bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Socioeconomic status, eating patterns, and heavy metals exposure in women of childbearing age in Cali, Colombia
Authors: Figueroa Roger , Caicedo Diana , Echeverry Ghisliane , Peña Miguel , Méndez Fabián
Published: June 2017

Introducción. La contaminación del agua y de los alimentos constituye un riesgo creciente para la salud a nivel mundial. Dicho riesgo varía según las concentraciones y las dosis de los contaminantes y el tiempo de exposición, especialmente por los posibles efectos a largo plazo debidos a la exposición crónica a bajas concentraciones de metales pesados como el plomo, el cadmio y el mercurio.Objetivo. Explorar la relación entre la condición socioeconómica, los patrones de alimentación y la exposición a metales pesados en una población de mujeres de Cali.Materiales y métodos. Participaron 233 mujeres en edad fértil, no embarazadas, residentes en el distrito de Aguablanca, Cali, Colombia. Se recolectó información sociodemográfica, así como sobre las condiciones de la vivienda, la exposición a metales pesados, la frecuencia de consumo de alimentos y las mediciones antropométricas. Para determinar las concentraciones de plomo, cadmio y mercurio, se tomaron muestras de lechuga, repollo y peces (tilapia y ‘manteco’). Se hicieron análisis descriptivos y de correspondencias múltiples para establecer los patrones de consumo.Resultados. El pescado se incluía en las tres comidas del día, especialmente en el almuerzo; se encontró cadmio por debajo de los niveles permitidos en tres muestras de ‘manteco’. El 11,1 % de quienes consumían pescado una vez o más por semana lo había comprado en un expendio en el cual las muestras fueron positivas para cadmio. Mediante el análisis de correspondencias múltiples, se determinó la presencia de una relación entre el ser de raza negra y el consumo de ‘manteco’ y tilapia una vez o más por semana.Conclusiones. La población de estudio tuvo acceso a alimentos contaminados con metales pesados. Esto, sumado a las características metabólicas de las mujeres y a sus condiciones socioeconómicas, incrementó su exposición y vulnerabilidad frente a los efectos de la contaminación.
Recombinant expression in E. coli of human FGFR2 with its transmembrane and extracellular domains
Authors: Bajinting Adam , Ng Ho Leung
Published: June 2017

Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) are a family of receptor tyrosine kinases containing three domains: an extracellular receptor domain, a single transmembrane helix, and an intracellular tyrosine kinase domain. FGFRs are activated by fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) as part of complex signal transduction cascades regulating angiogenesis, skeletal formation, cell differentiation, proliferation, cell survival, and cancer. We have developed the first recombinant expression system in E. coli to produce a construct of human FGFR2 containing its transmembrane and extracellular receptor domains. We demonstrate that the expressed construct is functional in binding heparin and dimerizing. Size exclusion chromatography demonstrates that the purified FGFR2 does not form a complex with FGF1 or adopts an inactive dimer conformation. Progress towards the successful recombinant production of intact FGFRs will facilitate further biochemical experiments and structure determination that will provide insight into how extracellular FGF binding activates intracellular kinase activity.
Revolutionary movements
Authors: Sgrenci Adam
Published: June 2017

For some, the age of globalization marks the end of revolutionary struggle. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, capitalism had prevailed. For others, the defeat of totalitarian socialism combined with a more interdependent global society gave rise to a new form of network‐based struggle, one more difficult to understand than its hierarchical predecessor.
Alliterative Revival
Authors: Turville‐Petre Thorlac
Published: June 2017

The term “Alliterative Revival” is a useful shorthand to define poetry of the later fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in which alliteration is a structural feature of the verse. It may be misleading if it is taken to imply that the poets are looking back to earlier manifestations of alliterative verse, or that there was a single “school” of poets imitating one another's work. Defining a body of poetry by its verse form also runs the risk of divorcing it from contemporary literature in other forms, and we shall see that alliterative poets explore the same range of issues and concerns as other writers of the age, and were enjoyed by the same readers as other kinds of writing.
P
roverbs of
H
endyng
Authors: Deskis Susan E.
Published: June 2017

The
Proverbs of Hendyng
is a thirteenth‐century wisdom poem composed in end‐rhymed stanzas, each ending with a proverb followed by the tag “Quod Hending.” In most cases, the stanza explains or elaborates on the proverb. The poem contains wisdom appropriate for both monastic and lay audiences and, based on its tone, seems directed toward adults rather than children. It survives in three manuscript versions from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
G
eoffrey of
V
insauf
Authors: Camargo Martin
Published: June 2017

Best known as the author of an influential textbook written in hexameter verse, the
Poetria nova
(
New Poetics
), Geoffrey of Vinsauf taught Latin grammar and rhetoric in England during the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries.
A
lbion (Origin Myth)
Authors: Moll Richard J.
Published: June 2017

The story of the foundation of Albion developed in the fourteenth century as a prologue to the
Brut
narrative. It survives in two versions. In the Greek version, an unnamed Greek king marries his many daughters to neighboring nobles, but the rebellious women conspire to kill their husbands. The plot is foiled and the sisters are set adrift in a rudderless boat. Arriving on an island they name Albion after the eldest sister, Albina, the women are impregnated by incubi, and give birth to a monstrous race of giants. In the Syrian version the father is a Syrian king named Diodicias and the murder plot is successful. As prologues to the prose
Brut
(in Anglo‐Norman, Middle English, and Latin) and to many other fourteenth‐ and fifteenth‐century chronicles, both versions circulated widely throughout the later Middle Ages.
Three Kings of Cologne, The
Authors: Whitaker Cord J.
Published: June 2017

