bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some General Observations on a 1992 Europe and the implications for Industrial Relations in the European Community
Authors: Carby‐Halll J.R.
Published: January 2008

“From the ruin and recrimination of the Second World War, the subsequent foundation and development of the European Community is one of the most remarkable developments of modern European history” said Lord Plumb the former President of the European Parliament.
A Legal Campaign: Advertising Freedom and Legal Controls
Authors: Johnson Howard
Published: January 2008

It is undoubtedly the case that advertising plays a significant part in modern economic life in most societies and many view it as an essential part of the operation of a free market system. Yet it is also the case that our knowledge of how exactly it works and whether the vast amounts spent on it are justified is still uncertain. Lord Leverhulme, the founder of Lever Brothers, is credited with the famous aphorism — ‘one half of advertising does not work but nobody knows which half’ and that perhaps sums up the situation very well. One thing that is generally accepted is that some protection must be provided both to consumers and trade competitors from false or misleading advertising which can lead to market distortions and economic loss to purchasers. Increasingly controversial, however, is the scope and extent of legal and voluntary controls on advertising. In the advertising industry fears are rising about the volume of both national and EEC proposals to restrict or limit advertising and as we move from the '80s, a decade of conspicuous consumption in which advertising flourished, to the caring '90s where environmental issues are to the fore, the advertising industry faces major challenges. Advertising as a whole is facing severe economic and legal challenges after the massive expansion of the 1980's — it is estimated that there was a 4% fall in real terms in UK advertising expenditure in the first quarter of 1990 and an estimated 5% fall in the second quarter. Clients are becoming more demanding and the cosy cartel arrangement whereby advertising agencies made a 15% standard commission on a client's expenditure has gone — commissions are down to 12%‐13% or being replaced by fixed fees. It has been estimated by the Advertising Association that proposed legal restrictions could lead to a loss of £1 bn in revenue for the industry. Multi‐farious pressure groups are campaigning against drink advertising, cigarette advertising and sexism in adverts. The advertising industry's concerns are reflected in a recent report by the Advertising Association — ‘A Freedom Under Threat — Advertising in the EC’. The report indicates a number of areas where legislative controls have been introduced or are proposed to be introduced over the next few years and expresses the fear that controls may be going too far in limiting freedom of ‘commercial speech’. Martin Boase, chairman of the Advertising Association writes in his introduction to the report:
THE PROTECTION OF TRADEMARKS
Authors: Johnson Howard
Published: January 2008

“Companies, particularly those which sell goods or services direct to the public, regard their trade marks (whether brand names or pictorial symbols) as being among their most valuable assets. It is important therefore for a trading nation such as the United Kingdom to have a legal framework for the protection of trade marks which fully serves the needs of industry and commerce. The law governing registered trade marks is however fifty years old and has to some extent lost touch with the marketplace. Moreover it causes some of the procedures associated with registration to be more complicated than they need be.” This introductory paragraph to the Government's recent White Paper on “Reform of Trade Marks Law” indicates that reform is in the air. The primary pressure for reform has emanated from Brussels with the need to harmonise national trade mark laws before the advent of the Single European market on 1st January 1993. To this end the Council of Ministers adopted a harmonisation directive in December 1988 which must be translated into the national laws of member states by 28th December 1991.
FAIR FRANCHISING
Authors: JOHNSON HOWARD
Published: January 2008

In The Times (10th July 1992) the following by line appeared on p1 ‘Body Shop wins unholy row with businesswoman’; announcing that Sir Peter Pain, sitting as a High Court judge, had granted an injunction restraining a Mrs Pauline Rawle, who was described as ‘an evangelical Christian woman’ from using the ‘Body Shop’ name in respect of six franchised shops in Bromley, Maidstone, Canterbury, Romford and Croydon (2 branches). It was alleged that the ‘close relationship’ essential to the franchise contract between Mrs Rawle and the Body Shop ‘had clearly broken down’. Mrs Rawle allegedly told staff to have nothing to do with Body Shop representatives and alleged a conspiracy against her and comparing herself with God and the Body Shop organisation to Satan! Mass dismissals of staff followed and the franchises were temporarily closed and re‐opened with inferior standards. This case is one of the few reported decisions on franchise operation in the UK.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF CHARACTER MERCHANDISING
Authors: JOHNSON HOWARD
Published: January 2008

