bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Learning, Governance and Economic Policy
Authors: Pemberton Hugh
Published: October 2003

This article examines the relationship between economic policy networks and policy learning during the 1960s, using recently released files to flesh out the operation of both networks and learning. It finds that policy failure in the 1950s brought into being a new policy network which was able to secure a radical shift in the economic policy of the core executive in the early 1960s. However, it then proved impossible to craft, implement and sustain a coherent and enduring set of new policies within the new policy framework due to the ability of competing networks to resist central control. This leads to three conclusions. First, peripheral actors may obtain influence over policy-making in the core executive by means of a policy network. Second, policy learning does not necessarily generate policy change of a similar order because, whilst networks may facilitate learning, competing networks may block the translation of this learning into effective policies. Third, ‘governance’ is not solely a phenomenon of the years since 1979: in the 1960s the British core executive was already operating within a polity characterised by fragmentation, inter-dependency and self-organising policy networks.
Issue Definition and the Opinion-Policy Link: Public Preferences and Health Care Spending in the US and UK
Authors: Soroka Stuart N. , Lim Elvin T.
Published: October 2003

This article explores the extent to which yearly changes in health spending reflect yearly changes in public preferences. Time series modelling suggests that health care spending is remarkably more responsive to yearly changes in public opinion in the US than in the UK. A content analysis of party manifestos suggests the significant role of ‘issue definition’ in accounting for this difference. Health care issues in the US have more often been viewed as problems of expenditure, while UK policy-makers have tended to focus on efficiency. Results suggest that the responsiveness of health care expenditures to public preferences in the US and UK is linked to the way in which health care issues are differently defined by policy-makers.
British Political Science in the Inter-War Years: The Emergence of the Founding Fathers
Authors: Kavanagh Dennis
Published: October 2003

In the inter-war years a number of scholars studied and wrote about British politics in a way that marks them out as founding fathers of the discipline. The writers were academics, confined to a few universities, and did not regard themselves as political scientists. The article analyses two outlooks—collectivism and pluralism—which emerged to challenge the Westminster model. Many present features of a ‘British approach’ are evident in the work and the long-term impact on the discipline is assessed.
Team member experiences in new product development: views from the trenches
Authors: Barczak Gloria , Wilemon David
Published: October 2003

Although cross‐functional teams are often used for new product development (NPD), many companies struggle to implement them successfully. Through in‐depth interviews with 71 team members from 18 companies in a variety of technology‐based industries, this study focuses on the experiences of the people who actually do much of the work of NPD (team members) and explores their perceptions and attitudes about cross‐functional team assignments. The purpose of our study is to identify the factors that influence and shape NPD team member experiences. Our results suggest that although NPD work can be rewarding and productive, NPD team members are often neglected by other team members, project leaders, and senior management. This sense of neglect has important implications for all of these constituencies, but particularly for senior management.
Introduction: Open Markets versus Welfare Citizenship: Conflicting Approaches to Policy Convergence in Europe
Authors: Taylor‐Gooby Peter
Published: October 2003

Few would have predicted the rapid progress of the EU in developing common economic institutions 20 or 30 years ago, although many commentators might have foreseen the relatively slow development of convergent social policies. This paper sets the European debate in the context of the path‐breaking work of Polanyi and Schumpeter at the end of the Second World War. It argues that the economic institutions of the EU are at least as important as the social policy institutions in understanding current developments, and suggests that a commitment to a broadly liberal market agenda at the economic level constrains and moulds social policies.
Pressures on State Welfare in Post‐industrial Societies: Is More or Less Better?
Authors: Jæger Mads Meier , Kvist Jon
Published: October 2003

Although contemporary comparative welfare state research has advanced our knowledge of how welfare states respond to exogenous and endogenous pressures, the nature and implications of these pressures themselves on post‐industrial societies remains somewhat unknown. In the research literature phenomena such as globalization, Europeanization, demographics, individualization and changing labour markets are often claimed to put considerable pressure on welfare states. We analyse which of the alleged pressures are real “crises” or “challenges” to welfare states and which pressures should only be considered as “controversies”—phenomena whose impacts are nonsignificant, ambiguous, or have not been asserted. We suggest that pressures on post‐industrial societies may not, as is commonly believed, be countered with retrenchment and restructuring of welfare states. In fact, some pressures seem to call for more rather than less welfare state.
When Is a Change Big Enough to Be a System Shift? Small System‐shifting Changes in German and Finnish Pension Policies
Authors: Hinrichs Karl , Kangas Olli
Published: October 2003

