bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Grammaticalization and the sentimental evolution of Antoine Meillet
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: April 2023

This chapter considers the work where the term grammaticalisation (‘grammaticalization’) first appeared in print, for the process through which an independent word becomes a bound morpheme, or otherwise loses its morphological and semantic autonomy, usually with concomitant phonological reduction. Grammaticalization has recently become a central topic in historical linguistics, and the 1912 paper in which Meillet (1866–1936) introduced it is ritually cited, although the lack of an English translation has kept it inaccessible to linguists who do not read French. Even those linguists who read French know the paper exclusively from its reprinting in a 1921 compendium of Meillet’s work. Rarely does one get the sense that they have read it with due diligence, let alone understood it in the context of its place within Meillet’s intellectual trajectory, which the introductory essay and notes to this translation lay out. This chapter aims to help linguists who work with grammaticalization to see what their conception of it does or does not share with Meillet’s original version. The introduction considers how the article relates to a long-standing tradition of treating grammar as natural, and lexicon as artificial, and it weighs up the significance of Meillet’s concern with the role of expressive force, together with his use of the political metaphor of autonomy and how it may connect with his later views on languages in the ‘new Europe’. It proposes a homology between the grammaticalization process and the development of linguistics, which has aimed to transfer as much as possible from the realm of parole to that of langue, with evidence cited from recent controversies over the possibility of ‘degrammaticalization’.
The phonological loop as a neural network
Authors: Hitch Graham J.
Published: April 2023

The phonological loop was the first subsystem to be explored in the multicomponent model of working memory and remains arguably the best understood. This chapter describes how evidence about verbal short-term memory converged on the idea of the loop as a rapidly decaying phonological store refreshed by subvocal rehearsal. It describes how the loop accounts for systematic cross-linguistic differences in digit span, is used to store temporary information in cognitive skills such as mental calculation, and, most importantly, vocabulary acquisition. However, the initial description did not specify how the loop maintains information about serial order and mediates long-term learning. The bulk of the chapter describes progress in answering these questions through attempts to model the loop computationally as an artificial neural network. The results point towards a mechanism for serial order in which the elements of a sequence are simultaneously active and a process of ‘competitive queuing’ selects them one by one in the correct way. The results also suggest that learning a novel verbal sequence involves a combination of matching current input to prior knowledge and creating new long-term chunks, though there remains more to do to apply these insights to vocabulary acquisition. Separating out processes governing order and item information in the loop has been fruitful in contrasting different patterns of neuropsychological impairment in the verbal domain and taking forward the investigation of arithmetical skills. More generally, there is growing evidence for competitive queuing processes and their neural underpinnings in a range of non-verbal domains, including visual and spatial short-term memory, motor planning, and control.
Working memory in language learning and bilingual development
Authors: Bunting Michael F. , Wen Zhisheng (Edward)
Published: April 2023

Working memory and language are integrated and intertwined to such an extent that it has become imperative to understand their interactions. Given their close association, this chapter aims to provide a thorough and critical review of the theoretical links between the more specific system of working memory and its relation to native and second language learning and development. To this end, the chapter first traces the conceptions of working memory from Baddeley’s seminal multicomponent model to Cowan’s embedded-processes model and Engle’s attentional control model, in tandem with their specific theoretical and methodological implications for nuanced language learning and processing domains as well as bilingual development. The chapter concludes by calling for a shift of paradigm from the previous focus on working memory components to the current enthusiasm over executive functions and the emerging construct of attentional control in language and bilingualism research.
Memory rehabilitation
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: April 2023

Memory rehabilitation is part of cognitive rehabilitation, which in turn is part of neuropsychological rehabilitation. This chapter considers ways in which theories, models, and frameworks have enhanced our attempts to rehabilitate those who have sustained an organic memory deficit. It first considers how theory has influenced the understanding of memory by addressing time-based memory, semantic and episodic memory, explicit or implicit memory, recall versus recognition, and anterograde or retrograde memory. Next, it reflects on how theory has enabled memory difficulties to be better assessed. The chapter examines standardized versus behavioural measures and suggests that information from both disciplines complement the understanding of the difficulties faced by memory-impaired people, and should be regarded as the most influential fields here. Treatment is focused on next and theory is questioned as to how its influence reduces memory problems in everyday life. Reduction of environmental demands, helping people to learn more efficiently, and the provision of compensatory aids can improve everyday life. Models and frameworks from each of these methodologies are addressed. The final sections of the chapter look at ways to plan and how best to evaluate rehabilitation. Theoretical attempts to tackle these issues are considered, including cognitive behaviour therapy and single-case experimental designs. The conclusions are that rehabilitation should focus on everyday life, address cognitive, emotional, and behavioural problems, and integrate both theory and practice.
Introduction
Authors: Mantouvalou Virginia
Published: April 2023

