bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Microbialpolitik, International Law, and Global Health Jurisprudence
Authors: Fidler David P
Published: October 2023

As previous chapters indicated, international law is important to the international politics of dealing with threats from pathogenic microbes. This chapter provides a theoretical framework for deepening our understanding of the intersection between international law and infectious diseases. Constructing this framework requires an analysis of how international law is used in other international regulatory regimes. In these other regimes, States, international organizations, and non-State actors participate in international law-making processes that offer lessons for approaching microbialpolitik in the future. This chapter also delves into international relations theory to provide new insights on microbialpolitik. These analyses suggest that the role of international law in connection with infectious diseases needs to be creatively rethought as the new millennium approaches.
The Legal Nature of Securities and Interests in Securities*
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

So continuous is legal history that the lawyers do not see that there has been a new departure until this has for some time past been an accomplished fact.

This chapter will consider in turn the legal nature of securities and that of interests in securities. The difference between the two illustrates the legal impact of intermediation in the securities markets.
Securities Collateral
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

The purpose of collateral is to protect the collateral taker against the risk that its counterparty (the collateral provider)will become insolvent.

Most financial assets consist of personal obligations such as debts. A personal obligation is generally enforceable only by suing the obligor. When an obligor becomes insolvent, debts and other personal obligations are generally unenforceable against it.
Outright Collateral Transfers
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

As was seen in Chapter 4, there are two broad legal structures whereby (interests in) securities may be delivered as collateral. First, the collateral taker may be given a security interest in (interests in) securities. This security interest may be a mort- gage, pledge, charge or lien. In this case, property rights in the collateral assets are divided between the collateral taker (who acquires a limited property interest under the security interest) and the collateral giver (who retains the equity of redemption).
The Conflict of Laws and Securities Collateral1
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

This chapter will consider the conflict of laws in relation to the use of interests in securities as collateral. In the space available only an extremely brief introduction to the conflict of laws is possible. A number of excellent textbooks on the conflict of laws are available; readers are particularly referred to the new edition of Dicey and Morris.
Collateralised Bond Obligations and Related Structures1
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

This chapter will consider a relatively recent form of repackaging known as col- lateralised bond obligations (‘CBOs’). CBOs were originally developed in the USA in the late 1980s. During the course of the 1990s the use of CBOs grew tremendously, with CBOs being established in Europe and (more recently) issued outside the USA. The last half of 1999 saw English law CBOs issued as a European product, and these are expected to grow significantly in the new millennium.
Conclusions
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

By way of conclusion, this chapter will summarise the arguments that have been advanced in this book concerning the legal nature of interests in securities. It will go on to raise four issues relating to the proprietary rights conferred by interests in securities. These issues are: the role of the law of trusts in permitting such rights to arise; whether this area of law requires codification; the development of ‘synthetic’ techniques in the financial markets that serve contractually to replicate such property rights; and the technical basis for unallocated and intermediated property rights in relation to intangible assets.
Introduction
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: October 2023

When I first became interested in British Parliamentary by-elections I was struck by something of a paradox. In the press contests in Glasgow Hill head, Bermondsey, and Greenwich generated headline news. On television ‘by-election specials’ broadcast the results until the early hours of the morning. During the mid-eighties the Social Democrats and Liberals mobilized about a thousand activists from all parts of the country into key contests. National party leaders and managers invested time and money in constituency campaigns. In short, by-elections were treated seriously by journalists and politicians alike.
Isolated Neutrality
Authors: Holbraad Carsten
Published: October 2023

In the second long period of Danish foreign policy distinguished here, from the end of the Napoleonic Wars to a few years after the First World War, Denmark again stayed out of the wars of the great powers. On the two occasions when it went to war, from 1848 to 1850 and in 1864, it was a principal in a local conflict, defending or pursuing vital interests by its southern border, not an ally of a great power in a major war. But in this period Denmark moved one step further away from the type of active participation in European politics that had usually characterized its foreign policy in the centuries before 1720. It no longer entered into alliance with other powers. Basically this abstention sprang from necessity rather than from choice. But in the course of the nine teenth century, particularly after 1870, Danish governments made a virtue of necessity by adopting a policy of isolation. This led them to a neutrality which, at least in form, was much more uncommitted than the one often pursued in the eighteenth century. Having taken two big steps away from old-style power politics, Denmark was now in a position to develop alternative ideas about international relations. In the later part of the period the policy of neutrality became linked with novel views of the nature of inter national politics and new assessments of the external situation of the country. Thus Danish neutrality, which in the eighteenth century had been little more than a practice of diplomacy, eventually also became an ideology of foreign policy.
Defenceless Neutrality
Authors: Holbraad Carsten
Published: October 2023

