bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spectrum of Viruses and Atypical Bacteria in Intercontinental Air Travelers with Symptoms of Acute Respiratory Infection
Authors: de Souza Luna Luciano Kleber , Panning Marcus , Grywna Klaus , Pfefferle Susanne , Drosten Christian
Published: February 2007

Respiratory infections after air travel are frequent, but epidemiological data are incomplete. Using sensitive polymerase chain reactions, we studied the spectrum of atypical bacteria and respiratory viruses in travelers fulfilling the case definition of severe acute respiratory syndrome. A pathogen was identified in 67 travelers (43.2%). Influenza and parainfluenza viruses were most prevalent, at 14.2% and 15.5%, respectively. Prevalences of adenoviruses, human metapneumovirus, coronaviruses, and rhinoviruses ranged between 2.6% and 4.8%. Human bocavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and Legionella, Mycoplasma, and Chlamydophila species were absent or appeared at frequencies of <1%. To our knowledge, these are the first specific baseline data for the mentioned agents in the context of air travel.
How to Assess Risk of Disease Transmission to Patients When There Is a Failure to Follow Recommended Disinfection and Sterilization Guidelines
Authors: Rutala William A. , Weber David J.
Published: February 2007

Background.

Disinfection and sterilization are critical components of infection control. Unfortunately, breaches of disinfection and sterilization guidelines are not uncommon.

Objective.

To describe a method for evaluating a potential breach of guidelines for high-level disinfection and sterilization of medical devices.

Methods.

The appropriate scientific literature was reviewed to determine the frequency of failures of compliance. A risk assessment model was constructed.

Results.

A 14-step protocol was constructed to aid infection control professionals in the evaluation of potential disinfection and sterilization failures. In addition, a model is presented for aiding in determining how patients should be notified of the potential adverse event. Sample statements and letters are provided for communicating with the public and individual patients.

Conclusion.

Use of a protocol can guide an institution in managing potential disinfection and sterilization failures.
Exceptional sequences of eigenfunctions for hyperbolic manifolds
Authors: Donnelly Harold
Published: February 2007

Examples are given of hyperbolic manifolds in every dimension at least five which support sequences of eigenfunctions for the Laplacian whose

L

∞

L^{\infty }

-norms grow as a power of the eigenvalue while their

L
2

L^2

-norms are one.
Randomized UMD Banach spaces and decoupling inequalities for stochastic integrals
Authors: Veraar Mark
Published: February 2007

In this paper we prove the equivalence of decoupling inequalities for stochastic integrals and one-sided randomized versions of the UMD property of a Banach space as introduced by Garling.
Factorization formulae on counting zeros of diagonal equations over finite fields
Authors: Cao Wei , Sun Qi
Published: February 2007

Let

N
N

be the number of solutions

(

u
1

,
…
,

u
n

)

(u_1,\ldots ,u_n)

of the equation

a
1

u
1

d
1

+
⋯
+

a
n

u
n

d
n

=
0

a_1u_1^{d_1}+\cdots +a_nu_n^{d_n}=0

over the finite field

F
q

F_q

, and let

I
I

be the number of solutions of the equation
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="sigma-summation Underscript i equals 1 Overscript n Endscripts x Subscript i Baseline slash d Subscript i Baseline identical-to 0 left-parenthesis mod 1 right-parenthesis comma 1 less-than-or-slanted-equals x Subscript i Baseline less-than-or-slanted-equals d Subscript i Baseline minus 1">

∑

i
=
1

n

x
i

/

d
i

≡
0

(
mod

1
)
,
1
⩽

x
i

⩽

d
i

−
1

\sum _{i=1}^nx_i/d_i\equiv 0\pmod {1}, 1\leqslant x_i\leqslant d_i-1

. If

I
>
0

I>0

, let

L
L

be the least integer represented by

∑

i
=
1

n

x
i

/

d
i

,
1
⩽

x
i

⩽

d
i

−
1

\sum _{i=1}^nx_i/d_i, 1\leqslant x_i\leqslant d_i-1

.

I
I

and

L
L

play important roles in estimating

N
N

. Based on a partition of

{

d
1

,
…
,

d
n

}

\{d_1,\dots ,d_n\}

, we obtain the factorizations of

I
,
L

I, L

and

N
N

, respectively. All these factorizations can simplify the corresponding calculations in most cases or give the explicit formulae for

N
N

in some special cases.
A Markov-type inequality for arbitrary plane continua
Authors: Eremenko Alexandre
Published: February 2007

Markov’s inequality is
\[
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="sup Underscript left-bracket negative 1 comma 1 right-bracket Endscripts StartAbsoluteValue f Superscript prime Baseline EndAbsoluteValue less-than-or-equal-to left-parenthesis degree f right-parenthesis squared sup Underscript left-bracket negative 1 comma 1 right-bracket Endscripts StartAbsoluteValue f EndAbsoluteValue comma">

sup

[
−
1
,
1
]

|

f
′

|

≤
(
deg
⁡
f

)
2

sup

[
−
1
,
1
]

|

f

|

,

\sup _{[-1,1]}|f’|\leq (\deg f)^2\sup _{[-1,1]}|f|,

\]
for all polynomials

f
f

. We prove a precise version of this inequality with an arbitrary continuum in the complex plane instead of the interval

