bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Choices: Genre, Content, Style
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

The narratives that we call Caesar’;s Gallic War and Civil War were spoken of by his contemporaries as the “records of his achievements.”1 The term here translated as “records” is commentarii (its singular form is commentarius). The word itself contains a reference to memory (the root -men-, also present in mention, memento, comment and, contracted, in amnesia), and our translation reflects the word’;s etymology. The ancient evidence allows us to arrive at relatively good inferences about what Caesar’;s readers would have expected from a commentarius. When Caesar’;s officer and later continuator Aulus Hirtius, in Gallic War 8, refers back to Gallic War 7 with the phrase “it was shown in the preceding commentarius,” “preceding commentarius” means something like “the record of the preceding year.”2 The Gallic War as Caesar published it was a set of seven commentarii, the records of seven annual campaigns in Gaul (58–52 bce), not one commentarius, or record, of his conquest of Gaul.
Structure as Argument in Civil War 1
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we argue that in book 1 of the Civil War Caesar uses the commentary form for a new purpose. Caesar’;s seven Gallic War commentaries have a consistent year-by-year structure and appear to function as reports to senators and others in Rome about Caesar’;s achievements in Gaul. They offered a picture of Caesar the general and Caesar the man who brings order and civilization to the chaotic and warring provinces, but these political and rhetorical purposes remained a function of particular scenes and of the overall picture of success toward which the Gallic War points but at which it never arrives, since it is Hirtius, rather than Caesar, who completes the record in book 8. The Civil War is different from the Gallic War in important ways, perhaps none so significant as the fact that its events were not news to Caesar’;s first readers: they had lived through and in many cases participated in those events.
Aphorisms, Maxims, and Old Saws: Some Rules ofClinical Reasoning
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn
Published: November 2023

Clinical judgment is not a skill separable from a well-stocked fund of scientific and practical information. To provide good care to their patients, physicians must know human biology—both normal and pathological. Yet if science were all that physicians needed, patients would be able to consult a user-friendly computer program and never need to see a doctor at all. Sometimes it seems as if medicine is already halfway there, especially when expert panels create algorithms that map successive decision points in a patient’s diagnosis or treatment. (See, for example, one of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network’s Practice Guidelines in Oncology, Figure 7-1.) Helpful as these diagrams of decision pathways are, clinical reasoning is far more situated and flexible than even the most complex clinical algorithm can express. These decision trees are aids to clinical judgment—teaching the young and reminding the old—but they are not a substitute. While the tension inherent in medical decision-making is regularly resolved, it regularly reappears. Medical schools and residency programs must cultivate a capacity for complex and flexible but often inconclusive clinical reasoning. The learners, luckily, are intelligent, but they are also (most of them) longtime students of science who are not used to negotiating ambiguous alternatives or to tolerating incomplete or uncertain answers.
Alternative Construals of the World
Authors: Koller Bálint , Endrődi Noémi , Komlósi Sarolta , Tóth Rita , Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

Construal is a way of understanding an aspect of the world (i.e., objects, events, etc.). It is used here in the sense of interpretation or conceptualization. When we say that an entity or situation is construed in a particular way, what we mean is that it is interpreted or conceptualized in some way. Often there are several different ways of conceptualizing the same “thing.” We call such different ways of conceptualizing the same thing alternative construal. Alternative construal may be achieved by means of a variety of cognitive operations. As a matter of fact, we have seen several such construal operations, or processes, in the previous chapters, such as categorization, framing, metaphor, and others. We saw that we can often categorize, frame, or metaphorically understand the same thing in several different ways.
Genetic and Genomic Approaches to Taxonomy of Human Disease
Authors: Kumar Dhavendra
Published: November 2023

The philosophy of disease is complex and reflects the way an abnormal body state is perceived and understood on the background of sociocultural, psychological, and biomedical interpretation. The sociocultural factors influence the outcome of disease by modulating the environment. The psychological and biomedical factors provide the innate framework for generating and developing symptoms and signs of the disease, dependent on the pathology. On this basis, a disease could be best defined as an ‘‘overall perception of an abnormal body state and appreciation of the ensuing psychological and physical impact.’’ Historically, clinical practice has always faced its inability to differentiate events that mediate the disease process from the resulting clinical, biochemical, and pathological changes (Bell, 2003). Despite having made tremendous advances, clinicians continue to rely on phenotypic manifestations of the disease process to define most diseases. Inevitably, this approach often obscures the underlying mechanisms and thus a clinician may fail to identify significant heterogeneity. Concerns have been raised that most human disease provides only ‘‘insecure and temporary conceptions’’ (Lewis, 1944). Apart from infectious diseases, alarmingly, there are few diseases that have a truly mechanism-based nomenclature.
Nutritional Genomics
Authors: Stover Patrick J
Published: November 2023