Alongside the ubiquitous computer games apparently the marketing success of the 1992 toy season was a series of 25 year old puppets who had featured in a repeat showing of the orginal ITV series on BBC — Thunderbirds — more than 70 franchises have been sold to sell goods marked with the International Rescue logo and it is alleged that these products are even bigger than the previous smash marketing hit the Teenage Mutant Ninja turtles, saving thousands of jobs and making substantial profits for the British toy industry. The characters are licensed for right‐owners ITC (originally the international marketing arm of ATV, the ITV company which put out the programme, and now an independent company, ATV having long since lost its ITV franchise) by Copyright Promotions, Europe's largest licensing company (‘Thunderbirds are go to save the toy industry’ Sunday Telegraph 15/11/92).
THE NEGOTIABILITY OF BILLS OF LADING AND THEIR CONTRACTUAL ROLE UNDER GREEK, ENGLISH AND UNITED STATES LAW
Authors: ZEKOS GEORGIOS
Published: January 2008

As early as 1818 in Marseilles merchants were asking the courts to recognise the legal character of the maritime sale of goods, which was a sale of a bill of lading representing goods at sea in a ship. The courts of Marseilles found suitable to hear and decide cases in accordance with the law merchant despite the lack of authority in the French Commercial Codes. Merchants everywhere began to deal with documents representing goods without waiting to check the goods as it was the practice under the Napoleonic Code. Thus, the transition of the bill of lading from a mere receipt to a negotiable instrument developed by the practice of merchants arranging the sale of goods in transit. The success of the use of bills of lading in international trade is attributable to its negotiable character and its feature as a document of title.
False Marketing Recent Developments In Passing‐Off
Authors: Johnson Howard
Published: January 2008

The law of passing‐off concerns itself primarily with the protection of a trader's goodwill — his customer connection. It has proved itself an expansive tort action, being used to combat a diverse variety of commercial dishonesty and unfair competition. In the leading case of ERVEN WARNINK BV v J. TOWNEND & SONS (HULL) (‘the Advocaat case’) [1980] RPC 31, Lord Diplock observed:
Legal Environment of Managerial Decision Making
Authors: Laird Michael J.
Published: January 2008

The scope of this undertaking is to categorize that sector of the environment affecting managerial decision making that makes up the “legal environment.” The term legal environment encompasses the federal and state legislative and regulatory powers, plus the common law or court‐developed law that impacts an organization's domain. I have set out to divide the project into three chapters with each chapter emphasizing a major regulatory impact on corporate direction; some predictable, some unpredictable. Moreover, predictability will be dealt with as to controlling the legal environment. Historically, the legal environment crosses over two of the sectors: the government sector, city, state, federal laws and regulations, the court system, and political processes; the sociocultural sector, affirmative action, Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, values, beliefs, etc. Certain regulatory powers were anticipated by the frames of the Constitution in order to maintain a system of prosperity and strength. However, many of our regulatory agencies have come into being at the behest of the very industries that are regulated, such as antitrust. Furthermore, many of the regulatory laws came about due to the negligence of the business community in not self‐regulating and thereby permitting intolerable conditions for the sociocultural sector.
The Privacy for Consumers and Workers Act: Panacea or Problem?
Authors: Bell De Tienne Kristen , Stoney Alder G.
Published: January 2008

Employee evaluation and monitoring have been common in America since colonial times. With industrialization, employers have implemented increasingly creative ways to monitor employees. For example, in the early part of this century, Ford Motor Company employed investigators to enter employees' homes to verify that employees were not overly drinking and that their homes were clean
Trade Marks: The New Law
Authors: Johnson Howard
Published: January 2008

On 21st July 1994 the Trade Marks Act 1994 received the Royal Assent. It introduces the most radical overhaul of British trade mark law for over 50 years and replaces the current regime set out in the Trade Marks Act 1938 as amended. The reforms reflect the increased significance of trade marks in modern commerce and the concerns of business that the current law was increasingly anachronistic.
ARTICLE 2 OF CONVENTION NO.87: PRECEPTS AND THEIR APPLICATION — A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT
Authors: Tendai Chigara Benedict
Published: January 2008

