bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
By passing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorizations to Use Force, Cease-Fires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime
Authors: Lobel Jules , Ratner Michael
Published: April 2006

In January and February 1998, various United States officials, including the President, asserted that unless Iraq permitted unconditional access to international weapons inspections, it would face a military attack. The attack was not to be, in Secretary of State Madeleine Albright’s words, “a pinprick,” but a “significant” military campaign. U.S. officials, citing United Nations Security Council resolutions, insisted that the United States had the authority for the contemplated attack. Representatives of other permanent members of the Security Council believed otherwise; that no resolution of the Council authorized U.S. armed action without its approval. In late February, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan traveled to Baghdad and returned with a memorandum of understanding regarding inspections signed by himself and the Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister. On March 2, 1998, the Security Council, in Resolution 1154, unanimously endorsed this memorandum of understanding.
Appraising the Methods of International Law: A Prospectus for Readers
Authors: Ratner Steven R. , Slaughter Anne-Marie
Published: April 2006

In 1908 the second volume of the American Journal of International Law featured a piece by Lassa Oppenheim entitled The Science of International Law: Its Tasks and Method. Oppenheim began his article by noting, apparently with some approval, that the first volume of AJIL, stacked with articles only by Americans, had “shown to the world that America is able to foster the science of international law without being dependent upon the assistance of foreign contributors.” Concerned, however, that students were “at first frequently quite helpless for want of method [and] mostly plunge into their work without a proper knowledge of the task of our science, without knowing how to make use of the assertions of authorities, and without the proper views for the valuation and appreciation of the material at hand,” Oppenheim sought to bring “the task and the method of this our science into discussion in this Journal.” What followed was a comprehensive exposition of his views on the purposes of international law and the methods available to lawyers and scholars for approaching the problems they face.
The Responsibility of Individuals for Human Rights Abuses in Internal Conflicts: a Positivist View
Authors: Simma Bruno , Paulus Andreas L.
Published: April 2006

When we were invited to contribute a positivist perspective to the present symposium, we did not know whether to regard this invitation as flattering or as an insult: does positivism not represent old-fashioned, conservative, continental European nineteenthcentury views—naive ideas of dead white males on the possibility of objectivity in law and morals? There is little we can do about being male and white, but we have certainly not seen ourselves as positivists of that kind. From the range of methodologies that the editors assembled, we could associate ourselves with several approaches just as much as with positivism. But in reflecting on our day-to-day legal work, we realized that, for better or for worse, we indeed employ the tools developed by the “positivist” tradition.
“Constitutionalization” and Dispute Settlement in the wto: National Security as an Issue of Competence
Authors: Schloemann Hannes L. , Ohlhoff Stefan
Published: April 2006

The 1994 Uruguay Round revision of the dispute settlement mechanism under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO) has made it a forum both for traditional trade issues and for interests ranging from environmental protection to national security. The limits of GATT jurisdiction have become important issues of dispute settlement within the WTO, especially as the emergence of the WTO and its rule-based, quasi-obligatory dispute settlement system has spurred a significant shift toward legalism. Constitutional structures are developing much faster in international trade law than in any other area of international law and, in the aftermath of the Uruguay Round, are integrating ever more aspects of economic relations among states. Within the WTO regime the dispute settlement mechanism established by the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) plays a prominent role in enforcing its rules and reconciling a wide array of the members’ interests. The limits of the reach of the dispute settlement mechanism, given its obligatory character, are, to a certain degree, the limits of the constitutionalization of the organization as a whole.
The 1997 United Nations Convention on International Watercourses
Authors: McCaffrey Stephen C. , Sinjela Mpazi
Published: April 2006

The Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on May 21, 1997. It was negotiated in the Sixth (Legal) Committee of the General Assembly, convening for this purpose as a “Working Group of the Whole,” on the basis of draft articles adopted by the International Law Commission (ILC). The negotiations in the working group were open to participation by all UN member states, as well as states that are members of specialized agencies of the United Nations. The Convention is divided into seven parts containing thirty-seven articles: Introduction; General Principles; Planned Measures; Protection, Preservation and Management; Harmful Conditions and Emergency Situations; Miscellaneous Provisions; and Final Clauses. An annex sets forth procedures to be used in the event the parties to a dispute have agreed to submit it to arbitration. This Note will focus on key provisions of the Convention and on those that were the subject of controversy during the working group’s deliberations. It assumes that the reader has access to the text.
Kepler's Attitude Toward Pico and the Anti-astrology Polemic*
Authors: Rabin Sheila J.
Published: April 2006

