bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geography of migration
Authors: Pott Andreas
Published: January 2013

Migration processes and their consequences are intrinsically geographical. Migration as the physical movement of people from one place (on earth) to another is a spatial phenomenon that varies considerably in time and regional distribution. It therefore draws researchers' attention not only to spatial mobility, its dynamics, and the changing society in general but also to space‐related conditions, contexts, and outcomes of internal and international migrations in particular: regions (of migrants' origin and destination), rural–urban or periphery–center interrelations, cities and their socio‐spatial patterns of segregation, geographically uneven labor markets, translocal networks, and borders.
Germany and Central Europe, migrations
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

Germany, like all of Europe's nation‐states, emerged from multiple in‐ and outmigrations. Over the centuries, borders expanded or contracted and all borderlands are characterized by ethnoculturally mixed settlements. This may involve a multilingualism, rudimentary or fully developed – in the past, even of illiterate people. “Germany and Central Europe” thus refers to a central European German‐language region and its borderlands. The original western part (roughly modern West Germany) was a segment of the so‐called Holy Roman Empire. In the early modern period, the region's many ruling houses divided the territory into larger, smaller, and miniscule segments, many without political significance but sending and attracting migrants. A partial unification process, initiated on the orders of Napoleon in 1803/1806, continued through the 19th century, but ended, given the Hohenzollern–Habsburg competition, in a dualism of Germany and Austria as (or in) two different empires. The German‐language part of Switzerland had had de facto independence since the 16th century. Since information on potential migration destinations is communicated through language, the region has to be treated as a whole, though dialects were not necessarily mutually intelligible. From 1871, the establishment of the Hohenzollern‐ruled German Reich, data collection and patterns became distinct for each of the three states.
Ghana, migrations from colonial to modern times
Authors: Tagoe Cynthia Addoquaye
Published: January 2013

This essay will first of all, look at the migration situation during the period before “modern” times. The term “modern” as used here will be contextualized to coincide with the beginning of a mass exodus of Ghanaians in the latter part of the 20th century. The period of precolonial and colonial through to the early post‐independence years before this mass emigration will be categorized as “premodern” for migration while “modern” times will span from the 1970s to the present.
Balkans, global migration, ethnic conflict, and class struggle
Authors: Bojadžijev Manuela
Published: January 2013

A decade after the end of the war in the Balkans in 2000, the region remains in a state of upheaval and uncertainty as the process of global migration, ethnic conflict, and class struggle vis‐á‐vis the European Union continues, and even expands. Even the very concept of Europe seems at stake. While the military conflict was still under way, there was no agreement as to whether the Balkans was part of Europe. Advocates of military and political intervention during the war in Bosnia, or later the NATO bombardment of Serbia, argued that displacement and genocide could not be tolerated on European soil. At the same time it was “Europe” that intervened in the name of human rights in the region that was therefore precisely conceptualized as outside.
Goths and Vandals, migration history
Authors: Moorhead John
Published: January 2013

The Goths who settled in Gaul, Spain, and Italy and the Vandals who settled in Africa were prominent among the groups who came to power in the western Roman empire during the 5th centuryCE. In each case they had undergone a migration, but important aspects of their movements are unclear, for the places from which they originally migrated, the degree to which they were stable population groups, and whether they should be thought of as having been warriors or groups of farmers remain undecided.
Government and private support for migrants in receiving countries
Authors: Fincke Gunilla
Published: January 2013

As the population of migrants has increased significantly in the period from the end of World War II to the early 21st century, the question of government and private support for migrants in receiving countries has taken on growing importance. This support serves three key goals: (1) improving integration conditions for migrants on either a temporary or permanent stay; (2) fostering transnational lifestyles by concluding agreements with actors in countries of origin that ease circular migration; (3) encouraging migrants to return to their countries of origin – for example, by paying repatriation grants, offering micro credits in the countries of origin, and making social security payments transferable. While repatriation aid has been significant at, for example, the end of guest‐worker schemes in Western Europe, and transnational migration is of growing interest because of the migration–development nexus, support for integration remains by far the most important type of support that receiving countries provide. This essay will therefore only deal with the first aspect: that is, support for ensuring immigrants' equal participation in key areas of society (Bommes 2009) such as schooling and training, the labor market, social and political rights, housing and health.
Greece, migration 1830s to present
Authors: Kasimis Charalambos
Published: January 2013

Since the early 1830s, following its independence from Ottoman rule, Greece has experienced two periods of mass emigration and one of refugee reception. The first emigration lasted from the end of the 19th to the early 20th century and the second from the mid‐1950s to the early 1970s.
Guest workers, 1970s to present
Authors: Wiesbrock Anja
Published: January 2013