What is the role of the law in relation to the treatment of the most vulnerable workers in society? How does it affect those who are often in a position of disadvantage for reasons such as race, gender, or poverty, and who may sometimes also not be unionised or otherwise represented in politics or in the workplace? Even though areas such as labour law and social security law typically intervene to protect these workers from market powers, we also observe that specific provisions in these and other areas of law that regulate labour establish the background conditions for vulnerable people to be exploited. Instead of strengthening the rights of workers, these laws create opportunities for those who have advantages to exploit those who are in a position of disadvantage by making them more vulnerable to exploitation than they might otherwise be. In this way, structures of exploitation are created, maintained, and increased, which are described here as ‘state-mediated’. This chapter presents an outline of the key questions, topics, and themes of the book. It introduces the problem of legal rules with an appearance of legitimacy that place large numbers of workers in a position of disadvantage through the story of Toni, an agency worker, and explains how the problem of ‘state-mediated structural injustice’ will be addressed in the chapters that follow. The chapter also introduces the role of human rights law in this context.
Structures of Injustice at Work
Authors: Mantouvalou Virginia
Published: April 2023

This chapter presents the theoretical framework of ‘state-mediated structures of exploitation’ at work, namely legal rules with an appearance of legitimacy that increase workers’ vulnerability that is then systematically exploited, primarily by private actors. It builds on the work of Iris Marion Young on structural injustice, but focuses on the political and legal responsibility of the state. It discusses the story of Sandy that Young used in her work, and explains that Young may have underestimated the role of the law in this context. It uses a different story to explain this, that of Marcell. The theoretical framework of state-mediated structures of injustice helps identify examples where the state through legislation takes identifiable special measures which promote a prima facie legitimate aim, yet in practice increase the vulnerability of workers to exploitation by employers. The vulnerability created by these measures is systematic. We observe a pattern of exploitation that emerges as a result—a structure—and not just some occasional or isolated cases. The chapter presents the theoretical framework, explains how it is different to Young’s account, and what insights this offers.
Captive Workers
Authors: Mantouvalou Virginia
Published: April 2023

Prisoners, those who are sentenced to community work, and people in immigration detention are often in a position of disadvantage because of poverty or race. Having work opportunities while deprived of their physical freedom can serve important purposes, such as learning new skills that can be useful for their societal reintegration after captivity. However, they are often forced to work while also being excluded from the protection of labour rights, such as the right to a minimum wage or the right to organise, as well as social security rights. Legal rules exacerbate their vulnerability by removing fundamental protections that other workers enjoy, and are connected to widespread structures of exploitation. This chapter examines these rules and finds that even though they may have an appearance of legitimacy, they increase or perpetuate people’s vulnerability, thereby making them prone to exploitation, while both profit-making entities and the state systematically exploit them. There is a continuum of exploitation in all these settings which are either central to, or associated with, criminal justice and immigration controls.
Welfare-to-Work
Authors: Mantouvalou Virginia
Published: April 2023

The focus in this chapter is on strict schemes of welfare conditionality that force and at times trap people in precarious work and in-work poverty. There is growing evidence that schemes are becoming increasingly punitive and, in this way, they force individuals into exploitative work and in-work poverty instead of supporting them to find a route out of poverty through paid work. Welfare-to-work schemes thereby often turn the unemployed or underemployed poor into working and exploited poor. By deploying coercive conditionality, legal rules push people into precarious work and generate state-mediated structures of injustice. These schemes can be viewed as having an appearance of legitimacy, as their stated purpose is to promote employment and hence social inclusion and also support people out of poverty. However, they create patterns that are very damaging for large numbers of people, while employers benefit from this situation. The problem here is not that activation policies or non-standard work arrangements can never be legitimate. The claim is that the state creates and sustains a system that can be viewed as legitimate in its aims but problematic when it becomes particularly punitive whilst also forcing the poor into exploitative employment relations that are (mostly) lawful, making exploitation standard and routine. Even though welfare-to-work schemes and non-standard work arrangements, taken separately, might not be necessarily unjust, the overall structure that forces people into workplace exploitation is unjust.
Human Rights II
Authors: Mantouvalou Virginia
Published: April 2023

