bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Livestock system as a mitigation measure of a wind farm in a mountain area
Authors: Cavalchini Antoniotto Guidobono , Daglio Gabriele , Lazzari Massimo , Leonardi Stefania
Published: September 2016

The study concerns a mountain territory, bordering Liguria, Piemonte, Lombardia and Emilia, where a high power 151 MW wind farm, with 42 tower of 3.6 MW power, has been proposed. As a measure of environmental mitigation, the realization of a livestock system of a herd of sucker cows pasturing in the wind farm areas is proposed. This has implications for environmental maintenance, employment in a territory gradually losing its population, and for tourism. The study, having focused on those aspects that reduce landscape impact and carrying out an analysis of the individual areas to evaluate forage resources and the different pastoral indexes, identifies the maximum sustainable load of animals (335 UBA/ha) in the current conditions of neglect. So, some measures to improve and increase sustainable herds have been proposed and examined. The operations include: stone removal; light harrowing; overseeding; creation of fodder reserves for periods of shortage; and grazing will be managed by taking turns. Based on the results of two other studies, both previous tests carried out on site, encourage us to think that we will be able to increase the maximum sustainable seasonal load for the current situation by more than 50%. This means a herd of 500 UBA equal to a gross PLV, for the grazing period of 180 days, of 􀀍400,000 and so guarantee an adequate income to 3-4 UL (labor unit), and of 􀀍650,000/year in case the chain is completed during the winter months in structures located in the valley. In this case, the PLV obtained could assure income to 6-7 employees, which would be extremely important for the socio-economic conditions of the valley; in consideration of the induced activities- meat processing, marketing and tourism facilities- which could be made available. Experimental tests of the technical improvements described will be carried out in the next season.
Geomatics and virtual tourism
Authors: Minucciani Valeria , Garnero Gabriele
Published: September 2016

The most recent technological revolution, concerning web and “ICT”, not only changed individual and collective behaviors, but also allowed experiences no possible before: a real time communication, regardless of the distances; an extended access to disjointed data and sources; the shift in different realities – missing or entirely imaginary. Nowadays, we can think about a new concept of museum, much more inclusive than “objects container”: now the museum involves entire countries, entire ecosystems, entire regions. We can speak of “museum outside of the museum”, to extend museum “storytelling” to a regional scale, beyond the walls of the traditional museum. On a regional scale experiments entirely convincing have not yet been carried out, but from this point of view cultural lands can be visited as great open air museums, to find objects, artworks or signs: the whole land is a “collection” to be preserved, to be presented and to be interpreted. Thus the visit allows to elicit outstanding objects, to read into landscapes with different filters. Both the physical and virtual visit seem to be a “tour” (Minucciani and Garnero, 2013). To create a virtual tourism prototypal station, we need several and unconventional geometrical data (shared geographic databases, DTMs, digital orthoimages and angle shots, modeling with spherical cameras, ...), thematic data (related to cultural content) and no conventional input units to move and to observe how and where the observer prefers. Authors report here their experience to carry out a prototypal station, able to relate geomatics references to cultural content and to offer a whole experience, involving users also from the sensory point of view. That’s nowadays a specific purpose of new technologies applied to cultural heritage.
Sicilian potential biogas production
Authors: Comparetti Antonio , Febo Pierluigi , Greco Carlo , Orlando Santo , Navickas Kestutis , Venslauskas Kestutis
Published: September 2016

This study is aimed at predicting the Sicilian potential biogas production, using the Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste (OFMSW), animal manure and food industry by-products, in a region where only one biogas plant using MSW and one co-digestion plant are nowadays available. The statistical data about OFMSW, the number of animals bred in medium and large farms and the amounts of by-products of food processing industries were evaluated, in order to compute the Sicilian potential biogas and energy production. The OFMSW produced in Sicily, that is 0.8 million tons ca. per year (37% of MSW), could be used in a bio-reactor, together with other raw materials, for Anaerobic Digestion (AD) process, producing biogas and “digestate”. Moreover, 3.03 million tons ca. of manure, collected in medium and large animal husbandry farms (where cows, pigs and poultry are bred), and 350 thousand tons ca. of by-products, collected in food processing industries (pomace from olive oil mills and grape marc from wineries), might be used for AD process. The Sicilian potential biogas production from the AD of the above raw materials is 170.2 millions of m3, that is equal to 1023.4 GWh of energy per year, of which 484 GWh from animal manure, 303 GWh from OFMSW and 236.4 GWh from food industry by-products. The highest biogas production is in the province of Palermo (35.6 millions of m3), Ragusa (30.8 millions of m3) and Catania (22.8 millions of m3), having a potential energy production of 213.8, 185 and 137 GWh, respectively.
Assessment of energy return on energy investment (EROEI) of oil bearing crops for renewable fuel production
Authors: Restuccia A. , Failla S. , Longo D. , Caruso L. , Mallia I. , Schillaci G.
Published: September 2016

