bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Structural and mechanistic insights into the function of the unconventional class XIV myosin MyoA from
Toxoplasma gondii
Authors: Powell Cameron J. , Ramaswamy Raghavendran , Kelsen Anne , Hamelin David J. , Warshaw David M. , Bosch Jürgen , Burke John E. , Ward Gary E. , Boulanger Martin J.
Published: October 2018

Parasites of the phylum Apicomplexa are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality on a global scale. Central to the virulence of these pathogens are the phylum-specific, unconventional class XIV myosins that power the essential processes of parasite motility and host cell invasion. Notably, class XIV myosins differ from human myosins in key functional regions, yet they are capable of fast movement along actin filaments with kinetics rivaling previously studied myosins. Toward establishing a detailed molecular mechanism of class XIV motility, we determined the 2.6-Å resolution crystal structure of the
Toxoplasma gondii
MyoA (TgMyoA) motor domain. Structural analysis reveals intriguing strategies for force transduction and chemomechanical coupling that rely on a divergent SH1/SH2 region, the class-defining “HYAG”-site polymorphism, and the actin-binding surface. In vitro motility assays and hydrogen–deuterium exchange coupled with MS further reveal the mechanistic underpinnings of phosphorylation-dependent modulation of TgMyoA motility whereby localized regions of increased stability and order correlate with enhanced motility. Analysis of solvent-accessible pockets reveals striking differences between apicomplexan class XIV and human myosins. Extending these analyses to high-confidence homology models of
Plasmodium
and
Cryptosporidium
MyoA motor domains supports the intriguing potential of designing class-specific, yet broadly active, apicomplexan myosin inhibitors. The successful expression of the functional TgMyoA complex combined with our crystal structure of the motor domain provides a strong foundation in support of detailed structure–function studies and enables the development of small-molecule inhibitors targeting these devastating global pathogens.
The demise of caterpillar fungus in the Himalayan region due to climate change and overharvesting
Authors: Hopping Kelly A. , Chignell Stephen M. , Lambin Eric F.
Published: October 2018

Demand for traditional medicine ingredients is causing species declines globally. Due to this trade, Himalayan caterpillar fungus (
Ophiocordyceps sinensis
) has become one of the world’s most valuable biological commodities, providing a crucial source of income for hundreds of thousands of collectors. However, the resulting harvesting boom has generated widespread concern over the sustainability of its collection. We investigate whether caterpillar fungus production is decreasing—and if so, why—across its entire range. To overcome the limitations of sparse quantitative data, we use a multiple evidence base approach that makes use of complementarities between local knowledge and ecological modeling. We find that, according to collectors across four countries, caterpillar fungus production has decreased due to habitat degradation, climate change, and especially overexploitation. Our statistical models corroborate that climate change is contributing to this decline. They indicate that caterpillar fungus is more productive under colder conditions, growing in close proximity to areas likely to have permafrost. With significant warming already underway throughout much of its range, we conclude that caterpillar fungus populations have been negatively affected by a combination of overexploitation and climate change. Our results underscore that harvesting is not the sole threat to economically valuable species, and that a collapse of the caterpillar fungus system under ongoing warming and high collection pressure would have serious implications throughout the Himalayan region.
Redox, amino acid, and fatty acid metabolism intersect with bacterial virulence in the gut
Authors: Pifer Reed , Russell Regan M. , Kumar Aman , Curtis Meredith M. , Sperandio Vanessa
Published: October 2018

Significance

Enteric pathogens have to gauge the intestinal environment and adapt their metabolism and virulence strategies to establish themselves within the host. Here we show using a high-throughput screen that several metabolic pathways intertwine with virulence gene expression in enterohemorrhagic
Escherichia coli
. This screen identified transcriptional regulators that respond to fluctuations in amino and fatty acids as playing an important role in virulence gene expression both in vitro and during mammalian infection. Our study has fundamental implications for how differential gut metabolite compositions may affect disease outcome and susceptibility to pathogens.
Species groups distributed across elevational gradients reveal convergent and continuous genetic adaptation to high elevations
Authors: Sun Yan-Bo , Fu Ting-Ting , Jin Jie-Qiong , Murphy Robert W. , Hillis David M. , Zhang Ya-Ping , Che Jing
Published: October 2018

