bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
INTELLIGENCE AND THE ABILITY TO LEARN
Authors: Duncanson James P.
Published: August 2014

The attempt to discover the relationships between learning and intelligence and between learning in one task and learning in other tasks has been relatively unsuccessful until recently. Correlations of gains or other learning measures with intelligence and with measures of learning in other tasks were generally found to be low, leading many investigators to conclude that learning ability and intelligence are unrelated and that each learning task requires its own specific learning ability.

A methodological advance was made in the early 1950's in the area of motor learning. A number of ability tests were factor analyzed in a battery which included scores made at various stages of practice on a complex psychomotor task. Inspection of the loadings indicated that abilities did contribute to the learning performance, thus establishing a relationship between abilities and learning. The same approach has since been applied to cognitive tasks with the finding that learning and abilities are related, but that there are also learning factors which are independent of the measured abilities. The present study was an attempt to clarify these learning factors.

Nine learning tasks and a battery of ability tests were administered to 102 sixth‐grade children. The tasks were of three types, concept formation, paired associates, and rote memory, each type including one task with verbal, one with numerical, and one with figural material. The ability measures included intelligence, scholastic achievement, associative memory, memory span, number facility, perceptual speed, reasoning, and vocabulary.

Each learning task was subjected to a separate factor analysis in order to determine the number of factors necessary to describe the learning performances of the subjects on that task. Factor scores were then calculated for the subjects, and the factor scores of all the subjects on all the tasks were entered in a factor analysis together with the scores on the ability measures. Seven factors were extracted and rotated to an equamax solution. One factor was found to be specific to the ability measures. It was interpreted as a speed factor. Three factors were common to the ability and learning measures. They were interpreted as verbal ability, rote‐memory ability, and reasoning ability. Three factors were specific to the learning measures. They were interpreted as verbal learning, nonverbal learning, and concept formation.

It was concluded that (a) measured abilities are related to measured learning performance, (b) learning performance depends upon factors which are independent of ability measures, (c) learning in one task is related to learning in others, and (d) performance in concept‐formation tasks is not related to the ability measures used or to performance in rote‐memory tasks.
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE FACTORS IN THE RECOGNITION OF AMBIGUOUS VISUAL STIMULI
Authors: Frederiksen John R.
Published: August 2014

The effect of five cognitive abilities on the recognition of out‐of‐focus pictures was investigated using a factor extension procedure which is sensitive to differences among the slides in the abilities they require for recognition. In addition to recognition point measures, the subjects received scores reflecting their rate of hypothesis formation during the early stages of blur. The results indicated that the pictures did not all require the same cognitive abilities for their recognition. Nevertheless, some general effects of the cognitive abilities on slide recognition, which were independent of the particular picture, were also noticed. It was found that the ability to visualize (to transform the image of a spatial pattern into other visual arrangements) was negatively associated with early slide recognition, while Speed of Closure (the ability to unify an apparently disparate perceptual field into a single percept) was positively related to early recognition. It was also observed that visualizers tended to make fewer guesses about the blurred pictures than did nonvisualizers, while people who were high in Speed of Closure produced many initial hypotheses. It was found that the chances of recognizing early were greater for subjects who produced many initial hypotheses than for subjects who had few initial ideas.

These results cast doubt upon a theory of interference in visual recognition which states that early erroneous hypotheses inhibit recognition. It was suggested that hypothesis testing is not sequential and that the outcome of perceptual testing is a “confirmed‐not confirmed” distinction, rather than an “accepted‐rejected” one. The results were summarized in a post hoc computer simulation type of model which, also incorporated the hypothesis that interference in perceptual recognition can he accounted for by the tendency for visualization to predominate over the formation and testing of hypotheses during conditions of extreme ambiguity or blur.

Finally, the status of Speed of Closure as a separate, unitary cognitive ability was questioned. On the basis of the great similarity between the relations of recognition point and Speed of Closure to the other variables employed in this study, it was suggested that tests for Speed of Closure may potentially involve the same interference effects which are observed in experiments in perceptual recognition.
CLARIFYING ANCHORED RATING SCALES BASED ON PERFORMANCE INCIDENTS1
Authors: Sprecher Thomas B.
Published: August 2014

The use of factor analysis to analyze a rating construct into separate meaningful components is demonstrated in the context of developing Anchored Rating Scales, as proposed by Smith and Kendall. Substantive results suggesting concepts useful in rating engineers are reported.
AN INTER‐BATTERY FACTOR ANALYTIC APPROACH TO A SOCIOMETRIC PROBLEM1
Authors: Beaton Albert E.
Published: August 2014