As reported in literature the production of biodiesel should lead to a lower energy consumption than those obtainable with its use. So, to justify its consumption, a sustainable and “low input” production should be carried out. In order to assess the sustainability of Linum usitatissimum, Camelina sativa and Brassica carinata cultivation for biodiesel production in terms of energy used compared to that obtained, the index EROEI (Energy Return On Energy Invested) has been used. At this aim, an experimental field was realised in the south-eastern Sicilian land. During the autumn-winter crop cycle, no irrigation was carried out and some suitable agricultural practices have been carried out taking into account the peculiarity of each type of used seeds. The total energy consumed for the cultivation of oil bearing crops from sowing to the production of biodiesel represents the Input of the process. In particular, this concerned the energy embodied in machinery and tools utilized, in seed, chemical fertilizer and herbicide but also the energy embodied in diesel fuels and lubricant oils. In addition, the energy consumption relating to machines and reagents required for the processes of extraction and transesterification of the vegetable oil into biodiesel have been calculated for each crops. The energy obtainable from biodiesel production, taking into account the energy used for seed pressing and for vegetable oil transesterification into biodiesel, represents the Output of the process. The ratio Output/Input gets the EROEI index which in the case of Camelina sativa and Linum usatissimum is greater than one. These results show that the cultivation of these crops for biofuels production is convenient in terms of energy return on energy investment. The EROEI index for Brassica carinata is lower than one. This could means that some factors, concerning mechanisation and climatic
Harvesting of southern Piedmont’s orchards pruning residues: evaluations of biomass production and harvesting losses
Authors: Grella M. , Manzone M. , Gioelli F. , Balsari P.
Published: September 2016

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in respect to all farming residues, including orchard pruning residues. The masses and dimensional characteristics of branches pruned, depend on several factors such as fruit variety, active strength plant, training systems, intensity and periodicity pruning. Many studies were done to fix this type of biomass availability, however they’re not up-to-date, and usually they are lacking of accurate surveys. A detailed knowledge of current pruning biomass availability, both qualitative and quantitative, is also necessary for the evaluation of the economic sustainability of their energetic exploitation. In this context, in order to provide an assessment of the real chain potential of energy renewable production, from Cuneo territory pruning residues, a research was conducted on two different orchards species Actinidia (Kiwi tree) and Malus (Apple tree) pruned in two different ways: “traditional system” and “taille longue system”. For each species, pruning residues amount were quantified together with their diameter. The surveys were performed at least on four half trees placed on the same row spacing with three randomized replications in the crop. The amount of pruning residues were determined by a dynamometer (precision 0.02N) whereas the diameter of individual cut-off branches has been detected at the base of the same using a twentieths calliper. Subsequently were performed pruning residues windrowing by rotating rake and the harvest of the same by fixed chamber round baler suitably modified. At the end of these operations have been determined harvesting losses with the same methodology used for the initial quantification of residues. The first result shows that with the “traditional pruning system” the biomass average availability is of 2.5t DM ha–1 and 3.0t DM ha–1, respectively for kiwi tree and apple tree. For the latter, the average values are significantly lower 0.5t DM ha–1 with “taille longue” pruning system. The harvesting losses have been nearly 19% in kiwi tree and 16% for apple tree (from 95% to 11% according to the variety). In both crops the variation of harvester losses are due mainly to the size and conformation (straight) of pruned branches.
Life Cycle Assessment of maize cultivation for biogas production
Authors: Bacenetti J. , Fusi A. , Guidetti R. , Fiala M.
Published: September 2016

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Torrefaction of residues and by-products from sunflower chain
Authors: Riva G. , Foppa Pedretti E. , Toscano G. , Duca D. , Rossini G. , Mengarelli C.
Published: September 2016

The high heterogeneity of some residual biomasses makes rather difficult their energy use and standardisation is a key aspect for these fuel products. Torrefaction is an interesting process used to improve the quality of ligno-cellulosic biomasses and to achieve standardisation. In the present study torrefaction has been employed on residues and by-products deriving from sunflower production chain, in particular sunflower stalks and oil press cake. The thermal behaviour of materials has been studied at first by thermo-gravimetric analysis in order to identify torrefaction temperatures range. Different residence time and torrefaction temperatures have been employed in a bench top torrefaction reactor afterwards. Analyses of raw and torrefied materials have been carried out to assess the influence of the process. As a consequence of torrefaction, the carbon and ash contents increase while the volatilisation range is reduced making the material more stable and standardised. Mass yield, energy yield and energy densification reach values of about 60 %, 80 % and 1.33 for sunflower stalks and 64 %, 85 % and 1.33 for sunflower oil press cake respectively. As highlighted by results, torrefaction is more interesting for sunflower stalks than oil cake and husks because of the different starting characteristics. Untreated oil cake and husks already show a good high heating value and the eventual torrefaction should be mild. On the contrary for sunflower stalks the process is more useful and could be more severe.
Giant reed (Arundo donax L.) harvesting system, an economic and technical evaluation
Authors: Bentini M. , Martelli R.
Published: September 2016

