bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ICS: Can it Be a National Incident Management System?1
Authors: Smith Duane Michael
Published: January 2013

There are likely few that would argue with the proposal that a national incident management system would be of benefit. Numerous articles have been put forward over time, both for and against the adoption of an incident command system (ICS) as the model for a national incident management system. Those in favor of its adoption point out to its many successes, from major wildfires to the 2002 Olympics. Many seem to view ICS as simply another way of expressing the term command and control. In reality, ICS is not another way to say command and control; rather it is a specific of command and control system. The question then is whether ICS, and in particular the National Inter-agency Incident Management System – Incident Command System (NIIMS-ICS) is the model upon which this national system should be based. Most of the studies and papers regarding the use and adoption of ICS have focused on its use within the fire service community. This may be somewhat intuitive, given the origins of the system; however, if we are to truly gauge the applicability of this system to all risks, we must begin to exam it in those other events. It was a series of disasters that led to the development of the initial ICS system. It has been a subsequent series of disasters or national emergencies that have led to the continued evolution of ICS toward a national model. The question now before us is whether we need another disaster to take that final step to a truly national incident management system or are we willing to go there now. In this time of heightened national security we owe it to ourselves to have the best incident management system in the world.
Spill Response Planning in the Republic of Kazakhstan1
Authors: Shepherd Mark
Published: January 2013

In recent years the international oil industry has been increasingly active in the former Soviet Union region. The Caspian Sea area alone has estimated reserves of 70 billion barrels of oil. The northeast Caspian region, the focus of major exploration campaigns in the last two years, is a unique environment where the sea level can vary between zero and 10 metres purely as a consequence of the wind direction. Temperatures range between +40 degrees Celsius in the summer to −40 degrees in winter, with the north east Caspian sea being frozen for some four to five months of the year. These factors not only make the region very challenging from an operational point of view, but present a whole new set of challenges for the oil spill response planners. The Republic of Kazakhstan (RoK) is a very large country and industry is widely distributed with operational oil spill risks arising from pipeline operations, exploration, production and distribution of refined product. The goal was set by the oil industry to assess the spill risks in the region and firstly to identify individual Tier 1 requirements. Having established the Tier 1 needs, the study progressed to a review of the logistics and of the available infrastructure. Using a combination of these resources, one could determine whether a credible Tier 2 capability could be developed or whether additional stockpiles and trained personnel would be required.
Towards a New Concept of Airborne Surveillance System for Oil Pollution Fighting
Authors: Charron Stéphane , Negret Jean-Michel , Bieseas Erlinda , Peigne Georges , Tarchi Dario
Published: January 2013

RAPSODI (Remote sensing Anti-Pollution System for geographical Data Integration) is a European Community funded program. Within this program, remote sensing, radar and oil spill control specialists, associated with airborne system designers, have gathered their efforts in order to propose a new concept of airborne surveillance system for oil pollution fighting. This paper describes the main tasks carried out in the RAPSODI project. Firstly, we describe the real size experimentation campaigns at sea with voluntary controlled releases of crude oil and other chemicals which were conducted to collect data for the project. These campaigns have involved many aerial and naval assets from various organizations. Secondly, the development of an airborne SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) sensor based upon the existing Thaïes Ocean Master X-band radar is presented. This sensor is able to generate high-resolution images and allows detecting sea pollution in almost any environmental conditions. It is the key sensor of the proposed system. Thirdly, we introduce the innovative technique of images processing developed and assessed in the frame of RAPSODI. These techniques allow extracting oil spill airborne SAR signatures even in very unfavorable conditions. Fourthly, we stress a major technical issue: the GIS (Geographic Information System) approach chosen for the system. Since an airborne system for oil pollution fighting relies on various sensors and, moreover, as their data can be geocoded, the use of GIS improves the efficiency of an airborne system in merging sensor data, chart data and tactical objects. Finally, we describe the proposed airborne system. Its architecture is based on software and hardware on the shelf components. It is generic in order to be adaptable to different types of carriers, types of missions and crew concepts.
Factors that Determine the Cost of Oil Spills
Authors: White I.C. , C. Molloy F.
Published: January 2013

The NAKHODKA and ERIKA oil spills in Japan and France, respectively, have once again focused attention on the potentially high cost of such events and the adequacy of the current international compensation arrangements. This prompted a study by the International Group of P&I Clubs of the costs of 360 oil spills occurring outside of the USA between 1990 and 1999. The results of the study, as well as examples drawn from specific incidents, provide a good basis for examining the technical factors that, in combination, give rise to great variation between the costs of individual incidents. One of the most important factors is the type of oil, coupled with the physical, biological and economic characteristics of the spill location. However, other factors such as the amount spilled and rate of spillage; weather and sea conditions; time of the year and the effectiveness of clean-up can also be crucial in determining the overall cost of an incident. One conclusion is that it is inappropriate to make cost comparisons between fundamentally different oil spill events by reference to a single parameter, such as the total amount of oil spilled.
The International Compensation Regime Revisited
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

