bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Establishment of Minimum Quality Levels of Sheet Insulation
Authors: Photiadis C. J.
Published: August 2009

The question of readily obtaining suitable test values that more fully and correctly define the uniformity and quality of electrical insulating materials has been uppermost in our minds in connection with the evaluation, application and inspection of these materials. We have found that the use of certain ASTM test methods and procedures in evaluating and inspecting sheet insulating materials did not give us adequate information that we could translate into intelligent facts that the design engineer and/or manufacturing people could use in building their equipment. These ASTM tests dealing with electric strength and thickness measurements do serve a useful purpose in determining the spread of the particular property tested. Knowing the spread of a particular property in a material is important in its end use but by itself is insufficient to act as a quality control guide, since it does not readily give the lower limits of the property tested easily and quickly. This is further aggravated by the very few specimens, five in most cases, called for in most ASTM test methods, from which one is expected to know the quality level of a particular shipment of material. We in the materials laboratory of the Buffalo divisions were checking many incoming materials to ASTM test values of electric strength and yet often when they reached the shop they would not stand up anywhere near the limits suggested by test data. It was virtually impossible to estimate whether the materials would stand up to 1/4, 1/3, or 1/2 of the values obtained in tests on a small numbers of specimens. All this even after we carefully screened damages caused by general shop handling. A better approach and a better tool had to be developed for preventing such a wide disparity between existing test procedures and ultimate values of the material when it reached manufacturing. It was a must. It was at this point that our concept of large-area-testing was born. We do not claim any priority of this concept nor do we suggest that the two large-area-test methods to be presented below are the only ones that can be used or that they cannot be improved. All we are trying to do is alert ASTM and particularly Committee D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials, as well as industry in general to the concept and benefits of large-area-testing so that perhaps we may start now in introducing into our test methods ways and means of determining the minimum quality levels of insulating materials.
Quality Level Cannot be Determined by “Go”-“No Go” Gage
Authors: Timm L. J.
Published: August 2009

Since this symposium was initiated, I have felt the selection of the title “Significance of Minimum Property Values of Electrical Insulating Materials” was an unfortunate choice. The emphasis is on minimum property values and the significance of these values instead of stressing those values from which the quality level and dispersion within a lot or between lots may be determined. If we are interested in minimum property values, perhaps we should have a future symposium covering the theory of extreme numbers inviting papers by trained statisticians. My feeling at this time is that most of us are not aware of the full importance of this interesting problem which was touched upon by Mr. Endicott in his paper. However, it is recognized by the manufacturers of insulating materials that design and efficiency of electrical equipment is dependent upon their materials and that the highest quality economically feasible is desired by the consumer. The efficiency of equipment is determined by the design engineer with the assistance of the materials engineer who should be familiar with the quality level of materials. These men should be interested in the acceptable quality level and not in the minimum values except as derived from the quality level and dispersion within lots. It should be recognized that the quality level of any material is best determined by the manufacturer and only he is fully cognizant of the variations which are present in his manufacturing process. The manufacturer can sample his production over a longer eriod of time and by doing this obtain a truer mean or average value and the dispersion or standard deviation in his production. The purchaser can only sample his shipments and determine the quality level of shipments within specified confidence limits. The use of sampling plans will allow him at times to accept rejectable material and at other times to reject acceptable materials. These are risks inherent in any economical sampling plan. In my opinion, quality level can be ascertained by means of either of two techniques: a “go”-“no go” gage, or a test method which allows the user to accumulate data which subsequently can be analyzed using statistical methods and be of real use. The first technique produces limited data and the second produces an abundance of information. I would like to compare these techniques by the use of dielectric strength values. The continuous dielectric breakdown tester, a “go”-“no go” gage, is to be used for minimum values and the short time method with 1/4 in. electrodes is used for the accumulation of data.
Introduction
Authors: Curdts E. B.
Published: August 2009

The deleterious effects of corona on organic electrical insulation have been known for years, and considerable research and investigational work has been done by manufacturers and users of organic materials to evaluate their stability in applications where operating voltage gradients approach ionizing levels. Work in this field has been largely of an independent nature, each manufacturer and user of insulating materials approaching the problem from his own point of view. The result has been that no common or standard methods of corona detection and evaluation of the corona resistance of insulating materials have appeared in the literature. Recognizing the need for standardizing methods of corona detection and material evaluation the ASTM in 1954 organized Section L on Corona Tests under Subcommittee XII on Electrical Tests, D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials for this purpose. This section immediately launched a program having the following tentative scope: 1. To devise test methods to determine the presence of voids in dielectrics which may be ionized under high voltage gradients; and 2. To devise test methods to differentiate relatively among electrical insulating materials with regard to their ability to resist the action of corona and its by-products. One of the first steps in starting this program was to organize a symposium on this subject, which was held in November 1955 during the ASTM D-9 meeting in Cincinnati, Ohio. The general purpose of this symposium was to give members of Section L an opportunity to present, in the form of technical papers, their present test methods and results, and to inform those interested in this subject of the complexities involved. The symposium was well attended and considerable informal discussion occurred.
Preliminary Corona Resistance Test Results from IEC Activities
Authors: Ross C. W.
Published: August 2009