Nutrients and other food components are amongst the most persistent, variable (both in terms of the nature and abundance of the food supply), and essential environmental exposures for all life forms. The need for organisms to balance constant nutrient ‘‘need’’ with intermittent nutrient ‘‘availability’’ has driven the evolution of sophisticated yet distinct strategies to sense, store, and utilize individual nutrients to achieve internal homeostasis. Indeed, epidemiological, whole animal, and tissueand cell-culture studies validate nutrition’s pivotal role as an exogenous determinant of health. Most common human chronic diseases, including diabetes (type 2), metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular and neurological disease, and many cancers are initiated and/or accelerated by nutrient/ food exposures. In the absence of adaptation, nutrient deficiencies can impair the function of transcriptional and metabolic networks whereas nutrient excesses can exceed their capacity and/or overwhelm the buffering capability of the associated signaling pathways that maintain homeostasis.
Neuropsychiatric Diseases I: Schizophrenia
Authors: Sullivan Patrick F
Published: November 2023

Neuropsychiatric disorders are not uncommon and amount to a major global health burden. The field is broad and covers a wide range of distinct clinical entities with overlapping features. Psychiatric disorders are commonly components of the phenotype of several seizure disorders (Chapter 18), progressive neurodegenerative disorders (Chapter 19), and disorders of learning and behavior (Chapter 29). This chapter reviews the present understanding of genetic and genomic basis of schizophrenia (Part I) and mood addition, migrant status, urban residence, cannabis use, and sex are supported as risk factors for schizophrenia. Although the attributable risk of some of these risk factors may be greater (e.g., place and season of birth) (Mortensen et al., 1999), the size of the odds ratio for family history suggests that searching for the familial determinants of schizophrenia is rational for etiological research.
Complex Ophthalmic Disorders
Authors: Manson Forbes DC , Webster Andrew R , Black Graeme CM
Published: November 2023

As in many other clinical specialties, the overall contribution of genetics to the whole of ophthalmic disease is broader than generally imagined. For some conditions, this is obvious and when faced in the clinic with a patient with retinitis pigmentosa (RP), the ophthalmologist is immediately aware of the inherited basis of a patient’s condition. However less straightforward, but no less significant, are the genetic etiologies that are beginning to emerge for rare sporadic disease such as microphthalmia or optic nerve hypoplasia; for common early-onset phenotypes such as squint or myopia; and for later-onset phenotypes such as senile cataract or macular degeneration.
Applications in Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine
Authors: Weston Gareth C , Ponnampalam Anna , Rogers Peter AW
Published: November 2023

The total number of genes in the human genome has been estimated at between 32,000 and 39,000 (Bork, and Copley, 2001). Genomics concerns the study of these genes in context within our genetic system, rather than as individuals. Large numbers of genes, or even all of the known genes in the genome, can have either their level of activity or their structure examined simultaneously.
Thinking about medicine
Authors: Hughes Mark T
Published: November 2023

Thinking about medicine Decision and intervention are the essence of action: Reflection and conjecture are the essence of thought: The essence of medicine is combining these realms of action and thought in the service of others. We offer these ideals to stimulate both thought and action: Like the stars, these ideals are hard to reach—but they serve for navigation during the night.
Symptoms and signs
Authors: Simonson Lisa A
Published: November 2023

Symptoms are features which patients report. Physical signs are elicited at the bedside. Together, they constitute the features of the condition in that patient. Their evolution over time, and interaction with the physical, psychological, and social spheres comprise the natural history of any disease. Here we discuss symptoms in isolation. This is unnatural—but a necessary first step in learning how to diagnose. All doctors have to know about symptoms and their relief: This is what doctors are for.
Pulmonary medicine
Authors: Polito Albert J
Published: November 2023

Films are usually taken with the patient standing in front of the film with the x-ray source behind (PA film). Emergency films may be done in the opposite direction (AP), which magnifies heart size. There are 4 radiographic densities: Air, fat, water/soft tissue, bone. A border is only seen at an interface of 2 densities, eg heart (water) and lung (air); this ‘silhouette’ is lost if air in the lung is replaced by consolidation (water). This is the silhouette sign and helps localize pathology (eg middle lobe pneumonia or collapse causing loss of distinction of the right heart border).
Endocrinology
Authors: Kim Matthew
Published: November 2023

Define clinical syndromes associated with deficiencies of hormones (hyposyndromes) and corresponding clinical syndromes associated with secretion of excessive amounts of hormones (hyper- syndromes). Measure levels of hormones or metabolites of hormones in blood or urine samples—be mindful of circadian variation in the secretion of specific hormones when planning measurements.
Oncology
Authors: Laheru Daniel
Published: November 2023

