bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ventral (Yolk Sac) Hematopoiesis in the Mouse
Authors: Yoder Mervin C , Palis James
Published: November 2023

Hematopoiesis is the dynamic process whereby all formed elements of the blood arise from the multipotent precursor cells produced by hematopoietic stem cells. While hematopoiesis in the adult occurs primarily within the medullary cavity of bone, several other tissues, including yolk sac, liver, and spleen, serve as primary sites of hematopoiesis during mammalian embryogenesis (Tavassoli, 1991; Zon, 1995). The first blood cells in the mouse embryo arise between embryonic day 7 and 8 (E7-E8) in the yolk sac (Barker, 1968; Haar and Ackerman, 1971; Moore and Metcalf, 1970; Russell, 1979).
Hemoglobin Switching
Authors: Stamatoyannopoulos George
Published: November 2023

Hemoglobin switching has stimulated the interest of biologists and physicians for several reasons. First, it was the first developmental system to be investigated at the protein level in any species. The chemical difference between adult and fetal hemoglobin was first realized during the nineteenth century, when methods for measuring the hemoglobin concentration in blood started to be developed; it was then found that fetal hemoglobin was resistant to alkali denaturation but adult hemoglobin was not.
Microenvironmental Cell Populations Essential for the Support of Hematopoietic Stem Cells
Authors: Charbord Pierre
Published: November 2023

The description in mammals of different sequential sites of hematopoiesis during ontogeny has suggested that certain “microenvironmental” cells within the sites played key roles for hematopoietic stem cell emergence, proliferation and commitment toward a lineage, or “determination.” The sequence of sites may be summarized as follows: yolk sac, aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) region and, finally, spleen, bone marrow, and thymus.
Agreement, Predication, and Pronouns in the History of Portuguese
Authors: Galves Charlotte
Published: November 2023

The recent history of Portuguese provides an interesting case of change from one grammar, Classical Portuguese (henceforth ClP), to two grammars, Modem European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese (henceforth, respectively, EP and BP). This chapter aims to describe and analyze, in the framework of the Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1995b), the basic aspects of this double change, which give interesting evidence of the deep correlation existing in grammars between the licensing of subjects and the licensing of clitics and weak pronouns (“deficient” pronouns in the sense of Cardinaletti and Starke 1994). Although this correlation clearly appears in many analyses of various pronominal systems, it has received little theoretical status. Here I will argue that it derives from the fact that both deficient pronouns licensing and predication relations are dependent on the parametrization of languages with respect to Agr, which will be considered not as a category, in accordance with Chomsky (1995b), but as a feature.
Developmental and Perinatal Neuropathology
Authors: Nelson James S
Published: November 2023

Terminology, Conventions, And Definitions The prenatal period is divided into two phases: an embryonic phase that extends from conception to the end of the eighth postovulatory week and a subsequent fetal phase that ends at birth. The embryonic phase is characterized by the appearance of a large number of new morpholgic features involving the nervous system and other organs. The fetal phase is distinguished by an emphasis on the structural and physiological refinement of these features. Criteria used for assessing embryonic development include morphologic staging, estimates of prenatal age, and body measurements such as the biparietal diameter and the greatest body length. Currently, staging criteria are available only for the embryonic phase. This phase comprises 23 Carnegie stages. As noted, the stages are based on morpholgic features and do not correspond exactly to estimates of prenatal age or body measurements. The staging procedure takes into account the normal variation in the rate at which morphologic features develop. Consequently, all embryos within a given stage have reached the same degree of morphologic development, but their prenatal ages may differ by several days. Postovulatory age or its closely related counterpart, postfertilizational age, in the embryonic phase may be obtained by assigning the embryo to a Carnegie stage and referring to a table that coordinates the approximate relationship between stage and age. The length of the embryo as determined by ultrasonography may also be used to estimate postovulatory age. In clinical practice prenatal age is frequently estimated by assuming fertilization occurred 2 weeks after the first day of the last menstrual period. The accuracy of this type of estimate can be enhanced by measuring initial serum levels of the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin. In the fetal phase, age may be estimated by using the menstrual dates as mentioned above. More precise values can be obtained by determining body measurements such as greatest body length or biparietal diameter directly or by ultrasonography and reference to tables correlating these meaurements with fetal age.
Pituitary Tumors and Related Lesions
Authors: Scheithauer Bernd W
Published: November 2023