The international regime of compensation was established by two international treaties elaborated under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), namely the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention. These Conventions were revised by Protocols in 1992, and the revised Conventions, known as the 1992 Conventions, have effectively replaced the original ones. The 1992 Civil Liability Convention governs the liability of the shipowner, whereas the 1992 Fund Convention provides supplementary compensation through the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (1992), financed by a levy on oil receipts in member nations. The total amount of compensation under the 1992 Conventions is US$178 million per incident but will be increased to US$269 million from 1 November 2003. This paper describes briefly the scope and application of the Conventions with reference to specific incidents involving the IOPC Funds, focusing on developments over the past two years. In view of the experience of recent major incidents, the 1992 Fund has set up a Working Group to hold an exchange of views concerning the need for and possibilities of improving the international compensation regime established by the 1992 Conventions. As a first step, the Working Group prepared a draft Protocol establishing an optional third tier of compensation by means of a Supplementary Compensation Fund which would provide additional compensation over and above that available under the 1992 Conventions. The draft Protocol will be considered by a Diplomatic Conference to be held under the auspices of the IMO in May 2003. Certain issues relating to environmental damage have been considered. The Working Group continues its review of the 1992 Conventions and will examine a number of issues, inter alia, shipowners’ liability.
Fire Resistant Booms Tested in Flames at Ohmsett
Authors: Buist Ian , Potter Steve , Mullin Joe , Lane Jim , Devitis Dave , Schmidt Bill , Stahovec Joe , Urban Bob , Moffatt Craig
Published: January 2013

An enhanced propane underwater bubbler system designed to allow the testing of fire-resistant booms in flames was installed at Ohmsett in the fall of 1998 by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and the US Navy Supervisor of Salvage and Diving (SUPSALV). The test is based on a screening protocol for testing fire resistant booms in waves and flames developed for MMS and the Canadian Coast Guard (CCG). The cornerstone of the test is an underwater bubbler system to create air-enhanced propane flames that produce an average total heat flux to the surface of a candidate containment system in the range of 110 to 130 kW/m2 and flame temperatures near the containment device on the order of 900°C. The candidate boom is stretched over the center of the bubbler, parallel to the long dimensions of the test tank, and tensioned to realistic towing forces. The fire exposure portion of the test involves three cycles of one hour of exposure to air-enhanced propane flames in waves, followed by a one-hour cool-down period in waves alone, and conforms to ASTM F 2152-01. Since the air-enhanced propane system was developed, 11 fire resistant boom systems have been tested. These include: three refractory fabric booms, one stainless steel boom, three water-cooled blanket prototypes, three reflective/insulating blanket prototypes, and one water-cooled boom. This paper summarizes the test methods used and the results.
Improving Seafood Safety Management after an Oil Spill
Authors: Yender Ruth A.
Published: January 2013

Recent experience indicates that promptly providing state and local seafood safety managers with key information and assistance during an oil spill response can help prevent unnecessary restrictions on seafood harvest. Efforts by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Office of Response and Restoration (ORR) to help facilitate and expedite the decision-making process of seafood safety managers after an oil spill include two recently published guidebooks on seafood testing and risk assessment. Of particular interest is a comparison of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) criteria established for seafood at past United States oil spills. Depending on assumptions made in the health risk calculations, criteria for shellfish ranged from 5 to 120 parts per billion (ppb) benzo[a]pyrene equivalents. Nearly all seafood samples analyzed at these spills passed established criteria, indicating oil spills in the United States have not posed significant risk to human health through consumption of PAH-contaminated seafood. Seafood marketability has more often been impacted, due to petroleum taint (off-odor or off-flavor). Evaluation of seafood marketability can be facilitated through employment of standardized sensory testing protocols for detecting petroleum taint, such as those recently published by NOAA.
Response to an Oil Spill from a Sunken WWII Oil Tanker in Yap State, Micronesia
Authors: Gilbert Trevor , Nawadra Sefanaia , Tafileichig Andy , Yinug Leonard
Published: January 2013

