bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Surface and Thin Film Analysis, 1. General
Authors: Bubert Henning , Rivière John C.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Summary and Comparison of Techniques3.Surface Analytical Equipment Suppliers
Wastewater, 1. Introduction
Authors: Simmler Walter
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.General Survey
Filtration, 2. Equipment
Authors: Ripperger Siegfried , Gösele Walter , Alt Christian
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Classification of Filtration Equipment

2.

Laboratory Test‐Filters for Cake Filtration

3.

Nutsche (Pan) Filters

4.

Filter Presses

4.1.

Plate‐and‐Frame and Recessed‐Plate Filter Presses

4.1.1.

Filtration Cycle

4.1.2.

Applications

4.2.

Membrane Filter Presses

4.3.

Plate Presses with Belt Discharge (Automatic Filter Presses)

4.4.

Filter Presses with Stationary and Rotating Plates

4.5.

Sheet Filter Presses

4.6.

Tube Presses

5.

Bag Filters

6.

Candle Filters

6.1.

Cartridge Designs

6.2.

Design and Selection of Candle Filters

7.

Leaf and Plate Filters

7.1.

Design of Leaf and Plate Filters

7.2.

Flowable and Nonflowable Filter Cakes

7.3.

Applications

8.

Belt Filters

9.

Disk Filters

10.

Drum Filters

10.1.

Gravity Drum Filters (Revolving Screens)

10.2.

Vaccum Drum Filters

10.2.1.

Sizing of Vacuum Drum Filters

10.2.2.

Multi‐Compartment Drum Filters

10.2.3.

Cake Discharge Devices

10.2.4.

Accessories

10.2.5.

Inner‐Face Vaccum Drum Filters

10.3.

Pressure Drum Filters

11.

Dynamic Filters

11.1.

Cross‐Flow Filters with Membrane Modules

11.2.

Axial and Radial Shear Gap Filter

12.

Deep‐Bed Filters

13.

Special Filter Types

14.

Filter Selection

15.

Filter Media

15.1.

Perforated Plates, Screens, Slotted Screens

15.2.

Fabrics

15.3.

Nonwovens, Papers, and Felts

15.4.

Packed Beds and Precoat Layers

15.5.

Rigid Porous Materials

15.6.

Membranes

16.

Filter Aids
Pigments, Inorganic, 3. Colored Pigments
Authors: Buxbaum Gunter , Printzen Helmut , Mansmann Manfred , Räde Dieter , Trenczek Gerhard , Wilhelm Volker , Schwarz Stefanie , Wienand Henning , Adel Jörg , Adrian Gerhard , Brandt Karl , Cork William B. , Winkeler Heinrich , Mayer Wielfried , Schneider Klaus
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Oxides and Hydroxides1.1.Iron Oxide Pigments1.1.1.Natural Iron Oxide Pigments1.1.2.Synthetic Iron Oxide Pigments1.1.3.Toxicology and Environmental Aspects1.1.4.Quality1.1.5.Uses1.1.6.Economic Aspects1.2.Chromium Oxide Pigments1.2.1.Properties1.2.2.Production1.2.3.Quality Specifications and Analysis1.2.4.Storage and Transportation1.2.5.Uses1.2.6.Economic Aspects1.2.7.Toxicology and Occupational Health1.3.Mixed Metal Oxide Pigments1.3.1.Properties1.3.2.Production1.3.3.Quality Specifications and Analysis1.3.4.Storage and Transportation1.3.5.Legal Aspects1.3.6.Uses1.3.7.Economic Aspects1.3.8.Toxicology and Occupational Health2.Cadmium Pigments2.1.Cadmium Sulfide2.2.Cadmium Yellow2.3.Cadmium Sulfoselenide (Cadmium Red)2.4.Cadmium Mercury Sulfide (Cadmium Cinnabar)2.5.Properties and Uses2.6.Quality Specifications2.7.Economic Aspects2.8.Toxicology and Environmental Protection3.Bismuth Pigments3.1.Properties3.2.Production3.3.Uses3.4.Toxicology4.Chromate Pigments4.1.Chrome Yellow4.2.Molybdate Red and Molybdate Orange4.3.Chrome Orange4.4.Chrome Green and Fast Chrome Green4.5.Toxicology and Occupational Health5.Ultramarine Pigments5.1.Chemical Structure5.2.Properties5.3.Production5.4.Uses5.5.Toxicity and Environmental Aspects5.6.Economic Aspects6.Iron Blue Pigments6.1.Structure6.2.Production6.3.Properties6.4.Uses6.5.Toxicology and Environmental Aspects
Azo Dyes, 2. Anionic Dyes
Authors: Hunger Klaus , Mischke Peter , Rieper Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Acid Azo Dyes

2.1.

Wool Dyes

2.1.1.

Monoazo Dyes

2.1.2.

Disazo Dyes

2.1.3.

Chrome Dyes

2.1.4.

Metal‐Complex Dyes

2.2.

Polyamide Dyes

2.3.

Silk Dyes

2.4.

Leather Dyes

2.5.

Azo Food Dyes
Azo Dyes, 3. Direct (Substantive) Dyes
Authors: Hunger Klaus , Mischke Peter , Rieper Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Conventional Direct Dyes

2.1.

Monoazo Dyes

2.2.

Disazo Dyes

2.2.1.

Primary Disazo Dyes

2.2.2.

Secondary Disazo Dyes

2.3.

Trisazo Dyes

2.4.

Tetrakisazo Dyes

2.5.

Condensation Dyes

2.6.

Direct Dyes with a Urea Bridge

2.7.

Triazinyl Dyes

2.8.

Copper Complexes of Substantive Azo Dyes

3.

Direct Dyes with Aftertreatment

3.1.

Aftertreatment with Cationic Auxiliaries

3.2.

Aftertreatment with Formaldehyde

3.3.

Diazotization Dyes

3.4.

Aftertreatment with Metal Salts
Azo Dyes, 6. Miscellaneous Dyes and Pigments
Authors: Hunger Klaus , Mischke Peter , Rieper Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Disperse Dyes

2.

Azo Pigments

3.

Alcohol‐ and Ester‐Soluble Dyes

4.

