bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Decisions, Decisions
Authors: Staley Kent W.
Published: June 2017

Much of the discussion of the argument from inductive risk (AIR) centers on scientific research that has relevance to policymaking. To emphasize that inductive risk pervades science, this chapter discusses the AIR in the context of high energy physics: specifically, the discovery of the Higgs boson, a scientific finding that is irrelevant to policy. The applicability of the AIR for the case of the Higgs boson is established through a pragmatic approach to scientific inquiry, emphasizing the centrality of practical decision problems to the production of scientific knowledge. This approach, drawing on debates among pragmatists over the interpretation of statistical inference, eschews the classification of value judgments into epistemic and non-epistemic.
Inductive Risk and Values in Composite Outcome Measures
Authors: Stanev Roger
Published: June 2017

Composite outcomes are becoming widespread in clinical trials. By combining individual outcome measures (e.g., death, non-fatal heart attack, non-fatal stroke, re-hospitalization) as a single composite measure, composites can increase statistical precision and trial efficiency, consequently enabling researchers to answer questions that could not otherwise be answered and providing more patient-relevant information. Critics, however, argue that a composite threatens the scientific objectivity of the trial by introducing new risks. This chapter examines common use of composites in cardiovascular trials and highlights the inductive risks involved in employing them. It shows that the inductive risk associated with a particular methodology (such as the use of a composite outcome) is not always clear in advance, so non-epistemic values are relevant to deciding whether or not it is worth using them. It also illustrates the importance of being explicit about which methodological choices were made and why.
Inductive Risk and the Role of Values in Clinical Trials
Authors: Bluhm Robyn
Published: June 2017

This chapter examines the implications of clinical research for philosophical discussions of inductive risk, focusing on three methodological debates: (1) the necessity of randomization, (2) the distinction between explanatory and pragmatic trials, and (3) the use of placebo versus active controls. All of these debates can usefully be recast in terms of inductive risk, which raises several important implications for philosophical discussion. They show that consideration of inductive risk, first, need not involve a straightforward trade-off between the consequences of false positive versus false negative results, and, second, should address what kind of evidence is needed before accepting a hypothesis, in addition to how much evidence is needed. Moreover, they show that evidence itself is shaped by non-epistemic values, which complicates the issue of distinguishing between direct and indirect roles for values.
Man-Machines and Embodiment
Authors: Huneman Philippe , Wolfe Charles T.
Published: June 2017

A common and enduring early modern intuition is that materialists reduce organisms in general and human beings in particular to automata. Wasn’t a famous book of the time (1748) entitled L’Homme-Machine? In fact, the machine is employed as an analogy, and there was a specifically materialist form of embodiment, in which the body is not reduced to an inanimate machine, but is conceived as an affective, flesh-and-blood entity. This paper discusses how mechanist and vitalist models of organism exist in a more complementary relation than hitherto imagined, with conceptions of embodiment resulting from experimental physiology. From La Mettrie to Bernard, mechanism, body and embodiment are constantly overlapping, modifying and overdetermining one another; embodiment came to be scientifically addressed under the successive figures of vie organique and then milieu intérieur, thereby overcoming the often lamented divide between scientific image and living experience.
Seeing and Believing
Authors: Moran Richard
Published: June 2017

Metaphor is classed among the “figurative” uses of language, and the idea of “imagery” is associated with metaphor in both literary and philosophical discussions. But why should what is conveyed by metaphor be thought to be any more closely related to imagery or anything experiential than the understanding of literal language or other tropes such as irony? Relatedly, the vividness metaphor is also often associated with an idea of “force” or power, and the ability of metaphor to persuade. Both of these thoughts are in tension with a traditional philosophical notion of the content or meaning of a statement or proposition. This paper explores these two ideas in connection with a critical examination of Donald Davidson’s denial that a metaphor should be seen as saying or meaning anything at all beyond the literal meaning of the words employed.
Muslim Civil Society and the Politics of Religious Freedom in Turkey
Authors: Walton Jeremy F.
Published: June 2017

