bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Belgium
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

With the erosion of its traditional economic base of heavy industry, Belgium’s economic priority is to become Europe’s administrative center. Brussels already serves as the headquarters for both the European Community and NATO. The country also seeks to draw nongovernmental organizations; its capital city is home to the European headquarters of many overseas companies and associations. Telecommunications links should therefore be an especially important factor in the country’s economic development. However, Belgium’s traditional monopolist Regie des Telegraphes et des Telephones (RTT), financially constrained in its goal to be at the forefront of service provision and development, has been one of Europe’s strongest defenders of traditionalism. In this position it was supported by its major equipment supplier, Alcatel’s BTM, and by the labor unions.
Finland
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The Finnish telephone system is one of the most interesting in Europe. Instead of a national monopoly, there are about fifty companies, either subscriber cooperatives, municipal enterprises, or private firms, that provide local telephone service and are directly accountable to subscribers. There is also a national PTT (the P&T), which is the largest operator of local telephone service (covering about one-third of all subscribers and three-quarters of the land area). The P&T also offers domestic and international long-distance service, mobile telephony, and other services. Thus, the Finnish telecommunications system has forgone the economies of scale and the unity of control that are sanctified elsewhere. Yet its telephone system is among the most advanced in the world, moved along by a healthy rivalry among the various participants, and especially by the responsiveness of local companies to their subscribers/shareholders. The number of equipment options is high. Despite the country’s small domestic market, Finland’s electronics and telecommunications industries are quite successful both in domestic and export markets.
Spain
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Spain’s telecommunications system is unusual. It is dominated by one semiprivate firm, Telefonica de Espana, which is strongly integrated vertically into equipment manufacturing and horizontally into Latin American telecommunications. Telefonica has been assigned the role of a locomotive in Spain’s rapid industrialization, and its powerful and entrepeneurial presence is likely to increase still further, as long as its primary mission of providing basic service does not lag.
Turkey
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Telephone service began in Turkey in 1881 with lines connecting various post offices, government buildings, and banking branches. In 1909, a more complete network was created in Istanbul. In 1913, three government exchanges were established, followed by an exchange operated by a foreign company. International telephony was established during World War I, with service to Germany, Turkey’s ally. After the war, international service was interrupted until 1931, when service to Sofia, Bulgaria, was reopened.
Value-Added Networks and Services
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Value-added networks receive greater attention in European policy discussions than in the United States, and it is important to understand from the outset why this is so. The key policy issue with respect to value-added networks is their potential to resell basic transmission to third parties. Arbitrage by a service reseller leads to loss of control by the basic network provider and to revenue reduction, at least in the short run. In the United States, such resale is possible and widely practiced; lessees of circuits can do almost anything they want. Regulatory constraints exist only to prevent basic carriers from using internal subsidies to extend their market power into the applications stages. In contrast, European PTTs generally prohibit resale, though it exists unofficially in some instances. But in time, European countries realized that the use of leased lines can give rise to sophisticated applications and that such services should be encouraged. They have consequently moved toward permitting the provision of services that “add value” to basic transmission, and the sale of such VAN services to third parties. This technical addition legally transforms what would otherwise be an illegal resale into a legal sale. Another alternative to containing resale is to establish usage-sensitive pricing for leased circuits. But this creates problems of efficient pricing.
Networks in the Future
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The scenario of the future of telecommunications that is held by traditionalists is well-known: increased integration, broader bandwidth, wider mobility, greater ubiquity. All these tendencies are anticipated correctly, yet they represent only one side of the coin. The discussion of earlier sections of this book aimed at demonstrating the dynamics of disaggregation in networks. If one gives individuals the freedom of association and if the economics are right, in time they will form new types of interlinkages that we call networks. What are some of the long-term implications for networks? Networks will become transnational. As the cost of transmission continues to drop, networks will not be territorially organized.
Introduction: Textual Voices, Vocative Texts: Dialogue, Linguistics, and Critical Discourse
Authors: Macovski Michael
Published: November 2023

The history of critical discourse during the present century is perhaps best described as a pendent history of praxis and genre. If the New Criticism tended to demonstrate its claims on specifically lyric forms, then structuralist, deconstructionist, and historicist theories can be shown to realize their precepts on narrative texts. The choice of such genres derives, of course, from the particular aims and agendas of the critical discourses themselves-from, say, the desire to disinter the lexical ambiguities of lyric language or to locate the aporia that belie narratives of ostensible linearity and sequence.
Narrative Transmission: Shifting Gears in Shelley’s “Ozymandias”
Authors: Austin Timothy R
Published: November 2023

