bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paiton I: Backing Away from the New Property Rights
Authors: Wells Louis T.
Published: May 2007

Indonesia's transition to democracy brought additional problems for business managers, as it opened the way for new interest groups — the press, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and labor unions — to challenge the Paiton I accord. Although Paiton's investors had built defenses using the new international system of property rights, in the end the new assurances such as arbitration and insurance provided only limited protection for the company. The Paiton dispute raises important questions about why foreign firms undertook such risky projects in the first place. One factor in the decision must have been their trust that the new assurances would be effective.
Karaha Bodas Company: Turning to Arbitration
Authors: Wells Louis T.
Published: May 2007

Paiton I was only one of twenty-seven Indonesian power agreements struck down by the Asian Currency Crisis. Unlike Paiton I, the owners of the Karaha Bodas geothermal power project decided to go to arbitration. The decision suggests a link between corporate strategy and how companies used the new international property rights. This chapter illustrates serious problems associated with the new property rights, reflecting a very rigid view of contract law, which can result in inappropriately large awards, which are fraught with moral hazard. As of summer 2006, eight years after the Asian Currency Crisis struck Indonesia, the struggle over this project was ongoing.
Resurrecting Berkelian Spirits
Authors: Roberts John Russell
Published: May 2007

The coherence of Berkeley's account of spirits is defended against the charge that they cannot be, on the one hand, simple substances and, on the other hand, both active and passive in nature. The chapter provides an interpretation of the active/passive distinction, an account of how the linguistic ordering of nature serves to render the sensory world intelligible, and an understanding of the relationship between Berkelian spirits and Lockean persons. It is argued that Berkeley's spirits must be understood to be a kind of hybrid of Lockean persons and Cartesian simple substances. Berkeley's reduction of the self to the will is elucidated and defended.
Common Sense, the Manifest Image, and Immaterialism
Authors: Roberts John Russell
Published: May 2007

With an interpretation of Berkeley's view of spirits in hand, this chapter turns to the task of situating that view of spirits within his overall positive metaphysics and defending the connection it bears to “common sense”. The book argues that Berkeley's metaphysics is the metaphysics of the “mob” so long as the mob is properly understood to be the mob of professing monotheists. It further argues that core aspects of traditional monotheism inevitably tend toward support for immaterialism. Wilfred Sellars' metaphilosophy from Philosophy and the Scientific Image of Man is used to both elucidate and map Berkeley's core metaphysical commitments.
Prophecy and Tradition
Authors: Hvidt Niels Christian
Published: May 2007

Revelation is complete with Christ but does not come to a close with him. There is a deep unity between the Christ event and its unfolding through the action of the Holy Spirit in the life of the church. In this sense, Christianity is not a final but a preliminary stage between Christ's first and his last coming. This recognition is important for the understanding of the concept of tradition. Tradition should not be seen in the sense of traditional, but signifies a living reality in which Christ continues to unfold and actualize his truth in every new generation. Prophecy is one of the realizations of this dynamic actualization process. In fact, most of the instances in which revelation is actualized through time (Scripture, Magisterium, theology, dogma, pious traditions, liturgy) have been inspired by prophecy.
Prophecy's Status and Types of Faith
Authors: Hvidt Niels Christian
Published: May 2007

Neo-Scholastic Catholic theology developed a system of different forms of faith. Despite its limitations, this typology of faith proves to be a most useful tool in assessing the status of prophecy in the church. Objects of faith that belong to the core of revelation (e.g., that God is trinitarian) are believed with fides divina. Objects of faith that constitute mere historical occurrences (e.g., that Francis Xavier brought Christianity to China) are believed with fides humana. In between these to types of faith range a number of other types and the question is: with what type of faith should believers believe in prophetic revelations? Should they be seen as mere historical occurrences or do they reflect divine truth?
General Conclusion
Authors: Hvidt Niels Christian
Published: May 2007

The phenomenon of Christian prophecy investigated in this book is controversial. Prophets have easily been associated with religious fanatics who preach doom and gloom. Historical, exegetical, and theological arguments have been adduced by many for the extinction of prophecy. The conclusions in this chapter state that none of these arguments are sound, since they merely argue for the cessation of one form of prophecy, not the prophetic phenomenon itself. This book argues that prophecy never died, but rather proved its dynamism by mutating according to the preconditions of new historical developments. Exploring Christian prophecy as a theme for systematic theology means we should regard revelation as more than a past event. Instead, inherent to revelation is the eternal Word's continuous salvific operation that actualizes and realizes what was given in Christ's Incarnation for the edification of the church. Therewith, prophecy becomes an integral part of revelation as one of the forms in which the Word of God continues to unfold and give itself to the people of God.
2 Violence, Fear, and Power: The Expansion and Limitation of War
Authors: Herberg‐Rothe Andreas
Published: May 2007

