bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reply
Authors: Wexler Harry
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir, Mr Mellor suggests that evaporation can play a significant role in the over-all loss of Antarctic ice. The direct measurement of evaporation from any natural surface is difficult and published values must be viewed with caution. This is particularly true over snow surfaces where, with few exceptions (e.g., SVERDRUP, 1936) the careful vertical gradient measurements required for accurate computations have not been made.
The Helicoidal Structures in the Cosmical Electrodynamics
Authors: Akasofu Syun-Ichi
Published: January 2012

The general-type solution of the equation [curl(curl H × H)] = 0 are studied in the cylindrical systems, according to Lundquist's and Chandrasekhar’s methods. In general, the magnetic fields are of helicoidal type in the cylindrical systems. Several examples are studied in the cosmical fields.
On the Theory of Convective Currents
Authors: Haltiner G. J.
Published: January 2012

A theory of steady state, saturated, convective currents is presented which includes the transfer of heat and momentum by lateral diffusion as well as the systematic entrainment of environmental air. The system of equations governing the behavior of such convective currents is derived and numerically integrated for a variety of initial and environmental conditions. In agreement with basic physical principles, it is found that the cloud height, mass, vertical velocity, temperature excess over the environment, and liquid water content all increase with increasing (a) initial temperature, (b) environmental relative humidity, and (c) environmental lapse rate; but all decrease as the diffusion coefficient increases. Also the cloud height, vertical velocity, temperature excess, and liquid water content increase with increasing initial velocity: however, the total mass of air decreases with increasing initial velocity, reflecting a lower rate of entrainment.

Even with frictional drag in the form of momentum loss by diffusion, the updraft overshoots the level of zero buoyancy in the upper part of the cloud, giving rise to cloud temperatures at the cloud top which may be several degrees colder than the environment.

When applied to an upper-air sounding taken near the time and location of a thunderstorm, the model gives the right order of magnitude for the cloud height, vertical velocity, and temperature excess over environment for a diffusion coefficient of k1 = .001 sec–1. While the life cycle of a convective cloud is certainly not a steady-state phenomenon, the theory probably affords a fair approximation of the convective cloud during the updraft stage.
Anisotropies in Cosmic Radiation
Authors: Dattner A.
Published: January 2012

The anisotropy of the cosmic radiation outside the geomagnetic field is discussed and related to various processes in the interplanetary gas. Special attention is given to the effect of the density gradient in the cosmic ray distribution, to the earth's orbital motion and to the motion of the interplanetary gas in the solar system.
On the Frequency Response of Some Different Models Describing the Transient Exchange of Matter between the Atmosphere and the Sea
Authors: Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

A theoretical study is made of the response characteristics of two “box-models” and two continous models of the sea which could describe an air-sea exchange of matter. It is demonstrated quantitatively that the box-model can depict a transient exchange process correctly only when the time of internal mixing of the sea is small compared to a certain “transfer time”. Comparing the two continous models studied, one of which assumes a purely diffusive sea and the other a purely advective sea, one finds some interesting differences in the responce characteristics.
Evaporation of Boric Acid from Sea Water
Authors: Gast James A. , Thompson Thomas G.
Published: January 2012

Previous investigators have shown that the boron-chlorinity ratios of rain waters are many times greater than the boron-chlorinity ratio of sea water. The presence of boron in the atmosphere has been attributed to sea spray, volcanic activity, accumulation in dust, evaporation from plants, and industrial pollution. In this paper data are presented to demonstrate that boric acid in sea water has a vapor pressure at ordinary temperatures of the sea and, when sea water evaporates, boric acid occurs in the condensate of the water vapor. It is postulated that, while some of the boron in the atmosphere can be attributed to the sources mentioned above, most of the boric acid results from evaporation from the sea.
The Oceanic Thermocline
Authors: Robinson Allan , Stommel Henry , Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

Each of the two following papers attempts to provide a theoretical framework for explaining the oceanic thermocline, and the associated thermohaline circulation of the ocean. They were developed independently, and then the authors exchanged copies of their papers.
The Dependence of Artificial Radioactivity in Rain on Rainfall Rate
Authors: Bleichrodt J. F. , Blok Joh. , Dekker R. H. , Lock C. J. H.
Published: January 2012

The artificial radioactivity in rain was measured as a function of rainfall rate. As a rule an inverse relationship was found between the specific activity and the rate of rainfall. A tentative explanation is given.
Dynamical Prediction of the Arctic Circulation
Authors: Estoque Mariano A.
Published: January 2012

The results of a series of experimental forecasts of the 500 and 1,000 mb flow patterns over the Arctic during January 1956 are discussed. The forecasts were made by integrating graphically the equations of a simple baroclinic mode. A summary of the performance of the model and an analysis of the errors are presented; some characteristics of the Arctic circulation are deduced from these error patterns. In general, the results suggest that the model is capable of producing useful forecasts over the Arctic.
The Relation of Air Mass Structure to the Field of Motion over the Eastern North Pacific Ocean in Summer
Authors: Neiburger M.
Published: January 2012

