bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Golf Ball and A Bouncy Ball, Which Bounces Higher and Why
Authors: Boydston Kate Elizabeth , Ossa-Jaen Cecil , Wang Anying , Zhao Mengyao , Centorino Jim
Published: September 2020

The AP Physics I class at Louisville High School takes a detailed look at the difference in elasticity between a golf ball and a dense bouncy rubber ball.
The Effects of Heat Wave Temperature Patterns on Arabidopsis Thaliana
Authors: Ramaiah Sara , Talarczyk Patricia
Published: September 2020

Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Col-0, a model organism in plant physiology, was studied in conjunction with heat wave temperature patterns, here defined as a multi-day pattern of oscillating high maximum daily temperatures and normal temperatures. The study was run with an experimental design, involving the construction of two plant growth chambers, of which one was set to maintain a constant temperature around 23º Celsius. The other was set to vary in maximum temperature according to a heat wave definition based upon climate data from Columbia, Missouri, the native region of the studied ecotype of A. thaliana. Seeds were placed on fertilized soil and watered daily throughout the process of their growth, and they were moved into the growth chambers after sprouting under sunlight. Data was collected regarding each plant's developmental stage throughout plant growth, and biomass data was collected at the end of each individual's growth. Overall, an effect on the plants was found when the control and experimental groups were compared. The experimental group showed increased plant mortality and slowed plant development. This study has implications for the field of environmental science, climate research, and biology in that it may impact both the study of plant growth and planting seasons in agriculture. These results suggest potential for future studies into the genetic differences between plants that thrive under each set of conditions. These results are in agreement with other evidence of the negative effects of climate change on ecosystems.
Inactivation of Hydrogen Peroxide by Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and Other Commercial Items Through Peroxidase-Catalyzed Reaction
Authors: Gomperts Makayla , Davis Stephanie , Mordan Larry
Published: September 2020

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), are highly reactive and can inhibit the normal function of cells. Due to the damage ROS can cause, much interest has been generated around the effects of antioxidant supplements, which could potentially prevent or slow down ROS in the body. In this study, a variety of antioxidants were evaluated for their ability to inactivate H2O2 in a peroxidase-catalyzed reaction. Six of the fourteen antioxidants were significantly effective at inactivating H2O2 compared to the control. This study should be used to further understand how antioxidant supplements could be beneficial in the human diet.
Analyzing the Impact of Iridescence Strength on Animal Shape Recognition Using Computer Vision
Authors: Zhong Isabel , Flowers Kate
Published: September 2020

Iridescence, commonly found in nature, is the quality of a material to change colors depending on its interaction with light. For example, certain species of beetles distract predators with their iridescent exoskeletons that flash different colors depending on the angle the predator looks at them. Iridescent flowers, however, attract pollinators through their noticeable changes in color. Thus, it seems that iridescence can serve two contrasting purposes: concealment and attraction. The purpose of this project is to test whether different strengths in iridescence can impact its recognizability to animals and insects. 

Three different iridescent diffraction grating films were experimented with: 500 lines/mm, 532 lines/mm, and 1000 lines/mm. Matte paper was used as a control. Four circular epoxy resin disks (8 cm diameter) and four square epoxy resin disks (7 cm side length) were created. Each diffraction grating film type and the matte paper was glued onto one disk of each shape. Photos of each disk were then taken at angles of 30, 45, 60, and 90 degrees in a photo booth and processed through a computer vision algorithm, the Ramer-Douglas-Peucker algorithm, to perform contour approximation.

The results gathered cannot conclude that the strengths of iridescence have an impact on shape recognition and detectability due to limitations and potential errors. Nonetheless, the study can suggest that the specific usage of the Ramer-Douglas-Peucker algorithm for edge and area detection through OpenCV (an open-source computer vision library) is inadequate in imitating animal and insect visual systems when analyzing iridescence.
Exploring the Connection Between Soccer and Social Development
Authors: Kinggard Samantha , Aaronson Russel
Published: September 2020

Social development is the advancement of variables to help a person progress socially. There has been a progressive academic conversation into the idea of whether team sports, such as soccer, can help a player develop socially. This study seeks to further this academic conversation by seeing if a cooperative play, such as passing, in a traditional game of soccer can demonstrate social development within the game and to see if more soccer experience plays a role. A quantitative study was done by counting the number of passes between each team with differing levels of experience and seeing if more soccer experience explains the differing number of passes. To further investigate experience, a survey was conducted and completed by each player in the soccer matches to see if players were aware of their experience and social development skills. This study’s findings were that in the soccer games, there seemed to be no significant difference in the amount of passing between the teams of different experience levels that was due to differences in social development but seemed to only be due to a difference in skill level. This study presented a different approach and finding to the academic conversation. Looking towards the future, it is recommended that further research should have a set strategy to determine experience to make the experiment clearer.
The Effect of Phi on the Perception of Attractiveness
Authors: Wilson-Thompson Adrien
Published: September 2020

