bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Behavioural Changes Associated with the Guinea‐pig Oestrous Cycle
Authors: BIRKE LYNDA I. A.
Published: August 2010

This paper describes some behaviour patterns of the guinea‐pig, Cavia porcellus, which vary systematically with the oestrous cycle. Oestrus is characterised by an increase in locomotion, and scent‐marking, as well as by greater interest in conspecifics. All of these are behaviours known to increase at oestrus in other rodent species. The significance of these changes for the social organisation of this species is discussed.
The Adaptive Significance of Avian Mobbing
Authors: FRANKENBERG ELIEZER
Published: August 2010

Three experiments were performed to test information carried by mobbing of European blackbirds (Turdus merula). They showed that mobbing alerts conspecifics as well as the mobber itself, supporting the “alerting others” hypothesis. Mobbing gives directional information about the predator's location. Mobbing is enhanced by the predator's movement in agreement with the “perception advertisement” hypothesis. Several other aspects of relations between the mobber and conspecifics were studied and discussed.
Functional Vocalizations by an African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)
Authors: Pepperberg Irene M.
Published: August 2010

An African grey parrot, after 26 months of speech training, has acquired a verbal vocabulary consisting of three color adjectives, two phrases for describing shape, 9 nouns, and functional use of the word “no”. The parrot is capable of correctly combining these vocalizations so as to identify proficiently, request, and/or refuse more than 30 objects by means of verbal labels.
Function of Sound Production by the Skunk Loach Botia horae (Pisces, Cobitidae)
Authors: VALINSKI WENDY , RIGLEY LOUIS
Published: August 2010

In agonistic interactions with conspecifics, skunk loaches (Botia horae) typically exhibit lateral displays, attacks, and produce a sound (a “click”). Four experiments were conducted to determine the functional significance of the click sound. Behaviors of resident fish were monitored while characteristics of their shelter and the size or type of intruder fish introduced were varied. Manipulations in the four experiments involved: 1) the configuration of the available shelter; 2) the size or recent history of intruder fish; 3) playbacks of “click” sounds or aquarium noise; or 4) muting of resident fish. Lateral displays, attacks, and sounds produced by residents were monitored, and the responses of residents were analyzed in terms of the functional significance of “click” sounds to juvenile skunk loaches.
Seasonal Changes in the Behavior and Plasma Titers of Various Hormones in Barheaded Geese, Anser indicus
Authors: DITTAMI JOHN PHILIP
Published: August 2010

A number of behavioral and physiological parameters including the circulating levels of 7 hormones were investigated in a free ranging population of barheaded geese in Seewiesen, W. Germany. Behavioral data were collected on the entire flock from which seasonal changes in the frequencies were determined. In addition, data on the behavior of individuals were obtained to aid in the comparison of seasonal changes in behavior and hormones. The resulting curves were used to examine whether the annual changes in the frequencies of various behaviors were related to changes in circulating hormonal concentrations. Lastly, the physiological data were discussed with regard to reproductive biology in birds.
Sexual Discrimination Using Visual Cues in the Checkered White Butterfly (Pieris protodice)
Authors: RUTOWSKI RONALD L.
Published: August 2010

The cues used by ♂♂ and ♀♀ of the checkered white butterfly, Pieris protodice, were explored using an assay that involved timing the responses of free‐flying butterflies to tethered animals (“angling”). The models included ones that were made from the wings of ♂♂ and ♀♀ that had been extracted in a dilute ammonia solution. This procedure removes an ultraviolet‐absorbing pigment from the wings and renders them more ultraviolet reflectant than normal without altering any other aspect of their coloration. The results show that both sexes make sexual discriminations using the sexual dimorphism in ultraviolet reflectance found in this species rather than using differences in the melanic markings on the wings, movement patterns, or chemical signals.
Visual Cues for Predator Face Recognition by Reef Fishes
Authors: KARPLUS ILAN , ALGOM DANIEL
Published: August 2010

A morphometric analysis of 20 different facial features of reef fishes was carried out in order to assess cues which could serve for predator recognition. 105 different species of 35 different families were included in this study. The main features of potential discriminatory value were head width, head shape, the size of the mouth and its shape, the shape of the eyes, their diameter, and the distance between the eyes. Color and pattern were of no potential discriminatory value. Discriminant function analysis showed that two cues, the distance between the eyes and the size of the mouth, were sufficient for good predator recognition. The camouflage of piscivorous cues by predatory fish is discussed. The mimicry of piscivorous cues by some prey fishes as an anti‐predator strategy is suggested for two types of false eye spots simulating the frontal aspect of a piscivore.
Field Cricket Spacing, and the Phonotaxis of Crickets and Parasitoid Flies to Clumped and Isolated Cricket Songs
Authors: CADE WILLIAM H.
Published: August 2010

Nearest neighbor analyses of the field crickets Gryllus integer, G. veletis, and Teleogryllus oceanicus demonstrated that calling ♂♂ were aggregated. Broadcasts of conspecific song to calling ♂♂ indicated that attraction of neighboring ♂♂ maintained inter‐male distances. Broadcasts of G. integer song through aggregated and isolated loudspeakers showed that the total number of crickets and parasitoid flies, Euphasiopteryx ochracea, attracted to aggregated loudspeakers was greater than that to an isolate. The average number of attracted crickets and flies in an aggregation was comparable to the isolated total.
Local Enhancement for Food Finding by Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) Foraging on Grassland
Authors: Waite R. K.
Published: August 2010

Tests of two hypotheses of food‐finding by local enhancement were carried out by observation of wild rooks foraging for a natural prey. Birds increased their chances of locating patchily distributed earthworms, and increased their intake rates of this prey, by choosing to forage (a) in larger flocks and (b) in denser flocks of rooks. Larger and denser flocks occurred on areas of higher earthworm density because of the tendencies to remain longer on areas of higher prey density and, when moving, to land in the vicinity of other birds.