It has been said of most instruments that attempt to guarantee basic rights that they usually give with one hand what they then retrieve with the other. Convention No.87 provides, in Article 2, the right for “workers and employers, without distinction whatsoever to establish and subject, only to the rules of the organisation concerned, to join organisations of their own choosing without previous authorisation”. By Article 8 (1) however, the forces of freedom unleashed in Article 2 are bridled. “In exercising the rights provided for in this Convention, workers and employers and their respective organisations, like other persons or organised collectives, shall respect the law of the land”. And the provisions of Article 9(1) make it possible for the Police and the Army to forego that right: “The extent to which the guarantees provided for in this convention shall apply to the armed forces and the police shall be determined by national laws or regulations.” Such a situation creates a rife hotbed for claims and counter‐claims between any of the three main players in industrial relations, namely, the state, the employer, and the employee. Besides, Article 8 (1) makes very generous assumptions of national law. When read with the rest of this Convention, Article 8 seems to suggest that all States are in some way, oriented towards the pluralistic frame of reference in their labour law; recognising that in the employment relationship, there is not one, but several sources of authority. Pluralism holds that employers and employees interests are diametrically opposed to each other, and that they are held in the balance by the common need of keeping the enterprise alive. For pluralists, the trade union is a welcome vehicle for communication. But is such an assumption realistic? What becomes of workers and employers in State “X”, whose frame of reference in labour law is strictly unitary; holding that there is only one legitimate source of authority in the employment situation: the employer? The interests of the worker and the employer are said to be the same. The trade union is therefore an unnecessary and unwelcome threat to stability? Further, does Article 8 allow such a State to maintain its legislation over the minimum standards of the Convention as set in Articles 1 to 7?
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAW OF SALE AND UNFAIR CONTRACT TERMS
Authors: JOHNSON HOWARD
Published: January 2008

In a short private member's bill the infamous rule in market overt has been abolished — Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1994 which simply states that: 1. Section 22 (relating to the sale of goods in market overt) of the Sale of Goods Act 1979) is hereby repealed. This was one of the proposals in the Department of Trade and Industry's consultation document ‘Transfer of Title: Sections 21 to 26 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979’ (January 1994). This document which looked as if it had been put together in a civil service lunch hour has been widely criticised and as yet the Government show no sign of introducing a coherent lending and security act based on the proposals of the Crowther Committee on Consumer Credit (Cmnd 4596 Part VI 1971 — see Government response ‘Reform of the Law of Consumer Credit 1973 Cmnd 5427 rejecting a proposed Lending and Security Act) and the Diamond Report ‘A Review of Security Interests in Property’ (DTI 1989).
Crisis in the Welfare State
Authors: Carby‐Hall Jo
Published: January 2008

The welfare state as suggested and recommended by the Beveridge Report of 1942 and as subsequently applied since the mid 1940s, is a far cry to the welfare state which exists today in Great Britain, for, as a result of economic pressures, the recession, various other factors, and particularly the political ideology of the present Tory government under Mrs. Margaret Thatcher and Mr. John Major which has been in power since 1979, it becomes clear that the golden age of the welfare state has lost much of its shine. Should the present government continue in office after the next general election, it could well be that the welfare state will dwindle into non‐significance. Indeed, there is currently a crisis in the British welfare state when compared with the ideals of Beveridge of freedom from want and providing people with their needs.
How to Downsize Legally
Authors: Gee Ginger , Kleiner Brian H.
Published: January 2008

To be an effective manager, knowledge of employment laws and how they pertain to terminations, especially mass terminations, is an important attribute. Those selected for termination in a workforce reduction often experience anger, fear, resentment and anxiety. A reduction in force which is carried out in a fair manner and treats the affected individuals with compassion and dignity will go a long way in preventing litigation. The manager must be familiar with how to plan for a reduction in force, the legal aspects involved, and how to go about the actual implementation of the downsizing effort. We have witnessed the workforce downsizing of many organizations within the past few years. The major contributors to this epidemic are plentiful. Economic pressures during the most recent recession and increased global competition have forced organizations to flatten out their organizational structures to enable them to quickly respond to changes in the marketplace. The recent tide of deregulation resulted in mergers and acquisitions creating duplicative positions within the organization. Additionally, the rapid pace of technology has led to databases which displace intermediate level employees whose responsibilities include compiling and analyzing. Unfortunately, corporate reductions may lead to employee lawsuits in the form of “wrongful discharge” cases. Wrongful discharge is a catch‐all phrase for a host of claims made by a former employee against his or her previous employer. The most popular wrongful discharge claims include breach of contract, bad faith, and discrimination of protected groups based on factors such as sex, age, race and many others. Certain employees are covered under the Workers Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act which requires employers to give 60 days advanced notice in the case of mass terminations. While few of these cases ever make it to court, attorney fees, settlement fees and jury awards can be costly. In California, the average damage award exceeded $600,000. Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation of a reduction in force (“RIF”) plan must be performed and the myriad of legal issues must be considered. During this process, it is important to keep in mind that employees selected for downsizing will experience among other things, fear, anxiety and anger. How the actual implementation of the RIF is carried out will have an immense impact on whether an employee will bring forth a wrongful termination lawsuit.
The function and effect of British social law in the context of the employment‐unemployment debate
Authors: Carby‐Hall Jo
Published: January 2008

