bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Out of Mind
Authors: De Gelder Beatrice , De Haan Edward H F , Heywood Charles A
Published: November 2023

Can we learn without consciousness? When the eminent neuropsychologist, Lawrence Weiskrantz first coined the term 'blindsight' to describe a condition whereby a patient could demonstrate that they were aware of some object, yet insist that they were completely unaware of its existence, the response from some in the scientific community was one of extreme skepticism. Even now, there are those who question the existence of unconscious (implicit) learning, and the topic remains one of the most actively researched and debated in psychology. In recent years evidence for unconscious processing across a range of sensory modalities have come from studies of vision, audition, memory, emotion, and action. Never before have these studies of unconscious processing in the different senses been brought together into a single volume. In a book dedicated to Lawrence Weiskrantz, some of the leading psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists of the day explain what we know about unconscious processing in the different senses. Including contributions from, amongst others, David Milner, Jon Driver, Alan Cowey, and Ray Dolan, the book presents a state of the art account of what we now know about 'the unconscious'. The book will provide a fascinating account for students and researchers in psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and philosophy.
Why is Blindsight Blind?
Authors: Azzopardi Paul
Published: November 2023

The human retina contains approximately 1.5 million ganglion cells, which convey processed visual information to the brain. About 90% of them project to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, from where the signals are relayed in retinotopic order to the striate cortex of the occipital lobe. It is not surprising, therefore, that damaging the striate cortex, or severing its inputs, causes blindness in the corresponding part of the visual field (Holmes, 1945).

Some patients with occipital lobe brain damage, however, despite being blind as a result, show signs of being able to process visual stimuli in their field defects (or scotomata), especially during forced choice discrimination tests (Pöppel et al., 1973; Weiskrantz et al., 1974; Weiskrantz, 1986). For example, they have intact pupil light reflexes (small but reproducible changes in pupils diameter brought about by the presentation of visual stimuli such as contrast-modulated gratings, Weiskrantz et al., 1998); they show an effect of priming when unseen targets presented in their scotomata influence the reaction times of their motor responses to seen targets in the intact visual field (Marzi et al., 1986; Rafal et al., 1990); they are able to indicate, verbally or manually, the presence of unseen targets in the scotoma during temporal two-alternative forced choice tests (see Stoerig and Cowey, 1997 for review); they may, when cued, move their eyes towards, or point to, the location of an unseen target in the scotoma (Pöppel et al., 1973), and they may be able to indicate whether or not an unseen target has moved in the scotoma, and perhaps even indicate its direction (reviewed in Chapter 6).
Blindsight—Putting Beta (β) on the Back Burner
Authors: Weiskrantz Lawrence
Published: November 2023

Blindsight is the capacity for making visual discriminations in the absence of acknowledged awareness, associated with damage to the visual cortex. Subjects can reach for briefly presented stimuli, can discriminate orientation, movement direction, wavelength, and so forth. In fact, the field has expanded recently. B. de Gelder and her colleagues have demonstrated discrimination of emotional expression of faces (1999; 2000). Robert Kentridge and colleagues (1999) have shown that an unseen cue in the blind field can direct attention to an unseen target. However, this subject is not reviewed here. Other relatively recent reviews are available (Weiskrantz, 1997, 1998; Cowey and Stoerig, 1991; Stoerig and Cowey, 1997), to which these latest references can be added. Instead this chapter concentrates on some of the logical issues involved in its demonstration and interpretation.

Blindsight is an example of implicit processing. All examples of implicit processing in neuropsychology are, to varying degrees, counter-intuitive, and hence subject to sceptical attack, but perhaps blindsight is the most counter-intuitive of them all, and historically it has been questioned on fronts that are unique to it. The typical case of damage to V1 is unilateral, and hence there is an intact half-field of normal vision. Therefore doubts have been raised as to whether the ‘intact’ performance seen in the blind field genuinely originates from stimuli within it, but instead might be based on artefactual stimulation of the intact visual field—either because of stray light in the display environment or spread of light within the ocular media (Campion et al., 1983). This was a legitimate concern, but various stringent controls, e.g. use of the optic disc as a control, leave no doubt that blindsight can be processing of stimuli genuinely restricted to the blind field (review by Weiskrantz, 1998).
Covert Affective Cognition and Affective Blindsight
Authors: De Gelder Beatrice
Published: November 2023