What Clausewitz says about the interactions to the extreme provides the basis for the assumption that he is the theorist of destruction and the precursor of the idea of total war. But these interpretations should not be countered by introducing a total shift between the concept and the reality of war, as it has so often happened in the history of Clausewitz's interpretations. This chapter emphasizes that in his first chapter, the three interactions to the extreme are balanced by three tendencies which lead to the limitation of war. The three interactions to the extreme do not describe the whole of war, but they are nevertheless tendencies in each war, which are countered by opposing tendencies. The chapter explores the assumption that the striving powers ‘behind’ these different interacting tendencies in war are violence, fear, and power.
3 Concepts of Absolute and Real War
Authors: Herberg‐Rothe Andreas
Published: May 2007

All previous interpretations of Clausewitz's concept of war have treated it as something that must be understood in connection with the three interactions to the extreme, and consequently with his concept of the absolute. This chapter discusses the similarities and the difference between Clausewitz's concept of absolute war and modern total war. Furthermore, it can be shown that the different conceptualizations of Clausewitz's concepts of war are connected with his different war experiences at Jena, Moscow, and Waterloo. Until now, it has been overlooked that Clausewitz also speaks of the wondrous trinity as his concept of war. Nevertheless, it has to be acknowledged that Clausewitz's conceptualizations remain ambivalent without a discrete interpretation of his first chapter.
6 The Formula: Politics in War
Authors: Herberg‐Rothe Andreas
Published: May 2007

The problem with Clausewitz's world-renowned formula depends on an internal tension within his concept of policy/politics. This tension invalidates neither his formula nor his theory, but it has to be unfolded in order that the formula could serve as an analytical tool. Otherwise, the formula would become a dogma. Clausewitz emphasized this fundamental tension only indirectly by saying that war is the continuation of policy, but with ‘other means’. Peter Paret has clearly revealed this tension by declaring: ‘The readiness to fight and the readiness to compromise lie at the core of politics’. By following up this tension in Clausewitz's work, this chapter introduces a ‘small’ change in the understanding of what Clausewitz endorses with a ‘state’: nothing else than any kind of community. By taking this ‘small’ change into account, it argues that Clausewitz's trinity enables a general theory of war.
Jacob Mincer
Authors: Teixeira Pedro N.
Published: May 2007

This book presents the work of one of the most important economists of the second half of the 20th century, Jacob Mincer. Mincer played a central role in shaping contemporary labor economics, namely through his pioneering work in human capital and labor supply analysis. The book presents a systematic analysis of all his extensive published work, emphasizing its continuity as a lifetime research program that had a lasting influence in modern labor economics. The analysis also highlights his main theoretical and methodological traits that make his research so unique.
Placing Human Capital at the Center of Income Distribution
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

This chapter analyzes Mincer's contribution to income distribution research, namely the way he placed human capital at the center of that research. It commences with a brief analysis of the debates that marked the development of research in personal income distribution during the first half of the 20th century. Mincer's thesis of 1957 is analyzed by showing how his work incorporated a broader debate about the purposes and uses of research in personal income. The chapter proceeds by covering Mincer's subsequent work on human capital and lifetime income and wage patterns, which reached a high point with his 1974 book Schooling, Experience, and Earnings and the formulation of the human capital earnings function, which would become a centerpiece of modern labor research. The chapter also shows the way Mincer's research has significantly influenced the economic analysis of income distribution.
The Human Capital Labor Economist
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

This final chapter sums up the analysis of Jacob Mincer's prolific and interesting career. It also highlights the hallmarks of Mincer's approach to economic analysis. It points out his major contributions to economic analysis and suggests the topics and features by which his work will continue to influence future generations of (labor) economists.
Gödel's Theorem
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter presents an argument for dialetheism which draws on Gödel's first incompleteness theorem. This is a non-constructive argument, which does not produce dialetheias explicitly, but shows that that there must be some. Although the argument starts at some distance from the ground traversed in the preceding chapters, it leads to the same terrain: the logical paradoxes and the trade-off between consistency and completeness. Proof of Gödel's theorem is presented.
Truth and Falsity
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter discusses truth and related notions: the T-schema, meaning, assertion, falsity. It defends the T-schema, and argues for a teleological account of truth. It concludes with a discussion of whether negation commutes with truth.
Semantic Closure and the Philosophy of Language
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter shows how to construct a semantically closed theory, that is a theory which contains the T-schema for all the sentences of its own language. The connection with the theory of meaning is also discussed.
Set Theory and The Philosophy of Mathematics
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter discusses certain aspects of naive set theory, that is, set theory in which the abstraction scheme holds for all formulas of the language of set theory, and some of its implications for the philosophy of mathematics. Substitutional semantics, analyticity and paradoxicality, mathematical realism and anti-realism, and cardinality and syntax are discussed.
The Metaphysics of Change I: The Instant of Change
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter examines the issue of discrete temporal changes. It is shown that there are, if not conclusive, then at least plausible reasons for supposing that these may produce dialetheias, especially once the prejudice against contradictions has been put aside. The instant of change, dialectical tense logic, and the Leibniz continuity condition are discussed.
The Metaphysics of Change II: Motion
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

