bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Twenty Teachers
Authors: Macrorie Ken
Published: November 2020

The rare and exceptional teacher--one who could teach absolutely anything to anybody--is what Ken Macrorie set out to find among teachers of many different subjects at many different levels. The result of his search is 20 Teachers, a collection of revealing profiles in which outstanding educators explain what works for them in the classroom and why. Macrorie's interviews with these professionals show an astonishing similarity in their beliefs, methods, and attitudes and the keys to their success with students from first grade to the graduate level. Ranging from a woodworking instructor in a wealthy suburban school to an inner-city history teacher to a professor of space engineering, the teachers profiled here share a fundamental belief in putting choice and responsibility in the hands of their students, no matter what their age. Macrorie includes, in addition to the interviews, a summary chapter listing 43 items these teachers claim help learners to do "good works." Finally, in an "Open Letter About Schools," he explores the notion that schools have developed, often unwittingly, traditions that run counter to the way these educators work; he discusses the obstacles they face, from both within the system and without. Twenty Teachers offers insights that will enable others to inspire learning in their students and voices a new and challenging view of today's educational system.
Physical Education, Elementary School
Authors: Werner Randy
Published: November 2020

I was always in athletics. I looked up to P.E. teachers and coaches, and they helped me tremendously. One of those was Coach Frank DeFelice of the high school in Swampscott, Massachusetts. In junior high I was an active kid—a discipline problem, I guess you’d have called me. Coach DeFelice was very disciplinary, but warm. I trusted him. I still do, just phoned him last week. I keep in touch with him regularly. He’s straight with people, no bullshit. He had a way of approaching things that was simple, basic. I didn’t get along well with women teachers, and DeFelice, while talking about me with an administrator, just said, “Well, if that’s true, just give him men teachers.” When I was in fourth and fifth grade, I was uncoordinated. Then in junior high and high school I became a jock. Eight or nine out of a hundred kids would get selected—jocks who got special privileges. In college I began to think about that, and remembered Fred, who was a wonderful guy but didn’t play sports. We jocks stuck together and never mingled with other people, so I never got to know him as well as I should have. And I thought, what if I have children? Will one of my kids be like Fred—outcast because he or she’s not good in competitive athletics? In high school you can expect that the competitive system will begin operating, but should kids seven and eight years olds have coaches yellin’ at ’em? Where I went to school for three months and taught for three months, in Brookline, I was teaching kids K through Five and I found that I loved those kids. I love children. I’ve got a three-month-old boy now, and I expect to have a lot of children in and out of our front door in the next few years. I guess I began teaching in the conventional way. The kids were so enthusiastic—about everything, even the way I talked, the way I walked.
Mathematics, College
Authors: Barker Bill
Published: November 2020

In my own undergraduate experience I took so many courses as a student where I sat in class writing as fast as I could to get the material down—I wasn’t talking at all—I wrote it down in order to take it back to my room and work on it. That doesn’t seem like a human way to utilize a classroom. I didn’t get as much out of undergraduate studies as I should have. I was getting A’s in my math courses and hence assumed I was learning all that was necessary at the time. I memorized too much for exams and remembered too little afterwards. That’s why I can’t forget Bill Transue at Ohio State. Students called him “Smiling Bill.” A gentle man, he taught a two-term class in “Topology and Functional Analysis.” He didn’t use the standard lecture mode, but made us students learn from each other. Every day he would assign a section of the text along with the corresponding problems. The next day he would ask us, “Which ones did you get?” He took your word for that, and then he’d ask a person to go to the board and present one of those problems he thought he had solved. Transue sat in the back, smoking his ever-present pipe, and didn’t say much. Maybe someone in class would find errors or misdirections. When Transue found something wrong, he never announced it in a way that put a student down. He was a good teacher, who got us to do our best work, and a good mathematician himself. But I must also mention Allan Ziebur, with whom I had five courses. He was a man of incredible energy and great warmth. He had, and still has, a broad grin that could disarm Attila the Hun. He used to love standing in front of his 8 A.M. class (he always taught at 8 A.M.), his eyes twinkling, and exclaim that it was a wonderful day and he would give anyone of us an A if we would blow up the smokestack down the road that was polluting the air and ruining the view.
Reading, Elementary School
Authors: Milz Vera
Published: November 2020

