bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Managing an Urban Watershed
Authors: Symons James M. , Whitworth Mary Ellen , Bedient Philip B. , Haughton James G.
Published: February 2018

As a result of instances in the early 1980s of high densities of fecal coliform being detected in Lake Houston, concerns were raised about the continued use of the lake as a major drinking water supply for the city of Houston, Texas. Effluent from several wastewater treatment plants in the watershed was suspected as the primary source of indicator organisms, and public health officials implemented a management plan to ensure proper operation of the plants. A study to assess the effectiveness of the plan, which called for strict enforcement of chlorine residual requirements, showed it to be working successfully. The study also showed, however, that other point and nonpoint sources of pollution were contributing indicator organisms to the lake. Also, although total coliform density in the forebay water at the Houston water treatment plant increased after rainstorms, no deterioration of finished drinking water quality occurred.
The Occurrence of Disinfection By‐products in US Drinking Water
Authors: Krasner Stuart W. , McGuire Michael J. , Jacangelo Joseph G. , Patania Nancy L. , Reagan Kevin M. , Aieta E. Marco
Published: February 2018

Data were gathered on the presence of disinfection by‐products (DBPs) in drinking water and on the impact of treatment processes on DBP formation and control. Thirty‐five water treatment facilities were selected to provide a broad range of source water qualities and treatment processes. Trihalomethanes were the largest class of DBPs detected (on a weight basis) in this study, with haloacetic acids being the next most significant DBP fraction. Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, by‐products of ozonation, were also demonstrated to be produced by chlorination. Cyanogen chloride was found to be preferentially produced in chloraminated water.
Formation and Control of Non‐Trihalomethane Disinfection By‐products
Authors: Stevens Alan A. , Moore Leown A. , Miltner Richard J.
Published: February 2018

During pilot‐plant studies of disinfection by‐products (DBPs) other than trihalomethanes (THMs), the authors found that pH is the chemical variable with the most significant effect on DBP formation. It appears that in water treatment, there would have to be a trade‐off between control of THMs (low pH) and control of most other DBPs (high pH). The experiments also indicated that precursor control may be similar for all of these DBPs—through physical removal mechanisms.
Evaluation of Ozonation By‐products From Two California Surface Waters
Authors: Glaze William H. , Koga Minoru , Cancilla Devon , Wang Kaixiong , McGuire Michael J. , Liang Sun , Davis Marshall K. , Tate Carol H. , Aieta E. Marco
Published: February 2018

Ozonation by‐products were analyzed for two surface water sources in Southern California—Los Angeles Aqueduct Water (LAAW) and State Project Water (SPW). Included are data obtained when LAAW was being treated at the Los Angeles Aqueduct Filtration Plant and similar data obtained during a two‐day experiment in which the plant was treating SPW. Some batch‐scale ozonation studies are also reported. Ozonation by‐products were monitored using three methods: closed‐loop stripping analysis, nonionic resin accumulation, and a direct aqueous derivatization method for low‐molecular‐weight aldehydes, each followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of the extracts. The major neutral by‐products appear to be aliphatic aldehydes, but the levels are unexpectedly low in SPW compared with LAAW treated under similar conditions. Low levels of several other compounds were found in ozonated water, including bromoform and some compounds tentatively identified as ketones.
Giardia Cyst Concentrations in River Water
Authors: Ongerth Jerry E.
Published: February 2018

Water samples from three pristine rivers in the Pacific Northwest were analyzed for Giardia cyst presence and concentration using a membrane‐filtration‐immunofluorescence‐assay procedure. A total of 222 samples were collected either monthly or bimonthly over a nine‐month period from 17 sampling stations on three rivers and 12 tributaries. Cyst recovery efficiency was monitored using samples seeded with cysts at levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 cysts/L. The recovery efficiency of the procedure averaged 21.8 percent ± 6 percent through 26 sets of samples. Giardia cysts were found in 94 (43 percent) of the samples. The corresponding cyst concentrations calculated from the recovery efficiency and the sample volume ranged from 0.1 to 5.2 cysts/L. The distribution of cyst concentrations in positive samples was lognormal. Both the magnitude of cyst concentrations (as indicated by the mean value) and the variability (as indicated by the slope of the distributions) differed among the three rivers. No statistically supportable seasonal variations were found. The principal conclusion was that Giardia cysts appear to be continuously present, though at low concentrations, even in relatively pristine rivers.
Evaluating Treatment Processes With the Ames Mutagenicity Assay
Authors: Noot Donald K. , Anderson William B. , Daignault Susan A. , Williams David T. , Huck Peter M.
Published: February 2018

