bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Evaluation of Performance-Based Tests Designed to Predict Success in Primary Flight Training
Authors: Blower D.J. , Dolgin D.L.
Published: January 2012

In 1986, the Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory (NAMRL) completed the development of a performance assessment test battery designed to assess cognitive abilities, higher-order processes, psychomotor skills, time-sharing ability, and personality traits. This automated performance-based test battery was intended to augment the Navy's paper-and-pencil selection tests for aviators. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate, in an hierarchical multiple regression model, the constituent tests comprising our performance-based test battery. To further such a goal, this paper presents a statistical assessment of all the tests in the battery when they enter as variables in a regression equation to predict success in primary flight training. Our analysis revealed that derived scores from three tests, (a) Absolute Difference-Horizontal Tracking (ADHT), (b) Complex Visual Information Processing (CVT), and (c) a Risk-Taking Task (RISK), were generally equivalent in predicting success. The derived scores from the Manikin, Baddeley, and Psychomotor/Dichotic Listening Task tests did not account for significant variance. In addition, the linear regression models were not improved by adding the variables of other test sets when the model already included one significant test set. In contrast, interactions of college major and accession source with derived scores of the three significant test sets contributed significant amounts of variability when added to the model. These results appear to indicate differential validity of these selection tests.
Driver Locus of Control: Age and Sex Differences in Predicting Driving Performance
Authors: Laux Lila F. , Brelsford John
Published: January 2012

Increasing age is associated with an increase in the rate (per mile driven) at which drivers have driving accidents, particularly fatal accidents. In the oldest age groups, men in particular are at risk. If beliefs about the controllability of accidents are reflected in differences in safety-related behaviors, and if increasing age is associated with more external control beliefs about accidents, this might be reflected in changes in safety and driving behavior which could result in increased accident rates. We assessed Driver Locus of Control and found mixed support for that hypothesis, depending on sex and control beliefs addressed, in a group of drivers aged 40–92.
Do Intraclass Correlation Coefficients Index Interrater Agreement?
Authors: Mahan Robert P. , Lance Charles E. , LaPointe Julie A.
Published: January 2012

Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) often are used to index the level of interrater agreement for job analysis ratings. Typically, ICCs are calculated from a one-way ANOVA design for each of several rated job characteristics in which multiple job analysts rate multiple jobs. ICCs are highest when between mean square (BMS) is large relative to within mean square (WMS), but they can be low either when (a) WMS is large, in which case ICCs appropriately indicate low interrater agreement, or (b) BMS is small, in which case ICCs reflect the attenuating influence of range restriction on the grouping factor (i.e., jobs). Using two job analysis data sets, we found that (a) ICCs covaried significantly and negatively with WMS components and (b) ICCs covaried significantly and positively with BMS. These restults indicate that ICCs cannot be interpreted unambiguously as indices of interrater agreement because they are substantially affected by the level of between-group variance. Interpretational confounding for ICCs can be circumvented by (a) using statistics designed specifically to index within-group interrater agreement, or (b) applying corrections for attenuation due to range restriction.
Quantifying Subjective Reactions to Wearing Protective Equipment
Authors: Vercruyssen Max , Courter Barbara Jex
Published: January 2012

Subjective rating scales provide a way of quantifying individual perceptions of sensory and other stimuli making them useful to designers, manufacturers, marketing and safety personnel in product evaluation and certification. Quantification of subjective reactions to wearing protective equipment can lead to improvements in user satisfaction, increased equipment use, and a higher level of personal protection. Subjective responses may also determine the effectiveness of protective equipment since perceived discomfort often reduces usage levels. Unfortunately, development of methods for assessing clinical symptoms and subjective reactions in industrial settings has been slow. Useful to those embarking on such research would be a computerized presentation and data collection system which can also be administered in a paper/pencil format. Therefore, proposed is a rating scale system and procedure called Subjective State Change Measures (SSCM) which has been developed for overall quantification of subjective reactions to wearing respirators and other protective equipment. Early experiments utilizing SSCM have demonstrated validity, reliability, sensitivity, convenience, subject acceptance, and ease of data collection and analysis.
The Effect of Symbols on Warning Compliance
Authors: Jaynes Linda S. , Boles David B.
Published: January 2012