With rare exception (Colohan et al., 1986) the pituitary, a compound epithelial and neuroectodermal gland, resides in the sella turcica, a specialized portion of the sphenoid bone. Despite its uniform appearance at the hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) level, the anterior lobe consists of three zones, including a central mucoid wedge and lateral components termed acidophilic wings. The term mucoid refers to the abundance of basophilic, periodic acid–Schiff (PAS)-positive cells engaged in adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and thyrotropin (TSH)-producing cells. Gonadotropic follicle cells engaged in stimulating and luteinizing hormone (FSHLH) production are also basophilic but are widely distributed. The posterior lobe also contains ACTH cells scattered or clustered among the axons. The finding is termed basophil invasion and increases with age. The lateral wings contain mainly growth hormone (GH) and, to a lesser extent, prolactin (PRL)-producing cells. When sufficiently granulated, both GH and PRL cells stain positively with such acidic dyes as eosin, phloxine, and Orange-G. The cystic intermediate lobe remnants of Rathke’s cleft are lined by cuboidal-to-columnar, ciliated, mucin-producing, or granulated adenohypophyseal cells. A posteriorly incomplete sleeve of anterior pituitary tissue, the pars tuberalis, extends upward along the pituitary stalk; the majority of cells at this location are Acthor gonadotropin-producing. In this location, squamous metaplasia of secretory cells is commonly seen (Asa et al., 1983).
Bad Examples: Transgression and Progress in Language and Gender Studies
Authors: Bucholtz Mary
Published: November 2023

For much of its existence, language and gender research has had an uneasy relation ship with feminist theory. Following an initial flurry of interest in linguistic approaches at the beginning of the second wave of feminism in the late 1960s and early 1970s, feminist theory retained its concern with language but soon found less inspiration in linguistics than in surrounding disciplines such as philosophy and literary criticism. At the material level, this tension has been manifest in the disproportionately low representation of linguists, broadly defined, in women’s studies programs, conferences, and journals. At the intellectual level, the divide between the two enterprises has been evident until very recently in each field’s relative lack of influence on the development of the other.
The Display of (Gendered) Identities in Talk at Work
Authors: Tannen Deborah
Published: November 2023

Over the course of my career analyzing interaction, I have found myself repeatedly returning to framing as the theoretical and methodological approach that sheds most light on what individuals are doing when they interact. In this chapter I suggest that the framing approach is also enlightening for understanding the relationship between language and gender. One of the chief crafters of the theoretical construct of framing, Erving Goffman (1974), wrote a key paper that has been overlooked by those concerned with language and gender: a 1977 essay entitled “The Arrangement Between the Sexes.” Though not focused on language per se (the focus on language did not appear in Goffman’ s work until later, with the articles collected in Forms of Talk [1981]), the 1977 essay provides a theoretical framework that is strikingly consonant (prescient, you might say) with the notion of gendered identity as display that is the theme of this volume.
Just Caring
Authors: Fleck Leonard M
Published: November 2023

What does it mean to be a “just” and “caring” society when we have only limited resources to meet unlimited health care needs? Do we believe that all lives are of equal value? Is human life priceless? Should a “just” and “caring” society refuse to put limits on health care spending? In Just Caring, Leonard Fleck reflects on the central moral and political challenges of health reform today. He cites the millions of Americans who go without health insurance, thousands of whom die prematurely, unable to afford the health care needed to save their lives. Fleck considers these deaths as contrary to our deepest social values, and makes a case for the necessity of health care rationing decisions. The core argument of this book is that no one has a moral right to impose rationing decisions on others if they are unwilling to impose those same rationing decisions on themselves in the same medical circumstances. Fleck argues we can make health care rationing fair, in ways that are mutually respectful, if we engage in honest rational democratic deliberation. Such civic engagement is rare in our society, but the alternative is endless destructive social controversy that is neither just nor caring.
The Characteristics and Determinants of Organizational Innovation in the Apparel Industry
Authors: Bailey Thomas , Sandy Carola
Published: November 2023

For several years, policymakers have advocated the adoption of work and human resource (HR) reforms, which are often called “high-performance” or “high-involvement” work organization. A growing number of reports, which systematically measure the effects of these practices, show that there are positive effects on quality, cost, financial performance, and productivity (Berg et al., 1996; Dunlop & Weil, 1996; Hustled & Becker, 1996; Ichniowski et al., 1997; Kocher & Oysterman, 1995; U.S. Department of Labour, 1993; Womack, Jones, & Roost, 1990). Yet despite the widespread enthusiasm, the diffusion of these apparently beneficial practices seems slow. Oysterman (1994) argued that nearly one-third of firms have made significant changes, but a 1996 review of the diffusion of HR innovations suggested that although a majority of firms have made some changes, “only a small percentage of businesses ... have adopted a full set of innovative work practices” (Ichniowski et al., 1996: 325). Furthermore, many of the firms that have made innovations often introduce reforms in a partial and truncated manner (Apple Baum & Bat, 1994; Basis, 1992), and history suggests that for many firms, reforms are short-lived (Bailey, 1993a).
The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Providing and Managing End-of-Life Care
Authors: Puntillo Kathleen A
Published: November 2023

