bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The behaviour of growing pigs during experimental social encounters
Authors: Fraser D.
Published: March 2009

Three experiments studied the behaviour of pigs which were brought together for brief periods of observation on successive days. Two distinct patterns of aggressive behaviour were observed, one involving biting and the other involving butting. Biting was common when the pigs first met, and butting seemed to replace biting in some cases. Pairs of pigs which had no previous contact frequently showed a straight forward type of dominance with one pig performing almost all the biting and butting; among well-acquainted pairs, however, the relationships were frequently more complex.

Of all the experimental manipulations, familiarity between two animals had the most profound effect on the behaviour. Biting, but not butting, was reduced if the pigs were housed in neighbouring pens, or if they had previously shared the same pen. Biting was almost eliminated, and butting was reduced, if the pigs lived together throughout the time of the observations. There were no differences between females and castrated males, or between individually-housed and group-housed animals in either type of behaviour.

Pigs which were subjected to repeated biting generally became less active, refraining from some social and non-social activities. Butting did not appear to have similar effects on the recipient animals.

The experiments illustrated some complex social interactions involving a large number of distinct social activities. In this light, the usefulness of such broad terms as ‘aggression’ and ‘dominance’ is discussed.
Investigations on clover sickness
Authors: Mann Harold H.
Published: March 2009

The fact that land which frequently bears a crop of clover becomes rapidly unfit to bear further crops of this plant is a very old observation in all countries where clover is grown. In England, Arthur Young (1804) called attention to it and to the fact that farmers were accustomed to call this unfitness “clover sickness”. The cause of this soil condition has been a matter of careful study since early in the nineteenth century, and some of the most interesting observations on the subject were made by Lawes & Gilbert (1860) in the years preceding 1860. They showed that the lack of capacity to grow clover did not seem to be connected with any deficiency in the principal specific plant foods in the soil, and the only contrary evidence was the fact that when a rich garden soil was substituted for the ordinary field soil, it was possible to grow clover for a much longer period without failure (Gilbert, 1871). The final conclusion of Lawes & Gilbert as to the so-called clover sickness was that the only means of ensuring a good crop of red clover is to allow some years to elapse before repeating the crop on the same land.
The nutrition of the bacon pig: III. The minimum level of protein intake consistent with quick growth and satisfactory carcass quality (Part I)
Authors: Woodman H. E. , Evans R. E. , Turpitt W. G. , Callow E. H.
Published: March 2009

The influence of three feeding treatments of differing protein content on growth and carcass quality in bacon pigs has been investigated by the individual-feeding and group-feeding techniques. The protein supplement, which was used in conjunction with barley meal, weatings and a small allowance of lucerne meal, was composed of a mixture of ex. soya-bean meal, dried separated milk and feeding blood meal. Expressing, on the nitrogen basis, the amount of protein food in terms of its equivalent of white fish meal, the standard-protein treatment B supplied the equivalent of 9% of fish meal up to 90 lb. live weight, 7·6% from 90 to 150 lb. live weight and 3·8% from 150 to 200 lb. live weight. The corresponding figures for the low-protein treatment A were 4·5, 3·8 and 1·9%, and for the high-protein treatment C, 18, 15·2 and 7·6%.

Considering the period of feeding up to 200 lb. live weight as a whole, it was found that differences of feeding treatment gave rise to no significant differences in respect of mean rate of live-weight increase and efficiency of food conversion (see Table VI). Only in the earliest stage of the feeding period did the pigs on the low-protein treatment A show a slightly, though significantly, lower rate of live-weight increase and poorer efficiency of food conversion than the pigs on treatments B and C, but such differences had ceased to be manifested by the time the pigs had arrived at 60 lb. live weight, and the slight initial disadvantage experienced by the low-protein pigs was wiped out during the later stages of the feeding period.
A note on the employment of a mixture of sand and calcium bentonite as the growth medium in pot culture and the establishment therein of a sward of perennial rye grass
Authors: Greenhill A. W. , Page H. J.
Published: March 2009

Summary and Conclusions

1. A mixture of sand and bentonite (after converting it to the calcium clay), containing 6 per cent, by weight of the latter, was found to be a suitable medium in pot cultures for the growth of grass. A good sward of perennial rye grass was established in the medium by suitable watering, manuring and cutting of the grass, within 11 weeks of sowing.

2. The mixture allowed of easy control of the moisture content, and appeared to possess a moisture-retaining capacity comparable with that of a natural soil.

3. The mixture is almost totally deficient in both nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and markedly deficient in potash and in some of the less common elements necessary for plant growth.

