bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TMS and electroencephalography: methods and current advances
Authors: Ilmoniemi Risto J. , Karhu Jari
Published: February 2014

Electroencephalography (EEG) combined with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) provides detailed real-time information about the state of the cortex. EEG requires only two to four electrodes and can be a part of most TMS studies. When used with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based targeting and conductor modelling, the TMS-EEG combination is a sophisticated brain-mapping tool. This article explains the mechanisms of TMS-evoked EEG. It describes the technique of recording TMS evoked EEG and the possible challenges for the same. Furthermore, it describes possible solutions to these challenges. By varying the TMS intensities, interstimulus intervals, induced current direction, and cortical targets, a rich spectrum of functional information can be obtained. Cortical excitability and connectivity can be studied directly by combining TMS with EEG or other brain-imaging methods, not only in motor, but also nonmotor, areas.
TMS in bipolar disorder
Authors: Grisaru Nimrod , Chudakov Bella , Kaptsan Alex , Shaldubina Alona , Applebaum Julia , Belmaker R. H.
Published: February 2014

This article reviews the existing animal and human literature on the clinical potential of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in mania and bipolar depression, and discusses potential future directions for this work. Studies of TMS in depression and normal volunteers suggested lateral specificity of TMS-induced mood effects. Clinical trials to compare left versus right prefrontal TMS in mania have been developed. Studies to understand the effect of TMS in bipolar depression have been undertaken. The results show efficacy similar to that for unipolar depression. But this does not provide support for the concept of TMS as an anti-bipolar, or mood-stabilizing, treatment. The utility of TMS as prophylaxis for subsequent manic or depressive episodes has not been reported in bipolar disorder. More work is needed to clarify the risk of mood switch, and the potential of TMS as prophylaxis against future manic or depressive episodes.
TMS clinical trials involving patients with schizophrenia
Authors: Hoffman Ralph E. , Stanford Arielle D.
Published: February 2014

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ((r)TMS) is being studied as an experimental intervention for patients with neuropsychiatric disorders. These approaches have been informed by animal studies of long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). They show that repeated stimulation of neural circuits could exert effects on synaptic efficacy, for varying amounts of time, beyond the period of stimulation. Few studies using rTMS as a potential clinical intervention for schizophrenia have been carried out. They show promise in terms of advancing the understanding of pathophysiological mechanisms and developing alternative interventions. These studies, considered together, suggest that rTMS holds promise as an intervention strategy for patients with schizophrenia. Rigorously designed trials with larger numbers of subjects are indicated in order to take into account nonspecific factors that could add noise to outcome data.
Movement Disorders
Authors: Hallett Mark , Berardelli Alfredo
Published: February 2014

This article focuses on the potential therapeutic uses of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in movement disorders. The brain can be stimulated with low levels of direct electrical current, called direct current polarization (tDCS). High-frequency repetitive TMS might increase brain excitability and be used for therapy in Parkinson's disease. Single sessions with TMS, however, have not proven to be very effective. Treatment with tDCS has been performed in some open studies with some success, but these results need confirmation. Physiological findings in dystonia reveal a decrease in intracortical inhibition. There have been a few studies of patients with Tourette's syndrome with mixed results. To date, clinical results with TMS in movement disorders have been mixed, and more work will be needed to clarify the potential clinical role of TMS.
Brain stimulation in neurorehabilitation
Authors: Hummel Friedhelm C. , Cohen Leonardo G.
Published: February 2014

This article explains the role of brain stimulation in neurorehabilitation. The outline of this article is formed by the characterization of some of the problems faced in the field of nuerorehabilitation. Furthermore, it describes results of studies conducted to understand the functional changes in the motor cortices of hemispheres after stroke. This article finally discusses some of the interventional approaches proposed to improve motor function. Stroke is the main cause of long-term disability among adults. The disability resulting from stroke impairs the quality of life. Post-stroke recovery remains an important clinical focus. Various modalities of brain have been proposed as strategies to enhance motor function when combined with conventional neurorehabilitative interventions after a stroke. Before these approaches can reach the clinic, their results need to be replicated in larger samples and controlled conditions to determine their value.
TMS and pain
Authors: Lefaucheur Jean-Pascal
Published: February 2014

Few clinical investigations show that repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to the brain could produce analgesia. Apart from the relationship between TMS and pain with respect to the clinical observation of rTMS-induced analgesic effects, this article also reviews the effects of pain on motor cortex excitability assessed by single or paired-pulse TMS and the results obtained by applying peripheral magnetic stimulation to treat musculoskeletal pain. This article discusses the effects of acute phasic provoked pain, and prolonged tonic provoked pain on motor cortex excitability. The analgesic effects resulting from a single session of rTMS are too short-lived and thereby incompatible with a durable control of chronic pain. Repeated sessions of rTMS on consecutive days produce cumulative effects. However, repeated daily rTMS sessions can be applied to control pain syndromes for a limited period. Further work is needed to define the ultimate clinical role of TMS in the management of pain.
The Russian Economy, 1861–1932
Authors: Waldron Peter
Published: February 2014

