bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ecological factors affecting body size of Japanese adolescents
Authors: Endo Akira , Omoe Katsuhiko , Ishikawa Hitoshi
Published: February 2006

Prefectural data of 17‐year‐old Japanese adolescents' body size were excerpted from the annual series of Reports on School Health Statistics (Ministry of Education) for the last 35 years, and were correlated with the mean annual temperature of prefectural capitals. A negative correlation was found for both height and weight. Thus, it can be stated that children in colder climates conform to Bergmann's rule that they are larger in their height and weight than children growing up in warmer climates. Partial correlation coefficients indicate that body weight is primarily related to the temperature. Further, the results of a multiple regression analysis, using temperature, daily energy intake (National Nutrition Surveys), and annual per capita income (Annual Reports of Prefectural Accounts) as the independent variables among the 12 districts (groups of prefectures) for the last 25 years, suggest that the observed Bergmann's phenomenon is related to geographical differences in nutrition; people in colder regions consume more calories than those in warmer regions. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Zuttiyeh face: A view from the east
Authors: Sohn Songy , Wolpoff Milford H.
Published: February 2006

We analyze the phylogenetic position of the frontofacial fragment from Zuttiyeh, Israel. This specimen is dated to the Middle Pleistocene (the latest estimate is between 250 and 350 kyr) and is associated with the Acheulo‐Yabrudian, which makes it the oldest cranium from the region. It has been previously regarded as a Neandertal, and early “anatomically modern Homo sapiens,” and a generalized specimen ancestral to both. These different phylogenetic interpretations of its features have a historic basis but in our view also result from a confusion of grade and intraspecies clade as valid sources of variation. We show here that generally the differences that distinguish Zuttiyeh from Neandertals are similarities it shares with the Zhoukoudian remains. These similarities involve a unique combination of features, and suggest the possibility of an ancestral relationship. It is less likely that Middle Pleistocene remains from Europe or sub‐Saharan Africa are uniquely or significantly ancestral to Zuttiyeh. An accurate understanding of the relationship between populations of eastern and western Asia is important for resolving the more general questions surrounding the position of the Upper Pleistocene Levant populations in human evolution, including (1) whether there are significantly different contemporary Mousterian populations in the Upper Pleistocene, (2) whether Neandertals are clearly intrusive in the region, and (3) whether there is an early appearance of (what many workers call) “anatomically modern Homo sapiens.” The hypothesis of a recent unique African ancestry for all modern humans is disproved by our study, which shows Asia as a significant source area for at least some living populations. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Shape variation in the mandibular symphysis of apes: An application of a median axis method
Authors: Daegling David J.
Published: February 2006

Symphyseal contours in a sample of living and fossil apes were assessed by application of the line skeleton, a form of median axis transformation. While the line skeleton offers novel opportunities for the analysis of shape, this study reaffirms previous observations that the shape of the symphysis is highly variable within great ape species, such that symphyseal morphology is not useful as a taxonomic marker. There is also little indication that symphyseal shape differs significantly between the sexes. The perception of what constitutes a salient superior or inferior transverse torus among living apes appears to be dependent on the expression of the genioglossal fossa. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Proximal femur of Australopithecus africanus from member 4, Makapansgat, South Africa
Authors: Reed Kaye E. , Kitching James W. , Grine Frederick E. , Jungers William L. , Sokoloff Leon
Published: February 2006

A left proximal femur (MLD 46) from Member 4, Makapansgat, South Africa is described and analyzed. It consists of the head, neck, and a small segment of the shaft that extends to just below the lesser trochanter. The femur exhibits degenerative joint disease in the form of marginal osteophyte formation and thus its taxonomic identity has been somewhat obscured. Consideration of all like‐sized mammalian femora from Makapansgat suggests that the femur is that of either a felid or hominid. Comparison of MLD 46 to femora of extent and extinct felids reveals that MLD 46 does not possess two morphological features that are characteristic of felids, namely a deep, prolonged trochanteric fossa and a high neck‐shaft angle. Simple shape variables (ratios) and multivariate analyses consistently place MLD 46 with modern and fossil hominids, and most closely align it with the australopithecines. We conclude that the femur is most reasonably attributable to Australopithecus africanus, which is the only hominid yet identified from Makapansgat. Despite its pathological condition, MLD 46 is the most complete proximal femur known for A. africanus, thereby permitting further morphological comparisons with homologues of A. afarensis and Paranthropus. Marginal osteophytes of mammalian femoral heads characteristically occur in individuals of advanced age, suggesting that MLD 46 may have lived some time with the disease. Finally, MLD 46 is considerably larger than the previously described specimen, Sts 14, from Sterkfontein Member 4. There may be as great a contrast in body size in A. africanus as there is between the large and small specimens of A. afarensis. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Independent test of the fourth rib aging technique
Authors: Russell Katherine F. , Simpson Scott W. , Genovese Jeremy , Kinkel Mary D. , Meindl Richard S. , Lovejoy C. Owen
Published: February 2006

