bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Revival of the Romantic Means a Revival of Psychology
Authors: Schneider Kirk J.
Published: March 2007

In the past 20 years, American psychology has firmly dissociated itself from its romantic roots. This article elaborates the reasons for this development, the consequences of it, and the rationale for reclaiming those roots. The marginalization of existential-humanistic psychology within mainstream academia, the loss of the influences of the arts and humanities on psychology, and the rich and practical advantages of literary investigations of human experience are detailed. Finally, romanticism is discussed in light of the growing postmodernist movement in psychology. Although the orientations are seen as compatible in certain respects, the limitations of this compatibility also are acknowledged.
The First Half-Century of Australian Wage Policy—Part II
Authors: Hancock K.J.
Published: March 2007

The Commonwealth Court began with little conception of an economic role for itself but the Piddington Commission, the economic stringencies of the 1920s and the Depression of the 1930s forced it to recognise that role. During the 1940s the wages policy of the Court became confused because of the change in membership of the Court, the changed economic climate in which it functioned. Also, until 1950, the Court had not defined for itself the implica tions that wage increases had on a full-employment economy. After 1950 there was a single-minded commitment to avoiding inflation which over-simplified the economic consequences of wages policy and, so uncomfortably did the economic role sit on the shoulders of the Court, that this role was often denied to exist. The conclusion is that the Court developed a capacity for absorbing economic ideas and analysing the condition of the economy but the evaluation of policies for relativities lagged behind the development of policies for relating labour costs to economic conditions: a comprehensive wage policy includes a specific role for wage structure but the Court failed to develop it.
Employee Stock Ownership Plans: Issues and Evidence
Authors: Aitken Michael J. , Wood Robert E.
Published: March 2007

Employee stock ownership schemes have been gaining increased attention in Australia. Recent statements by the opposition federal coalition concerning their industrial relations policy, as well as initiatives by the employee ownership lobby, have contributed to the re-emergence of the idea of employee owned or managed business enterprises as a viable form of organization. However, unlike the situation in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the taxation laws in Australia do not provide any real financial advantages for either sponsoring companies or participating employees. A review of analytical models shows that employee stock ownership plans are hypothesized to affect the motivational states, morale and job effort of participating employees and that these effects are expected to lead to improvements in organizational performance and reductions in absenteeism, turnover and grievances. Available evidence, from a variety of countries, shows only limited support for the hypothesized motivational and organizational performance effects. The implications for the adoption of employee stock ownership plans by Australian organizations are discussed.
Strategic Choices in Industrial Relations Management in Large Organizations
Authors: Deery Stephen , Purcell John
Published: March 2007

The policies and practices of management have become an increasingly important subject of industrial relations research. In both the United States and the United Kingdom there is growing interest in the way in which large organizations, in particular, exercise strategic choice in the management of their industrial relations. This paper uses data drawn from a survey of the 200 largest companies in Australia to examine two areas of strategic choice: first, the role and structure of the personnel and industrial relations function, and second, the approach taken to the management of relations with employees and their representatives. The results of the study indicate that the scope of an organization's business activities and the internal operating procedures that it adopts-particularly as they relate to financial responsibility-are not unimportant in explaining the structures and conduct of industrial relations in large multidivisional companies.
Workplace Harassment: What Is It, and What Should the Law Do About It?
Authors: Spry Max
Published: March 2007

Workplace harassment occurs where a person subjects another in the workplace to degrading behaviour, ranging from verbal abuse or threats to actual physical violence. It is an inappropriate expression of power that adversely affects workers and their productivity, and that requires both legal and non-legal redress. This article first defines workplace harassment. It surveys the legal remedies available to victims of such harassment and explores what measures, both legal and non-legal, might be applied in the workplace to prevent such unacceptable behaviour
The Demand for Military Spending in South Africa
Authors: BATCHELOR PETER , DUNNE PAUL , LAMB GUY
Published: March 2007

Understanding the factors that determine the military burdens in developing economies is an important area of research. Previous research has suggested that to understand the dynamics of the relationship between military burden and economic and strategic factors requires detailed case studies. This article provides an analysis of the South African experience, a particularly valuable case study given the importance of the military sector to the apartheid system, the marked reductions in military spending that have taken place under the new government and the availability of good time-series data. A detailed analysis of the trends in military spending and the changing structure of government spending over the past 40 years is undertaken. A simple model based on a general theory of the demand for military spending provides the basis for an investigation of the relative importance of strategic and other social and economic factors, and is found to perform surprisingly well. The results of the regression analysis suggest that the trends in South Africa's military spending (for the period 1963-97) could be explained as an autoregressive process in military burden conditioned on a number of country-specific strategic factors. Imposition of the mandatory UN arms embargo in 1977 and the change in regime in 1994 had significant negative impacts, while involvement in the Angolan War and the early years of the Republic had positive impacts.
The Limits of Reciprocity: Tolerance Thresholds in Superpower Conflict
Authors: LEBOVIC JAMES H.
Published: March 2007