Beobachtungen an Saatkrähen bei der Suche nach Regenwürmern auf tiefliegenden Wiesen im Winter ergaben:

die Beute trat geklumpt auf, war schwer auffindbar und blieb (in ver‐schiedenem Maße) nicht an derselben Stelle;

einzelne weit umherfliegende Saatkrähen landeten meist auf Feldern mit Schwärmen ihrer Art. Audi fielen einzelne Krähen, die über einem Feld flogen, wo ein Schwarm schon Beute suchte, meist nahe ihren Artgenossen ein;

die Vögel hörten seltener auf, Beute zu suchen, und flogen gewöhnlich weniger oft weg, wenn die Beutedichte hoch war;

bei zunehmender Schwarmgröße und ‐dichte stieg das Verzehrtempo an;

größere Schwärme, vielleicht auch dichtere Schwärme, kamen bei höheren Beutedichten vor.

Die Daten ließen nicht auf eine unmittelbare Wirkung der Gruppengröße auf das Verhalten schließen, wie einander widerstreitende Hypothesen schon vorausgesagt hatten. Anscheinend trat nur die einfache Form sozialen Verhaltens wie unter (b), also „local enhancement”, in dem Maße auf, das durch Größe und Dichte am Ort bereits beutesuchender Schwärme bestimmt wurde. Die Beziehungen zwischen Schwarmgröße, Schwarmdichte und Nahrungsauf‐nahme ergaben sich dann aus den Reaktionen der dazugehörigen Krähen auf Veränderungen der Beutedichte. Da Vögel, die den Suchort wechselten, in der Nähe anderer landeten und da Vögel bei zunehmender Beutedichte weniger häufig wechselten, entwickelten sich in der Regel größere und dichtere Schwärme dort, wo die Beutedichte höher war.
Subspecific Variation in the Long Calls of the Tamarin, Saguinus fusckollis
Authors: Hodun Alexandra , Snowdon Charles T. , Soini Pekka
Published: August 2010

Long call vocalizations were recorded in the field from four adjacent subspecies of the saddle‐back tamarin, Saguinus fusckollis ssp. Quantitative measurements of several call parameters were analyzed and four variables were found to be significantly different across subspecies. Each of the four subspecies had a distinctive set of long call parameters. One animal's call was a mosaic of its own subspecies call and that of the subspecies found directly across the river. Recordings of captive hybrids of the same two subspecies showed components of only one of the parental calls, and of calls of another subspecies with which they were housed. Long call structures of subspecies of Saguinus fusckollis are useful for studies of vocal ontogeny and identification of subspecies.

Aus 4 einander benachbarten Unterarten des Krallenaffen Saguinus fuscicollis wurden „Lang‐Rufe” aufgenommen und quantitativ analysiert. In 4 Ruf‐Parametern unterscheiden sich alle Unterarten voneinander.

Ein Tier äußerte eine Mischform des Rufes zwischen seiner eigenen und einer anderen, in Hörweite lebenden Unterart. Gefangenschafts‐Hybriden zwischen diesen beiden Unterarten zeigten diese Mischform nicht; sie besaßen einige Rufkomponenten einer weiteren Unterart, mit der sie zusammen wohnten.

S. fuscicollis eignet sich gut zur Untersuchung der Ruf‐Ontogenese bei Affen. Die Unterschiede zwischen Unterarten eignen sich als taxonomisches Merkmal und lassen den Grad der Aufsplitterung erkennen.
Patterns of Singing in the Varied Thrush: II. A Model of Control
Authors: Whitney Carl L.
Published: August 2010

I develop a model that simulates patterns of singing in the varied thrush. The model accounts for patterns related to 1) the similarity of song types within an individual's repertoire, 2) the sequencing of different song types, 3) the relative frequencies of occurrence of different song types, and 4) the durations of intervals between successive songs.

Um das Singmuster der männlichen Fleckendrossel (Zoothera naevia) zu simulieren, wurde ein Modell entwickelt, das die Verschiedenheit der Gesänge im Repertoire eines Individuums, die Abfolge der verschiedenen Gesänge, die Unterschiede in der relativen Häufigkeit ihres Auftretens sowie die Pausen‐länge zwischen aufeinanderfolgenden Gesängen liefert.

Auch das Modell singt möglichst unterschiedliche Gesänge unmittelbar nacheinander. Fallen einige Gesänge aus einem Repertoire aus, so ändern sich die relativen Häufigkeiten der verbleibenden. Die mittlere Pausenlänge nach einem Gesang hängt von der Häufigkeit des Auftretens dieses Gesanges ab. Die absolute Variabilität der Pausen zwischen den einzelnen Gesängen wächst mit der Singrate.
Incestuous Mating in Zebra Finches
Authors: Slater P. J. B. , Clements F. A.
Published: August 2010

Zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) were tested in quadruplets in which they had the choice of mating with a close relative or a non‐relative. The majority of birds chose to mate incestuously and possible reasons for this finding are discussed.

