bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electrical Cable Fire Hazard Assessment with the Cone Calorimeter
Authors: Hirschler MM
Published: March 2009

A series of full-scale cable tray fire tests have been done and the results have been expressed in terms of heat release (rate and amount), smoke release (rate and amount), mass loss and gas emissions, as well as the standard properties of flame spread and extent of charring. These tests were carried out in two different full-scale facilities.

The same cables have also been tested in the cone rate of heat release calorimeter, (ASTM Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter, E 1354), in a horizontal orientation, and the same prop-erties (except for gas emissions) are measured. Moreover, the combustible materials which make up many of the cables have also been tested in both the cone calorimeter and the Ohio State University (OSU) rate of heat release calorimeter (ASTM Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products, E 906).

The rate of heat release results of the cone calorimeter tests on cables were well correlated, linearly, with the results of the full-scale tests. This was particularly true when the cone was used at an incident flux of 20 kW/m2. A model has therefore been devised to predict full-scale cable tray results.

The amount of smoke obscuration resulting from all full-scale cable tests was heavily dependent on the extent of burning of the cables. Those cables that did not burn extensively and released very little smoke. Similarly, those cables that did not burn extensively released low amounts of combustion gases, notably CO and HCl.

As far as smoke release is concerned, total smoke released in the full-scale fires correlated very well with smoke factors measured in the small-scale cone calorimeter tests. The total smoke released in the small-scale tests, following complete sample combustion, was a much less reliable measure of full-scale smoke release than the smoke factor.

The two small-scale rate of heat release instruments correlated well with each other, on all properties, except for time to sustained burning.

Some fire properties of the cable jacket material alone, in the cone calorimeter at 20 kW/ m2, can be used to give a priori indication of likely cable full-scale fire performance in a certain scenario. The properties most appropriate for this purpose are the peak rate of heat release and the smoke factor. The OSU calorimeter was a somewhat less reliable small-scale predictor than the cone calorimeter, based on jacket material results only.

Fire tests with the cone calorimeter can thus be used for preliminary fire hazard assessmentof electrical cables when installed in vertical cable trays.
Fire Hazard Assessment of Composite Materials: The Use and Limitations of Current Hazard Analysis Methodology
Authors: DiNenno PJ , Beyler CL
Published: March 2009

This paper reviews the application of current fire hazard analysis methods to the evaluation of composite materials. Problems and limitations of hazard assessment procedures are identified, and alternative techniques and strategies are presented. The application of the HAZARD I fire hazard assessment procedure to the use of composites is addressed explicitly. Problem areas include: development of acceptance criteria, scenario development, and hazard calculation. Specifically, scaling problems, flame spread, exposure quantification, and mechanical response of composites to fire exposure are addressed. It is suggested that significant limitations in both the approach and technical capability of current hazard assessment procedures are significant. These limitations however do not preclude hazard analyses per se.
A Reliability Methodology Applied to Halon 1301 Extinguishing Systems in Computer Rooms
Authors: Steciak J , Zalosh RG
Published: March 2009

This fault tree analysis of a total flooding Halon 1301 extinguishing system in a computer room illustrates a methodology developed to estimate the probability that vaporizing liquid suppression systems may fail to protect against fire or smoke damage. The methodology follows four steps: 1) specify a prototype system; 2) identify failure scenarios; 3) determine the probability of occurrence of the failure scenarios; and 4) perform uncertainty calculations.

The prototype used here is a total flooding Halon 1301 system installed in a computer room in 1977. Three fire scenarios are analyzed: (1) a fire of electrical origin inside an equipment cabinet; (2) a paper trash fire; and (3) smoke entering from a fire outside the room (this last scenario is a measure of the detection, control system, and smoke damper effectiveness).

The results show that, of the three scenarios, the halon system is most effective against the fire of electrical origin providing the electrical ignition source is de-energized before the halon supply is depleted. The results also show that the system provides reliable protection against smoke damage from a fire outside the room, but is less effective against the paper trash fire because of the reignition hazard if the supply is depleted. Other analyses performed include the effect of different inspection intervals, human intervention, and acceptance tests on overall system reliability.
Application of Fire and Explosion Risk Assessment to an LPG Bulk Storage Facility
Authors: Barry TF
Published: March 2009

This paper contains an analytical examination of risk to human life beyond the boundaries of a hypothetical plant site, labeled the XYZ Plant, which stores and handles liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The focus is the integration of available risk assessment research and techniques into a structured decision support tool. Procedures presented in this paper can be applied to a wide array of hazardous storage versus off-site risk exposure projects.

Quantitative risk assessment procedures are applied in determining fire and explosion effect zones and fatality probabilities in the area directly north of the XYZ Plant. The risk is assessed assuming that all four 113 562 L LPG tanks are updated with specified high reliability emergency shutdown systems and fire protection systems.