Researchers have devoted little attention to the important issue of whether states monitoring incoming conflict observe clear accommodative thresholds below which they are unlikely to retaliate and might continue cooperation. Consequently, this study develops the concept of accommodation and studies its impact on the behavior of the USA and Soviet Union. Using COPDAB and WEIS data, this study tests a probit model and employs the derived parameters to calculate accommodative thresholds for the USA and Soviet Union towards their full set of interaction partners in the 1948-78 period and each other in the 1948-91 period. It concludes that both the USA and Soviet Union displayed accommodative tendencies, especially when a prior pattern of cooperation with a target was in place but that the USA was highly prone towards accommodation. The USA accommodated conflictive acts of varying intensity, from a wide range of states, under a variety of conditions, over lengthy time periods. The USA also accommodated conflict from the Soviet Union over long time periods in which the Soviets did not share the US penchant for accommodation. These findings generally support realist arguments that a preponderant position allows states to ignore low-level challenges from adversaries. They also provide some support for those who adopt foreign-policy approaches.
Nonviolence and Communication
Authors: MARTIN BRIAN , VARNEY WENDY
Published: March 2007

Communication is central to the effectiveness of nonviolent action: methods of protest and persuasion are essentially means of communication, while methods of non-cooperation and nonviolent intervention have crucial communicative dimensions. As a mode of political communication, nonviolence can be contrasted with rational dialogue, electoral politics and violence, and stands out from them in combining high transformative potential with dialogue and participation. The more well-studied dimensions of nonviolence as communication are dialogue with opponents, power equalization to prepare for dialogue and mobilization of third parties. To these should be added two further dimensions, collective and individual empowerment. Two cases of nonviolent resistance in the Soviet Union - the 1991 coup and the 1953 prison camp strikes at Norilsk and Vorkuta - are used to illustrate the dimensions of nonviolence as communication in practice. These examples reveal the importance of communication in nonviolent action. They also suggest the difficulty in gaining information on empowerment, especially individual empowerment, which may be one reason why these dimensions have been neglected. The five-dimension framework of nonviolence as communication has the limitation that many actions mix two or more dimensions. Examining the communicative dimensions of nonviolence can alert both activists and researchers to the fact that nonviolent actions do not `speak for themselves'.
Growth with Equity: A Test of Olson's Theory for the Asian Pacific-Rim Countries
Authors: Chan Steve
Published: March 2007

In the past quarter of century, the countries located along the Asian side of the Pacific Basin have achieved impressive economic growth and socioeconomic equity. Conventional economic theory and dependencia perspectives are poorly equipped to account for the simultaneous achievement of these desiderata. In this analysis, Mancur Olson's theory of distributional coalitions is employed, with considerable success, in analyzing this phenomenon. It is hypothesized that countries that have undergone more severe forms of civil war and/or foreign occupation have weaker distributional coalitions, and hence are more likely to be able to achieve rapid economic growth and equitable distribution of income and social welfare. The hypothesized relationships are generally supported by the experience of the Asian Pacific-rim countries.
Trade-offs Between Defence and Education/Health Expenditures in Developing Countries
Authors: Harris Geoffrey , Kelly Mark , Pranowo
Published: March 2007

It is commonly believed that defence expenditures have a particular ability to compete government financial resources away from other activities, especially education and health. This article uses a number of methods to test for the existence and strength of such trade-offs in a large number of LDCs. Cross- sectional analysis of government expenditures found that few countries which were low defence spenders were high spenders on education/health (and vice versa). Defence expenditures were no less vulnerable to overall budget cuts, nor more likely to gain from budget increases than education and health. Finally, a longitudinal regression analysis for twelve Asian countries revealed little evidence of trade-offs We discuss some of the reasons why our analysis may not support the conventional view on trade-offs and, finally, make a number of suggestions concerning future research on this topic.
Gender and Public Opinion: Defense and Nuclear Issues in New Zealand
Authors: Lamare James W.
Published: March 2007

