bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Bermuda Project (1722–1731)
Authors: Berman David
Published: November 2023

Shortly after failing to obtain St Paul’s, Dublin, in 1716, Berkeley left Britain on his second Continental tour. He went as tutor or travelling companion to St George Ashe, the son of the prelate whose ordination of him six years earlier had provoked the ire of Archbishop King. This tour was to be more extensive and adventurous than his first. It lasted some four years, during which Berkeley gained a wide appreciation of the arts. He apparently took little delight in music at the time, having, as he said, ‘eyes but no ears’ (Life, 76). Most of his time was spent in Italy: first in Turin, then in Rome viewing the galleries and antiquities, then touring in Apulia, and visiting the island of Ischia. It also now appears (from the evidence of his signature in the visitor’s book of the University of Padua) that he was in the north of Italy and spent much of 1719 in the Republic of Venice.
Philosophical Theology (1732—1735)
Authors: Berman David
Published: November 2023

Alciphron is Berkeley’s longest book and his most comprehensive statement on religion. It was composed while he was in Rhode Island and published in 1732, soon after his return to London. During the next three years he issued four shorter works which have a bearing on his theological system. The unity and strength of this system has not been appreciated, probably because commentators have concentrated on Berkeley’s better known philosophical writings of 1709—13. Alciphron has also suffered from dismissive judgments, even from admirers of Berkeley, like J. S. Mill and Leslie Stephen. Thus Stephen calls it ‘the least admirable performance of that admirable writer’. And Mill is even more damning: ‘were it not the production of so eminent a man, it would have little claim to serious attention. ‘ That these judgements are very far from the mark, I now hope to show.
Introduction
Authors: Heine Ronald E
Published: November 2023

Gregory of Nyssa’s treatise on the inscriptions of the Psalms has been neglected in modem studies of his works. It has never been translated into a modem language, nor been the subject of a monograph. Very few articles have made it their central concern. Regarded as one of his earlier writings, it has been passed over as somewhat artificial in its exegesis, and as somewhat immature in its teaching about the spiritual life compared to his more mature exegetical and spiritual writings. The De virginitate, in contrast, which is recognized as Gregory’s first work, has frequently been both translated and studied.
Conclusion
Authors: Heine Ronald E
Published: November 2023

Gregory has taken over the general topics treated in the introductions to Christian commentaries on the Psalter for the overall structure of his treatise. Some of these topics had themselves already been taken over by Gregory’s predecessors from philosophical commentaries on Plato and Aristotle. Gregory may have adopted this form of commentary introduction for his treatise because he found what earlier Christian authors had said about the inscriptions of the psalms in the introductory section of their commentaries. The discussion of some of the inscriptions in the introductions in these commentaries also occurred in conjunction with other topics of introduction, such as the order of the psalms.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Roderick
Published: November 2023

For many politicians and journalists-mainly but not exclusively Conservative-the balance of power between management and unions has been the central issue in political economy of the 1980s. Trade unions have been seen as the decisive influence on the level of inflation, and on the level of unemployment. Trade unions coerce management into con ceding higher wages than firms can realistically afford, leading to cost push inflation when the higher costs are passed on in higher prices. Higher prices lead to lower competitiveness, falling sales volumes, and increasing unemployment. Alternatively, firms may attempt to control their overall costs by increasing productivity, and reducing the number of employees, thereby adding to the level of unemployment via an alternative route. Union power also contributes to unemployment by making it difficult to reduce wages for particular groups of workers, especially young workers, thus preventing potential employees from ‘pricing themselves into jobs’.
The Influence of Bargaining Power on the Outcomes of Collective Bargaining
Authors: Martin Roderick
Published: November 2023

For both management and unions the use of bargaining power is a means to an end, influencing the terms of the effort-reward bargain, not an end in itself; the outcomes of the process are therefore the central concern. Outcomes may be viewed from the perspective of either party, or from the perspective of society as a whole. This study is primarily concerned with the extent to which unions or management achieve their objectives; the effect of their achieving their objectives-or the way in which they attempt to achieve them-on the macro-economy is a derivative issue; as suggested in the Preface, politicians have seen union-sponsored wage push as a major source of inflationary pressure. Full discussion of the econometric issues raised by wage inflation is outside the scope of this chapter, although comments are made in the concluding section.
Sectarian Studies: Assumptions, Sources, Scope, and Methods
Authors: Wilson Bryan R
Published: November 2023

