bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Benign Positional Vertigo
Authors: Baloh Robert W , Honrubia Vicente
Published: November 2023

Benign positional vertigo (BPV) is a common inner ear disorder resulting from abnormal stimulation of one of the semi-circular canals (usually the posterior). The direction of the provocative movement and the appearance of the induced eye movements (nystagmus) identify the involved canal. The abnormal stimulation is due to the presence of detached otoliths (canaliths) moving in the canal endolymph under the influence of gravity. It is not a disease, but rather, a syndrome that can be the sequela of several inner ear diseases. In about half of the cases, noetiology can be found. Benign positional vertigo, also called benign positioning vertigo and benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), is the most common cause of vertigo seen in our neurology clinic.
Migraine
Authors: Baloh Robert W , Honrubia Vicente
Published: November 2023

Migraine is a syndrome characterized by periodic headaches along with many other symptoms, including dizziness and vertigo. It ranks seventh among reasons for outpatient visits, resulting in more than 18 million visits annually in the United States.1 Migraine is nearly always familial and occurs in complex patterns and settings. It is estimated to affect about 15% of women and 5% of men.2,3 Approximately 20% of adults with migraine indicate that their headaches began before the age of 10 years.4 In the prepubertal periods, boys and girls, are approximately equally affected, but at puberty migraine decreases in boys and increases in girls, so that a 2.5 to 1 female preponderance is established by adulthood. Although migraine usually begins before the age of 40, it is such a common disorder that a substantial number of adults become affected later in life.
Tumors
Authors: Baloh Robert W , Honrubia Vicente
Published: November 2023

A wide variety of benign and malignant tumors involve the middle ear and temporal bone. Tumors involving the middle ear produce symptoms of fullness or conductive hearing loss early, whereas tumors in the temporal bone outside the middle ear can become quite large without producing symptoms. The tumor may not become apparent until it erodes into the external auditory canal (producing a conductive hearing loss) or through the mastoid cortex into the skin. Anterior extension into the cavernous sinus produces ophthalmoplegia from involvement of the third, fourth, and sixth nerves. Malignant tumors in this region tend to spread locally to the regional lymph nodes; distant metastasis is unusual. Ultimately, the tumor can be seen in the nasopharynx, middle ear, or neck.
Doctors and Patients The Practice(s) of Nymphomania
Authors: Goldberg Ann
Published: November 2023

The peasant Margaretha D., noted the asylum log, “often suffers from hysterical attacks, with which she wants to be treated like a distinguished lady . . . She raises herself above her social position and demands great attention and care.”1 This patient, in other words, though considered mad by the Eberbach asylum, was not a true hysteric: she rather “played” the hysterical lady.2 Two important issues suggest themselves from this description of feigned illness. The first has to do with the connection between class, gender, and the rep resentation of illness. Madness, it seems, had its class and gender codes. Certain symptoms of hysteria-which in the eighteenth century had become a fashion able illness of privileged women, signifying the pathologies accompanying luxury, leisure, and “civilization”-appeared suspicious in a poor, peasant woman. Secondly, the “playing” of illness suggests (inadvertently) a subtext, normally buried and only implicit in the asylum notes: of illness as strategic behavior on the part of the patient within the social dynamics of the asylum. Mar garetha’s symptoms were at least in part the result of a self-presentation to her keepers, a communicative act, with its own aims-attention, better care, and so forth.3 Both of these issues-the link between class, gender, and illness, on the one hand, and the strategic nature of symptoms, on the other-are atthe core of the following analysis of nymphomania.
The Jewish Response to the Third Reich: Gender at the Grassroots
Authors: Kaplan Marion
Published: November 2023

In the sometimes vitriolic debates about gender and the Holocaust, both sides recite the litany that the Holocaust was about the destruction of the Jewish people. Why it is necessary to repeat something so obvious has everything to do with the attackers’ reproach: opponents of gender studies imply that gender analysis assigns co-responsibility for the catastrophe to Jewish men and Nazis, essentially pitting Jewish men against Jewish women. Women’s historians, historians of gender, and feminists, in turn, insist that the Nazis were solely to blame, but that gender nonetheless mattered. This attack on the “accusatory gaze” of gender studies is part of a conservative backlash against feminism. It lumps feminist historians with scholars who deny or relativize the Holocaust or with feminists interested solely in “consciousness raising”-or with both. Without entering into the (de)merits of these allegations, it is also important to realize that there is a more general discomfort with a gender analysis of the Holocaust, which is seen as “privileging” women-that is, as raising women’s suffering above that of men.
Jewish Women in Transition: A Comparative Sociodemographic Perspective
Authors: DellaPergola Sergio
Published: November 2023

