bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Invisible Men and Fractured Atoms
Authors: Whitworth Michael H
Published: October 2023

Conceptions of matter developed rapidly in the period 1890 to 1930. In December 1895 Wilhelm Konrad von Rontgen discovered the rays named after him, later known as X-rays. In 1898, the Curies hypothesized the existence of a new chemical element ‘radium’, one of many radioactive substances which caused phosphorescence in neighbouring bodies; they isolated it in 1902. In 1899, Ernest Rutherford distinguished alpha and beta rays.
Non-Euclidean Humanity
Authors: Whitworth Michael H
Published: October 2023

Of all the sciences, mathematics might seem the one furthest removed from the conventional concerns of literature, allowing the fewest possibilities for metaphorical exchange. Indeed, if we take ‘science’ to refer to empirical and experimental science, then mathematics should not even be categorized as a science. Yet for many reasons, not least its very resistance to the methodology of this study, mathematics demands attention.
Introduction
Authors: Redford Bruce
Published: October 2023

It seems both ungracious and unwise to begin by disagreeing with Virginia Woolf, whose reflections on finishing her life of Roger Fry reveal a keen understanding of the biographical enterprise. ‘What a curious relation is mine with Roger at this moment,’ Woolf notes in her diary, ‘I who have given him a kind of shape after his death—Was he like that? I feel very much in his presence at the moment: as if I were intimately connected with him.’1 Shape, presence, connection: in meditating upon these three Woolf makes an implicit case for the imaginative power of a form she both prized and practised. Yet in her public writings she allows herself to argue that biography offers both ‘a different life from the life of poetry and fiction’ and ‘a life lived at a lower degree of tension’.2 Woolf claims further that the biographer is ‘a craftsman, not an artist; and his work is not a work of art but something betwixt and between’.3
Dramatizing Johnson
Authors: Redford Bruce
Published: October 2023

Within days of deciding to draw Johnson ‘in the style of a Flemish painter’, Boswell returns to the visual arts for a second pro vocative comparison: ‘He and I were both in high spirits, and talked keenly. It is impossible to put down an exact transcript of conversation with all its little particulars. It is impossible to clap the mind upon paper as one does an engraved plate, and to leave the full vivid impression.’1 Boswell the diarist had long been haunted by the gap between sensation and documentation: ‘I should live no more than I can record, as one should not have more corn growing than one can get in.’2 Boswell the biographer faces an even more daunting challenge: he must not only capture the evanescent, he must do justice to someone who ‘talked keenly’ in both senses of the adverb (‘avidly’ and ‘incisively’). Boswell needs, in short, to find a way of turning that which is wholly wit into that which is wholly writ.
The urban impact
Authors: Slack Paul
Published: October 2023

After the contrasts between different counties noted in the previous chapter, it is something of a relief to find great similarities in the history of plague in the three provincial cities which have been chosen for detailed consideration here: Exeter, Bristol and Norwich. There were differences in the timing and in the severity of the epidemics which they suffered - Norwich was attacked more often and more savagely than Bristol or Exeter - but in outline the impact of plague on these great towns of provincial England was identical. In each of them there was more than one serious epidemic between 1535 and 1555, at a time when urban populations generally were stagnant or falling, and when urban economies were in decay. Plague did not disappear with the end of the mid-Tudor depression, however. Between 1565 and 1626 each town suffered another three major outbreaks of the disease, killing 15 per cent or more of the inhabitants, shattering every semblance of civic stability, and temporarily impeding the processes of economic recovery. Finally, in each town plague epidemics were closely bound up with the economic and social fabric of the urban community.
Counting the costs
Authors: Slack Paul
Published: October 2023

The frequency and severity of plague epidemics in London and in some of the larger provincial towns have now been described, and we have seen the lesser but by no means remote chance of their occurring in smaller places in Devon and Essex. In order to complete our survey of the problems posed by plague, we must now turn away from the standpoint of particular localities, and view the phenomenon from two different perspectives: one more general, the other still more specific. We must consider the impact of epidemic disease more broadly on the population and economy of pre-industrial England. We should also try to see its effects on the household and the family, on the individual cells which made up the country’s economic and demo graphic structures. Some impression of the gross damage done by plague can be gained from the simple totals of casualties to which we have already referred.
The end of plague 1665-1722
Authors: Slack Paul
Published: October 2023

