bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

This book aims to help the reader understand the economic, political, and technological context in which international business operates. That is a lot to bite off when reading (or writing) one book. In order to make the material manageable, I have approached it from three different angles, progressing from one to the next; we can call them “global,” “historical,”and“comparative.”

The first, or global, part of the book (Chapters 2–6), deals with the multinational corporation and with the politics and economics of international business. I ask why it is that many businesses, in both manufacturing and services, now operate so freely across international borders: why do they make everyday products out of parts from several different countries, enter into joint ventures with companies on the other side of the world, and outsource customer services to people who will never meet their customers? Easy answers to this would be “because they can” or “because it is profitable”: improved transport and communication have effectively reduced distances.
Technological Change and International Production
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

In recent decades, the international economy has rapidly become more integrated. Trade in goods and services, cross-border investment, and the organization of production networks across borders, all have blossomed. This chapter explores the nature of these developments. It also considers some explanations for what has caused the rise in international economic integration. But there’s no simple answer to the causation question (or perhaps it would be better to say that there are too many simple answers, several of which have something to add to our understanding of events), and some pieces of the puzzle will have to wait for later chapters. Here I will focus on the effects of technological change.
Empire
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter concerned ways in which states interact to shape the international trading system. In the history of the international system, however, it has often been the case that certain states have chosen not to interact diplomatically with others, but to simply conquer them. Krasner uses the heading of “regionalization” to cover anything that brings two or more states together in a single market. This category includes regional blocs like the EU; systems of regional hegemony, such as once exercised by the US in the western hemisphere (those schooled in American history may know it by the anodyne title of the Monroe Doctrine); and the formation of empires through outright conquest. For Krasner, this serves a useful analytical purpose, because he’s concerned with the formation of large “regional” markets as an alternative to global liberalization – it doesn’t matter if they are voluntary unions or empires.
Two Forms of Post-Fordism
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

After Fordism came … post-Fordism. The latter is not a very revealing handle, but there are reasons for this. One is that we are still in the post-Fordist period, and it is always hazardous to make generalizations about one’s own age; all that I need to say about that I’ve already said in Chapter 3, with reference there to “globalization.” Another is that there is reason to believe that, in the aftermath of Fordism, the economic institutions and production systems of industrial countries in fact became more diverse; thus, there is no one post-Fordism but, in a way that would delight a postmodernist, many post-Fordisms.
Varieties of Capitalism
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

Kenichi Ohmae, a business strategy guru from Japan, says there are no successful countries, only successful companies. In his view, the nation-state serves mainly to get in the way of business: it taxes its successful businesses to prop up the unsuccessful ones, the prosperous regions to subsidize the less prosperous. The wealth created by Toyota and Canon is used to maintain inefficient Japanese agriculture and forestry. The world as a whole would be more prosperous, in his view, if states simply got out of the way, eliminating trade barriers, subsidies, and regulations (Ohmae 1996, 1999).
Clusters
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

Who makes your computer, and where is it made? There is probably no simple answer to that question. The laptop I’m working on right now is branded by RM, a British company that sells to schools and universities. Reading the fine print on the back I’m not surprised to find it’s made in Taiwan by ASUS. ASUS also sells computers under its own brand, but here it is playing the role of OEM, or original equipment manufacturer. OEMs put products together to the specifications of the company that brands them and sells them to consumers. In some industries, such as clothing or footwear, the term “full package supplier” might be used instead of OEM.
1906 Table A
Authors: French Derek
Published: November 2023

1906 Table A provides the default articles of association for a company limited by shares2 registered from 1 October 19063 to 31 March 1909.4 In addition, all or any of the regulations contained in 1906 Table A could be adopted in the articles of association of any company registered from 1 October 1906 to 31 March 1909.5 A model form of memorandum for a company limited by shares registered from 1 October 1906 to 31 March 1909 was set out in the Companies Act 1862, sch 2, Form A.6 From 1 October 1906 to 31 March 1909, on the registration of an existing non-Companies Acts company under the Companies Act 1862, part 7 (ss 179–198), as a company limited by shares, its existing constitution was treated as its memorandum and articles of association, and 1906 Table A did not apply unless adopted by special resolution.7 From 1 October 1906 to 31 March 1909, the re-registration of a company under the Companies Act 1879, s 4, as a company limited by shares, took place in the same manner and had the same effect as if it were the first registration of the company,8 and so 1906 Table A would be the default articles of association.9
2004 RTM Wales
Authors: French Derek
Published: November 2023

