bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The ‘Politics of Honour’
Authors: Jordan Bradley
Published: November 2023

Chapter 6 investigates the role played by civic decrees in constructing a relationship between individual communities and the Roman state. It begins by exploring the use of honorific decrees by provincial communities to engage with representatives of the Roman state. It analyses how decrees for individual magistrates intersected with divergent Greek and Roman praxes of honour, arguing that they continued to play a vital role in mediating the relationship between poleis and their hegemon. It then focuses on the limited extant examples of civic decrees which were not honorific in nature and dealt with Roman actors. It argues that public representations of loyalty to Rome in non-honorific contexts were primarily motivated by local concerns.
‘The Vast Machinery Established amongst Us’
Authors: Allpress Roshan
Published: November 2023

This chapter maps the interlocking directorates of major British philanthropic societies from the 1760s to 1810s, showing how a ‘nexus’ of philanthropists formed and operated across this period, and how innovations in organizational structure and fundraising—especially the expansion of auxiliary societies—propagated between societies due to these social networks and underpinned periods of expansion. Central to the story is how religiously motivated merchants and bankers leveraged developments in credit practices and the growth of country banking networks to facilitate fundraising on a new scale. During periods of commercial uncertainty, experimental philanthropic projects led to the reorganization of associational models, and subsequently to periods of rapid expansion—suggesting a more complex relationship between Britain’s national fortunes and philanthropy than has previously been posited. These networks were also the site of intergenerational transmission of philanthropy, with apprentices and children entering into a world of associational formation through participation in this philanthropic nexus.
‘The Society of the Excellent of the Earth’
Authors: Allpress Roshan
Published: November 2023

This chapter reconsiders the ‘Clapham Sect’ and their role as a collaborative community of Evangelical philanthropists who exercised a coordinating role within the wider philanthropic nexus from the early 1790s to the mid-1810s, and frames them through the lens of their own self-conceptions and experiences. The chapter shows how business, family, religion, and philanthropy interacted in daily sociability, how individuals within the group leveraged the skills and networks of others to expand their influence, and how the community collaborated on local and transnational philanthropic projects. The account locates the Clapham Sect as one of many similar small communities—distinguished by the public prominence of its members—and its influence in shaping the culture of philanthropic networks and public perceptions of philanthropists.
Discordance and Nuisance
Authors: Yeang Chen-Pang
Published: November 2023

Chapter 2 reviews the two longstanding notions of noise—as irregular and inharmonious sounds that went against the human senses, and as annoying sounds of the surroundings that invaded into public and private spaces and disrupted tranquility. The concept of discordance tied to the theories of music since Antiquity, especially their preoccupation with harmonious tones and attempts to make sense of such tones with cosmic-numerological or psycho-physiological reasons. Along this tradition, Hermann Helmholtz in the 1860s defined noise as “a rapid alternation of different kinds of sensations of sound.” The concept of nuisance had a close relationship with the efforts by governments, local communities, and civic groups to control and “abate” din in urban or industrial settings. These two concepts became the dominant subjects of discussions on noise in technical literature and public discourse by the nineteenth century.
Filtering Noise for Antiaircraft Gunfire Control
Authors: Yeang Chen-Pang
Published: November 2023

While Uhlenbeck and his collaborators at Radiation Laboratory improved radar target detection in noisy environments, Norbert Wiener and his assistant Julian Bigelow at MIT designed an antiaircraft gunfire control system for the US Army. Like Uhlenbeck et al., Wiener and Bigelow employed the language of communication engineering and used the notion of noise to characterize the ambient factors that caused errors, fluctuations, and deviations in technological systems. The originality of Wiener and Bigelow’s approach was a new way to treat such noise. They aimed to reproduce the enemy target trajectory polluted by random noise in observing and tracking devices, i.e. a prediction problem. Wiener’s optimum predictor was later known as the “Wiener filter,” which utilized statistical properties of signal and noise—especially their correlation functions—to minimize the latter. In so doing, Wiener turned noise into unwanted waveforms that could be manipulated and filtered through generalized harmonic analysis.
Conclusion
Authors: Yeang Chen-Pang
Published: November 2023

In this concluding chapter, we review the historical transformation of noise in the first half of the twentieth century. We also look into the dissemination of the abstract concept of noise to broader circles of science and technology since the end of World War II. Three aspects of this further development are explored: ontology, epistemology, and technology. In physical sciences, life sciences, social sciences, and computing, digital, and information technologies, noise became ever more ubiquitous. Lastly, we discuss the historiographic implications of writing about noise by invoking the concepts of historical epistemology and historical ontology but pinpointing their insufficiencies for the history of noise.
The System
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