The ratio Phi, equal to approximately 1.618, is an observable phenomenon that Greek mathematician Euclid defined this relationship as a line in two parts, in which the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part is equal to the ratio of the total length over the longer part. The ancient Greeks thought of Phi as a mathematical representation of physical beauty. Although many studies have shown a correlation between Phi and perceived attractiveness, other studies have displayed no/very weak, correlation. The question, “Does the expression of Phi play a significant role in the attractiveness of a face?” was investigated. It was hypothesized that if the features of a face closely fit the proportions of Phi, then survey respondents will give that face a higher attractiveness rating than a face whose features do not. Landmark localization data was calculated for images of 14 different faces. Individual and average facial ratios were calculated for each photograph, and a survey was conducted in which 100 participants were asked to rate the attractiveness of each face on a scale of 1-10. The average attractiveness rating of each face was then compared to the variance/distance of its average facial ratio away from the numerical value of Phi. Based on the analysis of the data, faces with features whose proportions closely fit the ratio of Phi are perceived as more attractive than faces with features that do not. Faces with average facial ratios closer to Phi received higher average attractiveness ratings.
Discovery of Late Triassic fossils in the Chonos Metamorphic Complex, Southern Chile
Authors: Fang Zong-jie , Boucot Arthur , Covacevich Vladimir , Herve Francisco
Published: September 2020

The late Triassic bivalve Monotis (Pacimonotis) aff. subcircularis Gabb indicative of a Norian (probably early late Norian) age has been collected from the southeastern end of Patranca Island (45º25'S-74º09'W) in the Chonos Archipelago, Southern Chile. Another fossil bivalve, Limidae gen. et sp. indet. has been collected from a small unnamed island (45º25'S-74º10'W) 4 km to the north, and indicates a maximum Early Carboniferous, probably Mesozoic age. The fossil bearing unit is the Potranca Formation (or Potranca Unit) which forms part of the Chonos Metamorphic Complex, interpreted as a subduction complex developed on the southwestern margin of Gondwanaland. As these rocks have been previously considered to be of Paleozoic age (Late Silurian-Early Devonian), the geologic history of this part of the continental margin must be reinterpreted. These fossils provide clear evidence that marine depositional processes persisted within the Chonos Metamorphic Complex during Late Triassic time.
Flawed Foundations
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the numerous intrinsic flaws of the Army of Tennessee beginning with the hiring of unqualified officers, inadequate training for troops, and insufficient organization. The chapter also addresses the problem of sectionalism in the army. The Army of Tennessee drew soldiers from three different regions in the western front—the Upper South, Lower South, and Highlands. Soldiers from different regions were often hostile to each other because of perceived cultural and ideological differences. Lastly, the Confederacy put the Army of Tennessee at a disadvantage by poorly navigating the strategic and political issues concerning the defense of rivers permeating the western theater.
Losing the Bowl
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter highlights multiple military officials for their poor strategic decisions. General Albert Sidney Johnston is credited with creating the circumstances for defeat at Forts Henry and Donelson. The Confederates’ loss of the forts and subsequent defeat at Shiloh ultimately lost them the Tennessee bowl. Furthermore, the high number of casualties during the bowl battles, the poor conditions of Confederate camps, and forced reenlistment greatly demoralized troops. The chapter ends with the army evacuating to Tupelo, Mississippi ahead of Union forces.
The Manpower Problem
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

By the beginning of 1863, the army of Tennessee was rapidly losing men. Few were respectful of the mandatory conscription act, and the men that did report for duty were often of poor quality. Officers took a number of actions to increase the army’s ranks and to improve the behavior and discipline of soldiers. Desertions and disobedience were increasingly met with harsh punishments and executions. Bragg created a provost to crack down on anything that jeopardized the army’s functionality. The provost arrested deserters, guarded prisoners of war, closed down brothels, and generally policed the army. Realizing the Confederate Conscript Bureaux was ineffective, Bragg placed Gideon Pillow in charge of conscription, bypassing the Richmond bureaux. Pillow rounded up thousands of new conscripts, but many of them were unwilling. Many men continued to desert the army to return home or turned themselves into the enemy. Other additions to the army were returning absentees and exchanged prisoners; however, reenlistment and conscription campaigns ultimately did not make up the substantial losses caused by desertions.
The Brotherhood
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

