bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Suitability
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N.
Published: May 2019

This chapter begins with a discussion of the suitability doctrine. The duty owed by broker-dealers is one of suitability when doing business with the general public; this was added to the Exchange Act with the adoption of the Securities Act of 1993. The duty owed by broker-dealers is not a fiduciary duty: it is the duty to make recommendations that are suitable to their client based on their personal situation. The suitability doctrine requires that the broker must have a reasonable basis for believing the recommendation to have been suitable for the customer, in light of the customer's financial condition and understanding of the investment and its risks. The Government Securities Act of 1993, which amended the Exchange Act, is the impetus for the suitability rule. The remainder of the chapter deals with suitability as it relates to futures and options.
Taxation and Human Rights
Authors: Reisch Nikki
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides an overview of the evolving landscape of the tax and human rights debate, and documents some recent markers of progress in integrating tax matters into the work of human rights institutions. While the potential linkages between taxation and human rights are manifold, they can be grouped under three broad headings: resource mobilization, redistribution, and accountability. These linkages are only beginning to receive attention in the academic literature and global policy debates. Their relative absence from past discussions reflects the chronic neglect of economic and financial policies by human rights scholars and practitioners, and the reluctance of economists to look beyond their data sets and the marketplace at the social implications of economic choices. The emerging discourse on taxation and human rights is not, however, without antecedents. It builds upon robust academic and policy discussions addressing the relationship of taxation to development and trade, as well as the literature on public budgeting and human rights and critical tax theory.
A Strange Alchemy
Authors: Lusiani Nicholas , Cosgrove Mary
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the challenges of attributing responsibility for the cross-border impacts of tax and financial secrecy policies through “spillover assessments.” Integrating human rights guiding principles into the practice of tax spillover assessments can provide value. Yet a number of tough methodological and political obstacles remain, many of which are inherent to the act of policy impact evaluation more generally. Together, these remaining challenges provide for a fertile future research agenda. Methodologically, the empirical accuracy of tax spillover assessments continues to be thwarted by the failure of governments to ensure access to relevant data, made more complex by the right to privacy concerns of many companies in accessing the microdata which would be so useful in determining the impact of changes in tax policy. Alongside these tough methodological challenges, various political question marks continue to frustrate effective tax spillover assessments.
Tax Abuse and Implications for Human Rights in Africa
Authors: Oguttu Annet Wanyana , Iyer Monica
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes whether the international tax reform measures instituted under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Project are effective in ensuring African countries get a fair share of taxes from multinational enterprises (MNEs) transacting within their borders, so that they can finance their development goals and promote the human rights of their citizens. The OECD chose to focus on curtailing sophisticated tax-avoidance schemes by strengthening existing anti-avoidance provisions. MNEs have abused these existing laws, however, making them largely ineffective. Given that MNEs are always a step ahead in devising new tax-avoidance strategies, one wonders whether emphasis on strengthening anti-avoidance laws will achieve much. The OECD seems to have missed an opportunity to evaluate the whole tax system and deal with the very root of the problems inherent in international taxation.
Some Aspects of the Architecture of International Tax Reform (and Their Human Rights–Related Consequences)
Authors: Lennard Michael
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at how the international tax norm-setting mechanism may positively or negatively affect attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals and the achievement of human rights. It is important to recognize that there is a great deal of concern expressed by many developing countries about their lack of real participation in the development of what are being promoted as global tax norms or standards. The OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Project has brought some of these issues to the forefront. Nevertheless, there is much that is useful to developing countries in the BEPS outcomes, especially in combatting what is commonly regarded by both developing and developed countries as tax avoidance or evasion, such as through international profit-shifting.
United States’ Responsibility to Promote Financial Transparency
Authors: Kaye Tracy A.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the legislative and regulatory changes that are necessary for the United States to fully participate in the global financial transparency movement. This includes the collection of beneficial ownership information for any legal entities formed in the United States. Indeed, the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and other international human rights obligations require the United States to increase disclosure of information regarding companies’ beneficial ownership, as a means of combating tax avoidance and evasion. The chapter then highlights the human rights imperatives for the United States to use exchange of information laws to regulate taxpayer conduct. It encourages advocates in the human rights community who are pushing for increased tax transparency to train their sights on the United States as one of the largest and most persistent tax haven jurisdictions hiding in plain view.