4. In view of the above properties and of the buffering action due to the presence of the bentonite, the mixture would appear to be suited to the more general study in pot culture of plant nutrition problems, and to offer several important advantages over either sand alone or natural soil for this purpose.
Quantitative analysis of the growth, development and distribution of flowers and pods in oil seed rape (Brassica napus L.)
Authors: Tayo T. O. , Morgan D. G.
Published: March 2009

The growth and development of single plants of oil seed rape, variety Zollerngold, are described quantitatively and particular attention paid to the sequence and pattern of flower and pod production on the different inflorescences. The period of flower opening over the whole plant spanned an average of 26 days and more than 75% of the pods which were retained to maturity were formed from flowers which opened within 14 days of anthesis. Most of these flowers were found on the terminal raceme and on the basal and middle regions of the axillary inflorescences arising from the uppermost three nodes.
Studies in the Yield of Tea. II. The Seasonal and Sampling Variation in Yield and Mineral Composition of the Tea Leaf. (With One Text-figure.)
Authors: Eden T.
Published: March 2009

1. Samples of tea leaf from different portions of the same field were analysed for ash, nitrogen, potash and phosphate on thirty-five consecutive plucking rounds extending over a period of seventeen months for which yields were also recorded.

2. The significant variations obtained are shown to be partly due to seasonal differences which affect all the constituents and to persistent differences between portions of the field in the case of yield, ash and potash. No significant differences were detected between the nitrogen and phosphate status of different portions of the field, although the sampling errors were not larger than those of the former category.

3. These results indicate that the sampling technique is satisfactory, a point of some importance in view of laboratory investigations on tea manufacture, and confirm the finding from other considerations that the standard of plucking can be maintained at a reasonably high level.
Some effects of differing times of seedling emergence, population density and seed size on root-size variation in carrot populations
Authors: Benjamin L. R.
Published: March 2009

In three experiments the effects of population density, spread in time of seedling emergence and variation in seed size on carrot plant-to-plant root-size variation were investigated.

In the first experiment, coefficient of variation, c.v., of root dry weight was only 27–33% when using uniform growing conditions, graded seed, low population density and synchronous seedling emergence (i.e. over 3–11 days). Allowing asynchronous emergence (i.e. over 8–21 days) increased the c.v. to 32–37%, whereas increasing population density from 25 to 400 plants/m2, but maintaining synchronous seedling emergence, produced a c.v. of 57–73%. Asynchronous emergence combined with high population density increased the c.v. even further to 79–97%. Spread in time of emergence was associated with 5–48% of the plant-to-plant root-size variation. Thus asynchrony of seedling emergence was a source of plant-to-plant root-size variation and this effect was magnified by high population density, but other sources of variation were also important. Statistical analysis showed that the effects of these other sources of root-size variation were no greater in populations where emergence had occurred over only 3 or 4 days than in those where emergence had occurred over 3 weeks.

There was no effect on root-size frequency distribution in a second experiment in which the spread of seedling emergence was truncated from 19 to 14 days by spraying paraquat onto the first seedlings to emerge from field plots.

In a third experiment seeds 1·6–2·0 or 1·0–1·25 mm in diameter were grown in pure or mixed populations under conditions similar to those of the synchronous emergence high-density treatment of Expt 1. Storage roots derived from the large seeds weighed 38% more than those derived from the small seeds. Thus differences in seed size caused some of the root-size variation not already linked with different seedling emergence times. However, the c.v. of root dry weight from all the plants in mixed seed population was not greater than the c.v.s of root dry weight of either of the pure seed populations.
Response by sugar beet to various amounts and times of application of sodium chloride fertilizer in relation to soil type
Authors: Draycott A. P. , Bugg Susan M.
Published: March 2009

Two-thirds of the sugar-beet crop in the U.K. receives sodium chloride as part of the fertilizer programme. It is well known that the crop responds profitably on sandy soils which contain relatively little sodium and potassium, and most of these fields now receive sodium chloride. Few crops on clays, silts and organic soils are treated because the value of sodium chloride has never been clearly defined. Thus 36 field experiments were made over the 5 years 1975–9 on contrasting soil types testing five amounts of sodium chloride, 0, 100, 200, 400 and 800 kg/ha, and at two times, either autumn or spring. All the fields chosen were in continuous arable rotations where potassium chloride was applied regularly and nearly all the soils contained more than 120 mg exchangeable K/l.

Sodium chloride (400 kg/ha costing £12) increased sugar yield on average by about 0·2 t/ha (worth £40) on the mineral soils but no crop responded on organic soil. Exchangeable soil sodium concentration was not a good predictive test of which fields would respond but all the large increases in yield were on fields with less than 20 mg Na/1. A few crops responded on soils with 20–40 mg Na/1 but no crop responded on soil with more than 40 mg Na/1. A survey of sodium concentrations in 800 soils showed that most mineral soils contained less than 40 mg Na/1 so it is suggested that all mineral soils regardless of texture should receive 400 kg sodium chloride/ha. Crops on organic soils did not respond to sodium chloride because the soils already contained sufficient.

