bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Meta-Analysis as a Validity Summary Tool
Authors: Banks George C. , McDaniel Michael A.
Published: February 2013

The chapter discusses the role of meta-analysis in enhancing the understanding of employment test validity. We discuss the state of validity knowledge prior to the introduction of meta-analysis and summarize the gains in knowledge following the introduction of meta-analysis. We review the standards of systematic literature reviews, data typically reported in a meta-analysis of a personnel selection test, and how meta-analytic findings are interpreted. Furthermore, we consider the differences between the meta-analysis of selection tests that evaluate specific constructs and those that assess selection test methods that measure multiple constructs. We discuss issues to consider when evaluating the degree to which meta-analytic reviews of validity data have credibility and how to make decisions regarding the appropriateness of the application of a selection test. Finally, we discuss the need to improve reporting practices in meta-analytic reviews as well as the inconsistencies of the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures with scientific knowledge concerning meta-analysis and validity.
Assessment of Voluntary Turnover in Organizations: Answering the Questions of Why, Who, and How Much
Authors: Woo Sang Eun , Maertz Carl P.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews recent research related to the assessment of three questions: why people quit, who is more or less likely to quit, and how much do instances of quitting cost the organization. Assessments of the “why” and the “who” questions together inform the assessment of turnover functionality (i.e., the “how much” question). Furthermore, the “why” assessment indicates which specific interventions are most likely to succeed with employees in the organization, and the “who” assessment helps determine for which employees the interventions should be implemented. Therefore, answers to these three interrelated questions ultimately converge as the critical inputs for practitioners who seek to determine whether organizations should (and are able) to intervene effectively to influence specific turnover instances. Following discussions of the complexity involved in these assessments, a person-centered, clustering approach was recommended as an effective strategy of accounting for the uniqueness of turnover incidents and prevention strategies.
Time in Personnel Selection
Authors: Beier Margaret E. , Ackerman Phillip L.
Published: February 2013

The goal of personnel selection is to select employees who will succeed in a job, not just over the short-term, but over months and years. Yet, most research and theory in personnel selection does not explicitly consider the effect of time on personnel selection and training. The research that has been done has raised concerns about the utility of predictors used in selection related to declining validity coefficients over time. In this chapter, we discuss selection and training within the context of time. We review prior research and theory on the nature of validity fluctuations over time on person-related and job-related variables. Theories with explicit or implicit temporal components such as theories of typical and maximal performance, skill acquisition theories, theories of dynamic performance, and the simplex process are discussed. We report on a relatively recent reconsideration of time in the research literature, spurred on by the availability of statistical tools that permit the consideration of between-person predictors of within-person change (i.e., interindividual differences in intraindividual change). We conclude by presenting considerations for future research.
Team Selection
Authors: Morgeson Frederick P. , Humphrey Stephen E. , Reeder Matthew C.
Published: February 2013

The use of teams in organizations has become ubiquitous. Yet, there has been comparatively little research on team selection. This chapter seeks to review the literature on team selection and identify areas for future research. To do this, we first briefly review existing models of team functioning to provide background for selection scholars who might not be familiar with team constructs. We then describe the work of teams, particularly in terms of how it might differ from the work of individuals. This is followed by a review of the different kinds of criteria that can be used in team settings, including criteria used in individually oriented selection, as well as some criteria unique to the team domain. We then articulate the different ways individuals can contribute to teams in terms of key knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) identified in the literature. These constructs represent the different attributes that can be assessed prior to selecting individuals or teams. Next, we discuss issues of team placement and staffing, particularly in terms of how to create teams to optimize the different worker KSAOs present in the organization or applicant population. Finally, we close with some thoughts about team selection and the need for future research in this area.
Selection Out: How Firms Choose Workers to Lay Off
Authors: Feldman Daniel , Ng Thomas
Published: February 2013

Although most of the selection literature focuses on how organizations choose outsiders to become members of their firms, this chapter addresses how organizations choose current employees to let go during downsizing. First, we address the factors that lead organizations to downsize their workforce. Next, we examine the organization's strategic decision about how to downsize. When do firms choose to downsize via vertical cuts (elimination of whole units), horizontal cuts (termination of some employees in each unit), early retirement incentive programs, and natural attrition with nonreplacement of personnel? Then, for each of these four strategies, we consider how firms use various criteria (e.g., merit, seniority, job type) to identify specific individuals to let go. In the following section, we consider the relative effectiveness of these four strategies for turning around firm performance and for maintaining the performance and morale of “survivors.” Finally, we discuss best practices in designing and implementing layoffs.
Foundations of an Ecological Approach to Psychology
Authors: Heft Harry
Published: February 2013

