bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SIGNAL PATHWAYS AND APPRESSORIUM MORPHOGENESIS
Authors: Dean Ralph A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Fungal pathogens have evolved elaborate strategies to gain access to plant tissues. For many pathogens, following attachment of spores to the leaf surface, germ tubes emerge and grow across the surface, often in response to particular environmental cues and to a specific location. At an appropriate site, polar elongation of the germ tube ceases, the tip attaches to the surface and swells to form an appressorium, a uniquely organized infection structure. Following a period of maturation, a hypha then emerges at the plant interface and penetrates into the plant tissues. This chapter discusses recent developments that provide new insight into the molecular mechanism regulating induction and function of appressoria. Topics include attachment to the leaf surface; environmental cues that signal germ-tube growth and appressorium formation; mechanisms for sensing environmental cues; endogenous signaling pathways; and mechanisms of penetration from the appressorium.
MANAGEMENT OF FIRE BLIGHT: A Case Study in Microbial Ecology
Authors: Johnson K. B. , Stockwell V. O.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Suppression of the blossom-blight phase of fire blight is a key point in the management of this destructive and increasingly important disease of apple and pear. For blossom infection to occur, the causal bacterium, Erwinia amylovora, needs to increase its population size through an epiphytic phase that occurs on stigmatic surfaces. Knowledge of the ecology of the pathogen on stigmas has been key to the development of predictive models for infection and optimal timing of antibiotic sprays. Other bacterial epiphytes also colonize stigmas where they can interact with and suppress epiphytic growth of the pathogen. A commercially available bacterial antagonist of E. amylovora (BlightBan, Pseudomonas fluorescens A506) can be included in antibiotic spray programs. Integration of bacterial antagonists with chemical methods suppresses populations of the pathogen and concomitantly, fills the ecological niche provided by the stigma with a nonpathogenic, competing microorganism. Further integration of biologically based methods with conventional management of blossom blight may be achievable by increasing the diversity of applied antagonists, by refining predictive models to incorporate antagonist use, and by gaining an improved understanding of the interactions that occur among indigenous and applied bacterial epiphytes, antibiotics, and the physical environment.
ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE RESISTANCE GENES IN TOMATO AND THEIR POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE USE
Authors: Williamson Valerie M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The gene Mi, which confers resistance to several species of root-knot nematode, is present in many modern tomato cultivars. Recent cloning of this gene revealed that it encodes a member of the plant resistance protein family characterized by the presence of a putative nucleotide binding site and a leucine-rich repeat. Analysis of transgenic plants revealed the unexpected result that Mi also confers resistance to potato aphids. Although highly effective in many conditions, Mi fails to confer resistance at high soil temperature, and Mi-virulent nematode isolates have been identified in many areas of the world. These findings have stimulated efforts to identify new sources of root-knot nematode resistance. Resistance genes that differ from Mi in properties and genetic position have been identified in Lycopersicon peruvianum. These genes, as well as the cloned Mi gene, provide a resource for broadening the base of root-knot nematode resistance in tomato and other crops.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Authors: Coakley Stella Melugin , Scherm Harald , Chakraborty Sukumar
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Research on impacts of climate change on plant diseases has been limited, with most work concentrating on the effects of a single atmospheric constituent or meteorological variable on the host, pathogen, or the interaction of the two under controlled conditions. Results indicate that climate change could alter stages and rates of development of the pathogen, modify host resistance, and result in changes in the physiology of host-pathogen interactions. The most likely consequences are shifts in the geographical distribution of host and pathogen and altered crop losses, caused in part by changes in the efficacy of control strategies. Recent developments in experimental and modeling techniques offer considerable promise for developing an improved capability for climate change impact assessment and mitigation. Compared with major technological, environmental, and socioeconomic changes affecting agricultural production during the next century, climate change may be less important; it will, however, add another layer of complexity and uncertainty onto a system that is already exceedingly difficult to manage on a sustainable basis. Intensified research on climate change–related issues could result in improved understanding and management of plant diseases in the face of current and future climate extremes.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN GREENHOUSE SYSTEMS
Authors: Paulitz Timothy C. , Bélanger Richard R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The controlled environment of greenhouses, the high value of the crops, and the limited number of registered fungicides offer a unique niche for the biological control of plant diseases. During the past ten years, over 80 biocontrol products have been marketed worldwide. A large percentage of these have been developed for greenhouse crops. Products to control soilborne pathogens such as Sclerotinia, Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Fusarium include Coniothyrium minitans, species of Gliocladium, Trichoderma, Streptomyces, and Bacillus, and nonpathogenic Fusarium. Products containing Trichoderma, Ampelomyces quisqualis, Bacillus, and Ulocladium are being developed to control the primary foliar diseases, Botrytis and powdery mildew. The development of Pseudomonas for the control of Pythium diseases in hydroponics and Pseudozyma flocculosa for the control of powdery mildew by two Canadian research programs is presented. In the future, biological control of diseases in greenhouses could predominate over chemical pesticides, in the same way that biological control of greenhouse insects predominates in the United Kingdom. The limitations in formulation, registration, and commercialization are discussed, along with suggested future research priorities.
DIAGNOSIS OFTURFGRASSDISEASES
Authors: Stowell L. J. , Gelernter W. D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The role of the professional disease diagnostician has become increasingly important in turf management. Responsible turfgrass disease diagnosis must incorporate the possibility of biotic, as well as abiotic, disorders and should consist of three components: the interview, identification of the stress factor, and a management recommendation. The concept of management groups is introduced to facilitate delivery of the rapid and effective solution required by turf managers. Recent advances in diagnostics, including immunoassay, PCR kits, and distance diagnostics, have had minimal effect on turfgrass diagnostic practices to date. However, continued emphasis on the application of technology rather than knowledge-based diagnostic procedures is contributing to the demise of applied plant pathology. Nevertheless, the demand for turfgrass disease diagnostic services continues to increase, making the future for the applied plant pathologist somewhat uncertain, but full of opportunities.
