bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genetic analyses of several Drosophila ananassae-complex species show a low-frequency major gene for parthenogenesis that maps to chromosome 2
Authors: MATSUDA MUNEO , TOBARI YOSHIKO N.
Published: May 2004

Parthenogenetic strains of several species have been found in the genus Drosophila. The mode of diploidization in the eggs of females has been found to be post-meiotic nuclear fusion. The genetic basis for this parthenogenesis is not understood but is believed to be under the control of a complex polygenic system. We found parthenogenetic females in an isofemale strain (LAE345) of D. pallidosa-like collected in 1981 at Lae, Papua New Guinea, and established a parthenogenetically reproducing strain. Parthenogenetic strains of D. ananassae and D. pallidosa collected at Taputimu, American Samoa had also been established by Futch (1972). D. ananassae, D. pallidosa and D. pallidosa-like are very closely related species belonging to the ananassae complex of the ananassae species subgroup of the melanogaster species group. Using these three species, we found that more than 80% of females from parthenogenetic strains produced progeny parthenogenetically and that inter-specific hybrid females also produced impaternate progeny. In the present report, we demonstrate that the mode of parthenogenesis of D. ananassae appears to be the post-meiotic nuclear doubling of a single meiotic product, and that a major gene responsible for the parthenogenesis maps to the left arm of the second chromosome of D. ananassae. We also suggest that the genetic basis for parthenogenesis capacity may be identical among the three closely related species. We discuss the function of the gene required for parthenogenesis and its significance for the evolutionary process.
Effects on phenotypic variability of directional selection arising through genetic differences in residual variability
Authors: HILL WILLIAM G. , ZHANG XU-SHENG
Published: May 2004

In standard models of quantitative traits, genotypes are assumed to differ in mean but not variance of the trait. Here we consider directional selection for a quantitative trait for which genotypes also confer differences in variability, viewed either as differences in residual phenotypic variance when individual loci are concerned or as differences in environmental variability when the whole genome is considered. At an individual locus with additive effects, the selective value of the increasing allele is given by ia/σ+½ixb/σ2, where i is the selection intensity, x is the standardized truncation point, σ2 is the phenotypic variance, and a/σ and b/σ2 are the standardized differences in mean and variance respectively between genotypes at the locus. Assuming additive effects on mean and variance across loci, the response to selection on phenotype in mean is iσAm2/σ+½ixcovAmv/σ2 and in variance is icovAmv/σ+½ixσ2Av/σ2, where σAm2 is the (usual) additive genetic variance of effects of genes on the mean, σ2Av is the corresponding additive genetic variance of their effects on the variance, and covAmv is the additive genetic covariance of their effects. Changes in variance also have to be corrected for any changes due to gene frequency change and for the Bulmer effect, and relevant formulae are given. It is shown that effects on variance are likely to be greatest when selection is intense and when selection is on individual phenotype or within family deviation rather than on family mean performance. The evidence for and implications of such variability in variance are discussed.
A blocking Gibbs sampling method to detect major genes with phenotypic data from a diallel mating
Authors: ZENG WEN , GHOSH SUJIT , LI BAILIAN
Published: May 2004

Diallel mating is a frequently used design for estimating the additive and dominance genetic (polygenic) effects involved in quantitative traits observed in the half- and full-sib progenies generated in plant breeding programmes. Gibbs sampling has been used for making statistical inferences for a mixed-inheritance model (MIM) that includes both major genes and polygenes. However, using this approach it has not been possible to incorporate the genetic properties of major genes with the additive and dominance polygenic effects in a diallel mating population. A parent block Gibbs sampling method was developed in this study to make statistical inferences about the major gene and polygenic effects on quantitative traits for progenies derived from a half-diallel mating design. Using simulated data sets with different major and polygenic effects, the proposed method accurately estimated the major and polygenic effects of quantitative traits, and possible genotypes of parents and progenies. The impact of specifying different prior distributions was examined and was found to have little effect on inference on the posterior distribution. This approach was applied to an experimental data set of Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) derived from a 6-parent half-diallel mating. The result indicated that there might be a recessive major gene affecting height growth in this diallel population.
High microsatellite diversity and differential structuring among populations of the introduced common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, in New Zealand
Authors: TAYLOR A. C. , COWAN P. E. , FRICKE B. L. , GEDDES S. , HANSEN B. D. , LAM M. , COOPER D. W.
Published: May 2004