The previous chapter ends by proposing the idea that contradictions not only occur in certain sorts of change, but actually are the states of change themselves. This chapter explores this possibility further. It focuses on change of place with respect to time: motion. It criticizes the standard Russellian account of motion, and formalizes and defends a Hegelean account.
Minimally InconsistentLP
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter shows how to construct a non-monotonic logic that implements the default assumption of consistency. In particular, the disjunctive syllogism is valid in consistent contexts, and when applied to consistent sets of premises, the logic gives the full strength of classical logic.
Autocommentary on the First Edition
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

This chapter charts some of the developments that have taken place since the first edition of this book was published, including areas where the author's views have been revised. It does this by giving an autocommentary on the first edition, chapter by chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Mason Andrew
Published: May 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of equality of opportunity. It then considers the relationship between equality of opportunity and egalitarian principles. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
The Simple View
Authors: Mason Andrew
Published: May 2007

This chapter begins with an examination of the simple view that equality of opportunity requires open competition for advantaged social positions. It is argued that this idea is not really so simple. The notion of an open competition and the idea of a qualification which it presupposes are more complicated than they seem, and need to be looked at in a broad account of justice in general, or equality of opportunity in particular. The simple view must be regarded as incomplete: it is implausible to suppose, for example, that open competition for advantaged social positions is a sufficient condition of equality of opportunity. Reflection upon the simple view suggests that any adequate account of equality of opportunity must include at least two components: the idea that there should be open competition for advantaged social positions, and that there should be fair access to the qualifications required for success in these competitions.
Mitigating Principles
Authors: Mason Andrew
Published: May 2007

In order to defend a version of the mitigation approach as opposed to the neutralization approach, a plausible set of principles that might constitute that approach must be identified. The strategy here is to work from the bottom up: to seek defensible principles to govern specific goods or specific aspects of people's circumstances, and then to see whether they can be grounded in more abstract principles. The chapter focuses on three areas: access to qualifications, the giving of gifts and bequests, and the effects of differences in natural talents and abilities. The principles that emerge should be thought of as working together to spell out what kind of impact differences in social circumstances and natural endowments may justly have upon access to advantage. These different principles have different characters: some are best understood as quasi-egalitarian, whilst others are grounded in a moderate version of the sufficiency view.
3 Asceticism, Heresy, and Early Christian Tradition
Authors: Hunter David G.
Published: May 2007

Jovinian's accusations against ascetic extremists had a precedent in earlier Christian tradition. Ascetic elitism was opposed by a number of early Christian writers, including 1 Clement, Ignatius, and the author of the Pastoral Epistles. By the early third century, this opposition had hardened into the polarities of ‘orthodoxy’ and ‘heresy’. This anti‐heretical effort culminated in the writings of Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria against the ‘encratite’ heresy, which anticipated the polemics of Jovinian. In the third century we also see the development of a ‘moderate encratism’ in the writings of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Origen, which later inspired the opponents of Jovinian, e.g. Ambrose and Jerome.
5 Mary Ever‐Virgin? Jovinian and Marian Heresy
Authors: Hunter David G.
Published: May 2007

A survey of the history of the idea of Mary's virginitas in partu shows that the notion had only marginal support in the tradition of the first three centuries. Associated with both docetism and encratism, the doctrine was opposed even by ascetically minded teachers, such as Tertullian and Origen. In the late fourth century, however, the notion of Mary's virginitas in partu reappeared in the sermons of Zeno of Verona and the ascetical treatises of Ambrose; Jerome, by contrast, was more reticent about embracing the idea. Jovinian's opposition to the virginitas in partu, therefore, stood squarely in the mainstream of Christian opinion, as it had developed by the late fourth century.
7 After Jovinian: Marriage and Celibacy in Western Theology
Authors: Hunter David G.
Published: May 2007

