bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acanthocephala in fish from the Bothnian Bay, Finland
Authors: Valtonen E. Tellervo , Crompton D. W. T.
Published: March 2009

A sample of 7266 fish from 31 species was obtained from the north‐eastern Bothnian Bay, Baltic Sea, from 1975 to 1982. Twenty‐six fish species were found to be infected with seven acanthocephalan species identified as Echinorhynchus salmonis, E. bothniensis, E. borealis, E. gadi, Acanthocephalus anguillae, A. lucii and Neoechinorhynchus rutili. Acanthocephalus lucii was the only acanthocephalan not to attain sexual maturity in at least one species of fish. Fourteen new host records were found for E. bothniensis. A total of 1576 acanthocephalan infections was found; in most cases these were single species infections, but in 108 cases infections of two, and in two cases of three species were observed.

The most prominent host‐parasite relationship involved E. salmonis and Coregonus widegreni, where the total of 11 505 worms taken from 1164 fish was roughly ten times the number of any of the other acanthocephalan parasites taken from all its hosts. Echinorhynchus gadi was encountered only in Gadus morhua. The fish of the Bothnian Bay were not considered to offer an important environment for E. gadi, E. borealis or A. lucii. Acanthocephalus anguillae was common only in Leuciscus idus while the range of hosts for N. rutili was found to be broad with 15 of 18 infected fish species being genuine definitive hosts.

Larger host fish tended to be more frequently and heavily infected than smaller ones with all acanthocephalan species except for N. rutili. Female fish were usually more heavily infected than males and the frequency distributions of numbers of acanthocephalans per fish were often observed to be overdispersed. The occurrence of non‐acanthocephalan species of helminth in the alimentary tracts of 23 species of fish was recorded during the survey. On the basis of estimates of Berger‐Parker indices, acanthocephalans were considered to be dominant in seven species of fish, cestodes in 12, digeneans in three and nematodes in one host species. Observations were also made on acanthocephalans in lampreys. The relevance of some of the findings for acanthocephalan transmission and adaptation to new environments is discussed briefly.
Seasonal exploitation of amphibians by otters (Lutra lutra) in north‐east Scotland
Authors: Weber J.‐M.
Published: March 2009

The dietary importance of amphibians to otters was studied in north‐east Scotland in 1987. The proportion of amphibians identified in otter droppings varies seasonally and according to the habitat. The consumption of amphibians increases in late winter and spring while they are either hibernating or spawning. Estimations of amphibian population density at spawning sites have been carried out. There is a significant correlation between the availability of amphibians and their consumption by otters. The main amphibian species involved in the diet is the common frog, Rana temporaria (60.8%), while the common toad, Bufo bufo, represents only 1.7% of the amphibian prey.
Variability of the fast suction feeding process in Astatotilapia elegans (Teleostei: Cichlidae): a hypothesis of peripheral feedback control
Authors: Aerts Peter
Published: March 2009

Movement analysis of the ‘volume suction’ feeding type in Astarotilapia elegans suggests the existence of an inhibiting peripheral feedback control on the fast movements of the head parts, apparently triggered by the food items entering through the mouth aperture. As soon as the prey passes the mouth, rostral expansion of the buccopharyngeal cavity stops. On the basis of a mathematical model and physiological evidence, respectively, visual and chemical perception must probably be excluded as the initial stimulus of the feedback control. The simulation of the hydrodynamic characteristics of the suction flow at the level of the gape reveals sudden changes in the pressure and acceleration waves coupled to the moment of prey uptake. These fluctuations are premised to generate the triggering signal. The possibility of modulation entails re‐evaluation of the neuro‐motoric preprogamming concept.
Reproduction in the male sub‐Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus tropicalis
Authors: BESTER M. N.
Published: March 2009

The reproductive tracts of male sub‐Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus tropicalis (n= 123), taken at Gough Island (40° 20'S, 9° 54'W) between November 1977 and October 1978, were examined. The presence of spermatozoa in the epididymal tubules showed that all males ≥4 years old had reached puberty, and the marked slower increase in mean testis weight and baculum length suggested that sexual (social) maturity was approached by 8‐year‐olds. Full adulthood was attained at 10–11 years of age based on the peak in mean testis and prostate weights, and mean baculum length. Secondary sexual characteristics were only fully developed in males ≥9 years old. A significant decline in mean testosterone concentration, and in testis, epididymis and prostate weights showed that adult males were reproductively quiescent during winter from May to July when seminiferous and epididymal tubules had lowest mean diameters with no spermatozoa present. Both the mean plasma testosterone concentration and mean testis weight peaked twice during the austral summer. The first peak coincided with the breeding season, and the second peak with the moulting period when adult males were impotent. Photoperiodic cueing might explain this seasonal trend.
The effect of diet on water and energy turnover rates of four Gerbillurus species in captivity
Authors: DOWNS COLLEEN T. , PERRIN M. R.
Published: March 2009