Who’s to Blame for the Money Drain? Corporate Power and Corruption as Competing Narratives for Lost Resources
Authors: Ylönen Matti
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on corporate power and corruption, providing context for current debates around responsibility for and the consequences of tax abuse. In addition to the already discussed problems of tax avoidance and tax evasion, the bargaining power of large corporations over smaller states is also an outcome of structural problems that discourage developing countries from collecting taxes needed for human development. Here, a key problem is international tax competition, or more accurately tax wars between nations. This international pressure pushes decision makers in developing countries to turn a blind eye to corporate wrongdoings and to offer tax breaks and other sweeteners to large enterprises in exchange for investments. Ultimately, what is needed are more comprehensive frameworks for analyzing the reasons behind the obstacles to domestic resource mobilization, which pay close attention to both public and private factors that prevent the fulfillment of social rights and development goals.
Human Rights and the Taxation of Menstrual Hygiene Products in an Unequal World
Authors: Crawford Bridget J. , Spivack Carla
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the gender biases embedded in facially neutral tax laws, focusing specifically on so-called “tampon taxes,” levies exacted on menstrual hygiene products. In most of the states in the United States, menstrual hygiene products are subject to sales tax. Meanwhile, in much of the European Union, these products are treated as luxuries and are subject to the highest rate of VAT. The various human rights affected by tampon taxes include the rights to be free from discrimination, to health, to education, to work, and to dignity. The chapter then considers potential venues and strategies for legal challenges in the European Union, the United States, and elsewhere. Strikingly, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) precedents cited concerning gender discrimination all involve suits brought by men complaining of disparate treatment—much as some of the earliest cases recognizing gender discrimination in the United States were brought by men.
Odysseus’ Terrifying Revenge
Authors: Loney Alexander C.
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the central revenge story of the Odyssey—Odysseus’ against the suitors. Odysseus’ tisis follows the model of Orestes’ tisis, but with sophisticated adjustments. The warning element takes on considerable emphasis. The suitors’ principal offense is their devastation of Odysseus’ household, especially through their feasting, which is portrayed as cannibalistic. For this, they face a reciprocal punishment: their deaths take the form of an inverted feast. The poem presents one direct, positive view of the justice of Odysseus, while also sowing the seeds for its audience to question this presentation. A careful auditor would note the asymmetry between the suitors’ actual crimes of feasting and wooing and the punishments they receive, which are properly appropriate for genuinely accomplished murder and adultery. The poet’s program of justifying Odysseus would not have succeeded, at least for some auditors.
Change or Continuity in Cultures?
Authors: Fishman Robert M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter poses the large theoretical question of what generates cultural change or continuity, and provides examples of both patterns in the cases examined in the book. The large-scale program of commemorations of Portugal’s Carnation Revolution is treated in depth, taking it as an example of a mechanism providing for cultural continuity in that post-revolutionary polity. Obviously, revolution itself contributed earlier to cultural change in that case. In the Spanish case efforts to promote cultural change during the Zapatero years, in the 15-M movement, and more recently in contemporary politics are taken up. The analysis searches for mechanisms of cultural change but also offers observations on why it is typically difficult for efforts at cultural change to achieve success as broad as that to be found in revolutionary Portugal. Complex combinations of continuity and change are also taken up. Recent developments in both Spain and Portugal are examined.
Conclusions
Authors: Fishman Robert M.
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter addresses the overall contribution of the book to our understanding of democracy in the contemporary world. The discussion reviews key arguments in the book and takes up possible objections along with alternative forms of explanation. The chapter also examines how generalizable the argument is, considering how national histories shape conceptions of democracy and forms of political conduct in other cases as well. The Greek case, the experience of Scandinavia, and post-revolutionary cases including the United States are also taken up. The chapter analyzes the contribution to theories of critical junctures and other historically minded approaches to explanation. The discussion also considers the importance of political inclusion and of the Portuguese pattern of “conversation” between protesters and power holders for democracy’s central aspirations, especially in pursuit of political equality. The significance of revolution, of protest movements, and of other mechanisms of social change is also taken up.
Urban Public HealthA Historical Perspective
Authors: Rodger Richard
Published: May 2019

