bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perceptual Evidence for an Anomalous Distribution of Rods and Cones in the Retinas of Dyslexics: A New Hypothesis
Authors: Grosser George S. , Spafford Carol S.
Published: September 2011

The present study tested the hypothesis that from the ability of dyslexics to read peripheral letters one may infer the presence of cones, those visual receptors specialized for acuity, in the peripheral retina. The cones are also the receptors for color discriminations. The method of retinal perimetry was used to map color-sensitive zones of the retina for 14 dyslexic and 14 control subjects. A statistically significant difference showed that the 14 dyslexics reported colors at more peripheral positions than did the 14 normal readers. These data are consistent with the premise that dyslexics have an anomalous distribution of retinal receptors. These findings perhaps may help to explain the erratic eye movements of some dyslexics. It is suggested that retinal perimetry might be one component of a diagnostic battery for the differential diagnosis of dyslexics.
Effect of Intershaft Wing Removal on the Mueller-Lyer Illusion as a Function of Judgment Task
Authors: Larsen Janet D. , Garn Ned K. , Fritsch Thomas
Published: September 2011

Two methods were used to measure the Mueller-Lyer illusion. In the comparison procedure, subjects showed the difference between the lengths of the shafts; in the independent-judgment procedure they showed the length of each shaft individually. With both methods, one part of the figure was placed above the other and wings were removed from one part, either between or outside the two shafts. Removing the wings in the intershaft space reduced the illusion more than removing the wings outside the two parts of the figure with the comparison procedure but not with the independent-judgment procedure. The wings in the intershaft space contribute to the illusion, but only when the figure is considered as a whole.
Students' Perceptions of Robert Bork, Anthony Kennedy, and the Ideal Supreme Court Justice
Authors: Gelineau Elaine P. , Merenda Peter F. , Shapurian Reza
Published: September 2011

The present investigation was conducted to expand the use of the Activity Vector Analysis technique to include measurement of the public personalities of two nominees to the United States Supreme Court, Robert Bork and Anthony Kennedy, together with an assessment of what is perceived to be the ideal personality of a Supreme Court Justice. Subjects were 323 students in introductory psychology courses at Southeastern Massachusetts University and the Community College of Rhode Island. Two significant clusters were found in subjects' perceptions of Robert Bork (AVA Pattern Shape 8318) and the Ideal Supreme Court Justice (AVA Pattern Shape 9326). A third cluster was found in students' perceptions of Anthony Kennedy (AVA Pattern Shape 7418). Although intercorrelations among the patterns were high, Bork and Kennedy were viewed unfavorably with respect to the Ideal on the factor that measures foresight and planning ability. Neither Bork nor Kennedy was viewed to possess the latent ability to manifest a very high level of moral responsibility towards others.
No Output Interference in Recall of Text?
Authors: van Dam Gerrit , Brinkerink-Carlier Michèle
Published: September 2011

Subjects studied a text comprising a series of independent paragraphs for future recall. At the onset of recall, a varying number of retrieval cues were presented. In addition, the subjects were instructed to reproduce the cued paragraphs either as completely as possible or using a few words only. Neither the proportion of uncued paragraphs recalled afterwards nor their extendedness appeared to be affected by previous cued recall. Within the limits of the present experiments, text recall apparently was not hampered by output interference.
Perceptual Distortions and Hallucinations Reported during the Course of Sleep Deprivation
Authors: Babkoff Harvey , Sing Helen C. , Thorne David R. , Genser Sander G. , Hegge Frederick W.
Published: September 2011

Subjects worked 30 to 45 min. of each hour for either 48 ( n = 2) or 2 hr. ( n = 8) without sleep. The frequency of reported visual task-related perceptual distortions and hallucinations showed both a linear increasing component and a strong circadian component. Perceptual distortions were most frequent in the late night-early morning hours (0400) and least frequent in the late afternoon-early evening hours (1600–2000).
Achievement Motivation and the End-Effect
Authors: Beh Helen C.
Published: September 2011

The present study was designed to investigate the relationship between achievement motivation and the phenomenon referred to as the “end-effect.” 40 undergraduate students were assigned to either a High or a Low need for achievement (nAch) group on the basis of scores on the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, Achievement subscale. Performance on a 30-min. reaction time task was assessed in terms of decision time and movement time and a significant end-effect was found only for movement times for high need achievers. Based on movement and decision time data, it is proposed that the end-effect observed in these subjects resulted from increased effort during the final task period producing an increase in arousal.
Contributions to the History of Psychology: LVI. J. E. Purkinje (1787–1869), “The Phenomenon” and beyond
Authors: Brožek Josef
Published: September 2011

