bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Absenteeism and the Control of Work
Authors: Edwards Paul , Scullion Hugh
Published: August 2011

The ‘individual’ forms of industrial conflict, such as absenteeism, have received little attention in industrial sociology. This paper attempts to correct this deficiency by attacking the conventional approach to these phenomena and by using recent research findings to develop a sociological alternative. The main characteristics of the conventional approach are the focus on absenteeism without reference to the patterns of work relations of which it is part, and a treatment of it as a ‘problem’ which requires a remedy. The weakness of the approach is that neither the social meaning of absence nor the structural context of work organization is investigated. The alternative approach examines absence as part of a set of workplace relations and is thus able to explore how far, in what ways, and with what consequences it represents a form of conflict. In combination with other recent studies of the links between absence and the contingencies of individual workers' situations, a more adequate sociological treatment is possible. This approach is, ironically, better able to grasp the managerial problem of absence and workplace control than is the ‘managerialist’ conventional approach.
Good Company: The Sociological Implications of Friendship
Authors: Jerrome Dorothy
Published: August 2011

Sociologists have paid relatively little attention to friendship, for a variety of reasons. This paper, based on an intensive study of a small group of middle-class, middle-aged English women, describes the basis of their attraction for each other, the activities they pursue together and the norms governing their interaction. Friendship emerges as a source of social integration. Friends are seen to play an important part in the creation and maintenance of social reality. Friendship offers relief from the strains of other role performance and provides a vehicle for the expression of feminine and status attributes. In this connection, attention is drawn to the role of women in the maintenance of the family's social position.
Looking Back at Fascism: A Phenomenological Analysis of BUF Membership
Authors: Brewer John D.
Published: August 2011

The purpose of this paper is to show that when former members of the British Union of Fascists give an account of their membership today, they take into consideration the common-sense hostility evoked by fascism. This is hardly surprising. However, the significance of this should not be too easily dismissed. One of the main criticisms of using oral history to explore certain kinds of events, is that actors engage in ex post facto rationalization. This form of ‘bias’ is in fact shown to exist in the former members but is made the central theme of the paper. A framework drawn from Schutz's social phenomenology is used to show that in looking back, the former members constructed the reflective accounts on the basis of their unique personal biography, which was seen as leading them towards fascism, and the socially given and transmitted commonsense typifications which now give pejorative connotations to fascist support. The respondents accomplished the view of themselves as former fascists by presenting their personal biography in such a way as to confront and challenge these common-sense typifications, such that their membership became a rational act. This was achieved through the notion of crisis. This empirical demonstration of Schutz's ideas will be used in defence against his idealist critics who claim that this emphasis on socially given and transmitted commonsense typifications makes Schutz's phenomenology too socially over-deterministic. It will also be used against his sociological critics who claim that Schutz's social phenomenology is incapable of being operationalized in empirical research.
Jokers Wild: The Importance of Humour in the Maintenance of Organizational Culture
Authors: Linstead Steve
Published: August 2011

Humour may have a number of different effects within organizations, but it is usually manifested in one of two major ‘joke forms’: standardized/canned or situation/spontaneous. Using examples of each from fieldwork conducted in a large manufacturing bakery, it is argued that both forms depend for their effect on their appositeness to the ‘joke in the social structure’ Both forms share the capacity to enable the reversal, within the humorous framework, of problematic social relations, patterns of control, or customary mystifications. Humour may be used to create ambiguity or to promote closure: its impact on the organizational culture will depend on the extent to which the symbolic transformations achieved within its boundaries can be transposed into material, ‘real-world’ relationships.
Small Business Still Speaks with the Same Voice: A Replication of ‘The Voice of Small Business and the Politics of Survival’
Authors: Aldrich Howard , Zimmer Catherine , Jones Trevor
Published: August 2011

We replicated Bechhofer and Elliott's (1978) study of Edinburgh shopkeepers to answer two important questions. First, have political attitudes and behaviour changed since 1969–1970 when Bechhofer and Elliott collected their data? Second, are the Bechhofer and Elliott findings applicable only to the one city where their study was conducted? We collected our data in 1978 from the cities of Bradford and Leicester and the borough of Ealing, in grater London. Our replication supports Bechhofer and Elliott's findings in three of the four areas investigated. First, small shopkeepers are consistent Conservatives, although they are not terribly enthusiastic in their support. Second, shopkeepers are recruited from a wide range of social origins, especially from the lower non-manual strata and skilled manual workers. Third, small shopkeepers are highly individualistic politically, being strongly against big government and anti-union. Fourth, although Bechhofer and Elliott found that shopkeepers' optimistic beliefs in the possibilities of social promotion were apparently fulfilled in Edinburgh, such was not the case in Bradford. Ealing, or Leicester. The difference between our results and theirs may stem from differences in city economic structures.
‘Showing Them You Love Them’: Gift Giving and the Dialectic of Intimacy
Authors: Cheal David
Published: August 2011

