bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Project history of Dublin's River Liffey bridges
Authors: Phillips M. , Hamilton A.
Published: November 2009

A significant geographical feature of Dublin, the capital of the Republic of Ireland, is that the River Liffey divides the city into the north side and south side. As there has always been significant traffic needing to cross the river, ancient fords and ferries gave way to a series of bridges. It is assumed that the first stone bridge across the River Liffey was built in the thirteenth century. Most of the surviving bridge infrastructure was built in the nineteenth century. Four road bridges were built in the twentieth century. The first bridge crossing in the twenty-first century was a footbridge commissioned in 2000. A further road crossing was completed in June 2003 and a sixteenth crossing is under consideration. A significant departure for Dublin was engaging an international designer for these latter bridges. The historical progression of river crossings is described and linked to a comprehensive set of 16 photographs. Historical reviews are provided of the approach used in bridge design and construction, the time and cost outcomes, the principals contracted to deliver the bridges, and certain aspects of the construction where such information was recorded. All original imperial measurements are also given in metric, and for ease of comparison all monetary values are given in Irish pounds (€1 = 1R£0·78).
Design of the New Medway Bridge, England
Authors: Smith D. A. , Hendy C. R.
Published: November 2009

The New Medway Bridge comprises 12 continuous spans of twin-cell box girder with an overall length of 953 m and, at 152·4 m has the longest externally post-tensioned span in the UK. It carries four London-bound lanes and a hard shoulder of the M2 and was constructed as part of the A2/M2 widening project in Kent for the Highways Agency. The need for external post-tensioning was imposed by the client for durability and maintenance reasons. External post-tensioning can lead to a loss in structural efficiency when compared with internal post-tensioning, particularly with respect to anchor zones and overall flexure. There is also an additional cost associated with the provision of deviators. The bridge was built under a Design and Build contract, which made the need for economic and buildable details all the more acute. This paper identifies the various ways in which a cost-efficient durable design was produced and the way detailing problems specific to such a large externally post-tensioned structure were overcome. Examples include consideration of composite action between formwork and deck in construction, optimisation of the permanent flexural design through overall non-linear analysis, design of diaphragms and spanning anchor beams, constraints on placement of external cables and simplification of the details for deviator blocks while maintaining adequate tolerances for construction.
Whole life cost analysis in concrete bridge tender evaluation
Authors: Arya C. , Vassie P. R.
Published: November 2009

In the UK large sums of money are spent annually on the repair and maintenance of structures. To avoid this problem in future construction, many government and private agencies responsible for asset management have recommended that designers should develop schemes that seek to minimise whole life costs, namely construction plus maintenance costs, rather than just initial construction costs. Currently there is no standard procedure for evaluating tenders in terms of whole life costs and therefore no way of checking that this recommendation is being fully implemented. This paper describes a straightforward model that can be used to assess the whole life costs of concrete bridges exploiting alternative durability options and shows how this model could be incorporated in the tendering process.
HSFG bolted connections using weathering steel materials
Authors: Lark R. J.
Published: November 2009

The procedure for designing and making high-strength friction grip (HSFG) bolted joints is relatively simple, but since they work by developing friction, the condition of the faying surfaces has a significant influence on the capacity of the joint. Despite this, there is little data available on the performance of HSFG joints made with weathering steel. The aim of this study was to investigate the slip factors of such joints and to identify the significance of any weathering of the joints between their preparation and assembly. The results demonstrate that the behaviour of joints made with weathering steel is very similar to that of joints made with similar strength carbon steel and that the effect of weathering of the faying surfaces on the friction that can be developed within such joints is insignificant.
Evaluation of localised loading on suspension bridges
Authors: Wyatt T. A.
Published: November 2009

The deck girder moments and suspender-cable tensions caused by the application of localised loading to a conventionally articulated suspension bridge with a slender deck girder are expressed in a generalised and normalised form. Comparison with the analogous solutions for localised loading on cable-stayed bridges shows considerable similarity in practical numerical results, despite the disparity between the algebraic forms resulting from the differences of the basic mechanics of the suspension-cable and straight-stay structural systems.
Assessment testing Mizen Head Footbridge, Ireland
Authors: Ruane K. D. , Healy A.
Published: November 2009

Mizen Head Footbridge in County Cork, Ireland, is a reinforced concrete through-arch structure spanning 50 m. The structure is 95 years old and exhibits typical reinforced concrete defects of spalled concrete, cracking and staining from reinforcement corrosion. An inspection, geometrical survey and a series of material tests were carried out as part of an assessment of the bridge. Petrographic examination of samples removed from the structure gave confidence in the quality of the concrete in the structure. Determination of carbonation and chloride levels in the concrete identified future repair strategies for the structure.
Performance of repairs to concrete bridges
Authors: Tilly G. P.
Published: November 2009

