bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Loneliness
Authors: Berg John H. , Peplau Letitia Anne
Published: March 2007

The relationship of self-disclosure and of psychological masculinity and femininity to the experience of loneliness was examined in a sample of college students. Since both disclosure and sex-typing are important factors in close interpersonal relationships, it was expected that they would also be associated with loneliness the experience of a deficiency in one's social relations. As predicted, loneliness was negatively correlated with past disclosure, willingness to disclose, and social responsiveness, but only for women. High masculinity and high femininity offered protection against loneliness, with androgynous students being least lonely.
Issue-Importance and Forced-Compliance Attitude Change
Authors: Converse John
Published: March 2007

An experiment was performed to determine the relationship between the importance of attitudes and the extent to which they are changed by the forced compliance procedure. Subjects freely consented to write a counterattitudinal essay concerning one of several political issues. The importance of the issue assigned to subjects was systematically varied across six conditions. As predicted by McGuire's information-processing theory (1968a, 1968b), importance affected attitude change in a quadratic manner, the greatest change occurring in the conditions of moderate importance. Further analysis suggests that this inverted-U effect was not due to variations in initial attitude extremity or essay quality. Linear and nonlinear relationships were discussed.
Cognitive Accessibility and Causal Attributions
Authors: Rholes William S. , Pryor John B.
Published: March 2007

Previous research has suggested that the relative accessibility of concepts in long term memory influences person perception judgments. The present study examined the effects of the accessibility of causal agents on attributions. The results indicated that causes that are more accessible in memory are given more weight in causal judgments than less accessible causes and that the impact of accessibility is moderated by the nature of the covariation information associated with an attributional problem.
Sex-Role Orientation and Impressions
Authors: Korabik Karen
Published: March 2007

The 60 traditionally sex-typed and 60 androgynous subjects-half male and half female within each category-rated the likableness of stimulus persons described by gender and sex-role orientation (traditional, androgynous, or reversed). No preference was found for masculine role descriptions. Reverse sex-role descriptions were rated less positively than traditional or androgynous sex-role descriptions, but this was mediated by the subjects' sex and sex-role orientation.
Male Self-Acceptance and Attraction toward Women
Authors: Grube Joel W. , Kleinhesselink Randall R. , Kearney Kathleen A.
Published: March 2007

This research investigated the relationship between male self-acceptance and attraction toward traditional and nontraditional women. Undergraduate males of low, medium, or high self-acceptance were exposed to video-taped job interviews of undergraduate women playing traditional and nontraditional roles. A measure of interpersonal attraction was obtained for each model. Analysis of variance on this attraction measure revealed a significant interaction between level of self-acceptance and role model. Further comparisons revealed that the low self-acceptance males were more attracted to the traditional model than to the nontraditional model and less attracted to the nontraditional model than were high or medium self-acceptance males. The high self-acceptance males showed a tendency to be more attracted to the nontraditional than to the traditional model. These results were interpreted as suggesting that prejudice against nontraditional women may, in part, be a result of attempts to counter perceived threats to self-conceptions or self-esteem on the part of low self-acceptance males.
"Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall...?"
Authors: Cash Thomas F. , Cash Diane Walker , Butters Jonathan W.
Published: March 2007

Several studies confirm the operation of contextual contrast effects on judgments of the physical attractiveness of others. The present experiment was conducted to determine whether contrast effects also occur on self-evaluations of physical attractiveness. Fifty-one female college students rated their own attractiveness and body-parts satisfaction following exposure to same-sexed stimulus persons who either were not physically attractive, were physically attractive, or were designated as attractive professional models. The predicted contrast effect was supported for self-perceived attractiveness but not for body satisfaction. Consistent with social comparison theory, subjects gave lower self-ratings in the attractive versus the not attractive and the professionally attractive stimulus context. Correlational analyses also indicated that self-rated attractiveness was related to several personality variables.
Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination
Authors: McConahay John B.
Published: March 2007

Researchers in American race relations have demonstrated the ambivalence white Americans feel toward black Americans. The prejudiced white behaves positively or negatively toward blacks depending on the context of the behavior, while the less prejudiced white behaves more consistently across contexts. In this study, the ambivalence concept was used to demonstrate the construct validity of a relatively nonreactive scale of racial prejudice-the Modern Racism Scale. Eighty-one white college students were pretested on the scale and then evaluated job candidates with identical resumes (except for a picture of a black or white male) under contexts designed to elicit positive or negative discrimination by ambivalent (presumably prejudiced) subjects. As predicted, when the candidate was black, the Modern Racism Scale was negatively correlated with hiring evaluations in the negative context and positively correlated in the positive context. When the job candidate was white, context and the Modern Racism Scale were unrelated to hiring evaluations.
The Aura of Projected Personal Futures
Authors: Sloan Tod S.
Published: March 2007

