bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The World of Hosea Easton and David Walker
Authors: Archer Richard
Published: September 2017

Hosea Easton and David Walker described and analyzed racism in New England during the late 1820s. New England had initially been more receptive to its black population than were other sections of the United States, but as their populations of free people of African descent dramatically increased, states began to reverse themselves. By the 1820s, laws forbade free people of African descent from marrying whites, employment was limited to the most menial jobs, and education—where available—was inadequate. African Americans could not serve on juries or hold public office. Their housing opportunities were restricted, and they were segregated in church seating. They were barred from theaters, hotels, hospitals, stagecoaches, and steamships. Worst of all, whites denied blacks their humanity. Their belief that people of color were inferior to themselves underlay slavery and racism.
Forward Steps
Authors: Archer Richard
Published: September 2017

Reform in all its various coats became somewhat more respectable, but most of all, African Americans were learning how to work the system and were taking the lead in fighting for equal rights. Black Rhode Islanders gained voting rights. Boston's African American community with significant white support kept George Latimer from being reenslaved and in the process prompted the creation of personal liberty laws in every New England state but Maine. By the mid-1840s all of New England north of Rhode Island and Connecticut, with the single exception of Boston, had integrated schools. Black communities with white allies and increasingly sympathetic towns and cities prevailed. That would not have happened in a white supremacist society. New England certainly had its white supremacists, but their number was small. White supremacists were racists, but racists were not necessarily white supremacists.
Repealing the Law
Authors: Archer Richard
Published: September 2017

The successful attempt to remove the prohibition against mixed marriages in Massachusetts (such a law continued to exist in Maine where it wasn't enforced and in Rhode Island until the 1880s) did not occur in isolation from the larger movement for equal rights. Advocating the end of the ban, however, was tricky for politicians and reformers in general (particularly women), because they would be charged with promoting “amalgamation,” but nonetheless year after year the demand to change the law grew. Petitions kept the issue alive in the legislature, The Liberator had called for repeal since its second issue, and eventually good sense prevailed in part because the cause was just but also because so many politicians believed it to be only a symbolic issue. In 1843 the Massachusetts legislature voted for repeal of the marriage restriction and against the desegregation of the railroads-an issue with immediate impact.
Inching Ahead
Authors: Archer Richard
Published: September 2017

People of African descent in Boston continued to struggle for school integration in their city, despite stiff opposition from many in the white community. Their task was made more difficult because of splits within their own ranks. A majority of black Bostonians wanted to end segregation in all the city schools, but a vocal minority advocated keeping the black public schools while integrating the rest. Nonetheless, in 1855 the state legislature passed a law integrating all of the commonwealth's schools. Inadvertently, the bullying tactics of the South made the difference. The Fugitive Slave Law combined with the Kansas-Nebraska Act convinced many New Englanders that there was a Slave Power subverting their values and even their way of life. The Bay State's success inspired African Americans in southern New England to work for integration, particularly in Providence, Rhode Island.
Industrial and Artisanal Producers and the Hybrid Governance of Mercury Pollution
Authors: Ovodenko Alexander
Published: September 2017

The chapter studies the regulation of different industries under the same treaty, although it assesses the impacts of upstream producer-level differences on regime design. It focuses on the new mercury treaty negotiated in January 2013 and evaluates the markets theory on a micro-foundational level with 85 original survey responses from government negotiators and nongovernment participants in the final meeting of the treaty negotiations, as well as 13 in-depth interviews with negotiation participants. The findings show that negotiators of the mercury treaty recognized the need for nonbinding and country-specific mitigation goals for artisanal gold mining and legally binding targets and global timetables for industrial sectors using or producing mercury-added products. Moreover, industries with concentrated producers participating in transnational trade associations are expected to accomplish more with financial assistance than artisanal gold miners.
Regulating Under Constraints
Authors: Ovodenko Alexander
Published: September 2017

This chapter concludes the book by summarizing the validity of the hypotheses tested in the empirical chapters, assessing the overall explanatory power of the markets theory, identifying the theoretical and empirical contributions of the book, and outlining specific avenues for future research on international institutions and global environmental politics. It situates the theoretical and empirical contributions in the literatures on environmental regulation and collective action, reiterating the many impacts of market structures on global regime design. Scholars of global environmental politics should draw from research on American politics to understand institutional design and should focus on policy schemes that would mitigate pollution from competitive sectors, especially in developing countries.
Minds, Machines, and Giving a Damn
Authors: Chodat Robert
Published: September 2017