This paper has proposed the consideration of data in a sociomatrix as two batteries of variables, choose and chosen. Inter‐battery factor analysis was proposed as a method of factoring the data into components which summarize the data and may be considered as a first step in clique identification. The inter‐battery method seemed superior when compared to principal components factor analysis. A suggestion was made that an extension of existing rotational procedures is necessary for sociometric analysis.
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL CLASS AND RACE ON RESPONSIVENESS TO APPROVAL AND DISAPPROVAL1
Authors: Rosenhan David L.
Published: August 2014

An interaction theory of social class behavior was proposed in which young lower‐class children were presumed to be more alienated and uncomfortable than middle‐class children with middle‐class people and institutions. As a consequence of alienation it was deduced that, relative to middle‐class children, approval should facilitate the performance of lower‐class children while disapproval should retard it. The hypothesis was substantiated. Within the lower class, there were no performance differences between Negro and white Ss, indicating that for young children social class differences are more potent determiners of behavior than are racial differences. The potential implications of the data for longer term performance are noted.
THE PREDICTION OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND THE ABILITY TO DRAW AT A SCHOOL OF DESIGN1
Authors: Skager R. W. , Klein S. P. , Schultz C. B.
Published: August 2014

This research was concerned with the admission of students to a selective school of design. Three issues were raised: (1) interrelationships among various criteria, including academic performance in liberal arts, art, and architecture courses, as well as performance in problems in esthetic drawing assigned as a part of the research, (2) prediction of these criteria by means of measures of aptitude, history, and personality, and (3) the use of such predictors along with other types of information in the admissions process.

Research conducted over a two‐year period on two successive classes of Ss indicated that art and design criteria bore little relationship to performance in liberal arts. However, it was possible to predict academic criteria including a complex measure of performance in liberal arts and design courses. In contrast, predictions of performance in drawing did not hold in cross‐validation, although this observation may in part be due to differences in the drawing problems assigned to the two groups. Measures of visualization and figural redefinition appeared promising for the prediction of performance in design fields, while measures of academic aptitude, verbal abilities (both convergent and divergent), and personality (with the exception of independence and self‐ratings of creativity) in most cases did not relate consistently to the criteria studied.
THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OF A SET OF ARTISTIC DRAWINGS: PERCEIVED STRUCTURE AND SCALE CORRELATES1
Authors: Skager Rodney W. , Schultz Charles B. , Klein Stephen P.
Published: August 2014

Product‐centered research on creativity approaches the criterion problem of what is to be the referent for creativity through the analysis of tangible products such as art objects, writing, or scientific achievements. The present research is concerned with the evaluation and study of artistic drawings contributed by sophomore students at the Rhode Island School of Design. Multidimensional scaling methods were applied to similarity judgments obtained from art experts on two separate sets of 25 drawings. Three similarity dimensions accounted for the interstimulus distances for each set of drawings. Although no statistical test was available, the dimensions from the two sets appeared to correspond. Scale values of 4 drawings common to the two sets were consistent, and the dimensions appeared to define very similar stimulus characteristics. It was concluded that multidimensional scaling procedures provided a means for differentiating among a set of complex, esthetic products. Scale values of drawings on the three dimensions also correlated differentially with cognitive and achievement measures available on the students, suggesting that product dimensions identified via similarity judgments were related to characteristics of individuals producing the products. Hypotheses were developed as to the psychological meaning of the three product dimensions.
ESTIMATING TRUE‐SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING (AN EMPIRICAL BAYES ESTIMATION PROBLEM)*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

The following problem is considered: Given that the frequency distribution of the errors of measurement is known, determine or estimate the distribution of true scores from the distribution of observed scores for a group of examinees. Typically this problem does not have a unique solution. However, if the true‐score distribution is “smooth”, then any two smooth solutions to the problem will differ little from each other. Methods for finding smooth solutions are developed a) for a population and b) for a sample of examinees. The results of a number of tryouts on actual test data are summarized.
STUDENT CURRICULUM DECISIONS
Authors: Halpern Gerald , Norris Lila
Published: August 2014

Grade 10 students at two high schools took the Case Development Questionnaire, an information‐search assessment instrument. A description of the way these students sought to make curricular decisions was obtained: (1) they tended to select information which counselors had judged to be most relevant; (2) their information search sampled the available information areas with the exception of values, which tended to be neglected; (3) their information‐search pattern changed as they received information, i.e., information at first considered important would be reclassified as unimportant (and vice versa) as new information was received; (4) the information area of abilities was considered the most important, plans and interests less important, and values least important.
EFFICIENT ESTIMATION IN IMAGE FACTOR ANALYSIS1
Authors: Jöreskog K. G.
Published: August 2014

