bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Crisis Mortality: Extinction and Near extinction of Human Populations
Authors: Bouckaert Andre
Published: November 2023

Mortality crises deserve special attention in the study of mortality. They can be defined as unusually high mortalities arising from a common, unusual, causal factor operating for a limited amount of time across a given geographical area. The actual number of deaths should in no way be used as evidence of the severity of mortality crises. Obviously, the worst episodes of plague in small islands do not result in numbers of deaths that would match even mild infections in China or the United States. This statement of fact only supports the need for more extensive research on mild infections. However, plagues in small islands should not be forgotten: their study can perhaps enable us to reach interesting conclusions about plagues in large countries, where their deadly impact would soon exceed a11 consequences of mild infections, prevalent as those can be.
Famine in China 1959-61: Demographic and Social Implications
Authors: Kane Penny
Published: November 2023

Famine has been endemic in China’s history, with recurrent drought in the northern and central provinces as well as floods, both along the meandering rivers which frequently burst their banks or changed their course, or resulting from typhoons hitting the coastal provinces. But famine is, as Tawney long ago pointed out, a matter of degree: There are districts in which the position of the rural population is that of a man standing permanently up to the neck in water, so that even a ripple is sufficient to drown him (Tawney, 1932). The number of those standing up to the neck in water increased immeasurably during the l940s, as a consequence of war. Few tasks were more urgent, for the new Chinese government after 1949, than to ensure some minimal food security.
Development and Transformation of Japan’s Financial System and Monetary Policy
Authors: Teranishi Juro
Published: November 2023

This chapter will consider the development and transformation of Japan’s financial system from the mid-Meiji period to the beginning of the Showa period and analyze the relationship between currency and monetary policies. The subject of Sections 1 and 2 is the development and trans formation of the financial system; Sections 3 and 4 will deal with the relationship between currency and monetary policies.
Transformation of Industries in the War Years
Authors: Miyazaki Masayasu , Ito Osamu
Published: November 2023

After the outbreak of war with China in 1937, the Japanese government endeavored to take over the control of major industries in order to expand munitions production. As a result of the priority investment in equipment, capital, and labor, production in the heavy and chemical industries increased remarkably. With the average output during 1934-36 as base 100, steel rose to 203 by 1943, and by 1944 non-ferrous metal production had climbed to 223 and machinery to 389. Each of these sectors recorded peak production in the closing years of the war due to the continued effort to boost output. Chemical production overall peaked at 163 in 1939 before it began to decline.
Training Electrical Engineers in France, 1880-1939
Authors: Grelon Andre
Published: November 2023

In the last third of the nineteenth century, new industrial developments took place in close connection with the progress of applied science and new technology. This was for example the case in the steel industry, with the gradual installation of Bessemer converters and major breakthroughs in the study of alloys; and in the chemical industry, with essential dis coveries in the field of synthetic dyes and their application to the textile industry. There was also the use of a new form of energy, which promised a great future: electricity. In order to be efficiently used for industrial purposes, the new technologies had to be handled by competent technicians. How were technicians trained in France at that time? There existed two types of establishments: institutions of higher education, which pre pared their students for the engineering profession; and technical schools, which trained foremen.
Clusters in the US Computing Industry
Authors: Swann G M Peter
Published: November 2023

This chapter applies the models set out in the previous chapter to analyses the clustering process in the US computing industry. Section 4.1 describes the data used for this study. Section 4.2 examines the models of entry: the simple latent variable model, the average entry model, and the full entry model. Section 4.3 examines the models of growth: a firm-level model of growth and an aggregate model. Section 4.4 uses these models in a simulation exercise to explore what sorts of clusters will prosper in the long term. Section 4.5 offers an interpretation of the main research results.
Management Accounting in Spain Trends in Thought and Practice
Authors: Saez-Torrecilla Angel , Fernandez-Fernandez Antonio , Texeira-Quiros, Joaquin , Vaquera-Mosquero Mercedes
Published: November 2023

The emergence of management and cost accounting in Spain, in terms of both practice and research, has lagged behind that in other European countries. As a discipline, it began to be taught in universities at about the middle of the present century. Until then, instruction in cost accounting was imparted outside universities in industrial and work environments, without scientific rigour and content. Consequently, Spanish companies applied different cost accounting and pro-rating procedures (which were, and still are, named ‘escandallos’). Thus, in most cases, enterprises calculated their product costs using a variety of arbitrary and subjective methods. Nevertheless, teaching and research in management and cost accounting have had a considerable influence on practices in Spanish companies.
Employment and Unemployment, North and South
Authors: Singh Ajit , Zammit Ann
Published: November 2023

