bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Utility of Kindergarten Teacher Judgments in Identifying Early Learning Problems
Authors: Taylor H. Gerry , Anselmo Marcia , Foreman Ann L. , Schatschneider Christopher , Angelopoulos Jennifer
Published: December 2007

Most existing research on early identification of learning difficulties has examined the validity of methods for predicting future academic problems. The present study focused instead on the sensitivity of kindergarten teachers to learning problems in their students and on the continuity of teacher-identified problems over time. To identify early learning problems, kindergarten teachers in a suburban school district rated student progress toward six academic objectives as satisfactory or unsatisfactory. Twenty percent of the district's 303 kindergarten children received unsatisfactory ratings in at least one area. Thirty-eight of these children (identified group) were matched to 34 children with satisfactory ratings in all areas (nonidentified group). Results of testing conducted during kindergarten revealed poorer academic achievement in identified children than in nonidentified children. Children from the identified group also performed more poorly than children from the nonidentified group on tests of phonological processing and working memory/executive function and were rated by teachers as having more behavior and attention problems and lower social competence. Follow-up of the sample to first grade documented continued learning problems in the identified group. These findings support the use of teacher judgements in early detection of learning problems and argue against reliance on discrepancy criteria.
Differentiating Between Difficult-to-Remediate and Readily Remediated Poor Readers
Authors: Vellutino Frank R. , Scanlon Donna M. , Reid Lyon G.
Published: December 2007

In this article we discuss research bearing on the traditional use of the IQ-achievement discrepancy to define specific reading disability. We initially review the evidence presented by Rutter and Yule (1975) in support of this practice, and then discuss results from subsequent studies that have questioned the reliability of their findings. We also discuss results from more recent studies demonstrating that the IQ-achievement discrepancy does not reliably distinguish poor from normal readers, whereas language-based measures do reliably distinguish these groups. We highlight results from a study we recently completed, in which it was found that IQ scores did not differentiate between poor readers who were found to be readily remediated and poor readers who were difficult to remediate. In view of the convergent evidence against the use of IQ scores to define specific reading disability, we suggest that the IQ-achievement discrepancy definition of this disorder be discarded.
What Definitions of Learning Disability Say and Don't Say
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A. , Forness Steven R.
Published: December 2007

In this article, we analyze critically available definitions of learning disability (LD). The general problem of definition is discussed first followed by a discussion of individual LD definitions from the earliest to the latest. We conclude that LD definitions fail to provide substantive insight into the nature of the condition. The reasons for this failure are discussed in relation to the nature of definition and the difficulties in providing operational definitions of LD that are meaningful and significant. Finally, means for resolving the problem of definition are discussed.
A Comparison of Two Reading Interventions for Children with Reading Disabilities
Authors: O'Shaughnessy Tam E. , Lee Swanson H.
Published: December 2007

This study compared the effectiveness of two reading interventions in a public school setting. Forty-five second-grade children with reading disabilities were randomly assigned to a 6-week phonological awareness, word analogy, or math-training program. The two reading interventions differed from each other in (a) the unit of word analysis (phoneme versus onset-rime), (b) the approach to intervention (contextualized versus decontextualized), and (c) the primary domain of reading instruction (oral versus written language). Results indicate that children in both reading programs achieved significant gains in beginning reading skills, learning the specific skills taught in their respective programs, and applying what they had learned to uninstructed material on several transfer-of-learning measures, in comparison to children in the control group. For children in both reading intervention groups, the most significant mediator of growth in oral reading fluency was a child's initial level of word identification skill. Implications of these findings are that systematic, high quality reading intervention can occur in a small group, public school setting and that there are several different paths to the remediation of children with reading disabilities.
Treatment of Specific Developmental Reading Disorders, Derived from Single- and Dual-Route Models
Authors: Tressoldi Patrizio E. , Lonciari Isabella , Vio Claudio
Published: December 2007

A group of 21 participants with specific reading disorders was treated with a method derived from dual-route models and another group of 23 with a method derived from single-route models of reading. Both treatments were compared with four control treatments. The reading performance of each participant was compared with that of his or her chronological-age controls on the following variables: speed and accuracy of reading passage, isolated words and nonwords, and accuracy in homophone recognition. The treatment deriving from dual-route models produced significant improvements in the homophone recognition, compared to all other treatments. The treatment deriving from single-route models produced significant improvements, compared to all other treatments, in speed of word reading. Furthermore, these two treatments produced significant improvement with respect to all other treatments but one, in speed of nonword reading. These findings support the hypothesis that treatments derived from specific models of reading development are superior to other treatments. However the benefits obtained on the reading of isolated stimuli (words, homophones) did not significantly improve the reading of a passage. This fact suggests that treatments should include exercises involving passages or sentences.
Reliability and Validity of the Adult Reading History Questionnaire
Authors: Lefly Dianne L. , Pennington Bruce F.
Published: December 2007

