bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Corsican Independence Movement
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Throughout the history of Corsica there have been a number of attempts to turn the island into an independent country. In ancient times it was settled by Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Etruscans before being conquered by the Romans in 160
bce
. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century witnessed Corsica attacked by the Goths and Vandals, and later the Arabs.
Costa Rican Civil War and Uprising, 1948
Authors: Ullrich Jan
Published: September 2017

The Costa Rican Civil War in 1948 and the struggle for political and social reforms in the 1940s are central events in the country's contemporary history. In the 44‐day armed confrontation between a pro‐government workers' militia and the oppositional National Liberation Army, more than 4,000 people lost their lives. The uprising led to the establishment of an interim Junta by José Figueres Ferrer, and the constitutional foundation of the Costa Rican Second Republic.
Cǒte d'Ivoire, Post‐independence Protest
Authors: Diabate Naminata
Published: September 2017

Cǒte d'Ivoire gained political independence from France, the former colonial power, in 1960. For more than three decades to 1993, the Ivorian nation was ruled by President Félix Houphouët‐Boigny, who termed the era “la démocratie à l'ivoirienne” (democracy Ivorian style). Cǒte d'Ivoire enjoyed political stability and relative socioeconomic prosperity. However, with Houphouët‐Boigny's death in 1993, Cǒte d'Ivoire faced political instability typified by ethnicization of politics, social protests, military coups, and civil conflict with secessionist undertones. The instability was accentuated if not caused by poor economic conditions precipitated by the drop in cocoa and coffee prices on international markets and the imposition of austerity measures by multilateral agencies.
Counterrevolution, France, 1789–1830
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

Counterrevolution was an integral part of the French Revolution, as soon as there was a revolution to counter. When the deputies of the Third Estate resolved to establish a Constituent National Assembly, and not to disperse before the creation of a constitution, the king's brother, the Comte d'Artois, organized aristocratic and upper clerical resistance. At the Royal Session of June 23, 1789, the king outlined a program of extremely moderate reforms, such as no taxation without consent, regular meetings of the Estates General, abrogation of binding mandates (so that deputies could take initiatives on their own), individual and press freedom, and a set of legal and fiscal reforms. This was a whittling down of the Comptroller General Necker's proposal. For the next decade, this was as far as the leaders of the counterrevolution were willing to go, while some of their followers thought even this went too far. The queen's party, or the grouping around her and Artois, engineered the removal of Necker when they failed to arrest the Revolution through the Royal Session of June 23. This of course resulted in the uprising that caused the fall of the Bastille.
Crazy Horse (1849–1877), Sitting Bull (1831–1890), and Native American resistance at the Battle of Little Bighorn
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

The significance of the Battle of Little Bighorn lies more in the stand made by two fearless American Indian leaders than in the defeat of General George Armstrong Custer. Both Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull found their peak as revolutionaries on the Little Bighorn River in Montana in the summer of 1876, in a battle that would both add to their legends and seal their fate. The contribution made by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull to the defense of the American Indian lies not just in this epic battle, but in a fearless commitment to lead their people against an oppressive United States government.
Cristero Uprising,
M
exico, 1928
Authors: Zimmering Raina
Published: September 2017

The Cristero uprising, also known as the Cristero war, or the Cristiada, was a religious armed uprising in Central Mexico from 1926 to 1929. With the Mexican revolutionary Constitution of 1917, all religious communities lost their legal status: Article 3 mandated secular education in schools, Article 5 outlawed monastic religious orders, Article 24 forbade public religious worship outside temples, Article 27 restricted religious organizations' rights to own property, and Article 130 took away the basic civil rights of members of the clergy. President Plutaro Elias Calles adopted equivalent laws. He signed the Law for Reforming the Penal Code, known as the Calles Law. Calles seized church property, expelled all foreign priests, and closed the monasteries, convents, and religious schools. The Catholic Church hierarchy reacted with the closing of churches and schools and an economic boycott, but this had no political effect.
Cuba, Struggle for Independence From
S
pain, 1868–1898
Authors: Santo Diana Espirito
Published: September 2017

Cuba's first war of independence from Spain, known as the Ten Years' War, lasted from 1868 to 1878, and is understood by historians largely in the context of the Creole islanders' concerns with slavery and the viability of the island's continuity as an economic and social system. For the sugar and coffee plantation elites, slavery constituted the primary vehicle for the production of wealth, but was also to be the system that provoked its eventual crisis and ultimate downfall.
Cuban Post‐Revolutionary Protests
Authors: Gonzalez Mike
Published: September 2017

