliable knowledge of the proportion in which the outcomes will occur in a large number of repeated trials of a similar kind. The craps shooter doesn’t know what the next roll of the dice will bring, but he does know that in a long series of rolls, the total of seven will come up on the dice about one-sixth of the time. The exploration of such situations, beginning with the typical gambling situation, resulted in the development of the theory of probability. The probability of an outcome was taken to be something closely related to the frequency with which that outcome could be expected to occur in a large number of identical repeated trials of some specified kind.
Reflections on the Interdependence of Philosophy and Science
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: November 2023

We have now explored quite a variety of topics on which the resources of contemporary physics and those of the philosophy of science can both be brought to bear. The wealth of examples, and the way in which physics and philosophy play an intricately intertwined role in trying to get to the bottom of the issues raised, ought to convince the reader that physics and philosophy are two highly interdependent ways of seeking to understand the world and our place as knowers of it.
The Idea of Necessary Connexion
Authors: Craig Edward
Published: November 2023

Section VII of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding is one of the most frequently read passages in Hume’s entire output; at a guess, only the material of Section IV surpasses it. And since many readers come to it early in their studies one might think that its waters are fairly smooth. But not so: they are full of barely hidden turbulence, for here two streams of Hume’s thought run together-and foam.
Frege’s Logicism and his Response to Russell’s Paradox
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

According to Kant, the basis of our knowledge of geometrical truths is spatial intuition. Frege agreed. But Kant also held that arithmetical knowledge has an inescapably intuitive basis, and here Frege disagreed. Instead, Frege held, arithmetical truths are logical truths and can be known by purely logical means. Frege’s goal was to establish this. In the opening section of his foundational opus Die Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, he stated his task as follows:

In my Grundlagen der Arithmetik [1884], I sought to make it plausible that arithmetic is a branch of logic and need not borrow any ground of proof whatever from either experience or intuition. In the present book this shall now be confirmed, by the derivation of the simplest laws of Numbers by logical means alone.
Type Theory as a Response to the Class Paradoxes
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Before settling on the doctrine of Principia Mathematica, Russell entertained a variety of responses to the paradoxes. One response he increasingly favoured was the idea of logical types, which he elaborated in Principia Mathematica. Russell’s aims were very similarto those of Frege. Frege had aimed to show that arithmetic is merely highly developed logic, where logic includes a general theory of classes. Russell aimed to show the same for mathematics as a whole. Faced with the class paradoxes, a logicist has very little room for manoeuvre. If the theory of classes is to count as logic, classes cannot be special mathematical objects, otherwise the theory would not have the topic-neutral character of logic. Classes must be nothing but concept-extensions1 and the theory of class es must apply to all of them.
Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Bentham’s Principles of Morals and Legislation contained a detailed analysis of human action. It devoted substantial chapters to such topics as intention and motive. Not since the Middle Ages had a great philosopher devoted such minute attention to the different cognitive and affective elements whose presence or absence may contribute to the moral character of individual actions. Bentham’s approach to the topic resembles that of Aquinas, but he is much more generous in providing concrete examples to illustrate his points. More importantly, there is a significant difference between the two philosophers both in terminology and in moral evaluation.
Privatization and the Labour Market: Facts, Theory, and Evidence
Authors: Haskel Jonathan , Szymanski Stefan
Published: November 2023

Privatization will probably be the most significant legacy of the Conservative That cherite regime of the 1980s. Not only has it radically changed the landscape of British Industry, it has also influenced the policies of governments throughout the world, be they industrialized or industrializing, economies in transition or economies facing stagnation. In the UK the policy has affected the lives of most citizens, either through their dealings with utilities as customers or increasingly as owners of shares. Privatization has also created a whole new set of regulatory bodies to oversee those industries where monopoly abuse is possible. In many ways consumers are probably better informed as a result; for example much more information on the costs of nuclear power generation have become available as a result of privatization and the breakup of the CEGB. There remains a degree of controversy as to whether the consumer is better served as a result of privatization, much of it politically motivated
Markets, Bureaucracies, And Clans
Authors: Ouchi William G
Published: November 2023

