bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Behaviour and Survival of Rehabilitated Hedgehogs (Erinaceus Europaeus)
Authors: Morris P A , Meakin K , Sharafi S
Published: January 2023

Full ‘rehabilitation’ of sick and injured wild animals should include restoration to the wild. Few attempts have been made to discover the fate of released ‘rehabilitated’ animals, a significant omission in terms of animal welfare. They may die, unable to find adequate food or nest sites in unfamiliar places. They may be ostracized or even attacked by wild resident conspecifics.

Eight ‘rehabilitated’ hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) were released into farmland and radio-tracked to monitor their movements and nesting; they were also weighed frequently. Three wild hedgehogs caught on site were studied in parallel.

Only one animal remained close to the release site throughout the eight week study. The rest scattered, perhaps seeking more familiar terrain. One animal died, possibly not having fully recovered from its original disorder. Of the seven others, three survived at least seven weeks, but two then met with accidental deaths (drowning and road kill). Contact was lost with four animals, but circumstances suggested that they were probably still alive at least five weeks after release. There was no evidence of negative interaction with local wild hedgehogs nor any indication of difficulty with foraging, nesting or finding their nests again. Body-weights were generally maintained or increased. It is concluded that rehabilitated adult hedgehogs can probably cope well with release.
Preference Tests with Rodents to Assess Housing Conditions
Authors: Blom H J M , Baumans V , Van Vorstenbosch C J A H V , Van Zutphen LFM , Beynen A C
Published: January 2023

Introduction

Guidelines have been formulated by the European Community (EC 1986) to cover housing conditions for laboratory animals. These guidelines are based essentially on common practice of housing laboratory animals and on limited data concerning relations between housing conditions and either animal growth or development of pathologies. Further information on this subject is required to optimize housing conditions of laboratory animals.
Badger persecution
Authors: Kourik Steve
Published: January 2023

Sir, I am the Wildlife Liaison Officer for the Hertfordshire Constabulary and the present Chairman of the Herts and Middlesex Badger Group.
Assessment of Hunger in Growing Broiler Breeders in Relation to a Commercial Restricted Feeding Programme
Authors: Savory C J , Maros K , Rutter S M
Published: January 2023

From two weeks of age female broiler breeder chickens were fed either on a commercial daily ration (R), twice that amount (2R), or ad libitum (AL). Motivation to eat in R and 2R birds was compared every third week with that of AL birds subjected to 3-72h food deprivation. AL and 2R birds grew three and two times faster than R birds to 20 weeks, and AL birds ate two to four times as much per day as R birds, depending on age and on whether birds of the same age or weight were compared. When feeding motivation was measured in 16min tests with an operant procedure, numbers of responses by R and 2R birds were not related in a consistent way to the time since their daily meal ended Responses by AL birds were correlated consistently with the preceding period of food deprivation, but it was not possible to express hunger in R and 2R birds in terms of equivalent deprivation in AL birds, as intended, because feeding motivation in the two situations differed in magnitude. Instead, it was calculated that motivation to eat in R and 2R birds, from 8 to 20 weeks, was 3.6 and 1.9 times greater than that of maximally (72h) deprived AL birds. Another measure of feeding motivation with different birds, rate of eating in 10min tests, produced a similar index of hunger with 2R but not R birds. It is concluded that broiler breeders fed on the commercial ration eat only a quarter to a half as much as they would with free access to food, and that they are highly motivated to eat at all times. The modern broiler breeder industry is caught in a welfare dilemma, since on the one hand stock appear to be chronically hungry, while on the other hand less severe food restriction leads to reduced fertility and health problems.
Stress and Animal Welfare
Authors: Wiepkema P R , Koolhaas J M
Published: January 2023

When individual vertebrates loose grip on their life conditions stress symptoms appear and their welfare becomes problematic. Present day research supports the view that stress can originate when an organism experiences a substantial reduction of predictability and/or controllability (PIC) of relevant events. Behavioural (conflict and disturbed behaviour) and physiological (neuro-endocrine and autonomic processes) aspects of a reduction of PIC are reviewed. The highly dynamic patterns of the homeostatic mechanisms activated during stress make it difficult to deduce any simple relationship between stress and welfare.