During the cold, wet winter of 1863, troops generally waited around in camps with insufficient shelter. Many believed a Confederate victory could be achieved within the year. Spirits were lifted with the advent of Spring, and the men were eager for Rosecrans to advance on the Confederate forces. In their spare time, men diverted themselves by playing games, putting on plays, engaging with locals (some soldiers married local women), reading newspapers, competing in sports, hunting, and gambling. Some army personnel would even receive visits from their wives in camp.
Beginning in May, Bragg began relentless drilling. The brutal training routines lead to a feeling of comradery among troops. This comradery was often limited to small units and did not solve the overarching problem of sectionalism and decreases in morale caused by territory losses and defeats in battle.
Great Battle of the West
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

Between September 19 and 20, 1863. Union and Confederate forces, including the Army of Tennessee, engaged in bloody combat near Chickamauga in Northern Georgia. The Confederates emerged victorious, which boosted morale. However, the army suffered almost 18,500 casualties, including 2,312 deaths.
Officers Polk, Longstreet, and Hill began secret talks to oust Bragg in late September. On October 4, Longstreet and Hill along with 11 other officers signed a petition that falsely claimed Bragg was suffering from ill health. Polk was not present because Bragg had had him placed under arrest for defying orders and failing to attack at dawn September 20 in Alabama. News of the cabal spread to army headquarters, and Bragg was dismayed to hear that some officers he recommended for corps command were conspiring against him. President Jefferson Davis arrived in Georgia to meet with Bragg and his opponents to hear their grievances. Eventually, he declared that Bragg was still worthy of his position as General. Officers hostile to Bragg, including Hill and Polk, were given positions outside the Army of Tennessee.
The Johnston Imprint
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

After much debate, Davis assignd General Joseph E. Johnston permanent command of the Army of Tennessee. Johnston inherited an army that was not prepared to go on the offensive. Davis promoted John Bell Hood, who received a broken arm at Gettysburg and had a leg amputated after Chickamauga, to lieutenant general. After the reassignments, Davis and Bragg pushed for an offensive campaign in middle Tennessee, but Johnston contested due to lack of supplies and troops. Johnston proposed Davis send him troops before an offensive, but to no avail. Johnston improved the discipline of the army by doing things such as running drills for three hours a day and having roll call five times a day. Johnston’s drills and use of mock battles in addition to voluntary re-enlistment of three year-troops lead to increased national identity among Army of Tennessee troops.
Home Sweet Home
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

The sight of refugees and damaged towns and countryside often lowered troop morale. Some historians argue that after mid-1863, the Union adopted an unofficial strategy that consisted of destroying private property, which took a significant toll on civilians. Labor shortages left non-slave holding Whites in a tough position, and many women and children faced poverty with the men in their familial units absent. Many men in the Army of Tennessee suffered from severe homesickness and expressed this in letters to their families.
Richmond, Virginia: Thursday, 11 April 1861
Authors: Ash Stephen V.
Published: September 2020

The prologue introduces a parallel between a four-day storm and the civil war in Richmond, Virginia. The effect of the storm consisted of river water submerging roads, halting businesses, and devastating the production of plants; however, in some respect, it had the benefit of supressing street crime and rowdiness. The storm precedes the discussion of the lives of Richmonders during the Civil War years. Topics include the city’s political and military importance, and the debate over the fate of the Confederacy.
Disorder, Crime, and Sin
Authors: Ash Stephen V.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the disorder in Richmond during the war years. Drunk off-duty soldiers were impulsive and fought on the street. As a result, the military and civil authority implemented new laws to reduce this particular kind of chaos. The chapter also covers crimes such as thievery, mugging, and murder; finally, it delves into what citizens at the time considered ‘sinful’ acts: sexual encounters and affairs.
Longing, Suffering, and Death
Authors: Ash Stephen V.
Published: September 2020

This chapter reflects on depression in Richmond as a result of the longing, suffering, and death of the Civil War. The post-war years accentuated yearning, nightmare, and pain as soldiers and others were affected by their loss. The chapter also covers the experience of the wounded and ill in the hospitals, as well as the medical treatment they received. Lastly, the chapter offers an overview of burial and cremation, as well as the cemeteries and monuments that were constructed in honor of those who died in war.
The Soviet Peace Offensive and Nehru’s India, 1953–1956
Authors: Nayudu Swapna Kona
Published: September 2020

