bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A seasonal change in blood cell volume of the Rottnest Island Quokka, Setonix brachyurus
Authors: Shield John
Published: August 2009

Comparison of the red cell and plasma volumes (T‐1824) of wild Quokkas captured in spring (October) with volumes of animals captured in autumn (May) showed that no seasonal change in average plasma volume occurred but a 42% average decrease in red cell volume did occur in autumn. Control animals kept in compounds showed no seasonal change in either average plasma or red cell volume. The available evidence suggests that the seasonal decline in red cell volume results from the semi‐starvation suffered by the wild population during the late summer and autumn of each year. The average relative red cell, plasma and whole blood volumes of well‐fed Quokkas captured in October were 24.6±3.1; 37.0±3.0; and 61.7±4.5 ml/kg, and equivalent measures of domesticated Quokkas were 28.0±3.2; 40.5±2.8; and 68.5±5.3 ml/kg. These values lie within the ranges of comparaable blood compartment volumes of eutherian mammal species.
Gonadal activity in some Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)
Authors: Harrison R. J. , Ridgwa S. H.
Published: August 2009

Details are given of the characteristics of the ovaries and testes of young and adult dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, all of which had been caught off Florida or Mississippi. Most had been in captivity for periods varying from a few days to ten years. Birth takes place most commonly during February to May and September to November. Length of neonates is between 98 and 126 cm. The state of activity of the gonads suggests that sexual maturity is reached in females at a length of over 220 cm and probably in their fifth year. Males do not become sexually active until about 260 cm in length and at an estimated age of at least ten years. Plasma testosterone levels are highest in a captive fertile male during April and May and October and November. The corpus luteum persists throughout the 12‐month gestation period and also appears to persist as a corpus albicans for the dolphin's life span. The left ovary is usually larger than the right and twice as many corpora are found in the left as in the right ovary. No evidence of regular, cyclic ovulation is detected and it is concluded that ovulation is induced in Tursiops.
A deep‐sea burrowing barnacle (Cirripedia: Acrothoracica) form Bermuda*
Authors: Newman William A.
Published: August 2009

The Acrothoracica constitutes a group of burrowing barnacles limited in distribution to calcareous substrata. Members are found in most warm waters of the world but the greatest diversity is reached in the coralline seas where they are found in coral skeletons, molluscs shells and limestone.

Until recently some 37 acrothoracican species were known from the tropical and temperate region, all from waters less than 30 m in depth (Tomlinson, 1969). It was interesting therefore that the first moderately deep water form to become known, occurring at depths between 300 and 650m, should be from cold waters well south of the Antarctic Convergence (Newman & Ross, 1971). This animal, Cryptophialus tomlinsoni, burrows in coral and barnacle shells and does not differ in size and form from littoral members of the genus.

The new species described in the present report burrows in foraminifera1 limestone off Bermuda. It is not only remarkable in occurring as deep as 1000 m but in being very much larger and more generalized than any previously known pygophorans. Furthermore it has what is interpreted here as a rostral shell plate, whereas all previously known forms are considered to be without calcereous armament. The existence of what appears to be a rostral plate in the new species has a significant bearing on our understanding of the evolution of the order.
The life history and ecology of three paradoxosomatid millipedes (Diplopoda: Polydesmida) in northern Nigeria
Authors: Lewis J. G. E.
Published: August 2009

The life history and ecology of three polydesmoid millipedes of the family Paradoxosomatidae in Zaria, Nigeria are described. The species are surface dwellers and feed on soil: cryptogams are probably important in the diet. The function of the swarming behaviour which characterizes most larval stadia of these species is discussed.

Habrodesmus duboscqui completes its life cycle in one or two years, most Xanthodesmus sp. and Xanthodesmus physkon in one year. The adults are relatively short lived in all three species and die before the onset of the dry season. The species survive the dry season as diapausing larvae in the soil and the moulting chamber is probably important in water conservation.
Earthworms (Megascolecidae: Oligochaeta) from Western Australia and their zoogeography
Authors: Jamieson B. G. M.
Published: August 2009

A new genus, Graliophilus, is erected for the Western Australian section of Plutellus and five species‐groups are defined within the new genus, at least two of which may merit elevation to generic rank. Two new species, G. georgei and G. secundus are referred to a southerly species‐group of Graliophilus while new material of Plutellus strelitzi Michaelsen is assigned to a second, more northerly species‐group. Redescription of type‐material of P. candidus Jackson and of P. varicystis Jackson reveals that the former belongs to the strelitzi group and the latter to the georgei group. New material of Woodwardiella molaeleonis (Michaelsen) is described and permits elucidation of the morphology of the excretory system of the genus. A very distinct new species W. acanthodriloides is described from the Frankland River far to the south of the Swan basin range of the callichaeta group to which W. molaeleonis belongs. The new genus Austrohoplochaetella is erected for a new species from Cape Range. This genus is allied to Megascolides but possesses longitudinal proctodaeal excretory ducts. The genus Pseudonotoscolex is erected for a new species, from the Pallinup River, which lacks the alimentary characteristics of Notoscolex. The zoogeography of the 11 megascolecid genera known from Western Australia is briefly discussed. The seven genera with endemic species have limited and distinctive distributions within the south‐western province and this is shown to be true of the five species‐groups of Graliophilus. Three genera, and possibly also Woodwardiella Stephenson, are endemic and it is expected that a higher endemicity will be demonstrated on revision of several genera. Ignoring the anthropochorous Pheretima, all but four, circurnmundane, species of the 53 megascolecid species recorded from Western Australia are restricted to the subregion.
Effects of age and seasonal rhythm on the growth patterns of some small mammals in Finland and in Kirkenes, Norway
Authors: Hyvārinen Heikki , Heikura Kalevi
Published: August 2009