The reliability and validity of a revised version of Finucci's (1982) Reading History Questionnaire was examined in two adult samples. One sample included 84 adults from an ongoing study of familial dyslexia, and a second sample was composed of parents of 107 children from a longitudinal study of reading development. Internal consistency was demonstrated by Cronbach's alphas of .94 and .92 in the two samples. Test-retest reliability was demonstrated by significant correlations (.87 and .84 in the two samples) over several years between an earlier and revised form of the questionnaire. Validity was demonstrated via (a) correlations between the questionnaire score and reading measures (rs = .57-.70), (b) the results of a discriminant function analysis that used questionnaire scores to predict reading disability diagnosis, and (c) the finding that the questionnaire had substantial incremental validity in predicting reading skill in a hierarchical regression analysis that first entered IQ and SES. These results indicated that the questionnaire is both reliable and valid.
Speech Perception Deficits in Poor Readers
Authors: Studdert-Kennedy Michael , Mody Maria , Brady Susan
Published: December 2007

We reply to Denenberg's (1999) recent critique of our work (Mody, Studdert-Kennedy, & Brady, 1997). Denenberg mounted two main lines of criticism, one concerning characteristics of the population sampled for the experimental group, and the other a statistical critique, concerning (a) violation of parametric assumptions for use of the F distribution and (b) our supposed acceptance of the null hypothesis of no differences between experimental and control groups. We show that the first criticism stemmed from a misunderstanding of the experimental hypothesis and that the second can be answered by both parametric and nonparametric comparisons across conditions within the experimental group, without reference to the control group. Thus, our original conclusion stands: The difficulty with rapid /ba/-/da/ discrimination that some children with reading impairment may experience does not stem from difficulty in discriminating the rapid spectral transitions at stop-vowel syllable onsets.
Naming Speed, Phonological Awareness, and Orthographic Knowledge in Second Graders
Authors: Manis Franklin R. , Doi Lisa Michelle , Bhadha Bhaktawahr
Published: December 2007

Concurrent relationships among measures of naming speed, phonological awareness, orthographic skill, and other reading subskills were explored in a representative sample of second graders. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that naming speed, as measured by the the rapid automatized naming (RAN) task, accounted for a sizable amount of unique variance in reading with vocabulary and phonemic awareness partialled out. The unique contribution of naming speed to reading was relatively stronger for orthographic skills, whereas the contribution of phonemic skills was stronger for nonword decoding. In further analyses, marked difficulties on a range of reading tasks, including orthographic processing, were seen in a subgroup with a double deficit (slow naming speed and low phonemic awareness) but not in groups with only a single deficit. These findings are broadly consistent with Bowers and Wolf's (1993a, 1993b; Wolf & Bowers, 1999) double-deficit hypothesis of reading disability.
Remediating the Core Deficits of Developmental Reading Disability
Authors: Lovett Maureen W. , Steinbach Karen A. , Frijters Jan C.
Published: December 2007

The double-deficit hypothesis (Wolf, 1997; Wolf & Bowers, 1999, this issue) contends that deficits in phonological awareness and deficits in visual naming speed represent two independent causal impediments to reading acquisition for children with developmental reading disabilities (RD). One hundred and sixty-six children with severe RD from 7 to 13 years of age were classified into three deficit subgroups according to a double-deficit framework. A total of 140 children with RD, 84% of the sample, were classified; 54% demonstrated a double deficit (DD), 22% a phonological deficit only (PHON), and 24% a visual-naming speed deficit only (VNS). Diagnostic test profiles highlighted the joint contributions of the two core deficits in depressing written language acquisition. The children in the DD group were more globally impaired than those in the other subgroups, and the VNS group children were the highest achieving and most selectively impaired readers. Following 35 hours of word identification training, sizable gains and significant generalization of training effects were achieved by all subgroups. A metacognitive phonics program resulted in greater generalized effects across the domain of real English words, and a phonological training program produced superior outcomes within the phonological processing domain. The greatest nonword reading gains were achieved by children with only phonological deficits.
A Clinical Rationale for Assessing Rapid Automatized Naming in Children with Language Disorders
Authors: Wiig Elisabeth H. , Zureich Patricia , Chan Hei-Ning Helen
Published: December 2007