The Cuban Revolution of 1959 removed a corrupt and increasingly violent dictatorship and set out a program for social transformation and economic development that would favor the working poor of Cuba. While this won the support of that majority, there were clearly those for whom this change was unacceptable. The Batista regime of 1952–8 was notorious for its corruption, disregard for democratic institutions, and close relationship (at least until its final months) with the United States. Initial resistance to the Cuban Revolution came therefore from those who had benefited under Batista. There were those immediately responsible for maintaining the previous regime – the secret police, the torturers, the representatives of US‐based organized crime who controlled much of the tourist industry. And there was a broader layer, particularly among the professional classes, who feared the loss of their privileged social position – lawyers, doctors, those in the financial sector, and so on. Privilege in Cuba was also associated with racial stratification and the domination of white Cubans over those with darker skin. Beyond Cuba, initial reactions to the Cuban Revolution were mixed; ironically, the CIA was among those US institutions advocating a rapprochement with Fidel Castro in the early months (Szulc 1986: 336; Farber 2006: 76). But by the time Castro arrived in the US in April 1959, it was clear that the Eisenhower administration, and its successors, would adopt a relentlessly aggressive stand towards the revolution.
Cuban Revolution, 1953–1959
Authors: Gonzalez Mike
Published: September 2017

In one sense, the Cuban Revolution is an event – the moment (on January 1, 1959) at which Fulgencio Batista, Cuba's dictatorial ruler, fled the country and a column of bearded young guerilla fighters took power in the capital, Havana. Yet a revolution is more than a seizure of power. It is that process, through time, in the course of which power is transferred from one social class to another. And that process is a continuum whose history begins with the stirring of new social forces and the earliest and perhaps unsuccessful challenges to the structures of the existing society.
Dada
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Coinciding with the outbreak of World War I, Dada was originally perceived as a protest against bourgeois nationalism and colonialism in Europe and North America. Dadaists accused the interests of these groups of fueling the war through their influence on cultural and intellectual conformity. Dada, in its essence, was a form of artistic expression that sought to exist outside of those barriers. As artists, Dadaists sought to reject reason and logic and embrace irrationality and chaos. This was in direct protest to the natural order of capitalist societies which they considered representative of bourgeois culture and repression.
Dalit Liberation Struggles
Authors: Chatterjee Debt
Published: September 2017

Hindu society is marked by caste stratification. Etymologically, the term caste derives from the Portuguese word
casta
, which means “breed” or “race.” Originating probably as four
varnas
(divisions based on social functions), the Brahmins (priests and scholars specializing on scriptures), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Sudras (laborers serving the above three), today some 3,000 social groups claim caste status. G. S. Ghurye (1993) identified six outstanding features of caste‐ruled Hindu society, namely, segmental division of society, hierarchy, restrictions on feeding and social intercourse, civil and religious disabilities and privileges of the different sections, lack of unrestricted choice of occupation, and restrictions on marriage. Central to caste ideology has been the notion of “purity” and “pollution” of the castes.
Dange, S. A. (1899–1991)
Authors: Gupta Shatarupa Sen
Published: September 2017

Born in Nasik, Maharashtra, and inspired by the extremist ideas of Tilak, Shripat Amrit Dange's political career began when he was expelled from Bombay University for revolutionary activities. He participated in Gandhi's non‐cooperation movement, but the Russian Revolution (1917) moved him towards Marxism. Dange's pamphlet,
Gandhi Versus Lenin
(1921), was much appreciated by M. N. Roy and the Communist International. Also impressed was R. B. Lotvala, a Bombay flour‐mill owner, who financed Dange's study of Marxism and also helped him build a library of Marxist literature. By 1922 he had started publishing the
Socialist
, the first Marxist English weekly in India.
Danton, Georges Jacques (1759–1794)
Authors: Takeda Junko
Published: September 2017

Georges Jacques Danton was a lawyer, a gifted orator, and an influential revolutionary leader during the French Revolution. He was a controversial figure, both revered as a charismatic statesman by his supporters and despised as a corrupt politician by those who opposed him.
Daquilema, Fernando (d. 1872) and the 1871 Uprising, Ecuador
Authors: Mutlak Natalie
Published: September 2017

Fernando Daquilema, a peasant from Cacha, Ecuador, led an indigenous uprising in December 1871 that is considered to be one of the most important in nineteenth‐century Ecuador. The uprising expressed indigenous resistance against Ecuadorian nation‐state building and was caused by high church taxes and forced labor for national roadworks.
Davitt, Michael (1846–1906)
Authors: Mulligan William H.
Published: September 2017

Michael Davitt was a revolutionary and politician active in several Irish nationalist organizations. He first joined the Fenian movement – the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) – but was expelled after announcing his commitment to achieve Irish independence through means other than physical force. Davitt then joined with Charles Stewart Parnell to create the Land League of Ireland, and continued throughout his career to advocate Irish land reform.
Day, Dorothy (1897–1980)
Authors: Pauli Benjamin J.
Published: September 2017

