bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The foraging ecology of reintroduced African wild dog in small protected areas
Authors: Vogel John T. , Somers Michael J. , Venter Jan A.
Published: July 2018

Restoring large predators to small confined areas (< 400 km2) is inherently complex and therefore any data on the foraging behaviour and top–down influences hold significant value for the conservation and reintroduction planning of the species. Conservation efforts are increasingly applied to small or fragmented landscapes. However, it is unclear what the effect of these small areas have on processes such as foraging behaviour as these spatial constraints may reduce the likelihood of innate predator–prey dynamics. We investigated African wild dog Lycaon pictus foraging patterns on five small fenced protected areas in South Africa. We report on the diet composition, prey preferences and potential influence of pack size and fences on the diet of African wild dogs. Data from 553 kills collected by direct observations at the five sample sites were analysed. Sixteen species of prey were recorded. A narrow dietary niche breadth was determined. Impala Aepyceros melampus and nyala Tragelaphus angasii collectively, form 75% of diet, and 67% of edible biomass. However, only nyala were significantly selected for. The mean wild dog pack sizes in our sample sites were relatively smaller than those frequently encountered in larger systems. We found that larger wild dog pack sizes did not select for larger prey. Contrary to studies investigating the influence of hard boundaries on smaller protected areas, the upward bias caused by fences on prey mass selection was inconsistent across sample sites. By characterising African wild dog diet on smaller protected areas, our results are suggestive of potential top–down influences that should be investigated by future studies. The results add to a growing body of literature that aims to assist in the reintroduction planning of endangered carnivore species.
Asian Economic Development
Authors: Griffin Keith B.
Published: July 2018

Nearly three-fourths of the poor people of the world live in
Asia. Of these, more than a third live in the six countries of Burma,
Ceylon, India, Malaya, Pakistan and Thailand. All these nations, except
Thailand (which was merely in the British sphere of influence), are
former colonies of the British Empire. Thus, from several points of
view, it would be of interest to read a description of the economic
progress these countries have experienced during the last two decades.
Cranley Onslow has attempted to provide us with a volume which does just
that [1]. His book is divided into two parts. Part I contains six essays
by distinguished Asian economists, each discussing the recent economic
history of his country. The remaining quarter of the book consists of a
long essay by the editor in which he tries to compare the six nations
and derive some implications for development policy. This is clearly the
least successful part of the volume.
Some Comments on the Export Bonus, Export Promotion and
Investment Criteria
Authors: Soligo Ronald , Stren Joseph J.
Published: July 2018

One of the principal elements in the Third Five Year Plan
strategy is to shift > the pattern of investment in favour of
export-oriented industries [7]. According to the Plan targets, exports
are to increase at a rate of 9.5 per cent per annum over the period
1964/65 to 1969/70, a rate of growth which exceeds the target rate of
growth for G.N.P., estimated at 6.5 per cent per annum. Furthermore, the
increase in exports is expected mainly in manufactured goods and in
non-traditional items such as rice and fish [7]. Put in other terms, the
Plan targets propose to divert to exports 10 per cent of additional
manufacturing output produced during the Third Plan period. This target
contrasts sharply with the actual ex¬perience of the Second Five Year
Plan, when only 3 per cent of the additional output of the manufacturing
sector was exported. Numerous policies have been used to stimulate
exports. Some of these are tax incentives and export performance
licensing which entitles certain export industries to additional import
licences on the basis of their export performance. The key instrument in
the export promotion strategy however, and the one which has received
the most attention from economists, is the export bonus scheme. The
scheme, first introduced in 1959 and scheduled to run till the end of
the Second Plan period, has now been extended to cover the Third Plan as
well.
Export Policy in Pakistan
Authors: Mallon Richard
Published: July 2018

One of the main objectives of Pakistan's export policy has
been the promotion of exports of manufactured goods. This is an
objective which many under¬developed, predominately primary-exporting
countries have in common because of their interest in export
diversification. The general arguments used to justify such a policy,
e.g., improvement in the terms of trade and increased stability of
export proceeds—will not, however, be discussed in this paper1.
Attention will instead be focussed on the economic consequences of the
specific measures adopted by Pakistan, namely, a combination of export
duties and subsidies which discriminate in favour of processed goods and
against raw materials. The fact that in Pakistan the chief beneficiaries
of discrimination have been manufactures of jute and cotton, products
which also constitute most of the country's raw material exports,
facilitates the economic evaluation of this policy. It can thus be
assumed that if jute and cotton were not exported as manufactures they
could be exported in raw form, or in other words, that the problem
con¬sists in selecting that combination of exports in raw and
manufactured form which maximizes net foreign exchange earnings.
Furthermore, the textile industry is not a very good case for applying
the external economy argument (i.e., subsidies to industries which
provide training to the labour force in new skills, etc.,) be¬cause the
industry would exist in any case to supply the internal market,
economies of scale are limited and the skills employed are fairly
rudimentary. In the follow¬ing, all our discussion will be concentrated
on the jute and cotton situation, the special problems of other
manufacturing fall outside the scope of our analysis.
Some Refinements of the Semi-Input-Output Method
Authors: Tinbergen J.
Published: July 2018