Environmental psychology developed in the midst of a wave of scientific and social movements of the past century rooted in large measure among the ecological sciences. And yet work in the field proceeded mostly untouched by an ecological perspective, as it remained wedded to a mechanistic mode of thought that has long gripped psychology more broadly. Frameworks more sympathetic to ecological thinking had been simmering among psychology’s early writings, notably in William James’s radical empiricism and Kurt Lewin’s field theory, but became realized only in the 1960s through the works of James J. Gibson, Roger G. Barker, and others. These frameworks share many of the assumptions of the ecological sciences and, collectively, can be located within a transactional worldview. When applied to psychology, this perspective emphasizes the central place of meaning in psychological phenomena. These approaches can function to guide environmental psychology into the fold of the ecological sciences.
Therapeutic Uses of Nature
Authors: Russell Keith C.
Published: February 2013

It has been proposed that our growing separation from nature is a driving force behind a multitude of physical, psychological, and emotional ailments pervasive in modern-day society. This chapter provides an overview of the therapeutic use of nature. The history of this use, including the rise of the camping movement, is reviewed to provide the foundation for modern day programs and practice. A theoretical framework of the wilderness experience illustrates how various factors present in nature-based experiences work to restore mental fatigue and revitalize mind, body, and spirit. A review of wilderness therapy programs provides a practical example of how wilderness experiences are integrated with clinical treatment models to effectuate change in adolescents and young adults. The chapter concludes by describing emerging programs and other therapeutic uses of nature, including nature-based programs for cancer survivors and returning veterans, and rites of passage programs for people seeking renewed perspectives on their lives.
Rehabilitation Outcomes and Assessment: Toward a Model of Complex Adaptive Rehabilitation
Authors: Merbitz Nancy Hansen , Merbitz Charles T. , Ripsch Judy P.
Published: February 2013

Vigorous international debate continues regarding standards of evidence in rehabilitation and guidelines for evidence reviews, as these impact reimbursement and drive scientific and clinical practices. A large portion of rehabilitation research funding in the United States goes toward the development of standardized rating scales and taxonomies of treatments. Another trend—quality improvement—is increasingly evident in the study of services in medicine, nursing, and psychotherapy, and is just beginning to enter the rehabilitation literature. Among many contributions, international communities collaborating in quality improvement have promoted greater awareness of the challenges and opportunities posed by complex adaptive systems. In this chapter, after reviewing dominant trends, we describe how methods of research from the quality improvement tradition and other methods compatible with it may transform processes and outcomes in rehabilitation.
Cardiovascular Rehabilitation
Authors: Bennett Paul
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of the psychological impact of the acute onset of coronary heart disease before addressing how cardiac rehabilitation may moderate any negative consequences of such an event. The chapter identifies three key goals for cardiac rehabilitation programs: helping people adjust physically and emotionally to their illness, symptom control, and changing behaviors that maintain or increase risk for cardiac disease. The chapter considers the comparative impact of educational and “behavioral interventions” based on Bandura's social cognitive theory, live versus distance approaches, interventions targeting those most in need, and more specific interventions on each of these goals. It concludes that “behavioral interventions” are central to maximizing the impact of rehabilitation; that distance interventions appear to be as effective as clinic-based interventions, but no more cost-effective; and that the next generation of research may best focus on who benefits most from each type of intervention.
Resilience in People with Physical Disabilities
Authors: Craig Ashley
Published: February 2013

Historically, research into the nature of resilience was applied mostly to children and adolescents exposed to problems such as ill-treatment in the family or drug abuse, and this resilience research employed a risk and protective factors model. Protective factors included attributes that minimize risk or act as a buffer by cushioning the person against negative outcomes, and included environmental, interpersonal, and individual personal factors. Being resilient, therefore, described a process that involved someone who had assets and resources that enabled him or her to self-protect and thus overcome the adverse affects of risk exposure. It is concerning that the model for research most often used when investigating outcomes for physical disabilities has been a risk-deficit model that focuses more upon factors, such as negative mood states, that may prevent a person from adjusting adaptively to his or her disability. Few studies have concentrated on both risk and resilience factors. In this chapter, resilience is defined as a process involving a person maintaining stable psychological, social, and physical functioning when adjusting to the effects of a physical disability and subsequent impairment. Research that has investigated protective factors in physical disability will be explored and implications for the management of these conditions discussed.
Reforming Primary and Secondary Schooling
Authors: Kochar Anjini
Published: February 2013

