bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Purposes of Politics (1)
Authors: Church Jeffrey
Published: August 2022

For Kant, the political community is unlike the moral community in that the former must govern our nature in addition to our freedom. Historically, Kant argues, politics emerges in order to realize our natural ends of wholeness and for perfection. In his anthropology, Kant connects these fundamental natural ends with forms of community that human beings create in order to satisfy these ends. Perfection is achieved through culture, the form of community devoted to disciplining our desires and cultivating our capacities or “skills” to accomplish any end we wish. This chapter argues that for Kant politics may adopt the end of fostering culture as a way to realize our natural end, a precondition for a system of rights. In contrast to typical readings of “What is Enlightenment?,” I argue that Kant’s commitment to freedom of communication in that essay is largely devoted to advancing culture rather than improving politics.
The Meaningfulness of the Liberal Project
Authors: Church Jeffrey
Published: August 2022

Chapter 11 concludes the book by arguing that Kantian liberalism is compelling because it engenders a sense of community and purpose much better than does communitarian liberal alternatives. This chapter takes up three particular problems facing contemporary liberalism. First, Kant’s conception of human dividedness captures the plight of contemporary liberal societies, divided as we are between community and individual, nation and cosmopolis, happiness and striving. Second, Kantian liberalism also addresses the “meaning deficit” in contemporary liberal communities. What our societies are lacking is not happiness, but a sense of meaning in life. Finally, in injecting meaning into liberalism, Kant’s political theory provides a centrist rival to populist illiberal politics that have commanded such political power recently because of its ability to supply its adherents with a sense of purpose and meaning. This centrism points toward a possible way to overcome the deep polarization besetting our age.
Practicing Peace in South America
Authors: Glas Aarie
Published: August 2022

This chapter mirrors the structure of chapter 4 to examine the conflictual peace of South America. It begins with a discussion of the South American region before examining the history of cooperation and conflict here. This survey highlights the role of state power, regional norms, and organizations. The second section showcases the existence of a distinctive South American habitual disposition, paying particular attention to the relationship between diplomatic practice and regional governance norms. The third section examines the effect of the region’s diplomatic habitual disposition. This is done first by reference to the habitual disposition’s robustness for regional practitioners themselves, and then by tracing the effects of the habitual disposition on the management of the long-standing Cenepa dispute between Ecuador and Peru. The chapter finds that a distinctive habitual disposition shapes South American conflict management and regionalism, making possible the coexistence of institutionalized cooperation alongside persistent militarized interstate violence.
What kind of explanation?
Authors: Baras Dan
Published: August 2022

When facts call for explanation, what kind of explanation do they call for? One suggestion is that any kind of explanation would do. However, there are reasons to doubt this suggestion. The alternative is that when a fact calls for explanation, it calls for a specific kind of explanation. The question then is whether there is some unified account of what kind of explanation facts that call for explanation call for. This chapter examines four proposals and argues that none of them succeed. The conclusion of the chapter is that there is no unified kind of explanation called for by all facts that call for explanation.
Is the striking principle privileged?
Authors: Baras Dan
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the third part of the naïve picture. Building on the idea that there is a privileged set of epistemic principles (as developed in Chapter 2), it argues that the striking principle is not a member of this set. The main premise of this argument is that the striking principle is dispensable because, for paradigmatic facts that call for explanation, there are good explanations of what we should infer about each fact that do not appeal to the striking principle. Instead, these explanations appeal to other, better-established principles, such as Bayesian principles and enumerative induction. Towards the end of the chapter a final suggestion is explored and rejected. The suggestion is that the striking principle is dispensable as a fundamental principle, but still useful as a shortcut.
The Maangamizi and the Making of International Law
Authors: Schwarz Katarina
Published: August 2022

