bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effect of Combining Monaural Cues to Distance
Authors: Pazuchanics Skye Lee
Published: January 2012

The degree to which distance can be perceived depends on combinations of distance cues that are inherently ambiguous in isolation. Previous research on combining distance cues has focused on static monocular cues and has shown an additive relation. The present experiment was designed to examine how people integrate monaural cues (loudness, delay of reception from initiation, and frequency attenuation) to perceive distance. Monaural distance information was presented to participants using desktop computers and headphones. A general linear model (GLM) analysis revealed that monaural cues, much like visual cues, are combined linearly to form a percept of distance, but with greater weighting given to loudness. Thus, designers of spatial displays that might be used in conditions of poor visibility could supply auditory cues for distance information. Additionally, this paper could be seen as a step along the way in understanding how people integrate multiple sources of information to perceive distance.
A Queuing Network Model for Visual Search and Menu Selection
Authors: Lim Ji Hyoun , Liu Yili
Published: January 2012

Random menu search is a task component involved in many human-machine interfaces and has been modeled with various cognitive models including ACT-R and EPIC. Based on a review of empirical data in menu search and strengths and limitations of existing models, this article proposes a model that is based on the queueing network approach, which has been successfully applied in some other task domains (e.g., response time, driver performance). The queueing network model for random menu selection was implemented and evaluated through model simulation. In contrast to existing models that rely on multiple task-specific strategies to account for performance and eye movement data, the queueing network model uses only one strategy already employed in an existing cognitive model to account for the same data. The value of this ”minimal task strategy” approach for modeling complex menu search tasks is discussed, based on the reported findings of the queueing network model and a comparison to existing models.
Eye Movement Measures of Performance on Visual Search Tasks: Equating the Baselines of Task Performance
Authors: Chase Bradley , Viirre Erik , Kwak Julie , Wing Shawn , Van Orden Karl
Published: January 2012

Previous research suggests that eye measures can indicate decrements in performance on a visual tracking task due to increased difficulty in task execution from fatigue-induced conditions (Van Orden, 2000). In order to examine the sensitivity of eye movement to increased cognitive workload as indicated by difficulty of task, we chose a visual search paradigm. Using a basic visual search task, we studied the effects of increased task difficulty on subject performance and their corresponding eye measures. Results show a decrease in performance as the number of objects on the screen increase. What results could be expected if differences in individual abilities to perform visual search were controlled? This experiment looks at one method that can be used to control for individual differences in visual search abilities.
The Effects of Alarm Mistrust and Signal Duration on Alarm Reactions and Perception of Alarm Validity
Authors: Fallon Corey K. , Bliss James P. , Nica Nicolae
Published: January 2012

Researchers have begun examining variables that may moderate the degrading effects of alarm mistrust on alarm reaction performance. We examined alarm systems of varying reliability levels (60 or 80 percent true alarms) that generated either short or long duration alarms. We studied the impact of these variables on participant response frequency and perception of signal validity. The researchers sampled 40 Old Dominion University psychology students. We predicted that participants would rate long duration alarm signals as more representative of a valid signal. We also believed that participants would use the representativeness heuristic as a response strategy. The results partially supported our hypotheses. Participants rated the long duration signals as significantly more representative of a valid signal ( p<.001). However, although participants responded significantly more often to long duration alarms ( p<.01), participants in the 80% reliability group responded to significantly more alarms than those in the 60% reliability group ( p=.02). The performance results are inconsistent with our hypothesis. Although participants perceived the long duration alarms to be more representative than the short, they did not base their response strategy entirely on alarm representativness. Despite these unexpected findings, the results suggest that alarm signal duration has a significant impact on alarm response frequency. Therefore, designers of complex systems may be able to moderate response degradation due to unreliability by designing systems that generate long duration alarm stimuli.
Are Seat Belt Usage Rates Lower than We Think?
Authors: Young Douglas E. , Trachtman Doris , Dracup Brian , Al-Tarawneh Ibraheem
Published: January 2012

The observed seat belt usage rates for front seat occupants have improved over the last few decades to 79% across the country in 2003. However, these usage rates, observed at intersections and at freeway entrances, may provide overestimates of actual rates for occupants that are belted at the start of the drive cycle. In the current study, we observed seat belt usage patterns of drivers and front seat passengers exiting gasoline stations, malls, and other public locations to determine whether their seat belts were fastened before leaving the premises as well as how grasping and buckling movements were completed. Contrary to the national usage rates for drivers and front seat occupants, only 52% of the occupants fastened their seat belts before leaving the public locations. We discuss these findings in terms of driver behavior and factors that influence the normal procedural sequences at the start of the drive cycle.
Perceived Effectiveness of ‘No Turn on Red’ Traffic Signs
Authors: Podany Kate I. , Wogalter Michael S. , Mayhorn Christopher B.
Published: January 2012