The semi-input-output method has been proposed by the author
as a substi¬tute for what was formerly called the estimation of the
indirect effects of invest¬ment projects. Essentially it rests on
assumption I that a country must aim at an "ideal development process",
meaning a growth process which at no time shows unutilized production
capacity. Furthermore, the method rests on assumption II that a
distinction can be made between national or domestic activities
(industries in the widest sense or sectors) on the one hand and
international activities on the other hand. By definition the products
of the former cannot, for technological or cultural reasons, be imported
or exported. Examples have been given elsewhere [1]. Together with
assumption I it follows from II that the productive capacity in the
national sectors equals the demand for their products. With a given
develop¬ment of national income the growth of the national sectors is
practically deter¬mined. The choice of new sectors to be developed must
mainly be made among the international sectors, where those showing the
highest comparative advantages must be chosen, if with given sacrifices
of scarce factors a maximum of result is wanted. The criterion for
selection of sectors will depend on the aims of policy as well as on the
relative scarcity of factors. Its precise content is independent of the
subject to be discussed here. For simplicity's sake we will assume that
the criterion is to prefer sectors with the lowest capital-output ratio.
This choice only effects the later portions of this article. The
emphasis here is on something else, namely that it is not possible, if
we accept assumption I, to add to the equip¬ment of the nation a factory
or set of factories in one international sector only, but that
simultaneously with such an "international" investment a number of
complementary investments in domestic sectors are necessary, in order to
keep all capacities fully utilized. We will call the necessary
combination of investments a bunch; it always consists of an investment
in one international sector combined with a number of investments in all
national sectors.
Family Planning in Pakistan's Third Five Year Plan
Authors: Robinson Warren C.
Published: July 2018

It is commonplace that population growth looms large in the
complex of problems associated with economic and social development.
This is true in Pakis¬tan as elsewhere and the Third Five Year Plan has
faced_up squarely to (his issue. This article will review the population
policy contained in the Plan and its support¬ing documents. Our analysis
is sometimes critical but never unsympathetic. The planners in Pakistan
have recognized the importance of population control and the present
Plan devotes considerable resources to this goal. For this they deserve
only praise. However, critical analysis of the Family Planning Scheme by
interest¬ed but objective observers may still serve a useful purpose.
The Plan's basic statement on population deserves to be quoted to start
our analysis: The size of population, estimated at 112 million for 1965,
is expected to grow at an annual compound rate of about 2.6 per cent
during the Perspective Plan (1965-1985). With the planned improvement in
health facilities and nutri¬tional standards, the mortality rate is
likely to decline fairly rapidly. Unless it is checked by a fall in the
fertility rate, the population growth rate could easily be pushed beyond
3 per cent per annum. If this happens, population will double itself by
1985. Such an increase would defeat any attempts to raise per capita
incomes by a significant amount. One of the basic assump¬tions of the
present projections is that the rate of growth of population will
decline after 1975 owing to a decrease in the fertility rate. In other
words, it is assumed that declining fertility will more than offset
declining mortal¬ity. The population in 1985 is thus projected at 187
million. A vigorous and broadly based programme of family planning is,
therefore, an intergral part of the strategy for the Perspective Plan
[44, p. 24].
Relative Price Changes and Industrialization in Pakistan:
1951-1964
Authors: Lewis, Jr. Stephen R. , Hussain S. Mushtaq
Published: July 2018

The terms of trade between the agricultural and industrial
sectors in developing countries have received considerable attention in
the general literature on economic development. The terms of trade are
important determinants of the distribution of income between the two
sectors, as well as the capacity for saving (particularly in the
manufacturing sector) and incentives to produce and sell (particularly
in the agricultural sector). In Pakistan, the terms of trade of the
agricultural sector are alleged to have been depressed to benefit the
growth of industrial sector. Considerable opposition to increased
taxation of the agricul¬tural sector has been based on the assertion
that that sector is already "taxed" for the benefit of the industrial
sector through the terms of trade. Current official interpretation [11]
of the "saving strategy" that the country followed in the 1950's
indicates that the terms of trade were important in transferring income
from the low-saving sector (agriculture) to the high-saving sector
(manufac¬turing). As yet, however, there had been no empirical study of
the facts of the Pakistan experience.
The Balance of Payments and External Resources in Pakistan's
Third Five Year Plan: A Comment (Notes and Comments)
Authors: Aziz Sartaj
Published: July 2018

