bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Law and Dis‐orderly Religion
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

Thoughtful proponents of religious freedom throughout the centuries have never advocated an unlimited and unfettered right. This chapter makes a searching analysis of the Western tradition (Tertullian, Augustine, Luther, Calvin, Richard Hooker, Thomas Helwys, John Cotton, Roger Williams, William Penn, etc.) on the issue of the authority of the state versus sacred obligations of conscience. Four paradigms or types emerged. Two of them, the “duly ordered relationships” and the “levitical” paradigms, are conspicuously present in periods of religious oppression. In contrast, the “two kingdoms” and the “enlightenment” paradigms actively contributed to the development of religious freedom protections. In these, the state's argument is subjected to scrutiny (as opposed to a conclusive presumption in its favor) and, paradigmatically, the state has been accorded the least (if any) authority over matters of the first tablet of the Ten Commandments: the particulars of worship services, infractions against God, and the form and internal governance of God's church. Under the two kingdom's (and somewhat under the enlightenment) paradigm/type, the basic limiting premise of the free exercise clause is that its protection does not extend to religiously compelled actions which cause harm to the person, property, or privileges of citizenship of another. In these instances, the duty of the state to protect citizens from such harms is deemed paramount.
The Religiously Encumbered Self
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

How we view the self, acting as moral agent, will inevitably affect our interpretive actions when a statute and a religious obligation conflict. The classic liberal ontology of the self (“voluntarist”) is self‐unencumbered and free to choose his or her beliefs. The natural conclusion to which the courts are led by the voluntarist conception of the self is that the religious adherent made a free and voluntary choice to break the law, an obviously bad choice. What is lost in the voluntarist conception of religious liberty is that a religious practice is not an isolated and free choice but is, rather, an integrated and integral part of a belief system or “framework.” The religious adherent is in fact an encumbered self whose world construct cannot be easily altered in order to make a choice that is alien to that framework.
Societal Boundaries, Paranoia and Ill Humor, and the Role of the Courts Under the Free Exercise Clause
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

Unusual societal flux and social stress causes fear, and a fearful, paranoid society is tempted greatly to take extreme measures to protect itself. Pressured politicians may be unable or unwilling to enact reasonably narrow and limited legislation designed to address the actual harm, and, indeed, not only may cast a wide net but also limit if not disregard individual protections under the Constitution. While the courts may be tempted (if not politically pressured) to give a conclusive presumption deferring to the legislature, this chapter argues that it is the duty of the courts, especially in times of moral panic or societal “ill humors” (Alexander Hamilton's phrase), to protect the individual's right to the free exercise of religion by a searching scrutiny of the context of each case. The courts must be exceptionally careful to understand both the religious framework within which the religiously compelled behavior is situated and the actual, paradigmatic harm anticipated by the statute.
A Critique of the Court's Free Exercise Clause Jurisprudence in the U.S. Supreme Court Case of Employment Division v. Smith
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

The 1990 case of Employment Division v. Smith was decided against the defendants, but when analyzed using casuistry it is found to be an easy case for upholding their free exercise right. The state lacked specific expert testimony and hard data against the use of sacramental peyote, while the evidence produced by the Native American Church's experts showed that the Native American Church was successful in fulfilling the paradigmatic goals of the War on Drugs (no addiction, productive lives, etc.) and that the nonaddictive sacramental peyote lacked the same social harms endemic to addictive drugs (illegal market traffic, gangs, etc.). The Court, however, ignored the particulars of the case and fixated solely on the illegality of the ingestion of peyote. Accordingly, the particulars are explored in great detail, placing the facts in their larger, societal contexts and highlighting the Court's conclusive presumption and radical deference to the state and total disregard of the facts and other particulars both of the defendants’ unemployment compensation context and of the Native American Church and its practices.
Governmental Intervention in and Punishment for the Use of Spiritual Healing Methods
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

The use of spiritual healing methods by parents to heal their children presents a hard free exercise case, and this chapter examines several of these key cases from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Criminalization of Christian Science parents whose children have died in spite of their healing efforts is not appropriate if the parents do not have the paradigmatic mens rea, characteristic of manslaughter/child abuse cases (especially under the common law standards). Typically, the parents had intended the best for the child by using healing methods that they had proven work in their own lives and in the experience of their church (founded over 125 years ago). On the other hand, limited civil interventions by the state on behalf of children may very well be justified. The parents’ religious values (including their conception of beneficence) and the value of personal autonomy directly clash with the state's conception of beneficence. Where there are directly conflicting goods at stake, casuistry has no clear answers. Yet, with its emphasis on context, use of analogy, and critique of unexamined assumptions, casuistry offers the fairest method of dealing with this most difficult genre of cases.
The Universalist Movement in America, 1770-1880
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee
Published: October 2003