This study examines the rated effectiveness of four designs of a ‘no turn on red’ traffic sign. Three existing designs were taken from the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). A fourth alternative design based on components of the other three signs was created for this study. Participants rated the signs on three characteristics: the likelihood that they would (a) notice, (b) understand, and (c) comply with the sign. They were also asked to rank the signs in order of overall effectiveness and answer several sign-related open-ended questions. The text-only sign was rated lowest on all three characteristics and was most often ranked as the least effective sign. The alternative design with the most elaborate symbol and complete set of words was rated significantly higher than the other three signs on all three characteristics and also ranked as most effective. Potential directions for future research are discussed and signage recommendations are made.
Human Error Analysis in Railway Safety Cases; Panacea or Poison?
Authors: Traub Paul
Published: January 2012

This paper outlines the techniques applied and lessons learnt when applying formal human error and reliability techniques to support the production of a railway safety case in the UK. This paper argues that the optimum techniques for addressing human error may need to be adapted from those advocated by human factors professionals in order to achieve a pragmatic, valid and justifiable safety argument within the often limited timescales and costs. In particular, during this work it was found that formal classification of errors did not assist in identifying human error events or specifying mitigations against these events. In addition the application of formal human reliability techniques did not adequately address the potential for human violation (Williams, 1997). It is concluded that formal methods can only be used as supporting techniques to a qualitative approach and that quantified human reliability techniques should not be used definitively due to their inherent weaknesses.
Relationship between Infrastructure, Driver Error, and Critical Incidents
Authors: Medina Alejandra L. , Lee Suzanne E. , Wierwille Walter W. , Hanowski Richard J.
Published: January 2012

During the course of a Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)-sponsored research project ”Identification of Driver Errors,” ”driver errors” in crashes and near-crashes (i.e., critical incidents) were investigated and an analysis approach was developed to help identify infrastructure-related and non-infrastructure-related problems at intersections and other roadway sites. The research team carefully examined the relationship between the infrastructure, driver error, and critical incidents. This was accomplished by first determining which incidents appeared to have an infrastructure component (signing, signaling, delineation, alinement, geometry, etc.). These incidents were then reexamined to determine the precise nature of the infrastructure components. Once the problems had been identified, countermeasures were suggested. This work is a demonstration of the synergistic effects of combining human factors engineering techniques with traffic engineering. By broadening the earlier traffic-conflict technique to include greater consideration of driver behavior, with emphasis on generalized driver errors, a better understanding of critical incidents and their corresponding countermeasures has been obtained.
Afterwords: The Quality of Medical Accident Investigations and Analyses
Authors: Nemeth C. , Cook R. I. , Patterson E. , Donchin Y. , Rogers M. , Ebright P.
Published: January 2012

Adverse events, or accidents, in healthcare can have significant clinical outcomes including loss of property, health (morbidity), and life (mortality). Healthcare accidents have features that make post-event investigations particularly difficult. The investigation and analysis of medical accidents is intended to discover information that explains the nature and cause of what occurred in the interest of preventing or minimizing future loss. The thorough, objective investigation of medical adverse events rarely happens due to the complexity of the environment, litigation, risk, and socio-political implications. Special concerns can undermine investigation depth, breadth, and quality. Healthcare's distinct difference from other high hazard sectors such as aviation and nuclear power requires a unique approach. Healthcare accident examination requires detailed domain knowledge and the use of diverse investigation methods. This paper describes the current state of medical accident analysis, obstacles to understanding such accidents and strategies to overcome them, as well as future investigation and analysis approaches.
Task and Representation Interactions in Temporal Reasoning
Authors: Rasmussen Louise J. , Shalin Valerie L.
Published: January 2012

Displays used to support tasks involving temporal reasoning often represent temporal information in a format reasonable for computers, but cumbersome for humans. Study participants compared sentences describing relationships between time intervals to either an alpha-numeric or graphical display and responded true/false. Two categories of relationships were examined: relative (before, after) and contained (during, contains). The graphical display allowed faster rejection of instances of categorical mismatch based on perceptual differences and evaluation of truth-conditions at a higher level of abstraction between the two types of relationships.
Efficacy of Stress Exposure Training on Target Acquisition in Combat Simulations
Authors: Ross J. M. , Ganey H. C. , Broadway R. S.
Published: January 2012

