bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Citizen Diplomat: The Community's Role Today
Authors: Pratt Alice Reynolds
Published: March 2007

As community groups serving international visitors look toward the twenty-first century, they can be justly proud of their growth and accomplishments during the past 25 years. The citizen diplomat today is more sensi tive to the needs of visiting leaders and students and has more expertise in receiving them. Many relationships are emerging which result in long-term involvements in cultural and business contacts. Over 561 U.S. cities are twinned with 703 cities abroad, adding yet another dimension to the informal exchanges between the U.S. and other countries. National coordinating agencies, with the support and assist ance of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the Department of State and the Agency for International Development, provide solid leadership and good liaison be tween groups. State and municipal governments, with some exceptions, need to devote more attention to protocol for visits of high-ranking officials who are adding more U.S. cities to their itineraries. States and cities where Consular Corps members are located have a special obligation to these representatives of foreign governments. The nationwide net work of volunteer community organizations provides a unique experience for visiting foreigners, and the pro gramming compares favorably to other nations where more centralized control is exercised.
Maintenance of Revolutionary Values
Authors: Kelly Alfred H. , Miles Richard D.
Published: March 2007

Though the values and institutional structure of the American system of constitutional liberty have to some extent exhibited extraordinary continuity, it has evolved with the growth of the American social and political order and successive political crises. The Revolutionary era saw the emergence of 2 or 3 closely related ideas about man and his relation to the state, which served as the foundations of America's constitutional democracy—the ideas of limited government, natural rights, and the concept of an open society. It is the theory of natural law, natural right, the compact theory of the state, and limited government that Jefferson incorporated in the Declaration of Independence. But it cannot be assumed that the Declaration and the Revolution completed the union between natural rights and human equality. In many respects the sociopolitical structure out of which they came was not democratic at all. For in stance, it still tolerated slavery. The Bill of Rights provided a statement of natural and historical rights translated into law. Today, constitutional rights in the areas of equality, the dimensions of an open society, and nationalization of con stitutional liberty have changed substantially from those of the Revolutionary era.
Perspectives on Development Aid: World War II to Today and Beyond
Authors: Grant James P.
Published: March 2007

After World War II the United States responded to the decimation of Western Europe and to the expansion of communism by providing massive economic assistance— the Marshall Plan. President Truman's Point Four Program enunciated American willingness to share "scientific advances and industrial progress for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas." As of the late 1970s, after a generation of unprecedented development progress for a majority of the world, the most basic needs of nearly one billion people remain unmet and the international economic system is no longer working well for either the industrial democracies of the Northern Hemisphere or the developing countries to their south. Without increased cooperation and major systemic reforms, the North as well as the South face the prospect of persistent, high inflation and slower growth in the 1980s. Today, as in the years immediately after World War II, a new statecraft is required if the last decades of this century are to bring political, economic and social progress to the countries of the North and the South comparable to that achieved by the industrial democracies in the period from the late 1940s to the early 1970s.
Mass Media: Opportunities and Threats
Authors: Sussman Leonard R.
Published: March 2007

As communications technologies increase human-kind's ability to send more messages across greater distance at even faster speeds, the opportunities multiply for broader and deeper transnational information-sharing—but threats to the fair and free use of the mass media increase as well. The more massive the communications systems become, the smaller the number of communicators who can control what larger numbers of receivers can see or hear. The trend toward concentration of ownership of the mass media continues in the United States and other free countries but it does not seriously inhibit the choice of American citizens.

Some Third World countries which have one-party systems and government-owned news media are slowly relaxing restrictions on domestic journalists. Harsh information controls in the Soviet Union and elsewhere have not provided successful models for the development of Third World countries.

Developing nations have valid reasons to criticize Western coverage of their societies. Such objections need not be met by hampering the free flow of information—as press-control states contend—but by broadening and diversifying the flow of ideas.
Chapter 2
Authors: Lunde Anders Steen
Published: March 2007

On the whole, the American people consider themselves healthy and, according to the major health indicators, they are becoming healthier all the time. The expectation of life at birth is one and one-half times what it was at the beginning of the century. Many of the leading causes of death have experienced significant declines in rates in the last decade. Nevertheless, the minority populations frequently lag behind the white population with respect to health indicators. Prevention in the health field is being stressed through immunization programs and programs to influence individuals to change their habits. Nutrition is playing a larger role in public life; considerable publicity has been given to dietary goals for promotion of good health. The health service industry has grown rapidly. Health care has expanded and its costs have trebled since 1970. In the 1980s, interest will undoubtedly focus on minority populations and health, on how the economically disadvantaged may better be served, on the effects of an aging population on the health care system, and on how life-styles which undermine health care can be changed. The U.S. Surgeon General has established national health goals for the 1980s that will improve the nation's health if they are achieved.
Chapter 3
Authors: Pisarski Alan E.
Published: March 2007