This article reviews the use of the Ames Salmonella assay for assessing the mutagenicity of water produced by various treatment processes. Although chlorination is the most common means of disinfection in North America, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, and ozone have been shown to produce water that is less mutagenically active. Granular activated carbon (GAC) removes mutagens preferentially compared with parameters such as total organic carbon. In the absence of GAC, postchlorination typically increases mutagenicity. Inconsistent interstudy results with respect to the effects of ozone and metabolic activation (S9) and the capacity of GAC point to the role of raw water characteristics in the determination of treated water mutagenicity. In the case of ozone, dosage and contact time may also be important.
Treatment Plant Design in an Era of Changing Regulations
Authors: Westerhoff Garret P. , Kelley William A. , Trussell R. Rhodes , Smedberg Raymond C.
Published: February 2018

The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) have initiated a new era in drinking water treatment that will affect the thinking of design engineers. What is needed to upgrade existing plants to meet the new standards, particularly those associated with the Surface Water Treatment Rule, how might designers currently working on a proposed treatment plant project deal with the uncertainty, what to be looking at in terms of designing a plant with enough flexibility to be able to accommodate future by‐products standards while at the same time maintaining cost effectiveness are questions raised by the moderator of this discussion. One impact of the Surface Water Treatment Rule will be the need for existing plants to optimize their disinfection chemistry to comply with the CT (concentration time) requirement and, in some cases, to lower turbidity, perhaps by replacement of filter media. Emerging technology such as ozone, slow sand filtration providing filtration without the complexities of chemical treatment, use of granular activated carbon to remove organics, advanced oxidation, use of ultraviolet light or hydrogen peroxide to enhance the effectiveness of ozone, and membrane processes are highlighted in this discussion.
Desalting Practices in the United States
Authors: Buros O.K.
Published: February 2018

Desalination, or desalting, refers to the removal of salts from water. Desalting technologies have many applications, but this article addresses desalting as a source of potable water for municipalities within the United States.
Use of Membrane Technology in Florida
Authors: Dykes Glenn M. , Conlon William J.
Published: February 2018

Florida water suppliers have been using membrane treatment technology for decades. The first membrane systems were used in isolated instances for desalinating limited amounts of seawater; costs were high and the technology was relatively unperfected. Rapid development of coastal areas, with their abundant supplies of brackish water, has led many larger water suppliers to turn to membrane systems to meet increasing demand. Advances in membrane technology, its ability to produce high‐quality water, and the flexibility offered by modular expandability have enhanced the cost‐effectiveness of reverse osmosis and electrodialysis as treatment options. Almost 100 Florida water systems are now using membrane processes to produce a total of nearly 50 mgd, and existing plans call for total production capacity to more than triple.
Enforcing Drinking Water Regulations
Authors: Reinert Robert H. , Bailey Edward W. , DeLong Annabel , Cook Michael B. , Froman Charles A. , Sullivan John H. , Wendel Douglas , Samuel W. Hurley
Published: February 2018

This roundtable discussion focuses on the enforcement of Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulations. Reflecting its dissatisfaction with the US Environmental Protection Agency's track record of enforcing the SDWA, Congress gave the agency new enforcement powers and the mandate to use them when it passed the 1986 SDWA amendments. The change in enforcement status quo has raised numerous questions among those responsible for achieving and ensuring compliance, especially in light of the promise of a dramatically increased number of regulations.
Activated Alumina for Removing Dissolved Organic Compounds
Authors: Chen Abraham. S.C. , Snoeyink Vernon L. , Mallevialle Joel , Fiessinger François
Published: February 2018

Adsorption of natural organic matter on activated alumina (AA) improved when the organic matter was preoxidized with either ozone or hydrogen peroxide. The alumina was effectively regenerated in the laboratory with 0.1 percent (or greater) NaOH solutions, i.e., more than 8 × 10 −4 mol NaOH/g AA. The spent regenerant could be reused several times to reduce the quantity of process waste. The use of AA before granular activated carbon (GAC), combined with in situ regeneration of the AA, resulted in an 80 percent higher capacity of GAC for an organic micropollutant—2,4,‐dichlorophenol. Presumably there was reduced competition for adsorption sites on the GAC because the dichlorophenol was not adsorbed by the AA Pilot tests of AA adsorbers in parallel with GAC adsorbers showed that GAC had a higher capacity and could adsorb a larger percentage of natural organics than AA, that AA did not adsorb the semivolatile organics (analyzable by gas chromatography‐mass spectroscopy) in a surface water, and that preozonation improved removal by AA and GAC.
Racial Preferences in Contracting and Employment
Authors: Williams Wayne D.
Published: February 2018

Many water utilities in the United States have developed Affirmative Action and Minority Business Enterprise (MBE) programs in order to expand the opportunities for minorities in employment and in contracting for construction, sales, and services. The evolution of the Denver Water Board's MBE program is described from the time of its inception in May 1978 up until January 1989, when the US Supreme Court announced a decision that directly affects public water utilities with respect to racial preferences in contracting. The implications of this decision are discussed, along with the approaches that utilities can still use to encourage participation by MBEs in bidding and contracting.
Application of Human Factors to the Drinking Water Industry
Authors: Klein Robert , Kerwin William E.
Published: February 2018

