bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Ottoman Threat 1396–1502
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

His personal status as a ghazi leader enhanced by his great victory at Nicopolis, Sultan Bayezid I was able immediately to resume his twin strategies of unifying Anatolia and tightening the noose on Constantinople (see map 4). In 1397 the Sultan occupied Konya and destroyed the state of Karaman, after defeating Alauddin Ali Bey at the plain of Akcay. In the following year the death of Qadi Burhan al-Din enabled Bayezid to establish his suzerainty over the former’s large territories in central Anatolia. The Ottomans were now in direct contact with the Mamluk lands, and in 1398-9 the Sultan penetrated the Euphrates Valley, taking Malatya and Elbistan. By 1400 most of Cilicia was in Ottoman hands, and Anatolia was virtually united. At the same time the siege of Constantinople, begun in 1394, was renewed. Its most important feature was the construction of a fortress, Anadolu Hisar, on the Asian side of the Bosphorus, in order to control Byzantine access to the Black Sea. Famine conditions prevailed in the city in 1397.
Latin Rule in Greece and the Aegean 1274–1580
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 led to the creation of an intricate tissue of Latin states in Romania, and it is their later fortunes which form the subject of this chapter (see map 6). The most prestigious of the creations, the Latin Empire of Constantinople, was also the weakest. Surrounded by enemies, and failing, despite their strenuous efforts, to attract the settlers they needed for long-term viability, the Empire’s rulers staggered from crisis to crisis while searching in vain for a western protector. The coup de grace, Michael VIII’s reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, completed the shift in western interests towards the southern and western part of Romania which had begun with the collapse of the ephemeral ‘Kingdom of Thessalonica’ in 1224; military aid from Latin Christendom could be dispatched more rapidly towards southern Greece, and the Venetians could deploy their naval superiority with greater effectiveness there and in the Aegean and Adriatic islands. The most important of the surviving states were the Principality of Achaea, which occupied the classical Peloponnese (or Morea, as both Franks and Greeks termed it), and the Duchy of Athens. The Peloponnese was overrun by William of Champlitte and Geoffrey of Villehardouin in 1204–5, and ruled by Geoffrey’s descendants. Athens was conquered by Boniface of Montferrat in 1204 and consigned as a fief to the Burgundian lord Odo of la Roche. Odo and the dynasty which he established came to govern Attica, Boeotia, and the Argolid. Seventeen islands in the Cyclades were seized in 1207 with comparative ease by a group of Venetian entrepreneurs led by Mark Sanudo, who partitioned the islands as fiefs amongst his followers, retaining Naxos and several other islands for himself, and ruling with the title Duke of the Archipelago.
Catholic Society and the Crusade 1274–1580
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

We have now looked at all the chief areas in which crusading occurred between 1274 and 1580, and are in a position to investigate more fully the relationship between the crusading movement and contemporary society and government. What place did the crusade hold in Catholic society between the Second Council of Lyons and the Habsburg-Ottoman truce of 1580? Historians have long ceased to believe that such a question can be answered easily, or with conviction. Indeed, one of the most important advances of recent years has been the realization that enthusiasm for the crusade varied enormously from country to country, and that instead of forming a straightforward pattern of growth followed by decline, it waxed and waned over the generations. For example, Dr Christopher Tyerman has recently shown that English enthusiasm remained strong until the disaster of Nicopolis, then declined sharply. By contrast, we have seen that the pulse of Castilian enthusiasm was almost at its weakest at the time of Nicopolis, but a century later it had undergone a revival which carried it into fresh enterprises beyond the peninsula. Again, the crusade itself changed in nature during these centuries, so that for most people enthusiasm ceased to result in personal participation. It was expressed instead in their readiness to contribute financially to a crusade, and in other displays of approval which do not lend themselves readily to analysis, let alone comparative quantification.
The Ideologies of Class
Authors: Mckibbin Ross
Published: October 2023

This is a study of the social character of the British working class in the period from the 1880s to the early 1950s, when about seventy-five per cent of the population were manual workers, or their dependents. It has three central themes: the nature of working-class culture and working-class organization; the relationships between the working class and other classes; and the role of both World Wars and the state in shaping class relations. Ross McKibbin examines different aspects of British political, social, and economic history to give an integrated explanation of the development of modern British society, and the ideological assumptions on which it is based. Attitudes to work and leisure are also explored, to build a coherent picture of the ideological world of Britain's social classes.
The Birth and Growth of Local Churches c.850–1100
Authors: Blair John
Published: October 2023

