bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acoustic, Thermodynamic, Viscometric and Volumetric Studies in Multicomponent System of Hexane + 1-Dodecanol + Cyclohexane with Respect to Temperature
Authors: Mehra Rita , Pancholi Meenakshi
Published: May 2007

The observed experimental values of sound speed, mass density and viscosity at three different temperatures viz. 298, 308 and 318K have been used to compute the derived parameters. As excess parameters are better measures of intermolecular interactions these are calculated with the help of derived parameters. Excess parameters calculated are excess molar volume (V
m
E), excess molar free volume (V
mf
E), excess intermolecular free length (L
f
E), deviation in isentropic compressibility (ΔKs), deviation in viscosity (Δη), excess acoustic impedance (Z
E) deviation in sound speed (Δu), and excess internal pressure (π
i
E), excess enthalpy (H
E) and excess Gibb´s free energy of activation of viscous flow (G
*E). The sign and magnitude of these excess parameters provide the detail information about the type and extent of intermolecular interactions over the entire composition and temperature range. These excess parameters are fitted to Redlich–Kister polynomial equation to get information about the standard deviation of each excess parameter from ideal behavior after mixing the components. The sound speed in ternary mixtures has been predicted using various empirical, semi empirical and statistical theories. These theories include Nomoto´s Relation (u
NOM), Free Length Theory (u
FLT), Impedance Dependence Relation (u
IDR) and Vandeal Vangeel Ideal mixing relation (u
VAN). These theories have been applied to investigate the best applicability of these for the system over entire composition range at three temperatures.
The ““Juice of a Few Flowers””: Gerald and Sara Murphy's Life of Beautiful Things
Authors: price kathryn
Published: May 2007

Gerald and Sara Murphy were friends to scores of the twentieth century's leading artists, writers, and composers including Picasso, Lééger, Fitzgerald, Hemingway, and Stravinsky, among others. The Murphys created a life of beautiful things for themselves, their three children, and their circle of friends. Trans-Atlantic Americans, the Murphys took great joy in entertaining especially at their home in Antibes, which they named Villa America. Gerald was famous for preparing his legendary signature drinks, including one he called the "Juice of a Few Flowers." He was an extremely talented artist - although short-lived - and one of his few paintings, Cocktail, depicts all the accoutrements that would be found on a bar tray.

Gerald and Sara often hosted their famous friends at parties that included F. Scott Fitzgerald's drunken outbursts. They drank sherry with the Hemingways in Pamplona and ate ranch food with them in Montana. Always accommodating, they kept recipes of friends' favorite foods to serve at their intimate gatherings. Through their warmth and ability to entertain, the Murphys created a life of beautiful things for themselves and everyone around them.
Demographic and Evolutionary Consequences of Selective Mortality: Predictions from an Eco‐Genetic Model for Smallmouth Bass
Authors: Dunlop Erin S. , Shuter Brian J. , Dieckmann Ulf
Published: May 2007

We use an individual‐based eco‐genetic model to examine the demographic and evolutionary consequences of selective mortality on a species with parental care, the smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu. Our analyses are grounded in a long‐term (1936‐2003) empirical study of the dynamics of two populations that differ widely in both density and life history. The model we construct extends previous approaches by including phenotypic plasticity in age and size at maturation, by permitting density‐dependent somatic growth, and by analyzing how costs associated with parental care alter model predictions. We show that, first, additional mortality on age‐0 individuals applied for 100 years causes reduced population abundance and biomass, faster somatic growth rates, and phenotypic plasticity toward slightly larger sizes at maturation. Second, mortality on individuals above a minimum size limit, also applied for 100 years, has a small influence on population abundance and somatic growth, causes a reduction of biomass, and substantial evolution of the probabilistic maturation reaction norm, leading to younger ages and smaller sizes at maturation. Third, the incorporation of body‐size‐dependent survival costs associated with parental care (i.e., by reducing the number of small breeding adults at high population densities, increasing the mortality of parents that breed at small body sizes, or increasing the mortality of offspring originating from small‐sized parents) reduces the amount of evolution predicted to occur within 100 years. Together, these results underscore that selective harvest can cause both phenotypically plastic responses and rapid evolution; however, the rate and magnitude of the evolved changes are sensitive to a species' life history characteristics.
An Interpretation of the EBCTCG Data
Authors: Lewis Jerry P.
Published: May 2007

Published data and figures from the Early Breast Cancer Clinical Trialists' Collaborative Group are explored and interpreted as supporting a concept that the prime impact of adjuvant hormonal and polychemotherapy therapy is on soon-to-emerge tumors, with the timing of benefit accrual being mostly limited to the time of drug administration. Nevertheless, once benefit in reducing recurrence occurs, the benefit is maintained for years. Depending on how this is viewed, there may or may not be a carryover effect of these therapies in the setting of adjuvant breast cancer.
The Molecular Perspective: Hepatitis B Virus
Authors: Goodsell David S.
Published: May 2007

Learning Objectives

After reading this article, the reader will be able to: Discuss the hepatitis B virus and its role in carcinogenesis.

