bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Sing, Strangers!”
Authors: Stanciu Cristina
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores Americanization—this time in a new immigrant context. It looks at the better-known archive of mainstream Americanization publications and the lesser-known archive of the Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey. The chapter highlights that the Americanization of new immigrants through education consolidated the U.S. empire by producing imagined compliant new citizens, ready to supply the expanding demands of the country's labor market after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Like their emerging Native intellectual peers, the chapter emphasizes that new immigrant writers and activists revised the script of Americanization as they shaped a new immigrant literature. Focusing on the work of public schools and foreign language newspapers in New York City and Chicago, the chapter then traces ways that immigrant education and print culture supported the work of Americanization and illustrates “affective Americanization,” an insidious form of co-optation through the affective bonds across time and space. It seeks to fill a gap in the current scholarship on the immigrant press and its role in the Americanization project, as well as the immigrant treatment of Indian tropes in foreign language publications.
From the Future Priest to the Young Antimodern Philosopher (1903–1913)
Authors: Payen Guillaume
Published: September 2023

This chapter tracks Martin Heidegger's later education, beginning with his attending a Gymnasium and a minor seminary (a preparatory seminary for adolescents). At this time, Heidegger had set out to seek knowledge and ordination, which promised him an exceptional position within the Catholic community of his native countryside—a vocation that could fill a pious family with pride. The chapter discusses Heidegger's academic relationships, particularly that of Conrad Gröber, his “paternal friend,” mentor, and fellow resident of Meßkirch. The chapter also reveals Heidegger's break from his Catholic destiny. Having left in 1909 to enter the Jesuit order, the young Heidegger emerged in 1913 with a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Freiburg, having been forced to abandon the novitiate, and then the seminary, because of his psychosomatic cardiac problems. Although he now preferred a career as a scholar to a career in the priesthood, he wanted to be in the van of Catholic knowledge, battling against impious modernity, using the weapons of a renewed philosophy and logic.
The Wind Blowing from Berlin (1927–1933)
Authors: Payen Guillaume
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines Berlin's increasing influences on Martin Heidegger. Although Berlin was the symbol of a Germany constantly uprooting itself, it preserved around it all the strength of its future destiny as a German people that had courageously returned to its rootedness, to its tradition, to its authenticity. Engaging in dialogue with his era in his philosophical writings, Heidegger still hoped to realize this destiny that remained for the moment on hold. In January 1928, when the appointment in Freiburg was becoming a possibility, Heidegger considered moving to Berlin—an idea that originated not only in his ambition to set the tone for German universities and for the German people but also, in the first place, in his desire to see his mistress, Elisabeth Blochmann. In the meantime, Heidegger's conversion to Nazism took place in the summer of 1930. A regular reader of the Völkischer Beobachter, the philosopher was not unreceptive to Nazi propaganda. But although Heidegger sympathized greatly with the Nazi movement, it took him a long time to develop a real inner motivation to become involved; he was reluctant to be distracted from his philosophy.
Conclusion
Authors: Payen Guillaume
Published: September 2023

This concluding chapter summarizes Martin Heidegger's life and views and reflects on the destinies which had shaped him throughout his life. It also notes parallels between Heidegger and Hitler. Each in his own way, Hitler and Heidegger wanted to elevate themselves above the shared human condition. That pretention to be more than human is what the Greeks called “hubris.” Hitler's hubris led Germany into totalitarianism, crime, and ruin. In Heidegger's case, even as it persuaded him to support Hitler's regime, that hubris sparked the grandiose hope of revolutionizing philosophy, of becoming the spiritual master of his age, of guiding Germany beyond metaphysics, even if that meant striding in sorrow across a planet in ashes. As it was for Hitler, who suffered from depression toward the end of 1942, hubris was the cause of many of the philosopher's torments.
Nostalgia’s Counteraesthetic Force in Eighteenth-Century Aesthetic Theory
Authors: Goodman Kevis
Published: September 2023

Nostalgia’s afflicted attachment to home clashed with the eighteenth century’s ideology of mobility and definition of personal liberty as freedom to move at will. Chapter 3 argues that homesickness simultaneously challenged the ideals of imaginative free play, detachment, impartiality, and consensus in authors from Addison and Shaftesbury though Kant. Their works therefore pause to castigate it as the mark of uncivilized populations. Yet neither these ideals nor the denunciations were the whole story; even canonical theories, this chapter suggests, retained pathology’s recognition of the disequilibria in historical life. The second half focuses on Friedrich Schiller, who trained as a medical student and a regimental doctor while studying British philosophy and medicine, before turning to literature, drama, and philosophy. This book takes Schiller’s neglected medical writings, including his study of pathology, seriously rather than as a curiosity. It points in particular to the origins of the later philosophy’s aesthetic “middle state” in the earlier medical concept of a “middle force” within the nerves, evident when disturbed. It proposes a counterplot within eighteenth-century criticism and theory—a counter-aesthetics that recognized the determinations (Schiller’s “Bestimmungen”) limiting, but not negating, the ideal of the infinite “determinability” of aesthetic experience.
Mapping Morality
Authors: Janoff-Bulman Ronnie
Published: September 2023

