bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Retinoids, eye development, and maturation of visual function
Authors: Luo Tuanlian , Sakai Yasuo , Wagner Elisabeth , Dräger Ursula C.
Published: May 2006

Vitamin A is known to be critical for the beginning of eye development as well as for photoreception in the functional retina. Hardly anything, however, is known about whether retinoic acid (RA)‐regulated gene expression also plays a role in the long intervening period, during which the neurobiological retinal structure takes shape. The eye contains a highly intricate architecture of RA‐synthesizing (RALDH) and degrading (CYP26) enzymes. Whereas the RALDHs are integrated in the early molecular mechanisms through which the dorso‐ventral retina organization is established, the CYP26 enzymes are not necessary for this process and no molecular targets that match their retinal expression pattern have yet been identified. In this article we describe that CYP26 expression in the mouse is most distinctive during later stages of retina formation. Throughout development CYP26A1 degrades RA in a horizontal region that extends across the retina, but during later embryonic and postnatal retina maturation this function is reinforced by another enzyme, CYP26C1. RA applications at this stage do not affect the RALDHs but cause differential changes in CYP26 expression: Cyp26a1 is up‐regulated, but more rapidly by 9‐cis than all‐trans RA, Cyp26c1 is down‐regulated, and Cyp26b1, which is undetectable in the normal mouse retina, is strongly activated in retinal ganglion cells. The dynamic regulation in RA‐difference patterns by the CYP26 enzymes may set up spatial constellations for expression of genes involved in formation of retinal specializations for higher acuity vision, which are known to form over a prolonged period late in retina development. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol 66: 677–686, 2006
Retinoids and nonvertebrate chordate development
Authors: Fujiwara Shigeki
Published: May 2006

Retinoic acid (RA) is required for the differentiation and morphogenesis of chordate‐specific features, such as the antero‐posterior regionalization of the dorsal hollow nerve cord and neural crest cells. RA receptors (RARs) have been reported exclusively in chordates, suggesting that the acquisition of the RAR gene was important for chordate evolution. A scenario is presented here for the establishment of an RAR‐mediated developmental regulatory system during the course of chordate evolution. In the common chordate ancestor, RAR came to control the spatial expression pattern of Hox genes in the ectoderm and endoderm along the antero‐posterior axis. In these germ layers, RA was required for the differentiation of epidermal sensory neurons and the morphogenesis of pharyngeal gill slits, respectively. As the diffuse epidermal nerve net in the chordate ancestor became centralized to form the dorsal nerve cord, the epidermal Hox expression pattern was carried into the central nervous system. Because the Hox code here came to specify neuronal identity along the antero‐posterior axis, RA became inextricably linked to the antero‐posterior patterning of the chordate central nervous system. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol 66: 645–652, 2006
Giant extrinsic negative thermal expansion in vanadium pentoxide nanocrystalline films
Authors: Bahgat A. A. , Al‐Hajry A. , El‐Desoky M. M.
Published: May 2006

Vanadium pentoxide gels, V2O5·1.6H2O, give rise to xerogel layers that exhibit a preferred orientation. X‐ray diffraction of this xerogel displays the 00l peaks typical of a turbostratic stacking of the V2O5 ribbons along a direction parallel to the substrate. The distance along the c‐axis is observed from the interlayer spacing to decrease continuously with increasing temperature up to 180 °C, as observed by high‐temperature X‐ray diffraction. This contraction may be described by an extrinsic mechanism of negative thermal expansion (NTE). The coefficient of NTE as large as –1.5 × 10–3 K–1 was observed. Full recovery of the interlayer spacing is obtained after cooling the sample to room temperature in open air, where water molecules are reabsorbed, indicating that the process is reversible and the heating process can be repeated without losing NTE. The structure of the xerogel was explored further using differential scanning calorimetry as well as infrared spectroscopy. (© 2006 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
AlGaN/AlN distributed bragg reflectors for deep ultraviolet wavelengths
Authors: Moe Craig G. , Wu Yuan , Piprek Joachim , Keller Stacia , Speck James S. , DenBaars Steven P. , Emerson David
Published: May 2006

Distributed Bragg reflectors with up to 21 periods consisting of AlN and Al0.58Ga0.42N layers were grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. A periodic structure and good interface quality was verified by both transmission electron microscopy and X‐ray diffraction, and was shown to be dependent on the composition of the underlying AlGaN base layer. Reflectivities of 49.8% at 285 nm and 66.6% at 245 nm were obtained with ten period superlattices. A reflectivity of 82.8% at 278 nm was measured for a twenty period structure. (© 2006 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
The subspecies of Melanelixia fuliginosa
Authors: Laundon Jack Rodney
Published: May 2006

The delimitation of the genus Parmelia s.lat. has been a subject of controversy for the past 30 years. Originally this large group of lichens was split into smaller genera for convenience, based mainly on the colour of the thallus and the presence of marginal cilia (Hale 1974); later conidial and other vegetative characters were used (Hale 1984: 18–20). With time several quite small genera of parmelioid lichens were recognized by a number of authors (e.g. Elix 1994), whilst others, because of the sparsity of characters, continued to regard most of them as still belonging to Parmelia (Purvis et al. 1992). Recent molecular studies have ended this polarization, and an agreed classification is now being adopted (Blanco et al. 2004a, 2004b, 2005).
Post-Soviet urban households: how many income sources are enough?
Authors: AFONTSEV SERGEY A.
Published: May 2006