A central and pressing economic problem today both in the developed and developing countries is that of unemployment and underemployment. This chapter proposes that the main focus of a new global development agenda for the 1990s should be the restoration of full employment in the North and the creation of adequate jobs in the South to meet the needs of its fast-growing labour force. Employment is not only important in itself. It is crucial because of its all-pervading comprehensive economic and social linkages. Unemployment leads to poverty, social degradation, and marginalization; history tells us that, if it reaches a high level, it often gives rise to social and political strife, with deleterious consequences.
Social Ethics and Implementation Theory
Authors: Vannucci Stefano
Published: November 2023

Game theory and ethics provide us with reasons for choosing in certain ways amongst alternative actions, outcomes, rules, or institutions. The emphasis of game theorists is on ‘rational’ and ‘self-interested’ choice in an interactive environment, where the relevant notion of ‘self-interest’ is in principle amenable to a broad interpretation which does not rule out altruistic or ‘higher-level’ preferences. On the other hand, ethical analysts dispute over-but insist upon--criteria of ‘rightness’, ‘goodness’, or ‘mor ality’ of choice. All in all, the scope for potential conflict between ‘rational strategic’ and ‘ethical’ prescriptions is large enough, especially when it comes to assessing basic social arrangements, institutions, and rules of conduct Prisoner Dilemmas and other sorts of co-ordination failures are the most typical examples of those potential conflicts.
Technological Importation in Japan
Authors: Wakasugi Ryuhei
Published: November 2023

Technological information is diffused through various types of channel. In addition to the direct transaction of technological information between supplier and user at a cost, technological information can be acquired by reverse engineering of machine and equipment, personal exchange of information between engineers and scientists, collection of information contained in academic journals and industrial newspapers, participation in business exhibitions, and so on. These methods have all functioned as important channels for Japanese firms to import foreign technology.
The Innovation Process in the Japanese Steel Industry
Authors: Yonekura Seiichiro
Published: November 2023

Some attributed these high ratios to Japanese governmental policy, con tending that Japanese firms were able to invest in these new technologies because of governmental protection and promotion measures (see e.g. McCraw and O ‘Brien 1986). Others cited the organizational capabilities of Japanese firms (see Lynn 1982). Still others argued that the differences were just a matter of timing, since the BOF became available after the American steel industry had already invested a large amount of capital in the OHF. Although all of these arguments have their own rationale and evidence, I would like to attribute the high diffusion of the new innovations in Japan to the nature of the radical innovations themselves. During my study of the developmental pattern of the Japanese steel industry, I noticed a relationship between these innovations and the process of ‘innovation begets innovation· (see Yonekura 1994: chs. 1 and 9). This chapter will examine how the introduction of one technologically radical innovation facilitated the successive introductions of other innovations in the Japanese steel industry.
Britain: From Economic Liberalism to Socialism-And Back?
Authors: Foreman-Peck James , Hannah Leslie
Published: November 2023

Much of early European industrial policy was concerned to promote industrialization, often to support defence industries deemed essential to national security. British policy in the nineteenth century was rather different. Economic liberal ism required that, as Prime Minister Gladstone said, money should be left to fructify in the pockets of individuals. But the state’s embrace of British industry progressively tightened over the following century. Government expenditure and taxation as a proportion of national output rose, while firm size and con centration grew, technology became far more sophisticated and productivity soared. Adjustments of the policy framework to changed economic circumstances depended on electoral and other political contingencies, among which the two world wars have been considered the most prominent causes (Tomlinson 1994). As early as 1886, the Royal Commission on the Depression of Trade and Industry complained of ‘a falling off of energy’ amongst manufacturers. Despite this and other concerns, the gap between what might reasonably be achieved by industry, and what was accomplished, did not become substantial until per haps the Edwardian years. The Boer War and the First World War both shook the complacency of British nineteenth-century liberal approaches to industrial or supply-side policy, already threatened by the rise of the economies of Imperial Germany and the United States.
Introduction: An Historical Review
Authors: Shirley Ian , Pool Peggy Koopman-Boyden Ian , John St.
Published: November 2023

Over the last century across the developed western countries, patterns of family formation have undergone radical changes, above all in terms of levels of fertility. This shift in family formation has accompanied major changes in the organization and structures of core and extended families. Moreover, the links to the broader society, particularly through the need to support families, have been a central concern of social policy. New Zealand has escaped none of these trends. In fact in many ways its patterns and values fit closely with those of the other ‘neo-Europes’ (Crosby, 1986), particularly Anglophone Canada and Australia.
The Formation of Families
Authors: Shirley Ian , Pool Peggy Koopman-Boyden Ian , John St.
Published: November 2023