This chapter defines the landscape of morality by considering the Model of Moral Motives (MMM). In the MMM model, protect and provide motives are applied to three contexts typically distinguished by social psychologists: the personal (self), interpersonal (other), and collective (group) moralities. Even though the six cells of the moral map are psychologically generic and uniform in their social function, cultures elaborate on them to create unique societies. The chapter explains how political parties became strongly associated with liberal or conservative ideologies and policies grounded in distinct moralities. It mentions how political parties can distort moralities to appeal, but the fundamental distinction between protecting and providing remains.
Party Politics and Policy Preferences
Authors: Janoff-Bulman Ronnie
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on party politics and their respective policy preferences. Liberals are more favorable toward welfare, same-sex marriage, feminists, environmentalists, and universal health care, while conservatives are more favorable toward the military, big corporations, and traditional sex roles attitudes that reflect their ideology's three-legged stool. In the United States today, political ideologies are more than ever associated with political parties. The moral bases of liberalism and conservatism provide a further understanding of the more nuanced political landscape. The chapter clarifies that politics is more nuanced than the two categories of liberals and conservatives by referencing several groups like economic conservatives and populists.
What Liberals Are Providing
Authors: Janoff-Bulman Ronnie
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the Social Justice morality of liberals. It explains how the liberals focused on providing while also expressing Social Justice in economic matters, specifically regarding government efforts to further equality. Unlike the right's antipathy, Social Security, Medicare, and the other government entitlement programs that constitute the American safety net have long been associated with support on the left. The chapter notes how the racialization of poverty resulted in a broader demonizing of the Black culture, referencing the issues of drug use and family breakdown often found in Black communities. It also mentions that conservatives interpreted climate change mitigation efforts to be a threat to the nation's economy.
Opening Hidden Gardens
Authors: Flannery Maura C.
Published: September 2023

This book not only deals with the scientific side of herbaria in their role of documenting plant species, it also explores what is considered the private side of science: how botanists do their work—its intellectual, emotional, and physical dimensions. John Dewey considers such experiences as having an aesthetic component, which becomes apparent as the book explores the passions of the people who collected plants in the field, studied them in the lab, and curated them in herbaria. This introduction gives an overview of the vast array of individuals from philosophers to poets who collected plants and described the joy of discovering new species and the tragedy of losing specimens to flood or fire.
Early Exploration
Authors: Flannery Maura C.
Published: September 2023

Beginning in the sixteenth century, European explorers in the Old and the New World encountered plants very different from those at home. The knowledge of indigenous peoples was essential to finding and learning about these species’ traits and uses, though their contributions were often neglected in later written accounts while the dangers explorers faced were highlighted. European botanists attempted to learn about these plants by studying the specimens they received along with growing seeds. The latter were especially valuable; if the seeds germinated and mature plants developed, then these could be made into more specimens for distribution to other botanists along with the fresh seeds. This is how plants like tomato and tobacco from Latin America quickly became known throughout Europe.
The Value of Collecting
Authors: Flannery Maura C.
Published: September 2023

Collecting natural history specimens was an important element of European culture from the early modern era on. Those like the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi who created herbaria often collected zoological and mineralogical materials as well. He organized these and displayed them in an early museum in Bologna. He also had items painted and kept many volumes of notes on his studies of collection material. In the seventeenth century, the British physician Hans Sloane amassed not only natural history specimens, but books, art, coins, and other items along with a 265-volume herbarium. He also collected seeds, while others became interested in documenting wood specimens in what became known as xylaria. One hallmark of well-kept collections was their careful curation, with assistants making sure the materials were properly labeled, stored, and documented with as much information as possible.
Natural History and Botany
Authors: Flannery Maura C.
Published: September 2023