What is an organization, and why do organizations exist? Many of us would answer this question by referring to Barnard’s (1968) technological imperative, which argues that a formal organization will arise when technological conditions demand physical power, speed, endurance, mechanical adaptation, or continuity beyond the capacity of a single individual (1968: 27-8). Yet when the stone is too large or the production facility too complex for a single person, what is called for is cooperation, and cooperation need not take the form of a formal organization. Indeed, grain farmers who need a large grain elevator do not form corporations which take over the farms and make the farmers into employees; instead, they form a cooperative to own and operate the elevator.
The Information Polity: Electronic Democracy, Privacy, and Surveillance
Authors: Raab Charles , Bellamy Christine , Taylor John , Dutton William H , Peltu Malcolm
Published: November 2023

The effectiveness of democratic institutions and processes could be greatly enhanced through developments in what has been called ‘teledemocracy’ —the use of ICTs to improve communication and the delivery of services to individuals and groups from governmental and political organizations.2 A variety of trials and experiments have sought to realize this vision since the 1960s (Sackman and Nie 1970; Sackman and Boehm 1972). However, it has only been since ICT-based Electronic Service Delivery (ESD) applications began to grow significantly in the 1990s that this vision has come closer to widespread realization (see Chapter 15).
Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation
Authors: Selznick Philip
Published: November 2023

It is easy to agree to the abstract proposition that the function of the executive is to find a happy joinder of means and ends. It is harder to take that idea seriously. There is a strong tendency not only in administrative life but in all social action to divorce means and ends by overemphasizing one or the other. The cult of efficiency in administrative theory and practice is a modern way of overstressing means and neglecting ends. This it does in two ways. First, by fixing attention on maintaining a smooth-running machine, it slights the more basic and more difficult problem of defining and safeguarding the ends of an enterprise. Second, the cult of efficiency tends to stress techniques of organization that are essentially neutral, and therefore available for any goals, rather than methods peculiarly adapted to a distinctive type of organization or stage of development.
The Gentleman and the Hero: Wellington and Napoleon in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Pears Iain
Published: November 2023

Since the earliest guidebooks in the sixteenth century, the English view of the foreigner has changed remarkably little. Despite the rise and fall of several empires, the alliances with and wars against virtually every country on the Eurasian continent, the English have been able to comfort themselves with the view that foreign character is pretty much stable. From the Tudors if not earlier, Germans have been seen as obedient but unimaginative gluttons; Italians as greasy and dishonest; Spaniards as cold and sinister; the French as dandies and egotists; the Dutch as worthy but dull. All, it went without saying, were untrustworthy, most were dishonest, and none could match an Englishman.
Deflating Descartes’s Causal Axiom
Authors: Schmaltz Tad M
Published: November 2023

In a letter written in 1643, Princess Elisabeth told Descartes that ‘I admit that it would be easier for me to concede matter and extension to the mind than it would be for me to concede to an immaterial thing the capacity to move the body and be moved by one’ (AT iii. 661). This is of course the famous ‘problem of Cartesian interaction’. More recently, this problem has been linked to the question of whether Descartes can allow in general for the interaction of objects with different natures. The scholarly debate over this question has tended, particularly in the English-language literature, to focus on the connections of the more general problem for Cartesian interaction — dubbed by Robert Richardson ‘the problem of heterogeneity’ —to Descartes’s own constraints on causation. The main culprit is Descartes’s claim, which he introduced as an ‘axiom or common notion’, that ‘whatever there is of reality or perfection in something, is formally or eminently in its first and adequate cause’ (AT svii. 165; CSM ii. 116).
On the Necessity and Nature of Simples: Leibniz, Wolff, Baumgarten, and the Pre-Critical Kant
Authors: Watkins Eric
Published: November 2023

Standard histories of modern philosophy suggest, at least by their practice, that the philosophical landscape in Germany between Leibniz’s death in 1716 and the publication of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason in 1781 is of little significance, either intrinsically or for our understanding of those modern philosophers that are of interest. For example, Christian Wolff, whose comprehensive series of systematic textbooks was extremely influential at the time, is typically mentioned not for his own philosophical views, but rather for popularizing Leibniz’s philosophy. Alexander Baumgarten is widely recognized for his early advocacy of aesthetics as an autonomous discipline, but not for his views in metaphysics and epistemology, since his primary contribution in theoretical philosophy was a Latin textbook whose most immediately noticeable departure from Wolff is its unusually terse mode of presentation. The pre-Critical Kant is often dismissed as well, in part owing to disparaging remarks that he later made about his early works, and in part owing to the judgement that his pre-Critical writings are an instance of precisely the kind of dogmatic metaphysics that his Critical philosophy is supposed to overcome. The same refrain is repeated with minor variations for many other figures at the time, such as Martin Knutzen, Moses Mendelssohn, and Johann Nicolas Tetens.
Medium and high integration mannequin patient simulators
Authors: Lampotang Samsun (Sem)
Published: November 2023

