bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pretreatments for Improving the Dyeability of p-Aramid Fibers
Authors: Yoo Hye-Ja , Ravichandran V. , Obendorf S.K.
Published: March 2007

A pretreatment method for dyeing Kevlar® fibers without dye carriers has been developed. Fibers were metalated by reacting with a methylsulfinyl anion, the metalated fibers were dyed with cationic and direct dyes, and the resulting coloration and physical properties were evaluated. The results show that this pretreatment technique can im prove the dyeability of Kevlar without compromising mechanical properties. Metal ation improved dyeability more than grafting with either adipoyl chloride, benzoyl chloride, or vinyl benzyl chloride.
An Unusual Application of a Usual Crosslinking Agent—Dyeing Trimethylolmelamine Pretreated Cotton Without Added Salt
Authors: Yiqi Yang  , Shiqi Li
Published: March 2007

Traditional anionic dyeing of cotton requires large amounts of salt to assist dye sorption. This paper reports a method of using trimethylolmelamine (TMM), a com mon durable press finish, to treat cotton for dyeing. TMM pretreated cotton has re markably improved affinity for anionic dyes and no longer needs the assistance of salt in the dyebath. Furthermore, effluents from such processes contain much less dye than effluents from ordinary salt-assisted dyeings. This technology not only increases the efficiency of dyeing without salt, it also considerably decreases the burden of effluent treatment. By this method, cotton can also be dyed with acid dyes.
Dynamic Water Vapor and Heat Transport Through Layered Fabrics
Authors: Yasuda Takeshi , Miyama Masayo , Muramoto Akiko , Yasuda Hirotsugu
Published: March 2007

In Parts I and II, we reported that during nonsteady-state transport of water vapor through layered fabrics, the temperature between two fabrics rose. In this study, we measure the surface temperature of the first-layer fabrics in similar experiments. The mass of the first layer is changed by tightly stacking the same fabrics, and the surface temperature rise is measured as a function of the mass and the kind of polymers. The rise of surface temperature is proportional to the mass of fabrics and the water ab sorption characteristics of the polymers. We can confirm that the temperature rise that occurs in the space between layered fabrics is mainly due to the heat of absorption of water vapor by the polymers (fabrics).
An Attachment to the Constant Rate of Elongation Tester for Estimating Surface Irregularities of Fabrics
Authors: Ajayi Joseph O.
Published: March 2007

Fabric surface irregularities are measured using a novel attachment to a constant rate of elongation tester. The number of peaks and amplitude of the stick-slip traces correspond to the number and height of surface asperities on fabrics, respectively. Fabrics that yield more peaks and lower amplitude pulses are judged smoother than those with fewer peaks and higher amplitudes.
New Reactive Auxiliaries for Dye-Resist Treatment of Wool
Authors: Haarer Jutta , Höcker Hartwig
Published: March 2007

The influence of the molecular structure of reactive auxiliaries was investigated with respect to the dye resist effect toward anionic dyes. Resist effectiveness improves sig nificantly with increasing molecular weight (diffusion hindrance of the dye) for low auxiliary concentrations on the fiber. Further, increasing acidity of the auxiliary gives a better resist effect. In addition to the number of ionic charges, their distribution in the auxiliary molecule proves to be important to the resist effect.
Influence of Spinneret Dimensions on Modacrylic Fiber Properties
Authors: Tsai Jin-Shy
Published: March 2007

Optimum L/D values (capillary length to diameter ratio) of a spinneret for mod acrylic fibers with various deniers are obtained in this study. When the denier of fibers with 33% chlorine content is smaller than 5, the smaller the denier of the fiber, the larger the diameter of the spinneret capillaries must be to obtain good properties. When the denier of fibers with 33% chlorine content is larger than 5, the larger the denier, the larger the diameter of the capillaries must be. Thus, there is a critical point for L/D values at about 5 denier. When the chlorine content of the fibers is higher, denier has a large effect on the limiting oxygen index (LOI) value. If the chlorine content is about 8%, the LOI value for modacrylic fibers is almost not affected by denier.
Predicting End Breakage Rates in Worsted Spinning
Authors: Huang X.C. , Oxenham W.
Published: March 2007

Successful forecasting of likely end breakage rates in spinning is governed by the availability of a reliable predictive model together with appropriate experimental data on yam strength and tension for inclusion in the model. Techniques for assessing dynamic yam strength and yam tension during ring spinning are described and the effects of various processing parameters on the values obtained are reported.
Influence of Fiber Type and Moisture on Measured Fabric-to-Skin Friction
Authors: Kenins P.
Published: March 2007

Measurements of fabric-to-skin friction have shown that glabrous and hairy skin behave differently when the skin is wet. Moisture on the skin is more important than the fiber type or the fabric construction parameters tested in these experiments in determining fabric-to-skin friction.
Theory of Soil / Geotextile Interaction
Authors: El Mogahzy Yehia E. , Gowayed Yasser , Elton David
Published: March 2007

