bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Ó Dochartaigh Niall
Published: April 2021

The Conclusion considers why it took so long to negotiate an end to the Northern Ireland conflict, examining the role of internal divisions and leadership, emphasizing the importance of strategic action, and suggesting a more agential approach to understanding peace settlements. It outlines how back-channel negotiation allowed two key parties to the Northern Ireland conflict to coordinate their actions, and to assist each other in resolving strategic dilemmas and in overcoming intra-party resistance to compromise when direct contact and open meetings were impossible. It sets out how an analysis of the conflict through the lens of negotiation can enhance understanding of the factors that make for peace agreements.
How the French Learned to Vote
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: April 2021

Voting is a familiar civic activity today, yet few participants are probably aware of its long and controversial history, which was especially marked in the case of France, the country chosen for this study of how people learn to vote. Casting a ballot does not come naturally, and it also requires the technology to accomplish it, besides the legal framework to regulate it. Democratization and the development of citizenship are lengthy processes, like the achievement of free and fair elections involving a secret ballot for all adults. A great experiment with mass voting for men was initiated in France in 1789, only for recurrent upheaval to ensure that the question of who could vote, and how they did so, was frequently re-examined and revised. The entire electoral system was a constant source of partisan conflict, popular protest, and innovation, throwing the great issues around voting into particularly sharp focus. This is the first book to explore the contested and contingent practice of the vote in a comprehensive fashion, over a time span that begins before the French Revolution and concludes with the present, while according significant space to local as well as national elections. The thematic analysis will assist an understanding of those countries where democracy remains in its infancy, while also offering insight into widespread contemporary concerns about declining electoral turnout. In so far as the global adoption of voting is reflected in the context of a specific society, it will be of interest to political scientists as well as historians.
Gone Fishing
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: April 2021

Non-voting has become a major issue of late as electoral participation has declined in most liberal democracies, not just in France. However, the history of voting demonstrates that this is no new phenomenon and, indeed, the problem of abstention was attracting attention from the inception of mass voting. After 1848 it would become a major preoccupation for French politicians. Proposals were frequently tabled for the vote to be made compulsory, though this would remove the liberty of not voting, while there was always disagreement over how to enforce the obligation. By the turn of the twentieth century, in the light of turnout regularly exceeding 75 per cent of the electorate, in both legislative and municipal elections, such concern might appear exaggerated. Yet the principle of representation was perceived to be at risk when electors failed to vote and there were fears that militant minorities would take control. Despite these persistent demands for compulsion, voting has remained a voluntary act in France and the civic duty to vote has been emphasized instead.
Intersectionality, Forced Migration, and the Jus-generation of the Right to Flee
Authors: Moreno-Lax Violeta
Published: April 2021

This chapter critiques the piecemeal approach of the Strasbourg Court to the question of access to asylum, showing how intersectionality theory can facilitate a principled shift towards an analysis that captures the complexity of refugees’ position and recovers the indivisibility of human rights. The theory calls for the multi-dimensional appreciation of human experience in a way that encompasses the whole breadth of lived realities. A similar approach is advocated herein to the construal of the law so that intersectional thinking guides not only the appraisal of factual constellations, but also the interpretation of applicable norms. Only a whole-of-person approach matched by a whole-of-legal-system interpretation can realise substantive justice in practice. This requires a holistic understanding that penetrates the full depth of individual situations and incorporates all the relevant legal provisions in cumulative fashion, acknowledging the jus-generative effects of their interaction, overcoming the limitations of current constructions of rights as disconnected from each other and from the circumstances to which they apply. In the asylum-seeking context, the outcome of the intersection between the right to leave and the right to protection against ill-treatment is the composite ‘right to leave to escape ill-treatment’ or ‘right to flee’, based on the interactive combination of existing entitlements (without the need for new law). The purchase of this method is wider than this chapter has scope to demonstrate. It can be applied to the ECHR as a whole, promoting internal consistency and supporting its development as a constitutional instrument of European public order.
Stages of Migration and the European Convention on Human Rights
Authors: Hatas Kristina
Published: April 2021

This case list offers a guide to the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) case law pertaining to migration. While the case list does not cite every ECtHR decision related to migration, it offers a comprehensive overview of important instances of case law indicative of the ECtHR’s jurisprudence on migration. These are, for example, Grand Chamber decisions, or cases cited by the Court in its more recent case law. In addition to including key cases cited in the preceding chapters of this book, this list also includes cases identified in thematic case law guides of the ECHR and recent jurisprudence in the area of migration, notified by the ECHR in monthly updates. The cases are organised in thematic blocks, which in turn appear in the order in which they pertain to the different temporal stages of migration, from entering the destination country to the right to remain and the cultural and religious rights of long-term migrants.
Medical Ethics Models and Frameworks in Digital Health
Authors: Perakslis Eric D. , Stanley Martin
Published: April 2021