The purpose in presenting the activities of Working Group No. 4, Voltage Endurance, TC/15, IEC, is to inform members of Section L of corona test methods proposed by the IEC and of their tentative results. Such information should be helpful in establishing and evaluating corona test methods for ASTM. A second purpose of this summary is to encourage members of Section L to consider the IEC proposed methods and to inform the American Representative of Working Group No. 4 of their test results and their evaluation of such methods as an international standard. Working Group No. 4 is under the chairmanship of Mr. Langlois-Berthelot, Paris, France, and the proposed test methods and results reported on here are largely the results of his work. The scope of Working Group No. 4 presently includes aging studies of basic materials and built-up insulation structures which include solids in liquids.
Corona Resistance Test Method for Laminates, Molded, and Cast Materials
Authors: Starr W. T.
Published: August 2009

The corona resistance of an electrical insulating material is its ability to withstand the deteriorating action of corona discharges. This article describes a test method that is yielding significant data on the corona resistance of materials which cannot generally be obtained thinner than 1/16 in. Data on several materials are presented. Corona resistance testing supplements dielectric strength testing as a means for material selection. Dielectric strength data, in many cases, cannot be interpreted in practical terms. For example, the user cannot choose intelligently between two materials with dielectric strengths of 500 and 1000 per mil when the application requires only 30 per mil and when voltage stresses in excess of 200 per mil will never be applied, even in factory high-potential tests.
Preliminary Investigation of Proposed Pulse Method for Measuring Ionization
Authors: Oliver F. S. , Povey E. H. , Pinkham T. A.
Published: August 2009

A laboratory with a background of ionization measurement by the radio influence method reports on a preliminary investigation of ionization measurement by the pulse method. The investigation is confined to two specimens: a high-voltage terminal bushing and an artificial specimen comprised of capacitors and a spark gap. Three types of detection circuit (that is the element across which the oscilloscope signal is developed) are tried and the results are presented. A detection circuit which will be set in oscillation by the pulse is recommended whenever a 60-cycle sweep is used on the oscilloscope. In cases of multiple voids and multiple pulses per void per half cycle, the pulse measuring technique becomes complicated and the radio influence method is preferred.
Test Methods for Measuring Energy in a Gas Discharge
Authors: Reynolds S. I.
Published: August 2009

In order to study the degradation of insulating materials when subjected to high alternating voltages, two methods of test are usually used. In one method the solid dielectric in sheet form of a size large enough to prevent flashover is placed between two metal electrodes and the voltage is increased until surface ionization and sparking occurs at the edge of the high-potential electrode. The material is then usually left on test until failure by breakdown occurs. The other method is to place the dielectric in a corona discharge through a gas, terminated at both ends by an insulating layer of glass. This method lends itself to simpler interpretation because tests can be made in a closed system. The power consumed in the glass corona generator can be measured by either of two methods using equipment that is available in most laboratories. Agreement between the two methods is shown to be within a few per cent. It is also found that the corona power increases linearly with voltage and that certain organic insulations when subjected to ionization in a closed system with pure oxygen degrade at a rate proportional to the measured power.
Riveted-Joints Fatigue Strength
Authors: Smith C. R. , Lindeneau G. D.
Published: August 2009

The results of fatigue tests and strain measurements on riveted joints are presented. It was found that in addition to rivet pattern, thickness of splice plates played an important part. An improvement in fatigue strength of butt joints was obtained by laminating the splice plate so that the first row of rivets engaged only the first of the laminates. The increase in life was attributed to a decrease in bending stress at the first row of rivets, and to a more equal load distribution between the first and second row of rivets. It was also found that static overloading prior to fatigue testing was harmful in some cases and beneficial in others—harmful where the overload was just sufficient to cause relaxing of the residual stress set up by riveting and beneficial where it was carried high enough to cause redistribution of the load between rivets.
The Rehabilitation of Fatigue-Weary Structure
Authors: Butler J. P.
Published: August 2009