This book offers the first cultural history of Universalism and the Universalist idea – the idea that an all-good and all-powerful God saves all souls. Ann Bressler argues that Universalism began as a radical, eschatological, and communally oriented faith, and only later became a “comfortably established” progressive and individualistic one. Although Universalists are usually classed with Unitarians as pioneering Protestant liberals, the author argues that they were in fact quite different from both contemporary and later liberalism in their ideas and goals. Unitarians began by rejecting the Calvinist idea of sin as corporate, universal, and absolute, replacing it with their moral self-cultivation. Universalists, on the other hand, accepted the Calvinist view of absolute corporeal sinfulness but insisted on absolute corporeal salvation. Bressler’s claim is that Universalists, in their defiance of individualistic moralism, were for much of the nineteenth century the only consistent Calvinists in America. She traces the emergence of the Universalists’ “improved” Calvinism and its gradual erosion over the course of the nineteenth century, when the effort to maintain the early synthesis of Calvinist and Enlightenment ideals failed as the Universalists were swept up in the tide of American religious individualism and moralism. By the late nineteenth century they increasingly extolled moral responsibility and self-cultivation.
Universal Redemption and Social Reform
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee
Published: October 2003

By the 1850s, when their denomination faced serious conflicts over its identity and direction, most Universalists tended to regard Hosea Ballou as a grandfatherly figure, a benign symbol of their heritage, and his death in 1851 occasioned a genuine out‐pouring of grief among his spiritual heirs, who respected him as a great religious reformer. However, for a growing number of adherents, the doctrine of universal salvation was becoming less the crucial core of a saving faith, as it had been for Ballou, than a call to orderly moral reform in the light of the brotherhood and perfectibility of humanity. This shift, in many respects a natural consequence of restorationist belief, manifested itself not only in theology but also in the participation of Universalists in various programs of social reform and in the expanding roles of women within the church. There was, nevertheless, no inherent or inevitable connection between Universalism and reform activity. Indeed, a survey of their involvement in social organizations and movements beyond their church shows that nineteenth-century Universalists shared few, if any, common assumptions about the social imperatives of their faith.
Universalism and Spiritual Science
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee
Published: October 2003

A major part of Universalism’s appeal through the first half of the nineteenth century was its proponents’ reputation for contentiousness. The movement had always attracted more than its share of self-taught religious critics, and this was never more the case than during the Second Great Awakening, when the opportunities for denouncing irrationality and superstition seemed endless. However, as the revivals subsided, the targets for popular rationalism became less obvious, and Universalist energies were forced to seek new outlets. Without their traditional enemies, many Universalists began to waver in their sense of direction, and the denomination became subject to powerful centrifugal tendencies. Among the major new preoccupations of Universalists in this period were the popular “spiritual sciences” of phrenology, mesmerism, and spiritualism, and the heirs of John Murray and Hosea Ballou proved remarkably receptive to these and related teachings, which flowered in the period from the 1830s to the 1870s.
A Republic of Righteousness
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D.
Published: October 2003

This book analyzes the debate over the proper connection between religion and society that took place in southern New England during the fifty years after the American Revolution. It finds that a Christian social ideology, descended from the region's Puritan origins, endured and evolved during the era of the early republic, in contrast to interpretations that emphasize the individualization and secularization of American public life during the period. In the last two decades of the eighteenth century, the Congregational clergy articulated a corporate ethic that emphasized the superintendence of divine Providence over communal affairs and the importance of social morality for the survival of the new nation, although Baptists and other religious minorities dissented and called for the disestablishment of Congregationalism. By the early nineteenth century, the first party competition between Federalists and Democratic‐Republicans politicized and transformed the debate over public Christianity. Congregationalists became disillusioned with their prophecies of America's millennial role and soured on their partnership with the Federalist magistracy, while dissenters joined Jeffersonians in agitating for disestablishment. At the same time, however, the Congregationalists found cause for optimism amid the revivals of the Second Great Awakening. The experience of Worcester County, Massachusetts was typical, where religious revivals and clerical networking at the grassroots fostered a new vision of the godly community. In the years after 1815 partisan acrimony declined, and the Congregationalists split into Unitarian and orthodox camps. As a result, an evangelical coalition of orthodox Congregationalists, Baptists, and others emerged that charted the way for renewed activism on the part of a Christian electorate and mobilized church. The transformed public Christianity of the 1820s and 1830s made a seminal contribution to the emergence of a variety of reform movements, such as temperance, Sabbatarianism, and antislavery.
Public Christianity's Renewal and Realignment 1815–1833
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D.
Published: October 2003

