bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Moving Toward Buddhist Psychotherapy in Sport: A Case Study
Authors: Thompson Campbell , Andersen Mark B.
Published: August 2016

This case study involves the progression from a cognitive-behavioral, psychological skills training approach with a rugby football player experiencing adjustment and mood disorder to a psychodynamic and interpersonal engagement with the client using themes from Buddhist psychotherapy. The study charts the development of the psychologist’s understanding of his relationships with clients and with his supervisor. We present a study of three people (i.e., the client, the psychologist, the supervisor) and how their stories and interpersonal interactions are interwoven from a Buddhist-psychodynamic perspective. We examine the influences of the dominant White culture on the male psychologist’s perceptions contrasted with the client’s background as a Pacific Islander. In addition, we present a projective test, which was central to the unfolding of this case study, designed for use with athletes. This case study is a confessional tale (Sparkes, 2002) told in the first-person from the psychologist’s viewpoint.
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains
Authors: Gould Daniel , Voelker Dana K. , Griffes Katherine
Published: August 2016

To gain an in depth understanding of the youth leadership development process in sport, qualitative interviews were conducted with high school coaches (6 males; 4 females) known for cultivating leadership in their captains. Hierarchical content analyses revealed that all of the coaches reported proactive approaches toward teaching leadership through sport. However, based on the principles noted in the positive youth development literature, these coaches could do more to enhance their leadership development practices (e.g., empowering captains by more often involving them in important decision-making). Leadership philosophies, specific leadership training strategies, as well as the biggest challenges and mistakes when working with their captains are reported. Directions for future research and structuring captain training programs are discussed.
Stress and Coping Among Adolescents Across a Competitive Swim Season
Authors: McDonough Meghan H. , Hadd Valerie , Crocker Peter R.E. , Holt Nicholas L. , Tamminen Katherine A. , Schonert-Reichl Kimberly
Published: August 2016

This study qualitatively examined the congruence between anticipated and experienced stressors and coping, and approaches to coping by elite adolescent swimmers across a competitive season. Eight swimmers were interviewed before and after 4 swim meets in a season. Data collection and analysis were guided by theories of stress and coping. Accuracy of anticipating stressors was low, and the stressors and coping strategies were variable across the season. Idiographic profiles were created for each athlete and grouped according to similar characteristics. Three groups included athletes who (a) generally perceived stressors as something to be avoided, (b) generally perceived stressors as problems to be solved, or (c) generally perceived swimming as fun and minimally stressful. These patterns appeared to be associated with anticipating stressors, highlighting the complex and dynamic nature of stress and coping among adolescent athletes.
The Effects of Self-Talk on Dominant and Nondominant Arm Performance on a Handball Task in Primary Physical Education Students
Authors: Zourbanos Nikos , Hatzigeorgiadis Antonis , Bardas Dimitris , Theodorakis Yannis
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on handball performance using a novel task (nondominant arm) and a learned task (dominant arm) in primary school students. Participants were randomly assigned into two experimental groups (instructional and motivational) and one control group. The results revealed that for both tasks instructional and motivational self-talk groups improved their performance significantly in comparison with the control group and that for the nondominant arm instructional self-talk had a larger effect compared with motivational self-talk. The results suggest that instructional self-talk in the form of external focused cues may be more beneficial in the early stages of learning.
Self-Determined Motivation as a Predictor of Burnout Among College Athletes
Authors: Holmberg Patrick Michael , Sheridan Dennis A.
Published: August 2016

In this study, we examined self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) as a framework for understanding potential antecedents of burnout in 598 American college athletes. Using a cross-sectional design, the aims of the study were to investigate relationships among the dimensions of athlete burnout and the degree of self-determination among college athletes. As hypothesized, results indicated a strong relationship between the degree of self-determination and the dimensions of burnout, thus providing support for the utility of an SDT explanation regarding the occurrence of burnout. Findings also showed motivational variables to be the most powerful predictor of burnout (Devaluation, 44.5%; Reduced Sense of Accomplishment, 28%; Physical/Emotional Exhaustion, 15.4%). Implications of these results for researchers and practitioners are discussed.
Strategies Used and Assistance Required to Facilitate Children’s Involvement in Tennis: Parents’ Perspectives
Authors: Knight Camilla J. , Holt Nicholas L.
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were to identify the strategies parents use to be able to support their children’s involvement in competitive tennis and identify additional assistance parents require to better facilitate their children’s involvement in tennis. Interviews were conducted with 41 parents of junior players in the United States. Data analysis led to the identification of 4 strategies parents used to be able to support to their children: spouses working together, interacting with other parents, selecting an appropriate coach, and researching information. Five areas where parents required additional assistance were also identified. These were understanding and negotiating player progression, education on behaving and encouraging players at tournaments, evaluating and selecting coaches, identifying and accessing financial support, and managing and maintaining schooling. These findings indicated that parents “surrounded themselves with support” to facilitate their children’s involvement in tennis but required additional information regarding specific aspects of tennis parenting.
The Existence of Sport Psychology Services Among NCAA Division I FBS University Athletic Departments and Counseling Centers
Authors: Hayden Eric W. , Kornspan Alan S. , Bruback Zachary T. , Parent Michael C. , Rodgers Matthew
Published: August 2016