Light-adaptation and dark-adaptation are complementary (not “identical”) processes. Both came to be covered by the term “Purkinje phenomenon.” While the phenomenology remains unaffected by the advances of science, our understanding of the histological details and the molecular events has increased dramatically. At the same time we are still in the dark as to who coined the term “Purkinje phenomenon” and what relevant observations preceded Purkinje's report of 1825. A comprehensive account of Purkinje's involvement in psychology and its significance is lacking.
Teaching Specific Motor Skills for Conducting to Young Music Students
Authors: Neiman Zohar
Published: September 2011

This report describes a specific technique which enables young music students to acquire basic motor skills essential for conducting. 18 adolescents ranging in age from 10 to 17 yr. were trained for one school year (about 9 months) to improve their manual motor performance. The systematic training, entitled preconducting, consisted of performing various repetitive combinations of certain continuous and punctuated, circular and linear movements, with the aim of making these skills as automatic as possible. The motor achievements were analyzed qualitatively and success depended more on motivation and daily practice than on age, sex, or handedness.
Early Studies of Mental Health Delivery Systems
Authors: Phillips E. Lakin
Published: September 2011

Newly discovered sociological studies of mental health clinics' delivery systems are corroborated in retrospect by the author's current research. New data detail further the empirical, statistical, and systemic features of the delivery system's operations.
How Accurately Can Elbow Flexion Force Be Estimated?
Authors: Bohannon Richard W. , Endemann Noreen
Published: September 2011

The purpose of this study was to determine how accurately healthy young subjects could produce a muscular force that was 50% of their maximum and to determine the influence of several independent variables on the accuracy. On each of three nonconsecutive days, 14 men and 19 women (18 to 46 yr. old) performed three maximal elbow-flexion efforts and three efforts that they estimated to be 50% of their maximum. Isometric force was measured with a hand-held dynamometer. The estimated forces ranged from 18.3 to 81.7% of maximum. The error in force from 50% was related to whether the dominant or nondominant extremity was tested, but it was unrelated to whether maximal or submaximal efforts were performed first and to the day of testing. When the accurate generation of a submaximal force is required, naive subjects may require feedback.
Visual Superiority Effect in Televised Prevention of Victimization Programs for Preschool Children
Authors: Ginsburg Harvey J. , Jenkins Cathy , Walsh Rachel , Peck Brad
Published: September 2011

Preschool children have been reported to remember more visual than auditory content from television programs. 80 preschool children were randomly assigned to conditions where visual or auditory components of a televised program on personal safety were manipulated. Visually modeled actions were slightly more salient for preschool-age children than actions represented auditorily. The combination of visual and auditory input provided the superior educational method.
An Inquiry into the Construct Validity of the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire
Authors: Chara Paul J. , Hamm Donald A.
Published: September 2011

The construct validity of the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) was investigated using a series of visual memory tasks. Subjects were shown a picture after completing the questionnaire. Their ability to recall that picture was probed through a free-recall procedure, drawing, two spatial-recall tasks, and a multiple-choice questionnaire. Scores on the VVIQ were statistically unrelated to performance on any of the memory tasks demonstrating a lack of support for construct validity as a measure of visual memory imagery.
Impairment of Cognition, Risk-Taking, and Self-Perception by Alcohol
Authors: Mongrain Steven , Standing Lionel
Published: September 2011

The effects of alcohol on risk-taking, visual signal detection, and perceptual-motor skills were examined under controlled conditions. Skill in two videogame tasks (driving and racquetball simulations) was unaffected by a massive dose of alcohol, whereas risk-taking in the driving task was increased. Alcohol also impaired performance on the signal-detection task, decreasing both perceptual vigilance and caution ( d' and beta). The dependent measures yielded minor correlations with personality and biographical variables, although men were more skilled and riskier in their behaviour than women. A second experiment employing the signal-detection task indicated that even moderate doses of alcohol can significantly impair visual perception and perceptual decision making. Both studies showed that subjects who receive a massive dose of alcohol (bac .12% or .16%) significantly underestimate the amount consumed, and rate themselves as being much less than totally drunk.
Effects of Variable Practice on Retention and Motor Schema Development in down Syndrome Subjects
Authors: Kanode Jacquelynn O. , Payne V. Gregory
Published: September 2011