PATHOGENFITNESSPENALTY AS APREDICTOR OFDURABILITY OFDISEASERESISTANCEGENES
Authors: Leach Jan E. , Vera Cruz Casiana M. , Bai Jianfa , Leung Hei
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Host plant resistance has been used extensively for disease control in many crop species; however, the resistance conferred by many sources is not durable as a result of rapid changes in the pathogen. Although many resistance genes have been identified in plant germplasm, there is no easy way to predict the quality or durability of these resistance genes. In this review, we revisit the hypothesis that resistance genes imposing a high penalty to the pathogen for adaptation will likely be durable. By elucidating the molecular changes involved in pathogen adaptation and the associated fitness cost, a proactive approach may be developed to predict the durability of resistance genes available for deployment.
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
Authors: Knight Jack
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Justice is a concept at the core of many fundamental debates in political and ethical theory. In this essay I consider what is at stake in one important debate, the effort to divorce conceptions of justice from conceptions of the good. Focusing primarily on the work of John Rawls, I analyze the underlying logic of arguments based on the notion that principles of justice can be the product of “reasonable agreement” among people who hold conflicting conceptions of the good. In doing so I consider four primary criticisms of the argument: The project is a false one in that, while it purports to be neutral, it in fact gives primacy to a particular, liberal, individualistic conception of the good on which the project is grounded; the project is inadequate because its construction of the deliberation and decision-making process fails to take account of important social factors; the project is misguided in that it fails to take account of actual social practices and, thus, fails to capture the complexity of the demands on a theory of justice; and the project is destined to fail because a theory of justice adequate to the challenges of modern society cannot be constructed in an abstract, thought-experiment way.
HISTORICAL INSTITUTIONALISM IN COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Authors: Thelen Kathleen
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This article provides an overview of recent developments in historical institutionalism. First, it reviews some distinctions that are commonly drawn between the “historical” and the “rational choice” variants of institutionalism and shows that there are more points of tangency than typically assumed. However, differences remain in how scholars in the two traditions approach empirical problems. The contrast of rational choice's emphasis on institutions as coordination mechanisms that generate or sustain equilibria versus historical institutionalism's emphasis on how institutions emerge from and are embedded in concrete temporal processes serves as the foundation for the second half of the essay, which assesses our progress in understanding institutional formation and change. Drawing on insights from recent historical institutional work on “critical junctures” and on “policy feedbacks,” the article proposes a way of thinking about institutional evolution and path dependency that provides an alternative to equilibrium and other approaches that separate the analysis of institutional stability from that of institutional change.
HIGH-LEVEL SCENE PERCEPTION
Authors: Henderson John M. , Hollingworth Andrew
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Three areas of high-level scene perception research are reviewed. The first concerns the role of eye movements in scene perception, focusing on the influence of ongoing cognitive processing on the position and duration of fixations in a scene. The second concerns the nature of the scene representation that is retained across a saccade and other brief time intervals during ongoing scene perception. Finally, we review research on the relationship between scene and object identification, focusing particularly on whether the meaning of a scene influences the identification of constituent objects.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF DEMOCRACY: A Selective Review of Research on Political Tolerance, Interpersonal Trust, and Social Capital
Authors: Sullivan J. L. , Transue J. E.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This chapter explores two psychological orientations that support democratic governance. First, robust democracies require citizens to tolerate others' efforts to participate in politics, even if they promote unpopular views. Research shows that citizens' political tolerance is influenced strongly by the depth of their commitment to democratic values, by their personality, and by the degree to which they perceive others as threatening. Cross-national research generalizes many of these findings to other countries. Second, robust democracies need citizens who will participate in politics. Almond and Verba's cross-national research shows that interpersonal trust and other features of political culture enhance citizen involvement in politics. Inglehart expanded the political culture framework in his work on post-materialism, interpersonal trust, life satisfaction, and cognitive mobilization. Recent theories of social capital also emphasize the role of generalized interpersonal trust, membership in voluntary associations, and norms of reciprocity in enhancing political participation and democracy.
The Science of Training: A Decade of Progress
Authors: Salas Eduardo , Cannon-Bowers Janis A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This chapter reviews the training research literature reported over the past decade. We describe the progress in five areas of research including training theory, training needs analysis, antecedent training conditions, training methods and strategies, and posttraining conditions. Our review suggests that advancements have been made that help us understand better the design and delivery of training in organizations, with respect to theory development as well as the quality and quantity of empirical research. We have new tools for analyzing requisite knowledge and skills, and for evaluating training. We know more about factors that influence training effectiveness and transfer of training. Finally, we challenge researchers to find better ways to translate the results of training research into practice.
MORAL AND POLICY ISSUES IN LONG-ACTING CONTRACEPTION
Authors: Brown George F. , Moskowitz Ellen H.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The advent of reversible long-acting contraceptives–IUDs, injectables and implants–has provided women throughout the world with valuable new fertility regulation options. These highly effective methods, together with male and female sterilization, have proven to be enormously popular and are now used by the majority of women and men who are currently contracepting worldwide.

