bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Accession of Cyprus to the EU
Authors: Vassiliou George
Published: November 2023

The Republic of Cyprus was established in 1960 after gaining its independence from Britain. Unfortunately, only three years later, intercommunal strife erupted and the Turkish Cypriots resigned from the government and withdrew into a number of enclaves where they lived all together. The UN had to intervene, and intercommunal negotiations followed, but the efforts to reach an agreement failed. In 1974, the Greek junta staged a coup d’etat against President Makarios, which was followed a week later by a Turkish invasion, under the pretext of ‘restoring the constitutional order’. As a result, Turkey seized more than 37 per cent of Cyprus’s territory, which it still occupies today.
The Accession of the Slovak Republic to the EU
Authors: Figel’ Ján , Adamiš Miroslav
Published: November 2023

The European Union is the institutional expression of the integration of its Member States into a community, the primary aim of which has been to secure peaceful cooperation. By the same token, its 2004 enlargement symbolized the fact that the Continent had definitively overcome its Cold War divisions.
The European Constitutional Settlement
Authors: Moravcsik Andrew
Published: November 2023

Over the past half-century the EU has successfully expanded its substantive man- date and institutional prerogatives to a level without parallel among international organizations. Today this process has reached what appears to be, barring large exogenous shocks, a stable constitutional equilibrium. The EU may expand geo- graphically, reform institutionally, and deepen substantively, but all this currently seems set to take place essentially within the contours of the existing European constitutional structure. The time has come to acknowledge the existence of the ‘European Constitutional Settlement’—a plateau in the process of European integration unlikely to be upset by medium-term trends.
Historical Institutionalism and the EU’s Eastward Enlargement
Authors: Vachudova Milada Anna
Published: November 2023

The EU’s eastward enlargement has taken center stage in the process of European integration over the last decade. Well before the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989, however, the EU’s institutions were already shaping how enlargement would turn out. The main puzzle is not why EU leaders decided to enlarge eastward: over the medium- and long-term, some enlargement was squarely in the economic and geopolitical interest of EU member states (Moravcsik and Vachudova 2003). Instead, the puzzle is one of scale: how did the EU manage by 2000 to have such a long queue of eighteen officially recognized candidates and proto-candidates, with even more states knocking at the door? In 2006, after the considerable enlargement of 2004, the EU had ten new members, and nine (or ten) officially recognized candidates and proto-candidates.
Theory Building and Hypothesis Testing: Large-N Versus Small-N Research on Democratization
Authors: Coppedge Michael
Published: November 2023

Two general approaches have been commonly used in the study of comparative politics: a ‘thick’ approach based on small-N comparisons, including case studies, and a ‘thin’ approach based on large-N comparisons. In Chapter 4, I introduced this distinction between thick and thin approaches and, focusing on issues of conceptualization and measurement, I identified some trade-offers associated with these approaches. Here I extend the discussion by addressing issues of theory and testing.
Greek And Indo-European
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.Greek is one of a number of interrelated languages that spread over a vast area of Europe and Asia during the second and first millennia BC. These languages are now known as ‘Indo-European’, since at the time of the discovery of the relationship the languages were known to exist in Europe and the Indian subcontinent. Apart from Greek, the earliest attested Indo-European languages are Sanskrit (India); Avestan and Old Persian (Iran); the Anatolian languages (Hittite, Luwian, and others); and Latin and the Italic languages of central Italy. Celtic (continental) is attested in inscriptions starting in the VI cent. BC, but is not well documented until the seventh century BC (Old Irish). Indo-European languages (or language-groups) which are not attested until the common era include Albanian, Armenian, Baltic, Germanic, Slavic, and Tocharian (central Asia). The hypothesis that all these languages are derived from an original ‘parent’ language (never written down) was put forward by Sir William Jones (in a now-famous speech in Calcutta) in the eighteenth century, but the term ‘Indo-European’ to denote this language did not come into use until the nineteenth century.
Vowels
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

Vowel-length is not indicated, and i-diphthongs are generally represented by the simple vowel (ko-wo, κoρ).
Dialect Diversity: The Eighth To The Fourth Centuries BC
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

Mycenaean script disappeared with Mycenaean civilization, and the Greek dialects flourished and diverged for two or three relatively unsettled centuries, free (outside of Cyprus) from the checks that a writing system imposes. The end of the Dark Ages brought political stability and a new alphabet, and a four-hundred year window in the history of Greek when the regional diversity of the language was reflected (to a large extent) in writing. The political structure of the ancient Greek world meant that there was no standard language corresponding to Latin in Roman Italy, or a modern standard such as English, French, or Italian. It is hard to think of a parallel, ancient or modern, for this situation: a collection of small states speaking closely related dialects, with a loose sense of political and ethnic affiliation, each state using its own written standard (and indeed its own variety of the alphabet).
Phonology (general characteristics)
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