This chapter is about mannequin patient simulators such as the Medical Education Technologies Inc. Human Patient Simulator (METI-HPS®), SimMan® and NOELLE® implemented via lifesize, computer-controlled mannequins (sometimes spelled as manikins) that, independently of the instructor or simulator technician, can simulate a range of physiological, pharmacological and clinical parameters, processes and conditions, commensurate with their level of integration and mathematical modeling. The chapter is written from the perspective of a developer and user for users and developers of mannequin patient simulators. It will devote a large part to terminology and concepts relevant to mannequin patient simulators rather than attempting to provide an exhaustive list of currently available simulators and their features, perishable information readily available from vendors. While such a feature-based simulator list will eventually become obsolete, there will always be a need for users and developers of mannequin patient simulators to share a common terminology so that communication is clear and effective and expectations remain manageable. Proper use of terminology can help mannequin patient simulators deliver on their potential as smoothly and quickly as possible in areas such as healthcare personnel training, clinical, patient safety and research applications, the science of learning and training with simulation and simulation technology. Scenario editors and applications of mannequin patient simulators are not discussed in depth because they are covered elsewhere in this manual.
Debriefing: theory and techniques
Authors: Flanagan Brendan
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the term debriefing refers to the purposeful, structured period of reflection, discussion and feedback undertaken by learners and teachers usually immediately after a scenario based simulation exercise involving standardised patients and/or mannequins. Usually this involves a group of learners, rather than an individual and there may be video playback capability available to stimulate recall of the actual events.
Participating in research
Authors: Talbot Kevin , Marsden Rachael
Published: November 2023

Because MND is a relatively rare disease compared with many others seen in a neurological clinic, most patients will be referred to specialist MND centres (such as those supported by the MNDA in the UK). Neurologists specializing in MND frequently lead or participate in research into the causes of the disease. Many patients with MND are highly motivated to contribute to the research effort and will often travel great distances to participate in clinical trials. This is naturally in the hope of getting some benefit, but also an expression of willingness to help future sufferers with MND. The purpose of this chapter is to provide some background information about what is involved in research participation and some of the pros and cons of being a research subject.
Modelling the Variability of Evolutionary Processes
Authors: Gascuel Olivier , Guindon Stephane
Published: November 2023

From a historical perspective, the first goal of statistical phylogenetics was to construct more accurate species phylogenies by comparing nucleotide or protein sequences. It is now quite clear that the most important advances brought by this research area do not only involve taxonomy. Indeed, statistical phylogenetics provides an adequate framework to improve our understanding of the evolutionary processes that act at the molecular level. The first probabilistic models of evolution assumed that these processes were the same across different regions of the sequences and/or at different stages of evolution. However, simple observation of nucleotide or amino acid sequences suggests a very different picture. For instance, some regions seem to evolve quickly while other barely change. It is also quite clear that different sequences accumulate substitutions at distinct rates.
Identifying and Defining Trees
Authors: Grünewald Stefan , Huber Katharina T
Published: November 2023

Arguably, the goal of any evolutionary study is to gain insight into the evolutionary past of a set of taxa (for example, species) under consideration. In most cases, this past is assumed to be best modelled by a tree and the assumption is that the data collected will allow one to reconstruct a reasonably good approximation of that tree. From very early on, mathematicians and theoretical computer scientists have been intrigued by this assumption and have looked into the question of which premises this assumption is justified under. Early characterizations of such a tree’s existence include the well-known 4-point-condition (if the data are given in terms of distances) and a certain intersection criterion (if the data are given in terms of 2-state characters—see Section 8.3 for details). Interpreted from a biological point of view, the latter characterization means that if any two of the characters in question satisfy that criterion, then there is a tree on which they all could have evolved without homoplasy (i.e. acquired the same character state but not because of common descent [36]).
Morality, Moralism, and Realism
Authors: Coady C A J
Published: November 2023

