bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prologue
Authors: Steiner Henry J.
Published: January 2020

What kinds of limits on observance or enforcement of international human rights inform this field? What, why, and how do they limit? This chapter explores the variety of these limits through three illustrations. (1) The very treaty definition of the right may set forth justifications for limiting its application. (2) A comparison of international human rights with more traditional treaty subjects like trade or commerce suggests the distinctive problems in trying to ensure that treaty parties observe their commitments to respect rights. Such difficulties limit and lengthen the processes of enforcement of rights. (3) Economic and social rights draw growing attention in a number of states, either by their incarnation in a leading Covenant or by their influence in state constitutions. Current debates inquire as to whether courts can play a larger role in their enforcement, or whether traditional notions of democracy may block certain types of recourse to the judiciary and thus limit paths towards enforcement.
Reason, Faith, and Feelings
Authors: Gearty Conor
Published: January 2020

The principle of requiring executive power to be justified works well where that justification is rooted in reasoned argument, and it is even more effective when it is also required to be tested against substantive human rights principles. But what happens when the justification supplied for coercive action by a state is rooted in a socio-legal tradition that is not rooted in the liberal and constitutionalist tradition? In such circumstances the power may continue to be mediated by law but the veneer of legality and of human rights compliance will be thin indeed. Judicial decisions drawn from the UK and the European Court of Human Rights are deployed to demonstrate the point and so to highlight one of the difficulties about mapping Dyzenhaus’s argument onto the politics that we encounter today rather than the politics we would like to have.
Political Limits of International Human Rights
Authors: Çalı Başak
Published: January 2020

This chapter addresses the political limits of international human rights, but disagrees with the realist international relations and the Western hegemony approaches as to how we may locate and problematize such limits. A key objection that the chapter makes to realists and the Western hegemony approach is their static conception of human rights. Contrary to the view that human rights is a gift of Western powers to the rest, the chapter proposes to conceive contemporary human rights as a multiple authored transnational practice that challenges power not only in the rest but also in the West. Yet, human rights, conceived in this dynamic and transformative way, are not free from political limits. Limits to contemporary human rights can best be located in two places: the majoritarian objection to human rights domestically and the global resistance to regulate corporate powers for human rights abuses.
Between the Margins and the Mainstream
Authors: Charlesworth Hilary , Chinkin Christine
Published: January 2020

This chapter investigates the conceptual limits of the field of women’s rights. It identifies two main currents of activity in the field: the elaboration of human rights standards, particularly through the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 1979; and the development of the ‘Women, Peace and Security’ agenda by the UN Security Council since 2000. Both areas are limited in their understandings of the diverse lives of women. The chapter argues that campaigns for the recognition of women’s rights shuttle between the mainstream and the margins of international law and that the structural bases of women’s disadvantage remain obscured in both locations.
The Banality of Humanity (as an Absolute)
Authors: Traisbach Knut
Published: January 2020

This chapter is a comment on a reflection by Frédéric Mégret on the limits of the laws of war. It proposes a jurisprudence of limits that focuses less on absolute ideals but on the compromising and enabling space ‘in-between’ these absolutes. Relying on Hannah Arendt’s views on different conceptions of humanity, the comment critically engages with a thinking in terms of inherent opposing interests and oscillations between them. A conception of limits as reproducing inherent absolutes is disabling and passive. Instead, limits can be understood as facilitating a space that enables us to judge and to act, also through compromise. International humanitarian law and international human rights law, perhaps more than other areas of international law, depend on preserving and actively seeking this politically relevant space.
Where are the Limits of Human Rights? Four Schools, Four Complementary Visions
Authors: Dembour Marie-Bénédicte
Published: January 2020

This comment makes sense of Delmas-Marty’s contribution by elaborating further the author’s four-school human rights model. It is surmised that as a predominantly natural scholar, Delmas-Marty is inclined to approach the limits of human rights as unfortunate ‘mishaps’—and to hold a universal view of the history of human rights. By contrast, Dembour’s arguable strong affiliation to the discourse school leads her to highlight human rights’ inherent defects—and historical failures. A deliberative scholar would tend to envisage the proper domain of human rights as restricted to political governance—and to produce human rights’ histories with a strong institutional focus. Finally, a protest scholar would expect human rights to be hijacked by the elite and to fail to produce the emancipatory results they promise—thus producing a history where the limited results which are achieved need to be constantly renewed.
Strategizing for Human Rights: From Ideals to Practice
Authors: Johnson Douglas A. , Sikkink Kathryn
Published: January 2020