VOWELS 1.Spurious diphthongs Inherited long ein Greek was an open mid vowel [ε:] (ηin the Ionic alphabet). In the history of Greek a new long eemerged from contraction and compensatory lengthening: in many dialects this had a close quality, i.e. [e:] distinct from inherited [ε:]/η.
Consonants
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.Inherited wis maintained: starts to disappear in Arc. in the IV cent. (absent from 7 Tegea: cf. lργ αs fεργ-). 2.A labiovelar followed by eor iproduced a sound written ζ/τζor with a special letter Ð˜ in Arcadia until the V cent. BC; and with the s-series in Cypriot (si-se~ σs8 10, cf. Arc. .ζs‘whoever’ Buck 16, but IV cent. τs7 15). This probably represents an affricate such as [ts]. 3.The change -ti> -siin verbal endings occurs in Arc.-Cyp. as in Myc. (§10.8): so also in a few other categories such as numerals (τρακασ7 8). 4.The sequence -σ- is retained in Arc. in the 3 plur. of thematic verbs: κρ{ωσ7 5. For Cyp. we posit a nasalized vowel (§26.8) to explain the general failure to write nin this position.
Morphology/Syntax
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1. Personal endings: 1 plur. -μεs (cf. Lat. -mus). Athematic 3 plur. imperf. and aor. forms such as ȅθεν, ȅδον<*ȅθε-ντ, ȅδο-ντ are retained in most WGk. dialects (cf. §32.1).
Vowels
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1. The raising of ε to ι before a nasal (§26.1, Arc.-Cyp.). 2. The raising of ο to υ at word end (§26.2, Arc.-Cyp.). 3. ε is lowered to α before ρ (§38.4, NW Gk.). 4. ε is written ι (plus a glide) before α and ο (§26.6, Cyp.). 5. Evidence for nasalized vowels from the sequence -VnC-, §43.3 (§26.8, Cyp.).
Hellenistic Poetry: Theokritos and Kallimachos
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The language of passages 87 and 88 is a playful mixture of Homeric and poetic language with more informal or colloquial diction. Theokritos was a native of Syracuse, a Doric-speaking city in Sicily. The idylls (εíδ!λλια, ‘vignettes’) deal with many themes other than the purely bucolic, as 87 shows. Of the surviving hexameter poems, most are written in a predominantly Doric version of epic language, and a handful are in epic language; there are in addition four poems written in (archaic literary) Lesbian dialect and metre. The nature of the Doric dialect that he uses has been much disputed, a debate not helped by the usual textual problems which apply to dialect texts. We have almost no dialect texts from Syracuse, which makes it difficult to judge how much Syracusan there is in the mixture: there was, however, a literary tradition at Syracuse in genres close to Theokritos (Epicharmos and Sophron), and this may have played a role. There was also a Doric vernacular in Ptolemaic Alexandria: there were many immigrants from Cyrene in the city, and from elsewhere in the Doric-speaking world (as 87 shows), but since we have little evidence for this variety it is again difficult to judge to what extent Theokritos based his poetic idiom on it. The most easily identifiable elements in his language are epic, and choral/lyric Doric poetry (Alkman, Stesichoros, epinician, etc.).
Vowels
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.The pitch accent moves towards a stress accent, and distinctive vowel length is lost. 2.The front vowels -[i:] and ε[e:] merge as [i], and are later (II cent) joined by η[ε:]. . [o:] > [u]. 3.The diphthongs [ai] > [ε], [oi] > [ü]. 4.The second element of the diphthongs [au], [eu] becomes a fricative: [af], [ef]. 5.The second element of the long diphthongs [a:i], [e:i], [o:i] disappears.
Mycenaean
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.Clay tablet from Knossos (KN Ld 571), recording quantities of textiles. c.1375 BC. Ventris–Chadwick 214. Melena (1975: 43–4), Chadwick (1976: 150–2), Killen (1979). pa-we-a[parweha]: nom. plur. of the neut. noun αρfs‘cloth’, indicating the subject-matter of the inscription (usually written in larger characters, and conventionally signalled in transcription by the following oblique stroke). Inherited wis retained in all positions. At Pylos this word is spelled pa-we-a, but the sign a( ha) seems not to have been in widespread use at Knossos. The intervocalic -h- comes from -s- (stem φαρfεσ- ending -α): in later Greek the -h- disappeared and the vowels contracted. The other four words are neut. plur. adjectives describing pa-we-a.
Literary Texts
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