As a writer, activist, and matriarch of the Catholic Worker movement, Dorothy Day helped to redefine the way Catholic religious teaching related to social engagement. Day was born in Brooklyn in 1897 but spent the bulk of her formative years in Chicago, where exposure to urban poverty initiated what would become a lifelong concern with social ills. When she first came into contact with radicalism as a student at the University of Illinois, the groundwork of righteous indignation that had been laid during her explorations of Chicago's slums was channeled into political activism. She joined the Socialist Party and began working for the Socialist newspaper the
Call
in 1916 upon moving to New York City. This was the first of several newspaper positions, and her journalism brought her into contact with protests, marches, and meetings, as well as the crowd of bohemian leftist intellectuals that became her chosen coterie.
De Leon, Daniel (1852–1914)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Daniel De Leon was born on the island of Curaçao on December 14, 1852 and was educated in Germany and the Netherlands. He arrived in the United States in 1874, settling in New York as a student and later teacher at Columbia University. De Leon was influenced by the writings of Edward Bellamy and later converted to socialism. He joined the Knights of Labor and worked for the campaign to elect Henry George mayor of New York City in 1886. In 1890 he joined the Socialist Labor Party (SLP), becoming the editor of its newspaper,
The People
. As his influence grew De Leon, along with Laurence Gronlund, Morris Hillquit, and Abraham Cahan, became a central leader of the SLP and began arguing for the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism.
De Valera, Eamon (1882–1975)
Authors: Mulligan William H.
Published: September 2017

Eamon de Valera, the highest‐ranking survivor of the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland, played a leading role in Irish political life from 1916 through 1959. More than any other figure, he shaped the nature of independent Ireland's social and economic life.
Debord, Guy (1931–1994) and the Spectacle
Authors: Dalakoglou Dimitrios K.
Published: September 2017

Guy Ernest Debord was a self‐described filmmaker, agitator, activist, author, artist, and the most famous member of avant‐garde movements Lettrism International and Situationist International (SI). Together with the rest of the Situationists, he was involved in – and to a certain degree influenced – the May 1968 rebellion in France. In theoretical terms he was part of the poststructuralist Marxist trend of the 1960s and was engaged in an aesthetic‐oriented direct action activism until the early 1970s, when he abandoned such activities “for the construction of situations.” Debord co‐edited the Journal
Internationale Situationiste
, to which he contributed eight articles, and is the author of numerous pamphlets, books, and articles written between 1952 and 1994. His most famous and comprehensive book is
The Society of the Spectacle
(1967), upon which his 1973 film of the same title is based.
Dellinger, David (1915–2004)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Born August 22, 1915 in Wakefield, Massachusetts, David Dellinger was the son of a wealthy lawyer from a prominent Republican family. Dellinger spent his entire life involved in non‐violent action against war and oppression. After graduating from Yale with a degree in economics in 1936, he walked away from his comfortable background and spent a summer living with hoboes during the Great Depression. The following year Dellinger won a fellowship to Oxford University, and he spent some time in Germany experiencing Nazism first‐hand. During the Spanish Civil War he traveled to Spain and volunteered as an ambulance driver. His experiences there had convinced him that “whoever won the armed struggle, it would not be the people.”
Democracy Wall Movement, 1979
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

When, in 1976, Mao Zedong, leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and head of the People's Republic of China, died, an era of radical revolutionary activity that had affected virtually the entire population of China came to a close. Mao's death brought to an end the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966–76) and the subsequent arrest of the Gang of Four (leaders of the Cultural Revolution) signaled that the Chinese political sphere was opening up to a greater diversity of perspectives than had been possible under Chairman Mao's leadership. The Cultural Revolution, although in many respects anarchic, provided the CCP with an opportunity to achieve a high degree of control over the public expression of ideas about China's political, economic, and social sphere. As its leaders were condemned and its victims rehabilitated in the years immediately following Mao's death, many intellectuals were emboldened to express their views once again. The Democracy Wall movement of 1979 was the boldest manifestation of this process.
Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997)
Authors: Lubitz Leonard H.
Published: September 2017

Born in Sichuan, Deng Xiaoping was the son of a rural sheriff. At the age of 15, upon graduation from preparatory school, he traveled to France where approximately 1,500 young Chinese were participating in a program known as
Qingong jianxue
(diligent work, thrifty study). It was in these ranks that Deng became a student of Marxism along with older classmates including Zhou Enlai and Zhou Shiyan, while supporting themselves by laboring in manual positions including at the Schneider‐Creusot armaments factory, the Hutchinson rubber goods factory, and restaurant kitchens.
D
enmark, Insurrection and Revolt
Authors: Hare J. Laurence
Published: September 2017

The history of protest in Denmark has largely been characterized by moderation and compromise, which has allowed the country to remain among the most stable nation‐states in Europe. The desire for reform, however, has been a common theme in the country's rural sector, where Danish farmers have long struggled for greater independence, both from the landed elite and the state. More revolutionary impulses, however, have resulted from the gradual transformation of Denmark from a multinational dynastic empire to a more modest modern nation. While mostly peaceful, this process was occasionally marked by tensions in some border regions that in turn disrupted the tenor of domestic politics.
Di Vittorio, Giuseppe (1892–1957)
Authors: Antonioli Maurizio
Published: September 2017