The image factor analytic model (IFA), as related to Guttman's image theory, is considered as an alternative to the traditional factor analytic model (TFA). One advantage with IFA, as compared with TFA, is that more factors can be extracted without yielding a perfect fit to the observed data. Several theorems concerning the structural properties of IFA are proved and an iterative procedure for finding the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters of the IFA‐model is given. Substantial experience with this method verifies that Heywood cases never occur. Results of an artificial experiment suggest that IFA may be more factorially invariant than TFA under selection of tests from a large battery.
NEW METHODS IN MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Jőreskog K. G. , Lawley D. N.
Published: August 2014

Until recently the main difficulty in the use of maximum likelihood estimation in factor analysis has been the lack of satisfactory methods of obtaining numerical solutions. This defect has now been remedied, and in this paper we describe new rapid methods of finding maximum likelihood estimates.
ON THE OBLIQUE ROTATION OF A FACTOR MATRIX TO A SPECIFIED PATTERN
Authors: Browne Michael , Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This paper presents a procedure for rotating an arbitrary factor matrix to maximum similarity with a specified factor pattern. The sum of squared distances between specified vectors and rotated vectors in oblique Euclidian space is minimized. An example of the application of the procedure is given.
A GENERAL APPROACH TO CONFIRMATORY MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Jöreskog K. G.
Published: August 2014

We describe a general procedure by which any number of parameters of the factor analytic model can be held fixed at any values and the remaining free parameters estimated by the maximum likelihood method. The generality of the approach makes it possible to deal with all kinds of solutions: orthogonal, oblique and various mixtures of these. By choosing the fixed parameters appropriately, factors can be defined to have desired properties and make subsequent rotation unnecessary. The goodness of fit of the maximum likelihood solution under the hypothesis represented by the fixed parameters is tested by a large sample χ2 test based on the likelihood ratio technique. A by‐product of the procedure is an estimate of the variance‐covariance matrix of the estimated parameters. From this, approximate confidence intervals for the parameters can be obtained. Several examples illustrating the usefulness of the procedure are given.
EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS AS RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

A strategy for evaluation studies is outlined based upon a longitudinal multivariate interactional approach as opposed to the more typical “engineering” approach, which focuses upon input‐output differences. It is argued that evaluative research should encompass the process and context of education in addition to the outcomes of education in order to accrue information relevant to program improvement as well as accountability. It is further suggested that with this conception of evaluative research, the evaluation of educational programs provides a vehicle for advancing social science as well as the social welfare.
THE MEASUREMENT OF PERCEPTUAL‐MOTOR ABILITIES OF HEAD START CHILDREN
Authors: Gordon George , Hyman Irwin
Published: August 2014

A battery of perceptual and perceptual‐motor integrative tasks was developed and administered to a group of economically disadvantaged children enrolled in Head Start classes. The battery, which included widely used as well as newly developed instruments, was designed to conform to a model which conceived of the skills leading to complex cognitive functions as being hierarchical in nature. Performance data and interrelationships are presented for all measures and comparisons made with studies of middle class children wherever possible. The results indicated little deficit for the study group in the basic perceptual and gross perceptual‐motor skills, but a marked deficit in the more complex integrative skills. The appropriateness of the measures for disadvantaged populations is discussed.
A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR MINIMIZING A FUNCTION OF SEVERAL VARIABLES1
Authors: Gruvaeus Gunnar T. , Joreskog Karl G.
Published: August 2014

The Fletcher‐Powell algorithm for minimizing a function of several variables is described. A package of FORTRAN IV subroutines that follows this algorithm with some modifications is given and its use is discussed and illustrated. It is shown that the algorithm can be used also when the variables satisfy certain equality constraints.
AN INFANT STABILIMETER1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Wilson Lloyd
Published: August 2014

A description of an inexpensive, accurate stabilimeter is presented as well as a brief discussion of various measurement problems.
SEQUENTIAL TESTING FOR DICHOTOMOUS DECISIONS
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Rock Donald A. , Cleary T. Anne
Published: August 2014

Two sequential testing procedures for dichotomous decisions were investigated using existing item response data of 4840 college students on three achievement tests. The assignment rules for the sequential test procedures and for short conventional tests were developed using half the sample of students and cross‐validated using the other half. In general, the first type of sequential test required an average of approximately half as many items as the short conventional test for a given degree of accuracy. This is in close agreement with previous theoretical results. The second type of sequential test used knowledge of assignment on one dimension in making the assignment on the second method. The efficacy of this second method depends heavily on the relationship between the two dimensions.
THE SELF‐SCORING FLEXILEVEL TEST*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

Certain modifications of a conventional test can force the item difficulty level to adjust automatically to the ability level of the examinee. Although different examinees take different sets of items, the scoring method provides comparable scores for all. Furthermore, the test is self‐scoring. These advantages are obtained without some of the usual disadvantages of tailored testing.
EFFECTS OF STIMULUS STRUCTURE, MODE OF INSPECTION, AND REPEATED TRIALS UPON ANTICIPATION‐HABITUATION ERRORS IN SPACE LOCALIZATION1
Authors: Baker A. Harvey
Published: August 2014