Muslim Civil Society and the Politics of Religious Freedom in Turkey is an inquiry into the political practices of contemporary Turkish Muslim NGOs. Based on ethnographic research conducted in Istanbul and Ankara, it examines how Muslim NGOs interrogate statist sovereignty over Islam in Turkey. Muslim NGOs target two facets of state power in relation to Islam: Kemalist laicism and its marginalization of Islam in public life and the state-based production of a homogeneous form of Sunni Islam. In making this double criticism of statist sovereignty over Islam, Turkish Muslim NGOs champion religious freedom as a paramount political ideal. This nongovernmental politics of religious freedom has entailed the naturalization of second mode of power in relation to religion—that of liberal governmentality. It has also sanctioned a romance of civil society as uniquely suited to authentic, nonpolitical modes of belonging—the civil society effect. This nexus of religious freedom, nongovernmental politics, and the civil society effect determines a counterpublic relationship between Turkish Muslim NGOs and statist forms of Islam. The institutions that the book discusses span the dominant sectarian divide in Turkey—that between Sunnis and Alevis. The book develops a broad set of comparisons and contrasts between Sunni and Alevi organizations. On one hand, it argues that Sunni and Alevi NGOs articulate a shared discourse of religious freedom. On the other hand, it attends to the persistent, hierarchical differences between Sunnis and Alevis in Turkey, which situate Sunni and Alevi NGOs unevenly within a broader field of power.
The Cybersecurity Dilemma
Authors: Buchanan Ben
Published: June 2017

Why do nations break into one another's most important computer networks? There is an obvious answer: to steal valuable information or to attack. But this isn't the full story. This book draws on often-overlooked documents leaked by Edward Snowden, real-world case studies of cyber operations, and policymaker perspectives to show that intruding into other countries' networks has enormous defensive value as well. Two nations, neither of which seeks to harm the other but neither of which trusts the other, will often find it prudent to penetrate each other's systems. This general problem, in which a nation's means of securing itself threatens the security of others and risks escalating tension, is a bedrock concept in international relations and is called the “security dilemma”. This book shows not only that the security dilemma applies to cyber operations, but also that the particular characteristics of the digital domain mean that the effects are deeply pronounced. The cybersecurity dilemma is both a vital concern of modern statecraft and a means of accessibly understanding the essential components of cyber operations.
Cross-Cultural Communication in the Hellenistic Mediterranean and Western and South Asia
Authors: Canepa Matthew
Published: June 2017

This chapter deals with West–Asian cross-cultural interaction that developed during the Hellenistic period in the aftermath of Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Empire as the land and sea routes between the Mediterranean and India opened up. Despite their constant warfare, the kings that dominated this region established diplomatic ties influenced by a rich range of linguistic, visual, spatial, and ritual idioms. Canepa views Mauryan pillars and inscribed edicts issued by the emperor Aśoka as responses both to local South Asian traditions of religion and empire, and also to those of the Achaemenids and Seleucids. The cross-cultural interaction of this period not only transformed contemporary worldviews and traditions, but also formed the basis for future exchanges among the Romans, Arsacids, Kuṣāṇas, and Sasanians.
Coinage and the Roman Economy
Authors: Harl Kenneth W.
Published: June 2017

This chapter presents Roman coinage as a distinctive type of communication that developed in the centuries preceding the empire’s fall in the West and the loss of Egypt and Syria to the Moslem caliphs in the East. During this period, the Romans minted standardized images in the hundreds of thousands, even millions, a massive output that transformed marketplaces, and with them the economy of the empire. Linked to coinage in this period was unprecedented government regulation of the economy. Harl concentrates on by far the most important innovation, the establishment of a fiduciary coinage in the third and fourth centuries. While this step has typically been taken to signify economic decline or incapacity, Harl argues that fiduciary coinage represented a new, abstract level of communication.
From Drag Queens to Leathermen
Authors: Barrett Rusty
Published: June 2017

This book analyzes gendered forms of language use in several different gay male subcultures. The subcultures considered include drag queens, radical faeries, bears, circuit boys, barebackers, and leathermen. The chapters include ethnographic-based studies of language use in each of these subcultures, giving special attention to the ways in which linguistic patterns index forms of masculinity and femininity. In each case, speakers combine linguistic forms in ways that challenge normative assumptions about gender and sexuality. In an extension of prior work, Barrett discusses the intersections of race, gender, and social class in performances by African American drag queens in the 1990s. An analysis of sacred music among radical faeries considers the ways in which expressions of gender are embedded in a broader neo-pagan religious identity. The formation of bear as an identity category (for heavyset and hairy men) in the late 1980s involve the appropriation of linguistic stereotypes of rural Southern masculinity. Among regular attendees of circuit parties (similar to raves), language serves to differentiate gay and straight forms of masculinity. In the early 2000s, barebackers (gay men who eschew condoms) used language to position themselves as rational risk takers with a natural innate desire for semen. For participants in the International Mr. Leather contest, a disciplined, militaristic masculinity links expressions of patriotism with BDSM sexual practice. In all of these groups, the construction of gendered identity involves combining linguistic forms that would usually not co-occur. These unexpected combinations serve as the foundation for the emergence of unique subcultural expressions of gay male identity.
From Drag Queens to Leathermen
Authors: Barrett Rusty
Published: June 2017