The normal structure of the inversion over the eastern North Pacific Ocean in summer is presented, and its relationship to the normal fields of horizontal and vertical motion is discussed. An example in which the field of motion deviated markedly from the normal is presented. The relatively large change in the motion had comparatively small influence on the temperature structure.
Some Problems on Poisson’s Ratio in the Earth‘s Crust
Authors: Nishimura Eiichi , Kamitsuki Akra , Kishimoto Yoshimichi
Published: January 2012

Instead of the time-distance graph, the P-S diagram is effectively employed to estimate the value of Poisson’s ratio in the earth’s crust. This diagram is advantageous, especially to detect its local anomaly or distribution. The obtained results are as follows:

Applying this method to eighteen earthquakes occurring in south-western Japan, the domain with anomalously large Poisson’s ratio was found in the Kyushu district. This hints to the possibility of an existence of a local magmatic reservoir.

The azimuthal distribution of the crustal Poisson’s ratio in case of earthquake occurrence was investigated and it was found to be considerably different in the push- and pull-zone of initial seismic motion. This may be related to the state of stress accumulation causing the earthquake occurrence.
pCO2 in Sea Water and its Effect on the Movement of CO2 in Nature
Authors: Kanwisher John
Published: January 2012

A method is described for measuring pCO2 in sea water. A gas phase is analyzed continuously by infrared absorption for CO2 while it is equilibrated gently with the water in a countercurrent column. It has been used to determine the changes in pCO2 produced by variations of temperature and total CO2. Partial pressure shows large changes for small increments in these two independent variables. These properties of sea water are useful in estimating the movement of CO2 between the atmosphere and oceans. It appears, for instance, that most of the fossil fuel CO2 released by man has been effective in increasing the percentage of this gas in air.
The Numerical Calculation of Wind Effect on Sea Level Elevations
Authors: Uusitalo S.
Published: January 2012

An iteration method has been developed which uses finite differences for calculating water level elevation and water transport. To this end, the equations of motion were integrated over the depth and transformed into an implicit difference equation system. The equations were solved by the aid of an electronic computer. Two main cases were calculated, and in one instance the water levels were checked with the real ones.
The Dynamics of Flow on a Submarine Ridge
Authors: Bowden K. F.
Published: January 2012

The equations of motion are developed in a form appropriate to flow parallel to a uniformly sloping bottom. Some cases of two-layer flow are considered in which the flow is concentrated in the lower layer, as in the overflow over a submarine ridge.Whereas in the absence of friction such currents would tend to follow the contours of the bottom, the effect of bottom friction is to deflect the current to the downslope side of the contours. Numerical solutions show that in some cases the angle of deflection might be as large as 30°, but in most circumstances it is probably less, of the order of 5° or 10°. An indication is given of how the theory may be applied to the case of density varying continuously with depth, as in a real ocean. Some general conchions, which are relevant to the interpretation of observational data, are drawn.
The Effects of Thermal Stratification on Turbulent Diffusion from a Continuous Fixed Source
Authors: Kao S.-K.
Published: January 2012

The similarity principle is employed to determine the maximum velocity of the vertical propagation of a diffusing smoke flowing from a continuous fixed source in a stratified fluid. With the use of the velocity profile (KAO, 1959) for a stratified fluid the profile of the boundaries of the smoke plume is evaluated numerically for various values of the stability parameter s0 = kgz0Q (cp ̄ϱT̄)–1 u*–3μ. It is shown that the spreading of a smoke plume generally increases with increasing heat flux from the boundary surface.
Palaeonlagnetism of Some Devonian Rock Formations in Australia
Authors: Green Ronald
Published: January 2012

From southern New South Wales a palaeomagnetic survey of rocks whose ages are Upper Silurian — Lower Devonian, Middle Devonian and Upper Devonian has been made. The rock types include the Canberra Volcanics and Porphyries, the Murrumbidgee Sandstones and the Nethercote Basalts. Throughout these formations and irrespective of the rock type the directions of magnetization are remarkably uniform. The low inclination of the direction of remanent magnetization indicate that throughout this period Australia lay 10–15° away from the equator, the pole lying in the South Atlantic. Evidence for stability of the rocks is as follows: (1) their uniformity of direction, (2) the deviation from the present geomagnetic and dipole fields, (3) the presence of normal and reversely magnetized rocks. These data lend support to the belief that south-eastern Australia experienced tropical conditions during the Devonian.
On the Interactions between the Long Baroclinic Waves and the Mean Zonal Flow
Authors: Eliasen E.
Published: January 2012

