bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Age Determination of Pacific Chalk Ooze by Radiocarbon and Titanium Content
Authors: Arrhenius G. , Kjellberg G. , Libby W. F.
Published: January 2012

Measurements have been carried out on the average radiocarbon activity of a sediment core of eupelagic chalk ooze and the age of the lower boundary was calculated by integration of the radiocarbon decay function.

In such cores where constancy of the rate of minerogenous accumulation is indicated and can be checked by lateral control, the titanium content, calibrated in terms of absolute age by means of radiocarbon measurement, can be used for dating as far back in time as the constancy of the rate of minerogenous sedimentation can be proved.
Comment on a Note on the Kinetic Energy Balance of Zonal Wind Systems
Authors: Van Mieghem J.
Published: January 2012

Since Kuo’s equation of balaiice of tlie kinetic energy of zonal motion in the atmosphere is of basic importance for the study of the general circulation (KUO 1951), I wish to point out that this equation may be simplified if account is taken of the equation of continuity for the mean motion of the atmosphere.
Symposium on Numerical Forecasting: Simplified Dynamic Models of the Atmosphere, designed for the Purpose of Numerical Weather Prediction
Authors: Eliassen Arnt
Published: January 2012

The properties of several atmospheric models, which have been proposed for the purpose of numerical computation of prognostic maps, are discussed, and a new version of the “2½-dimensional model” is given. It is pointed out that the “barotropic” model is unable to explain adequately the growth of wave perturbations, and that the advective model gives too strong instability for short waves, whereas the two-layer model and the continuous 2½-dimensional model seem to describe almost correctly the behaviour of waves in a baroclinic current.
Numerical Solution of Elliptic Difference Equations by Matrix Methods
Authors: Karlqvist Olle
Published: January 2012

A non-iterative method for solving boundary value problems of elliptic difference equations is developed that is based on the simple structure of the triangular matrices obtained by applying the well-known elimination procedure of Gauss to the matrix of the difference equation. It is proved that the procedure is numerically stable, i. e., there is no tendency to error-growth. The method seems to be particularly suited to such problems as weather forecasting on high-speed computing machines where one has to solve the same equations (e. g., Poisson’s or Helmholtz’s) a great number of times with the same net but different right member and boundary values. The number of stored constants as well as the computational work in the application of the method is only a fractional part of that required when using the inverse matrix (Green’s function). Poisson’s equation for a rectangular region is given a close study, but the method can be applied to irregular regions and to equations of higher order.
Starr’s Invariant
Authors: Platzman George W.
Published: January 2012

In a recent communication to this Journal, STARR 1950) pointed out that for two-dimensional flow of an inviscid incompressible fluid between parallel rigid walls (which coincide, say, with latitude circles) on a sphere, the integral is invariant, and from this, commented on the stability of such flows, in particular on results abtained earher by FJØRTOFT (1950).
Energy Conversions in the Atmosphere on the Scale of the General Circulation
Authors: Van Mieghem Jacques
Published: January 2012

From the equations of balance established for the different forms of energy (potential, kinetic and internal energies), the energy fluxes, the rates of energy production and conversion are deduced. Provided weighted mean values are considered the zonally averaged value of the kinetic energy may be decomposed into kinetic energy of the mean motion and the mean kinetic energy of the large-scale eddies. The corresponding equations of balance are established. The axial symmetry with respect to the earth's axis allows the introduction of the kinetic energy of the zonal motion and of the motion in the meridional planes. Their equations of balance are given. The conversions between the different species of mechanical energies are envisaged and the influence of the inertial stability on the conversion of “meridional” eddy-kinetic energy into “zonal” eddy-kinetic energy is pointed out. The definition of the large-scale eddy diffusion of heat is deduced from the first law of thermodynamics. This definition contains the flux of ≥sensible heat≤ and of ≥latent heat≤ as an approximation. Neglecting viscosity and small-scale turbulence, the general formulas are applied to the large atmospheric disturbances. A tentative formulation of the second law of thermodynamics is given.
The Chemical Denudation of the Soil
Authors: Arrhenius O.
Published: January 2012

The chemical denudation plays a greater role in our climate than the mechanical erosion. The Swedish well waters contain 3–4 times more soluble salts than those rivers which are fed by them. The chemical denudation therefore must be much greater than formerly calculated. A map shows the salt concentration of the well waters of Sweden. The amount of nitrogen accumulated per annum in a district of central Sweden seems to amount to 3–6 kg N per har.
Molecular Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogen Cycle in Nature
Authors: Virtanen Artturi I.
Published: January 2012

The origin of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere is discussed. Evidently only a small proportion of the nitrate- and nitrite-nitrogen found in the precipitation is formed through electric discharges from molecular nitrogen, photochemical nitrogen fixation being probably of greater importance. Formation of nitrate nitrogen through atmospheric oxidation of nitrous oxide (N2O) evaporating from the soil is also considered likely.

