bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bilingual Education: The Legal Mandate
Authors: Teitelbaum Herbert , Hiller Richard
Published: May 2015

The Lau v. Nichols decision of the Supreme Court, which upheld the right of non-English-speaking students to educational programs designed to meet their language-skill needs, has suddenly created a presumption in favor of bilingual education that is causing nationwide repercussions. In this article attorneys Herbert Teitelbaum and Richard Hiller review Lau and subsequent cases and point out that the bringing and winning of such cases will not overcome all the obstacles to equitable education. One hurdle may be the sluggish federal enforcement of remedies to Lau violations; another may be school districts' resistance, explained on the grounds of increased costs, contract rights of teachers, the small number of students involved, or the need to avoid segregation. Although such defenses are rarely successful in court, Teitelbaum and Hiller acknowledge that fears of segregation may impede the implementation of bilingual programs. Accordingly, they present options for remedying discrimination against linguistic-minority students without violating constitutional constraints against segregation. Moreover, they pointedly remind us that proponents of bilingual education are natural allies, not enemies, of this constitutional command, for "many of the minority groups that now support bilingual education were themselves victims of segregation."
Trends in Second-Language-Acquisition Research
Authors: Hakuta Kenji , Cancino Herlinda
Published: May 2015

Recent concern with bilingual education has led to an increased interest in understanding the process of second-language acquisition. In this article Kenji Hakuta and Herlinda Cancino present a critical, historical overview of research on second–language acquisition. In this account the authors outline four analytical approaches—contrastive, error, performance, and discourse analysis—trace the shifts among these approaches, and demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of each. They also show how the different approaches reflect changing conceptions of language and the nature of learners. The authors give special emphasis to the influence of first-language-acquisition research on studies of second-language acquisition,and they speculate on future research trends.
Introduction
Authors: Radwin Eugene , Wolf-Ward Maryanne
Published: May 2015

An infant utters a two-word sentence; a four-year-old regales a peer with a bad joke;a first-grade child struggles to read "Rumpelstiltskin"; a Japanese girl learns to speak English; an adolescent works to shape thoughts in writing; a woman studies a woodcut by Dürer; philosophers discuss an essay by Locke. What links each of these disparate acts is their place on an evolving continuum of communication that encompasses language and reading. This continuum is at once the subject and the scope of this special issue.
In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and of Morality
Authors: Gilligan Carol
Published: May 2015

As theories of developmental psychology continue to define educational goals and practice, it has become imperative for educators and researchers to scrutinize not only the underlying assumptions of such theories but also the model of adulthood toward which they point. Carol Gilligan examines the limitations of several theories,most notably Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development, and concludes that developmental theory has not given adequate expression to the concerns and experience of women. Through a review of psychological and literary sources, she illustrates the feminine construction of reality. From her own research data, interviews with women contemplating abortion, she then derives an alternative sequence for the development of women's moral judgments. Finally, she argues for an expanded conception of adulthood that would result from the integration of the "feminine voice" into developmental theory.
No Simple Answer: Critique of the Follow Through Evaluation
Authors: House Ernest , Glass Gene , McLean Leslie , Walker Decker
Published: May 2015

Follow Through has been the largest and most expensive federal educational experiment in this country's history. Conceived in 1967 as an extension of Head Start, Follow Through was designed as a service program to improve the schooling of disadvantaged children in the early elementary grades. Before it was under way,however, an expected $120 million appropriation was slashed to only $15 milion for the first year. A decision was then made by the U.S. Office of Education to convert the program into a planned variation experiment, which systematically would compare pupils enrolled in different models of early childhood education—the Follow Through models—to each other and to pupils from non-Follow Through classes.
Individualism, Collectivism, and Radical Educational Reform
Authors: Cagan Elizabeth
Published: May 2015

Suggesting the American notions of individualism may be at the heart of the failure of radical schools reform, Elizabeth Cagan argues that educators must actively foster in children a collectivist character—one based on altruism, cooperation,and concern for the welfare of others. In support of this, she reviews a diverse body of literature ranging from observaations of education in socialist nations to experimental research on cooperative behavior among childern. Concluding that a moral commitment to collectivist ideals is the essence of radical reform, she offers a series of educational activities and methods designed both to reflect and to promote such ideals.
Making Sense of the Competency Testing Movement
Authors: Haney Walt , Haney Walt
Published: May 2015