The sternal surface of the 4th rib has been suggested as a useful predictor of adult age‐at‐death (Iscan et al.:Journal of Forensic Sciences29:1094–1104, 1984;American Journal of Physical Anthropology65:141–156, 1984). We tested its ability to do so in two tests. In the first, we developed a method of seriation and target age assignment for the 4th rib so that inaccuracy and bias of the method could be assessed by decade. We found that the 4th rib shows characteristic changes in morphology with age and can be included in multifactorial age estimates. In the second test, we applied the phase method developed by Iscan et al. (Journal of Forensic Sciences29:1094–1104, 1984). The results of our three judges were generally similar to those reported by Iscan and Loth (Journal of Forensic Sciences31:122–132, 1986).

Measures of race differences in 4th rib morphology were included in both tests. Americans of African descent (black) showed a non‐significant trend for the rib changes to be delayed compared to Americans of European descent (white). This is in contrast to the work of Iscan et al., which predicted that blacks would show a tendency toward accelerated rib changes compared to whites, especially after the early 30s (phases 5–7) (Iscan et al.:Journal of Forensic Sciences32(2):452–466, 1987). © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Molar microwear in extant small‐bodied faunivorous mammals: An analysis of feature density and pit frequency
Authors: Strait Suzanne G.
Published: February 2006

This study quantitatively examined molar microwear in nine species of extant small‐bodied faunivorous primates and microchiropterans. Comparative analyses were performed within the food category faunivory, both between hard‐ and soft‐object feeding faunivores and between primarily insectivorous and carnivorous taxa. Additionally, microwear in faunivores was compared to that reported in the literature for frugivorous and folivorous primates.

The results indicated that although insectivores and carnivores could not be distinguished by microwear analyses, hard‐object faunivores (i. e., those that primarily consume beetles or actively comminute bone) can be readily distinguished from soft‐object faunivores (i. e., moth, caterpillar, or vertebrate flesh specialists). The hard‐object faunivores consistently exhibited greater pit frequencies (in excess of 40%).

Furthermore, comparisons of these microwear data on faunivorous mammals to previous work on frugivorous and folivorous primates (Teaford, 1988, pers. comm.; Teaford and Runestad, 1992, pers. comm.; Teaford and Walker: American Journal of Physical Anthropology 64:191–200, 1984) permitted three observations to be made. 1) Faunivores tend to have higher mean feature densities than either frugivores or folivores, although these differences are not consistently statistically distinct. 2) Faunifores and frugivores that feed on hard‐objects have comparable mean pit frequencies. 3) Although it is impossible to distinguish faunivores and folivores on the basis of metric analysis of gross molar morphology, this distinction can be made on microwear criteria. Both hard‐ and soft‐object faunivores exhibit much higher mean pit frequencies than primarily folivorous species. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Gladysvale: First early hominid site discovered in South Africa since 1948
Authors: Berger Lee R. , Keyser André W. , Tobias Phillip V.
Published: February 2006

We report here the discovery of fossil hominid teeth at Gladysvale, near Johannesburg in the southern Transvaal. This find makes the site the seventh in South Africa to yield australopithecine remains and the first new early hominid‐bearing locality to be found in this region since 1948. Apart from the hominid specimens, our excavations at Gladysvale have added appreciably to the abundant Plio‐Pleistocene fauna previously recorded from the cave deposit. The fauna indicates that savanna conditions prevailed during deposition of at least part of the fill. Preliminary faunal dating gives an age of deposition of between c1.7 and c2.5 mya. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hominid radius from the middle Pliocene of Lake Turkana, Kenya
Authors: Heinrich R. E. , Rose M. D. , Leakey R. E. , Walker A. C.
Published: February 2006

A nearly complete left radius, KNM‐ER 20419, was recovered from middle Pliocene sediments east of Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1988. Ape‐like characteristics of the fossil include an eccentrically positioned articular fovea, relatively long radial neck, wide distal metaphysis, and large brachioradialis crest. The robustness of the radial neck in proportion to the radial head, and the semilunar shape of the distal diaphysis, however, clearly distinguish KNM‐ER 20419 as hominid. The distal articular surface possesses a larger area for radius‐lunate articulation than for radius and scaphoid, a radiocarpal arrangement that is associated with increased wrist adduction among quadrumanous climbers. Since this morphology is also found in hylobatids, Pongo, and other early australopithecines, it is argued to be plesiomorphic for hominoids. This further supports the argument that vertical climbing was an important locomotor behavior among both early hominoids and our more immediate prebipedal ancestors. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Sex hormone levels and body hair growth in !Kung San and Kavango men from Namibia
Authors: Winkler Eike‐Meinrad , Christiansen Kerrin
Published: February 2006

The relation between hair growth and levels of sex hormones in serum and saliva was investigated in 256 !Kung San and Kavango men (ages 18 to 39 years) from Namibia/Southern Africa. Serum concentrations of total testosterone (Tser), 5α‐dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and estradiol (E2) as well as the level of bioavailable non‐SHBG‐bound testosterone in the saliva (Tsal) were determined by radioimmunoassay. The distribution and density of scalp and facial hair as well as the development of terminal hair on the chest, abdomen, pubic area, arms, fingers, and legs were categorized using objective criteria.