Over the last 150 years, the most extensive changes to the family have come from demographic transitions in fertility and family formation. These produced the shift, shown in Figure 1, from the large families of the past to the small families of today. Accompanying changes in size and in strategies of family formation were shifts in family and household structures, some a direct consequence of the wider demographic transitions of New Zealand’s major ethnic groups, which will be briefly described below.
The Family and the Labour Market
Authors: Shirley Ian , Pool Peggy Koopman-Boyden Ian , John St.
Published: November 2023

The major transaction between the family and society has to do with the way in which the family can or cannot provide its own sustenance through labour market participation. Thus a central issue for family policy concerns the income-generating capacity of family members. Success in this regard will ensure that the family has little need for social policy support at least with respect to income maintenance. Limited access to the labour markett either because members are unemployed, or because family status, health, or other factors render them unable to work for remuneration, means that income may well be below the average. Beyond this, the more mouths to feed, the less likely that any given family income will adequately meet the family’s needs (Easting and Fleming, 1994; Rainwater, 1994). Moreover, in a multicultural society groups have differential access to the labour market, varying family sizes, and different earning capacities.
Families and Social Services
Authors: Shirley Ian , Pool Peggy Koopman-Boyden Ian , John St.
Published: November 2023

The main provisions of the ‘family wage’ in New Zealand’s post-war economy centred on the activities of the industrial court and the participation of wage-earners in the labour market (see Chapter 5). The wage itself was not limited to income, but included social components, such as predominantly free access to health and education, the widespread availability of housing and housing finance, and a comprehensive range of welfare services. The history of these services has been dominated by the changing responsibilities of central government, voluntary organizations, and to a lesser extent, private-sector agencies.
The Montreal Engineering Company and International Power: Overcoming the Limitations of the Free-Standing Utility
Authors: Marchildon Gregory P
Published: November 2023

Mira Wilkins has proposed that, because of its unique attributes, the free-standing company (FSC) should be thought of as a separate subcategory of the multinational enterprise (MNE). While the analytical value of the FSC concept continues to be debated, it has already established its heuristic value by helping us think about foreign investment more clearly. Between the polar opposites of portfolio investment implying little or no control, on the one hand, and direct investment accompanied by almost complete control, on the other, lies a grey area inhabited by a striking variety of corporate vehicles of investment involving varying degrees of control and types of governance. At a very minimum, the concept of the FSC invites us to probe the mysteries that lie within this grey area. Between 1870 and 1914 British FSCs may have been the single most important corporate conduit for foreign investment in the world. Based upon Wilkins ‘s pioneering study, their characteristics can be summarized briefly. FSCs were established to operate in a foreign nation without any corresponding domestic operation. Unlike the typical American MNE, they did not grow organically from well-established domestic operations whose operations ‘spilled over ‘ political boundaries. As a consequence, FSC head offices were skeletal affairs compared to the head-office operations of the American-style MNE, often ‘little more than a brass nameplate in the City ‘.
Estimating Tax Incidence in Ghana using Household Data
Authors: Yunger Stephen
Published: November 2023

One of the most common criticisms of structural adjustment policies in Africa is that the burden of fiscal contraction falls disproportionately on the poor (Summers and Pritchett 1993). Most authors have concentrated on the potentially harmful effects of reducing government spending in order to balance budgets, but it is also true that some of the most committed adjusters—Ghana, Uganda, and Tanzania, for example—have addressed their fiscal deficits by increasing tax revenues rather than reducing expenditures. While these increases are often appropriate in a macroeconomic context, policy-makers should be as concerned about the incidence of these new taxes as they are about the incidence of expenditure cuts.
The Use of Funds Statements and Cash Flow Statements in Japan
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

In July of 1959, supported by the Sangyo Keiri Kyokai (The Industrial Management and Accounting Institute), I conducted a survey on the use of funds statements and cash flow statements among major companies in Japan. The results of that survey appeared in Japanese in the Institute’s publication, Sangyo Keiri. Prior to this, Hector R. Anton, in affiliation with the Business Survey Department at the University of Washington, had conducted a survey on the use of funds statements in companies throughout the United States and Canada, with his results appearing in the October 1954 issue of Accounting Review.
Introduction
Authors: Chai Joseph C H
Published: November 2023

