bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Franklin Roosevelt, the New Deal, and Grand Strategy
Authors: Borgwardt Elizabeth
Published: March 2021

This chapter assesses President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the New Deal. By 1941, FDR and his key advisers were distilling some hard-won wisdom from their trial-and-error approaches in devising what had become known as the New Deal, and applying them to the world's burgeoning international crises. The key, for Roosevelt, was a New Deal–inspired set of ideas and institutions that animated a capacious reframing of the national interest. Internationalizing the New Deal meant reconfiguring the playing field of world politics in three broad, institutional realms: collective security, economic stability, and rule of law institutions. These three institutional pillars are usually what contemporary international relations specialists mean when they refer to “the postwar international order.” What made this institutionally focused scaffolding into “grand strategy” was the way any resulting improvement to the functioning of the international order was dependent on negotiation and diplomacy.
The Misanthropy Diaries
Authors: Greenberg David
Published: March 2021

This chapter studies George Frost Kennan's diaries that the historian Frank Costigliola published in 2014. Kennan has long been renowned for having formulated the containment doctrine that guided American policymakers as they lurched through the Cold War, as well as for his significant role in shaping US foreign policy as both a diplomat and thinker. Over many decades, biographers, foreign policy hands, politicians, intellectuals, and journalists have showered Kennan with praise and hailed him as the prime example of a grand strategist. For all the scholarly disputes about Kennan, there is general agreement that he was correct about many of the most vital issues of his time, and his “realism” has often been treated as a model from which subsequent American policymakers departed at their peril. Still, as Kennanologists have long known, there is more to the story. His acclaimed 1951 study, American Diplomacy, included disparaging statements about democracy, and his writing exhibited nasty, misanthropic, and aristocratic currents. The chapter then considers the relationship between Kennan's personal prejudices and his political ideas.
Rival Visions of Nationhood
Authors: Tichenor Daniel J.
Published: March 2021

This chapter studies how immigration policy can be deployed as a key instrument of grand strategy, a site where state actors might use the levers of immigrant and refugee admissions to advance both a comprehensive and integrated set of social, economic, and security goals at home. Indeed, a diverse array of US presidents, lawmakers, and activists have had grand strategies in mind as they pursued major immigration reform. The chapter focuses on a particularly significant effort to remake the US immigration system—the 1960s struggle to dismantle national origins quotas and reopen US gates to immigrants and refugees—in order to illustrate the possibilities and limitations of grand strategizing in this policy realm. One can discern these dynamics in immigration reforms and executive actions from the 1920s to the present, but the successful battle for the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 provides an especially illuminating example. Before turning to this case, however, the chapter first considers immigration control and grand strategy in the early American republic and the rise of rival interests and ideals that make significant policy innovation contingent on incongruous coalitions and uneasy compromises.
American Grand Strategy
Authors: Logevall Fredrik
Published: March 2021

This chapter assesses how grand American grand strategy has been. If the containment followed by the United States in the Cold War is the most successful, or at least most celebrated, grand strategy the United States has ever pursued, it is worthy of a closer look. This chapter considers two foundational writings from the early Cold War: George Kennan's “X” Article, published in Foreign Affairs in 1947 (under the pseudonym “X”), which laid out the containment policy—that is to say, the containment of Soviet power—and National Security Council Memorandum 68 (NSC-68) of April 1950. Both of these documents are held to have played major roles in shaping the grand strategy that helped the United States deal successfully with the Soviet threat and ultimately win the Cold War. Each has indeed been referred to as the “blueprint” for US policy in the struggle. The chapter then addresses a second question: How much does grand strategy matter in the context of American history? History suggests that grand strategies do not alter the trajectory of great-power politics all that much. In the case of the United States, even radically imperfect strategies have not fundamentally affected its rise and fall.
Public Order and Civil Life
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

The Court has held that in using his powers the military commander in occupied territory must be guided by one, or both, of two considerations: military needs and the welfare of the local population. This chapter examines the way in which the Court has interpreted military needs and the welfare of the population, as well as the obligation of an occupying power under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations not to change local law. The chapter discusses the broad interpretation that the Court has given to military and security needs, its decision that Israeli settlers are part of the local population, its willingness to regard measures which primarily benefit Israelis as beneficial to the local population, and the latitude it has allowed the military commander to change the law.
Interrogation Practices
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the Court’s review of the practices employed by the authorities in interrogating Palestinians suspected of involvement in hostile activities. In 1999 the Court delivered a judgment prohibiting use of force and other methods of pressure in interrogations. The chapter discusses the Court’s response to allegations of torture or other forms of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment during interrogations before that judgment; the judgment itself; and subsequent judgments of the Court. It poses the question whether the Court’s refusal in recent years to intervene in decisions not to prosecute security officials suspected of using force in interrogations unravels the prohibition imposed in the 1999 judgment.
Legal Pluralism in the West
Authors: Tamanaha Brian Z.
Published: March 2021