The present study investigated whether different warning designs, specifically those with symbols, affect compliance rates. Five conditions were tested: a verbal warning, a pictographs warning with a circle enclosing each graphic, a pictographs warning with a triangle on its vertex enclosing each graphic, a warning with both words and pictographs (triangular enclosures), and a control (no warning). Participants performed a chemistry laboratory task using a set of instructions that contained one of the five conditions. The warnings instructed them to wear safety goggles, mask and gloves. All four warning conditions had significantly greater compliance than the no-warning condition. The highest rate of compliance occurred with the verbal plus pictographs condition, although it did not differ significantly from the verbal condition. A significant main effect was found for the “presence of pictographs” variable, suggesting that the addition of pictographs to a verbal warning will increase compliance rates. The unexpected finding that the pictographs warning with triangular enclosures had significantly lower compliance means than the verbal warning may be due to the different types of message modes or design criteria used. The enclosure shape made no difference in compliance rates, despite research that indicates that unstable shapes are preferred as warning enclosures. The results suggest the importance of conducting behavioral studies rather than relying on preference data.
Highway Safety: Identifying and Coping with the Impaired Driver
Authors: Shinar David
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this symposium is to present a sample of some of the recent highway safety research concerned with the impaired driver, and then discuss that research by (a) placing these studies within the larger scope of the problem, and (b) reviewing some additional recent research in the area. The major issues addressed in the individual presentations include (1) Detecting the impaired driver by using behavioral tests and physiological measures, (2) Applying statistical decision theory to change the probabilities of ‘correct detections’ and ‘false alarms’ by trained police officers and (3) Evaluating human-factors based engineering changes in the roadway environment to aid the impaired driver.
Recognition of the Drug-Impaired Driver by Examination of Behavioral and Physiological Signs
Authors: Burns Marcelline
Published: January 2012

Police officers throughout the United States are being trained as Drug Recognition Experts (DREs) with methods which originated within the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD). The DRE methods were examined in a laboratory study at Johns Hopkins University and a field study in Los Angeles. Drug recognition was approximately 90% correct in both studies. Accuracy varied by drug class with stimulants correctly identified less often than other classes. A DRE may be unable to identify all drugs present in polydrug users. The methods allow arrest of impaired drivers who otherwise would be released.
Analysis of Selected Scaffold-Related Fatal Falls
Authors: Bobick Thomas G. , Bell Catherine A. , Stanevich Ronald L. , Smith Dwayne L. , Stout Nancy A.
Published: January 2012

Data collected by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research contain information on work-related deaths in the U.S. from 1980 through 1985. During this six-year period, a total of 3,491 fatal workplace falls occurred. Of this total, 2,705 (77.5%) were classified as falls from elevations, where 461 (17.0%) were falls from scaffolds. During the period October 1988 to February 1990, 50 fall-related deaths were investigated by NIOSH. Ten (20%) were falls from scaffolding. Descriptive information on both the victims and employers is discussed, along with recommendations for improving workplace safety through known intervention techniques.
Substituting Rapid Prototyping for Task Analysis for a Major System Upgrade Project: Lessons Learned
Authors: Richards Robert E. , Byers James C. , Kuipers David G. , Gilbert Beva Gay , Haney Lon N.
Published: January 2012

Performing a front-end analysis (FEA) is a required part of user training, documentation, and interface development For nuclear-related systems (NUREG CR/0737, DOE Order 5480.6). A traditional FEA for a large existing system can be extremely expensive and require many months to complete. Performing a complete front-end analysis on an emerging or changing system can be even more costly. In some cases, this may be almost impossible because the data required for the later steps in the analysis simply do not exist or are constantly changing. The use of rapid prototyping is less time consuming than the traditional top-down (or sequential front-to-back) approaches used to develop the training, documentation, and human-computer interfaces for new or evolving systems. In addition, it provides for enhanced communication between the analysts, designers, and end users of the system. This paper details the approach taken and the lessons learned for one example of rapid prototyping as applied to a nuclear facility upgrade.
Model Validation, Sensitivity Analysis, and Utilization with Micro SAINT: A Case Study
Authors: Tijerina Louis , Treaster Delia
Published: January 2012

This paper presents the preliminary results of validation, sensitivity analysis, and utilization efforts with Micro SAINT models of the Close-In Weapon System (CIWS) loading operation. In the absence of an external validation sample, an internal validation/verification was conducted to assess how adequately each model represented the data sample from which it was derived. The results of the validation showed that the simulation models were generally well validated by the methods used. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to estimate the effects of inaccurate parameter estimates and to evaluate the effects of shortened or lengthened activity elements on the simulation's output. Results of the sensitivity analyses indicated that, for the CIWS loading operation, changes in task and total completion times were relative to the percentage change in the individual activity element duration and proportional to the duration of the activity element duration. Utilization efforts involved manipulating existing models to assess the impact of crew size and procedural changes on total completion time. CPM and a scheduling heuristic, combined with inspection of the results, were used to develop ‘optimal’ or good feasible manning allocations. Results of this utilization of the Micro SAINT models are presented in the form of completion time statistics.
Modeling Operator Performance in Emergencies
Authors: Woods David D. , Roth Emilie M. , Pople Harry E.
Published: January 2012