[
−
1
,
1
]

[-1,1]

.
A generalization of a curious congruence on harmonic sums
Authors: Zhou Xia , Cai Tianxin
Published: February 2007

Zhao established a curious harmonic congruence for prime

p
>
3

p>3

:
\[
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="sigma-summation Underscript StartLayout 1st Row i plus j plus k equals p i comma j comma k greater-than 0 EndLayout Endscripts StartFraction 1 Over i j k EndFraction identical-to minus 2 upper B Subscript p minus 3 Baseline left-parenthesis mod p right-parenthesis period">

∑

i
+
j
+
k
=
p
i
,
j
,
k
>
0

1

i
j
k

≡
−
2

B

p
−
3

(
mod
⁡
p
)
.

\sum _{\substack {i+j+k=pi,j,k>0}} \frac {1}{ijk} \equiv -2B_{p-3}(\operatorname {mod} p).

\]
In this note the authors extend it to the following congruence for any prime

p
>
3

p > 3

and positive integer

n
≤
p
−
2

n \le p-2

:
\[
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="sigma-summation Underscript StartLayout 1st Row l 1 plus l 2 plus midline-horizontal-ellipsis plus l Subscript n Baseline equals p l 1 comma midline-horizontal-ellipsis comma l Subscript n Baseline greater-than 0 EndLayout Endscripts StartFraction 1 Over l 1 l 2 midline-horizontal-ellipsis l Subscript n Baseline EndFraction identical-to StartLayout Enlarged left-brace 1st Row 1st Column minus left-parenthesis n minus 1 right-parenthesis factorial upper B Subscript p minus n Baseline left-parenthesis mod p right-parenthesis 2nd Column a m p semicolon if 2 does-not-divide n comma 2nd Row 1st Column minus StartFraction n Over 2 left-parenthesis n plus 1 right-parenthesis EndFraction n factorial upper B Subscript p minus n minus 1 Baseline p left-parenthesis mod p squared right-parenthesis 2nd Column a m p semicolon if 2 vertical-bar n period EndLayout">

∑

l

1

+

l

2

+
⋯
+

l

n

=
p

l

1

,
⋯
,

l

n

>
0

1

l

1

l

2

⋯

l

n

≡

{

−
(
n
−
1
)
!
 

B

p
−
n

(

mod

p
)

a
m
p
;

if 

2
∤
n

,

−

n

2
(
n
+
1
)

 
n
!
 

B

p
−
n
−
1

 
p
 
(
mod
⁡

p
2

)

a
m
p
;

if 

2

|

n

.

\sum _{\substack {l_{1}+l_{2}+\cdots +l_{n}=pl_{1}, \cdots ,l_{n}>0}} \frac {1}{l_{1}l_{2}\cdots l_{n}}\equiv \begin {cases} -(n-1)!\ B_{p-n} (\textrm {mod}\; p) & \text {if $2\nmid n$},\\ -\frac {n}{2(n+1)}\ n!\ B_{p-n-1}\ p\ (\operatorname {mod} p^2) &\text {if $2|n$}. \end {cases}

\]
Other improvements on congruences of harmonic sums are also obtained.
Dimerization of ERp29, a PDI-like Protein, Is Essential for Its Diverse Functions
Authors: Rainey-Barger Emily K. , Mkrtchian Souren , Tsai Billy
Published: February 2007

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI)-like proteins act as oxido-reductases and chaperones in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). How oligomerization of the PDI-like proteins control these activities is unknown. Here we show that dimerization of ERp29, a PDI-like protein, regulates its protein unfolding and escort activities. We have demonstrated previously that ERp29 induces the local unfolding of polyomavirus in the ER, a step required for viral infection. We now find that, in contrast to wild-type ERp29, a mutant ERp29 (D42A) that dimerizes inefficiently is unable to unfold polyomavirus or stimulate infection. A compensatory mutation that partially restores dimerization to the mutant ERp29 (G37D/D42A) rescues ERp29 activity. These results indicate that dimerization of ERp29 is crucial for its protein unfolding function. ERp29 was also suggested to act as an escort factor by binding to the secretory protein thyroglobulin (Tg) in the ER, thereby facilitating its secretion. We show that this escort function likewise depends on ERp29 dimerization. Thus our data demonstrate that dimerization of a PDI-like protein acts to regulate its diverse ER activities.
Bonaventure
Authors: Cullen Christopher M.
Published: February 2007