When this book went to press it was not known how the enactments relating to the constitutions of RTM companies would be amended to take account of provisions of the Companies Act 2006 due to come into force on 1 October 2009. A company registered in England and Wales or Scotland as a company limited by guarantee without a share capital must be a private company, because only a limited company with a share capital can be a public company.10 If an RTM company registered under the Companies Act 1985 is still in existence on 1 October 2009, or is registered on or after that day, the provisions of its memorandum which would not be required by the Companies Act 2006, s 8, to be in the memorandum of a company registered under the 2006 Act, are to be treated as provisions of the company’s articles.11
1948 Table D
Authors: French Derek
Published: November 2023

re-registered from 1 July 19483 to 30 June 1985.4 From 22 December 1980 no company can be formed as, or become, a company limited by guarantee with a share capital.5 It was contemplated in the Companies Act 1980, s 8(1),6 that a company could be registered as a company limited by guarantee with a share capital on or after 22 December 1980 if the application to register it had been made before that date. Re-registration of an existing company limited by guarantee with a share capital to change it from private to public or public to private also appears to be possible. In addition, from 1 July 1948 to 30 June 1985, the articles of association of any company could adopt all or any of the regulations contained in 1948 Table A, Part 1, or, from 1 July 1948 to 21 December 1980, 1948 Table A, Part2.7 From 1 July 1948 to 30 June 1985, on the registration of an existing non-Companies Acts company under the Companies Act 1948, part 8 (ss 382–397), as a company limited by guarantee with a share capital, its existing constitution was treated as its memorandum and articles of association,8 subject to the statutory requirement of being in accordance with 1948 Table D or as near thereto as circumstances admitted.9
Northern Ireland 1960 Table C
Authors: French Derek
Published: November 2023

In addition, the articles of association of any company registered in Northern Ireland from 1 April 1961 to 23 September 1986 could adopt all or any of the regulations contained in Northern Ireland 1960 Table A, Part 1, or, from 1 April 1961 to 30 June 1983, Northern Ireland 1960 Table A, Part 2.4 From 1 April 1961 to 23 September 1986, on the registration of an existing non-Companies Acts company under the Companies Act (Northern Ireland) 1960, part 8 (ss 332–347), as a company limited by guarantee without a share capital, its existing constitution was treated as its memorandum and articles of association,5 subject to the statutory requirement of being in accordance with Northern Ireland 1960 Table C or as near thereto as circumstances admitted.6 The re-registration of a company under the Companies Act (Northern Ireland) 1960, s 16(1), from 1 April 1961 to 30 July 1979,7 as a company limited by guarantee without a share capital, took place in the same manner and had the same effect as if it were the first registration of the company,8 and so its memorandum and articles of association had to be in accordance with Northern Ireland 1960 Table C, or as near thereto as circumstances admitted.9
Republic of Ireland 1963 Table A, Part 1, and Table B
Authors: French Derek
Published: November 2023

defined in the Companies Act 1963 (Republic of Ireland), s 33,1 registered in the Republic of Ireland on or after 1 April 1964.2 The Irish-language version (Tábla A, Cuid 1)3 is the default if the company’s memorandum is in Irish.4 The default articles for a private company are provided by Republic of Ireland 1963 Table A, Part 2. As from 13 October 1983, a company which is not a private company is a public company.5 Republic of Ireland 1963 Table A, Part 1, is also, apart from arts 8, 24, 51, 54, 84 and 86, incorporated in Republic of Ireland 1963 Table A, Part 2. In addition, all or any of the regulations contained in Republic of Ireland 1963 Table A, Part 1, in either the English-language or the Irish-language version, can be adopted in the articles of association of any company registered in the Republic of Ireland on or after 1 April 1964.6 A model form of memorandum for a company limited by shares registered in the Republic of Ireland on or after 1 April 1964 is set out in the Companies Act 1963 (Republic of Ireland), sch 1, Table B,7 or, for a public company limited by shares registered on or after 13 October 1983, in the Companies (Amendment) Act 1983 (Republic of Ireland), sch 2, part 1.8
The Management of Research and Development
Authors: Dodgson Mark , Gann David , Salter Ammon
Published: November 2023

R&D is a major source of rejuvenation and growth for companies, providing an important contribution to innovation and competitive advantage. Business invests heavily in R&D because expectations from it are so high. In 2004 the business sector spent over $350 billion on R&D in the OECD nations, accounting for over 69 per cent of their total R&D expenditures (NSB 2006). Real levels of US R&D corporate expenditures increased by 67 per cent in the decade up to 2004. Companies in industries such as pharmaceuticals and IT commonly spend over 10 per cent of their annual sales on R&D, which may constitute a significant proportion of a company’s activities.
Innovation in Operations and Processes
Authors: Dodgson Mark , Gann David , Salter Ammon
Published: November 2023

