bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intraprovincial Disparities in China: Fujian Province, 1978–1995*
Authors: Lyons Thomas P.
Published: August 2010

Abstract: This paper extends the recent discussion of spatial disparities in China, by focusing upon disparities within a single province, rather than across provinces. The primary purposes of this research are to (1) gauge the extent of disparities among counties within Fujian as of the late 1970s and mid‐1990s and to examine the spatial patterns of such disparities; (2) trace the evolution of disparities, with special attention to the low ends of the output and income distributions and the impact of the post‐Mao reforms; and (3) suggest possible causes of the observed spatial and temporal patterns. Intraprovincial studies have been hampered by the paucity and questionable quality of relevant data; a secondary purpose of this research is to assemble a set of county‐level data that are consistent over space and time and to assess the usability of such data. In keeping with these objectives, the methods adopted are mainly exploratory, rather than confirmatory. This research shows that intraprovincial disparities in China—at least in the case of Fujian—were already large at the beginning of the reform era, have since widened significantly, and have widened relatively as well as absolutely. Nevertheless, every county in Fujian has experienced substantial growth in output and income per capita (at real rates in excess of 5 and 3 percent per annum, respectively) and substantial alleviation of poverty (as measured against an absolute threshold). The observed spatial patterns appear to reflect the initial spread of modern growth over much of the province, a spread driven in part by policies to create income opportunities for the poor and closely correlated with access to transportation.
The Emergence and Development of Geographic Thought in New England
Authors: Martin Geoffrey J.
Published: August 2010

Abstract:Some of the early settlers of New England brought with them the works and thought of European geographers, notably Ptolemy, Münster, Cluver, Carpenter, and Varenius. Beginning in the 1600s the work of British geographers Gordon and Salmon and Guthrie and Pinkerton was acknowledged, preceding that of Jedidiah Morse, “Father of American Geography.” Morse led the way for a large number of geography texts written by Americans, emphasizing North America and characterized by Varenius's special geography.

Early collegiate developments in New England geography were led by Harvard and Yale universities, the College of Rhode Island (later renamed Brown University), and Dartmouth College. The 20 or so normal schools throughout New England, introduced in the middle 1800s, constituted a nursery for geographic education. Also noted are more recent college and university geography departments established throughout the region, including notably Clark University. The founding of societies and associations in New England also furthered the cause of geography.
Postwelfare Massachusetts*
Authors: Peck Jamie
Published: August 2010

Abstract: By way of a critical analysis of welfare reform initiatives in Massachusetts, the paper explores the complex interplay between federal‐ and state‐level factors in welfare policy discourse and practice. I argue that, despite being represented as both home‐grown and innovative, the recent package of reforms in Massachusetts is neither. Rather, it is the outcome of a self‐inflicted hollowing out of the nation‐state, coupled with a dramatic increase in federally orchestrated policy transfers between states, themselves anxious to appear active in the welfare reform process. The apparent consensus on work‐based welfare reform is more a symptom of this structural context than it is an outcome of ideas that work at the local level. As a result, the postwelfare settlement in Massachusetts is an unstable one.
Structural Causes of Vulnerability to Flood Hazard in Pakistan*
Authors: Mustafa Daanish
Published: August 2010

Abstract: This paper uses recent theoretical advances in the field of hazards research to inform the analysis of an empirical study on flood hazard conducted in central Pakistan. The investigation seeks to understand the causes of vulnerability and their development that culminates in disaster, with the basic presumption that empirical events have causal links going back to societal structures which are not measurable but contain the mechanisms that lead to the events and their perceptions. A case study in five villages of central Pakistan was conducted to understand the elements of communities' and social groups' differential vulnerability to flood hazard. The elements of vulnerability are situated within a tripartite conceptual space of vulnerability, composed of entitlement relations, empowerment relations, and political economy. A modified “pressure and release” model was applied to the field survey results to understand the progression of vulnerability from the structural abstract level to the concrete level of physical disasters. I concluded that the study communities' vulnerability was largely a function of their disempowerment.

vulnerability,
From Registered Nurse to Registered Nanny: Discursive Geographies of Filipina Domestic Workers in Vancouver, B.C.*
Authors: Pratt Geraldine
Published: August 2010

Abstract: This paper is an exploration of what poststructuralist theories of the subject and discourse analysis can bring to theories of labor market segmentation, namely an understanding of how individuals come to understand and are limited in their occupational options. I examine three discursive constructions of “Filipina” and argue that they work to structure Filipinas' labor market experiences in Vancouver. Filipinas who come to Canada through the Live‐in Caregiver Program often come with university educations and professional experiences (e.g., as registered nurses) but then become members of the most occupationally segregated of ethnic groups in Vancouver. As domestic workers in Vancouver, they are defined as “supplicant, preimmigrants,” as inferior “housekeepers,” and, within the Filipino community, as “husband stealers.” I demonstrate that geography has much to bring to discourse analysis; there are geographies written into discourses of “Filipina” that work to position Filipinas in Vancouver as inferior. While the examined discourses overlap and reinforce the marginalization of Filipinas, I also explore how discursive analysis can function as ideology critique, by examining the internal inconsistencies and silences within particular discourses and the points of resistance that emerge when different discourses come into contact and tension.
Migration Determinants and Employment Consequences of White and Black Families, 1985–1990*
Authors: Lee SeongWoo , Roseman Curtis C.
Published: August 2010

