bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Second‐generation migrants: Europe and the United States
Authors: Crul and Maurice , Schneider Jens
Published: January 2013

The public debate about the second generation in Europe has taken a dramatic shift in the last five years. The riots in thebanlieuesin France, involving mostly Algerian and Moroccan second‐generation youth, pitched the cherished republican model into deep crisis. In the Netherlands, arguments about the failure of the country's multicultural society have cited the relatively high number of Dutch Moroccan students who drop out of school and the high crime rate within the Moroccan second generation. In Germany, similar concerns about the Turkish second generation have triggered a debate about the existence of a separateGesellschaft, composed of almost two million Turks living in a parallel world detached from the wider German society. The debate in the US, in contrast, has been much more dominated by the question of illegal immigrants. Negative associations around the second generation, however, have been mostly around crime and gangs and teenage pregnancy.
Seleucid empire, colonization and settlement
Authors: Ramsey Gillian
Published: January 2013

At its height during the reign of Antiochos III (223–188BCE), the Seleucid empire spanned most of the Near East from western Asia Minor to Afghanistan, and Armenia to Palestine, covering for the most part areas previously conquered by Alexander the Great. The Seleucid royal family was of Macedonian origin on its paternal side, Iranian on the maternal and exercised control of the empire by grafting Hellenistic forms of organization onto pre‐existing Near Eastern systems. As such, the introduction of new settlements and Greek‐style cities was an integral part of Seleucid imperial rule.
Settler migration and colonies
Authors: Veracini Lorenzo
Published: January 2013

Colonial processes mobilize peoples in unprecedented ways. While the study of migrations and human displacements has focused primarily on movement across space and only marginally on the sovereign entitlements with which people travel, “settler” remains a term that often applies toanycommunity that ends up permanently residing in a particular locale. Conversely, “immigrant” can apply toallcommunities that have originated somewhere else. Even if “settler” and “migrant” identify different groups, they are often treated as synonyms. Anthony Smith 's influential classification of different patterns of national formation, for example, distinguishes between the Western, the immigrant, the ethnic, and the colonial. In his characterization “immigrant” refers to locales “where small part‐ethnie are beneficiaries of a state of their own,” and where “waves of new immigrants from different cultures” are assimilated “into what becomes increasingly a territorial nation and a political community, as in America, Argentina, Australia” (Smith 1986: 241). In Smith's typology, the “small part‐ethnie” and the successive “migratory waves” are identified by the same term. While this terminological interchangeability is remarkable, especially considering that Smith's classification recognizes the distinction between settlers and migrants, a focus on permanence and on the locales of destination – that is, a focus that is fundamentally informed by present conditions – obstructs an appraisal of the different sovereign prerogatives of migrants and settlers (for recent analyses of these contradictions in a British context, see Harper & Constantine 2010; Bickers 2011). While displacement and sovereignty can be articulated in various ways, the settler and the migrant experience should be considered as essentially distinct.
Sex trafficking and migration
Authors: Ruiz Maria Isabel Romero
Published: January 2013

Illegal migration is a subcategory of international migration, human smuggling being a special case, while human trafficking is a subcategory of smuggling (Väyrynen 2003). These concepts began to be clear to all the country members after the United Nations adopted the Convention on Trans‐national Organised Crime on November 15, 2000, which included the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air and the Protocol to Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children. The United Nations definition of human trafficking runs as follows.
Shipboard insurrections
Authors: Bâ Saër Maty
Published: January 2013

Historian Marcus Rediker writes that the transatlantic slave trade lasted almost four centuries (from the late 15th to the late 19th century) and that its golden age or peak was 1700–1808 when two‐thirds of the captives – 40 percent or 3 million – were transported in British and American ships (2005: 5). During the course of the trade (or the loading and transporting of 12.4 million African captives onto ships for a horrific “Middle Passage” to hundreds of destinations) 1.8 million died, but who were these human captives and where were they shipped to? Between1707–1808 the British and Americans sent ships to these regions of Africa: Senegambia, Sierra Leone/the Windward Coast, the Gold Coast, the Bights of Benin and Biafra, and West Central Africa (Kongo, Angola). The African captives' primary destinations were the British Sugar Islands (“where more than 70 percent of all slaves were purchased, almost half of these at Jamaica”) but large numbers also ended up with French and Spanish buyers as a result of a special set of treaties called the Asiento.
Singapore, Chinese migration late 19th century to present
Authors: Lim Jason
Published: January 2013

