bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Accurate multiple alignment of distantly related genome sequences using filtered spaced word matches as anchor points
Authors: Leimeister Chris-André , Dencker Thomas , Morgenstern Burkhard
Published: July 2018

Motivation

Most methods for pairwise and multiple genome alignment use fast local homology search tools to identify anchor points, i.e. high-scoring local alignments of the input sequences. Sequence segments between those anchor points are then aligned with slower, more sensitive methods. Finding suitable anchor points is therefore crucial for genome sequence comparison; speed and sensitivity of genome alignment depend on the underlying anchoring methods.

Results

In this article, we use filtered spaced word matches to generate anchor points for genome alignment. For a given binary pattern representing match and don’t-care positions, we first search for spaced-word matches, i.e. ungapped local pairwise alignments with matching nucleotides at the match positions of the pattern and possible mismatches at the don’t-care positions. Those spaced-word matches that have similarity scores above some threshold value are then extended using a standard X-drop algorithm; the resulting local alignments are used as anchor points. To evaluate this approach, we used the popular multiple-genome-alignment pipeline Mugsy and replaced the exact word matches that Mugsy uses as anchor points with our spaced-word-based anchor points. For closely related genome sequences, the two anchoring procedures lead to multiple alignments of similar quality. For distantly related genomes, however, alignments calculated with our filtered-spaced-word matches are superior to alignments produced with the original Mugsy program where exact word matches are used to find anchor points.

Availability and implementation

http://spacedanchor.gobics.de

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Effects of coronary revascularization on global coronary flow reserve in stable coronary artery disease
Authors: Aikawa Tadao , Naya Masanao , Obara Masahiko , Manabe Osamu , Magota Keiichi , Koyanagawa Kazuhiro , Asakawa Naoya , Ito Yoichi M , Shiga Tohru , Katoh Chietsugu , Anzai Toshihisa , Tsutsui Hiroyuki , Murthy Venkatesh L , Tamaki Nagara
Published: July 2018

Aims

Coronary flow reserve (CFR) is an integrated measure of the entire coronary vasculature, and is a powerful prognostic marker in coronary artery disease (CAD). The extent to which coronary revascularization can improve CFR is unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) on CFR in patients with stable CAD.

Methods and results

In a prospective, multicentre observational study, CFR was measured by 15O-water positron emission tomography as the ratio of stress to rest myocardial blood flow at baseline and 6 months after optimal medical therapy (OMT) alone, PCI, or CABG. Changes in the SYNTAX and Leaman scores were angiographically evaluated as indicators of completeness of revascularization. Follow-up was completed by 75 (25 OMT alone, 28 PCI, and 22 CABG) out of 82 patients. The median SYNTAX and Leaman scores, and baseline CFR were 14.5 [interquartile range (IQR): 8–24.5], 5.5 (IQR: 2.5–12.5), and 1.94 (IQR: 1.67–2.66), respectively. Baseline CFR was negatively correlated with the SYNTAX (ρ = −0.40, P < 0.001) and Leaman scores (ρ = −0.33, P = 0.004). Overall, only CABG was associated with a significant increase in CFR [1.67 (IQR: 1.14–1.96) vs. 1.98 (IQR: 1.60–2.39), P < 0.001]. Among patients with CFR <2.0 (n = 41), CFR significantly increased in the PCI [1.70 (IQR: 1.42–1.79) vs. 2.21 (IQR: 1.78–2.49), P = 0.002, P < 0.001 for interaction between time and CFR] and CABG groups [1.28 (IQR: 1.13–1.80) vs. 1.86 (IQR: 1.57–2.22), P < 0.001]. The reduction in SYNTAX or Leaman scores after PCI or CABG was independently associated with the percent increase in CFR after adjusting for baseline characteristics (P = 0.012 and P = 0.011, respectively).

Conclusion

Coronary revascularization ameliorated reduced CFR in patients with obstructive CAD. The degree of improvement in angiographic CAD burden by revascularization was correlated with magnitude of improvement in CFR.
Language and Sexual Politics
Authors: Levon Erez
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the relationship between language and sexual politics. It focuses on the ways language is used to police membership in different gendered and sexual groups, to construct self and others along gendered and sexual lines, and to negotiate belonging in different communities and institutions. The first half of the chapter summarizes prominent research in this area. Topics covered include struggles over labeling practices, discursive constructions of sexual authenticities, and the role of language and sexuality in the creation and reproduction of national ideologies. The second half turns to a detailed case study of language and sexual politics among lesbians in Israel. The chapter describes how the women in question use particular linguistic practices to construct distinct sexual selves, and, in the process, challenge prevailing Israeli sexual norms. The discussion also highlights future directions for language and sexuality research, focusing on the importance of an adequate theory of power.
Disability and Work in British West Africa
Authors: Grischow Jeff
Published: July 2018

