bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Single‐Molecule Localization Microscopy using mCherry
Authors: Winterflood Christian M. , Ewers Helge
Published: August 2014

We demonstrate the potential of the commonly used red fluorescent protein mCherry for single‐molecule super‐resolution imaging. mCherry can be driven into a light‐induced dark state in the presence of a thiol from which it can recover spontaneously or by irradiation with near UV light. We show imaging of subcellular protein structures such as microtubules and the nuclear pore complex with a resolution below 40 nm. We were able to image the C‐terminus of the nuclear pore protein POM121, which is on the inside of the pore and not readily accessible for external labeling. The photon yield for mCherry is comparable to that of the latest optical highlighter fluorescent proteins. Our findings show that the widely used mCherry red fluorescent protein and the vast number of existing mCherry fusion proteins are readily amenable to super‐resolution imaging. This obviates the need for generating novel protein fusions that may compromise function or the need for external fluorescent labeling.
Improved Ionization Energies for the Two Isomers of Phenylpropargyl Radical
Authors: Holzmeier Fabian , Lang Melanie , Hemberger Patrick , Fischer Ingo
Published: August 2014

The ionization of two resonantly stabilized radicals, namely 1‐phenylpropargyl (1PPR) and 3‐phenylpropargyl (3PPR) are reinvestigated applying vacuum ultraviolet synchrotron radiation and threshold photoelectron spectroscopy. Ionization energies of 7.24±0.02 and 7.25±0.01 eV are obtained for 1 and 3PPR respectively, which compare well with ab initio calculations. The quality of the spectra are significantly improved mostly due to the application of a new high‐photon‐flux grating available at the VUV‐beamline of Swiss Light Source. Resolved vibrational features are assigned according to a Franck–Condon approach.
Combinatorial Search of Magnetostrictive Materials for Sensors
Authors: Maetani Takuya , Nakamitsu Yutaka , Sakurai Junpei , Nakagawa Shigeki , Hata Seiichi
Published: August 2014

Combinatorial search is one of the useful methods that could search for optimal composition of alloy materials or novel alloy materials. Combinatorial sputtering provides sample group (library) having different compositions in a limited place. Then, the properties of the samples can be scanned in an efficient way. In this research, magnetostrictive material with high magnetostriction, relative permeability, and resistivity was studied. Desired value of magnetostriction is more than 20 × 10−6, relative permeability is more than 4000, and resistivity is more than 100 μΩ·cm. As a result, composition that Cr content is less than 14 at.% fill the desired value of relative permeability, and more than 10 at.% fill the desired value of resistivity. There is possibility to fill the desired value of magnetostriction.
Fabrication of Stainless‐Steel Microcoils and Mesh Pipes Using Lithography
Authors: Sakabe Hiroshi , Horiuchi Toshiyuki
Published: August 2014

Precise microcoils and mesh pipes with outer and inner diameters of 100 μm and 60 μm were fabricated using laser‐scan lithography and electrolytic etching. Non‐magnetizable stainless‐steel (SUS304) pipes were coated with resist films, and helical patterns were delineated using a laser‐scan exposure system. Positive resist PMER P‐LA900 was used for fabricating microcoils, and negative resist PMER N‐CA3000 was used for fabricating micromesh pipes. Mesh patterns were formed by doubly delineating helical patterns coiled in opposite directions each other. Widths of resist patterns used for fabricating mesh patterns were also controlled by stitching two helical patterns. Because space widths of coils and sizes of mesh holes became larger than space widths and hole sizes of resist patterns caused by undercut in etching process, widths of resist patterns were adjusted by considering the undercut depths. As a result, pipe specimens were suitably etched in a solution of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride in water, and microcomponents with homogeneous widths were successfully fabricated.
DRB1*0402 may influence arthritis by promoting naive CD4+T‐cell differentiation in to regulatory T cells
Authors: Luckey David , Behrens Marshall , Smart Michele , Luthra Harvinder , David Chella S. , Taneja Veena
Published: August 2014

HLA‐DRB1*0401 expression in humans has been associated with a predisposition to developing rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and collagen‐induced arthritis (CIA), while HLA‐DRB1*0402 is not associated with susceptibility. Here, we determined if mice transgenic (Tg) for human *0401 have a CD4+ T‐cell repertoire that predetermines proinflammatory cytokine production. The data show that both *0401 and *0402 Tg mice can produce TH1/TH17 cytokines, although the kinetics of response may be different. However, in the context of antigen‐specific responses in a CIA model, *0402 Tg mice generate a TH2 response that may explain their resistance to developing arthritis. In addition, a significant subset of naïve CD4+ T cells from *0402 Tg mice can be activated in polarizing conditions to differentiate into Treg cells that produce IFN‐γ. *0401 Tg mice harbor memory CD4+ T cells that differentiate into IL‐17+ cells in various polarizing conditions. Our data suggest that *0401 Tg mice generate a strong immune response to lipopolysaccharide and may be efficient in clearing infection, and may *0401 have been evolutionarily selected for this ability. Autoimmunity, such as RA, could likely be a bystander effect of the cytokine storm that, along with the presence of low Treg‐cell numbers in *0401 Tg mice, causes immune dysregulation.
Investigating the ‘Jumping to Conclusions’ Bias in People with Anorexia Nervosa
Authors: McKenna Gráinne , Fox John R. E. , Haddock Gillian
Published: August 2014