A list of relevant stress symptoms has been presented, all of which indicate some stage of serious welfare problems. Their occurrence should never be typical of animals living in a farm, laboratory or zoo housing system. However, if after all this is the case, such systems have to be corrected and replaced by more appropriate ones as soon as possible.
The Effect of Bedding on the Behaviour and Welfare of Pigs
Authors: Arey D S
Published: January 2023

Straw bedding provides a number of functions which affect the behaviour and welfare of pigs including comfort, recreation and diet. It has been suggested that the importance of these different functions will vary depending on the life/production stage of the pig. The available literature indicates that all of the above functions are relevant to all the different stages except newly born piglets. The occupational value of straw appears to be highly important. The actual mechanisms by which straw affects the pig's motivation systems are still poorly understood. It is therefore uncertain whether suitable alternatives to bedding exist or even if straw bedding in itself is completely satisfactory. Until satisfactory alternatives are available straw bedding should continue to be recommended in terms of pig behaviour and welfare.
Editorial
Authors: Ewbank Roger
Published: January 2023

Currently the Editor-in-Chief writes, for each issue of the Journal, a one to one-and-a-half page length Editorial. In it he normally explains changes (if any) in the aims, editorial processing and layout of the publication and then usually goes on to briefly describe the material contained within it.
Environmental Enrichment for Laying Hens - Spherical Objects in the Feed Trough
Authors: Sherwin C M
Published: January 2023

The welfare of caged laying hens could be improved by placing objects in the feed trough. Such objects might (a) simulate general ground-litter thus promoting more normal foraging activity and (b) give hens the opportunity to work ‘for feed - a behaviour usually thwarted in conventional cages. Spherical objects with various characteristics were placed in the feed trough of a tier of caged laying hens (n = 16). The hens pecked frequently at the objects, moving them to the trough space of adjacent cages. The mean proportion of hen heads over the trough containing these objects was significantly greater than before the objects were present (35.3 cf 32.9%) and significantly greater than the proportion of heads over a similar trough containing no objects (33.6%). Thirty days later, the mean proportions were still significantly different (33.5 cf 31.0%) showing that there was little habituation. Daily manual scattering of the objects increased the distance they were subsequently moved by the hens (23.0 cf 19.3 cm/day) indicating increased pecking activity. In a second study 12 hens were given a choice of feeding from troughs containing 0, 12 or 36 spherical objects. There was no overall preference to feed from any of the troughs. All the hens fed from troughs containing the objects, possibly indicating that the opportunity to move the objects and forage or work for feed was desired on occasions. Brightly coloured spherical objects are considered to be a promising method of successful environmental enrichment for caged laying hens. Their use to improve the welfare of caged laying hens appears to be practical and reasonably inexpensive.
The killing of wild birds in research revisited: nature, numbers, speed and ethics
Authors: Bekoff Marc
Published: January 2023

In a recent editorial in the journal The Condor, Walsberg (1994) raises some important issues concerning bureaucratic inefficiency of which most people are aware. He is especially concerned about what he claims is the inefficient way in which collecting permits are issued to those who want to study various aspects of avian biology. However, Walsberg's essay, that centres on the killing of wild birds in research (collecting is a synonym for killing; Bekoff 1993), contains assertions that need considerably more clarification, scrutiny and support before they can be used to make policy about how collecting permits are issued. There are many ethical issues that he glosses over which are directly related to animal welfare. For example, it is not clear how his comparison between predation rates and the number of birds killed by Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and the number of birds killed by scientists, supports Walsberg's argument that more streamlined permit processing is needed. On the one hand, Cooper's Hawks (and other non-human predators) are natural born killers who do not behave according to a code of ethics; they are not moral agents who are responsible for their actions. On the other hand, most scientists who kill birds are not natural born killers. It seems reasonable to assume that they are moral agents who are responsible for their actions (for discussion see Bekoff and Hettinger 1994). In my view, the comparison between the predatory habits of wild animals and the killing habits of humans does not lend any strong support to arguments that there should be more rapid permit processing.
Editorial
Authors: Ewbank Roger
Published: January 2023

When this journal was first produced in January 1992, the intent was to publish scientific and technical papers that would have a direct benefit on the welfare of animals kept on farms, in laboratories, as companions, in zoos or as managed by man in the wild. The submitted Articles in this fourth part of the fourth volume certainly span man's use of animals and they also, I believe, demonstrate that the knowledge and understanding gained during technical studies can often be used to improve the well-being of the animals themselves.
Effects of Lighting on Heart Rate and Positional Preferences During Confinement in Farmed Red Deer
Authors: Pollard J C , Littlejohn R P
Published: January 2023

Two experiments were carried out to determine whether lighting conditions during handling affected heart rate or behaviour in farmed red deer. In Experiment 1 heart rate was measured in 24 individual deer, held under restraint in a mechanical deer crush for two minutes, under either dark (0lux) or light (1500lux) conditions. A stethoscope was used to monitor heartbeat which was indicated vocally by the stethoscope operator on to a Dictaphone. In Experiment 2, 10 groups of three deer were confined for four minutes in an unfamiliar 4×6m light-proof pen with lighting provided either on the left or right-hand side of the pen, to provide a gradient across the pen from approximately 12 to 1000lux. For the first two minutes the deer were alone and for the second two minutes a person stood in the pen. An infrared video camera was used to record behaviour.