Since Richard Nixon signed the historic National Cancer Act on December 23, 1971 to focus and prioritize federal resources to advance cancer clinical and basic science research, there have been a number of notable achievements particularly in solid tumors such as germ cell tumors and hematologic malignancies including Hodgkins lymphoma and ALL and AML. Such notable breakthroughs have been largely realized by visionary researchers integrating classical methods of drug development with innovative clinical trial design.
Symptoms and signs
Authors: Bartlett John G
Published: November 2023

The majority of travel-related illnesses are not infections but due to other events such as accidents, indiscretions (alcohol ± promiscuous sexual contact), and other illnesses. Most infections are due to ignorance or indiscretions. Advice to travelers is more important than vaccination: Eg simple hygiene, malaria prophylaxis, and protective measures. Take time to advise travellers on the benefits of safe sex and the risks of HIV and other STDs.
Radiology
Authors: Weiss Clifford R , Blitz Ari M , Macura Katarzyna J
Published: November 2023

Radiology is a powerful part of the diagnostic and therapeutic tool set and has become central to the diagnosis of many medical and surgical conditions. For many diagnostic questions there are any number of imaging tests which may be of use. In general the rule is to perform less expensive and more readily available examinations (such as plain film and ultrasound) before progressing on to more expensive ones (such as CT and MRI). However, a hospital bed is an expensive resource, and if a more expensive test can make or exclude a diagnosis quickly, performing it early may save time and money and may prevent patient complications.
Psychological Perspective
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

Table 7-1 summarizes various types of information that can be derived from faces. These include facial likeness, facial structure, attributed information, specific information, facial expression, and facial speech (19). Functional models for face recognition, which are not discussed here, have been proposed by several authors (19, 60, 83, 136). Infants of 4-6 months can discriminate phonetic differences in their own language as well as unfamiliar languages. By 10-12 months, infants discriminate phonetic differences only in their own language. A similar phenomenon has been shown for facial recognition. Infants of 6 months of age are equally good at recognizing the facial identity of both human and nonhuman primates. However, infants at 9 months and adults have a marked ability for recognizing only human faces (Fig. 7-1.? What occurs during infancy for phonetic differences in languages and for differences in face processing suggests a perceptual narrowing in the neural networks involved in early cognition (122).
Mass Spectrometry in Systems Biology
Authors: Ruse Cristian I , Yates John R
Published: November 2023

The cell is the fundamental entity of a living organism. Four main types of chemical compounds are essential for any living organism: amino acids, fatty acids, nucleic acids, and sugars [1]. Fatty acids form membranes (composed mainly of phospholipids) that in turn define the physical space of a cell and mediate its interaction with the environment. Hereditary information is stored in genes (made up by nucleic acids). Proteins, which constitute more than 50% of the dry weight of the cell, give the functional form of the genes. The cell draws energy from sugar that can subsequently be stored both in fatty acids and polysaccharides. Omics technologies aim to indiscriminately analyze and characterize genes (genomics/transcriptomics), proteins (proteomics), and metabolites (metabolomics). Systems biology uses these large-scale strategies to portray interactions among genes, gene products, and molecules involved in interactions with their environment (i.e., metabolites, lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, etc.). As the biological system reaches another level of complexity by assembly of multicellular systems into organs, metabonomics links the high-throughput technologies with tissue histology by analyzing biological fluids and tissues [2]. Understanding how these components assemble in a living cell (or any other physiological entity), communicate, and function requires the ability to formulate and test hypotheses. Analytical chemistry provides the measurement tools and computational modeling supplies the necessary framework to produce knowledge from the integration of these measurements [3].
Molecular Simulation and Systems Biology
Authors: Swope William C , Pitera Jed W , Germain Robert S
Published: November 2023

Although we receive a relatively static view of molecular structure from spectroscopic tools such as x-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), the reality is that molecules are in constant motion at biological temperatures. Intermolecular motions, such as the binding or unbinding of an antibody–antigen complex, have an important role in biological processes. In addition, biomolecules are always flexing, bending, and stretching in ways that affect their function. For example, many proteins display allosteric behavior in which the binding of a ligand to some site on the protein causes the protein to change its shape. This can result in the active site of an enzyme becoming operational. The folding and unfolding of a protein are more extreme examples of intramolecular motions that have a profound impact on biological function. One way to understand the motions of biological molecules is by using a computer to simulate those motions explicitly. The computational techniques used to model intra- and intermolecular motions are known as molecular simulations. Molecular simulations are a set of computational methods that allow the modeling of the motions of molecules. Molecular motions are coupled to the environment—other biomolecules, cofactors, counterions, and water. A typical molecular simulation involves simulating the motions of all of the atoms of a protein or nucleic acid along with all of the surrounding water molecules.
Genome-Scale Models of Metabolic and Regulatory Networks
Authors: Herrgård Markus J , Palsson Bernhard Ø
Published: November 2023