Human performance frequently has been shown to be a substantial contributor to the overall reliability of complex dynamic systems. As a consequence, there has been a great emphasis in human factors to develop models of human cognition relevant to these situations as a tool to better predict human performance and to help in the design of improved person-machine systems. This paper describes the Cognitive Environment Simulation strategy towards human performance modeling and summarizes one comparison between system behavior and operator behavior in nuclear power emergency operations.
Task Analysis of Aircraft Inspection Activities: Methods and Findings
Authors: Drury C. G. , Prabhu P. , Gramopadhye A.
Published: January 2012

Unless the U.S. commercial aircraft fleet is maintained with high reliability, we cannot be assured of flight safety with an ageing fleet. Maintenance depends upon inspection to be effective, thus the reliability of aircraft inspection is of paramount importance to safety. To provide baseline data on the current inspection activities of commercial aircraft, a task analysis of inspection by commercial carriers was undertaken as part of the Federal Aviation Administration's National Ageing Aircraft Research Program (NAARP). This paper describes the Task Analysis methodology developed, typical results, and some human-system mismatches detected.
Empirical Identification of User Information Requirements in Command and Control Evaluation
Authors: McCallum Marvin C. , Bittner Alvah C. , Badalamente Richard V.
Published: January 2012

The first in a series of studies was conducted at the U.S. Army Tactical Command and Control System Experimentation Site (AES) to address user information requirements for the Force Level Control System. User information requirements were determined by monitoring and classifying communications during a command and control exercise and by interviewing participants after the exercise. Separate measures of observed communication frequency, rated importance, and rated perishability were obtained for a set of information elements that comprised a comprehensive taxonomy of tactical command and control communications content. Analyses were then conducted to explore the relationships between frequency, importance, and perishability as well as develop a comprehensive index of criticality. The resulting comprehensive index of criticality is intended to be used by systems developers in selecting the information to be conveyed and processed by the Force Level Control System.
Development and Evaluation of a Digital Critical Tracking Task
Authors: Antin Jonathan F. , Gatewood W. Patrick , Dunn Richard S.
Published: January 2012

A study was undertaken to validate a digital critical tracking task (CTT) that was developed against comparable analog versions that have previously been reported, to compare pilot to nonpilot performance on the CTT, and to correlate a priori and subjective measures of tracking difficulty to measures of tracking behavior and performance. Five pilots and five nonpilots were asymptotically trained on the CTT. The data session included 14 trials of subcritical tracking difficulty (as gauged against the ability of each subject individually). Results showed that subject performance was comparable to what would be expected of an analog CTT with similar task parameters, and no significant differences were found between the pilot and nonpilot groups. High correlations were found between performance measures, subjective ratings, behavioral measures, and the a priori measures of difficulty which tends to validate the digital CTT that was developed for use in future studies.
Manpower, Personnel, Training and Safety (MPTS) Simulation Tools: Network and Simulation for Workload Assessment and Modeling (SIMWAM)
Authors: Kirkpatrick Mark , Malone Thomas B. , Heasly Christopher C. , Baker Clifford C.
Published: January 2012

MANPRINT simulations in the early stages of weapon system acquisition involve modeling of functional and task sequences for individual operators/maintainers and for crews. The models identify function and task sequences associated with alternate function allocation approaches and design concepts. One tool developed for the task modeling activity is NETWORK™, a graphic task sequencing tool which establishes the predecessor relationships among tasks and supports the identification of the complete set of tasks. In the assessment of the adequacy of alternate function allocation strategies of roles-of-man vs automation, task sequences are modeled to reflect the distinguishing characteristics of each allocation approach. The allocation concepts and/or design concepts are then evaluated through the use of SIMWAM™ (Simulation for Workload Assessment and Modeling) workload assessment modeling procedure. With SIMWAM the workloads and performance problems for each alternate allocation approach can be determined, and multi-operator workloads can be quantified. During a SIMWAM run, tasks are called when prior tasks are completed. If sufficient operators are available for a called task, then it will be started. Input data which describe a task include a list of qualified operators and the number of these required to perform the task. In attempting to start a task, SIMWAM will assign qualified operators who are currently idle. SIMWAM can also interrupt lower priority tasks in process to obtain operators for higher priority tasks.

