bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fast Acceptance by Common Experience: Augmenting Schelling's Neighborhood Segregation Model With FACE-Recognition
Authors: Berg Nathan , Abramczuk Katarzyna , Hoffrage Ulrich
Published: January 2013

Schelling (1969, 1971a,b, 1978) observed that macro-level patterns do not necessarily reflect micro-level intentions, desires or goals. In his classic model on neighborhood segregation, which initiated a large and influential literature, individuals with no desire to be segregated from those who belong to other social groups, nevertheless, wind up clustering with their own type. Most extensions of Schelling's model have replicated this result. There is an important mismatch, however, between theory and observation that has received relatively little attention. Whereas Schelling-inspired models typically predict large degrees of segregation starting from virtually any initial condition, the empirical literature documents considerable heterogeneity in measured levels of segregation. This chapter introduces a mechanism that can produce significantly higher levels of integration and, therefore, brings predicted distributions of segregation more in line with real-world observation. As in the classic Schelling model, agents in a simulated world want to stay or move to a new location depending on the proportion of neighbors they judge to be acceptable. In contrast to the classic model, however, agents' classifications of their neighbors as acceptable or not depend lexicographically on recognition first and group type (e.g., ethnic stereotyping) second. The FACE-recognition model nests classic Schelling: when agents have no recognition memory, judgments about the acceptability of a prospective neighbor rely solely on his or her group type (as in the Schelling model). A very small amount of recognition memory eventually leads to different classifications that, in turn, produce dramatic macro-level effects resulting in significantly higher levels of integration. A novel implication of the FACE-recognition model concerns the large potential impact of policy interventions that generate modest numbers of face-to-face encounters with members of other social groups. The model describes a new co-evolutionary process in which individual-level classifications of others and the macro-structure of the social environment jointly and substantively influence one another.
The Mind as an Intuitive Pollster: Frugal Search in Social Spaces
Authors: Pachur Thorsten , Hertwig Ralph , Rieskamp Jörg
Published: January 2013

Inferring latent event frequencies in the environment is a key cognitive function. Models of frequency judgments commonly assume that for such inferences, people rely on instance knowledge (e.g., people in a person's social network) processed in a compensatory fashion. The chapter examines the possible contribution and accuracy of noncompensatory processing of instance knowledge. For that purpose, the chapter extends the notion of ordered and limited search—which has received much attention in cue-based inference—to instance-based inference and propose the boundedly rational social-circle heuristic as one possible model. Unlike the common assumption of compensatory processing in models of instance-based inference, the social-circle heuristic is noncompensatory: it searches the social circles of a person's network for relevant instances sequentially and stops search as soon as a circle discriminates. In computer simulations, the chapter shows that despite its frugality, the social-circle heuristic competes favorably with more complex strategies, especially in environments with a skewed frequency distribution. In two empirical studies, the chapter shows that for predicting people's inferences concerning the relative frequency of real-world events, the heuristic provides a viable alternative to the usual assumption of compensatory instance processing. Finally, the chapter discusses how noncompensatory processing of instance knowledge might account for established regularities in social influence and how the social-circle heuristic relates to norm formation.
Social Learning: A Route to Good Cue Orders
Authors: Garcia-Retamero Rocio , Takezawa Masanori , Woike Jan K. , Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: January 2013

Inferences are often based on uncertain cues, and the accuracy of such inferences depends on the order in which the cues are searched. Previous experimental and theoretical research has shown that individuals progress only slowly in learning of cue orderings through feedback. A clue to how people (as opposed to computers) solve this problem is social learning: By exchanging information with others, people can learn which cues are relevant and the order in which they should be considered. By means of a computer simulation, the chapter demonstrates that imitate-the-bestdemon and imitate-the-majority speed up individual learning, whereas a third social rule, imitate-the-bestmortal, does not. The results appeared consistently both in a group discussion and in an advice taking setting. Imitate-the-bestdemon also leads to a steep increase in learning after a single social exchange, and to faster learning than when individuals gain the learning experience of all other group members but learn without social exchange. In an experiment it was found that people succeed in finding the best member and speed up cue learning in a similar way when provided with social information when they obtain the information in free discussions with others.
The Advice of Others: When and How We Benefit From It
Authors: Biele Guido , Rieskamp Jörg
Published: January 2013

