bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Case Study: Modeling of a Large-Scale Tight-Gas-Gathering System
Authors: Stevenson B. K. , O’Shea C. D.
Published: July 2008

This case study outlines the techniques used to model the Williams Production Rocky Mountain Co. Grand Valley gas-gathering system in the Piceance basin. The results of the modeling exemplify how a nodal-analysis model can become an invaluable tool for optimizing the performance of gas-gathering systems and planning future system expansion.

Field production in the Grand Valley gathering system varies minute by minute, creating a dynamic system that is difficult to model with standard practice. By use of an innovative statistical method to handle the scale and complexity of the system, the model has simulated the true flowing conditions of the system over the last 5 years consistently and accurately. The model has been used to successfully locate and quantify substantial static and frictional pressure losses. As the field develops, proposed drilling programs are added to forecast the impact of the new wells on the system. Various pipeline and compressor-expansion scenarios are tested to determine the most effective locations and cost-viable options.

Recommendations from the model have been implemented successfully and have played an integral role in the expansion of the gathering system. The model has been used to identify exact locations of pressure losses, help plan for incremental drilling volumes, and quantify the additional costs incurred from third-party gas entering the system.

This paper explains how a model can assist in the successful development of a large-scale, high-volume, and dynamic gas-gathering system. Details of the modeling procedure and highlights of the innovations implemented to meet the challenging operating conditions and aggressive development of this field are presented.
Technologies for Arctic Offshore Exploration and Development
Authors: Matskevitch Dmitri G.
Published: July 2008

Exploration and development of hydrocarbon reserves in the arctic seas are challenged by a harsh environment including the presence of ice and icebergs, permafrost, low temperatures, and extended periods of darkness. Remoteness and ecological considerations make activities in the arctic even more difficult. Advanced technologies, nontraditional technical solutions, and flawless execution are required to make any major project in the arctic a success.

Understanding the difficulties associated with implementing an offshore project in the arctic comes with experience. In ExxonMobil's case, this is a result of 40 years of arctic field operations and associated research. This paper discusses the arctic technologies developed to support ExxonMobil exploration and development activities in the Arctic seas.

ExxonMobil's Arctic offshore activity started in 1966 with the installation of the ice-resistant Granite Point offshore platform, which is still producing oil in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Since then, ExxonMobil has constructed and drilled from artificial islands in shallow-arctic waters; drilled in iceberg-prone regions off Greenland, Canada, and Norway; designed and installed the first icebergresistant gravity-based platform on the Grand Banks; installed an ice-resistant production platform and the first in-ice Single Point Mooring (SPM) offshore loading facility offshore Sakhalin Island; and continued to develop methodology to provide rational design criteria for ice-resistant production platforms. Development of design criteria and the selection of the most reliable and costeffective technical solutions for arctic offshore projects required data from numerous field expeditions, model test programs, field measurements, and observations from existing offshore structures. These studies were carried out under the supervision of ExxonMobil research staff.

Arctic marine transportation systems are also an important element for many offshore and near-shore projects in remote areas where the construction of export pipelines is prohibitively expensive. The 1969–1970 Manhattan tanker trials in the US and Canadian arctic and the 2002 Primorye trials in the Tatar Strait have helped ExxonMobil develop safe and reliable technologies for hydrocarbon transportation in ice-infested waters.
Risk Management / Functional Safety: A Practical Approach For End Users and System Integrators
Authors: Capelle Tino Vande , Houtermans Michel
Published: July 2008

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate, through a practical example, how an end user should deal with functional safety while designing a safety-instrumented function and implementing it in a safety-instrumented system. The paper starts with explaining the problems that exist inherently in safety systems. After understanding these problems, the paper takes the reader from the verbal description of a safety function through the design of the architecture, the process for the selection of safety components, and the role of reliability analysis. After reading this paper, the end user understands the practical process for implementing the design of safety-instrumented systems without going into detail of the requirements of the standard.
Water Separation From Wellstream in Inclined Separation Tube With Distributed Tapping
Authors: Rivera Rocio M. , Golan Michael , Friedemann John D. , Bourgeois Benjamin
Published: July 2008