This article introduces the concept of the aura to account for a manner in which decision processes are mediated by personality. The concept, developed on the basis of a life-historical investigation of major life decisions, refers to characterologically determined thematic trends in both the images and narratives produced by a subject reflecting on possible personal futures. Depending on the extent to which auras are operative in major life decisions, rationalistic models of decision making proposed in "cognitive" approaches would seem to be of limited value.
Physical Attractiveness and Self-Esteem
Authors: Major Brenda , Carrington Patricia I. , Carnevale Peter J.D.
Published: March 2007

Prior research has found that although physically attractive people are consistently viewed and treated more favorably than those who are less attractive, there is a surprisingly weak relationship between physical attractiveness and self-esteem. An attributional explanation for this relationship was tested in the present study. Males and females who were either high or low in self-rated attractiveness wrote an essay on which they received praise from a fictitious other-sex evaluator who had presumably either seen or not seen them prior to giving the praise. As predicted, high attractive individuals discounted the praise when they had been seen by the evaluator, attributing it less to the quality of their work or writing style than when they had not been seen by the evaluator. In contrast, low attractive individuals were more likely to attribute praise to work-related factors when they had been seen than when they had not been seen by the evaluator.
Fear of Crime in Elderly Women
Authors: Normoyle Janice , Lavrakas Paul J.
Published: March 2007

A causal relationship was hypothesized to exist between elderly women's fear of crime and their perceptions of the predictability of events, control over outcomes, and territoriality. Perceived territoriality-the perception of proprietary right to an area and responsibility for what happens there-was hypothesized to be a manifestation of perceived control and perceived predictability. These perceptions and their expression in perceived territoriality were hypothesized to influence elderly women's fear of crime. Data were collected from 81 elderly women living in an urban community. As predicted, elderly women who viewed events as unpredictable expressed lower perceived territoriality and higher fear than those who perceived events as predictable. In addition, women who perceived themselves as having personal control over outcomes appeared to manifest this perception through territoriality. It is this manifestation of perceived control through perceived territoriality that is associated with lower fear in elderly women.
Communication Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Self and Other
Authors: Hecht Michael , Sereno Kenneth , Spitzberg Brian
Published: March 2007

This study examined the influence of topic level and relationship level on self and other as loci of emotional reactions to interactions. Findings indicate that self satisfaction was more strongly related to communication satisfaction for low topic intimacy and importance, and for the lowest level of relationship intimacy (acquaintances). On the other hand, satisfaction with other was more strongly related to communication satisfaction for high topic intimacy and importance, and higher levels of relationship intimacy (friends). Lovers and spouses, however, did not conform to this pattern. The findings, which were derived from a community sample, were compared to those of a previous study which had sampled college students.
Agent and Observer Attributions of Influence
Authors: McCallum Debra Moehle , Schopler John
Published: March 2007

The Schopler and Layton (1972b) framework for influence attributions was employed to investigate the effects of two factors on attributions of influence. Participants were either agents or observers of an influence attempt, which was followed by a target's compliance, noncompliance or countercompliance. The results supported predictions that influence attributed to the agent (by both agent and observer) would be highest following compliance, moderate following countercompliance, and lowest following noncompliance. Agent-observer differences in attributions occurred only in conditions of target compliance, in which agents attributed more influence to themselves than did the observers, as predicted. The results suggest the need to include undesired changes in a target as an aspect of interpersonal influence processes.
Parent-Adolescent Separation
Authors: Moore DeWayne
Published: March 2007

This study examined interpersonal perception relating to adolescent home-leaving. It was expected that perceived discrepancies between adolescents and parents in the importance of several indicators of parent-adolescent separation would be related to self-reported difficulty leaving home. The results for 50 male and 55 female college freshmen generally supported the hypothesis. Perceptual discrepancies with regard to the importance of the home-leaving indicators labeled "residence " and "physical separation" revealed the strongest relationship to home-leaving difficulty. Perceptual discrepancies showed a stronger relationship to home-leaving difficulty for females than for males. The results suggest the importance of intrafamilial perceptions of parent-adolescent separation.
Low Need Achievers' Performance
Authors: Hom Harry L. , Murphy Marilyn D.
Published: March 2007