Although automation has changed the nature of the operator's job throughout the drinking water industry, it has not diminished the operator's importance. New technologies may relieve operators from some of the tasks they have traditionally had to perform, but these same changes have also added new pressure. The increased sophistication of treatment facilities has added complexity to already complicated systems. Operators must now familiarize themselves with plant technology as well as understand process variables to ensure proper functioning of automated systems. Regardless of the level of automation, it is still the operator's responsibility to keep the plant running as designed, in compliance with all federal, state, and local requirements.
The Dilemma Facing State Drinking Water Programs
Authors: Krill Robert M.
Published: February 2018

The following discussion on problems facing state drinking water programs took place June 20, 1989, during the AWWA annual conference in Los Angeles, Calif. Panel moderator was Jack W. Hoffbuhr, AWWA deputy executive director. Other participants included Michael B. Cook, director of the Office of Drinking Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, 4th and M Streets S. W. (WH550A), Washington, DC 20460; Dan L. Fraser, manager of the Public Water Supply Program, Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Capital Station, Helena, MT 59620; Robert M. Krill, director of the Bureau of Water Supply, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 101 S. Webster St., Madison, WI 53707, and president of the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators; David W. Liechty, head of the Drinking Water Section, Washington State Department of Health, MSLD11, Olympia, WA 98509; and David F. Waldo, chief of the Drinking Water Section, Bureau of Water, Kansas Department of Health and Environment, Forbes Field, Topeka, KS 66620.
Evaluation of THM Precursor Contributions From Agricultural Drains
Authors: Amy Gary L. , Thompson Jill M. , Tan Lo , Davis Marshall K. , Krasner Stuart W.
Published: February 2018

More than 200 agricultural drains in the Sacramento River Delta contribute significant levels of trihalomethane (THM) precursors to California State Project water. It has been hypothesized that these drains, associated with crop irrigation involving highly organic peat soils, are probably responsible for the higher levels of dissolved organic carbon and THM formation potential in the California Aqueduct emanating from the delta in comparison with the principal freshwater tributaries entering the delta. The purpose of this study was to evaluate this hypothesis. It was found that the dissolved organic matter from drains is characterized by a higher molecular weight and greater THM reactivity than that found in delta tributaries.
Complying With the Surface Water Treatment and Total Coliform Rules
Authors: Astrab Donald P. , Marrocco Frederick A. , Glicker Joe , Dery Charlotte , Hubbs Stephen A. , Brock Geoffrey L. , Hess Alan F. , Regli Stig
Published: February 2018

The following discussion on complying with the surface water treatment and total coliform rules took place Nov. 12, 1989, during the AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference in Philadelphia, Pa. Stephen A. Hubbs, principal planning engineer for the Louisville Water Co., 435 S. Third St., Louisville, KY 40202, served as moderator. Other participants included Donald P. Astrab, water quality control coordinator, Honolulu Board of Water Supply, 630 S. Beretania St., Honolulu, HI 96843; Geoffrey L. Brock, director of laboratories, Philadelphia Water Dept., 4290 Ford Rd., Philadelphia, PA 19131; Charlotte Dery, water quality manager, Jerome Park Demonstration Water Treatment Plant, New York City Department of Environmental Protection, BWSWC, 3055 Goulden Ave., The Bronx, NY 10468; Joe Glicker, water quality director, Portland Water Bureau, 1120 S.W. Fifth Ave., Portland, OR 97204; Alan F. Hess, director of engineering, South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority, 90 Sargent Dr., New Haven, CT 06511; Frederick A. Marrocco, chief of the water supplies division, Pennsylvania Dept. of Environmental Resources, Box 2357, Harrisburg, PA 17105; and Stig Regli, environmental engineer, Office of Drinking Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M St. S. W., Washington, DC 20460.
Standards for Mineral Content in Drinking Water
Authors: Bruvold William H. , Daniels Jeffrey I.
Published: February 2018

This article reviews the American Water Works Association Statement of Policy on Drinking Water Quality and the US Environmental Protection Agency standard for total dissolved solids (TDS) in drinking water. Data from the California Mineral Taste Study (CMTS), which established a functional relationship between TDS and taste quality assessed by consumers and taste‐panel members, are summarized. The CMTS data indicate that for mineral content a TDS of 450 mg/L will result in a good quality water and that a TDS of 80 mg/L will result in an excellent quality water. A cost comparison between systemwide demineralization and the purchase of bottled water by individual consumers shows that systemwide demineralization may be less costly to the residential consumer. Such information, when developed for a particular utility, can be presented to the community and used to make an informed decision regarding systemwide water treatment for reducing TDS to levels consistent with good or excellent water quality.
Clam Articles Stir Concern About Dialysis Problems
Authors: Klein Norman A.
Published: February 2018