This book is a brief introduction to the thought of the great Franciscan theologian St. Bonaventure (c.1217-74). It focuses on the long-debated relation between philosophy and theology in the work of this important but neglected thinker, revealing Bonaventure as a great synthesizer. The book's exposition shows in a new and more nuanced way Bonaventure's debt to Augustine, while making clear how he was influenced by Aristotle. The book is organized according to the categories of Bonaventure's own classic text: De reductione artium ad theologiam. Part I is devoted to the definition of Christian Wisdom. In Part II, individual chapters are devoted to Bonaventure's physics, metaphysics, and moral philosophy. Part III includes chapters on the Trinity, Creation, Sin, the Incarnation, Grace, the Sacraments, and the Last Things.
The Purity of the Second Temple in Rabbinic Literature
Authors: Klawans Jonathan
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines an array of rabbinic sources concerning the temple, including Mishnah, Midrash, and Talmud, drawing a number of contrasts with Qumran literature in particular. The Rabbis seem to agree with the sectarians that the temple was flawed, recalling instances of priestly greed, theft, and even murder. But the rabbis downplay the moral defilement of the temple and deny to the end that the temple was ritually defiled to any significant degree before its destruction by Romans in 70 CE. Unlike the sectarians, the rabbis took a stance toward the temple and its purity that was less idealistic, but more practical and permissive.
Phenomenal Concepts and Phenomenal Knowledge
Authors: Alter Torin , Walter Sven
Published: February 2007

What is the nature of consciousness? How is consciousness related to brain processes? This book discusses these topics. All chapters focus on consciousness in the “phenomenal” sense: looking at what it's like to have an experience. Consciousness has long been regarded as the biggest stumbling block for physicalism, the view that the mind is physical. This controversy has gained focus over the last few decades, and phenomenal knowledge and phenomenal concepts — knowledge of consciousness and the associated concepts — have come to play increasingly prominent roles in this debate. Consider Frank Jackson's famous case of Mary, the super-scientist who learns all the physical information while confined in a black-and-white room. According to Jackson, if physicalism is true, then Mary's physical knowledge should allow her to deduce what it's like to see in color. Yet it seems intuitively clear that she learns something when she leaves the room. But then how can consciousness be physical? Arguably, whether this sort of reasoning is sound depends on how phenomenal concepts and phenomenal knowledge are construed. For example, some argue that the Mary case reveals something about phenomenal concepts but has no implications for the nature of consciousness itself. Are responses along these lines adequate? Or does the problem arise again at the level of phenomenal concepts?
Phenomenal Concepts and the Materialist Constraint
Authors: Levine Joseph
Published: February 2007

This chapter raises a problem for the phenomenal concept strategy. The problem is framed partly in terms of the explanatory gap, which is roughly the claim that the existence or nature of phenomenal consciousness cannot be completely explained in physical terms. As applied to the explanatory gap, the phenomenal concept strategy requires a physicalist account of phenomenal concepts on which the gap derives from phenomenal concepts rather than phenomenal consciousness itself. It is argued that to pass muster, such accounts must satisfy the following constraint: that no appeal be made in the explanation to any mental property or relation that is basic. An account violates this constraint if, for example, it makes appeal to an unexplained notion of acquaintance between a subject and her brain states. It is not understood how any physicalist account can both meet this constraint and explain how the explanatory gap derives from the peculiar features of phenomenal concepts. Although some physicalist account might achieve these goals, it is suggested that physicalism may be false not because phenomenal properties themselves are not physical but rather because somehow we embody a relation to them that is itself brute and irreducible to physical relations.
The Innate Endowment for Language
Authors: Baker Mark C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines two different views of universal grammar. Most linguists assume that universal grammar is underspecified — providing us with an incomplete grammar to be elaborated by learning. But the alternative is that it is overspecified — providing us with a full range of possible grammars from which we select one on the basis of environmental input. Underspecification is now the dominant view in the developmental sciences, and is often treated as the null hypothesis on grounds of greater possibility, parsimony, and simplicity. The chapter questions whether the underspecification view is really feasible and whether it is more parsimonious than the overspecification view, drawing on examples from certain African languages. It also shows that the perplexity evoked by overspecification theories disappears if language has a concealing purpose as well as a communicating purpose, similar to a code.
Brass Tacks in Linguistic Theory
Authors: Crain Stephen , Gualmini Andrea , Pietroski Paul
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents detailed empirical work on several aspects of children's linguistic performance, focusing in particular on evidence that even two-year-old children understand that the meanings of determiners are ‘conservative’, that the meaning of natural language disjunction is ‘inclusive–or’, and that the structural notion of ‘c-command’ governs a range of linguistic phenomena. This and other works are used to defend three related versions of the argument from the poverty of the stimulus, each of which strongly supports the existence of an innate language faculty.
Number and Natural Language
Authors: Laurence Stephen , Margolis Eric
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the question of whether there is an essential connection between language and number, while looking more broadly at some of the potential innate precursors to the acquisition of the positive integers. It focuses on the theoretical question of how language may figure in an account of the ontogeny of the positive integers. Despite the trend in developmental psychology to suppose that it does, there are actually few detailed accounts on offer. Two exceptions are examined — two theories that give natural language a prominent role to play and that represent the state of the art in the study of mathematical cognition. The first is owing to C. R. Gallistel, Rochel Gelman, and their colleagues; the second to Elizabeth Spelke and her colleagues. Although both accounts are rich and innovative, they face a range of serious objections, in particular, their appeal to language isn't helpful.
Reasoning about Intentionality in Preverbal Infants
Authors: Johnson Susan C.
Published: February 2007