Factors involving anticipation‐habituation errors in space localization over many repeated trials were investigated with variation in stimulus structure and inspection mode. Initially, Fixation induced greater anticipation error than Free Inspection, whereas Scanning induced less anticipation error than Free Inspection. Over repeated trials, Scanning and Free Inspection showed parallel shifts from anticipation error (undershooting) toward habituation error (overshooting), whereas Fixation showed a much greater shift. Previously, this shift had been found to be greater with low structure (Two Dots) vs. high structure (Unbroken Line) of the stimulus. Here, Scanning minimized whereas Fixation maximized this difference between stimuli. An interpretation is offered in terms of cognitive processes pertinent to the relationship between self and object presumed to be operative in the experimental situation.
AN ALTERNATIVE TO JUILLAND'S USAGE COEFFICIENT FOR LEXICAL FREQUENCIES1
Authors: Carroll John B.
Published: August 2014

A new word usage coefficient, Um, is proposed. It avoids the disadvantages of Juilland's U by (1) taking account of unequally‐sized categories, (2) using a superior measure of the dispersion of frequencies over categories, (3) not permitting Um to be smaller than a certain minimum value greater than zero, even when all occurrences are concentrated in a single category, and (4) scaling the coefficient in terms of a corpus of a “standard million” tokens. Computations are given for illustrative data and discussed.
THE MEASUREMENT OF ACADEMIC INTERESTS
Authors: Katz Martin R. , Norris Lila , Halpern Gerald
Published: August 2014

Data presented in this study of the Academic Interest Measures (ATM) include score distributions for a national sample of high school juniors (N = 15,500), grouped by sex, ability, and curriculum (effects of socioeconomic status were found to be negligible); relationships between AIM and many other variables, such as ability test scores, students' ratings of their own interests, definiteness of occupational plans, years of post‐secondary education planned, scores on information scales, and participation in nonclassroom activities; scale intercorrelations and factor analyses; internal consistency of scores and stability over periods of time.

The psychometric properties of AIM and evidence for its construct validity suggest that it may be useful as a criterion measure.

Data on predictive validities will appear in Part II.

Appendix D, consisting of the norms tables, is separately bound. Appendix E is a self‐scoring form of AIM, devised by Paul B. Diederich.
SOME GENERAL RESULTS ON FIT IN FACTOR ROTATION1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

In this paper a rather general theory of oblique factor rotation is outlined. The main results are formulated as four theorems. Necessary and sufficient conditions are derived for two factor matrices to admit identical factor structures and/or factor patterns with factors having unit variances. These conditions are expressed in terms of eigenvectors and eigenvalues of certain matrices obtainable from the data. It is also shown that two matrices admitting identical factor structures will admit identical factor patterns and vice versa. After introducing the notion of a pair of transformations to identical structures and/or identical patterns, rules are given as to finding such pairs if they exist. Finally, some immediate consequences of the theorems are noted. They concern, for example, the suitable choice of a target structure and/or pattern and a hierarchical order of jointly necessary and sufficient conditions for fitting a specified target perfectly.
A COMPARISON OF SCHOOL MEAN ACHIEVEMENT SCORES WITH TWO ESTIMATES OF THE SAME SCORES OBTAINED BY THE ITEM‐SAMPLING TECHNIQUE1
Authors: Cahen Leonard S. , Romberg Thomas A. , Zwirner Walter
Published: August 2014

The study examined the accuracy of estimating test means for groups of twelfth‐grade students by the item‐sampling technique. The subjects used in the study were from 35 twelfth‐grade schools participating in the National Longitudinal Study of Mathematical Abilities. Half of the students in each school were assigned to a treatment condition where they took a complete 24‐item mathematics test on the first day of testing and took item‐sampled versions of the same test on the second day of testing. A second random group of students within each of the schools took the item‐sampled version of the mathematics test on day 2 but did not take the complete version of the mathematics test on day 1. There was no evidence to indicate that the taking of the complete 24‐item mathematics test influenced the performance on the item‐sampled version on the second day of testing. Reasonably close estimates of mean performance were obtained from the item‐sampling situation as compared to the means estimated from the conventional type of testing. The differences between the means estimated from conventional type testing and from item‐sampling testing were found to diminish as a function of the number of students tested in the school (square root transformation).
THE MEASUREMENT OF ACADEMIC INTERESTS
Authors: Norris Lila , Katz Martin R.
Published: August 2014

This study of predictive validities of academic interest measures is based on a follow‐up through grade 12 and one year after high school graduation of students who had been tested in grade 11. The report focuses on four major topics:

the prediction of marks in grades 12 and 13, with special attention to differential prediction;

the prediction of interests in grades 12 and 13, again emphasizing the contribution of academic interest measures to differential prediction;

the structure of abilities, interests, and values;

the relationships between the independent variables and occupational criteria for the subsample that did not continue in an educational institution during the year after graduation from high school.