The effects of diets differing in energy and water content on the energy turnover rates and water flux of four Gerbillurus species have been examined in the laboratory. Gerbillurus tytonis. a dune species, had higher than predicted daily energy expenditure (DEE) and high water turnover rates (WTR) for a small desert mammal. The large Gerbillurus setzeri, which occurs on gravel plains, has slightly lower than predicted DEE and lower WTR than the other gerbil species studied. The Gerbillurus species examined have DEE and WTR that are affected by the protein content and potential water yield of food eaten. The importance of diet selection for water and energy budgets are discussed as adaptive strategies employed for survival and reproduction within the southern African arid zone.
Heat transfer in elephants: thermal partitioning based on skin temperature profiles
Authors: WILLIAMS TERRIE M.
Published: March 2009

The elephant with its low surface‐to‐volume ratio presents an interesting problem concerning heat dissipation. To understand how such large mammals remain in thermal balance, we determined the major avenues of heat loss for an adult African elephant and an immature Indian elephant. Because conventional physiological measurements are difficult for these animals, the present study used a non‐invasive technique, infrared thermography, to measure skin temperatures of each elephant. Detailed surface temperature profiles and surface area measurements of each elephant were used in standard equations for convective, conductive and radiant heat transfer. Results demonstrated that heat transfer by free convection and radiation accounted for 86% of the total heat loss for the elephants at Ta= 12·6 °C. Heat transfer across the ears, an important thermal window at high ambient temperatures, represented less than 8% of the total heat loss. Surface area of the animals, and metabolic heat production calculated from total heat loss of the African elephant, scaled predictably with body mass. In contrast, the thermal conductance of the elephants (71·6 W/°C, African; 84·5 W/°C, Indian) was three to five times higher than predicted from an allometric relationship for smaller mammals. The high thermal conductance of elephants is attributed to the absence of fur and appears to counteract reduced heat transfer associated with a low surface‐to‐volume ratio.
Zooplankton associations in Zimbabwe
Authors: GREEN J.
Published: March 2009

The specific composition and diversity of the zooplankton in 18 impoundments in Zimbabwe were analysed on the basis of samples taken in July and August 1983. All the lakes lay at altitudes over 1200 m, with the highest at 2270 m.

Thirty species of Rotifera and 20 species of Crustacea were identified, but the mean numbers of species per lake were 5·7 rotifers and 4·5 crustaceans. Some records represent considerable extensions of known ranges. Daphnia laevis was the most widespread and frequently dominant crustacean, while among the rotifers Keratella cochlearis was most frequently dominant, particularly in the lakes at the upper part of the altitudinal range.

Ordination and cluster analysis of the associations revealed a group of lakes with closely interrelated similarities which could be attributed to their lying on tributaries of the same river system and receiving trout from the same hatchery. These analyses also picked out the lowest locality as the most divergent and the one showing the most typically tropical zooplankton association. Although all the lakes were well within the tropics, their altitudes seem to have excluded some of the widespread tropical African zooplankters.

The possibility that these associations could be formed by random colonization is discussed and dismissed.

The momentary species composition of these Zimbabwean zooplankton associations was similar to that given by Pennak (1957) for the world average, although the mean number of species of Copepoda was significantly lower than the world average. Comparisons with data from Brazil and Lake Maggiore indicate the need for a further geographical analysis.

A comparative study of the species diversity in impoundments of different sizes indicates that, over several orders of magnitude of area, the number of species of Ciadocera and Copepoda shows a small increase, but the number of species of Rotifera shows a much larger and more variable increase.
The diet of red‐breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) during the smolt run in N.E. Scotland: the importance of salmon (Salmo salar) smolts and parr
Authors: FELTHAM MARK J.
Published: March 2009

Salmon (Salmo salar) formed the largest proportion by mass offish found in the stomachs of red‐breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) shot during the smolt run in north‐east Scotland. Salmon parr represented approximately two‐thirds by mass of juvenile salmon eaten, whilst smolts were present in a smaller proportion than previously predicted. The median lengths of parr and smolts eaten were 70 and 115 mm, respectively; the latter being significantly smaller than the smolt population sampled during annual production estimates on the river.
The two types of cranial appendages in Giraffa camelopardalis (Mammalia, Artiodactyla)
Authors: SOLOUNIAS N. , TANG N.
Published: March 2009

The current consensus is that only one type of horn, the ossicone, exists in the giraffe and that the central or median horn is both structurally and developmentally similar to the paired parietal horns. We have shown that the paired ossicones are composites of three structures: an innermost large frontoparietal boss base, the ossicone, and outermost layers of secondary bone growth. The median hom, to which we assign the name ‘giraffacone’, is a composite of only two structures: the median frontonasal boss and the overlying secondary bone growth. In older males, secondary bone growth due to combat clashes covers the entire calvaria. In females, there is little or no such secondary bone growth over the ossicones and the rest of the skull roof. Consequently, the median horn consists only of the frontal boss. The shape of the ossicones without the secondary bone layer, as revealed in young males and females, is herein described. It is shown how a distinction can be made between the variation in shape due to secondary bone growth and the variation of the ossicone. It is apparent that ossicone shape is not as variable as previously thought. We found secondary bone growth in the horns of Palaeomeryx and in the ossicones of Giraffinae, Giraffokeryx punjabiensis, Samotherium africanum and Sivatheriinae.
Incubation of eggs of tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus
Authors: THOMPSON MICHAEL B.
Published: March 2009