Portions of Schmidt's schema theory, the effects of variable practice on retention and ability to learn a novel motor task, were tested using Down syndrome subjects. 23 subjects ranged in mental and chronological ages from 3.0 to 5.1 yr. and 4.6 to 22 yr., respectively. IQs ranged from 32 to 62. The two throwing tasks were closed, discrete movements requiring no feedback or error detection during movement. Subjects were randomly assigned to a specific-practice, variable-practice, or control group. Specific group subjects practiced 100 trials from the test-target location. Variable-practice subjects also practiced 100 trials but from four different practice locations. The control group practiced an unrelated kicking activity. All subjects participated in identical pretests, posttests, and retention tests to assess accuracy on these throwing tasks. A standard archery target was used to score tosses. To examine the effects of practice on a novel task, two target conditions, or tasks, were employed. On Task A the subject tossed a bean bag at the archery target placed flat on the floor. For Task B, the novel task, the target was placed upright on the wall. Subjects were assigned higher scores for tosses landing closer to the center of the target. Analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between groups on Task A pretest or posttest. Significance was detected for the main effect of group for Task B. However, the Scheffé post hoc test indicated that the simple main effects were nonsignificant. This research did not support Schmidt's schema theory. However, the lack of significant differences between variable- and specific-practice conditions supports the notion that variable practice may be no less effective than specific practice in the instruction of movement skills to subjects with Down syndrome.
Correlations between Hand Test Variables and Intelligence for Public School Students
Authors: Sivec Harry J. , Hilsenroth Marx J. , Wagner Edwin E.
Published: September 2011

Correlations of Hand Test scores with Binet scores for 60 grade school children (age 8.0 yr.) produced an R of .49, retaining variables DES and DIR. Correlations with WISC scores for 112 children (age 10.5 yr.) produced an R of .47, retaining REP, AOS, BALL, and ACQ. Significant variables paralleled those found in previous studies with brain-impaired and retarded subjects but caution was urged in using the Hand Test to estimate the intelligence of children.
Intelligence and Physical Fitness as Predictors of Success in Early Infantry Training
Authors: Burke Beverly G. , Kemery Edward R. , Sauser William I. , Dyer Frederick N.
Published: September 2011

The purpose of this research was to assess how well success in early combat training was predicted by scores on a test of general intelligence (the General Technical composite of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery) and three measures of physical fitness (pushups, situps, and run time). Age and education were also considered as predictors. The criterion was performance on the test given at the end of training, and the subjects were 259 trainees in entry-level infantry training. Analysis indicated that intelligence test scores and run time significantly predicted success, each adding to the prediction provided by the other. The other variables did not appear to be useful predictors of success.
Attentional Styles in Rugby Players
Authors: Maynard Ian W. , Howe Bruce L.
Published: September 2011

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between scores on the attentional subscales of Nideffer's Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) and playing standard, age, and position played within the sport of rugby. 144 male volunteer rugby players from the Vancouver Island Rugby Union were tested. The sample included 72 above average rugby players and 72 of average playing standard who were further classified by age: 24 under 19 yr. (U.19), 24 under 23 yr. (U.23), and 24 senior. Four specific positional groups were identified within the sample: Tight Five ( n = 56), Backrow ( n = 24), Halfbacks ( n = 20), and Outside Backs ( n = 44). A series of two-way multivariate analyses of variance gave no significant differences between the two different playing standards except for age. The senior group differed from both the U.19 and U.23 groups on narrowing. In addition, significant differences were also observed between the Halfbacks and the remaining positional groups (Tight Five, Backrow, and Threequarters) on two of the six measures, they demonstrated greater broad-external focus and less internal overload. It was concluded that the Halfbacks, who are the decision makers within the team, reflected most closely Nideffer's concept of an effective attentional style and the attentional subscales did discriminate minimally between rugby players of different ages and playing position.
Problems in Understanding Prescription Labels
Authors: Mustard Tonya R. , Harris Alastair V. E.
Published: September 2011

Reading prescription labels on medication bottles is often confusing. If medication is taken incorrectly, it may have deleterious effects. Questionnaires containing authentic prescription labels were administered to college students to interpret. Analysis suggests that less than half of those surveyed interpreted the labels correctly. Rated confidence in responding seemed to be a function of correctness.
Development of Perceived Adolescent Relationship Scale
Authors: Andrews David W. , Francis Sally
Published: September 2011

The purpose of the present study was to develop an easily administered scale to assess adolescents' perceptions of both their own social competence and social participation in relationships. Six items were used to generate two factors that accounted for about 68% of the variance.
Motor and Verbal Learning of Movements
Authors: Kerr Robert , Koivu Tami , Blais Christine
Published: September 2011