Determination of nitrogen compounds at different altitudes is indispensable for gaining information of the N2-fixation in the atmosphere and, in general, of the origin of nitrogen oxides and their decomposition. International co-operation is needed for this as well as for the quantitative determination of the nitrogen compounds removed from the soil by leaching and brought by waters into the seas.
On Temperature Frequency Distribution in the Free Atmosphere and a Proposed Model for Frontal Analysis
Authors: Berggren Roy
Published: January 2012

The possibility of tracing baroclinic fields in the lower stratospherc by nieans of temperature frequency distributions in the main isobaric surfaces is discussed. The existence of a stratospheric front is indicated by the diagrams.
Some Aspects of the Flow of Stratified Fluids: I. A Theoretical Investigation
Authors: Long Robert R.
Published: January 2012

The following paper is the first of a series of two relating to the problem of internal oscillations of a fluid in a gravity field with vertical gradients of density and velocity. The theoretical analysis in this paper will be supplemented by a report on an experimental investigation along the same lines to be published in a future issue of this journal. The exact, steady-state equations of motion and continuity of a perfect liquid moving two-dimensionally, with an arbitrary vertical distribution of density and velocity, are integrated once to yield a second-order differential equation. This equation is examined with regard to uniqueness and stability of the motion. A criterion is developed giving a sufficient condition for the motion to be uniquely determined by the configuration of the topography over which the fluid moves. It appears, further, that the condition of uniqueness is also a condition that a certain integrated quantity, called the kinetic potential of the motion, be a maximum. The suggestion is offered that this may correspond to a form of fluid instability.A detailed study is made in the special cases of a uniform basic velocity, and a certain type of shearing flow. In either case, it is shown that an internal Froudc number of about 1/3 divides the motion into two states, one of which is called supercritical, the other subcritical. From several viewpoints, these regimes are analogous to the corresponding states of flow of water in a channel. In the subcritical state the flow is in the form of standing wave patterns. When flowing supercritically, conditions may be favorable for the formation of internal ≥hydraulic jumps≤.
A New Method of Studying the Fine Structure of Air Movements in the Free Atmosphere
Authors: Warner J. , Bowen E. G.
Published: January 2012

A new method of measurement of the fine structure of air movements in the atmosphere is described. It depends on the use of radar equipment to follow and track the position of freely falling strips of light metal foil which have been distributed by aircraft or balloon in the region under investigation. The method is capable of direct measurement of vertical air velocity, divergence, and the fine structure of wind in the free atmosphere. The results of some preliminary investigations of the method are described.
The Relative Humidity in Radiation Fog
Authors: Best A. C.
Published: January 2012

The relative humidity in radiation fog is governed by the rate at which water condenses onto the hygroscopic nuclei and the rate of fall of temperature. An equation describing this is developed and from this equation it is deduced that, with the usual rates of fall of temperature and salt content of the air, the relative humidity is unlikely to exceed 100.1 per cent.
Computations of Vertical Motion and Vorticity Budget in a Blocking Situation
Authors: Eliassen A. , Hubert W. E.
Published: January 2012

The synoptic situation under study is a blocking situation over Western Europe and the North-Eastern Atlantic. Barotropic tendency computations for the 500 mb surface are carried out and compared with the 12 hour observed height change. Tendency computations are also carried out for the mean height (averaged along the vertical with respect to pressure). The vertical motion compatible with the observed local vorticity changes is computed from the vorticity equation at several levels. The result is in fair agreement with the observed distribution of precipitation and cloudiness. The computations indicate that horizontal divergence and horizontal vorticity advection are of about equal importance in the vorticity budget at 500 mb, whereas the vertical vorticity transport seems to be less important.
On the Formation of Tropical Cyclones
Authors: Syōno S.
Published: January 2012

In the present paper, an attempt is made to obtain dynamically the criterion for formation of tropical cyclones. Main factors important for typhogenesis are vertical thermal instability, horizontal dynamical stability, horizontal and vertical dimensions of perturbations. First the physical picture of a typhogenetical process is given. Secondly a method which enables us to treat the latent instability dynamically, a polytropic change method, is proposed. Thirdly using this method, the perturbation equations for the perturbations of typhoon-type are obtained.–gS/Z2 ≷ 76 n2 r20 develop, natural,Solving these equations, the following criterion for the development of perturbations of typhoon-type is obtainedwhere g, S, Z. n and r0 are gravity acceleration, vertical thermal instability, absolute vorticity, number of loops of perturbations in vertical direction and number which gives horizontal dimension of perturbations in 100 km. The left hand side has a similar form as Richardson number for the formation of turbulence. Fourthly, modes of perturbations are investigated.
Reply
Authors: Ōgiwara S. , Ōkita T.
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir, We thank Dr Birstein for his discussion of our study which was done when we were at Sendai. We studied the nature and origin of condensation nuclei and concluded that the greater part of cloud and fog nuclei are composed of both hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic substances which originate in combustion and that sea-spray was not a significant source of condensation nuclei. It was also shown that the greater part of the hygroscopic substances contained in the nuclei were not pure sulphuric acid.
The Abundance of O18 in Atmospheric Water and Water Vapour
Authors: Dansgaard W.
Published: January 2012

Investigations into the O18-abundance in the precipitation from a warm front reveal a distinct process of fractionation explainable by the unequal pressures of the saturated vapours of H2O16 and H2O18.