This chapter historicizes the intellectual changes that took place in the Indo-Soviet relationship between 1953 and 1956. An account of the view from New Delhi, the chapter's central argument is that this period should be studied as one of intense politicization of relations. The chapter has a discussion of the flurry of diplomatic activity that took place back and forth from Moscow during these year and comments on Nehru’s attempts at reciprocating the thaw, and to extend it from a purely bilateral relationship to a multilateral one, and indeed to institutionalize these relations by pushing forth his advocacy of the UN as being as accessible and amenable to the Soviet Union as much as it was to other powers.
Indira Gandhi, the “Long 1970s,” and the Cold War
Authors: Chacko Priya
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on Indira Gandhi’s turn to populism and authoritarianism from the late 1960s and 1970s. It is argued that populism and authoritarianism had a long-term impact on Indian politics and political economy by creating the conditions that facilitated the emergence of long-term processes of political fragmentation – due to the decline of the Congress Party and the rise of various social forces and political formations – and economic reform. The chapter first shows how Cold War interventionism played a key role in Indira Gandhi’s shift toward agrarian populist policies and authoritarianism. It then details the ways in which the outcomes of populism and authoritarianism laid the path for the turn to pro-business and pro-market policies as well as political fragmentation and democratic deepening. Hence, the chapter makes the case for seeing the 1970s as a critical juncture in Indian history which laid the foundations for the major economic and political changes India has recently experienced. Within this period, the Cold War context was a crucial factor in the decisions and choices made by the Indian leadership.
Hindu Nationalists and the Cold War
Authors: Sagar Rahul
Published: September 2020

It is widely believed that at the time of Independence there was in India a broad consensus on non-alignment. This consensus, crafted by India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, is depicted as having steadily weakened over subsequent decades, eventually collapsing when diplomatic isolation and near bankruptcy toward the end of the Cold War prompted India to revitalize relations with the West. The evidence does not support this narrative, however. Drawing on a variety of sources, including Constituent Assembly debates and prominent essays, this essay shows that there were throughout the Cold War voices—often Hindu nationalists otherwise suspicious of modernity—calling for closer relations with the West. Though these voices were subdued, recollecting them reveals that post-Cold War declarations of a “natural alliance” between India and America in particular are not a new development, but instead the fruition of a longer view of the West’s significance.
Cultural Resilience as Resistance
Authors: Díaz George T.
Published: September 2020

The chapter reveals how cultural connections to Mexico and a shared Mexican heritage allowed Mexican American prisoners survive the isolation and quotidian colonization of Mexican people within the confines of Southwestern prison farms during the Great Depression. The chapter explores how Mexican American prisoners on the U.S. side of the border relied on cultural persistence and survivals to reshape Texas prison farms into spaces of cultural continuity. By taking readers inside the confines of Texas’s only all-Mexican prison, the Blue Ridge State Farm, known as “Little Mexico,” the chapter reveals how language, song, sport, food, religious practices, and a Spanish-language prison newspaper sustained a “hidden script” and practices of everyday resistance that fashioned what the chapter calls a “colonia within the carceral state.”
“They Are All She Had”
Authors: Holloway Pippa
Published: September 2020

The chapter offers a unique exploration of the struggle for women’s suffrage by analyzing how formerly incarcerated women responded to the concept of infamy, the legal category of the loss of citizenship rights. The chapter highlights the tension between the South’s disenfranchisement practices and the concurrent demands of the suffrage movement by analyzing petitions to regain citizenship rights for female felons. These petitions come from a variety of states, including one from Hawaii’s Queen Liliuokolani alongside many other unrecognized women. Whereas most discussions of felony disenfranchisement have focused on African American men, this chapter uncovers a previously unwritten history that connects the struggle for suffrage with the struggle for voting rights among formerly incarcerated women. Rather than relegate these women as politically voiceless and nonhistorical actors, however, the essay instead recognizes convicted women as political actors willing to fight for their full citizenship rights as individuals inspired by the suffrage movement but without the organizational movement behind their individual efforts.
Blood In, Blood Out
Authors: Mccarty Heather
Published: September 2020

The chapter offers a study of changing social relations within the prison system during the transition from 60s-era activism to gang formation in the beginning decades of mass incarceration. Between the decades of the 1960s and 1990s, California experienced a societal shift within prisons from interracial and Black Power campaigns for prisoners’ rights to the racialized balkanization and violence stemming from the rise of prison gangs and the worsening of prison conditions due to overcrowding. Within prisons, mass incarceration’s effect reshaped prison societies because the rapid growth of prison populations accelerated the violence that accompanies human caging. Internal dynamics of societal change reflected California’s changing racial demography, as Cold War defense industries and giant agribusinesses attracted African American laborers from the U.S. South and Mexican migrant laborers from across the border. As mass incarceration swept up more people of color in California’s overcrowded prison system, the prior social networks centered on politicization and protest were disrupted and replaced by rival prison gangs who met the needs of a sub rosa internal prison economy with racial violence and competition.
Private Prisons
Authors: Janssen Volker
Published: September 2020