In this study, soil/geotextile interaction is characterized by the following general equation- τ = τa + tan δ*( σnor) n-where τ and σnor are shear and normal stresses on the failure plane at failure, τa is the soil/fabric adhesion component, and δ* and n are friction indexes. This equation provides a general relationship in which the classical Mohr-Coulomb law is considered as a special case. It holds for a wide range of normal stresses and describes soil/geotextile interaction in terms of material-related parameters. A theoretical interpretation of the effects of critical factors affecting soil / geotextile interaction is based on this equation. The four main factors examined are soil/geotextile adhesion, normal stress, deformation of junctions at the soil/fabric interface, and surface roughness. To evaluate interactive deformational modes of soil / geotextile systems, a pull-out test device was designed and constructed and used to test woven and nonwoven textiles. Identified interactive modes were divided into three main categories: pure slippage, complete rupture, and combined slippage and longi tudinal deformation. This categorization supported by the equation above can help rationalize the complex mechanism involved in pull-out conditions.
Compressibility Analysis of Dry Abraded Woven Fabrics
Authors: Ukponmwan Joshua Osayande
Published: March 2007

The behavior of dry abraded woven fabrics has been analyzed in terms of compres sion and compressibility using an Instron tensile tester. Changes are illustrated in the compressional properties of the woven fabrics as a consequence of wear using the Accelerotor abrasion tester under dry conditions. The Spearman rank correlation coef ficient is used to determine interrelationships between compressional properties and percent losses in weight. A simple paired t-test reveals a significant difference between the unabraded and dry abraded fabrics at the 95% confidence level with respect to compressional properties.
Preparing Cotton Nonwoven Fabrics at Low Temperatures Using Hydrogen Peroxide Activated with Sodium Persulphate
Authors: Letcher Trevor M. , Govender Penny , Lutseke Sazi
Published: March 2007

A low temperature (25-45°C) bleaching process for a cotton patterned nonwoven fabric has been established using hydrogen peroxide activated with sodium persulphate. The combined scouring and alkaline peroxide bleaching treatment was done using a laboratory scale pad-batch kier model. Detailed laboratory experiments were performed to investigate the effects of hydrogen peroxide concentration, time required for bleach ing, and temperature of the bleaching bath on the measured property of whiteness. The whiteness values of the bleached fabrics were compared to values obtained for the same fabric prepared using conventional high temperature (250°C), high pressure shock bleach. A three-variable statistical regression technique with whiteness as the response factor was used to analyze the data. Surface diagrams were drawn and the optimum conditions determined for low temperature bleaching with respect to hy drogen peroxide concentration, time, and temperature.
The Use of Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomers in Orthodontics
Authors: Kidd Patrick D. , Sterrett Terry L.
Published: March 2007

Polyurethane thermoplastic elastomers (PTPE) have found application as materials for orthodontic tensioning and ligation devices. Requirements for ef ficacious tooth movement have led to very specific material property and design selection criteria for these devices. The authors describe the principal PTPE devices now used by the dental profession and present in-progress reports on de velopmental devices undergoing clinical evaluation. Processing considerations of PTPE devices are addressed in view of GMP and other regulatory constraints. Areas for further development are outlined with regard to unmet clinical needs.
Novel Isocyanate Binder Systems for Composite Wood Panels
Authors: Gaul J.M. , Nguyen T. , Babiec J.S.
Published: March 2007

The growing demand for structural composite wood panels has created an op portunity for novel cost effective binder systems. Recently, much data has been published extolling the virtues of isocyanates (PMDI) as binders for composite wood panels intended for exterior applications. To date, there are two main drawbacks which inhibit the wide spread use of PMDI as binders: 1) generally, isocyanates are more expensive than the commonly used formaldehyde binder systems and 2) isocyanates adhere strongly to the caul plate during the pressing cycle. To overcome this sticking problem, release agents are necessary which in creases the overall cost of an isocyanate binder system.

This study was undertaken to investigate the cost/performance of isocyanate binder systems which incorporate significant levels of low cost reactive diluents. Several binder systems were evaluated which were cost/performance effective when compared to phenol-formaldehyde (exterior) and urea-formaldehyde (inter ior) binders for composite wood panels.

