bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sea level cosmic ray intensity and threshold rigidity
Authors: Sandström Arne Eld , Pomerantz Martin A. , Grönkvist Bengt-Olov
Published: January 2012

The intensity of the nucleon component has been measured with a shipboard neutron monitor during a number of voyages between Oct. 1956 and March 1959. After reduction and normalization the intensity has been plotted as a function of the rigidity value computed by Quenby and Wenk. Four limited regions excepted, the point distribution is confined to a comparatively narrow band corresponding to the errors of measurement. Corrected threshold values are given for the regions in which the points fall outside the general distribution. These regions are all inside the geomagnetic latitudes between which Quenby and Wenk had to interpolate for the penumbral effect.
Trapping of Low Frequency Oscillations in an Equatorial “Boundary Layer”
Authors: Stern Melvin E.
Published: January 2012

A thin layer of water (thickness h) and its spherical boundaries (mean radius R) rotate with uniform angular velocity Ω. Using an asymptotic expansion in the parameter h/R ⪡ 1 we investigate the inertial oscillations of “large scale” disturbances at the equator. It is found that the vertical constraints on the motion inhibit the lateral (poleward) propagation of low frequency energy. Solutions of the non-separable eigenvalue problem give standing oscillations whose longest period is (R/h)½ (2π/Ω) and which are self-confined within a distance of order (Rh)½ on either side of the equator. This axial symmetric calculation is probably valid for disturbances whose eaet-west wave-length is large compared with the width of the “boundary layer” (Rh)½. t is suggested that a trapped wave can transfer energy to a mean flow at the equator, as the result of the correlation between the velocity components of the eigenfunction.

In the bottom water of the equatorial ocean, where, the stratification is small, there might be oscillations whose period is of the order of a month and which extended some 300 km north and south of the equator. When the static stability is appreciable the effect can only be expected if, on thie time scale, the fluid dissipates temperature perturbations much more rapidly than momentum.
Energy dissipation of water drops striking an undisturbed water surface
Authors: Kilgore Edmund G. , Day John A.
Published: January 2012

The impact of water drops on an undisturbed water surface is studied by cine shadow photography. Quantitative analysis of the film data shows a quasi-exponential rate of energy dissipation away from the impact region.
Strontium 90 in rain due to nuclear tests at higher latitudes
Authors: Bleichrodt J. F. , Blok J.
Published: January 2012

In The Netherlands concentrations of strontium 90 in rain during 1959, 1962 and 1963 originating from Soviet nuclear tests in the fall of 1958, 1961 and 1962, respectively, were approximately proportional to that part of the fission yield which corresponds to debris introduced into the lower stratosphere.
Composition analysis of particles from noctilucent clouds
Authors: Witt G. , Hemenway C. L. , Lange N. , Modin S. , Soberman R. K.
Published: January 2012

Composition analysis has been performed on particles collected from noctilucent clouds by a rocket sounding experiment in northern Sweden during August 1962. Electron diffraction, neutron activation, and electron beam microprobe techniques were applied to give information about chemical composition and possible crystal structure of the particles. Results obtained to date are presented in this paper which also discusses the applicability of the above methods to small particle analysis.
Electron microscope studies of noctilucent cloud particles
Authors: Hemenway C. L. , Fullam E. F. , Skrivanek R. A. , Soberman R. K. , Witt G.
Published: January 2012

Details of the sample preparation and handling techniques of the electron microscope samples for the noctilucent cloud sampling experiment are given. Typical electron micrographs and distribution functions are shown. Most of the noctilucent cloud particles appear to be extraterrestrial in origin. Approximately 10% of the total number of particles collected had a volat,ile coating which is believed to be ice.
A preliminary Investigation of the Daily Meridional Transfer of Atmospheric Water Vapour between the Equator and 40°N
Authors: Van de Boogaard Henry M. E.
Published: January 2012

As a preliminary investigation into the daily variation of the meridional flux of atmospheric water vapour between the equator and 40°N, the transport has been computed from the analysed fields of specific humidity (q) and the v-component of the wind field. The analysis is based on the observations taken at a single synoptic time. The computations confirm earlier results that the bulk of the flux takes place between the 860 mb pressure surface and the surface of the earth. Between the 500 mb pressure surface and the upper limits of the Hadley and Ferrel cells the flux amounts to about 10 % of the total flux.

It is further shown that the Hadley cell circulation is the most important agent for transporting water vapour equatorward. North of 30°N the eddy flux is the dominant factor but appears to be of a much weaker intensity than the Hadley cell flux.

The computed values of the difference between the zonally averaged evaporation and precipitation (E - P) , for five-degree latitude belts, obtained in this study, show greater intensity in the equatorial belt than those obtained empirically by other authors (e.g. Jacobs). Palmen obtained a similar result some time ago.

