bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LGBT
Activism in
N
orth
A
merica
Authors: Kane Melinda D. , Ayers Marianne
Published: April 2016

Modern LGBT activism in North America started in the 1950s, taking off after the Stonewall Rebellion of June 1969. Moving from a gay liberation phrase emphasizing large‐scale cultural change, reflective of the radical politics of the 1960s and early 1970s, LGBT activism has since focused on a civil rights agenda relying upon mainstream political strategies such as lobbying, court challenges, and electoral politics. During the various phases of activism, the LGBT movement has varied in its level of inclusivity, with well‐documented divisions between women and men and periods in which transgender members and their needs were explicitly omitted. Bridging these divisions today, LGBT activists in North America have achieved numerous legal success, though debate remain over the degree to which activists should focus on legal rights versus more radical challenges to existing gender and sexuality structures.
Rape Culture
Authors: Burnett Ann
Published: April 2016

Rape culture is one in which rape, or sexual assault, is an expected, normal occurrence, found worldwide. Contributing factors to rape culture include hegemonic masculinity, media, language, politics, and rape myths.
Medical and Scientific Experimentation and Gender
Authors: Victor Elizabeth
Published: April 2016

Researchers across disciplines have explored the degree to which gender has influenced medical and scientific experimentation. Broad topics of inquiry include whether medicine and science construct and perpetuate norms of femininity and masculinity, the influence of gender on how society constructs the institution of medicine and science, as well as whether gender has an influence on particular aspects of medical and scientific experimentation. Specific research topics include but are not limited to whether the ideals of scientific experimentation are fundamentally masculine and exclusionary, whether gender plays a role for those pursuing careers in science or medicine, which projects are publicly funded in medicine and science, which methodologies are used to investigate and test hypotheses, which populations are perceived to be acceptable research subjects, how a researcher interprets outcomes, or how outcomes shape policies in a way that disproportionately affects one gender rather than others.
Gender Audit
Authors: Conteh John A.
Published: April 2016

The term gender refers to the cultural, social, economical, historical, and designation of roles of men and women with associated power differential implications that span across institutions, families, legal and religious systems, and beliefs. Gender itself is a social construct, hence gender audit assesses socially constructed gender stratification gaps including policies, service provision, data collection, coordination, and monitoring of structures that limit the participation of women.
Health, Healthcare, and Sexual Minorities
Authors: Blosnich John R.
Published: April 2016

Sexual‐minority populations are persons with same‐sex romantic attraction, same‐sex sexual behavior, or self‐identity as lesbian, gay, or bisexual. Research shows several health and healthcare disparities among sexual‐minority populations, including smoking, poor mental health, asthma, and access to healthcare. Theory, research, and practice focused on sexual‐minority health continue to expand, including analyses to examine social and structural determinants of health, integration of sexual‐minority measures in health research, inclusion of sexual‐minority issues in healthcare policy and practice, and exploration of resilience as a framework to inform health disparities research. Further studies are needed to examine developmental and life‐course aspects to sexual‐minority health and to gather data on health outcomes such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and suicide.
Feminization of Poverty
Authors: Abercrombie Sarah H. , Hastings Sarah L.
Published: April 2016

The feminization of poverty is a phenomenon commonly understood as the general disproportionate over‐representation of women in poverty globally. The fourth UN World Conference on Women ignited significant conversation when it was asserted that 70 percent of the world's poor were female. Lack of income seems to be an important by‐product of the vicious cycle of inadequate access to resources perpetuated by global patriarchal practices. By examining and targeting sociocultural factors associated with the feminization of poverty, advocates may spur changes that will address policies and social traditions that trap women and their children in a state of economic disadvantage.
Women in Science
Authors: Blickenstaff Jacob Clark
Published: April 2016

Though women have made many significant contributions to scientific progress, and a number of initiatives have actively worked to attract and support female scientists, the representation of women in many science disciplines remains very low. The very nature of science may contribute to this issue, but the continued perception that men have a greater aptitude for science is certainly at play as well. Scientific inquiry will be improved with greater diversity of scientists practicing in the field.
Biological Determinism
Authors: Greene Sheila
Published: April 2016

Biological determinism is an approach to the explanation of human behavior that emphasizes the definitive causal role of biological entities or processes. From the classical period onwards it has had strong currency in explaining differences between men and women and the origins of different sexual orientations. Extreme biological determinism, which disregards the contribution of environmental factors, does not have scientific support, but theories that tend toward biological determinism have been bolstered in recent years by the rise of evolutionary psychology, the “new genetics” and the claims of some branches of neuroscience.
Non‐Sexist Education
Authors: Gropper Nancy
Published: April 2016

