bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prioritarianism
Authors: Tännsjö Torbjörn
Published: July 2019

The rationale behind prioritarianism is the idea that suffering has a special moral importance. This means that a person who momentarily suffers has a special moral claim for improvement of her hedonic situation. It is the other way around with happiness. Prioritarianism is seen as a possible amendment to utilitarianism. Since suffering takes place at a definite time, momentary suffering, not suffering within an entire life, is what matters, according to prioritarianism. While the maximin/leximin theory gives absolute priority to those who are worst off prioritarinism presents a more nuanced view. Some special weight is given to an amount of happiness/unhappiness depending on where it falls, on a happy or on a miserable moment. There are many ideas, however, about how to specify the exact weight which should be given to an instant of happiness/unhappiness depending on where it appears on the hedonistic scale. This means that prioritarianism presents us with a family of theories rather than with one theory in particular. They all agree on the claim, however, that what should be maximized is a weighted sum of happiness rather than the sum total of happiness.
The Maximin/Leximin Theory
Authors: Tännsjö Torbjörn
Published: July 2019

The maximin/leximin theory is applied in real medical life. The general result, in relation to any welfare state assuming its global obligations, is that more resources ought to be directed to the care and cure of people suffering from mental illness; less should be spent on marginal life extension (especially among elderly patients).The urgency of mental health, when the matter is assessed from the point of view of the maximin/leximin theory, has to do with the fact that people often suffer for very long time from mental disease rendering it plausible to assume that many people in this category garner throughout their lives a net deficit in terms of happiness. Hence they are the patients who are worst off. The problem with marginal life extension among elderly patients has to do with the fact that many among them have throughout their long lives already garnered a lot of happiness. Now these people have to stand back when there is fierce competition for available medical resources.
History of Interpretation of Melchizedek
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

This chapter is a standard history of literary research on the topics of Melchizedek, Gen. 14, and Ps. 110. It looks at each of the research questions, including whether Gen. 14 is unified or composite; whether it is early (i.e., an eleventh- to ninth-century bce Mesopotamian or Canaanite chronicle adapted by Hebrew scribes) or late (i.e., a Persian or Hellenistic period composition); and whether the Melchizedek episode is original to the narrative or a later gloss. Likewise, questions regarding Ps. 110 are addressed, including whether it is early (i.e., a tenth- to ninth-century bce Canaanite coronation psalm adopted by the Israelites) or late (i.e., a Hellenistic or even Hasmonean composition), whether verse 4 is a Hasmonean gloss, and whether the personal name Melchizedek is mentioned in verse 4.
From Sodom to Shalem
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

This chapter details the first central thesis of the book, its principal text-critical argument: that Melchizedek originally appeared in the text of Gen. 14 as the king of Sodom, but that this text was altered to Shalem to distance the patriarch Abram from the city that would come to represent God’s destruction of perversity and inhospitality. The chapter proceeds step by step through the redaction process of the word Sodom to Shalem. The chapter then discusses the death of Beraʿ, the king of Sodom, and how later literature altered the account of his death so that he could reappear later in the story, thereby causing Melchizedek to appear as someone other than the heir to the throne of Sodom. The chapter concludes with a thorough grammatical examination of Gen. 14 demonstrating that verse 18 was manipulated and wrongly interpreted to understand Melchizedek and the king of Sodom as separate individuals.
From ʾEl ʿElyon to YHWH
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

This chapter examines the references to the deity (or deities) ʾEl ʿElyon in Gen. 14:19, 20, and 22. Using archaeological evidence in the form of Phoenician, Aramaic, and Hittite inscriptions, this chapter specifically looks at the northern Phoenician origin of the deity and his peculiar epithet “Creator of Heaven and Earth” as evidence of the antiquity of this text. Finally, this chapter provides evidence that the name of YHWH in verse 22 is a later gloss.
Evidence of Sectarian Redaction in the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Masoretic Text
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

This chapter provides the theoretical and methodological foundation for the second central thesis of the book. The chapter systematically explores examples in the HB of growing redactional competition between the Masoretic Text and the Samaritan Pentateuch, with each sectarian group making slight alterations to key texts in order to promote their respective holy mountains and denigrate the others’. This leads to the presentation of evidence for a third compelling thesis: that the Moriah mentioned in conjunction with Abraham and the sacrifice of Isaac in Gen. 22 originally read Moreh, and was initially a reference to the Oak of Moreh near Shechem in the shadow of Mt. Gerizim. To combat this, the hapax legomenon Moriah was created to remove the central theophany from the holy Samaritan mountain, Gerizim, and later, utilizing a gloss in 2 Chron. 3:1, was relocated from the desert to Jerusalem.
From Shalem to Jerusalem
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