An understanding of genetic variation and structure of pest populations has the potential to improve the efficiency of measures to control them. Genetic analysis was undertaken at five microsatellite loci in four native Australian and 14 introduced New Zealand populations of the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula in order to document these parameters. Genetic variation in New Zealand populations, and phylogenetic relationships among Australian and New Zealand populations, were largely predicted by the recorded introduction history. Populations on the two main islands of New Zealand had only slightly lower genetic diversity than did Australian populations, except that allelic richness on the South Is. was significantly lower. Diversity was higher in North Is. than in South Is. populations (although not significantly so) and mainland New Zealand populations as a group were significantly more diverse than offshore islands that represented secondary population size bottlenecks. In phylogenetic analyses South Is. and offshore island populations grouped with Tasmania, while North Is. populations grouped either with mainland Australia or were intermediate between the two Australian sources. This scheme was supported by admixture coefficients showing that North and South Is./offshore island populations were largely mainland Australian and Tasmanian in origin, respectively. Population structure differed markedly between the North and South Islands: populations were typically more genetically differentiated on the former than the latter, which also showed significant isolation-by-distance. Substantial linkage disequilibrium in most sampled New Zealand but no Australian population between microsatellite loci Tv16 and Tv27 suggests they may be physically linked.
The lack of recombination drives the fixation of transposable elements on the fourth chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster
Authors: BARTOLOMÉ CAROLINA , MASIDE XULIO
Published: May 2004

In regions of suppressed recombination, where selection is expected to be less efficient in removing slightly deleterious mutations, transposable element (TE) insertions should be more likely to drift to higher frequencies, and even to reach fixation. In the absence of excision events, once a TE is fixed it cannot be eliminated from the population, and accumulation of elements thus should become an irreversible process. In the long term, this can drive the degeneration of large non-recombining fractions of the genomes. Chromosome 4 of Drosophila melanogaster has very low levels of recombination, if any, and this could be causing its degeneration. Here we report the results of a PCR-based analysis of the population frequencies of TE insertions in a sample from three African natural populations. We investigated 27 insertions from 12 TE families, located in regions of either suppressed or free recombination. Our results suggest that TE insertions tend to be fixed in the non-recombining regions, particularly on the fourth chromosome. We have also found that this involves all types of elements, and that fixed insertions are significantly shorter and more divergent from the canonical sequence than those segregating in the sample (28·1% vs. 86·3% of the canonical length, and average nucleotide divergence (DXY)=0·082 vs. 0·008, respectively). Finally, DNA-based elements seem to show a greater tendency to reach fixation than retrotransposons. Implications of these findings for the population dynamics of TEs, and the evolutionary forces that shape the patterns of genetic variation in regions of reduced recombination, are discussed.
Activities of the enzymes of hepatic gluconeogenesis in periparturient dairy cows with induced fatty liver
Authors: Murondoti Absolom , Jorritsma Ruurd , Beynen Anton C , Wensing Theo , Geelen Math JH
Published: May 2004

The objective was to measure the activities of all the enzymes essential for hepatic gluconeogenesis in dairy cows with induced fatty liver. We aimed to induce severe fatty liver in ten experimental cows by overfeeding them during the dry period while seven control cows were maintained on a restricted diet. To induce a marked negative energy balance, the experimental cows were deprived of feed for 8 h immediately after parturition. In addition, the experimental cows were given a restricted amount of diet during the first 5 d of lactation. Liver samples were collected 1 week before and 1, 2 and 4 weeks after parturition. Before parturition, liver triacylglycerol concentrations did not differ between the two groups. After parturition, the experimental cows developed marked fatty liver as indicated by a higher level of triacylglycerols in the liver compared with the control cows.

Before parturition, all gluconeogenic enzymes in the liver were lower in experimental cows than in control cows. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, pyruvate carboxylase and propionyl-CoA carboxylase were significantly lower and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and glucose 6-phosphatase tended to be lower in the experimental cows. The activities of two crucial enzymes for gluconeogenesis in ruminants, i.e., phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and propionyl-CoA carboxylase, remained low throughout the sampling period post partum. Activities of pyruvate carboxylase and glucose 6-phosphatase in the experimental cows post partum were upgraded to values similar to those of the control cows. The results showed that the capacity for hepatic gluconeogenesis before parturition was lower in cows with induced fatty liver than in control cows. After parturition, the low activities of crucial gluconeogenic enzymes indicated insufficient production of glucose. It is suggested that the low gluconeogenic capacity leads successively to low blood glucose concentrations, low insulin levels and high rates of mobilization of fatty acid, causing severe hepatic lipidosis.
How teat canal keratin depends on the length and diameter of the teat canal in dairy cows
Authors: Paulrud Carl Oskar , Rasmussen Morten Dam
Published: May 2004