This chapter counters the widely held view in the West that the state exercises a monopoly over law. Romani (Gypsy) communities across Europe have lived in accordance with their own law for a thousand years. Indigenous law and tribunals exist in New Zealand, Canada, Australia, and the United States, in various relationships with state law. In a number of Western countries, Jewish law and Muslim law and institutions interact with state law as well as exist apart from state law. All of these examples involve the continuation of community legal orders (customary and religious) that long predate the modern state and have continued in different forms, adjusting to and surviving the extension and penetration of state law. In many of these contexts, state law has tried to suppress, denigrate, or ignore these bodies of community law, denying their legal status, but despite of this treatment they continue to exist and are considered law by adherents.
Melania the Younger
Authors: Clark Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2021

Melania the Younger: From Rome to Jerusalem analyzes one of the most richly detailed stories of a woman of late antiquity. Melania, an early fifth-century Roman Christian aristocrat, renounced her many possessions and staggering wealth to lead a life of ascetic renunciation. Hers is a tale of “riches to rags.” Born to high Roman aristocracy in the late fourth century, Melania encountered numerous difficulties posed by family members, Roman officials, and historical circumstances themselves in disposing of her wealth, property spread across at least eight Roman provinces, and thousands of slaves. Leaving Rome with her entourage a few years before Gothic sack of Rome in 410, she journeyed to Sicily, then to North Africa (where she had estates upon which she founded monasteries), before settling in Jerusalem. There, after some years of semi-solitary existence, she founded more monastic complexes. Toward the end of her life, she traveled to Constantinople in an attempt to convert to Christianity her still-pagan uncle, who was on a state mission to the eastern Roman court. Throughout her life, she frequently met and assisted emperors and empresses, bishops, and other high dignitaries. Embracing an extreme asceticism, Melania died in Jerusalem in 439. Her Life, two versions of which (Greek and Latin) were discovered in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, was composed by a longtime assistant who succeeded her in directing the male and female monasteries in Jerusalem. An English translation of the Greek version of her Life accompanies the text of this book.
Pagans and Christians in Late Ancient Rome
Authors: Clark Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2021

Chapter 4 explores the meaning of “pagan” in late antiquity, debates over its use today, and the meaning and progress of Christianization. Recent controversies over “conversion” and the pace of Christianization, especially among the senatorial aristocracy, have called into question mid-twentieth-century claims that there was an ardent “pagan revival” among aristocrats at the end of the fourth century. Some key elements in that controversy involved the removal of the altar of the goddess Victory from the senate house and the fate of the Vestal Virgins. The chapter details later imperial rulings against pagan practices from the 390s onward. Recent scholarship questions whether conversion to Christianity entailed a radical life change for upper-class Romans. The growth of the number and role of bishops is noted. Christianity’s charity operations were probably a factor in winning some to the new faith. Soon, “heresy” would become a more pressing concern to bishops and some emperors than the occasional “pagan” practitioner.
To Constantinople and Back
Authors: Clark Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2021

Chapter 9 follows Melania as she trails her still-pagan uncle Volusian to Constantinople; he was one of two chosen to represent the West at the wedding of the eastern princess Licinia Eudoxia to the western emperor, Valentinian III. The chapter describes travel arrangements of the period, including use of the cursus publicus, and the city of Constantinople and its institutions. It traces the development of Christianity in the city, the rise of monasticism, the building of churches, and the search for relics. It describes the eastern court and Melania’s associations with high aristocracy and the Constantinopolitan imperial family. Volusian, although converted, did not live to participate in bringing the recently finished Theodosian Code to the West. The chapter also details the theological politics and Christological controversies (in which Melania participated) that disturbed the city in the fifth century. After mourning her uncle, Melania left Constantinople in late February 437, making record progress through the snow in order to reach Jerusalem in time for Easter (April 11, 437). In Jerusalem, she continued her building activities and acquisition of relics, and she greeted and escorted the empress Eudocia on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from Constantinople. A few days before her death in December 439, Melania accompanied her cousin Paula to celebrate the nativity of Jesus in Bethlehem. Back in her monastery, she bade farewell to various groups before dying on probably December 31. Her remarkable life, according to her biographer, was crowned by a similarly spectacular death and entry to heaven.
Stakeholders, Public Value(s), and Public Service Performance
Authors: Andersen Lotte B. , Brewer Gene A. , Leisink Peter
Published: March 2021