Welfare conditionality schemes with harsh sanctions increase the vulnerability to exploitation of the unemployed poor and turn them into working and exploited poor, as we saw in Chapter 5. Is this structure compatible with human rights law? This chapter considers this question in light of provisions such as the prohibition of forced labour, the right to private life, the right to social assistance, and the right to a subsistence minimum. It also assesses precarious working conditions separately from coercive conditionality, and explains that legal rules that constitute these structures may also at times violate human rights law, including trade union rights and the prohibition of discrimination. The chapter does not argue that all injustices that arise from welfare conditionality or precarious work can be addressed through human rights law. However, human rights law can challenge aspects of these legal rules and thus destabilise the unjust structures that affect disadvantaged workers.
Precedent, Exemplarity, and Imitation
Authors: Amaya Amalia
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines precedent in law from an exemplarist perspective. First, it develops an account of precedent as a specific kind of exemplar. More precisely, it claims that precedents as exemplars have a dual ontology as both typical and unique, embody a public, object-based, and critical kind of exemplarity, and have emotional, monumental, and aesthetic dimensions. Next, it gives an account of reasoning by precedent as a kind of imitative reasoning. From this analysis emerges a view of precedential reasoning as a collective and historical process that has both unreflective and deliberative components, combines adaptative and formal imitation, is both backward- and forward-looking, and aims at striking a balance between faithful transmission and transformative innovation. Lastly, the chapter discusses the role that precedent plays in law’s development in the context of larger questions about imitation-driven cultural evolution. This perspective allows us to see precedent following as a central mechanism which secures continuity while enabling change, and unveils some complexities involved in the process whereby precedent contributes to the growth of the law. In short, this chapter shows that exemplarism illuminates important aspects of the nature of precedent, reasoning by precedent, and its role in law’s development.
An Artefactual Theory of Precedent
Authors: Ehrenberg Kenneth M
Published: April 2023

This chapter provides an explanation of precedent as a kind of artefact, in keeping with broader accounts of law that do so, specifically the author’s account of law as a genre of institutionalized abstract artefact. The chapter develops its explanation by responding to an argument by Dan Priel against seeing the common law as an artefact when understood to be a form of custom. The chapter shows that customs can themselves be artefacts but also that the precedential elements of common law are not necessarily quite as customary as sometimes considered, showing that the common law built from precedents fits within a distributed design model of artefacts and that stare decisis has a wider systemic function of upholding certain rule of law principles. It ends with some considerations about the institutional nature of precedents, specifically that judicial decisions are most often both applications and developments of legal norms, but also determinations of legal validity.
Precedent as Generalized Second-Order Reasons
Authors: Perry Stephen
Published: April 2023

This chapter argues that the common law doctrine of precedent must be explained and justified in non-positivist terms. Raz, who has advanced the strongest extant argument for legal positivism, holds that the existence and content of all valid law is fully determined by social facts without resort to moral argument. He defends this ‘sources thesis’ by arguing that law can only guide conduct if it is publicly ascertainable by persons without their having to engage in moral argument. This chapter, while acknowledging that the sources thesis may apply to private citizens’ practical reasoning, argues that it does not apply to the practical reasoning of common law courts. Raz’s defence of the sources thesis rests on his notion of a ‘second-order’ reason for action, which is a reason to act on or refrain from acting on a ‘first-order’ reason. Legal rules are, for Raz, ‘exclusionary’ second-order reasons, meaning reasons to refrain from acting on the ordinary balance of first-order reasons. This chapter argues that a satisfactory account of precedent cannot be based on Raz’s notion of a second-order reason. It requires, rather, a generalization of that notion, which holds a second-order reason to be a reason to assign a first-order reason a greater or lesser weight than it would otherwise receive in an assessment of the ordinary balance of reasons. This yields a conception of precedent which does not comply with the sources thesis and is therefore non-positivist in character, because no relevant first-order reasons, including moral reasons, are excluded from judicial consideration as a matter of course.
‘A Previous Instance’
Authors: Waldron Jeremy
Published: April 2023

When questions have been raised about targeted killing—that is, about the practice of hunting down and killing terrorist suspects identified by name—defenders of the practice often bring up the case of the 1943 killing of Japanese Admiral Yamamoto, the architect of the attack on Pearl Harbor, and they cite it as a ‘precedent’. Now, the first meaning given to the word ‘precedent’ in the Oxford English Dictionary is ‘a previous instance taken as an example or rule by which to be guided in similar cases or circumstances; an example by which a comparable subsequent act may be justified’. Can this apply to the Yamamoto killing? In what way can a single instance like this from almost eighty years ago contribute anything to the permissibility of a highly controversial practice today? If the Yamamoto attack is a precedent, it is a non-judicial precedent and its invocation invites us to consider how precedent operates outside the framework of judicial decision. Beyond that, we must also ask what kind of justificatory work a single instance can do in normative argument. Does it justify by being a shining example of the rightfulness of actions of this sort? Or does it justify by beginning a line of analogical conduct that increases in its justifiability the longer it goes on?
Emotions and Precedent
Authors: Kidd White Emily
Published: April 2023