Despite their remarkable popularity, long-acting contraceptives have engendered considerable controversy. Political, ethical, and safety questions have emerged, stemming from the ways in which these contraceptives have been developed and used over the course of this century. At the heart of the concern is the issue of reproductive rights and freedom.

This paper reviews the history of the development of long-acting contraceptives, including the prospect of new methods that will likely emerge from ongoing research and development. It also examines the history, in the United States and in developing countries, of the use and abuse of long-acting methods, including sterilization, in the context of eugenics and population control policies. It then describes a new paradigm of reproductive health and rights that has emerged from the International Conference on Population Development in Cairo, and which offers an enlightened approach to future policies and programs.

In light of the wide variety of ways in which long-acting contraceptives have been provided, the paper examines the rights and responsibilities of governments, family planning providers, and individuals. An ethical framework for the use of long-acting methods is discussed, and public policies for the future are proposed.
METHODS FOR ANALYZING HEALTH CARE UTILIZATION AND COSTS
Authors: Diehr P. , Yanez D. , Ash A. , Hornbrook M. , Lin D. Y.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Important questions about health care are often addressed by studying health care utilization. Utilization data have several characteristics that make them a challenge to analyze. In this paper we discuss sources of information, the statistical properties of utilization data, common analytic methods including the two-part model, and some newly available statistical methods including the generalized linear model. We also address issues of study design and new methods for dealing with censored data. Examples are presented.
Administrative Data for Public Health Surveillance and Planning
Authors: Virnig Beth A , McBean Marshall
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Electronically available administrative data are increasingly used by public health researchers and planners. The validity of the data source has been established, and its strengths and weaknesses relative to data abstracted from medical records and obtained via survey are documented. Administrative data are available from a variety of state, federal, and private sources and can, in many cases, be combined. As a tool for planning and surveillance, administrative data show great promise: They contain consistent elements, are available in a timely manner, and provide information about large numbers of individuals. Because they are available in an electronic format, they are relatively inexpensive to obtain and use. In the United States, however, there is no administrative data set covering the entire population. Although Medicare provides health care for an estimated 96% of the elderly, age 65 years and older, there is no comparable source for those under 65.
Environmental Influences on Eating and Physical Activity
Authors: French Simone A , Story Mary , Jeffery Robert W
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Obesity has increased dramatically over the past two decades and currently about 50% of US adults and 25% of US children are overweight. The current epidemic of obesity is caused largely by an environment that promotes excessive food intake and discourages physical activity. This chapter reviews what is known about environmental influences on physical activity and eating behaviors. Recent trends in food supply, eating out, physical activity, and inactivity are reviewed, as are the effects of advertising, promotion, and pricing on eating and physical activity. Public health interventions, opportunities, and potential strategies to combat the obesity epidemic by promoting an environment that supports healthy eating and physical activity are discussed.
Gambling and Related Mental Disorders: A Public Health Analysis
Authors: Shaffer Howard J. , Korn David A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This article reviews the prevalence of gambling and related mental disorders from a public health perspective. It traces the expansion of gambling in North America and the psychological, economic, and social consequences for the public's health, and then considers both the costs and benefits of gambling and the history of gambling prevalence research. A public health approach is applied to understanding the epidemiology of gambling-related problems. International prevalence rates are provided and the prevalence of mental disorders that often are comorbid with gambling problems is reviewed. Analysis includes an examination of groups vulnerable to gambling-related disorders and the methodological and conceptual matters that might influence epidemiological research and prevalence rates related to gambling. The major public health problems associated with gambling are considered and recommendations made for public health policy, practice, and research.

