bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Health-related lifestyle
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: May 2010

This chapter explores alternative interventions in people's health-related behaviour, for the purpose of making us choose a healthy diet, exercise more, and reduce the use of substances. It discusses various direct regulations as well as indirect regulations through the price mechanism. Exercises and suggested readings are included at the end of the chapter.
Patient payment
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: May 2010

In all countries, patients pay for some types of health care, in full or in part. This chapter discusses various types of patient payments, their distributional effects, and the policy option of applying negative patient payments to increase the utilization of some types of health care. Exercises and suggested readings are included at the end of the chapter.
Non-monetary effects and monetary benefits
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: May 2010

This chapter deals with how to measure and value different degrees of health improvements — in health terms and in monetary terms. Beyond the valuation of improved health per se, the chapter discusses how to value the production gains following people's return to work as a possible consequence of the improved health. Exercises and suggested readings are included at the end of the chapter.
Equity issues: going beyond CBA and ICER
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses distributive implications of some parameters inside the economic evaluation formulae, as well as some priority-relevant issues that lie outside these formulae. It argues that an economic evaluation should always be complemented by a description of the equity implications of the programme. For this purpose an ‘equity checklist’ is proposed. Exercises and suggested readings are included at the end of the chapter.
The Folk Theory of Colours and the Causes of Colour Experience
Authors: Menzies Peter
Published: May 2010

The subject of colour has long fascinated Frank Jackson. Perhaps one reason that colours have fascinated Jackson is that they represent a striking instance of what he has called a ‘location problem’. This chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 sketches Jackson's solution to ‘the location problem for colours’. Section 3 argues that Jackson's attempted resolution of the clash between the two axioms of the folk theory fails because of its inconsistency with other firm folk intuitions about colours. In Section 4, after agreeing with Jackson that the folk theory entails both axioms, it is argued that these axioms imply a conception of colours as simple, non-physical, intrinsic properties of objects. Section 5 takes up the issue of why Jackson rejects this primitivist conception of colours and the easy solution it provides to the apparent clash between his two basic axioms. Section 6 examines the exclusion assumption and its role in his argument for the conclusion that colours must be physical properties. Section 7 outlines a conception of causation according to which non-physical properties as well as physical properties can both cause colour experience in ways that do not compete with each other and do not exclude each other.
Analytical Moral Functionalism Meets Moral Twin Earth
Authors: Horgan Terry , Timmons Mark
Published: May 2010

In chapters 4 and 5 of his 1998 book From Metaphysics to Ethics: A Defence of Conceptual Analysis, Frank Jackson propounds and defends a form of moral realism that he calls both ‘moral functionalism’ and ‘analytical descriptivism’. This chapter argues that this metaethical position, referred to as ‘analytical moral functionalism’, is untenable. It does this by applying a generic thought-experimental deconstructive recipe that has been used against other views that posit moral properties and identify them with certain natural properties — a recipe that is applicable to virtually any metaphysically naturalist version of moral realism. The recipe deploys a scenario called Moral Twin Earth.
Consequentialism and the Nearest and Dearest Objection
Authors: Smith Michael
Published: May 2010

This chapter suggests that the nearest and dearest objection is best understood as attempting to show that consequentialism is, in Parfit terms, ‘indirectly collectively self-defeating’. The concern is that if significant numbers of us act to maximize neutral value we will end up living lives which are not worth living — not worth living because we will have given up precisely those projects that make our lives worth living. Consequentialism is thus indirectly collectively self-defeating: adhering to the injunction to act so as to maximize neutral value is likely to render us all worse off.
Conditionals, Truth, and Assertion
Authors: Edgington Dorothy
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that the conditional probability of the consequent given the antecedent is crucial to understanding indicative conditionals. However, unlike Jackson, it denies that the truth value of an indicative conditional is given by the corresponding material conditional. To begin with are the difficulties that embedded conditionals (i.e. conditionals which have conditional antecedents and/or consequents) present to Jackson. Jackson is aware that embedded conditionals present problems to his approach, and argues that ‘If A then (if B then C)’ is regarded by English users as interchangeable with ‘If (A and B) then C’. Since the latter contains no embedded conditionals, the problem is avoided. However, the proposed solution fails to generalize in satisfactory ways to connectives like ‘but’ and ‘even’. In addition, Jackson's approach to conditionals is restricted to conditionals used to make assertions, and does not readily generalize to conditionals used in other kinds of speech acts. The response to the difficulties with taking the material conditional as giving the truth conditions for the indicative conditional is not to seek an alternative, more satisfactory account of the truth conditions of indicative conditionals; rather, the chapter endorses the ‘no truth conditions’ position originally proposed by Ernest Adams.
Conditionals: A Debate with Jackson
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2010