Autumn and spring applications of sodium chloride on mineral soils gave similar increases in yield provided the fertilizer was not applied just before sowing, when in 2 years it decreased plant establishment. This effect was particularly damaging on clays and silts where it is frequently difficult for other reasons to obtain good seed beds and full establishment. It is concluded that sodium-containing fertilizers should always be applied well ahead of sowing to allow rainfall and cultivations to incorporate them into the soil. On clays and silts it is suggested that they should be applied before ploughing to avoid soil compaction but on sands there may be advantages in post-ploughing application.
Genetic relationships between winter survival in Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam) and yield in the previous season
Authors: England F.
Published: March 2009

Evidence is presented that, in Italian ryegrass, the ability to survive in the sward into a second year after sowing may be assessed on spaced plants or on closely planted rows. There is no indication that selection for the ability to survive into the second year need cause loss of yield in the first year after sowing. In an earlier paper based on the same experiment (England, 1975) incorrect formulae were used for calculating family heritabilities and genetic correlations. In an appendix the correct formulae are derived and the consequent changes in the conclusions of the previous paper are described.
The effects of changes in fertilizer application on glasshouse-grown plants of dihaploid potatoes, their chromosome-doubled derivatives and tetraploid parents
Authors: Maine M. J. De
Published: March 2009

Comparisons were made of the tuber yield and leaf morphology of three dihaploids, their chromosome-doubled derivatives and tetraploid parthenogenetic parents grown in a glasshouse at low, medium and high fertilizer levels. Differences in yield between the dihaploids and doubled dihaploids were not significant (P > 0·05) and responses to increases in fertilizer were similar. Leaf complexity showed generally large (usually significant, P< 0·05) increases when the fertilizer level was increased from medium to high. For the heterozygous tetraploid parents the tuber yield increased more than leaf complexity. Probably the dihaploids and doubled dihaploids utilized the additional fertilizer to increase foliage growth rather than tuber yield whereas the converse was the case for the tetraploid parents. There was no evidence that chromosome doubling resulted in changes in the response of dihaploid genotypes to changes in the fertilizer level.
Utilization of energy for maintenance and production in dairy cows given protected tallow during early lactation
Authors: Brumby P. E. , Storry J. E. , Bines J. A. , Fulford Rosemary J.
Published: March 2009

During the first 13 weeks of lactation, four groups of seven cows were given hay and a basal concentrate mix containing 0, 1·7, 3·3 or 5·0 kg/day of a protected lipid supplement (320 g long-chain fatty acid/kg D.M.). The proportion of hay to total concentrate was maintained at 25:75 and cows were fed to appetite.

The total amount of energy digested corrected for endogenous loss (DEc) was partitioned into crude protein energy (CPEc), fatty-acid energy (FAEc), ‘carbohydrate’ (non-protein non-fatty acid) energy (CEC) and non-fatty-acid energy (NFAEc = CPEc + CEc).

Partial efficiency of milk production and live-weight gain was curvilinearly related to FAEc, maximum efficiency occurring at about 30 MJ/day of FAEc.

Net energy utilized was significantly related to DE0c for both of the periods considered, Weeks 2–6 and weeks 7–13. In addition, a curvilinear effect of the ratio of fatty acid energy to non-fatty-acid energy was established. At fixed intakes of digestibl energy, net energy utilized was maximal for ratios of FAEc/NFAEc of 0·14 and 0·18 for weeks 2–6 and 7–13 respectively.

Milk yield was significantly related to DEc for weeks 1–6 and 7–13; milk energy yield was significantly related to DEc for weeks 7–13. The multiple regression relationships between milk yield or milk energy yield and CPEc, FAEc and CEc gave a negative effect of crude protein, possibly indicating that the proportion of total energy supplied as crude protein (18–26% of DEc) was above the optimum requirement.

At fixed intakes of digestible energy, outputs of milk and milk energy were maximal at ratios of FAEc/NFAEc of 0·16 and 0·15 for weeks 1–6 and 7–13 respectively. The inclusion of a curvilinear effect of total energy (DEc2) gave some indication that utilization of energy for milk production for weeks 7–13 diminished at the highest digestible energy intakes whilst energy utilized for live-weight gain increased.
Observations on the follicle population of Blackface Sheep
Authors: Burns Marca
Published: March 2009

The follicle population of the Blackface breed (‘double-coated’) was followed in skin samples taken from four lambs at eight intervals between 3 days and 43 weeks of age. The follicle population differs greatly from that of the Romney and Leicester breeds previously studied (Burns, 1949).

1. At 1 month old the secondary/primary follicle ratio (S/P) was slightly lower than the Leicester and much lower than the Romney, and the difference became accentuated with age.

2. Fewer secondary follicles are developed after birth than in the Leicester or Romney, although the period during which they can be developed is longer, extending at least to 12 and possibly to 17 weeks after birth.

3. The follicle density is less than half that of the Leicester, but the difference in S/P ratio is not sufficiently large to account for this, which is mainly due to the Blackface having a much lower density of primary follicles at birth.

4. The possibility is suggested that the secondary follicles arise as a result of ‘induction’ by ‘follicle organizer’ coming from primary follicles in a quantity which decreases with advancing age. It may be that when the primary density is high the areas affected by organizer from each primary overlap, providing sufficient organizer to permit of numerous secondary follicles developing at a late post-natal stage, as reported in the Merino.

5. The Blackface contrast with the other breeds in that its primary follicles are conspicuously larger than its largest secondary follicles. All primary fibres are medullated except when about to shed, but many secondary fibres are free of medulla. Kemps are produced only by primary follicles, some of which however produce long ‘hair’ fibres.