‘Jumping to conclusions’ (JTC) is an established reasoning bias in people with psychosis and delusion proneness. Research investigating the JTC bias in other clinical populations remains in its infancy. This study investigated whether individuals with anorexia (AN) displayed the JTC bias compared with healthy controls and, if so, whether the bias was greater in relation to emotionally salient information. The study also investigated whether delusionality was correlated with the JTC bias. JTC was measured using the ‘beads task’. Three versions were employed: the standard version and two emotionally salient tasks. Results indicated that a majority (55.6%) of people with AN (n = 26) displayed poor insight into their eating disorder beliefs but did not display an elevated JTC compared with healthy controls (n = 33) on any task. The level of delusionality in the AN group was not correlated with JTC bias. Findings suggest that although a majority of people with AN demonstrated limited insight, they did not display the JTC bias. This may suggest that poor insight in eating disorders has different characteristics to that found in psychotic disorders, which may suggest that differences are needed in relation to how they are treated using psychological means. However, this was a small study, and study replication is required. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
High‐order discontinuous Galerkin spectral element methods for transitional and turbulent flow simulations
Authors: Beck Andrea D. , Bolemann Thomas , Flad David , Frank Hannes , Gassner Gregor J. , Hindenlang Florian , Munz Claus‐Dieter
Published: August 2014

In this paper, we investigate the accuracy and efficiency of discontinuous Galerkin spectral method simulations of under‐resolved transitional and turbulent flows at moderate Reynolds numbers, where the accurate prediction of closely coupled laminar regions, transition and developed turbulence presents a great challenge to large eddy simulation modelling. We take full advantage of the low numerical errors and associated superior scale resolving capabilities of high‐order spectral methods by using high‐order ansatz functions up to 12th order. We employ polynomial de‐aliasing techniques to prevent instabilities arising from inexact quadrature of nonlinearities. Without the need for any additional filtering, explicit or implicit modelling, or artificial dissipation, our high‐order schemes capture the turbulent flow at the considered Reynolds number range very well. Three classical large eddy simulation benchmark problems are considered: a circular cylinder flow at ReD=3900, a confined periodic hill flow at Reh=2800 and the transitional flow over a SD7003 airfoil at Rec=60,000. For all computations, the total number of degrees of freedom used for the discontinuous Galerkin spectral method simulations is chosen to be equal or considerably less than the reported data in literature. In all three cases, we achieve an equal or better match to direct numerical simulation results, compared with other schemes of lower order with explicitly or implicitly added subgrid scale models. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A NOTE ON THE ADJUSTMENT OF FOURFOLD TABLES FOR “CURVILINEARITY”
Authors: Cliff Norman
Published: August 2014

In Psychometric Methods Guilford reports a method of correcting fourfold tables for “curvilinearity” for the purpose of computing tetrachoric correlations. It is pointed out here that the notion of correcting such tables is erroneous in view of the restrictions on the table and the nature of the tetrachoric correlation. It is also demonstrated that the “correction” can, and in common cases will, have a profound effect on the value of the observed correlation.
RESPONSE STYLE AND CONTENT MEASURES FROM PERSONALITY INVENTORIES1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

In order to evaluate the respective contributions to personality inventory scales of consistent responses to item content on one hand and of the response styles of acquiescence and desirability on the other, factor analysis was applied to intercorrelations among content scales and stylistic measures as a potential means of separating distinct, but possibly correlated, dimensions of content and style. “True” and “false” items were scored separately for ten relatively homogeneous content scales and a measure of defensiveness. A factor analysis of intercorrelations among these 22 scores yielded eight factors – three large ones, together accounting for about two‐thirds of the common variance, and five small ones. Two measures each of the tendencies to acquiesce and to respond desirably were subsequently projected into the factor space by extension, in order to identify stylistic dimensions. Of the three large factors, two were attributable to the response styles of desirability and acquiescence, and the third, which appeared to represent a second‐order content dimension of impulsive unconventionality vs. controlled conventionality, was also related to desirability variables. Some of the smaller factors were attributed to specific content dimensions, since “true” and “false” parts of single content scales dominated the loadings.
BISERIAL ESTIMATES OF CORRELATION
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

