bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Polymerization Processes, 2. Modeling of Processes and Reactors
Authors: Hamielec Archie E. , Tobita Hidetaka
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Processes and Reactor Modeling for Step‐Growth Polymerization2.1.Types of Reactors and Reactor Modeling2.2.Specific Processes3.Processes and Reactor Modeling for Chain‐Growth Polymerization3.1.Material Balance Equations for Batch, Semi‐Batch, and Continuous Reactors3.1.1.Rates of Reaction and Copolymer Composition3.1.2.Molecular Masses, Long‐Chain Branching, and Cross‐Linking3.2.Examples of Free‐Radical Polymerization3.2.1.Homopolymerization ‐ Linear Chains3.2.2.Copolymerization ‐ Linear Chains3.2.3.Copolymerization ‐ Long‐Chain Branching3.3.Polymerization Processes3.3.1.Solution Polymerization3.3.1.1.Polymer Soluble in Monomer3.3.1.2.Addition of a Solvent in which both Monomer and Polymer are Miscible3.3.1.3.Polymer ‐ Polymer Demixing during Polymerization3.3.2.Precipitation Polymerization3.3.2.1.Polymer Insoluble in its Monomer3.3.2.2.Monomer Functioning as Solvent for the Polymer3.3.3.Suspension Polymerization3.3.3.1.Qualitative Description3.3.3.2.Dispersants3.3.3.3.Mechanism of Particle Formation3.3.3.4.Industrial Applications3.3.4.Emulsion Polymerization3.3.4.1.Theories of Emulsion Polymerization3.3.4.2.Physicochemical Parameters of Dispersions3.3.4.3.Inverse Emulsion Polymerization3.3.4.4.Semi‐Batch Emulsion Polymerization3.3.4.5.Continuous Emulsion Polymerization3.4.Miscellaneous Processes3.5.Ionic Polymerization Modeling3.5.1.Introduction3.5.2.Heterogeneous Coordination Polymerization3.6.Process Variables, Reactor Dynamics/ Stability, On‐Line Monitoring and Control3.6.1.Influence of Reactor Type and Configuration on Molecular Mass and Copolymer Composition Distributions, and on Long‐Chain Branching and Cross‐Linking3.6.1.1.Monomer Coupling with Bimolecular Termination Plug Flow and Batch Reactors (CPFR/BR)3.6.1.2.Monomer Coupling Without Termination Plug Flow and Batch Reactors (CPFR/BR)3.6.1.3.Polymer Coupling3.6.1.4.Copolymerization3.6.1.5.Long‐Chain Branching and Cross‐Linking3.6.2.Reactor Dynamics and Stability3.6.3.On‐Line Monitoring and Control4.Acknowledgement
Polypropylene
Authors: Heggs T. Geoffrey
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Historical Survey2.Polymer Structure2.1.Molecular and Chain Structure2.2.Crystallization and Morphology3.Raw Materials3.1.Propene3.2.Polymerization Diluents3.3.Catalyst Preparation3.3.1.TiCl3‐Based Catalysts3.3.2.Supported Catalysts3.3.3.Homogeneous Catalysts3.3.4.Aluminum Alkyl Cocatalysts3.4.Hydrogen4.Polymerization Mechanism5.Industrial Processes5.1.Suspension Homopolymerization (Early Diluent Processes)5.2.Bulk Polymerization in Liquid Propene5.3.Solution Polymerization5.4.Spheripol Process5.5.Hypol Process5.6.Gas‐Phase Processes5.7.Copolymerization5.7.1.Random Copolymerization5.7.2.Impact (Block) Copolymerization5.8.Product Finishing5.9.Additives6.Compounding7.Properties7.1.Homopolymer7.2.Copolymers7.3.Elastomer Blends with Polypropylene8.Uses8.1.Injection Molding8.2.Blow Molding8.3.Fibers and Flat Yarns8.4.Film8.5.Foil and Sheet8.6.Extruded Pipe9.Environmental Aspects9.1.Recycling9.2.Pyrolysis9.3.Incineration9.4.Environmental Interactions
Soil, 2. Damage and Soil Pollution
Authors: Auerswald Karl , Litz Norbert , Mayer Robert , Stoy Alexander , Alef Kassem , Kerndorff Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:4.Physical Damage to Soils4.1.Compaction4.2.Erosion4.3.Building Over and Sealing5.Effects of Anthropogenic Substances on Soil5.1.Persistent Pollutants5.1.1.Definition and Criteria5.1.2.Sources and Entry Paths5.1.3.Processes in Terrestrial Soils5.1.4.Persistent Organic Compounds5.1.4.1.Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons5.1.4.2.Aromatics and Chlorinated Aromatics5.1.4.3.Nitroaromatics and Aromatic Amines5.1.4.4.Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and Dibenzofurans (PCDFs)5.1.4.5.Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)5.1.4.6.Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)5.2.Acid Precipitation5.2.1.Definitions5.2.2.Sources of Acidity in Atmospheric Deposition5.2.3.Source and Sink Processes for Acidity in the Atmosphere and in the Soil Environment5.2.4.Direct Effects of Acid Deposition on Soils5.2.5.Effects Mediated by Organisms (Indirect Effects)5.2.5.1.Soil Acidification by Canopy Leaching5.2.5.2.Acidification by Uptake of Nitrogen Compounds5.2.5.3.Acidification by Accumulation of Organic Matter5.2.5.4.Acidification by Humus Disintegration5.2.6.Consequences of Soil Acidification5.2.7.Field Observations of Soil Acidification5.3.Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals5.3.1.Fertilizers5.3.1.1.Development of Fertilization5.3.1.2.Legal Framework of Fertilization5.3.1.3.Forms of Fertilizers5.3.1.4.Effects of Fertilizers in the Soil5.3.1.4.1.Nutrient Contents and Nutrient Losses5.3.1.4.2.Soil Reaction5.3.1.4.3.Humus Content5.3.1.4.4.Heavy Metals and Organic Pollutants5.3.2.Pesticides5.3.2.1.Introduction5.3.2.2.Side‐Effects5.4.Effects of Abandoned Waste Disposal Sites5.4.1.Introduction5.4.2.Material Contents in Groundwater Affected by Abandoned Waste Disposal Sites5.4.3.Contamination Criteria and their Quantification5.4.3.1.Contamination Factor5.4.3.2.Emission Detection Frequency5.4.3.3.Mean Emission Concentration