Harmonic analyses show that in the equatorial belt proper, no definite wave number can be ascribed to the eddy vapour transport. In the subtropics, wave numbers one and two appear to be the active agents, whilst beyond 30°N wave numbers four and six take over.
Low frequency oscillations trapped near the equator
Authors: Bretherton F. P.
Published: January 2012

Two simple models illustrate the physical mechanism behind the trapping within a narrow band near the equator of low frequency, infinitesimal oscillations for which the motion is independent of longitude. A thin layer of liquid confined between two rotating spherical shells is in the first case homogeneous, in the second case stably stratified. In the equatorial ocean, one such oscillation would have a period of about ten days and be confined between 6° N and 6° S.
Note on the role of boundary friction in the wind-driven ocean circulation
Authors: Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

The oceans are subjected to wind stresses that drive the main currents. Because of the stratification of the water the currents decay vertically and at the bottom the stresses are quite small. It has earlier been argued that the torque due to the wind stresses must be balanced by lateral stresses at the coasts, to prevent the oceanic bodies of water from accelerating in rotation.
An account of the major pulses of tritium and their effects in the atmosphere
Authors: Eriksson Erik
Published: January 2012

Bomb tritium produced since 1954 during bomb tests was by and large injected into the stratosphere. The exact amounts are not known but various estimates agree reasonably well. The fate of the bomb produced tritium is discussed in some detail and it appears that ocean surfaces are very effective for withdrawing atmospheric tritium. Available data on rainfall concentrations are also reviewed as well as various models put forth to explain the transport of tritium in nature.
A two-layer frictional model of wind-driven motion in a rectangular oceanic basin
Authors: Welander Pierre
Published: January 2012

A study is made of the circulation in a two-layer ocean with rectangular boundaries driven by a zonal wind stress. The dynamics is linear, with bottom and interface stresses. A non-linearity arises from finite variations in layer depths. In the case where the lower layer is much deeper than the upper layer the equations can be integrated exactly. The solution gives a directly wind-driven gyre in the upper layer, with an interior Sverdrup regime and a western boundary current. In the lower layer there is no interior motion but a recirculating boundary current develops. The total transport is thereby intensified near the coast while a counter-transport develops at the outer edge. The boundary current width varies with the current depth and the latitude.The key parameter in the model is ε = (D/F)(H/h0), where D and F are the “frictional depths” applicable at the interface and the bottom, H and h0 are the total depth and the upper layer depth. Numerical examples are worked out for a sinusoidal wind stress distribution in the case ε = 1.
Atmospheric Effects on Cosmic Radiation, Air-mass Absorption and Meson
Decay
Authors: Lindholm F.
Published: January 2012

The percentage variations of twenty-four hour means of C. R. in Stockholm (magn.
lat 58°) amount to ± 5% of the mean value over a quiet period of two months' duration.
The two atmospheric effects, the mass absorption due to ionisation and the meson decay,
contribute ± 4%. The residual variations, in excess of statistical fluctuations of 0.1%,
depend upon other factors, such as geomagnetic activity and solar influences.
The
true absorption coefficient for zenith radiation (β) is calculated to have a value of
1.27 · 10–3 cm2/g and the rate of decay (β′) is found to be about 0.060 pr km. The meson
producing layer is attributed to the 200 mb surface, the highest level reached by the
daily radiosonde ascents in Stockholm.
The most reliable decay value is obtained by
considerations of the thermal structure of air-mass changes in travelling deep
depressions.
Variation in the Earth’s Angular Velocity Resulting from Fluctuations in
Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation
Authors: Munk W. H. , Miller R. L.
Published: January 2012

Fluctuations in the circulation of the atmosphere are associated with very small
anomalies in the angular velocity of the earth. The seasonal component of these
anomalies has been computed from weather maps, and is found to agree, with respect to
magnitude and phase, with anomalies first reported by STOKYO in 1936 on the basis of
astronomic observations. The effects of fluctuations in the oceanic circulation, and of
shifting of air and water masses, have been estimated to account for not more than 15
per cent of the observed effect.
The detection of shorter period fluctuations is
presently limited by the accuracy of astronomic time determination. The developments of
an atomic clock and of the photographic zenith tube open the possibility of determining
anomalies persisting for only two weeks, and of providing a new tool for obtaining an
index of integrated atmospheric circulation.
The Lowest of the Ionized Layers of the Upper Atmosphere
Authors: Stranz Dietrich
Published: January 2012

The “Stockwerk-Gliederung” of the Earth’s atmosphere introduced by PENNDORF and
FLOHN is a promising method to describe the different atmospheric regions from the
nearest to the ground up to the highest levels. The region above the upper inversion (at
ca. 75 km) up to 100 km height is generally called the D-layer which means the lowest of
the ionized regions in the upper atmosphere of the Earth.
The behaviour of the
D-layer, its most reasonable theory of formation, and its function with regard to the
propagation of electromagnetic waves are discussed. Features related to
solar-terrestrial phenomena are shown. Theories and ideas by various authors are
compared with each other.
The complete investigation from which this paper gives an
extract is being published elsewhere.
Blocking Action in the Middle Troposphere and its Effect upon Regional Climate: II. The Climatology of Blocking Action
Authors: Rex Daniel F.
Published: January 2012

