bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Identification of genetic characteristics of maize (Zea mays L) using genetic markers
Authors: Zlokolica Marija , Milosevic Mirjana , Nikolic Zorica , Galovic Vladislava
Published: July 2008

Different genetic markers are used for estimation of breeding material, its characteristics and potential for ultimate aim - heterosis of hybrids. They also point out to the qualitative seed traits at the level of linkage with genes responsible for desirable agronomic traits. This program encompasses testing methodologies for the new seed technology. Genetic analysis of breeding material during certain phases is comprised of isozymic gene expression and degrees of their variability, but it is continued (in order to be evaluated) until determination of presence or absence of some genes existing or introduced for certain traits. Using combination of different molecular methods such as PCR, RAPD and AFLP based on polymorphism of DNA fragments, the definite aim - identification of newly created products of improvement is achieved. Testing of traits of breeding material, its genetic variability and diversity is the first stage in analysis of the maize genome. It is also the condition for determination of presence of certain genes, used for obtaining the ultimate aim - attest of identity of the genotype.
The variability of leaf anatomical characteristics of Solanum nigrum L. (Solana-les, Solanaceae) from different habitats
Authors: Krstic Lana , Merkulov Ljiljana , Boza Pal
Published: July 2008

In Europe on the whole as well as in Yugoslavia, the most widespread weed species from the genus Solanum is Solanum nigrum L. Since this species inhabits different habitats, it developed several ways of adaptation to environmental conditions. The influence of ecological factors on plant organism and resulting plant adaptations are most evident in leaf morphology and anatomy. Therefore, the anatomical structure of leaves and leaf epidermal tissue of S. nigrum was analyzed and compared among plants that originated from different habitats, in order to determine leaf structural adaptations. S. nigrum lamina has the mesomorphic structure with some xero-heliomorphic adaptations. The differences in stomata number, number of hairs, thickness of lamina, palisade and spongy tissue, as well as the size of mesophyll cells have been noticed. The highest values for most of the parameters have been recorded for the plants from cultivated soil. Largest variations of the examined characters were found for the leaves from ruderal habitats, where environmental conditions are most variable.
Bioenergetic aspects of competition between nitrogen metabolism and carbohydrate synthesis in small grains
Authors: Kastori Rudolf , Petrovic Novica
Published: July 2008

Yields of small grains have been significantly increased in recent decades primarily by breeding. No corresponding progress has been made regarding protein content in the grain. That was mostly due to a negative correlation existing between yield level and protein content. Protein synthesis requires a much larger amount of energy that that required for carbohydrate synthesis. A hypothesis explains this negative correlation by competition for energy between nitrogen metabolism and carbohydrate synthesis. The proponents of this hypothesis surmise that nitrate reduction unfolds mostly at the expense of the energy released upon oxidation of carbohydrates and organic acids (heterotrophic), and not at the expense of light energy (autotrophic). In small grains, nitrate reduction takes place mostly in leaves, i. e., it is autotrophic. Under conditions of optimum nitrogen supply, protein content and yield per unit area increase but grain yield does not decrease although it could be expected if there existed a competition for energy between nitrogen metabolism and carbohydrate synthesis. Protein content reduction in consequence to yield increase could be explained by the dilution effect, as evidenced by similar reductions of other substances in the grain, for example mineral elements. When considering the competition for energy between nitrogen metabolism and carbohydrate synthesis, it should not be overlooked that nitrogen stimulates the energy transport in plants indirectly, by stimulating the photosynthetic activity and thus the utilization of light energy by plants.
The mechanism of the NH4 ion oscillatory transport across the excitable cell membrane
Authors: Radenovic Cedomir , Beljanski Milos , Maksimov Georgij , Kalauzi Aleksandar , Drazic Milan
Published: July 2008

This paper presents results on typical oscillations of the membrane potential induced by the excitation of the cell membrane by different concentrations of the NH4Cl solution. The existence of four classes of oscillations of the membrane potential and several different single and local impulses rhythmically occurring were determined. It is known that the oscillatory processes of the membrane potential are in direct dependence on oscillatory transport processes of NH4 and Cl ions across the excitable cell membrane. A hypothesis on a possible mechanism of oscillatory transport processes of NH4 and Cl ions across the excitable cell membrane is also presented.
Genetic equilibrium in Cheilosia vernalis populations (Diptera: Syrphidae)
Authors: Milankov Vesna , Stamenkovic Jelena , Vujic Ante
Published: July 2008

Genetic equilibrium of polymorphic enzyme loci from four natural populations of Cheilosia vernalis (Fall?n, 1817) was tested. The study populations were from different regions of the Balkan Peninsula: Mediterranean area (Morinj, Montenegro: CVMOR), low mountain in the Pannonian plain (Fruska Gora, Serbia: CVFG), and two high Dinaric mountains (Durmitor, Montenegro CVDUR; and Kopaonik, Serbia: CVKOP). Out of twelve enzyme loci analyzed for genetic variability, only four to six were polymorphic in the studied populations. For those loci, the observed and expected values of genotype frequencies were compared with chi-square goodness-of-fit tests. Analysis of deviations of phenotypic classes from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium revealed significant differences at polymorphic loci of all populations except in CVKOP. This implied possible important influence of evolutionary mechanisms such as low migration rates, population substructuring and natural selection in creation and maintenance of genetic variability.
Virulence of Fusarium species to alfalfa seedlings
Authors: Krnjaja Vesna , Levic Jelena , Ivanovic Mirko , Tomic Zorica
Published: July 2008

