bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Putting the DISTANCE in Distance Education: An International Experience in Rural Special Education Personnel Preparation
Authors: Kelly Karen L. , Schorger John R.
Published: April 2017

Delivery of special education courses via distance education presents unique challenges, particularly when the distance between the instructors and students spans the globe. In this program description, two professors, teaching on the island of Cyprus, delivered courses to graduate students in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. This article provides an overview of ACCESS (A Colorado Consortium for Equity in Special Education Services), a rural special education personnel preparation program primarily delivered via distance education. The authors report evaluation data and address specific challenges to effective instruction when delivering on-line courses, including the establishment of a dynamic community of learners.
Teachers' Attitudes toward Inclusion: Survey Results from Elementary School Teachers in Three Southwestern Rural School Districts
Authors: Hammond Helen , Ingalls Lawrence
Published: April 2017

Since the mid 1980s, there has been a strong national movement to include all children in general education classrooms within their neighborhood schools. This movement has met with much support; however, there are many challenges professionals encounter when implementing inclusionary programs. Although, for years, we have acknowledged the challenges and concerns teachers have, these issues continue to plague our educators. To rectify the problems, we need to specifically identify the teachers' concerns and then begin to establish methods to directly address the issues. This study investigated the attitudes of elementary school teachers towards inclusion within three rural school districts in a southwestern area of United States. Summary information was obtained, analyzed and used to make recommendations to address the teachers' concerns for implementing effective and successful inclusionary programs.
The Status of Large-Scale Assessment Practices for Students with Disabilities in Rural America
Authors: Thompson Sandra J. , Quenemoen Rachel F. , Thurlow Martha L.
Published: April 2017

The status of large-scale assessment practices for students with disabilities in rural states compared to urban and other states is explored in this article. Based on responses to a survey of state special education directors, rural states showed more stable assessment participation rates across years than urban states. Fewer rural states had data available about assessment performance levels, but of those with data, more showed an increase in performance levels than urban states. More rural than urban states had data on accommodations use and more of these states showed stable use across years, whereas more urban states showed an increase in the use of assessment accommodations. Nearly all rural states use a portfolio approach to alternate assessment in contrast to urban states in which a variety of approaches are used. Through the story of one rural education cooperative, an illustration is provided that assessment data can and is being used to make a difference in student outcomes.
Assessment of Professional Development Systems: Improving Rural Special Education Services
Authors: Rude Harvey A. , Brewer Robin D.
Published: April 2017

The ability to measure the results of professional development programs and activities remains an elusive goal for most educators in rural settings. While students in classrooms continue to face extensive assessment requirements related to the attainment of educational content outcomes, there has been little effort to assess the impact of professional development designed to enhance the effectiveness of educational professionals who carry the major responsibility for the facilitation of learning outcomes for all learners. These issues sometimes become more difficult to address in rural schools if there are limited resources and support services. To realize the benefits of effective professional development, assessment approaches that link the effectiveness of such efforts to increasing student achievement are described. In this article, the prevailing approaches to professional development in rural schools are identified with evidence about best practices also provided.
Heartland Area Education Agency's Problem Solving Model: An Outcomes-Driven Special Education Paradigm
Authors: Jankowski Elizabeth A.
Published: April 2017

In this article, an alternative outcomes-oriented special education model currently in use in Iowa is discussed, the Heartland Area Education Agency Problem Solving Model. Described are the rationale of the model, its evolution, and a description of the assessment and delivery system of the model. The core beliefs necessary for successful implementation of the model are also described.
The Critical Role of Phonological and Phonemic Awareness in Reading Success: A Model for Early Literacy in Rural Schools
Authors: Berg Michele , Stegelman Trudy
Published: April 2017

Early and continuous monitoring of emerging reading skills is a major component of preventing reading failure as well as an effective approach to lowering the incidence of special education referrals. In this article, seminal and contemporary research pertinent to the development of reading skills is highlighted and the critical relationship of phonological processing ability to the understanding of letter-sound associations is outlined. The findings regarding the long-term consequences of early reading difficulties are discussed and the benefits of a diagnostic/prescriptive approach to instruction are examined. The developmental sequence of phonological awareness skills is presented along with a detailed discussion of screening and assessment measures that can be used to guide reading instruction in pre-kindergarten through the second grade.
Broadening Perspectives to Meet the Needs of Gifted Learners in Rural Schools
Authors: Montgomery Diane
Published: April 2017

