bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Developing States and the End of the Cold War
Authors: Sen Gautam
Published: October 2003

The first section of this chapter examines the political and economic context of change in developing countries: the two themes are the evolution of the international economy, especially since the 1970s, and the political impact of the ending of the cold war. The next section addresses the key issues of liberalization and globalization, which preceded the end of the cold war but are now influenced by that event. The next section identifies the deepening of liberalization and globalization, and the phenomenon of regional integration and asymmetric competition between developed and developing countries. A more detailed discussion of two important expressions of liberalization and globalization follows, in the context of the political implications for developing countries: these are the importance of structural adjustment programmes for the advance of the new market forms and their associated ideology, and the GATT Uruguay Round of trade negotiations. The two final sections of the chapter evaluate the use of political power by developed countries to achieve economic ends, and a concluding section assesses the possible future pattern of interaction between developed and developing countries.
The Asia Pacific Region in the Post‐Cold War Era
Authors: Acharya Amitav , Stubbs Richard
Published: October 2003

The main argument of this chapter is that the position and posture of the developing countries of the Asia‐Pacific region towards the emerging world order are marked by a great deal of complexity and ambivalence. This ambivalence or state of apparent schizophrenia can be discerned from an analysis of some of the principal economic, security, and political developments in the region in recent years, especially in the wake of changes brought about by the end of the cold war. The different sections of the chapter provide a closer analysis of these developments in four key areas: economic regionalization, problems of security and stability, human rights and democratic governance, and regional institution building.
Squaring Off: Executives and Legislatures in Ecuador
Authors: Barczak Monica
Published: October 2003

Divided government has been virtually the norm in Ecuador since the demise of the last military regime in 1979, as a result of both historical experience and political institutions, particularly electoral rules. It appears in several forms thanks to these rules, which allow a mixed‐party presidential ticket, the survival of many small parties, and a small assembly. Relations between executive and legislature are best described as ‘muddling through’, with some presidential powers balanced by the legislature's powers of scrutiny and possible impeachment.
Divided Government in Mexico's Presidentialist Regime: the 1997–2000 Experience
Authors: Klesner Joseph L.
Published: October 2003

This chapter analyses the historical background, which led to the emergence of divided government in the 1990s, and the way in which this new political environment was managed during the 1997–2000 Congress. The analysis describes changes in the internal organization of the Chamber of Deputies, and the formation of coalitions to support presidential initiatives. To provide better insight into the coalition formation process, it reviews the experiences of the 1997–2000 Congress in passing the three budgets sent to it by President Zedillo.
Divided Government in Poland
Authors: Krok‐Paszkowska Ania
Published: October 2003

The chapter begins with an analysis of the frequency and form of divided government in Poland, which has been the rule rather than the exception since the fall of communism. It then examines the causes, which are largely attributable to Poland's comparatively short experience of democratic politics, and arise from structural and institutional factors rather than voter behaviour.
Divided Government in Ireland
Authors: Mitchell Paul
Published: October 2003

Minority governments in Ireland have been common, relatively stable, and reasonably effective, and divided government has been less difficult to manage than in other countries.
Gender Inequality and International Human Rights Law
Authors: Chinkin Christine
Published: October 2003

Begins with a survey of the realities of women's global inequality, asserting that attempts at legal regulation (notably the Women's Convention prepared for the UN's Second Conference on Women, held in Copenhagen in 1980) have fallen far short of the tasks of achieving gender equality. Explanations for this enormous disparity between promise and performance involve flaws in the legal framework, defects in the concept of equality used to promote the advancement of women, and the general inadequacy of law as an instrument for changing behaviours deeply rooted in tradition and culture, and supported moreover by global economic structures. For all these reasons, the chapter concludes by doubting whether legal regulation, particularly at the international level, can ever generate fundamental societal change.
Social Policy in a Global Context
Authors: Deacon Bob
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, it is argued that the concerns of social policy, traditionally the prerogative of sovereign states, have become supranational and global in scope. The management of economic activity, such that it also serves the purpose of social justice both within and among states, is now high on the agenda of global forums such as the G7 and of international organizations such as the World Bank and the World Trade Organization. Begins by elaborating on this proposition, offering a more precise analysis of the new terrain of global social policy. It then reviews the social policies, both explicit and implicit, of major international organizations, particularly in the sphere of income maintenance and the management of inequality. Finally, it reviews the global governance reform agenda in terms of its relevance to the task of securing greater global justice.
Impartial Justice, Motivation, and Punishment
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