This paper provides an overview of the performance of repairs made to concrete bridges in the field and subjected to the actions of traffic and weathering. Data have been obtained from some 70 case histories having repair lives of up to 33 years on bridges aged from 1908 to the 1990s. It was found that only 45% of the repairs were reported as being wholly successful when last inspected. Perceived causes of failures are considered and ways of making more durable repairs are outlined.
Flisa Bridge, Norway—a record-breaking timber bridge
Authors: Ekeberg P. K. , Søyland K.
Published: November 2009

Over the past decade several timber bridges have been built in Norway, particularly in Hedmark County. The unique experience gained from these projects has enabled bridge engineers to build increasingly larger bridges. On 5 June 2003, the new Flisa Bridge opened. It is the world's longest timber bridge designed for full traffic loads with respect to clear span (70·34 m), and one of the longest with respect to total length (196 m). The bridge crosses the river Glomma in Hedmark County, approximately 150 km north of Oslo, and is placed on the foundations of the old bridge. The trusses and parapets are constructed using glued-laminated timber, and the bridge deck is a stress-laminated deck plate of sawn timber. The new superstructure consists of almost 900 m3 glued-laminated and sawn timber (utilising more than 7000 trees), and more than 200 t of steel. The total cost of the bridge is about 30 million Norwegian kroner (or €3·5 million/£2·4 million). This paper describes the design and construction of this unique project.
Upgrading of Central Motorway Junction, Auckland
Authors: Corbett P. W. , Edmonds M. A.
Published: November 2009

Central Motorway Junction, situated at the heart of New Zealand's largest city, Auckland, is currently undergoing major upgrading works to improve the operational efficiency and safety of the junction. This paper describes the preliminary studies and scheme development undertaken for this upgrading work. A description of the existing motorway junction, the problems inherent in the junction and the details of the preferred scheme for the upgrading works (developed into a ‘specimen design’ for construction procurement) is provided. The paper focuses upon the proposals for construction of the new viaduct structures required for the scheme. It also covers the tendering and tender evaluation process for the main contract, and describes the features of the submitted tenders.
Repair and stabilisation of Trinity Bridge, Crowland, UK
Authors: Waters R. A.
Published: November 2009

In 2002, Lincolnshire County Council carried out works to halt long-term differential settlement to an unusual 700-year-old bridge, situated in the centre of the small market town of Crowland. The chosen solution, following site investigation, allowed the works to be carried out economically and quickly, with no damage to the historic fabric of the bridge or any surrounding archaeological deposits, and minimal disruption to pedestrian and vehicle access adjacent to the bridge. The scheme was recognised for its innovative method of protecting the ancient monument following an award at the Historic Bridge and Infrastructure Awards 2003.
Probabilistic pedestrian lateral excitation of bridges
Authors: Roberts T. M.
Published: November 2009

Interest in the lateral forces exerted by large groups of pedestrians has been highlighted in recent years by problems encountered worldwide with several long-span bridges. Amplitudes of lateral bridge vibration have been observed that are at least an order of magnitude greater than can be explained by conventional random loading models. The currently favoured explanation for the occurrence of such large amplitudes of bridge vibration is synchronisation of pedestrian motion in response to motion of the bridge. Herein probabilistic models of pedestrian lateral loading are developed and used to assess the probable range of amplitudes of bridge lateral vibration. Theoretical predictions are compared, and show reasonable correlation, with the reported amplitudes of lateral vibration of four existing footbridges.
Open sandwich bridge deck construction—20 years on
Authors: Mays G. C. , Dakers J. J.
Published: November 2009

Sandwich construction is a relatively simple structural form which offers a high strength-to-weight ratio, this efficiency being exemplified by its widespread use in the aerospace industry. The concept was utilised by the Wolfson Bridge Unit at the University of Dundee in the 1970s, in conjunction with emerging structural adhesive technology, in the form of steel/concrete open sandwich panels for bridge decks. Potential cost savings of the order of 10% in comparison with conventional reinforced concrete were demonstrated. Short- and medium-term proof of the concept was demonstrated as a result of over ten years of research utilising beams, slabs and model bridge decks subject to static, fatigue and sustained loading regimes together with accelerated durability testing. However, before the industry was prepared to accept structural adhesive connections in prime load-bearing connections in new construction, it was recognised that a long trial in an actual bridge structure was required. To this end, Tayside Regional Council agreed to the construction of the 6 m span Wester Duntanlich Bridge in Perthshire in 1984. This paper summarises the early research into open sandwich construction. It then describes the design, construction and load trials on the completed bridge which demonstrated that the technique can be successfully and practically applied to full-scale bridge deck construction. Moreover, its subsequent satisfactory performance in service for 20 years will boost confidence in the potential durability of steel/concrete elements incorporating structural adhesive connections.
Life-cycle cost management of concrete bridges
Authors: So K K L , Cheung M M S , Zhang E X Q
Published: November 2009