Over recent decades, extraordinary changes have occurred worldwide with respect to women’s role in society. This is true concerning actual transformations in demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural trends; and probably even truer regarding the nature of public discourse. The key issue at stake in the assessment of gender in society concerns the amount of equity, if not equality, achieved by women in comparison with men. In this regard, innovative and sometimes provocative feminist ideas, claims, and strategies that assertively stressed the issue of equality-which were once barely at the margins of acceptance-have become part of mainstream discourse. There is, for example, the establishment of academic programs of women’s studies, an intriguing symptom of this legitimacy, as it indicates that the position of women in society can be conceptually equated with that of regional cultures or minorities.
The Human Side Of M&A
Authors: Carey Dennis C , Ogden Dayton , Roland Judith A
Published: November 2023

There are thousands of mergers every year and, by some estimates, two-thirds of them either fail or fall far short of expectations. How can leaders keep their merger from becoming a head-on collision? In The Human Side of M&A, Dennis Carey and Dayton Ogden argue that most failed mergers looked good on paper--they made financial and strategic sense--but the crucial human element was neglected or overlooked. Consequently, corporate cultures often clash and wreck any chance that the companies will work harmoniously together. The authors, who have worked with many companies in the process of merging, draw on their unique experience to demonstrate how to address the human side of a merger, revealing pitfalls to avoid as well as best practices to pursue. They describe how to assess the quality of the people on both sides, aligned with the strategy, to determine whom to retain. They argue that the CEOs need to create a new vision for the combined company (one that differs from the visions of the two individual entities). And they stress that it is vitally important to move quickly once the merger is approved so that the new enterprise can hit the ground running on the first official day of operating as a combined company. The book concludes with a rigorous statistical appendix that analyzes some of the most successful mergers of the past ten years, validating the book's underlying theme and conclusions. While the volume of mergers may wax and wane depending on a host of economic factors, mergers will endure as a logical, efficient, and profitable strategy for many companies in a global economy. This book will help ensure the success of those who choose this path.
Create a New Vision
Authors: Carey Dennis C , Ogden Dayton , Roland Judith A
Published: November 2023

Announced in January 2000—and approved by the FTC in December of the same year and by the FCC a month later—the AOL Time Warner deal had the distinction of being the biggest merger in U.S. history. Just three years later, the deal has been judged a disaster of mammoth proportions. Virtually the entire top management team has resigned; the company posted a nearly $wo billion loss in 2002; and it faces U.S. government investigations into its business dealings as well as institutional shareholder lawsuits alleging the company inflated its stock price by overstating revenues.
Conclusion
Authors: Carey Dennis C , Ogden Dayton , Roland Judith A
Published: November 2023

Like other economic phenomena, M&A activity comes in clearly defined waves. The wave that peaked in 2000 has been well documented. And despite the retrenchment overall in the economy over the last few years—including in the merger and acquisition climate—we can expect to see M&A activity rebound in the coming years.
Crime Trends and the Effects of Crime Control Policies
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: November 2023

Prevailing sensibilities in the contemporary United States have produced, or at least allowed, drug and crime control policies of severity unprecedented in recent American history and unmatched in other Western countries today. There was a de facto moratorium on capital punishment in the United States in 1970 and belief was widespread that the Supreme Court would soon declare the death penalty unconstitutional. For eight years, from 1968 to 1977, no one was executed. In 2001, capital punishment was authorized in thirty-eight states and the federal system, sixty-six people were put to death, and at year’s end 3,625 were on death row (Death Penalty Information Center 2002). In June 2001 the execution of Timothy McVeigh, shown “live” on closed circuit television to more than 230 people, was the first execution by the federal government since 1963. By contrast, in 2001, no Western European country, or Australia, Canada, England, or New Zealand, allowed capital punishment. Courts in South Africa and Hungary had declared their countries’ capital punishment laws unconstitutional. The dozens of Eastern and Southern European countries joining the Council of Europe agreed to forego capital punishment as a condition of membership.
Synaptic function and biochemical neuroanatomy
Authors: Heckers Stephan , Konradi Christine
Published: November 2023

How are the 1011 neurons in the central nervous system arranged to process information? How do they communicate through their 103–104 connections with each other? Most importantly for psychiatrists; how can environmental influences, such as a pharmacological intervention or psychotherapy, influence the way in which the brain processes information? In this chapter we will focus on two basic principles of neurotransmission that may help to understand normal brain function on the one hand, and the current practice of clinical psychopharmacology on the other. First, the anatomic organization of neurotransmitter systems determines their behavioral affiliation. Second, neurotransmitter receptors modulate the electrical properties (via ion channels) or the biochemical properties (via second messenger systems) of neurons. We will then review these two basic principles for some of the neurotransmitter systems relevant to the practice of neuropsychopharmacology.
Mechanisms of signal transduction and adaptation to psychotropic drug action
Authors: et.al. Lara M Tolbert
Published: November 2023