This “Rapport” proposes to examine the function and effect of British social law in the context of the employment/unemployment debate. This debate is a most significant one for it has not only British, but also European and International dimensions.
HOW ORGANISATIONS ARE ADAPTING TO THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT
Authors: Lynn Rossin Jennifer , Kleiner Brian H.
Published: January 2008

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is now seen as historic legislation. Signed into law by President Bush in July 1990, this cvil rights law is for pople with serious physical and mental disabilities. The ADA is the result of many years of effort to obtain a federal legislation that protects individuals with disabilities.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN WRONGFUL TERMINATION
Authors: Salcido Andrew , Kleiner Brian H.
Published: January 2008

A growing priority for HR managers is to structure their organisation's employment‐related policies and procedures in such a manner as to minimise the organisation's potential for a lawsuit. It is estimated that the legal cost to take one significant case to trial can be $75,000 to $250,000.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING WRONGFUL CONSTRUCTIVE TERMINATION
Authors: Gleiter Christopher , Kleiner Brian H.
Published: January 2008

In America the non‐union employment relationship is defined by the rigid doctrine of employment‐at‐will. It is thought to have evolved from the master‐servant relationship which was a personal relationship. With the emergence of industrialisation in the nineteenth century, the personal relationship was essentially replaced by a commercial relationship. This commercial relationship needed definition commensurate with the definition of tasks and responsibilities within the factory's structured management and assembly line type processes. By 1877, employment‐at‐will became a generally accepted position in the American courts. “This doctrine embraces a rule declaring that employment for an indefinite term may be terminated at any time for any reason or for no reason by either the employee or the employer without legal liability” (Seidman, 1993:44). “Bosses could fire workers for any reason — as long as the firing is not discriminatory or retaliatory” (Iwata, 1994).
Assessing perceived service quality of casual‐wear chain stores
Authors: Leung Chun‐sun , Wai‐yin Fung Matha
Published: January 2008

This study attempted to explore the development of an industry‐specific, quantitative instrument for assessing the customer‐perceived service quality level of casual‐wear chain stores. It was the wish of the authors that this alternative approach would supplement existing generic measure instruments for assessing service quality when used in fashion retailing. Applications of the proposed instrument in fashion retailing were also discussed.
A comparison of older and younger women's attitudes towards apparel and media
Authors: Belleau Bonnie D. , Didier Jacqueline , Broussard Lori , Summers Teresa A.
Published: January 2008

Although a large proportion of the population is ageing, youth still commands a high value in our society. This study was designed to compare older and younger women's attitudes towards apparel and media. Apparel advertising has evolved from selling a product to selling an image. Various forms of media play a significant role in shaping attitudes towards apparel. Two hundred and twentynine women are surveyed about their attitudes concerning apparel and media. A reliability analysis of the instrument was conducted. A discriminant analysis indicated that, of the 56 items on the apparel and media scales, seven items significantly discriminated between the two groups. There were few differences between age groups, which suggested that women of all ages hold similar attitudes towards apparel and media. However, older women were more tolerant of social appearance errors and more concerned with comfort versus fashion. Older women also seemed to recognise the magnitude and penetration of media in the apparel arena more than younger women, and were less satisfied with apparel currently available. Results have implications for apparel manufacturers and retailers, as well as advertising executives.
A South Korean consumer typology based on fashion opinion leadership
Authors: Hlavaty Valerie , Harp Shelley S. , Horridge Patricia E.
Published: January 2008

The purposes of the study were to classify South Korean female apparel shoppers into fashion opinion leadership groups and to develop group profdes by lifestyle characteristics, store selection attributes, clothing purchase influences, and sociodemographics. Data (N=271) were collected by questionnaires distributed to 300 South Korean consumers chosen to participate in the investigation. By cluster analysis of the Fashion Opinion Leadership (FOL) scale, four female consumer groups were identified as traditionoriented/culture conscious (29.4 per cent), eco‐nomic‐oriented/price conscious (15.8 per cent), convenience‐oriented/time conscious (28.7 per cent), and appearance‐oriented/fashion conscious (26.1 per cent). Scale reliability with the inter‐national sample was determined by a Cronbach alpha. Groups were compared on the profile descriptors through MANOVA and chisquare statistics. Results indicated that fashion opinion leadership is a base for segmenting South Korean female apparel shoppers. This study suggests ways knowledge about the consumer groups identified can be incorporated into marketing and retail strategies.
Department stores: An enduring retail format
Authors: Willans John
Published: January 2008