Mathematical models of biochemical networks have been built from the very early days of biochemistry and molecular biology [1]. However, these models have been focused on small subsystems that are thought to represent an independent module in the whole biochemical network of the cell. This subsystem-based approach was necessitated by the limited information available on the entire set of proteins that are present in a particular cell. The availability of genome sequences has allowed the development of systematic approaches to establish functions for unannotated genes and regulatory regions [2–5]. The resulting list of well-characterized coding and regulatory regions in a genome has further enabled the reconstruction of the structure of metabolic and regulatory networks at the genome scale. In this chapter we describe the process of reconstructing genomescale metabolic and regulatory networks, provide an overview of methods that have been developed to study these reconstructions in silico, and describe applications of existing network reconstructions. Network-level steady-state assumption has been used to derive a number of powerful mathematical analysis tools that can be used to elucidate network function in silico. These tools are based on imposing a succession of constraints on the cellular function giving rise to the term “constraint-based analysis” to describe the overall framework [6–8].
Protein Structure Prediction
Authors: Skolnick Jeffrey , Zhang Yang
Published: November 2023

Over the past decade, the success of genome sequence efforts has brought about a paradigm shift in biology [1]. There is increasing emphasis on the large-scale, high-throughput examination of all genes and gene products of an organism, with the aim of assigning their functions [2]. Of course, biological function is multifaceted, ranging from molecular/biochemical to cellular or physiological to phenotypical [3]. In practice, knowledge of the DNA sequence of an organism and the identification of its open reading frames (ORFs) does not directly provide functional insight. Here, the focus is on the proteins in a genome, namely, the proteome, but recognizes that proteins are only a subset of all biologically important molecules and addresses aspects of molecular/biochemical function and protein–protein interactions.
Artistic Programming
Authors: Wittry Diane
Published: November 2023

Once the institutional vision has been set, all of the artistic programming must align with this vision. If the goal is to become the largest orchestra in the area, you will want to work toward building your audience and performing more concerts. If the goal is to become the best orchestra, you might need to increase your pay scale, set higher artistic standards, and find ways of motivating players to im-prove performance. If your goal is to be the most “well-known” orchestra in your area, you might want to concentrate on doing more recordings and putting more money into your marketing efforts. The institutional vision should define the course of action for the organization.
Philosophical Papers
Authors: Unger Peter
Published: November 2023

While well-known for his book-length work, philosopher Peter Unger’s articles have been less widely accessible. These two volumes of Unger’s Philosophical Papers include articles spanning more than 35 years of Unger’s long and fruitful career. Dividing the articles thematically, the first volume collects work in epistemology and ethics, among other topics, while the second volume focuses on metaphysics. Unger’s work has advanced the full spectrum of topics at the heart of philosophy, including epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of language and philosophy of mind, and ethics. Unger advances radical positions, going against the so-called “commonsense philosophy ”that has dominated the analytic tradition since its beginnings early in the twentieth century. In epistemology, his articles advance the view that nobody ever knows anything and, beyond that, argue that nobody has any reason to believe anything—and even beyond that, they argue that nobody has any reason to do anything, or even want anything. In metaphysics, his work argues that people do not really exist—and neither do puddles, plants, poodles, and planets. But, as Unger has often changed his favored positions, from one decade to the next, his work also advances the opposite, “commonsense” positions: that there are in fact plenty of people, puddles, plants and planets and, quite beyond that, we know it all to be true. On most major philosophical questions, both of these sides of Unger’s significant work are well represented in this major two volume collection. Unger’s vivid writing style, intellectual vitality, and fearlessness in the face of our largest philosophical questions, make these volumes of great interest not only to the philosophical community but to others who might otherwise find contemporary philosophy dry and technical.
Circadian Rhythm Disorders
Authors: Lee-Chiong Teofilo
Published: November 2023

Rhythmicity in biological processes is a fundamental characteristic of life. There is simply insufficient cellular energy for organisms to perform all their functions at the same constant rate (steady state) and all at the same time. Biological rhythms are ubiquitous, being found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes; plants; insects; and animals, including humans. Endogenous rhythm generators or pacemakers as well as environmental factors, such as cycles of light and darkness, control these biologic rhythms.

Rhythms are characterized by specific frequency, period length, amplitude, and phase. See Table 6–1 for more information.

The term “circadian” is derived from the Latin words circa, which means “about,” and dien, which means “day.” There are specific, genetically determined circadian fluctuations in most biochemical and physiologic variables, with each oscillating at its own frequency, period length, amplitude, peak, trough, and phase. Different variables attain peak levels of activity at different points in time throughout a circadian period—some peak during the sleep phase, some peak in the awake phase, and others peak during the transition between sleep and wakefulness (Table 6–2).
Restless Legs Syndrome and Periodic Limb Movement Disorder
Authors: Lee-Chiong Teofilo
Published: November 2023

Restless legs syndrome (RLS) or Ekbom syndrome is characterized by abnormal and unpleasant sensations (paresthesias or dysesthesias) involving the lower extremities that become apparent or worsen at rest, especially in the evening at bedtime, and are relieved, at least transiently, with movement. Sensations often involve both legs but can be unilateral or may alternate between lower extremities.

