bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Verse Forms
Authors: Putter Ad
Published: June 2023

This chapter discusses the range and interest of various Middle English verse forms, strict and loose, in a series of close encounters with early and late medieval poets, focusing first on metre, then on rhyme, and finally on alliteration. It also sets the verse forms favoured by Middle English poets in the context of Latin and vernacular poetry in other languages and in the material context of the manuscript page. Poems discussed include early Middle English poems such as Ormulum, King Horn, LaƷamon’s Brut, Dame Sirith, and the Harley lyrics, and later fourteenth-century poems by Chaucer, Gower, and the Gawain-poet.
Poetic and Literary Theory
Authors: Galloway Andrew
Published: June 2023

What we call poetic and literary theory occupied a wide range of medieval intellectual culture, in settings and approaches that can be divided into two parts: first, rhetorical analysis and rules, and second, more abstractly philosophical and theological analyses. Often treated separately, both strands are surveyed in this chapter, which examines the settings and methods both of the ‘rhetorical arts’ and the ‘commentary tradition’. The chapter shows how both traditions seeped into English poetry between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, influencing poetry’s presentations of literary forms, purposes, and authorship, especially in the poetry of Chaucer, Gower, and Langland. Yet poetry in English across these centuries also implied its own versions of poetic and literary ‘theory’. Chaucer and Gower especially appropriated such theory to their own ends, making the boldest but far from the only contributions by poets to medieval literary theory.
Poetry and National History
Authors: Eckhardt Caroline D.
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines verse narratives of England’s (or Britain’s) past, in which national identity was constructed as changing through time, from a postulated Trojan origin through subsequent waves of conquest, settlement, and struggle, with the Arthurian reign often given prominence. Generally classed as chronicles and dated prior to c 1400, these English verse narratives demonstrate great generic porosity in relation to romance, hagiography, and other forms; deep affiliations with Latin and French traditions; and extensive variation in alliteration, rhyme, and other poetic characteristics. The manuscripts show that most of these narratives had an active ‘working life’ after their estimated time of composition and thus they contributed to the circulation of English poetry into the fifteenth century or beyond. Chronicles discussed include Laȝamon’s Brut, the Metrical Chronicle attributed to Robert of Gloucester, the Short Metrical Chronicle, Castleford’s Chronicle, and Robert Mannyng’s Chronicle, with comparisons to Barbour’s Bruce and Clerk’s Gest Hystoriale.
Saints’ Lives and Sacred Biography
Authors: Winstead Karen A.
Published: June 2023

This chapter surveys poetic approaches to composing the lives of saints in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The virgin martyr legends comprising the Katherine Group, written during the first quarter of the thirteenth century, occupy the nebulous territory between verse and prose. Four renderings of St Margaret’s encounter with the dragon, written in the fourteenth century or late in the thirteenth, illustrate varied uses of the poetic form. Geoffrey Chaucer’s life of Cecilia, William Paris’s life of Christine, and the anonymous Saint Erkenwald, all composed during the last quarter of the fourteenth century, demonstrate that the generic experimentation associated with Ricardian romance and dream visions was also occurring in hagiography, presaging the formal experimentation that would gain momentum during the fifteenth century.
Piers Plowman
Authors: Zeeman Nicolette
Published: June 2023

This chapter discusses the authorship, historical moment, and narrative shape of Piers Plowman. It foregrounds the poem’s distinctive combination of uncompromising critique and inspirational poetics. It illustrates how the poem’s dynamic allegorical narratives are made up of multiple discourses and genres but also locked into the local work of poetic and scriptural word play. The chapter homes in on the poet’s anxiety about the misuse of understanding and the fantasy of complete knowledge. It argues that the spiritual understanding proposed by the poem is not only shaped by love but also by an increasingly subtle dialectic of ‘asking’ and ‘listening’, and their correlative virtues of eagerness and patience, epistemological deferral and openness to grace. By the scene of the ‘tree of charite’, asking and listening have become the manifestations of transformed modes of spiritual apprehension. The poet is showing us how to read his poem.
Reception of the Middle English Poetic Tradition
Authors: Boffey Julia
Published: June 2023