One of the tasks for a critical social psychology is to describe the contradictory social matrix of intimacy in capitalist societies. That is particularly necessary in order to understand the social experiences of women, since they continue to have the principal responsibility for expressive functions. The present paper is concerned with the structuration of intimacy through the giving of gifts. It is suggested that this is a useful vantage point from which to explore the extent of the autonomy of the private family. Gift giving is described as a means through which individuals communicate the values which they assign to their significant others. It is suggested that the intersubjective signs of value employed in gift transactions are affected by the characteristics of an industrial capitalist society. The symbolic process therefore demonstrates the limits to the autonomy of familial culture.
Recentering the World: The Quest for ‘Elective’ Centers in a Secularized Universe
Authors: Cohen Erik , Ben-Yehuda Nachman , Aviad Janet
Published: August 2011

The various ‘quests for meaning’ of the ‘decentralized’ contemporary Western youths are interpreted as so many attempts to ‘recenter the world’ around new ‘elective centers’. Rather than being centers of the contemporary world into which the individual is born, such centers are located outside it, and freely chosen by the seekers. Four such elective centers are discussed: (1) traditional religious conversion, (2) the occult, (3) science fiction, and (4) tourism. Each of these elective centers is first briefly described and then analysed in a comparative framework, focused on six principal questions: (a) the social and cultural conditions which engender the contemporary ‘quest for a center’, (b) the nature of elective centers, (c) mechanisms of election and rejection of alternative elective centers, (d) extent of involvement with elective centers, (e) elective centers and the wider social framework, (f) the institution-building potential of the elective centers.
The Changing Sociological Construct of the Family
Authors: Wilson Patricia , Pahl Ray
Published: August 2011

Recent attempts to announce the death of the family as a useful analytical category for sociologists are rebutted as being premature. The tendency to view household relations as family relations or, indeed, couple or gender relations as family relations seems to have arisen in the early 1970s. Earlier attempts to construct an empirically grounded analysis of family relationships have been curiously neglected. An account of one family on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent provides some illustrative ethnography on both the positive uses of family members – particularly siblings – and on the way the social boundaries of this family are constructed by its members. It is argued that the family is best understood as a system of relationships that change over time. There is a curious lack of systematic ethnography of contemporary family relationships so that what is taught to students as the sociology of the family may be widely at variance with their own personal experience. This may be partly a result of relying too much on random surveys of households at the expense of detailed explorations of existing patterns of social relationships and social meanings. Developing theoretical arguments on the basis of inadequate or inappropriate ethnography is evidently a dangerous and misleading exercise.
The Family as Project
Authors: Gubrium Jaber F.
Published: August 2011

Based on data gathered in settings where the family side of personal troubles is a regular concern, it is argued that the family enters into social relations as a collective representation. Adapting Durkheim's usage to everyday life, the family is analyzed as a ‘public’ project of those whose domestic affairs are challenged for consideration of family order. Three features of the family project are considered: (1) the awareness of the social form, (2) family conduct in the large, (3) family usage. As an object of experience, the family presents itself in a category separate and distinct from its members, while at the same time being a practical, discursive construct built out of, as well as reflecting concrete domestic affairs.
Rhetoric, Division and Constraint: Elements in Local Social Mobilisation
Authors: Young Ed
Published: August 2011

The paper is a speculative discussion of the relative saliency of communal rhetoric in instances of local social mobilisation. Despite several recent studies of local collective action, there remains considerable uncertainty as to when – and why – values exphasising local distinctiveness and superiority find assertion amongst groups at the community level.

By detailing the activities of residents associations and organised amenity groups in one setting, I suggest that the saliency of communal imagery is closely associated with constraints facing local leaders in mobilising and sustaining their support. Where leadership interests are well established, yet must base their legitimacy in appeal to pluralistic sources of local support, the celebration of communal identity is pronounced and pervades local collective action. The declaration of communal unity then, marks the existence of elites for whom such sentiments are advantageous.

This point suggests a re-examination of Coleman's earlier analysis of community conflict as revealing distinctive organisational dynamics, rapid issue elaboration and vilification between protagonist interests. I argue that these processes themselves reflect deeper patterns in local social organisation; the exigencies of local leader – follower relationships.
‘Something Sensational … The Sexual Diary as a Tool for Mapping Detailed Sexual Behaviour
Authors: Coxon Tony
Published: August 2011

Reliable information about the detail and context of sexual behaviour is crucial for describing high-risk behaviours for the transmission of Aids/HIV, and for estimating parameters of epidemiological models. It is possible to adapt the method of systematic diary-keeping to this end and develop a tool which is also close to the subject's conceptions of the ‘chunks’ of sexual behaviour.

The structure of reports of sexual behaviour is viewed as akin to linguistic structure, with a basic unit of the sexual act built into a ‘session’. Such structure leads naturally to a coding system which allows natural language accounts to be represented symbolically, and parsed and analysed formally. The coded version is easily learnt and used, and is incomprehensible to outsiders.

