bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Seeking Forgiveness: Theoretical Context and an Initial Empirical Study
Authors: Sandage Steven J. , Worthington Everett L. , Hight Terry L. , Berry Jack W.
Published: February 2018

While research on granting forgiveness has exploded recently, no theoretical or empirical attention has been directed at seeking forgiveness. We lay a theoretical base for the study of seeking forgiveness and report our initial study bearing on the concept. We investigate the potential role of some personality and developmental factors that might promote seeking forgiveness. Students ( N = 232) who indicated having transgressed against a partner in the past year completed questionnaires on religiosity, age, developmental level of reasoning about forgiveness, narcissism, self-monitoring, and the level to which they had sought forgiveness. Neither religiosity nor age significantly predicted seeking forgiveness. Developmental level of reasoning about forgiveness predicted seeking forgiveness beyond religiosity and age. Narcissism and self-monitoring significantly predicted seeking forgiveness. We outline limitations of the study and implications for future research, clinical practice, and integration.
A Series of Progressive Legal and Ethical Decision-Making Steps for Using Christian Spiritual Interventions in Psychotherapy
Authors: Chappelle Wayne
Published: February 2018

Recently, there has been a growing trend in the professional literature to address the question: “In what ways should spiritual interventions be used in counseling, with which clients, and under which circumstances?” However, few therapists have received training and supervised experience in incorporating spiritual interventions into their work. This article briefly addresses the purpose and prevalence of Christian spiritual interventions and proposes a series of progressive legal and ethical decision-making steps to improve therapists' skills in incorporating such interventions into psychotherapy. The initial steps include an assessment of the therapist's role, the setting of therapy, and the presenting problem of the client. Additional steps include obtaining informed consent, evaluating a therapist's competency, maintaining professional and scientific responsibility, respecting the client's religious values, documenting the use of spiritual interventions, making appropriate financial arrangements, and promoting the welfare of the client.
Role Conflict and British Pentecostal Ministers
Authors: Kay William K.
Published: February 2018

Church ministers often face the challenges of multiple, conflicting, and ambiguous roles, thus incurring job-related stress based upon the expectations of others and individual personality dynamics. Following the procedures utilized by L. J. Francis and R. Rodger (1994), the relationship of perceived role conflict and personality dynamics was investigated in 930 British Pentecostal ministers. These clergy completed a demographic survey, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (H. J. Eysenck & S. B. G. Eysenck, 1975), and the prioritization of 20 ministerial roles in terms of personal values and the perceived expectations of others. The results of this study indicate that ministers who endorse traits associated with neuroticism tend to experience role conflict more than those endorsing other personality profiles.
The Relation of Spiritual Self-Identity to Religious Orientations and Attitudes
Authors: Pedersen Darhl M. , Williams Richard N. , Kristensen Kristoffer B.
Published: February 2018

Spiritual self-identity, one of four factors in the centrality model of self-identity (D. Pedersen, 1994), is seemingly related to religious orientation (i.e., religion as a means, end, or quest) and religious attitude (i.e., affect, cognitions, and conation associated with religion or religious activity). The relationships among these variables were explored with the Who Am I? scale, the Religious Life Inventory, and the Religious Attitude Questionnaire, respectively. Three hundred fifteen undergraduate students from four universities participated in the study. Those with high scores on spiritual self-identity scored significantly higher on the ends orientation and significantly lower on the means and quest orientations. They also manifested higher scores on the affect and conation scales regarding religious matters. Participants manifesting low spiritual self-identity exhibited an opposite pattern of scores. These findings suggest that spiritual self-identity is a salient feature of self-identification and contributes to the research literature on religiosity.
Christian Psychology Graduate School's Impact on Marriage: Nonstudent Spouses Speak
Authors: Anne Legako Mikala , Lehmann Sorenson Randall
Published: February 2018

Although many empirical studies have investigated marital distress and marital satisfaction, no research has been conducted on the impact of graduate school on marriage for students-in-training, particularly from the viewpoint of the nonstudent spouse. Using a qualitative research methodology, six male and six female spouses of third and fourth year graduate students at an APA-approved program in clinical psychology were subjects in the present study. Three hypotheses investigated were: (a) graduate training would have a detrimental effect on student marriages, (b) nonstudent spouses would report marital strain due to student spouses' emotional isolation and withdrawal, and (c) due to the process of acculturation into organized secular psychology, students' emphasis on personal religious faith would decrease. The first hypothesis was supported, the second was unsupported, and the third received mixed support. Three recommendations to support student marriages within graduate educational settings are offered in conclusion.
Personal Spirituality as a Moderator of the Relationship between Stressors and Subjective Well-Being
Authors: Fabricatore Anthony N. , Handal Paul J. , Fenzel L. Mickey
Published: February 2018