Abstract: This study examines the determinants and employment consequences of white and black family interstate migration within the United States during the period 1985–90. We pay particular attention to selecting intact family migrants from the 1990 PUMS data to eliminate couples who migrated from different origins. Migration status is treated as a selection process and is incorporated into the employment opportunity models. We show that various socioenvironmental and fiscal factors are significantly and disproportionately associated with the location choices of family migrants for both whites and blacks. Expected economic benefits are more important to destination choices by black families than they are for white families. Consistent with traditional family migration theory, the employment prospects of migrant wives seem to play a lesser role than the husbands' employment in family migration decisions for both blacks and whites.
Local Geographies of Labor Market Segmentation: Montréal, Toronto, and Vancouver, 1991*
Authors: Hiebert Daniel
Published: August 2010

Abstract: In this paper I use census data to provide an overview of gender, ethnic, and immigrant occupational segmentation in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas. My findings corroborate the work of many other authors who have shown the pronounced split between female‐ and male‐dominated portions of the labor market. There is also evidence of considerable ethnic and immigrant segmentation, and members of visible minority groups, especially those who are immigrants, are over‐represented in poorly paid, vulnerable jobs. However, these patterns are uneven: segmentation takes different forms in the three urban areas examined here. I consider these results in light of human capital and labor market segmentation theory. Each of these approaches—particularly the latter—helps us understand the way capitalist labor markets operate, but the patterns of gender and ethnocultural participation are too complex to be adequately explained by either theory.
Social Capital, Development, and Access to Resources in Highland Ecuador*
Authors: Bebbington Anthony , Perreault Thomas
Published: August 2010

Abstract: Building on recent statements calling for greater emphasis on the roles of organized actors and civil society in development research, in this paper we analyze the utility of themes raised in current debates on social capital for pursuing such lines of inquiry. In particular, we develop a framework for linking social capital to discussions of sustainability, resource access, and livelihoods. The framework understands the sustainability of livelihoods and local economies in two dimensions: patterns of access to produced, human, natural, and social capital; and the role of social capital formation at different geographic scales in facilitating rural peoples' access to other forms of capital, both directly and through engaging with state, market, and other civil society actors. We then use the framework to discuss a case from highland Ecuador. The case study illustrates the ways in which social capital, in the form of community, federated, and national indigenous peoples' organizations and their institutional networks, has been built through four decades of external intervention. It also traces the various ways in which this social capital formation has widened household and community access to financial, natural, and human capital. In doing so it draws out some of the links among social capital formation, livelihood development, political change, and landscape transformation. The approach has implications for development, social movements, and political ecological research.
Counting Migrants and Migrations: Comparing Lifetime and Fixed‐Interval Return and Onward Migration
Authors: Newbold K. Bruce
Published: August 2010

Abstract: Lifetime measures of return and onward migration that use place of birth may be rather arbitrary, as they may not capture the essence of “home” region and therefore may not adequately represent ties to place, including where an individual grew up or went to school. The recent availability of census data that include information on place of residence five years prior to the census, one year prior, and at the time of the census allow an alternative definition of return and onward migration based upon fixed‐interval data. Employing data from the 1996 Canadian census, in this paper I first compare and examine the incidence, composition, and spatial patterns and explanations of return and onward migration through measures of lifetime and fixed‐interval data. I then suggest a typology of return migration. Findings indicate that although both measures result in similar patterns and demographic effects, fixed‐interval measures provide additional detail into the processes at work. Planned returns among younger and older adults that are most likely associated with education or employment and represent 24 percent of returns define two types of return migration. A third type is more consistent with the stereotypical image of a “failed” migration.
The Disparate Impact of Metropolitan Economic Change: The Growth of Extreme Poverty Neighborhoods, 1970–1990*
Authors: Strait John B.
Published: August 2010

Abstract: Metropolitan areas have experienced an increase in neighborhood poverty over the last few decades. Two lines of explanation for such poverty growth focus on the role of economic transformations and increasing welfare dependency. This paper considers the argument that the growth of extreme poverty is related to a number of complex economic changes at the metropolitan level that have had variable impacts on the nature of poverty neighborhoods. Using 1970, 1980, and 1990 economic and population data for a sample of 205 metropolitan areas, I found that employment dynamics had significant effects on the growth of extreme poverty among African‐Americans, whites, and Hispanics. My interpretations partially confirm Wilson's deindustrialization hypothesis, as metropolitan areas experiencing declining employment availability within the manufacturing/construction sector exhibited the greatest increase in extreme poverty during the 1970s, especially among African‐Americans. However, the effect of deindustrialization on neighborhood poverty declined over time. During the 1980s poverty became more generally linked to changes within other economic sectors, notably retail. Moreover, in certain contexts, the public sector functions as an employment niche that limits poverty growth among minorities. My findings provide no support for the “conservative hypothesis” linking concentrated urban poverty to the availability of welfare benefits. Empirical analysis incorporates the concept of metropolitan contingency, or the notion that the impacts of economic change on poverty are significantly conditioned by the nature of metropolitan economic structure.
The Economic Geography of the Internet's Infrastructure*
Authors: Malecki Edward J.
Published: August 2010