The teat canal is an invagination of the outer teat surface. Its epithelial constitution is, however, highly specialized as indicated by its high turnover rate, its unique function in trapping bacteria, and in sealing the teat canal between milkings. The keratin of the teat canal is in a dynamic state of generation and degradation. Repeated removal during milking of keratin contaminated with or colonized by bacteria plays a significant role in preventing mastitis (Murphy, 1959; Capuco et al. 1992). To study the biology of the keratin lining, e.g., its turnover, and its relation to mastitis defence, reliable methods of collecting keratin in vivo for quantitative and qualitative analysis are necessary. Bright et al. (1990) compared methods for keratin collection in vivo and suggested that a tapestry needle was a suitable tool for collecting repeatable, representative samples of keratin for lipid analysis from single teat canals of living cows.
Milk L-lactate concentration is increased during mastitis
Authors: Davis Stephen R , Farr Vicki C , Prosser Colin G , Nicholas Gina D , Turner Sally-Anne , Lee Julian , Hart Alan L
Published: May 2004

A study was undertaken in cattle to evaluate changes in milk L-lactate in relation to mastitis. A healthy, rear quarter of the udder of each of ten cows in mid-lactation was infused with 1000 colony-forming units (cfu) of Streptococcus uberis following an afternoon milking. Foremilk samples were taken at each milking from control and treated quarters and antibiotic treatment was applied following the onset of clinical mastitis or after 72 h. One cow did not become infected. Six quarters showed clinical symptoms of mastitis within 24–40 h and this was associated with a more than 30-fold increase in milk L-lactate (to 3·3 mM) and an increase in somatic cell count (SCC) from 4·5×103 to 1×107 cells/ml. Three cows were subclinical, with cell counts ranging from 1·5×106 to 1×107 cells/ml. In these animals, milk lactate ranged from 0·7 to 1·5 mM in the infected quarters up to 40 h post-infection, compared with less than 0·1 mM in control quarters. Milk was examined from 137 cows in mid-lactation which were known to have mastitis. Foremilk samples were taken aseptically from control and infected quarters of cows on commercial farms. Mean milk L-lactate concentrations and SCC were 0·14±0·02 mM and 1·85±0·3×105 cells/ml, respectively, in control (bacteriologically negative) samples. However, L-lactate concentrations exceeded 2·5 mM in the presence of some types of infection, the level of the lactate response being closely related to the impact of the infection on SCC. L-Lactate concentrations were relatively elevated in milk samples taken post partum, declining from 0·8 to 0·14 mM over the first few days of lactation. In conclusion, milk L-lactate has potential as an indicator of clinical and subclinical mastitis in dairy cows.
High polymorphism in the κ-casein (CSN3) gene from wild and domestic caprine species revealed by DNA sequencing
Authors: Jann Oliver C , Prinzenberg Eva-Maria , Luikart Gordon , Caroli Anna , Erhardt Georg
Published: May 2004

We assessed polymorphisms in exon IV of the κ-casein gene (CSN3) in ten different breeds of domestic goat (Capra hircus) from three continents and in three related wild caprine taxa (Capra  ibex, Capra  sibirica and Capra aegagrus). Thirty-five DNA samples were sequenced within a 558 bp fragment of exon IV. Nine polymorphic sites were identified in domestic goat, including four new polymorphisms. In addition to four previously described polymorphic positions, a total of 13 polymorphisms allowed the identification of 13 DNA variants, corresponding to 10 protein variants. Because of conflicting nomenclature of these variants, we propose a standardized allele designation. CSN3*A, CSN3*B, and CSN3*D were found as widely distributed alleles in European goat breeds. Within Capra ibex we identified three variants and showed that the sequence of Capra aegagrus is identical to the most common Capra hircus variant, consistent with Capra aegagrus being the wild progenitor of domestic goats. A dendrogram was drawn to represent the molecular network between the caprine CSN3 variants.
Evaluation of biogenic amines and microbial counts throughout the ripening of goat cheeses from pasteurized and raw milk
Authors: Novella-Rodríguez Sonia , Veciana-Nogués M Teresa , Roig-Sagués Artur X , Trujillo-Mesa Antonio J , Vidal-Carou M Carmen
Published: May 2004

The effect of the hygienic quality of milk on changes in microbial counts and biogenic amine content was evaluated during ripening of goat cheeses manufactured from pasteurized and raw milks at 1, 14, 30, 60 and 90 d. The original milk, rennet, curd and whey were also included in the study. The pH, salt content and extent of proteolysis in the cheese were also evaluated. Spermidine and spermine were the main amines in raw milk, while they were minor amines in cheeses. Other amines increased markedly during ripening, tyramine being the main amine in cheese made from raw milk and cadaverine and putrescine in those produced from pasteurized milk. Enterobacteriaceae counts decreased during ripening whereas those of lactic acid bacteria increased, especially lactobacilli and enterococci. Cheese made from raw milk showed higher microbial counts during ripening than those made from pasteurized milk, especially for Enterobacteriaceae and enterococci, counts being 2 or 3 log units higher. Raw milk cheese showed remarkably higher biogenic amines compared with pasteurized milk cheeses. Therefore, pasteurization of milk causes a decrease in final biogenic amine content of cheese as a result of the reduction of its microbial counts.
Bovine milk composition parameters affecting the ethanol stability
Authors: Chavez Mónica S , Negri Livia M , Taverna Miguel A , Cuatrín Alejandra
Published: May 2004