The present study examined the impact that a personal, integrated spirituality has on well-being and its role in moderating the effects of stressors (both significant life events and hassles) on well-being among a sample of 120 undergraduates at a private religiously affiliated college. The hypotheses were as follows: First, stressors would have a negative impact on subjective well-being (SWB), which consists of satisfaction with life (SWL) and affective well-being (AWB); second, personal spirituality would positively predict SWB independently of stressors; and third, personal spirituality would moderate the relationship between stressors and SWB. Results showed that stressors predicted both dimensions of SWB and that personal spirituality significantly added to the prediction of SWL. Personal spirituality was also found to moderate the relationship between stressors and life satisfaction, accounting for a small yet significant portion of the variance. Personal spirituality is conceptualized as a useful resource among undergraduates for maintaining life satisfaction in the face of stressors. Questions are raised regarding the underlying mechanisms of the observed effects.
A Response to Haynes
Authors: Hardy Douglas S.
Published: February 2018

Haynes' (this issue) engagement with a Winnicottian redescription of Christian spiritual direction relationships and critique of some of Hardy's (this issue) claims are reframed in terms of: methodological differences between the psychology of religion and theological integration of psychology, and theological differences regarding the nature of human-divine interaction. A justification is offered for including transference-countertransference issues in discussions of the role of spiritual directors.
Toward Union in Love: The Contemplative Spiritual Tradition and Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory in the Formation of Persons
Authors: Watson Robert A.
Published: February 2018

This article explores points of intersection between the Christian tradition of spiritual direction informed by the contemplative spiritual tradition and contemporary psychoanalytic psychology and psychotherapy. These approaches share a common aim of helping persons move beyond current incomplete and distorted images of self and others–-particularly God as ultimate “Other.” Developmental processes and issues that persons moving from immaturity to maturity encounter throughout the life-course are highlighted. Three such relational/developmental issues explored in this article are nakedness, dis-illusioned awareness, and love. The end-point of spiritual formation, or the making of a soul from the perspective of the contemplative traditions, is “union in love” with Christ, powerfully illustrated in Scripture in the metaphor of Christ as Bridegroom and the Church (corporate and individual) as Bride. Finally, implications for ‘facilitators’ of this process, whether in the context of psychotherapy or pastoral care, will be offered.
Musings on the Dark Night of the Soul: Insights from St. John of the Cross on a Developmental Spirituality
Authors: Coe John H.
Published: February 2018

This article investigates the nature of the dark night of the soul from a biblical, psychological, and experiential perspective, particularly in the context of St. John of the Cross' “developmental spirituality.” As there is a “developmental psychology” that provides an understanding of the dynamics at work in a person's life as they progress through life, so there is a “developmental spirituality” that investigates the various dynamics involved in the spiritual growth of the human spirit across time and the divers manners in which the Holy Spirit works within the person at different times. Hopefully, the reader will better understand his or her own developmental spiritual life (and, if applicable, that of his or her client) since conversion with regard to what God is doing in the dark nights of the soul, and thus learn how to cooperate with the Spirit who is doing work in the depths of the human heart.
Measuring Religion and Spirituality: Where are we and where are we Going?
Authors: Slater Will , Hall Todd W. , Edwards Keith J.
Published: February 2018

While the measurement of religion and spirituality has made significant progress in the past few decades, we have seen increasing criticism of the dominant paradigm in the psychology of religion–intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness. A variety of new measures have been developed, notwithstanding Gorsuch's (1984) admonition to the contrary. Religion and its post-modern offspring (spirituality) has become intensely personal, and the direction of the new measures in the field reflect this shift. Furthermore, several complexities of measuring this domain remain unresolved, such as the lack of precision in definitions, illusory spiritual health, ceiling effects, social desirability, and bias. This article discusses these complexities, provides a critical review of two widely used instruments, and reviews four newer instruments with promising theoretical perspectives and psychometric properties.
Spiritual Coping and Well-Functioning among Psychologists
Authors: Case Paul W. , McMinn Mark R.
Published: February 2018

The work of psychologists can be stressful and demanding, which calls for an understanding of how psychologists cope with the stress of their work and how they prevent distress by establishing habits of well-functioning. Previous studies on psychologists' well-functioning and coping behaviors have not considered the role of spiritual practices in the life of the professional. 400 psychologists (69% response rate) returned questionnaires rating their levels of distress, coping behaviors, methods of well-functioning, and religious coping. No overall differences were observed in levels of distress between more religious and less religious psychologists. Spiritual practices, especially attending religious services and prayer/meditation, were among the most frequently endorsed for a religious subset of the sample. Spiritual practices also appear to play an important role in the prevention of distress for religious psychologists, in that spiritual practices appear to be the first line of defense against distress and are considered to play a very important role in functioning well as a professional.
Gender Differences in the Integration Literature: A Content Analysis of JPT and JPC by Gender and Integration Type
Authors: Watson Terri S. , Burdine Prevost Shelley , Faries Sally , Para-Mallam Funmi
Published: February 2018