In the third period of Danish foreign policy, which lasted from the first years of the League of Nations to the later part of the Second World War, Denmark again took up the policy of isolated neutrality. But it now based that policy on a very weak military foundation. A succession of defence agreements, reached in 1922, 1932, and 1937, reduced the armed forces to a level where the country was unable to defend itself. This process completed the development that had started in the first half of the eighteenth century, and which step by step had all but excluded Denmark from active participation in European politics.
Introduction
Authors: Stokes Martin
Published: October 2023

Arabesk is a music of the city and for the city. It portrays a world of complex and turbulent emotions peopled by lovers doomed to solitude and a violent end. It describes a decaying city in which poverty-stricken migrant workers are exploited and abused, and calls on its listeners to pour another glass of rak1, light another cigarette, and curse fate and the world. In any predominantly Muslim society this music would be highly contentious. In the context of a secularizing state such as Turkey in which policy towards culture is explicitly formulated and implemented, the existence of this music has provoked bitter debate at every level. Its existence flaunts the failure of a process of reform whose icons and symbols dominate every aspect of Turkish public life. For Turks, the arabesk debate embraces perceptions of themselves as individual human beings, their urban environment, their state and government. As well as a musical form, arabesk is an entire anti-culture, a way of life whose influence, it is often said, can be detected as an aura of chaos and confusion surrounding every aspect of urban existence, from traffic to language, from politics to kitsch.
The United Kingdom
Authors: Kavanagh Dennis
Published: October 2023

In the first half of the twentieth century the style of election campaigning in Britain was changed by the extension of the franchise to virtually all adults (by 1928), and developments in party organization. But, in one short burst between 1959 and 1964 there was a transformation, largely because of developments in modern communications. Many of the features of contemporary campaigning arrived-opinion polls, advertising, television, daily press conferences, and serious planning of campaign strategies by party leaders. Elections have changed greatly since the 1950s when Clement Attlee toured the country in a family saloon, driven by his wife, addressing meetings recorded only by the press. Indeed, it takes an effort of mind to remember that until 1959 there was no broadcast coverage of the election campaign.
Political Change in Britain
Authors: King Anthony
Published: October 2023

David Butler and Donald Stokes entitled their pioneering study of the British electorate of the 1960s and early 1970s Political Change in Britain. Their subject was the influences that bear upon individual voters as they decide how to cast their ballots and the ways in which individuals’ voting decisions are summed across the whole mass of voters to produce the outcomes of general elections. Butler and Stokes’s focus was on the electorate and not on the various other forms that political change can take, but they were well aware that ‘the ebbs and flows of popular favour affect, often in quite unexpected ways, the whole conduct of British government’ (1974: 3).
Dialogue of the Deaf? The Elite and the Électorate in Mid-Century Britain
Authors: Berrington Hugh
Published: October 2023

Politicians, however democratic the mode of their election, how¬ ever broad the suffrage by which they are chosen, are never representative of those they represent. Such a paradox poses problems both for the conduct of democratic government itself, and for the attempts of politicians to mobilize the electoral coalitions on which their chances of power rest. Political representatives are unrepresentative in three main ways. They differ from most of their electors by virtue of their social backgrounds and their education, and, above all, because of their deep and continuing involvement in politics. It is an unusual man or woman who stands for election to Parliament.
Judicial Methodology in Statutory Interpretation
Authors: Robertson David
Published: October 2023

There are two logically separable types of judicial decision in a British appellate court, the application of common law rules and the application of statute rules. Both involve the fitting of rules to fact situations taken as given, whether arising from the decision by a jury in a criminal trial or a first instance judge in a civil trial. In practice this sharp distinction between fact and law does not always work easily-their Lordships at times find ways of overturning factual analyses which would lead to legal conclusions they dislike, but in theory at least appellate decisions refer to prior mistakes of law only. Both types of decision involve interpretation, but the techniques of statutory interpretation and of interpreting the true nature of the common law rule to be found in precedents differ somewhat. Consequently we have divided our analysis of the nature of legal argument in the courts into two sections. Here we discuss what should be the more limited area of judicial discretion, the interpretation of statutes. Very few cases, however, are pure types. There are few problems coming before the court where no statute at all can be said to be relevant (though the Lords may interpret it away to give themselves a dear common law run).
Models of Legislative Parties
Authors: Brand Jack
Published: October 2023