This chapter presents a number of concerns about Jackson's approach to conditionals. The first section discusses the view defended by Frank Jackson in his book Conditionals; it describes his account and notes some of its shortcomings. There are good reasons for doing this. Views of the kind defended there are, if not orthodox, still very common. And Jackson defends the view in, arguably, its most cogent form. The second section sketches a rather different account, which avoids these shortcomings. It proposes a general framework for an account of conditionals, one that leaves plenty of parameters to be adjusted for fine tuning.
Kant's Ether Deduction and the Possibility of Experience
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: May 2010

This chapter interprets Kant's ‘ether proofs’ in the Opus postumum as the attempt to deduce a necessary condition for the possibility of perception over spatial distance.
Organisms and the Unity of Science
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: May 2010

There is tension between Kant's hopes for the unity of science and his argument in a number of works that the life is incompatible with the principle of inertia, thus that organisms cannot be integrated into physics. This chapter argues that Kant was trying to resolve this tension in his incomplete Opus postumum by extending his transcendental idealist solution to the problem of human freedom, according to which human actions are causally determined as phenomena although free as noumena, to organisms, which would thus be conceived of from two points of view: as both causally determined, as required by the principle of inertia, but also purposive, which is purportedly incompatible with that principle.
Kant's Deductions of the Principles of Right
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues against a number of recent claims that Kant's ‘universal principle of right’ in his political and juridical philosophy is supposed to be independent of the fundamental assumptions of his moral philosophy. It argues rather that the universal principle of right, which requires that everyone be granted the maximum freedom of external action compatible with a like freedom for everyone else, is supposed to be derived from the absolute value of freedom in general, which is also the foundation of the fundamental principle of morality. This is so even though there are specific ways in which, for Kant, the principles of right are ‘analytic’ rather than ‘synthetic’; specifically they do not prescribe specific ends that are also duties, as ethical principles do.
From Nature to Morality: Kant's New Argument in the ‘Critique of Teleological Judgment’
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that the ‘Critique of Teleological Judgment’ in the Critique of the Power of Judgment complements Kant's earlier argument, on practical grounds, that the possibility of the highest good requires postulating the harmony of the laws of nature and the moral law with a new argument that an expectation of the systematicity of nature as a whole (that follows from our experience of organisms) requires the identification of a final end for the system of nature, which can only be the realization of human freedom in accordance with the moral law. Kant thus argues that our experience of nature as well as the demands of morality leads us to a conception of the harmony between nature and morality.
The international framework of fisheries management
Authors: Churchill Robin R. , Owen Daniel
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses what is meant by, and what is involved in, fisheries management. Topics covered include the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the UN Fish Stocks Agreement, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Compliance Agreement, FAO's Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and International Plans of Action, regional fisheries management organizations, and importing environmental issues into fisheries management.
Fisheries management in Community waters
Authors: Churchill Robin R. , Owen Daniel
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines the legal regime governing the management of fisheries in Community waters, i.e., those waters under the sovereignty or jurisdiction of EC Member States. An initial issue is the question of how far the competence to adopt management measures for Community waters falls within the competence of the EC, and how far within the competence of Member States. It considers in turn total allowable catches (TACs) and quotas, effort management, technical measures, Member States' delegated powers, access to fishing grounds, the nationality of fishing vessels, enforcement, and capacity adjustment. It also discusses fishing by Third State vessels in Community waters, and the reform of the EC system of fisheries management.
The common organization of the markets in fishery products
Authors: Churchill Robin R. , Owen Daniel
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses the common organization of the markets in fishery products. After an introduction to its legal basis and objectives, it considers the subject matter of the common organization of the markets. It then proceeds through the various areas covered by the common organization — including common marketing standards, consumer information, producer organizations, interbranch organizations, and prices and intervention — and ends with a section on enforcement and some conclusions.
Aquaculture
Authors: Churchill Robin R. , Owen Daniel
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses matters in respect of which aquaculture may require regulation. These include: (a) requiring authorization for the establishment and operation of an aquaculture installation; (b) preventing and controlling disease in aquaculture installations; (c) regulating possible pollution damage to, or resulting from, aquaculture; (d) controlling the use of alien or genetically modified species in aquaculture; (e) marketing and trade; (f) tuna farming; and (g) public financial assistance for aquaculture.
Knowledge: Instrumental and Testimonial
Authors: Sosa Ernest
Published: May 2010

