bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ethics and Law from an International Perspective: The Relationship between National Psychological Association Ethics Codes and Civil Law
Authors: Behnke Stephen , Jones Stan
Published: February 2013

The authors use a novel methodology to gauge how the ethics codes of national psychology associations define the relationship between psychology and the society in which it is practiced. Using ethics codes available in English through the IUPsyS compendium project, the authors examine how national ethics codes make reference to civil law, an indicator of how psychology associations view their relationship to society. The authors identify several ways in which civil law appears in ethics codes. The five national ethics codes that refer to civil law the most are further scrutinized as to whether they impose an obligation to follow the law, provide a means for adjudicating ethical–legal conflicts, specify domains germane to law, address forensic activities, and incorporate transcendent human rights. Some national associations view ethics and law as inextricably intertwined. Other associations adopt a more detached relationship, whereby ethics and law operate largely in two separate realms.
Latin and South America
Authors: Consoli Andrés J. , Ardila Rubén , Ferrero Andrea
Published: February 2013

Ethics in psychology in Latin and South America have become an important, even central area in the discipline. Latin and South American countries have advanced an organized psychological discipline by creating professional societies and Colegios, developing ethics codes, and writing laws regulating the practice of psychology. These countries have sought to systematize the training and eventual accreditation in psychology through regional agreements such as NAFTA, Southern Common Market, the Andean Community, and the Central American Council on Accreditation. In this chapter we review the status of psychology and psychological ethics in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and Puerto Rico. All countries have developed a national code of ethics applicable to all psychologists in the country, and have instituted an ethics committee to attend possible complaints against professionals. All codes share a similar structure, highlight ethical principles, and articulate a code of conduct.
Turkey
Authors: Korkut Yeşim
Published: February 2013

The development of psychological ethics in Turkey is closely related not only to the development of psychology in the country, but also to the trends in psychology in other countries. On a deeper level, political and social changes in the world have influenced both psychology and psychological ethics. In this chapter, therefore, the main aim is first to provide an overview of the history of psychology in Turkey. Furthermore, the influence of Western psychology beginning in the early 1900s, the development of the discipline of psychology in Turkey, and the rapid and systematic development of psychological ethics in Turkey during the most recent decade will be presented. Finally, in light of these interwoven processes, a discussion about the future of psychology and psychological ethics will be provided.
Taking Stock and Looking Forward
Authors: Lindsay Geoff , Stevens Michael J. , Leach Mark M. , Ferrero Andrea , Korkut Yeşim
Published: February 2013

In this chapter we offer a summary and synthesis based on the sections of the Handbook, present topics and issues related to psychological ethics that have recently received and will likely continue to receive significant attention worldwide, and address emerging challenges, such as the feasibility of a universal code of ethics, given global events and forces. We describe and evaluate the progress that psychology and psychologists have made in developing an ethical scientific and applied practice, and provide several recommendations on how best to ensure the international adherence to the ethical principles and standards of conduct in the various activities in which psychologists around the world are engaged.
Measuring Value: Pharmacoeconomics Theory and Practice
Authors: Towse Adrian , Drummond Michael , Sorenson Corinna
Published: February 2013

Government-run or -regulated health care systems have adopted complex systems of economic regulation to control pharmaceutical expenditures, which are generally an ad hoc mix of historical policies. There has, however, been a substantial increase in the number of third-party payers using formal cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) or pharmacoeconomic approaches for assessing the value of drugs, vaccines, and other health technologies to inform decisions about pricing, reimbursement, and use within their health care systems. This article explores the theoretical and practical issues that have arisen in the application of CEA for drugs to resource allocation decisions in health care and in the regulation of pharmaceutical prices and use. It begins by outlining the evolution of CEA from the practice of health technology assessment.
Price Indexes for Prescription Drugs: A Review of the Issues
Authors: Aizcorbe Ana , Nestoriak Nicole
Published: February 2013

This article begins by describing the many challenges of constructing meaningful price indexes in medical markets. It examines practical issues associated with how prescription drug price indexes are constructed in the United States and how they may be used to decompose the growth in spending into price and quantity components. It shows that drug price indexes are very sensitive to a number of modelling decisions, such as whether to use price per day of treatment, price per prescription, or price per package; whether to define a product narrowly (e.g., with a national drug code [NDC] that represents a product) or broadly (e.g., as a molecule, which includes both the patented drug and any generic entrants); and how often to change the weights assigned to each item in the basket. For example, between 2003 and 2005 the narrow NDC-based price index grew about twice as fast as the broader molecule-based index due to patent expirations and switching to generic alternatives during this period.
Feminist Multicultural Psychology: Evolution, Change, and Challenge
Authors: Enns Carolyn Zerbe , Williams Elizabeth Nutt , Fassinger Ruth E.
Published: February 2013

