bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Models Network Data for Association and Prediction
Authors: Wang Yu
Published: May 2011

Data exploratory analysis discovers data structures and patterns with all variables as a whole, but this analysis does not particularly focus on seeking associations between response variables and predictor variables. In this chapter, we will discuss how to identify and measure this response-prediction relationship, which is an essential element in intrusion detection and prevention. Even though the expression for models for association and prediction can have a broad range, in general the goals of modeling for association and prediction in network security are two-fold: (1) to identify variables that are significantly associated with the response variable and (2) to assess the robustness of these variables, if any, in predicting the response. Although the term, model, is perhaps confusing to many people, a model is just a simpli- fied representation of some aspect of the real world, whether an object or observation, or a situation or process. Models are of particular importance for network security because of the size of data and the complex relationship among variables and the desired outcomes. Statistical modeling procedures available for analyzing the response-predictor phenomenon mainly include bivariate analysis and multiple regression-based analysis. Bivariate analysis focuses on the relationship between two variables (e.g., a response and a predictor) without taking into account any impact from other predictor variables on the response variable. The multiple regression modeling approach, on the other hand, requires establishing a regression relationship between a response variable and a set of potential predictor variables, and the predictive power of each of the predictors as adjusted by others. Therefore, a variable associates with the response significantly in the bivariate analysis may no longer hold such an association in the regression analysis after adjusting from other variables. In the following sections, we will review and discuss these two main approaches in detail. For readers who would like to attain a more general knowledge on modeling associations should refer to Mandel (1964), Press & Wilson (1978), Cohen & Cohen (1983), Berry & Feldman (1985), Cox & Snell (1989), McCullagh & Nelder (1989), Agresti (1996), Ryan (1997), Long (1997), Burnham & Anderson (1998), Pampel (2000), Tabachnick & Fidell (2001), Agresti (2002), Myers, Montgomery & Vining (2002), Menard (2002), and O’Connell (2006). Comprehensive reviews on data mining and statistical learning can be found from Vapnik (1998, 1999), Hastie, Tibshirani & Friedman (2001), Bozdogan (2003).
Feature Recognition
Authors: Xu Xun
Published: May 2011

Conventional CAD models only provide pure geometry and topology for mechanical designs such as vertices, edges, faces, simple primitives, and the relationship among them. Feature recognition is then required to interpret this low-level part information into high-level and domain-specific features such as machining features. Over the years, CAD has been undergoing fundamental changes toward the direction of feature-based design or design by features. Commercial implementations of FBD technique became available in the late 1980’s. One of the main benefits of adopting feature- based approach is the fact that features can convey and encapsulate designers’ intents in a natural way. In other words, the initial design can be synthesized quickly from the high-level entities and their relations, which a conventional CAD modeller is incapable of doing. However, such a feature-based design system, though capable of generating feature models as its end result, lacks the necessary link to a CAPP system, simply because the design features do not always carry the manufacturing information which is essential for process planning activities. This type of domain-dependent nature has been elaborated on in the previous chapter. In essence, feature recognition has become the first task of a CAPP system. It serves as an automatic and intelligent interpreter to link CAD with CAM, regardless of the CAD output being a pure geometric model or a feature model from a FBD system. To be specific, the goal of feature recognition systems is to bridge the gap between a CAD database and a CAPP system by automatically recognizing features of a part from the data stored in the CAD system, and based on the recognized features, to drive the CAPP system which produces process plans for manufacturing the part. Human interpretation of translating CAD data into technological information required by a CAPP system is thus minimized if not eliminated.
From university town to knowledge city
Authors: Franz Peter
Published: May 2011

The trend of cities, serving as a location for universities and research institutes, to take into consideration new strategies utilizing this location factor for growth-oriented urban development can also be observed in Germany. An overview of the quantitative preconditions shows that many German cities dispose of favorite preconditions for such a knowledge city strategy. An analysis of the policy arena comes to the result that the political actors are confronted with the task of a complex multi-level-policy where networking skills become essential. A comparison with the policy conditions in the U.S. makes it quite clear that especially the German universities have the status of semi-autonomous actors complicating negotiating and coordinating activities between city and science representatives. First examples of deregulation show that these hurdles can be overcome in the future.
Spatial Databases and Data Infrastructure
Authors: Abresch John , Reehling Peter J. , Hanson Ardis
Published: May 2011