Innovation depends upon a firm’s ability to create new products and services and make and deliver them. For established firms this often involves adapting existing facilities and processes. For new start-up businesses and those existing firms that aim to deliver significantly new products and services, it means developing new operations capability. This chapter discusses the key MTI issues involved in successfully delivering new products and services to markets and customers. It focuses on the role of innovation in processes themselves, showing how process improvement delivers value and secures profitability.
Childhood asthma
Authors: Hasan Arshad S , Suresh Babu K
Published: November 2023

Asthma often starts early in childhood; however, it is difficult to differentiate asthma from transient, viral infection-induced wheezing at this age The principles of management of childhood asthma are similar to those of adult asthma, but important differences exist in the choice of drugs and inhaler devices Asthma follows a course of remission and relapse during childhood, but can improve in the teenage years in nearly 50% of asthmatics Asthma is more common in boys during childhood, but changes at the time of puberty mean that it becomes more common and more severe in women
Measure of change: The adjectival core of degree achievements
Authors: Kennedy Christopher , Levin Beth
Published: November 2023

Current theories of aspect acknowledge the pervasiveness of verbs of variable telicity, and are designed to account both for why these verbs show such variability and for the complex conditions that give rise to telic and atelic interpretations. Previous work has identified several sets of such verbs, including incremental theme verbs, such as eat and destruy; degree achievements, such as cool and widen; and (a)telic directed motion verbs, such as ascend and descend (see e.g., Dederck 1979; Dowty 1979, 1991; Krilka 1989, 1992; Tenny 1994; Bertinetto and Squartini 1995; Levin and Rappaport Hovav 1995; Jackendoff 1996a; Ramchand 1997; Filip 1999; Hay et al. 1999; Rothstein 2004; Borer 2005b ). As the diversity in descriptive labels suggests, most previous work has taken these classes to embody distinct phenomena and to have distinct lexical semantic analyses. We believe that it is possible to provide a unified analysis in which the behavior of all of these verbs stems from a single shared element of their meanings: a function that measures the degree to which an object changes relative to some scalar dimension over the course of an event. We claim that such “measures of change” are based on the more general kinds of measure functions that are lexicalized in many languages by gradable adjectives, and that map an object to a scalar value that represents the degree to which it manifests some gradable property at a time (see Bartsch and Vennemann 1972, 1973; Bierwisch 1989; Kennedy 1999b; Pinon 2005). In this chapter we focus on the analysis of degree achievements, which provide the first step towards this goal. As verbs for the most part derived from gradable adjectives, they most transparently illustrate the semantic components that we claim are involved in determining variable telicity.
J
Authors: Gabriel Yiannis
Published: November 2023

Jokes are linguistic phenomena of considerable interest. They can offer a safety valve in moments of tension, provide a welcome diversion from hardships, create camaraderie and solidarity, and unleash powerful emotions. Two particularly important emotions associated with jokes are mirth (or amusement) and hostility—nearly all jokes, with the exception of puns, are directed against a certain target or butt who becomes the recipient of ridicule and mockery. The butt may be a competitor, a client, a department, an employee, or the storyteller him- or herself. Like myths, stories, and rituals, jokes are elements of organizational culture, which offer insights into the feelings and desires of organizational members.
Categories that make finiteness: discreteness from a functional perspective and some of its repercussions
Authors: Bisang Walter
Published: November 2023

Functional approaches describe finiteness as a scalar phenomenon, while formal theories take finiteness as a discrete phenomenon. From the perspective of functional-typological findings, finiteness must be defined not in terms of an individual universal morphological property or parameter but rather in terms of a cluster of parameters (see Cristofaro, Chapter 4 above). These parameters then form the basis for establishing a scale for situating individual patterns of how finiteness is realized in individual languages (Givón 1990; Dik 1997a; Hengeveld 1998; Cristofaro, Chapter 4 above).
Remedies
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper provides an historical insight into the development of remedies that are available to litigants in the English legal system. It considers the declaratory judgment, damages, and injunctions, and explores how the courts not in favour of more judicial intervention into the activities of public bodies. Used efficiently and effectively, they can assist the court in maintaining a proper balance between protecting the public and allowing those who have the responsibility for governing us to govern. At the beginning of the first of these lectures I cited the passage with which Lord Denning concluded the first Hamlyn Lecture 57 years ago. That passage ended with these words:
Should the Media and the Judiciary be on Speaking Terms?
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper discusses the complex issue of reconciling the requirement in a parliamentary democracy of a free and independent judiciary with the need for a free and independent media. It supports the distinct roles played by the courts and the media to act as independent checks on the government that with a substantial parliamentary majority, and left unchecked, could yield immense power. It advises that the judiciary must not forfeit its independence in its dealings with the media; to do so could be extremely damaging to the public ‘s confidence in the legal system. It is in the interests of both the courts and media that they continue to be on speaking terms.
Are the Judiciary Environmentally Myopic?
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper discusses the development of environmental law in England, explaining that while it has an identifiable core, it has no clear boundaries. It considers the various proceedings that can be used to enforce environmental legislation and suggests that the existing situation is unsatisfactory. It recommends the establishment of a new environmental tribunal, or ‘one stop shop ‘, with general responsibility for overseeing and enforcing the safeguards provided for the protection of the environment. This, it concludes, could lead to faster, cheaper and more effective resolution of environmental disputes.
The International Role of the Judiciary
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper considers the transformation of the role of the English judiciary in recent times and its signifi cance internationally. It explains that it is necessary to improve the observance of the rule of law throughout the world, and supports judging that involves comparative analysis between different jurisdictions, particularly in the fi eld of human rights. It concludes by emphasising the importance of international cooperation between the judiciaries of different countries, and suggests that each country can do more to help other countries by providing appropriate training.
Monarch and politician, 1689–1702
Authors: Claydon Tony , Speck W A
Published: November 2023