Laboratory studies have demonstrated that propylene carbonate (PC) is one such effective diluent in conjunction with isocyanates. The data indicates that ac ceptable composite wood panels, both exterior and interior grade, can be pro duced even when 30% of the isocyanate is replaced by propylene carbonate. Economical analyses indicate that the 70% PMDI/30% PC binder system offers cost advantages over 7% phenol-formaldehyde (PF) or 9% urea-formaldehyde (UF) binder systems.
Properties and Entanglements of Amorphous Polymer Interfaces
Authors: Wool R.P.
Published: March 2007

When two similar polymers contact in the melt to form a polymer-polymer interface, interdiffusion of random-coil chains occurs. For this case, we determine a set of properties, H, as a function of time, t, and molecular weight, M. They in clude the number of chains, n, number of bridges, p, average monomer inter penetration depth, X, the total monomer depth, Xo, the center of mass diffusion, χcm, the average contour interpenetration length, l, the total contour length, Lo, and the average bridge length, l p. The time dependent, H(t), and equilibrium solutions, H∞ , can be summarized as
Polymer/Polymer Composites Consisting of Interpenetrating Network-Domain Latex Particles
Authors: Narkis M. , Silverstein M.
Published: March 2007

A two-stage emulsion polymerization procedure was used to produce an elas tomeric interpenetrating network (IPN)-domain polymer/polymer composite from soft polyacrylates (PAs) and rigid polystyrene (PS), whose thermoset sub micron particles contain PS microdomains. The latex particles, the flow units, have a stick, slip, roll flow mechanism through the deformation of the particles and the elongation of their interchangeable physical ties. Neither a Newtonian plateau nor a yield stress was observed at the shear rates and frequencies studied. Two distinct glass transition temperatures ( Tgs) were observed and as sociated with the individual PA and PS transitions. Transmission electron mi croscopy (TEM) of a frozen hydrated latex clarified the complex structure of the IPN-domain polymer/polymer particles. The unique mechanical and rheolog ical properties of these materials stem from their IPN-domain structure within the particles as well as from the character of the interparticle interactions.
Wash Studies of IMR Containing PU-RIM
Authors: Hutchinson D.J.
Published: March 2007

The use of polyurethane reaction injection molding (PU-RIM) to produce au tomotive fascia is well known. More recently, this technology has been used to produce body panels. To allow PU-RIM to maintain competitiveness with other plastic processes internal mold release (IMR) technology was highly desirable. Recent developments by the Dow Chemical Company have resulted in the first commercialization of PU-RIM IMR technology for the production of automotive fascia. Further developments have extended the use of IMR chemistry to the production of body panels.

But the conversion of conventional PU-RIM fascia production to IMR contain ing technology was not done easily. The same surface energy phenomenon which results in multiple release of the substrate from the tooling caused the primer to display unacceptable wetout characteristics when applied to the con ventionally washed fascia. Secondly, the IMR in use today is heat migratory and thus the sequence of postcure prior to washing was mandatory for the suc cessful cleaning of fascia prior to the application of primer.

This paper describes the development of wash chemistries to overcome the initial unacceptable primer wetout which was inhibiting the conversion of PU- RIM molders to this IMR technology. Several aqueous wash chemistries and heat migration studies will be discussed. Adhesion testing of the successful primed fascia will also be presented.
Optimization of Postcure Conditions and Heat Sag Resistance of a Polyurea-Polyurethane
Authors: Frisch Kurt C.
Published: March 2007

A model polyurea-polyurethane elastomer was used to demonstrate the mor phology desired to minimize heat sag of a urethane elastomer. The morphology of the elastomer could be widely varied by minor changes in the catalyst con tent. An oscillating disk rheometer was used to optimize the time and tempera ture of the postcure conditions. The rheometer was also used to demonstrate the importance to minimize the time between demolding and postcure. The adverse effect of humidity on heat sag resistance was also demonstrated.
Substrate Deformation Studies on Impact Erosion and Plowing by Photoelasticity
Authors: Naim M. , Bahadur S.
Published: March 2007

Static and dynamic photoelasticity methods were applied in studying the mechanisms of erosion. A multiple spark camera and a linear gas gun were used to photograph impact-induced dynamic stress waves. The propagation of stress waves in a polycarbonate material was analyzed upon impact of a 3-mm diameter rigid ball traveling at 50 m/s velocity. The role of pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves in causing damage was found to be low. The residual stress field generated due to particle impact was determined using a circular polari scope. It was found that the plastic deformation at impact-induced high strain rates and the residual stress field generated by repeated impacts produce crack ing, and the interaction of these cracks results in erosion loss. Impact on brittle Columbia resin produced lateral, circumferential, and radial cracks, resulting in material removal. The stress gradient and cracking were also studied during plowing on the above two materials.
A Comparison of High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Processing of RIM-PUR Systems in Shoe Manufacturing: Factors Influencing Material Properties
Authors: Graf Hans-Joachim
Published: March 2007

In the technical production of moulded parts, the technique of mixing the PUR components by the counterflow process under high pressure is widely used. This process has been the subject of intensive study in respect of both pro cess control and the quality of the resultant mixture. With the aid of model substances, investigations were carried out at the IKV in Aachen on the in fluence of the mixing head geometry, flow controllers and different runner geometries.
Polyurethanes for "Two-Dimensional" Applications
Authors: Schmelzer H. Georg
Published: March 2007

