bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reproductive performance of a laboratory breeding colony of patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas)
Authors: Sly D. L. , Harbaugh S. W. , London W. T. , Rice J. M.
Published: June 2005

Reproductive statistics were gathered over a 5½‐year period on a colony of Erythrocebus patas. Pregnancies occurred throughout the year under laboratory conditions with a suggestion of a mating peak in the late fall and early winter. Menstrual cycles were monitored and found to average 30.6 days in length. Maximal vaginal cornification occured on day 15 of the cycle suggesting a midcycle ovulation. However, production of timed‐mated pregnancies indicated ovulation occurred earlier and that breeding on days 10, 11, and 12 after menstruation was more likely to result in pregnancy. The gestation length was found to average 167.2 days in 142 harem‐bred females and 167.5 days in 11 timed‐mated pregnancies. Sixty‐two percent of all pregnancies resulted in live births; 28% of the conceptions terminated with in‐utero death of the fetus. Stillborn infants were delivered in 9% of the pregnancies. Infant mortality during the first 6 months of life was 10.2%. Females raised in the colony conceived their first offspring at approximately 3 years of age and males were able to sire infants at 3 years and 8 months.
A comparison of the behavior of Macaca fascicularis and Macaca mulatta in relation to the menstrual cycle
Authors: Zumpe Doris , Michael Richard P.
Published: June 2005

Observations on oppositely sexed pairs of M. fascicularis and M. mulatta revealed certain differences. M. fascicularis showed single‐mount copulations, higher potency, less grooming activity, and milder but more frequent aggressive exchanges than the rhesus monkey. These differences might be due to the lower dominance gradient between the sexes and less sexual dimorphism in M. fascicularis than in M. mulatta. There were changes in the sexual, grooming, and aggressive interaction in relation to the menstrual cycle, indicating the suitability of M. fascicularis for hormone‐behavior studies. Comparison of data from 30 and 60 min tests showed that important behavioral changes did not become apparent unless animals were given enough time to interact.
Abortion following the immigration of an adult male baboon (Papio cynocephalus)
Authors: Pereira Michael E.
Published: June 2005

Three abortions and the death of a vigorous infant occurred in a baboon (Papio cynocephalus) group in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, within the two weeks following the immigration of an aggressive adult male. The immigrant male attained top‐ranking dominance status in the group prior to these events. Circumstantial observations suggest that the reproductive losses were related to persistent intense aggression from the immigrant adult male. In the past ten years, only three other miscarriages have occurred in Amboseli. Inducement of abortion is discussed as a reproductive tactic that may be available to males of mammalian species whose life histories favor the evolution of infant‐killing by males.
A periodic dosing model of fetal alcohol syndrome in the pig‐tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)
Authors: Bowden D. M. , Weathersbee P. S. , Clarren S. K. , Fahrenbruch C. E. , Goodlin B. L. , Caffery S. A.
Published: June 2005

A nonhuman primate on a periodic ethanol dosing schedule should provide a model of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) most relevant to the majority of pregnant women who are “social drinkers” and can exercise reasonable control over their ethanol intake. In this pilot study, four pregnant pig‐tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) received ethanol once a week from 40 days' gestation. Doses were 2.5 gm/kg for three moderate‐dose animals (MDAs) and 4.1 gm/kg for one high‐dose animal (HDA). Peak blood ethanol levels reached a mean of 240–256 mg/dl for the MDAs and averaged 379 mg/dl for the HDA. Peak acetaldehyde did not vary with dose. One MDA aborted after the first dose. The other three pregnancies were compared with eight to ten control pregnancies, and the infants' development over the first six months was compared with that of the control offspring. Nutritional status of the pregnant females was normal. The fetal heart rate response to maternal restraint was absent in the HDA. Gestational duration and simian Apgar scores were normal. All three infants were abnormally large, and two were also abnormally heavy, with body weight appropriate to skeletal size. Skeletal maturation, judged by ossification and tooth eruption, was not accelerated. The high‐dose infant (HDI) was scaphocephalic, with an underdeveloped cranial base and midface, and its brain was small and dysplastic; its reflex, motor, and cognitive development were retarded. One moderate‐dose infant (MDI) had some brain abnormalities; it was hyperkinetic and showed developmental retardation on several behavioral measures. The other MDI was normal. We conclude that the periodic model offers an effective means of investigating FAS in M. nemestrina. Furthermore, when nutrition is maintained, intermittent intake of ethanol by the pregnant primate does not necessarily reatard fetal growth.
The black‐tailed marmoset (Callithrix argentata melanura) recorded from paraguay
Authors: Stallings Jody R. , Mittermeier Russell A.
Published: June 2005

The black‐tailed marmoset (Callithrix argentata melanura) occurs in central‐western Brazil and adjacent parts of Bolivia, and is the only member of the genus (Callithrix) to occur naturally outside Brazil. Data presented in this paper extend the range of this marmoset at least 200 km to the southwest into yet another country, Paraguay.
Geographic origin of journal articles on nonhuman primates
Authors: Terry Maryeva W.
Published: June 2005

