bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Steam-Turbine Leaving Losses and Vacuum Corrections
Authors: Helander Linn
Published: February 2023

Based upon the discussion of steam flow through non-divergent nozzles with oblique exit faces in “Die Dampfturbinen”, by Gustav Flügel, this paper presents a procedure wherewith steam-turbine vacuum corrections may be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy when the design characteristics of the last row of blades and one set of water rates for specified steam conditions and loads are known. The procedure outlined is designed primarily for consulting engineers and power engineers, not for the turbine engineer. On that account certain simplifying assumptions have been introduced. These simplifying assumptions, although perhaps not acceptable where precise results are required, will be found satisfactory for the purposes for which the formulas presented herein have been developed. A comprehensive sample calculation is used to exemplify the procedure outlined.

In addition to a procedure for evaluating vacuum corrections, the paper presents simple formulas for evaluating small increments of isentropic heat drop when the expanding steam is saturated. These formulas give evaluations of small increments of heat drop more accurately than they can be read from ordinary steam charts and may be solved with little if any more labor than is used in reading charts.

Certain formulas are also presented which evaluate the mass rate of steam flow through a blade or nozzle when the critical velocity is reached therein, the mass rate of steam flow through a nozzle or blade when the terminal nozzle or blade pressure is the minimum attainable (that is, when the exhaust-chamber pressure is at or below that corresponding to the limiting vacuum), the rate of change of internal shaft work with a change in the exhaust-chamber vacuum temperature for expansions beyond the critical pressure, and the approximate rate of change of internal shaft work with vacuum temperature when the terminal blade pressure is above the critical pressure. Approximate formulas are given which express the specific volume and latent heat of dry saturated steam in terms of the temperature of the steam. These formulas have been developed for use where the exhaust steam is saturated and where, in addition, the temperature of the exhaust steam does not exceed approximately 140 F.
Application of the Elastic-Point Theory to Piping Stress Calculations
Authors: Spielvogel S. W. , Kameros S.
Published: February 2023

The application of the neutral-point theory to piping expansion problems leads to a simplification in their solution. A simple transfer formula introduced by the authors eliminates what would have been a laborious step in the computations and resolves the procedure into the determination of two moments of inertia and the product of inertia of the pipe line with respect to two rectilinear axes through its center of gravity.
Propeller Pumps
Authors: O’Brien M. P. , Folsom R. G.
Published: February 2023

This paper presents a simplified method of design with performance prediction throughout a reasonable portion of the operating range near the design point of propeller or axial-flow pumps. The results obtained by this method are compared with test characteristics for a known pump and very good agreement obtained. Cavitation phenomena are not considered.

The system of computations is based essentially on the propeller-blade element theory as used by Pfleiderer. The assumptions involved are clearly stated and the validity of each discussed. A theoretical proof for the desirability of constant total head being developed over the propeller disk is given. A sample computation is included which clearly illustrates the application to an actual pump.

Equally good agreement was found in computing the characteristics of a propeller fan.
The Psychrograph
Authors: Norris A. M.
Published: February 2023

Problems in air-conditioning can be solved quickly and accurately by the use of a psychrograph developed by the author. In this paper, representative problems of the type met with in air-conditioning work are solved on the psychrograph, accompanied by explanations, and illustrate the ease with which the chart can be used in the various cases presented.
Cause and Prevention of Turbine-Blade Deposits
Authors: Straub Frederick G.
Published: February 2023

A survey was made of power plants encountering turbine-blade deposits and it was found that this trouble results from contamination of the steam by the boiler water. A study in the laboratory showed that sodium hydroxide is the material which causes the sticking to the blades. It was also shown that when the sodium hydroxide is neutralized and changed to a salt such as sodium carbonate, it will not adhere. The presence of sufficient amounts of inert salts, such as sodium sulphate, with the sodium hydroxide also will stop the deposit from forming.

The action of sodium sulphate in preventing the blade deposits was studied in a large central power plant, and the deposit was materially reduced. A small testing unit for detecting the presence of adhering salts in the steam was developed and used in the power-plant tests.
Radiation From Nonluminous Flames
Authors: Hottel H. C. , Smith V. C.
Published: February 2023

Experimental results on the total radiation clue to carbon dioxide, water vapor, and mixtures of the two that were recently reported were obtained in a chromel-wound furnace, the maximum operating temperature of which was 1850 F. The final plots were obtained by extrapolating to 3600 F the experimental data covering the range from room temperature to the furnace maximum.

A method is now described for determining these properties directly in the upper temperature range. It consists of measuring the emission of radiation, and the corresponding temperature, from overventilated flames of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and mixtures of these in a Meker burner of varying length. The products in the flame are calculated from the mixture fed to the burner.

