bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Assertiveness level 4
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

More assertive and insistent than level 3, level 4 intensifies our verbal and nonverbal posture without taking us into the territory of hostility. The same words may be used as in level 3, but the delivery of those words is more intense. Facial expression is very focused, with mildly hard eyes. We speak with an almost flat inflection in the lower part of our vocal range. We pronounce words with a crispness (especially conso­nants) that is very direct. As in level 3, giving directives is important in level 4, and they help focus our intentions and expectations. In level 4, we are very firm in delivering our message, without using aggressive behav­ior or demeaning language. • To a student who calls another student a derogatory name: “That is unacceptable in this classroom!” • To a colleague who makes an inappropriate comment or ges­ture: “That has no place in our school. If you want to know why, ask me about it. Otherwise, just know I am voicing my objection to that right now.” • To a telemarketer who gets pushy: “This is my home. You are intruding. Do not call me again!” • To a child who retorts, “I don’t want to and you can’t make me!”: “You don’t want to do that, and I don’t especially want to make you do that. But we will sit here until it is done. So you have some choices to make right now.” Assertiveness level 4 delivers a strong “cease and desist” mes­sage. It conveys that something must stop; something must change. In this level of assertiveness, a line is being drawn with a powerful message, but harsh words that accuse, goad, or inflame are not used. In some ways, level 4 lets us be strong, intense, and absolute without being pulled into the magnetic field of others’ wrath or derogatory behaviors. The purposeful demagnetizing that level 4 offers can make lasting, potent contributions to our emotional health.
Five questions
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

Sometimes when we are in a frenzy or down in the dumps, we just need a little perspective. Any problem can benefit from perspective. Asking ourselves five simple questions can help determine the import of an issue: • Will this be important five minutes from now? • Will this be important five hours from now? • Will this be important five weeks from now? • Will this be important five months from now? • Will this be important five years from now? The heft of conflicts and the gravity of decision- making can seem overwhelming. Giving ourselves a “five questions” check can help restore our perspective and decisiveness . . . and therefore our peaceful state of mind.
Conflict happens
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

Conflict is a way of life. Many of us, from the days of our youth, have developed habits to avoid conflict. By agree­ing, apologizing, and pretending, we can sidestep many of the conflicts that come our way. But these coping behaviors are not necessarily healthy for us or for those on the other side of the conflict. What if we were able to see conflicts (large and small) as opportunities to problem- solve? “The key mistake we make when we feel frustrated is to abandon the problem- solving game and turn to the power game instead”. How might our days in school be different if we were able to dissolve con­flicts maturely and respectfully? Momentary discomforts quickly shift to momentary reflection. Conflict converts to an opportunity to learn and grow, rather than shrink and cower. When conflict is focused on transforming people (including ourselves) and not just changing situations, the results are bigger than resolution. Our disputes become a “supremely important human enterprise [that] embodies and expresses the highest and best within us as human beings”. When we do not run from conflict, we begin to see and feel it as a necessary part of life. When conflict no longer frightens us, we stay calm in the face of anger. We allow time to simply consider rather than fix. We breathe our way into self- assurance. With our new lens, we give conflict a more balanced inter­pretation, a more reasoned response. We do not perseverate; we deny ourselves the “worry habit.” We move through the dilemma. We let it be, inhaling and exhaling, to get ourselves back to a stance of strength and wisdom. Value conflict as a positive, seeing it as an adventure or jour­ney, an opportunity for growth and change, an invitation to intimacy and relationship, and an opening for transforma­tion.
Leave it!
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

“Leave it” is one of the first commands to teach a dog, for its own protection and the protection of others. Oddly, the concept is one that may be a good fit for harried teachers as well. Envision a time when you may have benefited from pausing and saying to yourself, “Leave it”: • Staying at school after hours to continue working, even when your brainpower is low, your energy has tanked, and you need rest. • Ruminating over an incident that continues to worry you because you are not sure how to interpret a comment made by your principal. • Feeling frazzled after witnessing a verbal confrontation that began as a simple disagreement but evolved into a hostile exchange. At times it can be beneficial to compartmentalize our minds and emotions. In fact, if we are not able to sift and rank our priorities, we can be in nearly constant turmoil. “One thing at a time” may be an impossible goal for a teacher. Yet saying “leave it” and giving our trouble some distance (even momentarily) can be an important strategy for mental health and teacher effectiveness. Some of us tend to be ruminators, chewing our cud, swallow­ing it, bringing it back up, and chewing it again. Although it may keep us busy, rumination can be a form of self- torture, getting us nowhere. When we tell ourselves to “leave it,” we know we are thought- stopping for a good cause. We are taking some moments to release, relax, and regroup. We are letting go long enough to revive. It isn’t a matter of trying harder or giving more. Frequently, something doesn’t click into place until we turn it loose and walk away. The release is not to accept defeat but it is saying we have done what we can and now we will stand and let it work.
Teachers being friendly
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