Social learning is fundamental to human cultural evolution and an important aspect of social rationality. This chapter examines how advice influences decision making and learning. A brief review of the advice-taking literature shows that people seldom have full insight into the reasons for the usefulness of advice; nevertheless, they often successfully use advice to improve judgments. To investigate the effect of advice on learning from experience, participants of two experiments performed a four-armed bandit task in which they tried to find the best of four choice options. Before the task, they received trustworthy advice about which option is most beneficial. The results revealed a sustained effect of advice, so that the recommended option was preferred over the nonrecommended options, even if the nonrecommended option led to the same average reward. Surprisingly, this effect of advice lasted for more than 100 learning trials. The comparison of social learning models, incorporating different assumptions about the influence of advice on learning, showed that social learning was best explained by the outcome-bonus model. This model assumes that rewards from recommended options are evaluated more favorably than those from nonrecommended options. An additional simulation study revealed the social rationality of this outcome-bonus model, because it accumulated more rewards in the learning task than alternative models. In sum, these results suggest that people combine advice with individual learning in an adaptive manner.
The Evolutionary Rationality of Social Learning
Authors: McElreath Richard , Wallin Annika , Fasolo Barbara
Published: January 2013

The field of evolutionary ecology has long been interested in the design and diversity of social learning heuristics, simple strategies that animals use to extract useful information from their social environment. This chapter reviews a slice of this literature, as well as explicitly analyze the evolution of social learning heuristics. The chapter outlines a family of social learning heuristics and analyze their evolutionary performance under two broadly different kinds of environmental variation. As each social learning heuristic also shapes a social environment as individuals use it, the chapter considers the population feedbacks of each heuristic as well. The analyses in this chapter are both ecological and game theoretic. This chapter's analyses are also explicitly evolutionary—heuristics succeed or fail depending upon long-term survival and reproduction in a population, not atomistic one-shot payoffs. As a result, some of the conclusions reflect an evolutionary rationality. For example, heuristics that randomize their behavior can succeed where those that are consistent fail. Overall, however, the approach the chapter reviews here supports the general conclusion that social learning heuristics are likely to be multiple and subtly adapted to different physical, statistical, and social environments.
The Heart Has Its Reasons: Social Rationality in Mate Choice
Authors: Lenton Alison P. , Penke Lars , Todd Peter M. , Fasolo Barbara
Published: January 2013

The specific circumstances in which an individual encounters their mate options may influence how she chooses and, ultimately, whom she chooses. In particular, the choice environment may affect the cues we pay attention to, how we combine them and, ultimately (and significantly), our reproductive fate. This chapter consolidates the current state of knowledge regarding choice environment effects on mating behavior. This chapter's thesis is that human mate choice is adapted to the choice environment in which it is made: We are sensitive to changes in the environment and adapt our judgments and choice strategies accordingly, thereby exhibiting ecological and social rationality—the topic of this volume. This chapter promotes the view that mating-related judgment and choice depend very much on the environmental conditions facing the chooser, while also being shaped by the past recurring conditions in which these behaviors evolved. To substantiate this perspective, the chapter describes anthropological, sociological, and psychological research showing that human mating-related judgments and choice are context-sensitive in meaningful ways. In particular, the chapter shows how the cues and strategies used in mate choice are influenced by environmental structure, considered first at the population level and second at the level of individual choosers. The chapter concludes by focusing in on one important aspect of the mate choice environment in specific modern settings and its impact on heuristic and cue use: the number of potential mates available.
Wales and the Britons, 350-1064
Authors: Charles-Edwards T. M.
Published: January 2013

This is a history of the Welsh in the centuries in which Wales acquired the shape it was to retain until the present day. In 350 what is now Wales was just one part of Roman Britain: contemporaries had no notion of Wales or the Welsh in the later-medieval or modern sense. The inhabitants of what is now Wales were just Britons; and, in the early middle ages, the Welsh remained one part of a larger group, the Britons, called Walas or Wealas by the English. The book thus includes the Britons of North Britain, of Cornwall, and of Brittany, although its main focus is the Britons of Wales. The period saw, first, the creation of an English people and, later, of an English state; relations with the Britons of Wales were an essential strand in these developments. For the Britons themselves relations with the English shaped the political and military side of their history; but, in the cultural and religious sphere relations with Ireland were usually more important. For relations of power the Britons of Wales looked east; in the intellectual and spiritual sphere they mostly looked west. The book is divided into four parts: the Post-Roman period, approximately 400–600; early Welsh society; relations with the English; and the religious organization and culture, both in Latin and the vernacular.
Replies Part I: The Rule-Following Considerations and the Normativity of Meaning
Authors: Wright Crispin
Published: January 2013

The replies in this part of the book are divided into four chapters. In this first one, the issues raised by Boghossian, Peacocke, Horwich, and Bilgrami concerning the problem of rule-following and the normativity of meaning are addressed, and an up-to-date overview of Crispin Wright's current views on these matters is presented.
Replies Part IV: Warrant Transmission and Entitlement
Authors: Wright Crispin
Published: January 2013

