bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender/Transsexual People
Authors: Lombardi Emilia , Bettcher Talia Mae
Published: August 2019

This chapter describes social injustice experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender/transsexual (LGBT) individuals. It addresses stigma-based violence, HIV/AIDS, and issues related to mental health as well as to alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. It describes the increased risk that LGBT men and women face for cardiovascular disease and cancer. In addition, the chapter addresses the underlying factors and roots of this social injustice. The chapter addresses what needs to be done, including changes to legislative and other policies, an expanded role for healthcare facilities and organizations, and ongoing research. The authors stress the need for a change in the social environment that creates social injustice against LGBT people—a change that can only be brought about through education and by addressing multiple forms of social injustice.
Noncommunicable Diseases
Authors: Benmaamar Ramla , Smith Madeleine , Yach Derek
Published: August 2019

Social justice impacts on the occurrence, the severity, and the mortality due to noncommunicable diseases. Four noncommunicable diseases account for almost two-thirds of all deaths globally: cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes mellitus. Almost 80% of deaths due to noncommunicable diseases occur in low- and middle-income countries. This chapter addresses the occurrence of these four noncommunicable diseases and how social injustice impacts on their occurrence. The chapter addresses what needs to be done, including implementing policies that reach the poorest people in all countries, placing greater emphasis on prevention and health promotion, strengthening capacity and mobilizing resources, developing global norms that benefit low-income countries (such as the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control), promoting broader societal changes, and building on the prevention and control of infectious disease.
Protecting Human Rights Through International and National Law
Authors: Freedman Henry A. , Davis Martha F.
Published: August 2019

International and national law can play a critical role in protecting human rights and thereby reducing social injustice because law is the primary system through which the national and international communities seek to enforce social norms. The notion of a supreme law that confers on individuals rights that transcend those found in the codes of laws of their nations is a constant theme in the writings of all major cultures for the past 2,500 years. After providing a historical perspective on these issues, the chapter describes how international and national law can reduce social injustice. It provides specific examples of laws and legal cases that have helped to achieve social justice, both internationally and within the United States. The chapter concludes with an agenda for action. A text box addresses the prevention of torture.
Introduction
Authors: Chrastil Rachel
Published: August 2019

The history of childlessness is longer than we might imagine. This book will examine the pathways to childlessness and the ways that childlessness can be part of the good life. To set the stage for the chapter discussions, this introduction addresses some basic questions related to childlessness. How should we talk (or not talk) about childlessness? How do we define and categorize childlessness? What does it mean to be voluntarily versus involuntarily childless? How does being childless differ for men and women? What are the personal, political, and philosophical implications for childlessness? The answers are more complex than we might think.
Interlude
Authors: Chrastil Rachel
Published: August 2019

During the baby boom, childlessness plummeted; at the same time, more couples planned and limited their family size. The baby boom included both an increase in the number of children born per woman and an increase in the percentage of women having children. Many women had children all at the same time. Women born around 1935 had the lowest levels of childlessness on record in Europe and America. In one respect, however, the baby boom provided continuity: these parents nurtured the belief that they could and should plan their families. This chapter details the history of childlessness during the years of the baby boom.
Shouts
Authors: Chrastil Rachel
Published: August 2019

In the 1970s, after the baby boom hiatus, childlessness returned to prominence. By the 1970s, in contrast with previous centuries, the complex reasons that women ended up without children were openly reframed as the willful exercise of choice. The Pill, the rising importance of self-actualization, and economic opportunity costs all became explanations for the return of childlessness, although none of these are completely satisfactory. American child-free advocates began to argue that childlessness was not only an acceptable path but also a better choice than parenthood. Moral outrage characterized debates over childlessness in the 1970s.
Individuality and Beyond
Authors: Zavatta Benedetta
Published: August 2019

Based on an analysis of the marginal markings and annotations Nietzsche made to the works of Emerson in his personal library, the book offers a philosophical interpretation of the impact on Nietzsche’s thought of his reading of these works, a reading that began when he was a schoolboy and extended to the final years of his conscious life. The many ideas and sources of inspiration that Nietzsche drew from Emerson can be organized in terms of two main lines of thought. The first line leads in the direction of the development of the individual personality, that is, the achievement of critical thinking, moral autonomy, and original self-expression. The second line of thought is the overcoming of individuality: that is to say, the need to transcend one’s own individual—and thus by definition limited—view of the world by continually confronting and engaging with visions different from one’s own and by putting into question and debating one’s own values and certainties. The image of the strong personality that Nietzsche forms thanks to his reading of Emerson ultimately takes on the appearance of a nomadic subject who is continually passing out of themselves—that is to say, abandoning their own positions and convictions—so as to undergo a constant process of evolution. In other words, the formation of the individual personality takes on the form of a regulative ideal: a goal that can never be said to have been definitively and once and for all attained.
Making Markets Work for Africa
Authors: Fox Eleanor M. , Bakhoum Mor
Published: August 2019