The unsurpassed versatility of polyurethanes is remarkably evident in the areas of two-dimensional applications. Polyurethanes are tailor-made for the wide range of rigid surface coatings, e.g., for metal, concrete and wood; for flexi ble surface coatings, e.g., for textile substrates and leather; and for a wide vari ety of adhesives. Polyurethanes give unexcelled performance in almost all of these applications. In many cases this superiority is achieved by the fact that polyurethanes are generally reactive processing polymers which can be intrin sically cross-linked to the optimal degree. This key fact can be acounted for by the versatility of the NCO group, an "energy package" of unique quality. Two- component polyurethane coatings based on aliphatic polyisocyanates are the ultimate performance standard of the industry. Special oligomers of aliphatic diisocyanates have paved the way for the ecologically most desirable high solids coatings. New aliphatic diisocyanates and their potential for coatings are dis cussed. Recently, blocked polyisocyanates have experienced significant break throughs in automotive applications and for powder coatings. Aqueous polyurethane dispersions can also be tailor-made for the whole range of two- dimensional applications. They complement the high solids and the powder polyurethane coatings, as well as the solvent-free polyurethane adhesives in the fulfillment of ecological and industrial hygiene requirements.
Ageing and Weathering of Mica-SBR Composites
Authors: Debnath S. , Khastgir D.
Published: March 2007

Ageing and weathering behavior of mica-filled SBR (1502) composites have been studied at different temperatures for various times with special attention to the effects of silane coupling agents in the compounds. Tensile and tear prop erties have been correlated with SEM fractographs. The kinetics of property degradation have been investigated in the light of the Arrhenius equation. Finally attempts have been made to express the property degradation with suitable mathematical form.
On the Design of Internal Mixers
Authors: Chohan R.K.
Published: March 2007

A number of variables affect the performance of an internal mixer. This has led, at least to some extent, to a state of the art as far as the design of internal mixers is concerned. The present contribution discusses some design issues in the light of some recent findings. Based on these findings a scale-up rule is sug gested.
Social Systems Delimitation and Allocative Mechanisms
Authors: Najjar George K.
Published: March 2007

Development administration literature overemphasizes a market-exchange approach to national resource allocation. Lacking a systematic analysis of extra-marker, one- way transfers, this literature leaves unaddressed both the technical failures of the market and its tendency to overexpand and impose its operational logic on the rest of society. This article argues for utilizing public budgetary transfers to delimit the market and help create work units that can be productive without having to subject their members to the impersonal, excessively functional and unidimensional modes of interaction characteristic of market relationships. The concept of substantive- synergistic budgeting is introduced as the operational tool of the suggested model.
Loca l cHief Exec Uti Ves
Authors: Abney Glenn
Published: March 2007

Are city mayors. county commission chairpersons, and city managers involved in the intergovernmental administrative process? What is the frequency of their involvement, what is the intent of their involvement, and what is the route of their involvement? These are the questions addressed in this article through a survey of such officials in eight states. The literature suggests that the centralization of the federal system and the development of vertical federalism has excluded local chief executives from the process. The responses of 665 local chief executives in the eight states indicate they contact a broad range of agencies for various purposes, but especially for their resources. Explanations for the manner of contact (direct, legislator involvement, or a combination of both) used by the various officials are explored.
Sex Role Stereotypes Among Blacks and Whites
Authors: Smith Lynette E. , Millham Jim
Published: March 2007

The issue of sex-role/social stereotyping by Black Americans is examined empirically in a replication and extension of the Turner and Turner study (1974). Two comparable groups of Black and White subjects rated men and women of their own racial group with respect to three dimensions: reliability, trustworthiness, and responsi bility. They rated the target persons on these dimensions within a work context and within a social context. Little evidence was found for widespread gender stereotyping beyond a somewhat more positive self-image among women of both races. Although several explanations for the findings are explored, it is concluded that the image of the "shiftless" Black male and the heroic "matriarchal" Black female is simply not a viable or general stereotype within contemporary Black America.
The Relationship between Academic Status and Future Expectations among Low-income Blacks
Authors: Simmons Warren
Published: March 2007

The extent to which perceptions of present and future status vary as a function of sex and academic status in low- income Blacks was investigated. Using the interpretive framework of social comparison theory, it is hypothesized that the expectations of academically successful (AS) and unsuccessful (AU) Blacks represent realistic apprais als of their future status. Sixty low-income Black seventh- graders were given the Kilpatrick-Cantril scale, which assesses present and future status. The results indicate that, regardless of academic status, males possess higher expectations than females. The expectations of the AU females were the lowest of all the subjects. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of success and failure on future expectations and academic motivation.
The Development of Racial Evaluation and Preference: A Cognitive Approach
Authors: Semaj Leahcim
Published: March 2007