The Russian economy has been faced with significant environmental challenges, and agriculture—the mainstay of the economy during this period—suffered from consistently low yields. Neither the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, nor Stolypin’s agricultural reform of 1906 succeeded in bringing about fundamental change in Russian farming. Russia also had substantial difficulty in stimulating industrial growth. Before 1917, it had to rely on foreign investment to develop its industrial sector. The pressures of the First World War exposed Russian economic weakness. After 1917, the Bolshevik regime’s attempts to reform both agriculture and industry in the first years of its existence, while at the same time constructing a socialist society, proved unsuccessful. At the end of the 1920s, Stalin’s dictatorship was able to collectivize agriculture and to bring about industrial revolution through the Five-Year-Plans. While these brought short-term economic advantages, the USSR paid a heavy price for the Stalinist revolution.
Morality and Subjectivity, 1860s–1920s
Authors: Beer Daniel
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines not the changing moral and sexual codes of Russian society in the decades of reform and revolution, but rather the notions of moral agency and subjectivity that contemporaries believed found expression in the observance, subversion and violation of these codes. Competing understandings of human motivation and behaviour informed the public representation of acts of infidelity, sexual corruption, rape, petty crime, suicide and murder. Drawing on a wide range of literary, journalistic, political and medico-legal texts, the chapter explores both the rise and the fall of the autonomous moral agent in Russian culture between the Great Reforms and the New Economic Policy.
Subjects and Citizens, 1905–1917
Authors: Morrissey Susan
Published: February 2014

Did Russia’s short-lived ‘constitutional experiment’ of 1905–17 mark the moment when the Tsar’s subjects became citizens? This chapter reassesses this pivotal period between the October Manifesto of 1905 and the February Revolution of 1917 through the prism of citizenship, especially citizenship rights. Conceiving citizenship not as a normative category but as a political imaginary—a contested space of both ideological ideals and everyday practices, it traces the emergence of multiple loci of citizenship shaped through the interplay of autocratic power and new ideas about human autonomy and dignity. Just as visions of citizenship helped to propel the political battles of the twentieth century, so too were they recast in the fires of revolution and political reaction, especially the unprecedented deployment of state violence in and after 1905. Individual rights moulded the political landscape of late imperial Russia, not because they were achieved but because they were imagined, asserted, and violated.
Bolshevism enforced, 1917–1921
Authors: Landis Erik
Published: February 2014

How could the Bolsheviks exert control over Russia between October 1917 and 1921 when the Provisional Government had failed to do so after the February Revolution? This chapter reassesses those turbulent years through the prism of centre-periphery conflict and state-building, arguing that the process of civil war served to extend Soviet control through the elimination of armed rivals and the suppression of the centrifugal social forces accentuated by revolution in 1917. If the Provisional Government sought to govern at a time when state sovereignty was disintegrating, the civil war was, to a large extent, a struggle for re-integration—a struggle characterized by the projection of armed force and the exercise of violence against civilians. Military domination of the countryside proved a necessary condition for the medium-term socialization of formerly insurgent populations who initially harboured strong grievances against the new Soviet state.
Tonson’s Jonson
Authors: Grant Teresa
Published: February 2014

The period 1709–16 saw heavy investment in the printing of Ben Jonson, motivated by the House of Tonson’s need to assert their copyright in the face of outright piracy. In anticipation of a new copyright law ‘The Statute of Anne’ (1710), Jonson’s works were at the centre of a vicious battle between Tonson and the famous pirate printer Henry Hills Jnr. Tonson was also threatened by the Hague printer Thomas Johnson’s good quality octavo series Best English Plays, which was to include six Jonson plays (though only Volpone ever materialized). To meet this challenge, in 1712 Tonson changed his Works format from octavo to duodecimo. These early eighteenth-century editions of Jonson demonstrate a very significant moment in publishing – the final move away from prestigious large-format Works into ‘small volumes fit for the pocket’. Tonson’s octavo 1716 Jonson bears the physical evidence of this transition, arrested mid-print run and fundamentally outdated even before it went on sale.
Words and Things
Authors: Moreland John
Published: February 2014