Sir Stamford Raffles established a trading station for the East India Company on the island of Singapore in 1819. Singapore became a free port and the British colonial authorities adopted a laissez‐faire policy with regard to immigration. As a result large numbers of Chinese entered Singapore. By 1824, the Chinese comprised 31 percent of the island's population. By 1840, half of the island's population was Chinese, and the proportion of ethnic Chinese has remained in the majority until today. In 1867 the administration of the island was transferred to the Colonial Office in London but the practice of allowing Chinese to enter Singapore continued. By 1871, the proportion of Chinese in the island's population was 56.2 percent.
Slavs, medieval migration
Authors: Hardt Matthias
Published: January 2013

The migration and expansion of the early Slavs in east central, eastern, and southeastern Europe in the Early and High Middle Ages can be examined only through the combined analysis of written, archaeological, and linguistic sources. However, all of these must be critically examined on their own terms and interpreted without nationalist bias. In what follows, the writings of ancient and early medieval authors on the Slavic expansion are first introduced in chronological order and then related to the interpretation of archaeological finds and linguistic research.
Social networks
Authors: Treitler Vilna Bashi
Published: January 2013

Although potential migrants comprise perhaps 50 percent of the world's population, only 2 percent of people actually move from their birthplace to live elsewhere on the planet; one half of these move from one less economically prosperous nation to another. On the other hand, so many people move from just a few places: about 65 million people have moved from poorer nations in the global South to wealthier nations north of the equator (one‐third of these end up in only six countries), and that number is dwarfed by the South–South movers. Each is likely to live lives increasingly described as
transnational,
neither time‐specific (i.e. pre‐ or post‐migration only) nor nation‐centered (i.e. focused only “back home” or in the “new home”); instead, their lives are centered in communities that operate as if the passage of time is benign, and national boundaries porous. Faist 2000 asks why so many move from so few places, and how they make and keep transnational ties; he finds social networks are keys to the answers.
Social protest and migration
Authors: Pedraza Silvia
Published: January 2013

Considering the relationship between migration and protest, analysts have considered whether a massive exodus – such as took place from East to West Berlin, from Spain or Turkey to Germany, from eastern to western Europe, or from Haiti and Cuba to the United States – is a hindrance or a help to the development of civil society via the use of social protest. Social scientists have approached the question through the analysis that Albert O. Hirschman 1970 first introduced in his
Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States.
Firms, organizations, and political parties provide benefits or services. Hirschman argued that when the quality of the benefits or services they provide deteriorates the
loyalty
of its members is threatened. The members can then express themselves by using one of two options: they can choose to
exit
– simply leave – or they can use their
voice –
to organize and protest, calling for change. The thesis is similar to J. S. MacDonald's 1963, whose influence was particularly felt by historians (e.g. Gabaccia 1988). MacDonald posited that political protest and migration were alternative strategies. Hirschman's thesis, however, added the concept of
loyalty
– to the firm, organization, party, or nation – as that which is threatened by the deterioration experienced, prompting people to emigrate.
Sociology of migration
Authors: Matsumoto Noriko
Published: January 2013

In the United States, immigration has long been considered as a field at the core of sociological investigation. Its origins are associated with the Chicago School, which remained dominant in American sociology between the two world wars. Urban change in Chicago became a major focus of empirical inquiry in the early 20th century and was stimulated by large‐scale immigration, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe. The tradition and themes that stem from the Chicago School have deeply influenced subsequent research.
Soldiers and citizens
Authors: Bernazzoli Richelle
Published: January 2013

The phenomena of migration, military service, citizenship, and violence have been linked around the globe and throughout history. Soldiers and citizens exist in a nexus (soldiers are citizens and citizens are soldiers) rather than as actors occupying separate “military” and “civilian” realms. Processes of human migration facilitate this mutual construction of soldiers and citizens as organized violence displaces people, but also creates pathways to belonging for those “outside” a particular community. The examples discussed below demonstrate the manifold ways in which the fundamental links between soldiers, citizens, and migration have shaped social realities over time and across space.
South–South migrations: Indian Oceanic world
Authors: Vergès Françoise
Published: January 2013

South–South migrations have been active for centuries between Asia and Africa, among islands in the Pacific, between Eastern and Western Asia, and in the Indian Ocean. Once the mystery of the monsoons was cracked (around the 1st centuryCE) – from May to September, winds go from the northern tip of Madagascar to India, and from September to May, they go the other way around – human beings loaded boats with slaves and goods and navigated from port to port around the ocean's rim. To analyze these South–South migrations and their effects, we must put aside European time (the dates of the explorations, of the “great discoveries,” of colonization) and space (the world mapped by imperial conquest, the routes of slavery, the commerce of spices, and the rivalry between European powers) and acknowledge the existence of other temporalities and spatializations. One must also acknowledge other reasons and causes for going beyond one's known world than the desire for the monopoly on the commerce of gold, slaves, and spices or the bringing of the God of Europe to other peoples. Thus, the long history of migrations in the Indian Ocean reveals the existence of South–South migratory routes. They preceded the migrations caused by the needs of European colonial powers and have continued after their end.
Southeast Asia: migration, ASEAN, and regional agreements
Authors: Hedman Eva‐Lotta E.
Published: January 2013