This article provides a summary of the state of primary and secondary education in India. It notes the achievements of the sector: increased enrollment, particularly in the primary stage, and a narrowing of many traditional gaps. The supply-side impetus to schooling—which occurred through a host of programs, from independence up the 1990s, and thereafter consolidated through the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in 2002—has led to significant increase in access to schools throughout India. Indeed, one finding in the literature is that the probability of a school being located within a given distance of a child's habitation of residence does increase enrollment. However, school location policy also affects other characteristics of schools that are known to have important effects on learning. For instance, small school size, which tends to be the norm in India because of sparsely distributed and low populated habitations, means that the total numbers of teachers per school are small.
Population Dynamics in India and Implications for Economic Growth
Authors: Bloom David E.
Published: February 2013

This article looks at the consequences of India's demographic transition—higher population growth and transforming age structure—and its impact on growth. In a comparison group comprising select East Asian economies, approximately 2% of their growth in income per capita (over 1975–2005)—roughly one-third of the supposed miracle—can be attributed to demographic change. Counterfactual experiments based on low and medium fertility rates for India imply a sizeable demographic dividend—roughly to the order of an additional percentage point or more annually to per capita income growth (projecting forward to 2050). The key policy question is whether health and education allocations (at all levels) by the government will grow in tandem to transform India's youth advantage into productive employment.
The Dynamics and Status of India's Economic Reforms
Authors: Singh Nirvikar
Published: February 2013

This article examines the political economy of pending economic reforms in India, with an emphasis on domestic reforms. Some of the specific issues addressed include a discussion of governance structures, implementation of the value added tax (VAT), the introduction of delivery mechanisms for public services, civil service reform, labor laws, corporate governance, bankruptcy laws, land markets, and agriculture reform. One of the main insights of the article is that discussions of reform in India usually list an ideal set of reforms, but do not analyze how such changes may be operationalized in a politically feasible manner. Specific areas such as agriculture, land markets, labor, education, and infrastructure all have special characteristics, either in terms of numbers, positions in the income hierarchy, complexity, expertise, or diversity of interests, which make progress more difficult. Recognizing such factors and incorporating them into policy design might be a better way to proceed rather than articulating ideal end points without any pathway for reaching them. Therefore, a crucial question this article addresses has to do with understanding when and how economic reform happens.
Rational Argument
Authors: Hahn Ulrike , Oaksford Mike
Published: February 2013

Argumentation is an integral part of how we negotiate life in a complex world. In many contexts it matters, furthermore, that arguments be rational, not that they are simply convincing. Rational debate is subject to both procedural norms and to epistemic norms that allow the evaluation of argument content. This chapter outlines normative frameworks for argumentation (dialectical, logical, and Bayesian); it then summarizes psychological research on argumentation, drawn from cognitive psychology, as well as a number of applied domains.
The Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality: A Useful Tool for Diagnosis and Classification of Personality Disorder
Authors: Ro Eunyoe , Stringer Deborah , Clark Lee Anna
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses new theoretical and research developments related to the Schedule for Adaptive and Nonadaptive Personality-2 (SNAP-2; Clark, Simms, Wu, & Casillas, in press) in the context of the forthcoming Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), particularly regarding personality disorder (PD). The theoretical underpinnings of dimensional taxonomies of personality traits and PD, and between personality and psychosocial functioning, are considered first. Next, recent SNAP-2 research is reviewed, most notably in the areas of dependency, impulsivity, and schizotypy. In aggregate, the findings suggest that existing SNAP-2 scales cover significant variance in these content domains, but that a SNAP-3 would benefit by increased coverage of each, specifically active/emotional dependency, carefree/-less behavior, and schizotypal disorganization. Information about additional SNAP versions for informant ratings and adolescent personality/PD, respectively, is provided. Finally, the utility of a program of research elucidating relations between personality and functioning is presented.
Epidemiology
Authors: Torgersen Svenn
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews the current epidemiological findings concerning personality disorders. It begins with the basic question of prevalence within the general population. Discussed more specifically are lifetime prevalence and prevalence within clinical populations. Demographic characteristics are then discussed; more specifically, gender, age, income, education, social class, marital status, urbanicity, fortunate and unfortunate situations, and quality of life. This is followed by a discussion of methodological problems for epidemiological research, and a brief discussion of the implications of the findings for the validity of individual personality disorders (and for their retention or deletion from the diagnostic manual).
Axis II Comorbidity
Authors: Trull Timothy J. , Scheiderer Emily M. , Tomko Rachel L.
Published: February 2013