The intensity of growth of Sorex araneus L. and Clethrionomys glareolus Schreb. in the Oulu district of Finland is studied as a function of age and seasonal rhythm, and compared with the results of growth‐rate measurements of Sorex araneus L., Clethrionomys rufocanus Sund. and Clethrionomys rutilus Pall. in Kirkenes, Norway. It is assumed that the postnatal development of the Common shrew with its growth and regression phases is to some extent controlled by an endogenous seasonal rhythm. The growth of the voles is not as clearly controlled by these rhythms as that of the Common shrew although the growth of the Bank vole and Northern red‐backed vole is obviously considerably retarded in autumn and in winter.
Some haematological observations on Tropidurus torquatus (Sauria, Iguanidae) from Venezuela*
Authors: Scorza J. V.
Published: August 2009

The conventional haematology and the light microscope morphology and cytochemistry of the red cell series of seven male specimens of Tropidurus torquatus from Venezuela are described.
The growth of the Mongolian gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus, from birth to maturity
Authors: Norris M. L. , Adams C. E.
Published: August 2009

Birthweights and sex of young were recorded in 357 litters of Mongolian gerbils, Meriones unguiculatus. The liveweights of individual young in 47 litters were recorded every 5 days up to 40 days of age and related to the number of young suckling. Growth curves are presented for both sexes from birth to 150 days of age.
Variation in mandible length and body weight of Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
Authors: Lowe V. P. W.
Published: August 2009

The range of intra‐specific variation in morphological characters has rarely been examined by taxonomists, and subspecies have often been named on the basis of as few as two skulls. However, despite the limitations set by the material data, taxonomists have long recognized an apparent cline in nose length of Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) between the eastern and western extremities of its European distribution. Since larger samples of mandible and body weight data have recently become available for three widely separated populations within the north western parts of their range—the Isle of Rhum (north‐west Scotland), Grizedale (north‐west England) and Oksbol (Denmark)—it has become possible to examine this cline critically in relation to age, development and geography. In all three populations, the relationship between body weight and jaw length differed significantly at the 1% level, but, as expected, whilst the deer from Denmark had the longest mandibles as adults, as juveniles they had the shortest mandibles in relation to body weight. Furthermore, if the island of Rhum was divided arbitrarily into three areas, namely north western, south western and eastern, an exactly similar picture emerged. Therefore, no single simple law such as Bergman's rule seems to offer an entirely satisfactory explanation.
Chromodorid nudibranchs from eastern Australia (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia)*
Authors: Thompson T. E.
Published: August 2009

Collections of nudibranch gastropods made in 1968 and 1969 are described. All the 11 eastern Australian species of Casella, Hypselodoris and Chromodoris obtained are fully illustrated by line diagrams, photographs and water‐colours. Two species new for Australia are described, and nine others are re‐described. A list of the chromodoridiform species reliably recorded from Australian waters concludes the paper.
Some behavioural differences between the European polecat, Mustela putorius, the ferret, M. furo, and their hybrids
Authors: Poole Trevor B.
Published: August 2009

The aim of this work was to identify behavioural differences between the domesticated ferret Mustela furo and its wild counterpart the European polecat M. putorius and to obtain objective measures of one or more of these differences.

The animals used in this study were tame M. putorius, M. furo, wild caught hybrids and laboratory reared F1 hybrids between the two species.

Ferrets differed in their behaviour in unfamiliar environments and in the fact that they do not develop fear of man. The F1 hybrids resembled M. putorius in that they develop a fear of man if left with their mother during a critical period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age. The phenomenon of imprinting may be involved in this developmental process.

The attention response to a rustling noise was investigated under controlled conditions revealing differences in response decrement between the four types of polecat. M. putorius and the hybrids habituated more rapidly to the sound than did the ferrets.

The results obtained for F1 hybrids depended upon the previous environmental history of the individual. Those individuals which had been living in outdoor cages responded differently from the ones in indoor cages. The hypothesis was put forward that the hybrids respond more frequently if the experimental situation provides a greater contrast with their normal environment and that the individual's response threshold is therefore “set” to specific environmental conditions.

The results obtained agree with the hypothesis first put forward by Lorenz (1953) that the behaviour of domesticated animals resembles that of juvenile individuals of their wild counterpart.