Mr. Harper was a 56-year-old man with end-stage liver disease. He had been on the liver transplant waiting list for many months before his condition worsened, requiring this current admission to the ICU. His ICU clinical course was very unstable; he was being mechanically ventilated for acute respiratory failure and receiving continuous veno venous hemofiltration (CVVH) for acute renal failure.
The Roles of Ethnicity, Race, Religion, and Socioeconomic Status in End-of-Life Care in the ICU
Authors: Danis Marion
Published: November 2023

The way one experiences illness and death is profoundly influenced by race, cultural and religious background, and socioeconomic status. When patients and clinicians have common backgrounds, these influences can provide a shared understanding and framework for coping with these experiences. When a patient and clinician come from different cultural or religious backgrounds, grappling with the differences can be very difficult. The essence of good medical practice involves recognizing that differences are a universal reality and appreciating that both the physician and the patient are bound by beliefs, customs, experiences, prejudices, rules, and re sponsibilities.
AIDS
Authors: Rosen Mark J
Published: November 2023

Since the start of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic almost two decades ago, the demographics of acquired immu nodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the treatment of HIV-related disorders has seen more rapid and dramatic changes than perhaps any other illness in recent history. New preventive and therapeutic strategies changed the incidence of life-threatening diseases and their outcomes. Even though the number of pa tients with AIDS admitted to ICUs is far smaller than those with heart disease, lung disease, and cancer, our experience with AIDS shows clearly how new treatments change outcomes, which in tum influence medical practice and the attitudes of patients and providers about life-sustaining treatments and end-of life care. Also, political and social advocacy efforts engendered by the AIDS epidemic surely helped to catalyze progress in palliative care.
Direct Object Clitic Doubling in Albanian and Greek
Authors: Kallulli Dalina
Published: November 2023

A pervasive phenomenon in the languages of the Balkan is that of clitic doubling. This study investigates clitic doubling of direct objects in two of these languages: Albanian and Greek (MGrk). This undertaking is motivated by the need to gain deeper insight into the nature of clitic doubling constructions and in turn contributes to the general question of why clitic doubling appears at all. Doubling constructions are by their nature strongly reminiscent of object agreement constructions. Yet, there are essential differences between the two that beg for explanation.
Introduction
Authors: Goodwin Charles
Published: November 2023

The chapters in this volume focus on the analysis of how the talk of parties suffering from aphasia, and other language impairments resulting from trauma to the brain, is organized within talk-in-interaction. This volume provides a new, pragmatic, and interactive perspective for the analysis of aphasia and other neurological deficits (see also the special issue of Aphasiology, 13, nos. 4/5 [1999] edited by Ray Wilkinson and Lesser and Milroy 1993). Most research into the effects of brain damage on linguistic abilities has focused primarily on processes inside the individual patient, for example, what patterns of language breakdown can tell us about the cognitive architectures and brain structures implicated in normal language processing. Methodologically, patients’ abilities have typically been assessed in isolation from relevant interactive and pragmatic contexts. However, damage to the brain has equally important consequences for the organization of talk-in-interaction, the primordial site where language emerges as action in the lived social world, and the place where the results of brain damage become both visible and consequential for people’s lives. Moreover, it has long been recognized that traditional assessment measurements of language deficit do not correlate well with actual ability to engage successfully in real-world interaction.
Co-Constructing Lucy
Authors: Ramsberger Gail , Menn Lise
Published: November 2023

Traditional clinical practice in aphasia rehabilitation has been strongly influenced by the medical model. In this approach, rehabilitation emphasis is placed on the person with aphasia, and the desired outcome is a “cure” of the symptoms of aphasia, to the extent possible (Ramsberger, 1994). The medical orientation seems appropriate for people in the acute stages; numerous studies have clearly shown that much recovery of linguistic functioning takes place during the first few weeks or months postonset (Marshall & Phillips, 1983; Pashek & Holland, 1988). However, when significant continued improvement of aphasia symptoms can no longer be demonstrated, the medical perspective loses its relevance for further rehabilitation efforts. For people with chronic aphasia, another perspective on disability seems more relevant. In recent years, disability activists have argued that disability is best viewed from a social rather than a medical viewpoint (Barton, 1996; Linton, 1998). People may have physical, mental, or emotional differences from some norm, but the degree to which a person is disabled by those differences depends on the interaction of that person with the world in which he or she lives. Thus, the disabling nature of aphasia for two people is likely to be different even if their aphasia symptoms are similar in type and severity.
Anatomy and molecular architecture of the Neuromuscular junction
Authors: Engel Andrew G
Published: November 2023