When Bishop Hereman of Ramsbury visited the pope in 1050 he told him, says Goscelin of Saint-Bertin, about ‘England being filled everywhere with churches which daily were being added anew in new places, about the distribution of innumerable ornaments and bells in oratories, and about the most ample liberality of kings and rich men for the inheritance of Christ’. Probably Hereman was thinking mainly of great churches, but a national, transformative boom in building and patronage is just as obvious at a local level. By the Norman Conquest, the religious landscape in at least the more easterly parts of England looked very different from the minster centred world which this book has considered so far. It was gradually filling up with solidly built little churches with their own priests, landholdings, and rights to burial and tithe.
A British Nation? The Experiences of Scotland and Wales
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

The legislative steps which led to the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on I January 1801—namely, the very different acts of union with Wales (1536), Scotland (1707), and Ireland (1800) —were less comprehensive than is commonly supposed. Late Victorian disputes over Home Rule disguise the fact that the ‘new’ kingdom’s actual, as distinct from its supposed, condition was always one of quasi-devolution. That, in the event, it often proved difficult to give formal recognition to this state of things had less to do with the smaller nations—Ireland, Scotland, Wales—than with England’s overweening and relatively increasing power, wealth, and size. In 1841 80.2 per cent of Britain’s and 55.7 per cent of the United Kingdom’s inhabitants lived in England.
Macroeconomics And The Japanese Economy
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi
Published: October 2023

This book proposes a new approach to macroeconomics which draws upon the experience of the Japanese economy. the approach is similar to the Old Keynesian view: it rejects the Walrasian approach, and singles out real demand as the fundamental determinant of output in the economy as a whole. However, by maintaining that real demand constrains are important not only in the short-run, but in the long-run, it goes beyond what is normally understood as the Keynesian approach. This book is also very different from the New Keynesian Economics. In particular, it regards the rigidity of nominal wages/prices as of secondary importance. _ To show that a new approach is called for, Professor Yoshikawa provides both theoretical exercises and numerous empirical analyses of the Japanese economy. His arguments are extensivley illustrated by almost 200 figures and tables of data.
Family Policy - How Does it Work?
Authors: Klaus Peter Strohmeier
Published: October 2023

In the introductory chapter to the liber amicorum dedicated to Dirk van de Kaa on the occasion of his 65th birthday Dutch demographer Hans van den Brekel (1999) describes the subject of demography as &‘sex, death and passion, wrapped in indicators&’. The demographer here refers to birth rates, death rates, and marriage and divorce rates, which he treats as visible, measurable, and computable &‘public’ outcomes of very basic, private, and intimate modes of human behaviour. The article nicely illustrates that demographers study something like the statistical sediments of real life.
Politics and Policies towards the Family in Europe: A Framework and an Inquiry into their Differences and Convergences
Authors: Kaufmann Franz-Xaver
Published: October 2023

There has been always an intimate merger among family and politics in traditional societies. Kinship was one of the most powerful ties in traditional societies, and modernization deprived kinship first of its political and subsequently also of its familial influence. To speak of family policy presupposes the shift towards the modem arrangement of differentiated if not separated spheres of the polity, the economy, the family.
Future Longevity among the Elderly
Authors: Caselli Graziella
Published: October 2023

The moment when old age actually begins is not represented by any fixed threshold and varies very much in keeping with the particular era or place in question and is often defined by the rules of each society, establishing a sort of ‘rite of passage ‘ with the creation of a new living status. In industrial and postindustrial societies this passage depends less and less on the onset of old age and all that this entails-less physically able, a reduced intellectual capacity, and is increasingly linked to an economic and social value attributed to the individual on the basis of a change in occupational status following retirement. This change is usually classified according to outdated rules, which are no longer acceptable, so that the age at which one ‘s working life ends can often coincide with a stage when the individual concerned is by no means old (Livi Bacci, 1987; Egidi, 1990).
The Chamus Tradition of Pre-Pastoral Origins
Authors: Spencer Paul
Published: October 2023

The emphasis on tradition in pastoral societies of East Africa may be viewed up to a point as a denial of historical change. The Maasai, for instance, portray their past largely as a projection of the recent present and tend to assume that earlier communities were not radically different from their own at the time of post-colonial Independence in the 1960s, apart from being more exposed to the uncertainties of warfare and shifting borders. There is little sense of earlier historical development, and even the sequence of past age-sets, which provides an ideal scale for a chronology of events, is perceived less in terms of social change than as a demonstration of the persistence of tradition, replicating the ahistorical process of ageing.
Causation outside the Law
Authors: Lipton Peter
Published: October 2023