Historical perspectives on urban health focus mainly on the production of public health, on strategies and policies deployed by towns and cities that are authorized to act for the common good. This chapter gives a largely chronological perspective on public health developments, from medieval to early modern, and then to a consideration of the major shifts in public health that occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Although in this chapter most attention is devoted to European trends, the colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia ensured networks of knowledge that were, by contemporary standards, quite quickly disseminated, though locally taken up at very variable rates. The historical study of public health is, therefore, an inherently worldwide one, with the important qualification that the pace of change and uptake of ideas was uneven.
Community-Based Participatory Research
Authors: Israel Barbara A. , Schulz Amy J. , Coombe Chris M. , Parker Edith A. , Reyes Angela G. , Rowe Zachary , Lichtenstein Richard L.
Published: May 2019

The study of urban populations must be grounded in the realities of local communities. Much as many insights of urban health are generalizable to the health of cities worldwide, local knowledge both can and is necessary to guide action that can improve the health of urban populations. Community-based participatory research is an approach to research that has a particular role in both the study of urban communities and in developing interventions and policies that can improve the health of these populations. This chapter discusses the principles and strategies of community-based participatory research and how their applications can guide the study and practice of urban health towards achieving health equity.
Caring as a Civic Service
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: May 2019

This chapter argues that family immigration policies should be expanded to encompass caregiving duties performed by family members and fictive kin for dependents, including disabled and elderly adults. To make this case, it applies a public ethic of care to revalue caregiving services as socially necessary work and a civic duty that merits an earned pathway to citizenship for immigrants. A public ethic of care ensures that the polity’s most vulnerable members are continually cared for by their ongoing primary caregivers in their communities. It also provides a basis for recognizing the value of care work provided by immigrant caregivers. This chapter contends that immigrant caregivers of dependent citizens are providing a service to society that might otherwise have to be undertaken less attentively by the state at the taxpayers’ expense. For their services, those who care for dependents deserve a pathway to legalization and citizenship.
The Research Design
Authors: Makse Todd , Minkoff Scott , Sokhey Anand
Published: May 2019

In this chapter, we describe our overall research design and key methodological considerations. First, we discuss how classic community studies and subsequent works on social and contextual influence inspire our work. In thinking about how social spaces matter, we describe how we conceptualize neighborhoods, and how we operationalize distance to mirror people’s everyday experience of their residential space. Second, we introduce the three observational research sites: a sample of voting precincts from Franklin County, Ohio, and the cities of Upper Arlington, Ohio, and Broomfield, Colorado. Third, we describe the observational studies carried out between 2008 and 2014 across these sites and introduce key concepts from spatial analysis that maximize the usefulness of these data. Fourth, we describe the surveys fielded in these sites following the 2008 and 2012 elections and describe the techniques used to elicit information about individual survey respondents and their communities.
A New Perspective on Political Participation and Communication
Authors: Makse Todd , Minkoff Scott , Sokhey Anand
Published: May 2019

In this concluding chapter, we discuss some of the major takeaways of the book. We find that signs are an act of both communication and participation, and that the conventional wisdom that signs are primarily campaign tools is misguided. At the same time, displayers and non-displayers ascribe different meanings to signs, and the distinction between in-party and out-party signs is important in determining how signs spread throughout neighborhoods. In turn, once present, those signs can influence perceptions of social space and social interactions, especially in the most intimate social contexts. In addition, we discuss lessons learned with respect to spatial analysis and network analysis and their power, both individually, but especially jointly, to reinvigorate the community studies paradigm. We conclude by reflecting on the yard sign as a political symbol and considering how such symbols are especially powerful in an age of intensely salient and polarized partisan identities.
Turmoil, 1918–1924
Authors: Nielsen Philipp
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes the ways in which right-wing Jews, whether they described themselves as “royalist,” “nationally minded” (nationalgesinnt), or “conservative,” attempted to make sense of the political and social changes around them following Germany’s defeat in the First World War and amid revolution at home. None of them were mere bystanders but active participants in their environment. The extent to which they could remain integrated into the Right in the years between 1918/1919 and 1924, on what terms, and in which parts of it, reflects the wider development of social and political circles they moved in, and thus the development of the wider Right, in the first five years of the Weimar Republic. It traces the rise of new concepts of belonging, namely the community of the trenches and the people’s community.
Acquiring Knowledge through Companionship (Ṣuḥba)
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter combines ethnography and textual analysis to examine the traditional Islamic pedagogy of companionship. In companionship, a student learns from a teacher by entering into a long-term personal relationship with him and sharing in his everyday affairs. The chapter discusses companionship as a pedagogy favored by Traditionalist scholars. It clarifies how companionship involves learning through observation, and learning through practice, as well as a certain regime of punishment. The chapter’s account of companionship draws on insights from hermeneutic theory and practice theory. Topics covered include companionship among later scholars and between sons and fathers, the structure of companionship, companionship and learning through observation, direct witnessing and baraka, companionship and learning through practice, and punishment in companionship.
“Ridiculousness and Risibility”
Authors: Lawee Eric
Published: May 2019