This paper describes observations on water separation from well-stream in an inline separator using the concept of distributed water withdrawal from an inclined tube section. The physical observations were conducted in a laboratory using a 7-in. observation section applying flow rates compatible to North Sea single-well rates. The distributed water withdrawal is achieved by placing a set of evenly spaced tapping points at the bottom of the tube section with facilities to control tapping rates. The observations were made in connection with a joint-industry project to validate and commercialize a new concept for downhole and seabed separations. The driver for the study is to verify possible water separation by distributed tapping from the bottom of the tube in high flow rates with a high degree of agitation, turbulence, and phase dispersion. Observations demonstrated that for a wide range of flow, comparable to the flow conditions in high-rate oil wells, the high turbulence and phase dispersion do not erode and disperse completely a continuous layer of water on the bottom of the tube. This layer, flowing upward or downward depending on the flow conditions, facilitates a reasonable water separation when it is tapped properly. The scope of the test intended to capture the effect of flow and system variables on the separation efficiency. The experiments and the analysis validated the distributed separation concept. They demonstrated good separation at a wide range of flow stream conditions. They explained the reasons for good separation even with a high degree of turbulence and phase dispersion. The mechanistic understanding of the separation allows a degree of predictability and guidance for separator design.
A New Class of "Green" Corrosion Inhibitors: Development and Application
Authors: Craddock H. A. , Caird S. , Wilkinson H. , Guzmann M.
Published: July 2008

The chemical application of corrosion inhibitors is a widely adopted practice in production and processing operations in the oil and gas industry. Particularly challenging is the development of new chemistries, which maintain good protection of materials under a variety of conditions while being environmentally acceptable.

This paper illustrates patented work in the chemistry of alkyl polyglucosides (APGs) and their synergistic effect with polyaspartates (Wei).

The paper outlines the development of this inhibitor class, which demonstrates good general inhibitor performance in a number of oilfield brines, shows good filming characteristics under conditions of shear, and also has an excellent environmental profile. The paper examines the base chemistry of alkyl polyglucosides.

The paper illustrates the effect of inhibitors in a number of sweet and sour conditions as well as under various temperature conditions in a variety of oilfield waters. The results of laboratory tests under these conditions, such as linear polarization resistivity (LPR) the so-called "bubble test," and the rotating cylinder electrode (RCE), are presented and discussed.

Environmental data on formulated products will also be given. To date, all formulations of this chemistry have been classified for use in the UK sector as Gold, with no substitution or other product warnings.
Flow-Assurance Modeling: Reality Check and Aspects of Transient Operations of Gas/Condensate Pipelines
Authors: Hagesæther L. , Lunde K. , Nygård F. , Eidsmoen H.
Published: July 2008

Statoil operates a number of gas/condensate pipelines in the North Sea. This paper focuses on experience gained from operation and simulation, up to and including the tail end, of the 150-km-long, 22-in. Huldra-to-Heimdal pipeline.

During initial production at Huldra, the liquid accumulation was higher than predicted by modeling. Additionally, liquid surge waves not found in simulations were observed at the receiving facility. These findings were challenging, resulting from very low-liquid surge capacity in the receiving facility, and the minimum flow rate was increased. Investigations were carried out to explain the observations, and it was determined that condensate carryover in the Huldra scrubber significantly influenced the condensate content in the pipeline. The pipeline has now entered the tail-end production phase. Because of the high liquid content at low production rates, water/monoethylene glycol (MEG) no longer reaches the receiving facility on a regular basis, causing local hydrate problems at Heimdal and a lack of MEG for reinjection. Simulations show that cyclic operation of the receiving facility will transport water/MEG out of the pipeline on a more regular basis. This change in operating philosophy was an available option that Statoil did not have to implement.
Utilizing What We Know To Develop a New Source of Energy
Authors: Key Francis S. , Arnold Kenneth E.
Published: July 2008

There are growing incentives to develop offshore wind farms. As with the early oilfield developments of 1900 to 1920, most of the wind developments to date have extended onshore designs and construction techniques to shallow waters. It is time to apply what we in the offshore oil and gas industry have learned to arrive at truly fit-for-purpose offshore solutions for wind-farm development.

This paper describes the needs of a typical wind farm and how these differ from those of a typical offshore oil and gas project. It draws on recent AMEC experiences in the design and installation of offshore wind turbines in Europe and studies performed in Houston.

Information and expertise exists within the current oil and gas industry to allow safe and economical designs of offshore wind farms in depths where bottom-supported structures are economical choices. Consideration of the following, however, will lead to different solutions: each installation may require 100 or more structures, the ratios of axial loads to lateral loads are much lower, torsion loads are considerable, and rotating blades will have significant dynamic effects. A proper design must take into account economics of scale ("design one, build 100") and assembly-linetype planning for component fabrication, transportation, assembly, and installation.

The methods and application of technologies successfully used by the offshore oil and gas industry can advance the development of offshore wind-energy projects. The tremendous amount of expertise, data, design technology, and construction knowledge accumulated by the offshore oil and gas industry has the potential to aid a great leap forward for wind energy. While future research and data collection can help optimize the designs, there is no need to further delay projects by waiting on these results.
Converting the Pécorade Oil Field Into an Underground Gas Storage
Authors: Coffin Philippe , Lebas Geneviève
Published: July 2008

The need for additional underground gas storage (UGS) in Europe and in France is increasing. TOTAL has therefore undertaken feasibility studies to convert the depleted Pécorade oil field, situated in South West France, into an UGS.