The chapter considers privatization, private prisons, and prison services outsourcing within a Sun Belt to Global South framework. Eschewing the inclination to frame the Sunbelt as a region that merely modernized the South, the chapter reveals instead a series of contradictions—chief among them neoliberal rhetoric and anti-statist politics alongside the seemingly contrasting policies that were dependent on New Deal–era public infrastructure and government planning. By analyzing such service industries as health care, telecommunications, food catering, and construction within a public–private partnership, this chapter reveals how privatization masks neoliberal anti-statism even when growing the state through mass incarceration. The model for this fusion of public services and private industries was the Cold War’s defense industries, where contractors played a pivotal role in decision making within a symbiotic partnership. The chapter concludes that the modern-day prison industrial complex is more a product of the New Deal state than of a neoliberal conservative ascendency. When the Sunbelt’s private–public partnership partnered with corporate globalization, contemporary prison labor occurs within a “Global South” marketplace more than a framework of “neo-slavery.”
The Path to Pelican Bay
Authors: Reiter Keramet
Published: September 2020

The chapter showcases California’s prison bureaucracy where correctional bureaucrats pioneered the development of the “supermax” high-level-security prison, or “prisons within prisons.” Drawing on forty oral history interviews with prison administrators, lawyers, prison architects, and reformers, the chapter demonstrates how correctional bureaucrats initiated solutions to address local problems without political scrutiny. By focusing on local control through correctional bureaucrats, the chapter argues that bureaucrats acted as more than policy implementers but as “policy initiators” who reacted to fears over mounting prison uprisings, gang strife and racial violence, and prisoners’ rights lawsuits by redesigning the prison scheme to arrive at their “solution” of architectural cell isolation. In contrast to the top-down federal narrative of mass incarceration, this chapter reveals that correctional bureaucrats had near total control when advocating for the holistic redesign of the entire prison system within a supermax framework. Correctional bureaucrats thus remapped California’s prison system around a supermax framework with very little political and judicial intent, oversight, or scrutiny.
Imperial Metropolis
Authors: Kim Jessica M.
Published: September 2020

In this compelling narrative of capitalist development and revolutionary response, Jessica M. Kim reexamines the rise of Los Angeles from a small town to a global city against the backdrop of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, Gilded Age economics, and American empire. It is a far-reaching transnational history, chronicling how Los Angeles boosters transformed the borderlands through urban and imperial capitalism at the end of the nineteenth century and how the Mexican Revolution redefined those same capitalist networks into the twentieth.
Kim draws on archives in the United States and Mexico to argue that financial networks emerging from Los Angeles drove economic transformations in the borderlands, reshaped social relations across wide swaths of territory, and deployed racial hierarchies to advance investment projects across the border. However, the Mexican Revolution, with its implicit critique of imperialism, disrupted the networks of investment and exploitation that had structured the borderlands for sixty years, and reconfigured transnational systems of infrastructure and trade. Kim provides the first history to connect Los Angeles’s urban expansionism with more continental and global currents, and what results is a rich account of real and imagined geographies of city, race, and empire.
Like Cuba and the Philippines
Authors: Kim Jessica M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores how investors based in Los Angeles expected the U.S. government to intervene on their behalf to protect personal and urban interests from the unrest caused by the Mexican Revolution and the rewriting of the Mexican Constitution in 1917. Drawing on a history of imperial interventions on the part of the United States across Latin America and the Caribbean as well as in the Philippines and Hawaii, Los Angeles investors rolled out a forceful lobbying campaign to push the federal government, particularly President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane, to intervene militarily in Mexico. The effort was led by Los Angeles lawyer Thomas Gibbon and oil producer Edward Doheny, and through a lobbying organization formed in Los Angeles, the National Association for the Protection of American Rights in Mexico. These maneuvers for intervention placed Angelenos at the forefront of American foreign policy toward Mexico between 1910 and 1930.
Against Capital and Foreigners
Authors: Kim Jessica M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the expropriation of American and Los Angeles-owned properties in Mexico between 1920 and 1940. As the Mexican Revolution shifted Mexico toward economic nationalism, Los Angeles investors faced the process of expropriation and profit loss. Under the Mexican Constitution of 1917 and from the presidency of Álvaro Obregón through the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas, rural Mexicans pushed the Mexican state to confiscate foreign-owned investment properties, including agricultural land and oil properties. Harry Chandler, publisher of the Los Angeles Times, led many of the efforts to prevent the expropriation of American-owned investment properties under Article 27 of the Mexican constitution. Ultimately, however, American investors lost control of their properties through the expropriation process, adjudicated by the U.S.-Mexican Claims Commissions in the 1930s. Despite these economic losses, efforts to prevent expropriation and win compensation continued to link an urban core in Los Angeles to a Mexican periphery.
Highway for the Hemisphere
Authors: Kim Jessica M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores how interest in Mexico continued to orient Los Angles toward the borderlands and Pacific world in the 1930s and through the post-war era. Los Angeles rebuilt its cross-border relationship with Mexico in the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution through the construction of a transnational highway running from Los Angeles to Mexico City. While the political borderline running horizontally between the two countries became increasingly rigid during this period, the construction of the International Pacific Highway reveals how regional elites hoped to strengthen ties through cross-border infrastructure, tourism, and trade. The Automobile Club of Southern California, precursor to the American Automobile Association, and a number of Mexican governors spearheaded the project, which they completed in 1957. Through the highway, elites in Los Angeles and in Mexico envisioned and negotiated a new regional relationship between two borderlands regions.
Sailing to Jerusalem
Authors: Goldman Shalom
Published: September 2020