How do we derive knowledge from reading our instruments or listening to our interlocutors? This chapter proposes an answer in line with a virtue-theoretic, performance-based epistemology.
Testimony and Trustworthiness
Authors: Lehrer Keith
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the relationship between testimony, trustworthiness, and reliability. Simply believing the testimony of another, as Reid notes, is a natural inclination. However, a person must evaluate the trustworthiness of others in order to evaluate their testimony and decide whether one is justified in accepting it. Without such evaluation, testimony fails to convert to knowledge. However, there is a problem about the evaluation of trustworthiness of others. Such evaluation depends on accepting that one is trustworthy in evaluating others. But one's evaluation of the trustworthiness of oneself is conditioned on the testimony of others concerning one's very trustworthiness. The way out of the difficulty is to see, contrary to Schmitt's interpretation of Lehrer, that trustworthiness does not entail reliability, and to appreciate the virtue of an explanatory loop of trustworthiness in justification and knowledge.
Testimonial Justification and Transindividual Reasons
Authors: Schmitt Frederick F.
Published: May 2010

This chapter defends the view that testimonially justified belief is social in the sense that in some cases it depends on the testifier's possessing good reasons for the belief. It is clearly too strong to say that one is justified in believing a proposition on the basis of the testimony of a testifier T only if T has good reason to believe the proposition. For one might be justified in believing it on T's testimony because one mistakenly though justifiably believes that T has good reason to believe it. Despite this, this chapter defends qualified social claims about testimonially justified belief. Two contrary views of testimonial justification are considered and briefly criticized: Tyler Burge's account of a priori prima facie entitlement to believe putative assertions we seem to understand, and David Owens' view that testimonial justification depends on the epistemic responsibility of the testifier. The chapter closes with two questions about the implications of the social claims for the basing relation.
Pathologies of Testimony
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: May 2010

Given that testimony is a fundamental and fundamentally reliable source of information, having a status akin to perception and memory in our fabric of understanding, then questions arise about how to comprehend those categories of testimony that seem inherently misleading. Some of these are the ‘pathologies of testimony’ discussed in this chapter: gossip, rumour, and urban myth. It is argued that philosophers have paid insufficient attention to the phenomenology of these three and that what has been said suffers from certain defects. The chapter explores both the conceptual structure of gossip, rumour, and urban myth, and the social and moral significance that they have. It concludes with comment on the epistemic value (and dis-value) of such pathologies.
Getting Told and Being Believed
Authors: Moran Richard
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues for the centrality of believing the speaker (as distinct from believing the statement) in the epistemology of testimony, and develops a line of thought from Angus Ross, which claims that in telling someone something, the kind of reason for belief that a speaker presents is of an essentially different kind from ordinary evidence. Investigating the nature of the audience's dependence on the speaker's free assurance leads to a discussion of Grice's formulation of non-natural meaning in an epistemological light, concentrating on just how the recognition of the speaker's self-reflexive intention is supposed to count for his audience as a reason to believe P. This is understood as the speaker's explicitly assuming responsibility for the truth of his statement, and thereby constituting his utterance as a reason to believe.
Introduction
Authors: BURGE TYLER
Published: May 2010

Frege's work is set in the context of its enormous subsequent influence on 20th-century philosophy. Associations with the term ‘analytic philosophy’ are discussed and criticized. Frege's influence on thought about truth, structure, and philosophical method is expounded at some length. His notion of sense as a cognitive notion and the main theoretical functions of this notion are developed. The theoretical functions are defended, but Frege's view of sense as a Platonic, eternal, mind-independent entity is criticized. Frege's rationalism is developed and compared with Kant's.
Frege on Extensions of Concepts, From 1884 to 1903 (1984)
Authors: BURGE TYLER
Published: May 2010