The problem of extending the service life of structural joints which show signs of premature fatigue damage, such as small fatigue cracks at fastener locations, is investigated. This paper describes a visual inspection method and a rehabilitation procedure which can be used to extend the service life of these joints. The results of fatigue tests using these simple techniques are discussed and it is concluded that careful periodic inspections of critical locations in aircraft will result in the early detection of fatigue cracks and that these cracks can be effectively removed to insure an extended service life.
Uni-Directional Axial Tension Fatigue Tests of Beryllium Copper and Several Precipitation Hardening Corrosion-Resistant Steels
Authors: Weisman M. H. , Melill J. , Matsuda T.
Published: August 2009

The results of notched tensile tests and smooth and V-notched fatigue tests are reported for beryllium copper, AM350 corrosion-resistant steel, and A-286 heat and corrosion resistant steel, and for open-hole notched specimens of 17-7PH corrosion-resistant steel. Cyclic loading tests also are reported for dimpled and riveted sheet specimens of AM350 steel which simulate typical single-lap riveted aircraft joints. Other tests are reported for 17-7PH steel specimens containing unloaded rivet-filled holes. The results of the tests are discussed from the point of view of a materials engineer in the aircraft industry. The need is discussed for additional useful information about the new materials now being developed and, also, about the less common older materials which are required now and then for specific designs.
Fatigue Testing of Airframe Structural Components
Authors: Foster H. W.
Published: August 2009

A brief discussion is presented of some important points to be considered in laying out simulated service fatigue tests of components. Typical airframe component tests that are illustrated and discussed include tests of primary wing surface structure, landing gear, and secondary and equipment structure subjected to very high cycle loadings. Some discussion is also presented on the reliability of data which may be obtained from tests of a single component.
Introduction
Authors: Schofield L. B.
Published: August 2009

As outlined in the foreword, Subcommittee IV on Liquid Insulation of ASTM Committee D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials has held a series of seven symposia on insulating oils over a period extending from the fall of 1946 to the spring of 1957. The general theme of all these programs was derived from a very active interest of the subcommittee membership in the development of test methods and interpretation of test results for evaluating the serviceability of new and used insulating oils. It should be emphasized at the outset that all of the technical data and its interpretation together with any conclusions and opinions presented in any of the papers or discussions are independent expressions of the authors. In no case do these presentations necessarily conform with the concensus of Subcommittee IV nor imply sanction by formal action of ASTM Committee D-9. The first of the papers in the current program, by T. A. McConnell, is essentially an evaluation of laboratory test results with service performance of oils in selected transformers on the Detroit Edison system. The laboratory tests were made in conjunction with the extensive cooperative survey of Section B of Subcommittee IV recently completed This cooperative study was started about thirteen years ago with 19 different laboratories engaged in the testing of periodic oil samples from the transformers at about one-year intervals. The chief purpose of this survey was to determine the significance of sludge tests by ASTM Methods D 1313 and D 1314 in evaluating the resistance to oxidation of various types of new and used oils. Also it was the general practice of the 19 cooperating laboratories to make other selected tests commonly used as criteria of oil degradation, such as acid number, dielectric strength, color, interfacial tension, power factor, and resistivity. The correlation of the mass of laboratory data with the service performance in actual transformers proved to be a very extensive and perplexing task. The paper by Mr. McConnell goes far toward consummating this purpose in correlating the data from all the laboratories with service performance, and the cooperation of The Detroit Edison Co. was invaluable in this work.
The Use of Solid and Liquid Catalysts for the Accelerated Aging Testing of Transformer Oil
Authors: Raab Edward L.
Published: August 2009

The selection of a new, unused mineral transformer oil for application in transformers and related electrical apparatus normally involves an oxidation test of some type. It is also desirable, if possible, to utilize the same test procedure in order to insure consistent production or to compare similar products from different sources. Unfortunately, the length of time required to perform some of the test methods used to evaluate new oils has precluded their wide acceptance as a means of controlling the quality of repetitive shipments. Necessarily, this has resulted in the use of two types of oxidation tests: one, to evaluate and help select a new, unused oil or to compare similar products from different sources, and, second, a short-time test to control the continuity of an acceptable product. The result has been that, during the course of time, a variety of such test procedures has been proposed and has found usage both in the United States and throughout the world. Many of these methods involve the measurement of either the sludge or acidity-forming propensity of an oil or both under prescribed conditions of oxidation. A number of such methods have been investigated by Subcommittee IV on Liquid Insulation of ASTM Committee D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials. From these investigations, ASTM has adopted as a standard test procedure, a short-time continuity control-type test, ASTM Method D 1313. A second test procedure requiring a longer test period for gaging the sludge-forming propensity of a new oil is ASTM Method D 1314. Both of these methods are limited to the determination of sludge formed under the conditions of test, although other methods under study attempt to evaluate both the acid-forming tendency and the sludging propensity. In the development of oxidation test procedures for use in selecting new, unused oil or for comparing similar products from different sources, the ASTM committee always has desired that the method developed should be backed by commercial experience and should evaluate oils in the same order as they will perform in service.
Introduction
Authors: Crepps Ray B.
Published: August 2009