Finally, the fourth reply here contains Wright's replies to Zalabardo, Pryor, Coliva, and Williams and expresses his most recent thinking on the architecture of empirical warrants, the notion of transmission failure, the problem of external world scepticism, and the notion of epistemic entitlement.
Syncretism
Authors: Albright Adam , Fuß Eric
Published: January 2013

This chapter surveys current theoretical approaches to the phenomenon of syncretism, that is, cases where morphology fails to mark a morphosyntactically relevant featural distinction. We first review arguments and evidence that the distinction between coincidental and systematic patterns of syncretism is linguistically relevant (‘psychologically real’). The chapter then turns to theoretical approaches to analyzing syncretism, including underspecification, impoverishment, rules of referral, and output-output faithfulness constraints. Next, the chapter discusses some typological trends, and consider the question of how cross-linguistic preferences for certain patterns over others might inform the theoretical analysis of syncretism. Finally, the chapter discusses the diachronic development of syncretism, focusing especially on the analysis of changes in the history of verbal inflection in Yiddish and Alemannic varieties of German.
Reduplication
Authors: Sharon Inkelas
Published: January 2013

Reduplication has long been a topic of intense interest for morphological and phonological theory alike. From the morphological perspective, reduplication poses a challenge for item based theories of morphology because of its process like phonological character (see e.g. Anderson 1992:59). From the phonological perspective, reduplication, along with other prosodic morphology like truncation and infixation, has trained a bright light on phonological representations, providing evidence outside phonology proper for constituents like the mora, syllable and foot (see e.g. McCarthy & Prince 1986, 1996). More recently, reduplication has been plumbed as a source of evidence for syntagmatic correspondence relationships among segments (e.g. McCarthy & Prince 1995, 1999; Zuraw 2002). This chapter surveys major reduplicative phenomena from a cross-linguistic perspective, as well as the dominant theoretical approaches, pointing out challenges for existing theories.
The Enforcement of EU Law
Authors: Andersen Stine
Published: January 2013

An analysis of the European Commission's general role in supervising member state compliance with EU law, this book provides a detailed assessment of centralized EU enforcement. It starts out by asking whether it is viable to establish stronger Commission powers of enforcement at this point in time. Against this backdrop, and as a means of exploring the role of the Commission, the chapters examine a number of different aspects pertaining to the enforcement of EU law. Beginning with an appraisal of the Commission's function under the general EU infringement procedure stipulated in Articles 258 and 260 TFEU, the volume argues that the EU lacks independent self-sustained regime authority. Moreover, this is reflected in both substantive EU law and procedural law, including the general EU infringement procedure. Chapter Two makes the case that Article 258 TFEU can usefully be explained in terms of managerialism. Chapter Three analyses Article 260 TFEU concerning repetitive infringements. In particular, it asserts, EU member state sanctions sustain the managerial approach. It then goes on to examine the Commission's unsuccessful attempts to gain sharper enforcement powers through secondary legislation, and identifies the effective points of functional overlap between enforcement powers and certain types of implementing tools. Finally, it discusses the Commission's role under various non-binding, ad hoc arrangements. The concluding chapter places the general EU infringement procedure in the broader context of a comprehensive (negotiated) policy process. It argues that the enforcement stage shares many features with earlier steps in the legislative process, including flexibility and deliberation.
2 Failure to Comply with EU Law: Article 258 TFEU
Authors: Andersen Stine
Published: January 2013

This chapter examines the general EU infringement procedure established under Article 258 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) concerning ‘first order compliance’. It proceeds as follows. First, it describes the procedural stages involved and reviews relevant case law. Then it discusses questions pertaining to confidentiality and the Commission's discretion according to Article 258 TFEU. Finally, it analyzes the general EU infringement procedure in view of the international law compliance theory on managerialism. It does so in order to explain and better understand the purpose and function of the procedural stages and the role of the Commission, and to bring out the distinct features of the institutional designs and organizational rules which have made it a particularly robust enforcement mechanism.
Lexical nouns are both +mass and +count, but they are neither +mass nor +count
Authors: Pelletier Francis Jeffry
Published: January 2013

This chapter investigates the rationale for having the lexical categories or features mass and count. Some theories make the features be syntactic; others make it be semantic. It is concluded here that none of the standard accounts of their function actually serve the purpose for which they are adopted, and that we should instead remove these features from the lexicon and have lexical nouns be neither +mass nor +count. But on the other hand, if every lexical noun could be characterized by both +mass and +count, then various of the desiderata would be captured. So we conclude that lexical nouns should be neither +mass nor +count, and both +mass and +count. Although this investigation is carried out in English, the moral holds for any ‘number marking’ language. Furthermore, the resulting theory is the one that is naturally congenial to classifier languages, showing a hithertofore unnoticed similarity between the two language classes. (However, languages that are of neither type … such as Dene Su ̨łiné, Yudja, and Karitianan … require some totally distinct vision of a mass-count distinction.)
Individuation and inverse number marking in Dagaare
Authors: Grimm Scott
Published: January 2013