This chapter considers aspects of the survival and reception of fourteenth-century poetry in English, looking not only at innovations in fourteenth-century verse writing that would prove especially influential but also at the range of works from different geographical areas that had a continuing life and appeal beyond 1400. It highlights late-fourteenth-century and early-fifteenth-century experiments with form and metre, illustrating in selected extracts some of the effects of these, and investigating also some characteristics of poetic language that exerted increasing traction. With reference to traditions of both English and Continental verse writing, it discusses aspects of the practice of Chaucer and Gower, and a newly inflected consciousness in the reception of their work of an English poetic tradition, of the role of the author, and of the significance of feeling in relation to creativity.
Boundaries of Selfhood
Authors: Hagberg Garry L.
Published: June 2023

This chapter brings the preceding chapter’s issues into contact with questions and answers concerning the distinctive ways in which human selves are (and, against too facile presuppositions concerning autonomy, are not) bounded, relating this to a discussion of the ways in which human experience is, and instructively (again, against too facile empiricist presuppositions) is not, bounded. Questions of multiple versus singular interpretations, of art and of persons, are considered here, along with the sense of rightness (and wrongness) that can emerge in interpretive contexts. Lastly, the chapter discusses our descriptions of our own actions, the way that figures into self-description and self-understanding, and Virginia Woolf’s observations on the special difficulties of capturing in words the sensibility of the person to whom an event occurred.
Moments of Self-Definition
Authors: Hagberg Garry L.
Published: June 2023

This chapter articulates, in the light of all the preceding, a conception of reading, of literary engagement (or, by extension, engagement with any psychologically mimetic narrative), that exhibits its own complex architecture within the reader’s inner world. The nature of this reading is bifurcated into outward-directed and inward-directed parts. In examining what emerges as this kind of self-compositional reading, this chapter uncovers (a) the often underappreciated role belief acquisition plays in identity construction and the special way that literature allows us an imaginative opportunity to “try on” beliefs, (b) the self-constitutive authority exerted within the act of making resolute decisions concerning what we would do if…, and (c) the refining of self-individuation that ensues from an attentive metaphorical identification with a protagonist.
The Sense of Self
Authors: Hagberg Garry L.
Published: June 2023

This chapter investigates the possibility of “rewriting” the self, considered in connection with the special case (because forgiver and forgiven are the same person) of self-forgiveness. The role of words, and their function in reaching both into the past and projecting into the future, is closely examined here. This leads to an examination of rereading, what it is, why we do it, what it means for our understanding of word meaning, and how this all connects to the idea of “rereading” the self and the self’s composed narrative. Rewriting and rereading are intertwined with issues of self-reinvention, self-redescription, and self-understanding. The chapter closes with a discussion of the importance that the seeing of connections, in Wittgenstein’s sense, has for self-narrative composition and for the larger notion of the self as a work-in-progress.
The Reformation and the Emergence of Protestant Orthodoxy
Authors: Kolb Robert
Published: June 2023

Out of several medieval elements emerged profound changes in defining ‘Christian’ belief and practice, as Luther, Zwingli, and other reformers formulated their forms of fundamental Christian topics in the early sixteenth century. These topics included sin and natural human potential, human righteousness, the authority of Scripture and of tradition, the sacraments, the church, and public ministry. The method of teaching and formulating theology also changed, initially rejecting Aristotelian forms on many levels, but gradually restoring elements of his system, in order to facilitate methodical theological investigation, pedagogy, and exchange of ideas among the confessional groups. Late-seventeenth- and early-eighteenth-century theologians, including the progeny of the Reformation, significantly altered the presuppositions underlying theological pursuit, so that subsequent theological enterprise depended ever less on Reformation thinking.
Early Modern Catholic Theology in German-Speaking Lands
Authors: Wallnig Thomas
Published: June 2023

This chapter outlines the early modern history of the Holy Roman Empire, viewed from the perspective of Catholic theology. The introductory part discusses the position of the problem by way of its medieval antecedents, like the antagonism between pope and emperor, and by introducing some pertinent research debates, like that about Konfessionalisierung. The following parts are organized in chronological order and roughly correspond to the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Each section sets the stage with a political summary of the period, and then provides a characterization of its Catholic theology, first in general terms, and then by way of three exemplary theologians (the Jesuit Jakob Gretser, the Benedictine Paul Mezger, and the Augustinian Canon Eusebius Amort). Major political developments, like the Thirty Years’ War, are discussed along with their theological repercussions, while major ecclesiastical events, like the Council of Trent, are viewed with respect to their consequences for Catholic Germany.
German Pietism
Authors: Shantz Douglas
Published: June 2023