The statistic λ is compared with the usual biserial‐r with respect to efficiency for estimating the true correlation in the population from which the sample was drawn. Both statistics are designed for the case where one of the observed variables is assumed to result from the dichotomizing of a continuous variable. When the true correlation exceeds .50, the statistic λ appears to be more efficient than is biserial‐r.
FACTORS IN JUDGMENTS OF WRITING ABILITY
Authors: Diederich Paul B. , French John W. , Carlton Sydell T.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to serve as a stepping stone toward closer agreement among judges of student writing at the point of admission to college by revealing common causes of disagreement. It was expected and found that more than half the variability in grades of a large number of judges on the same set of papers was due to “error” (random variation) or the idiosyncratic preferences of individual readers. In the variability that was not random or idiosyncratic, it was expected and found that there was a substantial core of common agreement on the general merit of the papers and that a small number of “schools of thought” would account for most of the systematic differences in grading standards. Factor analysis of correlations among the grades of 53 distinguished readers, representing six different fields, on 300 papers written by college freshmen of widely varying ability revealed just five such “schools of thought,” emphasizing:

Ideas: relevance, clarity, quantity, development, persuasiveness;

Form: organization and analysis;

Flavor: style, interest, sincerity;

Mechanics: specific errors in grammar, punctuation, etc.;

Wording: choice and arrangement of words.

No standards or criteria for judging the papers were suggested to the readers. Instead, they were told to use “whatever hunches, intuitions, or preferences you normally use in deciding that one paper is better than another.” They sorted the papers into nine piles in order of “general merit.” The only restriction was that all nine piles must be used, with not less than 4% of the papers in any pile.

The five reader‐factors or “schools of thought” were identified by a “blind” classification of 11,018 comments written on 3,557 papers that were graded high (7–8–9) or low (1–2–3) by the three highest and three lowest readers on each factor. The person who classified the comments did not know the standing of any reader on any factor. In addition to the reader factors, three College Board tests taken by these students formed a separate “test‐factor” that had practically zero correlations with all reader‐factors except Mechanics (.50) and Wording (.45).

It was not the purpose of this study to achieve a high degree of unanimity among the readers but to reveal the differences of opinion that prevail in uncontrolled grading–both in the academic community and in the educated public. To that end, the readers included college English teachers, social scientists, natural scientists, writers and editors, lawyers, and business executives. None the less, it was disturbing to find that 94% of the papers received either seven, eight, or nine of the nine possible grades; that no paper received less than five different grades; and that the median correlation between readers was 31. Readers in each field, however, agreed slightly better with the English teachers than with one another.
SEPARATE SET AND CONTENT SCORES FOR PERSONALITY AND ATTITUDE SCALES1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

Helmstadter's (1957) formulas for obtaining separate set and content components of a test score were modified for use with personality and attitude scales. The revised formulas for scoring content (C) and set (S) are

urn:x-wiley:13889842:ets200894:equation:ets200894-math-0001

where RA is the number of items keyed A that are marked A by the respondent, RB, is the number of items keyed B and marked B, and NA and NB are the number of items keyed A and B, respectively.
SUCCESSFUL JUDGMENT IN AN INTERPERSONAL SENSITIVITY TASK1
Authors: Cliff Norman
Published: August 2014

The Social Judgment Test was developed as a measure of a judge's ability to perceive individual differences in behavior and to apply these perceptions so as to recognize the individuals in other situations from their behavior. The behaviors used in the test were the written responses of a number of target individuals responding to the same situation, a complex simulation of administrative behavior. The test employed a matching procedure.

Under these circumstances, in which the judge was forced to discriminate among targets, differences in the degree to which the judges were acquainted with the targets were eliminated, and all target individuals were playing the same role, in the same situations, mean scores were only somewhat (although highly significantly) above the chance level and. the differences among Js in their ability to correctly identify targets were only minimally consistent. These findings were obtained in spite of the fact that an attempt was made to select maximally discriminable targets. Re‐keying the test so that the most popular response was considered the correct one resulted in equally unreliable scores. Although it is possible that the results are a consequence of the specific testing format and. materials used, we advance the hypothesis that individual differences in ability to predict the behavior of others, apart from situational factors, is of minimal importance to successful prediction.
TESTING HOMOGENEITY OF RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

The likelihood ratio significance test for the hypothesis of homogeneity of two empirical reliability coefficients is derived. It is assumed that both tests were administered to the same sample and are split into equivalent halves. A numerical example serves as an illustration.
THE STOCHASTIC MODEL OF MENTAL TESTING THEORY AND AN APPLICATION*
Authors: Woodbury Max A.
Published: August 2014

An axiomatization of mental test theory is presented. The presentation deals explicitly with the following concepts: “true score.” “parallel forms,” “reliability,” “validity,” and “combined test score.”
RISK TAKING AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND THEIR RELATION TO AN OBJECTIVE MEASURE OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION1
Authors: Myers Albert E.
Published: August 2014