An explanation is given of the low O18-abundance in glacial waters.

A method of experimental investigation into the mechanism of the process of precipitation is discussed.
The Cellular Solution of the Dynamical Equations and the Actual Perturbation of the Westerlies up to 16 km at Valentia
Authors: Doporot M.
Published: January 2012

The cellular solution of the linearized hydrodynamical equations requires the existence of nodal surfaces for the perturbation of air density, pressure and velocity components. When a constant, which appears in the formulae giving the heights of the nodal surfaces, is determined from the observed value of one of them, namely, the first nodal surface of the vertical velocity, all the other heights of nodal surfaces agree within reasonable limits with the heights determined from actual observations by several investigators using very different methods. More than 400 upper wind ascents reaching at least 16 km made by radio wind or radar methods at Valentia Observatory, have been classified according to the sign of the change of pressure at 8 km during the 12 hours prior to the ascent, and average values of the meridional and zonal components of the wind have been computed. The difference at each level between the corresponding average components of the wind when the pressure has increased and when the pressure has decreased gives a good approximation to double the value of the horizontal perturbation of the Westerlies. Applied to this case, the cellular solution requires that the zonal component of the perturbation so determined should be zero at all levels while the meridional component should have nodal surfaces at 4 and 12 km. The observations show that the zonal component is the one having nodal surfaces at the required levels while the meridional component has a maximum value at about 9 km. Taking into account that the equations refer to a single-layer atmosphere and neglect the meridional gradient of temperature, the disagreement between observation and theory appears to be less significant than the confirmation of the existence of nodal surfaces which cannot be explained by the generally accepted exponential solution of the dynamical equations.
The Use of Normals in Numerical Forecasting
Authors: Scorer R. S.
Published: January 2012

If there exists, in the spectrum of fluctuations of weather, a period of relatively low amplitude, and if a set of normal values of the right kind can be defined, then dynamical equations for the behaviour of the atmosphere can be used for the numerical prediction of charts meaned over the period of low amplitude.
A Quantitative Prognostic Method for Thickness Charts using Advective Tendencies
Authors: Duvedal T.
Published: January 2012

A method is presented for the use of upper winds to construct a chart for the horizontal distribution of advective tendencies in the layer 1000–500 mb. A 24-hour prognostic thicknesschart can then be constructed from these advective tendencies. The method has been tested in a few weather situations in Europe, especially the one of Jan. 30–Feb. 2, 1953.
Three Detailed Cross-Sections of the Gulf Stream
Authors: Worthington L. V.
Published: January 2012

Three sections across the Gulf Stream in which deep temperature and salinity observations were made close intervals show that comparably large values of surface current velocity are obtained from at dynamic computations, the Geomagnetic-Electrokinetograph (G.E.K.) and from navigational data. The dynamic computations indicate that the crosscurrent slope of the isobaric surfaces is uneven, resulting theoretically in three or four zones of high velocity separated by zones of lower velocity. The navigational and GEK measurements do not clearly reflect this picture. It is suggested that the unevenness of the slopes of the isobaric surfaces is related to the surface temperature discontinuities observed in the Gulf Stream by von Arx and Richardson (1953) from aircraft, and that the Stream is composed of overlapping, discontinuous currents at all levels.
Report on an informal conference in atmospheric chemistry held at the Meteorological Institute, University of Stockholm, May 24—26, 1954
Authors: Eriksson E.
Published: January 2012

In October 1952 a small conference was held at the Institute of Meteorology of the University of Stockholm to discuss research problems in cloud physics. At that time a first attempt was made to focus the attention of meteorologists on the important role played by the general atmospheric circulation in the transport and redistribution of certain chemical elements which are of interest to cloud physicists but also, though for somewhat different reasons, to such diverse groups as students of agronomy, of atmospheric pollution and of general geochemistry.
The Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between the North Atlantic Ocean and the Atmosphere
Authors: Dingle A. Nelson
Published: January 2012

An approximate distribution of carbon dioxide exchange rates between the atmosphere and the North Atlantic Ocean is obtained for each month of the year on the basis of oceanographic data from Böhnecke’s Atlas and the assumption that atmospheric carbon dioxide maintains uniformly the volume percentage of .03. The results indicate the direction in which such an even volume percentage must be changed to approach equilibrium.

