bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spatial Representation, Modified by Ecology
Authors: Pontius Anneliese A.
Published: March 2007

Performance with the Kohs Block Design and Face Drawing Tests were assessed in two ecologically distinct groups of healthy Indonesians: 196 urbanized subjects and 130 near "hunter-gatherers" (Dani and Asmat from inland West New Guinea). Analysis of subjects' error patterns on the block design construction tasks revealed disproportionally and significantly higher percentages of "nonrandom" configuration-preserving errors by Dani and Asmat subjects (22.18%) than by urbanized subjects, whose errors were fewer but significantly more random and unrelated to the target design. Relations, ratios, and orientation among features within a design pattern tended to be neglected by the Dani and Asmat but rarely by the urbanized subjects (9.78%). On the face drawing task, 81% of Asmat and Dani subjects drew schematized versions (the "neolithic" face pattern), whereas only 39% of urbanized subjects did so. Results suggest that the impact of ecological context on neuropsychologic functioning is profound, influencing even basic visuospatial cognitive processing.
Perceptual Distortions in Cross-Cultural Interrogations
Authors: Vrij Aldert , Winkel Frans Willem
Published: March 2007

Dutch police officers often assess Surinamer citizens more negatively than Dutch citizens. The principle of correspondence offers a possible explanation. According to this principle, a lack of correspondence between White police officers and Surinamer citizens results in a negative assessment of the Surinamer citizens. In this study, the influence of differences in skin color, accent, speech style, and (spoken) fluency on police officers' impression formation was examined. Results revealed a negative influence of Surinamer speech style and fluency on impression formation. However, Black skin color and Surinamer accent resulted in an unexpected positive assessment. It is concluded that the importance of nonverbal behaviors in the formation of negative impressions is substantial.
The Palestinian Intifada and Israelis' Burnout
Authors: Pines Ayala M.
Published: March 2007

In an attempt to understand the effects of the Palestinian uprising on Israelis' burnout, five groups were interviewed: 32 left wingers, 35 right wingers, 32 Orthodox Jews, 30 high-ranking officers, and 30 Arabs. Significant differences were found among the five groups in levels of burnout, with the groups in the following rank order: Left, Arabs, Right, Officers, and Orthodox Jews. The differences in burnout are explained by the difference in existential significance the intifada holds for the five groups. This interpretation is supported by interviews and a burnout workshop conducted with representatives of 14 peace organizations in Israel.
Self-Construals, Coping, and Stress in Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Authors: Cross Susan E.
Published: March 2007

This study examines differences in the independent and interdependent self-construals of American and East Asian students studying in the United States and the influence of these self-construals on coping and stress. Path analysis revealed that the importance of the independent self-construal was positively related to direct coping strategies, which predicted reduced levels of stress for the international students. Ratings of the importance of the interdependent self-construal were positively related to increased stress for the Asian students. The self-constuals and direct coping were the strongest predictors of stress for East Asian students; variables commonly identified in other research addressing cross-cultural adaptation (e.g., number of host country friends, relationships with conationals, language ability, and previous cross-cultural experience) did not significantly predict stress for the international students. The effects of the self-construals and coping were moderated by culture, however, and were not predictive of perceived stress for American students.
Cultural Accommodation
Authors: Ralston David A. , Cunniff Mary K. , Gustafson David J.
Published: March 2007

This research examines the influence of language on the responses of bilingual Hong Kong Chinese managers. Subjects responded to either a Chinese or an English version of the Schwartz Values Survey instrument. The results suggest that the language in which an instrument is administered may produce "culturally accommodating" responses that can affect the results of a cross-cultural study.
Dimensions of Distress
Authors: Siegert Richard J. , Chung Rita Chi-Ying
Published: March 2007

A brief 20-item measure of psychological distress, the GHQ20, was administered to three diverse ethnic groups, which included Chinese, Filipino, and Maori subjects. The FACTOREP method was employed to see if the previously reported four-factor structure of the GHQ20 could then be replicated. The four-factor structure was clearly replicated across the three groups. It is suggested that this measure may be useful for future cross-cultural studies in which a brief symptom measure yielding information on several different dimensions of distress is required.
Emotional Expression in Costa Rica and the United States
Authors: Stephan Walter G. , Stephan Cookie White , De Vargas Marylin Cabezas
Published: March 2007