Some incidental attention is also given to interest score profiles for various major‐field and occupational groups. Another incidental analysis shows the proportions (classified by sex, socioeconomic status, and ability) of the students followed up after high school graduation who attended four‐year or two‐year colleges or did not go to college.

To assess the distinctive contribution to prediction made by the Academic Interest Measures (AIM), a consistent statistical procedure has been followed. Multiple correlations are given in a progression that always starts with Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test scores, Verbal and Mathematical (PSAT‐V and PSAT‐M), as predictors; then variables from AIM and other predictors are added successively. A major obligation is undertaken to determine the extent to which AIM increases predictive validities when ability scores, and sometimes previous marks, are already available. Finally, the contribution of AIM is compared with that of a simpler rating by students of their own interests in the fields represented by AIM scales.
TEST BIAS: VALIDITY OF THE SAT FOR BLACKS AND WHITES IN THIRTEEN INTEGRATED INSTITUTIONS
Authors: Temp George
Published: August 2014

Differential prediction for black and white students was empirically investigated at 13 institutions by comparison of regression planes. Particular attention was given to the possibility that prediction procedures that are appropriate for white (majority) students would under‐predict the performance of black (minority) students. The data tend to support, among others, the following generalizations: (1) a single regression plane cannot be used to predict freshman GPA for both blacks and whites in many of the institutions studied; (2) nevertheless, if prediction of GPA from SAT scores is based upon prediction equations suitable for majority students, then black students, as a group, are predicted to do about as well as (or better than) they actually do.
APPLICATIONS OF BAYESIAN METHODS TO THE PREDICTION OF EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Novick Melvin R. , Jackson Paul H. , Thayer Dorothy T. , Cole Nancy S.
Published: August 2014

The feasibility and effectiveness of a Bayesian method, due to Lindley, for estimating regressions in m groups is studied by application of the method to data from the Basic Research Service of The American College Testing Program. Evidence is found to support the belief that in many testing applications the collateral information obtained from each subset of m ‐ 1 colleges will be useful for the estimation of the regression in the mthcollege. Specifically, on cross‐validation in a second sample, the Bayesian predictions had a smaller mean squared error in each of the 22 colleges, the reduction averaging 9.7%, when compared with the least squares predictions when four predictor variables were used on a quarter sample in 22 colleges with initial within‐college sample sizes ranging from 26 to 184. Furthermore, even when based on the full sample within each college, the least squares predictions had an average cross‐validated mean squared error only barely less than the Bayesian predictions based on the quarter sample. The most apparent benefit of the Bayesian method is that it permits regression to be done in subpopulations (e.g., male‐female) where sample sizes are small and where the regressions are different in the subpopulations. In the present study a decrease of more than 10% in mean squared error was obtained using this approach.
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR NONRANDOMIZED DATA
Authors: Hall Charles E.
Published: August 2014

The technique of analysis of covariance is examined for its relevance to educational and psychological investigations. A study of the arithmetic procedures, history, and statistical properties shows that, though the concepts are relevant to many data collection designs, the customary calculations are often inappropriate. Some suggestions are made relevant to altering the arithmetic procedures or the data collection design under some common conditions encountered in educational and psychological studies.
STATE AS AN INFANT‐ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION: AN ANALYSIS OF MOTHER‐INFANT BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF SEX1
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

After a review of the literature it was proposed that state be defined in terms of an infant‐environment interaction. In order to investigate state differences as well as individual differences in state, it was necessary to explore and discuss various types of interactive processes and analyses. Having accomplished this task, empirical data were presented which seemed to support the proposed model of state, namely that infant condition (behavior) alone was insufficient to describe state since often the same condition had widely different consequences which in turn should affect future conditions. The data also revealed individual differences as a function of the sex of the infant. Briefly, girls received more distal responses to the same behavior for which boys received proximal responses. This was discussed as an important source of individual variance and its effect on subsequent cognitive functioning.
PROJECT ACCESS RESEARCH REPORT #2 PATTERNS OF TEST PERFORMANCE BY HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS OF FOUR ETHNIC IDENTITIES1
Authors: Flaugher Ronald L.
Published: August 2014

Among the four participating ethnic groups in Project Access for Los Angeles (Black, White, Mexican‐American, and Oriental), the patterns of test performance that emerged were surprisingly similar to those from two previous studies of first‐grade children, even though Access involved eleventh graders. Partially replicated was the finding that overall level of performance varied with social class, while the patterns remained rather constant within ethnic group, regardless of social class.