Bradfield might have been speaking for MPs. Before we can dismiss the House of Commons as powerless, however, we must look more carefully at what power means and how it can be analysed. Further, we must decide how power can be described and evaluated in legislative parties. In the debate about the meaning of power, a number of writers have distinguished between power, influence, authority, and a number of related concepts. For the purpose of this chapter I shall make no such distinction; when I ask about the influence of the parliamentary parties over policy, most of the points made about the concept of power also apply. If a distinction has to be made I shall point it out.
Power Over Agriculture
Authors: Brand Jack
Published: October 2023

In his history of the post-war Labour government, Kenneth Morgan draws a charmed picture of British agriculture. In 1947, the year of the first great Agriculture Act, there was ‘a renewed cult of the countryside variously popularized in the broadcasts of Ralph Wightman; the radio serial, The Archers ...; the success of magazines like The Countryman; and the writings of A. G. Street. Urban Britons paid obeisance to the pastoral dream, as they had done throughout the industrial period of their history.,1 This was a common view of rural life until the 1950s, perhaps into the 1970s. It is a typical European perception of the country side as the original home and, perhaps, the truest representation of one’s society.
Parties and Defence Policy
Authors: Brand Jack
Published: October 2023

As in economic policy, most key decisions on defence are taken with practically no intervention by Parliament. They are usually announced, but often not even this courtesy is observed. While monetary policy, such as fixing the Bank Rate or the regulation of the money supply, is also determined with no more than a notification, the Budget and even the decisions on Public Expenditure are subject to considerable debate. Parliament becomes the site of great pressure on the Treasury before and after the Finance Bill is published. By contrast, reasons of security justify the secrecy surrounding defence policy-making. The classic examples of this are Britain’s decisions to manufacture atomic weapons and later to develop her nuclear arsenal.
Conclusion
Authors: Brand Jack
Published: October 2023

In Chapter 1 I suggested that Parliament was important for the development of public policy. With King, I argued that this influence was exercised mostly by the parliamentary parties and especially by the back-benchers of the party in power. The central chapters examined six areas of policy to estimate the extent and nature of this influence. This final chapter will review these findings and conclude whether these activities can be explained or usefully thought of in terms of the contemporary debate on power and by using the concept of a policy community.
Introduction
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

Religious rituals can provoke a deeply ambiguous reaction in those who practise them. This book attempts to see what this kind of reaction can tell us about ritual. What happens in religious traditions when the nature of ritual is questioned, but the practice of performing rituals is not itself abandoned? Much anthropological analysis simply equates religion and ritual, or regards them as forming some kind of indissoluble whole, yet in many cases a religious attitude, a searching for spiritual perfection perhaps, can turn upon its own vehicle, ritual, to regard it with distrust, deprecation, or even fear.
What Kind of Theory Do We Need?
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

Ritual has been seen by anthropologists and others in broadly two ways: as a distinct category of events; and as an ever-present aspect of all actions. In this chapter we explain why we think both these approaches are mistaken. In both cases, moreover, the assumption has been that ritual is intrinsically a form of communication, and we further argue that ritual can be characterized without reference to communication. On these general conceptions, as if on two shifting underlays of fertile mud, a luxuriant jungle of theories about ritual has grown up. Though we may seem a bit like crocodiles snapping in the undergrowth, what we actually want to do is to cut through to find some firmer ground, without becoming entangled in the densely entwined branches of the theories, and without even attempting to clear the whole terrain.
Looking for Meanings
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

The Jains of modern Jaipur are a highly literate community and behind them stand two and a half millennia of religious speculation. Puja has never been central to Jain doctrinal tradition and contemporary religious writing is devoted mostly to ethics and philosophy, but as we noted in Chapter 2, there is now also a substantial body of literature giving instruction on the subject of puja: treatises by learned ascetics, small manuals for the performance of the rite, prayer books, and hymnals. In addition there is a large, loose body of didactic narrative in which rituals such as puja often play a decisive part.
Sayyid History and Historiography
Authors: Dresch Paul
Published: October 2023

