bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Racial Relations Theories and Sport: Suggestions for a More Critical Analysis
Authors: Birrell Susan
Published: August 2016

This paper suggests that sport sociology may be ready to move from a generally atheoretical approach to “race and sport“ to a critical analysis of racial relations and sport. Four theoretical groups are identified from the writing of racial relations scholars: bias and discrimination theories, assimilation and cultural deprivation theories, materialist and class-based theories, and culturalist or colonial theories. In the past, studies of race and sport have fit within the former two theories. A cultural studies approach that blends the latter theories is advocated in order to move toward the goal of critical theory and develop a comprehensive model for analyzing the complex of relations of dominance and subordination simultaneously structured along racial, gender, and class lines.
The Great American Football Ritual: Reproducing Race, Class, and Gender Inequality
Authors: Foley Douglas E.
Published: August 2016

An ethnographic study of one football season in a small South Texas town is presented to explore the extent that community sport is, as various critical theorists have suggested, a potential site for counterhegemonic cultural practices. Football is conceptualized as a major community ritual that socializes future generations of youth. This broad, holistic description of socialization also notes various moments of ethnic resistance engendered by the Chicano civil rights movement. Other moments of class and gender resistance to the football ritual are also noted. Finally, the way players generally resisted attempts to thoroughly rationalize their sport is also described. In spite of these moments of resistance, this study ultimately shows how deeply implicated community sport—in this case high school football—is in the reproduction of class, gender, and racial inequality. The white ruling class and the town’s patriarchal system of gender relations are preserved in spite of concessions to the new ethnic challenges. When seen from a historical community perspective, sport may be less a site for progressive, counterhegemonic practices than critical sport theorists hope.
The Articulation of Difference: White Preoccupation with the Question of Racially Linked Genetic Differences among Athletes
Authors: Davis Laurel R.
Published: August 2016

This paper focuses on the contemporary white public and scientific preoccupation with the question of racially linked genetic differences between black and white male athletes. It is argued that the preoccupation itself is racist because it is founded on and naturalizes racial categories as fixed and unambiguous biological realities, thus obscuring the political processes of racial formation. The biological determinism underlying the preoccupation conceals both human agency and sociopolitical forces, including racism. NBC Television, by legitimating the preoccupation itself, helped to produce consent for the racial status quo. Strategies that are used to naturalize the preoccupation are exposed.
Combating Homophobia in Sport and Physical Education
Authors: Lenskyj Helen
Published: August 2016

The discrimination experienced by women in sport in North America has been well documented (e.g., Hall, 1987; Lenskyj, 1986; Uhlir, 1987), and the gains made in the last two decades owe much to the efforts of feminists, both inside and outside sport. However, the situation of lesbians in sport has only recently received attention in academic and professional sport circles, and then only as one aspect of sportswomen’s private lives for which they are subjected to discrimination. And although feminist scholarship of the 1970s and 1980s has investigated the political implications of lesbianism in considerable depth, the specific concerns of lesbians in sport contexts have for the most part been neglected. This paper examines the discrimination faced by lesbians in sport and develops a radical feminist analysis of these experiences. Recent developments in national sports organizations in North America are presented as case studies and analyzed in terms of their political perspective and potential.
The Social Logic of Boxing in Black Chicago: Toward a Sociology of Pugilism
Authors: Wacquant Loïc J.D.
Published: August 2016

Drawing on a 3-year ethnography and participant observation study of a ghetto gym in Chicago, this article purports to (a) de-exoticize the subproletarian bodily craft of boxing by uncovering its embedded social logic and meaning, and (b) contribute to a theory of practice that escapes the false antinomies associated with rational choice and normative models of action. The first part explores the peculiar relation of symbiotic opposition that ties the boxing gym to its proximate social matrix of the black ghetto and to the masculine street culture from which it draws its sustenance and shelters its members. The second part treats boxing as a Durkheimian “social art” whose mastery involves an intensive, ascetic, and strictly regulated manipulation of the body designed to inculcate through direct embodiment the set of corporeal, visual, and mental schemata immanent to pugilistic practice. The social production of the pugilistic habitus as embodied practical reason thus suggests the need to place the socialized lived body at the center of the analysis of social action.
Preparing to Compete: A Season-Long Investigation with Collegiate Wrestlers
Authors: Eklund Robert C.
Published: August 2016