CME Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit™ at CME.TheOncologist.com
Determining the Center of Resistance of Maxillary Anterior Teeth Subjected to Retraction Forces in Sliding Mechanics
Authors: Sia Sheau Soon , Koga Yoshiyuki , Yoshida Noriaki
Published: May 2007

Objective: To determine the location of center of resistance and the relationship between height of retraction force on power arm (power-arm length) and movement of anterior teeth (degree of rotation) during sliding mechanics retraction.

Materials and Methods: Three human subjects with maxillary protrusion were selected for this study. Initial tooth displacements of maxillary right central incisor under sliding mechanics with various heights of retraction forces were measured in vivo using a two-point three-dimensional displacement magnetic sensor device. By calculating the angle of rotation from the displacements measured, the location of the center of resistance was determined.

Results: The results suggested that different heights of retraction forces could affect the direction of anterior tooth movement. The higher the retraction force was applied, the lower the degree of rotation (crown-lingual tipping) would be. The tooth rotation was in the opposite direction (from crown-lingual to crown-labial) if the height of the force was raised above the level of the center of resistance.

Conclusion: The location of the center of resistance of the maxillary central incisor was approximately 0.77 of the root length from the apex. During anterior tooth retraction with sliding mechanics, controlled crown-lingual tipping, bodily translation movement, and controlled crown-labial movement could be achieved by attaching a power-arm length that was lower, equivalent, or higher than the level of the center of resistance, respectively. The power-arm length could be the most easily modifiable clinical factor in determining the direction of anterior tooth movement during retraction with sliding mechanics.
Evolution in the Test-Tube as a Means to Create Selective Biocatalysts
Authors: Reetz Manfred T.
Published: May 2007

The development of chiral catalysts for use in synthetic organic chemistry is traditionally associated with progress in asymmetric transition metal catalysis or organocatalysis. In addition to these options chemists have employed enzymes for a number of asymmetric transformations for
a long time. However, limited substrate acceptance and insufficient enantioselectivity are the crucial factors which prevent the general exploitation of biocatalysis in organic chemistry. In order to solve this long-standing problem, we proposed some time ago the concept of directed evolution
of enantioselective enzymes. This report constitutes a short overview of the principle involved, together with a description of the first examples and the illumination of the present and future challenges.
Learner-Centered Teacher-Student Relationships Are Effective: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Cornelius-White Jeffrey
Published: May 2007

Person-centered education is a counseling-originated, educational psychology model, overripe for meta-analysis, that posits that positive teacher-student relationships are associated with optimal, holistic learning. It includes classical, humanistic education and today’s constructivist learner-centered model. The author reviewed about 1,000 articles to synthesize 119 studies from 1948 to 2004 with 1,450 findings and 355,325 students. The meta-analysis design followed Mackay, Barkham, Rees, and Stiles’s guidelines, including comprehensive search mechanisms, accuracy and bias control, and primary study validity assessment. Variables coded included 9 independent and 18 dependent variables and 39 moderators. The results showed that correlations had wide variation. Mean correlations ( r= .31) were above average compared with other educational innovations for cognitive and especially affective and behavioral outcomes. Methodological and sample features accounted for some of the variability.
Mathematical Knowledge of Middle School Teachers: Implications for the No Child Left Behind Policy Initiative
Authors: Hill Heather C.
Published: May 2007

This article explores middle school teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching and the relationship between such knowledge and teachers’subject matter preparation, certification type, teaching experience, and their students’ poverty status. The author administered multiple-choice measures to a nationally representative sample of teachers and found that those with more mathematical course work, a subject-specific certification, and high school teaching experience tended to possess higher levels of teaching-specific mathematical knowledge. However, teachers with strong mathematical knowledge for teaching are, like those with full credentials and preparation, distributed unequally across the population of U.S. students. Specifically, more affluent students are more likely to encounter more knowledgeable teachers. The author discusses the implications of this for current U.S. policies aimed at improving teacher quality.
Approximate Confidence Intervals for Standardized Effect Sizes in the Two-Independent and Two-Dependent Samples Design
Authors: Viechtbauer Wolfgang
Published: May 2007