When teaching any skill there is always the implication that the learner can translate verbal instructions and corrections into movements and express verbally problems with their own movements. The complexity (in terms of the number of variables) of most motor skills requires the learner to handle several bits of information. Children were tested for verbal recall or recall by demonstration (motor) of a sequence of movements previously presented by either method. Analysis suggested that subjects who were required to translate the information between modes evidenced better retention.
Clinical Applications of Rorschach-Based Visual Imagery Reactivity
Authors: Yanovski Alexander , Fogel Max L.
Published: September 2011

A diverse set of findings from recent research suggests the value of visual imagery techniques in clinical practice.
Autokinetic Movement and Inverted Vision
Authors: Nakajima Yoshiaki
Published: September 2011

It was considered that inverted vision could influence the condition of the subject's relative framework. The aim of this study was to investigate whether autokinetic movement observed during inverted vision might differ from that in normal vision. One subject wearing inverting spectacles and another one subject in normal vision observed autokinetic movement for five days. The results showed that directional changes increased with the time spent in visual inversion, while in normal vision such tendency was not observed. One speculative interpretation was suggested in terms of subject-related framework.
Relationship between Ratings of Perceived Exertion and Exercise-Induced Decrease in State Anxiety
Authors: Felts W. Michael
Published: September 2011

24 females (aged 18 to 28 yr.) completed two 24-min., randomly ordered bicycle ergometer exercise bouts at workloads maintaining steady state at 30% and 60% heart-rate reserve. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded at 3-min. intervals from Minutes 9 to 24 of exercise. State anxiety was measured prior to, immediately following and 50 min. after cessation of exercise. Regression analysis indicated no relationship between RPE and the pre- to postexercise changes in state anxiety.
Subjective Equality and Just Noticeable Differences in Body-Size Judgments by Obese Persons
Authors: Gardner Rick M. , Morrell James A. , Watson Deborah N. , Sandoval Susan L.
Published: September 2011

Body-size estimates by obese and normal-weight subjects were compared using two different procedures with a TV-video methodology. In the continuous method subjects adjusted an image larger or smaller until they judged a correct TV-image had been achieved. In the second procedure the method of constant stimuli was used wherein values corresponding to the point of subjective equality ( PSE) and difference threshold ( DL) were determined. No differences between obese and normal-weight subjects were obtained with these procedures. On the continuous task subjects slightly underestimated body size and were more accurate on descending trials where they adjusted the size of the image downwards. With the second procedure, an average PSE of −.62% was obtained, with an average DL = 7.27%. Different PSE values were obtained when subjects were judging whether their image was distorted too wide or too thin. Data from the two procedures are compared and ramifications for the study of body size are discussed.
Sex Differences in Dream Recall and Components of Imaginal Life
Authors: Martinetti Raymond F.
Published: September 2011

The Cognitive Processes Survey was presented and described in terms of standardization data and factor analysis. The instrument was used to assess sex differences in dream recall as a function of degree of imaginal life, orientation toward imaginal life, degree of suppression of feelings and number of dreams recalled weekly. Using a sample of 45 men and 45 women matched on age, family income, and grade point average in college, t tests indicated that women scored higher than men in all categories except suppression of feelings on which there was no difference. Point biserial correlations showed a similar pattern of significance. The findings support the hypothesis that there is continuity of some imaginal processes between waking and sleep. Sex differences on the variables tested were attributed to cultural and attitudinal factors. It was predicted that as sex-role stereotypes diminish, there should be a concomitant decrease in sex differences in dream recall and imaginal processes.
Lateralization Differences for Color-Naming and Color-Matching in Men and Women
Authors: Tokar David M. , Matheson Nancy Kubitz , Haude Richard H.
Published: September 2011

The relationship between accuracy of color-naming and color-matching in both visual fields (LVF and RVF) as a function of sex was investigated. Subjects were 19 men and 15 women who ranged in age from 18 to 32 yr. Each subject was tested on both a color-naming task and a color-matching task presented tachistoscopically. Accuracy measures for each task were obtained separately for both left and right visual fields. A two-factor analysis of variance with repeated measures on one factor followed by a t test for simple main effects showed significant right visual-field advantage for the color-naming task, a significant sex main effect for the color-matching task (in the left visual field only), and a significant interaction of sex by visual field for the matching task. Men performed in a more strongly lateralized fashion on the color-matching task than did women, supporting the notion of greater lateralization among males.
Factor Analysis and Predictive Validity of Microcomputer-Based Tests
Authors: Kennedy Robert S. , Baltzley Dennis R. , Turnage Janet J. , Jones Marshall B.
Published: September 2011