In Experiment 1, heart rate was lower (P < 0.05) in the dark compared with in the light when recording commenced, thereafter it decreased overall with similar (P > 0.05) values observed for the different lighting treatments. In Experiment 2, the mean position of the groups across the pen varied according to whether lighting was on the left or right, with groups displaced to the right when the lights were on the left, and standing in the middle of the pen when the lights were on the right (P < 0.05). During testing, groups moved away from whichever side the lights were on (P < 0.05). The experiments suggested that stress during restraint was reduced by providing darkness and that deer preferred dim lighting compared with bright lighting when confined in unfamiliar surroundings.
On Comparing the Behaviour of Zoo Housed Animals with Wild Conspecifics as a Welfare Indicator
Authors: Veasey J S , Waran N K , Young R J
Published: January 2023

It is commonly assumed that animals suffer if they cannot perform behaviours seen in wild conspecifics. Although comparisons with the behaviour of wild conspecifics are a popular method of assessing the welfare of captive animals, their validity has not been fully assessed. Homeostatic models of motivation suggest that many behaviours are stimulus driven rather than internally generated. Thus, it is possible that the non-performance of some wild-type behaviours does not necessarily compromise animal welfare, unless welfare is defined as being compromised by such non-performance. The flexibility of wild animal behaviour and the fact that animals free to perform the complete range of wild behaviours can suffer, must also put into the question the validity of such comparisons. Technical criticisms also arise when one considers the difficulty of constructing accurate and unbiased time budgets for wild animals. It is possible that the expressions of wild-type behaviours correlate with enhanced welfare, rather than cause enhanced welfare. Thus, if the consequences of behaviour are more important than the expression of behaviour itself, environmental enrichment does not necessarily need to rely upon the performance of wild-type behaviours for the improvement of animal welfare. Therefore, although behavioural comparisons with wild animals can be considered as potentially useful indicators of behavioural differences, they cannot always be relied upon to give an objective assessment of animal welfare. To make an assessment of welfare, behavioural comparisons with wild animals should be used in conjunction with other techniques to demonstrate that the consequences of non-performance of wild behaviours results in impoverished welfare.
The External Locations of Harpoon Wounds on Minke Whales Taken in Antarctic Commercial Whaling Operations, 1978/79 Season
Authors: Best P B
Published: January 2023

Observations on the external locations of harpoon wounds were made on 127 minke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata taken during Japanese commercial whaling operations in the 1978/79 Antarctic season. The numbers of wounds per whale did not vary between catcher boats, the average being 1.2. Although the cranio-thoracic region seemed to be the target of choice (bearing 60.5% of all wounds examined), the proportion of wounds in this region varied significantly between catcher boats, ranging from 43.6 to 75.7 per cent. It is suggested that this variation arose because to hit the cranio-thoracic region, the first section of the whale to surface, requires considerable skill on the part of the gunner.
Effect of Group Housing and Oral Corticosterone Administration on Weight Gain and Locomotor Development in Neonatal Rats
Authors: Young L A , Pavlovska-Teglia G , Stodulski G , Hau J
Published: January 2023

To study the influence of maternal stress on neonatal locomotor development, rat pups of mothers housed singly and in groups were treated orally with corticosterone from 2 to 15 days of age. Control animals received almond oil vehicle only. The rat pups were subjected to swim-tests from 8 to 20 days of age to evaluate locomotor development. Swim-test performance demonstrated a retardation of locomotor development in pups treated with corticosterone (P <0.05). Retardation was most marked in the pups from group-housed mothers and between 13 and 15 days of age. Comparing pups not treated with hormones, the pups born to group-housed mothers showed significantly (P <0.05) better performance on swim-testing. The weight gain of pups from group-housed mothers was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of pups from individually caged mothers. Corticosteroid treatment had no effect on weight gain.
Contrasts in Diet Amongst Barbary Macaques on Gibraltar: Human Influences
Authors: O'Leary H
Published: January 2023

A four-month study was conducted on three groups of free-ranging, provisioned Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus, L) on Gibraltar in 1992. The groups exhibited marked contrasts in the levels of provisioned, tourist-derived and natural foods in their diet, which related to differences experienced in the level and nature of human visitation.

Feeding on natural plant items accounted for only 17-20 per cent of feeding records at all sites, whereas provisioned food was the dominant element (over 75% of records) at the least visited group. In contrast 51.7 per cent of items consumed at the site most used by tourists (Apes’ Den) involved tourist-derived foods, with provisioned food contributing only 28 per cent of feeding records. The high caloric content of tourist-derived foods together with their dominance in the diet at Apes’ Den is implicated in the well-documented weight-related problems affecting this group.