The giant reed is a herbaceous energy crop that demonstrates a good adaptability for areas of central-northern Italy. However, its size and stem resistance to cutting pose problems for harvesting in relation both to the availability of suitable machinery and costs of the operation. A technical and economic evaluation has been conducted of a harvesting system based on an experimental machine, the biotriturator, developed by University of Bologna in collaboration with the Nobili Company (Bologna, Italy) and adapted to field operating conditions. The harvesting system consists of cutting-shredding and baling in a single pass. The system was evaluated by performing a winter harvest when the crop was in quiescence and had a low moisture content. The total harvesting costs were evaluated as 11.6 € Mg-1 dry biomass. Given that the estimated area that can be covered by the harvesting system was 123 hectares per year the system represents an effective solution for not very large areas and is therefore suitable for the Italian environment where average farm sizes are slightly over seven hectares (ISTAT, 2011).
Two prototypes for medium rotation forestry harvesting
Authors: Pari L. , Civitarese V. , Del Giudice A. , Scarfone A.
Published: September 2016

Five years old poplar (Populus spp.) plantation represents an interesting model of productivity. The most attractive characteristics of this energy crop are the handling flexibility, the high yield of biomass per area unit and the good quality of the chips obtainable. The mechanical harvesting of five-years old poplar plantations requires the use of specialized forest machineries such as harvester, feller, forwarder and chipper. Usually, after felling, the working phases consist of extraction, stacking and chipping. Generally, the last one is carried out in a “static phase”, where the product is taken from staked logs by using a hydraulic arm having a gripper that feed the chipping machine. In order to introduce technological innovations for the medium rotation forestry harvesting, the Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Unità di ricerca per l’Ingegneria agraria (CRAING) of Monterotondo (Rome, Italy) has developed a five years poplar cutwindrower and a self-propelled chipper equipped with a pick up system. The prototype of cut-windrower is a semi-trailed machine powered by a 95 kW tractor (at least). It mounts a cutting system and a double pincer with variable positioning. During the cutting phase the plant is grasped by the double pincer which conveys and unloads the stem along the inter-row. The trees are placed parallel to the progress of the tractor, but oriented in the opposite direction. The biomass windrowed is then chipped in a dynamic phase directly from the inter row using the self-propelled chipper equipped with the pick-up head. In the first tests, the cut-windrower has reached an operative working capacity of 0.22 ha h-1, with an operative production of 44 t h-1. On the other hand, the self-propelled chipper has showed an operative working capacity equal to 0.18 ha h-1, and an operative production of 35 t h-1 about. Both machines have shown good quality of the work performed and the results obtained indicates that the work phases could be simplified in order to reduce both the time of use and the harvesting costs.
Seed losses during the harvesting of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) at on-farm scale
Authors: Pari L. , Assirelli A. , Suardi A. , Civitarese V. , Del Giudice A. , Santangelo E.
Published: September 2016

In the Italian environments, the rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is subjected, at ripening, to a seed shattering causing significant losses that reduce the yield and increase the oilseed rape seedbank in the soil. Meteorological events and mechanical harvesting are the main factors affecting the extent of seed dispersal. Lacking the availability of works investigating the actual losses during the harvest at large scale, the Consiglio per la sperimentazione e la ricerca in agricoltura, Unità di ricerca per l’ingegneria agraria (CRA-ING) has conducted a study in order to determine the effective seed losses at on-farm scale. The amount of losses of two combine headers, traditional for wheat and specific for oilseed rape harvest, was compared. The rapeseed header had a hydraulic sliding cut-bar and two vertical electric blade on both sides in order to reduce the pulling and tearing action between the cut-off plants and those still standing. The seed losses were evaluated before and during the harvesting by using plastic trays placed on the ground within the crop rows. The trays were arranged in a layout allowing the estimation of the seed losses of three different sectors of the combine headers. The results have demonstrated that, at farm level, the use of a specific oilseed rape header adapted and optimized for the crop requirements allows to obtain a level of seed losses (0,97% of total production), below the values reported in literature. For rapeseed, the higher losses are localized at the final parts of the head, where the plants are strictly intertwined.
Enhancement of Palm residues (Phoenix canariensis) for a potential use in ruminant feed
Authors: Sperandio G. , Fedrizzi M. , Iacurto M. , Vincenti F. , Guerrieri M. , Pochi D. , Fanigliulo R. , Pagano M.
Published: September 2016