The development of wave motions in a jet-like westerly current is examined on the basis of approximate solutions for the wave motions in a two-level, quasi-geostrophic model. Solutions of the characteristic-value equations show that two different types of amplifying waves may exist. Both types of amplifying wave motions are connected with a transformation of potential energy to kinetic energy. One of the types is found to be connected with a significant transfer of perturbation kinetic energy to mean zonal kinetic energy. Changes of the mean zonal flow caused by the eddy meridional transport of sensible heat and momentum are computed, and demonstrate the existence and the effects of the forced mean meridional circulations. Considerations of the modifications of the generation of perturbation energy connected with the modifications of the mean zonal flow indicate that the actual motion will have the character of a fluctuating state.
On the problem of truncation error
Authors: Wurtele M. G.
Published: January 2012

It is argued that a more systematic study of truncation error is highly desirable. A number of integrations are commuted from the same partial differential equation using a variety of discretization schema. In particular, the difficulty of advecting sharp gradients of a conservative quantity is emphasized.
Size Distribution of Large Droplets in Precipitating Clouds
Authors: Okita T.
Published: January 2012

Measurements have been made of the size distribution of large droplets in various clouds at a station situated on Mount Kuro. The results show that most nimbostratus, cumulus congestus and cumulonimbus clouds contain large droplets of radii above 50 μ. The spectral distributions fit fairly well the relation N = N0r–α where α has values between 4 and 11. The concentration of large droplets varies widely and values above 105 per m–3 are frequently observed in precipitating clouds.
Variations in concentration of carbon dioxide in the free atmosphere
Authors: Bischof Walter
Published: January 2012

Variations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have been investigated by the analysis of 188 flask aamples taken from an airplane at heights up to 3 km during the period 1967 to 1961. The carbon dioxide concentration changes considerably from one time to another. Above lo00 rn the range is 308 to 320 ppm, the average 314 ppm. The range and average both increaae towards the ground. A seasonal variation in concentration is noted. The amplitude of the variation decreaees with increasing height above the ground. The minimum occura in summer and the maximum in the winter at all altitudes. Some of the seasonal variations at ground level as previously obtained from the Scandinavian network for carbon dioxide sampling do not show up in the analyses from upper levels.
A two-dimensional model of mother-of-pearl clouds
Authors: Hesstvedt Eigil
Published: January 2012

A two-dimensional model of a mother-of-pearl cloud is computed for a specified structure of the atmosphere at the levels of the inversion at about 26 km in the winter polar stratosphere: temperature at the base of the inversion = – 80°C, dewpoint depression = 4C°, wind speed = 50 m/sec and a wave motion with amplitude 660 m and wavelength 40 km. Characteristic features of observed clouds such as the asymmetry and the distribution of particle sizes (observed as distribution of colors) are explained. “Ice wings”, in earlier works incorrectly interpreted as “ice tails”, are explained in the light of three-dimensional mountain waves as ice clouds formed by sublimation when saturation with respect to ice, but not with respect to water, is reached.
Steady plane fronts in a rotating fluid
Authors: Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

A derivation is given of the equations describing a steady plane front in a rotating differentially heated fluid bounded by a horizontal non-conducting wall. The kinematic viscosity v and the thermal conductivity ϰ are aaeumed small and of the same order.

The thickness of the front is of order (v/Ω)½, where Ω is the angular velocity, and the characteristic length along the front is of order (gα/Ω2)tgεΔT, where g is the acceleration of gravity, α the coefficient of thermal expansion, ε the slope of the front, and ΔT the temperature variation across the front. There is a circulation in a vertical plane perpendicular to the front surface driven by the friction boundary layer. In this plane Coriolis acceleration, non-linear acceleration and friction forces are all of the same ordet.. Considering the mass and momentum transport equations and requiring the solution to be gravitationally stable, one can show that there must bea frictional inflow towards the front surface from both the cold and the warm side. A similarity form satisfies the front equations and leads to a system of ordinary differential equations. Some qualitative features of the solution can be deduced, but the complete solution, requiring an analysis of the transition region where the front joins the friction boundary layer, is still lacking.

The result obtained is in qualitative agreement with observations of fronts in some laboratory experiments, and with observations of natural fronts in the atmosphere and the oceans. In the latter cases the parameters v and ϰ in the theory should stand for the turbulent coefficients of viscosity and conductivity.
An overlooked aspect of the baroclinic stability problem
Authors: Phillips Norman A.
Published: January 2012

The behavior of small disturbances of a stratified heavy fluid in nonuniform rotation is well known to be a complex subject, even if additional physical complications such as compressibility, non-plane boundaries, and irreversible effects are ignored. But because of its relevance to atmospheric motions, the subject has been studied extensively and a considerable literature exists. All such studies known to the writer have however involved assumptions beyond those of the type mentioned above.
On the giant sea-salt particles in the atmosphere: I. General Features of the Distribution
Authors: Toba Yoshiaki
Published: January 2012