Even though, in many particulars, they differ from one another, the separate and distinctive groups of religious believers that are generally designated as sects or as new religious movements may be said to constitute a field of readily recognizable social phenomena. Initially, they were distinguished from the dominant prevailing form(s) of religion within a society, and this not merely nor even primarily by virtue of their relative minority status (since the dominant denomination in one society may be a minority in another, as are Catholics in England or Episcopalians in Scotland, without thereby being considered as sects) but by their evident divergence in doctrine, practice, social ethos, and form of sociation. Today, they are, by these same criteria and most specifically by their social ethos and the conduct that exemplifies it, also readily distinguished from the generality of the secular society.
American Sects: Their Impact on Europe
Authors: Wilson Bryan R
Published: November 2023

Not all sects evolve within the continuity of one society; many of them increasingly, and increasingly effectively, mission overseas, and their development reflects the diversity of the societies into which they spread. Religious diffusion does not, of course, for long proceed from only one centre, and in recent centuries there has been a reversal of the balance of religious trade between countries from that which prevailed in earlier centuries. Leaving aside those patterns of migration that have seen Muslim and Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist communities establish themselves in Europe and America, and the Westernized off-shoot new religious movements that claim association with these exotic traditions, Christian sectarianism has also displayed a proclivity, either by dint of migrating votaries or of local conversions, to become disseminated throughout the Christianized world, and even beyond.
Guild, Union, Profession, And Proletariat
Authors: Halsey A H
Published: November 2023

THE ‘key profession’ may have dug its own grave. It faces a future of mass higher education after a quarter of a century of adaptation to the consequences of its own successes. Survey at the time of Robbins showed The British Academics to be ‘basically conservative; even those who are boldest and least conservative in their own intellectual lives want to preserve and strengthen the institutions which make their scientific and scholarly achievements possible. Expansion means change; change holds promise, but also a threat ⃛‘(Halsey and Trow 1971: 465). The expansion has occurred, its scale if not its shape following and going beyond the target set in the Robbins report. What then has happened to the academic professions?
Retrospect
Authors: Halsey A H
Published: November 2023

THE decline of donnish dominion was written in the stars from the moment that the ancient civilizations of the Near East began to form an abstract alphabet (Goody 1968). Literacy thereby became potentially a democratic possession. Access to human capital became intrinsically available to all. Nevertheless, a long and incomplete evolution has been needed to turn potential into reality. The history of popular communication from usable alphabet through the printing press to modern information technology has been a very slow process, albeit accelerating in our own time. The process has been slow because to democratize communication also requires transformation of virtually every aspect of social structure. People are bound together by power and authority, by interest and sentiment, by habituation and learning, as well as by words and numbers. Vast changes of human society were therefore required to work out all the implications of this original linguistic revolution. Nor is the journey complete. The scope and reach of higher learning never ceases.to unfold. It is built into the modern social project of ever-increasing human command over nature, prolonging life, ceaselessly hungering after economic growth, and permitting more widespread leisure. The pull of professional needs and the push of democratic demands for access continually press for expansion in face of limited public and private resources. Higher education comes at the end of the process as the conspicuous international growth industry of the twentieth century. It is a worldwide phenomenon with ancient roots. We have been concerned in this study with its record in a particular country: but the background of transition out of pre-industrial to industrial society deserves a brief review as it is now, following Max Weber, the standard interpretation of social development among sociologists of education.
Prospect
Authors: Halsey A H
Published: November 2023

THE future of higher education in Britain was, at least in the legislative sense, settled by the Further and Higher Education Act of April 1992. Yet financially, socially, educationally, and politically this law left everyone in a state of great uncertainty. It was, of course, predictable that the binary system was over when I laid down my pen in 1991. The government had already announced the absorption of the polytechnics into the mainstream system and had invited them all to choose a new name for their own new university. The furore and the manoeuvrings in this nominal exercise need not detain us. Where is De Montfort or Glasgow Caledonian or London Guildhall? The complete list of polytechnics becoming universities appears below, together with seven other new degree¬ granting institutions. There were 3 3 English and Welsh polytechnics and 1 5 Scottish Central Institutions before the transforming merger began. There are now 88 UK universities (123 institutions counting separately the constituent colleges of the universities of London and Wales).
Introduction
Authors: Brewer John D
Published: November 2023

In President de Klerk’s address at the opening of parliament on I February 1991, in which he effectively announced the dismantling of all the legal pillars which supported apartheid, the issue of policing warranted special mention at the end of the speech. He noted the enormous pressures already placed on the police hut emphasized that in ‘the new South Africa’, the police will have to be ‘manned and managed properly’: ‘A professional and well-trained police force, which fis) not subject to political expediency, [is] the best guarantee for the maintenance of a safe environment in which everybody is able to live and work.’
Policemen Versus Pukkah Soldiers: 1914–1926
Authors: Brewer John D
Published: November 2023