Soil, 3. Measurement and Evaluation of Soil Pollution
Authors: Crössmann Gerd , Eikmann Thomas
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Sampling and Investigation of Soil Pollutants1.1.Introduction1.2.Sampling1.3.Sample Pretreatment1.4.Sample Preparation1.5.Measurement1.6.Evaluation1.7.Quality Assurance1.8.Analytical Procedures for Selected Inorganic and Organic Soil Pollutants1.8.1.Analysis of Cadmium and Thallium1.8.1.1.Sample Preparation1.8.1.2.Measurement1.8.2.Analysis of Organic Soil Pollutants1.8.2.1.Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons1.8.2.2.Petroleum Hydrocarbons2.Evaluation Concept2.1.Uptake Paths to Humans2.1.1.Inhalation Uptake2.1.2.Oral Uptake2.1.3.Uptake via the Skin2.2.Relevant Soil Uses2.3.Evaluation Criteria
Soil, 4. Remediation of Soil and Land
Authors: Franzius Volker , Grimsky Detlef , Möhlenbruch Norbert , Dworshak Ulf
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Remediation Methods1.1.Introduction1.2.Methods and Processes for Remediation1.2.1.Overview1.2.2.Soil Treatment Processes1.2.2.1.Thermal Soil Treatment1.2.2.2.Physicochemical Soil Treatment/Soil Washing1.2.2.3.Microbiological Soil Treatment1.2.2.4.Soil Vapor Extraction Processes1.2.3.Safeguarding Technologies1.3.Costs for Soil Remediation1.4.Outlook2.Recultivation2.1.Definition2.2.Demands on Recultivation2.2.1.Recultivation Goals2.2.2.Initial Substrata2.3.Soil‐Physical Properties2.3.1.Silvicultural Recultivation2.3.2.Agricultural Recultivation2.4.Soil‐Chemical Properties2.4.1.Silvicultural Recultivation2.4.2.Agricultural Recultivation2.5.Soil Biology
Soil, 5. Legal Aspects and Soil Protection
Authors: Storm Peter‐Christoph
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Foundations of Soil Protection Law1.1.Land Law1.2.Soil Protection Law2.Foundations of Soil Protection Policy2.1.Soil Protection in Germany2.2.International Soil Protection3.Constitutional Soil Protection4.Soil Protection under Administrative Law5.Soil Protection Goals5.1.Soil5.2.Protection of Soil Functions5.3.Impairments of the Soil5.4.Soil Protection by Provision and Aftercare5.5.Direct and Indirect Soil Protection5.6.Relative and Absolute Soil Protection6.Soil Protection Measures6.1.Types of Measure6.2.Classification of Soil Protection Measures6.3.Measures against Material Soil Impairments6.4.Measures against Nonmaterial Soil Impairments7.Development Trends7.1.Further Development of German Soil Protection Law since 19857.2.The German Soil Protection Act 19987.3.Soil Protection in the Draft of an Environmental Code (UGB)
Steel, 2. Crude Steel Production
Authors: Steffen Rolf , Janke Dieter , Schäfer Klaus , Jacobi Hatto , Hammer Rudolf , Hentrich Robert
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Raw Materials1.1.Hot Metal1.2.Scrap1.3.Sponge Iron1.4.Lime2.Physical and Chemical Fundamentals2.1.Thermodynamics2.1.1.Metallic Systems Based on Iron2.1.2.Slag Systems2.1.3.Metal ‐ Slag Reactions2.1.3.1.Refining Reactions2.1.3.2.Dephosphorization2.1.3.3.Desulfurization2.1.3.4.Deoxidation2.1.4.Metal ‐ Gas Reactions2.2.Kinetics and Mass Transfer2.2.1.Kinetics of Heterogeneous Reactions2.2.2.Flow and Mass Transfer Coefficients2.2.2.1.Metal ‐ Glas Phase Boundaries with Nonturbulent Flow2.2.2.2.Metal ‐ Slag Phase Boundaries with Nonturbulent Flow2.2.2.3.Solid (Metal or Slag) ‐ Liquid Phase Boundaries with Nonturbulent Flow2.2.2.4.Mass Transfer with Turbulent Flow3.Production Processes3.1.Oxygen‐Blowing Processes3.1.1.LD and OBM Processes3.1.2.Other Developments3.2.Electric Steel Process3.2.1.Special Processes3.2.2.The Siemens ‐ Martin Open Hearth Process3.3.Production of Stainless Steels4.Secondary Metallurgy4.1.Steel Treatment at Atmospheric Pressure4.1.1.Deoxidation4.1.2.Desulfurization4.1.3.Dephosphorization4.1.4.Temperature Control4.2.Vacuum Treatment4.2.1.Decarburization4.2.2.Nitrogen Removal4.2.3.Dehydrogenation5.Casting and Solidification5.1.Fundamentals5.2.Ingot Casting5.3.Continuous Casting5.3.1.The Growth of Strand Casting5.3.2.Productivity5.3.3.Mold Oscillation and Shell Formation5.3.4.Control of Molten Steel Level and Gap Lubrication5.3.5.Support Roller Apron and Secondary Cooling Zone5.3.6.Automation5.3.7.Quality5.3.8.Horizontal Strand Casting5.3.9.Hot Charging or Direct Rolling5.3.10.Casting Thin Slabs5.3.11.New Processes for Hot Steel Strip Production5.3.12.Rationalization5.4.Consumable Electrode Remelting Processes5.4.1.Remelting Processes5.4.2.General Aims of Remelting5.4.3.Remelting Apparatus5.4.4.Results and Applications