The objective of the present work was to identify the compositional parameters of raw milk that affected ethanol stability at natural pH when natural milk conditions were not modified. Heat stability, measured as coagulation time (CT), was included in the analysis to verify relation to alcohol test. Statistical models were proposed for alcohol and heat (CT) stabilities. Milk samples of good hygienic quality from dairy farms were classified in two groups according to their alcohol stability. Unstable samples to ethanol (72%, v/v) presented lower values of pH, somatic cells count, casein and non-fat-solids relative to ethanol stable samples (ethanol at 78%, v/v or more); whereas freezing point, chloride, sodium and potassium concentrations were higher in the unstable group. Logistic regression and multiple regression were applied to modelling alcohol and heat stability behaviour respectively. Chloride, potassium, ionic calcium and somatic cell count were included in the alcohol regression model, whereas calcium, phosphorous, urea, pH and ionic calcium were part of CT model. Ionic calcium was the only measured variable that contributed to both models; however coagulation time was noted to be more sensitive to ionic calcium than alcohol. The relation between ionic strength and casein was found to contribute to the alcohol model but not to the CT model. However, the interaction calcium plus magnesium plus phosphorous and casein contributed only to CT model.
Always Protectionist? Latin American Tariffs from Independence to Great Depression
Authors: COATSWORTH JOHN H. , WILLIAMSON JEFFREY G.
Published: May 2004

This article reports a fact that has not been well appreciated: tariffs in Latin America were the world's highest long before the Great Depression. This is a surprising fact, given that Latin America is believed to have exploited globalisation forces better than most regions before the 1920s, and given that the 1930s have always been viewed as the critical decade when Latin American policy became so anti-global. The explanation does not lie with imagined output gains from protection in these young republics, but rather with state revenue needs, strategic responses to trading partner tariffs and a need to compensate globalisation's losers.
Secret Ingredients: The Politics of Coca in US–Peruvian Relations, 1915–65
Authors: GOOTENBERG PAUL
Published: May 2004

This article explores the hidden politics around so-called ‘Merchandise No. 5’, a secret formula extract of Peruvian coca-leaf used in the American beverage Coca-Cola since the early twentieth century. It analyses the peculiar early political economy of US cocaine control which by the 1920s lent the Coca-Cola Company (and its associate, Maywood Chemical Co. of New Jersey) special roles in drug diplomacy with Peru. It then follows the paradoxical transnational politics of this coca flow during the era of emerging world restrictions on cocaine and coca (1915–65). Coca-Cola was deeply engaged in drug politics with Peru.
The Export Boom of the Mexican Revolution: Characteristics and Contributing Factors
Authors: FICKER SANDRA KUNTZ
Published: May 2004

This article explores the performance of Mexico's exports in the early twentieth century, and particularly the so-called ‘export boom’ that took place during the Mexican Revolution (1910–17). By compiling the official trade figures from major trading partners, the article overcomes the deficiency of Mexican statistics that previously limited detailed analysis. Armed with more reliable data, this article defines the extent of the export boom and identifies its main contributing factors in terms of price, quantity and structure.
The Rise and Fall of the Cuban Sugar Economy
Authors: POLLITT BRIAN H.
Published: May 2004

The rise of Cuban sugar production from 1800 to world dominance in the 1920s is briefly portrayed, together with its collapse, recovery and subsequent stagnation between the 1930s and the Revolution of 1959. The renewed and further growth of the sugar economy from 1959–89 is considered in the context of the uniquely favourable terms of trade then developed with the USSR and COMECON. These provided expanding markets and financed the technical transformation of the cultivation, harvesting, transhipment and processing of the sugar cane. From 1993 to 2002, following the implosion of the USSR and the dissolution of COMECON, Cuba could produce little more than one half of the average annual sugar output of the 1980s. This collapse and the inability of the island's planners to reverse it are discussed with particularly emphasis on post-1997 efforts to stabilise production and lower costs to meet persistently unfavourable world market sugar prices. A critical appraisal of the drastic ‘restructuring’ programme announced in 2002 is illustrated by primary data collected in fieldwork in 1994, 1996 and 2002 and Cuba's dramatic post-1991 decline from dominance in the international sugar trade is stressed.
Does Economic Crisis Reduce Support for Markets and Democracy in Latin America? Some Evidence from Surveys of Public Opinion and Well Being
Authors: GRAHAM CAROL , SUKHTANKAR SANDIP
Published: May 2004

The severe economic crisis facing several countries in the region over the last couple of years has led many observers to predict a backlash against market policies and even against democracy in the region. An economic crisis of such proportions should also, in theory, have negative effects on subjective well being. Our analysis, based on the Latinobarómetro surveys from 2000–2002, finds some unexpected positive trends, as well as notable differences between those countries that suffered from crises and those that did not. Satisfaction with market policies and with the way democracy is working has decreased among all groups except the very wealthy. In contrast, support for democracy as a system of government has increased, suggesting that respondents are increasingly distinguishing between democracy as a system of government, and the manner in which particular governments are performing. We also find evidence of changing attitudes towards redistributive taxation among the wealthy.