As William tried to contain Louis in Europe he faced quite as difficult a challenge in maintaining English support for that containment. Unless he could preserve his new realm’s early willingness to counter French ambitions, his entire continental strategy would be in danger. English resources were vital to his military eﬀorts: England’s armed preparedness was essential to maintain any credible diplomatic pressure on Versailles.
Private man, public monarch
Authors: Claydon Tony , Speck W A
Published: November 2023

William’s personal faith was profound if simple. At its foundation lay a deep piety which drove him to attend prayers at least once a day, to follow regimes of close spiritual self- examination, and to share in his wife’s effector to make the English court a more godly and chapel-centred institution. Upon this firm base the king’s religion rested on three principal pillars. First, he retained a basic belief in the Calvinist doctrine, plain worship, and presbyterian government of the Dutch Reformed church.
A Good Place for CHAT Activity Theory and MBA Education
Authors: Gold Jeff , Holt Robin , Thorpe Richard
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we are going to argue that activity theory, specifically the approach offered by Cultural and Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) (Engeström 2000), has an instructive role on MBA programmes. We base our argument on the following grounds. First, as a theoretical model CHAT embodies rather than represses the multiplicity associated with business life; secondly, it offers users a mode of engaging with practical concerns; and, finally, it allows MBA students to reflexively engage with their educative and wider organizational experience.
Experiencing a Collective1 Model of Doctoral Research Supervision
Authors: Jones Sandra
Published: November 2023

The increasing number of candidates enrolled in doctorates (especially in the growing area of professional doctorates), in combination with industry demand for more relevant research into professional practice, is leading to growing recognition that university doctorates are ‘occupying a more central role, both institutionally and nationally’ (Neumann 2003: 4). This is resulting in wide-ranging discourse about the most effective form and structure of doctoral programmes to support candidates and lead to maximum output (completions).
Maximum Disorder Working Experientially with HRM and Business Studies Undergraduates
Authors: Thompson Jane , Lamping Tracy
Published: November 2023

In this Chapter we discuss an experiential seminar activity entitled ‘Maximum Disorder’.1 We demonstrate how we encourage our students to gain an understanding of the complexity of ‘management’, thus affording them the opportunity to gain insight and skills, as they negotiate the social, emotional, and political aspects of managing/managerial work. Debate with regard to critical pedagogy in management education is now well developed. Transferring this into practice at the level of curricula, or what we term ‘critical pedagogy in action’, is less so.
Breast augmentation
Authors: Waterhouse Norman
Published: November 2023

The decision to have breast implants has long-term implications.

Your surgeon should offer lifelong follow-up care.

Breast implants do not cause cancer or autoimmune diseases.

Not all breast implants are the same. Insist on the highest quality with a lifetime guarantee.

Cosmetic breast surgery consistently ranks as one of the most frequently requested procedures by women. Over a quarter of a million women in the USA and 30 000 in the UK undergo breast augmentation every year. Although the primary motivation is a desire for larger breasts, many women are looking for a more attractive breast shape or restoration for more youthful breasts after childbirth and breastfeeding.
Abdominoplasty
Authors: Waterhouse Norman
Published: November 2023

There are many different procedures available depending on individual circumstances.

The operation may not be appropriate for patients who are overweight or have other medical problems.

Abdominoplasty has the potential to cause serious and even life-threatening complications.

Surgery should only be performed in a well-equipped hospital with highly trained staff.

A smooth, flat belly with a defined waist is an integral part of our perception of an attractive youthful body. Images of trim, muscular, bodies are everywhere, and used to market a variety of products from clothes to perfumes. Modern fashion trends have encouraged exposure of the belly and adornment with piercings.
Genioplasty
Authors: Waterhouse Norman
Published: November 2023

Surgeons offering genioplasty should have expertise in the normal and abnormal features of the facial bones, including the jaws.