After 1815 the intense partisanship of the preceding twenty years largely abated and an Era of Good Feelings dawned. This more placid environment fostered a recrudescence of patriotism among Congregational clergymen, who reimagined an important role for the United States in the providential renovation of the world. The disappearance of a common political foe also meant that Unitarian and orthodox Congregationalists were now free to go their separate ways ideologically. The Unitarians retained a hierarchical outlook and defended the traditional Massachusetts establishment until its end in 1833, while the orthodox relied on Christian voters and the revived and mobilized church to promote societal godliness. The new disestablishment position of the orthodox Congregationalists created a convergence of interests with such old dissenting groups as the Baptists and Episcopalians, which led to the coalescence of an evangelical coalition that increasingly predominated in regional and even national culture by the late 1820s.
The Making of Sikh Scripture
Authors: Mann Gurinder Singh
Published: October 2003

At present numbering twenty million adherents and spread the world over, the Sikhs represent a monotheistic tradition founded by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) in the Punjab, a region that served as a cultural bridge between the Middle East and South Asia. The Sikhs are fortunate to have in their possession a large number of early sacred manuscripts, including sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century protoscriptural texts. This unique context makes it possible for scholars to trace the history of Sikh canon formation with a degree of accuracy unimaginable in other major religious traditions. On the basis of a close examination of the extant manuscripts and other early Sikh sources in private custody of families in the Punjab, the author presents a detailed reconstruction of the making of the Adi Granth (“original book”) – the primary Sikh scripture, which comprises about 3,000 hymns. In the process, he traces its origin, expansion, canonization, and place within the institutional development of the Sikh community. His findings on many key issues differ from the traditional Sikh position, as well as from the hypotheses of other twentieth‐century scholars; they also raise some entirely fresh questions. The revised and expanded picture of the history of the text and institution of Sikh scripture will be of interest not only to scholars of Sikhism and Sikh religionists, but to scholars of comparative canon formation.
The Beginning of the Scriptural Tradition
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder
Published: October 2003

This chapter and the next two examine in detail the extant Sikh scriptural manuscripts in relation to the compilation of the Adi Granth (the primary Sikh scripture). Here, an analysis is made of the information available about the Guru Harsahai Pothi (thought to date from the 1530s) and the Goindval Pothis (thought to date from the 1570s), which are traditionally associated with Guru Nanak and Guru Amardas, respectively. The contents of these manuscripts are drawn on to assess the early formation of the Sikh scriptural corpus, and questions of their history, dating, and location in the early Sikh sacred corpus addressed.
The Emerging Structure of the Adi Granth
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder
Published: October 2003

The evolutionary process that resulted in the Adi Granth is traced. First, the significance of rag in Sikh devotion and its relationship to the organization of Sikh scripture are briefly addressed. The evolution is the traced of the structure of the Sikh text in terms of both the sequential arrangement of rag sections and their internal constitution. The chapter concludes with a brief comparison of the structure of the Adi Granth with that of Hindu and Islamic scriptures.
Love's Grateful Striving
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

This commentary on Søren Kierkegaard's Works of Love (1847), a series of 15 deliberations on the love commandment (to love one's neighbor as oneself), argues that Works of Love provides resources for understanding our ethical responsibility for others in ways that respect concrete distinctiveness and equality, partiality and impartiality, as well as the relation between self‐esteem, human needs, and self‐denial. This reading of Kierkegaard's Christian love ethic – an ethic of agape – relates to contemporary discussions of love as infinite debt and radical gift; it presents the ethical relation as one of moral vision and moral blindness, in order to respect alterity and kinship; it also clarifies Kierkegaard's relation to his Lutheran heritage, highlighting both love's hiddenness and its works (fruits). Moreover, the deliberations on building up others, on forgiveness, and on reconciliation, address dimensions of our responsibility for community.
Love's Law—Equality
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

The sharp distinction between preferential love (erotic love and friendship) and love of one's neighbor (agape) is mitigated by the claim that neighbor‐love should be preserved in erotic love and friendship. Neighbor‐love is a commitment to equality, which involves a kind of moral blindness, and is best understood, in comparison with the ethics of Emmanuel Levinas, as responsibility to others.
Love's Vision
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Although it ignores concrete differences used as the basis for excluding anyone from our realm of responsibility, love involves moral vision – attention to concrete difference is necessary to determine the distinctive kind of response needed. Love is a kind of “seeing” – we must love people honestly, as they are, and not as we would like them to be. Our impartiality must be interested rather than disinterested, but acceptance of the other can be coupled with challenge to the other; the abstract skeleton of the commandment needs to be fleshed out by the demand for attention to concrete differences in a context of realism that sorrowfully acknowledges tragedy.
Love's Debt
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