The Three Kings of Cologne
is a fourteenth‐century English version of the Latin
Historia trium regum
, a fourteenth‐century Latin treatment of the legendary three kings, or magi, who visited the infant Christ in Bethlehem. The legend situates the magian story in the contexts of Old Testament prophecy and late medieval Christianity's global ambitions. The legend explores disparities in global Christian practices and uses the figure of a black magus to assert the extent of Christianity's reach.
The Three Kings of Cologne
is a major source for the still‐common notion that the magi represented the entire world.
William ofPalerne
Authors: Priest Hannah
Published: June 2017

William of Palerneis a Middle English romance, written in alliterative long lines and dating from the mid‐fourteenth century, surviving in a single manuscript dated to between 1335 and 1361. The poem is a translation of an early thirteenth‐century Old French romance,Guillaume de Palerne, and tells the story of William, a dispossessed prince of Sicily who is aided by a benign werewolf. The story of William is framed by the story of the werewolf, who is actually a transformed Spanish prince named Alphouns. The poem has been studied for linguistic and formal features, but is also of interest for its use of romance tropes and motifs and its characterization of the werewolf.
SawlesWarde
Authors: Raskolnikov Masha
Published: June 2017

“Sawles Warde” is an anonymous late twelfth‐/early thirteenth‐century prose allegory about the care of the soul written in England's West Midlands. The self is depicted as a house in need of being guarded from attacks by sin from without as well as from a destructive lack of discipline within. The allegory introduces personified female characters, which differentiates it from its Latin source and has led scholars to argue that the intended audience for the work was a female one.
P
aris,
M
atthew
Authors: Connolly Daniel K.
Published: June 2017

Matthew Paris (c. 1200–59) was a Benedictine monk who wrote and illustrated a number of chronicles and hagiographies, as well as miscellaneous scientific, mystical, and supernatural tracts, all of which were enlivened by his inventive pen‐and‐ink‐wash drawings that gave added significance and presence to the events and ideas he described. His wide‐ranging interests included a rich and supportive use of original documents, a varied production of cartography, newly invented compositions, and an early interest in the development of devotional imagery.
T
revisa,
J
ohn
Authors: Edwards A.S.G.
Published: June 2017

This entry provides an account of the life and work of John Trevisa, the late fourteenth‐century English translator. It describes what is known about his career and the particular importance of his relationship with Thomas, Lord Berkeley. It further provides accounts of his various translations and discusses their distinctive qualities as translations and their respective influences.
SirDegrevant
Authors: Johnston Michael
Published: June 2017

Sir Degrevantis a Middle English romance telling the story of a knight, Degrevant, who defends his property against the incursions of a neighboring Earl. During their series of skirmishes, Degrevant falls in love with and woos Melidor, the Earl's daughter, eventually winning her affection. The Earl finally relents and agrees to be reconciled with Degrevant, and Degrevant and Melidor marry. This romance, since it deals with defending property rights, is unusual among Middle English romances. Yet within this unusual plot the reader finds numerous standard motifs of the romance genre.
Capgrave,John
Authors: Winstead Karen A.
Published: June 2017

John Capgrave (c. 1393–1464), an Augustinian friar from Lynn, Norfolk, is perhaps best known as the author of an elaborate and innovative Middle English life of the virgin martyr Katherine of Alexandria. His other writings in English include lives of Saints Norbert of Xanden, Gilbert of Sempringham, and Augustine of Hippo; a guide to antiquities for pilgrims to Rome; and an “abbreviated” chronicle of history from Creation to 1417. His Latinoeuvreincludes numerous biblical commentaries and a collection of brief biographies of famous people named Henry. Capgrave freely adapted and embellished his sources. From his writings, he emerges as a committed Augustinian and advocate for wider religious education, and he evinces a deep interest in the experiences of women. Most of Capgrave's works survive in manuscripts that he either wrote himself or corrected in his own hand; some are illustrated.
S
erglige
C
on
C
ulainn
Authors: Findon Joanne
Published: June 2017

Serglige Con Culainn
is one of many tales concerned with the heroic career of Cú Chulainn, the great hero who single‐handedly routs the forces of Medb and Ailill in the
Táin Bó Cuailnge
. However, this tale depicts the hero as a less heroic figure. The story concerns his debilitating lovesickness as a result of Otherworld enchantment, his journey to the Otherworld, his affair with the Otherworld woman Fand, and the conflict that this causes with his determined wife Emer. The tale contains some of the most lyrical descriptions of the Otherworld in the medieval Irish tradition, portraying it as a beautiful land of sinless bliss but also as the source of potentially debilitating erotic magic.
S
ir
D
egare
Authors: Moss Rachel E.
Published: June 2017

Sir Degare
is a fourteenth‐century romance written in octosyllabic couplets and is classified as a Breton lay. It is extant in six manuscripts and three early printed editions. The story concerns Degare's quest to find his parents, during the course of which he narrowly avoids committing incest with his mother and killing his father, instead reuniting his parents and finding a lady of his own to marry. Early scholarship was highly critical of
Sir Degare
's aesthetic form; more recent critics have found much of interest in the romance's folkloric elements and oedipal themes.
Colloquies
Authors: Gwara Scott
Published: June 2017