Transfer of training from simulators to real-world environments has recently come under investigation, as the generalizability of task-specific training has come into question. New hypotheses recommend that, to ensure effective performance under stress in real-world environments, one should supplement skill-based training with Stress Exposure Training (SET). Stress Exposure Training has further benefits in that it may serve as a more generalizable form of training and transfer across tasks and stressors. The impact of improving performance and reducing perceived stress and workload is of vital importance to many military operations, especially in high technology and high workload situations such as Landwarrior or Unmanned Arial Vehicles (UAVs; Mouloua, Hancock, & Gilson, 2003), in which mistakes are costly in terms of economics as well as life. In this paper the limits of SET transfer between laboratory training and field performance are investigated in regards to simulated combat target identification tasks.
The Use of Red and Automatic Attention Capture in Visual Search
Authors: Tran Tuan Q. , Raddatz Kimberly R.
Published: January 2012

In many cultures, the color “red” is commonly associated with danger and has an established symbolic meaning that does not require explanation (i.e., a population stereotype). Because of the frequent mapping of red with situations requiring immediate attention, the proposed study employs a visual search task to examine whether the color red possesses automatic or involuntary attention-capturing qualities that other colors (e.g., blue) do not possess. Participants will search for red or blue targets in the presence of green distractors, and green targets in the presence of red or blue distractors. Also, participants will be cued in advance for the likely location of the target. If the frequent association of red with danger/warning makes the response to red an automatic or involuntary process, then search for green targets among red distractors will lead to the slowest response times despite the fact that target location is cued.
An Empirical Investigation of the Influence of Perception of Time-To-Collision on Gap Control in Automobile Driving
Authors: Li Zhonghai , Milgram Paul
Published: January 2012

Optical looming has been proposed as a potentially important cue for the perception of time-to-collision (TTC) in the control of locomotion. In this paper, an investigation is reported on how manipulation of the optical looming cue can influence the perception of TTC, and thereby braking behaviour, for automobile driving in a low fidelity simulator. Eleven participants were instructed to follow a leading vehicle (LV) and appropriately respond to the braking events of the LV, which occurred randomly at different deceleration rates. For some braking events, during braking of the LV, size of the LV was expanded without subjects being aware of it. Results showed that subjects braked sooner when confronting an expanding LV compared to a constant-size LV. The experiment supports the theory that drivers use TTC information derived from optic looming to control braking. Potential application of the results to possibly reduce occurrences of rear-end collisions in real automobile driving is also discussed.
Effects of Driving Experience and Lighting Condition on Driving Performance
Authors: Garay Lisandra , Fisher Donald L. , Hancock Kathleen L.
Published: January 2012

Novice drivers have a fatality rate that is ten times higher than the most experienced group of drivers. Poor visual scanning skills have been identified as a primary cause of these fatalities. Such skills may be particularly compromised during the night. The purpose of this study is to determine how visual scanning skills are affected by lighting conditions and driving experience. Using a head mounted eye tracker, drivers' scanning skills were evaluated on a simulator. The results show that novice drivers are less likely to scan for risks than experienced drivers in both the daytime and nighttime conditions and both novice and experienced drivers are less likely to scan for risks in the nighttime than they are in the daytime. Moreover, novice drivers are scanning the risky areas less than 50 percent of the time during daytime conditions, suggesting a need for risk prediction training during both daytime and nighttime conditions.
Influence of a Driver Support System on Situation Awareness and Information Processing in Response to Lead Vehicle Braking
Authors: Manser Michael P. , Ward Nicholas J. , Kuge Nobuyuki , Boer Erwin R.
Published: January 2012

Situation Awareness (SA) is critical to safe driving in a dynamic traffic environment. SA is predicated on the timely sampling of information in the driving environment. Distraction from secondary tasks can interrupt this sampling resulting in increased traffic conflicts and crashes. It is hypothesized that SA may be improved if sampling is augmented with (redundant) non-visual feedback about relevant information in the driving scene. The current study examined a Driver Support System (DSS) based on continuous haptic feedback communicated through the gas pedal. This system was evaluated in a driving simulator with participants distracted by a secondary task utilizing the CD player. The results indicate that this DSS improved reaction time, response time, and response appropriateness (safety margin) despite an apparent increase in the transition period between pedals. Various mechanisms to explain these effects are posited.
Assessing Effects of Encapsulation on Dismounted Soldier Performance
Authors: Garrett Lamar , Jarboe Nathan , Patton Debbie , Mullins Linda
Published: January 2012

This study examined the effects of encapsulation, from a systems development perspective using mobility, shooting performance, target identification, radio call sign recognition, and psychological performance measures. The study sought to develop a systematic and diagnostic method for evaluating the interactions between various key components of the ensemble and individual soldier tasks. The purpose was to assess the utility of using standardized facilities and tasks for taking a more integrative, systems approach to soldier-equipment compatibility. Three configurations (baseline-no encapsulation; current nuclear-biological-chemical (NBC); future land warrior) were evaluated. Dependent measures are discussed in terms of time to complete common soldier tasks, shooting performance, and cognitive workload performance.
Latent Psychological Data Structure of Secondary Driving Tasks
Authors: Curry Reates
Published: January 2012