This article analyses the structure of and changes to the income-earning activities of Russian urban households from 1985 to 2000. An intensive diversification of income sources is observed, which indicates an engagement with every available (and individually acceptable) opportunity for paid employment, and also an intensive engagement in different types of household work. However, the growth in real income since 1999 has induced households to abandon specific types of income-earning activities, the first casualty being subsidiary agriculture, and the second labour-intensive, time-consuming types of household work. Another important change took place in gender specialization in domestic labour: though women still worked substantially more in the household than men, at the end of the period under consideration, there are signs that this gender gap has been partially bridged.
Invasive group A streptococcal infections in the San Francisco Bay area, 1989–99
Authors: PASSARO D. J. , SMITH D. S. , HETT E. C. , REINGOLD A. L. , DAILY P. , VAN BENEDEN C. A. , VUGIA D. J.
Published: May 2006

To describe the epidemiology of invasive group A streptococcal (iGAS) infections in the San Francisco Bay Area, population-based active surveillance for laboratory-confirmed iGAS was conducted by the California Emerging Infections Program in three California counties. From January 1989 to December 1999, 1415 cases of iGAS were identified. Mean iGAS incidence was 4·06/100 000 person-years and case fatality ratio was 13%, with no linear trends over time. Incidence was lowest in adolescents, was higher in men than women (4·4 vs. 3·2/100 000 person-years), and was higher in African–Americans (6·7) than in non-Hispanic (4·1) or Hispanic (3·4) Whites, Asians (2·2) or Native Americans (1·7/100 000 person-years). Injecting drug use was the riskiest underlying condition and was associated with the highest attributable risk. Cases were associated with several underlying conditions, but 23% occurred in previously healthy persons. From 1989–1999, iGAS infections in the San Francisco Bay Area became neither more common nor more deadly.
A simulation and mechanism analysis of long‐term variations at land surface over arid/semi‐arid area in north China
Authors: Lu Jianhua , Ji Jinjun
Published: May 2006

A revised version of an atmosphere‐vegetation interaction model AVIM is presented and applied to the Northeast China Transect (NECT), an ecological transect over the arid/semi‐arid area of China, to study the interaction between land surface physical processes and the physiological processes. The model reasonably simulates the physical fluxes and net primary productivity (NPP) along NECT. A 41‐year simulation along NECT reveals the following. (1) Moisture is a major factor controlling the spatial distributions and temporal variation of NPP and leaf area index (LAI) along NECT. It is found that the effect of temperature‐induced (or radiation‐induced) variation in the moisture condition of the vegetation exceeds the effect of temperature (or radiation) itself on NPP and LAI. (2) The spatial distribution of vegetation and related parameters, such as albedo and canopy resistance, is crucial to the simulated distributions or the gradients of the physical fluxes. The simulated interannual variability of surface physical fluxes is strongly related to the interannual variation of the vegetation. (3) Related to global warming, there are long‐term trends in the NPP and LAI of natural vegetation along NECT. At the early part of the growing season (April), the trends of NPP and LAI are positive mainly owing to the lengthening of growing days in April; however, the trends are negative during the summer (the main growing season) due to the unfavorable effects on the moisture condition of the vegetation by the warming.
Imaging crustal structure around the western segment of the Atotsugawa fault system, central Japan
Authors: Kato Aitaro , Kurashimo Eiji , Hirata Naoshi , Iwasaki Takaya , Iidaka Takashi
Published: May 2006

The velocity structure at the western segment of the Atotsugawa fault system is elucidated by inverting arrival times from local earthquakes and explosive sources using double‐difference tomography. Bodies with high P‐wave velocities (Vp) are imaged at depths greater than 2 km beneath surface traces of the Atotsugawa fault system. The high velocity bodies, which tilt gently to the south, markedly coincide with zones of high electrical resistivity. Quite low resistive zones at shallower depths in the vicinity of the fault correspond to bodies with low Vp and high Vp/Vs. The top of the high‐velocity bodies is deeper in the northern and southern areas than that in the center of the fault system, showing a convex upward‐shape within the Niigata‐Kobe Tectonic Zone (NKTZ). Lateral variations in upper crustal structures could partially contribute to the observed large increase in compressional strain within the NKTZ.
Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in HIV-infected patients using a microparticle agglutination test
Authors: Shankar Esaki Muthu , Kumarasamy Nagalingeswaran , Balakrishnan Pachamuthu , Vengatesan A. , Kownhar Hayath , Solomon Suniti , Rao Usha Anand
Published: May 2006