The notion that a significant part of our mental life proceeds in the absence of awareness and reflexive thought is one of the major intellectual themes since the start of empirical inquiries into mental processes. Evidence of information processing taking place outside the scope of introspection has accumulated systematically since the 1960s. Unconscious processing was found in areas of cognitive skills as diverse as reasoning, memory, language, and object recognition, all of which concerned cognitive information processing. Only recently has laboratory evidence also been provided for unconscious processing of emotional events. This new area, which one might call that of non-conscious or covert affective cognition, thus adds to the already long list of human abilities for which both an overt and a covert route is available. It takes a place next to implicit memory, blindsight, covert face recognition, and implicit language abilities. Recently and more radically, a new instance of covert affective cognition was found in patients with striate cortex lesion. Besides the well-known ability to report on unseen stimuli like line orientation or motion, we found that these patients can also discriminate between facial expressions presented in their blind field. This phenomenon, which we referred to as ‘affective blindsight’, is consistent with earlier reports of covert recognition in brain-damaged patients and non-conscious recognition of facial expressions in neurological intact perceivers. After presenting the major findings, we review some similarities and differences between affective blindsight and other instances of covert affective cognition. Its major contribution to understanding covert affective cognition lies in the insight it provides in alternative, subcortical routes for processing emotional stimuli.
Metals: the Drude and Sommerfeld models
Authors: Singleton John
Published: November 2023

The discovery of the electron just over a century ago was a turning point in the study of condensed matter physics. The existence of these tiny, charge-carrying particles in solids gave an obvious mechanism for electrical conductivity. The question then arose ‘if all solids contain electrons, why do some conduct electricity whilst others do not?’ We shall follow the path taken by many of the early scientists in this field and first examine metals, the class of solids in which the presence of the charge-carrying electrons is most obvious. By discovering why and how metals exhibit high electrical conductivity, we can, with luck, start to understand why other materials (glass, diamond, wood) do not.
The quantum mechanics of particles in a periodic potential: Bloch’s theorem
Authors: Singleton John
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall set up the formalism for dealing with a periodic potential; this is known as Bloch’s theorem. The next three chapters are going to appear to be hard work from a conceptual point of view. However, although the algebra looks complicated, the underlying ideas are really quite simple; after some reflection, you should be able to reproduce the various derivations yourself.
Inhomogeneous and hot carrier distributions in semiconductors
Authors: Singleton John
Published: November 2023

In a conventional metal such as Cu, an abnormal distribution of electronic charge will vanish very quickly indeed (in less than about 1 picosec). The reason for this rapid dispersion is of course the strong Coulomb forces between 158 electrons spaced by distances ˜ 0.3 nm and the electrons’ high mobility. However, in semiconductors, we have the possibility of the simultaneous existence of holes and electrons (see Section 9.3.1). If we inject an excess of minority carriers (say holes) into a semiconductor, then the majority carriers (say electrons) will move to the region containing the holes to ensure electrical neutrality. After this electrical neutrality is established, there is no longer a strong Coulomb force to disperse the holes, and so the excess of holes will merely diffuse out and/or drift under the action of an external field.
Introductory concepts
Authors: Buckland S T , Anderson D R , Burnham K P , Laake J L , Borchers D L , Thomas L
Published: November 2023

Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of plants and animals and their interactions with their environment. Many studies of bio- logical populations require estimates of population density (D) or size (N ), or rate of population change λt = Dt+1/Dt= Nt+1/Nt. These parameters vary in time and over space as well as by species, sex and age. Population dynamics, and hence these parameters, often depend on environmental factors. Distance sampling can be an effective approach for estimating D and N .
Oxygen uptake, and spectrophotometric measurement of superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals
Authors: Gutteridge J M C , Quinlan G J
Published: November 2023

The uptake or evolution of oxygen during a reaction can be monitored by use of a Clark-type electrode. The method is particularly useful when turbidity or interfering chromogens preclude the use of spectrophotometry (1).
ESR Spin trapping
Authors: Kosaka Hiroaki
Published: November 2023

Election spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy is a technique that can be applied to the detection and measurement of free radicals, because it detects the presence of unpaired electrons.
NO-generating system
Authors: Fujii Junichi
Published: November 2023

Nitric oxide (NO) produced by nitric oxide synthases (NOS) in vivo plays multiple roles in the body. There are three NOS isozymes whose tissuedistribution and regulation are variable. Effects of NO produced by NOS, which is expressed constitutively or induced by various stimuli, can be examined in vitro and in vivo. Precise control of NO production by NOS in vivo or in culture is, however, not possible. Because NO is such a simple molecule and a fairly stable radical, NO gas and NO donors are available for various experiments. If high concentrations are required, NO gas can be used by simply flushing target cells or tissues. Various NO donors, such as nitrosocysteine, nitrosoglutathione, S-nitroso-V-acetyl-D,L-penicillamine (SNAP), 3-morpholinosyndonimine (SIN-1) (produces both NO and superoxide), which spontaneously release NO species, are also commercially available.
Superoxide-generating system
Authors: Suzuki Keiichiro
Published: November 2023

There are several chemical ways of generating superoxide anions (O2·  -); in the biochemical and medical research fields an enzymatic method using xanthine oxidase is widely used (Fig. 1).
Neutrophils and priming. Isolation of neutrophils/ assay of O2·
- generation by cytochrome-c reduction
Authors: Utsumi Toshihiko , Utsumi Kozo
Published: November 2023