Steel, 3. Forming
Authors: Wiegels Herbert , Aichinger Horst M. , Sänger Friedhelm , Walter Harold , Kümmerling Rolf , Uhl Ulrich , Decker Werner , Pankert Roger
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Fundamentals1.1.Causes of Plasticity1.2.Workability1.3.Cold Forming1.4.Hot Forming1.5.Forming Processes1.6.Aims of Forming Technology1.6.1.Combination of Casting and Forming1.6.2.Thermomechanical Treatment1.6.3.Simulation of Forming Processes1.6.4.Quality Information Systems2.Hot Working2.1.Reheating Furnaces2.2.Hot Rolling2.2.1.Semifinished Products2.2.2.Flat Products2.2.3.Long Products2.2.4.Tubes2.3.Forging2.3.1.Open Die Forging2.3.2.Closed Die Forging3.Cold Rolling3.1.Introduction3.2.Pickling3.3.Rolling3.4.Annealing3.5.Skin‐Pass Rolling3.6.Stainless Steels3.7.Future Developments
Steel, 5. Microstructures, Properties, and Adjustment of Properties
Authors: Hougardy Hans , Dahl Winfried , Grabke Hans Jürgen
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Microstructure1.1.Introduction1.2.Phase Diagrams of Iron Alloys1.3.Definitions1.4.Microstructures in Plain Carbon Steels1.5.Microstructures of Alloy Steels2.Properties2.1.Mechanical Properties2.1.1.Behavior Under Unidirectional Loads, at and Below Room Temperature2.1.2.Behavior Under Cyclic Loading2.1.3.Behavior at Higher Temperatures2.2.Chemical Properties2.2.1.Introduction2.2.2.Uniform Corrosion2.2.3.Atmospheric Corrosion2.2.4.Passivation2.2.5.Pitting Corrosion2.2.6.Crevice Corrosion2.2.7.Intergranular Corrosion of Stainless Steels2.2.8.Stress Corrosion Cracking2.2.9.Hydrogen Adsorption and Hydrogen Embrittlement2.2.10.Oxidation of Iron2.2.11.Oxidation of Carbon Steels and Low‐Alloy Steels2.2.12.High‐Temperature Steels2.2.13.Effects of Chlorine in Oxidation2.2.14.Sulfidation of Iron and Steel2.2.15.Carburization2.2.16.Nitriding2.2.17.Decarburization, Denitriding, and Hydrogen Attack2.3.Physical Properties2.3.1.Pure Iron2.3.2.α‐Iron Solid Solutions2.3.3.γ‐Iron Solid Solutions2.3.4.Other Effects of Structure3.Heat Treatment3.1.Time ‐ Temperature Transformation Diagrams3.2.Heat Treatment of Transformable Steels3.2.1.Austenitizing3.2.2.Transformations3.2.3.Effect of Dimensions3.2.4.Quenching and Tempering3.2.5.Spheroidized Annealing3.2.6.Thermomechanical Treatment3.2.7.Surface Hardening3.3.Heat Treatment Without Transformation3.3.1.Recrystallization3.4.Simulation of Heat Treatment
Surface and Thin‐Film Analysis, 3. Ion Detection
Authors: Rivière John C. , Fabry Laszlo , Pahlke Siegfried , Quentmeier Alfred , Hinrichs Karsten , Hill Wieland , Gruska Bernd , Röseler Arthur , Friedbacher Gernot
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry1.1.Static Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SSIMS)1.1.1.Principles1.1.2.Instrumentation1.1.2.1.Ion Sources1.1.2.2.Mass Analyzers1.1.3.Quantification1.1.4.Spectral Information1.1.5.Applications1.1.5.1.Oxide Films1.1.5.2.Interfaces1.1.5.3.Polymers1.1.5.4.Biosensors1.1.5.5.Surface Reactions1.1.5.6.Imaging1.1.5.7.Ultrashallow Depth Profiling1.2.Dynamic SIMS1.2.1.Principles1.2.2.Instrumentation1.2.2.1.Ion Sources1.2.2.2.Mass Analyzers1.2.2.3.Detectors1.2.3.Spectral Information1.2.4.Quantification1.2.5.Mass Spectra1.2.6.Depth Profiles1.2.7.Imaging1.2.8.Applications1.2.8.1.Implantation Profiles1.2.8.2.Layer Analysis1.2.8.3.3D Bulk Element Distribution2.Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry (SNMS)2.1.General Principles2.2.Electron‐Beam and HF‐Plasma SNMS2.2.1.Principles2.2.2.Instrumentation2.2.3.Spectral Information2.2.4.Quantification2.2.5.Element Depth Profiling2.2.6.Applications2.3.Laser‐SNMS2.3.1.Principles2.3.1.1.Nonresonant Laser‐SNMS2.3.1.2.Resonant Laser‐SNMS2.3.1.3.Experimental Setup2.3.1.4.Ionization Schemes2.3.2.Instrumentation2.3.3.Spectral Information2.3.4.Quantification2.3.5.Applications2.3.5.1.Nonresonant Laser‐SNMS2.3.5.2.Resonant Laser‐SNMS3.Ion‐Scattering Techniques3.1.Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS)3.1.1.Principles3.1.2.Instrumentation3.1.3.Spectral Information3.1.4.Quantification3.1.5.Applications3.2.Low‐Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS)3.2.1.Principles3.2.2.Instrumentation3.2.3.Information3.2.4.Quantification3.2.5.Applications4.Other Ion‐Detecting Techniques4.1.Desorption Methods4.1.1.Electron‐Stimulated Desorption (ESD) and Electron‐Stimulated Desorption Ion Angular Distribution (ESDIAD)4.1.2.Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy (TDS)4.2.Glow Discharge Mass Spectroscopy (GDMS)4.3.Fast Atom Bombardment Mass Spectroscopy (FABMS)4.4.Atom Probe Microscopy4.4.1.Atom Probe Field‐Ion Microscopy (APFIM)4.4.2.Position‐Sensitive Atom Probe (POSAP)
Surface and Thin‐Film Analysis, 5. Scanning Probe Microscopy
Authors: Hunger Klaus , Mischke Peter , Rieper Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