In the wake of Esping‐Andersen's and Pierson's landmark publications, comparative welfare state research has revolved around the retrenchment of social policy and the transformation of welfare state regimes. One of the chief problems of these studies is the treatment of time. Very often, changes are incremental and their real impacts are not immediately visible but take years or even decades before the consequences fully materialize. The purpose of this paper is to discuss those incremental processes—that consist of series of smaller “not‐system‐shifting changes”—which may gradually change central features of a welfare state. Pension programmes, spanning long time periods, provide a good example. Only in some rare cases were pension schemes reformed in one step and in such a way that one can definitely ascertain a system shift. Most changes, however, are gradual, and recurrently enacted minor adjustments seem to leave the basic principles of the scheme intact. In this paper pension reform policies in Germany and Finland will be used to answer the question of when a change is big enough to be labelled as a system shift. It is argued that small “not‐system‐shifting” changes of the last two decades will eventually alter the basic characteristics of old‐age security in both countries.
Organizational Restructuring in European Health Systems: The Role of Primary Care
Authors: Rico Ana , Saltman Richard B. , Boerma Wienke G. W.
Published: October 2003

The main goal of this paper is to review the strategies developed across European health care systems during the 1990s to improve coordination among health care providers. A second goal is to provide some analytical insights in two fields. On the one hand, we attempt to clarify the relationships between pro‐coordination strategies and organizational change in health care. Our main conclusion is that the specific features of health care impede the operation of either market or hierarchical coordination mechanisms. These can, however, be selectively successful if applied as levers to promote the role and impact of the pro‐cooperative coordination strategies which are ultimately required to foster adequate inter‐professional and inter‐organizational coordination. On the other hand, we try to cast some light on the ongoing debate on convergence versus path dependency within the broader field of welfare state reform. Evidence on pro‐coordination reforms in health care apparently supports some insights from previous work on the centrality of the socio‐political structure to account for varying patterns of selective path dependency across countries. In particular, the informal power resources of specialist physicians vis‐à‐vis primary care professionals and the state are critical to explain the different rhythm and fate of pro‐coordination reforms across Europe. Against received wisdom, the evidence examined suggests that selective path dependency might apparently be compatible with a general trend towards convergence understood as hybridization.
The Uncertain Convergence of Disability Policies in Western Europe
Authors: Hvinden Björn
Published: October 2003

In the last decades disability has emerged as a key area for European social policy. So far there have been few indications of a general trend towards greater similarity in the disability policies of member states. This paper argues that attempts to promote common approaches and patterns of effort between member states are more likely to succeed in “vacant” sub‐areas of disability policy than in more “crowded” ones. Existing redistributive provisions within income maintenance, employment and independent living are examples of crowded sub‐areas. By contrast, the emerging anti‐discrimination legislation and other forms of market regulation recently introduced by the EU may point towards more vacant policy areas within member states.
Mending Nets in the South: Anti‐poverty Policies in Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain
Authors: Matsaganis Manos , Ferrera Maurizio , Capucha Luís , Moreno Luis
Published: October 2003

The marginal role of social assistance and the absence of minimum income programmes have long been thought to constitute defining characteristics of the southern European model of welfare. Nevertheless, over the 1990s significant innovations in this field have taken place. The paper aims to contribute to the analysis of recent developments by critically examining the experience of anti‐poverty policies in Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain. It is argued that the “patchiness” of safety nets in southern Europe is due to a unique set of constraints, the most relevant of which are the role of families and the “softness” of state institutions. A review of national profiles reveals that new policies introduced in all four countries mark progress towards redressing some of the historical imbalances of that welfare model. In particular, fully fledged minimum income schemes now operate in Portugal and in certain Spanish regions, while an experiment involving a number of Italian municipalities is still in progress. In spite of this, the paper concludes that social safety nets in southern Europe remain frail in terms of institutional design as well as political support and legitimacy.
Three Corrected Score Tests for Generalized Linear Models with Dispersion Covariates
Authors: Cordeiro Gauss M. , Botter Denise A. , Barroso Lúcia P. , Ferrari Silvia L. P.
Published: October 2003

We develop three corrected score tests for generalized linear models with dispersion covariates, thus generalizing the results ofCordeiro,FerrariandPaula(1993)andCribari‐NetoandFerrari(1995). We present, in matrix notation, general formulae for the coefficients which define the corrected statistics. The formulae only require simple operations on matrices and can be used to obtain analytically closed‐form corrections for score test statistics in a variety of special generalized linear models with dispersion covariates. They also have advantages for numerical purposes since our formulae are readily computable using a language supporting numerical linear algebra. Two examples, namely, iid sampling without covariates on the mean or dispersion parameter oand one‐way classification models, are given. We also present some simulations where the three corrected tests perform better than the usual score test, the likelihood ratio test and its Bartlett corrected version. Finally, we present a numerical example for a data set discussed bySimonoffandTsai(1994).
Discrete Spacings
Authors: Klaassen Chris A.J. , Theo Runnenburg J.
Published: October 2003

