bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Obesity and US Mortality Risk Over the Adult Life Course
Authors: Masters Ryan K. , Powers Daniel A. , Link Bruce G.
Published: February 2013

In this study, we analyzed age variation in the association between obesity status and US adult mortality risk. Previous studies have found that the association between obesity and mortality risk weakens with age. We argue that existing results were derived from biased estimates of the obesity-mortality relationship because models failed to account for confounding influences from respondents' ages at survey and/or cohort membership. We employed a series of Cox regression models in data from 19 cross-sectional, nationally representative waves of the US National Health Interview Survey (1986–2004), linked to the National Death Index through 2006, to examine age patterns in the obesity-mortality association between ages 25 and 100 years. Findings suggest that survey-based estimates of age patterns in the obesity-mortality relationship are significantly confounded by disparate cohort mortality and age-related survey selection bias. When these factors are accounted for in Cox survival models, the obesity-mortality relationship is estimated to grow stronger with age.
Ancient Near Eastern City-States
Authors: Garfinkle Steven J.
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the history of the formation of city-states in the Fertile Crescent. It provides a working definition of city-state in both spatial and social terms, and describes the city-state, focusing on the historical periods of early Mesopotamia. The chapter also considers the ideology of the city-state, the administration of an integrated economy, the emergence of kingship and institutions of government, and the replacement of the city-state system with territorial kingdoms.
Iranian Empires
Authors: Wiesehöfer Josef
Published: February 2013

This chapter explores the history of the formation of the Iranian Empires, identifying the major phases in state formation, which include the Achaemenid Empire, Iran in Hellenistic times, the Parthian Empire, and the Sasanian Empire. It also describes the key features of the Achaemenid Empire, the Arsacid-Parthian Empire, and the Sasanian Empire, and explains the factors and conditions that influenced state formation.
The Roman Empire I: The Republic
Authors: Mouritsen Henrik
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the history of the Roman Empire as a republic, explaining the formation of the Roman republic, its durability and relative stability, and the military expansionism that allowed it to expand its territory. It also identifies the social, political, and military factors that led to the weakening of the republican system of government and its eventual replacement with the monarchy system.
War and Warfare in Ancient Rome
Authors: Howarth Randall S.
Published: February 2013

This chapter offers a synoptic view of the evolution of Roman war and warfare, highlighting the threshold moments and key and problematic issues pertaining to the understanding of the Romans at war. Romans routinely distributed at least seventy thousand soldiers in consular and pro-consular armies every year by the last third of the third century BC. The wars with Carthage had promoted Roman advantage. The Imperial authorities have difficulty in enrolling soldiers and maintaining the ones they had. Roman diplomatic success had connoted on partnership in the conduct of war and the sharing of its benefits. The most obvious path to prestige in Rome has been found in the management of war and its rewards. It is noted that the Roman army and the habits of Rome at war should not be regarded in isolation from the social, diplomatic, and political contexts in which they existed.
War and Society in the Roman Empire
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes the status of war and society in the Roman Empire. The bias of the upper classes and fears of the lower are shown. The influences of civil war and rebellion could be profound in the Roman Empire. Any army is designed to fight wars, surely in a militaristic society such as Rome. Soldiers were employed in a range of activities in support of local administrative officials. Their internal administrative duties included their role in the collection of taxes. The army also had direct demands in terms of food supply, equipment and weapons, and their transport and delivery, but also indirectly in that the presence of soldiers naturally provided trading opportunities for provincial inhabitants. In general, the Roman soldiers were at the center of both the physical and societal fabric of the provinces of the empire.
Men at War
Authors: Tritle Lawrence A.
Published: February 2013

This chapter elaborates the understanding on Greek and Roman men at war. Preparation for battle in the ancient world was carefully approached. Military training at Rome was no less severe and regimented than in early Sparta. The ferocity and brutality in the killing zone of battle have no limits. Examples of atrocity and mutilation appear from the very beginning of Greek literature. Mutilation of the dead was an example of what the modern world knows as payback or revenge, and a ritualistic form of this came in stripping the dead of their armor (and weapons) after battle. It is observed that when a soldier survived in battle, they never forgot the experience.
Logistics
Authors: Engels Donald
Published: February 2013