Event tree methodology is used in developing the fire and explosion scenarios which could result from the accidental release of LPG from containment.

Risk assessment tasks include the selection of significant LPG failure modes, calculation of release rates, and consequence modeling of human fatality effect zones. Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), flash fire radiant heat exposure, and explosion overpressures from unconfined vapor cloud explosions are modeled. Probability modeling is conducted by structuring event trees and assigning initiating event frequencies and conditional probabilities to the defined loss events.

Results are presented in an individual risk profile which depicts the probability of human death versus distance from the LPG storage tanks. The individual risk profile is suitable for use by the local Planning Commission as one source of information for making informed decisions concerning future development in the area north of the XYZ Plant.
A Fire Risk and Protection Cost Assessment Model for Highrise Apartment Buildings
Authors: Hadjisophocleous GV , Yung D
Published: March 2009

This paper describes a stochastic system model that was developed to represent the dynamic interaction between human behavior and fire growth and spread in highrise apartment buildings. The effects of the smoke and fire spread are calculated in terms of two performance parameters: the expected risk-to-life (ERL) and the fire-cost expectation (FCE).

These performance parameters are used to assess the cost-effectiveness of fire safety and protection provisions in highrise apartment buildings. The system model can be used as a tool to assess whether alternative designs provide equivalent safety and whether these alternative designs are cost effective. As an example, the model is applied to a 28-storey apartment building where the cost-effectiveness of 9 different combinations of alarm and sprinkler systems is assessed.
Fire Risk Analysis and Assessment for the Canadian Building Code Assessment Framework
Authors: Katzin H , Khoury M , Arlani A
Published: March 2009

The Building Code Assessment Framework (BCAF) is an analytical tool which systematically evaluates changes to the National and Provincial Building Codes in Canada. It is intended to provide strategic advice to code developers. This paper discusses the fire risk analysis and assessment approach that is part of the BCAF. This approach is a strategic one that provides a systematic and rational method for comparing trade-offs between risk changes and incremental costs as a result of code changes. A fire risk analysis event tree provides a structure at a macro level to optimize the use of existing fire statistics and estimates of fire risk event probabilities by a Delphi Panel. The use of both fire statistics and the Delphi Panel in the analysis is described. The use of the Delphi Panel has proven viable and necessary for applying the BCAF to more than 40 changes to the Ontario Building Code (OBC). The results of analyzing a proposed code change to the OBC (mandating of sprinklers in dwellings) are presented. The cost of mandating residential sprinklers per life saved is judged to be prohibitive. The results of this assessment are compared to other studies. This approach to fire risk analysis and assessment use in the BCAF has proven a viable one for the systematic and quantitative assessment of fire risks because of proposed code changes and provides flexibility for incorporating other experimental fire risk analytical models.
Overview of ASTM E-7 Nondestructive Testing Standards
Authors: Borucki JS
Published: March 2009

The American Society for Testing and Materials Committee E-7 has developed and implemented nondestructive testing standards for the NDT industry for well over 50 years. Today there are more than 125 ASTM NDT standards available covering all major nondestructive testing disciplines with several more under development. The work of Committee E-7 continues in the 1990s as we strive to respond to the ever-growing needs of the NDT industry to establish new standards and improve on existing documents.

This publication focuses on the realization that a myriad of NDT standards exist, that they originate in several organizations worldwide, and that there is a serious need for improved global standardization. It is a goal of Committee E-7 to gain a better understanding of worldwide NDT standards needs and to establish better liaison and cooperation with these other organizations so that we can better respond to the needs.
Status and Future Directions for Acoustic Emission Standards
Authors: Jolly WD
Published: March 2009

Acoustic emission is still a dynamic technology after some 25 years of continuing development. Standards are developed as new applications are proven, and the need for new standards is pressed by both suppliers and users of acoustic emission services. At the present time, ASTM has twelve acoustic emission standards in Volume 03.03 of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards and five in development; the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Section V has two acoustic emission standards; the Society for the Plastics Industry has one; and the American Society for Nondestructive Testing now offers testing for certification of acoustic emission practitioners.

Acoustic emission standards are typically written by representatives of the users, suppliers of services and instruments, and researchers. This mix assures that standards will satisfy the needs of the community and incorporate new technology. Some acoustic emission standards anticipated for the future are offshore testing, underwater surveillance, and aircraft structural-integrity assessment.
NDE Standards for High-Temperature Materials
Authors: Vary A
Published: March 2009