Examples are given of its use to collect systematic data on homosexual and bisexual behaviour.
The Relation of Theory and Method: Causal Relatedness, Historical Contingency and beyond
Authors: Layder Derek
Published: August 2011

This paper critically scrutinizes the thesis put forward by Jennifer Platt in a recent article in The Sociological Review about the general relation between theory and method, based on her investigation of the specific example of functionalism and survey research in post-war US sociology. The present paper questions the extent to which Platt's analysis and general conclusions mask important levels of connectedness between theory and method.
Play the White Man: The Social Construction of Fairness and Competition in Equal Opportunity Policies
Authors: Webb Janette , Liff Sonia
Published: August 2011

This paper discusses the impact of equal opportunity projects on women's employment in two public sector organisations. It examines the limitations of the emerging liberal model and assesses the likely effectiveness of alternative approaches. An Affirmative Action Program in a North American university was examined five years after its initiation. Despite standardised procedures for access to jobs and systematic monitoring, there was very little change in the degree of occupational segregation between men and women. A women's committee project in a UK university examined the present situations of women staff, with the aim of producing a strategy for change which would benefit women currently employed. This resulted in the identification of training provision, flexible working arrangements and the restructuring of job requirements as the central aspects of an alternative approach to equal opportunity policy. It is argued that, particularly in a recessionary economic climate, policies requiring employers to rethink job requirements in ways that do not exclude competent women should provide a more effective challenge to occupational segregation than liberal policies which concentrate on assessing the ‘suitability’ of individual job applicants in terms of conventional criteria.
WHEN DOES FALSEHOOD PRECLUDE KNOWLEDGE?
Authors: FEIT NEIL , CULLISON ANDREW
Published: August 2011

Falsehood can preclude knowledge in many ways. A false proposition cannot be known. A false ground can prevent knowledge of a truth, or so we argue, but not every false ground deprives its subject of knowledge. A falsehood that is not a ground for belief can also prevent knowledge of a truth. This paper provides a systematic account of just when falsehood precludes knowledge, and hence when it does not. We present the paper as an approach to the Gettier problem and arrive at a relatively simple theory with virtues linked to several issues at the heart of contemporary epistemology.
PERSPECTIVE‐NEUTRAL INTRINSIC VALUE
Authors: KLOCKSIEM JUSTIN
Published: August 2011

Is it possible to do a good thing, or to make the world a better place? Some argue that it is not possible, because perspective‐neutral value does not exist. Some argue that ‘good’ does not play the right grammatical role; or that all good things are good ‘in a way’; or that goodness is inherently perspective‐dependent. I argue that the logical and semantic properties of ‘good’ are what we should expect of an evaluative predicate; that the many ways of being good don't threaten the thesis that some ways are perspective‐independent; and that there are clear examples of perspective‐independent goodness.
THE CONCEPT OF ENTITLEMENT AND ITS EPISTEMIC RELEVANCE
Authors: VAHID HAMID
Published: August 2011

Crispin Wright has recently suggested that, in addition to the notion of justification, we also possess a non‐evidential notion of warrant, ‘entitlement’, that can play an important role in responding to various skeptical questions. My concern here is with the question of whether entitlement constitutes an epistemic kind of warrant. I claim Wright's argument for this thesis at most shows that entitlement has a pragmatic character. Having identified the sources of the troubles of this argument in its underlying assumptions, I examine and criticize a number of attempts that have sought to substantiate those assumptions. I offer some suggestions as to how one can improve on Wright's account and make some general observations about the prospects of showing that entitlement is an epistemic type of warrant.
DISENABLING LEVY'S FRANKFURT‐STYLE ENABLING CASES
Authors: HAJI ISHTIYAQUE , MCKENNA MICHAEL
Published: August 2011

Recently, Neil Levy has proposed that an agent can acquire freedom‐relevant agential abilities by virtue of the conditions in which she finds herself, and in this way, can be thought of as partially constituted by those conditions. This can be so even if the agent is completely ignorant of the relevant environmental conditions, and even if these conditions play no causal role in what the agent does. Drawing upon these resources, Levy argues that Frankfurt‐style examples are not cogent. In this paper, we explain why his argument fails.
Patients’ experiences in hospital following a liver transplantation
Authors: Nåden Dagfinn , Bjørk Ida Torunn
Published: August 2011