Eggs of the tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus, were incubated either buried or half buried in vermiculite at constant temperatures of 15, 18, 20, 22 and 25 °C and constant water potentials between —90 and —400 kPa. Many clutches failed completely, possibly because they had been taken from females prior to proper shell development. Failed eggs were significantly smaller than successful eggs. Incubation is unsuccessful at 15 °C. Hatching success is high between 18 and 22 °C but low at 25 °C, but equally successful between 18 and 22°C. Incubation is strongly influenced by temperature, with mean incubation periods of 328 days at 18 °C, 259 days at 20 °C, 169 days at 22 °C and 150 days at 25 °C. Water potential generally has little influence on incubation time at a given temperature. Buried eggs hatch sooner than partially buried eggs at 20 °C but the large range makes significance dubious.

Eggs on the driest substrata at 18 and 20 °C lose water initially but then gain water through the rest of incubation. Eggs in all other conditions gain water throughout incubation, with the rate of i water absorption being maintained or increasing late in incubation. The suggestion that increasing rate of water absorption late in incubation facilitates explosive hatching is not supported. Egg mass at the time of hatching varies from 132 to 398% of initial values, depending on incubation conditions. Final egg mass is not affected significantly by incubation temperature. Hence, rates of absorption increase with temperature.

Water potential has no influence on hatchling size. However, hatchlings from buried eggs generally are significantly larger than those from partially buried eggs.
Molar microwear and diet in large carnivores: inferences concerning diet in the sabretooth cat,Smilodon fatalis
Authors: VALKENBURGH B. VAN , TEAFORD M. F. , WALKER A.
Published: March 2009

Patterns of dental microwear provide some of the best indirect evidence of tooth use and diet in living and extinct species, and thus can supplement inferences based on gross morphology. In this paper, dental microwear features are examined in the extinct sabretooth catSmilodon fatalisand among eight species of extant large carnivores, including felids, canids, hyaenids and a mustelid. Although all the living species are primarily carnivorous, some differ in the relative quantities of large bones consumed; hyaenas are the most frequent bone‐crushers and cheetahs the least. Because bone is harder than meat, interspecific differences in bone consumption are expected to be reflected by differences in microwear pattern. Scanning electron micrographs of the wear facet of the lower first molar (carnassial) were used to estimate the average density, size, shape and orientation of microwear features for each species. Results indicate that dietary differences are highlighted when features shorter than 30 μm in length are excluded from the analysis. When this is done, hyaenas are distinguished from other species by a combination of relatively few long features and a high proportion of pits to scratches. By contrast, the cheetah is characterized by a predominance of narrow features, relatively few of which are pits. Species of intermediate diet, such as the wolf, leopard, wild dog and wolverine, tend to be intermediate in pit density and feature shape. Comparisons of the carnivore microwear data with that published for primates reveal that the eight carnivores are most similar to frugivorous primates that specialize on relatively hard fruits. In addition, the orientation of microwear features is significantly more variable in carnivores than in the only comparably studied primate, the chimpanzee. This suggests that many of the microwear features on the carnassial are produced by food moving in directions other than occlusal pathways. The pattern of microwear features in the sabretooth cat is distinct from all of the sampled extant carnivores.Smilodonhas relatively narrow, long features and an extremely low pit frequency. ThusSmilodonprobably consumed less bone than does the cheetah and may have left behind significant amounts of bone and meat for scavengers. The sabretooth cat may have avoided bone in order to protect its long canines from breakage.
The dentition of red deer (Cervus elaphus): a scoring scheme to assess age from wear of the permanent molariform teeth
Authors: Brown W. A. B. , Chapman Norma G.
Published: March 2009

Skulls of red deer (Cervus elaphus of known age were examined. A scoring procedure devised for fallow deer (Dama dama) was used to relate tooth wear to a particular age (Brown & Chapman, 1990). The precise sequential nature of tooth wear as it appeared on the slopes and tips of cusps, on the marginal ridges and links between cusps was recorded. From these data a base has been provided from which estimates of age may be made of animals of unknown age. The variability for the scores are given for 95% prediction intervals from the regression of age on total molar wear score.
The relative influence of age and weight on the reproductive behaviour of male grey seals Halichoerus grypus
Authors: Godsell Janet
Published: March 2009

The breeding behaviour of male grey seals Halichoerus grypus of known age and weight was studied on Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Branded males ranged in age from 8 to 16 years and although there was a positive relationship between age and weight, there was a large overlap between age classes. In general, there was an increase in length of tenure and rates of copulation with increasing male age but this was less marked among males between the ages of 13 and 16 years. Compared to older ones, males of 8 and 12 years were observed at more sites, travelled more extensively around the breeding colony, were transient more frequently and were unable to lie as close to females. There was no correlation between male body weight and either length of tenure or rates of copulation when males of age 8 (the smallest males) were excluded from the analysis. Most agonistic behaviour was made by larger, older males towards smaller, younger ones and appeared to be responsible for the short length of tenure and low reproductive rates of young bulls.
Hind limb movements of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) and postural grades
Authors: Gatesy Stephen M.
Published: March 2009