World War II significantly affected the development of disability programs in British West Africa during the late colonial period. Beginning in the early 1940s, Britain’s Colonial Office worked with the West African governors to develop rehabilitation programs for disabled African veterans. In Britain, rehabilitation for disabled veterans took the form of social orthopedics, which equated citizenship with the ability to work; British programs therefore prioritized reintegration into the workforce as the main goal of rehabilitation. The colonial programs attempted to transfer the social orthopedics program to Africa. The project failed because the African veterans did not want to be remade into productive workers on the Western/capitalist model. However, it did produce two lasting legacies: the creation of a network of Disabled People’s Organizations during the 1950s and 1960s, and the development of a successful onchocerciasis control program between 1974 and 2002.
Introduction
Authors: Rembis Michael , Kudlick Catherine , Nielsen Kim E.
Published: July 2018

Disability history has many strengths as well as aspects that require further investigation. The field of disability history is capacious, primarily because “disability” itself is difficult to define. Notions of disability change over time and vary from culture to culture. Yet, important commonalities exist. The twenty-seven chapters contained within the Handbook help to create a methodological and historiographic foundation for a field that, while it continues to evolve, is critical to explaining the human experience and holds tremendous import for other areas of historical study. The Handbook provides students and researchers at many levels with a well-informed basis from which to explore their own interests.
Disability in the Premodern Arab World
Authors: Scalenghe Sara
Published: July 2018

Arab Sunni Muslim discourses and experiences of physical and sensory impairments are surveyed from the rise of Islam in the seventh century until about 1800. The geographical focus of this discussion, which is primarily a function of the available scholarship, is Egypt and Greater Syria, the area that corresponds roughly to today’s Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel and the Palestinian territories. Impairments appear frequently in premodern Arabic writings, especially in literature, chronicles, biographies and autobiographies, legal texts, and medical compendia, leaving the reader with the impression that people with impairments were everywhere in the Arab world. Yet, to date only a handful of articles and two historical monographs about the Arab world are explicitly situated within the field of disability history. This chapter provides a new benchmark on which historians of disability working in the Arab world can build in future studies.
Designing Objects and Spaces
Authors: Williamson Bess
Published: July 2018

Design is a little-examined but significant factor in the history of disability, particularly in the context of the modern West. Both designers and users contributed to a history of design that sometimes ignored and sometimes addressed disability. For many modernist designers, the ideal of a “standard” or predictable body was key to a vision of an efficient industrial society, creating a world of objects and spaces that excluded or ignored disabled people. Nonetheless, people with disabilities engaged with design culture in distinctive ways, using and adapting mainstream designs to their own use. In the late twentieth century, the design world took up new goals of improving access, raising new questions about the intentions of designers and the role of users.
Exnovation as a Necessary Factor in Successful Energy Transitions
Authors: David Martin
Published: July 2018

This chapter strives toward a conceptual understanding of exnovation processes for energy transitions. Exnovation, the opposite of innovation, describes a process of divestment from fossil-fuel energy technologies and production structures. As an exemplifying case study, it discusses the exnovation of specific, unsustainable electricity production technologies in the face of the German energy transition. By looking at the interplay of politics, scientific modeling, and public involvement, it shows that exnovation is a necessary means for energy transitions but is hard to achieve. The chapter finds that more attention should be given to groups that bring exnovation to the energy transition agenda.
Is There Disabled Music?
Authors: Glennie Evelyn , Gilman Sander L. , Kim Youn
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores the topic of the disabled body and music, with particular emphasis on the intersection of representation, performance, and creativity. After raising and examining a set of theoretical issues, the chapter centers on the interview with the percussionist Dame Evelyn Glennie, which addresses from a practitioner’s perspective queries that are not limited to disability and music, but also extend to performance, media, and hearing. Glennie’s notion of hearing is similar to what Straus proposes as “disablist” hearing, a more comprehensive and holistic mode of hearing including the tactile dimension, seeing, and kinesthetics of music listening. The question of how closely music and the body are intertwined is epitomized in her notion of true listening.
Musicalities and the Moving Body in Western Concert Dance
Authors: Suber Byron
Published: July 2018

Musicality is an important concept in the history of choreography in Western concert dance, including social, ballet, modern, and postmodern dance. There are many different ways of being musical when moving, or creating movement, or training dancers. This chapter addresses the perspectives of makers of dance performance and its audiences. It performs as both a microhistoriography and personal monograph of the author’s experiences witnessing and creating musicality in dance. Musicality in dance exists as a multiplicity, and both music and dance are nonlinguistic forms of communication. That distinction is an important one when thinking of dance and music as forms of communication. Dance when put with music dialectically produces new meanings through a complex production of knowledge formation. This chapter examines that formation.
Opera as Film
Authors: Everett Yayoi U.
Published: July 2018