This paper describes the NETWORK and SIMWAM tools and presents reports of the results of specific applications of the the two tools.
Prediction of Tank Gunnery Simulator Performance Using the Apts Battery
Authors: Bliss James P.
Published: January 2012

This research investigates the efficacy of the Automated Performance Test System (APTS), a battery of tests measuring basic psychomotor, cognitive, and spatial abilities, to predict complex psychomotor performance on two part-task tank gunnery simulators, TOPGUN and the Videodisk Gunnery Simulator (VIGS). It was hypothesized from past research that the Manikin, Simultaneous Pattern Comparison, and Four-Choice Reaction Time subtests of the APTS would be predictive of TOPGUN and VIGS performances. Additional research goals were to examine the stabilities and reliabilities of APTS, TOPGUN, and VIGS. Forty male undergraduate students were tested on the APTS; afterward, they completed either TOPGUN (N = 20) or VIGS (N = 20) training. Results obtained indicated that Code Substitution, Manikin, and Pattern Comparison were predictive of tank gunnery simulator performance at the p =.01 level. It is concluded that 1) these results need to be replicated, due to the complexity of the analyses conducted, 2) the APTS were found to be very stable and reliable, but TOPGUN and VIGS measures were unreliable, and 3) the unreliable simulator measures limited APTs' surrogate potential.
Responsive Text: A Training Environment for Literacy and Job Skills
Authors: Hillinger Michael
Published: January 2012

Industrial training manuals must often convey sophisticated information to an audience with less than proficient literacy. This paper presents an overview of a hypertext-based system that can compensate for reader deficiencies, serving as an instructional tool for basic literacy skills, as well as means to making job-related information available to training populations with below average reading ability.
Effect of Image Polarity on VDT Task Performance
Authors: Snyder Harry L. , Decker Jennie J. , Lloyd Charles J. C. , Dye Craig
Published: January 2012

Three experiments were conducted in which positive and negative contrast on visual display terminals were directly compared. Operator tasks included visual search and reading, with accuracy and timeliness of response measured. In all cases where significant differences exist, better performance was obtained with negative contrast (dark characters or symbols on a lighter background). The increases in performance range from a low of 2.0 percent to a high of 31.6 percent. Based on the above results, we believe that there are significant advantages in visual task performance obtained from the selection of negative contrast displays.

Current standards that require negative contrast appear to be justified, while future revisions of ANSI/HFS 100-1988 and other standards should seriously consider incorporating negative contrast as a recommendation or requirement.
Symbolic Enhancement of Perspective Displays
Authors: Ellis Stephen R. , Hacisalihzade Selim S.
Published: January 2012

Two exocentric azimuth judgement experiments with a perspective display were conducted with 16 subjects. Previous work has shown these judgements to exhibit a bias possibly due to misinterpretation of the viewing parameters used to generate the display. Though geometric compensations may be used to correct for the bias, an alternate technique selected in the following 2 experiments was the introduction of symbolic enhancements in the form of compass roses. It is suggested that a compass rose with 30° divisions results in overall optimal azimuth estimation accuracy when accuracy and decision time are both considered. The data also suggest that the added radial lines on the compass roses may interact with normalization processes that influence the judgement errors.
A comparison of Space-Based and Object-Based Models of Visual Attention
Authors: Kramer Arthur F. , Jacobson Andrew
Published: January 2012

In the present study we examined the degree to which contour and color could be used to minimize focused attention costs. Twelve subjects performed a task in which they were instructed to respond to a centrally located stimulus and ignore flanking items. The flankers could be either compatible or incompatible with the response of the target. Additionally, the flankers could be embedded in the same object as the target or embedded in different objects. When the target and flankers were embedded in the same object, performance was poorer when the target was surrounded by response incompatible items than when it was surrounded by compatible items. However, the response compatibility effect was eliminated when the target and flankers were embedded in different objects. The results are interpreted within a Hybrid Space/Object-based model of visual attention.
Rifle Marksmanship with Three types of Combat Clothing
Authors: Johnson Richard F. , McMenemy Donna J. , Dauphinee Douglas T.
Published: January 2012

Soldier performance on simple visual, auditory, and psychomotor tasks has been shown to be impaired by the bulkiness of combat clothing. Since rifle marksmanship is a complex task requiring the coordination of simple sensory and psychomotor skills, it was hypothesized that bulky combat clothing would also impair this task which is so critical to successful soldier performance and survival. Each of 30 male soldier volunteers, matched on rifle marksmanship ability, was assigned to one of three clothing conditions of increasing bulk: battle dress uniform, fighting load, or MOPP-IV chemical protective clothing. After four days of practice on the Weaponeer M16 rifle simulator, soldiers were assessed on marksmanship for pop-up targets (in both rifle supported and unsupported conditions) while dressed in the respective combat clothing. Results of a 3 × 2 (clothing × rifle support) analysis of variance showed that (a) regardless of clothing condition, marksmanship was significantly better when the rifle was supported than when it was not supported; and (b) rifle marksmanship was significantly poorer under the MOPP-IV chemical protective clothing condition than under either the fighting load condition or the battle dress uniform condition. The impairment while wearing MOPP-IV is likely due to the awkwardness in obtaining a rapid and proper sight alignment with the MOPP-IV gas mask.
The Effects of Simulator Time Delays on A Sidestep Landing Maneuver: A Preliminary Investigation
Authors: Whiteley James D. , Lusk Steven L. , Middendorf Matthew S.
Published: January 2012