This article examines gender-based differences in the New Zealand public's view of defense and nuclear issues. During the last few years defense and nuclear concerns have become important political issues in New Zealand. Indeed, in 1984 the New Zealand government banned nuclear capable warships, almost all of which are American, from the country's ports. Public opinion about these matters is divided along gender lines. As has been discovered in other research, New Zealand women are more likely than men to either not respond to survey questions about foreign policy issues or, if they do answer, to express a pacific viewpoint on these issues. Age also affects nuclear and defense opinion. Age combined with gender has a dramatic impact of opinion differentiation: young New Zealand women are substantially more pacific than their older male compatriots. A linkage between these attitudes and behavioral preferences is also discussed. Through path analysis it is shown that gender does affect voting intention. The effect, however is indirect. It is mediated through a series of interrelated attitudinal clusters. Women are more anxious about the prospects and destructiveness of war. This perspective may well be a product of gender-related socialization experiences. This general anxiety shapes attitudes about the New Zealand government's ban on nuclear ships. Views toward the ban influence feelings about the relationship between New Zealand and the US which became strained after the controversy precipitated by the ban. These feelings of strained friendship, in turn, influence voting preference. Hence gender-based opinion differences appear to affect behavioral intentions, at least in New Zealand.
A Unified Analysis of International Conflict and Cooperation
Authors: Platter Adele G. , Mayer Thomas F.
Published: March 2007

As part of a continuing effort to identify the structural components of international relations, a log-linear model simultaneously analyzing patterns of conflict and cooperation between nations is justified and developed. The model is applied to events data on dyadic relations between nineteen nations over the period between 1948 and 1978. Among the more important results derived from the analysis are the following: (1) When certain confounding factors are eliminated, international conflict and cooperation are inversely related both with respect to the initiation and the reception of interaction between nations. (2) Great powers dominate both the general initiation and the general reception tendencies for international interaction, but they do not dominate any other structural tendencies derived from the unified model. (3) A strong positive relationship exists between tendencies to initiate and to receive international conflict. The correlation between cooperative initiation and reception tendencies is much weaker. (4) Conflict interactions have a higher tendency to be reciprocated than do cooperative interactions, which could reflect the operation of a reciprocity norm. (5) Tendencies towards inconsistent behavior are commonplace in international relations. Great powers seem inclined to act with greater consistency than lesser powers. (6) Geographic proximity fosters intense interactions between countries, but proximity appears to have a stronger effect on the creation of conflict than of cooperative relations.
Political Liberties and Attribute Changes
Authors: Vincent Jack E.
Published: March 2007

This study attempts to extend to the question of political liberty a cross-time analytical approach already successfully applied to conflict. In the previous study, increases in quality of life were associated with reduced conflict. Here, increases in quality of life are predicted to be associated with extensions of political liberty. The research results in fact support this interpretation.
Interdependence, Cooperation and Conflict: An Empirical Analysis
Authors: de Vries Michiel S.
Published: March 2007

The article presents the results of an empirical analysis of interdependence, cooperation and conflict. The results show a curvilinear relationship between these three variables. Interdependence is measured by four indicators: the politico-military, economic, institutional and diplomatic ties between nation-states. The structure of interdependence relations in the period 1950-60 is analysed by means of multidimensional scaling techniques. The structure of cooperation and conflict is measured accordingly. The conclusions from the analysis are: first, that the four aspects of interdependence are closely related; second, that the structure of interdependence is relatively stable through time; and third, that strong ties of interdependence are not only related to processes of intensive integration, but also to processes of intensive conflict. The results show that interdependence has the effect of intensifying relations among nation-states irrespective of their nature. It intensifies not only processes of cooperation, but also conflictual processes.
Mediating Conflict in Central America
Authors: Wehr Paul , Lederach John Paul
Published: March 2007

The Esquipulas peace process in Central America is examined as process, structure and context. It is found to be an innovative effort in regional conflict resolution. The study focuses on how mediation has been used in conflict management within Nicaragua. Trust- or confianza-based mediation has assumed special importance in the Nicaraguan case. The emphasis on the confianza relationship in Central American societies produces a type of mediator known as the insider-partial, who emerges from within the conflict situation itself. It differs markedly from the outsider-neutral third party common to post-industrial society. Its legitimacy and effectiveness come from the continuing personal connection of the mediator with the conflict parties before, during and after the intervention. The conflict between the Sandinista government and Atlantic Coast Indian leaders is analyzed to illustrate the use of confianza-based mediation and its effectiveness when combined with intervention by outsider-neutrals. The authors recommend a broadening of the concept of mediation to include intervention by insider-partials. Their continuity within and knowledge of the conflict situation effectively complement the outsider-neutrals' objectivity and lack of connection with conflictants. Mediator teams should be carefully selected to include both types, particularly for interventions in the developing world. It is recommended, additionally, that mediators attend more to modifying the mediation context to render it more supportive of their interventions. The authors conclude that Esquipulas represents a rich store of mediation experience for conflict research.
Some Simple Calculations on Democracy and War Involvement
Authors: WEEDE ERICH
Published: March 2007