Capitalism is one of many systems in our lives. From an economics perspective, it is regarded as driven from the bottom-up by the individuals who comprise it. A top-down view looks at it from the perspective of the overall system in relation to society and the natural world. The bottom-up notion is associated with free will and the pursuit of individual objectives, and the top-down with socially imposed values, particularly from institutions and governments. Other disciplines such as biology, physics, and psychology are the subject of similar debates about reductionism and raise questions about the existence of free will. Both upward and downward concepts of capitalism have their limitations and it is a mistake to restrict consideration to one or the other. We should embrace both individual and collective choice in a values-based, problem-solving approach to the purpose of capitalism. The integrity of systems depends on the values that underlie their purposes. Problem-solving purposes create value by contributing to the performance of others. Value creation is the source of profit that resources and rewards contributors to the system. Alongside this, equity involves sharing as well as owning rewards, care derives from relationships between individuals not just contractual concerns for the wellbeing of others, and citizenship is a collaborative contribution to a common purpose of shared prosperity. Embracing upward and downward causation requires system-based policies regarding all of law, regulation, ownership, governance, measurement, performance, finance, and investment.
The Challenge
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

The failures of our capitalist system have manifested themselves in increasingly frequent and intense crises. This is what we are currently experiencing. The crises have revealed several aspects of the properties and deficiencies of capitalism: the ability of problem-solving companies to turn crises into opportunities; the need for greater clarity and commitment to problem-solving purposes; the influence of societal pressures on the behaviour of companies; and the challenges created by conflicting societal demands. Conflicts have arisen between climate change, environmental impacts, and the affordability of energy; innovation in public health, for example in relation to the development of vaccines to tackle COVID-19, and their global accessibility; and decisions by companies to withdraw from or remain in politically unacceptable countries. The most successful businesses in the world tackle the biggest challenges. At present, they do so in a form that causes as well as solves problems. For example, addictive, unhealthy, polluting products remain highly profitable; problems of inequality and social exclusion have intensified as an ever-stronger drive to generate profit encourages companies to concentrate on affluent customers; and competition to develop artificial intelligence poses immense threats as well as benefits for humanity. At present profits derive from the creation of problems as well as the delivery of solutions. While business needs to be profitable to be able to function and flourish, profits should come from the resolution not the creation of problems for others. It is moral for business to be profitable but what is profitable is not necessarily moral.
The Role of Law
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

Corporate law is permissive in allowing companies to adopt their desired purposes. Corporate purposes conform with the interests of society if the Moral Law applies. Corporate law should be permissive of purposes that do conform and proscriptive of purposes that do not. The Moral Law is not at present explicitly included in corporate law. It may be possible to interpret the ‘enlightened shareholder value’ nature of UK company law in this way. But it cannot be associated with US corporate law, even in its stakeholder-oriented forms as exist in some states of the US. The reason why there is ambiguity in the interpretation of UK company law and omission from US corporate law is a failure of the laws of either country to establish a clear basis on which to prevent firms profiting from detriments. The Moral Law should be universally incorporated in corporate and company law. This can be done through including corporate purposes of profiting from solutions not problems in law. These establish appropriate director duties. They retain the sole accountability of directors to shareholders, but they also align interests of companies and shareholders with other parties. They internalize negative externalities, and they permit, but do not require, adoption of positive purposes. The principles that apply to business are equally relevant to other corporate forms. They pertain to philanthropic, public, and social as well as business corporations. They provide a framework for adjudication over cases of corporate legal responsibility. These should relate to corporate structures and conduct as well as performance, particularly regarding the ownership, governance, measurement, and financial arrangements of companies.
Leading Solutions
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

Ownership of problems is not restricted to dominant shareholders. It is reflected in how companies are led, governed, and run, and it is the role of the board of directors to ensure the determination and effective implementation of problem-solving purposes. Everyone in an organization should take ownership of their part of its purpose. Corporate governance is not just about aligning the interests of leaders with shareholders. It is the process by which profitable problem-solving purposes are implemented. Leaders should specify, clarify, and exemplify their corporate purpose. They should connect it with the core strategy of the business; they should demonstrate an authentic commitment to its fulfilment; they should ensure that the business’s values and culture are aligned with it; they should delegate authority and empower those in the organization to deliver it; and they should resource and reward employees accordingly. Trust must be placed in those lower down in the organization to deliver the purpose. Those at the top of an organization cannot have a sufficient appreciation or understanding of the problems that confront their customers, communities, societies, suppliers, and distributors in the specific local contexts, environments, and ecosystems in which those problems arise, or the most appropriate solutions, people, or technologies to address them. It is employees in the organization with the contextual and specific knowledge who should be empowered and trusted to build relations with these parties and combine that understanding with codified, generic information from the top in delivering profitable solutions not problems.
Valuing the Invaluable
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

