Rising rural body-mass index is the main driver of the global obesity epidemic in adults
Authors:   NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC), Bixby Honor , Bentham James , Zhou Bin , Di Cesare Mariachiara , Paciorek Christopher J. , Bennett James E. , Taddei Cristina , Stevens Gretchen A. , Rodriguez-Martinez Andrea , Carrillo-Larco Rodrigo M. , Khang Young-Ho , Sorić Maroje , Gregg Edward W. , Miranda J. Jaime , Bhutta Zulfiqar A. , Savin Stefan , Sophiea Marisa K. , Iurilli Maria L. C. , Solomon Bethlehem D. , Cowan Melanie J. , Riley Leanne M. , Danaei Goodarz , Bovet Pascal , Chirita-Emandi Adela , Hambleton Ian R. , Hayes Alison J. , Ikeda Nayu , Kengne Andre P. , Laxmaiah Avula , Li Yanping , McGarvey Stephen T. , Mostafa Aya , Neovius Martin , Starc Gregor , Zainuddin Ahmad A. , Abarca-Gómez Leandra , Abdeen Ziad A. , Abdrakhmanova Shynar , Abdul Ghaffar Suhaila , Abdul Hamid Zargar , Abubakar Garba Jamila , Abu-Rmeileh Niveen M. , Acosta-Cazares Benjamin , Adams Robert J. , Aekplakorn Wichai , Afsana Kaosar , Agdeppa Imelda A. , Aguilar-Salinas Carlos A. , Agyemang Charles , Ahmad Mohamad Hasnan , Ahmad Noor Ani , Ahmadi Naser , Ahmadvand Alireza , Ahrens Wolfgang , Ajlouni Kamel , AlBuhairan Fadia , AlDhukair Shahla , Al-Hazzaa Hazzaa M. , Ali Mohamed M. , Ali Osman , Alkerwi Ala’a , Al-Othman Amani Rashed , Al-Raddadi Rajaa , Alvarez-Pedrerol Mar , Aly Eman , Amarapurkar Deepak N. , Amouyel Philippe , Amuzu Antoinette , Andersen Lars Bo , Anderssen Sigmund A. , Ängquist Lars H. , Anjana Ranjit Mohan , Ansari-Moghaddam Alireza , Aounallah-Skhiri Hajer , Araújo Joana , Ariansen Inger , Aris Tahir , Arku Raphael E. , Arlappa Nimmathota , Aryal Krishna K. , Aspelund Thor , Assah Felix K. , Assunção Maria Cecília F. , Aung May Soe , Auvinen Juha , Avdicová Mária , Azevedo Ana , Azizi Fereidoun , Azmin Mehrdad , Babu Bontha V. , Baharudin Azli , Bahijri Suhad , Baker Jennifer L. , Balakrishna Nagalla , Bamoshmoosh Mohamed , Banach Maciej , Bandosz Piotr , Banegas José R. , Barbagallo Carlo M. , Barceló Alberto , Barkat Amina , Barros Aluisio J. D. , Barros Mauro V. G. , Bata Iqbal , Batieha Anwar M. , Batista Rosangela L. , Battakova Zhamilya , Batyrbek Assembekov , Baur Louise A. , Beaglehole Robert , Bel-Serrat Silvia , Ben Romdhane Habiba , Benedics Judith , Benet Mikhail , Berkinbayev Salim , Bernabe-Ortiz Antonio , Bernotiene Gailute , Bettiol Heloisa , Bhagyalaxmi Aroor , Bharadwaj Sumit , Bhargava Santosh K. , Bi Hongsheng , Bi Yufang , Biehl Anna , Bika Lele Elysée Claude , Bikbov Mukharram , Bista Bihungum , Bjelica Dusko J. , Bjerregaard Peter , Bjertness Espen , Bjertness Marius B. , Björkelund Cecilia , Blokstra Anneke , Bo Simona , Bobak Martin , Boddy Lynne M. , Boehm Bernhard O. , Boeing Heiner , Boggia Jose G. , Boissonnet Carlos P. , Bonaccio Marialaura , Bongard Vanina , Bopp Matthias , Borchini Rossana , Borghs Herman , Braeckevelt