The ease of school relationships can wax and wane just as in any other group. When teachers get along well, the entire school can be a vibrantly productive and nourishing environ­ment. When teachers have conflicts, chilliness and fragmented collegiality can affect everyone. Why would we expect teachers to be happily cooperative all the time? Teachers likely do not have a hand in hiring their co- workers, and therefore they must adjust to all types of person­alities, pedagogical preferences, and teaching styles. Even with these sometimes strident differences, collegial relationships are essential to the health of schools and school personnel. Key to this vision is behaving with friendliness to others, rather than expecting all others to be our friends. When the “Be friendly, but not friends” mantra is given to student teachers and school interns, it is intended to help these novice educators maintain professional distances with students. But for teachers at any stage of their career, it also can be helpful to distinguish friendship and friendliness. We could define “friends” as: • Those with whom we spend time outside school hours • Those who know our family and home life • Those with whom we share personal, sometimes private information Using these criteria, we may have more acquaintances than friends at school. And those professional distances are not nec­essarily a hindrance to vibrant school communities. With courteous conversations, cordial comportment, and car­ing camaraderie, being friendly may be enough.
Confidentiality for others
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

In schools, we are privy to information about students, teachers, parents, support staff, administrators, and community mem­bers. What are our responsibilities in having such information? Most of us have had to be taught the parameters of confiden­tiality. And some of us have not had those teachings. For healthy schools, it is imperative for us to protect others’ personal, private information and behaviors. But confidentiality is not as simple as it seems. Although it feels good to talk about ourselves with co- workers, occasionally relationships cool and the closeness that at one time felt secure is no longer an alliance. It is normal and not uncommon for school friendships to go awry. And when relationships diminish or sour, we still need to see and work with those people every day, no matter how awkward that may be. Confidences once shared in private and then divulged to oth­ers are rarely retold with the same words, inflections, or contexts as the originals. If we know that our revelations about home or school life will likely, perhaps unintentionally, be misrepresented, would that change our sense of what to divulge and what not to in schools? Unfettered openness about our personal opinions and activi­ties, whether shared in or out of schools, can typecast us. Hearing an appalling revelation can (often too easily) override another’s views of our expertise, commitment, and character. Teaching is such an honorable profession, and it asks us to behave honorably. Whether it is maintaining confidentiality about ourselves or about others, we choose wisely what we do and what we share. When we set such boundaries, we can feel invigorated by our own stance, our own social wisdom.
The art of reprimand
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

Reprimanding students may be a necessary part of teaching. But is there a way to do so artfully? We search for publications in which authors give specific ways to think about and react to student behaviors. We find an approach that fits our temperament, our school’s expectations, and the community’s sensitivities. Yet one approach does not fit all teachers, or all students. As you consult others’ recommendations, be open to considering both softer and harder approaches for your reprimands. We all need a range to be effective. Add to your options; expand your pool of choices. A sliding scale of reprimands that adapts to varying degrees of gravity is worth developing. An artful scold has the capacity to serve both teachers and students. And when we are confident that our reprimands are not overly harsh, not overly meek, and definitely not demeaning, we develop the calm and trustful feel­ings of a vitally grounded teacher. As a brief and specific formula for the art of reprimand, try these four steps: 1. Do it immediately. 2. Confirm the facts; be sure your information is correct. 3. Be very specific in telling the other person what is wrong. Try to criticize her behavior, not her motives. 4. Show your feelings: anger, annoyance, frustration. We will never be able to manage and motivate if we are afraid to correct people’s mistakes . . . . If we are going to enforce high standards it will require us to tell people when they do not meet those standards.
Two-word cues
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