As the interests and concerns of theoretical linguists have changed and expanded over several decades, their colleagues in literary studies have shown themselves adept at finding ways to turn new insights in linguistic science to good account in the analysis of literary language. Structuralist and transformation a list paradigms in turn provided fertile ground for literary applications; phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic analyses contributed to a steadily growing body of essays and monographs by students of the language of literature. One could have predicted, therefore, that the more recent emergence within linguistic theory of a focus on discourse in everyday contexts, including specifically the study of both conversation and narration, would lead in due course to assessments of the relationship between spoken discourse and literary works.
Dialogics of the Lyric: A Symposium on Wordsworth’s “Westminster Bridge” and “Beauteous Evening”
Authors: Bialostosky Don H
Published: November 2023

In his afterword to the comprehensive collection of essays Lyric Poetry: Beyond New Criticism, Jonathan Arac remarks with some impatience that “so many essays from such diverse concerns agree to ignore so much important work.” Arac’s complaint about these essays could be applied to many others that have accumulated on the topic of “the lyric” or “the poem” since the New Critics discovered how to produce critical essays as responses to isolated lyric poems. Such critical essays have exhibited “the stability of organization and the capacity to engender successors” that M. H. Abrams takes as the marks of a genre in his essay on the greater romantic lyric, and they also share with the lyric genre he describes a model of the relation between a speaker and the object that provokes his discourse: put a romantic poet in front of a natural scene or a New Critic in front of a lyric poem and discourse will be produced without need to posit any prior conversations or any other interlocutors.
Teleological Explanation: Goal Ascription, Reasons, and the Rationality Principle
Authors: O’shaughnessy John
Published: November 2023

Although the reasons that lead consumer X to buy brand Y can be viewed as causing the action (see Chapter 2), the explanatory power of the reason-giving explanation lies in the rationality of the action, interpreting rationality to be coextensive with the exercise of reason. The most basic assumption we typically make about human beings is that they can reason and in reasoning they aim at rationality. This is so even though attributing rationality to an action entails evaluating that action against some standard about which there can be disagreement. This chapter considers various views of rationality, whether there are defensible alternatives to the rational model, and whether explanations of large scale phenomena are to be built from rational explanations of behaviour at the individual level.
Choosing Explanatory Theory: Recent Controversies in the Philosophy of Science
Authors: O’shaughnessy John
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters we discussed the various systems of psychology and sociology, their explanatory modes, and their philosophical underpinnings. At every stage we found controversy, with debate being vigorous and sharp on many issues. But polarization was greatest over aims and methods in the study of human behavior. Is the goal understanding or prediction and control, or is it to be explanation broadly interpreted to embrace both understanding and, say, the realist’s position? Are the methods associated with the natural sciences to be abandoned in favor of some hermeneutic approach or are both simply alternative windows on a problem rather than some good-bad dichotomy? This book favors the goal of explanation-which is tied to understanding and a help in prediction combined with methodological pluralism, in which different methodologies suit different kinds of questions as none is suited to all questions equally. Thus to reject certain methodologies is to reject certain kinds of questions. There are, of course, social scientists who think otherwise because of their commitment to the traditional scientific method. But the scientific method sketched in Chapter 12 is no algorithm for producing truth. There is wisdom and reason in the method; nonetheless, it is a technology whose rules need to be blended with creativity and combined and allied with skill. Being a good researcher does not come from reading books on scientific method, although this may help.
Strategic Industrial Sourcing
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro
Published: November 2023

Japanese industrial firms have developed a system of subcontracting with suppliers that has played a major role in their world-wide success. This book explores the historical evolution of subcontracting in Japan and analyses it in current practice. It develops a theory of ‘strategic dualism’ that after nearly six decades of evolution is a new mode of contractual relations, based on principles of problem-solving collaborative manufacturing. This new form of contractual relations is supported by a range of institutional arrangements that drive prime contractors and subcontractors towards continuous improvement in product quality and cost reduction. It argues that this system is possible in a range of cultures different from Japan.
Conclusion
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro
Published: November 2023

The principal objective of this book has been to examine the reasons for the persistence of subcontracting in industrial society. Our main conclusion is that sub contracting can best be explained as the evolutionary product of a complex historical interaction among socioeconomic, political, technological, and producer-level strategic factors. Economic dualism, political influence, culture, technology, or producer strategy alone were not found to be a sufficient explanation. Instead, the evidence presented in this study has demonstrated that each of these factors influenced the others at specific periods in history. This led to the emergence of sub contracting, which then evolved into a variety of subsequent forms. In an ever changing socioeconomic environment, the result has been a series of new equilibria in contractor-subcontractor relations. In the case of Japan, the stage reached after nearly six decades of evolution is a new mode of contractual relations based on principles of problem solving-oriented collaborative manufacturing. This new form of contractual relations is supported by institutional arrangements that drive those concerned toward continuous improvement in product quality and cost reduction.
When Ladies Go A-Thieving
Authors: Abelson Elaine S
Published: November 2023