Two studies using an objective test of Achievement Motivation with high school Ss indicated that the test was able to reproduce the results typically found with projective measures. One was a correlational study dealing with problems of academic achievement while the other was a laboratory study that focused on competitive risk taking. These data seemed to support the proposition that objective tests of achievement motivation may be possible.
PERSONALITY AND SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF JUDGMENTAL CONFIDENCE AND EXTREMITY
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Wallach Michael A.
Published: August 2014

The present investigation examines the effects of manifest anxiety, prior success‐failure experience, and task set on judgmental confidence and extremity. In a sample of 141 male college students, a significant triple interaction was obtained for both confidence and extremity, indicating that success‐failure and task sets have a differential impact upon these judgmental variables for subjects low and high in manifest anxiety. The findings provided evidence for the operation of two processes in judgmental behavior, conceptualized as desire‐for‐certainty and cognitive risk taking. Our conclusions emphasized the multiple determination of judgmental phenomena by personality and situational influences.
AN UNFOLDING ANALYSIS OF COGNITIVE PREFERENCES
Authors: Wish Myron
Published: August 2014

This study represents a reanalysis of Heath's (1963) data using Coombs' unfolding technique. Some additional objectives of this study are to find the dimensions underlying the cognitive preferences, to test Heath's first two hypotheses in terms of individuals as well as clusters, and to compare cluster and individual analyses.

The first dimension, which goes from Applications to Memory to Principles to Questioning, accounts for over half of the individuals and over two‐thirds of the clusters. A two‐dimensional configuration accounts for 90% of the individuals and 99% of the clusters. The ordering along the second dimension goes from Memory to Application to Questioning to Principles. The analyses of clusters and individuals were shown to give identical solutions.

With respect to the first dimension alone as well as with consideration of both dimensions, the following hypotheses were supported:

(a) that the Physical Science Study Curriculum group and the control group would be generally located in different regions of the same joint space, the PSSC group being more densely distributed than controls in regions near Principles and Questioning, the controls being more densely distributed than the PSSC group in regions near Memory and Applications;

(b) that achievement scores for PSSC clusters would be higher in regions near Principles and Questioning than in regions near Applications and Memory; and

(c) that the region‐achievement relationship hypothesized in “b” would be stronger in the PSSC group than in the control group.

Implications following from the analysis were discussed.
FACULTY PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS
Authors: Davis Junius A.
Published: August 2014

The primary purpose of this study was to determine student traits that faculty associate with desirability, separate and apart from those reflected by the traditional academic achievement indices.

Ratings of students on 80 variables, including a student desirability variable, were obtained, together with high school and college grade averages and SAT scores. The resulting 84 × 84 correlation matrix was factored by the diagonal method, using precise communality estimates from a separate factor analysis. In this case, the procedure permits partialling out the variance in desirability and the other variables which is attributable to academic performance, and definition of residual desirability in terms of relationship of the residual of the other variables to desirability apart from academic performance. The diagonal factoring method was also used to examine the content, including academic performance, of general desirability, and to define desirability separate and apart from SAT and academic performance.

Ratings of intellectual ability and values, motivation, and creativity, as well as actual grade point average, were found to be related to general desirability ratings. Desirability apart from grades, however, appears to consist of such traits as likableness, ethicality, open‐mindedness, altruism, maturity, and self‐insight, although ratings of intellectual ability and values have components related to grades and to desirability apart from grades. Ability as measured by the SAT, though reasonably related to performance, appears to have negative relationship to desirability apart from grades.
TESTING OF CULTURALLY DIFFERENT GROUPS
Authors: Campbell Joel
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to summarize research findings on testing of individuals from groups, particularly Negroes, which differ in some respects from the majority culture in the United States. Particular attention was paid to factors which appeared to cause or be associated with changes in test scores. The effectiveness of tests in predicting performance of Negroes in integrated and segregated colleges was evaluated.

A program of research, designed to fill gaps in present knowledge, was outlined, with particular attention focused on selection for college and remedying educational deficits at the college level.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ADVANTAGES IN GAMBLING
Authors: Myers Albert E.
Published: August 2014

Sixteen pairs of Ss participated in a gambling experiment using shuffle‐board bowling machines. Each S in a pair was given two dollars to use in betting with the other player during the 10‐game session. Independent variables included the mean level of performance (high vs. low, as determined by the S's ability) and the variability of performance (high vs. low, as manipulated by E). The data indicated that the high‐mean players enjoyed a psychological advantage; additional findings concerned with factors involved with the making of a bet and the effect of achievement motivation on gambling behavior are discussed.
INFORMATION VS. REWARD AS THE ACTIVE INGREDIENT OF REINFORCEMENT IN THE ACQUISITION OF SKILLED PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G.
Published: August 2014

