bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Trialkylglycines: A New Family of Compounds with in Vivo Neuroprotective Activity
Authors: Sánchez‐Pérez Ana M. , Montoliu Carmina , Felipo Vicente
Published: August 2010

Glutamate neurotoxicity is involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. It plays also a major role in the neuronal damage that occurs in brain ischemia and head trauma. Finding molecules that prevent or reverse glutamate neurotoxicity (excitotoxicity) is, therefore, of great interest. Strategies aimed at this end include the screening of libraries of compounds synthesized by combinatorial chemistry to find molecules that prevent neuronal death in vitro and in vivo. A library of trialkylglycines was screened to assess whether they prevent glutamate‐induced neuronal death in primary cultures of cerebellar neurons. Two types of trialkylglycines have been found that significantly reduce the incidence of glutamate‐induced neuronal death. The first type includes two compounds (referred to as 6–1–2 and 6–1–10) that efficiently prevent glutamate or NMDA‐induced neuronal death. They also prevent excitotoxicity in vivo as assessed by using two animal models of excitotoxicity: acute intoxication with ammonia and a model of cerebral ischemia in rats. Trialkylglycines 6–1–2 and 6–1–10 prevent ammonia‐induced (NMDA receptor‐mediated) death of mice and neuronal degeneration in the model of cerebral ischemia. The trialkylglycines of the second type act as open channel blockers of the NMDA receptor. The first group of trialkylglycines does not block NMDA receptor channels and does not affect the gluta‐mate‐nitric oxide‐cGMP pathway. Their molecular target has not yet been identified.

These two types of trialkylglycines (especially those that do not affect NMDA receptor function) might represent effective drugs for the treatment of neurodegeneration. They are likely to be well tolerated and have fewer side effects than NMDA receptor antagonists.
Neuropharmacological Profile of an Atypical Antipsychotic, NRA0562
Authors: Hirota Shiho , Kawashima Naoya , Chaki Shigeyuki , Okuyama Shigeru
Published: August 2010

Schizophrenia is a serious and disabling psychiatric disorder affecting approximately 1% of the world's population. Anew generation of atypical antipsychotics has been introduced over the past decade. These atypical antipsychotics have comparable or greater efficacy than traditional antipsychotics in the treatment of the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia and a much improved neurologic side effect profile. This paper reviews the pharmacological efficacy and safety of a potential atypical antipsychotic, NRA0562.

NRA0562 has a high affinity for dopamine D1, D2L, D4.2, 5‐HT2Areceptors as well as α1‐adrenoceptors, and has a moderate affinity for H1receptors. NRA0562 strongly binds to 5‐HT2Areceptors and α1‐adrenoceptors in the frontal cortex, its binding to striatal D2receptors is weaker, similar to that of clozapine.

NRA562 displayed potent antipsychotic activities in animal models of schizophrenia, such as methamphetamine (MAP)‐induced hyperactivity, apomorphine‐induced disruption of pre‐pulse inhibition and conditioned avoidance test. NRA0562 is more potent in reversing the inhibitory effects of MAP at A10 than at A9 dopamine neurons. It increased Fos‐like immunoreactivity in the nucleus accumbens more effectively than in the dorsolateral striatum, indicating that NRA0562 has the profile of an atypical antipsychotic.In vivoassays for extrapyramidal side effect liability showed that NRA0562 has a low rate of neurological side effects. Thus, NRA0562 may have unique antipsychotic activity with a lower propensity for extrapyramidal side effects.
The Selective Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor Antidepressant Reboxetine: Pharmacological and Clinical Profile
Authors: Hajós Mihály , Fleishaker Joseph C. , Filipiak‐Reisner Jacqueline K. , Brown Mark T. , Wong Erik H. F.
Published: August 2010

Reboxetine is the first commercially available norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor developed specifically as a first line therapy for major depressive disorder.In vitroandin vivopharmacological studies indicated that reboxetine methanesulphonate has high affinity and selectivity for the human norepinephrine transporter over the serotonin and dopamine transporters. Pharmacological specificity is further demonstrated by the absence of affinity for 45 transmitter receptors and CNS targets.

Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that reboxetine is suitable for twice daily administration (8–10 mg/day) and that it exhibits minimal drug‐drug interactions. The starting dose of reboxetine should be reduced in the elderly, in patients with renal or hepatic impairment, or in patients receiving potent CYP3A inhibitors. A total of 20 phase II/III clinical studies comprising placebo‐controlled, active comparator‐controlled and open‐label uncontrolled studies in both short‐term and long‐term treatment of major depression have been conducted. In the treatment of major depression, reboxetine was superior to placebo in 5 of 12 short‐ or long‐term placebo‐controlled studies and was comparable in efficacy to active comparators in 3 out of 3 active‐controlled studies. Unlike conventional tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), reboxetine had only minimal sedative and cardiovascular liabilities, probably due to increased pharmacological specificity of reboxetine as compared with TCAs. Unlike serotonin reuptake inhibitors, this selective and specific norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor demonstrated a distinct side‐effect profile with diminishing sexual dysfunction and GI side effects. The availability of this agent has afforded patients suffering from major depressive disorder a new class of agents to combat the debilitating consequence of this psychiatric disease. The demonstrated pharmacological specificity of this compound has provided the psychopharmacology community with a tool to elucidate the role of norepinephrine in brain functions. Testing this agent in different animal models has enabled the exploration of the role of modulation of norepinephrine tone in the therapy of CNS disorders beyond depression.
Role of Hyperforin in the Pharmacological Activities of St. John's Wort
Authors: Zanoli Paola
Published: August 2010