In in vitro conditions, virulence of 91 isolates of species Fusarium genus (F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti, F. arthrosporioides, F. proliferatum, F. avenaceum, F. semitectum, F. tricinctum, F. sporotrichioides and F. graminearum) towards alfalfa seedlings was investigated. Isolates of investigated species originated from diseased alfalfa plants collected on four locations in Serbia based on symptoms of wilting caused by fusarium and root rotting. Pathogenicity and virulence of investigated isolates of Fusarium spp. were determined by visual evaluation of inoculated seedlings of cultivars K28 in laboratory conditions. All isolated of investigated species had pathogenic effect on alfalfa seedlings, which expressed symptoms such as necrosis of root, moist rotting and "melting of seedlings". Colour of necrotic root tissue varied from light brown, brown, lipstick red to explicit black, depending on the Fusarium species. Strong virulence was established in 48 isolates, medium virulence in 31 and weak virulence in 12 isolates.
Soil fungi as indicators of pesticide soil pollution
Authors: Mandic Leka , Djukic Dragutin , Djordjevic Snezana
Published: July 2008

Soil fungi, with their pronounced enzymic activity and high osmotic potential, represent a significant indicator of negative effects of different pesticides on the agroecosystem as a whole. In that respect, a trial was set up on the alluvium soil type with the aim to investigate the effect of different herbicides (Simazine, Napropamid, Paraquat), fungicides (Captan and Mancozeb) and insecticides (Fenitrothion and Dimethoate) on a number of soil fungi under apple trees. The number of soil fungi was determined during four growing seasons by an indirect method of dilution addition on the Czapek agar. The study results indicate that the fungi belong to the group of microorganisms that, after an initial sensible response to the presence of pesticides in the soil, very rapidly establish normal metabolism enabling them even to increase their number. The fungicides and insecticides applied were found to be particularly effective in that respect.
Immobilized cell technology in beer brewing: Current experience and results
Authors: Leskosek-Cukalov Ida , Nedovic Viktor
Published: July 2008

Immobilized cell technology (ICT) has been attracting continual attention in the brewing industry over the past 30 years. Some of the reasons are: faster fermentation rates and increased volumetric productivity, compared to those of traditional beer production based on freely suspended cells, as well as the possibility of continuous operation. Nowadays, ICT technology is well established in secondary fermentation and alcohol- free and low-alcohol beer production. In main fermentation, the situation is more complex and this process is still under scrutiny on both the lab and pilot levels. The paper outlines the most important ICT processes developed for beer brewing and provides an overview of carrier materials, bioreactor design and examples of their industrial applications, as well as some recent results obtained by our research group. We investigated the possible applications of polyvinyl alcohol in the form of LentiKats?, as a potential porous matrices carrier for beer fermentation. Given are the results of growth studies of immobilized brewer's yeast Saccharomyces uvarum and the kinetic parameters obtained by using alginate microbeads with immobilized yeast cells and suspension of yeast cells as controls. The results indicate that the immobilization procedure in LentiKat? carriers has a negligible effect on cell viability and growth. The apparent specific growth rate of cells released in medium was comparable to that of freely suspended cells, implying preserved cell vitality. A series of batch fermentations performed in shaken flasks and an air-lift bioreactor indicated that the immobilized cells retained high fermentation activity. The full attenuation in green beer was reached after 48 hours in shaken flasks and less than 24 hours of fermentation in gas-lift bioreactors.
The importance of extremophile cyanobacteria in the production of biologically active compounds
Authors: Drobac-Cik Aleksandra , Dulic Tamara , Stojanovic Dejan , Svircev Zorica
Published: July 2008

Due to their ability to endure extreme conditions, terrestrial cyanobacteria belong to a group of organisms known as "extremophiles". Research so far has shown that these organisms posses a great capacity for producing biologically active compounds (BAC). The antibacterial and antifungal activities of methanol extracts of 21 cyanobacterial strains belonging to Anabaena and Nostoc genera, previously isolated from different soil types and water resources in Serbia, were evaluated. In general, larger number of cyanobacterial strains showed antifungal activity. In contrast to Nostoc, Anabaena strains showed greater diversity of antibacterial activity (mean value of percentages of sensitive targeted bacterial strains 3% and 25.9% respectively). Larger number of targeted fungi was sensitive to cultural liquid extract (CL), while crude cell extract (CE) affected more bacterial strains. According to this investigation, the higher biological activity of terrestrial strains as representatives of extremophiles may present them as significant BAC producers. This kind of investigation creates very general view of cyanobacterial possibility to produce biologically active compounds but it points out the necessity of exploring terrestrial cyanobacterial extremophiles as potentially excellent sources of these substances and reveals the most prospective strains for further investigations.
The influence of different levels of dietary selenium on its distribution in the organs of broiler chickens
Authors: Mihaljev Zeljko , Orlic Dusan , Stajner Dubravka , Zivkov-Balos Milica , Pavkov Sava
Published: July 2008