Human neutrophils play critical roles in host defence against microorganisms and in inflammatory responses. Because neutrophils in the peripheral blood of healthy individuals are not primed, stimulation-dependent responses in vitro are weak.
Bioassay for antioxidant activity: determination of scavenging capacity of antioxidants against lipid peroxyl radicals
Authors: Miyamoto Yoichi , Akajke Ta Kaaki , Maeda Iiirosiii
Published: November 2023

Much attention has been paid to the beneficial effect of antioxidants in the modulation of oxidative stress; it is thus important to the investigate the different antioxidants. Several techniques including the TBA method, chemiluminescence analysis, and ESR spectroscopy can be applied to the evaluation of antioxidant activity. Most methods, however, have disadvantages, such as need for expensive equipment.
Iron-binding and iron-oxidizing antioxidant activities
Authors: Gutteridge J M C , Quinlan g. J
Published: November 2023

Human plasma contains the iron-binding protein transferrin and an ironoxidizing protein called caeruloplasmin. These two proteins, representing less than 4% of total plasma proteins, are responsible for over 90% of the inhibitory properties of plasma towards iron-driven free-radical reactions.
Measurement of proteinaceous plasma antioxidants, low molecular weight antioxidants, and redox related compounds
Authors: Kitaoka Yuki , Yodoi Junji
Published: November 2023

Adult T cell leukaemia-derived factor (ADF), originally defined as an inducer of interleukin 2 receptor/ot chain (IL-2R/p55) of human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) positive T cells, is a human analogue of the redox-active coenzyme thioredoxin of Escherichia coli. ADF/thioredoxin contains a redoxactive dithiol (-Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys-) and has a variety of biological activities as a hydrogen donor, including dithiol-dependent reducing activity and radical scavenging activity.
γ-Glutamylcysteine synthetase: assay mixture and measurement
Authors: Kondo Takahiko , Sawada Fumi
Published: November 2023

Prepare red blood cells from whole blood (2 mL) by passing through a column packed with an equal volume of a 1:1 (w/w) cellulose-microcrystaline cellulose (Sigma) previously equilibrated with isotonic saline.
Measurement of Mn-SOD and Cu, Zn-SOD
Authors: Suzuki Keiichiro
Published: November 2023

Because the enzyme substrate and the products are unstable, it is difficult to measure the disappearance or the formation of products as is usual in enzymatic assays. Routine assays for SOD usually employ an indirect assay in which one unit of enzyme activity is defined as the amount of enzyme that inhibits the reaction of O2·  - with the indicator by 50%.
EC-SOD activity assay/immunochemical assay
Authors: Adachi Tetsuo
Published: November 2023

Extracellular-superoxide dismutase is a secretory tetrameric copper- and zinccontaining glycoprotein. For assay of EC-SOD activity, it should be separated from other SOD isozymes such as copper and zinc-containing SOD (Cu,Zn-SOD) and manganese-SOD (Mn-SOD) by concanavalin A (Con A)-Sepharose column chromatography (EC-SOD binds to a Con A column unlike other SODs), because EC-SOD occurs in tissues at much lower concentrations than the other SODs.
Immunostaining of Mn-SOD, Cu, Zn-SOD and NOS
Authors: Nakamura Masahiro , Tatsumi Haruyuki , Nogawa Hiroki
Published: November 2023

To elucidate the mechanisms of carcinogenesis and senescence, it is important to investigate the distribution of key enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) (1, 2), nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and others. Among these two are several isoenzymes, which differ from each other in their function and location. For location, immunohistochemistry is a useful approach, although a stereotyped approach is sometimes insufficient for detection of individual enzymes because of the unusual properties of the proteins. To overcome these problems, we shall overview the methods, explain the key points, and demonstrate the possibility of semi-quantitative measurement by use of confocal laser-scanning microscopy and image processing.
Plasma free fatty acids
Authors: Yamamoto Yoshihjro , Fujisawa Akio , Nagata Yuichiro , Yamashita Satoshi
Published: November 2023

Here we describe the analysis of plasma free fatty acids (FFA) only, because the measurement of fatty acids in neutral lipids, phospholipids, and total lipids has already been well documented. Plasma FFA can, furthermore, be produced by oxidatively damaged tissues because hydrolysis of phospholipids is stimulated by oxidative stress (2).
Phospholipids and their hydroperoxides
Authors: Yamamoto Yoshihiro , Kambayashi Yasuhiro , Yamashjta Satoshi
Published: November 2023

Biomembranes contain phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidylinositol as major phospholipids. Here we describe the separation of these phospholipids by HPLC, and the simultaneous detection of their primary oxidation products, hydroperoxides, by means of hydroperoxide-specific chemiluminescence detection (1, 2).
Lipid peroxidation models
Authors: Noguchi Noriko , Niki Etsuo
Published: November 2023