Consider a string of n positions, i.e. a discrete string of length n. Units of length k are placed at random on this string in such a way that they do not overlap, and as often as possible, i.e. until all spacings between neighboring units have length less than k. When centered and scaled by n−1/2 the resulting numbers of spacings of length 1, 2,…, k−1 have simultaneously a limiting normal distribution as n→∞. This is proved by the classical method of moments.
Working parents with young children: cross‐national comparisons of policies and programmes in three countries
Authors: Allen Susan F.
Published: October 2003

Multiple global trends are putting pressure on governments to develop policies and programmes that meet the needs of families with children aged 0–3. This cross‐national analysis focuses on policies and programmes of parental leave and childcare in the United States, Sweden and Japan. Cross‐national studies of early childhood education and care are reviewed. National profiles are provided of demographic, economic, political and socio‐cultural characteristics and of parental leave and childcare policies and programmes. Policies and programmes are compared in relation to equity of coverage and support of basic parental childrearing and child‐protection responsibilities. Issues raised highlight the need for unified programmes and policies, and continuing global dialogue regarding the needs of this population.
Immigrant households and hardships after welfare reform: a case study of the Miami‐Dade Haitian community
Authors: Kretsedemas Philip
Published: October 2003

Compared with other nations such as Canada and Australia, the US experiment with welfare reform has yielded steeper and more immediate caseload declines. These declines have been especially pronounced for immigrants who have been subject to a new set of service restrictions implemented under the 1996 Welfare Reform Act. This article examines service access for Haitian immigrants in Miami, Florida since the onset of these reforms. The data presented here are derived from a series of qualitative interviews with Haitian service professionals and a quantitative survey of Haitian immigrant households. The survey data indicate that many Haitians who are living in poverty and qualified to access services are not enrolled for government services. Confusion over eligibility guidelines explains some of the variation of these low enrolments for specific services (such as child health insurance and childcare) but not for services most commonly used by immigrant adults such as food stamps and Medicaid. The survey also demonstrates that qualified immigrants living in households with unqualified persons are less likely to access services than are other qualified immigrants and are more likely to experience hardships that impede their ability to find stable employment. The concluding discussion highlights the significance of using a household unit of measure in assessing immigrant enrolments and hardships.
Study on a resource allocation formula for social services in Finland
Authors: Valtonen Hannu , Laine Juha
Published: October 2003

This article considers how a specific need‐based resource allocation formula for children's day care, income support, child welfare and other social services was developed. The formula is needed for the municipal allocation of state subsidies for social services, and the work was performed for the Ministry of Social Welfare and Health. Cross‐sectional data were collected from the 436 Finnish municipalities and 37 small areas within the six largest cities. Because of the simultaneous relationship between supply and demand of services, two‐stage least‐square estimation and structural equations models were used in the analysis. After the effect of supply was removed from the service utilisation data, group‐need factors (municipal variables) were found for these services. The new formula is financially and administratively feasible, transparent and reasonably simple.
A rough set theory based method for anomaly intrusion detection in computer network systems
Authors: Cai Zhongmin , Guan Xiaohong , Shao Ping , Peng Qingke , Sun Guoji
Published: October 2003

Abstract: Intrusion detection is important in the defense‐in‐depth network security framework. This paper presents an effective method for anomaly intrusion detection with low overhead and high efficiency. The method is based on rough set theory to extract a set of detection rules with a minimal size as the normal behavior model from the system call sequences generated during the normal execution of a process. It is capable of detecting the abnormal operating status of a process and thus reporting a possible intrusion. Compared with other methods, the method requires a smaller size of training data set and less effort to collect training data and is more suitable for real‐time detection. Empirical results show that the method is promising in terms of detection accuracy, required training data set and efficiency.
Intuitionistic fuzzy rough sets: at the crossroads of imperfect knowledge
Authors: Cornelis Chris , De Cock Martine , Kerre Etienne E.
Published: October 2003

Abstract: Just like rough set theory, fuzzy set theory addresses the topic of dealing with imperfect knowledge. Recent investigations have shown how both theories can be combined into a more flexible, more expressive framework for modelling and processing incomplete information in information systems. At the same time, intuitionistic fuzzy sets have been proposed as an attractive extension of fuzzy sets, enriching the latter with extra features to represent uncertainty (on top of vagueness). Unfortunately, the various tentative definitions of the concept of an ‘intuitionistic fuzzy rough set’ that were raised in their wake are a far cry from the original objectives of rough set theory. We intend to fill an obvious gap by introducing a new definition of intuitionistic fuzzy rough sets, as the most natural generalization of Pawlak's original concept of rough sets.
Rough sets and maintenance in a production line
Authors: Gento Angel M. , Redondo Alfonso
Published: October 2003