God's love for us – a radical gift – entails that we have an “infinite debt” of love to others. This notion excludes the idea of love as repayment; it is, moreover, a fulfillable duty, because Christ fulfilled it and because we are called to imitate Christ. It is feasible as long as we distinguish between the completion of our duty (which we cannot achieve) and the loving performance of it at a given moment (which we can achieve). Although the command generates “offense,” the “as yourself” reinstates limits on self‐sacrifice; justice is one such limit.
Love's Gift
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Love is a gift to others, as well as a debt to them. Love is giving, rather than an exchange, and it is a giving that hides itself in sensitivity to the other's feelings. Love helps the other to stand by him/herself. Self‐denial is entailed in any attempt to love the other's distinctiveness, to avoid molding or domineering the other. The relevance of the gratitude or ingratitude of the recipient is examined. This analysis is relevant to contemporary discussions of a work “without return” (Levinas) and gift as “the impossible” (Derrida).
Love's Transparency
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Transparency equals love of truth – the whole truth about self‐denial is that one can do nothing (without God) and that one can do everything (with God). The purpose of self‐denial is to reconcile people in the community; it is not an end in itself. The Christian notion of “hatred of the world” is contrasted with that of the world's approval, and explored in terms of persecution and worldly opposition.
Kerala Christian Sainthood
Authors: Dempsey Corinne G.
Published: October 2003

Kerala Christian Sainthood is an ethnography‐based study that celebrates the multivocal function of saints. Drawing on pilgrim anecdotes, shrine practices, official hagiographies, and regional folklore, it shows how the business of saints routinely extends beyond their capacity as earthly conduits of miraculous power. Saintly characters described in this book, hailing from the religiously pluralistic South Indian state of Kerala, not only tend to the health and happiness of individual devotees but also help craft and express the multiple identities and complex power relations of their devotional communities as well.

Highlighted throughout the study are the traditions of Sr. Alphonsa of Bharananganam (1910–46) and St. George the martyr, figures who richly reflect the many preoccupations of Kerala sainthood. Sr. Alphonsa, native to Kerala and famous for her life of suffering and posthumous power, stands in line to be canonized by the Vatican. St. George, the caped dragon slayer imported to Kerala by Syrian merchants and later by Portuguese and British colonizers, is today partially debunked by Rome. These two figures, while differing dramatically in temperament, nationality, age of cult, and Vatican standing, boast a vast popular appeal in Kerala's Kottayam district. By examining practices and stories surrounding Sr. Alphonsa and St. George, Dempsey shows how their traditions help express devotees’ hybrid identities in both colonial and postcolonial times. This ethnography of Christian sainthood within a Hindu cultural context, of “foreign” traditions adapted to native practice and of female sanctity negotiated through patriarchal expectation, is poised at a number of intersections. The book provides not only a comparative study of cultures, religions, and worldviews but also a unique grounding for contemporary ethnographic, postcolonial, and feminist concerns.
Me, St. George, and Other Foreigners
Authors: Dempsey Corinne G.
Published: October 2003

Begins by questioning imperialist misconceptions that overestimate the ability of colonial powers to suppress indigenous cultures. Rather than viewing Kerala's Christian traditions as passive receptacles for foreign influence, this chapter highlights how they, as expressed through Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christian sainthood, have managed to refashion colonial traditions. This case is made by viewing how devotees’ approaches to and perceptions of a local almost‐saint, Sr. Alphonsa, reflect challenges to colonial stereotypes of the Indian other, helping construct and congeal a positive Kerala Christian identity. Similarly, this chapter demonstrates how local traditions surrounding St. George, a “foreign” saint brought to the Malabar coast by the Syrians, Portuguese, and British, have come to articulate a type of pro‐Keralite, anticolonial stance.
Calamity Management and the Role of Sacred Ambivalence
Authors: Dempsey Corinne G.
Published: October 2003

Juxtaposes local European Christian saint traditions with Kerala's Hindu and Christian practices as a means for understanding cross‐cultural responses to evil, calamity, and the problem of theodicy. By locating a number of similarities among local Christian traditions across cultures, this chapter challenges the notion, expressed primarily through institutional channels, that certain “unorthodox” (or undesirable) beliefs and practices found in Kerala's saint traditions are necessarily of Hindu origin. Lying at the root of this inconsistency are local beliefs in the healing efficacies of sacred material objects as well as their questionable benevolence; such beliefs contradict official Christianity's tendency to clearly distinguish spiritual from material and good from evil. The chapter also examines instances in which ambivalent sacred power, representing a particular calamity as well as its cure, has its place within both Christian and Hindu popular traditions.
The Life and Cult of Sr. Alphonsa
Authors: Dempsey Corinne G.
Published: October 2003

