bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Loanwords
Authors: Kang Yoonjung
Published: June 2013

When two languages come into contact, words are borrowed from one language to another. Lexical borrowings, or loanwords, are by far the most commonly attested language contact phenomenon. Thomason and Kaufman 1988 (cited under Borrowability) states that “[i]nvariably, in a borrowing situation the first foreign elements to enter the borrowing language are words,” and, based on a cross-linguistic survey of lexical borrowings in forty-one languages, Haspelmath and Tadmor 2009 (cited under Borrowability) states that “[n]o language in the sample—and probably no language in the world—is entirely devoid of loanwords” (p. 55). Loanwords are studied from many different perspectives, touching upon different subfields of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, and semantics, as well as sociolinguistics and historical linguistics. Loanwords are not only recognized as the most common of language contact phenomena but also occupy an important position in general linguistics due to the evidence they bring to our understanding of the grammatical structure of language and to the theory of language change and historical linguistics. Some major questions that arise in the study of loanwords include: (1) Definition—what are loanwords? How are loanwords different from or similar to codeswitches? (2) Borrowability—why are words borrowed? Are certain types of words more likely to be borrowed than others? (3) Emergence and evolution—how are loanwords introduced? How do loanwords evolve over time? (4) Adaptation—why and how are loanwords adapted phonologically, morphologically, and semantically? (5) Lexical stratification—to what extent do loanwords adhere to the same types of restrictions as native words? What do loanwords tell us about the structure of the lexicon? (6) Role of extralinguistic factors: how do extralinguistic factors, such as orthography, sociopolitical context of borrowing, and language attitude affect loanwords?
Arawak Languages
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: June 2013

The Arawak family is the largest in South America, with about forty extant languages. Arawak languages are spoken in lowland Amazonia and beyond, covering French Guiana, Suriname, Guiana, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia, and formerly in Paraguay and Argentina. Wayuunaiki (or Guajiro), spoken in the region of the Guajiro peninsula in Venezuela and Colombia, is the largest language of the family. Garifuna is the only Arawak language spoken in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala in Central America. Groups of Arawak speakers must have migrated from the Caribbean coast to the Antilles a few hundred years before the European conquest. At least several dozen Arawak languages have become extinct since the European conquest. The highest number of recorded Arawak languages is centered in the region between the Rio Negro and the Orinoco. This is potentially a strong linguistic argument in favor of the Arawak protohome having been located there. The diversity of Arawak languages south of the Amazon in central Peru around the Rivers Purús and Madeira must have been greater in the past than it is now. The settlements of Arawak-speaking peoples south of the Amazon are believed to be of considerable antiquity. The Arawak family is also known as Maipure or Maipuran (based on Maipure, formerly spoken in Venezuela). The family got its name “Arawak” from the language known as Lokono Arawak, Arawak, or Lokono Dian (spoken in French Guiana, Guiana, Suriname, and Venezuela by about 2,500 people). The genetic unity of Arawak languages was first recognized by Father Gilij as early as 1783. The recognition of the family was based on a comparison of pronominal cross-referencing prefixes in Maipure, a now-extinct language from the Orinoco Valley, and in Mojo (or Ignaciano) from Bolivia. Problems still exist concerning internal genetic relationships within the family and possible genetic relationships with other groups. North Arawak languages appear to constitute a separate subgroup; so do Campa languages and Arawak languages of the Xingu region. The legacy of Arawak languages survives in many common English words, including hammock, hurricane, barbecue, iguana, maize, papaya, savanna, guava, and possibly tobacco. This article focuses only on the major and most significant works. There are at least an equal number of more minor studies on the languages of the Arawak family.
Dialogue
Authors: Fernández Raquel
Published: June 2013

Research on dialogue is concerned with the study of how communication takes place through language in conversation. This involves, among other things, investigating what makes a dialogue coherent; how dialogue participants coordinate to take turns in speaking and to achieve mutual understanding; and how knowledge about how dialogue works can be used to design artificial agents that are able to converse with humans. Only recently has dialogue emerged as a distinct area of study. Despite the fact that dialogue is the most natural setting for language use, linguistic studies that go beyond the boundaries of single sentences (which are still a minority) have traditionally focused on monological text of the type we may find in newspapers, books, or Wikipedia. However, in recent years the special features of dialogue have received increasing attention, and by now dialogue is a well-established field of research at the interface of linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and artificial intelligence. Because of this interdisciplinarity, the origins of the field are diverse. The work done by Sacks, Schegloff, and colleagues during the 1970s and 1980s within the framework of Conversation Analysis set the stage for the empirical study of conversation and introduced several notions (related, among others, to turn taking, conversational structure, and repair) that remain key in current dialogue research. This was followed up in the field of cognitive psycholinguistics by researchers such as Clark, who during the 1980s and 1990s developed theories of collaboration in dialogue that have helped to shape the field and that have had an important influence in subsequent dialogue literature in linguistics and computational linguistics. The 1980s also saw an explosion of work in artificial intelligence by Perrault, Allen, and others related to the formalization of rational action, which viewed speech acts as the expression of speakers’ intentions with which one could reason logically. The 1990s and 2000s have seen growing interest in dialogue within linguistics, with the development of theories that have extended the core ideas of dynamic semantics (initially developed for monological discourse) to dialogue, such as Segmented Discourse Representation Theory, developed by Asher and Lascarides, and Ginzburg’s theory, based on the notion of questions under discussion. Within computational linguistics, research on dialogue systems has flourished from the late 1990s through the 2000s, not only as an area concerned with the design of practical applications but also as a platform to investigate the theoretical underpinnings of computational models of dialogue.
Number
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo
Published: June 2013