Increasing stocks of public infrastructure and the serious deterioration of infrastructure systems in many countries present great financial, safety, technical and operational challenges to government organisations responsible for their development and management. This paper proposes a performance-based life-cycle cost management model for reinforced concrete bridge structures with regard to chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion. The model comprises four aspects: a chloride-induced corrosion deterioration model; performance-based management of concrete structures; the cost-effectiveness of management actions measured by the performance improvement per unit of money spent; a life-cycle cost model, which includes construction cost, inspection cost, maintenance cost, repair cost and failure cost. Two examples of chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion are provided to demonstrate the use of the proposed performance-based management strategy.
Analysis of prestressed fibre-reinforced concrete beams
Authors: Thomas J , Ramaswamy A
Published: November 2009

This paper presents the test results of 12 partially prestressed concrete flexural beams reinforced with steel fibres that failed in flexure over partial or full depth. The variables considered were strength grades of concrete (35, 65 and 85 MPa) and the presence of steel fibres in the cross-section of the beam (web, flange or full depth). Three-dimensional finite element analysis of the prestressed beams was carried out to assess the non-linear behaviour of concrete, for example post-peak softening, concrete cracking strain softening, tension stiffening, bond-slip and yielding of reinforcement. Also, the effects of the addition of steel fibres in the concrete (increase in tensile strength and control of crack width due to the bridging of fibres across the crack interface) were modelled. The bond-slip behaviour of longitudinal reinforcements (steel fibres, prestressing wire and deformed bars) was accounted for to capture the structural stiffness of the concrete beam accurately. The effects of steel fibres in the concrete beam section over partial or full depth were also modelled. All prestressed beams were analysed using Ansys. Load–deflection responses and cracks in the prestressed concrete beams were predicted and compared with experimental results. The predicted results were found to be in good agreement with the corresponding test results. The analytical model predicted crack patterns in the concrete quite accurately.
Discussion: Developing a business process model for bridge management
Authors: Harvey J , Owens P , Sterritt Contribution by Garry
Published: November 2009

The excellent paper by Harvey and Owens provides bridge managers with a good appreciation of process issues that need to considered and implemented in day-to-day practice. With respect to bridge management systems (BMSs), many bridge owners may be in a similar position to that of Waterways Ireland in 2006, i.e. implementing a BMS for the first time or renewing/upgrading an existing BMS. I believe many bridge managers would find it useful to understand, in some more detail, how Waterways Ireland arrived at the decision to develop a bespoke BMS and then developed it to cater for the requirements of asset management.
Compressive strength of extruded unfired clay masonry units
Authors: Heath A. , Walker P. , Fourie C. , Lawrence M.
Published: November 2009

Interest in traditional unfired clay building materials has grown in the UK in recent years. Although the use of traditional vernacular techniques, such as cob, adobe and rammed earth, have raised the profile of earthen architecture, wider impact on modern construction is likely to come from modern innovations such as extruded unfired masonry units. A large driver behind the move to unfired clay masonry is the significant reduction in embodied energy when compared with fired bricks and concrete blockwork, and the passive environmental control provided by clay. This paper summarises the results of extensive testing on commercial mass-produced extruded unfired clay bricks. The focus of this study was to investigate the properties affecting the compressive strength of these building products. Both theoretical models and test results demonstrate that the clay content plays a large role in defining the compressive strength of these materials. The reduction in strength with increases in moisture content are similar for different material sources and these strength reductions are unlikely to cause problems under normal operating conditions, even at relative humidity levels up to 95%.
A new model for simulating cracks in cementitious composites
Authors: Hee S. C. , Jefferson A. D.
Published: November 2009

A new model for simulating cracks in cementitious composites using embedded planes with local plasticity is presented. In the model it is assumed that the embedded planes of degradation (PODs) can not only undergo separation but can also regain contact, with the state of contact being controlled by a local contact model. A local plasticity model is included to capture permanent relative displacements associated with rough contact between the surfaces of embedded cracks. This model is a significant development of the Craft model developed by the second author, which allows shear contact, or aggregate interlock, behaviour, as well as crack opening/closing behaviour, to be simulated more accurately. A fully consistent tangent stiffness matrix and stress recovery algorithm is derived. The model has been implemented in a constitutive driver program and also in the finite–element program Lusas. The model is assessed against a series of single-point stress–strain paths, and against data from normal-shear and cyclic tests. It is shown that the inclusion of local plasticity significantly improves the accuracy of the predictions of the model when judged against experimental data.
Simulation of self-centring fibre-reinforced concrete columns
Authors: Lee W. K. , Billington S. L.
Published: November 2009