The phloroglucinol derivative hyperforin has been recently shown to be a major antidepressant component in the extract ofHypericum perforatum.Experimental studies clearly demonstrated its activity in different behavioral models of depression. Moreover clinical studies linked the therapeutic efficacy ofHypericumextracts to their hyperforin content, in a dose‐dependent manner.

The molecular mechanism of action of hyperforin is still under investigation. Hyperforin has been shown to inhibit, like conventional antidepressants, the neuronal uptake of serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine. However, hyperforin inhibits also the uptake of γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) and L‐glutamate. The uptake inhibition by hyperforin does not involve specific binding sites at the transporter molecules; its mechanism of action seems to be related to sodium conductive pathways, leading to an elevation in intracellular Na+concentration. Other additional mechanisms of action of hyperforin, involving ionic conductances as well synaptosomal and vesicular function, have been suggested. In addition to its antidepressant activity, hyperforin has many other pharmacological effectsin vivo(anxiolytic‐like, cognition‐enhancing effects) andin vitro(antioxidant, anticyclooxygenase‐1, and anticarcinogenic effects). These effects could be of clinical importance. On the other hand, the role of hyperforin in the pharmacological interactions occurring duringHypericumextract therapy must be fully investigated. Hyperforin seems to be responsible for the induction of liver cytochrome oxidase enzymes and intestinal P‐glycoprotein.

Several pharmacokinetic studies performed in rats and humans demonstrated oral bioavailability of hyperforin fromHypericumextract. Only recently a new chromatographic method for detection of hyperforin in the brain tissue has been developed and validated. Taking into account the chemical instability of hyperforin, current efforts are directed to the synthesis of new neuroactive derivatives.
Dihydrexidine — The First Full Dopamine D1Receptor Agonist
Authors: Salmi Peter , Isacson Ruben , Kull Björn
Published: August 2010

The functional role of dopamine D1receptors is still controversial. One reason for this controversy is that for a long time the only available agonists for in vivo characterization of dopamine D1receptors were benzazepines. Among them was the prototype dopamine D1receptor partial agonist, SKF 38393. The lack of a selective and fully efficacious dopamine D1receptor agonist hampered basic research on dopamine D1receptors and left the potential clinical utility of dopamine D1receptor agonists elusive. The research situation improved when the first potent full dopamine D1receptor agonist dihydrexidine, a phenanthridine, was introduced in the late 1980s. In contrast to SKF 38393, dihydrexidine was shown to stimulate cyclic AMP synthesis just as well or better than dopamine, and potently displaced [3H]SCH 23390 from rat and monkey striatal membranes. Also, dihydrexidine was the first dopamine D1receptor agonist that had potent antiparkinsonian activity in a primate model of Parkinson's disease. This finding suggested clinical utility for dopamine D1receptor agonists in Parkinson's disease and that this utility might be critically dependent on the intrinsic efficacy of the drug. Clinical utility for dopamine D1receptor agonists in other central nervous disorders might also be dependent on the intrinsic efficacy of the drug. However, even though studies with dihydrexidine as a pharmacological tool have pointed to the clinical use for dopamine D1receptor agonists, dihydrexidine's unfavorable pharmacokinetic profile and various adverse effects are likely to restrict or even preclude its use in humans. This review article provides an updated overview of the pharmacology of dihydrexidine and discusses possible clinical utility of dopamine D1receptor agonists in various central nervous system disorders.
Therapeutic Potential of Wogonin: A Naturally Occurring Flavonoid
Authors: Tai Man Chun , Tsang Shui Ying , Chang Lawrence Y. F. , Xue Hong
Published: August 2010

The search for flavonoids with novel therapeutic effects has been intense. Wogonin, as a naturally existing monoflavonoid, has been shown to have therapeutic potentialin vitroandin vivo.Methods for its extraction from herbs and its chemical synthesis have been developed. Pharmacokinetic studies have shown a rapid tissue distribution and prolonged plasma elimination phase of wogonin. It has been shown experimentally that wogonin exerts anti‐oxidant activity, which may, in part, underlie its antiinflammatory, anti‐cancer, antiviral and neuroprotective actions. The recent discovery of its anxiolytic activity suggests a new mechanism of action, involving interaction with the benzodiazepine (BZD) binding site of the GABAAreceptor and modulation of this receptor activity. Although the safety record of wogonin is remarkable and voluminous literature about its pharmacological effects is available, it has not been used in Western medicine in the form of a pure chemical. In this article we review its therapeutic effects, its sources and pharmacokinetic profile to highlight its therapeutic potential.
Interrupted Aortic Arch in an Adult Female
Authors: Kleinrok Andrzej , Zaremba‐Flis Ewa , Smyk Tomasz
Published: August 2010