During the 1970s variations in the number of citations published in CURRENT PRIMATE REFERENCES seemed to parallel changes in the fortunes of primate research in the United States. In 1981 and 1982, however, the trends diverged, with the number of citations increasing 25% over the two years. In an effort to identify more specifically some factors underlying the trend in literature growth, citations of journal articles appearing in 1971, 1976, and 1981 issues were tabulated according to the general subject indicated by the title and the site of research indicated by the author's address. The number of journal articles was 20% larger in 1981 than in 1971. The United States was the largest contributor in all three years, but its relative contribution declined. Continental Western Europe ranked second consistently, and its contribution grew at an above‐average rate. Japan ranked fifth in 1971 and third in 1981. India contributed less than 2% of the literature in 1971 and more than 3% in 1981, as a result of a doubling of its contribution. The subject composition of the literature did not change greatly.
Two new species of night monkeys, genus Aotus (Cebidae, platyrrhini): A preliminary report on Aotus taxonomy
Authors: Hershkovitz Philip
Published: June 2005

The nine allopatric species of Aotus recognized represent two natural groups distinguished by karyotype, color, and pelage patterns. Correlated with these group characters are reported differences in serum proteins and degrees of susceptibility or immunity to experimental infection with malarial parasites. The primitive gray‐neck species group of Aotus contains A. brumbacki (new species), A. lemurinus (with subspecies lemurinus and griseimembra), A. trivirgatus, and A. vociferans. The derived red‐neck group contains A. nancymai (new species), A. miconax. A. infulatus, and A. azarae (with subspecies azarae and boliviensis). Only the two new species are described but a key to the species and subspecies gives the diagnostic characters of each. The gray‐neck group occurs almost entirely north of the Amazon, the red‐neck group almost entirely south. The distributional exceptions are enclave populations resulting from river bend cutoffs. Formation of an enclave population of A. nancymai is discussed and available information on the biology of this species is reported.
A parametric model for estimating prevalence, incidence, and mean bout duration from point sampling
Authors: Griffin B. , Adams R.
Published: June 2005

Point or instantaneous sampling refers to the scoring of presence or absence of behavior at the end of equally spaced intervals of time and is used to estimate prevalence. The literature cited demonstrates that point sampling does not adequately estimate frequency or mean bout duration. A parametric model is developed based on exponentially distributed times of behavior and intervening nonbehavior, thus enabling estimators of mean bout length and incidence. Variance estimators are provided and a method is suggested for designing sample situations which control the variance of the prevalence estimator. The paper concludes the theoretical investigation with a thorough Monte Carlo investigation and application to a “real‐life” problem. The point sample estimators compare favorably with continuous observation under appropriate choice of sampling interval and under approximately exponential assumptions.
A computerized system for scoring primate behavior using standard keyboards
Authors: Bonsall Robert W. , Zumpe Doris , Michael Richard P.
Published: June 2005

A scoring system has been developed for primate behavior which uses standard keyboards and minicomputers or microcomputers. The mnemonic, alphanumeric code used is easily learned, highly flexible, and can be recorded in longhand for later entry into a computer if a keyboard is not immediately available. The software consists of two programs, both of which can be written in BASIC. SCORE is used for data acquisition and appends the test time to each behavioral sequence. DATSUM decodes and summarizes the test data using table‐driven logic. The minimum hardware required is a 16K microcomputer, an alphanumeric keyboard, a display, and cassette storage.
Polyspecific groups of macaques on the kowloon peninsula, new territories, Hong Kong
Authors: Southwick Charles H. , Southwick Karen L.
Published: June 2005

Three polyspecific groups of free‐ranging macaques were observed in July and August of 1980 and 1981 in the forests of the New Territories of mainland Hong Kong. Two groups were composed of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and long‐tailed or crab‐eating monkeys (M. fascicularis), and one group was composed of both the former plus Japanese macaques (M. fuscata). All three groups contained hybrids between M. mulatta and M. fascicularis. This combination of species within the same social group is an unusual circumstance in natural habitats, and it offers a unique opportunity for field studies in primate ecology and behavior.
Growth and development in the saddle‐back tamarin: The sequence and timing of dental eruption and epiphyseal union
Authors: Glassman David M.
Published: June 2005

A cross‐sectional sample of 121 colony‐born saddle‐back tamarins, Saguinus fuscicollis, was examined to identify the sequence and timing of dental eruption and epiphyseal union. The state of dental development of the deciduous and permanent dentitions was recorded as erupted or non‐erupted on the basis of gingival penetration. Eighteen areas of union of long bone epiphyseal and other secondary centers, the union of the primary elements of the innominate, and the spheno‐occipital synchondrosis were examined. The state of union at the areas was recorded on a three‐point scale of not united, uniting, and united. The data indicated that deciduous incisors and canines were present at birth and that all deciduous teeth were erupted by 12 weeks. The first permanent tooth, M(1), erupted between weeks 16 and 23; the permanent dentition was fully erupted by 45 weeks. Union of the long bone epiphyses began in the third month at the distal humerus and continued until the first quarter of the second year. The secondary centers at the ischial tuberosity and iliac crest were united slightly later than four and six years of age, respectively. Regression analysis of the data indicate their potential use as parameters for predicting age in feral specimens.
Brief report: Normal hematology values of Sykes monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis albogularis)
Authors: Wall Holly S. , Else James G.
Published: June 2005