The Pakistan Institute of Development Economics has initiated
a number of useful studies on different aspects of the Third Five Year
Plan. Many of these studies have already yielded thought-provoking
articles, one of which is Dr. Bruce Glassburner's critique of the Third
Plan's sixth chapter on the balance of payments and external resources
[1]. 2. The main conclusion reached by Dr. Glassburner as a result of
his meticulous analysis of the balance of payments projections and
policies is that the Plan's export targets are overambitious and may be
difficult to achieve; that the import projections are conservative and
will not sustain the projected investment or consumption levels, and as
a consequence Pakistan may not be able to reduce reliance on foreign
assistance to the extent visualized in the Plan.
The Labour Force of Pakistan : A Note on the 1961 Census
Authors: Bean Lee L. , M. Farooq Danial , Khan Musihur Rahman
Published: July 2018

One of the interesting phenomena evidenced by a rough
comparison of the 195 ljUigU26!Juensuses-of Pakistan is that the
proportion of the population in the labour force has increased from 30.7
per cent to 32.6 per cent. This is surprising from the demographic point
of view, since it is well known that under the mortality and fertility
conditions extant in Pakistan the likelihood of a proportionate increase
in available supply of manpower is low [l]1. Specifically, with a high
fertility rate the proportion of the population available as manpower
will be low [2; 2a]. Mortality improvements from a high initial level of
mortality typically make a population still younger and reduce the
proportion at working age. Thus it is unusual that the comparison of the
1951 and 1961 Censuses would indicate an increase in the proportionate
size of the labour force of Pakistan, since mor¬tality has been
declining in Pakistan and there is no evidence that fertility has
declined.
A Note on the Use-Classification of Four Digit Industries or How
to Call a Spade a Spade
Authors: Winston Gordon C. , Macewan Arthur
Published: July 2018

Much of our understanding of structural change with
industrialization is based on empirical studies that describe patterns
in the relationship between consumption, intermediate and capital goods
[1; 2, for instance]. Thus, classification of an industry's output,
prices, imports or exports by use is of primary importance. Even if the
data available describe individual products, there is some ambiguity in
use classification—safety razor blades (metal products) are clearly
con¬sumption goods but sewing machines (nonelectric machinery) are
consumption goods if owned by housewives and capital goods if owned by
tailors. Far more serious problems, however, arise when large industry
sectors, like whole four digit industries, must be classified by use. If
there is no basis for dividing any industry's output (or prices or
imports or exports) among its alternative uses, then the entire industry
must be classified as a single lump in one of the three use categories
on the basis of some judgment— even if heroic—or else such aggrega¬tion
by use must be abandoned. But ad hoc classifications that lump entire
four-digit industries under one or another heading are not appropriate
if there exists a reasonable basis for dividing each industry's output
among uses. Then, instead of assigning all metal products to capital
goods (as did Chenery) it is possible to assign some portion to
consumption goods (representing razor blades, et al), some to
intermediate goods (rivets) and some to capital goods
(spades).
Theoretical Problems of the International Monetary System
Authors: Johnson Harry G.
Published: July 2018

Since 1958, international economists have been greatly
concerned with the problem of international monetary reform. Research
and writing on this problem has taken one or other of two broad forms.
Those economists most concerned with policy have concerned themselves
with emphasizing the need for inter¬national monetary reform and
propounding workable (negotiable) schemes for achieving it.
International monetary theorists, on the other hand, have been concerned
with the theoretical policy problems of achieving and maintaining
balance-of-payments equilibrium in the present internaticnal monetary
system of fixed exchange rates. They have also become concerned with the
problems of the system as a monetary system. This paper belongs to the
latter category. It seeks to outline the main propositions of the
analysis of international economic policy and policy problems that have
been developed by economists working in this field in recent years. Part
I is concerned with the economic policy problems of maintaining both
full employ¬ment and balance-of-payments equilibrium, first for a single
country on a fixed exchange rate, then for two or more countries linked
in a multi-country inter¬national monetary system. Part II is concerned
with certain features of the present international monetary system,
viewed as a monetary system. The analysis of Part I is Keynesian, that
of Part II classical, in approach. Both parts draw heavily on papers
presented at the University of Chicago Conference on Inter¬national
Monetary Problems organized by R. A. Mundell, held at Chicago in
September 1966.
Abridged Life Tables of Pakistan and Provinces by Sex,
1962
Authors: Aslam Muhammad , Hashmi Sultan S. , Seltzer William
Published: July 2018

Mortality in a population is measured by a number of
demographic indices such as the crude death rate, the infant mortality
rate, the age-specific death rate or the standardised death rate. Still
another more comprehensive method of portraying mortality conditions in
a population is by means of a life table. A life table as compared to
other mortality indices serves many useful purposes. For measuring
longevity of life, projecting current population into the future or
estimating incidence of widowhood and orphanhood, a life table is
essential. For comparison of expectation of life (or average duration of
life) at birth and after birth for various ages of different populations
the life table is also commonly used. Besides its utility in demographic
problems, still another important use of a life table is made by
actuaries in life insurance. The life table is also becoming an
important tool of investigation for problems of commerce and industry as
it enables one to describe the expectation of life of many nonhuman
populations. For detailed discussion of various kinds of life tables and
their uses, the reader is advised to refer to any one of many standard
reference works [6, Chapters 12 and 13].
Provisional Estimates of Length of Working life in
Pakistan
Authors: Bean Lee L.
Published: July 2018