Three continuous rapid naming tasks (Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 1995) were administered to 2,450 American, English-speaking, academically achieving individuals with typical language development and intellectual ability (ages 6 to 21 years) and 136 individuals with primary language disorders (LD; ages 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 15-16). Naming time in seconds differed significantly ( p < .01) between the groups for color naming (Task 1) at age 12, shape naming (Task 2) at age 6, and color-shape naming (Task 3) at ages 6, 7, 9, and 12. Naming accuracy did not differ significantly ( p > .01) between groups at the majority of the age levels compared. In the normative group, naming speed increased with age in a monotonic progression. The developmental trajectory in the LD group was essentially parallel, but elevated. The percentages of individuals who failed the naming-time criteria for Task 3 (color-shape naming) differed significantly in the two groups at all ages compared ( p < .05). These findings indicate that the requirements for two-dimensional, continuous naming (Task 3 color-shape naming) resulted in reduced naming speed (longer total times) and interference with fluency in language production in about half of the clinical sample.
Stimulus Gender and Emotional Difficulty Level
Authors: Dimitrovsky Lilly , Spector Hedva , Levy-Shiff Rachel
Published: December 2007

The ability to recognize emotions that were easily identifiable and those that were more difficult to identify, as expressed by male and female faces, was studied in 48 nondisabled children and 76 children with learning disabilities (LD) ages 9 through 12. On the basis of their performance on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and the Benton Visual Retention Test, the LD group was divided into three subgroups: those with verbal (VD), nonverbal (NVD), and both verbal and nonverbal (BD) deficits. A shortened version of Ekman and Friesen's Pictures of Facial Affect, including pictures of both men and women, was the measure of ability to identify facial expressions of affect. Children of both genders in all three groups of children with LD, as well as their normally achieving peers, were more accurate in identifying expressions of affect from female faces, notwithstanding differences in sensitivity to such emotional communication in favor of the nondisabled and VD groups. However, a significant interaction was found between gender and emotional recognition difficulty level, with female faces being more expressive for emotions that were difficult to recognize.
Follow-Up of Children with Early Expressive Phonology Disorders
Authors: Lewis Barbara A. , Freebairn Lisa A. , Taylor H. Gerry
Published: December 2007

Fifty-two children identified at age 4 to 6 years as demonstrating a moderate to severe expressive phonology disorder were followed to the third and fourth grades. Children were classified into two groups based on the presence of an early phonology disorder in isolation (P) or the presence of a phonology disorder with other language problems (PL). At follow-up, articulation measures failed to differentiate the groups; however, the PL group performed more poorly than the P group on measures of phoneme awareness, language, reading decoding, reading comprehension, and spelling. The P group demonstrated poor spelling skills relative to their reading and language abilities, suggesting residual spelling weaknesses in these children. The PL group reported more nuclear family members with speech-language disorders and with reading disorders than the P group. Findings support previous research linking early language disorders with later reading difficulties.
Putting Struggling Readers on the PHAST Track
Authors: Lovett Maureen W. , Lacerenza Léa , Borden Susan L.
Published: December 2007

PHAST (for Phonological and Strategy Training) is a research-based remedial reading program that attempts to capitalize upon current research on reading disabilities and their remediation. The focus of the program is on the primary obstacles to word identification learning and independent decoding that most disabled readers face and the steps necessary to help these children achieve independent reading skills. A framework of phonologically based remediation was used as a foundation upon which a set of flexible and effective word identification strategies were scaffolded in an integrated developmental sequence. The program uses a combination of direct instruction and dialogue-based metacognitive training, with the pedagogical emphasis shifting from an initial direct instruction, remedial focus to increasingly metacognitive-strategy-based methods. A continuum of intervention over 70 hours provides both (a) remediation of the basic phonological awareness and letter-sound-learning deficits of disabled readers and (b) specific training of five word identification strategies that offer different approaches to the decoding of unfamiliar words and exposure to different levels of subsyllabic segmentation. Explicit instruction in the application and monitoring of multiple word identification strategies and their application to text-reading activities continues throughout the PHAST Program. PHAST training provides the disabled reader with the opportunity to become a flexible reader who approaches new words in or out of context with multiple strategies and has the ability to evaluate the success of their application. The PHAST Program was developed following the controlled evaluation of its components in laboratory classroom settings and recent positive results from their sequential combination. PHAST represents a new integrated approach to programming in this area using instructional components that have already demonstrated their efficacy with children with severe reading disabilities.
Characteristics of Children Referred for Evaluation of School Difficulties Who Have Adequate Academic Achievement Scores
Authors: Morgan Allison E. , Singer-Harris Naomi , Bernstein Jane H. , Waber Deborah P.
Published: December 2007

