bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Organic Rankine Cycles Including Fluid Selection
Authors: Lemort Vincent , Declaye Sébastien , Quoilin Sylvain
Published: July 2015

An organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is similar to a steam Rankine cycle, except that the working fluid is not water but an organic compound, such as a refrigerant or a hydrocarbon, characterized by a lower boiling temperature (at the same pressure) than that of water. Hence, lower temperature heat sources can be exploited such as solar energy, geothermal energy, and waste heat from many different processes.

During the design phase of anORCsystem, the selection of the working fluid must be conducted in parallel with the selection and the sizing of the components (mainly the expansion machine, the pump, and the heat exchangers) and with the definition of the cycle architecture. This approach allows taking into consideration all technical constraints. Relevant properties of working fluids that should be considered during their selection are listed. Major characteristics of available displacement and turbo‐expander technologies are described. The impact of the pump performance on the overall performance is discussed and strategies to increase the available net positive suction head are proposed. Finally, improved cycle architectures are introduced.

Major applications ofORCsystems are described: geothermal power plants, biomass combined heat and power plants,WHRin industry, andWHRon internal combustion engines and solar power plants. All these applications differ by the nature of the heat source and heat sink, the integration of theORCwith these sources and sinks, and the range of installed capacities. These differences yield specific designs, which are described. Performance achieved by systems in operation or prototypes are presented.
Kalina Cycles for Power Generation
Authors: Rogdakis Emmanouil , Lolos Periklis
Published: July 2015

The Kalina cycle has been developed by Dr. Alexander Kalina a few decades ago. The Kalina cycle is a further development of the Rankine cycle operating with a binary fluid, such as ammonia–water, instead of one fluid of a pure substance as a working medium. So, the main difference is that the isobaric evaporation and condensation process occur under variable temperature. The mixture composition varies throughout the cycle. The increased efficiency compared to the Rankine cycle is due to the close temperature match between the cycle heat acceptance and the source heat availability and of the high level of recuperation. Furthermore, a Kalina power plant uses the same devices (turbine, pumps, valves, etc.) as a conventional steam power plant, as the molecular weight of the mixture ammonia–water differs slightly from the pure water.

The thermodynamic representation of binary cycles is a complex procedure and, for this reason, over a long period of time, was not feasible. The graphical representation of the Kalina cycle in temperature–entropy and temperature–enthalpy diagrams, where all heat quantities are reduced to 1 kg vapor expanded in the turbine, enable quick and reliable estimation of thermal power and heat exchanged between mixture and the environment. This gives the opportunity to scientists and engineers to dimensioning such installations and making further improvements.

Kalina cycle‐based configurations have been developed, adjusted to the respective temperature field of the heat source, and parametrically evaluated. Firstly, an application of the Kalina cycle for low temperature heat sources is presented and briefly analyzed. In addition, the application of the Kalina cycle in medium to high temperature heat sources has been examined. The function of the “thermal compressor” has been analyzed. A parametric analysis has been conducted, and those factors that influence its performance have been identified. The superiority of the cycle regarding thermal efficiency and power output has been highlighted through a comparative evaluation with a Rankine cycle operating under the same conditions and using an ammonia–water mixture as a working fluid.

An innovative Kalina cycle has been introduced, which uses aLiBr–H2Omixture as a working solution. The cycle has been thermodynamically analyzed and parametrically evaluated.

A case study is presented, which concerns an innovative hybrid Kalina cycle for the exploitation of the heat gained through solar flat collectors.

An overview of implemented Kalina cycle projects is presented, which includes demonstration‐research power plants and commercial applications.

Finally, a list of Kalina patents is reported, and a few of them realized are briefly described.
Fuel Cells for Commercial Applications
Authors: Pratt Joseph W. , Klebanoff Lennie , Harris Aaron , Sookhoo Ryan
Published: July 2015

The use of fuel cell technology offers benefits to many applications beyond light‐duty vehicles, and many of these are currently commercially viable or have the potential to be in the near term. These include material‐handling equipment, construction equipment, handheld and portable power, telecom backup power, airport ground support equipment, aerospace power, and maritime power.

In all of these applications, fuel cells can provide immediate benefits in terms of decreased fossil‐fuel use, reduced criteria pollutants and greenhouse gases, and delivery of new capabilities. Just as important, they can also be leveraged to facilitate the eventual introduction of fuel cell light‐duty vehicles by providing experience in both fuel cells and hydrogen that helps to refine products, drive down cost, reconcile codes and standards issues, make hydrogen fuel more available, and introduce familiarity with the technology to the public. In the words of theUS DOE's Fuel Cell Technologies Office Market Transformation subprogram, these near‐term applications “help overcome nontechnical challenges to the expansion of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies into the broader vehicular marketplace.”