Life table techniques have been used fairly widely to
determine the working life of the labour force or work-life expectancy
[6; 7; 8; 18; 23]. The length of working life in developing countries,
however, is often unknown or estimates are based upon very rigid
assumptions which are not realistic given the conditions of labour in
such countries. For example, Mortara's international comparisons are
based upon the assumption that the activity ages are always 15 to 60
years only (6]. Such an assumption leads to a low estimate of work-life
expectancy in count¬ries such as Pakistan where the lower age of large
scale labour force participation is, at a minimum, age 10 as officially
defined in the labour force statistics and where individuals apparently
maintain some connection with the labour force during latter years of
life. Specific estimates of the length of working life depend upon
fairly refined data including age specific activity rates and a life
table. The 1961 Census of Pakistan and the Population Growth Estimation
project make such data now available for Pakistan. It is therefore the
purpose of this paper to utilize these data to generate and evaluate
work-life tables for the male population of East and West Pakistan. This
study is restricted to males since female labour force participation in
Pakistan is low and the movement of women in and out of the labour force
presents many unique problems which have only recently been solved in
countries where extensive statistical data are available. Furthermore
the analysis presented here deals with the two provinces separately
because of mortality [4] and labour differences.
Projections Of The Population Of Pakistan By Age And Sex:
1965-1986 (A Measure Of The Potential Impact Of A Family Planning
Programme)
Authors: Sheikh Mohammad Hafiz
Published: July 2018

The area comprising Pakistan has had a long history of regular
census taking. Registration of births and deaths is also obligatory in a
number of political units especially urban areas1. In addition, a number
of sample surveys have been carried out to determine various
characteristics of the population of Pakistan. However, it remains a
fact that we do not know enough about such important factors as the
birth and death rates of the population. Even the total size of the
population, not to speak of its age and sex distribution, is a debated
figure. A number of attempts have been made to arrive at reasonable
estimates of this 'true' figure for the total size of the population,
its age and sex distribution as well as of the vital rates employing
different techniques. Some of most-quoted ones include those by Ahmad
[4, p. 44], Khan and Ziauddin [5], Krotki [6, p. 291], and Zelnik and
Khan [7].
A Decade of Agricultural Development in India by M. Shrinivasan,
Bombay: Indian Institute of Asian Studies, November 1965. pp.169, Rs.
12.50 (Indian) or US$ 4.00. **************Entrepreneurship and
Agricultural Development by Dr. D. L. Narayana. Bombay: Indian Institute
of Asian Sudies, July 1966. pp.120, Rs. 10.00 (Indian) or US$
3.00.
Authors: Clark E.
Published: July 2018

Mr. Shrinivasan's book is mainly a compilation of data
concerning India's agricultural development during the first and second
five year plans (1951- to 1961). The major part of the book presents a
detailed description of the efforts that were made during the
fifties—particularly by the government—to develop agriculture and
improve the farmer's condition. The discussion is divided into seven
categories—technical, organizational, financial, demographic,
sociological, and capital formation. The data are comprehensive and well
presented. What is unfortunately lacking is an analysis of the relative
efficacy of the numerous measures taken. This question is of particular
interest now, since the predicted growth of the agriculture sector has
failed to materialize. Nevertheless, the book is a good concise, though
detailed, description of what occurred during this period and as such
should serve as a useful reference work for those interested in studying
India's agricultural problems
On the Extent of Digital Preference in Reporting of Ages in
Pakistan
Authors: Yusuf Farhat
Published: July 2018

In Pakistan, like many other developing countries of the
world, age distributions availabe from the decennial population censuses
and sample surveys have shown substantial distortions and irregularities
[2; 3; 4; 6, pp.64-75; 9, pp.638-658; 13; 14, pp.64-95]. Some of
these distortions could be real and may have been the result of events
such as the Bengal famine of 1943 and the post-Independence migration
between India and Pakistan. Others could be due to the coverage and
response problems encountered in the collection of age data. Among the
coverage and response problems, two are of most importance:
underenumeration of females and erroneous age-reporting. In countries
like Pakistan, which have low literacy rates (19.2 per cent literates
according to the 1961 Census of Pakistan), most of the people do not
know their correct ages. As a result they tend to report their ages
either in round numbers or instead ask the enumerators to write down
whatever age they think proper. This pheno¬menon of reporting ages in
round numbers is usually called "digital pre¬ference". As a result of
this the single-year age distributions show distinct peaks and troughs
at ages ending with certain digits.
The Sociology of Development: Iran as an Asian Case Study by
Norman Jacobs. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966. Price $17.50.
Pp.i-vii+541.
Authors: Chowdhury Fateh M.
Published: July 2018

