bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paradigmatic responses of marine benthic communities to different anthropogenic pressures, using M‐AMBI, within the European Water Framework Directive
Authors: Borja Angel , Muxika Iñigo , Rodríguez José Germán
Published: January 2009

The use of AMBI and M‐AMBI in benthic quality assessments, within the European Water Framework Directive (WFD), has increased dramatically in recent years. M‐AMBI is a multivariate tool, which incorporates AMBI, richness and Shannon diversity within the assessment. The response of this approach to different human pressures in coastal and estuarine waters has been investigated for the Basque Country (Northern Spain). In this contribution, several paradigmatic examples of these applications to different water bodies are presented. The time‐series extend to samples collected between 1995 and 2007, showing the evolution of M‐AMBI values under different pressures, i.e. urban and industrial discharges, dredging and disposal of sediments, and engineering works (such as land reclamation or marina construction), and, in addition, for illustrating the benthic quality recovery after positive actions have been undertaken, i.e. the removal of point‐source discharges or water treatment programmes. In most cases, M‐AMBI responds to these pressures as expected, with decreases in the ecological status immediately following the pressure. Conversely, when a pressure is removed, the recovery takes between 2 and 15 years, depending upon the intensity of the pressure and the characteristics of the water body. M‐AMBI has been intercalibrated previously in coastal waters. After intercalibration in transitional waters, M‐AMBI will be able to be used in the integrative quality assessment of European water bodies.
Cause of death in patients with dementia disorders
Authors: Brunnström H. R. , Englund E. M.
Published: January 2009

Background:  Investigations on cause of death may provide valuable information about life expectancy and on conditions of terminal dementia care, which perhaps can be ameliorated.

Methods:  The autopsy reports were studied on all patients (n = 524; 55.3% females; median age 80 years) with a clinically and neuropathologically diagnosed dementia disorder who underwent a complete autopsy at the University Hospital in Lund, Sweden, during 1974–2004.

Results:  The two most common causes of death were bronchopneumonia (38.4%) and ischaemic heart disease (23.1%), whilst neoplastic diseases were uncommon (3.8%). In a general population of elderly studied for comparison, bronchopneumonia accounted for 2.8%, ischaemic heart disease for 22.0%, and neoplasm for 21.3% of the deaths. Amongst the demented patients, circulatory and respiratory system diseases were the causes of death in 23.2% and 55.5% of the Alzheimer patients, respectively, whilst the corresponding figures were 54.8% and 33.1% for the patients with vascular dementia.

Conclusions:  In patients with dementia, pneumonia as the immediate cause of death may reflect a terminal stage in which patient care and feeding is difficult to manage well. Knowledge about what actually causes death is of value in the terminal care of patients with dementia disorders.
United Nations Activities and International Trends in Probation
Authors: López‐Rey Manuel
Published: January 2009

We are very glad to print this article by a distinguished international expert, Head of the United Nations Social Defence Section; however, the opinions expressed do not necessarily represent those of the United Nations, or of the Howard League.—Ed.
THE YOUNG OFFENDER*
Authors: Barbour Robert F.
Published: January 2009

“Because of the great difficulty in awarding punitive sentences that do not do more harm than good, it is quite likely that in the future most young delinquents will no longer be punished by the State, but merely given appropriate treatment. (italics mine). However, public opinion today would be so outraged at this suggestion that it is imperative to try to discover ways and means which, while satisfying the natural desire for retribution, can do so without increasing the criminal tendencies of the offenders.”
REWARDS IN AN INSTITUTION FOR YOUTHFUL OFFENDERS
Authors: Karacki Loren , Levinson Robert B.
Published: January 2009

This is a detailed description of how to use rewards for various kinds of positive behaviour in order to reinforce harming such behaviour. It is based on the theory of operant conditioning, the method is based on a token economy.
PSYCHODRAMA IN A PSYCHIATRIC PRISON
Authors: Sluga W.
Published: January 2009

A description of a special form of psycho‐drama with dangerous and disturbed prisoners; and its effects on them and on the institution itself.
SEX OFFENDERS AND THEIR PSYCHIATRIC TREATMENT
Authors: Brown W. Paterson
Published: January 2009

The only rational guide to treatment comes from knowledge and experience. I shall therefore examine sexual offences and sexual perversions as a whole, add to this a discussion of three of the more important influences bearing upon individual emotional development, and from this material attempt to deduce some of the more important considerations for prevention and treatment.