This chapter begins by examining some general features that mark German Pietism as a theology, including its modernity, eclecticism, and innovations in promoting chiliasm, conventicles and new Bible translations. The rest of the chapter considers some leading Pietist theologians, notably Philipp Jakob Spener, August Hermann Francke, Joachim Justus Breithaupt, Joachim Lange, Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, Johanna Eleonora Petersen, Johann Albrecht Bengel and Friedrich Christoph Oetinger. The chapter argues that, within Pietism, theology was oriented towards experience, individualism, and the modern world. Pietism passed on notions of Christian perfection and social progress to the Enlightenment era. Pietism nurtured a democratization of theology, encouraging a self-confident laity, including women, to study the Bible and express themselves on theological matters.
The Protestant Enlightenment
Authors: Carlsson Eric
Published: June 2023

This chapter presents Germany’s Protestant Enlightenment as an effort by Lutheran and Reformed scholars and clergymen from the 1690s to the 1790s to update Christian theology to meet the perceived religious and intellectual needs of the times. The theological Enlightenment comprised several currents and phases, including eclecticism, theological Wolffianism, rationalism, and neology. The theological Aufklärer sought to present a credible alternative to both orthodoxy and unbelief that was grounded in reason and religious experience, open to new modes of thought, and fortified by rigorous scholarship, and that would form the basis for individual and societal transformation. In the process, a gradual shift occurred in the locus of religious authority, from an emphasis on the objective contents of faith to the experience of the believing subject. The Protestant Enlightenment fostered a religious individualism and a dialectical stance towards the Bible and inherited dogmatic traditions that would fundamentally reorient the theological enterprise.
The Counter-Enlightenment and Erweckungsbewegung
Authors: Betz John R.
Published: June 2023

The ‘Counter-Enlightenment’ and ‘Erweckungsbewegung’ were two important movements that influenced the intellectual and spiritual life of the late eighteenth century. While the former was more of an intellectual movement in response to the Enlightenment, the latter was a spiritual movement associated with the renewal of both the Protestant and Catholic churches. Although the two movements are rarely treated together, they in fact go together. Since they are much too large to discuss in any detail here, however, the following chapter seeks to shed light on both movements by focusing on the curiously mediating figure of Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), and his connection to other figures, including Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), Thomas Wizenmann (1759–1787), Johann Michael Sailer (1751–1832), and the so-called Münster Circle.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Holzem Andreas
Published: June 2023

This introductory chapter presents a critical survey of political, social, and legal changes from 1781–1806. Theological research around 1800 was significantly influenced first by the Enlightenment and then by the French Revolution. Protestant theology at the universities was subject to strict sovereign supervision, but at the same time participated in the enlightened criticism in philosophy and natural science. Indeed, the reform universities of Göttingen and Halle thoroughly changed academic studies. Apart from the universities, the monasteries and academies of the Imperial Church were important sites of Catholic theology. The Catholic Enlightenment grappled with the Tridentine Reform and the Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuit Order as intensively as the Protestant Enlightenment with Orthodoxy and Pietism. Austrian Josephinism and Prussian enlightened absolutism expected religion and theology to contribute to national reform and tolerance. In the end, however, the Napoleonic Wars introduced entirely new conditions for Christianity. With the secularization of 1803/6, essential foundations of Catholic theology were lost, and thus the denominations started the nineteenth century with very unequal conditions.
Early German Romanticism and the Characteristics of Religion
Authors: Whistler Daniel
Published: June 2023

This chapter charts a transformation in the meaning of ‘the critique of religion’ at the end of the eighteenth century—from the beginnings of the atheism controversy in early 1798 to the religious turn of early German Romanticism in late 1799. The Romantic group developed an approach to religion based around the practice of characterization and, in so doing, attempted to refocus critical attention on characterizing religious singularities, i.e., the positivity of positive religions. The production of this religious positivity is figured in Friedrich Schlegel as a dialectic process moving from natural religion to new religious singularity; in Schleiermacher as a virtuous circle between generic and singular religious truths, and in Novalis as a reversal by which the singularity of a positive religion grounds universal reason.
Romantic Art and Theology
Authors: Busch Werner
Published: June 2023

