bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Institutional Discrimination
Authors: Goldstein Susan B.
Published: October 2013

Institutional discrimination refers to the formal and informal practices, policies, and laws of organizations that systematically privilege certain groups and disadvantage others. The concept of institutional discrimination is an expansion of the term institutional racism, which was introduced in 1967 by American civil rights activists Stokely Carmichael (a.k.a. Kwame Ture) and Charles V. Hamilton in their book,Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America. Institutional discrimination affects a wide variety of groups, including those based on race and ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, disability, national origin, immigrant status, socioeconomic status, and ancestral caste.
Intelligence – General, Emotional, Multiple
Authors: Srivastava Ashok K.
Published: October 2013

Intelligence is a core construct in psychological theory and practice around which a plethora of theoretical and applied work has grown. For more than half of the twentieth century, intelligence was conceptualized largely as ability for abstract cognitive reasoning and problem solving in a relatively decontextualized framework. The predominant psychometric tradition fostered the attempt to quantify mental abilities in terms of a lone “intelligence quotient” (IQ). In recent years, however, the notion of IQ has been questioned for several reasons, such as equivocality, non‐linearity, and unidimensionality. The one‐dimensional nature of intelligence was challenged by the unfolding of research on several related concepts (e.g., wisdom, multiple intelligence, social intelligence, emotional intelligence) which point to diversity in intelligence. Different metaphors (e.g., geographic, computational, biological, epistemological, anthropological, sociological, systems) lead to diverse ways of conceptualizing the acquisition and use of knowledge. Intelligence is now viewed as “the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context”. This perspective suggests that intelligence cannot be divorced from the sociocultural milieu within which behavior occurs. Indeed, as early as 1911 Franz Boas argued that basic intelligence may well be the same among all people, but its manifestations vary with the individual's experience.
Internalized Oppression
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Berger Ben
Published: October 2013

Oppression includes two types: external oppression and internalized oppression. External oppression is the unjust exercise of authority and power by one group over another and includes imposing one group's belief system, values, and life ways on another group. Therefore, oppression should be viewed from the perspective of social justice. External oppression refers to a group's use of policy to force another group to accept unjust rules. Yet, external oppression may become internalized oppression when the oppressed group comes to believe and act as if the oppressor's belief system, values, and life ways are reality. Cloaked in normalcy, the internalized oppression may be adopted by racial minority people without their conscious awareness of doing so.
Kağitçibaşi, Çiğdem
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , D'Angelo Kimberly J.
Published: October 2013

Çiğdem Kağitçibaşi is a leading scholar within the field of cross‐cultural psychology. Her contributions have brought international attention to such disenfranchised groups as impoverished mothers and children and parenting and education in a cross‐cultural context. Her mother was a teacher in Turkey, leading Kağitçibaşi to an interest in education and social issues. Born in 1940 in Istanbul, Turkey, her passion for social commitment began at an early age. Her interest in education was based on the premise of social and societal change within the nation of Turkey. In the course of her education, her academic focus shifted to the field of psychology, with an initial interest in clinical psychology. However, she soon began to believe that the theories, methods, and teachings of psychoanalysis and clinical psychology were not sufficiently rigorous nor relevant for the solution of societal issues. These concerns led her to the field of social psychology. Later in her academic career, she turned her focus to the areas of the cross‐cultural and developmental psychology, which she felt were more socially relevant and open to cultural analysis.
Kitayama, Shinobu
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Shinobu Kitayama is Robert B. Zajonc Collegiate Professor of Psychology and director of the Center for Culture, Mind, and the Brain at the University of Michigan. A native of Japan, born in Shizuoka in 1957, he attended Kyoto University (B.A. 1979, M.A. 1981) before moving to the United States, where he completed the Ph.D. in social psychology at the University of Michigan (1987). Following five years at the University of Oregon, he returned to Kyoto University, remaining there from 1993 to 2003, when he moved to the University of Michigan.
LeVine, Robert A
Authors: White Jill
Published: October 2013

Robert LeVine's first work among the Gusii in Kenya, part of Beatrice and John Whiting's Six Culture study, prepared him for a life of prodigious fieldwork and theory building. He has returned to Kenya multiple times, and that research has been followed by work in Nigeria, Mexico, Nepal, Zambia, and Venezuela. “Bob” LeVine (b. 1932) began his graduate career at the University of Chicago, but left there in 1953 when he found no one to support his interest in psychological anthropology. The Kardiner and Linton seminars at Columbia were ending, and so LeVine chose Harvard University where he studied anthropology under Fred Eggan and psychoanalysis under David M. Schneider.
Lifespan Development
Authors: Padakannaya Prakash
Published: October 2013