Suitability for chin augmentation must be determined by an expert analysis of the bones and soft tissues of the whole face.

Genioplasty is often performed with a rhinoplasty to improve facial balance. Chin implants, although popular and simple, may produce a range of short- and long-term complications.

Numbness of the lower lip is a possible complication of genioplasty. ‘Simple’ procedures such as the use of injectable fillers may only be temporary.

Genioplasty, properly performed, provides a predictable, stable, and natural result.
The Moral Reality of Human Rights
Authors: Tasioulas John
Published: November 2023

The elevation of the discourse of human rights in recent times to the status of an ethical lingua franca has fueled an unruly proliferation of incompatible or often just incredible rights claims. If human rights are not to fall victim to their own popularity, some principled way of distinguishing the genuine articles from the presumed spate of counterfeits is required. It is no answer to invoke the ‘human rights’ proclaimed as such in international treaties and declarations. To begin with, they lack the requisite universality: the instruments in which they are set out are often not legally binding and even those that are binding are not subscribed to by all states (or are subscribed to by many states subject to eviscerating reservations).
Extreme Poverty in a Wealthy World: What Justice Demands Today
Authors: Alegre Marcelo
Published: November 2023

In this essay I defend the validity of a human rights approach to the problem of global poverty, emphasizing one characteristic of the prevailing indifference toward extreme deprivation—its gratuitousness. Some of the predominant views about the problem are based on obsolete factual assumptions (that poverty eradication is impossible or very costly). Removing these false assumptions is an important part of a pro-poor strategy. I briefly expose some of the reservations that the UN Millennium Goals provoke from a human rights perspective, both for their wording and their substantial omissions.
The Right to Basic Resources
Authors: Chauvier Stéphane
Published: November 2023

Poverty, like disease, is an absolute and not a relative state. Its opposite is not wealth, which is a relative concept, but what one could call vital security. A person living every day in the fear of not finding food or shelter, but who, by fortunate coincidence, manages to find a roof and sufficient food each day, would still be considered poor in spite of his good fortune, because poverty contains a subjective dimension: it is not only characterized by a low level of resources, but also by a vital insecurity, namely the absence of a foreseeable and reliable access to the resources that are essential to life.
Executive Directors’ Knowledge
Authors: Storey John , Salaman Graeme , Holti Richard
Published: November 2023

The research reported in this chapter explores the knowledge work practices of directors and other senior managers. It examines the ways in which senior managers use knowledge and the ways they help to adapt and create knowledge. Through close and detailed examination of senior managers’ doing and knowing, it becomes possible to shed some light on what, and how, knowledge is used at the strategic apex of organizations. There are a number of crucial questions for which research to date has not yet provided adequate answers: What knowledge do executive managers use? What knowing is involved in management? In so far as contributing to strategy is an expectation, how is this accomplished and what knowing is required for this?
Consumer Credit Licensing
Authors: Popplewell S
Published: November 2023

Ever since the nineteenth century and legislation in respect of pawnbrokers the provision of credit has been regulated. The majority of businesses wishing to grant credit or bail goods on hire must apply for and obtain a suitable licence, otherwise risk committing a criminal offence or find that the agreements that they enter into are unenforceable. The current licensing system is found in Part III of the Consumer Credit Act 1974 (CCA 1974), which came into force on 1 October 1977 and replaced the previous licensing scheme found in the Moneylenders Acts and the Pawnbrokers Acts. It is currently administered and enforced by the Office of Fair Trading (hereinafter referred to in this chapter as the ‘OFT’). As will be seen from the following chapter the amendments introduced by the Consumer Credit Act 2006 brought about significant changes to the licensing system. With the majority of the amendments coming into force on 6 April 2008,1 the CCA 2006 introduces new categories of business that require licences, subdivides types of business into ‘descriptions’ that can be individually licensed, and significantly adds to the regulatory and enforcement powers of the OFT.
Advertising
Authors: Sayer P
Published: November 2023

As one would expect, consumer credit advertising is regulated under the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974 and the Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations 2004, SI 2004/1484 in some detail. What will be attempted here is an exposition of the particular rules that apply to consumer credit advertisements. Of course, any advertisement will also have to comply with any other relevant legislation and codes.1 Great care has to be taken to comply with the relevant consumer credit law in this field. The danger of any trader taking an over-robust view is that their conduct may attract the unwelcome attention of consumers, Trading Standards Officers, and the Office of Fair Trading (OFT). In addition, as the whole credit market is intensely competitive, a trader may expect complaints from competing lenders, etc. Section 43 of the CCA 1974 deals with advertisements to which Part IV of the Act applies. Part IV of the Act deals with the seeking of business and, in particular, advertising. Under section 43(1), Part IV of the Act applies to any advertisement, published for the purpose of a business carried on by the advertiser, indicating that he is willing to provide credit, or to enter into an agreement for the hiring of goods by him. The wide scope of section 43(1) is qualified by section 43(2). An advertisement does not fall under subsection (1) if the advertiser does not carry on (a) a consumer credit or a consumer hire business, (b) a business in the course of which he provides credit to individuals secured on land, or (c) a business which comprises or relates to unregulated agreements where the law applicable to the agreement is the law of a country outside the UK and if the law applicable to the agreement were the law of a part of the UK, it would be a regulated agreement.
Linked Transactions
Authors: Popplewell S
Published: November 2023