The nineteenth century saw the heyday of amateur natural history, driven by several factors including Linnaean classification that made understanding the living world easier. The popular idea of natural theology emphasized learning about nature as a way to learn about God. Railroads made natural areas more accessible to increasingly urbanized populations, and new printing technologies led to botanical literature becoming more affordable and diverse. At the same time, botany was growing increasingly institutionalized as a science. Professorships in botany were established, economic botany museums were created, and botanical gardens like those at Kew and New York became research centers. Collecting also became more organized with surveys at local and regional levels systematically gathering specimens and mapping the locations of plant populations.
Useful Plants and Ethnobotany
Authors: Flannery Maura C.
Published: September 2023

Plants were among the economic drivers of colonization. Europeans saw foreign lands as sources of new foods, medicines, and materials for clothing and shelter, and for making life richer. In the nineteenth century, economic botany became a popular term as many museums and botanical gardens created exhibits of useful plants and their products: everything from textiles to wood carvings, from chewing gum to baskets. All this was built on colonization and on the exploitation of indigenous peoples. It was also built on environmental destruction by cutting down forests for timber and replacing those lands with plantation agriculture. Today, efforts are being made to right these wrongs through decolonization efforts that involve valuing indigenous knowledge as ethnobotany, exploring medicinal plants in the light of this knowledge, and assisting former colonies to build sustainable agriculture.
A Broader Vision
Authors: Flannery Maura C.
Published: September 2023

In the twenty-first century there has been a revitalization of herbaria with the realization of their importance in understanding and conserving biodiversity. Digitization of specimens has brought access to larger audiences and facilitated citizen science projects undertaking the massive job of putting information online about the over 400 million specimens found in the world’s herbaria. Curators are creating outreach programs to engage people of all ages, and educators are utilizing herbaria in teaching about biology and environmental issues. Through plant humanities programs, historians, artists, and literary scholars are discovering rich sources of information and inspiration in collections. One indication of this is the increasing use of herbarium as a metaphor for plant-related ideas even in popular culture.
Propaganda, Social Media, and Political Bots
Authors: Woolley Samuel
Published: September 2023

This introductory chapter outlines how modern propagandists leverage automation and anonymity over social media in attempts to influence people and communication systems around the globe. It includes a description of research questions, core arguments, key terms, methods, and an outline of subsequent chapters. It briefly discusses historical social scientific research on propaganda in order to position this book and its theses as a logical next step toward understanding propaganda in the digital age. It reviews the origins of computational propaganda—the use of automation and anonymity in attempts to manipulate public opinion—as well as its current uses. It argues for the need for continued study of propaganda in the social sciences, particularly in the field of communication. Finally, this chapter considers the role of the people who make and track propaganda over the internet, arguing that they provide unique insights into the production of propaganda as well as its content and targets.
Automated Political Influencers
Authors: Woolley Samuel
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers how ordinary people—usually individuals, often with little or no financial backing and sometimes even with little technological know-how—use political bots and other tools and strategies. It calls this unique and amorphous group of actors “automated political influencers”: automated because they rely on bots in some way to spread their messaging; political because the messages they spread are concerned with political events, ideas, and people; and influencers because they market their ideas on social media. The core transportable idea of this chapter is the concept of democratized propaganda—in other words, the masses using the internet and social media for political manipulation. Through analysis of international fieldwork, the chapter reveals that many of the producers and trackers of bot-centric propaganda do not work for governments, political parties, militaries, or intelligence services. Many work in loose collectives or individually, motivated by political beliefs or money (or both). This chapter shows that while automated political influencers are less organized and less resourced than governments, they are often able to leverage guerrilla marketing strategies efficiently to become viral and receive “mainstream” media coverage. Sometimes these groups are made part of larger organizations, including governments.
Social Media Companies, the Technology Industry, and Propaganda
Authors: Woolley Samuel
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the technology industry’s role in facilitating computational propaganda and manufactured consensus. This chapter returns to lessons learned from Herman and Chomsky about big media’s role in spreading propaganda. Here, though, the “big media” is big social media: globally powerful firms like Google and Facebook, which are deeply complicit in political manipulation campaigns across their various social media products. Contemporary versions of the traditional mass media of Herman and Chomsky’s day (such as major media firms like Disney and News Corp) still play a large role in fostering propaganda, but they rarely do so by directly producing new propagandistic content. Instead, they spread propaganda by reacting to manipulative content on social media. This chapter focuses on the notion of bot-based algorithmic manipulation, sharing stories from interviewees to illustrate that often their main goal was to use large numbers of bots to trick social media sites’ trending algorithms; they wanted Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter to push propagandistic content on their front pages or side bars, hoping that the content would be picked up by traditional news media.
Journalism and Political Bots
Authors: Woolley Samuel
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on propaganda and journalism, exploring how reporters and news organizations are responding to the problem of computational propaganda. It shows that some journalists seek to fight fire with fire, using social and political bots in their own work to keep up with the reach and volume of automated propaganda. Journalists often use bots as “information radiators.” This chapter shows how journalism, usually unwittingly, is exacerbating the problem: journalists often unintentionally amplify and legitimize disinformation spread by computational propaganda. This is, in part, a structural problem, as news organizations are extremely underresourced—largely because social media companies have usurped their reporting and the advertising that had previously provided revenue for news sources. Journalists are also frequently the primary targets of computational propaganda attacks and large-scale online trolling campaigns. Political bots are used to stop journalists from communicating about particular stories or ideas because of fear of isolation and reprisal.
Conclusion: Provocations, Solutions, and the Future of Manufacturing Consensus
Authors: Woolley Samuel
Published: September 2023