A comparison is made between the behaviour of European polecats (Mustela putorius), the domesticated ferret (M. furo) and hybrids between the two species.

Differences were found in exploratory behaviour, fear of man and the frequency of occurrence of the “attention response”.

The occurrence of the “attention response” was studied under controlled conditions. It was found, on playing the rustling sound 40 times at minute intervals, that this sound elicited the attention response for longer in ferrets than in European polecats and hybrids between the two species. The most rapid habituation occurred in polecats, the F1 hybrids being intermediate in their response between M. putorius and M. furo.

The results obtained for the F1 hybrids were influenced by the conditions under which the animals were previously caged.

The results appear to support Lorenz' view that domesticated animals show juvenility in their behaviour as compared with their wild counterparts.
Feeding and gut physiology in Acanthopleura spinigera (Mollusca)
Authors: Greenfield M. L.
Published: August 2009

The morphology and histology of the alimentary canal of the rock chiton Acanthopleura spinigera are described and the ability of regions of the gut to digest specific substrates investigated. The oesophagus is produced into a pair of thin‐walled lateral pouches, the salivary glands or “sugar glands” which empty into the stomach. Folds of the capacious stomach are almost obscured by the large digestive gland over which is coiled the intestine. Histologically the gut consists of an outer layer of connective tissue, an inner muscular layer and a ciliated epithelium which varies in thickness from one region to the next. Proteases are most active in the stomach, digestive gland and anterior intestine at pH 6·5 and in the posterior intestine at pH 7·5‐8·5. The digestion of lipoidal substance was greatest in the stomach and digestive gland and least in anterior intestine. There was little increase in the amount of digestion product obtained after 20 hours incubation. All regions of the alimentary canal and salivary gland were capable of digesting carbohydrates except that many low molecular weight carbohydrates were digested by salivary gland extracts only. The amylases were most active at pH 6–6·5. It is concluded that digestive enzymes are distributed throughout the intestinal tract but the amount of enzyme present varies from region to region, and is greatest just after feeding.
The lateral scent organs of Arvicola terrestris (Rodentia: Microtinae)
Authors: Stoddart D. Michael
Published: August 2009

The lateral scent organs of Arvicola terrestris (L.) are basically similar in construction to those of A. scherman (Shaw), and differ in that they do not express long cylinders of secretion at the end of the breeding season, and that frequent epidermal vesicles are observed. During the year the organ of the male undergoes a cycle of activity with a peak in secretory activity shortly following the peak in the cycle of testis weight. Bilateral castration causes a marked involution of the organ in the male, which can be reconstituted by the administration of exogenous testosterone.
On the mode of boring in Fungiacava eilatensis (Bivalvia: Mytilidae)*
Authors: Goreauand T. F. , Goreau N. I. , Yonge C. M.
Published: August 2009

The burrows of Fungiacava in the skeleton of living fungid corals are initially superficial and peripheral, later they become deep; they always open into the coelenteron. Boring is exclusively chemical, possibly by secretion of a calcium‐chelating mucus by the epithelium of the pallial envelope, which surrounds the excessively delicate shell, and of the siphons. These epithelia also secrete aragonite with which all cavities in the corralum are filled and the presence of which reveals the track of the bivalve through the corallum. By the dual operation of resorption and secretion, Fungiacava always precisely fills the cavity it occupies. There is no reaction by the coral to the presence of the symbiont.

The burrows of Fungiacava eilatensis within the skeleton of living Fungia scutaria are described.

Burrows of young individuals are superficial, those of older ones are deep. They open respectively into peripheral and central regions of the coelenteron.

Burrows change in shape from an ovoid to a dorso‐ventrally flattened heart‐shape with alteration in form of the bivalve.

In view of the extreme delicacy of the shell and its complete enclosure within a pallial envelope, burrowing must be exclusively chemical, possibly by secretion of a calcium‐chelating mucus.

The pallial envelope is ciliated and covered with a dendritic system of shallow grooves converging on the pallial gape. This may possibly assist in either application of secretion or removal of the products of resorption, or both.

The burrow is enlarged but also altered in shape by selective resorption and secretion of aragonite—which fills in all trabecular spaces in the coral skeleton penetrated by the burrows—by the outer epithelia of the pallial envelope and the siphons.

Movement of Fungiacava through the coral skeleton is clearly revealed by the presence of homogeneous aragonite deposits.

There is no trace of reaction by the coral to the presence of the bivalve.