Fat‐ and Oil‐Soluble Dyes
Chlorethanes and Chloroethylenes
Authors: Dreher Eberhard‐Ludwig , Torkelson Theodore R. , Beutel Klaus K.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Chloroethanes1.1.Monochloroethane1.1.1.Physical Properties1.1.2.Chemical Properties1.1.3.Production1.1.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.2.1,1‐Dichloroethane1.2.1.Physical Properties1.2.2.Chemical Properties1.2.3.Production1.2.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.3.1,2‐Dichloroethane1.3.1.Physical Properties1.3.2.Chemical Properties1.3.3.Production1.3.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.4.1,1,1‐Trichloroethane1.4.1.Physical Properties1.4.2.Chemical Properties1.4.3.Production1.4.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.5.1,1,2‐Trichloroethane1.5.1.Physical Properties1.5.2.Chemical Properties1.5.3.Production1.5.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.6.1,1,1,2‐Tetrachloroethane1.6.1.Physical Properties1.6.2.Chemical Properties1.6.3.Production1.7.1,1,2,2‐Tetrachloroethane1.7.1.Physical Properties1.7.2.Chemical Properties1.7.3.Production1.7.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.8.Pentachloroethane1.8.1.Physical Properties1.8.2.Chemical Properties1.8.3.Production1.8.4.Uses and Economic Aspects1.9.Hexachloroethane1.9.1.Physical Properties1.9.2.Chemical Properties1.9.3.Production1.9.4.Uses and Economic Aspects2.Chloroethylenes2.1.Vinyl Chloride (VCM)2.1.1.Physical Properties2.1.2.Chemical Properties2.1.3.Production2.1.3.1.Vinyl Chloride from Acetylene2.1.3.2.Vinyl Chloride from 1,2‐Dichloroethane2.1.3.3.Vinyl Chloride from Ethylene by Direct Routes2.1.3.4.Vinyl Chloride from Ethane2.1.3.5.Vinyl Chloride by Other Routes2.1.4.Uses and Economic Aspects2.2.1,1‐Dichloroethylene (Vinylidene Chloride, VDC)2.2.1.Physical Properties2.2.2.Chemical Properties2.2.3.Production2.2.4.Uses and Economic Aspects2.3.1,2‐Dichloroethylene2.3.1.Physical Properties2.3.2.Chemical Properties2.3.3.Production2.3.4.Uses and Economic Aspects2.4.Trichloroethylene2.4.1.Physical Properties2.4.2.Chemical Properties2.4.3.Production2.4.4.Uses and Economic Aspects2.5.Tetrachloroethylene2.5.1.Physical Properties2.5.2.Chemical Properties2.5.3.Production2.5.4.Uses and Economic Aspects3.Analysis and Quality Control of Chloroethanes and Chloroethylenes4.Storage and Transportation of Chloroethanes and Chloroethylenes5.Environmental Aspects in the Production of Chloroethanes and Chloroethylenes6.Toxicology
Ecology and Environmental Chemistry
Authors: Fränzle Otto , Straškraba Milan
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Structure and Dynamics of Terrestrial Ecological Systems1.1.Structure of Communities and Ecosystems1.1.1.Description of Community Structure1.1.2.Successions1.1.3.Patch Dynamics1.2.Water Balance of Ecosystems1.2.1.Precipitation and Interception1.2.2.Infiltration and Surface Runoff1.2.3.Deep Drainage1.2.4.Soil Water1.3.Energy Balance of Ecosystems1.3.1.Net Radiation1.3.2.Soil Heat Flow1.3.3.Sensible Heat Flow in the Lower Atmosphere1.3.4.Latent Heat Flux1.3.5.Efficiency of Photosynthesis1.4.Nutrient Cycles and Productivity of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems1.4.1.Nutrients1.4.2.Nutrient Cycling in Ecosystems1.4.3.Productivity of Ecosystems2.Terrestrial, Lotic, Lentic, and Wetland Ecotones2.1.Terrestrial and Lotic Ecotones2.2.Lentic and Wetland Ecotones3.Sensitivity of Ecosystems and Ecotones3.1.Different Notions of Community Stability3.2.Biodiversity and Stability of Model Communities3.3.Stability‐Oriented Biodiversity Analyses of Real Communities3.4.Nondemographic Measures of Stability3.5.Sensitivity of Aquatic Ecosystems3.5.1.Reactions of Aquatic Ecosystems to Stress3.5.2.Sensitivity to Different Stressors3.5.3.Sensitivity to “Global Change”3.6.Sensitivity of Ecotones3.7.Stability and Resilience of Ecosystems in Evolution3.8.Appraisal4.Exposure and Effect Criteria of Chemicals4.1.Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Distribution4.2.Kinetic Constants for Environmental Processes4.2.1.Hydrolysis4.2.2.Photolysis4.2.3.Oxidation and Reduction4.2.4.Sorption and Ion Exchange4.2.5.Biotransformation4.2.6.Chemical Structure and Biodegradation4.2.7.Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation, and Ecological Magnification
Gas Production, 2. Processes
Authors: Reimert Rainer , Marschner Friedemann , Renner Hans‐Joachim , Boll Walter , Supp Emil , Brejc Miron , Liebner Waldemar , Schaub Georg
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Steam Reforming of Natural Gas and Other Hydrocarbons1.1.Feedstocks1.2.Natural Gas and Other Gaseous Hydrocarbons1.2.1.Principles1.2.2.Catalysts, Catalyst Poisons, Desulfurization1.2.3.Tubular Reformers1.2.4.Production of Fuel Gas and Synthesis Gas1.2.5.Special Reforming Processes1.3.Tubular Steam Reforming of Liquid Hydrocarbons1.3.1.Commercial Processes1.3.2.Fuel Gas and Synthesis Gas from Liquid Hydrocarbons1.3.3.Special Processes1.4.Prereforming1.4.1.Principles1.4.2.Catalysts1.4.3.Prereforming of Natural Gas1.4.4.Prereforming of Naphtha; Rich Gas Process1.5.Autothermal Catalytic Reforming2.Noncatalytic Partial Oxidation and Special Gasification Processes for Higher‐Boiling Hydrocarbons2.1.Raw Materials2.2.Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons2.2.1.Principle2.2.2.Types of Processes2.2.3.Influencing Raw Gas Composition2.2.4.Submerged Flame Process2.3.Hydrogenating Gasification3.Gas Production from Coal, Wood, and Other Solid Feedstocks3.1.Fundamentals3.1.1.Thermodynamics of Chemical Reactions3.1.2.Kinetics3.2.Classification and General Characteristics of Gasification Processes3.2.1.Criteria for Classification3.2.2.Criteria for Process Assessment3.2.3.Mathematical Modeling of Gasification Reactors3.3.Characterization of Solid Feedstocks for Gasification3.4.Moving‐ or Fixed‐Bed Processes3.5.Fluidized‐Bed Processes3.6.Entrained‐Flow Processes3.7.Molten‐Bath Processes3.8.Underground Coal Gasification3.9.Environmental Aspects of Gasification
Hydrogen, 2. Production
Authors: Häussinger Peter , Lohmüller Reiner , Watson Allan M.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Production from Coal and Hydrocarbons1.1.Coke Oven Gas1.2.Gasification of Coal and Hydrocarbons1.2.1.Coal Gasification1.2.2.Gasification of Liquid and Gaseous Hydrocarbons1.2.3.Examples of Industrial Scale Hydrogen Production (by Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons)1.3.Catalytic Reforming of Hydrocarbons1.3.1.Feedstocks1.3.2.Tubular Reformer1.3.3.Steam Reforming Plant1.3.4.Special Designs1.3.5.Autothermal Reactors1.4.Refinery Processes1.5.Petrochemical Processes2.Electrolysis2.1.Principles2.2.Conventional Water Electrolysis2.3.New Developments in Electrolytic Processes2.4.Hydrogen as Byproduct from other Electrochemical Processes3.Thermochemical Water Cleavage3.1.Thermodynamics of Closed Cycles3.2.Further Criteria of Thermochemical Cycles3.3.Thermochemical Cyclic Processes3.4.Hybrid Cycle Processes4.Other Methods for the Cleavage of Water4.1.Thermolytic and Radiolytic Processes4.2.Photochemical or Photoelectrical Water Cleavage4.3.Hydrogen Formation in Biological Systems5.Other Chemical Processes5.1.Hydrogen from Conversion of Metals5.2.Hydrogen from Ammonia5.3.Hydrogen from Methanol5.4.Hydrogen from Hydrogen Sulfide5.5.Hydrogen as Byproduct6.Economic Aspects6.1.Analysis of the Cost Structure6.2.Prognosis of the Hydrogen Costs