The experiences of the Central and the Eastern European countries show that the costs of transition from a planned to a market economy can be substantial. Most countries undergoing such a transition suffered a sharp drop in output and employment and increased social and political instability in the early phase of their transition (Siebert, 1991: 14-16). Some countries like the former Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia even disintegrated politically under the reform pressures. In contrast, the Chinese transition appears to be relatively smooth. With the exception of the Tiananmen Square tragedy in 1989 China has so far not incurred any serious political or social upheaval. Economically it not only experienced no drop in output and employment during the transition but actually saw an increase in output at an annual average rate of over 9 per cent over the last 15 years. Thus the Chinese reform model is very often considered superior to other transition models and extolled as the model for other socialist countries.
Rapid Social Transformation despite Economic Adjustment and Slow Growth: The Experience of Zimbabwe
Authors: Loewenson Rene , Chisvo Munhamo
Published: November 2023

Zimbabwe is a good case-study for examining the relationship between social and economic development, both because of the stark differences between pre- and post-independence policy and practice and because of the significant social gains made in the 1980s, despite its low-income status and relatively weak economic growth. This chapter discusses the social and economic policy trends in three periods, focusing on social development in health, education, and population: in (a) the pre-independence phase, before 1980; (b) the post-independence phase in the 1980s, and (c) the phase of structural adjustment starting in 1991.
The Route to Social Development in Kerala: Social Intermediation and Public Action
Authors: Krishnan T N
Published: November 2023

The high level of social development achieved by Kerala State’ has by now become legendary (United Nations, 1975). This has even provoked the question: is there a Kerala model of development? (Franke and Chasin, 1992; Jeffrey, 1992; George, 1993). Attempts to prove or disprove the existence of a Kerala model of development are misplaced since most authors who discuss this question do not state explicitly their concept of the model of development. Their conclusions appear also to be based on an inadequate understanding of the social and economic processes at work in this State. A Kerala model of development has a great deal of relevance if the definition is restricted to social development. On the contrary, if economic growth is also considered a constituent of the model, then no Kerala model of development exists. The critical question is: Can social development take place in a milieu of and in spite of low levels of per capita income? The answer would be in the affirmative if we analysed the Kerala experience. Can high income growth promote or accelerate social development? The answer would be rather inconclusive. It should, but there might exist a substantial time-lag before the social transformation manifests itself. While private initiative may raise growth rates of income, the trigger for social development is invariably public action. A comparative study of the levels of social development among the Indian States makes this proposition quite apparent. Increase in per capita income alone is inadequate for accelerating the rate of social development.
Social Policies in a Slowly Growing Economy:Sri Lanka
Authors: Alailama Patricia , Sanderatne Nimal
Published: November 2023

Sri Lanka’s social indicators are impressive for a poor country with a per capita income of around $US700 in 1995. In 1991, Sri Lanka’s crude death rate was 6 per 1,000; the expectation of life at birth was 72.5 years; infant and maternal mortality rates were 17.5 and 4 per 1,000 live births respectively; adult literacy stood at 87 per cent (1981); and secondary school enrolment at 72 per cent. There were virtually no gender differences in either literacy or school enrolment. About 90 per cent of children had been immunized. The progressive decline in maternal and infant mortality are captured in Fig. 8.1.
The Effects of Economic Changes on Mortality by Age and Cause: Latin America, 1950-90
Authors: Palloni Alberto , Hill Kenneth
Published: November 2023

A fairly recurrent idea of population theory is that the weakening of frequent and sharp fluctuations in the levels and age patterns of mortality is an important marker distinguishing pre-from post-industrialization mortality trends (Livi-Bacci 1992; Vallin 1991; Flinn 1974; Schofield and Reher 1991). The appearance and disappearance of epidemics. the outbreak and aftermath of wars, and the vagaries of weather left clear if not always durable imprints in the profiles of mortality before the middle of the nineteenth century. With improvements in technology and standards of living, advances in sanitation and public health and, later during the twentieth century, the application of vector eradication and chemotherapy, mortality levels began an apparently irreversible downward trend, while the frequency and duration of oscillations around secular trends were reduced to insignificance or, for an purposes, disappeared altogether.
The Social Regulation of Technical Expertise The Corps and Profession in France and Great Britain
Authors: Winch Elisabeth Campagnac Graham
Published: November 2023

This chapter forms part of a larger programme of work comparing the national business systems of France and Great Britain, and the develop¬ment of contemporary capitalism in the two countries which revolves around the essentially etatique nature of the regulation of the French system compared to the market regulation of the British (Boyer 1996). While this contention is not original at the general level, exactly how these differences manifest themselves in the governance of particular work systems has rarely been systematically explored in a comparative mode. In order to provide greater precision in the analysis we have decided to focus upon one par-ticular type of work system which, as we will show, has historically had an especially profound influence on the development of national business systems-transport infrastructure engineering-and to explore the problem of how technical expertise is developed and deployed in modern capitalist societies. This relatively narrow focus does not imply widerirrel¬evance. As will be demonstrated, it was in the construction sector that this problem was first tackled, and the distinctive ways in which those two coun¬tries now deploy technical expertise are deeply embedded in the ways in which the construction sector developed during the early phases of industrialization.
The State and Enterprise in the German Economy after the Second World War
Authors: Plumpe Werner
Published: November 2023