The purpose of this discussion is to demonstrate the importance of developing a broad perspective when meeting the needs of children and youth who are gifted and live in rural areas. A narrow perspective of one program for one type of giftedness restricts the usefulness of rural resources. Families who have inhabited places for generations have close connections to “place” and often feel emotional ties to the values of such places. Discovering and maximizing the resources specific to the rural area may help rural educators in providing educational plans and services for gifted learners, building a future that is as solid as the successes experienced in the earliest history of rural education. This discussion uses the lens of motivational theory, specifically the development of initiative for gifted learners, to broaden perspectives in thinking about the ways rural schools can connect to rural communities to provide differentiated services for gifted learners.
Trigram: A Gifted Program Model All Students Can Enjoy
Authors: Coon Patricia
Published: April 2017

When developing a gifted program model, it is beneficial for gifted students, as well as the rest of the school population, to consider an inclusionary program that involves all learners through different levels of delivery. The Trigram program has a three-prong delivery mode that has proven to be very successful among students, teachers, and parents. The program's uniqueness is not only that it is based on many of the best models for gifted education, but that it services all students, including students from general and special education throughout the course of the school year. Gifted students respond well to this program configuration, and they are more accepted and respected by their peers in that every student has a chance to participate. With the oftentimes restricted access to diverse enrichment activities in rural communities, this model serves as an efficient means of extending and expanding limited resources.
Gifted and Talented Summer Program: You can Design One Easily
Authors: Steinmiller Georgine , Steinmiller Robert
Published: April 2017

In this article the authors share the planning and implementation of a successful summer program in a rural setting. The design of this program met the needs of children who are bright, gifted, and talented. The specific elements needed to duplicate the program are addressed. The authors would be happy to share any additional information needed by the readers.
Instructional Team Training: Delivering Live, Internet Courses to Teachers and Paraprofessionals in Utah, Idaho and Pennsylvania
Authors: Forbush David E. , Morgan Robert L.
Published: April 2017

Shortages of fully qualified special education teachers have been present in rural, suburban and urban America since the formal inception of special education. Public schools have mitigated special education teacher shortages by hiring paraprofessionals. Though hiring of paraprofessionals has been common practice, it is becoming more difficult to recruit and retain paraprofessionals once hired due to factors related to, or exacerbated by, the lack of pre-service training that teachers receive to effectively supervise paraprofessionals. In response to this training need, a project developed, implemented, and evaluated two live internet-based real-time video and audio courses delivered to teachers and paraprofessionals in Rexburg, ID, Turbotville, PA, and Brigham City, UT. Teachers and paraprofessionals were presented with skills needed to build and maintain effective instructional teams. This article describes the need for the courses, format used for delivery, and course evaluation data.
Evaluating Co-teaching as a Means for Successful Inclusion of Students with Disabilities in a Rural District
Authors: Wischnowski Michael W. , Salmon Susan J. , Eaton Karen
Published: April 2017

This paper describes the efforts of one school district to implement and evaluate co-teaching as a means for successfully including most students with disabilities into general education classrooms. The evaluation team collected data for two years at the elementary and middle school levels related to student achievement, application of classroom and test modifications, behavioral referrals, student self-concept, and teacher and parent satisfaction. Evaluation results indicated support for co-teaching as a means for providing students with disabilities access to the general education curriculum and their peers without disabilities.
A Rural-Based Study of Developmental Outcomes in Young Children Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine
Authors:   Programs in Special Education, Chapman J. Keith
Published: April 2017

This study was designed to determine if differences in cognitive functioning, as measured by scores on the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (AGS, 1995), persist as developmental outcomes between young rural-based children prenatally exposed to cocaine (n = 32) and young children not prenatally exposed to cocaine (n = 32). The subjects (N = 64) were identified and selected into this study by social and public health caseworkers, Head Start directors and teachers, preschool and early intervention program professionals in the states of Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Subjects were matched according to the following selection criteria: (a) gender, (b) race, (c) age (month and year), (d) maternal marital status (single, married, divorced), (e) maternal age (between 16 and 20) (f) present residence (both parents, mother, father, extended family, foster care), (g) live in communities with less than 2,500 residents, (h) maternal education, and (i) family yearly income. Results from MANCOVA procedures indicated that a significant number of young rural-based children prenatally exposed to cocaine exhibited developmental problems in cognitive functioning related to expressive and receptive language areas, and these cognitive functioning deficits persisted across the length of the study. These findings suggest that there is a possible negative long-term relationship between prenatally cocaine exposure and subsequent deficits in cognitive functioning in this population of young children.
Early Intervention in Rural Natural Environments: Making the Most of Your Time
Authors: Jung Lee Ann , Mccormick Katherine M. , Jolivette Kristine
Published: April 2017