In order to extend Gould, Eklund, and Jackson’s (1992a) investigation with 1988 U.S. Olympic wrestlers, Eklund (1994) reported results from a season-long investigation of cognition during performance among collegiate wrestlers. This manuscript expands the account of that season-long investigation by reporting precompetitive cognition and affect—the psychological experience immediately prior to match performance—associated with performance. Qualitative data were collected from 6 NCAA Division I wrestlers via indepth retrospective interviews regarding all-time best and worst performances within 2’days of 38 season matches. Observable patterns in the organization and content of precompetitive psychological experience were identified in high, moderate, and low quality performances and observations made regarding associations with the competitive psychological experience.
Testing the Predictions of the Cusp Catastrophe Model of Anxiety and Performance
Authors: Hardy Lew
Published: August 2016

Hardy and Fazey’s (1987) cusp catastrophe model of anxiety and performance has been criticized for being overly complex and difficult to test. The present paper attempts to clarify the model for researchers who are less familiar with its more subtle nuances; it then differentiates between the characteristics of cusp catastrophe models in general and the specific predictions of Hardy and Fazey’s cusp catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. For each prediction, methodological and statistical procedures are suggested whereby the prediction can be tested, and the available evidence that has used these procedures is then briefly reviewed. Some of the practical implications of the cusp catastrophe model for best practice are also discussed.
Effects of Cognitive-Behavioral Psychological Skills Training on the Motivation, Preparation, and Putting Performance of Novice Golfers
Authors: Beauchamp Pierre H. , Halliwell Wayne R. , Fournier Jean F. , Koestner Richard
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of a 14-week cognitive-behavioral teaching program on the motivation, preparation, and putting performance of novice golfers. A cognitive-behavioral program was adapted from Boutcher and Rotella (1987) and was compared with a physical skills training group and a control group. The Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tusón, Briére, & Blais, 1995) was used to measure intrinsic versus introjected forms of selfregulation. Preputt routines and actual putting performance were measured by observer ratings. Participants completed all dependent measures prior to training and at 3 additional times spaced over 4-week intervals. The results showed that participants in the cognitive-behavioral program displayed enhanced intrinsic motivation, more consistent use of preputt routines, and improved putting performance relative to participants in the other 2 groups. Cognitive-behavioral participants also showed a significantly reduced use of introjection, which reflects a harsh, self-evaluative form of self-regulation similar to ego involvement. The results support the conclusion drawn by Whelan, Myers, Berman, Bryant, and Mellon (1988) that cognitive-behavioral approaches are effective for performance enhancement; they also suggest that such approaches can produce positive motivational effects.
Psychological Skills Training in Golf: The Role of Individual Differences in Cognitive Preferences
Authors: Thomas Patrick R. , Fogarty Gerard J.
Published: August 2016

Individual differences in cognitive preferences were examined in analyzing the effects of imagery and self-talk training on the psychological skills and performance levels of amateur golfers. Thirty-two men and women participated in a series of four counterbalanced training workshops and activities conducted over 2 months at two golf clubs. A repeated measures MANOVA revealed significant improvement on five psychological and psychomotor skills measured by the Golf Performance Survey: negative emotions and cognitions, mental preparation, automaticity, putting skill, and seeking improvement. Participants’ responses to the Sport Imagery Questionnaire and ratings of their imagery and self-talk techniques increased significantly after training. Players also lowered their handicaps and performed significantly better on a Golf Skills Test after training. Imagery and self-talk training benefits were not linked to participants’ cognitive preferences. The cognitive flexibility displayed by these golfers signals the need for more research on processing preferences and has implications for practitioners working with athletes.
Tracking the Training and Careers of Graduates of Advanced Degree Programs in Sport Psychology, 1989 to 1994
Authors: Andersen Mark B. , Aldridge Tim , Williams Jean M. , Taylor Jim
Published: August 2016

This study expanded the work of Waite and Pettit (1993) and contacted 75 graduate programs for lists of names and addresses of students who graduated between 1989 and 1994 (N = 731). Doctoral (n = 92) and master (n = 162) graduates completed a tracking survey (modified from Waite & Pettit), reporting their demographics, educational backgrounds, current positions, incomes, initial and future career goals, and supervised experiences. The majority of doctoral graduates have found positions in academia/research, and most of the master graduates were in some sport or sport psychology-related job. The majority of the master and doctoral graduates, however, reported that finding paying sport psychology work was difficult, and many expressed at least moderate levels of frustration with the progress of their sport psychology careers. The information from this study could be useful for advising current and potential graduate students about career options after graduation.
Coping with Season-Ending Injuries
Authors: Gould Daniel , Bridges Dana , Udry Eileen , Beck Laurie
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to identify coping strategies and factors thought to facilitate recovery in elite skiers who suffered season-ending injuries. Differences in the frequency that these variables were cited between unsuccessful and successful postinjury performers and between male and female participants were examined. Retrospective qualitative interviews were conducted with 21 U.S. alpine and freestyle ski team members who suffered seasonending injuries. Content analysis of the interviews revealed that 140 coping strategy raw-data themes coalesced into seven higher order dimensions: driving through; distracted self; managed emotions and thoughts; sought and used social resources; avoidance and isolation; took note and drew upon lessons learned; and other. Six higher-order facilitating factors were identified from 78 raw-data themes and included: interpersonal resources, accessible quality medical resources, fortunate circumstances, environmental resources, past experience with injury, and financial backing. The successful versus unsuccessful skier and male versus female comparisons revealed several differences between groups, especially in the use of coping strategies.
Coaches’ and Players’ Perceptions of Goal Setting in Junior Tennis: An Exploratory Investigation
Authors: Weinberg Robert S. , Burke Kevin L. , Jackson Allen
Published: August 2016