2.1.

Principles

2.2.

Instrumentation

2.3.

Applications

3.

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)

3.1.

Principles

3.2.

Instrumentation

3.3.

Lateral and Spectroscopic Information

3.4.

Applications
Textile Auxiliaries, 2. Auxiliaries for Fiber Production and Processing
Authors: Marquardt Kurt
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Economic Aspects3.Use of Fiber Preparations3.1.Use of Fiber Preparations in Primary Spinning3.2.Use of Antistatic or Lubricating Agents in Secondary Spinning3.3.Use of Antistatic and Lubricating Agents in Dyeing4.Physical Properties5.Chemical Properties6.Fiber Preparations for Special Applications7.Additives for Spinning Solutions, Spinning Baths, and Spinning Melts8.Environmental Aspects9.Commercial Products
Textile Auxiliaries, 4. Pretreatment Auxiliaries
Authors: Gebert Karlheinz
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Processes and Auxiliaries for the Pretreatment of Textile Materials2.Preparation of Textile Material made of Cellulose Fibers2.1.Pretreatment Processes2.2.Pretreatment Part Processes2.2.1.Desizing2.2.2.Alkaline Extraction2.2.3.Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide2.2.4.Bleaching with Sodium Hypochlorite2.2.5.Bleaching with Sodium Chlorite2.2.6.Mercerization and Causticizing3.Preparation of Woolen Textiles4.Ecological Aspects of Fabric Pretreatment
Textile Auxiliaries, 5. Deying Auxiliaries
Authors: Borschel Eva‐Marie , Heimann Sigismund , Kromm Erich
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Dye Solubilizing and Hydrotropic Agents3.Dye Protecting Agents and Boildown Protecting Agents4.Wetting and Deaerating Agents5.Dispersants and Protective Colloids5.1.Dispersants in Dye Production5.2.Dispersants for Dyeing (Batch and Continuous Processes)5.3.Testing6.Complexing Agents7.Levelling Agents7.1.Levelling Agents for Dyeing Cellulose Fibers7.2.Levelling Agents for Wool Dyeing7.3.Levelling Agents for Dyeing Polyamide Fibers7.4.Levelling Agents for Dyeing Polyester Fibers7.5.Levelling Agents for Dyeing Polyacrylonitrile Fibers7.6.Levelling Agents for Dyeing Other Synthetic Fibers and Fiber Blends7.7.pH Regulators (Acid‐ and Alkali‐Releasing Agents)7.8.Testing8.Dyeing Accelerants (Carriers)9.Anticreasing Agents10.Auxiliaries for Continuous Dyeing10.1.Antimigration Agents10.2.Antifrosting Agents10.3.Products to Increase Liquor Uptake11.Aftertreatment Agents to Improve Fastness12.Reducing Agents13.Oxidizing Agents14.Stripping Agents15.Resist Agents for Dyeing and Printing
Textile Auxiliaries, 7. Finishing Agents
Authors: Lee Wayland Rosser
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Easy Care Finishes2.1.Cross‐Linking Agents2.2.Catalysts2.3.Testing2.4.Hand Builders2.5.Softeners3.Water Repellents3.1.Historical Aspects3.2.Reactive Quaternary Repellents3.3.Organometallic Repellents3.4.Wax‐Based Repellents3.5.Resin‐Based Repellents3.6.Silicone Repellents3.7.Fluorochemical Repellents3.8.Testing for Water Repellency4.Soil‐Repellent and Soil‐Release Agents4.1.Historical Aspects4.2.Factors Influencing Soil Release; Testing4.3.Soil‐Release Finishes5.Flame Retardants5.1.Flammability of Fibers5.2.Nondurable Flame Retardants5.3.Semidurable Flame Retardants5.4.Durable Flame Retardants5.5.Flammability Testing6.Wool Finishing6.1.Setting6.2.Scouring6.3.Milling6.4.Carbonizing6.5.Shrink‐Resistant Finishes6.6.Mothproofing
Textile Auxiliaries, 8. Auxiliaries for Technical Textiles
Authors: Fischer Klaus
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Technical Textiles—an Overview2.Auxiliaries2.1.Polymers2.2.Cross‐Linking Agents2.3.Nonslip Agents2.4.Water Repellents2.5.Oleophobic Agents2.6.Flame Retardants2.7.Antistatic Agents2.8.Plasticizers2.9.Coupling Agents2.10.Thickeners2.11.Surfactants2.12.Antifoams2.13.Antimicrobial Agents2.14.Light Stabilizers2.15.Fillers2.16.Pigments2.17.Producers and Trade Names
Vitamins, 2. Vitamin A (Retinoids)
Authors: John Michael , Hähnlein Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Historical Aspects3.Physical Properties4.Chemical Properties5.Occurrence6.Biosynthesis7.Production7.1.Isolation and Purification from Natural Raw Materials7.2.Industrial Synthesis8.Metabolism and Physiological Functions8.1.Preformed Vitamin A8.2.β‐Carotene9.Deficiency Symptoms and Requirements10.Analysis and Standardization11.Trade Names and Economic Aspects12.Tolerance
Vitamins, 4. Vitamin E (Tocopherols, Tocotrienols)
Authors: Baldenius Kai‐U. , von dem Bussche‐Hünnefeld Linda , Hilgemann Eckhard , Hoppe Peter , Stürmer Rainer
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.History3.Physical Properties4.Chemical Properties5.Metabolism and Importance in the Organism6.Deficiency, Requirement, and Application7.Analysis and Standardization8.Occurrence9.Economic Aspects10.Biosynthesis11.Production11.1.Semisynthetic Vitamin E: Isolation from Plant Oils and Methylation11.2.Totally Synthetic Vitamin E: Industrial Synthesis11.3.Trimethylhydroquinone11.4.Phytol and Isophytol11.5.Stereoselective Syntheses of α‐Tocopherol
Vitamins, 5. Vitamin K
Authors: Weber Fritz , Rüttimann August
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction; History2.Physical Properties3.Chemical Properties4.Occurrence5.Biosynthesis6.Chemical Synthesis7.Analysis8.Metabolism9.Importance for the Organism9.1.Function9.2.Antagonists and Anticoagulants9.3.Relative Activity10.Deficiency Symptoms10.1.Causes10.2.Evaluation of Vitamin K Status11.Requirement12.Application13.Tolerance14.Trade Names and Economic Aspects
Vitamins, 11. Niacin (Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide)
Authors: Blum René
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Physical and Chemical Properties3.Biochemical Functions4.Production5.Quality Specifications6.Analysis7.Uses8.Economic Aspects9.Toxicology
Wastewater, 2. Aerobic Biological Treatment
Authors: Mann Theo , Berger Michael , Kern Günther , Lemke Joachim , Klockner Dieter , Neuber Elmhardt , Hebbel Gerhard‐Wilhelm , Werthmann Ulrich , Klinsmann Günter , Lawson John F. , Meyer Hans Georg , Müller Manfred , Balser Klaus , Maier Walter , Frieser Joachim , Thüer Markus , Malaszkiewicz Jürgen
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Biological Principles2.1.Organisms2.2.Biocenosis2.3.Metabolism3.Basic Biotechnological Considerations4.Technology and Operation of a Wastewater‐Treatment Plant5.Examples of Industrial Wastewater‐Treatment Plants Based on a Variety of Centralized Processes5.1.Single‐Stage and Multistage Activated‐Sludge Plants5.2.Oxygen‐Based Facilities5.3.Treatment Facilities with Selective Carbon and Nitrogen Elimination5.4.Trickling‐Filter Facilities5.5.Biofilter Systems5.6.Indirect‐Discharge Facilities
Wastewater, 3. Anaerobic Biological Treatment
Authors: Aivasidis Alexander
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Basic Principles3.Thermodynamics4.Kinetics5.Mass and Heat Transfer6.Reactor Design7.Biomass Retention/Recycling7.1.The Anaerobic Contact Process7.2.Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactors7.3.Fixed‐Bed Reactors (Anaerobic Filters)7.4.Fluidized‐Bed Reactors7.5.Fixed‐Bed Loop Reactors7.6.Engineering Considerations8.Control
Water, 6. Treatment by Oxidation Processes
Authors: Glaze William H.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Chemical Oxidants