Some observational data of giant sea-salt particles in the atmosphere, now available from many references, were examined to find mechanisms that would explain their distribution.The first part concerns the vertical distribution over the sea. It is shown that the average decrease of the concentration with height, as a function of particle weight, is quantitatively explained by a combination of sedimentation, diffusion, and convection processes. It is also suggested that the frequent observation of a maximum concentration at some level above the sea surface may be explained by the presence of a boundary layer of a thickness of several meters over the sea surface, where relative humidity steeply changes, in a nonsteady state.In the second part, the distribution over the continent is discussed. The vertical distribution inland is characterized by a low concentration near the ground which may be ascribed mainly to impaction on ground obstacles, an effect which is much greater than dry fallout. This type of distribution is analytically expressed, and some relations have been formulated; for example, the ratio between the maximum and the ground concentrations as related to an efficiency of the impaction by ground obstacles, also the height where the maximum concentrations appear as related to the factor representing the exponential decrease of the concentration with height in an equilibrium distribution at sea. These expressions are used with available data of the actual distribution in order to examine values of the included factors. Transition from the distribution over the sea to that over the continent is also discussed.
On the maintenance of the kinetic energy of mean zonal flow in the southern hemisphere
Authors: Obasi G. O. P.
Published: January 2012

Wind data reported at the eight pressure levels (850, 700, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100 and 50 mb) for 121 Southern Hemisphere plus 22 Northern Hemisphere equatorial stations during the calendar year 1958 has enabled us to study the rate of generation of the kinetic energy of the mean zonal flow. The results indicate that the kinetic energy of the mean zonal motion is maintained against frictional dissipation to a large extent through a conversion of transient eddy kinetic energy through the action of the horizontal wind. The generation of zonal kinetic energy by mean meridional motion through the action of the coriolis force cannot be measured well enough, but is probably small as in the Northern Hemisphere. The standing eddy transformation integral appears to be unimportant—a result which is not true for the Northern Hemisphere. If the conversion of the kinetic energy of the transient eddies into the kinetic energy of the mean zonal flow were to cease, the atmosphere of the Southern Hemisphere would be in solid rotation in about 2 1/2 weeks. This assumes a continuation of a normal rate of dissipation during this period.
On parametric values and types of representation in wind-driven ocean circulation studies
Authors: Veronis G.
Published: January 2012

The vertically averaged equations of motion for the barotropic model of wind-driven ocean circulation on the β-plane are discussed. An attempt is made to evaluate the two non-dimensional parameters, viz., the Rossby number, R, and the (bottom) frictional parameter, ε, by comparing observed scales with those derived from simple boundary layer arguments. It is found that ε and R are (upper) bounded for the model if one imposes the scale of the Gulf Stream as the smallest significant scale of the ocean. Maximum values for the bottom-friction coefficient and for the ratio of wind-stress to depth of the model are determined. The general problem of analyzing the equations by approximate (numerical) techniques is discussed and a proposal is made to carry out the analysis by working with limited representations and correspondingly exaggerated values of the parameters. Finally a comparison is made of the error involved in treating Stommel's steady, linear, frictional model by two approximate methods, a limited Fourier representation and a finite-difference scheme. The latter is found to describe the solution of the linear model with considerably less distortion than the former. Flans to treat the fully non-linear, time-dependent system are described.
Atmospheric haze layers and brightness of the horizon
Authors: Volz Friedrich E.
Published: January 2012

The optics of thin, extended haze layers in the atmosphere as viewed in a horizontal plane are investigated. First discussed are the geometry and brightness profile of an isolated layer, taking account of attenuation and different vertical distribution of the particles. The brightness of layers at altitudes of 22 and 3 km, embedded in a slightly turbid atmosphere, is calculated for solar elevation 20°, azimuths 0 and 180°, and wavelength 500 nm. An attempt is made to include multiple scattering. These results are compared with the effect on the brightness of the zenith and on a searchlight beam caused by a layer.
The influence of haze on infrared radiation measurements detected by space vehicles
Authors: Zdunkowski Wilford , Henderson Donald , Hales J. Vern
Published: January 2012

A method is outlined to investigate the influence of thin cirrus layers, invisible to the naked eye, upon the long wave flux leaving the atmosphere. Radiative properties of spherical ice particles acting as primary scatterers and absorbers of infrared radiation have been taken into account. The combined radiative effects of ice particles with gaseous absorbers were estimated to determine the influence of thin cirrus layers on the outgoing long wave radiation within the 6.0–6.5 μ and 8–12 μ region as well as the total infrared spectrum. An estimate is also made of the effect of the stratospheric haze layer upon the outgoing radiation.
On the influence of the electric field upon the processes in thunderstorms
Authors: Muchnik V. M.
Published: January 2012

During the last decade the interest has been grown greatly concerning the question of the electric field influence upon elementary and electric processes in clouds, and in the first place in cumulo-nimbus ones having the largest electric fields. We can point out the works carried out in this direction by SARTOR (1954) , MAGONO and KOENUMA (1958) , LEVIN (1961) , MAGARVEY and BLANKFORD (1962), BARTLETT, HEWAL and MASON (1963) and MATTHEWS and MASON (1964). A good many of investigations in this direction has been carried out by Muchnik and Rudko at the Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Research Institute. A short description of these investigations is given below.
Note on the effect of rotation on diffusion processes
Authors: Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