The term “guest workers” refers to foreign migrant workers, admitted for the purpose of seasonal or temporary low‐skilled work to fill a temporary labor need. The concept is most commonly associated with systems of temporary labor recruitment in postwar Western Europe. Even though it is considered the archetype of guest‐worker programs, the temporary recruitment of foreign labor and the problems associated with it are in no way unique to Western Europe. Similar schemes have been applied and are still in place in other regions of the world, such as North America and the Gulf States. Guest‐worker programs have been found to lead to short‐term economic benefits but to be problematic in the long term when they evolve into a resident‐worker program. They are likely to produce discrimination against migrant workers and to exacerbate the employment problems of minorities of the resident native population (Martin & Miller 1980). Moreover, there have been human rights concerns associated with the often limited number of rights of low‐skilled migrant workers. In particular, there appears to be a trade‐off between the number of migrants and the number of rights in a given country (Ruhs & Martin 2008).
Hajj
Authors: Bianchi Robert R.
Published: January 2013

The hajj is the greatest gathering of humanity on earth. All Muslims who are physically and financially capable are required at least once in their lives to make this pilgrimage to visit “God's house” in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. For the three million Muslims from over one hundred countries who meet in and around Mecca every year, these three weeks of tumultuous rituals mark the peak of their spiritual lives and the renewal of Islam's historic identity as a universal community of believers.
Health and migration: an overview
Authors: Gushulak Douglas W. MacPherson and Brian D.
Published: January 2013

The characteristics of human migration and health involve a complex interaction of several factors (see Figure 1), including population mobility and its associated phases and processes (pre‐departure, transit, post‐arrival, and return phases). These phases may be organized and regulated or irregular/illicit processes of movement. For some they are one‐time events while for others (i.e. migrant workers) the processes are recurrent. Factors influencing the phases of migration include: the prevalence of disease and health outcomes over the lifespan of both the individual and the community as well as population‐based determinants of health (socioeconomic, genetic and biological, behavioral, and environmental) affecting the individual and society. Health sector factors influencing migration reflect the public health perceptions of threat and risk and the related infrastructures in place to assess and manage those risks (health services systems, public health programs; education, agricultural and food safety, security, technology, trade, transportation, etc.). Lastly the health of migrants and mobile populations is affected by existing social policies (legislation and regulations) and associated procedures (operating practices and programs) that may or may not be in place to address either migration or human health, or both (Gushulak & MacPherson 2006).
Highly skilled IT migrant workers
Authors: Rissing Ben A.
Published: January 2013

Each year, hundreds of thousands of highly skilled information and technology (IT) workers cross national boundaries for work opportunities. These skilled foreign workers, typically sponsored on employer‐initiated work visa programs, are employed in a variety of telecommunication, professional‐service, and computer‐related occupations. Moreover, these immigrants work in positions requiring creative thinking and technical knowledge, but also in jobs involving basic and routine tasks. As highly educated workers with specialized skills, this group's movement has important economic and developmental implications for both destination and source countries.
HIV/AIDS and migration
Authors: Hayes Anna
Published: January 2013

Migration and the movement of peoples can facilitate wider transmission of epidemics and infectious diseases, spreading pathogens far beyond the original source of the infection. As a result of increased global migration and the movement of people in the contemporary era, the transmission of infectious diseases and epidemics such as HIV/AIDS has demonstrated the potential links that exist between migration and international travel and the spread of communicable diseases. Domestic and international labor migration can both increase HIV vulnerability among people who otherwise may not fit into a traditional HIV “high risk” category. Therefore, it is important to consider what fuels this vulnerability and just how labor migration, health, and HIV/AIDS have increasingly become connected.
HIV/AIDS, migration, and gender in sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Agadjanian Victor
Published: January 2013

Sub‐Saharan Africa is the region most affected by HIV/AIDS in the world, with the proportion of HIV‐infected adults being particularly high in southern Africa. The subcontinent is also characterized by large volumes of both internal and international migration, especially of a temporary and circular nature. Not surprisingly, the HIV–migration nexus in sub‐Saharan Africa has long attracted researchers's and policy‐makers's attention and has generated considerable literature. A general assumption of that literature is that migrants are more likely than the general population to be both recipients and transmitters of any infection (Prothero 1977), but it has also been argued that “AIDS probably has a closer relationship to migration than any other infectious disease” (Caldwell et al. 1997: 51).
Hometown associations
Authors: Lamba‐Nieves Deepak
Published: January 2013