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an anatomically and functionally differentiated chemical synapse that transmits signals from the motor nerve terminal to the postsynaptic region of the muscle fiber. The number and position of NMJs on the muscle fiber and the configuration of nerve terminals and complexity of the postsynaptic region within the NMJ all vary between different phyla and species, different muscles in a given species, and different fibers in a given muscle. Despite these differences, all NMJs have five principal components: (J) a Schwann cell process, which caps the surface of the nerve terminal that faces away from the synaptic space; (2) a nerve terminal that contains the neurotransmitter; (3) a synaptic space, lined with basement membrane; (4) a postsynaptic membrane, which contains the receptor for the neurotransmitter; and (5) junctional sarcoplasm, which provides structural and metabolic support for the postsynaptic region (Fig. 1-1 ). In vertebrate voluntary muscle, the neurotransmitter is typically acetylcholine (ACh), the receptor is a nicotinic ACh receptor (AChR), and the synaptic space contains endplate (EP)-specific species of ACh es­terase (AChE). The presynaptic region consists of the nerve terminal covered by Schwann cell. The postsynaptic region consists of junctional folds lined by the postsynaptic membrane and the underly­ing junctional sarcoplasm.
Experimental Autoimmune Myasthenia Gravis: Induction And Treatment
Authors: Lindstrom Jon M
Published: November 2023

That rabbits immunized with the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) developed a disease that closely resembled myasthenia gravis in humans was the keystone of the hypothesis that myasthenia gravis in humans is an autoimmune disease. This chapter begins with a brief historical perspective on the discovery of experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis (EAMG) and of the autoimmune nature of MG. Although the discovery of EAMG depended on the initial purification of AChRs, and although the mapping of epitopes on AChRs evolved along with studies of AChR structure, the structure and function of AChRs are not discussed in detail because they are the subject of Chapter 2 in this volume. The pathological mechanisms of EAMG are discussed in some detail. The AChR epitopes recognized by antibodies and T helper cells are also considered in some detail. Finally, experimental therapies and future prospects for specific immunosuppressive therapies are briefly discussed.
The case for reform antecedents for the woman’s Rights movement
Authors: Parker Alison M
Published: November 2023

The woman’s rights movement and the demand for woman suffrage emerged in the first half of the nineteenth century from a variety of other movements. Suffrage became the primary goal of the woman’s rights movement during the 1850s and remained so until women finally achieved the right to vote in 1920. In the early 1800s, however, it was not necessarily clear that suffrage would become the preeminent issue. Radical intellectuals and working-class women articulated concerns over the roles and rights of women, but often did so without demanding woman suffrage.
Gertrude Simmons Bonnin: For the Indian Cause
Authors: Jane Hafen P
Published: November 2023

The image is indelible: a little girl dressed in buckskin and moccasins, running free across the plains, her long black hair loose and “blowing in the breeze … no less spirited than a bounding deer.”1 All too soon, the temptation of “red, red apples” and a ride far away on the “iron horse” disrupted the eight-year-old’s paradise, and she was enrolled in a boarding school for American Indian children.2 That is how Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, the Yankton Sioux woman who called herself Zitkala Ša, remembered her childhood. Succumbing to assimilationist pressures, she grew up to become a teacher, writer, orator, musician, composer, and political activist. Though she never forgot that little girl, she could not reclaim her. Gradually distanced from her own tribe, she became an advocate for all Indians.
National Egoism
Authors: Porter Brian
Published: November 2023

We are often told that by the late nineteenth century (if not earlier) the new sciences of ethnography and linguistics provided the conceptual tools needed to formulate a “modern” definition of the national community. The restrictive noble nation of the eighteenth century was long dead, made obsolete by the emergence of mass politics and the inclusive, democratized sociologies of the nineteenth century. Similarly, the “abstraction” of romantic nationalism, with its transcendent spirit and its mystical vocabulary, had been decisively repudiated. The prestige of the social sciences made it difficult to perceive the nation as an embodiment of the patriotic deed, and the politics of the Polish intelligentsia precluded any open endorsement of an elite hegemony over the national idea.
Potential Problem/Opportunity Analysis
Authors: Altier William J
Published: November 2023

Potential Problem Analysis focuses on looking for negative or undesirable Unplanned Future Change. Potential Opportunity Analysis focuses on looking for positive or desirable Unplanned Future Change. The objective of Potential Problem Analysis is to prevent unplanned negative change from happening. The objective of Potential Opportunity Analysis is to pro mote the occurrence of unplanned positive change.
Why are Retirement Plans Different in the Nonprofit Sector?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

Like so many facets of American life, retirement plans throughout the United States are now governed by the provisions of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), as irrigated by the Employment Retirement Income Act of 1974 (ERISA). We did not write this book with the intention of making you an expert in these areas. If Anatole France thought that life was short and Proust was long, he would have gagged at the paper monolith that provides the rules by which Americans save for retirement, plans are operated, and retirement benefits are paid.
Surgical Therapy for Prevention of Ischemic Stroke
Authors: Adams Harold P , Bachinski Vladimir , Norris John W
Published: November 2023