The predominant mechanism by which neurons communicate with and are modulated by one another in the central nervous system (CNS) is through chemical transmission. During this process, molecules released from a presynaptic neuron travel a short distance across the synaptic cleft and interact with receptor proteins located on the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. The binding of these neurotransmitters, or chemical ligands, to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron initiates a chain of events by which the neuron produces a response to the stimulation. Typically, there are four mechanisms by which a ligand can trigger a response. Monoamine neurotransmitters, as well as amino acid and peptide neurotransmitters, bind to metabotropic receptors, or G protein–coupled receptors, so named because they produce their response via intermediary GTP-binding proteins. Some monoamine and amino acid neurotransmitters can also produce faster responses by directly binding to ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane, altering the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell by allowing specific ions to flow down their electrochemical gradient. Neurotrophins, growth factors, and some hormones act on membrane-bound receptors which either have intrinsic enzymatic (e.g., kinase) activity or which bind to intracellular proteins with such activity. Finally, lipophilic hormones, such as steroids, can diffuse through the neuronal membrane and activate intracellular receptors that bind to specific sequences on DNA to initiate transcription. This chapter will focus on the first three of these signal transduction mechanisms, which have the most relevance to the actions of currently available psychotropic drugs.
Molecular genetics
Authors: Paul Surojit , Lombroso Paul J
Published: November 2023

There have been remarkable advances over the last 20 years in our understanding of how genes contribute to both normal and abnormal development. The greatest progress has come from the fields of molecular biology and the neurosciences. Together, these disciplines have deepened our appreciation of the biological and environmental factors that contribute to mental illness. Genes have been implicated in an ever-increasing number of disorders. The sequencing of the human genome will allow researchers to investigate this area with greater ease than was possible before. As a better understanding emerges over the role these genes play, there will be an increasing need to find better techniques to discover psychotropic agents that are capable of interacting with these gene products and modify their actions when necessary. The field of pharmacology has been moving toward an examination of how drugs interact with brain proteins and the regulatory mechanisms that control the synthesis and function of these proteins. This chapter will review the basic concepts of molecular biology as well as summarize some of the most recent discoveries and technical advances.
Neurobiology of early-onset anxiety disorders
Authors: et.al. Vivian Koda
Published: November 2023

The past two decades of research on both the longitudinal course and familial distribution of anxiety disorders suggests that many forms of adult anxiety disorders can be conceptualized as developmental conditions. Family studies demonstrate strong associations between anxiety in parents and children (Weissman et al., 1997; Battaglia et al., 1998). Similarly, prospective epidemiological studies find strong associations between anxiety during adolescence and both anxiety as well as major depression during adulthood (Pine et al., 1998). Given this developmental perspective, the expanding knowledge base on the neurobiology of adult anxiety disorder may provide opportunities for enhancing knowledge of childhood anxiety disorders.
Neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder
Authors: et.al. Tanya K Murphy
Published: November 2023

As defined in the Diagnonstic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th (DSM-IV), obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder, characterized by obsessions—recurrent, unwanted, and distressing thoughts, images, or impulses—and/or compulsions—complex, repetitive, rule-governed behaviors that the patient feels driven to perform. Patients usually try to actively dismiss obsessions or neutralize them by seeking reassurance, avoiding situational triggers, or by engaging in compulsions. Although compulsions generally serve to alleviate anxiety, they can also engender anxiety if they become too arduous or time-consuming. The proposed lifetime prevalence of OCD is 2%–3% in adolescents and adults. Approximately half of all OCD patients first present in childhood, before age 15 (Karno et al., 1988). Peak symptom changes often occur around age 10 years (Leonard et al., 1992) and the symptom profile in children can be quite variable. A child with only OCD or tics may develop additional symptoms months or years later. Although there are many similarities between childhood and adult onset OCD, Geller et al. (1998a) propose that there are enough differences between childhoodand adult-onset OCD to view childhood-onset OCD as a developmental subtype of the disorder. The major difference between childhoodand adult-onset OCD is that in children compulsions often precede obsessions and they may lack insight about their symptoms. Childhood-onset OCD is also associated with a poorer treatment response, higher familial risk, and a high rate of comorbid tic, disruptive, and developmental disorders.
Neurobiology of tic disorders, including Tourette’s syndrome
Authors: et.al. James F Leckman
Published: November 2023