The 1960s saw the triumph of cognitive science over behaviorism. This chapter examines three literary–philosophical objections to this shift: “West Coast” phenomenology, Richard Powers’s Galatea 2.2, and the writings of Walker Percy, the first of the postwar sages featured in this book. For “West Coast” philosophers, cognitive science ignores the way human action is structured by what we “give a damn” about—a sense of significance that orients our actions. Powers’s novel goes a step further: no more than machines do we know what to give a damn about. Percy’s essays and fiction challenge both these positions, asking us to see analogies between the significance we find in language and the significance we find in living a Christian life. Establishing such an analogy is the goal of Percy’s 1971 Love in the Ruins, which seeks to embody—with only partial success—what terms such as “faith” and “community” might mean.
That Horeb, That Kansas
Authors: Chodat Robert
Published: September 2017

As an essayist, Marilynne Robinson repeatedly challenges the Darwinian theories that, since the 1970s, have captivated many of our most prominent social scientists, philosophers, and public intellectuals. Such theories can seem marginal to her 2004 novel Gilead, which is narrated by a small-town minister in mid-twentieth-century Iowa. But the novel is a prolonged meditation on the high words recommended in Robinson’s essays, words that would challenge the priority that neo-Darwinians assign to strategic and kinship relations and that would emphasize the capacity for self-reflection and “testimony” that Robinson’s essays underscore. For all the challenges Gilead presents to Darwinian theory, however, it also challenges Robinson’s own discursive rebuttals of it. Written as a diary, the text foregrounds the moment-to-moment difficulty of applying our normative concepts: living in a “world ongoing,” the narrator struggles to achieve the kind of authority that Robinson herself manifests in her own nonfiction.
Puzzles, Pawnshops, and Improvisation
Authors: Chodat Robert
Published: September 2017

In his 2010 memoir Little Did I Know, Stanley Cavell challenges two misleading pictures prevalent in analytic philosophy. One suggests that human behavior could be fully explained and predicted, much in the way that a picture puzzle has only a single solution. A second suggests that the unpredictability of human actions means that they are wholly random, unaccountable, even irrational. In both the form and content of the memoir, Cavell suggests a different view: that our speech and lives are always poised between the purposeful and the accidental, and that genuine action is improvisatory. Such a standpoint is markedly different from that of certain well-known philosophical associates of Cavell—Quine, Derrida—who have also ventured to compose autobiographies. Little Did I Know, however, also highlights the philosopher’s distance from the social, economic, technological, and cultural changes that have marked the last few decades of American life. It thus risks shielding itself from the full range of “accidents” that mark a human life today.
Education's Epistemology
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

This collection extends and further defends the “reasons conception” of critical thinking that Harvey Siegel has articulated and defended over the last three-plus decades. This conception analyzes and emphasizes both the epistemic quality of candidate beliefs, and the dispositions and character traits that constitute the “critical spirit”, that are central to a proper account of critical thinking; argues that epistemic quality must be understood ultimately in terms of epistemic rationality; defends a conception of rationality that involves both rules and judgment; and argues that critical thinking has normative value over and above its instrumental tie to truth. Siegel also argues, contrary to currently popular multiculturalist thought, for both transcultural and universal philosophical ideals, including those of multiculturalism and critical thinking themselves. Over seventeen chapters, Siegel makes the case for regarding critical thinking, or the cultivation of rationality, as a preeminent educational ideal, and the fostering of it as a fundamental educational aim. A wide range of alternative views are critically examined. Important related topics, including indoctrination, moral education, open-mindedness, testimony, epistemological diversity, and cultural difference are treated. The result is a systematic account and defense of critical thinking, an educational ideal widely proclaimed but seldom submitted to critical scrutiny itself.
Neither Humean nor (Fully) Kantian Be
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

This chapter offers a reply to Stefaan Cuypers’ explication and critique of the views of rationality and critical thinking laid out in the previous chapters and in earlier work (see his “Critical Thinking, Autonomy and Practical Reason,” 2004). While Cuypers’ discussion is praiseworthy in several respects, it (1) mistakenly attributes to those views a Humean conception of (practical) reason, and (2) unsuccessfully argues that the positions articulated and defended in those earlier chapters lack the resources required to defend the basic claim that critical thinking is a fundamental educational ideal. Cuypers’ analysis also raises deep issues about the motivational character of reasons; I briefly address this matter as well.
What (Good) Are Thinking Dispositions?
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