Imaging Technology, 2. Copying and Nonimpact Printing Processes
Authors: Pai Damodar M. , Melnyk Andrew R. , Hann Richard , Crooks Walter , Pennington Keith S. , Lee Francis C. , Jaeger C. Wayne , Titterington Don R. , Lutz Walter , Bräuninger Arno , De Brabandere Luc , Claes Frans , De Keyzer Rene , Janssens Wilhelmus , Potts Rod
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Office Copying and Printing1.1.Electrophotography1.1.1.Photoreceptor1.1.2.Corotron Charging1.1.3.Light Exposure1.1.4.Image Development1.1.5.Image Transfer and Fusing1.1.6.Photoreceptor Cleaning and Erase1.1.7.Other Electrophotographic Imaging Systems1.2.Thermographic Printing1.2.1.Thermal Print Transducers1.2.2.Resistive Ribbon Technology1.2.3.Imaging Materials and Mechanisms1.2.4.Comparison of Thermal Technologies1.3.Ink‐Jet Printing1.3.1.Continuous Ink Jet1.3.2.Impulse (Drop‐on‐Demand) Ink Jet1.3.3.Ink‐Jet Nozzle Orifice1.3.4.Ink‐Jet Inks1.3.5.Colorants Used in Ink Jet Inks1.3.6.Color Printing with Ink Jets2.Technical Copying2.1.Diazotyping2.1.1.Photolysis2.1.2.Coupling Reaction2.1.3.Production of Diazotyping Material2.1.4.Processing2.2.Other Photochemical Systems2.3.Silver Process2.3.1.Black and White Copying Materials Based on Silver Diffusion Transfer Technology2.3.2.Modern Lithographic Printing Applications2.3.3.Color‐Copying Materials Based on Dye Diffusion Chemistry3.Microfilms and Microfiches3.1.Diazotyping3.2.Vesicular Film
Imaging Technology, 3. Imaging in Graphic Arts
Authors: Verelst Johan , Frass Werner , Telser Thomas , Hoffmann Horst , Bronstert Bernd , Springstein Karl‐August , Potts Rod
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Graphic Arts Photography1.1.Classes of Photomaterials Used in Prepress Production1.2.Flow Scheme of Graphic Prepress Process2.Basics of the Use of Light‐Sensitive Nonsilver Materials in the Graphic Arts2.1.Application2.2.Chemical Fundamentals2.2.1.Photosolubilising Systems2.2.2.Photoinsolubilizing (Photocuring) Systems2.2.3.Photophysical Principles of Image Generation3.Color Proofing3.1.Basics3.2.Applications3.3.Overlay Systems3.4.Single‐Sheet Systems3.4.1.Precolored Systems3.4.2.Systems With Colors Generated During Processing3.5.Digital Proofing4.Platemaking4.1.Lithography (Planographic Printing, Offset)4.1.1.Substrates4.1.2.Coating and Further Processing4.1.3.Processing of Presensitized Plates4.2.Letterpress and Flexography4.2.1.Structure of Photopolymeric Letterpress and Flexographic Plates4.2.2.Production and Requirements of Photopolymer Letterpress and Flexographic Plates4.2.3.Chemistry of Photopolymer Relief Printing Plates4.2.4.Future Developments4.3.Gravure Printing4.3.1.Conventional Method of Gravure Platemaking4.3.2.Electromechanical Gravure Platemaking4.3.3.Electron‐Beam and Laser Gravure4.4.Screen Printing4.4.1.The Screen4.4.2.The Stencil
Imaging Technology, 4. Imaging for Electronics
Authors: Steppan Hartmut , Mammato Donald C. , Stoudt Thomas , Watts Michael C. P.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Photoresists1.1.Industrial Applications of Photoresists1.2.Function and Chemistry of Photoresists1.2.1.Positive Photoresists1.2.2.Negative Photoresists1.3.Testing Methods1.4.Economic Aspects and Suppliers of Photoresists1.5.Occupational Health and Environmental Protection2.Printed Circuits (Printed Circuit Boards)2.1.Methods of Producing Printed Circuit Boards2.2.Masking Techniques2.2.1.Exposure Masks2.2.2.Screen Printing2.2.3.Photoprinting2.2.4.Other Techniques2.3.Economic Aspects2.4.Occupational Health and Environmental Protection3.Microelectronic Devices3.1.Integrated Circuit Manufacturing3.2.Photoprocess3.3.Techniques for Submicron Lithography
Iron, 2. Blast Furnace Process
Authors: Lüngen Hans Bodo , Yagi Jun‐ichiro
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Blast Furnace Process2.Outline of a Blast Furnace Construction3.Metallurgy of the Blast Furnace4.Effective Utilization of Energy5.Blast Furnace Productivity Criteria6.Use of Blast Furnace Products7.Process Control8.Hot‐Metal Desulfurization
Lubricants, 2. Components
Authors: Mang Theo , Braun Jürgen , Dresel Wilfried , Omeis Jürgen
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Base Oils1.1.Historical Review and Outlook1.2.Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils1.3.Refining1.3.1.Distillation1.3.2.Deasphalting1.3.3.Traditional Refining Processes1.3.3.1.Acid Refining1.3.3.2.Solvent Extraction1.3.4.Solvent Dewaxing1.3.5.Finishing1.4.Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking1.4.1.Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation1.4.2.Production of White Oils1.4.3.Lube Hydrocracking1.4.4.Catalytic Dewaxing1.4.5.Wax Isomerization1.4.6.Hybrid Lube Oil Processing1.4.7.All‐Hydrogen Route1.4.8.Gas‐to‐Liquids Conversion Technology1.5.Boiling and Evaporation Behavior of Base Oils2.Synthetic Base Oils2.1.Synthetic Hydrocarbons2.1.1.Polyalphaolefins2.1.2.Polyinternalolefins2.1.3.Polybutenes2.1.4.Alkylated Aromatics2.1.5.Other Hydrocarbons2.2.Halogenated Hydrocarbons2.3.Synthetic Esters2.3.1.Esters of Carboxylic Acids2.3.1.1.Dicarboxylic Acid Esters2.3.1.2.Polyol Esters2.3.1.3.Other Carboxylic Esters2.3.1.4.Complex Esters2.3.1.5.Fluorinated Carboxylic Acid Esters2.3.2.Phosphate Esters2.4.Polyalkylene Glycols2.5.Other Polyethers2.5.1.Perfluorinated Polyethers2.5.2.Polyphenyl Ethers2.5.3.Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils)2.6.Other Synthetic Base Oils2.7.Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants3.Additives3.1.Antioxidants3.1.1.Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants3.1.2.Compounds3.2.Viscosity Modifiers3.2.1.VIImprovement Mechanisms3.2.2.Structure and Chemistry of Viscosity Modifiers3.3.Pour Point Depressants3.4.Detergents and Dispersants3.4.1.Metal‐Containing Compounds (Detergents)3.4.2.Ashless Dispersants (AD)3.5.Antifoam Agents3.6.Demulsifiers3.7.Dyes3.8.Antiwear and Extreme Pressure Additives3.9.Friction Modifiers3.10.Corrosion Inhibitors3.10.1.Antirust Additives3.10.2.Metal Passivators
Polybutenes
Authors: Koch Hartmut , Mawer Ralph L. , Immel Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Poly(1‐Butene)1.1.Production1.2.Properties1.2.1.Structure and Physical Properties1.2.2.Application Properties1.3.Processing1.4.Applications2.Polyisobutylene2.1.Introduction2.2.Production2.2.1.Isobutene as Raw Material2.2.2.Low Molecular Mass Polyisobutylenes2.2.3.Medium Molecular Mass Polyisobutylenes2.2.4.High Molecular Mass Polyisbutylenes2.3.Structure2.4.Properties2.5.Uses and Processing2.6.Commercial Products2.7.Copolymers
Surface and Thin‐Film Analysis, 2. Electron Detection
Authors: Rivière John C. , Arlinghaus Heinrich F. , Hutter Herbert , Jenett Holger , Bauer Peter , Palmetshofer Leopold
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