Standardized effect sizes and confidence intervals thereof are extremely useful devices for comparing results across different studies using scales with incommensurable units. However, exact confidence intervals for standardized effect sizes can usually be obtained only via iterative estimation procedures. The present article summarizes several closed-form approximations to the exact confidence interval bounds in the two-independent and two-dependent samples design. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted to determine the accuracy of the various approximations under a wide variety of conditions. All methods except one provided accurate results for moderately large sample sizes and converged to the exact confidence interval bounds as sample size increased.
Linear Prediction of a True Score From a Direct Estimate and Several Derived Estimates
Authors: Haberman Shelby J. , Qian Jiahe
Published: May 2007

Statistical prediction problems often involve both a direct estimate of a true score and covariates of this true score. Given the criterion of mean squared error, this study determines the best linear predictor of the true score given the direct estimate and the covariates. Results yield an extension of Kelley’s formula for estimation of the true score to cases in which covariates are present. The best linear predictor is a weighted average of the direct estimate and of the linear regression of the direct estimate onto the covariates. The weights depend on the reliability of the direct estimate and on the multiple correlation of the true score with the covariates. One application of the best linear predictor is to use essay features provided by computer analysis and an observed holistic score of an essay provided by a human rater to approximate the true score corresponding to the holistic score.
Unspecific postevent information, attribution of responsibility, and eyewitness performance
Authors: Köhnken Günter , Brockmann Claudia
Published: May 2007

A large number of experiments have demonstrated that misleading postevent information may result in distortions of eyewitness performance. However, most studies have employed a quite specific piece of misinformation (the colour of a car, a type of a road sign) rather than more general postevent information. In the present experiment subjects viewed a film depicting a traffic accident and were subsequently informed that the car driver had or had not committed hit‐and‐run behaviour and that the motorcyclist had or had not been drinking. An additional control group received no information. In a subsequent interrogation subjects were asked to rate the amount of cause, responsibility and guilt attributable to the car driver and motorcyclist. Results showed that responsibility and guilt and the statements on the accident‐related behaviour were influenced by the postevent information. In general, subjects who had received negative information about one of the persons involved attributed higher amounts of responsibility and guilt to them and provided more negative statements concerning their behaviour. However, details that were not closely related to the accident were not significantly influenced by postevent information. The results are discussed in terms of schematic memory reports.
Face recognition: Effects of study to test maintenance and change of photographic mode and pose
Authors: Wogalter Michael S. , Laughery Kenneth R.
Published: May 2007

Facial recognition performance was examined as a function of changes in the target between initial exposure (study) and a subsequent recognition test. Photographic mode (colour vs. black and white) was changed in Experiments 1 and 2 and pose (front vs. profile) was changed in Experiment 2. The predictions of three information quantity models and of encoding specificity were contrasted. The information hypotheses predict that colour photographs will be better recognized when presented in colour than in black and white; the more specific predictions differ depending on the modes at study and test. Encoding specificity predicts recognition performance will be better when study and test modes are the same. The results of Experiment 1 showed that performance was highest when pictures remained in the same mode from study to test, and decreased when the mode was changed. Change of mode was particularly detrimental when the faces were studied in black and white and tested in colour. Experiment 2 showed a pattern of results also in accord with encoding specificity. The photographic mode and pose effects did not interact. Change of pose had a greater effect than change of photographic mode. Experiment 2 did not replicate the transformation asymmetry found in Experiment 1. The results indicate that for facial recognition memory, change lowers recognition, but the magnitude of the effect depends on the kind of change.
Effects of time of day and medium of presentation on immediate recall of violent and non‐violent news
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Gunter Barrie
Published: May 2007

A sample of 103 subjects from a technical training college were randomly assigned to nine groups and presented with a sequence of violent and non‐violent news stories either audiovisually (via television), in audio‐only, or in print at three different times of day (morning—9.30 am, early afternoon—1.30 pm, and later afternoon—5.30 pm). Subjects were tested for immediate cued recall of story content immediately after presentation. There were significant main effects of presentation modality, time of day and news content. Memory for news was best from print and worst from the audiovisual presentation. Memory performance was best in the morning and worst in the evening. Violent news was recalled better than non‐violent news in all media and at all times of day. There were also some interactions. Recall of violent news presented in audiovisual and audio‐only modalities deteriorated more from morning to afternoon than did non‐violent news recall. Non‐violent news recall from these two media declined more rapidly in the second half of the day. With print, recall of both violent and non‐violent news dropped off more in the late afternoon than in the morning. Practical implications of the findings for news presentation are discussed.
Kinematic information feedback and task constraints
Authors: Newell K. M. , Quinn J. T. , Carlton M. J.
Published: May 2007