Interrupted aortic arch is a rare and usually lethal malformation, representing approximately 1% of congenital heart disease. This presents as a missing segment of the aortic arch and is divided into three types: A—called extreme form of coarctation, and is characterized by disruption of aorta's continuity distal to the left subclavian artery (30–40%), B—disruption between the left subclavian and the left carotid arteries (55–60%), and C—the most uncommon type, interruption proximal to the left common carotid artery. The suspicion of coarctation of the aorta can be made from a combination of physical findings including systolic ejection murmur, the murmurs of collateral blood vessels, diminished or absent femoral pulse, and difference in blood pressure between arms and legs. Interrupted aortic arch is an extremely rare anomaly in adult patients. To our knowledge, the world medical literature contains only about 13 reports of interrupted aortic arch diagnosed in adults. (Echocardiography 2010;27:E70‐E72)
Myocardial Rotation but Not Circumferential Strain Is Transducer Angle Dependent: A Speckle Tracking Echocardiography Study
Authors: Grabskaya Eva , Spira Corinna , Hoffmann Renate , Altiok Ertunc , Ocklenburg Christina , Hoffmann Rainer , Becker Michael
Published: August 2010

Background: Doppler derived strain analysis has been shown to be angle dependent. Speckle tracking analysis using 2D echocardiographic images is thought to provide angle independent parameters of regional and global myocardial function. This study sought to evaluate whether myocardial circumferential strain and rotation derived from automatic frame‐by‐frame tracking of natural acoustic markers is dependent on angulation of the transducer. Methods: In 48 healthy volunteers (mean age 36 ± 3 years, 20 male) parasternal short‐axis views at apical level were obtained as follows: at the standard parasternal position (5th intercostal space) with a most possible circular short‐axis image of the left ventricle (angulation 1), at an angulation of the transducer by 20° from this standard position to the apex (angulation 2) and at an angulation of the transducer by 20° to the base of the left ventricle (angulation 3). Using an automatic frame‐by‐frame tracking system of natural acoustic echocardiographic markers (EchoPAC, GE Ultrasound, Horton, Norway) circumferential strain and rotation were calculated for six segments within a short‐axis circumference. Results: Image quality was sufficient for acquisition and analysis of images at all three‐transducer angulation in 90% of the analyzed segments. Rotation was measured to be 7.7 ± 1.2° at angulation 1, 2.7 ± 0.9° at angulation 2 and 4.3 ± 1.1° at angulation 3 (p < 0.05). Average circumferential strain data was found to be −27.2 ± 5.1% at angulation 1, −26.5 ± 3.8% at angulation 2 and 28.9 ± 4.4% at angulation 3 (p = 0.287). Conclusion: Circumferential strain analysis is not dependent on transducer angulation. In contrast, determination of myocardial rotation is dependent on transducer angulation. Therefore, accurate transducer angulation has to be taken care of if rotation measurements are performed. (Echocardiography 2010;27:809‐814)
Incremental Value of Three‐Dimensional over Two‐Dimensional Transesophageal Echocardiography in the Assessment of Acute Dysfunction of Mechanical Mitral Valve Prosthesis
Authors: Pattabiraman Vivekananda , Nanda Navin C. , Iqbal Fahad , Singh Preeti , Koneru Jayant , Akins Chris
Published: August 2010

We describe acute dysfunction of a bileaflet mechanical mitral valve prosthesis for the first time in a 57‐year‐old male. Unlike two‐dimensional transesophageal echocardiography, three‐dimensional imaging convincingly showed a large rounded echo density consistent with a papillary muscle in contact with one of the leaflets showing only partial opening during systole. (Echocardiography 2010;27:885‐887)
Latin America and the Dollar Bloc in the Twenty-first Century: To Dollarize or Not?
Authors: Jameson Kenneth P.
Published: August 2010

The choice of exchange rate regime is a continuing challenge to Latin American policymakers, who currently face pressure to dollarize their economies. The constraints imposed by the “dollar bloc,” the informal but powerful currency bloc that ties Latin America to the dominant currency, are central to that choice. Current weak economic performance has called the bloc's norms and principles into question and has made the exchange rate an open issue. Ecuador's full official dollarization is one possible strategy for countries with political stability but poor economic performance to gain access to needed dollar resources. Most of Latin America, however, will continue with variants of managed floating exchange rates, and the periodic foreign exchange crises will provide access to official dollar resources and facilitate renegotiation of the terms of outstanding debt.
Cuba: From “Dollarization” to “Euroization” or “Peso Reconsolidation”?
Authors: Ritter Archibald R. M. , Rowe Nicholas
Published: August 2010