The chapter argues that committing our professional futures to human rights struggles requires not only moral commitment but also the sense that we are being effective and strategic in our approaches to change making. The contribution discusses how to think strategically and apply that thinking to practical situations that are still active arenas of conflict over ideals of justice and present us with complex realities of power imbalance. Focusing on this kind of strategic and outcome oriented human rights practice, the chapter suggests strategies to broaden our understanding of available tactics, use tactical mapping and other strategizing tools to be more effective in an active human rights struggle, and apply analytic frameworks that help us think through the acceptable balance between risk and success in making social change.
Einstein’s Derivation of E=mc2
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

Hamiltonian mechanics did not rid the structure of its dependence on Newton’s absolute space and time. And Maxwell’s electrodynamics demanded an ether that could not be found, no matter how hard the physicists looked for it. Einstein judged that the solution to these thorny problems demanded a firmly pragmatic approach in which the ‘observer’ takes centre-stage. To understand the physics correctly, we must accept that this is physics as seen from the perspective of someone or something inside the reality that is being observed or measured. Such an observer is implicit in the physics of Newton. But Newton’s laws are formulated as though the observer can be imagined to sit outside of the reality in which all the action is taking place. The result is Einstein’s special theory of relativity, which he published in June 1905. In September, he published an addendum in which he derived the iconic formula E=mc2.
Heisenberg’s Derivation of the Pauli Exclusion Principle
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

Despite the success of Schrödinger’s description of the H-atom, it became apparent that the spectrum of the simplest multi-electron atom—helium—could not be so readily explained. And the spectra of other atoms showed ‘anomalous’ splitting in a magnetic field. In 1920 Sommerfeld introduced a fourth quantum number. A few years later Pauli was led to the inspired conclusion that the electron must have a curious ‘two-valuedness’ characterized by a quantum number of ½, and went on to discover the exclusion principle. Perhaps this is because the electron possesses a self-rotation, leading to the notion of electron spin, potentially explaining why each orbital can accommodate only two electrons. Heisenberg traced this behaviour back to the symmetry properties of the wavefunctions. By observing which transitions in the spectrum of helium are allowed and which are forbidden, we can deduce the generalized Pauli principle, from which the exclusion principle follows.
Dirac’s Derivation of the Relativistic Wave Equation
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

The problem of electron spin was in some way connected with special relativity. Dirac’s fascination with relativity and his already burgeoning reputation made the search for a fully relativistic form of the new quantum mechanics irresistible. An important clue was available in a treatment that Pauli had published in 1927, in which he had represented the spin angular momemtum operators as 2 × 2 Pauli spin matrices. Dirac presumed that a proper relativistic wave equation could be derived simply by extending the spin matrices to a fourth member, but quickly realized this couldn’t be the answer. As he played around with the equations, in 1928 he found that he needed 4 × 4 matrices, instead. This allowed him to derive a relativistic wave equation, and to show that electron spin was indeed the result. The two extra solutions were subsequently shown to belong to the positron. Dirac had discovered antimatter.
Situating morphology
Authors: Jackendoff Ray , Audring Jenny
Published: January 2020

The book has three interwoven themes: a morphological theory, the structure of the lexicon, and an integrated account of the language capacity and its place in the mind. These themes together constitute the theory of Relational Morphology (RM), itself an extension of the Parallel Architecture of Jackendoff’s Foundations of Language, and closely related to Construction Grammar and Construction Morphology. A fundamental feature is that phonology, syntax, and semantics are independent components of language, linked by interfaces. Another feature is the continuity between lexicon and grammar. RM extends these features to the internal structure of words. In particular, morphology is constituted of a morphosyntactic component and its interfaces to phonology, phrasal syntax, and semantics. Furthermore, RM expresses regularities among words not in terms of rules that derive morphologically complex words, but in terms of declarative schemas that capture patterns of shared structure. The chapter concludes with a survey of similarities and differences between phrasal syntax and morphosyntax.
Morphologically conditioned phonological alternations
Authors: Jackendoff Ray , Audring Jenny
Published: January 2020

This chapter asks how affixes can affect the phonology of their stems, as in harmony/ harmonic/harmonious. Within the Parallel Architecture, phonology is an algebraic form of representation, while phonetic representation is analog in character. Their relation is negotiated by an interface that relates phonological segments and sequences to positions and trajectories in phonetic space. In these terms, the chapter explores aspiration, final devoicing, vowel shift and vowel reduction, affixes like -ity and -ious that manipulate the phonology of their bases, and affixes that can blend with their bases, for instance flattery (= flatter+ery). Again the formal machinery of sister schemas plays an important role in the account, taking over the work done in other theories by derivation (as in SPE and Lexical Phonology) and constraint ranking (as in Optimality Theory)
Language processing and language acquisition through the lens of Relational Morphology
Authors: Jackendoff Ray , Audring Jenny
Published: January 2020