This chapter examines the inverse number marking system of Dagaare (Gur; Niger-Congo), where a single morpheme marks a plural interpretation for some nouns and a singular interpretation for others. The chapter argues that individuation, the same semantic principle which has been invoked in accounting for the count-mass distinction, also extends to the count domain and explains the core of the nominal pattern in Dagaare. An examination of Dagaare's lexicon demonstrates that nouns designating highly individuated referents are morphologically marked in the plural, while nouns designating less individuated referents, viz. those which tend to come in groups or pairs, are morphologically marked in the singular. This general view is supported both by other phenomena within Dagaare, such as the domain of diminutives and dialect variation, and by cross-linguistic facts that surface in a wide array of language types. A formal semantic analysis of the number marking system is then provided and the implications for formal models of plurality are explored.
On the mass/count distinction in Ojibwe
Authors: Mathieu Eric
Published: January 2013

While it is common in the literature to find claims that Algonquian languages do not have a grammatical mass/count distinction (because many nouns, and according to some authors, all nouns can be pluralized), the chapter argues in this paper that on the contrary Algonquian languages, and in particular Ojibwe, has such a distinction as part of its grammar. The pluralization of mass nouns is an illusion in that what is being pluralized is a noun that has been singulativized. The chapter shows that Ojibwe has remnants of a gender shift system (much clearer morphologically in Mesqualike (Fox) and that gender shift marks the singulative. That Algonquian languages are singulative languages is a brand new claim that makes many interesting predictions. Theoretically, the chapter integrates singulative systems into Borer's (2005) theory of division and argue that these languages provide another strategy to perform division on nouns that are still undivided.
Counting and classifiers
Authors: Cheng Lisa Lai‐Shen
Published: January 2013

This chapter re-examines the interpretation of bare nouns in Chinese, and the distinction between count-classifiers and massifiers. Using three different puzzles, it is shown that (a) bare nouns in Chinese cannot be coerced into mass reading (since coercion requires a morphosyntactic trigger, which Chinese lacks; (2) Cantonese differs from Mandarin in that classifiers are unit markers, which can undergo reduplication and yield individuation; and (3) massifiers do not form a uniform group and that de appears only with quantity measures. Lastly, it is argued that di1 in Cantonese is a plural classifier, supporting the claim that classifiers express number.
Semantic triggers, linguistic variation and the mass‐count distinction
Authors: Bale Alan C. , Barner David
Published: January 2013

Although most languages allow nouns to be used with numerals to express cardinality, they differ significantly in how they grammatically encode such expressions. Some languages, like English, require count syntax whereas others, like Mandarin, lack count syntax and typically use classifiers. Here, the chapter asks what appears to be a simple question: how do children determine whether their language makes a distinction between mass and count syntax? This question reveals itself to be subtle and difficult when languages beyond English and Mandarin are considered. The chapter argues that prototypical syntactic and morphological differences between mass-count and classifier languages are not constitutive of this typological difference. The use of classifiers, the combination of numerals with bare nouns, and even plural morphology can occur in both mass-count and classifier languages. As a result, such features cannot be sufficient for determining whether or not a language has count syntax. Instead, the chapter argues that it is the relation of these syntactic structures to their semantic interpretations that differentiates languages and guides acquisition. Only mass-count languages can specify exclusive reference to singularities in absence of classifiers or measure words.
Cultural Integration in Germany
Authors: Constant Amelie , Nottmeyer Olga , Zimmermann Klaus
Published: January 2013

This chapter studies the integration process of immigrants in Germany by comparing certain immigrant groups to natives, differentiating them by gender and immigrant generation. The indicators that capture the cultural integration of immigrants are, in particular, differences in marital behaviour, language abilities, ethnic identification, and religious activity. A special feature of our data is the rich information about overall life satisfaction, risk aversion, and political interest. The chapter employs the latter indicators, comparing immigrants to natives and differentiating by ethnic origin, gender, and immigrant generation. This allows for an analysis of differences by ethnic groups and their evolution over time, and enables us to study in depth the cultural integration processes of immigrants. Besides cultural integration, the chapter also studies the economic integration of immigrants via female labour force participation. Empirical findings suggest that there are differences among immigrant groups and between immigrants and native Germans; the most significant differences exist vis-à-vis ethnic origin, gender, and generation. However, differences seem to diminish for the second generation. This indicates a greater adaptation to German norms and habits, and thus a better cultural, socio-economic and political integration of second-generation immigrants in Germany.
10 Path and place: the lexical specification of granular compatibility
Authors: Schmidtke Hedda R.
Published: January 2013