A gas in solid rotation that is subjected to a radial temperature gradient develops a component of heat diffusion at right angles to the gradient. The magnitude of this diffusive flux, relative to the radial component, is 2λΩ/v-, where λ and v- are the mean free path and the mean radial speed of the molecules, respectively, and ω is the angular velocity of the system. Corresponding effects occur in diffusion of mass and momentum. It is suggested that the same effect becomes important in the large-scale turbulent transports in the atmosphere and the oceans. The prediction is that a general eastward eddy heat flux should occur.
Ionospheric Effects of Solar Flares 1948: Preliminary Report No. I
Authors: Rydbeck O. E. H. , Stranz D.
Published: January 2012

Regular recordings of ionspheric effects of solar flares with different kinds of
apparatus were started at the Geophysical Observatory, Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg early in 1948. The results of the first half year are presented
and analysed in this preliminary communication. The statistical distribution of
radiation sources of stronger and weaker fade-outs across the solar disk is shown. The
magnitude and probability of the absorption of the ultraviolet fade-out radiation in the
solar corpuscular beam is discussed.
B. Gutenberg and C. F. Richter, Seismicity of the Earth and Associated
Phenomena
Authors: Båth Markus
Published: January 2012

When two of thc world’s most distinguished seismologists have been working on a
subject for more than ten years, one may expect important results to come out. These
expectations are more than satisfied by this book, which contains the important results
obtained at the Seisniological Laboratory at Pasadena. The book is epoch-making in
geophysics, particularly because it treats a statistically homogeneous material. This is
facilitated by a consequent use of Richter’s magnitude scale for earthquakes, originally
introduced in 1935, and considerably developed in subsequent years by Gutenberg and
Richter. Its importance lies in the fact that the magnitude is strictly defined in
instrumental quantities, thus completely objective.
On the Sensitivity of the Wind Field Relative to Pressure Variations
Authors: Petterssen Sverre
Published: January 2012

It is assumed that the motion is frictionless and adiabatic but not necessarily
horizontal. A geostrophic approximation of second order is introduced, and a measure of
the sensitivity of the wind field relative to pressure variations is obtained. It is
shown that the sensitivity depends essentially upon the lateral shear of the geostrophic
wind and the tangential and orthogonal curvature of the geostrophic streamlines. In
particular, when the geostrophic wind is large, the effect of the orthogonal curvature
is predominant.
On the Role of the Tropics in the General Circulation of the Atmosphere
Authors: Bossolacco Mario
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir: In a recent issue of Tellus (Vol. 2, No 1) Mr Herbert Riehl published an
interesting article on the subject indicated above, bringing new results and valuable
information concerning the structure of the tropical atmosphere. My own meteorological
and aerological observations in Mogadiscio (Italian Somaliland, Lat. 2°02’03’’ N , Long.
45°21’20’’ E) during the International Polar Year 1932–1933 appear to have considerable
hearing on the problems discussed by Mr Riehl. Since these observations have not yet
been printed in extenso, even though sonic partial results have been published, I shall
take the liberty of calling attention to two groups of deductions from the Mogadiscio
data, both related to Mr Riehl’s analyses.
Photographic Emulsion Method Applied to the Investigation of Radioactive Deposits
from Atmospheric Air
Authors: Siksna Reinhards
Published: January 2012

This article describes a combined activation-photographic detection method applied
in the investigation of radioactive deposits from atmospheric air. It is shown that with
this simple and convenient method it is possible to obtain many fine details of the
phenomenon also in case of quite weak activity. It is also shown that the method can be
employed with success in the investigation of the mobility of radioactive carriers in
atmospheric air.
Late Cenozoic Climatic Changes as Recorded by the Equatorial Current System
Authors: Arrhenius Gustaf
Published: January 2012

A method has been developed for using deep sea deposits as records of oceanic
productivity and its changes. The sequence of sediments below the Equatorial Current
system indicates a marked periodical change in productivity with time. This periodicity
is assumed to correspond closely to the world-wide climatic changes during late Pliocene
and Pleistocene. It is thought that the method offers possibilities for an accurate and
detailed study of the history of the late Cenozoic climate. An explanation is given of
the reaction of the Equatorial Counter Current to climatic changes.
Recherches sur l’ozone atmosphérique et la température de la stratosphère en
Laponie Suédoise
Authors: Vassy A. , Vassy E.
Published: January 2012

Measurements of atmospheric ozone have been made in Abisko (Swedish Lappland)
during two different periods, one extending from December 1934 to March 1935, the other
beginning with August 1949. Measurements of “mean temperature” have shown an annual
temperature variation the amplitude of which is in excess of 100°C and which is due to
the prolonged insolation of the stratosphere in high latitudes. It follows from the
discussion of the results that it is necessary to determine the annual variations of the
vertical distribution of ozone and of temperature in the stratosphere of those
regions.
The Wind-driven Circulation in Ocean Basins of Various Shapes
Authors: Munk W. H. , Carrier G. F.
Published: January 2012