The consumption of transportation in the United States is prodigious. Given the large shares of national resources, time, and capital invested in transportation, it is surprising how little understood are the motivations and circumstances that stimulate travel and the scale and nature of the benefits that derive from transportation. The development of social indicators in the transport sector would make a major contribution to improved understanding of transportation and to improved public decisions in the coming decade. The key element in the future mobility of the U.S. population will continue to be the automobile. Critical factors determining the future cost of auto travel will be synthetic fuels development, shifts to diesel, and electrification; with positive development, auto-operating costs could remain roughly constant in this decade. In other modes of passenger travel, the key to competitive success will be the ability to reduce fuel requirements. In modifying freight transport patterns, the shifting location and character of fuel resources will be the dominant factor. Consumers will either have to consume less transportation or accept the displacement of other needs to retain their present levels of mobility. The trade-offs made will materially affect life-styles and national economic structure.
Chapter 4
Authors: Mare Robert D.
Published: March 2007

Educational levels in the population have grown enormously during the twentieth century, primarily through a process of cohort succession. Educational growth has been concentrated through the spread of grade and high school education, and not through increases in rates of progression from high school to college. Educational growth results from improvements in family socioeconomic standing, shifts in economic incentives, legislative changes facilitating school attendance, and changes in the organization of schools. School enrollment levels since World War II have been heavily influenced by the postwar baby boom and the fertility decline in the 1960s and 1970s. College enrollments will fall significantly in the next few years, but this may be mitigated by increases in the favorability of family circumstances for educational attainment. Socioeconomic differences in educational attainment have been approximately constant through the twentieth century, whereas race differentials in schooling have significantly converged. Performances on standardized aptitude and achievement tests for high school students have declined dramatically since the mid-1960s, a trend due partly to changes in schools' curricula. Elementary schools have consolidated throughout the twentieth century, while secondary schools have been approximately constant in number and institutions of higher education have proliferated.
Chapter 6
Authors: Danzinger Sheldon , Plotnick Robert
Published: March 2007

Government spending for social welfare purposes has grown rapidly in recent years as new programs have been enacted and the benefit levels and eligibility requirements in existing programs have expanded. This chapter examines the accomplishments and problems of the income maintenance programs that attempt to guarantee income security—an acceptable and stable standard of living. These programs reduce poverty, facilitate access to essential goods and services, and cushion disruptions in household income flows. However, they deal differently with people having the same needs but different charateristics, and they discourage work. Some suggestions are offered for reforming income maintenance programs that can correct some of the deficiencies of current programs while preserving their accomplishments.
The Green Revolution as a Case Study in Transfer of Technology
Authors: Pray Carl E.
Published: March 2007

The green revolution was a transfer of the idea of fertilizer-responsive grain varieties and the capacity to develop them from temporate countries to the countries of South and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America. Key actors in this transfer of technology included the public research institutions in the less-developed countries (LDCs), the International Agricultural Research Centers, the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, and the United States Agency for International Development. Once these institutions had bridged the gap between countries, the farmers rapidly accepted the new technology in areas where the agroclimatic and economic conditions were favorable. The green revolution was neither the cure for the problems of world hunger, as some early enthusiasts suggested, nor an important cause of income inequality and poverty, as suggested by its critics. When separated from the impact of factors such as rapid population growth, the shortage of arable land, and government policy, it is clear that the green revolution has substantially increased the supply of food grain and thus kept food grain prices lower than they would have been in the absence of new technology. This lowering of prices generally had a positive impact on income distribution. At the same time these varieties have had a less positive impact on agricultural income through their impact on demand for factors of production: landowners have benefited more than laborers. However, laborers would have been in a worse position in the absence of the green revolution.
The United States and World Stagflation: The Export and Import of Inflationary Pressures
Authors: WILLETT THOMAS D.
Published: March 2007