The women's movement lay dormant in the United States for almost 50 years after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment which afforded suffrage to women. It reignited in the 1960s in the wake of the civil rights movement. As gender issues entered the public consciousness, the groundwork was laid for passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments, signed into law in 1972, which prohibited discrimination of the basis of sex in any federally funded education program or activity. Accompanying its passage and continuing to this day, non‐sexist education has been a constant theme but with shifting foci over time. It is likely that the need for promoting non‐sexist practices will continue since in every culture the gender label is used to define and distinguish perceptions about males and females, albeit in varying ways, and while gender‐stereotyped distinctions may abate they are not likely to disappear.
Same‐Sex Marriage
Authors: Ahmed Lara Aasem , Ryan J. Michael
Published: April 2016

This entry defines the concept of same‐sex marriage and associated terminology. It then goes on to outline the arguments for and against same‐sex marriage in popular culture and social science theory, looking at how these perspectives influence policy, as well as how they operate on both the secular and religious dimensions and the importance of historicizing the phenomenon. The entry then sketches out the issues faced by same‐sex couples due to the illegalization of same‐sex marriage and the countries that perform and/or recognize same‐sex marriage in certain jurisdictions and nationwide.
Governance and Gender
Authors: Brush Lisa D.
Published: April 2016

Governance consists of the practices that produce, regulate, and discipline persons, populations, and organizations. Incorrigible propositions about the natural differences, inequality, and heterosexual complementarity of women and men (along with assumptions about race and class) organize governance. The ideologies, institutions, and practices of governance regard, reward, produce, position, and police women and men as though they were naturally different and unequal. Specific regimes of governance and gender are often resilient; naturalized assumptions of difference, heterosexual complementarity, and subordinated femininity frequently buttress one another as well as the organizational status quo. However, failures and crises of governance, and changes in gender, may result from structural contradictions, organized social movement challenges, and perhaps even individual micro‐resistance.
Feminism, Radical
Authors: Winter Bronwyn
Published: April 2016

Radical feminism, sometimes called revolutionary feminism, is associated with so‐called “second‐wave” feminism, the Women's Liberation Movement, that emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is also associated primarily with the United States and the Western English‐speaking world, although versions also exist in Europe and beyond. As the name implies, radical feminism sought to address the roots of women's oppression, positing that women and men constitute classes in a system of domination that has at its base the category of sex. Radical feminist activism and subsequent scholarship have identified the family and, by extension, heterosexuality, as a key site of male domination of women, and many radical feminists focus on various forms of violence against women. Radical feminists have also been at the core of many autonomous women's initiatives, both in women's services and in cultural production, and radical feminist analysis has greatly contributed to broader understandings of the private–public links of patriarchy and also its embeddedness in culture. Some radical feminist positions, such those on religion, pornography, prostitution, and transgender, have, however, continued to be controversial.
Social Constructionist Theory
Authors: Klostermann Keith , Forstadt David
Published: April 2016

Social constructionism can be referred to as any social influence on an individual experience. According to social constructionism, almost all aspects of human behavior and experience are developed by culture, contrasting the biological essentialist view that describes human behavior as being “biologically essential or natural to the human condition.” Social constructionists describe gender by the interactions between people, by language, and the dialogue of a culture, not by biological trait.
Drug and Alcohol Abuse
Authors: Klostermann Keith , Forstadt David
Published: April 2016

Prior research in the field of sexual orientation and substance indicates that substance abuse is predominately higher in LGB populations compared to those who identify as heterosexual. Research from the Center of Substance Abuse Treatment support these claims and note individuals in the LGB community are more likely to use alcohol and drugs than the general population, have higher rates of substance abuse, are less likely to abstain from use, and are more likely to continue heavy drinking into later adulthood. However, there is not a large and established knowledge base on this topic and the studies that have been done suffer from methodological shortcomings. As a result, it is challenging to evaluate whether previous research is truly representative of the LGB population due to early trends in sampling, which have established stereotypical paradigms of substance use.
Refugee Women and Violence against Women
Authors: Baker Ria E.
Published: April 2016

Refugee women make up over half of all persons displaced by war, civil unrest, violence, religious or political persecution, and sexual and gender‐based violence (SBGV). SBGV pervades virtually all societies, causing women to flee their homes, communities, or countries to seek protection. When women flee, they are vulnerable to various forms of abuse, prior to, during, and after migration and displacement, which have social, psychological, and economic implications. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR>) has defined refugee status and advocates for displaced persons across the globe.
Hijra/Hejira
Authors: Khan Sharful Islam , Khan Niaz Morshed , Rahman Mahbubur , Gourab Gorkey
Published: April 2016