Results are presented for flames of carbon monoxide in mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen in which the burner grid length is varied from 2 to 16 in., the theoretical oxygen from 100 to 300 per cent, and the flame temperature from 2600 to 3800 F. The results establish the validity of the carbon-dioxide radiation chart in its high-temperature range. Less extensive measurements on illuminating-gas flames establish the validity of the water-vapor radiation chart at temperatures of 2500 to 2800 F when the thickness of gas layer is small.
Effect of Concentrated Sodium Hydroxide on Boiler Steel Under Tension
Authors: Perry A. S.
Published: February 2023

The study reported in this paper was undertaken primarily for the purpose of developing failures in typical boiler plate under tension and in contact with high concentrations of sodium hydroxide in water solution. The failures occurring were examined carefully for evidence commonly considered indicative of caustic embrittlement. Photomicrographs are presented showing the presence of both intercrystalline and transcrystalline cracks. The author also includes a discussion of riveting pressures inasmuch as such pressures tend to affect the stresses in the fabricated unit. Impurites in the metal used for rivets and plates are also considered.

As a result of these studies it is concluded that whereas the stresses in the fabricated unit and the concentration of caustic in solution may be primary causes for the development of the phenomenon of caustic embrittlement, other factors contributing to metal stress and perfection of the fabricated unit may logically be considered in arriving at the fundamental cause of embrittlement. Typical of these factors are (a) riveting pressures, and (b) purity and uniformity of rivet and plate metal.

A more conscientious consideration of the nature of the resulting cracks in boiler failure will indicate the presence of both transcrystalline and intercrystalline cracks; and finally it is pointed out that intercrystalline cracks may not always be associated with caustic attack.
Effect of Solutions on the Endurance of Low-Carbon Steel Under Repeated Torsion at 482 F (250 C)
Authors: Schroeder W. C. , Partridge E. P.
Published: February 2023

The stresses to which the steel in a boiler is subjected may be divided into (a) static stresses and (b) repeated stresses. A great deal of experimental work at boiler-water temperatures has been directed toward the determination of the effect of solutions on the physical properties of the steel as measured by static tests, but repeated-stress testing under these conditions has received comparatively little attention.

In the investigation discussed in this paper, repeated torsion testing with a rather slow repetition of the stress was used to measure the comparative effect of air, water, sodium hydroxide, and other solutions on steel at 482 F.

Under the conditions investigated it was found that water caused failure more rapidly than air, and sodium hydroxide caused failure more rapidly than water. Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in water solution had no different effect from that of water alone. Sodium carbonate and tri-sodium phosphate in water had about the same effect as sodium hydroxide. The addition of sodium carbonate in solution, or sodium sulphate as excess solid to the sodium hydroxide did not prevent the action of the sodium hydroxide in these repeated torsion tests.

It was found that by the addition of either sodium or potassium chromate, or sodium nitrate to the sodium-hydroxide solutions, the action of the sodium hydroxide could be prevented and the endurance of the specimen under the test conditions could be brought up to a value at least as high as that for water alone.

The endurance of the specimens does not appear to have been directly related to surface corrosion or pitting.
Testing of Controllable-Pitch Propellers
Authors: Lampton G. T.
Published: February 2023

So much has been written about the effect of controllable propellers on airplane performance that aeronautical engineers now are probably more interested than ever before in the general engineering background of this device which permits them to use wing loadings upward of 20 lb per sq ft. The problem involved in changing the pitch angle of blades subjected to centrifugal loads of the order of 50 tons with safety and reasonable weight limits is obviously one which requires a competent design and testing staff equipped with elaborate facilities. The purpose of this paper is to describe some unique test methods and equipment which have been used successfully both in the development and in the testing of the Lycoming-Smith propeller.
The Accuracy of the Cleanliness-Factor Measurement for Surface Condensers
Authors: Hardie P. H. , Cooper W. S.
Published: February 2023

The authors outlined in a previous paper an experimental method for evaluating the performance of steam condensers in terms of a new quantity which was defined as the “cleanliness factor.” The method of determining the cleanliness factor is essentially a sampling process, involving the measurement of the performance of a limited number of new and old isolated tubes.