The empirical evidence on democracy and war involvement indicates two quite robust findings. First, democracies do not differ from other regimes in their degree of war involvement. Second, war is extremely rare between democracies. So, the pacifying impact of democracy is restricted to relations between democracies. This finding is at odds with some of my previous empirical work (Weede, 1983, 1989), where only extended deterrence by superpower alliance and subordination of other states under superpowers have been treated as pacifying conditions. In this article, the previous design and data are used again, but a `peace among democracies' proposition replaces the earlier `peace by subordination (under some superpower)' proposition. By and large, this substitution can better explain why some dyads go to war, but most dyads generally do not. Although there has been no war between democracies in the 1962-80 period analyzed here, it is not easily possible to establish the significance of this relationship. Moving from wars to more frequent militarized interstate disputes demonstrates that even these lower intensity conflicts are much less frequent between democracies than elsewhere.
`Pouring New Wine into Fresh Wineskins': Defense Spending and Economic Growth in LDCs with Application to South Korea
Authors: Park Kun Y.
Published: March 2007

A model of defense spending and economic growth, alternative to the existing ones that have been derived from neoclassical economic theories, is proposed. The new model, which attends to the distinctive conditions and structures of LDCs' political economy, is constructed by integrating key politico-economic variables tapping domestic, international, and system-level dimensions of the relationship. The model is then applied to South Korea. The findings made in this study indicate a non-significant relationship between defense spending and economic growth. It is suggested, however, that the non-significant relationship may be an indication that industrial slack has been modest in South Korea. The growth effect of defense spending may be positive when there is significant slack in the economy, or conversely, it may be negative when there is no slack in the economy. It is further suggested that the effect may manifest itself differently in different conditions of the economy even within the same economy. It may even turn non-significant when the economy is in transition from sluggish to dynamic. Thus, if the level of industrial slack determines the nature of the relationship between defense spending and economic growth, this research bridges a gap between contrasting bodies of theoretical literature on the subject. The extremes of the views may be reconcilable under a new framework that stresses the contingent nature of the relationship. Theoretical and policy implications are also discussed.
Neorealism and Kant: No Pacific Union
Authors: ROY DENNY
Published: March 2007

Georg Sørensen's (1992) article on the tendency of democracies to avoid wars with each other reaffirms Kant's notion of a `pacific union' of liberal states and argues that mainstream neorealism can accommodate such a phenomenon Despite Sørensen's reinterpretation, however, the Kantian argument remains dubious, and the inside-out approach to explaining peace among democracies runs counter to a fundamental neorealist premise.
The United Nations' Reactions to Foreign Military Interventions
Authors: Amer Ramses
Published: March 2007

This study investigates how the United Nations (UN) has reacted to foreign military interventions. The term foreign military intervention is defined and criteria for the selection of cases are formulated, resulting in the selection of seven foreign military interventions: Vietnam in Kampuchea, Tanzania in Uganda, France in the Central African Empire (CAE), the USSR in Afghanistan, the USA and several Caribbean states in Grenada, the USA in Panama, and Iraq in Kuwait. The relevant provisions of the Charter of the UN are presented and interpretations of Article 2(4) and Article 51 are made for the purpose of this study. This is followed by an examination of the UN reactions to the seven cases through the Security Council's and the General Assembly's responses to the interventions. The reactions are categorized as active (Kuwait), extensive (Kampuchea and Afghanistan), single (Grenada and Panama), and no reaction (Uganda and the CAE). The next step of the analysis is the formulation of a Hypothesis. This is done from a legal and normative approach to explaining the UN reactions. The Hypothesis is operationalized and tested through the formulation of two specifications. The result of this testing is that the Hypothesis has been found untenable. This indicates that the Charter is not the sole factor guiding and generating the UN reactions to foreign military interventions. The study also shows that there is a basis for arguing that the UN reactions to the seven cases were not consistent.
Global Trends, State-Specific Factors and Regime Transitions, 1825-1993
Authors: Ray James Lee
Published: March 2007