The paper presents the results of an empirical study designed to investigate impersonal and racial cognitive development in Black American children. It is hypothe sized that "impersonal" cognitive factors (specifically physical constancy) are precursors of the development of "social" cognitive factors (appropriate racial classifica tion of family members, and racial constancy). Further more, it is hypothesized that social cognitive functioning is a precursor of the development of affective responses and preferences. Various measures of the three dimensions above were administered to samples of Black American children in the age range of 4-11 years, with comparisons of results for children in the 4-5, 6-7, 8-9, and 10-11 age groups. The results are partially supportive of the hypothesized relationship between impersonal cognition and social cognition, but suggest that the relationship between social cognition and social affect is more com plex than hypothesized.
Play Objects as Tools of Propaganda: Characterizations of the African American Male
Authors: Wilkinson Doris Y.
Published: March 2007

In this study, children's toys constitute the units of analy sis from which inferences are drawn about the labeling process and racial psychology. Emphasis is placed on characterizations of African American males in play arti facts from the years following the Civil War up to and including the Depression years. The general objective of the research is to provide a psychocultural analysis of toys as material objects instrumental in attitude formation and value transmission. To assess the meaning and labeling function of racial play objects as socialization tools, the method of content analysis is used. Department store catalogs and selected historical volumes on toys consti tute the data bases.

This study transcends limited ethnic identification and racial preference attitude experiments that have employed dolls as stimuli. It concentrates instead on toys as the focus of analysis, and on their use as communi cators of racial stereotypes. Five categories of com munication bias are used to ascertain stereotypes as well as propaganda content. The data show that racial games and toys have functioned for decades as disseminators of racially biased images. The results of the examination provide a framework for evaluating the content of con temporary media portrayals of African American males.
Finding the Black Self: A Humanistic Strategy
Authors: Jones Rhett S.
Published: March 2007

This brief paper develops a humanistic strategy for study of Black self-definition. It contrasts the distinction be tween personality and culture traditionally conceived in the social sciences with the way in which these important constructs are regarded by those utilizing humanistic strategies. Particular attention is given to the utility of humanistic strategy for penetrating Afro-American pre sentations of self, and an effort has been made to explore humanistic developments in anthropology, history, and sociology, as well as psychology.
Delayed Gratification in Blacks: A Critical Review
Authors: Curtis Banks W. , McQuater Gregory V. , Ross Jenise A. , Ward Wanda E.
Published: March 2007

Research on the delay of gratification in Blacks was critically reviewed. The methodology typically em ployed to investigate this construct involves offering the individual a choice of obtaining either a small, im mediate reward or a large, delayed reward. Contrary to previous reports, it is argued here that the evidence divides published studies into those demonstrating overall patterns of nonpreference for delayed versus immediate rewards and those demonstrating overall or partial patterns of preference for delayed rewards among Blacks. Little empirical evidence is provided in the literature of a tendency for Blacks to prefer im mediate gratification, or of the relationship of such behavior to other personality characteristics.
Learning Language from Mothers' Replies
Authors: Howe Christine J.
Published: March 2007

It has long been assumed that mothers who reply by supplementing their children's remarks will facilitate the process of language development. So far, however, research on this issue has been highly selective, focussing on two such replies: expansion and extension. It has more or less overlooked what might be called "embedded extension" where children's remarks are incorporated into more complex replies. Consequently, this paper will present a first attempt to investigate the role of embedded extension in child language development. It will describe a study of twenty-four mothers and children who were videotaped in their homes once when the children were aged twenty to twenty-two months and again when they were three months older. This paper will show that the frequency with which the mothers used a particular type of embedded extension in the first recording was significantly but nonetheless imperfectly related to the frequency with which the children used the corresponding construction in the second recording. Scrutinizing the "imperfections" more closely, the paper will suggest that if embedded extensions do influence child language development other, previously unconsidered, factors are also involved.
Learning Language the Hard Way
Authors: Todd Peyton , Aitchison Jean
Published: March 2007

This paper analyses and discusses the speech of Vincent, a hearing child of deaf parents who acquired sign language as his first language. When exposed to spoken language, his progress was slow and abnormal. He utilised a number of grammatical devices which may have come from sign language, such as reduplication, copying around, doubling, and afterthought. These were imposed on a fixed kernel sentence which attributed more importance to form than to semantic relations. The possible reasons for this abnormal development are put forward, and their implications discussed.
The Effect of Adult Role on the Language used by Preschool Children
Authors: Martlew Margaret
Published: March 2007