The present paper is concerned chiefly with the accuracy of this determination. The investigation reported herein was conducted for the specific purpose of determining whether the limited number of test tubes (24) heretofore used is sufficient to indicate adequately the cleanliness factor of an entire condenser. By the use of 96 isolated test tubes, data were obtained to compute the probable accuracy for any number of isolated tubes. The probable accuracy was found to be 98.4 per cent for 24 tubes, and 99.2 per cent for 96 tubes.
Theory and Practice of Wire-Line Coring in Hard Formations
Authors: Klep John P.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses the difficulties encountered in drilling oil wells through hard rock to deep horizons and the necessity for more accurate correlations. He points out the conditions for the successful correlation by geophysical, electrical-resistivity, and microscopical examinations of well cuttings and discusses the necessity of coring to establish absolute characteristics of sediments, exact correlations, and true value of formations. The principles and theory of wire-line coring are presented by the author together with a discussion of the applications of the various known devices. He also compares wire-line coring with other methods. Reference is made to the introduction of wire-line coring in hard-formation territory, to the difficulties encountered, and to the development of processes used to overcome these difficulties.
Equipment and Problems in Handling Oil as a Locomotive Fuel
Authors: Bean Guy M.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses the principles of designing equipment for burning oil in locomotive fireboxes. He reviews methods used in handling and storing oil in service stations as well as methods used in handling and firing the oil on the locomotive. In connection with the latter the author discusses the use of equipment for, and the problems involved in, (a) fuel-oil heating, (b) atomization, (c) firepan and furnace arrangements, and (d) oil piping and regulation of oil flow to the burners.
Welding Heavy Machinery
Authors: Wills C. A. , Lindemuth F. L.
Published: February 2023

This paper is a presentation of the problems met with in the designing, fabrication, and stress relieving of welded machine parts and other types of welded equipment. In discussing the solutions of these problems, the authors refer to the welding of fabricated machine parts and equipment as accomplished by the company with which they are associated.
Supervising Instruments for the 165,000-Kw Turbine at the Richmond Station
Authors: Steen-Johnsen H.
Published: February 2023

This paper describes the supervisory-control instruments installed on the 165,000-kw turbine at the Richmond Station of the Philadelphia Electric Company. The installation consists of electrical instruments to measure such turbine characteristics as vibration, spindle eccentricity, cylinder expansion, and noise.

The equipment has been in operation for one year, and during this time, the vibrometers and expansion meters have proved to be useful during the starting as well as normal operating periods. The eccentricity meter, although of no great value on a machine equipped with a spindle-turning device, has revealed interesting facts about the movement of the journals in the bearings. The noise-meter transmits the noise-characteristics as heard with a listening rod to a central location on the gage-board. The instrument has not been found very satisfactory because of the great number of noises heard in a machine of this size, making it very difficult to detect a rub whether a listening rod or other means are used for the purpose.
Tests of a 50,000-Sq Ft Surface Condenser at Widely Varying Temperatures, Velocities of Inlet Water, and Loads
Authors: Van Hengel G. H.
Published: February 2023

The purpose of this paper is to enhance the understanding of the undercooling of condensate and of the heat-transfer coefficient. The author replaces the heat-transfer coefficient with a simplified form of the reciprocal of the heat-transfer coefficient; viz., the local resistivity taken at the cooling-water-inlet end of the condenser. Exhaustive tests on a modern condenser show first, that superheating of the condensate, as generally defined, is possible if provision is made for the recovery of the velocity energy of the steam flowing into the condenser; and second, that a practicable correlation exists between the resistivity at the cooling-water-entrance end of the condenser and the Reynolds number of the cooling water at the tube entrance.
Physical-Property Uniformity in Valve-Body Steel Castings
Authors: White A. E. , Clark C. L. , Crocker Sabin
Published: February 2023

This paper describes an extensive investigation of the physical properties of specimens cut from various sections of large welding-end valve bodies made of carbon-molybdenum cast steel. Macrosections, impact values, and density determinations are presented in addition to the usual tensile properties.

The results indicate that the welding ends are the soundest part of the valve body and that sections cut from the valve body as close as possible to the welding ends have physical properties commensurate with those obtained from conventional separately and integrally cast test bars.

Evidence of rather general porosity was disclosed by the macrosections from the thicker-walled portions of the bodies and in the bonnet flange, with consequent low ductility values for some of the tensile specimens from these locations. While this condition was considered fairly acceptable when allowance was made for the greater metal thickness in these sections, the investigation showed these to be the regions where improvements could be effected through further development of casting procedure.
The Thermal Conductivity of Liquids
Authors: Downie Smith J. F.
Published: February 2023

New data on the thermal conductivities of several liquids are presented in this paper. A compilation of these values together with those of previous experimenters yields a large list of liquids the thermal conductivities of which have been determined. This list should be of interest to many engineers and physicists. An analysis of theoretical and empirical equations for predicting thermal conductivities of liquids is included in the paper.
The Contact-Mixture Analogy Applied to Heat Transfer With Mixtures of Air and Water Vapor
Authors: Carrier W. H.
Published: February 2023