The content of selenium in basic broiler diets was 50 ? 10, 100 ? 10, 150 ? 10 and 250 ? 10 ?gkg-1. At day 14, 28 and 42 tissue samples were collected. Dynamics and selenium deposits in blood, liver, muscle and heart were estimated in relation to the level of dietary selenium and age of broilers. When broilers were fed with diet containing 250 ?gkg-1 Se, at day 42 the highest concentration of Se was in liver (570.8 ? 44.1 ?gkg-1), blood (430.3 ? 46.5 ?gL-1) and heart (237.5 ? 42.8 ?gkg-1). At day 14, increase of dietary selenium content from 50 ?gkg-1 to 250 ?gkg-1 was followed by decrease of selenium deposits in heart: when broilers were fed with basic diet containing 50 ?gkg-1 Se measured content of Se in heart muscle was 49.8 ? 15.6 ?gkg-1 (99.6%) while in broilers fed with basic diet containing 250 ?gkg-1 Se measured content of Se in heart was 147.2 ? 33.4 ?gkg-1 (58.9%), respectively. The point of saturation as well as maximal concentration of selenium in liver was reached in period between fourth (556.7 ? 40.6 ?gkg-1) and sixth (570.8 ? 44.1 ?gkg-1) week of age. Also, feeding with basic diet containing 250 ?gkg-1 Se the selenium blood level reached 162.8 ? 28.9 ?gL-1 already at day 14 that represent 65.1% of dietary selenium.
Growth inhibition of some Eurotium and Aspergillus species with spice extracts
Authors: Dimic Gordana , Kocic-Tanackov Suncica , Karalic Dragana
Published: July 2008

The antifungal activity of spice extracts obtained from caraway seed, garlic and origanum was tested against antifungal activity of Eurotium herbariorum E. amstelodami, Aspergillus flavus and A. sydowii. Caraway seed extract has been proved to possess the highest inhibitory effect on all investigated mould species. The concentrations of caraway extract, sufficient to inhibit the growth completely were: 0,5% for E. herbariorum, E. amstelodami and A. sydowii, and 1% for A. flavus; of garlic, 1% for Eurotium spp. and 2% for A. sydowii, and of origanum, 1% for E. herbariorum and 2% for E. amstelodami. The results of colonies diameter measuring showed that garlic and origanum extracts have no significant suppressing ability on micellar growth of A. flavus, while garlic was more efficient in other test cultures.
Pathogenicity and diversity of vegetative compatibility of Fusarium verticillioides
Authors: Krnjaja Vesna , Levic Jelena , Stankovic Slavica , Tomic Zorica
Published: July 2008

Pathogenicity of 10 Fusarium verticillioides isolates, originated from grain of wheat (five isolates) and maize (five isolates), were studied under greenhouse conditions. Based on different parameters of the pathogenicity estimate (a scale for % of nonemerged plants, % of survived plants, plant vigour - the growth and dry weight of roots and epicotyls and disease severity) it was determined that all F. verticillioides isolates expressed a different degree of pathogenicity. According to % of nonemerged plants six three and one F. verticillioides isolates expressed low, moderate and high degree of pathogenicity, respectively. All F. verticillioides isolates reduced the plant survival rate and vigour, while the disease severity ranged from 2.0 to 3.54. Two types of nit mutants, nit1 and NitM, were obtained by the use of the method of vegetative compatibility. The frequency of nit1 mutants was greater (58.79%) than the frequency of NitM mutants (5.77%). A total of 10 vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) of F. verticillioides were established in the complementation tests. These results point out to a high genetic diversity of F. verticillioides population.
Investigations of the capability of Fusarium isolates from corn for biosynthesis of fusariotoxins
Authors: Jajic Igor , Bocarov-Stancic Aleksandra , Bijelic Milorad
Published: July 2008

The aim of this paper was to investigate the potential of zearalenone (ZEN) and type A trichothecenes (T-2 toxin and diacetoxyscirpenole - DAS) for biosynthesis by Fusarium spp. isolated from corn kernels contaminated by mycotoxins. The samples of corn kernels (2004 and 2005 harvest) originating in different regions of Backa (Vojvodina, Serbia) were tested. Mycotoxicological investigations showed in most cases a significant contamination with deoxynivalenol (DON 200 - 2,460 ?g/kg) and ZEA (520 1,680 ?g/kg). Isolations and identifications of fusaria established only the presence of species F. verticillioides, after one month storage in freezer conditions, in fusariotoxin positive samples. The control cultures known as ZEA producers - F. graminearum GZ-LES, i.e. T-2 toxin and DAS producer - F. sporotrichioides KF-38/1/R were also tested. In vitro toxicological investigations of isolated fusaria were performed in liquid semisynthetic media (GPK or SPK), and on wet sterilized corn kernels, respectively. Under testing conditions, analyzed F. verticillioide and F. sporotrishioides isolates were not ZEA producers. Contrary to them, F. graminearum GZ-LES pure culture was very good producer of fusariotoxins; it biosynthesized max. 465,900 ?g/kg DON, and 4,416 ?g/kg ZEA, respectively. Cultivation conditions influenced a great deal of T-2 toxin production under laboratory conditions. In most cases, higher yields were obtained during the cultivation of F. verticillioides in liquid glucose medium (80-240 ?g/L). Contrary to the control strain F. sporotrichioides KF-38/1/R that under the same conditions synthesized, besides T-2 toxin (4.000 ?g/L) and DAS (240 ?g/L), isolates of F. verticillioides from corn grain did not show that ability.
Resistance of some commercial winter wheat cultivars to Tilletia tritici
Authors: Staletic Mirjana , Gudzic Slavisa , Jevtic Radivoje , Milovanovic Milivoje , Stevanovic Vesna , Rajicic Vera , Knezevic Branislav , Nikolic Katerina , Deletic Nebojsa
Published: July 2008