Researchers disagree over whether preverbal infants have any true understanding of other minds. There seem to be at least two sources of hesitation among researchers. Some doubt that infants have any concepts as sophisticated as that implied by the term ‘intentionality’. Other researchers simply doubt that infants understand anything in a conceptual way. This chapter provides arguments in favour of infants' abilities in both respects. It describes data from one study in which the method itself was designed to assess conceptual representations abstracted away from perception-action systems.
Agency and the Role of Causation in Mental Life
Authors: Sloman Steven
Published: February 2007

This chapter begins with a discussion of the High Church Doctrine of Cognitive Science, which expresses disillusionment with the view that the computer is the best metaphor of mind. The chapter then explains agency as the ability to represent causal intervention. The purpose of this book is outlined and an overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
What Is a Cause?
Authors: Sloman Steven
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses what causes are. It argues that causal relations are not the only kind of invariance useful for representing the world. There are various kinds of mathematical representations, as well as logical and probabilistic representations. But noncausal forms of invariance are less useful than causality for describing relations among events because they don't naturally describe the processes that generate those events and because, therefore, they fail to support key forms of counterfactual inference as directly as causal models do. In short, only causal models represent the invariance that tells us what the effects of our and others' actions would be. As a result, people seem to be particularly adept at representing and reasoning with causal structure.
Causality and Conceptual Structure
Authors: Sloman Steven
Published: February 2007

The objects that we select and how we put them together depend on our current goals, the task before us, and on our language and culture. It may be argued that concepts are not fixed, stable entities in the mind. Nevertheless, people do bring general knowledge to bear to understand objects and events. This chapter focuses on the structure of that general knowledge, in particular, on its causal structure. Research is presented that uses a variety of measures of categorization. The most frequent is naming — objects are assumed to belong in the same category if they are called by the same name.
Vicarious Religion: A Methodological Challenge
Authors: Davie Grace
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the concept of vicarious religion, that is, the notion of religion performed by an active minority but on behalf of a much larger number, who (implicitly at least) not only understand but approve of what the minority is doing. The first part of the chapter offers multiple examples of vicarious religion in practice. The second part examines the sociological methodologies that are most likely to elicit data appropriate to this field. The chapter ends with a brief consideration of how vicarious religions might evolve in the foreseeable future and a short note on the American case. Following 9/11, this phenomenon of European religion may begin to resonate more widely.
The New Voluntarism and the Case of Unsynagogued Jews
Authors: Davidman Lynn
Published: February 2007

This essay is based on 30 open-ended interviews with Jews in the Northeast who do not belong to synagogues. Unsynagogued Jews present an interesting challenge to the general sociological tradition which sees ascription and choice as disparate ways of constructing a sense of self. These Jews clearly affirmed their understanding (consistent with the contemporary “new voluntarism” perspective) that religious association and practice are a matter of choice. Nevertheless, they also claimed that they have no choice about being Jewish; it is a matter of ascription. In practicing Judaism in everyday life, they creatively drew upon traditional symbols and practices to enact Jewish rituals in their own creative, syncretic ways. These unsynagogued Jews suggest that studies of contemporary religion should pay attention to practice as well as belief.
Virtually Boundless?: Youth Negotiating Tradition in Cyberspace
Authors: Lövheim Mia
Published: February 2007

Sweden is often categorized as one of the most secularized and postmodern countries in the world. The Internet has been described as the “epitome” of transformations of traditional religion in late modern society. This chapter analyzes how youth negotiate religious conventions in discussions of religion on the Internet. If there is a “test case” for the breakdown of religious conventions based on the traditionalized beliefs and practices of institutionalized religion and traditional modes of religious socialization, this would be it. It is argued that despite these anticipations, the construction of religious identities, even in the transient sites of late modern society, is not only a question of individual choice in a “spiritual marketplace”, but also structured by religious authorities and conventions.
A Place on the Map: Communicating Religious Presence in Civic Life
Authors: Lichterman Paul
Published: February 2007

How, if at all, is religion present in local American civic groups? This chapter compares uses of religious language in a variety of religious community service groups in a midwestern U.S. city, focusing on one alliance of mostly white and middle-class congregants of mainline Protestant churches that sponsored volunteering and community development projects in a low-income, minority neighborhood. At its meetings, the alliance almost never used specific, religious language to talk about its issues or goals, but did articulate a religious identity, and understood its civic relationships inside a simple story of responsibility for a fictive “parish”. The other groups also attempted to build relationships across social inequalities, but had a hard time articulating valued civic relationships in religious terms, and interestingly, were more frustrated by their relationship-building efforts.
Connections and Contradictions: Exploring the Complex Linkages between Faith and Family
Authors: Bartkowski John P.
Published: February 2007