Each enclave of learned families is contained within a local protection pact. But the Zaydi tradition reproduced in protected enclaves used once to extend far beyond the borders of any one tribe, or even group of tribes, and was sustained for several centuries uninterruptedly. This tradition made tribal concerns subordinate to learned interests. It produced, from the learned viewpoint, a reversal of the moral order one sees in field-work, and the tribesmen, too, accepted the value of formalized Islamic learning, for all that they were often at odds with its proponents. The tribes, in short, formed part of a larger whole. This was centred on the Zaydi Imams, who themselves were sayyids.
The September Revolution and the Post-War Republic
Authors: Dresch Paul
Published: October 2023

It was not purely internal factors that spelled the end of the Imamate and of the tribes’ subjection to the last Imams. Nor was it external ‘causality’ in the form, say, of trade or conquest, all of which Yemen had seen before. Such considerations are important. But more important still is that certain Yemenis acquired a different view than previously of the country’s place among other countries, which rn turn had implications for the tribes within it.
Village Life and Means of Livelihood
Authors: Dresch Paul
Published: October 2023

A generation has now grown up for whom the last Imams are not even a memory. A great deal has changed, not least that emigrant labour and imported grain mean that few people under middle age can imagine famine.

Throughout the period we know anything of (which extends back to pre-Islamic times), the population of Upper Yemen has lived mainly in villages and has depended in large part on agriculture. These villages now each contain of the order of two or three hundred people. Some villages are larger, some smaller, and none can fairly be presented as typical, but a sketch of a single village will at least give an idea of these units which underpin the whole tribal system.
Conclusion
Authors: Alexander Claire E
Published: October 2023

I HAD been in ‘the field’ less than a month when I was taken on my first expedition with ‘the boys’ into the West End for their usual Friday night outing. Outside a pub in Covent Garden, I was introduced to two new members of the group, Nathan and Arif: ‘This is Claire; she’s an anthropologist and she’s studying black men. She wants to know why we all hang around on street corners with ghetto blasters, mugging old white women.’ Nathan, who is about 6’2”, and very fierce looking, fixed me with a steely glare and said, ‘We don’t all do that, you know.’ After a dramatic pause he added, ‘Any white woman will do.’
Constitutional Reform in Germany after the Revolution of 1989
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2023

Unlike the situation in other socialist Eastern European states, the revolution of 1989 did not lead to an internal rejuvenation or to a new constitution in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Instead, the GDR acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany and the West German Constitution was adopted. At the end of the post-war era, therefore, the particular position which the GDR had occupied from the start once again becomes apparent. After the Second World War, only the smaller part of Germany had come under the control of the Soviet Union. What had been intended as an administrative division into occupation zones led to the emergence of two states with antagonistic constitutions, an outcome representing not the wish of the Germans but the will of the Allied Powers. Both German states, however, stressed in their respective constitutions reunification as a goal, albeit under different assumptions about the political order.
Building the Regional State: Europe and Territorial Organization in France
Authors: Balme Richard , Jouve Bernard
Published: October 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to identify the relationship between European Community interventions dealing with regional development and the changing pattern of French public policy in this area. Indeed, while France has long been the archetype of a centralized state organization, two structural trends seem to question the pyramidal organization of power which has existed for the last two centuries: the decentralization reform launched in 1982 and the development of the European Union (EU). Some believe that due to these developments, the substance of the state is being eroded from the ‘top’ (EU) as well as from the ‘bottom’ (local communities). Consequently, the French pattern for formulating and implementing public policies, the French ‘policy style’, seems to be in turmoil (Muller 1992). The state and its administrative élite appear to be losing their central position in the social mediation process, in the articulation and conciliation of different and sometimes conflicting interests.
Econometric Modelling with Cointegrated Variables: an Overview
Authors: Hendry David F
Published: October 2023

Until recently, the vast bulk of econometric theory has been based on the assumption that the underlying data processes are stationary and ergodic, despite the manifest non-stationarity of, say, the aggregate time series to which that theory was applied in economics. Over the last century, most economic variables have changed radically in mean and often in variance so that their first two moments are far from constant. The consequences for the statistical properties of estimators and tests are profound as evidenced by the substantial literature on ‘spurious regressions’ discussed in Section II of this overview.
Cointegration and Tests of Present Value Models
Authors: Campbell Johny. , Shiller Robert J
Published: October 2023