Lipids are important targets of active oxygen species and free radicals and the oxidation products of lipids have a variety of biological effects. Accordingly, lipid peroxidation has often been studied in vitro to elucidate its mechanism and products and to assess antioxidant activity against it. Subjects which must be considered are how lipid peroxidation is induced in a particular type of reaction medium, and how the extent of lipid peroxidation is measured, because antioxidant efficacy is highly dependent on these factors.
Plasma unsaturated iron-binding capacity and percent saturation of transferrin
Authors: Gutteridge J M C , Mumby S
Published: November 2023

The unsaturated iron-binding capacity (UIBC) of plasma is a measure of the available capacity of plasma to bind iron. Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) is a measure of all the iron bound to transferrin when it has been fully saturated by adding iron.
Low molecular mass chelatable iron: Reactive iron species (RIS)
Authors: Gutteridge J M C , mumby S
Published: November 2023

Normal plasma does not contain chelatable low molecular mass (LMr) forms of iron, because the transferrin has considerable iron-binding capacity (Chapter 49). When, however, transferrin becomes fully iron-saturated during situations of iron overload, LMrFe can be found in plasma and other extracellular fluids. Such forms of iron (often redox active) can be detected and measured in the following ways.
Confocal analysis for oxidized states in cells
Authors: Nose Kiyosh I
Published: November 2023

The redox state in cells changes significantly after stimulation with growth factors, and changes in environmental conditions. Such changes cause modulation of the activities of signalling molecules and gene expression, leading to cellular responses to such changes.
Detection of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression: preparation of RNA
Authors: Fujii Junichi
Published: November 2023

Nitric oxide (NO) is produced by nitric oxide synthase (NOS), L-arginine, and molecular oxygen as substrates. Three NOS isozymes, NOS I, also called brain NOS or bNOS, is expressed mainly in brain and muscle cells and has Ca2-/calmodulin-dependent activity.
Mn-SOD cell stimulation by cytokines: preparation of RNA
Authors: Suzuki Kellchiro
Published: November 2023

Mn-SOD expression is stimulated by various cytokines (TNF, IL-1), phorbol esters, lipopolysaccharides, etc. In this section we demonstrate Northern blot analysis and RNA preparation from cultured cells (1). Fig. 1 shows typical patterns of Northern blotting of human Mn-SODs, and 1 kb in rat Mn-SOD. Many faint minor bands are apparent because of alternative splicing and different poly A binding sites.
Peroxiredoxin
Authors: Al Shiro Bank
Published: November 2023

The peroxiredoxin family is a widely distributed class of enzymes that directly reduce H2O2 and other hydroperoxides, with hydrogen derived from NAD(P)H, by different routes (1). Two highly conserved cysteine residues are revealed by alignment of the peroxiredoxin family members.
8-OH-dG: extraction/ enzyme treatment/measurement of 8-0H-dG
Authors: Asami Shinya , Kasai Hiroshi
Published: November 2023

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by many carcinogenic agents and cause DNA damage in vitro and in vivo (1). ROS are also produced during the normal cellular respiration and oxygen metabolism. Therefore, studies on DNA damage induced by oxygen radicals should be helpful in elucidating the mechanisms of cancer induction by environmental agents and by endogenous processes. We first observed the formation of 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG, 7,8-dihydro-8-oxodeoxyguanosine) by oxygen radicals in 1984 (2) and there is now an increasing volume of data providing evidence that 8-OH-dG is a key biomarker relevant to carcinogenesis both in animal models and in human studies (3-5). In the following section, we describe our method for measuring 8-OH-dG levels.
Mitochondrial DNA damage
Authors: Hayakawa Mika , Ozawa Takayuki
Published: November 2023

Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) is constantly exposed to reactive oxygen species generated in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and it is, therefore, damaged much more rapidly than nuclear DNA. Reactive oxygen species convert deoxyguanosine in mt DNA to 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG) (Fig-1)
Ovulation: superovulation and inhibition by SOD/in vitro fertilization and SOD
Authors: Ishikawa Mutsuo
Published: November 2023

The phenomenon of follicular rupture is thought to be associated with inflammatory-like changes. Superoxide radicals are generally observed in inflammatory diseases and levels of these radicals also increase during follicular rupture. In addition, the administration of SOD (superoxide dismutase) greatly reduces ovulatory efficiency in rats and perfused rabbit ovaries.
Scavenging NO in experimental animals
Authors: Akaike Takaaki , Miyamoto Yoichi
Published: November 2023

It is important to examine the effects of NO scavengers on animal models of diseases to evaluate the pathophysiological significance of NO. In animals with endotoxin-induced shock, excessive production of NO causes hypotension. In this section, we describe methods using PTIO derivatives (1), scavengers of NO (Fig. 1), in animals with endotoxic shock (2).
Experimental protocols for ROS and RNS: cyclic GMP radioimmunoassay using brain slices
Authors: Okada Daisuke
Published: November 2023