Ss were asked to try to draw, blindfolded, a series of 7 1/2″‐long lines. In one condition (Reward), Ss were reinforced by being told Right or Wrong, depending on their accuracy; in the other condition (Information), they were told only whether they were Long or Short. The resulting superior acquisition of skill in the Information condition was interpreted as indicating that information about the accuracy of performance, rather than reward for accurate performance, is the essential ingredient of reinforcement in the acquisition of skilled performance. This finding is more consistent with a Law of Information than with the traditional Law of Effect.
PREDICTION OF COLLEGE PERFORMANCE WITH THE MYERS‐BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Schiffman Harold , Ross John
Published: August 2014

This study, the last in a series by the present authors, investigated the ability of the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator, a self‐report inventory, to predict grades and dropout at Wesleyan and Caltech, both for classes and, using estimates, for Caltech applicants. Continuous scores derived from the Indicator's four scales had some ability to predict the criteria, and this ability varied with the criterion and the sample. A contingency measure that reflects the Indicator's interdependent, dichotomous type categories generally had greater predictive validity than the continuous scores, but its correlations may be inflated. Adding the Indicator's continuous scores to the SAT scales and high school rank produced a slight but significant improvement in prediction in the Wesleyan class and the Caltech applicant group, but not in the Caltech class.
DIMENSIONS OF ENGINEERS' JOB PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Sprecher Thomas B.
Published: August 2014

Conceptual dimensions needed to describe a full range of the job performance characteristics of engineers were developed. Agreement was found between the first‐order factors identified here and those in two separate earlier studies where some of the same items were used. An empirical second‐order factor analysis of these 31 first‐order factors gave an intelligible structure. The data also support the a priori taxonomy that had been postulated based on Guilford's “Structure of Intellect” model and Mills' The Engineer in Society.
FEAR, MESSAGE RELEVANCE, AND PERSUASIBILITY1
Authors: Singer Jerome E. , Ebert Ronald
Published: August 2014

The conflicting literature on the relationship of fear and persuasion suggests that the relevance of a message to the recipient's source of fear may be a factor in the message's persuasiveness. A person who is frightened may try to avoid a fear‐relevant message, one which refers to the source of the fear, as the references and cues contained in the message make his fright more salient. A frightened person may seek out a fear‐irrelevant message, one which does not refer to the source of the fear, in order to obtain diversion and lower the salience of the source of fright. Ninety subjects were tested in an experiment which evaluated two related hypotheses.

Frightened subjects will be less persuaded than control subjects by a message which is relevant to their fear.

Frightened subjects will be more persuaded than control subjects by a message which is irrelevant to their fear.

The results of the study yielded support for the first hypothesis but not for the second one. The implications of the positive finding and possible explanations of the negative one were discussed.
THURSTONIAN METHODS IN THE MEASUREMENT OF LEARNING
Authors: Sjöberg Lennart
Published: August 2014

Sjöberg, L. Thurstonian methods in the measurement of learning. Scand. J. Psychol., 1965, 6, 33–48.—A distinction is discussed between manifest and latent concepts on the one hand and observable and unobservable psychological processes (of which learning is one) on the other. Previous attempts at measurement by Hull and Björkman are briefly reviewed. An analysis is presented of improved performance in terms of the latent variables of the Law of Comparative Judgment. Finally, the author's method for successive intervals scaling is applied to some paired associate learning data.
GROWTH STUDY: II
Authors: Hilton T. L. , Myers A. E.
Published: August 2014

Numerous studies have demonstrated that school achievement can be predicted from biographical data. This study was designed to determine whether biographical data contribute anything to the prediction beyond that provided by a battery of ability and achievement tests.

The data were obtained from a continuing longitudinal study of academic growth initiated at ETS in 1960. As part of this eight‐year study, questionnaire and test data were obtained from approximately 5,000 eleventh graders in 17 U. S. public school systems. A year and a half later, test scores and academic standings were obtained for these students as seniors.

The present study includes only the 1,206 boys who were graduated from academic programs and for whom complete data were available. The objective test predictors were scores for the School and College Ability Test (SCAT), the Sequential Test of Educational Progress (STEP), and a specially designed Test of General Information (TGI).

The questionnaire data concerned the students' experiences during the previous year. From a unit weighting of subsets of the 169 questionnaire items, scales were created to measure variables such as Amount of Low Level TV Watching and Level of Occupational Plans.

Two types of criteria were examined: (1) scores from the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test and the College Board English Composition and American History tests and (2) each student's rank in his graduating class.