The results of a semi-statistical study of 112 cases of blocking action in the upper westerlies are presented; areas of most frequent occurrence, characteristic movement and persistence, and seasonal and yearly trends of blocking activity are determined. The regional precipitation and mean surface-temperature anomalies associated with blocking over Europe are illustrated and compared with those produced by strong zonal flow aloft. The effects produced by variations in blocking activity upon European climatic trends are discussed. The influence of blocking action upon Scandinavian glaciation and certain indications as to the rôle played by blocking in an ice-age climatic cycle are discussed.
Photographs of the “Complete Precipitation” of a Cumulus Cloud
Authors: Sherman L.
Published: January 2012

It is well known that in higher latitudes the lower parts of cumulonimbus may precipitate completely leaving only the anvil. It is also well known (KOTSCH, 1947) that in tropical latitudes precipitation occurs from clouds which have not reached the freezing level. Finally, it is known, at least to most tropical meteorologists, that quite commonly in the tropics a cumulus cloud will precipitate completely.
Structure of Shear Lines near the Tropopause in Summer
Authors: Newton C. W. , Phillips N. A. , Carson J. E. , Bradbury D. L.
Published: January 2012

A detailed study is made of a shear line in the tropopause region. A summer case was purposely selected, in which the lower half of the atmosphere was relatively barotropic, in order to minimize the role that could possibly be played by a subsiding cold air mass in producing a vertical stretching and consequent concentration of vorticity in the higher atmosphere.

During the period studied, the circulation over North America was characterized by the existence of two distinct jet streams, the southernmost of which, though initially having the form of a sinusoidal trough, appears to “buckle”, forming a very sharp trough separating two jet streams of opposite direction. A possible mechanism is suggested for the production of strong northerly flow leading up to shear-line formation, which depends upon a mutual interaction between the mass and velocity fields of the jet-stream systems located at different latitudes.

An attempt to determine whether potential absolute vorticity is conserved during formation of the shear line is not wholly conclusive, but indicates a reasonable possibility that vorticity may be generated in the free atmosphere.
On the Effective Radiation to Various Parts of a Cloudless Sky
Authors: Lönnqvist Olov
Published: January 2012

From the author’s formula for the relative radiation as a function of temperature and humidity conditions in the atmosphere, a formula is deduced for the zenith distance variation of the effective radiation. This formula is compared with observational data and empirical formulae. Finally, the constancy of the representative zenith distance, for which the effective radiation equals the effective radiation integrated over the whole hemisphere, is investigated.
Les fluctuations saisonnièes de la rotation du globe terrestre et la circulation atmosphérique générale
Authors: Van den Dungen F. H. , Cox J. F. , Van Mieghem J.
Published: January 2012

Seasonal fluctuations in the rate of rotation of the Earth are detected when checking the best clocks with astronomical time. These variations may be shown to result from transfer of momentum between the atmosphere and the globe. As a consequence, the study of these fluctuations may bring interesting information in the field of meteorology.
Die Konfiguration mittlerer Hohenstromungsfelder und ihre Ursachen
Authors: Wippermann F.
Published: January 2012

Some computations are presented in order to estimate the relative importance of different factors for the generation of the quasi-stationary perturbations in the westerlies, such as the effect of the large mountain barriers, the heat exchange with the surface of the earth and surface friction. For that purpose the vorticity advection of the mean field of motion has been computed. It is concluded that the three factors mentioned seem to be of the same order of magnitude.
Forty-Year Sea Level Pressure and Sunspots
Authors: Brier Glenn W.
Published: January 2012

The 40-1/2 years of mean montly sea level pressure maps based on the Historical Map Series have been typed according to numerical indices that indicate to what extent each particular monthly map resembles a typical or normal winter or summer map on one hand, or a typical spring or fall map on the other hand. These indices are easily determined from the average pressure of certain key areas and are quite effective in separating the winter from the summer months and the spring months from the fall months. The persistence in these indices and their relation to the sunspot cycle has been investigated.
To the Comparison between Numerical Methods and Methods Now in Use for Forecasting Meteorological Charts
Authors: Lönnqvist Olov
Published: January 2012

Methods now in common use for making prognostic charts to a large extent are based on time derivatives, while the numerical methods start from space derivatives. That is the fundamental difference between them. It is shown that the present methods give at times very good results, and that the degree of success varies with the weather situation, characterized e. g. by the average interdiurnal pressure change over the test area. Because of this variation it would be desirable that every test of a numerical method includes a comparison with results obtained at some forecasting center or, at least, with the results of pure extrapolation.
Determination of the Sense of Polarization of the Magneto-Ionic z-Component
Authors: Landmark Björn
Published: January 2012

The sense of polarization of the third magneto-ionic component, the z-component, was determined in a number of cases at the Auroral Observatory at Tromsö during October 1951. The observations showed without exception that the z-component was polarized in the same way as the ordinary component.
Application of Barotropic Tendency Equation to Medium-Range Forecasting
Authors: Clapp Philip F.
Published: January 2012

The simple barotropic vorticity equation has been used to compute height tendencies on a few 5-day mean 500 mb charts. The results are approximately as good as similar computations made on synoptic flow patterns despite the fact that the time interval between observed charts is 5 times as great. The order of magnitude of the computed tendencies may be considerably improved provided some account is taken of the effects of transformation of potential into kinetic energy, surface friction and non-adiabatic heating. A first approximation to these factors may be obtained by setting them equal to their climatological or normal values.