In August 2001 a State of Emergency was declared in Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) following a significant oil spill from the USS Mississinewa, a sunken WWII US military oil tanker, in the remote and environmentally sensitive atoll known as Ulithi Lagoon. Due to the severity of the spill, a complete ban on fishing within the lagoon area was imposed by the Environment Protection Agency and Marine Resources Department of Yap State. The spill occurred over a two-month period between July and August 2001. A request for assistance to the US Navy to plug the leak and salvage the cargo was made by the President of FSM. He also requested the assistance of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) to do an independent study on the wreck and determine the environmental impacts of the oil spill from the sunken vessel. This paper highlights the response to oil spills from the vessel and the findings of the field environmental assessment in Ulithi lagoon and surrounding islands. It also addresses the issue of more than 1000 WWII shipwrecks around the Pacific and the strategy and database currently being developed by SPREP to document and address the pollution risk posed to environmentally sensitive Pacific Island Nations.
Petrobras Wildlife Rehabilitation Response at Guanabara Bay Oil Spill
Authors: Barcellos Lauro , Silva Fo. Rodolfo Pinho , Ruopollo Valéria , Guimarães Pedro Penido Duarte , Pará Paulo César Dias , Reis Fábio Augusto P. , Menezes Ana Cristina Lima , Sauerbronn José Luiz Bampa
Published: January 2013

Due to an oil spill at Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, on January 18th, 2000, a large effort was made by PETROBRAS and the Museu Oceanográfico of Rio Grande (Oceanographic Museum / Centre for Rehabilitation of Marine Animals) to rescue and rehabilitate affected wildlife. With the technical support of the staff of the Oceanographic Museum two field bases were established and totally equipped for standard rehabilitation procedures. Around 200 people, including experts, volunteers, environmental agencies personnel, NGOs members and PETROBRAS employees, were involved with the rescue teams and first aid. International protocols were adapted with creativity to the situation to treat birds, most of them cormorants. 55% of the birds treated were released back in the wild by the Brazilian environmental authorities. Cetaceans were also monitored around the bay and 3 weeks after the spill, there were no signs that they have been affected. 75 dolphins that generally use the bay were often seen swimming in the area soon after the spill. Some lessons to PETROBRAS and Brazilian organizations are being discussed in this paper.
Damage Assessment and Restoration Planning for the M/V Kuroshima Oil Spill1
Authors: Helton Douglas
Published: January 2013

On November 26, 1997, the M/V Kuroshima, a 370-foot refrigerated cargo vessel owned by Kuroshima Shipping, S.A., broke away from its anchorage in Summer Bay on Unalaska Island, near Dutch Harbor, Alaska. While the vessel was attempting to move to a safer anchorage, winds in excess of 100 knots blew the freighter into Second Priest Rock, damaging several of the vessel's fuel tanks. The vessel subsequently ran aground on the shore of Summer Bay. Approximately 39,000 gallons of heavy fuel oil were spilled, oiling Summer Bay and nearby Humpy and Morris Coves. High winds and surf carried oil upstream into a nearby lake and on to the dunes. Windblown oil also contaminated vegetation and an archaeological site. This paper reviews the overall incident, and briefly summarizes the results of the damage assessment and restoration planning process undertaken for this spill.
The Role of Petroleum Geochemistry in Defining Oil Spill Recovery: Examples from the Exxon Valdez Spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska
Authors: Page David S. , Bence A. Edward , Burns William A. , Boehm Paul D. , Brown John S.
Published: January 2013

The application of petroleum geochemistry to determining the fate and effects of oil spills in the marine environment requires high quality data to allow source identification through fingerprinting methods and unbiased sampling designs that allow valid comparisons to be made to detect spill related effects in the presence of other sources of environmental stress. This is particularly important in long-term studies, where sources of hydrocarbons and other pollutants unrelated to the spill event and non-spill related environmental effects become far more important in defining the environmental status of the spill zone. In studies of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, petroleum geochemistry is used to identify the many sources contributing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to the marine environment of Prince William Sound (PWS), including the Exxon Valdez oil spill, oil seep residues, particulates from eroding organic shales and coal formations, forest fire fallout, recent biogenic inputs and past human and industrial activities. A sediment quality triad-based shoreline ecology program (SEP), begun in 1990, includes a random sampling component and worst-case non-random site component that provides chemistry data through 2001 to determine the fate and bioavailability of spill oil residues on the shorelines. Environmental half-life values for the PAH at oiled sites range from 2.0 – 7.4 months for upper intertidal areas. Analysis of mussel tissue samples collected at worst-case spill locations find PAH concentrations in the same range as reference site samples. The results of concurrent sediment toxicity measurements using standard bioassays defines a dose-response relationship for total PAH concentration (TPAH) having a threshold of effect TPAH of 2,600 ng/g (dry wt.) that agrees well with the onset of sublethal ecological stress as defined by reductions in infaunal community structure parameters.
Monitoring Recovery of Prince William Sound, Alaska, Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: Bioavailability of PAH in Offshore Sediments
Authors: Neff Jerry M. , Boehm Paul D. , Kropp Roy , Stubblefield William A. , Page David S.
Published: January 2013