Hijra
refers to culturally acceptable socio‐sexual groups of people of the Indian subcontinent (i.e., India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan) who do not conform to conventional notions of male–female gender dichotomy but combine or move between the two. They claim themselves being “neither male nor female” and many scholars argued that
hijra
constitutes a “third sex/gender” category.
Institutional Micropolitics
Authors: Morley Louise
Published: April 2016

Power is a central constituent of professional relations. It can be overt in the form of decision‐making, resource allocation, accreditation, and assessment. Power is also present in everyday transactions that can frequently confound and confuse and leave actors unsure of their readings of complex interpersonal encounters. The conceptual framework of micropolitics is an analytical corrective to the many untheorized self‐help manuals and the disembodied and socially decontextualized texts on organizational change.
Mind/Body Split
Authors: Wininger K. J.
Published: April 2016

The intellectual conception of a split between mind and body has had a profound effect on both conceptions of gender and views of sexuality. The European association of mind, with brain and soul, and the idea that mind is both the governing faculty and the spiritual home, form the foundation for human authority. The power of the mind is the underpinning of most European intellectual views of human exceptionalism. The conceptual activity of the mind is what makes humans different from other animals: we are
Homo sapiens
. Far more pernicious for human gender issues is the association of mind and its properties with men and masculinity, and body with femininity and animality.
Anti‐Racist and Civil Rights Movements
Authors: Lesser Emma , Hughey Matthew W.
Published: April 2016

The civil rights movement, considered to have lasted from the mid‐1950s through the early 1970s, used a variety of political strategies to fight against racist injustices and infringements of rights faced by people of color (especially African Americans) in the United States. Each strategic approach was derived from a particular anti‐racist ideology, and thus attracted specific constituencies of activists. The differences between each subgroup of the movement engendered unique social norms, challenges, and support systems based on gender, race, class, sexual orientation, and religion.
Mentoring
Authors: Coleman Marianne
Published: April 2016

Mentoring is usually a one to one relationship between a younger less experienced person and an older more experienced person who guides them in the workplace and provides support for career progress. Mentoring can include coaching, sponsoring, counseling, and role modeling. Benefits of mentoring accrue to the mentor, the mentee, or protégé and the organization in which they both work. Agreement about purpose, measuring results, and training for mentoring all contribute to its success. Mentoring is particularly important in furthering the career progress of women and individuals from ethnic minorities. Mentoring goes through stages and may occur at the start of a career or when an individual is promoted. The traditional model of mentoring is criticized by feminists as supporting an underlying masculinist perspective ensuring that positions of power and influence remain in the hands of white, able‐bodied, middle‐class, middle‐aged, heterosexual men. Feminist mentoring incorporates postmodern feminist values and advocates an equal, non‐hierarchical relationship of power sharing, co‐leading, and reciprocal learning. The roles of mentor and mentee are not clearly defined. Feminist mentoring is orientated toward activism and change to empower women and others normally excluded from power.
Nomadic Theory
Authors: Wong Arthur Laing Ming
Published: April 2016

Rosi Braidotti's nomadic theory illustrate the non‐unitary subjectivity which is in constant flux, always in the process of becoming, and engages oneself with the dominant hierarchical forces and at the same time engages with difference and austerity of the engendered, sexualized, and racialized others.
Same‐Sex Families
Authors: Power Jennifer
Published: April 2016

The term same‐sex family refers to families where one or more parents identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB). This may include same‐sex couples or single parents who identify as LGB. Many transgender parents also identify as LGB. There are increasing numbers of LGB parents in western countries. LGB people may become parents through the use of non‐traditional conception, artificial insemination (with a known or unknown sperm donor), in vitro fertilization, surrogacy, adoption, or fostering. Evidence has consistently shown that children raised by same‐sex couples have equal social, emotional, and developmental outcomes as children raised by heterosexual parents. Some children of LGB parents experience homophobic teasing or bullying at school, but research shows that in areas where acceptance and visibility of homosexuality is high, children from same‐sex families are less likely to experience teasing or harassment from their peers.
Hegemonic Masculinity
Authors: Gough Brendan
Published: April 2016

The origins and definition of “hegemonic masculinity,” which has had a huge impact on gender studies within disciplines and across interdisciplinary fields, are briefly summarized in this entry before some key debates are outlined.
Charivaris
Authors: Greenhill Pauline
Published: April 2016