The religiocultural setting that looms largest in tracing critical receptions of the Commentary is the veritable Babel of Jewish intellectual and literary expression in the eastern Mediterranean. Something unprecedented occurs in the writings of scholars with certain or highly probable eastern Mediterranean (Byzantine) affiliations: the Commentary is subjected to intense and at times systematic criticism from a position of frank superiority. The critics focus on two things: misguided exegesis, especially as expressed in the Commentary’s surfeit of midrash, and thse scandalously unscientific understanding of the Torah that Rashi is charged with promoting. The main focus in this chapter falls on Revealer of Secrets (Ṣafenat pa‘neaḥ), a Torah commentary by the fourteenth-century Eleazar Ashkenazi, who stands as the earliest datable figure to adopt a stance of arrant scorn toward Rashi. Study of his work provides a window into a world of rhetorically intense resistance to Rashi elaborated more fully by other scholars.
Asset Pricing I: Risk-Neutral Pricing
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter develop the an asset pricing methodology, presents the standard risk-neutral asset pricing model, and uses it to price a wide of assets.
Asset Pricing with Growth
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter extends the risk-neutral asset pricing model to account for long-run growth.
Asset Pricing III: Arbitrage-Based Pricing
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter develops a arbitrage-based pricing model in which the extent to which the stochastic discount factor varies is unrestricted.
Investment and Capital Structure of the Firm
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the implications of the stochastic discount factor for optimal firm behaviour. The last section focuses on capital structure decisions with bankruptcy costs and the tax shield implied by debt.
More on Banks and Banking
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter lays out the development and history of banking in the United States. It lays out the Diamond-Dybvig model of baning and explains how bank runs can arise. It closes by discussing various recent trends in banking and how they relate to investment banks and securitization
Untangling the Impact of Negative Campaigning on Citizens
Authors: Fridkin Kim L. , Kenney Patrick J.
Published: May 2019

The tolerance and tactics theory of negativity is presented in Chapter 1. The marriage of citizens’ tolerance for negativity, on the one hand, with the tactics employed by candidates, on the other hand, will clarify when negative campaigning works. The theory begins with a simple premise: people vary in their tolerance for negative campaigning and individuals with less tolerance for negativity will be more influenced by attack advertising. In addition, it is crucial to consider the content and tone of the negative messages to know when negativity will be effective. Finally, the interplay between people’s tolerance of negativity and candidates’ tactics provide a framework for understanding the effects of negativity on citizens’ assessments of candidates and their likelihood of voting on Election Day.
Citizens’ Tolerance of Negative Campaign Messages
Authors: Fridkin Kim L. , Kenney Patrick J.
Published: May 2019

In chapter 3, different data sets across several years employ survey measures to assess people’s tolerance toward negative messages. The analysis shows that women and older people are less likely to tolerate uncivil and irrelevant negative advertisements. In contrast, people who are more engaged in politics and who place themselves on the right side of the ideological scale are more likely to tolerate these same types of messages. However, analyses indicate people’s tolerance toward negative campaigning is not static but changes over the length of the campaign. In particular, people’s tolerance of negativity decreases when they are exposed to a greater dose of negative political advertisements during campaigns for the U.S. Senate.
An Examination of the Amount, Substance, and Tone of Negative Commercials in Senate Elections
Authors: Fridkin Kim L. , Kenney Patrick J.
Published: May 2019

A content analysis utilizing data from the Wesleyan Media Project and examining nearly 700 negative advertisements airing 500,000 times during the 2014 U.S. Senate elections is the heart of chapter 4. The analyses demonstrate negative advertisements are most pervasive in competitive races, during the last weeks of the campaign, on local news broadcasts, and during early morning programming. In addition, advertising attacking women candidates often employ women narrators, while male narrators are utilized more often in advertisements attacking men. Almost three-quarters of all attack advertisements criticize the candidate’s policy stands, while advertisements focusing on personal matters are less common. The majority of the negative advertisements during the 2014 Senate elections are classified as civil, while almost one-quarter of the advertisements are rated as low in civility. Most negative advertisements examined (90%) were classified as somewhat or very relevant.
Introduction
Authors: Dallmayr Fred
Published: May 2019

The chapter discusses the relation between liberalism and democracy seen as an “odd couple” operating on different levels. Liberalism denotes the practical orientation of members of civil society; democracy is a public-political regime. Initially concordant in modernity, during the nineteenth century, the concord steadily decayed. Several factors—including Social Darwinism, industrialization, and capitalism—drove liberalism into the arms of radical self-assertion, social inequality, and atomization. Leading Western intellectuals have pinpointed the “malaise” of modernity in social fragmentation and the loss of a public democratic realm. Charles Taylor, in particular, has bemoaned narcissism and the neglect of shared frames of meaning. The chapter probes critically the dynamic character of shared frameworks, in particular with regard to globalization, multiculturalism, and other social changes. Only in this manner, it is argued, can the concord of liberalism and democracy be restored. It then reviews the sequence of chapters in light of the preceding themes.
Public Space as Property?
Authors: Dallmayr Fred
Published: May 2019