For managers in public service organizations, stakeholders are very important as they have different and sometimes conflicting values. Yet, public administration scholars often neglect the stakeholders despite their vital role in defining good performance in democratic political systems. This chapter combines theoretical perspectives on public values (different understandings of the desirable) with contributions focused on creating public value. The chapter also pays attention to the co-existing and competing governance paradigms that are part of the context in which managing for public service performance occurs. These paradigms provide institutional templates, policies, operational strategies, and desired programs that prescribe how public service provision should be structured and how it should operate. Governance paradigms can be used to understand the links between stakeholders, public values, and public service performance. Giving insight into these links is the key contribution of the chapter. It uses nine illustrative studies to examine how the stakeholder concept and public value(s) are used in the public service performance literature. A key implication is that public administrators can be portrayed as experts who exercise judgment and make consequential decisions in identifying relevant public values, in creating public value, and in generating public service performance.
Public Service Motivation and Individual Job Performance
Authors: Ritz Adrian , Vandenabeele Wouter , Vogel Dominik
Published: March 2021

When pressure on human resource departments to make government more efficient is increasing, it is of great relevance to understand employees’ motivation and the fit of an employee with their job, as both contribute strongly to service performance. Therefore, this chapter discusses the role of public employees’ motivation and its relationship to individual performance. More specifically, this relationship is examined by focusing on public service motivation (PSM), a stream of research developed during the last three decades stressing the service orientation of public employees’ identity. Theoretically, how the relationship between PSM and individual performance is dependent on institutions is discussed, and an overview of the existing empirical evidence concerning this relationship is provided. The literature review discusses a variety of aspects such as direct vs. indirect effects, type of performance used, how performance is measured, and effect sizes. Finally, several avenues for future research are proposed, including methodological strategies.
Refugee Debates in Kenya
Authors: Abdelaaty Lamis Elmy
Published: March 2021

To examine the mechanisms that shape asylum policy at a more fine-grained level, chapter 6 expands the analysis to cross-cutting pressures within the Kenyan parliament. Kenya is often considered a “crucial” case: it hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world; it is home one of to the largest refugee camps in the world; and it is the site of a grave, protracted refugee situation. Unlike previous work on refugees in Kenya, this chapter zooms in on parliamentary debates. Qualitative interpretation and quantitative analysis of statements about refugees show that these differ substantially, depending on whether they are being delivered by members of the foreign policy establishment or parliamentarians who represent domestic constituencies. The evidence presented in this chapter further bolsters the argument that asylum policy is indeed shaped by foreign policy and ethnic politics.
Introduction
Authors: Graf Sinja
Published: March 2021

The introduction develops the conceptual framework for the notion of universal crime and details its analysis via the methodological angle of political productivity. Further, this chapter theorizes the normative conception of humanity entailed by conceptions of universal crime. The stakes of articulating humanity through criminality are thrown into sharper relief through an engagement with Carl Schmitt’s political theory of enmity. The hierarchical and coercive features of the concept further inform a discussion of its inclusive effects, which yield an inclusion that is minimal as well as unequal. Deployments of universal crime in European theorizations of world politics have therefore historically bestowed a repressive “recognition via liability” upon non-European peoples. Accordingly, this chapter outlines the distinction between an inclusionary Eurocentrism that subtends notions of universal crime and more commonly studied exclusionary Eurocentric thinking.
Can the European Union Contain and Improve Income Inequality?
Authors: Salverda Wiemer
Published: March 2021

The chapter examines the results of EU-level actions regarding inequalities and their coordination with member countries. A comprehensive picture is drawn of income inequality and poverty for both the average EU country and the European Union as a single entity. Their linkages to the (combined) labour earnings received by households are explored. Contents and instruments of Europe 2020 flagship anti-poverty policymaking are analysed. Lessons are drawn for future EU policies concerning inequality, in particular for the recent European Pillar of Social Rights. As to policy contents, a strong focus on reducing the poverty gap is promoted, supported by introducing a child basic income and an earned income tax credit aimed at offering adequate minimum-income protection. The EU-level itself is addressed and inequality effects of unification scrutinized. Organizationally, a full and equivalent embedding in the dominant mechanism of EU social and economic policy making is advocated.
Tsunami
Authors: Goff James , Dudley Walter
Published: March 2021