Charivari traditions have been documented in parts of Europe and North America from the Middle Ages to the present, with cognate customs found across the world. Historically, they involved a raucous, parading, house visit usually incited by weddings or relationships a community deemed problematic. They conventionally dramatized popular objections to weddings between two older people; between an older and a younger person; involving a widow and/or widower – especially too soon after the previous spouse's death; and/or involving a racially mixed or religiously diverse couple. Charivariers often sought to exact a price – money, cigarettes, food, and/or drink, especially alcohol – for the couple's transgression of traditional expectations that marriage should be between two previously unmarried, fertile young people with common ethnoracial and religious heritages. Charivari has also been used to describe a number of noisy parading performances traditionally directed toward a variety of offenders against community morality and sensibility, including unpopular politicians, officials, employers, and public servants. Currently, charivari is practiced primarily in rural areas and is instead a community welcome. However, progressive social protest groups often use charivari's historic noisemaking modes, including pots and pans beaten with wooden spoons, to draw attention to their causes, demonstrating the tradition's malleability.
Militarism and Gender‐Based Violence
Authors: Sharoni Simona
Published: April 2016

The relationship between militarism and gender‐based violence is rooted in the gendered socialization of boys and girls. The militarization of masculinities and femininities begins at a young age, reinforcing a gendered division of power and labor and legitimizing the use of political violence. In conflict zones, political violence is often accompanied by gender‐based violence, including sexual assault, rape, sexual slavery, human trafficking, and intimate‐partner violence. Higher rates of violence against women can be found in militarized societies, especially during and in the aftermath of wars. Militaristic interpretations of “national security” and the massive presence of armed military and police personnel paradoxically heighten the sense of insecurity of both women and minority groups. Though women have led peace movements and anti‐militarism efforts, new evidence suggests that under some circumstances some women may take part in male‐led sexualized violence against noncombatants. The United Nations and other human rights organizations have long been concerned with the situation of women in armed conflict. Multiple UN resolutions and special reports, culminating in UNSCR 1325, suggest that the increased participation of women at all levels of the political system may contribute to peacebuilding and reduce the rate of gender‐based violence.
Coming Out
Authors: Arya Rina
Published: April 2016

The phrase “coming out” is used within the context of gender and sexuality studies to refer to the self‐unveiling of a subject who is gay, lesbian, or bisexual. “Coming out” has become a key concept in the sociology of sexualities and in gay and lesbian studies. It can be used more loosely to denote sexualities that differ from heterosexual normativity. The action of coming out is not a singular event but an ongoing process that happens throughout one's life. The revealing of sexuality does not need to be done in a uniform or linear way and involves a spectrum of choices about how much to disclose, to which people, and in what contexts. The act of coming out is of personal and also political significance. On a personal level it can signify a need to be true to oneself as well as to brave external judgement. Politically, it represents the importance of acknowledging the need to convey difference as a collective action.
Same‐Sex Sexuality in
I
ndia
Authors: Selvaraj Priscilla Rose
Published: April 2016

Same‐sex sexuality is a stigmatized and often unspoken aspect of Indian culture. The Indian Supreme Court's verdict in December 2013 upholding an archaic law that criminalizes gay sex has grave ramifications for LGBT people in India. The current conflicting perspectives of societies, religious institutions, legal systems, and gay activists are discussed.
Gender Neutral
Authors: Auster Carol J.
Published: April 2016

Gender‐neutral is an adjective used to modify a noun. Since gender neutral is imbued with many meanings, this entry considers its use in reference to language, activities, objects, and other domains. Gender neutral can imply appropriateness for males and females, particularly in two‐word combinations, such as gender‐neutral occupations, sports, clothing, and toys. Gender‐neutral language is synonymous with gender inclusive language and non‐sexist language, just as gender‐neutral childrearing is synonymous with non‐sexist or unisex childrearing. In reference to restrooms, gender‐neutral extends beyond the gender binary, and gender‐neutral pronouns do not specify gender. Gender‐neutral is also distinct from other concepts, including androgyny, hermaphroditism, and gender‐balanced.
Documentary Film and Gender
Authors: Olivieri Domitilla
Published: April 2016

The relation between documentary films and images and concerns about gender issues is a multilayered one, and as complex as the very debate about how to define what a documentary film is. Speaking about gender and documentary means engaging with questions of aesthetics and politics, of social movements and of power imbalances, of the politics of representation, of the relation between reality and language, truth and objectivity, facts and fiction, of processes of signification and their effects on social reality and lived experiences. Gender is engaged in documentary films, or more broadly, in “factual filming forms” (which include other non‐fictional formats, videos, TV items, media that mix fictional and documentary techniques, etc.) at, at least, five levels: content, filmmaker, audience and reception, production and distribution, and questions of politics and aesthetics. Feminism and gender studies have been greatly concerned with the politics and ethics of images. In the decades between the 1960s and the 1980s, the relation between feminism(s) and documentary film was officially established, and interrupted soon thereafter. The years between the late 1970s and the late 1990s witnessed a gap between theoretical investigations and documentary film practice. It is only since the late 1990s that feminist critiques and reflections on documentary forms have found a new impetus.
Athletics and Homosexuality
Authors: Anderson Eric , White Adam
Published: April 2016