JEL Codes. D63 (welfare economics, equity, justice, inequality); D84 (information and uncertainty, expectations); I31 (general welfare; basic needs; quality of life); J62 (mobility, unemployment, intergenerational mobility)
Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in Germany: a personal overview of developments in research
Authors: Königs Frank G.
Published: May 2004

There is an unavoidable dilemma in any attempt to put together an overview of the research results for one subject within a discipline. A subject area is either so small that the overview is straightforward but perhaps of interest to only a few, or the subject area is much wider – in which case there is the inevitable danger that the overview will be relatively subjective. This means that some activities may be disregarded while others are given more emphasis than another observer of the subject might have considered appropriate. For example, I have not included the teaching of literature, a complex subject with its own rich research tradition. Being fully aware of both the risks and the advantages of subjectivity, I present this very personal view of foreign language learning and teaching in Germany.
Metathesis in Faroese and Lithuanian: from speech perception to Optimality Theory
Authors: Hume Elizabeth , Seo Misun
Published: May 2004

Synchronic alternations involving similar types of consonant/consonant metathesis are examined in Faroese and Lithuanian from both formal and functional perspectives. It is argued that by taking into account speech perception-based phonotactic constraints, we are able to gain insight into why metathesis occurs. The proposed formal account of the process is of particular theoretical interest given the apparent opacity involving the interaction of metathesis and place assimilation in Faroese. While straightforward in a serial-based account, this type of opacity has posed a challenge to Optimality Theory requiring the inclusion of additional formal devices into the theory. As we show, however, by modifying one assumption concerning the realization of the sequence, this additional formal machinery is rendered unnecessary. Opacity involving Faroese metathesis turns out to be an artifact of a particular phonological analysis.
Clausal complementation in Norwegian
Authors: Lødrup Helge
Published: May 2004

The purpose of this article is to give a description of the syntax of clausal complementation in Norwegian within the framework of Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG). The data are mostly authentic sentences from text corpora and web pages. The description given is rather different from traditional descriptions. An important point to be made is that Norwegian (finite and non-finite) clausal complements are not homogeneous with respect to their syntactic properties. Even if most clausal complements behave like objects, Norwegian also has clausal complements that do not behave like objects. This phenomenon is well known from other languages, but has never been observed in the literature on Norwegian. The structure and function of non-object clausal complements are discussed, and the traditional idea that they are PP obliques is rejected.
An Outline of a Marxist Course on Public International Law
Authors: CHIMNI B. S.
Published: May 2004

This paper draws on the insights of Marxism to outline a critical alternative course on public international law. It explains inter alia the changes in the doctrines and rules of international law by linking them to extra-textual realities. It contends that the character of contemporary international law is being transformed from bourgeois democratic international law to a bourgeois imperial international law. It sustains this conclusion by looking at certain developments in the world of international law in recent years. However, the outline offered is not exhaustive in terms of either the subjects considered or their analysis.
Retrieving Marx for the Human Rights Project
Authors: ROTH BRAD R.
Published: May 2004

Marxian thought retains its relevance in the current period, not as a comprehensive replacement for liberal human rights theories, but as a source of critique that challenges those theories on the basis of the very values of human freedom and dignity that they espouse. The Marxian approach entails no general rejection of human-rights-oriented constraint, procedural or substantive, on efforts to achieve social change, but rather serves the human rights project by demonstrating how contradictory class interests manifest themselves as contradictions within the effort to apply liberal principles in a class-divided society.
Requests for Review in the Practice of the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda
Authors: CARCANO ANDREA
Published: May 2004

This article is concerned with the remedy of ‘review’ provided for in the Statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda, in Articles 26 and 25 respectively, which allows a convicted individual or the prosecution to seek the reopening of a case on the basis of a new fact. The main purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive overview of how this remedy has been applied by the chambers of the ICTY and the ICTR. It focuses first on the relevant provisions set out in the Statutes and in the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the two tribunals, and then reviews a range of international and national provisions. The latter examination clarifies the concept of review adopted, and reveals the interplay between international and national provisions. It also shows that the remedy of review can be seen as one application of the general principle of law that a convicted individual must have the right to seek the reopening of his or her case on the basis of a new fact, which may show his or her innocence, even after a considerable lapse of time. This article then examines the decisions rendered so far by the ICTY and the ICTR. It considers the factual context of each case and discusses how the applicable law has been interpreted and refined by the judges of the ICTY and ICTR appeals chambers. In conclusion, some suggestions are advanced as to how the pertinent Rules of Procedure and Evidence could be made clearer and perhaps fairer, in the light of the experience gained from the practice of the two tribunals and the provisions of the Statute of the International Criminal Court.
The Powers and Role of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court in the Global Fight against Impunity
Authors: HALL CHRISTOPHER KEITH
Published: May 2004