There was a time when the term “window” meant an opening in a wall for the admittion of air or light or both, and commonly fitted with a frame containing panes of glass. The simple construction once used by pioneering individuals in making and installing windows would be most inadequate today to meet the demands of speed and economy of the changing modern age. Today large industries have evolved for the manufacture of windows and assemblages from many materials, such as wood, steel, aluminum, reinforced plastics, and others. The efficiency of the assemblages also may be complicated by the performance of the individual parts such as adhesives or caulking materials, fasteners of many kinds, and sealing components of rubber or plastics. The newer development of architectural and engineering designs for buildings and housing have had a profound influence on the requirements of windows for efficient performance. Generally the accepted criteria for good performance require the window assemblage to be adequately structurally strong, to possess adequate resistance to rain penetration and to air infiltration. A good thermal performance is also desirable.
Evaluation of Factory-Sealed Double-Glazed Window Units
Authors: Wilson A. G. , Solvason K. R. , Nowak E. S.
Published: August 2009

General performance requirements for sealed double-glazed windows and the need for performance tests are discussed. The possibility of condensation of moisture and clouding or scumming on the inside glass surfaces is emphasized. The results of some exploratory studies on the degree of sealing achieved in a number of units and on condensation on the interior surface are given. These results are based on measurements of the dew point of the air between the panes and on surface temperature measurements taken with various temperature differences across the windows. Factors involved in determining the adequacy of the sealing of the space between the panes are considered and lines of study suggested. General requirements of a test procedure for determining the degree of sealing achieved and the relative life of seals are discussed and accelerated aging apparatus proposed for this purpose is described.
Norwegian Test Methods for Wind and Rain Penetration Through Windows
Authors: Svendsen Sven D. , Wigen Robert
Published: August 2009

The severe climate of Norway, characterized by high winds and heavy rain, motivated the Norwegian government to engage in an extensive window test program as part of a joint building research effort of four Scandinavian nations. In this paper, two participants of this Norwegian program give an analysis of general meteorological data and climatic factors of particular importance in window design. The authors describe different types of air-flow and rain penetration apparatus and give an account of results obtained with this equipment in preliminary and full scale tests of window structures with standardized dimensions. The authors conclude the paper by establishing window requirements adapted to Norway's particular weather conditions as an intermediate result of their research program which was still under way at the time of this symposium.
Deposit Identification—First Step Toward Understanding a Water Problem
Authors: Rice J. K.
Published: August 2009

A knowledge of the composition of a water-formed deposit is necessary in order to understand the manner in which the deposit formed. This truism is so obvious that it should not be necessary to state it, and yet incomplete or incorrect knowledge of deposit composition derails many investigations, sidetracks others, and generally fills the literature with cause and effect examples that are confusing at best and very misleading at worst. It is not sufficient to know just the environment, location, and appearance of a deposit in order to understand with certainty how the deposit formed. It is unfortunate that at the outset most deposits encountered are very incompletely detailed by the first observer before a crucial part of the total evidence needed is destroyed by careless sampling. Even with adequate sampling and a good description of the appearance of the deposit, accurate information on the composition of the deposit is required. It is here that the intelligent employment of the appropriate analytical tools is able to produce the most startling and conclusive results. Such employment of the proper instrumental methods of analysis by the engineer concerned presumes at the very minimum an understanding of the potentialities of each method.
Identification by Instrumental Methods of Chemical Compounds in Water-Formed Deposits
Authors: Maddin C. M. , Rosene R. B.
Published: August 2009

A combination of elemental and direct instrumental analyses has proved most successful for identifying the chemical compounds present in water-formed deposits. Qualitative X-ray diffraction analysis may be enhanced by improving resolution of lines, concentrating minor constituents, and converting amorphous compounds to crystalline form. Quantitative X-ray diffraction is accomplished with the aid of calcium fluoride as an internal standard, to compensate for absorption of X-rays by the deposit sample. Petrographic thin section techniques provide unique advantages for studying layers of deposition directly. Distinctive infrared absorption spectra have been obtained for phosphate, carbonate, and silicate compounds, which should aid in deposit identification. A wide variety of deposits undergo thermal reactions to give characteristic differential thermal analysis patterns. Thermal reactions taking place in steam atmospheres aid in the identification of hydrates; compounds which form carbonates are more easily detected in carbon dioxide atmospheres; and oxygen atmospheres bring about thermal reactions in compounds susceptible to oxidation. Although instrumental methods are extremely useful and may be expected to increase in utility, elemental analysis must still be relied on in difficult cases.
Electron Microscopy and Electron Diffraction Studies of Oxide Films Formed on Iron in Water and Oxygen Atmospheres
Authors: Gulbransen Earl A. , Copan Thomas P.
Published: August 2009