1.1.

Principles

1.2.

Instrumentation

1.2.1.

Vacuum Requirements

1.2.2.

X‐Ray Sources

1.2.3.

Synchrotron Radiation

1.2.4.

Electron Energy Analyzers

1.2.5.

Spatial Resolution

1.3.

Spectral Information and Chemical Shifts

1.4.

Quantification, Depth Profiling, and Imaging

1.4.1.

Quantification

1.4.2.

Depth Profiling

1.4.3.

Imaging

1.5.

The Auger Parameter

1.6.

Applications

1.6.1.

Catalysis

1.6.2.

Polymers

1.6.3.

Corrosion and Passivation

1.6.4.

Adhesion

1.6.5.

Superconductors

1.6.6.

Interfaces

2.

Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS)

3.

Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)

3.1.

Principles

3.2.

Instrumentation

3.2.1.

Vacuum Requirements

3.2.2.

Electron Sources

3.2.3.

Electron Energy Analyzers

3.3.

Spectral Information

3.4.

Quantification and Depth Profiling

3.4.1.

Quantification

3.4.2.

Depth Profiling

3.5.

Applications

3.5.1.

Grain Boundary Segregation

3.5.2.

Semiconductor Technology

3.5.3.

Thin Films and Interfaces

3.5.4.

Surface Segregation

4.

Scanning Auger Microscopy (SAM)

5.

Other Electron‐Detecting Techniques

5.1.

Auger Electron Appearance Potential Spectroscopy (AEAPS)

5.2.

Electron Energy Loss Methods

5.2.1.

Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) and Core‐Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (CEELS)

5.2.2.

High‐Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (HREELS)

5.3.

Diffraction Methods

5.3.1.

Low‐Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED)

5.3.2.

Reflection High‐Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED)

5.4.

Ion‐Excitation Method

5.4.1.

Ion (Excited) Auger Electron Spectroscopy (IAES)

5.4.2.

Ion‐Neutralization Spectroscopy (INS)

5.4.3.

Metastable Quenching Spectroscopy (MQS)

5.5.