Several operations are used to improve the blood supply to the brain or to remove a source for embolization (Table 11-1). The most widely studied operation is carotid endarterectomy, and also is the most commonly prescribed surgical procedure used in stroke prophylaxis. Other operations aimed at improving the cervical circulation in either the carotid or the vertebrobasilar circulation have been developed, but clinical studies testing the safety and the efficacy of these procedures are limited. During the last decade, endovascular techniques have been used to treat stenotic lesions in intracranial or extracranial arteries.
Evaluation of the Patient with Peripheral Neuropathy: The Challenges
Authors: Cornblath David R , Mendell Jerry R , Kissel John T
Published: November 2023

The physician encountering a patient with suspected peripheral neuropathy is faced with three basic challenges. The first and most obvious challenge is to determine if the patient’s complaints and the physical findings are the result of a peripheral neuropathy, as similar symptoms can occasionally arise from disorders of the brain, spinal cord, anterior horn cell, neuromuscular junction, or muscle. The second challenge involves formulation of a complete differential diagnosis that will lead to proper identification of the type and cause of neuropathy. The third and perhaps most important challenge is to institute the appropriate therapy (pharmacologic if available, and supportive) to modify the basic disease process and improve the patient’s quality of life. Diagnosis and Management of Peripheral Nerve Disorders is divided into two parts to deal with these challenges. In Part 1, on “approach,” we attempt to provide the clinician with the necessary tools to determine if a peripheral neuropathy is the cause for a patient’s complaints. Information derived from these approaches will be valuable in localizing the site of nerve insult and will enable the clinician to formulate a differential diagnosis. In Part II, the management of individual disorders is addressed. One problem bridging the gap between approach and management is the pain generated from many different types of peripheral nerve insults. Pain is not neuropathy-specific, although it does occur more often in disorders predisposing to small nerve fiber damage (Fabry disease, amyloid polyneuropathy, diabetic polyneuropathy, to name a few). A chapter in Part 1 helps establish guidelines for both evaluating and managing the painful neuropathy, irrespective of cause.
Peripheral Neuropathy Associated with HIV Infection
Authors: Barohn Richard J , Kissel John T
Published: November 2023

Almost 20 years have passed since neurologic complications were reported as part of the “gay immunosuppressed syndrome,” subsequently known as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Neurologic diseases occurring in association with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have been recognized since the earliest stages of the epidemic. Initially, emphasis focused on central nervous system involvement due to the HIV infection, secondary infections, or related malignancies. It soon became apparent that the peripheral nervous system was also involved in HIV-infected patients and that various neuromuscular diseases present at different stages of infection.
α-Galactosidase A Deficiency: Fabry Disease
Authors: Mendell Jerry R
Published: November 2023

Fabry disease is a rare, inborn error of glycosphingolipid catabolism, inherited as an Xlinked recessive disorder with an incidence of only 1 in 40,000. Deficient activity of the lysosomal hydrolase, cx-galactosidase A, causes a symptom complex of acroparesthesias, angiokeratoma, corneal and lenticular opacities, and anhidrosis. In 1897, two dermatologists independently described the condition: Fabry in Germany and Anderson in Great Britain. Fabry disease is the preferred eponymic designation used in most places in the world, except in England where is it called Anderson-Fabry disease. The disorder is sometimes referred to as angiokeratoma corporis diffusum, especially in the dermatology literature. The clinical manifestations result from accumulation of neutral glycosphingolipids, with cx-galactosyl moieties, in the lysosomes of vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, and perineurial cells. There are no deposits of glycosphingolipids in Schwann cells or axons. Damage to the blood vessels of the brain, heart, and kidney is potentially life threatening. In the peripheral nerve, a severe painful neuropathy results. The deposits in the skin and eye cause the characteristic hallmarks of the disease, angiokeratomas and lens opacities. The predominant glycosphingolipid that accumulates is globotriaosylceramide (Fig. 25-1), with lesser amounts of galabiosylceramide. In patients with B or AB blood types, the cx-galactosyl moieties of blood group B contribute to the total pool of glycosphingolipid deposition.
Seizures
Authors: Brew Bruce James
Published: November 2023

Seizures occur in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease for a variety of reasons, often indicating potentially treatable underlying conditions. Moreover, it is this author’s experience that patients with pre-existing epilepsy often experience an exacerbation as a direct result of HIV infection. This chapter deals with each of these aspects, but focuses on seizures related to HIV.
Medication-Related And Nutrition-Related Peripheral Neuropathy
Authors: Brew Bruce James
Published: November 2023