The philosophy of emotion raises complications for theories of precedent by outlining several distinctive ways that emotions might interact with thick concepts. It is productive to think of the effect of some precedents as facets of legal reasoning that are related to the use and understanding of legal concepts as thick concepts. In legal reasoning, precedents are routinely invoked to explicate, and/or to clarify the content of legal concepts that are at issue in a case. This chapter develops an argument by Bernard Williams, to conclude, that is, that one must avoid the risk of overgeneralizing the relationship of emotions to thick concepts, by placing it in the context of legal reasoning. It argues that the several distinctive ways that emotions interact with thick legal concepts pose challenges for any general theoretical account of precedent in legal reasoning. A focus on these different roles that emotions can play in judicial uses of precedent illuminates some of the more subtle ways in which these uses reveal held values, ways of seeing, and political commitments. The chapter finds that in at least some cases where a precedent is invoked to thicken the understanding of a legal concept at issue in a case, variations in the emotional architecture associated with that invocation will come in direct tension with the legal concept under examination, or with other legal values and principles that pertain to equality, and equal treatment under law.
Reasons to Try
Authors: Herstein Ori J
Published: April 2023

The distinction between “reasons to try” and “reasons to succeed” is intriguing and fertile one. Building on John Gardner’s work, Chapter 4 explains the notions of “reasons to try” and “reasons to succeed” and deploys them to illuminate and reflect on different normative contexts as well as explores Gardner’s own use of the distinction. The normative contexts explored using this distinction include the obligations of the law of accidents, obligations in law more generally, as well as how reasons to try and reasons to succeed feature in values and legal obligations such as fidelity, loyalty, friendship, parenthood, integrity, and others.
Legality and Capacity
Authors: Wilmot-Smith Frederick
Published: April 2023

Gardner was a passionate and persistent critic of the thesis that “ought implies can.” Indeed, the rejection of that thesis—or, more accurately, his adoption of a highly idiosyncratic interpretation—lies beneath a number of claims he made about private law. Most obviously, Gardner’s distinction between duties to try and duties to succeed depends upon the intelligibility of duties to succeed (even where trying is rationally pointless). Gardner was also a passionate defender of the value of legality. He understood this to be the value that people are able to guide their lives according to the law’s norms. For example, one of his last published papers, “The Twilight of Legality,” was a cri de cœur against the slow decline of that value in our civil justice system. There is something a little jarring about these twin commitments. “Ought implies can” is often justified by the claim that it is in the nature of reasons that they are able to guide: if some fact cannot guide our action, the argument goes, it cannot be a reason for us. Given that the rule of law’s specific prescriptions—that laws not be retrospective, that they be published, and so on—are grounded in the idea that law should act as a guide, there is an apparent commonality between “ought implies can” and legality. Why endorse one thesis but not the other? And what, if anything, should we take from the fact there is a counterpart in morality to the law’s first ideal?
Deterrence in Private Law
Authors: Steel Sandy
Published: April 2023

Non-consequentialist justifications of private law liability foreground the role of the law in setting out, part-constituting, and providing enforcement of interpersonal moral rights and duties at the suit of right-holders. The justificatory role of deterrence is either explicitly rejected or not given much attention. The impression given is that deterrence is somehow necessarily inconsistent with the justificatory role of interpersonal moral rights and duties. Chapter 8 shows that this is not the case. The chapter outlines a general account of the normative role of deterrence in the justification of private law norms and enforcement. In making this argument, the chapter affirms Gardner’s view that deterrence matters, non-trivially, to private law, while not being the whole story, or even the most important story. In a nutshell, the thesis is that deterrence is neither necessary nor sufficient for a private law norm to be justified, but can play an important, difference-making, justificatory role when individuals do not have a reasonable individual objection to the deterrence-justified norm.
Primary Duty = Secondary Duty?
Authors: Michelon Claudio
Published: April 2023

Chapter 13 addresses one of the central questions in the law of torts: what is the relationship between the primary duty and the secondary (or remedial) duty? The two dominant answers to that question (the continuity thesis and the identity thesis) stand in a complex relationship that is not yet fully understood and, as a result, the arguments for and against each thesis are muddled. The chapter clarifies each thesis, defends each rival against objections that have been leveled against them, and, at the end, presents reasons why an original version of the continuity thesis offers a better framework within which to understand the relationship between primary and remedial duty.
The Role of Plaintiffs in Private Law Institutions
Authors: Katz Larissa , Shapiro Matthew A
Published: April 2023