This chapter adopts a critical perspective on the history of international law, exploring the positioning and regulation of enslavement in the international legal system over time. It maps the prohibition of slavery in international law, identifying the point in time at which the international norm against slavery crystallized. It then looks beyond this norm to consider the permissive rules and restrictions in place prior to prohibition and how these rules changed over time to align with the interests of powerful states. It considers the relevance and substance of non-European perspectives on the international legality of slavery in the transatlantic period, creating space for an alternative perspective that does not frame slavery as simply “legal at the time.”
Adjudicating the “Past”
Authors: Schwarz Katarina
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores the fundamental question when assessing claims for reparations for historical injustice: How does the passage of time impact the legal case for redress? It moves beyond the simple presumption that the passage of time alone frustrates an international legal case to explore the specific ways in which time can influence state responsibility and justiciability. It assesses whether claims to reparations for slavery have lapsed by virtue of attenuation, limitation, or acquiescence. It traces the history of state responsibility to determine the rules by which the case for reparations should be assessed. It further considers issues of attribution of internationally wrongful conduct to contemporary states, continuity and succession, and the ability of potential claimants to invoke international legal responsibility in the contemporary context.
Toward a Theory of Reparatory Justice
Authors: Schwarz Katarina
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores reparations theory and practice in international law to develop an understanding of the nature and scope of reparatory justice, which may be applied in cases of both historical and contemporary injustice. This new theory of reparatory justice is based on consideration of the different justice paradigms underpinning reparations throughout history, encompassing corrective justice, economic approaches, transformative justice, and distributive justice. Drawing from this underpinning theory and reparations practice, it considers five elements of reparatory justice: responsibility and violation; recognition; procedural justice; form; and impact. This theory provides guidance both for considering what redress is appropriate in a given case and how this should be structured, but also whether reparations are required in the first instance.
The Causal Chains Connecting Historical Enslavement and Contemporary Redress
Authors: Schwarz Katarina
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the fundamental question of causation in assessing the case for contemporary redress for transatlantic enslavement. It deconstructs the requirements of causation in international law, examining the frameworks for assessing both causation in fact and causation in law. It positions the causal inquiry in its proper place in considerations of international wrongdoing, as related not to the question of whether wrongdoing occurred but in the later stage consideration of reparations due. The role of judicial discretion brings the subjectivities of the legal system in considering causation in cases of historic injustice to the surface. This chapter considers causation of specific harms associated with transatlantic enslavement and highlights the relevance of multiple modalities of redress in assessing the questions of legal policy involved in test of causation in law.
Introduction
Authors: Maibom Heidi L.
Published: August 2022

This chapter begins by looking at the public debate about the use of empathy, particularly as it arose in the context of Obama’s choosing Sotomayor for the Supreme Court. Obama stressed the importance of empathy in justice and was immediately assailed by objections from the right that empathy is subjective, biased, and incapable of leading to just decisions. This sets up the central problematic the book addresses. We have a poor understanding of empathy, understood as the capacity to put ourselves in other people’s position. Because our own way of thinking is already partial, the chapter argues, another person’s perspective helps broaden our understanding. Consequently, rather than making us more partial and subjective, empathy has the opposite effect. It makes us more objective, more impartial. The book explains what this capacity consists in, how it works, and why it is a powerful tool of interpersonal understanding. The chapter ends with a brief summary of the chapters.
Ridicule
Authors: McGinnis Reginald , Smyth John Vignaux
Published: August 2022

This chapter begins with an analysis of Patrice Leconte’s 1996 film Ridicule. Set in the court of Louis XVI prior to the French Revolution, this film illustrates several aspects of mock ritual, where the initiation and ritualized mockery of newcomers at Versailles is often patterned on archaic models. Although the film seems to conclude with the purging of such decadent aristocratic practices by the Revolution, commentary has likened its systems of humiliation to those of the contemporary Western world, as illustrated by such films as Mark Waters’s Mean Girls and Francis Veber’s Le dîner de cons. This chapter also briefly considers the sexual games of Laclos’s Dangerous Liaisons, where Enlightenment sexuality appears to reinvent the very kind of sacrificial rituals that it mocks in religion. Voltaire’s treatment of rites and ceremonies, especially expiation, is discussed in a similar light, where mockery of ritual becomes an expiatory ritual in itself.
Structural Racism in Black Maternal Healthcare
Authors: Bartley Shana , Beane Susan , Burse Nakeitra , Crear-Perry Joia , Villarosa Linda
Published: August 2022

The contributors to this chapter, all Black women, bring historical knowledge, contextual perspective, and personal experience as they address the harms of structural racism in maternal healthcare. A journalist offers a context rooted in history for considering Black women’s health and their interactions with the U.S. healthcare system today. An obstetrician/gynecologist from the National Birth Equity Collaborative deepens our understanding of the role of bias and structural racism on Black maternal healthcare, while a public health practitioner explores the impact of racial bias on the birth experiences of Black women. Healthfirst’s executive medical director, describes interventions in New York, while a director from the National Women’s Law Center extends the discussion to the experience of child-care users and workers.
Learning the Lessons of History
Authors: England Madeline , Limón Cristy Johnston , Orey Byron D’Andra , Reece Jason , Ward Geoff K.
Published: August 2022