In their important book Causation in the Law, H. L. A. Hart and Tony Honore argue that causation in the law is based on causation outside the law, that the causal principles the courts rely on to determine legal responsibility are based on distinctions exercised in ordinary causal judgements. A distinction that particularly concerns them is one that divides factors that are necessary or sine qua non for an effect into those that count as causes for purposes of legal responsibility and those that do not. Hart and Honore claim that this distinction is often one of fact rather than of legal policy, and that the factual basis is to be found in the ordinary distinction we draw between causes and ’mere conditions’. If this claim is correct, we may hope to illuminate the legal distinction by articulating the principles behind the ordinary one. This is a challenging task since, as in the case of most cognitive skills, we are far better at making particular judgements than we arc at stating the general principles that underlie them. Hart and Honore devote the first part of their book to this difficult task.
International Law and the Rights of Minorities
Authors: Thornberry Patrick
Published: October 2023

This is a comprehensive study of the evolution and protection of the branch of human rights which is devoted to `minorities'. This general rubric covers ethnic, religious, racial, and cultural minorities. The general area of `minority rights', sometimes grouped with the emerging study of `rights of peoples' is talked of as the new generation of human rights which will expand enormously over the coming years.
Peers, Careers, and Academic Fears: Writing as Field-Work
Authors: Hobbs* Dick
Published: October 2023

I have given my students several exercises to sharpen their perception as writers and co help them make their own enquiries into the nature of word and image as they manifest themselves along associated lines. The exercise that has elicited the greatest response and produced the most interesting results has been the Walk Exercise. Basically it consists in taking a walk with the continuity and perceptions you encounter. The original version of this exercise was taught me by an old Mafia Don in Columbus, Ohio: seeing everyone on the street before he sees you. Do this for a while in any neighbourhood, and you will soon meet other players who are doing the same thing.
International Environmental Law in Evolution
Authors: chinkin* Christine
Published: October 2023

A common theme of the essays in this book is that they examine the extent to which law can provide answers to environmental questions. This issue is especially pertinent in the context of international environmental regulation. International environmental law is still in its infancy with its origin often dated from the 1972 Stockholm Declaration. Despite this short existence, it is now recognized that the primary goal of the international legal order, the maintenance of international peace and security, can only be achieved by a broad understanding of the causes of global insecurity including decline in the quality and quantity of accessible natural resources and all forms of environmental degradation.
Change of Position
Authors: Nolan Richard
Published: October 2023

The aim of this chapter is to explore the nature and structure of change of position, the defence to restitutionary claims first recognized by English law in Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale Ltd.1 As yet, there are very few English cases directly concerned with change of position: this chapter is deliberately analytical, therefore, and, to a degree, speculative; indeed, given the relative paucity of direct authority concerning change of position, it could not usefully be otherwise. The first, and most fundamental, issue to be considered in an examination of the defence is how change of position rebuts a restitutionary claim made out by a plaintiff. If change of position is to be founded on more than a vague, general notion of hardship, and it is very widely agreed that such should be the case. we must ascertain what element or elements of the plaintiffs allegations are neutralized by change of position. An attempt is then made to investigate the relationship between the elements of the plaintiff’s claim, which the defendant seeks to rebut or neutralize by pleading change of position, and the facts put forward by the defendant in a bid to establish the defence. Various issues arise for consideration. What is the nature of the link which must be shown between those elements of the claim to be rebutted and the facts founding the defence; what is meant by a ‘causal link’ between the elements of the claim to be neutralized and the facts put by way of defence; how is such a link established, and is such a link sufficient foundation of the defence? These general questions suggest some specific issues to be examined; these are principally the question of whether acts occurring before the plaintiff’s cause of action is complete can found a defence of change of position, and the effect of the defendant’s conduct on the availability of the defence.
The Nature of Ministerial Receipt
Authors: Swadling William
Published: October 2023

In Holland v Russell1 the defendant, as agent for a foreign owner, entered into a policy of insurance of a ship. At the time he made the contract, the defendant was in possession of a letter from the ship’s captain informing him of an injury to the ship which he failed to disclose to the underwriters, though it was found as a fact that he had no fraudulent intention to deceive. The failure to disclose, however, meant that the contract of insurance was voidable. The ship was subsequently lost and the plaintiff, one of the underwriters, paid out on the policy to the defendant, who then passed the money on to his principal. The underwriter’s subsequent restitutionary claim against the defendant for money paid under a mistake of fact failed. The Court of Queen’s Bench (Cockburn CJ, Wightman and Blackburn JJ) held that when money so paid to an agent has once been bona fide parted with without notice, the liability of the agent ceases and the claim can only be brought against the principal. This chapter is concerned with the question why in certain circumstances such a defence will defeat an otherwise valid restitutionary claim. The reasons are not self-evident, particularly when it is considered that there is no comparable defence in the law of torts. Various explanations have traditionally been put forward. It is sometimes said that the receipt of the agent is the receipt of the principal, so that by the receipt the agent is not enriched. Elsewhere it is thought to be an early manifestation of the defence of change of position. Another explanation focuses on the fact that in receiving the benefit from the plaintiff and paying it over to his principal, the agent is merely performing his duty to his principal. A fourth looks to the agent’s assumption of responsibility and justifies the immunity on the basis that the agent undertakes no liability to anyone other than his principal.
Legality, Modernity, and Ethnicity in Colonial South Africa: An Excursion in the Historical Anthropology of Law*
Authors: Comaroff John L
Published: October 2023