This article argues that while macroeconomic and monetary interdependence is certainly important, the previous tendency to overlook the significance of such factors for the U.S. economy has given way to frequent tendencies to exaggerate greatly their quantitative importance. The available systematic empirical studies suggest that the United States has neither exported as much inflation and unemployment to other countries as is frequently alleged in popular discussions, nor imported as much inflation and unemployment from abroad. While effects of such international factors as oil price and exchange-rate changes are far from trivial our inflation has been primarily homegrown and we cannot take fluctuations in the dollar as a clear indicator for the course of domestic policies.
Homebuilding in the 1980s: Crisis or Transition?
Authors: EICHLER NED
Published: March 2007

At the end of World War II, pent-up demand and favorable government action—notably, better financing and high-way building—combined to create the setting for a boom in house construction. This bred a new type of company, merchant builders, who brought together every aspect of homebuilding, from land acquisition to consumer finance and marketing. After receding somewhere in the late 1950s and most of the 1960s, housing starts reached all-time highs in the 1970s. Throughout all of the postwar period, merchant builders with annual volume of 100 units or more came to dominate the industry. Dozens of firms sought far greater scale, and some even dreamed of creating truly national firms. The rampant inflation of the 1970s, particularly the last half of the decade, and the coming of age of the postwar baby boom generated enormous volume in starts, resale transactions, and merchant-builder profits. But events since 1979 may well mark that year as the end of a golden era. For the past two years, transactional velocity and profits have been severely constrained, a situation that will continue for several more years. Dreams of glory are being shattered. However, by the middle of the decade this harsh transition will have ended, and the industry will return to conditions much like those of the early 1960s.
Nonhierarchical Approaches to the Organization of Public Activity
Authors: OSTROM VINCENT
Published: March 2007

Recent emphasis on the management of intergovernmental relations raises questions about patterns of governance in a federal system that rely more upon the nonhierarchical modes of organization implied by management principles. Tocqueville, in Democracy in America, explicitly recognized that the American system of administration relied on nonhierarchical methods of control that manifest an invisible-hand effect in the exercise of administrative power. Modern developments in public choice theory provide another explanation for nonhierarchical patterns of organization in a public economy. Such modes of organization are consistent with the patterns of multiorganizational arrangement that one would expect to occur in a federal system of administration, in contrast to a bureaucratic system of administration.
The Haitians versus the United States: The Courts as Last Resort
Authors: ZUCKER NAOMI FLINK
Published: March 2007

The decision to deny asylum to arriving Haitians was made soon after they began arriving in this country. Asylum has been denied the Haitians because they flee the dictatorship of an ally, because they are poor and unskilled, and because their admission encourages others like them. All government practice since the initial decision was made—the requirement of bond, detention, refusal of work authorizations, denial of due process, illicit deportation, and interdiction—has been implemented in support of the original decision not to admit Haitians. In reaction to the government's policy and practice, successive lawsuits have been brought on behalf of the Haitians. In nearly every case, the courts have found for the plaintiffs, but shortly the government has resumed the enjoined practice, convinced that this is the only way to deal with the problem. Finally, perceiving the courts as an impediment to its ends, the Reagan administration introduced legislation that would effectively bar judicial review. It is not the rulings of the courts, however, that have obstructed the immigration system, but the persistence of the government in relying on illegal practices. In the end, only fairness will enable us to recover the control we have lost.
The Refugee Act of 1980: Problems and Congressional Concerns
Authors: LEIBOWITZ ARNOLD H.
Published: March 2007

The Refugee Act of 1980 was the most comprehensive U.S. law ever enacted concerning refugee admissions and resettlement. But each one of its principles has raised problems and encouraged new debate with respect to its implementation or its continuance. Levels of refugee flow are clearly a concern in Congress, linked in the eyes of many with broader issues of border control, fiscal policy, and the appropriate role of the legislative branch. Further attempts to limit that flow through some sort of numerical cap can be expected, as well as further debate on the reach of the refugee definition. Closely associated with the issue of flow and the validity of particular claims is the asylum issue. The right of asylum, having been incorporated into domestic law, will not be abolished. However, concern over numbers, over the inefficiency of present procedures, and over their hotly debated fairness or political bias is certain to generate renewed effort to reform asylum adjudication procedures. Finally, the method and financing of resettlement assistance to refugees is likely to remain the subject of debate. Divorcing refugee assistance from refugee admissions will continue to be discussed. Congressional battles will also be waged over appropriate levels of funding for refugee programs and quite possibly over the design of those programs, especially as it affects their coordination with state and local governments, the role of the private voluntary agencies, and the mutual assistance agencies.
Western Europe: Cycles, Crisis, and the Nuclear Revolution
Authors: McARDLE KELLEHER CATHERINE
Published: March 2007