First, however, let us remind ourselves of some possible confusions in order to avoid them. We should not assume that a sexual offence implies a psychiatric disorder: this does not necessarily follow. Equally, we should distinguish between two senses in which the word treatment is commonly used. It may be used broadly to cover all actions taken in regard to the offender, or narrowly, in the strictly medical sense, only to cover that which is ordered for the benefit of the patient. A boy may be sent to an approved school and ordered psychiatric treatment. Together they may be called treatment, but it is perfectly possible for the two recommendations to be contradictory. To put it another way, the authorities are bound to concentrate on upholding the law, while the psychiatrist must concentrate on helping the patient.
THE “ABNORMAL” OFFENDER IN THE COMMUNITY
Authors: Prins Herschel A.
Published: January 2009

“For the most part we judge the behaviour of others by our own, and estimate the motives and intentions which govern their behaviour by comparing them with our own instinctual urges…. Further, the ordinary person is often more potentially criminal than he is willing to believe, and sometimes unconsciously maintains his self regard by exaggerating the culpability of those who break the law.” (East, 1949).
Edmund Du Cane and the Prison Act 1877
Authors: Tibber Peter
Published: January 2009

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between Edmund Du Cane and the Prisons Act of 1877. That Act was designed to bring county and borough prisons under the administration of the Home Office, in the form of a Board of Commissioners of Prisons, which would perform parallel functions to the Board of Directors of Convict Prisons. The cooperation, uniformity and perhaps ultimate amalgamation of the two systems were to be ensured by the appointment of one man to be Chairman of both Boards. That man was Edmund Du Cane.
Towards a Better Penal System*
Authors: Fattah E. A.
Published: January 2009

It would be unthinkable to speak about the penal system and penal reform without remembering and referring to one of the greatest penal reformers of all time, the pioneer after whom this society is named, the great John Howard, the man who spent the best years of his life in continuous efforts and indefatigable attempts to improve prison conditions in Britain and Europe. 1977 marked the bicentennial anniversary of the publication of his famous book The State of the Prisons in which he not only described the deplorable conditions in penal institutions, but also stressed the urgent need for penal reform and eloquently pointed to the direction this reform must take.
Early Intervention by a Probation Agency: A Netherlands Experiment
Authors: Nuyten‐Edelbroek E. G. M. , Tigges L. C M.
Published: January 2009

Since January 1974 Dutch law has provided that rehabilitation (probation and parole) agencies can provide early assistance for certain suspects held at police stations. This means that the agency intervenes at an early stage in the proceedings and contacts such suspects to see whether they are in need of help. In the remainder of this article, the term “early intervention” will be used to denote the work of the agencies in this respect.
Legitimating the Prison Crisis: A Critical Review of the May Report
Authors: Fitzgerald Mike , Sim Joe
Published: January 2009

The British prison system is acknowledged to be in crisis. The prison population hovers around 44,000 people in England and Wales, and 5,000 in Scotland, of whom a growing proportion are long‐termers. Conditions inside are generally appalling. Prison officers are engaged in an increasingly militant campaign of disruption, frequently defying the orders of the National Executive of the Prison Officers' Association (P.O.A.). Allegations of the misuse of drugs and of the gross brutality of the MUFTI (Minimal Use of Force Tactical Intervention) squads are the latest charges of serious malpractice publicly levelled against the prison authorities. Prison governors have warned of the immediate and total breakdown of the prison system, complaining bitterly of the deplorable lack of leadership from the Home Office.
Understanding and Treating Sexual Offenders
Authors: Brodsky Stanley L.
Published: January 2009

At the earliest stages of development of psychological theories of crime, a belief existed that each crime of violence was associated with a particular personality type or behavioural abnormality. The existence of the violent crime itself was considered prima facie evidence that a pattern of abnormality was present. Examination of contemporary writings and studies reveal that this search has been discarded and that few scholars believe that the rapist represents a single psychopathological type. Pacht (1976) has asserted that it is a myth that all rapists have similar characteristics; they are not the “. oversexed, stupid, animalistic monsters portrayed in the literature” (p. 91). What they are, however, is more difficult to ascertain than what they are not.
Home Office Crime Policy Planning: Six Years on
Authors: Morris R. M.
Published: January 2009

This article examines, from the point of view of the Crime Policy Planning Unit (C.P.P.U.), the development of crime policy planning in the Home Office since its inception in 1974. It attempts therefore both to look at and evaluate the work that has been done.
In Defence of the 1969 Act
Authors: Reynolds Frances
Published: January 2009

The arguments and policy implications of two recent books on the juvenile justice system are strongly criticised. It is suggested that the attacks on the philosophy and the practice of the Children and Young Persons Act 1969 are unjustified. The “Justice” model proposed seems to be the result of a return to a doctrine of classical liberalism. If applied it would remove many of the legal rights of parents and teachers, and would inevitably lead to a retributive and punitive system which would be in nobody's best interests.
Finding Employment for Ex‐Prisoners: A Ten‐Year Follow‐up Study
Authors: Soothill Keith , Holmes Jennifer
Published: January 2009