The emergence, in recent years, of digital libraries and of Internet-based communication applications have led some researchers to propose that the emerging data infrastructure of the Internet and the capabilities of digital libraries can be used to organize and ease data-mining digital geospatial data across the Internet. Digital geospatial data interoperability, the target of major efforts by standardization bodies and the research community since the 1990s, “has been seen as a solution for sharing and integrating geospatial data, more specifically to solve the syntactic, schematic, and semantic as well as the spatial and temporal heterogeneities between various real world phenomena” (Brodeur, Bédard, Edwards, & Moulin, 2003, p. 243). Some researchers point to the problem that many GIS systems are singular in nature, are generally isolated, and lack interoperability, due in part to the computer architecture upon which they are based (Lutz, Riedemann, & Probst, 2003). This chapter will discuss the emergence of a national spatial digital infrastructure vis à vis the development of a national telecommunications infrastructure. Federal policies, standards, and procedures will be reviewed that assist in the management and production of geospatial data. Several examples of current geospatial libraries will be examined. The chapter will conclude with a short implications section on what are necessary next steps and future trends.
Accessibility
Authors: Hanson Ardis
Published: May 2011

With the creation of the Internet and the continued evolution of technologies in GIS, networking, and knowledge management, access to geospatial information is a critical component of research and practice. Interoperability is the “new paradigm for joining heterogeneous computer systems into synergistic units that facilitate a more efficient use of geographic information resources” (Harvey, Kuhn, Pundt, Bishr, & Riedemann, 1999, p. 213). As geographers reassess the description of geographic methodologies and techniques across different platforms in the online environment, so have researchers in other disciplines assessed the use of applied geographic techniques for a wide variety of analysis. Such efforts have led some researchers to use new descriptive classifications to identify functionalities in the new scholarship, such as in creating new ontologies for GIS (Fonseca, Davis, & Cmara, 2003; Goodchild, 2004; Goodchild & Haining, 2004; Mark, Skupin, & Smith, 2001). This chapter examines the impact of these new ontologies, reviews the impact standards have on access and issues for end-users in accessing geospatial information.
Plotting a Learning Experience
Authors: Parrish Patrick
Published: May 2011

This chapter describes an informal visual notation system that can be used by instructional designers in conceptualizing a design for an aesthetic learning experience. It begins by making a case for the importance of aesthetics as a major consideration in designing instruction, distinguishing aesthetic experience from more narrow conceptions of art and aesthetics. Drawing parallels between learning experiences and other narratives, examples of several narrative diagrams used in planning and analyzing fictional narratives are examined. Borrowing strategies from these narrative diagrams, the chapter then proposes the use of engagement curves to help designers more fully consider the aesthetic experience of learners in the design phase of instruction. Several examples of the use of narrative diagrams to analyze existing instructional designs are provided, as well as a demonstration of how an instructional design educator might use a narrative diagram in planning a course on ID models.
Using the IMS Learning Design notation for the modelling and delivery of education
Authors: Tattersall Colin , Sodhi Tim , Burgos Daniel , Koper Rob
Published: May 2011

IMS Learning Design (IMS-LD) is a notation system for learning and instruction. It supports the description of learning processes using a set of standardised concepts, including roles, activities, acts, objectives and prerequi-sites. With the availability of such a notation, descriptions of learning processes can be shared, critiqued, modi-fied, rated, compared and evaluated. Moreover, the machine-interpretable nature of the notation means that de-signs can be executed by software to support the dynamic orchestration of multi-learner, multi-role learning processes. This chapter introduces IMS-LD and describes experience with its use, supported by the first genera-tion of tooling. We then combine these experiences with observations on the tools in the light of new develop-ments in e-learning in order to derive a set of requirements for IMS-LD enabled visual design environments.
A Short History of Learning Technologies
Authors: Caladine Richard
Published: May 2011

A brief history of learning technologies provides the context to the changes in the nature and use of learning technologies, their role in learning, and the ways in which they have been conceptualized. It has been said that an understanding of the past is essential in avoiding the repetition of past mistakes and understanding the present. However, understanding the changes in learning technologies in the past and the forces that shaped these changes will help, not only in the understanding of their role in contemporary learning, but also provide guidance for their future direction.
Existing Theoretical Approaches to Learning Technologies, Learning Activities, and Methods of Technology Selection
Authors: Caladine Richard
Published: May 2011

In the 1990s, flexibility of where and when learning took place grew in significance to learners and providers of learning. For learners it meant they could learn at times and in places that suited them. Flexibility gave many students access to education that had previously been denied due to commitments such as work and family. Managers of higher education saw flexibility as a way to increase participation rates without a concomitant increase in resources and staff. In human resource development, flexibility meant that learners could learn when it suited the organization or the task and hence maximize performance gains while minimizing time away from work. In both contexts, flexibility of the time and place of learning was seen a way to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of learning. Flexibility in learning is generally characterized by the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs).
The Learning Activities Model
Authors: Caladine Richard
Published: May 2011