High-temperature materials include monolithic ceramics for automotive gas turbine engines and also metallic/intermetallic and ceramic matrix composites for a range of aerospace applications. These are materials that can withstand extreme operating temperatures that will prevail in advanced high-efficiency gas turbine engines. High-temperature engine components are very likely to consist of complex composite structures with three-dimensionally interwoven and various intermixed ceramic fibers. The thermomechanical properties of components made of these materials are actually created in-place during processing and fabrication stages.The complex nature of these new materials creates strong incentives for exact standards for unambiguous evaluations of defects and microstructural characteristics. NDE techniques and standards that will ultimately be applicable to production and quality control of high-temperature materials and structures are still emerging. The needs range from flaw detection to below 100-Min levels in monolithic ceramics to global imaging of fiber architecture and matrix densification anomalies in composites. The needs are different depending on the processing stage, fabrication method, and nature of the finished product. This report discusses the standards that must be developed in concert with advances in NDE technology, materials processing research, and fabrication development. High-temperature materials and structures that fail to meet stringent specifications and standards are unlikely to compete successfully either technologically or in international markets.
Nondestructive Testing/Examination in the Construction Industry
Authors: Plumstead WC
Published: March 2009

Construction quality standards are dictated by engineering design or regulatory requirements. The type of service determines the specific nondestructive examination (NDE) requirements. Petrochemical, power, and high-pressure service are typical areas of construction that use codes and standards to specify quality requirements.

Most of the construction industry employs NDE subcontractors to perform required nondestructive examinations. Some companies use approved vendor lists for the selection of subcontractors. The evaluation of subcontractor programs and personnel is a cost to construction. Where it is not required, evaluations are often eliminated to reduce costs to construction.

A better system is needed to assure more consistent performance of nondestructive examinations. The present cost to industry resulting from substandard performance is excessive. Prequalification of NDE subcontractors programs and personnel will reduce the costs to construction that are associated with poor performance.

Increased utilization of ASTM Practice for Determining the Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Agencies (E 543) will improve the general qualifications of the nondestructive testing agencies and result in improved performance.
A Guide for Site and Soil Description in Hazardous Waste Site Characterization
Authors: Cameron RE
Published: March 2009

A guide has been prepared to assist field personnel to identify, describe, sample, and interpret site and soil characteristics of hazardous waste sites where metal contamination is suspected or known. It is directed to on-scene coordinators, project managers, work teams, and others who may need to apply the basic principles of soil science without formal training. It meets the need of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for standard procedures, guidelines, or protocols that address soil and site contamination with metal and metalloid species. Thirty-five “knowledge frames” are provided for commonly encountered site and soil characteristics, each of which contains specific guidance for the description of a parameter. The format of the knowledge frames is compatible with the Environmental Sample Expert system (ESES) software under development by Lockheed Engineering & Sciences Company for EPA EMSL-LV. The guide is also designed for use with an accompanying field pocket guide, which provides methods for site and soil description and analysis.
Fate and Transport of Hazardous Waste Constituents and Assessment of Environmental Risk from Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soils
Authors: Sober RF , Paul D
Published: March 2009

Predicting the fate and transport of hazardous constituents from hydrocarbon contaminated soils is an integral part of assessing constituent migration potential and exposure risks. This paper highlights a systematic methodology that was adopted for evaluating health risks associated with releases of hazardous air contaminants from a land treatment unit in the southwest. Included are procedures for estimating releases of constituents using mathematical models, site environmental and operating data, and literature references. Release estimates provided input to atmospheric dispersion models which translated releases to predicted ambient constituent concentrations. These concentrations were then compared with health-based standards to assess environmental exposure risk. Release estimates were prepared for both long-term and short-term emissions to address chronic and acute effects thus ensuring a comprehensive assessment of health and environmental risk. Since there are normally no point sources associated with contaminated soils, only fugitive particulates were considered.
A PC-Executable Program for Risk Characterization Evaluations of Environmental Pollutants
Authors: Small MJ
Published: March 2009

The U.S. Army Biomedical Research and Development Laboratory has been involved in site cleanup assessment problems since 1974, predating the passage of Superfund legislation. The approaches developed in the last 15 years have been adapted into a software package, the Pollutant Hazard Assessment System (PHAS20). FHAS20 conforms with regulatory guidance concerning baseline health assessments and is intended to assist decision makers through the various steps of a baseline assessment or similar risk assessment exercise. PHAS20 includes selected chemical property estimation methods and closed-form transport/transfer models to provide data inputs when reported or experimental data sources are not available. Rersults appear in a format that enhances integration of environmental biota effect considerations into the public health assessment process.
Effect of Test Variables on the Friction and Wear of Alumina
Authors: Bahadur S , Iskandar I
Published: March 2009