Although the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974 primarily regulates credit and hire agreements, it also, to a more limited extent, regulates transactions that are entered into as a consequence of, or connected with, those agreements. The trans- actions that are regulated are defined in section 19 of the CCA 1974 and are called ‘linked transactions’. The use of the word ‘transaction’ as opposed to ‘agreement’ in section 19 must be taken to be deliberate, and hence the section applies not only to agreements. Examples of transactions that may not be agreements include deeds, trusts, and gifts. It is not only transactions entered into by a debtor or hirer that can be linked transactions, but also transactions entered into by a relative of a debtor or hirer. This is an anti-avoidance measure to prevent unscrupulous creditors or owners (or, perhaps more likely, the other party to the linked transaction) escaping the consequences of a transaction being linked by having it entered into by a person other than the debtor or hirer. ‘Relative’ is defined widely enough to include business partners, the spouses of business partners, and bodies corporate which are controlled by the debtor or hirer.
Information and Notices
Authors: Smith J M W
Published: November 2023

Once a regulated consumer credit agreement or a regulated consumer hire agreement has been made, the creditor or owner is required to provide periodic statements, information and copy documents on request, and notices when the debtor or hirer is in default. The requirements, as expanded by the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 2006 with effect on and from 1 October 2008, are detailed but not always clear. Questions arise, for example, as to who is the ‘creditor’, what is a ‘copy’ of a document, what is meant by a rate of interest ‘applicable on a per annum basis’, when a debtor ‘ceases to be in arrears’, what is a ‘payment’, what is the ‘shortfall’, and the period in relation to which an arrears notice may be sent. These issues are discussed in this chapter where they arise in the exposition of the requirements. Their importance should not be underestimated. The consequences of noncompliance may involve loss of the right to recover substantial amounts of interest and default charges with no discretion being given to the court to allow recovery. In contrast, following the repeal of section 127(3) and (4) of the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974,1 the court always has a discretion whether to permit the enforcement of an improperly executed agreement that was made on or after 6 April 2007.2 Accordingly, for the future, the focus of attention may be expected to move from incorrectly drafted agreements to incorrectly prepared statements and notices.
The Development of International Criminal Law after Nuremberg
Authors: Jescheck Professor Hans-Heinrich
Published: November 2023

Ten years have passed since the judgment of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg. The twelve findings of the American military tribunals that were announced after the main trial and on the basis of the legal principles developed during the trial belong to history. Only a few of the defendants sentenced to imprisonment are still behind bars; some have had to serve their sentence up to the last day; most were released from incarceration before time. The world has all but forgotten the arguments of the Nuremberg judgments. They could be summarized as follows: under international law, the individual has direct responsibility in criminal law; criminal acts under international law are, in particular, a war of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity; the duties of the individual under international law have precedence over those established in national law.
Nuremberg Eighteen Years Afterwards
Authors: Kranzbuhler Otto
Published: November 2023

After my learned friends, Professor Herbert Krauss and Professor Carl Haensel, have presented their thoughts on the Nuremberg trials in the previous issue of this Review, it will be diﬃcult for me to be heard on the same topic without boring or shocking my readers. In order to avoid both, I should like to begin by saying that my approach is different in several respects, maybe because my personal position was, and is, completely different.
Introduction
Authors: Jackson Robert H
Published: November 2023

If mankind really is to master its destiny or control its way of life, it must first find means to prevent war. So long as it cannot, war demands will dictate the course of our collective and individual lives. And if we are to come to grips with the problem of preventing war, it is important that we know how wars are made, to what extent they result from impersonal pressures and tensions, and how far they are due to blunders or pugnacity of individual statesmen or political factions.
Lifestyle
Authors: Matthews David
Published: November 2023