This study examined the various aspects of goal setting of youth tennis players and their coaches. To examine this multifaceted technique, an extensive goal-setting questionnaire was administered to 224 youth tennis players and 35 youth tennis coaches. Results indicated that improving overall performance, fun/enjoyment, and winning were the three most important goals for youth tennis players and that they most preferred setting moderately difficult goals. The most effective type of goals for players were physical conditioning, practice, and skill/technique, whereas the top reasons for setting goals were focusing attention, problem-solving, and increasing effort. Results also revealed numerous significant differences between coaches’ and players’ goal setting, with the coaches generally having a higher frequency of using different goal-setting strategies and finding them more effective. Results were discussed in terms of developmental differences between youth and college athletes, as well as individual difference variables such as gender and ability.
Sport Psychology Service to the United States Olympic Festival: An Experiential Account
Authors: Meyers Andrew W.
Published: August 2016

I present my personal experience as a sport psychologist on the sports medicine staff at the 1994 United States Olympic Festival. In addition to documenting my activities in preparation for the Festival and my work during the games, I raise issues concerning psychological service delivery at large, multisport events and the personal impact of such service on the sport psychologist. I also consider implications of my work at the festival for the development of the profession of sport psychology.
A Psychometric Evaluation of the Sports Inventory for Pain
Authors: Bartholomew John B. , Linder Darwyn E. , Brewer Britton W. , Van Raalte Judy L. , Cornelius Allen E. , Bart Shannon M.
Published: August 2016

This investigation was designed to assess the validity of the Sports Inventory for Pain (SIP; Meyers, Bourgeois, Stewart, & LeUnes, 1992). Study 1 used SIP responses to predict three objective measures of pain coping: pain threshold, pain tolerance, and the perception of a fixed, submaximal level of painful stimulation. Participants were 70 undergraduate volunteers (35 females, 35 males). Although two SIP subscales (Cognitive and Body Awareness) were related to at least one pain measure, another subscale (Coping) was negatively related to pain tolerance (opposite of predictions), and the composite HURT scores were not related to any of the pain measures. In Study 2,41 participants (31 females, 10 males) completed a wall sit (phantom chair) task and the SIP approximately 1 month after initially filling out the SIP. Test-retest reliabilities of the SIP were acceptable (average r = .75), but responses on the SIP did not predict performance on the painful physical endurance task. In Study 3, 54 participants (17 females, 37 males) completed the SIP approximately 1 month after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. SIP scores were not significantly correlated with measures of rehabilitation adherence and functional outcome at approximately 6 months postsurgery. Taken together, these three studies provide marginal support for the validity of the SIP and raise questions about the utility of the SIP as a predictor of participants’ ability to function while experiencing pain.
Life after Winning Gold: I. Experiences of Australian Olympic Gold Medallists
Authors: Jackson Susan A. , Dover Jeremy , Mayocchi Lisa
Published: August 2016