One hundred twenty university counseling centers and athletic-department websites were viewed and analyzed for the provision of sport psychology services specifically to NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) Division I Football Bowl Championship Series (FBS) student athletes. Using content-analysis methodology, the present research identified a fair number of university athletic departments (n = 29) and university counseling centers (n = 6) that provided specific sport psychology services. In addition, most athletic departments and counseling centers that provided sport psychology services had one individual on staff who was listed as the service provider. Results of the study are discussed in relation to providing a current understanding of the extent to which sport psychology is presently being provided to NCAA Division I FBS university student athletes. Future qualitative research is recommended to examine the work of professionals providing sport psychology services in athletic departments and counseling centers to better understand the precise nature of the services provided.
The Effect of Three Different Methods of Mental Training on Dart Throwing Performance
Authors: Straub William F.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to (a) determine whether three frequently used mental skills training programs enhance dart throwing performance beyond that obtained by physical practice and a no-practice control, (b) compare the relative effectiveness of the three methods of mental training programs, and (c) determine if these programs differentially affect subjects who were initially of high or low skill. The subjects (N=75) were college-age men and women who were matched between conditions on ability level. In addition to the three MT groups, there was one physical practice (PP) and one control group (C). The three methods of MT included Bennett and Pravitz’ (1982, 1987), Gauron’s (1984), and Unestahl’s (1983b) packaged programs. Significant group differences were found in posttest dart throwing performance; in particular, subjects receiving the Bennett and Pravitz and Unestahl MT differed from the control group. It was concluded that Bennett and Pravitz and Unestahl packaged programs were effective since they significantly differed from the control and equaled the performance of the PP group, despite receiving substantially less physical practice.
Psychological Interventions with Athletes in Competitive Situations: A Review
Authors: Greenspan Michael J. , Feltz Deborah L.
Published: August 2016

Although sport psychologists utilize numerous interventions and techniques intended to enhance the performance of athletes in competition, the selection of those interventions has not always been based on research for which adequate validity has been established. In an attempt to provide sport psychologists with a working body of accurate knowledge and suggestions for future intervention research, an analysis and synthesis of research is presented that addresses the efficacy of different psychological interventions with athletes performing in competitive situations in the sport in which they regularly compete. From information reported in 19 published studies, covering 23 interventions, it was concluded that educational relaxation-based interventions and remedial cognitive restructuring interventions with individual athletes are, in general, effective.
Race Walkers Quicken Their Pace by Tuning in, Not Stepping Out
Authors: Clingman Joy M. , Hilliard D. Vanessa
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of attentional focus on race walking performance. Sixteen experienced race walkers, eight males and eight females, were randomly assigned to walk four separate half-mile segments on a quarter-mile track under specific sets of instructions. Two sets of instructions were externally oriented and two were internally oriented. The internally oriented instructions included a set asking the subjects to focus on cadence (the number of steps taken in a designated period of time) and a set asking them to focus on stride length (the distance covered in a single step). The externally oriented instructions asked subjects to use a dissociative strategy. Although no overall difference was found between internal and external focus, results indicated that the focus on cadence was superior to both the external focus, p<.05, and a focus on stride length, p<.05. No significant differences between the stride length focus and the external focus were found. These results are discussed in terms of the importance of using an internal focus that is beneficial.
Behind Schedule: Psychosocial Aspects of Delayed Puberty in the Competitive Female Gymnast
Authors: Iversen Gretchen E.
Published: August 2016

Research on the psychosocial aspects of maturational timing has not addressed the experience of the late-developing gymnast. Studies to date have used conceptual and timing frameworks incommensurate with the experience of the athlete who reaches puberty in late adolescence. The role of environmental influences, including the support group, in a gymnast’s experience of puberty is salient. In order for sports practitioners to help late maturing female gymnasts deal with their personal and physical development, a reconceptualization of the related psychosocial parameters is needed.
A Videotaping Feedback Package for Improving Skills of Youth Competitive Swimmers
Authors: Hazen Andrea , Johnstone Carolyn , Martin Garry L. , Srikameswaran Suja
Published: August 2016

