bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ringing the Changes: General John Eaton and the 1886 Public School Music Survey
Authors: Bergee Martin J.
Published: June 2006

General John Eaton, commissioner of the United States Bureau of Education from 1870 to 1886, undertook a survey of public school music programs in American city schools in 1885 and published it in 1886, Eaton undertook the survey in response to what he believed to be a great urgency on the part of music teachers to ascertain the state of public school music. The survey instrument asked questions concerning how many hours per week, in what grades, and by whom music was taught. A description of the systems and textbooks used to teach music reading was solicited. Eaton also was interested in knowing of any objections being urged against introducing music into the schools. A total of 343 school districts, encompassing a public school enrollment of 1,209,677 students, responded to the survey. Of those districts, 96 reported no instruction in music, 132 reported that instruction was given by the regular teaching force, 19 reported special teachers for music, and 96 reported employing both regular and special teachers for music instruction. In districts where music was not taught, reasons such as lack of money, public indifference, lack of skill on the part of the teachers, and lack of time were given. The survey concluded with a lengthy list of lay singing societies. The survey, frequently mentioned in convention addresses between 1886 and 1889, was used as evidence that music in the public schools was far from being accepted as part of a basic curriculum. The document provided a rallying point for persons committed to music instruction for every child.
Effects of Rote Versus Note Presentations on Rhythm Learning and Retention
Authors: Shehan Patricia K.
Published: June 2006

This study examined the effects of aural and visual approaches to rhythm reading and short-term retention. Second- and sixth-grade students were presented with two-measure rhythm patterns in four modes: (1) audio-rhythm, (2) audio-mnemonics, (3) (audio) visual-rhythm, and (4) (audio) visual-mnemonics. Raw data consisted of the number of trials necessary for the correct performance of the rhythms on a woodblock. Results indicated that the simultaneous use of auditory and visual channels facilitates learning and retention of rhythms at both grade levels. Maturation is significant in the acquisition of rhythms, in that older students learned the patterns twice as quickly as the younger children, regardless of presentation mode. Factors concerning the mnemonics, short-term memory, and the development of music literacy were discussed.
Prediction of Performer Attentiveness Based on Rehearsal Activity and Teacher Behavior
Authors: Yarbrough Cornelia , Price Harry E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine videotaped teacher and performer behavior during several high school ensemble rehearsals to determine the predictability of a dependent variable, frequency of off-task behavior, by the following carrier variables: performance time; nonperformance time; frequency of social and academic approvals and disapprovals, stops, complete and incomplete teaching units, errors, and teacher eye contact. Subjects were six high school ensemble teachers and randomly selected students from two mixed choruses, three bands, and one orchestra. Videotapes, using two cameras and a special effects generator for a split-screen effect, were made for ex post facto analysis. The predictability of off task behavior carrier variables was ex amined, using a multiple regression analysis. The variability of off-task behavior caused by individual teacher differences was accounted for in a repeated measures design. Results indicated a strong relationship between off-task behavior and individ ual teachers, nonperformance activity, and teacher eye contact. The carrier variables in this model accounted for 81.38% of the off-task variability.
Short-Term Music Instruction and Young Children's Developmental Music Aptitude
Authors: Flohr John W.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of short-term music instruction on five-year-old children's developmental music aptitude as measured by Gordon's Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA). Twenty-nine children were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The Music-I group received 12 weeks of instruction emphasizing instrumental improvisation. The Music-II group received 12 weeks of instruction consisting of singing, playing percussion instruments, and move ment. The control group received no instruction in music. Preliminary analysis indi cated no significant difference among the three groups. Further analysis revealed a significant difference between the groups receiving music instruction and the control group: the Music-I and Music-II combined mean scores on the PMMA were significantly higher. Results indicated that short-term music instruction influences five year-old children's developmental music aptitude.
Moravian Music Education in America, ca. 1750 to ca. 1830
Authors: Hall Harry H.
Published: June 2006