We determined the bioavailability to sediment-dwelling marine worms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) associated with offshore sediments from 3 spill path and 3 non-spill path areas of Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska, 12 years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The PAHs in sediments from 4 sites sampled in 2001 were primarily from a regional natural petrogenic background derived from organic-rich shales and natural oil seeps associated with sources southeast of PWS. Pyrogenic (combustion) PAHs, primarily from former human and industrial activities, were more abundant than petrogenic PAHs in nearshore sediments from 2 bays associated with past and current human activities. We performed sediment bioaccumulation tests with the six sediments and polychaete worms according to standard EPA protocols. All the PAHs had a very low bioavailability, as indicated by low values for biota/sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs) in the worms. Mean BSAFs for total PAHs (sum of 41 analyte groups) ranged from 0.002 to 0.009. The worms exposed to spill path and non-spill path sediments bioaccumulated small amounts of 4- and 5-ring PAHs, particularly fluoranthene and pyrene; these higher molecular weight PAHs are responsible for induction of mixed function oxygenase (MFO) activity in marine fish, birds, and mammals. These results may help to explain in part why fish from throughout PWS exhibit induced MFO activity. Elevated levels of MFO activity cannot be used as evidence of recent exposure by marine fish, birds, and mammals in the sound to Exxon Valdez oil.
Public Perceptions on the Use of Oil Spill Response Methods in Alaskan Waters and the Level of Trust in Organizations to Prevent Oil Spills
Authors: Pearson Leslie A.
Published: January 2013

All of the cleanup methods available for responding to a marine oil spill in Alaska have operational limitations. In Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet, non-mechanical response methods such as the use of chemical dispersants or in situ burning can be requested as secondary cleanup options. This study identifies citizens’ concern and determines the preference of response methods and perceived effectiveness of each method. Environmental risks, values, and the level of trust residents in communities of Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet are also examined., A correlational research design was used to answer research questions with survey data collected by randomly sampling 1657 residents in fifteen communities of Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet. Of the 1657 surveys mailed a response rate of 41% was obtained. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were used to analyze the survey information. General descriptive statistical analysis was used to examine responses to each statement in the survey. Inferential statistical analysis was used to quantify the direction and strength of a relationship between variables., In general, 92% of the respondents support the use of mechanical recovery methods, 61% support the use of in situ burning and 45% chemical dispersants. The population recognizes burning as a means of removing large quantities of oil from the sea surface and the environmental risk of displacing pollutants into the atmosphere. Environmental concerns associated with the use of chemical dispersants are tied to seasonal abundance of and impact to marine organisms, amount of area and subsistence use and dependency on marine resources., The survey population's ecological priorities are commercial fishing, sea mammals and sea birds. The U.S. Coast Guard and Commercial Fishing Associations are held to the highest level of trust while the Alaska State Legislature and U.S. Congress received the lowest level of trust for ensuring Alaska waters remain oil free.
News Media Organisations and Oil Spill Coverage
Authors: Anderson Alison G.
Published: January 2013

The news media play a key role in framing the media coverage of oil spills. It is imperative that scientists, industry and policymakers are fully tuned into the ways in which current news organisations operate. Over recent years, a growing environmental promotion industry has emerged, alongside an increasing emphasis on environmental advocacy within the commercial sector. A number of information crises (notably, the Exxon Valdez disaster in 1989) have forced sections of industry to take a more proactive approach to environmental communications as potent media imagery has directly contradicted assurances that environmental protection is not compromised by their activities. Particular issues or events that capture attention tend to be highly visually appealing and resonate with deeply held beliefs and values that operate at a symbolic level.

This paper examines the preliminary findings of an international online survey of environmental reporting distributed to key environmental journalist news groups and generalist journalist news groups during June and July 2002. In particular, it focuses upon the following: journalists’ views about what makes a newsworthy story; their degree of scientific training; the constraints under which they work; their main sources of information; their relationships with news sources; and the impact of editorial policy. Interviews with environment correspondents reveal that relatively few possess scientific training and they tend to rely heavily upon official sources of information. The news agendas of broadcasters closely mirror that of print journalists and there is remarkable consensus concerning ‘news values’ – the taken for granted notions about what constitutes a ‘good’ news story. Having presented the main findings of the survey, the paper concludes by arguing that what is needed is greater communication between scientists, industry and journalists leading to an increased mutual recognition of the specific constraints under which they operate.
Emulsion Formation Testing in the Laboratory and Ohmsett
Authors: Fingas Merv , Fieldhouse Ben , Noonan Jordan , Lambert Pat , Lane James , Mullin Joseph
Published: January 2013