This chapter aims to provide several formal tools for representing granularity-dependent notions such as point-like or proximity, so that they can be used for characterizing granularity restrictions in a unified way. It demonstrates how the representational formalism can be used to encode restrictions of compatibility of spatial granularity in the understanding of spatial expressions for two different spatial tasks: the task of localization of an object given a localization description, such as ‘the fly is above the table’, and the task of following a route instruction. It illustrates the formal framework with the examples of the German constructions ‘an...vorbei’ (‘past’) and ‘an...entlang’ (‘along’), which combine with German an (‘at/on/by’), which denotes close proximity or contact, and demonstrates that a spatially dynamic, granular interpretation allows us to model different degrees of acceptability of sentences.
Materiality, Sociomateriality, and Socio-Technical Systems: What Do These Terms Mean? How Are They Different? Do We Need Them?
Authors: Leonardi Paul M.
Published: January 2013

This chapter reviews the history of three terms increasingly used by researchers in the fields of organization studies and information systems: “materiality,” “sociomateriality,” and “socio-technical systems.” After this review, the chapter explores ways in which these terms overlap and depart in meaning from one another in scholars' writings. The chapter suggests that materiality might be viewed as a concept that refers to properties of a technology that transcend space and time, while sociomateriality may be used to refer to the collective spaces in which people come into contact with the materiality of an artifact and produce various functions. The chapter suggests that the concept of a sociomaterial practice is akin to what socio-technical systems theorists refer to as the “technical subsystem” of an organization, or the way that people's tasks shape and are shaped by their use of machines. This technical subsystem is recursively organized alongside the social subsystem of an organization, which is characterized by an abstract set of roles, communication patterns, and so on.
Aristotle On The Role Of The Predicables In Dialectical Disputations
Authors: Kakkuri‐Knuuttila Marja‐Liisa , Tuominen Miira
Published: January 2013

In Topics I 8 Aristotle argues that all dialectical problems and premises involve the predicables: definition, peculiar property, genus, differentia, or accident. This claim of exhaustiveness is important for understanding Aristotle’s dialectic but faces some objections. For example general notions of sameness, similarity, homonymy, and difference, introduced as dialectical tools in Topics I 13, are difficult to understand in terms of the predicables. Aristotle’s procedure suggests two interpretations of the claim. The first one restricts problems and premises to predications and offers formal criteria for classifying them. Second, Aristotle also offers extended definitions for definition and genus such that can accommodate freely formulated problems and premises if they occur in arguments leading up to arguments concerning the predicables. This paper argues that neither of the two interpretations is a satisfactory reading of the claim of exhaustiveness and that a tension remains between the formal criteria presented in the syllogism of I 8 and the variety of actual dialectical problems and premises.
Spirituality
Authors: Gottlieb Roger S.
Published: January 2013

This view of spirituality from traditional religion to contemporary culture reveals the common thread that joins Mahayana Buddhism and Hasidic Judaism, the Islamic Sufi poet Rumi and the Catholic St. Thomas a Kempis, people of every traditional religion and people who describe themselves as “spiritual but not religious.” This book describes spiritual life as the simple but extraordinarily difficult choice to face life's rigors and disappointments by developing certain key virtues. As we become more mindful, accepting, grateful, compassionate, and lovingly connected to others, we become more spiritual. These virtues oppose both the conventional social ego's attachment and arrogance, and any habitual, unreflective religiosity; and the spiritual path towards them can be shared equally by people inspired by belief in one God or many, the divinity of nature or the sacredness of life. The book spiritual teachings from both within and outside of traditional faiths, explains the origins and meaning of today's widespread spiritual detachment from institutional religion, and offers illuminating accounts of practices such as yoga, meditation, and prayer. The book also contains innovative and penetrating accounts of the role of spirituality in modern medicine, nature and the environmental crisis, and political activism.
Scarecrows,Up ā sakas, Fetuses, and Other Child Monastics in Middle-Period Indian Buddhism
Authors: Langenberg Amy Paris
Published: January 2013

This chapter explores children’s participation in monastic life according to texts from the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, the Avadānaśataka, the Mahāvastu, and other Sanskrit Buddhist sources, documenting the Indian Buddhist tradition’s ongoing and evolving legal and ritual accommodation of children in monastic communities. It concludes that, where it concerned children, monastic practice was a particularly porous site of interface with the lay community, borrowing from the lay ritual repertoire and adapting monastic ritual forms to the needs of parents and their offspring. Far from renouncing “the world,” Indian Buddhist monks (and nuns) of all ages engaged in a highly articulated, graduated, and complex form of Indian communal life that was thoroughly enmeshed, socially and ritually, with the world beyond the monastery gates.
The Precocious Child in Chinese Buddhism
Authors: Levering Miriam
Published: January 2013