Hematologic values are presented for the Sykes monkey (Cercopithecus mitis albogularis). The values are, in general, similar to published findings for other primate species. Elevated hemoglobin, possibly caused by high altitude, was noted. Significant differences of several values between males and females are discussed.
Taxonomic note: Bunopithecus: A genus‐level taxon for the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock)
Authors: Prouty Leonard A. , Buchanan Philip D. , Pollitzer William S. , Mootnick Alan R.
Published: June 2005

The recent discovery that the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock [Harlan, 1834]) has a karyotype distinct from all other hylobatids provides a new and strong motive for revising gibbon taxonomy and establishing hoolocks in a separate, higher taxon. Revising Groves's taxonomy of 1972, we propose that hoolock, along with the fossil species sericus, occupy a subgenus, Bunopithecus. With the newly added taxon, the genus Hylobates would thus contain four subgenera: Bunopithecus, Hylobates, Nomascus, and Symphalangus.
A 4‐year summary of the nonsurgical recovery of baboon embryos: A report on 498 eggs
Authors: Pope V. Z. , Pope C. E. , Beck L. R.
Published: June 2005

A nonsurgical embryo recovery procedure, developed to allow the economical acquisition of cleavage stage baboon embryos, has been successfully used for 4 years. With this technique, 498 eggs have been recovered from 979 uterine flushes (50.9%) on 71 baboons. Of 467 eggs recovered from mated baboons, 290 (62.1%) were fertilized. Papio anubis females provided a higher percentage of fertilized eggs (75.3%) than did Papio hamadryas (47.8%) or Papio cynocephalus (44.3%) females following exposure to males during estrus, although sexual preference may be responsible for the reduced fertilization rate in the P. cynocephalus females. Recovery rates from individual baboons ranged from 0% (n = 11) to between 66% and 93% for ten baboons from each of which 12–33 eggs have been recovered. Fertilized eggs were at the two‐cell (n = 23) to blastocyst (n = 53) stage at recovery 1–6 days postdeturgescence (PD) of the sex skin, with morulae (n = 84) being the most frequent cell stage recovered (30%). The optimum time for performing the procedure was the third day PD, when 113 (40%) embryos were recovered. The abilities of baboons to become pregnant and to provide fertilized embryos were significantly related (P < 0.005), allowing the embryo recovery technique to be used as a screening procedure for evaluating baboon fertility.
Endocrine aspects of social instability in the olive baboon (Papio anubis)
Authors: Sapolsky Robert M.
Published: June 2005

The relationships among social status and the cortisol and testosterone stress‐response were studied in the non‐natal male members of a troop of olive baboons (Papio anubis) before and during a period of social instability. The unstable period was characterized by dominance interactions that were more frequent, more inconsistent, and produced less linear hierarchies than during the stable period. These changes occurred predominantly among the high‐ranking males. Such males engaged in coalitions and consortship harassments at a higher rate during the unstable period than during the stable period. Finally, high‐ranking males had the highest rates of involvement in and initiation of escalated fighting during the unstable period, in contrast with the stable period. A number of endocrine correlates of instability emerged. During the stable period, high‐ranking males (by reproductive criteria) showed an endocrine profile different from that of subordinates. They had the lowest basal cortisol titers, the largest and fastest increases in cortisol titer during stress, and had elevated testosterone titers during stress. None of these attributes was found in high‐ranking males during the unstable period. Males during the unstable period had elevated basal cortisol titers, suppressed cortisol responsiveness to stress, and no longer showed elevated testosterone titers during stress. When psychological advantages associated with social status in a stable social environment were lost, endocrine efficiency previously associated with social status was apparently also lost. Further, high‐ranking males, who were most aggressive exclusively during the unstable period, had the highest absolute titers of testosterone exclusively during the unstable period. Thus, elevated testosterone and high levels of aggression were unrelated to social status during the period of social stability, but were traits associated with dominant individuals during the unstable period.
Monitoring ovarian function in marmosets and tamarins by the measurement of urinary estrogen metabolites
Authors: Hodges J. K. , Eastman S. A. K.
Published: June 2005

Practical aspects of urinary estrogen analysis were considered with regard to establishing simple and reliable methods for monitoring ovarian function in marmosets and tamarins. Changes in the hormone:creatinine ratio in small volumes of urine from the common marmoset were significantly correlated with changes in 24‐h excretion. Comparison of the metabolism and excretion of estrogens during the ovarian cycle in the common marmoset and cottontop tamarin revealed interesting species differences. High concentrations of conjugated estrone were measured in marmoset plasma, but estradiol 17β was the predominant estrogen in urine. In contrast, estrone was the most abundant estrogen measured in tamarin urine. Both species excreted very little estriol. Sulfates and glucuronides were present in urine in similar proportions before ovulation in the marmoset, although after ovulation sulfates were the more abundant. Conversely, most of the estrogens in tamarin urine appeared to be conjugated as glucuronides. Direct assay for estrone sulfate was applied to the measurement of urinary estrogen excretion during the ovarian cycle in a marmoset. The results compared well with those for total estradiol 17β after hydrolysis and ether extraction. The use of direct assays for conjugated estrogens in small volumes of urine is suggested as a practical method for monitoring ovarian function in marmosets and tamarins.
Taxonomy of squirrel monkeys genusSaimiri(cebidae, platyrrhini): A preliminary report with description of a hitherto unnamed form
Authors: Hershkovitz Philip
Published: June 2005