Covariance analyses revealed marked differences in the distribution of body hair in the San and the Negro sample. This is partly explained by a significant influence of androgen and estrogen levels on the growth of terminal hair. DHT and the ratio DHT/Tser are significantly positively related to midphalangeal hair growth and negatively to pubic hair development. Tsal, the bioavailable fraction of total testosterone, exerts a weak positive influence on the degree of arm and leg hair growth; the most significant positive effect on the growth of abdominal, arm, and leg hair in our samples is caused by E2. The ratio Tser/E2 correlates significantly negatively with the arm and leg hair development and the ratio DHT/E2 with the degree of abdominal, pubic, arm, and leg hair, whereas lower DHT concentrations occur in men with stronger hair development. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Sexual dimorphism in schoolchildren of the Villa IAPI neighborhood (Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Authors: Pucciarelli Héctor M. , Carnese Francisco R. , Pinotti Luisa V. , Guimarey Luis M. , Goicoechea Alicia S.
Published: February 2006

Villa IAPI is a poor neighborhood of about 5,000 inhabitants in the overpopulated conurbano bonaerense at the outskirts of the city of Buenos Aires. Most of the adult male residents are construction workers; the rest are temporary workers, underemployed, or unemployed. The inhabitants of Villa IAPI suffer the effects of many adverse socio‐economic conditions, including poor nutrition, deficient sanitation, and inadequate medical care. Seven anthropometric variables were measured on 765 children from 6 to 14 years old to test for the presence of an altered pattern of sexual dimorphism. It was found that there were practically no sex differences in standing height and upper‐arm muscle circumference. In some age groups, there was a weak but significant sexual dimorphism in body weight and sitting height. The greatest and most persistent dimorphism was found in head circumference, and in triceps and subscapular skinfolds. In all except two age groups, head circumference in males was significantly greater than in females. The other dimorphic variables (body weight, sitting height, and triceps and subscapular skinfolds) showed the opposite relationship. Essentially, females showed increments in subcutaneous fat, while reduced growth in muscle and bone was evident in males. The hypothesis of “better female canalization” can explain the altered dimorphic pattern found in the malnourished Villa IAPI population. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Accuracy tests of tooth formation age estimations for human skeletal remains
Authors: Saunders Shelley , DeVito Carol , Herring Ann , Southern Rebecca , Hoppa Robert
Published: February 2006

Estimations of age from tooth formation standards for a large (n = 282) sample of subadult skeletal remains from a 19th century historic cemetery sample were analyzed. The standards of Moorrees et al. (1963a, b) for the permanent and deciduous teeth, and Anderson et al. (1976) for the formation of permanent dentition were employed in a variety of combinations to calculate mean dental ages. Tests of accuracy and bias were made on a small sample (n = 17) of personally identified individuals, and age of attainment scores were compared to age of prediction scores for each individual. The resulting dental age distributions for the skeletal sample were compared to documented burial records for the cemetery to determine the representativeness of the skeletal sample. These comparisons showed little difference between age of attainment versus age of prediction methodologies. The standards of Moorrees et al. (1963a, b) were observed to provide the most accurate estimates of age with a standard deviation of one‐half year. The standards of Anderson et al. (1976), while easier to use and more extensive, are problematic in that the original reference sample begins at three years of age, while the sample used by Moorrees and colleagues begins at birth. The skeletal age distributions compare well to the overall chronological age distribution for the cemetery. These results affirm that tooth formation age estimates for subadult skeletal remains from archaeological or forensic samples provide accurate assessments of age at both the individual and population level. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in Meroitic Nubians from Semna South, Sudan
Authors: Arriaza Bernardo T. , Merbs Charles F. , Rothschild Bruce M.
Published: February 2006

The paleopathological study of human osteological remains from the site of Semna South, of northern Sudan, revealed that about thirteen percent of this ancient Nubian population had diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). As in modern cases, males were more affected than females. Two thousand years ago, ancient Nubian males had the same spinal problems elderly men have today. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cranial growth and growth dimorphism in Ateles geoffroyi
Authors: Corner Brian D. , Richtsmeier Joan T.
Published: February 2006