It is argued that a premiss of the fundamental moral equality of persons is built into the foundations of impartialist theories of justice. The inclusion of this premise means that the demands of justice are disconnected from the personal perspective adopted by the agent and appear to him as alien restrictions on the pursuit of his good. Thus, coercion is needed to fill the gap between morality and self‐interest.
Self‐Interest and the Commitment to Morality
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

Argues that the better realization of the agent's non‐social interests is only one condition for moral cooperation; it does not provide decisive reason to enter such cooperation. Instead, what is needed is an existential commitment to the moral; a commitment that is ungrounded but not irrational. It is argued that such a choice is plausible if constructivist theory drops its commitment to the assumption of non‐tuism, and that there are independent grounds for this assumption to be dropped.
Global Location Behavior and Organizational Dynamics of Japanese Electronics Firms and Their Impact on Regional Economies
Authors: Fujita Masahisa , Ishii Ryoichi
Published: October 2003

Building on the experience of nine Japanese electronics firms after World War II, the authors look at the explanatory contribution of selective factor disadvantages operating at the country level (hard countries) and of local rivalry (the stimulus of pressures) to the survival and growth of these firms. Their argument, which stresses the spatial influence on firm strategy, is close to that of Enright in the previous chapter. Since Fujita and Ishii look at the global operations of their nine selected firms, they are also able bring to the fore the geographical dispersal and local spatially determined dynamics as they impact firm strategy. Their detailed analysis shows that globalization of the chosen firms is a function of the desire to remain competitive. However, it also notes that fundamental problems have arisen for the Japanese electronics industry as well as for the Japanese economy, and these are identified as primarily institutional and competitive in type.
Canada
Authors: Rugman Alan M.
Published: October 2003

Three themes are pursued in this case study on the impact of globalization on Canada. The first is that from a Canadian perspective, globalization means regionalization; by virtue of the FTA (Canada–US Free Trade Agreement) and NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), Canadian‐based firms have secure and reasonably predictable access to the world's largest market, with the rules‐based regime of the FTA and NAFTA being preferable to the former US‐dominated power‐based system, although many subtle political and managerial challenges remain, since market access is not perfectly secure. The second characteristic of Canadian strategic management is related to the first and is the need to develop skills in ‘national responsiveness’, due to the asymmetries in size of the US and Canadian economies. The third theme affecting Canadian competitiveness and analysis of globalization is the large amount of foreign ownership; this somewhat complicates the nature of

business–government relations in Canada, since more than one‐third of the manufacturing sector is foreign‐owned, with over two‐thirds of this being US FDI (foreign direct investment) in Canada. The four main sections of the chapter are as follows: Foreign ownership and strategic management; Regional strategic management for Canadian firms; The flagship business network model; and Strategy in the Canadian chemical industry.
France
Authors: Michalet Charles‐Albert
Published: October 2003

This case study on the impact of globalization on France starts by tracing the nationalistic and mercantilistic philosophy of France back to the time of Colbert [1619–1683]. It argues that although the policies of French administrations of the 1980s towards inward and outward investment underwent a complete volte‐face, these were only embraced reluctantly in the light of the imperatives of globalization and regional integration. It then comes as no surprise that some of the most vociferous critics of globalization are French politicians or bureaucrats – as documented by Michalet in the conclusion to the chapter. The chapter has two main sections, the first discussing the national aspiration with reference to the French ‘hierarchical‐capitalism’ model from the mid‐1960s to mid‐1980s. The second looks at the change from a partially opened economy to a fully open economy, which was marked by the beginning of the abandonment of the French model in favour of neoliberal economic orthodoxy from mid‐1982, and the later trend towards global integration from the mid‐1980s, which was marked by an upsurge of French business investment abroad, and the strengthened presence of foreign enterprises in France.
East Asia
Authors: Lall Sanjaya
Published: October 2003