Through the category of number, languages express conceptual oppositions centering on the contrast between “one” and “not-one.” In the most familiar case, this opposes a “singular” form of nouns, referring to individuals, to a “plural” form usually (but not always) referring to collections of individuals. An important task consists, then, in distinguishing nouns that are plural as a grammatical property from others whose meaning is “not-one,” like mass nouns or collectives. Some languages have other non-singular values, like “dual” or “paucal.” In this function, number specifies nouns, and affects other lexical categories by agreement; in addition, some languages display an inherently verbal number, which specifies verbs as true of individual or multiple events. Variation is great, as many languages lack number altogether, while others differ in the array of number values, their meaning, their applicability across the lexicon, and their syntactic and morphological properties. One major strand of research aims at describing this typology and accounting for it in terms of universal principles. Another aims at making explicit the meaning of number-inflected expressions, typically by constructing formal models of their denotation with rigorous mathematical tools. Recent years have seen an increasing convergence between the two lines of investigation, complemented by a significant body of work on number within syntactic frameworks, in both a language-specific and a comparative perspective. In addition, a cognitive perspective focuses on the psychological and philosophical bases of the use of grammatical number and numerically quantified expressions. At the intersection of formal semantics and philosophy, the proper regimentation of plurally referring expressions is also an important topic in formal logic. As a linguistic category, then, number has syntactic, semantic, and morphological dimensions; its interpretation calls for precise formal models based on an appropriate logic; and its use is rooted in the conceptualization of entities, and it relates to fundamental aspects of human cognition.
Pedagogic Theories
Authors: Hämäläinen Juha
Published: June 2013

“Pedagogue” (παιδαγογος) was originally a term for a slave who was responsible for the care of children in the household. Later the meaning of the word expanded to mean educator and teacher. A pedagogic theory deals with the nature and structure of educational action, teaching, and upbringing. Pedagogic theories are connected with belief and value systems, concepts of man and society, and philosophies of knowledge and political interests. Thus, it is rather difficult to define a pedagogic theory exactly. In general, the concept of pedagogy refers to a systematic view of organizing education. It discusses the issues of how to educate and what it means to be educated. In this sense, a pedagogic theory is a theory of educational action, or a systematic view and reflection of pedagogic practice. Pedagogic theory is a systematic conceptualization of the process of education and conditions of human development in both the individual and the societal life sphere. It deals with processes of upbringing, teaching, learning, and social and cultural development. Aims and means, values and norms, and objectives and methods of education are systematically reflected therein. Pedagogic theory building starts with two fundamental anthropologic questions: What is a human being, and what should he or she be? Combining these questions, pedagogic theory examines educational aims and means of helping human beings to develop toward what they should be. Pedagogic reflection and theory building are based on the idea that—in the words of Immanuel Kant—a human being can become human only through education. Studying childhood from the vantage point of pedagogic theories focuses on the development of a pedagogic way of thinking over the course of time.
Jane Addams
Authors: Yans Virginia , Shin Ji-Hye
Published: June 2013