This paper deals with the resistance of twenty commercial winter wheat cultivars to common bunt causal agent (Tilletia tritici). Significant differences among the cultivars concerning the infection percent were observed, as well as the differences in the level of commercial cultivars' resistance to T. tritici. Most of the studied cultivars belonged to susceptible categories, and just few of them to the resistant ones. Cultivar Lasta was classified as highly resistant during the both investigation years in Kragujevac, while in Leposavic Lasta and Tiha were classified as resistant. The other studied cultivars were more or less susceptible.
Experimentally induced dermatomycoses at rats and treatment with Lavandula angustifolia essential oil
Authors: Sokovic Marina , Glamoclija Jasmina , Marin Petar , Brkic Dejan , Vukojevic Jelena , Jovanovic Dragutin , Bulajic Nina , Kataranovski Dragan
Published: July 2008

The in vivo evaluation of antifungal activity of the Lavandula angustifolia essential oil was made on two-month old male Wistar rats. We examined the therapeutic potency against experimentally induced dermatomycoses in rats using the most frequent dermatomycetes, Trichophyton mentagrophytes. The therapeutic efficacy of 1% solution of essential oil as well as commercial preparation-bifonazole, was evaluated. During the 13-day observation period the oil-treated animals were cured completely.
Toxigenic and pathogenic fungi in Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk., 1769) from natural populations in semiagricultural habitats
Authors: Kataranovski Milena , Glamoclija Jasmina , Sokovic Marina , Ljaljevic-Grbic Milica , Kataranovski Dragan
Published: July 2008

In this study, the presence of toxigenic and pathogenic fungi was detected in individuals of natural populations of Norway rats from semiagricultural habitats. The presence of fungi was noted in 19 out of 30 (63%) individuals examined. Six fungal species were isolated and identified, of which majority belonged to Hyphomycetes (Deuteromycotina) and Mucor racemosus from Zygomycotina. All of detected species are of public health importance and some of them might influence animals health.
Effect of salt hyperosmotic stress on yeast cell viability
Authors: Logothetis Stelios , Walker Graeme , Nerantzis Elias
Published: July 2008

During fermentation for ethanol production, yeasts are subjected to different kinds of physico-chemical stresses such as: initially high sugar concentration and low temperature; and later, increased ethanol concentrations. Such conditions trigger a series of biological responses in an effort to maintain cell cycle progress and yeast cell viability. Regarding osmostress, many studies have been focused on transcriptional activation and gene expression in laboratory strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The overall aim of this present work was to further our understanding of wine yeast performance during fermentations under osmotic stress conditions. Specifically, the research work focused on the evaluation of NaCl-induced stress responses of an industrial wine yeast strain S. cerevisiae (VIN 13), particularly with regard to yeast cell growth and viability. The hypothesis was that osmostress conditions energized specific genes to enable yeast cells to survive under stressful conditions. Experiments were designed by pretreating cells with different sodium chloride concentrations (NaCl: 4%, 6% and 10% w/v) growing in defined media containing D-glucose and evaluating the impact of this on yeast growth and viability. Subsequent fermentation cycles took place with increasing concentrations of D-glucose (20%, 30%, 40% w/v) using salt-adapted cells as inocula. We present evidence that osmostress induced by mild salt pre-treatments resulted in beneficial influences on both cell viability and fermentation performance of an industrial wine yeast strain.
The Origins of Family Planning
Authors: Baron Beth
Published: July 2008

This article looks at the origins of the family planning program in Egypt as a case study in the history of relations between the emerging community of international donors, state officials, and local actors in the postwar period. The paper suggests that Americans and Egyptians were not in polar opposition over family planning. Egyptian women activists, medical specialists, state officials, and American population experts formed alliances that crossed national boundaries and cut at cross purposes to promote their varied agendas. The main losers in the scramble to establish family planning in Egypt were those female reformers who had been the first to endorse it and offer contraceptives in their clinics. At stake was control over an important form of aid that affected millions of women, management of a key program in the emerging social welfare state, and a victory in development circles.
Transgression in Narration
Authors: Amir-Ebrahimi Masserat
Published: July 2008