The effects of open, distance, and flexible learning, and the changed role of technology in learning have been felt in almost all educational sectors and institutions. Technology in many subjects now plays a central role and learning management systems (LMSs) are part of the standard software of higher education institutions. However the influence of learning technology has not been limited to education. The literature on human resource management (HRM) recognizes that there are benefits to be gained through the application of some of the techniques and technologies of flexible learning to training and development (Smith, 1992; Wilson, 1999). For example, LMSs are also providing efficiencies to organizations in the development of their human resources. As mentioned earlier in this book, the term flexible learning is used here to refer collectively to the approaches of open, distance, online, and e-learning and to the literature that is concerned with them. More recently terms such as blended learning and e-learning have appeared to refer to learning experiences that incorporate an electronic element. Typically flexible learning or e-learning would involve the use of the learning technologies discussed here.
Videoconference, Audioconference, and Video Chat
Authors: Caladine Richard
Published: May 2011

Videoconference and audioconference have been used for communications in businesses for many years. In teaching and learning videoconference has been used for at least the last 15 years and possibly longer. Videoconference and audioconference technologies have been used in education, especially in distance education where students and teachers are in different locations. Like all educational technologies, videoconference and audioconference are suited to some and not all teaching and learning activities. Before these established real time communications technologies (RTCs) and the newer technology video chat are explored they need to be carefully defined to eliminate or minimize confusion.
Access Grid
Authors: Caladine Richard
Published: May 2011

Videoconference has been used for interactions between students and teachers in distance education for many years. The newer technology, video chat, a computerbased technology that has evolved from instant messaging, appears to be displacing videoconference due to its low cost and ease of use. Access Grid is a similar technology in that like the other two it is based on two-way audio and video communications. Since its inception in the mid-1990s, the Access Grid has been used by researchers and it is not surprising that usage levels in teaching and learning are increasing as many researchers are teachers and see its potential to bring media-rich interactions to e-learning.
The Fox-Base Approach
Authors: Eom Sean
Published: May 2011

Chapter II introduced online cocitation counts retrieval using Dialog Classic and citation index files. Certainly Dialog Classic is an attractive alternative in that the user is using the readily available bibliographic databases and retrieval software. The majority of ACA research has used ISI databases and Dialog Classic to retrieve cocitation counts. However, this approach has well-known technical limitations as discussed earlier. They include the issue of Multiple Authorship, Name-Homographs, and Synonyms. This chapter introduces an alternative approach to retrieving a cocitation count from the custom databases through the system we have designed and implemented. Custom database and retrieval systems need time and investment to develop, but they can manage most of the technical limitations discussed. The book presents two other alternative approaches that can be used to retrieve cocitation counts in lieu of using ISI citation index files and Dialog Classic. This chapter introduces the fox-base approach in developing custom databases and the cocitation matrix generation system. The first part is concerned with the design of databases. The second part describes the cocitation retrieval system. We also discuss how our system can eliminate or minimize the technical limitations of the Thomson ISI database and Dialog Classic Software system.
Learning
Authors: Ford Nigel
Published: May 2011

The previous chapter sketched some of the basic intellectual processes entailed in learning that are common to us all. However, different individuals may use these same basic processes in very different ways and may bring to them very different types and levels of prior knowledge. Certain stylistic differences in the way people go about learning are relatively value free. That is, adopting one style rather than another is not necessarily better or worse, although qualitatively different types of knowledge may result from relatively strong biases (see, for example, the global and analytic information processing styles described later on). However, certain other differences in the way information is processed are more value laden in that they are associated with different types and levels of resultant knowledge. Such types and levels of knowledge may be considered, from certain perspectives, to be of higher or lower quality (see, for example, the deep and surface approaches to studying described later on).
Educational Informatics Systems
Authors: Ford Nigel
Published: May 2011

Educational informatics is defined within this book as: The.development,.use,.and.evaluation.of.digital.systems.that.use.pedagogical.knowledge. to.engage.in.or.facilitate.resource.discovery.in.order.to.support.learning.. Figure 91 shows how the previous chapters of this book have focused on each of the pillars on which educational informatics is founded. The nature of learning was explored in Chapters I and II, before we moved on to focus on pedagogical matters in Chapter III and resource.discovery in Chapter IV. Chapters V and VI focused on digital.systems, concentrating on information and communication technology (ICT) aspects of pedagogy and resource discovery respectively. The reader is referred to the Preface for a more detailed explanation of this definition.
Real World Learning
Authors: Ford Nigel
Published: May 2011

