bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Imagery experts: How do expert abacus operators process imagery?
Authors: Hishitani Shinsuke
Published: May 2007

This study examined how expert abacus operators process imagery. Without imagery instructions a digit series was auditorily presented as one whole number (WHL list) or separate digits (SEP list). RT from offset of the probe to onset of the response was measured. The main findings were as follows: experts showed no difference in RT between the two lists, while significant differences occurred in non‐experts; non‐experts' RT increased with probed position, while experts' RT was flat if the series size was within their image capacity; experts' RT increased with probed position when the series size was longer than their image capacity, but its rate of increase was smaller than that of non‐experts; and the smaller the image capacity, the steeper the slope of the RT function. It was concluded that experts spontaneously encode the digit series into an imaged abacus, while non‐experts encode it verbally; that experts directly access the probed position within their image but serially process the verbally coded overflowed part; and that non‐experts search the digit series serially.
Disruption of proofreading by irrelevant speech: Effects of attention, arousal or memory?
Authors: Jones Dylan M. , Miles Christopher , Page Jean
Published: May 2007

A series of five experiments examined the effects of irrelevant speech on proofreading and memory. Four of the experiments used a proofreading task and showed that the deleterious effects of irrelevant speech: (1) depend on the speech being meaningful, (2) are only present when the burden on short‐term memory is low and (3) are manifested in a lower detection rate for non‐contextual as opposed to contextual errors. Neither the spatial location of the speech (either in terms of spatial dispersion of sources or spatial movement of a single source) nor the intensity of the speech (in a range bounded by 50 dB(A) and 70 dB(A)) had any effect on proofreading. Late selection models of attention are favoured by the results in preference to models having arousal, short‐term memory or early selection in attention as their basis. A final experiment showed serial recall for visual lists to be impaired by the presence of any speech‐like sound (including reversed speech and speech in an unfamiliar language) which suggests a set of phenomena qualitatively different from those associated with proofreading. Throughout the article the practical consequences of the findings are emphasized.
Reverse versus forward recall of script‐based texts
Authors: Geiselman R. Edward , Callot Robin
Published: May 2007

Previous research has shown that witnesses who are instructed to recall a crime scenario in reverse order as well as in forward order retrieve more total information than witnesses who recall in forward order twice. The present experiment evaluated the hypothesis that forward recall consists of schema‐based retrieval whereas reverse‐order recall consists of more datadriven, non‐schematic retrieval. It was predicted that more actions consistent with a scenario's schema would be recalled in forward order than in reverse order, more actions incidental to the schema would be recalled in reverse order than forward order, and more schema‐based intrusions would be generated in forward order. The results confirmed these predictions. Implications for witness interviewing are discussed.
Preventive and corrective maintenance of access to knowledge
Authors: Bahrick Harry P. , Hall Lynda K.
Published: May 2007

Access to large portions of our knowledge is unstable, so that recall fluctuates depending upon momentary context. Laboratory interventions can stabilize access for a time, either by preventing the loss of precarious access (preventive maintenance) or by re‐establishing lost access (corrective maintenance). This paper describes two methods of measuring the magnitude and duration of such intervention effects. Preventive maintenance effects are measured by the degree and the persistence of asymmetry of up‐ versus down‐fluctuations on successive attempts to recall. The preventive maintenance effect of a single successful recall trial has a half‐life in excess of 1 month. The methods are suitable for comparing the effectiveness of various schedules and types of maintenance interventions for a variety of semantic memory content and for diverse subject populations.
Instructional effects in the use of the mnemonic keyword method for learning German nouns and their grammatical gender
Authors: Desrochers Alain , Wieland Linda Deroy , Coté Madeleine
Published: May 2007

The use of the mnemonic keyword method involves (a) the formation of an orthographic link between the form of a foreign word and that of a physically similar word in one's mother tongue (i.e. the keyword), and (b) the formation of a semantic link between the referent of the foreign word and that of the keyword. In a variation of this study method, English‐speaking learners were asked to study the grammatical gender of German nouns by substituting the concepts of a woman, a man, and an inanimate object for the feminine, masculine, and neuter genders, respectively. This more concrete representation of gender was then to be incorporated to an interactive image along with the referent of the keyword and that of the German noun. The three experiments reported in this paper yielded four main results: (a) instructing learners to recode the gender tag and to include its representation into an interactive mental image along with the referent of the German noun facilitated the recall of genders: (b) the facilitating effect of imagery instructions on the recall of genders was obtained only if the English translation was recalled; (c) the probability of correctly reporting the gender given that the English translation was not recalled was higher than the baseline for guessing if the learners were instructed to encode the gender before the translation, otherwise it was consistently near the baseline: and (d) in contrast with prior studies with French‐speaking subjects, the modified keyword method did not always enhance the recall of the familiar translation equivalents. The discussion bears mainly on the factors that might account for the difficulty of detecting a consistent keyword advantage in the recall of the familiar translation.
Face recognition memory: The effects of exposure duration and encoding instruction
Authors: Reynolds J. Kirkland , Pezdek Kathy
Published: May 2007