This chapter summarizes the basic literature on ancient logistics, and addresses the important limitations of the ancient overland transport of food and water. It then explores the responses of military commanders, especially Alexander the Great, to these limitations. Two actual cases are covered, where terrain, climate, weather, troop numbers, the capabilities of land, sea, and river transport had impacted the overall strategy. The first case considers Alexander the Great's crossing of the Gedrosian Desert in southern Pakistan and Iran, and the second looks at the logistic considerations that affected the establishment of the Roman frontier along the Rhine River in Germany. The total numbers of men, pack animals, cavalry horses, and followers are the most significant factor influencing an army's logistic capability. The maintenance of the safety of the army's food supplies and the health of the troops has been vital for any competent commander.
Arming Romans for Battle
Authors: Campbell Duncan B.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reports on the understanding on Roman armor, specifically discussing the development of Roman arms and armor. Archaeology offers actual examples of Roman arms and armor. Polybius describes a shield that was conventionally known as the scutum and which is possibly the same item as the beautifully preserved oblong shield discovered at Kasr al-Harit. The Roman soldier often utilized the shield's protruding boss (umbo) as a supplementary weapon. The pilum was designed to bend on impact. The pectorale was a well-established feature of Italian armor. Cavalry helmets are believed to have differed from infantry versions, again owing to the peculiarities of cavalry fighting. It is noted that the distinction between citizen legionaries and peregrine auxiliaries ended with Caracalla's universal granting of Roman citizenship.
Epaminondas at Leuctra, 371 b.c.
Authors: Buckler John
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses the time of Theban general Epaminondas at Leuctra, specifically reviewing his battle in Leuctra. Leuctra in 371 BC was established as one of the most dramatic and decisive battles of the period. Under the leadership of Epaminondas, the Thebans judged the peace to be nothing more than a legal pretext for renewed war. The novel and totally unexpected arrangement of Epaminondas's army is shown. His stunning victory at Leuctra was due to his combination of seven military dispositions, and his preparation of cavalry casts striking light on an important aspect of the battle and on Xenophon's duplicitous account of the battle itself. In conclusion, Epaminondas's designs at Leuctra combied the traditional and the novel as never before. Thus, no one can or should claim that everything he did was original.
Demetrius “the Besieger” and Hellenistic Warfare
Authors: Martin Thomas R.
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes the ideas of Demetrius Poliorcetes on Hellenistic warfare, specifically taking the conventional position that Hellenistic warfare designates warfare as conducted and conceptualized in the aftermath of the lifetime of Alexander the Great. It also presents the salient events in Demetrius's riches-to-rags history as a commander, king, and god. His career contributes several examples of the momentous scale that Hellenistic battles could attain and also provides evidence for the propensity for large-scale battles to occur in Hellenistic warfare. In addition, it offers notable data for changes in the possible political and religious meanings of war. It is shown that over the long term, the divinization of a living human being who promised liberation was the most enduring and most consequential result of the changes in the meanings of war in the Hellenistic period.
The Second Punic War
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the first world war of the ancient Mediterranean: the Second Punic War. It was fought on two continents from Spain and Africa to the Aegean, and was marked by the generalship of the initially victorious Hannibal and the ultimately victorious Scipio Africanus. The war shows that Punic military strength still matched Rome's. Hannibal successfully employed all the elements of an ancient army, and was not only an attractive and successful leader but a careful one. The Romans' solution to his tactics was to avoid battle entirely, instead shadowing his army as it marched and meanwhile molesting his Italian allies or Hanno's secondary force. Since Punic armies were comprised of non-Carthaginian conscripts and mercenaries, and Punic fleets seldom opposed big battles, manpower losses fell largely on Libyans, Spaniards, Gauls and others. In general, the high quality of agriculture in Punic North Africa impressed the Romans.
Media Literacy: History, Progress, and Future Hopes
Authors: Arke Edward T.
Published: February 2013

This chapter aims to introduce the subdiscipline of media literacy through the examination of the genre’s history, current challenges, and possible future directions. With roots dating back to the late 1920s, the idea of educating consumers about the content and production methods of media messages has been attempted in a number of ways and venues. With media consumption a large part of most people’s leisure time, the need to get individuals to more critically engage the messages continues to be an important educational objective. The largest challenge, however, is the lack of government support for such an initiative coupled with an apparent lack of awareness on the part of most people. What needs to occur is a more organized and systematic approach for the inclusion of media literacy instruction in secondary and higher education.
Media Violence, Desensitization, and Psychological Engagement
Authors: Brockmyer Jeanne Funk
Published: February 2013

This chapter presents a framework for understanding desensitization to violence as an outcome of exposure to media violence. The term desensitization is defined, and behavioral and psychophysiological research documenting this phenomenon are presented. Aspects of moral evaluation, including empathy and attitudes toward violence, are discussed as proxy measures of desensitization. An individual’s propensity to become deeply involved in media experiences is proposed as one factor that increases the relative risk of desensitization. The term psychological engagement is recommended as an umbrella term for all levels of media involvement. Terms describing the progression of intensity of engagement, including immersion, presence, flow, and psychological absorption are discussed. Future research must be built on definitional consensus in this area. Psychophysiological and behavioral research will be complementary in elucidating the neural and psychological processes that underlie the desensitization process. The role of desensitization in increasing aggression and decreasing helping behavior requires additional study.
Race, Ethnicity, and the Media
Authors: Behm-Morawitz Elizabeth , Ortiz Michelle
Published: February 2013