The Moravians, descendants of the pre-Reformation Unitas Fratrum, were among many religious and ethnic immigrants to this country during the eighteenth century. Their frontier settlements in Pennsylvania and North Carolina soon became well-springs of educational and musical activity. A strong commitment to education resulted in the establishing of first-rate schools. An almost consuming love of music-sacred and secular, vocal and instrumental–led to achievements without peer in colonial times. It is not at all surprising, then, that they brought music and education together in optimum union. Music was regarded for its aesthetic as well as practical value, and music experiences were provided at all levels of instruction and enjoyed solid curricular status–something quite unique in American education at the time.
The Aural Perception of Similarity in Nontraditional Chords Related by Octave Equivalence
Authors: Gibson Don B.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the aural significance of the octave-equivalence I assumption, which is essential to the notion of “pitch class.” To address this question, the author developed a series of 22 experimental items, each consisting of two pairs of nontraditional chords presented harmonically. The two chords of one of the pairs in each item contained the same pitch classes, with each pitch class in the second chord of that pair in a different octave than it had been in the first chord. The two chords in the other pair did not have identical pitch classes. These chord pairs (A, A1) and (A, B) were constructed so that a given chord (A) would be compared alternately with two other chords (A1 and B). The subjects were to judge which pair sounded more alike. The items included chords ranging in size from three to nine pitches. The number of new pitches in Chord B was also treated as a variable in the experiment.

An Apple IIe, equipped with three ALF MC16 Music Cards, presented a random ordering of the experimental items to each of the 51 music majors and 50 nonmusic majors who completed the experiment. Statistical analysis of the 2, 222 individual item responses demonstrated some evidence of the perception of similarity in chords containing six, seven, and eight pitches. The relative number of new pitches in Chord B did not seem to affect the responses of the subjects. Additionally, the responses of the majors did not differ significantly from those of the nonmajors. There was also a significant tendency for both majors and nonmajors to choose the first pair of chords more frequently than the second pair. This tendency was more pronounced for the majors than for the nonmajors.

Additional data provided by a group of 26 professional musicians supported the results obtained in this study.
A Descriptive Study of an Arts-in-Education Project
Authors: McGowan John J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to describe the development and make assessments about the I effectiveness of a federally funded arts-in-education project. This project was undertaken by the Homer (New York) Central Schools in response to the concern that some educators have expressed over the isolation of the arts in American education. Selected antecedents, transactions, and outcomes were described and analyzed (Stake, 1975). The author compiled a list of issues; collected the data by means of interviews with participants, document reviews, and observations; and concluded that the project provided a variety of arts activities but did not reach the stated goal of integrating arts experiences on a regular basis into the total school program. Results of the study suggest that an arts-in-education program should be based on a clear idea of need and have a systematic structure to implement activities, including the regular involvement of existing arts programs.
On a Choice-Based Instructional Typology in Music
Authors: Jorgensen Estelle R.
Published: June 2006

This article presents the case for the systematic study of music instruction using economic analysis. A taxonomy of four choice-based instructional types is derived and hypothetical examples from music instruction are presented. The implications of the analysis for future research are discussed.
Music Lessons and Books as Reinforcement Alternatives for an Academic Task
Authors: Madsen Clifford K.
Published: June 2006

While studies of effective reinforcers for academic subject matter have been extensive, the effect of possible subject matter gain for that subject when used as reinforcement for another subject has only recently been investigated. Initial studies indicated that correct math scores increased as a function of a televised music contingency for subjects who were reinforced for correct academic responses. These studies also demonstrated that subjects showed a significant music subject matter gain. The present study investigated two academic rewards as contingencies for correct math responses: receipt of books and televised music lessons. The study used an extended reversal design and was conducted by a regular classroom teacher. Results indicated that both receipt of books and televised music lessons functioned to increase math performance. More importantly, there was significant pre-, mid-, and posttest gain in music subject matter in direct relationship to subjects' viewing televised lessons.
Effects of Sequencing, Classifying, and Coding on Identifying Harmonic Functions
Authors: Alvarez Manuel
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of scalar or root classification systems, inductive or deductive content sequences, and kinetic or verbal coding processes on identifying harmonic functions. An aural identification test battery that consists of root position and root position/inversion subtests was designed by the investigator to serve as criterion measures. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to analyze the results of the study. Only the main effects for classification systems were found to be significant on the multivariate test. Separate univariate analyses indicated that the scalar classification groups obtained significantly higher mean scores on both criterion measures. Thus, a scalar classification system appears to be a more effective procedure for teaching the aural identification of harmonic functions.
Effects of Traditional and Simplified Methods of Rhythm-Reading Instruction
Authors: Bebeau Muriel J.
Published: June 2006