The author derives and discusses the general contact-mixture formula for representing physical processes of heat transmission and fluid friction, and points out that the contact-mixture analogy serves directly and logically to correlate heat transfer with fluid friction. He compares the analogy with the conduction-viscosity theory and relates why the contact-mixture analogy explains all the phenomena connected with gas flow and heat transmission.
Hydroelectric Practice in the United States
Authors: Clogher A. C.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses hydroelectric development in the United States from the earliest installation up to the present time. He points out that hydroelectric plants added to large power systems in this country during the past 15 years have been constructed because they have appeared to be more economical than thermal-electric plants for adding the same number of kilowatts to the same power system, excepting the construction of hydroelectric plants in those sections of the country where hydroelectric plants can compete with thermal electric plants in producing power and energy at the load factor of the utility loads. The author also discusses the design of equipment used in the older and in the more recent hydroelectric installations. The paper includes a list of the major hydroelectric installations in the United States together with their present rating and ultimate capacity.
Supercharging of Internal-Combustion Engines With Blowers Driven by Exhaust-Gas Turbines
Authors: Büchi Alfred J.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses the operation of the Büchi exhaust-gas turboblowers for supercharging internal-combustion engines and scavenging the cylinders, and also explains the principles on which the blowers are designed. He presents indicator, temperature, and entropy diagrams for Diesel engines equipped with the blowers, and gives results of tests conducted on the blowers. A number of internal-combustion engines with exhaust-gas turboblowers as used in different types of service are described in the paper. The author also presents a number of curves showing the scavenging effect of the blowers, and the brake mean effective pressure, brake horsepower, and fuel consumption obtained on engines using the Büchi system of turbo-charging.
The Economic Characteristics of Typical Business Enterprises
Authors: Rautenstrauch Walter
Published: February 2023

This paper presents the results of analyses of the relationship between incomes and expenses of a wide range of types of business, over a period of years during which incomes and expenses expanded and contracted greatly. The data upon which these analyses were based were taken principally from the published financial statements found in Moody’s Financial Manual, Poor’s Financial Manual, Crandall’s Corporate Analyst, and various government publications.

The results of these analyses indicate that business enterprises may be compared with each other in ways heretofore impossible and as a result of such comparisons their relative economic worths may be judged.
Modern Locomotive and Axle-Testing Equipment
Authors: Buckwalter T. V. , Horger O. J. , Sanders W. C.
Published: February 2023

This paper shows how improvements have been made in the running and driving gear of existing and new steam locomotives to permit their operation at much higher speeds than is the usual practice today in both freight and passenger service. Means of obtaining these improvements are described whereby (a) the reciprocating parts are reduced in weight up to 1072 lb or 52 per cent, (b) the rotating parts on the main driving wheel are also reduced in weight up to 300 lb or 19 per cent, and (c) roller bearings are used on all axles and crankpins. As a result of such improvements, the dynamic augment on the rail and shaking forces on the locomotive and track structure at a given speed are reduced. The extent of this reduction is such that a speed increase of at least 35 mph above the diameter speed may be permitted without increasing the dynamic augment on the rails above its original value.

A program and facilities are described for the fatigue testing of full-size driver-axle assemblies with wheel-seat diameters of 11½ in. Preliminary results indicate that valuable contributions will be forthcoming as to the influence of various designs, steels, and heat-treatments upon the axle fatigue strength.

The factors of unsprung weight and axle rigidity are not now considered in calculations of axle stresses. These factors influence the impact stresses in axles at prevailing high speeds and, to minimize the detrimental effect of such stresses, it is recommended that greater flexibility be designed in the axle by decreasing the present ratio of the axle diameter in the portion between the wheels to the diameter of the wheel seat.
Operating-Cost Analysis of Electrified Oil Lines
Authors: Stueve W. H.
Published: February 2023

The author submits data on the capacity and power requirements when pumping oil through two 10-in. pipe lines, 191.4 and 126 miles long, respectively. The first of these lines has three stations, located at approximate distances of 60 miles, each of which is equipped with plunger pumps handling 35,000 bbl of crude oil per day at a pressure of 800 lb per sq in. The second line has four stations, located at approximate distances of 32 miles, each of which is equipped with centrifugal pumps handling 40,000 bbl of crude oil at a pressure of 800 lb per sq in. The author gives the relative efficiencies of the centrifugal and plunger pumps and determines the overall pumping charges for each line. He calculates the operating costs if oil engines were installed as prime movers instead of electric motors. Calculations are also made to show the effect on operating charges if larger diameter pipe were installed, and if the pumping stations were spaced farther apart than in the existing lines.
Selection of Wood for Industrial Uses
Authors: Johnson R. P. A.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses the selection of woods for various industrial uses as based upon the physical properties of the woods and requirements which the wood product must meet. He classifies a number of woods according to their warping, end-splitting, turning, planing, and bending qualities, and also rates them in the order of their tendency to transmit odor and taste. Charts are presented which show the distribution of the quantity of wood used in the manufacture of such products as furniture, agricultural implements, automobiles, railroad cars, refrigerators, cabinets, handles, and ladders. The adoption of a wood for the manufacture of a given product and the substitution of one wood for another, based on controlling the physical properties of the wood by treating it, are also discussed.
The Separation and Emission of Cinders and Fly Ash
Authors: Stern Arthur C.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses the size-frequency analysis of cinders and fly ash, and the variation of the efficiency of dust separation with varying dust-particle size. He shows how these two factors may be combined to determine the overall efficiency of separation. He outlines a rational method for the calculation of dust separation and emission in complex fuel-burning units, in which the dust originates in the furnace, and must pass, prior to its emission into the atmosphere, through numerous heat-absorbing units, including some in which a measure of dust removal may occur. He points out what experimental data must be made available to designers before they may fully utilize any method of predetermining the operating characteristics of equipment with respect to cinder and fly-ash emission. He attempts a theoretical analysis of the efficiency of dust separation in settling chambers, centrifugal concentrators, and cyclone separators.
Application of Tension-Impact Tests
Authors: Jenks G. F.
Published: February 2023