This chapter charts the historical development as well as key findings of media psychology research examining the representations of racial/ethnic minorities in the media and the subsequent effects of exposure to these portrayals. A special effort is made by the authors to document the perspectives used to date to understand such effects, as well as to draw on psychology research that has yet to be applied in this domain. Additionally, suggestions are made for advancing this research both theoretically and methodologically and in light of the new media environment.
Social Influence in Virtual Environments
Authors: Blascovich Jim , McCall Cade
Published: February 2013

Four topics relevant to the operation of social influence in virtual media–based environments—particularly digital ones—are discussed: concepts, theory, the nature of social interaction, and new forms of social influence. The summary speculates on the future of virtual technology for scientific inquiry and applications regarding social influence processes.
Active Video Games: Impacts and Research
Authors: Chamberlin Barbara , Maloney Ann
Published: February 2013

Exergames, or games that encourage physical activity, have several documented benefits for users, including increase of daily physical activity, and the potential for game players to reach moderate and even vigorous levels of activity. In addition to physiological impacts, exergames can affect social and psychosocial attributes, such as interest in exergaming, adherence, and motivation. Although research on this new field is in the early stages, this chapter summarizes research findings, giving particular attention to exergaming’s potential in medical, school, and community programs. Based on that research and on their own experience in working with exergames users, the authors share recommendations on best uses of exergames, design guidelines for exergame developers, and areas for future research.
Media Psychophysiology: The Brain and Beyond
Authors: Bartholow Bruce D. , Bolls Paul
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of the effects of consuming media content spanning entertainment, news, and advertising—content that is increasingly delivered over a wide range of technological platforms (e.g., computers, televisions, smart phones)—on the psychophysiological responses of media audiences, focusing in particular on how media content affects neural responses and the ways in which those neural responses act as biological mechanisms of psychological and behavioral responses. The chapter highlights the psychophysiological approach to studying how individuals interact with media, and provides a theoretically and methodologically rich environment for advancing the scientific study of how all forms of mediated experience influence thoughts, feelings, and actions. The chapter focuses in particular on how the media psychophysiology approach has been applied to understanding media violence and persuasion, underscoring the ways in which this approach has provided a way to address questions of long-standing interest to scholars in the field.
Ideology, Culture, and the Cold War
Authors: Shibusawa Naoko
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the issues of culture and ideology during the Cold War. It discusses the ongoing process of reproducing hegemonic knowledge and shows how modernity inflected Cold War policies, and continues to do so in our contemporary moment. The chapter contends that the staying power of ideologies is derived from their personification into binary, anthropomorphic figures, and that this is how an entire country could be depicted and acted upon as if it were a singular, developing human being. It also considers the issues concerning readiness for self-rule and the development of American exceptionalism.
Geopolitics and the Cold War
Authors: Warner Geoffrey
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the geopolitical aspect of the Cold War. It discusses the origin of the term “geopolitics,” and investigates how and why relations between the United States and the Soviet Union deteriorated so rapidly after the World War 2. The chapter highlights the incompatibilities between the ideologies of the two superpowers, and explains that communism and free-market capitalism are polar opposites. It also argues against the claims about the extent to which the Cold War was based on ideological as opposed to geopolitical factors that persisted throughout the conflict.
The Cold War in Southeast Asia
Authors: Guan Ang Cheng
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the history of the Cold War in Southeast Asia. It explains that the onset of the Cold War coincided with nationalist struggles and decolonization, and explains why Southeast Asians should appreciate that the Cold War is a historical event which has significantly affected the development of their countries, particularly in terms of the role of the Cold War in shaping the political development of the nation-states and interstate relations in the region, and the growing interest in rewriting the history of the Cold War.
Cold War Strategies/Power and Culture—East
Authors: Zubok Vladislav
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the root motives behind the Soviet struggle against the West and the paradigm of Soviet international behavior related to the Cold War. It suggests that decolonization contributed to the Cold War because the decline of European colonial empires in the 1950s created irresistible temptations for Soviet leaders to intervene in parts of the globe previously beyond their reach. The chapter also suggests that the Soviet Cold War consensus began to crumble when the key tenets of the revolutionary-imperial paradigm became suspect in the 1960s and 1970s. These tenets held that the West was determined to destroy the Soviet Union and its “socialist empire” by force.
The Military
Authors: Stone David
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the military history of the Cold War. It explains that most military activities during this period were focused on apocalyptic nuclear war which never came and that the military aspects of the Cold War contributed to its end. The chapter suggests that while the military side of the Cold War did play a major role in ending the Cold War, it was not because of the policies of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, for there is little evidence that they were intended to produce moderation in Soviet leadership. It argues that reforms initiated by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev came from the realization of the decay of Soviet military superiority and the increasing economic burden of defense spending.
Trade, Aid, and Economic Warfare
Authors: Spaulding Robert Mark
Published: February 2013