As a genre, “Colloquies” differ from expository or debate dialogues. The term describes conversations meant either to convey abstruse learning or as practice for second‐language fluency. In late antiquity colloquy exercises circulated with glossaries, which were consulted for synonyms. In the Carolingian period these dialogues and glossaries were edited for use in monastic schools, for teaching Latin to non‐native speakers. Transmitted to Cornwall or Wales in the tenth century, this Carolingian resource was quickly adopted and expanded by Ælfric of Eynsham and his student Ælfric Bata.
M
arvels of the
E
ast
Authors: Kim Susan M. , Mittman Asa Simon
Published: June 2017

The
Marvels of the East
, a catalogue of “wondrous” creatures, peoples, and natural phenomena, appears in three versions, all illustrated, from the early Middle Ages: Vitellius A
XV
, Tiberius B V, and Bodley 614. Manuscript contexts suggest connection to scientific materials or to an interest in the monstrous. Source materials date back to Herodotus; related early texts include the
Liber Monstrorum
, encyclopedic traditions including Isidore's
Etymologies
, and the Alexander materials.
Durham
Authors: Grossi Joseph
Published: June 2017

Durhamis a short anonymous poem in Old English written at some time between the mid‐eleventh and early twelfth century to commemorate the saints and scholars of northern Anglo‐Saxon England. Nothing certain is known of its author, but scholars have argued that he was either a Benedictine or secular monk affiliated with Durham Cathedral. A late example of the traditional English alliterative style of versification,Durhamhas been faulted for its alleged stylistic defects but has recently elicited admiration for its structural features and for its complex evocation of Northumbria's spiritual heroes.
Adgar (The
Gracial
)
Authors: Kunstmann Pierre
Published: June 2017

The
Gracial
is a French collection of 49 Miracles of Our Lady, preceded by a Prologue and followed by an Epilogue; it is the first collection of Miracles to have survived. The author, Adgar (or Willame), indicates the source of his translation:
mestre Albri
, whose book (a Latin compilation of the main English series of Miracles) he was able to read in the St. Paul's library in London. Adgar's translation was done in the second half of the twelfth century.
S
ir
E
glamour of
A
rtois
Authors: Perkins Nicholas
Published: June 2017

Sir Eglamour of Artois
is romance mingling an adventurous knight, monstrous opponents, and a love story complicated by separation, confusion, and near‐incest. Its energetic mingling of a number of popular story motifs helped make it amongst the most popular Middle English romances. It survives in some important romance collections, and it can be read at a number of levels as an index of the desires and anxieties of late‐medieval audiences.
Kempe,Margery
Authors: Barr Jessica
Published: June 2017

Margery Kempe (c. 1373–after 1438) was a middle‐class, married laywoman and mother who had numerous visions of God and Christ. Her visionary encounters are documented in the Middle EnglishBook of Margery Kempe, which she dictated in collaboration with a priest. Her spiritual life is characterized by affective mysticism, visions, and public weeping; her unconventional life led to numerous controversial encounters with male clerical authorities. In her life, she was accused of Lollardy and hypocrisy, particularly with regard to her sexuality and desire to live chastely with her husband. TheBookis also notable for its use of hagiographic conventions, although Kempe herself was never canonized.
Titus and Vespasian
Authors: Birenbaum Maija
Published: June 2017

Titus and Vespasian
is a late‐fourteenth‐century Middle English rhyming poem that focuses thematically on the sacrament of penance. The event that forms the basis for the poem, the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70
CE
under the leadership of Titus and Vespasian, was reinterpreted by Christian writers to symbolize the triumph of Christianity over Judaism and, eventually, God's vengeance on the Jews for their rejection and purported murder of Christ. The poem, one of many iterations of the fall‐of‐Jerusalem legend, is a multifaceted narrative of miracle, legend, and history in which anachronistically Christianized Romans act as agents of divine vengeance. In the didactic formula of the poem, the Jews, recalcitrant sinners ungrateful to God, provide a negative model for Christian readers, teaching them the importance of asking Christ for forgiveness. As an example of a late medieval devotional poem produced for a lay audience,
Titus and Vespasian
also demonstrates the significance of Jews and Judaism in post‐Expulsion English literature.
L
oathly
L
ady
Authors: Passmore S. Elizabeth
Published: June 2017

The Loathly Lady is a literary trope of a shapeshifting female who transforms from great beauty to intense ugliness in relation to a character test of the male protagonist. The motif has unclear origins: it possibly dates back to classical mythology and appears in medieval British narratives including Irish kingship tales, English romances and ballads, and one of the tales of the Welsh
Mabinogi
, as well as Continental versions. The most familiar medieval English representation is found in Geoffrey Chaucer's
Wife of Bath's Tale
, part of the
Canterbury Tales
. In most of the Middle English versions, the trope is linked to the question of what women most desire; in the Irish narratives, the transforming sovereignty goddess, personification of the land, determines the best candidate for kingship with her test. The Welsh
Peredur ap Efrawg
is an example of a Fair Unknown narrative.
A
rthour and
M
erlin
Authors: Calkin Siobhain Bly
Published: June 2017

