bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Preface
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

The eighteenth century represents a shift from the old to the new and modern literature. It involved the reprinting, adaption, and transition of the original forms, which occurred in various stages and in a systematic and organized fashion. Most examinations of this stage of reform have focused on the early and mid-eighteenth century, and little information is found towards the end of the century. To be able to understand it further, the chapter divides the changes that occurred into categories. Reprints are works that had only very minimal alteration, while re-editions have a larger number but more systemic change. Revision, on the other hand, is an extensive revision of the old form into a structure that fully adapts to modern concepts.
The Early Western Editions
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

This chapter illustrates the changes and transitions made in Western Yiddish literature. This time the focus is on the unstressed vowels. It is repeatedly stressed that there is a constant and flowing manner of organization, which maintains a fluid content that is both Western Yiddish and High German in orientation. The impact of the High German pattern is clearly seen throughout the chapter analysis. It was a struggle between the strict traditions of old literature and the evolving need to reform and reconstruct. This is in contrast to Eastern literature, which is more revolutionary in its aspect. The Western literature is more embracing of the times, although still respecting earlier works.
Introduction
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

The writings that were analyzed in the earlier chapters were part of what is termed Easternization, and were altered at different levels from each other. Simkhes hanefesh was the least transformed to Eastern Yiddish forms. Kav Hayosher, in comparison, although one of the earlier works published, was said to be a little more altered, but still with some level of limit. The irony of things is that the Tsene rene was the earliest of the three works; however it was also the most extensively changed and modernized. This chapter examines the degrees of Easternization, and how it affects the final product. It is by examining from the most altered to the least altered form that a more accurate and precise scrutiny can be done.
Orthography and Phonology
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

In the prototype works that are being examined, there are some observations with regard to orthography and phonology. The writings were still considered conservative in some level, based on orthography, similar to the late eighteenth-century Eastern Yiddish literature. They were clearly more focused on the removal of most of the unstressed and certain stressed vowels. In contrast to this, a complete production of all stressed and unstressed words were found on Western Yiddish and modern High German patterns. This was influenced by the Old Yiddish spelling system, to which they continued to adhere. The evolution of the system, though observed to be at a slow rate, was none the less steady and precise.
Preface
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

It is said that there is no pure form of early modern Yiddish literature. All of these have fragments, if not a substantial amount of Old Yiddish. This is however not to say that they are just a continuation of the Old Yiddish literature, not an original. These earlier texts paved the way for later modern forms, most prominent in the nineteenth century. It was this time that was termed the true beginning of the age of modern literature. The fast-paced changes in cultural and social aspects of the state have set a background for reform, not only in government, but in literature as well. Religious movements had their share in this transformation, their distinct rules and customs adding influence and impact.
Facts versus Figures: Marietta Shaginyan
Authors: Shepherd David
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines Marietta Shaginyan's metafiction titled Kik. This short novel played a large part in installing and maintaining the perception of Shaginyan as a stolid, uncritical supported of the Soviet Union's literary and political institutions. The dominant mode in this work is hyperbolic stylization of familiar but anachronistic genres and this novel was characterized by the constant interplay of the literary versions of event with a reality whose own status is subtly called into question.
Discrowning the Writer: Konstantin Vaginov
Authors: Shepherd David
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the metafictions of Soviet writer Konstantin Vaginov. The position of Vaginov in relation to the dominant literary trends in the 1920s is as marginal as Leonid Leonov's or Marietta Shaginyan's seems central. His major works include The Goat's Song, Experiments in Connecting Words by Means of Rhythm, and The Works and Days of Svistonov. His third novel placed emphasis of authorly autonomy and its relation to cultural traditional and continuity and its metafictional strategies provided a particularly defamiliarizing angle of vision on these matters.
Conclusion
Authors: PEARSON ROGER
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses some of the things discussed during the December 1944 meeting at Sorbonne, which marked the 250th anniversary of Voltaire's birth. Two of the speakers at this event were Paul Valery and Isaiah Berlin, who set the basis for a more in-depth discussion on Voltaire as a writer and how his works have contributed to a number of fields.
The Force of Parental Presence in La Regenta
Authors: SINCLAIR ALISON
Published: October 2011

La Regenta as a novel is exceptional in the degree to which it counterpoises against the traditional image of the absent mother that of a present and intolerable one. This chapter examines two central features of Dona Paula de Pas's parental presence in La Regenta: her influence on Fermín de Pas's style of masculinity, and her effect on the nature of the relationship between Fermín de Pas and Ana Ozores. The chapter argues that, throughout the text, Fermín and his mother remain locked in an infantile, essentially pre-Oedipal relationship, never resolved and unchallenged by an appropriate father-figure. At the same time, the chapter highlights the gender-associated resonances of the Fermín/Paula dyad when understood in the context of the honour/shame cultures typical of the Mediterranean.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