This chapter, which examines the relation among trade, foreign aid, and economic warfare and their role in the Cold War, suggests that these three economic activities are intertwined and explains that subsidized trade with client states is a form of aid while embargoed trade is a type of economic warfare. It argues that trade, aid, and economic warfare co-determined the outcome of the cold war struggle, and that Cold War economic competition and the failures and successes of the rival states paved the way for a new wave of globalization which began in the 1980s and expanded after 1989. The chapter also considers several key developments of the Cold War period that are important components of contemporary globalization.
Human Rights
Authors: Keys Barbara , Burke Roland
Published: February 2013

This chapter analyzes the status and conception of human rights during the Cold War. It suggests that attempts to define, codify, and protect human rights during the Cold War consisted of a series of discontinuities, intersections, and appropriations in which the area of contestation was the scope and content of the term itself. The chapter also discusses how the Cold War influenced different human rights projects, and explains how the eagerness of both the East and West to use human rights issues to wage the conflict raised the profile of human rights.
Race and the Cold War
Authors: Plummer Brenda Gayle
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the issue of race during the Cold War. It contends that racism was part of a Cold War framework in which states marshaled ideological and political resources against the threat of dissolution and subversion from within as well as from without. The chapter suggests that racial consciousness served a dual purpose during the Cold War years. It explains that proponents of racial equality used democratic ideology to argue for the abandonment of all forms of discrimination while proponents of segregation used the Cold War to argue that altering time-honored usages endangered national security.
Introduction
Authors: Dorff Elliot N. , Crane Jonathan K.
Published: February 2013

This introductory chapter begins by explaining the rationale behind the study of Jewish ethics and how it differs from “regular” ethics. It then presents an overview of the two parts of this Handbook, the first of which traces the development of Jewish thinking from the Bible to modern times. The chapter demonstrates that throughout history, Jews have been embedded in a larger Western context and influenced by the ethical thought of non-Jews. The second part treats various moral issues, indicating the range of approaches, where available, within the Jewish tradition and community. Finally, the chapter discusses the relationships of Jewish ethics to secular ethical theories and practice, and outlines classical sources for Jewish ethics.
Ethical Theory and Practice in the Hebrew Bible
Authors: Goodfriend Elaine Adler
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews ethical concepts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). Fear of God (yir'at Elohim) is perhaps the most pervasive and powerful notion inspiring social concern and behaviour. The Bible contains multiple ways to motivate people to do what is right and good—ways that are championed by later contributors to Jewish ethical theories. The chapter discusses motivations for ethical behaviour in the Torah; the prophets' views on ethics; works within the “Writings” (Ketuvim) section of the Hebrew Bible; outlooks on human nature and free will; and universal standards for ethical behaviour.
Ethical Theories in Rabbinic Literature
Authors: Fonrobert Charlotte Elisheva
Published: February 2013

This chapter first sets out the difficulties in studying the sources for Jewish ethics in classical rabbinic literature. Not only do rabbinic texts lack the very notion of ethics, they also emerge from different terrains and times and perforce bespeak different moral conclusions if not presumptions on how to reach those positions. However, one exception is texts classified as rabbinic “ethical” literature, which include 'Avot or Pirkei 'Avot and its companion text(s), Avot de-Rabbi Natan. The discussion then turns to the relationship between law and ethics in rabbinic literature; ethical limits to halakhah in rabbinic literature; and issues of universality and particularity in rabbinic literature.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Dorff Elliot N.
Published: February 2013