This book focuses on middle-class urban women as participants in new forms of consumer culture. Within the special world of the department store, women found themselves challenged to resist the enticements of consumption. Many succumbed, buying both what they needed and what they desired, but also stealing what seemed so readily available. Pitted against these middle-class women were the management, detectives, and clerks of the department stores. Abelson argues that in the interest of concealing this darker side of consumerism, women of the middle class, but not those of the working class, were allowed to shoplift and plead incapacitating illness—kleptomania. The invention of kleptomania by psychiatrists and the adoption of this ideology of feminine weakness by retailers, newspapers, the general public, the accused women themselves, and even the courts reveals the way in which a gender analysis allowed proponents of consumer capitalism to mask its contradictions.
Interactions Between Subpopulations
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

So far we have considered only single-population theory and have estimated single-population models. Put differently, our arguments and empirical analyses have concentrated on intrapopulation competition and legitimation, the effect of a population’s density on its vital rates. Restricting attention to such processes makes most sense when an organizational population has been effectively isolated from interaction with other populations or when the effects of other populations can be summarized well in terms of fluctuations in carrying capacities. For instance, growth in populations of certain kinds of firms such as commercial banks may improve the life chances for other populations by stimulating the flow of resources into a system. Such an effect can be represented by taking account of growth in available resources as long as interest focuses on populations that benefit indirectly from the actions of other populations.
Implications for Social Organization
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

We began this book by noting two empirical regularities in the longterm trajectories of growth in numbers in diverse organizational populations. The first pertains to surface resemblances in the shape of paths of growth in numbers from low to high density. The second concerns a deeper resemblance in the causal structures that control the underlying rates of founding and mortality. On the basis of previous theory and research, we proposed that an appropriate formulation of the sociological processes of legitimation and competition and of their effects on vital rates might explain both regularities and thereby provide a general explanation of the sources of population regulation in the world of organizations.
The Zen of Quality
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

In Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, published in the mid l970s, a writer/philosopher named Robert Pirsig had tackled that question. His attempt to get a hold on quality tumbled Pirsig, then a professor of English at Montana State College, into temporary insanity. Rather naively, Pirsig admits in the now famous account, he set off through “the high country of the mind,” a zone few entered and where “the harder you think ... the slower you go.” His mind came unraveled. The book both describes and reflects upon the unraveling during a subsequent cross country motorcycle trip with his eleven year-old son as a passenger and Pirsig’s BMW motorcycle as a metaphor for examining America’s distancing itself from the hands-on-ness of quality.

Ultimately, Pirsig didn’t successfully define what quality is, and concludes, I feel, that most of us fail to understand even the perplexity of the question, never mind achieve much personal quality in our work or lives. We have become too specialized, too focused, too compartmentalized to really deal with such a broad concept. Its essence is spiritual. It’s as though we were clutching a handful of mist rising magically off a pond at dawn, intending to seize beauty, to clasp it to our breast. In a similar manner, quality, when grasped, eludes us, defies captivity.
June in the Dimple of the Universe
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

It was June in Tennessee. Softball-sized magnolias weighed down the branches of trees. Cicadas keened. Fireflies, in the millions, hovered over suburban lawns at twilight, flashing and flying. And Saturn Communications still wasn’t coming around so I decided to revisit several Maurians I had gotten to know on my previous trips.
A Peek Inside the Plant
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

Finally, Jennifer Schettler called. Bruce McDonald had given her the go-ahead. I could interview Tim Epps, the vice president of people systems who had told me at the end of the media day that Saturn’s new way of doing things demanded a new language. I could talk to some members of the crankshaft team too, but it would have to be in Northfield; the plant remained off limits. When I reminded Schettler what LeFauve had said, she replied that manufacturing hadn’t thought it was such a good idea to allow me on the crankshaft line. I told her that unfortunately I was leaving Tennessee in a few days, so could we reschedule in August? She didn’t think there would be any problem. I pressed Schettler to get a hint why this customer of Communications felt so frustrated with her department’s service.
People First Labor Contract
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