The language used by preschool children with highly interventive adults participating in their activities could be expected to differ markedly from a peer group with adults acting merely as caretakers. This study set out to examine these differences by recording the speech of two groups of children attending a playgroup. The staff adopted two different roles, participating extensively with one group and adopting a passive role with the other. The language analyses showed the adults' role affected the amount rather than the type of speech addressed to them, though there were certain differences, notably the increased frequency of naming and one word utter ances in their participatory role. Their roles did have an effect on child/child interchanges. Possibly one important factor of the participatory role is the specific direction of children's activities which has consequences for the language used. Differences were also found between the language use of children scoring high or low on the language tests. The high scorers' language reflected certain types of utterances used most frequently to adults.
Story-telling, Dramatic Role Play and Displaced Speech in Play with Dolls
Authors: Söderbergh Ragnhild
Published: March 2007

Playing with a dolls' house and dolls is a kind of game following certain rules where language is used in certain specific ways, i.e, you set the scene, plan a story and then act out a play, now acting as a story-teller, now playing the parts of the dolls, lending them your voice. This complicated linguistic task is not mastered by a child until somewhere between 3 and 4 years of age at the very earliest.
Imaginative dialogues in children's private speech
Authors: Pickert Sarah M.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the development of the structure of dialogues by analysing one child's bedtime soliloquies over a two year period (age 2 1/2 to 41/2) and comparing them with those of another child (age 21/2) reported earlier in the literature. It documents the role of language in the social ization process and argues that development of conversational forms is best understood in the context of a theory of cognitive development. Dialogues were analysed for conventional forms of social address (imperatives, interrogatives, vocatives), for conversational maintenance techniques (direct and indirect repetition of phrases and ideas) and for level of conceptualization (linguistic representation of single then multiple speakers). Results indicate that, although there were large individual differences, both children used conventional forms of social address in their private speech from the beginning recordings but their language reflected a limited understanding of societal relationships.
Project report: language development in 6- to 12-year-old children
Authors: Fawcett Robin P. , Perkins Michael R.
Published: March 2007

The project is directed by Dr. Robin P. Fawcett with the assistance of Dr. Michael R. Perkins. It has been entirely funded during Phase 1 (1978-80) by the Polytechnic of Wales, but additional outside support will be needed forPhase 2 (1981-83) and is currently being sought. Phase 1 has been primarily concerned with the recording, transcription and publication of a large body of data (see below), while Phase 2 will be concerned with its analysis.
Reversibility and the acquisition of complex syntactic structures in 3- to 7-year-old children
Authors: Trosborg Anna
Published: March 2007

In recent years the role of general cognitive development in language acquisition has been stressed (e.g. Piaget, Sinclair). However, most often this relationship is implied, rather than empirically verified. This paper provides data for both linguistic and cognitive functioning in the same children. It is concerned with the acquisition of active/passive sentences (synonymy judgement) and temporally, causally, and conditionally related sequences in relation to 'reversal skills'. Ability to relate active and passive sentences in order to judge meaning equivalence and the ability to reverse clause order to correspond with event order and/or cause-effect is dependent on the child's ability to perform reversible operations as involved in conservation tasks. The concept of time is supposed to be spatial in origin (seriation tasks), and an understanding of relational time is dependent on the ability to decentre and coordinate (picture arrangement task). Also conditionals require reversible transformations and coordination of several internal structures.

Only at the age from 5 to 7 and onwards can children comprehend the complex structures in question, if they have to rely on syntactic information alone for their interpretation, but if the child can rely on his knowledge of the world, he can begin to interpret/produce these structures already at the age of 3, that is before he has achieved reversible operations.
When 'Don't' means'Do': pragmatic and cognitive development in understanding an indirect imperative
Authors: Eson Morris E. , Shapiro Alan S.
Published: March 2007

The study describes the sequence through which children pass between the ages of two and six as they become able to draw an inference about the speaker's intentions and to apply a pragmatic discourse rule. The form of utterance that was presented had the literal form of a prohibitive (Don't) and the illocutionary force of an indirect imperative (Do). Fifty-seven children, 27 F and 30 M, between the ages of 2;0 and 6;1, were asked to respond to three such indirect imperatives. The two youngest subjects (2;0 and 2;2 years of age) disobeyed the prohibitive. Children between 2;4 and 4;0 years of age were literally obedient. Those between 4;6 and 6;1 acted on the inference of the utterance in the way that adults would; and those between 4;0 and 4;6 were found to be transitional. Inferential females differed from their male counterparts in that they more frequently sought clarification before proceeding, whereas the males tended to act on the pragmatic discourse rule without raising a question about the speaker's intentions.
Facilitating children's understanding of questions through pictures: implications for social class language differences
Authors: Gullo Dominic F.
Published: March 2007