This chapter begins with a discussion of fundamental convictions of Judaism that affect Jewish approaches to moral issues at the beginning of life, and then considers Jewish views about preventing pregnancy through contraception and abortion, and, conversely, assisting those with infertility problems. The analysis is also used to discuss embryonic stem cell research and genetic testing.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Sinclair Daniel B.
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses end of life issues, first describing how the Jewish tradition views the stages of the end of life and how the categories it uses are interpreted differently by Orthodox and Conservative rabbis. It then discusses the degree to which patients have autonomy to decide for themselves what treatments they will accept or reject, including the question of withholding or withdrawing medications, machines, artificial nutrition and hydration, and even the question of killing a terminally ill patient in order to save a viable life. The chapter concludes with a description of the new law in Israel that governs the treatment of patients at the end of life.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Mackler Aaron L.
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the distribution of health care, an issue that has become particularly urgent and controversial in recent years because the median age of populations in most English-speaking countries age has risen, so more people need more extensive medical care. This is happening, though, just, as medical science produces new but often expensive interventions that people come to expect, and, as a result of these factors and others, health care costs have risen dramatically. The chapter considers the Jewish principles that might guide the discussion of who gets what in medical care, and who pays for it.
Jewish Bioethics
Authors: Zoloth Laurie
Published: February 2013

This chapter explores one of the most important new frontiers in medicine—namely, the new genetics—addressing the issues of identity and free will that genetics raises in new ways. It then uses the case of a woman with “the breast cancer gene” as an example of how genetic testing poses excruciating, new questions to the women affected and their families. Aside from the practical questions of what to do when faced with such a diagnosis, does this and the other Ashkenazi Jewish genetic diseases serve as a basis for the “discrimination, stigmatization, and marginalization” of Jews generally? Should Jews and others think of Jews as a “sick” people? For Jews, of course, such discussion of eugenics has a painful past in both the United States and in Nazi Germany. This is complicated yet further by the fact that in some cases, as with the breast cancer gene, the presence of the gene does not guarantee that the woman will have cancer but only adds to the probability of that happening. What, then, if anything, should be done with such a diagnosis? Furthermore, the availability of pre-natal testing for genetic diseases could easily create expectations in the future that families with a history of a particular genetic disease be tested for it, and if they bear a child with the disease, they may be seen as morally delinquent to both the child and society. The analysis brings Jewish concepts and values to bear on these questions.
Variationist Sociolinguistics
Authors: Bayley Robert
Published: February 2013

The central ideas of variationist sociolinguistics are that an understanding of language requires an understanding of variable as well as categorical processes, and that the variation witnessed at all levels of language is not random. Rather, linguistic variation is characterized by orderly or “structured heterogeneity.” In addition, synchronic variation is often a reflection of diachronic change. This chapter reviews representative studies and outlines the main assumptions underlying the variationist approach. It presents an example of variationist analysis, using the well-known case of variation between Spanish null and overt subject personal pronouns. Then, the chapter considers a number of relatively recent developments in variationist sociolinguistics including the expansion of the variationist paradigm into new areas such as second-language acquisition and sign linguistics, as well as recent work that combines ethnographic observation and quantitative analysis.
Conversation Analysis
Authors: Seedhouse Paul
Published: February 2013

The history of the development of ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis (CA) may be found in Heritage (1984). The principal originator of CA was Harvey Sacks. His most important idea was that there is “order at all points” in interaction—that talk in interaction is systematically organized, and deeply ordered and methodical. This chapter explains why CA methodology proceeds as it does and why it is a suitable methodology for sociolinguists to use. The applicability of CA to sociolinguistics is limited to the study of naturally occurring spoken interaction. Its perspective on interaction, as social action that is expressed by means of linguistic forms in a developing sequence, is in general very compatible with sociolinguistic approaches. Its current stage of growth is marked by linguistic and cultural diversity, and by multimodality.
Language Maintenance and Shift
Authors: Potowski Kim
Published: February 2013

Language shift is the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialization within a community. In an effort to understand the factors that contribute to language shift and those which seem to militate against it, this chapter explores several immigrant and non-immigrant contexts around the world, with particular focus on the United States. The principal factors—divided into individual, family, community, and broader societal factors—are often interdependent. The discussion also notes the basic tenet emphasized by Fishman (1991) that language maintenance must involve intergenerational transmission of the language. If intergenerational transmission of a language ceases, it can be said that the speakers have shifted to another language. Many of the world’s 6000 to 7000 languages are being lost—by some estimates, up to half of them—mostly due to the spread of a few dominant languages, which many speakers are shifting to.
Variation and Change
Authors: D'Arcy Alexandra
Published: February 2013

This chapter notes that the ultimate concern of variationist sociolinguistics is the evolution of linguistic systems and the mechanisms which operate on them. One feature that offers particularly good insight into these issues is the quotative be like, a relatively recent and robust change that has affected varieties of English worldwide. The chapter illustrates the types of theoretical issues that be like has been used to explore, beginning with the quantitative paradigm and the analytical assumptions underlying variationist work on direct quotation. It argues that what makes be like such a useful and powerful heuristic for testing theories of language change is variation and the constraints which operate upon it.
The Study of Language and Society
Authors: Bayley Robert , Cameron Richard , Lucas Ceil
Published: February 2013