Early interventionists in rural settings face many barriers as they seek to provide effective services in natural environments for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families. This paper describes a model for addressing these barriers. Three components are described: the use of natural learning opportunities, consultative service delivery, and transdisciplinary teaming.
Learning at the Margins
Authors: Medina Catherine , Luna Gaye
Published: April 2017

Educational limitations for Mexican American students in American public schools remain in the 21st century. Although Hispanics are the fastest growing ethnic population in the United States, education has difficulty meeting the teaching and learning needs of Hispanic students. Beyond ethnicity, Mexican American students suffer from distinct educational, social, and cultural pressures that play out in class. This study represents the voices of six Mexican American students enrolled in special education for learning and/or behavioral disabilities. The students express alienation, disinterest, and anxiety regarding their classrooms, teachers, and classmates. Ever-present concerns and barriers expressed by these students, coupled with current research, point to the ongoing challenges to education and school culture in particular.
No Child Left Behind: A National Study of Its Impact on Special Education in Rural Schools
Authors: Kossar Kalie , Mitchem Katherine , Ludlow Barbara
Published: April 2017

Under the most recent national mandates, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) and the newly reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), schools must bring virtually all students to the proficient level on state content tests within the next decade. Schools are expected to meet this challenge by employing only highly qualified teachers who are well trained to use evidence-based practices beginning next year. Serious concerns have been voiced by a variety of stakeholders about the impact of these mandates on rural schools as well as about their implications for special education services. Various stakeholders in rural areas across the country were surveyed to examine the perceived impact of the NCLBA mandates for highly qualified teachers and annual yearly progress and inform the debate on policies and practices associated with their implementation in rural schools. Results indicated that a majority of participants believed that NCLBA would have a negative impact on rural schools and that rural schools would have difficulty meeting the accountability and quality provisions of the Act in the area of special education.
NCLB and the Demand for Highly Qualified Teachers: Challenges and Solutions for Rural Schools
Authors: Brownell Mary T. , Bishop Anne M. , Sindelar Paul T.
Published: April 2017

Teacher shortages in special education have been a source of longstanding concern for professionals and parents involved in the education of students with disabilities. Because of their geographic location, culture, and lack of resources, rural administrators have always struggled to staff their schools with qualified special education teachers. No Child Left Behind and its definition of highly qualified teacher present new challenges to rural district administrators attempting to secure adequate numbers of special education teachers. In this paper, we outline the challenges rural administrators face in reducing special education teacher shortages, present strategies being used nationally and regionally to reduce strategies, and critique those strategies. We conclude our paper by advocating for a more comprehensive approach to solving teacher supply and demand problems, one that is driven by personnel data.
Administrative Perspectives on the No Child Left behind Act (NCLBA) for Students with Disabilities in Rural Settings
Authors: Purcell Luann L. , East Bill , Rude Harvey A.
Published: April 2017

The impact of the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) has provided a significant challenge and opportunity for administrators of special education services at the state and local levels. Leaders representing prominent professional organizations at both the state (National Association of State Directors of Special Education, Inc.) and local (Council of Administrators of Special Education, Inc.) education levels have identified advantages and barriers to successful implementation of the legal mandates. The most significant challenges for special education leaders and managers include: the requirements for adequate yearly progress for all learners, the provision of highly qualified special education service providers, and an adequate amount of attention devoted to all subgroups of learners. The unique difficulties for rural schools providing an appropriate education to all learners, including those with disabilities, are compounded by the effects of supplemental services, choice options, and the identification of adequate resources. The implications for the preparation of effective special education leaders and managers are identified within these parameters.
Perceptions of Students and Educators on the Impact of No Child Left Behind: Some Will and Some Won't
Authors: Harriman Nancy E.
Published: April 2017