The majority of studies to have appeared on Blaise Pascal's use of language concentrate either on vocabulary or style. Although Sara Melzer in Discourses of the Fall does not examine individual terms, her radical re-evaluation of language within the context of the doctrine of the Fall and within various post-structuralist critical traditions offers a new reading of the text which has provided a useful starting point for this book. Also, despite a tendency to ignore the historical proofs of God's existence which Pascal clearly regarded as important, Melzer's article ‘Classicism and Conventions of Meaning in the Pensées’, throws interesting light on the function of paradox in the Pensées. Through an analysis of the language used by Pascal to portray man's status in the world, it is the book's aim to derive a model of interpretation which will show many different levels of persuasion at work in the Pensées.
Language in the Pensées
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

Perhaps the major difference between the use of ‘paroles’ in this letter and the function of words in the Pensées lies in the fact that the polemicist, despite his recognition of the inadequacy of language, believes in the internal truth of words. In the Pensées, on the other hand, Blaise Pascal calls into question man's very ability to communicate truth through language, an aspect which this chapter develops. It must be pointed out that Pascal does not always make a clear distinction between mot and parole. It would be useful to assess the status of words in this fragment. It is entitled ‘Contre le pyrrhonisme’, and clearly represents an attempt to show the weaknesses of the sceptics' opposition to the dogmatists.
Ennui
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

All general studies of ennui recognise the original and central importance which Blaise Pascal brought to it. The significance of ennui in the Pensées would seem to be diminished by the relatively small number of times that it is used, only twenty-nine times in its nominal and verbal forms. However, its prominent position in many of those fragments underlines the central importance which Pascal accords them. This chapter has chosen to make a comparison between the singular and plural forms of ennui because, in the Pensées, every example of the noun is in the singular, which would seem to promote the more specialised meaning of the term. To a large extent, one finds an important distinction between the use of the singular and plural forms in all key terms associated with the human condition.
Conquerors, Culture, and Communication: The Creation of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

In December 1945, Major-General Alex Bishop, in charge of the development of information services within occupied Germany, wrote to the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Bishop had re-established broadcasting in the British zone in the shape of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR), based in Hamburg with offices and studios in Cologne. Bishop's problem was in finding the correct mix of personal authority for the people running NWDR and the precise articulation of the structure and organisation of this BBC of the north German plain. From the British standpoint, the key to the future success of German broadcasting lay in the discovery of those vital mechanisms and conventions which distanced NWDR from the political establishment, but which would not, in so doing, isolate it. The key year in the task of establishing the constitutional framework for public service broadcasting in Germany was 1947.
Broadcasting and New Technologies: The Case of Japan
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