Although many cases of genetic adaptations to high elevations have been reported, the processes driving these modifications and the pace of their evolution remain unclear. Many high-elevation adaptations (HEAs) are thought to have arisen in situ as populations rose with growing mountains. In contrast, most high-elevation lineages of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau appear to have colonized from low-elevation areas. These lineages provide an opportunity for studying recent HEAs and comparing them with ancestral low-elevation alternatives. Herein, we compare four frogs (three species ofNanoranaand a close lowland relative) and four lizards (Phrynocephalus) that inhabit a range of elevations on or along the slopes of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The sequential cladogenesis of these species across an elevational gradient allows us to examine the gradual accumulation of HEA at increasing elevations. Many adaptations to high elevations appear to arise gradually and evolve continuously with increasing elevational distributions. Numerous related functions, especially DNA repair and energy metabolism pathways, exhibit rapid change and continuous positive selection with increasing elevations. Although the two studied genera are distantly related, they exhibit numerous convergent evolutionary changes, especially at the functional level. This functional convergence appears to be more extensive than convergence at the individual gene level, although we found 32 homologous genes undergoing positive selection for change in both high-elevation groups. We argue that species groups distributed along a broad elevational gradient provide a more powerful system for testing adaptations to high-elevation environments compared with studies that compare only pairs of high-elevation versus low-elevation species.
Parental evidence of impact of policy on worst forms of child labour in rural and urban Ghana
Authors: Adonteng-Kissi Obed
Published: October 2018

This paper aimed to ascertain parental evidence of impact of policy on worst forms of child labour (WFCL) in rural and urban Ghana amongst 460 participants: I utilised 400 survey participants whose children were/were not involved in child labour and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques and applying the Stata Version 13 software. I also utilised 60 government officials; NGO representatives; and both parents whose children were/were not involved in child labour. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents (10), stakeholders (10), focus groups (30); and participant observation techniques (10) were utilised to gather the needed data and purposively sampled across rural areas (Ankaase, Anwiankwanta and Kensere), and urban areas (Jamestown, Korle Gonno and Chorkor) in Ghana. Interviews were recorded, transcribed utilising a framework approach as the main qualitative data analysis method. Parental evidence suggests that new laws, legislative reforms, programmes and activities have helped to reduce WFCL in Ghana.
Design of half-car active suspension system for passenger riding comfort
Authors: Susatio Y , Oktaviana L , Rizki N K , Listijorini E , Biyanto T R
Published: October 2018

In this paper, the active suspension system is designed to reduce vibration on the passenger seat caused by change in road-surface shapes or disturbance. PID control is utilized in the design of this active suspension system, and Direct Synthesis method is proposed to tune PID parameters. Direct Synthesis method optimize PID tuning parameters to achieve desired output response in different road surface. In this study, three interference signals are used as disturbance from surface road i.e step, impulse, and sinus. The aim of the suspension control design is to obtain the control parameters that conform to ISO 2631. The simulation results show that value of τc 0.0002 for step disturbance provide aRMS 0.086 m/s2 and damping ratio 0.21. For impulse input the value of τc 0.002 provide aRMS 0.112 m/s2 and damping ratio of 0.22. For sinus input value of τc 0.00005 provide aRMS 0.09 m/s2.
Risk Factors for Unnecessary Antibiotic Therapy: A Major Role for Clinical Management
Authors: Roger Pierre-Marie , Montera Eve , Lesselingue Diane , Troadec Nathalie , Charlot Patrick , Simand Agnès , Rancezot Agnès , Pantaloni Olivier , Guichard Thomas , Dautezac Véronique , Landais Cécile , Assi Frédéric , Levent Thierry ,   Collaborators, Viguier Thierry , Tournoud Serge , Borrédon Gaelle , Peyrard Ingrid , Letonturier Nathalie , Peyrad Isabelle , Bouchard Odile , Guardia Marc della , Cammas Sophie , Déroudhiles Gilles , Tiako Félix , Massa Camille , Desnoyers Vincent
Published: October 2018

Background

Assessment of antimicrobial use places an emphasis on therapeutic aspects of infected patients. Our aim was to determine the risk factors for unnecessary antibiotic therapy (UAT).

Methods

This was a prospective, multicenter study evaluating all curative antibiotic therapies prescribed over 2 consecutive days through the same electronic medical records. Each item that could participate in these prescriptions was collected from the computerized file (reason for hospitalization, comorbid conditions, suspected or definitive diagnosis of infection, microbial analyses). UAT was defined as the recognition of noninfectious sydromes (NIS), nonbacterial infections, use of redundant antimicrobials, and continuation of empirical broad-spectrum antimicrobials.

Results

Four hundred fifty-three antibiotic therapies were analyzed at 17 institutions. An infectious disease was the reason for hospitalization in 201 cases (44%). An unspecified diagnosis of infection was observed in 104 cases (23%). Microbial samples were taken in 296 cases (65%), allowing isolation of a pathogen in 156 cases (53%). Unspecified diagnosis was associated with the absence of a microbial sample compared to patients with a diagnosis: (56/104 [54%] vs 240/349 [69%]; P = .005). A total of 158 NIS were observed (35%). UAT was observed in 169 cases (37%), due to NIS in 106 cases. In multivariate analysis, the modifiable risk factors for UAT were unspecified diagnosis (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.83; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.04–3.20) and absence of a blood culture (AOR, 5.26; 95% CI, 2.56–10.00).