This case study looks at the consequences of technological change and globalization for the organization of economic activity in East Asia, focusing on Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. The author points out in his chapter that most of East Asia—partly for cultural and sociological reasons—has followed the Japanese style of market‐based capitalism. Strong governments, with the close cooperation of private enterprise, have patterned the course of economic development, although, as the development has proceeded, the operational intervention of the state has been greatly reduced. However, while acknowledging the similarities in intent and philosophy, Sanjaya Lall also emphasizes the differences in the interface between the public and private sector, explaining, for example, that whereas in the Chinese tradition the role of the small entrepreneurial firm has been of critical importance, in South Korea, as in Japan, industrial development has been more concentrated within the hands of the large trading companies—the Chaebol. Lall also evaluates the success and failures of the two systems and the lessons to be drawn from them.
EMU, the Mitterrand Presidency, and French Political Tradition
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

Mitterrand's leadership role is situated within the context of French political tradition. Particular attention is paid to the tradition of the republican state and its relationship to the idea of ‘economic government’. Other important influences are from the idea of French leadership in Europe and primacy to construction européenne. This idea has, in turn, been closely linked to the franc stable policy and the power of the Trésor. Perhaps most central of all has been the search for economic independence from the USA and the linkage between EMU and a rebalancing of economic power in the international monetary system.
EMU, the Kohl Chancellorship, and German Political Tradition: The Legacy of Adenauer and Erhard
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

Particular attention is paid to the legacies of Adenauer (on primacy to European unification) and Erhard (on the social market economy) and the problems of reconciling these two aspects of post‐war German tradition. The Ordo‐liberal concept of stability culture is identified as centrally important. The German negotiating style is characterized as rule‐based. Kohl is set in the context of German tradition.
Italian Policy Beliefs About EMU: External Discipline Versus Internal Protection
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

The parameters of the Italian perspective on EMU were derived from the legacies of the domestic weakness of the state (the diffuseness of power leading to immobilismo), the clientelism, and multiple veto points of the partitocrazia, and the process of policy learning concerning the political manipulation of economic and monetary policy. The competing pressures of securing external discipline and satisfying demands for internal protection were redefined by the experiences of financial crises in the 1970s and the implications of ERM entry. Policy shifts (to price and exchange rate stability, the ‘gradual divorce’ of the Banca d’Italia, and financial liberalization) restructured the power of the Banca and of the Tesoro, changed perceptions of the advantages of EU commitments as a vincolo esterno (external constraint), and heightened the policy leadership of technocratic experts.
The European Commission: A Balancing Act Between Autonomy and Dependence
Authors: Lequesne Christian
Published: October 2003