The sliding friction and wear behavior of alumina was studied using variations in the test methods and the procedures. The counterface materials against which alumina slid were tool steel, alumina, and zirconia-toughened alumina. Wear tests were performed using the ball-on-flat, block-on-ring, pin-on-disk, washer, and reciprocating arrangements with the alumina specimen constantly in contact with the tool steel counterface. The effects of the orientation of the alumina specimen in molded block, the method of surface preparation, and the variation in counterface material on wear were also studied. It was found that the orientation did not affect wear behavior. As for the surface preparation, alumina specimens were finished by abrasion against 600-grade silicon carbide paper and grinding with alumina and diamond wheels. There was some damage to the surface observed in all of these cases, but only diamond grinding affected the wear behavior adversely. The effect of counterface on the wear behavior was very significant. The effects of the above variations on the test results are examined and interpreted with the help of scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA), and tribological principles. The significance of the test variables is discussed in the context of anticipated ASTM standards for the testing of ceramics.
Effect of Test Machine Dynamics on the Sliding Wear of Alumina
Authors: Gee MG
Published: March 2009

Unlubricated sliding wear tests were carried out on an alumina ceramic with different loading systems. The experiments were aimed at determining if altering the mechanical response of the test system would change the wear and friction observed. A variation of nearly two orders of magnitude in wear rates was seen in tests that were carried out under nominally identical conditions. This was accompanied by a small increase in the friction coefficient as the wear rate increased. The variation in wear rates was found to be due to changes in the dominant wear mechanisms promoted by the alteration in the machine dynamics. Measurements were made of the mechanical response spectra of the different loading systems and of the transients in wear and friction signals, but no significant correlation was found with the wear and friction results.
Evaluation of Wear Materials for Seal Applications
Authors: Au JJ
Published: March 2009

The evaluation of wear materials for an industrial component depends on how well the selected test method or methods can represent the component so that direct and meaningful comparisons can be made by the design engineer. The selection, evolution, and design of wear tests for several types of seals are described. Although component and rig tests are discussed, bench wear test methods are emphasized. The importance of establishing a correlation between the bench test and seal performance in terms of wear, friction, and limiting pressure velocity (PV) is illustrated. Good correlation can be obtained at various levels of simulation for different types of seals. The approach used can be generalized to other wear components.
Fretting Wear of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
Authors: Jacobs O , Friedrich K , Schulte K
Published: March 2009

Carbon, glass, and aramid fiber-reinforced epoxy composites were exposed to oscillatory sliding against various metallic counterparts (steel, aluminum, brass, and titanium) in a flat-on-flat arrangement. The peak-to-peak oscillation width amounted to 700 μm; the contact pressure was 15 MPa. The formation of an interphase layer of wear debris, whose composition was determined by the reinforcing fiber, was found to govern the friction and wear mechanisms. The particulate debris of the glass and carbon fibers are more effective in separating the counterparts than the debris of the soft polymeric aramid fibers. Furthermore, the carbon fiber and, even more, the glass fiber particles act as an abrasive interlayer, which increases water. The abrasive effect of the fiber debris is more detrimental for the softer (aluminum, brass) than for the harder counterparts (steel, titanium).
Evaluation of Abrasive Particle Trajectories in a Slurry Jet During Erosion of Metal Matrix Composites
Authors: Turenne S , Fiset M
Published: March 2009

A slurry jet erosion apparatus was developed to evaluate the erosion resistance of different materials. The apparatus is based on an air-powered slurry pump; the slurry is accelerated through a nozzle before impingement on the test surface. Contrary to dry erosion conditions, the imposed velocity and impact angle of the particles at the exit of the nozzle are completely modified near the test surface. With the help of streamline analysis, the approximate trajectories of the particles in the fluid were found. The effects on these trajectories of different test parameters such as slurry velocity, particle size, and sand concentration were also studied. It was shown that local impact angle and particle velocity differ at every point of the surface. This investigation on the effect of experimental parameters was applied to the study of the relation between the erosion resistance of metal matrix composites and their microstructures. Particle- and fiber-reinforced composites were tested. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that protection effects from the reinforcement occur in the case of small abrasive particles relative to the area of matrix exposed. For relatively large abrasive, the reinforcement fracture after impact of abrasive particles leads to reduced erosion resistance when compared to erosion conditions resulting in unbroken reinforcement.
Applications of Materials Wear Testing to Solids Transport via Centrifugal Slurry Pumps
Authors: Pagalthivarthi KV , Helmly FW
Published: March 2009

Erosion wear of centrifugal slurry pumps is traditionally attributed to two different mechanisms, particle impact and scouring, which occurs as a result of a sliding bed of particles scratching against the wear surface. The impact and sliding wear coefficients (energy consumed per unit volume of material removed) are usually determined by separately simulating the two processes of wear in laboratory test equipment.