In conjunction with its influence within philosophical and theological circles, the emergence of Romanticism in the early nineteenth century exercised a deep influence in the visual arts. In the first third of the nineteenth century, Romantic motifs and sensibilities were enthusiasticly received and developed in religious artwork by artists such as Philipp Otto Runge, the Riepenhausen brothers, Caspar David Friedrich, and the Nazarenes. This chapter considers the influence of Early Romanticism on artistic movements of early nineteenth century, examining the impact of early Romantic texts by Wilhelm Wackenroder and Ludwig Tieck and their description of Kunstreligion (art-as-religion), the mystical and geometric structure of Philipp Otto Runge’s Tageszeiten cycle, the aesthetics of contemplation and religious experience in the work of Caspar David Friedrich, the allegorical stylization of form as an expression of religious sentiment among the Nazarenes, and the strong influence of the Nazarenes upon the Catholic Renewal Movement.
The Changing Place of Religious Orders, and Its Role in Theological Development
Authors: Becker Rainald
Published: June 2023

Like few other epochs of German church history, the period between 1750 and 1850 marked a radical challenge for religious orders. While monasteries experience a late bloom in the Catholic German territories, the secularization and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire led to an almost total eclipse of religious life around 1800. During the early nineteenth century, this decline was followed by a remarkable resurgence, which forged new monastic landscapes completely different from those of the late ancien régime, but equally flourishing. This chapter treats these phenomena under the multiple institutional and intellectual aspects, considering the Enlightenment, ultramontanism and other forces behind the dialectics of blossom, fall, and revival. Programmatically, the panorama adopts a regionalized perspective, in order to elaborate the various patterns of development in different German-speaking lands, with Austria, Bavaria, and Prussia receiving particular emphasis.
Debates about the Academic Status of Theology and the Foundation of the University of Berlin
Authors: Dahlke Benjamin
Published: June 2023

In late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century Germany, in particular in Prussia, important terms related to university studies were redefined and reconceptualized. This was largely due to the emergence of German idealism with its focus on the knowing subject. As many of the leading thinkers of the time were engaged in the founding of the University of Berlin, the development and structure of this new university played a crucial role in framing debates about the academic status of theology. This chapter examines these considerations of the place of theology in the university in the writings of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, as well in works by Schleiermacher, whose treatment outlined an influential account of the tasks and functions of theology. However, while research has tended to pass over Catholic contributions to the debates about the academic status of theology, this chapter also attends to the writings of the Tübingen theologian Drey.
Approaches to Myth and Mythology
Authors: Steinby Liisa
Published: June 2023

The chapter discusses new approaches to the study of myth and mythology in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Germany, focusing on four important thinkers or intellectual currents, namely Herder; the Early Romanticism of Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis, and Schelling; Friedrich Creuzer; and the late Schelling. In Herder’s anthropological approach, myth is regarded as a natural form of human cognition. Herder discusses myth as the material of poetry and interprets myths in the Bible. The Early Romantics’ view of myth is based on the idealist philosophy; myth, like art, is an important form of representing the Absolute. Creuzer, in his Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, presents a temporally and geographically comprehensive overview of the religious imagery of ancient peoples, suggesting that mythologies share a common origin of a basically monotheistic character. Schelling, on the other hand, in his Philosophie der Mythologie, claims that the mythologies, or theogonies, in different cultures rather develop in parallel; this is because the theogonic process actually involves the true effectuality of God.
Confession, Secularism, and Dissent in the German Vormärz
Authors: Weir Todd H.
Published: June 2023

At the end of the nineteenth century, many German church leaders viewed popular natural science and secularist worldviews as forces that were outside of, and indeed hostile to Christianity. Yet, earlier in the century, the churches had accommodated divergent positions on science and worldview. This chapter argues that rising confessionalism and the dynamics of dissent in the German Vormärz led to an externalization of these positions from the Christian Churches, in the form of the Free Religious Congregations of the Deutschkatholiken and Lichtfreunde. The chapter focusses on the Kingdom of Prussia and the Protestant Church, but it incorporates parallel developments within Catholicism and Judaism, because these were essential to the cross-confessional dynamics of politics and religious dissent that came to a head in the years 1845 to 1847 and resulted in the permanent transformation of Germany’s confessional system.
The Catholic Tübingen School in Its First Generation
Authors: Kaplan Grant
Published: June 2023