Political science studies of European policy usually stress two characteristics: First, they are monographic and empirical, and second, they go beyond a state‐centric approach to European integration. Among the new research tracks, there has been a revisiting of the European Commission, which is no longer viewed as an institutional monolith, but rather as a complex multi‐organization. This chapter adopts an institutional approach and looks at the Commission from the inside without developing any particular case study. It first shows how EU Commission agents can mobilize specific resources to behave as ‘policy entrepreneurs’ in the EU polity with a certain degree of autonomy from the national governments. Second, it defends the autonomy argument by arguing that this policy entrepreneurship is also constrained by endogenous and exogenous factors that make the Commission dependent on the national governments in the EU polity. This balancing act between autonomy and dependence is considered to be the main characteristic of the European Commission. It is also an invitation to look at supranational institutions by linking two analytical perspectives. On the one hand, supranational institutions are the creation of national governments in order to facilitate their interests and bargaining. On the other hand, supranational institutions are also the products of their organizational dynamics.
Botswana
Authors: Baumhögger Goswin
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Botswana follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1965–1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1965–1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1987–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1965–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1965–1994; 2.9 Presidential Elections (election is only indirect: the candidate who commands the support of more than one half of the newly elected members of the National Assembly is declared President); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1966–1998.
Central African Republic
Authors: Mehler Andreas
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in the Central African Republic follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1981–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1998; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1964–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1959–1999.
Equatorial Guinea
Authors: Fleischhacker Helga
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Equatorial Guinea follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1963–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1968–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1963–1982 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and at constituency level); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1968–1993; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1968–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1968–1998.
Libya
Authors: Mattes Hanspeter
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Libya follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1971 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (none given or used); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances (no statistical data are available for the parliamentary elections held from 1952 to 1965, and neither presidential nor parliamentary elections have been held since the proclamation of the Libyan Arab Republic); 2.5 Referendum 1971 (details of registered voters and votes cast in the referendum on the foundation of the Federation of Arab Republics between Egypt, Libya, and Syria); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (see note under 2.4); 2.8 Composition of Parliament (see note under 2.4); 2.9 Presidential Elections (see note under 2.4); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1951–1998.
Sudan
Authors: Fleischhacker Helga , Doebbler Curtis F.
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Sudan follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1953–1998 (data on population size, registered voters and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1953–1986 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1965–1986 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (no detailed results available); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1953–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1971–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1953–1998.
Policy Evaluations
Authors: Marsh Michael
Published: October 2003

Spillover explanations of the progress of European integration are examined within the context of the attitudes of political elites. In particular, the linkage between perceptions of past success and policy evaluation and parliamentarians’ views on the future of integration is evaluated. This neo‐functionalist theory is found to have little purchasing power on basis of the data analysed, save for a modest but indirect effect in the case of economic policy.
Austria
Authors: Müller Wolfgang C.
Published: October 2003

This chapter on the national co-ordination of European Union (EU) policy in Austria starts by discussing the challenge of co-ordination, and outlining the policy changes and reforms in the lead-up to membership of the EU. The strategy employed has resulted in high ambitions concerning EU co-ordination, and this co-ordination ambition is supported by a policy-making culture that values co-ordination and integration, and is based on the country’s long tradition of wide consultation, grand coalition government, parliamentary consensus seeking, and corporatism. The remainder of the chapter looks at the various actors involved individually, briefly pointing out in which way membership of the EU constitutes a challenge, mapping out the respective actor’s formal role in the co-ordination process, and evaluating the actor’s impact on Austria’s position- taking in the EU. The five sets of actors examined are: the central players ( the cabinet and the central administration); Parliament; the President; the Länder; and interest groups (corporatism). The conclusion aims at an overall evaluation of the EU co-ordination process from a political power perspective.
Denmark
Authors: Pedersen Thomas
Published: October 2003

This chapter on the national co-ordination of European Union (EU) policy in Denmark starts by pointing out that the Danish position within the EU is somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, Denmark has acquired the image of a ‘Eurosceptic’ having obtained several opt-outs from the Maastricht Treaty; on the other hand, its day-to-day performance in the EU is widely regarded as positive, since its rate and speed of implementation of EU legislative acts is one of the highest. This performance is partly due to Denmark’s EU co-ordination system, combined with its internal emphasis upon consensus. The Danish EU co-ordination system is centralized but also displays some decentralized features; in addition, compared with the normal domestic procedures for co-ordination, EU co-ordination in the country is very formalized, although it is also achieved informally through consensus. The four main sections of the chapter discuss: the centralization issue; the structure and procedures for EU policy co-ordination; sectorization (a decision-making process in which the decisive influence is located in an alliance between a sectoral ministry and important interest groups in an area); and the role of parliament and the European Committee.
Conclusion
Authors: Kassim Hussein
Published: October 2003