This chapter explores the strategies that Conservative Protestant (evangelical) men utilize to negotiate secular concerns and sacred convictions in the context of their marriage and family relationships. The narratives of domestic life, told by conservative religious husbands and fathers, reveal that these men do not conform to the authoritarian gender model of male household leadership that one would assume corresponds with a patriarchal faith. Rather, this study underscores the dynamism, flexibility, and negotiated character of conservative Protestant family relationships.
Brain, Body, and Self
Authors: Glannon Walter
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes different regions of the brain and how they regulate different bodily functions. It describes how the brain regulates cognitive, affective, and conative capacities at the level of the mind. Seeing how dysfunction in certain brain regions results in various psychopathologies can yield insight into the normal and abnormal neural correlates of normal and abnormal states of mind. The chapter also presents an account of mind as a set of capacities that emerge from functions in the brain and body. These capacities play a role in maintaining internal systemic balance and ensuring the survival of the organism. The biological basis of the mind is not located in one region of the brain but is distributed through many brain regions. It is shown that the biological basis of the mind is not limited to the brain but involves immune and endocrine systems as well. Thus, the mind has more than just a neurobiological underpinning. Interactions between and among the central nervous, immune, and endocrine systems influence, and can be influenced by, our mental states.
The Faith at Work Era (c. 1985–Present)
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes and analyzes the third and current wave of the Faith at Work (FAW) movement. The FAW era emerged as social and ecclesiastical conditions in the mid-1980s sapped the Ministry of the Laity of its energy and purpose. The FAW era is evident as early as 1985, built momentum and size through the 1990s, and still continues today with no sign of receding.
Faith at Work as a Social Movement
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

This chapter focuses on the FAW movement, analyzing its member profiles and modes of expression, using theological and sociological categories. It draws on a wide range of primary sources, including the 2003 International Faith & Work Directory, media coverage, books, newsletters, magazines, Internet sites, conferences, interviews, firsthand experiences, and on the emerging body of research in the business academy.
Beyond the East Asian Miracle: Introducing the Market‐Enhancing View
Authors: Aoki Masahiko , Murdock Kevin , Okuno‐Fujiwara Masahiro
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses the relevant parts of the contributions included in this volume. A summary ofThe East Asian Miraclepublished by the World Bank in 1993 is presented. The potential role of government in resolving coordination failures; how government policy can complement decentralized coordination; the use of contingent rents versus the use of direct policies; a framework for analyzing the roles of the private sector and government in coordinating economic activity; the political-economy structures of East Asian economies; and the motivations of government and the bureaucracy are discussed.
The Role of Government in Economic Development: Some Observations from the Experience of China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan
Authors: Lau Lawrence J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the policies adopted and implemented by the governments of China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan in the process of their economic development. It presents a comprehensive list of policy instruments the governments used in mobilizing resource inputs, allocating them more efficiently, and shifting the production frontier outwards. The issues involved in the use of each instrument are illustrated with rich facts from the greater Chinese economic zone.
The Government‐Firm Relationship in Postwar Japanese Economic Recovery: Resolving the Coordination Failure by Coordination in Industrial Rationalization
Authors: Okazaki Tetsuji
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes the workings of a government-sponsored Council for Industrial Rationalization for resolving particular investment coordination problems facing Japan in the postwar economic recovery period. The newly formed market economy was faced with serious coordination failure due to complementarity among industries, economics of scale, and incomplete information. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry intended to coordinate the coordination failure by an industrial rationalization policy.
Institutions, State Activism, and Economic Development: A Comparison of State‐Owned and Township‐Village Enterprises in China
Authors: Qian Yingyi , Weingast Barry R.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines why township-village enterprises (TVEs) are more efficient than state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in China. It is shown that China’s special form of decentralization — ‘market-preserving federalism, Chinese style’ — accounts for positive incentives at the lowest level of government. Local governments’ independent authority over their economies combines with the fiscal incentives, leading these governments to foster and maintain hospital economic environments. Governments at the lowest level in the hierarchy, townships and villages, do not have the means to insulate their firms from competition via trade barriers or to bail out ailing firms via macroeconomic tools. Given the structure of federalism, these governments can grow only if their economies grow.
4 The Influence of Athanasius' Polemic 339–46
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the influence of Athanasius’ polemic upon the western Church in the period 339-46. This influence is particularly visible in two texts quoted by Athanasius in his Apologia Contra Arianos: the letter of Julius of Rome in 340/1, and the letters of the Western Council of Serdica in 343. All these letters endorse Athanasius’ construction of the ‘Eusebians’ and seek to impose this construct upon his eastern foes.
Musical Expressiveness as Hearability‐as‐Expression
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay defends the analysis that music is expressive of an emotion or other mental state insofar as it induces one to hear it as the personal or personlike expression of that mental state. Various competing theories of musical expressiveness, notably those of Malcolm Budd, Stephen Davies, Robert Stecker, and Roger Scruton, are submitted to critical examination.
Aesthetic Properties, Evaluative Force, and Differences of Sensibility
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay revisits a position on aesthetic attributions, a position rooted in some seminal essays of Frank Sibley, and which can be labelledaesthetic realism. It reflects on some challenges which have emerged on the viability of that position, and determines what accommodations, if any, are called for. This position is sketched, borrowing with modification from an earlier short essay. A number of worries about the position which have lately come into view are considered.
Volatility and Growth
Authors: Aghion Philippe , Banerjee Abhijit
Published: February 2007