Conclusions

UAT is associated with an unspecified diagnosis and the absence of microbial testing. Antimicrobial stewardship programs should focus on diagnostic difficulties and microbial testing, the latter facilitating antibiotic reassessment and therapeutic interruption.
Mycoplasma genitalium Infections in Women Attending a Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic in New Orleans
Authors: Lillis Rebecca A , Martin David H , Nsuami M Jacques
Published: October 2018

Background

Mycoplasma genitalium has been significantly and nonsignificantly associated with cervicitis, urethritis, or vaginal discharge. This study examined the associations of M. genitalium with selected sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and demographic, behavioral, and clinical factors among women attending a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic in New Orleans.

Methods

Women aged ≥18 years who presented to the New Orleans STD clinic provided sociodemographic data and sexual behavior; STI, obstetric, and gynecologic history; and urine, vaginal, endocervical, and rectal specimens. Specimens were tested for M. genitalium, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis, Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma species, and yeast. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) was diagnosed by Nugent score, and cervicitis was defined as ≥30 polymorphonuclear leukocytes per high-power microscopic field on a cervical Gram stain or yellow mucopus on an endocervical swab.

Results

Among 400 women studied, M. genitalium was independently significantly associated with age <25 years (P < .03) and with ≥2 sexual partners in the last 12 months (P < .003). Neisseria gonorrhoeae (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.75; P = .103), C. trachomatis (AOR, 1.43; P = .247), and T. vaginalis (AOR, 1.60; P = .120) independently increased the odds of infection with M. genitalium. Controlling for other STIs and BV, there was a positive trend for M. genitalium to predict cervicitis (AOR, 3.18 [95% confidence interval, .99–10.2]; P = .05).

Conclusions

Mycoplasma genitalium in our study displayed the clinical features of C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae, the 2 organisms that drive research agendas in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of bacterial STIs.
Do soil bacterial communities respond differently to abrupt or gradual additions of copper?
Authors: McTee Michael , Bullington Lorinda , Rillig Matthias C , Ramsey Philip W
Published: October 2018

Many experiments that measure the response of microbial communities to heavy metals increase metal concentrations abruptly in the soil. However, it is unclear whether abrupt additions mimic the gradual and often long-term accumulation of these metals in the environment where microbial populations may adapt. In a greenhouse experiment that lasted 26 months, we tested whether bacterial communities and soil respiration differed between soils that received an abrupt or a gradual addition of copper or no copper at all. Bacterial richness and other diversity indices were consistently lower in the abrupt treatment compared to the ambient treatment that received no copper. The abrupt addition of copper yielded different initial bacterial communities than the gradual addition; however, these communities appeared to converge once copper concentrations were approximately equal. Soil respiration in the abrupt treatment was initially suppressed but recovered after four months. Afterwards, respiration in both the gradual and abrupt treatments wavered between being below or equal to the ambient treatment. Overall, our study indicates that gradual and abrupt additions of copper can yield similar bacterial communities and respiration, but these responses may drastically vary until copper concentrations are equal.
Sources of parental knowledge about the safety of vaccinations in Poland
Authors: Kowalska Małgorzata , Gajda Maksymilian , Barański Kamil , Braczkowska Bogumiła
Published: October 2018

