bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Theological Practices
Authors: Tanton Tobias
Published: January 2023

Having established cognitive nature of religious practices, this chapter examines them in a theological register. On account of its inherent cognitive effects, the meaning of liturgy is not exclusively ‘symbolic’ (i.e., arbitrarily related to its forms by means of conventions), but is also ‘embodied’: particular ritual forms convey specific theological content by virtue of their cognitive effects. Consequently, liturgy is not merely an ‘expression’ of a pre-existing theology; rather, the bodily and material form of the liturgy intrinsically contains theological content. Liturgy is therefore itself a storehouse of theology; differences in liturgical forms underpin differences in theological content; attention to liturgical practices serves as a corrective for an exclusive focus on propositional beliefs which are formulated linguistically; and liturgy becomes a central feature of theological anthropology rather than a footnote to ecclesiology. Given this revised picture of liturgy, the formative potential of embodied practices is highlighted. Findings for cognitive science suggest that humans are particularly open to being formed by their experience. The habitual nature of religious practices allows them to contribute to the inculcation of virtue (or vice), and indeed particular findings from embodied cognition research identify virtue-related cognitive effects. From a theological perspective, embodied cognition illuminates how liturgical practices might contribute to the process of sanctification. The embodied nature of religious practice can again be understood as an accommodation to the way in which humans are formed and transformed.
The Weimar Republic and the Rise of National Socialism
Authors: Stibbe Matthew
Published: January 2023

This chapter looks at the early history of the Nazi Party (NSDAP), from its foundation in Munich in 1919 through to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor of the German Reich on 30 January 1933. It also takes up the related, but distinct, story of the Weimar Republic’s surprising resilience in the 1920s, and its ultimate collapse in the early 1930s. The chapter begins with a discussion of the NSDAP’s place in the broader development of extreme right-wing politics in Bavaria up to 1923. It then explains the failure of the party’s Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923, and the shift towards relative economic and political stability for the republic in the half decade that followed. The Great Depression of the early 1930s brought an abrupt end to democratic normality, and created the social and political conditions which made possible the transformation of the Nazis from a fringe movement into a mainstream party with popular support across Germany. By September 1930 the NSDAP was achieving 18.3 per cent of the vote in national parliamentary elections, doubling this to 37.3 per cent by July 1932. Even so, it never won an outright majority, and it actually began to lose votes in late 1932. As the last section of the chapter explains, Hitler was appointed, not elected, into office, and he was helped by shifts in the international as well as domestic political arenas at the turn of the year 1932–3 (233 words).
The Nazi ‘Seizure of Power’
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: January 2023

This chapter on the period of the Nazi seizure of power focuses on the events between 30 January 1933, when Hitler became chancellor, and the Röhm purge in June 1934, with an emphasis on political developments in the winter and spring of 1933. Highlighting the repressive decrees of February 1933 that blazed the trail for a semi-legal takeover of power, culminating in the Reichstag Fire decree, the chapter then examines the results of the 5 March 1933 elections, the Nazi takeover of the German states, repressive measures against the Left, widespread grass-roots violence, and the NSDAP’s revolutionary actions, capped off by the Enabling Act. The Nazi Gleichschaltung policy—the ‘bringing into line’ of social groups from trade union, professional, artisan, civil service, and retail merchants’ associations to sports and leisure clubs, suppressed any potential opposition. Widespread censorship and repression of public criticism grew in intensity, from the introduction of the ‘Perfidy Ordinance’ to public book burnings. Less well known is the widespread anti-semitic violence of the late winter and spring 1933. This chapter shines a spotlight on the attacks, pillory marches, and murders that fueled this violence, as well as the (non-)reaction of German society. Despite repression and violence, many Germans expressed enthusiasm for the “national awakening” promised by the new regime, which initially enjoyed immense popularity. This popularity survived the spell of disillusionment and dissatisfaction that set in during the autumn and the chaos of the Röhm purge in June 1934, which ultimately consolidated the position of the Nazi Party, giving it free rein.
Elections, Plebiscites, and Festivals
Authors: Richter Hedwig , Jessen Ralph
Published: January 2023

The continuing need for the relationship between ‘the Führer’ and ‘the movement’ to be actively experienced was of decisive importance for the legitimation of this charismatic regime. Like the elections, the ceremonies served to demonstrate the apparently ‘democratic’ nature of the regime. Elections and festivals maintained the fiction of a mass movement, even if this had become frozen in rigid rituals. At the same time, they contained the movement’s latent dynamic. Hitler’s and Goebbels’s success in launching an unprecedented wave of terror against German Jews with such ease on 9 November 1938 had, among other things, to do with the fact that it took place on the day the party had devoted to the memory of the ‘time of struggle’ and ‘the fallen heroes’. And the growing self-confidence of the regime vis-à-vis foreign countries and its own population during the 1930s was, not least, a consequence of the elections and plebiscites, those demonstrative rituals of assent and exclusion that appeared to clarify the views of the masses—and the powerlessness of the opposition.
The Home Front
Authors: Torrie Julia S.
Published: January 2023