Two experiments were conducted to compare the effectiveness of teaching rhythm reading using a traditional approach versus a simplified speech cue method. Results of the first experiment indicated the superiority of the speech cue method. Experiment 2 was conducted to determine whether the speech cue method could be used effectively with minimal teacher training. A 23-item rhythm-reading test was administered to 107 third graders before and after rhythm instruction by each method. In both experiments, the speech cue group made significantly greater gains than the traditional group. The difference between pretest and posttest scores was significant for both treatment groups. The findings have general application for rhythm-reading instruction using the speech cue method for early training.
Pitch, Tempo, and Timbral Preferences in Recorded Piano Music
Authors: Wapnick Joel
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to obtain pitch, tempo, and timbre preferences of undergraduate music students. The effects of each of these variables were assessed independently of the other two within a realistic listening situation. Ninety-six subjects were randomly assigned to four groups. All subjects heard 12 excerpts of familiar and unfamiliar solo piano music. Subjects in groups 2, 3, and 4 selected pitch level, tempo, and timbral quality, respectively. Group 1 subjects modulated a dial connected to the speed control on a variable-speed tape recorder by which they modulated these variables simultaneously. Results indicated a large preference for increased tape speed by Group 1 subjects; preferences for fast tempo and bright timbre when each variable was examined independently from the effects of other variables; no particular preference for pitch levels significantly different from those heard on unaltered recordings; no relationship between accuracy of response and excerpt familiarity; and preference direction was a function of excerpt familiarity for subjects in Group 3 (Tempo) only.
The Process of Musical Creation: Interviews with Eight Composers
Authors: Bennett Stan
Published: June 2006

The process of musical creation was investigated through a series of semistructured interviews with eight professional composers of classical music. For these eight composers, 12.1 years was the average chronological age when they composed their first work. For the majority of composers, the first composition was a song or melody. The composing process frequently involved first discovering a “germinal idea.” A brief sketch of the germinal idea was often recorded, followed by a first draft of the work, elaboration and refinement of the first draft, and then completion of the final draft and copying of the score. Compositional activity seems to occur most frequently in association with feelings of tranquility, security, and relaxation. Suggestions are presented for future research on the act of musical creation.
Revisionist Historians: Writers Reflected in their Writings
Authors: Pemberton Carol A.
Published: June 2006

Historians are revisionists in that personal and cultural conditioning is automatically reflected in their interpretations. These influences, coupled with conscious efforts to reexamine material, result in revised interpretations from era to era. The fact that phenomena are interpreted differently over time is illustrated by contrasting views of Lowell Mason during his lifetime and our own era. In his day, Mason was criticized as an opportunist who played favorites; today he is criticized for plagiarizing as well as for promoting ersatz Pestalozzianism and colorless music. In the nineteenth century, he was praised as a teacher, a creator of “correct” music, and an advocate of church music. In the twentieth century, Mason is praised for instigating curricular school music. The nature of these views, then versus now, reflects the cultural conditioning and personalities of observers then versus now When we recognize these conscious and unconscious influences upon historical writing, we become more perceptive readers and more insightful writers.
A Comparison of Syllabic Methods for Improving Rhythm Literacy
Authors: Colley Bernadette
Published: June 2006

The author investigated the effects of three syllabic recitation systems on skills associated with the ability to read rhythm notation. Subjects were 160 second- and third-grade children enrolled in public schools in southern Maine. Twelve rhythm patterns containing half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes were used. Random combinations of the twelve patterns were combined into complete measures of 4/4 or 6/8. Subjects were tested on their ability to recognize, write, and clap these patterns. Evaluation of these three skills was based on experimenter-designed tests, and a pretest-posttest experimental design was used. Results showed that a syllabic system that differentiated between duple and triple subdivisions of the beat improved recognition skills to a greater degree than one that did not. Furthermore, a system in which specific words were assigned to intact rhythm patterns improved performance and notation skills to a greater degree than did the two systems that used monosyllables.
Comparison of Two Approaches to Teaching Beginning Band
Authors: Whitener William T.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effects of a comprehensive musicianship approach as compared to a performance-oriented approach to the instruction of beginning band students at the junior high level. In the comprehensive musicianship approach (experimental group) the students experienced an in-depth study of several of the elements of music as well as form, composition, and improvisation. Students in the performance-oriented approach (control] group) were taught according to the band method in use. A pretest-posttest design with the teachers nested within the treatment levels as well as a performance posttest specially] designed for the study were used to provide data. The resulting effects of the two approaches on the dependent variables revealed significant differences in the posttest scores in the areas of interval, meter, major-minor mode, and auditory-visual discrimination. All significant differences favored the experimental group. There was no significant difference in the performance test. This evidence suggested that members of both groups performed equally well.
Effects of Tempo and Performing Medium on Children's Music Preference
Authors: LeBlanc Albert , Cote Richard
Published: June 2006