The faculty of Catholic theology in Tübingen has long been recognized as one of the leading engines of theological creativity in Christian theology over the past 200 years. Yet there is some question about whether it is appropriate to call it a ‘school’. This chapter examines that debate before outlining the key figures and arguments who shaped the essence of the Catholic theology done in Tübingen. It also charts a decisive turn in the School’s direction, precipitated by an internal debate about mandatory celibacy in the Catholic Church. This turn was important not only to the development of the School, but to debate about how to understand or qualify the relationship between the empirical reality of a faculty of Catholic theology in Tübingen, and the more abstract question over the existence of School.
Rationalism and Biblical Interpretation
Authors: Kurtz Paul Michael
Published: June 2023

Between 1815 and 1830, Paulus, Bretschneider, and de Wette produced interpretative guides for studying the Synoptics, the history of the Christian religion, and the Old Testament and Apocrypha. With these works, they advocated for current but by no means uncontroversial reading methods, applying the latest interventions in philosophy, philology, and history to understand biblical texts: as artefacts of a distant place but assets to modern Europe, as fallible yet credible testimony to a God behind the human past, present, and future. This chapter examines the sorts of evidence, the types of explication, and the kinds of interlocutors they not only permitted but also precluded for building arguments about the Bible. Ultimately, it argues that the courtroom of demonstration they aspired to construct identified one mode of biblical interpretation (their own) with the rational, scientific, and modern: versus Catholics, Jews, and some Protestants (i.e., the free and orthodox), whom they dismissed as irrational, unscientific, and medieval. The chapter further demonstrates how their accounts represented this exegetical edifice as conforming to the blueprints of the Protestant confession—erected on intellectual freedom, reasoned thought, biblical criticism, and philosophical reflection. In this way, the cases of Paulus, Bretschneider, and de Wette look not only back to the Enlightenment, with its vision of progress and an enlightened republic, but also forward to the claims of impartial science, the protestantization of the secular domain, and challenges to liberal Christianity as well as Judaism in Imperial Germany.
Schleiermacher’s Glaubenslehre and Its Immediate Reception
Authors: Dole Andrew
Published: June 2023

Friedrich Schleiermacher’s Glaubenslehre is uncontroversially the most influential Protestant dogmatics of the first half of the nineteenth century; it also inaugurated the genre of modern systematic theology. Dedicated to the project of ‘mediating’ between the historical Christian faith and fast-developing historical and scientific knowledge, the work interrogates received doctrines in relation to a conception of Christianity grounded in a central principle, ‘that redemption is universally accomplished in Jesus of Nazareth’. The work was widely reviewed, and was subject to a wide range of vociferous criticisms while simultaneously being described as ‘epoch-making’. The work presents a model of a tightly integrated theological project, and is probably more influential for doing this than for advancing its novel interpretations of Christian doctrines; even theologians who counted themselves as his followers commonly sought to stand closer to orthodoxy.
Anti-Rationalist Developments
Authors: Schel Kevin M. Vander
Published: June 2023

The emergence of post-Kantian theological rationalism in early-nineteenth-century German Protestantism ushered in a variety of novel theological approaches that sought to move beyond traditional presentations of doctrine to examine anew the rational and historical basis of religious faith. It also met with strong opposition from preachers and theologians, who rejected the accommodation with Enlightenment rationalism, defended the inescapably supernatural character of Christian revelation, and sought to reimagine the relation of Christian communities to the state and its civil and educational institutions. This chapter presents an inquiry into this opposition to theological rationalism, which proceeds in three parts. It explores: (1) the early-nineteenth-century opposition of rationalism and supernaturalism; (2) the beginnings of the German religious Awakening; and (3) the increasingly social and political expression of these anti-rationalist theological tendencies.
Catholic RationalismGeorg Hermes and Anton Günther
Authors: Shaun Coyle Justin
Published: June 2023