The following study was designed to investigate individual differences in anagram performance using differential methods of goal setting. Subjects were 63 female college undergraduates who were divided into high and low need achievers. Goals for performance task were either assigned by the experimenter or determined by the subject. Low need achievers who received externally imposed goals performed more poorly on the task than did low need achievers with self-set goals or high need achievers with imposed goals. These results were discussed in regard to Locke's goal-setting theory and provide direction for future research in the area of individual differences in goal setting and performance.
The Loneliness Experience of College Students
Authors: Schultz Norman R. , Moore DeWayne
Published: March 2007

The present study examined sex differences among college students in the quantitative and qualitative aspects of loneliness. Measurements of loneliness, emotional reactivity, and social risk taking were administered to 112 undergraduates. Males evidenced greater self-reported loneliness than females. Generally, affective and social risk-taking measures were more highly related to loneliness among males than females. The results suggest that loneliness is more likely to be associated with negative personal and affective self-evaluations for males than for females. Males may react to loneliness more negatively than females because of a tendency to attribute loneliness to personal failure rather than external, uncontrollable causes. Evidence also suggests that having difficulty in initiating social risks may contribute to loneliness for males more than females.
Who's in Charge Here?
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Chesner Stuart P. , Senders Pamela S. , Tice Dianne M.
Published: March 2007

Past work has shown that bystanders often fail to help a victim in an emergency, because responsibility for helping diffuses over all the bystanders there. In the present experiment, subjects were exposed to a simulated emergency (a choking fit) that occurred in the course of a structured group interaction. Subjects who had been designated as subordinate group members for the experimental task generally failed to come to the victim's aid, consistent with past findings. Subjects who had been designated as group leaders were quite likely to intervene in the emergency, however, even though responding to the emergency meant violating the experimental instructions and thus nullifying their leadership role. The implication is that a leadership role functions as a generalized responsibility cue; so group leaders do not undergo diffusion of responsibility as much as subordinate group members.
Social Comparison in Romantic Jealousy
Authors: Schmitt Bernd H.
Published: March 2007

Past research has shown that jealous people tend to denigrate their rivals in order to preserve a positive self-evaluation. The present two studies investigated whether derogation of the rival is always a consequence of a social comparison with the rival. It was hypothesized that jealous people would derogate their rivals only on attributes that they perceive to be important to their partners; however, jealous people would evaluate their rivals as having attractive characteristics on attributes perceived to be less important to their partners. Undergraduates rated themselves, their partners, their rivals, and their partners' rivals (i.e., persons of whom their partners were jealous) on personality attributes that were either very important or less important to themselves and to their partners. Results indicated that the rivals and the partners' rivals were negatively evaluated on very important dimensions, but were seen as at least equally attractive on less important attributes. The plausibility of a self-esteem explanation, sex differences, and the functions of social comparison are discussed.
Social and Emotional Loneliness
Authors: Vaux Alan
Published: March 2007

One hundred forty college students provided data on social and emotional loneliness, social provisions, social support appraisals, features of socializing and emotional support networks, and personal characteristics thought to inhibit social interaction or the development of relationships. Limited evidence was obtained for the view that social and emotional loneliness are distinct experiences with different social and personal antecedents. Both social and emotional loneliness were inversely associated with provisions of social relationships, with appraisals of support, and with both quantitative features (size, frequency) and qualitative features (closeness, reciprocity, complexity) of social support networks. Social and emotional loneliness also were associated inversely with personal characteristics, particularly discomfort in social situations, self-esteem, and a negative orientation toward support networks.
Research Traditions, Analysis, and Synthesis
Authors: Cooper Joel , Fazio Russell H.
Published: March 2007

Berkowitz and Devine's examination of research traditions in social psychology and their consideration of dissonance theory are questioned. In contrast to their position, the present authors doubt that the research enterprise can be neatly divided into analytic versus synthetic strategies. Furthermore, the authors question Berkowitz and Devine's portrayal of contemporary social psychology as too heavily analytic and too lightly synthetic. Nor do the auth ors see synthesis as at all incompatible with the field's present cognitive orientation. Last, and most important, is a discussion of the various manners in which Berkowitz and Devine have misinterpreted the authors' reformulation of dissonance processes. The breadth and synthetic value of the reformulation are discussed as an illustration of the synergistic relation between analytic and synthetic efforts.
In Search of Self
Authors: Strube Michael J
Published: March 2007

William James's views on self-seeking, truth, and reality suggest that apparently inconsistent models of self-knowledge acquisition can be reconciled by arguing that strategic "self-seeking, " or self-enhancement, relies on an accuracy-driven self-assessment of capabilities and limitations. This perspective holds promise for reconciling data that suggest that individuals do seek accurate information about the self but also hold biased beliefs about their abilities.
Effects of Importance of Success and Expectations for Success on Effectiveness at Deceiving
Authors: DePaulo Bella M. , LeMay Carol Steele , Epstein Jennifer A.
Published: March 2007