In two of his major works,On the New Star(1606) andHarmonics of the Universe(1619), Johannes Kepler engaged in an extensive debate against Giovanni Pico della Mirandola'sDisputations against Judicial Astrology.But despite his disagreements with Pico'sDisputations, Kepler wrote about it in these works with deep respect and even expressed many points of agreement with it. Ernst Cassirer suggested that despite Kepler's continuing practice and support of astrology, Kepler essentially adopted Pico's idea of the human being making himself and thus gradually liberated himself from a belief in astrological determinism: “The problem of freedom is closely allied to the problem of knowledge; the conception of freedom determines that of knowledge, just as, conversely, the latter determines the former. The spontaneity and productivity of knowledge finally become the seal of the conviction of human freedom and human creativity.”
Vesalius and the Reading of Galen's Teleology*
Authors: Siraisi Nancy G.
Published: April 2006

Sixteenth-century approaches to the world of nature remained resolutely bound to ancient texts. Hostility to the medieval past, new theories, new experiences, and new information were evidently abundantly present. But medieval predecessors were far more likely to be criticized for failure to understand ancient authority than for slavish dependence on it; dissatisfaction with intellectual tradition was apt to express itself in form of a call for return to the ideas of ancients who preceded the standard school authors in time; and in every branch of natural philosophy, natural history, and medicine, examination of the writings of ancient Greek authors was a major, perhaps the major, part of the task of the investigator. Innovators — some of them very bold and some very eccentric indeed — reworked, recombined, and criticized the ancients, or measured their teachings against modern experience; but they seldom ignored them.
Anamorphosis through Descartes or Perspective Gone Awry
Authors: Massey Lyle
Published: April 2006

The systems of perspective first produced during the fifteenth century and subsequently treated by mathematicians and artists in later centuries have been exhaustively discussed and analyzed by art historians. While many have focused on the technique's geometric and scientific history, beginning with Panofsky and his remarkable treatment of perspeaive as symbolic form in 1927, a number of art historians have attempted to analyze the metaphorical and allegorical aspects of perspective. Although varying greatly in tone and focus, there is one assumption that links all of these accounts. It is generally taken for granted that perspective somehow stands paradigmatically for Descartes's rationalism — for his search for ontological and epistemological certainty.
Views from Inside: Memoirs concerning the Yugoslav Breakup and War
Authors: Ramet Sabrina P.
Published: April 2006

Recent memoirs published in Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo, and Podgorica offer glimpses into how the principals would like their roles in the events connected with the Yugoslav breakup and war to be remembered. The most indispensable of the ten memoirs under review are those by Janez Drnovšek and Janez Janša, who have differing perspectives on developments in Slovenia between 1988 and 1991; by Martin Špegelj, who outlines in detail his argument that Croatia should have laid siege to the Yugoslav Army barracks much earlier than was done; and by Raif Dizdarević, who provides interesting details on how Serbian leader Slobodan Milosević subverted the Yugoslav federation and put his protégés in charge of Montenegro, Kosovo, and Vojvodina. Sefer Halilović, Branko Mamula, and Špegelj challenge observers' usual conceptions of events, while Alija Izetbegović, Davorin Rudolf, and Zdravko Tomac offer more standard accounts. Hrvoje Šarinić provides details of his secret conversations with Milošević and other figures.
Faces of Protest: Yiddish Cartoons of the 1905 Revolution
Authors: Stein Sarah Abrevaya
Published: April 2006

This article turns to an unexplored genre of Russian letters—the Yiddish cartoon—in order to consider how the most popular Russian Jewish newspaper of the early twentieth century participated in the Revolution of 1905-07. By exploring cartoons published in Derfraynd (St. Petersburg, 1903-1913, renamed Dos lebn February-July 1906) Sarah Abrevaya Stein reflects on how the Yiddish press reflected and shaped evolutions in Russian Jewish popular opinion: in particular, the temporary shift away from nationalist and toward opposition and socialist politics. This article also considers why the revolution ended in the world of Yiddish letters some months earlier than it did in the Russian, in the wake of the Bialystok pogroms of June 1906. This event, Stein demonstrates, catalyzed a redirection in the aesthetic and political tenor of popular Yiddish sources, prompting the cartoon to be replaced with the photograph and the politics of opposition with nationalism.
Explaining Electoral Competition across Russia's Regions
Authors: Moraski Bryon J. , Reisinger William M.
Published: April 2006

Russia can only be considered an electoral democracy to the extent that its constituent parts also fit this classification. In this article, Bryon J. Moraski and William M. Reisinger assess how well competing theories drawn from the literature on democratization explain the variation across Russia's regions in their progress toward competitive electoral politics. Their analysis reveals that distinctions among the regions in their social structure, arising from developments in the decades before 1991, help explain political competition in a manner unanticipated not only by existing literature on democratization but also by existing studies of Russian democracy at the national and individual levels. Moreover, they find that the divergent experiences of the regions during the 1990s—in their economies and levels of crime, for example—and variations in party development also help us discern which regions have moved furthest along the path toward electoral democracy.
Tropos Logikos: Gustav Shpet's Philosophy of History
Authors: Steiner Peter
Published: April 2006