This book explores sub-Saharan Africa, markets, economic development and competition policy. Specifically, the book examines the special social-economic-political situation in sub-Saharan African countries at various stages of development, from small and quite undeveloped countries of West Africa to the middle-class economy of South Africa. It considers what these countries do and what they can be expected to do in competition law and policy and relates these realities and capabilities to what has become known as the “international standards” of competition law and policy. The book seeks to determine the fit of developing countries’ needs with developed countries’ standards, and proposes a new way forward that takes on board the UN post-millennium development goals of sustainable inclusive development.
Natural and Human-Made Disasters
Authors: Waldman Ronald
Published: August 2019

Epidemiologic evidence is a critical element of humanitarian assistance. The identification of appropriate interventions for priority health problems depends heavily on the rapid collection, analysis, and interpretation of data derived from sound methods adapted to challenging circumstances. In the relative chaos of the emergency setting, accurate determination of both numerators and denominators can depend on the ability to be observant, innovative, and flexible. In addition to possessing technical skills, the humanitarian epidemiologist needs to be a strong advocate for the importance of data, an excellent communicator, and a team player. At all times, the epidemiologist should remember that every action taken is not about producing more and better data, but rather about saving imperiled lives.
Suspected Intentional Use of Biologic and Toxic Agents
Authors: Papagiotas Stephen , Shannon Kelly
Published: August 2019

Exposures, illnesses, or outbreaks involving the suspected intentional use of biological or toxic agents require epidemiologists to work with nontraditional partners, specifically law enforcement. To increase effectiveness, public health and law enforcement must collaborate on timely identification, notification, assessment, and investigation. The process begins by establishing relationships between appropriate public health and law enforcement points of contact. Once an event is recognized, and if that threat involves a biological or toxic agent, public health and law enforcement can conduct a joint criminal–epidemiologic (crim–epi) investigation, which increases the effectiveness of the investigation through the exchange of real-time information. Although instances of bioterrorism are infrequent, the potential use of biological or toxic agents for this purpose by individuals and groups can have enormous consequences and are likely to remain a persistent threat. Only through a productive partnership can public health and law enforcement effectively respond to intentional uses of biological and toxic agents.
Suicide, Violence, and Other Forms of Injury
Authors: Logan Joseph E. , Mercy James A.
Published: August 2019

Fatal and nonfatal self-directed and interpersonal violence and unintentional injuries can spread throughout a community just like infectious diseases. What drives people to attempt suicide, harm others, or place themselves in unsafe situations most often results from complex dynamics between themselves and their social environments. Nevertheless, outbreaks of fatal and nonfatal injuries do occur. Similar to how an infectious disease manifests and spreads, outbreaks of self-inflicted, violent injuries, and even unintentional injuries, such as drug overdoses, also can be precipitated by immediate exposures that public health prevention strategies can best address. At some point, a field epidemiologist will face the challenges and the nuances of these epidemics. This chapter provides case stories of injury-related epidemics and the exposures and circumstances that propagated them. It also reviews the types of investigations conducted to address these epidemics, common challenges, and the short- and long-term strategies used to control such dangerous and deadly outbreaks.
Innovation Commons
Authors: Potts Jason
Published: August 2019

This book explores the institutional conditions of the origin of innovation, arguing that prior to the emergence of competitive entrepreneurial firms and the onset of new industries is a little-understood but crucial phase of cooperation under uncertainty: the innovation commons. An innovation commons is a governance institution to incentivize cooperation in order to pool distributed information, knowledge, and other inputs into innovation to facilitate the entrepreneurial discovery of an economic opportunity. In other words, the true origin of innovation is not entrepreneurial action per se, but the creation of a common-pool resource from which entrepreneurs can discover opportunities. The true origin of innovation, and therefore of economic evolution, occurs one step further back, in the commons. Innovation has a cooperative institutional origin. When the economic value or worth of a new technological prospect is shrouded in uncertainty—which arises because information is distributed or is only experimental obtained—a commons can be an economically efficient governance institution. Specifically, a commons is efficient compared to the creation of alternative economic institutions that involve extensive contracting and networks, private property rights and price signals, or public goods (i.e., firms, markets, and governments). A commons will often be an efficient governance solution to the hard economic problem of opportunity discovery. This new framework for analysis of the origin of innovation draws on evolutionary theory of cooperation and institutional theory of the commons and carries important implications for our understanding of the origin of firms and industries, and for the design of innovation policy.
Choice, Chance, and Acceptance
Authors: Scully Jackie Leach
Published: August 2019