Aside from other influences, the ocean-atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide and the trajectories of tropospheric air masses combine to produce high carbon dioxide content in mT and cP air and low carbon dioxide content in mP air. Since water vapor is at a minimum in the continental polar anticyclones during the polar night, the carbon dioxide probably serves as an effective inhibitor of the outgoing infrared radiation. This inhibiting effect may well serve to limit the intensity of cooling during an ice age; it probably has much less significance during inter-glacial periods.
Die Entstehung einer Höhenzyklone über Nordamerika
Authors: Kleinschmidt E.
Published: January 2012

The existence of a high-level cyclone always depends on masses of increased potential vorticity in the upper troposphere. The origin of those masses is studied in a single case of cut-off. It is found that the upper part of them comes from the polar stratosphere, while the lower part consists of tropospheric air. Both from the vorticity equation and from the single wind observations, the existence of a non-conservative force results, parallel and south to the jet-stream. This force can be regarded as the immediate cause of the cut-off. An explanation of the force is not attempted.
Model Experiments on Aurorae and Magnetic Storms
Authors: Block L.
Published: January 2012

Model experiments on Alfvén’s electric field theory of aurorae and magnetic storms have been performed. The transformation laws from nature to model are considered. It is concluded, that a proper scaling down of every detail in nature is not possible. Only the most significant features are scaled down properly. It is shown, that a mechanism like Alfvén’s proposed auroral mechanism is very likely to be present in the model. In particular the conception seems to be experimentally confirmed, that space charge accumulated in the discharge region rather than destroy the whole pattern of motion, discharges along the magnetic field lines.
On the Electric Field Theory of Magnetic Storms and Aurorae
Authors: Alfvén H.
Published: January 2012

The electric field theory is discussed and further developed. The basic assumption of the theory is that the sun emits beams of rarified ionized gas which are electrically polarized. The electric field of the beam produces a discharge of Malmfors-Block's type around the earth. At the same time the electric field produces a variation in the Cosmic Ray intensity. The theoretical treatment starts by an analysis of the motion of charged particles in the equatorial plane of the earth under the action of the electric field. This phenomenon is supposed to be of basic importance. The motion produces space charge in certain regions. This charge is supposed to leave the equatorial plane along the magnetic lines of force. These two basic assumptions, which are supported by the model experiments, lead to a theory which gives a fairly good picture of magnetic storms and aurorae. In the earlier presentation of the theory the inertia of the beam was neglected. The theory gave a description of the main phase of a storm. The motion in the equatorial plane produces a clockwise ring current at about 7 earth-radii from which a discharge to the auroral zones takes place. In the present paper also the inertia of the beam is taken into account. The result is that a second ring current is produced, which flows anti-clockwise at about 30 earth-radii. This current which seems to account for the initial phase of a storm, should be associated with an “inner auroral zone” with a polar distance of 5°—10°. The importance of observing aurorae and magnetic disturbances in this region is stressed.
Restriction of the Underflow in a Transition
Authors: Kullenberg B.
Published: January 2012

Bernoulli’s Theorem is applied to the problem of the control of salinity in an estuary by a transition.
Instability Criteria and Growth of Baroclinic Disturbances
Authors: Fleagle Robert G.
Published: January 2012

The instability criterion and the rate of growth of long baroclinic disturbances in horizontally uniform zonal flow is derived for a sloping streamsurface. Both quantities are expressed by one explicit and simple function. Unstable disturbances are characterized by upward motion toward the cold air and downward motion toward the warm air. The slope of the streamsurface is eliminated, and the growth equation is compared with the results of other studies. The maximum rate of growth is small enough to indicate that numerical prediction of the development of baroclinic disturbances is practicable. Other results are that long waves may occur in a baroclinic atmosphere above a flat earth as well as above a spherical earth and that on a spherical earth unstable disturbances occur only north of a critical latitude.
Note on Simple Assumptions Regarding the Baroclinic Structure of the Atmosphere
Authors: Saltzman Barry
Published: January 2012

In a series of recent articles (STARR 1953, LORENZ 1953, PFEFFER and SALTZMAN 1954) ‘local’ angular momentum has been used as a basic physical parameter in the study of atmospheric flow.
Results of Detailed Synoptic Studies of Squall Lines
Authors: Fujita Tetsuya
Published: January 2012

A system of synoptic analysis on a mesometeorological scale has been developed through the combined use of space and time sections applied to all regular and special stations in an area 500 by 900 mi. in the Central United States. Two periods of development of large thunderstorm areas are analyzed. In both of these periods tornadoes occurred. The synoptic model of a squall line in this scale involves three principal features of the pressure field—the pressure surge, the thunderstorm high and the wake depression. Another feature, called the tornado cyclone, accompanies tornado funnels. Divergence values of 10 to 60 · 10−5 sec −1 over areas of 100 to 10,000 sq. mi. are measured. The mesosynoptic disturbances greatly influence the situation as viewed on the regular synoptic scale, which is about 10 times the meso-scale, and make conventional analysis hopelessly difficult.
The Role of the Gulf Stream in the Prediction of Iceberg Distribution in the North Atlantic
Authors: Post Louis A.
Published: January 2012

A twenty-six year correlation is made between the yearly frequency fluctuations of icebergs south of the 48th parallel and the preseasonal sea surface temperature anomalies at Key West in the Straits of Florida and those of the Labrador Current three years later.