The October 1989 JOURNAL featured two articles on controlling the asiatic clam by using monochloramines instead of chlorination. Mr. Klein quotes from the National Rural Water Association Technical Bulletin TB7, Trihalomethanes: An Overview, “Unless it is dechlorinated before it enters the distribution system, chloraminetreated water cannot be ingested by people on kidney dialysis machines. When chloramine‐treated water flows through the dialysis machine and into the patient's blood, ammonia is released. Ammonia can prevent blood from carrying oxygen properly.” With the movement toward home dialysis, more water systems will be serving dialysis patients and Mr. Klein recommends that this kidney dialysis problem be stressed in any future chloramine articles.
Comparing PEROXONE and Ozone for Controlling Taste and Odor Compounds, Disinfection By‐products, and Microorganisms
Authors: Ferguson David W. , McGuire Michael J. , Koch Bart , Wolfe Roy L. , Aieta E. Marco
Published: February 2018

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California is evaluating the hydrogen peroxide‐ozone (PEROXONE) advanced oxidation process (followed by secondary disinfection with chloramines) for removal of taste and odor compounds, control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), and inactivation of microorganisms. This article reports the results of pilot‐scale testing designed to optimize the H2O2:O3 ratio and to compare ozone and PEROXONE at different contact times. The tests described represent one phase of a five‐phase PEROXONE pilot‐scale study for treating water from the California State Water Project and from the Colorado River. Results to date indicate that the PEROXONE process requires a significantly lower applied ozone dosage to oxidize 2‐methylisobomeol and geosmin as compared with ozone alone. The levels of DBPs formed when ozone or PEROXONE is used (followed by chloramines) are low, and PEROXONE (at H2O2:O3 ratios of ≤0.3) is comparable with ozone for the inactivation of microorganisms.
Evaluating Oxidants for the Removal of Model Taste and Odor Compounds From a Municipal Water Supply
Authors: Glaze William H. , Schep Raymond , Chauncey William , Ruth Edward C. , Zarnoch Joseph J. , Aieta E. Marco , Tate Carol H. , McGuire Michael J.
Published: February 2018

Nine oxidizing agents were evaluated for removing six taste and odor compounds spiked into Colorado River water (CRW), one of the supplies of the Metropolitan Water District (MWD) of Southern California. Of the oxidation processes investigated, ozone alone and ozone with hydrogen peroxide appear to have the most potential for control of taste and odor compounds at existing MWD plants. In State Project water (SPW), another MWD source water, the rate of oxidation of geosmin and methylisoborneol (MIB) with ozone—with or without hydrogen peroxide—is higher than in CRW. The oxidation of geosmin and MIB is postulated to occur through the formation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. The higher oxidation rates in SPW are indicative of higher levels of natural initiators of ozone decomposition and lower levels of hydroxyl radical scavengers.
Accuracy of Hydrant Flow Tests Using a Pitot Diffuser
Authors: Walski Thomas M. , Lutes Teresa L.
Published: February 2018

By using a Pitot diffuser when a hydrant flow test is conducted, the damage caused by water discharging from the hydrant can be reduced. When a high degree of accuracy is desired in the discharge measurement, however, an adjustment in the method of calculating discharge from pressure measurements is required.
Transient Analysis of Water Distribution Systems
Authors: Karney Bryan W. , McInnis Duncan
Published: February 2018

The pressures generated by transient (water hammer) conditions in pipe systems are frequently three or more times the value of normal operating pressures. Thus, transient pressures must be known if the size and strength of the required pipe is to be rationally selected, if surge‐suppression equipment is to be logically sized, and if system operating rules are to be intelligently specified. In practice, however, analysts frequently neglect transient conditions, particularly in complex systems such as distribution networks. With modern computer techniques it is possible to analyze distribution systems under a wide range of flow conditions and with relatively few restrictions. Examples are presented of the dangers of oversimplifying either the physical system or the operating conditions.
Measurement of Biodegradable Organic Matter and Bacterial Growth Potential in Drinking Water
Authors: Huck Peter M.
Published: February 2018

A number of methods have recently been developed to measure the biodegradability of aquatic natural organic matter. These techniques measure assimilable organic carbon, biodegradable organic carbon, or bacterial growth potential. This article reviews the various methods and summarizes their application to the assessment of treatment processes and bacterial growth in distribution systems. Research and development needs are also identified.
Assessing Defined‐Substrate Technology for Meeting Monitoring Requirements of the Total Coliform Rule
Authors: Katamay M. Michael
Published: February 2018