2.

Production of Chemical Oxidants

3.

Uses of Chemical Oxidants

3.1.

Drinking Water Treatment

3.1.1.

Disinfection

3.1.2.

Chemical Oxidation

3.2.

Wastewater Treatment

3.3.

Oxidation in Pulp and Paper Treatment

3.4.

Advanced Oxidation Processes

4.

Toxicology and Environmental Health

5.

Acknowledgement
Recent Progress in Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells Using Nanocrystallite Aggregates
Authors: Zhang Qifeng , Park Kwangsuk , Xi Junting , Myers Daniel , Cao Guozhong
Published: November 2011

Nanocrystallite aggregates are spherical assemblies of nanometer‐sized crystallites and feature a size on the order of sub‐micrometers. This paper reports and summarizes recent progress in nanocrystallite aggregates for applications in dye‐sensitized solar cells. It emphasizes that nanocrystallite aggregates are a promising class of materials with the capability to generate light scattering, enhance electron transport, retain high specific surface area for dye adsorption, and facilitate electrolyte diffusion while serving as the photoelectrode film of a dye‐sensitized solar cell. In the Perspectives section, it is suggested that optimization of the porosity of the aggregates, the facets of nanocrystallites forming the aggregates, and the structure of photoelectrode film could possibly lead to breakthroughs in improving the power conversion efficiency of the current state‐of‐the‐art dye‐sensitized solar cells.
Grasping the structure of journal articles: Utilizing the functions of information units
Authors: Zhang Lei
Published: November 2011

Few studies have been done concerning document components and their effects on information use. This research empirically tested a taxonomy of functional units in a prototype journal system. This taxonomy was developed by identifying functions of the smallest information units within four journal article components (i.e., introduction, methods, results, discussion), and their associations with information tasks of using journal articles. Experimental results show that functional units can be utilized in supporting navigation, close reading, comprehension, and information use of journal articles to various extents. The results provide evidence that an individual functional unit has varying relevance to information use tasks, and has varying relevance to other functional units in the same or another component for a particular task. This research suggests that the information within a journal article can be organized and presented by functions to enhance effectiveness and efficiency in reading process and reading outcome.
Risk Factors of Cardiac Troponin T Elevation in Patients with Stable Coronary Artery Disease After Elective Coronary Drug‐Eluting Stent Implantation
Authors: Chen Zhang‐Wei , Qian Ju‐Ying , Ma Jian‐Ying , Ge Lei , Ge Jun‐Bo
Published: November 2011

Background:

Cardiac troponin T elevation after coronary intervention has been demonstrated to be associated with the prognosis of coronary artery disease (CAD). However, there were few studies about comprehensive risk factors analysis of troponin T elevation after elective drug‐eluting stent (DES) implantation.

Hypothesis:

The prognosis of CAD after coronary interventions was associated with clinical and procedural risk factors of CAD, such as age, hypertension, severity extent of CAD and so on.

Methods:

From March to December in 2010, patients with stable CAD were admitted for elective coronary intervention in our hospital. They were divided into an elevated troponin T group and a normal troponin T group by postprocedural troponin T. Clinical factors, laboratory‐test factors, and angiographic factors (such as gender, age, cholesterol, Gensini score, and others) were analyzed.

Results:

A total of 209 patients with an average age of 64.0 ± 9.9 years were enrolled in the study: 70 patients with elevated troponin T (≥0.03 ng/mL) after DES implantation and 139 patients with normal troponin T (<0.03 ng/mL). After univariate analysis, we found that age, hypertension, total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein‐cholesterol (LDL‐C), Gensini score, number of stenosed vessels, and total implanted stents were associated with postprocedural troponin T elevation. According to the results of multivariate analysis, we found that age, total cholesterol, number of stenosed vessels, and number of implanted stents were independent risk factors of postprocedural troponin T elevation.

Conclusions:

Age, serum total cholesterol, number of stenosed vessels, and number of implanted stents could be independent risk factors of troponin T elevation after elective DES implantation. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Z. Chen and J. Qian contributed equally to the article.

This study was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (30671998 and
30901383).

The authors have no funding, financial relationships, or conflicts of interest to disclose.
Differential Effect of β‐Blockers for Heart Rate Control in Coronary Artery Disease
Authors: Cordero Alberto , Bertomeu‐González Vicente , Mazón Pilar , Moreno‐Arribas José , Fácila Lorenzo , Bueno Héctor , González‐Juanatey Jose R. , Bertomeu‐Martínez Vicente
Published: November 2011

Background:

Resting heart rate is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and is mainly controlled by β‐blockers (BBs). BBs are part of the optimal medical treatment for coronary artery disease (CAD), and their benefit correlates with resting heart rate (RHR) reduction.