Recent work on critical thinking and related matters, by philosophers, psychologists, and other educational scholars, has made free use of the notion of thinking dispositions. What are thinking dispositions? In this paper I offer an account of them, according to which thinking dispositions are properties of thinkers: general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances. In developing this “realistic” account of dispositions, according to which dispositions are genuine properties of thinkers, I argue that thinking dispositions are neither equivalent nor reducible to rules or behaviors, and that they can be genuinely explanatory. I hope that by answering these philosophical questions concerning thinking dispositions it will be possible to appreciate more fully their proper place in educational theory and practice.
Open-Mindedness, Critical Thinking, and Indoctrination
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

William Hare has made fundamental contributions to philosophy of education. His work on various matters of educational theory and practice is of the first importance and will influence the field for decades to come. Among the most important of these contributions is his hugely important work on open-mindedness, an ideal that Hare has clarified and defended powerfully and tellingly. In this paper I explore the several relationships that exist between Hare’s favored educational ideal (open-mindedness) and my own (critical thinking). Both are important educational aims, but I argue here that while both are of central importance, it is the latter that is the more fundamental of the two.
Truth, Thinking, Testimony, and Trust
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

In his recent work in social epistemology, Alvin Goldman argues that truth is the fundamental epistemic end of education, and that critical thinking is of merely instrumental value with respect to that fundamental end. He also argues that there is a central place for testimony and trust in the classroom, and an educational danger in overemphasizing the fostering of students’ critical thinking. This chapter takes issue with these claims and argues that (1) critical thinking is a fundamental end of education, independently of its instrumental tie to truth, and (2) it is critical thinking, rather than testimony and trust, that is educationally basic.
Multiculturalism and the Possibility of Transcultural Educational and Philosophical Ideals
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

How should we think about the interrelationships that obtain among philosophy, education, and culture? In this chapter I explore the contours of one such interrelationship: the way in which educational and (other) philosophical ideals transcend individual cultures. I do so by considering the contemporary educational and philosophical commitment to multiculturalism. Consideration of multiculturalism, I argue, reveals important aspects of the character of both educational and philosophical ideals. Specifically, I advance the claim that we are obliged to embrace the moral and political directives of multiculturalism, and that this obligation is a moral one. Moreover, multiculturalism is itself a “universal” or “transcultural” ideal. Moreover, the advocacy of multiculturalism presupposes another kind of universality, dubbed “transcultural normative reach.” Consequently, multiculturalism should not be understood as entailing the demise of “universalistic” dimensions of either philosophy or education.
Argument Quality and Cultural Difference
Authors: Siegel Harvey
Published: September 2017

Central to argumentation theory is a concern with normativity. Argumentation theorists are concerned, among other things, with explaining why some arguments are good in the sense that a given argument provides reasons for embracing its conclusion. This conception of argument quality presupposes that the goodness of arguments is characterizable in terms of features of “the argument itself.” Recent work by a wide range of philosophers and theorists rejects such an abstract, impersonal notion of argument goodness. These theorists insist upon taking seriously the features of the evaluators themselves, and emphasize the importance of cultural difference in argument appraisal. In this paper I argue that while there is much merit in the general multiculturalist perspective, the multiculturalist argument against impersonal conceptions of argument quality fails, mainly because it presupposes just the kind of impersonal account of argument quality it seeks to reject. I call this presupposition that of transcultural normative reach.
War in Jewish Law before Zionism
Authors: Eisen Robert
Published: September 2017

This chapter provides the necessary background for understanding the positions of the five rabbis on war by describing the material in medieval Halakhah dealing with this topic in greater detail. The basis for discussion is Maimonides’ treatment of laws of war in his Mishneh Torah, the most important source for laws in all of Halakhah. Also included is a discussion of Nahmanides’ highly influential position on the imperative to conquer the land of Israel, as well as a discussion of preemptive war which is not addressed by Maimonides. Finally, the chapter gives a more in-depth discussion than that presented in the first chapter about the key moral issues at the center of the study: which types of war in medieval Halakhah are still applicable, who has legitimate authority to wage war, whether a modern Jewish state may conscript soldiers, and whether Jewish soldiers may kill enemy civilians even accidentally.
R. Shlomo Goren
Authors: Eisen Robert
Published: September 2017

This chapter grapples with the views of R. Shlomo Goren (1917–94), who served as Chief Ashkenazi Rabbi of the Israel Defense Forces and subsequently as Chief Rabbi of Israel. His positions are in some respects a compromise between the positions of those who came before him. Most notably, on the issue of conscription, he takes a position that is between the majority of figures in this study who claim that conscription is permitted because wartime Halakhah is different from everyday Halakhah, and that of R. Yisraeli who in his later writings argues that it is permitted because the requirement to endanger oneself for the sake of others is required by everyday Halakhah itself. R. Goren also has the most extensive discussions of any of our figures on enemy civilian casualties. He permits the killing of civilians but only if it occurs accidentally in the course of battle.
The Exchange Order
Authors: Adelstein Richard
Published: September 2017