If democratic states are significantly less conflict prone in their relationships with each other than are pairs of states involving at least one autocratic regime, then global trends in regime transitions have important implications for international politics. Analysts of international politics, then, might fruitfully pay increased attention to such global trends. Predominant approaches to regime transitions emphasize differences between regime changes, and the impact of internal factors specific to the states in which they take place. An alternative approach focuses on similarities in transitions, connections between them, and their possibly common origins in the global environment. The relative strengths of state-specific factors and systemic environmental forces can be inferred from a comprehensive empirical analysis of regime transitions at the global level. Such an analysis of the average level of democracy in all the states in the international system over the last 170 years suggests that the balance of system level forces has had an important impact on global trends in regime transitions. However, a partitioning of variance in data on regime transitions in each of the states of the international system from 1825 to 1993 also reveals that simultaneous similar changes in the levels of democracy have been much less common than dissimilar changes toward or away from democracy.
Beyond Environmental Scarcity: Causal Pathways to Conflict
Authors: Hauge Wenche , Ellingsen Tanja
Published: March 2007

A great deal of recent writing has indicated that growing scarcities of renewable resources can contribute to conflict. Most of this research, however, suffers from two major methodological weaknesses: lack of variation in the independent and dependent variables, and the absence of control for other conflict-generating factors. As one of the first large- N studies of the relationship between environmental degradation and domestic armed conflict, this article takes on these challenges. On the basis of a multivariate analysis for all countries in the period 1980-92 we test and confirm the hypotheses (as indicated from various case-studies) that factors like deforestation, land degradation, and scarce supply of freshwater, alone and in combination with high population density, increase the risk of domestic armed conflict, especially low-level conflict. This holds true also when we control for economic and political factors, such as level of economic development and type of political regime. The latter variables, however, prove more decisive than environmental scarcity in predicting the incidence of domestic armed conflict. The severity of such conflicts is better accounted for by military expenditure than by environmental degradation, poverty or non-democratic rule.
The Legal Status of Laser Weapons That Blind
Authors: Morton Jeffrey S.
Published: March 2007

In response to growing concerns over the production, deployment, and use of laser weapons that cause blinding, the international community in 1995 convened an international conference to restrict the use and transfer of blinding laser weapons. The result was the Fourth Additional Protocol to the 1980 United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. In doing so, a significant step was taken towards restricting the intentional blinding of combatants in time of war. This article provides a review of the process by which the Fourth Additional Protocol was drafted and an analysis of its legal impact on the use of laser weapon systems.
Delinquency Proneness of Urban and Rural Youth
Authors: Feldhusen John F. , Thurston John R. , Ager Elvira
Published: March 2007

A total of 384 third, sixth, and ninth grade children, divided equally by displayed classroom behavior as socially approved or disapproved, by sex, and by home location as urban or rural, were studied. They were nominated by classroom teachers and interviewed and tested by trained social workers. Questionnaires were administered to the mother, father, and child, and several psychological tests were administered to the child. The inter viewers rated each child on the five Glueck factors for predicting juvenile delinquency and on four additional family background factors. Data were also gathered concerning the occupational and educational levels of the parents.

The children whose classroom behavior was socially disap proved were rated more frequently in the delinquency-prone category on each of the five Glueck factors and on the four ad ditional family background ratings than the children whose classroom behavior was approved. The rural children were also rated more often in the delinquency-prone category than urban children on eight of the nine delinquency factors.

A composite delinquency-proneness score for the five Glueck factors was also calculated for each child. The disapproved and the rural children were rated as more delinquency prone than the approved and urban on this composite score. Fathers and mothers of disapproved children were more frequently working in lower level occupations than fathers and mothers of approved children. The educational Ievels attained by mothers and fathers of approved and urban children exceeded the levels attained by parents of the disapproved and the rural children.
A System for Computer-Aided Probation Decision-Making
Authors: McEachern Alexander W. , Newman J. Robert
Published: March 2007

This paper describes the application of a modern theory of decision-making and computer technology to the process of juve ni !e probation decision-making. It is based on approximately four years of research, in three phases:

1. A conceptual model of the juvenile probation process in California was developed that specified the major treatment and disposition points for probation officers.

2. A comprehensive follow-up study was made on 2,290 juve niles referred to probation departments in seven California coun ties. Background and personal information and complete proba tion records over a one-year period were gathered for each juvenile to predict what would happen to him as a result of background characteristics and what disposition-placement alternative he would receive. Two prediction criteria were used: (a) recidivism (the number of repeat offenses) and (b) behavior "improvement- deterioration" (the score on a scale that described each juvenile's behavior after the probation process as improved, staying the same, or getting worse). A conditional probability model to pre dict these criteria on the basis of the information variables was developed and tested.