On 16 June 2003, the first Prosecutor of the newly established International Criminal Court (Court), Luis Moreno Ocampo, was inaugurated. He faces enormous challenges ahead in the short term, including the need to increase the number of states ratifying and implementing the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and to demonstrate that criticisms of the Court and his powers made by the current administration of the United States of America in the course of its campaign to undermine the Court are unwarranted. This article describes the background to the establishment of a permanent independent Prosecutor within the Court, able to open, subject to extensive statutory and judicial constraints, investigations on the Prosecutor's own initiative. It then describes the statutory provisions establishing the post and defining the powers and duties of the Prosecutor. The article concludes with a discussion of the imaginative way in which he is setting up the Office of the Prosecutor and his innovative overall strategy as a leader in the global fight against impunity. As the Prosecutor demonstrates his independence, impartiality, fairness, and effectiveness in conducting trials, and his ability to inspire states to fulfil their obligations to complement his efforts by investigating and prosecuting these crimes themselves, the long-term prospects for the Court will become increasingly promising.
Some Thoughts on the NATO Position in Relation to the Iraqi Crisis
Authors: ANTONOPOULOS CONSTANTINE
Published: May 2004

NATO is a collective self-defence regional organization that was established at the time of the Cold War, and the end of East–West confrontation gave rise to the debate about its future role. In the 1999 Washington summit a new strategic concept was promulgated, according to which NATO was to act as a collective security organization as well. The community of interest previously represented by the Eastern bloc has not been unequivocally replaced by a new one. Hence there is room for national interest to play greater role in the decision-making by the alliance. This decision-making is based on consensus, which is incompatible with assertions of strictly national policy. The institutional crisis within NATO in early 2003 was largely due to the transfer to within NATO of the disagreement among its member states in the UN Security Council over dealing with Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction. The crisis was ultimately resolved, but it exposed the serious limitations of the NATO decision-making process. While claims about the likelihood of NATO's survival seem premature, the recent institutional crisis may be a legitimate ground for considering institutional reform.
Aging in vertebrates, and the effect of caloric restriction: a mitochondrial free radical production–DNA damage mechanism?
Authors: Barja Gustavo
Published: May 2004

Oxygen is toxic to aerobic animals because it is univalently reduced inside cells to oxygen free radicals. Studies dealing with the relationship between oxidative stress and aging in different vertebrate species and in caloric‐restricted rodents are discussed in this review. Healthy tissues mainly produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) at mitochondria. These ROS can damage cellular lipids, proteins and, most importantly, DNA. Although anti‐oxidants help to control this oxidative stress in cells in general, they do not decrease the rate of aging, because their concentrations are lower in long‐than in short‐lived animals and because increasing antioxidant levels does not increase vertebrate maximum longevity. However, long‐lived homeothermic vertebrates consistently have lower rates of mitochondrial ROS production and lower levels of steady‐state oxidative damage in their mitochondrial DNA than short‐lived ones. Caloric‐restricted rodents also show lower levels of these two key parameters than controls fed ad libitum. The decrease in mitochondrial ROS generation of the restricted animals has been recently localized at complex I and the mechanism involved is related to the degree of electronic reduction of the complex I ROS generator. Strikingly, the same site and mechanism have been found when comparing a long‐with a short‐lived animal species. It is suggested that a low rate of mitochondrial ROS generation extends lifespan both in long‐lived and in caloric‐restricted animals by determining the rate of oxidative attack and accumulation of somatic mutations in mitochondrial DNA.
The evolution of learning
Authors: Moore Bruce R.
Published: May 2004

Most processes or forms of learning have been treated almost as special creations, each as an independent process unrelated to others. This review offers an evolutionary cladogram linking nearly one hundred forms of learning and showing the paths through which they evolved.

Many processes have multiple forms. There are at least five imprinting processes, eleven varieties of Pavlovian conditioning, ten of instrumental conditioning, and eight forms of mimicry and imitation.

Song learning evolved independently in at least six groups of animals, and movement imitation in three (great apes, cetaceans and psittacine birds). The cladogram also involves at least eight new processes: abstract concept formation, percussive mimicry, cross‐modal imitation, apo‐conditioning, hybrid conditioning, proto‐pantomime, prosodic mimicry, and image‐mediated learning.