Jane Addams (b. 1860–d. 1935), along with Ellen Gates Starr, was cofounder of Chicago’s Hull-House, a model American settlement. Addams was a social reformer, author, and public intellectual. During her Hull-House residence from 1889 until her death, Addams led national and local childhood reform efforts for child labor, juvenile court, and public health legislation, the playground movement, public-school teaching innovations, and the abolition of childhood prostitution. When Addams and her friend Ellen Gates Starr arrived in Chicago, European immigrants and their children constituted three-quarters of its population. Hull-House, located in an immigrant slum, offered innovative well-babies clinics, a day nursery, a playground, and children’s art, drama, and music classes to neighborhood residents. Addams passionately insisted that the future of American democracy depended on the education, protection, health, and well-being of its youth, including immigrant and minority youth. Hull-House attracted many middle- and upper-class professionals: juvenile justice reformer Julia Lathrop, labor reformer Florence Kelley, and educator and philosopher John Dewey were drawn to Addams’s settlement as a hands-on reform experiment designed to “test the value of human knowledge by action” (see Lasch 1982: p. 187, cited under Papers, Autobiographies, and Collected Writings). They saw themselves involved in a mutually beneficial reciprocal relationship with immigrants and their children intended to make both sides of the Hull-House democratic experiment better citizens. Addams and Dewey maintained that democracy required continuing moral responsibility and receptivity to others—whatever their class, race, or gender. Far from a simple matter of individual freedom or a particular set of political institutions, they understood democracy as a way of life. In her Hull-House programs, her writings, her educational and juvenile delinquency reforms, and her suggestions for training immigrant children for industrial labor—indeed in all her efforts—Addams consistently argued the importance of the child’s potential and value as a participant in social democracy. Aware that children of poor families faced dull, unrewarding futures as unskilled factory laborers, Addams called on educators to assist students to appreciate their “social and industrial value.” At the same time, Addams cajoled industrial employers for their abuse of child laborers and, far ahead of her time, insisted on the propriety of federal powers protecting children (see Addams and Lagemann 1985: 124–135, cited under Writings on Children and Education). During her lifetime and even in the 21st century, Jane Addams is regarded as one of the United States’ most outstanding citizens and child advocates.
Nonstate Actors
Authors: Carrillo Santarelli Nicolás
Published: June 2013

There are competing definitions of what entities classify as nonstate actors. The broadest notion holds that nonstate entities are all entities different from states. Most theories concur in any case that nonstate actors differ considerably among themselves. Nonstate actors are examined in light of international law for multiple purposes. Some legal materials and analyses examine all nonstate actors, although it is often the case that they focus on certain types of nonstate entities, considered relevant for their purposes. Generally, nonstate actors are relevant for international law insofar as they are often able to impact legal values and must accordingly be regulated. The aforementioned impact may be a positive or a negative one, and this justifies both the existence of rights and the special status of nonstate entities that enables them to contribute in fields of their competence, as revealed by ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 (consultative relationship between the United Nations and nongovernmental organizations), or to consider that they can have responsibilities, be they social and sometimes legal, as happens with international criminal law. Furthermore, responding to nonstate actions is crucial in certain fields. For instance, the fact that nonstate conduct can be inimical to human rights, as evinced by state obligations to prevent or respond to such violations and to protect rights, explains why several authors discuss if a human rights framework that ignores the need to directly protect individuals from nonstate actors is flawed and fails to uphold its foundation: human dignity. Altogether, although they have acquired greater power and formal relevance, nonstate actors have impacted international law and participated in international legal processes throughout history, which explains why state-exclusivist approaches to international law and international relations are deficient and the study of nonstate actors and their interaction with multiple international legal dimensions and processes is called for. The importance of nonstate actors and the possibility that they might be addressees of international law makes it troublesome to consider that they are irrelevant for international law. Moreover, given their power, participation, influence, and impact on legal interests and processes, some nonstate entities are properly referred to as actors. Furthermore, they may have direct, indirect, formal, or informal impact on such legal processes as lawmaking, law enforcement, or dispute settlement.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Authors: Cervell Hortal María José
Published: June 2013

The concept of nuclear nonproliferation was coined in a formal way at the beginning of the 1960s, though the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, or Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signed in 1968, would be the text that would consolidate it. After the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, humanity was conscious of the danger of these weapons, and nuclear proliferation turned into one of the main problems of the Cold War period; their control and the implementation of strategies to limit them have become a priority since then. During the Cold War, nuclear weapons and deterrence policy were crucial elements in the peaceful coexistence of the two power blocs, and the initiatives to control them grew, as both countries were conscious of the danger that this accumulation could cause. The NPT created two categories of states: the “officially” nuclear ones, which could maintain their weapons (China, France, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States) and the nonnuclear ones, which were not allowed to acquire or develop them. Two more concepts emerged: vertical proliferation (that of the five official nuclear states) and horizontal proliferation (that of the states that had nuclear weapons but rejected to be a NPT party). Other treaties—multilateral, regional, and bilateral—which also sought to control the nuclear proliferation (see Treaties and Agreements Preventing Nuclear Weapons Proliferation) were subsequently added. The end of the Cold War did not eliminate the danger. In fact, the Security Council considered in 1992 (Document S/23500, 31 January) that the proliferation of nuclear weapons “constitutes a threat for the international peace and security” (p. 4) that permitted it to activate, if necessary, chapter VII of the United Nations (UN) Charter and all the consequences derived from it. With the new millennium, the United Nations Secretary-General described mass destruction arms (nuclear included) as one of the threats to peace and security in the 21st century (see United Nations General Assembly 2005, cited under Security Council, General Assembly, and Secretary-General, para. 78). Nowadays, the nuclear question is still of great relevance. The nuclear problems in the 21st century’s international society are wide and varied and include states that withdrew the NPT (North Korea), states that fail to comply with it (Iran), states that have not yet ratified it (Israel, India, Pakistan), and non-state actors (such as terrorist groups), which are more and more interested in the wide destructive power of nuclear weapons. The adoption of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons of 7 July 2017 was a significant step, but the low number of state accessions shows that nuclear weapons are still a relevant threat.
Somatoform Disorders
Authors: Looper Karl Julian , Kirmayer Laurence J.
Published: June 2013