Abstract:The Internet is perhaps the defining technology of the emerging twenty‐first century. This article examines the infrastructure that comprises the “network of networks” and the spatial patterns that have emerged in the Internet's short existence. In its brief history, the Internet has manifested a tentative relationship with the urban hierarchy. This relationship is tracked over a four‐year period (1997 to 2000), during which firms made massive investments in new fiber‐optic lines and upgrades. A global bias of Internet backbone networks toward world cities is evident, and it is tempered only slightly by a set of urban areas that serve as interconnection points between backbone networks. Interconnection is both critical to the functioning of the Internet and the source of its greatest complications.
Network Change, Deregulation, and Access in the Global Airline Industry*
Authors: Bowen John
Published: August 2010

Abstract:This research evaluates changes in the centrality of hubs in the international airline industry from 1984 to 1996 and examines the relationship between those changes and uneven patterns of airline industry deregulation. The development prospects of cities and countries with favored positions in international airline networks are enhanced by their superior access to global flows of people, goods, money, and information. But those networks are dynamic. Aircraft technology, the state, and shifts in market demand shape the restructuring of airline networks. The analyses in this article examine whether the relative accessibility of cities in poor developing countries has improved or worsened since the mid‐1980s. Using data on international airline schedules, the author estimates indices of centrality for hubs around the world in 1984 and 1996 and contrasts changes in those indices against measures of development. The data indicate that the hubs in the poorest developing countries, particularly in sub‐Saharan Africa, became relatively more isolated during the period, while hubs in rapid‐growth developing economies, like those along the western Pacific Rim, gained markedly in their accessibility. The deregulation of the airline industry has tended to reinforce the disparity in access among gateways in global airline networks.
Developmental and Quiescent Subsidiaries in the Asia Pacific: Evidence from Hong Kong, Singapore, Shanghai, and Sydney
Authors: Poon Jessie P. H. , Thompson Edmund R.
Published: August 2010

Abstract: Examining “embedded” economic and social relations has become a popular theme among economic geographers who are interested in explaining the durability of place in supporting economic activities. This article explores the relationship between embeddedness and technology‐oriented functions among three types of subsidiaries (regional headquarters, regional offices, and local offices) and for four cities: Hong Kong, Shanghai, Singapore, and Sydney. Using survey data from firms, we show that quiescent or branch plant‐like subsidiaries, rather than developmental firms, dominate the region. But among developmental subsidiaries, returns on embeddedness are not always obvious. Embeddedness and developmental subsidiaries are most significantly correlated with manufacturing regional headquarters. However, a small group of subsidiaries (local and regional offices) also perform developmental functions, despite their relative newness and lack of embed‐dedness in the region.
North Atlantic Innovative Relations of Swiss Pharmaceuticals and the Proximities with Regional Biotech Arenas
Authors: Zeller Christian
Published: August 2010

Abstract:Under the pressure of increased global competition and processes of concentration, the pharmaceutical giants are reorganizing their innovative capacities. Technology and research and development (R&D) play a key role in the competitive strategies of multinational pharmaceutical companies. This article analyzes the interrelation of the far‐reaching but spatially selective international expansion of R&D and technology of a major Swiss pharmaceutical company and its anchoring in regional arenas of innovation. It combines this international technological expansion with a perspective on integrating spatial and social proximities. Multinational corporations (MNCs) tend to locate their R&D activities in regions that are characterized by a richness of knowledge. The structure of inter‐ and intrafirm networks is shaped by the geography of talent. The Swiss pharmaceutical giants made substantial efforts to anchor themselves in regional arenas of innovation, such as the San Francisco Bay Area, Boston, and San Diego. A case study of a pharmaceutical giant's embedding in the biotech arena of San Diego reveals how oligopolistic rivals fight over privileged access to spatially concentrated bases of technology. MNCs attempt to create, complement, and substitute spatial proximity with other types of social proximities, internal as well as external to their own organizations. These efforts contribute to the generation of specific global‐local interfaces in the processes of global scanning, transferring, and generating new pharmaceutical compounds and technologies.
Industrial Districts, Magic Circles, and the Restructuring of the Italian Textiles and Clothing Chain
Authors: Dunford Michael
Published: August 2010