The current project asks the questions: Do “women's ways of knowing,” particularly women's ways of knowing God as evidenced in the literature on women's spirituality, imply that women have a unique contribution to make to the integration literature? Do feminine perspectives on integration provide a necessary ‘corrective’ to the largely theoretica literature? Based on a review of feminist contributions to theology, spirituality, philosophy, and psychology, it was hypothesized that female authors' contributions to the integration literature would emphasize practical, clinical, and experiential integration. A content analysis of the past ten years of integration articles in the Journal of Psychology and Theology and the Journal of Psychology and Christianity was conducted to examine the relationship between gender and type of integration. Significant variations in the frequency of male and female first authorship across types of integration were found. Gender differences in the frequency of interdisciplinary, intradisciplinary-clinical, and faith-praxis integration articles contributed most towards the variations: Female authors were more likely to author clinical and faith-praxis integration articles, and male authors were more likely to author interdisciplinary integration articles. Implications are explored regarding the benefits of including feminine thought as an integral partner in the task of integration and spiritual formation.
What Evangelical Pastors Want to Know about Psychology
Authors: McRay Barrett W. , McMinn Mark R. , Wrightsman Karen , Burnett Todd D. , Donna Ho Shiu-Ting
Published: February 2018

Increasing attention has been given to psychologist-clergy collaboration in mainstream psychology journals, yet much remains to be considered regarding how these collaborative relationships will benefit the work of pastors and Christian congregations. The purpose of this research was to evaluate clergy perspectives regarding what psychologists can offer to facilitate the ministry of the church. Various methods of assessment were used, including a survey of evangelical pastors, responses to an open-ended question via electronic mail and in person, and a focus group of Christian mental health practitioners. Respondents indicated an interest in the relationship of sin and psychological disorder, interventions particularly related to marriage and family counseling, understanding of diverse personalities in dealing with church conflict, understanding of psychological disorders, and methods of caring for their personal needs as pastors. Recommendations are offered for those interested in collaborating with clergy.
A Second Look at Quest Motivation: Is Quest Unidimensional or Multidimensional?
Authors: Beck Richard , Baker Lynley , Robbins Marla , Dow Stacy
Published: February 2018

In 1976 Batson introduced the construct of Quest motivation as a supplement to Allport's intrinsic/extrinsic dimensions to characterize mature; religious functioning. However, there has been some debate in the empirical literature regarding the validity of the Quest construct. The present study suggests that Quest may be a multidimensional construct and that continued construct validation of Quest should isolate and operationalize the various facets of Quest motivation. Toward this end, two dimensions of Quest, Tentativeness and Change, were isolated, operationalized, and used to predict spiritual well-being in addition to Allport's I/E constructs. The results indicated that tentativeness was predictive of existential well-being and intrinsic religiosity. By contrast, high change scores were predictive of increased extrinsic religious motives and lower spiritual well-being. Overall, these results suggest that Quest may indeed be a multidimensional construct, and that the individual facets of Quest may have very different relationships with religious variables.
Religious Attendance and Life Satisfaction in the Finnish General Population
Authors: Hintikka Jukka , Koskela Tarja , Kontula Osmo , Koskela Kaj , Koivumaa-Honkanen Heli-Tuulie , Viinamäki Heimo
Published: February 2018

In this study we investigated whether there were associations between religious attendance and life satisfaction in the Finnish general population. Furthermore, we examined whether social support could explain these associations. The nationwide sample included 869 women and 773 men. The respondents were asked during telephone interviews about sociodemographic variables, their household category, social and family support, and the frequencies of religious attendance and other social contacts. Life satisfaction was assessed by means of a scale developed by the Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan. Women were religious attenders more often than men (62% versus 50%). There was no gender difference in life satisfaction. Positive associations were found between life satisfaction and both social support and religious attendance. In multivariate logistic regression analysis an independent positive association was found between religious attendance and the absence of severe life dissatisfaction. Hierarchical loglinear modeling suggested that social support did not mediate the association between religious attendance and life satisfaction.
Contextualizing Models of Humility and Forgiveness: A Reply to Gassin
Authors: Sandage Stephen J. , Watson Wiens Tina
Published: February 2018