Gustav G. Shpet (1879-1937) is one of those formidable Russian thinkers who, in the early years of the last century, orchestrated a revolutionary paradigm shift across a broad swath of the humanities and social sciences that is still reverberating today. But we lack a comprehensive view of the manifold heterogeneity of Shpet's intellectual endeavors. This article focuses on one prominent lacuna in our knowledge of Shpet: the theory of history that he advanced in the 1910s. In many respects Shpet's theory anticipated the "linguistic turn" that occurred in western historiography during the last quarter of the twentieth century and that is most often identified with Hayden White's name. But while White analyzes the historian's discourse in terms of tropology and narratology, for Shpet predication is the key logical mechanism that generates production of texts about the past. The divergence of these two approaches can be explained through the hidden Kantian underpinnings of White's thought that contrasts sharply with the explicit Hegelianism of Shpet's theorizing.
Félix Duban and the Buildings of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, 1832-1840
Authors: van Zanten David
Published: April 2006

The buildings housing the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, as erected by Félix Duban from 1834 to 1840, are a statement of an eclectic, so-called Romantic architecture. A modification of an earlier project by François Debret, they were highly controversial when built because of Duban's imposition of a system of Gothic and Renaissance historical references. The compositional framework within which Duban presents that system, however, is so effectively laid out and adjusted, that as succeeding generations of student architects studied there, the content was forgotten and the form alone considered and admired.
Frank Lloyd Wright, Hollyhock House, and Olive Hill, 1914-1924
Authors: Smith Kathryn
Published: April 2006

The decade 1914-1924 was crucial in the career of Frank Lloyd Wright. He was at work on two major projects, the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo and the Barnsdall commission for Olive Hill in Los Angeles. The Imperial Hotel, although vast and impressive in its grandeur as a finished building supervised closely by Wright, is not as revealing as the Barnsdall commission of the process of transition that these years represent. During the decade Aline Barnsdall called upon Wright to design for her 45 buildings, of which 2 were major theaters (one for Chicago, one for Olive Hill); 2 were her own residences (one for Olive Hill, one for Beverly Hills); 16 were stores; 21 were houses; 1 was an apartment building; 1 an entrance pavilion; 1 a motion picture theater; and 1 a playhouse-kindergarten. In addition, he designed a master plan for her property that included the majority of these buildings and anticipated his later theories of planning as developed in Broadacre City. These buildings span the range of Wright's designs from the late Prairie House to the fully worked out textile block system for concrete.
The Interpretation of the Glass Dream-Expressionist Architecture and the History of the Crystal Metaphor
Authors: Bletter Rosemarie Haag
Published: April 2006

German Expressionist architectural design is generally noted for its free, frenetic forms, for design that left behind all conventions. The futuristic Expressionist glass projects in both amorphous and crystalline arrangements can be seen as an expression of the utopian expectations for a new society after the German Revolution of 1918. Expressionist manifestoes and literature, on the other hand, reveal a thoroughgoing interest in a literary-architectural convention associated with glass and crystal, an iconographic theme that stretches from King Solomon, Jewish and Arabic legends, medieval stories of the Holy Grail, through the mystical Rosicrucian and Symbolist tradition down to Expressionism. Expressionist architects, familiar with the various earlier conventions, in a highly eclectic fashion reinterpreted the meaning of the glass-crystal symbolism as a metaphor of transformation to signify a changed society. This article, though it begins and ends with a discussion of Expressionist design, deals primarily with the sources and changes of this iconographic tradition.
Architecture for a Public Client: The Monuments and Chapels of the American Battle Monuments Commission
Authors: Grossman Elizabeth G.
Published: April 2006

Eleven prominent architects designed the 19 monuments and chapels that the American Battle Monuments Commission erected in Europe for the United States government after World War I. The records of the commission are used to reconstruct the client's interests and relation with the architects. The designs of Paul P. Cret, John Russell Pope, Egerton Swartwout, Louis Ayres, and George Howe are analyzed in terms of each architect's interpretation of the commission's program and the range of architectural concerns represented by this important American undertaking of the late 1920s.
The Cruck-Built Barn of Frocester Court Farm, Gloucestershire, England
Authors: Charles F. W. B. , Horn Walter
Published: April 2006