Probably of increasing concern among both patients and clinicians is the frequency of peripheral neuropathy caused by various medications used in the management of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)– infected patient. Some of the antiretroviral drugs, as well as medications used in treating opportunistic complications of HIV disease, can cause disabling peripheral neuropathy. Knowledge of these neuropathies is critical in order not to confuse them with potentially treatable conditions, such as cytomegalovirus, or conditions for which only symptomatic treatment is available, such as HIV-related distal symmetric sensory polyneuropathy.
Style and Presentation in the 20th Century
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

In the chapters on earlier centuries, we touched upon the effects on scientific prose of the formation of scientific societies and research institutes, the emergence of journals restricted to ever more narrow specialties, and the professionalization of science on a small scale in France during the 17th and 18th centuries and on a much larger scale in Germany, France, and England during the 19th century. Particularly important in the 20th century has been the hyperspecialization and global professionalization of science (Menard 1971). This has spawned a truly international network of authors, readers, publishers, and editors that supports the annual production of hundreds of thousands of articles in thousands of journals aimed at a discourse community for whom terms such as “renormalization,” “Fissurellidae,” “paratolylsulfonylmethylnitrosamide,’’ and “mRNA” can appear without definitions, and mathematical equations without apologies.
Disorders of Complex Visual Processing
Authors: Damasio Antonio r. , tranel, daniel , rizzo matthew
Published: November 2023

Disorders of visual processing are one of the frequent consequences of neurologic disorders involving the cerebral hemispheres. These disorders can be evaluated at the bedside on the basis of history and neurologic exam, but the comprehensive appraisal of the defects requires neuropsychologic, neuro-ophthalmologic, and neuroimaging techniques. In this chapter, we review those disorders that are important either because of their frequency or because of their scientific implications.49,s2

The neuropsychologist Hans-Lukas Teuber is credited with a definition of agnosia. In his words, agnosia is “a normal percept stripped of its meanings”173- a definition that remains lapidary and applies well to what Lissauer designated as visual “associative” agnosias.118 (The definition does not apply to Lissauer’s visual “apperceptive” agnosias since visual perception is manifestly abnormal in “apperceptive” agnosias.) A current definition of visual agnosias, well in keeping with Teuber’s words, could read as follows: a disorder of cognition and behavior confined to the visual realm, in which an alert, attentive, intelligent, and nonaphasic patient who has normal visual perception gives evidence of not knowing the meaning of visual stimuli, that is, of not recognizing visual stimuli. We shall begin by examining the compo nents of this definition.
Ethical Perspectives
Authors: Hall Robert T
Published: November 2023

The French sociologist Emile Durkheim was one of the first modem theorists to address the ethical aspects of organizations. In a series of lectures given in 1898 but not published until long after his death, Durkheim developed the concept of a professional ethic as a set of rules that govern the activities of people in any given occupation (Durkheim, 1957). He believed that the rules governing professional behavior are generated by the groups that dominate the profession, and that these eventually become normative standards that, in many cases, are enacted into law. Both as legal rules and as professional standards, these norms are accompanied by sanctions. Professional ethics, according to Durkheim, is a matter of following the rules because there will be a price to pay (legally or professionally) if one does not.

Durkheim was criticized by his contemporaries for limiting ethics to rules with legal or professional sanctions and later revised his conception to take account of the motivational or ideal aspect of ethics (Hall, 1987). This other side of ethics, he told the French Philosophical Society in 1906, is the ideal we hold of what society should be like and how we ought to live. It is a goal to strive for, not just a rule to follow. Morality, then, is both stick and carrot: obligatory conduct but also a social ideal to which we are enthusiastically com­ mitted (Durkheim, 1953, 1993).
The Sorrows of the Colon: Pharmaceutical Treatment
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

In the year 1917, Walter Alvarez, a San Francisco physician respected as America’s leading gastroenterologist, was visited by a businessman desper ate for help. The gentleman had always enjoyed adequate health, it seems, until the day 6 years earlier when his morning look in the mirror revealed a receding hairline. Rushing to a dermatologist, he was informed that baldness was being brought on by autointoxication, and, never mind that the patient had never thought himself constipated, that it was necessary to effect more thorough emp tying of his bowels if he hoped to retain his hair.
Washing Out the Inner Person: The Water Cure
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

New York City resident Andrew Vena was in sound health. Even so, “it would not be a bad idea,” he decided in December of 1930, “to take a little percuation [precaution] to keep healthy.” From what he had read, as well as heard from “public health lectures” delivered by laxative salesmen along Sixth Avenue, there was now “stamped in [his] mind” the belief that virtually all disease originated from constipation. It followed that preservation of health required “keeping the bowl clean … cleaning the collen and keeping it clean,” practicing “internal bathing.” To that end, he purchased a J. B. L. Cascade, a popular brand of enema equipment pervasively advertised as the most effective provider of the “Internal Bath,” and began to use it weekly as a “safety measure.” Ten months later, still vigorous and free of illness, he was convinced the Cascade had been money well spent.
The Culture of the Abdomen: Physical Therapies
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