Hypothesis:

RHR is poorly controlled in daily practice among patients with stable cardiovascular disease, and control is only achieved by some BBs.

Methods:

Observational, cross‐sectional, and multicenter study of CAD patients recruited nationwide from 20 institutions. Antecedents, risk factors, and treatments were collected. Controlled RHR was considered at <70 bpm.

Results:

The mean age of the 2897 patients included was 67.4 years (11.4%), and 75.9% were males. Patients treated with a BB (56.5%) had a lower mean age and comorbidities. The mean RHR was 69.6 bpm (12.6). A significantly lower RHR was observed in patients treated with a BB compared to the rest (67.2 vs 73.0 bpm; P<0.01), and no difference was observed in patients treated with a calciumchannel blocker (CCB). The analysis by individual agents identified that only patients treated with atenolol, bisoprolol, and metoprolol had significantly lower RHR than those not receiving a BB. No differences were observed in mean doses of each agent according to RHR control, except for verapamil. BB treatment was independently associated with RHR control (odds ratio [OR]: 2.42, 95% CI: 2.05–2.87; P<0.01), and no association was found for nondihydropyridine CCBs (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.96–1.02; P = 0.38). Bisoprolol (OR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.38–1.78; P<0.01), atenolol (OR: 2.01, 95% CI: 1.57–3.49; P<0.01), and metoprolol (OR: 1.29, 95% CI: 1.04–1618; P = 0.04) were independently associated with RHR control.

Conclusions:

RHR is poorly controlled in CAD patients, and although BBs are the most efficient therapy, in daily clinical practice RHR <70 bpm is only independently associated with atenolol, bisoprolol, or metoprolol. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The TRECE registry has an unrestricted grant from Servier Laboratories, Spain. The authors have no other funding, financial relationships, or conflicts of interest to disclose.
Regulation of epithelial permeability by the actin cytoskeleton
Authors: Rodgers Laurel S. , Fanning Alan S.
Published: November 2011

The actin cytoskeleton is a dynamic structure necessary for cell and tissue organization, including the maintenance of epithelial barriers. The epithelial barrier regulates the movement of ions, macromolecules, immune cells, and pathogens, and is thus essential for normal organ function. Disruption in the epithelial barrier has been shown to coincide with alterations of the actin cytoskeleton in several disease states. These disruptions primarily manifest as increased movement through the paracellular space, which is normally regulated by tight junctions (TJ). Despite extensive research demonstrating a direct link between the actin cytoskeleton and epithelial permeability, our understanding of the physiological mechanisms that link permeability and tight junction structure are still limited. In this review, we explore the role of the actin cytoskeleton at TJ and present several areas for future study. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc
Automated extraction of the femoral anatomical axis for determining the intramedullary rod parameters in total knee arthroplasty
Authors: Van Cauter S. , De Beule M. , Van Haver A. , Verdonk P. , Verhegghe B.
Published: November 2011

The automated extraction of anatomical reference parameters may improve speed, precision and accuracy of surgical procedures. In this study, an automated method for extracting the femoral anatomical axis (FAA) from a 3D surface mesh, based on geometrical entity fitting, is presented. This was applied to conventional total knee arthroplasty, which uses an intramedullary rod (FIR) to orient the femoral prosthesis with respect to the FAA. The orientation and entry point of a FIR with a length of 200 mm are automatically determined from the FAA, as it has been shown that errors in these parameters may lead to malalignment of the mechanical axis. Moreover, the effect of partially scanning the leg was investigated by creating reduced femur models and comparing the results with the full models. Precise measurements are obtained for 50 models by using a central and two outer parts, with lengths of 20 and 120 mm, which correspond to 58% of the mean femoral length. The deviations were less than 2 mm for the FAA, 2.8 mm for the FAA endpoints and 0.7°and 1.3 mm for the FIR orientation and entry point. The computer‐based techniques might eventually be used for preoperative planning of total knee arthroplasty. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Trends and challenges in operating systems—from parallel computing to cloud computing
Authors: Polze Andreas , Tröger Peter
Published: November 2011

Over many decades, advances in computer system design and processor manufacturing have resulted in an ever‐increasing per‐chip transistor count, which, in combination with increased clock frequencies, has led to a tremendous increase in single‐thread performance in desktop and server CPUs. The trend to higher integration in processor manufacturing will continue for the next couple of years. However, the increased transistor count leads to additional compute cores within a CPU, rather than to an increased single‐thread performance. Programming and utilizing these future CPUs impose a number of problems commonly referred to as the multicore challenge. These trends primarily affect server computers, whereas on client systems, a break‐even between users' willingness to pay for compute power and today's CPU implementation seems to be reached. In this paper, we argue that the full exploitation of many‐core architectures on the server demands better support by the operating system. This relates to the support of new application programming models, the seamless integration of internal and external services, security, as well as on monitoring and (self‐adaptive) management of such server environments. Within this paper, we discuss three major trends that will drive the adoption of server operating systems to modern many‐core hardware: dynamic parallelism, dynamic partitioning, and dynamic provisioning. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Performance Analysis of Reversed Binary Decision Diagram Pass Transistor Logic Synthesis
Authors: Bhuvaneswari Thangavel , Prasad Vishnuvajjula , Singh Ajay Kumar , Senthilpari Chinnaiyan
Published: November 2011

Binary decision diagrams (BDDs) are the most frequently used data structure for the representation and handling of Boolean functions because of their excellent time and space efficiencies. In this article, a reversed BDD‐based pass transistor logic (PTL) logic synthesis is presented for low‐power and high‐performance circuits without exploiting the canonical property of BDDs. The procedure of the reversed BDD transformation into PTL is achieved by a one‐to‐one correspondence with the BDD node and PTL cell. Layouts are generated for the benchmark circuits and simulated in terms of power dissipation, propagation delay and area. The reversed BDD technique performs better in terms of area, delay and power dissipation due to the regularity, a reduced critical path, less interconnection wires, a multiplexer‐based construction of PTL circuits, and less switching activities. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Ten antibodies, six colors, twelve parameters: A multiparameter flow cytometric approach to evaluate leptomeningeal disease in B‐cell non‐Hodgkin's lymphomas
Authors: Stacchini Alessandra , Aliberti Sabrina , Demurtas Anna , Benevolo Giulia , Godio Laura
Published: November 2011

Background:

Flow cytometry (FC) is considered a sensitive and specific technique for the detection of occult lymphoma cells in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Methods:

The diagnostic sensitivity of a FC approach which uses a combination of 10 antibodies, a single‐tube evaluation, and a six‐color instrument, was evaluated and compared to conventional cytology (CC) for the detection of lymphomatous cells in the CSF of 44 patients affected by B‐cell non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma (B‐NHL) considered at high risk of central nervous system spread.