As it turned out, William Hendley was wrong. Death in the form of plague never returned to England once the epidemic beginning in 1665 in London had run its course. There were recurrent scares that it would, the greatest of them at the time Hendley was writing, between 1720 and 1722 when there was plague in Marseilles. But the fears proved unfounded. England had been delivered from pestilence. No contemporary knew why that had happened, or could be sure that deliverance was permanent, and historians have similarly been unable to agree on the reasons for it. The end of plague remains the greatest of the mysteries surrounding the disease. No final solution to the mystery can be advanced here. The problem, and therefore its answer, extends beyond England to embrace the whole of western Europe, if not the world. Plague disappeared from most of Europe in the years between 1656 and 1721, and it may even have withdrawn from parts of Asia at the same time. English evidence may throw light on that development but it can only be partial. The issue cannot be avoided altogether, however. We must seek a tentative hypothesis to explain the end of plague if we are to make any final judgment on the measures which were taken against it. If quarantine and the isolation of the sick helped to eliminate the disease after 1665, they may also have helped to control it earlier.
The Time of Engolekume: The Administration of Turkana District 1919—1923
Authors: Lamphear John
Published: October 2023

Before taking up their new assignments in September 1918, Harry Rayne and D. R. Crampton met in Nairobi with Brigadier E. H. Llewellyn, the commandant of the KAR, to report on the recent operations against the Turkana and to discuss the future administration of the district. They concluded that while the southern sections were anxious for peace, the northerners would have to be controlled with a firm hand for some time to come. The operations had strengthened the British opinion that Turkana District was ‘an arid, uncultivated, waterless, dried-up corner of the world’. The only possible resource the area might contribute to British East Africa was manpower, and it was agreed that the Turkana would make fine colonial soldiers. A few southerners were now ordered to be trained as para-military district police and it was hoped that someday they might take complete responsibility for policing their own district. In the meantime the entire area was to remain under military rule; after Crampton’s departure no civil administrators would be posted to Eturkan for the next eight years.
The Image of Georgian Bath, 1700–2000
Authors: Borsay Peter
Published: October 2023

This interdisciplinary study explores the evolution, structure, and uses of the image of Georgian Bath, from its genesis in the eighteenth century to its renaissance in the twentieth century. In recent decades there has been both a popular resurgence of interest in heritage and tradition, and a growing academic awareness of the power of imagery in shaping the lives of individuals and societies. There is perhaps no city in Britain so saturated in history and layered with historic imagery as Bath. It therefore provides an ideal case-study to investigate the dynamic fusion and impact of the forces of past and representation. The dominant perception of Bath today is that of a classical and particularly Georgian city. In this stimulating and scholarly study, Peter Borsay examines the construction and development of this image. Its principal components, biography and architecture, are explored, together with the media through which it was constructed and transmitted, as well as its commercial, social, political, and psychological uses. Dr Borsay concludes by relating the findings for Bath to current debates on towns, heritage, and the nature of history.
Collapse
Authors: Offer Avner
Published: October 2023

When food does not suffice, there are three options: one is to lose weight; the second, to cut down on effort; the third, to suffer in health. Having lost weight already by 1916, the workers could only preserve their health if they reduced their efforts. As the “turnip winter” progressed, the workers in Dtisseldorf, failing to get either better food or sufficient wage increases, complained of long shifts and downed tools for the day several times to press for shorter hours.
Shaping The Peace: The Role Of The Hinterlands
Authors: Offer Avner
Published: October 2023

The international food economy had the same decisive impact on the outcome of the war as it had on its origins. As Geoffrey Blainey puts it, ‘the transition from war to peace is essentially the reverse of the transition from peace to war. What causes nations to cease fighting one another must be relevant in explaining what causes nations to begin fighting one another. ‘1 The peripheral economies of Australia, Canada and the United States made a decisive contribution to victory. They also made a claim to shape the peace.
Introduction
Authors: Stevenson David
Published: October 2023

The war of 1914-18 was the first general war, involving all the Great Powers of the day, to be fought out in the modern, industrialized world. It came at a moment of mounting cultural, economic, and political instability in the Western countries: an instability it dramatically increased. The inter-war years, in consequence, were a period of extreme disorder in international economic and political relations, as well as in the domestic histories of the leading States. Only in the 1950s did a new equilibrium emerge, later in its turn to come under strain. By contrast, the century that followed the Vienna peace settlement of 1814-15 was interrupted by a series of short and limited wars between 1854 and 1878, but witnessed two periods of nearly forty years of European peace. The absence of war never meant the absence of tension, and, as after 1945, there were moments, such as the middle 1880s, of a heightened sense of danger and acceleration in the arms race. Until the growing turbulence that set in after approximately 1905, however, these periodic upward fluctuations eventually subsided, and for the established Powers of the northern hemisphere the posthumous reputation of the later nineteenth century as a golden twilight of prosperity and peace was generally well deserved.
Reform Refracted 1: Working and Voting
Authors: Phillips John A
Published: October 2023