This chapter is concerned with the comorbidity (or co-occurrence) among personality disorders. In the first half, we present the results from six large studies (at least 200 participants) that used structured diagnostic interviews to establish DSM-IV-TR personality disorder diagnoses. This includes present comorbidity data from two major epidemiological studies, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions and the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Next, we focus on two large clinical investigations of personality disorder comorbidity. Finally, we present data from two special population studies, including an English/Welsh forensic sample as well as a Norwegian twin sample. In the second half of this chapter, we explore both methodological and theoretical explanations of personality disorder comorbidity. We conclude with our own perspective of comorbidity as well as an overview of the implications of the current DSM-5 proposal on comorbidity.
The Relationship of Personality Disorders and Axis I Clinical Disorders
Authors: Links Paul S. , Ansari Jamal Y. , Fazalullasha Fatima , Shah Ravi
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this review is (a) to study and systematically review the recent literature examining the co-occurrence and relationships between Axis I psychiatric disorders and Axis II personality disorders (PDs), specifically the five originally proposed for DSM- 5, and (b) to consider the clinical utility of the current Axis I and II approach in DSM-IV-TR. Community surveys or prospective cohort studies were reviewed as a priority. Our review indicates that the associations between clinical disorders and PDs clearly varied within each disorder and across the five PDs. Our understanding has advanced, particularly related to the clinical utility of comorbidity; however, it seems premature to conclude that comorbidity is best conceptualized by having all disorders in a single category or by deleting disorders so that comorbidity no longer occurs. Our review suggests some priorities for future research into comorbidity such as including PDs in future multivariate comorbidity models.
Course of Personality Disorder
Authors: Morey Leslie C. , Meyer Justin K.
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the course of personality disorders. The chapter begins with a discussion of general conceptual and methodological issues in the study of the temporal stability and course of personality disorder; more specifically, dimensional versus categorical models of classification and developmental issues. This is followed by a summary and discussion of four contemporary longitudinal studies; in particular, the Children in the Community Study (Cohen, Crawford, Johnson, & Kasen, 2005), the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders (Lenzenweger, 1999), the McLean Study of Adult Development (Zanarini, Frankenburg, Hennen, Reich, & Silk, 2005), and the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS; Skodol, Gunderson et al., 2005). With respect to the CLPS, specific attention is given to the findings concerning stability of categorical diagnoses, dimensional features, functional impairment, and component traits. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for the diagnosis and conceptualization of personality disorder, as well as suggestions for future research.
Avoidant Personality Disorder, Traits, and Type
Authors: Sanislow Charles A. , da Cruz Katelin , Gianoli May O. , Reagan Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, the evolution of the avoidant personality disorder (AVPD) diagnosis, its current status, and future possibilities are reviewed. AVPD is a chronic and enduring condition involving a poor sense of self and anxiety in social situations, and it is marked by fears of rejection and a distant interpersonal stance. AVPD may be conceptualized at the severe end of a continuum of social anxiety. In the extreme, traits, mechanisms, and symptoms become integral to chronic dysfunction in personality and interpersonal style. While AVPD is a valid diagnostic construct, the optimal organization of AVPD criteria for the diagnosis, and the relationship of avoidant personality traits to anxiety, remain to be determined.
Paranoid and Schizoid Personality Disorders
Authors: Hopwood Christopher J. , Thomas Katherine M.
Published: February 2013

Paranoid and schizoid personality disorders are not currently proposed to be in the DSM-5 despite a long history in the clinical lexicon. This chapter reviews theoretical and empirical research on these conditions in this context. Several alternative hypotheses to the view that these constructs reflect valid syndromes are described. It is concluded that the validity of paranoid and schizoid personality disorders as unique constructs cannot be determined based on existing research and that further investigation is needed to determine their nosological status. Eliminating paranoid and schizoid as unique personality disorders in the DSM-5 would be consistent with existing evidence and the availability of multiple viable alternatives to syndromal hypotheses about paranoid and schizoid behavior.
Giving Voice to Children
Authors: Campbell Patricia Shehan , Wiggins Trevor
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a brief overview of The Oxford Handbook of Children’s Musical Cultures, which represents an interdisciplinary enquiry into children and their musical worlds. It then reviews previous studies of musical children followed by a discussion of the difficulty of defining childhood. An outline of the principal themes explored in this book is also presented.
Education and Evangelism in a Sierra Leonean Village
Authors: Bartolome Sarah J.
Published: February 2013