Current genetic intervention against disease and disability relies on prenatal genetic testing and the option of termination or on the expensive and demanding process of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. By contrast, gene editing promises to increase reproductive choice through therapeutic and restorative interventions that avoid the ethical issues of abortion or selection. Eventually, gene editing could effectively eradicate disability-linked genetic anomalies from the human genome. If it becomes possible to eradicate genetically influenced disability, would anything be lost, and if so, a loss to whom or to what? This chapter considers the ethics of the control over biology offered by gene editing and the exercise of choice using that control in parental reproductive decisions. The discussion examines empirical data on the views of the UK public that offer an alternative perspective for bioethical thinking about reproductive autonomy, the exercise of choice, and the nature of good parenthood.
On the Importance ofMaṇḍalı̄s
Authors: Saunders Jennifer B.
Published: August 2019

This chapter weaves together the themes of imagination, religion, and migration. It argues that although economic globalization and technological advances in communication and transportation have provided a framework within which transnational lives are possible, the heart of developing transnational communities and identities lies in the new social imaginaries made viable by these frameworks but brought to life in religious narrative performances. The argument is supported by several sections that develop ideas about what it means to be transnational, the creativity generated by narrative performances and its connection to social imaginaries, and finally, an argument about what count as religious narratives in a transnational Hindu context.
Introduction
Authors: Barraclough Timothy G.
Published: August 2019

This chapter explains what the book is about and highlights the range of processes and questions to be considered. The central thesis is that species represent more than a unit of taxonomy, they are a model of how diversity is structured and how groups of organisms evolve. All organisms live in diverse communities with hundreds of other species. Knowledge of what species are, how they form, and the genetic and ecological interactions among them is therefore vital both for understanding where diversity comes from and for predicting contemporary and future evolution. It is time for evolutionary biology to embrace the diversity of life.
Species boundaries and contemporary evolution
Authors: Barraclough Timothy G.
Published: August 2019

Much of the evolutionary study of species is retrospective and reconstructs the past processes leading to extant diversity. Yet the nature of species and extent of diversity has profound implications for adaptation to ongoing environmental and biotic change. This chapter considers the significance of species and species boundaries for contemporary evolution. Simple theory and evidence is presented, showing how partial gene flow between co-occurring species alters the dynamics of evolution in changing environments. The chapter then focuses on gene transfer in microbial populations, showing how plasmids and phage target transfer to particular subsets of genes, and thereby optimize adaptation in fluctuating environments. The costs and benefits depend on the ecological interactions among the donor and recipient species. Different mechanisms have a different range of transfer, with phage being mainly restricted to species, but plasmids often transferring traits across greater taxonomic distances.
Livy, Pestilentia, and the Pathologies of Class Strife
Authors: Gardner Hunter H.
Published: August 2019

Accounts of pestilence in the historical record help us understand those assumptions about the effects of disease that inform both the creation of the plague narrative and its reception among Roman audiences. Chapter 2 examines Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita in order to suggest that the historical experience and representation of plague in Rome was infused with resonance of civil strife by the Augustan period. Livy refines his source material to address a body politic in need of healing and thus sharpens the correlation between contagium and civil discord (discordia), especially in early episodes recounting the struggle of the orders. The historian’s narratives of contagion draw partly from the language of medical writers, but equally from a historiographic tradition that correlated a diseased body with a diseased body politic. Accounts of plague allow Livy to reflect on distinctions among members of different orders, especially the patres/patricii (highest class of citizens) and plebs (lowest class of citizens). The remedies enacted to combat plague, in forms of both cultural and political innovations, prove alternatingly salubrious and detrimental to the body politic. Livy recognizes, however, that, as a challenge to the people equivalent to strife within and war abroad, pestilentia could have a positive impact on the development of Roman hegemony and prompt coalescence among a divided citizenry.
Methodological Challenges in Studying Context in Action
Authors: Dopson Sue , Meier Ninna
Published: August 2019