Measurement is critical to the allocation of resources in a capitalist system. Nowhere is this more significant than in relation to nature and the environment. There are three approaches that are used: metrics, accounting, and valuation. Metrics record the extent, state, and condition of natural capital. Accounts report the costs of maintaining and restoring nature. These costs should be incorporated in measures of national and corporate income, profit, and balance sheets to derive estimates net of costs of maintaining and restoring nature. Valuation seeks to attach monetary values to nature and the environment. Valuation is important in economic analyses of natural capital. It is most relevant in determining how investment in nature can best benefit humans. It provides an anthropocentric view of nature that may not reflect its intrinsic condition. Valuation should therefore be combined with metrics that measure nature’s intrinsic scale and condition, and accounts that record the costs of maintaining and restoring it. This suggests a staged approach of creating an inventory of natural assets; identifying priorities for protection or restoration reflecting their scale and condition; incorporating maintenance and restoration charges in corporate and national accounts; and identifying social costs and benefits of investing in different forms of nature-based solutions. The above is closely related to concepts of sustainability and sustainable finance. Its relevance extends beyond nature to human and social as well as natural assets.
Just Profit
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

Measurement is critical to resource allocation within companies and reporting by companies to their investors and other stakeholders. Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) reporting has been the dominant form of reporting to date. It has played an important role in portfolio allocation and investment appraisals by investors and companies. But it has been subject to problems of data quality and assurance, and it does not account for resourcing and performance of a company’s purpose. An organization should measure its performance against its purpose. It should incur the costs involved in rectifying, remedying, and mitigating the detriments it causes. It should provide for future costs of avoiding detriments and undertake investments required to deliver on its purpose. It should account for current and capital costs accordingly. This is no different from traditional cost accounting applied to companies that incur the true costs of avoiding imposing detriments on others and delivering promised benefits associated with their stated purposes. Projections of true costs, revenues, and just profits are the basis of conventional financial valuations and investment appraisals. Estimates of non-financial valuations of natural and social assets can also be undertaken to supplement financial valuations of true costs and revenues. These non-financial valuations are most relevant to investment appraisals and resource allocation decisions by companies and investors. Appropriate business models are required to ensure that adequate financial returns are earned on investment expenditures incurred in delivering environmental and social benefits.
Our Common Purpose
Authors: Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

Problem-solving purposes are a driver of human flourishing and shared prosperity. But businesses cannot solve major problems on their own. They must partner with other organizations, particularly government. Profitable problem-solving purposes naturally align private interests of business with public concerns of government. The UK provides a particularly striking illustration of the failures and potential for this. It has exceptionally poor productivity and high regional inequality caused by dysfunctional finance, regulation, corporate ownership, and centralized government. Reversing failed countries and regions requires enlightened public policy. This involves devolved, decentralized government to the regions; connecting financial centres with the regions through a presence of local institutions; forging common purpose between public, private, and philanthropic institutions in locality; promoting purposeful local businesses and financial institutions to support this; and rapid experimentation and learning from cases of success and failure. Forging common purpose is needed in some sectors as well as localities, especially utilities. The purposes of businesses should be aligned with social licences to operate in those sectors and regulators should move beyond just setting and enforcing rules to encouraging the engagement of businesses with their customers and communities on common purposes. Stronger partnerships should be formed between business and educational institutions. They are required in the design and delivery of leadership and skills training, and in mentoring, networking, and financing new business formations and commercial innovations in universities.
Young Emperor John and the Rule of Constantinople
Authors: Lau Maximilian C. G.
Published: November 2023

John’s life before he became emperor in 1118 is all but unstudied, as the focus of historians has been squarely on his father Alexios. This is despite the fact that John was crowned as co-emperor as a child, and was present at all of the key events of his father’s latter years. This chapter investigates John’s education and his personal relationships with family and friends in these years, and how those shaped struggles over John’s accession to sole rule at the death of his father. The supposed coup attempts against him in the 1110s are investigated, and how John formed a dominant coalition of supporters in 1118 is outlined. This chapter outlines the workings of John’s government and administration, describing to both expert and amateur readers what the Byzantine government looked like in both the capital and the provinces of the empire, and it introduces to the reader the specific people John had constituting it. The chapter ends by discussing a few domestic matters John dealt with in his first few years: cancelling Venice’s trade privileges, extending privileges to the monastery his father had endowed on Patmos, and adjudicating a land dispute between certain soldiers and the monks of Mt Athos.
Betrayal and Conquest in Anatolia
Authors: Lau Maximilian C. G.
Published: November 2023