The use of a variety of idealized tracking tasks as a means of studying the effects of simulator time delay has been ongoing for five years at the Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory (AAMRL). Results from these studies generated some interest in evaluating more complex tasks. Based on related in-flight research, a sidestep landing task scenario was selected as a means of making the simulator task more realistic and also sensitive to the effects of time delay. In this experiment, twelve subjects were placed in a final-approach landing configuration and later cued to sidestep to an adjacent, parallel runway. Subjects completed 40 trials in each of three time delay conditions (90,200, and 300 ms) in a latin square design. Significant differences were discovered among the delay conditions in the approach and landing performance data.
An Analytical Study of the Effects of Age and Experience on Flight Safety
Authors: Guide Patrick C. , Gibson Richard S.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are any significant decreases in the safety and effectiveness of pilots by age 60. The data for this study comes from records of general aviation accidents (i.e., for private pilots, commercial pilots, and air transport pilots). This accident data has been acquired from many specialized aviation data banks, these include: NTSB, AOPA, FAA, and the COMSIS Research Corporation. The data were organized into groups according to age of the pilot-in-command (PIC) responsible for the accident. The grouping progresses in five-year increments starting at 20–24, and ending with 55–59. The data were analyzed in terms of different accident statistics (i.e., based upon the number of pilots and the number of hours flown). The results indicate that age and experience both affect safety. The magnitude of these effects and their implications for aviation safety are discussed.
Aging and Speed of Behavior: CNS Arousal and Reaction Time Distribution Analyses
Authors: Greatorex Gretchen L.
Published: January 2012

This research sought to determine the impact of arousal/activation, sex/gender, stimulus quality, practice, and task type on age-related slowing, as measured by reaction time, with analysis of RT distribution characteristics. Forty-four male and female subjects participated in the experiment: 28 young and 16 elderly. Subjects performed four-choice visual reaction tasks while seated and standing (postural stimulation of the central nervous system), with intersession practice and a complete replication of the study on a second day. Visual stimuli were presented as variable choice reaction time (VCRT) and serial choice reaction time (SCRT) tasks, i.e., in intact and degraded forms at varying response stimulus intervals (RSIs) and at a fixed response stimulus interval (RSI = 0), respectively. Data were analyzed by central tendency as well as variance, skewness, and unusually fast or slow responses. In addition to expected age-related slowing, results showed increased variance in elderly RT distributions, an overall shift in elderly versus young RT distributions, and a task dependent change in the shape of elderly RT distributions. For the fixed RSI task, which required sustained continuous performance; it was concluded that elderly subjects had a more difficult time than young subjects transitioning from the previous response to the current stimulus. For the variable RSI task, it was concluded that elderly subjects were more likely than young subjects to be caught “off guard”, unprepared to respond. Standing (increased arousal) decreased the likelihood that elderly subjects would be unprepared to respond thereby reducing speed difference by age. This investigation suggests that several mechanisms interact to cause not only a shift in elderly versus young RT distributions, but also changes in skewness and/or unusually slow responses.
Effects of Age and Sex on Speed and Accuracy of Hand Movements: And the Refinements they Suggest for Fitts' Law
Authors: Brogmus George Erich
Published: January 2012

Based on modifications of Fitts' Law suggested in the literature, 121 unique formulas were tested against reciprocal tapping data from 1,318 subjects (1,047 males and 271 females) who participated in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging from 1960 to 1981 in order to determine the best formula (based on the standard error of estimate) and to examine age and sex differences using this formula. The best formula for males differed from that found for females, resulting in a set of new formulas which take into consideration age and sex and which fit the experimental data better than past formulations. While females were faster than males and young were faster than the old, a substantial portion of age and sex differences might be explained by a speed-accuracy tradeoff.
Text-To-Speech Technology for Dual Party Relay Services
Authors: Tsao Yao-Chung
Published: January 2012

We evaluated several human factors issues involved in applying AT&T Text-to-Speech (TTS) technology to Dual Party Relay (DPR) services for hearing- or speech-impaired end-users. Covered in this paper are: 1) lexical studies that were conducted to gather abbreviations and typographical errors generated by users of the Telecommunications Device for the Deaf (TDD); and 2) a laboratory trial that was performed to evaluate the feasibility of the TTS application and to examine associated user interface issues.