There has been a recent increase in the number of parents refusing vaccination for their children in many European countries, including Poland. This observation necessitates the need to understand parental knowledge in regard to mandatory vaccination of children in these countries. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2016 on 1239 parents or legal guardians of preschool and school children in the Silesian Voivodship (Poland) to evaluate their hesitancy in acquiescing to their children mandatory immunization and the relation to this habit in regard to the use of informational sources on children vaccination system in Poland. Medical doctors often provide the basic source of information about vaccination to parents. About one-third (29%) of the respondents from the survey deemed the qualification system for vaccination as either inadequate or bad. 16.9% of the respondents surveyed declared that information received from physicians regarding vaccinations were either incomplete or unconvincing. Results of multivariable analyses confirmed that respondents are less likely to seek information about mandatory vaccinations from medical professionals and more often to misjudged vaccination’s qualification system. Participants who used less informative sources (e.g. leaflets) and those with a lower level of education were more likely to avoid vaccination. Greater emphasis on the quality of information provided by medical professionals is crucial in order to avoid doubts about vaccination and to create proper attitudes and adherence to vaccination schedules.
Independence
Authors: Twomey Anne
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the notion of ‘independence’ in the Australian context. In Australia, there was no definitive act in creating an independent nation, as in other countries. There is no ‘Independence Day’ to celebrate, as no one knows exactly when the balance tipped from being a dependency of the British Crown or a self-governing Dominion, to an independent sovereign nation. Independence was administered in small doses—sometimes sought, sometimes imposed, and often neglected. The chapter discusses the ways in which Australia had attained independence depending on what definition of the term is used—when Australia attained its separate Crown, when it began exercising independence, when it ceased being dependent on the British Crown, and so on. In addition, the chapter explores the ways in which Australia does not quite meet the definition of independence, as it still retains some links to its colonial past.
International Law
Authors: Donaghue Stephen
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on issues associated with international treaty obligations within the Australian constitutional context. It first examines the established principle of the common law of England that the provisions of a treaty do not form part of domestic law unless incorporated into domestic law by statute, before discussing the drafting history of the Constitution as well as the ramifications of that history. The chapter then turns to the power of the Commonwealth Parliament to enact legislation to implement Australia's treaty obligations. It also briefly addresses the relevance of international law to the interpretation of the Constitution itself. Finally, this chapter examines the role that international law plays in the interpretation of legislation that wholly or partly incorporates international obligations into domestic law, and the effect of such obligations on administrative action taken pursuant to such statutes.
Techniques of Adjudication
Authors: Hanks Peter , Ciolek Olaf
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the original jurisdiction of the High Court of Australia in constitutional matters, how that jurisdiction can be invoked, and the steps by which the High Court can remit all or part of a constitutional matter to a lower court. It examines the procedures and techniques by which the High Court may determine the factual context within which constitutional doctrine is applied to resolve disputes. The chapter also considers the rules developed by the High Court to control the commencement of constitutional litigation and the participation of others in that litigation. The High Court’s appellate jurisdiction in constitutional matters is also studied. Finally, the chapter turns to the forms and styles of advocacy before the High Court, as well as the composition of its bench in constitutional matters.
Separation of Legislative and Executive Power
Authors: Saunders Cheryl
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines questions about the scope of legislative or executive power and the relationship between them primarily through the lens of the separation of powers in Australia. These have been recurrent issues in both the courts and Parliaments for some time. Hence, the chapter begins by examining the framework for the exercise of the legislative power of the Commonwealth. It does so from the standpoint of the separation of powers, by focusing on three significant issues: the concept of legislative power, delegation of legislative power, and authority to appropriate and grant money to the States. Next, the chapter deals with the nature of the executive power of the Commonwealth, including the extent to which it can be exercised without legislative authorization.
The Judicature
Authors: Owens Nicholas
Published: October 2018

This chapter analyses the Australian judicature as a whole, as well as the individual courts that comprise it. It begins with a survey of the development of the common law conception of a court. The chapter next identifies four characteristics that have emerged as central to the definition of a court. These are: decisional independence and impartiality, the provision of procedural fairness, the dispensation of justice in open court, and the provision of reasons for decisions. Here, the evolution of the modern conception of a court reveals an apparent paradox from which the modern institution derives its strength, purpose, and identity: a sovereign's courts are independent of that sovereign.
Design
Authors: Aroney Nicholas
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the design of Australia's federal system. Two historical propositions affirmed in the preamble to the Constitution are central to this conception. These are, firstly, that the Constitution was predicated on an agreement between the people of the Australian colonies and, secondly, that the intention was to unite the colonies into an indissoluble federal commonwealth. The Australian Constitution does not rest upon the consent of an already consolidated people; nor does it create a unitary state. It is the result of an agreement among several mutually independent political communities and it establishes a federal system of government that preserves their continuing existence as self-governing polities.
Federal Jurisdiction
Authors: Stellios James
Published: October 2018

This chapter identifies the origins, content, and operation of federal jurisdiction in Australia. In the United States the creation of federal jurisdiction was the necessary concomitant of the establishment of the judicial arm of federal government. The same could not be said of the conditions for Australian federalism. Federalism Australian-style did not require a federal system of courts. Further complicating the issue was the ‘autochthonous expedient’: the facility provided to Parliament for the use of State courts to exercise federal jurisdiction. Hence the chapter also seeks to suggest that the discordance between the concept and purpose of federal jurisdiction left the High Court with the challenging task of conceptualizing ‘judicial federalism’. In executing that task, High Court jurisprudence has presented differing conceptions of the place of State courts within the federal judicial system.
Rights Protection in Australia
Authors: Stephenson Scott
Published: October 2018