In classrooms, many of our words are extraneous. Haven’t we all had the experience of listening to someone use so many words to explain that we lose interest and discipline to listen? Brevity can be powerful. Two- word cues can help us be con­cise, direct, and specific: “Voices ready.” “Eyes here.” “Sitting tall.” “Lips closed.” “Hands quiet.” “Ears ready.” “Breath energy.” “No sound.” “Pencils down.” “Not now.” No matter the age, these kinds of cues are clear and brief. Even if repetition of the two- word directive is needed, the brev­ity has power. When students are accustomed to hearing brief instructions, a one- word direction can work just as well: “Ears . . .” “Eyes . . .” Hands . . .” “Tall . . .” “Breathe . . .” With economy of language comes several benefits. Fewer words mean (1) more focus, less distraction while listening for the key directions, (2) more rest for our voices during a busy teach­ing day, (3) more moments of attentive silence during lessons, and (4) more simplicity for those who struggle with language processing. Two- word cues can be assertive in order to get students’ attention. Yet our intonation and inflection need not be com­manding or scolding. Cues are often more effective when they are not. Spoken with the intonation of a reminder, a simple statement, or a cordial request, two- word cues can give the message of courteous elicitation. The power of brevity is a simple yet pro­found idea. Try it. Notice effects. Good luck.
Taking your best self to school
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

So many expectations feel like they are consuming us. Lesson planning, committee work, test preparation, learning new material . . . and on and on. The stress caused by living in constant anxiety can interfere with sleep, mood, digestion, resilience, and, of course, good teaching Too easily and too frequently, we can find ourselves in per­petual fight- or- flight mode, readying ourselves for battle or to run and hide. When we consciously choose the intention to be our best, all sorts of interactions, big and small, shift our focus and recast our feelings. Manifesting our intent each morning can powerfully frame the way we want to behave, react, comment, and care. • Breathe in the attitude and behaviors you want to feel and portray. • Exhale the tension, doubt, and fear that subdue your joy. • Set a tone for relationships by warmly greeting those in school. • Show your concern by listening to those who are troubled. • Spread goodwill by words and deeds that support others. • Acknowledge and affirm if you cannot support. • Grasp every opportunity to be the best teacher you can be. The simple yet powerful attitudes and behaviors described here will not take away the hard, sometimes tedious work that is required of all educators. The challenges are givens. We know the work is difficult, and we do it anyway. Regaining the life in our teaching may require us to take baby steps as we experiment with what works for us. Our mental, physical, and social health is worth every step.
Civility
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

Sometimes we live as if we have two categories of feelings toward others: we like them or we dislike them. If we adopt this stance, we are missing out on so much we could learn. “Liking” may be the least substantial opinion we can have. Liking is highly overrated. Civility, however, is not. Politeness, courtesy, respect, graciousness, consideration— those are just some of the synonyms and images of civility. As we imagine those with whom we come in contact in our neighborhoods, cities, organizations, and businesses, there is likely a wide array of affinity. Yet camaraderie need not deter­mine the level of civility we display. When we present attitudes and behaviors of civility, both in and out of school, we reap the benefits of knowing we are doing our best. We are behaving respectfully. Civility . . . is the set of sacrifices we make for the sake of our common journey with others, and out of love and respect for the very idea that there are others. When we are civil, we are not pretending to like those we actually despise; we are not pretending to hold any attitude toward them except that we accept and value them as every bit our equals . . . . The duty to love our neighbors . . . is not lessened because we happen to think our neighbor is wrong about a few things.
Introduction
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: November 2020

First, I have a confession to make. I am a food scientist. I have spent a large part of my life in a white coat, or working with students in white coats, studying, analyzing, and creating food products, subjecting them to a variety of processes and tests to see what happens, and occasionally, very occasionally, even tasting them. This is my passion, and to me is one of the most exciting types of scientific research in which I could be engaged, where the challenges are complex and really interesting, but in every case relate in some way to something central to everyday life. Food science is probably the only field in which a scientific experiment can lead to a change that can have a measurable impact you can point to on a shelf or plate within a matter of days. Also, it is great to work in a field of science where sometimes, if your experiment doesn’t work, you can at least eat it! However, I accept that, for many people, this is not food. Food comes on a plate. Food is an art. Food is an experience. Food is pleasure. Food is life. Food is not something to handle with a white coat on, not something to deconstruct in test tubes, and certainly not anything to do with chemicals. Definitely not anything to do with chemicals. Food is not science; food is art. People today know what they want from the food they buy. They want a wide variety of safe, natural, convenient, nutritious, great-tasting food. They likewise know what they do not want. They don’t want processed food, they don’t want chemicals in their food, they don’t want preservatives. This presents those who provide that food with great challenges as, to deliver the things consumers want, they often have to avoid the very tools they have traditionally used to achieve these goals. In this book, I want to explore the contradictions at the heart of our understanding of food, which arise in part from the fact that food is both science and art.
The Rising Power of Yeast
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: November 2020