Information gathered from the lexical studies was used for the laboratory trial and for constructing the field trial system. The laboratory trial consisted of several studies, including a comparison between the comprehension of TTS and human voices, identification of a desirable TTS presentation rate, examination of the effects of pauses, and observation of the difficulties related to TTS relay calls. Recommendations were made based on the lab trial results. We concluded that applying TTS to DPR service is feasible. That is, hearing and hearing-impaired subjects can carry on DPR conversations with the use of TTS technology. A field trial was subsequently conducted in California.
Effects of Physical Ability on Working Memory Requirements, Keystroke Rate, and Subjective Workload of Computer Input Devices
Authors: Klein Mary , Malzahn Don
Published: January 2012

A reasonable assumption might be that persons with limited physical ability (persons with cerebral palsy) will experience greater mental effort in performing a physical task. Three computer input devices were used to determine if differences in physical ability result in differences in mental workload estimated by working memory capacity, keystroke rate and efficiency, and subjective workload estimated by the Task Load Index (TLX). The three devices were a voice input system, trackball, and two-degree-of-freedom keyboard with headstick. Subjects with cerebral palsy used the three devices to perform a dual-task and their results were compared with those obtained from a sample of subjects without physical disabilities. Results showed no significant difference in normalized memory capacities between the two groups. However, there were significant differences in Normalized Working Memory Capacity between devices and trials for both groups. As expected, differences in physical ability produced significant differences in keystroke rate, keystroke efficiency, and subjective workload.
A Comparison of Two Tools for Cognitive Task Analysis: Concept Mapping and the Critical Decision Method
Authors: Thordsen Marvin L.
Published: January 2012

Two knowledge elicitation tools for cognitive task analysis are described and compared: Concept Mapping and the Critical Decision method (CDM). Concept Mapping is a procedure that can be used to represent the interviewee's conception of a task by developing a graphical schematic of these perception of the task's components. It is appropriate when one needs to capture the interviewee's cognitive organization of the task's routine elements and how these elements fit together. CDM is highly effective at eliciting tacit knowledge about perceptions, expertise, and aspects of a domain that are often difficult for experts to articulate. It has proven to be an effective tool for capturing the deeper, difficult-to-articulate knowledge that separates experts from novices. Used together, these techniques can be very complementary and effective. Concept Mapping provides an overview of the user's image of the task including information about the clustering of and flow between concepts. CDM is an effective tool for identifying decision strategies, critical cues, situation assessment, goals and intent, expectancies, mental simulation strategies, and improvisation. Used in combination, the techniques can effectively generate recommendations for training and display design.
Using Velocity Control to Navigate 3D Graphical Environments: A Comarison of three Interfaces
Authors: Ware Colin , Slipp Leonard
Published: January 2012

Three velocity control interfaces to three dimensional virtual environments are compared. The interface devices are: a six degree of freedom position sensor, a six degree of freedom isometric joystick, and a conventional mouse in conjunction with a soft control panel displayed on the monitor. In each interface the devices are used to control velocity, and all make use of a quadratic function to map the input to the viewpoint velocity. We use two structured exploration tasks to assess the usability of the different interfaces. In the first task an interviewing technique is used in conjunction with an exploration task which involved examining widely spaced details of the 3D scene. The second task is designed to reveal how well users can interact at different scales using the different devices. Subjects are required to navigate through a tube which varies over four orders of magnitude in size. The results show that subject's behavior is highly constrained by the local size of the tube: they maintained a constant velocity relative to the local size of the tube. They also showed differences in the effectiveness of the different devices in determining traversal rate that the positioning device and the control panel were about equally effective for fast navigation, and both are better than the isometric joystick.
The Missing Link? Comparison of Manual and Automated Linking in Hypertext Engineering
Authors: Nordhausen Bernd , Chignell Mark H. , Waterworth John
Published: January 2012

Most discussions of hypertext usability are not founded in empirical measurement but more on conjectures based on personal experience. In this paper we report on two empirical analyses of hypertext usability, focusing on the quality of links produced by different means. We conducted two experiments to test the predicted relevance and the evaluated relevance of links, that is, where links are evaluated either before or after they are traversed.

In order to evaluate these two kinds of relevance, we conducted two experiments where a hypertext document was created from a printed text. In each experiment we compared the relevances of three different sets of links. One set was created by a human author, whereas the second set was created automatically using the HEFTI (Hypertext Extraction From Text Incrementally) model for converting text into hypertext. We also generated a third set of links by assigning links randomly between nodes.