In The Campaign, a Carlos Fuentes novel of colonialism and liberation in South America, there lurks, amidst a welter of heroic acts and epic events, a brief, enigmatic exchange:A luta continua. The battle goes on. But the revolutionaries-alibis all for Fuentes’ reading of history-agree to one thing: the almost absurd centrality of law in both European overrule and the struggle against it.
Case-Law of the World Bank Administrative Tribunal
Authors: Amerasinghe C F
Published: October 2023

In the third volume of this series dealing with the Case-Law of the World Bank Administrative Tribunal, Dr Amerasinghe analyses the judgements and Orders handed down by the Tribunal between July 1, 1991 and April 30, 1996. Thus this volume covers Decisions No. 104-46 and Orders made during that period.
The Role of International Human Rights Law m the Protection of the Environment
Authors: Boyle* Alan
Published: October 2023

What role should international human rights law play in the protection of the environment? At Stockholm in 1972 the UN Conference on the Human Environment declared that ‘Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being’. Twenty years later, at the Rio Conference on Environment and Development, this initial emphasis on a human rights perspective has not been maintained. Avoiding the terminology of rights altogether, the Rio Declaration merely asse11s that ‘Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development.
Danish Neutrality
Authors: Holbraad Carsten
Published: October 2023

This analytical account of Danish foreign policy from 1720 to 1990 is the first scholarly treatment of the subject in any language. Historically Danish policy, essentially the reaction of a small state to potential or actual conflict among great powers, has presented a succession of different versions of neutrality. Analysing the ideas and tracing the attitudes behind each version, the author discusses the policy in terms of idealism and realism. The focus is on the neutralist tendencies that occasionally have marked Danish security policy in the years of NATO membership. The book also includes an account of the new commitment to alliance solidarity and European union which has characterized Danish policy towards NATO and EEC since the revolutions in Eastern Europe and the breaching of the Berlin Wall, and concludes with some speculations about Danish foreign policy in the near future. The central theme of the book is disengagement from or involvement in international politics.
Introduction
Authors: Butler David , Ranney Austin
Published: October 2023

Elections can produce high drama or infinite tedium, but they are the key institutions of representative democracy. Elections, when they are open and competitive, allow voters to decide which persons or parties shall control their government. For all but a handful of citizens, voting in national elections is the most important form of political participation; for most it is the only form. Consequently, the recent holding of free elections in formerly authoritarian nations, such as Argentina, Chile, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Spain, and the Soviet Union, provided the clearest evidence of their movement towards democracy.
Seeing the Ancestral Sites: Transformations in Fijian Notions of the Land
Authors: Toren Christina
Published: October 2023

Where I lived in Fiji, in the chiefly village of Sawaieke on the island of Gau, people routinely remark on the most ordinary events.1 So, when the truck that twice a day makes a circuit of the villages is sighted in the distance or its horn heard someone is bound to say, Lori! Or it might be the doctor’s van, or the drum for church, or women returning from fishing, and all of us present can see or hear whatever it is, but even so someone always remarks ‘Doctor!’ or, ‘There beats the drum!’ or, ‘Here come the women from fishing!’ And any walk with others elicits similar remarks as the group passes a landmark: ‘Ia, the old village!’ or ‘Ia, Crabshit Pool!’ or ‘Ia, the school!’
Pasteur, Pasteurization, and Medicine
Authors: Biraben Jean-Noel
Published: October 2023

It is impossible to overestimate the revolutionary aspects of Pasteur’s work in chemistry, biology, and medicine; his work has affected some of the most important aspects of people’s lives, health, and longevity.Before Pasteur’s time very little was known about the causes of disease. When Pasteur died, he had succeeded not only in providing an accurate explanation for a large part of human and animal pathology, but had also paved the way to immunology and the introduction of new treatments, and for advances which are still continuing in all branches of medicine, virology, and oncology.
Co-integration and Error Correction: Representation, Estimation, and Testing
Authors: Engle Robert F , Granger C W J
Published: October 2023