To better understand the impact that winning an Olympic gold medal has upon athletes, a qualitative investigation of the experiences encountered by Australian athletes who won an Olympic gold medal between 1984-1992 was conducted. A total of 18 Olympic champions were interviewed on their experiences as gold medallists. While athletes recognized many positive aspects associated with their Olympic wins, a large number of negative experiences were also recounted. The win created significant and long-lasting change to most athletes’ lives. Evaluation and comparison of the athletes’ personal experiences in relation to other Australian gold medallists from this time period are discussed.
Scoring the Perfect 10: Investigating the Impact of Goal-Setting Styles on a Goal-Setting Program for Female Gymnasts
Authors: Pierce Barbara E. , Burton Damon
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to assess how goal-setting styles influenced the effectiveness of a season-long goal-setting program for gymnastics. Participants were 25 female junior high school gymnasts, ages 12-14. Goalsetting styles were assessed clinically by team coaches and empirically by combined goal-orientation and gymnastics-competence scores. Goal-setting style results were generally consistent with model predictions. None of the failure-oriented (FO) gymnasts competed in one event for all meets. Performance and, to a lesser degree, cognitive findings for the three remaining goalsetting style groups supported model predictions. Performance-oriented (PO) gymnasts significantly improved performance over time, whereas success-oriented (SO) gymnasts experienced a slight performance decrement. MANOVA results also revealed goal-setting style differences on postseason program evaluations, with PO gymnasts having the most favorable ratings of goal-setting training (GST) program effectiveness.
Examining Gender Differences in Sources and Levels of Perceived Competence in Interscholastic Coaches
Authors: Barber Heather
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to examine gender differences in sources of competence information and the resultant perceptions of competence among male and female interscholastic coaches. Participants (102 female and 138 male coaches of girls’ sports) completed self-report measures that assessed preferences for sources of coaching competence information, perceptions of general and specific coaching competence, and potential reasons for withdrawal from coaching. Multivariate analyses revealed significant gender differences among sources of competence information, with women showing greater preference for athletes’ improvement and for improvement of their own coaching skills. Gender differences between coaching competence perceptions were also found. Males and females were similar in most self-perceptions, but women perceived themselves to be more competent at teaching sport skills. Contrary to theoretical predictions, canonical correlations between sources and perceptions of competence did not indicate a strong link between these two constructs for male or female coaches.
Practical Considerations for Working with Athletes with Disabilities
Authors: Hanrahan Stephanie J.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents general considerations for working with athletes with disabilities and the usefulness and possible modification of specific mental skills for those athletes. Common concerns for athletes with specific disabilities are discussed. Specific disabilities are considered under the headings of amputees, blind and visually impaired, cerebral palsy, deaf and hearing impaired, intellectual disabilities, and wheelchair. Arousal control, goal setting, attention/concentration, body awareness, imagery, self-confidence, and precompetition preparation are discussed in terms of disability-specific issues as well as suggestions for application.
The Coach-Athlete Relationship in Married Couples: An Exploratory Content Analysis
Authors: Jowett Sophia , Meek Geoffrey A.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the interpersonal athletic relationship of four married coach-athlete dyads. In order to facilitate the examination of this unique relationship, the interpersonal constructs of closeness, co-orientation, and complementarity were integrated into a conceptual-based model. The main purpose of this study was to establish the utility of the constructs in understanding the coach-athlete relationship in married couples. Following in-depth interviews, the responses of the participants were content analyzed. Analysis revealed that the coaches and athletes’ close relationship facilitated the formulation of a cooriented view of relevant and important issues which subsequently affected the way in which cooperative interactions were expressed in training. The relationship-oriented aspects of this unique dyad are discussed in relation to a proposed conceptualization of the coach-athlete relationship, and future directions are presented.
Aggression and Violence in Sport: A Reply to Kerr’s Rejoinder
Authors: Tenenbaum Gershon , Sacks David N. , Miller Jason W. , Golden Amy S. , Doolin Nora
Published: August 2016

In response to Ken’s (1999) rejoinder to the International Society of Sport Psychology’s (ISSP) Position Stand (PS) on aggression and violence in sport (Tenenbaum. Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997), this reply refutes Kerr’s criticisms and further advocates the recommendations provided by the ISSP to drastically reduce aggression among athletes and spectators. Specifically, this paper answers Kerr’s (1999) accusations that the PS fails to provide an understanding of the motivation behind aggression in sport, does not distinguish between athlete and spectator violence, makes improper conclusions regarding the media’s influence, and incorrectly blames officials for inflaming aggressive acts. Support is offered to vindicate the PS. The example cited by Kerr to discredit the PS recommendations is shown to be congruent with the ISSP’s suggestions for reducing aggression and violence in sport. Readers are urged to approach with caution arguments that consider aggression an essential component of sport, as such views increase the risk of injury among participants and spectators. Additional suggestions for reducing the incidence of aggression and violence in sport are invited.
An Investigation of the Social Support Experiences of High-Level Sports Performers
Authors: Rees Tim , Hardy Lew
Published: August 2016

Lack of consensus regarding the nature and conceptual definition of the social support construct has led to a plethora of different forms of measurement of this psychosocial variable, many with psychometric limitations. Beyond the psychometric limitations of some measures, in sport there is also a need for measures to be relevant to the specific experiences of sports performers. In order to gain a greater understanding of the social support experiences of sports people, 10 high-level sports performers were interviewed regarding their experiences of social support. Principles of the grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach were adopted for analysis of their responses and insights. Four dimensions of support were generated, within each of which were comments relating to sport-specific support and comments relating to support not directly concerning the sport itself. The dimensions were labeled emotional, esteem, informational, and tangible. Example quotes are given to highlight each dimension of support, and implications for intervention are derived.
A Descriptive Study of Athlete Self-Talk
Authors: Hardy James , Gammage Kimberley , Hall Craig
Published: August 2016