Two groups of squirrel monkeys, genusSaimiri, are distinguished by external characters. The first, or Roman type, containsSaimiri boliviensisof upper Amazonia south of the Rio Marañón‐Amazonas, with two subspecies of whichS. boliviensis peruviensisis described as new. The second group, or Gothic type, contains three species:Saimiri sciureuswith four subspecies distributed over much of tropical South America,Saimiri ustusof Brazil between the south bank Amazonian Rios Purús and Xingu, andS. oerstediisolated on a Pacific coastal area straddling Costa Rica and Panamá. The geographic range ofS. sciureusoverlaps parts of those ofS. ustusandS. boliviensis. Incomplete karyotypic data indicate that the diploid number of chromosomes for the genus is 44. Geographic variation is characterized by reduction from seven to six or five paired acrocentric autosomes through pericentric inversion with reciprocal increase in number of paired submetacentric or subtelocentric autosomes. Geographic distribution, behavior, sexual dimorphism including dichromatism, and hybridization are discussed. Ventral guide hairs for orientation of subprecocial newborn toward the maternal mammae are described. Distinguishing characters of species and subspecies are provided in a key. The taxons are listed with the taxonomy of each discussed, their geographic distribution plotted and mapped.
Nationwide census of gorilla (gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon
Authors: Tutin C. E. G. , Fernandez M.
Published: June 2005

A census was made of gorilla and chimpanzee populations throughout Gabon between December 1980 and February 1983. The aim of the census was to estimate the total numbers of both species and describe their distributions. The method was based on nest counts from line transects which allowed the calculation of population densities of all individuals except suckling infants. Fifteen types of habitat were recognized and defined in terms of their structural features. In the initial phase of the study we did transects in each habitat‐type and computed mean densities for each species in each habitat‐type. In the second phase of the study we estimated the sizes of gorilla and chimpanzee populations throughout the country by extrapolation from these population density values. We did transects in all areas of the country and conducted interviews to check the accuracy of the population totals obtained by extrapolation. Corrections were made to the extrapolated totals to take into account different levels of hunting pressure and other human activities found to modify ape population densities. Total populations of 34,764 gorillas and 64,173 chimpanzees were estimated. An error of ± 20% was associated with the estimated population totals, which allows the conclusion that Gabon contains 35,000 ± 7,000 gorillas and 64,000 ± 13,000 chimpanzees. The figure for gorillas is much larger than previous estimates. This seems to be because (1) gorillas occur in almost all types of forest and are not restricted to man‐made secondary forest as had been though; and (2) the geographical distribution of gorillas in Gabon is wider than previously believed. Gabon's large areas of undisturbed primary forest offer exceptional potential for conservation, not only of gorillas and chimpanzees, but also of the intact tropical rain forest ecosystems which they inhabit.
Fetal development in the normal thick‐tailed bushbaby (Galago crassicaudatus panganiensis)
Authors: Newman L. M. , Hendrickx A. G.
Published: June 2005

Fetal development was examined at days 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, or 135 of gestation in 19 thick‐tailed bushbaby fetuses (Galago crassicaudatus panganiensis) from 17 normal, timed pregnancies. With the exception of day 135, all fetuses were collected by hysterotomy (gestation = 133 ± 2 days). Various weights and measurements were taken. Although fetal sizes varied widely, crown‐rump, crown‐heel, upper and lower arm and leg lengths, hand and foot lenghts, and fetal organ weights correlated well with fetal age. Key changes in gross brain morphology and skeletal ossification of cranium, pelvis, tarsals, carpals, and epiphyses were noted. Sternabrae ossification proved highly variable, while ossification in the otic capsule and associated ear structures correlated well with age. These data provide a normal base for studies using fetal developmental parameters whether the purpose is to determine gestational age or to design future studies.
Chromosome studies of Cebus apella: The standard karyotype of Cebus apella paraguayanus, Fischer, 1829
Authors: Matayoshi Tetsuji , Howlin Edgardo , Nasazzi Nora , Nagle Carlos , Gadow Enrique , Seuánez Héctor N.
Published: June 2005

Chromosome studies were performed on 40 specimens identified as Cebus apella paraguayanus, Fischer, 1829, which had been wild‐caught in Santa Catalina (Republic of Paraguay). Elongated chromosome spreads obtained from lymphocyte cultures were sequentially stained with different techniques, and a constant pattern of 382 bands was identified in all specimens. A standard karyotype based on the measurements of the total chromosome length and the G‐Q banding pattern is proposed.
The taxonomy of south American sakis, genusPithecia(Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A preliminary report and critical review with the description of a new species and a new subspecies
Authors: Hershkovitz Philip
Published: June 2005