This chapter surveys life on the German Home Front during the Second World War through three main themes. The first is popular morale, and the tension between the need to mobilize society for war, and the regime’s fear that asking too much of Germans would undermine their support. Adolf Hitler and other key figures such as Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels paid a great deal of attention to popular morale, including women’s morale, and this shaped and to some degree limited their wartime choices. A second major theme is the Third Reich’s exploitation of German occupied territories as a source of food, raw materials, and labour. While surveying the forms and extent of German exactions, the chapter examines civilian responses to wartime shortages, and considers how much civilians knew about the increasingly brutal treatment of forced labourers, POWs, and Jews. Finally, the chapter underlines the interconnectedness of home and war fronts throughout the conflict. As initial successes gave away to stalemate and a reversal of Germany’s fortunes, notably at Stalingrad, wartime losses touched the Home Front deeply. This, alongside the total mobilization of society and widespread aerial bombing and evacuations, underlined that home and war fronts, never fully separate, were blending together as the Reich slid towards defeat.
Landmarks in Roundhouse Studies
Authors: Harding D. W.
Published: January 2023

Stone-built roundhouses in upland Britain were recognized as a surviving feature of the later prehistoric landscape from the nineteenth century, with prominent hut circle groups in hillforts in Wales and the west. In Atlantic Scotland especially brochs and related sites attracted the attention of early antiquaries. Among timber roundhouses, crannogs in Scotland and ‘lake-villages’ in the Somerset levels were the focus of pioneer fieldwork. In Wessex, generally regarded as the home of prehistoric archaeology in Britain, modern studies of roundhouses began relatively late with excavations at Little Woodbury in the late 1930s, which established large timber roundhouses and grain storage in pits and upstanding square granaries as archetypical elements of the Southern British Iron Age. Further excavations in the 1960s and 1970s amplified detailed understanding of these roundhouses, together with experimental reconstructions at Butser Ancient Farm. In the north, traditional interpretations of brochs, based on typology and the concept of diffusionism, were superseded by new programmes of field research in the Western and Northern Isles, resulting in clarification of the chronological sequence of Atlantic roundhouses.
Introduction
Authors: Dassonneville Ruth
Published: January 2023

The introduction of the book sets the stage for the book by providing empirical evidence of growing instability in election outcomes and electoral behaviour across established democracies. To do so, it shows trends in net electoral volatility, and uses election survey data from eight countries to show trends in party switching between elections and trends in campaign deciding. These countries are Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Great-Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United States. The chapter then introduces the intuition behind the theory that connects group-based cross-pressure and volatility and clarifies what empirical approaches are used to test the theory. The introductory chapter ends with an overview of the plan for the book.
Sources of instability
Authors: Dassonneville Ruth
Published: January 2023

This chapter is the first chapter of the book's second part. It introduces the theoretical argument that is proposed to explain volatility and that is empirically tested in the following chapters. The chapter first introduces the intuition behind the argument: that group-based cross-pressures are a source of volatility because they imply unconstrained voting decisions. In a next section, it is clarified what theoretical mechanisms underly this connection between group-based cross-pressures and unconstrained voting decisions. A third section of this chapter contextualizes the argument and points to sources of change that can serve as a breeding ground for higher levels of group-based cross-pressure in the electorate: a change in the number of cleavages and change in terms of the extent to which there is cleavage-based encapsulation in societies.
Cross-pressured voters
Authors: Dassonneville Ruth
Published: January 2023

Cross-pressures are the central concept in the theoretical argument that is introduced and tested in this book. This chapter first elaborates on the concept and discusses how previous work has described and studied cross-pressures. A second section provides more details on how the construct is measured empirically, relying on a method that was proposed by Brader, Tucker and Therriault (2014). In the next two sections, the measure is further validated by means of an assessment of how high- and low cross-pressured voters in Germany motivate their vote choices in open-ended questions and by means of an examination of how group-based cross-pressure correlates with party evaluations. The latter test, that relies on voter survey data from the European Election Studies project, provides clear evidence that voters who are cross-pressured, based on their socio-demographic characteristics, consider voting for more than one party. This is clear from the fact that cross-pressured voters are more ambivalent between parties.
Increasingly cross-pressured
Authors: Dassonneville Ruth
Published: January 2023