The applications mentioned earlier are in varying states of commercial viability and development yet all are contributing to these goals. As experience and performance enhancements continue, the opportunity for new applications increases.
Demand Side Management in Power Systems with High Penetration of Non‐Dispatchable Sources
Authors: Shahidehpour Mohammad , Wu Hongyu
Published: July 2015

This article discusses a stochastic optimization model for the day‐ahead scheduling in power systems with a high penetration of nondispatchable sources, that is, renewable energy sources (
RES
). The stochastic model incorporates the flexible ramping up/down capability of thermal generating units and applies energy storage and hourly demand response (
DR
) program as alternatives for firming the
RES
variability in economic and emergency conditions. The stochastic day‐ahead scheduling will consider hourly forecast errors of the system load and
RES
generation, as well as random outages of power system components. The Monte Carlo simulation (
MCS
) is used for creating stochastic day‐ahead scheduling scenarios. A general purpose mixed‐integer linear programming (
MILP
) software is employed to solve the stochastic day‐ahead scheduling problem. Numerical cases that include high
RES
penetrations are studied for a modified 6‐bus system and
IEEE
118‐bus system. The results demonstrate the benefits of applying
DR
as an alternative to flexible ramping in the day‐ahead scheduling model with variable
RES
.
Integration of Electric Vehicles in the Electric Energy System
Authors: Andersen Peter B. , Wu Qiuwei
Published: July 2015

Since Scottish inventor Robert Anderson built the first electric vehicle (EV) in 1832, the world has seen several attempts at electrifying the transportation sector. Successful EV introduction represents a challenge of daunting proportions but with an extraordinary potential for society. A challenge that can only be solved through a large set of disciplines spanning fields such as anthropology, politics, business, and technology. In the following, the term “EV integration” is used to cover the technological challenges and describe the solutions that engineers and technicians working within electric components, power system design, informatics, and mathematics have to combine in a number of crossdisciplinary solutions. EV integration research should, for instance, find solutions for

infrastructure

roaming

new EV services

smart grid integration

The goal of the latter area would be to minimize the adverse effects of introducing EVs as a new load in the power system and, instead, promote them as an active asset. This would ultimately reduce society's cost, monetary as well as environmental, for the electrification of transportation. To achieve this, the EV itself would have to be equipped with capabilities so that it through information and communication technology (ICT) can receive stimuli from its surrounding environment and through logic adjust its charging or discharging behavior.

The main EV integration challenge addressed in this article is that of intelligent EV integration into the power system as part of the smart grid concept. The following sections describe the main stakeholders that have to be considered, the integration scenarios that may be pursued, and finally, provide an example on how EV integration was approached by the EDISON project.
Physical Modeling and Numerical Simulation ofCO2Storage Security
Authors: Jiang Xi
Published: July 2015

Several trapping and leakage mechanisms affect the security of geological carbon storage, which has to be carried out on a large scale, safely, and economically if it were to make a significant contribution in reducing CO2emissions. Modeling and simulation can be used to predict the migration of CO2under storage conditions; accordingly, they can be used to understand the storage security. Darcy's law for describing the multiphase flows in porous media, the mass and energy conservation equations together with geochemical relations constitute the main governing equations for the numerical simulation. Because of the broad range of scales involved, modeling and simulation of geological carbon storage remain a challenging task. To effectively model the large‐scale phenomena in geological carbon storage, upscaling of permeability and other multiphase properties of the porous media as well as that of the geochemistry will be needed. In the meantime, there is a need to further develop and validate simulators for geological carbon storage. New developments on physical modeling and numerical simulation are urgently called for the understanding and predicting of the carbon storage process and the technology development.
Sustainable Energy Indicator System and Its Application in China
Authors: Chen Shaofeng , Su Liyang , Qiu Mingjing
Published: July 2015

Energy is a condition, a foundation, an essential factor, and the key driving force for human socioeconomic development, and the sustainable use of energy is also vital to achieve the objectives of sustainable development. As the world's largest energy producer, consumer, and carbon emitter, China is facing with severe challenges domestically and internationally, which means that China must transit toward a pathway of sustainable energy development as early as possible. Under such context, there is a pressing need for China to establish an indicator system for sustainable energy development, which aims to monitor and evaluate the progress toward the objectives of sustainable energy development and the results of implementing relevant policies, support policymaking, guide and promote the sustainable transformation of energy system. In this article, we firstly explore the challenges of sustainable energy development in China, then redefine the concept of sustainable energy, and then propose the hypothesis of three “inverted U‐shaped curves”, which is the evolutionary relation between economic growth and energy consumption or carbon emission. Then, a policy intervention conceptual model, that is, Policy intervention‐Behavior adjustment‐Process change‐Targets and effects (
PBPT
) for sustainable energy indicator system that links policy actions and performance is established, and the sustainable energy indicator system in China is also developed from the perspectives of energy supply and demand. Finally, this article gives an example of the application of the indicator system with wind power as a case study, and explains the policy implication of the indicator system.
Energy Consumption and Economy Development: An Empirical Case Study forChina
Authors: Yu Hao
Published: July 2015