However much the preceding chapters may suggest the opposite, measuring the voting behaviour of thousands of individuals is a relatively straightforward, albeit arduous task. An assessment of the social composition of the electorate runs foul of far more daunting obstacles. An analysis of the relationship between political behaviour and socio-economic status is hardest of all. Many other scholars have wrestled with these complex problems, and Frank O’Gorman’s recent description of the occupational composition of the Hanoverian electorate has left little more to be said. Combined with work on the Victorian electorate by Nossiter, Vincent, Neale, Morris, and others, the overall structure of the electorate, unreformed or reformed, borough or county, freeman or householder, has been considered in all of its remarkable diversity. As O’Gorman notes, ‘There is, in practice, massive common ground between the classifications’ used by those examining socio-economic status.
The Townshends and Their World: Gentry, Law, and Land in Norfolk C.1450-1551
Authors: Moreton C E
Published: October 2023

This is the first scholarly history of the rise of the Townshends, who were to become the most famous landowning family in Norfolk. C. E. Moreton exploits to the full the rich family archives in order to tell the story of individuals such as Roger Townshend I, a prominent lawyer of the late fifteenth century, and his son, also Roger, a leading country gentleman. Dr Moreton traces the growth in the Townshends' wealth and power in the late Middle Ages, and sets them in their context as a major gentry family. Their lawsuits, their estates policy, and their sheep-farming activities reveal much about the nature of the gentry's relationship to land and its role in local society in late medieval and early Tudor England.
Introduction
Authors: Wasserstein David J
Published: October 2023

This book is a study of a political institution, the caliphate in Islamic Spain, al-Andalus. It is not a political history of Islam in the Iberian peninsula. There are several works available today which look at that aspect of Islamic Spain. The nature of the caliphal institution in Spain is such, however, that it does not lie easily with the political history of the caliphal state. The caliphal state is essentially the Umayyad state in its greatest phase; the caliphal institution overlaps with this, but outlasts it by several decades. The caliphal institution served, as it was created by, the Umayyad dynasty, but it also served many other dynasties after the last Umayyad had faded from the scene, and it was north Africans who finally put an end to local Andalusian caliphal pretensions.
Mujāhid
Authors: Wasserstein David J
Published: October 2023

In the preceding chapters I have sought to discover what happened in respect of the caliphate in Cordoba after 422/i 031; to describe the caliphal pretensions of the Hammūdids in Cordoba and in the southern parts of the peninsula; and to analyse the discovery by Seville of an impostor claiming to be Hishām II al-Mu’ayyad, and the resort by many other taifa states, in part as a reaction to this, to the artifice of the invented ‘‘ ābd allāh’. Two other sets of reactions to the fall of the caliphal-‘amirid regime call for consideration here in addition to all of these. Both concern Slavs; each calls for separate study on account of this fact. Slavs stood in a special relation to the society of which they formed part in Islamic Spain. With no roots in the country and no possibility of recruiting support of any kind from outside Spain, with no particular loyalties going beyond their immediate patron (who was for most of them dead by the start of the fifth/eleventh century), they were faced with a difficulty of major proportions, and of special type, in attempting to ensure their own survival, individually and as a group, within the political jungle.
Ruling Orders
Authors: Doyle William
Published: October 2023

European society was largely dominated by rich, hereditary, landed oligarchies. Most of the members of these groups also enjoyed nobility. Human society has never existed without elites, but those of the post-industrial world are numerous, diverse, and difficult to assess in their relative importance. Before 1800 matters were much simpler. Most wealth, most power, most privilege, and most prestige tended nearly everywhere to be concentrated in the hands of a single social group, universally recognizable. Like all social categories, it was considerably blurred at the edges, with an infinite number of local variations. No one term used by historians-aristocracy, landed interest, privileged order, feudal class-captures its full character. Yet the reality was concrete enough. It was the basic feature of social organization throughout Europe.
The Ruled: the Country
Authors: Doyle William
Published: October 2023

Noble supremacy was rooted in the countryside. The rural population scattered, unprotected, unsophisticated, and totally absorbed in producing the means of subsistence-offered far less resistance to control than towns men. And in 1660 this control was tightening, as the deceleration in over-all population growth brought diminishing agricultural profits and landlords sought to compensate by harder pressure upon those beneath them. The whole of Europe found itself in the grip of an agrarian reaction, in the course of which the peasantry found its rights, independence, and standards of living curbed by the appetite of its lords. When agricultural profits recovered, in the eighteenth century, the peasantry regained none of the lost ground. The power of large landlords continued to grow, only to be curbed eventually by governmental intervention which itself was undertaken in an attempt to redistribute the peasant’s burden in the state’s favour, rather than to diminish its total weight. Most peasants suffered to some extent from these circum-stances. But as usual, serfs suffered most of all.
The Progress of Doubt
Authors: Doyle William
Published: October 2023