The immediate post-war development of broadcasting in Japan had to be viewed against the vast project in social engineering which was otherwise known as the Occupation. So today one has to look at what is happening to broadcasting in Japan against a different but equally vast drawing board on which is being plotted a whole new social engineering project. Any discussion of the relationship between public service broadcasting and new communications policies therefore necessarily enters the heart of a debate not just about the future of public service broadcasting but also about the self-conscious, long-term plan to transform the character of the second greatest economy on earth. The post-war communications system in Japan revolved around the principle of governmental monopoly of public telecommunications; and of NHK as a special public corporation in competition with commercial enterprises.
Subjectivity, Causality, and Time
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter first examines the way in which subjectivity in film is often produced by causality and restrictions that refocus attention to proximal sites of experience. It then characterizes the way in which temporal experiences are subjective, but cued by a set of cognitive and affective parameters in the diegetic world. It demonstrates the means by which temporal experiences provide modal tones to visual fiction.
A Typology of Genres of Fiction
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter summarizes some of the characteristic dimensions that produce emotions in visual fiction, and uses these dimensions to formulate a typology of prototypical emotion-producing genres. The eight prototypical genre-patterns in visual fiction, based on their emotional effect on the viewer, are: lyricism, canonical narratives, obsessional fictions, melodramas, horror fictions, schizoid fictions, comic fictions, and metafictions.
Metaframes as Emotion-Filters and Brackets
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter analyses Godard's Pierrot le Fou, in order to show that changing the modal quality of the emotions is an important aspect of a metafictional laying-bare of devices. In recent decades, popular fiction has also used metafictional devices to an increasing degree, and special formulas, for example certain cartoons, have used metafiction for an even longer period. The chapter illustrates the way in which metafiction is used in popular fiction by analysing the episode, The Dream Sequence Always Rings Twice, from the television series Moonlighting, and then discussing the emotional function of ‘cliché’. First, however, it expands earlier descriptions of the means by which a metaframe, an awareness of ‘extradiegetic’ and ‘metafictional’ phenomena, influences the viewer's cognitive and emotional relation to the narrative.
Recapitulation and Conclusion
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter summarizes the main findings of the book. The aim of this book has been to show the way in which cognitions and emotions in the experience of viewing visual fiction are part of a holistic framework. This holism has its origin in the way that fictions are experienced by the viewer. Central elements in the book can be summed up by some key concepts including holism, ecological conventions, reality-simulation, and aesthetic flow.
‘A Genius for Love’: Sex as Politics in Delarivier Manley's Scandal Fiction
Authors: Ballaster Ros
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the fiction of Delarivier Manley. Delarivier Manley's first major scandal novel The New Atalantis reincarnates the figure of Aphra Behn's fictional and poetic persona, Astrea, in order to authorize her own position of female satirist. Manley, like Behn, presents her satirical powers both as female and heroic. She also concealed the ‘transgression’ of representing and embodying female political ambition beneath the ‘lesser’ transgression of representing and embodying active female sexual desire. However, unlike Behn, Manley focuses on specific and personal satire in her ‘key’ novels. Manley also seems to have sought political patronage in the shape of financial reward from those Tory politicians she idealized in her novels.
Conclusion
Authors: Ballaster Ros
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a brief account of the critical fate of the prose fiction of Behn, Manley, and Haywood in the mid- to late 18th century. These early amatory fictions were persistently ‘written out’ of the novel tradition in this period in an attempt to make it respectable. The novel, identified at every stage as a ‘female form’, was, in this period, refined by purging it of its disreputable associations with female sexuality and the subversive power of female ‘wit’, or artifice. Women writers would gain status and more in the newly respectable form of the novel by denying any association with the infamous Behn, Manley, and Haywood.
Antony and Cleopatra: Soldering up the Rift
Authors: Fisch Harold
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that Antony and Cleopatra is the most mythological of Shakespeare’s plays. This is not to say that he shared the mythological vision of the world; the play is not mythologically determined, any more than it is determined by Freudian categories. But Shakespeare here shows enormous understanding for this mode of creativity. This would make Antony and Cleopatra one further of his centrifugal relation to prior texts and influences. He is able to enter into and share different modes of experience and belief but without any authorial commitment to one system rather than another.
Cognition and Re-cognition
Authors: Fisch Harold
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that Blake makes the modalities of romantic self-consciousness the very subject of his poetry. Notions and processes which are only hinted at in the imagery of Wordsworth and Shelley are here projected on a large mythic canvas. Moreover, Blake gives them the distinctness of an organized system. His great strength comes from the fact that whilst notions of the all-embracing character of the Self and of the universal power of the Imagination had found expression hitherto in the lyric of romantic subjectivity, Blake’s voice is not that of romantic subjectivity. He invented a precise mythological language or shorthand for speaking of cognition and recognition, defining the ground of romantic inwardness without being himself engulfed in the abyss of that same inwardness.
The Woman in White, Great Expectations, and the Limits of Medicine
Authors: Small Helen
Published: October 2011

For Wilkie Collins and Charles Dickens, writing at a time when powerful sectors of the medical profession were increasingly insisting that knowledge of human life would be grounded in physiology rather than psychology, the love-mad woman provided a means of asking what constituted ‘real’ pain. Such women had always raised the question of ‘truth’. Because they have suffered directly by men's falsehood or, indirectly, by the world's inability to guarantee their happiness, they prompt doubt about what can be assured in life. Couching their stories in hyperbole, they nevertheless resist the equation of excess with lying. Although they convey other stories within nineteenth-century fiction — and, in the process, come to mean both more and less than their own desolation — they still command pathos in themselves, even in the unsentimental world of the 1860s.
Banishing Vice
Authors: Ekirch A. Roger
Published: October 2011

This chapter sheds some significant light on the social history of crime, criminals, punishments, and law enforcement in England in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The crime rate grew and many offences were committed not only by professional criminals, but by the needy poor as well. Poverty was not only to be blamed, wealth and industrial revolution in London, Bristol, Liverpool, and many other cities provided suitable ground for criminals and thieves. The Crown officers tried to stem the rising crime around London and nearby but the law-enforcement agencies were ill-equipped compared to France and other monarchies in Europe. London lacked a professional police and was heavily depended on the amateur guardians who worked under an onerous workload.
Grafton v. Grafton Private separation and public divorce, 1756–1769
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