The researches on the relationship between energy consumption and economic development became increasingly popular after the first oil shock in the early 1970s. This article at first briefly summarizes the academic development in this area in both theoretical and empirical aspects and then the energy consumption–economic development nexus is investigated by utilizing China's actual data as a case study. The empirical estimations indicate that there exists a bilateral Granger causality between China's energy consumption and economic development, both in short and long terms. Besides, the inverted‐U‐shapedEKCrelationship between energy consumption and per capitaGDPis also verified. The important policy implication from these results is that China should pay more attention to keep the balance between the short‐ and long‐run effects when conducting environmental and energy policies. Although in the long run efforts should be paid to control the total amount of energy consumption, in the short and medium terms, more emphasis should be placed on energy efficiency improvement and the development of green and renewable energy industries.
Natural Gas as a Clean Fuel
Authors: Leung Guy C. K.
Published: July 2015

The emergence of a global natural gas industry accelerated at the turn of recent century. While global leaders are perplexed by the “energy dilemmas” that quest for energy security and environment, which often contradict each other, natural gas, the cleanest fossil fuel and globally abundant, appears to be able to provide a temporary leeway to get around these dilemmas. This article seeks to introduce and explore relevant issues of developing natural gas as a clean fuel. It starts by providing a concise introduction to the diverse attributes, subtle meanings, and global trends of “natural gases.” It then summarizes the key arguments of the debate around whether natural gas should be considered a clean energy option. It goes on to investigate the social‐technical conditions of gas trade and production. The article argues that should natural gas, or could it, be developed as a clean fuel is largely dependent on geographical, institutional, and organizational contexts.
Brief Introduction to Solar Energy Utilization
Authors: Boehm Robert F.
Published: July 2015

A brief outline of the application of solar energy is given in this article. Some characteristics of the terrestrial solar flux are described, including a series of maps that show the long‐term values of yearly solar flux. In addition, short descriptions of the various applications used today are given. The article ends with some possible directions that solar research will take in the next few years.
Photovoltaics: Sun Tracking Systems
Authors: Fraas Lewis M.
Published: July 2015

Solar electric power generation using standard silicon solar cell modules has seen major cost reductions through volume manufacturing over the past few years. According to a recentNRELstudy, today's system cost for an approximately 200‐MWP DCfixed‐axis utility‐scale ground mount system is about $3.80/WP DC. In Los Angeles without subsidies, this corresponds to an electric power price of about 18 cents/kWh. With evolutionary changes in this technology, NREL predicts that this price can drop to $1.71/WP DCby 2020 or to about 8 cents/kWh. Herein, opportunities are discussed for introducing technical innovations that can potentially reduce this cost to about 5 cents/kWh. All of these innovations involve tracking the sunlight to allow the use of higher efficiency cells and in order to increase the available solar energy incident on the solar photovoltaic modules. One‐axis and two‐axis tracking concentrator systems are discussed, as well as a revolutionary idea of using mirrors in space in a sun‐synchronous dawn–dusk polar orbit to provide sunbeams in the early morning and evening hours for large solar farms distributed around the world extending the available sunlight hours for these production sites from 8 to 14 h/day.
Microbial Fuel Cell for Biomass Energy Conversion
Authors: Karthikeyan Rengasamy , Xuan Jin , Leung Michael K. H.
Published: July 2015

The vision of producing sustainable and renewable bioenergy is to contribute reducing the current global warming impact. It is well known that microorganisms can produce fuels, such as ethanol, butanol, methane, and hydrogen. Alternatively, microbes can produce electricity by means of microbial fuel cell (MFC). The recent development in energy biology has demonstrated the potential of MFC for commercial applications in converting renewable biomass and organic waste into electricity. The biomass sources are highly desirable because they are “carbon‐neutral.” Electrical energy can be extracted from organic waste matter and renewable biomass by microbial degradation. The major challenge of using microbial fuel cell is to increase power density for most of the envisaged applications, such as power monitoring electronic devices, light source of battery charger in off‐grid areas. A wide scope lies ahead in the scaling up of MFC for large‐scale conversion of organic waste and biomass into electricity for powering vehicles, mobile electronic devices or buildings. The use of waste organic from biomass is environment‐friendly and regarded as a renewable energy source. This article gives an overview of microbial fuel cell that covers the bioelectrochemical mechanisms, system and components, characterization, performance, and applications.
Spark Ignition Engines: State‐of‐the‐Art and Current Technologies. Future Trends and Developments
Authors: Cipolla Giovanni , Bozza Fabio
Published: July 2015

The purpose of this article is to provide fundamental information on spark‐ignited internal combustion engines (SI‐ICEs).