The four pillars of medical ethics include autonomy, justice, beneficence, and nonmalfeasance. How can these essential principles be ensured in the highly connected world of digital health? In many ways, the foundational technologies and operating models of digital health contrast with these principles. How are patient privacy and autonomy protected when patient locations and vital signs are being transmitted 15 times per second by their Apple Watches? How to curtail the epidemic of bad medical information that emanates from the Internet with unprecedented velocity, volume, and variety? In this chapter, the detailed application of medical ethics to digital health is discussed with the intent of ensuring that ethical risks are considered as prioritized risks and potential harms that must be minimized by digital health tools and solution providers.
Introducing the 10 Toxicities
Authors: Perakslis Eric D. , Stanley Martin
Published: April 2021

The history of medical benefit-risk assessment shows that medical benefits tend to be far easier to demonstrate and quantify. The risks, on the other hand, tend to appear in other bodily systems than those studied for benefits—a classical example being an arthritis medicine that causes cardiovascular side effects. This principle is highly relevant for digital health and requires detailed and thoughtful study. When is a side effect of elective surgery a reduction in the credit score of the patient due to data theft? How do we quantify the negative effects of the Internet on hypochondria (cyberchondria)? Quantifying accidental and inadvertent threats can be difficult; but in examining the possible side effects of digital health, one unique characteristic is the presence of a human adversary, which truly changes the paradigm.
The “Smart” Clinic
Authors: Perakslis Eric D. , Stanley Martin
Published: April 2021

“Smart” devices have become ubiquitous in society and are used by almost all of us on a daily basis, but the security history of these devices is notorious due to their lack of protections. The vision of a smart clinic where real-time patient data arrives on-site before the patient, where check-in desks are no longer necessary, and where treatment and prevention advice are based upon an entirely new spectrum of biophysical and socioeconomic measures is truly compelling but also fraught with hazards. Data can be misused and misinterpreted. Unconscious bias can slip into any well-intentioned data analysis and any “fully wired” building is most likely an attack-surface nightmare. To realize the vision of smart clinics, a complete shift in mindset to “first do no harm” is essential.
Five Mitigations for the 10 Toxicities
Authors: Perakslis Eric D. , Stanley Martin
Published: April 2021

Throughout the text we have discussed the necessity of sound and comprehensive medical benefit-risk assessment of digital health tools and have introduced the 10 Toxicities: privacy, security, misinformation, charlatanism, cybersecurity, overdiagnosis, cyberchondria, medical device deregulation, and user error. To many, these hazards appear new, evolving, and, possibly, overstated. The truth is, however, that there is preexisting precedent and numerous examples for all of them. This chapter presents five mitigations for these toxicities including awareness and education, a new regulatory paradigm, professionalism and workforce development, and new models of collaboration between health care and law enforcement. Fortunately, it is not too late to get ahead of the hazards of digital health and ensure optimized benefits and minimized risks.
Introduction
Authors: Qi Xiaoying
Published: April 2021

The introduction discusses the reasons for writing this book and provides an overview of the interview material it draws upon and the issues it deals with. It also provides detailed summaries of each of the book’s five chapters. By reporting some of the information provided by respondents in interviews, drawing on a broader background than is indicated in publicly available statistical data, as well as on findings and theories presented in the literature, the introduction details the substantive issues that are the focus of each chapter. It also provides an account of the research method employed in the study reported in the book.
Divorce
Authors: Qi Xiaoying
Published: April 2021

Divorce in China involves not only a disengaging couple but also their children, parents, and other relatives, who all play a significant role in the process. This chapter shows that a decision to divorce, the timing of its occurrence, and the terms on which it is based, are not simply matters for the couple involved, but also affect their broader families. The responsibilities for a child’s education, eldercare for aging parents, and ongoing concern about the feelings and face of kin qualify the terms of the separation in contemporary China. The chapter also examines the surprisingly underresearched issue of the division of family property at the end of a marriage. Even though the rising rate of divorce in China has introduced a new fluidity in family structures, family ties, even after divorce, persist because persons cannot easily relinquish long-term familial commitments and responsibilities.
From Camelot to Spamalot
Authors: Woller Megan
Published: April 2021