A videotaping feedback package was developed for improving skills of youth competitive swimmers. Experiment 1 examined the videotaping package for improving freestyle and backstroke racing turns of young competitive swimmers. Positive results were obtained in a multiple-baseline design across subjects. Experiment 2 compared the videotaping feedback package to a group videotaping procedure (that the coach had been using at the time of this research) for improving freestyle swimming strokes of young competitive swimmers. The videotaping feedback package was effective whereas the group videotaping procedure had little or no effect. For most subjects in the two studies, improvements were maintained with minimal prompting and feedback under normal practice conditions. Suggestions for future research are discussed.
Social Psychobiologic Dysfunction Associated with Anabolic Steroid Abuse: A Review
Authors: Gregg Edward , Rejeski W. Jack
Published: August 2016

This article reviews both human and nonhuman primate research dealing with the social psychobiologic effects of anabolic/androgenic steroids (AS). Descriptive research and anecdotal reports within the realm of sport suggest that AS may have a variety of psychological and behavioral effects including psychotic episodes and increased aggression. Recent investigations with a nonhuman primate model confirm that the effects of AS on psychological states and overt behavior can be quite varied, ranging from those that can be characterized as active (e.g., mania and aggression) to more passive states (e.g., depression and social withdrawal). There are also profound physiological effects of a biobehavioral origin that constitute a risk for cardiovascular disease. The most striking aspect of AS is that the effects of this drug are due to an interaction between its pharmacologic properties and the social milieu.
Providing Sport Psychology Consulting Services to Professional Athletes
Authors: Rotella Robert J.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents a philosophy for sport psychology consulting that emphasizes a belief in helping people’s dreams come true, believing in possibilities, trusting in ability and talent, and the awesome power of the mind if the mind is properly directed. Particular attention is focused on learning how to resist socialization in order to do one’s best. A brief introduction of strategies for doing so and how such ideals may be delivered is presented.
The Role of Social Support in the Life Stress/Injury Relationship
Authors: Hardy Charles J. , Richman Jack M. , Rosenfeld Lawrence B.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the role of social support in the relationship between life stress and injury. Utilizing a prospective design, male and female collegiate athletes participating in the sports of volleyball, gymnastics, field hockey, soccer, cross-country, track and field, and wrestling completed the Athletic Life Experience Survey and the Support Functions Questionnaire. The results indicated that life stress and social support were predictive of injury frequency among male athletes. Specifically, injury frequency increased as the level of total life change and the number of providers of shared social reality support increased (direct effect). In addition, injury frequency was found to increase as negative life change and the number of providers of, and degree of fulfillment for, emotional challenge support decreased (buffer effect). No significant models emerged for female athletes or injury severity. The results of this study support a functional or disaggregated role for social support in the life stress/injury relationship.
Nebraska’s 3 R’s: One-Play-at-a-Time Preperformance Routine for Collegiate Football
Authors: Ravizza Kenneth , Osborne Thomas
Published: August 2016

Described is a preperformance cognitive-behavioral routine that was developed for the University of Nebraska football team. The routine is based on the premise that to perform effectively, football players must focus on one play at a time by exhibiting self-control and taking responsibility for optimal performance. The resulting 3-step “ready, respond, and refocus” routine emphasized that the play begins with the “ready” signal in the huddle, is followed by the play or “respond” component, and ends with a whistle. The time period from the end of one play to the beginning of the next is the athlete’s time to “refocus,” process, and mentally let go of the previous play. Examples of the “ready, respond, and refocus” routine are given and ways of implementing and teaching it are discussed.
Issues Confronting Female Sport Psychology Consultants Working with Male Student-Athletes
Authors: Yambor Jodi , Connelly Deidre
Published: August 2016

This article discusses issues related to the delivery of personal and performance enhancement consulting services to male student-athletes by female sport psychology consultants. A holistic, developmental, educational philosophy is described as a basis for providing services. Ethics, delivery, and consultant effectiveness are discussed relative to the male client/female consultant situation. A number of prevalent attitudes and stereotypes that may present obstacles to the successful delivery of services are discussed, along with the authors’ experiences and suggested tactics to minimize or confront and cope with these potential barriers.
Psychological Skill Development in Children and Adolescents
Authors: Weiss Maureen R.
Published: August 2016