If group-based cross-pressures are key to explaining the surge in electoral volatility, there should be evidence of an over-time increase in levels of cross-pressure too. This chapter provides a test of this intuition. In a first section, the longitudinal election survey data from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Great-Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United States is used to assess, in a bivariate way, how levels of group-based cross-pressure vary over time. This descriptive analysis suggests much change, especially in countries characterised by an increase in electoral volatility. In a next section, this over-time trend is scrutinized more - with specific attention for evaluating the extent to which this change is driven by generational change or reflects period effects. The third section of this chapter evaluates the role that party-system change plays for the trend toward higher levels of group-based cross-pressure. In a final section, it is verified whether focusing on a main correlate and outcome of group-based cross-pressure, i.e., party ambivalence, similarly shows evidence of over-time change. Overall, the results in this chapter provide much evidence of change. In countries that have been marked by a surge in volatility, there also is evidence of increased levels of group-based cross-pressure. This change appears to affect voters of all generations, and even holds when the increased fragmentation of party systems is accounted for
Stevie Smith and the Aphorism
Authors: Masud Noreen
Published: January 2023

This monograph draws up a new theory of the aphorism, a form which has received limited critical treatment in literary and philosophical studies. It uses this model of aphorism to frame an original approach to the enigmatic poetry and novels of Stevie Smith (1902–1971). The monograph suggests that aphorism represents a tool for the social management of emotion. Rhetorically corralled into a slick, collectable shape, the aphorism promises arresting and instantaneous epiphany. However, the accomplished elegance which positions the aphorism’s message as self-evidently true in fact works to repel further enquiry, and ultimately ensures that it will be forgotten or bypassed in favour of another aphorism: no less eagerly embraced for the earlier disappointment. Aphorism, therefore, is a form in which dangerous ideas and emotions can be safely displayed and, simultaneously, effaced. Because aphorism’s style defuses the imperative to act on what is clearly known, writers like Stevie Smith can use the form to stage a withdrawal from the burden of making an impact on the world. The book finds that Smith’s use of aphorism and its related forms (proverb, epitaph, caption, and fragment) offers a route into her texts. Drawing on hitherto unpublished archival material, this project argues that Smith’s texts resist analysis because, like the aphorisms embedded throughout them, they offer and exemplify a mode of clearly-declared revelation which, at the same time, makes itself unusable.
Smith’s Hard Language
Authors: Masud Noreen
Published: January 2023

The introduction establishes Stevie Smith as an aphoristic writer. It contrasts her use of aphorism in her poetry and prose with that of her contemporaries, arguing that her use of the form foregrounds a particular aspect of the aphorism: its double movement between declarative self-emphasis and stylistic self-effacement. This phenomenon becomes fundamental to the monograph’s theorization of the aphorism: rather than a form which necessarily claims discursive authority, it may safely accommodate affects which are marginal, embarrassing, irrational, or socially rejected, allowing them full display while managing them out of view.
Fragments ‘Going On’
Authors: Masud Noreen
Published: January 2023

Chapter Five explores the ambiguous relationship, in Smith’s writing, between aphorism and fragment. Smith stages the transformation of one form into another, where she lengthens an apparently-complete text further (aphorism turns into fragment, the self-contained into the sequential), or prematurely terminates one which seemed to have more to convey (fragment turns out to be aphorism). Smith’s work presents itself as an addictive, collectable commodity. Her long-form writing is itself a site of collection; it offers the reader a chance to return to a poem again and again. The chapter explores, furthermore, how in poems such as ‘Our Bog is Dood’, the opening tends towards an aphorism which reluctantly allows itself to be misidentified as a fragment (something which could and therefore does go on, as the poem continues) but retains its aphoristic resistance to interrogation. Continued past an initial punch of wordplay, these poems become, in part, texts about the failure of levity to last. The chapter draws on archival materials to read ‘Thoughts about the Person from Porlock’ as a text flagging up its own over-extension. The poem explores what happens when closure becomes unavailable to the writer. Rather than the tactful rhythm of burgeoning offered by the collection of solid, enclosed units like aphorisms—where one may come and go, and freely add more texts—this is the ‘more’ of the fragment: gaping open, eliciting an anxious obligation to lengthen and lengthen it until an appropriate ending is found.
Piracy off the Coast of Somalia and the Role of Informal Lawmaking
Authors: Jacobsson Marie , Klein Natalie
Published: January 2023

A notable example of informal lawmaking in the law of the sea context concerns piracy off the coast of Somalia. The right to combat piracy rests on a firm foundation in customary international law, reflected in the LOSC. In the early 2000s, when the international community had to face piracy as a threat to international peace and security, it became obvious that the LOSC did not meet contemporary legal requirements. States had to develop new ways of cooperating. Cooperation ensued between diverse actors within the Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia, involving different intergovernmental organizations (IMO, UNODC) and private actors (notably the shipping industry). Efforts led to agreements including the Djibouti Code of Conduct, best management practice guidance for shipowners, and prisoner transfer agreements, to address the many practical issues being faced. The duty of cooperation in the face of piracy was, therefore, partly met through informal lawmaking.
Marine Scientific Research and Informal Lawmaking
Authors: Kojima Chie
Published: January 2023