Good agreement among these variables is attributed to (1) the immediate effect of the relative strength of the Gulf Stream in barring the southward flow of bergs, and (2) the effect that varying strength of the Gulf Stream has upon the volume of warm water that escapes to the north, the effect in turn upon the rate of transport of icebergs, and the potential number eventually to be carried into the shipping lanes.

An iceberg prediction table is offered, making possible a prediction for the current year by using the sea temperature anomaly at Key West for March of this year together with the anomaly of three years earlier.

“The opinions and assertions contained herein are the private ones of the author and do not reflect the views of the Navy Department or the Naval Establishment.”
The Cosmic Ray Increase on February 23, 1956
Authors: Sandström Arne Eld , Eckhartt Dieter
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir, The increase in cosmic radiation on February 23rd, 1956 was registered in Stockholm, geomagn. lat. 58° N, geograph. long. 18.0° E, as well as in Kiruna, geomagn. lat 65° N, geograph. long. 20.4° E. In Stockholm a set of 4-channel directional counter telescopes mounted for the zenith, north, and south directions (30° zenith angle) at an elevation of 46 m delivered three records (Z, N, and S in the left part of the figure).
Numerical Integration of Geomagnetic Field Lines
Authors: Block L. , Herlofson N.
Published: January 2012

123 geomagnetic field lines have been integrated by an electronic computer, taking into account also the quadrupole terms of the potential. A table gives the coordinates of the two points of intersection, one in the northern and one in the southern hemisphere, between the earth’s surface and each calculated field line.
Carbon Dioxide Variations in the Atmosphere
Authors: Fonselius Stig , Koroleff Folke , Wärme Karl-Erik
Published: January 2012

The Scandinavian CO2-sampling in 1955 is described. The mean results for the calendar year are given. Earlier CO2-measurements are discussed and a figure showing most of these values is given. The theory of Callendar is discussed and the Scandinavian values are compared with Callendar's. The seasonal variations at the Scandinavian stations are compared and the results discussed. The possibility of drawing synoptic maps is discussed and one example is shown. The desirability of systematic CO2-measurements on a global scale is emphasized.
Recent Investigations in Air Chemistry
Authors: Junge Christian E.
Published: January 2012

New results of chemical analyses of natural aerosol particles in Florida and in the Boston area are presented. These data are compared with the results obtained earlier at various other locations. The continental and maritime components of NH4, Na2, Cl, SO4, and NO3 can be separated for two different size ranges, viz. large particles (radius 0.08 μ to 0.8 μ) and giant particles (radius 0.8 μ to 8 μ). It is found that the continental influence on aerosols extends far into the ocean. The nitrate content of the particles presents an especially interesting problem, since it appears that the major part of NO3 stems neither from a continental nor from a maritime source, but from a certain area along the coast. A comparison is made of the total amounts of material found in the large and the giant particles of the various locations. Information gained from this comparison provides the basis for conclusions regarding the size distribution of aerosols. A pronounced difference between maritime and continental distributions becomes evident in this case. The concentration of the corresponding gas traces of NH3, SO2, nitrogen oxides and chlorine components were measured in Florida and at other locations simultaneously with the chemical analysis of the aerosols. For most components the concentration of these gas traces is considerably higher than that for the corresponding substances in the aerosols. The importance of these findings for air chemistry is discussed.
A Relation between Meteor Showers and the Rainfall of November and December
Authors: Bowen E. G.
Published: January 2012

An examination is made of the November and December rainfall of approximately 300 stations distributed over the globe. Six singularities are found, five of which occur about 30 days after prominent meteor showers. This result is similar to one which has already been reported for the month of January. The remaining singularity on November 26 could be due to a daylight meteor stream from the direction of Virgo which has just been discovered in the Southern Hemisphere.