Current levels of uncontrolled tourist feeding present a health and welfare threat to the Barbary macaques of Gibraltar, particularly the Apes ‘ Den group. Future management plans must recognize and seek to remedy the negative impacts of tourism.
Animal Welfare: Evolution and Erosion of a Moral Concept
Authors: Stafleu F R , Grommers F J , Vorstenbosch J
Published: January 2023

There are many definitions of animal welfare. These do not only differ in their meaning, but also in their function for making a broad concept accessible for scientific research. Lexical [dictionary] definitions establish what the common meaning is of the concept to be studied, and help to find some concrete phenomena which are related to the often vague and general descriptive terms. Explanatory definitions provide an elementary theoretical background for studying the phenomena. Operational definitions contain the parameters used in concrete measurements. In each step we reduce the concept to more measurable elements but lose other elements of the concept. In the case of animal welfare this results in an evolution of definitions which makes animal welfare more objectively assessable. But it also results in an erosion: development of a confusing diversity in parameters and a loss of the moral aspect of the concept of animal welfare. This erosion has a negative influence on political decisionmaking. It is important to recognize the possibilities and limitations of problem solving, based on ‘animal welfare science’.
The Effect of a Moving Bait on the Behaviour of Captive Cheetahs (Acinonyx Jubatus)
Authors: Williams B G , Waran N K , Carruthers J , Young R J
Published: January 2023

Members of the cat family are highly motivated to hunt, but in captivity are unable to do so for a variety of reasons. This inability to hunt may reduce their welfare. In this study we used a moving bait to stimulate and release hunting motivation in two captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Essentially our enrichment device consisted of a dead rabbit, hung from a pulley, just above the ground, moving down a 34 metre length of wire by the force of gravity. We observed the cheetahs for 140 minutes per day over three sequential food presentation periods: Baseline (10 consecutive days), Device (10 consecutive days) and Post-device (5 consecutive days). The moving bait significantly increased the frequency of sprinting (hunting) and time spent performing observations. It significantly decreased time spent in affiliation and feeding. These effects were also observed at times other than when the moving bait was presented. Thus, a moving bait allows captive cheetahs to perform ‘natural-looking’ hunting in captivity.
Behaviour and Thermogenesis of Racing Pigeons Housed Under Transport Conditions
Authors: Gorssen J , Koene P
Published: January 2023

During homing contests, racing pigeons (Columba livia) are transported to their release site under crowded conditions. Behaviour and thermogenesis under these conditions were studied in two experiments. In the first experiment, temperature (26 °C or 36 °C) and water availability (access or deprived) had no significant effect on either behaviour or heat production of old male pigeons. However, the frequency of threatening behaviour and the proportion of activity-related heat production in total heat production increased during the 23-hour experimental period, whereas no decrease in aggressive behaviour was found. In the second experiment the effect of testing age (young or old) and sex (male or female) were considered in relation to behaviour and thermogenesis. Young pigeons were more immobile than old pigeons, but heat production was lower in old pigeons. Male groups had a higher activity-related heat production and had more head injuries resulting from pecking than females. Again, no decrease in aggressive behaviour or changes in behaviour patterns over time were found. Body-weight at the start of the experiment was predictive of subsequent behaviour in the crate. A higher body-weight was related to more threatening behaviour, less displacement and less head injuries. The consistent level of aggressive behaviour over time, causing predictable head injuries, indicates that a ‘ceiling effect’ in adaptation is reached under crowded transport conditions. To improve pigeon welfare, serious considerations must be given to transporting racing pigeons under less crowded conditions.
A Comparison of Weaning Techniques in Farmed Wapiti (Cervus Elaphus)
Authors: Haigh J C , Stookey J M , Bowman P , Waltz C
Published: January 2023

Twenty-one wapiti calves, born between 24 May and 4 July were weaned on 5 September. They were weighed, divided into two groups (10 and 11 calves) and either moved to a familiar paddock, adjacent to their dams and allowed fence-line contact (contact wean - CW), or moved to a familiar paddock which was visually obscured, and separated from their dams by approximately 50m (remote wean - RW). For the next two days after weaning the calves were observed from dawn until dusk. All observations were done using a 10-minute instantaneous scan sampling technique. Activities recorded included the number of calves standing, walking, lying, fence-line pacing, running, grazing, and feeding at a trough. On day 4 the observation time was reduced to 9 hours and 20 minutes. Observations were continued for a further six days during 2-hour periods after dawn and before dark. The calves were held in these separate paddocks for 10 days and during that time were weighed. After that they were held together in the remote wean paddock and weighed again at 31 and 63 days. There were no significant differences in the amount of time spent grazing between the two groups and there were no differences in weight gains between the groups throughout the trial. The CW calves vocalized less and spent less time standing, walking, fence-line pacing and running compared to RW calves. The CW calves were also observed spending more time lying and feeding at the trough. Overall, the CW calves displayed fewer behaviours indicative of the distress following weaning.
Characterization of Milk Cortisol Concentrations as a Measure of Short-Term Stress Responses in Lactating Dairy Cows
Authors: Verkerk G A , Phipps A M , Carragher J F , Matthews L R , Stelwagen K
Published: January 2023

This study compares cortisol concentrations in plasma and milk over a time-span of 1-4h following injection of an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or a physiological stressor. Its aim was to characterize the usefulness of milk cortisol concentrations as short-term measures of acute stress.