This chapter develops the methodological aspects of the Framework for Studying Context and Action presented and discussed in the first two chapters of the book. The chapter offers two vignettes as examples of how context can be operationalized and studied (Genetics Knowledge Park and Comparing across Contexts in Action), and it reflects on the lessons these vignettes offer. Next it explores why the links between an understanding of context, the unit of analysis, and methods have such an impact on a given research project and its results. It discussed the methodological aspects of the Framework for Studying Context and Action, specifically in relation to the three main questions we address in the book. Then it presents and discusses the methodological challenges of studying context raised by the contributors.
Context of Health Policies and the Impact on Implementation of Health Care and Health Interventions
Authors: Chambers David A.
Published: August 2019

This chapter will discuss the interface between context, health and health care policy, and health care delivery, using examples primarily from the experience of cancer control and mental health care within the US health care system, although drawing on the more general trends in the influence of policy on health care. Primarily, the chapter will describe policy as existing as two distinct spheres of activity. First, it will describe the set of legislative and regulatory actions that governments and organizations use to influence the provision and receipt of health care, which form the context upon which health care is delivered. Second, it will describe policy as a set of interventions that may support or impede the implementation of health and health care innovations. Finally, the chapter discusses how research can be advanced in this space.
Neither Authoritarian nor Superfluous
Authors: Brafman Yonatan Y.
Published: August 2019

This study addresses the project of grounding the legitimacy of halakhic-legal authorities, like rabbis or rabbinic courts. Importantly, this inquiry is distinct from, but related to, investigation into the justification of halakhic norms. I begin by exploring the work of Eliezer Berkovits. I argue that he offers a robust teleological justification of halakhic norms by showing how they are aimed at a moral purpose and how this purpose guides halakhic-legal practice. On this account, the directives of halakhic-legal authorities do not possess any independent normativity, for they only direct individuals to perform actions that they already have reason to do anyway, specifically the reasons that Berkovits indicates in his justification of halakhic norms. I offer a new model for grounding the legitimacy of halakhic-legal authorities that links it to the justification of halakhic norms without reducing it to that effort.
A Classical Jewish Approach to “The Normative Question”
Authors: Melis Erdur
Published: August 2019

One of the fundamental questions in analytic meta-ethics is what Christine Korsgaard calls “the normative question.” It is a question that typically arises when a moral agent is confronted with a difficult moral obligation, and as a result, asks himself, “Must I really do this? Why must I do it?” In mainstream analytic philosophy, the responses to this question invariably take the form of a philosophical argument that starts from (allegedly) universally compelling premises, and draws from them the conclusion that, therefore, we really must do what morality requires of us—that morality is really binding for us. In this chapter, however, I explore a fundamentally different approach to the “normative question” based on (or inspired by) classical Judaism. First I formulate a parallel “normative question,” as it would arise in a Jewish context, and seek the appropriate classical Jewish response to it. Then, I offer a way of applying it to morality in general.
The Subject of Trust
Authors: Milnes Tim
Published: August 2019

This chapter argues that trust and testimony acquire a significance in the work of Hume and his contemporaries that belies the relatively scant (and in Hume’s case, ambivalent) attention they devote to the subjects. Following Annette Baier, Steven Shapin, Martin Hollis, Guido Möllering, and John Hardwig, it suggests that trust, being fundamentally non-rational and social, is antithetical to the Cartesian picture of a lucid, private rationality. By enshrining trust as epistemologically constitutive, the Humean picture of communicative intelligence emerges as identifiably anti-Jacobin, the antitype of Rousseau’s picture of civic virtue as based upon transparency, perfect sympathy, and reason. The chapter proceeds to explore the ways in which the conflict between instrumental reason and trust that continues to exercise philosophers and economists today has its roots in the work of Hume, Reid, Smith, and other thinkers from this period.
Impossible Worlds
Authors: Berto Francesco , Jago Mark
Published: August 2019

The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed an ‘intensional revolution’, a great collective effort to analyse notions which are absolutely fundamental to our understanding of the world and of ourselves—from meaning and information to knowledge, belief, causation, essence, supervenience, conditionality, as well as nomological, metaphysical, and logical necessity—in terms of a single concept. This was the concept of a possible world: a way things could have been. Possible worlds found applications in logic, metaphysics, semantics, game theory, information theory, artificial intelligence, and the philosophy of mind and cognition. However, possible worlds analyses have been facing numerous problems. This book traces them all back to hyperintensionality: the need for distinctions more fine-grained than the possible worlds apparatus can easily represent. It then introduces impossible worlds—ways things could not have been—as a general tool for modelling hyperintensional phenomena. The book discusses the metaphysics of impossible worlds and applies them to a range of central topics and open issues in logic, semantics, and philosophy: from the problem of logical omniscience in epistemic logic, to the semantics of non-classical logics, the modelling of imagination and mental simulation, the analysis of information and informative inference, truth in fiction, and counterpossible reasoning.
The Failed Cartel
Authors: Garavini Giuliano
Published: August 2019