This book illuminates a comprehensive social system that comprises explicit markets, tort liability, and criminal liability, and describes each of these three institutions as serving the same function in different social and physical circumstances. It defines exchanges as compensated transfers of rights and objects among individuals, and shows that markets, tort, and crime each operate to organize and facilitate, to govern, exchange of a particular kind of right in a particular exchange environment to which its own rules and procedures are well suited. Under perfect conditions, each operates to move rights and objects from lower- to higher-valuing owners by requiring every taker of rights to compensate every loser in full for the costs of the taking. Markets can organize voluntary exchange of property rights only where theft can be deterred, but when rights or objects are stolen, an involuntary transfer is initiated, and markets are incapable of organizing the completion of the involuntary exchange by compensating the victim. This is the role of tort and criminal liability, which complete the involuntary transaction begun by the theft by imposing a compensatory liability price on every offender equal to the costs imposed by the theft. Marginal-cost pricing in markets controls voluntary, lawful cost imposition by distinguishing inefficient from efficient cost imposition and encouraging the latter, and corrective justice in tort and crime, each in an institutional domain determined by the character of the rights being traded, controls involuntary, unlawful cost imposition in the same way.
Property and Exchange
Authors: Adelstein Richard
Published: September 2017

Property is what’s exchanged in markets, and this chapter examines its nature, introduces the ideological dispute between Locke and Bentham over its origins and the implications of their views for government and individuals, and shows how and to what effect property is exchanged in explicit markets. Rights are distinguished from objects, and property is defined as rights to control specific objects for specific uses at specific times, so different people may own different property rights in a single object at the same time. For Locke, individuals have these rights naturally and create government to protect them, while Bentham argues that government creates rights and can allocate them coercively toward its proper ends. The creation of new rights to resolve disputes is considered, and movement of property rights to higher-valuing owners by voluntary exchange in perfectly favorable conditions is illustrated by a hypothetical dispute over the use of a house.
Property and Technology
Authors: Adelstein Richard
Published: September 2017

In this chapter, the dependence of property rights on government’s policy choices and their vulnerability to theft are both illustrated in the theoretically rich and institutionally challenging case of intellectual goods, ideas rendered in some symbolic medium. The peculiar qualities of these goods make it especially hard for sellers to prevent thieves (“free riders”) from stealing their value and thus make voluntary exchange with willing buyers possible. This induces a continuous competition of technologies, in which free riders seek the technological means to steal the value of intellectual goods and sellers seek the means to exclude them. When free riders have the technological advantage, sellers must turn to the law to protect their ability to sell to willing buyers. The law’s response is intellectual property, discussed here as copyright, an unusual species of property having only limited duration and subject to “fair use,” legalized theft under certain circumstances.
Crime and Punishment
Authors: Adelstein Richard
Published: September 2017

This chapter elaborates the operation of criminal liability by closely considering efficient crimes and the law’s stance toward them, shows how its commitment to proportional punishment prevents the probability scaling that systemically efficient allocation requires, and discusses the procedures that determine the actual liability prices imposed on offenders. Efficient crimes are effectively encouraged by proportional punishment, and their nature and implications are examined. But proportional punishment precludes probability scaling, and induces far more than the systemically efficient number of crimes. Liability prices that match the specific costs imposed by the offender at bar are sought through a two-stage procedure of legislative determination of punishment ranges ex ante and judicial determination of exact prices ex post, which creates a dilemma: whether to price crimes accurately in the past or deter them accurately in the future. An illustrative Supreme Court case bringing all these themes together is discussed in conclusion.
Trials and Bargains
Authors: Adelstein Richard
Published: September 2017

Almost every criminal conviction in the United States is achieved by guilty plea, and the system of plea bargaining that creates this outcome is closely examined in this chapter and briefly compared with case dispositions in inquisitorial systems. Adversarial and inquisitorial trials as ways to determine criminal liability and liability prices are compared, and the origins of plea bargaining in rising caseloads and elaborate rights and procedures in adversarial trials are discussed. How plea bargaining works and whether it puts a price on the right to trial are examined, and the Supreme Court’s effort to regulate it for efficiency and fairness is reviewed. Bargaining in the United States and England are compared, and European approaches to rising caseloads are considered in light of the imperatives of inquisitorial procedure. Plea bargaining is a window on criminal liability everywhere, a last give-and-take over price in a system of involuntary entitlement exchange.
Afterword: The Exchange Order
Authors: Adelstein Richard
Published: September 2017