Forty children (7 to 11 years old) referred for evaluation of learning problems, who had scores within the normal range on standardized measures of academic achievement, were compared to 81 similarly referred children who had scored low (< 90) on at least one measure of academic achievement. We tested the hypothesis that children with normal achievement scores who are referred for evaluation of learning problems show neuropsychological profiles comparable to those of children with low achievement. Referral problems, school history, IQ, academic achievement, and neuropsychological function were evaluated. Referred children with normal achievement scores came from more advantaged backgrounds and had less intensive academic interventions, higher IQs, and better decoding skills. Nonetheless, the two groups showed similar neuropsychological profiles. Vulnerability to complexity and decreased automaticity were prominent. Normal-range achievement test scores among children referred for evaluation should not be regarded as indicating absence of neurodevelopmental vulnerability.
Speed of Information Processing in Children Referred for Learning Problems
Authors: Weiler Michael D. , Harris Naomi S. , Marcus David J. , Bellinger David , Kosslyn Stephen M. , Waber Deborah P.
Published: December 2007

Children referred for evaluation of learning impairment (LI, N =100) and a comparison group of nonreferred (NLI, N = 243) children were evaluated on a visual filtering task. The task was designed hierarchically to provide for evaluation of component operations—serial search, parallel search, decision, and response. With each additional processing demand, response times increased disproportionately for the LI group relative to the NLI group. Overall response time reliably predicted academic skills and cognitive ability, but was more strongly related to group membership. Thus, this nonverbal visual task is sensitive to a characteristic of children with learning problems over and above discrete academic and cognitive skills. Children with problems adapting to the demands of schooling may be distinguished by a disproportionate vulnerability to processing load.
Are Working Memory Deficits in Readers with Learning Disabilities Hard to Change?
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: December 2007

This study investigated whether changes in the working memory (WM) performance of readers with learning disabilities (LD) is related to a general or domain-specific system. The study compared readers with LD, chronologically age-matched (CA-M), and reading level-matched (RL-M) children's WM performance for phonological, visual-spatial, and semantic information under initial (no probes or cues), gain (cues that bring performance to an asymptotic level), and maintenance (asymptotic conditions without cues) conditions. The main findings indicated that (a) CA-M children were superior in performance to readers with LD across initial, gain, and maintenance conditions, (b) readers with LD showed less change (as reflected in effect size scores, slopes for the quadratic curve) on both visual-spatial and verbal (phonological and semantic) WM tasks across gain and maintenance conditions than the CA-matched children, and (c) the performance of readers with LD was superior to the RL-M children's performance on initial conditions, but inferior on gain and maintenance conditions. Taken together, the results suggest that a general system moderated the changes in retrieval of phonological, visual-spatial, and semantic information in readers with LD.
Effects of Tutoring in Phonological and Early Reading Skills on Students at Risk for Reading Disabilities
Authors: Vadasy Patricia F. , Jenkins Joseph R. , Pool Kathleen
Published: December 2007

This study examined the effectiveness of nonprofessional tutors in a phonologically based reading treatment similar to those in which successful reading outcomes have been demonstrated. Participants were 23 first graders at risk for learning disability who received intensive one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. At year end, tutored students significantly outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. Effect sizes ranged from .42 to 1.24. Treatment effects diminished at follow-up at the end of second grade, although tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling. Findings suggest that phonologically based reading instruction for first graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by nonteacher tutors. Our discussion addresses the character of reading outcomes associated with tutoring, individual differences in response to treatment, and the infrastructure required for nonprofessional tutoring programs.
Relation Between Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test and WISC-III Scores of Children with RD
Authors: Chin Christopher E. , Ledesma Heloise Marie L. , Cirino Paul T. , Sevcik Rose A. , Morris Robin D. , Frijters Jan C. , Lovett Maureen W.
Published: December 2007

Concurrent validity of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) was evaluated, as well as the K-BIT's accuracy as a predictor of WISC-III scores, in a sample of young children with reading disabilities. The two measures were administered to 65 children from Atlanta, Boston, and Toronto who ranged from 6-5 to 7-11 years of age at testing. Correlations between the verbal, nonverbal, and composite scales of the K-BIT and WISC-III were .60, .48, and .63, respectively. Mean K-BIT scores ranged from 1.2 to 5.0 points higher than the corresponding WISC-III scores. Standard errors of estimation ranged from 10.0 to 12.3 points. In individual cases, K-BIT scores can underestimate or overestimate WISC-III scores by as much as 25 points. Results suggest caution against using the K-BIT exclusively for placement and diagnostic purposes with young children with reading disabilities if IQ scores are required.
Early Case Reports of Dyslexia in the United States and Europe
Authors: Anderson Peggy L. , Meier-Hedde Regine
Published: December 2007