This new evidence adds to the strength of the argument that our educational systems should be attending to, and utilizing, the variety of talents and aptitudes presented by the students, rather than attempting to treat everyone as a member of the majority group.
AN INTERVAL ESTIMATE FOR STATISTICAL INFERENCE ABOUT TRUE SCORES*
Authors: Lord Frederic M. , Hamilton Martha S.
Published: August 2014

A numerical procedure is outlined for obtaining an interval estimate of true score. The procedure is applied to several sets of test data.
A STUDY OF TEST SPEEDEDNESS AS A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF BIAS IN THE ADMISSION TEST FOR GRADUATE STUDY IN BUSINESS QUANTITATIVE SCORE1
Authors: Evans Franklin R. , Reilly Richard R.
Published: August 2014

Minority and majority groups were administered a special quantitative section of the Admission Test for Graduate Study in Business (ATGSB) under varying time conditions to determine if increasing the time allotted for the test would eliminate any bias which may exist due to an irrelevant speed factor. By a commonly employed definition the special section was found to be moderately speeded for all candidates under normal time conditions. Neither the main effects due to time condition nor the interaction between the ethnic and time factor reached significant levels suggesting that increasing the time per item does not reduce any bias which may exist in the test. Although a substantial proportion of minority group scores fell at or below the chance level, these scores appeared to retain fairly high levels of reliability.
SUBJECTIVE ESTIMATES OF CONSONANT PHONEME FREQUENCIES1
Authors: Carroll John B. , Lamendella John T.
Published: August 2014

Subjective magnitude estimates of the frequencies of 24 consonant phonemes were obtained from 65 university students, some with training in linguistics, by a method that had been used by Attneave (1953) for judgments of letter frequencies. Reliabilities of averaged judgments for comparably sized groups of 30 judges were estimated as in the neighborhood of .95. Averages of logarithmically transformed judgments were correlated with log frequencies from objective counts with coefficients in the range .736 to .876 (or .764 to .907 when corrected for attenuation). Despite the high reliabilities and predictive validities, there was evidence that the judgments were strongly influenced by experienced frequencies of letters of the alphabet.
MOTHER‐INFANT DYAD: THE CRADLE OF MEANING
Authors: Lewis Michael , Freedle Roy
Published: August 2014

The interest of this paper was to explore the early communication network that exists between a mother and her 12‐week‐old infant. Over 50 infants of both sexes from a variety of social classes were seen in their homes. A wide variety of maternal and infant behaviors were studied. Of special interest was the vocalization‐in‐communication data. The results indicate a lawful, consistent, and predictable pattern of communication and suggest that meaning is being established at the very beginning of life.
EFFECTS OF AGE AND FAMILIARITY OF EXAMINER ON TEST PERFORMANCE
Authors: Orost Jean H.
Published: August 2014

Three third‐grade, three sixth‐grade, and three adult female examiners tested 108 kindergarten and third‐grade girls, half of whom were familiar to them, on three individually administered measures.

No differences in performance on any measure as a function of familiarity were found at either grade level. No differences by examiners of different ages were noted on the numerical test, while differences in favor of the third‐grade examiners were found on the classification test (p = .07, n.s.) and on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) vocabulary subtest (p = .01).

The effects of interpersonal and task‐related variables were discussed, along with implications for peer instruction.
PATTERNS OF TEST AND ITEM DIFFICULTY FOR SIX FOREIGN LANGUAGE GROUPS ON THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Authors: Angoff William H. , Sharon Amiel T.
Published: August 2014

Two‐factor analyses of variance with multiple measurements on one factor were conducted for the five sections of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and six language groups, and also for the items of each section, based on data collected at the first administration of this form of the test, in October 1969. The principal findings, that the Test x Group interaction and the Item x Group interactions were significant, indicated that some tests and some items were relatively more difficult for some language groups than for others.

Displays of the Item x Group interactions were made by analyzing the item difficulty plots for each language group against a spaced sample of all candidates taking this form of the test in October 1969. A measure of the deviation of each item from the central tendency of the plot was developed, expressing the degree to which the item was especially difficult—or easy— for a particular language group relative to the other items. Distributions of these measures are given for each of the five parts of TOEFL, for each of the six language groups.
THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION FOR THREE KINDS OF MATHEMATICS APTITUDE ITEMS1
Authors: Pike Lewis W. , Evans Franklin R.
Published: August 2014

A different Instructional program was developed for each of three mathematics aptitude item formats to determine the relative susceptibility of each to special instruction. Male and female high school junior volunteers in each of 12 schools were given a pretest composed of items of each format and a parallel form as a posttest several weeks later. In the intervening time experimental Ss received seven weeks (21 hours) of instruction directed at one of the three formats, while control Ss received no special instruction.

Pretest to posttest gains were analyzed in a two‐way (sex by instructional group) multivariate analysis of covariance. The six dependent variables were the geometry and nongeometry posttest scores for each of the item formats. The seven covariates included the pretest scores corresponding to the six dependent variables and the SAT‐verbal (SAT‐V) pretest score.