It has long been recognized that productivity growth and the business cycle are closely interrelated. Yet, until recently, the two phenomena have been investigated separately in the economics literature. This book provides the first consistent attempt to analyze the effects of macroeconomic volatility on productivity growth, and also the reverse causality from growth to business cycles. It shows that by looking at the economy through the lens of private entrepreneurs, who invest under credit constraints, one can go some way towards explaining persistent macroeconomic volatility and the effects of volatility on growth. Beginning with an analysis of the effects of volatility on growth, it argues that the lower the level of financial development in a country, the more detrimental the effect of volatility on growth. This prediction is confirmed by cross-country panel regressions. The data also suggest that a fixed exchange rate regime or more countercyclical budgetary policies are growth-enhancing in countries with a lower level of financial development. The former reduce aggregate volatility whereas the latter reduce the negative effects of volatility on long-term productivity-enhancing investment by firms. The book concludes with an investigation into how the interplay between credit constraints and pecuniary externalities is sufficient to generate persistent business cycles and to explain the occurrence of currency crises.
Not A Full‐fledged Speech Act?
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter considers various arguments that sub-sentence use might not rise to the level of a ‘full-fledged speech act’. Suggested necessary conditions included being a grammatical usage of a linguistic item, expressing a proposition, bearing force, and being literal (in the sense of not being merely conveyed). It then argues that initial doubts notwithstanding, sub-sentence uses actually have all these features.
Extra‐Grammatical Maneuvers
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines the idea that an ordinary sentence is spoken — either actually produced, or just intended/recovered — in seemingly sub-sentential speech. It discusses the idea that ‘shorthand’ in some sense is at work. What emerges is that it is very implausible to maintain that an ordinary sentence is produced in these cases, and that the only senses in which ‘shorthand’ might truly be at work are ones that restate, rather than reject, premise one outlined in chapter 1: namely, that speakers genuinely can utter ordinary words and phrases in isolation, and thereby perform full-fledged speech acts
A Divide‐and‐Conquer Strategy
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

There are two obvious kinds of manoeuvres for rejecting the existence of full-fledged non-sentential speech acts, thereby avoiding the implications canvassed briefly in Chapter 1. The first is to deny that there are full-fledged speech acts performed at all. The second obvious kind of manoeuvre is to deny that the examples are truly non-sentential, alleging instead that every apparently sub-sentential speech act is actually an utterance of some kind of sentence. Jason Stanley points out that one must consider a ‘divide-and-conquer’ strategy, explaining away some cases as underlyingly sentential and other cases as not full-fledged speech acts. This chapter aims to rebut this ‘divide-and-conquer’ strategy.
Language–Thought Relations
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter focuses on language-thought relations. It argues that grasping a proposition does not require deploying internally a sentence of natural language that expresses it. This alone threatens the view that thought is inner speech. It then considers a specific subcase, viz. where the proposition so grasped is part of an argument. It points out that, if premises/conclusions can be conveyed sub-sententially, then there are things that are not items of natural language but which have logical form.
Sentences, Assertion, and the Semantics–Pragmatics Boundary
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter focuses on the speech act of assertion. In the first section, it considers whether what makes something an assertion is a matter of semantics — where, in this context, ‘semantic’ is used in the sense of being a matter of linguistic convention. In the second section, it considers the determinants of asserted content, and whether they are semantic (in a different, specialized sense, to be explained). Specifically, it asks, given that an action is an assertion, whether its specific content can be fixed solely on the basis of its form/content together with certain antecedently settled referents for context sensitive items. The answer is that whether we have an assertion at all, and if so what its content is, has rather more to do with pragmatics than has often been assumed.
Wandering Significance
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: February 2007