The enduring value of a public health perspective is that it applies different ‘lenses’ for understanding gambling behaviour, analysing its benefits and costs, as well as identifying strategies for action.

     Harvey A. Skinner ( 160 , p. 286)
What Do Interlocks Do? An Analysis, Critique, and Assessment of Research on Interlocking Directorates
Authors: Mizruchi Mark S.
Published: July 2002

Research on interlocking directorates has gained increasing prominence within the field of organizations, but it has come under increasing criticism as well. This chapter presents an in-depth examination of the study of interlocking directorates. I focus initially on both the determinants and the consequences of interlocking directorates, reviewing alternative accounts of both phenomena. Special attention is paid to the processual formulations implied by various interlock analyses. I then address the two primary criticisms of interlock research and evaluate the tenability of these criticisms. I conclude with a discussion of future directions for interlock research.
Measuring Meaning Structures
Authors: Mohr John W.
Published: July 2002

The recent cultural turn in American sociology has inspired a number of more scientifically oriented scholars to study the meanings that are embedded within institutions, practices, and cultural artifacts. I focus here on research that (a) emphasizes institutional (rather than individual) meanings, (b) uses a structural approach to interpretation, and (c) employs formal algorithms or quantitative procedures for reducing the complexity of meanings to simpler structural principles. I discuss two core methodological issues—the assessment of similarities and differences between items in a cultural system and the process by which structure-preserving simplifications are found in the data. I also highlight the importance of two-mode analytic procedures and I review some of the perceived benefits and criticisms of this style of research.
FEMINIZATION AND JUVENILIZATION OF POVERTY: Trends, Relative Risks, Causes, and Consequences
Authors: Bianchi Suzanne M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This paper reviews trends in “feminization” and “juvenilization” of poverty showing that the relative risks of poverty increased for women in the 1970s but decreased for working-age women in the early 1980s. Relative risks of poverty increased for children between the 1970s and 1990s particularly in comparison with the elderly. Four factors affect these trends: First, the increase in women's employment and decline in the gender wage gap enhanced the likelihood that women remained above the poverty level. Second, the decline in manufacturing employment and “family wage” jobs for men increased the likelihood that less-educated men (and their families) fell into poverty in the early 1980s. These two factors combined to halt the feminization of poverty among the working-age population. At the same time, a third trend, the increase in “nonmarriage,” elevated the proportion of single parents who were young, never-married mothers and complicated the collection of child support from nonresident fathers. This tended to concentrate poverty in mother-child families. Finally, public transfers of income, especially Social Security, were far more effective in alleviating poverty among the elderly than among children, a factor dramatically increasing the “juvenilization” of poverty after 1970.
Double Standards for Competence: Theory and Research
Authors: Foschi Martha
Published: July 2002

This article reviews theory and research on double standards, namely, the use of different requirements for the inference of possession of an attribute, depending on the individuals being assessed. The article focuses on double standards for competence in task groups and begins by examining how status characteristics (e.g. gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic class) become a basis for stricter standards for the lower status person. I also discuss other bases for this practice (e.g. personality characteristics, allocated rewards, sentiments of either like or dislike). Next, I describe double standards in the inference of other types of valued attributes (e.g. beauty, morality, mental health) and examine the relationship between these practices and competence double standards. The article concludes with a discussion of “reverse” double standards for competence, namely, the practice of applying more lenient ability standards to lower status individuals.
Diazoxide Opens the Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore and Alters Ca
2+
Transients in Rat Ventricular Myocytes
Authors: Katoh Hideki , Nishigaki Nobuhiro , Hayashi Hideharu
Published: July 2002

Background
—

The mitochondrial K
ATP
channel (mitoK
ATP
) has been implicated as an end effector or trigger of ischemic preconditioning (IP). Although a mitoK
ATP
opener, diazoxide, mimics IP, mechanisms for the cardioprotective action remain unclear.