In the last chapter, yeast was mentioned a few times as one of the generally less-problematic microbial denizens of food systems, and in fact the roles of yeast in the production of two of our most common and popular food categories, alcoholic beverages and bakery products such as bread, are so critical that it is worth dedicating a whole chapter just to the consideration of the science of these products. The ability of yeast to grow in a wide range of raw materials and convert sugars to alcohol, carbon dioxide, and other interesting products is the basis for production of products such as wine and beer, as well as higher-alcohol-level spirits, and is a process that has been exploited for the purposes of human pleasure for thousands of years. The origins of alcoholic fermentations, like those of many food products, are somewhat murky, but it is thought that honey or fruit may have been the original basis for the fermentation of such products, and that wine arose because of accidental adventitious spoilage of grapes and their juice that turned out to have, well, interesting consequences. The Greeks and Romans had wine-making down to an art, and it features frequently in their art; it also makes many appearances in the Bible (including a nonscientifically verifiable production protocol based apparently solely on water). The main reason alcoholic fermentation became of interest was as a way to prevent bacteria or other undesirable microorganisms from growing in juice by allowing a different kind of microorganism to get there first, use up the goodies, and produce products that made conditions highly unsuitable for colonization by later invaders. We routinely associate the word “intoxicated” with a formal description of the result of overconsumption of the outputs of such fermentation, but the heart of that word is “toxic,” which reminds us that alcohol is a poison. It just happens to be one that humans can tolerate only up to certain levels, beyond which poisoning and death can readily occur, but at lower levels has a range of effects that need not be described here.
From Napoleon to NASA
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: November 2020

One term that has acquired a particular air of consumer suspicion in recent years is “processed food. ” Processing is seen as being something that is used to make food less fresh, less natural, and so more suspicious. However, even though we say we don’t want processed food, every food product, before it gets to your mouth, has been subjected to some form of processing and treatment that has a scientific basis. Even washing an apple, chilling sushi, or peeling a banana are forms of food processing, while the bag of salad we buy in a shop or market isn’t full of air as we might expect. All of these phenomena I will discuss in coming chapters. Before dealing with the science of food processing, it is worth discussing what exactly that highly loaded term means. To a food scientist (well, me anyway), food processing means subjecting foods or raw materials to external forces designed to cause a desirable change in the food, typically in terms of its safety and stability, and also in many cases its flavor, texture, and color. In many cases, the primary target of food processing is the resident population of contaminating microorganisms that, if not dealt with, might otherwise cause the food to spoil, or else spoil the day of consumers who finds themselves with a range of symptoms of food poisoning, up to the most lethal. The force most commonly applied in processing is temperature, whether low (refrigeration), very low (freezing), high (for example, pasteurization or cooking), or very high (canning or sterilization). Temperature is indeed probably the key physical variable of significance to food, as almost everything that happens in and to food is influenced by temperature, and most changes take place optimally in a relatively narrow band around body temperature (37 °C). If temperature is pictured as a line scale, the zone of greatest danger and likelihood is centered around that point, but food processors look far below and above that zone and have come to understand how we can work around the optimum temperatures for various reactions and biological changes in order to make our food safer and more stable.
In The Name Of Architecture
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: November 2020

When Caxton Foster of the University of Massachusetts published his book Computer Architecture in 1970, this term was only just being recognized, reluctantly, by the computing community. This despite an influential paper published in 1964 by a group of IBM engineers on the “Architecture of the IBM System/360.” For instance, ACM’s “Curriculum 68” made no mention of the term in its elaborate description of the entire scope of computing as an academic discipline. Rather, in the late 1960s and well into the ’70s terms such as computer organization, computer structures, logical organization, computer systems organization, or, most blandly, computer design were preferred to describe computers in an abstract sort of way, independent of the physical (hardware) details. Thus a widely referenced paper by Michael Flynn of Stanford University, published in 1974, was titled “Trends and Problems in Computer Organization.” And Maurice Wilkes, even in the third edition of his Time-Sharing Computer Systems (1975) declined to use the term computer architecture. Yet, computer architecture as both an abstract way of looking at, understanding, and designing computers, and as a field of computer science emerged in the first years of the ’70s. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) founded a Technical Committee on Computer Architecture (TCCA) in 1970 to join the ranks of other specialist IEEE TCs. The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) followed suit in 1971 by establishing, alongside other special-interest groups, the Special Interest Group on Computer Architecture (SIGARCH). And in 1974, the first of what came to be the annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA) was held in Gainesville, Florida. By the end of the decade a series of significant textbooks and articles bearing the term computer architecture(s) had appeared. The reason for naming an aspect of the computer its “architecture” and the reason for naming an academic and research discipline “computer architecture” can be traced back to the mid-1940s and the paradigm-shaping unpublished reports by John von Neumann of the Institute of Advanced Study, Princeton, and his collaborators, Arthur Burks and Herman Goldstine.
The Role of Staff and Community Partners
Authors: Astor Ron Avi , Jacobson Linda , Wrabel Stephanie L. , Benbenishty Rami , Pineda Diana
Published: November 2020