While Roger Smith’s larger corporate strategy might have looked to some like a sellout to Toyota, over at the Tech Center Reid Rundell’s team had more practical things to worry about. For instance, what should the no-name car look like? How should it be manufactured? Who would sell it? And, of course, a name-it needed a name. It soon got one, Saturn, in honor of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Apollo program. It was a linkage lost on the majority of nonrocket-scientist Americans. They heard the word Saturn they still associated it with the romantic planet with the rings around it. As for Saturn’s design and how the car would be manufactured, about all Rundell’s team knew for sure at this stage was that they couldn’t do things the old way or they’d end up with another S-car.
Twentysomething Sales Consultant
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

West of Detroit, Saturn of Plymouth was located off a busy highway out behind Don Massey Cadillac. Don Massey, who owned the store, happened to have delivered newspapers to Haynes Haven as a boy, which may have spurred his interest in the subsidiary. His store had the Saturn look, with an extra long portico and a raised, circular display area out front.
Surviving the Cut
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

Wednesday, December 18, at 11 A.M., Stempel was scheduled to talk to the entire GM family, 700 thousand plus people scattered around the globe. It was not going to be an “I wish you a Merry Christmas” chat, but rather a “Honey, I shrunk the corps” broadside.
Downsizing And Redesigning Organizations
Authors: Cameron Kim S , Freeman Sarah J , Mishrae Aneil K
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, Cameron, Freeman, and Mishra present findings and conclusions from the most extensive and systematic study of organizational downsizing that has appeared in the organizational literature. In addition to reporting and interpreting the results of their multiyear, multiorganizational field investigation, the chapter makes important conceptual contributions by distinguishing organizational downsizing from related constructs such as organizational decline, nonadaptation, and growth-in-reverse.
Some Choices in the Theory of Morphology
Authors: Zwicky Arnold M
Published: November 2023

A theory of morphology specifies what sorts of systems can associate the meanings of words to their pronunciations. The overall architecture of such a system hinges on a series of choices, seventeen of which I will discuss here. This paper has both a descriptive aim, to survey what I see as the major options, and a prescriptive one: to recommend (some variant of) one option in each case, and so to say why it is I pursue the particular variety of morphological theory that I do.
Properties of Lexical Entries and Their Real-Time Implementation
Authors: Shapiro Lewis P
Published: November 2023

This paper is about lexical properties and the sentence processing devices that implement them in both normal and brain-damaged subjects. I will first summarize some work that has to do with the organization of the lexicon, particularly representations involving strict subcategorization, argument structure (a-structure), thematic information, and lexical conceptual structure (ks). I will then discuss a series of psycholinguistic experiments that examines the real-time processing of some of these properties in normal subjects. Within this discussion I will also describe some recent work that suggests that lexical access involves the serial activation of multiple interpretations of polysemous nouns.
Soul, Mind, and Heart
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

The word duša (roughly, ‘soul’) is-alongside sud’ba (roughly, ‘fate/destiny’) and toska (‘a painful feeling’)-one of the leitmotifs of Russian literature and Russian conversation (see also chapter 12). Its range of use is extremely wide and its frequency extremely high. In English translations of Russian novels, duša is some times translated as soul, but in most cases, it is either omitted or replaced with either heart or mind. To some extent, this can be explained in purely cultural terms: Anglo-Saxon culture doesn’t encourage much talk about ‘souls’, and English prose doesn’t seem to tolerate as many references to people’s souls as typical Russian prose would.
Failing To Take Their Own And Each Other’S Opinions Seriously
Authors: Goldstein Joseph
Published: November 2023

In 1970, the medical school at the University of California at Davis inaugurated a special admissions program for “disadvantaged or minority” students. Under the program, 16 of the 100 places in each entering class were set aside for “Blacks,” “Chicanos,” “Asians,” and “American Indians.”As a result, white students, because of their race, were not entitled, as were minority students, to compete for all 100 places. Alan Bakke, a white, twice sought admission. Though he ranked higher, by the school’s standards, than many of those admitted via the separate track for the “disadvantaged,” he was rejected on each occasion.