A simple method for integrating the barotropic equation is derived upon assuming that the anomalies of the large-scale flow patterns may be approximated by a relatively small number of Rankine vortices.
Ueber die Genauigkeit verschiedener Approximationen der horizontalen Windkomponenten
Authors: Hollmann G. , Reuter H.
Published: January 2012

After a brief theoretical discussion of different approximations of the horizontal windcomponents the accuracy of these approximations is proved with the aid of simple but exact solutions of the hydrodynamic equations. In addition to the generally applied geostrophic approximation a second geostrophic approximation proposed by H. PHILIPPS and a stationary approximation suggested by C. G. ROSSBY is dealt with. The theoretical models show that the improvement of higher approximations than the geostrophic depends essentially on the pressure distribution. Moreover the statement is derived that in case of stationary nondivergent motion the ageostrophic windcomponents are perpendicular to the isogons, i.e., the lines of equal α where tg α = v/u, and directed to areas of lower values of the angle α.
Sur la formation des germes de condensation et de solidification autour d’un noyau solide insoluble
Authors: Dufour Louis , Defay Raymond
Published: January 2012

Solid insoluble nuclei help the formation of water or ice inasmuch as the adhesion-coefficient of water or ice on the solid be positive. If this coefficient is greater than 1 and if the solid nucleus is great enough this effect may be sufficient to render null the free energy of formation of germs and to provoke the condensation or the solidification without germ. These effects can be calculated a priori, assuming a certain degree of saturation of the atmospheric water vapour provided the suitable adhesion-coefficient be known.
Zur numerischen Wettervorhersage mittels Relaxationsmethode unter Einbeziehung barokliner Effekte. I
Authors: Hinkelmann K.
Published: January 2012

Following a publication in Berichten des Deutschen Wetterdienstes No. 38 p. 416 the present paper ourlines a method for the approximate solution of the quasistatistical and quasigeostrophical basic equations in an arbitrary baroclinic atmosphere taking into consideration the normal boundary conditions. Certain influence functions are calculated for a standard atmosphere by means of a relaxation method, in these calculations it is assunied that the inhoniogenius term of the differential equation is equal to unity at one grid point and disappears at all the other. The solutions permit us to determine the reaction of the atmosphere to a point source perturbation and calculate its horizontal and vertical range.
Remarks on «Electron Microscope Study of Cloud and Fog Nuclei»
Authors: Birstein S. J.
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir,We have read with considerable interest the paper by S. Ogiwara and T. Okita on an «Electron Microscope Study of Cloud and Fog Nuclei» in the August 1952 issue of this Journal, and feel obliged to write this letter because of questions concerning certain observations and conclusions made by the authors.
Note Concerning the Nature of the Large-Scale Eddies in the Atmosphere
Authors: Starr Victor P.
Published: January 2012

The rate of generation of kinetic energy of mean zonal motions by the large-scale horizontal eddies in the atmosphere is computed from three independent sets of hemispheric wind data. The results are larger than certain analogous dissipation estimates would require. Meteorological implications of the material are discussed.
A Note on the Chemical Composition of Rainwater
Authors: Mordy W. A.
Published: January 2012

A limited number of observations of nitrogen, sodium and chloride in rainwater made in Hawaii are presented. Because of frequent and high rainfall, calculations of the annual amounts of nitrogen received in various Island localities are rather large. In one storm nitrogen was brought down by rainfall at a nearly constant rate although rainfall intensity varied considerably. In general, the concentrations of these elements in Hawaiian rains agree with observations in other oceanic areas.
P. Raethjen: Dynamik der Zyklonen, Leipzig
Authors: Bolin Bert
Published: January 2012

P. Raethjen: Dynamik der Zyklonen, Leipzig 1953, 384 pp., 92 figures. Akademische Verlagsgesell- schaft, Geest & Portig K.-G. A large number of books covering various fields within meteorology have been published since the war. However, at least within the field of dynamic meteorology most of these have merely aimed at developing the very basic relations and tools in the field and have only given very brief introductions to more advanced ideas.
Note on the Symposium on the Use of Models in Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Authors: Long Robert R.
Published: January 2012

A symposium was held September 1–4, 1953 at The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland to discuss the problems and potentialities of models in investigations of geophysical phenomena. About 25 research workers in the fields of oceanography, meteorology, aeronautics, geo-magnetism, civil engineering, and applied mathematics attended the conference. Fifteen papers were presented followed by discussions.
To the Editor of Tellus
Authors: Ångström Anders , Herman F. A.
Published: January 2012