This chapter is a summary of the core arguments of the book. It also discusses paths for future research on political bots and the people who build and track them, and considers ways in which contemporary propaganda (online and offline) is changing—how both bots and their masters are becoming more sophisticated. Now, organized groups of human users (partisan nanoinfluencers) are making it more difficult than ever to detect manufactured consensus and bogus social media trends. This chapter outlines new incarnations of propaganda, most notably geo-propaganda and encrypted propaganda, which rely on geolocation tools and closed messaging apps, respectively. Finally, it offers up some solutions to computational propaganda—pragmatic ideas aimed at policy makers, academics, technologists, and others—on how to respond to the problem.
Theoderic the Great
Authors: Wiemer Hans-Ulrich
Published: September 2023

In the year 493, the leader of a vast confederation of Gothic warriors, their wives, and children personally cut down Odoacer, the man famous for deposing the last Roman emperor in 476. That leader became Theoderic the Great (454–526). This engaging history of his life and reign immerses readers in the world of the warrior-king who ushered in decades of peace and stability in Italy as king of Goths and Romans. Theoderic transformed his roving “warrior nation” from the periphery of the Roman world into a standing army that protected his taxpaying Roman subjects with the support of the Roman elite. With a ruling strategy of “integration through separation,” Theoderic not only stabilized Italy but also extended his kingdom to the western Balkans, southern France, and the Iberian Peninsula. Using sources as diverse as letters, poetry, coins, and mosaics, the book brings readers into the world of Theoderic's court, from Gothic warriors and their families to the notables, artisans, and shopkeepers of Rome and Ravenna to the peasants and enslaved people who tilled the soil on grand rural estates. The book offers a fascinating history of the leader who brought peace to Italy after the disintegration of the Roman Empire.
From Attila To Theoderic: The Ostrogoths In The Balkans
Authors: Wiemer Hans-Ulrich , Dillon John Noël
Published: September 2023

This chapter traces the genesis of the warrior confederation over which Theoderic the Great became king. Here, the history begins with Attila the Hun, who invaded the Eastern Roman Empire at the head of a multiethnic army. He and his warriors then swept across the Balkan Peninsula, burning and looting, advancing as far as Thermopylae in central Greece. Among them were a prominent Ostrogothic army led by the brothers Valamir, Thiudimir, and Vidimir. From the time that Valamir and his brothers struck a treaty with Emperor Marcian, the history of the Ostrogoths can be shaped as a coherent narrative in which the Pannonian Goths played a decisive part. Here, two Theoderics found themselves locked in a power struggle in the imperial court of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Reluctant Expansion? Theoderic’s Foreign Policy
Authors: Wiemer Hans-Ulrich , Dillon John Noël
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on Theoderic the Great's foreign policy, both the diplomatic and the expansionist. It shows how his attempt to avert impending war between Clovis and Alaric presents Theoderic as both author and guarantor of the peace among the Germanic kings of western Europe. At a time when the Byzantine Empire was no longer willing to tolerate the rule of Gothic kings in Italy, Theoderic was depicted as a king who, while indeed very powerful, was not interested in expansion but on the contrary was trying to keep the peace among the kings. Next, the chapter discusses how the war between a Frankish–Burgundian coalition and Alaric's Visigoths shattered Theoderic's foreign policy conception. The “family of kings” fragmented in armed strife. In addition to these wars, the chapter also notes how Theoderic's rule was consolidated in the conquered territories of Provence as well as Hispania.
A “GOLDEN AGE”? ITALY UNDER GOTHIC RULE
Authors: Wiemer Hans-Ulrich , Dillon John Noël
Published: September 2023