Giuseppe Di Vittorio was among the most influential union leaders in modern Italian labor history, leading the Confederazione Generate Italiana dei Lavoratori (CGIL) in its refounding after Fascism. Born in Cerignola, a rural town in Apulia on August 11, 1892 to a family of peasant workers, after his father's death Di Vittorio was forced to leave school and work as a day laborer. He joined the May 1904 general strike, an event during which five workers were killed by troops in Cerignola.
Dictatorship of the Proletariat
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

The concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat (DOP) has occupied for a century a central position in discussions of Marx's theory of politics. The writings of Marx and Engels during the revolution of 1848 show that they considered the democratic movement to be formed by workers, petty bourgeoisie, and peasants, and desired energetic use of force to ensure the triumph of these classes, a political strategy they sometimes described as “dictatorship,” referring to use of force, not rule. Eventually, the concept of permanent revolution indicated that if the proletariat was to be the leading class in winning the battle of democracy, then in essence the rule established would be the rule of the proletariat. So, by 1850, Marx started using the term dictatorship of the proletariat to designate the rule of the working class. His writings about the DOP contrasted bourgeois class rule (dictatorship of the bourgeoisie) with working‐class rule. As Marx described in a passage discussing the condition of the peasantry: “Only the fall of Capital can raise the peasant; only an anti‐capitalist, a proletarian government can break his economic misery, his social degradation. The
constitutional republic
is the dictatorship of his united exploiters; the
social democratic republic
, the
Red
republic is the dictatorship of his allies” (Marx and Engels 1978: 122).
Directory, France, 1795–1799
Authors: Johnson Eric F.
Published: September 2017

The Directory was the executive branch of the government of France between November 2, 1795 and November 10, 1799. It was formed after the fall of Robespierre and the National Convention, and was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte. The period of its existence was a transitional one, and the Directory reflected the contradictory nature of the era. Although bearing the authority of one of history's most inspiring social transformations, its rule was characterized by bureaucratic maneuvering and the petty politics of narrow self‐interest.
Diriangén (1496 or 1497–1530s)
Authors: Ewald Kerstin
Published: September 2017

As a cacique, or ruler, of the native Chorotega group, Diriangén opposed Spanish conqueror Gil González Dávila from 1523 to 1529 and is a symbol of Nicaraguan indigenous resistance. He is celebrated in the song “Nicaragua, Nicaragüita” composed by C. M. Godoy, often mentioned as the secret national anthem of Nicaragua.
Dix, Dorothea (1802–1887)
Authors: Solmonson Le'Ann L.
Published: September 2017

Dorothea Dix is considered to be one of the most influential reformists of the nineteenth century, yet she is also one of the most unrecognized. Dix devoted a significant portion of her adult life to advocating for those who were unable to speak up for themselves. Her persistence resulted in successful advances in the treatment of prisoners, the indigent, and the mentally ill.
Djilas, Milovan (1911–1995)
Authors: Kanzleiter Boris
Published: September 2017

Milovan Djilas was one of the leading communist partisan commanders who led the successful anti‐fascist People's Liberation War against the German and Italian occupation of Yugoslavia during World War II. He was also the internationally best‐known Yugoslav dissident after World War II and a notable theorist and author.
D
os
P
assos,
J
ohn (1896–1970)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

As an illegitimate child born in Chicago in 1896, John Dos Passos often described himself as “an unidentified stranger” with a “destination unknown.” As a child he lived in Brussels and then London until he entered the Choate Preparatory School in Wallingford, Connecticut, in 1907. Because of his European upbringing he often considered himself “a man without a country.” In September 1912 Dos Passos entered Harvard University, where he became a critic of industrialism, claiming that the “world today somehow got itself enslaved by this immense machine.”
D
os
S
antos
A
lbasini,
J
oão (1876–1922)
Authors: Morais Isabel
Published: September 2017

Born in Magule, Mozambique (Portuguese East Africa), João dos Santos Albasini was a mulatto, the leading intellectual in the main center, Lourenço Marques (today, Maputo), the editor of
O Africano
(The African) founded 1908, and
O Brado Africano
(The African Voice) founded in 1918, and a champion of worker and African rights. Often characterized as a republican and a moderate, Albasini had a basic education and an appetite for ideas. He was an avid reader of republican theory, syndicalism, and anarchism – all influential in Portugal – and was familiar with a range of radical ideas circulating in the city's thriving café culture.
D
ouglass,
F
rederick (1817–1895)
Authors: Sims Yvonne D.
Published: September 2017

Frederick Douglass, former slave, prominent abolitionist, and one of the first black intellectuals of the nineteenth century, was born in Talbot County, Maryland. His autobiography is one of the most important historical references pertaining to the impact of slavery on both African Americans and the political, social, and cultural arenas in America. Three crucial moments define Douglass's impact on American culture: his beginnings as a slave and the recounting of his experiences in
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself
; his work in the abolitionist movement; and his emergence as one of the most prominent voices articulating the black experience in slavery.
D
u
B
ois,
W
.
E
.
B
. (1868–1963)
Authors: Zeitler Michael
Published: September 2017