The advent of high-definition broadcast of opera has transformed the ways in which we attend to opera as film. It establishes a narrative angle through filmic devices that shape the viewer’s multimodal experience in an entirely different way from viewing opera live in a theater. Building on recent studies on embodied cognition of film and multimedia, this chapter examines audio-visual congruence as a key to understanding the viewer’s experience of opera in its remediated form as film. To this end, it refers to the concept of multimodality, Anabel Cohen’s hierarchical model of narrative construction, and Mark Johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory. Case studies include recent productions of Richard Wagner’s Die Walküre, John Adams’s Doctor Atomic, and Kaija Saariaho’s Adriana Mater. This study examines the distinctive types of audio-visual congruence established in these works and discusses further avenues for exploring opera and film through the lens of hermeneutical and cognitive research.
Timbral Thievery
Authors: De Souza Jonathan
Published: July 2018

Timbre often indexes an instrument’s materiality, and timbral variation often correlates with a player’s actions. Yet synthesizers complicate phenomenological links between sound and source. This chapter juxtaposes three instruments: an electromagnetic tuning-fork apparatus, developed by the nineteenth-century scientist Hermann von Helmholtz; the RCA Mark II, used by Milton Babbitt and other mid-twentieth-century composers; and the Yamaha GX-1, a large polyphonic synthesizer from the 1970s, played by Stevie Wonder and Keith Emerson. These synthesizers create new timbres and also imitate acoustic instruments, in a process that Robert Moog calls “timbral thievery.” Such imitations can provoke exaggerated or anxious discussions of synthetic and natural timbre. At the same time, performers may showcase the gap between timbre and instrument, exploiting a sense of uncanny or ambiguous sound sources for varied expressive ends. Ultimately, then, synthesizers help musicians both produce and conceptualize timbre.
Jesuit Missionaries and Missions in the Iberian Colonial World
Authors: Corradi Rafael Gaune
Published: July 2018

This chapter aims to analyze the Jesuit missionaries and their missions in colonial America (sixteenth through eighteenth centuries) based on the categories of globalness (the global) and mundanity (the local) through three historical frameworks: first, the missionary expansion of the Society of Jesus from the viceroyalty of Peru and its ties to Rome and the Iberian monarchy in the sixteenth century; second, presenting the defensive war project implemented on Chile’s southern border between 1612 and 1626 as a missionary and political mechanism of territorial and spiritual “reduction”; and third, changes in missionary identity in the eighteenth century. The first two frameworks are based on case studies that give a view of the local dimension while at the same time allowing one to understand the global dynamics of the Society of Jesus in other colonial spaces. The third framework is based on broader geographical travel.
Jesuit Visual Culture in a Machine Age
Authors: Mochizuki Mia M.
Published: July 2018

The term “Jesuit visual culture” has replaced an earlier interest in “Jesuit style” for studies in Jesuit art and architecture. Multimedia strategies transformed the renovation of the Chapel of St. Ignatius in the Church of the Gesù in Rome into a “devotional machine” by drawing upon such diverse sources as Athanasius Kircher, S.J.’s machines, Andrea Pozzo, S.J.’s set designs (apparati), and early modern Jesuit rhetorical exchanges. The result of the cross-fertilization of art and technology was the construction of a prophetic image, where the global consciousness of early modern Jesuit visual culture sustained a transactional aesthetics premised on technological innovation, systemic connectivity, and redemptive materialism. When the Society of Jesus attempted to craft the future, it ensured the rise and, inadvertently, the fall of the all-too-relative image and the order that had become so closely associated with it.
Anti-Jesuitism in a Global Perspective
Authors: Pavone Sabina
Published: July 2018

Until recently anti-Jesuitism was considered to be exclusively related to controversies having to do with the existence of the Society of Jesus and was therefore studied as the key to understanding disputes between the antagonists and apologists of that religious order. In recent years, however, it has become a historiographical argument to all intents and purposes. Several studies have highlighted its semantic versatility and the consequent need to study it from different perspectives: historical diachronic, literary, rhetorical, iconographic. The purpose of this chapter is to analyze anti-Jesuitism in a global perspective studying its transnational dimension, looking not only at Europe but also at colonial contexts—Latin America and Asian.
Poe’s Cultural Inheritance
Authors: Engel William E.
Published: July 2018

Poe displays deep if selective knowledge of ancient writers, Renaissance and Enlightenment literature, and continental aesthetics. His readings of the classics ranged widely, but he was as likely to have learned about the ancient world from anthologies and encyclopedias as from primary texts. Typical of the magazine culture of the nineteenth century, many of Poe’s allusions and references that sound biblical in fact are either Shakespearean or commonplace expressions of the day. His notions of aesthetics, initially drawn from Schlegel, Byron, and Coleridge, branched out to embrace esoteric and Neoplatonic considerations that he developed in his writings with characteristic originality, including metempsychosis (the transmigration of souls), Renaissance Hermeticism (prominently on display in Usher’s library), and Arabian cosmology (especially in “Al Aaraaf” and “Israfel”). Moving beyond mere source hunting, this essay examines the principal ways—and the ends to which—Poe incorporated key aspects of the Western cultural tradition into his works.
Poe and Modern(ist) Poetry
Authors: Vale de Gato Margarida
Published: July 2018