The stories of Buddhist children destined to be saints or monastics reflect the motif of “the precocious child” that was already evident in Chinese elite culture in the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 C.E.). Yet childhood is not neglected in elite Buddhist texts. Childhood appears in stories of the Buddha’s birth and infancy, in ceremonies of bathing the infant Buddha who stands in the posture of proclamation of his real nature and mission, and in the Avatamsaka and Lotus Sutras, two Indian sutras that are immensely popular in China in part because they portray children in heroic roles. Childhood takes on a larger role in indigenous Buddhist tales, where they display real filiality as Buddhists understand it. In popular indigenous Buddhist stories, children, who are not yet ordained renouncers or sexually active adults, are seen as the best persons to achieve this universal Mahayana Buddhist goal.
Children in Himalayan Monasteries
Authors: Tsomo Karma Lekshe
Published: January 2013

For centuries, large numbers of children in Himalayan societies have grown up in Buddhist monasteries where they have received an education in Buddhist values, texts, and rituals. Life in a monastery, with its rigorous discipline and training, prepares young people, especially boys, to become religious specialists for the benefit of both the lay community and their own spiritual advancement. Monastic life is regarded as a meaningful and highly meritorious career path that offers a comfortable living, helps preserve Buddhist culture, and earns widespread respect. Buddhist monasteries are still at the heart of religious life in the Himalayan region, but Buddhist institutions cannot help but be influenced by current social, political, and cultural changes that challenge these ancient traditions. If children decide to pursue other options and do not enter monastic life, Buddhist monastic culture and the Himalayan religious heritage face an uncertain future.
The Westernization of Tulkus
Authors: Ary Elijah
Published: January 2013

The Tulku (sprul sku) tradition, i.e., the tradition of recognizing young children, predominantly boys, as the reincarnations of defunct Tibetan masters and subsequently educated to become a sort of spiritual elite, has become one of Tibetan Buddhism’s defining characteristics. Over the years, the tradition has come to count among its members a small handful of Westerners. Contrary to tradition, many, if not all of these Western Tulkus, have chosen to lead lives outside the monastic communities of their predecessors, prompting mixed feelings from within the Tibetan Buddhist community. This chapter looks briefly at the history of Tulku institution, and at the development of recognizing Western children as re-embodiments of Tibetan Buddhist masters. Particular attention is paid to the education and upbringing these children receive, and to their subsequent choices to leave the monasteries and continue their activities in Western societies. It reflects on the implications of such an education and on the future of Westerners within the Tulku tradition.
Is There a Controversy Concerning the Morality of the Occupation and Its Implications?1
Authors: Dascal Marcelo
Published: January 2013

This chapter examines the nature of the interrelations between morality and occupation. It leaves open the possibility that the implications of this are not a result of one-way causal relations, but perhaps of a two-way interaction. Dascal presents an open-ended, innovative, multi-perspective and multi-disciplinary approach that could pave the way to progress in finding a resolution to a conflict that has been described as “an ostensibly intractable ethno-national conflict”.
The Nature and Impact of Risk and Protective Influences on Children’s Development in Low-Income Countries
Authors: Wachs Theodore D. , Rahman Atif
Published: January 2013

Over 200 million children from low- and middle-income (LAMI) countries show compromised neural, cognitive, and social-emotional functioning due to exposure to preventable developmental risks. Understanding how exposure to developmental risks adversely influences child functioning is complex. The impact of developmental risks varies, depending upon many factors, including the extent and type of protective influences children encounter. Because risk factors often cluster, children living in poverty have particularly high exposure to cumulative bioecological and psychosocial developmental risks. This has clear evidence-based implications for intervention programs to promote the development of such children, including starting interventions early in life; designing integrated bioecological and psychosocial interventions; targeting specific risks that increase the likelihood of exposure to additional risks (maternal depression); promoting exposure to specific protective influences that increase the likelihood of exposure to additional protective influences (maternal education); and identifying societal, community, and individual characteristics that can weaken the impact of interventions.
Culture and Early Childhood Development
Authors: Sara Harkness , Super Charles M. , Mavridis Caroline Johnston , Barry Oumar , Zeitlin Marian
Published: January 2013