Having resolved his conflicts to the west, John could focus once more on Anatolia in 1130. This chapter outlines how the region had changed since he was last there, and especially the rise of Ghazi Danishmend as the major power. Issues of chronology are cleared up, and with the scene set, the crucial twist occurs where John’s previously dependently loyal brother Isaac betrays him and flees to join Ghazi. We see how this betrayal shaped John’s Anatolian campaigns, and he targeted Paphlagonia in order to take Ghazi and Isaac on. Court sources are used to add detail to this campaign, and John’s strategy of annexing land while raiding beyond it to create a buffer is described. Mas’ud’s switching sides from John to Ghazi during the first siege of Gangra is the next key betrayal, though 1135 would see John return to finally take Gangra, though it was only with the death of Ghazi that John’s conquest of Paphlaghonia was secured.
The Church under John: Philanthropy and Ecumenism
Authors: Lau Maximilian C. G.
Published: November 2023

At first glance, John’s reign appears as an anomaly in Byzantine ecclesiastical history, as he has been characterized as a non-interventionist with little interest in the church and no trouble with his patriarchs. However, John founded one of the largest and best-known monasteries in Constantinople, and his reign saw a proliferation of commentaries on canon law, such that a philanthropic policy of government appears to be in evidence. After examining these texts, this chapter will examine the state of ecumenical relations in this period, especially with the Papacy, and will propose that the main driving ecclesiastical focus in this period was a steady build towards an expected ecumenical council, which had John lived longer, he would have called. Negotiations over this council are discussed, before the chapter finishes with a discussion of the relationship between John and his church at this time.
Neutralizing Supply Disruptions
Authors: Boute Anatole
Published: November 2023

Energy law has been at the centre of the European response to the 2022 energy crisis, and legal arguments have also been central to attempts by Russia’s Gazprom to justify interrupting gas supplies. In the international and European market-based energy regime, what is the role of energy law in neutralizing supply disruptions? The legality of sudden interruptions of energy exports under international law was already a debated question when the Arab oil-producing countries interrupted their exports in 1973. In parallel, an important literature developed on whether and how governments should intervene with energy markets to contain the impact of supply shocks. Building on this literature, this chapter analyses the legality of supply disruptions under international law and examines attempts by energy exporters to obtain force majeure relief for their supply obligations. The analysis then centres on regulatory measures to ensure supply security in liberalized energy markets through storage requirements, coordinated energy purchases, price control, and demand reductions, using the solidarity measures implemented by the EU in 2022 as a core case study.
Visual analytics for token-based distributional semantics
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk , Speelman Dirk , Heylen Kris , Montes Mariana , De Pascale Stefano , Franco Karlien , Lang Michael
Published: November 2023

The modelling workflow described in Chapter 3 produces token-level distance matrices: one matrix per model, each indicating the pairwise dissimilarity between the occurrences of a certain word in a sample, according to that model. However, because of the large number of tokens in the sample and the diversity of models produced by multiple parameters, such output is challenging to interpret. In this chapter we will describe the steps followed to process the distance matrices and obtain a more manageable format, as well as a visual analytics tool designed to explore the results. The chapter introduces a number of notions that are relevant for the way in which the models discussed in Chapter 5 are analysed and how the token-level plots in Chapters 6, 9, and 10 can be interpreted.
Making sense of distributional semantics
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk , Speelman Dirk , Heylen Kris , Montes Mariana , De Pascale Stefano , Franco Karlien , Lang Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on the ‘semantics’ in ‘distributional semantics’: what do clusters in distributional models look like and what do they mean? Based on analyses performed on 32 Dutch nouns, adjectives, and verbs from a synchronic, semasiological perspective, the chapter shows that there is no parameter setting for distributional models that returns an optimal solution across the board and second, that the token clouds, that is, the clusters within the models, do not systematically match senses as one would find them in dictionaries. Token clusters in distributional models may take different shapes, depending on the frequency and distinctiveness of the context words, and such clusters do not coincide unambiguously with lexicographic senses.
The interplay of semasiology and onomasiology
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk , Speelman Dirk , Heylen Kris , Montes Mariana , De Pascale Stefano , Franco Karlien , Lang Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter demonstrates how the joint distributional analysis of semantically related lexical items, like near-synonyms, allows to identify shared senses as common clusters in a distributional analysis. It explores the use of distributional models for analysing the evolution over time of the nearly synonymous Dutch verbs vernielen and vernietigen, ‘to destroy’. Compared to the preceding chapter, the descriptive perspective is different in two ways. First, rather than analysing semasiological structure as such, the focus shifts to an onomasiological point of view. Second, the chapters adds a lectal (more specifically, diachronic or ‘chronolectal’) dimension. The chapter illustrates how semasiological and onomasiological variation and change interact: changes in the onomasiological structure of a language can go hand in hand with semasiological changes.
Dimensions of standardization
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk , Speelman Dirk , Heylen Kris , Montes Mariana , De Pascale Stefano , Franco Karlien , Lang Michael
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter gave an overview of the successive steps for setting up a lexical lectometric study. This chapter puts the workflow into practice, with both a descriptive and a methodological focus. A lexical perspective on standard language change can be operationalized along three different dimensions: ‘hierarchical (de)standardization’, ‘(in)formalization’, and ‘(de)homogenization’. Using a database of 85 concepts in Dutch, stratified over two situational registers (formal and informal), in two national varieties (Netherlandic Dutch and Belgian Dutch) across two time periods (1999–2004 and 2017–2018), the chapter shows how the lectometric measures introduced in Chapter 7 can be used to describe these three dimensions. The chapter reveals considerable variability in the way semantic fields pull in different, sometimes opposing directions of change.
The Antarctic Foxes
Authors: Gillin Edward J.
Published: November 2023