Common complaints include a sensation of creeping, crawling, tingling, wormy, throbbing, pulling, burning, or increased “tension” located deep within the legs (rather than affecting the skin superficially) when sitting or lying down. Some patients are simply unable to describe adequately the sensation they feel. Although symptoms are typically not described as painful, a complaint of pain does not exclude the diagnosis. These uncomfortable sensations extend from the feet and ankle proximally to the legs and, occasionally, thighs. Similar sensations have also been described in the arms. Symptoms tend to occur at night, although unpleasant sensations may emerge during the daytime during prolonged periods of immobility (eg, airplane flights).

There is often an accompanying irresistible urge to move the limbs (motor restlessness) to relieve the uncomfortable sensation. Less frequently, an isolated urge to move is present without any accompanying unpleasant sensations.
Sleep in Older Adults
Authors: Lee-Chiong Teofilo
Published: November 2023

Although the requirements for sleep do not appear to decline with aging, the ability to sleep and achieve consolidated sleep may decrease in some older adults. Approximately 50% of older adults complain of sleep disturbance. Older adults often take longer to fall asleep, have lower sleep efficiencies, and have more nighttime awakenings. They are also sleepier during the day than younger adults. Compared to elderly men, women are better able to maintain satisfactory sleep with aging.

Aging is associated with changes in sleep architecture (Box 14–1). Greater nighttime sleep disturbance may lead to daytime sleepiness and more frequent daytime napping.

Significant disturbances may occur during sleep with aging (Table 14–1).

Although some of the observed changes can be attributed to normal aging itself (eg, age-related alterations in circadian rhythms), most are due to comorbid medical, neurologic, psychiatric, and primary sleep disorders.
Analyzing the Data
Authors: Shuy Roger W
Published: November 2023

The lawyers will send you a pile of material. Usually it is just what you need, but sometimes you need to ask for things that they didn’t send. Often, what you get needs to be organized in ways that you can better deal with it. Good organization is the key, especially when the case contains a great deal of material. The following is a list of the types of material you can expect to be sent you in civil and criminal cases.
Cross-Examination Testimony
Authors: Shuy Roger W
Published: November 2023

Once the direct examination is over, the cross-examination begins. This may turn out to be on the following day. There are two schools of thought about the advantages of having the direct and cross-examinations occur continuously on the same day. One advantage to the witness, when these take place seamlessly, is that the opposing attorney has less time to think up new questions. On the other hand, it’s often a relief to get an overnight break between the direct and cross, so that witnesses can find time to relax and collect their thoughts a bit. There are obvious advantages and disadvantages to both sequences. Judges are more sympathetic to the stress of jurors than to the comfort of witnesses, so it is more than likely that the judge will want to move the trial along quickly, and the cross will take place immediately. When it does, you can expect a brief recess before it begins. This means that you need to depend on the effectiveness of your previous preparation for both the direct and cross.
PTCH and the Basal Cell Nevus (Gorlin) Syndrome
Authors: JR Ervin Epstein
Published: November 2023

The basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS) is a rare afliction that is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait and is characterized by a wide panoply of clinical manifestations, especially the development of large numbers of cutaneous basal cell carcinomas (BCCs). Causative mutations occur in the PATCHED1 (PTCH1) gene, which encodes an inhibitor of hedgehog signaling. This identification in turn has led to the novel finding that sporadic BCCs, the commonest human cancer, are driven by pivotal mutations in genes encoding proteins that are components of the hedgehog signaling pathway. In addition to postnatal tumors of the skin and, less commonly, of other tissues, BCNS patients also have malformations (e.g., of the ribs and skull) and tissue overgrowths that are explicable on the basis of abnormal PATCHED1 function during embryogenesis.
Heteroplasia, and Pseudohypoparathyroidism Type IB
Authors: Weinstein Lee S
Published: November 2023

The heterotrimeric G protein Gs couples receptors for hormones and other extracellular signals to the stimulation of adenylyl cyclase and intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) generation. Ligand-bound receptors activate Gs by promoting the exchange GTP for GDP on the Gs α-subunit (Gsα); an intrinsic GTPase activity of Gsα deactivates the G protein by hydrolyzing bound GTP to GDP. Somatic Gsα mutations that disrupt the GTPase activity result in constitutive signaling and lead to endocrine tumors, fibrous dysplasia (FD) of bone, and the McCune–Albright syndrome (MAS) (OMIM 174800). Conversely, heterozygous inactivating mutations may lead to Albright hereditary osteodystrophy (AHO) (OMIM 13580) or, more rarely, to progressive osseous heteroplasia (POH) (OMIM 166350). Within AHO kindreds, paternal transmission of these mutations leads to the AHO phenotype alone [pseudopseudo- hypoparathyroidism (PPHP)], whereas maternal transmission leads to AHO plus multihormone resistance [pseudohypoparathyroidism type IA (PHPIA)]. This is presumably due to the fact that the Gsα gene GNAS is imprinted and in certain hormone-sensitive tissues Gsα is primarily expressed from the maternal allele. Patients with isolated renal resistance to parathyroid hormone (PTH) [pseudohy- poparathyroidism type IB (PHPIB)] (OMIM 603233) have a GNAS imprinting defect that presumably leads to tissue-specific loss of Gsα expression.
CAM: Chemo Interactions—What Is Known?
Authors: sparreboom Alex , Baker Sharyn D
Published: November 2023