This study examined three hypotheses concerning differences between collectivistic and individualistic-cultures using samples from Costa Rica and the United States. The first hypothesis was that people in individualistic cultures would express emotions affirming independent self-conceptions, whereas people in collectivistic cultures would express emotions affirming interdependent self-conceptions. The first part of this hypothesis was confirmed, but the second part was not. The second hypothesis was that people in collectivistic cultures would make a greater distinction in the degree to which they expressed emotions toward in-group and out-group members than would people in individualistic cultures. This hypothesis was not supported. The third hypothesis was that people in collectivistic cultures would feel less comfortable expressing negative emotions than people in individualistic cultures. The data provided strong support for this hypothesis. The results are discussed in terms of differences between these two cultures and their significance for intercultural communication and individualism-collectivism.
The Pace of Life in 31 Countries
Authors: Levine Robert V. , Norenzayan Ara
Published: March 2007

This study compared the pace of life in large cities from 31 countries around the world. Three indicators of pace of life were observed: average walking speed in downtown locations, the speed with which postal clerks completed a simple request (work speed), and the accuracy of public clocks. Overall, pace of life was fastest in Japan and the countries of Western Europe and was slowest in economically undeveloped countries. The pace was significantly faster in colder climates, economically productive countries, and in individualistic cultures. Faster places also tended to have higher rates of death from coronary heart disease, higher smoking rates, and greater subjective well-being. Discussion focuses on how the pace of life is intertwined with the social-psychological and community characteristics of a culture, and the central role of pace of life in defining the personality of a place and its people.
Aum Shinrikyo and Spiritual Emergency
Authors: Kogo Yoshiyuki
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the phenomenon of the dark night of the soul and how it has developed into a serious spiritual emergency in Japan. Japanese society is highly interdependent, which prevents people from developing a strong sense of individuality. For Japanese people, social harmony has the highest priority, and they are pressured to sacrifice their individuality to maintain that harmony. In psychodynamic terms, they develop a strong group ego to compensate for their vulnerable individual ego structure. When a Japanese person recognizes that group ego is an unsatisfactory construct, he or she faces an existential isolation of his or her vulnerable ego. Some cannot put up with the fear of the dark night of the soul and look for an alternative group ego on which to depend. They tend to embrace this new group ego as a way to resist fear from deep unconscious realms. If this alternative group ego is not accepted by mainstream society, it may become radicalized and even hostile to society. The Aum Shinrikyo cult, which in 1994 and 1995 killed many people in poison gas attacks, provides an extreme example of an alternative group ego. In this article, the author explains the mechanism of how individuals came to embrace a radical group ego by applying Washburn’s developmental model to this particular cult.
The Humanistic Tradition: A Vision for the Future
Authors: Criswell Eleanor
Published: March 2007

This article is based on an address given at the Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center graduation ceremony in June 1998. It reviews the early history of Saybrook, which was founded in 1970 by the author and others to teach and conduct research on humanistic psychology. Based on the ideals of the humanistic tradition that has its origins in ancient Greece and the Renaissance, this article explores a vision of what we need in the world in general and in the future of Saybrook. The author discusses what it means to graduate from Saybrook, what a doctorate enables its graduates to do, and their responsibility to continue personal development throughout life. Graduates are urged to stay active in the humanistic tradition in the face of a world that is more and more technologically oriented and needs people dedicated to the philosophy and practice of humanistic psychology.
Japanese Psychology in Crisis: Thinking Inside the (Empty) Box
Authors: Ryback David , Ikemi Akira , Kuno Toru , Miki Yoshihiko
Published: March 2007

In part because of the information revolution, Japan is experiencing a crisis in culture. Because it is more sensitive to culture than other approaches, humanistic psychology may have much to offer in this time of crisis, particularly because of the Japanese value of inner privacy. Tomoda has explored ways of translating Rogers’s approach into a Japanese context of Zen, including the use of renku, a form of poetry collectively written by members of a group exploring their process in “a vague atmosphere of togetherness.” Another approach to bridging the East/West gap is explored in Naikan therapy in which an empathic therapist visits the client who sits and meditates on the dynamics of his or her personal relationships during a weeklong retreat. In the end, it is thinking inside the box, contrary to Western contemporary values, that seems to make humanistic psychology work for the Japanese, whose aesthetic values have persevered through the ages.
Humanistic Psychotherapy and the Scientist-Practitioner Debate: An “Embodied” Perspective
Authors: Sundararajan Louise
Published: March 2007

This article invites participants in the scientist-practitioner debate to reflect on the nature of psychotherapy. Contrary to the received notion of practice as “applied” theory, the author argues that practice has its own logic, the “prelogical logic” of the body. The author’s contention is that the so-called scientist-practitioner split in psychology cannot even begin to be addressed so long as we continue to hold the misguided notion that the psychotherapeutic practice is applied theory, and so long as we fail to recognize practice as instead a unique way of knowing, radically different from empirical science and technology. To correct this pandemic misperception, the author expounds the “logic of practice” in terms of the philosophy of “embodiment,”as articulated by three thinkers, Lévi-Strauss, Merleau-Ponty, and Bourdieu. Implications of this perspective for a mutually beneficial partnership between science and practice are discussed in the conclusion.
The Use of Guided Imagery as an Adjunct To Medical Diagnosis and Treatment
Authors: Jaffe Dennis T. , Bresler David E.
Published: March 2007

Therapeutic guided imagery offers a variety of opportunities for a patient to gather information about unconscious, physical processes within his or her physical body, and to alter them. These methods are of particular use as an extension of traditional medical approaches. They are useful for both diagnosis and treatment. This article presents some thoughts about the nature of the imagery process, and examples of imagery treatment methods for physical illness drawn from the authors' clinical practice.