This chapter presents evidence that demonstrates, in a manner similar to Moriah detailed in the previous chapter, that the city of Shalem was relocated in a two-step redactional process. First, Shalem was moved from being “a city of Shechem” (Gen. 33:18) to being located in an unknown region. In Jer. 41:5, a reference to Shalem was replaced outright with a reference to Shiloh so as to obscure its mention, but not before the LXX preserved the original reference to Shalem. Later, Shalem was associated explicitly with Jerusalem, using texts from the Second Temple period like Jubilees, the Genesis Apocryphon, and the works of Josephus. The location of the Valley of Shaveh was also relocated from the Dead Sea to Jerusalem to correspond to the relocation of Shalem to Jerusalem.
Psalm 110
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

This chapter examines the presence of Melchizedek in Ps. 110 (LXX Ps. 109) and asks if the Hebrew text refers to the same priest-king mentioned in Gen. 14:18 or to another priest-king—the Israelite king the psalm celebrates as part of his coronation. This chapter closely examines the extraordinary measures taken by Hebrew interpreters to alter references to the metaphorical birth of the king in verse 3 that are clear references to birth in other psalms. This chapter also examines the LXX’s “inventive” interpretation in verse 4 of a priestly “Order of Melchizedek”—a translation that is not supported by later translations like the Aramaic targums.
Conclusion
Authors: Cargill Robert R.
Published: July 2019

The conclusion summarizes the central arguments and evidence presented in the book. It demonstrates that the original purpose of Gen. 14 was that of a hero narrative, presenting the über-righteous Abram as a YHWH-empowered warrior who rescues his nephew, Lot, and returns the kidnaped and plundered Sodomite people and their goods to their homeland, without exacting a payment! Abram was to be depicted as the ultimate righteous hero, fighting the good fight on behalf of his extended family and demanding no payment in return. He is victorious in battle and generous in victory, “blessing those who bless him and becoming a curse to those who curse him.” However, as the history of Israel unfolded, parts of the Abram narrative required updating in the eyes of the Jerusalem priesthood. Given the sectarian political battles that came to shape Judean and Samaritan history in Israel following the collapse of the two kingdoms and the Babylonian exile, the Melchizedek encounter underwent small changes over time, each of which created new problems with each problem it solved. It was this redaction history of the Melchizedek encounter that created Melchizedek as an individual separate from the king of Sodom and gave rise to the varied Jewish interpretations of him in the late Second Temple period.
Politics in Unusual Places
Authors: Behl Natasha
Published: July 2019

Chapter 1 recounts the 2012 gang rape and murder of Jyoti Singh to highlight the contradictory nature of Indian democracy—which gravely affects its institutions and puts its citizens at risk. The book asks, why do we find pervasive gender-based discrimination, exclusion, and violence in India when the Indian Constitution builds an inclusive democracy committed to gender and caste equality? To understand women’s unequal experience of Indian democracy in multiple domains, the introduction weaves an analysis of the 2012 gang rape with ethnographic data from the Sikh community to call attention to the dangers of gender-based violence, from its most horrific expression to the more commonplace. In doing so, the book highlights similar logics at play along the spectrum of gender-based violence and explains how these logics cause women’s lives to be at risk in all spheres of life—state, civil society, religious community, and home.
Situated Citizenship
Authors: Behl Natasha
Published: July 2019

Chapter 2 advances situated citizenship as a general theoretical and methodological framework to study the lived experiences of unequal democracy across subordinated demographics and to understand gendered and racialized citizenship in different locations across the world. In developing a framework of situated citizenship, chapter 2 reviews democratization and legal studies literatures, identifies the major limitations of these literatures, and explains how a theory of situated citizenship overcomes these limitations. Chapter 2 argues that institutional indicators and formal rights fail to tell the full story—and hide more than they show because through nominal female inclusion these formal institutions often render the mechanisms of exclusionary inclusion invisible. In contrast, situated citizenship explains how uneven and unequal experiences of citizenship are created, maintained, and challenged in the private and public spheres through concrete face-to-face social practices often compounded by intersecting categories like gender, caste, class, religion, and nation.
Unequal Citizenship
Authors: Behl Natasha
Published: July 2019

Chapter 3 focuses attention on women’s unequal experience of the Indian state through an examination of the debates surrounding the 2012 gang rape. Chapter 3 examines both the progressive political opening and the retrenchment of patriarchal norms following Jyoti Singh’s murder, and argues that this opening and retrenchment are emblematic of the Indian state’s radical promise of equality and its horrific failure to achieve this equality. An analysis of politicians’ responses demonstrates how gendered norms operate to exclude women in the name of inclusion. This analysis highlights the difficulty of eradicating gendered violence through legal reform, demonstrates the unpredictability of the political process, and shows how gendered norms operate in the public sphere to undermine and frustrate progressive change. The chapter outlines the difficulty of turning to the law as a liberatory strategy in a liberal democracy and shifts attention to other spheres of life as potential sources for more egalitarian social relations.
Conclusion
Authors: Behl Natasha
Published: July 2019