Chapter 7 describes the rise of non-OPEC oil production, especially in the UK, Norway, and Mexico, and the start of the price-slump at the beginning of the 1980s, also due to increased production coming from these new oil regions. The chapter goes on to explain how OPEC transformed itself for the first time into a cartel, trying to set at the same time the price of petroleum and production levels for its members, and then deals with the failure of such an approach, first with the Saudi struggle for “market share” in the latter half of 1985, and then with the resulting oil “counter-shock” of 1986 after which OPEC lost its power to control prices.
From Moral Theology to Moral Philosophy
Authors: Stuart-Buttle Tim
Published: August 2019

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries represent a period of remarkable intellectual vitality in British philosophy, as figures such as Hobbes, Locke, Hume, and Smith attempted to explain the origins and sustaining mechanisms of civil society. Their insights continue to inform how political and moral theorists think about the world in which we live. The aim of this book is to reconstruct a debate which preoccupied contemporaries, but which seems arcane to us today. This concerned the relationship between reason and revelation as the two sources of mankind’s knowledge, particularly in the ethical realm: to what extent, they asked, could reason alone discover the content and obligatory character of morality? This was held to be a historical, rather than merely a theoretical question: had the philosophers of pre-Christian antiquity, ignorant of Christ, been able satisfactorily to explain the moral universe? What role did natural theology play in their ethical theories—and was it consistent with the teachings delivered by revelation? Much recent scholarship has drawn attention to the early-modern interest in two late Hellenistic philosophical traditions—Stoicism and Epicureanism. Yet in the English context, three figures above all—John Locke, Conyers Middleton, and David Hume—quite deliberately and explicitly identified their approaches with Cicero as the representative of an alternative philosophical tradition, critical of both the Stoic and the Epicurean: academic scepticism. All argued that Cicero provided a means of addressing what they considered to be the most pressing question facing contemporary philosophy: the relationship between moral theology and moral philosophy.
Epilogue
Authors: Stuart-Buttle Tim
Published: August 2019

Hume’s naturalistic moral philosophy and rejection of moral theology represented a challenge to which his Scottish contemporaries sought to respond. Almost all did so with reference to Cicero—whom they sought to re-appropriate for a broadly Stoic ethical tradition which was held to be amenable to a polite Presbyterian Christianity. Drawing together the discussions in the foregoing chapters, the Epilogue illustrates how Locke, Middleton, and Hume were central provocateurs in a full-blown Ciceronian controversy in eighteenth-century Britain. Edward Gibbon was well-read in this debate and contributed to it in his earliest publications; but the later volumes of the Decline and Fall indicate a movement away from an interest in late Hellenistic philosophies—including the Ciceronian—as living traditions which might provide answers to pressing contemporary questions. By the early nineteenth century, indeed, this earlier debate over Cicero’s ‘real’ philosophical commitments had come to seem strange indeed.
Recombination and linkage disequilibrium in evolutionary signatures
Authors: Cutter Asher D.
Published: August 2019

Chapter 6, “Recombination and linkage disequilibrium in evolutionary signatures,” explores the role of partial genetic linkage within and between genes in influencing patterns of nucleotide polymorphism and evolutionary change. It introduces the concept of linkage disequilibrium as the non-random association of alleles at different loci, the potential causes of linkage disequilibrium, and different methods to quantify and visualize it. The empirical effects of partial recombination on patterns of linkage disequilibrium in genomes are illustrated with theoretical predictions and natural examples. The phenomena of non-crossover recombination and gene conversion are presented, as is the application of linkage disequilibrium to inferring population demography and the genetic mapping of traits. This chapter lays the foundation for understanding how complete linkage, partial linkage, and no linkage integrate with the other forces in evolutionary theory and with the empirical analysis of molecular population genetic data.
Rescuing Public Justification from Public Reason Liberalism
Authors: Wendt Fabian
Published: August 2019

Public reason liberals from John Rawls to Gerald Gaus uphold a principle of public justification as a core commitment of their theories. Critics of public reason liberalism have sometimes conceded that there is something compelling about the idea of public justification. But so far there have not been many attempts to elaborate and defend a “comprehensive” liberalism that incorporates a principle of public justification. This chapter spells out how a principle of public justification could be integrated into a comprehensive liberalism, and it rebuts three objections: That the idea of public reason could not be sustained in a comprehensive liberalism, that public justification would lose its point (be it to provide stability, express respect, or form a community), and that the principle of public justification could not work on the right theoretical level. The chapter concludes that everything worthwhile about public justification can be extracted from public reason liberalism.
Lectures in Macroeconomics
Authors: Łaski Kazimierz
Published: August 2019