This paper focuses on the application of a subjective method not typically used for secondary driving tasks assessment. More specifically, the latent psychological method of multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) was used to explore the underlying metric space associated with how particular secondary in-vehicle driving tasks relate to each other.
Conceptualizing the Training Space: Constructing Hierarchies to Integrate Time and Space for Distributed Debriefings
Authors: Fiore Stephen M. , Johnston Joan , Van Duyne Lori
Published: January 2012

In this paper we use a conceptualization of a training space to argue that events within this space need be woven together such that the learner is able to experientially and cognitively link training concepts. We integrate memory theory into techniques to diagnose performance and methods for debriefing and illustrate how events within the training space can be monitored, filtered, and potentially structured such that performance feedback is idiosyncratically tailored. By utilizing a coordinated debriefing methodology that encompasses cognitively-based and technologically-based components, we illustrate how navigating the training space can be facilitated.
Virtual Teams: The Role of Involvement, Immersion and Presence for Distributed Team Members
Authors: Heather A. Priest , Guthrie Joseph , Stagl Kevin C. , Burke C. Shawn , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

With emerging technology and globalization, distributed teamwork has become vital to organizational success and virtual environments are increasingly being utilized to “close the gap” between dispersed team members. Although most research conducted during the past few decades has focused on co-located teams, some efforts have analyzed the inputs, processes, and outputs necessary for effective interaction in virtual teams. For example, the Virtual Team Research Model proposed by Driskell and colleagues (2003) addresses the effects of computer mediated communication on team performance. Our current initiative expands upon this model by focusing on distributed teams that utilize virtual technology. We feel that by simultaneously considering both socio (i.e., distributed teamwork) and technical (i.e., virtual environments) factors, a more detailed picture of virtual teams will be illuminated and thereby more robust guidance can be provided to future research endeavors.
Compatibility in Augmented Reality Prototypes for Assembly
Authors: Wang Xiangyu , Dunston Phillip S.
Published: January 2012

While human factors have been well researched in the development and use of virtual environments, it has not received commensurate consideration in Mixed Reality (MR) research much beyond the immediately relevant issues of fatigue and discomfort. In this paper, we (1) analyze the feasibility of augmenting human abilities via MR applications in tasks for assembly and related domains from the perspective of cognitive engineering, (2) acknowledge the ergonomics features and research issues inherent in MR systems, and (3) generate partial guidelines that have been applied in our lab-based Augmented Reality prototype to uncover and solve ergonomics issues. One of such issues, perceptual compatibility, was also validated through a pilot experiment that compares use of a head mounted display versus a standalone monitor in performing an orientation task. It was found that subjects using the HMD perform in less time, exhibit less orientation displacement, and experience less cognitive load.
Comparison of Collaborative Display Technologies for Team Design Review
Authors: Hou Ming , Barone Andrea , Magee Lochlan , Greenley Mike
Published: January 2012

A comparative evaluation of collaborative display technologies was conducted to explore their ability to support a pair of participants conducting a collaborative workspace design review. Five review media were compared: 2D CAD model on CRT, 3D CAD model on CRT, 3D CAD model on a Curved plasma display, a large DataWall display, and a CAVE environment. Participants reviewed a model depicting an in-vehicle navigation system installed within the front dash of a vehicle and detected design flaws. Performance measures (number of detected flaws and detection time) and usability measures (display, design review, and collaborative quality) were collected. The main findings were: a) flaw detection was better for 3D displays than the 2D display; b) flaws detection was progressively reduced with more immersive 3D displays; c) speed-accuracy tradeoffs were observed such that detection time was less for the 2D than the 3D displays, and decreased with the degree of immersion; d) using the standard CRT is more cost-effective than using the Curved, DataWall, or CAVE displays.
Effects of the Space Shuttle Cockpit Avionics Upgrade on Crewmember Performance and Situation Awareness
Authors: Hayashi Miwa , Huemer Valerie , Renema Fritz , Elkins Steve , McCandless Jeffrey W. , McCann Robert S.
Published: January 2012