11 tests were selected from two microcomputer-based performance test batteries because previously these tests exhibited rapid stability (< 10 min. of practice) and high retest reliability efficiencies ( r> 0.707 for each 3 min. of testing). The battery was administered three times to each of 108 college students (48 men and 60 women) and a factor analysis was performed. Two of the three identified factors appear to be related to information processing (“encoding” and “throughput/decoding”), and the third named an “output/speed” factor. The spatial, memory, and verbal tests loaded on the “encoding” factor and included Grammatical Reasoning, Pattern Comparison, Continuous Recall, and Matrix Rotation. The “throughput/decoding” tests included perceptual/numerical tests like Math Processing, Code Substitution, and Pattern Comparison. The output speed factor was identified by Tapping and Reaction Time tests. The Wonderlic Personnel Test was group administered before the first and after the last administration of the performance tests. The multiple Rs in the total sample between combined Wonderlic as a criterion and less than 5 min. of microcomputer testing on Grammatical Reasoning and Math Processing as predictors ranged between 0.41 and 0.52 on the three test administrations. Based on these results, the authors recommend a core battery which, if time permits, would consist of two tests from each factor. Such a battery is now known to permit stable, reliable, and efficient assessment.
Comparison of Paragraph Comprehension Test Scores with Reading versus Listening-Reading and Multiple-Choice versus Nominal Recall Administration Techniques: Justification for the Bypass Approach
Authors: Weinberg Warren A. , McLean Anne , Snider Robert L. , Rintelmann Jeanne W. , Brumback Roger A.
Published: September 2011

Eight groups of learning disabled children ( N = 100), categorized by the clinical Lexical Paradigm as good readers or poor readers, were individually administered the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Form D, by one of four input/retrieval methods: (1) the standardized method of administration in which the child reads each paragraph aloud and then answers five questions relating to the paragraph [read/recall method]; (2) the child reads each paragraph aloud and then for each question selects the correct answer from among three choices read by the examiner [read/choice method]; (3) the examiner reads each paragraph aloud and reads each of the five questions to the child to answer [listen/recall method]; and (4) the examiner reads each paragraph aloud and then for each question reads three multiple-choice answers from which the child selects the correct answer [listen/choice method]. The major difference in scores was between the groups tested by the recall versus the orally read multiple-choice methods. This study indicated that poor readers who listened to the material and were tested by orally read multiple-choice format could perform as well as good readers. The performance of good readers was not affected by listening or by the method of testing. The multiple-choice testing improved the performance of poor readers independent of the input method. This supports the arguments made previously that a “bypass approach” to education of poor readers in which testing is accomplished using an orally read multiple-choice format can enhance the child's school performance on reading-related tasks. Using a listening while reading input method may further enhance performance.
Aging and the Influence of Contextual Contrast on Vowel Identification
Authors: Fox Robert Allen , McCracken Leslie
Published: September 2011

This study examines possible differences between young and older adult listeners in the effect of contextual contrast on vowel identification using a vowel anchoring procedure. All listeners identified a 7-step [i]—[I] continuum under both an equiprobable control condition and an anchoring condition (in which one endpoint stimulus occurred four times more often than any other single stimulus token). Phoneme boundaries in the anchoring condition shifted toward the anchor endpoint, as expected, for both groups, but there was a significant effect of age when [i] served as the anchor. Evidence of an increase in response bias for older adult listeners was also found.
Mini-Mental State Examination and Brain Age Quotient—Short Form: Relationship and Demographic Correlates
Authors: Horton Arthur MacNeill , Heller Stephanie , Anilan Juhan , Puente Antonio E.
Published: September 2011

Modest intercorrelations between scores on the Mini-Mental State Examination and the Brain Age Quotient were obtained for 30 men in a VA medical program for alcoholic dependency. rs with age and education were small. As the two measures are reasonably different, they may be applied to advantage in studies of behavioral intervention.
Presleep Cognitive Hyperarousal and Affect as Factors in Objective and Subjective Insomnia
Authors: Kuisk Linda A. , Bertelson Amy D. , Walsh James K.
Published: September 2011