6. Many fibres which grow strongly medullated fibres during summer change to the production of non-medullated fibres in winter. The shedding of the kemps in spring should probably be looked upon as physiologically an autumn moult, since the fibres cease growth and produce ‘brushes’ during the autumn.
Body weights of some New Zealand Jersey and Friesian cattle
Authors: Campbell I. L. , Flux D. S.
Published: March 2009

The mean body weights and standard deviations of body weights at monthly intervals of female Jersey and Friesian cattle on the Massey Agricultural College and Dairy Research Institute farms at Palmerston North, New Zealand, are presented in graphs.

A summary of some of these mean weights is presented in the following table:
Factors affecting the measurements of draught force, work output and power of oxen
Authors: Lawrence P. R. , Pearson R. Anne
Published: March 2009

Measurements were taken of the draught force, speed and power of three pairs of oxen performing a variety of tasks for long (30 sec) or short (5 sec) periods. True draught force was measured by integrating the force exerted with respect to distance (DADF) and apparent draught force by integrating with respect to time (TADF). The latter type of measurement is that normally obtained from commercially available dynamometers.

In the first experiment short TADF measurements were found to be greater and more variable than long DADF measurements by up to 38% for a variety of jobs. In the second and third experiments in which TADF and DADF were measured completely simultaneously, TADF was nearly always larger than DADF, and the difference tended to be greater with large or jerky loads and smaller, less experienced oxen.

For any given task, the observed variability in replicate measurements of draught force or power was substantially reduced by using long rather than short measurements. However, this effect was not observed in the case of speed of travel.
On the diurnal variation in lambing and time for placenta expulsion in Awassi ewes
Authors: Younis A. A. , El-Gaboory I. A. H.
Published: March 2009

Studies of ewe behaviour are not only necessary to facilitate management procedures but also to ensure high productivity. Indeed, information on the ewe behaviour during parturition would help in reducing ewe and lamb wastage, but there is little information available. This paper gives information on the diurnal variation in lambing and time taken for placenta expulsion in Awassi ewes.
Tuber formation in yam (Dioscorea spp.): effect of moisture stress; contribution of the parent sett
Authors: Onwueme I. C.
Published: March 2009

Setts of water yarn (Dioscorea alata) weighing 75 g each were pre-sprouted in sawdust and then grown in soil. The plants were subjected to moisture stress by withholding water from day 15 to 35, or day 36 to 56 or by watering only once every 14 days. In all cases, tuber initiation was delayed, the greatest delay being in the plants that were watered once every 14 days.

Some setts of D. rotundata that were placed in moist sawdust were seen to produce new tubers without their shoots emerging above the sawdust level. This was taken to indicate that some of the photosynthate in the sett was being transferred into the new tuber. This could offer a partial explanation for the greater tuber yield that results from larger setts.
Utilization of partially hydrolysed starch in milk replacers by newborn lambs
Authors: Soliman H. S. , ørskov E. R. , Atkinson T. , Smart R. I.
Published: March 2009

Three experiments were carried out to study the effect of replacing milk carbohydrates and part of the milk fat in milk with partially hydrolysed starch (Protamyl 110). Male and female cross-bred lambs (Suffolk × (Finnish Landrace × Dorset Horn)) were used in these experiments. They were weaned from their dams after having received colostrum at 1–2 days of age. The experimental diets were given at room temperature, in eight aliquots, at 3-h intervals through an automated feeding unit. The level of feeding was 1·05 MJ/kg0·75 live weight/day.

In the first experiment, the diets were formulated to contain 28, 17 and 55% of their gross energy as protein, carbohydrate and fat respectively. Diet 1 contained glucose, while diets 2, 3 and 4 had 33, 67 and 100% of glucose respectively replaced by Protamyl. There were no significant differences in growth rate and food utilization between levels of starch inclusion.

In Expt 2, the maximum Protamyl that could be incorporated in lamb milk replacers was examined. Four experimental diets were prepared so that 17 and 55; 25 and 47; 33 and 39; and 41 and 31% of their gross energy was supplied by Protamyl or butter fat respectively. It was found that up to 33% of the gross energy of the diet (41% of the dry matter) could be replaced with Protamyl without adverse effects on lamb performance. When the level of inclusions was increased to 41% of the gross energy (49% of the dry matter), lamb performance was depressed, particularly during the first 15 days of the experiment.

In Expt 3, a direct comparison was made between Protamyl and lactose. The two diets used were similar in composition to diets 1 and 4 in Expt 1, except that lactose was used as a control instead of glucose. There were no differences in growth rate or food utilization as a result of replacing lactose with Protamyl.