Lien , Braeckman Lutgart , Bragt Marjolijn C. E. , Brajkovich Imperia , Branca Francesco , Breckenkamp Juergen , Breda João , Brenner Hermann , Brewster Lizzy M. , Brian Garry R. , Brinduse Lacramioara , Bruno Graziella , Bueno-de-Mesquita H. Bas , Bugge Anna , Buoncristiano Marta , Burazeri Genc , Burns Con , Cabrera de León Antonio , Cacciottolo Joseph , Cai Hui , Cama Tilema , Cameron Christine , Camolas José , Can Gamze , Can Günay , Cândido Ana Paula C. , Cañete Felicia , Capanzana Mario V. , Capuano Eduardo , Capuano Vincenzo , Cardoso Viviane C. , Carlsson Axel C. , Carmuega Esteban , Carvalho Maria J. , Casanueva Felipe F. , Casas Juan-Pablo , Caserta Carmelo A. , Celikcan Ertugrul , Censi Laura , Cesar Juraci A. , Chamukuttan Snehalatha , Chan Angelique W. , Chan Queenie , Chaturvedi Himanshu K. , Chaturvedi Nishi , Che Abdul Rahim Norsyamlina , Chen Chien-Jen , Chen Fangfang , Chen Huashuai , Chen Shuohua , Chen Zhengming , Cheng Ching-Yu , Cheng Yiling J. , Chetrit Angela , Chikova-Iscener Ekaterina , Chiolero Arnaud , Chiou Shu-Ti , Chirlaque María-Dolores , Cho Belong , Cho Yumi , Christensen Kaare , Christofaro Diego G. , Chudek Jerzy , Cifkova Renata , Cilia Michelle , Cinteza Eliza , Claessens Frank , Clarke Janine , Clays Els , Concin Hans , Confortin Susana C. , Cooper Cyrus , Coppinger Tara C. , Costanzo Simona , Cottel Dominique , Cowell Chris , Craig Cora L. , Crampin Amelia C. , Crujeiras Ana B. , Cruz Juan J. , Cucu Alexandra , Cui Liufu , Dallongeville Jean , Damasceno Albertino , Damsgaard Camilla T. , Dankner Rachel , Dantoft Thomas M. , D’Arrigo Graziella , Dasgupta Parasmani , Dastgiri Saeed , Dauchet Luc , Davletov Kairat , De Backer Guy , De Bacquer Dirk , De Curtis Amalia , de Gaetano Giovanni , De Henauw Stefaan , de Oliveira Paula Duarte , De Ridder Karin , de Rooij Susanne R. , De Smedt Delphine , Deepa Mohan , Deev Alexander D. , Dehghan Abbas , Delisle Hélène , Delpeuch Francis , Dennison Elaine , Deschamps Valérie , Dhana Klodian , Dhimal Meghnath , Di Castelnuovo Augusto F. , Dias-da-Costa Juvenal Soares , Diaz Alejandro , Dika Zivka , Djalalinia Shirin , Do Ha T. P. , Dobson Annette J. , Donati Maria Benedetta , Donfrancesco Chiara , Donoso Silvana P. , Döring Angela , Dorobantu Maria , Dorosty Ahmad Reza , d’Orsi Eleonora , Doua Kouamelan , Drygas Wojciech , Duan Jia Li , Duante Charmaine A. , Duda Rosemary B. , Duleva Vesselka , Dulskiene Virginija , Dumith Samuel C. , Dzerve Vilnis , Dziankowska-Zaborszczyk Elzbieta , Eddie Ricky , Egbagbe Eruke E. , Eggertsen Robert , Eiben Gabriele , Ekelund Ulf , El Ati Jalila , Eldemire-Shearer Denise , Eliasen Marie , Elliott Paul , Engle-Stone Reina , Erasmus Rajiv T. , Erem Cihangir , Eriksen Louise , Eriksson Johan G. , Escobedo-de la Peña Jorge , Evans Alun , Faeh David , Fall Caroline H. , Farrugia Sant’Angelo Victoria , Farzadfar Farshad , Fattahi Mohammad R. , Felix-Redondo