Methods and Results
—

We measured Ca
2+
transients (CaTs) and mitochondrial inner membrane potential (Δψ
m
) with confocal microscopy and the fluorescent probes fluo-4 and tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester perchlorate in rat ventricular myocytes. Diazoxide increased the amplitudes and diastolic levels of CaTs dose dependently. The effects of diazoxide on CaTs were inhibited by the mitoK
ATP
antagonist sodium 5-hydroxydecanoic acid (100 μmol/L), whereas application of diazoxide caused little change in Δψ
m
. After sarcoplasmic reticulum function was disabled with ryanodine and thapsigargin, the effects of diazoxide on CaTs were still observed. The opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore was monitored with fluorescent calcein. Diazoxide accelerated the leakage of calcein from mitochondrial matrix (16% of control;
P
<0.05), and this effect was inhibited by cyclosporin A (2 μmol/L). Cyclosporin A also abolished the effects of diazoxide on CaTs. Diazoxide oxidized flavoprotein fluorescence reversibly, and this effect was partially blunted by cyclosporin A (by 24%;
P
<0.05).

Conclusions
—

We conclude that in rat ventricular myocytes, diazoxide modulates the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, resulting in an increase in CaTs independent of the changes in Δψ
m
. The action of diazoxide on the mitochondrial permeability transition pore also affects the mitochondrial redox state.
Imaging Atherosclerotic Plaque Inflammation With [
18
F]-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography
Authors: Rudd J.H.F. , Warburton E.A. , Fryer T.D. , Jones H.A. , Clark J.C. , Antoun N. , Johnström P. , Davenport A.P. , Kirkpatrick P.J. , Arch B.N. , Pickard J.D. , Weissberg P.L.
Published: July 2002

Background

—

Atherosclerotic plaque rupture is usually a consequence of inflammatory cell activity within the plaque. Current imaging techniques provide anatomic data but no indication of plaque inflammation. The glucose analogue [
18
F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (
18
FDG) can be used to image inflammatory cell activity non-invasively by PET. In this study we tested whether
18
FDG-PET imaging can identify inflammation within carotid artery atherosclerotic plaques.

Methods and Results

—

Eight patients with symptomatic carotid atherosclerosis were imaged using
18
FDG-PET and co-registered CT. Symptomatic carotid plaques were visible in
18
FDG-PET images acquired 3 hours post-
18
FDG injection. The estimated net
18
FDG accumulation rate (plaque/integral plasma) in symptomatic lesions was 27% higher than in contralateral asymptomatic lesions. There was no measurable
18
FDG uptake into normal carotid arteries. Autoradiography of excised plaques confirmed accumulation of deoxyglucose in macrophage-rich areas of the plaque.

Conclusions

—

This study demonstrates that atherosclerotic plaque inflammation can be imaged with
18
FDG-PET, and that symptomatic, unstable plaques accumulate more
18
FDG than asymptomatic lesions.
Sympathetic Nervous Activity and Myocardial Damage Immediately After Subarachnoid Hemorrhage in a Unique Animal Model
Authors: Masuda Takashi , Sato Kiyotaka , Yamamoto Shin-ichiro , Matsuyama Narihisa , Shimohama Takao , Matsunaga Atsuhiko , Obuchi Shuichi , Shiba Yoshitaka , Shimizu Shinobu , Izumi Tohru
Published: July 2002

Background and Purpose

—

Obvious cardiac dysfunction, including ECG abnormalities and left ventricular asynergy, is known to develop after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). To clarify the close relationship between myocardial damage and sympathetic nervous activity immediately after SAH, a novel experimental animal model was used.

Methods

—

SAH was provoked by perforation of the basilar artery with the use of a microcatheter inserted through the femoral artery in 18 beagle dogs. Hemodynamic changes were recorded, and plasma concentrations of noradrenaline, adrenaline, and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-phenylethylene glycol (MHPG) and serum levels of creatine kinase–MB (CK-MB) and troponin T were measured at 0, 5, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes after SAH.

Results

—

Noradrenaline (pg/mL), adrenaline (pg/mL), and MHPG (ng/mL) increased abruptly from 120±70, 130±70, and 1.3±0.5 before SAH to 1700±1200, 5600±3500, and 3.2±1.2 at 5 minutes after SAH, respectively. Aortic pressure, left ventricular wall motion, and cardiac output increased by 60%, 40%, and 30%, respectively (
P
<0.001) at 5 minutes and then decreased by 50%, 55%, and 40%, respectively (
P
<0.001) >60 minutes after SAH compared with baseline values. The peak value of CK-MB correlated positively with the peak values of noradrenaline and adrenaline (
r
=0.730 and
r
=0.611, respectively). The peak value of troponin T also correlated positively with the peak values of noradrenaline and adrenaline (
r
=0.828 and
r
=0.792, respectively).

Conclusions

—

These results suggest that the elevated activity of the sympathetic nervous system observed in the acute phase of SAH induced myocardial damage and contributed to the development of cardiac dysfunction.
Predominant Involvement of Ipsilateral Anterior and Posterior Circulations in Moyamoya Disease
Authors: Mugikura Shunji , Takahashi Shoki , Higano Shuichi , Shirane Reizo , Sakurai Yoshiharu , Yamada Shogo
Published: July 2002

Background and Purpose

—

We encountered several patients with childhood onset of moyamoya disease in whom the ipsilateral anterior and posterior circulations were predominantly involved. This study investigated whether this is an angiographic characteristic of this disease.