Experiment 1: three groups of lactating cows (Groups B - D; n = 5, each) were injected with ACTH1-24 at 4, 2 and 1h before milking, respectively, so that each experienced a similar period of elevated adrenocortical activity, but presented at milking with varying plasma cortisol concentrations. Another group (Group A; n = 5) was a saline-treated control. Mean plasma cortisol concentrations at milking were 7, 8, 24 and 56ng ml−1 for Groups A, B, C and D, respectively. Mean cortisol concentrations in milk were similar for Groups A and B (1.2 and 0.5 ng ml−1, respectively), higher in Group C (2.4ng ml−1), and greatest in Group D (11.7 ng ml−1; p <0.001).

Experiment 2: lactating dairy cows (n = 15) were injected with ACTH, transported by truck, or blood-sampled only (control) during the 2h before milking. Mean plasma cortisol concentrations at milking were 6, 20 and 72 ng ml−1 following control, ACTH and transport treatments, respectively; mean concentrations of cortisol in milk displayed a similar pattern (1.1, 2.4 and 12.0 ng ml−1, respectively; p <0.001).

Milk cortisol concentrations were highly correlated with plasma levels at milking, but did not reflect those situations where, following a period of elevation within the previous 4h, plasma cortisol concentrations had returned to basal levels. Concentrations of cortisol in foremilk and composite milk were highly correlated, but the mechanisms of cortisol flux may differ between these two compartments. Milk cortisol concentration can be a useful indicator of responses of lactating cows to acute stressors which act up to 2h before collection of samples.
The Effects of Handling on Behavioural and Physiological Responses to Housing in Tether-Stalls Among Pregnant Pigs
Authors: Pedersen V , Barnett J L , Hemsworth P H , Newman E A , Schirmer B
Published: January 2023

Twenty-four primiparous pregnant pigs were randomly assigned to three handling treatments: Minimal, Positive and Negative. The pigs were moved individually to indoor concrete-floored partial stalls with neck-tethers, 2 days before handling commenced. Positive (stroking and patting on approach to an experimenter) and Negative (brief electric shock of < Is when failing to withdraw from the outstretched hand of an experimenter) handling was imposed for 3min day-1and the amount of physical contact between handler and pig was recorded. The Minimal treatment group was subjected to routine husbandry practices only. After 3 weeks of the handling treatments and tether-housing, all pigs were catheterized under full surgical anaesthesia. The pigs were allowed 4 days of recovery before collecting the following data: daytime plasma Cortisol concentration profiles, behavioural responses to a human in an arena test, Cortisol responses to human proximity, Cortisol responses to an A CTH-challenge and immunological responses to an injected mitogen.

In the Positive treatment, the amount of physical contact between pig and handler increased during the course of the experiment, while the amount of physical contact did not change in the Negative treatment. There were no effects of treatment on behavioural responses in the arena test. The average daytime concentration of free plasma Cortisol was lower in the Positive treatment than in the Negative or Minimal treatments. The Positive treatment also showed lower total and free plasma Cortisol concentrations pre- and posthuman proximity when compared with the Negative treatment. No differences were found between treatments in total and free plasma Cortisol concentrations following an ACTH challenge. The immunological response was greater in the Positive treatment compared with the Negative treatment and tended to be greater when compared with the Minimal treatment.

It was concluded that the nature of the human-animal relationship affected the physiological stress responses of pregnant pigs to tether-housing. Indications are that a positive human-animal relationship would obviate some of the negative effects of being kept in tether-stalls by lowering the basal cortisol concentration and by increasing immunological responsiveness.
Fertility Control: An Option for Non-Lethal Control of Wild Carnivores?
Authors: Tuyttens F A M , Macdonald D W
Published: January 2023

Three types of fertility control, surgical sterilization, hormonal chemosterilization, and immunosterilization, are reviewed with regard to their potential for controlling problematic populations of carnivores. The fertility control agent and delivery protocol of choice may vary considerably according to: (i) the reason for control; (ii) the degree, urgency and duration of population reduction required; (iii) concerns about ethics and public opinion; and (iv) the status, population dynamics, social structure, mating system, size, behaviour and reproductive endocrinology of the target animals. Although they are often perceived and advocated as more preferable methods of population control than lethal approaches, it is important that wildlife managers as well as members of the public realize that the ethical acceptability of the various fertility control techniques may differ considerably - and that numerous questions regarding their effectiveness, humaneness and ecological safety remain unanswered.
Badger TB in perspective
Authors: Stroud M Hancox
Published: January 2023

Sir, Given the confusion surrounding the current debate over the Krebs/Bourne scientific badger cull in relation to controlling bovine TB in cattle, it is perhaps worth pointing out that badger culls have in fact to more than 99 per cent extent ended.
Influence of Environmental Enrichment on Aggressive Behaviour and Dominance Relationships in Growing Pigs
Authors: O'Connell N E , Beattie V E
Published: January 2023