The Space Shuttle Cockpit Avionics Upgrade (CAU) is a proposed cockpit display upgrade designed to address human-factors usability issues of the current suite of cockpit displays, Multifunction Electronic Display System (MEDS). Unlike MEDS, CAU consolidates information in a task-oriented manner, rather than a data-source-oriented manner. CAU also makes greater use of color coding and graphical depictions in systems status presentations. An ascent-phase operation simulation study showed that CAU formats significantly improved the participants' abort-related situation awareness. Participants also performed certain malfunction management procedures more accurately when CAU was used. The Space Shuttles are now scheduled to be retired by 2010 without incorporating CAU; however, the results of the present study suggest that the human-centered design concepts are effective and can be extended to the cockpit interface design of NASA's next generation Crew Exploration Vehicle.
Evaluating control activity as a measure of workload in flight test
Authors: Jennings S. , Craig G. , Carignan Stephan , Ellis Kris , Qinetiq D. Thorndycraft
Published: January 2012

This paper describes an investigation of a workload measurement technique based on pilot control movements. The Dynamic Interface Modeling and Simulation System Product Metric (DIMSS PM) assumes that pilot control activity can be used to evaluate pilot workload. Three qualified test pilots flew the fly-bywire NRC Bell 205 helicopter in a short test program that compared the DIMSS PM with subjective workload ratings and handling qualities ratings. The pilots performed a variation of an ADS-33E bob-up with varying levels of simulated turbulence and modified cyclic control characteristics. Good agreement was found for most in-flight test conditions between DIMSS Workload Metric scores and subjective workload ratings from the Bedford Workload Scale and Cooper-Harper handling qualities ratings. While, the DIMSS Workload Metric did not accurately reflect workload increases due to variations in the cyclic stick characteristics, the metric shows promise as an objective measurement tool of pilot workload in well-defined tests.
Color Usability on Air Traffic Control Displays
Authors: Ahlstrom Ulf , Arend Larry
Published: January 2012

Modernization of Air Traffic Control (ATC) display systems includes increased use of color to code information. While colors can enhance display designs, human factors issues like legibility and salience manipulation are still problematic. Here, we address some of the potential usability issues with integrating traffic and advanced weather information on controller displays. We argue that color palettes that are not specifically designed for layered data and a large number of objects can create legibility and salience problems. We discuss the use of luminance contrast to manipulate salience and present some empirical data showing that air traffic controllers display large individual differences in their preferred brightness settings. We argue that user adjustments of luminance contrast for salience manipulation must be severely constrained in future ATC displays. We present a prototype color palette that uses color-coding to prioritize display information while maintaining good legibility.
Language Error in Aviation Maintenance: Data from Asia
Authors: Drury C. G. , Ma J.
Published: January 2012

English is the language of aviation, including aviation maintenance. As more maintenance work is outsourced to non-English-speaking countries, language error may be a problem. A study of 254 maintenance personnel at nine sites in Chinese-speaking countries measured the reported incidences of seven scenarios and tested intervention effectiveness. Four of the scenarios had reported incidence of 4-5 per year, and the expected causal factors were reported. A test of interventions to work documentation revealed that participants tended to maintain a constant level of accuracy and speed to produce this level. A Chinese translation of the document was the only significant intervention, giving about a 10% speed advantage.
Influence of Graphical Metars on Pilots' Weather Judgment
Authors: Coyne Joseph T , Latorella Kara A. , Baldwin Carryl L.
Published: January 2012

VFR flight into IMC conditions accounts for over 10% of general aviation fatalities each year. Recent research suggests that pilots may not properly assess weather conditions. New graphical weather information systems (GWISs) may positively or negatively influence pilot weather-related judgments. Since GWIS information is not always current it may not be veridical. In the current investigation twenty-four GA pilots made visibility and ceiling estimates of simulated weather conditions either with or without a GWIS display. Pilots generally overestimated weather conditions and their judgments were influenced by the GWIS. The results revealed an interaction between ceiling and visibility that suggests a new model for understanding VFR flight into IMC. The current results suggest an important area for future research into understanding pilots' decisions to continue into deteriorating weather conditions. Results are discussed in terms of advancing aviation decision making models for understanding VFR into IMC flight, and the design of GWIS symbology to foster accurate assessments.
Weather Deviation Decisions by Air Transport Crews during Simulated Flight
Authors: Bliss James P. , Fallon Corey K. , Bustamante Ernesto A. , Bailey William R.
Published: January 2012

As the variety and capabilities of cockpit weather displays have increased, weather deviation decisions have become more complex. Important issues include conflicting or outdated weather information, and teamed reactivity of crews to weather displays. We investigated the influence of onboard and NEXRAD agreement, range to the simulated potential weather event, and the pilot flying on collective weather deviation decisions. Twelve pilot-copilot teams flew a simulated route while reacting to weather events presented in two graphical formats on a separate visual display. Results showed that pilots often chose to deviate from weather rather than confront it. When onboard and NEXRAD displays did not agree, flight crews reacted by trusting the onboard system more but using the NEXRAD system as a backup. These results suggest that future weather displays should exploit existing benefits of NEXRAD presentation for situation awareness while retaining the display structure and logic inherent in the onboard system.
Tactile and Aural Alerts in High Auditory Load UAV Control Environments
Authors: Calhoun Gloria L. , Draper Mark H. , Guilfoos Brian J. , Ruff Heath A.
Published: January 2012