This chapter provides theoretical background for the analyses contained in From Drag Queens to Leathermen: Language, Gender, and Gay Male Subcultures. The chapter reviews prior research on gay male subcultures and gay male language. The chapter then presents theoretical background related to language ideology, performativity, and indexicality. A general discussion of gendered ideologies in gay male subcultures is presented, discussing the role of stereotypes, appropriation, and the use of camp forms of interactional style. A basic history of the emergence of gay male subcultures is presented, focusing on communication within subcultures, such as the hanky code in clone subculture. The chapter ends with a brief overview of the contents of the remaining chapters in the book.
Viral Loads
Authors: Barrett Rusty
Published: June 2017

This chapter analyzes patterns of the interactional stance on blogs written by self-identified barebackers, gay men who eschew the use of condoms. In the early part of the twenty-first century, barebacker subculture was highly controversial as barebackers were often portrayed both as rejecting commonsense advice from public health officials and as dangerous for potentially putting their sexual partners at risk for HIV infection. After a discussion of the controversies that surrounded barebacker identity, the chapter examines various types of stance in barebacker discourse. Barebackers use stance to realign the arguments surrounding safe sex to emphasize knowledge about disease transmission and possible risks (rather than the use of condoms) as critical to disease prevention. The barebacker discourse analyzed here also uses instrumental stance to construct an identity founded in a natural desire for semen, which is impeded by condom use.
The Preventive Turn in Criminal Law
Authors: Carvalho Henrique
Published: June 2017

This book presents a theoretical examination of the rise and expansion of preventive criminal offences that has gained momentum in Anglo-American criminal justice since the late twentieth century. It shows how recent transformations in criminal law and justice are intrinsically related to and embedded in the way liberal society and liberal law have been imagined, developed, and conditioned by their social, political, and historical contexts. The book starts by identifying a tension, within contemporary criminal law, between the importance given to the expression of individual autonomy and responsibility, and the perceived need for prevention as a condition for the security of autonomy and the promotion of welfare. The book then traces this tension back to an intrinsic ambivalence within the modern conception of individual liberty, which is both repressed and preserved by liberal conceptions of responsibility and punishment. It finds that it is this tension that ultimately grounds the rise of preventive criminal offences in recent times. The Preventive Turn in Criminal Law engages with the main contemporary literature on criminal law, prevention, risk, security, and criminalization, by deploying a theoretical perspective from both classical and contemporary works of social and political theory, including the works of Hobbes, Locke, Hegel, and Bentham. It does so in order to reveal that the pervasiveness of prevention in twenty-first century criminal law not only represents the consequence of new and unprecedented features of contemporary politics and society, but also embeds long-established features of the liberal legal and political tradition.
Pompey, Cato, and the Governance of the Roman Empire
Authors: Morrell Kit
Published: June 2017

This book examines attempts to improve provincial governance from 70–50, particularly the contributions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and the younger Marcus Porcius Cato. It contends that Romans of the late republic were more concerned about the problems of their empire than is generally recognized, and were taking steps to address them. These efforts ranged well beyond the sanctions of the extortion law to encompass show trials, exemplary governance, and ideas drawn from moral philosophy, culminating in 52–50 in a reform programme which combined what Cicero called ‘Cato’s policy’ of ethical governance with Pompey’s lex de provinciis, a law which transformed the very nature of provincial command. The book also demonstrates that Pompey and Cato, two figures usually seen as combatants, were capable of collaborating in the cause of reform. The opening chapters examine Pompey’s engagement with problems of imperial governance in his first consulship and in his eastern campaigns, and Cato’s Stoic view of empire. Next, attention turns to the extortion law passed by Julius Caesar in 59 and subsequent attempts by Pompey and Cato to extend its penalties to equestrian officials. The final chapters detail the aims, context, legislative framework, and implementation of the reform programme pursued by Pompey, Cato, and others in 52–50, from the catalyzing effect of Marcus Crassus’ defeat in Parthia to Cato and Cicero’s efforts to promote a new ethos of provincial governance. This programme was cut short by civil war, but provided an important model for Augustus’ reforms.
Promoting Entrepreneurship for Development
Authors: Mugione Fiorina , Farinelli Fulvia
Published: June 2017

Recognizing the role of entrepreneurship as a catalyst for development and a means to address sustainable development challenges, this chapter illustrates UNCTAD’s approach to promoting entrepreneurship from a policy perspective. It draws lessons from the implementation of UNCTAD’s Entrepreneurship Policy Framework (EPF) and reiterates the need for holistic entrepreneurship policies according to the six priority areas identified by the EPF. It also highlights how policymakers can create an enabling entrepreneurial environment which also takes into account inclusive and sustainable business models, thereby expanding opportunities for all and addressing the needs of socially disadvantaged groups. For aspiring entrepreneurs from such groups, who tend to have lower levels of entrepreneurship skills and greater difficulty in navigating the business and regulatory environment, governments need to tailor policy measures to help them manage and grow their businesses. In this way, entrepreneurship policies can contribute to the achievement of the UNGA’s 2015 sustainable development goals.
Maritime Security
Authors: Guilfoyle Douglas
Published: June 2017