Multiple regression analysis indicated that biographical information, used as the sole source of predictors, predicted both the objective test criteria and rank in class moderately well. When used in conjunction with objective test scores, however, the test scores accounted for practically all the variance in the criteria. Further, factor analysis indicated there were no factors which were common to the biographical variables and the criteria but not common to the objective test predictors and the criteria. Alternative interpretations and implications are discussed.
PROGRAMED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES1
Authors: Jacobs Paul I.
Published: August 2014

Following pretesting with Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices Test, 48 Ss were randomly assigned to either experimental (remedial self‐instructional loops for missed pretest items) or control (no instruction) conditions. A posttest revealed that the remedial loops were successful, but that their effects did not transfer to other items. A retention test given two months later showed no difference between groups. It was concluded that self‐instructional procedures could be used to increase children's scores on the Coloured Progressive Matrices Test. Further tryout and revision of procedures will aim at making the increase more general and lasting.
ON OBLIQUE PROCRUSTES ROTATION1
Authors: Browne Michael W.
Published: August 2014

The equations involved in the rotation of an arbitrary factor matrix to a least squares fit to a specified factor structure have been known for many years. These equations, in general, cannot be solved by purely algebraic means, and an approximate solution has previously been used in practical applications.

In this paper an effective iterative method for obtaining the exact solution is developed. By algebraic manipulation the set of equations is expressed in the form of one polynomial equation in one unknown. Newton's method is suggested for solving this equation. Practical applications of the procedure indicate that convergence within small tolerance limits is generally attained after few iterations.
PERSONALITY, ROLE CONFLICT, AND SELF‐CONCEPTION IN STUDENT TEACHERS1
Authors: Walberg Herbert J.
Published: August 2014

Research literature on beginning teachers suggests a conflict between the need to establish rapport with children and the professional role of teachers in maintaining authority. A theory that this personality‐role conflict lowers self‐conception was tested in a sample of 77 women. The subjects took a Semantic Differential questionnaire before and after practice teaching, and were found to rate themselves lower on 20 of the possible 20 items classified as favorable (p < .001) and higher on eight of eight unfavorable items (p < .001) after the experience. Significant changes in individual items (.05 ≤ p ≤ 0001) revealed the pattern of conflict more specifically. A generalized theory of personality‐role conflict and decline in self‐conception in occupational novices is discussed.
COEFFICIENT ALPHA AND THE RELIABILITY OF COMPOSITE MEASUREMENTS
Authors: Novick Melvin R. , Lewis Charles
Published: August 2014

Following a general approach due to Guttman, coefficient α is derived as a lower bound on the reliability of a test. The necessary and sufficient condition under which equality is attained in this inequality and hence that α is equal to the reliability of the test is derived and shown to be closely related to the recent redefinition of the concept of parallel measurements due to Novick. This condition is then also shown to be closely related to the unit rank assumption originally adopted by Kuder and Richardson in the derivation of their formula 20. The assumption later adopted by Jackson and Ferguson and the one adopted by Gulliksen are shown to be related to the necessary and sufficient condition derived here. It is then pointed out that the statement that “coefficient α is equal to the mean of the split‐half reliabilities” is true only under the condition assumed by Cronbach in the body of his derivation of this result. Finally some limitations on the uses of any function of α as a measure of internal consistency are noted.
DIMENSIONS OF PARENTAL PRACTICE CONCERNED WITH COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL CHILD
Authors: Freeberg Norman E. , Payne Donald T.
Published: August 2014

A sample of 203 parents of preschool children served as respondents for a 60‐item questionnaire. The items dealt with parental practices which previous research findings cite as influential in childhood cognitive development. The items were factor analyzed and six factors extracted: (1) Willingness to devote time to the child, (2) Parental guidance, (3) Aspiration for achievement, (4) Rejection vs. Acceptance, (5) Provision for the child's needs, and (6) Dependence upon external resources. Scale scores derived from the factors were correlated with family (demographic) characteristics.
TRAINING CHARITY IN CHILDREN1
Authors: Midlarsky Elizabeth , Bryan James H.
Published: August 2014

One hundred and sixty first‐ to fourth‐grade girls were given one of 10 training programs designed to produce variations in altruistic behaviors in two distinct donation situations. Children sacrificed the obtaining of M&M candies when they had a warm relationship with the E who made explicit her pleasure at such sacrifice. Neither a warm relationship nor explicit statements of joy by the E alone were more effective than no training in eliciting such charitable behavior. Ss' subsequent anonymous donations were highly correlated with previous training programs. It was concluded that positive interpersonal relationships and explicit statements of pleasure by the socializing agent can provide the basis for the temporary internalization of the norm of self‐sacrifice.
COGNITIVE ABILITIES AS PROCESS VARIABLES1
Authors: Hettema Joop
Published: August 2014