Francisco J. , Ferguson Trevor S. , Fernandes Romulo A. , Fernández-Bergés Daniel , Ferrante Daniel , Ferrari Marika , Ferreccio Catterina , Ferrer Eldridge , Ferrieres Jean , Fijalkowska Anna , Fink Günther , Fischer Krista , Flores Eric Monterubio , Föger Bernhard , Foo Leng Huat , Forslund Ann-Sofie , Forsner Maria , Fouad Heba M. , Francis Damian K. , Franco Maria do Carmo , Franco Oscar H. , Frontera Guillermo , Fuchs Flavio D. , Fuchs Sandra C. , Fujita Yuki , Furusawa Takuro , Gaciong Zbigniew , Gafencu Mihai , Galeone Daniela , Galvano Fabio , Gao Jingli , Garcia-de-la-Hera Manoli , Gareta Dickman , Garnett Sarah P. , Gaspoz Jean-Michel , Gasull Magda , Gates Louise , Gazzinelli Andrea , Geiger Harald , Geleijnse Johanna M. , Ghanbari Ali , Ghasemi Erfan , Ghasemian Anoosheh , Gheorghe-Fronea Oana-Florentina , Giampaoli Simona , Gianfagna Francesco , Gill Tiffany K. , Giovannelli Jonathan , Gironella Glen , Giwercman Aleksander , Godos Justyna , Gogen Sibel , Goldsmith Rebecca A. , Goltzman David , Gonçalves Helen , Gonzalez Angel R. , Gonzalez-Chica David A. , Gonzalez-Gross Marcela , González-Leon Margot , González-Rivas Juan P. , González-Villalpando María-Elena , Gottrand Frederic , Graça Antonio Pedro , Graff-Iversen Sidsel , Grafnetter Dušan , Grajda Aneta , Grammatikopoulou Maria G. , Gregor Ronald D. , Grodzicki Tomasz , Grøntved Anders , Grosso Giuseppe , Gruden Gabriella , Gu Dongfeng , Gualdi-Russo Emanuela , Gudmundsson Elias F. , Gudnason Vilmundur , Guerrero Ramiro , Guessous Idris , Guimaraes Andre L. , Gulliford Martin C. , Gunnlaugsdottir Johanna , Gunter Marc , Guo Xiuhua , Guo Yin , Gupta Prakash C. , Gupta Rajeev , Gureje Oye , Gurzkowska Beata , Gutierrez Laura , Gutzwiller Felix , Hadaegh Farzad , Hadjigeorgiou Charalambos A. , Haghshenas Rosa , Halkjær Jytte , Hardy Rebecca , Hari Kumar Rachakulla , Hassapidou Maria , Hata Jun , Haugsgjerd Teresa , He Jiang , He Yuna , Heidinger-Felso Regina , Heinen Mirjam , Hejgaard Tatjana , Hendriks Marleen Elisabeth , Henriques Ana , Hernandez Cadena Leticia , Herrala Sauli , Herrera Victor M. , Herter-Aeberli Isabelle , Heshmat Ramin , Hill Allan G. , Ho Sai Yin , Ho Suzanne C. , Hobbs Michael , Hofman Albert , Hopman Wilma M. , Horimoto Andrea R. V. R. , Hormiga Claudia M. , Horta Bernardo L. , Houti Leila , Howitt Christina , Htay Thein Thein , Htet Aung Soe , Htike Maung Maung Than , Hu Yonghua , Huerta José María , Huhtaniemi Ilpo Tapani , Huidumac Petrescu Constanta , Huisman Martijn , Husseini Abdullatif , Huu Chinh Nguyen , Huybrechts Inge , Hwalla Nahla , Hyska Jolanda , Iacoviello Licia , Ibarluzea Jesús M. , Ibrahim Mohsen M. , Ibrahim Wong Norazizah , Ikram M. Arfan , Irazola Vilma E. , Ishida Takafumi , Islam Muhammad , Ismail Aziz al-Safi , Ivkovic Vanja , Iwasaki Masanori , Jääskeläinen Tuija , Jackson Rod T. , Jacobs Jeremy M. , Jaddou Hashem , Jafar Tazeen , James Kenneth , Jamil Kazi