Zebrafinken, denen die Wahl gelassen wird, sich mit einem nahe ver‐wandten oder mit einem nicht verwandten Tier zu paaren, neigen dazu, den nahe verwandten Artgenossen zu wählen. Dieser Effekt ist dann am aus‐geprägtesten, wenn es sich um Paarungen zwischen Eltern und Nachkommen handelt, und ist vermutlich auf frühes Lernen elterlicher Merkmale zurück‐zuführen. Die funktionelle Bedeutung dieser Befunde wird diskutiert, und es wird vermutet, daß Verwandtenehen entweder durch die abnorme Aufzucht‐situation im Labor bedingt sind, oder dadurch, daß die normale Ausbreitung, wie sie im Freiland möglich ist, im Labor unterbunden wird, oder daß Inzucht bei dieser Art möglicherweise von Vorteil ist.
Monogamy in Crustacea and Man
Authors: Wickler Wolfgang , Seibt Uta
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Two different meanings of the term ‘monogamy’ are outlined. Crustacea offer excellent examples to distinguish different types of, and different trends towards, monogamy. Biological and ecological factors shaping the selective consequences of the individual's reproductive tactic are discussed. Some similar hypotheses developed independently in research on Crustacea and humans indicate the importance of cross‐systematic comparisons. Evolutionary convergencies, rather than the homologies, in social behaviour and social systems help in understanding the factor‐network relevant to selection.
Unterschiedliche Reaktionen von Weibchen des Japanischen Mövchens (Lonchura striata var. domestical auf Gesänge verwandter und nicht verwandter Artgenossen
Authors: Dietrich Katharina
Published: August 2010

Female Bengalese finches listen to the song of conspecifics during their development, as do young males when learning their song. Thus females are expected to recognize individual song types. This was confirmed testing two females in their reaction to different tape‐recorded songs. The birds showed the strongest responses towards the song of their father, to which they had listened as juveniles, and towards the same song type, sung by individually unknown males.

Mövchen‐Weibchen antworteten auf das Vorspielen individuell verschiedener Gesänge von Artgenossen mit Rufen unterschiedlicher Häufigkeit. Am intensivsten riefen sie beim Gesang ihres Vaters und bei den mit diesem übereinstimmenden Gesängen anderer Männchen, obgleich sie ihnen persönlich nicht bekannt waren. Sie hatten als Jungvögel ihr Zuhörverhalten auf ihren Vater gerichtet, waren danach jedoch seit fast 2 Jahren von ihm getrennt.

Weibchen erkennen also auch unabhängig vom Individuum einen in ihrer Jugend gehörten Gesang. Da junge Männchen, auch wenn sie zu fremden Männchen ebenso Kontakt hatten wie zum Vater, dessen Gesang selektiv übernehmen, können die Weibchen ihren Verwandtschaftsgrad zu einzelnen Männchen an deren Gesang erkennen. Diese Information künnte für ihre Partnerwahl von Bedeutung sein.
Influence of External Stimuli on the Quality of the Song of the Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata castanotis Gould)
Authors: Bischof Hans‐Joachim , Böhner Jörg , Sossinka Roland
Published: August 2010

The effect of models differing in releasing quality is tested with respect to acoustical features of the directed song, and is compared to song not induced by releasers (so called “undirected song”). A gradual change of several parameters (for example number of introductory elements, number of motifs per strophe, speed of performance of the first motif) was found, indicating a gliding increase of intensity from song not releaser‐provoked, via song released by models poor in releasing stimuli to song induced by living females.
Male Aggression, Dominance and Breeding Behavior in Red Desert Feral Horses
Authors: Miller Richard
Published: August 2010

As part of a study on feral horse social organization, habitat use and movements, observations were made on agonistic, dominance and breeding behaviors in Wyoming's Red Desert. The types of aggressive behavior observed among the horses depended on the sex of the aggressor and the sex of the opponent. Fecal piles were involved in 25% of all male‐male aggressive encounters and seemed to function in intraband and possibly interband dominance. Three breeding systems were observed in multiple male bands: 1) several males breeding serially with one mare within a band, 2) consort pair formation and 3) nearly exclusive breeding by the dominant male. The type of breeding system found in any one band usually corresponded to the male dominance structure in the band.

Als aggressives Verhalten benutzen Hengste gegen Stuten meist das Zusammentreiben, Stuten gegen Hengste das Auskeilen (oder das vorhergehende Zukehren der Hinterhand), Hengste untereinander die Drohhaltung mit gebogenem Hals.

25% aller Hengst‐Auseinandersetzungen fanden an Kothaufen statt. In 69% dieser Fälle wurde markiert. Es gab keine klare Reihenfolge, in der mehrere Hengste nacheinander denselben Kotplatz markierten, doch markieren Hengste der gleichen Gruppe normalerweise pro Besuch dieselbe Stelle. Kothaufen scheinen in und zwischen Gruppen Dominanzzeichen zu sein.

In Gruppen mit mehreren Hengsten sind rangtiefere häufiger als die dominanten Hengste in Zwischengruppen‐Aggressionen verwickelt.

In Gruppen mit nur einem Hengst vollzog dieser 18 von 21 Paarungen; die anderen kamen von gruppenfremden Hengsten. In Gruppen mit mehreren Hengsten entfielen 49% der Paarungen auf den dominanten, 42% auf rangtiefere, 9% auf gruppenfremde.

Kämpfe unter Hengsten gab es nur, wenn Stuten sich in Junggesellengruppen paarten.