This chapter offers perspectives on the enduring impact of racist violence in the United States and suggests ways to use history as a framework to promote justice and health equity. A historical sociologist from Washington University in St. Louis connects the history of lynching and slavery to current violence. An Ohio State University city and regional planning researcher acknowledges the role of past housing policies in shaping the opportunities available for the Black population today. A political scientist at Jackson State University explores the physiological and emotional impacts of racist symbols. A former community health researcher at the Mississippi State Department of Health shares insights about the health impact of addressing civil rights historical preservation in a Mississippi River community. And a former Youth Speaks executive director advocates for youth raising their voices for change.
Fair Housing, Equitable Communities
Authors: Acevedo-Garcia Dolores , Greene Solomon , McCain Demetria , Mitchell-Bennett Nick , Wheeler Primus
Published: August 2022

Chapter contributors offer historical and contemporary perspectives on equitable communities, the affordable housing crisis, and the public policies that can generate needed change. A Brandeis University professor describes disparities across the nation’s neighborhoods and presents findings from the Child Opportunity Index. A senior fellow at Urban Institute addresses the risks and benefits of zoning and land use reforms, while fair housing advocate Former president of the Inclusive Communities Project describes ways to ensure that people have genuine housing choice. Executive director of come dream. come build. draws on his experience as a nonprofit housing developer to explain how low-income people on the southern U.S. border can build home equity. Executive director of the Jackson Medical Mall Foundation describes this enterprise, which combines healthcare, community development (including affordable home ownership), arts and culture, and innovation and technology to renew and strengthen a Jackson, Miss., community.
Transforming Research and Evaluation
Authors: Dean-Coffey Jara , Gwynn Charon , Mertens Donna M. , Aragón Alfredo Ortiz
Published: August 2022

This chapter offers perspectives on refocusing traditional research and evaluation within a values-based framework. Founder of the Equitable Evaluation Initiative asks us to consider the origins of evaluation and how the underlying beliefs and values limit our knowledge, and points us toward a new paradigm in which evaluation is in service of equity. A University of the Incarnate Word researcher advocate for employing the full range of ways humans learn in order to uncover new perspectives, increase the inclusion of marginalized people, and effect real social change. A Gallaudet University researcher and evaluator offers a transformative approach to research and evaluation that captures complexity, addresses justice and equity, builds coalitions, and develops community capacity. An epidemiologist offers an example of collaboration across institutions and between health department and academic researchers to conduct research that informs equity-directed policymaking.
The Global Refugee Crisis
Authors: Androff David K.
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the current state of forcibly displaced people through a snapshot of the global situation. It defines the various types of refugees, discusses the latest statistics and trends in global forced displacement, reviews the causes and consequences of forced displacement, and confronts myths about forced displacement. The myths of refugees as dangerous or economically threatened are confronted with evidence showing no correlation between refugees and terrorism or crime and that refugees bring long-term economic growth, despite significant scaremongering. The myth of the refugee crisis itself is criticized by linking policy decisions to forced displacement. This chapter lays the foundation for the book by tying subsequent chapters to the current moment and grounding them in the basics of refugee issues. This serves as an orientation to readers on the global refugee crisis and it sets the stakes for finding solutions.
Local Integration in the Country of First Asylum
Authors: Androff David K.
Published: August 2022

This chapter defines the second durable solution of local integration and concepts such as asylum, assimilation, acculturation, and self-reliance. Formal local integration is practically nonexistent, yet many refugees precariously exist in a de facto integration. The chapter shows how over time the decline of other solutions, donor fatigue, and neoliberalism led to widespread de facto local integration, contributed to host nations’ exhaustion of hospitality, increased hostility, and gave way to the rise of encampment. It reviews key factors that impact local integration, such as host community perceptions, economic impact, and social supports. Models of refugee integration are reviewed, including the processes and outcomes of integration, the role of social capital, and its relationship to rights and citizenship. It is argued that while most host states balk at providing political or legal integration of refugees, socio-economic integration promises to benefit both refugee and host communities.
The Case of the Arizona Refugee Empowerment Project
Authors: Androff David K.
Published: August 2022

This chapter profiles my work with refugees from Bhutan, Burma-Myanmar, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iraq, Somalia, and Syria who have been resettled to Arizona. This case study illustrates refugee resettlement in the United States, the largest resettlement program in the world. The U.S. resettlement program is explained, and role of refugee communities is highlighted. The Arizona Refugee Empowerment Project’s participatory approach delivered technical assistance, capacity building, community organizing, social entrepreneurship, and leadership development to refugee communities. The case study shows how sustainable development of refugee-led non-profit organizations resulted in increased cultural adaption, integration, and social entrepreneurship. It presents implications for improving resettlement policy, such as reconceptualizing self-sufficiency, offering more assistance, and facilitating social entrepreneurship. It is argued that third country resettlement needs to be expanded, strengthened, and refocused on integration and entrepreneurship.
Thomas Jefferson and an Empire of Liberty
Authors: Finley Emily B.
Published: August 2022