The results are discussed in relation to the development of carbohydrases in new born ruminants.
On the occurrence of oestrus in pregnant Barki and Merino ewes
Authors: Younis A. A. , Afifi E. A.
Published: March 2009

The incidence of oestrus in pregnant ewes has been reported previously by Williams et al. (1956) and Bichard et al. (1974). However, their investigations were not designed specifically to study such a phenomenon and the number of animals employed was small. None of the factors affecting oestrus occurrence was investigated. Under experimental conditions, vasectomized or aproned rams are sometimes used after the removal of fertile rams to detect embryonic failure in pregnant ewes. It is of interest to check on the validity of this method. This study was carried out to obtain an estimate of the incidence of oestrus in early pregnancy using relatively large numbers of fat-tailed Barki and imported Hungarian Merino ewes and to investigate the effect of year, breed of ewe and age of ewe on its occurrence.
Breeding sunflower for semi-arid regions
Authors: Ghanavati N. A. , Nahavandi E. , Ghaderi A.
Published: March 2009

A breeding programme was initiated to develop populations of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), suitable for the semi-arid regions of Iran. Crosses were made between Chernianka 66 (having low yield, low oil content, short stem, and early maturity), as the female parent and VNIMK 8931 and Record (having high yield, high oil content, long stem, and late maturity) as the male parents. Selection, together with selfing and sib-crossing, resulted in six populations with high yields, high oil content, short stems, and early maturity.

Correlation coefficients of oil yield and its components, i.e. seed yield and oil content, were highly significant and significant respectively. Capitulum diameter had highly significant correlations with seed yield and oil yield. Earlier maturity was associated with shorter stems and lower oil content.
Effect of different rates of application of organic and nitrogen fertilizers in a rice-based cropping system
Authors: Sharma A. R. , Mittra B. N.
Published: March 2009

The effect on soil fertility and crop performance of different organic fertilizers; paddy straw (PS), farmyard manure (FYM), water hyacinth compost (WHC) and tank silt (TS), at different rates of application and in combination with N fertilizer, was studied in a rice-based cropping system on an acid lateritic soil at Kharagpur, India, during 1985/86. Organic manuring of wet-season rice (first crop) with 5 t PS/ha 10 days before transplanting and 10 t FYM or 10 t WHC/ha at transplanting increased grain yield as much as the application of 30 kg N/ha. Increasing the rates of FYM and WHC application up to 15 t/ha increased yield but increasing the rate of PS beyond 5 t/ha did not. Response to increasing amounts of N was not linear; there was a significant increase up to 90 kg N/ha and a decrease when N was applied in conjunction with organic fertilizers. There was a significant increase in the N uptake of the rice but a decrease in the recovery of applied fertilizer N with the application of increasing rates of organic and N fertilizer.

The organic C content of the soil after the rice harvest increased significantly after PS application, whereas there was more available N after WHC and FYM. Increasing the rate of application of PS up to 15 t/ha increased organic C but not available N. Mineral N fertilizer had little effect on fertility build-up. Grain yields of wheat and gram (Cicer arietinum), grown after rice without any additional fertilizer, increased significantly. The residual N effect of the previous crop on wheat or gram yield was small and adding fertilizer directly is considered essential for higher productivity in these crops in a rice-based cropping system.
Germplasm evaluation of dual-season lentil (Lens culinaris) lines for the arid highlands of west Asia
Authors: Ali Asghar , Keatinge J. D. H. , Khan B. Roidar , Ahmad Sarfraz
Published: March 2009

Experiments to evaluate the suitability of lentil lines using an innovative dual-season approach for improved and reliable production under the harsh environmental conditions of the highlands of west Asia were conducted in Balochistan for 3 years (1986/87, 1987/88 and 1988/89) by the Arid Zone Research Institute. Two ICARDA-bred lines, ILL5865 and ILL5677, when assessed using a wide range of seeding times, appeared to be sufficiently flexible and well adapted to the conditions of extreme cold and aridity to be able to replace the ultra small-seeded local landrace. These ICARDA lines have seed sizes approximately double those of the local landrace and results of consumer acceptability studies suggest that the lines will have desirable marketing qualities. These two lines were selected for further larger-scale agronomy trials at multiple sites in Balochistan in subsequent seasons. Other lines, ILL5690, ILL1939 and ILL5730, have also shown potential, but only at certain seeding times and, as such, will be retained for further assessment in ongoing germplasm evaluation trials.

Initial findings indicate that there are now good prospects for identifying dual-season lentil lines suitable for introduction into highland farming systems. However, further research will be required before new lentil lines will be an attainable reality for a large proportion of the dryland farming community of west Asia.
Variation in development of contrasting rice cultivars
Authors: Senanayake N. , Naylor R. E. L. , Datta S. K. De , Thomson W. J.
Published: March 2009

Experiments were conducted in glasshouses at IRRI, Philippines, during 1987 and 1988 to identify varietal differences in apical development using six rice cultivars having extreme characters; Jirasar 280 (early senescence), Neo-Dunghan 1 (late senescence), Macunting (small seeds), ABB (large seeds), C12474–1 (long culm), and B581–A6–458 (short culm); and five cultivars, IR20, IR22, IR34, IR54, IR64, of the same growth duration.