According to most developmental scientists, development can be studied scientifically as a continuous process which begins at conception and continues until death. This field of study, concerned with the lifetime process of development, is known as lifespan development. As a scientific discipline the study of lifespan development includes description, explanation, and prediction of changes as well as stability in physical, psychosocial, and cognitive domains during one's entire life period.
Linguistic Equivalence
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K.
Published: October 2013

Cross‐cultural research often involves participants speaking different languages, and thus requires availability of tests (and other written psychological materials such as descriptions of experimental conditions or instructions to participants) in multiple languages. In psychology, a common procedure to develop such translations is the
translation–back‐translation
method. A test (or any other psychological material) is translated from a
source language
into a
target language
by a professional interpreter with extensive expertise in the target language; a second interpreter (preferably, with extensive expertise in the source language) independently translates the text back from the target language into the source language. The accuracy of the translation is then evaluated by comparing the original with the back‐translated version. The procedure can identify various kinds of errors. A nice example is the English proverb “
out of sight, out of mind
” that was back‐translated from a French translation as “
invisible, insane
”.
Luria, Alexander Romanovich
Authors: Agler Lin‐Miao Lin , Zabrucky Karen M.
Published: October 2013

Alexander Romanovich Luria was born on July 16, 1902 in Kazan, Russia. He is best known as a neuropsychologist (credited with founding the field of neuropsychology) and a pioneer of cultural‐historical psychology. Luria entered the Kazan State University in 1917 and graduated four years later with a degree in the humanities. During his college years he was interested in sociology and psychology, and had a particular interest in the work of Sigmund Freud. While a student, he established the Kazan Psychoanalytic Association.
Machismo
Authors: Wong Stephanie J.
Published: October 2013

Machismo is a socially and culturally constructed term used to conceptualize masculine norms, behaviors, and attitudes among Mexican, Mexican‐American, Latino, and Latin American men. The concept of
machismo
can be traced back to Spain, which encouraged its warriors to value and protect women through their strength. However, the term
machismo
was exported to other countries, and soon became associated with the term
macho
, a concept that described men as emotionally restricted, over‐confident, and chauvinistic. As a result, initial research efforts to understand the concept of
machismo
embodied a negative perspective, emphasizing stereotypical and hyper‐masculine characteristics, such as aggression, dominance over women, and violence. Adopting a narrow conceptualization of
machismo
that focuses primarily on negative characteristics can have deleterious effects on researchers’ and healthcare providers’ beliefs and practice, including reinforcing negative stereotypes and misinformed over‐generalizations about a particular population, implementing assessment and treatment based on stereotypes as opposed to individualized treatment, encouraging self‐fulfilling prophesies among members of the specified population, and diminishing quality, culturally competent care.
Malpass, Roy S
Authors: Weigold Arne
Published: October 2013

Roy S. Malpass is a social psychologist best known for his work on eyewitness identification and face recognition. He received his B.Sc. from Union College in 1959, his M.A. from The Graduate Faculty, The New School for Social Research, in 1961, and his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Syracuse University in 1968. He has been a faculty member at the University of Illinois, Champagne‐Urbana, State University of New York at Plattsburgh, and the University of Texas at El Paso. He is currently a professor emeritus at the latter two institutions. He is a past president of the Society for Cross‐Cultural Research (1989−1990) and the International Association for Cross‐Cultural Psychology (1992−1994). Much of Malpass's work has centered on the accuracy of eyewitness identification, with an emphasis on the area of police lineup fairness. Over the course of his career, he has examined a diverse range of influences on lineup fairness, such as whether individuals in the lineup should be presented simultaneously or sequentially, the influence of the instructions given to eyewitnesses (e.g., whether eyewitnesses are told that the suspect might not be in the lineup), and the consequences of the similarity of distractors (the persons in the lineup who are not the suspect) to eyewitness descriptions.
Markus, Hazel Rose
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , D'Angelo Kimberly J.
Published: October 2013

The early work of Hazel Rose Markus, which focused on self and identity development, established her as a prominent contributor to the field of cross‐cultural psychology. Building upon her 1977 groundbreaking research on the self‐schemata concept, Markus further studied the self and how people derive meaning from sociocultural factors. She has been interested in gender, ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, cohorts, and historical antecedents, which are contextually and culturally situated. She is author or co‐author of more than 150 publications on the role of self in regulating behavior and on the ways in which the self is shaped by social phenomena. Her work has culminated in a large body of innovative ideas and made her an influential force in the construal dynamics of the self.
Mate Poaching
Authors: Lawson Kathryn C.
Published: October 2013