The experiments were designed to examine the effect of task constraints on the influence of kinematic information feedback to facilitate the acquisition of discrete arm movements. The findings of Experiments 1 and 3 revealed that when the criterion kinematic trajectory was an increasing acceleration function, the most effective control space representation for kinematic feedback (i.e. position‐time; velocity‐position) was the one that matched the error criterion to be minimized. Furthermore, in Experiment 1 the velocity‐position feedback condition led to greater performance error than the discrete knowledge of results of movement time or integrated position‐time error. Experiment 2 showed that kinematic information feedback of the movement trajectory (position‐time; velocity‐position) did not facilitate acquisition of a constant velocity criterion, in contrast to knowledge of results of movement time or integrated velocity‐position error. Collectively the findings suggest that the interaction of task and organismic constraints dictates the nature of the information feedback required to facilitate the acquisition of skill. The augmented information available must match the degrees of freedom requiring constraint in the movement sequence.
Memories of statements spoken in everyday contexts
Authors: Goldsmith Lynn R. , Pillemer David B.
Published: May 2007

This study examined personal memories of statements spoken in everyday contexts. Eighty college students completed a questionnaire in which they recounted the first spoken statement to come to mind, and statements made by a parent, teacher, sibling and friend. Respondents also provided information about the speakers and the circumstances of transmission. Content analyses identified six primary statement types: rules, evaluations, speaker information, pronouncements, unusual phrases and everyday speech. The incidence of different statement types varied across speakers. Memorability of a specific verbalization appears to be related to the statement's communicative function, the listener's reactions to the utterance, the speaker's gender, and the relationship between the speaker and the listener.
Origins of the misplaced confidence effect in collaborative recall
Authors: Stephenson Geoffrey M. , Wagner Wolfgang
Published: May 2007

Studies have shown that dyads and groups place significantly more confidence in wrong answers to questions about a jointly witnessed event than do individuals. This experiment was designed to discover whether this misplaced confidence is influenced by prior free collaborative recall of the events in question. The results clearly indicated that prior group remembering lessens the effect, and improves the testimonial validity of both individual and group answers to questions about a jointly witnessed event. Taken in conjunction with other studies, the results imply that two or more witnesses of an event may profitably discuss what happened, but that they may best be interrogated separately in order to maximize the information available to the interrogator and to minimize misplaced confidence.
Test expectancy and question answering in prose processing
Authors: May Richard B. , Thompson Janny M.
Published: May 2007

Two experiments were conducted to study the effects of expectanices about test format (recall versus recognition) upon the retention of information from prose. In each study subjects expecting recall recalled better than those expecting a multiple‐choice test. Serial position analysis in Experiment 1 suggested differential use of study time in groups expecting different types of test. Examination of study time use in Experiment 2 indicated that subjects expecting multiple‐choice showed greater variability in the use of time spent reading prose segments. They were also more likely to employ idiosyncratic orders of reading segments. In general the results seem compatible with the theoretical model of Gillund and Shiffrin (1984) emphasizing the ratio of two types of coding.
Rehearsal of faces and details in action events
Authors: Don Read J. , Hammersley Richard , Cross‐Calvert Susan , McFadzen Eileen
Published: May 2007

The relationship between mental rehearsal and facial identification accuracy was explored in two experiments involving either a staged classroom event or a video scenario. The results suggest that when subjects rehearsed immediately following an event, compared to subjects in non‐rehearsal conditions, identification accuracy was increased when the target face was unchanged in appearance but was reduced when the face was changed slightly in appearance from viewing to test. However, when rehearsal of the event was delayed 10 minutes, identification accuracy was improved even when the face had changed in appearance. Immediate rehearsal, in contrast, led to a reduction in identification performance. In short, in some circumstances the gains in specific memory brought about by mental rehearsal serve to reduce than improve identification accuracy. The relevance of these findings to memory theory and everyday eyewitness testimony is discussed.
The effects of memory load and delay on facial recognition
Authors: Podd John
Published: May 2007

This experiment examined the effects of memory load over three periods of delay. Following presentation of 20, 35, or 50 targets, subjects were required to select these from an equal number of distractors 10 min, 1 week, or 2 weeks later. Increased target load (independent of increases in recognition load) decreased accuracy mainly by decreasing hit rate. Increasing delay decreased accuracy largely as a result of an increased false alarm rate. Most individual ROC curves, plotted on z‐coordinates, had slopes < 1. Implications of this finding for the use of d' are discussed.
Chess expertise in children
Authors: Horgan Dianne D. , Morgan David
Published: May 2007