The rationale for the effect of imagery is rooted in psychophysiological research which suggests that the nervous system can be contacted by two fundamentally different types of language: metaphoric and verbal. These languages correlate with brain hemispheres. Imagery is primarily a right brain, metaphorical method of communication, which is linked directly with the unconscious and the physical functions of the nervous system. This article offers examples of the use of imagery to obtain diagnostic information, for relaxation, to make positive suggestions to alter physical processes, and in the discovery of an inner adviser.
Experiential Empathy: a Theory of a Felt-Level Experience
Authors: Corcoran Kevin J.
Published: March 2007

Accurate empathy is presented in terms of the previous theoretical and operational definitions. The departure from the Rogerian hypothesis is explored, and a new theoretical view of experiential empathy is presented. This theory is an extension of Rogers' perspectives and draws upon the works of Feldenkrais and Gendlin. The relationships between the empathic process and the right hemisphere and its functions are established and compared to Truax and Carkhuff's definition of accurate empathy, which is shown to be the communication process and a function of the left hemisphere. Support for the theory of experiential empathy is found in the research on meditation, and a model for developing empathy as a felt-level experience is proposed.
Another Look at Self-Actualization
Authors: Geller Leonard
Published: March 2007

In this article, I respond to Carl Ginsburg's (this issue) objections to my critique of Rogers and Maslow and to my view of the self (Geller, 1982). In addition, I explore a key issue having to do with the foundations of self-actualization theory in general, namely the justification of the end upon which self-actualization is based. I argue that such a justification is impossible or at least unlikely and that there is no compelling reason to accept any version of self-actualization.
Peace on Earth
Authors: Harman Willis W.
Published: March 2007

The Institute of Noetic Sciences is collaborating with the U.N. University for Peace in a research program aimed at identifying the essential minimum conditions for sustained global peace. This paper is an input into that research process. It is made available to stimulate thought and to invite critique.
Prayer for Peace
Authors: Nelson Alan
Published: March 2007

Our nuclear crisis reflects and causes much psychological and spiritual dis-ease. The threats we face can and must, if we are to survive, catalyze personal, global, psychological, and spiritual transformation, which can help us address our nuclear crisis more responsibly. This article addresses some ways that contemplation, prayer, and meditation foster such transformation and, more specifically, peace. It discusses dynamics necessary for prayer and peace that are part of psychological and spiritual growth, particularly as seen from Christian and Western psychological perspectives. It is seen that much that fosters prayer fosters peace. What brings psychological and spiritual peace also facilitates relational and global peace. Much that is necessary for global peace and survival is necessary for psychological and spiritual growth. Prayer and peace facilitate and are facilitated by awareness, openness, service, morality, love, and holiness. Given their pervasive practice in spiritual traditions, prayer and meditation can also help facilitate ecumenical cooperation and understanding so helpful for global peace.
A Primal Perspective on Spirituality
Authors: Adzema Michael V.
Published: March 2007

Contrary to Janov's assertion that spiritual experience is derivative of primal pain, there is evidence that primaller's are encountering transpersonal phenomena at a deeper level of the primal process. I rely on my experiences and those of other long-term primallers, along with the evidence of meditation and LSD research and the current spiritual literature, in proposing an alternative explanation of the relationship between catharsis and spiritual process in which they are seen as complementary, not opposed, processes. At a certain level of the spiritual process "primal-type" experiences often occur, no matter how interpreted. A primal-type therapy, therefore, can be an invaluable, perhaps indispensible, aid in higher consciousness. Primal therapy reduces the symbolic clutter and cerebral "noise" that characteristically obscure the perception of spiritual realities. It thereby enables spiritual access that would be unavailable to some people conceived into less than ideal life situations. Beyond the primal-type levels of the spiritual process, deeper levels are encountered that do not give indications of containing elements of repressed pain or need, and that can be accurately termed transpersonal. Therefore, primal therapy and meditation represent an identity of ends and an antithesis of means. Both catharsis and meditation are techniques to help us to "be" where we are "at" and thereby to be more fully in a "process" that transcends techniques. For "when we are 'on track' the process takes over, leading us onward to more encompassing realms, regardless of how we get 'on track."'
The "Flow Experience" in Solitary Ordeals
Authors: Logan Richard D.
Published: March 2007