This chapter introduces this volume on sociolinguistics, noting how this study differs from existing work. It considers sociolinguistics as an interdisciplinary exercise, emphasizing new methodological developments, particularly the convergence of linguistic anthropology and variationist sociolinguistics. The volume cites sociolinguistic developments in areas of the world that have been relatively neglected in the major journals. While many authors include examples from English, contributors have worked in a range of languages and address sociolinguistic issues in bi- and multilingual contexts. Finally, the volume includes substantial material on the rapidly growing study of sign language sociolinguistics. The focus on bi- and multilingual contexts, and emphasis on developments in numerous areas around the world, give an appropriate place to sign languages.
Environmental Security and U.S. Politics
Authors: Matthew Richard A.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the multifaceted subfield of “environmental security.” It considers the historical factors driving the consolidation and growth of this subfield, summarizes some of its key findings, assesses its policy impact, and outlines areas of future research productivity. It also summarizes major criticisms of the field. The principal focus throughout is on research and policy activity in the United States.
Defining Environmental Rule Making
Authors: Rinfret Sara R. , Furlong Scott R.
Published: February 2013

This article explores the underpinnings of the U.S. administrative rulemaking process. First it discusses the role of the executive branch, the importance of the Administrative Procedure Act, and the stages of the rule-making process. Next, it considers the ways in which business and professional groups have influenced the later stages of the rule-making process. It finds that ex parte or off-the-record communications between an agency and interest groups during the preproposal stage can enhance our understanding of environmental rule making. Additional pathways for rule-making research, such as regulatory rooms or rule-making gateways, are particularly fruitful areas of scholarship. The article concludes with a suggestions for future research.
Changing Economic Structures and Impacts of Shocks: Evidence from a Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium Model for China
Authors: Mehrotra Aaron , Nuutilainen Riikka , Pääkkönen Jenni
Published: February 2013

We present a small‐scale dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model that features price rigidities, habit formation in consumption and costs in capital adjustment. We estimate the key parameters and calibrate the model with data for the Chinese economy. Our interest centres on the impact of technology and monetary policy shocks for different structures of the Chinese economy. In particular, we evaluate how a rebalancing of the economy from investment‐led to consumption‐led growth would affect the economic dynamics after a shock occurs. Our findings suggest that a rebalancing would reduce the volatility of the real economy in the event of a technology shock, which provides support for policies aiming to increase the consumption share in China.
Across time and space: Explaining variation in news coverage of the European Union
Authors: Boomgaarden Hajo G. , De Vreese Claes H. , Schuck Andreas R.T. , Azrout Rachid , Elenbaas Matthijs , Van Spanje Joost H.P. , Vliegenthart Rens
Published: February 2013

News about the European Union (EU) looks different in different countries at different points in time. This study investigates explanations for cross‐national and over‐time variation in news media coverage of EU affairs drawing on large‐scale media content analyses of newspapers and television news in the EU‐15 (1999), EU‐25 (2004) and EU‐27 (2009) in relation to European Parliament (EP) elections. The analyses focus in particular on explanatory factors pertaining to media characteristics and the political elites. Results show that national elites play an important role for the coverage of EU matters during EP election campaigns. The more strongly national parties are divided about the EU in combination with overall more negative positions towards the EU, the more visible the news. Also, increases in EU news visibility from one election to the next and the Europeanness of the news are determined by a country's elite positions. The findings are discussed in light of the EU's alleged communication deficit.
External dimensions of European environmental policy: An analysis of environmental treaty ratification by third states
Authors: Schulze Kai , Tosun Jale
Published: February 2013

The European Union has become an important leader in international environmental affairs – particularly through the negotiation of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) with favourable terms. In this article, EU environmental leadership is studied from a new perspective, focusing on the ratification stage of environmental regime formation. Specifically, it investigates whether the EU is also capable of motivating third states to join its preferred MEAs. It is argued that third states join the EU's preferred MEAs to signal their compliance with EU environmental standards in an effort to become eligible for various rewards that the EU could potentially offer, including a credible membership perspective, access to its lucrative markets, and aid and assistance. The argument is tested by examining the ratification behaviour of 25 non‐EU Member States with regard to all 21 MEAs negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The results provide robust support for the theory that EU rewards motivate third states to ratify these treaties. The results withstand a number of statistical tests, even when alternative explanatory factors such as trade intensities, transnational communication and geographic proximity are controlled for. The study is the first large‐scale demonstration of the EU's external influence at the ratification stage of environmental regime formation. By identifying three different channels of EU influence, the research permits a more refined understanding of the EU's role as a promoter of environmental protection standards.
Objective estimation versus subjective perceptions of earnings patterns and post‐earnings‐announcement drift
Authors: Bathke Allen W. , Morton Richard M. , Notbohm Matthew , Zhang Tianming
Published: February 2013