The main goal of this research was to develop empirical tests that evaluate the usability of hypertext links. A second goal was to test the validity of automatically generated links using the HEFTI model. In this paper we detail the two experiments, and discuss their implication for methods of hypertext usability assessment and design.
“Works as Advertised”: Observations and Benefits of Prototyping
Authors: Bellantone Charles E. , Lanzetta Thomas M.
Published: January 2012

The design of useful, easy to use application software requires early and sustained involvement of end users in the design and evaluation of the user interface. The present paper describes the experiences of the authors during the design and evaluation of a prototype user interface for an accounts receivable application. Some of the issues inherent in prototyping, and the anticipated, as well as unanticipated, benefits of prototyping are discussed.
Reaching Students through Intelligent Tutoring Technology: A Trial of Its-Based Remediation
Authors: Gray Wayne D. , Radlinski E. Robert , Burns Bart , Sabnani Haresh , Morch Anders , Atwood Michael E.
Published: January 2012

For the first trial of its full curriculum, Grace, the NYNEX COBOL Tutor (Gray & Atwood, 1991), was used to provide remedial instruction to selected members of a SUNY (State University of New York) Purchase COBOL class. In this paper, we provide some background on Grace (see Gray & Atwood, 1991 or Gray, Burns, & Schooler, 1989 for more information), an overview of the SUNY Trial, and a comparison of the remedial students to the rest of the class on the final exam (the instructor's criteria).
A Comparative Investigation of Hardcopy vs. Online Documentation
Authors: Krauss F.S. Hunter , Middendorf Kathi A. , Willits LaCinda S.
Published: January 2012

This study was conducted to compare performance on a sample application (training) definition task when an online or hardcopy document was used to complete the task. Performance measures, such as time to complete the task and reliance on help information, as well as user difficulties/errors, indicated that task performance was substantially poorer for subjects using the document online. The online groups performance on a second task, designed to measure how well they had learned the features of the product during the training task, also indicated a performance deficit compared to subjects who used the document in hardcopy format. Primary factors that seem to be involved in these results are the secondary tasks of window manipulation/interactions and navigational issues such as the use of hypertext. It is also suggested that the level of experience with a multi-task/windowing environment may have played a role in the obtained results. These findings have implications for the design of online information, particularly when this information must be used in conjunction with a software application product in a multi-task, multi-window environment such as OS/2. This study also points out the need for further research of the usability of online documentation, particularly when used in conjunction with other software applications.
Methods for Formatting Text Produced with a Speech-Based Editor
Authors: Danis Catalina M.
Published: January 2012

The large number of typists and secretaries in the work force who type documents for others are evidence that a substantial segment of the population can not or will not produce their own documents. There are, however, significant pressures in the work place for shifting some or all of the responsibility for document production to the producer of the document content. Automatic speech recognition systems would make this possible if they were to provide a means for handling formatting operations as well as transcribing content accurately. This study investigated user reactions to six formatting methods (e.g., for creation of a list structure, for beginning a paragraph) in a simulated “document creation by voice” application. The results of this study indicate that subjects preferred the method in which a spoken command was used to produce formatting and immediate recognition feedback was received. The second highest ranked condition was one which required that, in addition, the spoken command be preceded by a mouse click. An argument is made in favor of implementing the second-most favored method because it would allow for the inclusion a number of additional features requested by users.
2-D vs. 3-D Display for Multidimensional Data Visualization: The Relationship between Task Integrality and Display Proximity
Authors: Merwin David H. , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

The current study explores the relationship between the display representation of a multidimensional data base (separated vs. integrated) and the information processing demands of different types of tasks. Subjects answered a range of questions about a complex economic data base while viewing either a 2-D or 3-D (perspective) display of subsets of the data. Animated vs. static representations of dynamic data were also examined. The 3-D display supported better performance than did the 2-D display on the more integrative questions, while no difference between formats was found for questions demanding focused attention. The 3-D display also supported a better visual model of the data space, but did not improve subjects' ability to verbalize the rules underlying this space. Animation did not provide a better means for understanding change information than did the static presentation mode. Implications for the design of data visualization display interfaces are discussed.
Auditory Performance: A Model to Predict Performance as A Function of Auditory Workload: Linguistic Factors
Authors: Birkmire Deborah P.
Published: January 2012

Those linguistic and extra-linguistic factors which appear to be promising candidates for inclusion in a model of auditory workload are discussed. In particular, a method for measuring redundancy in a message set is suggested. Data is reported showing a highly significant correlation between measured redundancy and task performance. Future research directions are proposed.
The Darlington Control Room and Operator Interface
Authors: Fenton E.F. , Duckitt W.
Published: January 2012