In the 1980s European policies regarding the use and control of nuclear weapons will reflect two different developments. The first is the scope and duration of the current debate about nuclear deterrence and defense, which has dominated public discussion since NATO's decision to deploy intermediate-range nuclear missiles. Less obvious is the second, the emerging agenda concerning the requirements and limits of British and French nuclear independence, the program of nuclear modernization, and the goals of arms control negotiation in Europe. Crucial to the outcomes will be the evolving views of new European leaders and the policy choices of the United States.
Union Organizing: New Challenges and Prospects
Authors: KISTLER ALAN
Published: March 2007

Among unorganized workers there exists widespread prounion sentiment and interest in workers' rights. Serious obstacles, particularly in the private sector, frequently prevent translation of those sentiments into collective bargaining. Intensified, often illegal, employer resistance, and the inadequacy of the collective bargaining legal apparatus combine to deny workers their right to determine freely whether they want union representation. Many employers seek delays to defuse organizing efforts; others violate employee organizing and collective bargaining rights through illegal discharges or refusal to bargain. Illegal antiunion consultant activity subverts congressionally established national labor policy to encourage the practice of collective bargaining. New organizing approaches are developing in response to such obstacles and to the changing composition and aspirations of the work force while traditional methodology is being strengthened. The primary challenges to organizing in this decade will be the adversity of employer opposition and the changing character of work in America.
New Directions for American Unionism
Authors: OSWALD RUDY
Published: March 2007

America's trade unions take a dual approach to advancing the interests of workers and their families. This dual approach includes not only collective bargaining with employers but also renewed emphasis on representation of workers' interests in the political-legislative process. In the 1980s and 1990s the American labor movement will push at the bargaining table and at the ballot box for full employment and job security, fair income distribution through wage and salary improvements and better government taxing and spending policies, adequate health and safety protections for workers and their families, protection of workers against adverse affects of technological change, better U.S. trade policies, and a coherent national industrial policy. Union mergers in the 1980s and 1990s will strengthen the ability of unions to represent workers more effectively.
Responsibility and Crime in Literature
Authors: SAGARIN EDWARD , KELLY ROBERT J.
Published: March 2007

Accountability for one's actions has been a major theme that literary artists have grappled with over the centuries. Among the works in which it plays a significant role, and which are here analyzed, are the Oedipus trilogy, Hamlet, The Brothers Karamazov, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, The Trial, The Stranger, and three twentieth-century American novels: An American Tragedy, Light in August, and Native Son. Insights into the dark recesses of the human mind, which can complement the insights of legal philosophers and social scientists, are revealed in these and other works. They point to an argument that prophesy is not immutable destiny and that social causation is not social determinism. The human being achieves freedom by acceptance of responsibility, each man for his own acts, each woman for hers.
The Aftermath of an Insanity Acquittal: The Supreme Court's Recent Decision in Jones v. United States
Authors: SINGER RICHARD
Published: March 2007

The disposition of persons acquitted on insanity grounds has always cast a shadow on the insanity debate. Recently, the Supreme Court of the United States decided that these persons could constitutionally be given fewer procedural and substantive protections against indeterminate confinement than other persons confined for mental illness. The Court's opinion dealt with questions not directly raised by the case and may have been prompted by a general unease about the insanity defense itself. The opinion is likely to discourage many from entering such a plea in the future.
The Growth of Religious Reform Movements
Authors: WUTHNOW ROBERT
Published: March 2007

Moral Majority, pro-life groups, charismatic renewal, antinuclear coalitions, religious feminist groups—all typify American religion in the 1980s. Neglected in most studies of denominationalism and church-sect dynamics, these reform movements provide the sinews that crosscut denominational boundaries and shape the course of religious organizations. Such movements have deep roots in American history, but evidence indicates that their numbers have grown dramatically during the past quarter century and that millions of Americans are currently involved in them. Reform movements play an important role in revitalizing commitments to the churches, but they also raise the specter of a stultifying bureaucratization of American faith.
Religion and Politics in the United States: An Overview
Authors: THOMPSON KENNETH W.
Published: March 2007

This article seeks to examine the relationship between the sacred and the secular in the United States historically and in the present. It probes what the founding fathers intended and how church-state relations have changed over time. The tendency of contemporary leaders to inject their religious views into public policy positions is analyzed in some detail, and perils of abridging the principles of church-state relations that are enshrined in the Constitution are reviewed. Also treated is the perception of leaders and opinion makers at home and abroad. An effort is made to draw on the thought of both classical and recent interpreters of the problem. The shifts in the positions of American leaders in response to the demands of partisan politics are noted.
Revolution, Counterrevolution, and the Catholic Church in Chile
Authors: SIGMUND PAUL E.
Published: March 2007