These lectures in macroeconomics explain the theory and policy implications of macroeconomics in a systematic and logically consistent way. Central to this analysis is the principle of aggregate demand as formulated by the Polish economist Michał Kalecki, who is best known as the originator, along with Keynes, of the Keynesian Revolution in macroeconomics. The lectures cover the main components of aggregate demand, showing the key importance of firms’ investment for total output, employment, and economic growth in both closed and open economies. The main influences on investment are explained and how, through the circular flow of income and expenditure, investment generates profits in the economy. However, investment is unstable and the government therefore has a central role in stabilizing such an economy at high rates of employment. Along with investment, the labor market and wages then determine the distribution of income. This leads on to an examination of the role of money and finance in the contemporary capitalist economy. The analysis is illustrated with statistics and a survey of the evolution of capitalist economies since World War II, along with critical observations on the neoclassical approach to economics.
Blockchains, Private Ordering, and the Future of Governance
Authors: Rohr Jonathan , Wright Aaron
Published: August 2019

Ten years ago Satoshi Nakamoto published the Bitcoin white paper and launched the first Bitcoin protocol. Since then, blockchain’s potential to impact upon a wide variety of relationships and transactions has become evident. Blockchain-based governance is now possible, and as technologists, entrepreneurs, and legal professionals refine its implementation, it will likely become more mainstream. It is no exaggeration to say that a blockchain revolution has begun. Although not as attention-grabbing as blockchain’s earliest uses to facilitate cryptocurrency, the technology’s potential to transform the way business enterprises are governed is no less ground-breaking. This chapter considers blockchain-based governance from an American business law perspective. It argues that, despite the possibility that it will allow parties to rely less on the governance arrangements currently provided by traditional business organizations, it is nonetheless consistent with American business law’s ‘enabling’ approach and the significant room it leaves for private ordering. Furthermore, substitution of blockchain-based for traditional governance does not obviate the need for limited liability and the other advantages of separate legal personhood. Consequently, state-level efforts to accommodate blockchain-based governance in the context of limited liability entities are already appearing. The chapter concludes with a short discussion of some of the challenges that blockchain-based governance presents under American business law.
Corporate Governance for Complex Cryptocurrencies?
Authors: Hacker Philipp
Published: August 2019

Cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin or Ethereum are gaining ground not only as alternative modes of payment but also as platforms for financial innovation, particularly through token sales or initial coin offerings (‘ICOs’). All of these ventures are based on decentralized, permissionless blockchain technology, distinguished by their openness to, and the formal equality of, participants. However, recent cryptocurrency crises have shown that these architectures lack robust governance frameworks and are therefore prone to patterns of re-centralization. They are informally dominated by coalitions of powerful players within the cryptocurrency ecosystem who may violate basic rules of the blockchain community without accountability or sanction. This chapter first suggests that cryptocurrency and token-based ecosystems can be fruitfully analysed as complex systems that have been studied for decades in complexity theory and have recently gained prominence in financial regulation, too. It applies these insights to three key case studies: the Bitcoin Hard Fork of 2013; the Ethereum hard fork of 2016, following the DAO hack; and the ongoing Bitcoin scaling debate. Second, the chapter argues that complexity-induced uncertainty can be reduced, and elements of stability and order strengthened, by adapting a corporate governance framework to blockchain-based organizations: cryptocurrencies, and decentralized applications built on top of them via token sales. The resulting ‘comply-or-explain’ approach combines transparency and accountability with the necessary flexibility that allows blockchain developers to continue to experiment for the sake of innovation. Eventually, however, the coordination of these activities may necessitate the establishment of a self-regulatory institution.
Blockchain, Securities Markets, and Central Banking
Authors: Seretakis Alexandros L.
Published: August 2019

Distributed ledger technology, a variant of which is blockchain technology, represents one of the most important innovations of the FinTech revolution. Academics, policy-makers, and market participants are experimenting with the technology with the aim of enhancing the functioning of financial markets. Industry consortia are being formed by the biggest financial institutions in the world seeking to leverage the use of the technology, in order to improve the clearing and settlement process. Furthermore, central banks in advanced and developing economies are examining the potential of using the technology in market infrastructures operated by central banks and are even exploring the possibility of issuing digital base money. Nevertheless, the widespread adoption of distributed ledger technology as envisioned by its ardent supporters encounters considerable legal obstacles, including the numerous new regulations imposed on financial markets and market participants in the aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis. This chapter seeks to disentangle the myths from the realities of the so-called distributed ledger technology or blockchain revolution and discusses how the legal regime can act both as an impediment and a catalyst to the widespread adoption of the technology.
Homer's Divine Audience
Authors: Myers Tobias
Published: August 2019