My dear Colleague, Herewith a letter from Dr. Herman of the Department of Agriculture, Canada, on the question of nitrogen in precipitation. I have got the permission of Dr. Herman to ask you to be lund to publish the letter.
Average Temperature and Salinity at a Depth of 200 Meters in the North Atlantic
Authors: Fuglister F. C.
Published: January 2012

New charts are presented showing the average temperature and average salinity at a depth of 200 meters in the North Atlantic. These are compared with charts published by Wüst and Defant in 1936 and it is shown that, over most of the ocean, conditions are nearly constant at this depth. Attention is focused on the areas of changing temperature where the major ocean currents exist. It is shown that important details are obscured by the averaging process. The range of observed temperature is charted and supplements the information given by the average charts. The standard deviation from the mean temperature, calculated for two portions of the Gulf Stream System, indicates that when more observations are available such calculations may be of use in studying the major ocean current systems. Temperature anomalies from the mean for each degree of latitude are plotted and compared with data published by Wüst in 1937.
Quasi-periodic Cyclogenesis in Relation to the General Circulation
Authors: Namias Jerome
Published: January 2012

A striking case of recurring cyclogenesis at ten day intervals during February 1953 with a tendency to continue until mid-May has been studied against the background of the planetary circulation averaged over periods up to thirty days. The data suggest a periodicity-producing mechanism whose period may be defined by the underlying long period (e.g., 30-day) mid-tropospheric wave pattern. In this particular case the patterns of waves observed on 5-day mean charts oscillated about certain more stable centers of action in a manner consistent with vorticity considerations. These oscillations recurrently deployed continental polar and maritime tropical air masses into juxtaposition and set the stage for cyclone growth. The movement and development of these cyclones strengthened the westerlies, thereby temporarily permitting increase of the planetary wave length. After the energy of thermal contrast was tapped and the cyclones moved off or filled, the regional westerlies declined leading to long wave retrogression and the initiation of the cycle anew. The annoying ≥change in phase≤ which has beset workers in periodicity for years is shown to be associated with abrupt though logical rearrangements of the mean planetary circulation incident to change of season.
Numerical Solutions of the Perturbation Equation for Linear Flow
Authors: Eliasen Erik
Published: January 2012

Two-dimensional nondivergent perturbations of linear flow are considered. By means of a simple numerical treatment indications concerning the conditions of exponentilal instability are obtained. Numerical solutions are further used to represent the approximate development of initial perturbations up to a certain time. The correctness of this procedure is shown in the case of the Couette flow. Finally perturbations of a symmetrical harmonic velocity profile are considered in relation to the question about the instability in a barotropic atmosphere.
The Exact Determination of the Effective Domain of Dependence of a One-dimensional Numerical Prediction Formula
Authors: Berkofsky Louis
Published: January 2012

By assuming sinusoidal initial conditions, an exact expression for determining the “cut-off” point of a one-dimensional influence function is derived. From this result one may construct tables of percent error incurred by terminating the influence function at various distances.
Some Aspects of the Flow of Stratified Fluids: II. Experiments with a Two-Fluid System
Authors: Long Robert R.
Published: January 2012

A description is given of the flow of two superimposed layers of fluid over a barrier. This represents a partial experimental investigation of a problem considered theoretically in Part I.

In general three regimes of motion are possible: If the velocities of the fluids are sufficiently small the interface is little disturbed except for a slight depression over the barrier. If the velocities are sufficiently high the interface swells symmetrically over the obstacle. At intermediate speeds a hydraulic jump occurs in the lee of the barrier and the lower layer increases in depth upstream.

Two occurrences do not fit into the above description: If the obstacle is small compared to the depth of the lower layer, weak lee waves appear at low speeds, increasing in amplitude as the approach velocity of the fluid is increased. This seems to be the only case in which perturbation theory provides an adequate prediction of the flow. The second anomalous occurrence is the appearance of a “jump down” or hydraulic “drop” in the lee when the speed of the fluid is moderately high, the obstacle large, and the upper fluid relatively thin.

The description of the experiments is supplemented by a theoretical discussion, employing the assumption of a hydrostatic pressure distribution. In general this theory provides a satisfactory explanation of the observed behavior. The paper concludes with a discussion of meteorological implications.
Specific Scattering by Uniform Minerogenic Suspensions
Authors: Burt Wayne V.
Published: January 2012

The Mie theory has been applied to determine the theoretical scattering from 1 mg per liter concentrations of uniformly-sized spherical particles over the size range from very small particles up to particles with a radius of 6 microns. The theoretical results compare favorably with experimental results recently published by Jerlov and Kullenberg.
The Density Ratio at the Boundary of the Earth’s Core
Authors: Bath Markus
Published: January 2012