One of the better known meteor showers during the period investigated, namely the Giacobinids is known to have an orbital period of 6.6 years. A similar recurrence tendency is found in the rainfall 30 days later.
Differences in Numerical Prognoses Resulting from Differences in Analyses
Authors: Best William H.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes differences in numerical 500 mb prognoses, using the barotropic model, which result from different analyses of the same initial chart. Three synoptic cases are investigated, comparing the results of using routine analyses made by the Deutscher Wetterdienst, Frankfurt, Germany and the Royal Swedish Air Force Weather Service, Stockholm, Sweden.
An Experimental Study of the Field Variation of the Eddy Conductivity
Authors: Nyberg Alf , Raab Lars
Published: January 2012

By means of thermistors the temperature field is measured in cold air from the sea entering a strongly heated arid surface. The temperature at 1 m level at first increases and then decreases when the air moves further inland. From these measurements the field of the coefficients of eddy conductivity is calculated. The result shows that the eddy conductivity not only increases upwards but also in the horizontal direction being 3–4 times larger half a km from the shoreline than at the sea. In the Appendix a formula is deduced for determining the coefficient of eddy conductivity. In doing this the definition of Az is somewhat modified considering the fact that the scales of temperature and potential temperature may differ, the difference depending upon the reference pressure of the potential temperature. The error of neglecting the effect of the reference pressure of the potential temperature in the definition of Az is discussed.
The Electrification of Individual Cloud Droplets
Authors: Twomey S.
Published: January 2012

The results of some observations of the electric charges carried by individual cloud elements are described. Measurable charges were found on many droplets, and a reversal of polarity was observed which appeared to be associated with the presence of ice particles. The different mechanisms of charging are discussed in the light of the experimental results, and reference is made to the possible significance of droplet electrification in the precipitation process.
Herdmechanische Vorgänge bei einigen zirkumpazifischen Erdbeben
Authors: Mühlhäuser Siegfried
Published: January 2012

Earthquake mechan'sms can be determined by a method given by P. Byerly and later developed by J. H. Hodgson and his collaborators. By a comparison with the tectonics of the earthquake region, it is possible in most cases to decide which of the two nodal planes represents the fault plane. As a certain arbitrariness cannot be avoided, also the stikes of the auxiliary planes have been given. If the arrows, indicating the direction of motion, have been drawn perpendicularly to the fault plane, this may mean that no auxiliary plane could be determined.

The mechanisms have been determined for 11 earthquakes in the years 1931–1950 in the Pacific area. It results that there is no general rule for the mechanisms, although the strikes of the fault planes in general coincide with the Circum-Pacific structural lines. The dip of the fault plane is as small as 31° in one case (earthquake no. 7), whereas the dip for the other cases is at least twice as large. Most of the earthquakes have a very large dip of the fault plane, in the range 70–88°. Dip values above 80° are especially frequent. The cases with smaller dip are localized to the north and northwest part of the Circum-Pacific belt.

The coastal earthquake belts of Central and South America exhibit a normal dip of the fault plane under the continent; this is also true for the northwest part of the Circum-Pacific belt. The conditions are similar at the southeast coast of Kamchatka, in Alaska, in western part of the Aleutians, and in the area between the Loyalty Islands and New Hebrides. In the other cases the fault plane dips toward the Pacific.

In northwestern Pacific belt the motions are often perpendicular to the strikes of the fault planes, whereas in the other areas the vertical motions are combined with horizontal displacements.

The number of observations for a single earthquake varies between 22 and 47. A few earthquakes in the Alpide belt have also been investigated, and comparisons with the results of other authors (A. R. Ritsema, 1955; A. N. Tandon, 1955) showed good agreement in spite of the fact that these authors have used 4–5 times as many observations. In a particularly favourable case (Hindu Kush, Jan. 9, 1933), 14 reliable observations of the initial motion of P waves gave the same result as 7 times as many observations, used by Ritsema. Nevertheless, as many reliable observations as possible should be used for earthquake mechanism studies.
Experiments on the Effect of Inhomogeneity and Obliquity of a Magnetic Field in Inhibiting Convection
Authors: Lehnert B. , Little N. C.
Published: January 2012

Two experiments are described on the inhibition of convection in a magnetic field. In the first experiment a layer of mercury is placed in an inhomogeneous magnetic field and heated from below. Photographs show convection where the field is weak, but indicate no motion where the field is strong. The boundary between these two regions corresponds to a critical magnetic field in agreement with current theory. The boundary is well defined showing that the onset of convection is sensitive to variations in the magnetic field. In the second experiment with a homogeneous field, varied in direction from vertical to horizontal, it is the vertical component which controls the onset of motion. A strong horizontal field does not inhibit convection but causes motion in narrow cells elongated in the direction of the field.
Total Mineral Material, Acidity, Sulphur and Nitrogen in Rain and Snow at Kentville, Nova Scotia
Authors: Herman F. A. , Gorham E.
Published: January 2012

Analyses of total ash, sulphur, pH, ammonia and nitrate nitrogen have been made on 23 monthly precipitation samples and 17 individual snow samples collected between June 1952 and May 1954 at Kentville, Nova Scotia, in a predominantly agricultural area. Mean annual supply of total mineral ash was 95 kg/ha, of sulphur 9.1 kg/ha, of ammonia nitrogen 2.8 kg/ha, and of nitrate nitrogen 1.1 kg/ha. Average pH was 5.7, and rains more acid than this exhibited higher levels of both nitrate and sulphur, and a marked correlation between the latter and ammonia.