Between 1838 and 1839, Britain’s leading science elites, including John Herschel, William Whewell, and Edward Sabine, successfully lobbied the British government to undertake a magnetic survey of the world. Specifically, they demanded funding for a Royal Navy expedition to Antarctica to magnetically chart the southern seas and locate the south magnetic pole. In 1839, James Clark Ross led this expedition, comprised of HMS Terror and HMS Erebus, and armed with two of the latest of Robert Were Fox’s dipping needles with which to obtain magnetic data and locate the pole for Britain. This chapter examines how these instruments were selected for this venture, based on trials throughout 1838 and 1839 on the Atlantic. It then examines the performance of Fox’s dipping needles on the Antarctic Expedition, between 1839 and 1843. This shows the importance of reliable instrumentation in what marked the inauguration of the British Magnetic Scheme. When, in 1841, Ross calculated the location of the south magnetic pole, it was with a Fox-type instrument, securing the device unprecedented scientific and popular acclaim.
Epilogue
Authors: Gillin Edward J.
Published: November 2023

This concluding chapter unpacks the significance of the British Magnetic Scheme for the formation of the modern British state and reflects on the role that this venture played in shaping notions that governments, to be enlightened and progressive, should mobilize scientific knowledge and empirical practices of knowledge production. This is a crucial concern in the 2020s, given the close relationship between governmentality and expert knowledge in responding to crises, notably those of climate change and global pandemic. The global remit of the British Magnetic Scheme was central to contemporaries celebrating this as a profound moment of modernity. Yet for all the imperial hubris surrounding the enterprise, this book has demonstrated the limits of the nineteenth-century imperial British state’s ambitions.
Introduction
Authors: Bentley Michelle
Published: November 2023

The chapter introduces the core themes and rationale of the book and identifies the key concept of the bioweapons taboo—the claim that biological armaments are constructed as so abhorrent, immoral, and beyond the expectations of social and political toleration that international actors will reject these weapons as pariah. The chapter outlines and explains a critical gap within both academic and policy understandings of biowarfare that relates to the taboo in order to set the scene for this first comprehensive discussion of the normative prohibition of bioweapons. In doing so, the chapter also highlights the need for a new analytic definition of ‘taboo’ and proposes an original conceptual model based on the normative characteristics of disgust, stigmatization, and fetishization. The chapter then provides a roadmap for the rest of the book, including chapter summaries and case study outlines.
Construction
Authors: Bentley Michelle
Published: November 2023

Chapter 4 analyses the US’s bioweapon programme initiated during World War II. While the existence of a major biowarfare programme ostensibly disputes the presence of a biological weapons taboo, the chapter demonstrates that decision-making was significantly more partial and more deferent towards the taboo than might appear on the surface. The commitment to bioweapons was constructed only as the means of last resort, normatively mitigated to defence purposes only (whereby the offensive was rejected as morally wrong), and pursued in direct opposition to wider public and world opinion. The taboo further undermined the pro-biowarfare standpoint to ensure both the decisive limitation of that position and a failure to incorporate bioweapons within military strategy. The chapter additionally demonstrates how the taboo shaped the terms of the debate with respect to political rhetoric.
Allegation
Authors: Bentley Michelle
Published: November 2023