Tic disorders are chronic conditions that are frequently associated with difficulties in self-esteem, family life, social acceptance, or school or job performance that are directly related to the presence of motor and/or phonic tics. Although tic symptoms have been reported since antiquity, systematic study of individuals with tic disorders dates from the nineteenth century. In addition to tics, individuals with tic disorders may present with a broad array of behavioral difficulties including disinhibited speech or conduct, impulsivity, distractibility, motoric hyperactivity, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (Leckman and Cohen, 1998). Alternatively, a sizable portion of children and adolescents with tics will be free of coexisting developmental or emotional difficulties. Scientific opinion has been divided on how broadly to conceive the spectrum of maladaptive behaviors associated with Tourette’s syndrome (TS) (Comings, 1988; Shapiro et al., 1988).
Neurobiology of affiliation: implications for autism spectrum disorders
Authors: et.al. Sherie Novotny
Published: November 2023

In human beings and most mammals, affiliation is an essential part of the life process, as it is necessary for both reproduction and survival. There are nonetheless instances in nature of profound lack of affiliative behavior. For example, children with autism spectrum disorders have significant difficulties in social skills, including lack of positive reinforcement from social interaction, poor eye gaze, impairment in social interactions, difficulties in attachment, and difficulties in nonverbal and, often, verbal communication. Deficits of this kind have led us to the study of the neurobiology underlying attachment and affiliation.
Neurobiology of substance abuse and dependence disorders
Authors: Jacobsen Leslie K
Published: November 2023

Substance abuse and dependence disorders occurring during childhood or adolescence, just as other psychiatric disorders that develop during this period, are associated with significant functional impairment and, in some cases, mortality. However, a critical difference between these and other psychiatric disorders is that the existence of substance abuse and dependence disorders requires an external agent that is available and potent, and a host who is willing to self-administer the agent. This key difference shapes both the neurobiologic and the psychosocial underpinning of this class of disorders.
Antidepressants II: tricyclic agents
Authors: Gundersen Karl , Geller Barbara
Published: November 2023

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) were first synthesized in the 1940s by chemists looking for drugs to act as sedatives, antihistamines, and anti-parkinsonian drugs (Baldessarini, 1996). Use in depression was first reported in the late 1950s, and hundreds of studies have confirmed their effectiveness in adult populations. In the mid-1960s, TCAs were first studied as an alternative to stimulant medication in the treatment of childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, (ADHD). To date, TCAs have been used in multiple psychiatric disorders in children, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), major depressive disorder (MDD), anxiety, and enuresis. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved TCAs only for use in the treatment of OCD (clomipramine) and enuresis (imipramine).
Mood stabilizers: lithium and anticonvulsants
Authors: Davanzo Pablo , McCracken James
Published: November 2023

In the process of studying the toxicity of uric acid from patients with manic–depressive illness in guinea pigs, the Australian physician John Cade noted in 1949 that animals became lethargic after injection with lithium carbonate, a monovalent cation (Cade, 1978). This led to the administration of lithium citrate to a manic adult patient who had a marked clinical improvement (Cade, 1978). Twenty years later, lithium was approved by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of mania in adults. Since then, it has traditionally been used as the preferred treatment of mania in adults (Post et al., 1997) and adolescents (Strober et al., 1990) with bipolar disorder (BD). One double-blind, placebocontrolled study of adolescent mania showing a 43% response efficacy (Geller et al., 1998a) suggests that adolescents with BD may have a similar or even lower response efficacy to lithium compared with adults.
Miscellaneous compounds: beta-blockers and opiate antagonists
Authors: Buitelaar Jan K
Published: November 2023

Beta-blockers are medications that block β-adrenergic receptors and thereby influence the activation of centrally located systems that use norepinephrine and epinephrine as a neurotransmitter, as well as that of the adrenergic sympathetic nervous system. Beta-blockers have long been used in general medicine. For example, by blocking β-receptors in the heart, heart rate, cardiac output, and blood pressure are decreased. This has led to clinical applications in the treatment of hypertension, angina pectoris and cardiac arrhythmias. In psychiatry, beta-blockers have been used on the basis of the hypothesis that “overarousal,” i.e., overactivation of adrenergic systems, may underlie various psychiatric symptoms. Clinical indications in adult psychiatry for treatment with beta-blockers are mainly anxiety disorders with somatic manifestations such as palpitations and tremor (Neppe, 1989; Lader, 1988); prophylactic treatment of migraine (Evers, 1999), various forms of aggression and rage outbursts (Haspel, 1995; Silver et al., 1999); akathisia (Wells et al., 1991; Kurzthaler et al., 1997), and simple or drug-induced tremor (Henderson et al., 1995). A recent meta-analysis found insufficient support to recommend beta-blockers as an add-on to neuroleptics in the treatment of schizophrenia (Cheine et al., 2000). A small but controlled study in three adolescents and two adults found propranolol to be ineffective in Tourette’s syndrome (Sverd et al., 1983). There are limited data on the efficacy and safety of beta-blockers in children and adolescents. Possible psychiatric indications for the use of beta-blockers in pediatric populations, namely aggression, rage outbursts, and anxiety, will be discussed here.
Complementary and alternative medicine in pediatric psychopharmacology
Authors: Rey Joseph M , Walter Garry , Horrigan Joseph P
Published: November 2023