Mycoplasma pneumoniae is increasingly recognized as a common and important pathogen in community settings, and is responsible for various pulmonary and extrapulmonary conditions in the normal population. However, the seroepidemiology of acute M. pneumoniae infection in HIV-infected individuals is still unclear worldwide. This study examined the seroprevalence of antibodies to M. pneumoniae in HIV-infected patients admitted with respiratory complaints at a tertiary AIDS care centre in Chennai, India. A commercial gelatin microparticle agglutination test (Serodia-Myco II, Fujirebio) was used for the determination of antibodies against M. pneumoniae in acute serum specimens. Of the 200 HIV-infected patients with underlying pulmonary conditions tested, 34 (17 % positivity; 95 % CI 12–23 %) had antibodies specific to M. pneumoniae, while among the 40 patients with no underlying pulmonary symptoms, five (12.5 % positivity; 95 % CI 4–27 %) had evidence of anti-M. pneumoniae antibody. This shows that the incidence of M. pneumoniae seropositivity is greater in patients with underlying pulmonary complaints. Most positive titres were found in the age group 28–37 years in the symptomatic and symptom-free groups (64.7 and 60 %, respectively). The positive titres ranged from 40 to >20 480. High titres (⩾320) were found in 10 out of the 39 patients (25.6 %). This seroprevalence study reports a 16.2 % prevalence of M. pneumoniae infections in HIV-infected patients by a particle agglutination test.
Carbon dynamics in an ultra‐oligotrophic epishelf lake (Beaver Lake, Antarctica) in summer
Authors: LAYBOURN‐PARRY JOHANNA , MADAN NANETTE J. , MARSHALL WILLIAM A. , MARCHANT HARVEY J. , WRIGHT SIMON W.
Published: May 2006

1. Microbial plankton dynamics in an ultra‐oligotrophic epishelf lake (Beaver Lake, Antarctica) were investigated over an austral summer (December 2002 to January 2003). The aim was to characterise carbon cycling in an environmentally extreme lake.

2. The lake had an unusual temperature profile with peak temperatures of 1.3–1.9 °C between 20 and 25 m. Photosynthetically active radiation penetrated to the lake bottom (110 m) on occasions. The ice cover underwent marked thinning and melting during the study period.

3. Chlorophyll a concentrations were consistently low, usually below 1 μg L−1, with highest concentrations close to the lake bottom, where the photosynthetic elements showed strong autofluorescence. Mean photosynthetic nanoflagellates ranged between 34.9 × 104 L−1 ± 33.5 (23rd December) and 130.9 × 104 L−1 ± 112.3 (4th December). Highest photosynthetic activity was usually recorded below 25 m. Rates of carbon fixation varied between 0.089 μg C L−1 h−1 ± 0.002 and 0.579 μg C L−1 h−1 ± 0.156. Primary production was limited by low temperature and orthophosphate availability.

4. Mean bacterial concentration throughout the water column ranged between 9.3 × 107 L−1 ± 1.2 (23rd December) and 14.0 × 107 L−1 ± 1.8 (28th January). Bacterial production was low, less than 10% of primary production and ranged between 2.1 ng C L−1 h−1 ± 0.8 and 12 ng C L−1 h−1 ± 0.9. Highest rates coincided with times of highest primary production. On occasion dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations dropped to 20 μg L−1, probably below accurate limits of detection, suggesting that carbon substratum and phosphorus may have limited bacterial growth.

5. Heterotrophic nanoflagellates varied significantly over the summer from a mean of 26.6 × 104 L−1 ± 14.2 (23rd December) to 133.8 × 104 L−1 ± 33.5 (14th December). They imposed a significant grazing impact on the bacterioplankton, removing in excess of 100% of bacterial production in December.

6. The total organic carbon pool [DOC and particulate organic carbon (POC)] was below 600 μg L−1. The ratio of DOC : POC ranged between 0.44 : 1 and 2.8 : 1 in the upper 40 m of the water column, and 1.8 : 1 and 3.7 : 1 in the lower waters. The microbial plankton contributed 1–29% of POC, thus detrital POC made up the largest fraction of the POC pool.

7. Beaver Lake is an extreme lacustrine ecosystem where heterotrophic processes occasionally appear to be carbon limited. Significant summer ice‐melt, not seen in a previous opportunistic sampling, may be having an impact on the carbon cycle.
Effects of decadal climate change on zooplankton over the last 50 years in the western subarctic North Pacific
Authors: CHIBA SANAE , TADOKORO KAZUAKI , SUGISAKI HIROYA , SAINO TOSHIRO
Published: May 2006

Decadal‐ to multi‐decadal variations have been reported in many regional ecosystems in the North Pacific, resulting in an increasing demand to elucidate the link between long‐term climatic forcing and marine ecosystems. We detected phenological and quantitative changes in the copepod community in response to the decadal climatic variation in the western subarctic North Pacific by analyzing the extensive zooplankton collection taken since the 1950s, the Odate Collection. Copepod species were classified into five seasonal groups depending on the timing of the annual peak in abundance. The abundance of the spring community gradually increased for the period 1960–2002. The spring–summer community also showed an increasing trend in May, but a decadal oscillation pattern of quasi‐30‐year cycles in July. Phenological changes coincided with the climate regime shift in the mid‐1970s, indicated by the Pacific decadal oscillation index (PDO). After the regime shift, the timing of the peak abundance was delayed one month, from March–April to April–May, in the spring community, whereas it peaked earlier, from June–July to May–June, in the spring–summer community, resulting in an overlap of the high productivity period for the two communities in May. Wintertime cooling, followed by rapid summertime warming, was considered to be responsible for delayed initiation and early termination of the productive season after the mid‐1970s. Another phenological shift, quite different from the previous decade, was observed in the mid‐1990s, when warm winters followed by cool summers lengthened the productive season. The results suggest that climatic forcing with different decadal cycles may operate independently during winter–spring and spring–summer to create seasonal and interannual variations in hydrographic conditions; thus, combinations of these seasonal processes may determine the annual biological productivity.
Maize DBF1‐interactor protein 1 containing an R3H domain is a potential regulator of DBF1 activity in stress responses
Authors: Saleh Abdelaty , Lumbreras Victoria , Lopez Cristina , Kizis Eva Dominguez‐Puigjaner, Dimosthenis , Pagès Montserrat
Published: May 2006