This study examined the effects of environmental enrichment on aggressive behaviour and dominance relationships in growing pigs. Three hundred and twenty pigs were reared from birth to 15 weeks of age in either barren or enriched environments. The barren environments were defined by common intensive housing conditions (ie with slatted floors and in terms of recommended space allowances), while the enriched environments incorporated extra space and substrates for manipulation. Aggressive behaviour was observed in a social confrontation test during the suckling period and dominance relationships were assessed from a food competition test at 12 weeks of age. Animals were weighed at regular intervals throughout the experiment. Environmental enrichment reduced the expression of aggressive behaviour. Pigs from enriched rearing environments fought significantly less with unfamiliar animals than those from barren environments when tested under standard conditions (mean of 1.46 vs 2.75 fights per 30min test for enriched vs barren environments; SEM 0.20, P < 0.001). The nature of dominance relationships also appeared to differ between barren and enriched environments. In barren environments, dominance among pen mates was correlated with aggression (r = 0.33, P < 0.01), whereas in enriched environments it was correlated with body weight (r = 0.24, P < 0.01). Correlations between behaviour in the social confrontation and food competition tests suggested that dominance characteristics were established early in life and remained stable through the growing period.
Some Practical Solutions to Welfare Problems in Dog Breeding
Authors: McGreevy P D , Nicholas F W
Published: January 2023

This paper reviews the history of the establishment of dog breeds, summarizes current health and resultant welfare problems and makes some positive suggestions for their resolution. Some breed standards and selection practices run counter to the welfare interests of dogs, to the extent that some breeds are characterized by traits that may be difficult to defend on welfare grounds. Meanwhile, little selection pressure seems to be exerted on some traits that would improve animal welfare and produce dogs better suited to modern society. Unfortunately, the incidence of certain inherited defects in some breeds is unacceptably high, while the number of registered animals of certain breeds within some countries is so low as to make it almost impossible for breeders to avoid mating close relatives. There are several constructive ways to overcome these challenges. Breed associations can ensure that reduction of welfare problems is one of their major aims; they can review breed standards; they can embrace modern technology for animal identification and pedigree checking; they can allow the introduction of ‘new ‘ genetic material into closed stud-books; and they can encourage collaboration with geneticists in identifying and using DNA markers for the control of inherited disorders. There should be a concerted effort to produce and evaluate as companion animals first-cross (F1) hybrids from matings between various pairs of breeds. Finally, geneticists must learn to communicate their science better and in a language that non-geneticists can understand.
Genetic Selection for Poultry Behaviour: Big Bad Wolf or Friend in Need?
Authors: Jones R B , Hocking P M
Published: January 2023

Although genetic selection for certain characteristics has compromised the well-being of domestic animals, selective breeding could and probably should be used to improve welfare. Three of the major behavioural problems facing the poultry industry are fear, feather pecking and social stress. However, these and many other behavioural traits respond readily to genetic selection. The present paper reports the results of selective breeding studies in which underlying fearfulness, sociality, feather pecking, adrenocortical responsiveness, and growth rate were manipulated in Japanese quail,Coturnix japonica, or in chickens,Gallus gallus domesticus. The apparent benefits of selection for appropriate levels of these characteristics are discussed, as are the ethical issues involved. The ultimate aims of the selection programmes and the studies described here are to improve the birds ‘ welfare and productivity by increasing their ability to interact successfully with their physical environment, with one another, and with human beings.
Strain-Specific Effects of Cage Enrichment in Male Laboratory Mice(Mus Musculus)
Authors: Nevison C M , Hurst J L , Barnard C J
Published: January 2023

‘Environmental enrichment’ is often considered to improve captive animal welfare. However, some studies using male mice,Mus musculus, indicate that increasing cage complexity increases aggression. Limited evidence suggests that enrichment differs in its effects on behaviour and physiology between strains; but behaviour also differs between strains in non-enriched environments. Differences in enrichment type, evaluation methods, and strains used, have caused difficulty in interpreting the efficacy of environmental enrichment in improving welfare. Using enrichment suitable for commercial laboratories (nesting material and a Perspex tunnel), we compared within-cage behavioural and physiological responses among males of six strains housed in non-enriched standard polypropylene cages with those housed in ‘enriched’ cages. Outbred ICR(CD-l) and TO mice, and inbred BALB/c mice were more aggressive than C57BL/6, CBA/Ca and DBA/2 mice, which exhibited low levels of aggression typical of most inbred strains. Enrichment did not significantly affect aggression levels. Animals in enriched cages spent more time investigating the internal cage environment, eating and drinking, and in stereotypic behaviour patterns, although levels differed between strains. The greatest increase in stereotypy levels (bar-related stereotypies) with enrichment was found in DBA/2 mice. Higher testosterone levels were maintained over the study period in mice housed in enriched cages, and in more aggressive strains. IgG levels were also higher in mice housed in enriched cages, and in the outbred strains ICR(CD-l) and TO compared with inbred strains. The relationship between aggression, testosterone and ‘enrichment ‘ suggests that increasing complexity in laboratory cages may increase a naturally selected territorial response in some strains. The implications for strain-specific welfare are discussed.
Reply
Authors: Nimon Amanda , Broom Donald
Published: January 2023