This article traces the moral and political role of the Catholic Church in Chile from the colonial period, through the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, to the upheavals of the last 25 years. During the last period, conservative, reformist, revolutionary, and counterrevolutionary governments succeeded one another in power, and each sought legitimation—or at least cooperation—from the church. A pattern of increasing pluralism is traced from a nearly complete identification with the Conservative Party until the 1930s; to a choice, from the 1930s to the 1970s, between Conservatives and Christian Democrats in a state in which church and state were separated; to the movement to the left by some Catholics in the Allende period, 1970-73; to the effort by the Pinochet government after 1973 to use religion to support authoritarian government. It is argued that under the same leadership—especially that of Cardinal Raul Silva—the church has successfully maintained its defense of moral values while avoiding too close an identification with existing regimes. In the Pinochet case, the church also emerged as an active defender of human rights and the poor and provided a political space for critics of the military government.
Religion and State in Libya: The Politics of Identity
Authors: ANDERSON LISA
Published: March 2007

Striking as the role of religion has been in the modern political history of Libya, it illustrates ambiguities in political identity that are, in fact, common throughout the Muslim Arab world. The tensions between the concepts of political legitimacy bequeathed by the historical Islamic empires and Western-inspired notions of ethnic nationalism and state patriotism have created dilemmas for rulers and the ruled in the Muslim Arab world since the beginning of the twentieth century. The Libyan governments' reliance on Islamic formulas to inspire political loyalty reflects the weakness of both Arab and Libyan nationalist traditions in the country. Qadhdhafi's revolutionary ideology constitutes an effort to transcend the dilemmas of Libyan national identity, but it has not proved persuasive to most of his compatriots.
Migration and the Political Economy of the Welfare State
Authors: FREEMAN GARY P.
Published: March 2007

National welfare states are compelled by their logic to be closed systems that seek to insulate themselves from external pressures and that restrict rights and benefits to members. They nonetheless fail to be perfectly bounded in a global economy marked by competition, interdependence, and extreme inequality. This article explores the consequences of transnational flows of labor both for the status of migrants who move to welfare states and for the viability of welfare states themselves. The consequences of migration for the fiscal and political stability of welfare states are discussed, and it is argued that migration has contributed to the Americanization of European welfare politics. It is concluded that the relatively free movement of labor across national frontiers exposes the tension between closed welfare states and open economies and that, ultimately, national welfare states cannot coexist with the free movement of labor.
The Social Organization of Mexican Migration to the United States
Authors: MASSEY DOUGLAS S.
Published: March 2007

Migration between Mexico and the United States is supported by social networks that link sending communities with specific work sites in the United States. This article uses a combination of ethnographic and survey methods to study how these networks develop and how they facilitate the migrant enterprise. Migrant networks are based on the bonds of kinship, friendship, and paisanaje, which are reinforced through frequent contact in voluntary organizations. Over time, as networks develop and mature, migration becomes self-sustaining. The maturation of migrant networks in western Mexico after 1965 helps to explain the sharp rise in Mexican migration to the United States during the 1970s.
Security versus Growth: The International Factor in South African Policy
Authors: PRICE ROBERT M.
Published: March 2007

A key feature of South Africa's political dynamics is the linkage between its domestic affairs and its international relations. South Africa's access to international markets for vital capital and technology is threatened by the nature of its domestic socioeconomic and political systems. In its efforts to maintain white rule, the South African government has, over the past 25 years, sought to deal with this threat by uncoupling its domestic affairs from its foreign economic relations. The methods utilized to attempt this have varied. Pretoria has altered its domestic sociopolitical arrangements in ways that it believed, and hoped, would make South Africa more acceptable internationally. It has fashioned its foreign policy so as to attempt to reduce the international consequences of its stigma of racial rule. It has sought to reduce its vital dependence on the international economic system through policies that would increase the autonomy of the South African economy. And, most recently, it has sought to diversify its foreign sources of capital and its trading partners toward countries whose governments and firms are likely to be less sensitive about South Africa's system of white supremacy.
Language Conservation
Authors: CAMPBELL RUSSELL N. , SCHNELL SUSAN
Published: March 2007