Abstract: The great volume of information used/obtained in industry nowadays produces the need for systems that are helpful in decision‐making. An area of special interest, because of its influence on productive capacity, is maintenance, where the great quantity of influential variations and available facts (including real time) make the analysis almost impossible. Using the concept of rough sets, we present a comprehensive (but real) application where the information system is reduced so as to get a minimum subset of attributes without loss of quality; a set of nine decision rules is obtained.
Probabilistic approaches to rough sets
Authors: Yao Y. Y.
Published: October 2003

Abstract: Probabilistic approaches to rough sets in granulation, approximation and rule induction are reviewed. The Shannon entropy function is used to quantitatively characterize partitions of a universe. Both algebraic and probabilistic rough set approximations are studied. The probabilistic approximations are defined in a decision‐theoretic framework. The problem of rule induction, a major application of rough set theory, is studied in probabilistic and information‐theoretic terms. Two types of rules are analyzed: the local, low order rules, and the global, high order rules.
Acquisition of hierarchy‐structured probabilistic decision tables and rules from data
Authors: Ziarko Wojciech
Published: October 2003

Abstract: The paper is concerned with the creation of predictive models from data within the framework of the variable precision rough set model. It is focused on two aspects of the model derivation: computation of uncertain, in general, rules from information contained in probabilistic decision tables and forming hierarchies of decision tables with the objective of reduction or elimination of decision boundaries in the resulting classifiers. A new technique of creation of a linearly structured hierarchy of decision tables is introduced and compared to tree‐structured hierarchy. It is argued that the linearly structured hierarchy has significant advantages over tree‐structured hierarchy.
‘Waking up to the Fact that there are any Unemployed’: Women, Unemployment and the Domestic Solution in Britain, 1918–1939
Authors: Laybourn Keith
Published: October 2003

This article examines unemployment among married women within the context of evolving government policy rather than from a gender or feminist perspective. It establishes how, during the inter‐war years, government policy towards women's unemployment developed in line with the ideas of female‐dominated voluntary bodies and was only of fringe interest to the state. In particular, it stresses that a small number of middle‐class women shaped official attitudes towards unemployed women through their activities in voluntary bodies, particularly the Central Committee on Women's Training and Employment, as well as their own rise in public service. This group operated within an environment that accepted women to be dispensable as a source of labour and where many female activists felt that women on unemployment benefit should train to be domestic servants, despite the fact that many of those women did not normally want domestic work because it was badly paid, of low status and uninsured. During the inter‐war years governments relied heavily upon voluntary bodies to ‘fill the gaps’ in state welfare provision in their fringe areas of interest such as women's unemployment. In this instance, however, the voluntary bodies failed to assess or tackle the problem effectively.
“Economics and Psychology”? The Case of Hyperbolic Discounting*
Authors: Rubinstein Ariel
Published: October 2003

The article questions the methodology of “economics and psychology” in its focus on the case of hyperbolic discounting. Using some experimental results, I argue that the same type of evidence, which rejects the standard constant discount utility functions, can just as easily reject hyperbolic discounting as well. Furthermore, a decision‐making procedure based on similarity relations better explains the observations and is more intuitive. The article concludes that combining “economics and psychology” requires opening the black box of decision makers instead of modifying functional forms.
Jack of All Trades or a Master of One? Specialization, Trade, and Money*
Authors: Camera Gabriele , Reed Robert R. , Waller Christopher J.
Published: October 2003

We consider a model of decentralized exchange where individuals choose the set of goods they produce. Specialization involves producing a smaller set of goods and doing it more proficiently. In doing so, agents reduce production costs, but also reduce the ease of trading their output. We derive the equilibrium degree of specialization and examine how it is affected by underlying fundamentals. Due to the existence of a hold‐up problem, individuals specialize too little relative to the social optimum. Introducing money leads to more specialization relative to barter and increases welfare.
Investment Decisions, Financial Flows, and Self‐Enforcing Contracts*
Authors: Sigouin Christian
Published: October 2003