M. , Jamrozik Konrad , Janszky Imre , Janus Edward , Jarani Juel , Jarvelin Marjo-Riitta , Jasienska Grazyna , Jelakovic Ana , Jelakovic Bojan , Jennings Garry , Jeong Seung-lyeal , Jiang Chao Qiang , Jimenez Ramon O. , Joffres Michel , Johansson Mattias , Jokelainen Jari J. , Jonas Jost B. , Jørgensen Torben , Joshi Pradeep , Jovic Dragana P. , Józwiak Jacek , Juolevi Anne , Jurak Gregor , Juresa Vesna , Kaaks Rudolf , Kafatos Anthony , Kajantie Eero O. , Kalter-Leibovici Ofra , Kamaruddin Nor Azmi , Kameli Yves , Kapantais Efthymios , Karki Khem B. , Kasaeian Amir , Katibeh Marzieh , Katz Joanne , Katzmarzyk Peter T. , Kauhanen Jussi , Kaur Prabhdeep , Kavousi Maryam , Kazakbaeva Gyulli , Keil Ulrich , Keinan-Boker Lital , Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi Sirkka , Kelishadi Roya , Kelleher Cecily , Kemper Han C. G. , Kerimkulova Alina , Kersting Mathilde , Key Timothy , Khader Yousef Saleh , Khalili Davood , Khateeb Mohammad , Khaw Kay-Tee , Kheiri Bahareh , Khosravi Alireza , Khouw Ilse M. S. L. , Kiechl Stefan , Kiechl-Kohlendorfer Ursula , Killewo Japhet , Kim Jeongseon , Kim Yeon-Yong , Klimont Jeannette , Klumbiene Jurate , Knoflach Michael , Koirala Bhawesh , Kolle Elin , Kolsteren Patrick , König Jürgen , Korpelainen Raija , Korrovits Paul , Korzycka Magdalena , Koskinen Seppo , Kouda Katsuyasu , Kovacs Viktoria A. , Kowlessur Sudhir , Koziel Slawomir , Kratzer Wolfgang , Kriemler Susi , Kristensen Peter Lund , Krokstad Steinar , Kromhout Daan , Kruger Herculina S. , Kubinova Ruzena , Kuciene Renata , Kuh Diana , Kujala Urho M. , Kujundzic Enisa , Kulaga Zbigniew , Kumar R. Krishna , Kunešová Marie , Kurjata Pawel , Kusuma Yadlapalli S. , Kuulasmaa Kari , Kyobutungi Catherine , La Quang Ngoc , Laamiri Fatima Zahra , Laatikainen Tiina , Lachat Carl , Laid Youcef , Lam Tai Hing , Lang Morovic Maja , Lanska Vera , Lappas Georg , Larijani Bagher , Latt Tint Swe , Laugsand Lars E. , Lauria Laura , Lazo-Porras Maria , Le Nguyen Bao Khanh , Le Port Agnès , Le Tuyen D. , Lee Jeannette , Lee Jeonghee , Lee Paul H. , Lehtimäki Terho , Lemogoum Daniel , Levitt Naomi S. , Lilly Christa L. , Lim Wei-Yen , Lima-Costa M. Fernanda , Lin Hsien-Ho , Lin Xu , Lind Lars , Linneberg Allan , Lissner Lauren , Litwin Mieczyslaw , Liu Jing , Loit Helle-Mai , Lopes Luis , Lopez Tania , López-García Esther , Lorbeer Roberto , Lotufo Paulo A. , Lozano José Eugenio , Luksiene Dalia , Lundqvist Annamari , Lundqvist Robert , Lunet Nuno , Lytsy Per , Ma Guansheng , Ma Jun , Machado-Coelho George L. L. , Machado-Rodrigues Aristides M. , Machi Suka , Maggi Stefania , Magliano Dianna J. , Magriplis Emmanuella , Maire Bernard , Majer Marjeta , Makdisse Marcia , Malekzadeh Fatemeh , Malekzadeh Reza , Malhotra Rahul , Malyutina Sofia , Maniego Lynell V. , Manios Yannis , Mann Jim I. , Manzato Enzo , Margozzini Paula , Markaki Anastasia , Markey Oonagh , Markidou Ioannidou