This study measured the effect of tempo and performing medium on the expressed preference of fifth- and sixth-grade students for traditional jazz music listening examples. A listening test was administered to 354 students in 14 classrooms in central Michigan. Test reliability was evaluated in terms of common factor concentration, student behavior observed during the test, and free response data solicited from students at the end of the measurement procedure as an additional check on results. A two-way repeated measures analysis of variance disclosed a significant interaction. Correlational analysis indicated that tempo was more influential than performing medium as a determinant of music preference, and an examination of cell means showed a consistent preference for faster tempos and for performance in the instrumental medium.
Engineering Change in Music Education: A Model of the Political Process Underlying the Boston School Music Movement (1829-1838)
Authors: Jorgensen Estelle R.
Published: June 2006

In this paper, a dynamic model of the political process underlying the Boston school music movement (1829-1838) is explained. Its function is to generate hypotheses about the political process underlying public school music innovations in Type C politico-organizational environments: those in which executive responsibility for public education is vested in local school boards. Implications of the model include: a “snowball effect” as a movement gains support and events transpire with increasing rapidity; the importance of orchestrating the political process, particularly in the early phases; a “demonstration effect” and the role of model schools; the distinction between the efficacy of an idea and how well it is sold to the public at large; and the possible utility of the model for contemporary public school music practice.
Relationship of Music Ability and Intelligence to Auditory and Visual Conservation of the Kindergarten Child
Authors: Norton Doris
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship of music ability and intelligence to auditory and visual conservation of the kindergarten child. Observations took place in two kindergartens with a total sample of 34 children. The Simons Measurements of Music Listening Skills (SMMLS) was used to determine the child's music ability; the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) tested the child's verbal intelligence. Two criterion tests, the Musical Tasks Test and the Piagetian Tasks Test, were used to measure the child's auditory and visual conservation abilities. Results revealed no significant relationship between auditory and visual conservation. The observed correlation between verbal intelligence and visual conservation, as measured by the PPVT and the Piagetian Tasks Test, was nonsignificant. Music ability was significantly related to auditory conservation. The total regression model, which included variables of music ability, intelligence, and the interaction of music ability/intelligence, was able to predict auditory conservation at the .075 level of significance. Data suggested that educators should not assume that visual conservers are auditory conservers. Data also suggested that children's music ability is a strong indication of their ability to solve auditory conservation tasks.
Musical Tasks Related to the Development of the Conservation of Metric Time
Authors: Perney Jan
Published: June 2006

In order to provide information concerning the development of musical concepts in young children, musical tasks related to Piaget's concept of conservation of metric time were presented to second- and third-grade children. The results indicated that children who played musical instruments did not perform significantly better than their peerswho did not play musical instruments. Second, females were found to be superior to males in performing the tasks. Third, there was a significant positive correlation between performance on the musical tasks and verbal ability for both males and females. Finally, it was found that little support could be given to the idea that conservation of metric time develops in an invariant sequence.
Perception of Tonality in Short Melodies
Authors: Taylor Jack A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to utilize information theory in quantifying the strength of tonality (TS) in short melodies, and to observe changes in TS values as a function of the melody length, contour, pitch structure, and condition under which the melodies were presented. The results indicated that for tonal melodies only, greater tonal strength is a function of high perception ability and the condition under which the subjects perceive the melodies. TS values for atonal melodies were unchanged as functions of perception ability and the other experimental variables. It was concluded that perception of tonality in melodies is a learned phenomenon, and that information theory is a viable measurement technique.
Influence of Number of Different Pitches and Melodic Redundancy on Preference Responses
Authors: McMullen Patrick T.
Published: June 2006

The problem of this study was to determine if melodic complexity, defined as number of different pitches or melodic redundancy, influences preference responses of school-age subjects. The test melodies presented to the subjects consisted of nine original, randomly-generated, 48-pitch melodies in which all musical elements (except number of different pitches and redundancy) had been held constant or randomized. Subjects indicated their responses to these melodies on a seven-point response scale.