This book explores musicalizations of Arthurian legend as filtered through specific tellings by Mark Twain, T. H. White, and Monty Python. For centuries, Arthurian legend with its tales of Camelot, romance, and chivalry has captured imaginations throughout Europe and the Americas. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, musical versions of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table have abounded in the United States, shaping the legend for American audiences through song. The ever-shifting, age-old tale of King Arthur and his world is one which thrives on adaptation for its survival. New generations tell the story in their own ways, updating or enhancing the relevance for a fresh audience. Taking a case-study approach, this work foregrounds the role of music in selected Arthurian adaptations, examining six stage and film musicals. It considers how musical versions in twentieth- and twenty-first-century popular culture interpret the legend of King Arthur, contending that music guides the audience to understand this well-known tale and its characters in new and unexpected ways. All of the productions considered include an overtly modern perspective on the legend, intruding and even commenting on the tale of King Arthur. Shifting from an idealistic utopia to a silly place, the myriad notions of Camelot offer a look at the importance of myth in American popular culture.
Naiveté and the Depiction of Arthur’s Childhood in Disney’s The Sword in the Stone
Authors: Woller Megan
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines Disney’s animated feature film The Sword in the Stone (1963), based on T. H. White’s account of the future king’s childhood. The final film features six songs written by Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman, designed to add to the tone of Disney’s adaptation as a fantasy for children. This chapter considers how the Disney version alters the characters depicted in White’s book. Unsurprisingly, the animated film abridges White’s story for its seventy-nine-minute runtime. Despite the numerous changes, The Sword in the Stone contributes to the musical retellings of T. H. White’s interpretation that enter into popular culture in the 1960s.
When Practice Doesn’t Make Perfect: The Responsibility to Protect in Lived Reality
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: April 2021

The implementation of principles such as the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is notoriously inconsistent. Some crises attract significant political attention and resources, others much less. This chapter briefly examines the question of consistency and inconsistency in the implementation of R2P since 2005. It argues for a broader understanding of protection, one that draws on a comprehensive universe of relevant cases and that includes all the different types of actors engaged in protection activities. It does so in four parts. The first outlines the normative standard established by R2P and the question of legal and moral rights and duties that are implied by this project. The second explains some of the recent crises that have exposed a gap between principle and practice. The third examines the question of how we understand and evaluate consistency in protection practices. The fourth provides a preliminary examination of practice since 2005, focusing on the United Nations’ experience on the ground.
Spiritual Conquest
Authors: Strasburg James D.
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the twentieth-century origins of Christian nationalism and Christian globalism in American Protestant missionary efforts and the First World War. It also asserts the prominence of American Protestant engagement with Germany in shaping both theological modes of engagement. Whether it was Germany’s autocratic ambitions or its liberal theology, a growing number of American Protestant ecumenists and evangelicals alike identified Germany as a major threat to their global mission. While ecumenists mobilized for war to build a new Wilsonian international order, evangelicals found inspiration in their premillennial apocalypticism to oppose Germany. The Great War and its aftermath then led both ecumenical and evangelical Protestants to see one another as rivals within their own nation. These events ultimately activated and refined competing forms of international engagement that would define America’s global mission in the decades to follow.
Zafè Fatra(The Affair of Trash) and the Affair of Scholarly Engagement
Authors: Dirksen Rebecca
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the challenges and ethics of an applied ethnomusicologist working in Haiti. She scrutinizes whether the impact of ethnomusicologists and scholars, especially when dealing with nonmusical issues such as trash, can be anything more than superficial. Intimately tied to poverty, health insecurity, political uncertainty, and structural violence, trash is one of the most visible and hazardous challenges in Port-au- Prince today. Pedestrians are frequently forced to traverse piles of garbage on their daily routes, and many Haitian citizens speak of politik fatra, a “politics of trash,” that governs civic behavior to a surprising extent. Notably, the mounting trash problem has given rise to a distinct and growing musical discourse on garbage. This repertoire might be tied to mizik angaje—literally, “engaged music,” a genre-crossing expressive form featuring politically and socially engaged lyrics that has been central to the nation’s historical record from the colonial era to the present. Yet youth today are reframing this revered tradition of “throwing” pointed verbal criticisms through music. Namely, several groups of young musicians routinely use their songs to voice concerns about environmental degradation and inappropriate dumping practices, but these musicians’ engagement with trash does not end with their lyrics. Certain artists are physically trying to combat the problem and to empower their local communities toward concrete action. The chapter looks at what happens when Haitian youth use music to clean up Haiti’s streets, before reflecting more deeply on what happens when ethnomusicologists use research methodologies to encourage the process of community engagement.
History, rhetoric, and legends
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the role of the rhetorical Demades in debates and interpretations of Homeric epics and the Persian Wars—as well as other less monumental episodes from Greek history. Homeric heroes and themes substantiated many types of progymnasmata exercises—including synkrisis, or comparison (between heroes, or between them and other characters), confirmation, laudation, and invective—and provided rich material for antilogia, approaching the same subject from opposite perspectives, a technique that was a sign of rhetorical mastery. The figure of Demades was employed to develop rhetorical themes on Homeric subjects—such as the Cyclops, Helen’s fleeing to Troy, and the Trojan Horse—which produced “wandering expressions” that were attributed to Demades and other historical characters. The liberal rhetorical approach put references to ancient Persia and its rulers in the mouth of Demades, who lived more than a century after the Persian Wars and who, according to other texts, allegedly lacked schooling and paideia.
Who Invented the Black Light?
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