Alternative medicine refers to a group of treatments that exist largely outside the institutions where mainstream health care is provided (Zolman and Vickers, 1999). The boundary between these practices and traditional medicine has become progressively blurred because of some physicians using alternative treatments in their practice and to their inclusion in health insurance packages. Many universities now offer courses on alternative medicine and scientific methods (e.g., randomized, placebo-controlled trials) are beginning to be used to test the efficacy of these treatments. Alternative medicine is increasingly seen as complementing mainstream practices and is often referred to as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). For example, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States include the National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine, which conducts and supports basic and applied research in this field. Complementary and alternative medicine comprises a wide range of treatments as disparate as acupuncture, yoga, herbal medicine, homoeopathy, and reflexology. This chapter will focus on the herbal remedies or “dietary supplements,” particularly St. John’s wort, that are more relevant to clinical practice and research.
Clinical instruments and scales in pediatric psychopharmacology
Authors: Arnold L Eugene , Aman Michael G
Published: November 2023

This review of instruments for assessing psychopathology in toddlers, children, and adolescents is not intended to be comprehensive. For readers seeking more details, we recommend an extensive textbook, the Handbook of Psychiatric Measures, (Rush et al., 2000), a detailed chapter (Aman and Pearson, 1999), and the disorder-specific chapters in Part III-B of this volume. Before describing specific instrument options, we summarize some basic principles that are applicable in clinical practice and in research on psychoactive medication. Although we use attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a frequent example, the principles are generally applicable to assessment of most disorders.
Thinking about prescribing: the psychology of psychopharmacology
Authors: Pruett Kyle D
Published: November 2023

Our patients have myriad thoughts, feelings, and wishes about the substances we prescribe for them, and about the processes we go through when prescribing them. As clinicians, we too are no less psychologically involved in these very concerns. Indeed, we often share their preoccupations and “magic bullet” fantasies of finding the perfect potion for just their problem. For all our increasing sophistication in understanding pharmacokinetics, drug–environment interaction, and symptoms as targets, we (rightly) remain as intrigued as ever by the way a particular agent works, or doesn’t, in a particular patient, at any given moment in time.
Combining pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy: an evidence-based approach
Authors: March John S , Wells Karen
Published: November 2023

he marriage of molecular neuroscience and cognitive psychology is driving a revolution in how we understand the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness (Kandel and Squire, 2000). It is increasingly clear that psychotropic medications work by biasing specific central nervous information processes; it is less commonly acknowledged but no less true that psychosocial treatments also have both a somatic substrate and psychosocial valence. Put simply, drugs and psychotherapy work because they act on the brain (Hyman, 2000). Hence, when selecting a treatment strategy appropriate to the needs of a specific patient, the pediatric psychopharmacologist must consider not only medication but also psychosocial treatment strategies either alone or in combination with medication.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Authors: Geller Daniel A , Spencer Thomas
Published: November 2023

Once thought rare, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is now recognized as a relatively common disorder affecting children and adolescents, and mental health professionals are almost certain to encounter such affected youth. Epidemiological studies in the United States and elsewhere report prevalence rates of around 2% in the adolescent population. In one epidemiological study (Flament et al., 1988), several adolescents identified with clinical OCD had been neither diagnosed nor treated, suggesting that, at that time, the disorder was underrecognized. While the secretive nature of obsessional symptoms might delay diagnosis, extensive research over the last decade into the clinical phenomenology, etiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of pediatric OCD has greatly increased awareness of this disorder.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Authors: Donnelly Craig L
Published: November 2023

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a complicated condition involving dysregulation of multiple neurobiological systems and cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains of functioning. Post-traumatic stress disorder entered the diagnostic nomenclature with the introduction of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed. (DSM-III; American Psychiatric Association, 1980) in 1980, yet it was not immediately recognized as a disorder in childhood. Subsequent applications of the diagnostic criteria in child and adolescent populations in epidemiological studies indicate, that it is a common disorder. In the general population, prevalence rates range between 7% and 8% (Kessler et al., 1995). Trauma exposure affects approximately one-third of the entire population in the United States (Solomon and Davidson, 1997; Breslau 1998) and approximately 10%–20% of these individuals will develop PTSD. Giaconia et al. (1995) found that more than 6% of children and adolescents age 18 years and younger met criteria for a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD.
Ethical issues in research
Authors: Hoagwood Kimberly
Published: November 2023