Although such simulations yield acceptable relative wear indexes for ranking wear resistance of materials, they fail to yield reasonable absolute values of wear coefficients when compared with actual measurements of wear on a pump. Possible reasons for this lack of agreement are proposed, and an alternative approach is presented to determine the absolute wear coefficients. This approach involves the finite element analysis of two-phase flow within the pump casing coupled with wear measurements on an actual pump casing. Test results for the simulated laboratory tests and the actual pump test are presented and discussed.
Sliding Wear Testing and Data Analysis Strategies for Advanced Engineering Ceramics
Authors: Blau PJ , Yust CS
Published: March 2009

Thousands of wear tests are conducted each year on advanced engineering ceramics, and the number will undoubtedly continue to grow. Most of these tests are conducted to screen or evaluate ceramic-based materials for specific applications; a smaller number are ostensibly conducted for more basic research purposes. Significantly, even the more generic testing is often justified by identifying potential applications for the results of that work. Most wear test methodology is derived from wear tests developed for metals and alloys. Use of such traditional methods is often adequate, especially if the method was based on a close simulation of the intended application. Differences in response to environment, fracture, and fatigue-related factors embodied in wear testing ceramics may, however, require modifications in testing strategy and in interpreting the significance of the results. Long incubation times for catastrophic wear transitions in ceramics may make accelerated or short-term testing risky. This paper outlines a strategy for designing sliding wear tests for ceramic materials using several examples for polycrystalline ceramics and ceramic composites. It also describes one procedure in which wear transition diagram methodology, developed for lubricated metals, can be adapted for use with ceramics.
Application of Soil Physical, Chemical, and Bioassay Methods to Coal Refuse
Authors: Lewis B-AG , MacDonell MM , Gnanapragasam N
Published: March 2009

Waste from coal-cleaning is extremely acid. Unlike soil, in which the colloidal complex controls physical and chemical behavior, coal waste chemistry appears to be controlled largely by strong acid. Soil test procedures can be applied to coal waste, but results cannot always be interpreted in the same manner as for soil. The Mitscherlich-Bray concept for phosphorus and potassium availability is invalid in coal waste due to confounding effects of iron and calcium. “Lime requirement” methods are not necessarily invalid, but the quantities of limestone eventually applied to the growth media may become ineffective. Extractants for metals in soils should be applied to coal waste with caution, due to changes in pH during the extraction. Particle size analysis by sedimentation, and single-value moisture constants, are generally invalid for coal wastes, but “available water” concepts have about the same applicability as in soils. Simple convective-dispersive models are applicable to solute transport in coal waste, but the major retardation reaction in the material may not be adsorption, as it is in typical soils.
Collection and Preparation of Soil Samples for the Federal Soil Survey Laboratory Program
Authors: Brown LE , Reinsch TG
Published: March 2009

Field observations are employed in the soil survey process to develop concepts f representative soils within the mapped area. At least one site is selected to represent each soil component of each soil map unit. Time and budget constraints usually dictate that only a few sites may be sampled. Each soil horizon at a sampling site is described and sampled. The samples include bulk soil material and specimens of natural fabric. The method used to process the sample in the laboratory depends upon properties of the soil and upon the requested analyses. Rock fragments >20 mm in diameter are determined in the field, and rock fragments <20 mm are measured in the laboratory. The fine earth material is homogenized and saved for chemical, physical, and mineralogical analyses. The laboratory data are used to classify and characterize the soil.
The Pi Test for Evaluating Bioavailability of Phosphorus
Authors: Menon RG
Published: March 2009

The Pi test is an innovative approach for evaluating the bioavailability of phosphorus (P) in soils. The test makes use of paper strips impregnated with iron oxides as a sink for P mobilized in a soil solution. The amount of P extracted by the strip was increased with increased surface area of the strip and increased time of contact between the iron oxide on the strip and phosphate ions in the soil solution. From soils the amount of P extracted increased with shaking time up to 8 h shaking. Over 8 h shaking, there was little increase in the amount of P extracted. Phosphorus extracted by the strips represents solution plus labile P that is mobilized. Soil : solution ratio had little effect on sorption of P by the Pi strips. Based on these, paper strips with 40 cm2 surface area and 16 h shaking time were chosen for further study.

The Pi test is insensitive to the type of soil. Significant amounts of P can be extracted by the filter paper strips from soils with low to high pH and the P extracted can predict yield and P uptake well at both low and high pH. Phosphorus extracted by the strips correlates well with P extracted by the Bray I, Mehlich I, and Olsen tests in acid soil and with Olsen P in alkaline and calcareous soils. The Pi test has a potential use in monitoring P concentrations in aquatic ecosystems, with preliminary studies showing that the test can reliably estimate dissolved P in water.
Factors Affecting the Soil Extraction and Preconcentration by C18 Solid-Phase Enrichment of Alachlor, Atrazine, and Atrazine Dealkylation Products
Authors: Schwab AP , Splichal P , Sarong Sonon L
Published: March 2009