The maize dehydration‐responsive element (DRE)‐binding factor, DBF1, is a member of the Apetala 2/Ethylene Response Factor transcription factors family and is involved in the regulation of the ABA‐responsive gene rab17 through the DRE in an ABA‐dependent pathway. In this study we analysed the functionality of DBF1 in abiotic stress responses and found that Arabidopsis plants over‐expressing DBF1 were more tolerant to osmotic stress than control plants. In yeast two‐hybrid analyses, DBF1 interacted with DBF1‐interactor protein 1 (DIP1), a protein containing a conserved R3H single‐strand DNA‐binding domain. Subcellular localization of DIP1 showed that the protein fusion DIP1–Red Flourescent Protein (RFP) was mainly localized in the cytoplasm. However, after co‐transformation of DBF1–GFP and DIP1–RFP, both proteins co‐localized in the nucleus. Interestingly, when the N‐terminal DBF1–GFP was co‐expressed with DIP1–RFP, both proteins co‐localized predominantly in the cytoplasmic speckles observed for N‐terminal DBF1–GFP fusion protein. These results clearly show in vivo interaction of DBF1 with DIP1 in the cell and that this interaction is necessary for the nuclear localization of DIP1 protein. Analysis of the regulatory effect of the DBF1 and DIP1 interaction on the maize rab17 promoter activity indicated that co‐transfection of DBF1 with DIP1 enhances promoter activity in the absence of ABA treatment. We suggest that the regulated association of DBF1 and DIP1 may control the levels of target gene expression during stress conditions.
Newly qualified teachers’ learning related to their use of information and communication technology: a Swedish perspective
Authors: Andersson Sven B.
Published: May 2006

This qualitative study focuses on newly qualified teachers’ use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a tool for meeting the challenges of their everyday work. The overarching aim is to investigate whether they can contribute to new knowledge about learning in ICT contexts. Theoretical points of departure concern the changeable nature of learning in situations where ways of communicating knowledge and skills are changed. The study draws upon interviews and observations. The findings show intersections picturing the new technique as partly changing the circumstances for teaching, learning and collaboration between colleagues. The new teachers’ utterances show that ICT utilisation is extensive and exhibits great variation both among female and among male participants. Boundary‐crossing changes become visible in the collaboration between more experienced teachers and those who are newly qualified, especially when they work on a common development project. However, there are relatively few teachers who bring up active ICT use in connection with pupils’ learning. Changed roles because of ICT competence raise questions about the importance of systematic ICT features within teacher education. Many of the newly qualified teachers wish they had more knowledge about ICT and related techniques. Another question is whether newly qualified teachers who show interest in using the technique can take on the role as agents of change in their active and creative use of ICT.
Tests for Long‐Run Granger Non‐Causality in Cointegrated Systems
Authors: Yamamoto Taku , Kurozumi Eiji
Published: May 2006

Abstract.  In this article, we propose a new approach to test the hypothesis of long‐run Granger non‐causality in cointegrated systems. We circumvent the problem of singularity of the covariance matrix associated with the usual Wald‐type test by proposing a generalized inverse procedure. A test for the ranks of submatrices of the cointegration matrix and its orthogonal matrix plays a vital role in our procedure. The relevant small‐sample experiments indicate that the proposed method performs reasonably well in finite samples. As empirical applications, we examine long‐run causal relations among long‐term interest rates of three nations.
The Development of a Culturally Informed, Family‐Focused Treatment for Schizophrenia
Authors: WEISMAN AMY , DUARTE EUGENIO , KONERU VAMSI , WASSERMAN STEPHANIE
Published: May 2006

With the changing demographics in the United States, there is an increasing need for psychotherapy interventions that have been tailored for and empirically evaluated with culturally diverse groups. This article discusses the development and evaluation of a family‐focused, culturally informed therapy for schizophrenia (CIT‐S) that is currently being pilot tested at the University of Miami. Case examples of CIT‐S with participating families are provided, along with a discussion of interesting and challenging cultural issues that we have encountered during the pilot phase of this treatment study
Adaptation of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy for Puerto Rican Families: A Preliminary Study
Authors: MATOS MARIBEL , TORRES ROSALIE , SANTIAGO ROCHELI , JURADO MICHELLE , RODRíGUEZ IXA
Published: May 2006

This study examines how parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT) was adapted for Puerto Rican parents of children aged 4–6 with hyperactivity and other significant behavior problems. Four steps were followed: (1) translation and preliminary adaptation of the treatment manual, (2) application of the treatment to 9 families as part of an exploratory study using repeated measures, (3) treatment revision and refinement, and (4) in‐depth interviews with parents (n=15) and clinical psychologists (n=5) from Puerto Rico who provided feedback on treatment process and components. Throughout this process, cultural elements and modifications were recommended to be incorporated into the treatment protocol. Both quantitative and qualitative results suggest that PCIT seems to be an acceptable intervention for this population, with some minor changes. Parents reported a high level of satisfaction, a significant reduction in children's externalizing behavior problems, and reduction of parenting stress and improvement in their parenting practices. Psychologists also evaluated positively the treatment protocol and recommended its use. Results from this study may inform clinicians and researchers who work with Latino families about relevant issues to be considered to promote their participation in behavioral family interventions and to enhance their acceptability and effectiveness.
Incidence rate of cervical cancer and precancerous lesions in East Azarbayjan, Iran
Authors: TABRIZI Ali Dastranj , ALIZADEH M , MELLI M Sayyah , JAFARI M , MADAREK Eos
Published: May 2006

Background:  Most of deaths from cervical cancer occur in low and medium income countries and opportunistic screening for cervical cancer does not decrease the incidence rate, thus organized mass screening is needed for control of the disease.