The process characteristics of two cognitive styles and a number of other cognitive measures presumably relevant to the personality domain were investigated. In Study I (N = 74 conscripts) the tests were classified by factor analysis, yielding five factors, the first three of which were selected for further investigation. Study II (N = 64) established relationships between each of the three factors and the relative effects of focal, spatial and temporal anchors in a Helson‐type weight lifting experiment. The results of this study led to the hypothesis that the processes in each factor involve the transmission of information from a specific area of stimulation. Study III (N's = 32, 32, 54) tested the hypothesis experimentally and confirmed it for two of the three factors. The conclusion from these studies taken together was that a general negative relationship exists within each area of stimulation between the tendency to anchor and the ability to transmit information. An anchor‐transmission theory was outlined and related to current notions of cognitive functioning. Cognitive styles and abilities were conceptualized as specific instances of the general transfer process.
RANGE RESTRICTION PROBLEMS IN THE VALIDATION OF A GUIDANCE TEST BATTERY1
Authors: Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

Some problems in correcting sample statistics for restriction of range are discussed. The emphasis is on cases of range restriction resulting from self‐selection where the explicit selection variable is either unknown or unmeasurable. An example is presented illustrating the effects of substituting an available implicit selection variable for an unavailable explicit selection variable in the standard correction formula for various correlations between the two and for various selection ratios. The calculations indicated that the substitution results in an undercorrection if there is a substantial positive correlation between the implicit and explicit selection variables; however, it results in an overcorrection for small or negative correlations between the two.
EFFECTS OF NORM‐ORIENTED GROUP DISCUSSION ON INDIVIDUAL RISK TAKING AND CONSERVATISM1
Authors: Alker Henry A. , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

In prior research, group discussion of risk‐relevant material has led to systematic shifts in the direction of greater risk taking by the participants. The initial purpose of the set of studies presented here was to determine whether discussions of risk‐irrelevant material would produce comparable risky shifts. In Study I, individual risk‐taking levels were assessed in 97 females (constituted as 24 small groups) both before and after a discussion of current women's fashions. There was no risky shift. A near‐significant conservative shift obtained, possibly due to the normative influences implicit in the group discussions. These influences were made explicit in Study II by providing intervening discussion materials consisting of ethical conflicts pitting universalistic ethical norms against particularistic obligations to friends or indulgent self‐interest. Subjects (N = 60 females constituted as five‐person groups) unanimously favored the ethical norms and subsequently shifted in a consistently conservative direction. In Study III (N = 55 females constituted as five‐person groups) the discussions dealt with the same ethical conflicts but were focused on recommending a particular course of action. Under these altered conditions, no overall significant shift in either direction occurred. However, groups converging on unethical alternatives subsequently became more risky, those converging on norm‐maintaining alternatives became more conservative. Implications for future research are considered.
MEASUREMENT BASED ON HALVABILITY OF INTERVALS
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

The basic theory of measurement based on a concatenation operation defined on pairs of elements of a continuous ordered set is presented when this operation can be viewed as halving of intervals, intervals being defined as ordered pairs of elements. Starting out with a series of assumptions, a sequence of conclusions is obtained which culminates in the existence and uniqueness theorems concerning a numerical representation. An alternative set of basic assumptions contains an autodistributivity requirement instead of a bisymmetry postulate. The results were obtained in a strict but rather undemanding way. Some remarks concerning scale types and related issues are appended. It appears doubtful whether a definition of scale types by means of a certain group of admissible transformations captures the psychological significance of a given scale well enough.
GROUP RISK TAKING UNDER COMPETITIVE AND NONCOMPETITIVE CONDITIONS IN ADULTS AND CHILDREN1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Carlson Julia
Published: August 2014

The present investigation had three major purposes: (1) to compare the magnitude of risky shifts obtained under conditions of noncompetition and competition; (2) to determine whether the consistent risky‐shift effects observed in adults would also be found in young children; and (3) to examine the rationality or irrationality of enhanced risk taking in groups. With risks and payoffs based on monetary gain and loss for problem‐solving performance, groups of college students and elementary school children were assigned to competitive, noncompetitive, and control conditions. The major results were as follows: (1) for adults, noncompetitive group decision yielded risky shifts three to five times greater than were obtained in the conditions of competition; (2) the evidence for the risky‐shift phenomenon in children was quite weak for both the noncompetitive and competitive conditions; and (3) decision outcomes (problem‐solving performance) suggested that the risky‐shift effect may be more rational than irrational. On the whole, the results were more consistent with a “responsibility‐diffusion” than with a “social value” interpretation of group risk‐taking behavior.
ARE RISK TAKERS MORE PERSUASIVE THAN CONSERVATIVES IN GROUP DISCUSSION?12
Authors: Wallach Michael A. , Kogan Nathan , Burt Roger B.
Published: August 2014

This study investigated whether the phenomenon of shifts toward greater risk taking following discussion of risk‐related materials can be attributed to greater general persuasiveness exerted by risk takers than by conservatives. Its procedure was to discover whether risk takers would be judged more persuasive than conservatives following discussion of risk‐neutral materials. Risk takers were judged slightly more persuasive than conservatives in the case of female discussion groups, but not at all in the case of male groups. Our conclusion was that the risky‐shift phenomenon cannot be attributed to greater persuasiveness as a general characteristic of high risk takers in male groups, while this factor can play no more than a small role in female groups.
CREATIVE ABILITY AND RISK TAKING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Pankove Ethel , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