One reason that student transition between schools hasn’t received the attention that it should is because schools traditionally have not had staff members directly in charge of assuring that welcoming and transition procedures are in place. Monitoring how students are adjusting to their new classes, routines, and peer groups can fall by the wayside until a problem arises. “Nobody owns that piece,” says Robin Harwick, a Seattle University researcher who previously worked at Treehouse, a nonprofit agency that provides educational services for children in foster care. Too often, she adds, educators don’t recognize that high mobility can negatively impact a student until behavior or academic issues surface. But Micah Jacobson, of the Boomerang Project, says that picture is beginning to change and schools are increasingly placing a counselor or other staff member in charge of transition-related activities. A variety of options are available to district leaders and school administrators who want to make sure that their schools are welcoming and that consistent practices focused on ensuring smooth transitions are being implemented. The following sections discuss some approaches that districts can explore to make sure someone is consistently attending to the needs of students and families in transition (Figure 9.1). One of the best ways to ensure that teachers and other staff members begin to think about how they can create more welcoming environments is to create a team that focuses on the topic. Jacobson notes that creating a team increases the likelihood that programs will be sustained when there is staff turnover. The North Carolina Department of Public Instruction has created a detailed transition planning guide that outlines steps for smooth transition from preschool through college and outlines some of the topics that can be addressed by a district-wide transition plan. These include planning professional development on the issue of transition, reviewing research-based practices, addressing issues of alignment as students move through grades, seeking input from families on their transition experiences, and recruiting volunteers to help with transition-related gatherings.
Developing a Monitoring System
Authors: Astor Ron , Benbenishty Rami
Published: November 2020

The steering committee responsible for developing the system is sometimes charged with creating a system from scratch. In many other cases, they are expected to implement an existing monitoring system imposed by the state, the district, or a funder. Even when an existing monitoring system is implemented, the role of the local steering committee is crucial— there is always a need to make both small and large adjustments and modifications to ensure that the system is most helpful in the circumstances particular to a school or district. Box 3.1 summarizes the key steps for developing a monitoring system. For instance, school leaders, in cooperation with the steering committee, may decide to add a few questions to an existing survey to learn more about a particular issue of concern to a school. For example, they might want to know how Native American parents view the school’s respect for their heritage or if military- connected students feel that their parents are appreciated. The committee may also want to add an additional method, such as a focus group, to enhance its ability to receive feedback on a particular issue. Before deciding on the components of a monitoring system, leaders first need to address how to cover the cost. Creating a new monitoring system can be an expensive endeavor, so policymakers should conduct extensive research on what sources of funding they have available before finalizing the components of their monitoring system. Sources of funding might include federal grants, foundation grants, or discretionary funding at the district or local school level. These funds might also cover the cost of having staff people analyze the results and write reports to share with policymakers, parents, educators, and students. Making use of or adapting existing instruments is obviously less expensive than having something new created. Partnering with other organizations, universities, or government agencies that might want to have access to similar information is another cost- efficient way to approach the funding aspects of monitoring. Many monitoring techniques require little or no funding at all.
The Great Indian Currency Scramble: Digital Money
Authors: Agrawal Ravi
Published: November 2020

An hour before dawn on November 8, 2016—a Tuesday—Sarvesh Kumar woke abruptly from what had been restless sleep. As he propped himself up on his charpoy, he told me, his eyes adjusted to the darkness of his tiny room, tucked away in a slum near New Delhi’s prosperous Vasant Kunj neighborhood. It was, he recalls, pitch black. Kumar’s inability to see enhanced his other senses. His ears picked up a chorus of mournful howls from the stray dogs roaming the streets some distance away. A few seconds later, he began to take account of a gentle rumble of snoring. Bandhana, his wife, was still asleep beside him. The next stimulation to hit him, he said, was that of smell: they had saved leftovers from dinner in a small dish, placed on the floor in one corner of the bedroom. (There was no kitchen, no fridge, no cupboards.) The smell of stale dal and starchy rice lingered in the air, mingling with the stench of urine from the latrine right outside. The apartment’s only toilet had no working flush, just a mug and a bucket with which to pour water. At night, Kumar’s father—who slept in the next room—would get up to urinate in the dark, sitting on his haunches and peeing all over the cramped toilet floor. Kumar was only twenty-two years old but looked much older. He was developing a hunch. His gray shirt and trousers—both made of the same rough, fraying cotton—seemed to fall over his limbs like oversized bags. Life was wearing him down. Kumar was working sixteen-hour shifts driving a three-wheeled auto-rickshaw, seven days a week. Ever since he had gotten married and brought Bandhana to join him in the city, his expenses had ballooned. His father, meanwhile, was working less and less, his health and eyesight beginning to fail him. Asha Ram Kumar worked as a chauffeur for a family nearby in Vasant Kunj. He had recently bumped their car into a lamppost. Any day now, Kumar told me, his father would lose his job.
The Role of the Practitioner
Authors: Johnson Annette , McKay-Jackson Cassandra , Grumbach Giesela
Published: November 2020