In the Western world, organized sport largely originated as a product of the Industrial Revolution. It was used to produce brave, stoic, and self‐sacrificing men; the type of men needed for both industry and war. Sport taught them to accept orders without question; to take risks; and to put their bodies in harm's way for the sake of team (and its proxy of family). Sport also helped secure patriarchal privilege in a time of advancing first‐wave feminism.
Hunger and Famine
Authors: Deubel Tara F.
Published: April 2016

Gender is a salient factor in understanding the causes and effects of persistent hunger and famine in the twenty‐first century, particularly in rural and urban sectors of low‐income developing nations. Interrelated dimensions of food security are examined from a gendered perspective, with an emphasis on the role of women in livelihood systems and agricultural production and women's increased vulnerability to food insecurity worldwide. Crucial areas to address in devising sustainable strategies to diminish hunger and promote food sovereignty include land tenure, women's status and participation in household decision‐making, and more effective responses to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, climate change, and environmental degradation.
Dowry Deaths
Authors: Undurti Vindhya
Published: April 2016

The phenomenon of dowry deaths – of violence against young married women by their husbands and families related to extortion for gifts – was vital in activating the women's movement in post‐independence India in the 1980s. Although the historical and traditional meaning of dowry has changed over the centuries, the evolution of the practice from possibly customary inheritance to extortion and violence is embedded in an increasingly consumerist society and capitalist economy. Highlighted initially by the women's movement as a symbol of devaluation of women and leading to major legal reform, analysis of the criminal justice system's response to dowry deaths revealed that they obscured other causes of gender‐based inequalities and violence against women which are not peculiar to India alone.
White Supremacy and Gender
Authors: Ferber Abby L.
Published: April 2016

Gender and race are intertwined systems of inequality which shape the lives of everyone, including people who benefit from them. Over the past 25 years, research on whiteness and white supremacy that focuses on gender has grown, as has research on gender which takes into consideration whiteness. This work has developed in three strands of scholarship and critique: intersectional feminist theory; privilege studies; and whiteness studies. In addition, research on the white supremacist movement now focuses on the centrality of gender to the movement's race‐based practices and goals.
Women's and Feminist Activism in theMiddleEast
Authors: Ennaji Moha
Published: April 2016

Women's activism in the Middle East has a major role in alerting women, families, and social actors to the importance of integrating women in economic, social, and cultural development. Further measures in favor of protecting women's rights are badly needed to guarantee their empowerment and contribution to development and democratization. However, there are hurdles blocking women's emancipation and legal rights in the region. Most countries have not agreed to all the articles of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and the quota system is not officially recognized in most constitutions, which implies that the representation of women depends on the political agendas of individual leaders. There is also weak commitment by many governments in the region to protect women from violence, especially domestic violence, and concerning their legal rights in police investigations, sanctions, and as victims of violence.
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Authors: Robertson William J.
Published: April 2016

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is the biomedical name for a group of associated symptoms resulting from a cell's inability to respond to androgenic hormones. AIS can occur in people with any karyotype, but is only clinically significant in individuals with Y chromosomes. There are three categories of AIS: Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS), Partial Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (PAIS), and Mild Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (MAIS). People with AIS range from typical female phenotype to typical male phenotype. The incidence of AIS varies depending on population as well as its severity. Clinical diagnosis and management of AIS is dependent upon type of AIS present.
LGBT
Activism in
N
orthern
A
frica
Authors: McGuinness Justin
Published: April 2016

LGBT activism in North Africa, a region taken here to include the five states of the Maghreb (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia), along with Egypt, was extremely limited in the early 2000s, though a high profile trial in Egypt of men accused of offending public morality had brought the question of same‐sex intimate relations into the public sphere in 2001. Nevertheless, in Morocco, civil society activists have brought the non‐judgmental Arabic term
mithliya
into media usage as a substitute for
shudhudh jinsiy
(“sexual deviation”) to refer to homosexual relations. Whether there will be a major push for the reform of current national legislation criminalizing same‐sex intimacy seems unlikely, despite hopes of greater individual freedoms raised by the so‐called Arab Spring. In Egypt, notably, government panders to religious rigorists and makes political capital out of persecuting men with same‐sex preferences.
Gender, Politics, and the State inEastAsia
Authors: Freiner Nicole L.
Published: April 2016