The ocean circulation induced by zonal winds has been derived for a triangular
ocean basin. The method, which involves the “boundary layer” technique, can be extended
to a more general wind system, and to ocean basins of arbitrary shape provided the
boundaries are not too irregular. In low and mid-latitudes the principal effect of an
inclination, Θ, of the western boundary relative to a north-south direction is to widen
the western current (Gulf Stream) by the factor (sec Θ)1/3 and to reduce the current
intensity by a similar factor. A variation in the circulation pattern associated with
the variation in the value of the lateral eddy viscosity is noted.
1948–1949 Trials of the Schaefer-Langmuir Cloud-Seeding Technique in Hawaii
Authors: Leopold Luna B. , Mordy Wendell A.
Published: January 2012

Fifteen tests during 1948–49 involving thirty-seven individual cloud inoculations over the islands of Lanai and Molokai are described. With regard to the role of the dry ice in causing the observed rainfall, the tests are too few in number to be considered conclusive, but the large rainfall values associated With seeded clouds are of particular interest. The largest rains seem to be associated with clouds where cloud top temperatures are slightly colder than 0° C and such clouds are also relatively thick. The relative importance of cloud thickness and temperature cannot be determined from the available data.
Critical Regimes of Flows with Density Stratification
Authors: Craya A.
Published: January 2012

This study first discusses the analogy between flow in an open channel and either internal or surface currents in large bodies of fluid and shows that the concept of the critical regime is generally applicable to such cases. The critical regime of gravity currents due to density stratification is then examined in terms of both the momentum principle and the somewhat simpler energy principle; contrary to the case of open-channel hydraulics, the two principles result in different flow criteria. In the case of surface currents it is shown that, for constant piezometric or energy level at the surface, the critical regime corresponds to a velocity distribution which reaches a maximum some distance from the surface.
On the Vertical and Horizontal Concentration of Momentum in Air and Ocean Currents: I. Introductory Comments and Basic Principles, with Particular Reference to the Vertical Concentration of Momentum in Ocean Currents
Authors: Rossby C.-G.
Published: January 2012

In this and a following paper an investigation is made into the factors which are responsible for the characteristic “streakiness” of certain atmospheric and oceanic current systems. As a first step a search is made for the factors which might give rise to the striking vertical concentration of momentum observed in many well-defined atmospheric and oceanic jet streams. A straight, parallel, heteorogeneous and incompressible current with a free surface, hydrostatic pressure distribution and a continuous density field is analyzed theoretically to determine the particular distribution of velocity with depth which, for a prescribed volume transport within each isopycnic layer, leads to a minimum value for the transfer of momentum. This requirement leads to a certain “critical” relationship between the velocity and density distribution which in the case of a two-layer system reduces to the well-known critical relative speed at an internal fluid boundary. In the general case of a continuous density distribution it is found that currents which are subjected to momentum losses and hence tend to approach the “critical” velocity distribution in many cases must shrink vertically and develop a sharp velocity maximum at or below the free surface. The nature of the structural changes to be anticipated depends ultimately upon the numerical value of a certain “internal” Froude Number which is a function of the initial velocity distribution as well as of the total density range.
The Boundary Conditions at the Tropopause
Authors: Lowell S. C.
Published: January 2012

In this paper the general properties of surfaces are investigated at which the derivatives of pressure, temperature, density and velocity may suffer discontinuities. The assumed continuity of the meteorological variables implies severe conditions on the properties of the surface, so that only two types are possible: either the surface moves at the speed of sound relative to the fluid or it is a material surface and moves with the fluid. The tropopause, like a front, is of the latter type. It is shown that the pressure gradient, all particle time derivatives and the velocity divergence are continuous. A knowledge of the discontinuity in temperature lapse rate determines the discontinuities in all the first derivatives of density and potential temperature. In general, the components of the discontinuities in the vertical wind shear parallel to the tropopause can be prescribed arbitrarily (the normal component is zero), but when the wind is geostrophic on both sides of the tropopause, these components too are determined by the jump in the temperature lapse rate. The importance of these considerations for the internal consistency of mathematical models in dynamical meteorology is discussed.
A Note on the Kinetic Energy Balance of the Zonal Wind Systems
Authors: Kuo H. L.
Published: January 2012

Broadly speaking, there are two processes that may produce the needed transport of angular momentum from the zones of surface easterlies to those of surface westerlies. One is a largescale mean convective process, with axending motions in lower latitudes and descending motions in higher latitudes. The other is the largexale eddy motions. Although some types of mean meridional circulations might be able to account for the necessary transport, the existence of such circulations is hard to establish observationally. On the other hand, the investigations conducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and at the University of California have demonstrated that the eddy process not only produces enough angular momentum transfer but also produces sufficient transfer of energy to maintain the atmosphere in radiational equilibrium. This suggests that the general circulation is maintained mainly by the large-scale eddy process.
The Effect of Winds and Tides on the Length of the Day
Authors: Mintz Yale , Munk Walter
Published: January 2012