Electron microscope and electron diffraction methods are useful techniques for the identification of water-formed deposits and corrosion products. More important, these methods can determine the crystal structure and habit of the crystals making up the deposits or corrosion products, from which in turn much can be learned about the chemical and physical conditions of formation of the corrosion product and the metal structures responsible. A study of the localized corrosion products formed in the vapor state reaction of water vapor and oxygen with pure iron is presented. Three types of localized growths occur on iron when the reaction occurs between 400 and 500 C. These are: (1) long oxide whiskers 200 or 300 Å in diameter; (2) thin blade-shaped platelets of about 100 Å in thickness; and (3) rounded platelets of oxide about 100 Å in thickness. Oxide whiskers form in many oxidizing environments and in a wide variety of stress and metallurgical conditions of the metal. They are formed alone on pure iron when it reacts with dry oxygen. Thin blade-shaped platelets form in water vapor atmospheres, while rounded oxide platelets form during the initial stage of reaction of impure iron with oxygen. These localized growths were identified by electron diffraction as hexagonal α-Fe2O3. This oxide was formed in dry oxygen and in water vapor. The crystal habit of the corrosion product was found to depend upon the oxidizing atmosphere, the pretreatment of the iron, and the impurities present in the metal. The localized growth habits of the oxide can lead to an understanding of the genesis of water-formed deposits.
Correlation of Elemental Analysis and Phase Identification as Viewed by a Mineralogist
Authors: Smith J. V.
Published: August 2009

For a half-century, mineralogists and petrologists have been splitting up bulk chemical analyses of minerals into the parts belonging to the individual minerals. If minerals had simple compositions with no replacement of atoms, such an element assignment would be easy. However, the majority of minerals have complex formulae in which several elements join together to occupy the atomic sites. In a typical mineral assemblage, several of the elements will be shared by two or more of the minerals. The elemental assignment in a mineral assemblage, therefore, may present some pretty problems to the mineralogist, and as a result the mineralogists have attained some skill in dealing with such problems. As a result of being able to control the composition of their substances to a fair precision, many chemists are unaware of the mineralogists' procedures for dealing with these complex compositions, procedures that have considerable value in the study of water-formed deposits. A description of these procedures should be of value to those who have not received a mineralogical training. Water-formed deposits, of course, have their analogy in those natural minerals formed in fissures of the earth by the prolonged streaming of mineral-laden solutions. Indeed, nearly all of the show specimens seen in the mineralogical museums have been formed by deposition from solutions. Rules which can be used to predict the possible chemical substitutions in minerals will be described, then some phase-equilibrium diagrams will be given to show the effect of temperature on atomic substitution. Following a discussion of the physical methods that can be used to estimate the volume percentage and chemical composition of individual minerals in an inseparable assemblage, six bulk chemical analyses will be examined to see whether and how the elements may be assigned to the individual minerals.
Introduction
Authors: Manley L. W.
Published: August 2009

This Symposium on Hydraulic Fluids was held for a threefold purpose: (1) To familiarize a greater number of people with the objectives and activities of Technical Committee N on Hydraulic Fluids of Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants; (2) To review problems and trends in the use of hydraulic fluids; and (3) To discuss new hydraulic fluid developments and evaluation methods. Since this was the first symposium sponsored by Technical Committee N, its scope was purposely kept rather broad in order to appraise the over-all hydraulics field rather than to focus attention on a particular segment or problem. Therefore, experts in industrial, automotive, and aircraft hydraulics were selected to present their views on trends and problems in their respective fields. Their papers present many interesting facts regarding the current status and future potentialities of hydraulic systems, including such timely subjects as automotive central hydraulic control systems and the role of hydraulics in air and outer-space vehicles. The papers on new developments and evaluation methods also reveal many significant advances in hydraulic fluid technology. The development and application of fluids possessing a high degree of fire resistance and high temperature stability is of particular interest. A new test method for evaluating fire resistance of newer type fluids is discussed. An over-all review of the program of Technical Committee N shows great interest and activity in this committee in developing and standardizing test methods, particularly for the new synthetic-type fluids which are gaining increasing acceptance.
Is Hydraulics Out of this World?
Authors: Keller George R.
Published: August 2009