Application of some advances in econometrics (in the theory of cointegrated vector autoregressive models) enables us to deal effectively with two problems in rational expectations present value models: nonstationarity of time series and incomplete data on information of market participants. With U.S. data, we find some relatively encouraging new results for the rational expectations theory of the term structure and some puzzling results for the present value model of stock prices.
Introduction: The Life of Nicholas Kaldor
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Nicholas Kaldor-throughout his life ‘Nicky’ to his family, friends, and students-was born in Budapest, one of the great capitals of mid-European culture, on 12 May 1908 and a few years before the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Equilibrium, Competition, and Capital Theory
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

After Kaldor’s early experiences in journalism his first publications on economics appeared in 1932; and here he revealed his whole-hearted commitment to the doctrines of the Austrian school. These first writings of his were two reviews of German books, each of which dealt with technical progress.
War Economy, Welfare State, and Full Employment
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

The government’s management of the economy during the Second World War had a major impact on the economic-policy ideas of both Kaldor and the English Keynesians in general. The British government, in fact, implemented a number of planning policies that enabled the country to bear the economic brunt of the war: the mobilizing of idle resources; the easing of the State’s financial burden through low interest rates on government securities; the containment of inflation by means of a strict policy of prices and incomes control; the levying of taxes on all forms of income (taxes which were generally regarded as fair). One might say that these principles would henceforth become ‘Holy Writ’ for the economic policies of the English Keynesians.
The ‘Agriculture-Industry’ Model and the Instability of the World Economy
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

This is a first issue; but there is another. Kaldor’s growth models of the 1950s were one-sector models of a closed economy with no government. Exogeneity was given by the technical-progress function. The models represented a mature industrialized economy, where full utilization of plant was matched by full utilization of the work-force; and its only sector was the manufacturing sector.
Underdevelopment, Industrialization, and Policies for Development
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

The principal problem faced by economically backward countries is how and when they can industrialize. Kaldor was fully aware that a theory of development must include elements of history, society, and culture in any explanation as to why certain regions of the globe have been unable to participate in the prolonged process of growth that has accompanied the rise of capitalism, and why in many parts of the world this process is still being obstructed.
Public-Finance Policy*
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Kaldor’s contributions to the field of public finance are scattered over a very large number of publications, many of which did not deal expressly with problems of public finance. This makes it singularly difficult to assess his work in this area as a whole and to isolate its main lines of argument.
The Interest Rate, Monetary Policy, and the Supply of Money
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Kaldor first dealt with monetary policy in his writings of 1939 on interest rates, speculation, and economic stability. As we saw in Chapter 2, sections 3 and 4, these articles had a manifold purpose: first they sought to define those hypotheses concerning speculation that, in a competitive market, were necessary in order to validate Keynes’s principle of savings-investment re-equilibrium via changes in income rather than in the rate of interest; secondly, they sought to define the relations that held between the short-term rate of interest and the demand for money and between short- and long-term rates; finally, they sought to define the conditions that must apply if the rate of money interest is to represent the standard to which returns on other assets must conform, and the conditions that must be fulfilled for the rate of money interest to influence the level of activity. It was this latter aspect, the so-called ‘trans mission principle’, that forms the link between these strictly analytical considerations and monetary policy. It is, therefore, a convenient point to start from before we move to analysis of what Kaldor held to be the determinants of the demand for and the supply of money.
Ian Little—A salute Inter Vivos
Authors: Seton Francis
Published: October 2023

The title is intended to put the reader on notice not to expect an éloge. Happily Ian Little is still among us and likely to remain so for many years to come. De mortuis nil nisi bonum must be replaced by de vivis nil nisi verum, an injuction vastly more difficult to follow, even to the extent that verum may be granted an objective meaning in what can only be a personal impression rather than a biography.
Commodity Price Stabilization
Authors: Newbery David M
Published: October 2023

In 1976, inspired by the success of OPEC in raising the price of oil, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) passed a resolution calling for an Integrated Programme for Commodities (IPC) as part of the more ambitious establishment of a New International Order. The developed countries confined their discussions to the problems of primary commodities and supported the negotiation of international commodity agreements, and agreed in principle on the need for a Common Fund to finance international commodity stocks (see Little, 1982, ch. 17 and Gordon-Ashworth, 1984, pp. 42-6). The IPC was always intended to be more than just a solution to the problem of commodity price instability, and its prime aim, at least as perceived by the developing countries, was undoubtably to raise commodity prices to levels which were ‘remunerative and just to producers and equitable to consumers’.
The Theory of Political Economy, Economic Policy, and Foreign Investment
Authors: Bhagwati Jagdish N
Published: October 2023