Sociologist, historian, philosopher, educator, novelist, critic, editor, civil rights activist, and organizer for over half a century, William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was among the most powerful voices in the international struggle for freedom, social justice, and equality. As a scholar, Du Bois challenged the accepted historical accounts of the Atlantic slave trade and Reconstruction and was the first to apply modern sociological theory to the problems of urban African Americans. As an educator, he advocated what would later become black and Africana studies. As a critic, editor, and novelist, he helped to define a black aesthetic and usher in the Harlem Renaissance. As an activist and organizer, he played a key role in the Niagara Movement, which in 1909 led to the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). As editor of the NAACP's journal,
The Crisis
, for a quarter of a century, he used that venue to speak out against lynching, discrimination, and segregation in the United States and western colonialism in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Disillusioned with the prospect of achieving full racial equality in the United States, Du Bois became a naturalized citizen of Ghana before his death in 1963, at the age of 95.
D
ubček,
A
lexander (1921–1992)
Authors: Santora Joseph C.
Published: September 2017

Alexander Dubček, a one‐time member of the Czechoslovakian Communist Party, was a reformer who served as prime minister of the country in 1968. Born in 1921, Dubček became a member of the Communist Party of Slovakia in the late 1930s. By 1955, he was a member of the Central Committee, attended Moscow Political College, and graduated in 1958. In 1960 he moved to Prague from Bratislava, and was appointed secretary of the Czechoslovak Central Committee. Two years later, in 1962, he was chosen to serve on the party presidium. Shortly thereafter, he was appointed to the highest post in the Slovak Communist Party.
D
ublin
G
eneral
S
trike, 1913
Authors: Fitzpatrick Claire
Published: September 2017

The Dublin Lock Out, or General Strike, of 1913 has been described as one of the most important events in both Irish and British labor history. Lasting six months, it was a battle between labor and all the forces of the state of such a scale that it looked like the significant issue of the twentieth century would involve not the national question, but the relationship between capital and labor. It occurred at a critical juncture in development of the national question and has been seen in retrospect as a dress rehearsal for Easter 1916.
Durrani Empire, Popular Protests, 1747–1823
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

The Durrani empire emerged in 1747 as fundamentally a military confederation of Pashtun ethnic groups in the Central Asian region of modern‐day Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan. While not a centralized state, at its peak of expansion the Durrani empire covered an area of 780,000 square miles (2,000,000 square kilometers). The empire stretched from Afghanistan across Pakistan to within 60 miles of Delhi. As a privileged ethnicity, the Pashtun dominated the royal court, bureaucracy, and army and gained most of the perquisites of the confederation. As the Durrani empire expanded its military reach, non‐Pashtun nationalities were overpowered and suppressed by the Pashtun. Those who were not members of the dominant Pashtun were subjected to higher taxation and forced into compulsory military duty, while the local land and water resources of many were expropriated by the colonial empire. Swelling tensions between newcomers and the indigenous non‐Pashtun population sparked open clashes and revolts against the colonial empire.
D
urruti,
B
uenaventura (1896–1936)
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: September 2017

Born in León in northwestern Spain to a poor family, Buenaventura Durruti emerged as one of the most prominent anarchist militants in Spain prior to and during the Spanish Revolution. In death he would become a symbol of commitment to anarchist principles in opposition to compromise and reformism.
E
arth
F
irst!
Authors: Wall Derek
Published: September 2017

During the 1990s British environmental activists used direct action in an attempt to halt road construction. A loose network of radical environmentalists, Earth First! (EF!) was central to the anti‐roads campaign. Originally founded in the United States, Earth First! projected a philosophy of deep ecology combined with direct action using the slogan “No compromise in defense of Mother Earth.” Particularly in the 1980s when it was first established, Earth First! often advocated ecologically motivated sabotage, including the highly controversial tactic of tree spiking (Lee 1995). In Britain it was far less interested in projecting a philosophy and focused instead simply on the need to use direct action, based usually on mass mobilization, to tackle environmental and other ills (Wall 1999).
East
A
nglian Wheat County Riots, 1816
Authors: Griffin Carl J.
Published: September 2017

Starting in mid‐April 1816 the so‐called Bread or Blood riots represented the first of a series of three English rural collective disturbances in the period of the post‐Napoleonic Wars depression. Unlike the 1822 East Anglian laborers' protests or the Swing Riots of 1830, the events of 1816 were remarkable for their heterogeneous set of causes, protest techniques, and activists. Here field and fen workers, petty landowners and small farmers, workers in the decaying local textile industries, artisans, and urban tradesmen united. The protests of 1816 effectively combined both traditional market town‐based food rioting and anti‐enclosure riots with more novel attacks on industrial and agricultural machinery.
E
ast
T
imor, Anti‐Colonial Struggle, 1974 to Independence
Authors: Myrttinen Henri
Published: September 2017