The Afterword illustrates the operation of the exchange order by analogy to Braudel’s division of history into three frames and considers how this order might best be studied. Markets, tort, and criminal liability each operate at three levels of depth: a surface level where individual transactions are carried out and change is rapid, a middle level where the forces that determine costs and prices and the patterns of exchange interact and change is slower but discernible, and a deepest level that represents the fundamental commitment of the system to the social function of exchange governance, which changes very slowly, if at all. Nothing in any of these systems is ever in equilibrium, and the optimizing methods of Pigovian economics are not as useful in understanding how they work and change as are the historical, comparative methods of evolutionary biology.
Restaging the Monarchy
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

Upon the Restoration, Charles II and his court began deliberate efforts to reintroduce the language and symbols of monarchy, some of which, including the crowns and royal jewels and art collection, had been physically destroyed or sold off by Parliament. Charles II’s official progress into the city of London on his return and his coronation were symbolic performances intended to discredit rebellion and re-establish monarchy using classical and biblical imagery.
Fictions and Romances, Foreign and Domestic
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

During the first decade after the Restoration, terms to denote fiction such as ‘romance’ and ‘novel’ were often interchangeable. Many new works of fiction reference the civil war and the return of monarchy. Most declared a moral or didactic purpose, while others featured picaresque adventures, some of which were translated from Spanish and French works. Bookseller Francis Kirkman also published a popular title by Richard Head, The English Rogue, which enjoyed many reprints. Margaret Cavendish experimented with epistolary fiction in Sociable Letters.
Public Spectacles: The Popish Plot and Public Mass Media
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

The Exclusion Crisis arose over the Whig party’s attempt to block the Catholic James Duke York, from inheriting the throne. It led to a series of public demonstrations playing on fears of a fictional Catholic treason plot created by Titus Oates, the Popish Plot. As series of treason trials based on perjured testimony and forged documents led to the execution of several Jesuit priests in 1679, while the Queen’s physician Sir George Wakeman was acquitted. Whig politicians encouraged anti-Catholic sentiments with public pope-burning pageants, scripted processions held on Queen Elizabeth’s birthday.
Novels: Or, Fictions, Fables, Travels, and True Histories
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

The 1680s and 1690s saw continued interest in fiction, including translations of important continental works by Rabelais and Cervantes. Among popular forms, fictions purporting to be ‘real’ letters and life histories flourished. Several dramatists used the plots found in popular novels as the basis for stage productions, including adaptations of Behn’s fictions, such as Oroonoko by Thomas Southerne. Behn set several of her short fictions in continental nunneries with scandalous heroines, while other fiction writers insisted on a didactic message. Dampier’s travel narratives created imitations and there were multiple versions of the animal fables by Aesop.
Creating Values: Critics, Literary Criticism, and the Classics
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

Many poets and dramatists, such as John Dryden and the Earl of Roscommon, included literary criticism, or a critique of literary values, as part of their publications. Criticism took the form of essays, verses, dialogues, and epistles. Biblical exegesis and commentary also offered the tools of literary assessment. Classical literature was viewed as a benchmark for the evaluation of contemporary poetry and drama by Dryden, Congreve, and Thomas Rymer. Essayists including William Temple and William Wotton debated the relative merits of classical and continental models and rules in a discussion of the Ancients and the Moderns.
Periodical Publications: Journalism, Politics, and Polite Entertainment
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

New formats for periodical publications in this decade included the newspaper, which replaced the earlier newsbooks and handwritten subscription newsletters and which created new opportunities for journalism. In addition to news, they were also important to the development of advertising and opinion writing. While some periodicals were associated with political parties, such as the Tory Examiner for which Jonathan Swift and Delarivier Manley wrote, others such as the Athenian Mercury, the Tatler, and the Guardian were more concerned with polite entertainment and literary matters.
Fictions: Politics and Secrets
Authors: Ezell Margaret J. M.
Published: September 2017

While examples of conventional romance fiction continued during this decade, fiction also became the vehicle for topical satire, as seen in Jonathan Swift’s Tale of a Tub and Delarivier Manley’s New Atalantis. Publishers were offering collections of novels in uniform editions. Epistolary fictions were increasingly popular, such as Thomas Brown’s Letters from the Dead to the Living. Fictions by Daniel Defoe and others mingled factual accounts of events and people with allegory, fable, and sensational adventure, as found in A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal.
Normativity and Control
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2017