The extreme positions taken by Jerome in his Adversus Jovinianum provoked numerous responses in the decades after Jovinian's condemnation. Friends, such as Pammachius and Domnio, demanded that Jerome explain himself or retract his words. Enemies, such as Rufinus of Aquileia, suggested that Jerome was guilty of the ‘Manichaean’ heresy. Others, such as Pelagius, Augustine, and the anonymous author of the Consultationes Zacchaei et Apollonii, quietly offered alternative views, without condemning Jerome directly. These efforts to find a via media between Jerome and Jovinian show the ongoing impact of Jovinian's arguments and the need for a more moderate approach to marriage and celibacy than Jerome had provided.
Virtues
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Regulative virtues epistemology does not give the concept of an intellectual virtue a foundational role in the development of a theory of knowledge. Instead, the virtues are a focus of analysis. Intellectual and moral virtues are not distinct categories of virtues, as other treatments have supposed them to be. The chapter attempts to answer such questions as: what makes a trait of personality a virtue? How are the intellectual virtues related to human nature? What accounts for competent, but divergent accounts of the virtues? What makes an intellectual virtue more than just an intellectual application of a virtue? Are virtues all ‘perfections’ of human nature? How are the tasks of the intellectual virtues divided among them? How are virtues individuated? How does motivation figure in the constitution of an intellectual virtue? Do all the virtues have a ‘motivational component’? If so, do they all have it in the same way?
Firmness
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Humans have a natural conservative tendency to hold onto what appear to them to be already achieved epistemic goods. Yet such voluntary intellectual practices as reading, conversing, studying, hypothesis testing, and soliciting testimony exert pressure toward epistemic change. These opposing tendencies admit two possible errors: on the one hand, holding so tightly to our achieved ways of thinking that we are rigid and dogmatic, and on the other, holding previous epistemic accomplishments so lightly that we never achieve any depth or knowledge, or become ironists or skeptics. The virtue of intellectual firmness is a kind of practical wisdom and proper intuition and proper flexibility about ‘hold’. Firmness is the cognitive analog of well-trained muscles (especially the gripping, hugging, biting ones) that nimbly adopt the strongest and lightest grips as varying circumstances demand.
Autonomy
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Intellectual autonomy reflects certain facts about the social nature of human agency — that to be effective (or to exist at all) actions must be prepared for by an education at the hands of the community; that actions are often socially coordinated; that people depend on their contemporaries for information, stimulation, and critical correction; that the intelligence with which an action is performed belongs to a tradition of practical intelligence that may be centuries or millennia old but that intelligent action is never algorithmically determined by such a tradition; that actions are always finally performed by individuals; that human beings often disagree about what should be done and that disagreements can often be settled by discussion in which each party shows an independent spirit. Intellectual autonomy is a wise disposition of balance between hetero-regulation and auto-regulation in intellectual practice.
Practical Wisdom
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Practical wisdom is presupposed by each other virtue, because the virtuous person needs to be able to act intelligently in accordance with the virtue, in particular, unpredictably variable situations, as they arise. It is a kind of flexibility and insight, an ability to improvise. Intellectual practical wisdom is good judgment in intellectual practices, and the judgments the wise person makes are those characteristic of the love of knowledge, firmness in one's commitments to beliefs, understandings, and research programmes, courage and caution, autonomy, and generosity, among other virtues. They are not just characteristic of each of these virtues, but characteristic of the set of virtues in proper balance. This chapter concludes the book by reviewing the previously examined virtues from the perspective of the powers of judgment in intellectual practice that they involve.
The Rejection of Kantian Critique: Philosophy, Skepticism, and the Recovery of the Ancient Idea
Authors: Bristow William F.
Published: May 2007

This chapter discusses an article Hegel published in the Critical Journal of Philosophy (in 1802) on the relation of philosophy to scepticism. It is shown that Hegel's attack on Schulze's scepticism — his strong rejection of Schulze's sceptical demands, taking the demands to be an expression, crude though they be, of distinctively modern epistemological demands — far from expressing Hegel's dismissal of epistemological scruples, itself expresses his strong epistemological scruples. Taking Hegel's case against Schulze's scepticism as a case against distinctively modern scepticism in general, Hegel's case calls to mind a strand of criticism of Cartesian or modern scepticism familiar to us in contemporary philosophy.
Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9
Authors: Weeks Stuart
Published: May 2007

Proverbs 1-9 is often characterized as an anthology of materials, loosely related to the ‘instructions’ composed in Egypt and elsewhere, and possibly originating in an educational setting. This book argues that it is, instead, a sophisticated poetic work, with a basic unity of composition and message. Beginning with an examination of the Egyptian instructions, which are themselves poetic and testamentary rather than pedagogical, the study explores the way in which Proverbs 1-9 combines conventions of the instruction genre with a figurative representation of the reasons for instruction. Drawing on a traditional association of foreign women with the corruption and apostasy of Jewish youths-which was given added impetus by the post-exilic controversy over mixed marriages-Proverbs 1-9 sets a foreign seductress in opposition to a personified figure of Wisdom. The two compete for those youths who are uncommitted, and who can only hope to recognize which invitation they should accept if they have already received and internalized instruction. In this context, instruction is associated with the Torah, and is the prerequisite for the wisdom by which God's will can be recognized. These ideas, and elements of the imagery, persist into later Jewish literature, but the linking of wisdom with traditional concepts in Jewish piety goes back to Proverbs 1-9 itself.
Wisdom and the Character of Instruction
Authors: Weeks Stuart
Published: May 2007