This chapter traces the “herstory” of feminist multicultural perspectives in counseling psychology from 1970 to the present. It highlights the activities, events, products, groups, and organizations that have contributed to feminist multicultural and social justice perspectives. The chapter chronicles the challenges of integrating multicultural and feminist perspectives and notes developments and changes with regard to (a) defining sex and gender; (b) conceptualizing the intersections of oppression, power, and privilege; (c) understanding complex and subtle forms of bias in the twenty-first century; (d) exploring research methods for studying complex intersections of multiple identities; and (e) clarifying concepts and structures that support feminist multicultural theory, ethics, and practice. Chapter themes provide a foundation for the contents of this handbook, which focus on contemporary frameworks for feminist multicultural counseling psychology; the contributions and experiences of diverse groups of women and persons with multiple social identities; major theory and practice areas in feminist multicultural counseling psychology; and advocacy, training, and social justice applications.
Feminist Multicultural Counseling Psychology and Poverty
Authors: Smith Laura , Appio Lauren , Chang Jennifer
Published: February 2013

Within social justice theorizing, issues of poverty and social class receive relatively little focused attention, yet the convergence of feminist and multicultural counseling psychology provides a natural context for such considerations. In this chapter, the authors support this idea by outlining trends within feminist and multicultural psychology, and then go on to describe recent innovations by counseling psychologists that point the way toward socially just counseling practice in the context of poverty.
Realidades Culturales y Identidades Dimensionadas: The Complexities of Latinas’ Diversities
Authors: Gloria Alberta M. , Castellanos Jeanett
Published: February 2013

To understand the realities and complexities of Latinas’ multidimensionality of identities, this chapter addresses the different sociocontextual considerations and cultural dimensions and roles with which they contend. Implementing a gender-cultural strength lens, the ways by which Latinas infuse their multiplicity of identities as a strength-based and powerful process are examined. Through the bridging of Latinas’ cultural and familial costumbres, valores, y practicas culturales (customs, values, and cultural practices), the chapter emphasizes the energetically spiritual transmissions of Latinas’ internal strength patron (blueprint) while (re)defining una buena mujer and the process of tranformation to una Latina poderosa (a powerful Latina).
Asian American Women’s Feminism: Sociopolitical History and Clinical Considerations
Authors: Suzuki Lisa A. , Ahluwalia Muninder K. , Alimchandani Anjali
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides a multicultural counseling psychology perspective highlighting theory and research that conceptualizes the experiences of Asian American women, a group characterized by diverse histories and social locations within the United States. A historical and political context is provided, beginning with the examination of federal legislation that has impacted the immigration patterns of Asian American women for over a century. Controversies surrounding a pan-Asian identity and intersectionality theory are illustrated, along with stereotypical portrayals of Asian women in the media. Asian conceptions of psychology and mental health are outlined, along with clinical considerations from a cultural perspective. Mental health concerns in the Asian American community are identified. The formation of social networks of Asian American women is discussed, as well as their impact on the women’s movement within this community. In addition, this chapter cites the unique characterization of feminism within the interdependent and often bicultural community of Asian American women.
Feminist Multicultural Counseling Psychology with American Muslim Women
Authors: Mahmood Amina
Published: February 2013

The psychological literature about American Muslim women is sparse, suggesting that little is known about this population. Much of the research conducted on Muslim women originates in the United Kingdom and Canada. The American context experienced in the United States is unique and colors the experiences of, and challenges faced by, American Muslim women. This chapter provides an introduction to the American Muslim population, the Islamic faith that unites and is common to these women, and some common psychosocial concerns experienced by American Muslim women.
Feminist Multicultural Counseling with Traumatized Individuals
Authors: Courtois Christine A.
Published: February 2013