While the LOSC promotes the development and conduct of marine scientific research, the LOSC does not provide a definition of marine scientific research. Instead, the LOSC requires states to promote the establishment of general criteria and guidelines through competent international organizations. General criteria and guidelines on marine scientific research, together with programs to implement them effectively across different actors, have been developed, to some extent, in international and regional legal instruments, as well as in voluntary codes of conduct established by non-state actors. This chapter examines the processes of such informal lawmaking in marine scientific research, and analyses the interrelationship between these processes and the LOSC from the perspective of ocean governance.
Informal International Lawmaking as a Panacea in the Absence of Regime Focus? Marine Debris, Plastics, and Microplastics
Authors: Rayfuse Rosemary
Published: January 2023

Increasing levels of marine debris, including plastics and microplastics, pose a serious global environmental problem, negatively affecting the entire marine ecosystem and all ocean users. Given the plethora of actors and activities involved, developing regimes for the reduction, prevention, elimination, and control of both vessel-based sources and land-based sources of marine plastic debris is as difficult as the problem is ubiquitous. Land-based sources, in particular, pose serious challenges, due to the lack of regime focus in the law of the sea, and the diffuse nature of the sources. This chapter examines the role of informal lawmaking in filling the void between the law of the sea relating to ship-source marine plastic debris and the control of marine plastic pollution from land-based sources. In doing so, it aims to provide an illustration of both the power and the pretence of this approach to lawmaking.
In space, nobody can copyright your scream
Authors: Schafer Burkhard
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores the role of intellectual property law for the question of space liberty. It brings together two discourses that despite their obvious practical relevance have not yet been conjoined: the status of artistic works and innovations created or discovered on celestial bodies, and the status of artistic works and innovations made by AI systems and robotic devices. Combining the two discussions allows us to explore two dimensions of space liberty, the role of intellectual property to promote the sustainability, independence and liberty of space colonies, and the possible role in the debate surrounding robot rights.
On libertarian communities in/around outer space
Authors: Vidmar Matjaz
Published: January 2023

When discussing institutions governing (future) outer space utilization/inhabitation, an age-old tension remerges between systemic interdependence, singularity of motivation, and commonality of criticality. Within any closed ecological system, ‘activities of life’ are interrelated in a way that contradicts the singular motivation of any individual one. When moving away from the originating environment, this interdependence is underlined further by the emerging challenges to life’s survival. This chapter examines the interplay between a potential configuration of these tensions based on recognizing ecological systemization as a way to mediate between individual visions and common challenges and the opportunities and threats to liberty it presents through techno-ecological perspective.
The Culture Trap
Authors: Wallace Derron
Published: January 2023

In The Culture Trap, Derron Wallace argues that the overreliance on culture to explain Black students' achievement and behavior in schools is a trap that undermines the historical factors and school processes that shape how Black students experience schooling. This trap is consequential for racial and ethnic minority youth in schools, including Black Caribbean young people in the United States and Britain. Since the 1920s, Black Caribbeans in the United States have been considered a high-achieving Black model minority. Conversely, since the 1950s, Black Caribbeans in Britain have been regarded as a chronically underachieving minority. In both national contexts, however, it is often suggested that Caribbean culture informs their status, whether as a celebrated minority in the US or as a demoted minority in Britain. Using rich fieldwork, interview and archival data in London and New York City public schools, Wallace interrogates the fault lines of these claims, and highlights the influence of colonialism, class and context in shaping Black Caribbeans' outcomes. Wallace shows how culture is at times used as an alibi for racism in schools, and what educators, parents and students can do change it.
Valuing Humanity in “Common Life”: Grotius and Pufendorf on Equal “Sociable” Dignity
Authors: Darwall Stephen
Published: January 2023

Respect for the equal dignity of human persons is a distinctively deontic way of valuing humanity. This chapter explores two early attempts to develop this distinctively modern idea in the thought of Grotius and Pufendorf. Dignity is no form of good, which might be appreciated through desire or esteem, but a form of value that calls for, indeed demands, respect (what Pufendorf calls “esteem”). Respect is an attitude we manifest in the formation of our wills by governing our deliberations by the constraints of right (Pufendorf’s “rights of equality”), which the dignity of persons places on us, and by holding ourselves accountable to one another for compliance with these. What is especially remarkable in Grotius’s and Pufendorf’s developments of this idea is the way both tie it to “sociability,” our capacity to engage with and relate to one another from a second-person standpoint.
Great Beyond All Comparison
Authors: Walden Kenneth
Published: January 2023