The relationship between co-integration and error correction models, first suggested in Granger (1981), is here extended and used to develop estimation procedures, tests, and empirical examples. If each element of a vector of time series x,tfirst achieves stationarity after differencing, but a linear combination α ′x, is already stationary, the time series x,tare said to be co-integrated with co-integrating vector α. There may be several such co-integrating vectors so that α becomes a matrix. Interpreting α ′  x,t = 0 as a long run equilibrium, co-integration implies that deviations from equilibrium are stationary, with finite variance, even though the series themselves are nonstationary and have infinite variance.
Cointegrated Economic Time Series: An Overview with New Results
Authors: Engle Robert F , Yoo B Sam
Published: October 2023

This paper surveys the theoretical developments surrounding cointegrated systems. It discusses the representation, estimation, and testing of such systems. By using the Smith-McMillan-Yoo decomposition of polynomial matrices, the paper directly extends this analysis to the case of multiple unit roots, complex or seasonal unit roots, and multiple cointegrating vectors. A new and careful analysis of the case of I(2) cointegration is presented which coincides with Granger’s multicointegration and with Hendry and von Ungern Sternberg’s integral control mechanism.
Some Recent Generalizations of Cointegration and the Analysis of Long-Run Relationships
Authors: Granger Clive W J
Published: October 2023

In the form usually discussed and tested in the economics literature the basic building blocks of cointegration are a pair of Z(l) series x  t, y  t, such that there is a unique combination x  t= y  t—Ay  t that is stationary (or I(0)).
Arguments on Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

Great Britain and France are the pioneers in the present wave of privatization in Western European economies. In Great Britain vital industries like telecommunications, gas, and electricity have been sold to the public. In France large industrial and financial conglomerates have constituted the main bulk of privatized enterprises. Other countries have been more hesitant to follow suit. West Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands have started to sell parts of the shares they hold in various industrial companies or banks. In these countries nobody seriously considers privatizing large public utilities like telecommunications and postal services. If the public utilities are considered inefficient, programs of internal reorganization are launched instead of programs of privatization (as, for instance, with the telecommunications and postal services in West Germany and the Netherlands). Some other European countries, such as Belgium, the Scandinavian countries, and Austria, even lag behind Germany, Italy, or the Netherlands in privatization. Sweden and Denmark do not privatize because traditionally in these social democratic countries not too many firms have been nationalized. Austria hesitated in privatizing for a long time, in spite of its large sector of nationalized enterprises; meanwhile, however, major privatizations are being planned for the next years.
Market Allocation in the Transition from Public to Private Firms
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

Full privatization means that the government withdraws from the direct economic engagement involved in public ownership. This may imply a transition to an indirect engagement via regulation or even to the complete renunciation of the government’s engagement in the firm’s activities. The government’s complete withdrawal is appropriate if unregulated markets bring about socially desirable results.
What is Positive Theory?
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

Positive theories describe how a firm actually behaves. There are two benchmarks: positive theories of private firms and positive theories of public firms. Depending on the case in question, the behavior of a privatized firm can be explained either by directly applying the theories of private firms or by combining particular elements of the theories which deal with private and public firms, respectively.
Regulation of a Privatized Firm
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

Recently price-cap regulation has been applied to privatized utilities in the UK, in particular for telecommunications, gas, and electricity pricing. The regulation of these public utilities has been introduced to cope with the trade-off between efficiency increases and price increases which are both expected to result from privatization.
Partial Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

A partially privatized firm is owned partly by private shareholders and partly by the government. In that case there are two possible scenarios which depict the role of the government. In the first the government remains totally inactive, leaving the role of the principal to the private shareholders. The government accepts that the firm maximizes profit (or the value of the firm). As a sort of silent partner, the government confines itself to receiving the dividends from its shares. This scenario holds in particular if the partial privatization is perceived as a transitory state, which can happen quite easily if capital market constraints make it impossible to sell the privatized firm in one step. This would induce the existence of a partially privatized firm between the first and the last step of privatization. The government is interested in receiving a good price from selling its remaining shares in the firm in the further steps of privatization. Consequently, it wants the firm to realize a high profit, which implies a high value of the firm, which, in turn, is the basis of a high share offer price in forthcoming privatization steps. Another explanation of this scenario pertains to firms in a competitive market, for example automobile firms. If the market were perfectly competitive, profit maximization would mean welfare maximization, in which case the interests of private and public owners would simply coincide. If competition is very intense, although not perfect, profit maximization might be perceived by the government as a good approximation of welfare maximization.
The Allocative Basic Features of Welfare-Optimal Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

For explanatory clearness, in this chapter we exclude income taxtion from our analysis and assume that the government expenditures are exogenously fixed at some positive level The exclusion of endogenous fiscal policy and of any income effects allows us to concentrate on the ‘pure’ consequences of choosing a welfare-optimal degree of privatization 8. The distribution of the shares is irrelevant because there are no income effects. The issue price of the shares is always equated to the profit of the firm, which is distributed as dividend payments.
Keynes and the State
Authors: Skidelsky* Robert
Published: October 2023