This chapter considers not only how Poe’s impact on European symbolism prompted US poets—both expatriates (Eliot, Pound) and the natively grounded (Williams)—to rehash Poe’s literary import but also how the influence of ambivalent perceptions of Poe (the visionary, the ratiocinative hoaxer, the antididactic) extended to poet(ic)s of the Americas, eventually transcending their borders with a radiance that invites thinking of “phosphorescence” as a poetical category. From Baudelaire’s seminal reception to Mallarmé’s shift into the prose poem, from Pessoa’s elaborations on rhythmical versions of the original to Jakobson’s emphasis on paranomasia in “The Raven,” Poe was a cornerstone of the development of modern(ist) poetry on a transnational scale. Translational negotiation, along with defamiliarization and varied understandings of the “legitimate province of the poem,” would inform emerging poetics of the modern lyrical genre. T. S. Eliot’s reading of Poe as the unwitting but productive initiator of a continuous detachment of poetry from meaning, leading up to the French symbolist tenet of “la poésie pure” and culminating in Valéry, had the merit of placing Poe in the context that facilitated high modernism. On the other hand, this reading disregarded the significance of Poe for early Spanish American modernism(o)s, which this essay will recuperate, along with other Latin language proposals for the relation of poetry with aesthetic and cultural inventiveness. It also addresses the effacement of the erudite and popular in language and media, and the echoes of Poe in countercultural movements such as surrealism, concrete poetry, and beat poetry.
Poe’s Common Meter
Authors: Jackson Virginia
Published: July 2018

Because nineteenth-century American prosody has not seemed very important to most accounts of American poetics, critics have not noticed how important it was to Poe. In fact, Poe was so thoroughly immersed in nineteenth-century theories of poetic meter that what he wrote on the subject may serve as a guide to transatlantic Anglophone prosodic discourse in the period as a whole. Poe may actually help scholars remember why they have wanted to leave that discourse behind. This essay considers “The Rationale of Verse” (1848), Poe’s longest and most difficult essay on prosody, in the context of the mid-nineteenth-century “prosody wars” over the relation between accentual and quantitative meter. Although that debate has been considered a British phenomenon, Poe’s immersion in it shows how central such prosodic debates were to the history of American poetics, in which British nationalist theories of meter were displaced by racist anxieties.
The Political Institutions of the Palestinian Minority in Israel
Authors: Ghanem As’ad
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the most prominent active partisan organizations representing the Palestinian population in Israel’s political arena. Some of these organizations act as political parties in the Israeli Knesset, while others have chosen to distance themselves from participation in parliamentary elections in order to avoid any cooperation with or legitimization for the Israeli state. The Palestinian political parties in Israel have been affected by political developments and implications resulting from the Arab-Israeli conflict and particularly the Palestinian problem, alongside Israeli national political, economic and social developments since the creation of the state in 1948, in addition to being impacted by internal socioeconomic changes and transformations within the Palestinian community in Israel.
The Sympathetic Nervous System and Pain
Authors: Strong Judith A. , Zhang Jun-Ming , Schaible Hans-Georg
Published: July 2018

This article reviews some of the preclinical studies of the sympathetic nervous system’s role in arthritis, inflammatory, and neuropathic pain, in light of the emerging understanding of how the immune system, sensory system, and sympathetic system markedly affect each other’s function, with many mechanisms besides sprouting. Many studies show a pro-inflammatory and pro-nociceptive role for the sympathetic nerves in preclinical models. However, these studies are sometimes conflicting, and the role of the sympathetic nerves can sometimes be anti-inflammatory or anti-nociceptive, particularly at later stages or when systemic effects on immune tissues are considered. The article discusses human correlates of these preclinical studies, as well as some possible reasons for the many conflicting studies in the literature. The article argues that sympathetic-based interventions for chronic pain conditions hold promise despite the conflicting findings in the field, especially if better ways to define appropriate subsets of patients can be developed.
From the Origin of Spatiality to a Variety of Spaces
Authors: Mattens Filip
Published: July 2018

How can a spatial world appear to a non-extended mind? This chapter focuses on two moments in which this question steered the development of phenomenology. The first part explains how Husserl’s understanding of perception took shape against the background of nineteenth-century debates on the psychological origin of spatial presentations. It is in his phenomenological reconsideration of this matter that the subject comes to be understood as a subject of bodily capacities, engaged in a primal form of praxis. The second part focuses on Straus’s crusade against the dominant, praxis-based understanding of spatiality. Radically rejecting the question itself as originating in a Cartesian misconception of sense-perception, Straus introduced a plurality of spaces by revealing different “forms of spatiality” flowing from the affective dimension underlying all perception.
Hysteria, Dissociation, Conversion, and Somatization
Authors: Figueira Maria Luísa , Madeira Luís
Published: July 2018