We reply to Gassin's (2001) valuable description of an Eastern Orthodox perspective on interpersonal forgiveness by discussing some socio-cultural issues related to eastern and western construals of forgiveness and humility. Differences in the social function of humility and forgiveness are outlined based on differing cultural contexts. Crysdale's (1999) theological model of the cross and resurrection is utilized for developing an integrative perspective on forgiveness and empowerment.
Common Sense is

not

Consensus: Professional Ethics as Marksmanship
Authors: Hathaway William L.
Published: February 2018

Tjeltveit's response to Hathaway's proposal to ground ethics on natural moral sense raises several significant issues and extends the discussion in important directions. Yet some of these issues arise from a misunderstanding of subtle but vital aspects of common sense ethics. Despite the cogent concerns raised by Tjeltveit, the central value of common sense ethics as a foundation for ethical practice remains. More importantly, no feasible alternative is readily apparent. The one promised by Tjeltveit either is unclear or does not fare as well as the common sense alternative suggested in Hathaway's proposal. Contrary to his claim that common sense ethics is unlikely to produce moral excellence, a grounding of ethical judgment in the moral sense provides concrete resources for superlative ethical judgment and inspiration. Treating moral judgment as, at least in part, a sense opens the door for a vision of moral discernment as marksmanship. The fundamental assumption that one is aiming at ‘hitting’ objective moral truth motivates serious ethical concern. An emphasis on the natural moral sense in the context of moral realism also results in a commitment to precision under varied conditions of practice. Such a view does not inadequately consider the role of sin. Rather it takes literally and seriously the deep meaning behind the most common biblical term for sin: hamartia.
Parental Attachment, Reverse Culture Shock, Perceived Social Support, and College Adjustment of Missionary Children
Authors: Huff Jennifer L.
Published: February 2018

This study explored: (a) the differences between MKs and Non-MKs on measures of parental attachment, perceived social support, reverse culture shock and college adjustment; (b) within-group difference on the personality measures for MKs; and (c) the relations between the constructs of parental attachment, perceived social support, reverse culture shock and college adjustment for MKs and for Non-MKs. There were 110 subjects, 49 MKs (completed data on 45) and 65 Non-MKs recruited from Westmont College and Biola University. A significant difference was found between MKs and Non-MKs on the Parents as Facilitators of Independence scale of the Parental Attachment Questionnaire and the Cultural Distance and Interpersonal Distance scales of the Homecomer Culture Shock scale. Significant MK within group comparisons were also found on all of the personality measures. Parental Attachment was found to have a direct causal effect on perceived social support and college adjustment for all subjects. Perceived social support was found to be significantly correlated with college adjustment. Pertinent research and applied implications are discussed.
Feeling Humans and Social Animals: Theological Considerations for an Evolutionary Account of Human Emotion
Authors: Boivin Michael J.
Published: February 2018

In an overview of God and evolutionary theory in recent thought, Barbour (2000) categorizes various proponents as representing either a conflict, independence, dialogue, or integration approach. Using an evolutionary psychological (EP) model of the social function of human emotions, these approaches are considered in terms of how one could include EP within a theological ontology. The partnership of EP with dramatic scientific advances in cognitive neuroscience, the Human Genome Project, and proteonomics represent a powerful scientific hegemony in ultimately defining the human condition. The author's Hebraic model of integration proposes a robust framework for accommodating this hegemony within a theological ontology and eschatology, but without appealing to an apologetic of “intelligent design” or an “inner-agent” superseding the natural order. It is a holistic approach based on the core assumptions of physicalism and the power of an empirical epistemology in understanding and treating emotional brokenness. It also sees redemptive emotional healing as portent of the eschatological hope of the physical resurrection, deep social renewal, and the human place in ecological restoration in the Kingdom of God.
Evolutionary Theory and the Emergence of Moral Nature
Authors: Hurlbut William , Kalanithi Paul
Published: February 2018

The views of morality presented by evolutionary psychology and Christian theology are generally considered mutually exclusive. Love is central to the Christian message, but the self-sacrifice of Christian love seems incompatible with an evolutionary paradigm. This incompatibility, however, stems not from irreconcilable differences, but from an overextension and misapplication of the methodology of evolutionary psychology; no acknowledgement of the transcendent is possible, and morality becomes mere functionality. Within human phylogeny there is an evident ascent of freedom, mind, and moral awareness. This freedom, however, leads to greater interpersonal dependence and vulnerability, which both makes possible and makes necessary moral behavior. The crucial significance of moral conviction and motivation receives its complement and completion within the natural order in the revelation of love through the sacrificial death of Christ. The earthly and the transcendent are unified, as humanity is called into communion with a loving God.
Languages and Genes: Can They be Built up through Random Change and Natural Selection?
Authors: Oller John W.
Published: February 2018