This chapter takes a look at what life was like in Theoderic the Great's Italy. It first discusses the economic relationship between city and country, which was close but unequal: the wealth that was consumed in the city derived overwhelmingly from agricultural production. City and country were also linked by virtue of the fact that the land was always assigned to a city as its territory and governed from there. Next, the chapter considers the end of the slave economy and the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Afterward, it examines the legal status, mode of production, and social standing of peasants. Next, the chapter considers the state of cities under Theoderic's rule, as sources depict him as a builder and restorer of cities, as well as the changing cityscapes. Additionally, the chapter goes further into city society by exploring the social and political structure of late antique Italy. Finally, it considers whether or not Theoderic had an economic policy.
A Heretic King: Religious Diversity And The Imperative Of Orthodoxy
Authors: Wiemer Hans-Ulrich , Dillon John Noël
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers religious issues during Theoderic the Great's reign. First, the chapter describes the specific church to which the Goths adhere to—the Homoean church. This church is based on the Homoean creed, which defines the relationship between God the Father and God the Son as “similar” (homoios in Greek). The chapter then turns to the Catholic Church during Theoderic's reign, to which the vast majority of his approximately six million Italian subjects belong to. Next, the chapter chronicles the Laurentian schism, during which time Rome harbored two popes—Symmachus and Laurentius. To conclude, the chapter discusses yet another major religious group residing in Theoderic's Italy—the Jews.
The Popularizer
Authors: Smith Geoffrey S. , Landau Brent C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses how Bart Ehrman, Bruce Metzger's most famous protégé, finally chose to enter into the Secret Gospel controversy in 2003. The chapter begins by looking at Ehrman's formative influences as a scholar, since they provide a partial explanation for the unexpectedly skeptical stance he takes toward Secret Mark. Ehrman organizes most of his argument around three sets of features of the text, the manuscript, and Morton Smith's publications on it that he regards as suspicious. Although he emphatically asserts that he is not accusing Smith of forging the manuscript, his designations for these categories leave little doubt as to where he stands regarding the authenticity of the document: “hard to understand,” “hard to explain,” and “hard not to find amusing.” For Ehrman, it seems inconceivable that someone with Smith's expertise would have neglected to return to Mar Saba and perform additional tests on the manuscript. He chose to revive and galvanize a type of argument for forgery that was first used by Quentin Quesnell: the notion that Smith had embedded subtle clues in his publications on the Secret Gospel pointing toward his creation of this most impressive forgery.
The Handwriting
Authors: Smith Geoffrey S. , Landau Brent C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins by tracing how the Letter to Theodore vanished; no one has reported seeing it in person since 1983, and all subsequent attempts to view or even locate the manuscript have met with failure. Morton Smith first came across the Letter to Theodore in the summer of 1958 while cataloguing books in the tower library at Mar Saba. Apparently, the manuscript remained where Smith left it, in the tower library, from 1958 until the spring of 1976, when a small group of scholars made a pilgrimage to Mar Saba in search of the manuscript. Though there would be several subsequent attempts to see the Letter to Theodore, the last documented sighting of the manuscript occurred in 1983, when none other than Quentin Quesnell traveled to Jerusalem in search of the Letter to Theodore. The chapter then presents a paleographic analysis of the Letter to Theodore, which suggests that even if Smith did compose the Letter to Theodore and the Secret Gospel, he likely did not copy it out in the manuscript. Even those who suspect foul play have to posit a co-conspirator who was more proficient in Greek and Late Greek handwriting than Smith was.
The Author
Authors: Smith Geoffrey S. , Landau Brent C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter investigates how old the Letter to Theodore is. Scholars approach a question like this by establishing two points, the terminus post quem and the terminus ante quem—that is, the time after which and before which a text must have been composed. The chapter demonstrates that Clement of Alexandria did not compose the letter if the author used sources written after Clement's lifetime, such as the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea. Even though the Letter to Theodore seems to hail from the fourth century or later because its author has consulted Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, it remains possible that the excerpts from the Secret Gospel embedded within it could belong to a first-century writing. The chapter then considers whether the Secret Gospel is homoerotic. Ultimately, the author of the Letter to Theodore seeks to sanction a particular kind of same-sex relationship by adding a scene to the Gospel of Mark in which Jesus has an intimate relationship with a young man. Cast in the language of Christian spirituality, this same-sex relationship is presented as a legitimate—even ideal—expression of faith.
Revolution and the Redefinition of Empire
Authors: Glickman Gabriel
Published: September 2023