This chapter focuses on limitations in our knowledge of learning, learning design, and the design of information and computer technology (ICT)-based learning support systems. We need to overcome these limitations in order to enable us to improve our own learning, the design of other people’s learning, and the design of learning support systems that will work effectively in the real world. The chapter starts by focusing on some of the problems besetting research into humans, and the need to recognise the serious limitations of knowledge derived from such research when it comes to practical application in real world teaching and learning. It explores, as a mini case study, a notion that is central to much educational informatics research and development, namely personalisation, and within this, a construct that a number of researchers and developers have used and are using as a driver of adaptive behaviour—learning style. The chapter goes on to present another mini case study in which the applicability of a well established and influential theoretical framework for learning design in higher education—Laurillard’s conversational. framework—is evaluated in a real world blended learning context.
Gains and Losses
Authors: Gudea Sorin Walter
Published: May 2011

This chapter reviews the gains and losses experienced by teachers who teach online courses, and the choices they make relative to teaching online.
Central Ideas
Authors: Gudea Sorin Walter
Published: May 2011

In the previous chapters, teachers shared their online teaching stories. They talked about how the online environment affects them and their teaching, about the tradeoffs they find, the issues associated with technology and teaching online, and about the adjustments they feel they make. They also shared the benefits and the losses they notice as a result of their teaching online. While all these data are fascinating, it is now time to put things in perspective and find out how, if at all, these stories intersect and help us coin a better understanding of the teachers’ experiences in the online environment. This chapter focuses on the central ideas that are related to teaching and will discuss the first four core categories identified: Teaching, Teaching Demands, Teacher Needs, and Teaching Dimensions.
Collaborative Learning Among Faculty
Authors: Nuffer Ellen L.
Published: May 2011

In higher education today, faculty members are faced with ever-increasing expectations for their teaching, scholarship, and service. Faculty in the 21st century college and university must teach with technology, incorporate student research opportunities into the curriculum, employ active learning strategies while accommodating learners with disabilities, engage in scholarship at the edges of the traditional disciplines, demonstrate multiple forms of scholarship in a professional portfolio, implement classroom and departmental assessment strategies, and provide service to the discipline and community in addition to the college. These complex roles frequently require faculty to collaborate with staff, administrators, students, and peers for the most effective engagement in these new modes of scholarship, service, and teaching. Faculty development professionals are faced with the challenges of supporting faculty in this new environment, and in particular with finding ways to facilitate the sharing, interacting, discussing, questioning, and brainstorming necessary for success in a highly-demanding work environment. Given the time constraints that are endemic in today’s academy, creative solutions that will facilitate collaboration are necessary.
E-Learning Value and Student Experiences
Authors: Petrova Krassie , Sinclair Rowena
Published: May 2011

This chapter focuses on understanding how the value of student learning and the student learning experience could be improved given pertinent environmental and academic constraints of an e-learning case. Believing that a better understanding of student behaviour might help course design, the chapter revisits the outcomes of two studies of e-learning and analyses them further using a framework which conceptualises the value of e-learning from a stakeholder perspective. The main objective of the chapter is to identify some of the important issues and trends related to the perceived e-learning value. The analysis of the emerging and future trends indicates that in the future blending of e-learning and face-toface learning is likely to occur not only along the pedagogical, but also along the technological and the organizational dimensions of e-learning. Therefore, new blended learning and teaching models should emphasise further the alignment of learning with work/life balance.
Basic Aspects of VLEs and Guidelines for Supporting Learning Communities and E-Collaboration
Authors: Tsiatsos Thrasyvoulos , Giannaka Eleftheria
Published: May 2011

This chapter aims to present the basic design principles for virtual spaces for facilitating educational designers and developers by providing a point of reference for making decisions about whether or not to incorporate 3D environments into the resources they develop as well as for extending their capabilities by integrating more functionality.
Teaching and Learning in Virtual Environments
Authors: Campas Joan
Published: May 2011

The paradigm shift that education experiments now, it does not stem neither from the existence of Internet and telematic networks nor applications of new technologies in teleformation. It comes from a lost value underwent in the 60s, one of the basis of education, that it was in continuous crisis since the 16th century: the perennial knowledge. Since then, it was thought that people’s knowledge did not change much during their whole life. Anything learned in their youth at primary and secondary school would be useful and applicable all their life. Knowledge always suffered changes and evolutions, however, at a rhythm that did not affect much individual formation.
Evaluation Models for E-Learning
Authors: Carreras Cèsar
Published: May 2011