Can natural selection operating on random arrangements of material building blocks (i.e., subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, and larger collections and structures of matter), produce the genomes of all living things, the human language capacity, and all of the world's 6000 plus natural languages? There are two polar views on this question that are widely held by practicing scientists. At one extreme there is the neo-Darwinian claim that chance aided by natural selection can arrange dynamic information systems as they are now. At the other end there is the view that a transcendent Intelligence not limited by matter, space, and time is required. Here an argument is presented from logico-mathematical proofs developed in theoretical semiotics to show unequivocally that the known symbol systems seen in genomes and in human languages cannot be produced by chance arrangements of any kind of material building blocks. The argument is general. It applies to all possible symbol systems, though the emphasis here is on the genetic system evidently underlying all living organisms and the human language capacity, which is manifested in the multitude of natural languages.
Intelligent Design Psychology and Evolutionary Psychology on Consciousness: Turning Water into Wine
Authors: Grace Christopher R. , Moreland J. P.
Published: February 2018

From the titles of some recent evolutionary psychology publications on the mind, one could get the impression that the mystery of consciousness has been solved, but serious questions and doubts persist. Many scientists have deep reservations about Darwinian theory. Some of these scientists promote the Intelligent Design movement, which has received recent attention from scholars in biology, biochemistry, mathematics, philosophy, and theology. Intelligent Design theory both challenges the naturalistic evolutionary account of life and proposes an alternative scientific research program. Its aim is to investigate the natural world for evidence of divine causes and to detect the patterns or fingerprints of an intelligent designer. The implications of this theory for the field of psychology are examined, and a new field, a Christian version of Intelligent Design Psychology (IDPC) is proposed. The article then briefly compares the psychological implications of IDPC with its chief rival, a naturalistic version of evolutionary psychology (EPN), in relation to consciousness and self-consciousness, including why these phenomena provide serious difficulties for EPN, while at the same time providing positive support for IDPC. Both approaches are examined for their comparative abilities to describe, explain, and predict various facets of human persons that center on consciousness and self-conscious emotions.
The Problem and Potential of Memetics
Authors: Poulshock Joseph
Published: February 2018

Memetics, in kinship with evolutionary psychology, has arisen as a relatively new Darwinian approach to understanding language, culture, and the human mind, where memes exist as cultural and mental replicators analogous to genes. In its extreme versions, memetics purports to give a total explanation for the origin, grounding, and functioning of cultural and mental events, yet ironically, memetics is rife with conceptual problems and utterly lacking in empirical support. Nevertheless, in spite of the serious technical issues and the unconvincing over-extension of the idea, modest versions of the theory might potentially enlighten our understanding of cultural transmission and the reproductive success of certain ideas. Furthermore and most importantly, since radical memetics presents an aggressive, increasingly popular, and absolutely materialistic conception of human nature that is vociferously anti-theistic, Christian scholars who wish to understand and critique pivotal academic and cultural trends will benefit from understanding the problems and potentials of memetics.
Reconsidering Intrinsic Religion as a Source of Universal Compassion
Authors: Bassett Rodney L. , Baldwin David , Tammaro Julie , Mundig Danalyn Mackmer Chantelle , Wareing Andrew , Tschorke Doni
Published: February 2018

Several studies have considered the ability of devout Christians to accept homosexual persons while rejecting homosexual behavior. Batson, Floyd, Meyer, and Winner (1999) found that intrinsic Christians were not able to make that distinction. Bassett et al. (2000) found that intrinsic Christians were able to distinguish between the value of homosexual persons and behavior. Both studies used financial help as the measure of acceptance. This study replicated the Batson et al. methodology with some modifications. The basic methodology involves students working at a time-limited task, which might financially benefit another “student.” What is varied in the procedure is the description of the other “student” (regarding sexual orientation and what the person intends to do with the money). Results from the study suggested that intrinsic Christians were able to “love the sinner but hate the sin.”
Spiritual Direction: Meaning, Purpose, and Implications for Mental Health Professionals
Authors: Moon Gary W.
Published: February 2018

This article introduces the first of two special issues on spiritual direction and mental health. Attention is given to providing a broad understanding of the meaning, purpose, and scope of spiritual direction, and discussing factors concerning resistance to spiritual transformation. It then explores: the diversity of roles assumed by spiritual guides and directors; contemporary contrasts between spiritual direction and psychotherapy; and critical issues concerning the integration of spiritual concepts and practices into the process of counseling and psychotherapy. It is asserted that the present climate of increased dialogue between soul care practitioners provides unprecedented opportunity for the enhancement of understanding concerning the process of spiritual transformation and its implications for the mission of both church and clinic.
Spiritual Direction in the Episcopal Church
Authors: Temple Gray
Published: February 2018