The Illinois Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for drinking water analyses for approximately 2,200 public water utilities serving more than half the state's population. The recently developed defined‐substrate technology (DST, commercially known as Colilert), which simultaneously enumerates both total coliforms and Escherichia coli and does not require confirmatory tests, was compared in this geographic area with the membrane filter (MF) procedure from Standard Methods. Overall, there were no differences between MF and DST. Subcultures of positive DST tubes demonstrated this technology's specificity. Yellow (total coliform–positive) tubes yielded species consistent with total coliforms, and fluorescent (E. coli–positive) tubes contained E. coli. The DST system was easy to use and is compatible with new drinking water regulations that will increase monitoring and resampling requirements, mandate a fecal indicator (either an E. coli or fecal coliform analysis), and use a maximum contaminant level in the frequency‐of‐occurrence mode. DST also has several important advantages for state regulators, including its ability to help utilities comply with new transportation and storage requirements.
Federal Laws Protecting Wetlands
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments pertinent to the drinking water industry. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA regulatory engineer, prepared this article summarizing federal laws protecting wetlands and coordinates development of future articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the drinking water industry, prepares official AWWA statements on drinking water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Contaminants in Polyelectrolytes Used in Water Treatment
Authors: Letterman Raymond D. , Pero Richard W.
Published: February 2018

For approximately 30 years, the US Public Health Service and the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) offered advisory opinions on the potential health effects of polyelectrolyte coagulant products used in drinking water treatment. In April 1990, the USEPA transferred this responsibility to a consortium of organizations led by the National Sanitation Foundation. Although more than 1,000 polyelectrolyte products were accepted for use by the USEPA, evidence suggests that probably fewer than 10 to 15 different types of polymer compounds are represented. Contaminants such as epichlorohydrin and acrylamide, which are of significant health concern, are associated with these product formulations.
Are Water Treatment Plant Wastes Hazardous?
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments that are pertinent to the drinking water industry. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA's associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this article summarizing hazardous waste regulations and coordinates development of future articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the drinking water industry, prepares official AWWA statements on drinking water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Evaluating the Performance of Slow Sand Filters in Northern Idaho
Authors: Tanner Stephen A. , Ongerth Jerry E.
Published: February 2018

Three slow sand filter plants in northern Idaho were studied to evaluate their ability to produce good quality water and to control Giardia cysts, to determine the effects of design and operating factors on treatment performance, and to assess the effectiveness of monitoring and sanitary surveys. During the one‐year study, the plants were sampled weekly for measurement of turbidity, total and fecal coliforms, and heterotrophic plate count. Samples were also analyzed for Giardia cysts and particulates. Results showed that if a slow sand filter is designed and operated according to accepted standards, it should provide consistent and effective water treatment, including a reduction in the concentration of Giardia cysts.
Analyzing Biofilm Processes Used in Biological Filtration
Authors: Rittmann Bruce E.
Published: February 2018

Because they mitigate water quality problems such as coliform regrowth and tastes and odors, biological processes are likely to become an essential part of drinking water treatment. Although biological treatment with biofilm processes is widely used in Europe and is gaining interest in North America, no rational basis is yet available for its design and operation. This article reviews the principles of biofilm kinetics and applies those principles to analysis of the design and performance of a variety of biofilm processes. Identification of four fundamental parameters and the use of normalized loading curves are critical to the analysis.
Diatomaceous Earth Filtration of Cysts and Other Particulates Using Chemical Additives
Authors: Schuler Peter F. , Ghosh iganka M.
Published: February 2018

Diatomaceous earth filtration was evaluated for removal of Giardia muris, Cryptosporidium, turbidity, and coliform bacteria from a surface water. The effect of cationic polymers and alum on this removal was also investigated. Essentially all of the Giardia cysts and >99.9 percent of Cryptosporidium oocysts were removed from waters containing approximately 2,000 cysts/L. The removal of Cryptosporidium was further improved by using alum. Greater removals of coliforms and turbidity, especially small particles (3 μm or less), were also achieved when chemical coagulants were added. Use of these chemicals reduced the length of filter runs, even for low‐turbidity waters, because of higher head losses.
Regulatory Status Report
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments pertinent to the drinking water industry. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this article summarizing the current status of new regulations and coordinates development of future articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the drinking water industry, prepares official AWWA statements on drinking‐water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Evaluating GAC for Trihalomethane Control
Authors: McGuire Michael J. , Davis Marshall K. , Tate Carol H. , Aieta E. Marco , Howe Elaine W. , Crittenden John C.
Published: February 2018

The primary objectives of this study were to optimize granular activated carbon (GAC) treatment to meet more stringent trihalomethane (THM) standards, to estimate the costs of optimized GAC treatment, to identify by‐products of the final disinfection of GAC‐treated water, and to assess the ability of the rapid small‐scale column test (RSSCT) to simulate total organic carbon (TOC) breakthrough from pilot‐scale carbon contactors. The lowest THM concentration achievable by means of GAC treatment was found to be 10 μg/L. It was concluded that this type of treatment is expensive for the control of THMs, the predominant by‐products of postdisinfection of GAC effluents with chlorine or chloramines. The RSSCT was shown to be an economical means of estimating pilot‐scale TOC breakthrough, which can be used in making preliminary estimates of carbon utilization rates and cost estimates.
Hardware Used for Analyzing Water Distribution Systems in Ohio
Authors: Sarikelle Simsek , Loesch Gregg A.
Published: February 2018