Methods

—

We evaluated steno-occlusive lesions on angiograms of 85 patients with pediatric onset of moyamoya disease, using two 4-stage angiographic classification scales for the internal carotid artery and posterior cerebral artery systems (ICA and PCA staging, respectively) and determined whether lesions with more advanced ICA and PCA stages were on ipsilateral sides.

Results

—

When positive laterality was defined as the presence of a difference by ≥1 stage between the stages on both sides, lateralities in the ICA stages and in the PCA stages were present in 40 (47%) and 27 patients (32%), respectively. Lesions with more advanced ICA and PCA stages were on the same side, with significant probability (
P
=0.024, Fisher’s exact test). Lateralities in both ICA and PCA lesions were found in 17 patients. In 14 (82%) of the 17 patients, the more advanced side of ICA lesions was the same as that of PCA lesions, while it was contralateral in 3 patients (18%).

Conclusions

—

In pediatric-onset moyamoya disease, asymmetrical involvement of bilateral ICAs and PCAs was common, and the ipsilateral ICA and PCA tended to be predominantly involved.
Delegation, agency, and agenda setting in the European Community
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: July 2002

Do supranational institutions matter—do they deserve the status of an independent causal variable—in the politics of the European Community (EC)? Does the Commission of the European Communities matter? Does the European Court of Justice (ECJ) or the European Parliament? Is the EC characterized by continued member state dominance or by a runaway Commission and an activist Court progressively chipping away at this dominance? These are some of the more important questions for our understanding of the EC and of European integration. They have divided the two traditional schools of thought in regional integration, with neofunctionalists generally asserting, and intergovernmentalists generally denying, any important causal role for supranational institutions in the integration process. By and large, however, neither neofunctionalism nor intergovernmentalism has generated testable hypotheses regarding the conditions under which, and the ways in which, supranational institutions exert an independent causal influence on either EC governance or the process of European integration.
Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability Versus Ethnic Ties
Authors: Saideman Stephen M.
Published: July 2002

With the end of the Cold War, many observers expected that international conflict would be less likely to occur and easier to manage. Given the successful resolution of the Gulf War and the European Community's (EC) efforts to develop a common foreign policy, observers expected international cooperation to manage the few conflicts that might break out. Instead, the disintegration of Yugoslavia contradicted these expectations. Rather than developing a common foreign policy, European states were divided over how to deal with Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia. Germany pushed for relatively quick recognition of Croatia and Slovenia, whereas other members of the EC wanted to go slower. Some observers expected Russia to fall in line with the West because of its need for investment and trade, but instead it supported Serbia. It is puzzling that Europe failed to cooperate regardless of whether greater international cooperation could have managed this conflict. How can we make sense of the international relations of Yugoslavia's demise? Since secession is not a new phenomenon, we should study previous secessionist conflicts to determine if they share certain dynamics, and we should consider applying to Yugoslavia the arguments developed to understand such conflicts.
International Norm Dynamics and Political Change
Authors: Finnemore Martha , Sikkink Kathryn
Published: July 2002

Norms have never been absent from the study of international politics, but the sweeping “ideational turn” in the 1980s and 1990s brought them back as a central theoretical concern in the field. Much theorizing about norms has focused on how they create social structure, standards of appropriateness, and stability in international politics. Recent empirical research on norms, in contrast, has examined their role in creating political change, but change processes have been less well-theorized. We induce from this research a variety of theoretical arguments and testable hypotheses about the role of norms in political change. We argue that norms evolve in a three-stage “life cycle” of emergence, “norm cascades,” and internalization, and that each stage is governed by different motives, mechanisms, and behavioral logics. We also highlight the rational and strategic nature of many social construction processes and argue that theoretical progress will only be made by placing attention on the connections between norms and rationality rather than by opposing the two.
Creating Artificial Life for Interactive Art and Entertainment
Authors: Mignonneau Laurent , Sommerer Christa
Published: July 2002

This article consists of two sections: the first provides a brief overview of artificial-life art and entertainment software, some of the main products and their peculiarities; and the second describes one of the authors' artificial-life software products, called Life Spacies II, which was created between 1997 and 1999. This system consists of a web page that allows users to create artificial-life creatures by simply typing in text characters using a web page “editor.” Written text is used as genetic code to model the creature's body. The body shape subsequently influences the creature's ability to move, which in turn determines the creature's behavior, survival and reproduction within the Life Spacies II environment. In addition, users of the system can feed the creatures with text characters and thus even more actively influence the creatures' survival and reproduction in their environment.
Sound Material: A New Reception
Authors: Gobin Pascal
Published: July 2002