The economic history of the Federal Republic of Germany, during the 1950s and 1960s (Abelshauser, 1983) in particular, appears to be marked by two peculiarities.2 First, economic power increased rapidly, to an extent and at a pace unexpected after the destruction of war. The economic consequences of war were overcome by the mid-1950s and West Germany had decisively crossed the threshold to affluence by 1960 (Glastetter, Hogemann, and Marquardt, 1991). Second, the years from 1949 to 1966 were marked by a severe conceptual break within state economic policy. The era of the Wirtschaftswunder, the economic miracle, was at least in the public’s opinion, also the era of Wirtschaftsliberalismus, an economic liberalism which seemed radical in the German context.
Industrial Policy and Japan’s International Competitiveness: Historical Overview and Assessment
Authors: Kikkawa Takeo , Hiking Takashi
Published: November 2023

In 1992, at the height of world interest in Japan’s industrial policy, Karl Zinsmeister, a journalist at the conservative American Enterprise Institute, wrote a short essay called ‘MITI Mouse: Japan’s Industrial Policy Doesn’t Work’. Even before the essay was formally published, the Wall Street Journal jumped at the chance to carry a summary of a piece that bluntly claimed that having an industrial policy was not effective even in Japan and, therefore, that the United States should not experiment with a policy that contained a strong socialist element of ‘centralized management’ (Zinsmeister, 1993).
Early Postwar Industrial Policy in Emerging Economies Creating Competitive Assets or Correcting Market Failures?
Authors: AM’Iden ALICE H
Published: November 2023

Industrial development may be understood as a process either of correcting market failures or of creating competitive assets (resources that add value to raw labour power). This chapter develops a competitive assets approach to late industrialization using the postwar cotton textile industry as an example. Given similar industrial policies but different social constraints, latecomers in East Asia tended to out-perform those in Latin America and India in the social construction of such assets. Japan was a pioneer in social construction, honing an effective business-government relationship, although it started with more advanced competitive assets than its neighbours at the time of international opening.
A Core-Theoretic Solution for the Design of Cooperative Agreements on Transfrontier Pollution
Authors: Chander Parkash , Tulkens Henry
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the relevance of the game-theoretic concept of the core of a cooperative game for the design of international treaties on transfrontier pollution. Specifically, a formula is offered (in Section 5.5) for allocating abatement costs between the countries involved for which the justification is of coretheoretic nature. The motivation for calling upon this concept lies in the need to ensure more than mere optimality to the outcome of international negotiations leading to a treaty. On the one hand, the optimum sought for should be a voluntary treaty, because of the nonexistence of a supranational authority endowed with sufficient coercive power to impose any emissions policy, even an optimal one, on the countries. On the other hand, the optimum should be robust against the temptation of free-riding by some of the countries (or groups of countries) involved, given the public good (actually, public bad) nature of transfrontier pollution.
Organizational Learning and International Competition*
Authors: Lazonick William
Published: November 2023

Since the 1970s a persistent feature of the US economy has been increasing income inequality, to the point where the United States now has the most unequal distribution of income among the advanced industrial economies. Sustainable prosperity—the spreading of the benefits of economic growth to more and more people over a prolonged period of time—appears to have become an elusive objective. At the same time, in the late 1990s, after more than two decades of intense competitive challenges, the United States retains international leadership in a range of science-based industries such as computer electronics and pharmaceuticals as well as in service sectors related to such things as finance and food. The US economy appears capable of innovation, but incapable of sustainable prosperity.
The Decline in Central Control Over Investment
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

The importance of investment within the agenda of the post-1949 Chinese government makes it an ideal medium through which to observe the dynamics of political processes. Notwithstanding changes in their political agenda, the Chinese leaders have, since 1949, sought to build up the economic strength of the country by increasing investment. From 1950 to 1978, the average percentage of fiscal expenditure spent on investment was 35 per cent, whilst the peak figure for a single year stood in 1958 at 56 per cent. When the national agenda was shifted to modernization and economic development in 1976, and particularly after the Third Plenum in 1978, the linkage between investment and the attainment of the national goal became still more direct. However, as a result of the decentralization reforms of the 1980s, the percentage of fiscal expenditure spent on investment, has, ironically enough, declined conspicuously. For instance, in 1979 it stood at 40.4 per cent. By 1991 it had more than halved to 19.4 per cent. Investment has, nevertheless, remained the largest expenditure item in the state budget (Ministry of Finance 1992: 116–19).
Strategy and Organization
Authors: Roberts John
Published: November 2023