Kagbere, a small subsistence-farming village in Sierra Leone, West Africa, has a rich and thriving musical community that embraces various musical traditions including log drumming, traditional dance, choral singing, ritual music, lamellaphone playing, hand-clapping songs, and childhood chants. Children are active participants in the Wesleyan Church Children’s Choir and lead the congregation through worship services filled with singing, movement, and instrument playing. This article explores the impact of the choir on the lives of the children and the community. Choir members benefit personally, socially, and musically from the education they receive through choir membership, acquiring a wide range of knowledge and skills as part of the choir experience. The church community and the community of Kagbere both benefit from the services provided by the members of the children’s choir; and the church itself benefits as musical emissaries go forth into the world to advance its evangelical mission.
Children’s Musical Engagement with Trinidad’s Carnival Music
Authors: Smith Hope Munro
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the historical factors that have led to children’s participation in the expressive traditions related to Trinidad and Tobago’s annual Carnival celebration. It analyzes the various institutions and strategies that foster music education in relation to Carnival music. It also considers the conflict between local music and imported cultural strands, particularly those from North America that are received via satellite television and the Internet.
Reflexive and Reflective Perspectives of Musical Childhoods in Singapore
Authors: Dairianathan Eugene , Lum Chee-Hoo
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical world of children in Singapore. It draws upon on a series of interviews with and observations of Clara, a seven-year-old musical child, juxtaposed with the childhood experiences of one of the authors of this article and his pathways as ethnographer and auto-ethnographer. The childhoods of both Clara and the author are inextricably woven into practice, first, through the Euro-American art-music tradition in Singapore; and second, the dispositions and processes emergent in their pathways. Their lived and living realities are examined through the writings of Pierre Bourdieu, particularly a central mechanism in his understanding of practice, habitus.
The Role of Context and Experience among the Children of the Church of God and Saints of Christ, Cleveland, Ohio
Authors: Miller Terry E. , Miller Sara Stone
Published: February 2013

The Church of God and Saints of Christ (CGSC) is an African-American denomination with local churches in several North American cities. This article examines the CGSC’s music pedagogy and the extent to which this technique is context or culture-specific. The system of musical training in the CGSC appears to be based on the premise that everyone has musical potential and is therefore to be part of the musical community. No one is excluded from musical activities, not the “tone-deaf child,” not the person with mental or physical challenges, nor the person with an aversion to performing. Children participate freely and without inhibitions because they are encouraged to and because there are no judgments about quality.
Cold-Blooded Cognition: Reptilian Cognitive Abilities
Authors: Wilkinson Anna , Huber Ludwig
Published: February 2013

Reptiles, birds, and mammals evolved from a common amniotic ancestor and it is likely that they share both behavioral and morphological traits. Equally, since this ancestor lived around 280 million years ago there is ample time for very different capacities and mechanisms to have evolved. To more fully understand the evolution of cognition, it is essential to examine the cognitive abilities of reptiles in a way that is comparable to the vast amount of work that has been conducted with mammals and birds. Though the processes underlying reptilian cognitive behavior remain far from understood, recent research has made some noteworthy progress. This chapter will review the literature on the acquisition of novel behavior, spatial, visual, and social cognition in a range of reptile species. We will interpret current evidence in the light of what is known about cognitive processes, and the mechanisms underlying these, in mammals and birds. Finally, we will discuss the importance of work with reptiles to gain a fuller understanding of cognitive evolution.
Cetacean Cognitive Specializations
Authors: Jaakkola Kelly
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the cognition of the most well known cetacean—the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). First, observational and experimental evidence for various cognitive capacities is examined across four major areas: concepts and memory, physical cognition, social cognition, and symbolic cognition. The results suggest that dolphins possess a level of complex cognition largely on par with great apes, but surpass them in several areas of social cognition, and lag behind in one area of physical cognition. Next, evolutionary pressures hypothesized to account for the expansion of the dolphin neocortex and associated cognitive abilities are examined. It is suggested that, as with apes, the capacity for secondary representation may provide a key mechanism underlying dolphins' complex cognitive abilities.
The Evolution of Canine Cognition
Authors: Miklósi Ádám , Topál József
Published: February 2013