The increase of biological residues from numerous fellings of palms (Phoenix canariensis) infested by red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier) in central Italy and around the Mediterranean basin, has created an important disposal problem. This issue could provide a further use by introducing it as a food in diet of ruminants, beyond that represented by the use as fuel in biomass power plants for heating or electrical energy. The shredded material of palm can be employed to animal nutrition, resulting in interest for the feed industry and livestock sector. Analysis, carried out on samples of shredded palm, made using a chipper machine modified to obtain a product of small size (according to the phytosanitary measures of Lazio Region: n. 390, June 5, 2007), showed an high water content (79%) and therefore a not easy conservation. A conservation technique could be dehydration, in order to make product as flour, pellets, to introduce in unifeed together with the other compounds of the diet (forage, concentrates, etc.). Given the high water content, the dehydration process causes a very high production cost. About nutritional value, analysis showed 0.65 UF/ kg on dry matter basis, higher than the straw and hay of stable grass in an advanced stage of maturation (0.20 to 0.30 UF/kg). These values are similar to a good hay obtained from mixed grass. As consequence it is possible to use shredded palm as part of energy of the ruminants diet. Is still not clear which component allows the achievement of this value, probably derives in small part by the lipid component and largely by the fibrous component. Moreover data showed that the presence of fatty acid precursors of CLA (Conjugated Linoleic Acid) such as oleic acid and linoleic acid, is much higher than the values of Italian pastures. Utilization of these fatty acids in animal diets improves quality of the final products (milk, cheese, meat). The possibility of introducing shredded palm in ruminants diet, may be topic of interested to feed animal in arid areas of the Mediterranean basin, where it is difficult to find good forages.
The occupational safety on the construction sites of the farm production buildings in Finland
Authors: Hellstedt M. , Kaustell K.O. , Kivinen T.
Published: September 2016

The size of farms has increased considerably during Finland's EU membership. The growth has meant big investments in the new production buildings. The buildings have been switched to big industrialhall- like constructions from small-scale ones which have contained own timber and own work contribution. The objective of the project financed by Farmers' Social Insurance Institution was to improve occupational safety on farm building construction and renovation sites by disseminating current safety practices and by developing ways of action which are better than the prevailing ones. The project consisted of a literature review, statistical analysis, as well as a farmer and designer interviews. In the statistical analysis the MATA occupational injuries insurance claims database on farmers’ claims during construction and renovation work for the years 2005 - 2008 was compared with the register of Federation of Accident Insurance Institutions on the construction workers' injuries. In comparing the reasons of the accidents a clear difference was found; poor scaffoldings and ladders are still the main culprits on farm accidents. Farmer interviews were used to assess occupational safety measures on the construction site, occurred injuries and their types, nearmiss situations and the underlying factors which have led to the injuries. Also construction safety deficiencies as well as the direct and indirect costs caused for instance because of the delay in completion of construction project were discussed. Designer interviews aimed to find out how occupational safety and health considerations are taken into account in farm building planning and counseling, and how this experience of the designers should be utilized in order to improve safety at the construction sites on farms. Farmers knew their obligations on occupational safety poorly. The situation was further worsened by the fact that on the site the supervisor tasks were only nominally executed. The designers knew the occupational health and safety legislation better but this did not help the situation on the sites because designers are not generally involved in the actual implementation of the construction project.
Engineering solutions applied to pneumatic drills to reduce losses of dust from dressed seeds
Authors: Pochi D. , Biocca M. , Brannetti G. , Fanigliulo R. , Gallo P. , Grilli R. , Montanari S. , Pulcini P.
Published: September 2016

Neonicotinoid insecticides (imidacloprid, clothianidin, thiamethoxam) and fipronil for maize (Zea mays L.) seed dressing have been claimed to play a role in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) decline, since pneumatic precision drills used for sowing contribute to the dispersion of the abrasion dust produced by dressed seeds. The active ingredients (a.i.) can contaminate the environment and can lead to the exposure of operators and bystanders during sowing operations. To achieve a significant reduction of dust drift and to enhance the safety for the operators, CRA-ING studied and developed novel engineering solutions applicable to drills, based on an air-recycling/filtering system. In the first system, the air’s excess is forced outward through suitable filters placed on the modified lid of the seed hopper. It can be easily applied to commercial drills in use. The second system was specifically designed for new drills. It consists of a collector duct that receives the air expelled from the vacuum fan opening, creating constant pressure conditions. Part of the air is recycled into the seed hoppers, as the air in excess is directed outward through a single main filter. A third system, based on the second one, entails the use of an electrostatic filter to improve its efficiency. Moreover, to avoid the operator’s exposure to the dust during the seed loading, we show an integrated solution based on the use of a modified pre-charged plastic container that replace the drill’s hoppers. Preliminary tests ascertained the regular seed distribution with the drills equipped with the prototypes. Then, trials were carried out at fixed point and in field, for detecting the amounts of the drifted a.i., using commercial maize seed dressed with thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, clothianidin and fipronil. The test results show powder and a.i. drift reductions up to a maximum of 94.5% measured at ground level (with fipronil as a.i.) as a consequence of the use of the prototypes.
Ergonomic issues in ewe cheese production: reliability of the Strain Index and OCRA Checklist risk assessments
Authors: Rosecrance John , Paulsen Robert , Gilkey David , Murgia Lelia , Gall Thomas
Published: September 2016