Since its “depenalization” in 1993, the U.S. dollar has become possibly a more significant component of Cuba's money supply than the old peso. What are the alternatives? The euro seems inappropriate, given the inevitability of eventual normalization of relations with the United States. More advantageous would be to restore the Cuban peso, though this would involve unifying the bifurcated economic structure and the dual monetary and exchange rate systems. The Cuban government has yet to announce its plans. This study argues that an appropriate mix of exchange rate, monetary, fiscal, and income or wage and salary policies should support a rehabilitation of the Cuban peso.
Revolution or Contribution? Rational Choice Approaches in the Study of Latin American Politics
Authors: Huber Evelyne , Dion Michelle
Published: August 2010

This article assesses the contributions of studies in the rational choice (RC) tradition to scholarly understanding of Latin American politics. It groups some representative works according to their use of RC assumptions, and also reviews some of the major works in the institutionalist tradition. It argues that works in the RC tradition have neither forced a major rethinking of established theories nor filled major lacunae, although they have illuminated some phenomena that were only partly understood. The RC approach works best for narrow questions in which power relations and structural constraints are stable, whereas its essential assumptions become untenable in questions that involve shifting power relations among social groups and the state over time.
The Uneven Performance of Third Wave Democracies: Electoral Politics and the Imperfect Rule of Law in Latin America
Authors: Foweraker Joe , Krznaric Roman
Published: August 2010

This article investigates the performance of the new democracies of the third wave by developing a conceptual model of the core elements of liberal democratic government and by constructing a new Database of Liberal Democratic Performance. The performance is shown to be uneven in two main ways. First, the institutional attributes of democratic government advance while individual and minority rights languish. Second, particular institutional attributes coexist uncomfortably, as do particular rights. A comparison of Brazil, Colombia, and Guatemala complements the big picture drawn from the database and focuses on the specific contextual conditions that can create the general political contours of the wave. The uneven democratic performance of these cases is mainly explained by the combination of persistent oligarchic power and a largely unaccountable military. Yet uneven performance, and the imperfect rule of law in particular, does not necessarily prevent democratic survival.
Breaking out is Hard to Do: Exit, Voice, and Loyalty in Mexico's One-Party Hegemonic Regime
Authors: Langston Joy
Published: August 2010

Theoretically based on Albert O. Hirschman's Exit, Voice, and Loyalty, this study examines three cases of rupture or exit by Mexican presidential contenders, in 1940, 1952, and 1988, and one “noncase,” in 1999, with a view to how dissidents' strategies shape political institutions. Mexico's PRI-dominated political system depended on its leaders' ability to create an equilibrium based on mutual incentives to remain loyal to the regime.
The European Union and Democracy in Latin America
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: August 2010

The European Union has developed a significant range of democracy promotion initiatives in Latin America since the 1990s. The E.U.'s approach to democracy building has been seen to possess a number of strengths relative to U.S. policy, especially in connection with grassroots developmental imperatives. European policy itself, however, has a number of limitations. It has inadequately conceptualized the linkages between economic and political dimensions; it has insufficiently recognized the potential benefits of balancing bottom-up and top-down approaches. The E.U.'s influence over Latin American governments has remained more nebulous than that of the United States. European and U.S. policies in Latin America have both rivaled and complemented each other. Understanding this might inform both actors' democracy promotion efforts in the region.
Institutional Change and Ethnic Parties in South America
Authors: Van Cott Donna Lee
Published: August 2010

The central question of this article is why indigenous social movements formed electorally viable political parties in Latin America in the 1990s. This development represents a new phenomenon in Latin America, where ethnic parties have been both rare and unpopular among voters. Institutional reforms in six South American countries are examined to see if the creation and success of these parties can be correlated with changes in electoral systems, political party registration requirements, or the administrative structure of the state. The study concludes that institutional change is likely to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for the emergence and electoral viability of ethnic parties.
What Macroeconomic Measures Are Needed for Free Trade to Flourish in the Western Hemisphere?
Authors: Eichengreen Barry
Published: August 2010

Recent experience has made clear the importance of macroeconomic stability, and exchange rate stability in particular, in generating support for regional integration. The tensions created by exchange-rate and financial volatility are clearly evident in the recent history of Mercosur and may also hinder the development of a Free Trade Area of the Americas. This essay argues that ambitious schemes for a single regional currency are not a practical response to this problem. Nor would a system of currency pegs or bands be sufficiently durable to provide a lasting solution. Instead, countries must solve this problem at home. In practice, this means adopting sound and stable monetary policies backed by a clear and coherent operating strategy, such as inflation targeting. With such policies in place, exchange rate volatility can be reduced to levels compatible with regional integration.
Making Sense of a Model: A Response to J. Samuel Valenzuela
Authors: Colomer Josep M.
Published: August 2010