This paper reports several studies of chess expertise in children who play competitive chess. The first study examines (1) the relationship between experience and skill among 113 school‐age children (grades 1 through 12); and (2) the relationship between chess skill and scores on various spatial and logical abilities tests among the top 15 players. Improvement in skill is related to experience, and chess players score higher than average on the Raven's Progressive Matrices. Also, scores on a chess‐specific test, the Knight's Tour, correlate with scores on the Raven's. The second study reports three experiments with 59 Ss involving chess‐specific tasks in memory, perception, and similarity judgements. The first two experiments replicated and extended Chase and Simon (1973). The third experiment, which asked Ss to judge similarities of chess positions, demonstrated that similarity judgements become more global and abstract with increased skill. The final section describes qualitatively how children's chess expertise compares to that of adults. Drawing upon Anderson (1985), we focus on some distinctive features of children's chess play and on some successful techniques in coaching young players.
Spoken and written recall of visual narratives
Authors: Bekerian D. A. , Dennett J. L.
Published: May 2007

This study is concerned with the effects of recall mode on memory for visual narratives. Subjects were shown a series of slides depicting an auto‐pedestrian accident. They were then asked to free‐recall all information they could remember. Half were asked to speak their free recalls. The other half were asked to write down their free recalls. The results showed that spoken recall was more accurate. These data were compared with previous studies using visual and textual narratives.
An investigation of people's metamemories for naturally occurring events
Authors: Shlechter Theodore M. , Herrmann Douglas J. , Toglia Michael P.
Published: May 2007

Three studies investigated the role of event salience in the validity of metamemory reports for naturally occurring events. Two studies investigated metamemory for daily forgetting behaviours as recorded on memory diaries for either 10 days (Study 1) or a month (Study 2). A third study examined metamemory for remembering recent events (consisting of the first day of class, the most recent weekend, and the first experimental session). The results indicated that metamemory validity was higher for the more salient memory events, e. g. rote memory failures and memory of the first day of class.
The ‘Notice to Detained Persons’, PACE Codes, and reading ease
Authors: Gudjonsson Gisli H.
Published: May 2007

This paper looks at the reading ease of the ‘Notice to Detained Persons’ and the PACE Codes of Practice. The documents were analysed by using the Flesch formula for reading ease (Flesch, 1948). The results indicate that the leaflet of Notice, given to arrested persons at police stations in order to advise them of their legal rights, would be fully understood by fewer than one in four of the general population. The Codes of Practice are even more complicated, and require substantially above‐average intelligence and comprehension. An exploratory study into the comprehension complexity of the Notice to Detained Persons was carried out on 15 offenders with IQ values below 100. The results support the findings obtained by the Flesch formula, indicating that the Notice is far too complicated for the intellectually disadvantaged to understand their rights fully as outlined in the document. The implications of the findings are discussed.
Imagery skill and preference in bilinguals
Authors: Ransdell Sarah Ellen , Fischler Ira
Published: May 2007

A number of studies have reported differences in the performance of bilinguals and monolinguals in verbal tasks. It has been suggested that one source of this difference is a greater tendency among bilinguals to use non‐verbal ways of representing events, because of the potential for confusions between their two verbal codes. In the present study, bilingual and monolingual college students were compared on three dimensions of self‐reported aspects of imagery—control, vividness and preference—as well as on a performance measure of spatial manipulation skill. When these tasks were preceded by a nominally verbal activity (prose comprehension), there were no group differences on the self‐report or objective imagery measures. In contrast, when they were preceded by an imagery rating task, some evidence of a compensatory reliance on spatial codes among bilinguals was obtained. Implications of these task induction effects on both subjective and performance measures of a skill were discussed.
The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children
Authors: Wulf Gabriele
Published: May 2007

The present investigation was concerned with the variability‐of‐practice hypothesis of Schmidt's schema theory of motor learning; i. e. it was sought to determine if there is an optimal way to structure the variable practice session with regard to schema formation. Furthermore, children's motor recognition (movement evaluation) was examined, in addition to recall (movement production), since apparently no such studies had been done within the context of schema theory before. Eighty‐eight girls and boys with a mean age of 11.3 years were tested on a throwing task. Three groups of subjects practised under variable conditions (different target distances and weights) that differed with regard to contextual interference and sequential organization of task variations; another group received constant throwing practice. Following practice trials with knowledge of results, the four treatment groups and a control group without prior practice were required to produce and evaluate a novel response (novel target distance and weight) without vision and knowledge of results. The results supported the variability‐of‐practice hypothesis, in that variable practice in general facilitated recall and recognition on the novel task. Furthermore, variable practice with the highest level of contextual interference (random order of tasks) produced most effective transfer performance, suggesting that the structure of the variable‐practice session in fact plays a role with regard to the effectiveness of motor schema development. Contrary to the ‘organization hypothesis’ (Gentile and Nacson, 1976) a hierarchical organization of movement variations was not more beneficial to schema formation than random practice.
Response strategies for coping with the cognitive demands of attitude measures in surveys
Authors: Krosnick Jon A.
Published: May 2007