While the history of human migration in Asia stretches over many centuries, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is of more recent vintage. Since its inception in 1967, ASEAN has seen considerable migration within, across, and beyond the borders of its member states. To date, efforts to regulate such migration have reflected the predominance of domestic law and ad hoc measures by concerned member states. As this brief overview shows, however, Southeast Asian migrations in the era of ASEAN have also prompted a search for bilateral, multilateral, and regional frameworks of regulation.
Southern Africa: internal migration
Authors: Segatti Loren B. Landau and Aurelia
Published: January 2013

Contemporary patterns of migration within and across Southern Africa's political borders have a history dating back to the mid‐19th century. Even before the colonial occupation, movements were shaped by pastoral lifestyles and the quest for improved profits or protection from violence, poverty, and pestilence. Following the massive dislocations of the colonial era and the highly structured migrant‐labor system, regular movements within and across political boundaries became integral to household, national, and regional economies (Posel 1991). While internal and international migration within the region continues to be partially shaped by these antecedents, globalization, shifting gender dynamics, the HIV/AIDS pandemic, urbanization and metropolization, the decline of rural agriculture, the resolution of ongoing conflicts, and the emergence of new forms of violence and persecution have created a highly mobile region.
Southern Africa, migration, 7th century to present
Authors: Matlou Matlotleng P.
Published: January 2013

From the time that human beings evolved in Africa they have moved from place to place first on the continent and then further away. This essay will concentrate on migration both domestic and international in southern Africa, beginning with a historical account of migration and tracing it to the 21st century, explaining how and why people move and postulating what the future of migration in the region will be. Southern Africa for our purpose will consist of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) as constituted today. The countries forming the SADC are Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Spain: capitalism, expansion, and settlement, medieval era
Authors: Williams Phillip
Published: January 2013

Spain in the medieval period had too much land in relation to the number of people or the amount of available water; put simply, there were too few Spaniards and they congregated in areas where there was water, along the banks of the great rivers. Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, those two most typical of Spaniards, wandered through solitary wastelands for days on end without encountering another human soul: this was no literary invention on behalf of Miguel de Cervantes, but a common occurrence in his day (Braudel 1972). Georges Duby famously observed that agriculture is a war between men and nature, and if this was the case then conditions in the Iberian Peninsula meant that the farmers faced an implacable adversary. They did so, moreover, with a very limited armory, for medieval technology afforded them few advantages (Duby 1972). French historians, who tend to stress the role of geography in shaping economic development, have described a Mediterranean climate (even a Mediterranean “unit”), meaning a dry weather system with arid summers, and weak, thin soils which suffered from violent erosion and rapid exhaustion. The terrain in Iberia made trade and communication disproportionately difficult, although the mountain ranges or “sierras” also afforded enormous opportunities for grazing and transhumance – that is, the long‐distance movement of flocks of livestock in order to take advantage of the plains in winter and the highland pastures in summer (Braudel 1972; Duby 1972; White 1972). Spain boasts geography of extremes, although its features have sometimes been simplified to the point of caricature. In his 1937 poemSpain, W. H. Auden referred to “that arid square, that fragment nipped off from hot Africa” (Fletcher 1992: 10–13). An awareness of the comparative difficulty of life in the country underlines how industrious and innovative the Spaniards were, making the most of mountains and forests (even firewood was a valuable commodity). Above all else, they valued every last drop of water and made the most of every well, pool, stream, river, and lake.
Spain: migration 1960s to present
Authors: Sperling Jessica
Published: January 2013

Compared to long‐standing receiving societies like the United States, and even compared to more recent receiving societies in Northern and Western Europe, large‐scale immigration to Spain began relatively recently. Yet immigration to Spain has increased dramatically between the 1980s and the late 2000s, marking a significant shift from being historically a country of emigration to being a country of immigration. Relative to its population size, Spain has come to have one of the largest immigration streams in Europe (Arango & Finotelli 2009). This relatively sudden and sharp demographic change has significantly altered the makeup of the Spanish nation, and it has created the need for continued policy developments to deal with these demographic changes.
Spanish America, early modern migration 16th–18th century
Authors: Altman Ida
Published: January 2013