Chapter 14 considers a question Gardner posed most explicitly in his later writings: why do victims of private wrongs, rather than third parties such as government officials, have the power to sue those who wronged them? Perhaps surprising for an avowed corrective justice theorist, Gardner denied that victims have any moral entitlement to the power to sue, arguing instead that granting them that power serves various institutional objectives, such as the dispersion of political power. The chapter critically examines Gardner’s arguments for this claim, distinguishing several possible readings of his account of the power to sue. While the chapter authors agree with Gardner that the power to sue is rightly conceptualized in institutional terms, they also contend that his account has some serious shortcomings, particularly in how it alienates victims from the moral underpinnings of the powers they exercise and the institutions in which they participate as plaintiffs. A more compelling account of the power to sue, the authors suggest, recognizes that victims of private wrongs have a moral stake in how those wrongs are rectified, even as it allows that such personal considerations must sometimes yield to more pressing institutional imperatives.
How is Tort Law Political?
Authors: Steele Jenny
Published: April 2023

Chapter 16 addresses Gardner’s take on the particular relationship between tort and the political. Flagging of a link between tort and the political is most evident in his discussion of the negligence standard. Equally, Gardner set out the reasons why distributive questions (which are typically associated with the political) are inescapably a part of the law of tort, and not merely external to it. In both of these two senses in which tort could be called political, Gardner’s position is, essentially, one of reassurance. Tort is unavoidably political, but is none the weaker for that. Finally, Gardner argued that tort could, through its distribution of security rights, be seen as promoting a “mode of social power” which is in some sense distinctive and potentially (if the appropriate rights are distributed) deserving of political support. Tort begins with the protection of value, through security rights, and not of “autonomy”: at core it is a preserver of value in the form of the continuity of a life. The chapter explores whether tort can be seen as advancing protection of security rights in a progressive fashion, and whether it can be urged that this is of distinctive political significance, despite the blurring of boundaries between law and politics.
The Value of the Neighbour Relation
Authors: Essert Christopher
Published: April 2023

Chapter 17 explores two distinct but related arguments made by Gardner about the value of certain kinds of private law relations. In From Personal Life to Private Law, Gardner offers a brief but tantalizing interpretation of Lord Atkin’s famous speech in Donoghue v Stevenson, arguing that the primary duty that constitutes the core of negligence law—the duty of care—cannot be relational in the familiar sense of being specially owed to another person, contrary to the equally famous judgment of Judge Cardozo in Palsgraf v Long Island Railway. The chapter argues, against Gardner, that there is a way to make sense of the idea of a relational duty of care that meets Gardner’s own account of what a relational duty is. This shows the way to a clarification of some disagreements between Gardner and Kantian private law theorists.
The Reasonably Loyal Person
Authors: Gold Andrew S
Published: April 2023

Chapter 19 takes up a puzzle that Gardner raised: why is there no “reasonably loyal trustee” in fiduciary law? Notably, he proposes that the role of a trustee might lack a law-independent counterpart. That, in turn, could make it impossible for trust law (and by implication, fiduciary law) to “pass the buck” to whatever it is that the “reasonably loyal person” would do. This chapter suggests that fiduciary relationships frequently do have law-independent counterparts, and moreover that such counterparts can evolve over time. Relatedly, it argues that a wide range of extra-legal conceptions of loyalty are available for buck passing purposes; not all loyalty is built on a prior meaningful relationship between a loyal party and the object of her loyalty. Lastly, the chapter concludes with some thoughts on why buck passing could be valuable.
International Economics
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

Complementing trade theories with relevant trade empirics, this book covers three aspects of the study of International Economics: Pure theory of trade, trade policy, and theory of BoP and exchange rate. In the first part, it discusses the basic principles of international trade between dissimilar countries as well as between similar countries, and implications thereof in terms of welfare, income distribution and growth. In the second part a wide range of policy issues are analysed including costs and benefits of unilateral trade restrictions and promotions through different instruments like tariff, import quotas, export subsidy, and VER; reciprocatory trade policy choices through bilateralism and regionalism; product standards that regulate trade between developed and developing countries; and implications of capital inflow, FDI, fragmentation and global value chains. In the third part, the book discusses different currency and exchange rate regimes and their implications for a country’s balance of payments and foreign exchange reserves. Drawing upon the basic theories, it studies expenditure-reducing and expenditure-switching policies to correct for BoP imbalances under a pegged exchange rate regime. Lessons learnt from some of the financial crises originating in the developing world under overvalued pegged exchange rate regimes with or without capital and exchange controls have been analysed in the context of the Latin American debt crisis in the 1980s, BoP crisis in India in 1991, and the Asian financial crisis during 1997–98. Finally, some reflections on the choice of exchange rate regime and optimum currency area wind up discussions of monetary issues in international economics.
Pseudo-incorporation vs differential object marking
Authors: Driemel Imke
Published: April 2023