This entry provides a brief overview of the medieval romance
Arthour and Merlin
(also known as
Of Arthour and of Merlin
), which is a Middle English translation of the Old French
Estoire de Merlin
. The entry summarizes the contents of the Middle English romance, lists its key manuscripts, and introduces readers to the main topics of critical discussion.
Squire ofLowDegree, The
Authors: Leitch Megan G.
Published: June 2017

The Squire of Low Degreeis a Middle English popular romance distinctive in its engagement with generic conventions and for the lack of any manuscript exemplar. It has elements of a Fair Unknown narrative, and is saturated with but also subverts romance tropes in ways that have led some scholars to consider it a parody of romance. Others, however, have also read the text as invested in serious concerns relevant to readerships during the Wars of the Roses or early Tudor period when it was likely composed.
L
a
B
elle
D
ame
s
ans
M
ercy
Authors: Boffey Julia
Published: June 2017

La Belle Dame sans Mercy
, a mid‐fifteenth‐century English poem of 856 lines, in rhyme royal and ballade stanzas, presents a debate between a lover and a merciless lady who rebuts his conventionally courtly avowals of love. The French original was the work of Alain Chartier (d. 1430), a clerk and writer attached to the court of Charles
VII
of France, and provoked a literary
querelle
. The English version is framed with a translator's prologue and afterword. It survives in six manuscripts and in one is attributed to Sir Richard Roos (c. 1410–82). The translation demonstrates acquaintance with Chaucer's writing, and was printed by Richard Pynson in 1526 in a Chaucerian anthology called
The Book of Fame
.
Floure and the Leafe, The
Authors: Boffey Julia
Published: June 2017

The Floure and the Leafe
, an anonymous English poem of 756 lines, in rhyme royal stanzas, combines elements of debate and love vision. Its female narrator recounts a springtime outing during which she witnesses the meeting of two courtly companies: the sober and provident followers of the leaf, led by Diana and the Nine Worthies, and the more carefree and thoughtless followers of the flower, led by Flora. She learns that knights who seek honor should follow the company of the leaf, and concludes by asserting her own dedication to it. The poem draws on references to the flower and the leaf in Chaucer's
Prologue to the Legend of Good Women
, and (although it must date from the fifteenth century) its earliest witness survives in the context of the collected edition of Chaucer's works and Chauceriania published by Thomas Speght in 1598.
Horn
Authors: Weiss Judith
Published: June 2017

The story of Horn, an English hero exiled from his native land who ultimately returns to regain his inheritance, having made his mark in other countries and especially on their love‐sick princesses, survives in three substantial versions, one in Anglo‐Norman (the
Romance of Horn
) and two in English (
King Horn
and the unfinished
Horn Childe
). There is also a later English ballad (“Hind Horn”) and a fifteenth‐century Continental reworking of the story,
Ponthus et la belle Sidoyne
, not discussed here. Intrinsic to the earlier versions is the close link between family and land: Horn must avenge his father's death by killing his murderers and securing his patrimony, but marriage will help him regain that patrimony, and indeed extend his territory, as well as continuing his family line.
Hali Meidenhad
Authors: Sauer Michelle M.
Published: June 2017

Also known asHoly MaidenhoodorLetter on Virginity, Hali Meidenhadis an anonymous thirteenth‐century tract on virginity usually considered part of the Katherine Group and often associated withAncrene Wisseand the Wooing Group, and therefore connected to anchoritic studies. It is extant in two manuscripts: London, British Library, MS Titus and Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 34.
B
eowulf

Manuscript
Authors: Kiernan Kevin
Published: June 2017

In addition to preserving our only copy of
Beowulf
, the
Beowulf
manuscript also preserves many signs of revision by three different scribes. Taken together, their revisions appear to show their concerted efforts to bring together two originally separate manuscripts. The first scribe copied a text about Beowulf's youthful exploits against Grendel and Grendel's mother in Denmark. Using a different manuscript format, the second scribe copied a text about the last year of Beowulf's life, at the end of his 50‐year reign as king of the Geats, when he killed a dragon and then died of his own wounds. A third scribe erased the entire text on both sides of the first folio of this section and replaced it with another, shorter text. The simplest reason for a palimpsest here would be to fashion a transition between these two parts of Beowulf's life. This explanation is supported in the two preceding quires, where the first and second scribes both appear to participate in this revision by taking extraordinary steps to fit additional text into their respective quires.
Guy of Warwick
Authors: Djordjević Ivana
Published: June 2017

Guy of Warwick was the most popular fictional hero of medieval England. Though his fame did not spread much beyond the British Isles, in Britain he remained a well‐loved figure throughout the Middle Ages and for several centuries thereafter. Versions of the narrative detailing the exploits of Guy of Warwick have been preserved in more manuscripts than any other medieval popular romance of the period. The most famous episodes featuring Guy circulated orally and provided illustrations for objects of material culture, including manuscript illuminations. The story's pseudo‐historical elements were taken seriously by some chroniclers, who made Guy of Warwick a contemporary and subject of the Anglo‐Saxon king Athelstan, as he is in the romances. The Beauchamp family, earls of Warwick since the late thirteenth century, turned the fictional hero into a revered ancestor, in a successful bid to enhance their own status.
Chester Cycle
Authors: Rice Nicole R.
Published: June 2017