How do students and educators perceive the No Child Left Behind law and its impact? The author reports on structured interviews with 15 staff members K-12 and 37 middle level students in a small, northeastern coastal community. The responses of students included three themes: fairness to subgroups, student effort and self-determination, and apprehensions about changing schools. Issues identified by teachers, special educators and administrators included: desirable effects of accountability; concerns about fairness to students with disabilities and diverse learning needs; conflicts between state and federal requirements; and negative effects on teaching, learning and allocation of resources. Most respondents recommended that the law be amended to achieve the original intent. Of particular relevance to special educators in small or rural schools is the overall challenge identified by educators of finding time to balance the often apparently competing demands of existing initiatives such as individualized instruction, curriculum of place, community involvement, and development of functional skills, with the additional bureaucratic and assessment related demands required by No Child Left Behind.
Professional Development: When Teachers Plan and Deliver Their Own
Authors: Blum H. Timothy , Yocom Dorothy Jean , Trent Allen , Mclaughlin Meredith
Published: April 2017

Teachers at the University of Wyoming Lab School, a part of Albany County public schools, wanted to create a curriculum that provided all children equal access to high quality education in a caring environment that nurtured personal growth. Their approach found the Japanese Lesson Study format provided that vehicle. The researchers warn that it should not be assumed that this model translates flawlessly to U.S. schools. Their work describes how the program was altered for their school and the promising results they obtained.
The Use of Problem-Based Learning in Rural Special Education Preservice Training Programs
Authors: Elrod G. Franklin , Coleman Ashley M. , Shumpert Kimberly D. , Medley Meagan B.
Published: April 2017

This manuscript presents a case for the use of problem-based learning (PBL) in the preservice training of rural special educators. The PBL process is defined and its implementation procedures are outlined. A PBL case scenario is presented from a course on secondary special education methods from a rural university. Additionally, preservice teachers' PBL analyses of the case are displayed and discussed. Implications for the use of PBL are offered, in particular with rural preservice teachers in mind.
Perceived Needs of Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities in Rural Areas
Authors: Rude Harvey , Jackson Lewis , Correa Silvia , Luckner John , Muir Sheryl , Ferrell Kay
Published: April 2017

We examined the current perspectives of service providers, administrators, and parents who are linked to the provision of special education and related services to learners with low-incidence disabilities in the United States. The purposes of the investigation were to gain information from the various respondents concerning the adequacy and availability of appropriate educational services for students with low-incidence disabilities and provide information regarding the need for additional services and supports. A detailed survey instrument that included a variety of open-ended response items was developed and mailed to the membership of two professional organizations with strong connections to rural special education. Responses indicated that the biggest areas of need were for highly qualified personnel with the necessary skills and knowledge to meet the needs of learners with low-incidence disabilities and for timely information that would support the education of these learners. Implications for how these concerns can be addressed are provided within the framework of four major functions including: information provision, teacher preparation, local school support, and research.
Avoiding Special Education Litigation in Rural School Districts
Authors: Scheffel Debora L. , Rude Harvey A. , Bole Paul Thomas
Published: April 2017

The major purpose of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and its legislative predecessors has shifted in the past 25 years from simply providing access to educational services to an emphasis on providing meaningful, measurable, and accountable programs to students with disabilities (Katsiyannis, Yell, & Bradley, 2001). These changes have resulted in more students seeking services and legal protection under IDEA. These changes have also made school districts and particularly rural districts more vulnerable to parent initiated due process proceedings. A qualitative case study was conducted using data from several rural school districts in Kansas. Data were triangulated and summarized into five key principles. These five principles are offered to guide rural school districts in avoiding special educational due process proceedings.
IDEA Compliance: A View from Rural America
Authors: O'dell Richard M. , Schaefer Michele
Published: April 2017

In the 30 years since the establishment of federal law mandating special education, the voices of school personnel (special education teachers, speech and language pathologists, and school psychologists) charged with implementing these laws and regulations have been largely silent in the national research. Yet, these front line school district personnel serve as “intermediaries” and have responsibility to implement special education policy. This is an exploratory study that provided a forum for rural special education teachers, speech and language pathologists, and school psychologists to share their experiences and ideas regarding implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) prior to the reauthorization in 2004. Recommendations regarding practice, research, and policy in the administration of rural special education programs are provided.
Service Delivery and Instructional Programming in Rural, Suburban, and Urban Secondary Special Education: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Bouck Emily C.
Published: April 2017

In this exploratory study, the intersection of curriculum and instructional environments for secondary students with mild mental impairment and learning disabilities was examined with respect to school location—rural, urban, or suburban. A survey was mailed to 378 secondary special education teachers in Michigan. Findings revealed differences exist in the curricular options and instructional environments available to students in different settings. Rural schools were more likely to offer the same curriculum and instructional environments to students with mild mental impairment and learning disabilities. However, rural schools were not more similar to urban schools across curriculum options or instructional environments for either population, which contradicted findings from the general education research.
Rural Native Hawaiian Perspectives on Special Education
Authors: Ogata Veronica F. , Sheehey Patricia H. , Noonan Mary Jo
Published: April 2017