Tsunamis, the giant waves that periodically engulf coastal areas and even the shores of lakes and rivers, have had a major impact on the world. Not only have they caused countless deaths but also they have changed nations, societies, and cultures from prehistoric to modern times. This book describes the science of tsunamis and the many ways they can be generated, ranging from earthquakes to volcanic eruptions and explosions, landslides, and others. It also explains how the waves travel across oceans at the speed of a jet airplane and how they focus or disperse their incredible energy. It delves into the clues that ancient tsunamis have left behind to be unraveled by modern science so that we can better understand not only what has happened in the past but also what will happen in the future. The book also explores the human side of tsunami disasters, examining their effect on the residents of impacted communities by recounting the amazing true stories of survival, heroism, and tragic loss. It discusses and provides examples of what works in mitigation, preparedness, warning, response, and recovery from tsunamis; what does not work; and what needs to be done. It contains little-known stories about scientists struggling to better understand these catastrophic waves, while fighting government ignorance and reluctance to take action, as well as amazing chance discoveries and the continued quest to learn more and become better prepared, as every year the odds of yet another catastrophic tsunami increase.
How Weird Squiggles Led from Sheaves of Rice to the Depth of the Seas
Authors: Goff James , Dudley Walter
Published: March 2021

Through an amazing chain of events, the Japanese story of how a town squire sacrificed his wealth to save his villagers from a deadly tsunami is intricately woven together with how in 1855 Benjamin Franklin’s great grandson accurately determined the depth of the Pacific Ocean based on the travel time of this same tsunami from Japan to San Francisco, California. This scientific breakthrough would lead to the first known prediction of tsunami wave generation through earthquake detection yet would be ignored by official government agencies with tragic consequences. Immediately following the 1946 tsunami, the Commander of the Coast and Geodetic Survey ignorantly stated, “Less than one in one hundred earthquakes result in tidal waves and you don’t alert every port in the Pacific each time a quake occurs.”
Voices from the Past
Authors: Goff James , Dudley Walter
Published: March 2021

The history of catastrophic events is not always written down; it is often embedded in place-names, oral traditions, and myth. With examples of oral traditions of sea monsters and the folly of wizards, this chapter discusses catastrophic prehistoric tsunamis generated by a massive earthquake and volcanic eruption that affected Polynesian communities and culture in the 15th century. In Japan, where the roots of oral traditions and written records are much older, the origins of the word “tsunami” are traced through the country’s cultural progression to its introduction to the Western world and to other related Japanese words that merit adoption, such as “Yoda.”
1755, Lisbon
Authors: Goff James , Dudley Walter
Published: March 2021

Most Europeans do not worry about tsunami waves as much as those who live around the rim of the Pacific Ocean, but they should. On All Saint’s Day, 1755, a huge earthquake struck Lisbon, Portugal, causing most stone buildings to collapse, including churches, monasteries, nunneries, and chapels, trapping the faithful inside the ruins, which votive candles quickly turned into burning pyres. Voltaire would write, “The sole consolation is that the Jesuit Inquisitors of Lisbon will have disappeared.” To add to the irony, among the few buildings safely left standing following the disaster were the lightly constructed wooden bordellos of the city. Most of Lisbon’s prostitutes but few of her nuns survived. Tsunami waves would not only kill thousands around Lisbon’s harbor but also travel south to Spain and North Africa, north to Ireland and Wales, and across the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean, flooding the streets of Barbados.
Afterword
Authors: Goff James , Dudley Walter
Published: March 2021

The tsunamis discussed in this book are a drop in the ocean of the vast number of catastrophic events that have affected the planet. Tsunamis can be traced back almost 3.5 billion years, so it seems that people would be prepared for their wrath. This chapter notes the value of education, and it is through the work of organizations such as the Pacific Tsunami Museum in Hilo, Hawaii, that such education reaps vast benefits. Without organizations such as this, people can only realistically expect to die, or perhaps survive through sheer luck. This chapter discusses the exposure of modern society to global issues related to tsunamis, such as the breaking of submarine cables. This chapter also raises the specter of meteorological tsunamis—another unexpected hazard.
Takin' Care of Business
Authors: Case George
Published: March 2021

We usually associate the sounds of classic rock ‘n’ roll with youthful rebellion, by juvenile delinquents, student demonstrators, idealistic hippies, or irreverent punks. But an important strain of rock from the late 1960s onward spoke to and for a very different audience: the regular working-class fans who didn’t want to change the world as much as they wanted to protect their place in it. From Creedence Clearwater Revival to Bruce Springsteen, from Lynyrd Skynyrd to AC/DC, and from Judas Priest to Ted Nugent, the music provided the anthems of an increasingly distinct—and increasingly vulnerable—demographic, which has since become a key influence on political culture around the world.
War’s Distinctive Immorality
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: March 2021