Where Proverbs 1-9 offers specific advice in chapter 3, this involves commendations of proper behaviour towards God and other humans, linked by an association of wisdom and teaching with God. The work also employs terms that strongly evoke the language of Jewish piety, reminding us that this is the religious and literary context from which it emerged. Against this background, the emphasis on instruction can be understood in terms of internalizing the Torah, and so enabling wisdom and fear of God, with the personification of Wisdom further developing the idea of receiving insight into the divine will. This is poetry, however, not precise allegory, and the personification also inhibits clear expression of the theme.
The Significance of Proverbs 1–9
Authors: Weeks Stuart
Published: May 2007

The date and origin of Proverbs 1-9 are difficult to pin down, but its influence can be identified clearly in some subsequent Jewish literature (most notably Ben Sira and certain texts from Qumran). The imagery of the work is never reproduced in full, but elements of it are developed on the basis of an understanding close to that presented in this study. Proverbs 1-9 provides a link between these later texts and the other biblical wisdom texts; it also raises interesting questions about the way in which wisdom literature's focus upon the individual corresponds to the more corporate Deuteronomic literature in the post-exilic period. Proverbs 1-9 is an instruction, but that is not the key factor for determining its nature and meaning.
Methodism at the Crossroads
Authors: Lloyd Gareth
Published: May 2007

The year 1784 represents a landmark in Methodist history as John Wesley established the Conference as his successor and ordained preachers for the United States. These events, which established de facto Methodist institutional independence from the Church of England, were foreshadowed by developments during the 1770s and early 1780s as separatists and Church‐Methodists agitated in support of conflicting visions of the Methodist future. These conflicts and the events of 1784 illustrate several important but understated themes of early Methodist history, such as the political nature of the Wesley brothers, the strong support for the Church of England within the ranks of laity and preachers, and how 19th century Methodist scholarship sanitized and distorted the movement's early history.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Lloyd Gareth
Published: May 2007

Charles Wesley's reputation has been affected by his sometimes difficult personality and the controversial views that he championed, which has resulted in comparative neglect of his life and ministry. A strong case can, however, be presented for Charles having made a more positive contribution to the long‐term success and character of Methodism than is commonly acknowledged. His championship of a considerable body of pro‐Anglican opinion within the movement helped to stave off separation until the movement was in a position to flourish independently of the Church of England and also contributed to the unique character of the Methodist Church. Detailed study of Charles Wesley's life and ministry underlines the case for a new examination of aspects of Methodist history, complementary to but separate from the traditional focus on John Wesley.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

This introductory chapter establishes the four-part agenda. First, it adds to the understanding of international legitimacy by tracing its normative sources. Secondly, it contributes to the IR literature on norms, and their importance. Thirdly, it sheds further light on the historical evolution of international society. Finally, it provides a way of making the concept of world society more accessible. The introduction poses the key puzzling question: why does international society buy into human rights norms in the first place? It sketches the outline answer that this occurs in response to both world society action and world society claims; there is simultaneously a political and a normative process at work.
1 International Legitimacy: Encounters between International and World Society
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

This chapter establishes the theoretical framework. It develops the idea of legitimacy as a constitutive element of international society. However, international society is not autonomous, but has been exposed to normative influence from world society. This poses complex new questions about power and consensus where the two societies intersect. The concept of world society is traced, particularly through its English-School variant, and located in the work of Hedley Bull and John Vincent. Rather than the common idea that world society might be coming to displace international society, the suggestion is that the two societies have become complementary: key international society actors have formed coalitions with sectors of global civil society, while world society remains dependent on state actors for regulation and enforcement of norms.
2 Vienna and the Slave Trade, 1815
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

The first case study is the Declaration against the slave trade made as part of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. How and why did this become an international concern, and with what results? The chapter analyses how the international diplomacy of slave trade abolition was interconnected with the domestic political pressures brought to bear, especially upon the British government, by William Wilberforce and the Abolition Society, especially when the terms of the first Treaty of Paris became known. It explores the combination of interest and principle in Castlereagh's foreign policy. It describes the nature and the methods of the transnational movement against the slave trade. Critically, however, the chapter also insists that the international Declaration against the trade established a new normative framework, intended as it was to shame those who would flout its provisions. The articulation of an accepted international legitimacy principle against the trade was to be of major importance in the longer term.
6 San Francisco and Human Rights, 1945
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