Eliza , Marques Larissa Pruner , Marques-Vidal Pedro , Marrugat Jaume , Martin Rosemarie , Martin-Prevel Yves , Martorell Reynaldo , Martos Eva , Marventano Stefano , Masoodi Shariq R. , Mathiesen Ellisiv B. , Mathur Prashant , Matijasevich Alicia , Matsha Tandi E. , Mazur Artur , Mbanya Jean Claude N. , McFarlane Shelly R. , McKee Martin , McLachlan Stela , McLean Rachael M. , McLean Scott B. , McNulty Breige A. , Md Yusof Safiah , Mediene-Benchekor Sounnia , Medzioniene Jurate , Mehdipour Parinaz , Meirhaeghe Aline , Meisfjord Jørgen , Meisinger Christa , Menezes Ana Maria B. , Menon Geetha R. , Mensink Gert B. M. , Mereke Alibek , Meshram Indrapal I. , Metspalu Andres , Meyer Haakon E. , Mi Jie , Michaelsen Kim F. , Michels Nathalie , Mikkel Kairit , Miller Jody C. , Minderico Cláudia S. , Miquel Juan Francisco , Mirkopoulou Daphne , Mirrakhimov Erkin , Misigoj-Durakovic Marjeta , Mistretta Antonio , Mocanu Veronica , Modesti Pietro A. , Moghaddam Sahar Saeeidi , Mohajer Bahram , Mohamed Mostafa K. , Mohammad Kazem , Mohammadifard Noushin , Mohan Viswanathan , Mohanna Salim , Mohd Yusoff Muhammad Fadhli , Mohebi Farnam , Moitry Marie , Molbo Drude , Møllehave Line T. , Møller Niels C. , Molnár Dénes , Momenan Amirabbas , Mondo Charles K. , Monterrubio Eric A. , Monyeki Kotsedi Daniel K. , Moon Jin Soo , Moreira Leila B. , Morejon Alain , Moreno Luis A. , Morgan Karen , Morin Suzanne , Mortensen Erik Lykke , Moschonis George , Mossakowska Malgorzata , Mota Jorge , Mota-Pinto Anabela , Motlagh Mohammad Esmaeel , Motta Jorge , Msyamboza Kelias P. , Mu Thet Thet , Muc Magdalena , Mugoša Boban , Muiesan Maria Lorenza , Mukhtorova Parvina , Müller-Nurasyid Martina , Murphy Neil , Mursu Jaakko , Murtagh Elaine M. , Milanovic Sanja Music , Musil Vera , Nabipour Iraj , Naderimagham Shohreh , Nagel Gabriele , Naidu Balkish M. , Nakamura Harunobu , Námešná Jana , Nang Ei Ei K. , Nangia Vinay B. , Nankap Martin , Narake Sameer , Nardone Paola , Nauck Matthias , Navarrete-Muñoz Eva Maria , Neal William A. , Nelis Keiu , Nelis Liis , Nenko Ilona , Nervi Flavio , Nguyen Chung T. , Nguyen Nguyen D. , Nguyen Quang Ngoc , Nieto-Martínez Ramfis E. , Ning Guang , Ninomiya Toshiharu , Nishtar Sania , Noale Marianna , Noboa Oscar A. , Norat Teresa , Norie Sawada , Noto Davide , Nsour Mohannad Al , Nurk Eha , Nyirenda Moffat , Obreja Galina , Ochoa-Avilés Angélica M. , Oda Eiji , Oh Kyungwon , Ohara Kumiko , Ohtsuka Ryutaro , Olafsson Örn , Olinto Maria Teresa Anselmo , Oliveira Isabel O. , Oltarzewski Maciej , Omar Mohd Azahadi , Onat Altan , O’Neill Terence W. , Ong Sok King , Ono Lariane M. , Ordunez Pedro , O’Reilly Dermot , Ornelas Rui , Ortiz Ana P. , Ortiz Pedro J. , Osler Merete , Osmond Clive , Ostojic Sergej M. , Ostovar Afshin , Otero Johanna A. , Overvad Kim , Owusu-Dabo Ellis , Paccaud Fred Michel , Padez Cristina , Pagkalos Ioannis , Pahomova Elena , Pająk Andrzej , Palli