Mate poaching, attracting someone who is already in a romantic relationship, is a phenomenon found universally across cultures, though prevalence varies greatly. Mate poaching may be undertaken in order to lure the already‐mated person into a short‐term sexual relationship, a long‐term sexual relationship, or a new, exclusive relationship between the poacher and the poached. Poaching for short‐term sexual affairs seems to occur more frequently than the other two types of poaching. Overall, mate poaching rates vary in part because of differential resource availability and different ratios of men to women. Mate poaching has been found to be most common in Southern Europe, South America, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe and to be relatively uncommon in Africa, South/Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Across cultures, men are more likely to both engage in poaching and to succumb to poaching attempts made on them, though these differences are often smaller in regions with more gender equality in terms of access to resources. Interestingly, increased political equality of men and women does not always lessen the differential rates of mate poaching between genders; instead, it sometimes increases the poaching behaviors of both men and women. Similarly, when women outnumber men in a region, people of both genders tend to engage in higher rates of mate poaching. Worldwide, approximately 60% of men and 40% of women admitted to attempting a mate poach. Research with North American samples found a smaller rate of self‐reported poaching experiences when mate poaching was redefined in order to explicitly indicate that the poacher was aware of the other person's exclusive relationship, though accumulated evidence suggests that most poachers are aware that they are encroaching on an existing relationship.
Mead, Margaret
Authors: George Meghan , Rutherford Alexandra
Published: October 2013

Margaret Mead is perhaps the world's best‐known cultural anthropologist. Although her work has not escaped criticism, books like
Coming of Age in Samoa, Growing up in New Guinea
, and
And Keep Your Powder Dry
have become enduring classics. In her lifetime, Mead was a true public intellectual, writing and commenting widely on social and scientific issues. After World War II, by which time she was already an academic celebrity, she kept up a tireless schedule of public speaking engagements. One biographer has surmised that her status as a woman in American public life at this time was surpassed only by Eleanor Roosevelt. Mead wrote extensively on sex, gender, race, family, and many other topics, not only to understand “faraway places,” but to understand American culture as well. This was actually a goal of all of her ethnographic research with “primitive” societies. As she wrote in the prologue to her autobiography
Blackberry Winter
, “I have spent most of my life studying the lives of other peoples, faraway peoples, so that Americans might better understand themselves”.
Meade, Robert D
Authors: Meade Robert D.
Published: October 2013

Robert Meade's interest in cultures other than his own began in elementary school in rural Indiana, where he was an avid reader and spent much time with books about foreign places and their inhabitants. These avocational interests have continued to be paramount for the duration of his personal as well as professional life. Meade received his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1956. His graduate work centered on human motivation and his dissertation was based on studies of motivation and time perception. His first visits abroad were centered on Europe where he was especially interested in how behavior and thought in those countries differed from those of his own. He also undertook a year of travel in Asia and Africa, where even more differences in culture suggested further investigation of how those cultures affected behavior and psychological processes.
Memory
Authors: Austin Adam , Crothers Heather , Richard Ferraro F.
Published: October 2013

In some cultures past events are frequently discussed between adults and children, thus placing importance on the past and remembering personal events. In the cultures that do not practice regular discussion of past events, memory may not be as valuable. Further, in individualistic cultures (such as the United States) where individuality and autonomy are emphasized, cognitive processes and resources may be directed to remembrance of discrete events (e.g., being accepted into college). In a collectivistic culture (such as Korea) emphasis is placed on relatedness, which encourages individuals to retain more generic knowledge.
Mental Health Promotion
Authors: Landsman Moshe S.
Published: October 2013

If primary prevention is the crown of the prevention model of psychological intervention, promotion of mental health is the jewel in that crown. Of the three realms of prevention (primary, secondary, and tertiary), primary prevention is the preferred intervention according to this model. Primary prevention is divided into two functions: First, minimizing dysfunction by identifying at‐risk populations and targeting them for intensive intervention; second, promotion of emotional health and wellbeing. Of these two functions, the prevention model proposes that promotion of mental health is more far‐reaching in its scope and in the expected result of the intervention.
Mindfulness
Authors: Chung Leeva
Published: October 2013

Mindfulness is the state of intentional awareness of our own identity and the identity of the other. The mindful communicator is capable of being reflective of her or his own state of identity emergence and that of others. The root of practicing mindfulness is in the contemplative practices of both Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. It is at once a spiritual, meditative, reflective, psychological, and an applied way of intentional living and communicating.
Moral Development
Authors: Naito Takashi
Published: October 2013