Feminism has greatly contributed to the treatment of trauma, especially of the sort that involves interpersonal victimization. Additionally, contemporary feminism has been crucial in identifying the scope of interpersonal violence against females, identifying these events and experiences as traumatic, and providing philosophical foundations and strategies for psychotherapy. It has also encouraged the understanding of the victimization in terms of cultural and other contextual considerations that contributed to its occurrence. Trauma victims and survivors benefit from a treatment that is oriented toward re-empowerment, encouragement of their personal strength and resilience, an understanding of adaptations to trauma as survivor skills rather than pathology, an understanding of their unique individual and social characteristics and the influence they have on both the occurrence of their victimization and their recovery. Therapists who treat traumatized clients from a feminist/multicultural model must attend to the potential points of accord, as well as to the points of disagreement between the two, and to the multiple identities and individual needs of each client.
Feminist, Multicultural, and Social Justice Pedagogies in Counseling Psychology
Authors: Sinacore Ada L. , Ginsberg Freda , Kassan Anusha
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides a review of the extant literature on multicultural education and related competencies and pedagogy, feminist theories and pedagogy, and queer pedagogy. In this light, we analyze the literature on the feminist classroom and the challenges that educators experience when employing feminist pedagogy. This discussion is followed by a review of the relationship between multicultural and feminist pedagogies in light of the social justice agenda proposed at the 2001 Houston Counseling Psychology Conference and the challenges of implementing its goals. Lastly, the authors identify future directions and encourage counseling psychologists to build upon the intersections of feminism and multiculturalism to develop a social justice pedagogy for the discipline.
Multicultural Feminist Training, Supervision, and Continuing Education: Concepts, Competencies, and Challenges
Authors: Miville Marie L.
Published: February 2013

This book chapter summarizes key concepts of multicultural feminist training and education, including an intersectional conceptualization of multiple identity dimensions; the development of a consciousness or awareness regarding the impact of oppression of individuals, particularly interlocking oppressions; self-reflection; themes of power and empowerment; collaborative and systemic working relationships; and the promotion of advocacy and social change. Pedagogical and curriculum considerations are presented, and individual program and professional organizational initiatives are discussed. Best practices at the individual program level typically infuse multicultural feminist concepts throughout the entirety of training. Organizational efforts include the Counseling Psychology Model Training Values Statement Addressing Diversity, the Integrated Training Model, and the Advocacy Competencies. Challenges involved in adopting a multicultural feminist training program are discussed, and recommendations are made for resolving these dilemmas. Sections on supervision and continuing education highlight concepts and strategies that have been proposed for these types of training activities. Future directions and relevant discussion questions are described.
Activism, Advocacy, and Social Justice in Feminist Multicultural Counseling Psychology
Authors: Norsworthy Kathryn L. , Abrams Elizabeth M. , Lindlau Stefanie
Published: February 2013

The fields of feminist, multicultural, and counseling psychology have historical roots in activism, advocacy, and social justice. Most of the existing literature exploring the intersections of these three fields of psychology has focused at the micro-level. In this chapter we (a) define and elaborate on the concepts of social justice, activism, and advocacy, particularly focusing on the meso and macro levels within feminist multicultural counseling psychology; (b) discuss the various contexts in which social justice work is taking place; (c) weave together the existing literature with interview data to illustrate the multifaceted work of feminist multicultural counseling psychologists involved in activism, advocacy, and social justice activities at these larger systemic levels; and (d) make recommendations for future directions in feminist-social justice counseling psychology.
Making the Political Personal
Authors: Williams Elizabeth Nutt , Enns Carolyn Zerbe
Published: February 2013

This chapter highlights the themes that have emerged across the various chapters in this work, the Oxford Handbook of Feminist Multicultural Counseling Psychology. Specifically, three primary themes arose. First, the authors spoke to the need for a new paradigm for understanding power and privilege in everyday decisions. They detailed the importance of questioning what is considered normative and of confronting oppression and discrimination at all levels. Second, the authors emphasized the need for the true integration of feminist and multicultural approaches, a recurring and yet unrealized call for change in the literature. Third, the authors raised the importance of refocusing on the roots of counseling psychology (e.g., hygiology, individual differences, prevention, and social justice). Finally, the perceived roadblocks to positive change as well as specific advice to the next generation of feminist multicultural counseling psychologists are overviewed, as feminist multicultural counseling psychologists are called to examine the ways in which the political is personal.
The Scope of Justice, Intergroup Conflict, and Peace
Authors: Opotow Susan
Published: February 2013

The scope of justice—our psychological boundary for fairness—changes over time in ways that have relevance for intergroup conflict and peace. A shrinking scope of justice narrows the applicability of justice and can support destructive intergroup conflict and violence, while an expanding scope of justice widens the applicability of justice and supports mutual respect, constructive approaches to conflict, and the potential for peaceful intergroup relations. The chapter first discusses the scope of justice along with two related constructs, moral exclusion and moral inclusion. It then presents four brief case studies, two on moral exclusion and two on moral inclusion. It concludes by comparing these two sets of cases, discussing their implications for a theory of exclusionary and inclusionary change and the relationship of such change to intergroup conflict and peace.
Addressing Intractable Conflict Through Interactive Problem-Solving
Authors: d'Estrée Tamra Pearson
Published: February 2013