Helm (this volume) has rightly pointed out that in the design of economic policy, it is not enough to point to market failure as a justification for government intervention. The costs of market failure have to be balanced against those of government failure. One of the main criticisms of Keynes is that he failed to take the possibility of the latter seriously. For example, Harris ( 1955, p. 79) accused him of failing to ‘reconcile his dislike and distrust of politicians with his determination to thrust upon government serious additional responsibilities’.
The Limits of Laissez-Faire
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

This chapter summarizes the development of government policy on industry up to the end of the nineteenth century. It might be thought this would result in a very short chapter: wasn ‘t the nineteenth century the age of laissez-faire of the ‘nightwatchman state ‘, and therefore largely devoid of government policy on industry? Such a view is by no means absurd, but this chapter attempts to qualify it in three ways. First, by stressing that almost any sensible interpretation of laissez-faire recognizes that the state has to play some positive role and therefore necessarily has to take some actions which affect industry. Second, by detailing some minor but noteworthy shifts in policy towards the end of the nineteenth century. Third, by discussing the shifts in the intellectual, political as well as economic climate towards the end of the 1800s which are significant for what was to follow in the new century.
1970-1979: Stagflation and Surrender
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The adage that history is written by the victors applies very strongly to the economic history of the 1970s. In the immediate aftermath of the sharp reversal of economic policy after 1979 accounts appeared which tried to present events in the previous years as so dire as both requiring and justifying a radical new departure (e.g. Holmes 1985). Plainly, in terms of most policy objectives, the 1970s represented a clear deterioration compared with the experience of the previous twenty-five years. Inflation rose to its post-war peak of 25 per cent in 1975; unemployment grew sharply, especially in the period 1974-6, when it passed the one million mark; output growth slowed to under 1 per cent per annum, and the visible account of the balance of payments saw the worst post-war deficit in 1974. These were not years of high achievement.
Class, Underclass, and Poverty
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T
Published: October 2023

The concept of ‘the underclass’, or, as it is most frequently applied, the ‘urban underclass’, has generated the most vigorous debate on the nature of poverty in the USA since the 1960s. It is a term, as Peterson (1991) notes, that can appeal to conservatives, liberals, and radicals alike. Conservatives can focus on dependency culture and rational behaviour. Radicals can identify a group shaped and dominated by macroeconomic and political forces but denied a productive role. Liberals can direct their attention to the contrast between mainstream America and marginalized groups. Analyses of the urban underclass have had a major influence on the debate on ‘visions of poverty’ and the appropriate vocabulary of poverty. Perhaps the most influential contribution has been Charles Murray’s (1984) Losing Ground. Murray’s book formed part of the onslaught of the radical right. For Murray the underclass is a consequence of the perverse interventions of the welfare state and, in particular, of policies that seduce in the short term but have the long-term consequence of creating a dependency culture. While Murray’s explanation has a clear cultural component, it must be distinguished from the culture-of-poverty explanations of anthropologists. In the USA such explanations can lead to a focus on the roots of the black underclass in the rural south (Marks 1991: 451).
The Finances of the Tokugawa Shogunate
Authors: Ôguchi Yûjirô
Published: October 2023

Let us begin with those dimensions where the character of a warlord’s household accounts remained. In the basic structure of the shogunate’s finances, annual revenue was primarily acquired from the annual rice tax collected from the villages under direct Tokugawa control.
Nutritional Constraints on Human Resources
Authors: WATERLOW J C
Published: October 2023

As I understand it, the phrase “human resources” covers both the number of human beings that exist or could exist in the world and their capacity for leading a produc tive and healthy life. “Nutritional constraints” means the extent to which food supply limits the numbers of people and their quality of life. I shall concentrate on the second aspect-productivity and quality of life. Our nutritional state depends on an adequate supply of energy and of many different nutrients, which can conveniently be divided into two groups. The first group consists of the vitamins and essential minerals, the second energy and protein. I do not emphasize the first group in what follows. Certainly, large numbers of people in the world suffer from deficiencies of vitamin A, iron, and iodine, and possibly of zinc and selenium. From time to time there are epidemic outbreaks of deficiency diseases; a recent example is pellagra in refugees from Mozambique. However, these deficiencies could in principle be eliminated or prevented. The constraint is not the total supply available in the world. The minerals are plentiful and cheap; the vitamins can be manufactured, though perhaps not so cheaply. The constraints are economic and in the operational costs of distribution. There are many successful programs around the world for combating these deficiencies, and I think that these programs could be extended to any size of population if the political will existed.
Population, Development, and Institutional Change: Summary and Analysis
Authors: Bengtsson Tommy , Gunnarsson Christer
Published: October 2023