The studies of opinions in National League of Cities, Garcia, Cooper, Brown, Bolling, and Bakke have been primarily concerned with the individual and collaborative responsibility of the justices for maintaining the Constitution as something that We the People-lfiot just We the specialists, scholars, and practitioners in law and politics-can understand.
Control Of Regional Blood Flow During Dynamic Exercise
Authors: Rowell Loring B
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the regulation of blood flow through nonmuscular or noncontracting organs (commonly called “inactive” or “resting” organs) during exercise. Those discussed are all major organs and none are involved directly with increasing oxygen transport nor do they contribute significantly to the rise in oxygen uptake during exercise. Two of these organs receive the largest fractions of cardiac output during rest (splanchnic and renal). The splanchnic circulation is one of the two most compliant vascular regions, the other being the cutaneous circulation.
Epidemiology: The Distribution of Mental Disorders in the Community
Authors: Samuels Jack F , Nestadt Gerald
Published: November 2023

Psychiatric epidemiology is concerned with describing and explaining the patterns of psychiatric disorders in populations. The discipline comprises a set of principles, a collection of methods, and a body of knowledge for measuring frequency and elucidating patterns of psychiatric disorders in the community. Epidemiological methods provide clues to the etiology and prevention of these disorders and provide a rational basis for planning and evaluating community mental health services. This chapter presents an overview of epidemiological methods useful for gaining information about the frequency and patterns of occurrence of psychiatric disorders in the community and for investigating the relationship of these disorders to sociodemographic and other factors.
Psychiatric Rehabilitation
Authors: Hughes Ruth A , Lehman Anthony F , Arthur Thomas E
Published: November 2023

Patients being discharged to the community in the 1960s and 1970s found that the supports and services necessary for community adjustment were not in place. Such needs as a home, income, easily accessible health and mental health care, skills to cope with community living, support during crises, friends, and meaningful work were all too often unmet, and outpatient clinic services had limited impact in these crucial areas. The field of psychiatric (or psychosocial) rehabilitation grew from the need to meet this challenge. Early programs grew from the recognition that medical interventions were not sufficient for persons with serious mental illnesses, and these programs sought to develop nonclinical approaches. There was a strong emphasis, still apparent in the field today, on practical, commonsense interventions in a normal social environment. The names of agencies such as Fountain House, Horizon House, and Thresholds reflect the informal, nonhierarchical nature of the programs. Participants are often called members, not patients or clients, to emphasize the contributions and responsibilities of every participant to the running of the program. Functioning in every-day life is the focus, with an emphasis on personal strengths rather than clinical symptoms.
Money Markets In Indonesia
Authors: Cole David C , Slade Betty F
Published: November 2023

Money markets are markets for short-term financial instruments that are close substitutes for money. Such markets and instruments provide a means for adjusting liquidity positions-acquiring or disposing of funds for short time periods, and they usually carry a limited risk of illiquidity or large changes in the asset’s value. All entities that have access to the money markets can use this liquidity adjustment function, but it seems to be especially important to financial institutions in developing countries.
Money Markets In Korea
Authors: Kang Moon-Soo
Published: November 2023

The money market is defined in this chapter to include all financial instruments easily convertible to cash that are used by government, financial, and commercial institutions for short-term funding and placements. The money market brings together economic agents who want to borrow large sums of money for short periods of time and those who want to lend them. The money market instruments created in this process are generally characterized by the safety of their principal. Maturities range from one day to one year. The money market encompasses the interbank market and a group of short-term credit market instruments and forms an integral part of the Korean financial system. The rates of return on money market instruments tend to fluctuate together because they are close substitutes for one another in many investment portfolios. The major participants are commercial banks, specialized banks, government, corporations, investment and finance companies, merchant banking corporations, other nonbank financial institutions, and the Bank of Korea. In particular, nonbank financial institutions, such as investment and finance companies and merchant banking corporations, have played an important role since the early 1970s in intermediating short-term funds. These institutions offer a number of high-yield short-term savings instruments to the public, thus promoting the flow of private funds from the unorganized financial market to the organized financial market. The money market has been strongly influenced and, in certain instances, controlled by two main monetary authorities, the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Korea (the central bank).
Money Markets In Malaysia
Authors: See-Yan Lin , Fah Chung Tin
Published: November 2023

The money market is made up of intermediaries and instruments for short-term funds and forms an integral part of Malaysia’s financial sys­ tem. It provides a ready source of funds for market participants who require funding and investment outlets for those with temporary surplus funds. Operations in the money market can be divided into two broad categories: placing time or fixed deposits and borrowing against time, and purchasing and selling money market papers. This chapter examines the financial flows and instruments in the money market as well as the impact of policy on the performance of the money market so that resources can be effectively deployed to assist the development of the economy. Such an examination is both desirable and timely given that the financial markets in Malaysia have radically changed over time. In order to avoid any structural problems relating to the pre-1979 fixed interest rates, we will look at the period after the interest rate liberalization program of 1978, covering the decade from 1979 to the second quarter of 1989.
Money Markets In Singapore
Authors: Ariff M , Kapur B K , Tyabji A
Published: November 2023