EPIC As a snake in the mountains waits for a man by its den, having fed on poisonous herbs, and a terrible anger has entered it: dreadfully its eyes glitter as it twists around its den. So Hektor, full of unquenchable fierceness, did not give ground, but leant his bright shield against a projecting battlement. With turbulent feelings he addressed his mighty spirit: ‘Ah me, if I enter within the gates and the wall, (100) Polydamas will be the first to lay reproach upon me: he was the man who bade me lead the Trojans to the city during this fatal night when glorious Achilles roused himself. But I did not listen: that indeed would have been far better. As it is, now that I have destroyed the host with my reckless folly, I feel shame before the Trojan men and the long-robed Trojan women, in case someone else, a man of lower rank than I, should say, “Hektor, by putting faith in his own strength, has destroyed the host”. So they will say; but for me it would be far better to meet Achilles face to face, slay him, and return home, (110) or die gloriously at his hands in front of the city. Perhaps if I were to lay down my bossed shield and mighty helmet, and leaning my spear against the wall were to go just as I am to meet blameless Achilles and promise him Helen and, along with her, all the treasure which Alexander brought in his hollow ships to Troy (which was the cause of the dispute), and give it to Atreus’ sons to carry away, and at the same time divide up amongst the Achaeans all the rest that this city contains, and later take from the Trojans an oath sworn by the elders (120) not to hide anything but to divide everything in two––but why does my heart hold converse with me like this? No, I must not go and approach him, for he will not pity me nor show me any respect, but will kill me there and then like a woman, without defence when I have taken off my armour.’
Less is More
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Mary-Claire King’s and Allan Wilson’s prescient suggestion was that changes in the activity levels of genes—changes in gene expression—are more important than single point mutations in the DNA code that change the amino-acids in proteins when it comes to explaining the many differences between chimpanzees and humans. But is it enough? In among all the excitement over the recent research that provides resounding support for King’s and Wilson’s seminal paper, there was one note of caution. It came from Ajit Varki, professor of glycobiology at the University of California, San Diego.
Aladdin’s Cave
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we saw that gene duplication and segmental duplication—even by the most conservative estimate—each contribute twice as much to the genetic divergence of human from chimp as single point mutations. We also saw that these duplication hubs are hot-spots for genome evolution and that genes within them exhibit much higher levels of mutational change and gene-expression changes than genes elsewhere.
Shifting and stopping: frontostriatal substrates, neurochemical modulation and clinical implications
Authors: Robbins T W
Published: November 2023

The neuropsychological basis of attentional set-shifting, task-set switching and stop-signal inhibition is reviewed through comparative studies of humans and experimental animals. Using human functional neuroimaging, plus neuropsychological investigation of patients with frontal damage quantified by structural magnetic resonance imaging, and through parallels with effects of specific lesions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum in rats and marmosets, it is possible to define both distinct and overlapping loci for tasks such as extra-dimensional shifting and reversal learning, stop-signal reaction time and task-set switching.
Act and Fact: Slavery Reparations as a Democratic Politics of Reconciliation
Authors: Balfour Lawrie
Published: November 2023

The closure afforded by reparations means that no more will be owed to Blacks than is owed to any citizen under the law. This is the effect of any nal judgment on the merits. Once reparations are paid, Blacks will be able to function within American society on a footing of absolute equality. At the heart of political uses of the word ‘democracy’, writes Sheldon Wolin, are two, antagonistic meanings: ‘one is the settled structure of politics and governmental authority typically called a constitution, and the other is the unsettling political movement typically called revolution’ (Wolin 1994: 29). Where the former gives a durable shape or form to a set of institutions designed to rule the people in an orderly fashion, the latter reminds us that, in a democracy worthy of the name, it is the people who rule.
‘The Very Basis of Civility’: On Agonism, Conquest, and Reconciliation
Authors: Muldoon Paul
Published: November 2023

What might be called the question of ‘society’ constitutes one of the key fault lines in the debate about the politics of reconciliation. One perspective—the perspective of society—celebrates reconciliation as a device that can be used to bring members of a national or civic community back to society after they have ‘fallen’ into war. From this point of view, war represents a break between two states of sociability or an interruption, more or less temporary, of the condition of society itself. The purpose of reconciliatory processes is thus not so much to refiect on the violence of the past (though a certain amount of this may be necessary), but to bring to memory what the warring parties share. It allows them, if not to forget the war, at least to put it behind them and ‘heal it away’, by restoring a sense of their common humanity. The other perspective—the perspective of war—criticizes reconciliation for presupposing exactly what is in question; namely, society itself. It takes the view that society never in fact existed or, if it did exist, that it was only as the myth by which one of the warring parties was able to subjugate the other.
Making Disclosure Work Better: The Experience of Investor-Driven Environmental Disclosure
Authors: Repetto Robert
Published: November 2023

Experience in the world’s financial markets during the past decade underscores the importance of transparency and disclosure for the protection of investors and the efficient functioning of capital markets. Disclosure of financially material environmental information serves not only these ends but also that of environmental protection. It allows investors and insurers to judge more accurately the environmental risks being incurred by companies and industries, which might affect their financial results and conditions, and to price those risks more accurately. Pricing environmental risks accurately reduces principal–agent problems between management and outside investors that tempts the former to pursue environmentally risky strategies in pursuit of increased short-term profitability.
Using International Institutions to Enhance Self-Regulation: The Case of Labor Rights in Cambodia
Authors: Polaski Sandra
Published: November 2023