Competencies in a large number of languages brought to our schools by representatives of linguistic minority groups are, through an unspoken policy of subtractive language education, irrevocably lost as national foreign language resources. This occurs in spite of repeated declarations of national leaders in commerce, defense, education, and international affairs that our foreign language resources are in a “scandalous” state. There are promising ways in which our schools can conserve the extraordinarily valuable language resources that are currently being squandered. A description of a model of two-way bilingual education is described that has the potential of providing opportunities for linguistic minority children to develop mature, adult literacy skills in their ancestral language.
Legislative Origins of the Fulbright Program
Authors: JEFFREY HARRY P.
Published: March 2007

This article briefly summarizes the scope of the Fulbright scholarship program. A biographical sketch of J. William Fulbright indicates how his experiences before he ran for public office and his activities and concerns as a representative and senator shaped the origin of the exchange program. In some depth the article examines the strategy Fulbright employed to produce a politically palatable bill and his tactics of quietly pushing the proposal through to enactment. More than most pieces of congressional legislation, the Fulbright exchange program is the product of the efforts of one man, Senator Fulbright.
The Political Economy of Informal Economies
Authors: HENRY STUART
Published: March 2007

This article considers the mutual interrelationship between informal economies and the wider political economy of capitalism. Four dimensions are discussed: (1) the generation of informal economies as a paradoxical outcome of distinguishing them from capitalism; (2) the support given by capitalism and reciprocated by informal economies that enables each to gain strength from their similarities; (3) the opposition to informal economies that is reflected back on the wider economy; and (4) the destruction capitalism inflicts as it attempts to colonize and co-opt informal economies and the simultaneous transformation of capitalism that occurs with their absorption into the wider structure. The article argues that as a result of these complex interrelations, the development of, and intervention in, informal economies is neither simple nor linear. Failure to take these relations into account can lead to policy and its implementation that produce many unforeseen outcomes.
Neighborhood Education, Mobilization, and Organization for Juvenile Crime Prevention
Authors: FAGAN JEFFREY
Published: March 2007

From 1981 to 1986, a federally sponsored research and development program to prevent violent juvenile crime was implemented through neighborhood-based organizations in the Bronx, Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New Orleans, and San Diego. Its goal was to reduce such crime in specific locations through resident mobilization to strengthen neighborhood cohesion and make local institutions more responsive. A conceptual framework was based on social control and learning theories. Each local version of the program involved an ongoing needs assessment through which neighborhood resident councils planned and revised their efforts. Each local program was required to include violent-crisis intervention, mediation, family support networking, and youth skills development. After 36 months of planning and implementation, serious juvenile crime decreased in three of the six target neighborhoods, compared to their respective cities. Most of the programs developed means of financial support to carry on all or part of the effort after federal funding ended. Community-led programs that emphasize advocacy and institutional mediation appear to be more effective than traditional social services in mobilizing residents to prevent juvenile crime and violence.
Law Enforcement, Social Justice, and the Legacy of Milton Eisenhower
Authors: KENNEDY EDWARD M.
Published: March 2007

The new policy advocated by the Eisenhower Foundation is well illustrated by the neighborhood, education, and employment opportunity extended to high-risk young people by the Dorchester Youth Collaborative in Boston. But such promising programs, and other state and local initiatives, require far more resources than they now are receiving from Washington. The challenges that lie ahead include continued deinstitutionalization of status offenders, reform of a correctional system in which minority youth are assigned to public institutions and whites are placed in private facilities, and effective control of handguns.
Congress, Presidents, and the Arts: Collaboration and Struggle
Authors: WYSZOMIRSKI MARGARET JANE
Published: March 2007

In the 23 years since the establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), an arts-policy subgovernment has emerged. It comprises the agency, its congressional oversight and appropriations committees, and arts interest groups. During the first decade of the NEA's existence, both presidential leadership and congressional support were essential to the agency's development. Meanwhile, an arts constitutency mobilized. During the second decade, the triangular alliance of agency administrators, congressional supporters, and arts interest groups matured and proved capable of either collaboration or conflict with the president. The record of arts policy since 1975—and especially during the Reagan years—reveals this new subgovernment's ability to protect the status quo from threatening presidential action. But because relatively low political stakes are involved in arts policy and the various members of the subgovernment alliance are themselves weak, positive policy action appears to require the active collaboration of Congress, presidents, constituency, and agency.
The Military and Higher Education in the USSR
Authors: COOPER JULIAN
Published: March 2007