The length of time from physiological panicle initiation (PI) to flowering varied from 25 to 50 days. The onset of physiological PI occurred when the fourth penultimate leaf was fully exserted. The visual panicle initiation stage (VPI) coincided with spikelet differentiation in all cultivars. Nitrogen top-dressing at 55–57 days before the anticipated maturity date (the present N management recommendation) did not coincide with the actual panicle initiation stage in any of the cultivars and the major yield determinants (i.e. the primary and secondary branches) therefore differentiated in conditions of internal nitrogen shortage. Spikelet abortion took place both before and after flowering. Reduction of pre-flowering abortion is important in increasing rice grain yields and could be achieved by improved N management. It is important to recognise cultivar differences and periods of loss of potential yield in developing efficient N management protocols.
Comparison of digestive and chewing efficiency and time spent eating and ruminating in sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus)
Authors: Semiadi G. , Barry T. N. , Stafford K. J. , Muir P. D. , Reid C. S. W.
Published: March 2009

Artificially reared sambar (tropical) deer and red (temperate) deer were confined indoors in metabolism cages and fed chaffed lucerne hay ad libitum for 4-week periods during summer and winter at Flock House Agricultural Centre, New Zealand, during 1992. Measurements were made of voluntary feed intake (VFI), apparent digestibility, faeces particle size distribution, eating and ruminating time and the rate of chewing during eating and ruminating. Red deer reduced VFI (kg DMI/day) markedly from summer to winter, associated with a reduction in the duration of each eating bout. Sambar deer slightly increased VFI over this time, associated with an increase in chewing frequency. Digestive efficiency was similar in both species, and the critical particle size for leaving the rumen was passage through a 1 mm sieve for both species. Time spent eating/g DMI was greater for sambar deer than for red deer during summer, but there was no difference during winter. Relative to red deer, sambar deer consistently spent more time ruminating/g DMI, and spent a greater proportion of total ruminating time as daytime ruminating and had more daytime ruminating bouts. Duration of each ruminating bout (min) was similar for the two deer species, but sambar deer had less chews/bolus ruminated but more rumination boli/h than red deer. Differences between sambar deer and red deer were more pronounced in ruminating than in eating behaviour, and sambar deer may have evolved a different rumination pattern to break down low-quality tropical forages more effectively.
Administration in suspension-form of n-alkane external markers for dry matter intake and diet selection studies
Authors: Marais J. P. , Figenschou D. L. , Escott-Watson P. L. , Webber L. N.
Published: March 2009

Milled grass particles were coated with n-alkanes and suspended in a xanthan gum solution. Experiments snowed that grass particles could be coated uniformly with alkanes by means of a rotary evaporator. Further experiments showed that the grass particles, in stable xanthan gum suspension, could be accurately dispensed. The coefficients of variation of the alkane content per dose delivered by means of a dosing gun and syringe were 2·6 and 2·3%, respectively. There was no significant difference between the concentration of faecal alkanes derived from alkanes dosed in suspension-form and alkanes placed directly into the rumen.
Some morphological characters and yield of broad bean (Vicia faba) as affected by pesticide treatments
Authors: El-Sayed S. F. , Badawi M. A. , Mahmoud I. M. , Motawa M. H.
Published: March 2009

Two field experiments were conducted at Giza, Egypt in the winter seasons of 1990 and 1991, to study the effects of two fungicides (Dithane M45 and Saprol), two insecticides (Rogor and Pirimor), two acaricides (Tedifol and Comite) and two herbicides (Lancer and Cobex) on some morphological characters and yield of broad bean. The investigated pesticides were used at the recommended doses.

All pesticidal treatments reduced the percentage of missing plants at harvest. They also, except Lancer, led to an increase in the total yield of green pods and dry seeds. Individual treatments of Saprol, Dithane M45 and Cobex significantly increased the number and weight of green pods/plant and yield of dry seeds/plant. The individual treatment by Pirimor or Rogor also led to an increment in yield of dry seeds/plant. Lancer proved to be toxic to broad bean plants, as it caused a reduction in the number of branches and plant productivity of green pods and dry seeds.
Dietary nitrogen and phosphorus depletion in cattle and their effects on liveweight gain, blood metabolite concentrations and phosphorus kinetics
Authors: Bortolussi G. , Ternouth J. H. , McMeniman N. P.
Published: March 2009

In a 15-week animal-house experiment, 24 steers were offered one of six diets based on molasses andad libitumbarley straw. Three levels of dietary nitrogen (N) and three levels of dietary phosphorus (P), in factorial combination, were formulated by the addition of urea, formaldehyde-treated wheat gluten and monosodium orthophosphate. Food intake, liveweight gain, plasma metabolites and P kinetics were measured under dietary regimens similar to those experienced by cattle grazing Australia's northern semi-arid rangelands.

The adverse effect of the low dietary N on both liveweight change and feed intake was greater and more immediate than that of the dietary P deficiency. The reduction in feed intake due to the P deficiency approached that caused by the N deficiency after 10 weeks. Under conditions of adequate dietary N, there was a trend for the effects of P deficiency on liveweight gain to be exacerbated. Dietary N and P deficiency reduced the concentrations of plasma urea-N and inorganic P respectively. Dietary N deficiency had no effect on cortical rib bone thickness but P deficiency markedly decreased bone thickness. Faecal endogenous loss of P and P absorption efficiency ranged from 9 to 21 mg/kg LW and 0·63 to 0·82 respectively for P intakes from 6 to 41 mg·kg LW. Faecal endogenous losses were closely related to dry matter intake and plasma inorganic P together. Dietary N deficiency affected the efficiency of absorption of P.