The draft proposals for the United Nations Charter that emerged from Dumbarton Oaks allowed only for one brief mention of human rights. The final version agreed at San Francisco gave human rights a much higher profile. Why did this change take place? There is a substantial body of literature that accounts for it exclusively in terms of the activities of the US Consultants (representatives of NGOs), attached to the US Delegation. However, the role of Latin American states, as well as of the Soviet Union, needs to be remembered. The chapter draws attention to the problems surrounding the heroic role of the US consultants. It traces the evolution of thinking about human rights during the war years, culminating in the attendance of some 1,200 representatives of NGOs at the San Francisco conference. There is no doubt, therefore, that state officials were conscious of wide public expectations on the human rights front. Since popular support for the UN would be vital to its future effectiveness, respect for human rights can be seen as a kind of ‘social wage’ in return. This gave the individual a new standing in international society and international law.
A letter of John Evelyn Esq;, to the Right Honourable the Lord Viscount Brouncker, Chancellor to her Majesty and President to the R. Society & c. concerning the spanish sembrador or new engin for ploughing, and equal sowing at sorts of grain, and harrowing, at once; By which a great quantity of seed-corn is saved, and a rich increase yearly gained; together with a description of the contrivance and uses of this engin, English't out of Spanish, and lately presented to the R. Society
Authors: Evelyn John
Published: May 2007

My Lord, I Cannot devise better how to express my great respects to your Lordship, than by my utmost endeavors to promote the Interest of that
Society
, over which you have so long, with so much ability and affection, and so faithfully Presided.
Johannis Flamstedii derbiensis angli ad clarissimum Cassinum epistola, novas observationes extimarum elongationum siderum Medicæorum à centro jovis, novâ sed & accuaratâ ratione habitas, exhibens; adjectis quibusdam observationibus non-vulgaribus, planetarum diametros & à fixis distantias, nec non martis acronici & perigei parallaxin, &c spectantibus
Authors: Flamsteed John
Published: May 2007

Tibi ignotus ego, Clarissime Cassine, scripturus, tuam audaciæ meæ veniam pluribus verbis irem exoratum, nâ studiorum communium causâ mihi Te compellanti, clara tua inter cælispices ingenuitas, & utilitas aliqua observationum, quas tibi impertiturus sum istud omninò supervacaneum fore persuaderent.
An extract of Mr. Isaac Newton's letter, written to the published from Cambridge April 3.1673. concerning the number of colors, and the necessity of mixing them all for the production of white ; as also touching the cause why a picture cast by glasses into a darkned room appears so distinct notwithstanding its irregular refraction: (which letter, being an immediat answer to that from Paris, printed no. 96. p. 6086. of these tracts, should also, if it had not been mis-laid, have immediately followed the
Authors: Newton Isaac
Published: May 2007

It seems to me, that
N
. takes an improper way of examining the nature of
Colors
, whilst he proceeds upon compounding those that are already compounded ; as he doth in the former part of his Letter.
Rho‐kinase dependent organization of stress fibers and focal adhesions in cultured fibroblasts
Authors: Katoh Kazuo , Kano Yumiko , Ookawara Shigeo
Published: May 2007

The activation of Rho‐kinase is known to modulate the organization of the actin‐based cytoskeletal systems, including the formation of stress fibers and focal adhesions. Rho‐kinase likely plays a more crucial and complex role in the organization of actin‐based cytoskeletal systems than in that of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). In order to understand the role of Rho‐kinase in the organization of stress fibers and focal adhesions, we treated cultured fibroblasts with a Rho‐kinase inhibitor and analyzed the stress fiber and focal adhesion organization under conventional fluorescence microscopy and replica electron microscopy. Some of the cells were transfected with GFP‐labeled paxillin, actin or α‐actinin, and the effects of the inhibitor were monitored in the living cells. The Rho‐kinase inhibitor caused disassembly of the stress fibers and focal adhesions in the central portion of the cell within 1 h. However, the stress fibers and focal adhesions located in the cell periphery were not as severely affected by the Rho‐kinase inhibitor. The time‐lapse video recording revealed that when these cells were washed with a fresh medium in order to remove the Rho‐kinase inhibitor, the stress fibers and focal adhesions located in the center of the cell gradually reorganized and, within 1.5–2 h, the cells completely recovered. This observation strongly suggests that the activation of Rho‐kinase plays an important role in the organization of the central stress fibers and focal adhesions.
Transcriptional regulation of the Drosophila ANT gene by the DRE/DREF system
Authors: Kim Young Shin , Shin Meong Joo , Yang Dong Jin , Yamaguchi Masamitsu , Park So Young , Yoo Mi Ae
Published: May 2007

Adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) is a crucial component in the maintenance of cellular energy homeostasis, as well as in the formation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pores. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating the expression of the ANT gene are poorly understood. In this study, we have identified three DNA replication‐related elements (DRE; 5′‐TATCGATA) in the 5′‐flanking region of the Drosophila ANT (dANT) gene. Gel‐mobility shift analyses revealed that all three of the DREs were recognized by the DRE‐binding factor (DREF). The site‐directed mutagenesis of these DRE sites induces a considerable reduction in the activity of the dANT gene promoter in vitro. Analyses with transgenic flies harboring a dANT‐lacZ fusion gene bearing the wild‐type or mutant DRE sites showed that the DRE sites were required for the expression of dANT in vivo. We determined that the over‐expression or knockdown of DREF exerts a regulatory effect on the activity of the dANT promoter. In addition, we observed the collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential in the eye imaginal discs in which DREF was over‐expressed. These results show that DRE/DREF is a crucial regulator of dANT gene expression, and also suggest the possibility that cross‐talk may occur between the DRE/DREF system and mitochondrial functioning.
Mutants carrying two sma mutations are super small in the nematode C. elegans
Authors: Watanabe Naoharu , Ishihara Takeshi , Ohshima Yasumi
Published: May 2007

Body size determination is critical for multicellular organisms; however, the mechanisms remain largely unknown. Mutations that alter body size were studied to solve the mechanisms, for example, in mouse, fruit fly and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. In C. elegans, a large mutant and several small body size (sma) mutants are known. Of the latter, sma‐2, sma‐3, sma‐4, sma‐6, dbl‐1 and daf‐4 have a mutation in the components of the DBL‐1/TGFβ signal pathway, and sma‐5 in a MAP kinase homologue. We have constructed double mutants carrying two of such small body size mutations, sma‐5 and sma‐4 or sma‐2. They are much smaller than either of the parental single mutants, indicating that the sma‐5 gene functions independently of the DBL‐1/TGFβ pathway. We show that their body volumes are as small as 1/10 of that of the wild‐type, and that the sizes of major organs are much reduced, by the methods previously developed by us. But the numbers of cells are not changed, suggesting that the cells are very small. These results highlight surprising flexibility of body size and cell size in a multicellular organism, which will give a novel insight into the mechanisms of body size control.
HSP90 cross‐links branched actin filaments induced by N‐WASP and the Arp2/3 complex
Authors: Park Sun Joo , Suetsugu Shiro , Sagara Hiroshi , Takenawa Tadaomi
Published: May 2007

N‐WASP induces filopodial actin cytoskeleton through activation of the Arp2/3 complex. Here, we show that heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) regulates the structure of actin filaments induced by N‐WASP and the Arp2/3 complex. HSP90 binds to N‐WASP and to F‐actin and bundles actin filaments. Bundling activity of HSP90 does not affect actin filament nucleation induced by N‐WASP and the Arp2/3 complex. HSP90 is co‐localized with N‐WASP at branching points of actin filaments produced by the Arp2/3 complex and thereby bundles branched filaments; this bundled actin structure is inhibited by blocking direct binding between HSP90 and N‐WASP. Furthermore, HSP90 converts branched actin filaments on N‐WASP‐coated beads to filopodia‐like star‐shaped bundles. These findings indicate that HSP90 promotes the formation of N‐WASP/Arp2/3 complex‐induced unbranched filopodial actin structures.
Effects of the myosin ATPase inhibitor 2,3‐butanedione monoxime on amyloplast kinetics and gravitropism of Arabidopsis hypocotyls
Authors: Palmieri Maria , Schwind Melissa A. , Stevens Martin Henry H. , Edelmann Richard E. , Kiss John Z.
Published: May 2007

The actin cytoskeleton is a crucial component in plant gravitropism, and studies confirm that alterations to actin filaments (F‐actin) can have dramatic effects on gravitropic curvature in roots and shoots. Many models for gravisensing in higher plants suggest that the key to gravity perception and signal transduction lies in intimate interactions between F‐actin and amyloplasts. In this study, we investigated gravitropism in hypocotyls by analyzing the effect of myosin inhibition on gravitropic curvature in order to clarify the role of the actomyosin system in shoot gravitropism. To study amyloplast movement in endodermal cells (i.e., gravity‐perceiving statocytes) of living seedlings, we repositioned a confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) so that its rotatable stage was oriented vertically. Seedlings containing green fluorescent protein‐labeled endodermal amyloplasts were incubated with the ATPase inhibitor 2,3‐butanedione monoxime (BDM) and then mounted on the stage so that the hypocotyls were vertical. Using CLSM, we imaged the endodermal amyloplasts, while the hypocotyls were oriented vertically and also after they were reoriented by 90°. Our results show that BDM reduces gravitropic curvature in a concentration‐dependent manner. In addition, BDM increases amyloplast movement in hypocotyls of vertical seedlings, but reduces amyloplast movement in hypocotyls of reoriented seedlings, suggesting that myosin may participate in the intracellular transport of amyloplasts in statocytes. These results can be explained in the context of amyloplasts as both noise indicators and gravity susceptors, with BDM producing less coherent amyloplast movement that results in an increased signal‐to‐noise ratio, which may account for at least part of the observed reduction in gravitopic curvature.
Protective effects of avocado and soya bean lipidic non‐saponifiables on proliferation of fibroblasts cultured in altered conditions
Authors: WEPIERRE J. , PAPIN A. , CORMIER M.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

Non‐saponifiables lipidic fraction of avocado and soya bean (PIAS) induces, when administered percutaneously, a stimulation of specific metabolism of fibroblasts (synthesis of soluble collagen, increase of the ratio soluble collagen/insoluble collagen). In investigating the mechanism through which unsaponifiables affect the fibroblast metabolism we studied their direct effect on proliferation and survival of human fibroblasts cultured in optimal and altered conditions.