Political questions over the colonies were rekindled when the Revolutions of 1688–1689 brought the downfall of the centralizing programs of James II and the coronation of a Dutch prince, William III, with a rival set of international priorities. Fiscal reforms through the 1690s provided the tools for England’s eventual ascent as a military power. Yet the needs of the dominions sat in tension with a state now more actively engaged with upholding the “balance of Europe” than with enlarging interests on other continents. Whig and Tory authors fought to define a role for the dominions in this altered environment and clashed over the liberties claimed by colonists as products of the 1689 settlement. The chapter shows how the party debates of the 1690s gave voice not merely to rival ideologies of empire, but also to conflicting interpretations of the meaning and implications of Revolution at home.
Conclusion
Authors: Glickman Gabriel
Published: September 2023

Abstract and Keywords to be supplied.
Dispute Resolution Rules
Authors: Kardon Isaac B.
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers dispute resolution rules, which determine how legal institutions may be brought to bear in settling differences over other rules and their application to specific cases. It discusses how China's disputes over navigation, resource, and geographic rules engage dispute resolution rules. It also mentions the Philippines v. China arbitration (SCS Arbitration) that continues to stimulate new developments in China's practice and that of specially affected states. The chapter analyzes the conditions and contingencies under which China has sought resolution to its maritime disputes. It highlights People's Republic of China (PRC) practice that manifests three non-exclusive modes of approaching disputes: (1) narrowing the scope of UNCLOS compulsory dispute settlement; (2) advancing alternative methods for resolving disputes through diplomacy; and (3) withholding acknowledgment of the very existence of a dispute to be settled.
Toward an East Asian Maritime Order
Authors: Kardon Isaac B.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the evidence that China has promoted the development of uneven regional norms that are unlikely to be effective as rules of international law. Based on the patterns of practice observed in the contested sets of rules, the potential for China to change legal rules at a global or universal level is generally limited. The chapter also looks at accumulated evidence of an inchoate East Asian maritime order in which UNCLOS is not the only significant source of rules. The chapter describes the practice of China and many specially affected states that shows a distinct trend toward deference to the supremacy of coastal state sovereignty and toward weakened institutions for formal dispute resolution. It considers whether China's law of the sea is more likely the exception or the rule in other domains of international politics.
“A Temple Always Open to Peace”
Authors: Polasky Janet
Published: September 2023

This chapter emphasizes that merchants from far and near docked in Hamburg and Altona ports up river from the mouth of the Elbe on the North Sea. Unlike the aristocrats, many of these newcomers expected to prosper and stay. In contrast to the émigrés, and to most modern refugees, the chapter underlines that they could return home, although their livelihoods would have been imperiled by the ongoing wars. It stresses that most of the middle-class immigrants seeking economic opportunities and tolerance of their politics and religion assimilated into the port cities so fluidly that they escaped notice not only by contemporaries, but also by historians of revolutionary emigration. The chapter then shifts to investigate how the diversity of the foreigners who sailed up the Elbe into the two harbors or traveled on foot or by carriage overland through the German territories or the Netherlands contributed to the cosmopolitanism of the two centers of trade and diplomacy. It reviews how Hamburg and Altona quietly found a balance that worked between guaranteeing the individual rights of refugees and assuring the security of citizens.
“The Right Papers” in a World of Nations
Authors: Polasky Janet
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines how the evolving politics of new nations in the transitional era between revolutions had significant consequences on the far side of their borders and beyond their time. It investigates how new nation-states deliberately demarcated borders, separating their realms from those of their neighbors and avidly drawing boundaries between their own citizens and others. The chapter elaborates on how the political unrest and agricultural failures of the first half of the nineteenth century produced tides of migration in numbers exceeding “the refugee crisis” of the late eighteenth century. It looks in particular at how refugees fleeing failed nineteenth-century revolutions introduced radical proposals that threatened to disrupt the political equilibrium of the neutral nations. In these transitional decades, the chapter analyzes how states introduced the paperwork and governmental bureaucracy to monitor and limit both emigration and immigration. It also considers how patriotism in the first decades of the nineteenth century would turn inward for most in, but not all, nations confronting what seemed to them overwhelming waves of immigration.
Alliances
Authors: Polasky Janet
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at how Karl Marx's imagined community of revolutionaries materialized in Brussels in the years leading up to the 1848 Revolution. It recounts that a handful of journalists, professors, doctors, and lawyers, gathered in associations, some secret and others open to the public in the Belgian capital. The chapter underlines that Brussels afforded space for a stimulating fraternity of intellectuals, artisans, and workers—Belgians and international refugees alike. It examines how the Belgian capital functioned as an example of what contemporary sociologists identify as the propensity within a city to tolerate divergent groups coexisting with their own rules while living side by side. The chapter delves into how the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, communists, republicans, and Liberals debated definitions of democracy. With its early industrialization and successful 1830 revolution for independence, the chapter assesses how Belgium provided Marx and Friedrich Engels an ideal setting for understanding the historical dialectic leading from the French Revolution to the Revolutions of 1848. It also considers how the theories of class struggle evolved in the midst of discussions among communist refugees and Belgian democrats.
“Not Foreigners, but Democrats”
Authors: Polasky Janet
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyzes how the Revolutions of 1848 tested the young Belgian nation. Monarchies, both absolute and constitutional, were overturned and empires crumbled all around them. The distress of urban workers, artisans, and farmers was staggering. Hunger was rampant. The chapter investigates the supple response of the Liberal government of Charles Rogier, which insulated the small country from revolutionary movements. It looks at the wisdom of a domestic agenda of Liberal reforms, conceived in concert with democrats in the capital, a group that included the liberal founding fathers of the constitutional monarchy and the political refugees who were emerging as the leaders of the communist international. The chapter aims to answer the following questions: If the political refugees and the Belgian government's practices of hospitality were mutually constitutive, why did that relationship unravel? When did “fellow democrats” become “foreigners”? What shifted in the midst of restive, protective nation-states to the immigration policy based on philosopher Immanuel Kant's hospitality? What would be the fate of refugees if the small states at diplomatic crossroads—Altona, Hamburg, the Swiss cantons, and Belgium—shut their doors?
Places
Authors: Bray Francesca , Hahn Barbara , Lourdusamy John Bosco , Saraiva Tiago
Published: September 2023