This chapter aims to describe the psychopathology of the phenomena of hysteria, dissociation, conversion, and somatization across psychiatric nosologies. The extent of this field of research includes a vast range of experiences and mechanisms, and several phenomenological, epistemological, and ethical qualms have made this field difficult to comprehensively synthesize every aspect of these phenomena. The reader finds here a review of major contributions from seminal inputs, historical waves of research which ultimately led to the current use of these words. It further considers clinical and theoretical pitfalls which damaged the use of these symbols and demoted research to other clinical areas of psychiatry. Also, and by addressing the contributions from phenomenological psychopathology, it provides further clarification of their possible use in clinical practice and research—a necessary first step.
Love, Value, and Reasons
Authors: Abramson Kate , Leite Adam
Published: July 2018

It is a familiar thought that in friendship and romance, people’s good qualities are reasons for loving them. This chapter clarifies the kinds of reasons—and the forms of reasons-responsiveness and evaluation—at issue. It offers a new model for understanding love as a form of valuing. On this model, love is both a response to reasons and a source of reasons, and the two sets of reasons are complementary parts of a single coherent, interlocking package. On this basis the chapter answers various standard objections alleging that the “qualities view” fails to tie us adequately to our loved ones. Love in friendship and romantic contexts is revealed to be a matter of character in many respects. Some of our most fundamental values are manifested in whom we love, why, and how. Small wonder loving is so important to our sense of ourselves as individuals.​
Medieval Ecclesiology and the Conciliar Movement
Authors: Tanner Norman
Published: July 2018

This chapter covers ecclesiology in the Western (or Catholic) church from the beginning of the schism between the churches of East and West—between Rome and Constantinople—in 1054 until the eve of the Reformation in 1517. Ecclesiology is taken to mean the nature or constitution of the church. The topic is considered from various standpoints: how it was viewed or taught by church officials, including the popes of the period, by councils, by theologians and other writers, and by the laity. Thereby the subject is treated from the standpoints of both the institutional church and the people of God, both ‘from above’ and ‘from below’. The chapter is divided chronologically into three periods: the Gregorian reform and its aftermath, from the mid-eleventh to the late twelfth century; the ‘long’ thirteenth century; the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries including the Avignon papacy, the conciliar movement, and the early Renaissance.
Methodism and the Church
Authors: Chapman David M.
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the nature of the church in Methodist experience and practice from the origins of Methodism as a network of religious societies in the eighteenth century to its present day self-understanding as a global communion of churches. The article discusses: (1) the Wesleyan foundations of Methodist ecclesiology; (2) methods, sources, and norms in Methodist theological reflection on the church; (3) how Methodists interpret the credal marks of the church; (4) the ordained ministry; and (5) the means of grace and authority. A concluding section considers the future agenda for ecclesiology as a branch of practical theology in Methodism. Confident in its providential mission to spread scriptural holiness and ecumenical in outlook, Methodism remains in essence a holiness movement in search of its true ecclesial location in the Holy Catholic Church.
Roman Catholic Ecclesiology from the Council of Trent to Vatican II and Beyond
Authors: Rush Ormond
Published: July 2018

For 400 years after the Council of Trent, a juridical model of the church dominated Roman Catholicism. Shifts towards a broader ecclesiology began to emerge in the nineteenth century. Despite the attempts to repress any deviations from the official theology after the crisis of Roman Catholic Modernism in the early twentieth century, various renewal movements, known as ressourcement, in the decades between the world wars brought forth a period of rich ecclesiological research, with emphasis given to notions such as the Mystical Body, the People of God, the church as mystery, as sacrament, and as communio. The Second Vatican Council incorporated many of these developments into its vision for renewal and reform of the Roman Catholic Church. Over half a century after Vatican II, a new phase in its reception is emerging with the pontificate of Pope Francis.
Rowan Williams
Authors: Higton Mike
Published: July 2018

Rowan Williams’s ecclesiology is shaped by his account of the spiritual life. He examines the transformation of human beings’ relationships to one another, driven by their encounter with God’s utterly gracious love in Jesus Christ. The church is the community of forgiven people generated by Christ’s resurrection. It is animated by its constant exposure to God’s love in Christ in word and sacrament. It is held to that exposure by its doctrinal discipline. It is a community in which members go on learning from one another how to go more deeply into that exposure. For Williams, the church’s commitment to unity and its commitment to truth go together: truth cannot be discovered without holding together in unity to learn from one another; and proper ecclesial unity is unity in this search for truth.
The Eastern Orthodox Tradition
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: July 2018