This paper summarizes studies to determine the stability of water-in-oil emulsions in the OHMSETT tank facility and comparison with laboratory results. The OHMSETT tests were in four series. The tests were one week each in the first year and two weeks each in the second year. The first and second series consisted of 12 experiments each on 6 oils. The third series consisted of testing 9 oils through a series of 16 experiments. In the fourth set of tests, 8 oils were used in 16 experiments. Several of the experiments consisted of leaving the oils for longer periods of time. The rheological properties of the oils were measured and compared to the same oils undergoing emulsification in the laboratory. The oils and water-in-oil states produced were found to have analogous properties between the laboratory and the OHMSETT facility. Comparison of time and work factors showed that the energy in the two test conditions was similar. These tests also provide information on the kinetics and energy levels necessary to form emulsions, which is useful to oil spill modellers. These studies have confirmed previous laboratory studies that show that the stability of emulsions can be grouped into four categories: stable, unstable, meso-stable, and entrained. Water can reside in oil as ‘entrained water', in which larger droplets of water are temporarily suspended by viscous forces. These emulsions and mixtures have been distinguished by physical measures as well as visual differences.
Wind Uncertainty in Long Range Trajectory Forecasts
Authors: Lehr William J. , Simecek-Beatty Debra , Hodges Marc
Published: January 2013

The essential equations of oil spill trajectory modeling have not changed in four decades. The vast majority of existing trajectory models divide the slick up into pieces, called Lagrangian Elements (LE's). The models move the LE's by summing movement vectors related to three somewhat interrelated components; surface water currents, turbulent diffusion, and surface wind stress. Improvement in modeling has consisted, chiefly, of better refining these three components. While such trajectory models generate predictions, the real world is filled with uncertainty. As the spill response community seeks longer-range forecasts, spill models must be able to not only provide a best-guess prediction but also to estimate the likelihood and extent of any errors in the prediction. Wind forecast error often is the major contributor to trajectory error for longer-range forecasts because, more so than currents, wind is subject to rapid change in magnitude and direction. This paper provides a formula to identify a possible practical limit of predictability for dynamical wind models. It also describes a method to estimate probability bounds on slick location based on a selected set of past wind records that vary within a prescribed variance from the present and forecasted winds. Based on the degree of confidence in the wind forecast and the sensitivity to risk from a bad guess, the user can adjust the size of this variance. By extrapolating the set of selected wind records, longer-range trajectory bounds can be given that extend past any deterministic wind forecast and give long-range trajectory analysis to the spill responder.
A Review of Oil-in-Water Monitoring Techniques: The Concluding Results
Authors: Lambert P. , Goldthorp M. , Fieldhouse B. , Wang Z. , Fingas M. , Pearson L. , Collazzi E.
Published: January 2013

A comprehensive laboratory study of the Turner Instrument flow-through models 10AU and 10 fluorometers was conducted to review their ability to measure real-time oil-in-water concentrations and to further understand the relationship of the fluorescence to the chemical composition of the oils. The oils and dispersant used in the program were Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend (ASMB) crude oil (0% and 26% weathered samples), Prudhoe Bay (PB) crude oil (0% and 27% weathered samples), Bunker C (BC) fuel oil (0% and 8.4% weathered samples), Diesel fuel (0% and 37% weathered samples) and Corexit 9500 respectively. The chemical composition of the oils was determined by gas chromatographic techniques and compared to the signal outputs of the fluorometers. It was found that the fluorometer data could not be directly linked to the concentration of any specific aromatic hydrocarbon such as naphthalene or to the sum of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds. Evidence suggests that the fluorescence signal is generated by a combination of PAH compounds. The relative contribution of each PAH compound is not equal. Finally, the response of the fluorometers may also be influenced by the presence of volatile aromatic compounds such as BTEX and C3- benzenes in combination with the PAH compounds.
Analysis of US Oil Spill Trends to Develop Scenarios for Contingency Planning
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt
Published: January 2013

A method for using past US oil spill data to project potential future vessel spill sizes was demonstrated including methods for taking into account vessel type and local factors (e.g., vessel traffic, navigational hazards, and regulations) and implementation of spill prevention measures (e.g., tanker double-hulls). A methodology for determining “theoretical” (OPA 90-defined) vs. “most-likely” worst-case oil discharge scenarios was also demonstrated. Past vessel spills were analyzed for vessel-and spill cause-specific percent cargo or fuel outflow. Distributions of outflow percentages were then imposed on various annual vessel traffic patterns to determine the probability distribution functions of spill types that would be expected if there were spills.
Oil Spill Response Planning in Developing Countries
Authors: Taylor Elliott
Published: January 2013