This chapter details the earliest stages of the American obsession with Palestine. It provides capsule narratives of visits to Ottoman Palestine by Herman Melville and Mark Twain, and early settler colonies of Christian missionaries, such as the Adams Colony and the free-living “American colony.” The content also sources the American obsession with Israel to the Bible, and a Christian desire to convert Jews to their beliefs.
Blood, Sweat, and Tears
Authors: White Derrick E.
Published: September 2020

Black college football began during the nadir of African American life after the Civil War. The first game occurred in 1892, a little less than four years before the Supreme Court ruled segregation legal in Plessy v. Ferguson. In spite of Jim Crow segregation, Black colleges produced some of the best football programs in the country. They mentored young men who became teachers, preachers, lawyers, and doctors--not to mention many other professions--and transformed Black communities. But when higher education was integrated, the programs faced existential challenges as predominately white institutions steadily set about recruiting their student athletes and hiring their coaches. Blood, Sweat, and Tears explores the legacy of Black college football, with Florida A&M’s Jake Gaither as its central character, one of the most successful coaches in its history. A paradoxical figure, Gaither led one of the most respected Black college football programs, yet many questioned his loyalties during the height of the civil rights movement.
Among the first broad-based histories of Black college athletics, Derrick E. White’s sweeping story complicates the heroic narrative of integration and grapples with the complexities and contradictions of one of the most important sources of Black pride in the twentieth century.
The Golden Age of Black College Football Begins
Authors: White Derrick E.
Published: September 2020

The post-World War II period began the highwater mark for Black college football generally and Florida A&M specifically. Gaither returned to coaching in 1945 after brain surgery. FAMU expanded its sporting congregation through the development of a coaching clinic, which began to place alumni as head coaches at a majority Florida’s segregated high schools. The Orange Blossom Classic moved to Miami, becoming the preeminent black college classic. HBCU student enrollment grew rapidly after the war, allowing public HBCUs to displace private HBCUs as the leading athletic programs. Gaither began to emerge as a leading head football coach through the development of his Split Line-T offense and by utilizing changes to college football substitutions rules to create separate “Blood, Sweat, and Tears” units.
Chasing Ghosts
Authors: White Derrick E.
Published: September 2020

The epilogue explores the broad changes brought on by integration and the role of television to show how the structural deficiencies of HBCU football undermined competition. The human resources that made up the sporting congregation eroded under the weight and possibilities of integration. FAMU in particular struggled after Gaither’s retirement, going through four coaches in five seasons. Rudy Hubbard finally gained traction, winning the first I-AA national title in 1978. Hubbard’s success was unsustainable, however, because the best African American high school players were now playing for predominately white colleges.
On the Freedom Side
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

As Wesley C. Hogan sees it, the future of democracy belongs to young people. While today's generation of leaders confronts a daunting array of existential challenges, increasingly it is young people in the United States and around the world who are finding new ways of belonging, collaboration, and survival. That reality forms the backbone of this book, as Hogan documents and assesses young people's interventions in the American fight for democracy and its ideals.
Beginning with reflections on the inspiring example of Ella Baker and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in the 1960s, Hogan profiles youth-led organizations and their recent work. Examples include Southerners on New Ground (SONG) in the NAFTA era; Oakland's Ella Baker Center and its fight against the school-to-prison pipeline; the Dreamers who are fighting for immigration reform; the Movement for Black Lives that is demanding a reinvestment in youth of color and an end to police violence against people of color; and the International Indigenous Youth Council, water protectors at Standing Rock who fought to stop the Dakota Access Pipeline and protect sovereign control of Indigenous lands. As Hogan reveals, the legacy of Ella Baker and the civil rights movement has often been carried forward by young people at the margins of power and wealth in U.S. society. This book foregrounds their voices and gathers their inventions--not in a comprehensive survey, but as an activist mix tape--with lively, fresh perspectives on the promise of twenty-first-century U.S. democracy.
Recruiting the Justice League
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