3. Using the information and results of phase 2, an "on-line" computer system. was developed to aid probation officers to make decisions and recommendations about various treatments for individual youngsters. This system allows information relevant to each youth to be combined and presented to the officer on his request. One component of this system is a Bayesian decision model, designed to reduce the uncertainty of the probation decision-maker by allowing him to select whatever disposition- treatment alternative will have the highest probability of success.
Predicting Inmate Populations from Arrest, Court Disposition, and Recidivism Rates
Authors: Stollmack Stephen
Published: March 2007

Mathematical models, incorporating arrest and indictment rates and conviction and incarceration percentages, are developed for pre dicting the number of inmates incarcerated (before and after sen tence) and on parole. The models are derived from deterministic differential equations arising from a basic input-output analysis of the correction subsystem. The deterministic projection equation is shown to be identical with that for the expected value of the number in service for an infinite server queuing system with exponential ser vice times. Results are also given for the case of general service-time distribution (the M/GI/∞ case). A generalized recidivism rate is incorporated as well as specific feedback from parole.

The model applications use data from the criminal justice sys tem in Washington, D.C. Predictions are validated for sentenced inmates in facilities at Lorton, Va., and for presentence detainees at the D.C. Jail. Finally, quantified versions of the models are devel oped for sentenced inmates, parolees, and presentence detainees.
Measuring Perceptions of Organizational Change1
Authors: Miller Stuart J. , Dinitz Simon
Published: March 2007

This study measured the effects of organizational changes taking place over a six-year period on residents' perceptions of a maximum-security juvenile institution. Four of six scales measuring institutional impact were able to discriminate signifi cantly between three different organizational time periods and also between six different years of release of 426 residents. Staff perceptions of the institution's impact on the residents moved in the same direction as those of the residents, but not as strongly. Evidence suggests that the construction of impact scales to measure institutional climate may have a potentially significant input to the understanding of our institutions and their effects on their clients. The efficiency of such impact scales, however, would appear to depend on factors not now considered in their construction.
Evaluating the Reform of Youth Correction in Massachusetts
Authors: Ohlin Lloyd E. , Coates Robert B. , Miller Alden D.
Published: March 2007

The Center for Criminal Justice at the Harvard Law School is in the fifth year of a seven-year project to study the reforms undertaken by the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services to close training schools and substitute a diversified network of community-based correctional ser vices for youth. The following account outlines the research design of the project and presents preliminary findings to date. The Department is still consolidating its new system of public and privately purchased services. However, current indications based on six months of community expo sure following treatment reveal a significant decline in court appear ances and a greater positive response of youth to the new programs.
The Incapacitation of the Dangerous Offender: A Statistical Experiment
Authors: Van Dine Stephan , Dinitz Simon , Conrad John
Published: March 2007

Wilson and van den Haag, in particular, have proposed a crime prevention and control approach based on the principle of incapacita tion. By incapacitation, these writers, and others, mean the mandatory imprisonment of career and repetitively violent offenders for lengthy periods. Such an approach, at the very least, would preclude the commission of street crimes by careerists for specified lengths of time.

Several studies have attempted to validate the incapacitation model. Estimates of reduced crime as a result of incapacitation range from an improbable 80 percent to under 10 percent. These estimates are based on various assumptions and in not even one previous study were data collected specifically to test this model of crime prevention.

This investigation represents a focused empirical attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the incapacitation strategy. The study involved the universe of adult offenders who had been indicted for violent crimes in Franklin County, Ohio in 1973. We tested a series of hypothetical sentencing policies from the most stringent—a five year mandatory sentence on any prior felony conviction, whether violent or not—to far lighter sentences to determine the effects of adult incapacitation-oriented policies on this cohort of violators. The results suggest that the most stringent option would have prevented no more than 4.0 percent of the violent crimes in Franklin County in 1973. The reasons for this minimal impact of the incapacitation strategy are discussed. A short note suggests the impact of extending incapacitation policies to the juvenile system.

1. The cohort consists of all violent felony cases completed in 1973. Not all the cases began in 1973. Half the individuals were first booked in 1973 (50.0 percent), most of the rest in 1972 (45.6 percent) and the remainder in 1971 or before (4.4 percent). For simplicity in the study, the population is called the 1973 cohort and treated as if all cases began in 1973. This determination does not influence the re sults of the study, since the hypothetical in capacitation sentence is imposed on each per son's record individually.
Criminality, the Courts, and the Constabulary in Boston: 1702-1967
Authors: Ferdinand Theodore N.
Published: March 2007