Standards adopted in North America, Europe, and by most major oil companies are being broadly applied to regions around the globe that have either not developed their own standards or have standards that allow for a broad range of interpretation. An umbrella plan allows a company or agency to document policies, overall response organization and operations, and regulatory compliance. The site-specific plans are the hands-on, operational guides to initial responders. The planning strategy of using combined umbrella plans and local area plans is now in use on projects in Africa, Russia, Middle East, and SE Asia. If applied consistently on a regional basis, the resulting plan framework can provide companies and governments with detailed tactical plans in many developing parts of the world.
Technical Assessment of Using Dispersants On Marine Oil Spills in The U.S. Gulf of Mexico and California
Authors: Trudel K. , Ross S. , Belore R. , Buffington S. , Rainey G. , Ogawa C. , Panzer D.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes two comprehensive technical assessments of potential dispersant use in the Gulf of Mexico Region (GOMR) and Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region (POCSR). The assessments considered both operational and environmental issues. Spill scenarios currently used for spill response planning or environmental impact assessments were analyzed. Dispersibility of oils and “time-windows” (TWs) for dispersant operations were assessed for GOMR- and POSCR-produced crude oils, as well as for oils imported into California. The TWs were estimated by oil fate modeling. It was found that most of the GOMR-produced oils for which data were available are light and dispersible when fresh. By contrast, only a few of the POCSR produced oils appear to be dispersible. The situation for oils imported into California is more favorable, as over 50% of crude oil volume imported annually is comprised of oils with adequate TWs. Logistic capacities of various dispersant application platforms were analyzed. Net environmental benefit (NEB) of dispersants was determined by analyzing a number of spill scenarios. Impact and NEB were estimated using models of oil fate, trajectory and environmental impact, combined with resource vulnerability databases. In the NEB-GOMR analysis, dispersants offered a clear net environmental benefit in every scenario. The NEB-POCSR analysis yielded similar conclusions, even though the study involved more complex scenarios.
Changing Habitat Use by Birds after the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Day Robert H. , Murphy Stephen M. , Wiens John A. , Parker Keith R.
Published: January 2013

We examined the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on mid-summer habitat occupancy by marine-oriented birds during 1989–2001 in Prince William Sound, Alaska, by extending our earlier 1989–1991 data set and analyzing the entire data set as a time-series. Intertidal habitats in the spill-affected area have been recovering, as indicated by significant temporal increases in the proportional coverage of rockweed (Fucus) and mussels (Mytilus) in oiled bays. Of the 25 bird species we examined, 12 (48%) exhibited no evidence of impacts, 10 (40%) exhibited negative impacts that subsequently disappeared, and 3 (12%) exhibited positive relationships with oiling that subsequently disappeared. No species provided clear evidence of delayed impacts, and all of the impacted species exhibited recovery by 2001. In comparison with our 1989–1991 study, we detected a slightly greater proportion of initial spill impacts in this study and were able to document recovery in habitat occupancy of several species that had not recovered by 1991. The present study, however, incorporates 1984 baseline data and a longer time-period for examination of impacts and recovery. Differences between our conclusions and those of other researchers on the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on habitat use by birds may reflect differences in study design, criteria used to assess impacts and recovery, and definitions of “recovery.” These differences illustrate the difficulties of evaluating the consequences of environmental accidents, even large ones.
Spill Response that Benefits the Long-Term Recovery of Oiled Mangroves
Authors: Getter Charles D. , Lewis Roy R.
Published: January 2013

We revisited three sites in Florida and Puerto Rico that were oiled 23 to 29 years ago, analyzing them and the published literature to determine that mangroves follow a 6 to 25 year recovery cycle. We reviewed response methods and determined that the use of offshore dispersants, the booming of tidal creeks and inlets, the use of onshore sorbents, low-pressure flushing and the manual collection of oily debris provide benefits for recovery at least in the short term. Non-beneficial response efforts that have degraded mangroves include forest cutting, heavy equipment and personnel traffic, tree burning, onshore use of chemicals, and plantings in toxic soil. Perhaps the most detrimental response effort studied was the impoundment of basin forests that has resulted in long-term losses and slow recovery rates. The intertidal use of dispersants has been shown to be beneficial to mangroves, however their use has also caused damages to nearshore environments such as coral reefs. In summary, once the oil has reached sheltered mangrove forests there exist only short-term benefits from traditional response efforts. More likely there are only non-beneficial results compared to natural attenuation. We conclude that the only longterm beneficial response method appears to be a combination of non-intrusive oil collection and booming techniques in heavily oiled, sheltered areas with closely monitored natural recovery in forests more lighly oiled. This should be paired with mitigation programs involving habitat creation either in unoiled areas or in the impact zone following the attenuation of oil and removal of debris from the deteriorating forests.
M/V Kimton: A Case Study of The U. S. Coast Guard's Abandoned Vessel Program
Authors: Kauffman Meridena , Mosley David
Published: January 2013