Impact testing as normally performed with notch bars is objectionable because of large errors inherent in the method of test, and especially those due to errors in machining the notch. Notch tensile specimens are more satisfactory being less sensitive to errors of machining or to accidental variations in structure of the material.

In studying tension-impact specimens it was found that materials required a constant energy to rupture independent of the velocity of loading provided certain critical velocities were not exceeded. This critical or “transition” velocity appears to be a fundamental property of a material. Its value varies with chemical compositions and with both preliminary and final heat-treatment, and it also varies with the temperature of test.

The study of “transition” velocity is a sensitive tool in research work, both in the development of processing methods and in physical metallurgy. The tension-impact test is a simple test to determine completeness of processing, and affords the design engineer information both as to the safety of the material and its ability to withstand impact loading.
Sanforizing Methods Up to Date
Authors: Ramsey C. H.
Published: February 2023

After commenting briefly on the increase in the production of sanforized shrunk goods of over 824 per cent in five years, which he states is one of the most startling extensions of a new process in the history of the textile industry, the author describes the types of machine that were used in 1930 when the process was more or less of an experiment. The process is next outlined, and the different types of machine that are now commercially available are described. One of these finishes fabric on one side only, while the other turns out cloth that is accurately shrunk in both warp and weft to its potential wash shrink and has an acceptable finish on both sides. The mechanical means provided to secure the proper relation of the different units of the machine and the prevention of scorching of either the cloth or the fabric are described.
Rubber Cushioning Devices
Authors: Hirshfeld C. F. , Piron E. H.
Published: February 2023

This paper describes briefly the production of compounded rubber which is the material commonly used by engineers and others under the name of rubber. The wide range of physical properties obtainable by different compounding and different curing is indicated.

Springs of steel and springs of rubber are compared with respect to certain important characteristics and the conclusion drawn that neither can completely replace the other for springing purposes. There are applications in which one or the other gives the better or the only solution and there are other cases in which either may be used.

Various types and forms of rubber springs are described and illustrated and methods available for calculation and design are given.

Finally certain applications of rubber to the springing of rail vehicles are described and their results are illustrated.
Determining the Tool-Life Cutting-Speed Relationship by Facing Cuts
Authors: Kraus C. E. , Weddell R. R.
Published: February 2023

This paper presents the results of a series of tests made to obtain the tool-life cutting-speed relationship for a variety of high-speed steels when cutting a dense nickel cast iron. The cuts were taken on the face of a segmented disk, and the conditions of the cut were selected to approximate the conditions of a face-mill cut. A mathematical analysis is included and the data are put in the form of the equation VTN = C. This method of testing has several advantages: The tests take less time, the point of failure is more definite when cutting cast iron, and material variations have practically no effect on the comparative accuracy of the data. Twenty-three steels were tested, ranging from 18-4-1 to supercobalt, including several molybdenum steels. A number of conclusions are given comparing tool life as affected by analysis. Also, the data are shown plotted on log-log coordinates. All tests were run dry under identical conditions.
Analyzing Variable Loads in Steam- and Diesel-Power Plants
Authors: Boyer Glenn C.
Published: February 2023

This paper presents a rapid and accurate method for determining the total input to a machine supplying a predetermined variable output. While the method is adaptable to any variable load condition, it is concerned primarily with the adaptation of the method to Diesel and steam electric-generating stations.

Essentially the method consists in using a load-duration curve of the load studied together with an input-output curve for the Diesel engine or steam equipment considered for supplying the load. By the use of these two curves and mechanical projection, a duration curve of input is developed. The area under the load-duration curve is proportional to the total output of the plant for the period considered, and similarly the area under duration curve of the input is proportional to the total input.