Without knowledge of the life history, it is impossible to determine whether the initial superficial chambers are due to a possible initial tube secretion by the bivalve or to a reaction at this stage of the coral to the presence of the newly settled larva.
The muscles of newly hatched Schistocerca gregaria larvae and their possible functions in hatching, digging and ecdysial movements (Insecta: Acrididae)
Authors: Bernays E. A.
Published: August 2009

A detailed study of the hatchling musculature in Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål), and comparison with muscles of older first‐instar larvae and adults, revealed four categories of muscles: those which are present throughout life (permanent muscles), those which are present only in the hatchling and which break down during the first‐instar larval stage (first accessory muscles), those which are characteristic of larvae and break down in the adult (secondary accessory muscles), and those which are rudimentary or absent to start with, becoming functional in the adult. This last group, including the flight muscles and the muscles of the genitalia have not been studied. Of the remainder, the head and legs contain only permanent muscles, the contrast between larvae and adults being in the neck, thorax and abdomen. The positions and possible functions of the two groups of accessory muscles are discussed, particularly in relation to hatching, digging and ecdysis of the vermiform larva, and specific functions of the permanent muscles of neck, thorax and abdomen at this time are suggested, and compared with their better known functions in the fully hardened, free‐living insect.

The study of the musculature of the newly hatched locust revealed not just the normal complement of muscles found in the adult, but batteries of accessory muscles which aid hatching, digging and ecdysial processes. Some of these muscles are attached across and onto the membranous regions and probably prevent ballooning of the intersegmental regions during high pressures, thus ensuring expansion of the presumptive sclerite regions rather than a separation of them.

In the abdomen the lack of apodemes, the small overlap of adjacent sclerite regions and the easily distorted cuticle are all factors allowing the external muscles to assist the internal muscles and the accessory muscles in abdominal contraction. Such contractions are required for hatching and digging of the vermiform larva.

Special muscles are associated with the ampullae and brustia, which break down during the first instar, while the other accessory muscles persist until the adult stage is reached, and are presumably used at later ecdyses.
The structure of the female reproductive system in the Eurytomidae (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera)
Authors: Copland M. J. W. , King P. E.
Published: August 2009

An account is given of the structure of the gaster and mechanism of the ovipositor in the females of the Eurytomidae. The histology and the possible functions of the components of the reproductive systems are described and its bearing on their phylogenetic relationships of the group discussed.

The female gastral sclerites and ovipositor mechanism in the Eurytomidae have a number of distinctive characters. Within the family there is a progressive evolution of a coiling of the ovipositor associated with accommodating a longer shaft within the abdomen. Each ovary has three ovarioles and the shape of the egg is constant. There are two pairs of colleteral glands, a well developed “venom” system and a distinctive spermatheca.

The family has affinities with the Torymidae and may be close to the ancestral chalcid stock.
The mammary glands of the Red kangaroo with observations on the fatty acid components of the milk triglycerides
Authors: Griffiths Mervyn , McIntosh D. L. , Leckie R. M. C.
Published: August 2009

The structures and physiology of the mammary glands of the lactating Red kangaroo are the most complex to be found in the class Mammalia. The female Red kangaroo can exhibit, simultaneously, two glands regressing from the tubular condition found at birth, one gland growing and differentiating from the tubular to an alveolar condition supporting a small pouch young, and a fourth in a state of full lactation supplying a young at heel. As lactation proceeds the two regressing glands become quiescent and then later re‐differentiate to the oestrus or birth condition independently of the lactating glands.

As well as differing anatomically the two lactating glands are very different biochemically; the milk for the sustenance of the pouch young contains a large amount of palmitic and relatively little oleic acid whereas the gland supplying the young at heel secretes a milk with little palmitic and much oleic acid.

The amount of crude lipid in the milk of the Red kangaroo sampled from day 1–4 day to day 360 of lactation tends to increase. The fatty acid complement of the milk fat taken day 1–4 to the 72nd day differed greatly from that taken at 100–360 days. The early milk triglycerides contained on the average 44·2% palmitic acid and 24·1% oleic, whereas in mature milks the proportions were reversed. Short chain fatty acids (C4‐C12) were virtually absent which was surprising to find in the milk fat of a herbivore. The Red kangaroo can elaborate simultaneously the two kinds of milk fat just described in two different glands supplying a small pouch young and a large young at heel respectively. It is suggested that early milks containing far more palmitic than oleic acid may only be found in mammals that have very special young such as the echidna, platypus and marsupials.

The structure of the mammary gland from the condition found in the very young virgin doe to that of a doe suckling a 312‐day young is described. The Red kangaroo has four mammary glands one of which, suckling a small pouch young, differentiates and grows along with growth of the pouch young and produces milk with a high palmitic acid content, another, suckling a young at heel, has large fully differentiated and thin‐walled alveoli, while the other two (non‐suckled) show progressive regression from the condition at birth, followed by redifferentiation at c. 128th day of lactation, both activities being independent of the activities of the lactating glands.
The annual cycle of the Rufous‐collared sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis) in three biotopes in north‐western Argentina
Authors: King James R.
Published: August 2009

This investigation delineates the phenology of the annual cycle (gonadal activity, nesting, moult, behavioural events) in the Rufous‐collared sparrow and attempts to identify the environmental factors involved in the temporal coordination of the annual cycle with environmental seasonality. Populations of sparrows were studied in arid chaco plains, subtropical foothill transition zone, and mountain semi‐desert along a 100‐km east‐west transect at 26.9d̀S in the eastern piedmont of the Andes. This is a region of summer rainfall and winter drought characterized by a temporally unpredictable onset of vernal rains and vegetative rejuvenation.