This book lays out and explores a new ‘metaperformative’ approach to scenes of divine viewing, counsel, and intervention in the Iliad. Critics have often described the gods’ activities in terms of attendance at a ‘show’ and have suggested analogies to theatre and sports, but have done little to investigate the particular strategies by which the poet conveys the impression of gods attending a live, staged event. This book’s analysis of those strategies points to a ‘metaperformative’ significance to the motif of divine viewing: the poet is using the gods, in part, to model and thereby manipulate the ongoing dynamics of performance and live reception. The gods, like the external audience, are capable of a variety of emotional responses to events at Troy; notably pleasure, pity—and also great aloofness. By performing the speeches of the provocative, infuriating, yet ultimately obliging Zeus, the poet at key moments both challenges his listeners to take a stake in the continuation of the performance, and presents a sophisticated critique of possible responses to his poem. The result is a conception of epic not only as song that will transcend time through re-performance—as famously evinced in the Iliad’s meditations on kleos—but also as raw spectacle, in which audience ‘participation’, and complicity, magnify and complicate the emotional impact of the devastation at Troy.
Stories of (and Instead of) Process
Authors: Polletta Francesca
Published: August 2019

Policy makers are well aware that the categories and standards they use to combat inequality are blunt tools, flattening differences within groups and fixing relations in time; they draw on stories of the categories’ past and purpose as a way to justify their use. However, the stories that come naturally are ill-equipped to capture the processual dimensions of inequality. Polletta makes this argument by analyzing two efforts to combat inequality, one in medical research and one in employment. In the first, reformers’ account of racial and ethnic categories as the proud legacy of the civil rights movement and as only temporary ended up legitimating a view of inequalities in health as genetic in origin. In the second, women were able to prove employment discrimination only when they told a story in which their job aspirations were unaffected by their experiences in the labor market. In both cases, familiar stories made it difficult to recognize processes rather than people as the drivers of action, and to recognize that people’s aspirations are shaped by the institutions in which they participate.
The Long Walk to Aleppo
Authors: Rond Mark de , Hallett Tim
Published: August 2019

On December 26, 2016, several hundred people left a disused Berlin airport to walk some 2,100 miles to Aleppo as an expression of solidarity with civilians suffering in Syria while calling for an end to the war. Some would stay the course for the nearly eight months it ultimately took, whereas others joined the Civil March for Aleppo for short periods. In this chapter, we explore what the march can tell us about the relation between processes and institutions by focusing on a contentious episode. When the marchers realized they might not be able to continue walking upon reaching Turkey, they had to confront a question that had never collectively been settled: Was this ultimately a march for or to Aleppo? Drawing from old, new, and inhabited institutionalism, we explore the causes and consequences of this episode and re-examine assumptions of loose and tight coupling in organizations.
Addition, Subtraction, and Canonization
Authors: Harper Steven C.
Published: August 2019

Two key memories Joseph Smith left for consolidating a collective memory of his first vision went unpublished until the 1960s. Church historians Willard Richards and George Smith and their successors did not select them for consolidation by the saints nor relate them meaningfully to their shared story. That these sources could have informed Mormon collective memory shows that nothing about its consolidation was foregone or fixed. Everything hung on the unpredictable and unplanned combination of influences that led Smith to remember and privilege some memories above others as he did, and his followers to select from and relate to those memories as they did.
Collective Consolidation Culminates
Authors: Harper Steven C.
Published: August 2019

Many contingent choices determined whether and how Mormons would remember Smith’s vision. This chapter shows how as late as the late 1870s, after the death of Brigham Young, Latter-day Saints had still not consolidated collective memory of Joseph Smith’s first vision. However, the 1880 canonization of a version of the 1838/39 account symbolized an institutional collective consolidation of the first vision. Orson Pratt, a long-time selector and relater of the vision, witnessed its consolidation before his death in 1881. Pratt was the saints’ foremost relater and repeater of Smith’s first vision, making their shared memory usable, a past for the present.
An Endangered History
Authors: Jhala Angma Dey
Published: August 2019