A self-centring, segmentally precast concrete column system is considered for bridges in highly seismic regions to mitigate the problem of residual displacements. Residual displacements in bridge columns can occur following severe earthquakes, and are a key indicator of post-earthquake functionality. The column system makes use of unbonded, post-tensioned steel tendons to provide self-centring to the columns, and incorporates a ductile, fibre-reinforced, cement-based composite to dissipate hysteretic energy and improve the damage tolerance of the columns. Large-scale experiments on the column system were conducted under cyclic loading, and are simulated using finite-element analysis. The goal of the simulations is to validate the ability of the finite-element models to capture the cyclic response of the columns with respect to global structural response (lateral load against displacement response) and the evolution of damage and failure modes of the columns. The models are found to perform well. The models are then used to assess column behaviour when changes are made to the ductile, fibre-reinforced material's mechanical properties, and to evaluate possible benefits that can be achieved.
Briefing: FRP railway decking – Calder Viaduct
Authors: Canning L. , Speight N.
Published: November 2009

This paper describes the first known application of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites for structural re-decking of a railway bridge for full railway and derailment load. Calder Viaduct crosses the River Calder near Sellafield in Cumbria. The original bridge comprised three spans of half-through-type steel girders with timber decking and ballasted rail, constructed in 1922. Due to the coastal location of the viaduct, significant corrosion of the steelwork and deterioration of the timber decking had occurred. This type of timber railway decking on a metallic supporting superstructure is common throughout the UK. The structure was chosen by Network Rail for a pilot project for replacement of the timber decking with FRP composite materials. The chosen FRP decking solution comprised a standard pultruded glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) deck with bonded and bolted GFRP top plate for ballast retention and wear resistance. Other types of FRP deck, such as bonded FRP pultruded sections and bespoke vacuum-cured FRP decks, were also considered. The choice of an FRP decking system was driven by a number of factors; ease of installation, adaptability, minimum depth/weight, compliance testing, durability/design life and cost. The installation method, design challenges such as achieving compliance for derailment loading, and procurement issues such as developing a generic specification to enable competition, are discussed. Conclusions are given on the factors that require consideration by the designer to deliver a competitive FRP solution in accordance with best practice, and a brief comparison with equivalent performance steel decking is included.
Lateral buckling of CFRP-stiffened pultruded GRP beams
Authors: Turvey G. J. , Wei W.
Published: November 2009

Two finite-element (FE) models for evaluating the lateral buckling loads of simply supported single- and two-span continuous unstiffened and carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic (CFRP) strip stiffened pultruded glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) wide-flange (WF) beams are presented. Eigenvalue analyses of the FE models are used to calculate the lateral buckling loads of unstiffened and CFRP stiffened beams. The effects of varying the stiffener geometry (thickness, width, etc.) and stiffener arrangement (CFRP strips bonded to bottom flange, top flange, etc.) on the critical buckling loads are quantified. It is shown that stiffeners increase the buckling loads of single-span beams more than two-span continuous beams and that only bonding CFRP strips to the top flange is a near-optimal stiffener arrangement.
Failure of pultruded GRP bolted joints: a Taguchi analysis
Authors: Turvey G. J. , Wang P.
Published: November 2009

Failure tests on pultruded glass-reinforced-plastic single-bolt tension joints are described. Four joint layouts, defined in terms of ratios of end distance (E) and plate width (W) to bolt diameter (D), were used. The objective was to rank the deleterious effects of four factors on joint failure loads: (a) bolt/hole clearance; (b) angle between tension and pultrusion directions; (c) elevated temperature; and (d) water immersion period. Three levels were selected for each factor: (a) 0·2, 1·2 and 2·2 mm; (b) 0°, 45° and 90°; (c) ambient temperature (∼20°C), 60°C and 80°C; (d) 0, 6·5 and 13 weeks. The joint test matrix was defined by a Taguchi three-level balanced array for four factors. Altogether 108 joints (comprising three replicates of nine joint groups, four factors and three factor levels) were fabricated and tested. Four methods were used to rank the effects of the factors. Their rank order (highest to lowest) was identified as: elevated temperature, water immersion period, bolt/hole clearance, and angle between tension and pultrusion directions. Environmental factors were shown to reduce failure loads by up to 93%.
Analytical solutions for steep standing waves
Authors: Sobey R. J.
Published: November 2009