Methods:  Pathology reports of cervical smears, biopsies, endocervical curettings, and hysterectomy specimens were collected from 22 pathology centers in East Azarbayjan during 2003–2004. Incidence rates for low‐grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), high‐grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) and cervical carcinoma were calculated by (Incidence/Population at risk) ×100 000. At risk population for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) (between 18 and 64 years old) and invasive carcinoma of the cervix (between 30 and 64 years old) were 1 103 109 and 537 217 respectively.

Result:  The adjusted incidence rates for LSIL, HSIL and cervical carcinoma were 3.68, 1.19 and 5.11 per 100 000 women at risk, respectively.

Conclusion:  In contrast to developed countries we identified a higher incidence rate of cervical invasive cancers than preinvasive lesions, therefore, the importance and necessity of well organized mass screening in our country must be emphasized.
A Climatology of Midlatitude Continental Clouds from the ARM SGP Central Facility. Part II: Cloud Fraction and Surface Radiative Forcing
Authors: Dong Xiquan , Xi Baike , Minnis Patrick
Published: May 2006

Data collected at the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Southern Great Plains (SGP) Central Facility (SCF) are analyzed to determine the monthly and hourly variations of cloud fraction and radiative forcing between January 1997 and December 2002. Cloud fractions are estimated for total cloud cover and for single-layered low (0–3 km), middle (3–6 km), and high clouds (>6 km) using ARM SCF ground-based paired lidar–radar measurements. Shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) fluxes are derived from up- and down-looking standard precision spectral pyranometers and precision infrared radiometer measurements with uncertainties of ∼10 W m−2. The annual averages of total and single-layered low-, middle-, and high-cloud fractions are 0.49, 0.11, 0.03, and 0.17, respectively. Both total- and low-cloud amounts peak during January and February and reach a minimum during July and August; high clouds occur more frequently than other types of clouds with a peak in summer. The average annual downwelling surface SW fluxes for total and low clouds (151 and 138 W m−2, respectively) are less than those under middle and high clouds (188 and 201 W m−2, respectively), but the downwelling LW fluxes (349 and 356 W m−2) underneath total and low clouds are greater than those from middle and high clouds (337 and 333 W m−2). Low clouds produce the largest LW warming (55 W m−2) and SW cooling (−91 W m−2) effects with maximum and minimum absolute values in spring and summer, respectively. High clouds have the smallest LW warming (17 W m−2) and SW cooling (−37 W m−2) effects at the surface. All-sky SW cloud radiative forcing (CRF) decreases and LW CRF increases with increasing cloud fraction with mean slopes of −0.984 and 0.616 W m−2 %−1, respectively. Over the entire diurnal cycle, clouds deplete the amount of surface insolation more than they add to the downwelling LW flux. The calculated CRFs do not appear to be significantly affected by uncertainties in data sampling and clear-sky screening. Traditionally, cloud radiative forcing includes not only the radiative impact of the hydrometeors, but also the changes in the environment. Taken together over the ARM SCF, changes in humidity and surface albedo between clear and cloudy conditions offset ∼20% of the NET radiative forcing caused by the cloud hydrometeors alone. Variations in water vapor, on average, account for 10% and 83% of the SW and LW CRFs, respectively, in total cloud cover conditions. The error analysis further reveals that the cloud hydrometeors dominate the SW CRF, while water vapor changes are most important for LW flux changes in cloudy skies. Similar studies over other locales are encouraged where water and surface albedo changes from clear to cloudy conditions may be much different than observed over the ARM SCF.
The generation and modulation of antigen-specific memory CD8 T cell responses
Authors: Jabbari Ali , Harty John T
Published: May 2006

The immune system has adapted to effect different mechanisms to combat the multitude of potential pathogens in our environment. In particular, CD8 T cells are participants in the immune response to intracellular pathogens, which include viruses, certain types of bacteria, and protozoa. Classified as members of the adaptive immune system, antigen-specific CD8 T cells after activation eventually form a pool of memory. Memory cells have an enhanced ability to protect against subsequent infections. The generation of antigen-specific CD8 T cells, therefore, is a potential approach in the design of vaccines, especially for those pathogens in which the humoral response is insufficient to protect the host.
Regulation, Function, and Dysregulation of Endocannabinoids in Models of Adipose and β-Pancreatic Cells and in Obesity and Hyperglycemia
Authors: Matias Isabel , Gonthier Marie-Paule , Orlando Pierangelo , Martiadis Vassilis , De Petrocellis Luciano , Cervino Cristina , Petrosino Stefania , Hoareau Laurence , Festy Franck , Pasquali Renato , Roche Regis , Maj Mario , Pagotto Uberto , Monteleone Palmiero , Di Marzo Vincenzo
Published: May 2006

Context: Cannabinoid CB1 receptor blockade decreases weight and hyperinsulinemia in obese animals and humans in a way greatly independent from food intake.