This new model permitted an efficient solution to the incredibly complicated problem of coordinating and motivating large numbers of people carrying out a complex of interrelated activities, often in different locations. It thus allowed giant, multiproduct business organizations to emerge and function effectively on a continental and then global scale. The new design also led to a huge growth in the number of people working as managers and to the emergence of the set of values and norms that mark man-agement as a profession.
Motivation in the Modern Firm
Authors: Roberts John
Published: November 2023

Firms, like other economic organizations, serve to coordinate the actions of groups of people and to motivate them to carry out needed activities. The problem of moti-vating people in organizations comes from the fact that their own self-interest may not automatically lead them to act in the ways that the organization would want. This divergence of interests arises because the individual members of an organization typically do not bear all the costs and benefits of the actions they take and the deci-sions they make within the organization. Consequently, when they make decisions—about how to spend their time, how hard to work and on what, what risks to take— the choices that appear best from their personal point of view may not maximize the total value generated for the organization. Even if they are cognizant of the larger interests, they may not automatically take these fully into account.
The Social Structuring of Firms ‘ Governance Systems and Organizational Capabilities
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters I have emphasized the variety of ways in which economic coordination and control are achieved in market economies. In particular, the significance and role of ownership in the organizational integration of economic activities differ considerably between, say, post-war Japan and the USA, and are highly contingent upon historical circumstances and current institutional arrangements. Firms as units of financial control based on ownership are, then, part of the overall system of economic coordination and control that distinguishes any particular variety of capitalism. Their characteristics reflect those of each business system and vary between them. Differences in the nature of firms are important for understanding economic development because they affect both economic and financial decision-making and the sorts of distinctive organizational capabilities that become established in different economies. Because they are typically units of employment as well as financial control, firms are critical agents for developing particular kinds of collective competences that affect competitive outcomes.
Cultural Perspectives on West African Fertility Change
Authors: Benefo Kofi D
Published: November 2023

Social demographers no longer believe that societies have to be economically developed before they can experience fertility declines. Fertility declines can occur in societies that are still at relatively early stages of development, as was established by the European Fertility Project, and subsequently by the World Fertility Survey Project. Studies within both of these projects showed that cultural factors, encoded in religion, ethnic heritage, and language, had more influence on the timing and speed of fertility declines than the level of economic modernization (Van de Walle and Knodel 1980; Watkins 1991). These findings imply that fertility can decline in countries at low levels of economic development. However, in order to initiate sustained declines pol icy-makers need to be able to identify relevant cultural factors within which to frame family planning messages, and to identify cultural groups that can be targeted through programmes. In other words, they need a theory of how culture affects reproductive behaviour and change in developing countries.
Worldliness and Fertility Control: Cultural Attributes of Contraceptive Users among Rural Bangladeshi Women
Authors: Simons Ahmed Al-Sabir ,John
Published: November 2023

This chapter reports on an investigation, conducted in rural Bangladesh, of the influence of specific attitudes of and towards women on the probability that they would be users of contraception. The study was expected to support the proposition that ideational variables were more powerful than economic variables as determinants of contraceptive use. In the event, that proposition was strongly supported by the findings. The data used were obtained from a sample of rural women in the 1989 Bangladesh Fertility Survey. A matched case-control design was adopted: village women who were users of modern reversible contraception were compared with matched never-users.
Demographic Trends in Ludhiana District, Punjab, 1881-1981: An Exploration of Vital Registration Data in Colonial India
Authors: Dyson Tim , Gupta Monica Das
Published: November 2023

Analysis of the historical demography of most non-European populations is hampered by the fact that regular time-series data on mortality and fertility are rarely available. The emphasis then is placed on whatever data sources are available, such as records on some subgroups of the population or scattered surveys. In the case of India, the colonial regime instituted a system of collecting vital registration data which makes it possible to obtain estimates of mortality and fertility for the entire population of large regions of the country, dating from the nineteenth century. The availability of these data opens up very interesting possibilities for historical demographic research in India, and in particular for studying the timing of demographic transition and its underlying causes (See Dyson, 1989 and Das Gupta, 1995).
Disease and Mortality in the History of Taiwan
Authors: Liu Ts’ui-Jung , Liu Shi-Yung
Published: November 2023