There has been a marked interest in the socio-cognitive abilities of dogs and their wild relatives. This change after basically total neglect of more than 50 years took place after researchers have recognized that evolution has acted to alter the social behavior set of the dogs in such a way to increase their chances of survival in the anthropogenic environment. Evidently, dogs evolved a social behavior set, which in some respects is functionally equivalent to respective human traits. In this review, we provide an evolutionary description of this process and also contrast different approaches that aim to grasp the key aspects of this change. Contrasting models invoke increased ability for cooperating, utilizing social cues, or modifications in specific social traits (e.g., fear). One key factor seems to be the increased sensitivity of dogs to react to the human social environment in general. They need much less social experience for achieving high levels of social skills in anthropogenic environments in comparison to wolves. We propose a model of social competence that facilitates the comparison of dogs and wolves, but, in addition, it could be utilized for dog-human (infant) and dog-chimpanzee comparisons.
Comparative Mental Time Travel: Is There a Cognitive Divide between Humans and Animals in Episodic Memory and Planning?
Authors: Feeney Miranda C. , Roberts William A.
Published: February 2013

Mental time travel is defined as the human ability to remember unique personal past experiences (episodic memory) and to anticipate and plan future events. Considerable debate has arisen around the question of whether nonhuman animals are also capable of mental time travel, ranging from complete denial of the ability in nonhumans to the suggestion that they have episodic memory and readily plan for the future. We evaluate the current evidence available from comparative cognition experiments and human-developmental research. Studies of episodic-like memory in birds and nonhuman mammals have centered on their ability to remember what, where, and when a single event occurred. Although clear evidence for memory of what and where has been shown, memory of when does not always appear and may depend on both the species tested and the experimental design used. We argue for a clear distinction between remembering when in absolute time an event occurred and remembering how long ago it occurred. Studies of neural processes indicate that the hippocampus is necessary for episodic memory in humans and episodic-like memory in rats. It is argued that studies of nonhumans should not focus on presence versus absence of human traits but should examine alternative mental time travel abilities in animals that may have evolved independently as adaptations to a particular ecological niche.
Female Preference Functions Provide a Window into Cognition, the Evolution of Communication, and Speciation in Plant-Feeding Insects
Authors: Cocroft Reginald B. , Sullivan-Beckers Laura E.
Published: February 2013

When female mate choice is based on male signals, female responses can be characterized in the form of preference functions that relate signal variation to attractiveness. Within a population, male displays will vary in multiple dimensions; preference functions reveal which of these dimensions are important for female mating decisions, suggest how sensory information is processed, and allow us to make predictions about the relationship between male signal variation and fitness. Here we discuss how characterizing female preference functions helps us understand the process of diversification in plant-feeding insects, an important component of terrestrial biodiversity. In the clade of insects we are studying, speciation is initiated by a shift from one host plant species to another. Host shifts lead to changes in the timing and location of mating, but the evolutionary changes that occur in mating signals and preferences are just as important for reducing gene flow among populations on different hosts. We focus on a subset of male signal traits for which female preference functions differ in strength and shape, and explore the effect of female preferences on male fitness within a population and on reproductive isolation among species. Integration of studies in the laboratory and field reveal how preference functions provide insights into the cognitive processes underlying mate choice, as well as the evolutionary forces that shape signal evolution.
The Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Cooperation
Authors: Warneken Felix , Melis Alicia P.
Published: February 2013

Cooperative behaviors such as helping, sharing, and collaboration are important components of human social life. Here, we summarize recent experiments that provide insight into both the ontogenetic and phylogenetic origins of these behaviors. Specifically, by combining a developmental and comparative approach, these experiments investigate the emergence of these behaviors in human ontogeny, and highlight similarities as well as differences with those of chimpanzees and bonobos. We review altruistic and mutualistic behaviors as two broad classes of cooperative behaviors that are underlain by different motivational and cognitive processes, emphasizing the importance of investigating proximate mechanisms to gain a comprehensive understanding of human cooperation.
The Evolutionary and Comparative Psychology of Social Learning and Culture
Authors: Hopper Lydia M. , Whiten Andrew
Published: February 2013

Social learning allows for the transmission of information between individuals and, potentially, across generations. In addition to increasing the efficiency by which new behaviors are learned it can also facilitate the propagation of behavioral traditions and, ultimately, culture. In the first half of this chapter we describe the social learning mechanisms that define how information is transmitted, under what circumstances social learning is advantageous, and provide an evolutionary perspective by illustrating different species' propensities for social learning. Through the second half of this chapter we compare the behavioral traditions observed among animals in the wild. We discuss the defining features of human culture and whether any animals, other than ourselves, can be considered “cultural.” We conclude that although human material culture was long thought to be a defining hallmark of our species, current reports from both the wild and captivity have begun to dispel the notion that we are the only cultural beings.
Cognitive Imitation: Insights into the Development and Evolution of Social Learning
Authors: Subiaul Francys
Published: February 2013