In Gruppen mit mehreren Hengsten paarten sich entweder mehrere Hengste oder vorwiegend bis ausschließlich der Alpha‐Hengst mit jeder Stute, Hengste und Stuten schlossen sich zu Paaren zusammen. Das kann von Gruppe zu Gruppe, aber auch innerhalb derselben Gruppe mit der Zeit wechseln.
Optimal Maternal Care1
Authors: Wickler Wolfgang , Seibt Uta
Published: August 2010

Infanticide among animals is a widespread phenomenon. It has often been regarded as pathological or erroneous, suggesting that such behaviour decreases the individual and inclusive fitness of the infanticidal animals. However, recent studies (surveyed by Hrdy 1979, Polis 1981) have shown that infanticidal behaviour can evolve and be adaptive, benefiting the individuals responsible for the infanticide. Even parental infanticide, e.g. untimely abandonment of young, may be an advantageous reproductive tactic, as suggested for Ursus arctos by Tait (1980); in Mesocricetus auratus pup cannibalism “is an organized part of normal maternal behavior which allows an individual female to adjust her litter size in accord with her capacity to rear young” (Day and Galef 1977).

Neither survey addresses the question of what mothers of iteroparous (multiply breeding) and polytokous species (having several young per brood) should do with a brood containing exceptionally few young. We present two ways of assessing whether Accepting or Rejecting few young will maximize a mother's lifetime reproduction.
Factors Influencing Dominance Status in American Bison Cows (Bison bison)
Authors: Rutberg Allen T.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Aggressive interactions were observed among 22 American bison (Bison bison) cows of known age and identity during the summer of 1981 at the National Bison Range, Montana, U.S.A. Only two of the 103 observed interactions were inconsistent with a linear dominance hierarchy.

In spring and summer, dominance relations among American bison cows are stable. Challenges to individual status, in the form of reciprocated threats or escalated fights, are rare. This contrasts sharply with the aggressive behavior of bison bulls during the mating season, as described by Lott (1979). Male‐male aggression is characterized by serious fighting and frequent reversals of status. It is suggested that these differences occur because the fitness benefits of aggression are much lower to cows than to bulls.

In past studies of social dominance in ungulates, rank has been positively correlated with age and body weight. In this study, older cows consistently dominated younger cows, but there was no relationship between cow dominance rank and body weight. These correlations would result if adult cows “taught” immatures to be subordinate, and these pairwise relationships were retained into adult life because of the infrequency with which dominance rank is challenged.

Die Dominanzverhältnisse unter weiblichen Bisons sind im Frühjahr und Sommer stabil, Kämpfe um die Rangordnung sind selten. Unter Bullen dagegen sind während der Paarungszeit Kämpfe und Status‐Änderungen häufig. Das könnte damit zusammenhängen, daß für Kühe die Fitneßvorteile aus Aggression geringer sind als für Bullen.

Bei anderen Paarhufern war der Rang mit dem Alter und mit dem Körpergewicht positiv korreliert; hier aber hatten ältere Kühe immer einen höheren Rang als die jungen, und es gab keine Beziehung zwischen Rang und Körpergewicht — vielleicht weil Jungtiere auf Alttiere mit Unterordnung reagierten und den niedrigen Rang aufgrund seltener Kämpfe um die Rangordnung bis ins Erwachsenenalter beibehielten.
Distance Estimation in Binocular and Monocular Salamanders1
Authors: Luthardt‐Laimer Gisela
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Distance estimation of Salamandra salamandra (L.) was tested in subjects that were binocular, irreversibly monocularized (by extirpation of one eye), or reversibly monocularized (by covering one eye with a cap). Experiments with binocular salamanders showed that the direction of the approach to a prey dummy depends on the distance from the dummy. This correlation was also observed in irreversibly monocularized animals, but not in reversibly monocularized ones. The frequency of captures of living prey by irreversibly monocularized subjects was as high as in the case of binocular ones. However, the reversibly monocularized salamanders hit the prey significantly less frequently. In contrast to the irreversibly monocularized subjects, the reversibly monocularized salamanders were not able to estimate the distance from a prey object correctly. One can assume that salamanders possess two systems of depth perception: a binocular and a monocular system. Only irreversibly monocularized animals are able to compensate for the loss of binocularity by means of the monocular system.

Die Tiefenwahrnehmung von Salamandra salamandra (L.) wurde bei binokularen, irreversibel (ein Auge extirpiert) oder reversibel (ein Auge abgedeckt) monokularisierten Versuchstieren untersucht. Bei binokularen Tieren hängt die Richtung der Annäherung an eine Beuteattrappe von der Entfernung des Beuteobjektes ab. Das gilt auch für irreversibel monokularisierte Tiere, nicht aber für reversibel monokularisierte. Versuche zur Treffsicherheit bei lebender Beute ergaben: Die irreversibel monokularisierten Tiere trafen lebende Beute etwa ebenso häufig wie die binokularen, die reversibel monokularisierten verfehlten die Beute signifikant häufiger. Offenbar konnten die reversibel monokularisierten Salamander — im Gegensatz zu den irreversibel monokularisierten — die Entfernung zur Beute nicht richtig einschätzen. Demnach scheint Salamandra zwei Systeme zur Tiefenwahrnehmung zu besitzen: ein binokulares und ein monokulares. Irreversibel monokularisierte Tiere können den Verlust der Binokularität mit Hilfe des monokularen Systems kompensieren, reversibel monokularisierte nicht.
The Relationships Between Web Parameters and Spiderling Predatory Behavior in the Orb‐weaver, Nephila clavipes
Authors: Brown Susan G. , Christenson Terry E.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

The relationships between growth, web parameters, and predatory behaviors in juveniles of the orb weaver, Nephila clavipes, were examined in a Louisiana forest. Large spiderlings took longer and captured more prey than small spiderlings. Large spiderlings initiated wrapping only when they captured second and subsequent prey while small spiderlings usually wrapped each prey captured. Large spiderlings built larger webs that were more capable of retaining prey. Longer capture latencies of large spiderlings may have been related to greater adhesiveness and larger mesh size of their webs; however, their slower responses did not diminish success in capturing prey. Wrapping prey increased the probability of additional prey capture; small spiderlings tended to lose additional prey if earlier prey items were not wrapped. Smaller spiderlings held longer cheliceral bites at capture; they stopped capturing prey when the bite was longer than 30 s, which might be due to venom or energy depletion.