To show the anti-democratic implications of autism and narcissism, interlude A reflects on the meaning of space and especially of “public space.” It shows that space can neither be fabricated nor willfully engineered; it is a region which allows something to happen. Public space in particular cannot be autistically controlled; it is neither me nor the “others”; neither their property nor mine; and cannot be appropriated, instrumentalized, or monopolized. Unhappily, as the interlude demonstrates, democracy has been moving toward its appropriation. Under predatory neo-liberalism, virtually all public things are objectified and turned into targets of individual or corporate possession and “privatization,” which challenges or undermines democratic citizenship, as individuals do not create or “constitute” the public space, they become citizens by virtue of that space. Thus, privatization and appropriation put an end to the viability of democracy itself.
Virtue in Social and Public Life
Authors: Dallmayr Fred
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers that, because of predatory selfishness, democracy requires the cultivation of ethical and spiritual resources for which it turns to the Aristotelian tradition of shared “virtuous” life. It begins with Alasdair MacIntyre, who profiles virtue ethics against two modern alternatives: “Morality,” a set of abstract rules anchored in the cogito, and “expressivism,” the pursuit of selfish preferences. By contrast, virtue ethics focuses on the concrete, character-related conduct nurtured by prudent judgment in a societal context, though there are some drawbacks to this view, especially the legacy of “naturalism” and essentialism. The chapter next presents the “little ethics” of Paul Ricoeur and his effort to link Aristotle with Kant, “teleology” with “deontology.” The chapter finally turns to Gadamer’s ethics which purges Aristotle of metaphysical “realism” or naturalism and presents ethical conduct not as a factual endowment but as “process of ongoing self-transformation” and (spiritual) “humanization.”
Quantifiers
Authors: Studd J. P.
Published: May 2019

The notion of quantification is clearly central to the absolutist’s characteristic claim that we sometimes quantify over an absolutely comprehensive domain. Barwise and Cooper give a widely accepted semantics for natural language quantifiers, building on the usual model-theoretic semantics for first-order languages. But only a relativist about quantifiers can take these semantic theories at face value. An absolutist who denies that absolutely general quantifiers range over a set-domain may seek to free these semantic theories from their set-theoretic trappings by employing plural and superplural resources. More radically, he may reject the Barwise–Cooper semantics altogether. This chapter argues that neither approach is cost-free.
Criticisms of Melissus’ Argument
Authors: Clarke Timothy
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines Aristotle’s reply to Melissus (Phys. 1.3, 186a10–22). Melissus’ monism is based on his argument that anything that exists must be unlimited in extent. Aristotle challenges this argument, alleging that it commits a logical fallacy. He then goes on to criticize Melissus’ argument from monism to the impossibility of change. Aristotle thinks of Melissus’ monistic argument as ‘crude’ in comparison with Parmenides’, but at the same time he suggests that some similar criticisms can be made of both philosophers. This means that his response to Melissus can also shed some light on his understanding of Parmenides.
Resisting Parmenides’ Argument
Authors: Clarke Timothy
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyses the complex response to Parmenides’ argument at Phys. 1.3, 186a23–b35. Aristotle puts forward two main objections: first, the argument relies on an overly narrow conception of being (‘being is said in a single way’); second, even if we were to grant Parmenides his basic ontological assumptions, it still would not follow that reality is one. Aristotle concentrates on explaining why Parmenides’ assumptions do not establish that reality is one ‘in account’. In this connection, he raises a series of problems stemming from Parmenides’ failure to recognize properties as entities distinct from the things that have them.
GMO Reform—The Internal Market as a Site of Diversity
Authors: Weimer Maria
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the legal and policy changes brought about by the 2015 reform of the regulatory framework for genetically modified organisms (GMOs). It considers the extent to which Directive 2015/412, introduced to make the 2015 regulatory reform possible and to allow for national opt-outs from GMO cultivation, helps overcome the legitimacy problems of EU risk regulation. The chapter first analyses the new EU approach to GMO cultivation via Directive 2015/412 before discussing the scope of EU harmonization in the field of GMO regulation after the adoption of this Directive. It then explains the constitutional limits of Article 114 TFEU in granting Member States the right to restrict GMO cultivation and concludes by assessing the implications of the 2015 reform for free movement of GMO products as well as highlighting the reform’s shortcomings.
Myth You Can Believe In
Authors: Hirschkop Ken
Published: May 2019