Chapter 5 considers the allegations of bioweapon use made against the US during the Korean War. The chapter explores the influence of the taboo at this time with particular reference to the strengthening international perceptions of the prohibition at the United Nations, how perceptions of violation can reinforce a taboo, and the expression of the taboo within strategic narratives. The chapter additionally assesses a potential challenge to the taboo’s relevance: the clandestine introduction of a first-use biowarfare policy in 1956 by the US. While the policy could be interpreted to undermine the taboo, the chapter contextualizes this first-use commitment to show that military strategy was still determined by, and failed to pose a decisive challenge to, the expectations of the taboo.
Conclusion
Authors: Bentley Michelle
Published: November 2023

The concluding chapter recaps and reviews the key arguments put forward within the book. The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the historical analysis conducted within the study and the application of the original model of taboo proposed to the selected case studies. Specifically, the chapter discusses the genaeological analysis explicitly within the context of the three identified characteristics of a taboo: disgust, stigmatization, and fetishization. The chapter then considers other potential areas for related analysis of the bioweapons taboo and the relevance of this concept to further aspects of International Relations. Finally, the chapter discusses the future of the taboo and the likelihood that the taboo will continue to influence actor behaviour going forward.
Verbal Signaling
Authors: Green Mitch
Published: November 2023

This chapter proposes a notion of verbal signaling as a tool both for discerning affinities between communication among non-human species and linguistic communication, and for shedding light on phenomena that have puzzled philosophers of language. On the basis of the concepts of signal and index drawn from the evolutionary biology of communication in Section 1, the chapter develops the notions of verbal signal and verbal index in Section 2. Section 3 articulates differences among assertion and other members of what are called the “assertive family,” and explains the concept of illocutionary commitment. Then in Section 4 these notions are situated within the larger context of the cultural evolution of speech acts, a “how-possibly” cultural-evolutionary path for our modern practice of assertion is proposed. With this machinery in place, Section 5 is then equipped to shed light on phenomena of concern to the philosopher of language, specifically those types of self-ascription that Austin called expositives, grammatical evidentials, and certain forms of conversational implicature.
Leverage: A Model of Cognitive Significance
Authors: Yablo Stephen
Published: November 2023

Analytic semantics got its start when Frege pointed out differences in cognitive content between sentences that in some good sense “say the same.” Frege put cognitive content (in the form of sense) at the heart of semantic content. Most prefer nowadays to see cognitive contents as generated by semantic contents in context; a sentence’s cognitive significance is an aspect rather of the information imparted by its use. This chapter argues for a particular version of this idea. Semantic contents generate cognitive contents by operating levers in a larger piece of machinery, involving also the presupposition P one is leaning on and the subject matter M under discussion. A sentence’s cognitive content is what its literal-content-restricted-to-P-worlds says about M. It’s by triggering different presuppositions and/or speaking to different subject matters that coreferential names make their distinctive mark on a sentence’s felt information value.
Generating and Developing Ideas
Authors: Schaefer Stephan M.
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on the generation and development of ideas. It starts by discussing a typology of four different idea generation and development contexts characterized by different degrees of strength ranging from weak to strong and the nature of the problem being either open or closed. With a view to idea generation and development processes it analyses the significance of time, interactions, and objects and discusses relational and transactional dynamics in the generation and development of ideas. With a view to practices the chapter presents and analyses cognitive practices that focus on the mental processes of individuals, and interactive processes that consider the influence of other individuals and context.
Organizing Creativity
Authors: Schaefer Stephan M.
Published: November 2023

The following chapter analyses how organizations may facilitate and organize creativity. It distinguishes four distinct modes of coordination that are prevalent when organizing creativity namely management, leadership, teams, and networks. The chapter then unpacks these four modes with a view to their objectives, practical outcomes, potentialities, and dysfunctionalities. The discussion illustrates that there is no general approach to organizing creativity as the four modes blend into each other in the emergent creative process. The discussion also exposes how organizing creativity is riddled with tensions and thus the second part of the chapter applies the concept of paradox to analyse the contradictions involved in organizing creativity and discusses how practitioners may cope with these paradoxes.
General Motors
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: November 2023

CEO Alfred Sloan used all six rational methods during his 1920s‒30s enhancing development of General Motors (GM). There are three key examples of his use of these methods. First, there is his innovative adaptation that restructured GM into operating divisions. Second, there is his strategically calculated marketing, which pioneered automobile styling, style-based advertising, and annual model changes. Third, there is his emphasis on institutionalized deliberation, through a multitiered system of committees. Sloan’s use of these and the other rational methods led to GM becoming the world’s largest industrial corporation in the 1950s, and its methods were widely copied by other corporations. The chapter’s final section describes the rivalry between Sloan’s GM and the Ford Motor Company, which had pioneered assembly-line production in the 1910s. Fordism’s focus on efficient mass production had to compete against Sloanism’s administrative rationality in the 1920s‒30s.
Intel
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: November 2023