This work collects ten chapters on matters first discussed in Reason without Freedom: The Problem of Epistemic Normativity (2000). That book asked what form of control we must have over something in order to be held to the norms governing that thing, and it was argued that belief, intention, and action each require a different type of control. The forms of freedom appropriate to each of them and so the presuppositions of responsibility to each of them vary. The present work elaborates and defends that idea. Reason without Freedom also aimed to show that discussion of issues in the moral psychology of belief would cast light on some of the traditional problems of epistemology and in particular on the problems of scepticism and testimony. The present work continues that project and responds to some pertinent developments in recent epistemology. Eight of the ten chapters that follow are previously published and appear with only minor alterations, one is published here for the first time (‘Human Testimony’), and one is a heavily revised version of a previously published essay (‘Value and Epistemic Normativity’). Also included is a substantial introduction.
Does Belief Have an Aim?
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2017

The hypothesis that belief aims at the truth has been used to explain three features of belief: (1) the fact that correct beliefs are true beliefs; (2) the fact that rational beliefs are supported by the evidence; and (3) the fact that we cannot form beliefs ‘at will’. The chapter argues that the truth-aim hypothesis cannot explain any of these facts. In this respect, believing differs from guessing since the hypothesis that guessing aims at the truth can explain the three analogous features of guessing. It concludes that (unlike guessing) believing does not have an aim, at least in any theoretically interesting sense.
Deliberation and the First Person
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2017

Following Descartes, philosophers like Shoemaker and Burge argue that only self-conscious creatures can exercise rational control over their mental lives. In particular, they urge that reflective rationality requires possession of the I-concept, the first-person concept. These philosophers maintain that rational creatures like ourselves can exercise reflective control over belief as well as action. This chapter agrees that we have this reflective control over our own actions and that this form of practical freedom presupposes self-consciousness, but denies that anything like this is true of belief. The chapter endorses Williams’ claims that the first-person concept is indispensible only to practical reasoning.
Scepticisms
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2017

Contemporary discussion of scepticism focuses on the possibility that all or most of our beliefs might be false. This chapter argues that the hypothesis of massive falsity and the associated ‘problem of the external world’ are inessential to the scepticisms of Descartes and Hume. What drives Cartesian and Humean scepticism is the demand for certainty: any possibility of error, however local, must be ruled out before we can claim either justified belief or knowledge. Contemporary philosophers have largely ignored this form of scepticism because they doubt that the demand for certainty can be motivated. In fact, Descartes provides a sound motivation for this demand in his Fourth Meditation.
Descartes’ Use of Doubt
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2017

Chapter 5 argues that Descartes’ scepticism depends on his demand for certainty. The current chapter elaborates the justification for that demand to be found in the Fourth Meditation, making it clear why (as Descartes insists) the sceptical inquiry must take the form of a meditation. It also explains Descartes’ insistence (in the Discourse) that his demand for certainty does not apply to the affairs of ordinary life. For the purpose of leading our lives whilst engaged in Descartes’ sceptical inquiry we are invited to rely on a state distinct from belief, namely conjecture. And to prosecute the sceptical inquiry itself we must make use of another device: supposition.
Ardent Realism
Authors: Eklund Matti
Published: September 2017

This chapter introduces some main issues of the book. First, one motivation underlying normative realism is the desire to vindicate the sense that the world itself objectively undergirds certain ways of valuing and behaving. But on standard characterizations of realism, realism can be true without this desire being satisfied. Calling a realist motivated in the way described an ardent realist, mere realism is not sufficient for ardent realism. Second, much moral and political philosophy is ideologically conservative in the sense that it uncritically makes use of the conceptual resources we find ourselves with: but what if these resources, including the most general normative concepts, are themselves objectionable or otherwise defective?
Presentationalism
Authors: Eklund Matti
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores the view—“presentationalism”—that normative sentences and propositions are mind-independently true, but what they represent is not normative. There are no normative properties or facts. This view, whatever in the end its fate, combines attractive features of realism and antirealism. The view is curiously absent from prominent accounts of the theoretical options. The possibility of a view like this problematizes important arguments in the literature, for example certain arguments for non-naturalism, and shows that one must be careful to distinguish between normative facts and normative truths. Toward the end of the chapter, I consider whether the Moral Twin Earth arguments present problems for the view.
Introduction
Authors: McDaniel Kris
Published: September 2017

One of the oldest questions in metaphysics concerns not the various natures of beings but rather the nature of being itself: is being unitary or does being fragment? The primary aims of this book are to explicate the idea that being fragments, to show how the fragmentation of being impacts various other extant philosophical disputes, and to defend the tenability and fruitfulness of the idea that being fragments. The book demonstrates the importance of the claim that being fragments by extensively exploring the connections between the various ways being might fragment and philosophical issues pertaining to metaphysical fundamentality, substances and accidents, time, modality, ontological categories, absences and presences, persons, value, ground, and essence.
Being and Almost Nothingness
Authors: McDaniel Kris
Published: September 2017