This concluding chapter has three main aims: to identify the main findings that emerge from the ten country case studies presented in the book; to present an argument about the factors that shape the strategies and structures of national co-ordination; and to draw attention to a number of wider issues on the basis of what the findings suggest. The first finding is that European integration exerts a powerful need for co-ordination on the part of governments and that European Union (EU) policy-making has become an important locus of domestic co-ordination for governments; however, membership of the Union confronts the member states with very specific challenges, and meeting its complex demands is extremely problematic. Second, national responses to the demands of EU membership have led to a redefinition of the functions traditionally performed by some actors and a recasting or recalibration of interinstitutional relationships. Third, there are important similarities between the way in which the member states co-ordinate their European policies, although diversity persists and institutional convergence is limited in scope and extent. The main part of the conclusion presents a cross-national view of the co-ordination of EU policy, looking at similarities and differences and explaining them; the last part presents concluding remarks on the effectiveness of national co-ordination systems, co-ordination as a process, the systemic implications (impact) of the findings, and theoretical issues.
The Division of Labour and the Theory of Value
Authors: Vivenza Gloria
Published: October 2003

Deals with some analogies between Adam Smith's and Plato's thought about the division of labour, and Adam Smith's and Aristotle's formulations concerning economic value. The two parts of the chapter survey the existing literature on the subject, and then illustrate analogies and differences between Adam Smith and the two ancient authors both from an analytical and a historical point of view.
The Concept of “State”
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter emphasizes the need for a more inclusive conception of government in the social sciences, particularly economics. The view of the state that emerges from the inclusive approach is a bundle of beliefs and expectations in the minds of people. The state, in the end, is nothing more tangible than the ordinary citizen’s belief that if he behaves a certain way, the agent of the state will either punish or reward him. This is coupled with the belief of the agents of the state that if a person behaves a certain way, they ought to punish or reward this person, and, if they do not, other will punish or reward them, and so on. These beliefs must be self-fulfilling since they result in an outcome that is a subgame perfect equilibrium.
Some Concluding Remarks
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter begins with an analyses on the pdomain problem based on the discussions throughout the book. This problem has important implications for mechanism design and the understanding of the free-rider problem. It argues that human beings fail to use their rationality calculus over all available actions but only over a subset of them.
Investing Over the Life Cycle
Authors: Campbell John Y. , Viceira Luis M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter uses a life‐cycle model calibrated to microeconomic US data to examine financial asset allocation strategies of working households saving for retirement. For typical US households with relatively safe labour income streams, risky investments should be extremely attractive when they are young, have modest savings and have many years until retirement; but risky assets should be less attractive later in life, as human wealth declines and financial assets accumulate. Households whose income comes from private businesses, which are exposed to many of the same risks as publicly traded companies, should find risky investments in stocks less attractive at all ages. Households with high‐risk aversion should be cautious investors both because of their high‐risk aversion and their tendency to accumulate greater precautionary savings. Impatient households, on the other hand, accumulate relatively little savings; financial risks are relatively unimportant for them compared to income risks, and thus they can afford to invest more aggressively.
Information, Equilibrium, and Efficiency Concepts
Authors: Brunnermeier Markus K.
Published: October 2003

Ch. 1 shows the reader how to model asymmetric information and knowledge in theoretical economics. It also introduces the concept of higher‐order knowledge. For the analysis of bubbles it is important to draw a distinction between mutual knowledge, e.g. all traders know that the price is too high, and common knowledge, i.e. they all know this and that all know and so on. Prices are determined in equilibrium. The two most commonly used equilibrium concepts in market settings with asymmetric information are the competitive Rational Expectations Equilibrium (REE) concept and the strategic Bayesian Nash Equilibrium concept. The chapter compares and contrasts both equilibrium concepts and also highlights their conceptual problems. This chapter also introduces and contrasts the two efficiency concepts: informational efficiency and allocative efficiency.
No‐Trade Theorems, Competitive Asset Pricing, and Bubbles
Authors: Brunnermeier Markus K.
Published: October 2003