With the exception of the work of Schultz (1960), cranial growth in Ateles is not well documented. This paper describes the results of a detailed quantitative study of cranial ontogeny in male and female Ateles geoffroyi. Using Euclidean Distance Matrix Analysis (EDMA), local areas of form change due to growth within spider monkey crania are identified. We found substantial change local to the zygomatic region in the face, identified mediolaterally directed changes in the palate, detected relatively larger amounts of change local to the anterior neurocranium compared to the posterior neurocranium, and demonstrate a greater amount of basicranial growth along a mediolateral axis than previously reported. Cranial sexual dimorphism is also examined. A. geoffroyi is noted for being monomorphic, and we found a general similarity between male and female cranial forms at all developmental ages. However, differences in overall cranial size between the sexes were found in the oldest subadult age group but not between male and female adults. This difference suggests that A. geoffroyi females attain their adult cranial form slightly before males and implies a pattern of earlier onset of female maturity relative to males. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
An update on stature estimation in prehistoric native Americans of Ohio
Authors: Sciulli Paul W. , Giesen Myra J.
Published: February 2006

We present regression equations to estimate skeletal height and stature for prehistoric Native Americans of Ohio. The regression equations are based on skeletal height as the dependent variable and various postcranial elements and combinations of elements as the independent variables. A total of 171 individuals, 95 males and 76 females, make up the sample.

The present sample includes the 64 individuals we previously used for stature estimation (Sciulli et al.: Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 83:275–280, 1990) and 107 additional individuals distributed more widely in time and space. The present more inclusive sample, however, shows the same proportional contributions to skeletal height of each skeletal height component as the previous sample. This result suggests that these proportions were a consistent feature of the prehistoric Native Americans of Ohio.

Because the prehistoric Native Americans of Ohio were characterized by relatively long legs and distal elements of the limbs, stature estimation from regressions based on East Asian populations, which express in general relatively short legs and distal limb elements, will overestimate stature in Native Americans of Ohio and, possibly, all Eastern Woodlands Native Americans. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Reexamination of the immature hominid maxilla from Tangier, Morocco
Authors: Minugh‐Purvis Nancy
Published: February 2006

Reexamination of the immature Upper Pleistocene hominid maxilla from Mugharet el‐'Aliya (Tangier), Morocco is undertaken in light of new evidence on the growth and development of Upper Pleistocene hominids. Metric and qualitative comparisons were made with 17 immature Upper Pleistocene maxillae, and with a recent Homo sapiens sapiens sample. No unambiguous criteria for aligning the maxilla with Neandertals were found, although one character, the degree of maxillary flexion on the zygoma, strongly suggests that this child could be a representative of H. s. sapiens. The probable lack of a canine fossa in Mugharet el‐'Aliya 1, the primary criterion used previously to align it with Neandertals, cannot be accurately extrapolated to its adult form from this juvenile. The present evidence suggests that it is inappropriate to refer to this fossil as “Neandertal‐like” or as a North African “neandertaloid.” Thus, the Tangier maxilla should not be cited as evidence for the presence of Neandertal facial features in North Africa during the Upper Pleistocene. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Relative position of the cheirogaleidae in strepsirhine phylogeny: A comparison of morphological and molecular methods and results
Authors: Yoder Anne D.
Published: February 2006

An examination of previous morphological and molecular studies of strepsirhine systematics suggests a conflict between the two types of data. Cladistic analyses of morphological data have indicated that the Malagasy primate family Cheirogaleidae is the sister taxon of the Afro‐Asian lorisiforms and that together, cheirogaleids and lorisiforms comprise a monophyletic clade that excludes the Malagasy lemuriforms. Molecular studies, on the other hand, have consistently found that cheirogaleids and lemuriforms together are monophyletic to the exclusion of lorisiforms. Both types of studies, however, have suffered from methodological weaknesses: the morphological studies looked at too few characters and the molecular studies looked at too few taxa.

This study examines a large and diverse morphological data set as well as molecular data from a comprehensive sample of strepsirhine taxa. The data sets are considered independently and jointly. When they are analyzed independently, the morphological data give weak support, and the molecular data strong support, to the hypothesis of Malagasy primate monophyly. When the two data sets are combined in a single analysis, the results are decisive. The “total evidence” approach yields compelling support to the hypothesis that cheirogaleids and remaining Malagasy lemuriforms comprise a monophyletic assemblage that excludes lorisiforms. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Generic level relationships of the papionini (cercopithecoidea)
Authors: Disotell Todd R.
Published: February 2006

Phylogenetic hypotheses for the Old World monkey tribe Papionini based on molecular data are incongruent with those inferred from previous morphological analyses. Morphologists have often inferred a close relationship between Mandrillus and Papio based on their overall similarity. Theropithecus has been variously proposed to be either quite distantly related to these two genera, their sister taxon, or anywhere in between. Molecular and chromosomal analyses on the other hand unambiguously group Theropithecus and Papio together to the exclusion of Mandrillus. Additionally, molecular and chromosomal analyses reveal that mangabeys (Cerocebus) are paraphyletic. Morphologists have acknowledged this possibility resurrecting the genus name Lophocebus for one group of mangabeys. A review and reanalysis of the morphological characters put forth by various researchers find little to contradict the consensus phylogeny derived from analysis of chromosomal banding, nuclear RNA restriction mapping, alpha and beta hemoglobin sequences, albumin and transferrin microcomplement fixation, DNA‐DNA hybridization, repetitive DNA patterns, immunodiffusion, hemoglobin and adenylate kinase isozymes, and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II DNA sequences. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Molecular evolutionary processes and conflicting gene trees: The hominoid case
Authors: Ruvolo Maryellen
Published: February 2006