Where plant load-duration curves can be prepared covering an entire year’s operation, this method provides a means for predetermining the total amount of fuel necessary to generate this quantity of energy. The accuracy of the method is influenced by the accuracy of the load-duration curves available, and the errors involved in the input-output curve used.

A brief discussion is included which indicates the adaptability of the method to other uses than those to which the paper is primarily devoted.
Experimental Investigation of Effects of Equipment Size on Convection Heat Transfer and Flow Resistance in Cross Flow of Gases Over Tube Banks
Authors: Huge E. C.
Published: February 2023

To establish the effect of tube size as a factor in heat transfer and pressure drop for gases flowing transversely over tube banks of a given tube arrangement, new experimental determinations have been made for several tube sizes, and results compared with those of Pierson who used very small tubes of 0.31 in. diameter. The arrangements used included some of those studied by Pierson and these tests on a larger scale have served as a check on the accuracy of his small-scale results with a different method and different imposed conditions, and the applicability of model results to full-scale equipment, the two series forming parts of a research program of the Babcock & Wilcox Company.

Nine tube arrangements as shown in Fig. 1, defined by center spacings in the direction of flow and transversely, were used with tubes of both ½ in. diameter and 11/12 in. diameter, the spacing ranging from a minimum of 1¼ × 1¼ diameters, to a maximum of 2 × 3 diameters with ten rows in the direction of flow both in-line and staggered, and ten tubes wide except for one case of eight tubes wide. In addition, three arrangements of tubes of 2-in. diameter were used in banks of ten rows deep and from nine to fifteen tubes wide.

For the banks of smaller tubes, ½ in. and 11/12 in. diameter, heat was transferred from hot gases outside to cold water inside, while for the banks of 2 in. tubes, heat was transferred from condensing steam inside to air outside.

Values of gas-boundary conductance and pressure drop were found for several identical tube arrangements and spacing and three tube sizes of ½ in., 11/12 in., and 2 in., with heat flow inward and outward; these are found to be consistent with those for the Pierson model tubes of 0.31 in. diameter.

Heat-transfer rates are reported in terms of the Nusselt number, and pressure drop in terms of the Fanning equation for friction factor, both of them in relation to the Reynolds number. For values of the Reynolds number in the range of commercial practice, the Nusselt number varies as the 0.61 power of the Reynolds number, and the friction factor is not so regularly related to the Reynolds number but varies with the tube arrangement. Values of both gas-boundary conductance and friction factor for a given tube arrangement are consistent for all tube sizes from the full-scale 2-in. tubes down to the Pierson model tubes of 0.31 in., including the intermediate sizes of ½-in. and 11/12-in. tubes, thus confirming the validity of the principle of similarity applied to tube banks in spite of some departure from true geometric similarity in the ratio of length to diameter or to intertube space for the range of Reynolds’ numbers tested, 2000 to 70,000.
Further Studies of Three-Dimensional Pipe Bends
Authors: Hovgaard William
Published: February 2023

This paper discusses in some detail the secondary terms which, as explained in a previous paper by the author, occur in the expressions for the rotations in pipe bends under the action of couples normal to their plane. Revised formulas for the reaction couples and forces at the anchorages are given, comprising all the secondary terms throughout. The numerical results, when these formulas are applied, are recorded. The effect of omitting all secondary terms throughout the calculation is considered at length.
Burning of Waste Liquors in the Kraft and Soda-Paper Industries
Authors: Wilcoxson L. S.
Published: February 2023

The qualities and grades of papers produced from pulp made by alkaline (sulphate or soda) processes or the acid (sulphite) process are in themselves different and serve different purposes, but the processes have a common basis of operation in that wood chips are cooked in a digester with a chemical for the separation of the lignins from the cellulose of the wood; the cellulose, upon separation, providing the pulp for the manufacture of paper. The author discusses the recovery of chemicals and heat from the waste liquors, resulting from the cooking of the wood, for the most economical operation of the alkaline processes. He gives an explanation of the factors involved in the combustion of these waste liquors after discussing briefly the alkaline processes and the method in which the waste liquors are produced. He discusses recent progress made in the heat-recovery and chemical-recovery units, describing in detail a modern unit for these purposes. The author deals with the important phases of combustion, operation of modern recovery units, maintenance costs, heat balances of the units, and efficiencies of the units operating under various conditions.
The Problem of Flywheel Effect and Speed Regulation for Diesel-Engine-Driven Machinery
Authors: Andriola A. D.
Published: February 2023

The author points out that the analysis of the flywheel problem most commonly used is based upon the assumption that the shafting connecting the various masses is infinitely rigid, and that there is no agreement on whether or not the engine, flywheel, and generator mass are to be accounted for, the usual opinion being that the flywheel and engine only enter into the result. Attention is called to the fact that the inherent errors of the ordinary solution have been exposed by several authors, but that no specific attempt has been made to compare quantitatively the results obtained by the correct solution with those as ordinarily calculated. The author discusses both solutions of the problem, and compares results obtained with torsiographic data taken on actual installations.
Determination of the Rate of Discharge in Jerk-Pump Fuel-Injection Systems
Authors: DeJuhasz Kalman J.
Published: February 2023