Ch. 2 first exposes the reader to a more tractable notion of common knowledge and the intuition behind proofs of the different no‐trade theorems. The no‐trade theorems state the specific conditions under which differences in information alone do not lead to trade. The next section sketches out a brief introduction of the basics of asset pricing under symmetric information and highlights the complications that can arise under asymmetric information. Information revelation by prices is closely linked to the security structure and market completeness. The chapter also provides definitions of bubbles and investigates the existence of bubbles under common knowledge. It then illustrates the importance of higher‐order uncertainty for the possible existence of bubbles.
Two Methods of Social Ordering
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

Personal and local knowledge can be harnessed by either centralized or decentralized decision‐making processes. Centralized decision‐making works insofar as the decision maker has access to the relevant personal and local knowledge. Since such access is limited, such decision‐making must be limited as well. Decentralizing jurisdiction to individuals and associations who have access to the relevant knowledge permits them to act on the basis of their personal and local knowledge. Requiring that transfers of jurisdiction be consensual, it addresses the ability of individuals and associations to incorporate into their decisions, the personal and local knowledge of others by making possible a meaningful system of resource prices.
Communicating Justice: The Second‐Order Problem of Knowledge
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

The second‐order problem of knowledge is the need to communicate knowledge of justice in a manner that makes the actions it requires accessible to everyone. The need for this message to be conveyed in advance of persons taking action (ex ante) influences the form of the message in at least eight ways: (1) general rules or principles that are (2) publicized, (3) prospective in effect, (4) understandable, (5) compossible, (6) possible to follow, (7) stable, and (8) enforced as publicized. These formal requirements that are needed to communicate the message of justice ex ante are part of what is known as the rule of law. The need for ex ante information about allocation of several property rights also influences the substance of these rights including the prohibition on force and fraud.
The Problem of Enforcement Error
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

The problem of enforcement error arises when using power to achieve compliance with justice and the rule of law increases the costs imposed by erroneous judgements on the innocent. Because the use of power imposes costs on the innocent, and rights legitimate the use of power, we need to limit the number and kind of rights we recognize to those which address pervasive social problems that cannot be dealt with adequately by any other means. So too, the use of force to prevent previous offenders from committing further crimes should be limited to those who have demonstrated by their past criminality or other conduct, their intention to violate rights in the future. This showing should be subjected to a standard of proof beyond a reasonable doubt.
The Problem of Enforcement Abuse
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

The Single Power Principle specifies that there must exist, somewhere in society, a coercive monopoly of power. Adherence to this principle leads to serious risks of enforcement abuse because of problems of selection, corruption capture, and the halo effect. Various institutional features to deal with the problem of enforcement abuse by a coercive monopoly of power have been tried including elections, federalism, and free emigration. Each attempts to combat the ‘top‐down’ or hierarchical relationship between ruler and subject that is inherent to a coercive monopoly of power by establishing a more ‘bottom‐up’ or horizontal relationship. Though these three practices have largely failed in keeping a coercive monopoly of power within the constraints defined by the liberal conception of justice and the rule of law, each reflects a more fundamental principle that needs to be more robustly incorporated into institutional arrangements: reciprocity, checks and balances, and the power of secession.
Beyond Justice and the Rule of Law?
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

This chapter anticipates and responds to various objections to the thesis of the book, including those founded on communitarianism and on considerations of retributive and distributive justice. It considers such issues as neutrality, and the difference between the right or just and the good. It concludes by considering the practicality of using ‘public policy’ analysis in place of the rights identified here and of adding additional rights to those defended as needed, to handle the problems of knowledge, interest, and power.
Varieties of Protectors
Authors: Varese Federico
Published: October 2003

Chapters 1 and 2 point to the fact that the demand for protection that accompanies the spread of market transactions is met by the Russian state only in part: a significant sector of the business world does not use state-supplied protection services. A demand for alternative sources of protection is then expected to arise. Some authors, especially economists, have been quick to conclude that, since the state does not provide a service, the market inevitably will. It cannot, however, be argued that demand will inevitably be met; a supply of people trained in the use of violence and easily available weapons must also be present. This chapter focuses on the availability of people trained in the use of violence and of weapons, and the varieties of private protectors available in Russia at the time of the transition to the market, ranging from segments of the state apparatus (privately sold state protection), to private security (protection) firms, the internalized protection systems of major economic conglomerates, and criminal groups (banditskaya krysha: krysha, literally ‘roof’, is Russian slang for protection).
Mafia Ancestors: The Vory‐V‐Zakone, 1920s–1950s
Authors: Varese Federico
Published: October 2003