To help students develop a meaningful critical service program and project, the school- based practitioner must first have an understanding of critical service learning (CSL).Before starting a CSL project, the practitioner is encouraged to review the discussion in Chapter 1 regarding the differences between CSL and service learning. In addition, the practitioner must be willing to address his or her role from the following perspectives: CSL in relation to the redistribution of power; the ability to use insight as a practitioner to help students understand the critical components of service learning; a willingness to move from the traditional adult power position in the relationship to one that recognizes student voice in creating the program/ project; the ability to be introspective of political and societal influences; and, finally, the willingness to move from the practitioner role to that of a facilitator. When using a CSL approach, practitioners must help students understand how service can make a difference in either changing or perpetuating systems of inequality. O’Grady (2000) reminded us to go beyond individual problems to redress social policies that work to maintain dominant structures. In other words, unless we change systems that maintain inequality, our own efforts may perpetuate a cycle of dependence. We understand that students are not going to solve all of the social ills that exist in their com¬munities; however, CSL is an opportunity to increase their awareness of the advocacy–change–action process. The CSL approach fosters critical consciousness, allowing students to combine action and reflection in the group or classroom to examine both the historical precedents of the social problems addressed in their service projects and the impact of their personal action/ inaction in maintaining and transforming those problems (Mitchell, 2008). This analysis allows students to connect their own lives to the lives of those whom the service project addresses. In addition, a CSL approach allows students to become aware of systemic and institutionalized inequalities. The reflection dynamic of a CSL pedagogy (teaching strategy) encourages contem¬plation on both personal and institutional contributions to social problems and measures that may lead to social change (Marullo, 1999; Rice & Pollack, 2000).
The Minerals that Make Rocks and Soils
Authors: Maltman Alex
Published: November 2020

This chapter is about the minerals based on silicon and oxygen, the silicates, the ones that make siliceous rocks. And because this means most rocks, apart from limestone and the other calcareous materials, they are often referred to as the “rock- forming minerals.” Let’s be clear at the outset that with these siliceous rocks we’re talking about silicate compounds, which involve the element silicon and a subgroup of silica minerals, which we’ll come to at the end of the chapter. None of this has anything to do with silicone, the synthetic polymer of multifarious uses. The principles discussed here are the same as those developed in the previous chapter, but the silicates present special challenges. Indeed, for a long time they were very tricky things to understand at all. The early geologists had at their disposal new ways of chemically analyzing minerals, and they applied them with gusto. They made impressively rapid progress, but they were baffled by the silicates. Their analyses showed that these minerals were dominated by silicon and oxygen but beyond that, well, they seemed too numerous, wildly varied, and inconsistent. It turned out to be well into the twentieth century before there was a breakthrough in understanding these perplexing compounds. The breakthrough took place when it dawned that X- rays could be used to study the structure of crystals—any crystals: geological, metallurgical, biological, and so on. Today, over twenty Nobel prizes have been awarded for work in this field, most recently in 2012. It’s even relevant to wine itself, through elucidating the structure of enzymes, proteins, and the like. (Incidentally, the use of X-rays to analyze crystals is quite different from its use in producing the familiar X-ray pictures of the human body.) In July 1912, the Bragg family rented a house, Whin Brow, at Cloughton, high above England’s Yorkshire coast. The father of the family, William, was a Professor of Physics at Leeds, and his 22-year-old son, Lawrence, was a precocious physics student at Cambridge. With an impending war, they were eager to escape the grimness of city life for a while, but even so, William took some work with him.
Schools as Relational Networks
Authors: Detterman Robin , Ventura Jenny , Rosenthal Lihi , Berrick Ken
Published: November 2020