In this chapter I consider recent developments in the analysis of foreign investment that reflect the new thinking in economic theory along the lines of political economy. Section 1 provides an overview of the developments in the theory of political economy generally, focusing equally on its pro-found implications for the theory of economic policy. Section 2 turns then to the analysis of foreign investment in light of this overview, discussing how analysis of foreign investment changes in light of political economy-theoretic considerations, drawing particularly on the new theory of quid pro quo foreign investment.
International Capital Flows and Economic Development
Authors: Lal Deepak
Published: October 2023

The role of international capital in economic development has been one of Ian Little’s major interests. His 1965 book, International Aid, with Juliet Clifford still provides one of the few balanced discussions of ‘the flow of public resources from rich to poor countries’ (as stated in its subtitle). Since then he has developed the well-known Little-Mirrlees method of project analysis (Little and Mirrlees, 1969, 1974) which is now widely used in the appraisal of aid-financed projects in developing countries. He has also provided clear-headed accounts of the costs and benefits of direct investment in developing countries in Little (1972), and his 1972 study with David Tipping of the Kulai palm-oil estate was one of the first empirical social cost benefit analyses of a major foreign investment in a developing country.
Social Cost-Benefit Analysis
Authors: Scott Maurice Fg.
Published: October 2023

Social cost-benefit analysis (SCBA hereafter) is undertaken in order to improve investment decisions. An outline of what it involves helps to explain some terms commonly used, and this is followed, first, by a discussion of the inherent difficulties and of why, despite these, SCBA needs to be undertaken, and then a review of selected topics.
On Social Objectives
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

‘A good way of governing is to agree on objectives, discover what is possible, and to optimize’, writes Mirrlees (1986). This chapter is about how to agree on objectives. Many of us would certainly agree—at least after reading only standard textbooks on welfare economics—that if we could find the income tax structure, say a, that is preferred to b by all individuals we should adopt a. This choice, based on the Pareto principle, is not necessarily entirely innocent. First, it has to be remembered that, although the Pareto principle is a weak value judgement, it is a value judgement. Secondly, we know from Sen’s famous paradox that the Pareto criterion may easily conflict with individual rights. In any case, economic situations (for example, income distribution) cannot be socially ordered without someone making prior value judgements.
Optimal Redistribution in the Two—Class Economy
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

Some of the basic issues of the optimal income tax problem can be illustrated in the context of a simple model of an economy in which there are only two types of individual, labelled 1 and 2, and a single produced commodity. Individuals are regarded as identical except that they vary in their ability to supply labour. The ith individual obtains utility from consumption goods: x, and disutility from the time spent at work, y,

i = 1, 2, (4.1)
Optimal Linear Income Taxation
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

Linear income tax is the simplest redistributive programme that the government is likely to consider employing. The linear income tax function contains two elements: a lump sum subsidy or a guaranteed minimum income financed by a proportional tax on all income. Linear income tax imposes tax at a constant rate on the difference between the taxpayer’s income and some critical level of income, say z* in Figure 5.1. Individuals whose income falls below the critical income level receive a guaranteed mininum income in the form of a social dividend or grant from the government which is equal to the tax rate multiplied by the shortfall between their income and the critical level. Someone whose income barely exceeds z* pays virtually no tax, and hence his (or her) average tax rate, the ratio of total tax payments to the individual’s income, is very low (although his marginal tax rate is constant, see Figure 5.1). As income increases, an increasingly large proportion of it is taxed. At a high income, the role of the minimum guarantee becomes inessential. Thus the average tax rate is almost equal to the marginal tax rate.
Optimal Income Taxation and Educational Decisions
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

In public economics there is quite a large literature on optimal public provision of education, beginning with Arrow’s (1971) paper and developed further, for instance, by Bruno (1976) and especially by Ulph (1977) and Hare and Ulph (1979a, b) (see also Grout (1983)). Hare and Ulph simultaneously optimized both taxation and educational expenditures. In this chapter we do not focus so much on the question of how to allocate educational resources to each individual but on the other side of the coin, on decisions made by individuals concerning their education. Our aim is to examine the various kinds of educational decision schemes and their connections to optimal income tax policy. In other words, we are interested in seeing how optimal income tax policy results are affected by taking into account individuals’ alternatives in making educational choices.
Optimal Non-linear Income Taxation and Uncertainty
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