When people are motivated to tell an effective lie, they are less successful when others can observe their nonverbal cues. It was predicted that expectations for success would moderate this motivational impairment effect, such that it would occur primarily when expectations were low. Ninety-six women who thought of themselves as very independent told two stories (one true, one fabricated) that illustrated their dependence and two that illustrated independence to an interviewer described as very trusting (high expectations for success) or very wary (low expectations). They either expected to be evaluated by the interviewer (high importance of success) or did not (low importance).Judges rated the sincerity of each story. As predicted, participants' lies were especially detectable (in relation to their truths) when it was important to the participants to succeed but they had low expectations for success.
Role Taking, Self-Monitoring, and the Alignment of Conduct with Others
Authors: Schwalbe Michael L.
Published: March 2007

Snyder's original theory of self-monitoring implies that high self-monitors use role taking to control their expressive behavior and to align their conduct with others. But the evidence for this is mixed; it is not clear what kind of social cognition is associated with the alignment strategies used by high and low self-monitors. This issue is explored here by examining the relationships between self-monitoring and role-taking accuracy and propensity. High self-monitoring is found to be negatively correlated with role-taking propensity. This relationship is strongest for those who score high on the Other-Directedness factor of the Self Monitoring Scale. Scores on the Public Performing factor are found to be positively correlated with role-taking accuracy, whereas scores on the Other-Directedness factor are not. It is therefore suggested that some high self-monitors rely on imagery or behavioral scripts rather than role taking to align their conduct with others.
The Impact of Outcome Biases on Counterstereotypic Inferences about Groups
Authors: MacKie Diane M. , Allison Scott T. , Worth Leila T. , Asuncion Arlene G.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments explored the possibility that the occurrence of inferences biased by different outcomes might produce the perception that a target social group had changed, even in a counter-stereotypic direction. In Experiment 1, subjects made inferences about the conservatism of a political group based on whether the group passed a liberal measure or not. The decision rule in operation at the time of the vote on the issue was manipulated experimentally, so that the measure either passed or failed, even though the same number of group members supported the measure in each vote. When ever the measure passed, subjects saw the group as more liberal than when the measure failed, even if this change was counterstereotypic. In Experiment 2, subjects read about a sequence of performance outcomes that were either consistent or inconsistent with subjects' stereotypes of Black and Asian college students. The magnitude of the impact of outcome biases was as great for the stereotype-inconsistent inferences as for the sterotype-consistent inferences.
When Convergent Thought Improves Performance: Majority Versus Minority Influence
Authors: Nemeth Charlan , Mosier Kathleen , Chiles Cyntia
Published: March 2007

Recent research by Nemeth has suggested that minorities stimulate divergent thought (i.e., consideration of an issue from multiple perspectives) whereas majorities stimulate convergent thought (i.e., a focus on the issue from the perspective of that majority). Results have favored exposure to minority views because, in general divergent thought is conducive to improved performance. The proposition that majorities stimulate convergent thought from their perspective was tested, and it was demonstrated that in some situations majority views improve rather than hinder performance, by means of a task on which convergent thought enhances performance-the Stroop test Shown names of colors printed in inks of other colors, subjects have difficulty ignoring the printed color name. If, as hypothesized, majorities induce convergent thought, then majorities focusing on the color of ink should aid performance. Majorities focusing on the name of the color should hinder performance. Under exposure to minorities focusing on ink and minorities focusing on name, performance should not differ and should fall in between performance in the two majority conditions. The findings offer support for these hypotheses.
An Attachment-Theoretical Approach to Romantic Love and Religious Belief
Authors: Kirkpatrick Lee A. , Shaver Philip R.
Published: March 2007

This study conceptualizes personal religion, like romantic love, in terms of attachment theory and explores empirical relationships between adult attachment style and religious belief and behavior in an adult sample. Respondents who classified themselves as secure reported greater religious commitment and more positive images of God than insecure respondents. Avoidant respondents were more likely to describe themselves as agnostics; anxious/ambivalent respondents were more likely to report having had a glossolalia experience. Security of attachment to God was positively associated with security of adult attachment, but only among respondents who described their childhood maternal attachments as insecure. Attachment to God, in contrast to other religion variables, was strongly and significantly related to several mental and physical health outcomes. Results are interpreted in terms of mental models of attachment relationships, including relationships with God.
Cross-Racial Facial Identification: A Social Cognitive Integration
Authors: Anthony Tara , Copper Carolyn , Mullen Brian
Published: March 2007