Conflict, defined as a perceived divergence of interests, goals, values or needs, can be both constructive and destructive (Curle, 1971; Deutsch, 1973; Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994). However, intractable conflicts become mires of human misery that trap parties in spirals of recrimination, dehumanization, and violence. What is needed to change this dynamic is intervention into the interaction itself, such that one can reperceive the other, reassess priorities and options, and design joint solutions. This chapter discusses interactive problem-solving as one method useful for creating both new intergroup attitudes and joint solutions. This social-psychologically informed approach is uniquely positioned to engage conflicting parties in both relational change and concrete solution building, with the added potential to impact structural injustices that anchor intractable conflicts.
Transitional Justice and Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Hamber Brandon
Published: February 2013

This chapter considers the impact of transitional justice mechanisms on intergroup conflict. Specifically, it discusses two of the most popular and large-scale transitional justice methods, namely, justice-based mechanisms and truth commissions. The chapter not only explores arguments about how these mechanisms can improve intergroup relations but also considers the limitations associated with each. It argues that transitional justice mechanisms can create a context where intergroup relations can be fostered, but equally they carry risks and could aggravate intergroup conflict. The chapter concludes that multiple transitional justice mechanisms are needed in societies moving out of conflict (e.g., justice-based approaches, reparations, and truth commissions), but that transitional justice processes are only part of what is needed to address intergroup conflict. Complementary processes are necessary to maximize the impact of transitional justice mechanisms on intergroup relations, and vice versa. Such processes include ensuring social justice and sustaining programs aimed at addressing intergroup conflict (e.g., dialogue, contact, reconciliation programs).
Educational Programming for Deaf Children with Multiple Disabilities: Accommodating Special Needs
Authors: Knoors Harry , Vervloed Mathijs P. J.
Published: February 2013

Many deaf children have multiple disabilities. In this chapter the concept ‘“multiple disabilities’ disabilities” is explained. Subsequently etiology is discussed, followed by information about deafblindness, deafness and autism, and deafness and intellectual disabilities. Educational accommodations, including assessment, access to communication and language (including cochlear implantation), and curricula for deafblind children, are the subject of the remainder of this chapter.
Bilingualism and Literacy
Authors: Connie Mayer , Akamatsu C. Tane
Published: February 2013

Bilingual approaches in the education of deaf students have been in place for almost three decades and debate continues as to the merits of these programs, particularly with respect to the relationship between bilingualism and the development of text-based literacy. This chapter is divided into three parts. The first section examines the theoretical frameworks which that underpin the move to bilingual models of education for deaf students with a particular emphasis on the expectations with respect to the development of literacy. References are made to other bilingual contexts in which the research on this point has been more extensive and exhaustive. This is followed by a review of the literature within the context of deaf education beginning with the earliest studies from the 1980’s. The chapter concludes with a summary and synthesis of what has been learned from the research to date and positions this review in the context of the outcomes suggested by the theory and by the research from other bilingual settings. Suggestions are made and questions posed as to directions for future study and research.
Parent–Infant Interactions: A Transactional Approach to Understanding the Development of Deaf Infants
Authors: Traci Meg , Koester Lynne Sanford
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we address concerns regarding how deafness affects the very young child, how a deaf child is likely to affect hearing parents, and how the family’s decisions and actions can support the optimal development of this child. Qualitative differences exist in various aspects of the development of deaf and hearing children, and their varying experiences of the world influence their psychological development in ways that may not yet be fully understood. Throughout development, personal attributes of deaf children mandate different social supports than those required by hearing children. During the first years of life, individuality is reflected in the different experiences of deaf toddlers (e.g., cultural contexts, exposure to sign language, use of hearing aids or cochlear implants, interactions with depressed parents, etc.) and their different personal resources (e.g., dialogue skills, communication styles, attachment relationships, emotional regulatory skills, sense of self, etc.). Sameroff’s “Transactional Model” is applied to explain these reciprocal influences in the parent-–child interaction system. As the Papoušeks have asserted, certain factors may negatively affect the “harmonious interplay” normally expected between parents and infants: (1) missed opportunities for communication as a result of perinatal complications; (2) infant disability leading to diminished intuitive parenting; (3) mismatched style between infant and parent; and (4) prolonged need for preverbal communication. The first two are discussed from a family systems approach as stressors for hearing parents. The third factor is addressed in relation to temperament, “goodness-of-fit,”, and interactional reciprocity, while the fourth is expanded upon with emphasis on communication needs.
Interpreters and Interpreter Education
Authors: Monikowski Christine , Winston Elizabeth A.
Published: February 2013