Current understanding of reading disabilities is rooted in the early observations of physicians dating as far back in history as the 17th century. This article reviews medical case study research from the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States that identified characteristics, etiological factors, and treatment methods of reading disorders. The physicians involved provided rich descriptions of the personal struggles of individuals who lost the ability to read because of brain insult as well as of those who failed to achieve literacy because of reading disability. Although many of the theories that were advanced by these early researchers have not been supported by current investigations, others have been substantiated and withstand the test of time. This article also addresses the validity of case study research from an historic and current-day perspective.
Developmental Dyscalculia Is a Familial Learning Disability
Authors: Shalev Ruth S. , Manor Orly , Kerem Batsheva , Ayali Mady , Badichi Navah , Friedlander Yechiel , Gross-Tsur Varda
Published: December 2007

Whereas current evidence attests to a genetic component in the etiology of dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), little is known about the role of genetics in developmental dyscalculia (DC). The objective of this study was to determine the familial aggregation of DC. Siblings and parents of children with DC were assessed for arithmetic, reading and attention disorders. The criteria for DC were an IQ higher than 85, poor performance in arithmetic, and a significant discrepancy between arithmetic achievement and IQ. The study group was composed of 39 children with DC, 21 mothers, 22 fathers, 90 siblings, and 16 second-degree relatives. We found that 66% of mothers, 40% of fathers, 53% of siblings, and 44% of second-degree relatives had DC. The intraclass correlation between the sib pairs was .27. A 95% confidential interval (CI) for the prevalence of DC among siblings of DC probands (see Note 1) ranged from 40% to 64%, indicating a familial prevalence almost tenfold higher than expected for the general population. IQ and attention problems were not risk factors for DC. We conclude that DC, like other learning disabilities, has a significant familial aggregation, suggesting a role for genetics in the evolution of this disorder.
A Reconceptualization of Learning Disabilities via a Self-Organizing Systems Paradigm
Authors: Aloyzy Zera David
Published: December 2007

A dilemma exists regarding the interpretation of learning disabilities. A self-organizing systems (SOS) paradigm suggests widespread, diffuse outcomes, whereas a specific learning disability concept suggests more localized dysfunction. There may be very good reason to doubt the veridicality of the concept of a specific learning disability, not because the construct of learning disabilities itself is a frivolous concept, as some have held, but because the biological or neurological events that underlie a learning disability do not remain focal and constrained only to specific dysfunction. It is important to know whether an identified learning disability remains contained or whether processing disorders might be found in other areas. The assessment profiles of school-age children identified with nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD), assumed to have primarily right-hemispheric brain dysfunctions, and children with language-based learning disabilities (LLD), assumed to have primarily left-hemispheric brain dysfunctions, were examined to explore learning disabilities using an SOS paradigm. The pilot study reported here is used as an exemplar of how a self-organizing systems paradigm is conceptualized. Although a more comprehensive study is needed to confirm the data, this exemplar suggests that overflow into areas not typically associated with each disability subtype may occur. Concerns regarding ways of determining discrepancy for diagnostic purposes are noted, and remediation strategies designed for specific disabilities are questioned.
Accuracy of Teacher Assessments of Second-Language Students at Risk for Reading Disability
Authors: Limbos Marjolaine M. , Geva Esther
Published: December 2007

This study examined the accuracy of teacher assessments in screening for reading disabilities among students of English as a second language (ESL) and as a first language (L1). Academic and oral language tests were administered to 369 children (249 ESL, 120 L1) at the beginning of Grade 1 and at the end of Grade 2. Concurrently, 51 teachers nominated children at risk for reading failure and completed rating scales assessing academic and oral language skills. Scholastic records were reviewed for notation of concern or referral. The criterion measure was a standardized reading score based on phonological awareness, rapid naming, and word recognition. Results indicated that teacher rating scales and nominations had low sensitivity in identifying ESL and L1 students at risk for reading disability at the 1-year mark. Relative to other forms of screening, teacher-expressed concern had lower sensitivity. Finally, oral language proficiency contributed to misclassifications in the ESL group.
A Case Study of the Apprenticeship Process
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Berry Ruth , Dunsmore KaiLonnie
Published: December 2007