A meta-analytic integration of the cross-racialfacial identification effect is reported. The results indicate a significant, weak-to-moderate tendency for individuals to be more accurate in the recognition off aces of in-group members than those of out-group members. There is a trend for this effect to be stronger among White subjects than Black subjects. In addition, predictors exhibited different patterns for Black subjects and White subjects. Specifically, greater depth of processing engaged by experimental instructions in these studies strengthened the effect for White subjects and weakened it for Black subjects. Similarly, the cross-racial facial identification effect increased as a function of the duration of exposure to the target faces for White subjects but decreased as a function of duration of exposure for Black subjects. These results are explained in terms of recent theoretical developments concerning intergroup phenomena, particularly in terms of mechanisms of cognitive representations of in-groups and out-groups.
The Social Context of Career Success and Course for 2,026 Scientists and Inventors
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: March 2007

The career success and course of 2,026 eminent scientists and inventors were examined relative to the social networks in which their work took place. Career success was gauged by eminence and lifetime contributions; career course was assessed by the age at first, best, and last contributions and the career duration. Once the social relationships were grouped into 15 categories, such as mentors, collaborators, and successors, the relationships were assessed according to their number; eminence, and age gap. Controlling for potential artifacts, analysis revealed how career achievements are associated with the presence of specific proximal and distal interactions and influences across and within generations. Isaac Newton is shown to typify the overall pattern of results.
On Making Sense of Odd Couples: Mood Effects on the Perception of Mismatched Relationships
Authors: Forgas Joseph P.
Published: March 2007

Are our judgments of unusual, atypical couples more likely to be distorted due to temporary mood? Two experiments based on a recent multiprocess theory developed by Forgas predicted and found greater mood-consistent bias in judgments of atypical rather than typical relationships. In Experiment 1, happy and sad subjects judged couples who were well-matched or ill-matched in terms of physical attractiveness. In Experiment 2, a false-feedback mood induction was used, followed by judgments of typical and atypical couples. In both studies, mood effects on judgments were consistently greater for mismatched couples. The results are interpreted as suggesting the greater use of mood-based inferences in judgments of unusual targets that require more constructive processing. The role of typicality in mediating mood effects on judgments is discussed, and the implications of the findings for everyday judgments about relationships are considered.
Dysphoria and Specificity in Self-Focused Attention
Authors: Conway Michael , Giannopoulos Constantina , Ciank Patricia , Mendelson Morris
Published: March 2007

The hypothesis was that dysphoric individuals' greater self focused attention reflects attempts at self-understanding as opposed to awareness of their thoughts and feelings. Subjects in Study I completed the short form of the Beck Depression Inventory and the Self Consciousness Scale. As expected, more-dysphoric subjects reported higher self-reflectiveness but not higher internal state awareness. This finding was replicated in Study 2, in which subjects also completed the Attributional Complexity Scale; other results suggest that dysphoric individuals' attainment of higher scores on the Attributional Complexity Scale, which includes self-referent items, is intrinsically related to their tendency for self reflection. Dysphoric individuals may engage in self-reflection because of poor understanding of self; various indexes of maladjustment seem associated with a poor understanding of self Other possible causal links are discussed
Implicit Theories Individual Differences in the Likelihood and Meaning of Dispositional Inference
Authors: Dweck Carol S. , Hong Ying yi , Chiu Chi yue
Published: March 2007

In their research, the authors have identified individuals who believe that a particular trait (intelligence, personality, or moral character) is a fixed disposition (entity theorists) and have contrasted them with those who believe the trait to be a malleable quality (incremental theorists). Research shows that an entity theory consistently predicts (a) global dispositional inferences for self and other; even in the face of limited evidence, as well as (b) an over reliance on dispositional information in making other judgments and decisions. An incremental theory, by contrast, predicts inferences that are more specific, conditional, and provisional The implicit beliefs seem to represent not only different theories about the nature of traits but also different mental models about how personality works-what the units of analysis are and how they enter into causal relations. Implications for the literature on person perception are discussed.
The Difference between Communal and Exchange Relationships: What it is and is Not
Authors: Clark Margaret S. , Mils Judson
Published: March 2007

Replying to Batson (this issue), who argues that the difference between communal and exchange relationships is less than might be imagined, the authors review the communal/exchange distinction, discuss what it does and does not mean, and address specific issues raised by Batson. They conclude, contrary to claims by Batson, that (a) ingratiation cannot account for all the findings supporting the communal/exchange distinction; (b) if desire for a communal relationship leads to ingratiation, that does not contradict the distinction; (c) if communal norms are followed for other than altruistic reasons, that does not undermine the distinction, (d) the difference between communal and exchange relationships is not limited to the breadth of benefits exchanged; (e) the difference between communal and exchange relationships is not limited to a difference in etiquette; rather, the communal/exchange distinction provides a theoretical explanation for the difference in etiquette.
Stereotype-Based Blocking in Social Explanation
Authors: Sanbonmatsu David M. , Akimoto Sharon A. , Gibson Bryan D.
Published: March 2007