The hind limb kinematics of American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) executing the high walk were analysed using cineradiography. The stance phase is characterized by hip extension of 60–80d̀, knee extension of 30–40d̀ and a flexion (30–40d̀)—extension (80–90d̀) sequence of the ankle. At initial foot contact with the substratum, the femur is positioned 20–25d̀ from the sagittal plane of the sacrum. During retraction the femur is abducted to a maximum angle of 40–50d̀ near foot lift‐off. A slight medial rotation about the femoral axis takes place to maintain the orientation of the femoral condyles. The sacral region undergoes rotation about a vertical axis of 20–30d̀ and transverse roll of 10–12d̀ with each stride. One individual used an atypical limb posture in which the femur was adducted to 20d̀ rather than abducted during the stance phase.

Although the crocodilian high walk appears to be a good example of a ‘semi‐erect’ posture that is intermediate between ‘sprawling’ and ‘fully erect’, the current system of postural grades hampers our understanding of locomotor variability and diversity. Grades must be considered categorical abstractions until enough data can be acquired to demonstrate that postural divisions are based on well‐defined kinematic parameters and functional mechanisms. The indiscriminate use of postural grades, particularly in fossil taxa, blurs differences between members of each grade and artificially broadens distinctions between members of different grades.
Seasonal hair follicle activity and fibre growth in some New Zealand Cashmere‐bearing goats (Caprus hircus)
Authors: Nixon A. J. , Gurnsey M. P. , Betteridge K. , Mitchell R. J. , Welch R. A. S.
Published: March 2009

Hair follicle activity and fibre growth were studied using histological sections from the skin of five adult feral does sampled every four weeks for 18 months. The main period of guard hair growth in primary follicles was from November to April. Secondary follicles grew fine, long, nonmedullated fibres (cashmere) from December to June. Shedding of these fibres from secondary follicles had commenced by July and cashmere was absent from the fleece by November. From September to December a subsidiary hair cycle occurred in many secondary follicles which produced minute (vellus) fibres, less than 2.4 mm in length. Some secondary follicles probably shed their cashmere fibres and remain quiescent over spring. Annual pelage changes were therefore achieved with one main growth period, although many secondary follicles underwent another brief hair cycle in spring.
Clines revisited: The timing of pupping in the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina)
Authors: Temte J. L. , Bigg M. A. , Wiig Ø.
Published: March 2009

The regional variation in the pupping season of the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) was reviewed using the birth periods reported for 65 colony sites distributed over a range from 30.4d̀ to 78.5d̀ North latitude. The birth timing ofP. v. vitulinawas not related to latitude, but birthing inP. v. concoloralong eastern North America exhibited a latitudinal cline. The timing of birth inP. v. richardsivaried in three distinct patterns: (1) a significant unidirectional latitudinal cline extending between Baja California and the west coast of Washington; (2) a cluster comprised of Puget Sound, Washington and Vancouver Island, British Columbia colonies in which birthing occurred an average of 65 days later than on the Washington coast; and (3) a cluster from northern British Columbia and Alaska which did not demonstrate a latitudinal cline. Insufficient data were available for the analysis ofP. v. mellonaeorP. v. stejnegeri.

We found great regional variation in the timing of birth among all colonies, with mean birth dates occurring as early as 15 March and as late as 3 September. Little variation existed north of 50d̀. To the south of 50d̀, however, most of the variation could be attributed to correlation with latitude or to affiliation with the Puget Sound, Washington‐Vancouver Island, British Columbia geographic area.

Clinal variation in pupping could result from: (1) geographic variations in a selective factor with perhaps gene exchange between contiguous populations playing a role in smoothing the variation; or (2) for populations between Mexico and the west coast of Washington, regional variation in a non‐selective environmental variable, such as photoperiod.
Seismic communication in the blind subterranean mole‐rat: patterns of head thumping and of their detection in the Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies in Israel
Authors: Heth* G. , Frankenberg** E. , Pratt*** H. , Nevo* E.
Published: March 2009

Patterns of seismic communication and somatosensory responses were studied in four chromosomal species (2n= 52, 54, 58, 60) of blind subterranean mole‐rats, belonging to the Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies in Israel. The patterns involved head thumping signals and surface‐recorded cerebral potentials evoked by vibrational signals. The patterns correspond to the differences in territory size and population density which characterize the four species. It is suggested that this correspondence is related to the adaptive significance of the seismic communication.
Inter‐ and intraspecific variation in the life histories of three sympatric isopods in a Hong Kong forest
Authors: Ma H. H. T. , Lam P. K. S. , Dudgeon D.
Published: March 2009