The report begins with a key based on external characters and a tabulation of diagnostic cranial characters for separatingPitheciafromChiropotesandCacajaoof the subfamily Pitheciinae. The description ofPitheciais based on external, cranial, dental, and certain postcranial characters with particular attention to limb proportions and the femoral third trochanter. The species ofPitheciaare arranged in thePithecia pitheciagroup withP. p. pitheciaandP. p. chrysocephala, and thePithecia monachusgroup withP. m. monachus, P. m. milleri, P. irrorata irrorata, P. i. vanzolinii(new subspecies),P. aequatorialis(new species), andP. albicans. The discussion on nomenclature compares the usage of names by various authors for the different taxa. The species previously identified by Hershkovitz [Hershkovitz, 1979] asPithecia monachusproves to be the new speciesP. aevuatorialis, whereas the sympatric species he calledP. hirsutSpix (1823)s the same as trueP. monachusÉ. Geoffroy (1812). Speciation among sakis is expressed, for the most part, by marked differentiation in coloration and head pelage patterns in males. Females of corresponding males diverged along the same lines but to such lesser degree that specific discrimination between them is complicated. Details of sexual dimorphism in coloration and pelage patterns are described, and those of size are documented by summaries of weights and by measurements of external, cranial, dental, and skeletal characters for each sex of each taxon. A key to the species and subspecies ofPitheciais followed by an account of each taxon that includes statements of taxonomic history or synonymy, type specimen, type locality, and geographic distribution. A full description with the addition of accounts of diagnostic characters, variation, comparisons, measurements, list of specimens examined, and other matters, is provided only or the new formsPithecia aequatorialisandP. irrorata vanzolinii. Comparable descriptions of all taxa are contained in Volume 2 ofLiving New World Monkeys, currently in preparation. The gazetteer, however, includes complete data for all saki collecting and recorded localities plotted on the range maps.
Correlates of agonistic and competitive interactions in pregnant baboons
Authors: Silk Joan B.
Published: June 2005

Maternal condition during pregnancy is known to influence fetal viability. Recently, primatologists have suggested that certain characteristics of the fetus may influence maternal condition as well. For example, among captive pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) mothers of female infants may be at greater risk of injury during their pregnancies than mothers of male infants. Analysis of the rates of aggression, submission, competition, and wounding among free‐ranging pregnant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) in Amboseli National Park generally fail to support these findings, but several other factors such as maternal dominance rank, environmental conditions during pregnancy, maternal parity, and fetal age correlate with aggression, submission, competition, and injuries sustained by pregnant female baboons.
Baculum length and copulatory behavior in primates
Authors: Dixson A. F.
Published: June 2005

The length of the baculum (os penis) was measured in 74 adult males representing 46 primate species. These data, and a review of previously published measurements, indicate that variation in baculum length among primates is related to taxonomic and behavioral differences. Thus, many New World monkeys have shorter bacula, relative to body weight, than Old World monkeys. The baculum is shorter in colobine monkeys than in cercopithecines. Among the great apes, reduction of the baculum is more pronounced in Pan and Gorilla than in Pongo. Very long bacula are found in some nocturnal prosimians (eg, Lorisidae) and also in Macaca arctoides. A comparison of baculum length relative to body weight was made in 34 species for which detailed information on copulatory behavi or was available. The presence of an elongated baculum was shown to correlate with copulatory patterns involving prolonged intromission and/or the maintenance of intromission during the postejaculatory interval (eg, Galago crassicaudatus, Loris tardigradus, M, arctoides). The evolutionary significance of these observations is discussed and it is suggeted that similar copulatory patterns may occur in species with elongated bacula (eg, Daubentonia, Perodicticus) for which behavioral data are lacking at present. The same hypothesis also applies to an extinct adapid primate which possessed a very large baculum.
Tactics of care for young infants by forest‐living ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata): Ground nests, parking, and biparental guarding
Authors: Pereira Michael E. , Klepper Annette , Simons Elwyn L.
Published: June 2005

Over a 4 month period, systematic and ad libitum observations were conducted on two adult female black‐and‐white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) and their infants in a 3.5 ha forest enclosure. The females were mother and daughter, members of a family group that had been semifree‐ranging for 2 years and 3 months at the time of the births. One to two weeks before parturition, the females independently constructed nests, in which they kept their infants during the first few weeks following parturition. The older mother, cage‐reared herself, prepared at least one nest. Her daughter, who has lived in the forest since late juvenescence, prepared at least four. Two to three weeks after parturition, the mothers moved their infants high into trees. During periods of maternal absence, the infants were often alone, and they rarely or never moved, vocalized, or groomed themselves. The mothers often kept their infants together after nests were no longer used. Each infant nursed freely from both lactating females. The infants were carried orally only by their mothers and were never transported by clinging to the pelage of any group members. Previously, researchers suggested that ruffed lemurs build nests for care of infants high up in trees. The present observations, however, suggest that two major modes of neonate care in Varecia exist: serial use of multiple ground nests and “parking” of infants high in trees. Advance preparation of several nest sites, relative lack of large predators, alternate maternal and paternal guarding of infants, infant immobility during absence of mother, and rapid infant development make this tactic of care for neonates plausible.
Excessive ovarian follicular development in pregnant pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina)
Authors: Chandrashekar Varadaraj , Dierschke Donald J. , Wolf Richard C.
Published: June 2005