Many people find comparisons of the value of persons distasteful, even immoral. But what can be said in support of the claim that persons have incomparable worth? This chapter considers an argument purporting to show that the value of persons is incomparable because it is so great—because it is infinite. The argument rests on two claims: that the value of our capacity for valuing must equal or exceed the value of things valued and that our capacity for valuing is unbounded in a very strong sense. After laying out this argument, I consider its implications for how we should regard each other. In particular, I suggest that it complicates efforts to understand morality as a system of principles. Instead, I propose that an aesthetic attitude, not unlike our experience of the sublime, is an apt response to humanity’s infinite value.
Difficulties with the Theory
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

If modern animals and plants have evolved to their present condition slowly over long periods of time, why are clear intermediate forms between all of the existing species not seen today? And how could incredibly complicated organs like the vertebrate eye possibly have developed gradually by small steps? If the intermediate stages weren’t functional (what good is half an eye?), how could natural selection possibly account for the evolution of such structures to their present state of great complexity? And how could natural selection be at all involved in causing the development of body parts that appear to play no important role in an organism’s life? And how can anyone argue that flowers, diatoms, and other such beautiful organisms weren’t created especially for us to admire? Darwin answers all of these questions patiently, logically, and brilliantly and with one marvelous example after another.
Instinct
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

In this chapter, Darwin explains what instinctive behaviors are and how they can be explained by natural selection—by the gradual accumulation of small but beneficial variations in behavior over long periods of time. He begins by asserting that instinctive behaviors vary among individuals and shows that such behaviors—and changes in those behaviors—are passed along to offspring. He then discusses three particular examples in considerable detail: the instinct that leads the cuckoo to lay her eggs in the nests of other birds, the remarkable slave-making instinct found in certain ant species, and the complex honeycomb construction behavior of honeybees. Darwin also shows that different instincts are developed to different degrees in different species, giving us a sense of the steps that they may have gone through before reaching their remarkable state of development in some species today. He also gives us examples of the sorts of pressures that may have selected for the evolution of those instincts in the animals that reveal them today. Finally, Darwin tackles the perplexing problem of accounting for the evolution of sterile worker ants—ants that differ considerably in form and behavior from their parents and yet leave no offspring of their own.
Recapitulation and Conclusion
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

In this final chapter, Darwin reminds of us of the main objections that had been advanced against his and Wallace’s theory of descent with modification and summarizes his responses to those objections. He then summarizes his main argument in favor of the theory, reminding his readers of the importance of natural variability in traits of all sorts, the inheritance of those variations by offspring, the impact of variation on survival and reproductive success, and the evidence in favor of those factors having slowly contributed to the tremendous variety of plant and animal species now existing on the planet. He concludes by describing how future research will lead to a better understanding about this process of natural selection—and its role in creating the diversity of animal and plant species we see around us—and to mankind’s understanding of our place in that world.
Introduction
Authors: Perez Nahshon
Published: January 2023

The introduction presents the topic of the monograph, the entanglement of religion and state, and provides a road map for the chapters of the book. Entanglement denotes, here, cases in which the government is directly involved in religious affairs and institutions in their religious functions and capacities, that is, with religions as such. This study adopts a bottom-up, casuistic approach that begins with a detailed analysis of given cases. The cases selected involve significant disputes that arise from the entanglement of religion and state, and that typically culminate in controversial decisions by major courts such as the European Court of Human Rights and the US Supreme Court. Such cases are complex, nuanced, and difficult to categorize. The book considers cases that involve the application of or disregard for nondiscrimination rules in religious associations that receive governmental funding; and cases in which a government endorses religious symbols in public spaces.
Songs and Exercises by Tone Set
Authors: Douglass Grana Natalie
Published: January 2023

The first section builds fundamental pitch and solfège skills with music organized by tone set (do-mi-sol, do-re-mi-sol, etc.), starting with three notes and gradually expanding by one new note at a time. Each unit includes folk songs, duets, stick notation and improvisation exercises. The content is inspired by Kodály Methodology, using simple songs as the foundation for pitch training. These songs are also paired by time signature so that they can be sung and played as duets. Each selection includes sequential instructions to transfer singing to playing the horn, including inner hearing, transposition, and polyphonic tasks. Variations are given so that exercises may be done independently or in parts with a second horn player.
Canons, Solfeggi, and Horn Literature
Authors: Douglass Grana Natalie
Published: January 2023