The ‘law of maritime security’ is an instance of ‘securitization’ applied across various aspects of the law of the sea. The list of activities encompassed by the term is inherently non-exhaustive and lacks any common method of risk assessment. In addition, maritime security law has evolved in response to projected catastrophic or existential threats detached from any meaningful assessment of their probability. The distribution of risk in this area is driven by a combination of a projected future and the securitization of certain real, present concerns. Thus, maritime security and its effects are best understood in the context of what will be called the ‘transnational security State’ and the distortions that such a sState-centred approach imposes. Through is chapter utilises select case studies this chapter o demonstrates the manner in which maritime security has shifted the burden of risk from sStates and onto humans, especially onto people in transnational or liminal spaces.
Conceptions of Risk in an Institutional Context
Authors: Jaeckel Aline , Rayfuse Rosemary
Published: June 2017

Advances in scientific knowledge have led to competing imageries of the environmental risks and uncertainties associated with deep seabed mining. As the central institution charged with managing deep seabed mining and protecting the marine environment from its adverse impacts, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) provides an institutional platform for the conceptualisation and regulation of those risks and uncertainties. This chapter examines the manner in which environmental risks and uncertainties are conceptualised within the ISA and the processes through which it regulates in the face of uncertainty. In doing so it reveals the extent and the manner in which the existence of an institutional platform affects how the imagined future of perceived economic riches is being balanced against the need to protect an environment about which little is known.
The “Guise of the Ought-to-Be”
Authors: Lauria Federico
Published: June 2017

How are we to understand the intentionality of desire? According to the two classical views, desire is either a positive evaluation or a disposition to act. This essay examines these conceptions of desire and argues for a deontic alternative, namely the view that desiring is representing a state of affairs as what ought to be. Three lines of criticism of the classical pictures of desire are provided. The first concerns desire’s direction of fit, i.e. the intuition that the world should conform to our desires. The second concerns the “death of desire” principle, i.e. the intuition that one cannot desire what one represents as actual. The last pertains to desire’s role in psychological explanations, i.e. the intuition that desires can explain motivations and be explained by evaluations. Following these criticisms, three positive arguments in favor of the deontic conception are sketched.
Learning as an Inherent Dynamic of Belief and Desire
Authors: Railton Peter
Published: June 2017

On the orthodox view, action is the joint product of belief and desire. We naturally assume that evolution would have equipped us for learning in belief, yet accurate beliefs would be of no avail if our desires were not adapted to our needs, capacities, and circumstances. Should we not, then, expect there to be mechanisms of adaptive learning in desire? A chief obstacle to this line of thought has been the idea that desire is an affective-conative state, incapable of truth or falsity. However, degrees of belief likewise are not true or false, and yet we can learn by revising degrees of belief in light of experience. This chapter presents philosophical, psychological, and neuroscientific considerations in favor of a strong parallel between belief and desire; each is a compound state involving both a degree of affect (confidence or attraction, respectively) regulating action-guiding expectations, which then permit learning through discrepancy-reduction.
Equal Dignity and Rights
Authors: Darwall Stephen
Published: June 2017

The contemporary notion of human dignity is taken to ground the idea of human rights. This chapter investigates how dignity must be understood if it is to be capable of doing that. Beginning with earlier conceptions of dignity, both hierarchical conceptions of status and the Ciceronian idea of human beings in the “great chain of being,” the chapter argues that to be capable of grounding rights, dignity must include a fundamental second-personal authority for human beings to make claims and demands of one another. More specifically, it contests the idea, advanced by Jeremy Waldron and Anthony Appiah, that human dignity is best theorized within a conception of honor and status as elevating all persons to the same high status. Any such honored status fails to ground the fundamental authority to hold one another accountable that is necessary for a conception of human dignity that is capable of grounding human rights.
Human Dignity before Kant
Authors: Debes Remy
Published: June 2017

Most modern discussions of human dignity give historical pride of place to Immanuel Kant and his idea that dignity is grounded in human rational agency or autonomy. This chapter challenges this practice by articulating a “second story” about dignity—a story that also unfolded during the Enlightenment, but which grounded dignity in human passionate agency. Thus it is suggested that a range of thinkers, including Rousseau, Adam Smith, and Smith’s French translator, Sophie De Grouchey, all seemed to have inclined in this new direction. However, above all others, this chapter lauds Denis Diderot’s contribution to this second story of human dignity. Correspondingly, the essay culminates in an examination of Diderot’s wide-ranging inquiries into human nature, politics, and social theory.
Pakistan
Authors: Raza Ali
Published: June 2017