Around the world, physical symptoms are the most common manifestation of psychological distress. This seeming contradiction presents a diagnostic challenge for health care professionals who are consulted to provide treatment and illness management. In many situations, it is difficult to clearly identify the psychological cause of physical symptoms, and, at times, it is equally difficult to exclude the possibility of an underlying biomedical process. This clinical challenge has led to the construction of the diagnostic category of somatoform disorders, a group of psychiatric disorders characterized by the presence of physical symptoms causing significant distress or functional impairment that cannot be fully explained by a general medical condition, substance use, or any other mental disorder. This category of disorders was established based on clinical utility and the need to exclude medical causes in health care settings rather than on a theoretical model of psychopathology or shared etiology. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR, American Psychiatric Association 2000, cited under Classification), the somatoform disorders include somatization disorder, hypochondriasis, body dysmorphic disorder, conversion disorder, pain disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, and somatoform disorder not otherwise specified. Some authors prefer other terminology, including use of the terms medically unexplained symptoms, emphasizing the uncertainty about diagnosis, or functional somatic syndromes, suggesting that symptoms are due to disturbances in the function of psychophysiological systems rather than structural or anatomical pathology.
Patch Dynamics
Authors: Gillson Lindsey
Published: June 2013

Patch dynamics is the study of spatial patterns in landscapes and the ecological and environmental processes that generate these patterns, plus the internal dynamics of how patches change over time. “Patches” are spatial units differing from their neighbors. They are not necessarily internally homogeneous, but may be further decomposable to smaller spatial scales. For example, a forest ecosystem is composed of stands of trees, but each stand is composed of individual trees. By studying the dynamics of patches over space and time, ecologists have sought to address one of the fundamental matters in ecology—understanding the linkages between pattern, process, and scale. This theme underpins landscape ecology, disturbance ecology, and the spatial aspects of population ecology, which is the basis for metapopulation theory and metacommunity theory. All of these branches of ecology are concerned with flux/nonequilibrium: dynamic, heterogeneous systems, may appear stable at some spatial and temporal scales and stable at others. The persistence of patch dynamic landscapes despite their dynamism led to the concept of the shifting mosaic steady state. Pursuing the question of how to bridge the gaps between processes at different spatial scales led to the amalgam of patch dynamics and hierarchy theory. Covering the dimensions of both space and time, patch dynamics has been of fundamental importance in biodiversity conservation, and it provides a spatial and temporal basis for natural resource management and managing and conserving complex systems. Patch dynamics intersects with numerous other important concepts in ecology, including the island theory of biogeography, Metapopulation Theory, succession, and disturbance ecology.
Traditional Chinese Law
Authors: MacCormack Geoffrey
Published: June 2013

What is termed “traditional Chinese legal history” spans a period in excess of three thousand years. This period can be said to start around 1500 bce during the Shang dynasty. It ends in 1911 with the fall of the Qing dynasty. Between the Shang and the Qing occurred many complex legal developments, of which the most important was the rise of the bureaucratic, centralized state in the 4th century bce, leading ultimately to the establishment of the first empire (Qin) in 221 bce. From that time there evolved a magnificent tradition of imperial legislation, primarily administrative and penal, but including in its ambit elements of what we would call civil law, that is, the law relating to marriage, inheritance, property, and contract. The quality and nature of the evidence for legal activities, whether the enactment of legislation or the making of a contract, vary enormously for each dynastic period. For the earliest times (the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties from around 1500 to 770 bce) we have only sparse evidence consisting of inscriptions on oracle bones or bronze vessels or accounts in historical documents, often written long after the events described. On the other hand, for the Qing (1644–1911) we have voluminous records of all kinds: imperial legislation, provincial regulations, judicial decisions, and documents recording transactions between private individuals. Each period, moreover, brings up many problems in relation to the sources and the way they are to be interpreted. The understanding of law in early China at the time of the Qin and Han dynasties (221 bce–220 ce) is even now being continually transformed through the discovery in tombs or wells of collections of laws, case reports, or transcripts of trials. Equally, at the end of the period Qing, legal history is being amplified as more and more archives from district courts or central government departments are being discovered and made available for study. The opening of the archives of district courts has particularly transformed our knowledge of the way magistrates handled disputes relating to family and property. This has led to the rise of a distinctive school of historical scholarship in which the primary focus of study has been not on the statutory law as such but on the interaction between the lives of the ordinary people and the courts. It is not possible in this article to cover every aspect of traditional legal history at all periods in China. Nor is it possible to present the whole range of sources or the scholarship dependent on them. What is attempted is merely a guide to the literature that will open a starting point for research into Chinese legal history, in relation to both penal and civil law, at its relatively well-developed stage. Although the material is not divided into dynastic periods, with a few exceptions the emphasis has been on the Tang (618–907 ce) and succeeding dynasties. Only literature in a Western language is cited.
Jan van Eyck
Authors: Seidel Linda
Published: June 2013