Explanations for performance and behavior are often biased by stereotypes held by social perceivers. Stereotypes may affect not only judgments of the causal role of members of the stereotyped group but also assessments of the causal influence of people and events that are unrelated to the stereotype. The findings from three experiments indicate that an important mechanism through which stereotypes affect judgments of the causality of stereotype-irrelevant factors is blocking as described by Kamin. Patterns of causality consistent with gender stereotypes blocked, or attenuated, the perception of covariation between causes unrelated to gender and performance outcomes. The blocking of this covariation evidence, in turn, decreased the causality attributed to gender-irrelevant events. The findings suggest that blocking is a distinct process from discounting through which stereotypes and other expectancies bias causal attributions and persevere.
Collective Identity Orientation, Patriotism, and Reactions to National Outcomes
Authors: Kowalski Robin M. , Wolfe Randall
Published: March 2007

Two experiments examined the extent to which individual differences in collective identity orientation moderate perceptions of the United States following national success and failure. Participants classified as low or high on both personal and collective identity orientations read fictitious news stories desaibing actions by the United States in response to emergencies. For each story, the United States was portrayed as responding effectively (successful outcome) or failing to act quickly and efficiently (failure outcome). In Experiment 1, among subjects low in personal identity orientation, those high in collective identity orientation rated the United States more favorably following national failure than subjects low in collective identity. In Experiment 2, sujects' beliefs about whether their responses would be private or public were also manipulated. The results replicated Experiment 1, but no effects of the publicity of subjects' responses were obtained, suggesting that the results reflect self-esteem maintenance rather than self presentational motivations.
Remaining in an Abusive Relationship: An Investment Model Analysis of Nonvoluntary Dependence
Authors: Rusbult Caryl E. , Martz John M.
Published: March 2007

Rusbult's investment model is used to understand the conditions under which individuals are likely to remain in abusive relationships. Analyses of data from intake interviews at a shelter for battered women provided good support for model predictions. Consistent with hypotheses, feelings of commitment were greater among women who had poorer-quality economic alternatives, were more heavily invested in their relationships (e.g., were married), and experienced lesser dissatisfaction (e.g., reported less severe abuse). Also consistent with hypotheses, commitment was strongly linked to stay/leave behavior, significantly distinguishing between women who returned to their partners immediately on leaving the shelter and women who did not. Causal modeling analyses suggested that commitment may mediate the effects of alternatives, investments, and satisfaction on stay/leave decisions. Implications for our knowledge of nonvoluntary dependence, as well as for social policy regarding family violence, are discussed.
Still Bringing the Vietnam War Home: Sources of Contemporary Student Activism
Authors: Duncan Lauren E. , Stewart Abigail J.
Published: March 2007

This study examined student activism concerning the Persian Gulf War. Results showed that students' reports of their parents' activities during the Vietnam War were strongly associated with students' Gulf War-related activism. Other correlates of activism included attitudes toward war, political consciousness, authoritarianism, and gender-role ideology. After the authors controlled for student attitudes, path analyses confirmed the direct role of parental modeling for children's activism in opposition to and in support of the Gulf War. In addition, parents' antiwar activism indirectly influenced students' antiwar activism through authoritarianism scores and antiwar attitudes. Parents' war-support activism had no such indirect effect on students' war-support activism; however, gender-role ideology, authoritarianism, and prowar attitudes influenced students' war-support activism. The findings support the frequently hypothesized but seldom-studied link between parents' activism and children's later activism.
Accuracy of Self-Predictions Versus Judgments by Knowledgeable Others
Authors: Shrauger J. Sidney , Ram Dorrit , Greninger Sandra A. , Mariano Eric
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined the relative accuracy of subjects' self-predictions of their future behavior versus predictions made by others who knew them very well. Self-predictions were more accurate than those made by subjects' mothers or peers. This was especially true when negative outcomes were predicted, when predictions were made against the base rate, or when events with less extreme base rates were predicted. Subjects whose behavior was more atypical and those who described themselves as impulsive were more difficult to predict, both for themselves and generally for others. Differential accuracy is discussed in terms of the role of self-protective biases and the information base that is available for predictions.
"I've Been there, Too": Effect on Empathy of Prior Experience with a Need
Authors: Batson C. Daniel , Sympson Susie C. , Hindman Jennifer L. , Decruz Peter , Todd R. Matthew , Weeks Joy L. , Jennings Geoffrey , Burns Christopher T.
Published: March 2007