The movement to test students' competencies as both a basis for promotion and a means for improving educational achievement is gathering momentum. In this article,Walt Haney and George Madaus explore the complexities of minimal-competency testing. They examine the implementation of minimal-competency testing programs nationwide and argue for a careful consideration of several important unresolved issues: the definition of what constitutes a "minimal competency" the determination of appropriate measures, and the use of the concept of minimal competence in formulating educational goals.
Further Comment: on Reading, Language, and Learning
Authors: Vellutino Frank
Published: May 2015

Frank R. Vellutino's article, "Alternative Conceptualizations of Dyslexia: Evidence in Support of a Verbal-Deficit Hypothesis," generated the following response from Martin H. Singer. The introduction that preceded the Vellutino article (HER, August 1977) is reprinted here to set this discussion in context.
The Sensitivity of Measures of School Effectiveness
Authors: Madaus George , Kellaghan Thomas , Rakow Ernest , King Denis
Published: May 2015

The search for evidence of differences in the effectiveness of schools has become one of the central themes in educational research. In this article, George Madaus, Thomas Kellaghan, Ernest Rakow, and Denis King question the use of standardized achievement tests as measures for comparing the quality of different schools.
The Rediscovery of the Need for a Feminist Medical Education
Authors: Walsh Mary Roth
Published: May 2015

For well over a century, women have sought acceptance in the medical profession. The first breakthrough in this effort, in the late nineteenth century, resulted in a "golden age": women then accounted for up to half of some medical school graduating classes. These early successes were not followed by subsequent gains. The twentieth century became a period of stagnation for women physicians with respect to both their number and their power. Against the background of this earlier history, this article analyzes contemporary efforts to empower women as physicians.
Feminist Criticism of the Social Sciences
Authors: Westkott Marcia
Published: May 2015

The tensions and contradictions that permeate women's lives simultaneously create the potential for both alienation and liberation. These antithetical conditions form the outline of the debate within the social sciences concerning the interpretation of women's experiences. Marcia Westkott discusses the feminist criticism of the content,method, and purpose of knowledge about women as defined by the social sciences, and offers a dialectical alternative to conventional analyses.
Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle
Authors: Gilligan Carol
Published: May 2015

Drawing on literary and psychological sources, Carol Gilligan documents the way in which theories of the life cycle, by taking for their model the lives of men, have failed to account for the experience of women. Arguing that this bias has promoted a concern with autonomy and achievement at the expense of attachment and intimacy, she suggests that systematic attention to women's lives, in both theory and research, will allow an integration of these concerns into a more balanced conception of human development.
Sexism and Self-Healing in the University
Authors: Nielsen Linda
Published: May 2015

While legislation exists which is intended to prevent discrimination on the basis of sex,the nature and extent of its impact remains indeterminate. Describing her personal experiences as a junior faculty member, Linda Nielsen delineates the subtle manifestations of prejudice that are often more pernicious than overt inequities. The author analyzes the impact of discrimination on her personal and professional life, comparing her perspective on the nature and efforts of prejudice with those of other researchers and female academicians.
Success Anxiety in Women: A Constructivist Interpretation of its Source and its Significance
Authors: Sassen Georgia
Published: May 2015

Georgia Sassen examines the distinctly competitive definition of success which has fostered the popular notion that women are afraid to succeed. In analyzing women's anxiety in the face of competitive success, Sassen argues that recent research reveals that it is the climate of competition which arouses the anxiety, not success itself. Drawing upon a constructivist-developmental concept of anxiety, she points out that the"success anxiety" attributed to women might well be a reflection of their essentially female way of constructing reality, as elaborated in recent feminist theory. Sassen concludes by questioning the idea of removing women's success anxiety by training them to compete; she calls instead for a restructuring of institutions so that competition is not the only avenue to success.
Employment and Education of Mexican-American Women: The Interplay of Modernity and Ethnicity in Eight Families
Authors: Zinn Maxine Baca
Published: May 2015

Acculturation has been the major framework used to explain changes in Mexican-American families. It assumes that changing conjugal roles are associated with a corresponding decline in ethnicity. Instead of viewing traditional Mexican values as determinants of conjugal roles, and changes in those roles as the consequence of acculturation,the study examined the effect of wives' employment outside the home and level of education on conjugal interaction. It was found that as women acquired extra-domestic resources, they achieved greater equality in conjugal decision making without sacrificing ethnicity in other realms of family life.
Education in the Eighties
Authors: Keppel Francis
Published: May 2015