Structural analysis, supported by radiocarbon and tree-ring measurements, discloses that the timbered roof of the great Tithe Barn of Frocester, in Gloucestershire, England, does not date-as formerly believed-from the time of John de Gamages, abbot of the Monastery of St. Peter's in Gloucester (1284-1306), but is a postmedieval reconstruction of the original roof that perished in a fire early in the 16th century. On the other hand, the masonry walls from which this roof rises are those of the original structure. In medieval cruck construction the roof-supporting trusses were fully assembled on the ground (or in the case of "raised" crucks as in Frocester, on temporary platforms erected for that purpose) and from there reared into vertical position with the aid of pullies and ropes. The walls from which these trusses rose were brought to their full height only after this was done. The analysis of the roof of Frocester tells us a lot about the difficulties postmedieval builders encountered in this type of construction when facing the task of inserting the timbers of a new roof individually from above into an already completed system of walls. Although erected in a wholly unmedieval manner, the postmedieval roof of Frocester, however, may in design and general appearance be a literal copy of the original roof. In medieval England the cruck-truss found its densest distribution in territories settled primarily by Celtic peoples (west and Midlands). Its elegant curvilinearity was of special attraction to the Celtic mind. In the Lowlands with their overwhelming Anglo-Saxon and Norman population, the great aisled barns and halls of the Middle Ages were built in straight timbers in the traditional form of their continental homelands.
The Sugarloaf Mountain Project and Frank Lloyd Wright's Vision of a New World
Authors: Reinberger Mark
Published: April 2006

Wright's 1925 project for Sugarloaf Mountain, Maryland, is an important though little noted design in the architect's career. This article examines the project and elucidates its significance in Wright's work. The nature of the commission and the evolution of the design are discussed using previously unknown archival materials. The project is then considered in the context of Wright's works and writings and seen as a part of his search for a new architectural expression. The paper shows that the Sugarloaf project embodied an outline of Wright's vision of a new world. Based in large part on technological advances, particularly the automobile, Wright's utopian vision was later developed more completely in Broadacre City.
Soane's "Saxon" Room at Stowe
Authors: McCarthy Michael
Published: April 2006

The history of the building of the Gothic Revival library and adjoining lobby and staircase in Stowe House, Buckinghamshire, from 1805 to 1807 by John Soane is discussed in detail following a sequence established by the drawings for the commission and corroborated by letters, accounts, and office records in manuscript. These documents, for the most part preserved in the Sir John Soane Museum, London, have not previously been examined or published in detail in connection with the building, and they allow a very close demonstration of the working of the Soane office. The importance of the Stowe library in Soane's oeuvre is suggested by reference to his earlier and his later works. Though he is generally considered to have been unhappy or unfortunate in his Gothic Revival work, it is argued here that this commission allowed free rein to the expression of his artistic personality and is a notable example of successful historicism. It is further argued that in its close fidelity to the historical model chosen, the Chapel of King Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, the Stowe library represents the culmination of a trend in architectural design that originated with Horace Walpole and was of the first importance to the pioneers of the Gothic Revival, especially of Soane's early patron and friend, Thomas Pitt, Lord Camelford, who had designed the house at Stowe. This commission deserves far greater attention, therefore, than it has received hitherto in the literature of the Gothic Revival. Finally, the iconographical justification of the choice of style and the appropriateness of the model selected by Soane and the Marquis of Buckingham is established by reference to the publications of the antiquary Thomas Astle, whose manuscript collection was to be housed in the new library.
The Westminster Hall Roof and Its 14th-Century Sources
Authors: Courtenay Lynn T.
Published: April 2006

The great angel roof of Westminster Hall, London, erected for Richard II in 1395-1396, remains the consummate achievement in medieval open-timber roofs. The framing, which has an exceptional single span just over 67 feet, is a multitiered construction that combines two major truss types: the hammer beam, and the arch-brace-and-collar roof. The architectural background of the Westminster Hall roof has generally been confined to precursors of the hammer beams that visually dominate the interior and are certainly a major aesthetic if not structural element. When the prominent role of the arch-brace and related decorative detail are recognized, however, a different set of prototypes emerges, principally the chapel at New College and the great hall at Windsor, whose connection with Westminster Hall is more immediate and compelling because of the documented relationships between patrons, craftsmen, and court. Finally, the interaction between late-14th-century carpentry and masonry charts a shift in stylistic values that is critical to understanding English Late Gothic.
Theaters in the Courts of Denmark and Sweden from Frederik II to Gustav III
Authors: Donnelly Marian C.
Published: April 2006