Results of the statistical analysis showed that each of the three item formats was susceptible to the special instruction specifically directed toward it. The complex or novel item formats appeared to be more susceptible than the relatively straightforward item format. Female volunteers were found to be slightly less able mathematically at the outset and to benefit somewhat less from the instruction than male volunteers. Mean gains of nearly a full standard deviation obtained by the groups instructed for the complex or novel formats were considered to be of practical consequence and likely to influence admission decisions.

The results of the study were consistent for all 12 schools. Although no group received instruction for the SAT‐M per se, substantial pre‐ to posttest gains on that measure were also observed. Further analysis revealed that instruction, particularly for the complex or novel formats, was effective in at least two ways. S>s appeared to have learned a systematic approach to the item format as well as some very basic mathematical concepts.
A NOTE ON THE VARIANCES OF EMPIRICALLY DERIVED OPTION SCORING WEIGHTS1
Authors: Echternacht Gary
Published: August 2014

Estimates for the variances of empirically determined scoring weights are given. It is also shown that test item writers should write distractors that discriminate on the criterion variable when this type of scoring is used.
RESPONSE STYLES AND 16 PF HIGHER ORDER FACTORS1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J.
Published: August 2014

This study's aim was to explore the relationship of acquiescence, social desirability (SD), and defensiveness response styles with first, second, and any higher order factors on the 16 PF. All the various kinds of response bias indexes were appreciably correlated with the first order factor scales. Each kind of response style measure predominantly loaded a different second order factor—four such factors were extracted, three of them corresponding to well established 16 PF second order factors. SD scales defined a novel factor somewhat resembling an anxiety factor, and acquiescence and defensiveness measures loaded but did not define independence and anxiety factors, respectively. None of the various kinds of response style indexes consistently loaded an extroversion factor. And none loaded the single third order factor obtained. This factor was not similar to previously reported 16 PF third order factors and its nature was unclear.
A COMPARISON OF SELECTED SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS MEASURES BASED ON LONGITUDINAL DATA1
Authors: Marco Gary L.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to compare five methods of computing school effectiveness indices (SEIs) from longitudinal data. The five methods were within‐school regression, within‐school regression corrected for the unreliability of measurement, mean difference scores, average individual residual scores (based on the regression of student output scores on student input scores), and school residual scores (based on the regression of school mean output scores on school mean input scores). The sample consisted of 3,769 third‐graders from 70 elementary schools in the Midwest. The raw data consisted of Total Reading scores from the Metropolitan Primary II Achievement Test administered in Fall 1970 and Spring 1971.

While the various school effectiveness indices differed from one another and in their correlations with other variables, little evidence could be found for the lack of validity of any school effectiveness index. Further, all of the school effectiveness indices were highly stable across samples, except for the school effectiveness indices for initially high‐scoring students. Finally, predictions from nonlongitudinal data furnished reasonable estimates of school effectiveness as measured by one of the school effectiveness indices.

The methods should be tried out at other grade levels. Further, the stabilities of the various school effectiveness indices across years should be studied.
SIMPLIFIED FORMULAS FOR STANDARD ERRORS IN MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FACTOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Jennrich Robert I.
Published: August 2014

Standard errors for maximum likelihood estimates of factor loadings are expressed in terms of the inverse of an augmented information matrix. This formulation arises naturally by viewing the problem as one in constrained maximum likelihood estimation. The constraints correspond to the form of rotation used. Results are given for canonical rotation and analytic rotations in the orthomax family.
FACTOR ANALYSIS OF LAW SCHOOL GRADES
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

Grades of 116 law school students were obtained from transcripts, along with LSAT, Writing Ability, and Background scores. The grades were factored, and an analysis of the goodness of fit of one‐ through four‐factor systems indicated that the system of grades was essentially one factor in nature. A plot of factor loadings for the various courses made for the two‐ and three‐factor systems indicated that a few courses were somewhat different than the rest but the reason was not clearly identifiable. The two‐factor system was decomposed into two uncorrelated components, one which correlated .96 with the single factor scores, and the other which correlated zero with the single factors scores. This latter component had a multiple correlation of .03 with LSAT, Writing Ability, and Background scores. These analyses produced no persuasive evidence for more than one factor. The results agree with those of a similar study on the business school context.