At least eight of the processes evolved from more than one source. Multiple sources are of course consistent with modern evolutionary theory, as seen in some obligate symbionts, and gene‐swapping organisms. Song learning is believed to have evolved from two processes: auditory imprinting and skill learning. Many single words evolved from three sources: vocal mimicry, discrimination learning, and abstract concept formation.
The evolution of arthropod limbs
Authors: Boxshall Geoff A.
Published: May 2004

Limb morphology across the arthropods is reviewed using external morphological and internal anatomical data from both recent and fossil arthropods. Evolutionary trends in limb structure are identified primarily by reference to the more rigorous of the many existing phylogenetic schemes, but no major new phylogenetic inferences are presented. Tagmosis patterns are not considered, although the origins and patterns of heteronomy within the postantennulary limb series are analysed.

The phenomenon of annulation is examined and two basic types of annuli are recognised: terminal and intercalary. The annulation of the apical segment of a limb results in the formation of terminal flagella, and is typical of primarily sensory appendages such as insect and malacostracan antennules and maxillary palps of some hexapods. Intercalary annulation, arising by subdivision of existing subterminal segments, is common, particularly in the tarsal region of arthropodan walking limbs. Differentiating between segments and annuli is discussed and is recognised as a limiting factor in the interpretation of fossils, which usually lack information on intrinsic musculature, and in the construction of groundplans. Rare examples of secondary segmentation, where the criteria for distinguishing between segments and annuli fail, are also highlighted.

The basic crown‐group arthropodan limb is identified as tripartite, comprising protopodite, telopodite and exopodite, and the basic segmentation patterns of each of these parts are hypothesised. Possible criteria are discussed that can be used for establishing the boundary between protopodite and telopodite in limbs that are uniramous through loss of the exopodite. The subdivision of the protopodite, which is typical of the postantennulary limbs of mandibulates, is examined. The difficulties resulting from the partial or complete failure of expression of articulations within the mandibulate protopodite and subsequent incorporation of partial proto‐podal segments into the body wall, are also discussed. The development and homology between the various exites, including gills, on the postantennulary limbs of arthropods are considered in some detail, and the question of the possible homology between crustacean gills and insect wings is critically addressed.

The hypothesis that there are only two basic limb types in arthropods, antennules and postantennulary limbs, is proposed and its apparent contradiction by the transformation of antennules into walking limbs by homeotic mutation is discussed with respect to the appropriate level of serial homology between these limbs.
Monogamy in marine fishes
Authors: Whiteman E. A. , Côté I. M.
Published: May 2004

The formation of long‐term pair bonds in marine fish has elicited much empirical study. However, the evolutionary mechanisms involved remain contested and previous theoretical frameworks developed to explain monogamy in birds and mammals are not applicable to many cases of monogamy in marine fish. In this review, we summarise all reported occurrences of social monogamy in marine fish, which has so far been observed in 18 fish families. We test quantitatively the role of ecological and behavioural traits previously suggested to be important for the evolution of monogamy and show that monogamous species occur primarily in the tropics and are associated with coral reef environments in which territory defence and site attachment is facilitated. However, there is little evidence that obligately monogamous species are smaller in body size than species that can adopt a polygynous mating system. We review the evidence pertaining to six hypotheses suggested for the evolution of monogamous pair bonds: (1)biparental care, (2)habitat limitation, (3)low population density/low mate availability/low mobility, (4)increased reproductive efficiency, (5)territory defence, and (6)net benefit of single mate sequestration. We outline predictions and associated empirical tests that can distinguish between these hypotheses, and assess how generally each hypothesis explains monogamy within and between breeding periods for species with different types of territories (i.e. feeding only or feeding and breeding). Hypotheses (1) and (2)have limited applicability to marine fishes, while hypotheses (3)–(5) have little empirical support beyond the species for which they were designed. However, the role of paternal care in promoting monogamous pair bonds is not explicit in these hypotheses, yet paternal care has been reported in more than 70 monogamous marine fish. We show that paternal care may act to increase the likelihood of monogamy in combination with each of the proposed hypotheses through decreased bene fits to males from searching for additional mates or increased advantages to females from sequestering a single high‐quality mate. Among species defending breeding and feeding territories, the benefits, both within and between reproductive periods, of sequestering a single high‐quality mate (hypothesis 6)appear to be the best explanation for socially monogamous pairs. For species without parental care (i.e. holding only feeding territories), territory defence (hypothesis 5) in combination with the benefits of guarding a large mate (hypothesis 6) could potentially explain most instances of monogamy. Empirical studies of marine fishes over the past two decades are therefore slowly changing the view of monogamy from a mating system imposed upon species by environmental constraints to one with direct benefits to both sexes.
Metabolic responses to low temperature in fish muscle
Authors: Guderley Helga
Published: May 2004