Changing the economic and structural systems of schooling, as explored in the previous chapter, is essential. But systems change, in and of itself, is insufficient for true transformation (Elmore, 2007). Our schools are more than structural systems. They are communities—networks of human relationships that inform the trajectory of students’ future lives while defining their current experiences. As discussed in Chapter 2, under-resourced, siloed systems create a fractured framework troubled with economic inefficiencies. These same conditions simultaneously promote a splintered relational network. In other words, schools with the greatest opportunity gaps face multiple layers of resource-related stressors that shape not only their physical and systematic design but also the psyches of entire school communities. Parents come to expect that schools lack either the willingness or the ability to help their children and engage with schools in a manner consistent with this underlying belief. Students make sense of the system by figuring out what others expect from “students like them” and acting out their assigned role accordingly. Staff squabble over the few resources that do exist and blame each other for the gaps in support and services available. To mitigate the effects of resource-related stressors we must cultivate school communities of safety, acceptance, and belonging. In this chapter, we ask: How can specific intentional approaches to relationship remediate past experiences of exclusion? Childhood poverty is widespread in the United States and income inequality has become increasingly pronounced in recent years. According to a report published by the National Center for Children in Poverty, nearly half of our nation’s children (30.6 million) live in families classified as “low income,” many without consistent means to meet their most basic needs (Jiang, Ekono, & Skinner, 2016). Nowhere is America’s class divide more evident than in our nation’s schools. Low socioeconomic status has time and again been linked to reduced educational outcomes. Ultimately, students from low-income families nationwide are less likely to graduate on time than their peers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015).
Mother Nature To The Rescue?
Authors: Rohling Eelco J.
Published: November 2020

Now we come to the key issue. Many discussions about climate change turn to the well- known fact that (very) large CO2 fluctuations have happened in the geological past. This is then taken to imply that “we shouldn’t worry: nature has seen this all before, and will somehow clean up our external carbon emissions.” The veracity of this sentiment can be tested by considering the main mechanisms available in nature for extracting carbon from the atmosphere-ocean system. These are weathering, reforestation, and carbon burial in soils and sediments. In the next section, we look at the potential of these processes. Thereafter, we consider the case for human intervention, and potential ways forward. A first mechanism by which nature has dealt with past high- CO2 episodes is chemical weathering of rocks. In warmer and more humid climates, chemical weathering rates are increased, and this extracts CO2 from the atmosphere. However, CO2 removal through weathering at natural rates is an extremely slow process, which operates over hundreds of thousands to millions of years. Given time, there is no doubt that natural weathering will be capable of eventually removing the excess CO2, but this process is so slow that it offers no solace for the future, unless we are prepared to wait many hundreds of thousands of years. There may be some future in artificially increasing the weathering processes to remove anthropogenic carbon, but this is in its infancy—we will revisit this in sections 6.2 and 6.3. A second mechanism for carbon extraction from the atmosphere-ocean system concerns expansion of the biosphere, most notably through reforestation. We have discussed this before in terms of expansion and contraction of the biosphere during ice- age cycles. In today’s case, carbon extraction through biosphere expansion requires first that the industrial age’s trend of net deforestation is reversed. Interestingly, this actually may have happened at around 2003. Between 2003 and 2014, net global vegeta¬tion increased by about 4 GtC (i.e., at an average rate of about 0.4 GtC per year), due to a lucky combination of increased rainfall on the savannahs of Australia, Africa, and South America, regrowth of forests on abandoned farmland in Russia and former Soviet republics, and massive tree- planting projects in China.
The Seven Last Infra-Uranium Elements to Be Discovered
Authors: Scerri Eric
Published: November 2020

The term “infra-uranium,” meaning before uranium, is one that I have proposed by contrast to the better-known term transuranium elements that are discussed in the following chapter. The present chapter concerns the last seven elements that formed the missing gaps in the old periodic table that ended with the element uranium. After Moseley developed his X-ray method, it became clear that there were just seven elements yet to be isolated among the 92 naturally occurring elements or hydrogen (#1) to uranium (#92). This apparent simplicity is somewhat spoiled by the fact that, as it turned out, some of these seven elements were first isolated from natural sources following their being artificially created, but this raises more issues that are best left to the next chapter of this book. The fact remains that five of these seven elements are radioactive, the two exceptions being hafnium and rhenium, the second and third of them to be isolated. The first of the seven final infra-uranium elements to be discovered was protactinium, and it was one of the lesser-known predictions made by Mendeleev. In his famous 1896 paper, Mendeleev indicated incorrect values for both thorium (118) and uranium (116). (See figure 1.6.) A couple of years later, he corrected both of these values and showed a missing element between thorium and uranium (figure 4.4). In doing so, Mendeleev added the following paragraph, in which he made some specific predictions. . . . Between thorium and uranium in this series we can further expect an element with an atomic weight of about 235. This element should form a highest oxide R2O5, like Nb and Ta to which it should be analogous. Perhaps in the minerals which contain these elements a certain amount of weak acid formed from this metal will also be found.. . . The modern atomic weight for eka-tantalum or protactinium is 229.2. The apparent inaccuracy in Mendeleev’s prediction is not too surprising, however, since he never knew that protactinium is a member of only four “pair reversals” in the entire periodic table.
Nanomaterials: Specificities of Properties and Synthesis
Authors: Jolivet Jean-Pierre
Published: November 2020