Occupational ergonomists often use a variety of methods to identify jobs that are considered at high risk for the development of work-related musculoskeletal illnesses. The Strain Index (SI) and the Occupational Repetitive Actions (OCRA) Checklist are two popular upper limb risk assessment tools used in many industries, including the agro-food industry. Both methods are based on similar biomechanical, physiological and epidemiologic principles, but their approach to quantification and estimation of risk factor magnitude is quite different. The purpose of this study was to assess the inter-method reliability of SI and OCRA Checklist. Methods: Twenty-one jobs were video recorded in a Sardinian cheese manufacturing facility. Eight raters were recruited to assess job exposures to physical risk factors using the SI and OCRA Checklist. Inter-method reliability was characterized using proportion of overall agreement, Cohen’s kappa, and Spearman and Pearson correlations. Results: Strain Index and the OCRA Checklist assessments produced generally reliable results, classifying the risk of 35 of 42 (83%) job exposures similarly. Conclusions: The OCRA Checklist and SI risk assessments are reliable upper limb measures of physical work exposures. Both measures appear useful for assessing risk of upper limb disorders of work tasks in the agro-food industry. However, the SI is specific to disorders of the distal upper limb and perhaps most useful for assessing risk in work primarily involving the wrist and fingers. Whereas the OCRA Checklist, which includes an assessment of the shoulder, may be more appropriate for evaluating jobs that also require extended periods of reaching and shoulder activity.
Ergonomic analysis for the assessment of the risk of work-related musculoskeletal disorder in forestry operations
Authors: Gallo Raimondo , Mazzetto Fabrizio
Published: September 2016

The risk to run into a Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorder (WMSD) is very high when operating in the primary sector. As a matter of fact the professional illnesses related to the WMSD in Italy are increasing. Nowadays the assessment of the WMSD in the primary sector is performed mainly in the agricultural sector, considering different agronomical activities; for the forestry sector, only few documents reported an ergonomic evaluation. The lack of available information on this topic in the forestry sector, as well as the similarity with the agricultural sector, drives the interest to the assessment of the conditions that expose workers to WMSD risks in forestry operations. Four different assessment approaches were applied in this study. These tools permitted to classify which are the exposures and if there is the presence of WMSD risk for forest operators. The approaches are respectively the OCRA checklist and the RNLE equation, both recognized as ISO standards, as well as OWAS and REBA, recommended by ISO standards. The first approach focusses on the risk due to repetitive and stressed movements, while the second evaluates the risk of injures due to the manual movement of loads. Meanwhile OWAS and REBA detect the possibility of injures due to wrong postures during the work. These approaches were applied for the cutting operations with chainsaw. Since the evaluation requires high levels of attention and also because it was necessary to gain a good level of safety for the surveyor, a digital camera was used to film the operative activities. Then, the movies were analysed in office. Aim of the research is to analyse if it is possible to apply the approaches suggested by ISO standards in order to assess the most dangerous activities that, when not properly carried out, could be the cause of WMSD in forestry operations. The study showed that during the use of the chainsaw the index of risk of professional injures was overpassed several times, compromising the operator’s safety.
Levels of vibration transmitted to the operator of the tractor equipped with front axle suspension
Authors: Pochi Daniele , Fanigliulo Roberto , Fornaciari Laura , Vassalini Gennaro , Fedrizzi Marco , Brannetti Gino , Cervellini Cesare
Published: September 2016

In recent years the comfort and the preservation of the health of the operators became central issues in the evolution of agricultural machinery and led to the introduction of devices aimed at improving working conditions. Thereby, for instance, the presence of air conditioner, soundproof cab and driver seat suspension became normal on agricultural tractors. The vibrations are one of the most complex issues to deal with, being determined by the characteristics and interaction of elements such as tyres, axles, mainframe, cab and seat suspension. In this respect, manufacturers are trying to improve their products, even integrating these elements with new devices such as the suspension on the front axle of the tractor, aimed at reducing the level of vibrations during the transfers at high speed. One of these underwent tests at CRA-ING. Since its purpose is to reduce the level of vibration transmitted to the driver, their measurements in different points of the tractor and in different operating conditions, were compared in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the device, expressed as time of exposure. The suspension system of the front axle is designed to absorb the oscillations (especially pitching) determined by irregularities in the road surface, allowing an increased control of the vehicle at high speed, as demonstrated by the test results and confirmed by the driving impressions outlined by the operator. The action of the device under these conditions results in an increase of the exposure time, important fact because of the relevance of the road transfer operations of tractors with mounted implements or trailers to tow and of the tendency to increase the speed limit for the road tractors (in Germany were brought to 50 km h–1 for several years). The action just described is less evident with increasing irregularity of the road surface and with the decrease of the travel speed. Nevertheless, in such conditions, the device appears to positively work along the other directions, in particular in the Z-axis, improving the action of the suspension of the driver seat.
Assessment of linear anionic polyacrylamide application to irrigation canals for seepage control
Authors: Uribe Hamil , Figueroa Rodrigo , Llanos Luis
Published: September 2016