Untersucht wurde das Wachstum junger Nephila clavipes, die Größe ihrer Radnetze und der Fangerfolg. Größere Tiere gingen später zu einer gefangenen Beute hin, begannen dann bei ihr aber rascher zu fressen als kleinere Spinnen. Die lange Latenz scheint mit dem Netzbau zusammenzuhängen; größere Spinnen bauen festere Netze mit größeren Maschen. Das scheint Vibrationen schlechter weiterzuleiten. Kleine Spinnen — nicht aber größere — verlieren leicht Beute, die nicht eingesponnen wurde, wenn neue Beute ins Netz kommt. Kleine Spinnen beißen ihre Beute länger und hören auf, Beute zu fangen, wenn sie länger als 30 s beißen müssen; wahrscheinlich ist dann ihr Giftvorrat aufgebraucht.
Strike Induced Chemosensory Searching in Cobras: (Naja naja kaouthia, N. mossambica pallida)
Authors: Chiszar David , Stimac Kathryn , Poole Thomas , Miller Tracy , Radcliffe Charles W. , Smith Hobart M.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Predatory behavior was studied in 11 juvenile red spitting cobras (Naja mossambica pallida) and in subadult monocled cobras (N. n. kaouthia). Both taxa usually struck and released mice (Mus musculus) that were greater than 15 g, whereas neonatal mice were usually held following the strike. Large mice lived for 300–600 s after envenomation and were able to wander away from the site of attack. Snakes located the carcasses through searching behaviors which seemed to utilize chemical and visual cues arising from prey. Both taxa exhibited larger increases in rate of tongue flicking after striking (and releasing) mice than after seeing, smelling, and/or detecting thermal cues arising from mice. Strike‐induced chemosensory searching (SICS) in these elapids was similar to behaviors previously described in many viperid species which have specialized on rodent prey. Although adult cobras may abandon the strike‐release‐trail strategy in favor of holding rodent prey after the strike, the behavior of the present juveniles and subadults was consistent with speculation that SICS is analogous in the Viperidae and the Elapidae.

Das Jagdverhalten junger roter Speikobras (Naja mossambica pallida) und jungerwachsener Brillenkobras (N. m. kaouthia) wurde untersucht. Mäuse (Mus musculus), die schwerer als 15 g waren, wurden von beiden Arten gebissen und wieder freigelassen; neugeborene Mäuse dagegen wurden nach dem Biß festgehalten.

Große Mäuse lebten noch 300–600 s nach dem Giftstich und waren fähig, sich vom Ort des Angriffs zu entfernen. Die Schlangen schienen die Kadaver zu finden, indem sie bei der Suche chemische und visuelle Reize der Beute nutzten.

Beide Arten zeigten größere Steigerungen in der Züngelrate nach dem Beißen (und Freilassen) von Mäusen, verglichen mit dem Züngeln, das dem Sehen, Riechen und/oder Entdecken thermischer Reize von Mäusen folgte.

Das bißabhängige chemosensorische Suchverhalten (SICS, strike‐induced chemosensory searching) dieser Elapiden ist dem früher beschriebenen Verhalten vieler Vipernarten ähnlich, die auf Nagetierbeute spezialisiert sind. Obwohl erwachsene Kobras ihre Nagetierbeute nach dem Biß häufiger festhalten als freilassen und suchen, stützt das Verhalten der hier beschriebenen jungen und jungerwachsenen Schlangen die Vermutung, daß SICS ein analoges Verhalten der Viperidae und der Elapidae ist.
Vocalizations and Associated Behaviors of the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Captivity
Authors: Berg Judith Kay
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

This analysis presents the physical characteristics of the vocalizations of the African elephant and describes the associated behavioral contexts of the elephant's communicative system. One male and 8 female African elephants were systematically observed in a relatively large captive environment. Their repertoire of sounds constitutes 10 distinct vocalizations which are emitted during 11 behavioral categories. Although all but one of the sounds is emitted in more than one context, many of the sounds are more characteristic of a specific behavior than others. An interesting finding is that the fundamental frequency of the emitted sound is significantly correlated to the level of excitement of the individual. In general, sounds with a low fundamental frequency are emitted when the animals are in a low level of excitement and are important in those behaviors which promote group cohesion and the orderly interactions of individuals. In contrast, the higher fundamental frequency sounds predominate when the animals are in a high level of excitement and are emitted most often during aggressive type behaviors. The elephants' vocalizations and associated behaviors in captivity are discussed in comparison to those of their free‐living relatives and to those of other animals showing similarities across some of the sounds and behaviors.