Inelastic Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy (IETS)
Textile Auxiliaries, 6. Printing Auxiliaries
Authors: Giesen Volker , Schneider Reinhard
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Auxiliaries for Pigment Printing

2.1.

Thickening Agents

2.2.

Pigment Printing Binders

2.3.

Fixing Agents

2.4.

Hand Modifiers

2.5.

Emulsifiers

2.6.

Other Additives

3.

Auxiliaries for Dye Printing

3.1.

Thickening Agents

3.2.

Oxidizing Agents

3.3.

Reducing and Discharging Agents

3.4.

Auxiliaries for Discharge Printing

3.5.

Fixation Auxiliaries

3.6.

Dye Solubilizing and Dispersing Agents

3.7.

Auxiliaries for Reactive Resist Printing

3.8.

Auxiliaries for Burn‐out Printing

3.9.

Aftertreatment Agents and Detergents

4.

Other Auxiliaries

5.

Textile Printing Adhesives
Vitamins, 3. Vitamin D
Authors: Labler Ludvik
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.History3.Structure and Nomenclature4.Chemical and Physical Properties5.Biosynthesis and Occurrence5.1.Biosynthesis5.2.Occurrence6.Vitamin D Requirements7.Pharmacological Effects and Uses7.1.Calcium Homeostasis and Disorders of Calcium Metabolism7.2.Further Activities8.Synthesis8.1.Synthesis of Vitamin D3and D28.2.Synthesis of Calcitriol9.Assays for Vitamin D and Metabolites10.Trade Names and Economic Aspects
Toxicology, 2. Assessment Methods
Authors: Dekant Wolfgang , Vamvakas Spiridon
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Toxicological Studies: General Aspects

2.

Acute Toxicity

2.1.

Testing for Acute Toxicity by the Oral Route: LD
50
Test and Fixed‐Dose Method

2.2.

Testing for Acute Skin Toxicity

2.3.

Testing for Acute Toxicity by Inhalation

3.

Repeated‐Dose Toxicity Studies: Subacute, Subchronic and Chronic Studies

4.

Ophtalmic Toxicity

5.

Sensitization Testing

6.

Phototoxicity and Photosensitization Testing

7.

Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Tests

7.1.

Fertility and General Reproductive Performance

7.2.

Embryotoxicity and Teratogenicity

7.3.

Peri‐ and Postnatal Toxicity

7.4.

Multigeneration Studies

7.5.

The Role of Maternal Toxicity in Teratogenesis

7.6.

In Vitro
Tests for Developmental Toxicity

8.

Bioassays to determine the carcinogenicity of chemicals in rodents

9.

In vitro
and
in vivo
short‐term tests for genotoxicity

9.1.

Microbial Tests for Mutagenicity

9.1.1.

The Ames Test for Bacterial Mutagenicity

9.1.2.

Mutagenicity Tests in
Escherichia coli

9.1.3.

Fungal Mutagenicity Tests

9.2.

Eukaryotic Tests for Mutagenicity

9.2.1.

Mutation Tests in
Drosophila melanogaster

9.2.2.

In Vitro
Mutagenicity Tests in Mammalian Cells

9.3.

In Vivo
Mammalian Mutation Tests

9.3.1.

Mouse Somatic Spot Test

9.3.2.

Mouse Specific Locus Test

9.3.3.

Dominant Lethal Test

9.4.

Test Systems Providing Indirect Evidence for DNA Damage

9.4.1.

Unscheduled DNA Synthesis (UDS) Assays

9.4.2.

Sister‐Chromatid Exchange Test

9.5.

Tests for Chromosome Aberrations (Cytogenetic Assays)

9.5.1.

Cytogenetic Damage and its Consequences

9.5.2.

In Vitro
Cytogenetic Assays

9.5.3.

In Vivo
Cytogenetic Assays

9.6.

Malignant Transformation of Mammalian Cells in Culture

9.7.

In Vivo
Carcinogenicity Studies of Limited Duration

9.7.1.

Induction of Altered Foci in the Rodent Liver

9.7.2.

Induction of Lung Tumors in Specific Sensitive Strains of Mice

9.7.3.

Induction of Skin Tumors in Specific Sensitive Strains of Mice

9.8.

Methods to Assess Primary DNA Damage

9.8.1.

Alkaline Elution Techniques

9.8.2.

Methods to Detect and Quantify DNA Modifications

9.9.

Interpretation of Results Obtained in Short‐Term Tests

10.

Evaluation of Toxic Effects on the Immune System

11.

Toxicological Evaluation of the Nervous System

11.1.

Functional Observational Battery

11.2.

Locomotor Activity

12.

Effects on the Endocrine System
Wastewater, 4. Chemical Treatment
Authors: Simmler Walter
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Oxidative Degradation by Hydrogen Peroxide3.Oxidative Degradation by Ozone4.Photocatalysis in Oxidative Degradation by Air5.Wet Oxidation by Oxygen Sources in the Aqueous Phase5.1.Low‐Pressure Wet Oxidation5.2.Oxidation by Nitric Acid5.3.High‐Pressure Wet Oxidation6.Hydrogenation
Water, 2. Treatment by Adsorption Processes
Authors: Johannsen Klaus , Summers R. Scott
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Properties of Activated Carbon3.Adsorption Theory4.Adsorption Equilibrium5.Adsorption Kinetics6.Biological Processes7.Design of GAC Systems8.Design of PAC Systems9.Reactivation of GAC10.Acknowledgement
Water, 3. Treatment by Ion Exchange Processes
Authors: Höll Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Fundamentals1.1.Characterization of the Chemical State of Water1.2.Representation of the Chemical State of Water1.3.Ion Exchangers2.Cation‐Exchange Processes2.1.Strongly Acidic Resins in the Na+Form2.2.Strongly Acidic Resins in the H+Form2.3.Weakly Acidic Resins in the Hydrogen Form3.Anion‐Exchange Processes3.1.Strongly Basic Resins in the Cl−Form3.2.Strongly Basic Resins in the OH−Form3.3.Strongly Basic Resins in theForm3.4.Weakly Basic Resins4.Combined Processes4.1.Demineralization4.2.Partial Demineralization5.Acknowledgement
Water, 4. Treatment by Flocculation and Filtration
Authors: Jekel Martin , Gimbel Rolf
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Flocculation1.1.Introduction1.2.Definitions1.3.Chemicals Used in Coagulation and Flocculation1.3.1.Inorganic Chemicals1.3.2.Organic Chemicals1.4.Kinetics of Aggregation1.5.Process Technology for Coagulation and Flocculation1.5.1.Dosing1.5.2.Rapid Mixing1.5.3.Reactors for Floc Formation1.5.4.Integrated Flocculation Systems1.5.5.Operational Aspects2.Filtration2.1.Introduction2.2.Slow Sand Filters2.3.Polishing Filters2.4.Rapid Filters2.4.1.Design2.4.2.Areas of Application and Modes of Operation2.4.3.Filter Performance3.Acknowledgement
Water, 5. Treatment by Membrane Separation Processes
Authors: Rautenbach Robert
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Principles

2.1.