This chapter asks what is happening to linguistic representations during language use, and how representations are formed in the course of language acquisition. It is shown how Relational Morphology’s theory of representations can be directly embedded into models of processing and acquisition. Central is that the lexicon, complete with schemas and relational links, constitutes the long-term memory network that supports language production and comprehension. The chapter first discusses processing: the nature of working memory; promiscuous (opportunistic) processing; spreading activation; priming; probabilistic parsing; the balance between storage and computation in recognizing morphologically complex words; and the role of relational links and schemas in word retrieval. It then turns to acquisition, which is to be thought of as adding nodes and relational links to the lexical network. The general approach is based on the Propose but Verify procedure of Trueswell et al. (2013), plus conservative generalization, as in usage-based approaches.
Coda: What have we done?
Authors: Jackendoff Ray , Audring Jenny
Published: January 2020

This chapter reflects on conclusions from the study. Relational Morphology has some features that are necessary in any theory of morphology; other features are shared with other constraint-based theories. Some features, especially the centrality of relational links and the dual functions of schemas, are innovations. RM stresses the continuity between words and schemas, which confers advantages in many applications. The theory also stresses the continuity between productive patterns, nonproductive patterns with numerous instances, and truly marginal phenomena. The chapter proposes that Relational Morphology is attractive not just for its ability to account for morphological phenomena, but equally for its ability to integrate linguistic theory, psycholinguistics, and the understanding of human cognition more generally
Scientific programming with Python
Authors: Trappenberg Thomas P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter offers a brief introduction to scientific programming with Python with an emphasis on some mathematical operations that will form the basis of many algorithms. This will specifically include working with matrices and convolutions. Python is a high-level programming language similar to Matlab and R that has gained increasing popularity in the machine learning community. The main reason this book uses Python is that it is freely available and now provides considerable support for machine learning with packages such as sklearn and Keras that are discussed and utilized in this book. Some familiarity with programming concepts is assumed, and the chapter concentrates on a brief introduction to the specific environment and supporting libraries used throughout as well as some basic operations such as convolutions that will be important in later algorithms.
Basic probability theory
Authors: Trappenberg Thomas P.
Published: January 2020

The discussion provides a refresher of probability theory, in particular with respect to the formulations that build the theoretical language of modern machine learning. Probability theory is the formalism of random numbers, and this chapter outlines what these are and how they are characterized by probability density or probability mass functions. How such functions have traditionally been characterized is covered, and a review of how to work with such mathematical objects such as transforming density functions and how to measure differences between density function is presented. Definitions and basic operations with multiple random variables, including the Bayes law, are covered. The chapter ends with an outline of some important approximation techniques of so-called Monte Carlo methods.
Reinforcement learning
Authors: Trappenberg Thomas P.
Published: January 2020

The discussion here considers a much more common learning condition where an agent, such as a human or a robot, has to learn to make decisions in the environment from simple feedback. Such feedback is provided only after periods of actions in the form of reward or punishment without detailing which of the actions has contributed to the outcome. This type of learning scenario is called reinforcement learning. This learning problem is formalized in a Markov decision-making process with a variety of related algorithms. The second part of this chapter will use function approximators with neural networks which have made recent progress as deep reinforcement learning.
Primates of the past
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, a mummified monkey’s paw causes big trouble; a bushbaby eyes a wicked witch; and a monkey pigs out on fresh berries. But mainly we consider memories that evolved in early primates. As these ancestors adapted to a life in the trees, they became a lot like us. They developed forward-facing eyes and grasping hands; guided reaching movements with vision; moved themselves with their legs; and had a large brain. New cortical areas helped these ancestors survive by using new memories: of how to reach accurately while perched on swaying branches; of the precise amount of force needed to grasp valuable items; of the location and value of items hidden in a clutter of branches and leaves; and of objects and actions linked to a hidden food item’s desirability.
Becoming the World's Biggest Brewer
Authors: Bertrams Kenneth , Del Marmol Julien , Geerts Sander , Poelmans Eline
Published: January 2020