Two experiments test the effects of exposure duration and encoding instruction on the relative memory for five facial features. Participants viewed slides of Identi‐kit faces and were later given a recognition test with same or changed versions of each face. Each changed test face involved a change in one facial feature: hair, eyes, chin, nose or mouth. In both experiments the upper‐face features of hair and eyes were better recognized than the lower‐face features of nose, mouth, and chin, as measured by false alarm rates. In Experiment 1, participants in the 20‐second exposure duration condition remembered faces significantly better than participants in the 3‐second exposure duration condition; however, memory for all five facial features improved at a similar rate with the increased duration. In Experiment 2, participants directed to use feature scanning encoding instructions remembered faces significantly better than participants following age judgement instructions; however, the size of the memory advantage for upper facial features was less with feature scanning instructions than with age judgement instructions. The results are discussed in terms of a quantitative difference in processing faces with longer exposure duration, versus a qualitative difference in processing faces with various encoding instructions. These results are related to conditions that affect the accuracy of eyewitness identification.
The integration of knowledge and experimentation strategies in understanding a physical system
Authors: Schauble Leona , Glaser Robert , Raghavan Kalyani , Reiner Miriam
Published: May 2007

This study investigated how people integrate different kinds of knowledge in coming to understand the functions of components of a physical system. Twenty‐three undergraduates worked on a hypothesis‐testing task in which they constructed test circuits to decide the identity of electrical components hidden inside boxes. The students' problem‐solving was driven by qualitative causal models that included ideas about cause and effect, task demands, and functions of circuits and circuit components. There was a hierarchy of four causal models, with higher levels representing increasing understanding and supporting increasingly successful problem solution. These causal models were associated with characteristic experimentation strategies, including strategies for generating evidence, interpreting evidence, and managing memory requirements. Some of these strategies followed directly from the causal model a student held, whereas others appeared to be more general. The level of understanding a student eventually attained about this physical system was a function of both domain knowledge and proficiency in experimentation strategies.
Typeface emphasis and information focus in written language
Authors: McAteer Erica
Published: May 2007

This paper looks at the typographical resource of written emphasis (changing the typeface style on specific words or passages within text)–for signalling information focus. Some investigations into the effects of two conventional typefaces, upper case and italic, for signalling modulatory and contrastive stress upon word content are reported, illustrating the effectiveness of strategies using this resource for economically transmitting intended content from writer to reader. At this time of heightened interest in writing competence, and the potential of electronic writing systems for providing more typographical resources to the author than were available with pen‐and‐paper or typewriting modes, the function of paralinguistic signalling within written language is suggested as a key issue for research.
Verbal hallucinations in normals, I: People who hear ‘voices’
Authors: Barrett Terry R. , Etheridge Jane B.
Published: May 2007

Two studies are reported that describe the phenomena of verbal hallucinations in the general population and test two explanations of those reports. Subjects were 198 male and 387 female college students who completed a verbal hallucination questionnaire plus one or more additional questionnaires. We found that a large minority reported hallucinations and that nearly half reported having them at least once a month. The present data indicated that these reports were not related to four measures of social conformity. Neither were they related to measures of overt, or incipient, symptoms of psychopathology. We have concluded that the majority of these reports are generally veridical accounts of conscious experience in normal individuals.
Retrieval characteristics of autobiographical memories: Event and date information
Authors: Burt Christopher D. B.
Published: May 2007

This study examines the recall of autobiographical event information. The nature of 434 events–what, who was involved, and where and when they occurred, was obtained by examining the diaries of eight diarists. What, where and who event information was used both as cues to prompt recall and the aspect to be recalled. When was only ever recalled. Analysis indicated what was the most efficient retrieval cue, followed by where and who. An event aspect cue uniqueness explanation is suggested for these results. Event recall decreased and absolute dating error increased with retention interval. Other results suggested the latter result was due to dating strategy accuracy differences combined with a systematic adoption of different dating strategies as retention interval increased. Systematic dating errors that varied with retention interval were found, but no evidence to suggest that degree of event knowledge affected signed dating error. However, subjects generally assigned dates within the time frame established by the study, which suggests systematic dating errors are the result of boundary effects.
Elaborative memory strategies of professional actors
Authors: Noice Helga
Published: May 2007