Early modern migration from Europe to Spanish America – indeed, transatlantic migration in the broadest sense – began with the second voyage of Christopher Columbus to the Caribbean in 1493. Columbus's first voyage was one of reconnaissance, and it failed to produce a permanent settlement. The second, however, represented a deliberate effort at colonization. Some 1,500 people, including at least a few women, arrived in Hispaniola, bringing with them what were thought to be essential items for settlement, such as livestock and seeds. They established the first European town in the Americas, Isabela, on the northern coast of Hispaniola. Some of those who arrived in the Caribbean in 1493 still lived there 20 or more years later, although illness, conflict, relocation, and a substantial rate of return reduced the number of first arrivals who remained. Columbus's second voyage initiated both a continuing European presence in the Americas and an almost constant movement of people (and goods) in both directions across the Atlantic.
Sport and migration
Authors: Maguire Joseph
Published: January 2013

To migrate as part of the global sports process is portrayed as something to celebrate, reflecting an individual's right to move, or viewed in unproblematic terms. However, sports migration is bound up in a sports‐industrial complex that is itself embedded in a series of power struggles that characterize the global sports system. Migration is marked by networks involving athletes, owners, administrators, agents, officials, and media personnel. These interdependencies are multilayered and incorporate not only economic, but also political, historical, geographic, social, and cultural factors. Thus, in seeking to explain global labor migration, a broad approach involving an examination of wider societal processes is required (Maguire & Falcous 2010). Questions concerning broader issues such as globalization, national identity, and intercultural communication – but also more specific matters relating to, for example, “talent pipelines,” stereotyping, and the ascribing of qualities to athletes from different countries, racial, ethnic, and gender groups – are also part of the migration process (Agergaard 2008).
Spouses and migration
Authors: Spieß Karl‐Heinz
Published: January 2013

Throughout the Middle Ages, kings and princes looked to foreign countries for spouses, either for themselves or for their sons. These international marriages led, quite naturally, to the migration of the spouses, including their entourages, to the country of their future husbands. Such an entourage would normally have constituted a rather small group, consisting of about five to twenty people; its influence, however, could still have been significant. The most important reason for kings to look abroad for a suitable wife was status, as a female person of kingly rank could naturally not be found in the king's own realm outside the king's own family.
Steppe, people of (Hungarians, Huns, Avars, Mongols)
Authors: Schmieder Felicitas
Published: January 2013

Migration as it is usually understood in both popular and scholarly discourses is a sedentary concept: people living in one place move – individually, in large numbers, or as groups – due to worsening living conditions “at home” and/or better prospects elsewhere. Several definitions add that the movement must be intended to be permanent or at least turn out (historically) to have become permanent.
Structural adjustment policies and international migration
Authors: Solimano Andrés
Published: January 2013

The financial crisis and great recession that destabilized the United States and European economies from 2008 to 2009, and the slow recovery of growth and employment afterward with recurrent spells of financial and currency instability, large fiscal deficits, uncertainty, fragility in the banking system, and persistent unemployment is compounding problems facing the economies to productively absorb their workforce. These developments, in turn, deter immigration and slow remittances flows by immigrants working in the global North (Haddad & Shepherd 2011). In the past, these crises were often the lot of developing countries affected by recurrent macroeconomic imbalances, unstable growth, and financial fragility, particularly since the shift in the 1970s toward export promotion and market‐oriented neoliberal policies (Harvey 2005; Saad‐Filho & Johnston 2005).
Suburbs
Authors: Fassmann Heinz
Published: January 2013

“Suburb” generally refers to a settlement type which shows certain characteristics and is located in an area outside the city as an administrative or morphological unit. The term “suburb” is derived from the Latin and can be translated as “under the city,” with the meaning of “outside the city.” Suburb is a structural term, whereas suburbanization is the process that leads to the growth of suburbs. Suburbanization comprises all forms of outmigration of people and the shifting of functions from the city to the urban fringe as well as the inflow of residents and functions from other parts of the region or country. Together, suburbs and cities form a city region (or metropolitan area or urban agglomeration).
Sustainable population growth
Authors: Zoomers Annelies
Published: January 2013

This essay analyzes “sustainable population growth and migration” in relation to the aim of achieving sustainable development. It is striking that in sustainability debates much attention is given to “population growth” and “overpopulation,” while issues such as aging, urbanization, and migration are neglected. What are the implications of these demographic trends for sustainable development? Given current globalization processes, how should we deal with concepts such as “carrying capacity” of regions?
Sweden, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Grönberg Per‐Olof
Published: January 2013