The concluding chapter returns to the 2012 gang rape and murder of Jyoti Singh to reanalyze this horrific incident in light of the research findings, and to discuss the implications of the analysis for the study of gender equality, citizenship, and democracy in India and beyond. Behl puts her experience of SGBV in direct relation with the gang rape case and with the findings from the Sikh community to call attention to the dangers that lurk in every case of SGBV, from its most extraordinary to the more mundane expression in daily life. She shares her own experience to critically reflect on her positionality as a diasporic researcher, with attention to the ways participants and she coconstruct the data, and to the ways her own blind spots impact the research process. Lastly, she asks if political science as a discipline is willing to listen to new forms of knowledge production.
Finding Faith in Foreign Policy
Authors: Bettiza Gregorio
Published: July 2019

Since the end of the Cold War, religion has been systematically brought to the fore of American foreign policy. US foreign policymakers have been increasingly tasked with promoting religious freedom globally, delivering humanitarian and development aid abroad through faith-based channels, pacifying Muslim politics and reforming Islamic theologies in the context of fighting terrorism, and engaging religious actors to solve multiple conflicts and crises around the world. Across a range of different domains, religion has progressively become an explicit and organized subject and object of US foreign policy in ways that were unimaginable just a few decades ago. If God was supposed to be vanquished by the forces of modernity and secularization, why has the United States increasingly sought to understand and manage religion abroad? In what ways have the boundaries between faith and state been redefined as religion has become operationalized in American foreign policy? What kind of world order is emerging in the twenty-first century as the most powerful state in the international system has come to intervene in sustained and systematic ways in sacred landscapes around the globe? This book addresses these questions by developing an original theoretical framework and drawing upon extensive empirical research and interviews. It argues that American foreign policy and religious forces have become ever more inextricably entangled in an age witnessing a global resurgence of religion and the emergence of a postsecular world society.
Introduction
Authors: Bettiza Gregorio
Published: July 2019

Since the end of the Cold War religion has increasingly become an organized subject and object of American foreign policy. This has been notable with the emergence of four religious foreign policy regimes—International Religious Freedom, Faith-Based Foreign Aid, Muslim and Islamic Interventions, and Religious Engagement—which together constitute an American foreign policy regime complex on religion. The introduction poses the book’s three guiding questions. First, why and how did these different, yet closely related, religious foreign policy regimes emerge? Second, have the boundaries between religion and state been redefined by these regimes, and if so, how? Third, what are the global effects of the growing entanglement between faith and American foreign policy? The chapter introduces the concepts and arguments that are central to answering these questions. It also highlights the contributions made to the existing literature, discusses some definitional and methodological issues, and presents the plan of the book.
Theorizing US Foreign Policy in a Postsecular World Society
Authors: Bettiza Gregorio
Published: July 2019

The chapter presents the book’s theoretical framework, which is grounded in a sociological approach to international relations (IR) theory. It suggests that to explain the causes and shape of the operationalization of religion in US foreign policy attention needs to be paid to the combined effects of macro-level forces represented by the emergence of a postsecular world society, and the mobilization at the micro-level of a diverse range of desecularizing actors who seek to contest the secularity of American foreign policy through the deployment of multiple desecularizing discourses. The chapter then conceptualizes four different processes of foreign policy desecularization—institutional, epistemic, ideological, and state-normative—which take place as religion increasingly becomes an organized subject and object of US foreign policy. Finally, it advances three hypotheses about the global effects of America’s religious foreign policies: they shape religious landscapes around the world in ways that reflect American values and interests; they contribute to religionizing world politics; and they promote similar policies internationally.
Faith-Based Foreign Aid
Authors: Bettiza Gregorio
Published: July 2019

The chapter identifies the constellation of desecularizing actors embedded in postsecular processes responsible for the emergence of the Faith-Based Foreign Aid regime under President Bush in the early 2000s. It examines the continuation and evolution of the regime over time and shows how this has depended on the type of desecularizing actors that have had access to the Bush and Obama administrations. It argues that the regime generates considerable forms of institutional desecularization, sustained by parallel processes of ideological and state-normative desecularization. In terms of global effects, the regime is potentially shaping global religious landscapes primarily by supporting Christian organizations and communities, and contributing to processes of religionization especially through mechanisms of elevation. The conclusion summarizes the chapter’s findings, compares the regime to the International Religious Freedom regime, and considers developments occurring under President Trump.
Educating the Monkhood
Authors: Horstmann Monika
Published: July 2019