There may have been a time, perhaps at the peak of Victorian self-esteem in the English-speaking countries, when morality generally occupied an unquestioned place at the top of a hierarchy of social and personal values. Indeed, as the high tide of Christian religious influence began to ebb in Europe, morality itself as a sort of institution began to supplant religion and to exercise a bold and forthright role as the guide to life, if not the object of worshipful respect.
Versions of Musical Works and Literary Translations
Authors: Davies Stephen
Published: November 2023

The composition of a musical piece can fall short of the work’s completion. In 1821, Schubert sketched an E major symphony he did not finish. The following year, he abandoned another symphony after writing two movements and outlining its scherzo. We call it the “Unfinished.” Mahler notated much of his Tenth Symphony in short score, but only the first movement was fully orchestrated before his death.
Authoritative Self-Knowledge and Perceptual Individualism
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

In ‘Cartesian Error and the Objectivity of Perception’ (Ch. 7 above) I discussed three issues: the nature of individualism, the role of first-person authority in traditional Cartesian individualist views, and the way that considerations of objectivity support a non-individualist view of perception. I treated each of these issues only in a brief and preliminary way. Professor Matthews concentrates on the latter two. Here I hope to clarify some of the points I made on these two issues by responding to his criticisms, and by developing some of my points further.
Individualism and Psychology
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

Recent years have seen in psychology—and overlapping parts of linguistics, artificial intelligence, and the social sciences—the development of some semblance of agreement about an approach to the empirical study of human activity and ability. The approach is broadly mentalistic in that it involves the attribution of states, processes, and events that are intentional, in the sense of ‘representational’. Many of these events and states are unconscious and inaccessible to mere reflection. Computer jargon is prominent in labeling them.
Concepts, Definitions, and Meaning
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

The Aristotelian tradition produced many of the elements of what is widely thought of as ‘the traditional view’ of concepts. I begin by attempting to summarize this view. The summary runs roughshod over numerous distinctions that were dear to various thinkers who contributed to this general conception of concepts. I sacrifice historical accuracy in favor of an idealized type that, I hope, will serve despite its crudity to further understanding.
Reflections on Two Kinds of Consciousness
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

In recent years, something like Ned Block’s distinction between phenomenal consciousness and access consciousness has continued to show itself to be valuable and durable. Phenomenal consciousness is the sort of consciousness that consists in there being some way that it is like for an individual to be in a mental state. Access consciousness is the sort of consciousness that consists in a mental state’s being accessible to—indeed, I think accessed by—an individual through his or her rational, cognitive powers. There appears to be mounting evidence that a person can have phenomenal consciousness even though the person has no rational, cognitive access to it.
Learning about and Through Aesthetic Experience Understanding the Power of Experience-Based Education
Authors: Ann Welsh M , Dehler Gordon E , Murray Dale L
Published: November 2023

This course was a unique opportunity to participate in a project with a group of individuals with different backgrounds and who would hopefully give me a different perspective on how to approach a problem.
Pictures from below the Surface of the University The Social Photo-Matrix as a Method for Understanding Organizations in Depth
Authors: Sievers Burkard
Published: November 2023

The following is a first account and reflection on an experience with a ‘Social Photo-Matrix’ (SPM) as a method for experiential learning ‘in the making’. I recently invited students from our department of economics and business administration at Bergische Universität Wuppertal in Germany to focus on the unconscious dynamics of the university by using photos. During this one-term event, students were asked to make their own photos of the university (with digital cameras) and to send them by e-mail to provide an ‘archive’ from which they would be selected and shown during a SPM.
Music, Language, and Cognition
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

Music, Language, and Cognition is the third collection of Peter Kivy's seminal papers in the philosophy of music. In essays which span his earliest work in the field and his more recent contributions to journals, anthologies, and conference proceedings, Kivy considers the origin of music, the medium of expression in opera, the role of music in film, the nature of an “ideal” performance, and the question of whether absolute music has a meaning, among other issues. Rich with critical analysis and informed by the history of both philosophy and music, this volume will be of interest to anyone who likes not only to listen to music, but to think about it as well.
An Outline of an Argument for Robust Metanormative Realism
Authors: Enoch David
Published: November 2023

Robust Metanormative Realism is the view, somewhat roughly, that there are response-independent, non-natural, irreducibly normative truths, perfectly universal and objective ones, that when successful in our normative inquiries we discover rather than create or construct. Normative truths include— but are not limited to the truths of morality, so Robust Metanormative Realism is the natural generalization of Robust Metaethical Realism.
A feature-geometric approach to Amharic verb classes
Authors: Trommer Jochen
Published: November 2023