Abstract: This article identifies the way in which a firm‐centered, value‐chain approach to studying the distinctive structure and evolution of the geography of the Italian textile and clothing industries (TCI) offers important insights that qualify the results of district‐centered and commodity/value‐chain research. Analyses of the functional profiles of textile and clothing companies and of the roles of design, distribution, and services help explain recent trends in industrial concentration and in the national and international fragmentation of value chains. These analyses also give rise to a view of districts as parts of an interdependent geographic division of labor that includes magic circles and delocalized zones of dependent manufacturing. An appreciation of these features of the system is vital for understanding recent trends in the performance of the TCI and the Made in Italy industries more generally.
Family Types and the Persistence of Regional Disparities in Europe
Authors: Duranton Gilles , Rodríguez‐Pose Andrés , Sandall Richard
Published: August 2010

abstract

This article examines the association between one of the most basic institutional forms, the family, and a series of demographic, educational, social, and economic indicators across regions in Europe. Using Emmanuel Todd's classification of medieval European family systems, we identify potential links between family types and regional disparities in household size, educational attainment, social capital, labor participation, sectoral structure, wealth, and inequality. The results indicate that medieval family structures seem to have influenced European regional disparities in virtually every indicator that we considered. That these links remain, despite the influence of the modern state and population migration, suggests that such structures are either extremely resilient or in the past were internalized within other social and economic institutions as they developed.
The Neglected King: The Customer in the New Knowledge Ecology of Innovation
Authors: Grabher Gernot , Ibert Oliver , Flohr Saskia
Published: August 2010

Despite the universal mantra that “the customer is king,” the role of the customer has so far seemed to have been confined to a passive recipient of products. Recently, however, this traditional perception has been challenged. On the one hand, users are increasingly appreciated as reflexive actors who are actively involved in the evaluation, modif ication, and configuration of products. On the other hand, beyond the established repertoire to access external knowledge through interorganizational networks, firms increasingly attempt to harness user knowledge. These two concurrent shifts do not result in a smooth convergence. Rather, they open up a highly contested terrain in which habitual distinctions between the producer and user are blurred. In this article, we map the evolving terrain of user‐producer interaction in innovation processes. Specifically, we contrast more traditional approaches to incorporate customer knowledge with an emerging class of innovative user‐producer relationships, provisionally dubbed “co‐development.” We then propose a typology of different modes of codevelopment that is organized along two dimensions: the degree of user involvement and the prevailing locus of knowledge production. This typology seeks to capture the heterogeneity of co‐development approaches and to provide a conceptual template for further empirical research on user involvement in innovation.
The Wal‐Mart Effect: Wave of Destruction or Creative Destruction?
Authors: Paruchuri Srikanth , Baum Joel A. C. , Potere David
Published: August 2010

abstract

During the past quarter century, large multistore retailers have experienced considerable growth. In this article, we examine the widely held belief that the expansion of these chain stores, Wal‐Mart in particular, has had a large negative impact on the small locally owned retail sector. Our analysis of four types of independent retailer entries and exits in Florida from 1980, prior to the opening of the first Wal‐Mart store in the state, to 2004, reveals that Wal‐Mart's impact varies with independent retailers' market overlap with and proximity to Wal‐Mart. Notably, our findings suggest that within zip codes, the Wal‐Mart effect is driven by the suppression of entry rates, but not by the increase in exit rates, while in adjacent zip codes, it is driven by exit rates increasing more than entry rates. Our results provide empirical evidence that may help economic developers, public officials, and owners of small businesses make informed decisions about economic development in their communities.
Planning for Path Dependence? The Case of a Network in the Berlin‐Brandenburg Optics Cluster
Authors: Sydow Jörg , Lerch Frank , Staber Udo
Published: August 2010

abstract

Much research on regional business clusters refers to path dependence as a central feature in the evolution of cluster structures. In many cases, however, little is known about the agentic processes and mechanisms that underlie path dependence. In this article, we explore changes in a specific network in the optics cluster in the German region of Berlin‐Brandenburg to show that development of clusters can be driven by elements of both emergence and planning. In particular, we argue that current actors actively and purposively draw upon rules and resources that were shaped not only in the long and discontinuous history of the cluster but also in the recent process of network development that involves careful planning and well‐structured planning tools. Using central concepts from structuration theory, we show how agency is implicated in the coordination of the network and how agency turns coordination into a self‐reinforcing mechanism. The findings suggest that purposive planning involves a fundamental ambivalence in the processes and outcomes of path dependence, at the level of both the cluster and its constituent networks.
Teaching phase-sensitive demodulation for signal conditioning to undergraduate students
Authors: Yang Wuqiang
Published: August 2010

Phase-sensitive demodulation (PSD) is important for signal conditioning and communication. This paper introduces an approach to teaching PSD for signal conditioning to undergraduate science and engineering students. The goal is to help students understand the principles of PSD for signal conditioning because they can see waveforms at various test points and the effect of the phase angle on the output of a PSD circuit using conventional laboratory equipment. Students can also gain practical skills by building electronic circuits, including a switch-based PSD circuit, a phase shifter, a switch-driving circuit, and a low-pass filter, on a breadboard using real electronic components.
Observing the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution in LED emission spectra
Authors: Brody Jed , Weiss Daniel , Young Pearl
Published: August 2010