Flow, Selectivity, Driving Forces

2.2.

Mass Transport Resistance in Front of the Membrane

3.

Membranes

3.1.

Organic Membranes

3.2.

Inorganic Membranes

4.

Modules

4.1.

Modules with Tubular Membranes

4.2.

Modules with a Flat‐Sheet Membrane

5.

Fouling and Scaling

5.1.

Membrane Blockage due to Crystallization (Scaling)

5.2.

Membrane Blockage due to Contaminants (Fouling)

6.

Module Arrangements (Plant Design)

7.

Use of Membrane Processes in Water and Wastewater Technology

7.1.

Desalination of Seawater and Brackish Water

7.2.

Recovery of ɛ‐Caprolactam

7.3.

Leachates from Dump Sites

7.4.

Wastewater from the Dye Industry

8.

Acknowledgement
Ceramics, Bioceramics
Authors: Heimann Robert B.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Definitions3.Individual Bioceramic Materials3.1.Bioinert Ceramics3.1.1.Alumina3.1.2.Zirconia3.2.Bioactive (Osteoconductive) Ceramics3.2.1.Surface‐Active Bioglasses3.2.2.Hydroxyapatite (HAp)3.2.3.Resorbable Calcium Phosphates3.3.Other Bioceramic Materials3.3.1.TCP/β‐Rhenanite Compounds3.3.2.Ca–Zr–Ti Phosphates4.Hip Endoprostheses5.Future Development Trends
Morphology, Oxidation, and Mechanical Behavior of Nanoporous Cu Foams
Authors: Cheng I. Chung , Hodge Andrea M.
Published: November 2011

Nanoporous copper foams (65–80% porosity) are synthesized by dealloying different copper alloys, including Cu20Zn80, Cu35Zn65, and Cu30Al70. Ligament sizes, porosity, and oxide content are examined by scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and X‐ray powder diffraction to determine the nanoporous foam's structure and thermal stability. The pores and ligaments of the copper foams can range in size from 35 to 220 nm. Both parameters can be controlled by either the dealloying process or a subsequent heat treatment. The results show no copper oxide peaks for the as‐prepared samples; however, any heat treatments above 200 °C lead to the formation of Cu oxide (CuO and Cu2O). These foams are shown to retain their structural integrity even after oxidation. A novel method is thus developed for synthesizing nanoporous Cu oxide foams by heat treating nanoporous copper.
What's skill got to do with it?: Information literacy skills and self‐views of ability among first‐year college students
Authors: Gross Melissa , Latham Don
Published: November 2011

This study replicates a previous study based on work in psychology, which demonstrates that students who score as below proficient in information literacy (IL) skills have a miscalibrated self‐view of their ability. Simply stated, these students tend to believe that they have above‐average IL skills, when, in fact, an objective test of their ability indicates that they are below‐proficient in terms of their actual skills. This investigation was part of an Institute of Museum and Library Services‐funded project and includes demographic data about participants, their scores on an objective test of their information literacy skills, and self‐estimates of their ability. Findings support previous research that indicates many students come to college without proficient IL skills, that students with below‐proficient IL skills have inflated views of their ability, and that this miscalibration can also be expressed by students who test as proficient. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
An integrated approach for main path analysis: Development of the Hirsch index as an example
Authors: Liu John S. , Lu Louis Y.Y.
Published: November 2011

This study enhances main path analysis by proposing several variants to the original approach. Main path analysis is a bibliometric method capable of tracing the most significant paths in a citation network and is commonly used to trace the development trajectory of a research field. We highlight several limitations of the original main path analysis and suggest new, complementary approaches to overcome these limitations. In contrast to the original local main path, the new approaches generate the global main path, the backward local main path, multiple main paths, and key‐route main paths. Each of them is obtained via a perspective different from the original approach. By simultaneously conducting the new, complementary approaches, one uncovers the key development of the target discipline from a broader view. To demonstrate the value of these new approaches, we simultaneously apply them to a set of academic articles related to the Hirsch index. The results show that the integrated approach discovers several paths that are not captured by the original approach. Among these new approaches, the key‐route approach is especially useful and hints at a divergence–convergence–divergence structure in the development of the Hirsch index.
Effects of homogeneous media, binary mixtures and microheterogeneous media on the fluorescence and fluorescence probe properties of some benzo[b][1,8]naphthyridiens with HSA and BSA
Authors: Shelar Deepak P. , Rote Ramhari V. , Patil Sandeep R. , Jachak Madhukar N.
Published: November 2011

A rapid and efficient method for the synthesis of various poly‐substituted benzo[b][1,8]naphthyridines in high yield has been developed via the Friedländer condensation of 2‐aminoquinoline‐3‐carbaldehyde 1 with various alicyclic ketones in a base catalyst (aq. potassium hydroxide). A series of benzo[b][1,8]naphthyridines branched with various side‐chains and substituents were prepared with the aim of being investigated as a fluorescent agents. Electronic absorption and fluorescence properties of some representative benzonaphthyridines (3d, 5b and 21f) in homogeneous organic solvents, dioxane–water binary mixtures and in the microheterogeneous media (sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and Triton‐X100 micelles) have been examined. A linear correlation between solvent polarity and fluorescence properties was observed. Further, the interaction of these benzonaphthyridines (3d, 5b and 21f) with human serum albumin (HSA) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) in phosphate buffer have been examined by UV‐vis absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy. The fluorescence intensity of 3d, 5b and 21f increases with the increasing HSA and BSA concentration. These benzonaphthyridines also quench the 345 nm fluorescence of BSA in phosphate buffer (λex 280 nm). These compounds have potential for use as neutral and hydrophobic fluorescence probes for examining the microenvironments in proteins, polymers, micelles, etc. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Optimization of endothelial cell growth in a murine in vitro blood–brain barrier model
Authors: Wuest Diane M. , Lee Kelvin H.
Published: November 2011