This chapter traces historically Frege's uncertainty about how to complete his logicist project by invoking extensions of concepts. The uncertainty is placed in the context of his view that experts can incompletely understand the senses of mathematical expressions. Frege's discussions of incomplete understanding are surveyed. It appears that for some years Frege attempted to avoid invoking extensions of concepts by appealing to contextual definition. By contrast, during the same period, Frege was working out the approach that he eventually took in Basic Laws of Arithmetic, in which he attempted to justify, on purely logical grounds, the existence of infinitely many logical objects; the numbers, taken as extensions of concepts. Much of his thinking centered on how to understand the singular term ‘the concept F’. Frege's justification ultimately centered on his attempt to justify Law V, the principle that leads to contradiction in Russell's paradox. He tried to justify Law V by holding that reference to concepts on the left side of the principle's bi-conditional has the same sense as reference to extensions of concepts on the right side. Frege's claiming that the purported logical law was, in effect, a tautology, while at the same time being uncertain about whether to believe the (claimed) tautology, is explained with Frege's notion of incomplete understanding. Frege never regarded Law V as obvious, not even when he thought it to be self-evident. Self-evident propositions could come to be obvious only when completely understood, and complete understanding required mastery of theory, not simply immediate insight.
The Idea and Analysis of Specificity
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

This chapter focuses on the concept of ‘specificity’ or ‘selectivity’. This idea, which is common to both EC State aid and WTO subsidy laws, raises important conceptual and practical questions, addressed in the two main sections of the chapter.
Introduction: Governmental Intervention in the Economy and Subsidies
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

This chapter focuses on the forms of public intervention in the economy that may in general give an economic advantage and may thus in principle be covered by subsidy or State aid rules. In doing so, and in particular in distinguishing those cases that are commonly held to be subsidies (those of ‘financial assistance’) from those that are more controversial (those of ‘regulation’), an attempt is made to provide a conceptual explanation of this different treatment. This is followed by the examination of the legal techniques that can be used to determine the legal relevance of governmental action in the context of a definition of subsidy. A final section concentrates on the significance of the objectives of the measures, and maps their position within the issue of the definition of subsidy.
The Advantage Analysis: An Introduction
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

In Canada-Aircraft the Appellate body laid down findings whose generality makes them a suitable starting point for explaining the operation of the advantage analysis in both legal systems. As expressed by its ordinary meaning, the concept of ‘benefit’ under Article 1.1(b) of the SCM ‘clearly encompasses some form of advantage’. The determination of the conferral of ‘some form of advantage’ is based on (i) ‘some kind of comparison’ which in turn requires (ii) an ‘appropriate basis’ for it, that is an appropriate benchmark. Crucially, this comparative process should lead to a determination of (iii) whether the recipient is ‘better off ’ than ‘would otherwise have been, absent’ the government measure. This chapter examines these findings in turn.
Concluding Remarks: Objectives and the Advantage Analysis
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides a brief summary of the findings of Part III on the advantage analysis and, to further explore one of the main recurring themes of the book (namely the role played by the objectives of the public measure). A topical case-study focusing on the status of the financing of public services under EC State aid law is used. A final section assesses the issue's possible implications in the WTO framework.
The Distortion of Competition
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

This chapter analyses the ‘impact standards’ in WTO subsidy and EC State aid rules. ‘Impact standards’ are those elements of the definition of subsidy (or State aid) that identify the negative effects produced by the measure. Building on the findings on the objectives of subsidy control outlined in Chapter 2, i.e., the protection of market access and of competition, the first section analyses the impact subsidies may have on the competitive process. This is arguably the deepest and most specific concern of subsidy rules, and should hence be properly reflected in the ‘impact standards’ of the relevant definitions of subsidy. This broad analysis leads to the core of the chapter where the current standards in the EC and WTO are examined and critically evaluated. Among the various findings, a trend from a ‘trade’ to a ‘competition’ perspective is advocated.
2 Reflections on Manner/Result Complementarity
Authors: Rappaport Hovav Malka , Levin Beth
Published: May 2010

This chapter investigates the observed complementarity of manner and result as components of lexicalized verb meaning. We provide a precise characterization of these meaning components: results involve scalar changes, while manners involve nonscalar changes. We propose a verb may only lexicalize one type of change, giving rise to manner/result complementarity.
6 The Emergence of Argument Structure in Two New Sign Languages
Authors: Meir Irit
Published: May 2010