Texts have been central to the generation of archaeological theory (whether in culture history, New Archaeology, or post-processual approaches). They have framed our understanding of the past. It is now clear that they also structured human action in the past—as both technologies of oppression and vehicles of enlightenment. Recent research suggests that the habit of reading and writing may have a direct impact on the brain, stimulating a restructuring of neural networks, and affecting the way people thought and acted. Given the socially restricted nature of literacy in pre-modern societies, this may have implications for intra-societal relationships. What is already clear, however, is that the power of the written word in the past owed as much to its supernatural connotations as to its semantic content.
Relations between State and National Governments
Authors: Dinan John
Published: February 2014

This article explores the history of American federalism and the literature on relations between state governments and the national government. The author explores the evolving nature of the federalist system as well as changing perceptions on American federalism among social science researchers. Specific elements examined include national government influence on state policy making, state influence on national policy making, the consequences of centralization versus decentralization, and future research directions for the subfield.
Local and State Interest Group Organizations
Authors: Nownes Anthony J.
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines the literature on local and state interest groups. The author argues that much of the interest group literature has focused on the national level even though there are large gaps in what we know about local and state groups and sub-national collective action. The bulk of the chapter outlines just how much we have learned about interest group organizations and concludes with a discussion of directions for future research.
State Legislatures
Authors: Hamm Keith E. , Hedlund Ronald D. , Miller Nancy Martorano
Published: February 2014

This article examines the major approaches to studying state legislatures, how the approaches have shifted over time, and directions for future research. The authors argue that state legislative research has become more visible and sophisticated over time.
Local Executives
Authors: Feiock Richard C. , Bae Jungah
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines local executive leadership and the current and future demands on these leaders, including complications raised by jurisdictional competition, and globalization, as well as the pressing needs to act and cooperate regionally. This chapter also highlights important gaps in our understanding of the local executives. The theory and empirical work employed to address key issues such as policy outcomes, network governance and turnover is almost entirely based on the study of municipal governments, with little application to special districts, counties, and other forms of local government. The authors outline how these gaps in the literature might be addressed and the research opportunities they present.
State Policy and Democratic Representation
Authors: Jacoby William G. , Schneider Saundra K.
Published: February 2014

The authors in this chapter emphasize state policy variation with respect to democratic representation of public interests. They examine the literature concerning the connection between public opinion and the actions of government officials and institutions. The authors consider the various approaches that have been employed in the scholarly literature to measure public opinion in the states. They also explore the ways that researchers have captured state-level public policy in empirical indicators. The authors then discuss strategies for representing the relationship between state opinion and policy, as well as various factors that may mediate the connection between the two. In this process the authors cover the existing literature and also highlight unresolved issues and potential future directions for scholarly research.
Local Policy and Democratic Representation
Authors: Palus Christine Kelleher
Published: February 2014

In this chapter the author examines the existing literature addressing the broad topic of local policy and democratic representation. She begins with foundational works, lingering controversies, and those explicitly focused on the question of the link between citizen opinion and public policies. The chapter also covers the varied components of the political system and how each serves as a mechanism for policymaking and democracy, including citizenship and political participation, institutions of governance, and elected and appointed officials. She concludes with critiques, future questions, and a call to utilize the great variation of local governments to further our knowledge about the manifestation of democracy and governance.
Education Policy
Authors: Manna Paul
Published: February 2014

This chapter explores education policy as a primary function of state and local government and examines the recent creep of national government into this policy jurisdiction. The author argues that any scholar hoping to understand state and local politics and policymaking needs a basic understanding of education policy, simply because it dominates so much of state budget politics and policy. In addition, the incredible variation in education politics and policy allows fertile ground for testing a vast array of social science theories.
Social Welfare Policy
Authors: Rom Mark Carl
Published: February 2014

This article examines social welfare policies and policymaking, which concern programs that either redistribute income or provide services to individuals to improve the quality of their lives. The author explains major social welfare policy areas, their history, and their content. The article then explores the politics of policymaking in this policy area, with particular attention to the roles of institutions, federalism, and reform, as well as the politics of policy implementation and the important role of race in this policy area. Avenues for future research are discussed.
Health Care Politics and Policy
Authors: Barrilleaux Charles
Published: February 2014

Research on health politics and policy for the near future will be driven by immediate attention to the 2010 health reform bill and by a set of short-term issues that require immediate attention and a set of issues that have long been on the agenda. Federalism is an important component of the 2010 reforms, especially the now-rejected claim of some states that the bill violates the states’ rights to not require insurance coverage, and continued claims that the bill will impose even greater Medicaid costs on the states will receive some research attention. The need for im-proved research designs to get a better understanding of how health policies affect access to care, improved understanding of how state health politics and policy institutions operate, better under-standing of the relationship between behavior and health, and between health and race and eth-nicity are among the longer-term items that are now receiving increased attention among re-searchers.
Morality Politics
Authors: Doan Alesha
Published: February 2014