The role of presleep cognition in insomnia was studied in normal sleepers and insomniacs with either (1) psychophysiological insomnia, an objective disorder of initiating and maintaining sleep (DIMS), or (2) DIMS without objective findings (subjective insomnia), as defined by two nights' Polysomnographic baseline data. During the experimental night in the sleep laboratory, 24 subjects were interviewed at intervals during the presleep/sleep-onset period. Judges' ratings of subjects' spontaneous reports and subjects' responses to questionnaire items were analyzed for cognitive quality. Objective insomniacs had more frequent cognitive activity than the subjective insomniacs. Both insomnia groups reported more negative thoughts than the controls. Cognitive hyperarousal as a factor in objective insomnia was not clearly supported.
The Taxonomy and Course of Childhood Autism
Authors: Bagley Christopher , McGeein Van
Published: September 2011

The hypothesis that prognosis in autism would vary across subgroups was explored through cluster analysis of 52 cases. Four clusters related mainly to presence or absence of mutism, speech pathology, and lack of social responsiveness. Children who were mute and socially unresponsive on admission had particularly poor outcomes at follow-up 4.5 yr. later. For a third of the 35 subjects followed, the Vineland Social Quotients (mean 46.0 for all subjects) had declined.
Arousal Effects during Tournament Play in Squash
Authors: Cox Tom , Kerr John H.
Published: September 2011

This study investigated possible differences in psychological responses among three groups of players ( n = 30) participating in competitive squash tournaments. The 1982 reversal theory of Apter was taken as the theoretical base for the experiment and subjects' ongoing changes in “state” characteristics (including arousal), before and after competitive play, were measured using the Telic State Measure. More enduring personality dispositions among subjects were assessed by means of the Telic Dominance Scale. No significant differences (there was one exception) were found between winners and losers on the seriousmindedness and planning orientation Telic State Measure items. Although winners and losers showed no differences in levels of felt (experienced) arousal or preferred levels of arousal, winners and losers showed significant changes in level of preferred arousal across games. The effect of games was significant. Also, a decrease effect in level of preferred arousal pre- to post-game was significant. Losers' discrepancy scores, i.e., preferred minus felt arousal, changed significantly across games but winners' scores did not. No significant differences were obtained among subject groups in telic dominance.
Factor Analysis of the Reitan-Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery
Authors: Foxcroft Cheryl D.
Published: September 2011

The Reitan-Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery was administered to a sample of 116 normal children aged 5 to 7 yr. A principal components factor analysis showed that six different areas of functioning were being measured. The neuropsychological dimensions were identified as Analytic-Synthetic Visual-motor Ability, Perceptual Organization, Crossed Modality Motoric Efficiency, Directed Motor Speed, Patterned Critical Discrimination, and Strength. Regression equations for estimating a child's scores on the six factors were presented. The dimensions were related to previous factor-analytic studies with young chileren.
Sex Differences in Shifting Behavior in a Level of Aspiration Experiment
Authors: Himelstein Philip
Published: September 2011

55 middle class American males and 57 females were tested for number of shifts made in level-of-aspiration experiments with a stylus maze and a series of digit-symbol substitutions. The difference between the sex groups did not reach statistical significance in the case of either task.
Transfer and Manifest Anxiety in Paired-Associate Learning
Authors: L'abate Luciano
Published: September 2011

This investigation studied the relationship between anxiety level and transfer of training in a paired-associate learning situation. On the basis of conventional anxiety theory, it was predicted that high-anxiety Ss would show greater positive and greater negative transfer than low-anxiety Ss. To test this prediction 84 undergraduates were selected from the extremes of the anxiety continuum as measured by the Taylor Scale of Manifest Anxiety. These Ss were divided into six groups of 14 each. The major high- and low-anxiety groups were divided into sub-groups which served in a positive transfer, negative transfer, and control condition. Each group, containing an equal number of men and women, learned two paired-associate nonsense syllable lists which differed in stimulus and response terms or both, in order to produce, theoretically, positive, negative, or no transfer. The results of the experiment yielded no statistically significant differences among the groups in terms of initial learning. In the transfer task the results conformed to the usual transfer of training paradigm. However, when the results were analyzed in terms of sex difference and anxiety level, high-anxiety male Ss behaved according to the original prediction while women behaved in an almost opposite manner. The low-anxiety female Ss performed similarly to the high-anxiety men. These results, therefore, did confirm the traditional conception of transfer, while the differences in performance between high-anxiety men and high-anxiety women indicated possible shortcomings inherent either in the methodology of the experiment, or in the theoretical assumptions underlying anxiety as a motivational variable. Several possibilities were considered.
Secondary Reinforcement as a Function of Reinforcement Scheduling
Authors: Clayton Frances L.
Published: September 2011