The department store is a universal phenomenon of the developed world, and although it has been under threat in recent years, it has found ways of surviving. This paper looks at the history of the department store, its successes and failures, and speculates upon future developments.
The current status of the Hong Kong clothing industry
Authors: Au Kin‐fan
Published: January 2008

With limited local demand, the Hong Kong clothing industry is traditionally export‐oriented for developed country markets. Local entrepreneurs, with the impetus of international trading experience, have led the industry to prosper and gain continually number one status in global clothing trade during the 1970s and 1980s. After the number of clothing factories and work‐force peaked in 1984, the industry contracted and demonstrated a slow rate of growth in domestic exports. On the other hand, the re‐exports counterpart has shown significant increases since the 1980s and has allowed Hong Kong to maintain the leading trading status with total clothing exports. This paper reviews the development trend and current scenario of the Hong Kong clothing industry and identifies the future strategy that the industry is likely to pursue.
Fashion usage behaviour: Differences by product type
Authors: Park Kyungae
Published: January 2008

A consumer's post‐purchase product usage behaviour influences future decision making. Particularly, for fashion products, in which usage behaviour is highly observable, impacts of usage behaviour on future purchases and other consumers are more conspicuous. This study investigated usage behaviour for clothing fashion products. Behavioural aspects (use frequency and use variety) of usage behaviour were considered with psychological aspects (use satisfaction). The study focused on the differences in usage behaviour (use frequency, use variety and use satisfaction) by product types (fashionability and classification). Data was collected from a questionnaire survey. The results revealed that product types affected the post‐purchase usage behaviour of fashion products. There were significant differences in the use frequency by the product classification, in the use variety by the product fashionability and in the use satisfaction by the product classification and fashionability. Further, significant differences by product types were discussed.
Counter‐flow of the international trade in apparel: Exporting by OECD countries and importing by developing countries
Authors: Zhang Zhiming
Published: January 2008

Apparel exports by OECD countries and imports of developing countries, the counter‐flow of international trade in apparel, were examined. Application of a gravity model indicated that proximity was important in determining the marketing destinations of apparel exports of OECD countries. There was a large variation in apparel imports to the developing countries from the developed countries, and while generally increasing, there were also large fluctuations over time. The trade flow was explained by differentiation of products and inequality of income in the developing countries. Regression analysis was used to determine the factors which influenced apparel imports of developing countries from OECD countries. The result indicated that income level was the most important determinant, and that apparel imports were income elastic. Market conditions, and remarkably, market barrier, had no significant impact.
MFA in transition: Examining marketing strategies and organisations of the clothing manufacturing firms in Hong Kong
Authors: Moon Ka‐leung , Leung Chun‐sun , Chang Man‐tsun , Yeung Kwok‐wing
Published: January 2008

This paper investigates the relationship between generic marketing strategies and organisational designs of the Hong Kong clothing manufacturing firms. It also studies the strategic deployment adopted by firms with different marketing approaches in response to the MFA. It was hypothesised that there are generic marketing strategies that characterised clothing manufacturing firms (H1); there is a relationship between the marketing strategies and the organisations of a clothing manufacturing firm (H2); organisational characteristics determine a clothing firm's approaches toward generic marketing strategies (H3); and marketing‐oriented clothing companies tend to cope better with the challenges of the MFA than less marketing‐oriented ones (H4). The findings partially supported the first and second hypotheses but rejected the last two.
Close‐knit relationships hold the key to Italian fashion industry success
Authors: Nolan Terry , Condotta Bruno
Published: January 2008

The authors have traced the development of Italian knitwear production and marketing and attempted to contextualise a number of issues in conjunction with contemporary business and management theories. Using a chronological style to illustrate developments, they have focused, in particular, upon the theory and practice of supply chain collaboration as being the principal reason for this industry sector's continued success in the face of intense and growing global competition. It is considered that a variety of lessons can be learned by, among others, sectors of the UK textile industry, wherein lie similar features.
Consumers' definitions of apparel value: An investigation of department store shoppers
Authors: Cassill Nancy L. , Thomas Jane B. , Bailey Erica M.
Published: January 2008