What is cognitive imitation and what does it tell us about the development and evolution of imitation and cultural learning? Here, evidence is reviewed demonstrating dissociations between different forms of social learning; Specifically, dissociations between the copying of end-results (i.e., emulation) and the copying of actions (i.e., imitation), as well as between the imitation of ordinal rules (cognitive imitation) and the copying of motor-spatial rules (motor imitation), in human and non-human populations that typically fail to learn in motor imitation paradigms. Together, this body of research suggests that imitation is a multifaceted faculty with numerous domain-specific copying mechanisms. These mechanisms are predicted to be both developmentally and phylogenetically discontinuous; a result of unique selection pressures favoring certain copying mechanisms over others.
Culture of Honor, Violence, and Homicide
Authors: Brown Ryan P. , Osterman Lindsey L.
Published: February 2013

Culture promotes beliefs and values that help its constituents to address local and enduring problems. We propose that cultures that allow and encourage certain forms of violence do so in response to specific ecological problems, namely pervasive resource deprivation and unreliable law enforcement. The convergence of these problems over long periods of time, we argue, results in a social environment that requires vigilant and aggressive defense of reputation, person, and property as a means of deterrence. As an illustration of such a culture, we discuss the history of the Ulster Scots (or Scotch-Irish), who settled the southern and western United States in the 18th and 19th centuries—regions that are characterized even today as “cultures of honor.” We review empirical evidence regarding behavioral patterns in these honor states, with a focus on evidence indicating that residents of these states are not more violent in general but tend to display behaviors related to the vigilant and aggressive defense of honor, at both the individual and collective levels. When such social adaptations become entrenched in a culture's schemas, scripts, and identity dynamics, they can be transmitted from one generation to the next, long after the ecological circumstances that encouraged them have dissipated.
Ethics and South African Psychology
Authors: Cooper Saths
Published: February 2013

The checkered history of South African psychology and its ethical implications underpin this chapter, from its early organizational origins in 1948, which coincided with the legalization of apartheid, to its present-day postdemocratic liberated form. The burgeoning development of psychology as a profession in the southern African region has resulted in the quest to create ethics frameworks in those countries where psychology has legal recognition, using international benchmarking. The close nexus between these countries’ ethical bases is alluded to, and, while providing examples of some of the national ethical dilemmas confronted within the psychology profession during apartheid, the chapter indicates the shortcomings that have to be constantly addressed in a fast-transforming country like South Africa, which has constitutional imperatives that mandate its parliament to bring all statutes in line with its liberal human rights culture.
Patents and Regulatory Exclusivity
Authors: Eisenberg Rebecca S.
Published: February 2013

This article reexamines the sources of exclusivity for drugs, considers their limitations, and evaluates exclusivity under the new biologics legislation in light of these limitations. The current overlapping legal protections for exclusivity in the pharmaceutical marketplace reflect a series of political compromises, repeatedly renegotiated to correct for unintended consequences in the previous version of the rules. Patents and patent challenges play a central role in this system of protection, and many of the patents at stake are ultimately held invalid in litigation. It is not easy to untangle a complex legal regime that allocates billions of dollars of profits. But it makes little sense for lawmakers and trade negotiators to extend this Byzantine system into new legal regimes, either by duplicating the Hatch–Waxman Act for biosimilars or by binding US trading partners to adopt similar systems in their national laws. A simpler and more effective legal regime would rely less on patent protection and more on well-designed regulatory exclusivity to support incentives for new drug development.
Pricing and Reimbursement in US Pharmaceutical Markets
Authors: Berndt Ernst R. , Newhouse Joseph P.
Published: February 2013