For most fish, body temperature is very close to that of the habitat. The diversity of thermal habitats exploited by fish as well as their capacity to adapt to thermal change makes them excellent organisms in which to examine the evolutionary and phenotypic responses to temperature. An extensive literature links cold temperatures with enhanced oxidative capacities in fish tissues, particularly skeletal muscle. Closer examination of inter‐species comparisons (i.e. the evolutionary perspective) indicates that the proportion of muscle fibres occupied by mitochondria increases at low temperatures, most clearly in moderately active demersal species. Isolated muscle mitochondria show no compensation of protein‐specific rates of substrate oxidation during evolutionary adaptation to cold temperatures. During phenotypic cold acclimation, mitochondrial volume density increases in oxidative muscle of some species (striped bass Morone saxatilis, crucian carp Carassius carassius), but remains stable in others (rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss). A role for the mitochondrial reticulum in distributing oxygen through the complex architecture of skeletal muscle fibres may explain mitochondrial proliferation. In rainbow trout, compensatory increases in the protein‐specific rates of mitochondrial substrate oxidation maintain constant capacities except at winter extremes. Changes in mitochondrial properties (membrane phospholipids, enzymatic complement and cristae densities) can enhance the oxidative capacity of muscle in the absence of changes in mitochondrial volume density. Changes in the unsaturation of membrane phospholipids are a direct response to temperature and occur in isolated cells. This fundamental response maintains the dynamic phase behaviour of the membrane and adjusts the rates of membrane processes. However, these adjustments may have deleterious consequences. For fish living at low temperatures, the increased polyunsaturation of mitochondrial membranes should raise rates of mitochondrial respiration which would in turn enhance the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increase proton leak and favour peroxidation of these membranes. Minimisation of mitochondrial oxidative capacities in organisms living at low temperatures would reduce such damage.
Cellulose microfibril angle in the cell wall of wood fibres
Authors: Barnett J. R. , Bonham Victoria A.
Published: May 2004

The term microfibril angle (MFA) in wood science refers to the angle between the direction of the helical windings of cellulose microfibrils in the secondary cell wall of fibres and tracheids and the long axis of cell. Technologically, it is usually applied to the orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the S2 layer that makes up the greatest proportion of the wall thickness, since it is this which most affects the physical properties of wood. This review describes the organisation of the cellulose component of the secondary wall of fibres and tracheids and the various methods that have been used for the measurement of MFA. It considers the variation of MFA within the tree and the biological reason for the large differences found between juvenile (or core) wood and mature (or outer) wood. The ability of the tree to vary MFA in response to environmental stress, particularly in reaction wood, is also described.

Differences in MFA have a profound effect on the properties of wood, in particular its stiffness. The large MFA in juvenile wood confers low stiffness and gives the sapling the flexibility it needs to survive high winds without breaking. It also means, however, that timber containing a high proportion of juvenile wood is unsuitable for use as high‐grade structural timber. This fact has taken on increasing importance in view of the trend in forestry towards short rotation cropping of fast grown species. These trees at harvest may contain 50% or more of timber with low stiffness and therefore, low economic value. Although they are presently grown mainly for pulp, pressure for increased timber production means that ways will be sought to improve the quality of their timber by reducing juvenile wood MFA.

The mechanism by which the orientation of microfibril deposition is controlled is still a matter of debate. However, the application of molecular techniques is likely to enable modification of this process. The extent to which these techniques should be used to improve timber quality by reducing MFA in juvenile wood is, however, uncertain, since care must be taken to avoid compromising the safety of the tree.
Conceptualizing and Measuring Historical Trauma Among American Indian People
Authors: Whitbeck Les B. , Adams Gary W. , Hoyt Dan R. , Chen Xiaojin
Published: May 2004

This article reports on the development of two measures relating to historical trauma among American Indian people: The Historical Loss Scale and The Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale. Measurement characteristics including frequencies, internal reliability, and confirmatory factor analyses were calculated based on 143 American Indian adult parents of children aged 10 through 12 years who are part of an ongoing longitudinal study of American Indian families in the upper Midwest. Results indicate both scales have high internal reliability. Frequencies indicate that the current generation of American Indian adults have frequent thoughts pertaining to historical losses and that they associate these losses with negative feelings. Two factors of the Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale indicate one anxiety/depression component and one anger/avoidance component. The results are discussed in terms of future research and theory pertaining to historical trauma among American Indian people.
You Can't Get There from Here: Identifying Process Routes to Replication
Authors: Primavera Judy
Published: May 2004

All too often the reports of our community research and action are presented in an ahistorical and decontextualized fashion focused more on the content of what was done than on the process of how the work was done and why. The story of the university–community partnership and the family literacy intervention that was developed illustrates the importance of several key process variables in project development and implementation. More specifically, the role of the social–ecological context, prehistory, personality, self‐correction, and unexpected serendipitous events are discussed. If, as community psychologists, we are serious about conducting our work in the most efficient and effective manner possible, if we truly wish to make our work available for replication, and if we seek to develop standards of “best practice” that are meaningful, our communication regarding process must shift from the anecdotal to a position of central importance.