This study focused on the apprenticeship opportunities in a collaborative writing context. The examination of written artifacts and discursive interactions revealed that collaborative contexts offered unique participatory spaces that allowed students to use their knowledge in ways that exceeded their independent competence. Of note, too, is that the study revealed students' active and constructive role, refuting the perception that most students with disabilities are passive learners in the teaching-learning process. Implications of the study further suggest the importance of peer collaborations in creating successful literacy apprenticeships, as well as in providing teachers with greater insight into the developmental progress and literacy potentials of their students in the context of situated literacy activity.
Features of an Interactive Writing Discourse: Conversational Involvement, Conventional Knowledge, and Internalization in "Morning Message"
Authors: Mariage Troy V.
Published: December 2007

This study describes how meaning potentials were constructed in the literacy event known as Morning Message. Morning Message provided teachers and students with opportunities to construct a written text around the experiences of one student. This discourse of writing allowed for the examination of how meaning was orchestrated and scaffolded between the teacher and her students. Three findings are discussed, including the function of a series of conversational involvement moves utilized by the teacher, the specific writing conventions and metamessages afforded in the Morning Message dialogue, and an examination of how the social dialogues of Morning Message may have come to guide independent action as internalized processes on several transfer measures.
At Second Glance
Authors: Price Lynda A. , Gerber Paul J.
Published: December 2007

The impact of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 on the American workplace is examined. The findings of a previous study (Gerber, 1992) on employer knowledge about learning disabilities are compared to current findings. Important themes and employer beliefs and practices that were consistent in employer responses are described. Although employers are continuing to make efforts to comply with the regulations of the ADA, they still have relatively little knowledge or experience with it in terms of learning disabilities.
The Relationship Between Instructional and Assessment Accommodations in an Inclusive State Accountability System
Authors: Ysseldyke Jim , Thurlow Martha , Bielinski John , House Allison , Moody Mark , Haigh John
Published: December 2007

We investigated the kinds of instructional and assessment accommodations students with disabilities receive, and the extent to which instructional accommodations match assessment accommodations. Most students who had IEPs in specific content areas received instruc tional accommodations in those areas, and there were no differences by disability type. We provide data on the specific types of accom modations used. Overall, students' assessment accommodations matched their instructional accommodations, though many student: received testing accommodations that had not been received in instruction. Implications are discussed for IEP teams who make decision: about instructional and assessment accommodations.
Are Mathematics Disabilities Due to a Domain-General or a Domain-Specific Working Memory Deficit?
Authors: Wilson Kathleen M. , Swanson H. Lee
Published: December 2007

The relationship between verbal and visual-spatial working memory and mathematical computation skill was examined in children and adults with and without disabilities in mathematics. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that, when partialing for the influence of reading ability, age, and gender, mathematical computation was better predicted by verbal than by visual-spatial working memory. Furthermore, the results showed that the relationship between mathematics ability and working memory were not significantly moderated by age but were stable across a broad age span. We concluded that, regardless of age, deficits in mathematics are mediated by both a domain-general and a domain-specific working memory system.
A Subgroup Analysis of Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities
Authors: Swanson H. Lee , Sachse-Lee Carole
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether changes in working memory (WM) of children with reading disabilities (RD) were related to a domain-specific or a domain-general system. Based on Daneman and Carpenter's (1980) Sentence Listening Span task, children were subgrouped into a group of high executive processing (high listening span) children without RD, a group of low executive processing (low listening span) children with RD, and a group of children with and without RD matched on executive processing (moderate listening span). Subgroups were compared on phonological, visual-spatial, and semantic WM tasks across initial (no probes or cues), gain (cues that bring performance to an asymptotic level), and maintenance conditions (asymptotic conditions without cues). The results showed that (a) children without RD high in executive processing ability outperformed all other subgroups, (b) the RD subgroup low in executive processing performed poorly relative to all other subgroups across task and memory conditions, (c) children with and without RD matched on executive processing were comparable in WM span and changes in WM for all tasks, and (d) WM performance of children with RD was a strong linear function of the high executive processing group, suggesting that the nature or the specific componential makeup of the tasks are not the main contributors to WM performance. Taken together, the results suggest that a domain-general system may partially contribute to poor WM in children with RD, and that this system may operate independently of their reading deficits.
Association of Educational Therapists: Position Paper on the SAT
Authors: Ungerleider Dorothy , Maslow Phyllis
Published: December 2007

The Association of Educational Therapists supports the position that when the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is administered, the option of extended time should be available for all students.
Substance Use, Substance Abuse, and LD Among Adolescents with a Childhood History of ADHD
Authors: Molina Brooke S. G. , Pelham William E.
Published: December 2007