A Stokes-style analytical theory for standing waves is developed and explored. The theory is numerically confirmed as correct to fifth order, and details of the solution are archived in a manner that anticipates the confirmation demands of application code. The uniquely non-linear aspects of the predicted kinematics are demonstrated in parallel with the equivalent linear theory prediction. Finally, the limits of validity of the analytical solution are examined, and lead to a preliminary but pragmatic estimate of limit standing waves.
Greenhouse gas emissions savings from biofuel technologies
Authors: Mortimer N. D.
Published: November 2009

This paper presents the results of recent assessments of greenhouse gas emissions savings for current and future biofuels. The basic features of biofuels and their assessment, in terms of associated greenhouse gas emissions, are introduced. The main aspects of calculation methodologies are explained and sources of current results are established. Variations in net greenhouse gas emissions savings for biofuels due to differences in biomass feedstocks, processing technologies and land use change are illustrated. In particular, it is shown that net greenhouse gas emissions savings for biofuels vary considerably depending on details of the original biomass feedstocks, processing technologies and the final biofuel. Land use, availability and conversion are very important considerations that can eliminate savings. Additionally, calculation methodologies can exert significant influence on estimated savings and it is recommended that PAS 2050 forms the most suitable basis for harmonising methodologies internationally.
Briefing: Connecting offshore windfarms to the grid by HVDC
Authors: Jones P.
Published: November 2009

Several very large offshore windfarms are now planned for construction in hostile, remote locations in waters around the UK, where they present some significant new engineering challenges in bringing large quantities of electrical power back to shore. The design, construction and operation of large-scale power plant 100 km or more out to sea requires considerable design and construction skills. These windfarms require very robust electrical transmission systems with high availability and minimal maintenance requirements that meet strict national grid codes and also relieve stresses from the wind turbines by isolating electrical transients from the mainland grid. The systems must also be suitable to withstand the harsh conditions of the North Sea. This paper highlights how high voltage direct current (HVDC) systems utilising voltage-source converter (VSC) technology are set to play an important role in connecting offshore windfarms to the grid, and outlines the solutions that are now successfully being rolled out.
Learning curves for emerging energy technologies
Authors: Mukora A. , Winksel M. , Jeffrey H. F. , Mueller M.
Published: November 2009

The transition to sustainable energy systems requires the accelerated development and deployment of emerging low-carbon energy supply technologies. Future sources of energy are less economically competitive than conventional technologies, but have potential to reduce costs through innovation and learning. Tools for modelling technological change are therefore important for assessing the potential of early-stage technologies. This study focuses on combining learning curves with engineering assessment and parametric models for improved methods of assessing and managing innovation for emerging energy technologies. Integrating engineering methods and parametric modelling into learning curve analysis involves bringing together potentially complementary approaches so as to build a more complete representation of learning effects for emerging energy technologies and thereby provide improved data for energy systems modelling and policy support mechanisms. The development of the integrated approach discussed here has been applied first to wind turbines, with scope for more emergent technologies such as marine energy to be considered in further work. Satisfactorily representing and forecasting technical change for early-stage technologies is a formidable challenge. Using integrated approaches, as suggested in this paper, can offer more complete and robust representations of the drivers and barriers involved.
Social science perspectives on energy transitions
Authors: Maassen A.
Published: November 2009

While energy has not traditionally been a subject of major theoretical concerns in the social sciences, developments in recent years, driven by policy ambitions to decarbonise energy generation, have opened up the energy system to social science enquiry. In the process, theoretical developments are converging towards a broadly speaking ‘socio-technical’ framing of energy issues, which challenges scientific–rational accounts of technological change and diffusion that still dominate in policy circles. Approaches based on a socio-technical reading of technological change offer valuable insights into how to conceptualise the transition towards more sustainable energy futures and the embedding of new technologies into the existing energy system. This paper offers a review of both well-established and more recent social science approaches to understanding energy issues, with a particular focus on the uptake of renewable energy in the electricity sector. It is suggested that the move from a techno-economic towards a socio-technical paradigm is related to the acknowledgement of the heterogeneity and complexity of energy issues, where the more interdisciplinary socio-technical approaches are able to provide more analytical scope for understanding contemporary developments in the energy system.
A geological disposal facility for the UK’s radioactive wastes
Authors: Chapman N.
Published: November 2009