All three populations have a strong gonadal cycle including a period of histological collapse and reorganization. Measureable gonadal growth began in spring concurrently in all three populations when the daily photoperiod surpassed about 12 hours. The rates of gonadal growth in the log‐linear phase were alike in the chaco and mountain populations, but were only 35–45% of the rate in the intervening foothill population. The earliest nestings in all populations were closely correlated with the first growth of vegetative ground cover, but less closely correlated with other environmental variables. The growth of ground cover to an arbitrary index stage differed by several weeks in the three biotopes, and the onset of the nesting season differed accordingly. Rufous‐collared sparrows in this region nest almost exclusively on the ground in dense grass, and are evidently dependent on its concealment. Gonadal regression began at different times in the three populations and was not uniformly correlated with any obvious changes in the condition of the habitat. In all cases, regression began after the summer solstice, and thus coincided with decreasing daylength.

Postnuptial moult in adults began almost simultaneously in all three populations regardless of the phase of the nesting cycle. Moult (suspended temporarily in some individuals) thus overlapped the end of the nesting season in the chaco and foothill populations, but not in the mountain population. Postjuvenal moult in immatures also began almost simultaneously in the three populations, about two weeks later than the onset of postnuptial moult.

The temporal coordination of the annual cycle of Rufous‐collared sparrows in northwestern Argentina appears to be controlled basically by the annual photocycle, with habitat conditions (probably vegetative growth in spring) acting as essential modifiers in the final adjustment of nesting to local conditions. This system allows the sparrows to exploit suitable nesting conditions as soon as they occur each year in a temporally unpredictable environment in which an exclusively photoperiod control of the gonadal cycle would be deleterious in a large proportion of years.
Reproductive systems and breeding condition in Nerita birmanica (Archaeogastropoda: Neritacea) from Malayan mangrove swamps
Authors: Berry A. J. , Lim R. , Kumar A. Sase
Published: August 2009

The complex reproductive systems of the mangrove‐dwelling Nerita birmanica are described and related to those of other neritids. Gonad condition in both sexes and numbers of spermatophores in males and females varied slightly during a one‐year survey. It is concluded that a slight tendency for larger number of “full” ovaries with big oocytes to occur in collections taken shortly before full and new moon does not represent a significant lunar cycle of gonad activity since almost all gonads bore gametes in all stages of development at all times of year. It appears merely that ovulation may be held up during relatively rainless periods after which substantial rain is followed by reduced ovaries lacking large oocytes. In brief, breeding appears to be continous with but slight variation which does not consistently follow observable environmental factors.
Surface area of the respiratory organs of the Climbing perch, Anabas testudineus (Pisces: Anabantidae)
Authors: Hughes G. M. , Dube S. C. , Munshi J. S. Datta
Published: August 2009

Measurements have been made of the surface area of the gills and accessory respiratory organs of Anabas in the weight range 1–120 g, and the data analysed with respect to body weight using logarithmic transformations. The slope of the regression line for total gill area (0–615) is less than that found in most fish, the number of secondary lamellae/mm decreased more rapidly with body weight than for most water‐breathing species (h = ‐0.152). The gill area of Anabas is relatively small but when the area of the accessory organs is added, the total respiratory area is of the same order as inactive water‐breathing fish. The regression coefficient for combined areas of labyrinthine organs and lining of the suprabranchial chambers (0.713) exceeds that for the gills and together with other evidence (including estimates of diffusing capacity from morphological measurements), indicates an increasing importance of air‐breathing of larger specimens. The average surface area of the accessory organs available for 1 ml of air within the suprabranchial chambers was found to be 2226 mm2.
Vascular physiology of the ascidian Pyura praeputialis
Authors: Goddard C. K.
Published: August 2009

Blood pressure was measured at both ends of the heart of Pyura praeputialis (Heller) after removing the tunic.

For posterior anterior heart waves average upstream pressures were 23–25 mm H2O (positive): corresponding downstream pressures averaged 8 mm H2O (negative). For anterior posterior waves average upstream pressures were 17–18 mm H2O (+) and downstream values were 7–8 mm H2O (‐). Maximum pulse amplitudes recorded were about 30 mm H2O (upstream).

Speed of the peristaltic wave was 25‐31 mm/s. In one experiment the speed was demonstrably different over the two halves of the heart (48 mm/s over the rear half and 29 mm/s over the front half).

Number of peristaltic waves per series (i.e. between successive reversals) varied from 20 to 178. Duration of each series varied from 120 s to 690 s. Wave frequency ranged from 8 to 21 per min. Reversal frequency ranged from 5 to 30 reversals per hour.

Most preparations showed periods of reduced heart activity (“rest periods”) during the the 2 4 h of the experiment. All showed spasmodic contractions of the mantle muscles which caused pressure “surges” in the vascular system.