AB InBev is today’s uncontested world leader of the beer market. It represents over 20 per cent of global beer sales, with more than 450 million hectolitres a year flowing all around the world. Its Belgian predecessor, Interbrew, was a success story stemming from the 1971 secret merger of the country’s two leading brewers: Artois and Piedboeuf. Based on first-hand material originating from company and private archives as well as interviews with managers and key family actors, this is the first study to explore the history of the company through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.The story starts in the mid-nineteenth century with the scientific breakthroughs that revolutionized the beer industry and allowed both Artois and Piedboeuf to prosper in a local environment. Instrumental in this respect were the respective families and their successive heirs in stabilizing and developing their firms. Despite the intense difficulties of two world wars in the decades to follow, they emerged stronger than ever and through the 1960s became undisputed leaders in the national market. Then, in an unprecedented move, Artois and Piedboeuf secretly merged their shareholding in 1971, though keeping their operations separate until 1987 when they openly and operationally merged to become Interbrew. Throughout their histories Artois, Piedboeuf, and their successor companies have kept a controlling family ownership. This book provides a unique insight into both the complex history of these three family breweries and their path to becoming a prominent global company, and the growth and consolidation of the beer market through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
A Traditional Industry Switches Gears, ca. 1850–1914
Authors: Bertrams Kenneth , Marmol Julien Del , Geerts Sander , Poelmans Eline
Published: January 2020

Several inventions completely transformed and revolutionized the ancient craft of brewing in the nineteenth century. Among the most important ones: the introduction of steam in the brewing process, a better understanding of yeast and its working, the invention of artificial refrigeration, the breakthrough of glass production, and the scientification and academization of brewing. Lager, a beer style hitherto confined to central Europe, started to spread and supersede traditional ales, creating opportunities which were grasped by several companies, old and new. One was the Artois brewery from Leuven, an already well-established brewery, with a brewing lineage going back to the 1700s. The Piedboeuf brewery from Jupille, on the other hand, was a newcomer in a brewing business in full transformation. This chapter discusses the roots of the two families and their companies that would come to dominate the Belgian and global beer market.
The Extended Social Grid Model
Authors: Nicholls Alex , Ziegler Rafael
Published: January 2020

For the analysis of social innovation and marginalization processes, the Extended Social Grid Model (ESGM) proposes a plural focus on social sources of power—cultural, economic, security-related, political, natural, and artefactual—and how these congeal and entwine in the cognitive frames, social networks, and institutions of a time and place. Drawing especially from sociologists Jens Beckert and Michael Mann, the approach is committed to explanatory pluralism and with it a thesis that the explanation of social change is irreducible to a single source of power (Mann) or to a single social force (Beckert). Drawing on the capabilities approach, as pioneered by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, a further, normative commitment is ethical individualism. It puts the evaluative focus on the effect of social innovations on individuals. Thus, the model requires an interdisciplinary collaboration between economics, philosophy, and sociology that is explored in the subsequent chapters of the book.
Trajectories of Social Innovation
Authors: Schimpf Gudrun-Christine , Ziegler Rafael
Published: January 2020

The basis of this chapter is a comprehensive case study on freshwater supply in European countries from the nineteenth century to the present. First, the chapter introduces the different phases of freshwater supply during that time span as well as various modes of provision (self-provision, informal provision, market provision, public provision, and professional provision). Then, the chapter turns to a change in cognitive framing, and the important achievement of framing water provision as a social challenge in the nineteenth century, as well as the role civic participation played for this. Next the analysis concentrates on the central question of provision as it is visible in the debate on market versus public provision. How can civic involvement help keep the institutionalized innovation on target so as to ensure clean and affordable water for all? The issues of knowledge, path dependency, and niche modes of provision are also discussed.
Trajectories of Social Innovation
Authors: Molnár György , Havas Attila
Published: January 2020

The chapter analyses the specific features of social innovation for marginalized (SIM) or even socially excluded people, using the example of a social microcredit programme. It offers a review of the marginalization of the Roma in Hungary, considering the major factors of becoming marginalized as well as the processes reproducing marginalization, stressing the impacts of interactions between institutions, networks, and cognitive frames, showing that the complex nature of the reproduction of marginalization requires complex interventions, including empowering and capability building. The chapter highlights several policy and practical implications, including trade-offs to be considered when planning and implementing SIMs—in particular, those between exact targeting in a SIM versus building inter-community connections; the degree of assistance provided versus the short-term empowerment effect; and the degree of marginalization of the participants versus the costs of a given SIM.
Trajectories of Social Innovation
Authors: Linden Martijn Jeroen van der
Published: January 2020