I am very pleased to start a dialogue with Samuel Valenzuela, although, because he reveals that he was one of the anonymous reviewers of my article, I have to point out that he was the only one out of five who disagreed with the editor’s decision to publish it. I hope that the dialogue might extend to other interested readers who can find my approach more helpful and challenging from the beginning.
Horizontal Accountability in Transitional Democracies: The Human Rights Ombudsman in El Salvador and Guatemala
Authors: Dodson Michael , Jackson Donald
Published: August 2010

Postwar El Salvador and Guatemala have undertaken to reform and democratize the state and to support the rule of law. Each country entered the 1990s hobbled by a legacy of authoritarian rule, while a corrupt and politicized judiciary offered virtually no check on the abuse of power. Because the judiciary has performed poorly as an institution of horizontal accountability, this article examines the performance of a new “accountability agency,” the Human Rights Ombudsman. The article discusses the context in which the office was established and developed in each country, perceptions of its performance, and political responses as the office began to perform its function of holding public officials accountable in their exercise of power. Unfortunately, this new office may fall prey to the same weaknesses that have plagued older institutions in both countries.
Business Versus Business?Gruposand Organized Business in Colombia
Authors: Rettberg Angelika
Published: August 2010

This article examines business political behavior in Colombia during the scandal-ridden presidency of Ernesto Samper (1994-98), highlighting the mechanisms by whichgrupos(diversified economic groups) undermined the ability of organized business to present collective political positions. Evidence that the presidential campaign had been funded by drug traffickers prompted business associations to demand Samper's resignation. Butgrupos, the firms of which are affiliated with associations, supported the president. This division weakened the position of organized business regarding the resignation, as well as its own political legitimacy. This study argues thatgruposface strong incentives to act outside business associations to advance their particular interests. Scholars assessing the strength of organized business in Latin America will increasingly encounter the impact of grupos on business institutional responses to policy.
Electoral Competition and the New Party System in Mexico
Authors: Klesner Joseph L.
Published: August 2010

Mexico's former opposition parties had specific social bases that would not, on their own, have catapulted either opposition party into power. In the 1990s, specific regional bases of support developed for the parties, reflecting their efforts to develop their organizations more locally. Nationally, this led to the emergence of two parallel two-party systems, PAN-PRI competition in the north and center-west and PRD-PRI competition in the south. In parallel, a proregime-antiregime cleavage came to dominate the Mexican party system, which, combined with local-level opposition efforts to oust the PRI, created new incentives for the opposition parties to abandon past emphases on ideological differences and to act like catch-all parties instead. The regime cleavage fostered the dealignment of the Mexican electorate, a process that promoted the development of catch-all parties. Movement within the parties to behave like catch-all parties has not come without internal tensions, but electoral dynamics prove powerful inducements to catch-all behavior.
Bolivia: Another Uncompleted Revolution
Authors: Barr Robert R.
Published: August 2010

Since 1999, growing citizen dissatisfaction in Bolivia has been manifest in a cycle of often violent protests. Citizens believe that they have no means of expressing themselves except demonstrations. The public has grown weary of neoliberalism, which is perceived as benefiting only the elite. A recent economic downturn provided the catalyst for the unrest. Underlying these economic concerns, however, are fundamental problems with representation. The second Bolivian “revolution” involved not only the shift from state-led economic development to neoliberalism but also a shift from corporatism to pluralism. Representative institutions have not fully responded to the new pluralistic landscape, despite a range of political reforms. Many Bolivians find that their voice in government has weakened even as their needs have grown. The Bolivian case thereby highlights the obstacles young democracies face in winning over decreasingly tolerant citizens.
The Lost Sexenio: Vicente Fox and the New Politics of Economic Reform in Mexico
Authors: Pastor Manuel , Wise Carol
Published: August 2010

The 2000 presidential election of opposition candidate Vicente Fox signaled an end to seven decades of Mexico's single-party regime and seemed to herald the advent of truly competitive politics. But by 2003, economic reform had largely stalled, and Fox's party suffered a historically unprecedented midterm loss in the congress. This article analyzes the underpinnings of policy gridlock in the Fox administration. Fox inherited the need for microeconomic restructuring and increased competitiveness, more innovative and pragmatic state policies, the need to pay attention to the country's sharp income inequalities, and the challenge of crafting a political strategy that could build a middle ground and foster policy consensus. With his party's minority standing in the congress, Fox was constrained from the start by divided government. But more effective statecraft and coalition building would have helped. These will be essential elements for the success of any post-Fox regime.
The Myth of Personal Security: Criminal Gangs, Dispute Resolution, and Identity in Rio de Janeiro's Favelas
Authors: Arias Enrique Desmond , Rodrigues Corinne Davis
Published: August 2010

This article examines the politics of how drug traffickers resolve disputes and maintain order in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro. Much popular discourse and some scholarly studies argue that drug traffickers play a major role in controlling crime and minimizing conflicts there. This article shows that traffickers enforce community norms under a variable political calculus in which well-connected and respected residents are less likely to be punished for rule violations than are individuals who are marginal to the life of the community. This allows many favela residents who conform to local norms to feel a degree of control over their own safety, a “myth of personal security” in otherwise violent neighborhoods.
The Transition from Armed Opposition to Electoral Opposition in Central America
Authors: Allison Michael E.
Published: August 2010