The impact of morality conflicts on the political landscape is widespread. These debates have involved political institutions at every level of government, impacted electoral outcomes, shaped agendas, and occupied significant space in citizen discourses. However, despite the historical and modern regularity of these debates, scholars have been slow to consider belief-laden conflicts within the purview of political science research. This chapter explores the development of the morality politics literature. Attention is given to the initial research in this field, as well as the studies that refined and challenged several of the early assumptions underpinning morality politics scholarship.
Sub-National Politics
Authors: Bolleyer Nicole
Published: February 2014

This chapter distinguishes three perspectives on the study of sub-national politics: a polity-centered, a systemic, and a regionalist perspective. Most fundamentally, scholars of sub-national politics tend to approach state governments either as self-contained polities or as embedded units. The first polity-centered perspective is defined by its conceptualization of state governments as self-contained ‘political systems’. The literature approaching state governments as embedded entities can be further subdivided in two strands. The systemic perspective conceptualizes state governments as part of one sub-national governmental level that faces the federal or central government as main counter-player. The regionalist perspective, in contrast, looks at forms of cooperation amongst different subsets of state or regional governments. Assessing case studies and comparative work within these three strands allows us to identify existing caveats in the literature and to put the work on American sub-national politics in the context of existing cross-national research.
Tumultuous Contexts and Radical Ideas (1783–89). The ‘Pre-Revolution’ in a Transnational Perspective
Authors: Jourdan Annie
Published: February 2014

The starting point of the French Revolution, or ‘pre-revolution’ has often been depicted as entirely national, because historians do not take seriously international connections and interactions. Yet, during the years preceding the fall of the Bastille, numerous cross-national debates and publications were discussing institutional and political relationships. Stimulated by the American Revolution and by the reforms devised by the French king, a huge debate about constitution, representation, human rights and patriotism was taking place in France. Indeed, the kingdom’s financial problems constrained Louis XVI to open a discussion with the French nation. Meanwhile, the American, Swiss and Dutch experiences and the Enlightenment had inspired the French people to new ideas about politics. The aim here is to discover how this change happened and whether it can be considered a precondition for the following revolutionary events.
Sovereignty and Constitutional Power
Authors: Fitzsimmons Michael P.
Published: February 2014

One of the most underappreciated legacies of the National Assembly is its achievement of an enduring constitutional tradition in France. In 1766, in the famous Session of the Scourging, Louis XV had quashed implicit constitutional arguments of the parlements and asserted that sovereignty belonged to him alone and that he did not owe any explanation for his exercise of it. Only a quarter-century later, however, his successor lost sovereign power and became a constitutional monarch. This chapter examines the sudden rise of the demand for a more than customary constitution and traces the manner in which the National Assembly ultimately attained this goal—an accomplishment so momentous that every subsequent regime in France has believed it necessary to legitimize its authority with a constitution.
Religion and Revolution
Authors: Woell Edward J.
Published: February 2014

This chapter focuses on the French Revolution’s early religious reforms and how Catholic citizens interacted with them. It shows that these reforms were popularly evaluated on whether they would maintain or extend religion’s capacity to promote a local community’s wellbeing. Given the dynamics and significance of this popular evaluation, such religious reforms must be understood comprehensively, instead of—as is often the case in contemporary historical literature—limiting one’s focus on just the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the 1791 Ecclesiastical Oath. It therefore traces all reforms and their implications for Catholics from 1789 to 1792: from the abolition of privileges to implementation of the lesser known requirements of the Civil Constitution, most notably parish circumscription. In the process, connections are made between popular interaction with religious reforms and the broader revolutionary trends of centralization, democratic acculturation, and state repression.
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
Authors: Caiani Ambrogio
Published: February 2014

The important role played by Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette in the radicalization of the early phase of the French Revolution has never been in doubt. Most histories continue to focus on the regal couple’s real, and supposed, role in fomenting counter-revolution at home and especially abroad. This chapter engages with the complex question of the dwindling fortunes of Louis XVI’s monarchy from a more domestic angle. It focuses on that neglected, though crucial, year of 1790 which witnessed the failure to erect a viable constitutional settlement. It became impossible to accommodate both Crown and assembly in a viable working relationship. Essentially, the king’s distrust for the deputies, who had little by little arrogated his remaining powers, proved insurmountable. The monarchy’s passive resistance to the revolution’s early reform programme and political culture became increasingly unpopular. This created a radicalized and tension-filled atmosphere which pushed the revolution into hitherto unexpected directions.
Challenges in the Countryside, 1790–2
Authors: Plack Noelle
Published: February 2014