10 charakteristische Lautäußerungen spielen eine bedeutende Rolle im Kommunikationssystem afrikanischer Elefanten. Obwohl 9 Vokalisationen in mehr als einem Kontext benutzt werden, haben viele einen besonderen Bezug zu spezifischem Verhalten. Die Hauptfrequenz der Laute korreliert signifikant mit dem Erregungsgrad des Elefanten: tiefe Frequenzen entsprechen geringem Erregungsgrad und spielen eine Rolle bei Gruppenzusammenhalt und normalem Zusammenleben. Höhere Frequenzen zeigen höhere Erregung an und treten meist während aggressiver Verhaltensweisen auf. Vokalisationen und die begleitenden Verhaltensweisen werden von gefangengehaltenen Tieren beschrieben und mit denen freilebender Elefanten und anderer Tiere verglichen, die ähnliche Verhaltensweisen und Vokalisationen haben.
Structure of Gelada Baboon Reproductive Units
Authors: Dunbar R. I. M.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Behaviour patterns related to the coordination of group members and the spatial integration of the reproductive units of gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada) were examined in order to determine how group cohesion is maintained. The dominant female tended to maintain a spatial position nearest to the male during non‐social periods, where she fulfilled a pivotal role maintaining coordination between the male and the rest of his females. Females tended to strike a balance between maintaining visual contact with the male and keeping near their preferred social partners. Progressions were usually initiated by lactating females, but decisions about whether initiated leads are followed up by the unit as a whole were shared between the male and the dominant female. The male and the dominant female were also found to play an important role in maintaining the unit's spatial integrity by threatening away members of other units and by giving support to members of their own unit who were threatened by other units.

Verhaltensweisen in bezug auf die Koordination von Gruppenmitgliedern und die Verteilung im Raum von Fortpflanzungsgruppen des Dscheladas (Theropithecus gelada) wurden daraufhin untersucht, wie der Gruppenzusammenhalt gewährleistet wird. Das dominante Weibchen hielt sich außerhalb der sozialen Phasen in der Nähe des Männchens auf und spielte da die Hauptrolle für die Koordination zwischen dem Männchen und den anderen Weibchen. Weibchen neigten zu einem Kompromiß von Sichtkontakt mit dem Männchen und der Nähe zu ihren bevorzugten Sozialpartnern. Der Aufbruch einer Gruppe wurde meistens von stillenden Weibchen eingeleitet; doch die Entscheidung, ob die ganze Gruppe weiterzog, wurde zu gleichen Teilen vom Männchen und dem dominanten Weibchen getroffen. Das Männchen und das dominante Weibchen spielten auch eine wichtige Rolle für die Gruppenabgrenzung, indem sie Angehörige anderer Gruppen bedrohten und fortjagten oder Angehörige ihrer eigenen Gruppe unterstützten, wenn sie von Fremden bedroht wurden.
Reduction of Visual Inhibition to Stationary Prey by Early Experience in Salamandra salamandra (L.)1
Authors: Luthardt‐Laimer Gisela , Roth Gerhard
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

The influence of rearing Salamandra salamandra with stationary (dead) prey animals was studied at different ages. 8–10‐day‐old prey‐naive animals showed virtually no prey‐catching of stationary objects. At one month of age, salamanders fed on stationary prey reacted significantly more frequently to stationary objects than salamanders fed on moving prey. At 8–10 months after metamorphosis, animals initially fed on living prey, and converted to stationary prey 1, 3 or 6 months after metamorphosis, showed the same behavior to stationary prey as same‐age salamanders fed exclusively on living prey. Salamanders first fed on stationary objects and later converted to living prey did not change their behavior to stationary prey. Reduction of visual inhibition to stationary prey can be achieved by food imprinting during the first month after metamorphosis.

An Feuersalamandern (Salamandra salamandra) unterschiedlicher Altersstufen wurde untersucht, welchen Einfluß die Aufzucht mit stationären (toten) Beutetieren auf das Verhalten gegenüber unbewegten Objekten hat. Tiere im Alter von 8 bis 10 Tagen nach der Metamorphose, die noch keine Erfahrung mit Beute nach der Verwandlung gemacht hatten, zeigten gegenüber stationären Beutetieren kein Beutefangverhalten. Im Alter von einem Monat nach der Metamorphose reagierten Salamander, die ausschließlich mit stationären Beute‐objekten gefuttert worden waren, signifikant häufiger auf unbewegte Beutetiere als Salamander, die ausschließlich bewegte Beute erhalten hatten. 8 bis 10 Monate alte Salamander, die zunächst lebende Beutetiere bekommen hatten und im Alter von 1, 3 oder 6 Monaten auf stationäre Beute umgestellt worden waren, unterschieden sich in ihrem Verhalten gegenüber stationären Objekten nicht von gleichaltrigen Salamandern, die nur mit bewegten Objekten gefüttert worden waren. Bei Salamandern, die zwei Jahre lang stationäre Beute erhielten und dann auf lebende Beute umgestellt wurden, führte die Umstellung zu keiner Verhaltensänderung. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse kann man annehmen, daß der Rückgang der visuellen Hemmung gegenüber stationären Objekten, der bei mit diesen aufgezogenen Tieren auftritt, auf einer Futterprägung beruht; diese findet im ersten Monat nach der Metamorphose statt.
The Effect of Spatial Context on Habituation to a Predator Model
Authors: Schleidt Wolfgang M. , Shalter Michael D. , Carawan Talmage C.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

In the laboratory setting, anti‐predator behavior tends to habituate so fast that its value for the prey's survival appears questionable. We propose that excessive habituation is caused by the artificially stereotyped presentation of stimulus objects, which is commonly used for the sake of precise stimulus control. To test this hypothesis, we habituated young angel fish (Pterophyllum eimecki) to a moving shadow on one side of the test chamber, and then presented the moving shadow on the opposite side of the chamber. Since the responsiveness was restored in the vast majority of these trials, our hypothesis stays upheld. This result is discussed in the context of an earlier hypothesis, namely that from the prey's vantage point relative rareness is an important feature of predators in the natural setting (SCHLEIDT 1961).