Scand J Caring Sci; 2012; 26; 169–177

Patients’ experiences in hospital following a liver transplantation

Research is scarce regarding patients’ experiences, feelings and thoughts the first 4 weeks after liver transplantation. Most research involving patients with a liver transplant are conducted several months, or even years, after the transplantation. The aim of this study is to present results from research interviews that took place post‐transplant while patients still were in hospital. The design is explorative and hermeneutic. Fifteen patients were interviewed 3–5 weeks after transplantation. The results are presented in the following themes: (i) general contentment with the hospital stay, (ii) physical discomfort, (iii) dreams, nightmares and hallucinations, (iv) Comedowns experienced during rejection of the transplant and (v) Other psychological/mental reactions. A major result from our study is patients’ own descriptions of comedowns experienced during rejection of the transplant, and the seemingly little consolation and support the patients received. Another major result is patients’ own descriptions of dreams, nightmares and hallucinations, which are not fully described from the patients’ own perspective while still in hospital.
Intravenous Administration of Magnesium and Potassium Solution Lowers Energy Levels and Increases Success Rates Electrically Cardioverting Atrial Fibrillation
Authors: SULTAN ARIAN , STEVEN DANIEL , ROSTOCK THOMAS , HOFFMANN BORIS , MÜLLERLEILE KAI , SERVATIUS HELGE , DREWITZ IMKE , LÜKER JAKOB , MEYER PHILIP , SALUKHE TUSHAR , WILLEMS STEPHAN
Published: August 2011

Intravenous Electrolytes Increase Success Rate of Cardioversion.Background:External biphasic electrical cardioversion (CV) is a standard treatment option for patients suffering from acute symptoms of atrial fibrillation (AF). Nevertheless, CV is not always successful, and thus strategies to increase the success rate are desirable.

Objective:The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of intravenously administered K/Mg solution on the biphasic CV energy threshold and success rate to restore sinus rhythm (SR) in patients with AF.

Methods:The study consisted of 170 patients with persistent AF. The patients were randomly assigned to undergo biphasic CV either with (n = 84) or without (n = 86) pretreatment with K/Mg solution. An energy step‐up protocol of 75, 100, and 150 W (J) was used.

Results:Biphasic CV of AF was effective in 81 (96.4%) patients in the pretreatment and 74 (86.0%) patients in the control group (P = 0.005). The effective energy level required to achieve SR was significantly lower in the pretreated group (140.8 ± 26.9 J vs 182.5 ± 52.2 J, P = 0.02). No K/Mg‐solution‐associated side effects such as hypotension or bradycardia were observed.

Conclusion:Administration of K/Mg solution positively influences the success rate of CV in patients with persistent AF. Furthermore, significantly less energy is required to successfully restore SR and therefore K/Mg pretreatment may facilitate SR restoration in patients undergoing CV for AF.(J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, Vol. 23, pp. 54‐59, January 2012)
A novel rapid oral bacteria detection apparatus for effective oral care to prevent pneumonia
Authors: Kikutani Takeshi , Tamura Fumiyo , Takahashi Yukihiro , Konishi Kiyoshi , Hamada Ryo
Published: August 2011

doi: 10.1111/j.1741‐2358.2011.00517.x

A novel rapid oral bacteria detection apparatus for effective oral care to prevent pneumonia

Objective:  To clarify the oral environment, we evaluated the usefulness and clinical applicability of a new apparatus developed for the simple and rapid quantification of oral bacteria.

Background:  Professional oral health care can reduce the number of oral bacteria and days of fever and inhibit the development of pneumonia. A novel detection apparatus was developed by applying the dielectrophoretic impedance measurement method.

Methods:  First, to determine the accuracy of this apparatus, employing standard samples of Escherichia coli. Next, to evaluate the oral environment, samples were taken from the tongue in elderly (mean age: 86.6 years) in nursing home.

Results:  In the first study, a good correlation was observed between the two methods (R = 0.999). In the second study, there were significant correlations between measurement values obtained using this apparatus and those obtained by the culture method (R = 0.852), as well as those obtained by the FM method (R = 0.885).

Conclusion:  Our data showed that this rapid oral bacterial detection apparatus is effective in evaluating the oral hygiene to prevent pneumonia in the elderly.
Design, Synthesis, Biological Activities, and 3D‐QSAR of New N,N′‐Diacylhydrazines Containing 2‐(2,4‐dichlorophenoxy)propane Moiety
Authors: Liu Xing‐Hai , Pan Li , Ma Yi , Weng Jian‐Quan , Tan Cheng‐Xia , Li Yong‐Hong , Shi Yan‐Xia , Li Bao‐Ju , Li Zheng‐Ming , Zhang Yong‐Gang
Published: August 2011

A series of new N,N′‐diacylhydrazine derivatives were synthesized efficiently under microwave irradiation. Their structures were characterized by 1H NMR, MS, and elemental analysis. Various biological activities of these compounds were tested. Most of them exhibited higher herbicidal activities against dicotyledonous weeds than monocotyledonous weeds. In addition, favorable in vivo fungicidal activities were also found of these compounds against Cladosporium cucumerinum, Corynespora cassiicola, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum(Lib.)de Bary, Erysiphe cichoracearum, and Colletotrichum orbiculare (Berk aLMont) Arx. All compounds displayed excellent plant growth regulatory activities: 100% inhibition was achieved against the radicle growth of cucumber. To further investigate the structure–activity relationship, comparative molecular field analysis was performed on the basis of herbicidal activity data, resulting in a statistically reliable model with good predictive power (r2 = 0.913, q2 = 0.556). Based on the calculation, five additional novel compounds were designed and synthesized. Satisfyingly, compound 4u displayed excellent herbicidal activity (94.7%) at 1500 g/ha, although it is less active than 2,4‐D. Meanwhile, this compound also exhibited good fungicidal activity against C. orbiculare (Berk aLMont) Arx (82.16%).
Otitis media‐interna and secondary meningitis associated withCorynebacterium pseudotuberculosisinfection in a horse
Authors: Rand C. L. , Hall T. L. , Aleman M. , Spier S. J.
Published: August 2011