This paper proposes that when optimally answering a survey question would require substantial cognitive effort, some repondents simply provide a satisfactory answer instead. This behaviour, called satisficing, can take the form of either (1) incomplete or biased information retrieval and/or information integration, or (2) no information retrieval or integration at all. Satisficing may lead respondents to employ a variety of response strategies, including choosing the first response alternative that seems to constitute a reasonable answer, agreeing with an assertion made by a question, endorsing the status quo instead of endorsing social change, failing to differentiate among a set of diverse objects in ratings, saying ‘don't know’ instead of reporting an opinion, and randomly choosing among the response alternatives offered. This paper specifies a wide range of factors that are likely to encourage satisficing, and reviews relevant evidence evaluating these speculations. Many useful directions for future research are suggested.
The Chancellor's memory: Rhetoric and truth in discursive remembering
Authors: Edwards Derek , Potter Jonathan
Published: May 2007

This paper explores the notion of truthfulness in research on conversational remembering. It argues that people's accounts of past events, before they can be taken as data on the cognitive workings of memory, need to be examined as contextualized and variable productions that perform pragmatic and rhetorical work; no one version can be taken as a person's real memory. The consequences of this discourse‐analytical perspective are examined first through a critical discussion of Ulric Neisser's study of John Dean's testimony to the senate ‘Watergate’ committee. The issues are then explored more deeply in an analysis of reportings of a different event, in which similar (Watergate‐like) issues of memory, truth and accuracy are also at issue. It is argued that: (a) all of Neisser's three kinds of memory–verbatim, gist and ‘repisodic’–involve problematical assumptions concerning their relation to some true, original event; and (b) that Dean's accounts of his memory and his displays of memory should be approached as occasioned productions oriented pragmatically to the assignment of guilt and avoidance of scapegoating. Through an analysis of newspaper reports (based on memory) of a controversial briefing given by the then British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nigel Lawson, we then examine: (a) how discourse about what could be used as an arbiter of truth was rhetorically organized; (b) how participants' versions of events were constructed rhetorically, as parts of arguments; (c) that both sides in the dispute maintained the coherence of their positions by a form of error accounting similar to that used by Neisser with respect to Dean. It is suggested that cognitive psychologists, whether working in the laboratory or attempting to do real‐world studies of everyday remembering, need to avoid simplistic notions of true original events, and can do so by addressing the rhetorical organization of participants' memory accounts.
People's awareness of their age‐related sensory and cognitive deficits and the implications for road safety
Authors: Holland Carol A. , Rabbitt Patrick M. A.
Published: May 2007

Inevitable declines in sensory abilities may put older drivers and pedestrians at risk unless they become aware of these changes and can safeguard themselves by modifying their behaviour. A questionnaire designed to evaluate older people's awareness of their sensory abilities with regard to road use was administered to 80 individuals aged from 50 to 79 years, who were also given eyesight and hearing tests. Despite marked declines in their objective sensory efficiency, people in their 70s did not rate their sensory abilities as poor any more than did people in their 50s. Individuals of any age who did subjectively perceive declines in their sensory abilities also reported that they had made very sensible adjustments in their road‐use behaviour, for example, avoiding complex junctions. Those individuals who reported taking such precautions also reported fewer recent accidents. One month after completing the questionnaire, and being given the results of their eyesight and hearing tests, two‐thirds of individuals reported that they had made important changes in their behaviour on the roads. Many now avoided or took particular care in dangerous situations, and some had started to wear prescribed spectacles more appropriately. The implications of older people's lack of awareness of changes in their sensory abilities to their safety on the roads, and in general, are discussed. Factors causing the age‐related mismatch between actual and subjectively perceived sensory abilities are discussed.
Memory for directly and indirectly experienced events
Authors: Toglia Michael P. , Shlechter Theodore M. , Chevalier Dolores S.
Published: May 2007