Csikszentmihalyi's (1975) concept of the "flow experience" describes a significant coping mechanism for people undergoing solitary ordeals. In fact, limited, confined, and spartan circumstances can be well-suited for the creation of flow experiences for those "nonself-conscious" individuals who do not dwell on themselves but, instead, try actively to become caught up in experiences in their limited worlds. Perhaps the problem many have in coping with adversity today is that they have such heightened awareness and concern with themselves as recipients of life's events rather than as agents that they are victims-in-potentia, inclined to be "hassled" rather than challenged by life's ordinary difficulties, including the widespread problem of loneliness.
The Morality of Mental Illness
Authors: Cvice Janet
Published: March 2007

"Mental illness" is not truly a medical diagnosis, argues Thomas Szasz. Instead, it is a moral judgment that society passes on its deviant members. "Mental illness" relieves a person of responsibility for his or her actions, but in so doing it also justifies appropriating that person's freedom of choice, the necessary prerequisite of responsible action. Psychiatry is a social tool for accomplishing these goals, the results of which are involuntary commitment and the insanity defense. For Szasz, "persons" are characterizable above all else by their autonomy. An autonomous person makes uncoerced choices and accepts responsibility for those choices. Psychiatry undermines both characteristics of autonomy. Involuntary commitment allows psychiatrists to appropriate patients' freedom of choice. The insanity defense allows persons to escape the responsibility for their actions. Both procedures turn patients into nonpersons. Szasz wishes to replace the hidden moral judgment operative in psychiatric diagnoses with an open moral judgment. Psychiatrists and patients both need to return to the moral community. Psychiatrists do this when they stop appropriating the autonomy of others while pretending to practice medicine. Patients do this when they accept responsibility for their own choices and actions. One cannot be relieved of this responsibility without losing his or her place in the moral community as well.
Buddhist Responses to Violence and War
Authors: Rothberg Donald
Published: March 2007

In this article, Buddhist resources for a socially engaged spirituality are identified by outlining classical and contemporary Buddhist responses to violence and war. The basic teachings of the Buddha on violence and killing as well as transformative practices designed to eliminate the roots of violence are examined, considering also some historical Buddhist departures from nonviolence. Contemporary "engaged" Buddhism and its expansion of traditional teachings and practices to apply to contemporary social settings are discussed. The article closes with a discussion of some concerns and problems related to this latter approach.

Violence never ceases through hatred. It is only through love that it ceases. This is an ancient law.

-Gautama Buddha, in the Dhammapada
Thomas Szasz and Our Right to Drugs: Cracking the Constitution
Authors: Haskell Robert E.
Published: March 2007

The work of Thomas Szasz and his position on drug policy and drug addiction is presented through his latest work, Our Right to Drugs: The Case for a Free Market, the main thesis of which is that individuals have a constitutional right to drugs. Szasz links this right with other rights such as the right to control one's body, the right to property, and the right to die. His position is shown to emanate consistently from a single philosophical premise and is outlined by textual citations from his writings. Szasz's intellectual importance is then suggested. Rationality is strengthened by defiance; that is why it is indifferent to consensus and eschews coercions.

-Thomas Szasz, M.D.

The Untamed Tongue
Intimacy and Isolation: A Validation Study of Erikson's Theory
Authors: Gold Joshua M. , Rogers Joan D.
Published: March 2007

This study sought to establish the concurrent validity of Hamachek's operationalization of Erikson's psychosocial stage of intimacy/isolation with a measure of counselor trainee empathy. The study surveyed 74 entry-level counseling students. The results revealed a significant positive relationship between the measures of psychosocial stage resolution toward intimacy and counselor trainee empathy.
Carl Rogers's Personality Theory and Psychotherapy as a Reflection of His Life Experience and Personality
Authors: Dolliver Robert H.
Published: March 2007

Carl Rogers shared with other theorists the tendency for his theories to reflect major portions of his life experience and personality. Many interrelationships are identified in this article, in sections on Rogers's (a) life experience, (b) personality, (c) personality theory, and (d) psychotherapy. At the most global level, Rogers's theoretical emphasis on becoming closely resembles an important aspect of how Rogers lived his own life.
Rollo May as Friend to Man
Authors: Abzug Robert H.
Published: March 2007