In the standard optimal income tax model it is difficult (if not impossible) to find a convincing argument for a progressive marginal income tax rate structure throughout. This is despite the fact that such a structure is commonly in practice. In the standard income tax model, the choice of an optimal income tax structure involves a trade-off between the equity effect of influencing the distribution of income and the efficiency effect of reducing incentives. However, there are good reasons for not accepting the situation whereby these factors are the only ones to be taken into account in the design of the optimal income tax schedule. Another effect which we would like to emphasize and which is not present in the standard model is the ‘insurance effect’. Hence the optimal redistributive taxation involves a trade-off between the benefits due to ‘social insurance’ and the costs due to reduced incentives. Redistributive taxation as an insurance system may also have adverse effects on incentives. In the standard optimal income tax model (see Chapter 6) the incentive effect arises when labour is rewarded by less than its marginal product. In the uncertainty situation we face the second kind of incentive effect. It arises because insurance will reduce the risk cost faced by the individual. Insurance reduces the expected wage to work effort and probably reduces labour supply. The standard model treats differences in observed income as being due to unobserved differences in ability, which means that this model assumes that the individual knows exactly what income he will receive at each possible level of effort. However, there are a number of situations in real life where this description is not sufficiently accurate. In particular, more long-term decisions, such as those regarding education, must be made without accurate information about resulting income potential. When an individual invests in his human capital by acquiring education, this action, along with ‘acts of nature’, determines the income he receives.
Peasant Farming in Kenya, 1974—1982
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

The period 1974-82 straddles the largest income shock ever experienced by Kenyan peasants. Between 1976 and 1979 the world prices of coffee and tea were temporarily high as a result of a frost in Brazil. The terms of trade gain during these years was worth one-third of 1975 GDP. Due to President Kenyatta’s decision not to impose a windfall coffee tax, this boom was experienced directly in coffee- and tea-growing small farm areas. Some households received income windfalls, and all households faced changed relative crop prices and enhanced opportunities for employment and migration. These shocks induced behavioural responses in the form of investment and changes in the deployment of resources between activities, of which the most obvious was extra planting of coffee. To identify these changes, let alone to understand them. is a demanding undertaking because of the paucity of data on peasant households. For example, extra coffee planting might have been induced by changed price expectations, or by an enhanced capacity to finance the investment involved in tree crops. Our first task was therefore to secure a data set adequate to investigate processes of change.
A Comparison with Tanzania
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

In the preceding chapters we have produced an account of the peasant economy in each country during the period of the coffee boom and its aftermath, and produced a detailed analysis of responses to the boom in Kenya. This chapter brings out some comparisons with Tanzania. Prior to the boom the two peasant economies had similar structures and had inherited many common features of ecology and culture. Yet these initially similar economies produced radically divergent outcomes during our period. This chapter attempts to draw out some of these divergences and discuss to what extent they are attributable to differences in economic policies.
Introduction to Part III
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

In many developing countries, governments have engineered a deterioration in the terms of trade faced by peasant farmers, for example by imposing taxes on export crops. Much theoretical and empirical research has been devoted to analysing how peasant supply would respond if this deterioration were reversed, and the consensus is that supply would respond positively. These analyses usually assume, at least implicitly, that peasants trade on markets which clear. In practice, there are often problems of availability, both of imports and of consumer goods. This Part considers the implications of such problems, and extends the usual analysis to cover them. It shows that supply response may well be perverse in these circumstances, even, when it is positively related to price in the case where markets clear.
Cross-section Tests of Household Supply Response
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

While our panel survey for 1976 and 1983 provides too few data for time series testing, it does permit cross-section tests which cannot be undertaken on the aggregate data deployed in the previous chapter. Recall that the theory being tested is that instead of income and expenditure both being determined endogenously as functions of endowments and prices, planned income is adjusted so-as to equal exogenously constrained expenditure plus any desired change in monetary assets. However, cross-section evidence that planned cash incomes are associated with expected expenditure fails to establish the direction of causality. Evidence of a positive association could reflect expectations of exogenously constrained expenditure inducing an income adjustment (our hypothesis) or exogenous changes in income inducing changes in expenditure. We must therefore identify and test those hypotheses of the model which are causally distinguishable from the expenditure-determined income account.
The Distribution of Public Services in Kenya and Tanzania
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