The effects of pictorialization on low- and middle-social class (SES) children's comprehension of wh-questions was examined. Sixty middle- and 60 low-SES children, aged 3;6 to 5;2, were asked to respond to six types of wh-questions in two stimulus conditions. The pictures in Stimulus I contained information to answer more than one wh-question. The pictures in Stimulus II contained information to answer only one wh-question. Both SES groups answered significantly more questions in Stimulus II. Examination of simple effects indicated that middle-SES children benefited from pictorial support on comprehending the later developed wh-words representing abstract linguistic constructs ( why, how, when) while low-SES children benefited on comprehending early acquired wh-words ( who, what, where) .
Formal coherence production in children's discourse
Authors: Benoit Pamela J.
Published: March 2007

Interactional management is one domain which is receiving attention in the communicative competence literature (Wiemann 1977). A basic management skill is the collaborative production of coherent discourse. This paper describes the acquisition of coherence production skills by preschool children. The focus is largely upon formal coherence pro duction, the repetition of lexical or structural constituents from previous utterances.
'Text' as an object of metalinguistic knowledge: a study in literacy development
Authors: Sulzby Elizabeth , Otto Beverly
Published: March 2007

Signs of literacy appear in behaviours of young children reared in a literate culture long before they are reading and writing conventionally. In this article, children's abilities to create 'text' are investigated through data from longitudinal studies of literacy acquisition. Two types of tasks were used: story dictations and storybook 'readings.' Speech and non- verbal behaviours were examined for indications that children were able to separate their speech utterances under these conditions into two categories: a textual entity and comments referring to or separate from that entity. Two scales for judging the quality of the created text were presented and bases for judgments about non-text utterances were described. Results indicated that as children increase in emergent literacy, their speech utterances can be judged to fall into these two categories. Children also increase in ability to refer to written texts and textual speech through metalinguistic labels and indirect linguistic means. The ability to create a 'text' and to treat it as an object of knowledge was suggested to be part of more general literacy develop ment of young children reared in a literate culture.
The role of action in early lexical acquisition
Authors: Schwartz Richard G.
Published: March 2007

The role of action in early lexical acquisition was explored in 12 children (1;0.21 to 1;3.15) through the presentation of 16 contrived concepts, each involving a nonsense word and 4 unfamiliar objects or 4 unfamiliar actions. The investigator performed a familiar action on each experimental object. The experimental actions were performed upon more familiar objects. Subjects' productions of these words and performance of these actions indicated that prior action performance did not influence action word production. Prior performance of object- related actions led to slower production acquisition. However, the subjects previously performed such actions for a greater number of the objects ultimately named. The children tended not to name exemplars for the first time or initially lexicalize concepts while performing an object-related or referent action.
The nonverbal context of mothers' speech to infants
Authors: Harris Margaret , Jones David , Grant Julia
Published: March 2007

Six infants were videotaped twice between six and ten months of age while engaged in a free play session with their mothers. Division of the mothers' utterances into verbal episodes revealed that for all mothers, the majority of episodes began in response to something done by the child: from session 1 to session 2, the number of episodes initiated by a shift in the child's gaze decreased and the number initiated by a child action increased. During both sessions, a large percentage of maternal utterances referred to an object within the child's current frame of reference. It is argued that such a close correspondence between maternal speech and a contiguous nonverbal context is helpful for language development.
An examination of adapted communication in young children
Authors: Greenberg Jeff , Kuczaj Stan A. , Suppiger Ann E.
Published: March 2007

In Study 1, children ranging in age from 2 to 6 years were asked to describe one and two object referent sets to one listener who could see the objects and one listener who could not see the objects. The results indicated that all the children gave more information when describing two object referent sets, and that the five- and six-year-olds provided more information (in the form of modifiers) to the listener who could not see the objects than to the listener who could see the objects. In Study 2, children ranging in age from 2 to 4 were asked to describe one object referent set to one listener who could see the objects and one listener who could not, both before and after a questioning session. The questioning session, which was designed to sensitize the children to the range of describable object attributes, clearly led to more informative object descriptions; furthermore, after the questioning session, the three- and four-year-olds manifested a tendency to give more information to the listener who could not see the objects than to the listener who could. The implications of the results of the two studies with regard to the development of adapted communication skills were briefly discussed.
Children's resolution of pronominal reference in text
Authors: Umstead Rebecca Skacel , Leonard Laurence B.
Published: March 2007

Three-, four-, and five-year-old children listened to stories about which they were asked questions requiring resolution of the proper reference of he. The 5-year-olds performed at higher levels of accuracy than the other two subject groups. The 4-year-olds were dis tinguishable from the 3-year-olds primarily in terms of the pronominal reference resolution strategies reflected in their errors. These included searching only prior portions of text for plausible referents, and selecting referents that had appeared most frequently in the story. Of the four reference conditions employed, within-sentence anaphora proved to be the easiest type of reference to resolve, and within- sentence cataphora the most difficult. Anaphoric reference in which the appropriate referent preceded the pronoun by one or three sentences in text was associated with intermediate levels of accuracy.
Hearer-effects on speaker performances: the influence of the hearer on speakers' effectiveness in oral communication tasks
Authors: Anderson Anne H. , Yule George , Brown Gillian
Published: March 2007