Tactile displays may alleviate visual workload in complex UAV control stations, cueing operators to high priority events via the haptic channel. Previous results suggest that tactile alerts (vibration on wrists) can substitute for aural alerts, as a redundant cue to visual alerts in relatively short test sessions. The present experiment investigated whether tactile alerts are advantageous in high auditory loads during longer periods of vigilance. Participants responded to events alerted via aural or tactile redundant cues, while performing multiple tasks in a simulated UAV control station. Results did not show an advantage of tactile over aural alerts in high auditory loads over 30-minute periods. Despite the lack of performance advantage of tactile alerts over aural alerts, research participants favored the tactile alerts, rating them as more salient and faster in attracting their attention.
Integration of Cognitive Requirements into System Design
Authors: Lintern Gavan
Published: January 2012

The products of cognitive analysis are rarely used effectively in the design of complex, first-of-a-kind systems. This project is motivated by the assumption that those products do not explicitly reveal their design the implications. On the other hand, the analyses undertaken by Systems Engineers do not capture the essential properties of cognitive requirements. The work described here is aimed at developing a computer-supported system that can support dialog between Cognitive Engineers and Systems Engineers as they seek to resolve design issues surrounding cognitive requirements. This project is in its first phase. The preliminary work has demonstrated how a Brahms model might be used to develop a prototype of a socio-technical system based on cognitive specifications developed from a Work Domain Analysis.
Adaptive Change in the Type of Automation Support Reduces the Cost of Imperfect Decision Aids in a Simulated Battlefield Engagement Task
Authors: McGarry Kathleen , Rovira Ericka , Parasuraman Raja
Published: January 2012

Automation that is meant to aid the human operator may actually be detrimental to performance, particularly if faulty decision recommendations are provided (decision automation), as opposed to prioritized or integrated information advisories that are incorrect (information automation). Because automation can be imperfect, operator over-reliance on decision automation can degrade performance. The present study examined whether temporary adaptive changes in the type and level of automation—-between decision and information automation, or between decision automation and manual performance—–could mitigate the cost of automation imperfection in a combat engagement selection task. Twelve participants were provided with two types of automation (decision and information) and also performed the task manually. In three conditions, the type of automation was alternated during performance of the task over three blocks of trials. In all three conditions, decision automation was provided in the first and third blocks of the task, with the middle block requiring the use of decision automation, information automation, or manual performance. The accuracy of engagement decisions improved in the third block with decision automation when it was preceded by a temporary adaptive change to information automation. No such improvement occurred when decision automation was used throughout the task or when the adaptive change involved a temporary return to manual performance. This suggests that providing the user with short periods of information automation can help mitigate some of the costs of imperfect decision automation by keeping the operator in the decision-making loop.
Decision-Centered Testing (DCT): Evaluating Joint Human-Computer Cognitive Work
Authors: Rousseau Robert , Easter James , Elm William , Potter Scott
Published: January 2012

In order to test the effectiveness of a human operator paired with a decision support system, it is necessary to complement current testing practices addressing software validation, human performance, and usability. Decision Centered Testing (DCT) aims at testing the effectiveness of operators teamed with Decision Support Systems (DSS) in any challenging work domain. DCT is grounded in a Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) framework, where the concept of a joint cognitive system (JCS) is central. DCT aims at evaluating the decision-making effectiveness across identified 'error prone' regions in the JCS structure. A description of the DCT Methodology with an illustration taken from an initial application of the methodology is presented. In this application, insights from the DCT methodology enabled the definition of appropriate test metrics and the construction of unique test scenarios to exercise the decision-making effectiveness. From this application, it can be concluded that following the DCT Methodology facilitated the construction of an evaluation framework for assessing JCS net decision-making effectiveness.
Sensor Noise and Ecological Interface Design: Effects of Increasing Noise Magnitude on Operators' Performance
Authors: St-Cyr Olivier , Vicente Kim J.
Published: January 2012