Psychological skills and methods that can be applied to working with children and adolescents in sport are examined from a theory-to-practice as well as a practice-to-theory approach. In addition to an emphasis on the reciprocal nature of theory and practice, the philosophy adopted in this paper includes a focus on personal development rather than performance, and a multidisciplinary or integrated sport science approach to understanding children’s experiences in the physical domain. The types of psychological skills discussed are self-perceptions, motivation, positive attitude, coping with stress, and moral development. Psychological methods include environmental influences such as physical practice methods, coach and parent education, communication styles, and modeling; and individual control strategies in the form of goal setting, relaxation, and mental imagery. Numerous anecdotal stories based on the author’s experiences working with children and adolescents are used to support the major philosophical themes advanced in this paper.
Homophobia, the World of Sport, and Sport Psychology Consulting
Authors: Rotella Robert J. , Murray Mi Mi
Published: August 2016

Homophobia has been an issue of concern in the world of sport for decades. It has had a negative impact on the world of athletes, coaches, and sport psychology consultants. Both heterosexuals and homosexuals are affected. Homophobia has kept some from striving for excellence while interfering with and hindering some who pursued success in sport. Specialists in sport psychology who claim to care about the development of human potential in sport must be concerned about the impact of homophobia. An honest look at attitudes, beliefs, and values is a necessary step forward if change is to occur. A move in the direction of healthy acceptance of differing sexual preferences is suggested, along with an effective philosophy for doing so. A wish list for the future is included.
Cognitive Orientations of Ultramarathoners
Authors: Acevedo Edmund O. , Dzewaltowski David A. , Gill Diane L. , Noble John M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the sport-specific cognitions of 112 ultramarathoners competing in a 100-mile trail run. Subjects completed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire, the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory, the Commitment to Running Scale, and a questionnaire designed by the investigators to assess goals, cognitive strategies, perceptions of “runner’s high,” and feelings that occur when subjects are unable to run. Ultramarathoners were more confident, more committed to running, slightly higher in competitiveness, lower on win orientation, and higher on goal orientation in comparison to other athletes. Ultramarathoners also rated importance of and commitment to time goals very high; importance of and commitment to place goals were rated low. No significant differences in cognitive orientations were found between finishers and nonfinishers or between males and females. Responses to open-ended questions revealed that most ultramarathoners reported predominately external thoughts during races, had feelings of psychological well-being and strength as a result of ultramarathoning, never or rarely experienced runner’s high, and experienced negative psychological states when unable to run. Overall, these results demonstrate the unique sport-specific cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners.
Certification of Consultants in Sport Psychology: A Rebuttal to Anshel
Authors: Zaichkowsky Leonard D. , Perna Frank M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to respond to the arguments against certification in sport psychology presented by Anshel (1992). Anshel’s central arguments were (a) certification will diminish rather than promote the field of sport psychology, (b) Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) certification favors professionals trained in psychology, and (c) AAASP certification is inappropriately reliant on clinical psychology as a model for the practice of sport psychology. These criticisms of certification are rebutted by clearly defining certification and related terms, professing an adequate scientific knowledge base in sport psychology to support practice, identifying fraudulent practice as unrelated to certification, clarifying procedures used in developing AAASP certification criteria, and presenting evidence that sport psychology professionals trained in the sport sciences are not less favored for AAASP certification and that clinical psychology is not used as the model for practice in sport psychology.
An Eclectic Approach to Psychological Interventions in Sport: Reversal Theory
Authors: Kerr John H.
Published: August 2016

In this article, the basic postulates of reversal theory are described, and the potential of the theory for professional practice in sport psychology is clarified. At focus is the reversal theory approach to athlete problem assessment (especially reversal process problems), intervention treatment and strategies, and the behavior of the successful therapist towards the athlete. Reversal theory’s comprehensive conceptual model, together with applications of the theory in psychotherapy, are used to support arguments for an eclectic but systematic approach to intervention work with sport performers.
Competitive Anxiety, Situation Criticality and Softball Performance
Authors: Krane Vikki , Joyce Douglas , Rafeld Jennifer
Published: August 2016