This response takes up some of the central themes raised by the commentators, working from the most general to the most specific. Ripstein responds to the suggestion that category-based reasoning is empty or irrelevant, and then turns his attention to clarifying the difference between prohibitions and permissions, considering the additional in bello rules of necessity and proportionality. Next, he addresses questions about why defensive war is the basic case for thinking about whether someone is part of the war, and the specific prohibition of perfidy. Only then does he take up two topics mentioned only in passing in the lectures: the role of international institutions, and the relevance of a state-focused account of war in the context of non-international armed conflict.
Women and language codification in Italy
Authors: Sanson Helena
Published: March 2021

The history of women’s participation to the codification of Italian and to Italian linguistics has been characterized for centuries by marginality, due to long-standing prejudices and women’s restricted educational opportunities. Nonetheless, women indirectly contributed to the democratization of the usually elitist grammar production as intended readers and dedicatees. Their use of language was also the object of discussion within the lively debates on language that have defined the Italian tradition. Other fields allowed women to make their voices heard, albeit indirectly, in terms of language study, such as translation, language and folklore collection, language learning and teaching. From the second half of the nineteenth century, we witness a more direction participation by women in producing grammatical and lexicographical works, as well as their acceptance within institutionalized contexts. The chapter also considers women’s contribution to the codification of other Romance varieties in use in the Italian peninsula, the so-called Italian dialects.
The female contribution to language studies in Portugal
Authors: Coelho Sónia , Fontes Susana , Kemmler Rolf
Published: March 2021

This chapter analyses the contribution of women to the history of linguistics in Portugal from the sixteenth century until the beginning of the twentieth century. To carry out this investigation archivist, bibliographic, and hemerographic sources have been consulted in order to understand this specific context. It has been used in a variety of sources that are representative of the women’s role in the linguistics field but also in the area of education and in the society in general. These sources range from grammars, dictionaries, and translations to texts on feminine conduct and education, literary and official texts. This essay follows a chronological order with a section for each century. In order to understand the role played by women and the difficulties they faced at that time, each section starts with an educational context, followed by the contributions in the production of materials in the field of linguistics by and for women.
Women in the history of German language studies
Authors: McLelland Nicola
Published: March 2021

This chapter presents a history of women in the study of the German language, from sparse early evidence, to their first public forays as translators and poets, as learners and as teachers—successful and locally influential, perhaps, but still largely unknown. The chapter also shows how women were students and monitors of their own German language use out of necessity, navigating various strictures about how women could and should speak and write. It was within the emerging discipline of Modern Languages that some women established a reputation as language specialists in the nineteenth century, not least Mary Brebner, whose work was very influential in the language teaching Reform Movement. Finally, the chapter considers the lasting achievements of the first women to become professional German linguists, including Theresa Albertina Louise von Jacob- Robinson, Klara Hechtenberg Collitz (c.1865–1944), Agathe Lasch (1879–1942), and Luise Berthold (1891–1983).
The female quest for the Celtic tongues of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales
Authors: Maier Bernhard
Published: March 2021

This chapter highlights the female contribution to Celtic studies. It begins by expounding the context of the discipline in relation to nineteenth-century nationalism, surveying the predominantly male contributions during its formative period from the Renaissance to the early twentieth century. It then examines the four main fields in which female scholars have made significant contributions, namely the collection of oral material, the publication of editions and translations, language activism including the production of grammars and textbooks, and linguistic studies of modern dialects and historical texts. The chapter concludes by discussing the social, political, religious, and educational reasons both for the comparatively small percentage of female scholars within the Celtic-speaking countries in general and for their comparatively high percentage in Irish studies. The chapter concludes by suggesting ways in which archival research might improve our understanding and appreciation of the female contribution to Celtic studies.
European women and the description and teaching of African languages
Authors: Pasch Helma
Published: March 2021

Women have contributed to the description of African languages in academia and in mission stations since the dawn of the twentieth century until the end of colonialism. From the beginning their publications were received as well as those of their male colleagues, even though they were disadvantaged in their scholarly work. In academia they had fewer opportunities to make a good career than their male colleagues and usually had less prestigious jobs. Some women assisted the male linguist in the household as learned spouses, sisters, or daughters. In Catholic and Protestant missionary congregations, men usually received a professional training, some even in linguistics, while only educated women could be sent as missionaries on their own. In Protestant congregations, women without professional education would be sent only as wives or sisters of a male missionary.
Ecology of Coastal Marine Sediments
Authors: Thrush Simon , Hewitt Judi , Pilditch Conrad , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