If you ask a search engine, “Who invented the black light?,” odds are very good that the answer you will receive is “Dr. William H. Byler in 1935.” But, in fact, Dr. Byler never claimed to have invented the long-wave ultraviolet light, no such invention is recorded in any of his papers or patents, and what is certainly what we today call the “blacklight” was invented over fifteen years earlier. So who really did invent it, and how did Byler’s name and date get on it? We look into the history and development of the ultraviolet lamp and at the work of Dr. Byler.
Revolutionary Optics—Jean-Paul Marat
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

French Revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat became an icon when his friend Jacques-Louis David painted his death at the hand of Charlotte Corday (and because of Peter Weiss’s play The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum at Charenton under the direction of the Marquis de Sade), but most people know little more about him. Certainly it is not widely known that he was an enthusiastic student of optics. He experimented with a proto-diffraction grating, challenged the assumptions of Newton, and that demonstrated the visibility of heated air rising from various surfaces, including Benjamin Franklin’s bald head.
Why Are Candle Flames Yellow?
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

Candle flames have a warm, yellow color that is prized as nostalgic and romantic. But why is this the color of a standard candle flame? The usual explanation given is that the color is due to minute particles of soot that result from combustion of the candle wax, heated to incandescence, and emitting blackbody radiation. But this explanation cannot be correct. The shape of the emission spectrum is not that of a blackbody spectrum, and the peak occurs at much too short a wavelength, given the flame’s temperature. So what physical phenomenon does dictate the properties of the light from a candle?
The Sandbow
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

Several writers in the 19th century, including Florence Nightingale, recorded their impressions of a rainbow-like phenomenon seen in the desert, and assumed to be caused, not by droplets of rain, but by grains of sand. Is it, in fact, possible for spherical grains of sand to exist in a great enough quantity for thisd, for the relatively heavy sand to be lofted into the air, and to be transparent enough to produce what we have to call a “sandbow”? Speculation centered around “oolitic” sand that nucleates around organic matter and is naturally rounded, but which is translucent, rather than transparent.
Thoughtographs and the Stanhope Lens
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

Ted Serios claimed to have the psychic ability to produce “thoughtographs.” He claimed that by using the power of his mind alone he could impress images on film of things that were in his mind. It seems much more likely that he used some form of trickery. A home-built optical device similar to what is called a “Stanhope lens” could perform the feat, provided he was skillful enough to distract the experimenters long enough to employ the device. Skeptics have demonstrated how such a device could be constructed and used effectively. What is a Stanhope Imager, and how might Serios have come up with the idea of using one to produce his seeming miracle photos?
Infinitely Distant
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

A conundrum—you can estimate the focal length of a positive lens by using it to project the image of a distant scene onto the wall in a darkened room. But if you try to do it by placing the lens, a focal length away from an illuminated object and looking for the point where to produces a lens-filling collimated beam, you don’t get the correct length. When you’re figuring out the behavior of images in an optical system meant to be viewed with the human eye, don’t forget to include the optics of the eye itself.
Perspective Machines, Zograscopes, Megalethoscopes, and Boites d’Optiques
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

In the 18th century, there was a craze for special viewing devices that used large lenses, through which viewers looked at engraved scenes. It was claimed that such devices could produce a lively and almost three-dimensional image. But how could they get a stereo effect with only a single picture and a single lens, and no way to provide perspective information? Several such elaborate and expensive items can still be found in several museums.
How the Ray Gun Got Its Zap! Part II—Handheld Ray Guns
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

The earliest “ray guns” in fiction were large, unwieldy devices that might more appropriately be called “ray cannons.” The devices used in stories by Washington Irving, H.G. Wells, and early 20th century science fiction writers were large devices that required their own mounts. This reflected the reality of real experimental ray devices and the various experimental “death rays” that inventors were trying to develop and sell to armies all over the world. The idea of the small, handheld ray gun changed the nature of the device in fiction and its place in pop culture forever. Now the ray gun could be a futuristic sidearm and both symbolize the future and provide a shorthand way to signal the fantastic nature of the stories.How and why did this development take place? What were the results of the change, in both Pop Culture and Real Life?
Characterizations of Epicurean Atomism
Authors: Gorey Matthew M.
Published: April 2021