Molecular evolutionary processes modify DNA over time, creating both newly derived substitutions shared by related descendant lineages (phylogenetic signal) and “false” similarities which confound phylogenetic reconstruction (homoplasy). However, some types of DNA regions, for example those containing tandem duplicate repeats, are preferentially subject to homoplasy‐inducing processes such as sporadically occurring concerted evolution and DNA insertion/deletion. This added level of homoplasic “noise” can make DNA regions with repeats less reliable in phylogenetic reconstruction than those without repeats. Most molecular datasets which distinguish among African hominoids support a human‐chimpanzee clade; the most notable exception is from the involucrin gene. However, phylogenetic resolution supporting a chimpanzee‐gorilla clade is based entirely on involucrin DNA repeat regions. This is problematic because (1) involucrin repeats are difficult to align, and published alignments are contradictory; (2) involucrin repeats are subject to DNA insertion/deletion; (3) gorillas are polymorphic in that some do not have repeats reported to be synapomorphies linking chimpanzees and gorillas. Gene tree/species tree conflicts can occur due to the sorting of ancestrally polymorphic alleles during speciation. Because hominoid females transfer between groups, mitochondrial and nuclear gene flow occur to the same extent, and the probability of conflict between mitochondrial and nuclear gene trees is theoretically low. When hominoid intraspecific mitochondrial variability is taken into account [based on cytochrome oxidase subunit II (COII) gene sequences], humans and chimpanzees are most closely related, showing the same relative degree of separation from gorillas as when single individuals representing species are analyzed. Conflicting molecular phylogenies can be explained in terms of molecular evolutionary processes and sorting of ancient polymorphisms. This perspective can enhance our understanding of hominoid molecular phylogenies. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A critique of homology as a morphological concept
Authors: Cartmill Matt
Published: February 2006

Two sequences of nucleotides are homologous if they are descended through a chain of replication from a common precursor molecule. Since organs are not copies or transcriptions of organs, the concept of morphological homology has no such simple and unambiguous definition. The theoretical vagueness of morphological homology is reflected in its many and inconsistent criteria of identification. Structures may be conventionally deemed homologous even though they are radically dissimilar in form, relationships, or function, or develop via dissimilar ontogenetic processes, or originate from nonhomologous embryological precursors. Hypotheses of homology are conventionally rejected when they are contradicted by known patterns of phylogenetic relationships, even if the structures in question are minutely similar in their form, function, and development. The dependence of interspecific homology on phylogeny is often expressed by saying that two structures are homologous if they are inherited from corresponding structures in a common ancestor. However, this is a circular definition (what counts as a “corresponding” structure is itself a question of homology), and it falsely assumes that structures can be inherited. At bottom, homology is an essentialist concept; two things are homologous only if they are in some essential sense the “same” thing and properly called by the same word. The concept can be made intelligible in an evolutionary context only by giving it a cladistic interpretation that makes homology judgments dependent on the outcome of a phylogenetic analysis. It follows that such judgments cannot play a role in evaluating conflicting phylogenetic hypotheses. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Reanalysis of the Lukeino molar (KNM‐LU 335)
Authors: Ungar Peter S. , Walker Alan , Coffing Katherine
Published: February 2006

This paper details a reanalysis of KNM‐LU 335, a hominoid mandibular first molar dated to about 6 Ma from the Lukeino Formation, Kenya. Researchers have argued that this molar closely resembles those of modern chimpanzees and may approximate the ancestral morphotype of humans and chimpanzees. The investigation presented here describes a morphometric study of the Lukeino molar and M1S of Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, and early australopithecines. Results indicate that KNM‐LU 335 differs from both human and chimpanzee M1S in relative distances (measured in three dimensions) between crown fissure termini. Further, the Lukeino molar shares with early australopithecines a pronounced flaring of the buccal surface of the crown not seen for either modern sample. Results of this study do not exclude KNM‐LU 335 as a potential ancestral morphotype for Pan and Homo but provide no evidence that this morphotype resembled modern chimpanzees. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hand dominance and bilateral asymmetry in the structure of the second metacarpal
Authors: Roy Tracey Ann , Ruff Christopher B. , Plato Chris C.
Published: February 2006