The concept of material concerns matter in solid state that is endowed with usable properties for practical applications. It is indeed in the solid state that matter exhibits the highest mechanical strength and chemical inertness, providing solidity and sustainability because the solid is based on an extended stiff crystalline framework. It is also in the solid state that many properties exist, including optical, electrical, and magnetic properties, providing great technological progress. A typical example is electronics which owes its enormous development to doped silicon. A material may therefore be defined as a useful solid. The properties of a solid depend directly on its chemical composition, crystalline and electronic structures, texture, as well as morphology and casting. This last point, which is often neglected, is illustrated by amorphous silica glass, which is used largely for its properties such as chemical inertness, mechanical strength, optical transparency, and low thermal and electrical conductivities. These various properties are highlighted through the many possibilities of casting and shaping: flat glass (optical transparency for glazing); hollow glass (chemical inertness and mechanical strength for bottling); short fibers (glass wool for heat insulation) and long fibers (optical fibers); massive pieces (insulators for electric power lines); and thin films (insulating layers for miniaturized electronics). Metal oxides exhibit a wide range of exploitable properties useful for innumerable applications. Silica, SiO2, as flat glass, has excellent optical properties, but other oxides such as LiNbO3 and KTiOPO4 exhibit interesting nonlinear optical properties, allowing changes in the wavelength of the transmitted light. Certain oxides are good electrical insulators (SiO2), but others are true elec­tronic conductors (VO2, NaxWO3), ionic conductors (β-alumina NaAl11O17, NaSiCON Na3Zr2PSi2O12, yttria-stabilized cubic zirconia Zr1–xYxO2–x/ 2), and also superconductors (cuprates such as YBa2Cu3O7–x and Bi4Sr3Ca3Cu4O16+x). Compounds such as BaTiO3, PbZr1–xTixO3, and PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3 are ferroelectric solids used largely as miniaturized electronic components, whereas spinel ferrite γ-Fe2O3, barium hexaferrite BaFe12O19, and garnet Y3Fe5O12 are more or less coercive ferrimagnetic solids used in magnetic recording or as permanent magnets.
Precipitation: Structures and Mechanisms
Authors: Jolivet Jean-Pierre
Published: November 2020

The formation of a solid, and especially an oxide, from soluble metal complexes is usually called “precipitation.” This term is a generic name that includes a set of complex and intricate phenomena. The process is governed by thermodynamic, structural, and kinetic contingencies, which should be examined in detail to understand the role of synthesis conditions and their influence on the solid obtained. The chemistry of the process involves a condensation reaction, olation or oxolation, between uncharged hydroxylated complexes. It forms particles of widely variable size over the nano- to micrometric range. These particles are portions of a solid identifiable in using techniques such as X-ray diffraction, absorption, and diffusion, electron microscopy, light-scattering, and various spectroscopies. Of course, these particles have the properties typical of the corresponding bulky solid, but they may be modulated because of the size effect, especially in the nanometric range (Chap. 1). Because of their small size, these objects have a large surface area highlighting their surface physicochemistry, such as ability to disperse in aqueous or nonaqueous medium, to aggregate, and to fix various species from solution, that allows the surface energy to be controlled to adjust the shape and size of these objects (Chap. 5). The crystal structure of polymorphic solids can also be controlled by the choice of the pathway of their formation. Thus, knowledge of the processes involved allows us to exploit the large versatility of the nanostructures synthesized in solution. This chapter has two main objectives. The first is to show that the crystalline structure of the solid may in many cases be anticipated from the characteristics of the precursor in solution, such as functionality, geometry, reactivity, and elec­tron configuration. This point concerns the structural aspect of the formation of the solid. The second objective is to understand why precipitation forms small particles, generally of nano- or micrometric size, and how the crystallization mechanism influences their morphology. These questions concern the kinetics and dynamics of the precipitation phenomenon.