Located at the eastern end of the Lesser Sunda island chain of the Indonesian Archipelago and occupying half of the island of Timor, East Timor has been marginalized and occupied for most of its recent history. Notwithstanding intermittent revolts against the Portuguese colonial presence, the largest, the Manufahi War of 1910–13, and the Viqueque Revolt in 1959, Portuguese Timor, unlike Portugal's African colonies, had no systematic or sustained opposition movement to the 450 years of Portuguese rule. The Carnation Revolution of April 25, 1974 and subsequent decolonization process started by the Armed Forces Movement (Movimento das Forças Armadas) (MFA) thrust East Timorese society into an unexpected era of insurrection against occupation.
E
aster
R
ising and the
I
rish
C
ivil
W
ar
Authors: Mulligan William H.
Published: September 2017

The Easter Rising in 1916 began a period of conflict and turmoil in Ireland that did not end until 1923, and even then it was not clear for some time that active conflict had ended. The period encompasses the Easter Rising and its immediate aftermath as well as the Irish War for Independence and the Irish Civil War – three discrete, if closely connected, historical events.
E
astman,
M
ax (1883–1969)
Authors: Silos Jill
Published: September 2017

Max Eastman was a prolific American writer, collaborating on several radical journals and publishing several books throughout the first half of the twentieth century. Radicalized from an early age, Eastman was a supporter of Trotsky until the 1940s when he went on to disavow communism and support Joseph McCarthy.
Eco‐Anarchism
Authors: Gordon Uri
Published: September 2017

Environmental direct action has been a major site for the revival of anarchist political culture since the 1970s. In tandem, a diverse body of ecoanarchist thought has emerged in response to the environmental crisis.
E
cuador, Indigenous and Popular Struggles
Authors: Becker Marc
Published: September 2017

Indigenous organizations in Ecuador have long provided the foundation for popular struggles in the twentieth century and a model to the rest of Latin America for organizing social movements. In the 1920s Jesús Gualavisí, a leader in the municipality of Cayambe, led a community protest against a neighboring hacienda that expropriated their lands. Gualavisí searched for urban allies to support his fight, and attended the founding of the Ecuadorian Socialist Party in the capital city of Quito in May 1926. Subsequently, urban socialists and communists became strong supporters of rural indigenous struggles.
Ecuador, Protest and Revolution
Authors: Stewart Bruce E.
Published: September 2017

South America's second smallest republic, Ecuador has a rich, but also troubled history. Regionalism, racism, and economic dependency have plagued the country, often sparking political and social upheaval. Throughout the nineteenth century, most protest movements pitted the elite, whose economic and political power had been solidified in the wars for independence, against one another. Meanwhile, Ecuadorian Indians remained largely barred from the political process, forced to pay tribute to the central government and labor on haciendas or in mines. During the twentieth century, however, the indigenous population mobilized by creating grassroots organizations that promoted not only socioeconomic rights, but also Indian self‐determination and cultural recuperation. At the turn of the twenty‐first century, these new Indian organizations played an important role in shaping national electoral politics and forcing the government to acquiesce to some of their demands.
E
dict of
N
antes
Authors: De Waele Michel
Published: September 2017

The Edict of Nantes, dated April 30, 1598, was the legislative act that marked the end of the Wars of Religion that had rocked France since 1562. Often portrayed as an act of religious tolerance – perhaps even a first step in the development of modern human rights legislation – its reach was in fact much more limited, as it was aimed only at ensuring civil peace across the kingdom. The act's guarantee of a certain level of freedom to Protestants was motivated by hopes that they would ultimately return to the Catholic faith. It was, therefore, an act of concord aimed at ultimately uniting the French under the same religion, rather than an act of genuine tolerance.
Egypt andArab Socialism
Authors: Isaac Steven
Published: September 2017

It is a commonplace of studies that compare Baath socialism with Nasser's version of Arab socialism to state that Baathism was more idealistic, and Nasser more pragmatic. The claim is hard to dispute. Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) emerged to power precipitously, and like the Baath, moved from opposition rhetoric to creative policymaking while simultaneously discovering Arab socialism's meaning to himself and his base. The first, hesitant decisions of the Free Officers movement seemed in fact inclined to conciliate western and capitalist interests. In part thanks to Egypt's tradition of centralized control, Nasser and his associates were able actually to implement socialist programs (and amend them if needed) that were impossible in the more fractious political landscapes of Syria and Iraq. Developments in Egypt were further influenced by Nasser's charisma, which could smooth over the ideological potholes that often occupied a theorist like Michel Aflaq, founder of the Baathist movement.
E
gypt,
P
easant
R
ebellion of 1824
Authors: Hansen Nicole B.
Published: September 2017

The Peasant Rebellion of 1824 in Egypt has been little studied and seriously muddled by authors and scholars who have engaged in plagiarism, fabrication, and confusion of individuals, events, and dates.
E
nglish
R
evolution, Women and
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