The author offers new approaches to sound material and composition made possible by advances in technology and modern musical theory. He then discusses the use of Semiotic Temporal Units (USTs) as a method of organizing sound material into morphologically based categories in an attempt to reenvisage Western notions of musical composition. Finally, the author presents recent examples that illustrate the need for a rethinking of compositional rules and methodologies.
Building and Merging, not Checking: The Nonexistence of (Aux)-S-V-O Languages
Authors: Baker Mark C.
Published: July 2002

Standard views about the factors that determine verb position and subject position predict that there should be Subject-Verb-Object languages in which tense and aspect are indicated by a particle or auxiliary that comes before the subject. Julien's (2000) large-scale survey of the languages of the world, however, indicates that this word order is never found. This striking gap suggests that the theory of how verbs are related to tense needs to be rethought. I suggest that the gap can be explained by abandoning Chomsky's (1993, 1995) checking theory, in which the relationship between the T node and the inflected verb can be established abstractly. The correct word order typology follows if the computational system of human language can combine tense and verb only by overt head movement (Baker 1988, Pollock 1989) or by the PF merger of morphemes under adjacency (Marantz 1988, Bobaljik 1994).
Brain Indices of Music Processing: “Nonmusicians” are Musical
Authors: Koelsch Stefan , Gunter Tomas , Friederici Angela D. , Schröger Erich
Published: July 2002

Only little systematic research has examined event-related brain potentials (ERPs) elicited by the cognitive processing of music. The present study investigated how music processing is influenced by a preceding musical context, affected by the task relevance of unexpected chords, and influenced by the degree and the probability of violation. Four experiments were conducted in which “nonmusicians” listened to chord sequences, which infrequently contained a chord violating the sound expectancy of listeners. Integration of in-key chords into the musical context was reflected as a late negative-frontal deflection in the ERPs. This negative deflection declined towards the end of a chord sequence, reflecting normal buildup of musical context. Brain waves elicited by chords with unexpected notes revealed two ERP effects: an early right-hemispheric preponderant-anterior negativity, which was taken to reflect the violation of sound expectancy; and a late bilateral-frontal negativity. The late negativity was larger compared to in-key chords and taken to reflect the higher degree of integration needed for unexpected chords. The early right-anterior negativity (ERAN) was unaffected by the task relevance of unexpected chords. The amplitudes of both early and late negativities were found to be sensitive to the degree of musical expectancy induced by the preceding harmonic context, and to the probability for deviant acoustic events. The employed experimental design opens a new field for the investigation of music processing. Results strengthen the hypothesis of an implicit musical ability of the human brain.
When Far Becomes Near: Remapping of Space by Tool Use
Authors: Berti Anna , Frassinetti Francesca
Published: July 2002

Far (extrapersonal) and near (peripersonal) spaces are behaviorally defined as the space outside the hand-reaching distance and the space within the hand-reaching distance. Animal and human studies have confirmed this distinction, showing that space is not homogeneously represented in the brain. In this paper we demonstrate that the coding of space as “far” and “near” is not only determined by the hand-reaching distance, but it is also dependent on how the brain represents the extension of the body space. We will show that when the cerebral representation of body space is extended to include objects or tools used by the subject, space previously mapped as far can be remapped as near. Patient P.P., after a right hemisphere stroke, showed a dissociation between near and far spaces in the manifestation of neglect. Indeed, in a line bisection task, neglect was apparent in near space, but not in far space when bisection in the far space was performed with a projection lightpen. However, when in the far space bisection was performed with a stick, used by the patient to reach the line, neglect appeared and was as severe as neglect in the near space. An artificial extension of the patient's body (the stick) caused a remapping of far space as near space.
Comparison of the Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum in Shifting Attention.
Authors: Ravizza Susan M. , Ivry Richard B.
Published: July 2002

The basal ganglia and cerebellum have traditionally been associated with motor performance. Recently, there has been considerable interest regarding the contributions of these subcortical structures to aspecdts of cognition. In particular, both the basal ganglia and cerebellum have been hypothesized to be involved in the control of attentional set. To dat, no neuropsychological studies have directly compared the effects of basal ganglia and cerebellar dysfunction on the same attention shifting tasks. To this end, dwe employed and alternating attention task that has been used to demonstrate putative attentional control deficits in children with cerebellar pathology, either related to autism or neurological insult. When adult patients with either Parkinson's disease or cerebellar lesions were tested on this task, a similar pattern of deficits was observed for both groups. However, when the motor demands were reduced, cerebellar patients showed a significant improvement on the alternating attention task, whereas the Parkinson patients continued to exhibit an impairment. This dissociation suggests that attentional deficits reported previously as being due to cerebellar dysfunction may be, at least in part, secondary to problem related to coordinating successive responses. In contrast, attention-shifting deficits associated with basal ganglia impairment cannot be explained by recourse to the motor demands of the task.
Preserved Adjustment but Impaired Awareness in a Sensory-Motor Conflict following Prefrontal Lesions
Authors: Slachevsky Andrea , Pillon Bernard , Fourneret Pierre , Pradat-Diehl Pascale , Jeannerod Marc , Dubois Bruno
Published: July 2002