The chapter examines the stages of self-reform of the Dādūpanthi sant sampradaya between the 1890s and the present day. Originally a sect dominated by sadhus, the reform process meant a shift from monastic to lay ideals and to governance by householders, many of whom, however, were ex-sadhus. The process created deep rifts between sadhus and householders. The backbone of the story is the stepwise dismantling and, in 1938, final disbandment of the military Nāgā wing of the Dādūpanthis. Aside from the search for new occupational activities, the main focus in this process lay on education. Targeting primarily their own as well as other monastic orders and Brahmin candidates, and connecting partly with Gandhian patriotism, the prime idea became to develop models of a Hindu way of life impermeable to Westernization, and produce educated spiritual and social leaders for independent India and engage in social and political activities.
Secularizing Renunciation?
Authors: Clémentin-Ojha Catherine
Published: July 2019

Focusing on Swami Shraddhananda (1857–1926), the chapter discusses the turn towards an ideal of political samnyasi-hood in the early twentieth century. With Gandhi, Shraddhananda shared the conviction that the regeneration of India could only be achieved through a personal disciplinary regime. Paying particular attention to the speech Shraddhananda gave at the session of the Indian National Congress in Amritsar in 1919, the chapter demonstrates his understanding of the public function of a modern samnayasi. Shraddhananda had ordained himself samnayasi in 2017. While traditionally a samnyasi renounced his social role, Shraddhananda conceived of a samnyasi in his days as one who uses his independence to become a responsible actor in social and political matters, doing seva, service, for the whole world, and working for the liberation of the nation. The author embeds her analysis in a specific understanding of secularization following which values and forms of institutionalization can be transferred from the religious to the secular sphere.
Voting, Religion, and the People’s Sovereignty in Late Colonial India
Authors: Gilmartin David
Published: July 2019

The chapter discusses the connections between religion and popular sovereignty during the late colonial period in relation to voting. The author explores two key aspects of the legal contradictions embedded in elections, the legal concept of ‘undue influence’ and the relationship between conscience, community, and free choice. The paradoxes of sovereignty were increasingly transposed into the self, conceived as an inner struggle between conscience and free choice, on one side, and the coercive pressures of society, on the other. The chapter also discusses several election cases in India and Burma starting in the 1920s, in which issues of ‘undue influence’ were raised, and explicates the difficulties of distinguishing religion as a form of external power exerted by religious authorities, from free devotional commitment to a religious community. Emphasizing the Protestant missionary background of the ideas of a moral self, conscience, and free choice, the author asserts that such ideas resonated with many Indian Protestant missionary.
Satellite remote sensing and the management of protected areas
Authors: Pettorelli Nathalie
Published: July 2019

This chapter explores how satellite-based approaches can be used as a cost-effective method to support monitoring efforts of protected areas, offering a cheap, verifiable way to identify areas of concern at a global scale, and to support managers in their effort to design and apply adaptive management strategies. Because protected areas can differ in terms of management needs and landscape/seascape access, the chapter starts with a quick introduction to categories of protected areas. Where to set new protected areas is one of the key questions faced by decision makers in need of meeting current biodiversity targets, and the second part of this work explores how satellite remote sensing can inform such a choice. Climatic conditions can significantly impact protected areas’ biodiversity, and the third section of this chapter briefly assesses common ways to derive information about local climatic anomalies from satellite data. The last sections of this chapter discuss the use of satellite data to assess effectiveness, and introduce the Digital Observatory of Protected Areas.
Satellite remote sensing in the policy sphere
Authors: Pettorelli Nathalie
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the interface between satellite remote sensing and policy relevant to the management of natural resources, looking at ways for this technology to support decision making at the national to international scale. First, it briefly introduces (1) the main international conventions that are relevant to the management of natural resources and that could easily benefit from an increased consideration for satellite remote sensing technology, and (2) the main platforms facilitating the integration of satellite remote sensing data at the convention level. Second, it introduces the most popular conceptual frameworks that are being considered to help coordinate and structure natural resource monitoring efforts worldwide, namely the essential biodiversity variables framework, the biodiversity indicators framework, the ecosystem services framework, and the natural capital accounting framework. The final part highlights current challenges and lists a series of possible ways forward.
Biographical Note on Mr. Rayneval
Authors: Allain Jean
Published: July 2019

Meant to be read in conjunction with the Introduction to this translation, the ‘Biographical Note of Mr. Rayneval’ was penned by his son, François-Joseph-Maximilien, and appeared in the subsequent, 1832 expanded, two-volume third edition of the Institutions du Droit de La Nature et des Gens. The Note sets out in detail the life’s work of Joseph-Mathias Gérard de Rayneval, highlights his main achievements including having been the architect of the Peace of Paris of 1783. Not surprisingly, the Biographical Note reads like a testimonial of the life and work of Rayneval, wherein it concludes by stating that ‘one can add here without fear of being contradicted by those that knew him that he was esteemed by all, including the most distinguished of men, and respected with affection by his family’.
Preface.
Authors: Allain Jean
Published: July 2019