Thomas Jefferson has long been in the American pantheon of democratic (small “d”) champions, but this chapter argues that he has been a major contributor to the antidemocratic ideology of democratism. Famous for his agrarian encomia and faith in the common people, Jefferson nonetheless reveals a desire for his countrymen to change in fundamental ways. Specifically, he hopes that they will adopt his rational and “enlightened” views about life and politics. Jefferson proposes schemes for education programs, including his chimeric “ward system” and the University of Virginia, that ultimately lack the elements of democracy he claims to aspire to. In addition, Jefferson’s actions as president toward native peoples and his pursuit of a paradoxical “empire of liberty” suggest that his commitment to genuine popular sovereignty is more theoretical than real.
Woodrow Wilson
Authors: Finley Emily B.
Published: August 2022

Some of the more sinister foreign and domestic policy consequences of democratism come to light clearly in the thought and actions of Woodrow Wilson. Taking America to war to “make the world safe for democracy,” Wilson illustrates the paradoxical nature of democratism’s foreign policy: armed intervention in the name of democracy. This chapter argues that Wilson’s turn from pacifism to war represents the consistent pursuit of the democratist mission to transform Europe into a nation of like-minded democracies. In addition, “Leaders of Men,” Wilson’s famous treatise on democratic leadership, argues that a strongman is needed to accomplish worthwhile goals in a democracy, plagued as it is with decentralization and, in the case of America, federalism. Wilson, like the other democratists, believed that the right leader could elicit the “true” will of the people.
Institutionalizing Violence
Authors: Drevon Jerome
Published: August 2022

Institutionalizing Violence offers a detailed focus on the two most influential Egyptian jihadi groups—al-Jama‘a al-Islamiyya and Islamic Jihad. From the killing of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1981 to their partial association with al-Qaeda in the 1990s, the two groups illustrate the range of choices that jihadis make overtime including creating political parties. Jerome Drevon argues that these groups’ comparative trajectories show that jihadis embracing the same ideology can make very different strategic decisions in similar environments. Drevon’s analysis of these groups’ histories over the past four decades illustrates the evolution of jihadism in Egypt and beyond. Institutionalizing Violence develops an institutional approach to radicalization to compare the two Egyptian groups’ trajectories based on ethnographic field research and hundreds of interviews with jihadi leaders and militants in Egypt. Drevon provides a unique perspective on how jihadi groups make and implement new strategic decisions in changing environments, as well as the evolution of their approaches to violence and non-violence.
Two Trajectories to Jihad
Authors: Drevon Jerome
Published: August 2022

Chapter 3 compares the emergence of two groups in the 1970s: the IG and the JG. These two groups defined the main ideological precepts of jihadi salafism around opposition to Muslim leaders not applying Islamic Law comprehensively. Despite this similarity, their comparative radicalization reflected different mechanisms of radicalization that shaped these groups’ early institutionalization. The JG radicalized in interaction with the state and political environment but failed to institutionalize internally because of the high-risk nature of the group’s endeavor to topple the regime. The group hence remained an agglomeration of loosely connected cells before 1981. The IG was conversely a proselytization movement that institutionalized before embracing violence in response to a counter-movement, outbidding with the security services, and political developments. These contrasting trajectories contextualize the IG’s relatively advanced internal institutionalization before the assassination of Sadat in 1981.
Confronting the Regime and Fighting the Far Enemy
Authors: Drevon Jerome
Published: August 2022

Chapter 5 examines how the IG and JG resorted to armed violence in Egypt and abroad through the conjoint analysis of changing state policies, jihadi groups’ institutionalization, and micro-level developments. The chapter argues that jihadi groups’ internal institutionalization accounts for the practicalities of violence beyond stated ideological commitments and changing policing of protest. Strongly institutionalized groups like the IG are better positioned to use violence in line with their tactical and strategic preferences and prevent counterproductive violence, in contrast with weakly institutionalized groups like the JG. In both cases, institutional decay ultimately produced increasingly indiscriminate violence disconnected from the achievement of any long-term strategic objectives.
How to Make an AI
Authors: Graham S. Scott
Published: August 2022