This article studies the role of risk sharing in dynamic credit relationships that are secured by physical collateral. It is shown that, when borrowers and lenders cannot commit not to terminate relationships (through default in the first case and liquidation in the second), overinvestment is optimal. Overinvestment facilitates risk sharing in this context: It occurs in expectation of periods in which lenders are unwilling to supply all the funds necessary to achieve complete risk sharing. Typically, overinvestment happens when investment decreases; it slows down the pace at which the capital stock is reduced and therefore results in production smoothing.
Growing cohesive communities one favour at a time: social exclusion, active citizenship and time banks
Authors: Seyfang Gill
Published: October 2003

Community currencies have been put forward as a grassroots tool to promote social inclusion through community self‐help and active citizenship. ‘Time banks’ are a new form of community currency in the UK which are receiving government support. Time credits are earned for each hour of voluntary service given, and can be used to purchase services from other members in return. This article discusses new findings from the first national study of time banks to assess their impacts and potential. An evaluative framework is employed which describes social inclusion as comprising effective economic, social and political citizenship rights. Evidence is presented from a national survey of time banks and from an in‐depth case study of Rushey Green Time Bank, situated in a health care setting in a deprived area of south London. Time banks are found to be successful at engaging socially excluded and vulnerable groups of people in community activities — many for the first time — boosting their confidence, social networks, skills and well‐being, as well as opening up possibilities for challenging inequitable social institutions and creating spaces where different values prevail. Their potential as tools for democratic renewal, promoting civic engagement and active citizenship is discussed.

Les ‘unités de valeur’ communautaires sont considérées comme des outils essentiels pour encourager l'inclusion sociale grâce à une entraide communautaire et une citoyenneté active. Les ‘banques de temps’ constituent une nouvelle forme d'unité de valeur communautaire au Royaume‐Uni, avec le soutien du gouvernement. Des crédits de temps, acquis pour chaque heure de bénévolat donnée, peuvent servir à acheter en retour des prestations auprès d'autres membres. L'article examine les résultats de la première étude nationale sur les banques de temps afin d'en estimer l'impact et le potentiel. Un cadre d'évaluation est appliqué, définissant l'inclusion sociale comme un ensemble de droits effectifs, à la fois économiques, sociaux et de citoyenneté politique. Des indications sont fournies par une enquête nationale sur les banques de temps, et par une étude de cas approfondie de la Rushey Green Time Bank portant sur les services médicaux dans une zone défavorisée du sud de Londres. Ces banques réussissent à impliquer dans des activités communautaires des groupes de population — souvent pour la première fois — socialement exclus et vulnérables, renforçant leurs réseaux sociaux, confiance, compétences et bien‐être, tout en leur offrant des possibilités d'affronter des institutions sociales inéquitables et en créant des espaces où prévalent d'autres valeurs. L'article traite aussi du potentiel des banques de temps comme outil de renouveau démocratique, stimulant engagement civique et citoyenneté active.
Interrogating ‘Enterprise Europe’: issues of coordination, governance and spatial development in the European Union's emerging enterprise policy
Authors: Leibovitz Joseph
Published: October 2003

This article provides a critical examination of the still‐emerging European Enterprise Policy. European‐wide Enterprise Policy is a relatively recent addition to the host of initiatives and strategies designed to address issues of economic competitiveness and innovation in the EU. In its current form European Enterprise Policy focuses on the promotion of small and medium enterprises as a panacea for economic growth, innovative capacity, productivity gains and job creation. The first part of the article places European Enterprise Policy within a wider political economy, and draws attention to the notions of competitiveness and enterprise embedded in current policy discourse. The second part of the discussion examines more closely issues of integration, governance and spatial development, arguing that awareness of spatial dynamics is, at the moment, a missing element in this policy framework.

Cet article présente un examen critique de la Politique européenne de l'entreprise, encore balbutiante. La politique de l'entreprise à l'échelle de l'Europe est un ajout relativement récent à la multitude d'initiatives et de stratégies concçues pour résoudre les questions de concurrence économique et d'innovation dans l'UE. Sous sa forme actuelle, la Politique européenne de l'entreprise se consacre à la promotion des petites et moyennes entreprises en tant que panacée procurant croissance économique, capacité novatrice, gains de productivité et création d'emplois. La premieère partie de l'article replace cette initiative au sein d'une économie politique plus large et attire l'attention sur les notions de compétitivité et d'entreprise incluses dans le discours politique actuel. La seconde partie explore les questions d'intégration, de gouvernance et de développement spatial, soulignant que la prise de conscience de la dynamique spatiale est, pour l'instant, absente de ce cadre politique.
Using sex differences in psychopathology to study causal mechanisms: unifying issues and research strategies
Authors: Rutter Michael , Caspi Avshalom , Moffitt Terrie E.
Published: October 2003

Background:Although there is an extensive literature, both speculative and empirical, on postulated differences between males and females in their rates of particular types of disorder, very little is known about the mechanisms that underlie these sex differences. The study of mechanisms is important because it may provide clues on aetiological processes. The review seeks to outline what is known, what are the methodological hazards that must be dealt with, and the research strategies that may be employed.