In the 1980s individual states will probably continue to have the major responsibility for education in this country. While the federal government may increase the percentage it contributes to the total costs of education, it will continue to be the junior partner in the enterprise, though one with increasing influence. This junior partner today places more demands on state government than its financial contribution seems to warrant. Conventional wisdom acquired in the 1960s and 1970s suggests that the federal government has set the right agenda on such issues as civil rights, poverty, and policies for minority groups and the handicapped—issues which state governments have generally neglected. But, under the Constitution, the federal government has not had the power to carry out its wishes for education without state and local cooperation. In fact, we often forget that a state's willingness to administer programs effectively is the key to the success of federal programs.
Research Report
Authors: Scheffler Israel
Published: May 2015

With this issue we introduce a new category, Research Reports. The Editors welcome reviews of research in progress, state of the arts, and other field notes that do not fall within our regular format and length stipulations.
Education and the State in Capitalist Society: Aspects of the Sociology of Nicos Poulantzas
Authors: Shapiro H. Svi
Published: May 2015

H. Svi Shapiro reviews some of the major works of the French Marxist sociologist,Nicos Poulantzas. Classes in Contemporary Capitalism, Political Power and Social Classes, and a number of articles dealing with Western capitalist societies are examined to determine their implications for the educational process. Poulantzas produced an extensive and significant body of work on the class structure of modern capitalist societies,and the role of the state, ideology, and political practice. Because of the difficulty of his style, much of this work has remained largely unread. Nevertheless, his writings represent an important contribution to a fully developed radical critique of schools and education under capitalism.
Preface
Authors: Dula Annette , Fultz Michael , Garrod Andrew
Published: May 2015

The editors of the Harvard Educational Review are pleased to present "Education as Transformation: Identity, Change, and Development." This special issue is dedicated to those engaged in the struggle for freedom—whether it is waged against political or economic subjugation, illiteracy, racism, or sexual and cultural chauvinism. Our intent is to focus on the role of education in that struggle in both developing and developed countries and on ways of perceiving and understanding reality that frequently differ from traditional Western conceptions. A critical consideration, then, has been not merely to raise issues pertinent to the Third World but rather to acquire a balanced representation of Third World authors who discuss their own particular values, problems,and strategies.
Children of a Brazilian Favela
Authors: Coles Robert
Published: May 2015

Robert Coles describes the political socialization of children in a Brazilian favela and how, in the midst of extreme deprivation, they place themselves in the social and political order of their country. He offers, in the children's own words, their acute understanding of the role of religion, the police, and the wealthy in shaping their existence, a"paradoxical combination of weary cynicism and fatuous optimism, and in between, a terrible apprehension of what, finally, must be."
The People Speak Their Word: Learning to Read and Write in São Tomé and Principe
Authors: Freire Paulo
Published: May 2015

Paulo Freire reflects here on his role as consultant to the Adult Literacy Program in the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Principe—a role whose political nature, he argues,must be recognized. Repudiating purely mechanical approaches to teaching literacy,Freire advocates a theory and practice that links reading the word to "reading" the context. With the aid of primers, referred to as Popular Culture Notebooks, and the learners' own generation of words and terms relevant to their daily lives, adults learn to read and write through critical reflection, thus enabling them to realize their rights as human beings and to transform themselves and history.
"What Go Round Come Round": King in Perspective
Authors: Smitherman Geneva
Published: May 2015

The children are the future and hope of black America. Therefore, it is fitting and proper to begin with the words of those children who brought the federal lawsuit in the nationally prominent but widely misunderstood case of Martin Luther King Junior Elementary School Children v. Ann Arbor School District Board. Although this case has come to be known as the "Black English Case," it was as much a case about black children as about Black English. As Judge Charles W. Joiner himself said: "It is a straightforward effort to require the court to intervene on the children's behalf to require the defendant School District Board to take appropriate action to teach them to read in the standard English of the school, the commercial world, the arts, science and professions. This action is a cry for judicial help in opening the doors to the establishment. . . . It is an action to keep another generation from becoming functionally illiterate" (Note 1).
The Allen School: An Alternative Nineteenth-Century Education, 1818-1852
Authors: Albert Judith Strong
Published: May 2015

In this account of an experiment in early American education, Judith Strong Albert draws upon the 1818 to 1852 journals of a distinguished New England teacher, Lucy Clark Ware Allen. Ms. Albert describes a nineteenth-century parsonage school that stressed the "innate goodness" of a child's nature and placed emphasis on practice and experience in education. She contrasts the educational philosophy held by Joseph and Lucy Allen, founders of the Allen School of Northborough, Massachusetts, with the views of the leading educational idealist of that era, Bronson Alcott, and provides an illuminating study of an early model in alternative education.
Report Analysis: Public and Private Schools
Authors: Levenson Marya , Terkla Dawn Geronimo
Published: May 2015