The efforts of a specialist employment agency for ex‐prisoners resulted in 65 men starting work soon after their release from prison. The present study considers evidence regarding their involvement in further criminal activity in the subsequent ten years. The claims in terms of modifying subsequent reconviction rates must be modest but, remarkably, of the men who worked in the job for at least a year, not one was reconvicted. The authors argue that the task is to find work which is commensurate with the offender's skills and further suggest that finding suitable employment may be particularly beneficial for offenders with a “medium risk” of reconviction.
Young Offenders: II. Custodial Sentences for Young Adult Offenders: A Critique
Authors: Brown A.
Published: January 2009

The White Paper Young Offenders deliberately avoids any attempt at establishing a definite philosophical framework within which to develop a rationally based system of custodial measures. Whilst it can be regarded as moving towards a “justice” model in proposing the abolition of borstal training, when taken together with its other provisions there are strong indications of a deeply rooted ambivalence. To advocate greater use of non‐custodial measures whilst at the same time proposing measures apparently designed to ensure an increase in the use of custodial sentences borders on the schizophrenic. In short, whilst some of the proposals are to be welcomed, the total package is likely to prove retrogressive.
New Prisons for Old Gaols: Scottish Penal Reform 1835–1842
Authors: Forsythe William James
Published: January 2009

By 1835 it was very widely believed by penal theorists and administrators that Scottish prisons had remained customary, idiosyncratic, unregulated anachronisms in the era of the Howardian and Separate Systems of penitential discipline. The State consequently appointed an Inspector who directed a very skilful attack against these prisons on ideological grounds. This attack was successful, and resulted in a penal revolution in Scotland. Thus there were established wholly new mechanisms of government which operated to impose both the Howardian and Separate Systems upon Scottish Prisons, and to annihilate all remnants of penal practice which did not conform with these ideologies.
Penal Reform in the Netherlands*: Part I—Bringing the Criminal Justice System Under Control
Authors: Hulsman L.
Published: January 2009

Contrary to popular belief, events which can be defined as criminal are not exceptional and cannot be considered to be of a more problematic nature to people than numerous other types of events. Several attempts have been made to control and reduce activities of the criminal justice system (c.j.s.) in dealing with such events, however without much success. This makes it necessary to examine more closely what kind of social systems are most suitable to deal with events which are considered problematic. Three main reasons why the c.j.s. seems “problematic” as a system of social control are: it causes unnecessary suffering which is also unequally divided; it offers little influence to those directly involved: it seems difficult to control.

The main question facing those who are involved in penal reform is not how to provide the c.j.s. with a more adequate set of sanctions, but how to promote a better way of tackling very divergent problems and how to minimise the social problems which are caused by the c.j.s. as it presently operates.
Incapacitation Revisited
Authors: Ainsworth Peter B. , Pease Ken
Published: January 2009

Recent developments in the estimation of incapacitation are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to two reports, the first being that of some British incapacitation research (Brody and Tarling 1980), and the second reporting a Californian investigation of prisoners' self‐report of their criminal careers (Peterson et al. 1980). The British work is extensively criticised. Peterson et al. 's study is commended as valuable research which, however, does not enable accurate estimates of the incapacitative effects of imprisonment to be made.
Crime Prevention and Insurance
Authors: Litton R. A.
Published: January 2009

Crime prevention is hampered by a lack of incentives. A “situational” approach to crime is consistent with the view that environmental measures can help in its prevention. The fitting of crime prevention devices should help to reduce the incidence of certain types of crime and insurers are uniquely positioned to provide incentives for such devices to be installed. This paper explores the interaction between insurance and property crime and suggests some ways in which insurers can influence the behaviour of potential victims in such a way as to prevent the crimes from which they may otherwise have suffered.
Parental Responsibility and Delinquency: Reflections on a White Paper Proposal
Authors: Wilson Harriett
Published: January 2009

The White Paper Young Offenders (Cmnd. 8045, October 1980) has a section on the responsibility of parents which contains proposals concerning the extension of mandatory provisions for children aged under 14. The proposals are examined in the light of the findings of a series of studies showing the significant association between parental supervision and their children's social behaviour. While parental supervision appears to be more important than other factors, effective supervision was found to be closely associated with the material circumstances of the family and also with the proportion of severely socially handicapped families in the neighbourhood. The likelihood of the White Paper proposals succeeding, if implemented, in bringing home to parents their responsibility is discussed with reference to different styles of parental regimes and alternative measures are considered.
The Probation Officer at Court: Some Further Thoughts
Authors: James Adrian L.
Published: January 2009