The principal markets in short-term (up to a year) funds in Singapore are the markets for bank deposits, overdrafts and commercial bills, interbank loans, and foreign exchange. These funds are issued by a variety of institutions: full, restricted, and offshore commercial banks; merchant banks; finance companies; the Post Office Savings Bank; money brokers; and others. These financial institutions can be grouped into, on the one hand, a national banking system, made up of institutions (or departments within institutions) whose transactions are mainly in Singapore dollar-denominated instruments or involve exchanges between such instruments and those denominated in other currencies, and, on the other hand, an offshore system, made up of institutions (or departments) whose transactions are mainly in and among foreign currency-denominated instruments. Much of the analysis in this chapter will be devoted to the national banking system, as our focus is on money markets operating directly under the regulatory and policy aegis of the monetary authorities.
Money Markets In Postwar Japan
Authors: Royama Shoichi
Published: November 2023

This chapter surveys the evolution of money markets in Japan during the high economic growth period since its recovery from World War II up to 1975 and thereafter. We examine the roles and operation of money markets in the past as well as the present Japanese financial system, particularly in the light of the Bank of Japan’s (BOJ) monetary policy.
Games Strategies And Managers
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

This textbook provides a complete and accessible introduction to game theory and will prove especially valuable to business students and practising business-people. It covers all aspects of the subject: conflict and risk, negotiating, commitment as a bargaining technique, bidding, theoretical and empirical analysis of structuring incentives, trading risks, private information, and decisions about information acquisition. It ends with suggestions of how ideas from game theory might be used as an aid to reasoning through an actual strategic situation.
Designing Contracts
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

WE ARRIVEO in the last chapter at a remarkably simple solution to the problem of creating incentives. By suitably designing the contract, you can induce your agent to do exactly what you want. You achieve this, as we saw, by allowing the agent to keep the full value of any incremental outputs produced, beyond some pre-set quota. By designing the contract in this way, you succeed in perfectly aligning the agent’s incentives with your own.
Bidding in Olympic Competition
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

This Chapter tells the story of one real-life, high-stakes bidding game. Three to four years before each Olympic Games begins, a contest takes place that is as fierce as any on the track, in the pool, or in the boxing ring: the U.S. television networks bid for broadcast rights. The creative use of competition, which we analyzed in the last chapter, is illustrated by the games played by the Olympic Games organizers and the television networks. The International Olympic Committee and the local organizing body play strategically against the networks; and the networks play strategically against each other and against the Games orgamzers.
Introduction: Managing Product Development
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro
Published: November 2023

The chapters in this book give a broad exposure to the many approaches employed in understanding product development. They incorporate studies from Europe, Japan, and the United States and examine a diverse array of industrial sectors, including the automobile, pharmaceutical, information-technology, semiconductor, and textile machine industries.
The Brothel Boy
Authors: Morris Norval
Published: November 2023

I wonder-does any other Old Etonian roll his own cigarettes? I’m not sure why I do. They are cheaper, of course, but the taste is not very different, and bits and pieces of tobacco do drift into one’s mouth and require picking off the tongue or lips, which seems to disturb some who observe it. In the Club they make no secret of their disapproval-”A frightfully low-bred habit.” I had carefully rolled a cigarette and was about to moisten the paper, my tongue protruding, mouth agape, when a native boy burst into my office shouting, “Come, come, Sir. Hurry please. They are killing the brothel boy.” I knew, of course, of the local brothel, but not of any “brothel boy.” A homosexual prostitute seemed most unlikely in Burma, quite out of character with local values and prevailing behaviour-but I had mistaken his role. At all events, I hurried to where I was led to find several village men standing over the unconscious youth but desisting now from further violence. They were, it was immediately obvious, the remainder of a mob of assailants.
The Curve of Pearls
Authors: Morris Norval
Published: November 2023

For five years as District Officer in Moulmein, in Southern Burma, I had been both policeman and magistrate, interrogator and judge, for nearly one hundred thousand Burmese, Indians, and Chinese, and a few hundred Europeans. It felt strange now to be the subject of an enquiry-to be interrogated and judged. I remember that I had often complained to Dr. Veraswami about the strain of interrogating and judging-I now knew which role I preferred.
Falling in Love Individualism and the Romantic Self
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: November 2023