Nach einer früher vertretenen Hypothese ist vom Standpunkt des Beutetieres die relative Seltenheit im natürlichen Lebensraum ein wichtiges Merkmal von Raubfeinden (SCHLEIDT 1961).

In Laborversuchen gewöhnen sich Beutetiere im allgemeinen schneller an Freßfeinde als für das Überleben tragbar erscheint. Wir nehmen an, daß diese schnelle Gewöhnung ein Kunstprodukt der gleichförmigen Darbietung des Reizobjektes ist. Um das zu prüfen, gewöhnten wir junge Segelflosser (Pterophyllum eimecki) zunächst an einen sich bewegenden Schatten an einer Wand der Versuchskammer und boten dann den gleichen sich bewegenden Schatten an der gegenüberliegenden Wand. Durch diese Ortsveränderung wurde in der überwiegenden Mehrzahl der Versuche das Feindmeidungsverhalten wiederhergestellt.
Random Individual Association and Social Group Instability in American Bison (Bison bison)
Authors: Lott Dale F. , Minta Steven C.
Published: August 2010

Individual association was recorded to determine group stability in a population of 400 freely roaming American bison (Bison bison) on Santa Catalina Island, California over a 44 month period. The application of cluster analysis and simple probability techniques revealed that individual associations between 16 marked cows and 8 marked calves were essentially random, except for cow‐calf bonds. Cow‐calf relations were severed abruptly and were random thereafter. Random association between individuals combined with spatial heterogeneity generates a negative binomial model giving a close fit for several equilibrium group size distributions. Random association may occur because it facilitates each cow matching its physiological needs at any moment with the needs of other potential co‐group members at the same moment. In addition, random association may have facilitated exploration of the unstable Great Plains environment where modern bison evolved.

Gruppen entstehen meist durch Zusammenbleiben miteinander verwandter Individuen. Die Gruppenstabilität hängt ab von typischen Gegebenheiten der individuellen Lebensgeschichte, vom Verwandtschaftsgrad und von Faktoren wie Feinddruck oder Konkurrenzdruck. Danach sollte man vom amerikanischen Bison stabile Gruppen erwarten, so wie es die meisten Autoren auch annehmen, allerdings ohne das mit bekannten Individuen zu belegen. Aus einer freilebenden Population von 400 Bisons auf Catalina Island, Kalifornien, wurden 16 Kühe und 8 Kälber markiert und 44 Monate lang registriert.

Die einzig stabilen Zusammenschlüsse waren die zwischen Kühen und ihren eigenen Kälbern; alle anderen wechselten zufällig. Die Kuh‐Kalb‐Bindung endet abrupt nach 8 bis 19 Monaten. Danach bewegen auch sie sich unabhängig; Zusammenschlüsse hängen dann ab vom Abstand der Individuen in verschiedenen Gruppen.

Kühe bewegen sich rasch und weit durch ausgedehnte Streifgebiete. Individuelle Streifgebiete können weithin überlappen. Es scheint zahlreiche zufällige und nichtzufällige Faktorwirkungen zu geben, die das gleichbleibende Verteilungsmuster der Individuen erzeugen. Ein entsprechendes Modell errechnete etwa Verteilungen, wie sie tatsächlich vorkommen. Soziale Zusammenschlüsse dieser Tiere scheinen weitgehend umweltabhängig.

Die Trennung von Mutter und Kind und die dann zufälligen Zusammenschlüsse könnten sich ergeben, wenn jede Kuh zu ihrem Vorteil ihre momentanen Bedürfnisse denen ihrer momentanen Nachbarindividuen angleicht. Fehlende Gruppentreue kann die Nutzung weiträumiger Gebiete begünstigen; das scheint vorteilhaft für eine Art, die auf den wechselhaften Great Plains lebte.
An Experimental Study of Prey‐attack Behavior in the European Blackbird Turdus m. merula L
Authors: SCHLEE MARSHA A.
Published: August 2010

The experiments reported in this paper are designed to investigate the features of insect prey that may influence the orientation of first attack in the European blackbird. Three types of stimulus cues are considered: motion, morphological characters, and color patterns. The ontogeny of prey‐handling techniques and the specific manipulatory activities involved in the breaking‐up of insect prey are dealt with. The role of learning in the development of preyattack behavior is demonstrated. This study deals only with the preparation of food for selffeeding.
Responses of the Toad Bufo bufo (L.) to Stationary Prey Stimuli1
Authors: ROTH GERHARD , WIGGERS WOLFGANG
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

In the present work toads (Bufo bufo) are shown to respond with prey catching to stationary dummies without previous or accompanying visual or olfactory stimulation. The subjects very rarely showed jerky head movements which, therefore, cannot be necessary for perception of stationary objects. Size preference with respect to stationary stimuli is about the same as in experiments with moving stimuli. However, differences exist between the effects of stationary and moving stimuli with respect to shape and orientation. If a square measuring 10 times 10 mm and a rectangle measuring 5 times 20 mm, oriented either horizontally or vertically, are presented within the frontal‐vertical plane, the square is preferred to the rectangles, and among these the horizontal rectangle is to the vertical one. This latter preference is due to the negative effect of the vertical extension: If the vertical rectangle is reduced in length, it becomes more effective as compared to the horizontal rectangle. In the horizontal (X‐Z) plane the square and the rectangle oriented parallel to the Z‐axis are equally superior to the bar oriented parallel to the X‐axis. At presentation of a pair of stimuli in both planes, the one in the frontal‐vertical plane is always preferred to that in the horizontal plane.