A one‐year‐old Thoroughbred colt was evaluated because of facial nerve paralysis, ataxia and fever. Neurological evaluation found the colt to be obtunded andgrade 3/5ataxic in all 4 limbs. Right‐sided facial nerve paralysis was present and a large, deep corneal ulcer noted in the right eye. Signs of vestibular disease were also present, including circling towards the right and horizontal nystagmus. A complete blood count showed mild leucocytosis, neutrophilia and hyperfibrinogenaemia. A computed tomography (CT) examination of the skull was performed under general anaesthesia and a diagnosis of right sided otitis media‐interna was made. Culture of fluid taken from the middle ear and cerebrospinal fluid collected from the atlanto‐occipital site yielded pure growth ofCorynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. Initial therapy consisted of antimicrobial treatment with cefotaxime and anti‐inflammatory treatment with flunixin meglumine. Six days after initiating treatment, the colt developedClostridium difficileassociated colitis. The colitis resolved with supportive care and the colt was discharged from the hospital receiving chloramphenicol. Eight months later, the colt continued to be mildly ataxic (grade 1/5), with a slight head tilt and facial nerve paralysis. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of otitis media‐interna due toC. pseudotuberculosisin the horse.
‘SPEARMAN'S RHO’ AND THE MATCHING PROBLEM
Authors: BARTON D. E. , DAVID F. N.
Published: August 2011

Abstract. The following paper describes a possible model, based on a distortion of the random sequence, which may be used as a hypothesis alternative to the hypothesis of randomness. The model is applied to the case of “Spearman;s rho” but may be adopted as an alternative to the random sequence for any bivariate criterion.
THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Authors: AUDLEY R. J. , JONCKHEERE A. R.
Published: August 2011

Abstract. This paper examines the advantages to be gained from a probabilistic analysis of learning behaviour, and presents a simple conceptual scheme from which are derived a number of stochastic processes suitable for this purpose. An endeavour is made to clarify the problems of estimation and goodness of fit which arise when such processes arc fitted to experimental data.
SECOND ORDER FACTORS AND THE ORGANIZATION OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS
Authors: Bernyer G.
Published: August 2011

The object of the following inquiry is to compare the results obtained by factorizing the same set of data according to (i) Thurstone's method of “oblique simple structure” and (ii) Burt's method of “overlapping” and “subdivided” group factors. For this purpose the correlations between Thurstone's oblique factors were made the basis of an analysis into what he has called “second order factors” and a simple working procedure was devised which enables the investigator to transform the oblique factors into a factor pattern including both general and group factors.

Two batteries of tests, differing slightly in their composition, have been applied to two different groups. With both sets of data much the same factors were ultimately obtained with both procedures; and the factor pattern was fully consistent with Burt's theory of a “hierarchical classification” leading to “subdivided group factors”. Thus the results obtained by Thurstone's procedure, when carried to its logical completion, so far from being incompatible with Burt's theory of a hierarchical classification by subdivided factors, tends to confirm it.
CLASS DIFFERENCES IN GENERAL INTELLIGENCE: I
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: August 2011

The hypothesis which this paper defends is that the distribution of innate intelligence among different social classes is approximately random, and that the mean differences found in tested intelligence between different social classes are due, not to genetic constitution, but solely to environment. The arguments of Conway and of Burt in favour of the alternative hypothesis are examined; and it is concluded that, with more precise figures for social mobility, their arguments would strengthen rather than weaken the hypothesis here maintained.
STATISTICAL METHODS IN PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
Authors: Gregory C. C. L.
Published: August 2011

In recent controversies concerning the statistical significance of the results of card‐guessing in parapsychology, the possibility of using the guesses themselves to provide a criterion of significance has not been adequately considered. Arguments are put forward in favour of employing for this purpose elementary and obvious methods in preference to the conventional statistical methods which assume a strictly random distribution in the target sequence. A worked example of a simple procedure is described; and a proposal is made to test the so‐called P.‐K. effect, by means of the ‘Galton board’ (a pin‐table which, in the absence of any such influence, gives a Gaussian distribution).
THE ROTATION OF PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS
Authors: Burroughs G. E. R. , Miller H. W. L.
Published: August 2011

Doubt has been expressed as to the validity and desirability of rotating principal components. In the present case a battery of tests, which was expected to give clear‐cut factors, was analysed by the method of principal components, and the components were rotated orthogonally. It is shown that the results thus obtained were in keeping with those that were expected. It is concluded that, whatever may be the weaknesses of rotation as a technique, it is one which can be applied to principal components quite as well as to factors obtained by other procedures.
A NOTE ON ROTATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SPACE1
Authors: Jarrett R. F.
Published: August 2011