Chapter 7 discusses the enthusiasts of myth, writers who argue that it represents the lifeblood of language without which any polity is doomed. It begins with a discussion of Ernst Cassirer’s theory of myth, before turning to the Russian Formalists and Futurists—ready to resurrect the word—and concluding with Walter Benjamin’s insistence on the power and magic of pure language. For Walter Benjamin, for Viktor Shklovskii and many of his Futurist brethren, the ‘word as such’ has to be rescued from the deadening ‘bourgeois’ language of the present. Language is out of whack, but what has distorted it is precisely its misuse as a mere tool of communication, against which one has to defend language as naming. The problem is not, according to these writers, that myth threatens the liberal polity, but that liberalism itself, embodied in the deadening language of public life, threatens democracy.
Music as Expression
Authors: Juslin Patrik N.
Published: May 2019

Chapter 6 demonstrated that there is some agreement among listeners about what emotion pieces of music express, and that music performers may communicate at least some emotions to listeners in a reliable manner. Yet such findings do not by themselves prove that this is how musicians or listeners conceive of music. This chapter addresses problems and objections surrounding the notion of music-as-expression-of-emotions. There are scholars who are strongly critical of this view on music. Issues concerning expression, communication, and emotion tend to invite controversy, and some authors go to extreme lengths to reject any link between music and emotion. One example of a critical voice can be found in an essay by philosopher Nick Zangwill (2004). He argues that, ‘it is not essential to music to possess emotion, arouse emotion, express emotion, or represent emotion. Music...has nothing to do with emotion’.
Beyond Perception
Authors: Juslin Patrik N.
Published: May 2019

This chapter sets out the aims and objectives of Part 3 of this book. It considers a fourth paradox regarding music and emotion: Music — an abstract form of art which appears removed from our concerns in everyday life — may arouse emotions — biologically evolved reactions related to human survival. Resolving this paradox may require abandoning some common conceptions about music and emotion, which have prevented a deeper understanding. The following questions are addressed: Does music really arouse emotions? If so, how do we know? Which emotions music arouses? Are these emotions different from other emotions? In which settings do emotions occur? Why and how does music arouse emotions? Why do ‘live’ concerts tend to arouse stronger emotions than recorded music? Why do different listeners react differently to the same piece of music? Are the emotions aroused by music in the same way across cultures?
Predictions, Implications, Complications
Authors: Juslin Patrik N.
Published: May 2019

This previous chapters looked at eight psychological mechanisms through which music might arouse emotions. This chapter widens the perspective and considers some of the implications of this multi-mechanism framework. It explains the need to distinguish between the mechanisms in both research and applications. It also addresses some more general questions raised by the previous chapters. With such a large number of mechanisms, why does music not always arouse emotions? Why do different listeners react differently to the same piece of music? How does the context influence musical emotions? Why do ‘live’ concerts tend to arouse more intense emotions than recorded music? Are emotional reactions to music similar across different cultures?
Aesthetic Criteria
Authors: Juslin Patrik N.
Published: May 2019

Based on proposals from philosophical aesthetics and on preliminary research findings, this chapter suggests that listeners' aesthetic criteria for music will tend to include, but not be limited to, eight broad dimensions, each of which is discussed in turn. These include beauty, expression, novelty, emotion, skill, message, style, and the sublime. There is something to be said for each of these eight criterion candidates for aesthetic value: music lacking in expression is not art at all; music without beauty is not easy to like; music without novelty is not interesting; music without skills is mediocre; music that does not arouse emotions fails to produce embodied experiences; music that lacks stylistic unity is incoherent; music without a message or intention is empty; and music that is not sublime will not change your life. In contrast, music that manages to cover all these criteria is very likely to be judged as aesthetically valuable.
‘The most attentive hostess in the world’
Authors: Davey Jennifer
Published: May 2019

Throughout her political career, Mary politicized the space around her, particularly her family homes. The chapter examines how Mary used the home as a political tool. It explores her political entertaining at Hatfield House as Marchioness of Salisbury, examining the influential role she played in political life during the late 1850s and early 1860s. Using the parliamentary debates that foreshadowed the Second Reform Act of 1867 as a backdrop, this chapter goes on to explore the symbiosis between the political space Mary constructed and the agenda of the national polity. This analysis is further developed by a consideration of how Mary used the family home for political purposes during her second marriage. Throughout, Mary’s use of political space is understood as an expression of her agency and ideology, rather than the physical manifestation of the obligation she felt as a wife.
‘I am behind the Scenes’
Authors: Davey Jennifer
Published: May 2019