It is shown that, in both directions of beat, most or all of the pressure wave is contributed by the front half of the heart (half towards which peristaltic wave is travelling). This can be related to the “reversed spiral” structure of the heart: each “half” of the heart (i.e. each spiral) serves primarily as the pump for one direction.
Ecological studies on crater lakes in West Cameroon Lakes Kotto and Mboandong
Authors: Corbet Sarah A. , Green J. , Griffith J. , Betney Elaine
Published: August 2009

Lake Kotto is a shallow crater lake, sometimes weakly stratified, and with a dense phytoplankton dominated by blue‐green algae. The ecology of Lake Kotto and the similar, smaller lake Mboandong is described in relation to the feeding biology of their fishes. Of the five species of cichlids in Lake Kotto only one is endemic. Two are phytoplankton‐feeders, one takes invertebrates as well as phytoplankton, one feeds mainly on chironomid larvae, and one preys on vertebrates as well as on invertebrates. The three phytoplanktivores are the main species eaten by man. One species of Clarias and one of Barbus also occur in Lake Kotto; and in the associated streams are four species of cyprinodont fishes. The fish fauna of Mboandong consists of three species of cichlids and two cyprinodonts, all known from the Kotto system. We contrast Lake Kotto with the oligotrophic lake Barombi Mbo, and conclude that Lake Kotto would probably be less sensitive to human interference than would Barombi Mbo.
The role of the notochard in forward and reverse swimming and burrowing in the amphioxus Branchiostoma lanceolatum
Authors: Webb J. E.
Published: August 2009

Analyses of high speed cinefilm have shown that amphioxus swims either forward or backward with undulatory movement generated at the leading end, the wave of displacement passing along the body with increasing amplitude. The leading end, whether this is “head” or tail, is evidently more rigid than the trailing end, flexibility at each end changing with reversal in direction of swimming. It is suggested that control of the amplitude of the waves of displacement in different regions of the body in swimming is a function of the notochord, contraction of the muscular notochordal plates increasing its stiffness. Connections between the central nervous system and the notochordal plates via the notochordal pits are already known to exist.

As exposure to light invariably induces swimming in dark–adapted animals, it seems probable that the eyes function in initiating movement. The rate of increase in number and size of the eye cups during larval and adult growth and their pattern of distribution in the nerve cord are given. In the adult the eye cups occur predominantly in the anterior and posterior regions of the body. This may be of significance in providing the stimulus for changes in flexibility of these regions in swimming.

High speed cinefilm has also shown that amphioxus can burrow “head” or tail‐first and move through sand in a forward or a reverse direction. It is suggested that rapid reversal of direction is of greater importance in movement through sand than in swimming.
Observations on the Cladocera of Lake George, Uganda
Authors: Burgis Mary J.
Published: August 2009

Seven species of Cladocera were recorded from the shallow, equatorial Lake George in Uganda, during the period 1967–72. Of these only three, Moina micrura Kurz, Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars and Daphnia barbata Weltner, are found in the open water and they form a small proportion of the total zooplankton biomass, which is dominated by a cyclopoid copepod. All three species are found throughout the year and carry parthenogenetic eggs at all times. They are smaller species than those predominating in some other East African lakes and some comparisons are also made between C. cornuta and four other species of that genus studied in Great Britain. The mean body lengths and clutch sizes of ovigerous females of C. cornuta vary little through the year. This is, presumably, a reflection of the relatively constant environment in Lake George. Alona poppei is only found in the open water intermittently and is thought to be swept from the peripheral swamps during heavy rains.

The general scarcity of Cladocera in Lake George is thought to be due, either to a shortage of food particles of suitably small size in the phytoplankton, which is dominated by large blue‐green algae, or to predation. Although Cladocera are certainly eaten by fish, quantitative data, with which to substantiate either of these hypotheses, is lacking.
Chance and change in British Long‐tailed field mice: (Apodemus sylvaticus)
Authors: Berry R. J.
Published: August 2009

The Long‐tailed field mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus (L.)) has undergone a marked degree of racial differentiation on the islands of the north‐west Atlantic (Iceland, Shetland, and the Hebrides). The differences have arisen as a result of the colonization of these islands after the Pleistocene by small numbers of animals carrying alleles in different proportions to those in the parental population. In contrast, the populations on some islands to the south of Britain (Jersey and Guernsey in the Channel Isles, and St. Mary's in the Isles of Scilly) are similar to A. sylvaticus from the mainland of Britain, and are likely to represent the descendants of mice which survived the Ice Ages (A. sylvaticus populations on the smaller islands–Alderney, Sark, Herm and Tresco–differ markedly from their closest relatives, and probably represent the results of recolonization following extinction in the same way as on the glaciated islands to the north).

On the mainland of Britain there is a fairly clear distinction between two groups: western and central populations, and eastern ones (which have closer affinities to French mice than western British ones). It is suggested that the two mainland British “races” may have diverged in Pleistocene refuges. Since no pelage or size genes are involved in the divergence, it would not be expected that they would be taxonomically distinct.