Explores prominent themes in Alphonsa's hagiography as a means to compare Christian and Hindu perspectives and practices of female asceticism. While Christian and Hindu traditions have much in common in this regard, most strikingly different is the fact that Catholic Christianity commonly considers the female renouncer to be the pinnacle of holiness for women, while for some Hindu traditions, particularly Brahmanical Hinduism, female renunciation is a decided aberration. Referring back to postcolonial theory fleshed out in earlier chapters, this final chapter portrays Alphonsa as following normative religious prescriptions for female sanctity, yet ironically, through their fulfillment, she molds and transcends the same. The paradox of Alphonsa's devotional cult gets reflected furthermore through the story of a woman who was beaten down by life, enduring physical and emotional hardship throughout, yet whose posthumous powers are understood as a means for relieving the pain and suffering of her devotees.
Equity in a Global Public Goods Framework
Authors: Rao J. Mohan
Published: October 2003

The current institutions of the world economy already have embedded a concern for distributive justice. Kapstein's historical perspective provides an argument in defense of this statement. This chapter argues that a just economic order has long been valued as a global public good, especially after the Second World War, when the Bretton Woods system was designed. For leaders reflecting on the causes of the war, the links between economic distress and global conflict were all too evident. Kapstein shows that the postwar architecture relied on two pillars: creating wealth and distributing it. Wealth was to be created primarily through free international trade, while redistributing it was the responsibility of domestic institutions. Yet this approach became less and less effective over time. Distributive policies have the character of an international public good, and as such, ways had to be found to ensure that these policies would not be underprovided, as they are if we rely on domestic action alone. The only way forward now, Kapstein argues, is to address these concerns at the international level.
Distributive Justice as an International Public Good
Authors: Kapstein Ethan B.
Published: October 2003

Global equity is sometimes identified with international equity. The two, however, are very different notions – both in terms of their constitutive contents and with respect to their policy implications. This chapter examines the nature of the distinction. Its implications for the understanding of global public goods are quite extensive. Ideas of justice and corresponding actions that cut across borders must not be confused with international relations in general, or with demands of international equity in particular. Individuals live and operate in a world of institutions, many of which operate across borders. Even though different commentators have chosen to focus on particular institutions (such as the market, the democratic system, the media or the public distribution system), we have to consider them all to be able to see what they can do, individually or jointly. Many of these institutions – not just the market mechanism – cut vigorously across national boundaries and do not operate through national polities. They make contributions that have strong elements of indivisibility and nonexclusiveness that are characteristic of public goods, and their claim to be seen as “global public goods” is quite strong. The literature has to take note of this important issue. Nonstate actors, operating across borders, are often at the forefront of global norms and standards of equity and justice. People's judgment on what is just and fair depends only marginally on their citizenship, and more on their personal and professional identities. So, in essence, justice has an inescapable global quality.
Global Justice
Authors: Sen Amartya
Published: October 2003

Over the past 20 years, trade agreements among nations have gone beyond tariff and other border barrier reductions to agreement on domestic rules of the game – intellectual property rights, product standards, internal competition policy, government procurement and, to a lesser degree, labor and environmental standards. These more complex agreements bring deeper integration among participating nations – integration not only in the production of goods and services but also in standards and other domestic policies. As a result they imply many more trade‐offs and raise new issues concerning the sharing of the gains from trade – which nations benefit and within nations, which groups benefit.

This chapter explores the costs and benefits for developing countries of the “deep integration” that characterizes international trade relations today – what we will also refer to as “modern trade,” often associated with membership in a “modern trade club” e.g., multilaterally in the World Trade Organization (WTO) or regionally in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) or the South American Common Market (Mercosur). We put particular emphasis on developing countries because the income gap between them and the highly industrialized nations suggests that the pressures for harmonization that modern trade and modern trade clubs bring raise particularly interesting questions for them, and thus, ultimately for global welfare. In the first section, we discuss how the trend toward deep integration has ended the special treatment of developing countries in postwar trade agreements. Then we discuss how the modern multilateral character of trade agreements, by increasing the overall efficiency of world trading markets, can generate benefits at the global level, some of which are particularly relevant to developing countries. In the third section, we consider additional benefits that are specific to developing countries as a result of their participation. After that we explore the potential costs that face developing countries with the trend toward common rules. Following a brief aside on regional trade agreements for developing countries, we conclude with reflections on the political challenges to the international community and to governments posed by the ongoing negotiation of global trading rules.
International Financial Instability
Authors: Wyplosz Charles
Published: October 2003