In the first section, a general overview of mainSIengines and their peculiarities is given, as well as the foreseen evolution scenario, both from product requirement and technology opportunities points of view.

In the subsequent sessions, a deeper analysis of the different specific features ofSIengines is performed, from the peculiar aspects of: air management and charging, fuel mixture preparation, fuel characteristics, combustion process, emissions generation and abatement, mechanical and parasitic losses, thermal management, and their related control aspects.
Offshore Wind Farms
Authors: L. Petersen Erik , Hasager Charlotte B. , Courtney Michael , Natarajan Anand , Larsen Torben J. , Bredmose Henrik , Larsen Gunner C. , Sørensen Poul E. , Cutululis Nicolaos A. , Erik‐Clausen Niels , Buhl Thomas
Published: July 2015

The technology behind constructing wind farms offshore began to develop in 1991 when theVindeby wind farm was installed off theDanish coast (11 Bonus 450kWturbines). Resource assessment, grid connection, and wind farm operation are significant challenges for offshore wind power just as it is for the more traditional onshore wind power, which has been under development since the 1970s. However, offshore projects face extra technical challenges some of which requires in‐depth scientific investigations. This article deals with some of the most outstanding challenges concerning the turbine structure: the rotor, the nacelle, the tower, and the foundation. Further the determinations of the essential environmental conditions are treated: the wind field, the wave field, the sea current, and the soil conditions. The various options for grid connections, advantages, and disadvantages are discussed. Of special concern are the problems associated with locating the turbines close together in a wind farm and the problems of placing several large wind farms in a confined area. The environmental impacts of offshore wind farms are also treated, but not the supply chain, that is, the harbors, the installation vessels, theO&Mships, and the communication and maintenance challenges.
New Electric Transmission Systems: An Overview
Authors: Aabakken Anders , Halonen Mikael , Boström Anders
Published: July 2015

The article gives an overall description of electric transmission systems and the current challenges and changes these systems are facing. Changes are driven by both new commercial and political environment as well as technology changes. This article focuses on the technical aspects that are indirectly driven by the other aspects. This article describes how different technical solutions can be used to manage and mitigate challenges. This covers bothHVDC(high voltage direct current) solutions and a number ofFACTS(flexibleACtransmission system) solutions. Finally, some reflections on the future of electric transmission system are given.
Energy Efficiency of Municipal Energy Systems: An Introduction
Authors: Dahlquist Erik , Wallin Fredrik
Published: July 2015

The energy situation is very different in different parts of the world. In cold areas, the demand for heat is overruling everything else, at least during the winter. In tropic and subtropic countries, it is usually cooling summertime that is the dominating task. When it is dark, lightning is needed, and when it is sunny, we may need sun protection to keep the strong radiation out. In northern countries with high heating demand wintertime, it is usually very economical to have cogeneration systems producing electricity with heat as an important “by‐product.” In hot countries, solar power has significant advantages as the demand for cooling is high when the solar intensity is the highest. Another important municipal task is how to build energy‐efficient buildings. In cold countries, “passive houses” have become popular; however, in hot countries, “smart glasses” and good cooling capacity are important. Transportation is another important factor where public transportation using electric trains and biogas buses has become common and is increasing, and fuel cell vehicles with hydrogen as fuel are commercialized by, for example, Toyota, who was also the first to launch the commercial hybrid cars, setting a new trend. A 4th important task is food and water.
Environmental Management in Manufacturing Industries
Authors: Bellgran Monica , Bruch Jessica
Published: July 2015