The period covered in this chapter is marked by the SAP’s first full year and the government’s first major review of policing in the 1926 The Water Commission. During this time, the modernization of the police proceeded apace and centralization was finally achieved, with the SAP becoming the single national police force, ensuring that the state had strict control over the police. But the police continued to suffer from the peculiarities of South African society and politics. Police professionalism was hampered by the tension within the police between the civil and colonial policing models, and the negative effects of the state’s policies on race were ongoing. These effects were two-fold. The police continued to perform extraneous duties for the state in regulating and monitoring race relations, but they also bore the consequences of wider social conflicts between the British and Afrikaners, and between Black and White South Africans.
The Second Phase of Apartheid: 1960–1975
Authors: Brewer John D
Published: November 2023

The year 1960 was significant for South Africa and, with hindsight, for the police. The country voted to become a Republic in 1960, and the peak of Black protest was reached with Sharpeville. From this point Black political opposition declined, went underground, militarized, and mostly abroad, forcing the police to focus on the external rather than internal threat, to develop counter insurgency skills, and rapidly to expand its manpower and resources. It was not until the Soweto uprising in 1976 that the focus changed again to the internal threat. Apartheid’s second phase began in earnest in 1960, taking South Africa in a direction opposite to that suggested in Macmillan’s famous ‘winds of change’ speech of that year. To reinforce the impression that the SAP was entering a new era, Commissioner Rademeyer retired in I960, cutting links with past conflicts within the police during the war, to be replaced by Lt.-Gen. du Plooy, a former member of the Special Branch, symbolic, perhaps, of the SAP’s future.
Does the Sociological Viewpoint Bear on the Theistic Vision?
Authors: Martin David
Published: November 2023

Sociologists share with those who study cosmology or bio logy or chemistry a body of methods, of heuristic devices, and of more or less accepted conclusions, some of which may be expressible in generalizations, of greater or less scope. When con fronted with the issue of theism, sociologists, in common with colleagues in other disciplines, scan and question their assumptions and conclusions to see whether they forbid or exclude certain possibilities, in this case the existence of God.
‘And Never the Twain Shall Meet’? Gender Segregation and Work Histories
Authors: Scott Alison Macewen , Burchell Brendan
Published: November 2023

This chapter looks at the effect of gender segregation on women’s and men’s work histories, particularly their chances of job promotion and occupational mobility. There has been much interest recently in using work history analysis to reveal the specificity of women’s working patterns. As is well known, the structure of most women’s labour-force participation is strongly affected by their domestic roles and these roles have different effects at different points in the life cycle.
The Gendered Restructuring of Employment in the Finance Sector
Authors: Crompton Rosemary , Sanderson Kay
Published: November 2023

Since the Second World War, the finance sector has been a major element in service sector employment growth, particularly for women. It has a high proportion of clerical employees; as is well known, this occupation has become progressively feminized since the beginning of the century. In 1961, women were 48 per cent of clerks, cashiers, and office machine operators in the finance industries, but by 1981 they were 68 per cent (Crompton 1988). By the same time, employees in both banks and building societies—the industry case-studies upon which the empirical discussion of this chapter is focused—were predominantly women. However, women were under-represented in the upper levels of management within the finance sector (Crompton and Jones 1984).
Rituals and Hyper-Rituals
Authors: Lockwood David
Published: November 2023

Durkheim’s theory of solidarity presupposes that a ‘collective conscience’, or a system of shared values and beliefs, is a necessary condition of order. Most of his work is concerned with those institutions which he considered vital for the production of solidarity: religion, law, education, and the division of labour. The attention devoted to the collective conscience itself is by comparison negligible. While Durkheim was aware that consensus is a variable, he made no systematic study of its variability, and on the question of the effects on solidarity and conflict of particular values and beliefs he is almost completely silent.
Moral Innovation
Authors: Lockwood David
Published: November 2023

The most important of the assumptions entering into the foregoing argument is that, if a class such as Beta-plus cannot resolve its status incongruity through its incorporation into Alpha, then it will attempt to delegitimate the existing status hierarchy by promoting a counter value system. This assumption is vital to the explanation of declassification as moral polarization. In the literature on social stratification it seems to be fairly well accepted that chronic relative deprivation resulting from unresolved status incongruity is a structural precondition of the mobilization of disaffected groups around a new set of values and beliefs that undermines the legitimacy of the status order.
The Theory of Action
Authors: Lockwood David
Published: November 2023