Native Hawaiians are an involuntary minority group who became Americans through an overthrow of their monarchy and colonization in the late 1800s. They have a history of separate and substandard schooling, and political and economic oppression. Currently, Native Hawaiians are overrepresented in special education, due in large part to the mismatch between western schooling and Hawaiian culture and speaking Pidgin English as their first language. In addition to overrepresentation, special education issues for Native Hawaiians include conducting unbiased assessment, providing culturally-relevant instruction and behavior management, and supporting families of students with disabilities. These issues overlap significantly with higher education challenges of recruiting and retaining Native Hawaiians in special education teacher preparation programs and developing culturally competent special educators.
Teachers' Cultural Knowledge and Understanding of American Indian Students and Their Families: Impact of Culture on a Child's Learning
Authors: Ingalls Lawrence , Hammond Helen , Dupoux Errol , Baeza Rosalinda
Published: April 2017

This manuscript discusses educational practices used in a K-12 reservation school system and speculates how these practices may be culturally insensitive to American Indian students and their families in the community. Focus group discussions were conducted with seven teachers, who were students in a graduate program, and were working on a reservation school located in a rural community in the southwestern United States. The students were queried as a group during class meetings on educational practices. These discussions revealed a list of commonly used teaching methods that are incompatible with this population and reasons for the incompatibility. Since the teachers were familiar with the American Indian culture, they were able to generate a list of culturally responsive educational practices (solutions) to address each problem area. These findings have major implications for this population of students as they have one of the highest special education referral and placement rates of all minority groups.
Early Childhood Education among American Indian/Alaskan Native Children with Disabilities: Implications for Research and Practice
Authors: Faircloth Susan C.
Published: April 2017

Although American Indian and Alaskan Native students are disproportionately represented in special education programs and services across the nation, little has been written about this population in terms of disability status. Specifically, questions persist regarding the factors that place these students at risk for special education placement and services during the early childhood years. There is also a lack of research regarding effective educational services for this population. Originally commissioned for presentation at the 2005 Rural Early Childhood Forum on American Indian and Alaskan Native Early Childhood Learning, this paper explores the current state of the knowledge in educating young American Indian and Alaskan Native children with or at-risk of disabilities. Implications for practice and research are also discussed.
The Person behind the Face of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Student Experiences and Family and Professionals' Perspectives on FASD
Authors: Ryan Susan , Ferguson Dianne L.
Published: April 2017

This article describes the individual experiences of 5 students with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) living in rural and urban Alaska. The article is based on the results of a 3 year qualitative study using interviews with and observations of the students, members of their family, and educational and medical professionals with whom they are involved. Findings highlight several major themes that include: (a) the person behind the face of FASD; (b) experiences of students with FASD including situations of competence and vulnerability; (c) anticipated trajectories that lead the students towards experiences of separateness and isolation; and (d) the social and cultural stigma of FASD. The article concludes with recommendations that service providers, educators, and policy makers can use to improve the education and community life for students with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
Technology-Mediated Consultation to Assist Rural Students: A Case Study
Authors: Rule Sarah , Salzberg Charles , Higbee Thomas , Menlove Ronda , Smith Jared
Published: April 2017

Emerging videoconferencing technologies permit face to face communication in a virtual, real time manner so that educational expertise can be shared across geographical boundaries. Although demonstrations of successful use of videoconferencing to share expertise of teachers and related service personnel go back 20 years, the sustained use of technology for this purpose has yet to occur. This paper describes a case study in which consultation was delivered to a special education classroom in a remote region to help develop and implement the IEP for a young child with autism. While there was a clear benefit to the child in this case, collateral technological and programmatic challenges were never fully overcome, thus shortcutting the intended intervention. Issues that must be resolved for families and local education agency personnel to benefit from the expertise of consultants at a distance are discussed.
Reaching through the Screen: Using a Tablet PC to Provide Feedback in Online Classes
Authors: Steinweg Sue Byrd , Williams Sarah Carver , Warren Sandra Hopfengardner , Allen Philip
Published: April 2017