Snow samples had much lower concentrations of ash, sulphur and nitrogen than rain samples collected in the same months, which may perhaps indicate a lower efficiency of snow flakes in removing materials from the atmosphere.
On the Distribution of Sea Salt over the United States and its Removal by Precipitation
Authors: Junge Chr. E. , Gustafson P. E.
Published: January 2012

Average maps for summer and winter of the distribution of chloride concentration in rain water over the United States are presented, and an attempt is made to explain them quantitatively. From various considerations, it must be concluded that the essential features of these maps – the drop in the Cl− concentration along the coast and a constant level inland – are determined by large scale vertical mixing in the troposphere rather than by washout. Large scale washout appears to be rather inefficient, so that even large and hygroscopic particles, such as sea spray, can move across continents without being effectively removed from the atmosphere.
Suppression of Evaporation from Snow-Fields
Authors: Groth Kjell
Published: January 2012

An outline is given of the possibilities to utilize surface films for the suppression of evaporation from snow surfaces. Special measures must be taken to ensure the spreading of the films at the low temperatures in question. Preliminary laboratory and field experiments demonstrate the effect of fatty alcohol films on snow, but definite conclusions as to the ultimate possibilities of the methods and feasibility of their application on a large scale cannot yet be drawn.
Note on the Self-sustained Oscillations of a Simple Thermal System
Authors: Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

Some years ago the author carried out some convection experiments in which a U-shaped narrow tube with water was heated from below and cooled from above. At one occasion, when the ends of the tube were connected with two open water reservoirs (Fig. I), it was observed that the free surface of the reservoirs did raise and lower in a periodic manner, indicating an oscillatory flow through the tube.
Electric Charge Separation in Subfreezing Cumuli
Authors: Twomey S.
Published: January 2012

It is shown that charges may be separated in large cumuli as a result of negative charging of growing ice particles by collision with supercooled droplets. The magnitude of the effect has been calculated and it has been shown that charges comparable to those involved in thunderstorms can develop, providing the water content and updraught velocity in a cloud are high. The hypotheses lead to conclusions which agree, qualitatively and quantitatively, with the known physical characteristics of thunderclouds.
A Note on Verification of Prognostic Charts
Authors: Petterssen Sverre
Published: January 2012

In recent forecasting experiments it has been customary to verify the prognostic charts by computing the correlation coefficients between the observed and redicted pressure changes. The justification has been that correlations between predicted and observed pressures would not correctly reflect skill, since in many cases high correlations would result from persistence.
Experiments in Numerical Forecasting, Using Space-Smoothed Fields
Authors: Sigtryggsson Hlynur , Wiin-Nielsen Aksel
Published: January 2012

A number of experiments in numerical forecasting using a technique based on the theory developed by Fjörtoft have been performed.

Section A contains the results of making barotropic 500 mb forecasts for 24 and 48 hours where the vorticity is advected in a space-smoothed field held constant in 12 or 24 hours. The results indicate that the forecasts in the mean are slightly less accurate as measured by the correlation coefficient between computed and observed changes. It is pointed out that the root mean square of the computed changes is smaller than for ordinary barotropic forecasts, especially for a large area.

Section B contains the results of an experiment to forecast the thickness field between 1,000 and 500 mb. The forecasts are based on the theory developed by Fjörtoft (1955). The flow at 500 mb has, however, in these forecasts been forecast with the barotropic model. The errors in these forecasts are of the same order of magnitude as in the barotropic forecasts. In the last part it is tried to relate the errors to physical defects of the model, especially the assumption of adiabatic motion.
Some Observations of Sea-Salt Nuclei in Hawaii during Project Shower
Authors: Squires P. , Twomey S.
Published: January 2012

One of the aims of Project Shower was to determine the salt content of trade-wind air as it crossed the coast of Hawaii and again as it passed through the Saddle beyond the windward and dissipating edge of the orographic cloud layer, in the hope that it might be possible to strke a “salt budget” in conjunction with the measurements of rainfall amounts and salinities carried out by other observers. Sea-salt nucleus distributions over the sea were regularly measured by WOODCOCK (communicated), but regular measurements in the Saddle area were not possible.
Condensation Nuclei in the Vicinity of the Island of Hawaii
Authors: Blanchard D. C. , Spencer A. T.
Published: January 2012

Condensation nucleus counts made in the maritime trade-wind air in the vicinity of the island of Hawaii have been found to average from 140 to 500 nuclei cc−1. The addition of nuclei to the air by industrial processes on the island of Hawaii and their transport by land breezes and variable winds can produce a complex spatial distribution of the nuclei.
Hydrodynamical Methods of the Short- and Long-Range Weather Forecasting in the USSR
Authors: Blinova E. N. , Kibel I. A.
Published: January 2012