This chapter describes how health artificial intelligence (AI) development is embedded in multifaceted sociotechnical systems that involve not only cutting-edge advances in computer science and medicine, but also scientific standards, regulatory structures, and economic systems. It describes how algorithms find patterns in numeric representations, and how AI accuracy is measured following one of several conflicting approaches established by federal regulation and scientific communities. The chapter details how AI development is a complex choreography of humans and technology. It also offers an orientation to the technical details of AI development and explores how the many systems that compose AI are assembled into a single package or product. Along the way, the chapter describes how bias can enter the sociotechnical systems of deep medicine in different ways at different moments in the AI development process.
The Search for Ground Truth
Authors: Graham S. Scott
Published: August 2022

This chapter investigates data collection and curation activities that precede the training of artificially intelligent systems. The chapter documents different approaches to annotating data to create what is called “ground truth” in machine learning. It begins with an exploration of different techniques for health artificial intelligence (AI) “groundtruthing.” This includes collection of data from electronic health records, the use of established diagnostic techniques, and custom annotations by healthcare professionals. The chapter then investigates different statistical techniques for validating AI performance and describes the results of an AI development simulation that models the search for ground truth and exposes serious limitations in the most common research designs.
HypeDx
Authors: Graham S. Scott
Published: August 2022

This chapter investigates promotional claims about health artificial intelligence (AI) in press releases, popular media, and scientific publications. It details the inaccuracies of the “two-stage” model of scientific dissemination that posits an initial stage of dispassionate scientific inquiry followed by a subsequent stage of marketing and promotion. In so doing, the chapter analyzes how the same promotional claims are present in press releases, popular media, and scientific publications. To further explore hype in health AI, the chapter also reports on the development of twin AI systems that identify and classify promotional and hedged language in biomedical research. These systems support an analysis of the prevalence of promotional language in published research on health AI and the identification of those research reports at the greatest risk of exaggeration.
Conclusion
Authors: Graham S. Scott
Published: August 2022

This chapter concludes The Doctor and the Algorithm by reviewing recommendations that will support more just and ethical futures for health artificial intelligence (AI). It offers an analysis of specific current technologies within the context of these recommendations and outlines several key emerging initiatives that might support more ethical and equitable approaches to health AI in the future. The promise in deep medicine is usually articulated in terms of system performance or potential improvements to health outcomes. However, the greatest promise for health AI comes from the work of its careful critics. Capitalizing on the momentum of this work will help bring a new, well-regulated, rigorously validated, and community-led era for deep medicine.
Prior Attempts to Assess Harm and the Challenges They Have Encountered
Authors: Greenfield Victoria A. , Paoli Letizia
Published: August 2022

This chapter reviews previous attempts to work with “harm” as an analytical device, either through empirical assessments of the harms of particular criminal activities or by spelling out what harm means and for whom. Identifying few attempts in the literature on crime, it takes a broader perspective and also considers analytical frameworks and empirical studies focusing on drug-related harm, public perceptions of the seriousness of crime, the impact of criminal victimization, and the cost of crime. Reflecting on these studies, the chapter discusses the conceptual and technical challenges of assessing harm and argues that these challenges almost certainly have played a part in hindering progress toward assessing the harms of crime. The chapter points to the achievements and deficits of previous analytical efforts, the underlying obstacles to harm assessment, and the value of the new framework.
A Framework to Assess the Harms of Crime
Authors: Greenfield Victoria A. , Paoli Letizia
Published: August 2022

This chapter sets out a methodology for assessing the harms of crime systematically and empirically—namely, the harm assessment framework—which supports the analyses in subsequent chapters. It discusses the origins of the approach in literatures that span disciplines and presents the components of the framework, consisting of a set of analytical tools (data template, taxonomy, severity and incidence scales, and priority matrix) and a multistep process for applying them. The harm assessment framework weaves the tools together to identify, evaluate, and rank harms from damages to functional, material, and other interests, which are borne by individuals, private-sector entities, government, and the social and physical environment. In a final step, it also investigates causality, including the role of policy and related law-enforcement practices in shaping harms. All told, the framework addresses many of the conceptual and technical challenges of harm assessment raised previously.
An Application of the Framework to Coca Cultivation and Processing in Colombia
Authors: Greenfield Victoria A. , Paoli Letizia
Published: August 2022

This chapter reaches to the start of a cocaine supply chain and presents the results of a rapid assessment of harms of coca cultivation and processing in Colombia. The assessment, conducted largely in 2017, draws a loose circle around farm-level activities and the violence, corruption, and money laundering that accompany them in-country and references off-farm processing, trafficking, and conflict. This assessment, which is less comprehensive than the Belgian cocaine trafficking assessment, focuses on harms involving the physical environment—from deforestation and pollution—and material support, but it also considers some of the benefits of coca cultivation and processing to growers and others in Colombia. This application of the harm assessment framework demonstrates the potential for assessing harms quickly without a full-scale data collection, by using existing data and analyses, but, like the Belgian assessment, it also highlights some remaining analytical challenges.
How Does Ideology Explain Mass Killing?
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan
Published: August 2022