The role of hydraulic power in the control of high-speed aerodynamic vehicles has been quite thoroughly explored [1,2]. Hydraulic hazards encountered as the aircraft wends its way through the thermal thicket have become familiar to most practitioners of the art of aircraft hydraulic power system design. However, the effects of the next environment—space—impose many new problems. Unfortunately, high temperatures will still be present upon occasion. However, the additional exigencies of space flight may make other problems of greater importance. Indeed, a legitimate question might be raised as to whether hydraulic power, in its present form, has a proper place on a true space vehicle. In order to understand the tasks to be assigned to the power control system in space, a short study of space problems is worthwhile. The types of space travel, in the order of expected occurrence are: (1) ballistic, (2) orbital, and (3) interplanetary.
Hydraulic Fluids for Use in High-Pressure Shipboard Equipment
Authors: King H. F. , Coil J. A.
Published: August 2009

Fire-resistant hydraulic fluid must be used in all Bureau of Ships hydraulic systems operating above 500 psi and containing an air accumulator. The Bureau of Ships has several years' experience with the phosphate ester type hydraulic fluid in elevators on aircraft carriers. This fluid, combined with suitable gaskets and seals, has given satisfactory service. Hydraulic systems on our new submarines are designed for 3000 psi. This high pressure places added requirements on the fluid. It must have not only the conventional properties of lubricity, stability, antifoam, and corrosion resistance; it must be thoroughly examined for any possible toxic effect upon ship's personnel. Toxicity is of utmost importance in light of present-day long periods of continuous submergence.
New Developments in High-Performance Fluids for Military Aircraft and Industrial Applications
Authors: Smith Thomas G.
Published: August 2009

The continually increasing operating temperatures of modern jet engines, and their demands on lubricants, made it obvious some time ago that the 7808-type of synthetic fluid would not be adequate for Mach 2 and Mach 3 aircraft. This realization led to the publishing of target specification Mil-L-9326A, which called for a 100-hr engine test with a bulk fluid temperature of 400 F. The struggles involved in industry's three-year search for suitable base materials are well known. It now appears that such products can be supplied by using polyhydroxy alcohols and monobasic acids, as opposed to the 7808 types of materials, which used monohydroxy alcohols and dibasic acids. Specifically, suitable materials have been prepared by esterifying trimethylolpropane and straight-chain acids of the proper chain length. Chain length, of course, has a direct influence on the viscosity of the resulting ester. In addition, mixtures of acids can be employed in the esterification to give any desired average chain length. Typical viscosity curves superimposed on the Mil-L-9326A requirement are shown in Fig. 1. Also shown as information are esters of pentaerythritol and neopentyl glycol. While there may well be other suitable base materials, our company, because of the raw material situation, concentrated its efforts on the trimethylolpropane and pentaerythritol esters, and this paper deals solely with these materials. Having determined that the trimethylolpropane esters had viscosity properties closest to those desired, we will now consider the thermal and oxidative properties. Initial testing done in our laboratories was of a screening nature and was intended to establish primarily the thermal stability of these esters. This consisted of putting the esters in a stainless steel bomb, sealing at atmospheric pressure, and heating the bombs to 600 F for 48 hr. This was the first test that indicated the potential for the trimethylolpropane ester. Since we are not interested here in routine property discussions, we will omit a detailed properties analysis. Properties for such an ester are shown, however, in Table I. It is of interest to note that extreme-pressure, load-carrying capacity of the base ester is not as high as originally called for in the target specification. However, modifications in the Ryder gear testing procedure, involving testing at 400 F, and the development of new gear materials have considerably changed the picture as to what will actually be required. Based on the successful engine testing done thus far, it appears that the trimethylolpropane ester will be more than satisfactory without extreme-pressure additives.
Emulsion-Type Fire-Resistant Industrial Hydraulic Fluids
Authors: Francis C. E. , Sipple H. E.
Published: August 2009

Fire-resistant hydraulic fluids are widely used in industrial applications where fire hazards exist. Broadly, these materials comprise synthetic products and water-base fluids. This paper discusses several characteristics of a water-base fluid, that is, a water-in-oil emulsion. It is shown that the emulsion-type fluid is serviceable with respect to viscosity, emulsion stability, oxidation stability, and wear. The fire resistance of this fluid is reviewed in some detail, by describing the results of empirical flammability tests and of a number of incidents in commercial installations involving equipment failures which resulted in the exposure of the emulsion to various ignition sources. It is shown that the interpretation of the results of the empirical tests with respect to field performance and the establishment of a standard test must be founded on a broad background of field experience.
Introduction
Authors: Jaffee R. I.
Published: August 2009