Places captures the mutual inflection between crops and places—the one making and remaking the other. It argues for a nuanced understanding of the dynamics of place-making—seen as a cathartic process with the interplay of diverse elements—human and non- human: from stock markets to pig ceremonies and grain elevators to tea garden trenches. Also characteristic of place making is the changing meaning of different constituents in different contexts and times which do not allow for reification of a crop or its place—but in each instance, reproduces the crop as a contingent cultural artefact. The mixed focus on global commodities (tulips, wheat, and tea) as well as local subsistence foods (tubers) brings out the contrasting sociocultural and economic processes that coalesce to move a crop or even to keep it in its place. Places highlights the significance of micro-history and the way the historian’s choice of frame shapes the histories they tell of a place and of its connections.
Sizes
Authors: Bray Francesca , Hahn Barbara , Lourdusamy John Bosco , Saraiva Tiago
Published: September 2023

Sizes argues that there is no natural or optimal size or scale for a cropscape. Scrutiny of how orthodoxies of size, whether “big is better” or “small is beautiful,” the industrial farm or the intensive smallholding, have taken shape reveals that a particular scale may be highly efficacious in one context yet inefficient in a different place and time. The cases of tea plantations, tobacco farms, coffee mosaics and water management demonstrate that there is no necessary linearity about sizes: what was once seen as unsuitable can return, albeit in a different form, dictated and colored by changing historical circumstances, locations, and factors, animate and inanimate. As one looks beyond standard narratives and towards possible variations, one also encounters rich coexistence of sizes. All of these call for alternative periodizations, chronologies, and temporalities, and for sensitivity to some of the erasures in historiography flowing from excessive focus on privileged scales and assumptions of universal logic of growth.
Beyond the Grain
Authors: Bray Francesca , Hahn Barbara , Lourdusamy John Bosco , Saraiva Tiago
Published: September 2023

The epilogue gives an overview of the distinctive features of the book and the project, including its chief arguments and its original contributions to critical historiography. While focusing attention on crops and agriculture, cropscape as concept offers a method and a breadth of vision that open new perspectives for global history more generally, providing effective new tools for writing histories of the material world. The flexibilities of framing, the embedding of micro-histories within the longue durée and global scales, and the intrinsically multidisciplinary perspectives integrated within the cropscape concept provide a foundation for transcending standard teleologies, linear directionalities, eurocentrism, and anthropocentrism. They aid us to approach and understand history through its varied and often unnoticed, or consciously ignored, layerings and patchworks, and its multiple coexisting scales. Co-authorship and collaboration were at the core of the Moving Crops experiment. Acknowledging both the advantages and the limitations of attempting to write decolonial, truly inclusive global history from within privileged academic institutions, the authors point to related experiments in collaboration around the world which suggest that the Moving Crops project and similar initiatives can indeed contribute to building a kind of global history that can be written from any place.
Cartographic Contests
Authors: White Ashli
Published: September 2023