The Revolution’s interaction with, and impact upon, the countryside during the years 1790–2 is the focus of this chapter. Rural unrest continued during these years and the relationship between legislators in Paris and a diverse peasantry evolved and often exhibited signs of conflict, tension, negotiation, and compromise. The chapter traces and addresses several key issues: the new laws on feudalism, taxation, and land holding as well as the religious schisms of 1791–2. Many of these had a different dynamic and outcome according to place and social structure, yet it is argued that the peasantry, in concert with urban legislators, helped to shape the aims, meaning, and course of the Revolution in the countryside.
The New Elites. Questions about Political, Social, and Cultural Reconstruction after the Terror
Authors: Chappey Jean-Luc
Published: February 2014

Was the French Revolution the victory of an all-conquering bourgeoisie that made up the foundation of the nineteenth-century France of the ‘notables’? How far did the older elites of the ancien régime succeed in taking part in the political, social and cultural reordering of the first decades of the new century? This chapter examines the significance of these questions in relation to the construction and legitimation of elite power after the fall of Robespierre. Exploring both political and intellectual developments, it reveals the dynamics which account for the major rupture between the dominance of a republican elite under the Directory, and the foundations of the power of the Empire’s so-called ‘Granite masses’. Study of the various components of elite domination involves not merely scrutiny of the role played by the state, but also of changing attitudes towards the common people, against whom the evolving position of the elite was constructed.
Attention, Motivation, and Emotion
Authors: Pessoa Luiz
Published: February 2014

The first part of the chapter describes effects of motivation on attention at the behavioural and physiological levels. For example, reward increases detection sensitivity (dprime) in both endogenous attention and exogenous attention tasks, enhances stimulus coding, and influences the filtering of task-irrelevant stimuli. These recent findings are surprising insofar as traditional psychological models have described motivation as a fairly unspecific ‘force’. The results reviewed are far from global. Instead they reflect specific mechanisms that are manifested selectively both at behavioural and neural levels. The second part of the chapter describes the role of attention when emotion-laden visual stimuli are processed. When one considers the bulk of the evidence, emotional processing is revealed to be capacity-limited. Yet, emotional processing is prioritized relative to that of neutral items.
Load Theory of Attention and Cognitive Control
Authors: Lavie Nilli , Dalton Polly
Published: February 2014

Research has highlighted a puzzling discrepancy in our selective attention performance: whereas in some circumstances we are able to be highly selective, at other times we can exhibit high levels of distraction. The load theory of attention and cognitive control provides an explanation for these contrasting observations, proposing that the extent to which people can focus their attention in the face of irrelevant distractions depends on the level and type of information load involved in their current task. According to the theory, the extent to which unattended visual information is perceived depends on the perceptual load of the attended task, such that increasing the level of perceptual load in the task decreases processing of task-irrelevant stimuli. Effective prioritization of task-relevant stimuli in the face of competition from irrelevant distractors is proposed to depend on the availability of executive control functions. Thus, loading executive control results in increased processing of irrelevant stimuli. This chapter presents converging research from a wide range of approaches in support of these proposals, as well as highlighting some of load theory’s wider influences in areas as diverse as emotion processing, developmental psychology, and the understanding of psychological disorders.
Feature- and Object-Based Attentional Modulation in the Human Visual System
Authors: Scolari Miranda , Ester Edward F. , Serences John T.
Published: February 2014

To increase efficiency, sensory systems process only a subset of available inputs in accord with the behavioural goals of the observer. The mechanisms that support the prioritization of relevant over irrelevant stimuli, referred to collectively as selective attention, can operate on the basis of spatial location (space-based attention), low-level visual features (e.g. orientation or colour; feature-based attention), or holistic objects (object-based attention). This chapter reviews human behavioural, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging data pertaining to the effects and control of the latter two mechanisms. Based on an increasingly rich literature spanning several decades, the authors argue that even though feature- and object-based attention are often treated as independent mechanisms, they should instead be described along a single continuum in which the information selected for prioritized processing (whether it be a single feature or a holistic object representation) is flexibly dictated by task demands.
Attention and Ageing
Authors: Zanto Theodore P. , Gazzaley Adam
Published: February 2014

This chapter addresses how normal ageing may affect selective attention, sustained attention, divided attention, task-switching, and attentional capture. It is not clear that all aspects of attention are affected by ageing, especially once changes in bottom-up sensory deficits or generalized slowing are taken into account. It also remains to be seen whether deficits in these abilities are evident when task demands are increased. Age-based declines have been reported during many tasks with low cognitive demands on various forms of attention. Fortunately, the older brain retains plasticity and cognitive training and exercise may help reduce negative effects of age on attention. Although no single theory of cognitive ageing may account for the various age-related changes in attention, many aspects have been taken into account, such as generalized slowing, reduced inhibitory processes, the retention of performance abilities via neural compensation, as well as declines in performance with increased task difficulty.
Rhetoric and Politics
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: February 2014