This chapter on Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology consists of three parts. The first section discusses the fundamental theological understanding of the church as the Body of Christ, the Bride of the Lamb slain before the foundation of the world. The second section looks at the four notes of the church, which characterize the church as it exists in the world: unity, holiness, catholicity, and apostolicity. The third section, ‘The Church in the World’, is concerned with practical issues of ecclesiology: the relation of church and society, Eucharistic ecclesiology, and modern problems.
Yves Congar
Authors: Flynn Gabriel
Published: July 2018

This chapter provides an interpretative framework for understanding the ecclesiology of Yves Congar, one of the leading architects of ressourcement and communion ecclesiology in modern Roman Catholic theology. It examines how his comprehensive theology of the church, synthesized in the notion of a ‘total ecclesiology’, was formulated in response to particular problems of the time. The section ‘Return to the Sources’ reconstructs his vision of the church, which shows that a renewed ecclesiology forms an essential theological basis for church renewal. ‘The Vision of the Church in Congar’s Theology’ investigates the shape of the renewed church, with particular attention to the principal means proposed by Congar for its renewal. ‘The Shape of the Church in Congar’s Theology’ assesses his idea of true reform, based on the recognition of the indefectibility of the church’s visible institution and faithful adherence to its tradition.
John Zizioulas
Authors: McPartlan Paul
Published: July 2018

The chapter explores three deeply interlinked aspects of John Zizioulas’s highly influential ecclesiology: the relationship between the church and the Trinity; the relationship between the church and the Eucharist; and finally the consequences of those relationships for the structure of the church. The church is a communion through its participation in the life of the Trinity. In Christ and by the power of the Holy Spirit, it receives and re-receives the gift of communion in every Eucharist, and communion has a shape that reflects the life of God. The Trinity is centred on the Father, and so in the church at various levels the communion of the many is centred on one who is the head. This is the purely theological reason why the synodality of the church requires primacy at the local, regional, and universal levels. The chapter concludes that, while prompting many questions and needing further development, Zizioulas’s proposal has great ecumenical value.
Reason Fundamentalism and What Is Wrong With It
Authors: Broome John
Published: July 2018

Is there a fundamental feature of normativity, to which other features can be reduced? One defensible view is that the fundamental feature is the relation that holds between a person and F-ing when the person has reason to F. (“F” stands for any verb phrase, such as “run for the bus” or “hope for relief” or “believe Kampala is in Ghana.”) Another defensible view is that the fundamental feature is the relation that holds between a person and F-ing when the person ought to F. The popular view that the fundamental feature of normativity is the property of being a reason is not defensible, since that property can be reduced to either of the two relations I described. I argue that the second of these views—“ought fundamentalism”—is more credible that the first—“reason fundamentalism”—because it is more faithful to our ordinary normative concepts.
Reasons and Theoretical Rationality
Authors: Littlejohn Clayton
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores the relationship between reasons and epistemic rationality. In recent debates about rationality and evidence, internalist evidentialism is quite popular. Using this theory as our stalking horse, we examine debates about the ontology of evidence and reasons, a puzzle about rationality and evidential support relations, work on the relationship between reasons and rationality, and some underexplored issues concerning the relationship between knowledge, evidence, and normative reasons. We shall see that there are good grounds for thinking that the normative reasons that matter in epistemology are not always pieces of evidence, that there is no simple story about the relationship between believing rationally and responding correctly to the evidence or the reasons, that there are problems with formal accounts of evidential support, and that attractive views about the ontology of reasons suggest that it can be rational to believe without having a belief based on reasons.
Aesthetic Reasons
Authors: McGonigal Andrew
Published: July 2018

Aesthetic reasons are reasons to do and think various things. For example, it makes sense to wonder if a tree stump on the lawn was left there for environmental rather than aesthetic reasons, or for no reason at all. Aesthetic considerations of this kind are often contrasted with non-aesthetic reasons—such as moral or epistemic reasons. For example, they seem connected to pleasure-in-experience in a distinctive way that differs from paradigmatic moral reasons. Relatedly, the authority of aesthetic reasons has often been thought to involve less of an “external demand” upon us than in the other cases. In this chapter, I suggest that such distinctiveness and modesty coheres well with an anti-realist treatment that views them as non-objective in nature. I then go on to consider an alternative, more robustly realist conception of aesthetic reasons.
The Language of “Ought,” and Reasons
Authors: Bronfman Aaron , Dowell J. L.
Published: July 2018

The bulk of this chapter addresses the question: what is the proper semantics for deontic modal expressions in English? We consider a representative sample of recent challenges to a Kratzer-style formal semantics for modal expressions, as well as the rival views—Fabrizio Cariani’s contrastivism, John MacFarlane’s relativism, and Mark Schroeder’s ambiguity theory—those challenges are thought to motivate. We argue that the challenges can be met and that the rival views face challenges of their own. Our overall conclusion is that a Kratzer-style semantics remains the one to beat. With this assumption in place, we turn to the question: what is the connection between true deontic modal statements and normative reasons? We argue that acceptance of Kratzer’s semantics for deontic modals can, in many cases, leave open for substantive normative theorizing the question of whether an agent has a normative reason to comply with what she ought to do.
Northern Greece and the Central Balkans
Authors: Gimatzidis Stefanos
Published: July 2018