In 1980 the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) commissioned five papers on the data produced by High School and Beyond, a 1980 longitudinal study of 58,728 students in 1,016 high schools. One of these papers, Public and Private Schools, by James Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, presents new data on private and public schooling. Currently in draft form, the final version of the report is scheduled to be submitted this fall to the National Center for Education Statistics.1 In the interim,the authors' interpretation of the data and their recommendations for policy directions have initiated a highly publicized and controversial national debate.
Some Legal and Research Considerations in Establishing Federal Policy in Bilingual Education
Authors: Rotberg Iris
Published: May 2015

The federal government has maintained a prominent place in the formation of policy for bilingual education. Iris Rotberg traces the historical development of this involvement and its impact upon legislation, court decisions, regulations, and guidelines for meeting the language needs of over 3.5 million children of school age. The author reviews various instructional models and such research-assessed outcomes as students'achievement, self-image, and integration. She also discusses the implications for federal policy of these legal and research issues and the problem of fiscal support for bilingual programs. Rotberg concludes by proposing areas of research to be explored in future studies of bilingual education in the United States.
Education Grant Consolidation: Its Potential Fiscal and Distributive Effects
Authors: Vogel Mary
Published: May 2015

Proponents of categorical grant consolidation have argued that block grants will improve efficiency and delivery of services to local educational agencies. This analysis of research indicates that block grants are likely to weaken the implementation of federal educational goals, particularly those relating to disadvantaged students.
Research Report: Women in Higher Education: Trends in Enrollments and Degrees Earned
Authors: Randour Mary Lou , Strasburg Georgia , Lipman-Blumen Jean
Published: May 2015

The promise of equal opportunity in the United States implies access to education. Underlying this promise is the belief that educational achievement can be translated into occupational success. Belief in this ideal of equal opportunity and the value of education,coupled with a changing sociopolitical climate, prompted the challenges made to the educational status quo in the 1960s and 1970s. During those turbulent years women activists once again found their political voice to lobby for educational and occupational reforms.
Functional Literacy: Fond Illusions and False Economies
Authors: Levine Kenneth
Published: May 2015

Adult basic education has been profoundly influenced since World War II by the concept of functional literacy. Behind its superficial appeal, however, lies a tangle of flawed assumptions and ambiguities. In this paper, British sociologist Kenneth Levine provides a critique of the existing notion and suggests a new approach that locates literacy competencies in their social context.
Peasant Consciousness Under Peruvian Military Rule
Authors: Epstein Erwin
Published: May 2015

Examining the period of military rule in Peru from 1968 to 1980, Erwin Epstein describes the unique ideology of the regime and the methods it instituted to gain popular support. Particular attention is given to the regime's use of education to win the allegiance of the most politically and economically oppressed class—the highland Indians. These educational methods ranged from providing bilingual education programs in community schools staffed by local teachers, to the formation of nationwide agencies responsible for disseminating the government's particular ideology. Epstein concludes by analyzing the problems with the regime's educational programs, and connects these problems with the regime's ultimate failure to win the Peruvian people's support.
The Federal Role in Elementary and Secondary Education, 1940-1980
Authors: Kaestle Carl , Smith Marshall
Published: May 2015

One of the central dynamics of American educational history is the long-range trend from local and parental schooling arrangements to increasing government funding and centralized control. The trend does not represent simply a benign process of modernization and improvement. Centralization has exacted costs and elicited fierce opposition. In the nineteenth century there were two key developments in this trend: the involvement of state governments in encouraging and regulating schooling, and the consolidation of small local districts into larger, townwide systems. Advocates of local control and nonpublic schooling who opposed these initial steps in the creation of state school systems voiced their objections in much the same terms as opponents of federal involvement do today. Notwithstanding, town-level consolidation and increasing state involvement continued into the twentieth century. Today Americans in both rural and urban areas are accustomed to centralized school districts, detailed state supervision, and substantial state financial aid for education. Curriculum, financial decisionmaking,teacher preparation and licensing, length of the annual school session—all are subject to state regulation. Opponents may contest individual policies and decry excessive bureaucracy,but the general role of the states in financing and regulating school districts'educational practices is widely accepted.
The Propriety of the Federal Role in Expanding Equal Educational Opportunity
Authors: Tollett Kenneth
Published: May 2015