The first section of the chapter describes the main features of the original society of the vory-v-zakone – thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – the criminal fraternity that flourished in the Soviet labour camps between the 1920s and the 1950s, and re-emerged in the 1970s. The account given is based on archival data that have not been presented before, and describes the rituals and practices involved, the vory code of behaviour, vory activities outside prison, and punishment in vory courts. The second section addresses the question of the origins of the vory-v-zakone society, namely, whether it was a Soviet or pre-Revolutionary phenomenon. It is concluded that the fraternity most likely evolved from pre-Revolutionary criminal nineteenth-century arteli (guilds) of ordinary thieves.
Revolutionaries in Power, 1917–1923
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

The Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party, which constituted the political elite of Soviet Russia, was in Lenin's time, relatively homogeneous and was entirely composed of people who had been members of the underground Bolshevik party. It is, however, possible to make some differentiation between members of this Central Committee elite, and two examples of ‘types’, one from the intelligentsia and one from the working class, are N. N. Krestinskii and A. A. Andreev. Even in this period, the Central Committee was not a policy‐making body, but all its members were important policymakers in other party and state organs.
Stalin's New Elite, 1939–1956
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

The purges were followed by a very high turnover of members of the Central Committee and in effect a new generation of leaders appeared, younger and more from the mass of workers and peasants than their predecessors. Members of this ‘second generation’ would dominate Soviet politics until the 1980s. The job‐slot system continued in the form it had reached in 1934, although there was now more stability and personal security. Examples of a new Stalinist generation were N. S. Baibakov and N. K. Patolichev, one a technocrat, the other a party generalist. The Central Committee was also much larger now, but had less real influence in politics, compared to the supreme leader and the Politburo/Presidium.
The Elite Consolidates, 1966–1985
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

The Brezhnev years were ones of stability for the USSR, and still more so for its political elite. The Central Committee expanded in size, and its composition—based on the job‐slot system—became increasingly predictable. Its typical members were from the ‘second generation’, born in the first two decades of the century: people like Zaporozh’e party first secretary M. N. Vsevolozhskii, or agricultural procurements minister Z. N. Nuriev, or General P. A. Gorchakov. The Central Committee itself met less frequently during these years, and was marginalized as an arena for collective decision‐making.
The New Competitive Advantage
Authors: Best Michael
Published: October 2003

The New Competitive Advantage book presents a conceptual framework, the capabilities and innovation perspective, to address the organizational and technological sources of regional growth and decline. The productivity and income level of any region is explained in terms of the implementation and diffusion of universal principles of production and organization amongst its business enterprises. High‐tech regions such as Silicon Valley and Route 128 in Massachusetts have raised performance standards in new product development and innovation by application of the principle of systems integration to product design, production, and business organization. Systems integration emerged in high‐tech regions in response to the product‐led competition emanating from Japan and East Asia in high volume, flexible mass production systems organized according to the principle of multi‐product flow. An older variant of systems integration can be found in middle‐tech (design‐intensive) industrial districts, particularly in European regions such as those in the ‘third Italy’

In a region where systems integration predominates, industry is organized into networked groups or clusters of entrepreneurial firms in which design is decentralized within the enterprise and diffused across open‐system enterprise networks. Networked groups of specialist firms can demonstrate a regional capability to innovate and rapidly reinvent products. In the case of high‐tech regions, the regional innovation system is advanced by the integration of basic research, much of which is located in universities, with technological, developmental, and applied research, most of which is located in entrepreneurial firms. The result is the application of the principle of systems integration to both production and the organization of industry and the establishment of an ongoing technology management capability at the enterprise and regional levels.