If the Montreal Protocol has been so successful in reducing the production and use of ozone‐depleting substances, why cannot an effective treaty to control greenhouse gas emissions be put into place? Barrett's examination of this issue reveals two findings. First, the underlying economics of addressing climate change and ozone depletion are different. A study that guided policymakers at an early stage of ozone negotiations found that the costs of reducing ozone‐depleting substances were small relative to the benefits. In contrast, the best studies available today suggest that the costs of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by a substantial amount match or exceed the benefits only slightly. Second, Barrett argues that in the absence of a central global authority, international treaties must be self‐enforcing or must include credible incentives for compliance and disincentives to discourage noncompliance. Thus, the Montreal Protocol, while effective, cannot simply be redrafted to address the climate change problem. Rather, reducing greenhouse gases poses new challenges for burden‐sharing and effective implementation.
Global Epidemiological Surveillance
Authors: Zacher Mark W.
Published: October 2003

In a world that increasingly resembles a global village, a new context of global health interdependence is emerging. Control of infectious diseases can be considered a global public good, but can the same be said for noncommunicable diseases? This chapter argues that today noncommunicable diseases have a global dimension. The reason is that bad consumption habits travel through global marketing and media, and new threats have emerged from such global bads as ozone depletion and climate change. The authors reason that in the future global health will increasingly be provided by private parties rather than state‐run services – a development that will place greater stress on the poor. In response, the authors suggest a number of incremental steps to increase the effectiveness and fairness of national and international health policies. They envision the provision of global health as a multiactor process involving, besides governments, academics, private industry, NGOs, and the media. Sometimes the interactions between different groups of actors will be harmonious, but at other times they may be conflictual. Regarding international organizations, the authors see their role primarily as a catalytic one – providing intermediate global public goods, such as relevant information, or negotiating norms and standards. The authors emphasize the critical importance of development assistance aimed at enhancing national capacities and health performance in weaker countries. Similar recommendations could be made for international organizations facilitating the provision of other public goods.
Knowledge as a Global Public Good
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E.
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the worldwide trend toward increased privatization of both information and information and communications technologies, as well as the shrinking role of states and the effects on peoples’ access to adequate information goods and services. Publicness cannot be guaranteed unless users have low‐cost access to the opportunities afforded by the new information technologies. Privatization of telecommunications carriers will not guarantee low‐cost access and may actually impede it. In absolute terms, the prices of knowledge goods and services are higher in Africa than in high‐income countries. In addition, even though information and communications technologies have public good attributes, they are embedded in power relationships. In particular, they are crucial for access to developing country markets, for intelligence purposes and for the transmission of ideas and ideologies. Most of all, they have the potential to widen the gap between haves and have‐nots. Accordingly, the chapter calls for a renewed commitment to a public service agenda and, to that end, for increased cooperation between states on a regional basis.
The Public Face of Cyberspace
Authors: Spar Debora L.
Published: October 2003

Most people do not think of conflict prevention as a public good, and yet efforts to prevent, contain or stop a war, if successful, surely result in conditions that convey broad benefits – not only for the parties to the conflict but also for wider circles of people and states. Additionally, putting in place conditions that prevent the outbreak of conflicts has broader benefits than containing a specific war. Taking this substantive argument a step further, this chapter considers “just peace” as the true public good. Granted, certain conflicts may have only local effects in the short term. But preventing deadly conflict has truly universal externalities because it acts on any potential source of violence, and therefore potentially protects anyone from violence and death. Hamburg and Holl depict peace as the result of comprehensive and ongoing efforts to build social systems where differences can be settled peacefully. Human rights, the rule of law, basic needs, justice and environmental sustainability are all part of the equation, and the actors may involve public and private institutions or individuals. Hamburg and Holl present a bottom‐up, multiactor and multidisciplinary approach to world peace.
Wall Street
Authors: Geisst Charles R.
Published: October 2003