Rollo May's life, so rich in its contribution to the field of psychological theory and practice, must be understood within the context of the cultural tradition of his boyhood and early manhood, that of the small town, Protestant Midwest. If Tillich, Adler, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Kierkegaard, and others shaped May's mature intellectual life, it is also true that the basic precepts of his upbringing and his first career choice-that of the ministry with its ethic of helping and healing-determined the way May would apply his later understandings within the sphere of the world.
Engaging Synergy: Kindred Spirits on the Edge
Authors: Carlsen Mary Baird
Published: March 2007

As "kindred spirits on the edge" we are human beings caught in the turmoil and the challenge of a most remarkable time in history. It is certain that we cannot solve our problems with the same mind that created them. But what are the ideas that can help us? What is this mind that will facilitate possible solution? Some possible answers are to be found in the principles and processes of synergy as interpreted by Ruth Benedict, Abraham Maslow, Buckminster Fuller, and others.
Transpersonal Hot Spots: Reflections on the New Editions of up from Eden, the Atman Project, and Eye to Eye
Authors: Wilber Ken
Published: March 2007

The author reviews a dozen "hot spots" in humanistic and transpersonal studies by reflecting on the new forewords to three ofhis books. Tbpics include cultural evolution, the nature of conventional as well as higher stages of human development, the possibility of grounding and confirming spiritual knowledge, and the relation of such spiritual knowledge to rational and empirical knowledge. The author concludes with an explanation of the structure of one of his most recent books, Sex, Ecology, Spirituality.
Maslow Amended
Authors: Rowan John
Published: March 2007

Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs is often badly stated, not least by Maslow himself. It seems worthwhile to amend it in such a way that it makes more sense and lines up better with other research along similar lines. It is hoped that the textbooks of the future will print the revised hierarchy instead of the original one.
The Promotion and Use of Strong Feelings in Psychotherapy
Authors: Mahrer Alvin R. , Fairweather David R. , Passey Sangeeta , Gingras Normand , Boulet Donald B.
Published: March 2007

Judges examined audiotapes of 15 sessions conducted by experienced therapists representative of psychodynamic-psychoanalytic, humanistic-experiential, behavioral-cognitive, and integrative-eclectic approaches. Each session contained multiple instances of clients’ strong feelings. The findings yielded (a) five explicit methods for promoting strong feelings, each with its own contributing client condition; (b) five ways of using the occurrence of strong feelings; and (c) an overall patterned sequence of uses during a session.
The Impact of Technological Change on Union Structure
Authors: Deery Stephen
Published: March 2007

A number of studies have looked at the impact of new technology on job security and the various ways in which unions have responded to this challenge, but little research has been undertaken on the effects of technology on the bargaining power of unions. Over the last decade the introduction of new cargo handling methods on the Australian waterfront has seriously threatened the negotiating and industrial base of the Waterside Workers Federation. This article examines the strategies adopted by the union in an effort to restore its organisational strength. These were largely directed towards an attempt to gain control of newly strategic groups of workers on the waterfront.
Towards an Integrated System of Vocational Training Programmes: The Youth Guarantee Concept
Authors: Merrilees W.J.
Published: March 2007

There is currently much concern that young people are not only facing declining opportunities in the labour market, but also have limited access to full-time voca tional training (which might be seen as a more useful social option to unemployment). This paper represents an examination of the vocational training options open to young people and the role of government programmes in widening these options. It is argued that current employment and training government pro grammes could be more effective if they were better integrated and co-ordinated. In particular, there is scope to improve the links within the institutional (TAFE) pro grammes (e.g., EPUY to pre-employment courses) and also the links from institu tional to employment based vocational training programmes (e.g., pre-employment to SYETP).
The Income and Fatigue Explanations for Worktime Change
Authors: Nyland Chris
Published: March 2007

For the last century the industrialized capitalist nations have been characterized by a tendency to reduce the length of time employees spend at their place of paid employment. Within the contemporary economic and industrial relations literature, there are two primary contending explanations for this phenomenon. The neoclassical tradition argues that the change in standard times is primarily a consequence of rising wages, while Marxists claim that it is principally a manifestation of rising work intensity. The essence of these two hypotheses is outlined in this paper and the contemporary empirical evidence underpinning each is surveyed. It is concluded that, at this stage, the Marxist thesis would appear to have greater theoretical and empirical substance than that offered by the defenders of the rising income hypothesis.
Best-Practice Taylorism: 'Yankee Speed-Up' in Australian Grocery Distribution
Authors: Wright Christopher , Lund John
Published: March 2007

Contrary to prevailing visions of workplace reform as a harmonious and benefi cial process, this paper examines the case of the Australian grocery distribution industry and recent changes in work organization imported from the United States. Unlike the consensual `team-based' approaches that have been advocated within recent management literature, 'international best practice' in this industry equates to a system of labour management based upon low trust and direct control. The paper highlights the variability of workplace reform and the continued centrality of management control over the labour process.
The Policy-Media Interaction Model: Measuring Media Power during Humanitarian Crisis
Authors: Robinson Piers
Published: March 2007