The book's discussion is divided into two parts. Chapters 1-5 trace the unnoticed yet occasionally harmful role that uncritical thinking about ‘concepts’ plays within our practical life, whether in guiding scientific progress or simply in the management of our everyday affairs. The motivations central to classical conceptual traditionalists (such as Bertrand Russell) and neo-pragmatic holists (such as W. V. Quine) are sympathetically presented, but it is nonetheless argued that some middle route between these philosophical centres needs to be found. The purpose of the survey of the initial chapters is to indicate the benchmarks that an improved conception of concept should accommodate. In Chapters 6 and 7, a simple non-classical pattern (called a ‘facade') is formulated, which allows a descriptive practice to encode useful physical information in unexpected ways. The pattern’s utilities are defended through a series of important scientific exemplars and shown to be silently incorporated within various forms of everyday usage as well. Many of the standard philosophical puzzles canvassed earlier in the book are shown to have arisen when a ‘facade’ (or allied descriptive structure) has become mistaken for a simpler form of linguistic arrangement. Awareness of these potential ‘semantic mimicries’ provides a guide to the moderated approach to conceptual evaluation that the book eventually defends. Its concluding chapters map out the allied caution with respect to ‘rigor’ and ‘rule following’ that also needs to be observed, lest a descriptive useful language be prevented from assuming its optimal contours. Because the book is rather long, the preface indicates several abbreviated courses of reading that may help a reader find the material of greatest personal salience.
Plural Predication
Authors: McKay Thomas
Published: February 2007

Plural predication is a pervasive part of ordinary language. We can say that some people are fifty in number, are surrounding a building, come from many countries, and are classmates. These predicates can be true of some people without being true of any one of them; they are non-distributive predications. Yet the apparatus of predication and quantification in standard modern logic does not allow a place for such non-distributive predicates. This book explores the enrichment of modern logic with plural predication and quantification. We can have genuinely non-distributive predication without relying on singularizing procedures from set theory and mereology. The fundamental ‘among’ relation can be understood in a way that does not generate any hierarchy of plurals analogous to a hierarchy of types or a hierarchy of higher-order logics. Singular quantification can be understood as a special case, with the general type being quantifiers that allow both singular and plural quantification. The ‘among’ relation is formally similar to a ‘part of’ relation, but the relations are distinct, so that mass quantification and plural quantification cannot be united in the same way that plural and singular are united. Analysis of singular and plural definite descriptions follows, with a defence of a fundamentally Russellian analysis, but coupled with some new ideas about how to be sensitive to the role of context. This facilitates an analysis of some central features of the use of pronouns, both singular and plural.
Astrology: Arguments Pro and Contra
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

Arguments for and against the main principles of astrology have a continuous history from the second century bc up to the time of Augustine. This chapter focuses on three stages of a complex debate, which began with Stoics and Academics and continued into Neoplatonism and Christianity. Following some historical preliminaries, ‘the controversy according to Cicero’, which establishes the chief foundations of later argument, is analyzed. Ptolemy's defences of astrology, and his success in meeting sceptical criticism as represented by Cicero, Favorinus, and Sextus Empiricus are considered, glancing for comparison at Manilius. Some later developments are sketched: the positive arguments of Firmicus Maternus, the qualified criticisms of Plotinus, and the attacks of Augustine.
Zeno's Epistemology and Plato'sTheaetetus
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

The Stoic Zeno's most famous and most contested doctrine was thekatalepticor ‘cognitive’ impression (phantasia katalēptikē, hereafter KP). Arcesilaus attacked the KP by arguing that for any putative KP, an indistinguishable but false impressioncouldexist. This criticism is perfectly telling and intelligible without reference to any objections Arcesilaus may have had about Zeno's relationship to Plato or Socrates. It is proposed that this latter was probably a further stimulus for Arcesilaus, since he found Zeno recycling and meddling with material in Plato'sTheaetetus, and interpreting the dialogue's findings positively rather than sceptically. It is argued that Zeno, in formulating his doctrine of the KP, drew a good deal on theTheaetetus, putting some of its substantive suggestions to work for himself in quite un-Platonic ways. If there is force to this proposal, most details of which are novel, it should cast light not only on Zeno's encounter with Arcesilaus but also on some of the thinking that led up to the KP.
The Stoics on World‐Conflagration and Everlasting Recurrence
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