After the third wave of democratization swept much of the world during the late twentieth century, many armed opposition groups disarmed and transformed themselves into political parties. This paper explores the electoral performance of four Central American parties that have roots in armed opposition movements. It finds that the Sandinista National Liberation Front in Nicaragua and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front in El Salvador, which achieved the greatest success during their revolutionary periods, have also had the most success in electoral competition. The Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unit and the Democratic Unification Party of Honduras, which trace their roots to relatively less successful armed opposition groups, have struggled in elections. Organizational factors, especially the number of combatants and popular support during the conflict, tend to provide a better explanation than institutional factors for the initial success of these groups as political parties.
Macroeconomic Concerns and Intrastate Bargains: Explaining Illiberal Policies in Brazil's Automobile Sector
Authors: Mera Laura Gómez
Published: August 2010

This article seeks to explain the highly interventionist Brazilian automobile policy of 1995, which drastically departed from the neoliberal principles guiding Brazilian economic policy at the time. This seemingly inconsistent policy stemmed from two overlapping bargains. The first, between the private sector and the government's developmentalist, and hence more permeable elements, shaped the policy's content and design. A second, more crucial intrastate bargain pitted the defenders of the previous development model against the team of neoliberal, technocratic economists who had centralized economic decisionmaking authority since mid-1993. These economists' support for the automobile policy must be understood as a response to the macroeconomic and political challenges they faced in 1995. This study highlights the importance of examining the undisclosed actions of the state and the role of intrastate cleavages in political economy outcomes.
Globalization and Pension Reform in Latin America
Authors: Brooks Sarah M.
Published: August 2010

While financial globalization has created powerful incentives for Latin American governments to privatize old age pension systems, reliance on short-term capital flows has also constrained the ability of cash-strapped governments to enact that reform. Analysis of the technocratic process of pension reform in Argentina and Brazil provides evidence. Instead of simply generating unidirectional pressures for structural pension reform, financial globalization has created a double bind for Latin America's capital-scarce governments, fostering long-term incentives to privatize pension systems while heightening the risk of punishment in the short term.
Difficult Partnerships: The World Bank, States, and NGOs
Authors: Bräutigam Deborah A. , Segarra Monique
Published: August 2010

Since the early 1990s, World Bank officials in many countries have pressed their government borrowers to include nongovernmental organizations as development partners. What impact has this new partnership norm had in the bank's borrower countries, and why? This article investigates these questions through longitudinal analysis of three cases: Guatemala, Ecuador, and the Gambia. In their first iteration in the 1990s, these bank-sponsored efforts generally failed to take root; yet by the 2000s, NGOs and state actors were engaged in multiple partnerships. This article suggests that over time, bank officials' repeated efforts to embed these new ideas fostered a social learning process that led NGOs to adopt more strategic partnership practices and government officials to see NGO partners as useful. Several factors may affect this learning process: levels of professionalism and the growth of professional networks, the presence of effective “bridge builders,” and the level of historical conflicts.
The Appointment and Removal Process for Judges in Argentina: The Role of Judicial Councils and Impeachment Juries in Promoting Judicial Independence
Authors: Chávez Rebecca Bill
Published: August 2010

This article explores the conditions that allow judicial councils and impeachment juries to promote judicial autonomy. In theory, these bodies intervene in the appointment and removal of judges in order to reduce executive control over court composition, thereby promoting judicial independence. Using the case of Argentina at the federal and the subnational levels, this study demonstrates that competitive politics enhances the capacity of judicial councils and impeachment juries to bolster judicial autonomy. Interparty competition provides incentives for the executive to develop a meaningful system of checks and balances, which includes an independent judiciary that can check executive power. In contrast, monolithic party control—defined as a prolonged period of unified government under a highly disciplined party—permits the executive to maintain a monopoly on power and thereby control judicial appointments and removals.
From Thaw to Deluge: Party System Collapse in Venezuela and Peru
Authors: Dietz Henry A. , Myers David J.
Published: August 2010

What conditions facilitate party system collapse, the farthest-reaching variant of party system change? How does collapse occur? Numerous studies of lesser types of party system change exist, but studies of party system collapse are rare. This study draws on the existing literature and the cases of party system collapse in Venezuela (1988–2000) and Peru (1985–95) to advance some answers to the important questions about the phenomenon. The study posits three conditions that predispose political party systems to collapse: the presence of an acute or sustained crisis that questions the ability of system-sustaining political parties to govern; extremely low or extremely high levels of party system institutionalization; and the emergence of an anti-establishment figure with the desire and personal authority to generate a viable alternative to the established party system. The study also posits a three-election sequential process during which collapse takes place.
The Missionary Politics of Hugo Chávez
Authors: Zúquete José Pedro
Published: August 2010