Jan van Eyck (b. c. 1380–d. 1441) is universally recognized as the legendary inventor of oil painting and is widely acknowledged to be the earliest master of independent panel painting for use outside of the church. Immediate predecessors in northern Europe, such as Melchior Broederlam in Burgundy and Master Theodoric in Prague, had combined oil with tempera on wooden surfaces in ecclesiastical furnishings, but none approached Jan’s skill in the handling of oil for glazing and the binding of pigments, or achieved his degree of refinement and creativity in the understanding of optical effects and the rendering of luminosity in self-sufficient pictures. The date and place of Jan’s birth are not known. It is generally accepted that he was born in Maaseyck, not far from Maastricht in the Meuse (Maas) Valley, in the decade between 1380 and 1390, making him a man in his thirties when he entered historical record as “meyster jan den Maelre” or “Johannes die scilder” (master John the painter) in the employ of the Count of Holland, John of Bavaria. His name recurs in documents of the Count’s household between 1422 and 1424 without specification as to the sorts of work he did. Speculation about his work during these years has sought to connect it with book illumination, the medium in which the most refined and sophisticated painting of the time could be found. A few months after John of Bavaria’s death in January of 1425, “Jehan de Heick,” known for the excellence of his work, entered the employ of Philip the Good, the powerful Duke of Burgundy. He lived initially at the Court in Lille, painting tableaux and other things, none of which was ever described. From that moment on, he became the most frequently documented artist of his time, traveling on a diplomatic mission for the Duke to the Iberian Peninsula before taking up residence near the Ducal court in Bruges around 1430. Account records detail gifts and personal visits made to him by the Duke. Ledgers enumerate payments of Jan’s salary as the Duke’s varlet de chambre (chamberlain) and indicate supplemental remuneration for travel to places unknown, made on the Duke’s behalf. All of Jan’s surviving work can be dated to this decade. He completed a huge polyptych in Ghent, which his brother Hubert is said to have begun, and painted about a dozen portraits of individuals, all of whom, as far as is known, had close ties to the Court. Several panels with narrative biblical scenes also appear to date from this decade. When Jan died, he was buried where the Counts of Flanders had traditionally been interred, as was his prerogative as a member of the Duke’s inner circle.
Jewish Art, Modern and Contemporary
Authors: Balakirsky Katz Maya
Published: June 2013

This article takes a minimalist approach to the designation of “Jewish” in the category of “Jewish art,” focusing primarily on works that directly engage the modern Jewish experience and the role that Jews have played in the development of new visual media in the 19th and 20th centuries. At the same time, this article takes a maximalist approach to what is meant by the term “art” by including a wide range of visual mediums. The academic study of Jews in the arts can be traced to Germany in the mid-19th century, when both art history and Jewish studies were relatively new academic disciplines. While art history devalued Jewish art as derivative in the context of the development of modern national identities, Jewish studies devalued non-textual sources for academic study. It was the interdisciplinary field of Jewish art that would serve to negotiate biases from both academic branches, proving influential in the development of iconographic interpretation by promoting critical attention to the narrative function of a wide variety of mediums. This article traces the extent to which Jewish studies scholars have compensated for earlier disciplinary tensions by questioning the premise of nationalist models for art history and how they have broadened the criteria for visual analysis in the study of Jewish art. Although some of the most recognized modern artists are Jewish, the focus here is more narrowly dedicated to those artists and visual media that have secured a place within Jewish studies. In recent decades, scholars of Jewish art have forged an accessible path by adopting more of a “visual culture” approach that considers production and consumption of Jewish content in the plastic arts in non-hierarchical terms. Because Jewish studies touch on a wide range of disciplines, the study of Jewish art has come to include the material aspects of vernacular life (decorative art and handicraft) and popular media (stage design, photography, film) as well as the traditional fine arts (architecture, sculpture, and painting) within schools of style (Impressionism, Futurism, Abstract Expressionism). Scholars of Jewish art have largely avoided the high/low debate typical of other branches of art history by emphasizing the experiential aspect of Jewish objects of all types. This article is a survey of modern and contemporary Jewish art from approximately 1850 to 1990, when Jews participated in the artistic mainstream, and points to the considerable scholarly attention Jewish studies have placed on art as a comprehensive experience rather than a purely aesthetic one. The article opens with second-order categories, then moves to scholarship devoted to issues that are central to the field, such as nationalism and Jewish/non-Jewish relations, and closes with scholarship devoted to diverse media.
Stipe Canker Caused by Trichothecium roseum on the Edible Shaggy Mane Coprinus comatus in China
Authors: Dong W. H. , Bian Y. B.
Published: June 2013