Managing diabetes can be challenging and time-consuming as it requires attention to everyday activities including food and physical activity, and investigating and reflecting upon their effects on blood glucose levels. Diabetes is a condition that is greatly affected by lifestyle choices in everyday life; eating a large meal will have more effect on blood glucose levels than eating a small snack, taking part in physical activity can lower glucose levels, losing weight will have a positive effect on both overall health and blood glucose levels. Self- management of these lifestyle factors influences outcomes in both the long and the short term. There is much confusion about the ideal diet for diabetes, about how much physical activity people should engage in and how other aspects of their life affect blood glucose levels. These issues are all addressed in this lifestyle chapter.
Marked-nominative
Authors: könig Christa
Published: November 2023

Marked-nominative case systems occupy an important place in this volume, for two reasons: Not only do they constitute the most widespread type of case systems in Africa, they also are an almost unique African phenomenon. Marked-nominative languages are in fact cross-linguistically rare. The only other reliable cases that have been reported are the Yuman languages (e.g. Maricopa [Gordon 1986], Dieguen)o, Jamul Tiipy [Langdon 1970, Miller 2001] as well as the Yukian language Wappo (Li & Thompson 1976:454–65, Li, Thompson & Sawyer 1977:89–99) of California. Further information is needed on the following languages, also claimed to have marked- nominative systems: Houailou (Oceanic, Austronesian), some older Germanic languages, Old French, Ancient Egyptian (on pronouns), varieties of Maidu (Penutian), Shokleng (Jê), Malak-Malak (non-Pama-Nyungan, Australian), and Proto-Afroasiatic (Plank 1985a:302, 2007 and Mallinson &&&& Blake 1981:47–8).
Conclusions
Authors: könig Christa
Published: November 2023

Even if it has more to offer than has been assumed so far in the literature, the fact remains that case as a grammaticalized category is a rather rare phenomenon in Africa. It occurs mainly in the Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic phyla, marginally also in some Kordofanian and western Bantu languages of Niger-Congo (see section 5.1.1). There is reason to argue that even in Khoisan languages, grammaticalized case is not entirely absent. In languages such as Khoekhoe, Khwe, and !Xun there are elements that can be taken to be incipient case markers (see section 5.4).
The Status of Combatants
Authors: Coady C A J (Tony)
Published: November 2023

My starting point is the fact that there are powerful moral objections to the attacking, and indeed targeting, of non-combatants. This is a key element in the moral guidance oﬀered by the jus in bello for the conduct of war. As we shall see, however, there are ambiguities in the interpretation of the terms ‘combatant’ and ‘non-combatant’ that make this guidance contestable in various ways. Moreover, on any plausible interpretation, this prohibition was more honoured in the breach than in the observance during many of the wars of the twentieth century that were dominated by the awesome power of air bombardment. Against this trend, the prohibition has become more respected, at least in word, if not always in deed, during some of the larger scale wars of the past fifteen years or so. There is, of course, no reason to become complacent about this since non-combatants are still directly targeted in many contemporary conflicts, and where they are not, their lives and property are still at great risk from the morally glib acceptability of the doctrine of ‘collateral damage’.
Models of Competition
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we review traditional approaches of interfirm competition, concentrating on models that have their genesis in economics. Much of the early literature on strategic management was heavily inXuenced by this economic view. We set out a selection of the models and frameworks, and then discuss critically their suitability for analysing the dynamics of competition. This early view of strategic management Weld centred in Industrial Organization economics was based on models that have as their underpinning the notion of competitive equilibrium. In later chapters, we shall introduce alternative models that are able to go beyond the equilibrium-inspired view, but it is important to understand how equilibrium models work in order to see the need to extend these models and how to do it.
Conclusion
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A
Published: November 2023

Strategic management has evolved from a consideration of the situation a firm faces at the immediate time to one where firms should consider their position and strategy in a dynamic environment, where the decisions they make influence other firms, and their reactions change the nature of competition.

In the early days of strategic management, little attention was paid to the dynamics of strategy. Markets were considered to be static, and the resource-based view was also in its infancy. Both the market approach (Porter 1980) and the resource-based view (Barney 1991; Wernerfelt 1984) trace their roots back to early industrial organization economics (Bain 1956; Penrose 1959) where assumptions of equilibrium were made in the economic models of that time.
Parliamentary Representatives from Early Democratization to the Age of Consolidated Democracy: National Variations and International Convergence in a Long-term Perspective
Authors: Cotta Maurizio , Best Heinrich
Published: November 2023

In the spring of 2004, following the latest enlargement of the European Union (EU), democratic parliamentary elections have taken place, on the same day in twenty-five European countries, to elect representatives to the European Parliament. We can rightly consider this date, whatever the immediate practical effects of these elections, a crucial symbolic point in the political development of Europe. This point in time provides us with a challenging perspective over the approximately 150 years of European history that have elapsed from the revolutionary year of 1848 to this day.
Cultural Capital and Political Selection: Educational Backgrounds of Parliamentarians
Authors: Gaxie Daniel , Godmer Laurent
Published: November 2023