Hometown associations (HTAs) can be broadly defined as voluntary organizations whose members share a common place of origin and generate support – both financial and social – to carry out significant projects in migrant and home communities. Although the range of HTA projects varies, in most cases they are geared toward improving economic, social, and political opportunities for community residents.
Horn of Africa, migration late 19th century to present
Authors: Gulema Shimelis Bonsa
Published: January 2013

The Horn of Africa encompasses Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, the Sudan, and South Sudan. The demographics of the region are shaped by the complexity of migration (Alula 1995; Baker 1995). This article illustrates the migration process in that region with a focus on the experiences of two areas: Ethiopia as the principal power in the region and, within Ethiopia, the Gurage as the most mobile ethnic group in the country in the 20th century. Migration is central to the shaping of societies of the Horn of Africa. Chief examples of large‐scale population movements are the Oromo and the Somali, two of the largest ethnic groups in the region. The former expanded from the southern half of modern Ethiopia into central, western, and eastern provinces. Somali expansion started in south‐central Somalia and thence to its north. A reverse migration later on took them to central and southern Somalia. Important population movements also occurred in the region in the modern times.
Hospitality workers and migration
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: January 2013

From 1990 to 2010, as contemporary globalization expanded tourism as well as international commerce and business, hospitality became one of the world's most rapidly growing industries. Hospitality workers are employed by resorts, hotels, spas, and restaurants, performing jobs from cleaning, cooking, and maintenance, to transportation, entertainment, tourism, and recreational services, as well as sex work, through guest‐worker programs. Temporary and seasonal circular migration is integral to the global tourist industry, as hospitality conglomerates recruit laborers who will work for significantly lower wages in countries where workers have few if any options other than foreign employment to pay for basic needs such as housing, education, and health care, which are frequently unavailable in their home countries.
Housing and migrant communities
Authors: Haan Michael
Published: January 2013

When a person migrates to a new country, nearly everything they encounter is new. They face new laws and conventions, new groups of people, a new labor market, and a new built environment. Given this, it is not surprising that many newcomers initially concentrate into receptor areas, or “ethnic enclaves.” The reasons for clustering may be factors external to the group (such as discrimination or the unavailability of viable employment opportunities) or within‐group characteristics (such as a common language, ties of consanguinity, shared income limitations, the need to pool market resources, etc.). Regardless of the reasons, immigrant spatial concentration should be temporary and of declining utility, and the longstanding expectation is a process of eventual dissipation into the residential mainstream by moving to a less segregated neighborhood (Massey & Denton 1985).
Human rights activism and migration
Authors: Fiddian‐Qasmiyeh Elena
Published: January 2013

According to Article 1 of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights” (UN 1948). Human rights encompass political, civil, social, and cultural rights which are universal (they are applicable to all individuals around the world), indivisible (all rights are equally important and are interdependent), and inalienable (they cannot be taken away from individuals). All individuals, irrespective of whether they live in their country of origin, or outside of their country of birth, should have equal access to the full and effective protection of their human rights.
Human smuggling
Authors: Nonnenmacher Sophie
Published: January 2013

Human smuggling is a type of irregular migration, meaning it “takes place outside the norms and procedures established by states to manage the orderly flow of migrants into, through and out of their territories” (IOM 2011). Regional bodies such as the European Union do not formally use the concept of human smuggling, instead defining irregular migration as the facilitation of unauthorized entry, transit, and residence for persons who are “not a national of a Member state” into “the territory of a Member state in breach of the laws of the state concerned” (European Union 2002). In effect, human smuggling involves the facilitation of irregular movement of individuals across international borders or the facilitation of their stay within those borders.
Hungary, 20th‐century migration
Authors: Kopyś Tadeusz
Published: January 2013

Magyar tribes reached Europe from Asia after several centuries of migration, arriving in the Carpathian region at the end of the 9th century. The tumultuous political history of Hungary resulted in numerous demographic and social changes. In feudal times, migration in the region either assumed a political character (political or religious repressions) or was associated with acts of colonialism undertaken to develop war‐torn regions of the territory. By way of example, for centuries Germanic people migrated to Hungary and colonized the region, a pattern that lasted from the medieval era to the 18th century. The last dominant Germanic migration to Hungary followed the European revolutions of 1848 (Wolff 2000).
Ideology, politics, and migration
Authors: Hooghe Marc
Published: January 2013

Migration flows have important social and political consequences, both for the country where migrants depart from and for the country they arrive in. Some authors have even claimed that increased levels of migration constitute one of the major social changes in the early 21st century. Political systems have reacted quite strongly to increased migration flows, especially in recent years. It has to be noted, however, that while various studies and international organizations stress the benefits of migration, most notably with regard to economic development and the functioning of labor markets, the ideological and political response to migration tends to be predominantly negative and is often associated with forms of ethnocentrism and out‐group hostility. At the same time, it has to be noted, however, that there is little evidence that policies on migration have a strong impact on the nature or direction of migration flows (Tichenor 2002).
ILO and the rights of migrant workers
Authors: Böhning W. R.
Published: January 2013