Value is a word that is frequently used by consumers, retailers and manufacturers. Understanding how consumers define value is imperative to the success of the industry. Value has often been defined as price or quality; other factors such as time, energy, product category and type of retail outlet may determine the definition of value by consumers. The purpose of this research was to define value, specifically how department store consumers define apparel value. Value ivas examined with two apparel products, a man's dress shirt and a woman's jacket. Research was conducted using focus groups (qualitative) and in‐store data collection (quantitative). The two hypotheses were tested by using t‐tests and forward step‐wise regression. Results from the 533 department store consumers indicated that: (a) value can be defined using qualitative and quantitative methods, (b) the definition of value was different for the two product categories, men's dress shirt and women's jacket, (c) the value definition for the majority of this study's consumers was ‘I look for the highest quality with an acceptable price’, and (d) product features and marketing attributes are weighted differently, yielding three consumer value equations for the sample's department store consumers. Implications exist for fibre producers, textile mills, apparel manufacturers and retailers in the product development and marketing of ‘value’ apparel products to meet diverse core consumer groups.
Fashion advertising: Does age, body type or ethnicity influence consumers' perceptions?
Authors: Jackson Hazel O. , Ross Nicolla
Published: January 2008

The effect that the image of the fashion model had on consumer perceptions of a product was explored. An image of models typically found in fashion advertisements (mainstream models) and three different images of fashion models (older, larger and African‐American peripheral models) which were less frequently used in fashion advertisements, were presented as the stimulus. Stimulus photographs and the Perception of Advertisement Scale were used to investigate the impressions consumers formed toward the model. Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were partially accepted. Results revealed that: (1) mainstream and African‐American models were rated far more favourably for attractiveness; (2) the product (a pair of gold earrings) was thought to reflect the personality of older, larger and African‐American models but not the mainstream model (respondents tended to be indifferent to the product); and (3) respondents tended to find the older model more credible than other models. Implications for peripheral market segments are given.
La mode sans frontières? The internationalisation of fashion retailing
Authors: Moore Christopher M.
Published: January 2008

This paper examines the internationalisation activities of eight French fashion retailers, with particular reference to their motivations and methods of entry into the UK retail fashion sector. The research results suggest that the ‘new wave’ of French fashion retailers (ie those established within the past 20 years), take a more proactive approach to cross‐border expansion than their more established counterparts. Expanding further the traditional motivations for internationalisation, as well as emphasising the importance of wholesaling and master‐franchising to fashion retailer market entry, the research provides a valuable insight into the pan‐national activities of fashion retailers. The paper concludes by making a case for further research into this much neglected, but very important area.
Marketing communications in the internationalisation of UK fashion brands
Authors: Lea‐Greenwood Gaynor
Published: January 2008

Fashion marketing communications in the UK domestic arena has for the most part relied upon a combination of public relations, press office activity and a widespread presence, or distribution strategy. However, as the UK becomes saturated and government legislation precludes the further development of out‐of‐town shopping centres the fashion retail brands have looked towards continental Europe for expansion opportunities. Paris is often the first stop in the internationalisation process eastwards nevertheless despite its close proximity geographically the creation of brand awareness among French consumers is not an easy task.
The Swedish clothing industry: Strategies for survival and lessons for the UK
Authors: Jones Richard M.
Published: January 2008

In many respects the clothing industry and clothing market in Sweden provides a useful guide to potential trends and strategies which might be expected to prevail in other European countries following deregulation of the clothing trade early next century. The paper aims to explore two issues — sourcing practices particularly as utilised by a small company and price trends following the removal of important controls.
Effects of restructuring the Australian fashion industry: From industry policy to cultural policy
Authors: van Acker Elizabeth , Craik Jennifer
Published: January 2008

This paper examines recent developments in the Australian fashion and clothing industry as an example of a small‐scale industry attempting to come to terms with the impact of domestic industry restructuring within the rapidly changing global context of international trade. Most studies of the fashion, clothing and textile industries have concerned industries with major markets or highly specialised industries. There has been little attention to the particularities of smaller, peripheral industries and markets. The argument is that while the issues facing the Australian fashion/clothing industry are common to many industries, particular pressures have come from the contradictions between recent trends in industry policy (restructuring policies of recent governments) and in cultural policy (redefining aesthetic cultural production as industries). The paper discusses the implications of this conjoint approach to the iudustry.
African‐American mothers' needs, search and alternative evaluation of children's clothing
Authors: Grasso Maureen M. , Wright Roland C.
Published: January 2008

Knowing how to target the African‐American market effectively is of great importance, as this segment has different values, needs and wants, and buying power. This study explores the initial stages of the decision‐making process of African‐American mothers who have a child or children under the age of seven who wear play‐wear. This study identifies children's clothing needs, advertising information used in the search process, stores searched and frequency of shopping, and the types of fabric and decorations preferred by the mothers. The findings from the focus group interviews suggest that African‐American mothers have unique needs to be met for their children's clothing. They rely on external search with an emphasis on magazines. They prefer cotton fabrics and decorations representing flowers or animals.
Size and fit: Procedures in undertaking a survey of body measurements
Authors: Beazley Alison
Published: January 2008