In his bookOn providence, Chrysippus, the most learned and rigorous of Stoic philosophers, discussed the recurrence of the world. ‘Since this is so,’ he went on, ‘it is evidently not impossible that we too, after our death, will return to the shape we now are, when certain periods of time have elapsed.’ It is shown that certain aspects of Stoic cosmology are less foolish than they have often been judged to be. The everlasting recurrence of the world, together with the exact replication of ourselves, is an inevitable consequence of mainstream Stoic thinking on causation, time, physical process, and theology. So far from being baldly assumed, or defectively argued, the world-conflagration and everlasting recurrence appear to be over-determined by a convergence of considerations from Stoic philosophy.
Neoplatonist Philosophers in Time, Place, and Social Context
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter describes the range of philosophers discussed in this book, going from Plotinus and his school in Rome to the schools of Iamblichus in Syria (Apamea) and of his successors at Athens and Alexandria. The relations between these schools and the situation of the various philosophers in time, place, and social context are briefly sketched.
Ideals of Church and State in the Sixth Century
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter interprets the Christian ecclesiology of the Pseudo-Dionysius as an adaptation of Neoplatonic political philosophy. A text of the same period (the reign of Justinian), the anonymous dialogue On Political Science, is also shown in its conception of a political (or ‘kingly’) science to be an expression of this political philosophy, but nearer to Neoplatonism and opposed to Pseudo-Dionysius.
Platonopolis in Islam: Al‐Farabi's Perfect State
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses the theory of the perfect state developed by the Islamic philosopher al-Farabi. It is shown that in many respects, al-Farabi’s perfect state corresponds to the political paradigm that is found in the Neoplatonist philosophers of Late Antiquity, a paradigm adapted to al-Farabi’s context and interests. This suggests that Islamic political philosophy has roots in Late Antique Neoplatonism.
Kant, Science, and Human Nature
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This book argues for the importance of Kant's theories of the epistemological, metaphysical, and practical foundations of the ‘exact sciences’ — relegated to the dustbin of the history of philosophy for most of the 20th century. It has two aims, one negative and one positive. Its negative aim is to develop a Kantian critique of scientific naturalism. Its positive and more fundamental aim is to work out the elements of a humane, realistic, and nonreductive Kantian account of the foundations of the exact sciences. According to this account, the essential properties of the natural world are directly knowable through human sense perception (empirical realism), and practical reason is both explanatorily and ontologically prior to theoretical reason (the primacy of the practical).
Manifest Realism II: Why Gold is Necessarily a Yellow Metal
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter aims to work out the positive theory behind Kant's surprising claim that gold is necessarily a yellow metal, using scientific essentialism only as a critical foil. It discusses Kant's theory of natural kind terms and scientific realism in the manifest image. It explains Kant's Other Joke, which vindicates both natural science in general and fundamental physics in particular in a way that would similarly flummox the noumenal scientific realist.
Mathematics for Humans
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines Kant's much-criticized views on mathematics in general and arithmetic in particular. It makes a case for the claim that Kant's theory of arithmetic is not subject to the most familiar and forceful objection against it, namely, that his doctrine of the dependence of arithmetic on time is plainly false, or even worse, simply unintelligible. It is argued that Kant's doctrine about time and arithmetic is highly original, fully intelligible, and with qualifications due to the inherent limitations of his conceptions of arithmetic and logic, to an important extent defensible. The most philosophically striking thing about Kant's doctrine is the fact that arithmetic turns out to be a paradigm of the exact sciences (exacten Naturwissenschaften) only by virtue of its ultimately being one of the human or moral sciences (Geisteswissenschaften).
The Shaping of Ulster Presbyterian Belief and Practice, 1770-1840
Authors: Holmes Andrew R.
Published: February 2007

Until now, scholars of Ulster Presbyterianism have focused upon internal theological debates, institutions, and the political implications of Presbyterian theology as a way to explain the origins of the United Irish movement and the swift conversion of Presbyterians to support for the Union with Great Britain thereafter. This book breaks new ground by considering the religious beliefs and practices of Presbyterians in their own right. It examines the various forms of public and private religiosity in order to determine how the community should be characterized. By stressing the integrity and importance of religious motivation, this book examines the dynamic relationship between the beliefs and practice prescribed by the church and those held by the laity, the rise to prominence of evangelicalism and its roots within the Presbyterian theological tradition, and the variety of Presbyterianism in terms of theological belief, social standing, gender, and regional location. During this period, Presbyterian belief and practice was shaped by three principal influences: tradition in the form of the doctrinal standards of the church and also those beliefs and customs of long continuance held by the laity; the forces of reform, particularly evangelicalism, that attempted to transform the structures and beliefs of the church and remove the popular accretions upon official Presbyterian belief and practice; finally, the programme of reform evangelicals embarked upon from the 1820s was stimulated by a broader revival of religion from the 1790s, entailed a revival of traditional Presbyterian practice as laid down in the Westminster standards, and would act as a stimulus to a further revival of religion within the denomination. Rather than seeing evangelicalism as a byword for religious enthusiasm and unbridled individualism, this book defines it as a movement for reformation and revival within Presbyterianism that had its roots in the Presbyterian religious tradition and which ultimately produced the 1859 revival.
The Emergence of a Scientific Culture
Authors: Gaukroger Stephen
Published: February 2007

The West's sense of itself, its relation to its past, and its sense of its future have been profoundly altered since the 17th century as cognitive values generally have gradually come to be shaped around scientific ones. The issue is not just that science brought a new set of such values to the task of understanding the world and our place in it, but rather that it completely transformed the task, redefining the goals of enquiry. This is a distinctive feature of the development of a scientific culture in the West and it marks it out from other scientifically productive cultures. This book examines the first stage of this development, from the 13th-century introduction of Aristotelianism and its establishment of natural philosophy as the point of entry into systematic understanding of the world and our place in it, to the attempts to establish natural philosophy as a world-view in the wake of the Scientific Revolution. It offers a conceptual and cultural history of the emergence of a scientific culture in the West from the early-modern era to the present. Science in the modern period is treated as a particular kind of cognitive practice and as a particular kind of cultural product, with aim to show that if we explore the connections between these two, we can learn something about the concerns and values of modern thought that we could not learn from either of them taken separately.