In this descriptive study, the four Ws (i.e., where, when, what, and why) of the use of self-talk were examined. Varsity athletes (78 male, 72 female), with a mean age of 20.68 years (SD = 1.90) read a self-statement oriented definition of self-talk and then answered the four questions in an open-ended format. Athletes reported using self-talk most frequently while partaking in their sports (when), at sport related venues (where). The “what” or content of self-talk use was categorized into five themes: nature, structure, person, task instructions, and miscellaneous. With regard to why athletes use self-talk, two main themes emerged from the data: cognitive and motivational. It was possible to further classify the two themes into seemingly specific and general levels, similar to Paivio’s (1985) classification of athletes’ use of mental imagery. Results for the present study provide descriptive data for the development of a conceptual frame work for the use of self-talk.
Expected and Unexpected Stressors in Major International Competition: Appraisal, Coping, and Performance
Authors: Dugdale Jeremy R. , Eklund Robert C. , Gordon Sandy
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate appraisals and coping of elite athletes when facing expected versus unexpected stressors. Questionnaires were sent to all New Zealand athletes competing at the 1998 Commonwealth Games, and 91 athletes provided responses inside three weeks of the closing ceremony. A stressful experience that had occurred prior to or during their most important performance was identified by 71 althletes. Analysis revealed significant differences in the way athletes cognitively appraised expected and unexpected stressors. Unexpected stressors were perceived as more threatening than expected stressors. Athletes also indicated a significantly greater tendency to hold back or hesitate from responding or acting in the face of unexpected stressors in comparison to expected stressors. Athletes employed a variety of strategies to help them cope with their most stressful experience. Stressor expectedness, however, was not related to coping use or performance and coping evaluations. Finally, a modest but significant relationship was observed between coping strategy effectiveness and coping automaticity. These findings suggest that competitively functional primary and secondary cognitive appraisals of stressors may result from the preparation of athletes for potentially distressing events and circumstances associated with major international competitions.
Issues in Aggression and Violence in Sport: The ISSP Position Stand Revisited
Authors: Kerr John H.
Published: August 2016

This paper is the fourth in a series of related papers debating aggression and violence in sport. The first was the ISSP Position Stand (PS; Tenenbaum, Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997), the second a rejoinder (Kerr, 1999), and the third a reply to Kerr’s rejoinder (Tenenbaum, Sacks, Miller, Golden, & Doolin, 2000). The purpose of this fourth paper is to revisit five of the major issues in the debate on aggression and violence in sport concerned with arguments put forward by Kerr (1997), which were subsequently misinterpreted and misrepresented by Tenenbaum et al. (2000). The purpose of this paper is to correct some of these errors and to continue to argue that the PS needs to be revised and redrafted before it will be acceptable to the groups at which it is aimed, especially those involved in team contact sports.
Perceptions of Stress and Coping during Preparations for the 1999 Women’s Soccer World Cup Finals
Authors: Holt Nicholas L. , Hogg John M.
Published: August 2016

The ability to cope with competitive stress is an integral part of elite sport performance. The purposes of this investigation were to identify and examine players’ perceptions of sources of stress and coping strategies prior to the 1999 soccer world cup finals. Using a case study approach (Stake, 2000), members of a women’s national soccer team (n = 10) participated in this investigation. Through the process of inductive data analysis, main sources of stress were categorized into the following four main themes: coaches, demands of international soccer, competitive stressors, and distractions. Participants used several types of strategies based on a range of problem-focused, emotion-focused, appraisal-reappraisal, and avoidance coping styles to deal with these stressors. The main coping themes identified were reappraisal, use of social resources, performance behaviors, and blocking. Athletes implemented different coping strategies depending on the stressors they encountered. The widest range of coping responses were displayed in coping with the communication styles used by the coaches. Implications of these findings for researchers, athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists are discussed.
Contextual Influences on Moral Functioning of College Basketball Players
Authors: Kavussanu Maria , Roberts Glyn C. , Ntoumanis Nikos
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of moral atmosphere and perceived performance motivational climate on moral functioning of college basketball players and to determine the relationship between moral atmosphere and perceived performance motivational climate. A total of 199 athletes participated in the study. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the interrelationships among the variables of interest. Athletes’ perceptions of the moral atmosphere of their team had a significant effect on moral functioning, while the effect of performance motivational climate on moral functioning was not significant. Perceptions of a performance motivational climate were positively associated with the moral atmosphere of the team. Implications of the findings for eliminating unsportspersonlike conduct in the sport realm are discussed.
When the “Honeymoon” Is Over: A Case Study of a Coach-Athlete Dyad in Crisis
Authors: Jowett Sophia
Published: August 2016