The professionalization of sign language interpreting and interpreters is still evolving, although the actual work of the interpreter has been occurring for generations. This chapter is about the profession of American Sign Language/English interpreting in the United States and the education required to succeed in that profession. It begins with a chronological summary of the most compelling research in the field, as well as issues that show the field’s beginnings and reflect a vision for the future. The chapter continues with a look at relevant research and the evolution of the task of American Sign Language/English interpreting, the role of interpreters, quality control, the current status of interpreter education, and goals for the future.
Technologies for Communication: Status and Trends
Authors: Harkins Judith E. , Bakke Matthew
Published: February 2013

The last 30 years have seen remarkable innovation in communication technology. People who are deaf or hard of hearing have benefited enormously from new communication products and services. The great strides industry has made in data-processing power, miniaturization, and digitization of previously analog technologies, plus the rapid growth of the Internet, mobile networks, and broadband services have resulted in significant improvement in both visual communication technologies and those designed to restore or enhance hearing. Electronic mail, text messaging, the World Wide Web, and smartphones have altered the communication habits of billions of people, with the result that deaf and hard of hearing people can communicate directly with hearing friends, family, co-workers, and businesses using common technologies. Fast processing in small chips has led to improved hearing aids and cochlear implants. Concurrent with these developments, new public policies have required companies in the communications industries to improve the accessibility of their products.

This chapter describes key developments in a wide range of communication technologies used by deaf and hard-of-hearing people, and concentrates on the 1990s and beyond. The first section of the chapter focuses on visual access to communication technologies, and the second section addresses developments in hearing-related technologies such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and assistive listening devices.
Culture and Evidence-Based Management
Authors: Potworowski Georges A. , Green Lee A.
Published: February 2013

This chapter explicates the role that organizational culture plays in the ways that evidence is used to inform management practice. Both culture and the process of making management practice evidence-based are multifaceted. Drawing on various literatures, we offer a cultural framework to help one assess how and why evidence-based management (EBMgt) is or is not used in a particular organization. We characterize culture as a complex, but only partly coherent, set of patterns shared by a group, where a pattern consists of mutually supporting beliefs, values, and practices. Patterns vary in what they are about, how broad, connected, and coherent they are, as well as how important they are to a given culture. Each of these factors affects how easy it is to change a pattern and change culture. We frame EBMgt as a pattern, outline its core beliefs, values, and practices, and then explain which cultural patterns are necessary in an organization if the EBMgt pattern is to take root. We go on to identify eight ways in which culture and EBMgt affect each other, and conclude by suggesting steps to implement EBMgt in organizations, research programs, and classrooms.
Teaching and Learning Using Evidence-Based Principles
Authors: Goodman Jodi S. , O’Brien James
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we present several cognitive learning theories relevant for novice, expert, and advanced learning, and we discuss their implications for the instructional design and delivery of university management courses. We describe how evidence-based instructional strategies can be derived from cognitive learning theories, and then we apply the strategies to commonly used teaching practices in management courses. We also address a number of challenges that we believe have impeded evidence-based teaching practice.
The Evolving Financial Architecture of State And Local Governments
Authors: Wallace Sally
Published: February 2013

This article addresses the impact on state and local budgets of the underlying trends and tensions facing state and local governments as the United States pulls out of the Great Recession. Noting that recessions are cyclical and there will be a recovery, it draws attention to the “more fundamental challenge for the US state and local fiscal system—indeed for the sustainability of our system of fiscal federalism.” The article focuses on the demographic, economic, and institutional trends that determine expenditure needs and shape revenue sources but that are largely beyond the control of state and local policymakers. Demographic characteristics include the changing rate of growth of the population and its age and ethnic composition as well as shifts in migration flows and household composition across regions.
Federal Preemption of Revenue Autonomy
Authors: Eads James R.
Published: February 2013

Citing the evolving limits on the power of state and local government to tax, this article catalogues the major federal preemptions (more than half of which have been enacted since 1969) of state and local taxing powers, starting with those that relate to federal government instrumentalities and the treatment of federal employees (including service members) to that of interstate telecommunications and employment matters. It concludes by arguing that though a case can be made for selective federal preemptions of the state tax base there is an equally important concern that the federal government will overreach. By drawing on the work of the US Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, the article then offers a set of guidelines for avoiding what Alexander Hamilton would have likely regarded as a “usurpation of power not granted by the constitution.”
State Personal Income Taxes
Authors: Cordes Joseph J , Juffras Jason N
Published: February 2013