This chapter deals with the cultural and social history of an area encompassing ancient Epirus, Illyria, Macedonia, and Thrace. In the past, these historical landscapes were usually perceived as cultural or ethnic entities, and were used as arguments for past and modern ethnogenesis in the Balkans. The material culture of single micro-regions shows that these landscapes are culturally neither homogeneous nor consistent, and instead show an impressive diversity in settlement patterns, mortuary ideology, and other cultural attributes. Indeed, cultural affinities between micro-regions of different historical landscapes further challenge perceptions of ethnicity and other forms of social identity as reflecting cultural variability. Conceptualization of northern Greece and the central Balkans as a buffer zone between the Aegean world and continental Europe is another bias that reduces local social agents to recipients of cultural innovation from north and especially south, and overlooks the dynamic processes inherent in local social transformations.
Aristotle, the Inventor of Natural Science
Authors: Althoff Jochen
Published: July 2018

The chapter surveys the contributions of Aristotle to the development of ancient Greek science. Aristotle sought the stable element and reliable truth within changes. Aristotle develops a three-fold system of scientific disciplines: practical, productive, and theoretic (including mathematics and natural philosophy). The primary natural kinds are the four elements, earth, water, air, and fire, composed of the fundamental qualities of hot/cold and wet/dry. Each has a natural place, earth in a sphere at the center of the cosmos, and the others in spherical shells around that. The eternal circular heavenly motions are due to the fifth element, “aithēr.” Aristotle’s scala naturae classifies all life: plants are capable of nutrition and reproduction, animals can also perceive and move, and humans can reason. Aristotle also studied the transformation of substances, but mainly focusses on the generation, the parts, and the functions of animals. Aristotle’s chief explanatory tool is the “final” cause, the purpose for which a thing occurs.
Dietetics
Authors: Grant Mark
Published: July 2018

The chapter discusses ancient Greek dietetic theory and practice; for Greek physicians and patients, diet was one of the primary means of medical intervention. Diet was treated along with exercise, as well as sleep, massage, drugs, and sex. The many authors of the Hippocratic differed about diet, and Galen favors his own advice. We have mere scraps from Hellenistic authors such as Diocles of Carystus, Archestratus, Mnesitheus of Athens, Diphilus of Siphnos, and Phylotimus. The late antique Latin cookbook “Apicius” (likely named for the first-century ce gourmand), promotes a style of cookery that survived into the mediaeval world: blending numerous seasonings and the characteristic balance between sweet and sour, still redolent in the traditional agrodolce sauces of Italian cuisine. Theories of diet and digestion varied enormously as well, Hippocrates claiming concoction, Erasistratus thinking of mechanical grinding and dispersion, and others deciding upon distribution, the more dominant theory in late antiquity.
Byzantine Geography
Authors: Kuelzer Andreas
Published: July 2018

The chapter maps out the various forms and modes of Greek geographical writing and thinking in the early Byzantine period. Geography in Byzantium means transmission of the ancient Greeks’ knowledge and the handling of this material by certain scholars, via copying manuscripts, making extracts from the old writings, or writing separate commentaries. The two ancient writers that most influenced geographical ideas of the Byzantines were Strabo and Ptolemy. Besides geographical treatises, such as those by Marcian, Protagoras, Hierocles, and Stephen, many historical works contained extensive geographical excursuses (for example, Philostorgius), and reports of ambassadors often included a geographical description of the land(s) they visited. Christians of the school of Antioch tended to deny the spherical earth theory (Theophilus of Antioch, Diodorus of Tarsus, Theodorus of Mopsuestia, Kosmas of Alexandria). Itineraries and traveler’s accounts provide a glimpse of how people traveled. The Peutinger map displays the Roman roads around 435 ce.
Ancient Chinese Mathematics
Authors: Volkov Alexei
Published: July 2018

The chapter studies nine long-known extant Chinese mathematical texts, and three recently excavated texts, all composed prior to the beginning of the Sui 隋 dynasty (581–618 ce). Most of these were compiled for use as school texts. They include problems on fractions, on proportions and extraction of square and cube roots, on simultaneous linear equations and computations of areas and volumes. Among the more advanced techniques deployed in these texts are computing the area of a circle, that is, obtaining certain approximate values of π; computing the volume of a pyramid; and computing the volume of a sphere.
Astral Sciences in Ancient China
Authors: Fengxian Xu
Published: July 2018