Bilateral asymmetry in the structure of the second metacarpal was examined in relation to functional hand dominance in a large, clinically nonselected, healthy population sample from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Bilateral bone measurements were made from anteroposterior hand radiographs of a total of 992 individuals, 609 males and 383 females, with an age range of 19–94 years. Hand dominance was determined on the basis of personal impression. Total width and medullary width at the midshaft of the second metacarpal were measured to 0.05 mm using a Helios caliper. These two measurements were used to derive cortical thickness, cortical bone area, periosteal (total) area, medullary area, percent cortical area, and the second moment of area in the mediolateral plane. In both right and left‐handed individuals, statistically significant side differences were found in the calculated bone areas and the second moment of area, with the dominant hand being larger. Cortical thickness did not show significant side‐related differences for either handedness. These results show that functional handedness leads to periosteal and endosteal expansion of the second metacarpal cortex on the dominant side, increasing bone strength without increasing cortical thickness. This is the first time this pattern of asymmetry has been reported in left‐handers as well as right‐handers. Our results argue for the primacy of environmental (mechanical) effects in determining bilateral asymmetry of limb bone structural properties. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Neonatal size and infant mortality at high altitude in the western Himalaya
Authors: Wiley Andrea S.
Published: February 2006

A prospective study was undertaken in Ladakh, India, a high‐altitude region of the Himalaya, to investigate the effects of small average birth size on neonatal mortality. While such studies exist from high‐altitude regions of the New World and shed light on the adaptive status of high‐altitude‐dwelling populations there, this is the first to examine this relationship in the Himalaya. In a sample of 168 newborns, birthweight and other anthropometric measurements were reduced relative to Andean and Tibetan newborns. Logistic regression and hazard analysis showed that neonatal biological characteristics such as weight, fatness, and circumferences were important predictors of survival probabilities of infants, especially in the neonatal period. Low Rohrer's Ponderal Index (PI) was particularly strongly related to poor survival outcome. Males and females showed no significant differences in mortality risk. Data derived from reproductive histories revealed that neonatal mortality accounted for 70–80% of total infant mortality in Ladakh. Compared to other high‐altitude studies, small newborn size in Ladakh was associated with much higher mortality risks; mortality risk rose dramatically with birthweights below the mean (2,764 grams), which characterized 50% of all newborns. It is argued that newborns in Ladakh are subject to strong directional selective forces that favor higher birthweights that incur lower risks of neonatal mortality, while Andean infants are subject to relatively mild selection pressure at both ends of the birthweight distribution. Given the overall small size at birth of Ladakhi newborns and the poor survival outcomes of newborns below the mean, it is suggested that this population is less well adapted in a biological sense to the stresses inherent in this high‐altitude environment than are Andean populations, perhaps due to the relatively recent colonization of the area and the substantial genetic admixture that has occurred in the past. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Body dimensions and thyroid hormone levels in premenopausal and postmenopausal women from Austria
Authors: Kirchengast Sylvia
Published: February 2006

Correlations between thyroid hormone levels and body dimensions were investigated in a group of 124 premenopausal (ages 16–40 years) and 142 postmenopausal (ages 38–61 years) women from Vienna, Austria. Twenty‐nine absolute body dimensions and thirteen anthropometric indices were correlated with the serum levels of thyroxine, triiodothyronine, thyroid‐stimulating hormone, and thyroid‐hormone‐binding globulin as well as three hormone ratios (T3/T4, T4/TSH, T3/TSH). All hormones exhibited statistically significant correlations with 24 anthropometric variables and 11 indices. The correlations between thyroxine and triiodothyronine levels and the body measurements were predominantly positive in both proband groups. Higher thyroid hormone levels were associated positively with body dimensions, especially with the amount of subcutaneous fat tissue, in adult females independently of their menstrual status. The direction of the correlations between thyroid‐stimulating hormone and body measures as well as anthropometric indices differed between the premenopausal and the postmenopausal women. While in premenopausal women mainly positive correlations between anthropometric characters and the level of thyroid stimulating hormone occur, in postmenopausal women most of these correlations are negative. This is probably due to the decrease of thyroid‐stimulating hormone levels with increasing age, as well as with changes in body shape during the climacteric and after the menopause. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Intra‐ and interobserver concordance in scoring Harris lines: A test on bone sections and radiographs
Authors: MacChiarelli Roberto , Bondioli Luca , Censi Laura , Hernaez Margarita Kristoff , Salvadei Loretana , Sperduti Alessandra
Published: February 2006

Little attention has been devoted to assessing the reproducibility of (paleo)pathological observations. Harris lines (HL) are among the markers most used to determine chronology of stresses suffered during growth. Nevertheless, their scoring entails remarkable methodological difficulty. Bone sections (S) and radiographs (R) of 29 adult tibiae of archeological provenance (medieval) were scored for HL by five observers. At regular intervals of time, each observer gave two independent counts on both series. Results show a) a substantial interobserver disagreement of HL estimates for both sectional and radiographic records, and b) a high level of intraobserver error. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Limb skeleton and locomotor adaptations of apidium phiomense, an Oligocene anthropoid from Egypt
Authors: Fleagle John G. , Simons Elwyn L.
Published: February 2006