This article examines the economics of the personal income tax (PIT), which is the second largest source of state and local government own-source revenues, after the property tax. When viewed from the state perspective (91 percent of PIT collections are made by states), the PIT is the largest source of own-source revenue, surpassing the general sales tax (26 percent for PIT versus 23 percent for general sales tax). Because policymakers make tax choices given their own economic, demographic, and institutional circumstances, there is wide diversity in its use: forty-one states and the District of Columbia tax a broad base of wage and capital income, while two other states tax only interest and dividend income. The seven states that do not levy a state personal income tax typically have an especially large capacity to tax alternative bases, such as consumption or the extractive industries. Following a state-by-state description of key statutory provisions, the article evaluates how the PIT performs when judged against the criteria of revenue elasticity, equity, efficiency, and administration.
Housing Policy: The Evolving Subnational Role
Authors: Buckley Robert M. , Schwartz Alex F.
Published: February 2013

This article provides both a policy primer and an analytical guide to the evolving subnational role in US housing. It traces developments that began in the 1970s. The article begins with an overview of housing's role in the economy (what was seen as an unbroken success came apart with the mortgage crisis that began in 2007). It then moves along to trends in housing tenure and an analysis of why concern for the affordability problem is increasing due largely to the interplay between the functioning of the housing market and the nation's widening wealth and income inequality.
Public Employee Pensions and Investments
Authors: Listokin-Smith Siona
Published: February 2013

This article surveys the landscape of state and local retirement systems and assembles a long list of policy ideas and concerns. On average, public pension funds are in trouble, and the unfunded liabilities promise to strain tight public budgets. But not all systems are having difficulties. Overall, there are many dark clouds on the horizon. What are needed are more realistic actuarial assumptions, setting contribution floors, reducing the generosity of benefit structures, and sharing more costs with employees. States facing severe underfunding of pensions need dramatic reforms. Pensions are only part of the problem: other postretirement benefits (particularly those involving health care) exacerbate the financial trauma that lies ahead. The article notes that the states with severe funding problems face unsavory choices. They should assume a lower rate of return on investments.
Long-Term Consequences of Child Neglect in Low-Income Families
Authors: Widom Cathy Spatz , Nikulina Valentina
Published: February 2013

Child abuse and neglect are serious problems confronting professionals in public health, justice, social services, and education in the United States and elsewhere. Of all forms of child maltreatment, neglect is the most common form, and the overlap of poverty with child neglect has been most pronounced. This has led some to speculate that the consequences of childhood neglect are primarily driven by the poverty associated with childhood neglect, rather than the neglect itself. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the overlap between childhood neglect and poverty; to call attention to the similarity in outcomes associated with each; to describe recent research that examines the contributions of childhood neglect and childhood poverty to mental health, academic, and behavioral outcomes; and to discuss several challenges that confront the field of child neglect research and questions that warrant future research.
Family Factors, Childcare Quality, and Cognitive Outcomes
Authors: Pungello Elizabeth Puhn , Gardner-Neblett Nicole
Published: February 2013

The ecological model posits that dynamic associations among the environmental contexts in which children develop influence development. Two environments in which many young children develop today are the home and child care. Numerous studies have examined the effects of family factors and child care experiences on children's cognitive and language development. Of particular interest has been how the effects of these contexts might interact. While the weight of evidence supports the hypothesis that they do, such that the effects of early care experiences are stronger for higher risk children, not all studies find evidence for moderation. Further work is needed that investigates the interactions between specific proximal processes taking place in both the home and care environments and the underlying mechanisms that result in the interaction effects found, takes a strength-based approach rather than solely a deficit model of functioning in economically and culturally diverse families, and incorporates the experience of multiple care settings both concurrently and over time.
Child Health and Early Education
Authors: Crosnoe Robert , Wu Nina , Bonazzo Claude
Published: February 2013