South- central area of Chile area has a Mediterranean climate and high crop water requirements. Irrigation water is distributed through long channels which have low water conveyance efficiency (Ec), difficult to improve by conventional techniques. The objective of this study was to quantify Ec and to evaluate the use of Linear Anionic Polyacrylamide (LA-PAM) to reduce seepage losses. The study was carried out in south-central area of Chile, (UTM Coordinate N 5745000; E 725000 m, datum is WGS-84, zone 18S) in 250 km of channels whose flow varied between 0.12 and 24.6 m3 s–1. Water users indicated channel reaches with potential low Ec, which were selected for LA-PAM application. In 11 reaches between 0.51 and 3 km in length, 1 to 3 LAPAM applications were performed at rates of 10 kg ha–1, considering the wet perimeter area as basis of calculation. Thirty-one LA-PAM applications were performed over a 30.5 km length. Most of the channels were large enough to allow motorboat moving against the current to carry-out LA-PAM application. Water flow was measured (StreamPro ADCP) at both ends of selected reaches before and after granular LAPAM application. Weekly measurements were made to quantify treatment effect duration. Water turbidity and temperature were measured. Channels showed variable Ec from 87% to 94%. Two reaches showed 6% water gains. In more than 80% cases LA-PAM effect was positive, achieving loss reductions of 15 to 760 L s–1. In other cases LA-PAM had a negative effect since it mainly affected water entry into the channel. It was determined that field conditions referred by users as indicators of Ec are not always correct and vary in time according to climatic conditions. Ec was estimated and it was possible to reduce seepage through LA-PAM applications. This allow increasing irrigation security in critical periods, especially under drought conditions.
Monitoring water fluxes in rice plots under three different cultivation methods
Authors: Chiaradia Enrico Antonio , Ferrari Daniele , Bischetti Gian Battista , Facchi Arianna , Gharsallah Olfa , Romani Marco , Gandolfi Claudio
Published: September 2016

Italy is the leading producer of rice in Europe with over half of total production, almost totally concentrated in a large traditional paddy rice area between the Lombardy and Piedmont regions, in the north-western part of the country. In this area irrigation of rice has been traditionally carried out by flooding. The introduction of new combined irrigation and agronomic management practices (dry seeding followed by field flooding and in a full aerobic cultivation with intermittent irrigations), aiming to reduce the water consumption, can determine considerable effect on the landscape and the water cycle. With the aim to study in depth the water fluxes during the whole crop season, three experimental plots at the Ente Nazionale Risi-Rice Research Centre’s Experimental Station of Castello d’Agogna (PV) were instrumented. In each plot the following instruments have been installed: 1) a long throated flume and a double shaped (V-notch and rectangular) thin plate for superficial inputs and outputs, 3) a set of piezometers for groundwater levels, 4) one stage level gauge in each submerged field, 5) four tensiometers and moisture sensors clusters, 6) one eddy covariance station for vapour fluxes estimation. Most of the instruments were equipped with electrical sensors connected by cables to a wireless data logger that, in turn, send the data to a PC placed within ENR offices and web-connected by a LAN. In this way, besides the automatic download of data, it was possible to remotely control the devices, to quickly fix troubles, and to better plan the field trips. The management of the whole framework was done by a specifically developed software. In this paper the whole system, which presents some degree of innovation, is described in detail.
Evapotranspiration models for a maize agro-ecosystem in irrigated and rainfed conditions
Authors: Facchi Arianna , Gharsallah Olfa , Gandolfi Claudio
Published: September 2016

A high level of accuracy in the estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET) may lead to significant savings of economic and water resources in irrigated agriculture. Although ET is a fundamental process in many applications, it cannot be directly measured but it has to be estimated by monitoring the exchange of energy/water above the vegetated surface (micrometeorological methods), or as a residual term of the hydrological balance (lysimeters, soil water budget). The techniques to be adopted are often complex, costly and require specific equipment. Thus, since the ‘50s, many researchers have devoted their activity to the development of models for its estimation. The available approaches can be classified in “direct” methods, based on the original Penman-Monteith (PM) equation, in which the canopy resistance rc is modelled, and “indirect” methods, based on the preliminary calculation of ET for a well-watered reference grass (ET0) with a constant rc, which is then multiplied by a crop coefficient Kc and, in case, by a stress coefficient Ks to obtain ET. Even if the latter approaches are more widely adopted for their practical simplicity, many authors show that the former often provide better ET estimates in absence of calibration of crop parameters. In this study the performances of different direct and indirect methods were evaluated in the case of a surface irrigated and of a rainfed maize grown in the Padana Plain (Northern Italy). The following models were considered: the “one-layer” original PM equation with three different models for rc (Monteith, Jarvis, Katerji-Perrier), the “two-layers” PM model proposed by Shuttleworth and Wallace, the “single” and “double” crop coefficient models illustrated in the Paper FAO-56. Latent heat fluxes measured in 2006 and 2011 in an experimental maize field by eddy-covariance were used to evaluate the models accuracy. Crop, soil and meteo data monitored contextually were used for the implementation of the different models. Results confirm that direct methods are more performing for both irrigated (2006) and rainfed (2011) conditions, with the SW model providing the best results and the FAO-56 models with generalized crop coefficients overestimating ET, especially during the middle growth stage.
Manually operated pile driver for use in the south Iraqi Marshlands
Authors: Monti Massimo , Rossi Giuseppe , Simonini Stefano , Sorbetti Guerri Francesco , Barbari Matteo
Published: September 2016