The Recreation of past emotion requires special sensitivity to the changing style and content of emotional expression. Historical studies of the emotional expression known as romantic love, for example, have been plagued with difficulties of definition and context. Romantic love has been identified in male-female relationships at almost every historical time and place. But as definitions of the concept expand or contract, so too does the measure of its existence in the past.3 Perhaps what has been called by one name-romantic love-was actually a variety of emotional states within different historical situations. Recognizing that two people in any culture can fall in love under many circumstances, the widespread experience of romantic love cannot adequately be explained by luck, fate, or chemistry. The unique individual may have a unique experience, but collective patterns of behavior are constructed through cultural and social guidelines, limits, rules and the encouragement of the whole weight of the social fabric.
Blurring Separate Spheres Sex-Role Boundaries and Behavior
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: November 2023

Sex-Specific Character Traits and gender roles were matters of serious concern to nineteenth-century middle-class men and women. Nonetheless, male-female relationships had their lighter moments. William Nebeker held up a mirror, however unintentionally, to both the light and dark sides of nineteenth-century sex roles. Writing to his mother-in-law in 1880, Nebeker, still deeply anguished by his wife’s death one year earlier, felt a compelling need to unburden himself, which, he openly acknowledged, drove him to a confessional mode: “The house was cleaned shortly before I went to the city in March [the letter was written in July] and though I have tried to be very careful, there is much dirt on the floor nevertheless, which in appearance resembles dried mud, plastered on.
The Canadian System of Industrial Innovation
Authors: McFetridge Donald G
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the set of institutions and institutional linkages that has evolved for the generation, diffusion, and application of knowledge in Canada. The building blocks of this innovation system are the knowledge-generating organizations including research and development performing firms, universities, other nonprofit organizations, and government laboratories. As important but less readily observed are the organizations that apply knowledge and the interactions among users and suppliers of knowledge. As Freeman (1988, p. 2) puts it: The national system of innovation is not just a set of laboratories but is a cumulative process of learning by producing, learning by using and learning by the interaction of producers and users.
Malign Neglect
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: November 2023

Throughout this century, black Americans, especially men but increasingly also women, have been more likely than whites to commit violent and property crimes. They have also been more likely to be in jail or prison, on probation or parole. People of goodwill, from W. E. B. Du Bois at the turn of the century through Gunnar Myrdal in the 1940s, to most contemporary scholars of crime, agree that disproportionate black criminality is the product of social and economic disadvantage, much of it traceable to racial bias and discrimination, more overt in earlier times than today.
The Evolution of Evolution
Authors: March James G
Published: November 2023

In the organizational research literature the word “evolution” is ordinarily used in a relatively narrow sense, referring to a set of ideas about change in a population through variation and selection of a particular sort. In the present essay, that usage is located in an older and larger context in order to explore some implications of the evolution of evolution that are not limited to Darwinian natural selection models but extend to a wide range of theories of organizational adaptation. The arguments are simple: As ideas about evolution have developed, they have moved from outcome conceptions of evolution to process conceptions. They have moved from conceptions of evolutionary processes as “efficient” instruments of adaptation to an appreciation of their “inefficiencies.” And they have moved from an emphasis on using evolutionary theories to predict history to an emphasis on the engineering of history.
Minimalism, Mutualism, and Maturity: The Evolution of the American Trade Association Population in the 20th Century
Authors: Aldrich Howard E , Zimmer Catherine R , Staber Udo H , Beggs Ohn J
Published: November 2023

American trade associations, as minimalist organizations, have grown into a mature population in an environment characterized by intrapopulation norms supporting mutualistic behavior, lack of significant interpopulation competition, and an institutional environment that was usually strongly supportive of capitalist structures. Research on two other evolving populations in the United States-state bar associations and national trade unions-illustrates two alternative fates that trade associations might have experienced. State bar associations, after decades of experimentation with alternatives, finally settled on an organizational form that gave them monopoly control over the admission of lawyers to the bar in all 50 states. The bar associations’ stunning achievement was solidified because they successfully mobilized to win state support. Trade unions, by contrast, struggled to achieve legitimacy against a hostile business community and a state that was antagonistic or indifferent until the 1930s. Even after achieving national legal standing, trade unions (like trade associations) stood outside the formal structure of the state and (unlike trade associations) have gradually seen their gains eroded over the past three decades. We bring together our research on the foundings, mergers, and transformations, and disbandings of American trade associations to tell the story of a population that escaped, at lease up to now, the unhappy fate of its companion population-trade unions-but that has never achieved the iron-clad legitimacy of another population with similar collective goals-state bar associations. As mimimalist organizations, these populations differ in some important respects from private, profit-oriented businesses that are the subject of most evolutionary analyses. As organizations with a political agenda, they also differ from many of the non-profit-oriented organizations that evolutionary researchers have studied.
The Evolution of Socially Contingent Rational Action: Effects of Labor Strikes on Change in Union Founding in the 1880s
Authors: Zucker Lynne G , Kreft Itag. G
Published: November 2023