Whereas principles of production are universal, the protean character of technology marks each region with unique technological capabilities. Thus, a region's current generation of business enterprises is an expression of the region's unique technology genealogy, its international position on a ten‐scale production capability spectrum, and the underlying knowledge base in technology‐related disciplines, engineering curricula, and skills. Audits of technology, production capabilities and skills provide the raw material for designing policies to foster industrial transitions, technology diffusion, and productivity growth..
Production Systems
Authors: Best Michael H.
Published: October 2003

Explores the links between a firm, region, or nation's production capabilities and productivity. Productivity is explained in terms of fundamental principles of production that underlie the organizational design of business enterprises and production systems. Industrial development, and enhanced competitiveness, is about making the transition to more advanced principles of production and associated levels of production capabilities. A ten‐scale production capabilities spectrum is presented to identify both where a firm or a region's firms fit in the world economy and the specific and critical challenges and opportunities to increased industrial productivity. The evolution of production principles and capabilities is illustrated with five examples of enterprises that established industrial leadership by the application of an enduring production principle: the American System of Manufacture and the principle of interchangeability; Ford and the principle of single‐product flow or mass production; Toyota and multi‐product flow or JIT; Canon and multi‐product flow applied to new product development; and Intel and systems integration.
Democracy and Justice
Authors: Young Iris Marion
Published: October 2003

Social change to undermine injustice usually should be pursued through democratic processes. A suitably defined model of deliberative democracy articulates how democracy can produce just policies. As usually understood, however, the model of deliberative democracy focuses too much on argument, privileges unity, assumes face‐to‐face discussion, and assumes a norm of order.
Inclusive Political Communication
Authors: Young Iris Marion
Published: October 2003

Theories of deliberative democracy presume too narrow an understanding of political communication. Several forms of communication additional to argument are important for political debate, especially between members of more dominant and more marginalized groups. Greeting, rhetoric, and narrative each have important functions for public acknowledgement of interlocutors and communication when premises are not shared.
Civil Society and Its Limits
Authors: Young Iris Marion
Published: October 2003

Theories of civil society do not adequately distinguish the functions of private, civic, and political associations. A public sphere arising from free associational life both holds power accountable and produces new ideas. Democratic processes that aim to promote justice, however, also require strong state regulatory institutions.
Doing Public Management the Egalitarian Way
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: October 2003

In the four chapters of Part II, public management ideas that loosely correspond to each of the four polar world views identified by cultural theory are discussed; here the cultural‐theory framework is mixed with a historical perspective to survey recurring approaches to public management that can be loosely characterized as hierarchist (Ch. 4), individualist (Ch. 5), egalitarian (this chapter), and fatalist (Ch. 7). Like individualism and hierarchism, egalitarianism embodies a particular vision of control of public management both within organizations and by the society at large, and that approach to organization can be linked to a broader vision of good government that takes groupism rather than bossism, choicism, or chancism as the point of departure or central organizing principle for co‐operative behaviour. The egalitarian approach to organization involves at least three closely interrelated elements: these are group self‐management, control by mutuality, and maximum face‐to‐face accountability. A fourth idea often associated with egalitarianism is the view that the process by which decisions are reached in an organization or group is just as important, if not more so, than the results or outcomes in a narrow sense—i.e. the achievement of the substantive policy goals of egalitarians is not held to be more important than reaching the process goal of decision‐making through high‐participation weak‐leadership structures. The main sections are: What Egalitarians Believe; The Managerial Critique of Egalitarianism; and Varieties of Egalitarianism.
Identity and Diversity
Authors: Mackie J. L.
Published: October 2003

Mackie sets out Locke's general theory of identity and raises some difficulties with the account. Hume's claim that the notion of identity is a fiction is critically assessed. Mackie argues that there is a relation between Locke's notion of identity and the notion that individuals can have essences. He presents an argument for what he calls Locke's thesis about the relativity of identity. The relevance of Kripke's discussion of identity and named individuals is examined. It is argued that Locke's thesis about the relativity of identity can provide a means of understanding some problems concerning identity through time.