Methods for preparing rat cerebellar slices using a vibrating slicer (Microslicer DTK 2000 or 3000, DosakaEM, Kyoto) are described (1, 2, 3). The use of brain slices has several important advantages—neuronal circuits, cell-to- cell connections, and intracellular macromolecular complexes remain intact within slices. Although brain-slice preparations enable direct visual access to intact brain structures, and easy control of fluid environment, slice techniques also have disadvantages—slices are by no means ‘intact brain’. On the other hand, slices are mixtures of heterogeneous cells in a biochemical sense.
Oxidative stress models: E. coli, cultured cells
Authors: Zhang Qiu-Mei , Tachibana, Akira , Yonei Shuji
Published: November 2023

Reactive oxygen species occur naturally in aerobic cells, arising from a wide variety of intracellular and environmental sources. Cells maintain strong defence systems against such threats, for example superoxide dismutases, catalases, and peroxidases. In some circumstances, the concentration of reactive oxygen species increases to a level which overwhelms the basal level of such scavenging capacity, giving rise to a condition at oxidative stress (1,2). Artificial, oxidative stress can be induced by addition of hydrogen peroxide or superoxide-generating drugs, or by increasing the partial pressure of oxygen.
Introduction To Separation
Authors: Sobey I J
Published: November 2023

Steady separated flow is in many ways an idealised or academic part of fluid dynamics. It is the case that virtually all separated flows are either unsteady (implying that the underlying steady separated flow is unstable) or that separation occurs as part of a transient flow process. In the latter case, if the time variation is sufficiently slow, it might be hoped that through a quasi-steady approximation, the time varying flow will be given by a steady solution at a time local Reynolds number. The range of flow conditions for which it is possible to observe steady separated flow is, for most geometries, very small.
Helium
Authors: Foot C J
Published: November 2023

Helium has only two electrons but this simplicity is deceptive. To treat systems with two particles requires new concepts that also apply to while multi-particle to study systems them in carefully many using branches the of example physics, of and it helium. is very There worth is truth detailed in the saying understanding that of the atomic two-electron physicists count system ‘one, is two, sufficient many’ for and much a of the atomic structure in this book.
Hyperfine structure and isotope shift
Authors: Foot C J
Published: November 2023

The magnetic field at the nucleus is largest for s-electrons and we shall calculate this case first. For completeness the hyperfine structure for electrons with l =/= 0 is also briefly discussed, as well as other effects that can have similar magnitude. Nuclear magnetic moments can be parallel, or anti-parallel, to I, i.e. 9I can have either sign depending on the way that the spin and orbital angular momenta of the protons and neutrons couple together inside the nucleus. The proton (that forms the nucleus of a hydrogen atom)
Symbolic Computation for Statistical Inference
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E
Published: November 2023

Over recent years, developments in statistical computing have freed statisticians from the burden of calculation and have made possible new methods of analysis that previously would have been too difficult or time-consuming. Up till now these developments have been primarily in numerical computation and graphical display, but equal steps forward are now being made in the area of symbolic computing, or in other words the use of computer languages and procedures to manipulate expressions. This allows researchers to compute an algebraic expression, rather than evaluate the expression numerically over a given range. This book summarizes a decade of research into the use of symbolic computation applied to statistical inference problems. It shows the considerable potential of the subject to automate statistical calculation, leaving researchers free to concentrate on new concepts. Starting with the development of algorithms applied to standard undergraduate problems, the book then goes on to develop increasingly more powerful tools. Later chapters then discuss the application of these algorithms to different areas of statistical methodology.
Fundamental procedures
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E
Published: November 2023

We concluded Chapter 2 pondering how the expected value operator should be extended for computations involving sums of unspecified length. This question leads to a fundamental algorithm for the full partition of a set which will be useful for this and many other calculations.
Expansions of expectations, cumulants, and unbiased estimates
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E
Published: November 2023

The remaining chapters of this book present applications of the core operators to various statistical methods involving cumulants or cumulant expansions. Expansions of cumulants may be computed using the operators of the previous two chapters. Matters are complicated by the fact that the expected values have expansions with differing powers of n. These. in tum, contribute to several different terms in the resulting expansion.
Intersection matrices
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E
Published: November 2023

Cumulant calculations involve the application of an expected value operator E to products of constants, random variables or both. For the latter, grouping of random variables is required since Eis a linear operator and the rule E[a +bX] = a+  bE[X] applies. In the scalar case, this is straightforward to implement since the commutative law of multiplication allows random variables to be grouped and separated from constants. However, the matter becomes complicated when we move to the multivariate case where the commutative law may not apply.
Ridgelets: a key to higher-dimensional intermittency?
Authors: Candès Emmanuel J , Donoho David L
Published: November 2023