The analysis of water distribution systems has been enhanced as a result of advances in computer hardware, communication networks, and software. These advances allow analysis to be more comprehensive and include all components of a water system, which leads to efficient design. In order to illustrate the capabilities of such hardware and software, two water distribution networks were analyzed with five levels of computers. The handling of data and output files and the running of these systems are documented.
Accumulation and Adsorption Capacity of PAC in a Slurry Recirculating Clarifier
Authors: Kassam Karim , Huck Peter M. , van Roodselaar Albert , Shariff Riyaz
Published: February 2018

The objective of this research was to examine the accumulation and adsorption capacity of powdered activated carbon (PAC) in a solids contact slurry recirculating clarifier (SCSRC). If high concentrations of PAC can be achieved in a sludge blanket, then PAC could be an efficient alternative to granular activated carbon for plants requiring only intermittent organics removal. A method to determine the PAC concentration in the clarifier slurry was developed based on a gravimetric analysis approach. It was found that very high concentrations of PAC (>4,000 mg/L) could be accumulated in an SCSRC. Isotherm tests showed that the adsorptive capacity of the PAC‐containing slurry for chloroform appeared to decrease somewhat when the residence time of the PAC in the clarifier was longer than 100 h.
Best Available Source
Authors: Okun Daniel A.
Published: February 2018

The principle of “best available source” needs to be revived in water supply planning. The higher the quality of the source, the higher the quality of the product. Quality concerns should encourage the pursuit of a wider range of options for water supply sources, including joint enterprise among communities in the same region that together might be able to afford a more distant but higher‐quality source. Finally, water resource planning that permits high‐quality water to be used for high‐quality purposes now includes water reclamation and reuse and dual distribution systems. This approach has potential wherever high‐quality water resources are limited, which is beginning to be almost everywhere.
Solving Water Rights Conflicts
Authors: Lampe Les , Fiedler Glen H. , Clark Gary R. , Georgeson Duane , Leshy John D.
Published: February 2018

This discussion of current issues in the area of water rights took place June 17, 1990, during AWWA's annual conference in Cincinnati, Ohio. Les Lampe. director of water resources engineering at Black & Veatch, 8400 Ward Parkway. Kansas City, MO 64114, served as panel moderator. Other participants were Gary R. Clark, chief of planning and research at the Illinois Division of Water Resources, 2300 South Dirksen Parkway, Springfield, IL 62764; Glen H. Fiedler, associate with Economic & Engineering Services Inc., Box 976. Olympia, WA 98507; Duane Georgeson, assistant general manager of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, 1111 Sunset Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90054; and John D. Leshy, professor of law at Arizona State University's College of Law, Tempe, AZ 85287.
Is Remediated Groundwater Meeting SDWA Requirements?
Authors: Goodrich James A. , Lykins Benjamin W. , Clark Robert M. , Oppelt E. Timothy
Published: February 2018

Treating groundwater for drinking purposes is quite different from treating it for site remediation. However, given that aquifer cleanup goals are becoming more stringent, it has been suggested that drinking water treatment technology be integrated into groundwater remediation strategies as a final polishing step and as a means of meeting the requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act. This article discusses how traditional drinking water treatment technologies could be used for dealing with hazardous waste sites, including cost, performance, and applicability. Pump and treat technology as used in groundwater remediation is compared with that employed in drinking water applications.
Waterborne Viruses Associated With Hepatitis Outbreak
Authors: Bosch Albert , Lucena Francisco , Diez José M. , Gajardo Rodrigo , Blasi Miquel , Jofre Juan
Published: February 2018

Human enteric viruses were isolated from the potable water of a military camp in Spain that was experiencing an outbreak of infectious hepatitis, despite a total chlorine residual in the water of 0.2 mg/L. The bacteriological analysis that was routinely used by the camp showed the water to be consistently free of indicator bacteria. This and other studies support the recommendation of monitoring for viral contamination and the setting up of more powerful water treatment when viruses have been detected in the water supply.
Radon in Homes Following Its Reduction in a Community Water Supply
Authors: Rand Peter W. , Lacombe Eleanor H. , Perkins W. Dana
Published: February 2018

Radon in home air and domestic water supplies was measured throughout a rural community before and after the installation of a diffused aeration system that reduced water radon at the source from approximately 20,000 to <1,000 pCi/L. Continuous monitoring of air radon indicated short‐term contributions from water use in some homes. Following reduction of radon in the water source, no consistent changes in the air radon levels in the homes were observed. Environmental and analytical factors that obscured the detection of the contribution of water to the air radon are discussed, and recommendations are made for the design of future studies.
Survey of Ozone Installations in North America
Authors: Tate Carol H.
Published: February 2018

The purpose of the survey described in this article was to take stock of where and how ozone technology is being used for water treatment in North America. Specific objectives were to provide a data base on existing plants, to project future conditions, and to learn from previous experience.
Reverse Osmosis Applications in Saudi Arabia
Authors: El‐Rehaili Abdullah M.
Published: February 2018