Chapter 7 focuses on the diplomatic role Mary played during the first eighteen months of the Great Eastern Crisis. Sparked by internal unrest in the Ottoman Empire, this major diplomatic event engulfed European politics during the years 1875–1878. The chapter places Mary within this international narrative and considers her role as ‘diplomat’. It reveals the reality of her political and diplomatic activities at the centre of the British Government and it explores Mary’s specific forms of influence: acting as an intermediary between the Foreign Office, the Prime Minister, and her contacts inside the Ottoman Empire; offering diplomatic advice to the cabinet; instructing the British representatives in Constantinople; and working closely with the Russian Ambassador to avert an Anglo-Russian conflict. In uncovering these activities and placing them within a wider international narrative, this chapter represents a critical intervention in the history of female diplomatic activity.
The Effect of Americanization on the Earnings of Foreign-born Men
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

The earnings of foreign-born adult white men, as reported in the 1970 Census of Population, are analyzed through comparisons with the native born and among the foreign born by country of origin, years in the United States, and citizenship. Differences in the effects of schooling and postschool training are explored. Although immigrants initially earn less than the native born, their earnings rise more rapidly with U.S. labor market experience, and after 10 to 15 years their earnings equal, and then exceed, those of the native born. Earnings are unrelated to whether the foreign born are U.S. citizens.
Is the New Immigration Less Skilled Than the Old?
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes trends in the skills of immigrants to the United States in the post-World War II period. Changes in the supply, demand, and institutional factors determining immigration are analyzed for their implications for immigrant skills. The empirical analysis uses INS administrative data, the 1970 and 1980 Censuses, and the 1976 Survey of Income and Education. Relatively more immigrants are now coming from countries whose nationals earn less in the United States. The schooling level of immigrants has been fairly stable; the declining level for the growing Hispanic immigration is offset by the high level of the increasing Asian immigration. Immigrant quality, ceteris paribus, is analyzed. Policy implications are discussed.
Differences in Education and Earnings Across Racial and Ethnic Groups: Tastes, Discrimination, and Investments in Child Quality
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R. , Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

Viewing the United States as comprising many racial and ethnic groups, it is shown that group differences in earnings, schooling, and rates of return from schooling are striking and that the groups with higher levels of schooling also have higher rates of return. These data are shown to be consistent with a child quality investment model, but they are not consistent with the hypotheses that the primary determinants of schooling level are discrimination, minority group status, differences in time preference (discount rates), or “tastes” for schooling. Group differences in fertility and female labor supply are examined as partial determinants of investment in child quality. Policy implications are discussed.
Ethnic Capital and Intergenerational Mobility
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

Assuming that ethnicity acts as an externality in the human capital accumulation process, this chapter analyzes the extent to which ethnic skill differentials are transmitted across generations. The skills of the next generation depend on parental inputs and on the quality of the ethnic environment in which parents make their investments, or “ethnic capital.” The empirical evidence reveals that the skills of today's generation depend not only on the skills of their parents, but also on the average skills of the ethnic group in the parents’ generation.
Do Enclaves Matter in Immigrant Adjustment?
Authors: Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R. , Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R. , Borjas George J. , Chiswick Barry R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter is concerned with the determinants and consequences of immigrant/linguistic concentrations (enclaves). The reasons for the formation of these concentrations are discussed. Hypotheses are developed regarding “ethnic goods” and the effect of concentrations on the immigrant's language skills, as well as the effects on immigrant earnings of destination language skills and the linguistic concentration. These hypotheses are tested using PUMS data from the 1990 U.S. Census on adult male immigrants from non-English-speaking countries. Linguistic concentrations reduce the immigrant’s own English language skills. Moreover, immigrants’ earnings are lower the lower their English language proficiency and the greater the linguistic/ethnic concentration in their origin language of the area in which they live. The adverse effects on earnings of poor destination language skills and of immigrant concentrations exist independently of each other. The hypotheses regarding ethnic goods are supported by the data.
Literature as Thought
Authors: Stecker Robert
Published: May 2019

This chapter has three main aims. The first is to argue for a modest view of the cognitive value of fiction in the context of the arts. This view asserts that we acquire from such works new conceptions or hypotheses that we then can test in the actual world. The second aim concerns the interaction of values. The claim we will make is that the kind of cognitive value typically possessed by representational art arises through the aesthetic experience of the work. The third aim is to argue against both more ambitious and more skeptical views about the cognitive value of fiction in art.
Moral Norms and Nature Appreciation
Authors: Stecker Robert
Published: May 2019