Conventional liquid extraction of herbicides from soils followed by an evaporative concentration step is tedious, expensive, and subject to contamination. An alternative method was developed using methanol extraction and solid-phase enrichment by a C18 cartridge. Acetonitrile, methanol, and a mixture of 10 mL water in 100 mL methanol recovered similar fractions (52 to 98%) of applied alachlor [2-chloro-N-(2,6-diethylphenyl)-7V-(methoxymethyl)acetamide] and atrazine [6-chloro-N-ethyl-N′-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4,diamine] with the exception of the water-methanol, which was the least efficient in one soil. Extraction of herbicides from water and water-methanol mixtures by C18 cartridges was found to be extremely efficient, but the presence of small quantities of methanol greatly reduced the affinity of the cartridges for deethylatrazine and deisopropylatrazine, dealkylation products of atrazine. Shaking time and mass of the subsample were found to have little effect on the efficiency of extraction.
Determination of Lead and Cadmium in Soils, Sludges, and Fertilizers by an Ion- Exchange/Spectrophotometric Method
Authors: Heinzig M , DeYong GD , Bowden BK , Brayton SV , Anglin RJ
Published: March 2009

The MetalTrace method, which consists of an anion-exchange separation coupled with a spectrophotometric quantification, was used to determine lead and cadmium in sulfuric acid-hydrogen peroxide digests of soils and sludges and hydrobromic acid extracts of soils. Cadmium only was determined in sulfuric acid-hydrogen peroxide digests of fertilizers because no standards were available with certified lead contents. The selectivity provided by the anion-exchange separation allowed the use of a spectrophotometric indicator with an extremely high extinction coefficient so that detection limits in the low parts per million range could be attained. The results obtained using this method compared favorably with those obtained using much more expensive methods requiring more specialized training and equipment.
Utilization of the Baker Soil Test in Synthetic Soil Preparation for Reclamation of Coal Ash Disposal Sites
Authors: Senft JP , Baker DE , Amistadi MK
Published: March 2009

Application of procedures developed for preparation of synthetic soils for reclamation of two coal ash disposal sites in Pennsylvania is presented. These procedures include determination of water holding properties, lime requirement, and the Baker Soil Test (BST) for chemical element analysis. Results from soil and plant analyses following establishment of vegetation on the sites have shown that the BST predicts plant incorporation of chemical elements from the synthetic soils. The results confirm the utility of the BST in planning and executing successful reclamation on disturbed lands in a manner which protects the soil-plantanimal food chain.
Neutralization Potential as an Assay of Alkalinity of Environmental Solids
Authors: Grube WE , Ammons JT , Freeman JR
Published: March 2009

The method used to determine neutralizing equivalence of agricultural limestone has been applied to quantify the amount of bases present in a broad diversity of mineral materials, solid reagents, and products involved in environmental processes. The capacity to neutralize native or imposed acidity must be known in many processes in order to preserve near-neutral material. The standard method for assaying agricultural limestones was adapted to quantify native alkalinity in calcareous rocks exposed by coal surface mining. Data from these analyses continue to provide the surface mining industry and regulating agencies with a measure of the extent to which acidic mine drainage may be neutralized by the natural components of surrounding rock strata and disturbed materials. This approach to determine base content has also been applied to commercially available industrial byproducts added to soils or wastes. Kiln dust, fly ash, sludge, and other additives have been evaluated routinely to measure their alkalinity contribution and also batch-to-batch uniformity. The application of this technique to monitor amounts of reagents added to neutralize acid waste materials by adding alkalis is discussed. Use of this procedure to evaluate different materials is documented with exemplary data. Results of analyses of a broad variety of rock and soil materials, amended soils, soil additives or amendments, industrial waste byproducts, sludge, and treated wastes are presented. Utility of the procedure for routine quality control in soil treatment, amendment uniformity, and product analysis is discussed.
Hydraulic Conductivity of Vertical Cutoff Walls
Authors: Evans JC
Published: March 2009

Vertical cutoff walls have been used to control the movement of contaminants and contaminated groundwater since the remediation of contaminated sites began. There are, however, significant hydraulic conductivity differences between soil-bentonite, cement-bentonite, plastic concrete, and in situ mixed cutoff walls. The results of laboratory and field studies were assessed to show the influence of material properties, confining stress, permeameter type, water table position, and state of stress, on the hydraulic conductivity of vertical cutoffs.

The results of these studies show the range of hydraulic conductivity expected for each of the cutoff wall types. Increasing confining stress markedly decreases the hydraulic conductivity of soil-bentonite and has a measurable but reduced impact on stronger backfill materials. Studies on soil-bentonite cutoff walls show that the stress at depth is less than predicted using the effective weight of the overlying materials. This reduction in stress is a result of soil-bentonite materials “hanging-up” on the side walls of the trench. Thus, applying the effective stress calculated from the effective weight of the overlying backfill overestimates the stress to be used in the laboratory tests and results in unconservative measures of hydraulic conductivity. Field data also reveals that, with time, the hydraulic conductivity of soil-bentonite above the water table may increase substantially. Further, the hydraulic conductivity does not significantly decrease upon re-saturation.
Slug Tests for Determining Hydraulic Conductivity of Natural Geologic Deposits
Authors: Herzog BL
Published: March 2009