A history of Wall Street beginning in 1791 and ending in the present, the book traces the development of the major financial markets from the New York Stock Exchange's origins in the outdoor curb market through developments in the 1990s. The history is divided into four main periods – 1791 through the Civil War, the Civil War to 1929, 1929 to 1954, and the late 1950s to the present. In each period, the book traces the development of Wall Street by examining how it issued new securities and traded existing ones on the exchanges. It also examines the role of major personalities such as Jay Gould, J. P. Morgan, and Michael Milken in new developments in finance. A major area of focus is the securities and banking laws initiated in the 1930s and their impact upon the Street's future role in raising and trading securities. Also discussed are the major milestone deals in each period and how they affected future trends. The major theme throughout is the often uneasy relationship between Wall Street and Washington, especially during the 1930s and again in the 1990s when several major scandals erupted.
The Early Years (1790–1840)
Authors: Geisst Charles R.
Published: October 2003

The development of the NYSE from an outdoor market to the major marketplace in the country. The first major scandal after independence in NY; the role of private individuals in financing the war of 1812; raising cash for canals and turnpikes; and the role of individual traders, mostly in New York, in giving the exchanges a reputation as gambling dens rather than serious places to raise money.
The Robber Barons (1870–90)
Authors: Geisst Charles R.
Published: October 2003

Age of the robber barons and role of strong, dominant figures in the development of Wall Street, including Gould, Rockefeller, Pierpont Morgan, and Jacob Schiff. Further development of the markets, increasing in size and activity, and the development of securities houses and investment banks.
Wall Street Meets the New Deal (1930–35)
Authors: Geisst Charles R.
Published: October 2003

The reaction from Washington to Wall Street woes. Hoover calls Senate investigation into market practices, Roosevelt wins White House, short selling depresses market, F. Pecora becomes lead counsel for hearings. Wall Streeters give testimony. Congress passes banking and securities acts in 1933. Stock exchanges regulated in 1934 and SEC is created.
Bull Market (1954–69)
Authors: Geisst Charles R.
Published: October 2003

Antitrust suit against Wall Street is dismissed. A bull market develops in late 1950s and continues into 1960s. Defense stocks gain in popularity. Conglomerates dominate industrial landscape. Brokers expand their activities. Hucksterism appears on Wall Street.
Introduction Post‐Protestant America
Authors: Porterfield Amanda
Published: October 2003

Since the 1960s, many Americans embraced the personal and experiential aspect of religion, even as their allegiance to religious institutions and particular doctrines lessened. This enthusiasm for spirituality involved openness to a variety of different religious traditions, and interest in mining other traditions for their spiritual insight. However, while certain aspects of this enthusiasm for spirituality were unprecedented, it was not an entirely new phenomenon. As this introduction explains, some of the roots of this awakening to spirituality can be traced to the New England Puritans, and especially to those like Anne Hutchinson, whose experience of the Holy Spirit challenged ministerial and governmental authority.
The Catholicity of American Spirituality
Authors: Porterfield Amanda
Published: October 2003

The blossoming of spirituality in late twentieth‐century America involved the mainstreaming of Catholicism within American culture. It also involved increasingly porous boundaries between American Catholicism and New Age religions. In a society previously dominated by Protestants and Protestant culture, Catholic spirituality moved to the fore as a matrix through which a wide variety of religious developments came to expression. This chapter traces some of the antecedents of this open, liberal form of Catholic spirituality to Transcendentalist interpretations of Catholic spirituality in nineteenth‐century America, and to progressive American Catholic leaders, especially Orestes Brownson and Isaac Hecker, who emphasized the importance of the Holy Spirit for social as well as personal life.
Walking in the Way of Peace
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin
Published: October 2003

“All bloody principles and practices we do utterly deny” – so pronounced a small band of the first English Quakers in 1660, renouncing wars, fighting, and weapons and enunciating principles of peace called the “peace testimony.” The deceptively simple words of the peace testimony conceal the complexity of the task facing each Quaker as he worked out their precise meaning and the restraints and the actions they required in his own life. Quakers in early New England had to translate peace principles into practice during King Philip's War between settlers and Indians in 1675–76. In a time of terror, individual Quakers had to decide whether the peace testimony allowed service in militias, standing watch, seeking safety in garrison houses, and paying taxes. Their decisions covered a broad range and resulted in a pacifist continuum of interpretation and behavior.