This chapter sets out the book’s central account of why and how ideologies are essential to the explanation of mass killing. It begins by critiquing the two main ways in which scholars have sought to explain mass killing without reference to ideology: (i) rationalist explanations focused on strategic incentives for violence, and (ii) situationist explanations focused on social pressures to participate in violence. The chapter shows how such factors do matter, but only encourage mass killing in tandem with ‘hardline’ ideologies that generate justificatory narratives for mass killing in times of crisis. The chapter then unpacks ideology’s role for three key components of any ‘perpetrator coalition’ in mass killing: political elites, rank-and-file agents, and supporting public constituencies. It finally considers the roots of ‘hardline’ ideologies, emphasizing that they are neither mere modern instantiations of longstanding cultural traditions, nor simply symptoms of more fundamental material or social causes of mass killing.
Allied Area Bombing in World War II
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan
Published: August 2022

During World War II, Britain and the United States launched a campaign of area bombing against Germany and Japan: explicitly seeking to kill civilians so as to shatter ‘enemy morale’ and cripple industry. That campaign has often been presented as essentially ‘unideological’ and explained through the strategic conditions of a desperate total war. This chapter refutes that account—showing that while desperate wartime conditions were critical, prior ideological conceptions of war adhered to by key Allied elites and massively propagated during the war were equally essential. The chapter begins by demonstrating the quite contingent path of ideological development that generated such hardline ideas about war, and especially air power, between World Wars I and II. It then shows how such ideas underpinned Allied elites’ decision to employ area bombing, while also playing important though less vital roles for rank-and-file aircrews and the broader American and British publics.
Mass Killing in Guatemala’s Civil War
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines mass killing by the military government of Guatemala between 1978 and 1983, in which over 100,000 civilians, primarily indigenous Maya, were killed. The military’s atrocities against civilians have often been analysed through a rationalist counter-insurgency lens, in which the violence was strategically motivated and explained by the incentives of an intractable civil war. This chapter shows that, while strategic motives were central to mass killing in Guatemala, the choice for such extreme, wildly disproportionate violence was vitally embedded in the military regime’s ideological infrastructure. The chapter traces the origins of that ideological infrastructure, rooted in Guatemalan racism and anticommunism stretching back to the mid-twentieth century, and radicalized by civil war. It then shows the centrality of racist nationalism and ultraconservative anticommunism, and the justificatory narrative for violence they generated, in the elite decisions, rank-and-file participation, and broader public support for the regime in mass killing.
Conclusion
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan
Published: August 2022

This concluding chapter first summarizes the main arguments of the book—in particular surrounding (i) the need to analyse the intersection of ideology and strategic decision-making about security, and (ii) the need to analyse the multiple ‘infrastructural’ processes through which ideologies may shape violent behaviour, rather than retaining a narrow focus on ‘true believers’. The chapter then outlines some key implications of the book’s findings for future research and for efforts to predict and prevent mass killings. It concludes be emphasizing the need, in both empirical and normative reflection on violence, to appreciate the human dependence on ideology in politics, and the ethical frailty and progressive potential that this dependence creates.
Introduction
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

The present chapter gives an introduction to Nanophotonics. It starts with the definition of Electronics, and then describes its scope, progress, and current state-of the-art technology. After giving the definition of Photonics, a brief sketch of the development of Photonics is given mentioning how it opened up newer areas of development and applications and novel physical phenomena. The meaning and scope of Nanophotonics are then given, covering semiconductor nanostructures, photonic band gap structures, metallic nanostructures with emphasis on nanoantenna, plasmonics, metamaterials, and metasurfaces. The structures used in Nanophotonicsare then briefly introduced. A list of novel physical phenomena including cavity QED effects, Bose–Einstein condensation, etc., is then given. Finally, some of the envisaged application areas of Nanophotonics are discussed; in particular, the transition from Electronics to Photonics and ultimately to plasmonics in attaining small-size and high-speed systems for networking is briefly mentioned.
Photons and electron-photon interactions
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

The chapter first develops the wave equation in a rectangular cavity and gives the definition and number of density-of-modes within it. Prescription for converting the classical expressions of the EM field to quantized forms in terms of creation and annihilation operators is then outlined. After introducing the concept of photons, the interactions of an atomic system with photons are described in terms of the interaction Hamiltonian. The time-dependent perturbation theory, using the Fermi Golden Rule and the dipole approximation is employed to obtain expressions for the absorption and emission rates. The theory is then applied to the case of a two-level atomic system to obtain the expression for Einstein’s A-coefficient. Broadening of emission line is pointed out and the oscillator strength is defined.
Electron-photon interactions in bulk semiconductors
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