This paper reviews four methods for analyzing slug test data to determine hydraulic conductivity and examines the effects of slug size on slug test results. Data from more than 100 slug tests, including tests for low permeability (glacial tills and fractured rock) deposits, coarse-grained (sand) deposits, and simulated tests were analyzed. Analysis of the data showed that all four analytical methods can produce similar values of hydraulic conductivity for low permeability deposits. Values determined for coarser deposits were highly dependent on method; values commonly spanned up to two orders of magnitude. The method of Cooper et al. (1967) generally produced the highest values, followed by the methods of Bouwer and Rice (1976), Hvorslev (1951), and Nguyen and Pinder (1984).

For sandy materials, tests were repeated on each well using several different slug sizes, ranging from 0.5 to 6 meters. Several of the glacial till materials were tested using two different slug sizes. Calculated hydraulic conductivity values were independent of these slug sizes.
Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity in Fine-Grained Glacial Tills in Iowa: Comparison of In Situ and Laboratory Methods
Authors: Bruner DR , Lutenegger AJ
Published: March 2009

Nested-standpipe and vibrating-wire piezometers were installed in Pre-Illinoian Wolf Creek and Albernett formations at the Eastern Iowa Till Hydrology Site located in Linn County, Iowa. These surficial deposits are composed of fine-grained glacial diamicton (till) with occasional discontinuous lenses of sand and silt. They overlie the Silurian (dolomite) aquifer which provides private, public, and municipal drinking water supplies in the region. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the Wolf Creek Formation was investigated in a sub-area of the Eastern Iowa Till Hydrology Site. Calculations of saturated hydraulic conductivity were based on laboratory flexible-wall permeameter tests, bailer tests, and pumping test data. Results show that bulk hydraulic conductivity increases by several orders of magnitude as the tested volume of till increases. Increasing values of saturated hydraulic conductivity at larger spatial scales conceptually support a double-porosity flow model for this till.
Lessons Learned from the Application of Standard Test Methods for Field and Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity Measurement
Authors: Dunn RJ , Palmer BS
Published: March 2009

Standard ASTM test methods are now available for laboratory and field measurements of hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay soils which are used in liners and covers at waste facilities. They are widely used in waste facility design and construction quality assurance. Many of these methods require input of qualified professionals to select appropriate test parameters. Unless the parameters are carefully selected, conflict may arise over the suitability of test results and thus the regulatory acceptance of a liner or cover. Four case histories are presented which illustrate the use of both laboratory and field test methods and some of the variations which may result. These variations can usually be explained in terms of test parameters, but they emphasize the importance of suitable engineering judgement for careful selection of test conditions, and data reduction methods which are appropriate for to site conditions and allow for comparison of test results from various tests.
Large-Size Test for Transport of Organics Through Clay Liners
Authors: Edil TB , Park JK , Heim DP
Published: March 2009

Recent investigations indicate that organic chemicals are found in significant concentrations in sanitary landfill leachates. Previous research shows that sorption of organic chemicals is controlled by the amount of organic matter in clay and typical liner clays contain only about 1% organic carbon. Therefore, there is a concern about the fate of organic chemicals found in the leachate. Recent studies indicate the importance of test specimen size on hydraulic conductivity determination and the importance of diffusive transport through low-permeability clay liners. In this paper, development of a large-size liner test is presented. The test was designed to evaluate transport/attenuation behavior of volatile organic compounds through a compacted clay under realistic representation of field conditions. The results of a test that lasted 11 months (9 months of chemical transport) are presented along with the methods for testing and analysis. The results point out to the importance of large-scale, long-term tests and the need to develop other means of attenuation of organic chemicals.
Impact of Leakage on Precision in Low Gradient Flexible Hall Permeability Testing
Authors: Haug MD , Buettner WG , Wong LC
Published: March 2009

Flow rate measurement errors caused by apparent leakage from the test apparatus during low gradient permeability testing was found to have a significant impact on precision in low gradient hydraulic conductivity test results. A laboratory testing program was conducted on ten similarly configured flexible wall permeameters, using an “impermeable” steel cylindrical block for a test specimen. The fluid pressures used during this test were identical to those used during flexible wall permeability testing. The results of this program showed that all systems had a measurable leakage. This leakage was typically in the range of 5 E-6 ml/sec to 5 E-8 ml/sec. The flow rate measurement error (apparent leakage) was found to have a significant impact on low gradient testing and this impact increased as the hydraulic conductivity measured decreased. Other than lowering the leakage rates through adjustments of the apparatus, increasing the diameter of the test specimen to increase the total flow through the sample was found to be the most effective method of reducing the impact of leakage.
Hydraulic Conductivity and Adsorption Parameters for Pollutant Transport Through Montmorillonite and Modified Montmorillonite Clay Liner Materials
Authors: Lo IM-C , Liljestrand HM , Daniel DE
Published: March 2009