In vitro cell culture models of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) are important tools used to study cellular physiology and brain disease therapeutics. Although the number of model configurations is expanding across neuroscience laboratories, it is not clear that any have been effectively optimized. A sequential screening study to identify optimal primary mouse endothelial cell parameter set points, grown alone and in combination with common model enhancements, including co‐culturing with primary mouse or rat astrocytes and addition of biochemical agents in the media, was performed. A range of endothelial cell‐seeding densities (1–8 × 105 cells/cm2) and astrocyte‐seeding densities (2–8 × 104 cells/cm2) were studied over seven days in the system, and three distinct media‐feeding strategies were compared to optimize biochemical agent exposure time. Implementation of all optimal set points increased transendothelial electrical resistance by over 200% compared to an initial model and established a suitable in vitro model for brain disease application studies. These results demonstrate the importance of optimizing cell culture growth, which is the most important parameter in creating an in vitro BBB model as it directly relates the model to the in vivo arrangement.
Aspirin Analogues as Dual Cyclooxygenase‐2/5‐Lipoxygenase Inhibitors: Synthesis, Nitric Oxide Release, Molecular Modeling, and Biological Evaluation as Anti‐Inflammatory Agents
Authors: Kaur Jatinder , Bhardwaj Atul , Huang Zhangjian , Knaus Edward E.
Published: November 2011

Analogues of aspirin were synthesized through an efficient one‐step reaction in which the carboxyl group was replaced by an ethyl ester, and/or the acetoxy group was replaced by an N‐substituted sulfonamide (SO2NHOR2: R2=H, Me, CH2Ph) pharmacophore. These analogues were designed for evaluation as dual cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX‐2) and 5‐lipoxygenase (5‐LOX) inhibitors. In vitro COX‐1/COX‐2 isozyme inhibition studies identified compounds 11 (CO2H, SO2NHOH), 12 (CO2H, SO2NHOCH2Ph), and 16 (CO2Et, SO2NHOH) as highly potent and selective COX‐2 inhibitors (IC50 range: 0.07–0.7 μM), which exhibited appreciable in vivo anti‐inflammatory activity (ED50 range: 23.1–31.4 mg kg−1). Moreover, compounds 11 (IC50=0.2 μM) and 16 (IC50=0.3 μM), with a sulfohydroxamic acid (SO2NHOH) moiety showed potent 5‐LOX inhibitory activity. Furthermore, the SO2NHOH moiety present in compounds 11 and 16 was found to be a good nitric oxide (NO) donor upon incubation in phosphate buffer at pH 7.4. Molecular docking studies in the active binding site of COX‐2 and 5‐LOX provided complementary theoretical support for the experimental biological structure–activity data acquired.
Planar multipolar cells in the cochlear nucleus project to medial olivocochlear neurons in mouse
Authors: Darrow Keith N. , Benson Thane E. , Brown M. Christian
Published: November 2011

Medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons originate in the superior olivary complex and project to the cochlea, where they act to reduce the effects of noise masking and protect the cochlea from damage. MOC neurons respond to sound via a reflex pathway; however, in this pathway the cochlear nucleus cell type that provides input to MOC neurons is not known. We investigated whether multipolar cells of the ventral cochlear nucleus have projections to MOC neurons by labeling them with injections into the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The projections of one type of labeled multipolar cell, planar neurons, were traced into the ventral nucleus of the trapezoid body, where they were observed terminating on MOC neurons (labeled in some cases by a second cochlear injection of FluoroGold). These terminations formed what appear to be excitatory synapses, i.e., containing small, round vesicles and prominent postsynaptic densities. These data suggest that cochlear nucleus planar multipolar neurons drive the MOC neuron's response to sound. J. Comp. Neurol. 520:1365–1375, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Effectiveness of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy Plus Pharmacotherapy in Inpatient Treatment of Depressive Disorders
Authors: Köhler Stephan , Hoffmann Sabine , Unger Theresa , Steinacher Bruno , Dierstein Nicholas , Fydrich Thomas
Published: November 2011

Background

Meta‐analyses show benefits for patients from a combination of medication and cognitive–behavioural psychotherapy. However, it is still unclear whether or not additional cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) also produces a better treatment outcome in a naturalistic psychiatric setting.

Methods

Two‐hundred six consecutively registered acute psychiatric inpatients with a unipolar depressive disorder were treated with additional CBT. This combined therapy was then compared with psychiatric primary care in an inpatient setting (clinical management). In addition to pharmacological treatment, 105 of the 206 patients also received symptom‐focused CBT after hospitalization. Seventeen‐item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAMD, primary outcome criterion), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Dysfunctional Attitude Scale, Clinical Global Impression Scale and the Global Assessment of Functioning were performed with all patients.

Results

Patients who were treated with additional CBT revealed a considerably greater reduction of depressive symptoms than in patients who received inpatient primary care only (HAMD: −22.21 versus −19.86, p = 0.027; BDI: 14.99 versus 11.36, p = 0.031). Moreover, remission rates were significantly higher (HAMD: 72% to 51%, p = 0.045; BDI: 58.8% versus 43.1%, p = 0.044) in the combined treatment group than in the primary care only group.

Limitation

The naturalistic design and the inconsistent pharmacological treatment are design flaws.

Conclusion

The results show that additional cognitive–behavioural treatment of depressive disorders notably improves outcome over standard procedure in acute psychiatric treatment. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key Practitioner Message

There is a need for treatment strategies to accompany medication. In the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression trial (STAR*D), only 33% of the patients reached remission criteria after the first antidepressant treatment step and only 50% after the second step.

The strict inclusion criteria of randomized controlled trials often render their patient populations unrepresented. For an accurate view of treatment effectiveness, their results need to be complemented with results gained from trials in clinical practice.

Additional cognitive–behavioural treatment notably improves treatment outcomes compared with standard treatments in the acute psychiatric treatment of depressive disorders.