A climate of ambiguity currently surrounds research in pediatric psychopharmacology. This climate has been created by the convergence of disparate beliefs, misunderstandings, and social pressures. This situation creates unique ethical challenges for those embarking on studies of pediatric psychopharmacology. Popular misunderstandings about pediatric mental illnesses abound, including the belief that it does not exist, that it will heal on its own, that it is the mere product of bad parenting. Attitudes about the acceptability or unacceptability of psychotropic medications to treat mental illnesses also are widespread and in some cases deeply held. At the same time, one of the fastestgrowing sectors in corporate America is the pharmaceutical industry, and its pediatric arm has experienced especially rapid growth since the advent of federal legislation providing fiscal incentives for pediatric medication development.
Justice and the Basic Structure of Health-Care Systems
Authors: Menzel Paul T
Published: November 2023

Health-care systems are sometimes thought to fall on a spectrum, from those that are characterized by great equity but employ considerable collective coercion to those that achieve little equity but encroach less on individual liberty (Culyer et al., 1981). Usually, systems lying in the equity emphasizing and arguably liberty diminishing direction are also surmised to be more efficient (cost-effective). More centralized, they seem better able to control costly provider behavior and insurance distorted patient demand. Their structural paradigm is a unitary public system, either single-payer insurance or national health service. The structural paradigm on the other, decentralized end of the spectrum is a pluralistic system of market competition that does not achieve universal access to even a basic minimum of services. The stereotypical conflicts of liberty with equity or with cost-effectiveness are admittedly understood to have their limits. Unitary public systems can fully respect an individual’s right of informed refusal of care, and pluralistic systems that utilize competitive private markets can achieve virtually universal access through publicly subsidized vouchers (Pauly et al., 1992). Nonetheless, the trade-offs and conflicts are still commonly thought to be significant enough that health policy tends to remain an ideological battleground between the political left willing to compromise liberty to achieve both greater equity and aggregate efficiency and the political right willing to sacrifice equity and universal access to avoid any encroachment on liberty.
Priority to the Worse Off in Health-Care Resource Prioritization
Authors: Brock Dan W
Published: November 2023

Resources available to the health-care system are and always will be scarce, however much many Americans would like to deny it. It is not possible, nor would it be rational or just, to provide all potentially beneficial care to everyone, no matter how small the benefits and how great the cost. As a result, use of potential resources must be given priority in a way that reflects the individual and social values at stake. In the face of scarce resources available for health care, many will respond that such resources should be used in whatever manner will maximize the overall or aggregate health benefits for the population they serve. Cost-effectiveness analysis using measures of benefits like quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) is the analytic tool for comparing different health interventions and programs for their aggregate health impacts (Gold et al., 1997; Brock forth coming 2002). However, this utilitarian or consequentialist approach suffers from a familiar problem, which is that it looks only to the overall benefits to a population without any direct concern for how those benefits are distributed to distinct individuals. It does not matter who receives how much benefit as long as resources are used to maximize overall benefits. Distributive justice and fairness, however, concern how individuals are treated relative to other individuals-which inequalities between individuals or groups are just or unjust.
Introduction
Authors: Lewis Bernard
Published: November 2023

What went wrong? For a long time people in the Islamic world, especially but not exclusively in the Middle East, have been asking this question. The content and formulation of the question, provoked primarily by their encounter with the West, vary greatly according to the circumstances, extent, and duration of that encounter and the events that first made them conscious, by comparison, that all was not well in their own society. But whatever the form and manner of the question and of the answers that it evokes, there is no mistaking the growing anguish, the mounting urgency, and of late the seething anger with which both question and answers are expressed.
The Lessons of the Battlefield
Authors: Lewis Bernard
Published: November 2023

The Treaty of Carlowitz has a special importance in the history of the Ottoman Empire, and even, more broadly, in the history of the Islamic world, as the first peace signed by a defeated Ottoman Empire with victorious Christian adversaries.
The Quest for Wealth and Power
Authors: Lewis Bernard
Published: November 2023

Before the end of the eighteenth century Turks, Iranians, and other Middle Easterners had had very little opportunity for direct observation of the West—nothing remotely comparable with the opportunities that Westerners had enjoyed in the East even in the period when the West was inferior in every material and cultural respect. Contacts occurred mainly in three areas—diplomacy, commerce, and war. But while the European powers from relatively early times maintained offices, then consulates, and eventually embassies in the East, the Eastern powers did not follow this practice and sent only rare and brief special missions.
Modernization and Social Equality
Authors: Lewis Bernard
Published: November 2023