Few if any break-ups of marriage in the 18th century are recorded in such intimate detail as the Grafton affair, based as it is upon a remarkable set of private correspondence between the husband and his wife, the mother and her children, and the husband and his lawyers and agents. In some ways, it is a highly atypical case, but in others it is representative of its time and of the majority of such break-ups. It is atypical in that the protagonists were highly prominent persons and members of the super-rich. The story is, however, perfectly typical in that all the legal proceedings were collusive, based on considerations of mutual advantage, so that only some highly selective aspects of the full story emerged in open court.
Introduction
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter introduces the historical context of the impact of war and political change on White Rhodesia. It offers to discuss in the book the story of how Rhodesians, nearly all of them ill-prepared for war and revolutionary change, reacted to the challenge to, and the eventual loss of, their domain. The story begins in 1970 when Rhodesia became a republic, and when the Rhodesians were confident, in control, and even complacent. This chapter explains various objectives of telling this story — one objective is to demonstrate and explain the emergence of sharp divisions within White Rhodesia.
‘Only a pinprick in our sides’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

The Rhodesians discovered that the set-piece battles and decisive victories of the 1960s were not to be repeated. Nevertheless, within two years, the security forces asserted a kind of mastery over the north-east, or Operation Hurricane as it was called. By December 1974 when the South Africans and Zambians persuaded both sides to implement a cease-fire and to enter negotiations, the Rhodesians believed that less than 100 guerillas were active in the operation. The real setbacks had been political and economic.
‘It is perhaps, the end of the beginning’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

The war invaded every aspect of Rhodesian life during 1976. While the farming communities of the new operational area constituted the front line everyone was affected in some way by the escalation of war. More importantly, the escalation of war generated and intensified divisions which the illusion of greater solidarity could not conceal. The government and the security forces handled adversity by compounding old mistakes and making new ones, all the time misleading an electorate which begged to hear what it wanted to believe, and preferred not to believe what it could observe.
‘Everything to fight for’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

The all-party Geneva conference on Rhodesia called by the British government assembled on 28 October 1976. Back home, most White Rhodesians became so immersed in the war, domestic politics, and the daily round of living that they quickly tired of the Geneva negotiations. They largely ignored the various settlement plans and the procession of official visitors from Britain and the United States during the first half of 1977. The Rhodesian government profited domestically from the willingness of the British and American governments to make further concessions to the Front Line States and the Patriotic Front.
‘In a hell of a turmoil’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

Exhausted by the war and ready for peace at any price, Rhodesian society in 1979 exhibited unmistakable signs of military failure, moral decline, and political disintegration. Moods and attitudes veered sharply during 1979–80 as the Rhodesians reacted to events beyond their control. They managed to offer a grudging or cautious acceptance of change while maintaining an undiminished commitment to the symbols and substance of the past.
The Regents
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

The term ‘regent’ has been used so far without anything like a precise definition; the purpose of this chapter is to give as clear an idea as possible of who the regents were. In 17th-century Dutch, the word meant more or less those who ruled, the governors: it referred in its narrow definition to the holders of local political power, more broadly to the holders of political power in general, and, most widely of all, to the governors of any public institution. This chapter elucidates the nature of the regent group in its most precise sense: the members of the oligarchies or patriciates of the towns, and particularly the voting towns, of Holland. The best starting point is the vroedschap: clearly all members of this council were regents. The magistraat, on the other hand, gives rise to some difficulties.
Party and Faction
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

For nearly three decades now, discussion concerning the nature of politics within the voting towns of Holland during the Dutch Republic has been shaped to a perhaps unhealthy extent by the question whether what happened is best understood in terms of party or of faction. This chapter centres on the towns of Holland in the 17th century, and the implications for the politics of the province and even the Republic are also examined. What might be called the factionalist interpretation of Dutch politics in the Republican period was a reaction to the conventional picture of these centuries, which was seen as basically anachronistic not just because it described political developments in terms of party conflict, but also because it conceived the orangists and republicans as political parties of a type which did not really come into existence until the 19th and 20th centuries.
TheSchutterij, Popular Influence, and Public Order
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