Two studies tested the prediction that having had prior experience with a need increases empathy for another person currently experiencing that need. In Study 1, subjects reported their feelings of empathy after observing a same-sex peer endure mild but uncomfortable electric shocks. Compared with those given no prior experience with the shocks, women who had prepared to receive the shocks themselves reported more empathy, whereas men who had prepared reported less. In Study 2, subjects reported their feelings of empathy after reading a transcript in which a same-sex adolescent described an upsetting life experience. Women who had had a similar experience during adolescence reported more empathy than women who had not; men who had had a similar experience reported no more empathy than men who had not. Across both studies, then, prior experience with the need increased empathy among women but not among men.
The Importance of Distinguishing the Belief in a Just World for Self Versus for Others: Implications for Psychological Well-Being
Authors: Lipkusa Isaac M. , Dalbert Claudia , Siegler Ilene C.
Published: March 2007

Studies have shown that the belief in a just world (BJW) is related to psychological well-being. The authors suggest that studies exploring this relationship might benefit by making the distinction between the BJW for self versus for others or in general. In two studies, the authors assessed subjects' perceptions of depression, stress, and life satisfaction for self and for others. Subjects also completed measures of the five-factor model of personality. As predicted, the BJW for self most strongly and consistently predicted decreases in depression and stress, and increases in life satisfaction. When the five personality dimensions were included in the analyses, the BJW for self and for others continued to predict life satisfaction but not depression and stress. The implications of these results concerning the relationship between the BJW and psychological well-being, and how the just world is conceptualized, are discussed.
Affective Reactions to Social Comparison: The Effects of Relative Performance and Related Attributes Information about Another Person
Authors: Kulik James A. , Gump Brooks B.
Published: March 2007

Males performed a task and then were led to believe they had performed worse, the same, or better than another male who appeared to be advantaged, similar, or disadvantaged with respect to performance-related attributes. When presented simultaneously with relative performance information, the comparison other's related attributes had surprisingly little impact on subjects' affective reactions (Experiment 1), even when attention was directed explicitly to the related attribute information (Experiment 2). When the comparison other's related attribute information was considered prior to the relative performance information, however, the related attribute information did have an impact on affective reactions (Experiment 3). The related attributes of another person may thus have a more circumscribed influence on one's affective reactions to performance than generally expected. Possible moderating and mediating factors are discussed.
Biased Assimilation, Attitude Polarization, and Affect in Reactions to Stereotype-Relevant Scientific Information
Authors: Munro Geoffrey D. , Ditto Peter H.
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined (a) whether biased assimilation and attitude polarization occur in the processing of stereotype-relevant scientific information and (b) the role of affect in these processes. In Study 1, individuals high or low in prejudice toward homosexuals read two fictitious studies, one confirming and one disconfirming the stereotype of homosexuality. Study 2 replicated Study 1 using a sample including individuals with moderate attitudes about homosexuality. Evidence of biased assimilation was found. Participants perceived research consistent with their attitude about homosexuality as more convincing than research inconsistent with their attitude. Evidence of attitude polarization was also found but was restricted to measures of perceived attitude change. Finally, participants reported more negative affective reactions after attitude-inconsistent than attitude-consistent information, and evidence was found that these affective reactions mediated biased processing. Implications of the results for biased assimilation, attitude polarization, and the resiliency of prejudicial attitudes are discussed.
Deceiver's Distrust: Denigration as a Consequence of Undiscovered Deception
Authors: Sagarin Brad J. , Rhoads Kelton v. L. , Cialdini Robert B.
Published: March 2007

Although psychologists have long recognized the havoc that a discovered lie can wreak on a relationship, this study indicates that even an undiscovered deception can bring about negative consequences. An experiment explored one such consequence by examining the hypothesis that in a dyadic relationship, if one partner lies to the other, the liar will begin to perceive the recipient as less honest. Participants who were induced to lie to a partner in a believable and, in some conditions, damaging manner then rated the partner on a variety of traits, including honesty. The results indicated a significant reduction in perceived honesty of the recipient of the lie, particularly by participants who told damaging lies. An exploration into the underlying mechanisms of the effect suggested that deceiver's distrust operates through affective means, with the liars justifying their actions in a self-protection motivated version of the false consensus effect.
Beyond Conflict and Discrepancy: Cognitive Bias in Minority and Majority Influence
Authors: Erb Hans-Peter , Bohner Gerd , Schmilzle Knut , Rank Susanne
Published: March 2007