A clinic-referred sample of 109 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was followed into adolescence for the ascertainment of alcohol and other drug use and abuse. Learning disability (reading or math) in childhood was examined as a predictor of adolescent substance use and substance use disorder for alcohol and marijuana. No statistically significant group differences for children with LD versus those without LD emerged even after using different methods to compute LD. IQ/achievement discrepancy scores were similarly not predictive of later use or abuse. However, children with ADHD who had higher IQs and higher levels of academic achievement in childhood were more likely to try cigarettes, to smoke daily, and to have their first drink of alcohol or first cigarette at an early age. Children with ADHD who had higher reading achievement scores were less likely to have later alcohol use disorder. Although these findings are necessarily preliminary, due to the small number of children interviewed, the pattern of results suggests that level of cognitive functioning—rather than discrepancy between IQ and achievement—is important for the prediction of later substance use and abuse, at least in this clinic-referred sample of children with ADHD. Further, different mechanisms of risk related to cognitive functioning may be operating for experimentation with legal drugs such as alcohol and tobacco, regular cigarette smoking, and problematic alcohol use.
Risk and Resilience for Substance Abuse Among Adolescents and Adults with LD
Authors: Cosden Merith
Published: December 2007

Substance abuse is a major problem affecting the health and well-being of many people in our society. Although anecdotal evidence concerning linkages between learning disabilities (LD) and substance abuse has been common, this association is not well documented or understood. This article reviews the current research on substance abuse for adolescents and adults with LD, interpreting findings within a risk and resilience framework. Integrating these studies with the broader literatures on substance abuse and the needs of individuals with LD, the author develops hypotheses regarding specific risk and protective factors that could affect the occurrence of substance abuse for adolescents and adults with LD. Potential risk factors include a poor understanding of one's disability, a lack of skills for developing peer relationships, and the need for prolonged family support. Future directions for research in relation to prevention of and intervention regarding substance abuse among individuals with LD are discussed.
Metacognition and Mathematical Problem Solving in Grade 3
Authors: Desoete Annemie , Roeyers Herbert , Buysse Ann
Published: December 2007

This article presents an overview of two studies that examined the relationship between metacognition and mathematical problem solving in 165 children with average intelligence in Grade 3 in order to help teachers and therapists gain a better understanding of contributors to successful mathematical performance. Principal components analysis on metacognition revealed that three metacognitive components (global metacognition, off-line metacognition, and attribution to effort) explained 66% to 67% of the common variance. The findings from these studies support the use of the assessment of off-line metacognition (essentially prediction and evaluation) to differentiate between average and above-average mathematical problem solvers and between students with a severe or moderate specific mathematics learning disability.
The Validity and Comparability of Entrance Examination Scores After Accommodations Are Made for Students with LD
Authors: Zurcher Raymond , Pedrotty Bryant Diane
Published: December 2007

Every year, thousands of college and university applicants with learning disabilities (LD) present scores from standardized examinations as part of the admissions process for postsecondary education. Many of these scores are from tests administered with nonstandard procedures due to the examinees' learning disabilities. Using a sample of college students with LD and a control sample, this study investigated the criterion validity and comparability of scores on the Miller Analogies Test when accommodations for the examinees with LD were in place. Scores for examinees with LD from test administrations with accommodations were similar to those of examinees without LD on standard administrations, but less well associated with grade point averages. The results of this study provide evidence that although scores for examinees with LD from nonstandard test administrations are comparable to scores for examinees without LD, they have less criterion validity and are less meaningful for their intended purpose.
Genotype-Environment Correlations for Language-Related Abilities
Authors: Gilger Jeffrey W. , Ho Hsiu-Zu , Whipple Angela D. , Spitz Romy
Published: December 2007

Recent behavioral genetic research has shown that genetic propensities are associated with individual differences in experiences, and thus, what may appear to be environmental effects can reflect genetic influence. This study examines passive genotype-environment correlations (GECs) for language-related abilities by comparing environment-child language associations in adoptive and nonadoptive families. The results provide evidence for the genetic mediation of the association between home environmental variables, such as the provision of toys and games, maternal involvement, and degree of intellectual/cultural orientation with children's language-related abilities. Developmental changes in passive GECs are considered, and the implications for typical and atypical learners are discussed.
Emerging Issues in the Genetics of Dyslexia
Authors: Wood Frank B. , Grigorenko Elena L.
Published: December 2007