This chapter aims to provide a survey of historical records related to disease and mortality in Taiwan up to the 1920s, a decade that marks an important period of transition in the social history of Taiwan. During this decade, plague was no longer a threat and malaria control was well under progress (Chen SX, 1979: 127). Almost no systematic statistics are available related to disease and mortality in Taiwan prior to the twentieth century. Despite this defection of data, we will try to piece together what we have found in order to present a sketch on which further studies may be based. We will first discuss endemic and epidemic diseases with qualitative materials and then present statistics available in the early twentieth century. To avoid misinterpretation, we will use traditional terms on most occasions except when modern medical terminology is already identified in the literature.
Smallpox and the Pattern of Mortality in Late Nineteenth Century Taiwan
Authors: Shepherd John R
Published: November 2023

This chapter is excerpted from a much longer review of the qualitative reports of death and disease from late nineteenth-century Taiwan and China. The longer paper examines the causes of morbidity and mortality in Taiwan in the final decades of the nineteenth century through a review of materials relating to each major disease category. This chapter, due to considerations of space, treats in detail only one major cause of death, smallpox. A central concern in this exercise is to look for patterns of continuity and change in disease and mortality patterns in the period leading up to the census of 1905 and the creation of high quality vital statistics reporting, including reporting on cause of death, by the Japanese colonial government of Taiwan. Analysis of the historical background of mortality preceding 1905 is essential if we are to properly assess the degree to which the 1905 census and the subsequent cause of death reporting already reflects the impact of the public health measures instituted by the Japanese colonial government following its takeover in 1895.
Nuptiality Among the Oing Nobility, 1640-1900
Authors: Lee James , Feng, Wang , Ruan Danching
Published: November 2023

Clearly, whether by fiat or tradition, marriage in imperial China was supposed to be early and universal. On the one hand, because of a primordial and political preference for children, young people were supposed to marry early, and on the other hand, because of the pervasive and protean nature of the Chinese family, they could do so virtually regardless of economic circumstances. In contrast with the classic Western Europe, where individuals had to inherit or establish independent means in order to marry, Chinese couples could draw on the resources of the multiple-family household (Hajnal, 1982). Marriage in China is, therefore, assumed to have been early, universal, and largely immune from social, economic, and demographic pressures.
Ancestry and Education, 19I8-1948
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

My lineage on both my father’s and my mother’s side is devoid of any intellectual or artistic distinction. It so happens that my Little forebears have been traced back at least to the fourteenth century, but not because of high distinction. My Little grandfather, born in 1810, became a full general and was knighted. One earlier Little. a doctor, was also knighted: him apart, there were no professionals-no clergymen, lawyers, bankers, or civil servants. They seem to have been mostly merchants, farmers, and land agents. None before my generation went to a university, but one did win the Grand National. My father, who, like his father, commanded the Ninth Lancers, went to Sandhurst.
Mainly Self-Employment and Semi-Retirement (1978-1997)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

Having built a house one kilometre from the village of La Garde Freinet in Provence, my wife and I intended to retire there in 1978. However, a little late in the day, I realized that I would be bored if I had no work to do. I toyed with the idea of changing subjects, but fairly quickly decided cautiously to stick with development economics. So I submitted to the Twentieth Century Fund a plan to write a survey of development theory and policy. This was accepted. The Fund wanted me to do it in two years. I insisted that this was impossible from my base in Provence. They agreed to three years, but would pay me for only two years. However, they were generous in allowing my wife to be paid as research assistant, so I agreed.
Macroeconomic Analysis and the Developing Countries, I970-I990 (I993)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

In 1982 I wrote that ‘the short and medium term macroeconomic management of LDCs was a much neglected subject until very recently, when some work began to appear’. ‘But this is too recent,’ I added, ‘and perhaps as yet too tenta¬tive, for me to have been able to absorb it’ (Little 1982).
Reflections: Management and Governance
Authors: Pollitt Christopher , Bouckaert Geert
Published: November 2023

This final chapter expresses some general views on the nature of public management reform. As we move through these reflections, the reader may care to speculate on how far the concept of governance attributed to Sir Robert Cecil (above) should also be applied to public management. The chapter is organized in four main sections-two pairs of contrasting perspectives. The first pair concern the overall nature of public management reform----or, at least, that almost twenty-year slice of it upon which this book has been focused.
The Environment-Creating Mechanism of a Firm: Sony and Samsung
Authors: Cho Dong-Sung
Published: November 2023

Neoclassical economists preach that there is no firm that can enjoy above normal profits in the long run. Reality defies them. Du Pont de Nemours in the chemical industry, GM in the automotive industry, and Cargill in the grain trading industry; all have been leaders in their respective industries for several decades with handsome profit margins over the years. Intel and Microsoft have also joined this elite group of companies based on their unchallenged technology leadership. Such superstars exist in virtually every industry.
R & D in British Industry
Authors: Horrocks Sally M
Published: November 2023