Nuclear power is an essential part of our future energy mix. However, to be fully credible, an active and visible programme of work is needed to demonstrate that radioactive wastes will be disposed of safely. In the UK, a programme for managing historic and committed wastes is being developed and the success of this programme will affect the management of all future waste arisings. Higher activity and longer lived wastes will be consigned to a deep geological disposal facility designed to provide passive isolation of the wastes after it has been sealed and closed. This article begins by considering how such a facility and the barriers that it comprises will contain and isolate radioactivity. It then considers the committed inventory of UK wastes and the repository engineered design options that might be available for them, in the diverse range of geological environments that may emerge from the government’s current voluntary siting process. Much support and information can be gained from over 30 years of international effort on geological disposal and this article sets this in the context of some specific issues facing the UK waste management programme. The article concludes by looking at confidence in repository safety and at where repositories may be built in Europe over the next decades.
Briefing: Sustainability accounting in the construction industry
Authors: Whittingham James , Griffiths Emma , Richardson Julie
Published: November 2009

Casella Stanger, Forum for the Future and Carillion plc recently completed a Partners in Innovation project called Sustainability Accounting in the Construction Industry. It is a highly innovative project, and is one of the first practical examples of sustainability accounting being applied in the UK. The project focused on developing methodologies for sustainability accounting and piloting them at the Great Western Hospital to develop the business case for sustainable construction. Methodologies are included within the full-colour report (freely available to download from www.casellastanger.com). A number of high-profile DTI/ICE and CIEF seminars are planned for March and April 2003 to promote this topic to a wider construction audience.
Sustainable development: understanding the concept and practical challenge
Authors: Parkin S. , Sommer F. , Uren S.
Published: November 2009

There are over 200 definitions of ‘sustainable development’. But if defining it is difficult, putting it into practice is even harder. This paper reviews what ‘sustainability’ and ‘sustainable development’ actually mean in real-world terms, and discusses the practical challenge they represent. It provides an overview of the current UK sustainable development agenda and of the key drivers that will influence civil engineers and the companies and organisations with whom, or for whom, they work. It covers initiatives relevant to the construction sector in the context of changes at the macro level brought about by government policy and public opinion. Examples and references are given to facilitate further reading and research as well as to provide a mechanism for getting in touch with the initiatives themselves.
Denmark's sustainable energy future
Authors: Amos J.
Published: November 2009

Before its North Sea oil and gas fields were developed, Denmark relied almost entirely on oil imports for its energy needs. The 1970s oil supply crises revealed that, in meeting its increasing energy needs, Denmark had relied too heavily on imported oil. Energy supply security had become precarious and comprehensive government action was seen to be required. The first Danish national energy policy was aimed at improving supply security and reducing dependence on imported oil. Succeeding national energy policies have been aimed at using all energy efficiently and at securing diverse and sustainable energy supplies. This paper aims to explain the policy and technical measures introduced by the Danish government since the mid-1970s. These have included the expansion of district heating to make use of the waste heat from power stations and other sources, the exploitation of Denmark’s North Sea oil and gas resources, and the development of renewable energy resources and energy efficiency technologies of many kinds. As a result, Denmark now plans by 2030 to reduce present energy consumption by about 15%. The energy mix is then planned to comprise oil, natural gas and renewable energy in equal parts. Many Danish energy-saving technologies are well understood in the UK and need little explanation in this paper. However, Denmark’s development of more efficient and cheaper district heating systems in particular deserves to be more widely understood in the UK.
Performance of an oil interceptor incorporated into a pervious pavement
Authors: Wilson S. , Newman A. P. , Puehmeier T. , Shuttleworth A.
Published: November 2009

The use of pervious pavements is an important technique used for source control in sustainable drainage systems (SUDS) that allows water to infiltrate into hard surfaces and then slowly releases it to either a drainage outlet or into the ground. SUDS also remove low levels of pollution from the water by filtration and biodegradation of hydrocarbons that are adsorbed to materials within the construction. Current pervious pavement systems are not used in locations where the risk of pollution occurring is high or if they would allow the infiltration of water into the ground where groundwater protection is a concern. This paper describes trials of an oil interceptor that can be incorporated within pervious surface construction. The testing was undertaken to assess how the system retains pollution within it under simulated worst credible pollution and rainfall events. The results demonstrated that it can effectively contain hydrocarbon and metal pollution thus providing improved water quality. The water that flows out of the system has 50 times less oil pollution than the requirements specified for a Class 1 oil interceptor, when lubricating oil is applied to the surface. The water quality is over ten times better than the specified requirement when diesel is applied. Where detergents may be present they can cause minor contamination of the outflow waters and secondary treatment may be required.
A strategy for sustainability
Authors: Leiper Q. , Fagan N. , Engström S. , Fenn G.
Published: November 2009