Analysis of expert performance in various domains has revealed not only that experts possess a high degree of knowledge, but that this knowledge is very efficiently organized. But increased understanding of expertise has shed little light on what specific strategy is best suited for a particular task. This study investigated the strategies employed by professional actors in the course of learning theatrical scripts. Seven actors were asked to describe the procedures they use in preparing and learning a role. These protocols were then analysed for commonalities among subjects. The most important finding was that there was unanimous agreement among actors that they do not memorize the lines in a rote‐type fashion. Instead they read the script many times, trying to infer the motivation behind each utterance. All of the actors stressed the importance of identifying the underlying meaning and of explaining why the character said those exact words. Apparently this type of ‘active’ understanding leads to verbatim retention of the text and makes word‐for‐word or line‐for‐line memorizing unnecessary.
Deficits in acquiring language structure: The importance of using prosodic cues
Authors: Weinert Sabine
Published: May 2007

The study investigates and supports the hypothesis that (1) specifically language‐impaired (SLI) children have deficits in processing and using the rhythmic‐prosodic structure of speech; and that (2) these deficits impede the implicit learning of formal regularities of input language. The ability of SLI children to exploit prosodic cues in rule learning was tested in an experimental design using a miniature language. Twenty‐four SLI children (mean age 6;5) learned a small set of sentences generated by a content‐free rule system. The sample sentences were presented either with or without prosodic cues to the underlying formal regularities. The experimental groups were matched by various cognitive and language indicators. To assess whether they had acquired some regularities of the miniature language, a grammaticality judgement task was presented. In addition, their ability to reproduce rule‐structured and rule‐violating strings was tested. The experimental as well as some additional correlational data support the basic theoretical assumptions. The children had deficits in processing and exploiting prosodic cues in rule learning, and these deficits covaried with their rhythmic ability as indicated by a rhythm discrimination task.
Scripts for typical crimes and their effects on memory for eyewitness testimony
Authors: Holst Valerie Fisher , Pezdek Kathy
Published: May 2007

The effect of scripts on memory for information presented as eyewitness testimony in a mock criminal trial was tested. In Experiment 1 the nature of people's scripts for three types of robberies was examined. There was a high rate of agreement in a heterogeneous sample of 247 people regarding the actions that comprise a typical robbery of each type. In Experiment 2 the effects of people's robbery scripts and the effects of leading questions by the attorney on memory were probed. An audio‐recording of a mock trial was presented in which some of the script‐relevant actions from Experiment 1 were stated by the eyewitness and some were unstated. One week later a significant number of unstated items were recalled and recognized as having been stated. Further, unstated actions mentioned in ‘misleading’ questions by the attorney were recalled as having been stated by the eyewitness, and cautionary instructions warning of the possible misleading effect of the attorney's questions did not significantly reduce this misleading effect. Thus, people have scripts in memory for typical robberies, and when such scripts are activated people incorporate into their memory script‐relevant information not presented, along with information presented. Moreover, most people do not differentiate between information presented by the eyewitness versus the attorney. These results have practical implications for the way jurors process and remember trial testimony.
Examining the generality of eyewitness hypermnesia: A close look at time delay and question type
Authors: Dunning David , Stern Lisa Beth
Published: May 2007

Three studies investigated whether requiring eyewitnesses to provide multiple accounts of a crime prompted them to exhibit more accurate and complete recall (i.e. hypermnesia) or towards providing more inaccurate and confabulated testimony. Subject‐witnesses viewed videotapes enacting several types of crimes. Subjects exhibited hypermnesia in two studies in which they were asked to provide accounts of the incident via a free‐recall procedure. Indeed, there tended to be roughly a 10–20 per cent increase in the number of facts accurately recalled from the initial interview to the third. The number of incorrect recollections and confabulations did not reliably increase. In the second experiment, hypermnesia was observed even when eyewitness memory was degraded by delaying the initial interview until a week after the witness viewed the crime. In a third study, which employed a multiple‐choice questioning procedure, subjects exhibited neither hypermnesia nor heightened incorrect responding. Discussion centres on possible factors influencing the hypermnesia effect and implications of the present research for theory on hypermnesia.
The impact of connectives on the memory for expository texts
Authors: Millis Keith K. , Graesser Arthur C. , Haberlandt Karl
Published: May 2007