In his recent article in the Howard Journal, McWilliams examined the proposition that the relationship between probation officers and courts has deteriorated as a result of a growing gulf between a virtually unchanging bench and a much changed justices' clerk and probation service. There have however been substantial and significant changes in the nature of the bench and its work which, it is suggested, have had a fundamental effect upon the growing belief in this proposition. When these changes are considered with alternative interpretations of the changes in the probation service, the possibility of alternatives to McWilliams's tentative solutions emerges.
Fines and Fine Enforcement in Northern Ireland
Authors: Mulligan Gerard
Published: January 2009

A N.A.C.R.O. review team recently suggested some changes in current methods of fine enforcement to reduce prison receptions resulting from default. In Northern Ireland fines are imposed less frequently than is the case in England and Wales. It is contended that Northern Ireland has had less resort to imprisonment for fine default after less serious offences but more such resort for more serious offences. Recent legislation has given sentencers in Northern Ireland more flexibility in means of enforcement. It is argued that the capacity of these changes to reduce rates of imprisonment on default should be determined before other changes are considered.
The Compound System: An Alternative Penal Strategy
Authors: Crawford Colin
Published: January 2009

The compound system in Northern Ireland is a penal arrangement for “special category status” prisoners. Its introduction occurred in an emergency to relieve prison pressure. The physical and social arrangements of the compound system of imprisonment are described. Its many advantages over conventional imprisonment lead the writer to argue for its consideration as a more generally available penal alternative.
Intermediate Treatment and the Normalization Crisis
Authors: Pratt J. D.
Published: January 2009

This paper has as its starting point the unease with which researchers and some members of the social work profession now view current trends in Intermediate Treatment (I.T.) In this paper, which is intended to be an introduction to a more detailed analysis, I attempt to explain these issues by drawing together the historical development of I.T. and showing the connection between these changes that have taken place in penal policy and changes that have occurred in the wider social structure. It is argued that this raises serious questions in respect of the assumptions made by the social work profession about I.T., in particular that the continuous justification in terms of and preoccupation with“individual need” obscures the fact that I.T. has become the vehicle for an increasingly wider and more intensive regulation of the lives of young people.
Problems of Implementing Crime Prevention: The Experience of a Demonstration Project
Authors: Hope Tim , Murphy Daniel J. I.
Published: January 2009

Little attention has been paid to the implementation of crime control measures, yet implementation failure may curtail the effectiveness of measures as much as failure to influence the activities of offenders. This paper reports the experience of a Home Office crime prevention demonstration project where implementation proved difficult. It seeks to explain these difficulties in terms of the literature on policy implementation and has a number of suggestions for more successful crime prevention implementation.
Persistent Petty Offenders: Problems and Patterns of Multiple Disadvantage
Authors: Corden John
Published: January 2009

In recent years a category of offender has been described and identified by Home Office research workers and penal reform groups as one which should be kept out of prison wherever possible. In this paper, the author reviews the work which indicates how many offenders fall within this group, and summarises those characteristics they have in common. He then traces the interacting patterns of multiple disadvantage from which so many offenders in this category find it difficult to escape, before drawing some conclusions about the implications of this analysis for penal policy and sentencing practice.
Attendance Centres: Policy and Practice
Authors: Gelsthorpe Loraine , Morris Allison
Published: January 2009

This paper contrasts the official policy underlying attendance centres with the practice of one such centre. Two issues in particular are discussed: the objectives of the centre (noting particularly the views of the staff and the boys) and the apparent place of attendance centres in the tariff. Certain divergences are highlighted and their implications discussed in the light of the recent Criminal Justice Act.
The Mission to the English Police Courts 1876–1936
Authors: McWilliams William
Published: January 2009

This essay explores the efforts of the Police Court Mission in the courts of summary jurisdiction. For 60 years, in an age which accorded ever‐increasing importance to the methods of science, the missionaries held firmly to a religious philosophy, distinctively their own. This paper attempts to explain how it was possible for the missionaries to be absorbed into the probation system, and for their religious ideals to yield, eventually, to the radically different philosophy of the aspiring, “scientific” social work diagnosticians.
Self‐Reported Crime Studies and the British Crime Survey
Authors: Walker Monica A.
Published: January 2009