This chapter relates the history of atomism from Democritus to Lucretius and provides a survey of major opponents of atomism from Aristotle to Cicero, the latter of whom provides valuable evidence for Hellenistic responses to atomism. Early Epicureans, including Epicurus himself, were suspicious of figurative language. In contrast, opponents of atomism, most notably Cicero, made frequent use of tendentious metaphors and analogies to associate atomic physics with the disorder of rioting crowds and failed states. It is likely that Virgil adopted his own negative attitude toward atomic imagery in the Aeneid, where atomic motion symbolizes political and cosmic disorder, from these earlier anti-atomist writers.
Reform and Renewal
Authors: Monaco Lisa O.
Published: April 2021

Edward Snowden’s leaks regarding the “215 Program” prompted an overdue and democracy-enhancing debate, as well as ensuing reforms, which together provide a useful case study in how debate, oversight, and transparency can enhance democratic decision-making about national security programs. Rather than wait for a leak to expose a controversial program and incur the potential damage to national security, thereby undermining public confidence in the government’s activities, a more effective and meaningful answer may come from trying carefully to maximize debate and transparency before, during, and after programs such as 215 are implemented. National security and civil liberties need not be in conflict; they are, rather, intertwined. Goals should be to increase government accountability to protect civil liberties and incentivize national security agencies to expend their resources wisely.
Behind the Scenes with the Snowden Files
Authors: Nakashima Ellen
Published: April 2021

This essay examines how the Washington Post dealt with the tension between its duty to inform the public and its desire to protect national security when it received documents leaked by Edward Snowden. The essay describes the push-and-pull between the media and the government. Journalists try to advance the public’s right to know, particularly about potential government encroachment on civil liberties, and the government tries to defend the security of the country while respecting civil liberties. Reporters with a bias for public disclosure voluntarily withhold certain documents and details based on a careful consideration of harm, and intelligence officials with a bias toward secrecy do not fight every disclosure. The Post’s coverage of the Snowden leaks provides an opportunity to gain insights into how to navigate the inevitable conflicts between journalists’ desire to inform the public and the government’s desire to protect its secrets from foreign powers.
Who Said What to Whom
Authors: Sunstein Cass R.
Published: April 2021

It is important to distinguish between two kinds of transparency. The government can be transparent about its “inputs”: about who, within government, said what to whom, and when, and why. The government can also be transparent about its “outputs”: its regulations and its policies, its findings about air and water quality, or its analysis of the costs and benefits of drone strikes. The argument for output transparency is often very strong, because members of the public can receive information that can help them in their daily lives and because output transparency can improve the performance of both public and private institutions. The argument for input transparency is different and often weaker, because the benefits of disclosure can be low and the costs can be high. It is challenging to make general pronouncements about input transparency and the appropriate evaluation of leaks and leakers without making a contestable judgment about whether a particular government is well-functioning and capable of self-correction.
An Entire World in Motion
Authors: Pineda Erin R.
Published: April 2021

This chapter develops an alternative framework for understanding the civil disobedience of civil rights activists: as a decolonizing praxis that linked their dissent to that of anticolonial activists and tied the context of Jim Crow to global white supremacy. If the constitutional, democratic state formed the normative horizon for liberal understandings of civil disobedience, activists’ horizon was defined by processes of imaginative transit—the process of thinking and traveling across boundaries and disparate contexts, through which activists in motion constructed civil disobedience as a means of transforming worldwide structures of racist imperialism, colonial rule, apartheid, and Jim Crow. Between 1920 and 1960, African American, Indian, South African, and Ghanaian activists proposed, debated, and wielded nonviolent direct action as a means of self-liberation from white supremacy’s structures of fear and violence, and way of disrupting and transforming the practices that held those structures in place.
Incarceration as Liberation
Authors: Pineda Erin R.
Published: April 2021

This chapter details the inward-facing purposes of civil disobedience by revisiting the student-led campaign of “jail, no bail” pioneered by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). It argues that accepting arrest was a practice of “comparative freedom,” through which activists reframed the experience of incarceration as one of liberation. The point of “jail, no bail”—withholding bail money and voluntarily staying in jail—was not to signal fidelity to law, stabilize state authority, or contain the unruly potential of dissent. Rather, through “jail, no bail” student activists transformed an experience defined by fear, stigma, and vulnerability into an enactment of courage, dignity, and freedom. Accepting arrest was thus a means of withholding collective and individual cooperation from illegitimate power, and thereby refusing the rituals of submission and domination that defined Jim Crow.
The Techniques of Disavowal
Authors: Pineda Erin R.
Published: April 2021