The small and recently war-torn Southeast Asian nation of Cambodia has been the unlikely setting for a path-breaking and successful international policy experiment over the past seven years. The project centers on an effort to improve labor conditions in the factories of Cambodia’s apparel sector, the key source of national exports. The ILO, an international public agency, conducts ongoing monitoring of conditions in the factories.1 The results are published in highly transparent reports that detail compliance or noncompliance by each of the factories with national labor laws and internationally agreed basic labor rights.2 Until the end of 2004, these reports were used by the US government as a key input for decisions under an innovative scheme that allowed increased access to the US market in response to improved working conditions and labor practices.
Direct Selection for Reproductive Isolation: The Wallace Effect and Reinforcement*
Authors: Johnson Norman A
Published: November 2023

The similarities between Alfred Wallace and Charles Darwin, the pioneering thinkers who separately formulated theories of evolution by natural selection, are striking. Both were ardent students of physical and biological nature whose extensive studies in remote locales left indelible marks on them. Independently influenced by the writings of the economist Thomas Malthus, Wallace and Darwin each recognized that animals and plants were engaged in a “struggle for existence,” an insight both men viewed as critical for the formulation of their theories of evolution (Browne 1995, 2002; Shermer 2002; Smith 2003–).
Alfred Russel Wallace, Biogeographer*
Authors: Michaux Bernard
Published: November 2023

The writings of these revolutionaries, like their life histories, advertise their Magellanic nature. Wallace’s “On the Law Which Has Regulated the Introduction of New Species,” Darwin’s Origin of Species, Wegener’s The Origin of Continents and Oceans, du Toit’s Our Wandering Continents, do not smell of the classroom; they smell of swamps, jungles, rivers and beaches. Such risk- takers are not likely to be awed by professors or cowed by textbooks (McCarthy 2005).
The Humans Who Went Extinct
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

Just 28,000 years ago, the blink of an eye in geological time, the last of Neanderthals died out in their last outpost, in caves near Gibraltar. Thanks to cartoons and folk accounts we have a distorted view of these other humans - for that is what they were. We think of them as crude and clumsy and not very bright, easily driven to extinction by the lithe, smart modern humans that came out of Africa some 100,000 years ago. But was it really as simple as that? Clive Finlayson reminds us that the Neanderthals were another kind of human, and their culture was not so very different from that of our own ancestors. In this book, he presents a wider view of the events that led to the migration of the moderns into Europe, what might have happened during the contact of the two populations, and what finally drove the Neanderthals to extinction. It is a view that considers climate, ecology, and migrations of populations, as well as culture and interaction. His conclusion is that the destiny of the Neanderthals and the Moderns was sealed by ecological factors and contingencies. It was a matter of luck that we survived and spread while the Neanderthals dwindled and perished. Had the climate not changed in our favour some 50 million years ago, things would have been very different. There is much current research interest in Neanderthals, much of it driven by attempts to map some of their DNA. But it's not just a question of studying the DNA. The rise and fall of populations is profoundly moulded by the larger scale forces of climate and ecology. And it is only by taking this wider view that we can fully understand the course of events that led to our survival and their demise. The fact that Neanderthals survived until virtually yesterday makes our relationship with them and their tragedy even more poignant. They almost made it, after all.
Corruption and Investment Decision Making
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 6, on pension fund trustee decision making, I sought to show how and why convention dominates trustee decision making. Trustees often reference protocols commonly accepted throughout the investment management industry: the dominance of convention is the pro duct of a set of overlapping decision making ‘frames’, including habits of prudence, rules of proprietary conduct, and norms of relationships which structure decision making. My argument was that these frames are essential for coping with the ever-present reality of risk and uncertainty in the investment world.
Introduction
Authors: Moulaert Frank
Published: November 2023

This book seeks to break with this discourse in several ways. First, it argues that the universe of cities is much larger than the world of metropolises. Relationships between metropolitan cities and the global economy are the main topic in the literature on the impact of globalization on cities. But these relationships are so specific that few lessons can be drawn for the future of smaller cities. The book thus explores the interaction between globalization dynamics and a diversified array of cities. Second, global economic strategies sign away the social, ecological, and possibly the economic future of society all over the world.
Introduction
Authors: Mol Arthur , Liefferink, Duncan , Lauber Volkmar
Published: November 2023