San Franciscan S. F. Loughborough was yet another of the early twentieth century’s martyrs to constipation. In the space of just 20 months in 1903-4, he paid out $95 to doctors for their advice and evacuant drugs, and spent another $110 for patent medicine cathartics—to no avail. He was “robbed,” he complained, “by ignorant pill prescribers” whose medications left him “worse off than when I began using them.” Not only was he now more constipated than ever, all the straining at stool he had done in the interim had given him a severe case of hemorrhoids. But as is so often the case at the nadir of a person’s existence, serendipity waited just around the corner. On his next foray to the Owl Drug Store, he came upon a set of Dr. Young’s Rectal Dilators, a product advertised specifically for constipation and hemorrhoids. With nothing to lose but a few more dollars, Loughborough bought the set and commenced a course of dilation that very evening.
Achieving Excellence in China: Key Success Factors in the Land of Dragons
Authors: Schlevogt Kai-Alexander
Published: November 2023

Foreign direct investment (FDI) in China increased steadily in the 1990s, and there is no sign of an imminent dramatic change in this trend. Despite occasional declines in capital inflows, worldwide investors remain very interested in the long-term prospects of the market. However, looking back at the experience in their China operations, company executives often find that they did not live up to their performance targets. To turn the disappointing performance around and start running a profitable business in China, managers need to know the key success factors in the market.
General Semantics
Authors: Lewis David
Published: November 2023

It is not my plan to make any strong empirical claim about language. To the contrary: I want to propose a convenient format for semantics general enough to work for a great variety of logically possible languages. This paper therefore belongs not to empirical linguistic theory but to the philosophy thereof. My proposals regarding the nature of meanings will not conform to the expectations of those linguists who conceive of semantic interpretation as the assignment to sentences and their constituents of compounds of ‘semantic markers’ or the like. (Katz and Postal 1964, for instance.) Semantic markers are symbols: items in the vocabulary of an artificial language we may call Semantic Markerese.
A Theory of Truth and Semantic Representation
Authors: Kamp Hans
Published: November 2023

Two conceptions of meaning have dominated formal semantics of natural language. The first of these sees meaning principally as that which determines conditions of truth. This notion, whose advocates are found mostly among philosophers and logicians, has inspired the disciplines of truth-theoretic and model-theoretic semantics. According to the second conception meaning is, first and foremost, that which a language user grasps when he understands the words he hears or reads. This second conception is implicit in many studies by computer scientists (especially those involved with artificial intelligence), psychologists and linguists—studies which have been concerned to articulate the structure of the representations which speakers construct in response to verbal inputs.
Pronouns and Bound Variables
Authors: Higginbotham James
Published: November 2023

Suppose that S is a surface structure, A is an occurrence of a quantificational NP in S, and B is an occurrence of a pronoun in S. Under what circumstances can the pronoun be interpreted as a variable, bound to the quantificational NP? Our analysis has for its target sentences such as (1): In (1) and in the other examples given in this article, the bound interpretation of the pronoun is optional. We exclude, for reasons given below, the case in which B is reflexive or reciprocal.
The Tenses of Verbs
Authors: Reichenbach Hans
Published: November 2023

A particularly important form of token-reflexive symbol is found in the tenses of verbs. The tenses determine time with reference to the time point of the act of speech—that is, of the token uttered. A closer analysis reveals that the time indication given by the tenses is of a rather complex structure. Let us call the time point of the token the point of speech. Then the three indications—”before the point of speech,” “simultaneous with the point of speech,” and “after the point of speech”—furnish only three tenses; since the number of verb tenses is obviously greater, we need a more complex interpretation. From a sentence like ‘Peter had gone’ we see that the time order expressed in the tense does not concern one event, but two events, whose positions are determined with respect to the point of speech.
Prepositions and Points of View
Authors: Cresswell Max J
Published: November 2023

There are many words in our language whose meaning seems to make reference to a point of view or an hypothetical observer of the scene. I have in mind particularly such words as come, go, left, right, behind, and others, all of which seem to depend for their meaning of looking at things from a certain point of view. Charles Fillmore (1975) has recently shown how pervasive the use of points of view is in discourse. Indeed, his work makes the task of formalizing it look well-nigh impossible. The aim of this present paper is therefore very much more restricted, and in two ways. First I have in mind semantics conceived in the narrow sense of the contribution a word or expression makes to the truth conditions of sentences in which it occurs. Second I shall be restricting myself solely to the formal semantics of the points of view involved in some spatial senses of English prepositions.
A Semantic Theory of Adverbs
Authors: Thomason Richmond H , Stalnaker Robert C
Published: November 2023