This article briefly traces the definition, history, and current typical practices of spiritual direction in the Episcopal Church (and, by extension, the Anglican Communion). An understanding is presented of the transformation process as an alliance against the client's shame. The on-going discussion between “directors” and “spiritual companions” as different approaches to power relations with spiritual direction is summarized. Characteristics by which Episcopalians gauge spiritual maturity are described. Difficulties in exactly distinguishing spiritual direction from conventional psychotherapy are described in view of the latter's fluidity in practice. Attention is focused on the triggers that alert the director to the need for the other discipline. Also, two books representing different currents within the mainstream are recommended.
Spiritual Direction in the Wesleyan-Holiness Movement
Authors: Tracy Wesley D.
Published: February 2018

Though the term “spiritual direction” is not a common part of the vocabulary of the Wesleyan-Holiness people, the goals of spiritual direction form the core of their spiritual quest. Avoiding “direction” for fear of spiritual abuse, the Wesleyan-Holiness people seek to help each other toward Christian perfection by way of face-to-face groups, spiritual companioning, family worship, covenant groups, and faith mentoring. These specific structures and practices, along with observance of the personal spiritual disciplines and the disciplines of service, are primarily rooted in the heritage of the Wesleyan revival in 18th-century England and secondarily in the American Holiness Movement of the 19th century. Indirect indicators associated with spiritual maturity are described and comparisons between psychotherapy and spiritual guidance are made.
Integrating Spiritual Direction into Psychotherapy: Ethical Issues and Guidelines
Authors: Tan Siang-Yang
Published: February 2018

Integrating spirituality and religion into clinical practice or psychotherapy has become a significant area of interest in the mental health field today. The present article focuses more specifically on integrating spiritual direction into psychotherapy, discusses ethical issues involved, and provides ethical guidelines for the appropriate and helpful use of spiritual direction in the context of psychotherapy and counseling
Self and Soul: Exploring the Boundary between Psychotherapy and Spiritual Formation
Authors: Beck James R.
Published: February 2018

As the field of mental health increasingly turns its attention to spirituality, Christian counseling is busily investigating how spiritual formation relates to psychotherapy. At the heart of these concerns is the topic of the human soul. This article explores the meaning of “soul” in Scripture, in Greek philosophy, and in medieval spirituality as it impacts the present practice of psychotherapy, an enterprise that primarily deals with the self. Particular attention is given to the knowledge competencies regarding the soul that Christian counselors will need as they re-tool for adding spiritual formation to their counseling practices.
Spirituality's Potential Relevance to Physical and Emotional Health: A Brief Review of Quantitative Research
Authors: Larson David B. , Larson Susan S.
Published: February 2018

Longitudinal studies of community samples consistently find links between active spiritual/religious involvement and increased chances for living longer, pointing to the relevance of spirituality/religion as a potential health factor. For a large proportion of either medically ill or mental health patients, spirituality/religion may provide coping resources, enhance pain management, improve surgical outcomes, protect against depression, and reduce risk of substance abuse and suicide. However, study findings also show patient spirituality/religion may serve as a source of conflict linked with poorer health outcomes. Whether identifying helps or harms, research elucidates the potential relevance of patients’ spirituality/religion, with potential for collaboration with trained chaplains as part of the healthcare team to provide spiritual support or deal with spiritual distress for particular patient needs.
Strengthening Marriages in a Skeptical Culture: Issues and Opportunities
Authors: Stanley Scott
Published: February 2018

Questions are answered in relationship to Scott Stanley's work in marriage education and in relationship to a variety of sociocultural factors concerning the condition and treatment of marriage issues in contemporary society, including current trends for public sector efforts to strengthen marriages in the U.S. The PREP and Christian PREP approach to marital education is discussed. In addition, recommendations are made for marital interventions in general to local community and church leaders as well as marital therapists.
Hope-Focused Marriage: Recommendations for Researchers, Clinicians, and Church Workers
Authors: Worthington Everett L.
Published: February 2018

In response to questions posed to several respondents in this special issue, I describe a hope-focused approach to improving marriage, especially among Christians who marry. Hope involves maintaining a positive motivation to change (i.e., willpower), a variety of pathways to change (i.e., waypower), and perseverance (i.e., waitpower). I use these hope-focused principles to understand marriage and its future, to guide recommendations for public policy and preventive strategies, and to encourage helpers to continue to help couples. Despite cultural influences that challenge marriage as an institution, I remain hopeful that society and intervention specialists can still strengthen marriages.
A Study of two Marital Enrichment Programs and Couples’ Quality of Life
Authors: Burchard G.A. , Yarhouse M.A. , Killian M. , Worthington E.L. , Berry J.W , Canter D.
Published: February 2018