In an attempt to investigate the nature of the coach-athlete relationship in a systematic way, Jowett and colleagues (e.g., Jowett & Cockerill, in press; Jowett & Meek, 2000a) employed the interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Coorientation, and Complementarity (3 Cs) to reflect coaches’ and athletes’ emotions, cognitions, and behaviors respectively. This study utilized the 3 Cs in order to examine the nature of a single typical coach-athlete dyad that experiences interpersonal conflict. The dyad was interviewed and their responses were content analyzed. The analysis revealed a marked difference in the coach’s and athlete’s perceptions about their athletic relationship and areas of emotional isolation, disagreements, and incompatibility. The findings are discussed within the 3 Cs model.
Sport Psychology and Indigenous Performing Artists
Authors: Hanrahan Stephanie J.
Published: August 2016

A group of students from the Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts participated in a mental skills training program that focused on goal setting, self-confidence development, and team building. There were 13 two-hour sessions held over a 20-week period. The participants, cultural issues, and the basic structure of the program are described. The author’s observations regarding competition, displays of affection, collective values, and the importance of family and nature are provided. The participants qualitatively evaluated the program. Conclusions related to group process, program structure, and diversity are presented. These conclusions should be of value in terms of shaping future group mental skills training programs.
The Multi-Level Classification System for Sport Psychology (MCS-SP)
Authors: Gardner Frank L. , Moore Zella E.
Published: August 2016

In response to the absence of a taxononomical system for the structured assessment, conceptualization, and intervention of athlete-clients, the MCS-SP is a model for the comprehensive evaluation of athlete-clients’ needs, strategies for in-depth case conceptualization, and systematic formulation of the most appropriate type and level of professional service required. This classification system is based on the primary issues, needs, and life circumstances of the athlete-client and the suggested assessment and intervention foci combine the environmental, interpersonal, intrapersonal, behavioral, and performance history/demands that impact athletic clientele. Categories within the taxonomy include Performance Development, Performance Dysfunction, Performance Impairment, and Performance Termination, each of which include two subtypes that further guide the appropriate, ethical, and effective provision of services.
The Overtraining Syndrome: A Multicontextual Assessment
Authors: Meehan Heidi L. , Bull Stephen J. , Wood Dan M. , James David V.B.
Published: August 2016

The present study explored the experiences of five competitive endurance athletes (1 female, 4 male) diagnosed with the overtraining syndrome (OTS). A multicontextual method of inquiry was used, which first involved a medical examination whereby OTS was diagnosed according to established criteria. In addition, 2 questionnaires were administered: the Athlete Daily Hassle Scale (Albinson & Pearce, 1998) and the Coping Response Inventory (Moos, 1992), and a semistructured interview was conducted. Individual case studies were then developed and cross-case analysis carried out. Findings from the present study illustrate that together with sport stress, nonsport stress appears to make an important contribution to the experience of those athletes diagnosed with the OTS. This finding provides evidence to support anecdotes in previous reports.
The Motivational Climate, Perceived Ability, and Athletes’ Psychological and Physical Well-Being
Authors: Reinboth Michael , Duda Joan L.
Published: August 2016

Grounded in achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989), the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of the perceived motivational climate and perceptions of ability to indices of psychological and physical well-being among male adolescents taking part in team sports. Participants were 265 adolescent soccer and cricket players. Reported self-esteem was the lowest among low perceived ability athletes participating in an environment that was perceived to be high in its ego-involving features, but high among athletes perceiving a highly task-involving environment regardless of their perceptions of competence. Contingent self-esteem, physical exhaustion, and reported physical symptoms were positively predicted by perceptions of an ego-involving climate. The results suggest that an examination of variations in the perceived motivational climate may provide further insight into whether sport participation can be health promotive or potentially damaging to athletes’ welfare.
Thrown to the Wolves: A Student’s Account of Her Practicum Experience
Authors: Tonn Emily , Harmison Robert J.
Published: August 2016

This article provides an account of a trainee’s initial sport psychology practicum experience. Experiential knowledge gained by the trainee performance enhancement consultant with a junior college women’s basketball team is shared via a self-narrative in the form of a log she kept during the season and self-reflections. The log entries and self-reflections are organized around several themes that emerged over the course of the trainee’s practicum. The narrative outlines the trainee’s theoretical orientation and philosophy, highlights her experiences with the team, and reveals her thought processes related to the various situations she encountered. A better understanding of the process of sport psychology service delivery by a trainee is offered to guide other aspiring professionals during their initial training experiences.
Social Networks in Sport: Parental Influence on the Coach-Athlete Relationship
Authors: Jowett Sophia , Timson-Katchis Melina
Published: August 2016