Three experiments investigated the influence of connectives on memory for expository text. Subjects in Experiments 1 and 2 read and later recalled passages with either no connectives, temporal connectives (before/ and then), causal connectives (which caused/which enabled), or intentional connectives (in order that/so that). There was connective interference rather than connective facilitation in the studies reported here: the recall for passages without connectives was higher than the recall for passages with connectives. The results partially supported a semantic complexity hypothesis, which predicted that recall should increase with the semantic complexity of the connective (i.e. temporal < causal < intentional). In a third experiment, the semantic appropriateness of the connective was manipulated. Recall for passages without connectives was better than recall for passages with either appropriate or inappropriate connectives. In a fourth experiment, the subjects filled in missing connectives in natural expository texts. Subjects were able to select the connective category which was originally used by the author. The influence of connectives on text was discussed from the perspective of resource limitations, elaborations, and the semantic compatibility of the connectives to the text.
Does the use of dolls facilitate children's memory of visits to the doctor?
Authors: Gordon Betty N. , Ornstein Peter A. , Nida Robert E. , Follmer Andrea , Crenshaw M. Cristine , Albert Gabrielle
Published: May 2007

Age differences in children's recall of salient experiences have frequently been documented, but these findings have routinely been based on studies in which verbal interviews have been employed. Because verbal interview protocols may underestimate the memory of young children, the purpose of this research was to compare the effectiveness of such an interview with two alternative protocols that involved the use of a doll. Using these contrasting protocols, 3‐and 5‐year‐old children were asked to remember the details of a routine physical examination. Neither doll protocol facilitated 3‐year‐olds' recall of the features of the check‐up. In contrast, 5‐year‐olds who were asked to demonstrate with a doll what happened in their examination showed enhanced recall. The inclusion of a doll had no effect on older or younger children's provision of elaborative detail about their visits to the doctor. Various measures of individual differences (e. g. temperament, language skill) predicted some aspects of the children's recall and elaboration. The findings are discussed in terms of the cognitive skills necessary for effective use of dolls in the assessment process, and are related to problems associated with interviewing young children who are involved in legal proceedings.
Effects of vowel variety and sample lenght on identification of a speaker in a line‐up
Authors: Roebuck Rebecca , Wilding John
Published: May 2007

Subjects (average age 21 years, recruited by personal contact and through a school) were presented with a spoken sentence on tape and then heard six speakers of the same sex, including the original speaker, say the same sentence. They were required to indicate which was the original speaker. The task was repeated with seven different sentences and sets of speakers. One group of subjects heard short sentences containing an average of 2.14 different vowel sounds and 6.28 syllables, another group heard short sentences containing an average of 6.14 vowel sounds (7.28 syllables) and a third group heard longer sentences containing an average of 6.28 vowel sounds (11.00 syllables). Accuracy of speaker identification improved significantly when more vowel sounds were heard, but increased sentence length had no significant effect on performance. Performance was significantly better when the listener was the same sex as the speaker than when the listener was of the other sex.
A model for predicting the outcomes of basketball games
Authors: Heit Evan , Price Paul C. , Bower Gordon H.
Published: May 2007

We investigated the task of predicting the outcomes of sporting events, in particular, basketball games. In two experiments, college students predicted the outcomes of a series of National Basketball Association (NBA) games. Following each prediction, the subject received feedback in the form of the actual outcome of the NBA game. After a period of initial learning about the relative strengths of the teams, the subjects were surprisingly successful in their predictions. We examined expert–novice differences by comparing the published predictions of professional oddsmakers to the predictions of the experimental subjects. The average predictions by the subjects were approximately as accurate as the predictions of experts. Finally, we applied a mathematical model, developed originally as an account of simpler learning experiments, to the subjects' responses. We found that the course of the subjects' learning about the teams was well‐described by this model.
Towards understanding the effects of interviewer training in evaluating the cognitive interview
Authors: Memon Amina , Holley Angela , Milne Rebecca , Koehnken Guenter , Bull Ray
Published: May 2007

The effectiveness of the cognitive interview (CI) technique has been demonstrated in experimental studies of eyewitness memory conducted in the USA, Germany, and the UK. Much of the research, however, has used college students as interviewers rather than professionals who regularly interview witnesses (e.g. police officers). The aim of this research was to examine the effects of such CI training using experienced police officers with established interviewing styles. An armed robbery was staged and information was elicited in witness interviews. The CI did not significantly increase correct recall but tended to produce more suppositions and errors. A qualitative analysis of interviewer behaviour showed that many officers had difficulty in applying the new cognitive techniques and in avoiding the use of closed and leading questions. The paper addresses two issues: first, that of training experienced police officers who have received relatively little prior training in investigative interviewing, and second, the extent to which we can generalize from the laboratory data elicited in previous studies of CI.
A snapshot of autobiographical memory retrieval characteristics
Authors: Burt Christopher D. B. , Mitchell David A. , Raggatt Peter T. F. , Jones Carol A. , Cowan Terrina M.
Published: May 2007