The enhancing development of microchip-maker Intel by Andy Grove required him to adapt to crisis-like ‘strategic inflection points’, as he termed them. In the mid-1980s Intel overcame a dangerous inflection point by focusing on microprocessor chips: an adaptive response led by Grove and his dual-leadership partner, Gordon Moore. In the mid-1990s CEO Grove had to adapt to another inflection-point situation, and his 1996 book presented a three-stage adaptive framework for dealing with inflection points. His framework included the two deliberative methods and an experimentation process that delivers new products. Such experimentation processes are examined in the second half of the chapter. It examines the multidivisional decentralized system developed by Hewlett-Packard in the 1960s, which delivered several product innovations in the 1970s‒80s. The chapter ends by describing a very different approach: the Steve Jobs top-down, hands-on approach that gave Apple the mobile-tech iPod, iPhone, and iPad in the 2000s.
Amazon
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: November 2023

Jeff Bezos established Amazon as an iconic online retail corporation, as was discussed in the final section of Chapter 7. Chapter 8 ‘continues the story’ by looking more closely at how Bezos developed Amazon into an iconic corporation in the 2000s. And the chapter looks at how he further developed Amazon in the 2010s, when it became a uniquely multifaceted high-tech corporation. In the 2000s, Bezos had diversified Amazon not only into Marketplace third-party selling but also into cloud-computing services and the Kindle e-reader. In the 2010s his further high-tech diversifying included the Fire tablet computer, video-streaming Prime Video, and Alexa voice information technology (VIT). Bezos used all seven rational methods to develop Amazon from start-up to multifaceted high-tech corporation, and the chapter’s final section examines his emphasis on the learning method, such as learning through iteration and experiments.
Giorgio Armani
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: November 2023

The Armani example illustrates the importance of the adaptive rational methods, which here helped to establish an iconic high-fashion corporation. Italian fashion designer, Giorgio Armani, adapted stylistically to fashion’s ‘new times’ in the 1970s‒80s by creating a new style that catered for career women. This stylistic adaptation is compared with that of another Italian fashion designer, Gianni Versace, who instead modernized haute couture fashion. Although the two designers exploited the same opportunity in different ways, they enjoyed similar success—both of them established iconic high-fashion firms. The chapter goes on to compare these two leaders’ legacies in the 1990s‒2000s. Then it shifts its focus from fashion to the cosmetics industry and from Italy to Britain. Here Anita Roddick used adaptive rational methods to establish The Body Shop corporation in the 1970s‒80s. However, she then moved away from such rational methods, with dire consequences for her corporation in the 1990s.
Nike
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: November 2023

Nike’s founder-leader Phil Knight and his emerging corporation were hit by a 1980s crisis that was overcome through a hybrid combination of redevelopment and revived development. Sneaker (athletic-shoe) company Nike was led in the 1980s by a leadership team in which Rob Strasser played a key role. He helped Nike overcome its crisis by making a redeveloping diversification into popular fashion, based on a joint venture with Michael Jordan that launched the Air Jordan basketball sneakers. An accompanying revival of development, returning to rapid/innovative adaptation, led to such superb new products as the Air Trainer and Air Max sneakers. So Nike was rescued and renewed by a hybrid combination of redevelopment and revived development: in other words, hybridized development-redevelopment (HDR). It included some brilliant advertising that boosted the Nike sneakers’ appeal as ‘cool’ popular fashion. And in the 1990s‒2000s CEO Knight’s enhancement of Nike created a globally iconic corporation.
Physical and Phenomenological Networks
Authors: French Steven
Published: November 2023

This chapter situates London and Bauer’s ‘little book’ in its historical context, beginning with the co-authors’ scientific backgrounds. London in particular did important work in physics, using quantum theory to explain chemical bonding and superconductivity for example. Working closely with the likes of Born, Sommerfeld, and, crucially, Schrödinger, London found himself at the heart of discussions over the foundations of the new theory. Notably he was part of the network of discussants used by Schrödinger to try out his ideas which subsequently found expression in his (in)famous ‘cat’ thought-experiment and in the notion of entanglement. However, London was also remarkable in having a strong background in philosophy, particularly phenomenology, and his student thesis on how we should conceive of scientific theories was actually published in the journal that Husserl founded. Even after he and his wife moved to Paris, where he met Bauer, London maintained his philosophical interests, holding long conversations with his friend Gurwitsch, for example, who went on to establish phenomenology as a discipline in the USA.
The Epoché and the Ego
Authors: French Steven
Published: November 2023