In June of 2000, U. S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Office (MSO) San Juan conducted the Annual Abandoned Vessel Inventory and noticed an abandoned vessel grounded on a beach in Fajardo, Puerto Rico. Personal investigation revealed that the vessel held approximately 5,000 gallons of waste oil in the engine room, posing a pollution threat to the local public. In a thorough attempt to identify the owner, the MSO used the knowledge of local fishermen, the marine police and Department of Natural Resource. When the owner could not be identified, the Captain of the Port decided to use the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund to remove the threat of an oil discharge. Upon discovering that five marine batteries and filters had been hidden on board the vessel, it was determined that it was likely being used as a waste dumpsite. If it was indeed a dumpsite, the Coast Guard would then take control of the vessel, initiate salvage operations, and remove it from its location. Local contractors were hired in the first successful oil removal attempt, lasting two days. In April of 2001, the re-assessment was conducted and an additional 5,000 gallons of waste oil was again discovered on the vessel, confirming the belief that it was a dumpsite. A more in depth assessment was conducted, and another 10,000 gallons of fuel oil was discovered in the wing tanks. The second project commenced with a local environmental contractor hired to remove the 15,000 gallons of oil. Then a salvage contractor was hired to mechanically cut the vessel into scrap for disposal. During this time over 300 lbs. of commercial grade C-4 explosives and detonation cord were discovered in a hidden compartment in the aft end of the vessel. The total cost to the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund was approximately $700,000.00 and over 2,000 man-hours were spent to complete the project. This three month long abandoned vessel removal is considered an important success for several reasons. Not only did the Coast Guard remove a major pollution threat from the environment, but the municipality has also renovated the beachfront area and installed a boardwalk for public access.
Developing a Database to Support and Prioritize the Removal of Abandoned Vessels Impacting Coral Resources1
Authors: Smith Andrew , Helton Douglas , Zelo Ian
Published: January 2013

Derelict and abandoned vessels pose significant threats to coral ecosystems by releasing pollutants, physically destroying habitat, and causing algal blooms through iron deposition. Each of these threats has been anecdotally documented in the recent academic literature and popular press, but the scale and scope of the problem is poorly understood because of reporting inconsistencies at the local level and the lack of data collection and analysis at the national level. NOAA's Damage Assessment Center is attempting to address these issues by creating a comprehensive database of abandoned vessels threatening coral reef ecosystems. While the program has assembled data for vessels across the entire United States and its territories, it is also distributing the data to agencies across the country on CD and through its website. Additionally, the website contains a tool for collecting data from those who log on who have information about vessels both recorded and new to the database.
Developing Contingency Planning Tools to Address Wetland Loss, Ageing Infrastructure, and Oil Spill Risk in Louisiana
Authors: Henry Charlie , Pavia Robert , Zengel Scott A. , Nixon Zachary , Locke Chris , Debusschere Karolien
Published: January 2013

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is working in partnership with the State of Louisiana to focus on the oil pollution threat resulting from coastal land loss. With land loss, oil production and transportation infrastructure in coastal Louisiana is at increasing risk of damage from natural hazards and human activities. In response, a demonstration project was developed for contingency planning that assesses these concerns. The project identifies structures at risk, ranks them according to weighted considerations, and provides a trajectory analysis for released oil should an incident occur.
Approaches and Application of Comparative Risk Assessment Concepts to Oil Spill Preparedness Planning and Response
Authors: Linkov Igor , Clark Jim R.
Published: January 2013

Comparative Risk Assessment (CRA) is emerging as a methodology that may be applied to facilitate decision-making when various possible activities compete for limited resources. The CRA framework may be an especially valuable tool for prioritization of remediation efforts and for making choices among various environmental policies specific to oil industry operations. This paper will show that CRA is an efficient and cost-saving tool that assists in developing oil spill response priorities based on the broadest possible range of concerns and issues important to all stakeholders. In addition, the CRA approach allows the cost/benefit evaluation of alternative environmental policies and strategies relative to the baseline risks and disruptions associated with oil spills (as well as other costs and benefits of petroleum use).
Planning for Shoreline Response to Spills in Arctic Environments
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