This study attempts to replicate and extend the results of Burt (1992a), using more ecologically valid memory cues. Twenty‐seven undergraduate students used 138 rolls of film over the 1992‐3 summer vacation. The film produced approximately 4900 autobiographical photographs, which were categorized as to the nature of the cues (event information) they contained (e. g. activity, location, participant). A sample of the subject's autobiographical photographs, and a set of other individuals autobiographical photographs (autobiographical foils), were presented to each subject via a tachistoscope. The subjects were asked to indicate when they had retrieved the 'circumstances and associated context' surrounding the scene depicted in each photograph or had decided the latter was not possible. Differences in memory retrieval times were found between the foils and autobiographical photographs and across the cue categories. The results suggest that autobiographical event memory structures are formed around the most unique event attribute. Rehearsal of an event and occurrence of an experience within an extended event (e. g. a holiday) were also found to predict memory retrieval time.
Helping students acquire belief‐inconsistent and belief‐consistent science facts: Comparisons between individual and dyad study using elaborative interrogatin, self‐selected study and repetitious‐reading
Authors: Woloshyn Vera E. , Stockley Denise B.
Published: May 2007

One hundred and eighty four grade 6 and 7 students processed 32 factual statements in one of two studies reported here. Half the statements were consistent with the students' prior knowledge, whereas the remaining facts were inconsistent with it. Students studied the facts alone, or with a partner, by: (1) answering 'why' questions; (2) reading the information for understanding; or (3) selecting their own method of study. Recall (free and cued) and recognition measures (immediate, 30‐day, and 60‐day) were used to assess learning (immediate, 30‐day, and 60‐day). Instructions to use elaborative interrogation produced superior learning gains relative to instructing students to read information for understanding or to select their own study strategy. Overall, there were no performance differneces as a function of individual versus dyad study. The quality of the elaborative interrogation study response affected learning. When students generated or listened to a partner's response that clarified the target facts, learning of that information was superior to when students generated or listened to other types of study responses.
Providing grade one students with multiple spelling strategies: Comparisons between strategy instruction, strategy instruction with metacognitive information, and traditional language arts
Authors: Kernaghan Kelly , Woloshyn Vera E.
Published: May 2007

The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether providing first‐grade students with multiple strategy instruction plus metacognitive information would improve their spelling performances relative to providing them with strategy instruction or traditional language arts activities alone. Students in the strategy conditions received explicit instruction in the use of phonetics, imagery, and analogy. Students in the strategy condition with metacognitive information were also provided with information about when and where to use each spelling strategy. The remaining students completed traditional language arts activities. Students' spelling performances were assessed prior to, immediately after and 14 days after instruction using a dictation test, the Developmental Spelling Test, and a writing sample. For the dictation test, students who received multiple strategy instruction with metacognitive information out‐performed those who received strategy instruction alone or completed language arts activities, with no differences between students' performances in the latter conditions. All students' performances improved on the Developmental Spelling Test and writing samples as a function of time. The authors concluded that even young students are able to acquire a repertoire of effective spelling strategies if they are provided with explicit instruction that includes metacognitive information.
Arsenic and selected elements in inter‐tidal and estuarine marine algae, south‐east coast, NSW, Australia
Authors: Thomson Danielle , Maher William , Foster Simon
Published: May 2007

The cycling of arsenic in marine inter‐tidal and estuarine algae was examined by measuring total arsenic concentrations and arsenic species in marine inter‐tidal and estuarine algae from the south‐east coast, NSW, Australia. A range of elements required for metabolism in photosynthetic organisms were also measured to determine if any relationship between these elements and arsenic concentrations occurred. Total arsenic concentrations varied between classes of algae: red macro algae, 4.3–24.7 µg g−1; green macro algae, 8.0–11.0 µg g−1; and blue green algae, 10.4–18.4 µg g−1. No significant relationships were found between arsenic concentrations and concentrations of iron, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc. Distinct differences between algal classes were found for the proportion of arsenic species present in the lipid and water‐soluble fractions, with green algae having a higher proportion of arsenic in lipids (19–44%) than red inter‐tidal (5–34%) or estuarine algae (10–24%). Acid hydrolysis of lipid extracts revealed dimethyl arsenic, glycerol arsenoribose and two unknown cation based arsenolipids. Within water‐soluble extracts, red macro algae and blue green algae contained a greater proportion of arsenic as inorganic and simple methylated arsenic species compared with green macro algae, which contained predominantly glycerol arsenoribose. Arsenobetaine, arsenocholine and tetramethyl arsonium ion were also present in some water‐soluble extracts, but are not normally identified with algae and are probably due to the presence of attached microscopic epiphytes. Residue extracts contained predominantly inorganic arsenic, most likely associated with insoluble constituents of the cell. Marine algae contained lipids with arsenic moieties that may be precursors for arsenobetaine. Specifically, the presence of dimethylated arsenoribose‐based arsenolipids can transform to arsenobetaine via intermediates previously identified in marine organisms. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Determination of migration of n‐butyltins and n‐octyltins to food simulants by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
Authors: Papaspyrou Sophia D. , Thomaidis Nikolaos S. , Lampi Eugenia N. , Lioupis Alexandros
Published: May 2007