This chapter considers the limitations of civil rights disobedience in transforming white citizens. Building on the work of James Baldwin, Charles Mills, and Elizabeth Spelman and chronicling a “failed” protest at the 1964 World’s Fair, this chapter attends to the discursive techniques of disavowal that white citizens and state officials used to dismiss black activism as inappropriate, irresponsible, gratuitous, and violent—thereby avoiding the claims such protest made upon them, while preserving their own innocence and moral standing. In stepping outside the South and the familiar set of events that make up the public memory of the “short” civil rights movement, this chapter also suggests that some aspects of campaigns like the one in Birmingham were enabled—and publicly legitimated—by the very techniques of disavowal that limited the movement’s radical potentialities.
The Have-Nots
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin
Published: April 2021

The Americans—and like them, the Soviets, British, and French—were not “haves” but “have-nots,” exerting their considerable diplomatic, trade, and military power to find and extract strategic materials. One strategy was to encourage the notion that peaceful applications of the atom in such countries should focus on subsistence, raw materials commodities, and basic sanitation and medicine. Such attitudes were deeply resented, and resisted, by independent former colonial states such as India, Argentina, and Brazil. In the late 1940s, when uranium seemed scarce, the US government made it policy to cast doubt on commercial uses of atomic energy and instead to trumpet the use of radioisotopes, which had potential applications in agricultural and medical research. In their quest for strategic resources to secure the weapons arsenal, US officials deemphasized industrial power and played up the ability of the atom to provide plentiful food and to improve human health.
Water, Blood, and the Nuclear Club
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin
Published: April 2021

China’s Bomb set into a motion a series of events that resulted in the late 1960s in the signing of a non-proliferation treaty—an agreement that, by century’s end, would bind together nearly 200 participating governments. In their zeal to attract other countries into agreements about non-proliferation and safeguards, nuclear states—led by the United States—recommitted to the multiple promises of the peaceful atom. Two of the most politically volatile regions on earth, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East, would see bloody conflict in the 1960s and beyond, at the same time that politicians promoted nuclear programs there under the banner of the peaceful atom. If non-nuclear nations agreed to forgo weapons development in exchange for access to the atom’s civilian applications, those applications needed to be perceived as valuable, even if based on a mirage.
The Era of Distrust
Authors: Hamblin Jacob Darwin
Published: April 2021

By the mid-1980s, the state-sponsored positive framing of the peaceful atom served a range of government interests. It enabled the United States and European states to use nuclear power as leverage against developing countries in a time when petroleum seemed to swing the pendulum of global resource dominance toward several so-called backward countries. It was useful to countries trying to prop up the legitimacy of their nuclear weapons programs, while secretly working on bombs, and it provided environmental arguments to those whose priority was actually energy security. The peaceful atom’s promise of plenty helped to maintain a veneer of credibility for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, at a time when the IAEA seemed to have become the treaty’s policing instrument. The more the United States relied on the IAEA, the more it recommitted to making promises of peaceful nuclear technology, especially to the developing world.
Faith in Numbers
Authors: Hoffman Michael
Published: April 2021

Why does religion sometimes promote democracy and sometimes do just the opposite? Theology alone cannot explain the wide variety of influences religion has on democratic attitudes and behaviours. This book presents a theory of religion, group interest, and democracy. Focusing on communal religion, it demonstrates that the effect of communal prayer on support for democracy depends on the interests of the religious group in question. For members of groups who would benefit from democracy, communal prayer increases support for democratic institutions; for citizens whose groups would lose privileges in the event of democratic reforms, the opposite effect is present. Evidence from Lebanon, Iraq, and elsewhere supports these claims. Communal religion increases the salience of sectarian identity, and therefore pushes respondents' regime attitudes into closer alignment with the interests of their sect.
Grasslands
Authors: Husain Faisal H.
Published: April 2021

This chapter details Ottoman policies to regulate the exploitation of grasslands in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. The flow regime of the Tigris and Euphrates created extensive pastures that made the alluvium a major destination for pastoral groups, particularly during the harsh summer season. The Ottoman state regulated this lucrative pastoral economy by establishing herders’ associations, such as the Ahşamat, the Qara Ulus, and Qara’ul. This policy of social aggregation facilitated the monitoring, counting, and taxation of a mobile population that was difficult to control. The chapter demonstrates that mobile pastoralism was instrumental in Ottoman economic and political expansion into the challenging, peripheral environment of Iraq.
Conclusion
Authors: Husain Faisal H.
Published: April 2021