This essay summarizes the evolution of the rights of migrant workers under the auspices of the – by now 91 years old – International Labor Organization (ILO), a tripartite body where representatives of workers and employers join governments in decision making (on the ILO generally, see, e.g., Alcock 1971; Rodgers et al. 2009). Recounting how and what rights were set is, of course, only part of the picture (for a more elaborate version, see Bohning 2008). Measuring or evaluating the national impact of international standards is another question; but this would require much conceptualizing and empirical investigation beyond the limits of this essay.
India, migration to British Africa
Authors: Poros Maritsa V.
Published: January 2013

The migration of Indians to the African continent long preceded the formation of British colonies in eastern and southern Africa. Indian migrations were part of historical trade routes across the Indian Ocean (Lach and Van Kley 1993). Those routes had connected the western coast of India to Persia, Arabia, and the eastern coast of Africa since before the beginning of the Christian era. Thus, some of the first Indian arrivals to British Africa – primarily Uganda, British East Africa, and South Africa – continued in that tradition as traders looking to expand their commercial activities across the Indian Ocean. Although Indians in British Africa are well known for their commercial success and long history of trading activities, many Indians arrived in British Africa under much harsher conditions. They were recruited or coerced as indentured labor to work in agriculture, mining, and the railroads, especially in the case of Southern Africa. Despite the different conditions under which Indians came to British Africa, they settled in large numbers in countries such as today's Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and South Africa. In East Africa, their residence lasted at least until the independence and Africanization policies of those countries in the 1960s created the impetus to move again; most then went to Britain, though many stayed. In South Africa, Indians had become part‐and‐parcel of the society and many have remained throughout its turbulent racial history. Indians also migrated to other parts of British Africa, where small communities still exist today. However, knowledge about these historical communities is scant. Therefore, this article focuses on Indian migration to British East Africa and South Africa.
Indian and Chinese migration to the British Caribbean
Authors: Samaroo Brinsley
Published: January 2013

The problem for merchant and planter capitalists to maintain and ensure a stable supply of labor power in the Caribbean has been a constantly recurring one. At first there was Amerindian labor which was replaced by African slavery following the decimation of the native population. However, the merchant and planter oligarchy soon found fault with the Africans. There was black insurrection and revolution in the agriculturally rich French colony of Saint‐Domingue, leading to independence and the establishment of the Haitian state in 1804. The consequence of the Haitian Revolution was an effort to seek labor power from alternative ethnic backgrounds that would decrease dependence on Africans and potentially could be molded into a counterpoise to black resistance to slavery. In addition the demands of the Industrial Revolution also required a free population who could purchase European commodities as a means of sustaining economic growth in the colonial metropoles.
Indian migration, Malaysia and Singapore
Authors: Hellmann‐Rajanayagam Dagmar
Published: January 2013

Migrants from South Asia have arrived in the Malayan peninsula from time immemorial (Sandhu 1969). But only during the time of British rule were they defined as a specific ethnic group. These definitions carried over into Malaysia (as the country was called after independence in 1957) and Singapore, which joined Malaysia in 1963 but was forced into independence in 1965. In contrast to earlier definitive studies on Indians in Southeast Asia (Sandhu 1969, 1993) the recent literature increasingly questions and problematizes ethnic categories. Authors want to get away from the so‐called CIMO (Chinese, Indian, Malay, Others) paradigm. They discern a new transethnic cooperation – which they callteh tariknationalism,teh tarikbeing tea cooled by pouring it several times from one cup into another so that it froths up (informally regarded as the national drink of Malaysia, albeit Indian in origin) – which passes for interethnic solidarity but is different from that existing in the interwar years (Mandal 2005).
Indian Ocean indentured labor, 19th and early 20th century
Authors: Allen Richard B.
Published: January 2013

The 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the migration of more than three million men, women, and children from eastern Africa, East Asia, and South Asia throughout the Indian Ocean to satisfy the demand for free (nonslave) workers in French and especially British colonies in this part of the world. The origins of these free migrant labor trades to the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion), Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Malaya, and East and South Africa between the mid‐1820s and late 1930s may be traced to various developments: the dramatic expansion of slave trading in the Indian Ocean during the late 18th and early 19th centuries to satisfy the demand for labor in European colonies; the abolition of the British and French slave trades in 1807 and 1818, respectively, and then of slavery in these colonial empires in 1834 and 1848, respectively; the transportation of Indian and Ceylonese convicts to British settlements and possessions beginning in the late 18th century; and the development of colonial plantation economies during the 19th century to produce tropical commodities for export to imperial and global markets. The legacy of these labor trades continues to influence social, economic, cultural, and political life in the former British colonies that acquired independence during the late 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s.
Indian Ocean transoceanic migration, 16th–19th century
Authors: Allen Richard B.
Published: January 2013