Results:

The CSF obtained from 36 newly diagnosed and 8 relapsed patients affected by B‐cell lymphoma was assessed by FC and CC on a total of 62 samples; 52/62 (82.6%) were considered paucicellular as they had fewer than 10 cells/μl. All cases were evaluated by both methods. FC gave 15/62 (24%) positive results, CC 10/62 (16%) positive results; none of the samples evaluated had a positive CC with a negative FC result.

Conclusions:

The use of a multiparameter FC approach, which collects an elevated number of monoclonal antibodies in a single tube and identify different cell populations with a selective gating strategy analysis, allows for the evaluation of lymphocyte subsets and the detection of leptomeningeal disease in B‐NHL, even in the presence of paucicellularity of samples. © 2012 International Clinical Cytometry Society
An embryonic stem cell‐based system for rapid analysis of transcriptional enhancers
Authors: Tsanov Kaloyan M. , Nishi Yuichi , Peterson Kevin A. , Liu Jing , Baetscher Manfred , McMahon Andrew P.
Published: November 2011

With the growing use of genome‐wide screens for cis‐regulatory elements, there is a pressing need for platforms that enable fast and cost‐effective experimental validation of identified hits in relevant developmental and tissue contexts. Here, we describe a murine embryonic stem cell (ESC)‐based system that facilitates rapid analysis of putative transcriptional enhancers. Candidate enhancers are targeted with high efficiency to a defined genomic locus via recombinase‐mediated cassette exchange. Targeted ESCs are subsequently differentiated in vitro into desired cell types, where enhancer activity is monitored by reporter gene expression. As a proof of principle, we analyzed a previously characterized, Sonic hedgehog (Shh)‐dependent, V3 interneuron progenitor (pV3)‐specific enhancer for the Nkx2.2 gene, and observed highly specific enhancer activity. Given the broad potential of ESCs to generate a spectrum of cell types, this system can serve as an effective platform for the characterization of gene regulatory networks controlling cell fate specification and cell function. genesis 50: 443–450, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Histology of plastic embedded amphibian embryos and larvae
Authors: Kurth Thomas , Weiche Susanne , Vorkel Daniela , Kretschmar Susanne , Menge Anja
Published: November 2011

Amphibians including the South African clawed frogXenopus laevis, its close relativeXenopus tropicalis, and the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) are important vertebrate models for cell biology, development, and regeneration. For the analysis of embryos and larva with altered gene expression in gain‐of‐function or loss‐of‐function studies histology is increasingly important. Here, we discuss plastic or resin embedding of embryos as valuable alternatives to conventional paraffin embedding. For example, microwave‐assisted tissue processing, combined with embedding in the glycol methacrylate Technovit 7100, is a fast, simple, and reliable method to obtain state‐of‐the‐art histology with high resolution of cellular details in less than a day. Microwave‐processed samples embedded in Epon 812 are also useful for transmission electron microscopy. Finally, Technovit‐embedded samples are well suited for serial section analysis of embryos labeled either by whole‐mount immunofluorescence, or with tracers such as GFP or fluorescent dextrans. Therefore, plastic embedding offers a versatile alternative to paraffin embedding for routine histology and immunocytochemistry of amphibian embryos. genesis 50:235–250, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Characterization of a novel Xenopus tropicalis cell line as a model for in vitro studies
Authors: Sinzelle Ludivine , Thuret Raphaël , Hwang Ho‐Yon , Herszberg Bérénice , Paillard Elodie , Bronchain Odile J. , Stemple Derek L. , Dhorne‐Pollet Sophie , Pollet Nicolas
Published: November 2011

Cell lines are useful tools to facilitate in vitro studies of many biological and molecular processes. We describe a new permanent fibroblast‐type cell line obtained from disaggregated Xenopus tropicalis limb bud. The cell line population doubling time was ∼ 24 h. Its karyotype was genetically stable with a chromosome number of 2n = 21 and a chromosome 10 trisomy. These cells could be readily transfected and expressed transgenes faithfully. We obtained stable transformants using transposon‐based gene transfer technology. These cells responded to thyroid hormone and thus can provide a complementary research tool to study thyroid hormone signaling events. In conclusion, this cell line baptized “Speedy” should prove useful to couple in vitro and in vivo biological studies in the X. tropicalisfrog model. genesis 50:316–324, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Understanding ciliated epithelia: The power of Xenopus
Authors: Werner M.E. , Mitchell B.J.
Published: November 2011

Ciliated epithelia are important in a wide variety of biological contexts where they generate directed fluid flow. Here we address the fundamental advances in understanding ciliated epithelia that have been achieved using Xenopus as a model system. Xenopus embryos are covered with a ciliated epithelium that propels fluid unidirectionally across their surface. The external nature of this tissue, coupled with the molecular tools available in Xenopus and the ease of microscopic analysis on intact animals has thrust Xenopus to the forefront of ciliated epithelia biology. We discuss advances in understanding the molecular regulators of ciliated epithelia cell fate as well as basic aspects of ciliated epithelia cell biology including ciliogenesis and cell polarity. genesis 50:176–185, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Investigations of the Tautomeric Equilibria between Phosphane Oxides and Their Corresponding Phosphinous Acids Bearing Electron‐Withdrawing Perfluoroaryl Groups
Authors: Kurscheid Boris , Wiebe Waldemar , Neumann Beate , Stammler Hans‐Georg , Hoge Berthold
Published: November 2011