In 1640–1, England was shaking as the old order collapsed. With the destruction of the instruments of royal absolutist control, there came a freeing of the mind. Even though in origin parliament's struggle against King Charles had been a struggle by the elite, common people took part as time went on, and many of these were women, who saw in the war primarily injuries, the loss of close male relatives, and the difficulties in keeping the family fed while the men were at war.
Environmental Protest,
U
nited
S
tates, 19th Century
Authors: Henris John Robert
Published: September 2017

During much of the nineteenth century, rural communities resisted new emerging discourses of wilderness, conservation, and preservation enacted upon them by corporate, municipal, state, or federal authority, as well as by intellectuals and other elites. Such protest to changing perceptions and management of the environment manifested itself most ubiquitously in the form of resistance to conservation law through legal challenges or by more subversive means like trespass, poaching, and timber theft. Less commonly, municipal, corporate, state, or federal challenges to traditional use of natural resources among local communities manifested itself in more violent interactions including sabotage, rioting, assault, arson, and even murder. Nineteenth‐century environmental protest dealt less with ecological degradation, though there was protest against such instances, and more commonly with questions concerning which individuals or entities had the right to incorporate natural resources, manage, or limit access to nature.
EPR (Ejército Popular Revolucionario)
Authors: Esch Sophie Sarah
Published: September 2017

The Popular Revolutionary Army (Ejército Popular Revolucionario, EPR) is a Marxist‐Leninist guerilla force operating in various federal states of Mexico, predominantly in the marginalized south and center. Since its appearance in 1996, the EPR has drawn attention with coordinated, violent attacks on state officials and institutions, the latest reportedly in July and September 2007, when pipelines of the national oil company PEMEX were blown up. Scholarly interest in the EPR has remained very low, however, and the EPR has been viewed with mistrust even by leftist sectors of Mexican society.
Escuela Moderna Movement (The Modern School)
Authors: Leberstein Stephen
Published: September 2017

Model schools for working‐class children, embodying principles of rationalism, co‐education, and “moral” upbringing, were an important project of the anarchist and anarchosyndicalist movement in the two decades leading up to World War I. At the time secular public education was not yet secure in much of Western Europe, and many on the left saw public schools as training grounds for nationalism and the barracks. The model schools would demonstrate the superiority of a “rational” education, provide a much‐needed resource for working‐class families, and produce “new people,” the cadres of a future libertarian society.
Estates General,France
Authors: Phelps Mark Anthony
Published: September 2017

The Estates General was a French parliamentary body created in 1302 that served primarily to approve royal taxation. It was composed of representatives from three elements of society, the clergy (the First Estate), the nobility (the Second Estate), and the rest of society (the Third Estate). Prior to 1789, the last Estates General was called in 1614.
Farm Labor Organizing Committee
Authors: Zirakzadeh Cyrus Ernesto
Published: September 2017

Among the many farm‐worker organizations that appeared in the wake of the achievements of the United Farm Workers (UFW), the Farm Labor Organizing Committee (FLOC) stands out because of its remarkable longevity and effectiveness. Founded in 1967, the FLOC attempted to organize migrant farm workers in the Midwest. Farms in Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan relied on seasonal farmhands to harvest crops that then were purchased by large processing companies, such as Heinz USA, Vlasic Foods, and the Campbell Soup Company. Most farmhands were Mexican Americans and legal Mexican immigrants who over a year traveled from southern states, especially Florida and Texas, to the Midwest and then back to the South. In the 1980s government investigators in the Midwest reported that migrant farm workers were often housed in rooms without heating and indoor plumbing, and were provided with water contaminated by pesticide runoff.
Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI)
Authors: Romanes Eduardo
Published: September 2017

The FAI was a clandestine organization of Spanish and Portuguese anarchists, mostly affiliated with the Spanish anarchosyndicalist trade union, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT). The FAI became very active in the 1930s in Spain, first organizing revolutionary insurrections against the Second Republic and then during the Spanish Civil War.
Fell, Margaret (1614–1702)
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

Margaret Fell was the co‐founder, with George Fox, of the Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers. She was also an early preacher, organizer, and political advocate for the movement. Quakers believed that direct experience of Christ was available to all people without mediation by church officials or ceremony. Due to their rejection of any established creed, along with their emphasis on spiritual equality among people and their refusal to observe rituals that sustained the rigid social class hierarchy in seventeenth‐century England, the Friends were widely regarded as subversive to both church and state. Margaret Fell shepherded the early movement through periods of intense persecution and was a major force behind its later institutionalization. In her writings and political intercession on the behalf of her co‐religionists she fought for freedom of conscience, the right of assembly, and women's right to public ministry.
Feminist Performance
Authors: Romanska Magda
Published: September 2017

Starting in the 1960s, feminist performance artists began “defining their own roles, their own genitals, their own eroticism, and their own rules” (Juno 1991: 74). Because it combines visual imagery with the spoken word, theater offers a unique opportunity to deconstruct both the language and the visual codes of patriarchal tradition. Experimenting with nudity and obscenity as a way of dislocating the patriarchal discourse, female performance artists turned to their own bodies to search for “a symbolic reclamation of woman's subjectivity through the body” (Dolan 1987: 159).
Fenian Movement
Authors: Wahlert Matthew
Published: September 2017