Joseph-Mathias Gérard de Rayneval’s Preface to his Institutions du Droit de La Nature et des Gens sets out the content of his study. The Preface outlines each of the three Books and the Appendix, wherein he considers the fundamentals of the Law of Nations in the wake of the French Revolution and the coming to power of Napoleon Bonaparte. Those consideration are developed by first providing an understanding of the internal functioning of the State so as to then build an understanding of the Law of Nations. Having set out the principles which govern inter-State relations, Rayneval provides an Appendix which focus on the policy considerations for those seeking to navigate the art of governing.
On the State of War and of Peace
Authors: Allain Jean
Published: July 2019

Book Three has Rayneval taking the reader through the Law of Nations as it relates to war and peace. A focus is placed on the origins, causes, effects, and conduct of war both on land and at sea. The right of conquest in considered, including prisoners, hostages, as well as civilians in conquered territory. This Book also examines the various principles governing alliances and the role of Neutral Powers in times of war. Where the seas are concerned, Rayneval considers the role of Neutrals Powers, of the right to visit in times of war, of Letters of Marque, and the taking of Prizes. Where peace is concerned, Rayneval speaks of the nature and obligations flowing from peace treaties and invokes mediation as the sole basis of third-party dispute settlement.
The World of the Little Review
Authors: Hutton Clare
Published: July 2019

This chapter looks at the origins and general intellectual context of the Little Review, the avant-garde New York periodical which serialized Joyce’s Ulysses between 1918 and 1920. The editors were Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap, who were joined by Ezra Pound for two years from May 1917. Pound edited the serial Ulysses and was acutely aware of the changing political context in which the journal was being published. In an atmosphere of increasing cultural conservatism brought about by the entry of the US into the First World War, the New York Post Office declared some issues of the Little Review to be non-mailable and suppressed them. The chapter reviews some issues of the Little Review in detail, paying particular attention to the nexus of associations between the serial Ulysses and some of the other texts and preoccupations of the Little Review.
Paris Departures
Authors: Hutton Clare
Published: July 2019

This chapter looks at the ways in which Joyce revised the text of Ulysses once the Little Review serialization had been stopped. It argues that there are seven types of Ulyssean revision and looks in detail at the revisions Joyce made to chapters 2 (‘Nestor’), 5 (‘Lotus-Eaters’), 11 (‘Sirens’), and 13 (‘Nausicaa’). The argument about post-serial revision involves looking at specificities of character, place, and time; streams of consciousness; schematic additions; stylistic thickening; sexual suggestiveness; the embellishment of micro-narrative; and the intensification of Hibernicism in speech. These key critical concepts are then applied to close reading of individual moments of revision.
Conclusion
Authors: Hutton Clare
Published: July 2019

This chapter reviews the key findings of the book as a whole, and argues that literary criticism should learn from bibliography and textual criticism. It looks at Virginia Woolf as a reader of Ulysses, the anxiety of Joycean influence, and the value of the two historic first editions of Joyce’s iconic text.
Reimagining Hagar
Authors: Junior Nyasha
Published: July 2019

This book offers a reception history of biblical Hagar. Despite the limited description of Hagar in biblical texts, she becomes an important figure in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. While many interpreters often treat biblical characters as White or as non-Black, this book investigates how, when, and why some interpreters choose to identify biblical Hagar as a Black woman. It centers on treatments of Hagar by African American biblical interpreters and focuses attention on how professional and non-professional interpreters identify and engage issues of difference, including gender, race, ethnicity, and status. Building on the work of African American classicists and biblical scholars, Reimagining Hagar discusses the African presence in biblical texts and issues of race within biblical studies. It details the portrayal of Hagar in nineteenth century pro- and anti-slavery literature in the United States, in African American vernacular traditions, and in religious studies and biblical studies scholarship. Engaging an array of literary and artistic sources, Reimagining Hagar illustrates that interpretations of Hagar as Black emphasize elements of Hagar’s narrative in order to connect her with or disassociate her from particular groups. This book traces some of the key points within the emergence and development of this unique understanding of Hagar as a Black woman.
Aunt Hagar
Authors: Junior Nyasha
Published: July 2019