We investigate how the market's subjective estimates of autocorrelation in quarterly earnings vary with objective time‐series estimates. Our results suggest that investors increasingly underestimate the correlation as the autocorrelation level increases, and as a result, the post‐earnings‐announcement drift (PEAD) increases with the level of autocorrelation. We further show that the ability of autocorrelation to explain variation in the PEAD is robust to alternative explanations based on risk and institutional factors. Additional analysis indicates that the market's inefficiency in assessing the existence and magnitude of autocorrelation (and the related impact on PEAD) is inversely related to the richness of the information environment.
Withdrawal effect of chronic amphetamine exposure during adolescence on complex maze performance
Authors: Krall Daniel M. , Lim Stephanie L. , Cooper Abby M. , Burleson Paul W. , Rhoades Derek J. , Jacquemin Stephen J. , Willmore Daryl C. , Spears F. Martin , Willmore Catherine B.
Published: February 2013

National survey data suggest a steady increase in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders in children, particularly Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). As nearly all children diagnosed with ADHD are prescribed stimulant drugs, rationale exists to quantitatively characterize behavioral responses following withdrawal from chronic stimulant dosing. These rodent experiments involved chronic administration of 7.5 mg/kg, s.c. amphetamine to subjects throughout adolescence followed by cognitive tests to gauge learning and performance during the withdrawal stage 7 to 14 days past withdrawal. Tests used a complex Stone 14‐unit multiple T‐maze, which is a robust paradigm for demonstrating age‐related differences in rodent models when behavioral cognitive endpoints are used. Results reveal that amphetamine‐treated subjects committed fewer major and retracing errors with increased minor errors and a significantly lower mean completion time. These findings suggest that pharmacotherapy aimed at adolescent‐phase treatment of ADHD does not provoke spatial memory deficits at times proximal to drug withdrawal and lends support to amphetamine use in the treatment of ADHD children.
It's More Than an M‐shape: The Political Economy of Female Non‐Standard Workers in the Republic of Korea
Authors: Lee Sang‐ah , Cho Jeong‐eun , Park Shorie , Lee Sophia Seung‐yoon
Published: February 2013

This study examines the re‐entrance of female workers into the Korean labor market. We highlight that women in their 40s have the highest rate of employment among all female workers and that a large proportion of these women are entering into non‐standard employment. In approaching this question, we examine the political economy of this phenomenon by first discussing the demand side of the Korean labor market using the gendering of the varieties of capitalism argument and then the supply side with the work–life balance argument. When examining re‐entrance into the labor market, women with general skills with lower education and higher education both found it more feasible to re‐enter the labor market as non‐standard workers. While work–life balance is a prominent reason for women's choice of opting out of the labor market, work–life balance choice mattered less for women re‐entering the labor market as non‐standard workers in their 40s and 50s but instead firmly based skill formation mattered more. In addition, the retail service industry is suggested to absorb a large number of female workers with lower skill levels who would have had difficulties in re‐entering other male‐oriented companies.
CSOs' Role in Promoting Health: A Case Study of NGOs' approaches to HIV/AIDS in Iran
Authors: Zareie Ayoub , Moosavi Shandi Pedram , Babamoradi Soheila
Published: February 2013

Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), as one of the Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), have currently occupied a considerable status in the policy making process in the developed and developing countries. Applying multi‐dimensional approaches in dealing with the issues have differentiated them from governmental agencies. Despite NGOs are faced with a wide range of problems in Iran, they play an invaluable role in disseminating information, raising awareness, and sensitisation about HIV/AIDS. Generally speaking, HIV/AIDS NGOs activities in Iran can be categorized in three domains: advocacy, education and information, and intervention. Using descriptive method, this paper intends to explain the services provided by the NGOs for people living with HIV/AIDS, then it will examine the effectiveness of the services provided for their clientele, and next it will explore the impediments faced by the NGOs in terms of provision of services. Finally, providing some meaning of HIVNGOs paper will come to a conclusion.
Factors Impacting Market Occupancy of Non‐profit Human Service Organizations in the Public Social Service Market: Focused on an Individual Level
Authors: Kwon Sunae
Published: February 2013