An Endangered History is an account of the little-studied region of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of British-governed Bengal from the late eighteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries. The CHT lie on the crossroads of India, east Bengal (now Bangladesh), and Burma (contemporary Myanmar). An area of lush rivers and fertile valleys, it has historically been celebrated for its haunting natural beauty and religious heterodoxy, from the chronicles of Mughal governors to the ethno-histories of colonial British administrators. The region is composed of several indigenous or ‘tribal’ communities, whose transcultural histories defied colonial and later postcolonial taxonomies of identity and difference. In particular, this book focuses on how British administrators used European knowledge systems—botany, natural history, gender and sexuality, demography and anthropology—to construct the autochthone groups of the CHT and their landscapes. In the process, British administrators and later South Asian nationalists would misunderstand and falsely classify the region through the reifying language of religion, linguistics, race, and, most perniciously, nation, in part due to its unique, and at times perilous, location on the invisible fault lines between South and Southeast Asia. In this manner, this book argues that the colonial archive serves not only to exhume a long-forgotten regional past but also to illuminate a dynamic interconnected global history. It hopes to re-establish the vital place of this much marginalized border region within the larger study of colonial South Asia and Indian nationalism.
Administering Colonialism and War
Authors: Alexander Colin R.
Published: August 2019

Colonialism is a dehumanizing experience for all those at the mercy of its power structures. The officers of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) were no exception. This book focuses on the role of ICS in World War II and engages in a wider debate about colonialism’s impact on its administrators and subjects. The author looks at the events of World War II specifically in the province of Assam in India’s North-East. It is here that the British and American troops were stationed as they attempted to retake Burma following Japan’s invasion in 1942 and supply the Allied Chinese by road and air. The volume also focuses on how radio broadcasting was used to manufacture the Indian public’s consent for the war effort and explores the horrors of the Bengal Famine and the controversies surrounding the British responses to it. The central character in the book’s narrative is Sir Andrew Clow who was a career civil servant in India. He was the Minister for Communications during the late 1930s and early 1940s before he became the Governor of Assam in 1942. The book is partly a biography of his fascinating career.
The Epistemic Role of Consciousness
Authors: Smithies Declan
Published: August 2019

What is the role of consciousness in our mental lives? This book argues that consciousness plays an essential role in explaining how we can acquire knowledge and epistemically justified belief about ourselves and our surroundings. On this view, our mental lives cannot be preserved in unconscious creatures—zombies—who behave just as we do. Only conscious creatures have epistemic justification to form beliefs about the world. Zombies cannot know anything about the world, since they have no epistemic justification to believe anything. On this view, all epistemic justification depends ultimately on consciousness. This book builds a sustained argument for the epistemic role of phenomenal consciousness, which draws on a range of considerations in epistemology and the philosophy of mind. The book is divided into two parts, which approach the theory of epistemic justification from opposite directions. Part I argues from the bottom up by drawing on considerations in the philosophy of mind about the role of consciousness in mental representation, perception, cognition, and introspection. Part II argues from the top down by arguing from general principles in epistemology about the nature of epistemic justification. These mutually reinforcing arguments form the basis for a unified theory of the epistemic role of phenomenal consciousness, one that bridges the gap between epistemology and the philosophy of mind.
Production networks and economic policy
Authors: Grassi Basile , Sauvagnat Julien
Published: August 2019

In this paper, we show how to combine data on input–output tables and recent insights from the theory of production networks in order to inform policy. We first describe the information contained in input–output tables compiled by statistical agencies, and show how to derive relevant statistics of production networks. We then discuss the implications of production networks for policy intervention in a series of domains, such as fiscal policy, industrial policy, or, finance. Finally, we present a quantitative exercise applied to French data in order to illustrate that production networks shape the overall impact of competition policy on the economy.
Current State of International Clinical Experiences in US Prelicensure Nursing Programs
Authors: McKinnon Tamara , McNelis Angela M. , de Leon Kathleen , Whitlow Malinda , Fitzpatrick Joyce J.
Published: August 2019

AIM

The study purpose was to describe current international clinical experience (ICE) practices in RN prelicensure programs in the United States.

BACKGROUND

There is interest in ICE to fulfill the goal of preparing global citizens; however, lack of evidence on developing, implementing, and evaluating best practices for ICE limits the enactment of this approach.

METHOD

An electronic survey was completed by 900 deans and/or directors of diploma, associate, bachelor’s, accelerated bachelor’s, and master’s-entry RN prelicensure programs.

RESULTS

Respondents (n = 241, 27 percent) indicated their programs included ICE. Across programs, ICE occurred most often in community health courses. The predominant reason for offering ICE was alignment with the institutional mission and vision.

CONCLUSION

Wide variability exists in methods used to implement ICE for credit toward the nursing major. There is a need to continue to assess and disseminate best practices in implementing ICE to accomplish the goal of global health engagement.