It is often said that Islam is an egalitarian religion. There is much truth in this assertion. If we compare Islam at the time of its advent with the societies that surrounded it—the stratified feudalism of Iran and the caste system of India to the east, the privileged aristocracies of both Byzantine and Latin Europe to the West—the Islamic dispensation does indeed bring a message of equality. Not only does Islam not endorse such systems of social differentiation; it explicitly and resolutely rejects them. The actions and utterances of the Prophet, the honored precedents of the early rulers of Islam as preserved by tradition, are overwhelmingly against privilege by descent, by birth, by status, by wealth, or even by race, and insist that rank and honor are determined only by piety and merit in Islam.
Time, Space, and Modernity
Authors: Lewis Bernard
Published: November 2023

In a letter written in 1554, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, ambassador from the Emperor to the Sultan, describes a problem he encountered on his journey to the Ottoman capital:
Block Traders
Authors: Harris Larry
Published: November 2023

Block trades result from orders that are too large to fill easily using standard trading procedures. Such orders generally demand more liquidity than is normally available at exchanges or in dealer networks. Traders who wish to trade large blocks therefore must look elsewhere for liquidity.
Floor Versus Automated Trading Systems
Authors: Harris Larry
Published: November 2023

Advances in communications and computing technologies now allow exchanges to completely automate their trading systems. Many exchanges have done so, and many brokers, ECNs, and dealers have created automated trading systems.
Bubbles, Crashes, and Circuit Breakers
Authors: Harris Larry
Published: November 2023

Bubbles and crashes occur when prices differ greatly from fundamental values. The wealth that these events create, destroy, and redistribute is often enormous. Bubbles and crashes thus are quite scary when prices change quickly.
Insider Trading
Authors: Harris Larry
Published: November 2023

Traders engage in insider trading when they base their trades on material information about the value of an instrument that is not publicly available. Most insider trading involves private information that corporate managers know about the prospects of their companies. Insider trading also may involve information that traders improperly obtain from other sources.
Common Source and Target Domains
Authors: Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

It was shown in the previous chapter that conceptual metaphors consist of a source domain and a target domain, as well as a set of mappings between them. It was also noted that the source domains are typically more concrete or physical and more clearly delineated concepts than the targets, which tend to be fairly abstract and less delineated ones. What, then, are the most commonly used source and target domains? In other words, which clearly delineated physical concepts are used most commonly in understanding which less clearly delineated abstract concepts?
The Universality of Conceptual Metaphors
Authors: Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

Are there any conceptual metaphors that can be found in all languages and cultures? This is an extremely difficult question to answer, considering that there are more than 4,000 languages spoken currently around the world. Our best bet to begin to understand this issue is to look at some conceptual metaphors that one can find in some language and then check whether the same metaphors exist in typologically very different languages. If they do occur, we can set up a hypothesis that they may be universal. With further research, we can then verify or disprove the universality of these metaphors.
Metaphor, Metonymy, and Idioms
Authors: Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

Of the many potential applications of the cognitive linguistic view of metaphor and metonymy to the study of language, we single out one in this chapter: the treatment of idioms. We have chosen idioms because this is a notoriously difficult area of foreign language learning and teaching. If the cognitive linguistic view can significantly contribute to this area, it would clearly show the practical and applied linguistic potential of the theory of metaphor and metonymy I am outlining in this book. In the next chapter, I will take up the issue of the theoretical and descriptive implications of the theory for the study of language in general.
Metaphors and Blends
Authors: Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

In this book, I have characterized metonymy as a stand-for relationship between two elements within a single conceptual domain and metaphor as an is-understood-as relationship between two conceptually distant domains. With this one-domain (for metonymy) and two-domain (for metaphor) model, we have been able to account for several aspects of the human conceptual system and many cases of linguistic and nonlinguistic behavior. Nevertheless, there are also additional aspects of the conceptual system and many additional linguistic and nonlinguistic examples that require us to extend the model we have used so far. This chapter will discuss some specific suggestions to this effect.
Slavery in the American Constitutional System
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

From time to time at the Constitutional Convention there had been confrontations between a slavery interest and an antislavery sentiment. The interest was concentrated, persistent, practical, and testily defensive. The sentiment tended to be dif­ fuse, sporadic, moralistic, and tentative. This distinction between interest and sentiment remains appropriate for at least the first half­ century of national history. An antislavery interest of significant pro­ portions was slow to develop, even slower than a proslavery sentiment.
Expansion and Slavery in a Continental Republic
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

The Missouri crisis, it has been said, “introduced the antislavery issue into American politics.” But in fact, the issue was more or less continuously present in the consciousness of American political leaders from the very beginning of the Republic, and often enough before 1819 it had broken through the surface of congressional business. Perhaps in part because of Jefferson’s overwrought imagery, the Missouri controversy appears in textbook history as a sudden, interruptive event, full of meaning for the future but somewhat anomalous in the context of its own time. It is true that the controversy does not fit easily into an “Era of Good Feelings” or an interval of “postwar nationalism.” Unlike the crisis of 1850, it did not arise inevitably from the consequences of a war recently ended, and it had no inflamed aftermath like northern reaction to the Fugitive Slave Act, nor a spectacular sequel like the Kansas-Nebraska controversy.
The Territorial Question, 1848-1854
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