I. The development of the hdrodynamical methods for short-range weather forecasting was initiated more than 15 years ago, when the possibility was demonstrated of resolving the problem by means of the expansion in powers of the small parameter that multiplies time derivatives in the equation of motion.
Velocity of E-region HF echoes under strongly-driven electrojet conditions
Authors: Gorin J. D. , Koustov A. V. , Makarevich R. A. , -Maurice J.-P. St. , Nozawa S.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. Data collected by the Stokkseyri SuperDARN HF radar simultaneously at short and far ranges are used to investigate the relationship between the velocity of E-region HF echoes, E×B electron drift and the isothermal ion-acoustic speed CS. The work targets large E×B drifts of >1000 m s−1 and observations predominantly along the flow. By considering the EISCAT temperature and electric field data, an empirical relationship between the E×B drift velocity and CS is established for a number of ionospheric heights. For the Stokkseyri HF radar beams oriented roughly along the E×B direction, the observed E-region HF velocities are consistent with the CS values at the bottom of the electrojet but not at its center. For a subset of the data with smooth and consistent velocity variation with the beam azimuth at both short and far radar ranges the velocity varies according to the cosine law. For the E-region echoes, the proportionality coefficient in the cosine law is consistent with the CS values at the bottom of the electrojet. For these events, the E-region velocity maximum is shown to be between the E×B and electric field directions. The statistically average shift is ~20° and it increases slightly with the E×B magnitude.
Thermosensitive chitosan hydrogel for implantable drug delivery: Blending PVA to mitigate body response and promote bioavailability
Authors: Sun Jiali , Jiang Guoqiang , Wang Yujie , Ding Fuxin
Published: January 2012

Thermosensitive hydrogels promise to be the injectable implants for long‐term controlled drug release; however, body response to the implanted hydrogels and its unpredictable impacts on drug release complicates their applications. In the present study, hydrophilic polymer poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) was blended into the thermosensitive hydrogel composed of chitosan and glycerophosphate to mitigate the body responses and promote the drug bioavailability. The effects of PVA on the surface properties of the hydrogel were evaluated by zeta‐potential, water contact angle, and cell attachment. Body responses were explored by histological examination via subcutaneously implanting the hydrogels into Sprague‐Dawley rats. Drug release in vivo and bioavailability were determined with cyclosporine A (CsA) employed as the model drug. The results showed that, on one hand, the presence of PVA improved the surface hydrophilicity of the hydrogel and inhibited the cell attachment on the hydrogel, which alleviated the further cell infiltration and tissue integration in body; and on the other hand, blending of PVA led to the more rapid gel formation and more compact network, which resisted the dehydration and survived the hydrogel from cell division. These advantages benefited the controlled release and absorption of CsA, and contributed to the higher drug bioavailability. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012
Analysis of melt spinning master‐curves of low density polyethylene
Authors: Liang Ji‐Zhao , Zhong Lei , Wang Kejian
Published: January 2012

The extensional rheological properties of a low density polyethylene (LDPE) melt were studied by using melt spinning technique. Based on the extension properties of the LDPE melt under experimental conditions, the melt spinning master‐curves were plotted by introducing scaling factor b and the draw ratio λ. The scaling factor b shows the combination effects on the preorientation before extension, the unwrapping and orientation of molecular chains during extension. Several linear relationships between b and temperature, log b and the logarithm of extrusion flow rate v0 (log v0) have been investigated. By using the values of b and the reference curve, the extension viscosity curves with different temperature and extrusion flow rate could be calculated, thus the measurement range of melt spinning technique would be extended effectively. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012
Expression of Glial Cell Line‐Derived Neurotrophic Factor and its Receptors in Cultured Retinal Müller Cells Under High Glucose Circumstance
Authors: Zhu Xinping , Sun Yan , Wang Zhongping , Cui Weigang , Peng Yuwen , Li Ruixi
Published: January 2012

This study aimed to explore the effect of high glucose concentration on the expression of glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and its family ligand receptors (GFRs) GFRα1 and GFRα2 in Müller cells and the protective role of GDNF in cultured Müller cells under high glucose circumstance. Cultured Müller cells (untreated or treated with 200 ng/mL of GDNF) were exposed to high glucose conditions (20 mmol/L glucose). We found that the expression levels of GDNF and GFRα1 mRNA and protein increased gradually over time under high glucose and exogenous GDNF‐treated conditions, whereas the upregulation in GFRα2 expression was observed only in the early stage of high glucose conditions. Exogenous GDNF not only decreased apoptosis in cultured Müller cells under high glucose circumstance, but also accelerated the levels and speed of synthesis of GDNF and GFRα1 proteins in Müller cells. These results suggest that Müller cells can synthesize GDNF and GFRs under high glucose conditions, and GDNF may play important role in protecting Müller cells during the early stage of diabetic retinopathy. The difference in GFRs expression indicated that GDNF and neurturin may exert different effects on Müller cells under high glucose circumstance. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.