As a beginning teacher in the early 1960s, I went into a school district where a basal reading text was handed me. It was Dick, Jane, and Sally. The old “Look, look! Run, run! See, see!” In workbooks the children were to search a page for the words they saw starting with “b.” I was comfortable the first year trying things out, but by the third year of teaching I could see that the program just didn’t meet the needs of all my children, and I was going over things that some of them already knew. So I began to explore other alternatives. I went to lectures at nearby Oakland University. Quite a few reading experts came there from different parts of the country. Bill Martin was one of them. He was the author of the Little Owl books and collections of stories and poems in books and on tapes. Martin had one selection called Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? that first graders absolutely loved. Even twenty years later, it’s still one of their favorites. They would pick up that rhyme and begin to read, “Brown bear, brown bear, what do you see?” “I see a red bird looking at me.” In their own writing at Hallowe’en it became “Orange pumpkin, orange pumpkin, what do you see?” “I see a white ghost looking at me.” One year a mother came in with a little boy from Lebanon who spoke just Arabic and French. He was afraid to try English words in front of us. A couple weeks later his mother and aunt came in and said, “What’s this brown bear?” The boy had come home chanting the lines. In class I noticed that he was really looking at the words in the book while he listened to Bill Martin say them on tape. Another person I learned from at that time was Roach Van Allen, from the University of Arizona. He came in and talked about children writing their own books, and then learning to read them. He also suggested having the children talk about a common experience, which could be written down by the teacher.
Private Choice and Public Policy in Nonprofit Education
Authors: Levy Daniel C.
Published: November 2020

As several other volumes in this series on nonprofit organizations help us appreciate the importance of the private nonprofit sector in U.S. society, economics, and politics, we surely must recognize the weight of education within that sector. Quantitative profiles of the nonprofit sector are still sketchy, but the best figures show that education is one of the big four arenas of nonprofit activity, along with health, social services, and religious organizations, and perhaps (with health) even one of the big two. Data on salaried employees are illustrative. Private education’s total of more than one million puts it second behind health within a nonprofit sector that accounts for 8% (and growing) of these employees. And yet, even such figures give very conservative estimates of the significance of the nonprofit sector generally, and education in particular. For one thing, institutions such as private schools often rely heavily on voluntary work. More important, these institutions obviously serve many millions more than they employ. Turning to education alone, enrollment figures give an idea of the private nonprofit sector’s size. (By “schools” we will mean primary and secondary schools; see note 11.) As Erickson’s chapter reports, private schools hold at least 10% of total school enrollments, their more than five million students spread out over roughly 18% of the total system’s schools. And Geiger’s chapter reports that the private share is even more impressive at the higher-education level. There, the more than two million private students account for roughly 22% of total enrollments, distributed over roughly half the system’s institutions. Yet most observers of private education, including the two just cited, would argue that such numbers understate its significance. This significance derives from offering something different from the public sector, something often thought superior and influential, but something at least desired and supported by a substantial number of actors. In any case, behind such figures lies an intricate maze of private choices, made by students, their families, and others, as well as an intricate maze of public policies, at once responding to and shaping those private choices.
Comparisons of Private and Public Schools: What Can We Learn?
Authors: Murnane Richard J.
Published: November 2020

The previous chapter argues that comparisons of the performance of public and private schools can be misleading. This chapter examines in detail recent research providing such comparisons with the goal of clarifying what lessons can be drawn. The chapter also explains why the recent comparisons have puzzled, and in some cases infuriated, many public school educators. I begin by providing background on the best known of the recent studies. On April 7, 1981, at a conference attended by more than four hundred educators and the press, James Coleman announced the findings of research that he had conducted with Thomas Hoffer and Sally Kilgore on public and private high schools in the United States. Their principal finding was that Catholic schools and non-Catholic private schools are more effective in helping students to acquire cognitive skills than public schools are. Coming at a time of widespread criticism of public education and presidential support for tuition tax credits for families that use private schools, this finding was widely reported in the press and evoked a range of spirited reactions. Critics and supporters responded to Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore’s (henceforth CHK) work with articles and editorials with lively titles such as: “Coleman Goes Private (in Public),” “Lessons for the Public Schools,” “Coleman’s Bad Report,” and “Private Schools Win a Public Vote.” Over the succeeding months CHK’s work remained visible as critiques of their research and reanalyses of the data they used appeared in a variety of journals, in some cases accompanied by lengthy responses by CHK. Another wave of interest was sparked by the publication and subsequent reviews of CHK’s High School Achievement: Public, Catholic, and Private Schools Compared, in which they presented their final research findings. As a result of the wide range of responses to CHK’s work and the numerous symposia in which CHK have debated their critics in print, there is now ample material available to any reader interested in forming a judgment about the quality of the research that produced their main conclusion.
Alternative Private-Public Blends in Higher-Education Finance: International Patterns
Authors: Levy Daniel C.
Published: November 2020

Several of the preceding pieces in this volume have analyzed policy debates concerning the financing of school systems. The policy debates are no less intense when the focus turns to higher education. Many arguments run in parallel fashion between educational levels. Some differ by matters of degree, while others differ fundamentally. Whatever the parallels in argumentation, there are striking differences in actual practice between levels. In the United States, private schools depend much more on private finance than private higher education does, while public schools depend much more exclusively on public finance than public higher education does. The panorama appears to be different in many other nations that have both private and public sectors. Their private schools seem more likely than private universities to receive public funds and their public universities seem nearly as likely as public schools to depend almost exclusively on public funds. In U.S. higher education there is considerable debate concerning the appropriate blend of private and public financing for each sector. The problem has become especially acute as enrollments decline, federal and state governments seek to cut costs, and concern spreads about higher education's equity effects in serving privileged groups out of general revenues. There is a good deal of reference to different economic theories, social values, and political constraints. But there is almost no consideration of how policymakers elsewhere have approached the problem. Of course, financial policy outside the United States is made within private-public parameters that are different from those faced by U.S. policymakers, but cross-national comparisons may help stimulate, or even orient, crossstate comparisons within the United States. More importantly, cross-national experience could at least help put our policy choices into perspective. For example, few in the United States support either 100% private or 100% public funding. An economic theory that tends to favor private over public funding may simply tell us to increase our present private share if that share is “low.”
Medical Schools, 1860–1900
Authors: Rothstein William G.
Published: November 2020

During the last half of the nineteenth century, medical schools grew significantly in number and enrollments, as did all institutions of higher education. Many medical schools added optional fall and spring sessions to compete with the private courses and provide additional training for their students. Faculty members were appointed in the clinical specialties, which led to the expansion of the curriculum to include courses in the specialties and the replacement of the repetitive course with a graded one. After the Civil War, enrollments in higher education grew significantly, especially in professional schools. The number of students enrolled in all institutions of higher education increased from 32,000 in 1860 to 256,000 in 1900. The 1860 enrollments, which consisted almost entirely of men, comprised 3.1 percent of the white male population between 18 and 21 years of age. The 1900 enrollments, which included many women in colleges and normal schools, comprised 5.0 percent of the white male and female population between 18 and 21 years of age. In 1860, 51 percent of the students were enrolled in colleges and universities, 44 percent in medical, law, and theological schools, and 6 percent in normal schools. In 1900, 41 percent were enrolled in colleges, 33 percent in professional schools, and 27 percent in normal schools. A higher standard of living and greater access to education led many students to enter college directly from secondary school, according to a study of 20,000 graduates of 11 well-established colleges. The study found that the median age at graduation, between 22 and 23 years, changed very little between the late eighteenth century and 1900, but that the range of ages became smaller over the period. This indicated that students had more preliminary education and were less likely to delay attending college. The admission standards of the colleges remained low. Most did not require a high school diploma. Entrance requirements included Latin and mathematics, plus Greek for admission to the classical course. Equivalents were widely accepted. Most students did not meet even these requirements.
Medical School Research
Authors: Rothstein William G.
Published: November 2020

Research in medical schools developed after World War I with specific projects funded by foundations, firms, and industries. After World War II, medical schools greatly expanded their research activities with funding from the federal government. Medical school researchers became the most important performers of research funded by the National Institutes of Health, which delegated most of its responsibility for setting research policy to academic medical researchers. Both basic science and clinical research in medical schools has been directed toward an understanding of biological processes rather than the prevention and treatment of disease. Medical school research has become a specialized activity separate from other medical school activities. Research in medical schools began in earnest after 1900 with the employment of full-time faculty members. The quantity of research was limited and the quality did not meet European standards. Erwin Chargaff reminisced that when he came to the United States in 1928, “I found a scientifically underdeveloped country dominated by an unhurried, good-natured, second-rateness. European scientists who visited the country at that time were attracted by the feeling of freedom generated by the wide open spaces and even more by the then very pleasant aroma of the dollar.” Research was at first funded from medical school endowments and grants from a few major foundations, such as the Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Foundation. By the mid-1930s, about 20 private foundations had a major interest in health and spent a total of about $7 million annually for medical research and medical education. About this time also, the American Foundation for Mental Hygiene, the American Cancer Society, the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, and other health-related associations began to fund research related to their interests. Private firms also sponsored research with direct commercial applications. In return, they used the names of the medical schools in advertisements as providing “scientific” data to support their claims. By 1940, research had become a measurable factor in medical school budgets. In that year Deitrick and Berson found that 59 of the 77 medical schools spent $3.2 million on research: 22 public medical schools spent 8.9 percent of their combined budgets of $9.5 million on research, and 37 private medical schools spent 13.0 percent of their budgets of $17.8 million on research.
Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
Authors: Kobayashi Shiro , Oh Soo-Ik , Altan Taylan
Published: November 2020

The application of computer-aided design and manufacturing techniques is becoming essential in modern metal-forming technology. Thus process modeling for the determination of deformation mechanics has been a major concern in research . In light of these developments, the finite element method--a technique by which an object is decomposed into pieces and treated as isolated, interacting sections--has steadily assumed increased importance. This volume addresses advances in modern metal-forming technology, computer-aided design and engineering, and the finite element method.
Introduction
Authors: Kobayashi Shiro , Oh Soo-Ik , Altan Taylan
Published: November 2020

In the late 1970s and early 1980s the use of computer-aided techniques (computer-aided engineering, design, and manufacturing) in the metal-forming industry increased considerably. The trend seems to be toward ever wider application of this technology for process simulation and process design. A goal in manufacturing research and development is to determine the optimum means of producing sound products. The optimization criteria may vary, depending on product requirements, but establishing an appropriate criterion requires thorough understanding of manufacturing processes. In metal-forming technology, proper design and control requires, among other things, the determination of deformation mechanics involved in the processes. Without the knowledge of the influences of variables such as friction conditions, material properties, and workpiece geometry on the process mechanics, it would not be possible to design the dies and the equipment adequately, or to predict and prevent the occurrence of defects. Thus, process modeling for computer simulation has been a major concern in modern metal-forming technology. Figure 1.1. indicates the role of process modeling in some detail. In the past a number of approximate methods of analysis have been developed and applied to various forming processes. The methods most well known are the slab method, the slip-line field method, the visioplasticity method, upper- (and lower-) bound techniques, Hill’s general method, and, more recently, the finite-element method (FEM). In the slab method, the workpiece being deformed is decomposed in several slabs. For each slab, simplifying assumptions are made mainly with respect to stress distributions. The resulting approximate equilibrium equations are solved with imposition of stress compatibility between slabs and boundary tractions. The final result is a reasonable load prediction with an approximate stress distribution. The slip-line field method is used in plane strain for perfectly plastic materials (constant yield stress) and uses the hyperbolic properties that the stress equations have in such cases. The construction of slip-line fields, although producing an “exact” stress distribution, is still quite limited in predicting results that give good correlations with experimental work. From the stress distributions, velocity fields can be calculated through plasticity equations.
Plasticity and Viscoplasticity
Authors: Kobayashi Shiro , Oh Soo-Ik , Altan Taylan
Published: November 2020

The theory of plasticity describes the mechanics of deformation in plastically deforming solids, and, as applied to metals and alloys, it is based on experimental studies of the relations between stresses and strains under simple loading conditions. The theory described here assumes the ideal plastic body for which the Bauschinger effect and size effects are neglected. The theory also is valid only at temperatures for which recovery, creep, and thermal phenomena can be neglected. The basic theory of classical plasticity is described by Hill, and also in References, in addition to the books listed in Chap. 1. A concise description of the general plasticity theory necessary for metal forming is given in the book by Johnson et al.. In this chapter, certain important aspects of the theory are presented in order to elucidate the developments of the finite-element solutions of metal-forming problems discussed in this book. First, various measures of stress and strain are introduced. Then, the governing equations for plastic deformation and principles that are the foundations for the analysis are described. The extension of the theory of plasticity to time-dependent theory of viscoplasticity is outlined in Section 4.8. Particular references are made, in Sections 4.3 through 4.7, to the books by Hill and by Johnson and Mellor, and to the section on general plasticity theory in the book by Johnson et al.. The basic quantities that may be used to describe the mechanics of deformation when a body deforms from one configuration to another under an external load are the stress, strain, and strain-rate. Various measures of these quantities are defined, depending upon how closely formulations represent actual situations. Although it is not possible to provide the complete mathematical formulations in one-dimensional deformation, these measures are introduced for the case of simple uniaxial tension. Consider the uniaxial tension test of a round specimen whose initial length is l0 and cross-sectional area is A0. The specimen is stretched in the axial direction by the force P to the length l and the cross-sectional area A at time t, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The response of the material is recorded as the load-displacement curve, and converted to the stress-strain curve as shown in the figure. The deformation is assumed to be homogeneous until necking begins.
Applications to Silicate, Carbonate, and Borate Minerals and Related Species
Authors: Tossell John A. , Vaughan David J.
Published: November 2020

The most abundant materials making up the crust of the earth (i.e., the “rock-forming minerals”) can be regarded as dominated by oxyanion units; notably, the units that can be formally represented by SiO44- and AlO45- clusters of the silicate minerals, and the CO32- unit of the carbonates. less common, but geochemically interesting, oxyanion units include, for example, BO33-, BeO46- , and PO43-. in this chapter, applications of quantum-mechanical calculations and experimental techniques to such materials are considered. first, the silicates are discussed, commencing with the large amount of work undertaken on the olivines, before considering such work as has so far been done on the other silicate minerals and related materials. second, the most important of the nonsilicate rock-forming mineral groups, the carbonates, are discussed. finally, although of less petrological importance but interesting geochemically and in terms of contrast with the othergroups, the borates and related species are considered. in each case, geometric aspects of structure and the problems of calculating structural properties are considered before going on to consider electronic structures and the factors controlling stabilities and a wider range of physical properties. in all of these materials, there is considerable interest in the, bonding in the oxyanion unit and how this is affected by, and controls, the interaction with counterions or the polymeric units. the building up of the minerals by such interactions exerts the dominant control over their crystal chemistries and properties and thus forms a central theme of this chapter. the silicate minerals are, of course, characterized by the presence of the tetrahedral siO4 cluster unit and the crystal chemistry and classification of silicates dominated by the structures built up by the linking together (polymerization) of these units. in the “simplest” of the silicates, the island silicates such as the olivine minerals (dominated by the forsterite (Mg2 SiO4)-fayalite (Fe2SiO4) solid solution series), the sio4 units are isolated by counterions such as Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+.
Why Simulate?
Authors: Walker James C. G.
Published: November 2020

Our world is a product of complex interactions among atmosphere, ocean, rocks, and life that Earth system science seeks to understand. Earth system science deals with such properties of the environment as composition and climate and populations and the ways in which they affect one another. It also concerns how these interactions caused environmental properties to change in the past and how they may change in the future. The Earth system can be studied quantitatively because its properties can be represented by numbers. At present, however, most of the numbers in Earth system science are observational rather than theoretical, and so our description of the Earth system's objective properties is much more complete than our quantitative understanding of how the system works. Quantitative theoretical understanding grows out of a simulation of the system or parts of the system and numerical experimentation with simulated systems. Simulation experiments can answer questions like What is the effect of this feature? or What would happen in that situation? Simulation also gives meaning to observations by showing how they may be related. As an illustration, consider that area of Earth system science known as global change. There is now an unambiguous observational record of global change in many important areas of the environment. For elements of climate and atmospheric composition this record is based on direct measurement over periods of a decade to a century. For other environmental variables, particularly those related to the composition of the ocean, the record of change consists of measurements of isotopic or trace-element composition of sediments deposited over millions of years. This evidence of global change is profoundly affecting our view of what the future holds in store for us and what options exist. It should also influence our understanding of how the interaction of biota and environment has changed the course of Earth history. But despite the importance of global change to our prospects for the future and our understanding of the past, the mechanisms of change are little understood. There are many speculative suggestions about the causes of change but few quantitative and convincing tests of these suggestions.
How to Calculate a Compositional History
Authors: Walker James C. G.
Published: November 2020

The most interesting theoretical problems in Earth system science cannot be solved by analytical methods; their solutions cannot be expressed as algebraic expressions; and so numerical solutions are needed. In this chapter I shall introduce a method of numerical solution that can be applied to a wide range of simulations and yet is easy to use. In later chapters I shall elaborate and apply this method to a variety of situations. All numerical solutions of differential equations involve some degree of approximation. Derivatives—properly defined in terms of infinitesimally small increments—are approximated by finite differences: dy/dx is approximated by dely/delx, whose accuracy increases as the finite difference, delx, is reduced. A large value of delx may even cause numerical instability, yielding a numerical solution that is altogether different from the true solution of the original system of differential equations. But a small value of delx generally implies that many steps must be taken to evolve the solution from a starting value of x to a finishing value. A numerical solution, therefore, requires a trade-off between computational speed and accuracy. We seek an efficient and stable method of calculation that provides accuracy appropriate to our knowledge of the physical system being simulated. The problem described in this chapter can be easily solved analytically, and the analytical solution serves as a check on the accuracy of the numerical solutions. As a simple example of a global geochemical simulation, consider the exchange of carbon dioxide between the ocean and the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains 5.6 × 1016 moles of carbon dioxide (cf. Walker, 1977), a quantity that I assume to be in equilibrium with the ocean. In this illustration I assume that the oceanic reservoir is very large and therefore does not change with time. According to Broecker and Peng (1982, p. 680) the annual exchange of carbon dioxide between ocean and atmosphere is 6.5 × 1015 moles. The rate of transfer from atmosphere to ocean is proportional to the amount in the atmosphere; the flow from ocean to atmosphere is constant. Figure 2-1 summarizes this system. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is proportional to the partial pressure.
Climate: A Chain of Identical Reservoirs
Authors: Walker James C. G.
Published: November 2020

One class of important problems involves diffusion in a single spatial dimension, for example, height profiles of reactive constituents in a turbulently mixing atmosphere, profiles of concentration as a function of depth in the ocean or other body of water, diffusion and diagenesis within sediments, and calculation of temperatures as a function of depth or position in a variety of media. The one-dimensional diffusion problem typically yields a chain of interacting reservoirs that exchange the species of interest only with the immediately adjacent reservoirs. In the mathematical formulation of the problem, each differential equation is coupled only to adjacent differential equations and not to more distant ones. Substantial economies of computation can therefore be achieved, making it possible to deal with a larger number of reservoirs and corresponding differential equations. In this chapter I shall explain how to solve a one-dimensional diffusion problem efficiently, performing only the necessary calculations. The example I shall use is the calculation of the zonally averaged temperature of the surface of the Earth (that is, the temperature averaged over all longitudes as a function of latitude). I first present an energy balance climate model that calculates zonally averaged temperatures as a function of latitude in terms of the absorption of solar energy, which is a function of latitude, the emission of long-wave planetary radiation to space, which is a function of temperature, and the transport of heat from one latitude to another. This heat transport is represented as a diffusive process, dependent on the temperature gradient or the difference between temperatures in adjacent latitude bands. I use the energy balance climate model first to calculate annual average temperature as a function of latitude, comparing the calculated results with observed values and tuning the simulation by adjusting the diffusion parameter that describes the transport of energy between latitudes. I then show that most of the elements of the sleq array for this problem are zero. Nonzero elements are present only on the diagonal and immediately adjacent to the diagonal. The array has this property because each differential equation for temperature in a latitude band is coupled only to temperatures in the adjacent latitude bands.
Interacting Species in Identical Reservoirs
Authors: Walker James C. G.
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 7 I showed how much computational effort could be avoided in a system consisting of a chain of identical equations each coupled just to its neighboring equations. Such systems arise in linear diffusion and heat conduction problems. It is possible to save computational effort because the sleq array that describes the system of simultaneous linear algebraic equations that must be solved has elements different from zero on and immediately adjacent to the diagonal only. This general approach works also for one-dimensional diffusion problems involving several interacting species. In such a system the concentration of a particular species in a particular reservoir is coupled to the concentrations of other species in the same reservoir by reactions between species and is coupled also to adjacent reservoirs by transport between reservoirs. If the differential equations that describe such a system are arranged in appropriate order, with the equations for each species in a given reservoir followed by the equations for each species in the next reservoir and so on, the sleq array still will have elements different from zero close to the diagonal only. All the nonzero elements lie no farther from the diagonal than the number of species. More distant elements are zero. Again, much computation can be eliminated by taking advantage of this pattern. I will show how to solve such a system in this chapter, introducing two new solution subroutines, GAUSSND and SLOPERND, to replace GAUSSD and SLOPERD. I shall apply the new method of solution to a problem of early diagenesis in carbonate sediments. I calculate the properties of the pore fluid in the sediment as a function of depth and time. The different reservoirs are successive layers of sediment at increasing depth. The fluid's composition is affected by diffusion between sedimentary layers and between the top layer and the overlying seawater, the oxidation of organic carbon, and the dissolution or precipitation of calcium carbonate. Because I assume that the rate of oxidation of organic carbon decreases exponentially with increasing depth, there must be more chemical activity at shallow depths in the sediment than at great depths.
The Unprovability of Consistency
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M.
Published: November 2020

Gödel’s second incompleteness theorem, roughly stated, is that if Peano Arithmetic is consistent, then it cannot prove its own consistency. The theorem has been generalized and abstracted in various ways and this has led to the notion of a provability predicate, which plays a fundamental role in much modern metamathematical research. To this notion we now turn. A formula P(v1) is called a provability predicate for S if for all sentences X and Y the following three conditions hold: Suppose now P(v1) is a Σ1-formula that expresses the set P of the system P.A. Under the assumption of ω-consistency, P(v1) represents P in P.A. Under the weaker assumption of simple consistency, all that follows is that P(v1) represents some superset of P, but that is enough to imply that if X is provable in P.A., then so is P (x̄).
Later Pattern Formations Morphogenesis
Authors: Thomson Keith Stewart
Published: November 2020

The early phases of pattern formation, as described in the two previous chapters, set the stage for all that follows—for the whole grand sweep of morphogenesis by which the phenotype is created. Right from the oocyte stage there is an ordering of the embryo, both in the sense of spatial patterning and in the sense of setting in place the components of developmental processes. As pattern formation continues, particularly in “regulative” embryos, the ordering of the embryo becomes more and more specific. A point is reached that is quite impossible to define but nonetheless real, when the embryo is set up in such a way that all the components are in place. At least, everything has been specified. Such an embryo, for example the amphibian neurula, may look very little like the final phenotype, but from this point onward morphogenesis represents a working out of potentials that have already been established. All the basic morphogenetic information is in place. Morphogenesis is both simple and complex. It is simple because relatively few processes will be involved. It is complex because of the diversity of cell and tissue types that is involved, because of the subtlety of control of differentiation and even size and shape in organogenesis, and because of the complexity of both embryonic and subsequent adult function. Finally, it is complex because of the interactivity and “wholeness” of the developing embryo as well as the multiplicity of the parts making up that whole. It is with the simplicity of morphogenetic processes, the relatively small number of cell and tissue-level processes involved (processes that are common to all morphogenetic systems), that we will be concerned first. In order to understand both the basic rules of development and the way in which they relate to mechanisms for the introduction of evolutionarily significant phenotypic variation (Chapter 2), we must understand first these common processes of morphogenesis, and the way in which they operate under the rules and mechanisms of pattern control discussed in the previous chapters. Morphogenesis involves a relatively small number of phenomena characteristic of all cells and tissues, and their relation to features of the extracellular environment.
Introduction
Authors: Lowenstam Heinz A. , Weiner Stephen
Published: November 2020

Biomineralization refers to the processes by which organisms form minerals. It is, therefore, by definition a true multidisciplinary field that spans both the inorganic and the organic world. Although the vast majority of organisms do not form mineralized deposits, the phenomenon is still extremely widespread. All five kingdoms contain members that mineralize and these are distributed among no less that 55 phyla. These organisms are capable of forming some 60 different minerals and it is patently clear that the true diversity of the field is still far from having been ascertained. Some biogenic minerals are formed on such a huge scale in the biosphere that they have a major impact on ocean chemistry and are important components of marine sediments and ultimately of many sedimentary rocks as well. One of the functions of biogenic minerals is to provide mechanical strength to skeletal hard parts and teeth. The resultant materials often have remarkable mechanical properties and are of interest in their own right. When organisms evolved the ability to form mineralized hard parts, they provided themselves with a major adaptational advantage and their durable skeletons constituted the basis for a more complete record of life on earth in the form of their fossilized skeletal remains. The vertebrate skeleton, in particular, fulfills a variety of functions and this brings with it a multitude of health-related problems that plague our own species, such as dental caries, bone fractures, mineral loss from bone, and kidney stones. Biomineralization, therefore, is an unusual field in that it lies at the center of many other disciplines. Figure 1.1 is an imaginary wheel showing on its rim some of the disciplines that overlap the field of biomineralization. There are many scientists in each of these disciplines who have more than a passing interest in biomineralization and one objective of this book is to provide them with easier access to the field. The center of the wheel contains a partial list of some of the fields within biology and chemistry that have a major contribution to make toward a more complete understanding of the processes involved in biomineralization.
Some Nonskeletal Functions in Biomineralization
Authors: Lowenstam Heinz A. , Weiner Stephen
Published: November 2020

The functions of mineralized hard parts are often self-evident. In many of the tables throughout the book we note the assigned or very often assumed functions of many different mineralized bodies. Often, however, assumed functions do not stand up to closer examination. A good example is the study of the cells of the hepatopancreas of gastropods (Howard et al. 1981). These glands have numerous cells containing intracellular mineralized granules. It was generally assumed that they all functioned as transient storage sites for calcium ions, until it was found that a subpopulation forms granules of a different type, which are used for heavy metal detoxification. Granules can be used in other ways as well. Certain polychaete worms, for example, strengthen their muscles by packing them with granules (Gibbs and Bryan 1984). Spicules are also commonly formed by many organisms and their functions are often not understood. They tend to have elaborate morphologies and mineralogies that are species specific, implying that they do perform specialized functions. These are just a few of many examples in which the functions of mineralized bodies still need to be determined. In this chapter we describe four different cases in which the functions are fairly well established. They have been investigated in some detail and, thus, provide good guidelines as to the various approaches by which function can be investigated. Some gravity receptors have been closely examined with respect to neuroanatomy and function, but not with respect to the specific adaptations of structure and mineralogy of the ubiquitous “heavy bodies.” Studies of biologic magnetic field receptors, in contrast, have focused on the mineral, and virtually nothing is known about the neuroanatomy. The molecular structure of the iron storage molecule ferritin is known with a resolution of a few Angstroms. Ferritin provides us with a glimpse of the insights that can be gained into function from such detailed structural information. Finally, some studies on the control of proteins on ice crystal formation represent the first application of the powerful techniques of molecular biology to determining function in biomineralization. These are undoubtedly the forerunners of many function-oriented studies using molecular biological techniques.
Society and the Profession, 1958–83
Authors: Lauter Paul
Published: November 2020

When I was asked to write about the impact of society on our profession over the last twenty-five years, it occurred to me that the period also measures my own lifetime as a professional. I took up full-time teaching in 1957, the year before I received my doctorate. I gave my first paper at a Modern Language Association convention around that time, participated in producing two sons, and published my first article. I left one job, joined in antinuke, anti-ROTC, and prounion activities, and got fired from the second job. I remember complaining to my graduate school director, en route to a third job, how painfully remote upstate New York seemed from everything I valued. Said he, flatly, “You can publish your way out of any place.” Perhaps that was so, then; certainly I acted on that instruction. But I never really put it to the test, for somehow my career swerved that splinter and never returned quite to the groove. In 1963 I went to work for the Quakers, promoting peace studies and learning about political economy. Then, in 1964, I traveled to Mississippi to teach in Freedom Schools and discovered the profound limitations of my graduate school education. With deliberation, among a group of my students from Smith, I went off to jail in Montgomery. Later, as the peace movement brought the war home, I was provided with a more impromptu visit to the Baltimore pokey after trying to protect a Vietnam vet from an outraged policeman. For a number of years I sported a little red button that said “A free university in a free society”—an idea on the basis of which I tried to conduct my life. In due course, I became an active feminist, involved in efforts, like The Feminist Press, to change education and thus society. That pattern of life was not, of course, precisely typical of members of our profession— though more people than we now acknowledge participated in it one way or another. I speak of my life because it reflected, in a sense became a vehicle of, the forces for social change I am to write about here.
Reconstructing American Literature: Curricular Issues
Authors: Lauter Paul
Published: November 2020

Next to where I type, I have tacked up the syllabi for two American literature courses taught in the 1980s at well-known, indeed prestigious, institutions in the United States—one in California, the other in Ohio. Both are survey courses, one called “The American Literary Imagination,” the other “Life and Thought in American Literature.” One covers, in a single semester, thirty-two writers, including Philip Freneau, William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, John Greenleaf Whittier, John Crowe Ransom, and Ezra Pound; all are white and male, except for one assignment on Emily Dickinson and one poem by Marianne Moore. The other, a two-term course, includes twenty-three white male writers and Emily Dickinson. I do not want to argue that today such courses have no right to exist, for that kind of statement would engage the significant issue of academic freedom. But such courses are simply not truthful, nor professionally current. The pictures they present to students of the American literary imagination or of American life and thought are woefully incomplete and inaccurate. In the profession of literary study they represent what, in Psychology, was represented by generalizations about moral development based on interviews with a sample of white, male, college sophomores and juniors; or in History, was represented by conclusions about the “expansion” of opportunity under Jacksonian democracy when, in fact, white women's opportunities and those of black people were largely contracting. Were such courses titled “American Literature from the Perspective of ‘'Diner’” (a film set in 1958), they might have accurately represented themselves. But now, over a quarter of a century later, a large new body of scholarship has transformed the intellectual base of our profession. To be responsive to this scholarship and to present an accurate picture of the development of the literary cultures of the United States, teaching has begun to change. A number of recent volumes record such change and offer means for encouraging its systematic development. The changes in our profession I am describing are rooted in the movements for racial justice and sex equity.