Since the mid-1990s, the Ella Baker Center of Oakland has been creating a society based on restorative justice and law enforcement accountability, not the punishment economy. It does what Ella Baker called “spadework”: building youth community organizers who know that a fundamental element of democracy is to spend time and energy developing people at the base as their own leaders—one person at a time, as members of the body politic. Leadership models of Van Jones, Nona Perry, Darris Young and Lanise Frazier are examined.
Make Room in the Circle
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

During the 1990s and into the 2000s, three basic barriers prevented undocumented youth from achieving major milestones of independence—acquiring a driver’s license, submitting college applications, and working legally. The circumstances repeated again and again in the accounts of undocumented youth. Elioenai Santos recalled, “Living like that is a real problem. It’s a real blow to your self-esteem, because you always feel like you are somehow less. It’s awful to always feel like you’re inferior. You see your friends driving around, traveling to other countries, while I don’t have money to go to school.” Nor could they keep their families together, as everyone felt constantly threatened by separation. The result since the early 2000s has been a growing, powerful movement among undocumented youth to redefine “who belongs” as a citizen in the United States. This chapter explores how the Immigrant Youth Justice League, Freedom University, Cristina Jimenez and United We Dream, and other undocumented and undocuqueer youth immigrant activists have fought for DACA and the DREAM Act and against deportation and the border wall. They have fundamentally challenged all US citizens to reimagine who belongs within the circle of belonging.
Mní Wičoni—Water Is Alive
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

This chapter traces the story of youth at Standing Rock in 2016. Indigenous youth drew from and innovated within sacred traditions, called themselves water protectors, and developed a media savvy nonviolence that drew tens of thousands of people as well as the world’s attention to Standing Rock in 2016. Their media messaging, digital engagement, and rapid mobilization techniques created crucial blueprints for other movements around the world. They also created an incredibly innovative organization, the International Indigenous Youth Council, (IIYC). Their information sharing made it possible to stall or stop industrial projects that threatened water supplies, arable land, and Indigenous burial grounds in over three hundred communities worldwide, promoting land sovereignty and challenging settler colonialism. Rallying against them were giant multinational energy companies and governments with access to huge teams of technocrats—those trained to harness the law, big data, technical expertise, and traditional political power that wanted to make sure the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) – and many other pipelines and energy technologies across the world – continued to be built. The IIYC challenge to this corporate plutocracy put the world on notice: the next generation will not stand idly by watching the world burnt, cut down, and mined into extinction for the profit of a few.
An Essay on Evidence and Authority
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

Movements themselves are important sites of knowledge production. They have the potential to illuminate how young people, often under 25 years old, shape the entire nation for the better. Their history is our public patrimony, one that should not be held hostage by bureaucratic restrictions that universities and archives often follow. Public access to creativity and memory, not reserved or made secret, has the potential to open up gatekeeping so that scholars and archivists are not the center of reference for knowledge production. This essay examines topics of extractive versus collaborative scholarship, oral history methodologies, and documentary epistemologies to address two questions: Who gets to tell the story? What counts as historical evidence? These are deceptively simple questions and so vital to knowledge production that this essay at the end of the book addresses them more thoroughly. Such inquiries lead to thornier issues underneath: who gets to establish what does and does not “count” as documentary evidence on freedom movements, and thus what is left in the archive for future generations of civic actors to build on?
Embedded Corporatism
Authors: Bartilow Horace A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter introduces the theory of embedded corporatism to explain U.S. drug enforcement. It argues that drug enforcement is an international regime where the interests and power of American corporations are embedded in drug prohibition. The regime also includes corporate-funded think tanks, some members of Congress, civil society groups, and foreign governments. The power of American corporations within the regime facilitates domestic and international consensus around drug prohibition as a mechanism for corporate expansion and capital accumulation. The chapter demonstrates that democracies in Latin America have a higher level of human rights repression than countries in the developing world that are not democracies. Although GDP per-capita in the region is higher than other developing regions, income inequality in Latin America is significantly higher than the rest of the developing world. And while the United States is the supposed leader of the free world and the richest, its rates of incarceration are greater than those found in autocracies, and its level of income inequality is significantly higher than other rich OECD countries. It is argued that the paradox of human rights and democratization in the Americas along with widening class cleavages are the by-products of the embedded corporatist drug enforcement regime.
Corporate Hit Men
Authors: Bartilow Horace A.
Published: September 2020