Universal aspects of early childhood development (ECD) are recognized globally, but cultural expectations of children’s competence vary widely across different domains, such as literacy and domestic responsibilities. The core challenge of ECD programs and policies is to integrate interventional goals with the biologically based developmental agendas of young children and the cultural expectations that shape their daily lives. This chapter presents a theoretical framework—the developmental niche—to help to clarify the issues involved in ECD across various cultural contexts, particularly in economically developing societies. We begin with a brief review of concept of culture as it applies to children and families, drawing from recent scholarship in psychology and anthropology. We then provide a description of the developmental niche as a framework for informing policy and improving program effectiveness. The final section illustrates the relevance of the developmental niche for ECD policy, using examples from several cultural regions.
Education-Based Approaches to Early Childhood Development
Authors: O’Gara Chloe
Published: January 2013

A learning crisis exists, despite almost universal school enrollment. Learning failure is concentrated in the first years of school, and reinforces patterns of social and economic inequities. Poor and minority children who would benefit most from preschool are least likely to have access to it; they are also less likely to have access to primary schools that speak their language, orient them to literacy, have good teachers, and use developmentally appropriate methods and learning materials. This chapter uses an early childhood development (ECD) lens to examine the state of preprimary and early primary (grades 1 and 2) education today, and to discuss the effects, implications, and potential for education to improve the development of children 4–8 years old.
Early Education for All is there a role for the private sector?
Authors: Woodhead Martin , Streuli Natalia
Published: January 2013

The “private-for-profit” sector is a significant provider of global early childhood care and education (ECCE). This chapter explores how this trend contributes to policy goals, focusing especially on the risks that a growing private-for-profit sector may amplify inequities in access and quality. We review the government financing and regulation required to harness private sector providers to achieve comprehensive ECCE goals, recognizing that the private sector varies in respect to finance, management, and client group. We offer a taxonomy of four major functions for the private-for-profit sector in its relationship to public policies and services, drawing on case studies in Peru, Ethiopia, and India. The potential of public-private partnerships (PPPs) has been widely discussed in relation to early childhood, but less commonly implemented fully. We also discuss the risks of current laissez-faire approaches, favoring positive, pro-equity policies, including adequate governance of the private sector, which is not an alternative to quality publicly funded services.
Liberal Theology in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Knight John Allan
Published: January 2013

The first chapter provides background for the later discussion (in chapters three and four) of liberal theology in the twentieth century. By describing three central concerns of liberal theological method in the nineteenth century, it provides evidence that the theologians described in later chapters as representative of the liberal tradition truly are representative. The first of these three concerns is a turn to the subject, exemplified by Schleiermacher. The chapter describes briefly his two major works, the Speeches and The Christian Faith. Ritschl exemplifies the second concern, the search for historical corroboration of claims about Jesus. Finally, the search for the essence of Christianity can be seen clearly in Harnack’s What is Christianity? These three characteristic themes of nineteenth-century liberal theology will carry forward into the twentieth century and identify the theologians discussed in chapter four (especially Bultmann and Ogden) as standing squarely in the liberal tradition in theology.
The Falsification Challenge
Authors: Knight John Allan
Published: January 2013

This chapter provides a description of the theology and falsification controversy that erupted in the middle of the twentieth century. In addition, it contextualizes the debate, describing the assumptions derived from analytic philosophy of language that drove the controversy. The chapter describes the most influential writings on language of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell, including the puzzles that animated their positions on reference. Frege’s investigation of the meaning of coreferential terms, and Russell’s investigations of how to understand negative existential sentences, led them to place great importance on descriptive senses of terms in accounting for reference and meaning. The chapter then describes the epistemological commitments Russell derived from his position on reference. The chapter then shows how the falsification theorists’ (especially John Wisdom’s and Antony Flew’s) challenge to theology depends on Russell’s descriptivist program and the epistemological positions he derived from it.
Allies for Barth’s Heirs
Authors: Knight John Allan
Published: January 2013

If descriptivism is at the heart of liberalism’s method, then, at least for postliberals, rejecting the method of liberal theology requires a rejection of the descriptivist understanding of language. This is what postliberal theologians like Frei and Lindbeck do. They turn to the later Wittgenstein and those ordinary language philosophers, such as Gilbert Ryle, he influenced. In his later years, Wittgenstein abandoned the project of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus on which he had embarked in his earlier years as both a follower and a critic of Russell. This chapter describes the project of the Tractatus in order to understand Wittgenstein’s later rejection of it and what he thought the proper approach to language should be. The chapter discusses Wittgenstein’s later reflections on following a rule, the role of the community in establishing the proper uses of language, and the relationship of such ruled use to linguistic meaning. The chapter then discusses Ryle’s rejection of a “third realm” of abstract objects, his distinction between “knowing that” and “knowing how,” as well as his rejection of the “ghost in the machine” as part of an understanding of human identity. All these philosophical reflections provide crucial allies to postliberal development of Barth’s project.
Earlier Postliberalism
Authors: Knight John Allan
Published: January 2013