The Chester cycle includes 24 pageants selectively dramatizing biblical episodes from Creation to Doomsday, over half of them taken from Christ's life. Although the nature of the spectacle changed considerably over its period of performance, some form of episodic biblical drama was staged in the northwest English city of Chester from the early fifteenth to the late sixteenth century, making this cycle an extraordinarily long‐lasting public event. The content and form of Chester's cycle were closely intertwined with the city's political, economic, and religious histories.
Exodus
Authors: Remley Paul G.
Published: June 2017

The name
Exodus
denotes an untitled sequence of Old English verse, comprising some 590 lines in the Anglo‐Saxon manuscript Junius 11, where it forms part of a unique Old Testament‐themed compilation. Its kaleidoscopic narrative primarily treats the departure of Moses and the Israelites, but one structural complication involves the sudden appearance of an account of the patriarchs Noah and Abraham, going back to the book of Genesis. This patriarchal narrative effectively embeds rare readings from the so‐called Old Latin version of
Exodus
in a narrative treating the departure of the Israelites that follows Jerome's standard Vulgate text of the book of Exodus. Parallels occur among biblical readings in the Holy Saturday services of the Easter Vigil liturgy, preceding rites of baptism. Even if liturgical sources throw light on the structure and sources of
Exodus
, however, there is no clear justification to conclude that the verse is concerned fundamentally with baptism at a thematic level. The ostentatious style observed in
Exodus
has led some critics to draw comparisons with the flamboyant Latin of the Anglo‐Saxon ecclesiastic Aldhelm, who is described as an author of Old English biblical verse in a later medieval tradition.
Fenian Cycle
Authors: Nagy Joseph Falaky
Published: June 2017

The Fenian Cycle consists of an extensive body of stories having to do with the hero Finn mac Cumaill and his band of men, a warring and hunting organization known as thefían. The cycle is attested in the earliest surviving stratum of Irish vernacular, secular literature and grows in importance and stature throughout the Middle Ages. Finn is both a warrior–hunter (fénnid) and a poet, and the adventures he and his men undertake often bring them into the contact with the non‐Christian otherworld(s) of Irish tradition.
Antisemitism
Authors: Lampert‐Weissig Lisa
Published: June 2017

Jews, who lived as vulnerable minorities in Europe and experienced episodes of persecution and violence throughout the Middle Ages, were nevertheless predominantly represented in medieval Christian culture as the perpetrators of violence against Christ and against innocent Christians. In the case of medieval Britain, these representations endured and even intensified after the Expulsion of Anglo‐Jewry in 1290.
Satire
Authors: Parsons Ben
Published: June 2017

In the past satire has been judged an elusive category in medieval literature, its production seen as haphazard and unregulated. More recently, however, scholarship has come to appreciate that there is a firm theoretical basis underlying satire, as its pivotal place in education led to detailed commentary and definition in scholarly discourse. Although this theory of satire finds its most direct and self‐conscious expression in Latin poetry, its frameworks extend directly into vernacular texts. Two traditions of particular importance are anticlericalism and antifeminism, the first marked by its mutability and volatility, the second by its calculated homogeneity.
C
hwedleu
S
eith
D
oethon
R
ufein

/Tales of the
S
even
S
ages of
R
ome
Authors: Rodway Simon
Published: June 2017

Chwedleu Seith Doethon Rufein
is a Middle Welsh version of a well‐known story, “The Seven Sages of Rome,” which exists in Latin and in a great number of vernacular versions.
C
haucer,
G
eoffrey
Authors: Bowers John M.
Published: June 2017

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1342–1400) established himself as the founding father of the English literary tradition, with a substantial output of poetry and prose, while also pursuing a career in service to the three kings Edward III, Richard II, and Henry IV. His early French‐inspired dream visions included
The Book of the Duchess,
followed in his middle career with works such as
Troilus and Criseyde
inspired by the Italian author Boccaccio. His crowning achievement came during the last decade of his life with the
Canterbury Tales,
assembling a rich cross‐section of English society telling stories that represented most medieval genres. His translation of Boethius and
Treatise on the Astrolabe
represent milestones in the history of English prose.
Crusades Romance
Authors: Calkin Siobhain Bly
Published: June 2017

This entry outlines the challenges involved in defining the crusades romance, communicates a sense of the current scholarly discussion of the subgenre, and indicates what medieval British texts might be considered part of this generic category and what particular crusading concerns, motifs, and images they engage.
Adventus Saxonum
Authors: Michelet Fabienne L.
Published: June 2017

The
adventus Saxonum
refers to the arrival of Germanic settlers to Britain in the fifth century, and to the subsequent transition from late Roman Britain to Anglo‐Saxon England. The main narratives of the
adventus
(found in Gildas, Bede, the
Historia Brittonum
, and the
Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle
) all combine some factual information with fictional elements drawn from origin legends. The
adventus
offered the Anglo‐Saxons a story of origins that helped bolster group identity and a sense of belonging. The memory of the
adventus
remained alive throughout the Anglo‐Saxon period, thanks to the genealogies tracing the descent of Anglo‐Saxon dynastic houses to ancestors who took part in the
adventus
. The
adventus
is a leitmotif in the literary production of the Anglo‐Saxons, and some of its legendary elements invite parallels with
Beowulf
.
BrutTradition
Authors: Kelly Stephen
Published: June 2017