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the regulation and function of the endocannabinoid system in adipocytes and pancreatic β-cells.

Design, Setting, and Patients: Mouse 3T3-F442A adipocytes and rat insulinoma RIN-m5F β-cells, pancreas and fat from mice with diet-induced obesity, visceral and sc fat from patients with body mass index equal to or greater than 30 kg/m2, and serum from normoglycemic and type 2 diabetes patients were studied.

Main Outcome Measure: Endocannabinoid enzyme and adipocyte protein expression, and endocannabinoid and insulin levels were measured.

Results: Endocannabinoids are present in adipocytes with levels peaking before differentiation, and in RIN-m5F β-cells, where they are under the negative control of insulin. Chronic treatment of adipocytes with insulin is accompanied by permanently elevated endocannabinoid signaling, whereas culturing of RIN-m5F β-cells in high glucose transforms insulin down-regulation of endocannabinoid levels into up-regulation. Epididymal fat and pancreas from mice with diet-induced obesity contain higher endocannabinoid levels than lean mice. Patients with obesity or hyperglycemia caused by type 2 diabetes exhibit higher concentrations of endocannabinoids in visceral fat or serum, respectively, than the corresponding controls. CB1 receptor stimulation increases lipid droplets and decreases adiponectin expression in adipocytes, and it increases intracellular calcium and insulin release in RIN-m5F β-cells kept in high glucose.

Conclusions: Peripheral endocannabinoid overactivity might explain why CB1 blockers cause weight-loss independent reduction of lipogenesis, of hypoadiponectinemia, and of hyperinsulinemia in obese animals and humans.
Relative Frequencies of Generalized Simulated Annealing
Authors: Hannig Jan , Chong Edwin K. P. , Kulkarni Sanjeev R.
Published: May 2006

We consider a class of nonhomogeneous Markov chains arising in simulated annealing and related stochastic search algorithms. Using only elementary first principles, we analyze the convergence and rate of convergence of the relative frequencies of visits to states in the Markov chain. We describe in detail three examples, including the standard simulated annealing algorithm, to show how our framework applies to specific stochastic search algorithms—these examples have not previously been recognized to be sufficiently similar to share common analytical grounds. Our analysis, though elementary, provides the strongest sample path convergence results to date for simulated annealing-type Markov chains. Our results serve to illustrate that by taking a purely sample path view, surprisingly strong statements can be made using only relatively elementary tools.
Sensitization of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 by the Prokineticin Receptor Agonist Bv8
Authors: Vellani Vittorio , Colucci Mariantonella , Lattanzi Roberta , Giannini Elisa , Negri Lucia , Melchiorri Pietro , McNaughton Peter A.
Published: May 2006

Small mammalian proteins called the prokineticins [prokineticin 1 (PK1) and PK2] and two corresponding G-protein-coupled receptors [prokineticin receptor 1 (PKR1) and PKR2] have been identified recently, but the physiological role of the PK/PKR system remains mostly unexplored. Bv8, a protein extracted from frog skin, is a convenient and potent agonist for both PKR1 and PKR2, and injection of Bv8in vivocauses a potent and long-lasting hyperalgesia. Here, we investigate the cellular basis of hyperalgesia caused by activation of PKRs. Bv8 caused increases in [Ca]iin a population of isolated dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, which we identified as nociceptors, or sensors for painful stimuli, from their responses to capsaicin, bradykinin, mustard oil, or proteases. Bv8 enhanced the inward current carried by the heat and capsaicin receptor, transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) via a pathway involving activation of protein kinase Cε (PKCε), because Bv8 caused translocation of PKCε to the neuronal membrane and because PKC antagonists reduced both the enhancement of current carried by TRPV1 and behavioral hyperalgesia in rodents. The neuronal population expressing PKRs consisted partly of small peptidergic neurons and partly of neurons expressing the N52 marker for myelinated fibers. Using single-cell reverse transcriptase-PCR, we found that mRNA for PKR1 was mainly expressed in small DRG neurons. Exposure to GDNF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor) inducedde novoexpression of functional receptors for Bv8 in a nonpeptidergic population of neurons. These results show that prokineticin receptors are expressed in nociceptors and cause heat hyperalgesia by sensitizing TRPV1 through activation of PKCε. The results suggest a role for prokineticins in physiological inflammation and hyperalgesia.
Regulation of ΔFosB Stability by Phosphorylation
Authors: Ulery Paula G. , Rudenko Gabby , Nestler Eric J.
Published: May 2006

The transcription factor ΔFosB (also referred to as FosB2 or FosB[short form]) is an important mediator of the long-term plasticity induced in brain by chronic exposure to several types of psychoactive stimuli, including drugs of abuse, stress, and electroconvulsive seizures. A distinct feature of ΔFosB is that, once induced, it persists in brain for relatively long periods of time in the absence of further stimulation. The mechanisms underlying this apparent stability, however, have remained unknown. Here, we demonstrate that ΔFosB is a relatively stable transcription factor, with a half-life of ∼10 h in cell culture. Furthermore, we show that ΔFosB is a phosphoprotein in brain and that phosphorylation of a highly conserved serine residue (Ser27) in ΔFosB protects it from proteasomal degradation. We provide several lines of evidence suggesting that this phosphorylation is mediated by casein kinase 2. These findings constitute the first evidence that ΔFosB is phosphorylated and demonstrate that phosphorylation contributes to its stability, which is at the core of its ability to mediate long-lasting adaptations in brain.
Catholic Schools and Bad Behavior: A Propensity Score Matching Analysis
Authors: Mocan Naci H. , Tekin Erdal
Published: May 2006