Experiments were conducted to investigate the oral communication skills of 14 to 16-year-olds and to discover conditions which elicit the best spoken performances. Several conditions were tested, using instructional tasks of different levels of difficulty with speakers of various academic abilities. The performances were scored objectively, using as a criterion the amount of relevant information included by speakers in their instructions. The presence of a hearer and ex periencing of the tasks in ascending order of difficulty both resulted in better spoken performances. Prior experience in the hearer's role proved particularly beneficial in sensitizing speakers to their hearer's information requirements. From these results simple training tech niques are outlined for eliciting competent spoken performances in schools.
Individual differences in the acquisition of number markers
Authors: Nicolaci-Da-Costa Ana , Harris Margaret
Published: March 2007

Sentences conveying either non-redundant or increasingly redundant information about number were presented to 22 nursery school children. Comprehension of sentential number was tested by means of a picture-pointing and an acting-out task. Overall findings showed that sentences containing several number markers were interpreted more reliably than those with only one number marker, and that number markers occurring in a noun phrase were better understood than those occurring in a verb phrase. Analysis of individual data revealed three different response patterns, showing that redundant number marking is used in more than one way during the acquisition of the number system.
Young black children's sentence comprehension skills: a comparison of performance in standard English and Jamaican Creole
Authors: Wheldall Kevin , Joseph Ruth
Published: March 2007

A sample of 22 black children attending an inner city nursery school were assessed on a test of sentence comprehension in two forms: (a) Standard English and (b) Jamaican Creole. Order of presentation of test forms was balanced. The results showed that this sample of young black children performed significantly better on the Creole version than on the Standard English version. This was particularly pronounced for certain sentence structures.
Patterns of reading ability in the inner city: a study of London
Authors: Panton K.J.
Published: March 2007

Sociolinguistic studies of language development have tended to con centrate on the home and the classroom and to emphasize the im portance of social class as a major determinant of differences in lan guage style. However, analyses of spatial patterns of reading attain ment in inner London indicate that although class is important its influence is moulded by features of the neighbourhood in which the children live. These neighbourhood influences may help explain areal variations in the performance of members of the same social class living in different parts of the city. It is suggested, as a result of these findings, that a focus on the local area by students of linguistic develop ment may provide additional information about processes of language acquisition.
The learning of syntax: an empiricist approach
Authors: Stemmer Nathan
Published: March 2007

Empiricists maintain that children learn the syntax of their language by using only general learning capacities. Nativists, on the other hand, claim that the acquisition of certain syntactic skills requires additional capacities. They therefore attribute to children an innate syntactic device. In this paper, arguments will be presented which suggest that nativists are mistaken. If all the effects of the semantic experiences which children undergo are taken into account, then the acquisition of syntax can be explained by attributing only general learning capacities to children. Moreover, these arguments also suggest that empiricist theories are more adequate than so-called semanticist theories, since the latter fail to consider one of the most important effects of the semantic experiences.
The emergence of temporal adverbs in child Polish
Authors: Weist Richard M. , Buczowska Ewa
Published: March 2007

This research was conducted to determine how temporal adverbs become integrated into evolving temporal systems. During the period from 2;4 to 3;2, the utterances of three Polish children which contained temporal adverbs were classified as specifying reference time prior to, simultaneous with, or subsequent to speech time. This relationship between reference time and speech time was found either to contradict or to correspond to the relationship established between event time and speech time. The following three sets of adverbs emerged: immediate, e.g., 'already', cyclic, e.g., 'tomorrow', and remote, e.g., 'long ago'. The order of emergence was first immediate, then cyclic, and then remote. Contradictions were restricted to the cyclic set. Hence it was argued that contradictions do not represent a disruption in the systematic development of temporal systems.
Three types of early word: the emergence of social words, names and cognitive-relational words in the one-word stage and their relation to cognitive development
Authors: Gopnik Alison
Published: March 2007

The early words that 27 children produced between the ages of 12 and 20 months were analysed. Social words, such as that used to point out objects or no used to refuse suggestions, were consistently among the first words to appear. A small number of names also appeared in the very early period. Cognitive-relational words, such as gone used to indicate disappearance or no used to indicate failure consistently appeared after some social words had been acquired. The cognitive development of 18 of these children was also recorded. Social words and names, though not cognitive-relational words, appeared before children solved 'early stage 6' cognitive problems. These results suggest that children move from using language communicatively to using it to sort out their cognitive problems early in the one-word stage and that this shift is related to 'stage 6' cognitive developments.