Methods:We note the need for representative general samples, and for adequate measurement and significance testing if valid conclusions are to be drawn. We put forward three levels of causes that have to be considered: a genetically determined distal basic starting point; the varied consequences of being male or female; and the proximal risk or protective factors that are more directly implicated in the causal mechanisms that predispose to psychopathology. In delineating these, we argue that three key sets of evidential criteria have to be met: a) that the risk factors differ between males and females; b) that they provide for risk or protection within each sex; and c) that when introduced into a causal model, they eliminate or reduce the sex differences in the disorders being studied.

Results:A male excess mainly applies to early onset disorders that involve some kind of neurodevelopmental impairment. A female excess mainly applies to adolescent‐onset emotional disorders. No variables have yet met all the necessary criteria but some good leads are available. The possible research strategies that may be employed are reviewed.

Conclusions:The systematic investigation of sex differences constitutes an invaluable tool for the study of the causal processes concerned with psychopathology.
Delineating mechanisms of change in child and adolescent therapy: methodological issues and research recommendations
Authors: Kazdin Alan E. , Nock Matthew K.
Published: October 2003

Background: Mechanisms of therapeutic change are rarely studied in child and adolescent therapy. Our central thesis is that the study of mechanisms of treatment is an excellent investment for improving clinical practice and patient care. Indeed, extending treatment trials to clinical settings, without complementary research that studies why and how treatment works, could have great limitations.

Method: In this article, we discuss the importance of studying mechanisms, the logical and methodological requirements, and why almost no studies to date provide evidence for why or how treatment works. Standard statistical practices (tests of mediation) and designs (randomized controlled clinical trials) contribute greatly to outcome research but have little to say about mechanisms given the way they are commonly used.

Conclusions: The article ends with recommendations to guide research on mechanisms of therapeutic change.
The role of the Children of Twins design in elucidating causal relations between parent characteristics and child outcomes
Authors: D'Onofrio Brian M. , Turkheimer Eric N. , Eaves Lindon J. , Corey Linda A. , Berg Kare , Solaas Marit H. , Emery Robert E.
Published: October 2003

Background: Determination of causal connections between parental measures and child outcomes using typical samples is limited by the inability to account for all confounds, both environmental and genetic. This paper discusses the strength of the Children of Twins (COT) design to highlight the role of specific environments.

Methods: A new analytical model is presented which helps differentiate and quantify the environmental and genetic processes underlying associations between family‐level risk factors and child adjustment. In order to illustrate the COT design, the relation between smoking during pregnancy and child birth weight (BW) is examined in a sample of female twins and their children from Norway and the United States.

Results: The results illustrate that smoking during pregnancy is influenced by genetic factors. However, the Children of Twins model supports the claim that smoking during pregnancy has a direct environmental influence on BW and that genetic and shared environmental confounds cannot account for the association.

Conclusions: An assessment of the strengths and limitations of the Children of Twins design and a comparison with other research strategies suggest that the design plays a unique role in the study of developmental psychology and psychopathology. Finally, the authors describe how methodological advances and future applications of the design will provide additional insight into the causal processes underlying children's adjustment to environmental stimuli.
Behavioral impulsivity paradigms: a comparison in hospitalized adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders
Authors: Dougherty Donald M. , Bjork James M. , Andrew Harper R. , Marsh Dawn M. , Gerard Moeller F. , Mathias Charles W. , Swann Alan C.
Published: October 2003

Background: Behavioral impulsivity paradigms vary widely and studies using these measures have typically relied on a single measure used in isolation. As a result, comparisons between measures are difficult, with little consensus regarding which method may be most sensitive to individual impulsivity differences of different populations.

Method: A single testing session of each of four different impulsivity tasks was completed by two groups of adolescents aged 13–17: hospitalized inpatients with disruptive behavior disorders (DBD; n=22) and controls (n=22). Tasks included two rapid‐decision (IMT/DMT and GoStop) and two reward‐directed (TC and SKIP) impulsivity paradigms. Behavioral testing took place within 3 days of hospitalization for the adolescents with DBD.

Results: Compared to controls, the DBD group exhibited higher commission error rates, lower inhibited response rates after a stop‐signal, and twice as many reward‐directed responses even after IQ differences between the groups were taken into account. When the four paradigms were compared, effect‐size calculations indicated that the two rapid‐decision paradigms were more sensitive to group differences than the reward‐directed tasks.