In a literature dominated by the analysis of the experiences of American and Japanese enterprises, the efforts of British firms to develop their organizational capabilities have received comparatively little attention. Much that has been written on this issue, notably the work of leading US scholars, has been highly critical. Chandler (1990: 392), writing of the inter war period, identified a ‘general failure to develop organizational capabilities’ which ‘weakened British industry and with it the British economy’. These observations have been extrapolated to include later periods, without always considering in detail the evidence of substantial organizational change in at least some British firms after 1945.
Transformational Entrepreneurship at NEC
Authors: Yonekura Seiichiro
Published: November 2023

Based on debates and historical studies, a broad consensus has emerged that entrepreneurs kick off innovations while professional managers institutionalize them. Of course, there are exceptions: entrepreneurial new business founders or gifted technologists can build organizations and institutionalize innovation. In most cases, however, entrepreneurs usually do not pay attention to the institutionalization of innovation. Similarly, professional managers tend not to promote innovations, since they create irregularity or discontinuous change in organizations. Because of this confrontation, there arises the dilemma whereby good managers may be unable to foster, or, indeed, may even impede, innovation. Lazonick (1983) pointed out this dilemma in the British cotton industry, while Christensen (1997) referred to the conflict between good innovators and good managers in the hard-disk industry. We can find similar cases among major firms.1 This dilemma makes it difficult for established firms to change or innovate, because they became large by institutionalizing innovation.
Introduction
Authors: Amann Edmund
Published: November 2023

The past ten years have witnessed radical shifts in the character of Brazilian economic development. Inward-orientated growth strategies have been abandoned and the private sector given an ever greater role in production and allocation decisions. This movement towards liberalization has coincided with a return to democracy and an increased emphasis on regional integration. More recently, Brazil has finally succeeded in bringing inflation under control after two decades of chronic price instability. These profound changes in the economic environment provide the background for this book. Focusing on the 1982-95 period., this book sets out to analyse how one crucially important industrial sector the non-serial capital goods sector* reacted to the forces of liberalization as it was forced to compete in an increasingly open and private sector-dominated domestic market. In examining the response of the Brazilian non-serial capital goods sector to policy liberalization, a very important set of theoretical and empirical issues is addressed. These issues turn out to have very broad implications for the conduct of industrial and trade policy in other emerging market economies.
Policy Liberalization and the Production Process
Authors: Amann Edmund
Published: November 2023

Chapter 2 demonstrated the profound change in policy environment which the Brazilian non-serial capital goods sector has been faced with since 1987 and most particularly since 1990. Central to the objectives of this book is to determine whether this policy shift has been accompanied by alterations in aspects of sector performance, in particular, those related to changes in static and dynamic efficiency. Perhaps the most widely employed measure of change in efficiency employed in the literature has been that of productivity. To begin the investigation., an examination of alterations in productivity therefore seems appropriate, especially since such changes may indicate underlying shifts in both static and dynamic efficiencies, whose importance has crucial implications for other facets of enterprise behaviour examined in subsequent chapters.
Building an Internal Market System: Insights from Five R. & D. Organizations
Authors: birkinshaw Julian , Fey carl f.
Published: November 2023

The focus of this chapter is on the networks of relationships that exist between entities inside the boundaries of the firm. As argued in Chapter 1, there is a widespread shift away from what might be called the ‘traditional’ hierarchical organization model, and towards various ‘network’ models. One variety of network involves building stronger and more interdependent relationships between separate companies. These have been discussed at length in Chapters 2 to 4. Another variety involves freeing up the relationships within the firm, to foster entrepreneurship and responsibility in individual units, and to make the entire organization more adaptive to environmental changes. A number of different terms are used to refer to this model. In this chapter we will call it an ‘internal market’ as a means of highlighting several important features such as freedom of choice, entrepreneurship, competition, and the use of a price system.
Relaxing the Boundaries of the Firm
Authors: Hagström Peter
Published: November 2023

An underlying theme of the contributions in this book is that firms find themselves embedded in internal and external networks of relationships within which there are neither ‘pure’ arm’s-length nor formal hierarchical transactions. It follows that it is these relationships-rather than the nodes per se that are of primary interest. It has also been posited that capabilities are nourished and grow in such networks. Essentially we are then left with ‘the firm’ defined as a legal entity and with a claim to be the natural and only unit of analysis. This is problematic as we then lack unambiguous terminology for identifying the ‘correct’ unit(s) of analysis. Many of the contributions point to capabilities residing at different organizational levels.