Anthropizations are necessary to implement the maintenance, recovery and utilization of wetlands. These interventions should be sustainable in every sense, in particular they should be marked by a low environmental impact. In general this aim can be achieved by using natural materials and carrying out procedures minimally invasive. In Developing Countries the latter point is often supported by the lack of equipment and energy availability, normally obtainable in Industrialized Countries. In practice, to build micro-infrastructures with the above said characteristics, it is normally necessary to drive poles, in our case in wood, in marshland’s soil. In order to accomplish this task a manually operated pile driver was designed and built. To operate in the water, a floating pier consisting of removable modular elements was also designed.
Schizophrenia in a member of the family: Burden, expressed emotion and addressing the needs of the whole family
Authors: Lippi Gian
Published: September 2016

How often do we find ourselves concentrating so much on treating a patient with schizophrenia that we forget about the needs and difficulties of the family members who take care of that patient? This article highlights the global and specific difficulties that families and caregivers experience in having to care for chronically ill family members with schizophrenia with a backdrop of continuing global deinstitutionalisation of such patients. Matters such as burden and expressed emotion are explored, family-specific interventions are discussed and areas of service delivery and resource inadequacies are identified.
Discovering Related Clinical Concepts Using Large Amounts of Clinical Notes
Authors: Ganesan Kavita , Lloyd Shane , Sarkar Vikren
Published: September 2016

The ability to find highly related clinical concepts is essential for many applications such as for hypothesis generation, query expansion for medical literature search, search results filtering, ICD-10 code filtering and many other applications. While manually constructed medical terminologies such as SNOMED CT can surface certain related concepts, these terminologies are inadequate as they depend on expertise of several subject matter experts making the terminology curation process open to geographic and language bias. In addition, these terminologies also provide no quantifiable evidence on how related the concepts are. In this work, we explore an unsupervised graphical approach to mine related concepts by leveraging the volume within large amounts of clinical notes. Our evaluation shows that we are able to use a data driven approach to discovering highly related concepts for various search terms including medications, symptoms and diseases.
Effectiveness of Membrane Filtration to Improve Drinking Water: A Quasi-Experimental Study from Rural Southern India
Authors: Francis Mark Rohit , Sarkar Rajiv , Roy Sheela , Jaffar Shabbar , Mohan Venkata Raghava , Kang Gagandeep , Balraj Vinohar
Published: September 2016

Since point-of-use methods of water filtration have shown limited acceptance in Vellore, southern India, this study evaluated the effectiveness of decentralized membrane filtration 1) with safe storage, 2) without safe storage, versus 3) no intervention, consisting of central chlorination as per government guidelines, in improving the microbiological quality of drinking water and preventing childhood diarrhea. Periodic testing of water sources, pre-/postfiltration samples, and household water, and a biweekly follow up of children less than 2 years of age was done for 1 year. The membrane filters achieved a log reduction of 0.86 (0.69–1.06), 1.14 (0.99–1.30), and 0.79 (0.67–0.94) for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and Escherichia coli, respectively, in field conditions. A 24% (incidence rate ratio, IRR [95% confidence interval, CI] = 0.76 [0.51–1.13]; P = 0.178) reduction in diarrheal incidence in the intervention village with safe storage and a 14% (IRR [95% CI] = 1.14 [0.75–1.77]; P = 0.530) increase in incidence for the intervention village without safe storage versus no intervention village was observed, although not statistically significant. Microbiologically, the membrane filters decreased fecal contamination; however, provision of decentralized membrane-filtered water with or without safe storage was not protective against childhood diarrhea.
Herd Protection from Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Interventions
Authors: Fuller James A. , Eisenberg Joseph N. S.
Published: September 2016