This chapter returns to the so-called ‘semi-rationalist’ Catholics, Georg Hermes (d.1831) and Anton Günther (d.1863), whose work the Catholic Church censured for adopting too much (or adapting too little) from German Idealism. However different their contexts and thought, the Church of their day judged their error the same: each in turn reduces revelation to reason. This chapter suggests that close reading of their texts and attention to their historical contexts shows how both Hermes and Günther were, regardless of their success, in fact motivated by resisting the regnant rationalism of their day. In doing so it shows how Catholic theologians took up similar questions to their Protestant contemporaries regarding the relationship of theology to the newly discovered powers of Kant’s ‘pure’ reason. despite the suspicions of such an undertaking from within their own church.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Zalar Jeffrey T.
Published: June 2023

This chapter addresses the formative Restoration and Vormärz eras of history in German-speaking lands from roughly 1815 to the Revolutions of 1848–49. It begins with politics, considering the realignment of most of the states of central Europe into the German Confederation and the tensions this realignment provoked between establishment conservatives and emancipation-minded liberals. Then it examines social changes in both agrarian and urban environments as industrialization took hold, rural surplus labourers moved to upstart cities, and restive populations everywhere demanded amelioration of their living and working conditions. Finally, it highlights such cultural transformations as the spread of compulsory schooling and the coalescence of the public sphere that so powerfully influenced the expansion and character of intellectual life. These three interrelated discussions of politics, society, and culture establish helpful contexts for comprehending the development of German theology in the modern period.
Hegel’s Philosophy of Religion, Schelling’s Philosophy of Revelation, and Their Immediate Theological Reception
Authors: Danz Christian
Published: June 2023

Hegel’s philosophy of religion and Schelling’s philosophy of revelation are among the most important and influential conceptions of philosophy of religion in the first half of the nineteenth century. This chapter discusses the foundations of these philosophical systems over against the historical background of post-Kantian philosophy, while also describing the systematic conceptions of religion outlined in the writings of each figure. Furthermore, beyond the presentation of Hegel’s and Schelling’s speculative philosophies of religion, this chapter treats their widespread influence on the decades that followed and their complex history of reception up to the middle of the nineteenth century.
Church History and History of Doctrine 1830–1848
Authors: Unterburger Klaus
Published: June 2023

In the Age of Enlightenment, the pragmatic method prevailed in church historiography. Church history and history of dogma were explained by human factors, and thus came into conflict with the dogmatic claims to timeless truth. To preserve such claims in the face of the increasing historicization of knowledge in the nineteenth century, theologians pursued various strategies. In the Vormärz period from 1815 to 1848, one can distinguish three currents: 1) one could try to assert the supra-temporal identity of the inner Christian experience of faith despite all external change; 2) one could try to recognize a necessary process of development a priori behind the seemingly coincidental process of change (theological Hegelianism); or 3) one could finally be of the opinion that historical change does not go so far as to make it impossible to recognize in it the true faith and the true church, which have remained identical in their essence. All three response strategies were advocated by both Protestants and Catholics. Furthermore within Protestantism, mediating theologians attempted to reconcile the core principles of Protestantism with the results of modern scientific and historical study.
German Jewry and the Development of the Jewish Question in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Wertheim David J.
Published: June 2023

This chapter outlines the changes in the social and political location of German Jews from early modern Germany through the Empire established by Bismarck. It traces how gradually over time the place of Jews became a fixation in German culture, specifically in regard to how they were first denigrated as adherents of an obsolete religion, and subsequently maligned as members of a race that bore a foreign culture and therefore posed a threat to the German nation. In the course of outlining the key episodes in these developments, the chapter also discusses such themes as Jewish emancipation, Jewish religious reform, and the rise of anti-Semitism as the product of a distinctly modern framework for understanding religious difference.
Issues in Religious Freedom
Authors: Lee II James Ambrose
Published: June 2023