This chapter is concerned with the most prominently discussed property for pseudo-incorporated arguments -absence of case morphology. Lack of case marking is also a primary diagnostic of differential object marking. Whereas the PNI literature focuses on a correlation of case drop with scope inertness, DOM-languages often display a correlation of case drop with animacy and/or specificity restrictions. The primary aim of this chapter is to develop a clear distinction between PNI and DOM effects. As will be shown, languages select different classes of noun types which can either be pseudo-incorporated or DOM-marked. The theory of this book ties case loss due to PNI to the verbal nature of the hybrid PNI determiner, proposed in the previous chapter. This PNI-account can be neatly integrated into existing accounts of post-syntactic DOM-marking. The need to locate case loss in post-syntax stems from the lack of interaction with agreement and grammatical function change.
PNI-property I: Restriction to low scope
Authors: Driemel Imke
Published: April 2023

Since the current proposal argues that the restriction to low scope readings of pseudo-incorporated arguments is connected to their partially verbal character, one of the goals of this chapter is to provide evidence for the scopal inertness of verbal categories. The main idea is then spelled out in more detail and LFs will be given for concrete examples coming from Spanish and Hindi. Since pseudo-incorporated arguments can be dislocated from their base positions in some languages, this chapter also discusses ways to integrate the current idea into theories of syntactic and semantic reconstruction. For the case studies, each noun type with optional case marking will be tested for its scopal properties with respect to negation and universal quantification. Where an interaction between case marking and scope is missing, further specificity tests are run.
Introduction
Authors: Hossein Caroline Shenaz , Edmonds Kevin , Austin Sharon D. Wright
Published: April 2023

The people of the African diaspora have been organizing and protesting for as long as they have been forcibly displaced. Oppressed and racialized community members design their own financial systems and economic institutions and therefore are in complete control of the systems and institutions they have created. For people new to the concept of ROSCAs and other types of cooperatives, a key point is that members are committed to democracy and share decision-making and they build a sense of community through various forms of informal cooperativism. The people of the Black diaspora take charge of local economies, and they continue doing what they have always done—making life vibrant and meaningful with the overriding goals to provide self-help to one another, embrace cultural traditions, and counter economic and societal exclusion.
Caribbean Banker Ladies Making Equitable Economies
Authors: Hossein Caroline Shenaz
Published: April 2023

Caribbean women create ROSCAs to take care of the needs of their community people and to show that cooperatives have a place in society. These women also push against commercial banks which fail to diversify lending and include certain groups, namely Black poor women. The argument here is that ROSCAs are an antidote to racial capitalism, and that these money groups do not depend on external subsidies to achieve financing for the community, because Black women, usually from lower income areas, create ROSCAs to mobilize local resources. This chapter examines five country cases—in Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Guyana, and Haiti—to show how Black women cooperators revamp colonial financial systems through African ideas of Kombit (collectivity). Elites who deprive many poor women of access to finance are the first ones to respect the ROSCAs called Susus, Partners, and Sols that these women organize. It may be that some of these elites—though not all—had mothers who relied on ROSCAs to pay for their schooling and family expenses. Some may even join a ROSCA because these systems are so culturally ingrained in the social life.
Prenatal Genetic Testing, Abortion, and Disability Justice
Authors: Knight Amber , Miller Joshua
Published: April 2023

The routinization of non-invasive prenatal genetic testing (NIPT) raises urgent questions about women’s reproductive autonomy and disability rights. Many supporters defend NIPT on the grounds that prenatal genetic information helps would-be parents make better family planning choices. We challenge that assessment by showing how, under the current regime of ableism and neoliberal reprogenetics, NIPT provides opportunities for intensified control over women’s reproductive decisions. Focusing intently on the case of Down syndrome, the book demonstrates how several factors ensnare prospective mothers in a web of tough choices by stacking the deck against the decision to bring a child with a genetic impairment into the world and parent her with dignity, including: (1) widespread ableist attitudes in medical institutions; (2) neoliberal welfare policies that privatize social services and the provision of care; and (3) oppressive social norms, including ableist and sexist attitudes. Drawing on feminist political theory and critical disabilities scholarship, we advance a conception of relational autonomy premised on perfectionist liberal notions of the state as a vehicle for intersectional social justice. Our goal is to theorize about which political arrangements would better enable prospective mothers to decide more autonomously whether they want to undergo prenatal testing, terminate a pregnancy following a positive result, carry the fetus to term, raise a child with a disability, or choose adoption. Ultimately, our analysis suggests that genuine reproductive autonomy requires both governmental restraint and active governmental support, arguing that restraint and action can work hand in hand to promote reproductive justice and disability rights.
UK Fiscal Politics and Macroeconomic Policy Rules Since the 1990s
Authors: Clift Ben
Published: April 2023