A simple chromatographic method was developed for the simultaneous determination of butyl‐ and octyltin compounds in two aqueous‐based food simulants, water and 3% (w/v) acetic acid. The procedure is based on one‐step derivatization/extraction with sodium tetraethylborate directly in the aqueous phase in the presence of 1 ml of 0.05% (w/v) tropolone in hexane. Derivatization parameters such as extraction solvent, pH, reaction time and amount of the reagent were optimized. The corresponding ethylated compounds were analysed by GC‐MS using tripropyltin (TPrT) and diheptyltin (DHT) as internal standards for butyl‐ and octyltin compounds, respectively. This new method was validated and evaluated for linearity, trueness and precision in both simulants. The detection limits were in the range 1.9 (MBT) to 8.8 (TBT) µg l−1 (as organic–metallic cation) in both simulants. The stability of the organotin compounds under migration conditions (10 days at 40 °C) was also tested. The tested organotins presented no significant losses under the migration conditions. The developed method was applied to some PVC food packaging materials from the market. Few organotins were detected at levels near the limit of quantitation. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Determination of arsenic species and arsenosugars in marine samples by HPLC‐ICP‐MS
Authors: Hirata Shizuko , Toshimitsu Hideki
Published: May 2007

Arsenic speciation analysis in marine samples was performed using high‐pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ICP‐MS detection. The separation of eight arsenic species, viz. AsIII, MMA, DMA, AsV, AB, TMAO, AC and TeMAs+, was achieved on a Shiseido Capcell Pak C18 column using an isocratic eluent (pH 3.0), in which conditions AsIII and MMA were co‐eluted. The method was successfully applied to several marine samples, e.g. oyster, fish, shrimp and marine algae. For the extraction of arsenic from seafood products, low‐power microwave digestion was employed, and for the extraction of arsenic from marine algae, sonicated extraction was employed. The separation of arsenosugars in the extracts from marine algae was achieved on an anion exchange column, Hamilton PRP X‐100, using ammonium hydrogen carbonate solution (pH 8.4). The concentrations of arsenosugar‐2, ‐3 and ‐4 in the extracts from the marine algae were analyzed to test the use of a Fucus sample as a reference standard material and were in the range 3.6–27.5 µg g−1, which accounted for 6.0–34.9% of total arsenic. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Catalytic properties of cross‐linked polystyrene grafted diorganotins in a model transesterification and the ring‐opening polymerization of ε‐caprolactone
Authors: Poelmans Kevin , Pinoie Vanja , Verbruggen Ingrid , Biesemans Monique , Van Assche Guy , Deshayes Gaëlle , Degée Philippe , Dubois Philippe , Willem Rudolph
Published: May 2007

The catalytic properties of cross‐linked polystyrene grafted diorganotins of the types [PH](1−t)[P(CH2)11Sn‐n‐BuCl2]t and [PH](1−t){[P(CH2)11Sn‐n‐BuCl]2O}t/2, in which [PH] represents the monomeric unit of the cross‐linked polystyrene matrix and t is the degree of functionalization, were compared. The grafted chlorodistannoxane catalyst was completely characterized by elemental analysis, IR and Raman, 119Sn high‐resolution magic angle spinning (hr‐MAS) NMR and 117Sn CP‐MAS NMR spectroscopy. In spite of the spatial constraints and the potential steric demand resulting from cross‐linking, the grafted C11 chlorodistannoxane exhibited the same dimeric ladder complex arrangement as its nongrafted n‐butyl analog in the solid state and in solution. Moreover, 119Sn hr‐MAS NMR and 117Sn CP‐MAS NMR spectroscopy appeared to be complementary techniques for the assessment of the tin(IV) functionality of the grafted tetraalkyldichlorodistannoxane. The catalytic activity of the compounds was assessed in a model reaction, the transesterification reaction of ethyl acetate and n‐octanol, as well as in the ring‐opening polymerization (ROP) of ε‐caprolactone. Residual tin trace analysis was performed on the acquired reaction products. Whereas tin contents of the order of 20 ppm were found in the reaction products of the transesterification, tin leaching values were overall higher for the ROP, being less unfavorable, however, for the distannoxane ( ± 70 ppm) than for the dialkyltin dichloride ( ± 290 ppm). Quantitative liquid 1H NMR was applied to assess the conversions in both reactions, but also to determine various molecular parameters of the synthesized poly‐caprolactones. Furthermore, size exclusion chromatography was used to determine their polydispersity index. It was also demonstrated that 1H and 119Sn hr‐MAS NMR enable the chemical integrity and recycling ability of the catalyst to be assessed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The psychotherapist's duty to act reasonably to prevent suicide: A proposal to allow rational suicide
Authors: Kjervik Diane K.
Published: May 2007