The need for empirical research that contributes to the prevention and arrest of marital distress is increasing. Factors identified through research as being influential in the stability of marriage include intimacy, positive behaviors, social support, good communication, and conflict management. Although a variety of marital enrichment programs that address these same factors do exist, this current study addresses two particular marital enrichment programs: Hope-Focused, and Forgiveness and Reconciliation through Experiencing Empathy (FREE). Couples volunteered to participate in a study of newly married couples (5 months or less) and were then divided into three groups. Two of these groups received approximately 9 hours of marital enrichment and the third group was designated as a control group. The impact of these programs on the couples’ quality of life, as determined by the Quality of Life Inventory (QOLI(r)), was examined. Quality of life was found to significantly improve with the administration of a hope-focused marital enrichment program. It approached significance in couples who participated in a forgiveness-based program. In addition, levels of religious commitment and the individual's disposition to forgive are also studied in their relation to overall quality of life. Implications of this study include the application of brief marital enrichment as a preventive measure that could be both cost- and time-conserving. Furthermore, the use of forgiveness training in the therapeutic settings may be beneficial and contribute to individuals’ well-being.
Building Healthy Marriages through Early and Extended Outreach with Youth
Authors: Silliman Benjamin
Published: February 2018

This article presents a case for faith communities to strengthen efforts to build healthy marriages during teen years through an ecological approach using individual, social network, organizational and community strategies. Community-based marriage preparation programs for engaged couples are effective in reducing divorce and distress in the early years of marriage. Extending these commitment- and skill-training efforts into teen years and linking them to positive youth development programs might increase these benefits, especially for high-risk couples. In addition, faith communities are critical catalysts in fostering support and training networks, community policy and outreach that can promote more positive environments for marriages and families. This article presents a model and suggests strategies to support early and extended outreach to build healthy marriages.
Reanalysis within a Christian Ideological Surround: Relationships of Intrinsic Religious Orientation with Fundamentalism and Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Authors: Watson P. J. , Sawyers Pauline , Morris Ronald J. , Carpenter Mark L. , Jimenez Rachel S. , Jonas Katherine A. , Robinson David L.
Published: February 2018

This study examined whether ideology influenced the correlations of the Intrinsic Religious Orientation Scale with Religious Fundamentalism and Right-Wing Authoritarianism. A sample of 407 undergraduates responded to these instruments along with measures of Christian Fundamentalist Beliefs, Intolerance of Ambiguity, and religious extrinsicness. Empirical procedures were used to translate Religious Fundamentalism into a more adaptive Biblical Foundationalism. Formal evaluations of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale uncovered some ideologically pro-religious items, but an even larger number of ambiguous and anti-religious statements. Partial correlations controlling for Religious Fundamentalism documented the basically adaptive potentials of a biblical intrinsicness. The Intrinsic association with authoritarianism was attributable to the ambiguous and anti-religious ideological content of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale. Ideological factors, therefore, did seem to underlie empirical suggestions that traditional Christian commitments necessarily reflect a narrow-minded authoritarian fundamentalism.
Depression, Creativity, and Religion: A Pilot Study of Christians in the Visual Arts
Authors: Yarhouse Mark A. , Turcic Elizabeth Kreeft
Published: February 2018

Increased interest in the relationship between creativity and depression has led to popular and professional discussions of the experiences of highly creative persons who suffer from depression or mania. There has also been parallel interest in religion, spirituality, and religious coping in American culture and in professional mental health organizations, such as the American Psychological Association. It is surprising, then, that there has been relatively little attention paid to religious artists who suffer from depression. The purposes of the present study were to gather pilot data on (a) the experiences of religious artists who report symptoms of depression and mania, (b) whether depression and mania contribute in any positive ways to the work of artists, and (c) ways in which religion helps and/or hurts artists’ abilities to cope with depression and mania.
Rediscovering Models of Sabbath Keeping: Implications for Psychological Well-Being
Authors: Diddams Margaret , Surdyk Lisa Klein , Daniels Denise
Published: February 2018

There is a growing interest in Sabbath keeping in America as a counterbalance to our culture's consumerism, exhaustion, and loss of segmentation between work and other life arenas. We describe three models of Sabbath keeping, their implications for well-being, their inherent challenges and a program of research to investigate the proposed relationships. The models are (a) Life Segmentation, in which people actively segment their lives to create respite; (b) Prescribed Meaning, in which people prescribe positive and religious meaning to life segmentation; and (c) Integrated Sabbath, in which Sabbath keeping is celebrated as an integrated belief system of daily rest, reflection and relationship development.
Dimensions Underlying Sixteen Models of Forgiveness and Reconciliation
Authors: Walker Donald F. , Gorsuch Richard L.
Published: February 2018