The presidential campaign of 1848 was in certain respects a very strange contest. It took place while Congress was engaged in a sustained and bitter struggle over the extension of slavery; yet both major parties did all they could to smother or evade the issue in their platforms and nominations. The Whig party offset its northern, antislavery leaning by nominating a southern slave­ holder who took no clear public stand on the issue. The Democratic party offset its southern, proslavery tendency by nominating a northerner whose pronouncement on the issue was conveniently susceptible of different interpretations in different regions.* Even the Free Soil party, while emphatically endorsing the Proviso principle, blurred its image by nominating Martin Van Buren and thus partly An effort to attach the Calhoun doctrine to the Democratic platform failed when the convention, by a vote of 216 to 36, rejected the following resolution offered by William L. Yancey of Alabama: “That the doctrine of non-interference with the rights of property of any portion of the people of this confederation, be it in the States or in the Territories, by any other than the parties interested in them, is the true republican doctrine recognized by this body.” It is an indication of how much the Calhoun and Cass doctrines had in common that this anti-Cass resolution should have been mistaken by some historians as an effort to inject popular sovereignty into the plat­ form. The speech with which Yancey introduced the resolution made it quite plain that his target was popular sovereignty.
Toward Judicial Resolution
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

The bitter reaction against the Kansas-Nebraska Act through­ out the North spelled disaster for the Democratic party in a mid-term election year. Its huge majority in the House of Representatives melted like snow during a sudden thaw. More than 70 per cent of the party’s free-state seats were lost. Only seven of the forty-four northern Democrats who had voted for the bill won re-election. Never until the days of Franklin D. Roosevelt would the party fully recover from this defeat into which it had been led by Stephen A. Douglas.
Versus Sandford
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

Proceedings in Dred Scott v. Emerson did not end with the decision of the Missouri supreme court announced on March 22, 1852. The case was then remanded to the trial court for final action in the form of a judgment implementing the decision. In addition, the Emerson attorneys filed a motion calling for termination of the sheriffs custody of the Scotts and for payment to Mrs. Emerson of the wages earned by them during the preceding four ymrs. These appeared to be merely formalities, but in the Dred Scott case anomaly had almost become the rule. On June 29, Judge Alexander Hamilton denied the Emerson motion, thus retaining Dred and his family in public custody. Furthermore, he put off rendering the final judgment ordered by the higher court. Instead, according to an entry in the circuit court record for January 25, 1854, the case was “continued by consent, awaiting decision of Supreme Court of the United States.”1 The only satisfactory explanation of Judge Hamilton’s action on June 29, 1852, is that he had already been privately informed of an intention to carry Dred Scott’s cause to the federal Supreme Court. This does not necessarily mean, however, that the precise strategy for further litigation had been worked out at that early date. From the fact that another sixteen months passed before new court action was initiated, one might well infer that the Scott forces were for a time perplexed about how to proceed.
The Opinion of the Court: Negroes and Citizenship
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

Historians have been preoccupied with counting noses to determine “what the Court really decided” in the Dred Scott case and with evaluating the charge of obiter dictum leveled against the Court’s most important pronouncement. Scholarly interest, in short, has centered on the question of how much-or how little-of Taney’s opinion was authoritative. Systematic analysis of the opinion itself is remarkably scarce and largely limited to contemporary critiques published in 1857 or soon thereafter.
The Opinion of the Court: Slavery in the Territories
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

Taney had devoted the first half of his opinion to overturning the lower court’s ruling against the plea in abatement-that is, to sustaining the contention that Negroes were not citizens. At this point, according to his critics, the Chief Justice could and should have remanded the case to the lower court with instructions to dismiss it for want of jurisdiction. Instead, he proceeded to take up the substantive issue of whether Dred Scott had become free by virtue of his residence in Illinois or at Fort Snelling. Taney justified his procedure in a four-page passage, nearly half of which is known to have been added as rebuttal to Justice Curtis after the early publication of the latter’s dissenting opinion.
Concurrence and Dissent
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E
Published: November 2023

Except, perhaps, for the dissent of Justice Curtis, which won wide acceptance in Republican circles as the official rejoinder to Taney, none of the other opinions delivered in the Dred Scott case had a significant effect on the course of events. Yet each in its own way reveals something about the nature of the sectional conflict, and, taken together, they exemplify the subtle variations possible in American constitutional thought.