This and the following chapter are devoted to analysing the impact of public expenditure. The present chapter reports the results of the public expenditure component of our surveys and provides a descriptive basis for a discussion of public services, how they are distributed, and who has access to them, particularly within the rural sectors. Chapter 15 uses the valuation procedure of Chapter 13 and a variety of statistical techniques to analyse the effects of public expenditure.
Public Policy and the National Economy
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

This book is an account of the major features and development of British economic policy since 1900. In style it is narrative and broadly chronological. It is also analytical, but that analysis is mainly concrete and specific rather than abstract and general. However concrete and narrowly focused, analysis must of course rest, explicitly or implicitly, on a wider framework which determines what is deemed relevant and important, and what glossed over or omitted. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to outline the framework which underlies the organization of this book. Those whose taste is for the empirical and who adhere to the saying that the ‘proof of the pudding is in the eating’ may skip directly to Chapter 2. But this introduction should make the menu offered in the rest of the book more explicable.
Reconstructing the World 1941—1958: Economy
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The war and early post-war years saw the most sustained attempt in the twentieth century to reconstruct the international economy. The objectives and instruments, successes and failures of this effort form a vital backdrop to British economic policy in the war and post-war period. But Britain was by no means just a passive observer, but a major architect of this attempt, second only to the USA.
Introduction: The ‘Theory’ of Demographic Transition: Its Conciseness, Diversity, and Flexibility
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

Demography is a science in which general theories are rare. Aside from Malthus’s theory, which emphasizes constraints of subsistence on population, as a principal body of thought there is only what is called by convention the theory of demographic transition. The most important point of comparison between these two explanatory systems lies in the supposed effect of economic development on fertility. In the Malthusian view, economic development stimulates fertility, the increase in demand for work encouraging marriage and family formation. In the transitional view, the relation between industrialization and fertility is inverse: industrial revolution raises the standard of living and stimulates, especially, a general aspiration towards an always greater degree of comfort, which, in turn, promotes the limitation of child-bearing.
Problems, Methods, and the Field of Enquiry
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

Demography is no exception. On this score, nothing is more revealing than the transformation in its linguistic usage. In the area which concerns us, the semantic shifts arc massive. Since fertility has become the preferred object of demographic study, the concepts of demography and fertility have gradually been assimilated, at least in France. Hence, to indicate the decline of fertility in modern Europe, one speaks of ‘la baisse de la demographic curopeenne’ (the decline in European demography). But the confusion is no less elsewhere. In English, for example, the notion of demographic transition refers nowadays to little more than the decline in fertility, and the theory of demo graphic transition is commonly reduced to a theory of fertility (the recently coined phrase ‘fertility transition’ (circa 1976) is, more often than not, merely a linguistic concession).
Divergence and Concordance
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

In its classic version, as defined up to the l950s, demographic trans1t1on theory had as its object knowledge of the transformation of fertility and mortality, in the historical passage from traditional to modern societies. The transition was measured simply in terms of crude rates. In order to appreciate the descriptive qualities of this theory, we shall draw upon the materials presented in the two preceding chapters.
The Types of Demographic Transition
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

This balance may, for example, remain above pre-transitional levels for an extended period, in which case we are dealing with a long transition. Conversely, it may remain higher only briefly, at least on the time-scale with which we are concerned: this would be a short transition. But this criterion of total duration is hardly sufficient. It is necessary to take into account further aspects, including: height (i.e. poor countries may be said to have ‘high’ transitions, whilst wealthy countries experienced ‘low’ ones); the duration of the phase of maximal growth (where this extends across several decades, and the decline in birth-rates takes time to manifest itself, a country may experience severe tensions, such as the anarchic growth of shanty towns, aggravation of urban unemployment, increased dependence, etc.); and, finally, asymmetry (when natality remains at a much higher level than mortality over a prolonged period, owing, for example, to age distribution requiring sustained investment in housing, schools, infrastructure, technology-and also job creation).
Chronology and Typology of the Ageing of Populations
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

The age pyramid of a population is the preferred tool of the population economist. The study of variations in age composition therefore warrants a chapter of its own. This chapter will focus exclusively on variations in the relative size of different age groups, the preceding chapter having dealt with variations in absolute numbers.