The middle section of the book includes canons, solfeggio, and horn literature of progressive difficulty. Like the songs by tone set, the pieces have sing and play instructions as well as inner hearing, transposition, and polyphonic exercises. Basic harmonic progressions are introduced through the repertoire, with arpeggiations written in solfège and exercises to connect harmonies to horn parts. The canons provide fundamental polyphonic training, beginning with simple songs and moving to compositions by Schubert, Mozart, and Beethoven. The solfeggi are vocal etudes originally for voice and piano, arranged to be sung and played by one or two horns. These lyrical studies refine tone and phrasing while also building solfège fluency. The horn literature includes standard etudes, orchestral excerpts, and solos so that the hornist can apply their musicianship skills to performance. The excerpts and solos are written with significant lines from the orchestra or accompaniment, transposed to be sung and played on horn. This way, hornists can learn standard repertoire while also gaining practical knowledge of the score and refining their sense of pitch. These studies may be done independently or with a partner.
Capitalist Peace
Authors: Zeiler Thomas W.
Published: January 2023

The United States pursued free trade from the Great Depression onward as part of its grand strategy of coordinating resources and policies to achieve long-term diplomatic objectives. Ever since Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration, which launched a trade policy steeped in a liberal internationalist worldview, the United States linked trade to global prosperity, to winning wars and peace, and to shaping the world order. Free trade was a cornerstone of an ideology of “capitalist peace.” That concept placed trade liberalization in service to political internationalism. By pursuing freer commercial exchanges, capitalist peace ideology knitted trade to national security imperatives and political causes. To be sure, capitalists sought a particular type of global trade, just like communists did and fascists before them. But capitalists harnessed the market, rather than using the state, through free trade. Leaders believed that free trade advanced private enterprise and thus the cause of capitalist peace, which, in turn, promoted prosperity, democracy, security, and attendant by-products like development, cooperation, integration, and human rights. In so doing, the capitalist peace paradigm—with a core of liberal internationalist principles that were ever changing to meet new circumstances and pressures—projected US power, interests, and values into the international arena even as capitalism brought both positive and negative results to the global order. This book shows that free trade internationalism has always been contested—by protectionists in particular but by nations of the global South as well, yet even the skeptics acknowledged the force of capitalist peace thinking.
Epilogue
Authors: Summerhayes Colin
Published: January 2023

We cannot effectively tackle the existential problems of global warming and biodiversity decline while the neoclassical economists who advise governments continue to regard the environment as a valueless externality. Treating the air as a dumping ground for carbon emissions is clearly a bad idea with enormous social implications, as is treating the oceans as a dumping ground for heat and meltwater. We are experiencing the iron law of unintended consequences. Market fundamentalism has been found just as wanting in environmental matters as it was in banking in 2008. Relying on markets has put us in a dire predicament. Magical thinking is not going to help us. Government has a duty to regulate industry so that it does not lead to, and preferably acts to reverse global overheating and biodiversity loss. We cannot allow businesses to go on eroding Earth’s natural capital. Losing Earth’s refrigerator is bad for humans, not just for the planet.
“Somebody Needed an Archaeologist”
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

The Reisners arrive in Cairo, where George Reisner starts work at the Egyptian Museum, publishing amulets, models of ships and boats, canopic jars, and the Amarna tablets. He meets the American painter Joseph Lindon Smith and American philanthropist Phoebe Apperson Hearst, who offers him an on-the-job learning position as an archaeologist, so Reisner effectively changes careers, turning down Assyriology positions at Yale and in the Berlin Museum. Reisner also secured Hearst funding for Grenfell and Hunt’s papyrological excavations at Oxyrhynchus. He conducts a reconnaissance survey in Upper Egypt before deciding where to dig. A return home solidifies Reisner’s association with Phoebe Hearst over Sara Yorke Stevenson from Philadelphia.
The Road Taken
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

The Hearst Expedition launches into action with excavations at Deir el-Ballas, el-Ahaiwah, and the vast cemeteries of Naga ed-Deir. Reisner develops a system for site survey and a stratigraphic approach to excavation, while also realizing that anatomical analyses of human remains is necessary. Reisner receives the medical treatise now known as “Papyrus Hearst” as a thank-you gift from an Egyptian farmer. His team expands to include Albert Lythgoe and Arthur C. Mace; the expedition is also visited by his Harvard professor David Gordon Lyon and his wife, Tosca. The Reisners return to Germany during the off-season, and in September 1902, Phoebe Hearst invites them to Berkeley, where Reisner delivers a lecture series and enjoys a Hearst dinner party thrown in his honor.
Devastation and Realignment: The Birth of the HU–MFA Expedition
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

In 1905 Phoebe Hearst terminated her financial support of the Hearst Expedition. Even a visit to Giza in 1905, and the discovery of the famous “slab stela” of Wepemnefret just after she left, did not alter her decision. This prompted the creation of the Harvard University–Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition (1905–47), as the result of hard-won negotiations during the summer of 1905 among Harvard, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Reisner, Lythgoe, and David Gordon Lyon. The formal agreement stipulated that art objects should go to the MFA, while archives and publication rights belonged to Harvard, but all for the duration of just one year (1905–6). Reisner also explored the chances of leading a Harvard expedition to Palestine, supported by David Gordon Lyon’s donor Jacob Schiff.
King Menkaure versus the “Pestiferous Sheikhs” of Palestine
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