As Émile Durkheim has pointed out in his Education and Sociology, education is “above all, the means by which a society perpetually renews the conditions of its own existence” (Durkheim 1993: 101). Education indeed allows for the acquisition of a set of elements (knowledge, know-how, behaviours, rules to respect) necessary to the insertion and to the adaptation of individuals within the social world. The latter perpetuates itself to the extent to which the members of society are adequately educated (with regard to the standards of the group(s) they belong to at a certain moment in time).
Persisting Agrarian Party Families
Authors: Verzichelli Luca
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with one of the largest and well-established party families of the European political landscape. There is no need, therefore, to justify the inclusion of an analysis of Christian Democratic parties in this section of the volume, which is devoted to parliamentary elite transformations across the main families of political parties in Europe.
Promoting Equality and Diversity
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

Promoting Equality and Diversity: A Practitioner’s Guide explains the fundamental changes in the approach to achieving equality and diversity that are occurring as a result of recent legislation. The work takes a task based approach to the subject, suggesting legal solutions to discrete practical problems, and providing clear, pragmatic guidance to enable practitioners to tackle the individual problems they might encounter. This book provides a clear and practical explanation of both good practice and the legislation behind the new proactive approach that is being adopted. It covers areas that receive no treatment elsewhere and offers guidance to organisations that want to implement equality measures but are unsure of how to do so. This book not only explains the relevant legal concepts but also offers real practical advice on topics such as how to carry out impact statements; how to carry out equality pay audits; and the role of monitoring. By adopting a task based approach, focusing on what organisations have to deal with in practice, this work is able to offer a fully integrated legal analysis of current discrimination law that will be of use to every practitioner working in this field. By combining a traditional legal approach with examples, checklists, and precedents the authors have produced a book that is both highly useful and extremely readable.
The Public Duty To Promote Equality
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

The underlying theme of this book is the promotion of equality and diversity as best practice. For some employers, however, promoting equality is not just best practice, it is mandatory. To date, those duties extend only to the race, disability and sex strands but there is a possibility that the duties might be extended to the other strands in the future.

The duties apply directly only to public authorities. This includes not only what we would traditionally understand as the public sector (central and local Government) and what would once have been described disparagingly as ‘quangos’ (for example, executive agencies and Non-Departmental Public Bodies or ‘NDPBs’), but also in some cases private or voluntary sector bodies carrying out public functions through contracts with the public sector.
Classical Asthma
Authors: Jackson Mark
Published: November 2023

Asthma has a long history. The term itself derives from an ancient Greek word, asqma, which first appeared in Homer’s epic poem The Iliad, composed in the seventh or eighth century bc. At the start of Book 15, Zeus awakes to discover the Trojan army dispersed by the Greeks, and the Trojan leader, Hector, ‘lying on the plain, while about him sat his comrades, and he was gasping with painful breath[asthmati], distraught in mind, and vomiting blood’.
Forming new words
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

Words are not the smallest meaningful elements in language. It is obvious that careless is made up of care and -less. It is also obvious that words like books and tables contain a suffix -s, which, as we saw in the previous chapter, indicates plural, that is, more than one. The study of how words can be broken down into meaningful constituents is called morphology, literally the study of form (Greek morph¯e ‘shape’, ‘form’). The term was used in biology before it was applied to the study of words and probably counts as a learned word, but interestingly the root morph has now come into common use as a verb.
Phonetics
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

There are two main kinds of speech sound: vowels and consonants. Virtually everyword in every language contains at least one vowel. If you came across words like pfft or skz ina language, you would be surprised. You would wonder how they could be pronounced. There was a film called Phffft, starring Jack Lemmon and Kim Novak(1954). It referredto‘thesound made by the sudden disintegration of a marriage’! The sequence is pronounceable, but try conveying it so someone some distance away.
Writing
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

Humans have been drawing pictures for tens of thousands of years, and the earliest examples of writing are pictograms, small, often stylized, representations of anything that can be seen: people, body parts, animals, plants, heavenly bodies, and so on. The best-known examples are the hieroglyphs of Ancient Egypt, which date back to the fourth millennium BC.

The word ‘hieroglyph’ is from the Greek hieros ‘sacred’ and glyphein ‘to carve’. The original hieroglyphs were carved in stone, but later these symbols were used on other materials, especially papyrus, a writing material made from the pith of the papyrus reed.
Language change
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

As mentioned at the beginning of the previous chapter, languages change. Over time every facet of a language can change: the sounds, the morphology, the syntax, the semantics, and the vocabulary. Most readers will be familiar with Shakespeare’s English of 400 years ago (Early Modern English) and realize that the language has changed somewhat over four centuries. Some readers will have been introduced to Chaucer’s fourteenth-century English and realize that it can be a little difficult to understand.