Chapter 3 explains how a Black Aunt Hagar figure develops as an African American cultural icon unrelated to biblical Hagar. This chapter discusses how different understandings of Hagar appear within naming traditions as well as within visual arts, music, and literature. It details how various Black Hagar figures within African American literature and culture do not necessarily refer to biblical Hagar despite the use of the biblical name Hagar. It contends that as scholars, writers, and other artists link a Black Aunt Hagar figure with biblical Hagar, the resulting association between these figures contributes to the notion of biblical Hagar as a Black woman.
Introduction
Authors: Junior Nyasha
Published: July 2019

This chapter discusses the aims of Reimagining Hagar: Blackness and Bible. The key research questions for this book are: (1) How did Hagar become Black? and (2) What purpose did or does that serve? It situates this project at the intersection of African American biblical scholarship and reception history within biblical scholarship. This chapter introduces terminology related to race and ethnicity and provides background information on issues of color within the ancient world and within biblical texts. It explores the persistence of racial categorization within US society and the US literary imagination despite the lack of biological or genetic basis for contemporary notions of race. It discusses the importance of African American vernacular traditions and the ongoing and dynamic social and cultural interactions between African Americans and biblical texts. It provides an overview of each chapter within the book.
The Table
Authors: Crouch David
Published: July 2019

Dining within European halls already respected a universal sequence and culture by 1100, which was further homogenized by institutions such as the fostering abroad of adolescent males and the lavish entertaining of the mobile tourneying society of France and the western Empire. The conduct of the table at dinner was the central ritual of courtly society and generated a considerable instructional literature across the continent. It was also a major stress point in society, with reputations of hosts depending on their lavish hospitality and the efficiency of their servants, while the social fortunes of their guests depended on confident performances at table as guests, raconteurs and entertainers. Dangers included overindulgence in alcohol, gauging the degree of deference, the control of body and posture, as well as any failure in contributing to general entertainment.
Walking with the Unconsoled
Authors: James David
Published: July 2019

The final chapter extends Chapter 6’s examination of consolation itself as a source of dread in an extended reading of David Grossman’s epic anti-war novel, To the End of the Land (English trans. 2010) and Falling Out of Time (English trans. 2014). To the End of the Land dramatizes the trepidation surrounding solace, focalized as it is by an Israeli mother, Ora, for whom intimations of respite are shot through with jeopardy. Analysing Ora’s pre-emptive stance on solace, this chapter reveals just how differently consolation applies to situations facing persons who fear for those who are very much living (but whose lives could be cut short), in contrast to the compensations available to persons who know they are dwindling and who become the eulogizing subjects of their own conciliations. Grossman’s Ora mounts a lyrical defence against death’s imminence, writing to repel the oncoming moment when elegy will undoubtedly be the most fitting mode of address.
Epilogue
Authors: James David
Published: July 2019

The Epilogue considers the broader political and interpretive implications of reading for consolation against the recent backdrop of intense methodological self-scrutiny in literary and cultural studies. It also examines the historical and sociocultural coordinates of the phenomenon of ‘discrepant solace’ this book has charted across borders of nation, genre, and style. With a meditation on Denise Riley’s Time Lived, Without Its Flow (2012), the Epilogue reflects on the metacritical ramifications of attending to how writers confront the challenges of living with and writing about emotional worlds that appear to evade articulation. This is a struggle for adequate representation that the book as a whole has tried to trace, one in which consolation’s affective and ethical contestability enters the dramatic precincts and formal textures of contemporary writing—in ways that require criticism to keep pace with what literature can do in situations that would seem to herald its inadequacy.
A Linking Belief is Not Essential for Reasoning
Authors: Broome John
Published: July 2019

In reasoning, you acquire a new conclusion attitude on the basis of premise attitudes. It is commonly thought that an essential feature of reasoning is that you have a linking belief, which is a belief that the premises imply the conclusion. This chapter shows that a linking belief is not essential for reasoning. A genuinely essential feature of reasoning is that you acquire the conclusion attitude by following a rule. A linking belief may be a necessary feature of theoretical reasoning, because it may be a consequence of having the disposition to follow a rule. But it is not essential for reasoning, which is to say that it does not contribute to making the process reasoning. For other sorts of reasoning including practical reasoning, a linking belief is not even necessary.
Inference, Agency, and Responsibility
Authors: Boghossian Paul
Published: July 2019

What happens when we reason our way from one proposition to another? This process is usually called “inference” and this chapter examines its nature. It revisits the author’s earlier attempts to explain the nature of the process of inference, and tries to further clarify why we need the type of “intellectualist” account of that process that he has been pursuing. In the course of doing so, the chapter traces some unexpected connections between our topic and the distinction between a priori and a posteriori justification, and tries to draw some general methodological morals about the role of phenomenology in the philosophy of mind.
With Power Comes Responsibility
Authors: Jackson Magdalena Balcerak , Jackson Brendan Balcerak
Published: July 2019