Marine sediments dominate the seafloor, creating one of the largest ecosystems on earth. Marine sediments contain some of the steepest known natural chemical gradients and are extraordinarily productive and reactive, particularly in shallow water. The plants and animals that live on and in marine sediments create highly heterogeneous conditions that strongly influence ecosystem functions and how marine ecosystems drive and respond to change. Seafloor biodiversity is a key mediator of ecosystem functioning, but its role is often excluded from global budgets or simplified to black boxes in ecosystem models. Despite this, marine sediments are fascinating places to study population, community and ecosystem ecology. This book provides an overview of soft-sediment ecosystems and how and why we should study them. It addresses the interactions between marine organisms and their physical and chemical environment, why we need to carefully design research and provides basic steps needed to both formulate good ecological questions and translate them into empirical studies of real-world ecosystems. It provides a context for different points of entry into soft-sediment ecology by offering a high-level approach. It is designed to help you think about the connections between different system components and drivers of change and identify how you can make a contribution to developing knowledge on the biodiversity and functioning of soft sediments and understanding ecosystem change, human impacts and the need for restoration.
Biotic interactions
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

This chapter addresses the biological processes that influence community composition and dynamics, highlighting the multi-trophic and multi-functional nature of soft-sediment communities. Characterising the biological interactions into competition, predation, adult–juvenile interaction, facilitation, parasitism and disease, the chapter initially focusses on what we know about these processes, their effect on other biological components and their importance in different benthic habitats. It then extends to consider how they, in conjunction with mobility of species, can influence the broader-scale spatial structure and temporal dynamics connecting communities and functions. The chapter recognises the importance of differences in strength of interaction and the potential for weak interactions to affect community dynamics. This is framed around the concept of self-organisation as an emergent characteristic of ecosystem interaction networks and how meta-communities may be constructed.
Human impacts
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

Coastal soft sediments are closely linked to human activity both on the land and at sea and consequently they are subjected to a wide array of human impacts. Looking for some general patterns in the consequences of impacts, this chapter identifies a range of different ecological changes as a result of direct impacts and then moves to address indirect effects. The chapter looks at the connections between local and global impacts focussing on eutrophication, fishing impacts, sediment run-off from land and plastic pollution. This leads to an introduction into the challenges of addressing multiple stressor effects, cumulative effects and the stress and disturbance-induced homogenisation of seafloor habitats and communities. The history of impact in coastal ecosystems often means that we have no appreciation for what has been lost in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem function. The chapter emphasises that to address the challenges of human-induced changes in soft sediments, we need good knowledge of how seafloor ecosystems function and how ecological systems as a network of interactions respond to change.
Technopopulism
Authors: Bickerton Christopher J. , Accetti Carlo Invernizzi
Published: March 2021

Technocratic appeals to expertise and populist invocations of ‘the people’ have become mainstays of political competition in established democracies. This development is best understood as the emergence of technopopulism—a new political logic that is being superimposed on the traditional struggle between left and right. Political movements and actors—such as Italy’s Five Star Movement and France’s La Républiqe En Marche—combine technocratic and populist appeals in a variety of ways, as do more established parties that are adapting to the particular set of incentives and constraints implicit in this new, unmediated form of politics. In the first book-length treatment of the phenomenon of technopopulism, the authors combine theoretical and historical approaches, offering a systematic definition of the concept of technopopulism, while also exploring a number of salient contemporary examples. The book provides a detailed account of the emergence of this new political logic, as well as a discussion of its troubling consequences for existing democratic regimes. It ends by considering some possible remedies moving beyond the simplistic idea that in the right ‘dose’ populism and technocracy can counter-balance one another.
The Current International Tax Regime
Authors: Devereux Michael P. , Auerbach Alan J. , Keen Michael , Oosterhuis Paul , Schön Wolfgang , Vella John
Published: March 2021

This chapter describes and evaluates the current regime for taxing the profit of companies in an international setting. It explains its basis in domestic law and international treaties and sets out three of its distinguishing features: the distinctions between residence and source, between active and passive income, and its basis of separate accounting. At the time of writing the existing regime is undergoing a sustained period of review and reform, although this has so far resulted mostly in the introduction of a number of new rules and a tightening of existing rules. We evaluate the current regime in the context of the five criteria set out in Chapter 2. We also briefly review further reform proposals that are currently being considered.
Fundamental Reform Options
Authors: Devereux Michael P. , Auerbach Alan J. , Keen Michael , Oosterhuis Paul , Schön Wolfgang , Vella John
Published: March 2021