The results indicate that the two melodic complexity factors of number of different pitches and melodic redundancy do influence preference responses of school-age subjects to a statistically significant degree when highly controlled melodies are employed. No interaction effect between these two complexity variables appears to be present. Melodies generated from five or seven different pitch alphabets are preferred to a statistically significant degree over those generated from twelve different pitch alphabets; and melodies containing low or intermediate levels of redundancy (as designated in this study) generally are preferred to a statistically significant degree over highly redundant melodies.
Environment—A Factor in Conceptual Listening Skills of Elementary School Children
Authors: McDonald Dorothy
Published: June 2006

An attempt was made to determine the role of environment in elementary school children's identification of selected musical concepts through aural experience with orchestral literature. A listening test was developed for this purpose, as well as a pilot study that was conducted with two fourth grade populations from constrasting socioeconomic backgrounds.

Results from the investigation showed that the middle-class fourth grade children scored significantly higher on the listening test than did the lower-class children. Among the variables tested, multiple regression analyses revealed a significant relationship between mental age and musical concept identification for the middle-class children. The test itself, while proving acceptable in terms of reliability for the middle-class children, did not prove so for the lower-class children because no significant relationships among any of the variables were found. The results of this study reaffirm the necessity to continue the development of appropriate materials and methods to teach music to lower-class children.
Study of a Behaviorally Oriented Training Program for Aural Skills
Authors: Harriss Ernest
Published: June 2006

This study compares the in-class programed instructional procedure developed by H. Gilbert Trythall at Peabody College with a traditional procedure. Freshman music majors at Northeast Louisiana State University were divided into experimental and control groups for this study. A testing instrument, composed of nine sections, was developed to examine each skill area. Data were gathered in a pretest, a midyear test, and a posttest to mitigate the effects of high attrition. An analysis of the data showed significantly greater improvement by the experimental group on the test as a whole.
Acquiring Conservation of Melody and Cross-Modal Transfer Through Successive Approximation
Authors: Botvin Gilbert J.
Published: June 2006

First graders were pretested on conservation of four physical properties and conservation of melody. During three twenty-minute sessions, melody non-conservers were trained by either successive approximation only or successive approximation and verbal rule instruction. Both experimental procedures produced a significant number of posttest conservers on the melody training task and the melody transfer task. In addition, there was significant transfer of training to mass, weight, and number by the successive-approximation-only group.
Effects of Authority Figure Biases on Changing Judgments of Musical Events
Authors: Radocy Rudolf E.
Published: June 2006

Undergraduate music students listened to and rated identical performances of compositions under differing bias conditions, structured by authoritatively providing varying amounts of bogus information about alleged performers or composers and hypothetical prior listeners. The students tended to express their performance judgments in accordance with bias produced by the researcher, although bias interacted with performance media and order. Bias influences on expressions of preference for members of similar composition pairs were obtained, but they were less clearcut than the influences on performance, and there was considerable interaction with style period and order. Bias tended to make a greater difference when directed toward the first members of paired examples. Evidence suggests that music educators should consider the extent to which students are influenced by appearance rather than structure.
Effect of Differential Teaching Techniques on Achievement, Attitude, and Teaching Skills
Authors: Moore Randall S.
Published: June 2006

This study was designed to investigate the effect of differential teaching techniques on achievement, attitude, and teaching skills of 125 college students enrolled in elementary music education classes. Five teaching techniques included contingency-managed instruction (CMI), independent study, CMI-lecture discussion, contact control, and delay contact control groups. The five treatment groups were taught the same instructional materials, pretested, and posttested on modular units pertainingto the elementary music education competencies and teaching skills. Analyses of the data showed no significant differences among groups on pretests, while CMI groups performed better on posttests and the CMI-lecture discussion group best on teaching skills. CMI groups generally demonstrated higher attitude responses. It was concluded that CMI is effective in teaching elementary music education concepts and skills, and that the combination CMI-lecture discussion method includes the benefits of CMI while adding teacher modeling by way of class lectures. It was conjectured that this teacher modeling perhaps provided the basis for higher scores in actual teaching skills.
The Development of the Child' s Conception of Meter in Music
Authors: Jones Russell L.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of the child' s ability to conceptualize and identify meter in music. Eleven musical tasks, based largely on Piaget' s theory of the child' s conception of time, were administered individually to 66 children, ages 5– 12. The tasks were arranged in order of increasing difficulty, and a scalogram analysis was performed on the data. Green' s index of consistency for the scale was .854 (an index of .5 or above represents satisfactory scalability). Although the order of difficulty of the 11 tasks may not be regarded as invariant, an analysis of the responses provided support for Piaget' s idea that the child' s conception of time develops through three invariant stages. The meter concept seems to develop after about age 91/2, although many children in this study between ages 91/2 and 12 had some difficulty understanding the meter concept and identifying the meter of rhythm patterns following a pretraining session.
An Investigation into Leadership Behaviors and Descriptive Characteristics of High School Band Directors in the United States
Authors: Goodstein Richard E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are any differences between a successful group and a randomly selected group of band directors in their leadership behaviors and/or descriptive/environmental characteristics. The theory of leadership behavior was developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard. The results indicated that the two groups of investigated band directors had strikingly similar leadership behaviors. There were significant differences obtained between the two groups in the descriptive/environmental variables: The successful band directors were older, had a higher incidence of master's degrees, worked in school districts described as more affluent, raised more money through fundraising activities, had stronger band booster organizations, worked in schools with larger student bodies, had more students involved in the band program, had larger marching bands, had larger “top” concert bands, had more incoming freshmen enrolled in their programs, had more students involved in solo and/or ensemble activities, and worked in more urbanized areas.
The Snedden-Farnsworth Exchanges of 1917 and 1918 on the Value of Music and Art in Education
Authors: Lee William R.
Published: June 2006