The environmental concern requires manufacturing industries to direct resources and effort toward strategies and activities that help reducing their overall environmental impact. Using environmental management systems (EMSs) such asISO14001 or similar is common. However, as theEMSsdo not put absolute requirements on the organization's environmental performance, it is still up to each manufacturing company to set the ambition level. As part of theEMSs, the identification of the environmental aspects to be dealt with during the operations phase could be supported by an industrial applicable method calledGreen Performance Map (GPM), engaging the employees on all levels to work with those environmental improvements they could impact. While most manufacturing companies are implementing the concept of lean production, it is advantageous to integrate the environmental improvement work into the existing lean infrastructure with, for example, daily management systems and scheduled activities for continuous improvement. Another approach discussed in the article is the need for emphasizing the design of the production system as an upstream activity that has fundamental impact on the environmental performance downstream, that is, in the operations phase. When designing new production equipment or renovating existing equipment, the opportunities to incorporate more energy‐ and resource‐efficient solutions are much greater and cheaper compared to investing in such solutions afterward during serial production. Arguably, a combined design and operations approach is necessary in order to achieve a complete green mindset that will guide the environmental actions on both the strategic, tactical, and operational levels. Managing the environmental tasks is part of the overall strive toward lean and clean energy systems in manufacturing industry.
Wind Energy Conversion Systems
Authors: Yang Hongxing , Gao Xiaoxia , Ma Tao , Guo Xiaodong , Liu Di
Published: July 2015

Wind energy conversion systems are essential contributors to the overall process of wind power utilization in enabling the engineering performance characteristics of commercially available wind turbine generators to be realized. The performance of wind conversion systems is based on the wind resource conditions on project sites. It depends too, on certain subsystems including wind turbines (aerodynamic), gears (mechanical), and generators (electrical). Of these subsystems, the wind turbine plays an important role in the conversion process. In this article, an overview description of the wind energy conversion system is given. The basic wind conversion principles, aerodynamics of wind turbines, wind project development processes that include site selection, wind resource estimation, wind turbine layout optimization within a wind farm, installation and operation, and maintenance are presented. A detailed wind turbine cost analysis that includes operational and maintenance costs is also provided. The total installation costs of onshore and offshore wind power are discussed separately in terms of a lifecycle assessment. The last section of this article is devoted to the introduction of some new types of wind turbines to inform readers of the likely advances in the state of the art of wind turbine development.
Geothermal Reservoir Engineering
Authors: Grant Malcolm A.
Published: July 2015

Geothermal reservoir engineering is the study of fluid changes in a geothermal reservoir: changes in fluid state (pressure, temperature, and saturation) and fluid flow in the reservoir. Geothermal reservoirs are normally hosted in fractured volcanic rock and can be large both in area and in thickness. Reservoir engineering covers two main areas, the testing of wells and construction of a simulation model of the reservoir. Well testing comprises completion testing to identify permeable zones and reservoir pressure, followed warm‐up and discharge to identify reservoir temperature and permeability. Correlation of these measurements across the reservoir is used, together with geoscientific data, to construct a conceptual model. This conceptual model is then quantified as a simulation model, which is calibrated against the natural state data and the response to production, if any. Finally, the model is used to simulate future reservoir performance under different scenarios, and hence to determine acceptable development size and form.
Overview of Geothermal Energy Resource
Authors: Huenges Ernst
Published: July 2015

Heat can be obtained from the Earth in various ways from deeper sources for larger networks and heat for power generation—combinations are also possible. Geothermal energy is classified as a renewable resource because the tapped heat from an active reservoir is continuously restored by natural heat production, conduction, and convection from surrounding hotter regions, and the extracted geothermal fluids are replenished by natural recharge and by injection of the depleted (cooled) fluids. Geothermal fields are typically operated at production rates that cause local declines in pressure and/or in temperature within the reservoir over the economic lifetime of the installed facilities. These cooler and lower‐pressure zones are subsequently recharged and renewed from surrounding regions when extraction ceases.
Low Carbon Development for Cities: Methods and Measures
Authors: Ohshita Stephanie , Zhou Nan , Price Lynn , Fridley David , Khanna Nina , Hong Lixuan , Lu Hongyou , Fino‐Chen Cecilia , He Gang
Published: July 2015

Cities consume more than 60% of global energy and that share is rising with the rapid rate of urbanization. With cities playing a crucial role in sustainable energy and climate systems, this article examines emerging efforts by cities around the world to shift to a development pattern with less energy and less carbon. We review metrics that define a low carbon city and present key steps in low carbon development. We examine city‐level inventory methods and target setting. Much of the article is devoted to examples of policy measures that cities are pursuing to save energy and carbon, from net‐zero buildings and 20‐min neighborhoods to distributed and renewable urban energy supply.
Fuel Ethanol from Lignocellulosic Biomass
Authors: Yoo Chang Geun , Pan Xuejun
Published: July 2015