The purpose of this note is threefold: to consider the conditions under which the concept of distance (both physical and psychological) and angle (the pure number function of distance) are meaningful; to suggest that there is some evidence that these conditions do not obtain throughout psychological space; and to consider briefly the implications of this evidence. My argument will be that distance (and therefore angle) is meaningful only when the space involved possesses the property of dimensional isotropy.
IN SEARCH OF AN EXPLANATION OF SOCIAL MOBILITY1
Authors: Young Michael , Gibson John
Published: August 2011

Studies in different countries, which have shown that rates of mobility are more alike than they were expected to be, have raised questions about the mechanisms underlying social mobility. The following paper puts forward the suggestion that social mobility belongs to a cybernetic mechanism whereby something like a ‘steady state’ is maintained in each occupational class by means of constant movement into and out of it. The quality discussed is ‘intelligence’; and the argument stems from two main observations. The first is that the higher the occupational class, the higher is the measured intelligence. The second is that the children of parents towards the extreme show a ‘regression’ from that extreme towards the mean of the general population. If these two observations hold true over a period of time, it follows that there must be social mobility. In a third part of the paper it is argued that differential fertility between the classes gives rise to additional mobility. The last section discusses longer‐term changes which may influence the amplitude of short‐term oscillations between any two generations, and finally notes a certain parallelism with the laws of thermodynamics.
FACTOR TRANSFORMATION METHODS
Authors: Lawley D. N. , Maxwell A. E.
Published: August 2011

Methods are described for transforming factors in such a way that the final loadings are in reasonable conformity with a given pattern in which some of the elements are postulated to be zero. A distinction is made between factors which, in their transformed state, are (i) correlated and (ii) uncorrelated. The methods are illustrated by numerical examples.
HIGHER‐ORDER FACTORS
Authors: Adcock C. J.
Published: August 2011

The paper discusses the hierarchical conception of factorial structure developed by Burt and his research students, and examines the alternative approaches preferred by Thurstone and Cattell. It is argued that second‐order factors cannot be distinguished from first‐order factors by mathematical criteria. It follows that interpretational criteria are requisite and the method of transformation described by Schmid and Leiman is recommended.
AN APPLICATION OF FACTOR AND CANONICAL ANALYSIS TO MULTIVARIATE DATA1
Authors: Das Rhea S.
Published: August 2011

Two multivariate statistical methods, factor analysis and canonical analysis, are compared on selected statistical concepts and an example is presented illustrating differences in interpretation arising from the use of the two methods. Only one factor analytic model is considered, this being the principal factor solution based upon the theory of principal components. A review of the statistical theory reveals that both methods call for the solution of characteristic equations to obtain the coordinate system which exhibits the correlations among multiple variables. They differ in the partitioning of the variables into sets, in the scalar quantity to be maximized in solving the characteristic equations, and in the linear regression models. An empirical example is presented to illustrate possible effects of these statistical differences on the interpretation of data. The illustration suggests that factor analysis may be more appropriate for hypothesis generating and exploratory studies, while canonical analysis should have wider application in research involving hypothesis testing and prediction.
STOCHASTIC MODELS OF CHOICE BEHAVIOUR: RESPONSE PROBABILITIES AND LATENCIES OF FINITE MARKOV CHAIN SYSTEMS1
Authors: Pike A. R.
Published: August 2011

A general class of stochastic models for choice behaviour is described, which can be regarded as finite Markov chains with absorbing states and which subsumes some particular models discussed by Audley and Pike (1965). The equations for response probabilities and moments of response latency distributions are obtained from the properties of such chains and a very general approach is given in terms of ‘transition‐similar’ systems, which includes discrete time and continuous time processes. Generating functions for the systems are obtained and variations in parameters controlling the rate of occurrence of events in time are also considered. A brief discussion centres around some of the problems which arise in such a general treatment and the reasons for its usefulness.
ON A CERTAIN TYPE OF PARTIAL HIGHER‐ORDERED METRIC SCALING1
Authors: Phillips J. P. N.
Published: August 2011

When a subject makes a number of discriminations between pairs of reference objects, each time saying which of the pair is closer in value to a test object, there arise two problems: (1) deciding which patterns of responses are internally consistent and (2) scaling the consistent response patterns. This paper generalizes Shapiro's solution for the case of three reference objects. (1) The identification of consistent response patterns requires a certain partial higher‐ordered metric scaling of the reference objects; however, if certain incomplete sets of judgements are used, then only an ordinal scaling of the reference objects is demanded. (2) The consistent response patterns can be ordinally scaled, but only a rudimentary partial higher‐ordered metric scale can be established.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR THE CLUSTERED FIRING OF SINGLE CORTICAL NEURONES
Authors: Thomas E. A. C.
Published: August 2011