The view of preindustrial Sweden as a geographically static society is distorted; migration was a part of everyday life and the most common demographic feature. Early 19th‐century Swedes changed residence 10 times on average during their lifetime, which is only twice less than the present day. Distances moved were shorter, however. People moved between their closest rural parishes and sometimes to nearby towns. On the parish level, in‐ and outmigration equaled each other and did not cause major population redistributions. Numerous small and isolated local “labour markets” constituted migration's framework. People moved to earn their living within these borders (Tedebrand 1999; Dribe & Stanfors 2005).
Switzerland, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Häberlein Jana
Published: January 2013

Throughout its history, Switzerland has been a country with a relatively high percentage of immigrants and transmigrants. The emergence of modern immigration to Switzerland has a forerunner in the admission of Protestant refugees at the end of the 17th century. While the benevolent admittance of these religious refugees has become part of Switzerland's humanitarian image, the administrative practice at the time mainly consisted in granting board and lodging and in encouraging the refugees to move on (Wottreng 2000). Permanent settlement was hardly possible for “foreigners” in the Swiss cantons during the 17th and 18th century.
Syndicalism and anarchism of migrants
Authors: Zimmer Kenyon
Published: January 2013

Anarchism, which spread throughout most of the world between the 1860s and 1930s, is a libertarian socialist ideology that seeks a democratic and egalitarian society through the overthrow of capitalism and the state. Anarchists have advocated a variety of approaches to revolutionary change, from violent insurrection to peaceful transformation, but after 1900 the most important of these approaches was syndicalism. Syndicalists view the labor movement as the primary site of revolutionary struggle, labor organizations as the principal force capable of toppling the existing order, and democratic union structures as the blueprints for organizing a postrevolutionary society. Syndicalists therefore promote working‐class direct action over electoral politics to achieve both short‐term and long‐term goals, including the general strike as a revolutionary tactic. Although not all anarchists are syndicalists and not all syndicalists are anarchists, the two movements have overlapped substantially.
Tokyo, foreigners in
Authors: Machimura Takashi
Published: January 2013

Tokyo, the capital city of Japan, is sometimes seen as one of the globalized cities most closed to foreign migrants. While its urban agglomeration‐based population was 35.6 million in 2005, ranking top in the world (UN 2009), and the population of the central city's (the 23 wards of the Tokyo metropolitan government) was 8.9 million in 2010, the registered foreign populations that year were approximately 699,000 and 348,000 respectively. While the proportion of foreigners in the total population is still low compared to other metropolises around the globe, Tokyo's ethnic composition has diversified remarkably over the last three decades.
Tourism
Authors: Swatos, William H.
Published: January 2013

Unlike pilgrimage, whose origins may well be prehistoric inasmuch as all of the historical religions have pilgrimage experiences or events occuring almost immediately upon their introduction, the origins of tourism can be quite precisely dated to the beginning of the 17th centuryCEwith the publication of Fines Morison'sItinerary, which was complied in the late 16th century and published in 1618, associated with what came to be known as the European Grand Tour (see Tomasi 2002). Morison's work was essentially secular and in this sense stood in marked contrast to thelibra indulgeniarum– the guidebooks for religious pilgrims traveling to professedly holy sites in Europe or the Middle East. Although the Grand Tour was a lengthy process, quite in contrast to tours at the beginning of the 21st century, there is a continuity between the present‐day and the earlier Grand Tour inasmuch as the primary function of the tour was secular – to become “worldly wise” in contrast to provincial or parochial. Regardless of the particular places involved, the underlying purpose of the tour was not to increase a person's piety or heavenly bank account, but rather to make him or her a “man or woman of the world” in the early modern era which emerged as a result of the Age of Exploration that began at the end of the 15th century.
Trade and migration
Authors: Siddique M. A. B.
Published: January 2013

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another, either between countries or within their home country. Different types of migration which have emerged over the years include: voluntary and involuntary; legal and illegal; skilled and unskilled; domestic and international; refugee and humanitarian; return and transient; assisted and student migration.
Traders and exiles, medieval era
Authors: Rando Daniela
Published: January 2013