Holes, shadows, and other absences fittingly show the cracks of many ontological theories. Their reality must be recognized, but their way of being must also be recognized as in some way deficient. This chapter discusses several ways of accounting for the deficiency of the mode of being of absences before settling on the claim that absences have a lower grade or degree of being than other objects. It develops a view on which the degree of being of an object is proportionate to the naturalness of the most natural quantifier that ranges over that object. Beings by courtesy are those beings for which no fundamental quantifier ranges over them. “Almost nothings” are species of beings by courtesy, but the author also discusses whether other kinds of objects might be as well.
Persons and Value
Authors: McDaniel Kris
Published: September 2017

There are people, but how people exist is unclear. This chapter argues that it is part of our evaluative self-conception that persons are fully real, but decline to take this as proof that we are fully real. Instead, It explores a series of arguments for this conclusion. A common premise of these arguments is that a sufficient condition for being fully real is instantiating a perfectly natural property or relation. Specific arguments appeal to properties such as what it’s like to taste chocolate, being Kris McDaniel, certain moral properties such as intrinsic value, and freedom. We will not settle the question of whether we fully exist, but in this chapter the author demonstrates how complex the issues involved are.
Being and Essence
Authors: McDaniel Kris
Published: September 2017

The focus of this chapter is on the connections between being and essence, where “essence” is primarily understood as strict essence. The chapter discusses whether every entity has a strict essence; the author argues that plausibly not. It discusses whether truths about essence imply truths about existence; the author plumps for a positive answer to this question, but discusses several alternative views. It discusses whether essences should be understood as entities, and if so, what kind of entity they might be. It also discusses whether truths about essences are grounded not in entities in general but rather in the ways in which entities exist. Finally, the chapter assesses whether the properties an object strictly essentially has are also had as matter of modal necessity.
Measuring International Authority
Authors: Hooghe Liesbet , Marks Gary , Lenz Tobias , Bezuijen Jeanine , Ceka Besir , Derderyan Svet
Published: September 2017

This book sets out a measure of authority for seventy-six major international organizations (IOs) from 1950 to 2010 in an effort to provide systematic comparative information on international governance. On the premise that transparency is key in the production of data, the authors chart a path in laying out the assumptions that underpin the measure. Successive chapters detail the authors’ theoretical, conceptual, and coding decisions. In order to assess their authority, the authors model the composition of IO bodies, their roles in decision making, the bindingness of IO decisions, and the mechanisms through which they seek to settle disputes. Profiles of regional, cross-regional, and global IOs explain how they are composed and how they make decisions. A distinctive feature of the measure is that it breaks down the concept of international authority into discrete dimensions. The Measure of International Authority (MIA) is built up from coherent ingredients—the composition and role of individual IO bodies at each stage in policy making, constitutional reform, the budget, financial compliance, membership accession, and the suspension of members. These observations can be assembled—like Lego blocks—in diverse ways for diverse purposes. This produces a flexible tool for investigating international governance and testing theory.
International Authority: From Concept to Measure
Authors: Hooghe Liesbet , Mark Gary , Lenz Tobias , Bezuijen Jeanine , Ceka Besir , Derderyan Svet
Published: September 2017

Chapter One discusses the theoretical-conceptual underpinnings of the Measure of International Authority (MIA). In what respects, and to what extent, do international organizations exert legal rational authority? What powers do non-state actors have in international decision making and dispute settlement? To what extent, when, and how do states sacrifice the national veto in collective decision making? The chapter is structured in a sequence of five steps from the abstract to the particular: conceptualize authority; specify the concept as formal authority of international organizations; unfold in the dimensions of delegation and pooling; operationalize international organization (IO) composition and decision making in indicators that describe institutional alternatives that can be reliably assessed; explicate principles for scoring and adjudicating cases.
Introduction
Authors: Hooghe Liesbet , Mark Gary , Lenz Tobias , Bezuijen Jeanine , Ceka Besir , Derderyan Svet
Published: September 2017

This part of the book walks through the evidence that we have gathered to estimate international governance. The route takes us through forty-six international organizations (IOs), and tells the reader how IO bodies are composed, what decisions each body makes, and how they make decisions. This sounds simpler than it actually is, and few readers will accompany us on the entire journey. However, it may be reassuring for the expert and the non-expert alike to know that should they have a specific query about any of the organizations covered in this book, they can discover how we code it by looking in the profiles in this book or online....
Dangerous Diplomacy
Authors: Salton Herman T.
Published: September 2017