This chapter considers the state of rights protection in Australia. Unlike in many other countries, Australia notably lacks a constitutional (or statutory) bill of rights at the national level. As a result, the Australian Constitution implicitly assigns principal responsibility for rights—the task of determining their identity, scope, and limits—to the legislature. The chapter explains that the Constitution's preference for legislative rather than judicial resolutions to rights issues is the product of a shifting mixture of philosophical, historical, political, and institutional reasons. Next, the chapter provides an overview of the small number of provisions found in the Constitution that explicitly relate to rights. Finally, the chapter details how a number of the Constitution's structural features directly and indirectly contribute to the protection of rights.
Political Participation
Authors: Tham Joo-Cheong
Published: October 2018

This chapter deals with electoral participation in Australia. It charts the evolution of constitutional law in relation to electoral participation through a focus on the power of the Commonwealth Parliament over federal elections. A starting point of the analysis is a distinction between an emphasis on the breadth of legislative power over federal elections and an emphasis on constraint. The chapter also explains how particular emphasis on the scope of legislative power over election is informed by views taken on the relationship between the legislative power over federal elections and its impact on Australia's democracy. In some cases, it is possible to identify a benign view of such power; in others, a contrary view can be found where the exercise of legislative power over federal elections is seen to threaten Australia's democracy; and of course, there are cases where there is simply an ‘agnostic’ view.
Part I Investment Treaties and the Settlement of Investment Disputes: The Framework, 4 The Role of Precedent in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Jan Paulsson
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the role of precedent in investment treaty arbitration. The technical rules of precedent are practice rules developed within legal systems. A system that enforces the rule of precedent requires a supreme court authorised both to impose a rule on inferior courts and to modify it when it sees fit. However, there is nothing like it in the international realm, and even less so in the context of arbitration. Nonetheless, it is possible to imagine the development of an international ‘law on investment protection’ by something akin to the common-law process of developing authoritative rules by case-by-case accretion, though this type of precedent must be qualified by the word ‘persuasive’ rather than ‘binding’.
Part III Guide to Key Jurisdictional Issues, 10 Who is Entitled to Claim?: The Definition of Nationality in Investment Arbitration
Authors: Katia Yannaca-Small
Published: October 2018

One of the main elements setting the scope of application ratione persona of international investment agreements is the definition of the investor. An investment agreement applies only to investors who qualify for coverage under its relevant provisions; only they can submit a claim against the host State. The definition identifies the group of investors whose foreign investment the home country is seeking to protect through the agreement as its ‘nationals’, as well as the ‘clients’ and the investments the host country wishes to attract. This chapter deals with the nationality of the investor, whether a natural or legal person; the criteria used by investment agreements to attribute this nationality, and the arbitral awards that support this qualification. For natural persons, the issues are usually not problematic, although some may arise in particular with regard to dual nationality. For legal persons, the debate remains far more complex.
Part III Guide to Key Jurisdictional Issues, 15 Breach of Treaty Claims and Breach of Contract Claims: When Can an International Tribunal Exercise Jurisdiction?
Authors: Stanimir A Alexandrov
Published: October 2018

Foreign investors invest in a host state via a contract between the foreign investor and an entity or instrumentality of the host state. Disputes between investors and host states under investment treaties often arise out of breaches of these contracts. In such cases, international tribunals must assess whether the asserted claims rise to the level of a breach of a state’s international obligations. More than a decade ago, the decisions on jurisdiction in SGS v Pakistan and SGS v Philippines brought this issue into the spotlight. These decisions, often perceived as contradictory, deal with the jurisdiction of treaty-based tribunals over claims for a breach of contract. This chapter reviews the seeming confusion regarding the interplay between treaty claims and contract claims and discusses how to dispel any confusion.
Part III Guide to Key Jurisdictional Issues, 18 The State’s Corruption Defence, Prosecutorial Efforts, and Anti-corruption Norms in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Charles N Brower , Jawad Ahmad
Published: October 2018