This paper (which is the first of three) explains how to undertake an anthropometric survey, first, by reviewing previous surveys and size charts to select which measurements to take and the appropriate equipment. The sample of persons to be measured had to be determined, the main constraint being the availability of time. The selection of measurements was made for the end use of constructing garment patterns by both direct and proportional measurement systems. ‘Check’ measurements for accuracy were also built into the procedure. Finally 10 measurements were selected and 100 young women between the ages of 18 and 28 years were measured. It is concluded that measuring the human body is not easy. Hopefully new technology will improve this task. Twenty more body measurements will be brought into use, which will be explained in Part 2.
‘Generation X’ consumers' preferences for non‐store versus in‐store shopping for apparel
Authors: Weeks Whitney J. , Brannon Evelyn L. , Ulrich Pamela V.
Published: January 2008

Female consumers' preferences for shopping via CD/ROM, television or catalogue versus in a specialty store were investigated. Videotaped shopping simulations were viewed by 191 subjects who selected preferred options within each of six forced‐choice pairs. Specialty store was most and television least preferred. Catalogue was most preferred among non‐store options. Fashion Opinion Leadership, Clothing Interest Inventory and Shopping Orientation measures, and demographic and open‐ended questions were used to profile and explore preference behaviour. Analysis with Chi‐Square Automatic Interaction Detector (CHAID) profiled five consumer segments. Subjects had positive and negative perceptions of each venue and believed that shopping through electronic media will be dominant non‐store options in the future.
The relative use of distribution channels in the Japanese clothing market
Authors: Ide Yukie
Published: January 2008

The paper studies the relative use of a variety of distribution channels by Japanese consumers when purchasing clothing. In this way it aims to illustrate the potential of various channels for the sale of a range of garment types by three groups of consumers and, therefore, provided guidance to potential entrants to the Japanese market. The study was carried out by means of a convenient sample and covered the years 1990–93. The three groups of consumers covered were female students, their mothers and their fathers. A total of 46 articles of female clothing and 32 articles of male clothing were covered in the survey. The results suggested that in the case of some garments consumers did not appear to distinguish clearly between channels of distribution as forward methods of purchase. This was particularly true of male consumers. Many items were habitually purchased, however, via only one channel — this was especially the case with women consumers. Males made very little use of mail order but much greater use of department stores and specialty stores.
Customer satisfaction in the clothing market
Authors: Wehfritz B. , Schlee J. , Hirsch I.
Published: January 2008

Customer service has become an increasingly popular means of securing competitive advantage. This empirical study describes a methodology for measuring and representing achievement in company service attributes in such a way as to facilitate the improvement of service given to customers.
The Internet: A viable strategy for fashion retail marketing?
Authors: Murphy Ruth
Published: January 2008

Much attention, both within the popular media and the academic milieu, is devoted to presenting a very positive image of the Internet in terms of its usefulness and its importance within the business environment of the 1990s. The above statements convey that any company can ill afford not to have a presence on the Internet. The objective of this paper is to establish whether a strategic intention exists for companies being on the Internet or whether there is an element of ‘keeping up with the Jones's’. This has been achieved by undertaking investigative research in order to establish the reason why companies, who already have a presence on the Internet, have selected to be there. The research will concentrate on clothing retailers operating within the UK marketplace. In all, it is hoped that this research will go some way to offering a more focused view on the use of the Internet and its potential as part of a viable strategy for clothing retail marketing.
The global reach of the UK clothing sector — Part 2
Authors: Jones Richard
Published: January 2008

The concept of globalisation has received wide currency in the literature on international business strategy. Authors such as Levitt and Ohmae argue that, in the future, only global companies will succeed. This paper examines the theoretical concepts and their applicability to clothing products and then studies the global spread of the UK clothing industry's exports and overseas investments. It concludes that the applicability of the concept of globalisation to this sector may be limited by the nature of the product and that, in practice, the global spread of export and investment activity as exhibited by the UK clothing industry reveals some potentially disturbing features; notably an over concentration upon the EU. This is the second part of a paper which was published in the previous issue, JFMM Vol 2, No 2.
Size and fit: Formulation of body measurement tables and sizing systems — Part 2
Authors: Beazley Alison
Published: January 2008