Conclusions: Despite the initiation of pharmacotherapy within the first 3 days of hospitalization, in contrast to the control group, the adolescents with DBD performed consistently with what has been operationally defined as impulsivity. Based on these results, these tasks appear to measure similar, but unique components of the impulsivity construct. With further study, laboratory behavioral paradigms may prove to be useful additions to current clinical diagnostic and treatment procedures in a variety of psychiatric populations.
Incidence and associations of parental and child posttraumatic stress symptoms in pediatric patients
Authors: Landolt Markus A. , Vollrath Margarete , Ribi Karin , Gnehm Hanspeter E. , Sennhauser Felix H.
Published: October 2003

Background: Previous studies consistently found remarkable prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) in pediatric patients and their parents. Findings suggest a significant association between child and parent PTSS. The present study examined, in a sample of pediatric patients with different conditions, incidence rates and determinants of PTSS and PTSD in the patients, and their mothers and fathers. Also, associations of maternal, paternal and child PTSS and PTSD were analyzed.

Method: Two hundred and nine children (aged 6.5–14.5 years) were interviewed 5–6 weeks after an accident or a new diagnosis of cancer or diabetes mellitus type 1 by means of the Child PTSD Reaction Index. Their mothers (n = 180) and fathers (n = 175) were assessed with the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale.

Results: Children reported PTSS levels in the mild range. Sixteen percent of the fathers and 23.9% of the mothers met full DSM‐IV diagnostic criteria for current PTSD. Type of trauma impacted differently on parents and children. In children, accident‐related injury was associated with higher PTSS scores. Conversely, in parents, diagnosis of cancer in their child was associated with more symptoms. Functional status of the child was also found to be an important predictor of PTSS in children and parents. PTSS scores of mothers and fathers were significantly correlated with each other. However, child PTSS were not significantly related to PTSS of mothers and fathers. This was true for total scores as well as for DSM‐IV symptom clusters.

Conclusions: There is a need for careful evaluation of PTSS and PTSD in pediatric patients with accidental injuries or sudden onset of severe chronic diseases and in their respective parents. Importantly, children, their mothers, and their fathers should be assessed separately, because a significant association between child and parental PTSS may not exist.
Early experiences and attachment relationships of Greek infants raised in residential group care
Authors: Vorria Panayiota , Papaligoura Zaira , Dunn Judy , Van IJzendoorn Marinus H. , Steele Howard , Kontopoulou Antigoni , Sarafidou Yiasemi
Published: October 2003

Background: The attachment relationships of infants reared in residential group care from birth, and links between attachment quality and psychosocial development and caregiver sensitivity were studied, with 86 infants reared in group care and 41 infants reared in their own two‐parent families who attended day‐care centres.

Methods: Attachment, cognitive development, temperament, and observed social behaviour of the two groups were studied, as was the quality of care by caregivers and mothers.

Results: Sixty‐six per cent of infants reared in residential group care showed disorganised attachment to their caregivers, compared with 25% of control infants; 24% of group care infants were securely attached, compared with 41% of control infants. The two groups differed in cognitive development, in temperament and observed social behaviour. Within the residential group care babies, those that were securely attached were observed to express more frequent positive affect and social behaviour, and to initiate more frequent interaction with their caregivers.

Conclusions: Residential care affected all aspects of the infants’ development and was linked to a high rate of disorganised attachment.
Exploring selective attention in ADHD: visual search through space and time
Authors: Mason Deanna J. , Humphreys Glyn W. , Kent Lindsey S.
Published: October 2003

Background: In order to examine the mechanisms mediating selective attention in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), this study compared the performance of children diagnosed with ADHD to non‐clinical controls on a visual search task in three conditions.

Method: In the single feature condition, the target differed from distractors in terms of shape only, whilst in the conjunction baseline, the target was defined by shape and colour relative to distractors. In the preview condition, the conjunction stimuli were segmented over time, so that one set of distractors appeared first, followed 1000 ms later by the second set with the target.

Results: Although children with ADHD were slower overall than controls, RTs revealed no difference in search mechanisms between groups; for all children, search was more efficient in the single feature and preview conditions than in the conjunction baseline. However, children with ADHD made more errors, especially in the conjunction and preview conditions.