This chapter revisits the main theoretical arguments for freedom of education put forward in the Dutch School Struggle (1806–1920). The first phase of the struggle (1806–57) focused on the right to establish private schools and the second phase (1857–1920) on equal unconditional funding for public and private schools. The conclusion is that freedom of education has yet still not been achieved in the Netherlands due to a failure to prevent encroachment of the cultural sphere by the legal-political and economic-financial sphere. Freedom of education requires ‘sphere sovereignty’; that is, the separation of three tasks: (a) guaranteeing equitable access (rights) to education; (b) ensuring unconditional funding of education; and (c) controlling the quality of education.
The Extended Social Grid Model Revisited
Authors: Ziegler Rafael , Nicholls Alex , Aro Jari , Beers Cees van , Chiappero-Martinetti Enrica , Edmiston Daniel , Havas Attila , Heiskala Risto , Jacobi Nadia von , Kubeczko Klaus , Linden Martijn Jeroen van der , Maestripieri Lara , Mildenberger Georg , Molnár György , Schimpf Gudrun-Christine
Published: January 2020

This chapter revisits the Extended Social Grid Model based on empirical work exploring the model. It summarizes the main findings around four basic points: first, the need to move beyond economic space as markets if social innovation for the marginalized is to be analysed in its full complexity and the variety of provision appreciated beyond a reductive focus on business. Second, the importance of a reflexive use of power in recognition of the reproduction of marginalization (as well as the multi-level opportunities that emerge once this move is made). Third, the role of considering beneficiaries in social innovation not only as participants but also as patients, and hence the need to consider the role of (justified) paternalism in social innovation. Fourth, a note of caution regarding systemic structural change and in favour of the value of niches.
Must We Be Absolutely Valuable?
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2020

There is an argument according to which something must be absolutely valuable for anything to be of value. The chains of dependence between values must come to an end, and humanity meets the specifications. Theunissen explores alternatives to terminating a regress in absolute value and gives reason to reject the “borrowing” conception of relational value that drives the argument. Theunissen doubts that the non-relational value of humanity can be secured by an argument from the structure of value, but she is optimistic about the prospects for explaining our value relationally, and gives reason to favor a reflexive relational model.
Conclusion
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2020

At the end of his book-length investigation into treatments of human dignity in the decades surrounding the second world war, a significant period for these discussions, Mark Greif gives voice to a conflicted feeling:

I want to tell my contemporaries: Stop! Anytime your inquiries lead you to say, “At this moment we must ask and decide ...
A Proportionality Theory of IO Emergency Powers
Authors: Kreuder-Sonnen Christian
Published: January 2020

Chapter 3 develops a proportionality theory of IO emergency powers to account for the variable outcomes of normalization (ratchets) and containment (rollbacks). It posits that IO exceptionalism creates distributional consequences at the level of political autonomy that are positive for the governors and negative for the governed. Since IO authority is dependent on its general recognition by the rule-addressees, the states and supranational actors in authority need to be able to justify their measures as proportionate, or else the delegitimation attempts by their opponents threaten to undermine the authority. Ratchets and rollbacks are thus conceived as the product of rhetorical legitimation struggles among the holders and the addressees of IO emergency powers that revolve around the normative standard of proportionality. The chapter derives a set of testable hypotheses from the proportionality model and provides alternative explanations based on variations of rational institutionalism that focus on state power and institutional design.
Prestige
Authors: Acerbi Alberto
Published: January 2020

Drawing on the background developed in the second chapter, this chapter examines specifically online phenomena, scrutinizing the role of influencers, celebrities, and famous people in general. Cultural evolutionists talk about prestige bias in this regard: one can make use of signs of deference, respect, or simply check from whom other people are learning, and choose those individuals as cultural models. This tendency gives us today, in large and opaque networks of cultural transmission—the story goes—the celebrities “famous for being famous,” if not the danger of radical proselytism from charismatic leaders. We will see, however, that experiments and data tell something more nuanced: celebrities’ influence works only in specific conditions and it is far from being a blind force. Recent internet trends, such as the rise of micro-influencers, figures who are expert in their domain, and who can engage in direct relationship with their followers, are consistent with this picture.
Popularity
Authors: Acerbi Alberto
Published: January 2020

The tendency to copy the majority is the topic of the fourth chapter. The fact that online popularity produces long-tailed distributions is often presented as an argument to show the power of online social influence. However, long-tailed distributions are a trademark of many cultural domains, from first names to dog breeds. In addition, these distributions do not necessarily imply the existence of an individual-level tendency to prefer popular things, but they can be the result of bare availability: the more examples of an item, the more likely we will encounter it, and the more likely we will become interested in it. Conformity is next considered: as defined in cultural evolution, conformity implies an effective tendency to copy the majority. As for celebrities, various experiments are reviewed, and the author defends a view for which conformity is far from automatic, as it interacts with many other psychological tendencies. How digital technologies permit radically new forms of popularity advertisements, from the real-time quantification of “likes” in social media to the explosion of consumer reviews, or top-lists of virtually everything, is also examined and discussed in relation to cultural evolution theory.
Cumulation
Authors: Acerbi Alberto
Published: January 2020