The unusual form of a phosphinous acid can be stabilized by strongly electron‐withdrawing substituents such as trifluoromethyl and pentafluoroethyl groups. The less electron‐withdrawing pentafluorophenyl group favors the phosphane oxide tautomer (Rf)2P(O)H in the solid state, whereas in solution a solvent‐dependent equilibrium with the phosphinous acid tautomer (Rf)2POH is observed. The increasing donating ability of the solvent leads to an increasing amount of the corresponding phosphinous acid tautomer. In accord with quantum chemical calculations, the electron‐withdrawing effects of the p‐tetrafluoropyridyl and 2,4‐bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl groups exceed the pentafluorophenyl group and should therefore be ideally suited to stabilize the corresponding phosphinous acid tautomer (Rf)2POH. The syntheses of bis(tetrafluoropyridyl)‐ and bis[2,4‐bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]phosphane oxide enabled the investigation of the solvent‐dependent tautomerism by NMR spectroscopy. Introduction of the tetrafluoropyridyl group shifts the tautomeric equilibrium significantly towards the phosphinous acid. Surprisingly, the comparably electron‐withdrawing but more bulky 2,4‐bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl group favors the oxide tautomer. The experimental results have been confirmed by DFT calculations. In summary, electron‐withdrawing substituents stabilize the phosphinous acid tautomer, whereas it is destabilized by space‐demanding groups by an increased C–P–C angle.
Studies on the Total Synthesis of Lactonamycin: Synthesis of the Fused Pentacyclic B–F Ring Unit
Authors: Jacques Sylvain A. , Michaelis Simon , Gebhardt Björn , Blum Andreas , Lebrasseur Nathalie , Larrosa Igor , White Andrew J. P. , Barrett Anthony G. M.
Published: November 2011

This paper describes an approach towards the total synthesis of lactonamycin with the elaboration of a key pentacyclic unit. Key steps include the synthesis of benzyl bromide 8 in eight steps and 23 % overall yield starting from 4‐methoxyphenol; a high‐yielding Suzuki coupling between boronic ester 9 and benzyl bromide 8; and a Lewis acid mediated, intramolecular Friedel–Crafts acylation to obtain the fused BCDEF ring core.
Sediment transport in an alpine river before and after a dambreak flood event
Authors: Morche David , Schmidt Karl‐Heinz
Published: November 2011

Fluvial sediment transport in the high mountain Partnach River (Reintal Valley, Bavarian Alps) was investigated during a 10‐year observation period (2001–2010). During this period, the downstream reach of the Partnach River was decoupled from upstream sediment throughput by a rockslide deposit until 2005. In August 2005, the dam was partially breached during a flood event resulting in renewed sediment coupling between the upstream and downstream reaches. A comparison of pre‐ and post‐dambreak river sediment load data showed that the dissolved load dominated sediment transport prior to August 2005 with a switch to the dominance of bedload transport, post‐dambreak. The higher post‐dambreak bedload rates were particularly evident during the first years after the dam failure due to significant coarse material coupling between active sediment sources (undercut banks/talus cones) and the Partnach River. In the last years of the observation period (2009 and 2010) the dominance of dissolved load transport was re‐established. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Encompassing ROADM add/drop constraints in GMPLS‐based WSONs
Authors: Sambo Nicola , Cugini Filippo , Bottari Giulio , Iovanna Paola , Castoldi Piero
Published: November 2011

Different reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexer (ROADM) architectures can be considered for the deployment of cost‐effective wavelength switched optical networks (WSONs). They impose add/drop constraints that might significantly affect the efficient utilisation of the overall WSON resources.

In this paper, the most relevant ROADM architectures and related constraints are first reviewed and discussed. Then novel provisioning schemes are proposed to effectively handle different ROADM architectures and provide a preference on the utilisation of add/drop resources with limited flexibility. The schemes are specifically designed to exploit the recently introduced generalised multiprotocol label switching extensions for the advertisement of capacity and/or availability of ROADM add/drop resources. Simulation results show that the proposed schemes guarantee the effective utilisation of the add/drop ROADM resources under several WSON scenarios. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Cramer–Rao lower bounds for nonhybrid and hybrid localisation techniques in wireless networks
Authors: Laaraiedh Mohamed , Avrillon Stéphane , Uguen Bernard
Published: November 2011

Theoretical performances of localisation techniques are revisited in this paper. Expressions of asymptotic Cramer–Rao lower bounds are derived for nonhybrid and hybrid localisation techniques based on received signal strength indicator, time of arrival and time difference of arrival under Gaussian uncorrelated measurements assumption. These localisation techniques and the useful expressions of their maximum likelihood estimators are presented in this paper. From these expressions, asymptotic Cramer–Rao lower bounds expressions are derived. Simulations are then carried out using realistic location‐dependent parameters (LDPs) values to evaluate different nonhybrid and hybrid techniques of localisation. Simulations show that the fusion of more than one LDP enhances localisation accuracy and gives alternatives for the lack of LDPs. Moreover, the number, the nature, the precision of measurements and the reference nodes positions are the key parameters that influence localisation accuracy. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
k − ε simulations of the neutral atmospheric boundary layer: analysis and correction of discretization errors on practical grids
Authors: Sumner Jonathon , Masson Christian
Published: November 2011

The Reynolds‐averaged Navier–Stokes equations/ k −ε approach is the popular and practical choice for carrying out simulations involving the atmospheric boundary layer. However, despite its widespread use, implementation of this approach is not without its challenges—even when considering the simplest case of horizontally homogeneous conditions. Most notably, the distributions of turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate have proved difficult to maintain near solid boundaries, particularly in wind engineering applications where the near‐wall grid is relatively coarse. In this work, the origin of these errors is investigated, and it is shown that by applying appropriate discretization schemes in conjunction with the Richards and Hoxey boundary conditions, truly invariant profiles of all flow properties can be obtained on such grids. Furthermore, with this finding, a wall treatment for coarse grids is proposed that could be implemented for non‐homogeneous conditions. All simulations are carried out using OpenFOAM‐1.6.x. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.