This entry tracks the development of theBruttradition, from its inception in the ninth century text theHistoria Brittonum, via Geoffrey of Monmouth's twelfth‐centuryHistoria regum Britannie, Wace'sRoman de Brutand Laȝamon'sBrut(both twelfth century), to the myriad ProseBruts, in Anglo‐Norman, Latin, and Middle English, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries. It argues that theBrutis best understood both as a distinctive literary tradition and as a well‐spring of mythography from which a range of late medieval, and postmedieval, writers drew. The entry indicates the utility of theBruttradition to emergent notions of English identity and the role the narratives recorded by theBruttradition played in orchestrating English colonial attitudes to its Insular and Continental neighbors. The entry concludes by assessing the importance of theBruttradition for book culture and emergent models of literary taste in the later Middle Ages.
Death
Authors: Kinch Ashby
Published: June 2017

This entry explores some major themes, ideas, and methodologies for studying the literature of death and dying in the Old English, Anglo‐Norman, and Middle English periods. A range of textual types are discussed, including death meditations, saints' lives, ghost narratives, and allegorical representations of death.
Erle of Tolous, The
Authors: Stavsky Jonathan
Published: June 2017

A tail‐rhyme narrative from the late fourteenth century that claims affinity with both the romance and Breton lay traditions,The Erle of Tolousinterlaces the stories of a wronged hero, a courtly lover, and a calumniated heroine. This entry considers the relation ofThe Erleto similar narrative poems, discusses approaches that stress either its underlying structural coherence or its heterogeneity, surveys historicist and textual materialist scholarship onThe Erle, and ends with the prospect of studying it from a diachronic or transnational perspective.
Thomas ofBritain
Authors: Furrow Melissa
Published: June 2017

The name Thomas of Britain suggests this late twelfth‐century poet's affiliation with the Celtic cultures of Great Britain or Brittany; he wrote hisTristranin Anglo‐Norman, and it was influential within England and on the Continent. Thomas and his Tristran ponder dialectically the joyous and destructive aspects of the love that Tristran and Iseut undergo; the romance's conclusion is tragic. Thomas names himself in the fragments that we have left of his poem, and he asserts that he follows Breri in telling the authentic story, unlike other contemporary tale‐tellers who relate improbable episodes.
Battle ofMaldon, The
Authors: Wieland Gernot R.
Published: June 2017

The 325‐line Old English poem which is usually referred to asThe Battle of Maldoncannot be interpreted easily. The date of the poem, the role its author played at the battle, its relationship to other historical events of the time as well as to other accounts of the battle, its characterization of the Danes, its portrayal of the hero and his men, all harbor some ambiguities and prevent easy interpretation. It may be safe to say that the poet meant to set a worthy monument for Byrhtnoth's bravery, which he does by invoking the ideals of thecomitatussociety, and that he intended to portray him as a pious man. Beyond that most questions must remain open.
M
orrígan (also
M
orrígu)
Authors: Williams Mark
Published: June 2017

A brief discussion of the Irish goddess the Morrígan, her mythological antecedents, and roles in the sagas of the Mythological and Ulster Cycles.
S
oul and
B
ody
I

and

II
Authors: VanDonkelaar Ilse Schweitzer
Published: June 2017

“Soul and Body I and II” are Anglo‐Saxon poems preserved in the tenth‐century Vercelli and Exeter manuscripts, respectively, and contain the complaint of a damned soul to its decomposing body; “Soul and Body I” follows this with the address of a blessed soul to its former vessel. They are part of a tradition of medieval debate poetry and homiletic prose in which the soul and body dispute which party bears more responsibility for their shared fate after death. Current scholarship on the poems investigates their focus on corporeality in the context of Anglo‐Saxon religious, scientific, and literary cultures, including the relation of “Soul and Body I and II” to penitential practices, medical knowledge, and ideas of dwelling, imprisonment, and bodily violence.
Amis and
A
miloun
Authors: Clark David
Published: June 2017

The Middle English romance
Amis and Amiloun
is one of the best‐known works in medieval literature, being extant in most of the principal European languages. It centers on the supreme loyalty of the identical friends Amis and Amiloun, a loyalty that takes precedence over all other bonds and duties.
Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers
Authors: Khalaf Omar
Published: June 2017

The
Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers
is a compendium of proverbs and teachings attributed to Greek, biblical, and legendary philosophers and wise men. Its origin is rooted in eleventh‐century Arabic literature and its introduction in Europe was almost immediate. It reached England only in the fifteenth century, but its success is witnessed by four translations made in a time span of 25 years. Stephen Scrope's, an anonymous and Earl Rivers's translations derive from the French version, while George Ashby's comes from the Latin text.