Chapter 8 considers what cultural evolutionists call cumulative cultural evolution, that is, the idea that culture increases in complexity. For a cultural domain being defined as cumulative, it needs to show accumulation (more traits), improvement (traits are more efficient), and ratcheting (new traits build on previous innovations). The author proposes that this is not a necessary outcome, and that different domains show different signs of cumulation. It is suggested that the fidelity and the hyper-availability provided by digital media allow for more cumulation in domains where it was limited before. Not surprisingly, they also allow for the retention of vast amounts of useless information—junk culture. A central challenge for the coming years is thus finding efficient mechanisms of online cultural selection. Algorithmic selection is finally discussed, along with how mainstream criticisms, such as the fact that algorithms are biased or opaque to users, are not decisive arguments against their efficacy and utility.
The Pacific Problem
Authors: Heere Cees
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines how the emergence of Japan as a leading naval power influenced thinking on security and defence throughout the ‘British world’. It concentrates on Australia and New Zealand, where a mixture of strategic anxiety and racial panic fed powerful calls to shore up national defence. In the years after the Russo-Japanese War, as anti-Japanese rhetoric hung heavy in the air, both dominions introduced compulsory military training, sought to establish autonomous naval forces, and demanded a greater degree of imperial protection. As the chapter shows, fear of Japan became a powerful factor in shaping Australasian ideas of nationhood and empire, increasingly recast in militarist, racialized terms. It explores a number of episodes in which these efforts collided, at both an ideological and political level, with Britain’s own strategic priorities: the visit of the American ‘Great White Fleet’ to New Zealand and Australia; the ‘dreadnought scare’ of 1909; and the subsequent imperial defence conference.
The Earliest Toasts
Authors: Guerra-Doce Elisa
Published: January 2020

The taste for alcohol is not exclusive to humans, as some other animal species are attracted to ripe fruits and nectar due to the natural occurrence of ethanol. However, what makes Homo sapiens different is their capacity to produce alcoholic beverages. From the Neolithic, if not earlier, the production of alcoholic drinks is documented, and this production ensured the supply of alcohol. Consequently, alcohol consumption was no longer sporadic and occasional. This process ran in parallel to the development of specific alcohol-related equipment, and organized drinking patterns gradually became more and more formalized. Its use has depended not only on its effects, mainly its capacity to enhance sociability, but also on historical, economic, and religious factors. The aim of this chapter is to search for the origins of this dynamic in prehistoric Europe from an archaeological perspective in order to explore the foundations of the cultural construction of alcohol.
Uncorking the Past
Authors: McGovern Patrick E.
Published: January 2020

To substantiate and illustrate the centrality of molecular archaeology in bridging the divide between the natural sciences and the humanities, this chapter draws upon laboratory research on ‘fermentation’ and ‘ancient medicine’. Fermentation is probably the first energy system on Earth, which is embodied in the physiology of all animals including humans. It is probably the first biotechnology discovered and utilized by our species. In short, humans coevolved with microorganisms, then harnessed them to our purposes in many innovative ways—to provide alcohol as an energy source and for dissolving botanical compounds which have medicinal properties. Arguably, the most important fermentation system used by humankind was to make fermented beverages. As the universal medicine, social lubricant, mind-altering substance, religious symbol, artistic inspiration, and highly valued commodity, fermented beverages around the world became the focus of religious cults, pharmacopoeias, cuisines, economies, and society.
Feasting and its Role in Human Community Formation
Authors: Dunbar Robin I.M.
Published: January 2020

Feasting (the social consumption of food and alcoholic beverages) has long been a feature of human social life. Although the fermentation of alcoholic beverages probably dates back only as long as substantive vessels have been available (and hence probably much less than 100 000 years), it is likely that social feeding first emerged around 400 000 years ago when humans first mastered control over fire. It seems that feasting activates the same neurobiological mechanism that underpins social bonding in primates and humans, thereby adding to the list of behaviours that humans use for these purposes. The chapter presents data from two national stratified surveys (one for eating socially and the other for drinking socially) and show that both play an important role in facilitating our social networks, our sense of satisfaction with life, and engagement with our local communities. Since social networks are the single most important factor influencing our happiness, health, and well-being, feasting is likely to play a crucial role by determining the size of our social networks.
Hierarchy, American Identity, and Support for Anti-Poverty Efforts
Authors: Theiss-Morse Elizabeth , Gonzalez Frank J. , O’Toole Alison
Published: January 2020