This chapter sets out and evaluates a number of possible reform options; we group options by four broad locations in which profit could be taxed. First, profit could in principle be taxed in the country of residence of the owners of the business. A second option is the country of residence of the parent company or business headquarters. A third option is the country where the business undertakes its functions and activities, or where its assets—defined broadly to include financial assets—are held. We refer to this location as ‘origin’. And finally, a business could be taxed in the location of its customers. We refer to this location as ‘destination’. Each of the activities taking place in these four locations might be thought to be necessary, but not sufficient, for the generation of profit, and therefore generate a nexus which would justify taxation. We evaluate specific options according to the five criteria set out in Chapter 2.
Making Connections with Milton’s Epitaphium Damonis
Authors: Greteman Blaine
Published: March 2021

Milton’s Epitaphium Damonis is often described as a profoundly lonely work, marking the loss of his oldest and most intimate friend, Charles Diodati. It also one of the first works to announce Milton’s epic ambitions, and accordingly it holds an important place in narratives that describe Milton as a singular, or even antisocial, poet, producing poetry from the deep well of his interior self. But this chapter examines the poem as a deeply social, collaborative work, and one of Milton’s important early experiments in using print publication to cultivate and maintain relationships. Milton needed printers to establish his name; printers like Augustine Mathewes and Matthew Simmons needed authors with established names as allies in their own extended war against print licensing and monopolies. The wider context of the Epitaphium Damonis’s production makes it clear that the circumstances of Milton’s stationers cannot be disentangled from the arc of his own career. His emerging authorial identity was not solitary but social, and print was an essential strategy for constructing, promoting, and preserving it.
Do I Amuse You?
Authors: Pivetti Kyle
Published: March 2021

When Milton invokes the muse at the opening of Paradise Lost, he also introduces ambiguities of her identity, religious insight, and poetic purpose. Drawing on queer readings of Milton’s work, this essay reveals an inherent—and vexed—eroticism in the relationship to the muse and artistic inspiration. Milton plays upon the verb ‘muse’ throughout Paradise Lost, often associating it with satanic deception, but that implication operates in contrast to Milton’s earlier work with the muse in his Latin elegies and poems to Charles Diodati. In the end, we find that by claiming his status as the epic poet, Milton must foreclose the abundant possibilities in the eroticism of musing.
Mexican Miltons
Authors: Duran Angelica
Published: March 2021

This essay follows key traces of John Milton’s presence in Mexico and concludes with a discussion of their extensions into twentieth- and twenty-first-century Mexico, the hispanophone world, and related critical discussions. Milton’s works circulated in Mexican collections despite the fact that, starting in the eighteenth century, Milton was proscribed by two significant texts that circulated in the Americas: the Spanish Catholic Inquisition’s and Roman Catholic Inquisition’s infamous indexes of proscribed works and authors. English, Spanish, and French versions of Milton’s works appear at the first public library in the Americas, the Biblioteca Palafoxiana, confirming the multilingualism of and active participation in Western cultural trends by Mexican readers. After Mexican independence (1821), Mexico’s Francisco Granados Maldonado published his hispanophone translation of Paradise Lost (1858), even though three others by European Spaniards were available. Granados Maldonado’s translational choices reflect a linguistic and political engagement with, but independence from, Spanish and European cultural trends.
Milton and Radicalism
Authors: Smith Nigel
Published: March 2021

In the half-century before the quatercentenary of Milton’s birth in 2008, the dominant attention to his poetry and prose was of a historical nature and focused on exploring in detail his career as an apologist for aspects of the English Revolution: versions of radical Puritanism; republicanism; and domestic reform in the shape of the divorce argument. Yet the recent resurgence of formalist approaches, with particular focus on the poetry, has obscured or banished the politics, and work on Milton and philosophical/scientific reform has produced a picture not of the seventeenth-century Voltaire or Jefferson but of a republican Newton. This chapter insists on Milton’s identity as a radical religious and political thinker, writer, and actor, over and against some recent contrary arguments, taking account of a more recent return to historical scholarship, where some of that work has been inspired by changing definitions of radicalism in our own time.
Jus Post Bellum and Just Peace
Authors: Stahn Carsten
Published: March 2021