Using data from the docket books of the Boston Police Court, this study shows that Boston's constables in 1824 patrolled sections of the city and aggressively made arrests for such victimless crimes as prostitution, drunkenness, and violations of city ordinances. In contrast with the modern conception of constables as performing primarily law enforcement functions, they must have been heavily involved in pro- active patrol and order maintenance. This study also reveals that the crime patterns of 1824 (again as measured by data from the police court dockets) are distinct in comparison with those of both 1703-32 and 1860-69. The rate of criminal prose cutions in 1824 was 8.3 times that of 1703-32, and offenses against the person were much more common in 1824, that is, 38.7 times the rate in 1703-32. Between 1824 and 1860-69 the patterns of crime changed again. The prosecution rate for offenses against the person declined by more than half, while prosecutions for property of fenses remained approximately constant. It is argued that these changes reflected primarily changes in Boston's social organization from that of a preindustrial seaport of modest size to that of a commercial center of metropolitan proportions.
Stepwise Fitting of Logit Models With Categorical Predictors in the Analysis of Parole Outcomes
Authors: Fuchs Camil , Flanagan John
Published: March 2007

A stepwise procedure for fitting logit models with categorical predictors is present ed. The method provides for detecting nonrelevant predictor variables and collaps ing the table over them. The procedure is applied to data presented by van Alstyne and Gottfredson in a previous issue. We show that the previously reported dis crepancies between the models emerging from their construction and validation samples can be removed by collapsing the table over the nonrelevant variable age. The results emphasize the importance of properly screening the set of possible pre dictor variables and detecting the relevant ones. The method presented here can help the investigator in this task.
The Guard Subculture Myth
Authors: Klofas John , Toch Hans
Published: March 2007

In peer opinion estimates by correctional officers, the officers underestimated the professional orientation and overestimated the cynicism of fellow officers. Disaggregation of these data locates a subgroup of believers in a "CO subculture." These officers tend to be a highly alienated unrepresentative minor ity. The largest officer subtype is that of professionally oriented accurate estimators of nonsubcultural peer opinion.
Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Deviance: The Case of Bhopal
Authors: LYNCH MICHAEL J. , NALLA MAHESH K. , MILLER KEITH W.
Published: March 2007

Incorporating theory from several disciplines and data concerning media coverage of the Bhopal disaster, this article examines perceptions of the Union Carbide incident in Bhopal, India, from a cross-cultural perspective. More specifically, we attempt to employ a content analysis of three Indian periodicals and corresponding accounts in a matched sample of periodicals from the United States to test certain assumptions that impinge upon consensus-conflict issues. Several factors that structure the creation of definitions (i.e., ideological, political, economic, proximity of the event, seriousness, and cost-benefit analysis) are discussed. Findings from this study indicate little cross-cultural consensus concerning the definition of the Bhopal incident in India and the United States. Consensus was found, however, on other levels. U.S. periodicals, for instance, all seemed to portray this incident in a similar manner, while there was some variation among Indian periodicals. Furthermore, there was cross-cultural definitional agreement between American and Indian business periodicals.
Structural Correlates of Juvenile Property Crime: A Cross-National, Time-Series Analysis
Authors: BENNETT RICHARD R. , BASIOTIS P. PETER
Published: March 2007

The advantages of cross-national research have been recently rediscovered by criminologists for the investigation and elucidation of relationships between social structure and crime. The richness of this method is found in its ability to capture structural level variance unattainable through within-nation analysis. The present study employs a fixed effect, pooled, cross-section, time-series analysis with a sample of 29 nations over a 25-year span to evaluate a structural model of juvenile delinquency. The findings indicate that selected correlates of juvenile delinquency such as level of industrialization, educational opportunity, national wealth, and guardianship do not always behave as commonly believed. Many of the correlates exhibit curvilinearity, threshold, or saturation effects around which the sign and strength of their relationship with delinquency change. These findings have important implications for delinquency policy and research.
Specifying the Ses/Delinquency Relationship by Social Characteristics of Contexts
Authors: TITTLE CHARLES R. , MEIER ROBERT F.
Published: March 2007

This study attempted to identify the social context conditions under which individual SES consistently predicts delinquency. The magnitude of the SES/delinquency relationship was examined within six levels of each of six aggregated characteristics — overall SES, heterogeneity, urbanness, population stability, overall delinquency, and racial composition—of 87 schools sampled in the Youth in Transition survey. While some scattered results invite attention, mainly because they are contrary to general expectations about SES and delinquency, the analysis failed to identify any condition under which SES consistently predicts delinquency.
An Analysis of American Indian Homicide: A Test of Social Disorganization and Economic Deprivation at the Reservation County Level
Authors: BACHMAN RONET
Published: March 2007