The specific audience to which most of the versions were addressed reveals the use that was made of the
Dicts
. Ashby's and Rivers's translations were meant for the education of two Princes of Wales, whereas Scrope produced his for the edification of his step'father Sir John Fastolf. However, this did not prevent a wider circulation of the text. Rivers's patronage of William Caxton resulted in the issue of three printed versions of his translation, which were later followed by one made by Wynkyn de Worde. The diffusion of the
Dicts
shows the persistence in Britain of a certain taste for sentential literature, which was well rooted in medieval English literature since the Anglo‐Saxon period.
Tristan
Narrative in
B
ritain
Authors: Tiller Kenneth J.
Published: June 2017

The story of Tristan (Tristrem, Tristram) originated in the oral traditions of the Welsh. In the twelfth century, Thomas of Britain's
Roman de Tristan
introduced the romance of Tristan and Isolde's tragic love into Britain. The thirteenth‐century English redaction of the
Roman de Tristan
,
Sir Tristrem
presents the same story in English metre. In the fifteenth century, Sir Thomas Malory's
Sir Tristram of Lyonesse,
the fifth romance of the
Morte Darthur,
follows the French model of the
Prose Tristan
in expanding the romance and integrating it into the Arthurian cycle for the first time. Popular interest in the Tristan story waned during the Renaissance and Enlightenment. In the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, authors Walter Scott, Matthew Arnold, Alfred Lord Tennyson, and Algernon Charles Swinburne showed renewed interest in the story, each offering his own version. A number of modern versions have since appeared.
Symeon ofDurham
Authors: Rozier Charles C.
Published: June 2017

Symeon of Durham is principally known to modern scholars as an author and compiler of narrative histories and chronicles pertaining to the history of northern England in the Anglo‐Saxon and Anglo‐Norman periods. Symeon's best‐known work is his narrative account of the Northumbrian church now usually known as theTract on the Origins and Progress of This, the Church of Durham. In addition to this text, Symeon has also been identified as the compiler of two collections of Durham annals and a short chronicle known as the DurhamHistory of the Kings of the English, as a copyist of charters and administrative documents, and as Durham's monastic cantor from c. 1115 until his death in 1129/30.
Rune Poem
Authors: Birkett Tom
Published: June 2017

The Old EnglishRune Poemis a poetic exposition of letters of the Anglo‐Saxon runic writing system in 29 stanzas of Old English verse, and is an important source for our knowledge of the conventional names of the runes. It shares many features with the Norwegian and Icelandic rune poems, including the characterization of several individual rune names, though the connection between the various traditions is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. The Old EnglishRune Poemhas often been linked to the Old English riddle tradition and to wisdom poetry, and is an excellent example of traditional material which has been reworked with the application of Christian learning.
Heresy
Authors: Callan Maeve B.
Published: June 2017

Heresy in medieval Britain is a tale of bookends, with activity concentrated in the early and later periods. Two forms dominate: Pelagianism in the early period, and Lollardy in the later. The gap between them is significant, especially since heresy, or deviant Christian beliefs which an individual refused to renounce even after authoritative attempts at correction, was a critical concern throughout the Continent from the twelfth century on. The severity of Henry II's response to foreign heretics who attempted to proselytize in mid‐twelfth‐century England likely inhibited imitators, as heresy did not return until the late fourteenth century. When it did, it was thoroughly home‐grown, founded on the teachings of the Oxford theologian John Wyclif. His views spread beyond the university, giving rise to Britain's only native and long‐lasting heretical sect, Lollardy, which continued into the sixteenth‐century Reformation.
Metrical Calendars,
O
ld
E
nglish and
L
atin
Authors: Green William
Published: June 2017

Metrical calendars are poetic works describing the religious significance of days of the year. Written in Latin hexametrical verse, they were associated with other related hagiographic and calendrical textual productions such as martyrologies and computistical works. Several English metrical calendars in Latin dating from the later eighth century to the late Middle Ages have been identified and studied. An Old English adaptation of a Latin metrical calendar, also traditionally known as the “Old English Menologium,” exists in one manuscript of the
Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle
.
ÆthelstanPsalter
Authors: Garcia Marcos
Published: June 2017

An illuminated Psalter that provides evidence for intellectual, religious, and literary activity at the courts of Edward the Elder, Æthelstan, and possibly Alfred the Great. The manuscript originated on the Continent, but was imported to England and supplemented with religious texts, computistica, and poetry. Its numerous prayers give it an important place among Carolingian and Anglo‐Saxon prayerbooks.
Gower:English Poetry
Authors: Irvin Matthew W.
Published: June 2017

John Gower (c. 1330–1408) wrote two poems in English, the massiveConfessio Amantis, and the shortIn Praise of Peace.Confessio Amantisis structured as the confession of a lover, Amans, to Genius, the priest of Venus. Through that confession, it puts amorous poetry (drawn especially from French literature) into dialogue with clerical discourses (drawn mostly from Latinate political and moral literature).In Praise of Peacedraws upon political and moral literature to urge Henry IV to rule peacefully. Most scholarship on Gower's English poetry deals with theConfessio Amantis, and the coherence of its moral, political, and poetic program. Scholarship onIn Praise of Peaceattends to problems of Gower's political ideology and considers it in the context of the beginning of Lancastrian rule in England.
J
ohn of
G
arland
Authors: Hays Gregory
Published: June 2017

John of Garland is among the most prolific of surviving thirteenth‐century Latin poets. Born in England around 1195, he spent most of his career in France, at the universities of Paris and Toulouse. His works include grammatical treatises and related works in both verse and prose, a set of verse allegorizations of Ovid's
Metamorphoses
, an epic on the crusades, and poems in praise of the Virgin Mary. He probably died in or soon after 1252.
Patrick,St.
Authors: Wooding Jonathan M.
Published: June 2017

A brief account of the life and works of St. Patrick.
DomesdayBook
Authors: Kapelle William E.
Published: June 2017