This chapter summarizes the Ottoman experience in the Tigris-Euphrates basin during the early modern period and what has happened ever since. After deposing the Pashalik of Baghdad in 1831, the Ottoman state pursued ambitious projects to improve navigation and irrigation along the Tigris and Euphrates. This centralizing era ended before achieving all its goals due to the outbreak of World War I. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to three nation-states in the Tigris-Euphrates basin—Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. The political divisions of the river basin have incentivized competition in the exploitation of water resources, to the detriment of the river system as a whole. The early modern experience of the Tigris and Euphrates, therefore, is instructive. Coordination in the management of river systems, the Ottoman Empire showed, can bring about a more efficient and sustainable use of resources.
The Explosion in Law Publishing
Authors: Banner Stuart
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses the rapid proliferation of case reporting that took place in the 19th century. There were few published court opinions available to lawyers in the early part of the century. Lawyers necessarily grounded their arguments on broad principles, including principles of natural law. But by the century’s end, lawyers complained that they were drowning in reported cases. It was a common observation in the second half of the century that the glut of published opinions had changed the nature of law practice. Precedents had pushed principles aside. Natural law accordingly began to play a smaller role in litigation.
Echoes of Natural Law
Authors: Banner Stuart
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the status of natural law in the legal system over the past century. In law schools, natural law never ceased to be a topic of study. This academic interest in natural law has had almost no effect on the working legal system, where natural law has been relied upon by only the most idiosyncratic of judges and lawyers. The history of our use of natural law has nevertheless continued to exert influence on the legal system, which still contains doctrines and practices that were once based on the law of nature.
Echoes Down the Years
Authors: Puglionesi Alicia
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the history of human-machine assemblages used to speak for the dead, comparing the practices of the nineteenth-century American Spiritualist movement with those of present-day transhumanist mind-uploading. In both cases, forms of mediated communication give the dead a continuing voice in society through a participatory performance involving the medium—a person whose consciousness is suspended in a state of trance, or a set of algorithms—the deceased, and an audience. Mediumship becomes a theater in which audiences both desire and interrogate the capabilities of necro-communication technology. The chapter attends to these technologies’ implied models of selfhood, which disaggregate mental content—software—from the vehicle of its expression—hardware—in the tradition of Cartesian dualism. The chapter argues that the technologies in question inevitably structure, in concerning ways, political notions of possessive individualism, which become commoditized in the shift from human-performed mediumship to selfhood instantiated in proprietary software products.
The Regime of Passion
Authors: Pippin Robert
Published: April 2021

In the second fiction of the trilogy, Simón, Davíd, and Inés cannot find a satisfactory school for their unusual boy and so they “exile” themselves again, leaving Novilla in an unauthorized way, fleeing north to a smaller town, Estrella. There they eventually enroll Davíd in an unusual school, which teaches only music and dance. The teachers at the school claim that dance can “call down” numbers and embody them, and Davíd turns out to be their star pupil, an excellent dancer. The central event in the fiction is the murder of the dance teacher by a strange, shady character, Dmitri. The murder seems inexplicable and has a profound effect on Davíd (who finds the body) and his adoptive parents. The thematic core of the fiction involves how art might render abstractions intelligible in a way that philosophy cannot, an issue that connects with the relation between reason and passion introduced in the two fictions.
Freedom and Spirit
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: April 2021

This chapter traces the development of Hegel’s thought from his early reactions to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment crisis of religion, through the Phenomenology of Spirit, to the Philosophy of Right. Hegel’s ethical thought propounds two deep theses. First, what he calls Moralität, the individualistic modern standpoint of freedom of conscience, can only survive within ethical life (Sittlichkeit), in which individuals are realized through their service and self-understanding in various social wholes. Second, ethical life realizes the life of spirit. Absolute idealism is the metaphysics of spirit: its fundamental concept is the dialectical identity, or unity-in-difference, of self and other. This conception of ethical life issues in a deep rethinking of religion and politics: a reconciling vision of being and freedom in the modern age.
Green and Sidgwick
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: April 2021