There is a paucity of data on the life‐history strategies of tropical animals. Accordingly, the inter and intraspecific life‐history variations of three sympatric isopods, Burmoniscus oceliutus (Philosciidae), Formosillo raffaelei and Orodillo maculatus (Armadillidae), were studied at two sites in a Hong Kong forest. All three isopods were iteroparous. Burmoniscus oceilutus had more frequent breeding bouts, and smaller broods than O. muculutus and F. raffaelei. Although the three isopods had different life spans, brood numbers and life‐time fecundities, their rates of offspring production (number of eggs per month) were similar. The Hong Kong isopods had longer breeding periods, a greater number of broods per life time, and lower reproductive allocation per brood than their temperate counterparts. These findings were consistent with the predictions of r‐ and K‐theory. Intraspecific, between‐site differences in fecundity and brood dry weight of F. raffaelei could probably be explained by the variations in the size of gravid females. Burmoniscus ocellutus produced heavier eggs at the site with a higher population density, suggesting that conditions at the site with a higher isopod density may be more K‐selecting. Female‐biased sex ratios, possibly resulting from differential sex‐specific mortality, were common among the isopod samples, and the possible adaptive significance of this pattern was discussed. The potential influence of phylogenetic constraints on the evolution of life‐history strategies was also considered.
The innervation of head neuromast rows in eleotridine gobies (Teleostei: Gobioidei)
Authors: Wongrat P. , Miller P. J.
Published: March 2009

The innervation of free neuromast (sensory papillae) rows is described from Sihler wholemount preparations of four species of eleotridine gobies, one (Perccottus glenii) representing the ‘longitudinal’ type of neuromast arrangement, the others (Butis buits, Bostrychus urophthalmus, B. marmoratus) the ‘transverse’ arrangement. In the latter, the characteristic transverse cheek rows (1–7) are innervated from the infraorbital trunk of the anterior lateral‐line nerve. Longitudinal cheek rowsbandd, and the three opercular rows,ot, osandoi, common to all species, are innervated by rami of the hyomandibular trunk of the same nerve. Two neuromast groupings are shown to have a mixed nerve supply. For the median preorbital snout rows, there is innervation from the infraorbital (s3andr) as well as the supraorbital (s1ands2) trunks of the anterior lateral line nerve. The anterior dorsal rows are supplied both by the posterior lateral‐line supratemporal ramus (rowsgandm) and the anterior lateral‐line supraorbital trunk (rowsoandn). The neuromast rows, under the designations of Sanzo, are tabulated according to innervation and their putative origin in the phyletic replacement of a complete head canal system seen in more generalized percomorph fishes.
Studies on the relationship between the ant ectoparasite Antennophorus grandis (Acarina: Antennophoridae) and its host Lasius flavus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
Authors: Franks N. R. , Healey K. J. , Byrom L.
Published: March 2009

The mite Antennophorus grandis (Berlese, 1903) is a large obligate ectoparasite of workers of the ant Lasius flavus(Fabricius). It rides under the head of the ants and uses its long front legs to communicate with its hosts and stimulate them to give it food. We present allometric and morphometric data showing that L. flavus workers can occur in two size classes. We also present the first quantitative ethograms of mite‐bearing and mite‐free L. flavus workers of the two size categories. The mites tend to occur on the smaller nurse workers and receive food from them at an extremely high frequency. Antennophorus grandis also frequently gain food when one ant is donating food to the one they are riding upon. The mites seem to inhibit the ability of their host worker to show most social behaviours such as tending ant larvae. The mites frequently move from one host worker to another. For these reasons the mites may have a larger impact upon their host colony than their relative rarity first suggests. The ants do not seem to have any specific defence against these parasites. The mites live in small populations and show female‐biased sex ratios consistent with local mate competition. Preliminary evidence suggests that the mites have haplodiploid sex determination which may explain how they are able to adapt their sex allocation to their population size.
Age assessment of red deer (Cervus elaphus): from a scoring scheme based on radiographs of developing permanent molariform teeth
Authors: Brown W. A. B. , Chapman Norma G.
Published: March 2009

The stages of permanent tooth development observed in radiographs of the mandible are described and analysed for known‐aged red deer (Cervus elaphus). The ages by which the different stages of development were reached have been determined. By allocating scores for these different stages, the scores that may be expected for a particular age have been identified. Lastly, the predicted age was given, together with 95% prediction intervals obtained from a regression of age on total molariform scores. Tooth development in red deer was usually completed by 33 months. These data can be used to assess the ages of animals of unknown age.
Internal structure and contents of three badger (Meles meles) setts
Authors: Roper T. J. , Tait A. I. , Fee D. , Christian S. F.
Published: March 2009