This paper is part of a series around the theme — wavelets: a key to intennittent information?. The title itself raises a fundamental question; we shall argue that the answer is both no and yes. We say no because wavelets per se only address a portion of the intermittency challenge; we intend to make clear how much larger the question is than just the portion which wavelets can face effectively. Roughly speaking, wavelets deal efficiently only with one type of intermittency — singularities at points — and in higher dimensions there are many other kinds of intermittency — singularities along lines, along hyperplanes, etc. — which wavelets do not deal with efficiently. But we also say yes, because by using wavelets in a novel way, we have been able to build new systems of representations — ridgelets — which are efficient at many of the tasks where wavelets fail.
Image processing with complex wavelets
Authors: Kingsbury Nick
Published: November 2023

In this paper we consider how wavelets may be used for image processing. To date, there has been considerable interest in wavelets for image compression, and they are now commonly used by researchers for this purpose, even though the main international standards still use the discrete cosine transform (DCT). However, for image processing tasks, other than compression, the take-up of wavelets has been less enthusiastic. Here we analyse possible reasons for this and present some new ways to use wavelets that offer significant advantages.
The response of materials and devices to radiation
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len
Published: November 2023

This chapter gives a general description of the fundamental effects of radiation-–pulsed and steady-state–in materials and devices. It is intended to introduce the reader to the range and variety of effects to be expected, before it is discussed in later chapters how these effects strike at specific device structures. We describe first the two main types of interaction of radiation with materials, atomic displacement and ionization … These fundamental effects give rise to a degradation of performance which may or may not recover over periods of months.

We describe other responses to radiation which are important but do not fit the description of ‘degradation’, including two classes of transient effect and also nuclear activation by space radiation. Finally, the consequences in general of these degradation effects for a device are described.
Microelectronics, sensors, MEMs, passives and other components
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len
Published: November 2023

This chapter draws together components which, mainly for lack of interest by the radiation effects community, do not provide sufficient material for a chapter on their own. Some reasons for the variation of interest from type to type can be drawn from a comprehensive review of radiation tolerance of devices and its dependence on structure by Holmes-Siedle (1974). There is naturally less research on structures with high intrinsic tolerance (say vacuum tubes). The less tolerant ones generate the research interest, although exceptions to that rule will be found in some fast semiconductor devices dealt with here–heterojunction transistors. This second edition has brought the description of electronic technology up to the millennium era. On the other hand, the acquisition of test data for current types of device is best pursued through the web references given in Appendix G, mainly those in Section GS, Radiation Effects Databases. In these will be found at least a few results for the devices and materials dealt with in this chapter. The numbers and variety listed are likely to increase with time.
Polymers and other organics
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len
Published: November 2023

Organic compounds are sensitive to radiation by virtue of the irreversible chemical processes which take place when covalent bonds, in this case mainly C-C, C-O, O-H and C-H bonds, are excited or ionized by irradiation. Frequently, the bonds are ruptured and the reactive fragments then form new compounds, a process known as radiolysis. We have not met this process in our discussion of electronic devices and optics because the inorganic materials which largely make up such devices do not undergo decomposition in this way. The exceptions are radiolytic hydrogen in some Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor structures and radiolytic halogen in some halide salts. Organics in the form of plastics now play an indispensable role in conventional product engineering, examples being moulded structures, packets, fibre-reinforced boards, insulating sheathing, insulating and hydraulic oils, and so on. In more advanced engineering, organics, again mainly polymeric, are also extremely diverse, examples being photoresists, protective, encapsulating and passivating layers, inert binders for pigments and photographic media, active media for sensing light, force or temperature and in the millennium some active electronic switches and light emitters. Further, there is a huge volume and variety of non-polymeric, often finely-divided organic solid which come into our lives as foods, drugs, papers, dyes, explosives, and myriad natural products. Finally, organic liquids play a part in most of the above fields, including drinks, solvents, synthetic intermediates, lubricants, and insulating oils. An unexpected proportion of this diverse list may be exposed to radiation in industrial processes. For example, plant material may be used as a filler in radiation reprocessing, foods are irradiated as a preservation measure, and a toxic material such as dioxin vapour may be irradiated to destroy it. The diversity of the above list of materials makes it clear that, while all are likely to have some reactions in common (e.g. generation of hydrogen), it is a large task to list and categorize accurately the changes in physical parameters or to develop broad prediction schemes in the same way as for silicon devices.
The interaction of radiation with shielding materials
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len
Published: November 2023

The understanding of radiation effects in systems depends in part on a good understanding of the fundamental interactions between particles and photons and the materials in question. These interactions affect both shielding calculations and predictions of local effects in device structures. The local effects have mainly been discussed elsewhere in relation to specific device structures. The interaction of radiation in shields is a broad subject well covered in standard texts such as Price et al. ( 1957), Profio (1979), and Chilton et al. (1984). Other useful discussions of interactions are given in Evans (1955), Hubbell (1969), Knoll (1989), and Delaney (1992). In this chapter we discuss selected aspects of radiation shielding in general and also discuss two portions of interaction theory not widely covered: first, the interactions having a practical impact on the stopping of space radiation in spacecraft, especially applicable to analysing radiation effects in unmanned spacecraft, and second, some interactions important for soft X-rays.
Computer methods for particle transport
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len
Published: November 2023