After putting Cecil Firth in charge of the Archaeological Survey of Nubia, Reisner focused on the Menkaure Valley Temple at Giza (1908, 1910) and the Harvard excavations at Samaria (1909–10). At Giza he found four perfectly preserved triads of King Menkaure in 1908, and then in 1910 an even larger and more impressive dyad, or pair statue of the king and his queen (or mother?). The fact that this statue shipped to Boston later turned several heads and raised many eyebrows in Cairo. At Samaria, Reisner spent two seasons on the mound, working with Clarence Fisher and undoing the “damage” done by his 1908 predecessor, Gottlieb Schumacher. He explored the Omri-Ahab palace, Israelite city wall, the walls built by Babylonian colonists, the Herodian temple, and other areas. He eventually discovered a series of ostraca, inscribed sherds with the oldest Hebrew writing yet known. Theodore Roosevelt rattled the Cairo population with an incendiary speech in 1910, and William Randolph Hearst approached Reisner about collecting on his behalf. Additional Egyptian excavations during these years took place at Mesaeed and, under Fisher’s direction while Reisner returned to teach at Harvard and serve as curator at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, at the site of Zawiyet el-Aryan.
The Near-Destruction of Two American Expeditions
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

Clarence Fisher and George Reisner clashed over the treatment of their Egyptian workmen, since all their Qufti families were related. The crisis began with fundamental misunderstandings between Fisher and his Reisner-loaned reis Mahmud el-Meyyit, who turned to Reisner after being fired by Fisher. This threatened the stability of both expeditions, and authorities from both the Penn Museum and the MFA in Boston had to get involved. Ashton Sanborn, working for they paranoid Fisher but bearing no ill will toward Reisner, was caught in the middle. Meanwhile at Nuri, Aspelta’s sixteen-ton sarcophagus was removed from its burial chamber, thanks to Said Ahmed’s ingenuity. Oric Bates died of influenza at Camp Zachary Taylor in 1918 preparing to join the war effort. At last war’s end signaled a return to archaeology for many foreign expeditions.
“The Work Is His God”: Gebel Barkal, el-Kurru, and Meroe
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

Excavations continued at Gebel Barkal, el-Kurru, and Meroe, with pyramid burial chambers, foundation deposits, jewelry, and other items. The true significance of el-Kurru as a major royal cemetery for some of Nubia’s greatest kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty was slowly revealed. The painted burial chambers of Queen Qalhata and King Tanwetamani provided another unexpected surprise. The expedition also found upright royal horse grave burials at el-Kurru complete with trappings made of faience and other materials. With his budget overstretched, Reisner required additional approvals from the MFA in Boston. Assisted by Walter Kemp, Reisner also found a stela of Queen Tabiry, which he misread as evidence of a Libyan connection (and origin?) of the inhabitants of el-Kurru. March 1919 brought civil unrest in Egypt, which stranded the expedition in the Sudan far longer than originally planned. Dows Dunham completed his war service and rejoined the expedition in late 1919, discovering the victory stela Thutmose III at Gebel Barkal. Reisner and Dunham found another important text: the long Meroitic inscription of King Tanyidamani, a language that remains undeciphered today. Ashton Sanborn left Fisher’s Penn Expedition and formally joined the HU–MFA team. Reisner weighed in on the political events in Cairo, the Milner Commission, and other British responses to recent post-war unrest. Walter Kemp shot himself at Harvard Camp, Giza, in December 1920. Returning to Meroe, with Ashton Sanborn and eventually Lyman Story, Reisner found a Hellenistic rhyton signed by Athenian potter Sotades. Reisner’s first(?) fictional short story dates to 1921.
Excursus: Showdown with Breasted over Egyptian Archaeology
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

This short chapter covers James Breasted’s initially secret plan to use $10 million from John Rockefeller Jr. to offer the Egyptians a new Cairo Museum, but with a scientific committee that would gain decision-making power over the granting of excavation concessions, effectively ousting Pierre Lacau from the French traditional position of administrative control. As Reisner slowly learned of the plan he opposed it, which led to a bitter rivalry between the two erstwhile friends and colleagues. This dispute lasted a decade, from 1925 to 1935. Eventually, Breasted’s tone-deaf approach to the Egyptian authorities resulted in the collapse of his dream, and for the time being, the status quo was preserved.
Looking Back and Taking Stock
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