Although there is a sizeable literature on the effect of private school attendance on academic student outcomes, the number of studies that investigate the impact of school sector on non-academic outcomes is limited. Using a rich data set, we analyze the impact of Catholic school attendance on the likelihood that teenagers use or sell drugs, commit property crime, have sex, join gangs, attempt suicide, or run away from home. We employ propensity score matching methods to control for the endogeneity of school choice. Catholic school attendance reduces the propensity to use cocaine and to have sex for female students. However, it increases the propensity to use and sell drugs for male students.
Public Goods Provision and Well-Being: Empirical Evidence Consistent with the Warm Glow Theory
Authors: Videras Julio R , Owen Ann L
Published: May 2006

Using a broad multi-country sample, we find that individuals who contribute to the public good of environmental protection report higher levels of life satisfaction and happiness. We show that this result is robust to the use of an instrumental variables technique and provide several pieces of evidence that this positive relationship between contributions and well-being is due to a warm-glow motive. First, well-being does not increase proportionally with contributions, consistent with the warm-glow model that it is the act of giving that generates utility. Second, individuals who think of themselves as socially responsible derive greater satisfaction from their contribution to environmental protection as would be the case if the contribution reinforces a favorable self image. Interestingly, conforming to a social norm may be a motivation for some individuals, but the presence of this motive depends on individual attitudes towards social responsibility. Among those who express the highest level of social responsibility, conforming to the norm makes them less satisfied with life. However, individuals with a moderate level of social responsibility do report higher levels of happiness when their public goods contributions conform to societal norms.
The Death Penalty: No Evidence for Deterrence
Authors: Donohue John , Wolfers Justin J
Published: May 2006

John Donohue and Justin Wolfers argue that Gary Becker and Richard Posner are wrong to think that the death penalty deters murder: they find little empirical support for the claim. If anything, when one looks over the longest period possible (1934-2000) there is more evidence that the death penalty stimulates murder than that it deters murder.
Diabetes Reporting as a Cause of Death
Authors: McEwen Laura N. , Kim Catherine , Haan Mary , Ghosh Debashis , Lantz Paula M. , Mangione Carol M. , Safford Monika M. , Marrero David , Thompson Theodore J. , Herman William H. ,   the TRIAD Study Group*
Published: May 2006

OBJECTIVE—To determine the frequency of reporting of diabetes on death certificates of decedents with known diabetes, define factors associated with reporting of diabetes, and describe trends in reporting over time.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—Data were obtained from 11,927 participants with diabetes who were enrolled in the Translating Research Into Action for Diabetes study, a multicenter prospective observational study of diabetes care in managed care. Data on decedents (n = 540) were obtained from the National Death Index. The primary dependent variable was the presence of ICD-10 codes for diabetes on the death certificate. Covariates included age at death, sex, race/ethnicity, education, income, duration of diabetes, type of diabetes, diabetes treatment, smoking status, and number of comorbidities.

RESULTS—Diabetes was recorded on 39% of death certificates and as the underlying cause of death for 10% of decedents with diabetes. Diabetes was significantly less likely to be reported on the death certificates of decedents with diabetes dying of cancer. Predictors of recording diabetes anywhere on the death certificate included longer duration of diabetes and insulin treatment. Longer duration of diabetes, insulin treatment, and fewer comorbidities were associated with recording of diabetes as the underlying cause of death.

CONCLUSIONS—Diabetes is much more likely to be reported on the death certificates of diabetic individuals who die of cardiovascular causes. Reporting of diabetes on death certificates has been stable over time. Death certificates underestimate the prevalence of diabetes among decedents and present a biased picture of the causes of death among people with diabetes.
Depression Treatment and Satisfaction in a Multicultural Sample of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetic Patients
Authors: de Groot Mary , Pinkerman Brenda , Wagner Julie , Hockman Erin
Published: May 2006

OBJECTIVE—To assess rates of depressive symptoms, depression treatment, and satisfaction in a multicultural sample of individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—This study was conducted with a cross-sectional community-based survey design.

RESULTS—The sample (n = 221) was predominantly female (60.3%), had type 2 diabetes (75%), and was middle class with a mean (±SD) age of 54 ± 12 years. A total of 53% were white. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD) (mean 16.4 ± 11.3). Using conservative thresholds (CESD score ≥22), 25.3% of participants reported clinically significant depression. Rates of depression did not differ by ethnic group or diabetes type. The majority (76%) of depressed participants reported treatment (52% antidepressants, 63% mental health providers, 19% alternative healers, and 15% herbal remedies). African Americans were less likely to report any depression treatment, to receive antidepressant medications, or receive treatment from a mental health professional compared with whites. Participants with high depressive symptoms reported general satisfaction with depression treatment experiences.