E-learning is still a quite young discipline that undergoes a continuous process of change due to new potentials that technology brings every day. After hardly 10 years of experience, it is difficult to envisage what is the degree of success of such new approaches to learning. Of course, the number of virtual students is increasing day by day because of the flexibility of such new environments that overcome constraints of time and space (Salmon, 2000; Palloff & Pratt, 2003). However, no such effort has been put into evaluating how the process of learning is taking place and comparing e-learning results with traditional distance learning studies, or even presential courses. The present chapter attempts to show some evaluation models for e-learning and how their results may contribute to define future research agenda and new technological implementations. Our experience of coordinating and teaching courses in archaeology and ancient history in the UOC (Open University of Catalonia) may shed some light into such a complex issue.
Posting Articles about Excavations in Electronic Forums
Authors: Thomos Charilaos , Gouniotis Alexandros , Kechagias Konstantinos
Published: May 2011

Having taken its name from the fragmentary and divisive nature of the 20th century Balkans, the geopolitical term “balkanization” has come to refer to any region or society with internal turmoil or divisions. At the same time, it is being used to express the divergence over time of languages. In both cases, “balkanization” is an indisputable reality nowadays and reflects current relationships among nations. In this sense, although the unification process of the EU is believed to be a given today, problems such as the downgrading of less widespread languages such as Balkan languages and dialects still remain unsolved, mostly due to the predominance of English, French or German in the scientific, political, economical and commercial world. Indicatively, there are nine officially acknowledged languages today in the Balkans, whose even existence is ignored by the majority of EU citizens. Some have no apparent relation to the other. Whatever the case is, the Balkans have to and will survive this “Babel,” together with all European Union states. Maintaining a country’s language is a multilateral case and duty of nations nowadays; it also concerns a place’s culture and its specific characteristics and lifestyle, which differentiate it from other nations. It has to do with ethnic identity and understanding of one’s existence over time.
Towards an Ontology for Information Systems Development
Authors: Leppänen Mauri
Published: May 2011

This chapter presents an ISD ontology, which aims to provide an integrated conceptualization of ISD through anchoring it upon a contextual approach. The ISD ontology is composed of concepts, relationships, and constraints referring to purposes, actors, actions, and objects of ISD. It is presented as a vocabulary with explicit definitions and in meta models in a UML-based ontology representation language. We believe that although not complete the ISD ontology can promote the achievement of a shared understanding of contextual aspects in ISD. It can be used to analyze and compare existing frameworks and meta models and as a groundwork for engineering new ISD methods, and parts thereof.
Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Spinello Richard A. , Tavani Herman T.
Published: May 2011

This chapter presents some foundational concepts and issues in intellectual property. We begin by defining intellectual objects, which we contrast with physical objects or tangible goods. We then turn to some of the normative justifications that have been advanced to defend the granting of property rights in general, and we ask whether those rationales can be extended to the realm of intellectual objects. Theories of property introduced by Locke and Hegel, as well as utilitarian philosophers, are summarized and critiqued. This sets the stage for reviewing the case against intellectual property. We reject that case and claim instead that policy makers should aim for balanced property rights that avoid the extremes of overprotection and underprotection. Next we examine four different kinds of protection schemes for intellectual property that have been provided by our legal system: copyright laws, patents, trademarks, and trade secrets.This discussion is supplemented with a concise review of recent U.S. legislation involving copyright and digital media and an analysis of technological schemes of property protection known as digital rights management. Finally, we consider a number of recent controversial court cases, including the Napster case and the Microsoft antitrust suit. Many of the issues and controversies introduced in this chapter are explored and analyzed in greater detail in the subsequent chapters of this book.
Intellectual Property Protection in Multimedia Grids
Authors: Kafeza Irene , Kafeza Eleanna
Published: May 2011

The Grid environment is rapidly emerging as the dominant paradigm for wide-area-distributed application systems. The multimedia applications demand intense problem-solving capabilities, and Grid-computing makes it possible to share computing resources on an unprecedented scale among geographically distributed participants. In a Grid environment, virtual organisations are formulated and managed from a computing resource point of view. The Grid provider allows for the dynamic discovery of computing resources, the immediate allocation and provision of the resources, and the management and provision of secure access. Although the security problem in Grid environment is being addressed from the technological point of view, there is no work to identify the legal issues that are arising in Grid multimedia transactions.
Change Theory
Authors: Schifter Catherine
Published: May 2011