Three badger (Meles meles L.) setts in the south of England, which formed a single sett complex belonging to one social group of badgers, were excavated prior to being destroyed by construction of a new road. Setts 1 and 2, classified as annexes, were excavated completely; sett 3, classified as a main sett, was only excavated partially, but its total size was estimated from the excavated portion. The setts consisted of tunnels totalling 16 m, 140 m and 879 m, respectively; contained one, nine and 50 chambers; and had five, 42 and 178 entrances. The total volume of the three setts was about 45 m3, and their construction was estimated to have required the removal of about 70 tonnes of soil. In the two smaller setts tunnels ran on a single level with an average depth of 99 cm; in the larger sett they ran on two levels with modal depths of 50 cm and 110–120 cm, respectively. All three setts contained bedding material (dry grass and plastic bags) but only the main sett contained latrines. None of the setts contained badger bones and the interiors of all three setts were remarkably clean and orderly. We discuss hypotheses as to why badgers sometimes continue to extend even large well‐established setts but conclude that the survival value of very large setts remains problematical.
Diet of otters (Lutra lutra) in closely associated freshwater, brackish and marine habitats in south‐west Portugal
Authors: Beja Pedro Rui
Published: March 2009

The diet of otters was studied in closely associated freshwater, brackish and marine habitats, from spraints collected on the Portuguese south‐west coast over an 18‐month period. In areas where marine prey was the only available resource, diet was dominated by blennies, wrasses and gobies, but other prey was taken in areas near coastal lagoons, marshes and estuaries. Eels and amphibians were considered the typical prey of freshwater habitats, and grey mullet the typical prey of brackish water habitats. If the inland habitats near the coast were large enough, otters preferred to forage there rather than in the sea. In one area where otters alternatively used marine and inland habitats, the former were used most extensively in autumn and winter, and the latter in spring and summer. It is suggested that otters prefer to forage inland rather than in the sea.
The functional morphology of the respiratory system of the Holothyrida (= Tetrastigmata) Acari: Anactinotrichida
Authors: Pugh P. J. A. , Evans G. O. , Fordy M. R. , King P. E.
Published: March 2009

The respiratory system of Holothyrus coccinella Gervais (Holothyridae) and Allothyrus australasiae (Womersley) (Allothyridae) were examined. The stigma‐peritreme complex is connected to tracheae and ventilated by indirect muscles. The peritreme provides an alternative route for the entry of air into the tracheal system, should a stigma be occluded by debris and retards water vapour transpiration, the mechanisms of which are compared in the two species.
New perspectives on protozoa
Authors: Coombs Professor G. H. , Finlay B. J. , Patterson D. J.
Published: March 2009

The interest of the British research community in protozoa has in the past emphasized the parasitic organisms‐especially those causing diseases of economic importance in Africa. The last 20 years have witnessed dramatic changes in protozoology, and the purpose of this meeting was to indicate the nature and significance of these changes.

Three areas were discussed. The first was our present understanding of protozoan diversity and the evolution of protozoa (by David Patterson), the second (by Bland Finlay) presented some novel and ecological important symbiotic relationships between protozoa and other microorganisms), and finally Graham Coombs discussed the problems still being posed by parasitic protozoa and the application of new technologies to those problems.
Breeding pond fidelity in the common toad, Bufo bufo
Authors: Reading C. J. , Loman J. , Madsen T.
Published: March 2009

Two independent studies of adult common toad, Bufo bufo, movements between different spawning ponds/populations both within and between years were made in England and Sweden during the spring breeding periods of1987–1990. The results of the two studies were subsequently combined since they were found to be complementary. In addition, in England during 1984 and 1985, large numbers of ‘toadlets’ were marked so that they could be identified if recaptured as breeding adults.

The degree of relocation between ponds was negatively correlated to the distance between ponds. The proportion of both males and females that moved between ponds within a particular year was significantly less than the proportion relocating between years. In any year, between 79% and 96% of adults that survived to breed the following year, returned to the original pond. Similarly, of the toadlets marked during1984–85, 81% of the males that subsequently returned as breeding adults were captured in their pond of origin.

Isolation, in relation to both population dynamics and population genetics, is defined and its implications for the management of common toad populatins discussed.
The diet of wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus living in a sand dune habitat in north‐east Scotland
Authors: Zubaid A. , Gorman M. L.
Published: March 2009

This study describes seasonal changes in the diet of a population of wood mice inhabiting a maritime sand dune system. Invertebrates, particularly coleopterans, formed the bulk of the diet throughout the year. This is in sharp contrast to previous studies of mice living in woodlands which eat mainly seeds and other plant matter.
Haematological and rheological characteristics of blood in seven marine mammal species: physiological implications for diving behaviour
Authors: Hedrick Michael S. , Duffield Deborah A.
Published: March 2009

The haeniatological and rheological characteristics of blood from seven marine mammal species have been examined to determine the relationship between increased haematocrit. which is correlated with the ability to increase aerobic dive limits. and blood viscosity. The species examined reflect adaptations to a variety of marine niches ranging from coastal to pelagic to iceedge environments. and exhibit a wide range of diving behaviours. Average haematocrits ranged from43–45% in bottlenose dolphins. killer whales and California sea lions to more than 60% in the deeper diving species (beluga whales and northern elephant seals). Whole blood viscosity () increased exponentially with haematocrit (= 0.96*e0‐0335*Hct). representin a two‐fold increase from 4.1 cP for killer whale blood to 8.9 cP for northern elephant seal. There was no apparent compensatory mechanism to reduce viscosity at any shear rate. The optimal haematocrit for oxygen transport was calculated to be40–50% for all species tested. The species with lower haematocrits were within optimal values for oxygen transport. while the two species with the highest haematocrits (beluga whales and northern elephant seals) were above predicted optimal oxygen transport values. On the basis of comparisons of the diving behaviour of these seven species, we suggest that marine mammal species with the greatest adaptation for increased oxygen stores via increased haematocrit have the capacity for deep, long‐duration dives, but a limited oxygen transport capacity. We predict that this compromise precludes fast sustainable swimming behaviour in these species.
Diet selection and energy and water budgets of the common spiny mouse Acomys cahivinus
Authors: Kam M. , Degen Allan
Published: March 2009