The gender dimension of state–society relationships in East Asia may be conceptualized from a number of perspectives in the field of feminist scholarship, comparative politics, as well as development and democratization. The key debates that inform views regarding gender include cultural arguments such as Confucianism and nationalism, the state in society approach, democratization, and feminist critiques including state feminism and public policy approaches. Over time, scholars have developed increasingly complex ways of understanding this relationship and the way in which political policy both shapes and is shaped by the larger social context within which those decisions are made. In East Asia the gender dimension of political participation illustrates the complex interplay of these forces while suggesting alternative understandings of these concepts.
Embodiment and the Phenomenological Tradition
Authors: Qin Dongxiao
Published: April 2016

This entry explores the most significant concept of “embodiment” in the phenomenological tradition. It discusses the phenomenological interpretations of the meaning of embodiment in relation to subjectivity and experiences. It also takes note of some the most pressing discussions on “subjectivity,” “selfhood” in phenomenologically oriented psychology, and anthropology research. Phenomenological approaches on “embodiment” and “subjectivity”/“selfhood” have become increasingly important in psychology and anthropology throughout the past few decades. They have contributed greatly to how phenomenologists, psychologists, and anthropologists think of lived experiences, subjectivity, inter‐subjectivity, selfhood, and other topics. More generally, they have helped us to reconfigure what it means to be human, have a body, to develop a sense of selfhood and to live among others.
Monogamy, Sociological Perspectives on
Authors: Willis Abbey
Published: April 2016

From a sociological perspective, monogamy can be studied as a normative, institutional, and compulsory relationship formation which, even outside of state‐sanctioned marriage, can be viewed as a social expectation that serves to uphold the primacy of coupledom, longevity, and exclusivity, while also privileging romantic love over other forms of intimate connections. Scholars refer to this expectation as compulsory monogamy in order to make a distinction between consensually chosen monogamous relationships and monogamous relationships that form out of institutional and cultural coercion toward dyadic pairings. Monogamy, then, becomes quite different in its compulsory form than as a neutral term describing exclusive relationships. The coercion implied by the term compulsory monogamy is often embedded in ideological and cultural privileging of the exclusive dyadic pair, but can also be quite direct in its state‐sanctioned forms such as with marriage and state definitions of “family.”
Climate Change and Gender
Authors: Hudspeth Edward F.
Published: April 2016

Two hundred years ago, climate change was simply a theoretical concept debated by scholars. Today, climate change is known to have a direct impact on everyone's day‐to‐day life. Although in industrialized countries the impact of climate change may be less noticeable, in developing countries the impact is felt daily. Women, in particular, seem to be impacted more by climate change. This impact may be related to the fact that women worldwide tend to have fewer resources, which in turn affects their ability to cope with the effects of climate change on food, financial security, water supply, mobility, and health.
Affirmative Action
Authors: Goss Devon R.
Published: April 2016

Affirmative action refers to efforts aimed at increasing opportunities for women and people of color within the United States. The practice has been one of the most successful policies for addressing gender and racial inequalities, especially within education and employment. Affirmative action necessitates continuous and proactive (i.e., “affirmative”) actions to increase the numbers of women and people of color through a multi‐tiered approach that includes training, admissions, recruitment, and retention. Therefore, women and people of color's race and gender should be evaluated positively by both private and public institutions and organizations. These actions are seen as a partial correction to deep structural inequalities that are pervasive throughout society. Despite the successful gains that affirmative action has made in the United States and beyond, there exists significant opposition to the practice.
Sexual Freedom, Feminist Debates in the
U
nited
S
tates on
Authors: Willis Abbey
Published: April 2016

Sexual freedom in the United States ranges in meaning from historical fights for women to be free of coercive marriage without divorce; to more contemporary meanings developed within the women's liberation movement in the 1960s and 1970s which was centered on dismantling patriarchy; to the meanings embedded in the sex wars of the 1980s; for the contemporary fight for reproductive rights, justice, and freedom; into the movement for same‐sex marriage; as well as into contemporary queer critiques on the limits of sexual identity and orientation; and is further extended by anarchist feminists of the past and present fighting an intersectional struggle against all forms of institutionalized oppression and exploitation for all people.
Feminist Utopian Writing
Authors: Kitch Sally L.
Published: April 2016

There is a long history of affiliation between the utopian imagination and what we now call feminism, starting as far back as the fifteenth century. Dreaming of lost or not‐yet worlds in which women define their own goals, exercise power, and command respect, with or without men present, has always intrigued feminist visionaries. Fiction has been the primary instrument of such imagining. As attractive as such experiments may be, feminist utopianism suffers from the paradox inherent in utopian approaches – desirable societies for some too easily become undesirable or dystopic societies for others. Feminist writers have grappled with that paradox since the late twentieth century, not by abandoning utopian inspiration altogether but by redefining it, in both fictional and nonfictional texts.
Colonialism and Gender
Authors: Hassan Narin
Published: April 2016