A review of the classic and recent evidence on the genetics of reading disability (RD) shows encouraging progress, and accumulating evidence of genetic risk factors that operate within families and are separately localizable to more than one chromosomal region. The accelerating pace of these findings, however, suggests the need to consider some methodological issues about the design and interpretation of current and future studies. A major issue is the shape of the distribution of reading ability in the population, and we offer three tests of increasing rigor for determining whether those distributions are categorical, and hence not suitable for analyses that depend on the assumption of a continuous normal distribution. These tests are as follows: a nonnormal preponderance of cases with RD (i.e., the hump in the lower end of the distribution); a difference in the within-group variance-covariance matrices for typical readers compared to those with RD; and a correlation between a neurogenetically relevant criterion and a categorical reading variable that is larger than the correlation between the same criterion and a continuous version of the same reading variable. We emphasize also the importance of interactive relationships between multiple genetic loci, the variations in genotypic range as well as type of affectedness, the need to account for remediation variance, and the importance of lifespan changes in the phenotypes.
Newborn and Preschool Predictors of Second-Grade Reading Scores
Authors: Molfese Victoria J. , Molfese Dennis L. , Modgline Arlene A.
Published: December 2007

This study examined how the development of foundation skills in speech perception, language, short-term memory, and family demographics and activities in the home environment influence the development of reading skills. Data from 96 children participating in a longitudinal research project were used. It was hypothesized that measures of specific foundation skills in the preschool period and measures of family demographics and home environment could be used to identify children's reading abilities. As expected, most of the foundation skills were found to be related to and predictive of reading scores. Event-related potential (ERP) measures of speech perception, which have previously been found to be predictive of reading abilities, and measures of family and home activities and language measures were related to reading scores. Verbal short-term memory scores contributed little to the prediction of reading scores. These variables influenced the results whether they were used to discriminate reading groups or to predict a continuum of reading scores, but there were large differences in the amount of variance accounted for. More variance was accounted for in the group analyses than in the continuum analyses.
The Term Comorbidity Is of Questionable Value in Reference to Developmental Disorders
Authors: Kaplan Bonnie J. , Dewey Deborah M. , Crawford Susan G. , Wilson Brenda N.
Published: December 2007

Over the last decade, there has been an enormous increase in the number of studies evaluating the overlap of developmental syndromes or disorders in both children and adults. This overlap of symptoms is often referred to as comorbidity, a term we criticize in this article because of its unsubstantiated presumption of independent etiologies. The premise of this article is that discrete categories do not exist in real life, and that it is misleading to refer to overlapping categories or symptoms as "comorbidities." We illustrate our point by presenting data from 179 school-age children evaluated with rigorous research criteria for seven disorders: reading disability (RD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental coordination disorder (DCD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), depression, and anxiety. Fully 50% of this sample met the criteria for at least two diagnoses. The children with ADHD were at higher risk of having at least a second disorder compared to the children with RD. Overall, the high rates of overlap of these behavioral, emotional, and educational deficits in this broadly ascertained sample support the idea that the concept of comorbidity is inadequate. We discuss the concept of atypical brain development as an explanatory idea to interpret the high rate of overlap of developmental disorders.
The Neurobiological Basis of Reading
Authors: Joseph Jane , Noble Kimberly , Eden Guinevere
Published: December 2007

The results from studies using positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in adults have largely revealed the involvement of left-hemisphere perisylvian areas in the reading process, including extrastriate visual cortex, inferior parietal regions, superior temporal gyrus, and inferior frontal cortex. Although the recruitment of these regions varies with the particular reading-related task, general networks of regions seem to be uniquely associated with different components of the reading process-For example, visual word form processing is associated with occipital and occipitotemporal sites, whereas reading-relevant phonological processing has been associated with superior temporal, occipitotemporal and inferior frontal sites of the left hemisphere. Such findings are evaluated in light of the technical and experimental limitations encountered in functional brain imaging studies, and the implications for pediatric studies are discussed.
The Language of Written Language
Authors: Hooper Stephen R.
Published: December 2007

This special issue includes five articles dealing with selected aspects of writing disorders, crafted by key contributors to the literature on written language. Articles addressing definitional issues and diagnostic questions, assessment strategies, selected neurodevelopmental components of written expression, the manifestation of writing problems in children and young adults, direct intervention, training for elementary teachers in the early grades in the area of literacy, and brain-behavior linkages are presented. This introduction provides an overview of these articles tied to specific issues confronting the field of written language. Some thoughts and directions for the future are articulated.
School Is Fun at Recess
Authors: Gregg Noel , Mather Nancy
Published: December 2007

The purpose of an informal analysis of written language is to identify what writers can do as well as what they find difficult about writing. This article reviews the varied components of written language, suggests informal means for assessment, and summarizes the cognitive and linguistic factors that influence varied aspects of writing performance. Two informal evaluation scales are presented that stress the interconnection between oral and written language processes.