The common spiny mouse, Acomys cahirinus (body mass=47 g), is widely distributed in Israeli deserts where it inhabits natural crevices on rocky slopes. This omnivorous rodent consumes a varied diet, and in particular snails. We determined diet selection and energy and water balances of spiny mice when they were offered snails and seeds. The spiny mice maintained steady state body mass. Dry matter consumption of snails was 0.014 g* g−1.‐d−1 and of seeds was 0.049g*.g−1d−1 for a total of 0.063 g*g−1*d−1. Total water intake was 0.101ml‐g−1.d−1 and metabolizable energy intakewas 0.990 kJ. gxs‐1.d−1 for a ratio (ml: kJ) of 0.102. This ratio was similar to that reported in a previously published study on free‐living spiny mice. We concluded that snails and seeds allowed spiny mice to fulfil their energy and water requirements with minimal dry matter and fresh matter intakes. Furthermore, spiny mice selected a diet that provided them with a water (ml) to energy (kJ) ratio of approximately 0.1, although it appeared that they are able to survive on a much drier diet.
Minimum summer populations and densities of bats in N.E. Scotland, near the northern borders of their distributions
Authors: Speakman J. R. , Racey P. A. , Catto C. M. C. , Webb P. I. , Swift S. M. , Burnett A. M.
Published: March 2009

The contemporary summer populations of three species of bats, the common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), the brown long‐eared bat (Plecorus auritus) and Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii) in an area of 3200 km2. in N.E. Scotland (57°N), near to the northern borders of their distributions, were assessed by surveying nursery roosts. A total of 184 roosts were discovered between 1973 and 1989, and the species in occupation was identified at 147 of these. Of the roosts with identified occupants. 109 were occupied by pipistrelles. Most pipistrelle roosts were located close to the major rivers. The mean roost size in early summer for pipistrelles was 117 individuals. The larger roosts were predominantly (98.8%) female (n= 165). Captured bats foraging on the rivers were only 67%) female (n= 102) which indicated there was also a large population ofmales which the roost survey did not detect. The minimum density of females in the occupied habitat was estimated at 18.2 bats per km2. This contemporary population in the study area is much greater than was indicated in historical records from the 19th century. There was no evidence that the populations of pipistrelles, near to the northern border of their distribution. was reduced when compared with populations further south.

Thirty‐four of the roosts were occupied by brown long‐eared bats. These roosts were located predominantly along a short(25 km). well wooded section of the River Dee. The mean roost size in early summer for brown long‐eared bats was 16.8 individuals. On average, these roosts were predominantly female(69.6%, n = 273), but contained a variable proportion of immature and occasionally mature males. The density of brown long‐eared bats in the occupied habitat was 1.66 bats per km2, less than a tenth the density of pipistrelles. Historically, this bat was more widespread and abundant in the area.

There were only four identified roosts of Daubenton's bats, containing in total about 300 individuals. In all these cases, the roosts were located immediately adjacent to the major rivers, and in two of the cases were also close to areas of open water. A survey of 72 bridges in the area revealed only two individual Daubenton's bats. The density of Daubenton's bats in the occupied habitat was around2–4 bats per km2. There has been a substantial reduction in the population of this bat in the area over historical times. At the turn of the century it was the commonest bat in the area, but currently it is the rarest. The causes of the decline are uncertain but are unlikely to reflect draining of areas of open water or the activities of anglers.
Ecology of the red panda Ailurus fulgens in the Wolong Reserve, China
Authors: Reid D. G. , Jinchu Hu , Yan Huang
Published: March 2009

Red panda behaviour was studied in the Wolong Reserve, Sichuan, China to understand better the ecology of this herbivorous member of the Carnivora. Leaves of montane bamboo were the most common food in all months (93.7% of 791 droppings), supplemented in spring with bamboo shoots, and in late summer with arboreal fruits. Home‐range estimates by radiotelemetry for one adult female (94 ha) and one adult male (111 ha) most closely approximated allometrically‐predicted range size for omnivores. Pandas were active45–49% of the time, with highest levels in April, and, for the female in summer when lactating. Activity was higher in daylight than at night, especially in summer, coincident with arboreal foraging. The hypothesis that pandas rest in direct sunlight in winter to minimize heat loss while reducing peripheral circulation, was inferentially supported by their spending significantly more time resting on clear compared to overcast winter days. The red panda's anatomy, diet and low metabolic rate suggest an arboreal folivorous lineage incorporating terrestrial foraging to capitalize on a super‐abundant food resource–bamboo. Energy content of the annual recruitment of bamboo leaves within home ranges was substantially greater than annual energy requirements predicted allometrically. Gross food availability was not limiting to the radio‐collared pandas, but may have been so in unoccupied habitats with a lower bamboo density following the bamboo die‐back. Maternity den trees are probably a limiting resource in clearcut and deciduous forest habitats.
Growth, reproduction and activity rhythms in two species of edible snails, Helix aspersa and Helix lucorum, in non 24‐hour light cycles
Authors: Lazaridou‐Dimitriadadou Maria , Bailey S. E. R.
Published: March 2009