CONCLUSIONS—High rates of depressive symptoms were observed across ethnic groups, yet significant differences in use of depression treatment existed across ethnic groups. Those seeking depression treatment reported satisfaction with a variety of depression treatment modalities. Increased depression screening and treatment may be beneficial for ethnically diverse patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
Efficacy of Benfluorex in Combination With Sulfonylurea in Type 2 Diabetic Patients
Authors: Moulin Philippe , Andre Marie , Alawi Hasan , dos Santos Lelita C. , Khalid Abdul K. , Koev Dragomir , Moore Ray , Serban Viorel , Picandet Brigitte , Francillard Marie
Published: May 2006

OBJECTIVE—The aim of this study was to demonstrate the superiority of benfluorex over placebo as an add-on therapy in type 2 diabetic patients in whom diabetes is insufficiently controlled by sulfonylurea monotherapy and who have a limitation for the use of metformin.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—Type 2 diabetic patients with HbA1c (A1C) (7–10%) who were receiving the maximum tolerated sulfonylurea dose and had a contraindication to or poor tolerance of metformin were randomly assigned (double blind) to receive benfluorex 450 mg/day (n = 165) or placebo (n = 160) for 18 weeks. The main efficacy criterion was A1C, analyzed as the change from baseline to the end of treatment using ANCOVA with baseline and country as covariates. Secondary criteria were fasting plasma glucose (FPG), insulin resistance, and plasma lipid level.

RESULTS—Both groups were similar at baseline in the intention-to-treat population. A1C significantly decreased with benfluorex from 8.34 ± 0.83 to 7.52 ± 1.04% (P < 0.001) and tended to increase with placebo from 8.33 ± 0.87 to 8.52 ± 1.36% (NS), resulting in a mean adjusted difference between groups of −1.01% (95% CI −1.26 to −0.76; P < 0.001). The target A1C (≤7%) was achieved in 34% of patients receiving benfluorex versus 12% of patients receiving placebo. Significant between-group differences in favor of benfluorex were observed for mean FPG (−1.65 mmol/l) (P < 0.001) and for homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance. Overall tolerance was similar in both groups. Serious adverse events were more frequent in the benfluorex group, without evidence of causality relationship.

CONCLUSIONS—Benfluorex as an add-on therapy was superior to placebo in lowering A1C with a between-group difference of 1% in type 2 diabetic patients whose disease was insufficiently controlled with sulfonylurea alone and in whom metformin was contraindicated or not tolerated.
Peripheral Arterial Disease and Risk of Cardiac Death in Type 2 Diabetes
Authors: Norman Paul E. , Davis Wendy A. , Bruce David G. , Davis Timothy M.E.
Published: May 2006

OBJECTIVE—The purpose of this study was to examine the natural history of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) complicating type 2 diabetes, in particular the influence of PAD on the risk of cardiac death and the adequacy of PAD risk factor management.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—The Fremantle Diabetes Study (FDS) was a prospective community-based observational study of diabetic patients recruited between 1993 and 1996. The present sample comprised the 1,294 FDS type 2 diabetic patients and a subgroup of 531 of these who had valid data at baseline and five or more subsequent consecutive annual reviews. Assessments consisted of a range of clinical and biochemical variables including the ankle/brachial index (ABI). PAD was defined as an ABI ≤0.90 at two consecutive reviews or any PAD-related lower-extremity amputation.

RESULTS—The prevalence of PAD at study entry was 13.6% and the incidence of new PAD was 3.7 per 100 patient-years. Both prevalent and incident PAD was strongly and independently associated with increasing age, systolic blood pressure, total serum cholesterol, and especially smoking. Risk factor management improved but remained suboptimal during follow-up. An ABI of ≤0.90 was independently associated with an increased risk of cardiac death of 67%.

CONCLUSIONS—Measurement of the ABI is a simple means of identifying PAD in diabetic patients. PAD is common in diabetic patients and predicts cardiac death. These data further support the role of regular screening for PAD in diabetes so that intensive management of vascular risk factors can be pursued.
Stability of Body Weight in Type 2 Diabetes
Authors: Chaudhry Zoobia W. , Gannon Mary C. , Nuttall Frank Q.
Published: May 2006

OBJECTIVE—There is a concern that an “epidemic of obesity” is occurring in Western societies. One consequence of obesity is that type 2 diabetes may develop. Presumably, a great increase in body weight would continue in people with diabetes and may be accelerated due to pharmacological treatment. In this retrospective study, we tested the hypothesis that the weight gain in a diabetic population is greater than that in the general population.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—Data were obtained from the records of 205 adult men who have attended a diabetes clinic for ≥5 years. Their weight and glycohemoglobin at the last visit were compared with the initial visit data. The subjects were categorized according to treatment modalities. The mean follow-up was 9.4 years (range 5–23).

RESULTS—For the group as a whole, the mean increase in body weight was 0.23 ± 0.2 kg/year. BMI or initial age had little effect on the rate of weight gain. Treatment regimen used did have an effect on weight change. In subjects treated with insulin, with or without oral agents, body weight increased at a rate of 0.44 ± 0.1 kg/year. In subjects treated with metformin or metformin and a sulfonylurea, there was a mean loss in weight, i.e., −0.24 ± 0.09 kg/year, and with sulfonylureas alone weight increased by 0.42 ± 0.2 kg/year.

CONCLUSIONS—The men treated with insulin alone or insulin combined with oral agents gained weight at a rate comparable with that reported for the general population, i.e., the weight gain was not extraordinary. Metformin treatment resulted in a modest loss of weight.