Maps were instrumental to spatial transformation during the revolutionary wars in two ways: they guided militaries in their campaigns, and they acknowledged through visualization the territorial outcomes of those conflicts. But as various actors discovered repeatedly, both functions were fraught in practice, and this chapter explores the revolutionary promise and pitfalls of mapping. It examines who used maps, how, and to what ends, and it reveals how and why the conventions of printed maps and their makers prevented the recognition of spatial revolutions wrought by Black people.
People in Print
Authors: White Ashli
Published: September 2023

Revolutionaries sought to establish their legitimacy, in part, by broadcasting their images far and wide to curious audiences. As a result, printed renditions of individuals and collectives proliferated in this era, and this chapter takes stock of who was portrayed and how—as well as who was not. For as more sectors of the population demanded participation in government, printmakers and their customers decided whose faces they were willing to see, how, and when. In the process, they contributed to Atlantic debates about the scope and limits of popular sovereignty.
Plant Morphology Leads to Geomorphology
Authors: Mathews Andrew S.
Published: September 2023

By noticing the shapes of trees and other plants, peasant farmers came to notice and classify soils and build terracing and drainage systems. This was a collective project of remaking the landscape as an infrastructure. Photographs accompanied by diagrams show different types of terracing and drainage systems, with accompanying tree crops. These are plant/soil/water choreographies.
From Plant Morphologies to Landscape Structures
Authors: Mathews Andrew S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter moves from attunement to the morphologies of individual trees to attention to larger-scale landscape structures: areas of burned and unburned forest, or of healthy and diseased trees. Photographs and diagrams show how the forms of chestnut trees record histories of fire, disease, and human care. A historical ecology of the Monte Pisano moves from encounters with individual plants in landscape transect walks and direct observations, to oral history, and early nineteenth-century tax maps, and contemporary historical accounts. Changing political economy, peasant/landlord relations, and state formation have shaped cultivation practices and landscapes since the late eighteenth century. Plant disease and agricultural abandonment have transformed the landscape from cultivated chestnut groves to flammable pine forests. Sensory perceptions of individual plants can be combined with other evidence to create diagrams that are speculative perceptions of larger landscape structures.
From Landscape Histories to Climate Models
Authors: Mathews Andrew S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the landscape history of the pine forest in the San Rossore park near Pisa, and a carbon flux monitoring system which supports the modeling of carbon absorption and emission by this pine forest. Ecological models and climate models struggle with histories of social and ecological transformation, but they support global scale descriptions. Ecological modelers near Firenze translate US models into Italian landscapes by partially allowing for the effects of history. Models are diagrams that contain uncertainty, and can be compared helpfully to accounts of landscapes produced by anthropologists and historians. Historical accounts of the impacts of epidemic diseases and of economic transformations are a helpful counterpoint to accounts of global environmental change.
From Climate Change to Biomass Energy
Authors: Mathews Andrew S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the inauguration of a biomass energy plant in Montevarchi, Tuscany. It traces the pathway between scientific knowledge of the biogeochemical carbon cycle, international treaty commitments to mitigate climate change, and the decision to make biomass energy a prominent part of Italy’s climate change policy. Description and photographs of firewood and woodchip logging. Current biomass energy policy ignores the reality of heavy wood fuel use in Italy, which is not captured by official statistics. Tuscan policy makers have linked biomass energy to maintaining landscape stability, even as climate change is hardly ever mentioned in the places where biomass energy is being produced.
Landscapes and Energy Politics
Authors: Mathews Andrew S.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the landscape of the Garfagnana Valley, and a political struggle between opponents and supporters of a biomass energy plant in the town of Bagni di Lucca. Plant supporters see biomass energy as a way of restoring tree cutting and maintaining landscape stability. Plant opponents are concerned with histories of air pollution by paper factories. Both supporters and opponents are concerned with histories of land abandonment and share a distrust of the Italian state. Across Italy, environmental justice groups have drawn upon histories of land abandonment and pollution and experiences of the state to oppose biomass energy plants. In many places around the world, as in Italy, caring for landscape will have little apparent connection to climate change but will have major consequences for global environmental change.
Epilogue
Authors: Mathews Andrew S.
Published: September 2023

The morphology of an ancient chestnut tree in the Italian Apennines tells a story of very long-term human care, and of the relationships of this tree with soil, weather, and plant disease. The shapes of terracing and drainage systems, like the shapes of grafted trees, were morphologies that elicited long-term care. Long-term care for morphology is a human capacity that is found in other domains and in other parts of the world. By engaging in collective projects of long-term care for our surroundings, we might be able to build more just economies and healthier environments. Attention to morphology can help us link the past to the present and to link long-term histories to alternative futures. People around the world will confront climate change by caring for the landscapes, plants, and animals that matter to them and by calling to account political institutions in ways that make sense to them.