Control of action occurs at different stagesof the executive process, in particular at those of sensory-motor integration and conscious monitoring. The aim of this study was to determine the implication of the prefrontal cortex in the control of action. For that purpose, we compared the performance of 15 patients with frontal lobe lesions and 15 matched controls on an experimental paradigm generating a conflict between the action planned and the sensory-motor feedback. Subjects had to trace a sagittal line witha stylus on a graphic tablet. The hand was hidden by a mirror on which the traced line, processed by a computer, was projected. Without informing the subjects, the line traced was modified by introducing a bias to the right, which increased progressively from 2° to 42°. To succeed the task, subjects had to modify their motor program and deviate their hand in the opposite direction. The sensory-motor adjustment to the bias was evaluated by the surface between the line traced and the ideal line to compensate for the deviation. The awareness of the conflict was measured by the angle of the bias at which subjects expressed the feeling that the line they traced was not the same as the line they saw. The deviation was similarly compensated for by patients and controls until24°. Then 14 controls but only3 patients were aware of a conflict. After that, the variability of performance increased significantly for the unaware patients. These results suggest that the prefrontal cortex is required at the level of conscious monitoring of actions, but not at the level of sensory-motor integration.
Toward a Functional Analysis of the Basal Ganglia
Authors: Hayes Amy E. , Davidson Matthew C. , Keele Steven W. , Rafal Robert D.
Published: July 2002

Parkinson patients were tested in two paradigms to test the hypothesis that the basal ganglia are involved in the shifting of attentional set. Set shifting means a respecification of the conditions that regulate responding, a process sometimes referred to as an executive process. In one paradigm, upon the appearance of each stimulus, subjects were instructed to respond either to its color or to its shape. In a second paradigm, subjects learned to produce short sequences of three keypresses in response to two arbitrary stimuli. Reaction times were compared for the cases where set either remained the same or changed for two successive stimuli. Parkinson patients were slow to change set compared to controls. Parkinson patients were also less able to filter the competing but irrelevant set than were control subjects. The switching deficit appears to be dopamine based; the magnitude of the shifting deficit was related to the degree to which l-dopa-based medication ameliorated patients' motor symptoms. Moreover, temporary withholding of medication, a so-called off manipulation, increased the time to switch. Using the framework of equilibrium point theory of movement, we discuss how a set switching deficit may also underlie clinical motor disturbances seen in Parkinson's disease.
Lateralization of Speech and Auditory Temporal Processing
Authors: Belin Pascal , Zilbovicius Monica , Crozier Sophie , Thivard Lionel , Fontaine and Anne , Masure Marie-Cécile , Samson Yves
Published: July 2002

To investigate the role of temporal processing in language lateralization, we monitored asymmetry of cerebral activation in human volunteers using positron emission tomography (PET). Subjects were scanned during passive auditory stimulation with nonverbal sounds containing rapid (40 msec) or extended (200 msec) frequency transitions. Bilateral symmetric activation was observed in the auditory cortex for slow frequency transitions. In contrast, left-biased asymmetry was observed in response to rapid frequency transitions due to reduced response of the right auditory cortex. These results provide direct evidence that auditory processing of rapid acoustic transitions is lateralized in the human brain. Such functional asymmetry in temporal processing is likely to contribute to language lateralization from the lowest levels of cortical processing.
Vergence Dynamics Predict Fixation Disparity
Authors: Patel Saumil S. , Jiang Bai-Chuan , Ogmen Haluk
Published: July 2002

The neural origin of the steady-state vergence eye movement error, called binocular fixation disparity, is not well understood. Further, there has been no study that quantitatively relates the dynamics of the vergence system to its steady-state behavior, a critical test for the understanding of any oculomotor system. We investigate whether fixation disparity can be related to the dynamics of opponent convergence and divergence neural pathways. Using binocular eye movement recordings, we first show that opponent vergence pathways exhibit asymmetric angle-dependent gains. We then present a neural model that combines physiological properties of disparity-tuned cells and vergence premotor cells with the asymmetric gain properties of the opponent pathways. Quantitative comparison of the model predictions with our experimental data suggests that fixation disparity can arise when asymmetric opponent vergence pathways are driven by a distributed disparity code.