Two statistical models for the clustered firing of cortical neurones are discussed. The first model assumes that a neurone alternates between periods of inactivity and periods of hypersensitivity during which it fires. The second model assumes a definite causal relation between a spike and the succeeding one. Both models lead to a mixed exponential probability density function for the inter‐spike interval. Estimates of the parameters of the second model are obtained from published data, and are used as a basis for discussing the descriptive potential of the model.
DISCRIMINATORY AND CANONICAL ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL COLLEGE DATA
Authors: Porebski Olgierd R.
Published: August 2011

Multivariate analysis is applied to 1,348 test scores derived from four secondary technical trades. The analysis reduces the between group variation to two canonical variates. These variates are not recognized as unitary factors, but as composites of general and specific abilities which require further study to be adequately interpreted. Three theoretical notes are included in the appendix.
THE ASSUMPTION OF MULTIVARIATE NORMALITY1
Authors: Lockhart R. S.
Published: August 2011

Although the multivariate normal assumption is common to many of the multivariate statistical methods used to analyse psychological data, its tenability is rarely examined. It is possible to derive a goodness‐of‐fit test of this assumption, but in practice sample sizes will not be large enough to make complete testing feasible. In such a situation a partial testing procedure is advocated, together with studies of robustness. A numerical example is given illustrating how the partial testing procedure may detect instances of distributions which have normally distributed marginals but which are not multivariate normal.
COST, DISCRIMINABILITY AND RESPONSE BIAS
Authors: Smith Philip Twitchell
Published: August 2011

Cost, a unidimensional additive non‐negative parameter, is defined and developed. Four models for the cost incurred in making a psychophysical decision are presented; two of these models are based on signal detectability theory and two are based on choice theory. In all models, cost is a function of the discriminability of the stimuli presented and the observer's response bias, and it is shown that in three of the models the form of this function depends critically on discriminability. The models are applied to the analysis of a reaction‐time study, a vigilance study, and the statistical properties of the consonant systems of four natural languages.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENT THEORY OF CERTAIN SETS ADMITTING A CONCATENATION OPERATION
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2011

This paper is a contribution to the theory of unidimensional scaling based on a concatenation operation defined for pairs of objects from certain continuous and ordered sets M. Inferences about structural properties of M, such as reflexivity and commutativity of the concatenation operation, are obtained by means of an entirely general non‐metric treatment. It is shown that reflexivity holds either throughout or just for a single element and that commutativity of two different elements holds either generally or in no instance. These statements are independent. The study employs concatenation operations defined in an ad hoc way which formally and necessarily satisfy the reflexivity requirement and then also that of commutativity. By this means, the existence and essential uniqueness of scales of M with linear expressions for the various concatenation operations are established. Rules are derived for the way in which the parameters entering into these expressions can change with admissible scale transformations.
THE COMMON FACTOR ANALYSIS OF MULTICATEGORY DATA
Authors: McDonald Roderick P.
Published: August 2011

An algorithm is described that serves to fit a linear latent structure model to multicategory data. The model has the formal properties of a (generalized) common factor model, in contrast to principal component analysis. An empirical example is given.
MULTIPLE COMPARISONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS
Authors: Aitkin M. A.
Published: August 2011

A simple relation between error rates using multiple t‐tests and Scheffé's multiple‐comparison procedure is pointed out. Errors in the development of some new multiple‐comparison procedures are indicated. An experimental error rate approach using a flexible error rate is advocated.
A NOTE ON GULLIKSEN'S LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION FOR INCOMPLETE DATA
Authors: Schönemann Peter H.
Published: August 2011

A sufficient condition is given that scale values obtained with Gulliksen's (1956) incomplete data solution be unique up to an additive constant.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TREATMENTS IN A REPEATED‐MEASUREMENT DESIGN: ANOVA AND MULTIVARIATE METHODS
Authors: Rouanet H. , Lépine D.
Published: August 2011

This paper investigates several methods available for testing comparisons between treatments in a repeated‐measurement design, within the framework of the general multinormal model. Various ratios are considered, and the weakest assumptions required for the validity of each F ratio are presented. When several F ratios are valid, power considerations are introduced for purposes of choice. Methods enabling the testing of validity assumptions are also presented, together with alternative multivariate statistics which can be used when no F ratio is valid. All procedures presented in the paper are illustrated by a numerical example.
PIECEWISE REGRESSION: A SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE†
Authors: Wainer Howard
Published: August 2011

A recurring problem is the estimation of regression parameters when the data sample is hypothesized to have been generated by more than a single regression model. This problem of ‘piecewise regression’ has been examined previously by using a combination of regression theory and hierarchical cluster analysis. The approach espoused here is applicable in a limited domain, but when it applies allows a solution to be found with very little calculation. Tukey's ‘jackknife’ is used to test the meaningfulness of any suggested subdivision of the regression curve into pieces. Two examples are included.
ESTIMATING REGRESSIONS IN m GROUPS
Authors: Jackson Paul H. , Novick Melvin R. , Thayer Dorothy T.
Published: August 2011