Unquestionably there is a tremendous amount of effort being expended currently on the newer metals. What has brought this about? Examination of the subjects covered in the ASTM Symposium on Newer Metals, presented in this book, gives an answer: needs for materials with properties superior to those of existing materials for new applications in aircraft, nuclear energy, and communications. These new applications did not come about as a result of the new materials that were available. Rather, the materials were developed in response to the new applications because conventional materials could not serve adequately. Recent aircraft and missile applications are tremendously demanding of materials. The advent of the turbojet engine was only a forerunner. The gas turbine inlet temperatures rose steadily as the design speed of the aircraft increased, first from 1500 to 1650 F, which caused a burst of development leading to improved nickel- and cobalt-base superalloys. Further requirements to develop speeds of Mach 3 increased turbine inlet temperatures to 2000 to 2200 F, if the weight penalty involved in a cooled engine was to be avoided. Nickel-base alloys could be improved to serve at 1800 F, but the ultimate ceiling for the nickel base appeared to have been reached. The refractory metals—molybdenum, columbium, or chromium—would have to be used in this application. It appears as though the strength problems in molybdenum and columbium alloys for turbojet applications can be met adequately, but the coating problem remains a hurdle which so far has not been overcome, although considerable progress has been made. In chromium, lack of ductility remains an unsolved problem. Airframe materials for jet aircraft shifted from aluminum to titanium and steel when the speeds approached Mach 3. In compressors, titanium and steel also were required as temperatures increased from 600 to 800, and currently to 1000 F for Mach 3 engines.
Universal High-Temperature Testing Machine for Vacuum or Controlled Atmosphere
Authors: Manjoine M. J. , France L. L. , Begley R. T.
Published: August 2009

The refractory metals are becoming increasingly important as potential structural materials for elevated temperature applications. The need for information on the strength of these materials at elevated temperatures is becoming more acute with the increase in service temperatures of the various components of power plants used in jet aircraft, missiles, rockets, and atomic reactors. Accompanying this increase in temperature are the problems associated with the satisfactory measurement of the strength of materials. Because of rapid contamination of the refractory metals and their alloys by oxygen and nitrogen at elevated temperatures, it is essential that testing be conducted in a controlled atmosphere that will reduce all possible contamination effects to a minimum [1]. To obtain reliable and reproducible strength data, the testing chamber should be one in which a suitable vacuum, inert atmosphere, or controlled atmosphere can be maintained for extended periods of time. Possible contamination from the furnace and structural components should be eliminated. In addition, the performance of the apparatus can be improved by the elimination of ceramic materials, moving “O” ring seals, and bellows arrangements which require calibration [2]. The time required for assembly, mounting of specimen, vacuum pumping, and stabilizing the test temperature should be as short as possible. This paper describes an elevated temperature testing machine which attempts to meet the above requirements. The chamber and heating system are designed for controlled environment as well as vacuum testing, and the mechanical details permit accurate measurement of the forces developed by the test specimen under a constant rate of crosshead motion. A constant load can also be maintained for a stress-rupture test. In this latter test the strain and strain rate are determined from the crosshead motion [3].
Tensile Properties of the Platinum-Group Metals
Authors: Holden F. C. , Douglass R. W. , Jaffee R. I.
Published: August 2009

Basic information resulting from studies of the alloying behavior and mechanical properties of the platinum group of metals is presented. Tension tests were conducted on five of the six platinum-group metals over a range of temperatures from −196 to 1000 C. For most of these, two or more lots of material were tested, representing different purities or different methods of consolidation. All metals were tested in the annealed condition. Ruthenium was prepared by powder metallurgy techniques, being sintered in hydrogen at 2200 C and then hot swaged to final size. Rhodium, palladium, iridium, and platinum were received as rod stock. In addition, tension tests were made on rods of rhodium and iridium that were electron-beam melted prior to final fabrication. Ruthenium tested at 750, 1000, and 1200 C exhibited low to moderate ductility, with a tensile strength of about 30,000 psi at 1000 C. Rhodium, tested at −196 to 1000 C, showed good ductility throughout although the effects of intergranular cracking became apparent at 500 and 1000 C. Tensile strength was about 12,500 psi at 1000 C. Palladium was very ductile over the −196 to 1000-C temperature range, with low strengths. Iridium showed good ductility at the higher temperatures, but low ductility at − 196 C. A tensile strength of about 45,000 psi was obtained at 1000 C. Platinum, like palladium, was very ductile, with low strength properties. Evidence of twinning and recrystallization was observed for most of these metals, the maximum temperature for twinning ranging from 25 C for platinum to 1000 C for ruthenium. A plot of tensile strengths versus homologous temperature showed that iridium, rhodium, and possibly ruthenium are considerably stronger than palladium and platinum.
Stress-Rupture and Creep Properties of QMV Beryllium Metal
Authors: Hurd J. N. , O'Rourke R. G. , Beaver W. W.
Published: August 2009