The Sociology of Development is an ambitious attempt at
developing a model of Asian societies which will explain succinctly the
reasons why Asian nations have not developed economically, why
sociologists working in underdeveloped areas are not effective in their
attempts to expedite social change, why economists can do nothing about
economic development, and among other questions why foreign aid is of no
value to economic development. Indeed, Professor Jacobs' "shotgun"
approach to the sociology of development touches briefly on so many
aspects of economic development that one can only wish that an attempt
had been made to equip the gun with a full choke. Briefly, the book may
be seen to consist of three parts. The first part consists of a single
introductory chapter which attempts to do several things within the
space of 18 pages. First, it is argued that Iran is selected as only a
case study of the entire problem of economic development in Asia, yet
neither in this chapter nor in subsequent chapters is an extended
attempt made to draw similarities between Iran and other countries in
Asia. The most important reason for the selection of Iran, a Middle
Eastern nation, seems to be that the author spent two years, 1959 to
1961, in Iran.
Liberalization of the Foreign Exchange Market
Authors: Frank C. Child
Published: July 2018

There is a pattern in the evolution of exchange control systems. A typical sequence of events is: Phase 1, implementation—in response to a serious balance-of-payments deficit, a free foreign-exchange market is abandoned in favour of price control and rationing of foreign exchange. Initially exchange control applies only to major categories of receipts and payments but is rapidly extended to cover all external transactions. Phase 2, consolidation—a black market appears; regulations are extended and revised to close loopholes, to cope with shortages, and to repair inequities and anomalies. The foreign-exchange market is fragmented and differential treatment is accorded to different types of trade or traders. Taxes, subsidies, or multiple-exchange rates are introduced to offset, in a discriminatory way, iie effect of an overvalued currency on foreign-exchange receipts and the demand >r imports. The system becomes increasingly complex and administratively burdensome. Phase 3, rationalization—the complexity of the system is reduced by consolidation of market fragments. Regulations are simplified and applied to broader categories of transactions. De facto but selective devaluation, through iax, subsidy, and exchange-rate adjustments, becomes a policy instrument. Portions of the market are "liberalized" by returning to a limited free market in which price resumes its functions of evoking supply and limiting demand. Continued disequilibrium, however, sustains the black market which may be "tolerated" as a sort of unofficial free market.
The Competitiveness of Capital-Goods Industries in Developing Countries
Authors: Barend A. de Vries
Published: July 2018

In the past two decades developing countries have invested an increasing proportion of their resources in new industries and the infrastructure needed to support them. Many of the new industries have been light, simple and con¬sumer-oriented. But a significant number of LDC's, mostly the larger or richer ones, have established heavy, more complex capital-goods industries. Both sectors of industry have been largely domestic-oriented, although there are some LDC's which have succeeded in sharply increasing their industrial exports, mostly of light and simple products. The absence of export success may, in itself, cast a doubt on the effici¬ency and competitiveness of the new industries. The question has been raised in several quarters whether, in fact, the resources spent on industrialization have been well spent or whether the LDC's could have achieved more growth—in domestic product or export earnings—by a different design of industrialization or by more emphasis on other sectors. These questions are of special relevance for the newly-established capital-goods industries, because:
Comments on "Planning Experience in Pakistan"
Authors: Islam Nurul
Published: July 2018

Pakistan's industrial achievement in a relatively short span
of time and in the light of the experience of the similarly placed
countries has been favourably commented upon by the observers and
analysts, both at home and abroad. Dr. M. N. Huda, in his Conference
Address, refers to this impressive record of Pakistan's progress in the
course of which many industries have grown from the state of infancy and
that of teething troubles to a state of viability and adult¬hood [2, Pp.
10-11]. Indeed, the rapid growth of the manufactured exports from
Pakistan in recent years may be considered as an indication of the
extent to which the industrial progress in Pakistan has been successful.
For the future, he rightly advocates an aggressive but selective
industrialization based on both the home and export markets. Moreover,
his observations do em¬phasize the need for increasing the productivity
of the existing industries as well as for a careful application of the
criterion of efficiency in the selection of the future pattern of
industrialization. This note seeks to indicate the inter¬relationship
between the industrial efficiency and the export performance; it draws
attention to a few neglected aspects of the recent studies on
indust¬rial efficiency in Pakistan such as the intra-firm differences in
efficiency. It explores the rationale and the implications of
'infant-industry" protection for industrialization in
Pakistan.
Some Notes on "Planning Experience in Pakistan"
Authors: Khan Azizur Rahman
Published: July 2018