Environmental problems have presented a challenge to public authorities ever since they came to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s. After decades of relative neglect, pressure from the public led to the multiplication of legislative and regulatory interventions, often in a not very co-ordinated fashion. Beginning in the 1980s, this approach seemed to exhaust its usefulness to some extent. Business became more reluctant to accept new legislation and some political leaders became more willing to argue that business should be granted more leeway in dealing with its environmental responsibilities.
Mapping Policy Preferences
Authors: Budge Ian , Klingemann Hans-Dieter , Volkens Andrea , Bara Judith , Tanenbaum Eric , Fording Richard C , Hearl Derek J , Kim Hee Min , Mcdonald Michael D , Mendes Silvia M
Published: November 2023

This book uniquely enriches and empowers its readers. It enriches them by giving them the most detailed and extensive data available on the policies and preferences of key democratic actors-parties, governments, and electors in 25 democracies over the post-war period. Estimates are provided for every election and most coalitions of the post-war period and derive from the programmes, manifestos, and platforms of parties and governments themselves. Thus, they form a uniquely authoritative source, recognized as such and provided through the labour of a team of international scholars over 25 years. The book empowers readers by providing these estimates on the website http://manifestoproject.wzb.eu/MPP1. The printed text provides documentation and suggested uses for data, along with much other background information. The changing ideologies and concerns of parties trace general social developments over the post-war period, as well as directly affecting economic policy making. Indispensable for any serious discussion of democratic politics, the book provides necessary information for political scientists, policy analysts, comparativists, sociologists, and economists. A must for every social science library-private as well as academic or public.
C
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

Cardozo, Benjamin N. Benjamin Nathan Cardozo (1870-1938), influenced American law both through his thoughtful and well-crafted opinions while a judge and by his writings about the judicial process. While Cardozo served both on the highest court of New York State, the New York Court of Appeals, and on the United States Supreme Court, most of his well-known opinions, paradoxically, are from the New York court. Cardozo ’s most important book is arguably The Nature of the judicial  Process (1921), in which he presents the judicial role as a creative part of a process for making law serve social needs. While such views may seem commonplace now, they went against the formalist views prominent at the time, but were consistent with many of the ideas being put forward by the American legal realists.
P
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

paradigm It is part of some approaches to the philosophy of language that the meaning of terms is understood or taught on the basis of paradigm cases, central cases in which the application of a term is at its clearest. The question is then what the paradigm cases tell us about the application of the term to borderline cases. Discussions of paradigms in this sense appear in the work of both H. L.A. Hart (1907-92) (his notion of ‘open texture ‘, that judges have discretion in the application of statutes to borderline cases) and Ronald D workin (1931-) (the construction of a theory of law may be founded on paradigmatic applications of ‘law ’, though these paradigmatic cases might themselves, in principle, be subject to challenge in the completed theory).
R
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

race In conventional thinking in many countries, people are categorized according to ‘race ’-general groupings based on some combination of skin colour, other physical features, and country of ancestry. These groupings frequently have significant implications for social status and legal treatment. It is a commonplace among biologists, geneticists, and social theorists that racial categories are almost entirely socially constructed, with little or no biological/genetic basis. A focus on the nature and implications of racial and ethnic categories is central to critical race theory and affiliated approaches to law.
W
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

Waismann, Friedrich Friedrich Waismann (1896-1959) was a philosopher of language, and a member of the Vienna Circle, the group that developed logical positivism (not to be confused with ‘legal positivism ‘). Waismann ’s importance to legal theory is that H. L.A. Hart ’s (1907-92) notion of ‘open texture ‘ derives from Waismann ’s concept of the same name; however, Hart ’s and Waismann ’s notions are at best analogues. Waismann ’s ‘open texture ‘ was introduced to respond to a particular problem of verification theory. If the meaning of terms is equated with certain statements about sense-data, definitions would be unable to respond to situations that were entirely unforeseen (e.g. cats suddenly growing to gigantic sizes).
Z
Authors: Bix Brian H
Published: November 2023

zero sum game A term from game theory indicating a game or situation where the participants ‘ collective losses and gains add up to zero. The term is often used more loosely to indicate a situation (or an approach to a situation) where one party can win only if another party loses (as contrasted to a co-operative situation where all parties could end up gaining).
The Kalahari and the Southern African Interior
Authors: Goudie Andrew S
Published: November 2023

The western and central portions of southern Africa are drylands (Fig. 7.1). On the western coast there is the Namib, in the south there is the Karoo, and in the middle there is the Kalahari. The last of these was described by a colonial explorer of the old school (Makin, 1929: 16):

So far the Kalahari Desert has been one of the lost lands. A few white men entered it, but not all of them returned. It has been the great mystery desert of Africa, less known than the Sahara, which the French have mapped and explored thoroughly within the past few years. Moreover, it has none of the romantic attributes of the Garden of Allah. It has not been visited by the passionate novelist, nor can it boast of luxurious caravanserai where ice-cream and jazz add to the dangers of the desert. It has been accepted as a wilderness, and left at that.
Print Culture, 1700 –1800
Authors: Barnard Toby
Published: November 2023