A theoretical study is made of the behaviour of a P wave incident from the mantle on the boundary of the earth’s core, with special reference to phase reversals. The results are given graphically in Fig. 2, which gives the conditions for given values of the angle of emergence e and the density ratio ϱʹ/ϱ or the ratio of the elastic parameters λʹ/λ+2μ at the core boundary. The dependence of the phase changes on the density ratio is clear; for instance for ϱʹ/ϱ = 1 (no density discontinuity) there is a change of phase both for e<10° and for e<55°, whereas for ϱʹ/ϱ ⩾ 1.7 there is a change of phase only for e<6.2°. Observations of PcP waves around epicentral distance = 30° (Fig. 3) prove conclusively that there is a first-order density discontinuity at the core boundary. They also show that λʹ/λ+2μ > 0.34;. A method for determining the density ratio by more complete observations of PcP is indicated.
The Finnish Radiosonde With Rolled Hair as hygrometer
Authors: Raab Lars
Published: January 2012

In the last years the rolled hair (also called the Frankenberger-hair or Pernix-hair) with very good response at low temperatures has been used at the humidity sensing element in the German morse-radiosonde. In two papers SCHULZE (1952) shows from measurements made at Flensburg how extremely useful the new method is in measuring humidity. The time-constant of the rolled hair hygrometer at normal temperatures is five times smaller than that of the unrolled hair and the hair is also functioning at as low temperatures as- 70° C, where the time constant is about 500 sec at 100 per cent humidity.
A Theory of the Ventilated Psychrometer Based on the Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes
Authors: Bouman D. J.
Published: January 2012

It is shown that the thermodynamics of irreversible processes as developed by PRIGOGINE (1947) and DE GROOT (1951) offer the possibility of deriving the psychrometric equation without using pseudothermostatic reasoning.
Upper Mean Flow over the North Atlantic during January 1952
Authors: Hubert William , Dagel Yngve
Published: January 2012

Three mean atmospheric cross sections, one along the eastern coast of North America near longitude 80° West, one extending from Hudson’s Bay out over the western Atlantic and the third along the western coasts of Europe and North Africa for January 1952 are presented. Four distinct currents are discussed in some detail; they are:

A polar stratospheric jet stream which is most clearly defined over Scandinavia where it shows up as a separate current centered near latitude 62° North. The maximum winds are above the 100-mb level.

A tropospheric jet stream in middle latitudes which weakens appreciably between the eastern coast of North America and western Europe but can be traced through all three cross sections (central potential temperature about 335° A).

A well-defined maximum over North Africa at latitude 24° North which has no clear connection with any maxima over North America and may form over the Atlantic Ocean. This current is centered at a potential temperature of approximately 345° A.

A mean low-latitude west-wind maximum over Panama at 45,000 feet near latitude 11° North. Mean observed wind profiles at Albrook Field, Panama and at Swan Island indicate that this really is a separate current and not the south edge of the middle-latitude jet stream. The central potential temperature in this maximum is about 355° A.
The Particulate Matter in the Sea as Determined by Means of the Tyndall Meter
Authors: Jerlov N. G.
Published: January 2012

The Tyndall scattering has been studied for different material occurring in the sea, such as minerogenic matter, calcareous matter, and some marine organisms. It is shown that the scattering is proportional to the total surface of the particles provided that they are larger than 2 μ. This relationship is practically independent of the concentration. The size distribution of particles in marine waters is discussed with a view to estimate the amount of matter removable by sedimentation.
Wave Motion in a Rotating Couette Flow of a Viscous Fluid
Authors: Kao Shih-Kung
Published: January 2012

With the assumption of non-divergence horizontal flow, a certain class of solutions of the nonlinear hydrodynamic equations are obtained for a viscous Couette flow on an earth whose variation of Coriolis parameter with latitude is constant. These solutions yield waves of transient type, of which the amplitude, wave velocity, and the inclination of the trough and ridge lines vary with time.

For Couette flow with both lateral and vertical velocity-shears, the vertical profile of the amplitude of the waves can either be exponential in z or independent of z, whereas for Couette flow with lateral velocity-shear only it permits to be independent of z, a sinusoidal function, or a hyperbolic sine or cosine of z. These waves will eventually disappear in a Couette flow regardless the fluid is viscous or not, although under certain conditions waves may be amplified within a certain time interval.

Pressure field, geostrophic deviation, meridional transports of energy and westerly momentum are obtained for such a flow system. For reasonable values of the constants for atmospheric systems, geostrophic deviation can be as high as one order magnitude smaller than the actual wind speed.
On a Mathematical Model of the Carbon Cycle in Nature
Authors: Eriksson E. , Welander P.
Published: January 2012

A discussion is given of a simple mathematical model of the carbon dioxide cycle in atmosphere-biosphere-sea, with special attention to the possibility of self-sustained oscillations and to the behaviour of the cycle when additional carbon dioxide is injected from an outer source. The discussion is confined to phenomena with characteristic times of the order of 10–103 years leaving out the long geologic periods as well as the purely annual periods. Some numerical computations are also carried out on the electronic computer BESK. The discussion and the computations show that self-sustained oscillations possibly appear due to the presence of the sea, and that they generally are favoured when there exist time-lags in the biosphere of the order of a few decades. The computations also indicate that additional carbon dioxide injected at a rate corresponding to the present combustion of fossil carbon does not change significantly the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, since most part of it will be stored in the biosphere. Thus, the present theory suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide indicated by recent measurements may represent part of a natural self-sustained oscillation and not necessarily be a response to an increased combustion of fossils.
Blue Suns
Authors: Kendrew W. E.
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir, A note on a blue sun in the Canadian Arctic in September 1951 may be an addition of some interest to the series of observations made about the same time as reported in papers in Tellus 3.
On the Maintenance of the Trade Winds
Authors: Malkus Joanne Starr
Published: January 2012