The relationship among person factors, situational factors, and batting performance was examined during a collegiate softball tournament. Specifically, the purposes of the present study were to examine (a) cognitive and somatic anxiety and performance as related to athletes’ trait anxiety and situation criticality, and (b) the catastrophe theory prediction that somatic anxiety would differentially relate to performance depending upon the level of cognitive anxiety. Standardized performance scores and intraindividual cognitive and somatic anxiety scores were computed for each athlete (N = 11). As hypothesized, high levels of situation criticality were associated with high levels of cognitive anxiety, but somatic anxiety did not differ in the two situations. Both person and situation factors were significant predictors of cognitive and somatic anxiety; however, the more salient factor was dependent upon the measurement of anxiety (raw scores vs. standardized score). Consistent with the catastrophe theory, somatic anxiety had a different relationship with performance in high criticality situations compared to low criticality situations.
Effects of a Seasonal Goal-Setting Program on Lacrosse Performance
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Stitcher Thomas , Richardson Peggy
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the effects of a specific goal-setting program on physical performance over the course of a competitive athletic season. Subjects were 24 members of an NCAA Division III men’s lacrosse team who were matched on ability and playing position and then randomly assigned to either a goal-setting or do-your-best control group. The experimenter met with each athlete at the beginning of the season to provide goals, as well as during the season to reevaluate the goals, if necessary. Performance was measured on offensive assists, offensive ground balls, defensive ground balls, and defensive clears. Manipulation checks revealed that players accepted their goals, felt their goals were realistic, and tried hard to reach their goals. Although statistical tests indicated no significant performance differences, the magnitude, direction, and consistency of the differences in favor of the goal group offers some support for the effectiveness of specific goals across an athletic season.
Knowledge Development and Implementation in Sport Psychology: A Review of The Sport Psychologist, 1987–1992
Authors: Vealey Robin S.
Published: August 2016

The editorial mission of The Sport Psychologist (TSP) emphasizes the development and implementation of knowledge to enhance the practice of sport psychology. A comprehensive review of all articles published in TSP from 1987 to 1992 was conducted to identify significant trends in knowledge development and implementation since the journal was established. One hundred seventy-six articles were examined and classified based on design, method, objective (scientific or professional), subject characteristics, author characteristics, and content area. Trends that were identified from the review include an emphasis on correlational designs, an increase in intervention studies and the use of case designs, and homogeneity of subjects and authors. Three future directions for advances in applied sport psychology are advocated to increase social relevance, enhance creativity, and reconceptualize the traditional paradigm of knowledge development.
Enhancing Tennis Coaching with Youths Using a Metaphor Method
Authors: Efran Jay S. , Lesser Gregg S. , Spiller Miles J.
Published: August 2016

Children and adolescents in a summer tennis instruction program were taught a “metaphor method” for eliminating distractions and detrimental ideation. They visualized themselves enclosed in a bubble, cocoon, or chrysalis that separated them from nontask stimuli. Although subjects in the experimental and control groups were positive in their evaluations of their tennis experience, ratings from instructors demonstrated multiple advantages of the metaphor method. When compared to control group subjects receiving regular instruction, students taught to use boundary metaphors improved significantly in terms of performance criteria and ability to concentrate. Their instructors also rated them significantly higher in enjoyment of the experience, motivation, and a display of mature and appropriate behavior. The method was easy to implement and appears adaptable to a variety of sports and other performance settings.
The Knowledge of High-Performance Gymnastic Coaches: Methodological Framework
Authors: Côté Jean , Salmela John H. , Russell Storm
Published: August 2016

An expert system approach (Buchanan et al., 1983) was used to identify and conceptualize the knowledge of 17 Canadian expert high-performance gymnastic coaches. By using a qualitative research methodology based on the traditions of cognitive anthropology and grounded theory, the first two stages of the knowledge acquisition process for building an expert system (identification and conceptualization) were examined. Open-ended questions and various questioning methods were used to unveil, explore, and probe important information (Patton, 1990; Spradley, 1979) about various coaching situations. All coaches’ interviews were transcribed verbatim, and the unstructured qualitative data were inductively analyzed following the procedures and techniques of grounded theory (Côté, Salmela, Baria, & Russell, 1993; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). This article provides the underlying methodological framework used for the entire project. Details about the coaches studied and the methodological framework used to collect and analyze the data are presented.
Predispositions to Experience Debilitative and Facilitative Anxiety in Elite and Nonelite Performers
Authors: Jones Graham , Swain Austin
Published: August 2016

The major purpose of this study was to examine the distinction between “intensity” (i.e., level) and “direction” (i.e., interpretation of level as either debilitative or facilitative) of competitive anxiety symptoms as a function of skill level. Elite (n = 68) and nonelite (n = 65) competitive cricketers completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. The findings showed no difference between the two groups on the intensity of cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms, but elite performers interpreted both anxiety states as being more facilitative to performance than did the nonelite performers. No differences emerged between the groups for self-confidence. Further analyses showed that cricketers in the nonelite group who reported their anxiety as debilitative had higher cognitive anxiety intensity levels than those who reported it as facilitative, but no such differences were evident in the elite group. These findings provide further support for the distinction between intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety symptoms.
Sport Psychology: The Griffith Era, 1920–1940
Authors: Gould Daniel , Pick Sean
Published: August 2016