The fundamentals of phenomenology are sketched in this chapter, focusing in particular on the nature of the ‘epoché’ and the role of the ego. The former is the central device in the phenomenologists’ toolkit, whereby ‘the objective world’ is bracketed off, the better to hold up to the light the presuppositions underlying our ‘natural’ attitude towards it. Husserl’s view of the latter appears to have shifted over the years but a consistent account can be given according to which the ego appears as the subject-pole standing in a certain relationship with the object-pole. This correlation between thinking and being is all that we have access to, Husserl maintained, and as Zahavi has emphasized, this represents a core feature of phenomenology according to which mind and world are bound constitutively together. It is this ‘correlationist’ understanding that is the key to the phenomenological reappraisal of London and Bauer’s work.
From Modes to Keys in Early Modern Music Theory
Authors: Dodds Michael R.
Published: November 2023

The nature of the transition from the Renaissance modes to the major and minor keys of the high Baroque has long remained one of musicology’s great unanswered questions. The system Glarean proposed in his 1547 Dodecachordon comprised twelve modes at two transposition levels; the scheme J. S. Bach used to order The Well-Tempered Clavier in 1722 featured two modes at twelve transposition levels. What took place in between? This book, the product of deep engagement with the corpus of Western music theory, presents a model to clarify the factors of this complex shift. The essence of this model is the dynamic interplay of three historical-conceptual layers arising successively in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Baroque, each layer continuing once introduced. Medieval theorists conceived mode along a continuum between tune and scale. Renaissance theorists extended mode from plainchant to polyphony, applying it to such parameters as cadential hierarchies and contrapuntal imitation. Early Baroque mapping of vocal modality onto the keyboard catalyzed a transformation from diatonic gamut to chromatic keyboard as background pitch system, with a corresponding change from ladder to circle as the dominant model for tonal space, culminating in the circle of fifths. Illustrating the rise of tonal circularity are dozens of diagrams from historical treatises. Especially revealing are volvelles, rotating paper wheels that highlight music’s ties to cartography and cosmography at the dawn of the scientific revolution. This study fittingly culminates with exploration of tonal labyrinths, pieces that modulate around the circle of fifths.
The Tuoni in Italian Renaissance Music Theory
Authors: Dodds Michael R.
Published: November 2023

Of the three historical-conceptual layers, it was the oldest and deepest that most confounded Renaissance and Baroque music theorists: the tonus–modus continuum. Though often used as synonyms for mode, tonus and modus carry different connotations. Tonus corresponds to the melodic aspects of mode (“tune”), especially the psalm tones, while modus is associated with species definitions of mode (“scale”). While this dualism is present from the beginnings of Western music theory, the explosive growth of polyphonic psalmody during the era of Catholic reform, especially in Italy, produced confusion between the modi and tuoni. For theorists, this prompted a conundrum of both taxonomy and ontology: How do the tones of polyphonic psalmody relate to their like-numbered modes, from which they often differ in final, characteristic octave species, and cadential hierarchies? Should these tuoni be considered “modes” in their own right, and on what basis? From first viewing the tones as mere manifestations of their respective modes, successive generations of theorists over the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries came to see them as parallel to, then fully independent of—indeed supplanting—the modes. The evolving status of the tuoni corresponds to a shift from reason to practice as the epistemic basis of mode. This chapter focuses on Italian Renaissance theorists of vocal polyphony, while the next chapter addresses the dissemination of the tuoni in Western European theory after the introduction of basso per organo.
The Physical Nature of River Ecosystems
Authors: Mallin Michael A.
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the longitudinal nature of river ecosystems, from headwaters to the estuary, explaining the fates of rainfall and its effects, infiltration to groundwater, rain-driven erosion both outside and within streams, the various within-stream physical features and how such features impact biota. The size of various particles is discussed, how the water currents move particles, how such particles shape habitat and carry pollutants, and how the water interacts with the riparian zone. Water temperature, a product of season and latitude, causes stratification of deeper rivers and estuaries, impacting distribution of suspended solids, nutrients, and plankton. Light within the water column is a major driver of the micro-and-macroscopic plant community and is strongly impacted by turbidity and water color. Simple equations are described using examples to determine the light attenuation coefficient, and how it is used to compute the amount of available light at a given depth is computed, as well as how current mixing impacts average light.