In the United States, 15 million adults combine herbal remedies with prescription medications; CAM use is more common among cancer patients than among individuals in the general population Many types of CAM, in particular herbs, have the potential to interact with prescription drugs, altering their pharmacokinetic characteristics and leading to clinically significant interactions. Many herbal preparations are known to either inhibit or induce the function of drug-metabolizing enzymes or drug transporters that are of putative relevance to the pharmacokinetic profile of anticancer drugs.
Clinical Testing of Optic Nerve Function
Authors: Buono Lawrence M
Published: November 2023

Clinical testing of optic nerve function is a critical component of the ophthalmologic examination in determining the cause of visual loss. Characteristic features of an optic neuropathy include decreased visual acuity, visual field defect, decreased brightness sensation, relative afferent pupillary defect, and loss of color vision (acquired dyschromatopsia). This chapter focuses on relevant clinical tests used to assess the function of the optic nerve.
Papilledema
Authors: Foroozan Rod , Kline Lanning B
Published: November 2023

The term papilledema has been applied to any type of swelling of the optic disc, with or without visual loss or other signs of optic neuropathy. How- ever, most neuro-ophthalmologists reserve papilledema for optic disc swelling due to increased intracranial pressure and designate optic disc edema as a more general term to describe other forms of acquired disc swelling. Some of these forms may be further specified with respect to presumed causation; for example, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (vascular infarction) or papillitis (demyelination or idiopathic inflammation). Throughout this chapter, papilledema is used only to describe optic disc swelling associated with elevated intracranial pressure.
Snake oil Science: The Truth About Complementary And Alternative Medicine
Authors: Bausell R Barker
Published: November 2023

Every year millions of people flock to complementary and alternative therapists offering a vast array of treatments ranging from acupuncture to biofeedback to urine injections. Millions more purchase over-the-counter alternative medications, such as glucosamine, herbs, and homeopathic remedies. While consumer motivations for turning to complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) vary, there is one common element among them all: a belief in their effectiveness. This belief appears to be prevalent among all elements of society, from scientists and physicians to celebrities such as Prince Charles and Oprah Winfrey to clerical workers and senior citizens. Do these therapies actually work? And if they work, how do they work? This book is about the science of complementary and alternative medicine, about how that science is conducted, how it is evaluated, and how it is synthesised to arrive at a conclusion about whether CAM therapies work. It is also about the phenomenon of the placebo effect, and the extent to which it is at play in a given CAM therapy’s efficacy. Are CAM therapies in fact nothing more than creatively packaged placebos? In exploring this question, Barker Bausell provides an authoritative and engaging look at the nature of scientific evidence and at the logical, psychological, and physiological impediments that can confound such evidence in the world of CAM research. Ultimately, the book is not so much opposed to CAM as to the shoddy science upon which CAM claims are based, and in fact it closes with a chapter about how one might maximise the placebo effect that Bausell asserts is the main ‘ingredient’ of most CAM therapies. This book is a learned, witty examination not just of the scientific process as it is applied to CAM but also of the wonders of the human mind/body system.
Abandoning Informed Consent
Authors: Veatch Robert M
Published: November 2023

Consent emerged as a concept central to the late stages of modern medical ethics. Often the term is used with a modifier, such as informed or voluntary or full, and is loosely used in phrases like “fully informed and voluntary consent.”; Modern ethics in health care could hardly function without the notion of consent. Although we might occasionally encounter an old-guard, retrograde longing for the day when physicians did not have to go through the process of obtaining consent, the necessity of consent is now taken as a given, at least at the level of theory. To be sure, we know that actual consent is not obtained in all cases, and even when consent is obtained, it may not be adequately informed or autonomous. For purposes of this discussion, I shall not worry about the deviations from the ideal; rather, the focus will be on whether consent ought to be the goal. In this chapter I will argue that in the world of the new medicine, consent won’t cut it.
The Ionists: Arrhenius and Nernst
Authors: Coffey Patrick
Published: November 2023