Although there has been much interest in the literature of the Scandinavian theater, little attention has been paid to theater architecture in the northern countries. The kings and queens of Denmark and Sweden, however, were often enthusiastic supporters of and even participants in theatrical performances in the 17th and 18th centuries. After having seen the fashionable theaters of Italy and France, they and their builders had rooms in the old castles of Copenhagen and Stockholm converted for use as court theaters. Plans for theaters in new palace construction were proposed by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger for both countries. In the court theaters by Nicolas Jardin in Copenhagen, Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz at Ulriksdal and Drottningholm, and Erik Palmstedt at Gripsholm much has been preserved to reveal the setting for court performances and to show how tastes in architectural styles changed. The history of these theaters indicates how important they were to the Danish and Swedish courts and how leading architects were called upon to provide them.
Planning a Style for the Escorial: An Architectural Treatise for Philip of Spain
Authors: Wilkinson Catherine
Published: April 2006

This article analyzes and interprets an unpublished Spanish architectural treatise that was written for Philip II while he was Prince Regent (c. 1550). The manuscript did not previously attract attention because it was mistakenly described as written for the king's son Philip (later Philip III) in the 1590s. The treatise, which is by no means a masterpiece of architectural literature, derives mainly from L. B. Alberti's De re aedificatoria, but the anonymous Spanish author used his sources selectively to make an explicit connection between morality and a restrained and orderly classical style. He was not concerned so much with buildings as such but rather with their moral dimension and their relevance to the contemporary Spanish state. His concern to articulate the principles of a Catholic, as opposed to pagan, classical style is matched by his eagerness to reform Spanish architectural practice along the lines suggested by Alberti. Simply as an expression of Counter-Reformation aesthetics the treatise is precocious and exceptionally explicit. The treatise was prepared for Philip who, the author states, requested it, which makes it the only known piece of architectural writing prepared especially for him. It brings crucial evidence about Philip's concerns with architecture in the 1550s, before the beginning of the Escorial in 1563, a subject for which historians were reduced to conjecture. The treatise adumbrates a program for reform that is virtually identical to the one Philip actually adopted in 1559. The evidence of the treatise suggests that the strong ideological implications of the style of the Escorial are not simply a post facto gloss but were a deliberate factor in the inception of the design.
Bulfinch on Gothic
Authors: Frew John
Published: April 2006

Charles Bulfinch, now chiefly remembered as a classicist, is shown to have also possessed a developed interest in Gothic architecture. This can be identified with the architect's midcareer and was sustained through book purchases made from I. & J. Taylor's "Architectural Library," London. In particular, Bulfinch read Joseph Taylor's Essays on Gothic Architecture (1800) closely, sources summarized in this publication providing the framework for his own observations on the origins of the Gothic style, as well as his interest, through Le Brun's Voyages... dans... l'Asie Mineure (1732), in the church of St. John at Acre in the Palestine.
"Dal disegno allo spazio": Michelangelo's Drawings for the Fortifications of Florence
Authors: Wallace William E.
Published: April 2006

Since Charles de Tolnay first published them in 1940, Michelangelo's drawings for the fortifications of Florence have stimulated considerable scholarly interest. Tolnay likened the zoomorphic shapes of Michelangelo's sketches to crustaceous creatures. The analogy has become a commonplace, and while helping to describe the formal appearance of these unexpected designs, it has led most scholars to question their purpose and practicality. Furthermore, every scholar has followed Tolnay's general view that the series proceeds from the simple to the complex, with the drawings becoming increasingly abstract and fantastic. This paper proposes that Michelangelo's process of design was exactly the opposite. Beginning with abstract and complex ideas, Michelangelo proceeded to develop and refine his conceptions in a series of drawings that reflect a rational process of design. This hypothesis is more in accord with the historical facts and the documentary evidence and is based on a close analysis of the drawings themselves. The 20 sheets preserved in the Casa Buonarroti are evidence of Michelangelo's practical concern with particular problems of Florence's defense in 1528-1529 and represent the first stage of his successful activity as a military engineer for the Republic.
Taller Than Eiffel's Tower: The London and Chicago Tower Projects, 1889-1894
Authors: Jay Robert
Published: April 2006

During the later 19th century the rapid spread of iron and steel building technology created an engineers' architecture in which technical problems frequently took priority over traditional concerns of architectural style. Perhaps no other structure represents a more dramatic statement of this new spirit in architecture than the Eiffel Tower. Yet while the controversy surrounding the building of the Eiffel Tower is well known, the almost immediate attempts on the part of American and British engineers and architects to build a taller tower are not. This article concentrates particularly on two ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful attempts to outdistance the Eiffel Tower: Sir Edward Watkin's Wembley Park Tower in London and a monumental tower for the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. These efforts were well documented in any number of architectural and engineering journals of the period. They were also frequently reported and debated in popular magazines and newspapers, reflecting the strong general interest and national pride involved in the prospect of claiming the tallest structure in the world. This article is based primarily on such period sources, not only because of the liveliness of the reportage, but because, in some cases, they provide the only accessible information on some of the proposed tower projects. The most striking fact about the ultimately futile efforts of British and American builders to construct a taller tower is that, while they certainly had the technical expertise to do so, economic considerations overcame them. Doubts as to the profitability of another tall tower as a public attraction on either a temporary or permanent basis doomed both the London and Chicago tower projects to failure.
George B. Post: The Process of Design and the New American Architectural Office (1868-1913)
Authors: Balmori Diana
Published: April 2006