Planning for the national economy is an infinitely complicated
process. It involves the harmonization of a large number of independent
decisions taken by a great many agencies and groups often representing
conflicting interests in order to achieve certain targets which are
sometimes themselves in conflict with one another. Only by continuous
appraisal and critical analysis of the major strategies can it be
ensured that the main objectives are kept in mind while mak¬ing
individual decisions, and that individual policies do not conflict with
one another. It is, therefore, important to make detailed assessment of
the past experience to gain a general sense of the combination of
circumstances which, in the past, did or did not prove favourable to
growth. In his conference address [9], Dr. Huda makes an effort to
survey Pakis¬tan's planning strategy in the past and to reflect on the
appropriate policies for future. Admittedly, his purpose is to provoke
the economists "to think, deli¬berate and advise". Painting on such a
big canvas, Dr. Huda has necessarily adopted an impressionistic
technique. What we intend to do in these notes is to try to paint in
somewhat greater details a few of those parts of Dr. Huda's canvas which
have been left by him with relatively few brush strokes.
Prospects for the Pakistan Tea Industry
Authors: Carruthers I. D. , Gwyer G. D.
Published: July 2018

Pakistan's foreign-exchange earnings from tea, which during
the period 1951-53 averaged more than 40 million rupees annually, had
fallen to an average of 6 million rupees annually during the period
1964-66. This decline in earnings resulted from the diversion of tea
from export to domestic markets where higher prices reflected the extent
to which the growth of domestic tea consumption had exceeded the growth
of production. Recognising that continuation of this trend would lead to
Pakistan becoming a net importer of tea with further loss of foreign
exchange, the government took steps in the early sixties to en¬courage
expansion of tea production as an alternative to restraining demand
through rationing or eventual import controls. In this paper our primary
concern is to establish, through analysis and forecast of market forces,
the like¬lihood of Pakistan being able to maintain its self-sufficiency
position in tea production up to 1975 without recourse to market
controls, and to suggest policy measures that will help in achieving
this objective in the longer term. An ancillary purpose is to recommend
technical and economic changes that will improve the efficiency of tea
production.
Trend of Real Income of the Rural Poor in East Pakistan,
1949-66
Authors: Bose Swadesh R.
Published: July 2018

Pakistan's gross national product has been rising over time.
While GNP per capita remained practically unchanged during the 1950's,
it increased appreciably in the 1960's. The trend of per capita income
does not, however, indicate whether and to what extent economic
development had 'trickle down' effects to improve the lot of the
relatively poorer sections of society. Studies of intertemporal changes
in inequality of income distributions and in levels of income
(consumption) could show what changes actually took place in their
absolute and relative income positions. "Diminishing inequalities in the
distribution of income" is one of the professed objectives of Pakistan's
Third Five-Year Plan [21, p. 40]. This objective implies both an
absolute and a relative improvement in the income level of the poorer
sections of population. The two studies which are known to have been
made on income distribution in Pakistan do not cover enough ground to
indicate whether this was achieved in the past: the study by Mrs. Haq
[10] is limited to personal income distribution in the high-income
brackets (income tax payers) in urban areas for the period 1948/49 to
1960/61, and that by Bergan [1], although comprehensive, refers to a
single year, 1963/64.
Commodity Exports, Net Exchange Earnings and Investment
Criteria
Authors: Islam Nurul
Published: July 2018

Pakistan has experienced in the last decade a significant rate
of growth of exports, especially of the manufactured exports. The
manufactured exports have grown at an annual compound rate of 15 per
cent during the period 1960-67. This significant rate of growth of
exports has been associated with a large number of export-promotion
measures which have ranged from a wide variety of fiscal concessions to
such export-incentive schemes as the export bonus and export performance
licensing as well as the fixation of compulsory export quotas for the
individual manufactured exports. The question has been raised from time
to time as to the efficacy of the export-promotion measures in terms of
the net foreign-exchange earnings, denned as the actual increase in
export earnings from a unit of export minus the direct and indirect
requirements of imports necessary for the production of the unit of
export. Since one of the important criteria for the determination of the
investment priorities in the field of industry in Pakistan has been the
foreign-exchange saving or earning capacity of a particular industrial
project [9, p.51], it is important to quantify the contributions to the
net foreign exchange earnings made by the exports of the different
manufactured goods. Moreover, it is possible to judge how the existing
structure of the export incentives is related to the net
exchange-earning capacity of the different industries.
Agricultural Development: Planning and Implementation (Israel
Case Study) by R. Weitz and A. Rokach, D. Reidel Publishing Co.,
Netherlands, 1967. pp.XIX + 404. Price 117s., DM 55.50.
Authors: Kaneda Hiromitsu
Published: July 2018