The study aims to explore the nature of influences that parents exert on the quality of the dyadic coach-athlete relationship. A conceptual model was proposed as a guiding framework for the study. The proposed model incorporates Sprecher, Felmlee, Orbuch, and Willets’ (2002) notion of social networks and Jowett and Cockerill’s (2002) conceptualization of coach-athlete relationships. Fifteen participants from five coach-athleteparent triads were interviewed, and content analysis revealed that athletes’ parents (a “psychologically significant” network member) provided a range of information, opportunities, and extensive emotional support, all of which influenced the quality of the coach-athlete relationship as defined by closeness, commitment, and complementarity. Results are discussed based on previous relevant research along with recommendations for future research directions and practical applications.
Elite Refereeing Performance: Developing a Model for Sport Science Support
Authors: Mascarenhas Duncan R.D. , Collins Dave , Mortimer Patrick
Published: August 2016

To identify a framework for referee training and selection, based on the key areas of effective performance, we conducted content analyses on Rugby Football Union referee assessor reports, referee training materials, performance profiles from a group of English premier league referees, and a review of published research on sports officiating. The Cornerstones Performance Model of Refereeing emerged, overarched by the psychological characteristics of excellence (see McCaffrey & Orlick, 1989) and featuring four key areas: (a) knowledge and application of the law; (b) contextual judgment; (c) personality and management skills; and (d) fitness, positioning, and mechanics. Focus group interviews confirmed the usefulness of the model as an assessment and training tool, which the RFU now use to develop referees throughout England.
Game, Set, Match: Psychological Momentum in Tennis
Authors: Richardson Peggy A. , Adler William , Hankes Douglas
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to determine if winning a specific game in a tennis match would predict success in the match and if psychological momentum was influenced by ability levels or gender of the players. Subjects were 119 male and female players competing in 163 matches in three sanctioned tennis tournaments. Game-by-game and set results were recorded. Furthermore, interviews were conducted to ascertain players’ perceptions of momentum. Results revealed that winning any of the first eight games in the first and/or second set was a significant predictor of success in the tennis match. However, when only the results of more competitive matches (when sets extended to nine or more games) were examined, Games 8, 10, and 11 in the first set were significant predictors of winning the match, while only Game 4 of the second set resulted in an increased probability of match victory. No gender or ability differences were found. Based on these findings, it is suggested that investigators be cautious in inferring psychological momentum since these findings were dependent on the equity of competitors within a match, and psychological momentum seems to be a highly individual matter.
Covert Modeling as a Procedure for Altering an Elite Athlete’s Psychological State
Authors: Rushall Brent S.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the steps taken to use covert modeling as a procedure to alter a problematic loss of confidence in an elite wrestler. The traditional steps of the procedure were modified to suit the client and situation. The then world champion was determined to be a phobic stimulus, as the client could not imagine himself performing successfully with the champion. The covert model at first incorporated the champion and a fictional model. After the determination of detailed appropriate behaviors for a high level of wrestling performance, the athlete modeled their occurrence. After familiarity with the procedure had been established, the wrestler was gradually substituted for the fictional character. He reported practicing modeling outside of consultation sessions and deemed the imagery successful after he had substituted himself as the model. Both the wrestler and his coach considered the procedure to be successful. Performances were markedly improved after the intervention. Covert modeling was proposed as being a viable method for eliminating fear, a loss of confidence, and negative self-appraisals in athletes.
Changes in Perceived Stress and Recovery during Heavy Training in Highly Trained Male Rowers
Authors: Mäestu Jarek , Jürimäe Jaak , Kreegipuu Kairi , Jürimäe Toivo
Published: August 2016

The aims were to assess (a) the usefulness of RESTQ-Sport in the process of training monitoring and (b) whether a change in psychological parameters is reflected by similar changes in specific biochemical parameters. The high volume training period, in general, caused increases in stress scales and decreases in recovery scales of the RESTQ-Sport, while during recovery period, stress levels declined. Cortisol was not changed during the study period, but significant increases in creatine kinase activity were found during the high training period compared to reference period. The results of the present study demonstrate that changes in training volume were reflected by changes in the RESTQ-Sport scales. A close relationship was found between cortisol and creatine kinase activity and subjective ratings of stress and recovery.
Coach Training as a Strategy for Promoting Youth Social Development
Authors: Conroy David E. , Coatsworth J. Douglas
Published: August 2016