In 1917 and 1918, Charles Hubert Farnsworth, a leading music educator from Teachers College, Columbia University, and David Snedden, a critic and educational theorist of national repute, privately exchanged views on the role of art and music in society and in education. Snedden mulled over Herbert Spencer's query “What knowledge is of most worth?” and concluded that music must have practical survival value: it must contribute primarily to the maintenance of social and political order and secondarily to other aims. Farnsworth, on the other hand, thought that music performance or appreciation should be for the immediate joy that it gives the individual, not for some deferred social purpose no matter how important it might be. These divergent positions are explained in light of Farnsworth's interests in philosophy and Snedden's schooling in Spencerian and Darwinian thought.
Recognition of Intensity Contrasts in the Gestures of Beginning Conductors
Authors: Byo James L.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether high and low contrasts of gestural intensity could be demonstrated by undergraduate beginning conductors and, furthermore, whether independent observers could recognize these contrasts. An investigator-developed stimulus videotape, illustrating beginning conductors in 1-minute demonstrations of intensity contrasts, was viewed by graduate and undergraduate music majors, undergraduate nonmusic majors, and high school music students. These subjects ( N = 320) labeled each 15-second interval according to perceived contrast of intensity and indicated an overall intensity rating for each conductor. Results indicated a 77% correct response rate. Analysis yielded a significant difference in mean correct response between the graduate group and all other subjects, no significant difference in mean intensity ratings among subjects, and a high degree of reliability among the four experimental groups on overall intensity ratings.
Effect of Intensity Training on Preservice Teachers' Instruction Accuracy and Delivery Effectiveness
Authors: Cassidy Jane W.
Published: June 2006

Preservice elementary education majors completed five teaching presentations that included (a) teaching children's songs and music concepts to peers and (b) a preschool field-teaching lesson. Experimental subjects ( n = 26) received four training sessions in teacher intensity, which alternated with the five teaching presentations. Control subjects ( n = 26) received no instruction in intensity. All videotaped sessions were observed, and teacher behavior was recorded as high intensity or low intensity. Low intensity was further categorized as poor information and/or ineffective delivery.

Analysis of the teaching of three rote songs indicated a significant interaction between teaching task and treatment on accuracy and efficiency of instruction. During preschool field teaching, both groups significantly improved in the delivery aspect of teaching, and control subjects significantly increased the percentage of intervals of high-intensity teaching. Further analysis indicated that experimental subjects incorporated more interactive music activities into presentations than did control subjects.
Relationships Between Grades in the Components of Freshman Music Theory and Selected Background Variables
Authors: Harrison Carole S.
Published: June 2006

The relative contributions of measures of academic ability, music experience, and musical aptitude in predicting grades in the written-work, ear-training, sight-singing, and keyboard-harmony components of each of two freshman music theory courses were determined by multiple regression techniques. The best predictor of grades in the written-work component of both semester courses and in the ear-training component of the first semester course was the math portion of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Measures of music experience and musical aptitude were the best predictors of grades in the sight-singing and keyboard-harmony components of both semester courses and in the ear-training component of the second-semester course. The results of canonical correlation analysis of the first-semester data suggested the presence of one general dimension.
Effects of Mental Practice, Physical Practice, and Knowledge of Results on Piano Performance
Authors: Coffman Don D.
Published: June 2006