Following a period of war and political upheaval, the area served by OUP Pakistan was divided into Bangladesh and Pakistan in 1971. OUP Bangladesh struggled to recover from the war, and, with the Press in the midst of financial difficulties, the branch was closed in 1975. OUP Pakistan also struggled to rebuild after losing much of its territory and the devaluation of the rupee. The branch stabilized and began a period of significant growth, diversifying the list by exploiting markets for English-language textbooks and introducing Pakistani editions of imported scholarly monographs and trade titles. The branch increasingly published local writers in Urdu and titles focused on the history, society, and culture of Pakistan. The chapter considers the responses of OUP Pakistan to political and economic conditions, changes to government educational policy, and the rise of domestic book piracy.
The Visual World as Illusion
Authors: Grossberg Stephen
Published: June 2017

This chapter shows how visual illusions arise from neural processes that play an adaptive role in achieving the remarkable perceptual capabilities of advanced brains. It clarifies that many visual percepts are visual illusions, in the sense that they arise from active processes that reorganize and complete perceptual representations from the noisy data received by retinas. Some of these representations look illusory, whereas others look real. The chapter heuristically summarizes explanations of illusions that arise due to completion of perceptual groupings, filling-in of surface lightnesses and colors, transformation of ambiguous motion signals into coherent percepts of object motion direction and speed, and interactions between the form and motion cortical processing streams. A central theme is that the brain is organized into parallel processing streams with computationally complementary properties, that interstream interactions overcome these complementary deficiencies to compute effective representations of the world, and how these representations generate visual illusions.
Reverse-Perspective Art and Objects—Illusions in Depth and Motion
Authors: Papathomas Thomas V.
Published: June 2017

The main goal of this chapter is to present the relatively new art form of reverspectives, invented and refined by Patrick Hughes. Reverspectives are painted on nonplanar surfaces that jut out of the wall, yet the painted scenery contains strong reverse-perspective cues that cause depth reversal: convex and concave parts are perceived as concave and convex, respectively. Reverspectives also appear to move vividly as viewers move past them. The chapter presents a wide variety of reverspectives, as well as a related class of illusions that are painted on large spheres, producing depth inversion and illusory motion. The chapter provides a plausible explanation for the percepts obtained with these types of stimuli.
The New Moon Illusion
Authors: Rogers Brian , Anstis Stuart
Published: June 2017

When the sun is near the horizon and the moon is visible and higher in the sky, there is a compelling illusion that the sun is not in a direction perpendicular to the boundary between the lit and dark sides of the moon. This New Moon illusion has been observed and discussed previously but without a complete explanation. This chapter argues that both perceptual and cognitive factors contribute to the illusion and that it arises from the fact that the straight line joining the sun and the moon describes a great circle over the flattened dome of the sky. The New Moon illusion also raises the question of how we are able to judge the straightness of extended straight and parallel lines.
Antigravity Slopes
Authors: Sugihara Kokichi
Published: June 2017

A new type of illusion, called the antigravity slope illusion, is presented in this chapter. In this illusion a slope orientation is perceived opposite to the true orientation and hence a ball put on it appears to be rolling uphill, defying the law of gravity. This illusion is based on the ambiguity in the distance from a viewpoint to the surface of a three-dimensional solid represented in a single-view image. This illusion also arises in human real life, for example, when a car driver misunderstands the orientation of a road along which he or she is driving. Two assumptions are explored: (a) the human brain prefers to interpret vertical columns in a two-dimensional image as being vertical in three-dimensional space to being slanted and (b) the human brain prefers the most symmetric shape as the interpretation of a two-dimensional image.
The Staircase Gelb Illusion
Authors: Gilchrist Alan
Published: June 2017

Adhemar Gelb showed that if a piece of black paper is suspended in midair and illuminated by a projector, it appears white. However, when a white paper is brought into the projector beam and placed next to or surrounding the black paper, the black paper once again appears black. In the staircase Gelb illusion, a succession of increasingly lighter papers, dark gray, middle gray, light gray, and finally white, is brought into the projector beam. Each time a lighter paper is added it appears white, and this causes the prior paper to darken, due to the highest luminance rule of anchoring. When all five shades are present within the beam, the gamut of perceived values is compressed relative to the actual values. The compression requires the simultaneous juxtaposition of different illumination levels and illustrates the codetermination principle of Kardos.
The Scintillating Grid
Authors: Lingelbach Bernd
Published: June 2017