This was the age of Enlightenment; and Enlightenment meant an attack on the church. Of course, anti-clericalism in Europe was almost as old and deep rooted as Christianity itself. Medieval monarchs had exploited it to promote their own secular authority; the Protestant reformers proclaimed the priest hood of all believers in conscious rejection of clerical pretensions; the Counter Reformation’s reaffirmation of the church’s priestly character provoked new friction with the laity.
Appealing For Justice
Authors: Gatrell V A C
Published: October 2023

The People Who Petitioned For Mercy On Others’ Behalf in the 1820s were of a kind obscure to history, who wrote no books, contributed to no newspapers, and signed no public petitions. But they spoke as revealingly about punishment and justice as public propagandists did-more so indeed, since their opinions were not programmatic or for public effect. The documents they leave give significantly different meanings to public opinion from those acknow ledged so far. Many petitioned out of obligation to dependants, and a few out of expedience. But most acted disinterestedly against the injus tice perceived in particular verdicts or sentences, moved by common sensical ideas of fair trial and proportioned punishment which were remote from the discretionary principles of the judges’ law. ‘We only want fair play,’ as Sydney Smith exclaimed in 1826 when he inveighed against counsel’s inability to sum up for defendants. Most petitioners could have said the same.
The Reluctant Politician
Authors: Grassby Richard
Published: October 2023

As an instrument of the Tory Reaction of the 1680s, Dudley has received short shrift from Whig historians. To Macaulay he was ‘an enlightened adviser and an unscrupulous slave’.1 Yet for half his life his political activities were confined to negotiating with Ottoman officials. It was as much by accident as by design that he became embroiled in the tempestuous struggle between the later Stuarts and the Whig opposition through service as Sheriff of London and in the Parliament of 1685.
The Landholders And The Kingdom In The Time Of King Edward
Authors: Clarke Peter A
Published: October 2023

The men identified in earlier chapters as holding the larger lay estates in England on the eve of the Conquest were presumably in volved to some extent in the political life of the kingdom. For infor mation on that life we have to look to sources other than Domesday Book. Quite a lot is known concerning the greatest lay landholders the earls and their immediate families. The narrative sources provide many references to different members of the families of Godwine, Leofric, and Siweard, and they also appear prominently among the witnesses to both royal and private charters. The activities of this group during Edward’s reign has been thoroughly covered in the literature and will not be considered here. Instead, this chapter will be concerned with the remaining major lay landholders, as identified in Chapter 3 (see Fig. 3.1).
The Travelling Court
Authors: Vale Malcolm
Published: October 2023

The convoy was made up of two kitchen waggons, a third with the larder, a fourth for the bakers, a fifth with the cellar, carrying drink and vessels, the sixth with the pastry-cooks, a seventh with the confectioners, the eighth with the coffee-makers, a ninth with the buttery and other supplies, the tenth with the physician and his dispensary, the eleventh with the tableware, the twelfth with the smith and the wheelwright, the thirteenth and fourteenth with the bakery, the fifteenth and sixteenth carried the trunks and belongings of the courtiers who rode in the Prince’s carriages, the seventeenth the Prince’s garderobe, and the eighteenth the tents. Each was a covered waggon drawn by seven horses ⃛ Behind them three mounted stable-boys . . . led six camels, covered in beautiful drapes of worked cloth, bearing large chests which contained the library. Behind this caravan ⃛ came two or three large carriages, and a number of light ones ⃛ At least eight spare horses for the Prince were led along by an equerry and a stable-hand ⃛ When the Prince rode a horse, he was followed by a light buggy with a change of clothes, in which rode his valet and barber ⃛ who carried a soaping-dish and razors in his cartridge-case.
The Illustration of Texts
Authors: Gameson Richard
Published: October 2023

The New Minster Charter was written in 966 to commemorate and perpetuate the replacement of secular clergy with Benedictine monks at the New Minster, Winchester, which had been achieved through the agency of King Edgar (959-75). This was a controversial affair, and the document is correspondingly unusual (Pl. 2). The lengthy text in hermeneutic Latin, for which Bishop JE the wold of Winchester himself (963-84) may well have been responsible, describes the spiritual implications and the practical details of the new settlement, and attempts to sanctify and hence legitimize the arrangement in the most powerful way possible-by casting the affair into a cosmic perspective of the fall and redemption of mankind. The designer of the document realized precisely the same aim by preparing it according to the format of a supremely de luxe liturgical book. This is the ultimate development of the well-attested practice of adding sacred authority to a record by copying it into a gospel book.
Decoration
Authors: Gameson Richard
Published: October 2023