Correspondences and differences of these results to those from experiments with moving prey dummies are discussed.
Etude des interactions sociales entre male et femelle chez la Genette (Genetta genetta L.): Relations entre marquage olfactif et agression
Authors: ROEDER JEAN‐JACQUES
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Study on Social Interactions between Male and Female Genets (Genetta genetta L.): Relations between Scent Marking and Aggression The aim of this work was to study the relations between marking behaviour and aggression in genets (Genetta genetta L.). Observations on social interactions were made on a socially stable pair and during encounters between unfamiliar pairs. In the first case, there appeared to be a relationship between marking activity in the male and aggression. During aggression periods, marking with the ano‐urogenital region increased in the male and decreased in the female. Another striking variation concerned flank rubbing and hindleg rubbing. In both male and female these marking frequencies increased significantly during aggression periods and flank rubbing was modified by visual cues. Data recorded during encounters between unfamiliar pairs (one male being introduced in a female's cage) showed that agonistic behaviours were released through visual cues in females and olfactory cues in males. The same changes in marking frequencies were observed. These results also showed that ano‐urogenital marking was inhibited in females during aggression periods. The adaptative significance of these phenomena is discussed.
Ethology and Reproduction of Captive Giant Pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
Authors: Kleiman Devra G.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

The activity rhythm, reproductive cycle, and maintenance, social and reproductive behavior of a pair of captive giant pandas were studied at the National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. Results from this study and the available literature indicate that:

Giant pandas are probably nocturnal, although they may be polycyclic in activity.

Males are more active than females, especially in locomotor behavior and scent‐marking activity

Activity levels are inversely correlated with age.

There is a single annual estrous period of one to three days between March and June, preceded by conspicuous behavioral changes in the female consisting of a depressed appetite, increased restlessness and scent‐marking, and increased vocalizing. Behavioral changes in the male are similar and are synchronized with the female reproductive cycle.

The major communicatory modes are through scent‐marking and vocalizations. A variety of postures is used to deposit urine and anogenital gland secretions throughout the environment. Most of the major call types show considerable variation and grading; they are prominent during agonistic and reproductive activities. Visual signals are only poorly developed. Tactile contact is more frequent during social interactions than might be predicted, considering the solitary nature of the species. However, significant tactile contact may be limited to the initial stages of encounters, with avoidance and intolerance occurring thereafter.

Both the giant panda's copulatory posture and the temporal patterning of copulation (numerous short mounts and a brief ejaculatory intromission with a long inter‐ejaculation interval) differ significantly from sexual behavior reported for other closely related carnivores. Observations suggest that the prior compatibility of a pair is essential for successful reproductive behavior.

Comparative data on giant panda reproduction suggest that the 140 day average gestation length (range: 122–163 days) includes a delay, either in implantation or early development. The neonatalimaternal weight ratio may be the smallest among the Eutherian mammals.

Three major reproductive characteristics—

the occurrence of a weak estrus in the autumn in some females

variability in the duration of the “gestation” period and

survivorship of only one young despite a litter size of one to three young — and fossil evidence for a much wider previous geographic distribution, suggest that giant pandas may have had a more flexible and opportunistic reproductive strategy during their past evolutionary history, and have recently undergone K‐selection, with increasing dietary and habitat specialization.
Variations dialectales des sifflements de l'Etourneau sansonnet (Sturnus vulgaris) sedentaire en Bretagne
Authors: Adret‐Hausberger Martine
Published: August 2010

On the basis of data acquired during a preliminary study, dialects were examined for four specific whistle themes in an area of 50 × 35 km. The use of a quantitative method to compare sonograms permitted distinguishing different variants for each theme. These were not distributed at random, but determined dialect zones which covered different areas for each theme. The zones corresponding to the different whistle types were not concentric.
Behaviour‐Genetics of Lake Charr (Salvelinus namaycush) and Brook Charr (S. fontinalis): Observation of Backcross and F2 Generations
Authors: Ferguson Moira M. , Noakes David L. G.
Published: August 2010

Abstract and Summary

Brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis) defend territories and show high levels of agonistic behaviour. In contrast, lake charr (S. namaycush) are non‐territorial and rarely show any agonistic behaviour. The genetic determinance of behavioural differences between these species was confirmed by the behavioural similarity of brook charr backcross hybrids and brook charr and a significant maternal effect on hybrid behavioural phenotypes.

Backcross and F2 generations showed either one of two distinct behavioural strategies, one aggressive and territorial and the other non‐aggressive and non‐territorial. It seems most likely that these strategies are conditional on individual phenotypes, such as size of nearby conspecifics. However, precise measurements of costs and benefits of each strategy are required to distinguish between these alternate hypotheses for either species.

Each action pattern was an independent pattern of variation and a distinct behavioural unit. However, patterns were coordinated with all other patterns at a higher hierarchical level (corresponding to the particular behavioural strategy). It seems most likely that these strategies would be controlled by a polygenic system, even though the nature of our data does not allow us to make firm conclusions in this regard.