The general links between population, environment, and development are dealt with elsewhere in this book. Here the interplay between population and development will be considered in greater detail, especially the significance of institutions for development. The problem is not going to be that global birth rates will never go down. This they will certainly do, for the average size of family in the world has already fallen from 6.0 in 1960 to below 3.5 in 1990. From all that we know about the decline and its causes so far, fertility will continue to fall where it has started to do so. The problem instead is that in the poorest parts of the world neither development nor the fertility transition has started yet. Thus we have to find a way that will bring economic and social development and a fertility transition to the poorest without damaging the environment. This demands a policy that mobilizes local social structures and a timing and sequencing of interventions as the development policy alters local institutions-a policy that recognizes the social and cultural differences between different nations and during different stages of development.
Public Debt Management
Authors: Missale Alessandro
Published: October 2023

The choice of currency denomination, indexation, and maturity structure of public debt is an increasingly important aspect of policy in a world of high debts and and financially integrated markets. This book surveys theories and evidence on public debt composition and debt returns with the goal of emphasizing the main policy issues. The effects of debt management on financial markets, risk-sharing, policy credibility, interest costs, and taxation are evaluated within a unified theoretical framework. The analysis clarifies the trade-off involved in policy decisions and shows how to use theory and evidence to answer practical policy problems. This book is a valuable reference to researchers and satisfies the increasing demand by policymakers for sound economic principles to guide the choice of debt instruments.
Education and Development
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

This book develops a new approach to measuring the total returns to human resource development through investment in education. Drawing on microanalytic foundations, it uses regional and worldwide data to estimate the net marginal contributions of education and new knowledge both to economic growth and to wider effects on democratization, human rights, political stability, health, net population growth rates, reduction of poverty, inequality in income distribution, crime, drug use, and the environment. The total impact of education policy changes on endogenous development is then estimated using an interactive model. This new approach is important to industrialized and developing countries alike. The diffusion of knowledge and the adaptation of new techniques has been identified as crucial to the growth process in the new endogenmous growth models, and is of increasing strategic importance in current knowledge-based globalizing economies. Similarly, the non-monetary returns from education are important in improving human welfare. Measurement of these non-market returns is a crucial but much neglected subject. It has proved frustrating, and existing microanalytic measures have proved piecemeal. The new approach developed here offers some comprehensive estimates and simulation techniques for finding more cost-effective policies, and also suggests new hypotheses for further microanalytic testing.
Monetary Policy under Fixed Exchange Rates (1948–70)
Authors: Holtfrerich Carl-Ludwig
Published: October 2023

On the basis of a theoretical model, Robert Mundell has shown that the effectiveness of monetary policy in an open economy depends on the nature of the exchange-rate system and on the freedom of, or restrictions on, international capital movements. He has shown that, in a situation of free capital movements and fixed exchange rates, monetary policy has less impact on domestic growth and employment than on the external position: the capital and the current account. Fiscal policy, on the other hand, is relatively effective in stabilizing the domestic business cycle. He concluded from this that, given fixed exchange rates, monetary policy should concentrate exclusively on establishing external equilibrium—or another desired balance of payments situation—while
German Monetary Union
Authors: Streit Manfred E
Published: October 2023

The monetary union of 1 July 1990 is a prominent feature of an unprecedented event in German history: the Germans in the GDR revolted peacefully and successfully to overthrow a totalitarian regime. The introduction of the D-mark into eastern Germany initiated a shock therapy for a socialist economic system which, even in the view of the GDR’s planning commission, was on the verge of collapse. German Economic, Monetary, and Social Union (GEMSU) transferred not only the monetary system but also the other elements of the west German economic constitution to eastern Germany. That represented a radical institutional break with the socialist past, without parallel in any of the other countries in transition.
The Ivorian Cocoa and Coffee Boom of 1976-79: The End of a Miracle?
Authors: Ghanem Hafez
Published: October 2023

From .independence, in 1960, to 1975 the lvorian economy grew at an average annual rate of around 6.5%, in real terms. This remarkable growth was achieved while maintaining internal and external equilibria. The lvorian ‘miracle’ was mainly due to the country’s vast natural resources, its political stability and the inflow of cheap labour from neighbouring sahelian countries. Economic policies were conservative; they emphasised fiscal and monetary restraint while maintaining administratively determined agricultural producer prices at levels that encouraged the expansion of production, especially that of cocoa and coffee. Government policy changed markedly as a result of the cocoa and coffee boom of the mid- 1970s. Expenditures were increased to unprecedented levels. Adjusting to the end of the boom in 1980 proved to be a daunting task. Thus, the 1980s were a period of deep crisis for the lvorian economy, with negative GDP growth and soaring fiscal and current account deficits, except for a brief respite during 1985-86, when another temporary improvement in the terms of trade occurred.
Male Fertility Trends In Industrial Countries: Theories In Search Of Some Evidence
Authors: Coleman David A
Published: October 2023