The movement of millions of slave, forced, and free laborers was the most important feature of transoceanic migration in the Indian Ocean world between 1500 and 1900. As the centuries‐old traffic in slaves from eastern Africa to the Middle East (especially Arabia and the Persian Gulf) and India, and from India to the Persian Gulf and Southeast Asia attests, long‐distance labor migration was well established in this region long before 1500. Information on these early slave trades remains sketchy, but the scale of this activity is suggested by estimates that 1.6 million Africans, or an average of 2,000 slaves each year, were exported from the Red Sea coast between 800 and 1600 by Arab and Muslim merchants while another 800,000 Africans, or an average of 1,000 slaves each year, were exported by Arab, Muslim, and Swahili merchants from East Africa during the same period (Lovejoy 2000: 25–26). The arrival of Europeans in the Indian Ocean at the beginning of the 16th century and the subsequent establishment of British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese commercial emporia and colonies in this region generated additional demand for African and Asian chattel labor. Satisfying this demand resulted in the creation by the late 18th century of increasingly integrated networks of coerced and free migrant labor that reached both across and beyond the Indian Ocean.
Indigenous peoples and migration
Authors: Yescas Carlos
Published: January 2013

Indigenous peoples define themselves as communities, groups, and/or nations who pre‐existed the international nation‐state system and continue to survive as ethnic, religious, linguistic, and/or cultural minorities in the countries they inhabit. Indigenous leaders, human rights advocates, and scholars emphasize that they are the cultural inheritors and descendants of the original communities who first inhabited the Americas, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and northern Europe before the onset of colonization or prior to the large‐scale settlement of nation‐states. These communities have largely remained distinct from national majorities and are often disenfranchised from national governments and/or other decision‐making structures. The term “indigenous peoples” at the international level has become common shorthand for referring to all communities around the world that may share one of the characteristics previously noted. While indigenous peoples worldwide are ethnically and nationally distinct, and while there is a broad diversity of indigenous traditions, experience, and modes of self‐definition, their common defining characteristic is that their communities pre‐existed the nation‐state system.
Indigenous peoples, rural to urban migration, United States and Canada
Authors: Lobo Heather A. Howard and Susan
Published: January 2013

This essay focuses on rural‐to‐urban migration by Indigenous peoples (aka American Indian, Native American, Aboriginal, and/or Indian) in the United States and Canada, with an emphasis on the 20th century. Attention is paid to historical mobility, migration trends, processes of migration, and mobility characteristics of urban Indigenous communities.
Informal labor and irregular migrant workers
Authors: van Meeteren Masja
Published: January 2013

Irregular migrants, also referred to as “undocumented migrants” or “illegal migrants,” are immigrants who do not have legal permission to stay in the country they have migrated to and frequently take on informal and precarious employment. They may have entered the country legally – on a tourist visa for example – but are not allowed to reside or work there. There is broad consensus that the numbers and the global scale of irregular migration have increased over the last decades. Although there are no reliable data, it is estimated that there are between 1.9 and 3.8 million irregular migrants in the EU Vogel 2009, over 10 million in the US, and over 20 million in India Koser 2007.
Internal foreign‐born migrants
Authors: Silvestre Javier
Published: January 2013

The migration process for many immigrants does not finish when they arrive in the country of destination. The search for better opportunities implies that immigrants often have to undertake one or more subsequentinternalmovements within the host country. This process has been studied in the case of, mostly European, migrants who settled down in New World countries in the 19th and early 20th centuries e.g., Dunlevy & Saba 1992; Green & Green 1993. A number of studies have analyzed the internal migration patterns of foreign‐born migrants for the period after World War II.
Internal migration, ethnic groups in theUK
Authors: Stillwell John
Published: January 2013

Statistics from the 2001 census inform us that over 6.2 million people changed their place of usual residence in the United Kingdom (UK) in the year before the census on April 29, 2001, representing 10 percent of the population (Stillwell et al. 2010). Internal migration has become a remarkably important phenomenon in contemporary times, not least for its key role in the population dynamics of many parts of the country and in the development of local communities. Whilst there has been long‐standing research on the ethnic dimension of populations and communities (e.g. Haskey 1990; Peach 1996; Johnston et al. 2002), and whilst immigration has captured recent press headlines and parliamentary attention (National Statistics 2006), relatively little work has been reported on the internal migration of ethnic groups in the UK until the last few years.
International migration, economic problems and policies
Authors: Rieger Narada Luckanachai and Matthias
Published: January 2013