Apidium phiomense is the most common primate from the early Oligocene deposits of Fayum, Egypt. It is known from hundreds of dental remains and dozens of skeletal remains, including numerous representatives of the long bones of the forelimb and hindlimb. Apidium phiomense was a small (1,600 g) arboreal quadruped. The forelimb bones of this species show features characteristic of arboreal quadrupeds and lack characteristic features found in the forelimb bones of vertial clingers, terrestrial quadrupeds, or suspensory species. The pelvis and hindlimb bones show numerous adaptations for leaping from a quadrupedal position. In general, Apidium lacks characteristic features of either cercopithecoid monkeys or hominoid apes. Overall, the skeleton shows greatest similarities to the same elements of small platyrrhines such as Saimiri and is also very similar to the hypothetical morphotype for the ancestral platyrrhine. The skeleton of Apidium phiomense is the most primitive anthropoid postcranial skeleton known. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Non‐circular geometry and radiogrammetry of the second metacarpal
Authors: Lazenby Richard
Published: February 2006

Traditional radiogrammetry of the second metacarpal mid‐shaft reconstructs cortical cross‐sectional geometry from mediolateral (ML) linear dimensions based on a circular model. However, comparison of antero‐posterior (AP) versus mediolateral radiographic dimensions in a sample of paired metacarpals shows that AP total and medullary widths typically exceed ML widths by 5% to 10%. As well, in 13% of males and 25% of females, the two metacarpals are dissimilarly shaped, i.e., the AP/ML ratio is >1.0 for one side and <1.0 for the other. This situation exaggerates the differences in geometric properties between sides and constitutes a potentially significant source of bias for analyses of bilateral asymmetry. These results suggest that the circular model is inappropriate for estimation of cross‐sectional geometry at this anatomical location. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Genetic structure of the population of Cabo Verde (West Africa): Evidence of substantial european admixture
Authors: Parra E. J. , Ribeiro J. C. Teixeira , Caeiro J. L. B. , Riveiro A.
Published: February 2006

The population of Cabo Verde was founded in the fifteenth century (1462), on the basis of slaves brought from the West African coast and a few Europeans, mainly from Portugal. The polymorphism of six red cell enzymes (ADA, AK1, ALAD, ESD, GLO1, and PGD) and ten plasma proteins (AHSG, BF, F13A, F13B, GC, HP, ORM, PLG, TBG, and TF) was studied in a sample of 268 individuals from Cabo Verde (West Africa). There is no statistical evidence of genetic heterogeneity between the two groups of islands which constitute the archipelago, Barlavento and Sotavento. The gene frequency distribution observed in Cabo Verde differs, in many markers, from that of West African populations, suggesting an important European influence. The proportion of Caucasian genes in the population of Cabo Verde has been calculated to be M = 0.3634 ± 0.0510, and the considerable dispersion of the locus‐specific admixture estimates seems to indicate random drift has also played a role in the evolution of the allele frequencies in the archipelago. Partition of the variance of the mean estimate in evolutionary and sampling variance shows the evolutionary variance is more than ten times higher than the sampling variance. When dendrograms are constructed on the basis of different genetic distances, the population of Cabo Verde clusters with Afro‐Americans, forming a different group from the populations of the African continent. This is interpreted as a consequence of the importance of Caucasian admixture both in Afro‐Americans and in the population of Cabo Verde. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Growth differences between children of highland and coastal Ecuador
Authors: Leonard William R. , DeWalt Kathleen M. , Stansbury James P. , McCaston M. Katherine
Published: February 2006

This study examines patterns of growth in height and weight among children (<60 months) of highland and coastal agricultural communities of Ecuador. Highland children are significantly shorter, but not significantly lighter than their coastal peers. Linear growth rates (cm/6 months) are comparable between the two samples. Growth rates for body weight (kg/6 m) are similar in highland and coastal boys, whereas highland girls display larger weight gains than their coastal counterparts. In both regions, linear growth is compromised to a much greater extent than growth in body weight, and growth faltering for both height and weight is most pronounced between birth and 24 months of age.

The similarity in growth rates between the highland and coastal samples suggests that high altitude hypoxia plays a relatively small role in shaping growth during the first five years after birth. Rather, it appears that most of the disparity in height between the two samples can be attributed to differences established by 6 months of age. The pattern of growth retardation seen in both regions during the first 24 postnatal months is similar to that observed among impoverished populations throughout the world and is likely associated with the influence of nutritional and disease stressors. After 2 years of age, little or no “catch up” growth is seen in height, whereas improvements in weight gain are more pronounced, especially among highland girls. Ongoing research is investigating the nutritional and socio‐economic correlates of growth within each region. © Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Natural selection and developmental sexual variation in the human pelvis
Authors: LaVelle Marquisa
Published: February 2006

This research examines ontological patterns of change in variation of the human pelvis as a means of identifying regions of differential growth, growth canalization and evidence of selection. Data were derived from pelvic radiogrammetry of 180 8‐year‐olds and 89 subjects at age 18 who were part of the Fels Longitudinal Growth Study. Coefficients of variation (CVs) and total growth increments were compared between sexes and between ages 8 and 18 for 14 pelvic measures. Sex‐specific comparisons of mean size were tested per age using Student's t, whereas coefficients of variation were calculated and compared using the methods suggested by Sokal and Braumann ([1980] Syst. Zool. 29:50–66). The Mann‐Whitney U‐test was used to test median growth increments between ages 8 and 18.