Research studies and surveys which involve asking people what offences they have committed have many methodological problems. An examination of these problems shows that it is very doubtful whether valid conclusions can be drawn, either about the number of offences of different types which have been committed or about the characteristics of offenders. Besides this, there are ethical problems involved in persuading people to answer questions regarding their criminal behaviour. The contribution made by self‐reported crime studies to scientific research or to improving the accuracy of published criminal statistics is not sufficient to warrant their being continued.
Dilemmas of Parole in a Penal Crisis
Authors: Bottomley A. Keith
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The origin of the parole system in England and Wales, and its development in the 1970s, provide good illustrations of ‘penological pragmatism’, with policy and practice reacting to the recurring crises of prison overcrowding. It lacks a sound theoretical basis and clear guiding principles, although there has been a partial shift of emphasis from the ‘treatment model’ to the ‘assessment of risk’ of reoffending. A number of unresolved anomalies remain in the operation of the system, which can be removed only by a new statement of the principles that should guide parole decisions. This should be accompanied by a reconstruction of the system, extending parole eligibility to all prisoners, and establishing Regional Parole Review Boards to make decisions on short‐ and medium‐sentence cases. The national Parole Board would continue to deal with all long‐term prisoners. Consideration should be given to the introduction of compulsory after‐care for selected prisoners.
Residential Security: Containment and Displacement of Burglary
Authors: Allatt Patricia
Published: January 2009

Abstract: From police statistics and a two‐stage tenant survey the improvement of residential security for an entire difficult to let estate was investigated for its effect upon the high burglary rate and for the displacement of burglary to two adjacent neighbourhoods or to other property crimes on the estate. In contrast with a control estate, where burglary rose, burglary steadied for approximately a year. Attempted burglary declined. Displacement effects were largely confined to the estate. Overall crime was probably reduced.
Deeper into the Quagmire: Observations on the Latest Prison Building Programme1
Authors: Rutherford Andrew
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The Home Office is embarked upon the third phase of major prison system expansion since 1959. It is planned that by the end of the 1980s there will be an additional 10, 000 cells and 5,000 prison officers. Although this latest initiative might be regarded as business as usual, it is of interest to note how the official rationale has changed over the last 25 years. In the 1960s, the justification for new prisons was ‘effective classification and training’ and (with the high profile escapes of the mid‐1960s) on maximum security institutions. In the 1970s, ‘the bogus numbers game’ was used as the rationale for a new prison building programme. However, the predicted massive increases in prison population failed to materialise, and the Home Office has now shifted its ground to ‘the creaking door syndrome’. Political choices exist as to the prison system size for the turn of the century. Perpetual expansion should be rejected in favour of reductionist policy.
Decarceration and Child Care: The Case of Observation and Assessment Centres
Authors: Pratt John
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This article provides an examination of recent policy developments and the critical history relating to observation and assessment centres. It seeks to highlight some of the practical issues and difficulties that might be caused by a general move towards decarceration and de‐institutionalisation in this field (from residential to community‐based assessments) and to place these matters in the general context of theoretical debates in penology and the sociology of punishment.
Contradictions of Collective Justice: The Case of the Co‐op Cops1
Authors: Henry Stuart
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This article draws on evidence from my recent study of non‐state forms of social control (Henry 1983) in order to demonstrate that informal collective justice is no less subject to a range of inherent contradictions than is the official criminal justice system. It is argued that while some of these contradictions can be traced to the wider social structure of capitalism in which the alternative collective forms are located, others stem directly from the semi‐autonomous nature of individuals and the social groups which they form. The implications of this for change are discussed and it is suggested that attempts to restructure criminal justice systems are likely to be more successful if they are based on an understanding of the integral nature of the relationship between individual action and wider structural settings; and if we adopt a conceptual framework distinguishing horizontally between different institutions of control and vertically between different depths of formality.
Fear of Crime: The Effect of Improved Residential Security on a Difficult To Let Estate
Authors: Allatt Patricia
Published: January 2009

Abstract: An experiment in improved residential security on a difficult to let housing estate with a high burglary rate was evaluated by means of a two stage tenant survey of a target and control estate for the effect upon residents' perception of crime, fear of crime and alterations in behaviour. The results were set against the real risk of crime as recorded in police statistics. On the target estate the risk of burglary remained high but static and other types of property crime increased. Fear of burglary, however, fell significantly. There was a reduction in fear across a range of subgroups examined. On the control estate the risk of burglary increased but there was no significant change in the level of fear.
The Sword of Damocles and the Clang of the Prison Gates: Prospects on the Inception of the Partly Suspended Sentence
Authors: Dignan James
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The partly suspended sentence was introduced principally as a means of relieving pressure on the prison population at a time when earlier sentencing innovations with similar aims, such as the suspended sentence itself, were being questioned on both theoretical and empirical grounds. This article examines recent changes in the theoretical foundations underlying the partly suspended sentence, and considers their implications for sentencing practice in the context of current judicial attitudes towards the use of imprisonment. The likely impact of the new measure on the prison population is also assessed in the light of the latest statistical information as to its early use.
Elderly Victims of Crime and Exposure to Risk
Authors: Clarke Ronald , Ekblom Paul , Hough Mike , Mayhew Pat
Published: January 2009