This review examines the development of sport psychology in the years 1920 to 1940, with particular emphasis on Coleman Griffith. Griffith was the most active person in the field in this era and was the first North American to devote a significant portion of his or her career to research, teaching, and service in sport psychology. The approach Griffith took in conceptualizing and studying sport psychology will also be emphasized. In essence, the most lasting legacy of Griffith is the research to practice orientation he epitomized that provides an excellent model for contemporary sport psychologists to emulate.
Sport Psychology: The Formative Years, 1950–1980
Authors: Landers Daniel M.
Published: August 2016

From 1950 to 1980, the field of sport psychology made significant strides. The developments were so rapid and so profound that this period can be called the “formative” years of the field. There was a tremendous expansion of the sport psychology literature, some of which constituted sustained contributions on a single research topic. Several textbooks and specialty books were published during this time period. Sport psychology journal articles expanded so much that journals devoted entirely to sport psychology research were created. The first graduate programs and research societies that focused more directly on sport psychology were also established. Applied sport psychology techniques, such as relaxation, imagery, and concentration training, were developed and made available to athletes. In addition to providing a description of the above-mentioned developments, some insights into dominant research methodology trends will be presented for the time periods of 1950 to 1965 and from 1966 to 1980.
Women’s Place in the History of Sport Psychology
Authors: Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

Women and women’s issues have a place in sport psychology today, but women have no place in most histories of the field. Some women sport psychologists, particularly Dorothy Harris, were instrumental in the development of sport psychology as a subdiscipline in the 1960s and 1970s. Re-searching the historical foundations reveals that the notable contributions of Harris and other women sport psychologists have roots in earlier work in both psychology and physical education. Pioneering women psychologists conducted research and challenged sexist assumptions and practices since psychology’s earliest days. At the same time, prominent women leaders developed women-oriented programs and contributed to the professional literature in physical education. Women and women’s issues have a place in sport psychology today, but too often that is an “other” or special interest place. By taking steps to re-place women in history and by engendering current research and practice, sport and exercise psychology will be a stronger science and profession.
The Social Construction of Gender Difference and Hierarchy in Sport Journalism — Few New Twists on Very Old Themes
Authors: Kane Mary Jo , Parks Janet B.
Published: August 2016

Past researchers have consistently demonstrated that female and male athletes receive differential treatment in the media: males are presented in ways that emphasize their physical/athletic ability, while females are portrayed in terms of their femininity and physical attractiveness. Researchers have concluded that this pattern of coverage is a manifestation of the social construction of gender difference and hierarchy in sport and thus serves a patriarchal agenda. However, a widely-held “common-sense” perception is that differential treatment occurs due to methodological inconsistencies related to prior research, rather than to media bias designed to devalue and disempower women. For example, in the past, researchers have examined different media types, sports, readerships and editorial policies. These methodological variations are frequently offered by various audiences (ranging from academicians to the general public) as alternative, competing explanations for differential coverage found in prior research. An example of competing explanation, grounded in methodological concerns, is the following: the difference in coverage is perceived to have occurred because one researcher examined professional tennis while another researcher focused on intercollegiate basketball. Implicit in this perception is the suggestion that different sport levels and types are responsible for differential coverage, not media bias. Controlling for methodological differences in previous research, the hermeneutic method was employed to analyze the written text of feature articles in the same magazine (Sports Illustrated), for the same year (1989), covering the same sport (professional tennis). Statements in the text that referred to female and male athletes were classified within a Performance Related Dimension (athletic ability, mental ability, strength of character) or a Non-Performance Related Dimension (emotions, physical appearance, personal life). In spite of tight methodological controls, a consistent pattern of gender difference and hierarchy was found throughout the feature articles. Implications of the study relative to future research that address consumers’ perceptions of media portrayals are presented.
Current Activity Patterns of Women Intercollegiate Athletes of the Late 1960’s and 1970’s
Authors: Strawbridge Marilyn
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to describe (1) the current physical activity (PA) levels of women who were among the earliest competitors in organized intercollegiate sports during the late 1960s and 1970s. Activity was determined using the Godin Leisure Time Questionnaire. Of the 103 subjects, 45% reported participation in strenuous activity (MET level 9), and 41% reported participation in moderate activity (MET level 5) more than 3 times per week. The majority of women often (50%) or sometimes (38%) participated in activity long enough to work up a sweat. Only 12 % reported never engaging in activity long enough to work up a sweat. Most women (66%) currently participate in physical activity to gain health or fitness or for recreation. A much smaller percentage (13%) still enjoys competition. Most women (60%) performed these activities alone while only 3% participated in group activities. Most (73%) indicated that the opportunity to participate in their college sport does not currently exist, while 27% indicated that they still participate. Reasons for not participating included no program available (27%), musculo-skeltal problems (15%), no desire (6%) and that their college sport was too vigorous (3%). The most common activities in which women currently participate are golf, running, jogging and walking and tennis. A large majority (97%) indicated previous intercollegiate participation had very positively influenced their current participation in physical activity.