Domenico , Palloni Alberto , Palmieri Luigi , Pan Wen-Harn , Panda-Jonas Songhomitra , Pandey Arvind , Panza Francesco , Papandreou Dimitrios , Park Soon-Woo , Parnell Winsome R. , Parsaeian Mahboubeh , Pascanu Ionela M. , Patel Nikhil D. , Pecin Ivan , Pednekar Mangesh S. , Peer Nasheeta , Peixoto Sergio Viana , Peltonen Markku , Pereira Alexandre C. , Pérez Cynthia M. , Perez-Farinos Napoleon , Peters Annette , Petersmann Astrid , Petkeviciene Janina , Petrauskiene Ausra , Peykari Niloofar , Pham Son Thai , Pierannunzio Daniela , Pigeot Iris , Pikhart Hynek , Pilav Aida , Pilotto Lorenza , Pistelli Francesco , Pitakaka Freda , Piwonska Aleksandra , Plans-Rubió Pedro , Poh Bee Koon , Pohlabeln Hermann , Pop Raluca M. , Popovic Stevo R. , Porta Miquel , Portegies Marileen L. P. , Posch Georg , Poulimeneas Dimitrios , Pouraram Hamed , Pourshams Akram , Poustchi Hossein , Pradeepa Rajendra , Price Alison J. , Price Jacqueline F. , Puder Jardena J. , Pudule Iveta , Puhakka Soile E. , Puiu Maria , Punab Margus , Qasrawi Radwan F. , Qorbani Mostafa , Quoc Bao Tran , Radhika Madhari S. , Radic Ivana , Radisauskas Ricardas , Rahman Mahfuzar , Rahman Mahmudur , Raitakari Olli , Raj Manu , Rajkumar Hemalatha , Rakhmatulloev Sherali , Ramachandra Rao Sudha , Ramachandran Ambady , Ramke Jacqueline , Ramos Elisabete , Ramos Rafel , Rampal Lekhraj , Rampal Sanjay , Rao Kodavanti Mallikharjuna , Rascon-Pacheco Ramon A. , Rasmussen Mette , Redon Josep , Reganit Paul Ferdinand M. , Regecová Valéria , Revilla Luis , Ribas-Barba Lourdes , Ribeiro Robespierre , Riboli Elio , Rigo Fernando , Rinaldo Natascia , Rinke de Wit Tobias F. , Rito Ana , Ritti-Dias Raphael M. , Rivera Juan A. , Robitaille Cynthia , Rodrigues Daniela , Rodríguez-Artalejo Fernando , Rodriguez-Perez María del Cristo , Rodríguez-Villamizar Laura A. , Rojas-Martinez Rosalba , Rojroongwasinkul Nipa , Romaguera Dora , Rosengren Annika , Rouse Ian , Roy Joel G. R. , Rubinstein Adolfo , Rühli Frank J. , Ruidavets Jean-Bernard , Ruiz Moreno Emma , Ruiz-Betancourt Blanca Sandra , Russo Paola , Rust Petra , Rutkowski Marcin , Sabanayagam Charumathi , Sachdev Harshpal S. , Safiri Saeid , Saidi Olfa , Salanave Benoit , Salazar-Martinez Eduardo , Salmerón Diego , Salomaa Veikko , Salonen Jukka T. , Salvetti Massimo , Sánchez-Abanto Jose , Sandjaja  , Sans Susana , Santa-Marina Loreto , Santos Diana A. , Santos Ina S. , Santos Osvaldo , Santos Rute , Sanz Sara Santos , Saramies Jouko L. , Sardinha Luis B. , Sarrafzadegan Nizal , Saum Kai-Uwe , Savva Savvas , Savy Mathilde , Scazufca Marcia , Schaffrath Rosario Angelika , Schargrodsky Herman , Schienkiewitz Anja , Schindler Karin , Schipf Sabine , Schmidt Carsten O. , Schmidt Ida Maria , Schöttker Ben , Schultsz Constance , Schutte Aletta E. , Sebert Sylvain , Sein Aye Aye , Selamat Rusidah , Sember Vedrana , Sen Abhijit , Senbanjo Idowu O. , Sepanlou Sadaf G. , Sequera Victor , Serra-Majem Luis , Servais Jennifer , Shalnova Svetlana A. , Sharma Sanjib K. , Shaw Jonathan E. , Shengelia Lela , Shibuya Kenji , Shimizu-Furusawa Hana , Shin Dong Wook , Shin Youchan , Siani Alfonso , Siantar Rosalynn , Sibai Abla M. , Silva Antonio M. , Silva Diego Augusto Santos , Simon Mary , Simons Judith , Simons Leon A. , Si-Ramlee Khairil , Sjöberg Agneta , Sjöström Michael , Slowikowska-Hilczer Jolanta , Slusarczyk Przemyslaw , Smeeth Liam , Snijder Marieke B. , So Hung-Kwan , Sobngwi Eugène , Söderberg Stefan , Soekatri Moesijanti Y. E. , Soemantri Agustinus , Solfrizzi Vincenzo , Sonestedt Emily , Song Yi , Sørensen Thorkild I. A. , Sossa Jérome Charles , Soumaré Aïcha , Spinelli Angela , Spiroski Igor , Staessen Jan A. , Stamm Hanspeter , Stathopoulou Maria G. , Staub Kaspar , Stavreski Bill , Steene-Johannessen Jostein , Stehle Peter , Stein Aryeh D. , Stergiou George S. , Stessman Jochanan , Stöckl Doris , Stocks Tanja , Stokwiszewski Jakub , Stratton Gareth , Stronks Karien , Strufaldi Maria Wany , Sturua Lela , Suárez-Medina Ramón , Sun Chien-An , Sundström Johan , Sung Yn-Tz , Sunyer Jordi , Suriyawongpaisal Paibul , Swinburn Boyd A. , Sy Rody G. , Sylva René Charles , Szponar Lucjan , Tai E. Shyong , Tammesoo Mari-Liis , Tamosiunas Abdonas , Tan Eng Joo , Tang Xun , Tanser Frank , Tao Yong , Tarawneh Mohammed Rasoul , Tarp Jakob , Tarqui-Mamani Carolina B. , Taxová Braunerová Radka , Taylor Anne , Tchibindat Félicité , Tebar William R. , Tell Grethe , Tello Tania , Theobald Holger , Theodoridis Xenophon , Thijs Lutgarde , Thuesen Betina H. , Tichá Lubica , Timmermans Erik J. , Tjonneland Anne , Tolonen Hanna K. , Tolstrup Janne S. , Topbas Murat , Topór-Madry Roman , Tormo María José , Tornaritis Michael J. , Torrent Maties , Toselli Stefania , Traissac Pierre , Trichopoulos Dimitrios , Trichopoulou Antonia , Trinh Oanh T. H. , Trivedi Atul , Tsao Yu-Hsiang , Tshepo Lechaba , Tsigga Maria , Tsugane Shoichiro , Tulloch-Reid Marshall K. , Tullu Fikru , Tuomainen Tomi-Pekka , Tuomilehto Jaakko , Turley Maria L. , Tynelius Per , Tzotzas Themistoklis , Tzourio Christophe , Ueda Peter , Ugel Eunice E. , Ukoli Flora A. M. , Ulmer Hanno , Unal Belgin , Uusitalo Hannu M. T. , Vaitkeviciute Justina , Valdivia Gonzalo , Vale Susana , Valvi Damaskini , van der Schouw Yvonne T. , Van Herck Koen , Van Minh Hoang , van Rossem Lenie , Van Schoor Natasja M. , van Valkengoed Irene G. M. , Vanderschueren Dirk , Vanuzzo Diego , Varela-Moreiras Gregorio , Varona-Pérez Patricia , Vatten Lars , Vega Tomas , Veidebaum Toomas , Velasquez-Melendez Gustavo , Velika Biruta , Veronesi Giovanni , Verschuren W. M. Monique , Victora Cesar G. , Viegi Giovanni , Viet Lucie , Vineis Paolo , Vioque Jesus , Virtanen Jyrki K. , Visser Marjolein , Visvikis-Siest Sophie , Viswanathan Bharathi , Vlasoff Tiina , Vollenweider Peter , Völzke Henry , Voutilainen Ari , Voutilainen Sari , Vrijheid