National identity can encourage social cohesion and a shared sense of identity leading citizens to want to help, support, and trust one another. However, it can also lead to marginalization and even oppression. This chapter examines the consequences of national identity for Americans’ views toward income inequality and poverty. It proposes a broad theoretical framework for predicting when national identity will lead individuals to support or oppose redistributive policies. This framework is tested using a nationally representative survey and a laboratory experiment. The results suggest that American identity can be associated with lower levels of concern about income inequality and opposition to poverty alleviating policies. However, this relationship is moderated by implicit associations. The more individuals make an implicit association between wealth and being ‘American’, the more national identity leads to conservative attitudes regarding income inequality and poverty. These findings suggest national identity can be oppressive when individuals perceive a certain characteristic, in this case wealth, as a fundamental aspect of being a ‘true’ American.
Argumentative Contexts of National Identity Definition
Authors: Pehrson Samuel
Published: January 2020

People define the membership of their national groups in a variety of more or less inclusive ways. This has implications for how immigrants and minority groups are treated. Traditionally, variation national boundaries has been understood as a distinction between ethnic and civic nationalism. However, despite a developed empirical literature, it is difficult to find strong defenders of this distinction or its ability to capture the empirical reality of popular conceptions of nationhood. This chapter explores some of the deficiencies of the ethnic–civic distinction, arguing that these problems arise because when people report the importance of various criteria to national belonging, they are not selecting from philosophically derived ideal types on nationhood but rather are positioning themselves within the particular and local debates about nationality relevant in their time and place. The chapter proposes a situated and bottom-up investigation of how national boundaries are constructed and contested in particular places and how this differs across what this chapter will call ‘argumentative contexts’.
Liberal Nationalism and Symbolic Religious Establishment
Authors: Laborde Cécile , Lægaard Sune
Published: January 2020

The chapter examines whether religious markers can legitimately be part of a state supported national identity by considering symbolic religious establishment involving state endorsement of religion. The liberal neutralist position—rejecting any state endorsement of culture or religion—and the liberal culturalist position—allowing culture but not religion to be endorsed by the state—are mistaken.The chapter argues for a disaggregation approach that views religion (and culture) as phenomena with several dimensions, each raising different issues of legitimacy. The chapter considers arguments for symbolic religious establishment based on claims that it does not alienate religious minorities, is liberal in content, and draws on cultural rather than theological dimensions of religion. Therefore, while the disaggregation approach in principle allows for state support for a national identity with religious elements, especially in cases of vestigial establishment, actual cases of symbolic religious establishment, especially cases of neo-establishment, often fail at the bar of equal inclusion.
Electromagnetic Theory
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

The theory of light is described by Maxwell’s Equationsand they provide information about the fundamental properties of light. The wave equation is contained within Maxwell’s equations and proof is provided but is an example of a topic that can be skipped. The electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave of both the electric and magnetic field which are also mutually perpendicular. We discuss some of the differences between classical and quantum theory of light but restrict the use of classical wave theory in this text. The classical electromagnetic wave has a momentum that has led to the development of optical twezzers of great use in biological motors. Because the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave is a vector quantity we introduce the concept of polarization to describe the vector properties. We will need the capability in our discussion of reflection.
Interference and Coherence
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

The superposition principle states that the sum of solutions of the wave equation is also a solution. Linearity forbids scattering of one photon by another and waves with orthogonal polarization will not interfer and if no interference is observed the light is said to be incoherent. There is no record carried by any of the waves to indicate outside of the overlap region that the waves ever commingled. Interference involve dielectric layers can produce antireflection coatings. Michelson interferometer, temporal coherence and its use in spectroscopy. The interferometer coupled with a light source with well defined coherence properties are currently used in optical coherence imaging. With multiple reflections a Fabry Perot interferometer can be created to provide optical feedback in a laser. Young’s two slits interferometer can be used to measure the size of distant stars.
Geometrical Optics
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

Discuss the limits imposed by the paraxial approximation. Define the sign convention based on the cartesian coordinate system, the foiundation of analytic geometery. Demonstrate ray tracing technique to derive the ABCD maxtrix which will generate both the gaussian and Newtonian form of the thin lens equation and the lens maker’s equation. The cardinal points of a lens are also derived. The ABCD matrix is used to explore the methods used in ray tracing to locate the aperture stop of a Cooke’s triplet lens system. In the problem set, the student is asked to use the aperture stop to locate the entrance and exit pupil of a Cooke’s triplet.
Fresnel Diffraction
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