On the face of it, it seems improbable that there is any such thing as the Marxist theory of action. Marxists have always laid claim to a uniquely privileged understanding of society through their possession of a body of theory which by its singular unity transcends the artificial specialism of the ‘bourgeois’ social sciences. But this claim is surely invalid and lacking in force. It is not simply that Marxism is now in such a state of epistemological disarray that some of its illuminati have denied the very possibility of one of the two subjects in which Marxist scholarship has excelled: namely, history. It is also that, in practice, Marxism exhibits very much the selfsame division of intellectual labour as that of ‘bourgeois’ social science.
Revolutionary Practice
Authors: Lockwood David
Published: November 2023

The idea of revolutionary practice is considered here solely from the point of view of its relevance to the explanation of class action, and in particular to the understanding of the process of proletarian self-education. An initial difficulty of this approach is that the concept of praxis has yielded much more in the way of a political philosophy of the class struggle than anything resembling a sociology of workingclass action and consciousness. The former has aimed at a conception of the unity of theory and practice modelled on Marx’s dictum that, ‘just as philosophy finds its material weapons in the prolet-ariat, so the proletariat finds its intellectual weapons in philosophy’.
The Politics of Social Concern
Authors: Hornsby-Smith Michael P , Fulton John , Norris Margaret
Published: November 2023

We have suggested (Figure 5.1) that the analysis of types of spirituality needs to take into account two separate dimensions: (a) the organizational matter of who it is who controls the spirituality, and (b) the cultural dimension concerned with its content. In our case study of both the introduction of RENEW (Chapters 3 and 4) and its implementation in the diocese (Chapter 5) and the parishes (Chapter 6), we have sought to demonstrate that in spite of some rhetoric about lay participation and empowerment, there is little doubt that the decision to follow the RENEW programme in the Diocese of Downlands was originally taken by the bishop and his closest advisers who then proceeded systematically to co-opt the priests, lay leaders, and parish activists.
Citizenship and Community in British Political Debatel Debate
Authors: Crouch Colin
Published: November 2023

Citizenship, usually in tandem with community, returned to political debate in Britain in the late 1980s in a remarkable way. A. H. Halsey had signalled the theme even before the decade began; his 1977 Reith Lectures concluded with a plea for ‘a democracy of citizens’ (1978: chap. 8). Matters went quiet with the initial triumph of the new right and its vision of privatized individualism. Then in 1985 Michael Mann argued, from a sociologically informed Labour point of view, that the concept of shared social citizenship in T. H. Marshall’s (1950) sense provided the basis for a revival of socialism in the face of this new hegemony. Marshall had described three stages in the development of modern British citizenship in rather stylized form, from civil rights in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, through political rights in the nineteenth, to social rights in the twentieth-century welfare state.
Employer Policies, Employee Contracts, and Labour-Market Structure
Authors: Gallie Duncan , White Michael
Published: November 2023

The neo-classical vision of the labour market depicts individual outcomes primarily as the result of individuals receiving returns to their innate ability or to their investment in human capital by way of education and training. Within such theories, the employer is little more than a black box and employer policies merely reflect the impersonal laws of the market.
Occupational Change in a Working-Life Perspective: Internal and External Views
Authors: Elias Peter
Published: November 2023

At issue in the debate on the development of a ‘post-industrial’ society is the changing nature of paid work and its centrality within the sphere of human activities. The continuing gains in labour productivity, the reduction in the annual average amount of time spent in paid employment, and the growth of women’s participation in the labour force indicate that paid work has become both more intensive and more extensive. In other words, when people work, they are more productive than their predecessors and, for women, their involvement in paid work is spread more evenly through the potential working life.
Management and Employee Perceptions of Skill
Authors: Burchell B , Elliott J , Rubery J , Wilkinson F
Published: November 2023