Results of these comparisons show significant sex differences in breadth of the ischium and acetabular regions among 8‐year‐olds. Most of the sexual dimorphism in the pelvis at age 18, however, develops during the adolescent growth period, during which both male and female pelves undergo growth remodeling of the pelvic cavity. Over the same time period, males show significantly greater incremental growth in the acetabulum, and females show differentially greater growth in the pelvic cavity. At age 18, the pelvis demonstrates a posterior‐to‐anterior gradient of increasing dimorphism within the inlet and midplane of the pelvic birth canal.

As a means of interpreting the effects of natural selection on the pelvis, it is argued that appropriate comparisons are within‐sample comparisons of CVs over time, rather than comparisons between sexes of adult coefficients as has been argued by others (Meindl et al. [1985] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 68:79–85). Analyses of change in coefficients of variation over time show evidence of concordantly reduced within‐sample variation in 7 pelvic dimensions indicating canalization of growth. These results are attributed to the effects of stabilizing selection operating on both males and females and include transverse diameters of the sacrum, inlet, anterior inferior iliac spines, and breadths of the ilium and ischium.

Six pelvic dimensions show evidence of increased total sample CVs and discordant change in within‐sex comparisons of CVs as well as differential growth between sexes over time. This pattern is indicative of the effects of disruptive selection on the pelvis for interacetabular diameter, breadths of the anterior superior and posterior inferior iliac spines, pubic length, and ilium height. © Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Euclidean distance matrix analysis: Confidence intervals for form and growth differences
Authors: Lele Subhash , Richtsmeier Joan T.
Published: February 2006

Analysis of biological forms using landmark data has received substantial attention recently. Much of the statistical work in this area has concentrated on the estimation of average form, average form difference, and average growth difference. From the statistical, as well as the scientific point of view, it is important that any estimate of a scientifically relevant quantity be accompanied by a statement regarding its accuracy. Such a statement is contained in a confidence interval. The purpose of this paper is to provide a method to obtain confidence intervals for form difference and growth difference estimators. The estimators are based on Euclidean distance matrix analysis. The confidence intervals are calculated using the model independent bootstrap method. We illustrate the method by using three examples: morphological differences between samples of craniofacial patients and normal controls using two dimensional data from head X‐rays, sexual dimorphism of craniofacial morphology inCebus apella, and sexual dimorphism of facial growth inCebus apellausing three‐dimensional data. © Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Paleopediatrics: Or when did human infants really become human?
Authors: Conroy Glenn C. , Kuykendall Kevin
Published: February 2006

Modern human children take about twice as long as their closest biological relative, the chimpanzee, to mature. One standard explanation for the evolution of “delayed maturation” at an early stage of human evolution is that it provided the time necessary for immature individuals to learn complex skills, most notably those relating to tool‐making abilities. However, after comparing dental maturational profiles of early hominids from South Africa (who apparently did make and use stone tools) (Susman [1994] Science 265:1570–1573) to those of extant humans and chimpanzees, we find no evidence to document an association between “delayed maturation” and tool‐making abilities in the early stages of human evolution. This also suggests that the assumed association between prolonged childhood dependency and other behaviors often associated with the advent of tool‐making such as cooperative hunting, food sharing, home bases, sexual division of labor, etc., is also suspect. Instead, we must look for other, or additional, selective pressures for the evolution of “delayed maturation,” which may postdate the australopithecine radiation. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Work performance of Chinese cycle haulers: Controlled field experiments in normal work conditions
Authors: Steegmann A. Theodore , Li Tian Lin , Emmer Daniel W. , Hewner Sharon J. , Zhang Xiufen , Liu Zunyong
Published: February 2006

Forty‐five male Chinese cycle haulers performed a controlled field experiment under mild winter conditions. The objective was to gain insight into factors that affect work performance. Each man hauled the same 481‐kg load around a Beijing street course of 14.18 km. The experiment was a measured sample of the same work they do routinely, on the same roads, using similar human powered hauling cycles (modified only enough to carry observers and instruments). The course was completed at a mean speed of 10.4 kph and mean time of 84.2 min. While there was considerable variation in individual pace and in pace change during work, the haulers performed at relatively high output in reference to their capacities. Mean heart rate was 156.8 ± 16.1 bpm, 83.9% of maximum. The men had average body build and were average in size for the general Chinese population (X stature = 169.7 cm) although they showed relatively high aerobic capacity (determined in laboratory tests). Performance levels during experiments appear to match habitual work patterns, and self‐pacing emerged as a major behavioral finding of this research. Speed, a primary index of job performance, showed significant correlation to heart rate, VO2max, variation in windchill, self‐reported health and other variables, with a multiple regression coefficient of 0.811. Similar patterns were seen for heart rate relative to speed, except that physical size, education, and other behavioral variables were also predictors. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.