The microscopic theory of optical processes in bulk semiconductors is developed in this chapter. Amongst various absorption processes in a semiconductor, firstly the expression for direct-gap band-to-band absorption coefficient is developed by considering the polarization dependence of momentum matrix elements and then the intervalence band absorption process. The free carrier absorption processes are explained by using a classical Drude model. The recombination processes are then addressed and lifetimes of both radiative and non-radiative, including Auger type, are introduced with appropriate theory. The effects of carriers on absorption and change in refractive index are pointed out qualitatively. Finally, the expression for the gain coefficient in semiconductors is developed in terms of momentum and electric-dipole matrix elements for interband and other transitions. The minimum difference to be maintained between the quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and holes to obtain gain is established.
Optical processes in quantum wells
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

The theory and methods developed in Chapter 5 are applied with modifications to semiconductor Quantum Wells in this chapter. The expressions for the interband absorption coefficient are developed taking into consideration the two-dimensional nature of electrons and holes, subband selection rules, degeneracy of the carriers, and altered polarization-dependent momentum matrix element. The intersubband transitions within a band are then considered. This is followed by the theory of various recombination processes relevant for Quantum Wells (QW)s. The derivation of the expression for gain coefficient in QWs then follows. Different loss processes reducing gain, namely, intervalence band absorption, Auger recombination, and free carrier absorption, are then discussed. A brief discussion about these changes in gain and other characteristics under is presented next. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on optical processes in type II structures and the advantage of using tunnel injection structure.
Excitons in semiconductors
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

The aim of the present chapter is to discuss excitonic processes in semiconductor bulk and Quantum Wells(QW)s. The concept of exciton is elaborated for bulk semiconductors and the expressions for dispersion relation, binding energy, and absorption coefficient of Wannier excitons are derived, illustrating the changes in the absorption spectra due to excitons. The recombination processes are then discussed. Theories for excitonic absorption in QWs are developed, first for the ideal two-dimensional system and then for QWs of finite widths and barriers by approximate treatments. The effects of electric field, the Franz–Keldysh effect in bulk and prominent quantum confined stark effects in QWs due to changes in subband structure and excitonic effects are then investigated. The chapter ends with a brief introduction to and development of Wannier equation in the fractional dimensional space and the methods of determination of non-integer dimension and excitonic binding energy for QWs.
Optical microcavities
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

Optical cavities or resonators having dimensions of the order of cube of the wavelength, are introduced with the definitions of DOM, mode volume, quality factor, finesse, and loss mechanisms in general. The simplest resonator structures, the FP resonator, Bragg gratings and mirrors, and ring resonators and their characteristics are presented next. Resonators working with whispering gallery modes, different structures used, and both ray-optic and electromagnetic theories to understand their operations are also discussed. The formation of photonic band gap in photonic crystal is illustrated by solving wave equation in a 1D periodic structure. The concepts are extended to 2D and 3D periodic structures, giving representative structures, typical dispersion relations, examples of photonic band gaps, and the methods to form waveguides. The micropillar structure is discussed in detail. Finally, a summary of different resonator structures, method of light confinement, values of Q, and sources are given.
Cavity quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

Inhibition and enhancement of spontaneous emission rate, first proposed by Purcell, is discussed in terms of altered density-of-modes in various types of solid-state cavities and the Purcell factor is derived for two-level atomic system. The conditions for observing Purcell factor and experimental findings in micropillars embedded with Quantum Dots (QD)s are discussed. The strong interaction between photons and matter in the form of QD excitons, dispersion relations for ground and excited states separated by Rabi splitting are discussed. Experimental photoluminescence spectra showing anticrossing of exciton lines and cavity lines by temperature and other tuning methods are used to illustrate the strong light-matter interaction. The Jayness–Cummins model based on second quantization is presented to point out Rabi oscillation, Purcell effect, and other novel features. Microcavity structures for observing cavity quantum electrodynamics effects are mentioned. Microcavity lasers predicting thresholdless operation for unity spontaneous emission coupling factors are discussed.
Bose–Einstein condensation
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra
Published: August 2022