The scintillating grid was first presented at the European Conference on Visual Perception in Tübingen in 1995. At the time, the prevailing explanation of the Hermann grid illusion was in terms of the arrangement of the receptive fields on the retina. The minor modification of having a grey instead of a white grid with white dots at the intersections produced a strikingly new and powerful illusion. Instead of the white dots, dark black dots are seen to “blink” and appear even darker in intensity than the black printer’s ink of the square. They then disappear again to reappear immediately somewhere else. The dark diagonals that appear from time to time fitted more to low-pass filtering. The study of low-pass filtered Hermann grids led to the discovery of the scintillating grid and several variants. To this day this illusion still has not been fully explained.
Vasarely’s Nested Squares and the Alternating Brightness Star Illusion
Authors: Martinez-Conde Susana , Macknik Stephen L.
Published: June 2017

The arts sometimes precede the sciences in the discovery of fundamental visual principles. Victor Vasarely’s “Nested Squares” show an illusory effect in which corners look brighter and more salient than straight edges, despite having equivalent luminance. This chapter summarizes recent research, originally based on Victor Vasarely’s Nested Squares illusion, to discover the related perceptual and underlying physiological principles. The results offer significant insights into how corners, angles, curves, and line endings affect the appearance of brightness, shape, salience, depth, and color in our brains. Concepts covered include the alternating brightness star illusion, center-surround simulations, brain activation, corner perception, and the redundancy-reducing hypothesis.
Filling-In Between Contours
Authors: van Lier Rob
Published: June 2017

Color and form appear to be strongly interconnected, and visual illusions provide a perfect entrance to learn more about the underlying mechanisms of the visual brain. In particular, the color impression of surfaces often depend on the presence and properties of contours. To illustrate the influence of contours on the appearance of surfaces three visual illusions are discussed; the “double neon color” illusion, the “catching patches illusion,” and the “afterimage filling-in illusion.” In each of these illusions, contours—either illusory or real—appear to trigger and constrain filling-in processes. Modulations of the filling-in illusions presented in the chapter may further reveal properties of the underlying mechanism dealing with color-contour interactions.
Attention-Generated Apparent Motion
Authors: Lu Zhong-Lin , Sperling George
Published: June 2017

This chapter explores attention-generated apparent motion. A flickering display can seem to appear to move in opposite directions depending on which feature the observer attends to in the display. The illusory motion, generated by attention, demonstrates the mechanism of the third-order motion system: a dynamic salience map of the locations of the most salient stimulus features is determined jointly by stimulus strength (bottom-up) and by selective attention (top-down). Motion is computed directly and automatically from the salience map. Concepts covered in this chapter include apparent motion, first-order motion and second-order motion, feature tracking, salience maps, bottom-up processing, and top-down processing.
On the Pinna Illusion
Authors: Pinna Baingio
Published: June 2017

The Pinna illusion is the first case of visual illusion showing a rotating motion phenomenon. Squares, arranged in two concentric rings, show a strong counter-rotation effect. The inner ring of the squares appears to rotate counterclockwise and the outer ring clockwise when the observer’s head is slowly moved toward the figure while the gaze is kept fixed in the center of the stimulus pattern. The direction of rotation is reversed when the observer’s head moves away from the stimulus. The speed of the illusory rotation is proportional to the one of the motion imparted by the observer. While the way each individual check receives a local illusory motion signal can be explained by the response of direction-selective neurons at the earliest cortical stage of visual processing, the whole illusory rotational motion can be thought to be sensed by the higher cortical area, which collates all the signals provided by the local motion checks.
Paths of Apparent Human Motion Follow Motor Constraints
Authors: Shiffrar Maggie , Joseph Christina
Published: June 2017

The phenomenon of apparent motion, or the illusory perception of movement from rapidly displayed static images, provides an excellent platform for the study of how perceptual systems analyze input over time and space. Studies of the human body in apparent motion further suggest that the visual system is also influenced by an observer’s motor experience with his or her own body. As a result, the human visual system sometimes processes human movement differently from object movement. For example, under apparent motion conditions in which inanimate objects appear to traverse the shortest possible paths of motion, human motion instead appears to follow longer, biomechanically plausible paths of motion. Psychophysical and brain imaging studies converge in supporting the hypothesis that the visual analysis of human movement differs from the visual analysis of nonhuman movements whenever visual motion cues are consistent with an observer’s motor repertoire of possible human actions.
The Ternus Effect
Authors: Hein Elisabeth
Published: June 2017