We have alluded several times in the aforegoing chapters to the importance of decoration and ornamental criteria in late Anglo-Saxon art and aesthetics. We shall now examine the subject of decoration itself-in particular, as it was applied to frames and initials. This concentration is not to imply that frame and initial decoration was more important than that in other media-the reverse was probably true-rather it is that these are the two contexts in which non-figural ornament survives in a significant quantity while preserving its original form and colour, enabling us to assess it with some confidence. Moreover, consideration of this material will usefully complement our discussion of other forms of book decoration in previous chapters.
Les Citoyens envers l’ État’: The Individual as a Citizen, from Bodin’s République to Rousseau’s Contrat social
Authors: Quaglioni Diego
Published: October 2023

It has recently been pointed out that there is only one passage in Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Contrat social where we can find an explicit reference to Jean Bodin’s République: this passage is in a marginal note in chapter 6 of Book I (Du pacte social). Rousseau considers that Bodin had ‘made a blunder’, confusing the citoyens of Geneva with the Genevan bourgeois: ‘when Bodin wished to speak of our citizens and our bourgeois, he made a great blunder in taking the former to mean the latter’.3 According to the author of the Contrat social, Bodin is the most glaring example of a trend, which Rousseau considers typical of French political culture: for the French, the name of citizen ‘expresses a virtue and not a right’.4 The only exception is d’Alembert: ‘No other French author that I know, has understood the true meaning of the word citizen’.’ In the same fashion, the French confuse ville and cité:
Economy and society
Authors: Sharpe J A
Published: October 2023

For the few sixteenth-century visitors whose opinions have come down to us, the British Isles were clearly regarded as being something rather exotic if a little bit backward. England and Scotland had long been locked into European diplomacy, and Ireland, like these two countries, had equally long been a welcoming recipient of cultural and intellectual influences from the continent. But observers from more sophisticated places, like Castille, the Southern Netherlands, or Northern Italy, while finding much to comment upon favourably, were aware that they were in a peripheral area, still relatively under developed by the most advanced continental standards. The idea that this area would one day be the location of the world’s first industrial nation, or that it would lie at the centre of the most extensive empire the world has ever seen, would have seemed improbable to foreign observers in 1500, and hardly less so to those arriving a century later. Many of the Spaniards who accompanied Philip II to England when he came to marry Mary Tudor in 1554 commented on the strangeness of the land in which they found themselves ‘I had always heard that the marvels described in books of chivalry fell far short of what was to be seen here’, wrote one.
The Development of Shrines
Authors: Crook John
Published: October 2023

In the preceding chapters the principal subject of study was the architectural setting of saintly relics. We now turn our attention to the monuments provided to house and display such relics within their architectural environment, the structures known in English from the later Middle Ages as ‘shrines’. These have aroused scholarly interest since at least the mid-eighteenth century; and by a happy coincidence the very first volume of Archaeologiaincluded an article entitled Observations on Shrines.
The Companions of the Garter, 1348–1461
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

Despite the instability of English political life during the later Middle Ages, the Garter fraternity continued to occupy a central position not only in the life of the royal court, but also in the imagination of the English knightly classes. Encapsulating the purest aspirations of the chivalric code, the order was intended by its founder to act as an inspiration to the nobility for his wars in France.
Projections and Perceptions of the Garter
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

Juliet Vale, in her essay on the origins of the Garter, concluded that the brilliance of Edward Ill’s foundation lay in its complexity, not least in its underlying political role as ‘a prestigious chivalric elite comprising representatives of every section of society that could aspire to inclusion-established noble families and allies abroad, as well as members of his own household and family-who were characterized first and foremost by loyalty to the order’s head.’
Terms and Conditions of Service
Authors: Aylmer G E
Published: October 2023

What Kind of administrative system England would have had in the later seventeenth century if the Republic had survived is, like other ‘might-have-beens’ in history, an unanswerable question. This was not to be; and that perhaps is that. It is, however, reasonable, and I hope of some interest, to ask ourselves how different things were after 1660 compared with what they had been before 1640-2. Did the upheavals of civil war, regicide, republic, and restoration leave any positive legacies, or merely generate a reaction, an urge to get back, to revive as well as to restore? Common sense suggests that the answer is likely to be, a bit of both. But this needs to be put to the proof in rather more detail. We shall look at some of the individuals and the kind of people who were crown servants, in greater detail, in the next chapter, but first we must consider the ways in which they were appointed and the conditions under which they served.
Origins, 1917–1945
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