This article deals with an American architect, George B. Post, and the organization of his office. Post's practice was one of the earliest to be conducted as an office rather than an atelier. It was also the first large architectural practice based on what came to be considered the prototypical American building, the office tower. The article examines the organization of Post's office, the way work was done, the building types designed, and the nature of its clients. It concentrates on the design process of one particular building, the Western Union Telegraph Building in New York, which was pivotal not only for this practice but for American architecture. The Western Union Telegraph Building was an early example of the national corporate headquarters and, if it was not the first skyscraper, then it certainly was its immediate precursor.
Anti-Modernism and the Neoclassical Revival in Russian Architecture, 1906-1916
Authors: Brumfield William C.
Published: April 2006

The appearance of the "style moderne" in Russian architecture at the turn of the century reflected not only the assimilation of the new European architecture (Secession, Art Nouveau), but also the movement toward an urban environment that would accommodate a social order based on private capital and the ascendency of Russia's nascent bourgeoisie. Claims for the democratic basis of the new style acquired distinctly political overtones in critical articles published between 1900 and 1905. After 1905 (a year of widespread revolutionary disorder in Russia), a reaction against the modernist aesthetic can be traced in the work of architects and critics who supported a revival of Neoclassicism. Although the new classicism provided the means to apply technological and design innovations within an established tectonic system, it was also widely interpreted as a rejection of the unstable values of individualism and the bourgeois ethos. Neoclassical architecture became the last hope for a reconciliation of contemporary architecture with cultural values derived from an idealization of imperial Russian grandeur. Yet the revival of Neoclassicism quickly manifested the same lack of aesthetic unity and theoretical direction as had the moderne, thus leading certain critics and architects to question the entire social order within which architecture functioned in the decade before the 1917 Revolution.
An Auspicious Alliance: Pugin, Bloxam, and the Magdalen Commissions
Authors: Litvack Leon B.
Published: April 2006

This article forms the sequel to "The Balliol that Might Have Been: Pugin's Crushing Oxford Defeat" (JSAH, XLV, 1986, 358-373). That study showed that Augustus W. N. Pugin (1812-1852) was prevented from carrying out his plans for renovating Balliol College, Oxford, because of his somewhat singular views and oppressive nature, combined with the prevailing sentiments against Roman Catholics in the University. The present study surveys the history of the two small commissions that Pugin was granted: the Magdalen College gateway and the Church of St. Lawrence, Tubney (the only Anglican church Pugin ever built). In both cases Pugin was appointed as architect through the benevolence of Dr. John Rouse Bloxam, in appeasement for the failures at Balliol. Pugin executed the designs in secrecy and with extraordinary speed, thereby hoping to avoid criticism or scandal, in an effort to erect a small monument to himself in Oxford, his "city of spires," which he hoped could serve as the model for the 19th-century Gothic revival in England.
A Reconsideration of the Equitable Building in New York
Authors: Chappell Sally A. Kitt
Published: April 2006

Conventional opinion has held that the Equitable Building (1912-1915) at 120 South Broadway in New York was the embodiment of all that was wrong with skyscrapers, and that it was thus a major cause of the 1916 zoning ordinance which restricted the height, size, and arrangement of buildings in the city. A closer look at the evidence reveals that a blueprint for the zoning regulation was complete in 1913 when the Equitable had just been begun. In the clash of conflicting ideologies surrounding the zoning movement, the Equitable was more a convenient symbol, a handy scapegoat in the heat of contemporary rhetoric, than a principal cause of the new ordinance. The earlier misjudgment has obscured the building's place in two other areas in the history of architecture: elevator engineering, and the adaptation of management techniques to building construction.
The Neighborhood Shopping Center in Washington, D. C., 1930-1941
Authors: Longstreth Richard
Published: April 2006

During the 1930s the neighborhood shopping center emerged as an important phenomenon in the development of retail facilities in the United States. Prior to that decade, the type was limited to a modest number of examples built as components of planned residential subdivisions for the well-to-do. By the eve of World War II, the neighborhood shopping center was seen as an advantageous means of meeting the routine needs of people in outlying urban areas generally. During the 1930s, the neighborhood center also became one of the first common building forms to experience a basic reconfiguration to accommodate patterns of widespread automobile usage. Washington, D. C., was the initial and by far the most intensive proving ground for this work at its formative stage. The results were influential nationwide in the shopping center's transformation from a novelty to a ubiquitous feature of the American landscape.
Byzantine Influence and Private Patronage in a Newly Discovered Medieval Church in Amalfi: S. Michele Arcangelo in Pogerola
Authors: Bergman Robert P.
Published: April 2006

The church of S. Michele Arcangelo in Pogerola (Amalfi), which I discovered several years ago, is here published for the first time. S. Michele is the only extant cross-in-square church in Amalfi or, for that matter, on the Campanian mainland. The cross-in-square was the most widespread Middle Byzantine church plan, and S. Michele is here analyzed in relation to several varieties of the type. S. Michele is unusual in that a number of medieval documents (or their transcriptions) survive that provide information about it: the precise date of its construction (1179-1181), the identity of its donor, and its character as a private church. These facts serve to elucidate S. Michele's origins and provide the basis for a hypothesis that private patronage encouraged the dispersion of the cross-in-square plan in the Byzantine sphere of influence.
A Classical Barrel Vault for San Giovanni in Laterano in a Borromini Drawing
Authors: Echols Robert
Published: April 2006

Francesco Borromini's renovation of the basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome is one of his grandest conceptions. It remains frustratingly incomplete, however, because Borromini was not able to vault the nave as he had hoped. The nature of his design for a vault has been much discussed. The only surviving visual evidence consists of a drawing in a private collection, not heretofore studied in depth. It shows a section through the basilica with two superimposed roofing structures, a flat ceiling and a coffered barrel vault. Comparison to other Borromini drawings for the renovation of the basilica establishes that the drawing is from Borromini's own hand and shows an intermediate stage of his design, probably dating from April 1647. In conjunction with recently published documents from the Spada archive, the drawing demonstrates that as of mid-1647 the vaulting of the basilica was seen as a two-phase process: the existing flat ceiling was to be retained for the present, but the basilica was prepared to support a vault in the future. It also shows that at the Lateran Borromini was consciously emulating not only Michelangelo's Saint Peter's but also Alberti's Sant'Andrea. The prominent use of a classical form on a monumental scale, especially striking in view of Borromini's reputation as an anticlassicist, is attributable to the unique nature of the commission, Borromini's only basilica. The design shows Borromini's boldness in seeking to accommodate the classical form to his own personal concerns for skeletal structure and new effects of motion and light.
Cranbrook: The Invisible Landscape
Authors: Balmori Diana
Published: April 2006

As a study of the landscape of the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, this essay has three objectives: to make visible a previously unacknowledged landscape, to define its relationship to the image of Cranbrook as a whole, and to begin an exploration of the ways in which a landscape draws us into a bond of affection with it. This study is the first to identify landscape designers at Cranbrook and to explore the importance of their design to the institution that was the most successful and long-lived of Arts and Crafts manifestations in America. It thus gives particular attention to the landscape ideas of the Arts and Crafts movement, as this was the last major aesthetic movement to value the art of landscape. Influenced by the principles of this movement, publisher George C. Booth founded Cranbrook in 1925, envisioning a combination school, studio, and art colony, where artists together could develop an integrated design practice. Under the influence of Arts and Crafts, landscape had a very early, critical role at Cranbrook and was part of the vision for the institution. But the later history of Cranbrook shows the decline of landscape as an art, a loss of scope and vision, especially as the Arts and Crafts aesthetic waned and that of the modern movement emerged. The study gives attention to this decline; the observation of how this happened at Cranbrook provides some clues as to the overall diminution of landscape in the twentieth century, a decline heretofore noted, but not explained. The essay begins with the recollection of a personal experience that is critical to the author's interest in the Cranbrook site and to an understanding of the exploration of our connections to landscape. Visits to the site and the use of the resources of the Cranbrook Archives (the papers of George Booth, designs, plans, photographs, and writings by the Cranbrook landscape practitioners) have made it possible to give visibility to the Cranbrook landscape and to allow an assessment of the landscape's relationship to the larger institution.
A Report on Data Analysis of Building Geometry by Computer
Authors: Wiemer Wolfgang , Wetzel Gerhard
Published: April 2006

A computer program has been devised for analysis of proportional design in architecture and has been applied to the church of the Cistercian abbey of Ebrach, Franconia, using detailed survey measurements. Reference for this is a coefficient base of over a thousand proportions of numbers and geometric figures. The investigation has clarified the essential methodological principles for analysis of building geometry including coincidences and ambiguities of proportions, their interaction with the basic uncertainty of measurement, the interdependence between structural reference levels in the building, and the mixing of intention, collateral, and accidental relations. The program has decoded the design of part of the church and its system of measurements showing their proportions to be based on geometrical figures of polygons. The principal measurements were found to represent the sides of these polygons, and their reference, the radius of construction. Most other measurements were derived by systematic division or multiplication of the principal ones, frequently by use of the quadratura. Results also permit conclusions about precision of construction and the role of foot measurements.
Moisei Ginzburg's Narkomfin Communal House in Moscow: Contesting the Social and Material World
Authors: Buchli Victor
Published: April 2006

Constructivist projects are usually discussed as art objects divorced from their social context and physical surroundings. Rarely are the Constructivist landscape and site planning ever discussed. This article examines Moisei Ginzburg's Narkomfin Communal House in Moscow (1928-1929) and its associated structures as they developed in architectural writings and then were constructed, modified and lived in through the Soviet period. Archival site plans are examined that situate the Narkomfin as an element in a Constructivist landscape.
Genesis and Mimesis: The Design of the Arch of Constantine in Rome
Authors: Jones Mark Wilson
Published: April 2006

The Arch of Constantine in Rome marks the passing of the pre-Christian era in architectural terms, recapitulating imperial traditions while at the same time heralding a new consciousness. It pioneered modes of design that exploited recycled elements for the sake of effects and motives quite beyond purely pragmatic considerations. Long the subject of controversy, the monument is today the focus of a scholarly quarrel over the possibility that its superstructure once belonged to an earlier arch on the same site. This study refutes this hypothesis on the basis of considerations of technique and design, showing instead that its composition depended on the emulation of the nearby Arch of Septimius Severus. The connection between the two buildings is indeed as direct as that between Trajan's Column and its full-scale "copy," that of Marcus Aurelius, and it is possible to unravel the rationale behind the transformation of one arch into the other. Since the composition of Constantine's was in this way effectively resolved, the architect could concentrate on the adaptations necessary for accommodating the various sets of recycled components. And despite their heterogeneous character, the outcome was a project of singular coherence in terms of proportion and geometry. It was the product of a unitarian conception that promoted Constantine's ideological program in the realm of urban design, imperial iconography, and political and religious intent.
Blurring Boundaries: The Limits of "White Town" in Colonial Calcutta
Authors: Chattopadhyay Swati
Published: April 2006

Scholars assume colonial Calcutta was a dual city split into "black" and "white" towns. The critical aspect of colonial Calcutta, however, did not lie in such divisions, but in the blurring of boundaries between the two. The rhetorical categories of "white" and "black" towns were used to sustain the British desire to maintain difference in a city in which everyday life compromised such distinctions. The central argument of this essay rests on an analysis of a clearly distinguishable "pattern" of nineteenth-century colonial buildings that borrowed from indigenous as well as foreign sources. It is only by juxtaposing the spatial analysis with written and pictorial documentation that we can understand how these spaces operated in everyday practice. The attempt is to bridge the gap between rhetoric and practice, and to suggest that the spatial structure of Calcutta, from the building scale to the city scale, spoke of the hybrid conditions of colonial culture-a hybridity that did not simply reside in the native body and the native city, but one that the colonizers themselves inhabited.
Cannibalizing Le Corbusier: The MES Gardens of Roberto Burle Marx
Authors: Fraser Valerie
Published: April 2006

In 1938 Roberto Burle Marx designed the gardens for the new Ministry of Education building in Rio de Janeiro, a building that had been designed by a team of Brazilian architects, with Le Corbusier acting as consultant. In the 1920s and 1930s, Brazilian radicals, anxious not to perpetuate the dependency of the past, often adopted an irreverent attitude toward European culture, and although Le Corbusier's visits to Brazil in 1929 and 1936 were undoubtedly influential, his ideas were not received uncritically. This paper suggests that Le Corbusier's negative attitude to aspects of the natural landscape of South America could have provided Burle Marx with an incentive for incorporating the forms of that landscape into his gardens for Brazil's first modernist skyscraper.
The Comfortable Tasty Framed Cottage: An African American Architectural Iconography
Authors: Mooney Barbara Burlison
Published: April 2006

African American architectural history is not a secondhand version of the European American white experience; evidence of African American architectural agency can be discovered by tracing the evolution of the iconography of the "comfortable, tasty, framed cottage." Arising out of aspirations of assimilation before and after emancipation, the image of an idealized African American middle-class house was understood not only as a healthful and convenient shelter, but as the measure of racial progress and as a strategy for gaining acceptance into the dominant white culture. Three institutions within the African American community promoted this iconography: industrial education, the women's reform movement, and the print media. While abysmal living conditions existed for most African Americans, a small number created houses that were informed by the iconography of the ideal black home. Indeed, so powerful was this architectural message of assimilation that black possession of a middle-class home often provoked white violence. While the origins, development, and promulgation of the idealized image can be outlined with some assurance, judging its ultimate value is more uncertain, and some have denounced the African American iconography of domestic architecture as a false and destructive adaptation of white hegemonic cultural values.