The performance of a jerk-pump fuel-injection system under varied operating conditions is analyzed by the graphical method developed by the author. Effect of open and closed nozzles, of varying orifice sizes, of pump-speed, of pipe-diameter, of pump delivery rate are discussed. The experimental equipment constructed at the Pennsylvania State College is described, which serves to measure the rate of discharge by the stroboscopic method.
Lubricating Problems in Connection With High-Speed Diesel Engines
Authors: Rosen C. G. A.
Published: February 2023

To a considerable extent the problem of lubrication connected with high-speed Diesel engines involves a study of the cause and effect of carbon and binder-forming depositions. For the purpose of this paper the problems of lubrication will be broken down into the following headings; (1) Influence of carbon and binder forming depositions on ring sticking, valve sticking, and lubricating-oil filter; (2) cylinder and ring scratching; and (3) bearings.

In breaking this subject into its related constituents, the influence of fuels and the combustion process is considered as distinct from the effect of piston-ring-belt temperatures.

This paper is to serve the purpose of illustrating the importance of cooperative research of engine manufacturers with the petroleum industry. The engine builder and the oil refiner serve a common customer, and his satisfaction is achieved as a result of the combined efforts of the two industries.
Slag and Deslagging of Steam-Generating Equipment
Authors: Bailey Alex D.
Published: February 2023

This is a discussion of the slagging of steam-generating equipment when burning low-grade coals having a high percentage of ash which fuses at relatively low temperatures. Slagging trouble has increased as the capacity and efficiency of this equipment have been increased, and the means for reducing it are briefly described.

Since the character of the fuel is such that the cause cannot be removed before the coal is burned without destroying the coal itself, slagging is generally accepted as a necessary evil. The design of steam-generating equipment is gradually being changed so that it will be better adapted to the coal to be burned, give less slagging trouble, and stay in service for longer periods.

Reducing the ash content of the coal by washing or any other means is, of course, advantageous, but the chemical treatment of coal with a view to eliminating slagging troubles or reducing them has been generally unsuccessful.
Some Results From Research on Flow Nozzles
Authors: Bean H. S. , Beitler S. R.
Published: February 2023

The circumstances which caused the A.S.M.E. Special Research Committee on Fluid Meters to undertake the present research program on flow nozzles were recounted in an earlier paper. In that paper many of the committee’s arrangements and plans for conducting the research were given. In another paper, a description was given of the method being used to measure the size and shape of the nozzles.

This present paper which is the third of the series is a progress report presenting the results from various subsidiary tests. There is given a comparison of results from tests using rough and smooth pipe, standard and extra-heavy pipe, and clean and deposit-coated nozzles. Based upon tests with steam, there is given a comparison of the adiabatic-expansion factor ϕ and the “net”-expansion factor Y. The results from several groups of pressure-gradient tests are presented, and based upon these results there is given a recommendation on the location of pipe-wall taps.
Tests of Heat-Exchanger Flanges
Authors: Rossheim D. B. , Gebhardt E. H. , Oliver H. G.
Published: February 2023

A description of tests conducted on two test units involving large diameter forged-steel flanges of sizes and types commonly used in the manufacture of heat exchangers. This work has been done under the sponsorship of the Heat Exchange Institute. In these tests measurements have been made of the longitudinal hub stress and rotation of the flanges under bolt load alone and with hydrostatic pressure.
Chlorination of Condenser Cooling Water
Authors: Martin R. B.
Published: February 2023

This paper gives a history of the development of slime-control chlorination processes and equipment as applied to condenser cooling water. Present-day methods of attacking the problem of slime control are explained from engineering, chemical, biological, and economic aspects, and in a hypothetical case there is developed a formula based on average operating results which serves as a basis upon which to determine to what extent a proposed installation will be justified.
Design of High-Capacity Boilers
Authors: Van Brunt John
Published: February 2023

The author briefly reviews the development in designs leading up to the modern high-pressure high-capacity steam-generating unit and shows the limitations of the earlier types that render them unsuited to high-capacity requirements. Problems entering into the design of such units are discussed and curves are incorporated covering certain basic relations. Typical units are shown and the performances of several are included.
Problems in Modern Deep-Well Pumping
Authors: Coberly C. J.
Published: February 2023

The author points out that special problems are involved in pumping oil from wells drilled to depths of 10,000 ft or more. He discusses the limitations of sucker-rod pumping; in lieu of an exact analysis, approximate relations are presented which are both useful in design and in indicating the conditions which must be fulfilled to lift profitable quantities of fluid from this depth.
The Drafting of Steam Locomotives
Authors: Jackson John R.
Published: February 2023

The paper gives a chronological summary of the experiments with and developments of various appliances for obtaining the draft necessary for firing steam locomotives. For the more important of these, test results are given and the advantages and defects are pointed out. This part of the paper concludes with a listing in the order of merit of five of the principal draft devices as tested by the author.