It is well known that Ethiopian Semitic languages have different verb classes which determine root shape in different paradigms (Leslau 1995, 2000; Amberber 2002). Thus verbal roots with three consonants (called “triradicals” in the Semitistic literature) in Amharic are traditionally divided into three classes, A, B, and C, which differ by the vowel and gemination patterns in different paradigms.
A pseudo-cyclic effect in Romanian morphophonology
Authors: Steriade Donca
Published: November 2023

Romanian phonology is shown to be subject to inflection dependence, a systematic restriction on phonological alternations. Inflection dependence means that segmental alternations are permitted in the derivatives of a lexeme only if certain inflected forms of that lexeme, its inflectional bases (Albright 2002), independently display the alternation. The study documents this pervasive constraint on alternations and proposes an analysis for it, based on a modified variant of Lexical Conservatism (Steriade 1999b).
Neglected Injustice: Poverty as a Violation of Social Autonomy
Authors: Kreide Regina
Published: November 2023

When discussing human rights violations, most people think of genocide, expulsion, ethnic cleansing, mass rapes, and other atrocities that violate rights to freedom, life, and property. Through the International Criminal Court, established in 2002, the international community has recognized these acts as abhorrent and sought their criminal prosecution. But the situation seems to be different when it comes to worldwide poverty. It is clearly a human rights violation if officials command the expulsion and extinction of members of their own population because the state should not intrude into the private sphere of its citizens.
Color perception and neural encoding does metameric matching entail a loss of information?
Authors: Hatfield Gary
Published: November 2023

It seems intuitively obvious that metameric matching of color samples entails a loss of information. Metamers are distinct distributions of wavelength and intensity (or spectral energy distributions ) that perceivers cannot discriminate. Consider two color samples that are presented under ordinary white light and that appear to all normal observers to be of the same color. It is well established that such color samples can have quite different surface-reflective properties; e.g., two samples that appear to be the same shade of green may in fact reflect strikingly different patterns of wavelengths within the visible spectrum (see Fig. 8.1).
Mathematical recreation versus mathematical knowledge
Authors: Colyvan Mark
Published: November 2023

Empiricism in the philosophy of mathematics has a chequered history. Mill de- fended a version of empiricism according to which the laws of arithmetic were highly general laws of nature. Mathematical truths such as 2+3 = 5 were thought by Mill to be empirical in that they tell us that if we were to take two logic books, say, and three ethics books, say, we’d have five philosophy books. But Mill’s somewhat naive empiricism found itself on the receiving end of a stinging attack from Frege. This attack, I might add, was considered by many to be decisive.
A Career through the Party: The Recruitment of Party Politicians in Parliament
Authors: Fiers Stefaan , Secker Ineke
Published: November 2023

With a few exceptions, MPs owe their seats in parliament in the first place to a political party. In some countries, this has been the case since the very beginning of party formation in the mid-nineteenth century. It means that almost all candidates, in their bid for a seat in parliament, have to be “approved” by a party organization. In this respect the political parties fulfil a vital role in the recruitment and selection of MPs. As gatekeepers, they control both the demand and the supply side of the process of recruitment (Norris 1997a, 1997b).
Concluding Dogmatic Postscript
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: November 2023

1. I noted earlier that, in both the Philosophical Fragments and its Postscript, Johannes Climacus emphasizes that the pivotal difference between belief in God and belief in the Christian God (between religiousness A and religiousness B) is the conviction that human beings exist in the condition of original sin. He is, however, unforthcoming about the detailed content of, and the justification for, this seemingly paradoxical conviction (which, as its alternative title of ‘hereditary sin’ underlines, apparently conceives of guilt as a biological inheritance beyond any exercise of individual responsibility), and thus leaves undeveloped what he presents as the critical manifestation of faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God. Does Climacus intend this striking lacuna to tempt us to supplement his words by turning to what is often taken to be the immediate source of this Christian doctrine—the Genesis narrative of Adam and Eve, and their transgression of God’s command concerning the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil? If so, that tale’s talk of forbidden apples and aprons of shame is very likely to suggest that a belief in original sin amounts to an opening of one’s eyes to the inherent evil of human sexuality and sensuality, and hence to the taintedness of human existence as such. Nietzsche would call it a libel against the body.