The Ternus effect refers to an ambiguous apparent motion display in which two or three elements presented in succession and shifted horizontally by one position can be perceived as either a group of elements moving together or as one element jumping across the other(s). This chapter introduces the phenomenon and describes observations made by Pikler and Ternus in the beginning of the twentieth century. Next, reasons for continued interest in the Ternus effect are discussed and an overview of factors that influence it offered, including low-level image-based factors, for example luminance, as well as higher-level scene-based factors, for example perceptual grouping. The chapter ends with a discussion of theories regarding the mechanisms underlying the Ternus effect, providing insight into how the visual system is able to perceive coherent objects in the world despite discontinuities in the input (e.g., as a consequence of eye movements or object occlusion).
Two Sinusoids
Authors: Kremláček Jan
Published: June 2017

Multiplication of a stationary and moving sinusoids create ambiguous stimulus that, when observed, can result in five alternating perceptions and another physically plausible but hardly traceable interpretation. The most astonishing about this illusion is that using single physical stimulus creates several vivid unambiguous perceptions that may intentionally or spontaneously alternate in observer’s mind. The illusion demonstrates the brain’s active role in acquiring and processing visual information and its ability to construct 3D objects from a 2D motion. To build such visual interpretations the brain exploits several mechanisms. In the presented illusion the most noticeable strategies are a kinetic depth perception and a perceptual rivalry.
Motion-Induced Blindness
Authors: Bonneh Yoram
Published: June 2017

Motion-induced blindness (MIB) is a phenomenon characterized by “visual disappearance” in which relatively small but salient visual objects may disappear from one’s awareness intermittently for several seconds when embedded within a moving pattern. It is a compelling example of multistable perception in which physically invariant stimulation leads to fluctuations in perception. The interest in MIB stems from its potential use in studying visual processing outside the locus of awareness and the neural correlates of consciousness. Current studies of MIB provide evidence against low-level suppression of the visual signal and demonstrate residual processing of the invisible. This chapter explores these and related concepts.
Stereo Rotation Standstill and Related Illusions
Authors: Dürsteler Max R. , Lorincz Erika N.
Published: June 2017

When we fixate the center of a rotating three-dimensional structure, such as a physically rotating wheel made out of sectors, which stereo cues are encoded with a static random-dot “texture,” a rather striking global motion illusion occurs: the rotating three-dimensional wheel appears as standing still (stereo rotation standstill). Even when using a dynamic (flickering) random-dot texture, it is still impossible to gain a percept of smooth rotation. However, local motion can still be clearly perceived. When the random-dot texture “overlaying” the wheel is also rotating, the concealed wheel is perceived as rotating at the same velocity as the texture, regardless of its velocity (stereo rotation capture). Stereo complex motion standstill and capture is shown to occur for other categories of complex motions such as expanding, contracting, and spiraling motions thus providing evidence for a dominance of luminance inputs over stereo inputs for complex motion detectors in our visual system.
The Color Dove Illusion
Authors: Barkan Yuval , Spitzer Hedva
Published: June 2017

The color dove illusion is a type of a positive afterimage. The color dove illusion can be obtained with different colors and spatial surrounding regions. In this illusion the disappearance of a colored background causes an empty shape to obtain the hue of the disappeared background. The effect can be obtained even when the surrounding background area is relatively thin and when it is presented for a very short duration. This illusion occurs only when the contour of the empty shape remains after the background disappearance. Thus the color dove illusion is a positive aftereffect, which is different from classical positive aftereffects. The parameters of the color dove illusion as well as variants, such as the flickering variation, are discussed. Related concepts such as simultaneous contrast and spatiotemporal edge are discussed
Hybrid Image Illusion
Authors: Oliva Aude , Schyns Philippe G.
Published: June 2017

Artists, designers, photographers, and visual scientists are routinely looking for ways to create, out of a single image, the feeling that there is more to see than what meets the eye. Many well-known visual illusions are dual in nature, causing the viewer to experience two different interpretations of the same image. Hybrid images illustrate a double-image illusion, where different images are perceived depending on viewing distance, viewing duration, or image size: one that appears when the image is viewed up-close (displaying high spatial frequencies) and another that appears from afar (showing low spatial frequencies). This method can be used to create compelling dual images in which the observer experiences different percepts when interacting with the image.
Feeding the Flock
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

This is a study of the general scheme of organization, offices, authority, and practices that God designed to bring to fruition his ultimate intentions for the human family, which scheme arises out of the theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that is, Mormonism. As a study of ecclesiology, the focus is on how Mormon ideas and doctrines have been formally implemented through an ecclesiastical structure and modes of worship. Underlying Mormon theology is a radically reconstituted covenant theology, which Mormons call the New and Everlasting Covenant, which has its origins in premortal or pre-existent councils, envisions mortality as an educative process rather than as a digression entailed by an Adamic fall, and finds culmination in the theosis or divinization of all humans. Such theosis anticipates the incorporation of men and women into a heavenly family, which end is achieved through a system of covenants and temple ordinances or sacraments. Also vital to this process are proper authority, or priesthood, an organizational structure to the church, spiritual gifts, and scriptures that include but go beyond the Bible. The study concludes with an overview of Mormon practices of boundary maintenance and discipline.
What Is the Church, and Why Is One Necessary?
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