Unlike the majority of their peers, this population of women who competed in the early intercollegiate athletics has tended to stay active in spite of decreasing opportunities to engage in team and other physical activities after college and as they age.
The Effect of Four Different Warm-Ups on the Maximum Vertical Jump Test Scores for Female College Athletes
Authors: Burkett Lee N. , Ziuraitis Joana , Phillips Wayne T.
Published: August 2016

The effectiveness of two specific and two non-specific warm-ups on the vertical jump test for female athletes was the focus of this research. The four warm-up procedures were: (a) weighted jumping (WT), (b) submaximal vertical jumping (SUB), (c) stretching (ST), and (d) no warm-up (NW). To control for learning and fatigue, a counter-balanced design was used to test all participants over four different days. Thus all groups were tested in a predetermined order. Participants were 15 university female athletes (age 18 to 23 years). After warming up using one of the four warm-up procedures, three vertical jumps were measured and the best score was used for analysis. A single factors repeated measure analysis of variance and LSD post hoc tests revealed that the weighted jump warm-up procedure was statistically superior (p<0.01) to all other warm-up procedures. No warm-up was statistically inferior to all other warm-ups and submaximal vertical jumping was not statistically different than stretching. It was concluded; (a) performing a warmup is better than no warm-up, and (b) utilizing a weighted resistance-jumping warm-up will produce the highest scores when performing the vertical jump test for female athletes.
Prevalence of Subclinical Eating Disorders in Collegiate Female Athletes
Authors: Williams Patti L. , Sargent Roger G. , Valois Robert F. , Drane J. Wanzer , Parra-Medina Deborah M. , Durstine Larry J.
Published: August 2016

This study is an examination of eating behaviors and body image concerns among 587 female collegiate athletes from nine colleges/universities representing 14 different sports. Measures included the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), and a questionnaire gathering general demographic information, reasons for dieting and/or using other methods of weight control, as well as information about expressed concerns from others regarding the respondents weight. Three sport groups were hypothesized to be at increased risk: athletes whose performance is subjectively scored; athletes who compete in a sport where a low body weight is considered advantageous; and athletes who must wear body conrevealing clothing. Chi-Square and Logistic Regression analyses revealed no association between these sport groups and the presence of a subclinical eating disorder (SED). Additional analyses determined no statistical association between student-athletes competing at the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I level (versus Division II or III level) or student-athletes who were scholarship recipients (versus non-scholarship recipients) and the presence of SED. Student-athletes who have heard expressed concerns from others regarding their body weight were significantly more likely to report the presence of SED (p < .0001). Therefore, special care should be taken with all student-athletes when discussing body weight.
Negotiating the Space of a Predominately Gay Fitness Facility
Authors: Roper Emily A. , Polasek Katherine M.
Published: August 2016

While researchers have explored the experiences of gay and lesbian sport participants competing and participating in alternative sport structures, no research has examined gay men, lesbians, bisexual (GLB) and heterosexual individuals’ experiences sharing an alternative space. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore the experiences and perceptions of being a member of, and participating in a “predominately gay” fitness facility Interviews with 13 members and one member of management suggested that while the predominately gay fitness facility was a site in which working out was a primary focus for all of the participants, the space was used as a way to connect with the gay community (among the GLB participants) and become invisible for the women (heterosexual, lesbian, and bisexual). The results also suggested that the heterosexual participants, while “comfortable” working out in a predominately gay fitness setting, described a temporary occupation of the space.
Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport
Authors: Sykes Heather
Published: August 2016

This article examines developments in gender policies in sport in relation to recent changes in transsexual rights legislation and gender identity activism. The Gay Games has developed a gender identity policy about “men, women, transgender and intersex” athletes. In 2004, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) introduced the Stockholm Consensus on sex reassignment surgery to allow “transsexual” athletes to compete at the Olympics. These developments do not indicate an overall increase in the acceptance of gender variance in the world of sport; rather, there has been ongoing resistance to inclusive gender policies in mainstream sport organizations. I argue this resistance is based on anxieties about the instability of the male/female gender binary and the emergence of queer gender subjectivities within women’s, gay, and mainstream sporting communities.
The Nature of Black Women’s Leadership in Community Recreation Sport: An Illustration of Black Feminist Thought
Authors: Armstrong Ketra L.
Published: August 2016