Cellulosic ethanol has been identified as a promising biofuel for transportation because it is produced from abundant and renewable lignocellulosic biomass such as crop residues, forest residues, and dedicated energy crops; it does not compete with food source such as starch, sucrose, and lipids; it reduces fossil fuel use and thereby lowering greenhouse gas emission; it improves energy security and independence; and it promotes rural economy. Biological production of cellulosic ethanol consists of five major operations, namely, biomass production and process, biomass pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification of polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose), fermentation of sugars to ethanol, and concentration and purification of ethanol. Existing technologies for these operations are briefly summarized and reviewed in this article, including structure, composition, and recalcitrance of lignocellulose; biomass logistics for harvest, handling, transport, and storage; available pretreatment methods and their features; cellulase and substrate features affecting enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulose; fermentation of hexoses and pentoses to ethanol; ethanol distillation and dehydration; and lignin and hemicellulose as potential co‐products. Challenges and future directions of cellulosic ethanol production were addressed as well. Commercialization of cellulosic ethanol still faces technical, engineering, and economical challenges. Aggressive research and development are still needed to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of cellulosic ethanol production.
Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power (CCHP) Systems
Authors: Mago Pedro J. , Smith Amanda D.
Published: July 2015

Combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP) systems are characterized by a decentralized power generation source where a portion of the heat released as a byproduct of generation is recovered rather than rejected to the atmosphere. This typically wasted thermal energy is then used for space heating, hot water, or for space cooling. The process can be a highly efficient use of input energy and may result in economic savings, reduced emissions, reduced overall primary energy consumption (PEC), and other benefits for the energy consumer when compared with a traditional separate heat and power system, whereby electricity is produced at a central power plant and thermal demand is met using separate on‐site equipment. This article presents a general description ofCCHPsystems as well as benefits that could be obtained from theCCHPsystem operation. Some of these benefits include the operational costs, carbon dioxide emissions, and PEC. The ability to gain the benefits described above by usingCCHPsystems depends on the type of prime mover used to generate power, the characteristics of a variety of system components, the method of operation, and the location of the system. The different prime movers and cooling technologies that can be used on these systems are discussed in this article. In addition, the system's operational strategies such as operating following the electric load, thermal load, base loading, or a combination of them are discussed in this article. Finally, state‐of‐the‐art ideas for improving and optimizingCCHPsystems are described for their potential toward further development of the technology worldwide.
Life Cycle Assessment of Wind Power Generation System
Authors: Yang Jin , Chen Bin
Published: July 2015

Wind power is experiencing an unprecedented development in China. It is regarded a clean energy alternative as no emissions are generated in electricity production process. However, the material‐intensive production of wind turbines is associated with environmental releases. Therefore, assessing the environmental impacts of wind power generation systems involves not only power production process but also all related processes. Life cycle assessment (LCA) considering all environmental emissions in the whole lifetime of the wind power generation system is proven a powerful tool to estimate the real environmental costs of wind power and can provide information for companies, local resident, and government officials about the environmental implications of wind power generation technology.

A case of typical wind power generation system was shown to demonstrate the procedures ofLCA. However,LCAin wind power generation systems in the current stage still has some issues to be solved, represented as time‐varying factors, vague definition of system boundary and standardization, and so on. In addition to improving life cycle analysis to make the assessment more precise and feasible, the scope of wind power generation should be extended to life cycle sustainability evaluation so as to give an overview of the wind power generation system and shed lights on development pathway design.
Life Cycle Assessment of Biogas Systems
Authors: Chen Shaoqing , Chen Bin
Published: July 2015

Biogas has been an important biomass energy source in many nations and regions. The implementation of biogas system (BS) not only provides electricity for industrial production but also acts as an important substitutive energy in rural areas where other renewable energy resources are scarce. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used as a comprehensive assessment tool ofBSswith its capability of tracking material and energy flows through the product's whole life cycle. The existingLCAsofBSshave been focused on both direct and indirect effects in methane production, biogas utilization, and digestate reuse. In this article, we critically reviewed the development ofLCAonBSin terms of energy supply, environmental performance, and economic aspect. On this basis, we also discussed the practices of the existing literatures in assessing the various biogas infrastructures and pathways of using biogas and digestate, which clearly play an important role in the overall biogas performance. In order to illustrate the tradeoff between different aspects of system performance, a complex BS coupling household biogas production to persimmon cultivation and processing has been introduced as a case study. In addition, the uncertainty factors in life cycle inventory that affects the impact assessment results have been classified and explained. In the final section, the whole article is summed up with prospects of future development onLCAofBSs.
Fugitive Particulate Control Technologies for Bulk Material Handling Sources
Authors: Blazek Christopher F.
Published: July 2015

Dust emissions have always been a concern, however, recent dust‐related explosions/fires and resulting deaths have driven ever more stringent dust‐related regulations. This article discusses
US
regulations pertaining to fugitive dust emissions and respirable dust limits. Owing to the various types of materials/dusts, processes, and conveying/transport types, a variety of dust control technologies must be considered and matched to the application. These technologies can be categorized as passive control, proactive controls, and active controls.