Through the application of an analytical model categorized as “missionary,” this article examines the cultural and political-religious frames that sustain the leadership of Hugo Chávez. It demonstrates that missionary politics is a forceful presence in today's Venezuela, and should be understood as a form of political religion characterized by a dynamic relationship between a charismatic leader and a moral community that is invested with a mission of salvation against conspiratorial enemies. The leader's verbal and nonverbal discourses play an essential role in the development of such a missionary mode of politics, which seeks to provide the alienated mass of underprivileged citizens with an identity and a sense of active participation in national affairs. This study argues that purely utilitarian and materialistic explanations of Chávez's leadership fail to capture these soteriological dynamics in his movement.
Can Civil Society Organizations Solve the Crisis of Partisan Representation in Latin America?
Authors: Hochstetler Kathryn , Friedman Elisabeth Jay
Published: August 2010

This article takes up the question of whether civil society organizations (CSOs) can and do act as mechanisms of representation in times of party crisis. It looks at recent representation practices in Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, three countries where political parties have experienced sharp crises after several decades of mixed reviews for their party systems. At such moments, any replacement of parties by CSOs should be especially apparent. This study concludes that the degree of crisis determines the extent that CSOs' representative functions replace partisan representation, at least in the short term. Where systems show signs of re-equilibration, CSOs offer alternative mechanisms through which citizens can influence political outcomes without seeking to replace parties. Where crisis is profound, CSOs claim some of the basic party functions but do not necessarily solve the problems of partisan representation.
Meeting the Challenges of Industrial Restructuring: Labor Reform and Enforcement in Latin America
Authors: Anner Mark
Published: August 2010

Despite a strengthening of collective labor rights in Latin America over the last 15 years, most labor movements in the region have lost power because neither the content nor the enforcement mechanisms associated with the labor reforms fully took into consideration the challenges presented by economic restructuring. Reforms facilitating union formation did not strengthen unions but instead increased union fragmentation. Collective bargaining structures did not respond to the exigencies of international outsourcing; and the initial round of reforms in the 1990s did not contemplate the need to strengthen labor law enforcement mechanisms at a time when heightened international competition created a need for greater state vigilance of labor standards. Recent reforms or proposed reforms hold more promise for labor, but truly union-friendly labor relations regimes require deeper changes. A review of several Latin American cases is followed by a closer examination of Brazil and El Salvador.
Welfare Regimes in Latin America: Capturing Constellations of Markets, Families, and Policies
Authors: Franzoni Juliana Martínez
Published: August 2010

This article presents both a theoretical framework and a methodology that attempt to capture the complex interactions among labor markets, families, and public policy that currently constitute Latin American welfare regimes. Drawing on cluster analysis based on available data for 18 countries, the study identifies three welfare regimes. Two are state welfare regimes: protectionist (e.g. Costa Rica) and productivist (e.g. Chile); one is nonstate familiarist (e.g. Ecuador and Nicaragua). In a region where people's well-being is deeply embedded in family relationships, closer scholarly attention to how social structures interact with public policy bears not only academic interest but also policy implications, particularly for adapting particular welfare regimes to the local welfare mix.
Aquí en el Ghetto: Hip-hop in Colombia, Cuba, and Mexico
Authors: Tickner Arlene B.
Published: August 2010

Hip-hop music has become an important tool worldwide for poor, marginalized youth to reflect on their lived experiences. This article traces the genre's production from its spontaneous origins in the urban ghettos of New York to its commoditization for global consumption and its evolution in three different Latin American settings: Colombia, Cuba, and Mexico. The article explores how hip-hop has been appropriated in each country and has been used to express the performers’ reflections on social, political, and economic problems. It also looks at the interplay between the homogenizing tendencies of global hip-hop and its local reception.
Political Parties and Governors as Determinants of Legislative Behavior in Brazil's Chamber of Deputies, 1988–2006
Authors: Cheibub José Antonio , Figueiredo Argelina , Limongi Fernando
Published: August 2010

This article examines the relative importance of regional and national forces in shaping the behavior of Brazilian legislators at the national level. A widely held view is that national legislators respond to state pressures in making decisions, rather than pressures from the national government. Governors not only can influence national debates but also can determine outcomes by exerting control over their states' legislative delegations. This article examines a dataset of all roll-call votes in the Chamber of Deputies between 1989 and 2006 to isolate and evaluate the impact of local pressures on legislative voting. Spanning the terms of five presidents and five different congresses, the data show that the local influence is weaker than the national on the voting decisions of individual legislators and the voting cohesion of state delegations. Alternative institutional resources allow the central government to counteract the centrifugal pressures of federalism and other institutional influences.
The Personal Is Political: The Cuban Ethnic Electoral Policy Cycle
Authors: Eckstein Susan
Published: August 2010