There follows a discussion of the characteristics and limitations of the relationship between exhaust pressure and draft, in the double-engine reciprocating steam locomotive having a single constant-area exhaust nozzle and intercommunicating exhaust passages.

The paper concludes by pointing out how the present standard exhaust nozzles limit the economic working range of locomotives, and suggesting changes in design to give better efficiency and a greater economic working range.
Rotary Oil Meters of the Positive-Displacement and Current Types
Authors: Cloran Everett M.
Published: February 2023

While much research has been done and a corresponding amount of written material presented on discharge coefficients and operating limitations of the orifice and venturi type of meter for oil measurement, little has been presented on the corresponding performance of quantity meters of the displacement and current or impeller classification.

The several types of quantity meters which have found application in the petroleum industry are discussed by the author. The first of these is the displacement meter of the piston type, which has an accuracy essentially independent of the density and viscosity of the liquid measured. A second type in the displacement class is the disk meter, which is critically discussed with respect to accuracy, operating range and rate of flow, and effects of viscosity of the liquid on the accuracy. The third displacement meter discussed is the rotary-vane type which offers a high volumetric efficiency and great accuracy, and is comparable to the piston type with respect to density and viscosity of fluid. In each case, the characteristic accuracy curve of each type of meter is analyzed and the general field of application, together with operating limitations of each meter, are outlined.

The current-type meter receives a more lengthy discussion covering both details of construction and operating characteristics for a type which has been adapted for measuring crude oils. Account is given of test results of oils of viscosity from 60 to 500 seconds Saybolt Universal and the effects of viscosity upon accuracy are analyzed and limitations stated. In general, this type of meter offers the advantage of direct reading of quantity and, in its present state of development, with a degree of accuracy equivalent to, and in some cases better than, measurement with the orifice meter, which is brought out by a comparison of possible accuracy with the square-edge orifice in the region of Reynolds’ number lower than 100,000 and the performance of the oil current meter in the same region. Within the range of 60 to 350 S.S.U. viscosity and over an operating range of 15 per cent to maximum, the current meter shows acceptable accuracy in measurement of oil.
Application of Automatic Control in the Oil Industry
Authors: Bergman Donald J.
Published: February 2023

Automatic-control problems in cracking plants may be taken as typical of those found in the oil industry. The author presents a flow diagram showing the control system of a cracking plant, and discusses the requirements for the various controls. The variables affecting the operation of certain controllers are listed and compound effects resulting from the changes of some of these variables are described. In a cracking plant, location of control points is important in obtaining smooth and responsive control, as is attention to all means for reducing the time required for changes to be detected. The author points out that new chemical processes are being introduced into the oil industry which require still greater attention to control systems, and he emphasizes the fact that a discussion of present oil-refinery practice may offer unusual suggestions to those concerned with similar problems in other industries.
Some Problems Related to the Preparation of Illinois Coals
Authors: McCabe L. C.
Published: February 2023

The author discusses the mixtures of coal and mineral matter from Illinois mines and relates the problems encountered in cleaning them. He points out the need for and the method of separating the coal and refuse, and discusses the losses encountered in coal separation. Attention is called to the reduction of ash and sulphur and to the enhanced heating value of washed coal, the value of which is difficult to overestimate because of the resultant reduction of fly ash and sulphur fumes during burning. The author states that any effort directed toward the reduction of atmospheric pollution by fly ash and sulphur fumes through the use of better prepared fuel should be encouraged.
Cavitation Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps Described by Similarity Considerations
Authors: Wislicenus G. F. , Watson R. M. , Karassik I. J.
Published: February 2023

Similarity considerations of hydraulic pumps and turbines can be obtained by comparing the known hydraulic performance of a given machine with the performance of other machines having geometrically similar waterways. The paper describes the application of this theory to the cavitation performance of centrifugal pumps and related machinery, and also introduces a characteristic parameter which, concerning cavitation performance, has properties similar to the specific speed with respect to other performance characteristics of such machines.
The Kaplan Turbines at Bonneville
Authors: Heslop Paul L. , Jessop George A.
Published: February 2023

The Bonneville project has an initial installation of two 66,000-hp Kaplan turbines designed to operate under heads varying from 30 to 69 ft. Noteworthy features are the physical size of the units, the extensive model tests, pioneering in the use of welded construction, new ideas in auxiliaries, and the care exercised in setting embedded parts.