The data on which these conclusions are based derive from the incidence of 20 nonmetrical variants in the skulls of 1096 mice from 22 series.
The aggressive behaviour of individual male polecats (Mustela putorius, M. furo and hybrids) towards familiar and unfamiliar opponents
Authors: Poole Trevor B.
Published: August 2009

Experiments are described which were designed to investigate the significance of individual differences in aggressiveness between polecats and the relation between the familiarity of the opponent and the pattern and outcome of fighting.

The behaviour of Mustela putorius, M. furo and hybrids between the two species was investigated in an indoor arena of 16 m2.

Two kinds of fighting between male polecats were recorded, “companion fighting” between cage mates, in which biting was inhibited and neither of the opponents became intimidated and “uninhibited fighting” between unfamiliar individuals from which a winner and loser generally emerged and a rank order formed.

Individual differences in aggressiveness were assessed by means of a scoring system which statistical analysis showed, generally, to be consistent for any one individual. The rank of an animal, however, was found not to be invariably related to its aggression score.

A number of other factors influencing fighting were investigated, the earlier introduction of one individual into the arena increases its chances of winning a fight; when offered a choice, male polecats fight strangers in preference to cage mates; and the separation of a group of cage mates for as little as 48 hours induces them to behave towards one another like strangers with the result that a rank order is formed. Factors which had no apparent effect on fighting between males were the weight of the individual or the presence of females.

The attributes of familiar and unfamiliar opponents are discussed in the light of these findings.
A new species of Hydra (Coelenterata) from Kenya, East Africa
Authors: Cox N. , Young J. O.
Published: August 2009

A description of Hydra marianasp. n. is based on an examination of populations from four different localities in Kenya. Reliable distinguishing criteria are the nematocysts and structures associated with sexual reproduction. Other general characters varied between the four populations.
Beak and radula growth in Octopus vulgaris
Authors: Nixon Marion
Published: August 2009

The dry weight and the crest length of the upper and lower beak, the length of the radula ribbon, the average width of the base of the six proximal and distal rachidian teeth as well as the total number of these teeth have all been related to the live body weight of octopuses between 1.1 and 4440 g. From any one of these parameters it is possible to estimate the size and approximate age of the animal.
Why budgerigars breed in continuous darkness
Authors: Hinde R. A. , Putman R. J.
Published: August 2009

Budgerigars (Melopsittacus) exposed to male vocalizations will breed in total darkness, and the possibility arises that darkness is stimulatory. The present experiments showed that the availability of a nest‐box accelerates egg‐laying, and that relative darkness is an important property of a nest‐box. Furthermore in the absence of a nest‐box breeding occurs sooner in continuous darkness than on 14 L: 10 D. Intermittent periods of darkness imposed in the light period of a 14 L: 10 D regime accelerate egg‐laying somewhat.
The breeding pattern of the Soft‐furred rat, Praomys morio in an evergreen forest in Southern Uganda
Authors: Okia N. O.
Published: August 2009

Observations were made on the breeding of Praomys morio in a lake shore forest in Uganda, during a mark‐release‐recapture programme whose other aim was to study the role of rodents in the epidemiology of arboviruses. Because of the few numbers of animals captured other means of increasing reproduction data were employed. These included calculating the months of birth of very young animals from their weights.

It was found that pregnancies and births were more numerous in January, April, July, August and November. Recruitment of young animals occurred in three peaks, viz; February, June and September, corresponding to low rainfall months. It was concluded that P. morio shows some form of seasonality in its breeding that may be related to rainfall.
A probable homologue of the clavicle in the holostean fish Amia calva
Authors: Liem Karel F. , Woods Loren P.
Published: August 2009

The two pairs of appendages associated with the throat region in Amia are described.

The posterior serrated appcndage of Amia calva is considered a homologue of the clavicle. This theory is based on topographical similarity (a bony element situated in front of the ventral part of the cleithrum and overlapping the anterior margin of the adjoining part of the cleithrum), structural similarity (cellular bone with ridges bearing denticles arranged in distinct patterns), ontogenetic similarity (early ontogenctic ossification with other dements of the dermal shoulder girdle prior to the appearance of scales), and phylogenetic cvidcnce (presence of similar elements in the caturid Furo).

Although the anterior serrated appendage of A. calva exhibits structural and topographical similarities to both scales and clavicles, the ontogenetic evidence favours an homology with scales.

The ossicles located dorsolateral and lateral to the anteroventral part of the cleithrum in Lepisosteus oculatus share structural and topographical similarities to both scales and clavicles. However, ontogenetic evidence indicates that these ossicles are scales rather than fragmented clavicles.
Some mechanisms involved in host recognition and attachment of the glochidium larva of Anodonta cygnea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)
Authors: Wood Elizabeth M.
Published: August 2009

The ways in which the parasitic glochidium larva of Anodonta cygnea L. make initial contact with their host are investigated, and it is suggested that the thread can act as an attachment organ.

Glochidia discriminate during the initial stages of attachment, and select a suitable host. Selection is achieved by the glochidia recognizing and responding to certain substances which are associated with the surface of the fish. Although these substances remain unidentified, they are almost certainly not constituents of the intact epidermal mucus. They may, however, be formed by bacterial degradation of the mucus.