Poverty presents risks to children's health and education, and these risks have been targeted by policy and intervention for decades. Increasingly, such action is focusing on early childhood as a critical period in the creation and maintenance of socioeconomic disparities in health and education, reflecting the insights of theoretical models from psychology and sociology as well as econometric cost-benefit analyses of extant programs. This chapter makes the case for other kinds of advances in this area with a review of past research and theory, statistical analysis of nationally representative data on American children, and qualitative analysis of data from parents and teachers in a single public pre-K setting. Such advances include expanding the conception and measurement of poverty to include nonincome aspects of parents’ human capital, like maternal education, and recognizing that the potential feedback between health and education requires that efforts to address one should also consider the other.
Child Care and Early Education for Low-Income Families: Choices and Consequences
Authors: Johnson Anna D. , Brooks-Gunn Jeanne
Published: February 2013

Recent research suggests both that more children are experiencing early care and education (ECE) than ever before, and also that participation in ECE programs may be especially important for the development of low-income children. In this chapter, we discuss the potential of ECE programs to enhance developmental outcomes for low-income children. Specifically, we review issues of access to ECE for low-income families, including who uses ECE and what publicly funded ECE options exist. We discuss definitions and measurement of quality in ECE, as well as evidence for the effects of early intervention and ECE on children. The chapter concludes with suggestions for next steps for research.
Evidence-Based School Interventions to Reduce Achievement Inequality
Authors: Gamoran Adam , Turley Ruth N. López , Fiel Jeremy
Published: February 2013

Achievement inequality stands out as a vexing issue for educators and researchers alike. While schools are not the only source of inequality, policy makers often look to schools to address the problem. This chapter reviews evidence-based approaches to school interventions intended to reduce U.S. achievement inequality for children from ethnic and racial minority groups and those with low socioeconomic status. The key challenge in assessing school-based interventions is distinguishing program effects from effects of selection into programs. School-based randomized trials are an important response to this challenge and evidence from randomized interventions deserves special weight, but experiments also have limitations and it is appropriate to review a broader literature, including mixed-methods studies, while bearing in mind the quality of evidence available. Large-scale interventions such as school desegregation, class-size reduction, and comprehensive school reform have revealed some benefits for reducing inequality. Research on more localized interventions such as tutoring, parent involvement, and reduction of stereotype threat may hold even greater promise for reducing inequality, but the size and generalizability of their effects is still uncertain.
Poverty and HPA Functioning in Young Children
Authors: Mills-Koonce W. Roger , Towe-Goodman Nissa
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides a detailed summary of the effects of poverty and poverty-related stressors on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity in young children. The HPA axis is a primary component of the human stress responses system and has been implicated in multiple domains of normative functioning, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes, as well as the development of psychopathology in children and adults. The primary focus of this chapter is on the environmental correlates of cortisol in young children, including the diurnal patterns of baseline levels as well as cortisol reactivity and regulation levels of cortisol in response to emotional challenge or stress. We examine associations between poverty contexts and HPA functioning, as well as potential experiential mediators of these associations, including family processes, child care, and broader environmental variables. The short- and long-term implications of these associations are discussed, as well as potential future directions for this research.
Neighborhood Effects on Children's Achievement: A Review of Recent Research
Authors: Sastry Narayan
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes studies published in the last 10 years that have examined the effects of neighborhood characteristics on children's academic achievement in the United States. There have been a considerable number of published studies and substantial advances in our understanding of this topic. Overall, there seem to be small but clear negative effects for children of growing up in a poor neighborhood that are beyond the effects of growing up in a poor family. This conclusion is based on a variety of different national and local studies that use a range of data sources and statistical approaches. However, knowledge of the specific pathways through which neighborhood factors operate to affect children's achievement is only beginning to emerge.
Poverty and Possibility in the Lives of American Indian and Alaska Native Children
Authors: Spicer Paul , Sarche Michelle
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of well-documented disparities impacting American Indian and Alaska Native children, coupled with an anticipation of the possibilities for integrating research and services for children and families in more culturally appropriate ways. We focus particularly on economic inequality, educational opportunities and disparities, mental health, and substance use. We describe the predicaments and opportunities in tribal territories, and emphasize ways that interventions can be designed that will maximize parent and family choices and respect for cultural differences in addressing the problems that young children and their families continue to face. Finally, we offer a research agenda to address the compelling needs of for children and families in American Indian and Alaska Native communities.
Poverty, the Development of Effortful Control, and Children's Academic, Social, and Emotional Adjustment
Authors: Lengua Liliana J.
Published: February 2013