The end of the nineteenth century saw a rethinking of German idealism led by Thomas Hill Green, and a refinement of utilitarianism by Henry Sidgwick. This chapter examines their restatements of the two great late modern syntheses: absolute idealism and utilitarian liberalism. For both, the crisis of religion was fundamental. In Green’s case this meant a return to absolute idealism, with religion at its core, and a new application to the politics of liberalism. In Sidgwick’s case it led to an implicit nihilism. Sidgwick’s analysis of normative ‘intuition’ is discussed, his thesis of the dualism of practical reason is examined, and it is pointed out that on his own penetrating account of normative warrant, neither egoism nor utilitarianism is warranted. The final section of the chapter reconsiders the role of sentiment, will, and reason as bases of impartiality.
Syntactic verb-verb compounds in Japanese
Authors: Kishimoto Hideki
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses the syntactic behavior and some notable properties of syntactic V-V compounds in Japanese (Type 3 in the classification of Chapter 2), providing some fresh empirical data. In this chapter, syntactic V-V compounds are seen to be divided into raising and control types. Syntactic V-V compound verbs take distinct embedded structures, depending on whether V2 is classified as a raising or a control verb. V-V compounds allow some, but not all, V2s to undergo long-distance passivization. It is suggested that the difference in applicability of long-distance passivization between raising and control V-V compounds is determined according to whether V2 has an accusative-case feature to license an object, and also that control V-V compounds are not passivizable if they denote an uncontrollable event (even if V2 has an accusative-case feature). Furthermore, syntactic V-V compounds taking sugiru ‘exceed’ as V2 are shown to display a number of unique properties that are not shared with other syntactic compound verbs.
Verb-verb complexes in Central and Eastern Turkic languages
Authors: Ohsaki Noriko , Ebata Fuyuki
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses Verb-Verb complexes in Central Turkic, which includes Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Uzbek, and Uyghur, and in Eastern Turkic, which includes Sakha, Tuvan, and Khakas. To provide a descriptive overview of Verb-Verb complexes in Turkic, we first examine linguistic materials from Sakha and Tuvan, most of which are examples containing delexicalized verbs that supply meaning such as aspectual, manner, modal, and benefactive, uncovering what they have in common and how they differ. We then examine the constructional status of some of the complex verb predicates that may lie on the dividing line of converb constructions and Verb-Verb complexes, as well as the status of some reduced forms to ascertain whether they are Verb-Verb complexes. In addition, some Turkic Verb-Verb complexes are examined to determine whether they are morphological compounds. Our findings revealed that Central and Eastern Turkic seem to have no verb-verb compounds, and solely employ syntactic strategies to form Verb-Verb complexes.
How Quickly Should the World Reduce its Greenhouse Gas Emissions?
Authors: Stanczyk Lucas
Published: April 2021

Given the accompanying sacrifices, how quickly should the present generation reduce its greenhouse gas emissions? The dominant framework for thinking about this question continues to be normative welfare economics. This chapter explains why the dominant approach should be rejected, and outlines the structure of what the author has come to think is the correct one. On this approach, requirements of intergenerational justice are understood, not as the means to, but as the most important constraints on maximizing intertemporal welfare. The chapter explains why the main content of these constraints can be given by the theories of social and international justice. Finally, it explains why the non-identity problem does not undermine the recommended way of thinking about intergenerational justice. Even if the business-as-usual baseline in greenhouse gas emissions will never harm any unborn future people, we can still say that humanity is forever subject to a suitably high environmental conservation standard.
Preliminaries
Authors: Cohn Margit
Published: April 2021

This chapter introduces the setting for the study of the executive branch, and sets aside several issues that may be considered as challenges to the project. A short section on the definition of ‘the executive branch’ is followed by an overview of the literature on the executive, showing that the immense body of research is almost entirely system-based, and contains limited theoretical and comparative analysis. To date, no general theory, or model of the executive branch, can be found in the current academic literature. An exposé of the central analytical concept used in this book—that of the ‘internal tension’ element of constitutionalism, leads to the discussion and rejection of two challenges to the project, which draws on the law and political practices of the United States and the United Kingdom. The first focuses on the alleged incomparability of parliamentary and presidential regimes, the second on the so-called ‘breaking down’ of the executive branch and the devolution of many of its functions to agencies placed outside the ‘core executive’. Variations do exist, but sufficient similarities, the existence of complex structures that do not follow simple binary divides, and the de facto dominance of the executive in both systems, fully support the analyses presented in the book.
Null subjects in Middle Low German
Authors: Farasyn Melissa , Breitbarth Anne
Published: April 2021

Middle Low German (MLG) syntax is still relatively underresearched. One blank spot on the map is whether MLG allowed null arguments, in particular null subjects, and if so, of what kind. As recent research (Volodina 2009, 2011, Volodina & Weiß 2016, Walkden 2014, Kinn 2015) demonstrates that languages closely related to MLG did have null subjects in a form that no longer exists in Modern Germanic languages (Rosenkvist 2009), the current paper positions MLG in this respect. Updating Farasyn & Breitbarth (2016), we present novel data showing that MLG distinguished two different kinds of referential null subjects (RNS). We argue that MLG, while preserving the null-subject property from Old North-West Germanic to a high degree, was already in the transition to a topic-drop language of the modern V2-Germanic type. This paper provides an analysis of the licensing of RNS in MLG and of the factors influencing their occurrence.