Growth in the number of online classes in higher education has provided additional post-secondary opportunities to students in rural communities. This growth has also resulted in challenges for students and faculty. Using the digital ink of a tablet PC to provide hand written feedback on document files allows faculty to efficiently provide precise feedback. Students indicate that feedback provided with the tablet PC contains clear information as well as a “human touch” for online assignments. Faculty members report the ease of using tablet PC technology increases the efficiency with which they can provide more detailed digital feedback.
Assessment and Students with Disabilities: Issues and Challenges with Educational Reform
Authors: Bowen Sandra K. , Rude Harvey A.
Published: April 2017

The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act seeks to correct achievement gaps that are most prevalent among students in specific subgroups including those with disabilities, linguistic and cultural diversity, and representing economic disadvantage. The reauthorization of federal special education legislation through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) has moved to align the accountability for learners with disabilities with the guiding principles of NCLB. This paper examines the challenges of adequately assessing these learners in a manner that preserves the individualized nature of educational supports and services while focusing on the desired learning and results that are expected by education policy through accountability mandates. In this lens of increased scrutiny for results accountability, the issues of eligibility for services, summary of performance, and transition services are analyzed and aligned with these policy expectations with particular consideration given to rural impact. The emerging focus on early intervening services and assessing learners identified as at risk for school failure promotes practices that are aligned with academic and behavioral success for all learners. A summary of recommendations is provided on assessment related factors for rural school teachers and administrators.
Saving Your Sanity When Teaching in an Online Environment: Lessons Learned
Authors: Keramidas Cathy Galyon , Ludlow Barbara L. , Collins Belva C. , Baird Constance M.
Published: April 2017

To address critical shortages of special education personnel in rural areas, institutions of higher education are using the Internet to bring personnel preparation programs to prospective and practicing teachers in rural communities. However, often instructors of such courses receive little to no training on how to design and implement a course in the online environment. While learning management systems may differ at various colleges and universities, there are many helpful strategies that can make the processes of course development and implementation easier for the novice and experienced online instructor. In this article, four instructors from two different universities with substantial distance education experience offer practical tips for creating and managing online courses.
Supporting Inclusive Education for Students with Severe Disabilities in Rural Areas
Authors: Downing June E. , Peckham-Hardin Kathy
Published: April 2017

Inclusive education is considered a recommended practice for students with severe disabilities. These students benefit from the rich learning environments and natural supports found in general education classrooms. Furthermore, the highly individualized approach to inclusive education requires teams (regardless of location) to work closely with family members and peers and take advantage of natural resources that exist. Therefore, despite limited resources in rural areas, characteristics of these communities can be quite supportive of inclusive practices. Challenges to inclusive practices in rural schools will be presented as well as suggestions designed to address these challenges. The strengths of rural communities with regard to inclusive practices will be highlighted.
Preparing Teachers in Severe Disabilities across Wide Geographical Areas Using Videoconferencing Technology
Authors: Spooner Fred , Knight Vicki , Lo Ya-Yu , Wood Wendy
Published: April 2017

Support for this research was provided in part by Grant No. H32K060213 of the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, awarded to the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the Department of Education, and no official endorsement should be inferred.
The Effects of Disability Awareness Trainings with Career and Technical Educators Teaching in High Need Rural Schools
Authors: Hall Elizabeth W.
Published: April 2017

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a series of disability awareness workshops and their effects on rural career and technical education teachers who have students with disabilities in their classrooms. Two research questions were posed: (a) Will career and technical education teachers who receive a disability awareness workshop demonstrate a greater knowledge base in disability issues and legislation? and (b) Will employees who receive a disability awareness workshop alter their attitudes toward students with disabilities? Sixteen career and technical education teachers from the Genesee Valley Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) participated in this study. The teachers attended four disability awareness workshops over the span of one school year. The Facts on Disabilities Scale (FAD) and the Interaction with Disabled Persons Scale (IDP) were used as pretest/posttest measurements of knowledge about disabilities and attitudes towards students with disabilities. Results indicated an increase in degree of knowledge of issues pertinent to people with disabilities and an increase in positive attitudes toward a person with a disability.
Special Education Attrition in the State of Utah: Rural vs. Urban School Districts
Authors: Prater Mary Anne , Harris Temma , Fisher Lane
Published: April 2017