Montmorillonite clay has been modified by the addition of humic acid (HA) and aluminum hydroxide (A1OH) coatings to enhance the sorption of organics, attenuate their transport, and minimize changes in hydraulic conductivity. Batch sorption experiments and hydraulic conductivity tests have been performed to compare this HA-AlOH-Clay with commercially available Claymax®. Claymax® has an approximately 6.8–19 times greater Langmuir adsorption maximum for Pb2+ than that of HA-A1OH-Clay, but the partition coefficients of chlorobenzenes to the HA-A1OH-Clay are 14–25 times greater than that to Claymax®. Hydraulic conductivity tests for Claymax® with and without HA-AIOH-Clay have been performed using tap water, a synthetic leachate, and pure methanol. Synthetic leachate increased the hydraulic conductivity of the HA-A1OH-Clay together with Claymax® to 1.2*10-9 cm/s or about 3 times over that for tap water. The hydraulic conductivity of HA-AIOH-Clay alone is greater than the minimum required value (k = 1*10-7 cm/s) but can be used together with Claymax® to control chemical fluxes.
The Effects of Freeze/Thaw Cycles on the Permeability of Three Compacted Soils
Authors: Bowders JJ , McClelland S
Published: March 2009

Three soils: a processed kaolinite, a pulverized shale used as a liner material, and a residual clay soil used as a liner material were compacted using the standard Proctor method and permeated with distilled, deionized water in flexible-wall permeameters. Specimens were subjected to freezing and thawing in an environmental chamber. After being thawed the specimens were again permeated in the flexible-wall permeameters. The freeze/thaw process increased the permeability in all three soils. The kaolinite and residual clay soil showed increases in permeability ranging from one to two orders of magnitude above the pre-freeze/thaw values. The permeability of the pulverized shale increased by less than a factor of three. Post-freeze/thaw permeation at progressively higher effective confining stresses reversed the increase in permeability and resulted in decreasing the permeability from the post-freeze/thaw values. This reduction in permeability was greatest for the kaolinite and the residual clay (one to two orders of magnitude); it was the least for the pulverized shale (maximum of a factor of about two). The results of this study indicated that the magnitude of the change in permeability of specimens subjected to freeze/thaw increased with increasing plasticity of the soils. These findings are in agreement with previous literature that freezing and thawing do increase the permeability of a soil but that the increase can be reduced when effective stress on the soil is increased.
Volume-Controlled Hydrologic Property Measurements in Triaxial Systems
Authors: Olsen HW , Willden AT , Kiusalaas NJ , Nelson KR , Poeter EP
Published: March 2009

New capabilities for hydrologic property measurements in triaxial systems include: (1) volume-controlled and simultaneous measurements of hydraulic conductivity and one-dimensional consolidation (or specific storage) of a saturated test specimen; and (2) volume-controlled measurements of hydraulic conductivity, matric potential, and the variation of these properties with the moisture content of an unsaturated test specimen.

Data on saturated kaolinite demonstrate simultaneous hydraulic-conductivity and one-dimensional consolidation tests with continuous monitoring of both vertical and horizontal effective stresses. Data on well-graded silty sand demonstrate the feasibility of concurrent constant-flow hydraulic conductivity and matric potential measurements, and the variation of these properties with moisture content, for undisturbed and unsaturated specimens mounted in triaxial cells. Refinements needed to realize the full potential of these capabilities include a more rigid triaxial cell to minimize compliance, and an improved technique for measuring hydraulic-head differences within an unsaturated test specimen.
Two Case Histories: Field Sealed Double Ring Infiltrometer(SDRI) and Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity Comparison Test Programs
Authors: Wallace JF , Sacrison RR , Rosik EE
Published: March 2009

Two case histories are discussed presenting the results of Sealed Double Ring Infiltrometer (SDRI) tests conducted in conjunction with laboratory test programs. Testing was performed on liner demonstration test fills and on liner materials obtained from within the SDRI test cells. One series of tests was conducted on a compacted weathered shale being used as a primary liner in a gold mine tailings facility. The second site was a test fill constructed as a demonstration for material suitability to be used as a tertiary liner in a low level mixed waste commercial landfill. In the second test, series of both fixed and flexible wall constant head permeability tests were performed. In both case histories, SDRI measured hydraulic conductivities were well within the same order of magnitude as those measured in the laboratory. In one case the field measured values were within a factor of 2 of those determined in the laboratory. Good agreement was also obtained for hydraulic conductivity between values measured using fixed wall and flexible wall testing procedures. These case histories present significant additions to the small but growing body of published data showing reasonable agreement between hydraulic conductivity measured in situ in the field and those values measured in the laboratory.