We observe the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution in the emission spectra of six LEDs spanning the visible spectrum.
Six easy roads to the Planck scale
Authors: Adler Ronald J.
Published: August 2010

We give six arguments that the Planck scale should be viewed as a fundamental minimum or boundary for the classical concept of spacetime, beyond which quantum effects cannot be neglected and the basic nature of spacetime must be reconsidered. The arguments are elementary, heuristic, and plausible and as much as possible rely on only general principles of quantum theory and gravity theory. The main goal of the paper is to give physics students and nonspecialists an awareness and appreciation of the Planck scale and the role it should play in present and future theories of quantum spacetime and quantum gravity.
Stability of Ecological Communities and the Architecture of Mutualistic and Trophic Networks
Authors: Thébault Elisa , Fontaine Colin
Published: August 2010

Building a Network

The relation between the architecture of ecological networks and community stability is important to understand the assembly of complex communities. By combining a model approach and a meta-analysis of a large collection of ecological networks,
Thébault and Fontaine
(p.
853
; see the Perspective by

Bascompte

) found that network architecture and stability fundamentally differed between trophic networks that involved herbivory and mutualistic networks that involved pollination. These findings have implications for the understanding of community structure, evolution, and response to perturbation.
Activation of β-Catenin in Dendritic Cells Regulates Immunity Versus Tolerance in the Intestine
Authors: Manicassamy Santhakumar , Reizis Boris , Ravindran Rajesh , Nakaya Helder , Salazar-Gonzalez Rosa Maria , Wang Yi-chong , Pulendran Bali
Published: August 2010

A Gut Feeling

Special immune controls are necessary in the gut to prevent the immune system from reacting to the commensal microbiota and to food antigens. Dendritic cells (DCs) are important for maintaining gut tolerance because they help to keep T cells in an unresponsive state. However, in other environments, DCs activate T cells. What signals determine whether DCs induce T cell tolerance or activation?

Manicassamy
et al.

(p.
849
; see the Perspective by

Mellman and Clausen

) found that β-catenin–dependent signaling is required for maintaining DC-mediated gut tolerance in mice. Wnt ligands were expressed in the gut, and β-catenin signaling was activated in DCs in the small and large intestines but not in the spleen. When β-catenin was specifically deleted from DCs in mice, the frequency of regulatory T cells and anti-inflammatory cytokines was reduced, whereas the frequency of pro-inflammatory T helper 1 and T helper 17 cells and their associated cytokines was increased. Mice lacking β-catenin in dendritic cells also exhibited enhanced susceptibility in a mouse model of colitis.
Feedstocks for Lignocellulosic Biofuels
Authors: Somerville Chris , Youngs Heather , Taylor Caroline , Davis Sarah C. , Long Stephen P.
Published: August 2010

In 2008, the world produced approximately 87 gigaliters of liquid biofuels, which is roughly equal to the volume of liquid fuel consumed by Germany that year. Essentially, all of this biofuel was produced from crops developed for food production, raising concerns about the net energy and greenhouse gas effects and potential competition between use of land for production of fuels, food, animal feed, fiber, and ecosystem services. The pending implementation of improved technologies to more effectively convert the nonedible parts of plants (lignocellulose) to liquid fuels opens diverse options to use biofuel feedstocks that reach beyond current crops and the land currently used for food and feed. However, there has been relatively little discussion of what types of plants may be useful as bioenergy crops.
An Allosteric Self-Splicing Ribozyme Triggered by a Bacterial Second Messenger
Authors: Lee Elaine R. , Baker Jenny L. , Weinberg Zasha , Sudarsan Narasimhan , Breaker Ronald R.
Published: August 2010

Riboswitch Revealed

Short regulatory regions—riboswitches—are found in the messenger RNAs of many bacteria, plants, and fungi. They bind to small-molecule metabolites and, through switching between alternate RNA secondary structures, regulate the expression of the linked RNA.

Lee
et al.

(p.
845
) have identified a c-di-GMP (cyclic di-guanosyl-5′-monophosphate)–binding riboswitch in the bacterium
Clostridium difficile
that regulates the splicing of a group I self-splicing ribozyme. Binding of c-di-GMP to the riboswitch favors a conformation of the ribozyme that promotes splicing in the presence of guanosine triphosphate (as is typical for this class of ribozymes). Concomitantly, splicing promotes the formation of a ribosome binding site, thereby stimulating protein production from the downstream pathogenesis-related gene. This regulatory region may thus constitute a two-input gene-control system that reads the concentration of both GTP and c-di-GMP. Thus, not all group I self-splicing ribozymes represent selfish genetic elements.
Performance, Not Control
The Cybernetic Brain
Sketches of Another Future

by Andrew Pickering

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2010. 536 pp. $55, £35.50. ISBN 9780226667898.
Authors: Abraham Tara H.
Published: August 2010