As flows of migrants from developing countries to developed countries continue unabated, international migration has become an important policy area that warrants sound management. This essay reviews existing policies that address five major issues concerning international migration: outward migration, inward migration, transit migration, return migration, and remittances (see Luckanachai & Rieger 2010).
Intolerance and migration, United States
Authors: Vallejo Jody Agius
Published: January 2013

Throughout history, the migration of people from one country to another has sparked intolerance in the established population of immigrant‐receiving nations. Intolerance of migrants is commonly referred to as
nativism
, which occurs when racism merges with nationalism, generating intense opposition to migrants who are deemed inferior and foreign (i.e. “un‐American”) (Higham 1974). Intolerance towards immigrants centers on several interrelated themes. Immigrant groups who are subject to nativist movements are thought to be culturally and mentally inferior and are often portrayed as enemies of the nation‐state.
Ireland, migration late 18th century to present
Authors: Gilmartin Mary
Published: January 2013

Ireland as a place is fundamentally shaped by the process and experience of migration. The long history of migrationfromIreland, which intensified from the mid‐1800s onward, receives most academic and popular attention. However, there is also a long, though less visible, history of migrationtoIreland. The effects of these different movements of people are present in an ongoing debate about Irish identity and its changing relationship to migration.
Japan: Brazilian Nikkeijin women
Authors: Yamamoto Lucia E.
Published: January 2013

The concept of migrant women as passive followers and secondary wage earners is reinforced by emphasizing labor migration as mainly masculine and family reunification as feminine. However, in reality, migrant women are active participants in the migratory contexts when they support their family enterprises by performing unpaid jobs at home; when they are employed by entrepreneurs as part of a low‐wage labor force through their ethnic communities and work in mass production in assembly lines; and when they are hired as domestic workers or entertainers, or in other jobs that are considered “feminine.”
Japan: immigration control policy
Authors: Akashi Junichi
Published: January 2013

Japan's immigration control policy, or immigration policy in a broader sense, has often been criticized for its restrictive nature, which immigration scholars tend to attribute to Japanese society's traditionally skeptical attitude toward foreigners. It is said that this attitude arises from the strong belief that Japan is a culturally and ethnically homogeneous society and should be maintained as such. However, in recent policy debates and discourses, think‐tanks, business leaders, and academics have acknowledged the significant role of foreign nationals in sustaining the Japanese economy. Most notably, the term “immigrants,” once regarded as a taboo word with purely negative connotations, now appears frequently in the media, and often in a positive manner. Along with this change in semantics have come challenges to Japan's traditional immigration policy, particularly the conventional concept that membership in Japanese society is based on the degree of one's cultural and ethnic purity. This leads many experts to claim that traditional policy practices and notions of Japanese membership are in the midst of a transformation. Be that as it may, the question of whether the policy reforms in such a radical way as to welcome foreign migrants to Japan remains an open question.
Japan: Nikkeijin migration
Authors: Urano Edson
Published: January 2013

The Nikkeijin people are the descendants of Japanese migrants who settled in Latin America, especially Brazil and Peru, and to a lesser extent Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, who have migrated back to Japan. This migration started gradually in the mid‐1980s with the return of Japanese migrants and second‐generation Japanese descendants with dual nationalities, who were attracted by the employment opportunities of the Japanese labor market. The outlook was very positive at the time, as Japan's economy was growing rapidly. The prosperity, however, was followed by the sudden bursting of the economic bubble in the early 1990s and then the two decade‐long economic recession. In the sending countries of Latin America the migratory movement was propelled by the social and economic crisis of the 1980s.
Japan: undocumented immigrant workers
Authors: Suzuki Eriko
Published: January 2013

The population of undocumented immigrant workers in Japan expanded dramatically in the late 1980s. In the aftermath of the Plaza Accords, the dramatic appreciation of the value of the yen, and the growth in economic disparity with nearby Asian nations, the flow of migrants seeking work in Japan's “land of plenty” has increased. In addition, the recession in the oil‐producing nations of the Middle East served as a push factor for foreign workers in search of new destinations.
Jewish migration, 19th century to present
Authors: Alroey Gur
Published: January 2013

One of the most important and far‐reaching changes in the lives of Jews in modern times is the migration from their countries of residence in Europe, Asia, and Africa to the countries of destination that absorbed migration, which opened their doors and allowed Jews to integrate among the surrounding society. There is no nation that had such a high number of migrants in comparison with the Jewish population which remained in its country of origin and did not migrate.
Korea, migration late 19th century to present
Authors: Lie John
Published: January 2013