Print gradually permeated eighteenth-century Ireland. It escaped from the closets of the learned and wealthy into the routines of the middling and lower orders of society. The outlines—if not yet the details—of the greater variety and availability of printed wares are clear. The great majority were in the English language. Titles, copy, and printed sheets were frequently imported from Britain. Outside England, Ireland was the Hanoverians ‘ most populous possession and so potentially a lucrative market. Those active in the book trade served as intermediaries for customers who wished to acquire works published in Britain or Dublin, taking subscriptions or deposits. The heavy reliance on what London offered strengthened the impression that, in the reception of print, Ireland frequently functioned as a cultural province and economic dependency. At the same time, the growing access to and use of books reflected and even aggravated distinctive features of Ireland, such as ethnic and linguistic difference, apparent economic retardation, and endemic poverty. If printing drove wedges between a fortunate few and the many, the Irish situation might vary in chronology and detail but did not differ in essentials from what was happening in provincial England, Wales, Scotland, and colonial North America.
How Fragile is the Earth System?
Authors: Schellnhuber Hans-Joachim , Held Hermann
Published: November 2023

In July 2001 more than 1,800 scientists from no countries met in Amsterdam for the conference challenges of a Changing Earth’. This event was something like an Earth Summit for Global Change science as it.
Who Governs a Sustainable World? The Role of International Courts and Tribunals
Authors: Sands Philippe
Published: November 2023

In 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UN CED), states adopted the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Principle 27 of the Rio Declaration states: ‘States and people shall co operate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further development of international law in the field of sustainable development’ (United Nations 1992). The language of Principle 27 is premissed on the view that even at the time of its adoption there existed a body of ‘inter national law in the field of sustainable development’. However, Principle 2 7 does not indicate the content of that law, in particular whether it is pro cedural or substantive or both, or where its content may be identified.
Political Parties in a Changing Europe
Authors: Luther Kurt Richard , Müller-Rommel Ferdinand
Published: November 2023

The analysis of political parties constitutes one of the most important sub fields of comparative political science and dates back at least as far as the contributions of Ostrogorski (1903, 1964) and Michels (1911, 1962). One of the main reasons for this enduring interest in political parties is that they have been widely regarded as playing a central role in both the theory and the practice of modem liberal democracy, constituting a vital link between the sovereign people and the politicians to whom the exercise of the affairs of the state is temporarily entrusted.
The Internal Life of Parties
Authors: Katz Richard S
Published: November 2023

In most theories of democracy and in the actual practice of nearly all democratic governments, political parties play a crucial role. Given the hostility to parties expressed by some theorists (e.g. Barber 1984), and practitioners (e.g. Charles de Gaulle) of modern democracy, and the non partisan experience of some very small political units (e.g. the Bailiwick of Jersey), it may be an exaggeration to say with Schattschneider (1942: 1) that modem democracy is unthinkable save in terms of the parties’. Yet there are no significant democratic countries, and precious few subdivisions within those countries, in which parties are not, in fact, centrally important actors. As is implicit in the last sentence, parties often are treated as corporate or even unitary actors.
Party Organizational Change: Competing Explanations?
Authors: Harmel Robert
Published: November 2023

Like other organizations, political parties have reasons-both external and internal-to resist organizational change (see Hall 1991: 184-85; Katz 1978: 770-71; Duverger 1959: 135; Harmel and Janda 1994: 261-62), and yet empirical evidence certainly supports a conclusion that parties do indeed change. Since organizational change has the potential to alter parties’ ultimate effectiveness as well as their internal politics, party change has for some time been a topic of interest for students of political parties. Though a few classics on the topic (Michels 1911; Duverger 1951, 1959) were written many decades ago, a swelling of interest in party organization-and particularly in party organizational change-has occurred more recently, concurrent with an up surge in more general concerns over party relevance and continued viability.
Parties, Ideologies, and Issues Stability and Change in Fifteen European Party Systems 1945-1998
Authors: Volkens Andrea , Klingemann Hans-Dieter
Published: November 2023

Ideologies and issues adopted by political parties are of central importance in representative democracies. Citizens’ preferences do not enter into the political decision-making process directly, but are selected and aggregated by political parties into policy packages, which are then transmitted into parliament and government. The mediating role of parties refers to this process of aggregation and conversion of citizens’ preferences into binding decisions. The two central criteria in democratic theory are thus the responsiveness of parties to citizens’ preferences, and the accountability of parties in government to their pre-electoral pledges (as analysed in Chapter 9 of this volume). However, the functions which democratic theory accords to political parties in respect of ideologies and issues are both more numerous and at times conflicting.
Introduction
Authors: Bridge Helen
Published: November 2023