“There are three kinds of merchants: he who travels, he who stocks, he who exports.” This distinction is made in theBook of Knowledge of the Beauties of Commerce, by Abu al‐Fadl Ja'far ibn &Ali from Damascus (9–12th centuries) (2001: 24), the most ancient manual on commercial practice known today. The first type of merchant is a traveller, a kind of migrant, rather elusive in early medieval sources; Christian authors (unlike Muslim ones) regard him with some contempt stemming from their negative judgment on profit‐making activities. In a survey of 8th–9th century sources, McCormick found only 19 individual merchants (2007: 242); however, starting from this small number, new archaeological sources and the intersection of data allowed him to retrace an early medieval network of middle and long‐distance communications, involving intense movements of goods and traders. The analysis of the “trade‐systems” revealed the concentration of merchants in some Italian regions and in the Frankish kingdom, mainly near long rivers (like the Rhine) and sites linked with economies abroad; Franks had commercial contacts in Scandinavia and England, in Slavic territories, and the Bulgarian empire, in Muslim Spain, Italy, and in Byzantium. Side by side with the Frankish empire new “trading worlds” were growing (McCormick 2007: 573): from the North Sea, the Vikings reached Ireland and the Caspian Sea; the Bulgarians exploited the revival of the Danubian and Balkan trade routes, and – most importantly – the widespread economies of the Muslim sphere were rapidly developing. Their “trade explosion” resulted from the interplay of different factors: the expansion characterizing the age of the orthodox caliphs, the northward shift during the Umayyad era, the Abbasid apogee (750), the dislocation from Syria to Iraq, and the 762 (re)foundation of Baghdad, at the crossroad of great fluvial and overland routes (Heck 2006). In the 8th century all these worlds had already started to intersect, establishing interdependence between distant regions and connections between rural and commercial economies of a proto‐industrial kind. Within this macroregional frame of overlapping commercial networks, the movements of merchants often intersected.
Transculturalism
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

Transcultural, as an integrative, overarching concept for the analysis of migration, comprises translocal, transregional, transnational, and trans‐state approaches as well as geographic terminologies such as “transcontinental” and “transoceanic.” “Trans” refers to continuities across borders and to the permeability of borders and other dividing lines. In contrast, “inter” (as in “international”) or “multi” (as in “multiculturalism”) presupposes distinct entities in contact over demarcated and accepted boundaries. The “cultural” comprises the local, the regional, and the countrywide both in the institutional and legal aspects (state) and in the discursive aspects (nation) it extends to other, similarly diverse societies. It avoids an implicit assumption of “transnational” studies – that is, of a cultural and bordered nation incorporating common statewide populations with citizen status: Guatemalan refugees from among native peoples in the 1980s came from groups neither fully accepted into the nation nor provided with equal access to state resources.
Translocalism
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

Translocal describes the connections between two or more specific localities as created and experienced by migrants. This has long been evident in histories of migration but the first explicit conceptualization was Baily's (1991). Local spaces of departure and arrival are part of regional economies as well as region‐specific cultures and dialects (“transregionalism”). Regulatory frames for migration are set by states (trans‐state, transnational). States and statewide economies may also be the generators of local emigration: Slowly developing or even dysfunctional economies, predatory states, or competing elites engaged in internal warfare over segments of the state may force people to depart. The religious wars in 16th and 17th‐century Europe and the factional wars in some African countries in the present are examples.
Transnational families, research and scholarship
Authors: Mazzucato Valentina
Published: January 2013

Contemporary transnational family arrangements are present the world over, with one or more family members located in different countries. In some cases, such arrangements are the result of stringent migration policies in many migrant‐receiving countries in the global North, which make it difficult for families to migrate together. In others, they are the preferred choice of family members, especially in societies where norms guiding family structures allow different members from the extended family to fulfill varied functions, such as income earning, childcare and elderly care, as is common practice in many parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, for example. In other cases, it is the unwanted result of families scattering to flee violent conflict or persecution.
Transnational labor migration, 1970s to present
Authors: Jha Praveen
Published: January 2013

Human mobility within and across national boundaries has generated a vast literature, both theoretical and empirical, in the social sciences. However, given that this wealth of literature consists of alternative paradigms and often sharply contested hypotheses, arguments, and evidences relating to different dimensions of the subject (e.g. drivers of migration and associated causal mechanisms, migration transitions, etc.), it may be reasonable to venture that most migration researchers ought to be wary of simplistic conceptual and empirical straitjackets. One may also note that important lessons emerging from the larger literature on human mobility are, by and large, relevant for the subject of labor migration specifically with respect to manufacturing.
Travel and migration
Authors: Williams Allan M.
Published: January 2013

Travel and migration in the late 20th and early 21st centuries are inextricably interrelated through the geographical redistribution of friends and families, the definition of search spaces, and the shaping of motivations. This is most clearly articulated in terms of lifestyle and amenity migrations, retirement migration, and visits of varying duration to friends and families (Williams & Hall 2002). Travelling on student and tourism visas has also become a means of circumventing immigration controls.
Turkey: migration and remittances, 1960s to present
Authors: Kιrdar Murat G.
Published: January 2013