To test the theoretical components of the argument presented in chapter 5, this chapter develops an empirical model of how U.S. transnational corporations and paramilitary death squads mediate the U.S.-sponsored drug war’s effect on human rights repression in Latin America. In outlining this empirical model, this chapter is organized as follows: It first juxtapose the theoretical arguments of dependency and neoclassical liberal theories regarding the human rights effects of transnational capital by highlighting the theoretical and empirical limitations of neoclassical liberal claims. This is followed by a discussion of the empirical model, which draws on the extant human rights literature to identify important control variables that are important predictors of state repression. It then discusses important theoretical modifications that are incorporated into the overall empirical model. This is followed by a discussion of the limitations of the indicators used to measure the model’s mediating variables. structural equation modeling is used to analyze cross-national data for thirty-one countries from the Latin American region covering the period 1980 to 2012. All the components of the theoretical argument found strong statistical support.
Democracy without Rights
Authors: Bartilow Horace A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter is motivated by the following question: What explains the determinants of illiberal democracies in Latin America and the prevalence of regime transitions from liberal to illiberal governance? The chapter argues that counternarcotic aid is the financial and diplomatic mechanism through which the corporatist drug enforcement regime has replicated essential features of the U.S. national security state in aid-recipient countries in Latin America for the purpose of fighting the drug war. The replication of the national security state and thereby the creation of a drug war national security state undermines the process of democratization and, in the process, produces illiberal regimes in the region. The drug-war-induced national security state explains not only the emergence of illiberal democracy in the region but also regressive regime transitions from liberal to illiberal governance. Probabilistic econometric models are used to analyze data for 19 Latin American countries covering the period 1978 to 2011. The findings show that U.S. counternarcotic aid increases, by 56 percent, the probability that a recipient government will be an illiberal democracy. And the risk of a liberal democratic government receiving aid and reverting to illiberal democracy increases by 44 percent.
Savior or Monster?
Authors: Mellon Margaret
Published: September 2020

Genetic engineering promised to transform industrial agriculture from an environmentally toxic to a benign activity. Margaret Mellon embraced that promise but over the course of her career saw that genetic engineering promised much more than it could deliver. Mellon argues that genetic engineering should not be discarded as dangerous, but should be only one of the many tools used by food scientists to help solve the problem of feeding a growing global population.
Can “Taste” Be Separated from Social Class?
Authors: Finn S. Margot
Published: September 2020

For the last two decades the United States has witnessed the rise of the “foodie” movement, and yet this movement has not brought about widespread change among general American population. Margot Finn argues that this apparent contradiction can be explained by the fact that most food conscientiousness is elitist; it is driven not by any underlying progressive ideology, but by a desire of culturally elite consumers to distinguish themselves from the general populace. Thus, taste, cannot be separated from social class.
The Standard of Taste Debate
Authors: Ludington Charles C.
Published: September 2020

On the one hand people like to say that “there is no accounting for taste.” On the other hand, people constantly make judgments about their own and other people’s taste (gustatory and aesthetic). Charles Ludington examines the taste for wine in eighteenth-century England and Scotland, and the taste for beer in twenty-first century America, to argue that taste can in fact be accounted for because it is a reflection of custom, “tribal” identity, gender, political beliefs, and conceptions of authenticity, which are mostly but not entirely conditioned by class status and aspirations. And rightly or wrongly, we judge other people’s taste because taste positions us in society.
The Doors of America Are Worse Than Shut When They Are Half-Way Open
Authors: Marinari Maddalena
Published: September 2020

Chapter 2 offers an account of how Italian and Jewish immigration reform advocates, sensing the inevitability of further restriction, pragmatically decided to work with legislators in the early 1920s to mitigate some of the more punitive features of the national origins quota system. When the literacy test passed in 1917 failed to halt immigration from eastern and southern Europe significantly, restrictionists in and outside of Congress began pushing for quantitative immigration restriction. In 1924, Congress passed the Johnson-Reed Act, which imposed the national origins quota system for immigration from the Eastern Hemisphere and a near ban on immigration from Asia. The only issue on which restrictionist legislators and Italian and Jewish anti-restrictionists could find common ground when it came to immigration reform was family reunification, but legislators refused to budge on the discriminatory national quotas imposed on European immigration. Although scholars usually present the 1920s and 1930s as the height of immigration restriction, these negotiations over family reunification, along with the exemption of the Western Hemisphere from the quota system, allowed for exclusion and inclusion to continue to coexist in U.S. immigration policy.