Organized youth sports afford a unique opportunity for promoting positive youth development, but little is known about why these settings can be beneficial for youth. The purposes of this article are (a) to discuss the instrumental role coaches play in determining the developmental yield of sport participation for youth and (b) to examine the efficacy of coach training programs for enhancing youth development in light of an expanded model of coaching effects on youth. This model features an elaborated internalization mechanism involving cognitive and motivational pathways. Emerging support for this model is reviewed and future directions for coach training researchers and practitioners are highlighted.
Effects of Bandwidth Feedback and Questioning on the Performance of Competitive Swimmers
Authors: Chambers Kristine L. , Vickers Joan N.
Published: August 2016

The effects of a coaching intervention involving Bandwidth Feedback and Questioning (BF-Q) on competitive swim times (cTIME), practice swim times (pTIME), and technique (TECH) were determined for competitive youth swimmers. The pre-post-transfer design spanned one short-course (25m) swim season. It was concluded that coaching in which feedback was delayed and replaced with questions directed to the athletes contributed to improved technique and subsequent faster race times. Compared to the Control group, the BF-Q group displayed greater gains in TECH during the intervention period and greater improvement in cTIME during the transfer period. Results are presented in a context of cognitive psychology, motor learning, and questioning. Applications to coaching practice and coach training are also discussed.
A New Theoretical Perspective for Understanding How Coaches Learn to Coach
Authors: Werthner Penny , Trudel Pierre
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to present, using Moon’s (1999, 2004) generic view of learning, a new theoretical perspective in order to understand how coaches learn to coach. After presenting her main concepts, a case study of an elite Canadian coach is used to illustrate the different learning processes in three types of learning situations: mediated, unmediated, and internal. We believe this new view of how coaches learn provides a way to see coach development from the coach’s perspective and helps us understand why the path to becoming a coach is often idiosyncratic. Finally, the potential of this conceptual research framework for the study of coaches’ development, specifically at the elite/expert level, is discussed.
Women in Coaching
Authors: Kilty Katie
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to review the challenges that women coaches must overcome and to discuss coach education strategies for facilitating the development of women coaches. Changes in representation of women in positions of leadership in sport have created a social context in which the experience of female coaches is referenced from a predominantly male perspective. As such, recurring issues elicited by attendees at the USOC/NCAA sponsored Women in Coaching Conferences are discussed. Coach education strategies are addressed in three main areas: (a) the continuation of women and sport programs, (b) restructuring the work environment to recognize and value relational work skills, and (c) relational mentoring models to navigate career and life transitions and advocate for change.
College Coaches’ Experiences with Stress—“Problem Solvers” Have Problems, Too
Authors: Frey Melinda
Published: August 2016

Research has demonstrated that coaches experience stress because of the nature of their job and that stress can affect their physical and mental well-being (Richman, 1992; Wang & Ramsey, 1998). The purpose of the present study was to better understand coaches’ experiences with stress, the perceived effects of stress on their coaching performance, and their coping strategies. A semistructured interview approach was used with 10 NCAA Division I male and female head coaches. The five major themes that characterized the coaches’ experiences were contextual/conditional factors, sources of stress, responses and effects of stress, managing stress, and sources of enjoyment. The results are discussed in relation to Smith’s (1986) cognitive-affective model of stress. Opportunities for future research are suggested, and implications for practitioners who want to help coaches manage the stress of their profession are offered.
Making the Case for Poetic Representations: An Example in Action
Authors: Sparkes Andrew C. , Douglas Kitrina
Published: August 2016

As part of the emergence of new writing practices in the social sciences, qualitative researchers have begun to harness the potential of poetic representations as a means of analyzing social worlds and communicating their findings to others. To date, however, this genre has received little attention in sport psychology. The purpose of this article, therefore, is to raise awareness and generate discussion about poetic representations. First, the potential benefits of using this genre are outlined. Next, based on interview data from a study that explored the motivations of elite female golfers, the process of constructing a poetic representation about the experiences of one of the participants is described. The products of this endeavor and the reactions of various audiences to it are then presented. Finally, the issue of judging poetic representations is discussed.
Understanding Athlete Adaptation in the National Hockey League through an Archival Data Source
Authors: Schinke Robert J. , Gauthier Alain P. , Dubuc Nicole G. , Crowder Troy
Published: August 2016

The study of adaptation in elite sport delineates the adjustment strategies of amateur and professional athletes during career transitions (e.g., promotion, relocation). Fiske (2004) recently identified 5 core motives as the vehicles to adaptation: belonging, understanding, controlling, self-enhancement, and trusting. The goal was to verify and contextualize these core motives with 2 respondent groups of professional athletes from the National Hockey League. The groups consisted of those experiencing rookie adaptation and veteran adaptation. A total of 58 athletes were divided into groups representing the Canadian mainstream, Canadian Aboriginal culture, and Europe. There were 175 newspaper articles that were retrieved using online and library resources. The similarities and discrepancies in and across groups provides insight into this hard-to-reach population.