In 1917 the combined effect of the American entry into World War I and the Russian Revolution set in place much of the dynamics that would cloud the his tory of international relations for the remainder of the twentieth century. With the coming into power of the Bolsheviks in Russia, the foundation of the USSR, and the securing of the success of the Communist revolution, the Soviet Union came to represent a formidable challenge to prevailing assumptions about power and legitimacy. In Europe, the final collapse of the Central Powers was made possible by the belated US entry into the war that signalled the abandonment of America’s splendid isolation from the old continent. While it was hardly evident at the time, moreover, the Russian Revolution and the American entry into the war were harbingers of a long twilight struggle, pitting against each other not just two of the largest countries in the world-the United States and the Soviet Union-but also liberal capitalism and totalitarian socialism.
Decolonization And The Cold War
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

The fall of the European colonial empires—a gradual process between the late 1940s and the mid- l970s-was, in part, a consequence of the Cold War. The imperial cent-es-weakened by World War II-were concentrating on the battle against Communism in Europe, and had lost much of the means, economically, militarily, and ideologically, to keep their empires together. The wartime victories of the Soviet Union served as an inspiration for socialist and radical nationalist movements in the colonies. Perhaps most importantly, parts of the elites in the European colonial powers realized-sometimes after being rudely reminded by the Americans—that the contradiction between defending freedom at home and continuing a colonial presence abroad did not hold up well, faced ,with a vigorous and global Soviet ideological challenge. By the late 1950s most Western policy makers had come to the conclusion that colonialism had to go if they were to pre serve any influence outside their own continents.
The Rule of Law Whose Slogan?
Authors: Russell Conrad
Published: October 2023

‘We maintayne that the king is king by an inhaerent birth-right; they say his kingly power is an office upon trust’. These words were written by the Royalist member of Parliament Sir John Strangeways, writing in his commonplace book, probably while in the Tower in 1647. They encapsulate as neatly as one quotation can, a view which has been argued ever since, that the Civil War was fought ‘between two clearly formulated ideas of government’. It is to a degree tautological to say that a civil war in which the king is on one side and his enemies on the other must be fought between rival theories of government: if they did not exist, it became urgently necessary to invent them. However, in introducing Strangeways’s words into a debate on the causes of the English Civil War, I have broken one of my strictest evidential rules, which is that the cause must precede the effect. Words written in 1647 cannot be any part of the causes of a war which began in 1642. This is done to fasten attention, at the very beginning, on the question whether two rival theories of government were a cause or a consequence of the English Civil War.
Why was there no Marxism in Great Britain?
Authors: Mckibbin Ross
Published: October 2023

IN 1906 Werner Sombart published a famous essay Why is there no Socialism in the United States? He was, in practice, asking not so much why there was no socialism as why was there no mass working-class party. His question was implicitly and explicitly comparative: what were the differences between the United States and Germany? He did not perform a similar exercise for Britain and Germany, partly because the contrasts were much less obviously striking. Yet no one in the pre-1914 international labour movement could miss them; the predominant British working class party, the Labour Party, was understood to be unique in Europe. It was admitted to the Second International by a contrived formula—that it and its attached unions objectively advanced the political interests of the working class—which was only just compatible with the Marxist or ‘rejectionist’ ideology shared by nearly all the major European working-class parties. The extent to which these parties could or should ‘reject’ the political systems in which they were compelled to work was, it is true, a matter of great controversy; equally, there were serious disputes within the Labour Party over the extent to which it was or should be ‘socialist’. Nevertheless, despite this, both the European parties and the Labour Party entrenched their ideological differences: the first reaffirmed their nominal rejectionism while the other continued to exclude a programmatic socialism and any candidate who ventured to stand as a ‘socialist’. They thus devised antithetical ‘resolutions’ to their ideological dilemmas.
The Economic Policy of the Second Labour Government, 1929-1931
Authors: Mckibbin Ross
Published: October 2023

THE second Labour government was once conventionally seen in terms of its fall. It came to office in 1929 after an election which gave no party a majority, and which left it dependent upon the support of the Liberals. It fell in August 1931 when its members were unable to agree upon a programme of budgetary economies that would satisfy both the Conservative and the Liberal Parties. The prime minister, Ramsay MacDonald, thereupon formed a ‘National’ government with representatives of the former opposition parties and three of his colleagues from the previous Labour ministry; the great bulk of the Labour Party opposed this new government. The ‘desertion’ of MacDonald caused great bitterness and generated a partisan history usually designed to justify the behaviour of one side or the other in the débâcle. The level of strictly economic content was usually not high. But with the release of public and private records on the one hand, and with the general acceptance of a developed Keynesianism on the other, historians have increasingly sought only to explain why the Labour government did not adopt economic policies which might appear to have been obviously the right ones. Why did it not, for example, attempt to reverse economic contraction by a programme of public works financed by budget deficits, or by tax-cuts, or—a policy less untypical of a socialist party—by a redistribution of income that might have raised demand? Why was the government apparently so inflexibly attached to existing monetary policies? Politically, the real contribution of Keynes was to suggest that governments did not have to stand helpless in the face of cyclical movements in a capitalist economy: thus the Labour government did not have to wait for ‘socialism’ — effective counter-cyclical techniques were available to them within the system.
Conclusion
Authors: Mckibbin Ross
Published: October 2023