Since 1979, Iranian society has been living under a triple set of standards of urf, sharia, and modernity. An important field of superposition and contradiction among these standards is the gender issue and how to control women and their sexuality in the private and the public spheres. In the past two decades, gradual transgressions of urf and sharia have become a sign of modernity and resistance for many women and young people who wish to generate changes in their situation. Since 2001, the trend of willfully neglected veiling (bad-hejabi) in physical space has been accompanied by the virtual unveiling of women bloggers in cyberspace. Through their personal narration, women bloggers transgress several sociocultural boundaries. The strategy of women in both spaces is the same: to become more visible, to speak out, and to create a new identity closer to their “inner self.”
Keyhole, Google Earth, and 3D Worlds: An Interview with Avi Bar-Zeev
Authors: Crampton Jeremy W.
Published: July 2008

Avi Bar-Zeev is a co-founder of Keyhole () – maker of EarthViewer, which later became Google Earth ( http://earth.google.com ) – and an early employee of Intrinsic Graphics and a number of interesting start-ups. He developed technologies for Second Life, including the procedural 3D object rendering code. Early in his career, he helped develop Disney's Aladdin's Magic Carpet VR Ride, ( http://www.imagineering.org/wdilabs.html ), one of the first real-time (60 fps) first-person immersive entertainment applications, and went on to lead or influence a number of Disney 3D experiences. He typically consults for a living, inventing technologies as needed and helping clients through the maze of options. He regularly blogs about subjects related to his technical interests and expertise at http://www.realityprime.com .
THE DISSEMINATIONOFTHE BERLIN MODELOFPSYCHOANALYTIC TRAINING: A SKETCH OF THE INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COMMISSION 1925–1938
Authors: Schröter Michael
Published: July 2008

This paper sketches the history of the International Training Commission (ITC). Founded in 1925 to propagate the Berlin system of psychoanalytic training with its tripartite structure and the exclusive responsibility of the Training Committee in training matters, the Commission went through several storms (lay analysis), seemed to have reached quiet waters when in 1932 IPA guidelines for training were passed, but under the constant pressure of American opposition had to give up all legislative and controlling powers in 1936, changing into a mere platform of sharing experiences, until it was finally paralysed when in 1938 American psychoanalysis declared its organizational independence of the IPA. The Berlin system of training spread all the same, but it did so by different means. In an Appendix a correspondence between Franz Alexander and Max Eitingon of February/March 1938 is documented, dealing with the ‘Marienbad affair’ and with the issue of American independence from ITC regulation. Der Beitrag skizziert die Geschichte der Internationalen Unterrichtskommission (IUK). 1925 geschaffen, um das Berliner System der Analytikerausbildung mit seiner dreiteiligen Struktur und der exklusiven Zuständigkeit des Unterrichtsausschusses in Ausbildungsdingen allgemein durchzusetzen, erlebte die Kommission einige Stürme (Laienanalyse), schien zur Ruhe zu kommen, als 1932 Ausbildungsrichtlinien für die IPV verabschiedet wurden, musste aber unter dem anhaltenden Widerstand aus Amerika 1936 auf jede Gesetzgebungs- und Kontrollbefugnis verzichten und sich in ein Forum des Erfahrungsaustauschs verwandeln, bevor sie 1938 vollends gelähmt wurde, als die amerikanische Psychoanalyse ihre organisatorische Unabhängigkeit von der IPV erklärte. Das Berliner Ausbildungssystem verbreitete sich gleichwohl, aber auf anderen Wegen. – In einem Anhang wird ein Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Alexander und Max Eitingon von Februar/März 1938 über die ‘Marienbad-Affäre’ und über die beanspruchte Autonomie der amerikanischen Psychoanalyse gegenüber der IUK dokumentiert.
Women's Objectification and the Norm of Assumed Objectivity
Authors: Papadaki Evangelia (Lina)
Published: July 2008

MacKinnon has famously claimed that there is a connection between objectivity and objectification. This paper examines this connection by focusing on a particular norm of objectivity, Assumed Objectivity, which is linked to women's objectification. Haslanger argues that this norm should be rejected since, under conditions of gender inequality, (a) it harms the interests of women (it is pragmatically bad), and (b) it yields false beliefs (it is epistemically bad). Langton attempts to go beyond Haslanger's critique, suggesting that this norm is also epistemically bad because it yields true but unjustified beliefs (beliefs that have a wrong direction of fit). I argue that while the norm of Assumed Objectivity is epistemically problematic in yielding false beliefs, it is wrongly accused of yielding true but unjustified beliefs.
Pollination efficiencies of flower‐visiting insects as determined by direct genetic analysis of pollen origin
Authors: Matsuki Yu , Tateno Ryunosuke , Shibata Mitsue , Isagi Yuji
Published: July 2008