It is proposed that society should re‐examine its assumptions about suicide. Rational suicide is viewed as an extension of the right to die. After a review of the legal liability of the psychotherapist and psychiatric facility for both inpatient and outpatient suicide, the author presents an analysis of philosophical, ethical, and psychoanalytic arguments for allowing rational suicide. It is argued that emotional pain should be given more legitimacy as a reason for suicide. The decision to live or to die is argued to best rest with the individual.
Experimental psychology and the courtroom
Authors: Wells Gary L.
Published: May 2007

Experimental social and cognitive psychology cover a range of topics such as attitudes, attribution, decision making, perception, memory, comprehension, and reasoning. The relevance of these topics to the law is apparent in such domains as jury selection, jury behavior, plea bargaining, eyewitness testimony, sentencing, and police investigation strategies. Despite early attempts to apply experimental psychology to law (circa 1900–1920), it was not until the mid 1970s that a robust law‐relevant literature in experimental psychology began to unfold. The experimental psychology/law interface continues to experience some problems in (1) generalizing from specific research experiments to real‐world conditions, and (2) identifying solutions rather than just problems.
On the relation between genuine and simulated amnesia
Authors: Schacter Daniel L.
Published: May 2007

When claims of amnesia are made in legal cases, it is necessary to determine whether they are genuine or simulated. This article assesses current knowledge of the relation between genuine and simulated amnesia and discusses issues that are critical to understanding of the problem. It is argued that there are few well established facts regarding the nature of simulated amnesia, and no evidence that experts can distinguish accurately between genuine and simulated amnesia. Suggestions are made for future research that draw upon recent advances in cognitive psychology, social psychology, and neuropsychology.
Amnesia and competency to stand trial: A review of legal and clinical issues
Authors: Roesch Ronald , Golding Stephen L.
Published: May 2007

Recent case law is discussed regarding the role of amnesia in determining competency to stand trial. Clinical issues are examined for a range of amnestic conditions on a spectrum of organic and functional disorders. Clinical methods are explored for establishing the extent of amnesia and its relevance to competency.
Joint custody and the preschool child
Authors: McKinnon Rosemary , Wallerstein Judith S.
Published: May 2007

A longitudinal study of 25 families, with children aged 14 months‐5 years, in joint custody, is reported. Varying motivations that lead divorcing parents to undertake and sustain joint custody are discussed, together with the stresses and gratifications of these arrangements for the parents and children. Findings are that where both parents are motivated primarily by interest in the child, where the parenting is sensitive and where the child is shielded from interparental conflict, young children do well. Such families were not the majority in this study. Significant differences emerged in the adjustment of the 1–3 age group as compared with the 3–5 age group which point to greater difficulties for the 3–5‐year‐olds.
Law and antipsychotic medications
Authors: Brooks Alexander D.
Published: May 2007

This article reviews the origin and development of recent legal concepts surrounding use of antipsychotic medications. Complications (side effects) of certain psychiatric medications are seen as fueling the right to refuse treatment doctrine in the law. The leading cases in right to refuse treatment and right to object to treatment are presented and analyzed. The impact of Supreme Court actions on these concepts is evaluated. The influence of the various legal interpretations of right to refuse treatment on standards of psychiatric practice is explored. Have these laws made a difference on the standard of care in public mental institutions?
Characteristics of adolescents charged with homicide: Review of 72 cases
Authors: Cornell Dewey G. , Benedek Elissa P. , Benedek David M.
Published: May 2007

The present study examined a comparatively large sample of 72 adolescents charged with murder who were referred for pretrial evaluation in the State of Michigan over a 9‐year period. Subjects are compared with a control group of 35 adolescents charged with nonviolent larceny offenses. Information regarding the adolescents' demographic and social background, and the circumstances of the offense, are presented. Recognition of the diverse motives and circumstances of adolescent homicide may help to explain discrepant characterizations of them presented in the literature.
Sex hormones in murderers and assaulters
Authors: Bain Jerald , Langevin Ron , Dickey Robert , Ben‐Aron Mark
Published: May 2007