This article details the results of a plausibility probe of a policy-media interaction model designed to identify instances of media influence. If sufficient evidence is found to support the model, it can be used as part of a wider study examining the impact of media coverage on decisions to intervene during humanitarian crisis, the so-called CNN effect. The model predicts media influence when policy is uncertain and media coverage is framed so as to be critical of government and empathizes with suffering people. In order to test the model, it is applied to two cases: US intervention in Bosnia in 1995 in order to defend the Gorazde `safe area' and Operation Allied Force in Kosovo in 1999. In the first case, the model highlights the impact of critical, empathizing media coverage and policy uncertainty in effecting the US decision to defend the Gorazde `safe area'. In the second case, the failure of critical newspaper coverage to change the Clinton Administration's air-war policy highlights the limits of media influence when there exists policy certainty. Overall, it is argued that the plausibility probe supports the prediction that media influence occurs when policy is uncertain and media coverage is critically framed and empathizes with suffering people. And that when policy is certain, media influence is unlikely to occur. As such, the policy-media interaction model should prove a useful tool in testing the claim that media coverage causes intervention during humanitarian crisis.
Two Civilizations and Ethnic Conflict: Islam and the West
Authors: Fox Jonathan
Published: March 2007

Samuel Huntington's controversial `Clash of Civilizations' argument posits, among other things, that the extent of both international and domestic conflict between `civilizations' will increase with the end of the Cold War. This is expected to be especially true of clashes involving the Western and Islamic civilizations and even more so for clashes between these two civilizations. This article uses the Minorities at Risk dataset, along with independently collected variables, to test these propositions with regard to ethnic conflict, which Huntington includes in his theory under the title of `fault line' conflicts within states. The results are examined from three perspectives: globally, from the perspective of the Islamic civilization, and from the perspective of the Western civilization. Globally, there has been little change in the ratio of civilizational versus non-civilizational ethnic conflict since the end of the Cold War. There has also been little change in Islamic involvement in civilizational ethnic conflict since the end of the Cold War. However, from a Western perspective, the proportion of civilizational conflicts involving Western groups that are with Islamic groups increased dramatically after the end of the Cold War. Thus, the results show that if one focuses narrowly on the perspective of the Western civilization, there is some support for Huntington's claims regarding Islam, but not for a general increase in civilizational conflict. However, from the perspective of the Islamic civilization and from a broader global perspective, there is little support for Huntington's arguments.
Kantian Liberalism and the Collective Defense of Democracy in Latin America
Authors: PARISH RANDALL , PECENY MARK
Published: March 2007

This article highlights a systemic aspect of the liberal peace that has been underemphasized by the existing literature. It argues that the liberal peace is constructed in part by the active efforts of a variety of liberal states and international organizations to promote democracy within states. This article examines the collective defense of democracy regime in the Americas to illustrate this political dynamic and applies Immanuel Kant's original formulation of the liberal pacific union to understand the contemporary inter-American system. The combination of a stronger Organization of American States built on a liberal democratic consensus among member-states, increasing trade interdependence, and a more liberal regional hegemony has transformed the inter-American system. One of the principal manifestations of this enhanced liberalism is that states in the Americas have agreed to intervene collectively in the domestic affairs of member-states to ensure the continuation of democratic regimes. For elected leaders and economic elites throughout the region and US policymakers, this support for democratic rule reflects material self-interest more than liberal idealism. While this collective defense of democracy regime, codified in the `Santiago Commitment' of 1991, clearly reflects the increasingly liberal character of the inter-American system, this regime also challenges the principled commitment to self-determination that was essential to Kant's original formulation of the liberal pacific union. We examine the regional response to the first three overt challenges to the Santiago Commitment, in Haiti (1991), Peru (1992), and Guatemala (1993) to show how the collective defense of democracy has become a crucial element of how liberalism shapes international politics in the Americas.
Analyzing Shifts in International Conflict from Quality of Life Indicators
Authors: Vincent Jack E.
Published: March 2007

Selected quality of life indicators are linked to international conflict in the study. The primary analytic tool used is discriminant function analysis. Increased conflict appears to be linked to general government revenue increases, but expenditure decreases, along with decline and stagnation in certain measures of quality of life as indicated by such variables as infant mortality, calorie consumption, GNP growth rates and private consumption. It appears that management problems at home may lead to conflict abroad. If the finding has causal implications, efforts to assist states in areas such as agriculture, infant mortality, private consumption, etc., might help reduce conflict proneness in the international system Replication of these findings upon other data and other time periods, of course, would help strengthen this line of argument. In addition to what was found, it is interesting to note what was not found; that is, many variables which, from a theoretical perspective, could be expected to be linked to conflict were not. These included: defense expenditures/GNP, educational expenditures/GNP, military manpower, military manpower/working population, political rights, civil rights and political discrimination.
Security and Peace in Post-Cold War Europe
Authors: HETTNE BJÖRN
Published: March 2007