To evaluate the status and possible control of ovarian follicular development during pregnancy, circulating levels of estrone (E1), estradiol‐17β (E2), and follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH) were measured throughout gestation in both intact and ovariectomized pregnant pigtailed monkeys (Macaca nemestrina). From an additional group of pregnant monkeys, ovaries were obtained at late gestation (on day 150 or 159 of pregnancy) for histological studies. Circulating concentrations of E1 and E2 increased on day 13 and remained elevated for about 10 days; they then declined and reached low levels on day 32 of gestation. After day 60, there were gradual but smaller increases in estrogen levels to day 140, after which both E1 and E2 levels increased significantly, reaching maximum levels (E1 = 832.2 ± 210.8 pg/ ml; E2 = 1.66 ± 0.32 ng/ml) at the end of pregnancy. Removal of ovaries on day 35 of gestation did not affect pregnancy or the pattern of estrogen secretion. Serum concentrations of FSH demonstrated only minor fluctuations during pregnancy but were similar to those found during the early follicular phase of cycling pigtailed monkeys investigated in this study. Ovarian histology revealed extensive follicular growth; in addition to the corpus luteum of pregnancy, ovaries were packed with pre‐antral, small antral, and medium‐sized Graafian follicles. Some of these follicles appeared to be cystic and showed various degree of atresia; their general appearance was similar to the follicles of human females with polycystic ovary syndrome. Our data suggest that FSH may initiate ovarian follicular growth during gestation. High levels of estrogens were incapable of suppressing FSH secretion but may be responsible for the induction of atresia in a large number of follicles in pregnant pigtailed monkeys.
Relation between the dominance rank of female rhesus monkeys and their access to males
Authors: Zumpe Doris , Michael Richard P.
Published: June 2005

Systematic observations were made on 12 measures of the sexual, aggressive, and social interactions of 24 male–female pairs of rhesus monkeys in six social groups, each consisting of one male and four ovariectomized females tested in a large room. Each female in a group was treated in turn first with estradiol alone and then with estradiol and progesterone in combination. When hormone‐treated, the female was also observed during pair tests with the male in the same large observation room (four males, eight females, 240 group tests, 240 pair tests). The dominance ranks of females during group tests were determined post hoc by means of the dominance index [Zumpe & Michael, American Journal of Primatology 10:291–300, 1986]. In all six groups, the most dominant female virtually monopolized the male, and the subordinate females' interactions with the male, assessed during pair tests, were almost completely suppressed during group tests. This “dominant female effect” was a robust phenomenon that depended solely on female dominance rank. It was independent of the identity and hormonal status of females and of the social preferences of males as expressed in pair tests. These findings demonstrate the existence of female mate competition in an Old World primate.
Sexual dimorphism, mating system, and effect of phylogeny in De Brazza's monkey (Cercopithecus neglectus)
Authors: Leutenegger Walter , Lubach Gabriele
Published: June 2005

De Brazza's monkey (Cercopithecus neglectus), like other guenons, shows marked sexual dimorphism in an array of features. While strong sexual dimorphism is generally associated with a polygynous mating system, populations of De Brazza's monkeys in Gabon are reportedly monogamous. An explanation of this unique phenomenon is offered here. Patterns of sexual dimorphism are examined for morphology, growth and development, behavior, and ecology, and field and captive studies on the social organization and mating system of De Brazza's monkey and congeneric guenon species are reviewed. Based on the findings, it is postulated that 1) De Brazza's monkeys are not strictly monogamous, but exhibit interpopulational variation in their mating system, from facultative monogamy to mild polygyny; 2) marked sexual dimorphism most likely reflects the effect of the historical‐phylogenetic factor; ie, it represents a holdover of a degree of dimorphism established earlier in evolutionary history when the degree of polygyny Was higher; and 3) lessening in the degree of polygyny and a tendency toward monogamy represents a consequence of selection toward small group size. Small group size, a unique antipredator strategy, and failure to form polyspecific associations are ultimately most likely the result of intragroup and interspecific competition and predation pressure.
Temporal and endocrine sequelae of aspirating follicular contents in rhesus monkeys
Authors: Hutz Reinhold J. , Dierschke Donald J. , Wolf Richard C.
Published: June 2005