In the Preface to this book I attempted to describe how its concerns developed and I suggested that although the chapters were not written in the order they appear here the argument they propose is best represented as they have been published. But what is clear to the writer may be less clear to the reader and it seems wise, therefore, that the argument should now be made explicit. This is most easily done by restating the three main themes of the book—all of which are interrelated: the nature of working-class consciousness and culture, the role of the two world wars in the development of these and class relations more generally, and, finally, the role of the state.
From Commune to Signoria, 1100-1300: I Commercial Revolution, Trends and Counter-trends
Authors: Jones Philip
Published: October 2023

When Otto of Freising wrote it would certainly have required uncommon prescience to prophesy in any form a check to urban libertas, the resubjection of commune to hierarchy and monarchy, lordship (or signoria). In his day Italy-acclaimed ‘garden of delights’1-was in the midst of transformation, a further, revolutionary advance, unparalleled in Western Europe, of towns and trade, the urbanization and commercialization of economy, society, and, in growing measure, government. Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, the era of Western expansion, Italy-and more especially now the North and Centre-became indelibly identified, to contemporaries and for posterity, with two subversive, ‘anti-feudal’ forces, republicanism and capitalism: of liberty and civility, ‘political man’, civic ethic, and po/is-mindedness (libertas in Italia sedem principalem eligit), and of commerce (mercatura), ‘economic man’, business ethic, and the embour geoisement of civil and political society (in Italia regnat populus). Trade and freedom drew together in creative but tense combination: from political and economic developed also cultural renaissance and deviation-Italy’s unmedieval culture, practical, secular, humanist-while from the relationship between them resulted all the innermost history of the Italian city states, of progress, crisis, and revolution from commune to signoria.
The Mid-Victorian Generation
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

This, the third volume to appear in the New Oxford History of England, covers the period from the repeal of the Corn Laws to the dramatic failure of Gladstone's first Home Rule Bill. In his magisterial study of the mid-Victorian generation, Theodore Hoppen identifies three defining themes. The first he calls `established industrialism' - the growing acceptance that factory life and manufacturing had come to stay. It was during these four decades that the balance of employment shifted irrevocably. For the first time in history, more people were employed in industry than worked on the land. The second concerns the `multiple national identities' of the constituent parts of the United Kingdom. Dr Hoppen's study of the histories of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and the Empire reveals the existence of a variety of particular and overlapping national traditions flourishing alongside the increasingly influential structure of the unitary state. The third defining theme is that of `interlocking spheres' which the author uses to illuminate the formation of public culture in the period. This, he argues, was generated not by a series of influences operating independently from each other, but by a variety of intermeshed political, economic, scientific, literary and artistic developments. This original and authoritative book will define these pivotal forty years in British history for the next generation.
The Middle Sort of People
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

The first inheritors of the new urban society were those who employed, organized, and sold, those who argued in the courts or tried (mostly without success) to cure the sick. They were, in other words, the great middle class. Despite much heated debate, it is perhaps most sensible to see class and class consciousness as phenomena of oscillating intensity. Like umbrellas during a shower they came out rapidly in times of hardship and were as rapidly put away again once economic sunshine reappeared.
Workers by Hand
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

Four out of every five mid-Victorians were manual workers or the dependants of manual workers, their lives for the most part shaped by two related influences: industrialization and urbanization. By 1851 about 54 per cent of the people of England and Wales lived in settlements with more than 2,500 inhabitants. Fifty years later over half lived in places with more than 50,000. Between 1801 and 1891 the urban population increased sevenfold, the rural only by a quarter. In no other country did as high a proportion of people live in towns as in England, Scotland, and Wales. Urban conglomerations were beginning to form the conurbations characteristic of industrial societies. By 1881 Greater London had 4.77 million people, South-East Lancashire 1.69 million, the West Midlands 1.13 million. If some mid-Victorians mourned what had been lost, few denied the extent and permanence of the change. ‘We cannot’, a Birmingham manufacturer noted in 1869, ‘revert to rural felicity, to green fields, to rough and manly and ignorant squires, to independent yeomanry, to ill supported and superstitious and serf-like hinds.’
Parties, Governments, Policies 1846–185 5
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