The relationship of colonialism and gender is complex and mutually impactful. Colonial texts and histories show us how gender redefined the boundaries and structures of imperial rule and how in turn colonialism and globalization reshaped notions of femininity and masculinity. The structures and institutions of empire were influenced, upheld, and organized through gender relations and representations. Reading colonialism through the lens of gendered difference reveals the complexity of these terms and the highlights the boundaries and vulnerabilities of colonial order. This entry considers the textual, material, and theoretical aspects of colonialism and gender, and traces key critical texts that have helped to shape our understanding of the dynamics of this relationship.
Epistemology of the Closet
Authors: Bailey Lucy E.
Published: April 2016

Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick's concept, the epistemology of the closet, is a foundational contribution to the field of queer theory. Detailed in a text by the same name published in 1990, the phrase refers to the ways contemporary Western thought and culture is fundamentally shaped by the category of homo/heterosexuality. Sedgwick traces the workings of this epistemology in classic texts by Herman Melville, Henry James, and others, and conveys its political and embodied effects on gay people.
Feminism, Postcolonial
Authors: Harney‐Mahajan Tara
Published: April 2016

This entry considers the complex terrain of theoretical interventions into the fields of postcolonial studies and feminist studies. In the 1970s, postcolonialism was inaugurated within the field of literary studies, but early postcolonial theoretical texts did not engage with the concept of gender within the histories and legacies of colonialism and post‐colonialism in a sustained manner. Likewise, in the 1980s, postcolonial feminist scholars began to expose the latent ethnocentrism in some Western feminist scholarship, which focused on objectifying and victimizing the “third world woman,” in order to construct the “third world woman” as a cohesive, unified object of study. Postcolonial feminism emphasizes that although gender identities are relational and historical, as opposed to fixed or essential, they also remain crucial categories of analysis.
Digital Media and Gender
Authors: Kanai Akane , Dobson Amy
Published: April 2016

The study of gender and digital media encompasses interdisciplinary scholarship seeking to understand gendered engagements with digital media, how digital media spaces become gendered, and how gendered practices change through digital media. Scholars in this area have traditionally focused on feminist concerns with the possibilities of girls and women being able to represent themselves rather than being represented. Accordingly, women and girls in the West currently form a major area of study in gender and digital media research. However, debate about the extent of gendered empowerment possible through digital media continues. Much scholarship focuses on symbolic interactionist accounts of how gender is presented in digital media. Other gendered subjectivities such as older femininities, masculinities, studies of online queer spaces, trans identities, and accounts of the interaction between race and gender are smaller but growing areas of research.
Drag
Authors: Miller Shaeleya
Published: April 2016

Drag commonly refers to the practice of temporarily adopting cross‐gender attire and mannerisms for the purpose of entertainment, but can include a wide range of gender performances both on‐ and offstage. The methods and intent behind drag vary depending on the sexuality, gender, race, class, and location of performers. While some performers emphasize its sheer entertainment value, drag has also been used as a strategy for navigating restrictive gender constraints in everyday life, and as a tactic for enacting in‐your‐face political protests. In recent decades, the rich history and culture of drag have functioned as a key site of inquiry among queer theory, gender studies, and social movement scholars attempting to locate the political potential of gender transgressive performances.
Feminism,French
Authors: Winter Bronwyn
Published: April 2016

“French feminism” has come to have many different meanings for Anglo‐world scholars. This entry deals with so‐called “second‐wave” feminism, although it refers readers to a couple of works that treat so‐called “first‐wave” activism and its predecessors. Starting with a brief overview of the impact of Simone de Beauvoir's workThe Second Sexon second‐wave feminism both within and outside France, as well as Beauvoir's own activist commitment, the entry provides a brief account of the three currents within the early “second‐wave” movement before going on to discuss the 1979 appropriation of the movement by the group Psychanalyse et Politique. It then canvasses the “theory war” around the representation of “French feminism” in the Western English‐speaking world in the 1990s. The entry closes on some new developments in feminist activism and publishing in France, as well as providing a brief discussion of the ongoing debate on race, gender, immigration, religion, and the state. It is noted that due to the relative paucity of translations of important French feminist writers, notably in recent years, the work of many French feminist writers and scholars, especially but not solely those of younger generations, is unavailable to an English‐speaking readership.
Feminisms,Marxist and Socialist
Authors: Kane Nazneen
Published: April 2016

Marxist and socialist feminisms rose in popularity in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the perceived limitations of liberal feminism and Marxism. This entry explores the emergence, core ideas, and development of Marxist and socialist feminisms within social theory and sociology. It provides a general overview of these two branches of feminism and discusses the intellectual and social context from which they emerged. Theoretical foundations, core ideas and contributions, ideological similarities and differences, and future directions are examined.
Feminine and Masculine Elements
Authors: Molleur Joseph
Published: April 2016