The chapter investigates how a new language develops devices for marking argument structure, by investigating two young sign languages, Israeli Sign Language (ISL) and Al‐Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL) that emerged about seventy‐five years ago. At earlier stages, the two languages tend to avoid argument structure marking. However, later on they diverge, indicating that there is no one universal path for developing argument structure marking.
11 Incremental Homogeneity in the Semantics of Aspectualfor‐Phrases
Authors: Landman Fred , Rothstein Susan
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that the constraint on the distribution of for phrases, and thus a relevant definition of atelicity is best phrased using a notion of incremental homogeneity which we define and explain. We show that on this definition, accomplishment predicates with bare plural or mass objects are incrementally homogeneous on the assumption these nominal phrases are taken to denote kinds.
12 Event Measurement and Containment
Authors: Mittwoch Anita
Published: May 2010

The chapter argues that in‐adverbials as in Jane walked five miles in one hour do not directly measure the event, but rather an interval containing the event. This explains why they work on a descending scale, so that the shorter the interval for which a claim is made, the stronger the claim. It also accounts for a number of constraints on in‐adverbials, e.g. #Jane walked five miles in at least one hour.
15 Locales
Authors: Borer Hagit
Published: May 2010

This chapter relates two questions concerning bare noun arguments: (i) the contrast between the acceptability in Hebrew of sentence initial V‐S with bare noun subjects where V is unaccusative, and its unacceptability where V is unergative; (ii) the telicity in Hebrew and English of achievements with bare noun arguments, in contrast to the atelicity of accomplishments with bare noun arguments. The argument that the two contrasts are related relies on the observation that both disappear under the presence of a locale (an indexical adverb of the sort found as subject of existential constructions). The major claim made in the chapter is thus about the central role locatives play both in forcing existential interpretations and in allowing telic readings with non‐quantity arguments.
16 Modal and Temporal Aspects of Habituality
Authors: Boneh Nora , Doron Edit
Published: May 2010

We argue that habituality is primarily a modal category, which can only indirectly be characterized in aspectual terms, depending on the particular aspectual operators at work in a given language. In languages which do not overtly contrast perfective/imperfective aspect, we identify a habitual form, morphologically and aspectually complex, which characterizes an interval in retrospect by means of an actualized habit holding throughout the interval.
On the function of prepositions
Authors: Bortone Pietro
Published: May 2010

Chapter 1 examines which items are functionally equivalent to prepositions, crosslinguistically and at different stages in the history of one language. It then considers the main syntactic forms that prepositions can take.
On the development of prepositions
Authors: Bortone Pietro
Published: May 2010

Chapter 3 considers the historical development of adpositions. It traces the origin of cases in postpositions, and of adpositions, from nouns, verbs, adjectives, or more complex phrases. The development of an abstract meaning from a spatial one is well‐attested but not on a systematic scale.
Drug Policy and the Public Good
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Caulkins Jonathan P. , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David R. , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore S. , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

Drug use represents a significant burden to public health, through disease, disability and social problems, and policy makers are becoming increasingly interested in how to develop evidence-based drug policy. It is therefore crucial to strengthen the links between addiction science and drug policy. Drug Policy and the Public Good is collaboratively written by an international group of career scientists, to provide an analytical basis on which to build relevant global drug policies, and to inform policy makers who have direct responsibility for public health and social welfare. Drug Policy and the Public Good presents the accumulated scientific knowledge on illicit drugs that has direct relevance to the development of drug policy on local, national, and international levels. The authors describe the conceptual basis for a rational drug policy, and present new epidemiological data on the global dimensions of drug misuse. The core of the book is a critical review of the cumulative scientific evidence in five general areas of drug policy: primary prevention programs in schools and other settings; supply reduction approaches, including drug interdiction and legal enforcement; treatment interventions and harm reduction approaches; criminal sanctions and decriminalization; and control of the legal market through prescription drug regimes. The final chapters discuss the current state of drug policy in different parts of the world, and describe the need for a new approach to drug policy that is evidence-based, realistic, and coordinated.
Framing the issues
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter begins with a brief description of the focus of this book, namely the scientific evidence on the impact of policy responses to drug use. It then discusses why drug policy matters, the meaning of the term drug policy, and four reasons why policymakers and those involved in drug policy should invest precious time in perusal of this volume. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Matters of substance
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