Sir, Dr Hansen claims that our review paper The Welfare of Farmed Mink in Relation to Housing and Management: A Review selectively presents results from the scientific literature. He is correct, in writing our review we have been very selective about the results and conclusions we have included. This was necessary because many of the publications in this field do not give sufficient detail to enable the reader to judge how results were produced, and whether all of the conclusions reached are justified. While it is possible that these studies were concluded in the best scientific manner, they are not well reported in a way which does justice to this position. We have intentionally included only those findings which we believe have been demonstrated to be valid. The conclusions which we draw may not accord with the knowledge or opinion of all of those who have worked in this field, rather they accord with the body of results demonstrated in the available literature.
A Novel Operant Conditioning Test to Determine Whether Dairy Cows Dislike Passageways that Are Dark or Covered with Excreta
Authors: Phillips C J C , Morris ID
Published: January 2023

Both the presence of slurry and dark conditions may deter dairy cows from using passageways in cubicle accommodation, thus restricting movement and normal behaviour. We attempted to train seven dairy cows to recognize the quantity of reward offered in a transparent tube containing molasses in a Y-maze. Only one cow failed to consistently select the aisle containing the larger reward. The cows were then individually offered the choice of traversing either a passageway with a 5cm-depth of cow excreta or a clean, dry passageway to collect their rewards. The quantity of the rewards on the two sides was varied between zero and 400ml of molasses to determine the price that the cows were prepared to pay for entering the aisle with excreta. Only two of the seven cows showed a clear avoidance of the passageway with excreta. There was a tendency (P < 0.1) for the cows to avoid the passageway with excreta only when it contained no reward and the clean passageway contained a reward of 400ml molasses. Otherwise, there was no clear avoidance of the passageway with excreta. We also investigated whether cows preferred to enter a lighted or unlighted passageway. All the cows, except one, showed a strong avoidance of the dark passage, even when it contained the largest reward and the lighted passage contained no reward. We conclude that dairy cows demonstrate only mild avoidance of passageways with excreta but strongly avoid passageways without lighting. Therefore, we suggest that passageways for dairy cows should be lit at all times.
What do Neuronal Network Models of the Mind Indicate About Animal Consciousness?
Authors: Taylor J G
Published: January 2023

The attempt to provide a firm scientific basis for understanding consciousness is now in full swing, with special contributions from two areas. One is experimental: brain imaging is providing ever increasing detail of the brain structures used by humans (and other animals) as they solve a variety of tasks, including those of higher cognition. The other is theoretical: the discipline of neural networks is allowing models of these cognitive processes to be constructed and tested against the available data. In particular, a control framework can be created to give a global view of the brain. The highest cognitive process, that of consciousness, is naturally a target for such experimentation and modelling. This paper reviews available data and related models leading to the central representation, which involves particular brain regions and functional processing. Principles of consciousness, which have great relevance to the question in the title, are thereby deduced. The requisite neuronal systems needed to provide animal experience, and the problem of assessing the quality and quantity of such experience, will then be considered. In conclusion, animal consciousness is seen to exist broadly across those species with the requisite control structures; the level of pain and other sensations depends in an increasingly well-defined manner on the complexity of the cerebral apparatus.
‘Mindreading’ Mammals? Attribution of Belief Tasks With Dolphins
Authors: Tschudin A J-P C
Published: January 2023

‘Mindreading’ or theory of mind (ToM) refers to the capacity to attribute mental states to others. This ability is regarded as a critical component of what has, to date, exclusively characterized the advanced social cognition displayed by humans. The false belief task is a key test for ToM in different animal species. On a standard non-verbal false belief task, humans pass from age 4, whereas non-human primates consistently fail. Neuroanatomical and behavioural evidence for dolphins, however, indicates that they are capable of passing ToM tasks. The current paper represents a synthesis of the relevant dolphin research on neocortical evolution and non-invasive behavioural tests of precursors for ToM and the attribution of beliefs. The success of dolphins on attribution of belief tasks, in the absence of learning or cueing, indicates that they are capable of ‘mindreading’. What are the implications of animal ‘mindreading’? ToM tasks probe for reflexive consciousness and, by this criterion, dolphins may display reflexive consciousness. The implication of this conclusion is that future behavioural studies of social cognition will have considerable ethical and legal implications for animal welfare.
A Comparison of Commonly Used Ear Tags on the Ear Damage of Sheep
Authors: Edwards D S , Johnston A M , Pfeiffer D U
Published: January 2023