PIAS (10 μg/ml) induced a protective effect against cytotoxicity of dimethylformamide; proliferation of survival cells appeared after 2 days. Non‐saponifiables decreased the proliferation of fibroblasts cultivated in optimal conditions (10% FCS, 37°C). On the contrary, they had no effect when FCS was lower than 10% and they increased proliferation with incubation at 30°C.

When fibroblasts were grown in a contractile matrice of collagen, non‐saponifiables decreased cell death and induced a proliferation in presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF).

Our experiments demonstrate that PIAS have a protective effect on fibroblasts cultivated in abnormal conditions. These results explain activity of non‐saponifiables in some skin disfunctions or pathological states induced by disorders of conjunctive tissue.

Les insaponifiables de l'huile d'Avocat et de Soja (PIAS) entrainent aprés administration par voie percutanée durant 15 jours chez le Rat, une stimulation de métabolisme spécifique des fibroblastes (synthèse de collagène soluble, augmentation du rapport collagène soluble/collagène insoluble). Ce travail a pour but de rechercher si cette action métabolique peut être reliée à une action directe des insaponifiables sur la prolifération des fibroblastes humain en culture dans des conditions optimales ou peu favorables.

Le PIAS (10 μg/ml) protège les cellules contre les effets cytotoxiques du diméthylformamide. La prolifération cellulaire reprend au bout de 2 jours lorsque la concentration du solvant ne dépasse pas 1.5%.

Les insaponifiables inhibent d'environ 20% la multiplication des fibroblastes cultivés en conditions optimales (37°C, 10% de SVF). En revanche, ils n'altèrent pas cette prolifération lorsque la teneur en SVF est infèrieure à 10% et ils augmentent le développement cellulaire lorsque l'incubation est partiellement réalisée à 30°C.

Lorsque les fibroblastes sont cultivés dans un gel de collagène tres contractile, les insaponifiables diminuent la mortalité cellulaire et entrainent même une légère prolifération lorsque le milieu renferme de l'EGF.

Ainsi le PIAS a un effet direct sur la prolifération cellulaire lorsque les fibroblastes sont cultivés dans des conditions d'agressions variées. Ceci pourait expliquer l'activié des insaponifiables dans diverses pathologies cutanées et muqueuses ou dans certaines altérations mineures de la peau qui ont pour origine des désordres du tissu conjonctif.
Effectiveness of macrogol and talcum base formulations of a new insect repellent N, N‐diethyl phenyl acetamide
Authors: PRAKASH S. , KUMAR S. , SURYANARAYANA M. V. S. , SHARMA R. K. , RAO K. M.
Published: May 2007

Synopsis

The effectiveness of macrogol and talcum base formulations of a new multi‐insect repellent N, N‐diethyl phenyl acetamide (DEPA) was studied against Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in the laboratory. The efficacy was compared with widely used repellent in India, viz. Dimethylphthalate. Twenty‐five per cent DEPA incorporated macrogol ointment and talcum base formulation offered more than 8 h and 6 h protection, as compared to DMP for 3 h and 1 h 30 min, respectively. The ointment was found to be stable as more than 99% DEPA was recovered by gas liquid chromatography after 6 months of storage at room temperature. The repellent formulations have not shown any gross adverse effect to the skin of albino rabbits.

L'efficacité d'un nouvel agent repousseur d'insectes (le N, N‐diethyl phenyl acetamide) dans des formulations à base de macrogol et du talc

L'efficacité des bases formulées à partir de macrogol et de talc pour un nouvel insecticide, N, N‐diethyl pnenyl acetamide (DEPA) a étéétudiée contre les moustiques Aedes aegypti en laboratoire. Cette efficacité a été comparée avec un insecticide couramment utilisé en Inde, le Dimethyl phthalate. 25% de DEPA incorporéà une base formulée à partir de pommade de macrogol et de talc a permis une protection respectivement de plus 5 h et de plus de8 h comparativement au DMP pour lequel la protection était respectivement de 3 h et 1 h 30. La pommade s'est avérée stable car plus de 99% de DEPA ont été identifiés par GLC après 6 mois de stockage à température ambiante. Les formulations d'insecticides n'ont révélé aucun effet adverse sur la peau des lapins albinos.