Psychoactive substances have assumed increasing public attention in most parts of the world, especially when they are defined broadly to include alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and certain types of legal pharmaceutical agents that have high dependence potential. The effects these substances have on individuals and society depend on a variety of factors, including the pharmacological properties of each drug, the way the drugs are ingested, their cultural meanings in everyday life, the reasons for using them, and the harms associated with their misuse. Public discussion of drug policies has too often failed to take these complexities into account. Simplistic views that all drugs are the same and all are equally dangerous not only limit our understanding of drug-related problems but also impair our ability to develop meaningful policy responses. Advances in psychiatry, psychology, neurobiology, cultural anthropology, epidemiology, and a variety of other disciplines have substantially increased our understanding of psychoactive drugs, drug actions, and drug misuse. This chapter addresses these fundamental ‘matters of substance’ in order to set the stage for the chapters to follow.
The international dimensions of drug use
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter shows that significant progress has been made in developing the methodological tools needed to assess variations in incidence rates of drug use and prevalence trends over time. Topics discussed include the current scope of drug use, population prevalence estimates, trends in drug use, prevalence of drug use by young persons, trends in youth drug use, variations in drug use within populations, injection drug use, and individual trajectories and drug use careers. Drug use and its related problems do not occur randomly. Some nations and some neighbourhoods are more likely at times to experience high rates of drug use, and some individuals are more likely to initiate and continue heavy drug use. The fact that problem drug use is most often interwoven in a complex network of other social problems, both at the individual level and at the societal level, implies that strategies to prevent drug use or drug-related harms need to address this complexity.
Illegal markets: the economics of drug distribution and social harm
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes what is known about drug markets, and the nature and extent of harms that arise from them. It begins with a brief theoretical discussion about the structure, prices, availability, and product quality of illegal markets. The discussion of harms distinguishes between drug production and international trafficking on the one hand, and wholesale distribution and retail marketing of drugs on the other. Each affects a specific set of communities and nations in a particular fashion.
The legal market: prescription and diversion of psychopharmaceuticals
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

Chapter 5 described what is known about the structure, prices, and products of illegal drug markets, and the nature and extent of harms that arise from them. This chapter describes another drug market, this one consisting of an international pharmaceutical industry that operates legally within the market economies of most countries. It begins with a historical introduction to the origins of psychoactive pharmaceuticals (also called psychopharmaceuticals interchangeably) and the ways in which they are produced and marketed. After describing how the pharmaceutical industry is organized on a global level, it suggests that, with the growth of modern medicine and particularly psychiatry, there has been a substantial growth in prescriptions for mental disorders and distress, and increased comfort with the use of such prescribed medications. This situation has had, in some countries, significant consequences for the illicit drug market. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the question: how separate are the regulated and unregulated markets? The answer is that the two worlds are not separated as much as they might at first appear.
Supply control
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter is about supply control approaches to drug problems, a set of interventions targeting the production, distribution, and sale of illicit psychoactive substances. It begins by explaining the distinctions between law enforcement and supply control. Because supply control traditionally focuses on enforcement against producers and dealers, an analytical framework is presented that links different kinds of enforcement to different layers in the drug distribution chain described in Chapter 5. The remainder of the chapter is organized by the supply level that is targeted by an intervention: production/refining, international trafficking, high-level domestic enforcement, and retail enforcement. The final section presents an assessment of what is currently understood about the effectiveness of the different programmes.
Prescription regimes and other measures to control misuse of psychopharmaceuticals
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines how well prescription regimes perform their role of allowing psychoactive substances to be consumed for approved, i.e., medical, purposes, while preventing their use for non-approved purposes. It begins with a description of the prescription system that now operates in developed nations, and then lays out the regulatory tools which can influence prescription practices. It focuses on a relatively new set of studies that evaluate these interventions in terms of how they affect drug consumption and patient health. The final parts of the chapter consider the control of psychopharmaceuticals by mechanisms outside of the prescription regimes, such as efforts to control deceptive marketing and to reduce diversion through law enforcement.
Health and social services for drug users: systems issues
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

Drug users receive help from a variety of health and social services that have been specifically developed for them and that are reviewed in Chapter 9. This chapter moves up one level of analysis to consider service programmes in the context of larger systems and their population-level impact. It discusses how health and social service programmes interact with each other and with the more generalized types of service programmes that drug users commonly access, for example those that provide vocational training, welfare benefits, and emergency health care. It also discusses how service systems are organized, funded, and managed.
3 HowNotto Count the Poor
Authors: Reddy Sanjay G. , Pogge Thomas
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that the World Bank's approach to estimating the extent, distribution, and trend of global income poverty is neither meaningful nor reliable. The Bank uses an arbitrary international poverty line that is not adequately anchored in any specification of the real requirements of human beings. Moreover, it employs a concept of purchasing power ‘equivalence’ that is neither well defined nor appropriate for poverty assessment. These difficulties are inherent in the Bank's ‘money-metric’ approach and cannot be credibly overcome without dispensing with this approach altogether. In addition, the Bank extrapolates incorrectly from limited data and thereby creates an appearance of precision that masks the high probable error of its estimates. It is difficult to judge the nature and extent of the errors in global poverty estimates that these three flaws produce. However, there is reason to believe that the Bank's approach may have led it to understate the extent of global income poverty and to infer without adequate justification that global income poverty has steeply declined in the recent period. A new methodology of global poverty assessment, focused directly on what is needed to achieve elementary human requirements, is feasible and necessary. A practical approach to implementing an alternative is described.
11 Improving Measurement of Latin American Inequality and Poverty with an Eye to Equitable Growth Policy1
Authors: Berry Albert
Published: May 2010