Philosophers often take it for granted that the requirements of rationality are universal, that whatever rationality requires of a subject’s reasoning is exactly what it would require of any other subject’s reasoning. This is plausible for some requirements: we all ought to respect modus ponens in our reasoning, for example. However, this chapter argues that many important cases are not like this. These are cases where the rational status of one’s reasoning depends on whether one has a certain cognitive capacity that one is in a position to exercise. The reasoning of one thinker who has a certain cognitive capacity can be rationally appropriate, while the exact same reasoning would not be rationally appropriate for subjects who lack that capacity. If this is correct then what rationality requires of a thinker depends (in part) on what cognitive capacities she possesses. Certain cognitive powers bring with them certain distinctive rational responsibilities.
The Epistemic Innocence of Optimistically Biased Beliefs
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa , Antrobus Magdalena , Sullivan-Bissett Ema
Published: July 2019

Optimistically biased beliefs are beliefs about oneself that are more positive than is warranted by the evidence. Optimistically biased beliefs are the result of the influence of cognitive and motivational factors on people’s capacity to acquire, retrieve, and use information about themselves, and they resist counterevidence due to biases in belief updating. From a psychological point of view, optimistically biased beliefs contribute positively to subjective wellbeing, mental health, resilience, motivation, caring behaviour, and productivity. This chapter argues that optimistically biased beliefs also have significant epistemic benefits that could not be easily attained otherwise. In particular, they enhance socialization, leading to both exchanging information with one’s peers and receiving feedback from them, and they support one’s sense of self as that of a competent, largely coherent, and effective agent, helping sustain one’s motivation in the pursuit of one’s goals.
Sovereign Agency
Authors: Smith Matthew Noah
Published: July 2019

This chapter argues that a constitutive feature of authority over oneself is intentions functioning as content-independent reasons not to reopen deliberations and as content-independent reasons to do as intended. It first argues that deliberations and intentions have certain functional roles, namely, completed deliberations function as reasons to intend, intentions function as reasons not to reopen deliberations about whether to act as intended, and intentions also function as reasons to act as intended. Second, it argues that if any form of authority is possible at all, it must be an agent’s authority over herself. We are, in short, authorities over ourselves and we exercise this authority by commanding ourselves to act. These commands are intentions. The chapter concludes that either sound deliberations and the intentions they produce are reasons or there is no such thing as agential authority.
The Role of Cronyism in Arab Capitalism
Authors: Hertog Steffen
Published: July 2019

This chapter argues that cronyism is a key component of a broader system of insider–outsider divisions in Arab political economies that also extends to labor markets. While economic dualism and insider privileges exist all over the developing world, the division is particularly deep and rigid in Arab countries. It results from a legacy of deep state involvement in the Arab economies under which states’ ambitions have increasingly outstripped their resources. Scarce resources have led to a de facto restriction of material privileges to insider groups, abetted by a legacy of deep bureaucratic intervention that lends itself to the creation of regulatory rents. Insider protection results in low levels of cooperation and trust between state, business, and workers, and creates an equilibrium of low skills and low productivity that hampers private-driven growth in the region. This argument is developed mostly on the basis of descriptive, cross-country data.
The Mechanics, Growth Implications, and Political Economy of Crony Capitalism in Egypt
Authors: Diwan Ishac , Keefer Philip , Schiffbauer Marc
Published: July 2019

Using an original database of 385 politically connected firms under the Mubarak regime in Egypt, this chapter documents that: (1) the value of these firms went down by 13–16 percent more than non-connected firms after Mubarak was removed from power; (2) crony firms enjoyed multiple regulatory and fiscal privileges that reduced competition; (3) these firms came to dominate the financial market; and (4) the entry of connected firms in a sector reduced employment growth in these sectors. The chapter ends by speculating that a specificity of Egyptian cronyism is that it is aimed to exclude firms that may support the political opposition, and that, as a result, it was prevalent in growth-oriented sectors. This implied that it was economically costlier to maintain in Egypt when compared to countries where the political functions of cronyism are narrower.
Anatolian Tigers and the Emergence of the Devout Bourgeoisie in the Turkish Manufacturing Industry
Authors: Atiyas Izak , Bakış Ozan , Gürakar Esra Çeviker
Published: July 2019