We studied the impact of sensor noise on operators' performance using a display based on the Ecological Interface Design (EID) framework with a representative thermal-hydraulic process simulation. A previous study conducted by St-Cyr and Vicente (2004) showed no difference between EID and non-EID interfaces when the magnitude of sensor noise was randomly increased. In this paper, we describe a study that was designed to investigate the impact of gradually increasing the magnitude of sensor noise on EID versus non-EID interfaces. We hypothesized that as the magnitude of sensor noise increase, performance would worsen for both EID and non-EID participants. Our results suggest that increasing the magnitude of sensor noise does compromise both EID and non-EID interfaces. However, the EID group experienced a significantly larger decrease in performance. This may be explained by the fact that participants in the EID group had to deal with distorted emergent features.
When to Act? Managing Time-Accuracy Trade-Offs in a Dynamic Belief Updating Task
Authors: Hildebrandt Michael , Meyer Joachim
Published: January 2012

Diagnostic decisions in dynamic environments often require trade-offs between decision accuracy and timeliness. The longer a diagnostic decision is postponed, the more the accuracy of the decision may increase, while at the same time the probability of successfully executing remedial actions decreases. Kerstholt (1994) reports that in a task where a continuous process had to be monitored, subjects' reliance on a judgment-oriented strategy (requesting additional information before making a decision) frequently led to late decisions. In this study, we were interested if similar effects appear when the motivation to postpone the decision was induced by the prospect of an alarm appearing later in the trial. A normative model based on Bayesian belief updating was constructed to determine optimal strategies under the conditions of the independent variables alarm timing (early, late) and alarm reliability (0.7, 0.9). Results are in partial agreement with earlier studies by showing evidence of a judgment-oriented strategy in the low-reliability condition. However, in the high-reliability condition, a high proportion of early decision errors, consistent with an action-oriented strategy favoring decision timeliness over accuracy, occurred.
Evaluation of Human Performanace in a Supervisory Inspection Task Monitoring Multiple Hybrid Inspection Systems
Authors: Kommidi Sandhya , Dharwada Pallavi , Gramopadhye Anand K. , Cho Byung R. , Grimes Lawrence
Published: January 2012

The demand for consistent quality has led to 100% inspection using automated systems rather than the traditional sampling with human inspectors. However, these automated systems cannot adapt to novel situations to meet the required performance without human intervention. The need for costeffective and superior inspection performance has resulted in hybrid systems in which the functions are allocated depending on the capabilities of humans and machines. With the increasing availability of computer technology due to decreased costs and size, the role of humans in inspection systems is changing from that of a continuous “online” inspector to that of a supervisor of multiple tasks. This study uses a computer-based visual inspection simulator to investigate the role of the human as a supervisor in inspection systems, with the main focus on the effect of performance of one hybrid inspection system on human decision to intervene in another system to optimize the inspection performance.
The Continued Evolution of Team Research: A Theoretical Model of Performance in Multiteam Systems
Authors: Guthrie Joseph W. , Priest Heather A. , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

The growth of global companies and partnerships in and across organizations and the growth of coalitions in military campaigns have brought about new needs in team research. Specifically, organizations and the military alike are beginning to utilize teams of teams or multiteam systems (MTS) to complete more complex tasks. A MTS has been defined as “two or more teams that interface directly and interdependently in response to environmental contingencies toward the accomplishment of collective goals” (Mathieu, Marks, & Zaccaro, 2001, p. 290). We believe that MTS represent the next evolution of team research. Because of the growing importance and of MTS to the military and organizations this paper introduces a theoretical model of MTS performance, the Joint Operations Effectiveness Model. We provide a brief synopsis of teams and findings from previous team research before presenting a more detailed description of the proposed model.
Privacy Rules: Method and System for Conveying Location-Granularity Preferences with Location-Based Service Requests
Authors: Balaji T. S. , Miller Robert H. , Heppner Clyde C. , Landers R. Brian
Published: January 2012

The results of an online survey support a growing body of evidence that user discomfort increases in proportion to the accuracy with which wireless communication networks determine the physical location of a wireless device. We describe a method for conveying and applying user preferences for location granularity (inaccuracy) with such location-based services. Using this method, a user may limit the location granularity either globally, for particular services, or for particular individuals who might wish to locate the user. Upon detecting a request to use a location service, a wireless device sends to the service provider a message directing how to carry out the requested service. Upon receiving the instructions, the service provider would proceed to determine the location of the device, adjust the granularity as appropriate to the user's preference, then return the adjusted location. We believe that this method will alleviate some of users' concerns related to the privacy and control of location information.
Pros, Cons, and Changing Behavior: An Application in the Use of the Keyboard to Issue Commands
Authors: Peres S. Camille , Fleetwood Michael D. , Yang Minmin , Tamborello Franklin P. , Smith Danielle Paige
Published: January 2012