Both juvenile and adult Helix aspera and H. lucorum showed significant periodicities in locomotor activity close to an imposed 24‐h die1 of 13L: 11D, and to 20 diels of 13L:7D and 11L: 9D. Helix aspersa is active earlier in the night in 24‐h diels than H. lucorum. In both 20‐h diels H. aspersa showed a lag in attaining peak activity. We discuss the fact that H. aspersa copes better with 13L:7D and H. lucorum copes better with 11L:9D. Although both of them seem to grow faster in the 24‐h diel, H. lucorum is indifferent to photoperiod in relation to its growth. Helix aspersa became mature in four months in all the three regimes, but its size and maturity were influenced by the three photoperiod regimes. Egg‐laying was also influenced by the photoperiod regimes, but hatching was not.
Flight performance, foraging tactics and echolocation in the trawling insectivorous bat Myotis adversus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae)
Authors: Jones G. , Rayner J. M. V.
Published: March 2009

The bat Myotis adversus hunts for prey by aerial hawking and by taking prey from the water surface with its feet (trawling). The flight performance and echolocation of this species were studied in Queensland, Australia, and comparisons were made with Myotis daubentoni, a bat filling a similar ecological niche in the Palaearctic Region. The bats foraged in very similar ways, using the same foraging tactics and feeding in similar habitats, yet they were not geometrically similar in shape. The slightly larger Myotis adversus had relatively larger wings than M. daubentoni, conferring a slightly lower wing‐loading. Nevertheless, M. adversus flew faster than M. daubentoni during the searching phase of foraging. Myotis daubentoni turned in tighter circles than M. adversus. Both species used short frequency‐modulated (FM) echolocation calls of a characteristic sigmoidal structure, and nulls typically observed in the calls were an observational artefact. Myotis adversus also adopted an unusual ‘long’FM call while foraging. The relations between echolocation frequencies and body size were explored in male M. adversus. Specialized morphological and acoustic adaptations for prey capture by trawling in insectivorous bats are discussed.
The influence of rainfall and nest‐site quality on the population dynamics of the Manx shearwater Puffinus puffinus on Rhum
Authors: Thompsoan K. R. , Furness R. W.
Published: March 2009

The Manx shearwater colony in the mountains of Rhum receives a high average rainfall, around 3000 mm, and nest burrows are subject to flooding. Colony hatching success rates on Rhum and neighbouring Canna are significantly negatively correlated with rainfall amounts during the incubation period. The incidence of heavy rainfall during incubation has a greater influence on hatching success than does total rainfall. Fledging success is unrelated to rainfall. Burrows vary with respect to their susceptibility to flooding during heavy rain. A ‘Flooding Likelihood Index’(FLI) was devised which allowed 100 study burrows to be ranked with respect to their risk of flooding in a given rainfall event. Eggs were significantly more likely to be laid and to hatch in burrows less susceptible to flooding. In 1984 and 1985 the overall breeding success rate in burrows with an FLI lower than the median was more than twice that in those with higher than median FLIs. Male shearwaters showed a significantly greater tendency to move to different burrows following breeding failure in the previous season. This may be an adaptive response to the consistent differences in the quality of individual burrows. The shearwater population on Rhum may be limited by the availability of good quality nesting burrows.
The population ecology of house mice (Mus domesticus) on the Isle of May, Scotland
Authors: Triggs G. S.
Published: March 2009

The colonizing ability, catholic habitat utilization and wide distribution of house mice (Mus domesticus, Rutty) are indicators of their ecological resilience. Numerous studies have been made of commensal, caged and free‐living mouse populations though few have assessed the relative importance of physiological and genetical components of adaptability in a simple ecosystem. This paper reports such findings, derived from live‐trapping which formed part of an inter‐disciplinary study of adaptability in a feral population of house mice living on a small Scottish island (57 ha).

The population size ranged from450–3250 animals. A high proportion of mice showed homerange tenacity, though15–20% shifted their range during winter. This ‘churning’ of the population is consistent with the island population forming an effectively panmictic unit rather than fragmented demes. The breeding season, survival of individuals and change in population size related to patterns of gross climatic variation (temperature and rainfall) so that rates of reproduction and survival were lowest in cold, wet conditions. Thermoregulatory adjustment of the mice to lowered ambient temperatures and its contribution to overwinter survival are discussed. Genetical monomorphism of May Island mice is discussed in relation to their biological performance compared with other populations, especially that of the ecologically comparable Skokholm Island (Wales).