Aspiration of ovarian follicular contents in humans is a well‐established procedure used to obtain oocytes for fertilization in vitro (IVF). However, the effects of aspiration on the menstrual cycle and resulting luteal function have been incompletely characterized. The present study was designed to investigate alterations in the temporal and endocrine characteristics of menstrual cycles following aspiration of contents of the dominant preovulatory follicle (DF) on day 10 of the cycle in normal rhesus monkeys. When aspiration was performed prior to the preovulatory surge of luteinizing hormone (LH), cycle length was extended to 38.6 ± 8.6 [15] (x days ± SD, [n]), as compared to 29.5 ± 5.7 [8] days when the surge occurred before the time of aspiration. Mean and maximal amounts of progesterone (P) in the luteal phase and the number of days in which P‐values were > 1 ng/ml were significantly greater when aspiration was performed prior to the surge of LH than for aspiration after this event. Laparoscopic observations made in the midluteal phase in animals of the former group demonstrated that the corpus luteum (CL was derived from a follicle other than the original DF which had been aspirated on day 10 of the menstrual cycle; observations in the latter group of animals indicated that the CL was derived from the DF.
Effects of anesthetic agents on the adrenocortical system of female baboons
Authors: Walker Margaret L. , Pepe Gerald J. , Garnett Nelson L. , Albrecht Eugene D.
Published: June 2005

Invasive surgical procedures are often used to study the reproductive and adrenocortical endocrine systems in primates. Anesthetic agents must, therefore, be used that have the least confounding effects on these systems. The present study was designed to characterize various adrenocortical endocrine responses of female baboons (Papio anubis), each treated for 120 minutes with an infusion of ketamine HCl (6 mg/min) in 5% dextrose in water (0.40 ml/min), a combination of ketamine and acetylpromazine (0.6 mg acetylpromazine and 6 mg ketamine HCl/min) in 5% dextrose in water, or inhalation of vaporized halothane (1.0% halothane, N2O 25%, 1 liter/min; O2 75%, 3 liters/min). Blood samples were collected throughout the treatment period, and serum was assayed for prolactin (PRL), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHAS), and cortisol (F). No significant elevations in DHA, F, or PRL concentrations were found following infusion of ketamine alone. Only serum DHAS concentrations were significantly altered after long‐term exposure to ketamine. Acetylpromazine increased PRL concentrations tenfold to levels significantly greater than those in ketamine‐ and halothane‐treated animals but had no effect on serum DHA, DHAS, or F. Treatment with halothane had no effect on serum PRL, DHA, or DHAS but did suppress F (>40%) concentrations over time. These data indicate that ketamine is best suited for the collection of biological samples when deep analgesia is not required but that halothane is preferable in the latter situation.
Activity budgets of woolly spider monkeys, or muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides)
Authors: Strier Karen B.
Published: June 2005

One group of woolly spider monkeys, or muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides), was observed from June 1983 through July 1984 at Fazenda Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The study subjects spent an average of 49% of their daylight time resting, 29% traveling, and 19% feeding. They shifted their diurnal schedule of activities in response to seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall. The activity budgets of adult males and females were similar. However, a comparison of three adult females in different reproductive conditions revealed that the lactating female spent a greater proportion of time feeding than did both the pregnant and nonreproductive females. Intraspecific differences in group size and diet appear to be important to understanding differences in the activity budgets of Brachyteles. Differences between locomotion patterns of woolly spider monkeys and sympatric howler monkeys may explain activity budget differences based on group size and diet.
Immunoreactive parathyroid hormone levels in platyrrhini and catarrhini: A comparative analysis with three different assays
Authors: Adams John S. , Gacad Mercedes A. , Rude Robert K. , Deseran Mark , Endres David B. , Mallette Lawrence E.
Published: June 2005

Serum concentrations of the hormonal form of vitamin D3—1,25‐dihydroxy‐vitamin D3 [1,25‐(OH)2‐D3]—are elevated in many genera of platyrrhines when compared to catarrhines; this elevation is presumed to result from a decrease in the ability of the target cell receptor effectively to recognize 1,25‐(OH)2‐D3. The activity of the renal 25‐hydroxyvitumin D3‐1α‐hydroxylase, the mammalian enzyme which synthesizes the majority of the circulating 1,25‐(OH)2‐D3, is accelerated by parathyroid hormone (PTH). In order to determine whether the elevated serum concentrations of 1,25‐(OH)2‐D3 in platyrrhines were the result of relative hyperparathyroidism, we measured serum levels of immunoreactive parathyroid hormone (iPTH) in normocalcemic platyrrhines, catarrhines, and human subjects with assays that recognize different domains of the human PTH molecule. Antisera directed against the biologically active, aminoterminus of PTH yielded comparable mean values for iPTH among three test groups. The mean concentration of iPTH as assessed by a “proximal” midregion assay was significantly reduced in platyrrhine serum when compared to either human or catarrhine serum. A “distal” midregion assay yielded a reduced mean value for iPTH in both platyrrhine and catarrhine serum when compared to human serum. These data suggest that 1) high circulating levels of 1,25‐(OH)2‐D3 in New World primates are not the result of hyperparathyroidism; and 2) structural homology between human and primate PTH diminishes progressively as one moves toward the carboxyterminus of the molecule and is lost more rapidly in the platyrrhine than in the catarrhine hormone.
Movement and reproductive behavior of solitary male redtail guenons (Cercopithecus ascanius)
Authors: Jones W. Thomas , Bush Betsy B.
Published: June 2005