This chapter addresses two developments in the field of investment arbitration and corruption. First, it discusses the ‘binary’ or ‘harsh’ outcomes in investment arbitration awards and query whether there is scope within the field to level the playing field. It discusses cases where illegality — including corruption — has surfaced, whether as a question of jurisdiction, or of admissibility or of the merits. It then considers the viability of conditioning the State’s entitlement to assert corruption as a defence on proof of steps by the respondent State to investigate and prosecute public officials for corruption. Second, the chapter surveys recently concluded investment agreements that incorporated anti-corruption norms within their text, and considers the extent to which they address the issues facing corruption globally and within the investment arbitration space.
Part V Remedies and Costs, 26 Third-party Funding in Investment Treaty Arbitration
Authors: Nigel Blackaby , Alex Wilbraham
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the issue of third-party funding in international investment arbitration. Third-party funding has become an established part of the investment arbitration landscape. Despite criticism in some quarters, tribunals and international arbitral bodies have tended to favour the view that third-party funding promotes access to justice rather than encouraging frivolous claims. Tribunals have consistently held that receipt of third-party funding is unlikely to affect a claimant’s position from a jurisdictional perspective and will not affect a claimant’s ability to recover legal costs in cases where tribunals make costs awards. The costs of third-party funding itself may be recoverable in some circumstances. There is a growing tendency among tribunals to require disclosure by funded claimants of the existence and identity of third-party funders. It is, however, unlikely that claimants will commonly be required to disclose the terms of any funding agreement except in rare cases when security for costs is being considered.
Part VI The Post-Award Phase, 30 A Practical Guide: Research Tools in International Investment Law
Authors: Julien Fouret
Published: October 2018

This chapter aims to help the new investment arbitration practitioner identify and find the main legal sources for dealing with international investment law issues. Three different topics need to be addressed in order to cover, as extensively as possible, the legal issues generally raised during an arbitration based on an international investment agreement. First, even though the stare decisis rule does not exist in international arbitration, including investment arbitration, previous rulings are often used and analyzed by arbitrators. Second, when dealing with investment arbitration, it is likely that the claim will be treaty based. Finally, and most importantly, in international investment disputes, arbitral tribunals rely on all the sources of public international law identified in Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, which provides for the Court to apply.
Introduction to Banks and Banking
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the basic concepts of banks and banking. A bank is an institution that accepts deposits from the public and lends the monies thus raised. However, bank balance sheets include a range of types of exposures to a range of types of counterparties, which give rise to risks. To minimize risks, most banks diversify their lending across a number of different strategies and types of business. Both managers and regulators of banks have a task which in principle is relatively straightforward. These include understanding exactly which risks the bank is in fact exposed to; quantifying those risks; assessing returns which may be obtained through the taking of those risks; and assessing the degree to which the risks to which they are exposed are correlated to each other, in order to establish the total risk which is faced by the institution as a whole.
Trading Book—Models
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

The key to market risk is the calculation of position risk requirement (PRR). Basel 3 has radically changed the approach to the calculation of position risk for regulated firms, and this chapter deals with the ‘before and after’ element to it. A firm must calculate a PRR in respect of all its trading book positions, all foreign exchange positions, and all positions in commodities (including physical commodities) whether or not in the trading book. A firm must also be able to monitor its total PRR on an intra-day basis. The remainder of the chapter covers trading book eligibility under Basel 2.5, trading and market exposures, equity PRR and basic interest rate PRR for equity derivatives, commodity PRR, foreign currency PRR, option PRR, credit derivatives, and underwriting positions.
Counterparty Risk in the Trading Book
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter sets out rules that result in certain exposures being treated as having a greater degree of risk than their actual mark to market value. In order to explain this, consider a bank which owns 100 of shares in A, but also has a derivative in place with X under which it is entitled to be paid the value of 100 shares in A. Both positions give rise to the same risk as to the future price of A, and both will be valued by reference to the value of the shares in A. However, if the value of the shares in A increases, the bank's credit exposure to X will increase. The rules set out in this chapter seek to capture this extra level of risk by treating the value of the derivative as being slightly higher than its mark to market value; thereby requiring a slightly higher level of capital to be held against it. This is the counterparty credit risk requirement (CCR).
Part I Assessing the UN Institutional Structure for Global Ocean Governance: The UN’s Role in Global Ocean Governance, 6 The Role of Maritime Boundary Delimitation and Related Co-operative Resource Regimes within Global Ocean Governance
Authors: David M Ong
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the role of maritime boundary delimitation and related co-operative resource regimes within global ocean governance. It first provides an overview of the history of international maritime boundary delimitation law before discussing the convergence between the drawing of simple jurisdictional demarcation lines and the construction of international ocean governance regimes, designed to fulfil marine resource management and environmental protection functions. It then considers the link between marine resource and environmental protection issues, along with the importance of natural resource factors in the evolution of international maritime delimitation law. It also looks at examples of maritime boundary-related co-operative resource regimes, including the 2010 Norway-Russia Maritime Boundary Delimitation treaty and the 2012 Mexico/United States Agreement on Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs. It concludes with a review of international maritime delimitation law and marine environmental protection as an aspect of ocean governance.
Part V Regional Perspectives on Global Ocean Governance, 14 The North American and Arctic Perspective(s) on Global Ocean Governance
Authors: Anastasia Telesetsky
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines issues of global ocean governance from North American and Arctic perspectives. It first considers the priority global ocean law and policy issues for federal agencies in Canada, Mexico, and the United States in the areas of marine environment protection and traditional maritime security (for example, trafficking and human migration). For each North American State, the chapter identifies any specific interactions between the State and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) that have been highlighted by the State that involve ocean governance competencies. The focus is on a small subset of IGOs and United Nations entities including the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Maritime Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Customs Organization, and the UN Security Council. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the global ocean governance priorities of the Arctic Council and any interactions between the Arctic Council and UN IGOs on priority matters for the Council.
The maximum luminosity of fast radio bursts
Authors: Lu Wenbin , Kumar Pawan
Published: October 2018