Beginning with the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which sought to encourage the establishment of schools and the means of education, the United States government has supplied land, resources, and other assistance for the advancement of education and related actitivies.1 Since then over eighty-nine pieces of legislation have been enacted for similar purposes; among the most significant was the Morrill Act of 1862, which established land grants for agricultural colleges.2 Efforts to advance equal educational opportunity for blacks took shape in the Freedmen's Bureau legislation,3 and over twenty-five years later, in the second Morrill Act of 1890.4 Congressional responsibility for enforcing the Reconstruction amendments,5 and the enactment of civil rights acts during Reconstruction6 and in the 1950s7 and 1960s,8 reflect the federal government's commitment and obligation over time to provide equal treatment to U.S. citizens, including equal educational opportunity.
Federal Grants and Educational Equity
Authors: Levin Henry
Published: May 2015

The national concern for equity and its specific educational forms are complex issues,fraught with controversy and characterized by widely different philosophical and educational perspectives. Nevertheless, it is important to understand some of the reasons for the existence of this concern in order to see its implications for grant policies.
The Federal Role in American Indian Education
Authors: Ryan Frank Anthony
Published: May 2015

The federal role in American Indian education has its basis in the treaty and commerce clauses of the U.S. Constitution. In the early years of the republic it was recognized that, in the interest of protecting the borders of the Western frontier, the cost of war with the Indians was much higher than the cost of education. Until 1871, in accordance with international law, the United States treated with Indian tribes as separate nations. Commissioners appointed by the President frequently negotiated treaties with specific provisions for education, whose Christianizing and civilizing functions were perceived to be instrumental in obtaining amicable relations. Through the quid pro quo of the treaty process, the United States and Indian tribes established their peculiar relationship. This required that tribes surrender their external powers of sovereignty to the United States. Generally, this meant that they would not engage in treaties with competitive foreign powers such as Great Britain, France, or Spain. Treaties also acknowledged a federal title to their lands, subject to their rights of occupancy. When tribes ceded certain tracts of land that they already occupied, they were permitted to retain their internal powers of sovereignty and to receive financial consideration through specific treaty provisions and through a more generalized duty of care and protection from the United States. As a result, specific and general treaty provisions on education promised to educate American Indians. Appropriation acts pursuant to specific treaty provisions and for the Civilization Fund confirmed the basis and became the policy of the United States in its early federal role in American Indian education.
Toward Meeting the Research Needs of American Indians
Authors: La Fromboise Teresa , Plake Barbara
Published: May 2015

The cultural heritage of American Indians1 and their responses to oppression have intrigued countless investigators of social behavior. Researchers from numerous disciplines have sought to describe and measure tribal social phenomena, discover cultural patterns, and explain the current conditions and practices of these diverse native groups. Most research has taken a culturally myopic view and has been devoid of findings that would be helpful to its subjects. Social science literature, for example, rarely accounts for the positive elements of Indian cultures. The biased assumptions found in much of this kind of research are exemplified in studies that link mental illness to traditional healing (Devereux, 1961), or propose that Indians are underdeveloped in areas of reflective verbal thought (Schubert & Cropley, 1972). Typically, American Indians are treated as sources of data rather than being invited to contribute to the complete research venture, including problem formulation, interpretation of data, and conclusions(Trimble, 1977).
Literacy and Language: Relationships during the Preschool Years
Authors: Snow Catherine
Published: May 2015

Drawing upon recent research findings and upon a case study of a child learning to talk and to read, Catherine Snow outlines the important similarities in the development of both language and literacy. The characteristics of parent-child interaction which support language acquisition—semantic contingency, scaffolding, accountability procedures,and the use of routines—also facilitate early reading and writing development. The author dismisses the explanation that variations in the level of literacy in the home are responsible for social class differences in school achievement. To explain such differences,Snow emphasizes distinctive ways in which middle-class families prepare preschoolers to understand and produce decontextualized language.
Theories of Reproduction and Resistance in the New Sociology of Education: A Critical Analysis
Authors: Giroux Henry
Published: May 2015

In the past ten years radical educators have developed several theories around the notions of reproduction and resistance. In this article, Henry Giroux critically analyzes the major positions of these theories, finding them inadequate as a foundation for a critical science of schooling. He concludes by outlining the directions for a new theory of resistance and schooling which contains an understanding of how power, resistance, and human agency can become central elements in the struggle for social justice in schools and in society.
Teacher Unions in Schools: Authority and Accommodation
Authors: Johnson Susan Moore
Published: May 2015

Does collective bargaining standardize school practices, formalize relationships between principals and teachers, and reduce faculty commitment to meeting the needs of students? Susan Moore Johnson's study of teacher unions in six school districts addresses these questions, describing the variation in enforcement of contract provisions at both district and school levels. She concludes that labor relations among the districts vary in response to and enforcement of specific contract provisions. More importantly, labor relations at the school level vary widely within districts, influenced by such noncontractual factors as administrative leadership, staff allegiance, and student needs.
Microcomputer Use in Schools: Developing a Research Agenda
Authors: Sheingold Karen , Kane Janet , Endreweit Mari
Published: May 2015