Herd immunity arises when a communicable disease is less able to propagate because a substantial portion of the population is immune. Nonimmunizing interventions, such as insecticide-treated bednets and deworming drugs, have shown similar herd-protective effects. Less is known about the herd protection from drinking water, sanitation, and hand hygiene (WASH) interventions. We first constructed a transmission model to illustrate mechanisms through which different WASH interventions may provide herd protection. We then conducted an extensive review of the literature to assess the validity of the model results and identify current gaps in research. The model suggests that herd protection accounts for a substantial portion of the total protection provided by WASH interventions. However, both the literature and the model suggest that sanitation interventions in particular are the most likely to provide herd protection, since they reduce environmental contamination. Many studies fail to account for these indirect effects and thus underestimate the total impact an intervention may have. Although cluster-randomized trials of WASH interventions have reported the total or overall efficacy of WASH interventions, they have not quantified the role of herd protection. Just as it does in immunization policy, understanding the role of herd protection from WASH interventions can help inform coverage targets and strategies that indirectly protect those that are unable to be reached by WASH campaigns. Toward this end, studies are needed to confirm the differential role that herd protection plays across the WASH interventions suggested by our transmission model.
Dengue Dynamics and Vaccine Cost-Effectiveness Analysis in the Philippines
Authors: Shim Eunha
Published: September 2016

Dengue is one of the most problematic vector-borne diseases in the Philippines, with an estimated 842,867 cases resulting in medical costs of $345 million U.S. dollars annually. In December 2015, the first dengue vaccine, known as chimeric yellow fever virus–dengue virus tetravalent dengue vaccine, was approved for use in the Philippines and is given to children 9 years of age. To estimate the cost-effectiveness of dengue vaccination in the Philippines, we developed an age-structured model of dengue transmission and vaccination. Using our model, we compared two vaccination scenarios entailing routine vaccination programs both with and without catch-up vaccination. Our results indicate that the higher the cost of vaccination, the less cost-effective the dengue vaccination program. With the current dengue vaccination program that vaccinates children 9 years of age, dengue vaccination is cost-effective for vaccination costs up to $70 from a health-care perspective and up to $75 from a societal perspective. Under a favorable scenario consisting of 1 year of catch-up vaccinations that target children 9–15 years of age, followed by regular vaccination of 9-year-old children, vaccination is cost-effective at costs up to $72 from a health-care perspective and up to $78 from a societal perspective. In general, dengue vaccination is expected to reduce the incidence of both dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever /dengue shock syndrome. Our results demonstrate that even at relatively low vaccine efficacies, age-targeted vaccination may still be cost-effective provided the vaccination cost is sufficiently low.
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan: Clinical Diversity and Species-Level Diagnosis
Authors: Khan Nazma Habib , Bari Arfan ul , Hashim Rizwan , Khan Inamullah , Muneer Akhtar , Shah Akram , Wahid Sobia , Yardley Vanessa , O'Neil Brighid , Sutherland Colin J.
Published: September 2016

This study primarily aimed to identify the causative species of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan and to distinguish any species-specific variation in clinical manifestation of CL. Diagnostic performance of different techniques for identifying CL was assessed. Isolates of Leishmania spp. were detected by in vitro culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on DNA extracted from dried filter papers and microscopic examination of direct lesion smears from patients visiting three major primary care hospitals in Peshawar. A total of 125 CL patients were evaluated. Many acquired the disease from Peshawar and the neighboring tribal area of Khyber Agency. Military personnel acquired CL while deployed in north and south Waziristan. Leishmania tropica was identified as the predominant infecting organism in this study (89.2%) followed by Leishmania major (6.8%) and, unexpectedly, Leishmania infantum (4.1%). These were the first reported cases of CL caused by L. infantum in Pakistan. PCR diagnosis targeting kinetoplast DNA was the most sensitive diagnostic method, identifying 86.5% of all samples found positive by any other method. Other methods were as follows: ribosomal DNA PCR (78.4%), internal transcribed spacer 2 region PCR (70.3%), culture (67.1%), and microscopy (60.5%). Clinical examination reported 14 atypical forms of CL. Atypical lesions were not significantly associated with the infecting Leishmania species, nor with “dry” or “wet” appearance of lesions. Findings from this study provide a platform for species typing of CL patients in Pakistan, utilizing a combination of in vitro culture and molecular diagnostics. Moreover, the clinical diversity described herein can benefit clinicians in devising differential diagnosis of the disease.
Sequential Chikungunya and Zika Virus Infections in a Traveler from Honduras
Authors: Norman Francesca F. , Chamorro Sandra , Vázquez Ana , Sánchez-Seco María-Paz , Pérez-Molina José-Antonio , Monge-Maillo Begoña , Vivancos María-Jesús , Rodríguez-Dominguez Mario , Galán Juan-Carlos , de Ory Fernando , López-Vélez Rogelio
Published: September 2016

Zika virus (ZIKV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) are currently circulating in overlapping areas in the American continents and may both be transmitted by Aedes spp. mosquitoes. The first documented case, to the authors' knowledge, of sequential CHIKV and ZIKV infections diagnosed in a nonendemic area in a returning traveler is reported. The implications for heightened clinical surveillance for these infections and specific patient recommendations are emphasized.