The Arctic coasts present three unique shoreline types that are common in North America and Eurasia, but that are not found in lower latitudes or in the southern hemisphere: tundra cliffs, peat shorelines, and inundated low-land tundra. Tundra cliffs range in character from ice-rich exposures that are dominated by rapid thermo-erosional processes to high (10–15 meters) sediment-rich cliffs that may be eroded by slumping or basal sapping. One product of this rapid erosion of the tundra is to produce large volumes of peat and in many sections these form the dominant shore-zone material. In low-lying areas the flooding of the tundra has produced extremely complex shoreline configurations characterized by the elevated rims of patterned ground. These unique arctic shore types present different sets of challenges for shoreline cleanup and treatment and have been included in the U.S. marine oil spill response guide published in 2001 by API, NOAA, USCG, and USEPA and several specialized Arctic response manuals published recently by Environment Canada. A low-altitude aerial videotape survey in 2001 produced continuous images of the mainland and barrier island coasts of the Alaskan Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts from the Canadian border to Point Hope, used to map the shore types as part of a mapping project for the Minerals Management Service. The mapping revealed that the three arctic shoreline types are present on more than half (54 per cent) of the coast between the Canadian border and Point Hope.
Designing, Executing, and Evaluating a U.S. Government-Led National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) Drill
Authors: Cashman Dennis , Stephens Jackie , Boyles LT Thomas
Published: January 2013

Planning, designing, and executing an area exercise in accordance with the National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) Guidelines is an extensive time and resource undertaking. Since it's inception in 1991, the National Strike Force Coordination Center (NSFCC) has designed, updated and tested a successful exercise development process. This overview of the process outlines requirements necessary to manage a coordinated exercise development, execution, and follow up lessons learned. The process follows a 24-week cycle depending upon the needs of the organizations being exercised. The NSFCC must adhere to and follow the planning cycle because: at least three other government-led exercises are undergoing development at any given time; adequate time is needed for the Joint Design Team to plan effectively and provide the required data to the NSFCC; members of the Area Committee need time to accomplish their own exercise preparation processes; and time is needed to produce the exercise manuals and arrange logistics for personnel and equipment. The cycle is broken into six phases: the Initial Contact Phase, Coordination & Initial Production Phase, Interim Production Phase, Final Production Phase, Exercise Execution Phase, and Report Development Phase (Figure 1).
Comprehensive Oil Spill Response Planning: Going Beyond “What” your Going to do
Authors: Hubbard Jerry A. , Whitson William W.
Published: January 2013

A review of the law and responsibilities for oil spill response reveals a need for taking oil spill response incident management planning beyond just describing what will be done, to a new level that describes specifically who will do it. Facilitating the development of an effective management team in the first 24–48 hours of a spill is critical to setting the response operations in a positive motion, and ultimate success. The development of a draft Incident Command System (ICS) structure to meet the expectations of a Type II incident and pre-identification of personnel for specific assignments will enable a more cohesive personnel qualification process, training and exercises focused on general incident management, and ultimately a better prepared cadre of response personnel. The vision for Coast Guard District Thirteen is a District Response Group that is organized into a defined and pre-approved ICS structure, with these expectations set. The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan requires the Coast Guard to form District Response Groups. By definition, this is all personnel and every asset the Coast Guard has within each District. However, this does not speak to the qualifications of these personnel, or address the tasking some units may receive, both of which are known. In the early hours of a major spill, confusion reigns and calls for help are made. This can be a call for help that is specific, such as the number of beach monitors, OPS Section Chiefs, or Check-in Recorders that are needed, or the more likely request is to send whoever is available. The latter is not likely to enable success if well intentioned but inexperienced management personnel show up. If we know who is available within the Coast Guard district, then we know our strengths. Therefore, we also know our weaknesses, and can identify gaps. By identifying our ICS structure, we can examine our resources, needs, and expectations; and have a plan that works while remaining flexible. There is no need to assemble a management team on the fly in the first 24 hours of a spill.
The Application of Strict Criminal Liabilities to the Spillage of Oil; The Practical Impact on Effective Spill Response
Authors: Gallagher John James
Published: January 2013

In spite of the marked success of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA – 33 USC 1251 et seq) and subsequent amendments in restoring and protecting our waterways, the Department of Justice (DOJ) has of late increasingly resorted to unrelated law to inject the concept of strict criminal liability for accidental spillage of oil. The application of strict liability for the spillage of oil can engender criminal penalties for accidental, unintentional spills in the same manner as if the spill was a result of an intentional, purposeful breach of the law. This paper describes the impact of a threat of imposition of strict criminal liability on coordination and communication between those directing a spill response. It describes the chill created when the threat of such liability becomes a reality and the resulting constraints imposed when that specter surfaces, constraints that are both self-imposed and imposed on coordinators by their legal advisors. The paper also identifies a solution in the form of legislation d aimed at limiting the use of unrelated law in oil spills to pull the teeth from this threat without allowing real criminals to escape. Importantly, it also reveals the increased threat to the environment caused by the imposition of strict criminal liability in oil spills resulting an unnecessary degradation of response effectiveness. It also suggests a unique opportunity for bi-lateral support for environmental protection from both commercial and environmental interests.