The seasonal variation in the zonal winds of the atmosphere are reexamined and estimated to account for a January to July change of 0.5 milliseconds in the length of the day. Thus only one third of the change in length of the day reported by the astronomers is explained by angular momentum transfers between the earth and atmosphere. The corresponding effect of the varying equilibrium body tide of the earth caused by changes in the sun’s distance and longitude is negligible.
Numerical Tendency Computations from the Barotropic Vorticity Equation
Authors: Bolini B. , Charney J.
Published: January 2012

As a preliminary test of the usefulness of the barotropic vorticity equation for numerical forecasting a series of tendency computations have been made for a period of ten days in February 1951. Despite the difficulty of comparing instantaneous tendencies with observed changes over a finite time interval (12 hours) some positive information was obtained concerning computational errors as well as errors in the atmospheric model. The computations support the conclusion reached by CHARNEY and ELIASSEN (1949) that the Rocky Mountains are of importance in their influence on the large scale upper level flow pattern over the United States.
Vilhelm Bjerknes in Memoriam
Authors: Sverdrup H. U.
Published: January 2012

It is with great humility that I stand here today in order to attempt an evaluation of the contributions to the advance of meteorology and oceanography which my late teacher and friend, Vilhelm Bjerknes, made during his long and active life. He laid an ambitious plan for his work, he followed his plan with great consistency- and he lived to see many of his ideas bear fruit.
Reply
Authors: Kuo H. L.
Published: January 2012

Prof. Van Mieghem’s introduction of the mean value weighted by the density distribution is interesting. Through this definition of the mean, the restriction on the density put forward in my short note becomes unnecessary.
Preliminary Report on the Prognostic Value of Barotropic Models in the Forecasting of 500 mb Height Changes
Authors: Staff Member
Published: January 2012

Some general comments are given regarding numerical methods of integrating the hydro-dynamic equations. A series of tendency computations for Europe and eastern Atlantic are presented, by and large following the scheme given by BOLIN and CHARNEY (1951). Data requirements for this kind of computations are discussed on the basis of the difference in the success of the method over regions with poor and with good data.
Recent Advances in the Study of Convective Clouds and their Interaction with the Environment
Authors: Malkus Joanne Starr
Published: January 2012

Recent developments in two main phases of cumulus cloud studies are discussed; first the relations between the clouds and their energy sources in the subcloud layer and second, the interaction between the clouds and their environment in the cloud layer. Under the first heading, the various originating impulses for cumulus formation are mentioned, and how the character of this impulse affects the spacing, scale and temperature structure of the clouds. The possible origins of trade cumuli are considered. The second phase is primarily concerned with the nature of the resistive forces operating against cloud growth, how these arise and how they affect the clouds' life cycle. The resistive forces are shown to be of importance in the transports of momentum, moisture and heat by the cumuli and to serve as controls in the feeding of latent energy into the high tropical troposphere and hence into the general circulation.
Sunspot Areas, Flares and Filaments Observed at the Stockholm Observatory and at its Station in Anacapri in the Years 1952 and 1953
Authors: Ohman Y. , Lodén L. O.
Published: January 2012

Tables are presented giving sunspot areas, flares and filaments according to the solar routine observations carried out at the Stockholm Observatory in 1950 and 1951. The material has been distributed before as current reports to a number of Swedish institutions. A brief discussion is given and a description is made of the methods used for the announcements of the general solar activity.
Composition of Atmospheric Precipitation: II. Sulfur, chloride, iodine compounds. Bibliography
Authors: Eriksson Erik
Published: January 2012

C. Sulfur in rainwater Unlike the nitrogen most sulfur determinations in rainwater have been carried out comparatively recently. The greater part of the investigations were carried out in the U.S.A. where an extensive survey of the contribution of atmospheric sulfur to the soil has been made for agricultural purposes.
Cloud Forms of the Jet Stream
Authors: Schaefer Vincent J.
Published: January 2012

A combination of four cloud types including specific forms of cirrus, cirrocumulus and altocumulus have been successfully correlated with the reported location of the major axis of the jet stream. Recognition of these cloud patterns from the ground may prove to be a simple method for locating the high velocity component of the jet. Field observations of these spectacular clouds have been made at various parts of the United States. More than 500 feet of time-lapse motion pictures have been obtained of such clouds and show remarkable high velocity, shear, turbulence and waves which typify portions of this high velocity stream of air. These cloud structures display the coherency and the high rate of motion which would be expected of the jet stream. Preliminary studies have indicated that the proximity of the major axis of the jet stream sometimes modifies air motions at low altitude and may be responsible for excessive winds on mountain summits and anomalies of forest fire behavior. Detailed studies by time-lapse photography should establish more of the physical properties of this important component of the atmosphere.
Experimental Determination of Electron Orbits in the Field of a Magnetic Dipole
Authors: Brunberg Ernst-Åke
Published: January 2012