Considering the activities and thoughts of a largely forgotten group of British cyberneticians, Pickering argues that they saw the world "as ultimately unknowable, a place where genuine novelty is always emerging."
Nuclear Waste: Knowledge Waste?
Authors: Rosa Eugene A. , Tuler Seth P. , Fischhoff Baruch , Webler Thomas , Friedman Sharon M. , Sclove Richard E. , Shrader-Frechette Kristin , English Mary R. , Kasperson Roger E. , Goble Robert L. , Leschine Thomas M. , Freudenburg William , Chess Caron , Perrow Charles , Erikson Kai , Short James F.
Published: August 2010

A stalled nuclear waste program, and possible increase in wastes, beg for social science input into acceptable solutions.
Beyond Petroleum?
Authors: Kennedy Donald
Published: August 2010

Remember some years back, when British Petroleum claimed that its initials stood for “Beyond Petroleum?” Its competitors were furious at the suggestion that it was leading the push toward renewable energy. Now that BP is responsible for an oil spill that is ruining beaches, livelihoods, and wildlife, these same competitors are telling U.S. senators that “We would not have drilled the well that way.” Believe that or not, “Beyond Petroleum” could be the right slogan for the policy changes needed to end the U.S. national addiction to oil. That outcome will require a mix of solutions involving the Congress, the American public, businesses, the Administration, and environmental organizations—all driven by passionate conviction about the need for change.
A Lot of Oil on the Loose, Not So Much to Be Found
Authors: Kerr Richard A.
Published: August 2010

A federal report released last week should have begun to answer the question of where all the oil that spewed into the Gulf of Mexico went. Instead, political spin and media hype transformed the scientists' message even before it was released.
Lucy's Toolkit? Old Bones May Show Earliest Evidence of Tool Use
Authors: Gibbons Ann
Published: August 2010

Two nondescript scraps of animal bone that most fossil hunters would have left on the ground are being offered as the earliest known evidence for the first technological revolution in human evolution.
Climate Scientists Shine Light on Cave Ice
Authors: Laursen Lucas
Published: August 2010

Glaciologists, geophysicists, and other scientists are trying to establish that caves hold frozen clues to ancient regional climates.
Safety and Immunogenicity of a Recombinant Nonglycosylated Erythrocyte Binding Antigen 175 Region II Malaria Vaccine in Healthy Adults Living in an Area Where Malaria Is Not Endemic
Authors: El Sahly H. M. , Patel S. M. , Atmar R. L. , Lanford T. A. , Dube T. , Thompson D. , Sim B. K. L. , Long C. , Keitel W. A.
Published: August 2010

Erythrocyte binding antigen region II (EBA-175) is a conserved antigen of
Plasmodium falciparum
that is involved in binding of the parasite to the host's erythrocytes. We evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of a recombinant EBA-175 vaccine with aluminum phosphate adjuvant in healthy young adults living in the United States. Eighteen subjects/group received ascending doses (5, 20, 80, or 160 μg) of the vaccine at 0, 1, and 6 months; 8 subjects received placebo. Most of the injection site and systemic reactions were mild to moderate in intensity. After 2 or 3 doses of the vaccine at any concentration, antibody levels measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were significantly higher than those for the placebo group. Sera from subjects who received 3 doses of the vaccine at any concentration inhibited the growth of erythrocyte-stage
P. falciparum
at low levels compared to sera from placebo recipients or preimmune sera. In conclusion, the EBA-175 vaccine with adjuvant was safe and immunogenic in malaria-naïve subjects.
Detection ofPlasmodium falciparum,P. vivax,P. ovale, andP. malariaeMerozoite Surface Protein 1-p19 Antibodies in Human Malaria Patients and Experimentally Infected Nonhuman Primates
Authors: Muerhoff A. Scott , Birkenmeyer Larry G. , Coffey Ruthie , Dille Bruce J. , Barnwell John W. , Collins William E. , Sullivan Joann S. , Dawson George J. , Desai Suresh M.
Published: August 2010