The amount and genetic composition of pollen grains that are transported to flowers influence the reproduction and fitness of plants. Despite the importance of insect‐pollination systems, an understanding of those systems is still lacking due to the absence of a genetic analysis of pollen grains that are transported to flowers. We evaluated the pollination efficiencies of bumblebees (Apidae, Bombus spp.), flower beetles (Scarabaeidae, subfamily Cetoniinae, Protaetia and Eucetonia sp.), and small beetles (Lagriidae, Arthromacra sp.) that visited the flowers of Magnolia obovata (Magnoliaceae) using quantitative (flower visitation frequency, amount of adherent pollen per insect) and qualitative (origin and genetic diversity of adherent pollen per insect) criteria. Most of the pollen adhering to bumblebees and small beetles was self‐pollen. This result suggests that visitation by these insects may cause geitonogamous pollen flow and negatively affect the reproduction of M. obovata, causing inbreeding depression. In contrast, flower beetles transported large amounts of genetically diverse outcross pollen. Our results suggest that certain beetle species contribute quantitatively and qualitatively to the pollination of M. obovata. Direct genetic analysis of pollen grains will advance our understanding of plant mating systems and may shed light on the mutualism and coevolution of plants and flower visitors.
Menispermaceae from the Cerrejón Formation, middle to late Paleocene, Colombia
Authors: Doria Gabriela , Jaramillo Carlos A. , Herrera Fabiany
Published: July 2008

The origin and processes creating the high diversity of plant species in neotropical rain forests and their floristic composition and multistratitified forest structure are still uncertain. Here, we studied one of the most common leaf morphotypes of the Cerrejón flora (middle‐late Paleocene, ca. 60‐58 Ma), Guajira, Colombia, that contains one of the oldest records of neotropical rain forest floras. Fifty‐seven leaf specimens were carefully examined with a focus on general morphology, venation patterns, and cuticular characteristics. The analysis allowed us to recognize four new species that were assigned to the fossil‐leaf genusMenispermiteson the basis of an ovate leaf shape with cordate to truncate bases, actinodromous primary venation, brochidodromous secondary venation, percurrent tertiary venation, regular polygonal reticulate fourth and fifth venation, well‐developed polygonal areoles, entire margin, and the presence of a fimbrial vein. This set of characters suggests a possible affinity with the pantropical angiosperm family Menispermaceae. The predominantly climbing habit of this family suggests that the Cerrejón Paleocene tropical rain forest was already multistratified. These findings represent the earliest record for the family in northern South America.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State
Authors: Kitabchi Abbas E. , Umpierrez Guillermo E. , Murphy Mary Beth
Published: July 2008

The two most serious acute metabolic emergencies seen in diabetes are diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), which is responsible for more than 100 000 hospital admissions per year in the United States, and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), which is seen in approximately 10 cases per 100 000 people in the general population. Mortality rates in DKA range from 2 to 5% and from 5 to 35% in HHS. The most common precipitating factors in DKA and HHS include infections and omission or inadequate diabetes therapy. Absolute or ineffective insulin levels lead to a series of biochemical events culminating in hyperglycemia, ketosis, and acidosis in DKA and severe hyperglycemia and dehydration without ketosis in HHS. Major therapeutic goals of both emergencies include improvement of organ perfusion by increasing circulatory volume, gradual reduction of osmolality, gradual correction of serum glucose, clearance of both serum and urine of ketones (in DKA), and normalization of electrolyte levels. Careful and frequent monitoring is the most important aspect of management in both conditions. An algorithm for treatment of both DKA and HHS is discussed. Improved education and access to health care, early treatment of hyperglycemia, and monitoring hospitalized patients for elevations in blood glucose continue to be areas that could impact the incidence of these potentially fatal disease states.
Active
X
Data Objects (
ADO
)
Authors: Kapoor Bhushan
Published: July 2008

Microsoft has developed or patronized several technologies to access data from a wide range of data stores in order to comply with its universal data access strategy. Three such primary and interrelated technologies are ODBC, OLE DB, and ADO. Although ODBC is restricted to traditional SQL (structured query language) data stores, OLE DB provides universal data access. ODBC and OLE DB are low‐level, complex interfaces between applications and data stores. Microsoft developed ADO to provide simple and easy‐to‐use interfaces for both traditional and nontraditional data stores. ADO is an OLE DB data consumer optimized for building both client/server and Web‐based applications. This chapter blends theory with practical examples from Web‐based applications that interact with data stores.
Authentication
Authors: McDaniel Patrick
Published: July 2008

Authentication is the process by which the identity of an entity is established. Authenticating entities present credentials, such as passwords or certificates, as evidence of their identity. The entity is deemed authentic where presented credentials are valid and sufficient. Note that authentication does not determine which entities should be given access; it only verifies that entities are who they claim to be. However, it is only after entities are authenticated that their rights to resources can be assessed (through authorization). Hence, failure to correctly authenticate users on the Internet can leave online resources vulnerable to misuse. This article considers the semantics, methods, and mechanisms for authentication on the Internet. The goals and principles of authentication are illustrated through several expository systems. The embodied trust, operation, and limitations of these systems are explored. This article is concluded with a number of axioms for the selection and use of authentication systems on the Internet.
Benchmarking Internet
Authors: Vehovar Vasja , Dolnicar Vesna
Published: July 2008