The residuals produced were used to study the possible existence of instructor bias. Two instructors were found with residuals significantly different from zero. One was found to be a slightly easy grader, and the other was found to be a hard grader.
COMBINING UNBIASED ESTIMATES OF A PARAMETER KNOWN TO BE POSITIVE
Authors: Stroud T. W. F.
Published: August 2014

The statistician has n independent estimates of a parameter he knows is positive but, as is the case in components‐of‐variance problems, some of the estimates may be negative. If the n estimates are to be combined into a single number, we compare the obvious rule, that of averaging the n values and taking the positive part of the result, with that of averaging the positive parts. Although the estimator generated by the second rule is not consistent, it is shown by numerical calculation that for small n it has a smaller mean square error than the first over a considerable region of the parameter space, and that for n = 2 or 3 the second is minimax relative to the first over a region consisting of almost the whole parameter space. The distribution of each of the n estimates is assumed to be either Gaussian or the distribution of a weighted difference of two independent chi‐squares with known degrees of freedom, as in one‐way components of variance. Some other simply calculated estimators, including the positive part of the median, are studied for the chi‐square difference case with (2, 2) degrees of freedom and n = 3.
INFRASTRUCTURE AND TRANSITION IN DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Daele Leland D. Van den
Published: August 2014

The logic of set theory is applied to the problem of infrastructure and transition in developmental analysis. The analysis necessitates the decomposition of stages into components. The decomposition generates sets within sets, and from a sequential perspective, progressions within progressions. The relation of lower to higher, and precursor to successor items varies from the trivial to the rigorous. In a trivial analysis, a precursor is neither necessary nor sufficient for a successor; in a rigorous analysis, a precursor is necessary and sufficient. Infrastructure and transition are interdependent. When components are common to successive stages, stages are transformed or correlatively transformed; when components are discrete, stages are substituted, added, or deleted; and when some components are common and some discrete, stages are hybrid. Any transformation or correlative transformation implies a correspondence, integration, or differentiation with parallelism, subordination, or emergence. Any substitution, addition, or deletion implies a coincidence, augmentation, or reduction with coplanarity, expansion, or contraction. The implications of this analysis are discussed in relation to developmental theory and theory evaluation.
OCULAR MOTILITY AND COGNITIVE PROCESS1,2
Authors: Weiner Susan L. , Ehrlichman Howard
Published: August 2014

The claim has frequently been made that Ss produce scanning eye movements when experiencing visual imagery. Many investigators have concluded therefore that when ocular motility (as opposed to ocular quiescence) occurs, Ss are engaging in visual imagery. This hypothesis was tested by counting the eye movements Ss produced when required to answer two sets of questions presumed to vary in their imagery evoking properties, one requiring “verbal‐conceptual” processing properties and one requiring “visuo‐spatial” processing. Contrary to expectation, significantly fewer eye movements per second occurred when Ss answered “spatial” as opposed to “verbal” questions. This difference was discussed in terms of more general accounts of ocular motility than that proposed by the imagery‐scanning notion.
THE EFFECT OF TIME ON ATTACHMENT AS MEASURED IN A FREE PLAY SITUATION1
Authors: Brooks Jeanne , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Attachment studies vary along several dimensions. Time within the situation may be an important variable. Fifteen minutes of observation of year‐old infants and their mothers reveals that proximity seeking and vocalization increase as a function of time while visual regard remains constant. The time dimension must be taken into account when studying sex differences as well as inconsistencies across various studies.
REPRESSION, INTERFERENCE AND FIELD DEPENDENCE AS FACTORS IN DREAM FORGETTING1
Authors: Goodenough Donald R. , Witkin Herman A. , Lewis Helen Block , Koulack David , Cohen Harvey
Published: August 2014

A number of hypotheses about the effects of presleep stress on dream recall among field‐dependent and field‐independent Ss were tested to explore the role of repression and of dream affect in dream recall. The effect of presleep stress was to increase arousal during REM sleep and affect in dream reports. The data also suggest that the most affectful dreams are best recalled. Among field‐dependent Ss dream content was reported less frequently on stress than on neutral nights, but no stress effect on dream report frequency was found among field‐independent Ss. The results are discussed in terms of repression theory, and in terms of a possible alternative explanation that stress‐produced anxiety interferes with attentional processes required for dream recall at the moment of awakening.
MULTIVARIATE STATISTICAL INFERENCE UNDER MARGINAL STRUCTURE, II
Authors: Gleser Leon Jay , Olkin Ingram
Published: August 2014

A previous paper [Gleser and Olkin (1972)] dealt with statistical inference problems in the context of an experimental design in which k randomly chosen groups of individuals from the same population of individuals are asked to take different psychological tests under identical testing conditions. The k tests (T***0,T1), (T0,T2), …, (T0,Tk) have one subtest T0 in common. It is desired to test whether (T0,T1), (T0,T2), …, (T0,Tk) are parallel forms of the same test.

The experimental design described above is a natural one for ongoing testing programs such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), where forms must be changed from year to year (so that new items must be introduced and validated), yet experimentation with new forms and administration of old forms are done simultaneously. The design described above might be used in a given year to validate items for future years.

The likelihood ratio test and relevant distribution theory is developed for a number of alternative models.