The making of modern Korea in the turbulent 20th century unleashed massive migrations. In 2010 ethnic Koreans living outside of North and South Korea (usually calledkyop’oortongp’oin Korean) is estimated to number 7 million (the combined population of the two Koreas is roughly 70 million). The top three countries – China (2.5 million), US (2 million), Japan (900,000) – account for three‐quarters of the Korean diaspora, followed by Canada (220,000), Russia (220,000), Uzbekistan (175,000), Australia (125,000), the Philippines (115,000), Kazakhstan (100,000), Vietnam (85,000), and Brazil (48,000) (KIS 2010; MOFAT 2010). Long a sender country, South, though not North, Korea may become a multiethnic society; the number of non‐ethnic Koreans in South Korea exceeded one million by 2010.
Labor migration, Europe 1980–2010
Authors: Collett Elizabeth
Published: January 2013

Over the past 30 years, the scale and complexity of migration to (and within) Europe, and within and beyond the European Union has increased significantly. Until the mid‐1980s, Europe experienced more emigration than immigration; yet, by 2010, 80 percent of population growth within the EU was due to international migration (Münz & Collett 2010). A great deal of this change can be attributed to economic migration during this period, and shifting government approaches for managing these migration dynamics.
Labor migration, poverty, and inequality
Authors: de Haan Arjan
Published: January 2013

This essay focuses on internal migrants, and links between migration and poverty and inequality. It looks at who these labor migrants are, how many they are, what socioeconomic status they belong to, what causes people to migrate, and what the impact of such migration is on people's and home communities’ well‐being, and the inequality within these communities.
Latin America: agriculture and migration
Authors: Useche Pilar
Published: January 2013

Beginning with the post–World War II era, there have been two main policy approaches to economic development within Latin America, one with an import substitution industrialization (ISI) focus, and the other with a structurally adjusted, export‐driven open economy focus. These two strategies have had differing and sometimes contrasting impacts on, inter alia, human migration patterns and the agricultural sector in Latin America. This essay examines the interface between human migration and the transformation of agriculture in the context of the respective economic development strategies.
Latin America: gender and migration
Authors: Herrera Gioconda
Published: January 2013

The international migration of women within and from Latin America and throughout the world has grown considerably from the mid‐20th century to the turn of the 21st century. In Latin America, the expansion of women migrants has been most concentrated in South America, specifically the Andes region, where poverty and demand for workers in a range of labor markets has expanded precipitously while gender and family roles have provided new opportunities for women to enter the workforce.
Indigenous Mexican‐origin immigration to the United States, historical and intersectional perspective
Authors: Barajas Manuel
Published: January 2013

Latin (“Indo”) American and Asian immigrants surpassed the number of European foreign‐born migrants in 1990 for the first time in US history, and now represent respectively 53.1 and 27.7 percent of the total immigrant population of 38.5 million (Grieco & Trevelyan 2010: 2). This population change and growth produced much interest in the causes and implications of this migration, particularly from Mexico, which accounts for a third of the total migration (Massey et al. 2002; Portes & Rumbaut 2006). Much of the scholarly literature, however, misses the uniqueness and internal diversity of the continuous forced migration of Mexican (Indo‐American) people (notable exceptions are Kearney 1996; Fox & Rivera‐Salgado 2004; Stephen 2007; Cornelious et al. 2009). Mexican‐origin migration is distinct from European migration in its causes and its form of incorporation into the United States. This essay shows that (1) the traditional theories fall short in explaining Mexican‐origin migration, and (2) Indo‐American migration is not a new phenomenon.
Latin America: internal migration
Authors: Cohen Jeffrey H.
Published: January 2013

This essay is a review of the literature on internal migration, with a primary focus on Latin America. International migration dominates debates on mobility and development and has grown in importance in debates on migration. Yet, the number of movers traveling within the sovereign nations of Latin America rivals flows between countries that share borders (Ratha & Shaw 2007). This literature review of Latin American internal migration signifies the importance of population mobility to understanding economic, social, and cultural processes in the region.
Letters of immigrants
Authors: Cancian Sonia
Published: January 2013