The results of this study under naturalistic conditions are an important addition to findings from randomized and controlled studies.
The detection of the urinary metabolites of 3‐[(adamantan‐1‐yl)carbonyl]‐1‐pentylindole (AB‐001), a novel cannabimimetic, by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry
Authors: Grigoryev Andrej , Kavanagh Pierce , Melnik Aleksandra
Published: November 2011

3‐[(Adamantan‐1‐yl)carbonyl]‐1‐pentylindole (AB‐001), a synthetic cannabimimetic, was identified in head shop products in Ireland in 2010. German authorities also reported it to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) via the Early Warning System (EWS) in 2011. As indole‐derived cannabimimetics, such as JWH‐018, JWH‐073, and JWH‐250, undergo extensive metabolism, it was expected that AB‐001 would behave similarly. To include it in our toxicological screening protocols, we have identified its urinary metabolites in humans following oral administration. The major metabolites were found to be adamantane mono‐hydroxylated and adamantane mono‐hydroxylated/N‐dealkylated products. No parent compound was found in urine, and metabolites were detectable for up to 160 h following administration. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Simple, fast, tissue‐specific bacterial artificial chromosome transgenesis in Xenopus
Authors: Fish Margaret B. , Nakayama Takuya , Grainger Robert M.
Published: November 2011

We have developed a method of injecting bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) DNA into Xenopus embryos that is simple and efficient, and results in consistent and tissue‐specific expression of transgenes cloned into BAC vectors. Working with large pieces of DNA, as can be accommodated by BACs, is necessary when studying large or complex genes and conducive to studying the function of long‐range regulatory elements that act to control developmentally restricted gene expression. We recombineered fluorescent reporters into three Xenopus tropicalis BAC clones targeting three different genes and report that up to 60% of injected embryos express the reporter in a manner consistent with endogenous expression. The behavior of these BACs, which are replicated after injection, contrasts with that of smaller plasmids, which degrade relatively quickly when injected as circular molecules and generally fail to recapitulate endogenous expression when not integrated into the Xenopus genome. genesis 50:307–315, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The eggshell in the C. elegans oocyte‐to‐embryo transition
Authors: Johnston Wendy L. , Dennis James W.
Published: November 2011

In egg‐laying animals, embryonic development takes place within the highly specialized environment provided by the eggshell and its underlying extracellular matrix. Far from being simply a passive physical support, the eggshell is a key player in many early developmental events. Herein, we review current understanding of eggshell structure, biosynthesis, and function in zygotic development of the nematode, C. elegans. Beginning at sperm contact or entry, eggshell layers are produced sequentially. The earlier outer layers are required for secretion or organization of inner layers, and layers differ in composition and function. Developmental events that depend on the eggshell include polyspermy barrier generation, high fidelity meiotic chromosome segregation, osmotic barrier synthesis, polar body extrusion, anterior–posterior polarization, and organization of membrane and cortical proteins. The C. elegans eggshell is proving to be an excellent, tractable system to study the molecular cues of the extracellular matrix that instruct cell polarity and early development. genesis 50:333–349, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Drought stress and vegetation characteristics on sites with different slopes and orientations
Authors: Bartholomeus Ruud P. , Witte Jan‐Philip M. , Runhaar Johannes
Published: November 2011

In this paper, we introduce an ecologically relevant measure of drought stress and its relationship with vegetation characteristics. We used process‐based simulations of reference drought stress on inclined surfaces with different soil type, slope, and aspect to get an insight in the drought statistics that explain small‐scale differences in vegetation characteristics. Mean intensity, duration, and frequency of drought events are commonly integrated into the so‐called “dynamic drought stress” TSdyn. We introduce a simple, physiology‐based alternative measure of drought stress TSupp, based on the finding that plants respond to extremes rather than to mean intensities of stress events. Using extremes instead of mean intensities makes information on duration and frequency of stress events superfluous. We show that compared with TSdyn, TSupp (i) is a better predictor of the fraction of xerophytes within a vegetation plot, (ii) is simple, transparent, and easy to interpret as only the uppermost intensities are involved, i.e. minimum parameters are needed, and (iii) does not involve empirical parameters, as are used in TSdyn. Focusing on extremes rather than on means is especially important in predicting climate change effects, as especially these extremes are predicted to increase due to climate change. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Insights into the Mechanism of the Ruthenium–Porphyrin‐Catalysed Allylic Amination of Olefins by Aryl Azides
Authors: Intrieri Daniela , Caselli Alessandro , Ragaini Fabio , Macchi Piero , Casati Nicola , Gallo Emma
Published: November 2011

This paper describes the synthesis of allylic amines by aryl azides (ArN3) catalysed by [Ru(TPP)CO] (TPP = dianion of tetraphenylporphyrin). The employment of aryl azides renders the methodology sustainable as the formation of molecular nitrogen is the only stoichiometric byproduct. The isolation of catalytic intermediates and spectroscopic and kinetic studies revealed interesting information about the reaction mechanism, which could improve its catalytic efficiency in future research. An important result is the X‐ray characterisation of [Ru(TPP)(ArN)2] [Ar = 3,5‐(CF3)2C6H3], which is active in both stoichiometric and catalytic nitrene transfer reactions. The proposed involvement of carbonyl‐monoimido‐ruthenium porphyrin complexes in the catalytic cycle is also derived from our kinetic and experimental results. All the data indicate the coexistence of two mechanisms, where the electronic nature of the engaged aryl azide and olefin concentration determine one mechanism or the other.
Magnetic Beads‐Based Electrochemical Sensors Applied to the Detection and Quantification of Bioterrorism/Biohazard Agents
Authors: Pedrero María , Campuzano Susana , Pingarrón José M.
Published: November 2011

Nowadays, detecting the presence of bioterrorism and biohazard agents in environmental and food samples is of great concern, due to their toxicity, and because many of them are prone to be used in terrorism attacks. The use of functionalized magnetic beads (MBs) in the development of electrochemical immuno‐ and genosensors has resulted in innovative and powerful detection strategies that may be applied to environmental, food and clinical analysis. This review describes current research on the combination of functionalized MBs with electrochemical detection for the development of magnetobiosensors applied to rapid, sensitive and specific detection of bioterrorism and biohazard agents.