The main forum for political speech in the Greek city-state was the Assembly, which all male citizens had the right to attend. Speakers in the Assembly were not members of political parties promoting an ideology but appealed to the interests of the entire community and to shared social values. To win the trust of fellow citizens, speakers employed rhetoric to stress their moral integrity and their personal dedication to public service. The agenda of the Assembly was set by the Council, and speakers had to address a specific proposal for immediate action. The business of the Assembly included foreign affairs, public finance, military campaigns, and religious business—there was no separation of church and state in the ancient Greek world. The Greeks made a strict distinction between speeches before the Assembly (deliberative oratory) and those given in the law courts (forensic oratory) and at festivals and public funerals (epideictic oratory).
Rhetoric and Historiography
Authors: Carey Chris
Published: February 2014

The impact of rhetoric on Greek historiography manifests itself in two ways. The writer, in claiming authority and pressing the significance of his theme, often abandons reporting for argument and frequently competes overtly with his predecessors; this agonistic manner probably reflects the origin of the genre in performance. The second and more sustained impact arises from the generic affinities with epic. Historians from Herodotus onward include in their narrative speeches that claim to be the words spoken in public debate but that are, to different degrees, creative writing. This fictionalizing practice reflects not just the difficulty of obtaining accurate information but also a desire for stylistic integrity in a genre that is as much literature as scholarship. From the first, the speeches show the influence of rhetorical training. The firm grounding of rhetoric in principles of human psychology and sociology means that the practice is perceived not as mere invention but as highly probable reconstruction.
Rhetoric and Old Comedy
Authors: O'Regan Daphne
Published: February 2014

What happens in a democracy when sophistic specialists sell new verbal strategies advertised as being violently effective, disruptive of traditional norms, and targeted at dominance? This question gripped Athens, riveted by rhetoric’s triumphs. Contemporary comedy, the art most akin to rhetoric, responded. Exploiting the convergence of generic norms (figured by the comic costume’s gut and phallus) and the claims of Protagoras, Gorgias, and other sophists, Aristophanes’s Clouds staged one answer. Logos becomes a by-product of the stomach (gaster), which natural man farts out, the familiar source of sophistic theory and comic laughter alike. The impact of nature (physis) goes further. Brutally mocking philosophical, democratic, and comic optimism about the power of persuasion, the Clouds’ lethal debates enact force as the preferred persuasive strategy of the human animal, onstage and off. So why listen? Rhetorical theory sidesteps this crucial question. But shared laughter nourishes a civic world whose bonds may bridge this gap.
The Development of Roman Rhetoric
Authors: Dominik William J.
Published: February 2014

While the development of Roman rhetoric is usually examined from the perspective of the Roman adoption and adaptation of Greek rhetoric, an equally useful approach to the study of Roman rhetoric is to view it as a reflection of the natural process of cultural and political change. A positive account of the development of Roman rhetoric may seem difficult to extract from the sources because of the theme of secondariness and decline that runs through the narrative of its evolution. This chapter attempts to suggest not only the ways Roman rhetoric evolved from Greek rhetoric but also how it made its mark upon the discipline so that it became an academic exercise and cultural phenomenon distinctive in its own right.
Rhetoric and Historiography
Authors: Ash Rhiannon
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines the creative fusion between Roman oratory and historiography. Each genre is enhanced and enriched by the other, with practitioners often operating in both spheres. Yet if historians used rhetoric for “expansion of the past,” fleshing out skeletal events through inventio by adding speeches and set pieces (e.g., battle descriptions), what are the consequences about the reliability of historical narratives? The first section elucidates how rhetoric adds impact to the building blocks of historiography, such as in choices of vocabulary and interlinked metaphor and wordplay; these are enhanced by recitatio, the practice of reading literary works to an invited audience. Historians used their rhetorical training to enhance an audience’s enjoyment of the narrative, which in turn served the historian’s moralizing agenda. The second section extends the analysis to consider broader overlapping techniques between both spheres in the use of counterfactual arguments to reconstruct what must have happened.
Rhetoric and Pedagogy
Authors: Steel Catherine
Published: February 2014