This essay examines Turkish emigration since 1961 and its impact both on the destination countries and on Turkey. Excellent reviews of Turkish emigration to Western Europe can be found in Paine 1974 and Abadan‐Unat 1976. This essay reviews the later waves of Turkish emigration along with that to Western Europe.
Ukraine, migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Vollmer Bastian A.
Published: January 2013

The history of Ukraine is characterized by discontinuity and the endeavors of foreign rulers during the past centuries. Foreign dominant powers non‐intermittently ruled over the Ukrainian nation and its territory. First ruled by Lithuania and Poland, parts of today's Ukraine were then ruled by the Ottoman empire, Germany, and the Austro‐Hungarian empire, later Tsarist Russia and subsequently the Soviet Union. It was not until early 1918 that Ukraine declared its independence, but its new government collapsed. The Soviet Red Army invaded and installed a Bolshevik government in 1922, and Ukraine became one of the four founding republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Only in 1991 did Ukraine finally become independent.
Undocumented migrants: rights and advocacy
Authors: Soova Michele LeVoy and Kadri
Published: January 2013

Undocumented migrants are foreign nationals without the required legal status that authorizes them to stay in their country of destination. Many migrants enter a country of destination with a time‐delimited visa, but the government views them as unauthorized if they stay longer than permitted. Migrants lacking authorization are ineligible for government programs that ensure them a basic standard of living and legal rights. Undocumented migrant workers frequently work precariously as day laborers, face arbitrary dismissal from their jobs, lack access to essential services, and are under a constant threat of deportation (Migrants Rights Centre Ireland 2007).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Authors: Sert Deniz Şenol
Published: January 2013

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was established on December 14, 1950 by the United Nations General Assembly with a three‐year mandate to assist Europeans displaced by World War II. The following year, on July 28, the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees was adopted. It still constitutes the key legal document in defining who constitutes a refugee, their rights, the legal obligations of states, and the basic statute guiding UNHCR's work. The Convention entered into force on April 22, 1954, merging previous international instruments relating to refugees, and still presents the broadest codification of the rights of refugees at the international level. Unlike former international refugee instruments, which concerned specific groups of refugees, Article 1 of the 1951 Convention approved a single definition of the term “refugee,” which accentuated the protection of persons from political or other forms of persecution. Accordingly, a refugee is someone who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her country of origin owing to a well‐founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.
United States: immigration legislation
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: January 2013

The historical span of immigration to the United States includes the migration of many different peoples from various parts of the world. Regardless of their reasons for leaving their homeland, most immigrants go to America full of hopes and dreams of the “Promised Land.” Going to America in search of fortune, immigrants from Europe and Asia thought they had discovered a new country with unlimited resources. However, that freedom was not open to all. As early as 1619, captured Africans were bought to the “New World” against their will and enslaved by whites. African slaves provided a source of cheap forced labor that was instrumental in expanding and building the nation (Blackburn 1998).
United States: origin countries of foreign‐born population
Authors: Grieco Elizabeth M.
Published: January 2013

During the last four decades, the foreign‐born population of the United States has continued to increase in size and as a percentage of the total population: from 9.6 million or 4.7 percent in 1970 to 38.5 million or 12.5 percent in 2009, according to census and survey data from the US Census Bureau (Gibson & Jung 2006; US Census Bureau 2009) (see Figure 1).
Urban sprawl
Authors: Yu Zhou
Published: January 2013

“Urban sprawl” is a pejorative term while its definition is illusive. For many observers, urban sprawl is an aesthetic judgment about an urban development pattern which is associated with many transportation, environmental, and socioeconomic problems.
Urbanization and migration
Authors: He Canfei
Published: January 2013

Urbanization is the process of a greater proportion of human activities – economic, social, cultural – taking place in urbanized areas. It is characterized by a rise in the urban proportion of the total population (Ledent 1982). It is a process that almost all countries have experienced or are currently experiencing, and is particularly evident in those nations that are undergoing a social and economic transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one. The 20th century witnessed a remarkable urbanization: the global proportion of urban population increased from 13 per cent in 1900 to 29 per cent in 1950. According to a report by the UN, the world reached a significant milestone in 2008: for the first time in history, more than half of the human population, 3.3 billion people, were living in urban areas. It is expected that by 2030 this number will reach as much as five billion, or 60 percent of the total population. This phenomenon will be particularly remarkable in Africa and Asia where the urban population is projected to double between the years 2000 and 2030.
Uruguay, migration and economic modernization, 1820 to the present
Authors: Pellegrino Adela
Published: January 2013