The repeal of the Corn Laws in June 1846 marked a decisive step in the process of reform inaugurated by the franchise concessions of 1832. By its drama and parliamentary excitement it gathered to itself deep feelings of movement, transition, and order. It was, in short, the central rite of passage of mid-Victorian politics.
The Scottish Nobility and the Revolution of 1688—1690
Authors: Lenman Bruce P
Published: October 2023

To argue that the nobility was the most important single determinant of the timing, shape, and consequences of the Scottish response to the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England is not to accept automatically a crassly over-simple view of the social structure of early-modem Scotland, one which sees in Scotland the simplest of two-tier societies with a mass of poverty-stricken peasants being ground down by an overbearing and tyrannical nobility. This is a seductive vision (for it spares commentators the burden of much thought about a complex reality resistant to generalization), and it has a long and distinguished pedigree. King James VI owed most of his considerable success as a ruler of Scotland to his capacity to co-operate with a Scots nobility most of whose members, not to mention their foibles, he knew intimately. Nevertheless, all his life he generated a continuous barrage of propaganda whose theme was that the Scots lords, left to their own devices, were a barbarous crew filled with what the king called in famous words their ‘feckless arrogant conceit of their greatness and power’.
Pastoralists and the Threshold of Change and Inequality
Authors: Spencer Paul
Published: October 2023

The topic of social inequality was considered in Chapter 2 with reference to variation in polygyny as an index. In that context, the unequal distribution of wives among elders in the pastoral samples reveals a continuous distribution of prestige. Men do not automatically accrue wives with age, but there do not appear to be insurmountable hurdles holding back any elder with ability and a certain luck. The non-pastoral samples, however, are more likely to show a distinct discontinuity between a privileged elite and an underprivileged majority with breaks in the distribution of prestige. It is the difference between conditions encouraging a degree of social mobility and the hurdles of class difference impeding this.
The Shadow of Islam and the Spread of the Desert
Authors: Spencer Paul
Published: October 2023

Pastoralism and agriculture are overlapping forms of adaptation that can be viewed as a phenomenon of history and, beyond that, as products of some major climatic shifts. Geological evidence suggests that savannah ecosystems evolved over millions of years, during which they became adapted to severe fluctuations in climate, including periods of glaciation when conditions were cooler and intensely arid. Around 12,000 BC in the Middle East and somewhat later in northern Africa, the most recent interglacial period brought warmth and humidity that lasted some 4,000-5,000 years. Archaeological evidence suggests that it was during this moister phase that cereals and livestock were first domesticated in various parts of the Middle East. These included sheep and goats, long-horned cattle, and then short-horned cattle, possibly through selective breeding around 7,000 BC. This was a period when the Sahara, which had previously been uninhabitable, became a grassland with lakes, streams, and fauna typical of the East African savannah today, and attracting human settlement. Over this period also, the lakes of eastern Africa rose to very high levels and supported large settlements based on fishing, possibly comparable with the earliest traditions of the proto-Chamus.
F
Authors: Toth A G
Published: October 2023

Free Circulation Of Goods See Customs Procedures Freedom Of Establishment One of the fundamental freedoms forming the basis of the internal market, the purpose of which is to ensure the free movement of self-employed persons within the Community, as opposed to workers (i.e. employed persons) and providers and recipients of services, who are governed by different rules. (For the relationship between these three categories of persons and between the provisions of Community law applying to them, see further under Freedom to provide services and Free movement of persons).
Q
Authors: Toth A G
Published: October 2023

Quantitative Restrictions Art. 28 EC prohibits quantitative restrictions on imports and measures of equivalent effect on imports between Member States, while Art. 29 EC prohibits the same restrictions when imposed on exports between Member States. The Court of Justice has held that ‘the prohibition on quantitative restrictions covers measures which amount to a total or partial restraint of, according to the circumstances, imports, exports or goods in transit’ (Case 2/73 Geddo [1973] ECR 865 at p. 879). This concept thus covers total bans (Case 34/79 Henn and Darby [1979] ECR 3795 at p. 3812) as well as import and export quotas. Plainly, this concept is considerably narrower than the related concept of measures having an equivalent effect.
The Protection of Minorities by the League of Nations
Authors: Thornberry Patrick
Published: October 2023

The victorious Powers in the Great War did not entirely reject previous approaches to minority protection, though they sought revisions and improvements. The reconstruction of Europe and the attempt by the Powers to apply the principle of self-determination involved the further reduction of Turkish dominions, dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the creation of new States and substantial additions of territory to others. The nineteenth-century precedents were relevant on account of changes which, although they might diminish the minorities problem in extent, would not cure it. President Woodrow Wilson was active in pressing for international protection of ‘racial and national minorities’ and was conscious of the international repercussions which might arise from their ill-treatment. His second draft of the League of Nations Covenant contained the following article: