bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Phonology: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Thomson Ron I.
Published: December 2012

The development of second language (L2) phonology is typically investigated either by asking human listeners to evaluate speech (e.g., Munro & Derwing, 2008), or through reference to acoustic properties associated with specific sound categories (e.g., Thomson, Nearey, & Derwing, 2009).
Plagiarism
Authors: Pecorari Diane
Published: December 2012

Plagiarism can be defined broadly as an illegitimate and deceptive intertextual relationship.
Politeness and Face Research
Authors: Bremner Stephen
Published: December 2012

Most of us have a sense of what constitutes polite behavior, and can generally recognize instances when rules of politeness are being transgressed.
Politeness in Computer‐Mediated Communication
Authors: Taleghani‐Nikazm Carmen
Published: December 2012

Computer‐mediated communication or CMC refers to a rapidly growing means of online communication through which people interact with each other by language, usually typed on a keyboard and read on a computer screen. CMC includes chat, computer messages, e‐mail, computer conferencing, forums, and online bulletin boards. Some communication modes, such as chat, computer conferencing, and computer messages, allow people to interact in real time (i.e., instant messaging), while others are rather fixed in terms of the response time. CMC has become an important part of our daily lives and participants increasingly use this medium to establish and maintain social relationships. In comparison with face‐to‐face conversation, CMC represents a modified speech exchange system where physical bodies, and paralinguistic cues such as intonation, facial expression, and gesture are not available. In the past 20 years, researchers and educators have become particularly interested in this new medium and how it influences language use. While focusing on the similarities and differences between features of ordinary conversation and online communication, these studies have analyzed and described the ways technological constraint limits the interactional resources, the linguistic choices participants make when communicating via CMC, and the ways they adapt their language to the new medium (Jones, 1995; Herring, 1996, 2002; Harrison, 2000; Schönfeldt & Golato, 2003). Some studies focused on sociological or sociolinguistic aspects such as gender, community, and identity (Jones, S. 1995; Jones, Q., 1997; Baym, 1999) in e‐mail communication (e.g., Herring, 1996), Web discussion boards, and Web chats (Baym, 1999; Herring, 1996), whereas other studies examined mainly linguistic elements of CMC and comparing the language used in CMC with oral and written forms of communication (Jones, 1997; Herring, 2001). Other groups of studies explored how CMC might be used effectively for pedagogical or business purposes (e.g., Al‐Shalawi, 2001).
Positioning in the Analysis of Discourse and Interaction
Authors: Jones Rodney H.
Published: December 2012

Positioning theory is a framework for analyzing the negotiation of identity in interaction chiefly associated with the psychologist Rom Harré, and his colleagues (Davies & Harré, 1990; Van Langenhove & Harré, 1999).
Postcolonial Studies
Authors: Talib Ismail S.
Published: December 2012

There is a certain unexplained aura that is associated with the word “postcolonial,” and trying to explain what it means results in the acknowledgment either that it has a growing open‐ended collection of meanings, or that what it means in specific contexts is banal and less complicated than what seems to be the case on the surface, and another term might do just as well.
English and the Vernaculars From a Postcolonial Perspective
Authors: Ramanathan Vaidehi
Published: December 2012

This entry offers a situated account of English and vernacular literacy practices from a postcolonial perspective.
Post‐Editing of Machine Translation
Authors: Koby Geoffrey S.
Published: December 2012

Post‐editing of machine translation is an activity in which a translator compares a source text with a translation produced by an automated process (machine translation or MT) and edits it to make it acceptable for its intended purpose. Post‐editing (PE) is a standard feature of any serious commercial MT system, and is similar to revision of human translation (HT).
Pragmatic Awareness in Second Language Learning
Authors: Takahashi Satomi
Published: December 2012

Pragmatic awareness is the recognition or knowledge of the way in which language is used to encode social meaning through conscious reflection of relationships among factors involved in pragmatic comprehension and production.
Pragmatic Competence in Multilingual Contexts
Authors: Safont Jordà Maria Pilar
Published: December 2012

Pragmatic competence is considered a main component of the global construct of communicative competence and it has been defined as “the competence in conveying and understanding communicative intent” and as “knowledge on how to perform common speech acts and speech act sets”.
Pragmatic Development in Study‐Abroad Contexts
Authors: Hassall Timothy
Published: December 2012

Study abroad, in which students spend a term or longer in the target culture while taking formal classes in language or content (or both), is the keystone of many academic programs.
Pragmatic Socialization
Authors: Li Duanduan
Published: December 2012

Pragmatic socializationis defined by Blum‐Kulka (1997) as “the ways in which children are socialized to use language in context in socially and culturally appropriate ways” (p. 3).
Pragmatics and Cognition
Authors: Escandell‐vidal Victoria
Published: December 2012

When in the mid‐1980s pragmatics (roughly, the study of the use of language in human communication) met cognitive science (the study of human mental abilities and processes, particularly those related to the management of information), a new and fruitful field was created, dealing with the mental skills and subsystems underlying our ability to communicate.
Pragmatics and Culture
Authors: Huth Thorsten
Published: December 2012

While phonology (sound system), morphology and lexis (word formation and the inventory of words), syntax (sentence formation), and semantics (meaning) describe the discrete combinatorial system underlying language, pragmatics situates that very system in social context. The following is concerned with how pragmatics provides insight into culture, defined here as the shared conventions of speaking and interaction in a given language community.
Pragmatics and Grammar
Authors: Schauer Gila A.
Published: December 2012

In his seminal publication on pragmatics, Leech argued that “grammar (the abstract formal system of language) and pragmatics (the principles of language use) are complementary domains within linguistics“ (1983, p. 4).
Pragmatics of Lingua Franca Interaction
Authors: House Juliane
Published: December 2012

This entry looks at the pragmatics of today's most important lingua franca: global English. In the first part, the concept of “lingua franca,” the nature of English as a lingua franca (ELF), and the role ELF has come to play in a globalized world are described. Second follows a review of several empirical studies on the pragmatics of ELF, and finally some conclusions are drawn.
Pragmatics of Stance
Authors: Haddington Pentti
Published: December 2012

“Pragmatics” is here understood broadly as the study of how language and talk are used in discourse and how their use is influenced by nonlinguistic factors. “Stance” refers to the ways in which speakers talk and use language to express different kinds of positions, attitudes, and feelings. Taking a stance in speech or in writing is a predominant and multifaceted feature of language use and it has been studied broadly.
Pragmatics: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Arcidiacono Francesco
Published: December 2012

Quantitative research has the goal to conceptualize the reality in terms of variables, to measure these variables, and to study the relationships between them.
Prator, Clifford
Authors: Celce‐Murcia Marianne
Published: December 2012

Clifford H. Prator (1911–93) was an exceptional administrator, a sociolinguist, a practical phonetician, and a language methodologist.
Prediction in Teaching Pronunciation
Authors: Dickerson Wayne B.
Published: December 2012

Learners and teachers of English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) take for granted that learning grammar means learning rules. They do not often think of learning rules for pronunciation. Instead, images of listening and speaking come to mind.
Priming Research
Authors: Trofimovich Pavel , McDonough Kim
Published: December 2012

Priming methods are one of the predominant experimental paradigms employed to study cognitive aspects of language learning and use. Priming methods originated in psycholinguistics, but have become increasingly common in applied linguistics over the past two decades.
Processability Theory and Teachability
Authors: Pienemann Manfred
Published: December 2012

The basic idea underlying processability theory (PT) is the following: at any stage of development the learner can produce and comprehend only those second language (L2) linguistic forms which the current state of the language processor can handle.
Professionalization of Interpreters
Authors: Furmanek Olgierda
Published: December 2012

In the last decades of the twentieth century and the first years of the twenty‐first century, the different fields of interpreting have experienced various degrees of evolution in their professional status depending on the type of interpreting and on the country, and in many cases even on the region of a particular country.
Program Evaluation
Authors: Norris John M. , Watanabe Yukiko
Published: December 2012

According to Patton (2008), “
Program evaluation
is the systematic collection of information about the activities, characteristics, and results of programs to make judgments about the program, improve or further develop program effectiveness, inform decisions about future programming, and/or increase understanding” (p. 39, emphasis in original).
Pronunciation in World Englishes
Authors: Deterding David
Published: December 2012

There are a huge number of speakers of English around the world, and many of them use varieties of English that no longer look to the speech of people in places such as the UK and the USA for their norms. This article describes the pronunciation of World Englishes.
Pronunciation Teaching Methods and Techniques
Authors: Goodwin Janet
Published: December 2012

Pronunciation teaching has traditionally focused on articulating individual consonant and vowel sounds (known as thesegmentalfeatures).
Psycholinguistic Approaches to Vocabulary
Authors: Sunderman Gretchen , Campbell Alicia
Published: December 2012

A psycholinguistic approach to vocabulary is aimed at understanding how individuals store words in their mental dictionary, how they retrieve those words, and how their level of proficiency in each language affects lexical processing. The cornerstone of psycholinguistic approaches to vocabulary is the use of behavioral methods to measure how quickly (using reaction times in milliseconds) and accurately individuals process language. The nature of the questions and the experimental tasks vary when investigating individuals at beginning stages of bilingualism (i.e., language learners) and more skilled individuals (i.e., proficient bilinguals).
Pullum, GeoffreyK.
Authors: Payne John
Published: December 2012

Geoffrey K. Pullum (1945– ) is a general linguist specializing in the study of the English language. He has published over 250 works on a wide variety of topics in theoretical and applied linguistics.
Qualitative Corpus Analysis
Authors: Hasko Victoria
Published: December 2012

Qualitative corpus analysis is a methodology for pursuing in‐depth investigations of linguistic phenomena, as grounded in the context of authentic, communicative situations that are digitally stored as language corpora and made available for access, retrieval, and analysis via computer. Researchers using qualitative corpus analysis as the methodological basis for their investigations adopt an exploratory, inductive approach to empirically based study of how the meanings and functions of linguistic forms found in the corpus interact with diverse ecological characteristics of language used for communication (speaker age, gender, level of education, and socioeconomic background; place and time of a communicative event; relationship between interlocutors; speech modality; etc.). A common belief shared by all corpus linguists is that it is important to base linguistic investigations on “real data,” that is, actual instances of oral or written communication as opposed to contrived or “made‐up” data. Unique goals of qualitative corpus analysis include facilitating computer‐aided retrieval of authentic examples of the language phenomena under investigation, interpreting these empirical data in depth, and applying the ensuing insights to a broad range of intellectual explorations in language studies. This entry summarizes the evolution of the field, outlines the methodological foundations and principles of qualitative corpus analysis, and enumerates major areas of application of the methodology.
Qualitative Language for Specific Purposes Research
Authors: Flowerdew John
Published: December 2012

The majority of the languages for specialized purposes (LSP) movement literature have been developed in the context of English.
Qualitative Literacy Research
Authors: Harman Ruth
Published: December 2012

Qualitative literacy research, developed in the fields of anthropology and sociology, is often defined as a research approach that focuses on interpretation; on how people interact with and make meaning of texts in particular social and cultural contexts.
Qualitative Research in Language Assessment
Authors: Leung Constant
Published: December 2012

Assessment research addresses a diverse range of issues including identification of disciplinary content for assessment (e.g., subject‐based concepts and knowledge in biology or English), principles of assessment, and means of charting students' knowledge and understanding.
Qualitative Research in Rhetoric and Stylistics
Authors: Tardy Christine M.
Published: December 2012

Style was considered one of the five canons of early classical rhetoric, accompanied by invention, arrangement, memory, and delivery.
Qualitative Research on Information and Communication Technology
Authors: Ware Paige , Warschauer Mark
Published: December 2012

Qualitative research on information and communication technology (ICT) covers a wide terrain, from studies examining online text comprehension
Quality in Interpreting
Authors: Barranco‐Droege Rafael , Aís Ángela Collados , Sánchez María Manuela Fernández , Becerra Olalla García , Fernández Emilia Iglesias , Macías E. Macarena Pradas , Stévaux Elisabeth
Published: December 2012

Interpreting quality is a multifaceted and complex concept resulting from a variety of communication situations and interpreting types, including conference, community, court, and signed language interpreting. It also comprises the views, motivations, and goals of the interpreters and all other stakeholders—speakers, event organizers, public institutions, trainers, and so on.
Quirk, Randolph
Authors: Mair Christian
Published: December 2012

Randolph Quirk was born on the Isle of Man in 1920. In 1939 he enrolled at University College London (UCL), to read English under Albert Hugh Smith and Norse under Raymond Wilson Chambers. Having served in World War II from 1940, he resumed his studies in 1945. On his graduation in 1947 he joined UCL's English Department as a lecturer and was subsequently awarded the degrees of MA, PhD and DLitt, all solely in the fields of medieval English and Norse. He spent a year at Yale and Michigan in the United States as a Commonwealth Fund (Harkness) Fellow in 1951–2 and moved to Durham to become a Reader (1954) and subsequently a Professor of English (1958). He returned to UCL as a Professor of English in 1960 and succeeded Albert Hugh Smith as Quain Professor in 1968. Beyond his immediate professional domain in (English) linguistics, Randolph Quirk has been active in university and academic politics, serving as vice‐chancellor of the University of London (1981–5) and president of the British Academy (1985–9). In recognition of his services, he was made a life peer (Lord Quirk of Bloomsbury) in 1994 and, as such, became an active member of the British House of Lords. The following universities have expressed their recognition of his work through the award of honorary doctorates: Aston, Bar Ilan, Bath, Brunel, Copenhagen, Durham, Essex, Glasgow, Helsinki, Leicester, Liège, London, Lund, Newcastle‐upon‐Tyne, Nijmegen, Open University, Paris, Poznan, Prague, Reading, Richmond, Salford, Sheffield, Southern California, Uppsala, and Westminster.
Rating Oral Language
Authors: Winke Paula
Published: December 2012

Assessment of oral language is useful for many purposes such as estimating proficiency growth in communicative language‐learning environments.
Rational Choice and Cost–Benefit Analyses in Language Planning
Authors: Rivers William P.
Published: December 2012

Rational choice and cost–benefit analyses of language policies and language planning efforts are a subset and consequence of the relatively recent expansion of intellectual inquiry in language planning to include microeconomic phenomena (one of which is rational choice) and macroeconomic considerations (i.e., cost–benefit analyses).
Reading and Content Area Learning
Authors: Stockdill Darin , Moje Elizabeth Birr
Published: December 2012

The demands of school‐based reading change as young people move into upper grades (i.e., sixth grade and above).
Reading and Intertextuality
Authors: Bloome David , Hong Huili
Published: December 2012

Intertextuality can be defined as the juxtaposition of two or more texts.
Multimedia Digital Engagements by Readers and Learners
Authors: Tierney Robert J.
Published: December 2012

Various researchers, theorists, and applied scholars are reinvigorating, expanding, and shifting our view of reading comprehension as they explore the nature of the meaning making within digital environments. These scholars include: social anthropologists interested in digital literacies as literacy practices and events; cultural and critical theorists intent on studying the politics of individuals and group identities; linguists including socio‐semioticians interested in the advent of language systems especially the shifts in signs via new media; cognitive psychologists interested in learning in the context of the new knowledge economies and literary theorists intrigued by discussions of author–reader–text relationships provoked by new forms of text and educators interested in the nature and role of learning.
Reading–Writing Connection
Authors: Harste Jerome C.
Published: December 2012

I have often said to teachers, “If your reading program is having problems, your writing program probably has problems too. And vice versa, if your writing program is problematic, your reading program is more than likely problematic too.” While some people may think these statements are speculative at best, what follows is an analysis of what we know about the reading–writing connection and why these statements are more fact than speculation.
Receptive Multilingualism
Authors: Bahtina Daria , Thije Jan D. ten
Published: December 2012

Receptive multilingualism refers to language constellations in which interlocutors use their own language while speaking to each other. This mode was widely applied in the Middle Ages, but linguistic constellations were transformed into monolingualism determined by nation‐state formation from the 17th to the 19th century. Mainly due to areas and countries where receptive multilingualism still flourishes, researchers have demonstrated increasing interest in the processes behind this type of multilingual communication. This entry first discusses the theoretical concept of this phenomenon and then describes historical developments, linguistic and mental characteristics, as well as current applications.
Relations Between Oral Language and Literacy
Authors: Dyson Anne Haas
Published: December 2012

One might expect oral and written language to be perceived as having an intimate relationship, born of their kinship as modes of verbal communication. Quite the opposite is the case: one mode or the other has reigned supreme. This contentious relationship is not just a matter of scholarly interest. Ultimately, views of this relationship have consequences for the formal education of children and youth.
Religion
Authors: Karmani Sohail
Published: December 2012

Of all the manifestations of human culture, language and religion are by far two of the most striking and most enduring—so much so that they are likely to feature very prominently as markers of group cultural identity, and in so doing inform our basic ideas as to how we set about defining and ordering the world.
Research Articles in English for Specific Purposes
Authors: Atkinson Dwight
Published: December 2012

The research article (RA) is the single most analyzed genre in English for specific purposes (ESP). This is understandable—it has been the main outlet for new knowledge in natural science and medicine for the past 150 years, and, in the 20th century, engineering and social science.
Research Methods and Sociocultural Approaches in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Mahn Holbrook , Reierson Shannon
Published: December 2012

Since the publication of Frawley and Lantolf's 1985 study, there has been a significant increase in second language acquisition (SLA) research using sociocultural approaches that draw from Vygotsky's theoretical framework and methodological approach.
Research on Signed Language Interpreting
Authors: Napier Jemina
Published: December 2012

As with interpreting research more generally, signed language interpreting (SLI) research is an emerging subdiscipline of translation studies.
Researcher Reflexivity
Authors: Starfield Sue
Published: December 2012

At a recent conference on discourse, one of the keynote speakers remarked during her presentation that the reviewer of a paper she had submitted for publication in an academic journal had asked for “more reflexivity.” What could this throwaway comment have meant? This entry aims to help readers think about what researcher reflexivity might mean and what the reviewer might have had in mind.
Reviving Irish From Independence to the Good Friday Peace Agreement
Authors: Flatharta Peadar Ó
Published: December 2012

This entry covers the period from the establishment of an Irish state in 1922 to the enactment of the British–Irish Agreement Act of 1999, when the Irish state agreed to restrict its sovereignty in Irish‐language matters.
Robinson,Peter
Authors: Gilabert Roger
Published: December 2012

Born in London, United Kingdom, Peter Robinson is probably best known for his empirical studies, beginning in the mid‐1990s, into the roles of attention and awareness during implicit and explicit second language learning, and the effects of task complexity on L2 learners’ production and acquisition. Throughout his work in these areas he has consistently addressed the influence of individual differences in cognitive abilities on successful learning under implicit or explicit conditions, or on different types of task. His long list of academic interests and his contributions to the field of applied linguistics through journal articles, conference presentations, book chapters, and edited and authored books have revolved around three main hypotheses that he has put forward. These are the cognition hypothesis, the aptitude complex/ability differentiation hypothesis, and the fundamental similarity hypothesis, which will be further described below.
Role of Instruction in Second Language Acquisition Theories
Authors: Williams Jessica
Published: December 2012

Although a natural relationship between theories of second language (L2) acquisition and instruction might be expected, surprisingly the connection between many theories and instruction is tenuous, or even absent. Since it is clear that the L2 often, indeed usually, proceeds in the absence of instruction, any viable theory of L2 acquisition should specify that instruction isnotnecessary. The possible role for instruction ranges from significant to helpful to no effect or, potentially, even detrimental. First, it is important to specify the target of instruction. Is it the morphosyntactic core, or does it include the L2 lexicon, phonology, and sociolinguistic rules? Second, if instruction has a role, what kind of instruction is indicated? The answer will depend, in part, on how a given theory handles the explicit–implicit knowledge interface. Teachers and researchers have long acknowledged that learners often seem to draw on knowledge they cannot articulate, and, conversely, are able to verbalize knowledge they cannot reliably use in communication. The theories below differ considerably on their acknowledgment of this interface and how they characterize it. This list of theories is by no means exhaustive; rather, it includes those that have been the most widely discussed.
Role of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Skutnabb‐Kangas Tove
Published: December 2012

Linguistic human rights (LHR) can be defined as “only those language rights . . . which are so basic for a dignified life that everybody has them because of being human; therefore, in principle no state (or individual) is allowed to violate them” (e.g., Skutnabb‐Kangas, 2008, p. 109; see Skutnabb‐Kangas, in press‐a, for a discussion of definitions). For basic presentations of LHR, including Web sites for all human rights (HR) instruments below, see Skutnabb‐Kangas, 2000, in press‐a, in press‐b).
Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction
Authors: Lyster Roy
Published: December 2012

The multifaceted roles of corrective feedback in second language instruction continue to attract the attention of both researchers and practitioners interested in how it can most effectively be integrated into classroom interaction in ways that benefit second language development. In contrast to theoretical arguments that a learner's underlying interlanguage system is affected only by positive evidence and not by negative evidence, other theoretical perspectives that run the gamut from cognitively to socially oriented suggest that corrective feedback is not only beneficial but may also be necessary for moving learners forward in their second language development. For example, a cognitive‐interactionist perspective of second language acquisition attributes a role not only to positive evidence but also to negative evidence in the form of feedback that triggers noticing of nontarget output; skill acquisition theory attributes a pivotal role to feedback in tandem with practice that leads learners from effortful to more automatic use of the second language; and sociocultural theory views feedback as other‐regulation that provides learners with dialogically negotiated assistance as they move toward more self‐regulated use of the second language.
Romaine, Suzanne
Authors: Nevalainen Terttu , Rissanen Matti
Published: December 2012

Suzanne Romaine (1951– ) has been Merton Professor of English Language at the University of Oxford since 1984.
Sampling: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Brown James Dean
Published: December 2012

Samplingis the act of choosing a smaller, more manageable subset of the objects or members of a population to include in an investigation in order to study with greater ease something about that population. In other words, sampling allows researchers to select a subset of the objects or members of a population to represent the total population. Sampling is used in language research when the objects or members (hereafter simplyobjectsormembers, but not both) of a population are so numerous that investigating all of them would be unwieldy. Such objects of study might include the total populations of all ESL learners, TOEFL examinees, essay raters, words, cohesive devices, and so on. For instance, to study the test scores of the roughly one million TOEFL examinees in a given year, a researcher might sample just 15,000. Sampling can thus increase the researcher's efficiency by minimizing the resources and effort needed to conduct the project (Brown, 2001, p. 71), while at the same time increasing the speed, scope, and accuracy of the project (as explained in Cochran, 1977, pp. 1–2).
Sapir, Edward
Authors: Gregersen Frans
Published: December 2012

Edward Sapir (1884–1939) was born in Lauenberg Pomerania, the son of Lithuanian Jews.
Schachter, Jacquelyn
Authors: Bhatia Tej K. , Ritchie William C.
Published: December 2012

Dr. Jacquelyn Schachter contributed extensively to pioneering basic research on second language acquisition (SLA) in the 1970s and 1980s as the field was becoming independent of its previous role as a subsidiary to language teaching. In addition to her research, Schachter contributed to the expansion of the field by extensive editing of volumes of collected papers, conference proceedings, and periodicals.
Science of Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Bradley David
Published: December 2012

Language policy and planning has a long history, but an explicit theoretical framework has only developed in the last 50 years. Usually the process is regarded in a unitary way, and called language planning, while the specific decisions involved are said to constitute language policy.
Scientific and Technical Translation
Authors: Wright Sue Ellen
Published: December 2012

Even as products and procedures derived from science and technology are omnipresent in the twenty‐first century, scientific and technical texts abound—from pharmaceutical inserts to wordless product assembly diagrams—designed one can assume to avoid the necessity of translation for international markets, but frequently incomprehensible in any culture.
Computer Scoring of Spoken Responses
Authors: Bernstein Jared C.
Published: December 2012

Scoring oral test responses by computer is the estimation of spoken language ability or its component skills by the operation of a computer on one or more spoken responses that are presented within an oral language test.
Rating Scales for Language Tests
Authors: Turner Carolyn E.
Published: December 2012

The interest in the quality of language ability in educational, professional, and research contexts has evolved over the last three decades.
Automated Essay Evaluation and Scoring
Authors: Burstein Jill
Published: December 2012

Automated essay scoring and evaluation technology is now used in instructional and test preparation products and in low‐ and high‐stakes standardized assessments as well as in some public school, community college, and university settings in the USA.
Second Language Acquisition of Sign Language
Authors: Woll Bencie
Published: December 2012

The recognition of sign languages (SLs) as fully grammatical languages has had as a consequence a growing interest in SLs and Deaf culture and a proliferation of SL teaching programs throughout Europe and North America.
Second Language Representation in the Brain
Authors: Abutalebi Jubin , Chang‐Smith Meiyun
Published: December 2012

Second language (L2) representation in the brain refers to the neurolinguistic and neuroscientific study of the cerebral organization of multiple languages in the human brain.
Second Language Vocabulary Attrition
Authors: Hansen Lynne
Published: December 2012

The forgetting of words is commonly experienced by learners of languages after the mother tongue.
Sejong the Great and the Creation of Hankul
Authors: Song Jae Jung
Published: December 2012

Sejong the Great (1397–1450) is regarded as the inventor of Hankul, arguably the most scientific and systematic writing system in the world.
Self‐Access and Independent Learning Centers
Authors: Reinders Hayo
Published: December 2012

Self‐access centers (SACs) are learner‐oriented language learning environments that encourage the development of learner autonomy. SACs provide materials, activities, and staff support to help learners develop the skills necessary for taking control over the content, pace, and method of their learning. SACs do not have to be physical spaces (although in practice they often are); increasingly, learning environments are being designed that either combine a physical space with an online
support
system or provide all elements of self‐access online. SACs are especially common at tertiary institutions, although they exist at all other school levels, including in primary schools.
Self‐Assessment
Authors: Luoma Sari
Published: December 2012

Self‐assessment of second or foreign‐language ability refers to the language learner's evaluation of his or her own language skills, usually in connection with a language course or as part of other forms of language assessment.
Selinker, Larry
Authors: Stallings Lynne
Published: December 2012

What I gradually realized was that no matter what we did … my Yiddish‐speaking grandmother, in the United States about 50 years …, could not be understood by her grandkids who only wanted to speak English.
Sentence and Discourse Processing in Second Language Comprehension
Authors: Roberts Leah
Published: December 2012

In applied linguistics (AL), researchers have always been concerned with second language (L2) learners' knowledge of the target language (TL), investigating the development of TL grammar, vocabulary, and phonology, for instance.
Shuy, Roger
Authors: Gaines Philip
Published: December 2012

Roger W. Shuy (1931– ) is an American linguist with specializations in dialectology, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, and forensic linguistics.
Signed Language Interpreting Profession
Authors: Napier Jemina , Goswell Della
Published: December 2012

Interpreting is an applied linguistic activity; the act of mediating between languages and cultures involves the application of linguistic knowledge across a wide range of communicative settings.
Signed Language Interpreting: Types, Settings, and Modes
Authors: Grbic Nadja
Published: December 2012

Translators, interpreters, and scholars working in the field of translation and interpreting have developed particular classifications and classification systems in the course of time.
Silence and Participation in the Language Classroom
Authors: Granger Colette A.
Published: December 2012

In many cultures silence is an accepted and valued aspect of classroom participation and learning.
Skutnabb‐Kangas, Tove
Authors: Phillipson Robert
Published: December 2012

Tove Skutnabb‐Kangas (TSK), born July 6, 1940, grew up in Finland with two mother tongues, Finnish and Swedish.
Social Influences on Second Language Speech Acquisition
Authors: Edwards Jette G. Hansen
Published: December 2012

Social influences on second language (L2) speech acquisition are external or environmental factors that impact L2 learning and use.
Societal Pragmatics
Authors: Mey Jacob L.
Published: December 2012

Given that pragmatics, by definition, is social, one could legitimately raise the question: Why is it necessary to talk about “societal pragmatics”? Implicit in this question is a preliminary assumption, which leads us to a further, more fundamental question: What do we mean by saying that pragmatics by definition is social, and why is this a “given”?
Sociocognitive Approaches to Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Atkinson Dwight
Published: December 2012

Historically, it has been assumed that second language acquisition (SLA) is a mental process, which takes place largely in isolated cognitive space (e.g., Long, 1997).
Sociocultural Theory
Authors: Lantolf James P. , Poehner Matthew E.
Published: December 2012

Vygotsky's (1926/2004) monographThe Historical Meaning of the Crisis in Psychologyis his foundational work in which he lays out the theoretical basis of his theory of culturally mediated mind, which is eventually expanded into his much better known publicationThinking and Speech(Vygotsky, 1987).
Sociolinguistic Surveys in Language Planning
Authors: Djité Paulin G.
Published: December 2012

There are a number of useful approaches to collecting data in language planning (Fishman, 1974; Kloss & McConnell, 1974–84; Haugen, 1988; Breton, 2003).
Sociolinguistics: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Grieve Jack
Published: December 2012

Variationist sociolinguistics was one of the first branches of linguistics to adopt a quantitative approach to data analysis (e.g., Fischer, 1958; Labov, 1963, 1966, 1969; Wolfram, 1969).
Spanish for Specific Purposes
Authors: Sánchez‐López Lourdes
Published: December 2012

This entry provides a general description and an overview of Spanish for specific purposes (SSP) as an emerging subdiscipline within the languages for specific purposes (LSP) framework.
Spanish Standardization
Authors: Niño‐Murcia Mercedes
Published: December 2012

A linguistic standard is an abstract model of a given real‐life language, proposing to define correct, pure, or genuine usages.
Speech Acts Research
Authors: Placencia María Elena , García Carmen
Published: December 2012

Speech acts research is, in general terms, concerned with examiningwhatpeopledowith language in interaction, such as exchange greetings, make requests, compliment, congratulate, or express sympathy to others.
Conventional Methods for Assessing Vocabulary
Authors: Read John
Published: December 2012

It is a time‐consuming process to create new assessment procedures of any kind and to validate them adequately.
Standardization in Human Language Technology
Authors: Wright Sue Ellen
Published: December 2012

The unqualified title “standardization” in the context of applied linguistics may conjure up the notion of standardizing language itself, but more commonly, language‐related standards establish guidelines, frameworks, and formats designed to create, maintain, and process language resources, such as text corpora or lexicographical and terminological databases.
Standard Setting on Language Tests
Authors: Kenyon Dorry
Published: December 2012

Standard‐setting practices are becoming common in language testing in cases where test developers and users want tolinkstudent performances on language tests to verbally defined levels of proficiency, such as the levels of the Council of Europe Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001).
Statistical Analysis of Test Results
Authors: Kunnan Antony J. , Carr Nathan T.
Published: December 2012

Statistical analysis of test results provides information to test developers and users that can be used as evidence to build an overall validity argument which supports links between the observations of performance on language tests to score interpretations, and score‐based decisions (Kane, 1992, 2006; Xi, 2008).
Status Planning
Authors: Wright Sue
Published: December 2012

Status planning concerns itself with the conscious choice of the variety(ies) that will become the official language(s) of the state, the medium of its institutions, and the means for interaction between state and citizens.
Strategies of Translation
Authors: Sun Sanjun
Published: December 2012

The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth.
Structural Equation Modeling in Language Assessment
Authors: Sawaki Yasuyo
Published: December 2012

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a multivariate statistical technique used to examine underlying relationships among observed and latent (unobservable) variables.
Study Abroad
Authors: Jackson Jane
Published: December 2012

As a consequence of globalization and the push for internationalization on campuses across the globe, we are witnessing a dramatic increase in the number of students who are studying abroad.
Language Socialization in Study Abroad
Authors: Kinginger Celeste
Published: December 2012

In research on study abroad, findings on the outcomes of student sojourns have revealed significant variation in individual achievement.
Suprasegmentals: Prosody in Conversation
Authors: Reed Beatrice Szczepek
Published: December 2012

While students of language have been interested in the relations between sounds and meaning since the very beginning of linguistic inquiry, interest in the phonology of natural conversation is a more recent phenomenon. This is the case because traditionally, language has been studied primarily as an abstract system of rules and patterns, rather than an everyday human activity.
Suprasegmentals: Rhythm
Authors: Hirata Yukari
Published: December 2012

Research in rhythm has progressed over the past 70 years involving multiple disciplines such as phonetics, phonology, psycholinguistics, first and second language acquisition, cognitive science, neuroscience, and developmental psychology.
Surveys
Authors: Wagner Elvis
Published: December 2012

Research involving the use of surveys to collect data has long been prevalent in applied linguistics.
Syllabus Design
Authors: Robinson Peter
Published: December 2012

Syllabus design involves decisions about the
units
of classroom instruction and organization, and the
order
in which they are to be taught, or organized for learners.
Systemic Functional Linguistics
Authors: Herriman Jennifer
Published: December 2012

Systemic functional linguistics (SFL;http://www.isfla.org/Systemics/index.html) was founded in the 1960s by M. A. K. Halliday, who developed the theory between the 1930s and 1950s from the work of J. R. Firth and his colleagues in London, among others (Halliday, 1967–8).
Tannen, Deborah
Authors: Gordon Cynthia
Published: December 2012

Deborah Tannen, University Professor and Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University (Washington, DC), is best known for elucidating the role of language in interpersonal relationships.
Tarone, Elaine
Authors: Swierzbin Bonnie
Published: December 2012

The most succinct summary of the applied linguistics and teaching career of Elaine Tarone (1945– ) is the title of one of her early books:
Focus on the Language Learner
. Her research and teaching career has focused on second language (L2) learners as social beings in a variety of contexts and has emphasized the effects of those contexts on both the learners' use of language and the manners in which they learn it. She is one of the leading theorists of variationist second language acquisition (SLA), which has as its fundamental premise that the form of second language learners' utterances can vary dramatically depending on the learners' perceptions of social contextual variables such as the interlocutor, task, or topic. In a variationist perspective of SLA, variability in a learner's interlanguage (IL) (e.g.,
I study grammars
vs.
I study grammar
) is not viewed as “noise” in the researcher's data or necessarily as errors for a teacher to correct; instead, variability is considered to be a potential source of new language forms appearing in the learner's IL and an indicator of transition in the language development process.
Task‐Based Learning: Cognitive Underpinnings
Authors: Robinson Peter , Gilabert Roger
Published: December 2012

Over the past thirty years, proposals for task‐based language teaching (TBLT) have drawn on a variety of claims about, and research into, the cognitive processes thought to promote successful second language acquisition (SLA).
Teacher Education for Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Hall David R.
Published: December 2012

The teaching of language for specific purposes (LSP) has a very long history, found in various forms in ancient China and in ancient Greece. A key difference between the ancient and modern teachers of LSP, however, is that the ancients were teaching language in and for a context that they themselves had already mastered.
Teacher Education for Multilingual Education
Authors: García Ofelia , Kleyn Tatyana
Published: December 2012

If, as García (2009, p. 5) states, “bilingual education isthe only wayto educate children in the twenty‐first century,” thenallteachers must be prepared both to advance the plurilingual competencies of students, as well as teach students with different home language practices and bilingual abilities.
Teaching a Second or Additional Dialect
Authors: Siegel Jeff
Published: December 2012

The term “dialect” refers to varieties of the same language that differ from each other in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar, and that are associated with particular geographic regions or social groups. The learning of a second or additional dialect is referred to here as second dialect acquisition (SDA).
Teaching a Third Language
Authors: Jessner Ulrike
Published: December 2012

In 1962 Elizabeth Peal and Wallace Lambert published an article on the cognitive advantages of bilingual children in the Montreal area (Peal & Lambert, 1962).
Teaching Culture and Intercultural Competence
Authors: Kramsch Claire
Published: December 2012

Despite the numerous definitions offered by applied linguists, many language teachers still don't know how to define culture nor how to teach it.
Teaching Grammar and Corpora
Authors: Sardinha Tony Berber
Published: December 2012

Corpora have been used in teaching grammar for nearly 25 years (Willis & Willis, 1988).
Teaching Indigenous Languages
Authors: Meek Barbra A.
Published: December 2012

In the introduction to the edited volume,Teaching Indigenous Languages, Dr. Jon Reyhner reflected that “I have written on this subject of maintaining and renewing indigenous languages before . . . but the recent work of Dr. Evangeline Parsons Yazzie and Dr. Richard Littlebear . . . has crystallized for me the centrality of this effort for the survival of indigenous peoples” (1997, p. v).
Systemic Functional Linguistic Approaches to Teaching English‐Language Learners
Authors: Gebhard Meg
Published: December 2012

This entry describes a sociocultural perspective on academic language development informed by Halliday's theory of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) (Halliday, 1996; New London Group, 1996).
Teaching Less Commonly Taught Languages
Authors: Kondo‐Brown Kimi
Published: December 2012

Less commonly taught languages (or LCTLs) is a label primarily used in the context of teaching foreign or heritage languages in the United States (USA).
Teaching Literacy
Authors: Gregory Eve
Published: December 2012

There can be few issues as contentious as the teaching of literacy in Western societies.
Learning to Read in New Writing Systems
Authors: Koda Keiko
Published: December 2012

The ultimate goal of reading is to construct text meanings based on visually presented information.
Teaching Pragmatics
Authors: Taguchi Naoko
Published: December 2012

Pragmatics, a subject within linguistics, focuses on how people perform, interpret, and respond to language functions in a social context.
Teaching Translation and Interpreting
Authors: Angelelli Claudia V.
Published: December 2012

Translation and interpreting (T&I) refers to a very specific case of language and information processing.
Teaching Vocabulary
Authors: Webb Stuart , Nation Paul
Published: December 2012

Teaching vocabulary effectively requires preparation and planning.
Teaching Writing
Authors: Manchón Rosa M.
Published: December 2012

The significance of developing the ability to express oneself in writing cannot be overestimated.
Technology and Culture
Authors: Malinowski David
Published: December 2012

Technology and culture: perhaps few words are more commonly uttered when making reference to the conditions under which language learning and teaching today take place.
Technology and Discourse Intonation
Authors: Chun Dorothy M.
Published: December 2012

One of the first applied linguists to use the term “discourse intonation” was David Brazil, who proposed a theory of how intonation contributes to the communicative value of speech in British English, based on the work of Halliday (1970).
Technology and Literacy
Authors: Murray Denise E.
Published: December 2012

For centuries, scholars and governments have both decried the introduction of new technology as a destroyer of societal values and promoted it as responsible for civilization advances. Taking a diachronic perspective on literacy‐related technologies, this entry demonstrates that such technologies are grounded in the ideologies of their contexts of use.