In this study, the author examined the effects of type of practice (physical, mental, I alternating physical/mental, and a motivational control) and aural knowledge of results on improving piano performance. Forty music education and music therapy majors participated in a pretest and posttest experiment using one of eight treatment conditions. The dependent variables were performance time, number of pitch errors, and number of rhythm errors. Results revealed that (a) all three practice conditions had significantly shorter performance times than did the control condition, (b) treatments using physical practice and alternating mental/physical practice yielded significantly shorter performance times than did the mental practice treatment alone, and (c) the physical practice treatment did not differ significantly from the alternating mental/physical practicel treatment in improving performance times. No other statistically significant differences were found among the three practice conditions.
Music Appreciation and Hemisphere Orientation: Visual versus Verbal Involvement
Authors: Zalanowski Annette H.
Published: June 2006

Music appreciation teachers are continuously seeking methods for increasing student involvement with music. In this study, three different music-involvement techniques were compared: visual representation, verbal description, and a control condition. In the visual condition, subjects drew an illustration of the musical activity of a short music selection. In the verbal condition, subjects wrote a paragraph describing the music. In the control condition, subjects listened to the music and mentally followed its movement. All subjects then answered a questionnaire measuring several aspects of responsiveness, such as enjoyment, attention, and understanding. Results were also analyzed on the basis of the subjects' right-hemisphere or left-hemisphere orientation. Overall, there were no differences among the three conditions. There were significant interactions, however, between activity and hemisphere orientation. Right-oriented subjects had the highest appreciation scores in the visual condition, while left-oriented subjects had the highest scores in the verbal condition. The visual condition interfered with mental imagery in left-oriented subjects. Right-hemisphere subjects drew more accurate visual representations than did lefts.
Apparent Time Passage and Music Preference by Music and Nonmusic Majors
Authors: Palmquist Jane E.
Published: June 2006

This article describes an investigation of the relationship between apparent time passage and music preference by music and nonmusic majors. Data were gathered from 80 university students. Subjects indicated an apparent time passage and a music preference response for each of eight instrumental popular music selections. Statistical analyses revealed (a) no significant correlation between apparent time passage and music preference measures, (b) no significant difference between the apparent time judgments or preference ratings by music and nonmusic majors, and (c) no significant interaction between level of training and time passage or music preference measures. Significant differences among music selections in apparent time passage and music preference measures ( p < .0001) were found for both music and nonmusic majors. There was no significant interaction between music selections and level of training. The homogeneous preference ratings for popular music by music and nonmusic majors and directions for future research in time perception in music are discussed.
Classroom Environment as Related to Contest Ratings Among High School Performing Ensembles
Authors: Hamann Donald L. , Mills Charlotte , Bell John , Daugherty Elza , Koozer Robin
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to assess classroom environments, as measured by the Classroom Environment Scale, Form R (CESR) and as perceived by high school instrumental and choral students and teachers ( N = 1,843) in performing ensembles, to determine whether any significant differences existed between CESR subject scores according to musical achievement (contest ratings), status (teacher or student), sex, or type of performing group (instrumental or choral). Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in all these areas.
The Effect of Vocal Modeling on Pitch-Matching Accuracy of Elementary Schoolchildren
Authors: Green Georgia A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of adult female, adult male, and child vocal modeling on the pitch-matching accuracy of children in Grades 1 through 6. The researcher tested 282 subjects individually on three separate occasions, each time with a different vocal model. Model pitch stimulus and testing conditions were the same on each testing occasion, the only difference being the model voice. Results indicated that vocal modeling had an effect on the subjects' pitch-matching accuracy. There were more correct responses to the child model, followed by the female and the male models, respectively. Incorrect responses were more often flat for the female and male models and more often sharp for the child model. First-grade and sixth-grade subjects sang the highest percentages of incorrect responses for all three models. The highest percentage of flat responses was sung by first-grade subjects.
Measuring Discrimination of Complex Musical Events
Authors: Prince Warren F.
Published: June 2006

This study describes the development of a reliable instrument to measure perceptual judgment in listening to large, complex musical compositions. Paired excerpts from existing compositions in a diversity of historical styles were taped and played to a panel of “expert” listeners. Some pairs were identical, some highly similar, some slightly similar, and some extremely different. The panel's codings were sorted for high and low consensus; the revised instrument was administered to university student samples, producing acceptable reliability coefficients. The study concludes that perception, memory, and comparative judgment in listening to complex musical works can be measured with reasonable accuracy by the instrument.
Effectiveness of Simulation Techniques in Teaching Behavior Management
Authors: Brand Manny
Published: June 2006