The chapter studies ancient Chinese astronomy, which focused on computing and predicting the movements of the heavens (天 tian), the sun, moon, stars, and asterisms, which was the duty of the rulers, in order that the people be well-regulated. Heavenly bodies were allocated to terrestrial zones, especially 28 constellations roughly along the equator or the ecliptic, the seven stars of the Big Dipper (regarded as the carriage of heaven), and the five planets. Unusual celestial phenomena were recorded, such as solar eclipses, comets, and meteorites. The 盖天 gai tian theory (celestial dome theory), the 浑天 hun tian Theory (celestial sphere theory) and the 宣夜 xuan ye theory (infinite empty space theory) were the three primary theories of the structure of the heaven and the earth, in the Han dynasty (202 bce—220 ce). The earliest extant Chinese star catalogue of the whole sky was composed in the 1st century bce, and the definitive constellation system of 283 constellations, 1464 or 1465 stars was composed in the 3rd century ce.
Mathematics in Egypt
Authors: Imhausen Annette
Published: July 2018

This chapter studies Egyptian mathematics, an essential tool to administer resources, from the invention of the script and number system, ca 3000 bce. Egyptian writing was a tool restricted to the elites. Their number system was a decimal system without positional (place-value) notation. Their concept of unit fractions, as the inverses of integers, was fundamentally different from ours; other fractional values were expressed as a sum of unit fractions. The few surviving mathematical texts contain a collection of problems or tables to aid in calculations, or actual worked calculations, or a mixture of these. Some scribes had high status, based explicitly on the numerate activity of calculating taxes owed and work produced. Later Egyptian mathematics displays Mesopotamian influences.
Sanskrit Medical Literature
Authors: Yamashita Tsutomu
Published: July 2018

The chapter studies the medicine of ancient India, from the Vedic (Indo-European) period, ca 1500–500 bce, and later. The orthodox Vedic texts record scattered medical lore. Some of the medical ideas within the Vedas are as follows: The causes of diseases are mostly due to external supernatural forces. Therapy primarily involves magical procedures in which the chanting of mantras is essential. Several kinds of breath (prāṇa) circulate in the human body to maintain it.
Traditionalism and Originality in Roman Science
Authors: Thibodeau Philip
Published: July 2018

This chapter characterizes an important feature of Roman scientific discourse that sets it apart from the Greek tradition. Valorization of the mos maiorum (custom of the ancestors) spawned a conviction among Roman intellectuals that voices from the past possess more authority than those of the present. Those who wrote about natural philosophy thus tended to idealize tradition in ways that ended up effacing their own contributions. This habit did not preclude innovation and debate, but did serve to obscure the sources of ideas, with figures from the remote past such as Pythagoras often given credit for lore of much more recent vintage. Illustrations of this phenomenon are drawn from a wide range of authors including Cato, Fuluius Nobilior, Varro, Ovid, and Moderatus of Gades.
Hormetic Effects of Mixtures of Carbendazim and Iprodione on the Virulence of Botrytis cinerea
Authors: Cong Menglong , He Shun , Zhang Jun , Luo Chaoxi , Zhu Fuxing
Published: July 2018

Hormetic effects of fungicides on mycelial growth and virulence of plant pathogenic fungi have been reported, but the effects of fungicide mixtures on virulence hormesis of plant pathogens remain to be investigated. In this study, hormetic effects of mixtures of carbendazim and iprodione on the virulence of two carbendazim-resistant isolates of Botrytis cinerea were determined. Spraying carbendazim alone at 3 to 800 μg/ml exhibited hormetic effects on virulence to cucumber leaves, and carbendazim at 10 μg/ml had the maximum stimulation of 16.7% for isolate HBtom451. Spraying iprodione alone at 0.0001 to 0.0625 μg/ml exhibited hormetic effects on virulence, and iprodione at 0.025 μg/ml had the maximum stimulation of 18.7% for isolate HBtom451. However, spraying simultaneously carbendazim at 800 μg/ml and iprodione at 0.0625 μg/ml showed inhibitory effects on virulence to cucumber leaves. The mixture of carbendazim at 3 μg/ml and iprodione at 0.0001 μg/ml had much higher virulence stimulations than either fungicide at the same concentration alone. The maximum stimulation for the mixtures occurred at 10 and 0.0005 μg/ml for carbendazim and iprodione, respectively, and these concentrations were much lower than the concentration of their respective fungicide alone eliciting the maximum stimulations. The maximum stimulation amplitude for the mixture was slightly higher than that of each fungicide alone. These results demonstrated that carbendazim and iprodione mainly had dose-additive rather than amplitude-additive interactions when sprayed simultaneously with regard to virulence stimulations. Studies on virulence stimulations for mycelia treated with fungicide in potato dextrose agar showed that the maximum stimulation for the mixtures occurred at concentrations much lower than the concentration of carbendazim alone, indicating a dose-additive interaction when compared with carbendazim hormesis. Studies on potential physiological mechanisms of hormesis showed that increased tolerance to H2O2 may be one of the mechanisms for virulence hormesis for the mixtures of iprodione and carbendazim. These studies will advance our understanding of hormesis of fungicide mixtures.