This study is concerned with the evaluation of job content by employees and managers themselves. It therefore moves examination of skill towards its subjective dimensions, its links with work attitudes, and similar themes further developed in Chapters 7–10 of this volume. Jobs consist of a more or less complex array of tasks the characteristics of which are determined by the nature of the product or service, techniques of production, and ways by which production and labour are organized. The undertaking of different types of tasks requires of job holders varying combinations of a wide range of attributes, exercised at varying degrees of intensity. These include the ability to manipulate tools, machines, and materials; knowledge of products, processes, machines, organizations, and procedures; the capabilities of cultivating and maintaining social relationships; the acceptance of responsibility for property, output, standards, and people; physical strength; mental ability; tolerance of working conditions; the ability to organize, co-ordinate and exercise discretion in undertaking task requirements; and the exercising and acceptance of authority. Job content is determined by the task complexity of the job and the requirements of the tasks and it is the job content (and the intensity of effort) which determines the contribution made by the job holder to the production of goods and services.
Religious Biographies
Authors: Wilson Bryan , Dobbelaere Karel
Published: November 2023

RELIGIOUS movements are sometimes represented as being in competition with each other for the attention, time, energy, and perhaps also the resources, of members of the public. The exclusivistic stance of almost all religious organizations (a few eclectic cult movements excepted) promotes the idea that religious bodies are essentially rivals, each claiming the monopoly of truth, and each demanding that believers commit themselves to only one organization. The keen proselytizing policies of many of the less orthodox sects reinforce these impressions. In one sense, these propositions are true, but it is also the case that, for a high, if indeterminate, proportion of the religiously committed members of the general public, there is little if any question of the surrender of their current ideologies and affiliations in favour of others. In a society where only a minority have any sort of religious attachment, it is probably always chiefly among the unattached that new movements expect to make their converts. This appears to have been the experience of SGI.
The Members, their Families, and their Friends
Authors: Wilson Bryan , Dobbelaere Karel
Published: November 2023

IN an increasingly individualistic society, new religions generally win converts singly rather than as whole families. Whilst long-settled sectarian bodies are most typically composed of families and sometimes of extended kinship networks, as intermarriage and endogamy have led to a cumulative process of internal recruitment, new movements and movements devoted to vigorous proselytizing have a much higher proportion of individuals who have no kinsfolk in the movement. The new religious movements active in Britain since the 1960s have all recruited principally by converting one person at a time, and quite frequently the relatives of these members have not followed them into the new fellowship. Sometimes they have disapproved and actively opposed the adoption of a new religious persuasion by a family member, and it has been a commonplace, particularly in movements like the Unification Church and the Krishna Consciousness movement, for parents to have vigorously opposed the conversion of their offspring.’ Nichiren Shōshū is a very different organization from either of these, most conspicuously in not drawing its members into separated communities, and its recruitment has been generally among people who, at the time of their conversion, were older than has typically been the case for Moonies or Hare Krishna people. None the less, the adoption of a religion with beliefs and, more conspicuously, practices so alien from indigenous Christianity or Judaism might well he expected to occasion disquiet from unconvinced family and friends.
Blood and Land
Authors: Gardner Katy
Published: November 2023

Social hierarchy in rural Bangladesh is generally understood in terms of people’s access to land. During the years of British rule in East Bengal, a rural household’s economic and social position was largely determined by this. Whether a household were zamindars, raiyats, or taluk dar had vast influence on the degree of political power they possessed, their access to other material resources, and the ‘symbolic capital’ (Bourdieu, 1977: 171-82) they could command.
Households Apart
Authors: Gardner Katy
Published: November 2023

What happens to families, and the households in which they are organized when their members migrate? Kinship has long been the focus of attention in studies of economic change within South Asia, and as these indicate, we must be wary of jumping to conclusions. Early work in India attempted to demonstrate the breakdown of joint family structures when faced with urbanization and industrialization. These studies were linked to modernist kinship theories which suggest that the extended family is incompatible with modernity (wage labour, industrialization, physical and social mobility, and so on). Rather than the traditional joint family, modern conditions favour the ‘conjugal unit’ (Parsons, 1949: 189).
The Local World View: Social Change and Memory in Three Tuscan Communes
Authors: Contini Giovanni
Published: November 2023

To the visitor Tuscan—or indeed Italian—villages may be assumed to be similar; and certainly the social mobility researcher analysing a national survey is unlikely to be interested by differences be tween them. But in fact, as I have discovered, villages and small towns within the same region can have radically different stories of economic and social development and also, as a result, different life chances and patterns of mobility.
Introduction
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