The concept of Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC) critical temperature and volume are introduced for atomic systems. The possibility of observation of BEC at high temperature due to small mass is discussed considering exciton-polaritons in bulk CuCl, CdSe, and Cu2O, indirect excitons in coupled QWs, and mostly polaritons in semiconductor microcavities, the last system being most effective for observing BEC at room temperature. The dispersion relations of exciton-polaritons for both upper and lower polariton branches, effective masses, scattering processes, and conditions for observing BEC in microcavities are discussed. Experimental results for BEC in such structures, pumping and detection mechanisms, and characteristics are then presented. Novel features of polariton lasers, progress in developing room temperature electrically pumped lasers with structures are then presented. A model for electrically driven polariton laser considering formation and scattering of excitons is developed and a steady state rate equation model is used to obtain useful characteristics.
Coordination and the Syntax – Discourse Interface
Authors: Altshuler Daniel , Truswell Robert
Published: August 2022

The goal of this book is to explore interactions between syntactic structure and discourse structure, through a case study of patterns of extraction from coordinate structures. This is the most complete account of extraction from coordinate structures to date. This is a consequence of the theoretical breadth of the survey undertaken: extraction from coordinate structures is, at first blush, a syntactic matter, but the survey ranges far beyond syntax, and this breadth raises theoretical and empirical questions across syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse structure. A complete survey of extraction from coordinate structure must pay attention to all of these domains, and their interactions. Instead of aiming to promote a single analysis, this survey motivates reasonable hypotheses which allow one to reason deductively from empirical facts to theoretical conclusions. The theoretical conclusions show that coordinate structures have the potential to discriminate between current syntactic theories, and to inform work on the interfaces between syntax, semantics, pragmatics and discourse. However, in many cases, the necessary empirical work has not yet been done, and too much of the literature revolves around the same handful of examples, mainly in English. We hope that this book will inspire further work on extraction from coordinate structures, particularly in understudied languages, and provide a guide to how to tease out the theoretical implications of empirical findings.
Introduction
Authors: Altshuler Daniel , Truswell Robert
Published: August 2022

This chapter lays out the scope of the book, describing the architectural issues around the syntax-discourse interface and motivating the study of coordination as a case study. Most grammatical architectures do not include a direct interface between syntax (as part of competence grammar) and discourse (which might appear to be more naturally construed as a performance phenomenon, related to language use). However, recent theories include discourse phenomena within the scope of semantics. This allows us to model the syntax-discourse interface as part of the syntax-semantics interface. Extraction from coordinate structures is an illuminating case study for considering this interface because it appears to be conditioned by both syntactic and discourse-semantic factors. This raises the question of the division of labor between these factors: who calls the shots?
Syntax calls the shots
Authors: Altshuler Daniel , Truswell Robert
Published: August 2022

This chapter surveys syntactic analyses of extraction from coordinate structures. We begin by outlining some desiderata for a syntactic account, and outline the challenge posed by the poor fit between the Coordinate Structure Constraint and other syntactic constraints on movement enumerated in recent work in the Chomskyan tradition. We distinguish three approaches to this challenge: some analyses (for example, those developed in Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar or Combinatory Categorial Grammar) reject central assumptions of Chomskyan locality theory; others (so-called ‘multiplanar’ analyses) derive the Coordinate Structure Constraint within the broad outline of Chomskyan locality theory by proposing a novel syntax of coordination which cannot be reduced to context-free phrase structure; and a final group of analyses (such as that of Munn 1993) reject the CSC as a syntactic constraint. The first two types of analyses are liable to undergenerate because they rule out asymmetric extraction patterns of the sort described in Chapter 3, while the final type of analysis is liable to overgenerate unless supplemented with nonsyntactic constraints of the sort to be discussed in Chapters 5 and 6.
Discourse structure, information structure, coordination, and extraction
Authors: Altshuler Daniel , Truswell Robert
Published: August 2022

We propose that discourse relations indirectly condition extraction from coordinate structures, through the intermediary of topicality. We implement this proposal in Segmented Discourse Representation Theory (SDRT). Key components of the analysis are the SDRT distinction between coordinating and subordinating discourse relations; Txurruka’s claim that English ‘and’ signals a coordinating discourse relation; SDRT’s taxonomy of coordinating discourse relations in terms of their relationship to a discourse topic; von Fintel’s analysis of the relationship between sentence topic and discourse topic; a link between sentence topic and extraction from weak islands; Postal’s claim that adjuncts are weak islands; and Munn’s claim that noninitial conjuncts are adjuncts. These ideas, combined, lead to two main predictions: 1) only topical material may extract from noninitial conjuncts, while there is no such constraint on initial conjuncts; 2) only certain discourse relations allow extraction from noninitial conjuncts, because not every relation permits the required distribution of topical material.