Mormon theology begins with idea of a covenant instituted in a premortal council, whereby heavenly parents invite humans into eternal relationship with them. The church is instituted to provide both salvation, and the assurance of such salvation. The Reformation radically redefined the nature of the church and the role of sacraments. Joseph Smith’s personal journey and religion-making career began in very similar circumstances to those of John Wesley (and indeed, Smith was long inclined toward Methodism and greatly influenced by it). Mormonism arose out of Joseph Smith’s anxiety over salvation, and returns to a Catholic model of sacramentalism and priesthood authority. To the underlying framework Smith gives the name the New and Everlasting Covenant, and the impetus for this reformulation is in the Book of Mormon. 96
Spiritual Gifts
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

Mormons believe that spiritual gifts must be in evidence in the true church and cited them frequently as evidence of a divinely sanctioned “restoration” of the gospel. Even many contemporary Restorationists broke with Mormons on the question of cessationism. Early Mormon charismata were tamed by revelation urging rational standards. Mormons continue to hold revelation—direct communication from God—as a fundamental tenet, with the institutional and the personal sometimes in tension. Visions and prophecies are affirmed in principle but less frequent in the modern church. Healing has largely been relegated to a priesthood ordinance. Speaking in unknown tongues (glossolalia) is almost unheard of today, and xenoglossia is interpreted as a spiritual assist to missionaries in foreign lands. Discernment is similarly understood in non-charismatic ways, and exorcism has largely faded.
Boundary Maintenance and Discipline
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

Like most Christian churches, dating to the New Testament, Mormons have practiced church discipline for certain conduct. Mormons impose disfellowshipment or excommunication for gravely immoral conduct and for publicly opposing the church or its teachings. Mormons also have a two-tiered order of worship (with Puritan parallels). All are welcome to participate in Sunday worship (though excommunicants cannot take the sacrament); but only those prepared and willing to commit to the full range of Mormon covenant obligations worship in the temple. The temple recommend defines this willingness to commit to such principles and practices as chastity, tithing, the Word of Wisdom (the Mormon health code), and affirming a personal testimony of Jesus Christ. The temple ceremony for which this interview grants access culminates in a visual image of the atonement of Christ, placing it at the center of the New and Everlasting Covenant.
Public Opinion and Human Rights
Authors: Ron James , Golden Shannon , Crow David , Pandya Archana
Published: June 2017

This chapter first sets out the book’s purpose, which is to examine the interaction between global South publics and human rights ideas and organizations. This chapter underscores the importance of the book’s key concepts: human rights, local human rights organizations, and public opinion. The chapter then discusses the four case studies—India, Mexico, Morocco, and Nigeria—that are the focus of the present inquiry, and explains why these countries were selected. It goes on to describe the book’s mixed-methods approach and introduce the Human Rights Perceptions Polls, followed by a brief overview of key findings.
$\mathcal{KL}_*$
-stability for a class of hybrid dynamical systems
Authors: Liu Bin , Dam Hai Huyen Heidi , Teo Kok Lay , Hill David John
Published: June 2017

This article studies $\mathcal{KL}_*$-stability (the stability expressed by $\mathcal{KL}_*$-class function) for a class of hybrid dynamical systems (HDS). The notions of $\mathcal{KL}_{*}\mathcal{K}_{*}$-property and $\mathcal{KL}_{*}$-stability are proposed for HDS with respect to the hybrid-event-time. The $\mathcal{KL}_{*}$-stability, which is based on $\mathcal{K}$ or $\mathcal{L}$ property of the continuous flow, the discrete jump, and the event in an HDS, extends the $\mathcal{KLL}$-stability and the event-stability reported in the literature for HDS. The relationships between $\mathcal{KL}_{*}\mathcal{K}_{*}$-property and $\mathcal{KL}_{*}$-stability are established via introducing the hybrid dwell-time condition (HDT). The HDT generalizes the average dwell-time condition in the literature. For an HDS with $\mathcal{KL}_{*}\mathcal{K}_{*}$-property consisting of stabilizing $\mathcal{L}$-property and destabilizing $\mathcal{K}$-property, it is shown that there exists a common HDT under which the HDS will achieve $\mathcal{KL}_{*}$-stability. Thus HDT may help to derive some easily tested conditions for HDS to achieve uniform asymptotic stability. Moreover, a criterion of $\mathcal{KL}_{*}$-stability is derived by using the multiple Lyapunov-like functions. Examples are given to illustrate the obtained theoretical results.