In the spring of 1884, Uppsala University’s faculty and graduates gathered in their academic robes. Svante Arrhenius, a heavyset young man with few social graces, had been awarded his doctorate and had marched in the procession. The doors to the faculty chambers opened, and the professors came out to congratulate the new graduates. Arrhenius looked around for Per Theodor Cleve and Tobias Thalén, the two who had directed his studies for the past seven years. He finally saw them—a porter was helping them take off their robes and put on their overcoats. They glanced at him, looked a bit embarrassed, and left him standing there. Arrhenius never forgave this snub. Forty years later, he would recount the story, saying that Cleve and Thalén “had decided to sacrifice him.”1 His son later said that this had “opened a wound that never healed.”
The Lewis-Langmuir Theory: Lewis, Langmuir, and Harkins
Authors: Coffey Patrick
Published: November 2023

In March 1917, Gilbert Lewis picked up the latest edition of the Journal of the American Chemical Society. As he read, he became increasingly angry. William Harkins, a chemist whom he knew well—he had been Harkins’s boss at MIT in 1910—had written a paper on surface chemistry. Harkins had a reputation for claiming credit for work that others had done, and it seemed to Lewis that Harkins had done it again, this time to Irving Langmuir. Lewis and Langmuir had not known each other well when they had spent two days together at an American Chemical Society meeting in New York that past September, but Lewis had been impressed with Langmuir’s presentation of his ideas on the chemistry of surfaces—the chemistry of oil films on water, for example. Both Lewis and Harkins had sat in the audience at Langmuir’s talk. After Langmuir had finished speaking and the discussion had begun, Harkins had made some odd comments that could be paraphrased as “I am glad to see that your results, Dr. Langmuir, support my theory”—a theory unknown to anyone in the audience.
The Secret of Life: Pauling, Wrinch, and Langmuir
Authors: Coffey Patrick
Published: November 2023

In early 1938, Linus Pauling became involved in a scientific controversy with Dorothy Wrinch, an English mathematician turned biologist whose “cyclol theory” of protein structure was opposed to his own ideas on the subject. Warren Weaver, who was managing the natural sciences grants for the Rockefeller Foundation, had awarded grants to both Pauling and Wrinch. Weaver asked Pauling for a private report on Wrinch’s work (but did not ask her for a reciprocal report on Pauling’s work). Pauling told Weaver that Wrinch’s papers were “dishonest,” that she was “facile in the use of terminology of chemists and biologists, but her arguments are sometimes unreliable and her information superficial.” He did say that reviewing her work had led him to think that it was time to publish his own ideas on protein structure, and Weaver encouraged him to do so. The resulting paper, coauthored by Carl Niemann, was titled “The Structure of Proteins,”2 but one of Pauling’s correspondents more accurately called it “The De-bunking of Wrinch.”3 After Pauling’s report and paper, Wrinch’s career was in ruins. Weaver refused to renew her grant, and she was unable to find other research funding.
It’s About That Time
Authors: Cook Richard
Published: November 2023

Here is quite simply one of the most original books about a jazz musician ever published--a biography-cum-discography that focuses in turn on fourteen major albums recorded by Miles Davis, using them as a jumping off point for an illuminating discussion of the turbulent life and work of the “Evil Genius of Jazz.” Richard Cook, a veteran writer respected throughout the jazz world, looks at such landmark recordings as Birth of the Cool, Miles Ahead, Kind of Blue, The Complete Live at The Plugged Nickel, In a Silent Way, Bitches Brew, and Live at Montreux. Each of these recordings is considered in detail, illuminating their contribution to Davis’s development as instrumentalist, group leader, and composer. But Cook goes well beyond these fourteen albums, evaluating all the trumpeter’s recordings (official and bootleg), and relating them to events in Miles’s life as well as to wider currents in contemporary music. Cook helps us disentangle Miles the legendary figure from the music itself, to re-hear and reconsider this marvelous body of work ranging over four exhilarating decades. The author also highlights the indispensable contributions of sidemen such as John Coltrane, Cannonball Adderley, Herbie Hancock, John McLaughlin, John Scofield, and many others, as well as calling for a reassessment of the importance of such “satellite” figures as Gil Evans, Bill Evans, Wayne Shorter, Tony Williams and Chick Corea in the development of Miles’s music. A comprehensive and rigorous guide to the music and life of Miles Davis, It’s About That Time is a stunning book that burns away the fog of myth that surrounds its complex and contrary subject.
Bad Acts, Blameworthy Agents, and Intentional Actions:Some Problems for Juror Impartiality
Authors: Nadelhoffer Thomas
Published: November 2023