The present study explored the interrelationships among selected measures of creativity, intelligence, and risk taking in a sample of fifth‐grade children. Significant relationships were obtained for boys between number of associates generated to creativity tasks administered under gamelike conditions and preferred level of risk taking on a shuffleboard task. An IQ index, unrelated to creative ability, showed a marginal association with risk taking. Interpretation of the creativity‐risk taking relationship stressed the importance of self‐confidence as a mediating link. Consistent with that interpretation, the foregoing relationship was not found in high defensive boys but was significant and quite substantial in low defensive boys.
A COMPARISON OF PERCENTAGE OF PUPILLARY DILATION WITH OTHER MEASURES OF DIFFICULTY OF MENTAL MULTIPLICATION ITEMS1
Authors: Payne Donald T. , Parry Mary Ellen , Harasymiw Stefan J.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to compare four measures of difficulty of mental multiplication items: percentage of pupillary dilation, latency of solution, number of correct responses, and judgment of item difficulty. Sixteen multiplication problems, classified into four levels of difficulty, were presented visually to 13 Ss. The Ss verbalized their solutions to the problems.

Analyses of variance and correlation coefficients were computed. It was concluded that all four measures of difficulty were useful but that judgment of difficulty and latency of solution were better measures of item difficulty than were the other two.

A discussion is presented on various aspects of the pupillary response curve, as well as suggestions for more appropriate measuring techniques.
A NOTE ON INVARIANCE IN THREE‐MODE FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Bloxom Bruce
Published: August 2014

Previous results of the application of Lawley's selection theorem to the common factor analysis model are extended to a revision of Tucker's three‐mode principal components model. If the regression of the three‐mode manifest variates on variates used to select subpopulations is both linear and homoscedastic, the two factor pattern matrices, the core matrix, and the residual variance‐covariance matrix in the three‐mode model can all be assumed to be invariant across subpopulations. The implication of this finding for simple structure is discussed.
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY AS A PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOR ON NEUTRAL SOCIAL DESIRABILITY ITEMS1
Authors: Bloxom Bruce
Published: August 2014

Previous research indicates that the two positively correlated types of social desirability responding may be correlated in opposite directions with retest response variability on neutral social desirability items. The present study found response variability positively related to the Edwards type of social desirability and negatively related to the “lie” type of social desirability. These results are discussed in terms of some previous interpretations of the two types of social desirability responding.
A PREDICTOR‐VARIABLE SELECTION PROGRAM
Authors: Thayer Dorothy T. , Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

This package contains programs to perform the following standard types of regression analyses: (a) full regression, (b) forward selection, and (c) backward elimination. The special feature of the package is a program for determining the optimum relative test lengths so as to maximize the multiple correlation for a fixed total testing time using the algorithm developed by Woodbury and Novick (1967).
ESTIMATING TRUE‐SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR MENTAL TESTS (METHOD 16)
Authors: Lord Frederic M. , Lees Diana M.
Published: August 2014

This report covers part of a continuing project to devise and try out methods for estimating examinees' true scores from their observed scores on a mental test. Although a method for doing this has significant practical applications, these are not discussed here.

The basic mathematical model used is a quite unrestrictive one, representing the frequency distribution of true scores for a population of examinees as the unknown function in an integral equation. By solving this equation, the unknown true‐score distribution can be determined from the frequency distribution of observed test scores in the population of examinees, but not uniquely. A suitable unique solution can be obtained by requiring that the true‐score distribution be “smooth” in some sense. The calculus of variations yields a formula for finding a unique “smooth” true‐score distribution from a population distribution of observed test scores.

Attempts to substitute a sample distribution of observed test scores for the population distribution in the formula so obtained yield absurd results. An alternative method of using the sample observed‐score distribution to estimate the population true‐score distribution is developed, leading to a different type of integral equation. Practical procedures for solving this integral equation are presented.

The method has been tried out on 60 empirical distributions of observed test scores to determine how well the model fits the data. An extension of the model has been used to predict certain bivariate distributions of observed scores from the corresponding marginal distributions. The effectiveness of the model in making such predictions is reported for 26 different sets of data. The model is judged to be satisfactory for practical applications to many sets of data. It seems likely, however, that the estimation method can be improved on.
FACTOR INTERACTION IN NONLINEAR FACTOR ANALYSIS*
Authors: McDonald Roderick P.
Published: August 2014

Factor interaction models are defined as those cases in nonlinear factor analysis in which the specification equation contains products of two or more latent variables or functions of latent variables. A complete algebraic treatment is given for the case of a product of two latent variables, and certain more general cases are briefly outlined.