How difficult is change? According to those who study change in schools and classrooms, change is something that is always occurring, or things remain the same. As Seymour Papert noted in 1993, if a teacher from the eighteenth century were to come into a classroom today, most likely they would feel right at home. In many cases students are still sitting in rows, perhaps not parallel rows, but rows nonetheless. There are books and papers around. Perhaps they would not be familiar with the overhead projector, but it would not take long to learn how to use it. Maps still hang on the walls. There might even be a computer somewhere in the room, but it might not be turned on, so no problem there. Making classrooms modern has not meant changing the typical look, feel and layout of the traditional classroom.
"Making Teachers Better"
Authors: Schifter Catherine
Published: May 2011

In 2007, reports from the Office of the Secretary of Education’s website listed statistics about educational technology and schools. As of November 2006, the Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994-2005 report indicated “the ratio of students to instructional computers with Internet access in public schools was 3.8 to 1…” This was a decrease from 2003, when the ratio was 4.4 to 1. (Department of Education, 2006) There was also information about funding, including the $2.25 billion in the federal E-rate program supporting discounts on telecommunications services, Internet access, and networking for schools and libraries. With each Federal funding program for educational technology, professional development was an essential component, requiring up to 25 percent of funds to be used for professional development on using technology to improve student outcomes.
Finger Painting to Digital Painting
Authors: Schifter Catherine
Published: May 2011

Like Kindergarten, the first grade classroom is a welcoming site with small tables and chairs for the equally small children who are typical first graders. For children who did not attend Kindergarten, for whatever reason , first grade is when they learn about schooling and the rules that go along with being in school. It is a time to explore ideas, be creative, make friends, learn to be collaborative with others, learn to read better, and much more. While the curriculum is similar to Kindergarten, the level of instruction and expectations for student engagement is slowly becoming higher, but only slightly at this point. Also like Kindergarten, computers tend to be used often for students to express their understanding of a story or concept through creative software. The concept of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1999), active learning (Dewey, 1938), and applying learning to related knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978) are exemplified in all primary grades, and especially in first grade.
Strategies for Community Development
Authors: Albert Sylvie , Flournoy Don , LeBrasseur Rolland
Published: May 2011

The transformational changes brought about by the Internet stimulate the planning of social and economic development in networked communities. This chapter will cover the following topics: • The community and its economic and social development; • The importance of development strategies and theory: ° An introduction to types of strategies and theories ° The influence of ICTs on community development • Strategic planning in a community: ° An outline of strategic planning ° The role of ICTs in the strategic planning process; ° Examples of ICT community development opportunities; • Key success factors in implementing a community development strategy; • Evaluation and measurement of community development. The strategic inclusion of information and communication technologies (ICTs) within community development plans can be compared to organisational re-engineering. They both require effort to become more efficient, and novel perspectives are needed to develop new economic values. Within the broad context of the human condition, they both involve understanding what people need and want, how inequities can be bridged, and how to minimise the negative impact of making changes. A lesser approach runs the risk of communities resolving one challenge only to see new problems spring up. As was aptly put by Matthiessen, Schwarz and Find (2006), “[Creation] of wealth in an economy of ideas is derived far less than we imagine from the technological hardware and infrastructure. Rather it is dependent upon the capacity to continually create content or new forms of widely distributed knowledge for which there is a need to invest in human capital throughout the economy” (p. 15). Information technology has acted as an important trigger for the development of business process re-engineering in firms (Attaran, 2004), and ICTs have had a similar impact on communities—they expand the need to keep up with global changes. Innovative use of IT has led many firms to develop ways of more effectively coordinating their activities and at lower costs, thus giving them strategic advantages. Similarly, communities around the world are paying attention to the Internet economy, realising that it is a source of opportunity that also presents many challenges. Firms and communities are often linked; as more businesses participate in work that is network-intensive, local communities have the opportunity to learn how they too can grow and change as a result of being networked, or at least learn to be a supportive ally.
Exploring Gender Differences in Computer-Related Behaviour
Authors: Kay Robin
Published: May 2011