The results of this experiment indicate that cattle consuming diets containing low levels of N and P require supplementary N and P in combination to avoid severe depletion since an increase in N intake alone exacerbated the P deficiency. The results are also discussed in relation to the published findings regarding P metabolism and the implications for the calculation of P requirements.
Influence of row spacing on growth, light and water use by sorghum
Authors: McGowan M. , Taylor H. M. , Willingham J.
Published: March 2009

Grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) was grown in Texas in 1985 at a constant population density of c. 6·6 plants/m2 in rows 0·5, 1·0 and 1·5 m apart and with the soil profile at field capacity at planting time. Dry matter production and yield were least at the widest spacing, principally because of a reduction in number of tillers. Dry matter accumulation was in direct proportion to the amount of light intercepted and largely independent of spacing between rows, with a conversion coefficient of 1·71 g dry matter/MJ energy intercepted. The most widely spaced crop used less water but not in proportion to the extent that ground cover was reduced. Water use efficiency was also less in the most widely spaced crop, probably because of heat advection from the bare soil between rows.
The effect of liming on heavy metal concentrations in wheat, carrots and spinach grown on previously sludge-applied soils
Authors: Hooda P. S. , Alloway B. J.
Published: March 2009

Liming is often recommended to minimize the plant uptake of potentially toxic elements from sludgeamended soils. In outdoor experiments conducted during 1989–91 in a rural location, near Brentwood (UK), wheat, carrots and spinach were grown on soils from a wide range of sites previously amended with heavy applications of sewage sludge. The objective of these studies was to examine the effect of liming on the accumulation of sludge-borne metals in the crop plants. The results showed that liming the soils to pH 7 prior to sowing significantly reduced metal concentrations in carrots and spinach, although the reduction appeared to be greater for Cd, Ni and Zn than for Cu and Pb. The wheat crop was grown on soils which had been limed 2 years previously, and the average pH of these soils was 6·5 compared to a pH value of 5·95 in the unlimed soils. This comparatively small pH difference between limed and unlimed soils (6·50–5·95) generally had little influence on metal contents in wheat.

These results suggested that maintaining the soil at pH 7 is better than pH 6·5 for minimizing the accumulation of potentially toxic elements from soils which have received relatively high levels of sludge application over many years. The data for winter wheat suggested either that metal uptake into the grain was not sensitive to differences in soil pH or that a relatively small residual effect of past liming was not high enough to reduce metal uptake.
Cohesion in colloidal soils
Authors: Hardy F.
Published: March 2009

1. Experiments in which were measured the resistances to (a) transverse breaking, (b) crushing, and (c) parting under tensile pull of standard blocks of soil prepared in different ways and under particular moisture conditions are described and discussed.

2. The soils examined comprised three highly colloidal siliceous soils containing amounts of calcium carbonate ranging from 7·2 to 0·2 percent., and two red lateritic soils.

3. The most significant results were obtained by employing, in a special tenacity apparatus, granular test-blocks, prepared by moistening sieve-graded dry soil packed into rectangular moulds. The results thus obtained are believed to furnish a reliable measure of the cohesiveness of soil colloidal matter, especially in soil blocks that have previously been brought to constant moisture content in a humidifier. The method of preparation simulates the effect of rain in causing the “running together” of colloidal soil particles.

4. The relative cohesiveness of the soils examined appears to follow the same order as their rates of settling from aqueous suspension. This observation strengthens the view that cohesiveness in colloidal soils is to a certain extent due to chemical forces that depend on the presence of active atoms or atomic groups possessing powerful fields of residual affinity, although probably film tension also plays a part.
Minerals of carcass soft tissue and bone of serially slaughtered cattle as affected by biological type and management
Authors: Nour A. Y. M. , Thonne M. L.
Published: March 2009

Mineral concentrations of soft tissue and bone were measured in carcasses from cattle slaughtered serially across a wide weight range. Seventy-four small framed Angus steers and 71 Holstein steers were selected to represent diverse mature types. Cattle were individually fed ad libitumeither a maize grain or maize silage diet, housed inside a barn or in outside pens and slaughtered over five weights within breed. After slaughter, a half-carcass was separated into soft tissue (lean and fat) and bone. Tissues were ground, freeze-dried and K, P, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn were measured. Concentrations of minerals were analysed by covariance analysis, using carcass weight as a covariate.

The relationships between carcass weight and concentrations of all soft tissue minerals except Na and Zn were not affected by diet, breed or type of housing. Concentration of Na decreased with increasing carcass weight and at a slower rate in soft tissue of grain-fed cattle than in soft tissue of silage-fed cattle. Concentration of Zn increased with increased carcass weight in Angus, while in Holsteins it decreased. Soft tissue of Angus and Holsteins had similar concentrations of Fe and Mn. Holsteins had higher concentrations of the other minerals in soft tissue than Angus, possibly because they were at an earlier stage of maturity at the same carcass weight. Carcass weight had no effect on K, Ca, Fe or Cu content of soft tissue.