The Pidgin word kivung means a ‘meeting’ or ‘to meet’. For thousands of people living in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea, the word also refers to a religious movement, based around a mixture of millenarian, Christian, nationalist, and ‘cargo cult’ ideas. In spite of Christian influences, the attitudes of Kivung supporters are basically anti-missionary. The movement’s full title, the ‘Pomio Kivung’, associates it with the ‘Pomio’ peoples, living within a radius of some forty miles of a coastal settlement called Pomio in the south-west of East New Britain. There is no language called ‘Pomio’—the term has simply become a way of referring to the many indigenous groups of the area speaking a number of languages.
Codification, Transmission, and Politics
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this final chapter is to draw together the main strands of my argument, and relate them to broader theoretical problems in the anthropology of religion. I begin by summarizing the characteristic features of religious life in the mainstream Pomio Kivung (discussed in Chapters 2 to 3) and the localized splinter group (discussed in Chapters 4 to 6). Mainstream ideology is codified in the form of verbalized doctrine and exegesis, and this is related to the frequency of transmission, styles of cognition, and the sociological features of centralization, hierarchy, and expansionism. I refer to this constellation of interconnected variables as the ‘doctrinal mode of religiosity’. Splinter-group ideology is primarily codified in the form of non-verbal iconic imagery, and this is related to the periodicity of transmission, the evocation of affective episodic memories, and the formation of localized, solidary communities. This contrasting concatenation of features may be dubbed the ‘imagistic mode of religiosity’.
The Social Order of Modern Japan*
Authors: Akira Narusawa
Published: November 2023

The print entitled ‘The Army’s Drill Ground at Sakurada-gai, Tokyo’ (Plate 6.1) is rather peculiar as a depiction of a military drill. In contrast, Plate 6.2 is clearly a picture of a drill. A military band is placed in the foreground and, led by music then new to the ears of the common people, a well-ordered army unit enters the scene. The viewer of the picture is himself the observer of the event. However, a tall white-painted fence is drawn in the centre of Plate 6.1, dividing the entire picture horizontally into two. In the upper section there is a sturdy black painted fence, and in the parade ground between the fences, a group of uniformed infantrymen, without distinguishable individual faces, are being made to march in rows.
Structures of Corporate Control
Authors: Scott John
Published: November 2023

With the emergence of the legal form of the joint stock company, the corporation itself is the owner of its assets. It is this that makes the question of who is able to control the corporation and to determine its behaviour all-important. ‘Control’, in the strict sense, designates a structural relation in which particular individual or collective actors have the de facto capacity to mobilize the powers that are legally vested in the corporation. As such, it constitutes a power potential. Control should be distinguished from ‘rule’, by which is meant actual involvement in decision-making or participation in business leadership (Scott 1990a: 352-3). The rulers of an enterprise are those who wield the actual powers that are inherent in the ownership of corporate assets, and the exercise of rule is always constrained by the structure of control
Managing Work and Children: Part-Time Work and the Family Cycle of Swedish Women
Authors: Sundstrom Marianne
Published: November 2023

Sweden is famous for its high rate of female labour-force participation and fertility, as well as for its relatively high degree of gender equality as com¬ pared to other industrialized countries. Contrary to popular belief, the high labour-market activity of married women in Sweden is a fairly recent phe¬ nomenon. Census data show that never-married women constituted the majority of the female labour force even in the 1950s, and it was not until 1965 that the proportion of married women exceeded 50 per cent (Table 11.1). However, in contrast to most other European countries, Sweden has long had a high proportion of part-time workers among employed women, about 34 per cent already by 1965 (Table 11.2).
Absent Parents? Parents Who Lived Apart or Died
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

We have so far focused on the child’s immediate everyday world as it was reshaped into single-parent and then stepfamily life. But over each of those everyday worlds there remained, whether accepted, or felt as an acute pain, or ignored, a shadow. For every one of these fifty adults who had grown up in stepfamilies shared the experience of the Joss or absence of one of their two biological parents through some, or all of their childhood. The breaking of a parental partnership whether by death, separation, or divorce inevitably leads to the partial loss of a potential parental resource, and a threat to the acquisi tion of a secure identity for the developing child. What were the factors that either mitigated or maximized the effects of such a critical loss.
The Widening Circle
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

When a child loses a parent, where can he or she hope to find compensating support? What are the resources on which a child can draw, both in the household and beyond it? The questions seem simple enough: but the loss that needs making up is not always so clear. As we have seen (Chapter 4), it was rare for any parent who died or left to be totally lost. The way in which they disappeared shapes the child’s sense of the parent who has gone. And there are some whose detachment from a child,s daily life could be as much gain as loss.
Gender
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