This chapter explores the benchmarking process at different levels: company benchmarking, (public) sector benchmarking, framework conditions benchmarking, and benchmarking on the international level. Within these contexts, Internet benchmarking is discussed, particularly in the context of national comparisons. The key benchmarks (e.g., number of Internet users, number of Internet hosts) are presented, together with their methodological specifics, and the leading international organizations and projects that collect such benchmarks are briefly introduced. Additionally, the problem of benchmarking in time is presented.
C/C++
Authors: Giannini Mario
Published: July 2008

This chapter attempts to describe the C and C++ programming languages in general and also how they apply to developing software for Internet applications. The reader will be taken through a brief history of the languages, as well as its most common strengths and weaknesses. Although the scope of the two languages makes it impossible to cover them completely in this context, the languages are discussed in sufficient detail so that, with the proper tools, the reader can develop and test simple C or C++ programs. Working example programs are included. Finally, attention is given to how the language is used to develop Internet applications, and how it competes with other languages such as Java and common scripting languages such as Perl and PHP.
Click‐and‐Brick Electronic Commerce
Authors: Steinfield Charles
Published: July 2008

This chapter provides an overview of the click‐and‐brick approach to electronic commerce, defined as involving the integrated use of traditional and Internet‐based sales channels. The current state of e‐commerce and the increasing role played by click‐and‐brick business models is noted. The chapter introduces the basic motivations behind a click‐and‐brick model, as well as the potential dangers arising from channel conflicts. A framework is offered that identifies the many sources of synergy between physical and virtual operations. It further emphasizes management strategies that can help to alleviate channel conflicts. The framework also highlights the types of benefits that can accrue to companies that successfully integrate the Internet with existing physical operations. The chapter closes with several example cases that serve to illustrate the basic click‐and‐brick framework.
Common Gateway Interface (
CGI
) Scripts
Authors: Kurkovsky Stan
Published: July 2008

Common gateway interface (CGI) is the first technology that has been created to enable interactivity on the World Wide Web. Despite its relative age and a number of competing technologies, CGI remains a viable tool for creating dynamic Web pages. This chapter introduces CGI technology from a historic perspective. Further, this chapter examines the architecture of a CGI script and illustrates it with several examples written in Perl. The chapter concludes with an overview of different applications of CGI scripts and future prospects of this technology.
Computer Security Incident Response Teams (
CSIRT
s)
Authors: Panko Raymond R.
Published: July 2008

For major security breaches, many corporations activate computer security incident response teams (CSIRTs). CSIRTs pull together the skills of IT security personnel, IT personnel, functional line managers, other corporate employees, external business partners, and law enforcement agencies, in order to analyze the attack, contain it, repair damage, (possibly) punish the wrongdoer, and harden the attacked system to prevent a repeat of the security incident.
Computer Viruses and Worms
Authors: Slade Robert
Published: July 2008

Viruses are the largest class, but by no means the only examples, of malicious software. This chapter will explore the many varieties of viruses, concentrating on the major classes, as well as related malicious programs. It will also explain and examine the basic means of detecting viruses, and preventing them from infecting your computer.
Conducted Communications Media
Authors: Pigg Thomas L.
Published: July 2008

The purpose of this article is to discuss conducted communications media used for computer network applications. The three major types of cable to be discussed include coaxial, twisted pair, and fiber optic. Each cable type exhibits several important characteristics, such as physical makeup, bandwidth, and maximum cable lengths. This article compares and contrasts the distinctions between the different types of conductive transmission cables. By reviewing cable specifications, the reader should gain a better understanding of the network applications for a particular communications media. Furthermore, advantages and disadvantages ought to become more apparent. Finally, the current and future position of conducted communications media in the computer networking community is evaluated.
Cybercrime and Cyberfraud
Authors: Chin Camille
Published: July 2008

The Internet has changed the world. We now have access to a wealth of multidisciplinary resources and economic opportunities in cyberspace, but the Internet also makes it easier for criminals to commit crimes globally. Corporate saboteurs scheming to gain economic advantages over competitors can use Trojan horses or computer viruses to access corporate secrets and other viruses to destroy important company assets. Criminals can easily defraud consumers' remotely using fraudulent online auctions or franchise offerings. Thieves can use computers to obtain credit card numbers instead of rifling through a victim's mail.

With great privilege comes great responsibility. We benefit from the opportunities in cyberspace but we must also become educated about the dangers. We have a responsibility to educate ourselves about the varieties of cybercrime and cyberfraud that are most prevalent in order to protect ourselves and participate fully in the process of creating legal safeguards against these new dangers.
Data Warehousing and Data Marts
Authors: Kelley Chuck
Published: July 2008

Data warehouses and data marts came of age starting in the 1990s. During the explosion of the Internet, the data warehouse and data marts played an increasing role in supplying organizations with more information about their current or potential customers (regardless of whether they are business‐to‐business, business‐to‐customer, or business‐to‐employee). They also provide the organization with the ability to determine the navigability of their Web sites through clickstream analysis.