The authors studied effects of majority and minority support on persuasion for nondiscrepant positions. In two experiments, students (N = 188) read messages on previously unknown attitude objects. These messages were attributed to numerical majorities (high consensus) or minorities (low consensus). The results show that consensus information can bias systematic processing of message content. High consensus evoked positively biased cognitive responses that focused on message content (convergent processing), whereas low consensus elicited negatively biased processing that pertained to new aspects of the issue (divergent processing). Post-message attitudes were more positive under high consensus than under low consensus; this effect was mediated via thought valence but not via thought convergence. In Experiment 2, these effects were replicated if consensus information preceded message processing but not if it was presented after message processing. Furthermore, in both experiments, cognitive activity was lower if consensus information was presented (vs. not presented) before the message.
Bias of Coefficient afor Fixed Congeneric Measures with Correlated Errors
Authors: Raykov Tenko
Published: March 2007

The population discrepancy of coefficient a from the composite reliability coefficient for fixed congeneric measures with correlated errors is studied and expressed in terms of parameters of the measures. Use of structural equation modeling methodology is recommended for identifying cases in which this discrepancy can be large. The findings are demonstrated across several empirical conditions in a scale construction context.
The Extra-Factor Phenomenon Revisited: Unidimensional Unfolding as Quadratic Factor Analysis
Authors: Maraun Michael D. , Rossi Natasha T.
Published: March 2007

The application of linear factor analysis to a set of unfoldable (unidimensional) items produces a two-dimensional solution, called the extra-factor phenomenon, which potentially results in incorrect conclusions about the nature of a set of items (van Schuur& Kiers, 1994). Many explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. This study attempted further clarification within the general theory of factor analysis. Specifically, it was demonstrated that the extra-factor phenomenon arises because: (1) the metric unidimensional unfolding model is equivalent to the unidimensional quadratic factor model; and (2) at the level of covariance structure, the unidimensional quadratic factor model is not distinguishable from the two-dimensional linear factor model (McDonald, 1967). Also discussed are a number of theoretical linkages and bases of distinguishability that exist between unidimensional unfolding and linear factor analysis.
Inference About Weighted Kappa in the Non-Null Case
Authors: Fleiss Joseph L. , Cicchetti Domenic V.
Published: March 2007

The accuracy of the large sample standard error of weighted kappa appropriate to the non-null case was studied by computer simulation. Results indi cate that only moderate sample sizes are required to test the hypothesis that two independently de rived estimates of weighted kappa are equal. How ever, in most instances the minimal sample sizes re quired for setting confidence limits around a single value of weighted kappa are inordinately large. An alternative, but as yet untested procedure for set ting confidence limits, is suggested as being poten tially more accurate.
Two Types of Factors in the Analysis of Semantic Differential Attitude Data
Authors: Mayerberg Cathleen Kubiniec , Bean Andrew G.
Published: March 2007

Evidence is presented for the existence of two types of factors when semantic differential data are factor analyzed by treating each concept-scale com bination as a variable: (1) factors defined by scales within given concepts and (2) factors defined by scales across concepts. These two types of factors were found for each of two independent data sets. The findings suggest changes in the procedures in vestigators typically use to select scales, to analyze their three-dimensional array, and to obtain at titude scores.
Construct Validity of the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development
Authors: Loevinger Jane
Published: March 2007

Evidence for the construct validity of the Sen tence Completion Test of Ego Development (SCT), some of it previously unpublished, is reviewed. The substantive component is substantiated both by in tuitive plausibility and by the fact that rating skill can be communicated through written instructions. Internal consistency is shown by alpha coefficients of about .85. Evidence for sequentiality is provided by studies showing cross-sectional gains with age during adolescence, similar profiles of item scores for adjacent total protocol ratings, substantial cor relations over long time spans, gains proportional to retest intervals during adolescence, gains follow ing theory-relevant interventions of several months' length, and better comprehension of lower than of higher stages. The SCT has substantial correlation with tests of related conceptions, such as Kohl berg's test of moral maturity, and with measures of ego level applied to other behavior samples. Cor relations with isolated traits characteristic of spe cific stages range from negligible to positive. Studies of external validity in general yield positive results, though theory does not sharply define what results should be considered positive. At lower ego levels there is behavioral evidence confirming the syndromes; at higher levels differential evidence lies in attitudes and ideas. Overall, the test has ade quate validity for research purposes when ad ministered and scored with sufficient care, but not for individual diagnosis unsupported by other data. Evidence for construct validity is substantial, but falls short of clear proof of sequentiality.