The collapse of the GDR has given rise to extensive reflection, amongst literary scholars as well as historians and journalists, on the question of how now to approach the history of the GDR and its literature. Three areas of the discussion arc of particular relevance for the present study. Firstly, attention has been focused on the questions of what constitutes ‘GDR literature’, whether the term corresponds to a definable literary entity, and what value such a category might have for literary historiography. Whereas terms like ‘English literature’ or ‘German literature’ might be defined (although not unproblematic ally) either according to the use of a common language or in relation to an idea of nation based on cultural, if not always political, identity, ‘GDR literature’ is a category defined by a political entity with clear historical and geographical boundaries.
Shades of Green: Euroscepticism in Irish Political Parties
Authors: Gilland Karin
Published: November 2023

Ireland joined the European Union ((EU) or, as it was then, the European Economic Community (EEC)) in 1973, and since then has often been considered something of a ‘model member’ as well as a fine example of how membership can augment economic development. Until the new millennium, European affairs was a peripheral and low-priority issue in Irish politics, but in 2000/1 its salience grew.
Opposing Europe or Problematizing EuropeEuroscepticism and ‘Eurorealism’ in the Polish Party System
Authors: Szczerbiak Aleks
Published: November 2023

For much of the 1990s Poland enjoyed both a high level of elite consensus in favour of, and one of the highest levels of popular support for, European Union (EU) accession among the post-communist candidate states. However, the end of the decade saw the emergence of a significant bloc of anti-EU public and elite opinion and parties highly critical of, or openly opposed to, Polish EU membership were relatively successful in the September 2001 parliamentary election.
Excitation of magnetic resonance
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

Before we consider the instrumental equipment needed for magnetic resonance experiments it is perhaps helpful to take a look at a more familiar subject television. A television transmitter sends out intense radiation at a precise frequency which is picked up by an aerial on the roof of the house. The greater the distance between the transmitter and this antenna, the weaker the signal that is detected. This tiny signal is amplified in a tuned receiver and processed to form a picture. If the house is too far from the television station, or the antenna misaligned, or the receiver poorly tuned, the detected signal is so weak that it is lost in a sea of random noise arising from the electronics. The television screen shows only ‘snow’, a chaotic pattern of bright spots on a dark background, containing no useful information. Magnetic resonance has many features in common with this familiar scenario-there is a powerful transmitter operating at a fixed frequency, but the signals from the nuclear spins, picked up by the receiver, are very weak indeed, so some degree of noise is always present in NMR spectra or MRI scans. This is probably the most serious limitation of the magnetic resonance method.
Sensitivity
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

It is an unfortunate fact that magnetic resonance is not a sensitive technique, that is to say, we need a relatively large amount of material to produce a detectable signal. We have already had a clue to the reason (§ 2.4 ); most of the nuclear spins in a sample are equally divided between the upper and lower energy levels, with only a tiny excess in the ground state. Because upward and downward transitions are equally probable, one upward jump (absorption of energy) is cancelled by one downward jump (emission), generating no signal in the receiver. Only the small excess population in the lower level (of the order of only 5 nuclei in 100,000) is actually utilized, because this permits net absorption of radiofrequency energy, not matched by equal emission from the upper level. We often loosely refer to this effect as the ‘Boltzmann factor’ since it is the Boltzmann distribution function that determines the spin populations at equilibrium. Almost all of the tiny nuclear magnets aligned along the magnetic field direction are matched by an equal number that are opposed to the field.
The chemical shift
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

For those readers mainly interested in clinical applications of magnetic resonance it may be tempting to skip this chapter altogether. This would be a pity, because the chemical shift plays an important part in certain forms of MRI and is crucial to the understanding of MRS, which allows us to follow the metabolism of the human body. However, the main thrust of this chapter is towards chemistry.
Spin-spin coupling
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

We now come to a second important aspect of high-resolution NMR spectra the fine structure. While the chemical shift is the main factor determining the frequency of the response from a particular chemical site, each response may also exhibit some fine structure representing interactions with neighbouring magnetic nuclei. If we imagine we are ‘sitting’ on a particular nuclear spin, we would know whether a nearby spin is ‘up’ or ‘down’, because this creates a weak additional magnetic field at our location, either positive or negative. When we consider the ensemble of similar nuclear spins in the sample there are essentially equal numbers of ‘up’ and ‘down’ neighbours. Instead of a single response at the chemical shift frequency there are two responses, one slightly above and the other slightly below the chemical shift frequency. The electrons that make up the chemical bonds between two sites serve as a conduit for this magnetic interaction.
The search for new drugs
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

The origins of pharmaceutical chemistry are lost in the mists of time, but Chinese traditional medicine certainly stands out as an example of impressive progress through a great deal of hard work over thousands of years. This essentially trial and-error method has had its successes and, no doubt, some dangerous failures. The basic problem is that natural substances tend to be found in complex mixtures, and at that epoch there were no sure means to determine the active ingredient and probably no way to isolate it. Even today, we still have only an incomplete understanding of human and microbial biochemistry. Many western drugs have been discovered essentially by accident, probably the best-known example being that of penicillin. Some turn out to be useful, but not at all for the purpose for which they were intended (Viagra).
Political Principles
Authors: Klosko George
Published: November 2023