A relation between the large-scale features of the lower trade stream and the effects of small-scale convective motions is investigated. The small-scale processes impose constraints upon the over-all circulation through non-adiabatic heating and the production of shearing stresses. These constraints may be formulated in terms of a theoretical model describing the mean flow in a section along the northern portion of the Pacific trade, which has previously been studied observationally in some detail.

In a simplified frictionless model with non-adiabatic heating the flow exhibits qualitatively many of the important features of the trades, such as subsidence, and a downstream acceleration, increased vertical wind shear, and pressure drop. The motion and pressure fields become numerically related to the heating as observed, however, only upon the introduction of frictional stresses. It is found possible to describe the frictional stress distribution in the lower trades without resorting to direct measurements, which thus provide a later independent check of the model.

The last sections of the paper consider possible quasi-steady rearrangements between the fields of motion, heating, and stress which might be regarded as steps in the slow fluctuations of the system about its average condition. This is done to inquire whether changes in any one of these properties will produce readjustments in the others acting to restore the mean or to accelerate the departure from it. Although such an analysis is handicapped by lack of knowledge concerning the interaction between the heating and stress distributions, one sample calculation suggests that a reduction of heating acts to relieve the subsidence and might thus be expected to restore the convection and thereby the heating. A stable coupling between small- and large-scale motions in the low-level trades is thus indicated, which may play a role in maintaining the high steadiness of the flow. The fact that the wind steadiness vanishes rapidly above the convective layer is clarified if this model is acceptable.
On the Local Structural Character of the Earth‘s Crust
Authors: Nishimura Eiichi , Kishimoto Yoshmichi
Published: January 2012

Regional differences in the crustal structure in Japan were investigated, in detail especially around Kyoto, by a duration analysis of the refracted seismic waves of natural earthquakes propagated along the discontinuous surfaces in the crust. Generally speaking the thickness of the earth’s crust or, in other words, the depth of the Mohorovičić discontinuity was estimated in our country to be greatly diverse from place to place, its range being nearly 25 ∼ 50 km. It was also found that the depth of seismic focus of most frequent occurrence in any region is intimately related to the thickness of the crust in the region concerned.
The Simultaneous Oscillation of Barometers along and near the Equator
Authors: Palmer Clarence E. , Ohmstede William D.
Published: January 2012

Oscillations of surface pressure which, within the observational error, occur at the same time over very large oceanic regions, have been described by Frolow in the tropical Indian Ocean and the Caribbean. Similar oscillations in the equatoral Pacific are reported and the widespread, presumably planetary, extension of the pressure variations emphasized. Statistical investigation suggests that simultaneous falls of pressure along the equator are associated with solar disturbances.
Report on the Third Annual Conference on Atmospheric Chemistry, May 28–30, 1956
Authors: Mordy W. A.
Published: January 2012

The third in a series of conferences on Atmospheric Chemistry was held at the Meteorological Institute, May 28-30, 1956. The two previous conferences have been reported in Tellus (1954, No. 3 and 1955, No. 3).
A Heuristic Theory of Large-Scale Turbulence and Long-Period Velocity Variations in Barotropic Flow
Authors: Thompson Philip Duncan
Published: January 2012

By combining an equation for the conservation of zonal momentum with the eddy vorticity equation for nondivergent barotropic flow through a channel, it has been found possible to express the time variations of the longitude-averaged zonal wind in terms of the mean zonal wind itself and certain statistics of the eddy velocity field. In large-scale turbulence-where the characteristic dimension of the eddies is comparable with the entire “width” of the flow— these eddy statistics take on the properties of autocorrelation functions; thus, they depend primarily on the overall scale of the eddies and intensity of turbulence, rather than on details of the flow pattern. Changes in the scale and intensity of large-scale turbulence are related to changes in the mean zonal flow through the principles of conservation of total kinetic energy and variance of vorticity. Under a general hypothesis regarding the “stability” of the eddy statistics, the equations for the zonally-averaged motion comprise a complete system of nonlinear equations, which can be integrated by finite-sum and-difference methods. Accordingly, these equations constitute a mathematical theory of large-scale “free” turbulence, and provide the basis for a numerical method of predicting the zonally-averaged motion.