This survey article on pricing and reimbursement in US pharmaceutical markets first presents a theoretical framework for pricing of branded pharmaceuticals, initially without and then in the presence of prescription drug insurance, noting how the common designs of the insurance policy, co-insurance and co-payments, affect prices and utilization. It treats the pricing of generic drugs as a limiting case. It next provides information on important federal legislation, distribution channel logistics, definitions of alternative price measures, historical developments, and reasons why price discrimination is prevalent among branded pharmaceuticals. It then summarizes long-term trends in co-payments and co-insurance for retail and mail order purchases, and describes the average percentage discounts off Average Wholesale Price paid by third-party payers to pharmacy benefit managers as well as average dispensing fees and generic penetration rates. The article concludes with a summary of how the 2006 implementation of the Medicare Part D benefits affected pharmaceutical prices and utilization and comment on the recent entry of large retailers such as Wal-Mart into domains traditionally dominated by large retail chains and the “commoditization” of generic drugs.
Regulation of Price and Reimbursement for Pharmaceuticals
Authors: Danzon Patricia M.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews, first, the rationale for price regulation of on-patent pharmaceuticals and then models of optimal regulatory structure. It then describes the main regulatory prototypes for on-patent drugs and the empirical evidence on their effects. This is followed by a review of regulatory and reimbursement regimes for generics and evidence of their effects. Finally, international regulation of promotion is addressed. The concluding section reviews major unanswered research questions.
Drugs and Vaccines for Developing Countries
Authors: Towse Adrian , Keuffel Eric , Kettler Hannah E. , Ridley David B.
Published: February 2013

This article sets out the context for the problem of insufficient affordable medicines to address health issues in developing countries. It also highlights some of the drivers of recent positive trends. It then detail policies and proposals that are intended to increase access to global medicines (i.e., those with a developed country market) by lowering prices, including differential pricing, compulsory licensing, and donations. Finally, it considers policies that are aimed at encouraging the development of new medicines for neglected diseases (i.e., those prevalent only in lower-income countries) by reducing company-borne costs and risks or by expanding the expected revenue for the manufacturer through increased product demand. In particular, it describes “push” mechanisms that subsidize research inputs and “pull” mechanisms that reward research output.
Women with Disabilities: The Cultural Context of Disability, Feminism, Able-Bodied Privilege, and Microaggressions
Authors: Palombi Barbara J.
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an orientation to the lives and experiences of women with disabilities (WWD); examines the relationship between WWD and feminist psychology, including philosophical differences between feminist theorists and disability feminist theorists; and focuses on therapeutic models that incorporate feminism and multiculturalism. The chapter also (a) addresses the behavioral impact of able-bodied privilege and microaggressions experienced by WWD; (b) describes behaviors within clinical practice associated with microaggressions; (c) provides resources to increase multiculturalism competency when working with WWD; and (d) presents a model of therapy that integrates multiculturalism and feminism when working with WWD.
Understanding and Responding to Intergroup Conflict: Toward an Integrated Analysis
Authors: Tropp Linda R.
Published: February 2013

Conflicts based in ethnic, religious, and racial differences continue to erupt around the world, despite decades of intervention and scholarly research. It is difficult to assess precisely what contribution social science has made to an adequate diagnosis of the sources of violent conflict. Harder still to know is how best to move forward to alleviate conflict, promote reconciliation, and achieve sustainable, peaceful relations among diverse groups. A primary goal of the present volume is to bring together social psychological and peace perspectives, and to encourage a more integrative approach to the study of intergroup conflict and peace as we look toward the future.
Ideological Bases of Violent Conflict
Authors: Cohrs J. Christopher
Published: February 2013

This chapter first introduces the concept of ideology, how it is distinct from similar concepts, and how its content can be described. Ideologies are defined as socially shared systems of beliefs about the ideal arrangement of society. The chapter then reviews research on the relations between ideology and violent conflict at the individual, group, and societal levels of analysis. It suggests that: at the individual level, ideological beliefs of authoritarianism and social dominance are related to variables associated with violent conflict; at the group level, ideological groups (groups based on shared ideological beliefs) engage in collective action, which can spur violent conflict once a legitimate target of violence is identified; and at the societal level, particular ideological climates can make societies more prone to engage in violence. Finally, the chapter proposes an integrative multilevel framework for understanding the role of ideology for violent conflict, and identifies directions for future research.
Group Identities
Authors: Roccas Sonia , Elster Andrey
Published: February 2013

We review a large body of research showing the negative impact of group identification on intergroup relations: people who strongly identify with their group tend to endorse more strongly aggressive policies, are less critical of the ingroup's wrongdoings, and are less responsive to interventions designed to reduce conflict. Despite its robustness, the link between identification and intergroup conflict is not indissoluble. We focus on three factors that mitigate it. First, awareness of one's multiple identities mitigates reactions to intergroup conflicts. Second, there are different ways to express one's identification with a group, some of which have the potential to encourage group members to act in ways that reduce intergroup conflict. Finally, the content of national and ethnic identities has profound impact on the way people react to intergroup conflict. We review studies on the content of identities focusing on aspects that may escalate or mitigate conflict.