Before the invention of the telephone and the Internet, the immigrant letter was the most important and the most popular form of communication used by migrants and corresponding families and friends. Migration, a phenomenon characterized by human mobility across lands and oceans, both within and outside a nation, has for centuries spurred the practice of letter‐writing among diverse populations. Letter‐writing was a useful tool for working‐class families during the mass movements of people from Europe and Asia to the Americas (including the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina). For literate writers, separation in migration provided an opportunity to stay in touch via pen and paper. Less skillful writers also remained connected on paper. With the assistance of a more educated letter‐writer, such as a priest, teacher, family member, or friend, or even a young child attending school, letters were drafted on their behalf.
Madagascar and Africa, Austronesian migration
Authors: Beaujard Philippe
Published: January 2013

No large movements of Austronesians similar to that of the Lapita culture expansion in the Pacific are to be found in the Indian Ocean. However, Austronesian migrations towards the western Indian Ocean did occur in ancient periods. The discovery of phytoliths ofMusa(plantains of genome AAB. A is forMusa acuminataColla, B forMusa balbisianaColla, the main two species at the origin of the domesticated banana cultivars) in Cameroon dated c.500/400BCE(Mbida et al. 2001) constitutes evidence for the arrival of Austronesians on the East African coast probably at the beginning of the 1st millenniumBCE, where they may have also introduced the taro and the water yam (Blench 2009). Moreover, the East African highlands are a place of great genetic diversity for triploids AAA, the genome of which derives from a source between Java and New‐Guinea (Perrier et al. 2009). The East African coast also reveals a large variety of cultivars that were probably introduced more recently (AA, AAA, AB, AAB, ABB), partly in the first millennium of the Christian era (CE). The presence of a wild diploid (AA) banana on Pemba Island provides another clue of an early Austronesian presence, although it is impossible to date its arrival (a wild banana of insular Southeast Asian origin has also been found in northeast Madagascar).
Great Invasions, map showing origins of
Authors: Goffart Walter
Published: January 2013

Since the 16th century and even before, the invasions of the late Roman empire by mainly Germanic barbarians, from the 4th to the 6th century
CE
, have been perceived as a pivotal historical event, shattering the ancient world and initiating the “middle ages” out of which, in more than a millennium, the modern European order emerged: “an incalculable crowd of barbarians spread over the Roman Empire, ruined it from the ground up, and established on its rubble the main states that share Europe today” (1772). Current specialists are less categorical on this subject; many are less catastrophic. But popular accounts of the transition from ancient to medieval times tend still to subscribe to the simple formulation just quoted. Their narratives are often accompanied by a map with the title “the barbarian invasions” or a variant wording. This map, dramatic in its serpentine lines and arrows, graces historical atlases, textbooks of Western civilization, general histories of the Middle Ages, and similar works. Many people are exposed to it, however briefly.
Maritime migrations
Authors: Feys Torsten
Published: January 2013

From the beginning, water surfaces shaped human mobility. They initially posed obstacles to migration influencing the overland migratory routes. Yet, technological innovations gradually turned rivers, lakes, and oceans into vehicles for all kinds of human interactions, including migration. Seas and oceans, which cover 71 percent of the globe's surface, were the last to be subdued by human invention. Maritime migrations are therefore closely connected to evolutions in the shipping world.
Medieval era migration: an overview
Authors: Borgolte Michael
Published: January 2013

The term Middle Ages designates the period of European history between antiquity and modern times. It covers approximately the time span from 500CEup to 1500CE. This periodization is also applied to other regions of the world. Apart from travel, expansion of empires, and long‐distance trade, mass migrations constitute the most significant factor of global entanglement (cf. Bentley 1996). In historiography, they attracted interest mainly with regard to the early history of the European peoples. Today, however, scholarly attention has shifted to the impact of migrations on the long‐term transformation of cultures.
Mediterranean historical migrations
Authors: Clancy‐Smith Julia
Published: January 2013

Population movements constitute the bedrock of deep Mediterranean history and have assumed a wide range of guises: epic wanderings, pilgrimage, pastoral nomadism, transhumance, voluntary relocation, forced expatriation, trade diaspora, travel, tourism, and labor movements of many kinds, notably slavery. In taxonomies of motion, the critical elements are the relative presence or absence of force, the motivations and objectives of those favoring departure over staying put, the duration and patterns of expatriation, and whether the place of exile became over time a space of belonging. To these considerations must be added variables, such as gender, age and generation, social class, family structure, religion, and race, that determined how individuals or groups perceived their subjective situation and embraced the idea of temporary or permanent expatriation, however alluring or frightening. Of course, until (and even after) 19th‐century abolition in Europe and the Ottoman empire, countless people crossed the sea against their own will. These diverse manifestations of trans‐ Mediterranean mobilities were not necessarily distinct; yet no matter how or why they departed, the people in motion brought wide‐ranging social changes to new lands or host societies as well as to those left behind (Gabaccia 2000; Hoerder 2002; Abulafia 2003).