The military dimension of the Soviet higher-educational system is difficult to explore because of the striking scarcity of published evidence. There is a military presence at all universities and higher-educational institutes. It takes diverse forms, including special military departments and an elaborate system for the military-patriotic education of students. Research is undertaken for defense-related clients, although such research represents a modest share of the total military research and development effort. In general, the relationship with the military is harmonious, but this tradition of harmony, reflecting broader social attitudes toward the military in Soviet society, has come under strain in recent years as a result of changes in conscription policy. In the new conditions of glasnost, discontents have been able to find open expression and this may remain the pattern for the future.
Obstacles to Economic Reform of Socialism: An Institutional-Choice Approach
Authors: ICKES BARRY W.
Published: March 2007

Marketizing reforms are often suggested as remedies for the problems that plague socialist economies. Introducing market reforms is a complex problem. This article examines the obstacles to such reforms. It employs an institutional-choice perspective to study the conditions that are necessary to make marketization effective and discusses the likely outcomes of incomplete marketization.
Computation, Incentives, and Discovery: The Cognitive Function of Markets in Market Socialism
Authors: LAVOIE DON
Published: March 2007

Decisive for the question of the feasibility of various versions of market socialism is the issue of the basic cognitive function markets are expected to provide. Three increasingly comprehensive interpretations of the cognitive function of markets, labeled computation, incentives, and discovery, are described and contrasted. Depending on how the basic cognitive role of markets is interpreted, very different judgments are possible on the feasibility of market socialism. Two types of market socialism are examined in terms of these approaches, and their shortcomings are attributed to their incomplete appreciation of the way knowledge is created, discovered, and conveyed in market processes.
Population Policy and Externalities to Childbearing
Authors: LEE RONALD , MILLER TIM
Published: March 2007

When individual couples make informed fertility decisions that reflect a concern for the future well-being of their own children, the aggregate demographic outcome should be both socially and individually optimal. This result depends on several assumptions, including the absence of externalities to childbearing—costs and benefits of children that fall on society at large without impinging on their parents directly or passing through markets. Four categories of externalities are here evaluated: reproductive dilution of collective wealth; cost spreading for public goods; public-sector intergenerational transfers—health, education, and pensions; and other governmental expenditures. Intergenerational transfers are found to create large positive externalities in industrial welfare states but small negative ones in Third World countries. Public goods lead to sizable positive externalities in both groups of countries. Other governmental expenditures lead to considerable negative externalities. Collective wealth in the form of publicly owned mineral reserves leads in some cases to enormous negative externalities, while in other cases it is of little importance. No evaluation is attempted for collective environmental wealth, scale returns, or induced technological change.
Arms Control Challenges to Defense Planning
Authors: BURNS WILLIAM F.
Published: March 2007

Understandably, military planners and strategists are often overtaken by real-world events. Given the profound changes in the world in the past few years, the basis for planners' analysis has not changed: strategy and force structure designed to enhance deterrence at reasonable and acceptable costs. Planners require new and refined guidance to move into uncharted post-Cold War waters. Military planners should call upon resources provided by arms control initiatives. Arms control offers the opportunity to negotiate parity at the lowest practical levels and to develop strategies and force structures with a relatively high assurance of success against potential enemies. The Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, Conventional Forces in Europe, and Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces treaties offer unique opportunities to apply arms control agreements to enhance defense planners' efforts. Future treaties should be shaped by defense needs as well as by arms control theories and broader foreign policy concerns.
China and South Asia
Authors: GARVER JOHN W.
Published: March 2007

Sino-Soviet rapprochement and a reevaluation of India's China policy by Rajiv Gandhi in 1987 have produced the most cordial Sino-Indian relations in over thirty years. Both Beijing and New Delhi desire still further improvements in bilateral relations but have been stymied by a paucity of parallel interests and by continuing fundamental conflicts over the territorial issue and China's role in South Asia. Zhou Enlai's 1960 proposal that China accept Indian claims in the eastern Himalayas while India accept China's claims in the region southeast of the Karakoram Pass no longer stands. Beijing now calls for Indian concessions in the east in exchange for Chinese concessions in the west. China also views military relations between itself and South Asian countries as legitimate relations well within the purview of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. To New Delhi, they constitute unacceptable threats to Indian security. Because of these continuing fundamental tensions and rivalries, China's entente cordiale with Pakistan remains important to Beijing.
Mother-Tongue Literacy in Nigeria
Authors: OKEDARA J. T. , OKEDARA C. A.
Published: March 2007