This chapter sets out the institutional and ideational context of UK economic governance since the 1990s, analysing the drivers behind the advent of fiscal rules. It charts competing perspectives of technocratic economic governance, and outlines the political settlement on which rules-based expert economic governance rests. Designed as a technocratic means of taking politics out of fiscal policy decisions, fiscal rules supposedly reassure electorates and financial markets that the public finances are in safe government hands. Yet as this chapter introduces, there is always a multifaceted politics of economic policy, even when it is overseen by seemingly objective rules regimes and independent expert bodies. Outlining the complex politics of fiscal rules, this chapter shows how fiscal rules are not unassailable technical policy constraints but can and do change to accommodate different political-economic ideas and partisan political preferences. This is demonstrated through exploration of the politics of fiscal rectitude surrounding the introduction and evolution of UK fiscal rules under New Labour. It is further illustrated by analysing the changing of UK fiscal rules with the advent of the Coalition government 2010–15 and the politics of austerity. Fiscal rules are revealed to be social and political constructs, bound up in contested knowledge and narratives of the economy, and subject to manipulation by parties across the political spectrum. This all has implications for how we make sense of the politics of technocratic fiscal governance.
The OBR and the Politics of Forecasting Brexit Effects
Authors: Clift Ben
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the practical and technical difficulties that the Office for Budget Responsibility faced when forecasting the economic effects of Britain’s decision to leave the European Union. It outlines the market contestation surrounding different conceptions of free trade, and how these fed disagreements over interpretation of Brexit’s likely economic effects. The backdrop to Brexit forecasts was politically contested understandings of the relationship between Europe and the British model of capitalism. The event’s unprecedented nature, the uncertainty surrounding the Brexit process, and the difficulty disaggregating its economic impact from other factors all made the OBR’s forecasting work especially challenging. The acrimonious and often fallacious terms of the Brexit debate also posed difficulties for a technocratic economic governance institution seeking to retain its apolitical, independent credentials while developing its economic narrative. The OBR sought to manage Brexit uncertainties through conservative assumptions and judgement informed by modelling by other expert economic bodies. Nevertheless, Brexit forecasting entailed the OBR taking a normative stance not only on the economic value of Britain’s membership of the Single European Market but also on competing conceptions of the nature, operation, and feasibility of ‘free trade’. Demonstrating how the OBR’s judgements proved particularly contentious for advocates of a post-Brexit Global Britain, the chapter explores how radical uncertainty created the conditions for alternative, specious economic expertise to gain plausibility. It emphasizes the hidden normative foundations on which all economic forecasting is premised, and which always threaten to puncture the OBR’s epistemic authority by illuminating its technical limits.
Introduction
Authors: Menze Volker L.
Published: April 2023

Scholars have postulated that the Council of Chalcedon in 451 present the peak of ancient Christological development. The short introduction, however, points out that summoning the Council of Chalcedon in 451 was to some extent completely incidental. The summoning of the council and the consequences of it must have been largely unexpected for contemporaries; historians should beware of historical determinism. The focus of the book is on Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria 444–451, and one of the major protagonists during the fifth-century Christological controversy. He has hardly ever received any serious discussion, and his image is still distorted in modern scholarship. The book attempts to rectify this and sets his career within the context of ecclesiastical politics.
Fairly and Pragmatically Prioritizing Global Allocation of Scarce Vaccines during a Pandemic
Authors: Owen Schaefer G.
Published: April 2023

This chapter explores what it would mean to fairly allocate vaccines between countries during a global health emergency. From an ethical point of view, need-based allocation is an obvious, arguably even dominant, paradigm: more vaccine should go to countries in more desperate need of it. However, this approach faces several practical constraints. Firstly, measuring and assessing need is highly challenging, such that there is a high degree of uncertainty concerning which countries would actually benefit more from receiving vaccines. And secondly, even if need can be reliably assessed, such an allocation approach is unlikely to garner sufficient international support to actually be implemented. The second challenge turns out not to be an issue because, unfortunately, countries did not sufficiently support international vaccine distribution efforts even when it was not tied to a needs-based allocation scheme. But the first challenge, of uncertainty, suggests that distribution should be tempered and ‘flattened’ compared with the ethical ideal. Allocation, then, should take on a weighted priority approach: a proportionate population-based ‘baseline’ (similar to the current model of COVAX), weighted by a factor determined by estimates of local need. This chapter proposes a weighting formula that is directly proportionate to the degree to which certain countries are in greater need of vaccines than other countries. This approach hedges against uncertainties in needs-based allocation, and may also be a more acceptable compromise position given COVAX’s ongoing commitment to proportionate allocation at the time of writing.
Conclusion
Authors: Ross Shaun
Published: April 2023