The main control room at Ontario Hydro's Darlington Nuclear Generating Station contains the operator interface systems for the four generating units, the common services, and the on-power fuelling equipment. As in all CANDU plants, extensive use is made of digital computer control of the reactor and major process systems, however, at Darlington, a greater reliance is placed on the use of CRT-based information displays as the primary operator interface.
Human Factors Information System: A Tool to Assess Error Related to Human Performance in U.S. Nuclear Power Plants
Authors: Goodman P. Clare , DiPalo Christina A.
Published: January 2012

Nuclear power plant safety is dependent upon human performance related to plant operations. To provide improvements in human performance, data collection and assessment play key roles. To address these concerns, the Human Factors Information System (HFIS) is designed to meet the needs of the human factors specialists of the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). These specialists identify personnel errors and provide guidance designed to prevent such errors. HFIS is a simple and modular system designed for use on a personal computer. It is designed to contain four separate modules that provide information indicative of program or function effectiveness as well as safety-related human performance based on programmatic and performance data. These modules include the Human Factors Status module; the Regulatory Programs module; the Licensee Event Report (LER) module; and the Operator Requalification Performance module. Information from these modules can either be used separately or can be combined due to the integrated nature of the system. HFIS has the capability, therefore, to provide insights into those areas of human factors that can reduce the probability of events caused by personnel error at nuclear power plants and promote the health and safety of the public. This information system concept can be applied to other industries as well as the nuclear industry.
A Macroergonomic Vision of the Year 2000: What in the World are We Doing?
Authors: Imada Andrew. S.
Published: January 2012

As the Human Factors Society matures and the Organizational Design and Management movement (ODAM) completes its first decade, it is appropriate to ponder questions about who we are, what we have done and our likely legacy. The answers to these questions must be grounded in a social reality of our peers and the hard reality of the problems we must solve. The significant world events over the past few years demand that our peer group be an international one. These colleagues can give us a glimpse into the future by describing how ODAM and macroergonomics are being approached around the world and the kinds of problems being addressed. Consistent with the participatory theme often found in macroergonomics, the audience will be encouraged to contribute their vision of the future.
Participatory Ergonomics for Seating - Need for User-Oriented Approach
Authors: Takeoka H. , Yamada S. , Noro K.
Published: January 2012

Nonexperts must be encouraged to participate in ergonomics. This type of ergonomic activity is called participatory ergonomics or participatory approach (Noro 1990). It was planned to organize a class for teaching users how to use their chairs according to the participatory approach. Participants in the class sit on chairs and are taught how to sit on chairs. An office desk-chair adjustment worksheet and seating comfort rating diagram (Noro 1989) were used as tools for conveying the ergonomic view of participants to ergonomic experts. The information gathered by using these tools is fed back for model modification (Noro 1986) and teaching method improvement. The participants are company employees and university students. The organization of the class can be regarded as participatory approach.
Effects of Status on Group Decision Making: Ad Hoc versus Real Groups
Authors: Dubrovsky Vitaly , Kolla Sivayya , Sethna Beheruz N.
Published: January 2012

This study compares effects of status on group decision making in ad hoc student and real supervisor-subordinates groups. Eighteen ad hoc and eighteen real groups of three with one high status and two low status members made decisions on two standard choice-dilemma problems. For each group member, compliance, persuasion, recidivism of opinion, perceived competence-influence, and attractiveness were measured. The results of the T-test and correlational analysis, conducted upon the differences between respective values for a high and average low status individuals, revealed that in both, ad hoc and real groups, high status members had stronger actual and perceived influence on group decisions and attitudes of other group members than low status individuals. In ad hoc and real groups, high status members were the first advocates more frequently than low status members. Analysis of variance showed that the influence of high status members was the strongest, if they were also the first advocates. At the same time, the public compliance of low status members under power pressure, and therefore, consequent recidivism of opinion was significant only in the real groups and not in the ad hoc groups. High status members were first advocates much more frequently in the real groups than in the ad hoc groups. Perceived influence of group members strongly correlated with likability only in the real groups. The correlation was close to zero in the ad hoc groups. Based on our previous study on “status equalization phenomenon” in ad hoc groups communicating electronically, we suggest that in real groups as well, the influence of status can be controlled, at least partially, by technically monitoring access of group members to the first advocacy.
Teams in Transition: Analogous Systems
Authors: Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

We describe a series of analogous systems, from tank crews to emergency room staffs, in which a team of operators must rapidly mobilize to cope with a crisis. The ways in which these teams, and their dynamic responses, may differ are enumerated, and some tentative conclusions drawn by an interdisciplinary panel are offered.