Although moral development has been studied from a variety of psychological perspectives, including learning theory, psychoanalysis, and others, current studies of moral development have been strongly influenced by the cognitive developmental approach of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg identified several fundamental philosophical issues underlying studies of moral development, such as the question of a culturally fair definition of the construct. Psychologists studying morality or moral development must deal with the problem of moral relativism or value neutrality, which stems from the value‐laden words “moral” and “development.” Moral relativism is the position that moral values differ among cultures and peoples and are therefore not universal. Conceptually, we must distinguish ethical moral relativism from descriptive moral relativism, because the relevant reasoning and evidence differ. Ethical relativism insists that basic values held in different cultures are equally right. Descriptive relativism simply holds that,factually, moral values held by people vary with culture.
Morpheme
Authors: Weigold Ingrid K. , Weigold Arne
Published: October 2013

A morpheme is the smallest unit that has meaning within a particular language, whether the language is spoken, written, or signed. For example, the English word “pre‐exist” comprises two morphemes, “exist,” and “pre,” meaning before.
Multicultural Identity
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

In
Coming of Age in Samoa
, Margaret described a situation where a single cultural tradition led to “one girl's life being so much like another's.” Growing up in a single cultural tradition is more and more unusual today. In fact, in today's global world, it is more common for individuals to internalize more than one culture, speak more than one language, live in a multicultural community, and have ties to individuals whose nationality is different from their own. From the complex socio‐political, economic, and educational interactions typical of our time emerge individuals whose orientation and view of the world profoundly transcends their indigenous culture and forms the basis for a multicultural identity.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Marcelo Ana Kamille , Huynh Que‐Lam
Published: October 2013

Increases in global migration have created unprecedented diversity in many countries, and the issue of national identity has become a hotly debated topic across the globe, spurring research in the social sciences, especially in political science and psychology. In most countries, national identity can be defined in terms of common language, religion, and/or phenotypic characteristics. However, in historically immigrant nations such as the United States and Canada, and in countries with recent increases in diversity due to migration, defining and maintaining a cohesive national identity in order to integrate the various subgroups within society poses a challenge. Within these contexts, several competing approaches or ideological solutions have emerged, including multiculturalism and assimilation.
National Character
Authors: Shiraev Eric , Levy David
Published: October 2013

National character stands for predominant behavioral and associated psychological features and traits perceived as common in most people of a nation. In most cases, people tend to describe themselves as “good,” “cultured,” and “decent,” while other nations are considered “bad,” “uncultured,” or “mean.” However, self‐loathing, self‐depreciation, or self‐criticism are not uncommon in different descriptions of national characters. Both positive and negative portrayals are fluid and relate to specific events or recent developments. Others have a longer history and reflect certain stereotypes or expectations about the typical behavior of a representative member of a national group. Consider a well‐known joke about some European nations: “What are Heaven and Hell? Heaven is when the restaurant chef is French, the cop is British, the auto mechanic is German, the planner is Swiss, and the lover is Italian. In Hell, everything is out of order: The chef is British, the policeman is German, the mechanic is French, the planner is Italian, and the lover is Swiss.” This old joke embodies simplistic views of national character.
Non‐verbal Behavior
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Non‐verbal communication is any communication that does not involve words. There are three major modalities by which non‐verbal communication occurs. One is through the environment or context. For example, different houses send different messages about their occupants through the use of color, lighting, heat, fabric textures, photos, and so forth. Another is through physical characteristics or appearance, such as height and weight; skin color, hair, eyebrows, cheeks, and chin; proportion of eye, nose, chin size; odors; and clothing, jewelry, glasses, and other artifactual cues.
Nsamenang, A. Bame
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

A. Bame Nsamenang is associate professor of psychology and learning sciences at the Advanced School of Education of Yaoundé University in Cameroon. He is also director of the Human Development Resource Centre (HDRC), which he co‐founded, in Bamenda, Cameroon. Following receipt of the Ph.D. in clinical child psychology from the University of Ibadan in 1984, he was a Fogarty Fellow at the National Institute of Child Health and Development in the United States (1987−1990), Nehru Chair Visiting Professor at Baroda University in India, and resident scholar at the Stanford University Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (2002−2003).
Oligarchy
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Biggs Douglas L.
Published: October 2013