This paper discusses security and development issues in Europe's recent history and immediate future. The issue is how the security system affects the pattern of economic development and, conversely, the long-run effects of development on security. To understand this relationship a longer historical perspective is needed. Too much attention has been given to the EC `1992 project' compared to the more unplanned `integration' or political homogenization of greater Europe. Three distinct phases in terms of security orders are distinguished: the Hundred Years' Peace (1815-1914), the Cold War security system (1949-89) and an emerging system called the New European Security Order. We are at present entering a turbulent transition period in which several paths are open. A number of risk factors are identified and analysed. The way the security order is established and immediate security crises managed will influence the possibilities of developing a stable peace order, defined as a structure free from major contradictions and low conflict propensity. A European Peace Order, as distinct from a European Security Order, would presuppose a global peace order, the crucial feature of which will be regionalization on various levels of the world system in accordance with the model of `benign mercantilism', including Europe itself, where subregionalism may emerge as a new form of balance of power politics as an alternative to Pax Germanica.
Do African Governments Favor Defense in Budgeting?
Authors: GYIMAH-BREMPONG KWABENA
Published: March 2007

This article uses a methodology developed by Hicks & Kubisch and data from a sample of forty countries to investigate the dynamics of defense budgeting in Subsaharan Africa during the 1967-87 period. We find that African countries discriminate against defense in budgeting when budget resources are increasing. On the other hand, they favor defense in budgeting during periods of austerity. This pattern of budgeting increases the defense burden and budget shares in African countries at times when the general population is least able to shoulder such a burden, and hence the need to reallocate defense spending is greatest. We also find that African governments consistently favor defense in the allocation of foreign exchange. The pattern of defense budget allocation in Subsaharan Africa neither varies among the four geographical regions of Subsaharan Africa - West, East, Central and Southern - nor among the oil exporters and the foreign exchange constrained oil importers. This inability to decrease defense spending during periods of austerity implies that those interested in changing budgetary priorities should have to rethink the concept of defense and hence redefine defense in African societies. African defense forces may have to be redirected to be used for development purposes rather than as a fighting organization. This will decrease the conflict between the fiscal needs to decrease defense spending and the reality of inability to do so. Such a reorientation of the military will also reduce the conflict between high defense spending and long-term development in Subsaharan Africa.
After the Cold War: Emerging Patterns of Armed Conflict 1989—94
Authors: Wallensteen Peter , Sollenberg Margareta
Published: March 2007

Contrary to popular belief, the number of armed conflicts has not been rising continuously after the end of the Cold War. This article reports on global armed conflict in the period 1989-94. In 1994 there were actually fewer active armed conflicts than in any other year in this six-year period. The same is true for wars, whereas conflicts at an intermediate level of intensity have increased. The overall reduction was observed also in Europe, which had experienced a strong increase in the number of armed conflicts at the end of the Cold War. Whether the current reduction can be termed a trend depends somewhat on the periodization. For the whole six-year period it appears that a new pattern of conflict after the Cold War is emerging, with prime emphasis on challenges to existing state authority. Several internationally recognized states have lost de facto control over parts of their territory. This may result in renewed fighting along ethnic and territorial lines if states attempt to restore the previous order - but also in the creation of new states or new forms of state if a negotiated settlement is reached.
A `New', `International' History of the Cold War?
Authors: Westad Odd Arne
Published: March 2007

Taking as its point of departure the recent openings of Soviet, east European and Chinese archives, the article discusses present and future directions in Cold War historiography. While a `realist' approach, in different forms, still dominates the field, a closer look at some recent publications indicates an emerging criticism of realism, both in terms of historical analyses and in terms of research orientation. This is particularly true of scholarship on the history of Soviet and Chinese foreign affairs, both promising fields being developed by younger scholars. In conclusion, the article points to some of the issues of core relevance to Cold War history and around which the international debate will develop.
Ethnicity, Territorial Integrity, and Regional Order: Palestinian Identity in Jordan and Israel
Authors: Frisch Hillel
Published: March 2007