In the landmark Smith case of 1961, jurors in England had to determine the guilt of a man named Smith who had driven a car containing stolen goods in a zigzag course in order to shake off a policeman who had been clinging to the side of the car. When the policeman was finally shaken off, he rolled into oncoming traffic and sustained fatal injuries (D. P. P. v. Smith [1961] A. C. 290). Imagine that you are on that jury and your task is to decide whether Smith intentionally killed the policeman. In addition to considerations about Smith’s relevant mental states and the relationship between these mental states and his actions—e.g., did Smith foresee that his actions would bring about the policeman’s death—what other factors would affect your verdict? Would your decision concerning whether Smith killed the policeman intentionally be influenced by your evaluative belief that Smith brought about bad consequences? On the surface, it seems that the goodness or badness of Smith’s actions should be completely irrelevant to the question of whether he performed them intentionally, but there is growing evidence that ascriptions of intentional actions are often influenced by evaluative considerations.
Rationality for Mortals
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: November 2023

Gerd Gigerenzer’s influential work examines the rationality of individuals not from the perspective of logic or probability, but from the point of view of adaptation to the real world of human behavior and interaction with the environment. Seen from this perspective, human behavior is more rational than it might otherwise appear. This work is extremely influential and has spawned an entire research program. This volume (which follows on a previous collection, Adaptive Thinking, also published by OUP) collects his most recent articles, looking at how people use “fast and frugal heuristics” to calculate probability and risk and make decisions. It includes a newly writen, substantial introduction, and the articles have been revised and updated where appropriate. This volume should appeal, like the earlier volumes, to a broad mixture of cognitive psychologists, philosophers, economists, and others who study decision making.
Giving Presentations and Talks
Authors: Schwartzkroin Philip A
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we focused on the process of writing and publishing research reports as a key aspect of a researcher’s professional life. So, too, are presentations in other formats. As is the case for the written research report, other types of communication are all about conveying your experimental data, and your ideas about your research, to your colleagues and other interested parties. A verbal presentation before large or small groups—be the presentation only a relatively informal discussion in front of a poster, a seminar presentation within your own laboratory, an invited talk at another institution (e.g., a “job-talk”), or a formal lecture in front of a large audience—is an essential tool in your scientist toolbox. Whether or not you’re comfortable in this role of presenter, you need to master the craft.
Personal Challenges
Authors: Schwartzkroin Philip A
Published: November 2023

While there are certainly important intellectual and scientific issues to consider in thinking about a research science career, they are not the only—or even the most important— considerations. As you try to evaluate your suitability for a research career, here are a set of more personal factors to think about.
Rewards and Riches
Authors: Schwartzkroin Philip A
Published: November 2023

Before you jump into this (or any) profession, it’s important to be clear about what you consider to be appropriate and satisfying rewards—and then see whether you are likely to attain those goals as a scientist. Choosing research science as a profession is not the way to become rich. And if you do become famous, it’s likely to be a very restricted sort of fame, with your name familiar to a relatively small group of people.
The Older Adult Care, Training, Research, and Planning Program
Authors: Satin David G
Published: November 2023

The following case study incorporates the various planning, research, education, and health care–provision issues addressed in this text. It also involves a spectrum of health disciplines and institutions. It will help integrate the topics presented in the various chapters by having each chapter apply its perspective to this same example.

It should be noted that this case is entirely 0ctional, though it incorporates real experience with real projects, institutions, and disciplines at various times.

A university medical center, recognizing opportunity in the increasing social and funding focus on the aging population, embarked on a project in community health care for older adults.
Prevention
Authors: Bhalotra Sarita , Orwat John
Published: November 2023

Over 45 years ago Leonard W. Larson, MD, then president of the American Medical Association, called for a “revolution in aging” in which medicine is reformulated to emphasize a proactive approach to addressing healthy behavior in the individual throughout the life course rather than reactively treating disease. Since then, the U.S. population has continued to age as better living conditions and technological advances have increased life expectancy dramatically and normative expectations around functionality have increased, making prevention throughout the life course even more important. The potential for improved quality of life accompanied by cost savings due to com-pression of morbidity, i.e., optimizing aging so that disability is minimized, is signifi cant. However, the U.S. health-care system remains structured and fi nanced in a manner most responsive to the treatment of acute conditions rather than prevention throughout the life span or the treatment of chronic and disabling illness.
Genetics in Pharmacology
Authors: Weber Wendell W
Published: November 2023

By dint of their background and interests, pharmacologists would look for a defect in a drug’s pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics to explain therapeutic failure or toxicity, but scientists of other biomedical disciplines might interpret the same observations differently. Geneticists, who are more likely to focus on characteristics that differentiate individuals from each other rather than concentrating on their similarities, might view a drug as an exogenous substance on which individuals could exert selective effects. They might consider an unusual drug response as a reflection of a difference in the genetic makeup of normal and unusual responders, and would come up with a different set of testable hypotheses to identify the cause of the difference.

From the 1950s and through the 1970s, investigators combined biochemical and pharmacological approaches with classical genetic methods of analysis to scrutinize unusual drug responses. The person-to-person differences in drug response that they studied in twins and families are excellent models to guide present studies of these phenomena.