During this war, Quakers who dominated the government of Rhode Island were faced with reconciling the peace testimony with their duties as governors to protect their colony, to punish “evil‐doers,” and to reward “those who do good.” Their dilemma stimulated both imaginative legislation and corrosive compromises, illuminating the ambiguities of principles when applied to public policy. Before the war a Quaker government had enacted legislation, the Exemption of 1673, exempting conscientious objectors from all military duties including alternative civil service. But some Quakers chastised their Quaker rulers in a document called the Rhode Island Testimony for putting their faith in “carnal weapons” when they took warlike measures of offense and defense, such as transporting soldiers to battle. The struggle of early Quakers in England and America illuminates the intricate complications of pacifist belief, suggesting the kind of nuanced questions any pacifist must address.
“To Looke to Our Selefs”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin
Published: October 2003

The Rhode Island Colony was militarily active in King Philip's War, although the level of the central government's involvement was different from that of its neighboring colonies. It did not, for example, field a colony‐wide army; it did not act within the territory of other colonies; it relied on local towns and local councils of war during much of the war; it provided for conscientious objection until Quakers lost their dominant position in the elections of 1677 and the Exemption of 1673 was repealed. It was in the interest of the other colonies to downplay Rhode Island's contributions to the war effort, which they attributed to the fact that Rhode Island's leaders were Quakers. Historians, too, have echoed this assumption, although there is no written evidence that the peace testimony served as a curb on Rhode Island's decisions other than the Exemption. The Quaker government itself cited no principles of peace, explaining its constraints as stemming from economic difficulties, from threats to its sovereign rights, and from moral qualms about breaking promises to the Indians.
“Witnesses to the Life of Innocency”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin
Published: October 2003

Some Rhode Island Quakers issued a “testimony” during the war elucidating the peace testimony and criticizing their brethren in government. The testimony stressed that peace was the fruit of righteousness, and was the way of the Kingdom of God where love and good will toward enemies led to the purity of the soul. The Kingdom of God had no room for weapons whether offensive or defensive, nor for fighting nor killing nor standing watch. The testimony chastised those Quaker magistrates who had once been in the Kingdom of God, but had returned to an unredeemed world by placing faith in the use of weapons and by encouraging war, thereby wounding their own souls. This collective discipline regarding the peace testimony was unusual because previously the testimony had not been a subject of discipline, since each had to transform his own motives in his own time.
Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John
Authors: Friesen Steven J.
Published: October 2003

Examines the relationship between imperial cults and the Book of Revelation, focusing especially on the Roman province of Asia during the early Empire. The main argument is that Revelation and imperial cult institutions were in direct contradiction regarding cosmology and eschatology. The exaggerated cosmology of imperial cult institutions resulted in an absurd eschatology – their emphasis on Roman imperial order was so strong that they could not envision an end to Roman rule. Revelation, on the other hand, denigrated all temporal authority and focused attention on the throne of God in heaven and the eschatological inauguration of the New Jerusalem. In this way, the author of Revelation produced one of humanity's great religious critiques of hegemony, a critique that attempted to establish and maintain a just community in the face of imperial oppression.
Working With Myth
Authors: Friesen Steven J.
Published: October 2003

The inherent instability of Revelation's cosmology was mitigated to some extent by John's use of myth. John established an east Mediterranean ethos for the congregations through his use of the combat myth. A comparison with the myths displayed on the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias shows that John also reworked the traditions of Israel in a way that allowed him to challenge the Roman imperial interpretation of the meaning of history.
Believe and be Baptized
Authors: Mulder Philip N.
Published: October 2003

A distinct Baptist piety grew through the efforts of aggressive Calvinists who compromised the various interests of Particular, Regular, General, and Separate Baptists invading the South. Individual Baptists had to conform to this new hybrid orthodoxy, converting to meet the doctrinal standards, and measuring their religious progress according to a notion of definitive truth: believer baptism by immersion. Baptists’ congregational churches, collections of these converts, contained heated debate and close discipline that perpetuated the evaluative sensibility. In their quest for the truth, they argued, split, re‐formed, and even developed associations of churches for helpful conversation; yet these added more layers of doctrinal debate, extending the rancor and confrontation within Baptists’ insistent religiosity.
Contending for Liberty
Authors: Mulder Philip N.
Published: October 2003

The American Revolution heightened the differences between Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists as the dissenters addressed the political crisis through petitions and met the resultant disestablishment of the Church of England on their own terms. Presbyterians generally embraced the Revolutionary cause, but they maneuvered primarily to achieve their long‐sought goal of gaining parity with the Anglican, now Protestant Episcopal Church, allowing for multiple establishments when the plans included Presbyterians. Baptists faced the matters resolved to maintain their absolute principles, and they were pleasantly surprised when Virginia, prompted by Thomas Jefferson's Statute for Religious Freedom, seemed to embrace some Baptist truth by striking down establishment. Francis Asbury dreamed that Methodists could stay neutral, truly separating religion from unholy matters, but he suffered when John Wesley rebuked the patriots and when most Methodist leaders fled the troubled colonies. Methodism would recover, but only by transforming into an American denomination and joining the other evangelicals already in contention for their own particular notions of religious liberty.