On 21 November 1837, the turmoil over mixed marriages between the Prussian state administration and the Rhenish Catholic Church erupted in the arrest of the Archbishop of Cologne. Less than a year later, on 14 August 1838, the Bavarian Ministry of War published an order mandating that all soldiers—regardless of religious confession—had to kneel during any eucharistic ceremony. Throughout the ‘Cologne Affair’ (Kölner Ereignis) and the Bavarian ‘Kneeling Controversy’ (Kniebeugungsstreit), Roman Catholics and Protestants protested against the violation of the right of the freedom of religion and the freedom of conscience through the legislation of state administrations. This chapter examines the ambiguous nature of religious freedom in Vormärz Germany as it was contested during the Cologne Affair and the Kneeling Controversy.
Introduction
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 1 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
The Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 2 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
Ω: The Archetype
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 4 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
The Γ Family
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 6 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
Hybrid Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 8 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
The Extant Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 14 scholarship on the transmission of the texts of Cato, De agri cultura and Varro, De re rustica is reviewed. All known manuscripts of these works are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. It is argued that the transmission needs to be studied in three separate parts: Cato; Varro before 3.17.4; and Varro after 3.17.4. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
The Classification of the Extant Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 17 scholarship on the transmission of the texts of Cato, De agri cultura and Varro, De re rustica is reviewed. All known manuscripts of these works are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. It is argued that the transmission needs to be studied in three separate parts: Cato; Varro before 3.17.4; and Varro after 3.17.4. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Enoch of Ascoli and Porphyrio
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 24 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Porphyrio is reviewed. A brief discussion of the relationship of extant scholia to the commentary that goes under the name of Porphyrio is provided. All known manuscripts of Porphyrio are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. It is argued that V (Vat. lat. 3314) is the source of all other extant MSS and was the manuscript brought back to Italy by Enoch of Ascoli, and the difficulties entailed by the standard view that it was written in Italy are stated. The extensive incunabular tradition is also examined, and an outline of the transmission of the text in the Renaissance is provided.
V, M, and the Recentiores
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 25 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Porphyrio is reviewed. A brief discussion of the relationship of extant scholia to the commentary that goes under the name of Porphyrio is provided. All known manuscripts of Porphyrio are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. It is argued that V (Vat. lat. 3314) is the source of all other extant MSS and was the manuscript brought back to Italy by Enoch of Ascoli, and the difficulties entailed by the standard view that it was written in Italy are stated. The extensive incunabular tradition is also examined, and an outline of the transmission of the text in the Renaissance is provided.
The Localization of V and M and the Transmission of Porphyrio in the Middle Ages
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 26 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Porphyrio is reviewed. A brief discussion of the relationship of extant scholia to the commentary that goes under the name of Porphyrio is provided. All known manuscripts of Porphyrio are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. It is argued that V (Vat. lat. 3314) is the source of all other extant MSS and was the manuscript brought back to Italy by Enoch of Ascoli, and the difficulties entailed by the standard view that it was written in Italy are stated. The extensive incunabular tradition is also examined, and an outline of the transmission of the text in the Renaissance is provided.
The Manuscripts
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 30 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
The Progress of Scholarship
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 31 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Manuscripts That Are Contaminated or Are Otherwise Difficult to Place
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 35 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
The Early History of the Text
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 36 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Conclusions
Authors: Oakley S. P.
Published: June 2023

In chapter 37 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Violence
Authors: Willis Roxana
Published: June 2023

This chapter analyses violence in the research community: it examines violence through the framework of mutuality rather than through the lens of individualistic motivation, to offer a stronger account of the phenomenon. A fuller picture of mutuality is developed by drawing on historical analyses of ritual fighting norms in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England, which are shown to continue into the present, though in forms affected by contemporary conditions. Relatedly, the concept of the ‘moral economy of violence’, influenced by E. P. Thompson, is revisited; it is proposed that this concept is most helpful when understood through the lens of mutuality, and not read through the framework of autonomy, which risks distorting local meanings. Countering the tendency to view violence as a means of securing individual status and respect, this chapter indicates that force may be used to challenge power imbalance and restore a sense of equilibrium among the collective. This explains why bullying is widely frowned upon, motivating as well as limiting the use of violence. Moreover, the collective appraises fights more generally—to recognize them as fair, they ought to have just cause and use proportional force. Lastly, strategies to displace violence are examined, including the use of tough language, the practice of ‘name-and-shame’, and beliefs in karma, which are once again made intelligible through the framework of mutuality.
Moral Dilemmas
Authors: Willis Roxana
Published: June 2023