An analogue method for determination of electron orbits in a magnetic dipole field has been developed by Malmfors several years ago. The method is in principle a scale model experiment in a vacuum chamber where the results are obtained by measuring the deflection of an electron beam in the field of a “terrella”. During the last years this method has been further developed, and particle orbits corresponding to the following momenta have now been measured:

2 · 109 – 1010 eV/c

Orbits arriving at magnetic latitude 58° in E, S, W and N directions at zenith angles of 0°, 20°, 40°, 60°, 80°. Orbits arriving from zenith at different latitudes beginning with 38° and conuing at intervals of 2 degrees up to the pole.

1010 – ∞ eV/c

Orbits arriving at magnetic latitude

0°, 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, 80°, and 90°

from E, S, W and N directions at zenith angles of

0°, 8°, 16°, 24°, 32°, 40°, 48°, 56°, 64°, 72°, and 80°.

The direction of orbits far away from the dipole is published as a function of momentum. The particles are assumed to move towards the earth and to be positively charged.

This article includes only diagrams for the latitudes 90°—60°. The remaining ones will be published in the next issue of this journal.
A Synoptic Study of Deformation Fields
Authors: Vuorela Lauri A.
Published: January 2012

An attempt has been made to compute the field of horizontal deformation for a few synoptic situations. Some reasons for the rather high values of dilatation obtained are discussed and criticism over the method is presented.
A Case Study of Variations in Structure and Circulation about Westerly Jet Streams over Europe
Authors: Hubert William E.
Published: January 2012

This paper contains a case study of multiple wind maxima over western Europe during January 1951. One stratospheric and two tropospheric jet streams (600 km apart) are shown over the British Isles, where the flow was almost zonal and quite steady latitudinally for the period discussed. The northernmost tropospheric jet stream rises locally as much as 3,000 meters in height and 13 degrees in potential temperature during a 12-hour period. The southernmost maximum curves sharply southward downstream to pass over the Mediterranean where it is associated with a wave train separate from that over northern Europe. Two 30-hour mean cross sections (means of six observation times), at longitude 4° West and at longitude 10° East, show the space changes in wind, temperature and potential temperature in the exit region of the jet stream. Mean vertical velocities over the same 30-hour period are computed using several different techniques, and the errors in the computations due to restrictive assumptions are discussed. Neglect of ageostrophic components may change the vertical motion results by as much as 50%. The vertical-motion patterns are significantly different from those suggested by some previous studies, with rising motions on the right side of the jet in the difluence region.
Structure of Wind Field and Variations of Vorticity in a Summer Situation
Authors: Newton C. W. , Carson J. E.
Published: January 2012

An analysis of the observed wind field at 300 mb is shown for a period when iterative shear-line formations occurred. Each was preceded by the injection of a localized wind maximum into lower latitudes, southwesterly winds subsequently increasing east of the trough line, but not by advection of high winds around the southern end of the trough. Series of cross sections at different times illustrate the wind variations as the localized jets move through them. These indicate that the local wind maxima at 300 mb reflect similar variations through a deep layer and thus are not due to vertical undulations in the height of the jet stream. During a time of relatively steady state, changes of vorticity are examined in the region east of the trough, where the jet is weak in lower latitudes and increases in speed downstream. Locally large individual increases of absolute vorticity (of the order of the value of the Coriolis parameter in 12–24 hr) in the upper troposphere are accounted for by the conversion of vertical shear into vorticity about a vertical axis, through differential vertical motions in an indirect solenoidal sense. A simultaneous increase in vertical shear is accounted for by horizontal circulations in a direct solenoidal sense. Considering the trough as a whole, there was weak subsidence in the upper troposphere, with maximum descending motions near the jet stream.
A Power Law Representation of the Heat Transfer in the Lowest 100 metres of the Atmosphere
Authors: Frost R.
Published: January 2012

On the assumptions that the flux of heat in the air is governed by an interchange coefficient which can be represented by a simple power law of the height above the surface, that the flux of heat in the ground is by molecular processes and that during the daylight hours the variation of temperature can be represented by a sine function, the phase angle of the diurnal temperature wave is calculated and is shewn to be in good agreement with observations. The phase angle of the annual temperature wave is also discussed.

Calculations of KH the coefficient of eddy conductivity of heat and of its mode of variation with height in unstable conditions suggest that it is approximately equal to KM the coefficient of eddy viscosity.
Amino Acids in Rainwater
Authors: Fonselius S.
Published: January 2012

Organic nitrogen compounds in rainwater have been known to exist and have also been determined by Kjeldahl digestion in a few cases. They are referred to in literature as albuminoid nitrogen (see ERIKSSON 1952). No attempt, however, has been made to determine their nature.