Under the assumption that fast radio bursts (FRBs) are from coherent curvature emission powered by the dissipation of magnetic energy in the magnetosphere of neutron stars, we show that there is a maximum isotropic equivalent luminosity $L_{\rm max}\sim (2\times 10^{47}\, \mathrm{erg\, s^{-1}})\, \mathrm{min}(\rho _6^2, B_{16}\rho _6^{4/3}\nu _9^{-2/3})$, where $\rho _6=\rho /10\,$ km is the curvature radius of the magnetic field lines near the source region, $B_{16} = B/10^{16}\,$ G is the local magnetic field strength, and ν9 = ν/GHz is the FRB wave frequency. This is because the electric field responsible for accelerating the emitting particles becomes close to the quantum critical strength and is then quickly shielded by Schwinger pairs within a nano-second. Future observations should be able to measure this cut-off luminosity and hence provide a unique probe of the source location and magnetic field strength. We discuss the effects of Lmax on the observed flux distributions for repeating bursts from the same object and for the entire FRB population.
Potentially Serious Drug Interactions Resulting From the Pretravel Health Encounter
Authors: Sbaih Nadine , Buss Brian , Goyal Dheeraj , Rao Sowmya R , Benefield Russell , Walker Allison Taylor , Esposito Douglas H , Ryan Edward T , LaRocque Regina C , Leung Daniel T ,   Global TravEpiNet Consortium, Abraham George M , Alvarez Salvador , Ansdell Vernon , Yates Johnnie A , Atkins Elisha H , Birich Holly K , Vitek Dagmar , Cahill John , Chen Lin , Connor Bradley A , Dismukes Roberta , Fairley Jessica , Kozarsky Phyllis , Wu Henry , Dosunmu Ronke , Goad Jeffrey A , Mirzaian Edith , Hess Karl , Hynes Noreen A , Jacquerioz Frederique , McLellan Susan , Katsolis Jenn , Kelly Paul , Knouse Mark , Lee Jennifer , Leung Daniel , Kendall Brian , Hale DeVon , Oladele Alawode , Demeke Hanna , Oladele Alawode , Otuata Althea , Pasinski Roger , Wheeler Amy E , Showler Adrienne , Coster Laura , Rosen Jessica , Schwartz Brian S , Stauffer William , Walker Patricia , Vinetz Joseph
Published: October 2018

Travelers seen for pretravel health encounters are frequently prescribed new travel-related medications, which may interact with their previously prescribed medications. In a cohort of 76 324 travelers seen at 23 US clinics, we found that 2650 (3.5%) travelers were prescribed travel-related medications with potential for serious drug interactions.
Who Bears Interest Rate Risk?
Authors: Hoffmann Peter , Langfield Sam , Pierobon Federico , Vuillemey Guillaume
Published: October 2018

We study the allocation of interest rate risk within the European banking sector using novel data. Banks’ exposure to interest rate risk is small on aggregate, but heterogeneous in the cross-section. Contrary to conventional wisdom, net worth is increasing in interest rates for approximately half of the institutions in our sample. Cross-sectional variation in banks’ exposures is driven by cross-country differences in loan-rate fixation conventions for mortgages. Banks use derivatives to partially hedge on-balance-sheet exposures. Residual exposures imply that changes in interest rates have redistributive effects within the banking sector.

Received October 31, 2017; editorial decision August 30, 2018 by Editor Philip Strahan. Authors have furnished an Internet Appendix, which is available on the Oxford University Press Web site next to the link to the final published paper online.
ANALYSIS OF THE RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY CONTROL LEVEL VERSUS THE EXPOSURE OF RADIATION WORKERS IN SOUTH KOREA FROM 2008–17
Authors: Kim Sang-Tae , Yoo Jaeryong
Published: October 2018