Coprinus comatus, the shaggy mane, is one of the most popular and widely cultivated edible mushrooms in China. Its young fruiting body has good nutritional and medicinal value as well as a special flavor. In July 2010, an unusual stipe rot symptom was observed in cultivation tunnels in Pingyin county of Shandong Province. The lower part of the stipe was infected and water soaked scab occurred. The scab then expanded, a few mycelia and pink spores emerged on the scab surface, and finally, the stipe decayed and the fruiting body became wilted. The pathogen was isolated from infected tissues of C. comatus and the colonies on CYM were whitish at first, then pink sorus emerged, later forming concentric rings of sporulation. Mycelia were floccose, colorless, slender, and septate. Conidiophores bore upright, nonbranched, and colorless sporogenous cells, and slightly rounded spores were borne on the top and aggregated in pink cephaloid. Conidia were obovoid or obpyriform. Almost all spores were two-celled and one septate, while one was nearly round and the other bore an apex (1). The size of spores ranged from 10 to 21 μm long and 5 to 7 μm wide, which was consistent with the characteristics of Trichothecium roseum (1). The species identification was confirmed by sequencing the ribosomal ITS sequences. The ribosomal ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region was amplified from the isolated strain using primers ITS1 and ITS4. A BLAST search in GenBank revealed the highest similarity (99%) to T. roseum (JQ434580). Pathogenicity was tested on different parts of 20 fruiting bodies of C. comatus with or without the wound treatment. One inoculum was prepared by flooding the agar surface with sterilized double distilled water for spore suspension (6.5 × 103 conidia/ml), and the other was by 0.2 × 0.2 cm mycelial plugs without spore production on CYM at 25°C for 5 days. After 1 to 2 days, only inoculated stipes showed water soaked and slight decay on the injured surface of all 20 fruiting bodies, while control fruiting bodies remained healthy. The symptoms were similar to those observed in the cultivation tunnels. No symptom was observed on the pileus, either with or without wound treatment. Pathogens reisolated from the inoculated stipes were confirmed to be T. roseum based on morphological characteristics. Because T. roseum is generally regarded as a postharvest disease of fruits and vegetables such as apple, pear, and muskmelon (2), apples and pears were inoculated with this fungus as well using the same methods. The parts inoculated were sunken, wettish, and decayed with brown stain at 25°C and 90% relative humidity after 5 days. Thus, it was confirmed that the T. roseum from the C. comatus stipe canker could infect the fruits of apple and pear. To our knowledge, this is the first report that T. roseum can cause disease on agaric.

References: (1) G. Dal Bello. Australas. Plant Dis. Notes 3:103, 2008. (2) J.-H. Kwon et al. Plant Pathol. J. 26:296, 2010.
First Report of Downy Mildew Caused by Plasmopara obducens on Impatiens in Taiwan
Authors: Shen Y. M. , Huang J. H. , Liu H. L.
Published: June 2013

In February 2013, single and double flowered impatiens (Impatiens walleriana Hook. f.) affected by downy mildew were observed in nurseries (cv. Accent) and in the wild in central Taiwan. More than 90% of the plants were infected in areas where the disease broke out. Symptomatic leaves showed yellowing, with white, fungal-like structure covering the lower leaf surfaces, causing the plants to become wilted and defoliated. Under microscopic observation, hyaline, thin-walled sporangiophores branched monopodially and had slightly swollen bases. Three apical branchlets were at right angles to the main axis, measuring 4.3–15.0 μm (average 8.5 μm). Sporangia were hyaline, ovoid, with an average length and width of 14.2 (10.0 to 18.0) × 12.1 (9.3 to 15.0) μm. For molecular categorization, PCR amplification of the 5′ end of the large ribosomal subunit gene was performed with primers NL1 and NL4 (2). The amplicons were cloned, sequenced, and deposited in GenBank (Accession Nos. KC905620 and KC905621). The sequence similarities were 99% compared with that of Plasmopara obducens (J. Schröt.) J. Schröt from Florida (JX217746) (3). Based on morphological and molecular characters, the pathogen was identified as P. obducens. Three voucher specimens (TNM Nos. F0026644, F0026645, and F0026646) were deposited in the herbarium of the National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung, Taiwan. Pathogenicity was confirmed by inoculation of five young, potted impatiens plants with a suspension containing 1 × 105 sporangia/ml in 0.05% Tween 20 (approximately 8 ml/plant). An additional five plants sprayed with 0.05% Tween 20 served as negative controls. The plants were maintained in an outdoor ambient environment. After 2 weeks incubation at an average temperature of 20°C and approximately 80% relative humidity, the inoculated plants exhibited typical downy mildew symptoms, while the control plants remained healthy. The pathogenicity test was repeated in a dew chamber under 20°C with similar results. In the Asia-Pacific region, impatiens downy mildew was recently confirmed in Korea and Japan (1,4). To our knowledge, this is the first report of downy mildew on impatiens in Taiwan. Our further surveys indicated the disease has spread to other parts of the island and will become a potential problem requiring prevention.