Retention was examined for an event that was experienced either directly or indirectly. In the first experiment, subjects witnessed a staged event in their classroom involving an argument between two students concerning ownership of a textbook. Subjects in a second study indirectly experienced the event as they heard an account of the book dispute. Immediately following the episode and 2 weeks later both a free‐recall test and recognition questionnaire were administered. In free‐recall those who witnessed the event remembered nearly as much on the delayed test as they had on the immediate task. For the auditory modality, however, a greater decrement in recall over the retention interval was observed. A similar pattern of results was found in recognition. Additional analyses indicated that actions were retained better than conversation and physical description, and suggested that the type of experience influences how well these aspects of the event are remembered. Interpretations of the overall findings are offered within the context of dual‐coding theory and in terms of modality differences in both encoding elaboration and selective attention.
Elaborative interrogation applied to small and large group contexts
Authors: Wood Eileen , Fler Cathy , Willoughby Teena
Published: May 2007

The present study examined the application of elaborative interrogation (EI), a questioning strategy, to ecologically valid classroom contexts. Instruction was provided to individuals, small groups of five, and large groups of 20. Recall performance did not differ as a function of group size. For individuals, small and large groups, EI subjects outperformed repetition control subjects.
Very long‐term memory for knowledge acquired at school and university
Authors: Conway Martin A. , Cohen Gillian , Stanhope Nicola
Published: May 2007

Recent research into the very long‐term retention of knowledge originally acquired during the process of formal education at school and university has demonstrated that such knowledge may be retained at high levels over very long retention intervals. The pattern of retention typically takes the form of a comparatively short period marked by forgetting (lasting between 1 and 6 years) followed by a long period of stable retention (usually longer than 30 years). For courses taken at school the level attained over a series of courses (e.g. in learning a foreign language or studying mathematics) is an important determinant of long‐term retention. Students who attain moderate or advanced levels of learning show high levels of retention with very little forgetting, whereas students who attain only lower levels of learning show steady forgetting, and after a period of 6 years retain very little knowledge. Similar patterns of retention are present for university students taking single courses in science and literature subjects, and students with higher grades retain more knowledge although the reliable relationship here, between grade obtained and amount remembered, is weak and accounts for only small portions of the variance in retention. Taken together these findings suggest that the retention of knowledge acquired through formal education persists over longer periods of time than popularly believed. Recent theory proposes that these long‐lasting effects of education are partly related to the types of learning schedules followed during acquisition and partly related to the nature of the to‐be‐acquired knowledge, and to whether or not knowledge can be represented schematically.
Are two heads better than one? Experimental investigations of the social facilitation of memory
Authors: Meudell Peter R. , Hitch Graham J. , Kirby Petty
Published: May 2007

The hypothesis that two people collaborating in recall would remember more than a single person was examined in a series of four experiments. All the experiments used variations on the same ‘sequential’ design where, in social conditions, people recalled alone initially and then recalled jointly in pairs: as a control for reminiscence, some people recalled alone on two separate occasions. On the second recall in all of the experiments two people always recalled more than one, but this was simply due to the independent statistical summation of two people's memories: no evidence whatsoever was found for the pairs of people generating new information that was not available to either member of the pair. This surprising result was not attributable to artefacts linked to the complexity or familiarity of stimulus material, nor was it linked to variations in people's cognitive perspectives. No evidence of social facilitation of memories was therefore found: two people recalling together certainly pool their separate memories so as to outperform individuals but the social interaction does not appear to generate previously unavailable memories.
Collusion after a collision: Witnesses' reports of a road accident with and without discussion
Authors: Underwood Geoffrey , Milton Hugh
Published: May 2007

In a study of the accuracy of recall of witnesses to a road accident, subjects watched a video recording of a natural scene for a few minutes. Two vehicles collided, and reports from the witnesses were taken using a version of the report form used by officers investigating road accidents in the UK. Witnesses were asked questions about the scene of the accident, about each of the two vehicles, and about the timing of the collision relative to a traffic signal. Does the accuracy of report depend upon the isolation of the witness? The study investigated this question by having some witnesses watch the video recording and complete the questionnaire alone, while other witnesses were encouraged to discuss their perceptions and recollections both while watching the recording and during an interval of a few minutes prior to administration of the questionnaire. All witnesses completed their reports in isolation. As a check on witnesses' expectancies, some of them, both individual and group witnesses, were informed prior to seeing the video recording that they would see a road accident and that they would be asked about it. The ‘uninformed’ witnesses were told to expect questions about the road scene. There was no overall difference between the recall accuracy of individual and group witnesses, but there was an interaction between groups and expectancy. When expecting to see a collision the group witnesses were more accurate than the individuals. Social facilitation in recall was restricted to occasions when the witnesses could anticipate the focus of the questions to be asked.
Effects of text structure on the impact of heard news
Authors: Berry Colin , Scheffler Andreas , Goldstein Caroline
Published: May 2007