This chapter explores gender differences in three key areas: computer attitude, ability, and use. Past research (10-25 years ago) is examined in order to provide a framework for a more current analysis. Seventy-one studies and 644 specific measures are analysed with respect to overall patterns, time, education level, and context. Males and females are more similar than different on all constructs assessed, for most grade levels and contexts. However, males report moderately more positive affective attitudes, higher self-efficacy, and more frequent use. Females are slightly more positive about online learning and appear to perform somewhat better on computer-related tasks. The results must be interpreted with caution because of methodological limitations in many studies reviewed. Finally, a model is proposed to understand and address gender differences in computer-related behaviour.
The Impact of the USA Patriot Act on Social Diversity in Cyberspace
Authors: de Jong Marc Jung-Whan
Published: May 2011

The Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act (USA PATRIOT Act) of 2001 has increased the surveillance and investigative powers of law enforcement in the United States. While the Patriot Act serves to protect American society and interests abroad, critics suggest that it does not provide sufficient checks and balances to safeguard the civil liberties of U.S. citizens. This chapter assesses both of these claims: how the USA Patriot Act protects U.S. national security and through self-censorship over privacy concerns may affect sociopolitical and cultural diversity in cyberspace.
Individual Differences Among Users
Authors: Keehner Madeleine , Khooshabeh Peter , Hegarty Mary
Published: May 2011

This chapter examines human factors associated with using interactive three-dimensional (3D) visualizations. Virtual representations of anatomical structure and function, often with sophisticated user control capabilities, are growing in popularity in medicine for education, training, and simulation. This chapter reviews the cognitive science literature and introduces issues such as theoretical ideas related to using interactive visualizations, different types and levels of interactivity, effects of different kinds of control interfaces, and potential cognitive benefits of these tools. The authors raise the question of whether all individuals are equally capable of using 3D visualizations effectively, focusing particularly on two variables: (1) individual differences in spatial abilities, and (2) individual differences in interactive behavior. The chapter draws together findings from the authors’ own studies and from the wider literature, exploring recent insights into how individual differences among users can impact the effectiveness of different types of external visualizations for different kinds of tasks. The chapter offers recommendations for design, such as providing transparent affordances to support users’ meta-cognitive understanding, and employing personalization to complement the capabilities of different individuals. Finally, the authors suggest future directions and approaches for research, including the use of methodology such as needs analysis and contextual enquiry to better understand the cognitive processes and capacities of different kinds of users.
Cluster-Based Multi-Dimensional Visualization
Authors: Janes Douglas , Schulte Michael J. , Brodsky Ethan K. , Block Walter F.
Published: May 2011

There is a growing need for high-frame-rate low-latency visualization solutions as medical practice moves toward interventional procedures. We present a cost-effective visualization system well suited for off-line visualization and interventional procedures. Users can view large time-resolved multi-dimensional datasets in real time with GPU cluster visualization. In addition, computational pre-processing can be hidden by rendering across distributed graphics cards, leading to improved frame-rates over a single graphics card solution. Finally, rendering on graphics cards offloads CPU cycles for generating the next time frame in the visualization. We have developed a network arbitration protocol for GPU cluster visualization called “token scheduling.” Our protocol reduces communication latency, which in turn lowers visualization latency and improves system stability and scalability. In addition, we evaluate GPU cluster behavior and performance through a timing analysis. This analysis leads to a better understanding of cluster size needed to achieve the desired frame rate of a given problem.
Parallel Segmentation of Multi-Channel Images Using Multi-Dimensional Mathematical Morphology
Authors: Plaza Antonio , Plaza Javier , Valencia David , Martinez Pablo
Published: May 2011

Multi-channel images are characteristic of certain applications, such as medical imaging or remotely sensed data analysis. Mathematical morphology-based segmentation of multi-channel imagery has not been fully accomplished yet, mainly due to the lack of vector-based strategies to extend classic morphological operations to multidimensional imagery. For instance, the most important morphological approach for image segmentation is the watershed transformation, a hybrid of seeded region growing and edge detection. In this chapter, we describe a vector-preserving framework to extend morphological operations to multi-channel images, and further propose a fully automatic multi-channel watershed segmentation algorithm that naturally combines spatial and spectral/temporal information. Due to the large data volumes often associated with multi-channel imaging, this chapter also develops a parallel implementation strategy to speed up performance. The proposed parallel algorithm is evaluated using magnetic resonance images and remotely sensed hyperspectral scenes collected by the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Airborne Visible Infra-Red Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS).
The Impact of Information Technology in Healthcare Privacy
Authors: Fung Maria Yin Ling , Paynter John
Published: May 2011