It has widely been asserted that an important dimension of social dynamics that eventually carried the Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, AKP) to political power is the emergence of a “devout bourgeoisie” especially in the new growth centers of Anatolia. This chapter uses firm-level data since the 1980s to trace the economic and especially productivity dynamics in the manufacturing industries of new growth centers in Anatolia (“Anatolian Tigers”) in comparison to traditional growth centers (the “West”). It observes that what happened in the 1990s in the Tigers was a significant change in the size distribution of employment with the emergence of a significant number of medium-sized enterprises. In the late 2000s, there was a more visible convergence between labor productivity in the Tigers and the West and this convergence was more visible among large firms. The chapter examines the evolution of members of religious business associations among the largest 1000 manufacturing firms in Turkey, observing that the number of such firms increased substantially especially after the mid-1990s. These firms are export oriented, on average smaller than firms associated with business associations that represent the traditional industrial elite, and more concentrated in relatively labor-intensive industries that display lower productivity. The chapter argues that the evidence is broadly consistent with a story of increased inclusion and competition in manufacturing. It discusses the role of political connections and concludes that they possibly had a more diminished role in the emergence of devout businesses in manufacturing compared to rent-thick activities such as public procurement, construction, or regulated industries.
Moroccan Cronyism
Authors: Saadi Mohammed Said
Published: July 2019

This chapter looks at cronyism as a pillar of Morocco’s political economy and studies its manifestation and impact in the manufacturing sector. Cronyism and patronage have helped the Makhzen to strengthen its control on Moroccan society and prevent any countervailing power from taking root, especially in the economic sphere. After Morocco became independent, the state–business nexus was consolidated through “Moroccanization,” import-substitution strategy, and privatization. The network of cronyism and patronage was reinforced and extended during the liberalization era. This chapter uses a unique database to identify politically connected firms and measure their performance in comparison with non-connected ones. Political privileges are granted to connected firms through preferential access to finance, protection from foreign competition, and discriminatory implementation of rules and regulations. This chapter also provides some illustrative evidence showing that political connectedness tends to impede firms’ dynamics and innovation.
The Politics of Trade Protection in North Africa
Authors: Malik Adeel , Eibl Ferdinand
Published: July 2019

What are the institutional and political foundations of trade policy? Is such politics of policy still relevant in the age of liberalization when trade tariffs have fallen in prominence? To answer these questions, this chapter sheds light on the politics of partial liberalization using the strategic trade policy shift induced by the European Union’s trade agreements with Egypt and Morocco that resulted in an across-the-board reduction in tariffs and was followed by a wave of non-tariff measures in the decade of the 2000s. Using fine-grained data on the presence of politically connected businesses across different manufacturing sub-sectors, the chapter demonstrates that politically connected sectors received disproportionately higher levels of non-tariff protection in the wake of the EU-induced tariff liberalizations. The bulk of these non-tariff measures were technical barriers to trade that require greater administrative oversight through bureaucratic inspections and conformity assessments, and are therefore susceptible to political abuse.
Varieties of Protectionism
Authors: Monroe Steve L.
Published: July 2019

This chapter examines the relationship between ethnic politics and business politics through the lens of trade reform in Jordan. It argues that ethnic boundaries shape the types of protection liberalizing regimes can extend to import-competing industrialists. When pressured to lower trade barriers, ethnic ties between policymakers and import-competing industrialists enable protectionist deals—lax tax and regulatory enforcement, uncompetitive government contracts, insider information—in exchange for liberalizing policies. Lacking the networks and social sanctioning mechanisms to maintain these informal arrangements across ethnic lines, policymakers are more likely to offer more formalized forms of protection, like tariffs to non-coethnic import-competing industrialists. Whether ethnic boundaries blur or reinforce state–capital lines may structure how regimes bargain, accommodate, and ultimately sustain alliances with private sector elites under the strains of economic reform.
The Role of the State in MENA Capital Markets
Authors: Coskun Ali , Cevikel Serhat , Özçelik Zeynep , Akgiray Vedat
Published: July 2019

Within the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, a common feature of corporate financial structures is that governments have always been majority owners of many commercial companies. This chapter provides a detailed picture of state ownership in the region. It finds evidence of a decline in the privatization effort in the 2000s. Privatization may be important for the development of institutional ownership, yet, in some cases, it may not be in the best interests of the public, when cronyism is prevalent. In this context, it is important to understand the role of the state in the growth of capital markets in the region, and the efficiency of the overall development model.
Iran’s Commanding Heights
Authors: Harris Kevan
Published: July 2019

Who owns the commanding heights in the Islamic Republic of Iran? Examining the top 300 firms on the Tehran Stock Exchange, this chapter finds a diverse set of ownership categories existing across economic sectors, associated with public, parastatal, pension, and provincial institutional investors. The main similarity between investors is the form through which ownership took place: the diversified business group. The persistence of the diversified business group is not unique to Iran. Instead, diversified business groups profitably thrive in Turkey and the Gulf emirates, as they do in liberalized economies such as South Korea, Israel, Mexico, and South Africa. As foreign capital comes to Iran, new cleavages will likely appear in the economic commanding heights. Many existing business groups will shrink or change ownership. But the organizational form of the diversified conglomerate will likely persist and remain dominant in Iran’s political economy through the next wave of business restructuring and beyond.