This study aims to experientially verify which factors of non‐profit human service organizations affect market sharing activities in the public social service market. Due to market‐oriented government policies, non‐profit human service organizations, which used to enjoy stable financial resources, are now placed in a competitive position to provide their services. It is necessary to find out which organizational factors give a competitive advantage to various service providers in competition, including profit organizations, and apply them to the management and operation of non‐profit human service organizations. This is how this study started. Independent variables were organizational characteristics (organization age, total budget, number of employees), externally oriented culture (development culture, rational culture), and organizational structure (centralization, formalization), while dependent variables were the number of vouchers and total profits. Data was collected from 35 community welfare centers, rehabilitation centers, and senior centers (163 respondents) in Busan, Korea. Multiple regression analysis was conducted for data analysis. As a result of the analysis, the number of vouchers was found to be affected by development culture (+) and formalization (−), and total profit from voucher business was determined by organization age (−), total budget (+), and number of employees (+). Based on the results, this study suggests that non‐profit human service organizations should have an externally oriented culture and a flexible organization system to hold more market share in the public social service market.
Reflections on change: supporting people with learning disabilities in residential services
Authors: Salmon Rebecca , Holmes Nan , Dodd Karen
Published: February 2013

Accessible summary

We looked at how staff think about the changes from working in a long‐stay hospital setting to working in a home for people with learning disabilities.

In homes, staff said that they were more relaxed and could spend more time and offer more choices to residents than they could when they worked in hospital settings.

With the changes, staff often had to make their own decisions about the care they provide and were worried about getting it right.

Staff felt that their managers were looking more closely at what they were doing.

Staff said that team meetings, supervision and training helped them to cope with the changes.

This study describes research that was designed to explore the reflections and perspectives of staff who had experienced the change from institutional care to person‐centred care and learn what factors had supported the change to, and continued adoption of, person‐centred care. In‐depth, semistructured interviews were conducted with seven participants working in residential homes for people with learning disabilities. The interviews were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Participants described positive changes, for example they were able to offer choice and spend time with residents. They perceived the work as less pressured and more relaxed. For some, this had the impact of encouraging them to work harder and freeing up their time to facilitate forming relationships with residents in the homes. Participants discussed an increased autonomy, responsibility and accountability in their work and a sense of being constantly monitored. There appeared to be reluctance amongst participants to own difficulties and anxieties associated with changes. Participants identified a number of strategies and issues that they felt had supported these changes. The research suggests some areas of consideration for implications regarding future practice in staff support and training within services for people with learning disabilities.
Associations Among Pubertal Development, Empathic Ability, and Neural Responses While Witnessing Peer Rejection in Adolescence
Authors: Masten Carrie L. , Eisenberger Naomi I. , Pfeifer Jennifer H. , Colich Natalie L. , Dapretto Mirella
Published: February 2013

Links among concurrent and longitudinal changes in pubertal development and empathic ability from ages 10 to 13 and neural responses while witnessing peer rejection at age 13 were examined in 16 participants. More advanced pubertal development at age 13, and greater longitudinal increases in pubertal development, related to increased activity in regions underlying cognitive aspects of empathy. Likewise, at age 13 greater perspective taking related to activity in cognitive empathy‐related regions; however, affective components of empathy (empathic concern and personal distress) were associated with activity in both cognitive and affective pain‐related regions. Longitudinal increases in empathic ability related to cognitive and affective empathy‐related circuitry. Findings provide preliminary evidence that physical and cognitive‐emotional development relate to adolescents' neural responses when witnessing peer rejection.
Primary carnitine deficiency: novel mutations and insights into the cardiac phenotype
Authors: Shibbani K. , Fahed A.C. , Al‐Shaar L. , Arabi M. , Nemer G. , Bitar F. , Majdalani M.
Published: February 2013

Solute carrier family 22 member 5 (SLC22A5) encodes a sodium‐dependent ion transporter responsible for shuffling carnitine across the plasma membrane. This process provides energy for the heart, among other organs allowing beta‐oxidation of fatty acids. Mutations in SLC22A5 result in primary carnitine deficiency (PCD), a disorder that manifests with cardiac, skeletal, or metabolic symptoms. We hereby describe two novel mutations in SLC22A5 in two Lebanese families associated exclusively with a cardiac phenotype. The frequency of the cardiac, metabolic and skeletal symptoms in PCD patients remains undefined. All the reported eight PCD patients belonging to five different Lebanese families have an exclusive cardiac phenotype. Carnitine levels appear to be directly linked to the type and position of the mutation and the severity of the phenotypic presentation does not seem to be associated with serum carnitine levels. A comprehensive review of 61 literature‐reported PCD cases revealed an exclusive cardiac manifestation frequency at 62.3% with a very low likelihood of simultaneous occurrence of cardiac and metabolic manifestation.