The ‘fertility’ and reproduction patterns of men are different from those of women. There are good reasons for expecting them to be different. Some of these expectations are derived from evolutionary theory; others are consequences of more straightforward proximate demographic factors such as nuptiality patterns and sex ratio, and of the different socio-economic positions of the sexes in various human societies. But while there is much to say in terms of evolutionary speculation about human male as well as female reproductive strategies, polygamy, progeny size variance between the sexes, sex ratio and sexual dimorphism, there is little demographic evidence with which to test hypotheses. Even in modern societies, demographic data are usually insufficient to describe and analyse formally the contribution of males to fertility and reproduction in anything like the same detail or accuracy as the contribution from females.
Men, Polygyny, And Fertility Over The Life Course In Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Gage Ann K Blanc Anastasia J
Published: October 2023

The practice of polygyny in sub-Saharan Africa has been a subject of considerable discourse for decades. French, Belgian, and Portuguese colonial regimes opposed polygyny on moral grounds, and sought to discourage or eradicate it through legal reform and taxation (Phillips and Morris 1971; Boye et al 1991; Hunt 1991). In anthropology, polygyny is often treated as a cultural construct embedded in the political and economic spheres and in the domains of kinship and marriage. Much of the anthropological research has also tended to focus on the nature of polygyny as it is individually experienced and culturally intertwined in the sex-gender system, with detailed examination of the internal organization of polygynous households (Wittrup 1990). Recently, much attention has been paid to the dynamics of polygyny in urban areas and to the evolution of the institution through informal unions that serve as functional substitutes (Clignet 1987; Karanja 1994).
‘Someone To Take My Place’: Fertility And The Male Life-Course Among Coastal Boiken, East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea
Authors: Setel Philip
Published: October 2023

This chapter discusses the meaning and experience of fertility among men in Wavio village, East Sepik Province, in northwest Papua New Guinea. In Wavio (a pseudonym), the nature and meaning of fertility to men can be understood by unravelling the meanings behind the commonly heard statement that all men need ‘someone to take their place’. The notion that children are needed to take one’s place refers to men’s location in several regards: in chronological and genealogical time, and in structural and genealogical space. These literal and symbolic senses of one’s ‘place’ pertained to topics such as local concepts of reproductive health and masculinity, the phases of the male life-course, ownership and control of natural resources, and kin-oriented networks of debt and exchange that grew and multiplied over the course of an individual’s life. In Wavio, fertility and sexuality related to the cultural hierarchies among men based in enduring principles of social organization, yet they also reflected an historical context of change over several generations.
Globalization and Modes of Regionalist Governance
Authors: Payne Anthony
Published: October 2023

This chapter constitutes an attempt to link the concept of globalization to that of governance via the notion of regionalism. As will be seen, the argument grows out of the deliberations of a research group that has been working on the political economy of regionalism at the University of Sheffield for the past three or four years. Accordingly, it defines regional ism in the manner advocated by that group, namely as ‘a state-led or states led project designed to reorganise a particular regional space along defined economic and political lines’ (Payne and Gamble, 1996: 2).
The Making of the Republican Citizen
Authors: Harrison Henrietta
Published: October 2023

What does it mean to be Chinese? How did the major political events of the early 20th century affect the everyday lives of ordinary people in China? This book uses a wealth of new sources, including newspapers, memoirs, interviews, and photographs, to look at the political history of the period and to understand the ways in which politics intersected with the thoughts and feelings of ordinary people. To be a modern citizen of the Chinese republic meant repudiating much of the very ritual that had previously defined one as Chinese. As we follow the changes in everyday life, ranging from the unbinding of women's feet to the commemoration of the events of the a new republican history, we see the complex interactions between an ever more activist state and its new citizens.
The Dynamics of Integration Policies: A Multidimensional Model
Authors: Entzinger Han
Published: October 2023

This chapter deals with the situation of immigrants and minority communities in Europe, especially in Western Europe. It analyses different options for their integration, as individuals or as communities. It focuses on the role of the public authorities in the integration process, particularly on the objectives that may be set for an integration policy. These objectives are often relatively one sided. They tend to emphasize only one aspect of the integration process and they account insufficiently for the complexity of this process as it develops in the modern state. As a consequence, many of the existing integration typologies are inadequate for the explanation of differences between countries and also insufficient for an understanding of changes that occur over time.