This study compared the relative effectiveness of simulated encounters with behavior management problems and the traditional lecture-discussion method in teaching behavior management skills to undergraduate music education majors. More specifically, it investigated whether differential attitude changes, responses to written hypothetical situations, and competencies in handling behavior problems in an actual classroom situation followed simulation treatment procedures, compared to the standard lectures and discussions. Results indicated that both treatments appear to be equally effective. However, when subjects from experimental and control groups were placed in an actual classroom teaching situation, the members of the experimental group functioned more effectively.
Attacks and Releases as Factors in Instrument Identification
Authors: Elliott Charles A.
Published: June 2006

Identification of musical instruments according to their individual timbres was the focus of this study. It was theorized that the attack and release of a tone could be a factor in identifying specific instruments. For testing purposes, a two-part master tape recording was prepared-part A containing 18 randomized instrumental tones with attacks and releases spliced out, part B containing 18 unaltered, randomized tones sounded by the same instruments as in part A. A total of 57 graduate music students served as subjects.

Results showed that in part A (attacks and releases removed), only three instruments-Bb clarinet, oboe, and trumpet-were correctly identified a significant number of times; in part B (unaltered tones), all instruments except the cello were correctly identified a significant number of times. For all participants, the mean score was significantly higher on part B than on part A. Thus, it was concluded that attacks and releases may well be influential factors in differentiating between and identifying specific instrumental tones.
Short-Term Retention of Pitch Sequence
Authors: Williams David Brian
Published: June 2006

This research focused on short-term memory (STM) and the extent to which pitch sequence length and pitch position within a sequence affect the amount of pitch information losi between offset of the stimulus and the time of perceptual report. Loss of pitch information in STM was shown as a result of increased time before recall, the position of a pitch within a sequence (recency > primacy > center), and the increased length of a sequence. It was also demonstrated that loss of pitch information due to an increased number of pitch items stored in STM was dependent upon the amount of time before report. Moreover, time was shown to be a selective function depending upon the pitch position in a melodic sequence.

Implications were indicated for research design in several areas. These included music perception, pedagogical and measurement techniques in eartraining instruction, and programed instruction design in melodic dictation and sight-singing.
The Effects of Music Literature in Developing Aesthetic Sensitivity to Music
Authors: Anderson Lawrence
Published: June 2006

The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of stage band versus concert band music literature on the development of musicality and aesthetic sensitivity. Accordingly, pre-instruction and post-instruction tests were administered to approximately 600 band students in six Contra Costa County, California, high schools during the 1971–1972 academic year.

There was no significant difference in musicality between the band organizations as evidenced by test scores on the Gaston Test of Musicality. There was, however, a pervasive superiority in favor of the concert bands on the California Test of Aesthetic Judgments in Music.

An important observation drawn from the data is that individuals exposed exclusively or partially to concert band literature attained the primary goal of music education—the development of aesthetic sensitivity to music. In this area, they did better than the stage band students.
Carl Busch: Danish-American Music Educator
Authors: Lowe Donald R.
Published: June 2006

Carl Reinhardt Busch (1862-1943) was a Danish immigrant musician who contributed to the development of music education in the United States as a teacher, conductor, adjudicator, and composer. He provided string instruction and organized student orchestras in Kansas City, Missouri, before the establishment of instrumental musk in the school curriculum. He taught at several major universities and was the first music faculty member appointed to Kansas City University, now the University of Missouri at Kansas City. His students included Robert Russell Bennett, William Dawson, Leith Stevens, and Leroy Robertson. As a conductor, Busch worked with student organizations and music educators such as Mabelle Glenn and was one of the pioneers who assisted Joseph Maddy in establishing the National Music Camp at Interlochen. Busch judged several state and national band and orchestra contests and composed many works for student musicians, several of which were selected for state and national contest lists.
The Effects of Age, Singing Ability, and Instrumental Experiences on Preschool Children's Melodic Perception
Authors: Ramsey Jonny H.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effects of age, singing ability, and training with pitched instruments on preschool children's auditory perception of five melodic components: absolute pitch level, melodic rhythm, melodic contour, tonal center, and melodic interval. The results of the study, based on the vocal responses of 91 3- to 5-year-old subjects, revealed the following: (a) significant differences associated with age were found in preschool children's perception of melodic rhythm, melodic contour, and melodic interval; (b) high-ability singers scored higher than low-ability singers on perception of melodic rhythm, melodic contour, tonal center, and melodic interval; (c) instrumental and noninstrumental treatment groups did not differ significantly in perception of the melodic components.