Abstract: It has been debated for some time whether lower rates of personal victimisation among the elderly are due to the fact that ‐ because of fear or other reasons ‐ they shield themselves from situations in which they might be victimised. This ‘differential exposure’ explanation is examined using data from the 1982 British Crime Survey which provides risks for different age/ sex groups and detailed information about respondents' ‘lifestyles’. Looking at evening ‘street’ offences, differences in risks between the age groups change very little when account is taken of different patterns of going out: irrespective of frequency, means of travel, destination and activity, the elderly are still less frequently victimised. Some theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Group Protests in Penal Institutions: The Polish Case
Authors: Moczydlowski Pawel , Rzeplinski Andrzej
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In 1981 prisoners'protests occurred in 116 of Poland's 146 prisons, with almost half of the Country's total prison population taking part. The causes, course and consequences of these protests are examined in this article, which identifies four distinct phases, culminating in the riots of the (phase of hopelessness'. As a result of the protests a number of improvements were made to prisoners' living conditions and legal status, as well as some alleviation of prison discipline and the extension of conditional release. Many of these reforms were brought to an end when martial law was introduced in December 1981.

The Polish prison system is in urgent need of further reform if it is to avoid another wave of protests and a deepening of the crisis in its penal institutions.
Moving Away from Help?: Policy and Practice in Probation Day Centres
Authors: Vanstone Maurice
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The function of the probation service is the subject of increasing attention. There is much disagreement both within the service and amongst other interested parties, about the direction of future policy. The issue of compulsory attendance at day centres draws together the main issues being debated. This paper describes the short history of day centres in this field and suggests that during this period there has been a significant change in the political climate affecting the development of practice. The paper is written from a practitioner's standpoint and it argues that a rapid expansion of day centres without adequate forethought and resource provision, will contribute significantly to a move away from the service's traditional role of helping people in trouble. It examines the dilemma surrounding voluntary or compulsory attendance and whilst suggesting that the principle of diverting people from custody through the use of probation orders and voluntary day centre attendance needs to be tested out, asserts that compulsory attendance need not be an attack on people's integrity. This paper underlines that there is a place for day centres within the criminal justice system and delineates a set of principles which should underpin both policy decisions and actual day to day practice.
Extending the Welfare Tariff for Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Reynolds Frances , Williamson Howard
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The measures introduced in the 1982 Criminal Justice Act show signs of accelerating the trend towards the use of custodial penalties for persistent and/or serious juvenile male offenders. This situation places an unwelcome obligation on practitioners within social services or the probation service to develop programmes offering sufficient control and containment to appear to magistrates as credible alternatives to custody. At the same time strategies must be devised to maintain the place of such programmes at the top of the tariff so that they take only those offenders who would otherwise have been placed on detention centre or youth custody orders. Recently initiated time‐intensive community‐based schemes may help some young offenders, but the authors argue that a realistic alternative is presented by developing structured goal‐oriented packages which involve a determinate period in residential care.
Police Force Cautioning: Policy and Practice1
Authors: Laycock Gloria , Tarling Roger
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In June 1984 the Home Office published a Consultative Document entitled Cautioning by the Police. This followed the deliberations of a working group set up to ‘recommend a basis for more consistent and effective police cautioning practice’. The research described in this article was commissioned by the Working Group on Cautioning to consider the discrepancy in police force cautioning rates and the extent to which it resulted from differences in force policy and practice.
Delinquency as a Scarce Resource
Authors: Pratt John
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This article suggests that demographic change may be one of the reasons why the overall number of recorded delinquents is falling. In the light of projections that the juvenile population will continue to decline, the paper examines what this might mean in the context of the current level of provision and resources for young offenders.
Pre‐Trial Settlement in the Magistrates' Courts
Authors: BALDWIN JOHN
Published: January 2009