Rapid development during the past two decades has dramatically increased water demand in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, a country with limited potable water supplies. To meet this increased demand, both the government and private sectors have invested heavily in developing new and alternative sources of supply as well as forms of treatment. This article examines two processes‐desalination of seawater and brackish water and reclamation of domestic wastewater‐that are used extensively in Saudi Arabia to stretch its less‐than‐optimal supplies. Some of the major reverse osmosis installations are described, in terms of source‐ and product‐water characteristics, plant performance, and cost.
A Mechanistic Study of Ozone‐Induced Particle Destabilization
Authors: Edwards Marc , Benjamin Mark M.
Published: February 2018

The effect of ozonation on particle behavior was investigated under a variety of conditions. Spontaneous particle coagulation (particle agglomeration without coagulant addition), lowered coagulant requirements, and formation of new particles were observed in some cases. In most of these instances, the observed changes could be induced by changing solution pH and carbonate concentration via strictly inorganic reactions; they did not require the presence of ozone. In future studies of ozonation, greater attention should be paid to changes in the inorganic composition of the water accompanying ozonation and to the possible influence of these changes on the system behavior.
Analyzing the Permeation of Organic Chemicals Through Plastic Pipes
Authors: Selleck Robert E. , Marinas Benito J.
Published: February 2018

The theory of pure‐Fickian diffusion of solutes through polymers is developed and explained in detail. Unique methods are presented that may be used to predict rapidly and without extensive mathematical manipulation the time in which a hydrophobic organic chemical would penetrate plastic water pipes under pure‐Fickian conditions. It is demonstrated that the results are dependent on the initial boundary conditions assumed, the difference between the external and internal activity of the permeating substance, the equilibrium partitioning of the solute between the pipe wall and the water held inside the pipe, the diffusivity of the solute in the plastic, and the pipe dimensions. Limitations to the theory are discussed in detail and example solutions are presented for four groups of organic chemicals, which are then compared qualitatively with a pipe permeation incident.
Correlation of Coliform Growth Response With Other Water Quality Parameters
Authors: Rice Eugene W. , Scarpino Pasquale V. , Reasoner Donald J. , Logsdon Gary S. , Wild Deanna K.
Published: February 2018

A variety of water types collected from different geographical areas at different stages of water treatment were analyzed for their ability to support the growth of coliform bacteria. Based on this coliform bioassay, the nutrient status of the water did not correlate with any of the measured water quality parameters except assimilable organic carbon. Significantly higher coliform growth responses were associated with waters that had been exposed to ozonation. The authors conclude that the coliform bioassay procedure is a viable method for ascertaining the biological stability of drinking water supplies.
Contamination of Potable Water by Permeation of Plastic Pipe
Authors: Holsen Thomas M. , Park Jae Kwang , Jenkins David , Selleck Robert E.
Published: February 2018

Sites of seven incidents of plastic pipe permeation were visited between July 1986 and December 1987, and samples of soil, pipe material, and pipe water were collected. In addition, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken to document other cases of permeation. This work demonstrated that the majority of permeation incidents were associated with gross soil contamination in the area surrounding the pipe. Soil contamination occurred mainly after pipe installation, suggesting that soil analysis prior to pipe installation will not significantly decrease the number of incidents. The occurrence of about half the incidents in low risk areas indicates that limiting plastic pipe use to these areas will not be effective in preventing permeation.
Removal of Soluble Manganese by Oxide‐coated Filter Media: Sorption Rate and Removal Mechanism Issues
Authors: Knocke William R. , Occiano Suzanne C. , Hungate Robert
Published: February 2018

Research was conducted to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of Mn(II) removal in oxide‐coated filters. The kinetics of Mn(II) sorption by MnOx(s)‐coated filter media were quantified as a function of solution pH, MnOx(s) surface concentration, and free chlorine concentration of the filter‐applied water. Rate of Mn(II) sorption was positively correlated to the number of available surface adsorption sites within a filter. Free chlorine had a very significant role in defining both the rate and ultimate extent of Mn(II) removal. Addition of chlorine to the filter‐applied water oxidized the adsorbed Mn(II), thereby continually regenerating the media surface. In the absence of free chlorine, Mn(II) removal was by adsorption only; no evidence of auto‐oxidation of Mn(II) was noted. Practical applications of the work to the operation of water treatment facilities concern the selection of oxidant dosing locations, the impact on filtration hydraulics, and the determination of media generation requirements.
Using Cobalt–Ultraviolet Spectrophotometry to Measure Hydrogen Peroxide Concentration in Organically Laden Groundwaters
Authors: Belhateche Dannelle , Symons James M.
Published: February 2018