By this point the expedition focused on the backlog of Giza publication material. Excavations were reduced, aiming primarily to fill in gaps in the Giza documentation. Reisner’s eye problems required surgeries that were ultimately unsuccessful, and encroaching blindness resulted throughout the 1930s. During his recuperation at the home of his friend Judge Pierre Crabitès, with Joseph Lindon Smith’s help he terminated Noel Wheeler’s employment, based on the latter’s diminishing dedication to the work. He also completed a monograph on tomb development, a prequel necessary, he felt, for his future Giza Necropolis publications. For distraction, he took to having detective novels read aloud to him, and eventually amassed a collection of nearly two thousand volumes. At the urging of Joseph and Corinna Lindon Smith, Reisner summarized for the MFA the history of the expedition, and its expenses and publications output, all in defense of the expedition in the face of the Depression and universal budget cuts. In 1935 he renewed his friendship with James Breasted, estranged for a decade, just prior to Breasted’s unexpected death. His mentor, David Gordon Lyon, also died in 1935. Russian expatriate draftsman Alexander Floroff joined the expedition in 1934. New MFA director George Harold Edgell proved one of Reisner’s staunchest supporters.
Septuagenarian Archaeology
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

This chapter describes Egypt through the eyes of aspiring Egyptology and MFA assistant curator Betty Eaton, who traveled to Egypt for the first time. Pierre Lacau was succeeded by Etienne Drioton as head of the Antiquities Service. Reisner kept new MFA director Harold Edgell informed, particularly about negotiations for an Anglo-Egyptian peace treaty. Edgell in turn negotiated with Harvard to grant Reisner an honorary degree at commencement. Joseph and Corinna Lindon Smith continued their visits to Egypt, and Smith enjoyed annual exhibitions of his work at Harvard Camp. In March 1937 they visited Quft, the hometown of most of the workmen. The HU–MFA Expedition pared back due to Depression-era budget cuts. Reisner’s volume on tomb development appeared, as he continued writing chapters for his magnum opus on the Giza Necropolis. One new addition was Russian draftsman Nicholas Melnikoff. In addition, he had Hansmartin Handrick, Alexander Floroff, William Stevenson Smith, Evelyn Perkins, and the sons of reis Said Ahmed, Mohamed and Mahmud Said. He also participated in an international conference in Cairo on excavations. In Boston Dows Dunham prepared for a future without George Reisner in the field, wondering how to deal with the backlog of shipped artifacts, the publications obligations, and the general lack of space. The chapter ends with the surprise seventieth birthday party for Reisner at Harvard Camp, which included the gift of a repeater watch, whose bells allowed him to discern the time, day or night, despite his blindness.
Suffrage, Democracy, and War
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn N. , Trager Robert F.
Published: January 2023

The adoption of women’s suffrage in national elections brought expectations of dramatic political and social change throughout the world. But the reality of suffrage was more nuanced. Many who lived through suffrage did not feel they were living through a revolution. Women did not vote in large numbers and their voting patterns did not appear to differ all that much from men’s. But like many notable social, economic, and biological changes, political change can accumulate in slow and gradual ways. Far from having little noticeable effect, recent research has shown that women’s suffrage has in fact brought about significant economic, social, and political change at the domestic level. This chapter describes these changes and presents novel evidence that women’s votes have also had a dramatic, pacifying impact on international affairs.
Women’s Votes and the World Wars
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn N. , Trager Robert F.
Published: January 2023

The prospect that the modern era is more peaceful than at any point in history may seem hard to fathom when considering the events of the twentieth century. How can one make sense of the millions killed in conflict in light of the advance of the supposedly pacifying effects of women’s suffrage over this period? This chapter examines what, if any, influence women’s votes had on three defining episodes of the twentieth century: America’s entry into World War I, Britain’s response to Hitler’s aggression in Czechoslovakia, and the beginning of the end of the Cold War following the U.S. 1984 presidential election. In each case, the chapter shows that women’s votes, motivated by issues of war and peace, affected the political process in meaningful ways even when they did not succeed in preventing war.
On the Margins of Bucolic
Authors: Thalmann William G.
Published: January 2023

In itself, the bucolic world may be elusive, but it is given shape and definition by what is at its margins. This chapter considers three poems that, in the Theocritean corpus as it has come down to us, perform this function of definition. Idyll 4 is set within the bucolic world but depicts that world as in the process of dissolution. Absence is not productive but destructive. In his absence at Olympia, Aigon’s cattle starve, bucolic song is replaced by racy court poetry and debased epinician, and sexuality is reduced to crude coupling. The contrast points up the values of a thriving bucolic world. Idyll 10 introduces the world of agricultural labor, where bucolic song is confronted with a work song. Idyll 21 features fishermen and the toil and poverty that condition their lives. Both offer contrasts with bucolic values: on the one hand, the necessity of labor to avoid starvation, no time for song except to accompany work, the gritty realities of subsistence; on the other hand, leisure for love and song, fantasy and imagination. Two opposite approaches to life.