The increased use of the Internet and latest information technologies such as wireless computing is revolutionizing the healthcare industry by improving services and reducing costs. The advances in technology help to empower individuals to understand and take charge of their healthcare needs. Patients can participate in healthcare processes, such as diagnosis and treatment, through secure electronic communication services. Patients can search healthcare information over the Internet and interact with physicians. The same advances in technology have also heightened privacy awareness. Privacy concerns include healthcare Web sites that do not practice the privacy policies they preach, computer break-ins, insider and hacker attacks, temporary and careless employees, virus attacks, human errors, system design faults, and social engineering. This chapter looks at medical privacy issues and how they are handled in the U.S. and New Zealand. A sample of 20 New Zealand health Web sites was investigated.
Prospects for Thought Communication
Authors: Warwick Kevin , Cerqui Daniela
Published: May 2011

In this chapter, we take a look at the realistic future possibility of thought communication— brain to machine and brain to brain. Technical details are presented on experimentation carried out thus far using implant technology and the route ahead involving brain-computer interfaces is described. Some of the social issues raised by such a novel technological development are also developed. Of importance is the fact that, once a new technology is globally accepted, its use tends to be considered as the normal way of being, which may lead to the creation of new disabilities for people unable to use the technology. The two authors agree about the analysis, but, as a result of their two completely different backgrounds, they disagree about how much benefit thought communication can bring to human beings.
Education as Social Institution
Authors: Kirk Mary
Published: May 2011

Education is another of the primary social institutions from which we learn the values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of a dominator culture. A discussion of education as a social institution embraces: (1) how we come to know (epistemologies); (2) the methods of teaching and learning (pedagogies); and (3) what we know, the content of our knowledge tradition. In Chapter III, I explored some ideas about epistemological barriers to women in IT education related to our philosophy of science. For example, some scholars have argued that since more women tend to be concrete learners, and more men tend to be abstract learners, women may be less comfortable with the abstract approaches that predominate in science and IT education (Belenky, 1986; Estrin, 1996; Goldberger, 1996; Greenbaum, 1990; Keller, 1992; Kramer & Lehman, 1990; Riger, 1992; Rosser, 1995; Turkle & Papert, 1990). In Chapter IX, I will address questions of epistemology and pedagogy in more depth as I propose a partnership model of education. In this chapter, I would like to focus on the third issue, that is, the content of our knowledge tradition. This chapter explores: (1) our incomplete knowledge tradition; (2) a brief her-story of women in math, engineering, and IT; and (3) the ins and outs of women’s education and employment in these fields.
Audio
Authors: Ko Chi Chung , Cheng Chang Dong
Published: May 2011

Of all the human perceptions, two of the most important ones are perhaps vision and sound, for which we have developed highly specialized sensors over millions of years of evolution. The creation of a realistic virtual world therefore calls for the development of realistic 3D virtual objects and sceneries supplemented by associated sounds and audio signals. The development of 3D visual objects is of course the main domain of Java 3D. However, as in watching a movie, it is also essential to have realistic sound and audio in some applications. In this chapter, we will discuss how sound and audio can be added and supported by Java 3D. The Java 3D API provides some functionalities to add and control sound in a 3D spatialized manner. It also allows the rendering of aural characteristics for the modeling of real world, synthetic or special acoustical effects (Warren, 2006). From a programming point of view, the inclusion of sound is similar to the addition of light. Both are the results of adding nodes to the scene graph for the virtual world. The addition of a sound node can be accomplished by the abstract Sound class, under which there are three subclasses on BackgroundSound, PointSound, and ConeSound (Osawa, Asai, Takase, & Saito, 2001). Multiple sound sources, each with a reference sound file and associated methods for control and activation, can be included in the scene graph. The relevant sound will become audible whenever the scheduling bound associated with the sound node intersects the activation volume of the listener. By creating an AuralAttributes object and attaching it to a SoundScape leaf node for a certain sound in the scene graph, we can also specify the use of certain acoustical effects in the rendering of the sound. This is done through using the various methods to change important acoustic parameters in the Aura lAttributes object.
Innovation Studies
Authors: Michael Katina , Michael M.G.
Published: May 2011

This chapter will explore literature in the field of innovation in order to establish a conceptual framework for the auto-ID trajectory research. The primary aim of this review is to provide a critical response to the literature on technological innovation. The review will also serve to: (i) identify and understand widely accepted definitions, concepts and terms, born from past innovation research as a guide for further research; (ii) review theories, theoretical frameworks and methods adopted by other researchers doing similar innovation studies (especially in the area of information technology) in order to choose an appropriate approach for this study; (iii) understand what aspects of complex high technologies (hightech) have already been explored by researchers and what aspects have been neglected and to discover any similarities or differences in existing findings.