Gender as a theme is everywhere and, at the same time, opaque and elusive. In devoting a separate chapter to it, we acknowledge that, while it is embedded in all the other themes we discuss, it is also so crucial to making sense of different experiences of step family life that it needs to be considered on its own. Stepfamilies provide a particularly useful context within which to understand gendered experience because, in the transition to stepfamily life, men and women act out their roles in the absence of one biolo gical parent. This means that the biological role too is experienced differently because of the presence of a non-biological stepparent; such families therefore offer an ideal forum in which to explore the processes whereby gender roles are shaped and maintained.
Working with Stepfamilies: Clinical and Legal Contexts
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

It is one of the paradoxes of studying the long-term outcomes of stepfamily childhoods that by the time that they can be evaluated, there can have been such radical shifts in their typical context that it is difficult to predict from past experience into the future. What we say here about the future will therefore necessarily be less securely grounded than our interpretation of the past. Neverthe less we believe that there are indeed important messages to be learned from that past experience, both for social workers, therapists, and other professionals who work with stepfamilies, and also for the wider framework of social policy and the law. Here we sha11 discuss the more specific implications for working with stepfamiles and for the law separately. But let us begin with four general lessons which apply to both
The Oldest European Account Book: A Florentine Bank Ledger Of 12II
Authors: Lee G A
Published: November 2023

It is from thirteenth-century Tuscany, and especially from Florence and Siena, that modern accounting takes its rise. From this period and region come the earliest business accounts in debit and credit form, as distinct from manorial and public accounts in charge and discharge form, whose history goes back to classical Greece and Rome, and even, in some aspects, to ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete, and Mycenae. It was the Tuscans also who, by a series of insights and tentative improvements, evolved, probably by 1300, that scheme of double-entry bookkeeping which is now in use throughout the civilized world as the basis of every well-ordered accounting system, from the simple handwritten books of a shopkeeper to the most sophisticated electronic data processing complex of the largest American industrial corporation.
Balancing And Closing The Ledger: Italian Practice, 1300-1600
Authors: Yamey B S
Published: November 2023

Ledger-closing procedures occur chronologically at the end of the bookkeep- ing cycle; and early writers on bookkeeping and accounts almost invariably treated these procedures at or towards the end of their expository texts. Lodovico Flori was an important exception. In his treatise of 1636 he places the bilancio (balance account)—the end-product of the balancing and closing procedures—in the forefront of his exposition of double-entry bookkeeping (after having dealt with such preliminary matters as how to make entries in the journal and the ledger).
The Development Of Industrial Cost And Management Accounting Before 1850
Authors: Edwards J R , Newell E
Published: November 2023

The application of accounting techniques in business management continues to be a largely unexplored area of business history/ This is not to suggest that there is any lack of comment on the subject in the literature, but rather that many inferences and conclusions drawn so far hâve been based on limited evidence. For instance, it is generally held that cost accounting—the principal device of management accounting—was adopted relatively late by British industries. It is argued that little interest was shown in the analysis of costs for the purpose of making decisions about levels and methods of production, or for the pricing of products, until the arrival of "scientific management' at the end of the nineteenth century.
Some Aspects Of Nineteenth-Century Accounting Development In The West Riding Textile Industry
Authors: Hudson P
Published: November 2023

The fundamental requirement in studying business accounting techniques historically is to see developments as the response to particular and individual needs of industries as they themselves develop over time. These needs are the product of such things as technical and organizational change, the size of business units, the nature of products and markets. This basic structural determinant can be regarded as being tempered by two further factors. First, it may be tempered by ‘external ‘ influences, for example, the need to respond in particular ways to legal requirements, taxation demands, or outside pressure generally from shareholders and other interested parties.1 Secondly, developments are modified by the extent to which requirements are met by the stage of evolution of accounting theory and practice, the background, education, and abilities of entrepreneurs in an industry, and the legacy of traditional methods handed down from earlier stages of economic development.
Robert Loder, Jacobean Management Accountant
Authors: Freear J
Published: November 2023

Robert Loder‘s Farm Accounts, 1610-1620, are held at the Berkshire Records Office, Reading. In this chapter, a brief description of the background to the accounts will be followed by an examination of the accounts from a management accounting point of view, using the main elements of the decision-making process as headings under which to consider the accounts.
The Early Debate On Financial And Physical Capital
Authors: Lee T A
Published: November 2023

The concept of capital is central to the determination of periodic income, irrespective of whether the latter is based on the principles of economics or accounting. Without adequate and consistent definitions and computations of capital at succeeding points of time, there can be no credible income data. This has been well evidenced in the recent professional prescriptions of current cost accounting for external financial reporting purposes. These pronouncements have focused attention on the need to understand the concept of capital which underlies each specific income proposal. In particular, they have identified the existence in practice of two alternative capital maintenance approaches-that is, maintenance based on capital defined in terms either of a specific monetary attribute such as the money unit or the purchasing power unit (hereafter termed financial capital); or a specific attribute of the reporting entity ‘s physical asset structure such as its physical units or operating capacity (hereafter termed physical capital).
Designing Electronic Commerce
Authors: Mansell Robin
Published: November 2023