In many religious, spiritual, and mystical traditions, feminine element and masculine element (also commonly known as feminine principle and masculine principle) signify properties, traits, concerns, or values that are traditionally understood especially to pertain to feminine or masculine gender, and to female or male divine and human beings. In Daoism and many contemporary neo‐pagan movements such as Wicca, the notion of “element” is taken largely in a literal sense, whereas in the major Eastern religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, and also the Western Abrahamic faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, “element” is understood in a more symbolic or metaphorical fashion. A recurring theme in a number of contemporary religious, spiritual, and mystical movements is a critical attitude toward women and men being limited by traditional, stereotypical notions of what constitutes quintessentially feminine or masculine traits, concerns, or activities.
Comparable Worth/Work of Equal Value
Authors: McDonald Judith A. , Thornton Robert J.
Published: April 2016

If women earn less than men doing comparable jobs then a gender pay gap is said to exist. However, this gap may be due to factors such as human capital (e.g., education and experience), cultural and social norms, and preferences and tastes, rather than to discrimination on the part of the employer. Although governments may use pay‐equity or comparable‐worth policies in an attempt to fix these gaps, there is a growing body of evidence that these laws, at least as currently designed, do not seem to work well.
LGBT
Activism in the
M
iddle
E
ast
Authors: Habib Samar
Published: April 2016

This entry discusses the primary contention over the issue of LGBTIQ organizing in the Arab world and proceeds to provide an overview of LGBT organizing in select Arabic‐speaking countries.
Feminist Theories of the Body
Authors: Cleary Krystal
Published: April 2016

Feminist theory of the body as a collection of literature is a complex tapestry of interwoven thought traditions rather than a monolithic, linear analytical thread. Dominant Western intellectual tradition regards the body suspiciously as a source of unwieldy and base desires and functions. Feminist theorists' contention with the mind/body dichotomy, however, has been not only with its insistence upon disembodied thought but also the devalued body's persistent correlation with femininity. While many first‐wave feminist thinkers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and even more contemporary liberal feminists have similarly devalued or ignored the body in attempts to demonstrate women's capacity for reason and advocate for equality, others reclaim and rejoice in the body as a site of valuable knowledge production.
Privatization
Authors: Brewer Rose M.
Published: April 2016

When public enterprises owned and controlled by government are placed in the control and ownership of the private sector, the logic of privatization is expressed. The privatization process is broad. It entails the privatization of water, education, healthcare, public lands, and so on. Since the market is deemed the best guarantor of a robust, profit‐centered economy, private sector competition is privileged as the mechanism to achieve high profits. Thus 21st‐century privatization represents the logic of moving public resources into private hands.
Militarism and Sex Industries
Authors: Lee Jin‐kyung
Published: April 2016

The modernity of militarized‐industrialized sex work stems from two broader sets of transnational and national systems and ideologies: late nineteenth‐century territorial neo‐imperialism and its attendant militarism, and globalizing capitalism, industrialism, and developmentalism. The postwar sexual proletarianization of third world women was propelled by the economic conditions and motivations produced under the neocolonial hegemony of the United States. Cynthia Enloe has argued that “sexual imperialism,” manifested and institutionalized as military sex industries, is a product of such intersecting dominant ideologies and systems that operate both intra‐nationally and transnationally as patriarchy/masculinism, nationalism/imperialism, class hierarchy, and a racially segmented global labor market. The occupying and hosting countries' governments and the occupying military intervene in the process of commercialization of sex through legislation, medicalization, and other kinds of governmental and military power, control, and discipline at their disposal.
LGBT
Activism in
N
ative
N
orth
A
merica
Authors: Gurr Barbara
Published: April 2016

LGBT activism among Native communities across North America is complicated by a number of factors, including cultural and ethnic diversity, a long history of colonization, and multiple oppressions and concerns that may be prioritized differently by different activists and organizations. Certain key themes commonly emerge, however, including access to housing, employment and healthcare and also cultural histories and traditions and resistance to settler colonialism.
Images of Gender and Sexuality of Māori
Authors: Erai Michelle
Published: April 2016

Images of Māori gender and sexuality have ranged from Māori visual cues of connection and relationships, through representations of the Anglicized Native, the New Zealand “type” of Native, a trope of the disappearing Native, the collectable Native, the welcoming Native and the super Native. In each incarnation, images have both highlighted and hidden ideologies of racial and gender superiority. In this entry, a general history of the production and circulation of images of Māori gender and sexuality is intended to lay the groundwork for a necessarily more complex dialogue about the inherently political relationship between what an image can represent, and according to whom.