Jewish agricultural settlement since the 1880's can be
characterized by two unique features: the urban, educated people settled
and became farmers of their own free will; and the agricultural
settlement was carefully planned, first on the farm unit level, and
later on the regional and national levels. On both of these the Israeli
experience is unique in that each is the reverse of the usual process
observable elsewhere. During the twelve years following the attain¬ment
of statehood in 1948 Israel absorbed successfully over 1.25 million
immi¬grants into agriculture, over two-thirds of whom had none or
limited degree of familiarity with the "modern" agriculture, as they
came from North Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Nonetheless, they
became part of a highly technical and organized farming system. Between
1950 and 1965, total agricultural pro¬duction in Israel increased by 500
per cent. The productivity of labour in agri-/. culture rose at a
remarkable annual rate of 10.8 per cent between 1955 and 1959 and at
11.2 per cent between 1958 and 1963.
East and West Pakistan: A Problem in the Political Economy of
Regional Planning by Md. Anisur Rahman. Occasional Papers in
International Affairs, Number 20. Harvard University Center for
International Affairs, July 1968. pp.38.
Authors: Chowdhury A.H.M. Nuruddin
Published: July 2018

In this short essay Professor Rahman attempts two things. One,
he surveys the various facets of the regional disparity existing between
East and West Pakistan and traces the genesis of some of them. In doing
so, he improves upon the analysis of others writing on the issue, yet
essentially the information and the treatment are not new. Two, he
suggests "an approach to a policy for dealing with the problem of
regional disparity in the country, one which would impose the least
sacrifice to the national objective". Here he applies his model for
"Regional Allocation of Investment" which was published in the February
1963 issue of the Quarterly Journal of Economics. This review will
mainly deal with this second part of the essay. The principal argument
of Professor Rahman's model runs as follows: In a short-term plan,
investment should be concentrated in the region where productivity of
capital, as depicted by a lower marginal capital-output ratio (MCOR), is
higher. But in a long-term plan, one should also consider the marginal
reinvestment coefficient (MRC) which is the product of marginal rate of
saving (MRS) and the reciprocal of MCOR. This is because a region with a
higher MCOR may yet have a higher MRC due to a sufficiently higher MRS.
In such a case, earlier investment allocation should be concentrated in
the region with higher MRC, since the immediate loss of output will be
more than offset by the future growth in output from higher
reinvestment. But as the terminal date of the plan horizon draws nearer
investment has to be shifted towards the region with higher
productivity, i.e., lower MCOR, because, after a break-even point, there
will not be enough time left for the higher MRC to recover the loss due
to lower productivity. Other side conditions of the programming model,
such as employment objectives, removal of regional disparity, may
prevent full exploitation of the advantage of higher MRC of a
region.
Financial-Asset Accumulation by the Noncorporate Private Sector
in Pakistan 1959/60 to 1965/66 (Notes and Comments)
Authors: Ghafur Abdul
Published: July 2018

A detailed investigation into the sources of domestic saving
and its uses by various sectors can provide us with a more complete
insight into behaviour with respect to saving, portfolio selection, and
the pattern of financial interrelationship among sectors. The saving(s)
of each sector is defined as the excess of its income (y) over its
expenditure on current consumption (c), i.e., s = y—c. Saving
(dissaving) by a sector is equivalent to increase (decrease) in the net
worth (NW) of that sector over the previous year. A sector that saves
must either acquire financial assets, i.e., money and other financial
claims, reduce financial liabilities or acquire real assets. In formal
terms, s = A net worth = A (financial assets — financial liabilities) +
A real assets1 [8]. It is quite clear that saving may be reflected in a
change of net financial assets or in a change in real asset; a change in
net holdings of financial assets may indicate either saving or a change
in holdings of real assets. It is even possible, albeit unusual, that an
increase in the level of financial-asset acquisition is associated with
a negative saving (y /. c) by a sector. However, while it dose not
measure the level of saving by a sector, the net acquisition of
financial assets does reflect the extent of transfer of resources (both
stock and flow) by the sector to other sectors.
Operations Research Techniques for Capital Investment by F.
Hanssmann. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1968.
Authors: Mirrlees James A.
Published: July 2018

Even yet I suppose many economists are taught how to discuss
problems rather than how to solve them. It is not surprising, therefore,
that even in the analyses of investment projects, where the economist
might have been thought to be the expert, mathematicians, scientists and
statisticians have often been able to make a much more constructive and
profitable contribution than the economist. 'Operations Research' is the
mixture of mathematics, quantitative insight, and common sense that is
coming to be used to solve many of the more complex problems of industry
and government. Professor Hanssmann sets out to explain, without too
much mathematics and with plenty of illustrative case studies, how these
methods can be applied to investment decisions.
Economic Implications of the "Green Re¬volution" and the Strategy
of Agricultural Development in West Pakistan
Authors: Kaneda Hlromitsu
Published: July 2018

The short-stemmed varieties of wheat and rice imported from
abroad and the increased use of fertilizers have dramatically enlarged
the potential for rapid increases in the agricultural output of West
Pakistan. This recent break¬through in foodgrains production is
sometimes referred to as the "green revolu¬tion". Because of the
generally favourable conditions in West Pakistan in regard to irrigation
water and solar energy, and due to the unusually favour¬able weather in
1967/68 in particular, the "green revolution" is spreading most rapidly.
It is high time to focus our attention on some of the economic
implica¬tions of the new developments in agriculture. Recent
agricultural growth in West Pakistan has been the result of
im¬provements in the production relationship in the agricultural sector.
However, the relationship between land and man in agriculture and that
between agricul¬tural production and other economic activities tend to
be neglected in the current discussions of the ways in which the country
may sustain the recent growth per¬formance.
A Note on the Structure of Pakistan's Foreign Trade (Notes &
Comments)
Authors: Stern Joseph J.
Published: July 2018