In recent years adverbial constructions have attracted the attention of many logicians, philoso-phers of language, and linguists. Most of this work is relevant to the content of the present ar-ticle, but that of Richard Montague and his associates deserves special discussion since our formal semantic theory can be regarded as a special case of Montague’s.1 Also, though we accept the main features of Montague’s semiotic program, we have not adopted its methodology here, but instead have followed a more conservative approach emerging from recent work in intensional logic. According to this approach, artificial logical languages are used as the objects of formal semantic theory and are linked to natural languages by an informal procedure of formalization.3 The application of semantic theories to English is therefore indirect, rather than direct as in Montague’s approach, since it is mediated by formalization.
Truth and Demonstratives
Authors: Weinstein Scott
Published: November 2023

Recently, various philosophers have argued that there is a close connection between a theory of truth for a language and a theory of meaning for that language (e.g., Davidson 1967: chapter 12 in this volume). Even if we do not wish to equate the two, I believe we must agree that a necessary component of an adequate theory of meaning is a theory of truth. We might require a complete semantical theory of a language to do many things, but it should at least give us a systematic account of the conditions under which the sentences of that language are true.
“The Subordination of the Different Parts and Voices”: Popularizing ‘‘America” through Grassroots Activism, 1826-1850
Authors: Branham Robert James , Hartnett Stephen J
Published: November 2023

DESPlTE the regional differences she observed during her travels through the United States in 1827, Frances Trollope wrote in Domestic Manners ef the Americans that there were some points certainly on which all agree-namely, that the American government is the best in the world. That America has produced the greatest men that ever existed. That all the nations of the earth look upon them with a mixture of wonder and envy and that in time they will all follow their great example and have a president. This, or something like it, I heard everywhere.
Developing a Knowledge Strategy
Authors: Zack Michael H
Published: November 2023

Business organizations are coming to view knowledge as their most valuable and strategic resource. They are realizing that to remain competitive they must explicitly manage their intellectual resources and capabilities. To this end, many organizations have initiated a range of knowledge management projects and programs. The primary focus of these efforts has been on developing new applications of information technology to support the digital capture, storage, retrieval, and distribution of an organization’s explicitly documented knowledge (e.g., Davenport et al. 1996, Goodman and Darr, 1996). A smaller number of organizations, on the other hand, believe that the most valuable knowledge is the tacit knowledge existing within peoples’ heads, augmented or shared via interpersonal interaction and social relationships. To build their intellectual capital, those organizations are utilizing the “social capital” that develops from people interacting repeatedly over time (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998). Many are experimenting with new organizational cultures, forms, and reward systems to enhance those social relationships (Quinn et al. 1996).
The Role of Tacit Knowledge in Group Innovation
Authors: Leonard Dorothy , Sensiper Sylvia
Published: November 2023

Innovation, the source of sustained advantage for most companies, depends upon the individual and collective expertise of employees. Some of this expertise is captured and codified in software, hardware, and processes. Yet tacit knowledge also underlies many competitive capabilities-a fact driven home to some companies in the wake of aggressive downsizing, when undervalued knowledge walked out the door. The marvelous capacity of the human mind to make sense of a lifetime’s collection of experience and to connect patterns from the past to the present and future is, by its very nature, hard to capture. However, it is essential to the innovation process. The management of tacit knowledge is relatively unexplored-particularly when compared to the work on explicit knowledge. Moreover, while individual creativity is important, exciting, and even crucial to business, the creativity of groups is equally important. The creation of today’s complex systems of products and services requires the merging of knowledge from diverse national, disciplinary, and personal skill-based perspectives. Innovation-whether it be revealed in new products and services, new processes, or new organizational forms-is rarely an individual undertaking. Creative cooperation is critical.
Association Studies
Authors: Marazita Mary L , Neiswanger Katherine
Published: November 2023

Association methods are used as an adjunct to linkage approaches for gene mapping, especially for complex traits. In association analysis, one compares the allele frequencies of a genetic marker or candidate gene between groups of affected individuals vs. controls. If allele frequencies differ significantly between the two groups, then a specific allele at the marker or candidate locus is said to be associated with the disease at the population level. Genetic linkage between a marker and a disease gene implies that alleles at the marker locus co-segregate with the disease allele within families. With linkage, different marker alleles may co-segregate with the disease allele in different families and the overall frequencies of the marker alleles, as calculated from population-based samples, need not vary between affected and control groups. For the purposes of this discussion, two loci are in linkage equilibrium when they are linked but not associated. Linkage disequilibrium occurs when two genes are both linked within families and associated in the population. The procedures for mapping, cloning, and characterizing genes for rare, Mendelian diseases are now well established. Consequently, progress in mapping Mendelian traits has been dramatic over the past several years. In contrast, genes contributing to common, complex diseases such as oral-facial clefting have been much more difficult to isolate.