To obtain sizing systems a specialist knowledge is required to analyse statistically body measurements from surveys. Control measurements, size ranges, body proportions and size intervals have to be calculated. A survey of 100 young women was undertaken in 1993/93 at Manchester Metropolitan University and 10 body measurements were taken. This is used to illustrate the statistical analysis of body measurements, the formulation of sizing systems and body measurement tables. A review of previous surveys and their methods of analysis was undertaken. The main control measurements of height, bust, waist and hips denoting the size of the wearer were obtained by correlation. Size ranges and intervals were obtained by normalising the data and comparing the sizes young women bought and previous size charts. Sizing systems for five sizes 8 to 16 were suggested for three heights, short, medium and tall and bust fittings medium, small and very small. This retained the same proportion for the five sizes within each of the nine systems. A further system of changing proportion in girth measurements was developed from the survey of young women based on percentiles and bust fittings. The neck girth which did not correlate strongly with any measurement was analysed separately. Two examples of body measurement tables covering 30 measurements were formulated to illustrate the procedure. Analysing body measurements statistically is problematic especially in small surveys. It is hoped the suggested guidelines will clarify this area. The coding of sizes is still not uniform. A comparison was made with previous tables. It was concluded that the body proportion had changed and the young women were taller and broader in the waist and hips. Part 3 of this study will cover comparing the problems of taking accurate body measurements with different equipment, formulating size charts for different garments and fabrics and relating these to different systems of pattern construction, and finally, testing prototype garments for size and fit.
Independent menswear retailers' views on designer menswear brand extensions
Authors: Huang Hsiu‐chuan , Willans John
Published: January 2008

Given the high costs of creating and sustaining brands it is not surprising that organisations wish to capitalise as far as possible on these assets. Designers and their financial backers are also active in this process; many of their customers or would‐be customers aspire to the label but not at the market level initially catered for. Extending brands has, as the literature attests, implications for the designer, manufacturer, retailer and customer. The purpose of this small‐scale study was to examine the phenomenon at least as it relates to menswear, from the perspective of the independent retailer, who still has a major role to play in this market.
The relation of management group structure to psychological climate and work motivation in a retail environment
Authors: Woodard Ginger , Cassili Nancy , Herr David
Published: January 2008

With the many challenges facing retailers, continued attention should be given to the effective and efficient performance of retail personnel. It is unknown how various organisational strutures which result from reorganisation affect psychological climate beliefs and individual's motivation among retail managers. Among the antecedents of motivation, psychological climate has been regarded as one of the most significant contributors to an individual's motivation. The conceptual framework was the Vroom Expectancy Theory (VIE) of Work Motivation (1964). The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of management group structure and demographic characteristics on psychological climate and work motivation of management personnel within the retail industry as illustrated by the experience of a department store with substantial apparel interests. Results confirmed that three subscales of psychological climate (Job Importance, Leader Goal Emphasis, Organisational Identification) in the presence of management group structure and age were significant in predicting work motivation. Results from ANOVA provided evidence that six of the 13 psychological climate subscales were significantly different across management groups. Contrast statements provided evidence that there was a difference between management groups on the six significant psychological climate subscales. Work motivation did not appear to differ significantly across retail management groups. This suggests that human resource strategies for the retail environment can be developed by analysing the store's work environment, examining the reward structure, and examining each management group structure to determine how retail organisations can encourage employee retention.
Employee involvement: An effective strategy for reducing workers' compensation costs
Authors: Dillard Betty G.
Published: January 2008

Costs associated with workplace injuries and illnesses continue to be a major concern for apparel manufacturers. A major cost is that of workers' compensation insurance, the social insurance programme that provides a means of paying for costs associated with work‐related injuries and illnesses. The purpose of this study was to examine the practice by US apparel companies of involving employees on safety teams or committees as a strategy for reducing workers' compensation costs. Data were generated from responses to a mailed questionnaire by 134 upper level managers in apparel companies located throughout the USA. Results indicated that 60 per cent of the respondents involved employees on a safety team or committee. Chi‐square analysis showed a significant difference in observed frequencies and expected frequencies for change in workers' compensation costs when employees were involved in safety teams or committees. Employee involvement was reported as a component of ergonomics and safety programmes by over two‐thirds of the companies that were developing and implementing such programmes. The findings from this study provide support for involving employees on safety teams or committees as a cost reduction strategy.
Obtaining repeatability of natural extended upper body positions: Its use in comparisons of the functional comfort of garments
Authors: Aldrich Winifred , Smith Brian , Dong Feng
Published: January 2008

This paper describes research undertaken at the Nottingham Trent University which investigated body movements and their relationship to garment design. The study identifies the difference between ergonomic measuring positions and the natural postures used by real figures in real activities. A new approach to the identification and coding of upper body postures has been made. A body coding system and a simple piece of equipment was designed that enables extended natural body positions to be recorded, thus achieving repeatability. This work enabled comparisons of aesthetic appearance and the functional comfort of women's tailored jackets to be examined.