Learning to build, use, and gain insight from the data warehouse is an on‐going process. However, much needs to be done before we can accept what is learned as real and there must always be a continual concern about privacy.
Digital Divide
Authors: Dávila Jaime J.
Published: July 2008

Because of its great potential as an information distribution medium, the Internet has been described as a channel by which different groups in society can achieve equity. For this reason, having disenfranchised communities miss access to this technology is seen as a social, economic, political, and educational problem. This paper examines both data and arguments around this issue, commonly referred to as the “digital divide.” National and international trends, as well as causes and solutions for perceived patterns, are presented and discussed.
Digital Libraries
Authors: McCarthy Cavan
Published: July 2008

This chapter defines digital libraries and lists their advantages and limitations. It offers descriptive examples of different types of digital libraries, such as multimedia, book‐oriented, or image‐oriented systems, as well as those dealing with ephemera and manuscripts. This chapter discusses the history of significant digital initiatives, including American Memory, maintained by the Library of Congress, and Project Gutenberg. Special attention is paid to e‐journals and their impact on the process of dissemination of research. Electronic theses and dissertations are also discussed. Pointer or signpost sites and commercial digital libraries are covered in a separate section. Procedures in the creation of digital libraries, such as selection, copyright clearance, digitization, indexing, computer and database systems, are outlined. Examples of metadata and XML are included. The text concludes with a balanced view of the future of both books and digital libraries.
Disaster Recovery Planning
Authors: Cremonini Marco , Samarati Pierangela
Published: July 2008

Historically, enterprises that have survived natural or man‐made disasters have had recovery plans in place and were ready to face the risk of business interruptions. Today, the increased dependency on technology and tighter requirements in terms of recovery speed imposed on e‐business and Web‐based services have made recovery plans more complex. Disaster recovery planning, which plans for failures of components of the IT infrastructure and system or network outages, misconfigurations, and natural disasters, should be treated as a necessity by conscious system administrators, managers, and CEOs. In this chapter we discuss disaster recovery planning, illustrating the main phases of the planning process and the techniques that can be used to provide for recovery.
Downloading from the Internet
Authors: Maharjan Kuber
Published: July 2008

Millions of people use the Internet to communicate through instant messaging, e‐mail, chat, discussion groups, and newsgroups. They also conduct research, shop, read news, listen to music and radio, transfer files, and even watch TV on their personal computer. To be successful in a profession today, individuals need to be able to download from the Internet efficiently. Downloading means the transfer of a file to the user's computer. By understanding the fundamentals of downloading from the Web, they will understand the types of files that can be downloaded, the security issues in downloading, and the legal aspects of downloading from the Web. This chapter will explain downloading with attendant details.
E
‐government
Authors: Schelin Shannon , Garson G. David
Published: July 2008

E‐government is a central management reform strategy of myriad governments across the globe, including efforts at the federal, state, and local levels of the United States and internationally. In the United States, e‐government arises from an administrative background associated with the “reinventing government” movement of the 1990s and rests on values emphasizing citizen‐centric, results‐oriented, market‐enabled government. In other countries, such as New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, e‐government has evolved from new public management. Originating in the 1980s and accelerating greatly after 1998, electronic government seeks to serve citizens better while improving governmental productivity and effectiveness in the provision of e‐services, in e‐procurement by government as the world's largest customer, and in new e‐democratic forms of governance, irrespective of geography.
Electronic Commerce and Electronic Business
Authors: Steinfield Charles
Published: July 2008

In this chapter, we provide an introduction to electronic commerce and electronic business. A critical theme is that despite the failure of so many dot‐coms, e‐commerce is becoming more pervasive. We also argue that impacts on businesses and markets are complex and often counterintuitive. First, we present an overview of the current status of e‐commerce and provide a definition that focuses on the commercial exchange of goods, services, and information between buyers and sellers, rather than on internal firm transactions. Next, we trace the development of e‐commerce from several predecessors to the Internet that served as prior platforms for electronic commerce. Then, we introduce the notion of a business model, including business‐to‐consumer and business‐to‐business models. We note critical flaws in many early models, such as the lack of attention to profits. We extend the business model discussion by overviewing innovative e‐commerce marketing strategies, many of which highlight new ways of interacting with customers. We explore the use of the Internet to support consumer‐initiated transactions, such as those common on services like eBay and Priceline. One important enabler for e‐commerce, electronic payment, is covered next. Then, we introduce several emerging technologies that are likely to extend e‐commerce into new arenas. We present an overview of important barriers that have slowed the adoption of e‐commerce. In the final section we examine the often counterintuitive results of research on e‐commerce impacts on competition and markets. Key themes and conclusions are provided in the final section.
Electronic Data Interchange (
EDI
)
Authors: McGowan Matthew K.
Published: July 2008

Electronic data interchange (EDI), the computer‐to‐computer exchange of business transactions in standardized formats, is one of the earliest forms of electronic commerce. Business benefits of EDI include reduced costs, improved accuracy, and support for just‐in‐time (JIT) inventory management and continuous replenishment process (CRP) strategies. EDI also has the potential to drive up costs, particularly for smaller organizations. This article provides an understanding of how EDI works and explains the technical and administrative aspects of implementing EDI. The article covers the standards developed for EDI and provides example applications of EDI. Although EDI pre‐dates commercial use of the Internet, Internet‐based EDI is rapidly evolving and offers the potential to make it easier and less expensive to attain the benefits of EDI. Organizations that implement EDI need to consider business process reengineering and trading partner relationships to be successful.