The impact of microcomputers on education is only beginning to be studied systematically. In this article Karen Sheingold, Janet Kane, and Mari Endreweit report on three case studies conducted to reveal how different school systems used microcomputers for instruction. They also develop an agenda for future research. Through interviews and observations, they investigated three geographically distinct school districts with diverse microcomputer applications at both elementary and secondary levels. Six trends emerged which raise important questions for future study: access to microcomputers;emergence of new roles in response to microcomputers; integration of microcomputers into elementary classrooms and curricula; quantity and quality of software;preparation of teachers for using microcomputers; and effects and outcomes of the instructional use of microcomputers.
Education, Democracy, and Social Conflict
Authors: Carnoy Martin
Published: May 2015

Reading The Paideia Proposal, one gets a sense of déjà vu. Almost three generations after John Dewey, we are reminded once more that education and learning are the qualities which separate humans from other creatures. In the Proposal, formal education is the center of our social universe. Without it, we starve spiritually, and our society decays. With its energy, we are democratic, collectivelycreative, productive, and even moral. We are transformed from an emotional, irrational mob to a higher form of political actors.
Hard Times, Then and Now: Public Schools in the 1930s and 1980s
Authors: Tyack David , Hansot Elisabeth
Published: May 2015

Public education faced severe problems during the Great Depression of the 1930s and again in the past decade. Here, David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot examine the two periods and argue that the latter decade presented educators with a crisis of much greater dimensions. Both were times of serious financial strain and rigorous fiscal retrenchment,but education and educators still thrived during the Depression: enrollments rose, and professional morale and public support for education both remained high. By contrast, the 1970s and 1980s presented educators with unforeseen and unpredictable shortages of students as well as of money, and hastened the fragmentation of what had previously seemed a nearly universal faith in our nation's public schools. Despite the differences in the periods, the authors argue that both decades of "hard times" demonstrate the degree to which schooling is "embedded" in the habits and patterns of our national life.
Transforming the Frog into a Prince: Effective Schools Research, Policy, and Practice at the District Level
Authors: Cuban Larry
Published: May 2015

Drawing upon his experiences as a former school superintendent and an academic, Larry Cuban examines the implications of the effective schools research for policy and practice at the district level. He focuses on the critical role played by the superintendent and by district-level policies in creating preconditions for local school improvement. Examining the issues that both separate and connect the worlds of theory and practice, Cuban describes the dilemma of school leaders who, armed with only an incomplete theory of school improvement,must make important policy decisions in the face of time pressures and political demands. He warns of some of the unintended consequences of effective schools practices that employ top-down strategies to achieve the narrow goal of raising test scores. Administrators, he argues,need a variety of policy tools and top-down and bottom-up strategies to generate significant improvement at the local level.
A Middle School Approach to Peace Education
Authors: Cunningham Frederick
Published: May 2015

Frederick Cunningham describes how one middle school has attempted to integrate nuclear war and peace education into the school day and curriculum. He describes three central activities:a student study group, the simulation game "Firebreaks," and an Asian history course.
Between Feeling and Fact: Listening to Children
Authors: Engel Brenda
Published: May 2015

Brenda Engel believes that parents and teachers can learn a great deal about young children's attitudes and fears about nuclear weapons by closely attending to their behavior. Here she analyzes a discussion that took place in a class of kindergarten through second-graders who were responding to the theme, "If I Were Boss of the World" The children's conversation reveals their attitudes toward war toys and war play as well as their inner distinctions between play and reality. Engel's commentary illuminates the way imaginative invention helps children sort out feelings, not only about war and nuclear weapons but about many aspects of their happiness and security in the world.
Lewis Thomas Discusses the Threat of Nuclear War
Authors: Thomas Lewis
Published: May 2015

This interview with Lewis Thomas took place in January 1984 in his office at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City. We invited Dr. Thomas to participate,knowing that, although not a specialist in education, he has written essays and books expressing a profound concern about the nuclear threat and the life of the planet. We very much appreciate his willingness to contribute to this special issue.