With the assumption that the eddy scale is invariant, the equation governing the mean zonal wind takes a form related to that of the classical wave equation. Numerical integrations of this equation verify that extremes of mean zonal wind (e.g., pronounced jets) maintain their identity over long periods of time, and migrate either northward or southward (or in both directions at once) in a very regular way—a phenomenon that has been observed by Riehl bt al. (1950). The results also show that a strong jet in the mean westerlies tends to split into two weaker jets, which then move in opposite directions to produce the separated double jet structure typical of widespread blocking. The latter has been described as a characteristic denouement from strong zonal flow by Cressman (1950). The theoretical speed of migration of extremes in the mean zonal wind is found to agree closely with the observed speed in a case where published data are available.

Since these features of long-period velocity variations—the most striking and regular discovered to date—have a characteristic time scale of a week or two, numerical prediction methods based on the present theory show some promise of aiding in the preparation of extendedrange forecasts.
The Katabatic Winds of Adélie Land and King George V Land
Authors: Ball F. K.
Published: January 2012

The principle features of the katabatic wind in the neighbourhood of Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica, are described with particular emphasis on the sudden onsets and cessations of the wind. The unusual features are explained on the hypothesis that a quasistationary pressure jump line, forming a sharp boundary between the strong katabatic winds of the ice slope and the comparitively calm conditions over the sea, occurs near the coast. Movement of this pressure jump line across the causes a sudden change in wind conditions there. Quantitative predictions on this hypothesis are of the correct magnitude.
Spectrum and Cross Spectrum Analysis of Hemispheric Westerly Index
Authors: Panofsky H. A. , Wolff P.
Published: January 2012

The following tentative conclusions are drawn from the results of cross spectrum analysis applied to the hemispheric 500-mb zonal index at latitudes of 25° N, 40° N, and 60° N.

1. Most of the variations of the indices at 40° N and 60° N are produced by oscillations with periods of the order of 25 days. This result is obtained from two independent samples of data, each at least 2 1/2 years in length. At latitude 25° N, longer periods seem to be predominant. High-frequency fluctuations with periods of the order of five days may also be important, but have been filtered out by the analysis.

2. The indices at latitudes 60° N and 40° N are correlated negatively. Most of this correlation is again contributed by oscillations with a period of the order of 25 days. The correlation between latitudes 25° N and 40° N is also negative, but so small as to be hardly significant. Again, both sets of observations agree fairly well in furnishing these results.

3. There is an indication of a slight lag of the long-period variation of index at latitude 40° N behind that at 60° N.
The Effect of Fuel Combustion on the Amount of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
Authors: Callendar G. S.
Published: January 2012

Dear Sir, Although this matter has been carefully examined in the three valuable papers by H. Craig, R. Revelle -H. Suess, and J. Arnold-E. Anderson, on the exchanges of CO2, between atmosphere and oceans, in the February issue of Tellus’, 9 pages 1 to 32, there is one point on which I may be able to throw some further light.
Proper and Improper Use of Statistics in Geophysics
Authors: Kinsman Blair
Published: January 2012

A discussion of some of the peculiarities of the geophysical sciences together with their implications for statistical methods, particularly for the correlation coefficient, is given. The discussion is illustrated by an analysis of a recently published paper. In conclusion some advice on the use of correlations is offered.
Steady Convective Motion in a Horizontal Layer of Fluid Heated Uniformly from Above and Cooled Non-uniformly from Below
Authors: Stommel Henry , Veronis George
Published: January 2012

A gravitationally stable fluid layer is heated non-uniformly (sinusoidally) at the bottom (or top) and a thermal convection regime is established. Examples are worked out for cases (i) without rotation (ii) with uniform rotation, and (iii) with non-uniform rotation (beta-plane).
Noctilucent Clouds
Authors: Ludlam F. H.
Published: January 2012

Knowledge of noctilucent clouds is reviewed, and fresh observations made in Sweden are described. The conditions under which the clouds may be seen are calculated and compared with observations; it appears that the clouds are formed only in the summer in high latitudes. The sizes and concentrations of the cloud particles are inferred, and the probsem of their composition and origin is discussed. The clouds are not likely to be formed by condensation of water vapour, but are more probably dust clouds derived from great eruptions, very large meteorites, and from interplanetary space. Evidence of dust in the stratosphere is assembled, and the processes by which it appears in visible clouds are discussed.
Raindrop Measurements during Project Shower
Authors: Blanchard D. C. , Spencer A. T.
Published: January 2012

Raindrop size distributions have been obtained on the island of Hawaii with filter papers and with a device called a drop recorder. The drop recorder automatically exposes a section of dyed paper tape to the rain at approximately two-minute intervals. The maximum sized drop found on each of the more than 4,000 samples has been plotted as a function of time. It is shown that a fair correlation exists between the maximum sized drop and rain intensity.

Over 300,000 drops m−3 < 0.2 mm diameter have been found in very light rains at altitudes of 5,500 feet on the volcanos of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa.
On the General Circulation over Eastern Asia (I)
Authors: Staff Members
Published: January 2012

A summary of synoptic and aerological studies of the circulation over the Far East is given. The mean field of motion in the lower troposphere is considered. Mean cross sections for winter and summer and for different latitudes are discussed. The last section contains a discussion of the seasonal variation of the circulation over the Far East.