The Fenian movement – revolutionary secret societies dedicated to gaining independence for Ireland – arose when nineteenth‐century Irish nationalists created the Fenian Brotherhood, named after the Gaelic hero Fionn mac Cumhail. The movement, which was active in both Ireland and America, was committed to liberating Ireland through “physical force”; its position was that revolution should be “sooner or never.”
Foucault, Michel (1926–1984)
Authors: Metafas Petros
Published: September 2017

A prominent philosopher, historian, sociologist, critical thinker, and activist, Michel Foucault rose to become one of the most highly regarded intellectuals within French mainstream circles while simultaneously retaining his focus on social groups diverging and excluded from this very mainstream. Foucault's study of certain social institutions derived to a large extent from his lived experiences: for a significant part of his life he suffered from depression, subsequently examining psychiatry and medicine (Foucault 1973). Similarly, his own homosexuality might have triggered his interest in the history of sexuality (Foucault 1978, 1985, 1986). Foucault provided some of the most excellent and critical studies of repressive social institutions and structures, explained through his analysis of power according to which the latter runs through the entire social body and is incorporated into all social relationships.
Fox, Charles James (1749–1806)
Authors: Pentland Gordon N.
Published: September 2017

Charles James Fox was a leader of the Whig Party in the British parliament. Spending 37 years in parliament and achieving high office on two occasions, he gained a reputation as a champion of religious and civil liberty after pushing for the Libel Act of 1792 (known as Fox's Act) and the abolition of the slave trade in 1806.
Fox, George (1624–1691)
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

George Fox was founder of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in the mid‐seventeenth century. A social and spiritual reformer, Fox asserted that true knowledge came directly from God, without intercession from textual or priestly authority, and he encouraged his followers to recognize the “inner light” of faith available to all regardless of gender or class. His followers, dubbed Quakers by critics of their emotional enthusiasm, eschewed social conventions of speech, dress, and manner that maintained class boundaries. Fox's spiritual doctrine and practice represented a profound challenge to the social and political structures with which the institutional church was entwined. For over three decades he and his fellow Friends endured dispossession, imprisonment, physical abuse, and death as they asserted their right to freedom of conscience and responsibility to reshape the world in accordance with their view of social justice.
Friedan, Betty (1921–2006)
Authors: Childers Shari
Published: September 2017

“I did not set out consciously to start a revolution,” said Betty Friedan. Even so, her book
The Feminine Mystique
(1963) is credited with launching second wave feminism and significantly energizing the women's movement in the United States. Certainly, her path to revolution began inauspiciously enough. Born Bettye Naomi Goldstein, in Peoria, Illinois, she attended Smith College and then married Carl Friedan in 1947. Her story, though still questioned by some, is that she was fired from her job as a journalist as a direct result of her pregnancy with her second child. Like most women, she went home to devote herself to her family.
Friedländer, Benedikt (1866–1908)
Authors: Griem Rowena
Published: September 2017

Benedikt Friedländer (or Benedict Friedlaender) was active in the natural sciences before becoming a social and political philosopher and activist in the modern German homosexual rights movement. He sought to normalize relationships between men by viewing them in their historical and cultural context. He embraced the
Fret Körper Kultur
(Free Body Culture) movement and published articles advocating nudism in nature. In 1903 his first of several works on homosexuality appeared. His most influential book was
Die Renaissance des Eros Uranios
(1904).
Fronde, France, 1648–1653
Authors: Maier Wendy
Published: September 2017

The Fronde was a series of revolts that occurred in France between 1648 and 1653, during the minority of Louis XIV. The word
fronde
means “catapult” or “sling” and its use to signify these revolts derives from the device utilized to throw mud or rocks at coaches and government buildings during the disturbances.
Grimké, Angelina (1805–1879) and Sarah (1792–1873)
Authors: Gougon Danielle
Published: September 2017

Sarah and Angelina Grimké helped pioneer the anti‐slavery and women's rights movement in the United States. Although they were born into a wealthy, slaveholding family in Charleston, South Carolina, the sisters were profoundly disturbed by the concept of slavery and shared the belief that all people are created equal.
Guaicaipuro (ca. 1530–1568)
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

Guaicaipuro was a pre‐Columbian indigenous leader, or cacique, in the Spanish province of Venezuela in the sixteenth century who organized fierce and successful resistance against the Spanish colonialists, driving them from the region of Los Teques in the Caracas Valley and the nearby coast for nearly a decade. In the twenty‐first century, Guaicaipuro remains a popular icon in Venezuela of indigenous power and resistance to foreign colonial incursion. Guaicaipuro was cacique of his own village called Suruapo or Suruapay, situated in the region of Los Teques, north of the Caracas Valley. As chief of several indigenous clans in the region, Guaicaipuro formed a broad alliance against Spanish colonialism.