Developing countries generally are not only concerned with the
level of their export earnings but also with the commodity and
geographic composition of exports, and, to a lesser extent, of imports.
Concern over a high degree of commo¬dity structure in exports is usually
based on its presumed association with adverse price movements. A more
diversified export commodity structure will reduce the impact on the
overall level of foreign-exchange earnings from price fluctuations in
any particular commodity. While concentration on a few commodities need
not be identified with being a primary commodity exporter, for many
developing countries a high degree of commodity concentration is often
correlated with the exports of primary commodities [6 ; 9]. The familiar
terms-of-trade argument, the belief that the relative price of primary
commodity exports will fall, over the long run, as compared to the price
of industrial goods imports, provides a second rationale for seeking a
diversification in the composition of exports. Even in the short run the
prices of most primary products in interna¬tional trade vary more
sharply from year to year than those of most industrial products thus
providing an additional incentive for decreasing commodity
con¬centration [5].
The Theory and Practice of Commercial Policy: Departures from
Unified Exchange Rates by Jagdish Bhagwati. International Finance
Section, Depart¬ment of Economics, Princeton University, 1968.
Authors: Child Frank C.
Published: July 2018

In this small volume, Bhagwati paints a broad canvas but is
sparing in detail. He defines "unified exchange rates" to include not
only the existence of a single rate of exchange applicable to all
external transactions but also the absence of any taxes, subsidies,
premia, quotas, or, administered prices in both internal and external
markets. In short, a "departure from unified exchange rates" is any
policy or circumstance which departs from the conditions of the
perfectly competitive model. Bhagwati writes in the neo-classical
tradition. However, as the argument progresses, it is clear that he is
concerned about policies of interference with external trade.
Reserve Pooling in Asia and the Far East
Authors: Wadhva Charan D.
Published: July 2018

One of the forms of payments arrangements among the developing
countries recognized by the Group of Experts appointed by United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) [6] is the establishment of
a reserve fund by pooling the reserves of the interested countries. The
Committee on Invisibles and Financing Related to Trade of UNCTAD
recommended that "the pooling of the reserves of the developing
countries in particular regions should be considered" [7, Annex I, p.
9]. While a great deal of talk about other forms of payments
arrangements has been going on in the region denned by the United
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (to be called Asia
and the Far East region in the paper) i, not much has yet been thought
about the possibilities of the formation of reserve funds on regional or
subregional basis as a possible measure toward the cherished goal of
regional economic cooperation unanimously adopted at the Ministerial
Conference on Asian Econo¬mic Cooperation held in Manila [9]. The
purpose of this paper is to theoretically examine the rationale for
reserve pooling among a group of countries and then to apply this theory
to explore the possibilities of gains from reserve pooling on both
regional and subregional basis in Asia and the Far East
region.
Cotton Textile and Leather Exports: What Cost Foreign Exchange?
(Notes & Comments)
Authors: Hufbauer G. C. , Aziz Nayyara , Ali Asghar
Published: July 2018

The senior author has elsewhere argued [8] that foreign
exchange earned by the export of West Pakistan-manufactured goods has a
high domestic cost. Much the same contention has been advanced by Hecox
[7], Islam [9] and MacEwan [11]. In these papers the relationship
between costs and earnings is usually based on fairly abstract
assumptions. The purpose of this note is to reduce the calculations to a
"plain man" level. Specifically, we try to calculate how many rupees of
indigenous resources are expended to earn each extra rupee of foreign
exchange which is received from exporting cotton textiles and leather
goods rather than their primary ingredients, namely raw cotton and hides
and skins i. Since this note was written, the Board of Economic Inquiry,
Lahore, at the request of the West Pakistan Planning and Development
Department, has undertaken a wider study applying the same general
approach used here.
Economic Development of Tropical Agriculture: Theory Policy,
Strategy, and Organization edited by W. W. McPherson. University of
Florida Press, Gainsville, 1968.
Authors: Kaneda Hiromitsu
Published: July 2018

This book consists of 15 papers by different authors, some of
whom contributing more than one chapter. The papers were presented in a
series of semi¬nars given on the University of Florida campus during the
period between January and November 1966. As such, the authors were not
brought together as is increasingly the case nowadays when one sees a
collection of papers related to the problems of economic development and
agriculture. Each author worked independently of the others. As the
editor admits, there are duplications of ideas as well as differences in
ideas among the authors. Editorial revisions of the papers were kept to
a minimum and the reconciliation of these duplications and differences
is left to the reader.