Electronic commerce refers to the ways that firms are engaging in the conduct of business by using advanced electronic information and communication networks. The conduct of business in this way requires the conjuncture of technical and institutional design features as well as new capabilities on the part of firms to enable them to construct, manage, and use rapidly expanding global electronic networks. Electronic commerce enables business to be conducted at a distance.
The Politics of Information and Communication Technologies
Authors: Silverstone Roger , Mansell Robin
Published: November 2023

Throughout this book we have been discussing the politics of information and communication technology. This politics, however, is not only or even most significantly a politics of nations or parties. It is a politics of the innovation process as such, a politics engaged in by participantsindividuals as well as institutions-at every point in the production and consumption of new information and communication technologies and services. This politics is marked by great inequalities: inequalities generated by the power of regulatory institutions and multinational companies, and the uneven capacity of consumers to enter and manage a rapidly changing technological space. It is also marked by great uncertainties and discontinuities: uncertainties and discontinuities generated as a result of the shifting tectonic plates of a global information and communication economy, as well as the opacity, fragility, and unpredictability of consumer behaviour. It is, finally, a politics deeply embedded not just within the institutions that design and distribute technologies and services, but within the technology itself, as software products and information networks both prescribe and proscribe, configuring suppliers and users, containing and constraining behaviour, and embodying in their algorithms and their gateways both the normative and the seductive.
Introduction
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

The central focus of the present book is on the process of change in the public services in the UK. More specifically, it is about the use of a particular device, contracts. In the studies on which the book is largely based, we have set out to explore the different purposes to which contracts have been put, their significance in a set of different situations, and the consequences of their introduction for the organizations involved, their managers and staff, and for the users of these services.
The Introduction of Contracts
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, our focus is on contracts as such. We will draw upon work we have done on contracting in the three selected service areas (local government (CCT), health, and social care), for, as a general rule, it is the institutional context that will exercise a decisive influence on the way in which contracts are introduced into public organizations and the impact that they have within them. The traditional approach to the organization of the public service has involved relatively open-ended and incomplete contracts of employment, which the organization completes by the exercise of authority. The introduction of the ‘new public management’, with its logic of action drawn from private-sector models, involves the development of contracts that are more complete and closed. The type of contract that has been introduced can be seen as varying along three dimensions: focus, form, and content.
Structures for and of Contracting
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on structures for and of contracting. In doing so it identifies both the informal, implicit, unacknowledged rules of the game that structure interactions between actors—North’s (1990) ‘institutions’ —and the formal and explicit structures, which include regulations, purchaser/provider entities and organizations more generally.
Conclusion
Authors: Walsh Kieron , Deakin Nicholas , Smith Paula , Spurgeon Peter , Thomas Neil
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter we summarize very briefly some of the main conclusions of our study. We have not set out to produce a systematic evaluation of the whole policy of introducing contracts across the totality of the public sector: that would have required a different and far more ambitious approach than the one that we adopted. But there are sufficient lessons to be learned from the experience of the case studies we undertook to justify an attempt to draw out some general conclusions. These lessons are of two kinds: first, they are about the process of change itself; and, secondly, whether the primary objectives of the reforms are being met as a result of the creation of new structures and processes.
Executive Reward And Corporate Governance
Authors: Bruce Alistair , Buck Trevor
Published: November 2023

Academic interest in the study of executive remuneration has increased significantly in recent years. In part, this reflects concerns within business, political, and popular circles that, in many cases, levels of executive compensation are excessive in both absolute and relative terms and that they frequently appear both unrelated to corporate performance and at odds with the fortunes of other corporate stakeholders, such as other employees, shareholders, suppliers, and customers. A further stimulus has been the continued development of interest in the set of issues which comprise the corporate governance debate and the reward of executive agents in this context. Equally, and relatedly, innovations in remuneration policy and particular instruments of remuneration have prompted analysis of their impacts on aggregate executive compensation and corporate performance. These innovations have frequently sought to adjust the balance between long-term and more immediate forms of remuneration, or between certain and performance-contingent elements. Finally, and more practically, activity in this area reflects the development of new, and application of existing, analytical frameworks which facilitate such investigation.