The importance of mother-tongue literacy cannot be overemphasized. Regrettably, contemporary language literacy in Nigeria is fraught with constraints, such as the lack of orthography for a large proportion of Nigerian languages. The prospects for mass literacy are not encouraging, unless the federal government of Nigeria directs its efforts to developing orthography and literature in many unwritten indigenous languages. Moreover, there is a need to clarify, in terms of policy, what it means to be literate locally, regionally, and nationally. The newly established Commission for Adult and Non-Formal Education is charged with working out language policy for an adult literacy program in the country. The hope is that the commission will soon provide a realistic solution to the problem. Nigeria could thereby present a model program for other countries in similar circumstances to emulate, as necessary and appropriate.
The Future of Governance in the United States: 1992-2002
Authors: GRELL JAN M. , GAPPERT GARY
Published: March 2007

This article offers a ten-year perspective on the necessity for more governance and less government. The barriers to this conversion are not insurmountable, but they are political. Therefore, an individual, political, and institutional transformation is required. Currently, the United States is entering a new era of redefining the purpose of leaders and institutions, restructuring old ideologies, and redirecting the focus of responsibilities in order to meet the global challenges ahead; this era will continue well into the twenty-first century. This article describes the key elements necessary for successful governance. These elements include a new democracy; strategic cooperation; a new federalism; decentralization; a new moral infrastructure; individual responsibility and new leaders; collaborative partnerships and stability; and increased competition and technological growth.
Transnational Regulation of the Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: BRAITHWAITE JOHN
Published: March 2007

While the pharmaceutical industry arguably has the worst record of serious corporate crime of any industry, international law evasion rather than outright law violation has been the biggest problem in the industry. To understand how these problems can be and are being brought under control, a legal-pluralist analysis is needed that decenters criminal enforcement by the state. Consumer and professional activism and a variety of levels of self-regulation in combination with state, regional, and international regulation are all important to understanding how progress is possible. Creative work within this web of controls can actually transform lowest-common-denominator regulation into highest-common-factor regulation and self-regulation when actors are capable of thinking strategically in world-system terms.
A Free Trade Area with Mexico: Will U.S. Workers Lose?
Authors: MADIAN ALAN L.
Published: March 2007

The United States is immediately facing decisions on extending the current free trade area with Canada to Mexico and quite possibly to other Latin American countries. This article attempts to assess the economic basis, if any, for the objections that organized labor has raised to a free trade area with Mexico and other countries in the hemisphere. It is intended as a challenge to economists who support labor's position. Economic analyses undertaken to date conclude that a North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) is in labor's interest generally, although not necessarily in the interests of workers in some import-sensitive industries. Labor's proponents are unconvinced, but they have failed to provide theoretical or empirical analyses that support their position. While a variety of scenarios have been considered by economists analyzing a NAFTA, the consensus on employment impact converges on an estimate of a net increase of more than 60,000 U.S. jobs. Most studies also estimate small positive impacts on U.S. total wages and substantially expanded Mexican employment.
Supply-Side Explanations for Religious Change
Authors: FINKE ROGER , IANNACCONE LAURENCE R.
Published: March 2007

Traditional scholarship approaches religious history from the demand side, attributing developments to the shifting desires, perceptions, and circumstances of religious consumers. This article advocates an alternative, supply-side approach that emphasizes the opportunities and restrictions confronting religious organizations and their leaders. Supply shifts lie at the root of major religious changes in America. Colonial revivalists, Asian cult leaders, and contemporary televangelists all prospered when regulatory changes gave them freer access to America's religious marketplace. The article concludes with a discussion of recent judicial decisions that threaten to restrict the future supply of religious innovation in America.
The Off-Limits Caribbean: The United States and the European Dependent Territories
Authors: SUTTON PAUL , PAYNE ANTHONY
Published: March 2007

During the 1980s, successful new offshore financial centers developed in the British colonies and the Dutch Antilles. Their growth derived from the general transnationalization of investment and finance in the world economy, but it also became closely linked with the incidence of drug trafficking and criminal money laundering in the region. The United States was inevitably drawn to take an increasing interest in the affairs of the European dependent territories but has had to come to terms with the fact that it cannot regulate the offshore Caribbean without the consent of sovereign European governments. A part of the Caribbean is thus off-limits in respect of the traditional unilateral exercise of U.S. power in the region. The long history of Anglo-American cooperation in the Caribbean and elsewhere has proven useful in respect of the British colonies but now needs to be extended into a broader dialogue embracing the other European powers—including France—to explore what the metropolitan countries can collectively contribute to the security and development of their Caribbean territories.