Approximately 3.2 billion people live in areas where malaria is endemic, and WHO estimates that 350 to 500 million malaria cases occur each year worldwide. This high prevalence, and the high frequency of international travel, creates significant risk for the exportation of malaria to countries where malaria is not endemic and for the introduction of malaria organisms into the blood supply. Since all four human infectiousPlasmodiumspecies have been transmitted by blood transfusion, we sought to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) capable of detecting antibodies elicited by infection with any of these species. The merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP1), aP. falciparumandP. vivaxvaccine candidate with a well-characterized immune response, was selected for use in the assay. The MSP1 genes fromP. ovaleandP. malariaewere cloned and sequenced (L. Birkenmeyer, A. S. Muerhoff, G. Dawson, and S. M. Desai, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 82:996-1003, 2010), and the carboxyl-terminal p19 regions of all four species were expressed inEscherichia coli.Performance results from individual p19 ELISAs were compared to those of a commercial test (Lab 21 Healthcare Malaria enzyme immunoassay [EIA]). The commercial ELISA detected all malaria patients withP. falciparumorP. vivaxinfections, as did the corresponding species-specific p19 ELISAs. However, the commercial ELISA detected antibodies in 0/2 and 5/8 individuals withP. malariaeandP. ovaleinfections, respectively, while the p19 assays detected 100% of individuals with confirmedP. malariaeorP. ovaleinfections. In experimentally infected nonhuman primates, the use of MSP1-p19 antigens from all four species resulted in the detection of antibodies within 2 to 10 weeks postinfection. Use of MSP1-p19 antigens from all fourPlasmodiumspecies in a single immunoassay would provide significantly improved efficacy compared to existing tests.
Impact of Strain Type on Detection of Toxigenic
Clostridium difficile:
Comparison of Molecular Diagnostic and Enzyme Immunoassay Approaches
Authors: Tenover Fred C. , Novak-Weekley Susan , Woods Christopher W. , Peterson Lance R. , Davis Thomas , Schreckenberger Paul , Fang Ferric C. , Dascal Andre , Gerding Dale N. , Nomura Jim H. , Goering Richard V. , Akerlund Thomas , Weissfeld Alice S. , Baron Ellen Jo , Wong Edith , Marlowe Elizabeth M. , Whitmore Joseph , Persing David H.
Published: August 2010

A multicenter clinical trial assessed the performance of the Cepheid Xpert
C. difficile
assay on stool specimens collected from patients suspected of having
Clostridium difficile
infection (CDI). A total of 2,296 unformed stool specimens, collected from seven study sites, were tested by Xpert
C. difficile
enrichment culture followed by cell culture cytotoxicity testing of the isolates (i.e., toxigenic culture with enrichment) and the study sites' standard
C. difficile
test methods. The methods included enzyme immunoassay (EIA), direct cytotoxin testing, and two- and three-step algorithms using glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) screening followed by either EIA or EIA and an in-house PCR assay. All
C. difficile
strains were typed by PCR-ribotyping. Compared to results for toxigenic culture with enrichment, the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of the Xpert assay were 93.5, 94.0, 73.0, and 98.8%, respectively. The overall sensitivity of the EIAs compared to that of enrichment culture was 60.0%, and the sensitivity of combined GDH algorithms was 72.9%; both were significantly lower than that of Xpert
C. difficile
(
P
< 0.001 and
P
= 0.03, respectively). The sensitivity of the EIA was significantly lower than that of the Xpert
C. difficile
assay for detection of ribotypes 002, 027, and 106 (
P
< 0.0001,
P
< 0.0001, and
P
= 0.004, respectively, Fisher's exact test), and the sensitivity of GDH algorithms for ribotypes other than 027 was lower than that for Xpert
C. difficile
(
P
< 0.001). The Xpert
C. difficile
assay is a simple, rapid, and accurate method for detection of toxigenic
C. difficile
in unformed stool specimens and is minimally affected by strain type compared to EIA and GDH-based methods.
Neurobrucellosis Associated with Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone with Resultant Diabetes Insipidus and Hypothyroidism
Authors: Sturniolo Giuseppe , Mondello Placido , Bruno Salvatore , Bonfatto Orsola Elena , Frattima Sabrina , Albanese Antonio , Restivo Roberta , Liberti Giuseppe , Pasquali Paolo , Marianelli Cinzia
Published: August 2010

Neurological involvement of the central nervous system in brucellosis is uncommon. We describe a rare case of meningoencephalitis due toBrucella melitensisinfection, associated with the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion and leading to diabetes insipidus and hypothyroidism. Neurobrucellosis, although rare, should be considered in cases of neurological disease of unknown etiology.
Human Coinfection with
Bartonella henselae
and Two Hemotropic Mycoplasma Variants Resembling
Mycoplasma ovis
Authors: Sykes Jane E. , Lindsay LeAnn L. , Maggi Ricardo G. , Breitschwerdt Edward B.
Published: August 2010

Two variants of an organism resembling the ovine hemoplasma,
Mycoplasma ovis
, were detected by PCR in blood samples from a veterinarian in Texas. Coinfection with similar variants has been described in sheep. This represents the first report of human infection with this organism. The veterinarian was coinfected with
Bartonella henselae
.
Novel IS
711
-Specific Chromosomal Locations Useful for Identification and Classification of Marine Mammal
Brucella
Strains
Authors: Zygmunt Michel S. , Maquart Marianne , Bernardet Nelly , Doublet Benoît , Cloeckaert Axel
Published: August 2010