Major improvements in the quality and frequency of data on income and consumption distribution in Latin American countries have provided an adequate base for assessing trends and analysing the factors (including policies) that have an impact on inequality, except in cases where conclusions are likely to depend substantially on the hardest-to-measure or least frequently measured components of income or consumption. These are capital income, accruing mainly to upper income groups (including income from the appreciation of assets), and consumption of public goods. Until household surveys are greatly improved from their present levels, other types of information will remain the main source on capital income, e.g., tax-related information. Arguably the highest potential payoff among the easily feasible improvements to the database on inequality is in the panel area, though success requires expertise inside or outside the data collection agency to keep it going. A major payoff to improvements in the information on inequality is the more efficient testing of hypotheses about the determination of distribution and its changes. Some of the required information is not related to distribution per se but rather to the phenomena whose causal links to inequality we seek to establish. Given the amount of information that falls in this category, some sort of rotating special module system is often called for. At this point it appears likely that extension of the distribution-relevant database in this direction is the highest priority in many countries.
13 China is Poorer than We Thought, but No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty1
Authors: Chen Shaohua , Ravallion Martin
Published: May 2010

In 2005, China participated for the first time in the International Comparison Program (ICP), which collects primary data across countries on the prices for an internationally comparable list of goods and services. This chapter examines the implications of the new Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) rate for China's poverty rate and how it has changed over time. It provides estimates with and without adjustment for a likely sampling bias in the ICP data. Using an international poverty line of US$ 1.25 at 2005 PPP, the results show a substantially higher poverty rate for China than past estimates, with about 15% of the population living in consumption poverty, implying about 130 million more poor by this standard. The income poverty rate in 2005 is 10%, implying about 65 million more people living in poverty. However, the new ICP data suggest an even larger reduction in the number of poor since 1981.
15 Living Standards in Africa
Authors: Sahn David E. , Younger Stephen D.
Published: May 2010

This chapter substantiates two claims: that in contrast to other regions of the world, Africa is poor; and that poverty in Africa is not declining consistently or significantly. It considers poverty in the dimensions of health and education, in addition to income, stressing the inherent conceptual and measurement issues that commend such a broader perspective. It notes a lack of consistency in the movement of the poverty measures. During similar periods, these are moving in opposite directions. The chapter discusses the need to go beyond examining each poverty measure individually, and presents an approach to evaluating poverty reduction in multiple dimensions jointly. The results of the multi-dimensional poverty comparisons reinforce the importance of considering deprivation beyond the material standard of living and provide insight into how to reconcile differing stories that arise from examining each indicator separately.
Divide and Conquer: Caesar,De Bello Gallico7
Authors: Kraus Christina Shuttleworth
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the work narrative structure does in creating meaning through a case study of BG 7. It analyses how the text invites us to isolate and then pit paired elements against each other: Caesar and Vercingetorix, who structure BG 7 and the history as a whole; Avaricum and Alesia, with their internally-divisive physical structures; and various doubled plot elements at Gergovia. Close reading of the Gergovia narrative shows how the interweaving of plots and the insistent doubling of conventional battle and ethnographical elements create significant echoes that signal to a reader both the constructedness of the narrative and its affinity with ‘proper’ literary historiography. Caesar leads us to consider not only the whats and whys, but most importantly the hows, of narrative. How we divide this (or any) text affects our interpretation; and the more conscious we are of the spaces, and the topoi that structure the narrative, the better we can understand it as historiographical re-presentation.
Velleius Mythistoricus
Authors: Wiseman T. P.
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the first surviving part of Velleius Paterculus' history (1.1-8), which covers the period from the Trojan War to the reign of Romulus, with particular reference to the foundations of cities and colonies, and the succession of monarchical power (imperium) in Greece and Asia. The discussion concentrates on Velleius' interest in Hercules, whose apotheosis he even uses as a dating marker like the Trojan War or the foundation of Rome. Comparison with Diodorus's narrative of Hercules' deeds, and with the first Nemean Ode of Pindar (written for a Sicilian patron), suggests that Velleius may have been following a western tradition in which Hercules became a god after the defeat of the Giants in Campania. Velleius himself was Campanian, as was his patron M. Vinicius, whose family's presence there can be traced back to the 5th century BC.
Romani ueteres atque urbani sales: A Note on CiceroDe Oratore2.262 and Lucilius 173M
Authors: Chahoud Anna
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines how Cicero shaped his oratorical persona through the deployment of precise verbal devices (especially diminutives and irony), re-configuring his champions of the past by combining different aspects of their humour so as to construct a unified model of verbal wit that owes much to the tradition of satire at Rome, particularly to the voice of Lucilius. The orator could not adopt wholesale the conventions or persona of the satirist, however. Cicero's self-construction modulates political invective in accordance with the dignitas and auctoritas appropriate to the orator, and with the elegantia and wit of the urbane contemporary Roman.
Erosand Empire: Virgil and the Historians on Civil War
Authors: Marincola John
Published: May 2010