Migration is an essential component for understanding the history of Uruguay, given that it has played a fundamental role in the country's demographic growth, and in its diverse composition, from a social and cultural perspective.
Vikings and Normans
Authors: Scheller Benjamin
Published: January 2013

For more than three centuries, from the end of the 8th to the end of the 11th century, the migrations of Vikings and Normans had a massive impact on the political landscape of the then known world. Vikings and Normans populated centers of trade, and settled and built states in a vast geographical area that ranged from Greenland to Russia and southern Italy.
Wages and migrant labor
Authors: Hartog Aslan Zorlu and Joop
Published: January 2013

Better living conditions in Western countries attract large numbers of immigrants from developing countries. In many developed nations there is both concern over maintaining high welfare standards under the pressure of massive unskilled immigration and interest in attracting highly skilled workers to boost economic growth. Scholarly research has tried to understand the costs and benefits of migration for host and source countries, immigrants themselves, and employers and workers who are directly or indirectly affected by immigrants. However, the focus is on static effects: not much is known about the contribution of immigrants to economic growth.
Wars and population displacement, 20th century
Authors: Janco Andrew
Published: January 2013

During the 20th century there were more than two hundred wars and violent conflicts that displaced over 100 million people across the globe. The scale of wartime displacements in the 20th century is both horrifying and unique in world history. During an “age of total war,” non‐belligerents and civilian infrastructure were deliberately targeted by military forces. The Hague Convention of 1899 recognized that the armed forces of belligerent parties consisted of both combatants and non‐combatants. Artillery fire, carpet bombing, nuclear weapons, and other technologies extended front‐line combat onto the home front, blurring the line between civilians and enemy non‐combatants. No longer confined to the battlefield, states and insurgent groups widely engaged in unconventional warfare, which brought conflicts onto city streets and into people's homes. During the Kosovo conflict in 1999, displaced civilians were themselves used as a weapon through the strategic forced expulsion of Albanian refugees.
West Indian migration to the United States, 1965 to present
Authors: Vickerman Milton
Published: January 2013

Proximity, historical, economic, and social ties have funneled West Indians into the United States for centuries, but mass migration from the region to America began in earnest only at the beginning of the 20th century. Spurred by persistently high levels of unemployment, these migrants had spread throughout the Caribbean and Central America since the 1840s. In the 20th century the United States became the latest target of opportunity for a people who had developed a culture of migration to cope with socioeconomic distress (Marshall 1982; Dodson & Diouf 2004). These “West Indians” have traditionally originated in the non‐Hispanic Caribbean and settled together, apart from Hispanics, in the United States. Jamaicans, in particular, have dominated the flow to America, being surpassed by Haitian immigrants only since the 1990s (DHS 2010).
WTO, GATS, and migration
Authors: Lim Jim Redden and Aik Hoe
Published: January 2013

The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) defines trade in services in terms of four modes of supply. Mode 4 is one of the four modes of supply through which services may be traded under the GATS. It is defined in Article 2 (d) of the GATS as the supply of a service “by a service supplier of one Member, through presence of natural persons of a Member in the territory of any other Member.” There is a tendency to equate mode 4 with labor mobility or migration, since the service is supplied through the presence of natural persons. However, while mode 4 involves the movement of people, it is only to the extent that such movement is for the purpose of supplying a service. For example, if the university of one World Trade Organization (WTO) member has an agreement to deliver a one‐month training program in economic policy in the territory of another WTO member, and a senior lecturer is sent to deliver this service, this would be one form of a mode 4 service transaction. In this example, the service supplier is the university of “one Member,” the senior lecturer is the “natural person” who is present in the “territory of any other Member,” and his presence is required in order to deliver the service.
Indian migration to the South Pacific
Authors: Munro Doug
Published: January 2013

Indian immigration to the Pacific Islands was highly localized. Between 1979 and 1916, almost 61,000 Indians arrived in Fiji as indentured laborers, comprising 5 percent of the 1.2 million indentured Indians to the British empire. In a regional context, the Indians who migrated to Fiji were part of a series of indentured labor flows from within and without the Pacific Islands to fulfill the expanding requirements of the plantation system especially, but also the demands of mining, ranching, public works, and domestic services. A similar number of Melanesians, involving 61,000 contracts of indenture, were received by Queensland, and a further 146,000 indentured workers, predominantly Asians, worked on sugar plantations in Hawaii. The Melanesia labor trade to Samoa was much smaller, a quarter of the size, and later supplemented by 3,800 Chinese workers. These migration flows of laborers from within and beyond the region amounted to approximately 500,000 indentured laborers prior to 1914, and at least another 300,000 afterwards.