Martine , Vrijkotte Tanja G. M. , Wade Alisha N. , Wagner Aline , Waldhör Thomas , Walton Janette , Wan Bebakar Wan Mohamad , Wan Mohamud Wan Nazaimoon , Wanderley Rildo S. , Wang Ming-Dong , Wang Qian , Wang Xiangjun , Wang Ya Xing , Wang Ying-Wei , Wannamethee S. Goya , Wareham Nicholas , Weber Adelheid , Weerasekera Deepa , Weghuber Daniel , Wei Wenbin , Whincup Peter H. , Widhalm Kurt , Widyahening Indah S. , Wiecek Andrzej , Wijga Alet H. , Wilks Rainford J. , Willeit Johann , Willeit Peter , Wilsgaard Tom , Wojtyniak Bogdan , Wong Jyh Eiin , Wong Tien Yin , Wong-McClure Roy A. , Woo Jean , Woodward Mark , Wu Frederick C. , Wu Jianfeng , Wu Shouling , Xu Haiquan , Xu Liang , Yamborisut Uruwan , Yan Weili , Yang Ling , Yang Xiaoguang , Yang Yang , Yardim Nazan , Yaseri Mehdi , Ye Xingwang , Yiallouros Panayiotis K. , Yngve Agneta , Yoosefi Moein , Yoshihara Akihiro , You Qi Sheng , You San-Lin , Younger-Coleman Novie O. , Yusoff Ahmad Faudzi , Zaccagni Luciana , Zafiropulos Vassilis , Zamani Farhad , Zambon Sabina , Zampelas Antonis , Zamrazilová Hana , Zapata Maria Elisa , Zaw Ko Ko , Zdrojewski Tomasz , Zeljkovic Vrkic Tajana , Zeng Yi , Zhao Dong , Zhao Wenhua , Zheng Wei , Zheng Yingfeng , Zholdin Bekbolat , Zhou Maigeng , Zhu Dan , Zhussupov Baurzhan , Zimmermann Esther , Zuñiga Cisneros Julio , Ezzati Majid 
Published: May 2019

Body-mass index (BMI) has increased steadily in most countries in parallel with a rise in the proportion of the population who live in cities1,2. This has led to a widely reported view that urbanization is one of the most important drivers of the global rise in obesity3–6. Here we use 2,009 population-based studies, with measurements of height and weight in more than 112 million adults, to report national, regional and global trends in mean BMI segregated by place of residence (a rural or urban area) from 1985 to 2017. We show that, contrary to the dominant paradigm, more than 55% of the global rise in mean BMI from 1985 to 2017—and more than 80% in some low- and middle-income regions—was due to increases in BMI in rural areas. This large contribution stems from the fact that, with the exception of women in sub-Saharan Africa, BMI is increasing at the same rate or faster in rural areas than in cities in low- and middle-income regions. These trends have in turn resulted in a closing—and in some countries reversal—of the gap in BMI between urban and rural areas in low- and middle-income countries, especially for women. In high-income and industrialized countries, we noted a persistently higher rural BMI, especially for women. There is an urgent need for an integrated approach to rural nutrition that enhances financial and physical access to healthy foods, to avoid replacing the rural undernutrition disadvantage in poor countries with a more general malnutrition disadvantage that entails excessive consumption of low-quality calories.