As a physician and biologist, Dr. Thomas is perhaps best known for his book, Lives of a Cell. His recently published volume, Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony, contains several essays on the threat to the planet posed by nuclear weapons. His comments here reflect an understanding of education that emphasizes the media's role in providing information. In his view, the media has failed to inform the public about recent research on the biological effects of nuclear war, and he suggests that scientists have a responsibility to assist the media in understanding complex scientific findings. He expresses hope in peoples eventual ability to expand their idea of community so that it transcends national boundaries. In preparing this transcript we took some liberties with the text,rearranging the order of sections to clarify the main themes of the discussion.
Resistances to Knowing in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Mack John
Published: May 2015

John E. Mack is a psychiatrist who has had conversations with young people in the United States and the Soviet Union about the threat of nuclear war. In this article he explores psychological reasons why educators and parents resist dealing with the nuclear issue. He describes individual resistance — avoidance of the emotional pain associated with nuclear war— and collective resistance, the result of a nation's political and economic assumptions to which citizens feel committed and which they support through corporate structures. Mack concludes that if we do not question these collective assumptions, "advocacy for nuclear education in our schools, no matter how well-intended or impassioned, will not succeed."
The Role of Education in Preventing Nuclear War
Authors: Markusen Eric , Harris John
Published: May 2015

Arguing that education should play a crucial role in reducing the threat of nuclear war, Eric Markusen and John B. Harris turn first to history. They examine the role of education in the Holocaust of Nazi Germany and draw a thought-provoking parallel to the role of education in the nuclear arms race. They then discuss aspects of U.S. nuclear weapons policymaking and factors of psychological resistance that have limited citizen participation in decisionmaking. Finally, they explore the potential of education to help prevent nuclear war and describe ways that educators are rising to that challenge.
The Flying University in Poland, 1978-1980
Authors: Buczynska-Garewicz Hanna
Published: May 2015

Drawing on her experience as a teacher in the most recent Polish clandestine or "flying" university,Hanna Buczynska-Garewicz describes the organization and purpose of an underground university in a totalitarian state. Polish teachers and scholars have a long history of responding to repression and curtailment of academic freedom by organizing flying universities. With the censorship and the restrictive interpretation of such subjects as history, philosophy, and literature in the state universities, clandestine teaching has provided an alternative source of information and enlightenment. It is fitting to begin this article with a translation of the flying university's original declaration.
Education in Tanzania
Authors: Nyerere Julius
Published: May 2015

Educational philosophy and policy in Tanzania have undergone a transformation since the country gained its independence from British colonial rule in 1961. President Julius Nyerere describes their accomplishments and presents the dilemmas currently facing the new socialist government. He describes the literacy and teacher training programs and discusses the relationship between the country's educational policy and international economic conditions.
Does the SAT Help Colleges Make Better Selection Decisions?
Authors: Crouse James
Published: May 2015

The College Entrance Examination Board and the Educational Testing Service claim that the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) improves colleges' predictions of their applicants' success. James Crouse uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of high school students to calculate the actual improvement in freshman grade point averages, college completion,and total years of schooling resulting from colleges' use of the SAT. He then compares those predictions with predictions based on applicants' high school rank. Crouse argues that the College Board and the Educational Testing Service have yet to demonstrate that the high costs of the SAT are justified by its limited ability to predict student performance.
About Teaching and Teachers: The Torpedo's Touch
Authors: Thomas Donald
Published: May 2015

In this thoughtful essay Donald Thomas communicates his teaching philosophy through one of his first experiences as a teacher. The setting of his story is the Harvard-Newton summer training program back in 1961 when he was one of four interns assigned to a master teacher and to a single class. The master teacher set the curriculum and the interns were required to teach parts of it. Thomas, now as then, believes in immersing students deeply in education,awakening them to confront the perplexities of life.
Understanding Reading Disability: A Case Study Approach
Authors: Johnston Peter
Published: May 2015

Using three compelling case studies, Peter Johnston examines the psychological and social determinants of reading failure — factors that he feels have been generally overlooked in main-stream reading theory. Extensive verbal reports by the three male participants reflect the effects that anxiety, maladaptive strategies, conflicting motives, and causal attributions have on reading ability.
A "Quintessential American": Horace Mann Bond, 1924-1939
Authors: Fultz Michael
Published: May 2015

In this article Michael Fultz provides a comprehensive study of one of the most cited but least studied authorities on black educational history, Horace Mann Bond. Fultz's in-depth account of this black scholar and educator's formative years highlights both the social conditions which confronted all black Americans during the first three decades of the twentieth century and the black academic response of that time.
Children's First Schoolbooks: Introductions to the Culture of Literacy
Authors: Freebody Peter , Baker Carolyn
Published: May 2015

One of the functions of education is to teach societal norms to those who are being educated. Textbooks used in schools may be important agents of socialization. In this article Peter Freebody and Carolyn Baker explore ways in which beginning reading books present cultural perspectives to young children. The children's textbooks, which are produced and selected by adults, present to children particular views of the world. The authors explore certain modes of thought, experience, and interaction prevalent in the child's preschool life in contrast to other types of experiences characteristic of the culture of formal and literate schooling.
Media Power and the Development of Media Literacy: An Adult Educational Interpretation
Authors: Brookfield Stephen
Published: May 2015