Conclusions: Children with ADHD were not impaired in their mechanisms of visual search relative to controls, but their error patterns implied the adoption of a premature response deadline in the conjunction search condition, and an occasional failure to inhibit old items in the preview condition.
Annotation: Paediatric HIV Infection
Authors: Lwin Rebekah , Melvin Diane
Published: October 2003

HIV and AIDS have made a huge global impact, permeating the social, cultural, and economic fabric of almost all nations. The first cases of HIV infection in children were reported in the late 1980s and numbers have since risen steadily throughout the world, with some of the poorest and least developed countries experiencing the highest prevalence. Combined drug regimes have changed the course of HIV‐related illness and brought increased survival to those for whom treatment is available. With this, however, have come fresh concerns relating to drug resistance, treatment adherence, and the risk of second‐generation vertical transmission as HIV‐infected children now survive into adulthood and beyond. The psychological literature has addressed issues such as the direct effect of HIV on child development, social and cultural attitudes, family functioning and support, affected children and orphans of HIV‐infected parents, sexual health education, disclosure of diagnosis, and long‐term clinical management. The outcome for those living in wealthier countries is optimistic, but the spread of this virus in the rest of the world and its impact on family life and social and political systems remains of great concern.
Comparison of Multiple Measures of ADHD Symptomatology: A Multivariate Genetic Analysis
Authors: Nadder Teresa S. , Silberg Judy L. , Rutter Michael , Maes Hermine H. , Eaves Lindon J.
Published: October 2003

The phenotypic and genetic interrelationships underlying ADHD symptomatology assessed by various instruments were examined on a sample of 735 male and 819 female same‐sex twin pairs, aged 8 to 16 years, participating in the first phase of the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development (VTSABD). Multivariate analyses were applied to parental and teacher ratings from an investigator‐based interview, the CAPA, and three questionnaires (the CBCL and the Rutter Parent and Teacher Scales). Results from patterns of intercorrelations and factor analyses of maternal measures suggested that at the phenotypic level, these assessed the same underlying behavioural construct, which differed from other emotional and behavioural constructs. However, genetic analyses showed that in addition to a common factor underlying the expression of ADHD as assessed across the range of measures, additional genetic factors were identified that were method‐ and rater‐specific. The findings suggest that although the investigator‐based interview and the behavioural checklists tap similar aspects of ADHD behaviour, there is additional rater‐specific variance.
Perceived Maternal Control and Support: Effects on Hostile Biased Social Information Processing and Aggression among Clinic‐referred Children with High Aggression
Authors: Gomez Rapson , Gomez André , DeMello Lesley , Tallent Ron
Published: October 2003

Based on a sample of 89 aggressive clinic‐referred children, aged between 9 and 11 years, a longitudinal study of 1‐year duration was conducted to examine (a) whether the children's perception of control and support of their mothers’ to them predicted their hostile attribution of intent and hostile response selection, and (b) whether these hostile biased social cognitions mediated the relationships between their perceived maternal behaviours and their aggression. Participants completed a questionnaire covering both the perceived maternal control and support. One year later, their hostile attribution of intent and response selection, and aggression, were measured. Results showed that perceived maternal control and perceived maternal support were associated positively and negatively, respectively, with both the social cognition measures. Also, the social cognition measures mediated the relationships of the perceived maternal measures with aggression. The findings are discussed in terms of how children's hostile biased relational schemas and scripts, developed from negative parenting and insecure attachment, favour more hostile social cognitions, and how these in turn mediate children's current hostile biased social behaviours.
Do High‐threat Life Events Really Provoke the Onset of Psychiatric Disorder in Children?
Authors: Sandberg Seija , Rutter Michael , Pickles Andrew , McGuinness David , Angold Adrian
Published: October 2003

Studies on adults have suggested important effects of stressful life events in provoking onset of psychiatric disorder. Only a few comparable studies on children exist, and their results are inconsistent in relation to definite timing effects. Meeting some important methodological challenges overlooked in the past research, this study set out to examine whether the onset of psychiatric disorder in children was more likely to occur shortly after a severe event, as compared with other times. The sample consisted of 99 consecutive, newly referred patients, aged 8–16 years, from a child psychiatry service in London. PACE (Psychosocial Assessment of Childhood Experiences), an investigator‐based, standardized interview was used to assess the timing and impact of life events over the preceding 18 months. CAPA (Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment), a standardized diagnostic assessment, was used to establish the presence, timing, and consequential impairment of child and adolescent psychiatric symptoms. In a within‐subject, over‐time design, conditional logistic regression techniques were employed to examine whether risk of onset was greater in the 9 weeks following a high‐threat life event than at other times. There was a small but statistically significant association between child‐reported events and child‐reported onset; the associations with parent‐reported onset were inconsistent. Parent‐reported events failed to relate to onset by either source. The study offers only quite limited support to the notion of negative life events provoking onset of psychiatric disorder in children and young people. The possible reasons for this are discussed, together with important conceptual and methodological issues to problems of defining onset, and the choice of appropriate designs for data analysis.