Abstract: An attempt is made to assess the effects of the introduction of pre‐trial settlement procedures on the disposition of criminal cases in the lower courts. The negotiating strategies adopted by solicitors at pre‐trial reviews in the Nottingham Magistrates' Court are examined and the effect of the informal exchanges that take place on levels of case settlement is explored. There is no doubt that pre‐trial reviews induce high settlement rates although it is by no means clear how these are achieved. Some explanations are discussed in this paper together with the implications for the victim and the accused.
Crime on Offshore Installations
Authors: DUFF PETER
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Little crime takes place on offshore oil and gas installations in the North Sea. ‘Pilfering’ from the companies is the most frequent crime; assaults are almost non‐existent. The reasons for this law abiding behaviour are examined. The attitude of the workers, the lack of alcohol, the lack of opportunities to commit crime, the likelihood of being caught and the severe sanctions imposed by the oil companies combine to discourage crime. It is concluded that a ‘control’ theory framework provides the best explanatory model. It is not overly positivistic and is consistent with both the fact that little crime occurs and the nature of that crime.
Dealing with Offenders: Popular Opinion and the Views of Victims
Authors: Hough Mike , Moxon David
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Increasing emphasis is being placed both on achieving a better Jit between sentencing policy and public opinion and on meeting the needs and wishes of victims of crime. There has, however, been a dearth of factual information about the views both of the general public and of victims on punishment. This paper presents findings from the 1982 and 1984 sweeps of the British Crime Survey. The British Crime Survey suggests that neither public opinion nor victims' views are more punitive than current practice, and that people favour sentences involving compensation by offenders either to the victim or to the community. The paper also examines what factors make for punitive attitudes.
Bringing Victims and Offenders Together: A Comparison of Two Models1
Authors: Launay Gilles
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Evidence which suggests that victims of crime and criminal offenders can benefit from being brought together is briefly reviewed before two models of such encounters are compared. These are the VORP model, which involves the victim meeting his/her offender to discuss terms of reparation and the Rochester model where victims and unassociated offenders meet as a group. It is concluded that the Rochester model is more effective in providing victims and offenders with a learning experience through which their prejudices and stereotypes can be dynamically challenged.
Obscene Telephone Calls to Women in England and Wales
Authors: Pease Ken
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Data from the British Crime Survey are analysed which suggest that approximately 10% of women with access to a private telephone receive obscene calls per year. Young and middle‐aged women, separated and divorced women, and women living in inner cities, are more prone to victimisation, suggesting that some recipients of obscene calls are known to the caller. Women who have received obscene calls are more worried about burglary of their empty home, sex offences, ‘possibly sexual’ assault, and mugging than are women not receiving calls. It is suggested that it would be helpful to know more detail about patterns of victimisation: for example, do ex‐directory numbers ever receive obscene calls?
Young Persons Convicted of Grave Crimes: the 1933 Children and Young Persons Act (S.53) and its Effect Upon Children's Rights
Authors: Godsland J.H. , Fielding N.G.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Children and young persons convicted of ‘grave crimes’ may be sentenced to indeterminate custody under Section 53 of the 1933 Children and Young Persons Act. Recent trends in sentencing indicate an increasing use of this disposal. This article examines the trends and the legislative background to the recent changes. Based on a period of observational fieldwork, interviews with children sentenced under S.53 and interviews with staff charged with their care, the experience of the trial process and post‐sentence circumstances of the juveniles is described. The research findings are considered in relation to the tension between the care and control of juvenile offenders.
The Drug‐Taking Careers of Opioid Users1
Authors: Bennett Trevor , Wright Richard
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The paper presents the findings of a research project which included the study of the drug‐taking careers of regular opioid users. Samples were drawn from among addicts currently receiving a prescription from a NHS clinic, a general practitioner and a private practitioner and addicts who were currently dependent solely on black‐market supplies. The results derived from extensive interviews showed that users exert substantial control over the progression and development of their drug taking. The policy implications of a perspective on addiction which attributes addicts with control and individual choice are discussed.
Tactics of Legal Reform: Learning from the Recent Past
Authors: Davies Christie , Trivizas Eugene
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Present and future reformers can learn a great deal from the tactics successfully employed in the past or in other societies. In Britain in the 1960s, major reforms relating to abortion, capital punishment, censorship, and homosexuality succeeded because the reformers argued their case in utilitarian, welfare terms and thus avoided fundamental moral clashes and countervailing moral crusades. In Ireland, Ulster and the United States religious fervour precludes the use of such a technique. In America reformers have often instead based their case on the Constitution but their success has been divisive and possibly ephemeral. The choice of tactics for reform must reflect the social and political climate of the time and the country.
A Comparative Analysis of Two Different Systems of Juvenile Justice: Some Implications for England and Wales
Authors: Pratt John
Published: January 2009