Stephen Brookfield describes and illustrates television's presentation of bias in programming and production. He advocates educating adults to be critical in consuming television images of reality and presents six techniques which have been successful in teaching adults to read between the lines of television's portrayal of political issues, news events, and images of society.
The Design of Spelling to Match Needs and Abilities
Authors: Yule Valerie
Published: May 2015

Valerie Yule writes about the importance and timeliness of systematic changes in the spelling of English and considers the wide range of learning needs of language users as well as the traditional assumptions which account for the resistance to spelling change. English spelling,the author suggests, not only makes the achievement of literacy generally difficult but results in the uneven distribution of power and opportunity. She proposes areas for research that could lead to creative and practical ways to resolve these difficulties.
Knowledge and Teaching:Foundations of the New Reform
Authors: Shulman Lee
Published: May 2015

Lee S. Shulman builds his foundation for teaching reform on an idea of teaching that emphasizes comprehension and reasoning, transformation and reflection. "This emphasis is justified," he writes, "by the resoluteness with which research and policy have so blatantly ignored those aspects of teaching in the past." To articulate and justify this conception, Shulman responds to four questions: What are the sources of the knowledge base for teaching?In what terms can these sources be conceptualized? What are the processes of pedagogical reasoning and action? and What are the implications for teaching policy and educational reform? The answers — informed by philosophy, psychology, and a growing body of casework based on young and experienced practitioners — go far beyond current reform assumptions and initiatives. The outcome for educational practitioners, scholars, and policymakers is a major redirection in how teaching is to be understood and teachers are to be trained and evaluated.

This article was selected for the November 1986 special issue on "Teachers, Teaching,and Teacher Education," but appears here because of the exigencies of publishing.
Peace Education: Imagination and the Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Authors: Rivage-Seul Marguerite
Published: May 2015

Arguing that peace education in the United States is constrained by its tenacious adherence to technical reason, Marguerite K. Rivage-Seul underscores the need for peace educators and their students to cultivate "moral imagination." The author first examines concepts of moral imagination recently advanced by educational theorists and peace educators, and demonstrates that these concepts also fail to transcend the limits of technical thought regarding the nuclear arms race. She then carefully develops a view of moral imagination around the ideas of Paulo Freire and Franz Hinkelammert; one that is grounded in an understanding of human intersubjectivity, and in the ways in which the poor "read" the world and perceive possibilities for human welfare beyond the status quo.
Racelessness as a Factor in Black Students' School Success: Pragmatic Strategy or Pyrrhic Victory?
Authors: Fordham Signithia
Published: May 2015

Signithia Fordham presents an analysis of the tensions high-achieving Black students feel when they strive for academic success. Students are pulled by their dual relationships to the indigenous Black fictive-kinship system and the individualistic, competitive ideology of American schools. By analyzing ethnographic data on six high-achieving Black high school students, the author finds that the characteristics required for success in society contradict an identification and solidarity with Black culture. Students who feel the conflict between"making it" and group identification develop the particular strategy of racelessness.
Transitional Bilingual Education and the Socialization of Immigrants
Authors: Spener David
Published: May 2015

David Spener argues that U.S. educational policies reflect an implicit economic need to socialize immigrants and minority group members to fill necessary, but undesirable, low-status jobs. Transitional bilingual education programs, which provide only a limited period of native-language instruction and do not ensure English mastery, prevent immigrant children from attaining academic fluency in either their native language or in English. The subsequent discrepancy between the learning capacities of immigrant children and their monolingual peers reinforces stereotypes of immigrants and some linguistic minorities, and serves to socially legitimize their economically required limited access to better jobs.
Racism in Academia: The Old Wolf Revisited
Authors: de la Luz Reyes María , Halcón John
Published: May 2015

In this article, the authors modify and use the metaphor of "a wolf in sheep's clothing" as the theme in uncovering racism aimed at Chicanos in higher education. The authors, who are new to the academic profession, as are many Chicanos in the field, discover that the old wolf, racism, is as active in academia as in their previous educational settings. In elementary and secondary schools the wolf's disguises include educational tracking low expectations, and negative stereotypes. Chicanos who have overcome these obstacles and who are attempting to break into the faculties and administrations of U.S. higher education institutions are finding the wolf in a new wardrobe. The authors identify the various disguises used to hide racism by higher education faculties and administrations.