Although homicide rates among the American Indian population are documented to be double that of the White population, criminologists have devoted little attention to examining the etiology of American Indian homicide. This article presents a multivariate analysis of American Indian homicide at the reservation county level. The model tests indicators of social disorganization and economic deprivation while controlling for other demographic variables. Results indicate that both social disorganization and economic deprivation contribute to high levels of lethal violence in reservation communities.
Why Do They Do it? An Examination of the Intervening Mechanisms between “Social Control” Variables and Delinquency
Authors: AGNEW ROBERT
Published: March 2007

According to social control theory, adolescents low in attachment, commitment, and belief are more likely to engage in delinquency because they are free to satisfy universal human needs in the most expedient manner—which is often delinquency. This account of intervening processes has been challenged by strain and differential association/social learning theory. Among other things, it has been argued that (a) these social control variables also cause delinquency because they lead to strain and association with delinquent peers: and (b) the motivation for delinquency is variable, and these control variables only lead to delinquency among suitably motivated individuals, that is, individuals who are strained or who associate with delinquent peers. Data from the Youth in Transition Survey and the National Youth Survey provide support for these challenges.
Deviating from the Mean: The Declining Significance of Significance
Authors: MALTZ MICHAEL D.
Published: March 2007

Most of the methods we use in criminology to infer relationships are based on mean values of distributions. This essay explores the historical origins of this issue and some counterproductive consequences: relying too heavily on sampling as a means of ensuring “statistical significance”; ignoring the implicit assumptions of regression modeling; and assuming that all data sets reflect a single mode of behavior for the entire population under study. The essay concludes by suggesting that we no longer “make do” with the standard methodologies used to study criminology and criminal justice, and recommends developing categories that more accurately reflect behavior and groupings than the ones we currently use; looking at alternative sources of data, including qualitative data such as narrative accounts; and developing alternative methods to extract and analyze the data from such sources.
Parental Management and Self-Control: An Empirical Test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory
Authors: GIBBS JOHN J. , GIEVER DENNIS , MARTIN JAMIE S.
Published: March 2007

A self-report instrument that included a parental management scale, a self-control scale, and measures of deviance was administered to 289 university students. Models based on Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory were tested by using path analysis. The analysis generally supported Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory, and suggested the usefulness of a measure of self-control that includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects.
Female Gang Involvement
Authors: CURRY G. DAVID
Published: March 2007

A review of the research literature on female gang involvement identifies three central research themes. These are the need for a feminist perspective, changes in the magnitude of the problem, and the degree to which membership can be a form of liberation. A research agenda is proposed that offers examples of how a common set of theoretical issues might guide studies of both male and female gang behavior.
Alternative Placements for Juvenile Offenders: Results from the Evaluation of the Nokomis Challenge Program
Authors: DESCHENES ELIZABETH PIPER , GREENWOOD PETER W.
Published: March 2007

The Nokomis Challenge Program, an innovative correctional program for low- and medium-risk delinquents, was implemented by the Michigan Department of Social Services (DSS) in 1989. The program combines three months of residence and outdoor challenge programming with nine months of intensive community-based aftercare. It was designed as an alternative to residential placements that average 14-16 months. An evaluation of the Nokomis Program conducted using a quasi-experimental study of 192 juvenile offenders showed significant cost savings, compared to traditional residential placement, over a 24-month period, but few differences in outcomes. Youths in both groups made positive gains in social adjustment during residential programs, which disappeared by the end of the follow-up period. Despite community aftercare, Nokomis youths failed more quickly upon release to the community. The results suggest that to derive benefit from short-term alternative placements, the intensive aftercare component must be strengthened to help prevent youth from relapsing.
Transformational Spaces in Teacher Education
Authors: Whang Patricia A. , Waters Gisele A.
Published: March 2007

We are articulating and advocating for the inclusion of educational opportunities that allow future teachers to experience pedagogy linked to the practice of freedom. Creating such a space is important if future teachers are to recognize their professional responsibility to critique and participate in the transformation of educational policies and practices. Hence, the theoretical avenues that converge in Media Action Projects, or MAPs, are traced. Pedagogically, MAPs are disquieting because they foster an investigative stance toward the world, rather than an acquiescent stance that is knee deep in “certainties.” More specifically, media production work is used to address a local problem, as students are required to see, question, and act. If the work of teacher educators is intended to impact the knowledge, skills, and disposition of future teachers, is it not worth considering the transformational spaces afforded by MAPs?
What We Know and Don’t Know from Peer-Reviewed Research about Alternative Teacher Certification Programs
Authors: Zeichner Kenneth M. , Schulte Ann K.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the peer-reviewed literature on alternative teacher certification programs in the United States to see what can be concluded about who participates in these programs, where participants teach, how long participants stay, how participants’ teaching is evaluated, and how well participants are able to promote student learning.