References: (1) Y. J. Choi et. al. Plant Pathol. J. 25:433, 2009. (2) K. O'Donnell. Curr. Genet. 22:213, 1992. (3) A. J. Palmateer et. al. Plant Dis. 97:687, 2013. (4) M. Satou et. al. J. Gen. Plant Pathol. 79:205, 2013.
The structural basis of R-spondin recognition by LGR5 and RNF43
Authors: Chen Po-Han , Chen Xiaoyan , Lin Zhenghong , Fang Deyu , He Xiaolin
Published: June 2013

R-spondins (RSPOs) enhance Wnt signaling, affect stem cell behavior, bind to leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptors 4–6, (LGR4–6) and the transmembrane E3 ubiquitin ligases RING finger 43/zinc and RING finger 3 (RNF43/ZNRF3). The structure of RSPO1 bound to both LGR5 and RNF43 ectodomains confirms their physical linkage. RSPO1 is sandwiched by LGR5 and RNF43, with its rod module of the cysteine-rich domain (CRD) contacting LGR5 and a hairpin inserted into RNF43. LGR5 does not contact RNF43 but increases the affinity of RSPO1 to RNF43, supporting LGR5 as an engagement receptor and RNF43 as an effector receptor. Disease mutations map to the RSPO1–RNF43 interface, which promises therapeutic targeting.
A framework to evaluate the complexity of home care services
Authors: Sahin Evren , Vidal Ludovic‐Alexandre , Benzarti Emna
Published: June 2013

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to assess the potential factors that may generate complexity in managing operations in home care (HC) organizations. Hence, a framework which might assist decision making regarding complexity‐driven issues in HC organizations is developed.

Design/methodology/approach

Based on a systems thinking view, a framework was developed identifying complexity factors in HC organizations. The paper is based on field research to explore the practical challenges of managing operations in HC structures. The authors additionally give a state of the art in many scientific domains; definition of complexity and its implications; complexity in health care; description of home care operations and their management. The literature review enlightens the lack of consensus on HC complexity and thus provides a broad view and a critical analysis of the underlying concepts.

Findings

Proposal of a HC operations complexity model (and validation due to a practical application).

Practical implications

The framework developed by the authors permits one to identify rapidly the existing complexity factors which may create potential damages regarding value creation and cost improvement in HC. Two kinds of HC complexity are identified: HC organization complexity and HC individual patients' therapeutical projects complexity. Complexity factors are grouped into five categories: factors related to size; factors related to variety; interdependence factors; factors related to uncertainties; and factors related to context. By identifying the factors, decision support systems and response plans may be more adapted to the potential existing short comings of operations.

Originality/value

Based on authors' extensive knowledge of HC practices, as well as an international systematic review of literature, this paper contributes to a better characterization of factors inducing complexity in the HC context. To the best of the authors' knowledge, operations management literature lacks a general framework enabling a better identification and understanding of what makes HC operations specific. The paper presents an innovative way to analyze HC complexity using a systems thinking‐based approach. In this sense, its contribution is very complementary to traditional operations management models.
Dietary protein mediates a trade‐off between larval survival and the development of male secondary sexual traits
Authors: Sentinella Alexander T. , Crean Angela J. , Bonduriansky Russell
Published: June 2013

Increased protein intake by adults typically enhances reproduction and shortens life, but much less is known about the effects of protein intake prior to reproductive maturity. In particular, it remains unclear whether dietary protein mediates a trade‐off between survival and the development of reproductive traits, especially in males.

We used the nutritional geometry approach to investigate the effects of 25 replicated larval diets varying in protein and carbohydrate content on larval performance and the development of adult male morphology in the neriid fly Telostylinus angusticollis.

We found that body size increased with carbohydrate and especially protein content in the larval diet. Moreover, after controlling for body size, dietary protein strongly enhanced the expression of those male morphological traits that appear to be most directly targeted by sexual selection, while having no effect on the expression of other traits. In sharp contrast, egg‐to‐adult viability decreased steeply with increasing protein content.