Oligarchy is a form of government in which power effectively rests with a small, elite segment of society. The power of the elite may be based on wealth, military strength, family connections, commercial power, ruthlessness, or political influence. The word “oligarchy” is from the Greek words
olígos
, which means “a few,” and
archo
, which means “to rule or command”. According to, oligarchies can be categorized by the extent to which those in power are directly involved in coercion and/or government; the extent of fragmentation of the coercion and/or rule; and whether the power elite is wild (unrestrained by the rule of law) or tame.
Operational Definition
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Psychologists frequently measure constructs that are abstract and not directly observable. Measurement of such constructs requires operational definitions, observable measures that serve as a proxy for the underlying construct. ironic, circular definition of intelligence illustrates the point regarding development of a measurement that reflects an unobservable state: “Intelligence is what intelligence tests test.” Typical examples in research include measurement of the number of items recalled from a stimulus set to serve as the operational definition of amount learned, or the score on a depression inventory to serve as the operational definition of degree of depression that a person is experiencing.
Outgroup
Authors: Hovee Mark J.
Published: October 2013

Many people, at one point or another in their lives, have experienced the reality of being ostracized or excluded from a group. Such treatment is often based on differences in ethnicity, religious practices, socioeconomic status, or national‐political identity, although people may find themselves divided from each other by groupings on a smaller scale, often entailing one of the groups being more dominant and privileged than the other.
Parental Ethnotheories
Authors: Suzuki Hanako
Published: October 2013

Parental ethnotheories, one of the subsystems of “developmental niche,” are defined as parental cultural beliefs on child‐rearing. Developmental niche is a theoretical framework developed to identify both universal and specific ideas and characteristics about childrearing among different sociocultural groups, and is composed of three subsystems: 1) the physical and social settings of a child's everyday life, 2) the culturally‐led customs and practices of child care and child rearing, and 3) the psychology of caregivers, or parental ethnotheories. Developmental niche is based on assumptions in which a child's developmental process is organized around cultural systems, and all three subsystems together define a child's living environment. Although the three subsystems can work as discrete functions, they operate interdependently in a cultural system.
Parenting Essentials
Authors: Rohner Ronald P. , Khaleque Abdul
Published: October 2013

The ethnographic record shows that children in all societies of the world experience at least three essential elements of parenting from their major caregivers. These include varying degrees and expressions of warmth (acceptance‐rejection), behavioral control (permissiveness‐strictness), and discipline (e.g., corporal punishment and others). Because children's perceptions of parental acceptance‐rejection have the most consistent and far‐reaching developmental implications, this article focuses most heavily on that dimension and its developmental effects. The issues of behavioral control and discipline are then placed within the context of the warmth dimension.
Parenting Styles
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle
Published: October 2013

Parenting styles were first constructed to characterize children's social adjustment. denoted four styles of parenting that focused on parental control, acceptance, and responsiveness of the parent. The first style of parenting isauthoritarian. This parenting style is restrictive and punitive. It exercises control over the child and emphasizes the child's ability to follow directions. Authoritarian parents have firm limits and allow for little verbal exchange or reasoning. On the other hand,authoritativeparenting encourages independence, yet still places limits and controls on the child. Verbal exchange occurs frequently and such parents exercise warmth and nurturance toward the child. Conversely,neglectfulparenting is a style through which the parents are very much uninvolved in the child's life. These parents tend to be undemanding, offer little control, and are rejecting and unresponsive to the child's needs. Finally, theindulgentparenting style encompasses parents who are very involved, accepting, and responsive to their child, yet these parents place few demands or controls on them. The results of these parenting styles are varied, although authoritative parenting has generally been seen as promoting better adjustment and social competence. In 1983, Maccoby and Martin further developed the concept of parenting styles and noted that each parenting style can be subsumed in a four‐field table, where one axis represents controlling, demanding behavior, and the other axis represents warm, responsive behavior.
Payton, Carolyn Robertson
Authors: Woolf Linda M. , Hulsizer Michael R.
Published: October 2013

Psychologist Carolyn Robertson Payton was the first female and first African‐American Director of the United States Peace Corps. A pioneer in the field of multi cultural psychology, asked, “Who must do the hard things?”. She stressed that psychology has an important role to play in understanding and addressing social issues. As an educator, leader, mentor, scholar, and policy maker, Payton confronted issues of social inequality and justice, exemplifying her belief that psychology is not just about research but also direct action to improve the lives of others.
Personality Disorders
Authors: Deering Catherine Gray
Published: October 2013