To a very large extent in practice, the regents in Holland were the absolute rulers of their towns, this unquestioned legal supremacy of the magistracy could not disguise the fact that there was a serious flaw in their power: they lacked effective repressive forces immediately to hand to suppress popular disorder. Awareness of this weakness made the regents extremely sensitive to any public criticism which might stir up discontent among their subjects, but it also encouraged them to avoid policies which might cause widespread resentment. This vulnerability of the regents in the face of the reality or the threat of public violence is the theme of this chapter. In the towns themselves the chief means of maintaining order was the schutterij, the civic militia. Some towns employed a paid body of soldiers but most town governments were dependent on their schutters for the control of popular violence.
Religion and the Dutch State
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

Religion affected the way in which Holland related to the other provinces in the Dutch Republic, and to the Union as a whole, during the 17th century in both positive and negative ways. As the Republic became more firmly united in other ways in the course of the 17th century, the significance of the Reformed Church as a unifying force diminished. Protestantism in general and the Reformed Church in particular had established itself as a symbol of resistance to Spain in the course of the revolt, and carried on to be the official religion of the new state. A common religious loyalty was particularly important in the Republic given the widely differing political and economic interests of the various provinces. One aim which they all held in common was the defence of the Reformed faith, which in its turn conferred a universal purpose and significance to the war against Spain.
Frontier Development
Authors: Adelman Jeremy
Published: October 2011

This book provides a study of settlement and expansions on the frontier lands in Canada and Argentina during their ‘Golden Years’ of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This book challenges many of the assumptions made about the economic ‘success’ of North America and the ‘failure’ of Latin America. Based on extensive primary research in Argentina, Canada, and Britain, this book points to the central importance of property relations in economic history. The distribution, control, and use of land, labour, and capital shaped these emerging economies. At the centre of the analysis is the development of family farming in Canada, and large estates in Argentina. Each system presented opportunities and posed costs — Argentine estates proving more efficient than hitherto argued, while Canadian farms involved high social and economic costs. The approach taken here suggests directions for future research for comparative historians.
Crime, Justice, and the Challenge to Order
Authors: Eastwood David
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses policing functions in late Hanoverian England. As in all political systems, the nature and extend of police power in late Hanoverian England represented a compromise between order and security on the one hand and liberty and economy on the other. This chapter also describes the pattern of crime, committals and convictions, and the law in theory in practice.
Zeno and the Goths, 474–479
Authors: Heather P. J.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Zeno, who was the father of Emperor Leo's grandson and heir, Leo II. It looks at his relations with the Amal-led Goths and the Thracian Goths, and his appointment as MVM praesentalis for life. The chapter looks at Zeno's attempts to come up with a solution to the Gothic problem. However, by the end of 479, he had only succeeded in forging an alliance with the Amal-led Goths.
The Death of the KPD
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

Why was the West German Communist Party banned in 1956, only 11 years after it had emerged from Nazi persecution? Although politically weak, the post-war party was in fact larger than its Weimar predecessor and initially dominated works councils at the Ruhr pits and Hamburg docks, as well as the steel giant, Krupp. Under the control of East Berlin, however, the KPD was sent off on a series of overambitious and flawed campaigns to promote national unification and prevent West German rearmament. At the same time, the party was steadily criminalized by the Anglo-American occupiers, and ostracized by a heavily anti-communist society. The author has used material available only since the end of the Cold War, from both Communist archives in the former GDR as well as western intelligence, to trace the final decline and fall of the once-powerful KPD.
Introduction: ‘The Janus Face’ of Fascism
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