The Pécorade field offers a number of positive characteristics which make it a good candidate for UGS, but it is also deep at 2500 m and contains hydrogen sulphide.

This paper describes some of the challenges faced by the project, including:

The sizing of the working volume (volume of gas which can be stored and cycled each year), which required the acquisition and processing of a new 3D seismic program, and the construction of specific geological and reservoir models. The safety and environmental issues related to caprock integrity and sour-gas production. The conversion of existing oil and gas wells into gas injection and production wells. The processing of cycled gas (including sour-gas treatment). The cost of the project compared to more conventional UGSs. The main benefits expected from the project are: The development of a sizeable working volume, in the order of one billion cubic meters, in an ideal location to serve the French and possibly Spanish market. An improved oil recovery, as the annual cycling of the gas would induce production of an additional 20 to 30% over current projections.

These studies also confirmed that the development of a sizeable UGS is a lengthy, difficult, and complex project.

The decision to launch the project is mainly dependent on the results of the future preproject studies, regulations, and market conditions.
Water-Based Insulating Fluids for Deepwater Riser Applications
Authors: Javora Paul H. , Wang Xiaolan , Stevens Richard , Pearcy Rick
Published: July 2008

Uncontrolled heat transfer from production tubing to outer annulus—especially in deepwater riser sections—can cause the deposition of sludge, paraffin, and asphaltene materials; contribute to the formation of gas hydrates; and limit shut-in time for unplanned downtime or remedial operations. Generally, deepwater risers can be insulated externally or insulated by placing nitrogen gas into the riser annulus. In recent years, a new water-based thermal-insulating fluid system has been developed and used in field applications. This new system reduces convection and provides a rheological profile to facilitate fluid placement into the riser annulus. This system has been successfully used in deepwater risers in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM).

Laboratory-scale equipment and a full-scale test well were constructed to evaluate the thermal-insulation properties of fluids. This paper details the testing procedures and methods. Steady-state heat-transfer- and cool-down-test results on the new insulation fluid were determined and compared to conventional fluids. These superinsulating fluids were found to be vastly superior to brine and measurably better than conventional water-based insulating fluids. Surprisingly, when compared to nitrogen (air) or argon, the superinsulating fluids provided enhanced protection during cool down. Field cases in the GOM are summarized to demonstrate the effectiveness of this fluid system.
Minimum-Cost Platform Designs—Cook Inlet, Alaska
Authors: Visser Robert C.
Published: July 2008

The paper describes two minimum-cost, self-erecting platform designs and one caisson structure design that can be installed in Cook Inlet, Alaska, without the need for heavy lifting equipment. The Cook Inlet environment is characterized by 30-ft tides and during the winter months by fast-moving ice floes. The area is remote from other offshore operating areas, and there is no heavy lifting equipment. One of the designs has been built: Platform Osprey was installed in Cook Inlet in 2000. The paper will describe how it was designed, constructed, and installed. A second, different design concept allows platform installation in deeper water, again without the need for heavy lifting equipment. The third design concept is an outrigger caisson design that can be installed with a jackup drilling unit. It would be applicable as a satellite platform structure.

Use of these minimum-cost platform and caisson designs would enable development of marginal fields in Cook Inlet that heretofore could not be developed because the high cost of mobilizing and demobilizing heavy lifting equipment to and from Cook Inlet would have made development uneconomical.
Automated Production Surveillance
Authors: Oberwinker Christian , Mayfield David , Dixon Dave , Holland Jeff
Published: July 2008

"Real time" is the new buzz in the upstream petroleum industry. So far, operators at the lease locations have been the main users of real-time data measured at second or minute increments to manage wells and keep them on production. Engineers usually see only a subset of the data—the daily production volumes and rates, along with a few selected gauge-pressure and temperature readings. The engineers’ access to limited data means that they typically see only the result—the production volumes—and not the high-frequency data that may be the reason for a certain production parameter (e.g., choke size, pressures, and temperatures).

Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is the system that connects to the production facilities’ controllers and data sources and collects the measured data and stores them in a database. Operators on the platform have direct access to these data and use this information to control the wells and the process equipment. If the engineers see these data at all, they usually get them through a Web-browser interface and in a format they cannot directly use for their analysis.

This paper will introduce a new concept of integrating high-frequency real-time data to the oil company's business office, making those data available to engineering staff and operations management, even up to the senior management level. Each level of the organization sees as much of the high-frequency data as it needs or wants to see. The engineers and management have exactly the same view as the operators at the platform and at the same time. This might seem to be a problem at first, but in the long term, it is an empowerment of the operators and brings engineers and operators closer together by working as a team to manage the wells. The data also allow management to monitor the oil and gas production leaving the platform to see if the target business plan volumes are reached or if a well is shut in.

This paper will give insights on how access to high-frequency data changed the way of doing the daily work and how it changed the way operators work together with engineers. (Note: All values in the figures within this paper are manipulated and do not necessarily represent reality).
Tougher Concrete Structures for LNG Facilities
Authors: Moncarz Piotr D. , Krstulovic-Opara Neven
Published: July 2008

Large onshore and offshore facilities for production, loading and unloading, and storage of petroleum products are being constructed with reinforced concrete. Recent examples include the monumental platforms associated with the Sakhalin II development and the development of new liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities. The political climate of the 21st century dictates a much higher attention level to questions concerning the safety and security of these facilities. While the existence of terrorism danger is unquestionable, the magnitude of threat to industrial facilities is seldom explicitly addressed in structural design and material selection. Terrorist threat requires not only heightened surveillance and threat-response readiness, but also the incorporation of design features that make the success of such threats less likely. These design features include both structural- and material-level considerations. The authors discuss some of the current approaches to making concrete structures more resistant to terrorist attacks while simultaneously rendering them more serviceable and long lasting. Research and field studies on fiber-reinforced concrete, slurry-infiltrated mat concrete, and Kevlar* wrapping of critical concrete structure elements in high-seismicity areas are some of the discussed topics. Suggestions are made as to how these examples could lead to the toughening of oil and gas concrete facilities or the construction of concrete protective barriers.
Solute Transport in the Capillary Fringe and Shallow Groundwater: Field Evaluation
Authors: Abit Sergio M. , Amoozegar Aziz , Vepraskas Michael J. , Niewoehner Christopher P.
Published: July 2008

Lateral transport of waterborne contaminants is generally assumed to occur below the water table (WT), but recent laboratory studies have suggested that subsurface lateral solute transport could occur above the WT through the capillary fringe (CF). The objective of this study was to evaluate the horizontal transport of solutes in the CF and shallow groundwater (SGW). Two consecutive field experiments were conducted in a Leon sand (Aeric Alaquod) at a site with a shallow WT. In both experiments, a bromide (Br−) solution was applied to the bottom of an auger hole dug to within 10 cm above the projected CF. Movement of Br− in the subsurface was monitored by collecting CF and SGW samples using nests of tension samplers installed at radial distances of 60, 120, 220, and 320 cm from the application spot. Each nest of samplers contained a tension sampler at 45, 60, 75, 90, and 105 cm depth. Bromide transport was monitored for 58 d in the first experiment while the more detailed second experiment was conducted for 84 d. Peak Br− concentration generally occurred in the upper 60 cm of the soil where the CF was located for most of the experiment. The Br− plume that entered the CF moved horizontally in it until Br− was partially moved into the SGW by the fluctuating WT. In the second experiment, approximately 48% of the Br− detected in the CF at a distance of 320 cm from the application spot was still in the CF after 15 cm of rain through 59 d.
Numerical Simulation of Flow Dynamics during Macropore–Subsurface Drain Interactions Using HYDRUS
Authors: Akay Onur , Fox Garey A. , Šimůnek Jirka
Published: July 2008

Macropores, such as those created by deep‐burrowing earthworms, have the potential to be hydraulically connected not only to the soil surface but also to subsurface drains. This hydraulic connection may lead to rapid movement of surface‐applied chemicals to receiving waters as they bypass the bulk of the soil matrix. In this study, a numerical model (HYDRUS) that solves the three‐dimensional Richards equation for both matrix and macropore domains was used to analyze previously conducted experiments that contained a single, surface‐connected or buried, artificial macropore and a subsurface drain installed in a laboratory soil column. Both matrix and macropore domains were parameterized using continuous soil hydraulic functions. Simulations confirmed that surface‐connected macropores were highly efficient preferential flow paths that substantially reduced arrival times to the subsurface drainage outlet, with this reduction being directly related to the length of the macropore. Surface‐connected macropores need to extend at least halfway to the drain to have a noticeable effect (>50% reduction) on the arrival time. No significant changes were observed in total drain outflows for columns with laterally shifted macropores (away from a drain) compared with centered macropores unless the macropore depth extended significantly (>75%) into the profile. The model predicted that buried macropores became active and contributed to the total outflow only when pressure heads in the soil profile became positive. The effect of buried macropores on drain flow was investigated for a case where an initially partially saturated profile was drained. Under these conditions, the numerical simulations suggested that buried macropores could contribute up to 40% of the total outflow, which confirms laboratory observations with subsurface‐drained soil columns with macropores.
A New Standpipe Lysimeter Design for the Measurement of Soil Matric Suction
Authors: Nichol Craig F. , Rowlett Dwayne K. , Barbour S. Lee
Published: July 2008

Long‐term monitoring of matric suction and in situ soil water chemistry is critical to investigating vadose zone processes. This paper presents a new method of making these measurements, based on the concept of a sealed, high‐walled zero‐tension lysimeter referred to as a standpipe lysimeter (SPL). We present the design and operational principles of the SPL and provide proof of concept and operation from experiments and modeling. The SPL, designed to measure matric suction primarily in the range of 0 to 30 kPa, provides an alternate measurement strategy to in situ tensiometers or electronic sensors. It requires no calibration or maintenance, is suited to installation at any depth using a drilling rig, and is constructed of readily available, inexpensive, materials. A prototype design was tested in a laboratory column (0.56 m diam., 3.6 m height) over a range of infiltration fluxes encompassing two to three orders of magnitude. Laboratory testing indicated the preliminary SPL design underestimated matric suction by <4 to 12%. Further improvements to the design were developed using numerical modeling studies of unsaturated water flow. The modeling of the improved SPL design was used to assess its accuracy in matric suction measurements compared with the laboratory tested and modeled preliminary design. The modeling studies indicate improvement in measurement accuracy with the improved SPL design to a range of accuracy (<± 2.5% error) similar to the modeled accuracy achieved by installations of tensiometers or other matric suction sensors in typical borehole configurations. The SPL's response time may be days to months and is a function of construction materials, the properties of the surrounding soil, and the magnitude of infiltration fluxes. The SPL is therefore best suited to specific uses requiring long‐term monitoring (years to decades) of deep vadose zones where response times are similar to those of the SPL.
Quantifying Air Convection through Surface‐Exposed Fractures: A Laboratory Study
Authors: Nachshon Uri , Weisbrod Noam , Dragila Maria Ines
Published: July 2008

Fractures in arid regions, especially within low‐permeability rocks, have a significant effect on the hydrological cycle. Recent studies have revealed large amounts of salt precipitates along fracture walls in the upper few meters of surface‐exposed fractures (SEFs). However, measured salt‐precipitation rates are far too high to be accounted for by diffusive venting of moist fracture air. An alternative mechanism that could explain enhanced evaporation from fractures is thermal convection, which also vents moist air from the fractures. This paper describes a series of experiments conducted in Hele‐Shaw chambers aimed at quantifying the potential venting capacity of air convection through natural fractures as a function of thermal gradient and fracture aperture. Using smoke to visualize air flow, we quantified air velocities, mass flux, and convection‐cell morphology as a function of Rayleigh number (Ra). Thermal differences of 0, 5, 10, and 13°C along the 50‐cm‐high Hele‐Shaw chambers and apertures of 1 and 2 cm were explored. Velocity was found to increase linearly with Ra while mass transfer increased exponentially with Ra, likely due to the concomitant increase in the number of convection cells per chamber width. For example, a thermal difference of 13°C between ambient air and chamber air for a 2‐cm aperture resulted in an increase of approximately two orders of magnitude in the mass‐transfer rate relative to pure diffusive flux (i.e., when no thermal gradient is imposed). The air‐mass‐transfer rate in the Hele‐Shaw chamber was found to be linearly proportional to the Sherwood number.
Thermodynamic Model for Fluid–Fluid Interfacial Areas in Porous Media for Arbitrary Drainage–Imbibition Sequences
Authors: Schroth Martin H. , Oostrom Mart , Dobson Richard , Zeyer Josef
Published: July 2008

Fluid–fluid interfacial areas are important in controlling the rate of mass and energy transfer between fluid phases in porous media. We developed a modified thermodynamically based model (TBM) to predict fluid–fluid interfacial areas in porous media for arbitrary drainage–imbibition sequences. The TBM explicitly distinguishes between interfacial areas associated with continuous (free) and isolated (entrapped) nonwetting fluids. The model is restricted to two‐fluid systems in which (i) no significant conversion of mechanical work into heat occurs, (ii) the wetting fluid completely wets the porous medium's solid surfaces, and (iii) no changes in interfacial area due to mass transfer between phases occur. We show example calculations for two different drainage–imbibition sequences in two porous media: a highly uniform silica sand and a well‐graded silt. The TBM's predictions for interfacial area associated with free nonwetting fluid are identical to those of a previously published geometry‐based model (GBM); however, predictions for interfacial area associated with entrapped nonwetting fluid are consistently larger in the TBM than in the GBM. Although a comparison of model predictions with experimental data is currently only possible to a limited extent, good general agreement was found for the TBM. As required model parameters are commonly used as inputs for or tracked during multifluid‐flow simulations, the modified TBM may be easily incorporated in numerical codes.
Is Facial Beauty an Innate Response to the Leonardian Proportion?
Authors: Rakover Sam S.
Published: July 2008

The present study examines whether the facial proportion forehead length equals nose length equals lower face length (the “1/3-proportion”), which is considered a standard of facial beauty, arouses an innate aesthetic pattern of response. Profile deviations from the profile of Leonardo's famous drawing of Isabella D'Este as well as from other female profiles, which are based on the 1/3-proportion, were generated by increasing or decreasing the nose length. Profile evaluations as beautiful and as sexually appealing showed an inverted U-shaped function of the profile deviations when the profiles were presented upright; however these measures were flattened when the profiles were presented inverted. By contrast, profiles evaluated as interesting exhibited similar flattened curves in the upright and the inverted conditions. Furthermore, evaluations of non-facial stimuli (rectangles) did not behave similarly to evaluations of profiles. These results were interpreted as supporting the Aesthetical Construction theory, which suggests that the evaluations of these profiles are based on a response pattern constructed from innate and learned components.
The Genius Portfolio: How Do Poets Earn Their Creative Reputations from Multiple Products?
Authors: Kaufman Scott Barry , Christopher Elise M. , Kaufman James C.
Published: July 2008

How is creativity assessed across multiple products? What parameters influence the audience's overall impression of an artist's total body of creative work? This study examines this question in the domain of poetry, as poetry “gatekeepers” rated a series of five poems (all written by the same poet). The central question was what factors impacted the overall ratings of these poems; specifically, the following components were evaluated: average performance (i.e., typical work), maximum performance (i.e., best work), minimum performance (i.e., worst work), variability of performance (i.e., consistency), first performance, and last performance. The average, best, worst, and last poem in each set positively predicted the overall quality of the set. Variability (e.g., the standard deviation) did not make a significant prediction, suggesting that a body of artistic work may not be judged by the consistency of the set. These results suggest an overall stronger effect for ratings of individual items than for consistency when judging a set of creative works. Implications for aesthetic judgment are discussed.
The Concept of Scale in Architecture—Three Empirical Studies
Authors: Weber Ralf , Vosskoetter Silke
Published: July 2008

Several studies at the Institute for Spatial Design at Dresden University have aimed at a clarification of commonly used notions of scale in architecture and urban design. This article describes three such studies. University students of architecture and those studying other fields were shown images of facades of buildings in isolation from their surrounding contexts, as stimuli. In the first experiment, participants estimated the heights of the buildings; in the second experiment the buildings were ranked according to estimated heights, and in the third experiment images of buildings used in the second experiment were variously manipulated and participants had to rank the sizes of the buildings comparatively (in “pair wise comparison”). The results suggested that estimated (as compared to actual) sizes of buildings shown in isolation from their contexts depend particularly on the geometric features of their facades, such as their horizontal divisions and/or degree of further subdivision, or on their use of individual elements, for example, windows, doors or steps, whose assumed sizes are familiar from everyday experience.
Privatization in a Publicly Funded Health Care System: The U.S. Experience
Authors: Himmelstein David U. , Woolhandler Steffie
Published: July 2008

The United States has four decades of experience with the combination of public funding and private health care management and delivery, closely analogous to reforms recently enacted or proposed in many other nations. Extensive research, herein reviewed, shows that for-profit health institutions provide inferior care at inflated prices. The U.S. experience also demonstrates that market mechanisms nurture unscrupulous medical businesses and undermine medical institutions unable or unwilling to tailor care to profitability. The commercialization of care in the United States has driven up costs by diverting money to profits and by fueling a vast increase in management and financial bureaucracy, which now consumes 31 percent of total health spending. The Veterans Health Administration system—a network of government hospitals and clinics—has emerged as the leader in quality improvement and information technology, indicating the potential for public sector excellence and innovation. The poor performance of U.S. health care is directly attributable to reliance on market mechanisms and for-profit firms, and should warn other nations from this path.
Off Target: A Critical Review of Setting Goals for Reducing Health Inequalities in the United Kingdom
Authors: Bauld Linda , Day Patricia , Judge Ken
Published: July 2008

Health policy in the United Kingdom is devolved to the four home countries. Nevertheless, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales share a common commitment to reducing health inequalities and have set explicit targets in areas such as life expectancy, cancer mortality, long-standing illness, and smoking prevalence. However, many of the targets leave much to be desired in terms of their limited conceptual scope and their selection of methods and approaches. At one level this might be regarded as relatively unimportant. The mere fact of having health inequalities targets is laudable. But because the United Kingdom has been in the vanguard of research and policy development to reduce health inequalities, a critical appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches adopted in the four home countries is timely. Following a description of the health inequalities targets, the article focuses on experiences in England and Scotland as examples of contrasting approaches to target setting and describes progress toward meeting targets in each country. The authors then outline key emerging issues in relation to developing targets and measuring progress, including conceptual dilemmas, biased reporting, implementation failure, and statistical fallacy.
What Can Alienation Theory Contribute to an Understanding of Social Inequalities in Health?
Authors: Crinson Iain , Yuill Chris
Published: July 2008

This article examines both the contribution and the limitations of research that has sought to develop a causal understanding of the psychosocial dimension of inequalities in health. The article seeks to revive interest in Marx's theory of alienation in developing the case for an alternative materialist conceptualization that is able to postulate the pathways from alienation as a psychosocial generative structure to social inequalities in health outcomes within late modern societies.
A Cultural Critique of Community Psychiatry in India
Authors: Jain Sumeet , Jadhav Sushrut
Published: July 2008

This article is the first comprehensive cultural critique of India's official community mental health policy and program. Data are based on a literature review of published papers, conference proceedings, analyses of official policy and popular media, interviews with key Indian mental health professionals, and fieldwork in Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh (2004–2006). The authors demonstrate how three influences have shaped community psychiatry in India: a cultural asymmetry between health professionals and the wider society, psychiatry's search for both professional and social legitimacy, and WHO policies that have provided the overall direction to the development of services. Taken together, the consequences are that rural community voices have been edited out. The authors hypothesize that community psychiatry in India is a bureaucratic and culturally incongruent endeavor that increases the divide between psychiatry and local rural communities. Such a claim requires sustained ethnographic fieldwork to reveal the dynamics of the gap between community and professional experiences. The development of culturally sensitive psychiatric theory and clinical services is essential to improve the mental health of rural citizens who place their trust in India's biomedical network.
State Health Reform Flatlines
Authors: Woolhandler Steffie , Day Benjamin , Himmelstein David U.
Published: July 2008

Massachusetts' recent health reform has generated laudatory headlines and a flurry of interest in state-based initiatives to achieve universal health insurance coverage. In 1988, a similar Massachusetts effort was also acclaimed and was imitated by several other states. Unfortunately, none of those efforts can be judged a success. The authors briefly review this earlier experience and caution against premature declaration of victory.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability of EAA/PEO blends and microlayers
Authors: Pethe V. V. , Wang H. P. , Hiltner A. , Baer E. , Freeman B. D.
Published: July 2008

The goal of this study was to broaden the spectrum of gas permeability and selectivity characteristics of poly(ethylene‐co‐acrylic acid) (EAA) by combining it with poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), which has a high selectivity for CO2. To obtain films that differed substantially in their solid state morphologies, EAA was combined with PEO as melt blends and as coextruded films with many alternating, continuous microlayers of EAA and PEO. The solid state structure and thermal behavior were characterized and the permeability to O2 and CO2 was measured at 23°C. When the PEO was dispersed as small domains, the particles were too numerous for most of them to contain a heterogeneity that was sufficiently active to nucleate crystallization at the normal Tc. The rubbery, amorphous nature of the PEO domains enhanced the gas permeability of the melt blends. In contrast, the constituent polymers maintained the bulk properties in 5–20 μm‐thick microlayers. The series model accurately described the gas transport properties of microlayered films. Comparison of blends and microlayers revealed that the high CO2 selectivity of PEO was most effectively captured when the PEO phase was continuous, as in the microlayers or in the cocontinuous 50/50 (wt/wt) melt blend. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008.
Use of postconsumer polyethylene in blends with polyamide 6: Effects of the extrusion method and the compatibilizer
Authors: Araújo J. R. , Vallim M. R. , Spinacé M. A. S. , De Paoli M.‐A.
Published: July 2008

Blends of polyamide and high‐density polyethylene show adequate properties for a large range of applications: they are used for the production of filaments, containers, and molding resins. The effect of the addition of 2 wt % of a compatibilizer, maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene, to the blend was studied and compared to the use of postconsumer polyethylene. The samples were extruded with single‐ and twin‐screw extruders with 25, 50, or 75 wt % f polyethylene, and the test specimens, molded by injection, were characterized by stress–strain tests, thermal properties, and morphologies. Processing the blends with postconsumer polyethylene in both extruders improved the mechanical properties in comparison to the blends processed with high‐density polyethylene and the compatibilizer. The morphologies of these blends showed that there was a decrease in the domain size of the disperse phase with the use of the compatibilizer or postconsumer polyethylene. The results indicate that for this blend, postconsumer polyethylene substituted, with advantages, for the necessity of a compatibilizer and the use of the high‐density polyethylene. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008.
Compatibility and viscoelastic properties of brominated isobutylene‐co‐p‐methylstyrene rubber/tackifier blends
Authors: Kumar K. Dinesh , Gupta Sanjiv , Tsou Andy H. , Bhowmick Anil K.
Published: July 2008

Brominated isobutylene‐co‐p‐methylstyrene (BIMS) rubber has been blended with hydrocarbon resin tackifier and alkyl phenol formaldehyde resin tackifier, and the compatibility between the blend components has been systematically evaluated. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies show that BIMS rubber and hydrocarbon resin tackifier blends are compatible at all blend proportions studied. However, BIMS rubber and phenol formaldehyde resin blends exhibit very limited compatibility with each other and phase separation even at very low phenolic tackifier concentration. Morphological studies of the rubber–resin blends by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) corroborate well with the DMA and DSC results. From the DMA frequency sweep and temperature sweep studies, it is shown that the hydrocarbon resin tackifier acts as a diluent and causes a decrease in the storage modulus values (by reducing the entanglement and network density) in the rubbery plateau region. On the other hand, phenol formaldehyde resin behaves in the way similar to that of the reinforcing filler by increasing the storage modulus values (by increasing the entanglement and network density) in the rubbery plateau zone. The relaxation time estimated from the different zones of frequency sweep master curves provides information about the influence of the two tackifiers on the viscoelastic properties of the BIMS rubber in the respective zones. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008
Separation of the polysaccharides in Caulerpa racemosa and their chemical composition and antitumor activity
Authors: Ji Hongwu , Shao Haiyan , Zhang Chaohua , Hong Pengzhi , Xiong Haoping
Published: July 2008

Caulerpa racemosa was extracted with the combined procedure of neutral protease and boiling water to yield a water‐soluble polysaccharide coded as CRP. The obtained C. racemosa polysaccharide (CRP) was fractionated with DEAE‐52 cellulose, which led to two soluble polysaccharide fractions designated as CRPF1 and CRPF2. CRP, CRPF1, and CRPF2 were chemically determined and their antitumor activity was assayed. Results showed that they were all mixtures composed of sulfated polysaccharide with 3.9–7.9% uronic acid and protein, and had similar amino acid composition, but CRP was more than CRPF1 and CRPF2 in total sugar and uronic acid content, and less in sulfate group content. Two main sugars, glucose (Glu, 56.8%) and galactose (Gal, 31.8%), of CRP were enriched to CRPF2 (Glu, 89.1%) and CRPF1 (Gal, 99.2%) respectively; Bioassay indicated that all CRP had strong antitumor activity in both in vitro and in vivo, and its inhibition rate of K562 cells in vitro at the concentration of 6.0–10.0 mg mL−1 and of H22 tumor transplanted in mice at a dose of 100 mg kg−1 day were 59.5–83.8% (48 h) and 53.9% (14 days), respectively. Moreover, at a lower dose (0.05–0.2 mg mL−1) and longer time (72 h), CRP exhibited stronger inhibition effect on K562 cells than CRPF1 and CRPF2. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008
Adsorption of heavy metal ions from aqueous solution onto chitosan entrapped CM‐cellulose hydrogels synthesized by irradiation
Authors: Zhao Long , Mitomo Hiroshi
Published: July 2008

The application of novel environment‐conscious hydrogels as an adsorbent for heavy metal ions adsorption from aqueous solutions was examined. Chitosan was blended with highly concentrated carboxymethylated cellulose (CM‐cellulose) solution to form CM‐cellulose/chitosan physical hydrogels, which were crosslinked by additionless irradiation technique. The adsorptive properties of the blend hydrogels against some divalent heavy metal ions were investigated by batch adsorption method. It was found that the addition of chitosan increased the crosslinking degree and the adsorption capacity of the blend hydrogels. As a typical example, experimental data of Cu(II) ion were exploited for kinetic and isothermal evaluations. Copper adsorption process was found to be initially transport‐controlled, and its adsorption isotherm can be fitted well into the Langmuir equation. Cu(II) adsorption mechanism can be viewed as the complexation of the Cu(II) with carboxyl groups and amino groups on the CM‐cellulose/chitosan gel during the adsorption. From these preliminary evaluations, it is possible to conclude that the CM‐cellulose/chitosan blend hydrogels have great potential for applications in water treatment for the removal of heavy metal ions. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008
Overrepresentation of mood and anxiety disorders in adults with autism and their first‐degree relatives: what does it mean?
Authors: Mazefsky Carla A. , Folstein Susan E. , Lainhart Janet E.
Published: July 2008

Research indicates that relatives of individuals with autism have higher rates of affective disorders than both the general population and families of children with other developmental disabilities. In addition, individuals with autism have high rates of co‐morbid mood and anxiety disorders. This study sought to identify possible reasons for these previous findings by documenting the presence of affective disorders in both probands (the individuals with autism) and their family members. A sub‐sample of 17 adults with autism and their first‐degree relatives from the Baltimore Family Study of Autism completed a structured psychiatric interview. The results indicated that the rates of mood and anxiety disorders were 35 and 77%, respectively, for probands, and these disorders were present in at least one first‐degree relative at rates of 71 and 29%, respectively. Exploring patterns within families revealed that 80% of probands with a mother who had a mood disorder history also had a mood disorder themselves, compared to only 16% of probands whose mothers did not have a mood disorder history. The results must be considered preliminary given the small sample size. Replicating these findings in a larger sample would help clarify whether a true increased risk of mood disorder exists, which would have potential implications for prevention efforts and understanding possible genetic mechanisms.