Data for the stress-rupture and creep properties of QMV beryllium and associated materials, including those of a higher oxide content, are presented. The temperature range covered was from room temperature to 1500 F. The data showed that the addition of the oxide improved the creep strength of the beryllium. The data are discussed from the viewpoint of describing some of the phenomenological aspects of the creep behavior of beryllium. In particular, a creep equation for elevated-temperature description is presented, and the variations of the parameters therein appearing are described. Attention is drawn to the effect of using creep stresses which exceed tensile elastic limits. Data correlations based on the creep equation and methods for calculating the activation energy for the creep of beryllium at elevated temperatures are given. The product of the minimum creep rates by the corresponding rupture times is discussed, and the conclusion is drawn that the activation energy for creep equals that for rupture.
Test Methods Used for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy in the Naval Reactor Program
Authors: Kall Harold L.
Published: August 2009

In order to determine whether zirconium or zirconium alloy is suitable for use in the Naval Reactor Program, the material is subjected to a variety of tests. Chemical analyses for twenty elements are required, as well as the determination of the tensile properties, hardness, corrosion resistance in high-temperature water or steam, radiography, and sonic testing. A discussion of the various methods currently in use for these tests will be given which will include a critical review of the analytical methods, both chemical and spectrographic.
Review—The Fabrication of Tungsten
Authors: Toensing C. H.
Published: August 2009

Tungsten has been used for many years by the electrical and electronic industries in the form of small component parts such as filaments, electrodes, grids, contacts, and various other items. These very specialized applications were basically due to the high-temperature properties of this metal. More recently, due to the high melting point of tungsten as well as its exceptional high-temperature strength, interest has been focused on the production of much larger sections for specialized structural applications. These large size ingots, billets, and special shapes are rapidly becoming available and are being incorporated in very specialized designs. The main factors limiting the extensive use of tungsten are its lack of oxidation resistance in air at elevated temperatures, its high density, and the problem of fabricating the consolidated metal. In each of these problems, noticeable progress is being made, especially in fabrication techniques. An excellent summary of the fabrication of tungsten was recently published by Barth.
Solubility of Nitrogen and Oxygen in Lithium and Methods of Lithium Purification
Authors: Hoffman E. E.
Published: August 2009

Nitrogen and oxygen are two of the most common impurities found in commercially available lithium. Experiments were conducted to determine the solubility of these elements in lithium in the temperature range from 250 to 450 C and to determine which of several possible purification methods was most effective in reducing the nitrogen and oxygen content of lithium. The solubility of nitrogen in lithium increased from 0.04 per cent by weight at 250 C to 1.31 per cent by weight at 450 C. The solubility of oxygen was found to be 0.010 per cent by weight at 250 C and increased to 0.066 per cent by weight at 400 C. Vacuum distillation, low-temperature filtration, cold-trapping, and gettering with active metals were investigated as possible purification methods to reduce the nitrogen and oxygen content of lithium. Of the techniques studied, gettering with active metals was found to be the most effective method of reducing the nitrogen concentration, while cold-trapping and low-temperature filtration were most effective in reducing the oxygen concentration.
Effect of Industrial Wastes on Water for Irrigation Use
Authors: Wilcox L. V.
Published: August 2009

The quality of a water for irrigation is determined by the quantity and type of substances dissolved in it. In normal, unpolluted waters the dissolved material is largely inorganic. These inorganic salts are leached from the rocks and soils through which the water passes. The addition of industrial wastes to such water would, in most cases, render the water less suitable for irrigation. It is possible, however, that its quality might be improved if the proportions of the cations were favorably changed or if fertilizer constituents were added. There is a very large body of literature on the toxicology of both organic and inorganic compounds for laboratory animals and man. It is safe to assume, however, that there is a large number of substances for which the toxicology is not known. By comparison, the literature is very limited on the effect of such compounds on plants. Many of these citations refer to investigations in which plants are grown in nutrient solutions to which is added the substance under test. Very few of the studies involved the growth of plants in soil irrigated with water to which the test material is added. As a result, good experimental data are not available for many materials that might be present in industrial wastes. The more important pollutants, for which information is available, are considered below with comments on their effect on the quality of irrigation water.