This article describes an ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometric method of determining hydrogen peroxide concentrations in solutions that contain potentially interfering organic compounds. The procedure is a modification of previously existing methods used to measure cobalt by hydrogen peroxide oxidation, which produces a green product with a strong absorption band in the UV region. The concentration of the product determined by absorption measurements can be correlated to the quantity of hydrogen peroxide originally present in the test sample after correction for UV absorption of the interfering organic compound.
Low‐Pressure Membrane Filtration for Removing Giardia and Microbial Indicators
Authors: Jacangelo Joseph G. , Laîné Jean‐Michel , Carns Keith E. , Cummings Edward W. , Mallevialle Joël
Published: February 2018

As part of a project on the use of ultrafiltration (UF) for particle removal, studies were performed to evaluate the use of low‐pressure hollow‐fiber UF as an alternative for complying with Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) requirements for microbial removal and/or inactivation. Pilot studies were conducted on four different untreated source waters, two from northern California and two from Boise, Idaho. Process efficacy was assessed by conducting MS2 virus, total coliform bacteria, and Giardia muris seeding studies, as well as monitoring for naturally occurring bacteria. The study showed that UF was capable of meeting SWTR requirements for alternative filtration technologies without the use of chemical disinfection. Four or more logs of Giardia and more than 6.5 logs of virus were removed from each of the untreated source waters. Differences in water quality or changes in operating parameters did not appear to affect removal capabilities of the process. Maintenance of membrane integrity was critical to assuring process efficacy. When module integrity was compromised, as in fiber breakage, both MS2 virus and G. muris were detected in the permeate. Changes in membrane integrity were not necessarily reflected by changes in permeate turbidity; however, particle counting was an effective method for detecting a compromised membrane module.
Sensitivity of the Asiatic Clam to Various Biocidal Control Agents
Authors: Belanger Scott E. , Cherry Donald S. , Farris Jerry L. , Sappington Keith G. , Cairns John
Published: February 2018

The biocidal potential of total residual chlorine (TRC), monochloramine, monochloramine plus excess ammonia, ammonia, bromine, and copper for controlling the Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) was investigated. Monochloramine with excess ammonia was found to be most effective for controlling Corbicula at 30°C. Although copper appeared to be the most toxic biocide, plant studies indicated that laboratory tests had overestimated clam sensitivity. Chlorination at 0.25–0.40 mg TRC/L at 20–25°C controlled clams of all sizes in two to four weeks but had minimal effect at 12–15°C. The toxicity of all the biocides was highly dependent on temperature and clam size.
Fluoride Regulation and Water Fluoridation
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatoy developments. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this discussion regarding fluoride and coordinates development of future articles.
Inactivation of Cell‐Associated and Dispersed Hepatitis A Virus in Water
Authors: Sobsey Mark D. , Fuji Takashi , Hall Richard M.
Published: February 2018

The inactivation kinetics of cell‐associated and dispersed hepatitis A virus (HAV) by free chlorine and monochloramine were compared. Cell‐associated HAV was always inactivated more slowly than dispersed HAV. Values of C x T or other disinfection criteria for inactivation of HAV and other enteric viruses should be based on viruses associated with cells or other solids because they are better models for the likely state of viruses found in water.
Polyphosphate Debate
Authors: Helm Thomas R. , Schock Michael R.
Published: February 2018

A reader writes that an article (Potential Effects of Polyphosphate Products on Lead Solubility in Plumbing Systems, Journal AWWA, July 1991) creates unwarranted concern about the increase in lead solubility from polyphosphates in potable water. The major error in the article, this letter‐writer contends, is the in the use of stability constants. The authors reply that the criticisms consist of red herrings, smoke, and innuendo, and go on to defend their article in detail.
Effective Watershed Management for Surface Water Supplies
Authors: Robbins Richard W. , Glicker Joseph L. , Bloem Douglas M. , Niss Bruce M.
Published: February 2018

Maintaining the best possible water quality is the goal of every surface water source protection program. Watershed management can play an important role in maintaining or enhancing water quality for both filtered and unfiltered systems. The AWWA Research Foundation recently published a study on effective watershed management for surface water supplies. This article presents results of this investigation, which was based on a national survey of surface water systems and state primacy agencies and on case studies of 24 successful watershed management programs.
A Pilot‐Scale Study of Alum Sludge Dewatering in a Freezing Bed
Authors: Martel C. James , Diener Carl J.
Published: February 2018

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the capability of a sludge‐freezing bed for dewatering alum sludge. Alum sludge containing average total solids of 0.5 percent was applied to the pilot‐scale bed and frozen in layers 2–10 cm thick over the winter of 1989–90. By the end of the winter, 99 cm of sludge had been frozen. After thawing and draining of meltwater, the depth of sludge remaining in the bed was reduced to 3–5 cm, a 96 percent reduction in volume. The remaining solids had a granular consistency similar to medium‐sized sand. The meltwater drained through the granular solids as easily as through the underlying sand. Column tests show that these granular solids could accumulate in the bed for several years before removal would be necessary.