The damage caused by ear tags used for sheep identification was investigated in a two-part study. In Part I, ear tags classified as metal loop, golf-tee, single flex or lambtag were inserted into the ears of 62 ewes. The severity of ewe ear lesions was monitored until 20 weeks after ear tag insertion. In Part II, 351 lambs had tags classified as metal loop, plastic loop, golf-tee, double flex, single flap, lambtag and electronic, inserted in their ears. The behaviour of the lambs was observed for 30s after insertion of the ear tag. The severity of lamb ear lesions was monitored until 5 weeks after ear tag insertion. In both ewes and lambs there was a significantly greater risk of severe and persistent ear lesions following the use of metal loop tags as compared with the other types of ear tag (P < 0.001). The single flap tag was difficult to insert in a greater proportion of lambs (P < 0.001), and more lambs haemorrhaged (P < 0.001), vocalized (P = 0.002) and shook their heads (P = 0.004) with it, than with the other types of ear tags. All ear tags resulted in an inflammatory reaction and required correct positioning to minimize the severity of ear lesions.
Wire-Floor Pens as an Alternative to Metallic Cages in Fattening Rabbits: Influence on Some Welfare Traits
Authors: Martrenchar A , Boilletot E , Cotte J-P , Morisse J-P
Published: January 2023

The possibility of improving the welfare of fattening rabbits by rearing them in pens instead of cages was investigated. Time budgets, locomotion, ear lesions, breaking strength of the femur and productivity were compared in fattening rabbits kept at the same stocking density (15 rabbits m−2) either in standard cages of 0.4m2(6 animals) or in pens of 1.6m2(24 animals). Behavioural observations, performed by video recording at 6 and 9 weeks of age, indicated that the frequency of rabbits walking over one another was higher in cages than in pens at 9 weeks of age. Although the time spent in locomotion did not differ significantly, the number of consecutive hops performed by animals was clearly increased in pens at 6 weeks and tended to be higher at 9 weeks. In pens (without a ceiling), rabbits were observed ‘keeping watch’ with a characteristic fully upright posture; this was not possible for rabbits in cages (with ceilings at 30cm).

Ear lesions were more frequent in caged rabbits than in penned; this might be due to the caged rabbits walking on one another, due to the lack of space to perform locomotory behaviour. Weight, diameter and breaking strength of femur tended to increase in rabbits kept in pens. In penned rabbits, body and carcase weight were significantly reduced (by 2.0% and 3.4% respectively) when compared with caged ones. However, overall, the use of wire-floor pens of 1.6m2, housing 24 animals, was considered to be beneficial to fattening rabbits’ welfare when compared to standard-sized cages holding 6 animals.
Comments from The Aza Contraception Advisory Group on Evaluating the Suitability of Contraceptive Methods in Golden-Headed Lion Tamarins (Leontopithecus Chrysomelas)
Authors: DeMatteo K E , Porton I J , Asa C S
Published: January 2023

Reversible contraceptives, such as melengestrol acetate (MGA) implants, have become an invaluable tool that captive-animal managers use to maintain various species in social groupings while avoiding unwanted pregnancies. The American Zoo and Aquarium Contraception Advisory Group (AZA CAG) monitors the efficacy, reversibility, and safety of contraceptives used in captive exotic mammals worldwide. Because so few data exist on contraceptive efficacy and safety in exotic species, it is critical that evaluations reflect an understanding of the mechanism of action of the active ingredient as well as of the delivery system. The following discussion addresses the concerns of the CAG over the manner in which De Vleeschouwer et al (Animal Welfare 2000,9: 251-271) analysed MGA implant reversibility data in golden-headed lion tamarins.
Transport Stress in Roe Deer (Capreolus Capreolus): Effect of a Short-Acting Antipsychotic
Authors: Montané J , Marco I , López-Olvera J , Manteca X , Lavín S
Published: January 2023

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a short-acting antipsychotic (acepromazine) on the stress response to transport in roe deer(Capreolus capreolus). Twenty-one roe deer were submitted to a nine-hour road journey in order to reintroduce and restock this species into Catalonia (north-eastern Spain). The animals were divided into two groups: animals in the treatment group received an intramuscular injection of acepromazine (0.13 mg kg−1in 0.5 ml; n = 9) while animals in the control group received the same volume of saline (n = 12). Clinical (heart rate and body temperature, measured during transport using remote devices), haematological, and biochemical indicators of stress were used to evaluate the effect of the antipsychotic. Heart rate increased during transportation, but no differences were found between groups. Body temperature decreased during transportation in both groups, but this reduction was faster in acepromazine-treated animals. Comparison of blood parameters before and after transport revealed significantly lower red blood cell counts and haemoglobin concentrations after transport in treated animals compared with control animals; a reduction in lymphocyte count, eosinophil count and serum creatinine levels over transport in treated animals; a decrease in serum potassium levels over transport in the control group; an increase in serum creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities over transport in control animals; an increase in serum urea and chloride concentrations over transport in both groups; and finally, a decrease in serum glucose concentrations in both groups. These results demonstrate the suitability of acepromazine in transport operations in order to reduce the stress response and prevent its adverse effects in roe deer.