Despite the fact that keyboard issued commands (KICs) are more efficient than other command methods, experienced users often do not adopt them. In order to examine the factors underlying this phenomenon, a study is presented which investigated the relationships between users' level of knowledge with Microsoft Word, the importance they placed on the costs and benefits of using KICs, and how these factors related to the use of KICs in Microsoft Word. Results indicate that benefits are more strongly associated with the actual use of KICs than costs. The application of these findings to the human factors domain and the implication of the results to facilitate the adoption of efficient techniques and behaviors are discussed.
Effects of a Multitouch Keyboard on Wrist Posture, Typing Performance and Comfort
Authors: Thom-Santelli Jennifer , Hedge Alan
Published: January 2012

This study compares the use of a conventional keyboard (CK) and a prototype ultra-low profile MultiTouch keyless keyboard (MTK) that only requires contact force to register a keystroke and allows mousing and gestural input on the same surface. Twelve subjects completed eight randomly assigned 7.5- minute typing tasks of text passages of similar difficulty and identical length for each keyboard condition. Typing speed, accuracy, wrist postures and user comfort were measured. Subjects, typed slower (F1,11 = 41.86, p=0.000) and less accurately (F1,11 = 23.55, p=0.001) on the MTK during the typing tasks. Mean wrist extension was lower for the MTK (F1,11= 10.205, p=0.000) while radial and ulnar deviation did not differ significantly between the two keyboards. Subjects preferred the CK and reported a higher level of ease (F1,11 = 49.732, p=0.00) and enjoyment (F1,11 = 51.129, p=0.00) during its use. In terms of comfort, subjects reported a higher level of ease and enjoyment in the CK condition. Familiarity and fatigue effects affected the results.
Factor Analysis of Card Sort Data: An Alternative to Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
Authors: Capra Miranda G.
Published: January 2012

Software and product designers use card sorting to understand item groups and relationships. In the usability community, a common method of formal statistical analysis for open card sort data is hierarchical cluster analysis, which results in a tree of the items sorted into distinct, nested clusters. Hierarchical cluster analysis is appropriate for highly structured settings, like software menus. However, many situations call for softer clusters, such as designing websites where multiple pages link to the same target page. Factor analysis summarizes the categories created in card sorts and generates clusters that can overlap. This paper explains how to prepare card sort data for statistical analysis, describes the results of factor analysis and how to interpret them, and discusses when hierarchical cluster analysis and factor analysis are appropriate.
The Effects of Line Length on Reading Performance of Online News Articles
Authors: Shaikh A. Dawn , Chaparro Barbara S.
Published: January 2012

Previous research has shown that typographical factors of online text may influence its readability. This study examines the effects of line length on reading speed, comprehension, and user satisfaction of online news articles. Twenty college-age students read news articles displayed in 35, 55, 75, or 95 characters per line (cpl) from a computer monitor. Comprehension was assessed using six question types — title, main idea, main factual, structure, incidental, and recognition (Dyson & Haselgrove, 2001). Results showed that passages formatted with 95 cpl resulted in faster reading speed. Structure questions were found to be more challenging overall when compared to factual and other lower-level questions. Overall satisfaction was not affected by line length; however, users indicated a strong preference for the extreme line lengths.
Perceptions of Personality in Computer Agents: Effects of Culture and Gender
Authors: Prabhala Sasanka , Gallimore Jennie J.
Published: January 2012

Developing computer agents with personalities may be one way to enhance human-machine collaboration. To create computer agents with personalities it is essential to identify the actions, language, and/or behaviors that people indicate signify the personalities they perceive. Additionally it is possible that culture and gender may play a role in how computer personalities are perceived. This research investigated how culture and gender affect the perception of computer personalities within a computer game. Participants were asked to rate the computer characters in a blackjack game based on the Big Five Factor personality trait model and to describe the actions, language, and/or behaviors that gave them their impressions. The results show that participants did perceive personality in the computer characters and were able to describe actions, languages and behaviors leading to their perceptions. The results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences based on culture and gender differences. This research provides a starting point for development of computer agents with personalities incorporating personality theory into model development.
The Need for Quality Aviation Safety Graduates: An Educational Challenge
Authors: Weitzel Thomas R. , Chidester Thomas R. , Mason Roger A.
Published: January 2012

The authors investigated a previously unaddressed problem within curricula of the United States (U.S.) aviation institutions of higher education. Graduates of these institutions were not being prepared to work within safety departments of the U.S. air carriers involved with one or more of the five current, voluntary Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) programs. To ascertain the need for a solution, a subjective instrument was developed and personally administered to 13 participants within the industry. The qualitative results were interpreted, and, in combination with the knowledge gained from the immersion of a professor within a research organization, resulted in the curricular placement of some of the aforementioned content on one campus of one U.S. aviation university during the spring semester of 2005.