In this study, the radiation exposure of workers at workplaces registered and licensed between 2008 and 2017 for the production/sale/use of radioactive isotopes (RI) and radioactive generators (RG) was analysed to evaluate the quality of radiation safety management controls in use. The number of facilities using RIs increased by ~26% from 2008 to 2017 whereas the number of facilities using RGs increased by ~166% over the same period. There were 33 029 radiation workers in all fields in 2008, and the number increased by ~32% to 43 467 by 2017. However, the collective effective dose of radiation received by workers decreased in all industries except for those working in nuclear power plants. In other words, the quality of radiation safety management improved over that same time period due to the systematic, continuous introduction of safety mechanisms by the regulatory authority.
From ‘Vilest Beverage’ to ‘Universal Medicine’: Drinking Water in Printed Regimens and Health Guides, 1450–1750
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: October 2018

Historians tend to assume that in pre-modern Europe people avoided the water, as too unsafe, risky and generally unhealthy to drink. This assumption is clearly flawed: early modern Europeans knew, through experience, which waters were ‘best’ and to take certain precautions when it came to the consumption of water. Town councils enacted legislation to ensure water quality as well as more pro-active measures to keep water sources clean. Extensive and expensive water works in many larger towns and the presence of water-carriers suggests a demand for drinking water. And yet the history of both water control measures and drinking practices before the onslaught of Asian cholera and the bacteriological revolution in the nineteenth century have yet to be written.

As a contribution towards filling this gap, this study seeks to understand the radically changing nature of medical advice on water consumption between 1450 and 1750, and what it can tell us about the place of water in early modern society. To do this, we consider printed dietary regimens and guides to good health and long life, a successful, varied and changing genre. They offer privileged access to the circulation of knowledge regarding water, in the context of the everyday regulation of food and drink in the maintenance of health. We explain why water went from being considered ‘the vilest of beverages’ in the mid-fifteenth century, the consumption of which, though necessary, had to be carefully regulated, to a ‘universal medicine’ three hundred years later, able to prevent and cure disease. In the process, wine gave way to water as the preferred healthy drink—at least, for medical authors. We relate the medical advice to the different local conditions (such as river water quality), practices (use of cisterns, boiling or filtering) and fashions (cold-drinking) discussed in the medical literature. If water’s very banality means that it is often invisible in the written evidence, the regimens provide ample evidence of the importance of drinking water and of changing attitudes and practices over the course of the early modern period.
Essential procedures for the junior resident on an orthopaedic trauma rotation
Authors: Fournier Matthew N. , Rider Carson M. , Beebe Michael J.
Published: October 2018

Treatment of traumatic musculoskeletal injuries is at the core of the orthopaedic profession. Junior orthopaedic trainees should develop a level of competence with orthopaedic procedures commonly performed at level 1 trauma centers. This article provides an overview of some of the most essential procedures and concepts in orthopaedic trauma to create a foundation for continued learning for the resident beginning a rotation on the trauma service.
Current Concepts
Authors: Hashmi Sohaib Z. , Marra Angelo , Jenis Louis G. , Patel Alpesh A.
Published: October 2018

Central cord syndrome (CCS) represents a clinical phenomenon characterized by disproportionately greater motor impairment of the upper than of the lower extremities, bladder dysfunction. CSS is the most common form of incomplete traumatic spinal cord injury. The initial description of CSS was reported in 1887 secondary to cervical spinal trauma. However, recent literature describes a heterogenous injury patterns including high-energy and low-energy mechanisms and bimodal patient age distributions. Pathophysiology of clinical symptoms and neurological deficits often is affected by preexisting cervical spondylosis. Urgent clinical diagnosis is dependent on neurological examination and imaging studies. Treatment of CSS is dependent on injury mechanism and compressive lesions, neurological examination, preexisting cervical pathology, and patient-specific comorbidities. This article will review the current concepts in diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment of CSS with a highlighted case example.
Pigmented Lesions of the Nail Unit
Authors: Nevares-Pomales Oscar W. , Sarriera-Lazaro Carlos J. , Barrera-Llaurador Julian , Santiago-Vazquez Marely , Lugo-Fagundo Nahyr , Sanchez Julio E. , Sanchez Jorge L.
Published: October 2018

Pigmented lesions of the nail unit are commonly encountered in the clinical setting. Yet, they often present a unique challenge to clinicians because of a broad differential diagnosis or unfamiliarity with clinical and histopathologic features. A wide variety of causes exist ranging from benign lesions such as subungual hemorrhage to malignant lesions such as subungual melanoma. Identifying the underlying cause is key to appropriate management and follow-up in these patients. Although emerging clinical tools such as dermoscopy can be very useful in evaluation of these lesions, histopathologic analysis remains the gold standard. In this review, we discuss and provide a summary of important clinical and histopathological concepts of pigmented lesions of the nail unit with special focus on longitudinal melanonychia, melanotic macule, melanocytic nevus, subungual melanoma, along with discussion of some nonmelanocytic lesions.