Critical shortages of special educators in the U.S. are not new. Approximately 1.1% of all U.S. special education positions have remained unfilled for the last five years (Boe, 2006). The authors were commissioned by the Utah State Office of Education to collect data on special education personnel, including special education teachers, school psychologists and speech language pathologists. This study compared all Utah rural and urban special education personnel who left their districts during the combined school years of 2004-2005 and 2005-2006. Results reveal that rural special education personnel left their positions at a significantly lower rate than is to be expected. Similarities and differences among special education leavers in rural and urban districts as well as their reasons for leaving are discussed.
Considering the Context: Differences between the Environments of Beginning Special Educators who Stay and those who Leave
Authors: Gehrke Rebecca Swanson , Mccoy Kathleen
Published: April 2017

Rural schools and other traditionally hard-to-staff schools continue to struggle with the recruitment and retention of qualified special education teachers. Beginning special educators are two and one half times more likely to leave their positions than their general education counterparts. The study reported here extends the literature base on teacher retention by exploring factors that contribute to the professional growth and job satisfaction of a particular group of beginning special educators in a variety of settings, including rural, urban, and suburban districts, both elementary and secondary school level settings, and resource or more self-contained settings. The study's findings hold implications for individuals responsible for teacher development and the administration of school funds and resources.
Ethical Dilemmas in Rural Special Education: A Call for a Conversation about the Ethics of Practice
Authors: Berkeley Terry R. , Ludlow Barbara L.
Published: April 2017

Education and human services by their very nature imply an ethical imperative (Kelman & Warwick, 1972; Becker, 2005) as these areas of endeavor represent work designed to alter the development and other characteristics of the children and their family members who are being served. The ethical imperative is an ideal based upon an assumption that we must both do good and do good well. In this article, we begin with several ethical dilemmas applicable to rural special education; these are dilemmas similar to those special educators must face but are idiosyncratic, in part, to rural locales. We follow these dilemmas by petitioning special educators to develop a language of ethics, and, perhaps, too, a commitment to social justice, since the legislative policy stimulating and requiring the development of such services has its foundation in social justice. Still, even in the presence of codes of ethical conduct developed to guide professional practice, we believe there is a higher calling, a need to move toward ideals in the work done by special educators. This calling must be absent any consideration of sanctions for not acting ethically that seem to be at the center of discussions of ethical codes—typically taking the form of this question: What happens if I do not adhere to the ethical code of conduct of my profession? For us, this petition for moving toward ideals in the work we do, and the development of a language of ethics, should be at the core of answering two essential queries throughout our professional careers: Why we do what we do? Why do we care?
Ethical Considerations for Special Educators in Rural America
Authors: Rude Harvey A. , Whetstone Patti J.
Published: April 2017

The concern for ensuring an appropriate education for students with disabilities in rural schools and communities is predicated on balancing concerns for equity and excellence in the provision of special education and related services. The ethical behavior of educators is a driving force that ensures this balance. The study of ethics is concerned with the values that society deems appropriate and/or desirable. This paper examines expectations for ethical conduct through investigation of theoretical constructs, codes of ethics, and standards for professional practice. The unique ethical challenges faced by educators in rural schools and communities are explored from multiple perspectives. These challenges include the commitment to examine ethical issues in the following key components: (a) educational processes, (b) professional practices, (c) research, (d) professional development, (e) policy, and (f) leadership. A set of summary conclusions is offered along with considerations for future inquiry in this area. Ethical Considerations for Special Educators in Rural America
Ethical Issues in General and Special Education Teacher Preparation: An Interface with Rural Education
Authors: Sileo Nancy M. , Sileo Thomas W. , Pierce Thomas B.
Published: April 2017

Teacher education may be the most important variable to ensure consideration of ethical issues in public schools. However, many teacher preparation programs may not equip teachers with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to make moral judgments and decisions necessary to provide high quality education for all students. This article addresses ethical issues and practices that impact teacher education, their interface with rural education, and results of a national research study that assesses extent to which and how preservice teacher preparation programs attend to ethical issues. Survey results indicate that teaching about ethical and professional practices is important to teacher preparation, and yet, receives little emphasis in most programs. Key Words: Educational Equity, Ethics, Morality, Rural Education, Special Education, Teacher Preparation, and Values
The Foundry: New (Rural) Perspectives on an Old Idea
Authors: Ludlow Barbara L. , Keramidas Cathy Galyon , Kossar Kalie
Published: April 2017

Joel Garreau, in his 1981 book The Nine Nations of North America, outlines nine areas of “power and influence” with distinctive values and prospects that crossed political boundaries. His conceptualization of these economic and cultural regions of the continent reflected the modern era of industrialization and the rise of large cities that began after the Civil War and lasted for over 100 years. After 10 years, James Patterson and Peter Kim (1991) wrote The Day America Told the Truth, which identified further divisions shaped by the depletion of natural resources, the loss of manufacturing jobs to developing countries, the rise of the financial and service sectors of the economy, and the exodus of families from the cities to the suburbs. More than a decade later, Thomas Friedman, in his controversial book The World is Flat, suggested that further changes are being shaped by the twin forces of information technology and economic globalization at the dawn of the 21st century.