Domesday Book is a survey of England conducted after the Norman Conquest toward the end of the reign of William the Conqueror (1086). It provides more information about the Anglo‐Norman kingdom, its inhabitants, and their economic resources than is available for any other kingdom at this date. Historians have been concerned with discovering how and why Domesday Book was made since Victorian times. Most scholars believe that the data was collected through ad hoc means and that the survey was somehow connected with taxation. The information in Domesday Book has been of vital importance to historians studying English history on diverse subjects ranging from demographic history to the size of feudal lordships.
A
lcuin of
Y
ork
Authors: Carella Kristen
Published: June 2017

Anglo‐Saxon scholar, teacher, and eventually advisor to Charlemagne, Alcuin was also a prolific author, producing important works in a number of genres including poetry, letters, hagiography, religious and political treatises, legal texts, and moral tracts. Alcuin was born in Northumbria during its height as a center of western European learning. He became headmaster at the cathedral school at York (where he had also been a student) but, at Charlemagne's invitation, left England for the Carolingian royal court in 782. There, he became a leading figure, both in the so‐called Carolingian Renaissance and Frankish politics generally. He died at Tours in 804.
Wars of the Roses
Authors: Ward Matthew
Published: June 2017

Traditional literary genres such as romance and allegory remained popular during the period of the Wars of the Roses. Familiar stories such as the Arthurian tales were invested with more resonance during a time of political instability and were revised to include references to contemporary events and concerns. The chronicle tradition, once the preserve of the monasteries, became associated with the London secular elite from the middle of the fifteenth century.
Knighton,Henry
Authors: Kaufman Alexander L.
Published: June 2017

Henry Knighton (d. c. 1396) was an Augustinian canon of St. Mary's abbey of Leicester. His Latin prose chronicle provides valuable information on the Hundred Years' War, the Peasants' Revolt, the reign of RichardII, Lollards, and the Merciless Parliament of 1388.
Walsingham,Thomas
Authors: Kaufman Alexander L.
Published: June 2017

Thomas Walsingham (c. 1340–1422) was a Benedictine monk who was associated with the monastic life and literary environment of St. Albans. A chronicler and historian of fourteenth‐century English events, his writings praised a number of monarchs, such as Henry V, and critical of insurgencies and the rise of Lollardy.
H
igden,
R
anulf
Authors: Kaufman Alexander L.
Published: June 2017

Ranulf Higden (c. 1280–1363/64) was a Benedictine monk who was associated St. Werburgh's abbey, in Chester. There he wrote his highly influential and popular
Polychronicon
, a Latin prose history of the world from its beginnings to 1352. Other works written by him include the
Ars componendi sermones
and the
Speculum curatorum
.
H
endregadredd Manuscript
Authors: Owen Ann Parry
Published: June 2017

The Hendregadredd manuscript (Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, MS 6680B), a fourteenth‐century collection of the Welsh poetry of the
Gogynfeirdd
, was originally compiled by a single editor‐scribe working at the Cistercian monastery of Strata Florida in mid‐Wales. His vision was to create an historical collection of poetry associated with the princes of independent Wales (up to c. 1282/3). Later hands, working at the same scriptorium, continued his master plan by adding more poems in blanks left by him. By the second quarter of the fourteenth century the manuscript was being used as a “house‐book” at the home of the gentleman Ieuan Llwyd in Glyn Aeron, when poems by Dafydd ap Gwilym and other visitors were added.
J
ack
U
pland
Authors: Phillips Noëlle
Published: June 2017

Jack Upland
is a late medieval antifraternal treatise spoken in the voice of a rustic country peasant who condemns friars for their immoral behavior. It inspired literary responses in the form of
Friar Daw's Reply
and
Upland's Rejoinder,
but
Jack Upland
remained the most widely read. This is due in part to its inclusion in early modern printings of Chaucer's works and in part to the fact that of the three texts it is the only one that stands on its own.
Chanson de Geste
Authors: Ailes Marianne , Bailey Jade
Published: June 2017

Thechanson de geste, old French epic narrative poems, was the most significant medium of transmission of thematière de Francebetween the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. Only a few texts became fully appropriated into Middle English popular culture through translation into Middle English romance: the narratives ofFierabras,Otinel,and theChanson de Rolandtraditions, with the same narratives also being translated into Irish (Fierabrasand thePseudo‐Turpin Chronicle) and Welsh (Otinel,Roland, and thePseudo‐Turpin Chronicle). There is, however, evidence that thechansons de geste– particularly the legendary feats and conquests of the emperor Charlemagne – were widely read in French‐language texts by Insular readers. In the Insular as well as the Continental context the genre had strong political engagement.
Nature Poetry,
C
eltic
Authors: Jacobs Nicolas
Published: June 2017

The salient features of Early Irish nature poetry are summarized, and its points of difference from the scantier Welsh material noted. The use of natural description in Welsh religious, elegiac, and saga poetry is outlined, and its function in the development of gnomic poetry described, together with the use made of it by the poets of the princes and by Dafydd ap Gwilym.
U
laid/
U
lster
Authors: Gallagher Niav
Published: June 2017

The Republic of Ireland consists of 26 counties divided between four provinces. The most northerly of these is the province of Ulster, which is made up of nine counties, three of which are in the Republic of Ireland and six of which make up Northern Ireland. The nine counties are Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Derry, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Monaghan, and Tyrone. Ulster is named after the ancient tribe of people known as the Ulaid, who ruled there until the early medieval period.