This chapter analyzes Hans Frei’s two major works, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative and The Identity of Jesus Christ, which shaped the postliberal movement. It describes his attempt to use the later Wittgenstein to carry forward the Barthian program in theology. In doing so, he enlists literary assistance from Erich Auerbach’s Mimesis. The chapter thus describes Auerbach’s identification of the most important aspects of biblical narratives. In The Eclipse, Frei argues that liberal theology distorts these aspects of biblical narratives by taking their meaning to be their reference to some extratextual reality. Frei’s critique is thus sustained by his reliance on Wittgenstein and ordinary language philosophy. The chapter then turns to The Identity of Jesus Christ, Frei’s constructive attempt to remain faithful to the central insights of his mentors. Following Barth, he prioritizes ontology over epistemology, seeking an interpretation of Jesus’ identity that is faithful to Auerbach’s understanding that the biblical texts seek to overcome our reality with their own. This effort utilizes both Wittgenstein and Ryle in an attempt to carry out to the Barthian project described in chapter five.
Poly[bis(4-chloropyridinium) tetra-μ2-chlorido-tetrachloridotrimercurate(II)]
Authors: Jin Lei , Wu De-Hong
Published: January 2013

The structure of the title compound, {(C5H5ClN)2[Hg3Cl8]}n, consists of 4-chloropyridinium cations and one-dimensional [Hg3Cl8]2−anion chains. There are two coordination environments for HgIIin the inorganic chain. The first is a distorted tetrahedral geometry made up of an HgCl2unit with two Cl−anion bridges, while the second is an octahedral coordination geometry consisting of an HgCl2unit and four chloride-anion bridges. This gives rise to a novel three-layer centrosymmetric polymer. Finally, the three-dimensional network comes about through the many C—H...Cl and N—H...Cl hydrogen bonds that link the organic and inorganic layers.
Ba[Co3(VO4)2(OH)2] with a regular Kagomé lattice
Authors: Đordević Tamara , Karanović Ljiljana
Published: January 2013

The new layered title compound, barium di-μ-hydroxido-di-μ-vanadato-tricobaltate(II), was prepared under low-temperature hydrothermal conditions. Its crystal structure comprises Co2+and O2−ions in the Kagomé geometry. The octahedral Co3O6(OH)2Kagomé layers, made up of edge-shared CoO4(OH)2octahedra with Co on a site of 2/msymmetry, alternate along thecaxis with barium vanadate heteropolyhedral layers, in which Ba is on a site of \overline{3}msymmetry and V is on a site of 3msymmetry. All three O atoms and the H atom also occupy special positions: two O atoms and the H atom are on sites with 3msymmetry and one O atom is on a site withmsymmetry. Ba[Co3(VO4)2(OH)2] represents the first compound from the four-component BaO–CoO–V2O5–H2O system and its structure is topologically related to the minerals vesignieite, Ba[Cu3(VO4)2(OH)2], and bayldonite, Pb[Cu3(AsO4)2(OH)2].
A method for estimating population sex ratio for sage‐grouse using noninvasive genetic samples
Authors: Baumgardt J. A. , Goldberg C. S. , Reese K. P. , Connelly J. W. , Musil D. D. , Garton E. O. , Waits L. P.
Published: January 2013

Population sex ratio is an important metric for wildlife management and conservation, but estimates can be difficult to obtain, particularly for sexually monomorphic species or for species that differ in detection probability between the sexes. Noninvasive genetic sampling (NGS) using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has become a common method for identifying sex from sources such as hair, feathers or faeces, and is a potential source for estimating sex ratio. If, however, PCR success is sex‐biased, naively using NGS could lead to a biased sex ratio estimator. We measured PCR success rates and error rates for amplifying the W and Z chromosomes from greater sage‐grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) faecal samples, examined how success and error rates for sex identification changed in response to faecal sample exposure time, and used simulation models to evaluate precision and bias of three sex assignment criteria for estimating population sex ratio with variable sample sizes and levels of PCR replication. We found PCR success rates were higher for females than males and that choice of sex assignment criteria influenced the bias and precision of corresponding sex ratio estimates. Our simulations demonstrate the importance of considering the interplay between the sex bias of PCR success, number of genotyping replicates, sample size, true population sex ratio and accuracy of assignment rules for designing future studies. Our results suggest that using faecal DNA for estimating the sex ratio of sage‐grouse populations has great potential and, with minor adaptations and similar marker evaluations, should be applicable to numerous species.