Economics is all about how people make choices; sociology is all about how they don’t have any choices to make. -J. DUESENBERRY Sometimes social context constrains or alters choices, sometimes not. Clearly, models in economics that are predicated on autonomous, rational action by individuals generally predict very well. Sociologists cannot afford to ignore the large body of empirical support. But there is also evidence that institutional pressures, and the social relations resulting from them, alter action (from an institutional perspective, Tolbert, 1985; Zucker, 1987; Dobbin et al., 1988; from a population ecology perspective, Singh, Tucker, and Meinhard, 1991; Baum and Oliver, 1992). Social scientists too often treat social process as if it is just there, a by-product of human activity, as ifno human agency is required to produce it. Even in the most recent treatments, social activity is as ubiquitous as air and just as costless (Granovetter, 1985). Economic activity is empirically as ubiquitous, but its production is seen as highly variable; when the incentives are not strong, as in the command economies, economic action will be depressed and economic structure will be poorly developed. We need to rethink institutional structure and social action in these terms.
Evolution and Organizational Science
Authors: Mckelvey Bill
Published: November 2023

My topic concerns the state of evolutionary thinking about organizational populations. While I do not refer specifically to any particular chapter in this book, you safely may assume that the papers presented at the conference contributed substantially to the thrust of my remarks about the general state of evolutionary thinking. After pointing out the diverse definitions of the term evolution, I have chosen to emphasize the following points: (J) The relevance of evolutionary thinking to the study of organizations, with particular reference to natural selection theory and the role of managers in organization change, and (2) the need for a closer link between population ecology and evolutionary theory in organizational research.
The Liability of Collective Action: Growth and Change Among Early American Telephone Companies
Authors: Barnett William P
Published: November 2023

Contemporary organization theories generally accept a basic premise of community ecology-that by operating collectively organizations share common fates (Hannan and Freeman, 1977; Carroll, 1984; Barnett and Carroll, 1987). Resource dependence and network researchers find that organizations often build cooperative ties that then mutually affect their performance (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978; Burt, 1983; Powell, 1990). Institutional theories depict organizations as operating within “fields” or “sectors” of shared purposes and expectations (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; Scott, 1987), where collective action is conditioned by broader social institutions (Streeck, 1985). Even organizational economists now allow for “hybrid” forms characterized by extramarket linkages among organizations (Williamson, 1991).
Organization-Environment Coevolution
Authors: Baum Joel A C , Singh Jitendra V
Published: November 2023

In his influential treatment of organizational theory, Scott (1987) distinguishes among organizations as natural, rational, and open systems. This last view of organizations as open systems, which emerged over roughly the last three decades as a counterpoint to earlier closed systems thinking, has been a dominant theme in theories of organization. Thus, structural contingency theory (Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967), strategic contingency theory (Hickson et al., 1971), institutionalization theory (Meyer and Rowan, 1977; Meyer and Scott, 1983), resource dependence theory (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978), and population ecology theory (Hannan and Freeman, 1977, 1989) have all emphasized the relationships between organizations and their external environments, although specific treatments differ by theory. In most approaches organizations tend to become isomorphic with their environments through processes of either adaptation or selection (or combination of the two). In large part, most theories have studied organizational change in relation to exogenous environmental change.1 Examined less frequently is how organizations (and populations) systematically influence their environments, and how organizational environments, fundamentally comprised of other organizations and populations (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983), in turn influence those organizations. The essence of feedback is a circle of interactions; the patterns of behavior of any two variables in a feedback loop are linked, each influencing the other and in tum being influenced by the behavior of the other. The concept of feedback is intimately linked with the concepts of interdependence and mutual or circular causality (Richardson, 1991). In a feedback perspective, the unidirectional view of cause-and-effect relationships gives way to a circular, looplike view of mutual causality. In this chapter we attempt to study the simultaneous evolution, or coevolution, of organizations and their environments. The chapters by Rosenkopf and Tushman and Van de Ven and Garud in this volume also adopt broadly similar coevolutionary approaches.
Accounting Aspects of Globalizing American Firms
Authors: Elnathan Dan , Arnold Jerry L
Published: November 2023

When American firms consider a strategic plan for globalization, the accounting issues are all too frequently addressed as an afterthought. An approach that integrates accounting from the beginning, however, enhances the likelihood of success and minimizes the chance of a suboptimal accounting system. In most instances, American firms must adapt to the environment in the host country; effecting change in another country’s accounting system is likely to be politically sensitive and to take a long time, if it happens at all.