This paper describes how an awareness of environmental issues, followed by a broader understanding of sustainability, has led to benefits for business, shareholders and society. It describes how the journey towards sustainability has facilitated greater innovation, enhanced individual and corporate responsibility and improved product delivery, in both construction and maintenance activities, for a large ‘construction-to-services’ company. The paper also identifies some of the business drivers for sustainability, together with the challenges and opportunities experienced in the implementation of a sustainability strategy. In addition, a strategy model is presented that shows how, by integrating sustainability with business strategy through the use of key performance indicators, benefits can be gained by businesses and communities. Examples are used to illustrate benefits gained by business, communities and clients, and advice is given on how to embed the principles of sustainable development in business strategy to the benefits of all stakeholders.
Flexible power generation from the tides
Authors: Shaw T. L. , Watson M. J.
Published: November 2009

The predictable, regular reversal of the tides makes this an important renewable energy resource, one which is large, technically well proven and reliable if exploited by applying the conventional principles of hydroelectric power. The basic operating principles of tidal power stations were explored in depth in many studies carried out throughout the twentieth century. With few exceptions, a basic premise was to maximise energy output. Less attention was given to identifying the design and operating procedures needed to maximise aggregated energy value, it presumably being assumed that the latter followed the former. The studies reported in this paper are based on the now strongly established commercial trend for electricity to be marketed competitively, having regard for such factors as time of day and guarantee of use. Consumer technologies have taken advantage of the differential tariff structures which have emerged and will continue to evolve, and this in turn is being reflected in the composition of the supply industry. The much-valued versatility of hydro generation applies equally to tidal power plant. The opportunities for a tidal barrage to be operated flexibly, having regard for fundamental resource constraints, are set out, though without regard for tariff structures because these will depend on the particular network conditions in which any project will operate. The studies have been carried out in the context of a Severn Estuary barrage.
Designing for health and safety
Authors: de Souza J.
Published: November 2009

Below is an extract from a Construction Productivity Network (CPN) workshop held on 3 December 2002 in Sheffield on designers’ responsibilities for health and safety. The workshop heard presentations from Tim Johnson of the Health and Safety Executive, John Carpenter representing the Standing Committee on Structural Safety, and Andrew Stevens of Atkins. The chairman was David Watson of Professional Construction Skills, who provided support for this event.
Briefing: Moving towards sustainability in the sewage treatment industry
Authors: Thornton J.
Published: November 2009

The practical application of sustainability within the sewage treatment industry is discussed, with reference to the environmental, economic and social issues. Historically, the sewage treatment industry has been judged by its effluent quality, however treating sewage to high discharge standards is not necessarily consistent with other aspects of sustainability, such as greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the eutrophication concerns resulting from phosphates in sewage are better dealt with by removal at source; the knock-on effects of phosphate removal from sewage effluent are discussed with reference to their sustainability. Balancing the conflicting requirements of different aspects of sustainability will be difficult, and the legislation surrounding water quality and sewage treatment is inconsistent.
Briefing: Sustainable steel construction: building a better future
Authors: Sansom M.
Published: November 2009

As part of its commitment to sustainable development, the UK Government is encouraging business to develop sectoral sustainability strategies. The steel construction sector has risen to this challenge and, in December 2002, launched its strategy Sustainable steel construction: Building a better future.
Briefing: Lime versus cement: traditional methods for today's buildings
Authors: Pritchett I.
Published: November 2009

This article provides a brief overview of lime use in traditional buildings and how the benefits identified in conservation work can be applied to sustainable new build projects.
Urban infrastruture procurement in low-Income contries
Authors: Sohail M. , Baldwin A. N.
Published: November 2009

The high rate of urban growth in most low-income countries has resulted in ever-increasing demands for improvements in urban infrastructure. The scarce financial, technical and managerial resources in such countries require efficient and effective management if they are to be used to optimum effect. Equally, any enhancement in performance of the delivery mechanisms for urban infrastructure is to be welcomed. Community partnered procurement (CPP) has been used in South Asian countries (India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka), as well as in African countries, to increase the access of low-income communities to urban infrastructure, and has resulted in improved access and quality of urban infrastructure. The missing link in the monitoring and evaluation of projects is a review of the wider impacts of urban infrastructure procurement, or indeed of whether community procured infrastructure actually meets users’ needs and expectations. Thus a knowledge gap has been identified in terms of ‘how to’ trace the wider effects of urban infrastructure procurement at the neighbourhood level. This paper proposes participatory impact assessment as a tool for development professionals interested in exploring the changes brought about by an infrastructure procurement project, in the broader social, political and economic context in which the project is implemented.
Sustainability of bitumen use in highways
Authors: Peden R. A.
Published: November 2009