Will Israel and Jordan be likely to stave off Palestinian irredentism from the recently established Palestinian Authority? Will transnational Palestinian identity undermine a future regional order based on partition into sovereign territorial states? These questions may be crucial in determining whether the emerging repartition of Palestine/Israel and the creation of the Palestinian Authority in the aftermath of the Oslo peace agreement will be the culminating stage of a long process of transformation from a multinational Ottoman Empire into a stable territorial state system or the beginning of a new wave of instability and renewed division in the region. The article explores these questions by comparatively analyzing attitudinal studies of Palestinian citizens of Israel and Jordan towards their respective states, the other community, and the peace process to gauge the dangers of secessionism or irredentism of these two groups and their likely impact on regional order in the Middle East. The analysis is framed within the primordial-cultural/instrumental-rational actor debate. The willingness of these two groups to compromise primordial sentiment and preserve the territorial integrity of Israel and Jordan, and the fact that each group prefers a slightly different political outcome that conforms with their respective material interests seems to confirm the rational-actor approach, the viability of the partition approach between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, the low probability of secessionism on the part of these two groups, and the low probability of responding to irredentist pressures should the future Palestinian entity exert them.
Rwanda: The Perils of Peacemaking
Authors: Clapham Christopher
Published: March 2007

External mediation in civil conflicts since the end of the Cold War has rested on a standardized conflict resolution mechanism, which differs significantly from the state-centric mechanism prevalent during the Cold War. This accords a broadly equal standing to all parties to the conflict, and seeks to reach a settlement acceptable to them all. This, in turn, calls for a ceasefire, followed by either of two mechanisms designed to create a liberal constitutional order, guaranteed by internationally supervised elections. In the Rwanda conflict of 1990-94, conscientious implementation of this mechanism not only failed to avert genocide, but even helped to create the conditions that made it possible. This failure illustrates important weaknesses in the mechanism itself, notably the way in which mediators become implicit participants in the conflict, and the divorce of a mechanistic approach to conflict resolution from the political prerequisites for a successful settlement.
Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of South Africa
Authors: Percival Val , Homer-Dixon Thomas
Published: March 2007

The causal relationship between environmental scarcities - the scarcity of renewable resources - and the outbreak of violent conflict is complex. Environmental scarcity emerges within a political, social economic, and ecological context and interacts with many of these contextual factors to contribute to violence. To examine this relationship, we outline a theoretical framework defining scarcities, the social effects arising from these scarcities, and the ensuing movement towards violence. We subsequently apply this framework to analyse the link between environmental scarcities and violent conflict in South Africa. Within South Africa, violence arose at precisely the same time that many anticipated a transformation to a more peaceful society - upon the release of Nelson Mandela, the end of the ban on political activity and the official end to apartheid. This article provides a new perspective on these events by analysing the link between South Africa's environmental scarcity and violent conflict.
Demographic Pressure and Interstate Conflict: Linking Population Growth and Density to Militarized Disputes and Wars, 1930-89
Authors: Tir Jaroslav , Diehl Paul F.
Published: March 2007

This study offers some empirical evidence on the relationship between population pressure and international conflict. Most of the work on population or in the area of environmental security focuses on internal conflict and does not include longitudinal and cross-national evidence to support its arguments. Here, we looked at the impact of population growth and density on international conflict involvement, initiation, and escalation for all states in the international system over the period 1930-89. Generally, population growth pressures had a significant impact on the likelihood that a state would become involved in military conflict. The relationship was modest, as expected, but seems to confirm the more pessimistic of the views of population and conflict. Significant military capability might be necessary for population pressures to lead to conflict, and low technology countries are more subject to population pressures and conflict involvement than their more advanced peers. In part, our results also suggest that some portion of the optimist argument may be correct — advanced technology may mitigate some of the deleterious effects of high population growth. Although there was a positive relationship between population growth and conflict, there was little or no evidence that such growth made states more likely to be the initiator of that conflict or make that conflict more likely to escalate to war. Similar to earlier studies, we were unable to link population density to conflict at the nation-state level. There was scant evidence in all three analyses (involvement, initiation, and escalation) that overcrowding exercised any significant impact on state decision-making. It appears that states do not engage in conflict in order to acquire new land to support a burgeoning population. Thus, there are substantial limits to the validity of extending overcrowding arguments to the context of interstate relations.
Armed Conflict and Regional Conflict Complexes, 1989-97
Authors: Wallensteen Peter , Sollenberg Margareta
Published: March 2007

A total of 103 armed conflicts has been recorded for the years 1989-97. Of these, 33 were active in 1997. Six interstate armed conflicts were recorded for the period, of which one was active in 1997. The period exhibits a decline in total number of conflicts per year; a decline is also found in all regions with the exception of Africa. All new conflicts in 1996 and 1997 took place in Africa. More than half of the conflicts was linked to conflicts in neighbouring states. Regional conflict complexes were found in all regions, but were particularly significant in Europe and in Africa, where they also reached high levels of intensity.