This chapter asks whether there are moral norms that constrain aesthetic judgments about nature. There are two arguments for this view. The first appeals to the idea that degraded states of nature detract from their aesthetic value. This is an example of interaction. The other argues that aesthetic judgments can manifest disrespect for nature, which makes them defective or inappropriate. Call this idea respect for nature. I will consider each approach and show that arguments for such constraints have not been successful. I will then use elements from these approaches to make a case for the existence of a moral norm that bears on aesthetic judgments about nature. However, I conclude by arguing that this is only one of at least two competing potential moral norms that bear on these judgments, and it is equally reasonable to adopt either one in the face of degraded natural environments.
Artifacts
Authors: Stecker Robert
Published: May 2019

This chapter is about the aesthetics of everyday artifacts, in particular, on the role of an artifact’s function in aesthetically appreciating and evaluating it. First, I will argue that several distinguishable functions are relevant to the aesthetic appreciation of artifacts. Second, I will claim that, while we can identify something we might call functional aesthetic value or functional beauty, the aesthetic properties that contribute to this value neither need enhance the object’s performance of its primary function nor manifest that function. There are broader criteria for what properties are relevant to functional beauty. Finally, I suggest that the aesthetic appreciation of artifacts may contribute to a larger appreciative project: the understanding and evaluation of a way of life, or social, or cultural practices in which the artifact plays a role.
Collective Self-Determination without Resource Sovereignty
Authors: Blomfield Megan
Published: May 2019

This chapter defends the principle of collective self-determination as a second principle of natural resource justice. This defence emerges from consideration of the principle of natural resource sovereignty, which appears to be a candidate for agreement from the perspective of Contractualist Common Ownership. The responsible stewardship defence of resource sovereignty is rejected. The collective self-determination defence, however, is shown to get something right. Parties to the original position would indeed accept a principle according to which resource rights must support political communities in the legitimate exercise of collective self-determination, because such self-determination promises to further individuals’ interests in freedom as non-domination. But the principle of collective self-determination appears to support merely a presumptive right of exclusive territorial jurisdiction over natural resources, rather than resource sovereignty. This presumptive right must be abnegated or moderated if it conflicts with basic needs satisfaction, or with the self-determination of other political communities.
Statelessness as Persecution
Authors: Foster Michelle , Lambert Hélène
Published: May 2019

Chapter 5 analyses the meaning of ‘being persecuted’ for a Convention reason as it applies to stateless persons, by examining its interpretation and application in the case law of the leading common law and civil law jurisdictions. It begins by addressing deprivation of nationality (namely, denial of nationality and active withdrawal of nationality), and denial of the right to enter one’s country. It then considers other forms of harm related to an absence of nationality such as the right to education, right to work, right to health, right to liberty, and right to family and private life. It concludes by examining instances where claims for refugee protection failed but complementary protection may nevertheless be relevant. This may be the case where, for instance, no nexus exists between persecution and the Convention reasons, where the level of harm was not sufficient to constitute persecution, or where Article 1F applied to exclude a stateless (refugee) person from protection.
Denial of Refugee Protection for Stateless Persons
Authors: Foster Michelle , Lambert Hélène
Published: May 2019

Chapter 6 considers in what circumstances a stateless person may cease to be entitled to protection or indeed excluded from refugee protection. It begins by examining in what situations Article 1C of the 1951 Refugee Convention may apply to a stateless person, before turning to consider the application of Article 1D (in relation to Palestinians) and Article 1E (de facto nationality) to refugee claims by stateless persons. It also examines the application of Article 1F to stateless persons. This issue is particularly pertinent given a renewed focus by states on the invocation of citizenship laws, and in particular the withdrawal of citizenship, to respond to the threat of so-called ‘home-grown’ terrorists.
The Mode of Hypothesis
Authors: Sienkiewicz Stefan
Published: May 2019

This chapter offers an elucidation of the mode of hypothesis. Both the nature and the function of Sextan hypothesizing are clarified—its nature by unpacking Sextus’ characterization of the phenomenon at PH 1.168 and its function by comparing it to the kinds of function hypotheses can have in Platonic and Aristotelian contexts. A distinction is then drawn between dogmatic and sceptical hypotheses, following which three versions of the mode of hypothesis are extracted from Sextus’ text. It is argued that the third version is the basic version of the mode. This version of the mode, moreover, is shown to be a limiting case of the sceptic’s method of equipollence and therefore a mode on the basis of which the sceptic can come to suspend judgement.