For many years, the attention of policymakers, researchers, professionals, and the public as whole has been focused on the problems and possibilities of urban areas in the United States. Rural education leaders have decried the lack of rural-friendly policies, the dearth of rural research, and the ignorance about rural issues (Beeson & Strange, 2003; Sherwood, 2001). Today, however, there is growing interest in the challenges and opportunities faced by rural America, as evidenced by the creation of a bi-partisan group of representatives from the U. S. Senate and House known as the Rural Caucus, the implementation of the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP), and the new study by the U. S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Science titled Status of Education in Rural America, published in Summer 2007. As part of this topical issue on the meaning of rural and its implications for rural education in today's world, this article examines the area Garreau characterized as “the Foundry” from a rural perspective.
Dixie: Evolution and its Effect on Rural Special Education
Authors: Collins Belva C.
Published: April 2017

While Dixie encompasses the Southeastern region of the United States, it is better defined by the state of mind of its residents than by its geographic boundaries. In The Nine Nations of North America, Garreau (1981) defined Dixie as a quilt, referring to its diversity across social, climactic, historical, political, topographical, and racial factors and declared that its boundaries were “defined more by emotion than any other nation” (p. 131). This has not changed in the past 25 years. Bordered by the Ohio River to the north, the Atlantic Low Country to the east, the Gulf Coast to the south, and the Mississippi River to the west, the region encompasses (a) the Appalachian Mountains running through Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee; (b) the Tidewater region of Virginia, the Outer Banks or North Carolina, and the Low Country of South Carolina and Georgia; (c) the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and the Bluegrass of Kentucky; (d) the foothills of the Carolinas and Tennessee; (e) the cotton fields and Gulf Coast of Alabama and Mississippi; and (f) the riverboat country from Covington, KY, to New Orleans, LA. Each of the these areas of Southeastern United States has a distinct culture while still falling under the vast umbrella of Dixie, a region once defined by the Confederacy during the War Between the States (still referred to by some Southerners as the “War of Northern Aggression”). Through snapshots of events that have occurred in Dixie in the past 25 years, this article will attempt to illustrate a region that is experiencing vast changes in the 20th Century while attempting to cling to its Southern identity. These changes reflect economic, historical, and social evolution. It will conclude by focusing on the impact the evolution of the Dixie has had on education, with a particular focus on rural special education.
Education in the Empty Quarter: How have we Fared?
Authors: Glomb Nancy , Forbush David , Fishbaugh Mary Susan , Lefevre Anna , Woodward Rick F. , Taylor Mark M.
Published: April 2017

Garreau (1981) used the Arabic term Rub ‘al Khali, or Empty Quarter, to label the Intermountain West portion of the United States. In Saudi Arabia, the Empty Quarter is a large, dry, and relatively unpopulated area with a wealth of energy resources not unlike the Intermountain West. Garreau described changes in the area that were associated with changes in commerce and industry during the 20th century, particularly with respect to mining ventures and the discovery of oil and natural gas in the region. Although Garreau discussed many ways that these changes impacted the people and environment, he did not discuss the actual impact, or predicted impact on the education of children and youth in the region. The purpose of this article is to examine the impact of these changes on the functioning of schools in the Empty Quarter and to propose considerations for improving educational services in the region.
Professional Development in Response to Intervention: Implementation of a Model in a Rural Region
Authors: Bergstrom Melissa K.
Published: April 2017

For the successful implementation of a three-tier response to intervention system, high quality professional development is crucial. This article describes the Illinois ASPIRE initiative, a response to intervention professional development project of the Illinois State Board of Education. Specifically, the implementation of the initiative in the southern region of the state, a primarily rural region, is illustrated. The recruitment of participants, the structure of the professional development, preliminary evaluation outcomes, and future directions are described. The article may provide a potential model for other rural regions that are interested in designing professional development to support the implementation of response to intervention.