The mechanization of warfare emerged along with the developments of the age and along with the emergence of modernist notions and visions spurred by the celebration of machine and the proto-fascist and fascist outlook. This chapter suggest a close affinity that had existed between the radical warfare and the cultural and intellectual currents of proto-fascism and fascism ideology or outlook. Fascism emerged along with industrialization, urbanization, and the growth of the mass society. Its emergence was a result of a rebellion against the dominating bourgeois culture which is dominated by materialism, commercialism, alienating individualism, and the liberal-humanitarian values. Fascism aimed to overcome parliamentarism, capitalism, and socialism through the application of communal solutions which create a unifying effect among the populace. For the proponents of fascism, fascism was the order of the future, superseding the obsolete parliamentary democracy in the new age of modern and industrial mass society. They believed that they would create a fully organized and efficient society, rule by a meritocratic, managerial government of experts. These modernist outlook and the aspects of proto-fascism and fascism are examined in this chapter.
Futurism, Proto–Fascist Italian Culture, and the Sources of Douhetism
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines another strand of fascist modernism which was derived chiefly from artistic sources, which aestheticized and celebrated the machine and the attributes of modern society as a mighty force for moral liberation and human elevation. This chapter focuses on the proto-fascist outlook that was prevalent in the Italian culture and the dominating potent symbolism of the aeroplane. Among the discussed fascist thinkers that lend their ideas on proto-fascism and expressed their emotive imagery of the aeroplane are D'Annunzio and Marinetti. The chapter also focuses on Douhet who revolutionized the air warfare as well as Moussolini and Balbo and their political propaganda that aimed to foster Fascists' image as an advance, dynamic, and virile movement through aeronautics and flying. The chapter concludes with Douhet's seemingly great influence on the concept of strategic airforce in countries like Germany, France, Soviet Union and America.
Comparisons and Contrasts (I): American Populism, Progressivism, and Mid-West Technological Modernism
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the connection of fascist modernism and the visions of machine warfare by examining two other pronounced modernist ideologies: American Progressivism and Marxism. This chapter discusses Charles A. Lindberg who became the greatest living symbol of the conquest for air which sparked the flames of the fascist expression in the Nazi regime. The present chapter seeks to suggest a more general explanation for the Lindbergh affair and his presumed influence in the insignificant yet influential emergence of fascism in America. The equivalents of the concept of fascism in the form of Populism, Progressivism, American ‘nativism’ and technological modernism are discussed in this chapter.
Theory: Limited War, Moderate Peace, and the Strategy of Indirect Approach
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the Liddell Hart's works and theories on the concept of limited war, moderate peace and the strategy of indirect approach. Written in his younger days, most of his theories are met with criticisms which were bounded by assumptions that his ideas of the different strategies of war owe much recognition from Fuller and Clausewitz who were the prevailing military thinkers of their time. However by the turn of the 1930s, Liddell Hart amended his work and developed a full consciousness of the war that starkly contrasts his deemed immature view of the war. In his more mature yet less-known ideas, he cemented his contributions to the strategic theory and created true measure of his originality and sophistication.
Introduction
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a brief account of Anselm of Lucca’s life. Three characteristics in the sources are emphasised: his knowledge and intellectual abilities, especially of the law; his tireless devotion to the cause of Pope Gregory VII; and his indisputable sanctity. Few details are known of Anselm’s life and career as ecclesiastical reformer, canon lawyer, polemicist, and saint. In order to make much sense out of Anselm’s life, the chapter holds that it is important to place the facts against a wider background of the cultural milieu of northern Italy in which he was raised. The discussion glances upon the problems of the two Lives of Anselm, earlier and metrical; and Anselm’s Collectio canonum.
Papacy and Law on the Eve of the Gregorian Revolution
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses papacy in the eleventh century and law on the eve of Gregorian revolution. It argues that the most striking canon was the explicit affirmation of the dispositive powers of a legitimate papal electus. It was an attempt to distinguish between the jurisdictional and other powers of the papal office. Leo IX's preoccupation with the rigorous observance of the forms of ecclesiastical law was not limited to the issue of free and canonical elections. His actions not only gave reform a seal of legitimacy, but also exalted the position of the papacy. More than any of his predecessors, Gregory VII had a sense of mission: he lived, and he acted with an unshakeable conviction of the divine vocation. He was preoccupied with canon law. The chapter holds that it is the task of others to find the necessary authorities, and to provide the specific vindications for his revolution.
Anselm and Coercion: A Legal Form of Persuasion
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the schism and the justification for the doctrine of coercion. In Anselm’s view, the Church was obliged to confront, persuade, and comprehend dissident or separated forces in order to fulfill its mission. It offers a new ecclesiology that was perhaps an inevitable product of the schism. Coercive force under such circumstances was not a matter of personal will or arbitrary discretion, but the duty of a true pastor ecclesiae. In the final books of his Collectio canonum, Anselm’s interest with ecclesiastical property seems to have come from the schism: material resources were just unjustly being seized, with the effect of leaving the Church debilitated. In full possession of resources, the Church would be able to defend itself from schism, and to restore, by force if necessary, the unity that was the objective of Anselm’s doctrine of coercion.
Conclusion: A Canonist of Reform
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter evaluates the significance of the collections of Anselm of Lucca. The discussion throughout the book has placed the Collectio canonum in the wider developments in canon law during the eleventh century. However, the integrity of the collection was not rigidly maintained in its own time. While unrelenting insistence upon absolute primacy was preserved, interpolations and other modifications to the internal ordering were made almost immediately. On one hand, these modifications demonstrate that the deficiencies of the collection as a practical, working compendium were apparent. On the other hand, they suggest that the strident tone and ideological inflexibility with which the collection was associated made its progressive abandonment certain. Still, Anselm’s collection stands as a concrete manifestation of the ways in which the reformers envisaged the law as a justification of reform.
Endowment or Independence? Russell’s ‘Great Settlement’ Foiled, 1848–1849
Authors: KERR DONAL A.
Published: October 2011