Personality is a term describing one's unique style or pattern of inner experience and outward behavior. Psychologists consider personality a long‐term, relatively consistent phenomenon, but healthy individuals are able to adapt their personalities to the demands of various situations. The difference for people with personality
disorders
is that their behaviors lack flexibility and tend toward extremes that impair their ability to interact well with others, causing problems in their work and family relationships. For example, they may be exceedingly sensitive, hostile, suspicious, deceitful, self‐absorbed, or impulsive, depending on the type of personality disorder they have. Mental health professionals consider personality disorders to be some of the most difficult problems to treat, especially given that most people with these disorders lack insight into the role they play in their own interpersonal problems. Thus, people with personality disorders continually replay their complex dynamics and relational struggles in both their daily lives and in the therapeutic relationship.
Pfeiffer, Wolfgang M
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Wolfgang M. Pfeiffer, one of the pioneers of transcultural psychiatry, was born in Plauen, Germany on October 23, 1919. He died on October 27, 2011. Pfeiffer completed his medical studies at the University of Munich with an M.D. degree in 1947, and proceeded to specialize in psychiatry. From 1951 to 1956, he was a staff psychiatrist at a hospital for the brain‐injured in Tübingen. His lifelong involvement with transcultural psychiatry began in 1956 when he was selected to direct a psychiatric hospital in Bandung, Indonesia, where he conducted research on psychiatric manifestations in both institutions and communities. Upon his return to Germany Pfeiffer defended his habilitation or professorial dissertation on
Findings and Problems of Transcultural Psychiatry
. Completed in 1969, it was the first psychiatric dissertation in Germany that dealt with a transcultural topic.
Phonology
Authors: Weigold Ingrid K.
Published: October 2013

Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with language sounds. More specifically, phonology examines how sounds are organized in a meaningful way, both within and across languages. Phonology is related to, yet a separate field from, phonetics. Phonetics is concerned with the basic properties of human speech (i.e., how a sound is produced, articulated, and perceived), whereas phonology seeks to understand the sound patterns of speech. Phonology focuses on the examination of phonemes, the smallest elements of meaningful spoken sound. However, phonology also includes the study of related concepts, such as stress, accent, rhyme, allomorphs (one morpheme having different sounds), and phonotactics (rules governing the placement of sounds).
Play
Authors: Bishop Charla McKinzie
Published: October 2013

Play may seem purely recreational and unstructured, but beyond a first glance, play facilitates social‐psychological, motor, and cerebral development. Socially, play can assist in the development of friendships, allow for practices of collaboration, cooperation, and sharing, and develop verbal communication. Play develops concepts of self as it is believed to be an expression of a child's inner thoughts, and it can aid in the development of an inner sense of power. The act of play can develop both fine and gross motor skills, balance, and coordination. Cognitively, play can allow for development of problem‐solving skills and relay cultural and moral values. Play is both a process (understanding of skills) and a product (demonstration of skills).
Poverty
Authors: Tuli Kailish
Published: October 2013

The normal understanding of the term “poverty” is that some people lack enough resources to sustain themselves. There are numerous parameters within which the poverty of particular persons can be evaluated. Basic human needs include water, food, shelter, clothing, healthcare, education, and employment. In poverty‐stricken populations these resources are lacking. People in poverty do not have adequate means, especially in terms of economic resources or supports, to sustain their livelihood.
Power:SeeValues (Shalom H. Schwartz)
Authors: Messer Rachel H. , Kennison Shelia M.
Published: October 2013

Pragmaticsis the term used to identify the social rules for language use. These rules are dictated by social situations and can vary by context. Consequently, the rules vary across cultures. Pragmatics includes both verbal and non‐verbal aspects for conversing with others. Communicating the intent of a statement in a conversation not only includes the specific words used, but also how the words are produced, including the body language and facial expressions a speaker uses to deliver a statement. Examples of non‐verbal forms of communication used by speakers of American English include gestures, such as an individual throwing his or her hands in the air to convey giving up during an argument, or quickly raising and lowering the shoulders to indicateI don't know. We need both types of indicators to communicate effectively with others.
Preoperational Thinking
Authors: Landsman Moshe S.
Published: October 2013

The prevention model of mental health is a product of several factors coming together during the 1960s: 1) With progress in psychotherapy and mental health care, the demand for mental health services began to outstrip the supply. This flagrant discrepancy between supply and demand was especially evident among the poor. This led to a search for more cost‐effective ways to deliver mental health services. 2) The social upheavals of the 1960s encouraged a search for alternatives to the medical model of mental health, hoping to create a fundamental change in the way that mental health issues are conceptualized and addressed. 3) Advances in early education and a new understanding concerning the flexibility of IQ (that IQ is not a static human characteristic, but can be changed) encouraged a rethinking of basic concepts of mental health, especially the efficacy of early intervention. 4) Research of the period called into the question the effectiveness of traditional tools of mental health – especially individual psychotherapy – in dealing with significant mental health problems. 5) The growth of the anti‐psychiatry movement called into question the tools and methods long revered by the mental health establishment. 6) Exposure of white middle‐class America (home of the most influential mental health practitioners) to diverse cultures raised objections to established ways of dealing with mental health in culturally diverse populations. In parallel, the feminist movement questioned many cherished values of the patriarchal mental health establishment.
Price‐Williams, Douglass
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Douglass Price‐Williams was born in London and worked as a newspaper reporter, schoolmaster, and for two years in Denmark, a teacher‐practitioner of body posture. He served as a radio officer in the British Merchant Navy during the last years of World War II. In 1963, he received a doctoral degree in psychology from the University of London, and taught at the London School of Economics, Rice University (where he served as department chair), and UCLA, where he is currently professor emeritus. Price‐Williams is recognized as a pioneer in the field of cross‐cultural psychology, especially the study of dreams and psychological anthropology. He conducted anthropological fieldwork in Mexico, Guatemala, Nigeria, Hawaíi, Nepal, Bali, and the aboriginal communities of Australia. He was a founding editor of Ethos, the official journal of the Society for Psychological Anthropology.
Primary Aging
Authors: Gharib Afshin
Published: October 2013