The pervasive and long-term effects of poverty on children's social-emotional well-being, academic competence, and mental health may be accounted for, in part, by the effects of poverty on children's developing effortful control. Understanding the effects of poverty on effortful control and the potential mechanisms of those effects is critical for understanding children's adjustment and for the development of preventive or promotive interventions for children growing up in poverty. This chapter reviews the relevance of effortful control to children's academic, social, and emotional adjustment, the developmental course of effortful control, and discusses hypothesized pathways through which poverty might shape effortful control in children. A model is discussed in which greater family stress associated with poverty results in disruptions in parenting and physiological stress responses that, in turn, divert the development of effortful control. The chapter presents evidence for the relations of parenting, family stress, maternal depression, RSA, and HPA-axis activity to effortful control, highlighting potential processes that promote or divert the development of effortful control and of positive adaptation in young children. Recommendations for future research directions are suggested.
Translating Longitudinal, Developmental Research With Rural African American Families Into Prevention Programs for Rural African American Youth
Authors: Brody Gene H. , Kogan Steven M. , Grange Christina M.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we describe the process through which adolescent development, ethnic minority status, and the context of rural poverty influenced an NICHD-funded program of research in which we identified the risk and protective processes forecasting rural African American youths’ developmental trajectories, then translated this research into an efficacious program to prevent alcohol use. The Strong African American Families (SAAF) program, a family-centered intervention for rural youth, was designed to capitalize on naturally occurring protective processes that buffer African American youth from poverty and other hardships that compromise positive development and promote behavior problems in rural communities. The process of translating longitudinal research findings into prevention programming was guided by the Institute of Medicine's prescriptions for prevention development.
The Finds of Papyri: The Archaeology of Papyrology
Authors: Cuvigny Hélène
Published: February 2013

From the first Fayyum find until the First World War, the period of miraculous discoveries lasted barely forty years. In the present era of slavery to the mass media, A. S. Hunt was right in noting that the benefactors and institutions that provide financial support do not have an understanding of archaeology much different from that of the nineteenth century. Treasure hunting and necrophilia are still the order of the day. It is better to find a royal mummy than a papyrus and better to find a papyrus than domestic garbage, however great its informational value. Except for the special case of the Eastern Desert, it is no longer possible to be sure where to look in order to find texts, but it is still quite possible that extended excavation of what is left of urban conglomerates will produce impressive finds.
Conservation of Ancient Papyrus Materials
Authors: Frösén Jaakko
Published: February 2013

Papyrus conservation has had a long history since the first attempts to open the carbonized Herculaneum rolls found in 1752 and to unroll the Charta Borgiana, acquired in 1778. New techniques have always been invented and tested, and old treatments have been revised. This article records the methods used on papyrus materials. These methods include physical control; cellulose treatment; ink fixing; and conserving papyrus, mummy cartonnages, and carbonized papyri.
The Greek and Latin Languages in the Papyri
Authors: Dickey Eleanor
Published: February 2013

For the first thousand years after the end of the classical period, documentary papyri constitute the most important source of information on the development of the Greek language; they are also important for our understanding of Latin, but less so. Greek phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary underwent major changes between the classical and Byzantine periods. These changes are known primarily through the mistakes made by writers of papyrus documents, who would have liked to write in a more classical Greek but (unlike the authors of literary texts) often did not have the education to do so. This article describes these changes in detail, with the probable dates of each, and also examines the language of Latin papyri and ostraca. Sample documents in each language are analysed, with translations into their classical equivalents.
Practical Help: Chronology, Geography, Measures, Currency, Names, Prosopography, and Technical Vocabulary
Authors: Bagnall Roger S.
Published: February 2013

Both editors and readers of papyri, even if they know well the language in which their texts are written, constantly encounter reminders that these artifacts come from another society. These come in the form of a host of technical details. To most readers who are not professional papyrologists, they are simply obstacles to understanding the transaction or some aspect of it that is of interest to them. This article explains the most common and most important of these matters and provides some guidance to works where more detail can be found. Preferring variation in diction, literary Greek was on the whole averse to the use of technical vocabulary. The Greek of the documents, however, has a rich repertory of words used with specialized meanings for particular institutions, offices, taxes, legal acts, and other administrative and legal purposes.
The Papyrology of the Near East
Authors: Gascou Jean
Published: February 2013

The first section of this article discusses the Near Eastern texts from Egypt and discoveries in the Near East. The second section notes that the Near Eastern papyri form five principal bodies: Dura, the Middle Euphrates, Nahal Hever, Petra, and Nessana. The third section discusses paleography, which requires a mastery of many variables and a good knowledge of the Egyptian texts. The fourth section considers formats and diplomatics. The fifth and sixth sections discuss language and law. The seventh section compares Near Eastern papyrology and Egyptian papyrology.