This article documents a U.S. Cuban foreign policy cycle that operated in tandem with the presidential electoral cycle between 1992 and 2004. During these post–Cold War years, when Cuba posed no threat to U.S. national security, influential, well-organized Cuban Americans leveraged political contributions and votes to tighten the embargo on travel and trade, especially at the personal level. U.S. presidential candidates, most notably incumbent presidents seeking re-election, responded to their demands with discretionary powers of office. When presidential candidates supported policies that made good electoral sense but conflicted with concerns of state, they subsequently reversed or left unimplemented Cuba initiatives. After describing the logic behind an ethnic electoral policy cycle and U.S. personal embargo policy between 1992 and 2004, this article examines Cuban American voter participation, political and policy preferences, lobbying, political contributions, and the relationship between the ethnic policy and presidential election cycles.
Who Participates? Determinants of Political Action in Mexico
Authors: Klesner Joseph L.
Published: August 2010

This article seeks to determine the main predictors of political participation in a newly democratic regime: Mexico. Compared to other nations, Mexico fills a moderate position in terms of the volume of political participation. Following the literature on participation, this study develops a set of participant modes—voting, communal activity, petitioning, direct action, and political organization membership—and then seeks to determine the socioeconomic, demographic, attitudinal, and social capital factors that best explain participation. Distinct resource inequalities limit the participation of the less educated, the poor, women, and workers, although peasant participation is robust. The strongest determinant of political participation of all kinds is involvement in social capital–generating activities: belonging to nonpolitical organizations and engaging in charitable work, activities typically dominated by the middle class. Building social capital is essential to promoting robust rates of political participation in Mexico.
Self-Restraint in Search of Legitimacy: The Reform of the Argentine Supreme Court
Authors: Ruibal Alba M.
Published: August 2010

In 2003, the Argentine executive promoted a process of Supreme Court reform that entailed limiting presidential attributions in the selection of justices. Then the renewed court implemented changes to its internal procedures that increased its own accountability mechanisms. The literature on the politics of institutional judicial independence in Latin America has developed two explanatory models: one presents reforms as an insurance policy, the other as a consequence of divided government. Both perspectives conceive of reforms as a result of political competition and as a way to limit other actors, the future government in the first case, the party in power in the second. This study, by contrast, explains the Argentine reforms as movements of strategic self-restriction, designed to build legitimacy and credibility, for the government and the court, respectively, in a context of social and institutional crisis and pressure from civil society.
Radical Neglect? The “War on Terror” and Latin America
Authors: Emerson R. Guy
Published: August 2010

The rise of leftist governments in the Americas and the adoption of policy initiatives contrary to U.S. interests highlight a disconnect in interamerican relations, which cannot be understood simply as U.S. “neglect” of Latin America. In contrast to arguments that attribute the deteriorating relations to U.S. preoccupation with the Middle East, the article examines whether the “War on Terror” acted as a guiding paradigm for the George W. Bush administration in Latin America. Opposition to this “War on Terror” paradigm was evident following Colombia's 2008 air strike in Ecuador. Justified as a preemptive strike against a terrorist threat, Colombia's action met regional condemnation. The article argues that this Colombia-Latin America division reflects a larger geostrategic disconnect, whereby the “War on Terror” is challenged, causing the increasing marginalization of Washington and resistance to U.S. policy.
Synthesis of Biomorphic ZnO Nanostructures by Using the Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Modified Silk Templates
Authors: Li Jia , Kwong Fung‐Luen , Zhu Jiangtao , Ng Dickon H. L.
Published: August 2010

We report a biotemplating approach to produce porous ZnO nanostructures. In the synthesis, a biotemplate cut from silkworm cocoon was treated with the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) surfactant and soaked in the Zn(NO3)2·6H2O solution before it was annealed at ∼650°C in air. The biotemplate was transformed to a hierarchically interwoven network with hollow fibers composing of ZnO nanometer‐sized crystallites. During their formation, micelles of the CTAB molecules attached to the silk transformed the surface charge of the fibers from negative to positive. Consequently, the negatively charged Zn(OH)42− ions self‐assembled onto the silk fibers through electrostatic interaction. Further annealing eliminated the organic components of the fibers resulted in a porous ZnO network.
Keratoacanthoma: A deficient squamous cell carcinoma? Study of bcl‐2 expression
Authors: Sleater Joseph P. , Beers Betsy B. , Stephens Claudia A. , Hendricks James B.
Published: August 2010

Ten keratoacanthomas with both proliferative and regressive histologic features along with 10 well‐differentiated squamous cell carcinomas were examined using immunohistochemistry for the expression of bcl‐2, a protooncogene recently recognized to be involved in protecting cells from undergoing apoptosis. The squamous cell carcinomas had a modest but diffuse staining pattern, while the proliferative keratoacanthomas stained only at the basal cells and only rare cells stained positively in the regressive keratoacanthomas. The degree and pattern of staining suggest a loss of bcl‐2 expression with tumor maturity in keratoacanthoma and a possible role in their ultimate involution.

Sleater JP, Beers BB, Stephens CA, Hendricks JB. Keratoacanthoma: A deficient squamous cell carcinoma? Study of bcl‐2 expression.