Primary aging refers to the natural process of aging that is species typical and does not vary between cultures (as opposed to secondary aging, defined by diseases associated with old age and which affect only some people as they age). While there are occasional claims of populations of humans that age more slowly or live much past the human lifespan of around 120 years, close scrutiny suggests that these claims are unfounded. In its most general sense, aging can be defined as a slowing down of the organism, and all humans, regardless of health, gradually slow down as they get older. Older adults have slower reaction times, run more slowly, and in general are slower in various measurable ways than they were when they were young.
Procedural Equivalence
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K.
Published: October 2013

Procedural equivalence is a generic term referring to the ecological validity of all the aspects of a cross‐cultural study that are typically described in the procedures section of empirical papers. In other words, ecological validity, that is, the cultural and linguistic appropriateness of the procedures used, should be high for all samples involved in the cross‐cultural research. Procedural equivalence is threatened by any source of
administration bias
.
Psychological Anthropology
Authors: Menon Usha
Published: October 2013

Psychological anthropology investigates the relationship between an individual and his or her sociocultural environment, including within its purview the cultural shaping of individual behavior, experience, and development as well as the psychological bases of society and culture. Given its location at the interface of anthropology, psychology, and psychiatry, psychological anthropology plays a unique role in expanding the scope of each of these disciplines beyond their generally accepted parameters. Thus, as anthropology, it insists that exploring the mental life and psychological development of the members of a culture is necessary for a more complete interpretation of the Other's way of life. Indeed, several psychological anthropologists, reacting to the tendency within their own discipline to decry the use of psychological concepts and methods in the study of human behavior, contend that the validity of anthropology's contributions to our understanding of human nature is deepened when its inquiry encompasses psychological and psychiatric topics. Simultaneously, psychological anthropology pushes psychology and psychiatry to go beyond their traditional focus on psychological functioning in Western cultures to include the other cultures of the world. It maintains that psychology and psychiatry can only speak authoritatively about the human psyche when these disciplines transcend the rather parochial boundaries of Western cultures and base their generalizations on evidence derived from both Western and non‐Western populations.
Relativism
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Relativism is a theoretical perspective according to which psychologists study behavior in a culture as being independent of behaviors in other cultures. That is, according to this perspective, attempting to understand human thought and behavior by comparing constructs across cultures is counterproductive because each culture is
sui generis
. This framework stands in contrast to
absolutism
, which asserts that culture is irrelevant to understanding psychological constructs because they do not differ across cultures, and
universalism
, which posits that constructs have universal underpinnings but are displayed differently depending on cultural context.
Representativeness Heuristic
Authors: Pope Jay W.
Published: October 2013

The representative heuristic is the tendency for people to predict that a person or object belongs to a category, not based on mathematical evidence (e.g., the base rate), but on how much the person or object is perceived to be typical or “representative” of that category. Although the representative heuristic can improve the speed and efficiency of some estimates, by drawing on historical and categorical factors that shape perception, it is also a cognitive bias that can result in significant errors of judgment.
Resilience
Authors: Nolan Susan A. , Fisher Paige H.
Published: October 2013

Resilience is the ability of humans to respond adaptively to stressful or traumatic situations in a way that maintains their psychological health. Norman Garmezy, Emmy Werner, and Ruth Smith are frequently credited as the original champions of the concept of resilience, and for initiating research interest in and clinical attention to personal strength rather than weakness in overcoming adversity . For example, conducted a longitudinal study examining the effects of acute and chronic stressors on children in poverty, and found that although many of these children grew up with problems, many others fared remarkably well. Beyond the positive focus on adaptive responding, some researchers also consider resilient people as those who do not develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following the experience of trauma.
Restorative Environments
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Wozniak William J.
Published: October 2013