Earlier discussion indicates the complexity involved in estimating radiation effects within a vehicle, usually a spacecraft. Often, the designer will be provided with environment data in the form of orbit-averaged particle flux spectra for the project under consideration. However, these data can themselves be generated using the environment models described in Chapter 2 and their associated computer programmes. The environment is also often specified in terms of the ‘dose-depth’ curve giving the dose as a function of depth of shielding in a simple geometry (slab or sphere). The necessary end-point will be the estimation of the radiation dose likely to be received by a particular device at a particular point within the structure. ‘Manual’ methods were described earlier, but powerful computer codes now serve as tools for the engineer.
Radiation-hardening of semiconductor parts
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len
Published: November 2023

‘Radiation-hardening’ derives from military terminology (see Section 4.1). The term has acquired a wide variety of meanings, depending on the user group and radiation environment concerned. That environment may present a variety of levels of total ionizing dose, transient dose rate, neutrons, or single-event upsets. Each environment may require a different approach to hardening. A spacecraft designer may consider a level of 100 krad ( I kGy) tolerance; to be ‘hard’, a military designer may apply the term ‘hard’ to megarad tolerance only if it also includes tolerance of transient effects. We must be careful, therefore, to qualify the term ‘hardening’ or hardened’ with a definition of the environment involved.
Microcosms of the brain what sensorimotor systems reveal about the mind
Authors: Tweed Douglas
Published: November 2023

How can we understand a system as intricate as the human brain? Microcosms of the Brain presents a bold new approach to understanding this incredibly complex organ. It argues that the key to understanding brain function lies in the sensorimotor systems-those that gather sensory data such as light and sound, and use them to control action-steering the eyes, head, or limbs. The book shows how these subsystems can provide a microcosm of the brain-small enough to be analysed, but substantial enough to reveal general principles of brain function. By studying these simple subsystems and simulating their behaviour computationally, we can get some answers to the bigger questions about brain function. In ten chapters Tweed explores ten concepts that may help form a basis for the computerized neuroscience of the future: optimization, computation, complexity, learning, dynamics, interfaces, loops, degrees of freedom, information, and inference. He explains these concepts in simple, non-mathematical language, and shows how they can bring some order to our view of the human brain. Written to be accessible to students and researchers in the cognitive sciences, this is a book that could dramatically change the way that we explore the human mind.
Brain of darkness
Authors: Tweed Douglas
Published: November 2023

Present-day knowledge of the brain resembles in some ways earlier Europeans’ knowledge of Africa. Explorers have mapped the coastline in detail, but the interior is mostly uncharted. We know a lot about the input side of the brain, where our sense organs gather information and transmit it centrally. And we understand almost as much about the output side, where commands emerge from the center to activate our muscles. But everything in between, the whole machinery of sensorimotor transformation that converts our sensations and stored knowledge into purposeful action, is more mysterious. Anatomists have brought back reports about the wiring of nuclei and cortices throughout the brain, but still we know little about what these structures are doing. Until we find out, our functional map of the interior will remain mostly a blank page, enlivened with fanciful images. Penetrating the interior, I believe, will require techniques beyond those that have served us on the peripheries. My aim in this book is to present one promising approach, laying out its logic and describing some of its early successes.
Inference
Authors: Tweed Douglas
Published: November 2023

Hermann von Helmholtz observed that sensory perception is a form of unconscious inference. Given a stream of signals from a variety of sensors, all of them noisy, all of them limited also in other ways, your brain has to infer what is going on in the outside world. Your sense organs routinely deliver incomplete, inaccurate, or contradictory reports. When you creep up the stairs to murder a sleeping houseguest, your eyes may report that there is a dagger floating in the air before you, the handle toward your hand, but your fingers, when you try to clutch it, may say that there isn’t.
The search for intelligent life in the brain
Authors: Tweed Douglas
Published: November 2023

I have argued for a threefold path through the functional interior of the brain: study sensorimotor systems, leave the details to computers, and identify the optimization principles that shaped performance. This approach yields insight and surprising, correct predictions about brain systems that might otherwise defy understanding. It applies equally to reflexive and cognitive functions: self-optimizing networks can learn and remember, they can recognize and create subtle patterns including temporal ones, they can predict the future and plan ahead, they can discern patterns hidden in noise, they can juggle probabilities and infer likely conclusions from data, they can engage in internal monologs about whether the head is really tilted, given that the otolith organs are signaling but the semicircular canals have reported no rotation.
Nonparametric smoothing
Authors: Pawitan Yudi
Published: November 2023