For a Church that sees its task as a mission to a large population, the provision of clergy is a priority; the Irish Catholic Church, with its highly developed sacramental system, needed a numerous clergy to administer its rites and preach the Christian gospel. Yet in the early years of the nineteenth century it was failing in this requirement. A great measure for Ireland was the Encumbered Estates Act. Russell’s general plan involved the establishment of a Catholic parson and a Catholic squire working in harmony with the state. The Encumbered Estates Act of 1848, however, proved abortive and had to be amended, along lines suggested by Peel, in a new Act in 1849. Russell’s expectations from it were not fulfilled. Furthermore, since his scheme to endow the clergy never got off the ground, by 1849 his great plan for Ireland had stalled.
Gendarmes and the State in Nineteenth-Century Europe
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

The history of police and policing have been the subject of much interest and research in recent years, but this book provides the first serious academic exploration of the origins and development of the role of soldier-policemen: the gendarmeries of 19th-century Europe. The author presents a detailed account of the French Gendarmeries from the old regime up to the First World War, and looks at the reasons for how and why this model came to be exported across continental Europe in the wake of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic armies. In particular, their role is examined within the differing national contexts of Italy, Germany, and the Habsburg Empire. The gendarmeries, it is argued, played a significant role in establishing the state, particularly in rural areas. As the physical manifestation of the state, gendarmes carried the state's law and a promise of protection, whilst at the same time ensuring in turn that the state received its annual levies of conscripts and taxes. This account fully explores how the organization and style of 19th-century soldier-policing in France developed in such a way that it brought the idea of the state and the state's law to much of 20th-century continental Europe.
‘A Genuine and Dependable Army of the Interior’: Gendarmes Imperial and Republican
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the establishment of Gardiens de la Prix and a Gendarmerie unit, the Republican Guard in 1848. These guards were established because the gendarmes of Paris were disbanded due to their reputation of arrogance and brutality during the July Monarchy, and their fierce defence of the regime in February 1848 had left them with few friends. The Republican Guard was smaller than its predecessor of the July Monarchy, but the concern for order in Paris triggered the creation of a mobile Gendarmerie battalion of 700 men at Versailles in July 1848. Furthermore, a second battalion was established. This battalion was stationed in Paris in May 1850.
Hussars, Brigands, and Others: Policing Rural Europe before Napoleon
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the role of hussars in suppressing brigands, vagrants, beggars, and criminals in Europe. From the middle of the 18th century, southern German princes began to experiment with different kinds of police such as Hatschiere and hussars. Hussars were light troops, originating in Hungary, who specialized in scouting, skirmishing, and ambush. Brigands were the major problem of the country during the 18th century.
‘Compatriots and Friends’: Gendarmes Across the Empire
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the aim of the Gendarmerie beyond the old French frontiers. The Gendarmerie aims to enforce and preserve the perception of order and tranquility of the state. It serves as the eyes and ears of the government in the countryside, and brings in the conscripts and the taxes. It functions at the centre of the imperial police machine.
Variations: Landjägers and Gendarmes
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the contrast between the different national corps in the 19th century. The German Gendarmerie were intended to be rural police while the Prussian Gendarmerie remained a small force throughout the 19th century. One key difference between the French Gendarmerie and its German namesake was in their distribution across the national territory.
Variations: The Habsburg Lands
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter compares and contrasts developments in Europe and discusses their impact on the experience of the Habsburg lands. The Polish gentry in the Habsburg provinces of Galicia rose in revolt in February 1846, and many were killed. A rumor spread that the Emperor had abolished the Ten Commandments. The authorities of Habsburg were both appalled by the savagery of the peasantry's response and encouraged by its support for the monarchy over the landlords. Because of these events, Metternich began to consider extending the Habsburg Gendarmerie from Lombardy into the other provinces of the Empire.
The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725
Authors: Davies Adrian
Published: October 2011