Life in today's world can be hectic and competitive, leading to anxiety, stress, and mental fatigue. Restorative environments are places, both natural and human‐made, that can alleviate attentional fatigue and reduce emotional stress. Approximately half of the world's people now live in urban areas, leaving people increasingly isolated from nature, which is important because many empirical studies have shown that people find natural environments more restorative than built environments. Studies of the restoration effect of natural environments have demonstrated that contact with nature can reduce tension and stress, evoke positive emotions, facilitate cognitive functioning , decrease recovery time when hospitalized, reduce anger and frustration, and improve health.
Ringi (稟議)
Authors: Machizawa Sayaka
Published: October 2013

The Japanese
ringi
system is a collective, “bottom‐up” decision‐making process in which the written proposal called
ringisho
(稟議書) is passed along to those concerned throughout the organization for approval. Like
nemawashi
(see the entry on
nemawashi
),
ringi
has been part of the social norm in Japan, typically used in business and government organizations. Although it is difficult to translate
ringi
into English because of its close tie to unique cultural values and tradition in Japan, it is often described as “circulating decision”.
Rivers, William Halse Rivers
Authors: Pickren Wade E.
Published: October 2013

In England, as in Germany, there was a long tradition of theorizing about the peoples of the world and the place of those peoples relative to the English. Common were questions about civilization, especially the civilizing influence on “savages” or “primitive” peoples, and questions about human progress. By the end of the nineteenth century, a small group of men interested in anthropological questions began to create a discipline of anthropology. Several psychologists were among those involved in creating the discipline, chief among them the young physician, William H. R. Rivers.
Rogoff, Barbara
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: October 2013

Barbara Rogoff (B.A. 1971, Pomona College, CA; Ph.D., 1977 Harvard University) is University of California Santa Cruz Foundation Distinguished Professor of Psychology. From 1977 to 1992 she worked in the department of psychology, University of Utah, rising to full professor in 1985. Since 1974, she has maintained a strong relationship with the Tz'utujil Mayan community of San Pedro la Laguna, Guatemala, where she conducted fieldwork for her Ph.D. degree.
Russian Psychology
Authors: Chebotareva Elena Ju. , Novikova Irina A.
Published: October 2013

Scientific psychology in Russia began to organize in the middle of the nineteenth century. Specifically, in 1863, after a long break, philosophy education resumed in Russian universities, leading to research in the fields of psychology and logic. At that time, the development of psychological ideas in Russia was heavily influenced by fiction, with the result that many researchers believe that Russian literature (Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, and others) was the most influential Russian philosophy and psychology of the nineteenth century. However, in the 1870s, an independent Russian psychology began to form in connection with the development of national scientific thought and, importantly, the development of reflection on scientific and psychological features of Russian identity.
Sapir, Edward
Authors: White Jill
Published: October 2013

Edward Sapir enjoyed the rare distinction of being beloved and recognized as a genius by both his colleagues and his students during his lifetime. Many of his writings are in the field of linguistics, but he made a significant impact in the area of cultural psychology as well, where his ideas continue to be relevant. Sapir was born on January 26, 1884 in Lauenburg, Pomerania, Germany (now Lebork, Poland) into the household of an Orthodox Jewish cantor. His family immigrated to the United States when he was five years of age settling in New York City's lower east side. He earned both his undergraduate (1904, B.A. in German) and graduate degrees (1905, M.A. in German; 1909, Ph.D. in anthropology) from Columbia University, where Franz Boas recognized him as his most brilliant student.
Sapir‐Whorf Hypothesis
Authors: Kreiner David S.
Published: October 2013

The Sapir‐Whorf Hypothesis, also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, states that the language one knows affects how one thinks about the world. The hypothesis is most strongly associated with Benjamin Lee Whorf, a fire prevention engineer who became a scholar of language under the guidance of linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir. The claim that language influences thought predates both Whorf and Sapir. Wilhelm von Humboldt addressed the relation between the structure of one's language and one's worldview as early as the 1820s.
Saraswathi, T. S
Authors: Scott Sarah A.
Published: October 2013

T. S. Saraswathi is a senior professor emeritus of human development at Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India and a renowned contributor to the field of cross‐cultural developmental psychology. Author of many books and journal articles, Saraswathi has paved the way for new investigative and informative directions in family studies and human development as they are applicable to cross‐cultural psychology. Drawing on her Indian heritage, Saraswathi has illuminated the dearth of Indian philosophy and theoretical insights, instigated clearly defined developmental theories grounded in Hindu worldviews, advocated for an increase in research that promotes social policies for children, and endorsed the need for more integrated approaches to developmental, cross‐cultural research in the field.