Numerous models of interpersonal forgiveness and reconciliation have proliferated, while the number of constructs common to these models and how these constructs interrelate has gone untested. Sixteen path models of forgiveness and reconciliation were examined in 180 predominantly Christian college students. Results of factor analysis suggested five underlying constructs–-Hurt and Anger, Receiving God's Forgiveness, Emotional Forgiveness, Empathy, and Reconciliation. Structural equations modeling supported a model whereby people simultaneously experience Hurt and Anger while Receiving God's Forgiveness, and which then relate to Emotional Forgiveness, then Empathy, then Reconciliation. These results suggest substantial overlap among models, empirically support a distinction between Emotional Forgiveness and Reconciliation, and suggest that Receiving God's Forgiveness is an important factor for religious people beginning reconciliation.
Attachment to God: The Attachment to God Inventory, Tests of Working Model Correspondence, and an Exploration of Faith Group Differences
Authors: Beck Richard , McDonald Angie
Published: February 2018

Recent theoretical and empirical work by Lee Kirkpatrick and others has suggested that relationship with God can be fruitfully described as an attachment bond. However, this literature has been limited by the lack of a sound theoretical and psychometric scale that operationalizes the attachment to God construct. Toward that end, the paper presents data from three samples, two college and one community sample, describing the psychometric properties of the Attachment to God Inventory (AGI) as well as providing tests of the correspondence and compensation hypotheses. In general, the AGI subscales of Avoidance of Intimacy and Anxiety about Abandonment display good factor structure, internal consistency, and construct validity. Comparisons of the AGI with adulthood attachment measures appear to support, albeit weakly, a correspondence between working models of romantic others and God.
Spirituality and Burnout: An Incremental Validity Study
Authors: Golden Jonathan , Piedmont Ralph L. , Ciarrocchi Joseph W. , Rodgerson Thomas
Published: February 2018

Burnout is often seen as a combination of personality and work environment factors. Like other professions in burnout research, clergy have been treated with little consideration for what might be unique about or vital to the vocation or its adherents. The present study examined the incremental validity of spirituality in predicting burnout in United Methodist clergy over and above both personality and work environment variables. Burnout was measured using a composite index consisting of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996), the Situational Shift Scale (Rodgerson & Piedmont, 1998), and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that spirituality showed incremental significance in predicting burnout even when controlling for personality and work environment, although the contribution was small.
Wesleyan Theological Methodology as a Theory of Integration
Authors: Porter Steven L.
Published: February 2018

The central claim of this article is that debates over the integration of psychological theories and findings, on the one hand, and Christian doctrine, on the other, largely boil down to differences in theological methodology, and that the theological methodology often associated with John Wesley offers a compelling model of such integration. Section I lays out how it is that while there are logical and normative matters involved in discussions of theoretical integration, methodological issues are at the heart of such discussions, and hence, how it is that one's theological methodology determines one's theory of integration. Given this thesis, Section II outlines the general contours of Wesleyan theological methodology. This methodology involves four mutually interacting though hierarchically arranged sources of knowledge: Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. The final section elucidates the manner in which this understanding of theological method can be taken as a viable and vital model of the theoretical integration of psychology and theology.
Agency and Purpose in Narrative Therapy: Questioning the Postmodern Rejection of Metanarrative
Authors: Lee Cameron
Published: February 2018

Postmodern ideas have led to increased interest in narrative in the domains of both theology and psychotherapy. Narrative theology allows the concept of an intrinsic human telos, a divinely created purpose which constitutes the perfection of a human life. Socially constructed understandings of the institution of therapy, however, and postmodern ideological commitments regarding the nature of metanarratives, make it difficult for narrative therapists to consider this theological possibility. This paper will examine the concept of agency in narrative psychology and therapy, and the moral questions that exist at the boundaries of these disciplines, exploring the possible clinical significance of including a teleological assumption in their theoretical core.
Proposed Levels of Christian Spiritual Maturity
Authors: Gibson Timothy S.
Published: February 2018

Consideration is given to the ramifications of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning for understanding Christian spiritual development. Utilizing Kohlberg's insights, four levels toward Christian spiritual maturity are identified: (a) accommodation to God's law, (b) respect for and obedience to God's law, (c) principle-centered commitment to a Christian worldview, and (d) Kingdom-centered commitment to God's glory. The discussion intends to challenge churches to foster an environment whereby people are more likely to reach a Postconventional level of spiritual maturity.