Details of the various types of dust control technologies are discussed. Passive control technologies are generally static devices that minimize the generation of dust during the conveying process. These technologies include belt cleaners, skirt seals, and advanced transfer chutes. By contrast, proactive controls represent control technologies that actively control the dust before it can be generated or the dust can escape to the environment. Generally, these technologies do not have an emission signature of their own. Examples of this type of technology include a properly applied chemical dust suppression agent that wets the material to reduce dust generation during handling/impact. Active technologies can be seen as those technologies that are used to reduce airborne fugitive dust emissions after the dust has entered the air. Dust collectors fall into this category.
Anaerobic Granulation for Wastewater Treatment and Bioenergy Production: Advances and Prospects
Authors: Show Kuan‐Yeow , Lee Duu‐Jong , Yan Yuegen
Published: July 2015

Anaerobic biogranulation is an emerging wastewater treatment technology for industrial applications. As a result of increasing basic understanding and acceptance toward the anaerobic granular processes, a growing interest and confidence in the technology has resulted in a remarkable increase of full‐scale plants installed worldwide over the past few decades. While the technology is well accepted and much research work had been conducted on granule formation, insight unfolding the granulation remains unclear. This article presents a review documenting hypothetical elucidations on anaerobic granule formation and granulation mechanisms. The article also provides detailed discussion on applications of anaerobic granulation with emphasis on reactor systems, emission mitigations, and bioenergy production. Prospects and challenges of anaerobic granulation for wastewater treatment are also outlined.
CO2Geological Storage
Authors: Loizzo Matteo
Published: July 2015

Geological storage was first proposed in the 1970s as a way to dispose of the carbon dioxide (CO2) that could be captured from large point sources. The technique is seen as a bridging technology that can decarbonize electricity generation until renewables will be ready to reduce emissions drastically.

CO2is suited for storage in the porous formations that are common in sedimentary basins worldwide: at a common temperature and pressure at a depth of 1 km or more, the gas becomes supercritical with a density close to water but a low viscosity, which allows it to be easily pumped with a low energy penalty.

CO2is ideal for enhancing oil recovery, something that has led to almost 1 billion tons of the gas being pumped over the past 40 years, mostly in the United States, providing a wealth of experience on transport, injection, and the integrity of geologic formation. Additional learning opportunities come from studying naturalCO2vents, which show that ecosystem damage fromCO2leaks is mostly minimal and concentrated, as well as from the gas storage industry, which has been using geologic storage for around one century with an excellent safety record.

Candidate storage formations must have sufficient capacity, filling rate, and the ability to containCO2for hundreds of years to be considered, as well as be close to a source (or a pipeline). Projects from research to industrial scale have shown that such formations can be found, and safeCO2geological storage is indeed possible.
Membrane Technologies for

CO
2

Capture
Authors: Yu Xinhai , Yang Jie , Yan Jinyue , Tu Shan‐Tung
Published: July 2015

Carbon capture and storage (
CCS
) has been recognized as one approach for mitigating

CO
2

emissions, especially from large fossil‐fuel combustion units, such as those used for electric power generation and other industrial processes. The existing and emerging membrane technologies for the separation and capture of

CO
2

from point source emissions are discussed in this article to provide an understanding of the present technological development and the challenges. With regards to

CO
2

capture, the membrane processes are classified into two types, which are gas separation membrane and gas absorption membrane. The gas separation membrane operates on the principle of preferential permeation of mixture constituents through the pores of the membrane, resulting in that one component diffuses through the membrane faster than the others. The gas absorption membrane contactor combines the advantages of chemical (high selectivity) and membrane absorption. Strategies on further development of these two processes are proposed. For

CO
2

capture using membranes, more efforts are expected in both research and commercialization.
Algae Biofuels
Authors: Chiaramonti David , Tredici Mario R. , Prussi Matteo , Biondi Natascia
Published: July 2015

Biofuels represent today a global commodity, with 110 billion liters produced in 2012, covering approximately 3% of world's transport fuel demand (on an energy equivalent base):IEAestimates that the world biofuels production will reach 2.36 mb/day (135 billion liters/year) in 2018, equal to 4% road transport fuel demand, an increase of 0.48 mb/day compared to 2012. In parallel to increased production, thanks to advanced biofuel technology development and commercialization, further optimization and process integration of conventional technologies will promote the use of unconventional feedstock. Among these, algae are expected to play a major role in the medium‐to‐long‐term scenario, especially in the biorefinery configuration. Algae, in fact, offer a very attractive opportunity for sustainable biofuels and biochemicals/food/feed production, given their high productivity per unit land and their unique biochemical characteristics. On the other hand, the development of commercially viable algae production routes still represents a major challenge, either from a strictly technical or from an economic viewpoint. This article briefly examines the basic issues in algae cultivation and conversion to biofuel: first, the peculiar characteristics of this unconventional biomass feedstock are described, and then cultivation techniques are shown, focusing on microalgae. Market opportunities for algae products are also addressed and fundamental economic considerations are developed.
Advances of Renewable Energy Powered Desalination
Authors: Mohamed Essam Sh. , Papadakis G.
Published: July 2015