Adult male redtail guenons (Cercopithecus ascanius) live as resident males in heterosexual groups or as nonresident males outside groups. Data are reported here on movement and temporary intrusions by nonresident males in heterosexual groups. These data further elucidate the reproductive strategies of this class of individual. Observations of three radiocollared males provided data on the details of their movement relative to groups. Regular sampling of three heterosexual groups provided data on patterns of nonresident males' intrusions. During peak mating months, nonresident males formed loose affiliations with groups. The males affiliated with one group at a time, with each affiliation lasting several weeks. Nonresident male intrusions in groups were unevenly distributed and were not correlated with the number of potentially fertile females in each group. Estimates of male density indicate that there were about two nonresident males per group, which suggests an adult sex ratio of three females per male within the study area. Nonresident male redtail guenons apparently do not spread their reproductive efforts over several groups at once, but instead each male tends to direct his attention toward the group offering the best opportunity for reproductive payoffs. Factors that determine which groups they attempt to infiltrate may include the characteristics of resident males, female choice, or both, but the number of fertile females probably has no effect. The male low density and female‐biased sex ratio among adults should facilitate resident males' attempts to monopolize fertilizations in groups; however, resident males were unable to prevent copulations by nonresident males even when only one nonresident was intruding in a group.
Combining scientific experimentation with conventional housing: A pilot study with rhesus monkeys
Authors: Preilowski Bruno , Reger Michael , Engele Hans
Published: June 2005

In search of a method to increase the validity of experimental data and simultaneously counteract the negative consequences of restricted laboratory environments, a pilot study was run with three rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), which were trained and tested with a laboratory‐type task in the animal housing facility. The testing apparatus was made available to individual animals 24 hours a day at their living cage and was connected to a computer that controlled the test and the distribution of regular monkey chow as reward. The animals were thus able to work whenever they wanted, for whatever period of time they chose, in their accustomed home environment. Besides furnishing data on the distribution of activity and performance over extended periods of time, the study provided more data than those obtained previously when animals were tested each day for only a limited time in an isolated test chamber. It was also found that the self‐initiated manipulatory activity required by the test considerably reduced the number of motor stereotypies. Thus, testing animals within the housing facility was profitable for the investigators and beneficial for the animals.
Seasonal changes in serum dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenedione, and testosterone levels in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis)
Authors: Wiebe R. Herbert , Williams Lawrence E. , Abee Christian R. , Yeoman Richard R. , Diamond Edward J.
Published: June 2005

The squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis) has a well‐defined breeding season during which adult males undergo androgen‐dependent morphological changes, with acquisition of active spermatogenesis. To assess the hormonal events of this annual cycle, blood samples were obtained weekly from ten adult males, and serum was assayed for testosterone (T), androstenedione (ΔA), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). A significant seasonal variation was noted in mean serum T (P < 0.02), ΔA (P < 0.02), and DHEA (P < 0.001) concentrations. Mean ΔA concentrations increased from a nonbreeding season nadir of 91.4 ± 12.9 ng/ml (mean ± standard error) to a prebreeding concentration of 139 ± 10.5 ng/ml and breeding season peak of 167.5 ± 15.4 ng/ml (P < 0.05). Mean DHEA concentrations increased from a nonbreeding season nadir of 8.3 ± 0.8 to a breeding season peak of 14.3 ± 1.2 (P < 0.001). Mean T levels in the nonbreeding (52.2 ± 11.6 ng/ ml) and prebreeding season (48.6 ± 7.4) were similar. However, T significantly increased during the breeding season to 103.5 ± 12.8 ng/ml (P < 0.05). Progressive changes in body weight and morphology paralleled the rise in serum ΔA levels. The pattern of peripheral serum androgen concentrations throughout the year would suggest annual activation of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal and/or hypothalamic‐pituitary‐gonadal axes.
Tropical rain forest conversion and perspectives in the conservation of wild primates (Alouatta and Ateles) in Mexico
Authors: Estrada Alejandro , Coates‐Estrada Rosamond
Published: June 2005

The original distribution of the tropical rain forest and of the populations of Alouatta palliata, Al. pigra, and the two subspecies of Ateles geoffroyi in southern Mexico have been reduced by at least 90% in the last 40 years as a result of conversion of natural habitat to pasture and agricultural fields. This dramatic conversion has been caused mainly by the rapid growth of the human population in the southern states of the country. In the region of Los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, where the only longitudinal popululational and ecological studies of A. palliata and At. g. vellerosus have taken place, only 15% of the original extension of the tropical rain forest remains today. The intensive destruction of suitable primate habitat in this region has resulted in an accelerated process of extinction of the primate species. It is estimated that only about 200 At. g. vellerosus and about 1200 Al. palliata exist in the remaining small portion of their original habitat. Today, the distribution of the three primate species in Mexico is intensively and extensively fragmented, and only five potential foci for conservation exist in the country. Urgent action is required to protect the primate populations in the region of Los Tuxtlas and at the other four foci, as some of these populations may disappear by 1995.