This chapter works outward from the final scene of Virgil's Aeneid in order to examine three interlocking themes. The first is the importance of the Social (or Marsic) War (91-88 BC) as an analogue for the battles waged for Italy in the second half of Virgil's Aeneid. Here historiographical texts (Sallust, Diodorus, Posidonius) are adduced in order to show the issues surrounding the Social War. The second theme is the dilemma between mercy and vengeance, and the difficulty for Roman authors in portraying civil war. It is argued that the ‘open’ endings of both Aeneid and Sallust's Catiline are not accidental, but rather one strategy for dealing with those difficulties. The third theme is the role that spoils play in late Republican discussions of their empire and treatment of their subjects, and the way in which this is related to the question of civil war.
Juvenal and theDelatores
Authors: Powell J. G. F.
Published: May 2010

This chapter enquires into the objects of attack in Juvenal's second satire — traditionally called ‘philosophers’, ‘moralists’, or ‘hypocrites’ — and identifies them as élite Romans who prosecuted in the law courts, especially the adultery court recently revived by Domitian. Juvenal's attack is seen within the tradition of hostility to prosecutors (delatores) in Graeco-Roman culture, in general, and in other literature of the period (Martial, Pliny the Younger, and, especially, Tacitus). The text of the second satire is examined in detail and numerous references to history, law, and rhetoric are eludicated. The interpretation aims to restore greater internal coherence to the satire and place it more securely than hitherto in its social and historical context. The truth or otherwise of its allegations (and thus its status as evidence for Roman sexual practices) emerges as less important. Improved interpretations are also proposed for four other passages of Juvenal that mention prosecutors (1.33-5, 3.116-20, 4.46-56, 10.69-72).
Romaand Her Tutelary Deity: Names and Ancient Evidence
Authors: Cairns Francis
Published: May 2010

The ‘secret name of Rome’ and the identity of the alleged secret protector deity of Rome have long excited scholarly interest. This chapter reconsiders critically the ancient evidence about these topics and reaches conclusions different from those of most modern scholarship: although the ‘secret name of Rome’ was a matter of speculation at least from Varro on, and the notion of a protector deity current at least by the first century AD, the relevant ancient texts contain errors and inconsistencies that undermine the historical reality of the secret name and protector deity.
The Art of Losing: Tacitus and the Disaster Narrative
Authors: Keitel Elizabeth
Published: May 2010

This chapter analyses Tacitus's narratives of natural and man-made disasters, with special emphasis on those perpetrated by the principes against their own people. Tacitus consistently shows compassion towards Romans of all classes and does not stress the breakdown of social order among the masses during such disasters. He repeatedly evokes the sack of cities, the quintessential man-made disaster, when describing the tyrannical behaviour of principes such as Tiberius and Nero. Through allusions to Aeneid 2, Tacitus creates a portable, repeatable sack of Troy during the civil wars of AD 69 to underline the gravity of the situation as Italy and Rome suffer serial abuse from various contenders; the common motives of all leaders and armies in making war on their own country; the vicissitudes of fortune during civil war, and the profanation of Rome itself.