Theories of just peace have remained understudied in international law and peace studies. This chapter introduces major themes of the book and traces the role of peace and justice in just peace discourse. It identifies different approaches towards just peace in three fields: just war theory, peacebuilding practice, and transitional justice approaches. It argues that just peace is more than ‘just a peace’, namely a stable peace with justice, but at the same time highly dependent on relational and discursive dimensions. It requires negotiation, recognition, and implementation and involves concession or compromise from parties. It is not only related to form and process, but connected to different dimensions of justice (retributive, procedural, restorative, and distributive justice) which need to be adjusted to the context of transitions from conflict to peace. Peace must be perceived to be fair and just.
Jus Post Bellum and Proportionality
Authors: Newton Michael A.
Published: March 2021

The chapter analyses proportionality aspects of jus ad bellum and jus in bello and their connection to jus post bellum. It argues that proportionality functions are interconnected, although they operate as independent normative frameworks. Nevertheless, each operates beneath the larger shadow cast by jus post bellum considerations. The contribution engages with misapplication of Cicero’s precept of the nexus of war and peace. While jus ad bellum concepts provide a vital safeguard against reckless usages of armed force, jus in bello proportionality delineates the outer boundaries of the commander’s appropriate discretion during hostilities. The author shows that jus post bellum provides an important bridging function that arises from the deep synergies shared by the proportionality principle embodies across respective usages.
Jus Post Bellum and the Evolution of Reparations
Authors: Payne Cymie R.
Published: March 2021

This chapter argues that reparations should be seen as instrumental for peacebuilding. In contemporary practices, they are no longer solely mediated through the state or confined to claims by individuals against states. Experiences of UN claims mechanisms and international criminal tribunals show that duties may also arise in the relationship between individuals. The chapter examines reparation practices, especially from the ICC, critically engaging with the source of compensation funds, as well as with the ultimate goal of reparations: building a just and sustainable peace. With this assessment, including lessons learned from the UN Compensation Commission, the chapter aims to reframe reparations as a critical element for peacebuilding.
Mapping a Norm of Inclusion in the Jus Post Bellum
Authors: Turner Catherine
Published: March 2021

This chapter maps the existence of provisions requiring the inclusion of traditionally excluded groups in peace negotiations. It argues that international law now require inclusion not only as an aspiration or an optional political gesture, but as a fundamental general principle of the jus post bellum. It shows that inclusion as a norm emerges from within existing shared principles embodied in the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and existing international human rights treaty law. It proposes inclusion as an underpinning norm of jus post bellum, ensuring sustainable peace by engaging with those most affected by peace agreements and post-conflict constitutions.
Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Protection in Jus Post Bellum
Authors: Sjöstedt Britta
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the protection of the environment of territories that indigenous peoples inhabit, occupy, or otherwise use in the aftermath of armed conflict. It focuses on how rights of indigenous peoples apply and how they sit in the larger framework of jus post bellum. It traces international obligations to respect indigenous peoples’ rights to protect the environment of their territories in human rights law and in international environmental law. It discusses the ICL Draft Principles on the Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts which contain a clause on indigenous peoples. The author suggests that peacebuilding activities can be reconciled with states’ international obligations towards indigenous peoples.
Norm Persistence in Distributive Justice
Authors: Pugh Michael
Published: March 2021

A guiding principle of assisting recovery from conflict is that normative transformations in political economy are essential to establishing peace through law and regulation. Significant and reflexive policy shifts have occurred since the 1990s so as to sustain ‘peace from below’. The chapter submits an interpretation of post bellum economic justice that emphasizes the persistence of norms about capital accumulation and the rights of labour. Particular norms and values have been categorical for interventionists, continually reproduced and almost ideologically unimpeachable, even though such presumptions about economic progress are in jeopardy in policy centres that promote post bellum transformations. However the global growth in economic service sectors will require new forms of sustenance and new enforceable regimes to establish and maintain peace that will be recognized as ‘just’.
Statistical Tests and Algorithms
Authors: Láruson Áki J. , Reed Floyd A.
Published: March 2021

In this chapter statistical tests are performed in R, including the χ2 tests; testing can be started if allele and genotype frequency data match the reader’s expectations. Writing and running algorithms are introduced as functions, specifically working through building an Expectation Maximization function. The function is then used to estimate and update the reader’s inferences of allele frequencies from observed and expected genotypes.
Genetic Variation
Authors: Láruson Áki J. , Reed Floyd A.
Published: March 2021

An introduction to randomness and the neutral theory of molecular evolution and how it contributes to levels of genetic diversity in populations. The estimation of random shifts in allele frequencies over time is discussed using the binomial probability distribution. This chapter visualizes how different initial allele frequencies relate to their probability of being fixed in a population when only drift is acting. The outputs of multiple simulations of a population undergoing random increase and decrease in allele frequencies per generation are built, run, and visualized. The fixation index (F) is introduced to quantify the loss of genetic variance over time.