We report five new IS
711
chromosomal locations that are specific for marine mammal
Brucella
groups of strains and useful for their identification and classification. Our data support their current classification into two species,
Brucella ceti
and
B. pinnipedialis
, with subgroups in each, but also the possibility of additional species.
Rapid Drug Susceptibility Testing with a Molecular Beacon Assay Is Associated with Earlier Diagnosis and Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in California
Authors: Banerjee Ritu , Allen Jennifer , Lin S.-Y. Grace , Westenhouse Janice , Desmond Ed , Schecter Gisela F. , Scott Cheryl , Raftery Ann , Mase Sundari , Watt James P. , Flood Jennifer
Published: August 2010

To assess the clinical impact of a molecular beacon (MB) assay that detects multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB), we retrospectively reviewed records of 127 MDR TB patients with and without MB testing between 2004 and 2007. Use of the MB assay reduced the time to detection and treatment of MDR TB.
Mutation at a Single Position in the V2 Domain of the HIV-1 Envelope Protein Confers Neutralization Sensitivity to a Highly Neutralization-Resistant Virus
Authors: O'Rourke Sara M. , Schweighardt Becky , Phung Pham , Fonseca Dora P. A. J. , Terry Karianne , Wrin Terri , Sinangil Faruk , Berman Phillip W.
Published: August 2010

Understanding the determinants of neutralization sensitivity and resistance is important for the development of an effective human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine. In these studies, we have made use of the swarm of closely related envelope protein variants (quasispecies) from an extremely neutralization-resistant clinical isolate in order to identify mutations that conferred neutralization sensitivity to antibodies in sera from HIV-1-infected individuals. Here, we describe a virus with a rare mutation at position 179 in the V2 domain of gp120, where replacement of aspartic acid (D) by asparagine (N) converts a virus that is highly resistant to neutralization by multiple polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, as well as antiviral entry inhibitors, to one that is sensitive to neutralization. Although the V2 domain sequence is highly variable, D at position 179 is highly conserved in HIV-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and is located within the LDI/V recognition motif of the recently described α4β7 receptor binding site. Our results suggest that the D179N mutation induces a conformational change that exposes epitopes in both the gp120 and the gp41 portions of the envelope protein, such as the CD4 binding site and the MPER, that are normally concealed by conformational masking. Our results suggest that D179 plays a central role in maintaining the conformation and infectivity of HIV-1 as well as mediating binding to α4β7.
Toll-Like Receptor 4-Mediated Activation of p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Is a Determinant of Respiratory Virus Entry and Tropism
Authors: Marchant David , Singhera Gurpreet K. , Utokaparch Soraya , Hackett Tillie L. , Boyd John H. , Luo Zongshu , Si Xiaoning , Dorscheid Delbert R. , McManus Bruce M. , Hegele Richard G.
Published: August 2010

Respiratory viruses exert a heavy toll of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite this burden there are few specific treatments available for respiratory virus infections. Since many viruses utilize host cell enzymatic machinery such as protein kinases for replication, we determined whether pharmacological inhibition of kinases could, in principle, be used as a broad antiviral strategy for common human respiratory virus infections. A panel of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing recombinant respiratory viruses, including an isolate of H1N1 influenza virus (H1N1/Weiss/43), was used to represent a broad range of virus families responsible for common respiratory infections (
Adenoviridae
,
Paramyxoviridae
,
Picornaviridae
, and
Orthomyxoviridae
). Kinase inhibitors were screened in a high-throughput assay that detected virus infection in human airway epithelial cells (1HAEo-) using a fluorescent plate reader. Inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling was able to significantly inhibit replication by all viruses tested. Therefore, the pathways involved in virus-mediated p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) MAPK activation were investigated using bronchial epithelial cells and primary fibroblasts derived from MyD88 knockout mouse lungs. Influenza virus, which activated p38 MAPK to approximately 10-fold-greater levels than did respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in 1HAEo- cells, was internalized about 8-fold faster and more completely than RSV. We show for the first time that p38 MAPK is a determinant of virus infection that is dependent upon MyD88 expression and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligation. Imaging of virus-TLR4 interactions showed significant clustering of TLR4 at the site of virus-cell interaction, triggering phosphorylation of downstream targets of p38 MAPK, suggesting the need for a signaling receptor to activate virus internalization.
Intragenic Recombination as a Mechanism of Genetic Diversity in Bluetongue Virus
Authors: He Cheng-Qiang , Ding Nai-Zheng , He Mei , Li Shan-Ni , Wang Xing-Ming , He Hong-Bin , Liu Xin-Fa , Guo Hong-Shan
Published: August 2010

Bluetongue (BT), caused by Bluetongue virus (BTV), is an economically important disease affecting sheep, deer, cattle, and goats. Since 1998, a series of BT outbreaks have spread across much of southern and central Europe. To study why the epidemiology of the virus happens to change, it is important to fully know the mechanisms resulting in its genetic diversity. Gene mutation and segment reassortment have been considered as the key forces driving the evolution of BTV. However, it is still unknown whether intragenic recombination can occur and contribute to the process in the virus. We present here several BTV groups containing mosaic genes to reveal that intragenic recombination can take place between the virus strains and play a potential role in bringing novel BTV lineages.