Classical rhetoric depends on the assumption that speaking well is a teachable skill. Roman rhetorical instruction adapted technical material derived from Greek rhetoric to specific demands arising from Rome’s political system, in which oral communication was an unavoidable obligation on the political elite. The variety of Cicero’s works on rhetoric makes them excellent guides to the complexity of rhetoric at the end of the Roman Republic. They range from instructional manuals, such as De inventione and De partitione oratoria, to discussions of oratory and civil society (De oratore), a history of Roman oratory (Brutus), and analysis of oratory’s technical aspects (Orator). All, however, demonstrate a commitment to rhetorical pedagogy and a belief that oratory is essential to civil society and that rhetoric’s potential amorality can be averted by proper instruction. But they also reveal the stress of political transformation in Cicero’s move from orality to written record and from ideal orator to historical example.
Rhetoric and Stoic Philosophy
Authors: Bartsch Shadi
Published: February 2014

This chapter discusses the conflict between the aims of rhetoric and those of Stoic philosophy in the Roman context. While rhetoric aimed at persuasion, the Stoics felt that philosophical teachings demanded a language stripped of ornament. Where rhetoric sought to move, the Stoic sought to teach without appeal to the emotions. The hopelessness of following Stoic strictures in the courtroom is illustrated by Cicero’s account of Rutilius Rufus. However, later Roman Stoics were willing to employ metaphor as well as clarity as a pedagogical tool, and their interest in the dialogue form and in epistolary exchange as modes of arriving at Stoic conclusions could itself be seen as a modification of the Hellenistic Stoic use of dialectic.
Rhetoric and Lyric Address
Authors: Culler Jonathan
Published: February 2014

Classicists have contrasted the ancient lyric’s direct address to an audience with the solipsistic, meditative character of modern lyrics, in which the poet addresses himself or no one. But in accounts of romantic and post-Romantic lyrics, the figure of apostrophe or address to an absent impossible addressee, cited as an indicator of solipsism, is frequently treated as a conventional element due to a classical heritage. This chapter explores the functioning of address in canonical Greek and Latin lyrics (Pindar, Sappho, Catullus), arguing that in fact it is seldom direct but functions, as it does in modern lyrics, to produce a structure of triangulation, achieving effects of immediacy and affecting the temporality of the lyric by bringing it into a lyric present while nevertheless characteristically avoiding the modern structure of the dramatic monologue.
Rhetoric, Music, and the Arts
Authors: Habinek Thomas
Published: February 2014

This chapter considers the nature and purpose of analogies with music and the visual arts that recur in works of classical rhetoric, including Isocrates’s Evagoras, Cicero’s Orator and De oratore, and Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria. Terms such as decorum, ornatus (or ornament), evidentia, and numerus can be understood only in relationship to other, nonverbal arts. Analogies and distinctions reflect specific historical rivalries among the arts but also speak to a shared understanding of human cognition as embodied and externalized. Rhetorical theory articulates an account of human thought that aligns rhetoric, music, and the arts in opposition to philosophy, which is regarded as having separated mind and body. This theory of cognition provides the basis for later defenses of particular arts, such as Giuseppe Zarlino’s treatment of music and Giovan Pietro Bellori’s praise of painting, and helps account for the persistent importance of classical rhetoric in new or altered venues.
The Development of Medieval Rhetoric
Authors: Ward John O.
Published: February 2014

This chapter deals with rhetoric as defined by Augustine’s teacher, Victorinus, in his commentary on Cicero’s De inventione (a foundational work for medieval rhetoric), as the “handing on” of the precepts of the Greco-Roman art of rhetoric, from earliest medieval times to the fifteenth century, when the celebrated Renaissance humanist Guarino da Verona spent a large part of his life teaching the pseudo-Ciceronian Rhetorica ad Herennium. In addition to well-known sources, the chapter also introduces an important unknown source, a full-scale textbook on rhetoric found in a fourteenth-century manuscript from Bruges. The medieval teachers of rhetoric kept alive and explored the vast repertoire of the past as an invaluable repository of tips and advice for improving oral and written communication in their own day. They kept the ancient texts open, speaking continually to new generations of contemporaries.
Rhetoric and Poetics
Authors: Ross Jill
Published: February 2014

This chapter details the role of Horace’s Ars poetica in the development of a pragmatic, preceptive medieval poetics and explores how medieval rhetorical theory negotiated the fraught nature of poetic invention, a process in which all assembled parts ought to cohere. It also examines how the dire consequences anticipated by Horace’s negative precepts of composition, ones that hold up the monstrous feminine as a warning, come to condition medieval generative poetics. Medieval writers, in their efforts to embrace Horatian masculine mastery over a poetic corpus of words, sought to avoid the unsettling vices of poetic composition that would render the text transgressive and seductive. However, rather than the Horatian monstrous feminine, the dangers of hybrid invention are made manifest in the medieval ragged text whose gaping seams attest to the lack of textual mastery and integrity.
Rhetoric and Pedagogy
Authors: Mack Peter
Published: February 2014