Prior to the formation of a cyst, a glochidium maintains its hold by grasping the host tissue between the two shell valves. The valves are held together primarily by the adductor muscle, and the hooks help to grip the host.
The physiology of chronic water deprivation in the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi): relevance to natural populations
Authors: Baudinette R. V.
Published: August 2009

Monthly analysis of plasma and urine was carried out in a natural population of the ground squirrel Spermophilus beecheyi. Ionic and osmotic concentration of the urine varied greatly with season, reflecting changes in water availability, diet, and perhaps adrenal gland activity. Plasma concentrations remained constant over the twelve month period.

In laboratory tests, urine and plasma were analyzed in animals trapped in both summer and winter, and in two laboratory stocks; one maintained on saline solutions the other on minimal water for maintenance of weight.

The comparison between field and laboratory suggested that minimal water and saline treatments of this type were more stressful than field conditions, even in this period of very low rainfall. Minimal water rations in the laboratory produced renal hypertrophy and changes in plasma osmotic concentrations, both conditions not found in summer field populations. Control ad libitum groups suggested a possible seasonal difference in urine sodium levels which should be considered in laboratory water balance testing.

Although the commonly used indications of water economy in rodents may be valid for laboratory comparisons, these results indicate the difficulties in field interpretation.
The behaviour of Philanthus crabroniformis (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)
Authors: Alcock John
Published: August 2009

Observations were made over a two year period on the nesting and hunting behaviour of a population of Philanthus crabroniformis Smith. Data are presented on the time and speed of provisioning, the capture of prey and the species taken, the design and location of nests, the approach to the nest with prey, and aggressive interactions between females. P. gibbosus Fabr., also nested in the same area and took much the same prey. Unlike other sympatric pairs of Philanthus which have been studied, the two species in question were not totally segregated by separate nesting seasons nor by mutually exclusive habitat preferences. One aspect of the behaviour of the two Philanthus which was highly distinctive was the manner in which prey‐laden females approached their nests. Selection for divergence in approach patterns may have been exerted by miltogrammine flies, a major parasite of many digger wasps.
Observations on the ultrastructure of a cephalic sense organ of the nematode Mermis nigrescens
Authors: Lee D. L.
Published: August 2009

This cephalic sense organ of Mermis nigrescens is unusual in that it is innervated by a dendrite which ends in two dendritic processes. These dendritic processes contain numerous neurotubules. There is a basal plate at the base of the dendritic process, and this is associated with a well‐developed system of striated fibres which extend into the cytoplasm of the dendrite.
Annual cycles in Jamaican forest birds
Authors: Diamond A. W.
Published: August 2009

The annual cycles of forest birds in Jamaica were found to be very similar to those at higher latitudes. Most species bred between March and September, though a few possibly breed throughout the year, especially in cultivated areas. Primary moult followed immediately after breeding, and in some species was apparently arrested to allow a further breeding attempt. Several species were fatter outside the breeding season than during it, and this is interpreted as “winter fattening” comparable to that found in many birds at higher latitudes. Weights varied little but individuals retrapped were usually heavier outside the breeding season. In some species the first complete moult took place at the end of the first year, implying that the birds do not breed until at least two years old.
Ventilatory movements of the abdomen and branchial apparatus in dragonfly larvae (Odonata: Anisoptera)
Authors: Plckard R. S. , Mill P. J.
Published: August 2009

Use of cine‐photography in the analysis of ventilatory movements has necessitated a reappraisal of the ventilatory patterns previously described in dragonfly larvae. Movements of the abdominal exoskeleton, monitored by cine‐photography, phototransistor and strain gauge, are discussed in relation to known muscular activity. Internal movements of the branchial apparatus, which consists of two chambers and three valves, are also illustrated in the intact animal. The mechanism of “gulping” ventilation (Va) in dragonfly larvae is discussed.
The locomotion of the camel (Camelus dromedarius)
Authors: Dagg Anne Innis
Published: August 2009

The feet and gaits of many camels Camelus dromedarius were studied and filmed in Mauritania, Africa. The camel has a digitigrade stance, large feet to support the animal in soft sand, and soles of flexible pads that step readily onto small stones where necessary. The walking stride is long and slow, with the body supported for much of each stride on the two right or two left legs. The pattern of supporting legs was significantly different in slow compared to fast walking camels, and in young compared to adult camels and compared to adults pulling water at the wells. There was no difference in pattern in one individual's walk, when it was either loaded or unloaded. The angles that the leg bones made with each other and with the horizon are depicted for the walk and the pace. The camel is the only animal which paces often and never trots. The pace is an unstable gait only suitable for flat terrain such as that in deserts. It may have evolved from the pace‐like walk which is by far the dominant gait in this animal, which spends most of each day walking from plant to plant browsing or grazing. The pace is not used by all camelids, as one author has claimed. The pace and the gallop were only used by the camels at wells, when the animals were chased from the water by men.