Abstract:This paper examines recent developments in Scandinavian juvenile justice and discusses parallels, differences and lessons that might be learnt for juvenile justice in England and Wales.1 It will be argued that factors intrinsic to the respective models themselves may, in fact, be responsible for some of the quite different trends and developments to be found in each system. This would seem to be of considerable importance and significance in the light of current debates on (i) the sociology of punishment, and (ii) formal and informal models of justice, in addition to the sudden resurgence of interest in the ‘welfare v. justice’ debate, in the juvenile justice context, in England and Wales.
The Child Witness
Authors: Davies Graham , Flin Rhona , Baxter James
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Recent years have seen a growth in interest and concern for the child witness. The law has long acknowledged the special status of children's testimony and has implicitly assumed it to be less reliable than that of adults. However, recent psychological research casts doubt on the view that children are uniformly less accurate or competent than their adult peers in eyewitness tasks. Nor is there any clear experimental evidence that the memory of young people is necessarily more suggestible or malleable than that of adults. Given stimulus support, appropriate circumstances and sympathetic questioning, children may be able to provide valuable and reliable evidence in courts of law. However, if such testimony is to become commonplace, efforts must be made to adjust traditional courtroom procedure to the special needs of the child.
Research, Politics and Criminal Justice1
Authors: Tarling Roger
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This article considers the relationship between research and politics within the criminal justice system and how this has developed over the last decade and more. The author writes from the perspective of research within government and identifies the many policy and political motivations which result in research being commissioned. It is shown that many problems recur. Despite progress they remain finally unresolved so the basic research agenda changes comparatively little. This argues against the contention that there has been a recent politicisation of criminal justice research issues.
Personal Crime Against Women: Evidence from the 1982 British Crime Survey
Authors: Worrall Anne , Pease Ken
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The concerns of feminist and radical writers for women as victims of crime are set out. Their criticisms of quantitative work in general and the British Crime Survey in particular are mentioned. Data are presented from the survey showing that women victims of personal crime disproportionately suffer at the hands of people they know well, and of husbands especially. Such crimes are reported to the police less than crimes against males, and this is shown not to be an artefact of the degree of injury caused. The paper's purpose is to show that survey data, with all their imperfections, can be used to address the issues of concern.
Influences Upon the Use of Imprisonment: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Young Warren
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The size of the prison population varies enormously from one jurisdiction to another, due to marked differences both in the extent to which imprisonment is used and in the average length of prison sentences. This article reviews many of the studies which have sought an explanation for these variations and considers the theories which they have proposed or tested. It concludes that neither ‘deterministic’ nor ‘policy choice’ explanations have proved satisfactory, and suggests that detailed cross‐cultural research on prison rates, which focusses upon not only the impact of quantitative demographic and socioeconomic variables but also the effect of different criminal justice structures and policies, is now required.
Is There a Role for a Juvenile Court?
Authors: Giller Henri
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The principles and policies currently operating within the juvenile justice system, particularly those embodied in the 1982 Criminal Justice Act, mean that the traditionally clear demarcation between juvenile offenders and other older offender groups has become blurred. One implication of this trend is the need to re‐examine the rationale for continuing with a distinctive juvenile court. Arguments for the abolition of the juvenile court are examined with the intention of opening a debate as to what the rationale for such a distinctive tribunal is.
Social Control and the Community
Authors: Fielding Nigel
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In light of the present and enduring interest in the role of the community in social control it is argued that an assessment is needed of the potential for change in existing arrangements. The article focusses on policing and probation counselling, and considers the implications of recent research and comparative studies of social control in societies where the community plays a different role to that in the Western democracies. Change in this area must be sensitive to the heterogeneity and variations of interest in modern communities, and several potential innovations are assessed from this perspective.
Blue‐prints for Criminal Justice: Reflections on a Policy Plan for the Netherlands
Authors: Bottomley A. Keith
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In May 1985 a policy plan for crime and criminal justice was adopted by the Dutch Government, in response to growing public concern about the rising crime rate in the Netherlands. It established a set of ‘material principles’ for dealing with petty and more serious crimes, and examined the organisational consequences of a co‐ordinated penal policy based on differentiation and consistency. The approach adopted in the formulation of this plan stands in sharp contrast to the pragmatic and management oriented statements of criminal justice policy by British governments in recent years.
The English Probation System and The Diagnostic Ideal
Authors: McWilliams William
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper examines critically the concept of social diagnosis as it operated in the English probation system from the 1930s to the 1960s. It has a particular focus on probation officers9 social enquiry reports for the criminal courts as best exemplifying the diagnostic ideal in action, and illustrative examples of such reports are produced for each of the four decades.
British Policing: Continuities and Changes
Authors: Manning Peter K.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper discusses changes in British policing focussing on the ‘seventies’ to the ‘eighties’. Data are drawn from several field studies of the author, as well as secondary analysis of media reports and other research reports. The analysis is organised around police structure, Junction and image and discusses changed political context in which policing now stands. The paper concludes with an overview of four issues of future importance in British policing, scientific management, technology, public trust and crime control.