Rhetoric manuals make sense only related to the school syllabuses in which they were taught. To understand how the textbooks were used we need to study the other texts, the way they were read, and the writing exercises schools prescribed. This chapter focuses on local examples of the role rhetoric played in school and university syllabuses in the Renaissance. It analyzes the role of rhetoric teaching in the school of Guarino in Verona and Ferrara 1418–60; Italian schools and universities of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; the University of Paris in the early and middle sixteenth century; Johann Sturm’s school in Strasbourg 1538–81; Elizabethan grammar schools and universities; German grammar schools, specifically the 1580 Krems statutes; and the 1599 Jesuit Ratio Studiorum. The chapter makes a plea for many more local studies to provide more detailed information about the range of ways rhetoric was employed in Renaissance education.
Rhetoric and Poetics
Authors: Kinney Arthur F.
Published: February 2014

Classical rhetoric provided the foundation for Renaissance poetics throughout Europe, beginning with Petrarch. Poetry was seen as a matter of rhetorical persuasion. The basic technique was the creative imitation of models, which in time encouraged the imagination to aim for wonder (admiratio) as well as instruction and delight. Handbooks of schemes and tropes suggested the means, such as prosopopeia or prosographia.
Ecocritical Approaches to Literary Form and Genre
Authors: Kerridge Richard
Published: February 2014

This article examines the relationship among the issues of urgency, depth, provisionality, and temporality in ecocritical approaches to evaluating literary form and genre. It analyzes the criteria by which ecocritical judgments about texts are reached and suggests that ecocritics should evaluate texts from the viewpoint of environmental concern and be able to introduce environmental criteria into general cultural debate. It highlights the fact the many ecocritics feel that their work has an activist mission and cites the global warming issue as an example.
Rethinking Eco-Film Studies
Authors: Ingram David
Published: February 2014

This article analyzes the theoretical and methodological assumptions which influenced ecocritical writings on film. It evaluates the most pragmatically useful theoretical framework for eco-film criticism and examines the strengths and weaknesses of the different theories and methods that have been employed by ecocritics working in film studies. It considers eco-film criticism and ideological analysis within the psycho-semiotic paradigm and the cognitivist film theory. This article also discusses some potential future developments in eco-film criticism.
Historical Background to Research on Job Loss, Unemployment, and Job Search
Authors: Feather N.T.
Published: February 2014

This chapter provides a selective review of past research on job loss, unemployment, and job search up to the beginning of the 1990s. The Great Depression studies in the 1930s at Marienthal by Jahoda and colleagues and by Bakke at Greenwich and New Haven are described, along with other research at the time. These early studies sowed the seeds for subsequent research programs in England, Europe, and Australia; the theories that emerged from this early and later research are described. They include stage theory, deprivation theory, agency theory, and vitamin theory. Other more general approaches—such as stress and coping models and expectancy-value theory—are also described as relevant to the unemployment experience. The historical review provides lessons about the importance of using a variety of methodologies that include descriptive field research, survey and questionnaire studies, longitudinal research, and research across cultures. It also suggests that progress will involve the application of midrange theories about work, paid employment, and unemployment targeted to particular issues such as psychological well-being, health-related problems, social and family effects, and job-search behavior.
The Spread of English
Authors: Trudgill Peter
Published: February 2014

English descends from a set of Germanic dialects spoken 4,000 years or so ago in a small area of the far south of Scandinavia. The arrival of Germanic speakers on the island of Britain a millennium and a half ago led to the growth of the language we now call English. This language remained confined to this island for most of its history and, indeed, was not spoken in all parts of the island until extremely recently. During the last five centuries native-speaker English also spread to the Western Hemisphere and then to the Southern Hemisphere, leading to the development of new varieties of the language in the colonised areas, but also to the massive loss of indigenous languages in the Americas and Australia.
English, Language Dominance, and Ecolinguistic Diversity Maintenance
Authors: Phillipson Robert , Skutnabb-Kangas Tove
Published: February 2014

The chapter analyses how English became dominant and the implications of the expansion of dominant languages for the linguistic and cultural ecology and biodiversity. English has expanded through the imperialist and linguicist policies of the UK, the USA and the World Bank. Key structural and ideological parameters are identified. In postcolonial contexts, language in education policies remain largely unchanged. Linguicism can lead to linguicide. The need for terminological clarity is stressed: for instance “lingua franca” should not imply that language is unconnected to power. A multidisciplinary approach to analysing the relationships between linguistic and other diversities is needed. There is hard data on ecolinguistic impoverishment: diversity of all kinds is seriously endangered. Examples are given of mother-tongue-based multilingual education in Africa and of Nordic policies to maintain the vitality of local languages. However, these are up against the market forces behind English and European Union policies that strengthen English.