Prior to Chapter 7, the book explains certain conflicts, tensions, and violent incidents predominately via the framework of mutuality. Yet, as this chapter explores, the framework of autonomy is also available to shed explanatory light on these phenomena. As the dominant framework, imbued with legitimacy and upheld by the state, autonomy has a central place in the research community. However, precariously positioned persons may sometimes strive to act in accordance with autonomy while structural conditions prevent them from meeting its standards. The chapter begins by detailing the immoral figure as it features in the autonomy framework, which is captured by the historical figure of the ‘tramp’—the inverse image of the respectable citizen. The discussion then explores how precariously situated persons might exhibit their commitment to autonomy in a thinner sense: rather than living an (unattainable) autonomous existence, one critiques the moral failings of similarly positioned others and in so doing demonstrate oneself as respectable. Three moral dilemmas are subsequently investigated, each revealing how community members unable to meet the standards of autonomy engage in complex ethical deliberations to justify their behaviour. When people cannot act in accordance with autonomy, they do not operate in a moral vacuum, but draw on the alternative framework of mutuality. The daily practice of moral deliberation detailed herein demonstrates a potential approach for criminal lawyers to respond to the reality of framework pluralism.
Questions of Moral Motivation
Authors: Willis Roxana
Published: June 2023

The final chapter returns to the issue of racial tension in the research community, building on the discussion of ‘foreigners’ in Chapter 5. In conditions of framework plurality, the moral motivation behind a person’s actions might be unclear and require assessment. Therefore, when racial tensions surface, the motivation could appropriately be explained by the framework of mutuality, or autonomy, or as racism simpliciter. The chapter contributes to these questions by reflecting on hate crime legislation in England and Wales, under which the usage of certain words may evidence racial hostility. Countering this assumption, a thicker exploration of language usage is advanced: although hostile language may indicate an assertion of superiority, at times derogatory expressions operate at a deeper level, to counter distinction and overcome power imbalances. Several practices are explored in relation to this argument, including banter and efforts to neutralize distinction. In the second part of the chapter, the discussion extends to equality law; as with hate crime legislation, although race is recognized as a protected characteristic, class is not. The law achieves this by individualizing the concept of race. Consequently, equality law becomes another source of tension in the research community, the legal emphasis on difference undermining collective appeals to solidarity and conformity. However, precariously situated persons are not passive in this process and yet again find ways to ‘personalize the state’. This emic account indicates that mutuality is a vital framework, which legal scholars and law reformers ought to take into consideration.
LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES
Authors: Turner Anthony
Published: June 2023

The four sections of this chapter describe time instruments in the Byzantine and Arab–Islamic worlds—sundials, water clocks, and the introduction of European weight and spring-driven clocks and watches. The account of activity in Arabo/Persian Islamic regions is discussed through to the twentieth century. It discusses in detail the sundials and water clocks used in Medieval Christian Europe (mainly in an ecclesiastical context), and investigates thoroughly the origins of the oscillator as the controlling element—the escapement—for a gear train. It also describes the origins and first use of sand-glasses and also covers the use of fire clocks (usually candles) in Islam and the Latin West.
PUBLIC CLOCKS FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
Authors: Addomine Marisa
Published: June 2023

This chapter discusses and defines the nature of a public clock from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries, explains the change from rural timekeeping to urban needs for monitoring the hours, and explores its uses as well as its constituent parts. It then considers the regional variations in the making of what was a very local production, including turret clocks, frames, escapements, flat-bed movements, and the advent of the pendulum, and provides examples of early public clocks. It then sets out for the reader the fundamental, even revolutionary, changes effected in the mechanism in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
THE STRUCTURES OF HOROLOGICAL MANUFACTURE AND TRADE
Authors: Turner Anthony
Published: June 2023

This chapter presents a survey of the social and economic structure underlying the making of clocks, watches, and sundials throughout Europe in the Early Modern period. From their beginning until at least the eighteenth century, and to some extent even today, they were usually luxury objects to be coveted and displayed. It covers the intrinsic part played by the workshop space, particularly in the urban setting, in horological manufacture. It provides a detailed description, sometimes using first-hand accounts, of the sources of raw materials, the organization of manufacture, and the distribution of finished products. It gives due weight to regional variations.