Nonparametric smoothing or nonparametric function estimation grew enormously in the 1980s. The word ‘nonparametric ‘ has nothing to do with the classical rank-based methods, such as the Wilcoxon rank test, but it is understood as follows. The simplest relationship between an outcome y and a predictor x is given by a linear model E(y) = β  0 + β  1  x. This linear model is a parametric equation with two parameters β  0 and β  1. A nonparametric model would simply specify E(y) as some function of x E(y) = f (x). The class of all possible f ( ) is ‘nonparametric ‘ or infinite dimensional.
Assessment of distance sampling estimators
Authors: Fewster R M , Buckland S T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we return to conventional line transect sampling, as outlined in Chapter 2, Sections 2.2–2.5. On a number of occasions in the literature, distance sampling methods have been tested by simulation studies. In some cases, the methods are reported to work well (e.g. Cassey and McArdle 1999), while in other cases the performance is criticized (Barry and Welsh 2001; Melville and Welsh 2001).
Collective motion
Authors: Czirók A , Vicsek Tamás
Published: November 2023

The collective motion of various organisms like the flocking of birds (Fig. 6.1) [1], the swimming of schools of fish [2], and the motion of herds of quadrupeds, migrating bacteria (§4.1 ), ants [3] or pedestrians (§6.2) is a fascinating phenomenon catching our eyes when we observe our natural environment. In addition to the aesthetic aspects, studies on this collective behaviour can have interesting applications as well, e.g., modelling the motion of a crowd of people can help urban designers. Here we address the question whether there are some global, perhaps universal, features of this type of behaviour when many organisms are involved and parameters like the level of perturbations or the mean distance between the individuals are changed.
Geometric And Kinematic Foundations Of Lagrangian Mechanics
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano
Published: November 2023

The first step in the construction of a mathematical model for studying the motion of a system consisting of a certain number of points is necessarily the investigation of its geometrical properties. Such properties depend on the possible presence of limitations (constraints) imposed on the position of each single point with respect to a given reference frame. For a one-point system, it is intuitively clear what it means for the system to be constrained to lie on a curve or on a surface, and how this constraint limits the possible motions of the point. The geometric and hence the kinematic description of the system becomes much more complicated when the system contains two or more points, mutually constrained; an example is the case when the distance between each pair of points in the system is fixed. The correct set-up of the framework for studying this problem requires that one first considers some fundamental geometrical properties; the study of these properties is the subject of this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Krause Jens , Ruxton Graeme D
Published: November 2023

Group-living is a widespread phenomenon in the animal kingdom and has attracted considerable attention in a number of different contexts. A large literature exists explaining the existence of grouping, concerning both its proximate and ultimate causes. Furthermore numerous studies on topics like self-organization, reciprocal altruism, and producer–scrounger relationships have used animal groups as study systems. Given the vast literature on animal groups, we will not attempt to give a comprehensive review of all existing studies, as this would neither be possible nor desirable. Instead our focus will be on the unifying concepts regarding grouping behaviour that have been developed over the last two decades (e.g. the optimal group size concept; co-operative breeding).
Spatial heterogeneity of costs and benefits within groups
Authors: Krause Jens , Ruxton Graeme D
Published: November 2023

Chapters 2 and 3, on the benefits and costs of grouping, assumed that the fitness consequences of grouping apply more or less equally to all individuals in a group (and are only a function of group size). This simplification will be challenged in this chapter, in which we explore the importance of spatial positioning within a group for individual fitness. Animal groups vary greatly in their spatial structure (Parrish and Hamner 1997) and there is growing evidence that the costs and benefits of group-living are strongly related to the spatial position of an individual within a group. Fitness is notoriously difficult to measure and so, in this chapter, we will use a number of surrogates to estimate the fitness consequences associated with different spatial positions in groups: these include energy intake (Section 5.4.1) and expenditure (Section 5.4.2), risk of predation (Section 5.5) and parasitism (Section 5.6), and access to mates (Section 5.7).
The Natural History of Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Lopez Oscar L , Becker James T
Published: November 2023

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia in individuals age 65 and older (Jorm and Jolley 1998). The neurofibrillary pathology of AD usually starts in the mesial temporal areas, continuing to the allocortex and neocortex (Braak and Braak 1991; Pearson et al.1985). Clinically, it starts with memory deficits and gradually progresses to a global cognitive impairment (Becker et al.1988). Morever, these cognitive deficits are accompanied by a variety of abnormal behaviors that are also more frequent as the disease progresses. Therefore, the study of the natural history of AD relates to the factors that accelerate or slow down the progression of the cognitive syndrome. Most natural history research focuses on four endpoints that all patients with AD will reach at some time during the course of their disease: severe cognitive and functional stages, institutionalization and death. In this chapter, we examine how comorbid conditions, specific psychiatric phenotypes, psychiatric medication, and the recently developed dementia treatments alter the natural clinical course of AD.