The early Quakers denounced the clergy and social élite but how did that affect Friends' relationships with others? Drawing upon the insights of sociologists and anthropologists, this study sets out to discover the social consequences of religious belief. Why did the sect appoint its own midwives to attend Quaker women during confinement? Was animosity to Quakerism so great that Friends were excluded from involvement in parish life? And to what extent were the remarkably high literacy rates of Quakers attributable to the Quaker faith or wider social forces? Using a wide range of primary source material, this study demonstrates that Quakers were not the marginal and isolated people that contemporaries and historians often portrayed. Indeed the sect had a profound impact not only upon members, but more widely by encouraging a greater tolerance of diversity in early modern society.
Love and Marriage
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes love and the matrimonial ceremony of the Quakers. Love was officially recognized as a significant feature of marriage. During the matrimonial ceremony, the couple made a mutual declaration to be loving and faithful to one another. The meaning of terms such as ‘loving wife’ in wills and the desire of spouses to be buried next to one another conveys that couples looked upon one another with a marked degree of affection and respect.
Dregs of the People
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a compilation of entries from the nominal index of Friends in Essex. This nominal index includes details about individual Quakers during their lifetime. This information is derived from a variety of Quaker and other relevant sources. The primary purpose of the index is to assist in the task of tracing the existing relationship between Quakers and others in the local society.
The Growth and Decline of Quakerism
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the growth of Quakerism after the Restoration and its decline. An examination of the figures detailing the membership of the movement helps explain why so many of the official pronouncements of the Society emphasized the need to maintain Quaker children within the movement starting from the 1690s onwards. It has been suggested that Quakerism settled in those areas where Puritanism had never been strong. For this reason, it is believed that Quakerism had shallow roots in Essex. The consensus hitherto has been that Quakerism was predominantly a rural movement. In the 18th century, Voltaire hinted that the decline of Quakerism in London was because of the involvement of the members and success in commerce.
The Quakers in Society
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the social interaction between Quakers and the world. There was a greater degree of cooperation between the early Quakers and their contemporaries than has hitherto been appreciated. To accept that relations between Quakers and the world were not universally hostile and were conducted at times in a spirit of moderation is not to suppose that they were uniformly rosy. Religious belief had a direct and practical effect in social relations between Quakers and the world.
The Weakness of Gregory
Authors: Leyser Conrad
Published: October 2011

In the modern era, Gregory the Great is often depicted as a man at the border, poised between the Roman and the Germanic worlds, between East and West, and above all, perhaps, between the ancient and medieval epochs. Certainly, in stationing Gregory at the frontier, this chapter begins to acknowledge the immense future influence of his account of Benedict of Nursia, as of all his writings, in the medieval Catholic Church and beyond. However, this acknowledgement is frequently based on the assumption that Gregory, as a hinge figure engaged in cultural transmission, has no original point of view. Gregory tends to be typecast as a ‘moral’ thinker, whose assimilation of the texts of Augustine of Hippo and John Cassian was of critical import — but who was himself less capable of analytical or innovative thought, and who therefore concentrated his energies on reducing the complexities of earlier patristic writings for consumption by a future medieval audience. This chapter also looks at Gregory's views on monasticism and asceticism.
The Background to Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

All the three major collections of Latin Lives from medieval Ireland and a significant proportion of the Irish Lives survive because of the interest taken in them by a few Irish scholars working in different places in the years between about 1610 and 1650. Irish Lives rescued from oblivion at this stage were deliberately collected and transcribed for a great hagiographical and historical project undertaken by Fr. Hugh Ward and other Irish Franciscans at Louvain. The same Franciscans also obtained copies of Lives in Latin from the two collections which they called the Codex Kilkenniensis and the Codex Insulensis; the original codices survived through the intervention of the Protestant primate, Archbishop James Ussher, and his associate, Sir James Ware. The Franciscans also enjoyed close links with a Jesuit project begun in Antwerp about 1607 by Fr. Heribert Rosweyde, and now famous as the Bollandists and their Acta Sanctorum. Three scholars who were their forerunners in searching for manuscripts containing Lives of Irish saints were Fr. Henry FitzSimon, Fr. Thomas Messingham, and Fr. Stephen White.
Conclusions and Continuations
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

The O'Donohue group of Irish saints' Lives must be added to the list of Latin texts from what is termed Phase I, the period roughly between 6650 and 850. These texts each have their own individual features, but in form they more nearly resemble Vita I S. Brigitae than any other definitely early vita. What we know of the methods of the compiler shows that, at the date when he worked, there must have been more than twice as many Lives available to him from before c. 1230 as now survive in their original form. The compilation of the Dublin collection, whether or not it was inspired by Albinus O'Mulloy, was the crowning achievement of hagiography in Ireland. The redactor has brought together some twenty-five Lives (besides a few outliers), effectively knitting them into a single statement that Ireland was justly to be regarded as insula sanctorum.