Fresnel diffraction is discussed in terms of a description of waves traveling near the stationary point. That is the point that lies on a line connecting the source and the observation point. We discuss a rectangular aperture using Fresnel integrals or graphicly using the Cornu Spiral We discuss a circular aperture in terms of Fresnel zones and we develop a simple formula for the calculation of the radius of a Fresnel zone. Using the concept of Fresnel zones we develop an expalination of Fermat’s Principle and explain the origin of Poisson’t spot. The Fresnel zones generate an understanding of the operation of the pinhole camera.
The Natural World
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

Much of the second book of the Oneirocritica is dedicated to an enormous panorama of the natural world, beginning with weather-signs (particularly fire and thunderbolts), before turning to a long and fabulously rich account of the animal kingdom and the natural world more generally (the sea, farming and plants, rivers and land), articulated around the human exploitation of that world (hunting, fishing, farming). This chapter describes Artemidorus’ conception of non-human nature and its associated symbolism, with a particular emphasis on his utilitarian assumptions concerning both animals and plants. His taxonomy of animals is explored in detail, with a focus on degrees of anthropomorphism (with birds at one end of the spectrum, fish at the other.)
An Invisible Empire
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

The Roman imperial state, and Roman culture more generally, are (for the most part) conspicuous by their absence from the Oneirocritica. The Roman army scarcely makes an appearance, and there is no sign that Artemidorus had any knowledge of or interest in the Roman world west or north of Italy. Aside from stray comments on miscellaneous aspects of Roman culture (dress, the Latin language, one or two short passages on Roman equestrian and senatorial offices), Artemidorus has cause to engage with Rome only when talking about the Roman judicial and penal system in the provinces (remarkably prominent throughout his work) and, to a lesser extent, the emperor himself (although never as an individual). This absence has significant ramifications for our conception of the wider impact of Rome on the culture of the eastern Roman provinces.
Bulgaria
Authors: Kolarova Rumyana , Spirova Maria
Published: January 2020

Democracy in Bulgaria came as a result of a pact that preserved the role of the communist successor party to a larger degree than in many other post-communist countries in Central Eastern Europe (CEE). That had an impact on the nature of coalition government as well as an important but rarely noted aspect of the legacy of the successor party, the Bulgarian Socialist party (BSP). Because of the dominant position of the BSP, its personalized and centralized vision and practice of governing have remained characteristic of the political system. Coalition government is the dominant pattern in Bulgarian democratic politics: of the eleven party-based cabinets since 1990, only four were single-party ones. There are several major features of coalition government in Bulgaria: one is that party-building and coalition-making have been deeply intertwined over the entire period. Further, coalitions have been based on the understanding that parties divide the power and accompanying privileges, rather than that they share responsibility for government. Thus, in contrast to some longer-standing democracies the coalition formation process rarely involves detailed agreements on policy, and has mostly revolved around personalities and portfolios. As a result, coalition agreements have been minimal and the periods of coalition bargaining have been relatively short. Conflict resolution mechanisms are centralized and personalized, and coalitions have broken down because of narrow party political interests rather than because of principled conflicts over public policy.
Slovakia
Authors: Szomolányi Soňa , Karvai Alexander
Published: January 2020

In Slovakia, the main lines of conflict that determine coalition formation have changed over time. Iinitially the conflicts were based on national-ethnic issues, later this was followed by disagreement over the direction of reforms and the European integration process. Eventually they have settled around socioeconomic policies with alternating right and left governments in power. Only three coalition cabinets have served the full parliamentary terms, and all of them have both enjoyed a majority support in Parliament and included a dominant large party. In contrast, coalitions without a major leading party, and where the power structure has been more evenly distributed, have been more likely to terminate due to inter-party conflicts before the end of the full constitutionally mandated term. The coalitions of the second type coalitions have also been pursuing more of consensual style of politics. They have been based on social-economic policy agreement between the parties but differed considerably in terms of the GAL-TAN dimension. While socioeconomic policies appear is a strong driving force in coalition bargaining, the second (GAL-TAN) dimension tends to matters more when it comes to the survival of the coalition. In terms of coalition governance, six out twelve cabinets represented the Prime Minister Dominated model. The cabinets with a leading party (HZDS, SDKÚ-DS, and SMER-DS) did not have as many internal conflicts as the cabinets with a relatively even power distribution. The latter type of cabinets relied instead on their ability to negotiate and compromise in the name of consensus and so they represent a Coalition Compromise Model.