The feasibility of a Bayesian method, due to Lindley, for estimating regressions in m groups is studied by application to data from the Law School Admissions Test Program and the Comparative Guidance Program. Easily computable approximate solutions to the Lindley equations are provided and shown to agree well with the full Bayesian solution in some situations. Numerical investigations are described that lead to the adoption of efficient starting values and an efficient sequencing for the iterative solution of the Lindley equations. The advantages of the Bayesian method over more conventional procedures are discussed. Difficulties encountered by Lindley in the statement of one of his assumptions of independence are investigated and a resolution is found. The validities of other assumptions are checked. Problems arising in the extension of Lindley's method to the multiple correlation case are discussed, and some insight is gained through the use of principal component methods.
ESTIMATING TRUE SCORES AND THEIR RELIABILITIES IN THE CASE OF COMPOSITE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Authors: Maxwell A. E.
Published: August 2011

In the case of composite psychological tests it is shown how true scores for the mental traits being measured may be estimated. The general model is compared with the classic mental test model and the usefulness of the concepts of parallel forms of tests and of tau‐equivalent tests is questioned.
LEARNING AND TEACHING STRATEGIES IN A TRANSFORMATION SKILL
Authors: Pask Gordon , Scott B. C. E.
Published: August 2011

When subjects learn a transformation skill in conditions that allow them to direct their attention freely to different subgoals, they adopt definite learning strategies which can be externalized by special techniques. Two of these techniques are described (expts. 1 and 2) and the free‐learning strategies revealed with their assistance are discussed. Such strategies may also be used in ‘controlled learning’ conditions, i.e. when a subject is taught the skill. In this case, the (computerized) teaching system acts as a surrogate for, and may be viewed as a model of, the subject's attention‐directing mechanism. Experiment 3 is concerned with learning controlled by a conversational system which entails a model based on a class of learning strategies; expt. 4 with a simple adaptive system, based on a single learning strategy. There are marked differences between the form and efficiency of learning in the free conditions and each of the two controlled conditions. These differences are described and a theoretical interpretation is proposed.
AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE PERMUTATION t‐TEST
Authors: Toothaker Larry E.
Published: August 2011

The small sample power and the probability of a Type I error of a permutation test were investigated for the two‐sample problem. Empirical probabilities were obtained under the null and various alternative conditions for the permutation t‐test and, for comparison, Student's t‐test and the Mann‐Whitney 17‐test for normal, uniform and skewed populations. Values of the empirical α were within sampling variation bounds of the theoretical α, and the power values for the permutation t‐test were generally close to those of Student's t‐test and the theoretical values. For the skewed population, the power values of the permutation t‐test were higher than those of Student's t‐test if the means were positively related to the sample sizes.
ROUTINELY COMPUTABLE CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR FACTOR LOADINGS USING THE ‘JACK‐KNIFE’
Authors: Pennell Roger
Published: August 2011

The problem of the statistical significance of factor loadings is attacked, using the ‘jack‐knife’. The technique, while not new, has curiously not been applied to factor analysis. The procedure is outlined and applied to two classes of data: (1) real data from which a clear pattern of significant factor loadings emerges, and (2) random data which do not fare well under ‘jack‐knifing’.
THE BREADTH OF ATTENTION IN LEARNING: A NEW ONE‐LOOK MODEL
Authors: Kemler Deborah G. , Anderson Daniel R.
Published: August 2011

The finding that some subjects learn about more than one set of relevant cues in a discriminative learning or concept identification task has been considered as strong counter‐evidence to a one‐look model of attention in learning (Trabasso & Bower, 1968). It is demonstrated, however, that one‐look models can predict multiple‐cue learning if it is assumed that subjects switch attention between trials, and that they store some information about past trials. Three submodels of a general one‐look model are presented and all are shown to fit the data of Trabasso & Bower (1968) as well as their own multiple‐look model. The success of the one‐look model argues against the use of solution‐type data as a simple means for determining the breadth of attention in the learning situation. The present interpretation of multiple‐cue learning also provides a framework within which to consider at least one important role that memorial processes play in concept identification and discriminative learning.
ON THE FALSITY OF SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN REINFORCEMENT AND INTERRESPONSE TIMES
Authors: Ambler Stephen
Published: August 2011

A formal analysis is made of some conclusions by Anger (1956) and Morse (1966), based on the results of Anger's experimental research into the effects of reinforcement schedules on the distribution of times between successive responses. This analysis shows that the conclusions are fundamentally incorrect.
THE ROBUSTNESS OF THE F TEST TO VIOLATIONS OF CONTINUITY AND FORM OF TREATMENT POPULATION†
Authors: Bevan Mark F. , Denton James Q. , Myers Jerome L.
Published: August 2011

This paper considers the appropriateness of the F test when the dependent measure is discretely distributed and takes on only a small number of possible values (m = 3, 5 or 7). Effects of α level, number and size of treatment groups, and skewness and kurtosis of the parent population are described. Results are consistent with those previously reported for continuously distributed measures; the F test is quite robust with respect to Type I error rate.