The supply of freshwater is becoming an issue of increasing importance in many areas in the world. In arid areas, potable water is very scarce and the lives of people in these areas strongly depend on the amount of available water. Seawater desalination requires large amounts of energy and if this energy is produced by fossil fuels, it will have adverse impact on the environment. Therefore, renewable energy systems (RES) coupled to desalination units offer an attractive solution. Considerable research is under way to optimize the matching of renewable energy technologies with the corresponding desalination technologies and especially to reduce the energy required per unit volume of freshwater produced. The design, simulation, and optimization of theRESpowered desalination units is an aspect of high importance in the planning and design phase of a project implementing desalination powered by renewable energy technologies. Therefore, new software packages combining the design of theRESand the desalination units were developed. Finally, great attention should be given to the environmental and socioeconomic sustainability of the renewable energy powered desalination units, failing to do so can lead to negative opinion of the community toward the installation of new systems.
Gas Turbines for Power and Propulsion
Authors: Kyprianidis Konstantinos G. , Gkoudesnes Christos , Camilleri William
Published: July 2015

The gas turbine has been under continuous evolution for more than seven decades. Although many new technologies have been introduced over the years, much of the basic theory has not changed. A short presentation is first given of the fundamental thermodynamics relating to the gas turbine, followed by an ideal analysis of three major cycles: the simple cycle, the intercooled cycle, and the intercooled recuperated cycle. Typical losses for gas turbine components are then discussed along with relevant performance modeling methods. The fundamental principles of gas turbine conceptual design are presented followed by an assessment of the real performance of the three major cycles. Finally, a critical review is presented of future gas turbine concepts and their enabling technologies, with the primary focus on civil aircraft propulsion. Recent development trends and the primary research and development efforts by major gas turbine manufacturers are discussed in detail.
PCMStorage
Authors: Cabeza Luisa F. , Inés Fernández Ana , Barreneche Camila , Ushak Svetlana
Published: July 2015

Since the nineteenth century, a systematic study of heat storage systems through latent heat using phase‐change materials (PCMs) has been carried out. This article contains the most important and useful information about PCMs, system design and its applications, and advances thatPCMshave undertaken today. The information related to the classification ofPCMs and what properties must have a material to be considered as aPCMare presented. Owing to the loss by evaporation and to prevent leakage ofPCMs, it is necessary to encapsulate it; therefore, a review of the methods of encapsulation is done, emphasizing microencapsulation: chemical, physicochemical and physicomechanical processes, and shape‐stabilized methods.PCMstorage systems can be applied to use of latent heat for thermal protection or inertia or to store a big amount of energy in a small temperature range. In this article, depending on the application and the energy and power needs ofPCMstorage systems, the requirements, design, and methodologies are reviewed. Many applications ofPCMscan be found. In this work, a detailed review of various applications such as electronic devices, food and medicine protection, clothing, buildings, andPCMs in concentrated solar power plants and in greenhouses is presented. In addition, implementation of latent heat energy storage in waste heat recovery systems and transportation of energy are mentioned. Few papers with economic evaluation of systems integratingPCMs are reviewed.
Oxyfuel Combustion forCO2Capture
Authors: Hu Yukun , Yan Jinyue
Published: July 2015

Oxyfuel combustion is one of the technologies for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) in fossil‐fuel‐based power systems to mitigate global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. When introducing oxyfuel combustion into the power systems, physical and chemical processes of the combustion differ from conventional combustion, and the energy penalty forCCShas significant impacts on the system operation and performance, similar to combustion process, heat transfer, flue gas properties, and emission control. Around these topics, dozens of oxyfuel‐related projects were launched within this decade in the worldwide, and many techno‐economic assessments for oxyfuel technology including competitive technologies (pre‐/post‐combustion and emerging technologies) are continuously being published. Although the technologies for oxyfuel combustion are relatively well understood today, it is only investigated experimentally in lab and pilot‐scale combustion equipment. The estimated costs of electricity andCO2avoidance costs are varied by uncertainties from economical assessments from different referenced databases and from restricted regulation of different countries and regions. Therefore, all addressed issues must be clarified and proved to be feasible deployment for the commercial scaleCCSplants to cope with emission targets according to Copenhagen Accord to reduceGHGemission and mitigate world temperature rising.