In two experiments, audio re‐recordings of texts transcribed from television newscasts were presented to independent groups, one group in each case hearing a ‘bulletin’ with original text structures (as broadcast), the other with key stories revised in accord with story‐grammar notions and restoring chronological sequence in the narrative. In Experiment 1 the middle item in a three‐story bulletin was subjected to text structure manipulation. After hearing the bulletin, subjects were questioned on information in the texts. In Experiment 2, subjects heard two stories with original or restructured text. In addition to being tested for retention they also rated for bias and quality of writing. Text restructuring improved learning in both studies, especially of information central to the main points of stories. In Experiment 2, such text revision also affected judgements of bias without altering assessment of writing quality. It is suggested that attention to assuring more coherent story structures in newscast texts could counter the problems of poor comprehension and perceived bias on the part of audiences which result from current production priorities and practices.
Musical notation for the keyboard: An examination of stimulus‐response compatibility
Authors: Biel Gary A. , Carswell C. Melody
Published: May 2007

A recent stimulus‐response compatibility model was used to provide a performance evaluation of an experimental notation for the keyboard in which pitch varies horizontally in visual space. One hundred and twenty subjects performed a choice reaction time task using either the horizontal notation or a more traditional vertical notation. Half the subjects in each notation group received white noise and half received pitch‐varying feedback with responses. A horizontal display advantage was revealed when rules of the model were applied to data analyses. Further, the horizontal display advantage was not dependent on the nature of the feedback. In a second experiment, performance of musicians and non‐musicians was compared using the horizontal and vertical notations. Musicians' performance was uniformly better than that of non‐musicians, and did not differ with notation orientation. The findings support the use of non‐traditional horizontal notations for novice performance on a keyboard instrument.
Conversational remembering: Story recall with a peer versus for an experimenter
Authors: Hyman Ira E.
Published: May 2007

This research investigated the role social context plays in determining the content and organization of remembered information. As a manipulation of social context, subjects talked about a short story either with another subject (dyads) or for an experimenter (experimenter‐tested). In addition, the instructions were manipulated: Subjects were asked about their memory of the story or their personal reactions to it. Regardless of instructions, the dyad subjects spoke more about their evaluations of the story, included more comments linking the story to a larger knowledge frame (metacomments), and more often used remembered details to support their positions. In contrast, the experimenter‐tested subjects more often included story details and interpretations in narrative accounts of the story. The dyad subjects included in their recalls information that is part of story memory but seldom evidenced by single subjects remembering for an experiment. Thus conversational remembering often relies on a nonnarrative retrieval strategy. Regardless of social context, personal reaction instructions led to more meta‐comments and evaluations, and less narrative than memory instructions. The organization and content of non‐narrative conversational remembering may be explained by the dual demands of conforming to conversational rules and of establishing social bonds through self‐revealing comments.
Metacognition and mathematics strategy use
Authors: Carr Martha , Alexander Joyce , Folds‐Bennett Trisha
Published: May 2007

The role of children's metacognitive knowledge in their mathematics strategy use was studied by a longitudinal examination of second graders' effort attributions, metacognition for mathematics, and strategy use while solving mathematics problems. Children's correct use of retrieval, internal and external strategies, and the prevalence of strategy use were assessed in September and the following January. Effort attributions for success and failure were also assessed at both points in time. In January, metacognitive knowledge about mathematics strategies was measured. Second graders possess metacognitive knowledge about mathematics strategies, and this knowledge is correlated most strongly with the tendency to use internal strategies in September and correct internal strategy use in September. Effort attributions measured at both timepoints were significantly related to metacognition. Effort attributions in January also correlated with the tendency to use internal strategies in January. In general, the results are consistent with self‐system theories, which posit that metacognition, motivation, and strategy use work together to promote learning.
‘Earwitness’ voice recognition: Factors affecting accuracy and impact on jurors
Authors: van Wallendael Lori R. , Surace Amy , Parsons Deborah Hall , Brown Melissa
Published: May 2007

Two studies were conducted examining voice recognition testimony and its impact on jurors. In the first experiment, subjects listened to a tape recording of a brief sales pitch. After a retention interval of either 0, 7 or 14 days, subjects were unexpectedly asked to pick the salesperson's voice out of a five‐voice taped lineup. Retention interval did not have a significant effect on hit rates or false alarms. Accuracy and pre‐lineup confidence were not significantly correlated, although accuracy was related to post‐lineup willingness to testify. In the second experiment, undergraduate subjects were asked to read a summary of a trial, describing a situation similar to that studied in experiment 1; the independent variables were the presence of an earwitness, the gender and confidence of the earwitness, and the retention interval. Only the presence of an earwitness had a significant main effect upon mock jurors' verdicts. However, there was a significant interaction between witness confidence and witness gender when an earwitness identification was presented.