In the present study, albino rats were given discrimination training in a modified Skinner Box. During this training several schedules of SD—SR pairings were presented; differential effects of this training were measured during extinction, which also involved a further scheduling of the R—Sr pairings. The results of the study showed that the animals were discriminating, and that SD functioned as Sr during extinction. However, there was no consistent evidence that a moderate degree of intermittence in reinforcement during either discrimination or extinction phases had favorable effects on secondary reinforcing properties. There remains the possibility that there are real but small effects which could be detected only by much more extensive experimentation.
Sucrose Concentration as Reinforcement for Lever Pressing by Monkeys
Authors: Conrad Donald G. , Sidman Murray
Published: September 2011

3 rhesus monkeys were given various concentrations of sucrose for lever pressing on a variable interval schedule of reinforcement. 7 sucrose concentrations were studied at 2 levels of food deprivation. The response rates accelerated rapidly with increasing concentrations, and then declined after reaching a maximum, generally between 15 and 30% sucrose concentration. The decline was attributed to a satiation effect. The higher level of food deprivation tended to increase the response rate at all but the extreme high and low concentrations.
Response Learning versus Place Learning
Authors: Davids Anthony
Published: September 2011

The purpose of this study, modified from an earlier experiment by Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish, was to test Hull's theory of response learning and Tolman's theory of place learning. 10 female albino rats were trained to run an elevated T-maze. Preliminary training consisted of 6 trials per day for 4 days, emphasizing the alternation of left and right turns on successive trials. The experiment proper commenced on the fifth day and continued until each rat had reached the criterion of 11 out of 12 successive errorless trials of turning to the right, with food serving as the reinforcement. After reaching the criterion, each rat was given a test trial which consisted of a run from a new starting point, located exactly 180° from the original starting point, to either the previously rewarded goal box now located to the animal's left or to the previously unrewarded goal box now located to the animal's right. It was found that on the test trials 8 of the rats ran to the previously rewarded place and only 2 made the previously rewarded response of turning to the right. This proportion is different from chance at the .055 level. It was concluded that in situations in which there are marked intra-maze cues and marked extra-maze cues there is some evidence that place learning is probably simpler than response learning. The evidence points consistently, however, to the interpretation that the animals learned something more than merely the place where the food was to be found.
Recall following Non-Optimal Tension during Learning
Authors: Berry Richard N.
Published: September 2011

This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects on retention of introducing non-optimal muscular tension in the legs during the course of learning 40 words. The tension was introduced during the recitation of the second 10 words. There was a tension group and a no-tension group, each with 30 Ss, in which there was no inter-trial “rest.” There were two corresponding groups in which there was a 1-min. interval between word lists. Analysis of the immediate recall data supports the conclusion that non-optimal tension during learning is directly related to recall scores. This suggests a general hypothesis that tension during learning may bring about poorer recall scores but will not improve recall.
Reasoning as an Associative Process: I. “Direction” in a Simple Verbal Problem
Authors: Judson Abe J. , Cofer Charles N.
Published: September 2011

Two investigations are described in which series of verbal classification problems were used to study two hypotheses concerning the nature of set or direction in problem solving. The evidence is considered to support the hypotheses, which state that direction is a function of priority of stimulus activation of response systems under certain conditions and of activation of strong and pervasive response systems previously acquired by Ss under other conditions.
Natural Preferences of Chicks and Ducklings for Objects of Different Colors
Authors: Hess Eckhard H.
Published: September 2011

A technique has been described whereby preferences of animals for a large number of stimuli can be studied simultaneously, and the responses automatically recorded. Groups of Ss are presented with a number of colored stimuli on the sides of an enclosure. Pecks are recorded on electrical counters. Data are presented showing that differential responses to colored objects do occur in chicks ( N=200) and ducklings ( N=100) that have had very limited visual experience and no opportunity for directed learning. It must therefore be supposed that these responses are innately organized. For the chicks there is a bimodal preference to color, with one peak occurring in the orange region of the spectrum and a second peak in the blue region. The ducklings, on the other hand, have a narrower range of preference with a single sharp peak within the green and yellowish-green region. The color preference curves of chicks and ducklings are obviously quite dissimilar. The dissimilarity suggests some functional determinant, but the nature of the determinant is as yet unknown.
A “New” Type of True-False Item
Authors: Mayo George Douglas , Siegel Arthur I.
Published: September 2011