Diet influenced concentrations of P, Ca and Na in bone and affected the relationship of bone Fe to carcass weight. Due to their later stage of maturity at the same carcass weight, Angus had less K and more Ca, Na and Zn in bone than Holsteins. Carcass weight had no influence on K, P, Mg, Na, Cu or Mn content of bone.

These data provide baseline values for future studies, show that breed mature size differences in mineral concentrations of soft tissue and carcass bone may exist and that diet may influence concentration of soft tissue Na and some bone minerals.
Herbage yields of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) accessions in a humid tropical environment as affected by pruning management
Authors: Cobbina J.
Published: March 2009

Twelve accessions of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan [L.] Millsp.) were grown on an Alfisol in a humid ecozone in Nigeria in 1989. At 4 and 8 months after planting (MAP), the primary growth was cut to determine the effect of age at first pruning on stump survival and coppice regrowth, and also on total herbage yield in a 12-month pruning cycle. It was clear that a height of 3 m or more is adequate for pigeonpea to receive its first cut with only 10% stool mortalities. Cutting the primary shoot at 8 MAP (in the dry season) ensured greater stump survival and also stimulated rapid coppice shoot regrowth, indicating the advantage of coppicing in the dry season and also at maturity. The total leaf and wood dry matter (DM) production in a 12-month cycle is greatest if the primary shoot was first cut at 8 MAP. This suggests that allowing the trees to become established is beneficial in the pruning management of pigeonpea. Accessions 11563 and 11575 have the ability to produce 7 t/ha of leaf DM from two prunings when first cut at 8 MAP, and significantly outperformed the local variety. The study revealed that pigeonpea does not coppice well and its biomass yields are much lower than that of Leucaena leucocephala.
Diet-induced variation in acetate metabolism of ovine perirenal adipose tissuein vitro
Authors: Scollan N. D. , Jessop N. S.
Published: March 2009

Sixteen Blackface wether lambs (25–27 kg) were fed for 9 weeks on diets based on either barley (B) or sugarbeet pulp (S), with either a low or high protein content. A constant amount of metabolizable energy (ME) was given at twice maintenance level. At one stage the animals were fed frequently and blood was sampled over a 24 h period. Plasma was assayed for acetate, glucose and insulin. After slaughter, the metabolism of acetate to CO2and lipid was investigated in perirenal adipocytesin vitro.

Frequent feeding helped to achieve near-steady-state conditions. Carbohydrate source influenced plasma acetate (P< 0·08) but not glucose or insulin. Level of protein in the diet influenced plasma acetate, higher concentrations of acetate were associated with lower levels of protein (P< 0·01). Acetate oxidation and incorporation into lipid was influenced by the concentrations of acetate, glucose and insulin in the incubation media (P< 0·001). Acetate oxidation was influenced by carbohydrate source (P< 0·05), whereas level of protein in the diet affected acetate incorporation into lipid (P< 0·05).

These results show how the balance of nutrients provided to a ruminant for metabolism may influence selected plasma parameters and the metabolism of acetate by adipose tissue, which may help to explain the reduced efficiency of ME utilization from more fibrous diets.
Assessment of the proportion of chemical fat in the bodies of live sheep
Authors: Guerra J. C. , Thwaites C. J. , Edey T. N.
Published: March 2009

The ability of subjectively assessed body condition scores, direct measurements of backfat depth, and an objective body condition index (based on the size/weight relationship), to predict the proportion of chemical fat in the body of the live sheep was investigated in three groups of Merino ewes. All three techniques possessed a similar, and practically acceptable ability to predict the proportion of chemical fat in the fleece-free empty body. However, both live weight and fleece-free empty body weight possessed similar predictive powers, and the method of choice in any particular situation could thus be determined by the availability of weighing facilities and the need for speed, objectivity and for minimizing interference with the experimental animals.
Investigations into the intensive system of grassland management.
Authors: Watson S. J.
Published: March 2009

It is possible to make ensilage of high digestibility from grass in a tower silo. The loss by drainage is negligible and can in all probability be avoided entirely.

The losses due to fermentation are not high and the final product is a highly nutritious foodstuff.

The fact that all the silage with the exception of the uppermost layer, which was not expected to be used for feeding but merely as a protective layer, has been fed and was eaten readily is proof of the ease with which grass silage of high feeding value can be made in a tower silo if adequate precautions are taken.
Factors affecting the yield and quality of milk. II. Variations in successive lactations
Authors: Glen J. , M'Candlish Andrew C.
Published: March 2009

1. Milk and butterfat production rise to about the sixth lactation, but beyond the fifth lactation the increase may be neglected.

2. The lactation of maximum production may be taken as the fifth which corresponds to 7 years of age.

3. Beyond the fifth lactation the milk and butterfat yields vary irregularly but show a downward tendency.

4. The fat yield shows either a fall or only a very small increase in the second lactation.

5. The fat percentage is highest in the first lactation, drops markedly in the second, remains fairly steady for a few lactations, though with a slight downward tendency, and then falls off in the higher lactations.

6. Results obtained by applying correction factors for either age or lactation are quite comparable and choice in the method to be used will depend largely on the original data available.