Because of the complex system of offices we have examined, the Laws is frequently said to be a pioneering work in the theory of the ‘mixed constitution’. The constitution can be termed ‘mixed’ in two different respects. Though Plato does not actually refer to Magnesia as having a ‘mixed’ (meikite or memeigmene) constitution, he does say that it observes a ‘mean’ or ‘intermediary’ position between different constitutional forms, and we examine this. But the work also occupies a significant position in the tradition of what we frequently call the ‘mixed’ constitution, despite Plato’s failure to use the term.
Socratic Politics
Authors: Klosko George
Published: November 2023

I said in the last chapter that we should pay special attention to the presuppositions about human nature that governed Socrates’ mission. In this chapter, we examine these and draw out their political implications. We pay special attention to Socrates’ intellectualism, a view widely associated with the historical Socrates and espoused in Plato’s early dialogues. According to the Magna Moralia, the historical Socrates’ conception of human nature was deficient in the following way: According . . . to Socrates, all the virtues arise in the reasoning part of the soul, from which it follows that, in making the various virtues branches of knowledge, he ignores the irrational parts of the soul, and thus ignores passion and the moral character. (1182a18–23)
The Tripartite Soul
Authors: Klosko George
Published: November 2023

In order to unravel the moral psychology of the Republic, it is necessary briefly to examine the central argument of the work. At least ostensibly, the Republic centres on an attempt to define justice and to prove that it benefits its possessor. By the end of Book I, Socrates has refuted various attempted definitions, when at the beginning of Book II Glaucon and Adeimantus challenge him to define it and to show exactly how it pays. Glaucon presents a classification of goods. Some are (a) beneficial in themselves, others (b) both in themselves and for their consequences, and others (c) beneficial only for their consequences. An example of the first sort is joy, which is immediately beneficial, though it does not have significant consequences. Sight and health are beneficial in both ways. Having them is immediately beneficial and allow one to attain additional important benefits.
Introduction
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

One of the core motivating factors behind the creation of the Small Arms Survey in 1999 was the need for a better understanding of the use and impacts of small arms—including in armed conflict. In the first four editions of the annual Small Arms Survey,as well as in numerous other publications, the Survey has pursued this mandate by exploring many facets of small arms, from their production, trade, regulation, and misuse to their particular roles in different states and regions. The fifth edition of the Small Arms Surveyfocuses on the direct and indirect role of small arms in contemporary violent conflicts. As such, this volume develops in depth one important strand of work begun at the project’s inception. It describes the many ways in which small arms and light weapons threaten human life and well-being in collective violence, while also focusing how these weapons are implicated in the origins, exacerbation, and aftermath of violent conflict.
Rounding out the Gun: Ammunition
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

In 1996–97, mutinous soldiers from the Central African Republic (CAR) supplemented their arsenal by seizing weapons from members of the armed forces, gendarmerie, and police of Zaire as they crossed the border. Many of the armaments seized, such as Galil and M-16 automatic rifles, proved to be of little value, though, because the corresponding ammunition, 5.56 mm cartridges, was almost impossible to obtain in CAR. Having no use for these otherwise perfectly functioning weapons, the soldiers threw them into the Ubangi River (Berman, 2005).This example underscores the crucial point that, without ammunition, small arms and light weapons are useless. Weapons and ammunition are complementary goods: an increase in the demand for weapons results in an increase in demand for ammunition, and their prices shift accordingly. In many instances, the procurement of ammunition can be more problematic than that of weapons: while weapons are durable goods, which can be used for many years in several areas of conflict, ammunition is quickly depleted and stocks must be replenished.
Behind the Numbers: Small Arms And Conflict Deaths
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

The steady stream of media reports from the battle zones of Iraq has kept the world regularly informed about at least one aspect of the conflict: the numbers of US and UK servicemen and women being killed. Between March 2003 and April 2005, more than 1,700 had died, and more than 11,000 had been wounded (Iraq Coalition Casualty Count, 2005; Antiwar.com, 2005). One obvious question follows directly from these statistics: how many Iraqis have died in the conflict? In April 2005, the public database Iraqi Body Count, basing its information on media accounts, estimated that there had been between 17,000 and 19,000 Iraqi military and civilian deaths (IBC, 2005).
Everyday Life and Leisure Time
Authors: Tulloch John
Published: November 2023

The context of risk debate in this book and elsewhere is generally taken to be a shifting away from modernist ‘welfare’ paradigms to those of personal responsibility and ‘justice’ (see Crime and Risk). An equivalent shift is noted from interventionist state policies to those of either risk society or new ‘governmentality’ (see Risk and Social and Public Policy). Yet these contexts—especially when we look at theorizing risk, everyday life, and leisure—need to be explored in the context of wider intellectual debate.