This book assesses the role of the UN Secretariat in the Rwandan genocide. With the help of new sources, including the personal diaries and private papers of the late Sir Marrack Goulding, it situates the Rwanda operation within the context of bureaucratic friction existing at Headquarters in the early 1990s between the Department of Political Affairs (DPA) and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). The book argues that these units clashed not only over resources (a classic symptom of bureaucratic pathology) but also over the scope of peacekeeping and the role of the Secretary-General (SG) within it. This rivalry also reflected a split between a strong-willed SG determined to leave his mark on international affairs and to use his ‘political’ department independently of states, and Washington and the politico-military apparatus of the Pentagon, which in Somalia, Rwanda, Bosnia, and Haiti found itself increasingly at odds with Boutros-Ghali. Although the book looks at how this bureaucratic and power-political confrontation impacted on the Rwanda mission, it identifies the conceptual reasons for the DPA–DPKO split in the grey area that separates peacebuilding and peacekeeping. The difficulty of distinguishing these two key UN functions, coupled with the creative tension between SGs and states, explains why six decades after the birth of the UN, it has still not been possible to demarcate the exact roles of DPA and DPKO. Far from being dull and irrelevant, the book concludes that the UN bureaucracy is an intriguing barometer of the role of the Secretary-General in world politics.
Security Council
Authors: Salton Herman T.
Published: September 2017

This chapter looks at the decision-making process of the Security Council on Rwanda and considers its most visible conundrum: why did states unanimously decide to reduce UNAMIR in late April 1994, only to reverse their position in early May? The chapter addresses this question by considering the Council’s informal (or secret) consultations of April and May 1994 and by assessing them alongside the recollections of UN officials (including the SG’s Special Representative to the Council) and the Goulding Archive. In so doing, the chapter questions a number of assumptions about the Rwandan crisis: that the SC was united in its opposition to the peacekeeping mission; that states only pursued their national interests; and that the Secretariat had no influence over the Council.
Bureaucracy
Authors: Salton Herman T.
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores the origins of the bureaucratic confrontation between DPA and DPKO in the early 1990s. It argues that while both Pérez de Cuéllar and Boutros-Ghali wanted to strengthen their role as Secretary-General, they used different bureaucratic tools to achieve it. Pérez de Cuéllar kept peacekeeping and peacebuilding under the tight control of his Executive Office, whereas Boutros-Ghali created DPA and DPKO. In October 1993, Boutros-Ghali also abruptly redefined the roles of these two departments, so that DPA was charged with substantive decision-making responsibility, whereas DPKO was to be downgraded to ‘operational’ tasks. Fresh documents also suggest that the DPA–DPKO competition was partly the result of the Secretary-General’s attempt to disenfranchise himself from the UN membership through what Boutros-Ghali saw as a powerful ‘political’ office to be opposed to the ‘operational’—and, in his view, US-dominated—DPKO.
Intelligence
Authors: Salton Herman T.
Published: September 2017

This chapter considers the ways in which the UN Secretariat handled the four critical stages of the ‘intelligence sequence’ in Rwanda, namely, the planning, collection, analysis, and dissemination of intelligence in the run-up to the genocide. It argues that it is precisely in the domain of intelligence that the ambiguous roles of DPA and DPKO were most visible and problematic. Fresh evidence further suggests that, on the eve of UNAMIR, a new system of data-collection and analysis was established by Boutros-Ghali that was supposed to rely heavily on both DPA and DPKO as the ‘eyes and ears’ of the SG. The chapter comes to the conclusion that part of the reason behind the DPA–DPKO feud in New York can be linked to their competing intelligence roles in the early 1990s.
Towards the Final Legitimation of the Party
Authors: Ignazi Piero
Published: September 2017

Chapter 3 investigates the process of party formation in France, Germany, Great Britain, and Italy, and demonstrates the important role of cultural and societal premises for the development of political parties in the nineteenth century. Particular attention is paid in this context to the conditions in which the two mass parties, socialists and Christian democrats, were established. A larger set of Western European countries included in this analysis is thoroughly scrutinized. Despite discontent among traditional liberal-conservative elites, full endorsement of the political party was achieved at the beginning of the twentieth century. Particular attention is paid to the emergence of the interwar totalitarian party, especially under the guise of Italian and German fascism, when ‘the party’ attained its most dominant influence as the sole source and locus of power. The chapter concludes by suggesting hidden and unaccounted heritages of that experience in post-war politics.