Sport is a social institution that is rife with raced and gendered discursive fields, creating structural and power relations that may influence the leadership experiences of Black women there-in. Tins study utilized the tenets of Black Feminist Thought as a foundation for examining the leadership experiences of a case selection of Black women (n=21) in community recreational sports. The results revealed that a personal interest in sport and an ethic of caring motivated the women’s involvement in the leadership of community recreation sports. Although the women reported barriers of gender inequity, racial discrimination, poor communication, lack of resources, and organizational constraints, they appeared to rely on their internal fortitude as a reservoir for resistance to combat the institutional challenges faced and have meaningful sport leadership experiences. The study illuminated the importance of individual consciousness to these women’s sense of self and their ability to resist the domination of the power and ideologies situated in their sport leadership settings.
Why American Women Play Rugby
Authors: Fields Sarah K. , Comstock R. Dawn
Published: August 2016

Rugby, a fast-paced, aggressive contact sport, has a high incidence of injury. This study examines why US women play rugby given the social stigma surrounding women’s participation in sports in general, particularly contact sports, and despite the high risk of injury. In a survey of their injury history and potential injury risk factors, 339 female rugby players from 14 teams of varied quality and levels of play from a wide geographic area in the United States were asked why they played the sport. Their responses indicate that women play rugby because they enjoy the game, they like the aggressive aspects of the sport, they appreciate the social aspects of the game, and they believe the sport provides them with positive benefits, such as increased fitness, confidence, and strength. The results of this study indicate that many women are willing to risk injury for the positive rewards that they associate with rugby.
Occupational Sex Segregation in a Youth Soccer Organization: Females in Positions of Power
Authors: LaVoi Nicole M.
Published: August 2016

Research pertaining to female coaches at the professional, intercollegiate, and interscholastic levels exists, but attention to females in positions of power in youth sport is limited. Given youth sport is an important social institution that affects millions of children and their families, it provides a rich opportunity for creating social change and challenging stereotypical beliefs pertaining to gender and leadership. This study uses the theoretical framework of occupational sex-segregation—specifically tokenism and marginalization (Kanter, 1977a, 1977b)—to examine the representation of females in positions of power (N = 5,683; Head Coaches, Assistant Coaches, Team Managers) within one Midwestern youth soccer association. Based on the data, female coaches are considered “tokens” within all boys’ teams and at the highest competitive level of girls’ teams, and are marginalized and underrepresented in all positions of power at almost all age groups and competitive levels. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Gender Differences in Motor Performance in Early Childhood and Later Adulthood
Authors: Toole Tonya , Kretzschmar Judith C.
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this review article are to: 1) present empirical studies which have compared the development of motor skills for boys and girls in the early childhood years, 2) present studies which have made gender comparisons for similar and related motor skills for older adults, and 3) make comparisons between the younger and older age group literature in terms of gender and causal factors contributing to gender differences. It was concluded that: 1) young boys and older men are superior to young girls and older women in power-dependent skills. Biological and environmental factors were discussed as they relate to gender differences in one power-dependent skill, throwing, throughout the life-span, and 2) young girls excel at hopping, skipping, hand-eye coordination, limb and body control, and balance tasks compared to young boys. Of these tasks, balance and hand-eye coordination are the only skills which are typically measured for young children and older adults. For balance in older age, the results are equivocal but suggestions were made for understanding why women may have lost their performance advantage in older adulthood. For hand-eye coordination, women are not clearly better than men as they were in youth. Reasons for life-span changes are suggested.
Scholarly Productivity as a Function of Graduate Training, Workplace, and Gender
Authors: Kovar Susan K. , Overdorf Virginia
Published: August 2016

In this study we examined the influences of graduate training, job characteristics, and collegial support on scholarly productivity across gender. A survey was distributed to 425 graduates from 13 major United States research institutions and 117 responded. Publication rate was predicted by the amount of research support from colleagues, the number of colleagues publishing one or more refereed articles per year, and the number of research projects the respondent (as a doctoral student) was involved in with the major professor. Differences were found in professors’ responses to rejected articles, with females significantly less likely to resubmit a rejected article. Therefore, it appears important to participate in many projects with one’s major professor while in graduate school, affiliate with a productive, supportive faculty, and to rewrite and resubmit rejected articles.