This conclusion delineates how a better description of presence in the eucharistic theologies and poetics of early modernity complicates the meaning of ‘secularization’, both during the Reformation and in our own moment. Using an episode from 1980s Chile to trouble assumptions about the eucharist’s past-ness, it explains how a falsely rigid distinction between Protestant and Catholic eucharistic theology became mapped onto similarly dubious distinctions between the modern and the primitive. Following a consideration of the eucharist as it appears in the work of women poets Anne Locke, Aemelia Lanyer, and Katherine Philips, this final section presents eucharistic poetics as part of an ongoing negotiation in Western history between the claims of our embodied existence, which often only find full articulation in symbolic expression, and the disembodied mechanisms of rationality that order ourselves and our world.
Dillon versus Parnell
Authors: Bew Paul
Published: April 2023

The clash between Parnell and his ambitious young lieutenant came into the open and could not be concealed, even though both were interned together from autumn 1881 to the spring of 1882. In April 1881 the Liberal government launched a substantial land reform which Parnell privately—though not publicly—acknowledged to be enough to quell the land agitation. Parnell negotiated a compromise with the Liberal government; Dillon, in frustration, retired to Nebraska to live with his brother. Dillon was convinced that Liberal reform could reduce the strength of Irish nationalism. In this he shared the basic assumption of British Liberalism. Parnell, on the other hand, never seems to have shared this assumption, though he was determined to avoid any adventures which might land him in a jail again. He was happy to stay with Mrs O’Shea in Eltham and rarely visited Ireland.
The Ambiguities of the Liberal Alliance
Authors: Bew Paul
Published: April 2023

Parnell was openly critical of Dillon’s reinvigoration of land agitation: increasingly, he favoured a more limited settlement of the land question to be made with Conservative politicians. Dillon’s new agitation ‘The Plan of Campaign’ did, however, further complete the isolation and demoralization of Irish landlordism. Dillon further angered Parnell by re-introducing the embarrassing name of P. J. Sheridan into public life at the very moment when Parnell wanted to put all his connections with ‘men of violence’ into the dustbin of history. Parnell was furious. He was well aware that English journalists were pottering around in this murky phase of his political life. Parnell wanted to see a peace again in Ireland but Dillon, with the help of several Liberal MPs, defied him.
Forgiveness and Healing
Authors: Mihut Cristian F.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 1 provides an introduction that motivates, demarcates, and summarizes the entire project. It motivates the account of gracious, curative forgivingness by connecting two vignettes. The first is the biblical portrayal of a God who heals the wounds of exiled Israel, the very people guilty of something akin to marital infidelity with respect to Yahweh. The second is that of the Nickle Mines Amish who graciously extended forgiveness to the murderer of their children, and to his family. The gratuitous forgiveness the Amish embody seems genealogically rooted in the gracious character of God who absorbs the brunt of the offense while remaining oriented toward the good of the offender. The project is demarcated from others by making explicit its philosophical and methodological commitments. Notably, it justifies analyzing a single dominant biblical image over against other approaches labelled as the tory, the whiggish, the homogenizing, and the kaleidoscopic methods. Chapter 1 concludes with a summary of each of the remaining chapters in the work.
Divine Forgiveness and Justice for All
Authors: Mihut Cristian F.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 4 extends the thesis that forgivingness is at the heart of God’s agency by focusing on various conceptualizations of divine justice. It interrogates some of the important assumptions that too often ascribe biblical, theological, and philosophical centrality to divine retributivism. More positively, it argues that curative, gracious forgivingness supports and is supported by a non-retributivist conception of divine justice. The chapter sketches an account that makes sense of divine wrath and hard treatment as reprobative communications which are teleologically embedded in a larger restorative-justice framework. Because it is a hybrid framework, it is called communicative-restorative justice. The chapter concludes by providing several relevant episodes from the biblical narrative that corroborate this theoretical framework: the Eden story, the giving of the Torah, the Prophets, and Christ’s cleansing of the Temple.
Contractual Thought before Stair
Authors: Bogle Stephen
Published: April 2023

What is it that makes Stair so distinctive? How did he compare to his contemporaries in Scotland? How did lawyers in Scotland or indeed those working with Roman law texts approach the law of contract? What legal texts were available to Stair? This chapter investigates the frameworks or styles of legal thought adopted by mid-seventeenth-century lawyers in Scotland. It plots out some key features of the law in Scotland and their use of Roman law. Developing upon existing research by John Ford and Adelyn Wilson, this chapter builds a picture of the ideas and approaches Scots lawyers took when dealing with the law of contract. Stair’s writing on the law of contract emerges from this examination as unique in comparison.