Thus, protein intake during the larval stage mediates a trade‐off between the expression of male secondary sexual traits and the probability of survival to adult emergence.
Composition, Flavor, Chemical Foodsafety, and Consumer Preferences of Bottled Water
Authors: Marcussen Helle , Holm Peter E. , Hansen Hans Chr.B.
Published: June 2013

The worldwide consumption of bottled water has experienced an annual increase of 5.5% since 2004 and different authors have speculated that this is due to beliefs of superior flavor and health qualities of bottled water over tap water. The content of certain minerals varies by 2 to 6 orders of magnitude between bottled water brands. The major cations Ca, Mg, Na, and K can be found in concentrations up to 730, 450, 1900, and 270 mg/L but are usually below 100 mg/L; higher concentrations have only been found in some European and North American bottled water samples. The dominating anions are HCO3−, Cl−, and SO42−. Sensory evaluation and description of water strongly depend on personal preferences and sensitivities. The major cations can be detected by taste in concentrations down to 2 digits in the mg/L range; however, the intensity depends on which anions are present. Most cations add different degrees of salty, sour, sweet, and bitter tastes to water depending on their concentrations. Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, and Zn may introduce metallic, astringent, and irritative sensations and for Fe and Cu also retro‐nasal odors may influence the metallic sensation. Drinking water with total dissolved solids in the range of 100 to 400 mg/L results in good sensory quality. Known off‐flavor problems originate from by‐products of ozonation and leaching of organics from bottling material which may also be enhanced by ozonation, and microbial by‐products from the source water such as geosmin and 2‐methylisoborneol, lubricants, or cleaning agents used in the bottling industry.
Prehospital Systolic Blood Pressure Thresholds: A Community‐based Outcomes Study
Authors: Seymour Christopher W. , Cooke Colin R. , Heckbert Susan R. , Copass Michael K. , Yealy Donald M. , Spertus John A. , Rea Thomas D.
Published: June 2013

Objectives

Emergency medical services (EMS) personnel commonly use systolic blood pressure (sBP) to triage and treat acutely ill patients. The definition of prehospital hypotension and its associated outcomes are poorly defined. The authors sought to determine the discrimination of prehospital sBP thresholds for 30‐day mortality and to compare patient classification by best‐performing thresholds to traditional cutoffs.

Methods

In a community‐based cohort of adult, nontrauma, noncardiac arrest patients transported by EMS between 2002 and 2006, entries to state hospital discharge data and death certificates were linked. Prehospital sBP thresholds between 40 and 140 mm Hg in derivation (n = 132,624) and validation (n = 22,020) cohorts and their discrimination for 30‐day mortality, were examined. Cutoffs were evaluated using the 0/1 distance, Youden index, and adjusted Z‐statistics from multivariable logistic regression models.

Results

In the derivation cohort, 1,594 (1.2%) died within 24 hours, 7,404 (6%) were critically ill during hospitalization, and 6,888 (5%) died within 30 days. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for sBP was 0.60 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.59, 0.61) for 30‐day mortality and 0.64 (95% CI = 0.62 0.66) for 24‐hour mortality. The 0/1 distance, Youden index, and adjusted Z‐statistics found best‐performing sBP thresholds between 110 and 120 mm Hg. When compared to an sBP ≤ 90 mm Hg, a cutoff of 110 mm Hg would identify 17% (n = 137) more deaths at 30 days, while overtriaging four times as many survivors.

Conclusions

Prehospital sBP is a modest discriminator of clinical outcomes, yet no threshold avoids substantial misclassification of 30‐day mortality among noninjured patients.
Ambulance Use Is Associated With Higher Self‐rated Illness Seriousness: User Attitudes and Perceptions
Authors: Toloo Ghasem (Sam) , FitzGerald Gerry J. , Aitken Peter J. , Ting Joseph Y. S. , McKenzie Kirsten , Rego Joanna , Enraght‐Moony Emma
Published: June 2013

Objectives

The objective was to study the role and effect of patients' perceptions on reasons for using ambulance services in Queensland, Australia.

Methods

A cross‐sectional survey was conducted of patients (n = 911) presenting via ambulance or self‐transport at eight public hospital emergency departments (EDs). The survey included perceived illness severity, attitudes toward ambulance, and reasons for using ambulance. A theoretical framework was developed to inform this study.

Results

Ambulance users had significantly higher self‐rated perceived seriousness, urgency, and pain than self‐transports. They were also more likely to agree that ambulance services are for everyone to use, regardless of the severity of their conditions. In compared to self‐transports, likelihood of using an ambulance increased by 26% for every unit increase in perceived seriousness; and patients who had not used an ambulance in the 6 months prior to the survey were 66% less likely to arrive by ambulance. Patients who had presented via ambulance stated they considered the urgency (87%) or severity (84%) of their conditions as reasons for calling the ambulance. Other reasons included requiring special care (76%), getting higher priority at the ED (34%), not having a car (34%), and financial concerns (17%).

Conclusions

Understanding patients' perceptions is essential in explaining their actions and developing safe and effective health promotion programs. Individuals use ambulances for various reasons and justifications according to their beliefs, attitudes, and sociodemographic conditions. Policies to reduce and manage demand for such services need to address both general opinions and specific attitudes toward emergency health services to be effective.