Crude oil is a finite resource, and bitumen, as part of the oil refining process, shares its common future. In 1973 predictions were that oil resources would be entirely depleted in 30 years’ time. We have now reached that deadline. This paper examines the current oil reserves position, and considers the continued use of bitumen in highway maintenance and construction, from the stance that sustainability means ‘acting today with tomorrow in mind’. Proven oil reserves and production ratios are examined to determine the future availability of oil and—more specifically—bitumen, in both the short and long term. The factors affecting bitumen availability, such as competition from other hydrocarbon uses and manufacturing implications, are discussed and expressed in terms of sustainability. The source of suitable bitumen crude is examined and explained in terms of the overall refining barrel. The misapprehension that bitumen is a ‘waste product at the end of the refining process’ is exposed. The features of bitumen that mark it as a unique petroleum product are highlighted, and the impact of oil sand deposits on the future supply of bitumen is assessed. Enhanced binder performance through polymer modification, hardened grade and emulsification/foaming techniques has facilitated more sustainable highway construction and maintenance procedures. The relationship between the binder and composite materials is examined in terms of sustainability and environmental performance. The case is made for incorporation of sustainability criteria within code and procurement procedures, in terms both of binder specification and of the maintenance and construction techniques employed.
Ecological footprint analysis as a project assessment tool
Authors: Nicholson I. R. , Chambers N. , Green P.
Published: November 2009

With the UK Government now committed to promoting eco-efficiency through the Sustainable Consumption and Production programme, the role of eco-efficiency metrics and associated sustainability metrics is becoming ever more important. Business has a key role to play in actually delivering sustainability, and business-friendly metrics are vital in informing decision-making as well as monitoring progress. This paper describes how ecological foot-printing can measure the environmental impacts of projects and services and, more challengingly, relate those impacts to global environmental sustainability. The research described in this paper shows how ecological footprinting has been used at the project planning stage, to appraise possible construction options in the context of sustainable production and consumption.
Designing sustainable estuarine intertidal habitats
Authors: Pontee N. I.
Published: November 2009

The creation of intertidal habitats, especially in estuary areas, has become increasingly popular in the UK over the last ten years. The complexities of artificially creating sustainable natural habitats means that the design of schemes requires an appreciation of a number of interrelated parameters. Morphological considerations are particularly important and include the site elevation, gradient and presence or absence of creek networks. Other important design considerations relate to hydraulic factors such as the exposure to wave action and tidal currents, the tidal prism and the inundation period. Relevant hydrological factors encompass aspects of water quality such as salinity and pollutant levels. Sedimentological considerations comprise sediment supply, particle size, consolidation rates, organic content, sediment chemistry and sediment quality. Since natural habitats are dynamic features, this paper also describes the tools available for investigating the short-and long-term evolution and stability of proposed schemes. Over the long term these tools include the analysis of historical charts, photographs and maps; the use of regime theory and various empirical relationships. Over the shorter term numerical modelling of tides, waves and sediment transport can be used. The scale of assessment and the approaches which are adopted are likely to be influenced by the size of the scheme and the number of associated issues. However, the complexity of processes within estuary systems means that it is often beneficial to use a range of techniques and synthesise the results to reduce uncertainties.
Briefing: Protocols for alternative materials in construction
Authors: Reid Murray
Published: November 2009

A set of protocols has been developed to illustrate how recycled and secondary aggregates can be used in a range of applications in construction. The protocols cover both engineering and environmental aspects and draw on existing specifications, regulations, legislation and guidance documents.
Sustainability and the UK construction industry—a review
Authors: Adetunji I. , Price A. , Fleming P. , Kemp P.
Published: November 2009

The quest for sustainability has put the construction industry under immense pressure from the Government and general public to improve its unsustainable pattern of project delivery. This study aims to undertake a baseline review of the UK construction contractors’ engagement with the concept of sustainability and gauge their response to the issues being raised. However, based on the premise that the major firms drive the industry forward by managing their supply chain, the research deliberately focuses on the top end of the industry. Quantitative methods developed through an extensive literature review form the main research epistemology to test the research hypotheses. The paper documents the analysis of a questionnaire survey of the top 45 construction contractors (based on turnover). The respondents are classified into A, B and C firms according to turnover. Most of the respondents share the view that a proactive sustainability strategy, supported by effective reporting to essential stakeholders, can have a major positive impact on organisational competitiveness. The overall sustainability performance among the groups differs considerably. The survey results indicate that there is a tendency for firms with a higher turnover to engage proactively with sustainability. However, the results also suggest that irrespective of size, substantial progress has only been made regarding the environmental aspect of sustainability, even though there is wide-spread recognition that sustainability has three dimensions: environmental, economic and social.