A study of hormonal levels of violent and nonviolent offenders failed to establish any significant differences among murderers, assaulters, and controls. While the results do not suggest a contributory role for random blood hormone levels in facilitating aggressive behavior, further study of complex interactions is necessary to rule out endocrinological factors.
Expert testimony and jury decision making: An empirical analysis
Authors: Cutler Brian L. , Dexter Hedy R. , Penrod Steven D.
Published: May 2007

This experiment examines the influence of expert psychological testimony on juror decision making in eyewitness identification cases. Experienced jurors and undergraduate mock jurors viewed versions of a videotaped trial, rated the credibility of the eyewitness and the strength of the prosecution's and defense's cases, and rendered verdicts. In the absence of expert testimony jurors were insensitive to eyewitness evidence. Expert testimony improved juror sensitivity to eyewitness evidence without making them more skeptical about the accuracy of the eyewitness identification. Few differences emerged between the experienced jurors and undergraduate mock jurors.
Rape myth acceptance: A case for providing educational expert testimony in rape jury trials
Authors: Tetreault Patricia A.
Published: May 2007

The prevalence and content of rape myth acceptance indicate a need for educational expert testimony in rape jury trials. It is proposed that expert testimony regarding common misconceptions about rape and rape victim behavior, conceptualized in terms of a social framework, would help to compensate for societal bias against the complainant in a rape trial. Rape trauma syndrome, eyewitness identification, and general educational testimony concerning rape are discussed. Evidence is presented that suggests inclusion of such testimony serves the purpose of expert testimony according to the Federal Rules of Evidence.
Bias and expert testimony of mental health professionals in adversarial proceedings: A preliminary investigation
Authors: Otto Randy K.
Published: May 2007

The role of mental health professionals testifying as expert witnesses has been the subject of increasing criticism. Cases in which opposing experts reach different conclusions are dismissed as “battles of the experts” and psychologists and psychiatrists are described as “hired guns.” This preliminary, analogue study examined the degree to which the opinions and testimony of mental health professionals may differ according to which side retains the expert. Results provided some support for the proposition that mental health professionals' testimony may vary according to the side by which they are retained.
Principles in judgment/decision making research pertinent to legal proceedings
Authors: Arkes Hal R.
Published: May 2007

Principles in the judgment/decision making literature relevant to the legal community are reviewed. These principles are divided into four areas: the decision process itself, communicating a judgment to others, evaluating a decision, and possible ways of “debiasing.” Several influences on the decision process are enumerated, among them being insufficient consideration of base rates, selective memory for relevant material, the framing of the decision in either the domain of losses or the domain of gains, and consideration of the “cues to causation.” Particular attention is paid to suboptimal consideration of covariation information. In communicating the decision to others the two most prominent findings are overconfidence in expressing one's decision and the inability to describe accurately the bases of one's decision. Evaluating a decision is plagued by two biases. The first is the hindsight bias. After an event has occurred we tend to exaggerate how easily we could have predicted the event beforehand. The second is the outcome bias. We tend to base our evaluation of the decision upon the evaluation of the outcome. Among the debiasing techniques mentioned are the admonition to “consider the opposite” of the preferred option, the reduction of reliance on memory, and the use of decision aids.
Training and credentialing in forensic psychiatry
Authors: Zonana Howard V. , Crane Lansing E. , Getz Marjorie A.
Published: May 2007

The increase in legal regulation of psychiatric practice, malpractice litigation, number of mentally ill in correctional settings and concerns about the sometimes embarrassing quality of expert witness testimony has led to an heightened focus on training and credentialing of psychiatrists who work in these areas. The past 20 years has witnessed a growth of professional organizations, journals, accredited training programs and board certification. The paper outlines the nature of these programs and some of the dilemmas for the profession in establishing formal subspecialties.
Bringing the behavioral sciences to the law: Tell it to the judge or talk to your legislator?
Authors: Mikva Abner J.
Published: May 2007

The empirical data generated by behavioral scientists is frequently targeted for presentation in courts in order to influence decision making. However, legislative bodies, rather than the courts, may be the most appropriate forum to consider such evidence. This article discusses the comparative reception of social science evidence in judicial versus legislative arenas.
Diversion of mentally disordered offenders: A legitimate role for clinicians?
Authors: Rogers Richard , Bagby R. Michael
Published: May 2007

Consultations to the courts often extend beyond criminal competencies and may include implicit statements regarding the diversion of mentally disordered offenders to treatment facilities. Arguments for diversion are based on humanitarian interests and treatment needs. Arguments opposing diversion recommendations emphasize (a) the variability of opinions regarding treatability, (b) the lack of sufficient outcome data, and (c) the potential for negative consequences in offering unsolicited opinions on diversion. Initial data from 271 pretrial evaluations underscore the range in psychiatric use of diversion recommendations, although inpatient referrals in particular appear to be based on clinical status.