A multiple-alternative item type having the basic characteristics of true-false items but differing from the conventional true-false type item in several respects was described. Evidence was presented supporting the contention that the item type is suited to the task of measurement in the areas of diagnosis and hypothesis formulation. Further, following the construction of a key with the aid of item analysis, the correlation between the test and a performance test criterion measure was .60 for a hold-out group used for purposes of cross-validation.
The Rewarded, the Unrewarded, the Chosen, and the Unchosen
Authors: Leary R. W.
Published: September 2011

One object was presented alone for two trials and then paired with a second object for six trials. Next, the second object was paired with a third object for six trials, and then sometimes the third object was paired with a fourth object for six trials. Four such sequences were given to seven test-wise rhesus monkeys on each of five days. Retention tests involving pairing of the dicrimination objects with new objects occurred on three days. When a chosen correct or incorrect object was paired with a new object, there was high positive transfer. When an unchosen negative object was paired with a new object, there was a tendency to choose the former. Although there was somewhat better retention of positive than negative objects, this may be attributed to unequal selection in the learning trials.
Instrumental Acquisition and Performance on Fixed-Interval Reinforcement as a Function of Incentive Contrast
Authors: Marx Melvin H. , Pieper W. A.
Published: September 2011

Four groups of rats were alternately magazine trained and bar-press trained on successive days. Two incentive-contrast groups both received 64% sucrose on magazine-training days; one group was shifted to 32% and the other to 8% sucrose reinforcement on barpress days. One control group received 32% sucrose on both types of days and a second received 8% sucrose on both. All reinforcements were on a 1-min. fixed-interval schedule. Both of the shift groups barpressed at a higher rate than their respective controls during early acquisition trials, but at a lower rate during later trials, on which asymptotic performance was approached. Interpretation of this two-phase result was suggested in terms of an increasing discrimination in the experimental Ss between magazine and barpress incentives.
A Rotary Runway Apparatus
Authors: Davenport John W.
Published: September 2011

An apparatus consisting of a straight alley encircled by a revolving ring of cubicles was described. This provided a method which was successful in speeding up the administration of discrete trials in simple approach learning of rats and in minimizing between-trial handling of Ss.
Reinforcement Ratio, Spontaneous Recovery, and Suggestibility as a Control in Verbal Conditioning
Authors: Webb Robert A. , Bernard John L. , Nesmith Clem C.
Published: September 2011

A postural-sway suggestibility measurement was used as a control to reduce within-group variability, producing relatively smooth conditioning functions with very small Ns. Five different reinforcement ratios were used and in each case the verbal conditioning functions were consistent with general operant research. Spontaneous recovery was observed when extinction trials were separated by a 48-hr. delay. The most efficient reinforcement ratio was the combination of 100 by 50%, which produced rapid acquisition and showed relatively slow extinction. It is suggested that workers with either clinical or research interests should consider both suggestibility and reinforcement ratio as important variables.
Avoidance Conditioning in the Guppy (Lebistes Reticulatus)
Authors: Werboff Jack , Lloyd Thomas
Published: September 2011

Acquisition of a conditioned avoidance response has been demonstrated in the guppy. Although no reliable differences were observed between the three CS-US intervals used, the trend of the data showing that fewer trials are required to reach criterion with longer CS-US intervals supports similar observations reported for other species of fish. The use of the guppy for studies of behavioral genetics and behavioral teratology has been considered.
Toward a More Precise Definition of “Emotional” and “Intellectual” Insight
Authors: Ellis Albert
Published: September 2011

When a psychotherapy patient has “intellectual” insight, he theoretically acknowledges that his beliefs are erroneous and his behavior is self-defeating and wishes that he would change; but he actually makes no consistent effort to change; and he ends up by still firmly believing what he wishes he would not. When a patient has “emotional” insight, he wishes, again, that he would change his basic ways of believing and acting, but he also fully believes that he can change and he keeps working at changing until he really does significantly modify his thoughts, emotions, and actions. “Intellectual” insight is nothing but an idle New Year's resolution (or fond dream) that one will alter effortlessly. “Emotional” insight is the determined work and practice that alone will make the wish or dream a reality.
Influence of Three Stimulus Conditions upon the Strength of a Secondary Reinforcement Effect
Authors: Zimmerman Donald W.
Published: September 2011

Animals were trained to approach a water dipper at the onset of a light and a tone, water being received following approach on an intermittent schedule. For three groups of animals bar-pressing was then reinforced on an intermittent schedule, using three stimulus conditions: light and tone only; light, tone, and dry dipper; and light, tone, and interrupted presentation of dry dipper. The interrupted presentation proved to be the most effective reinforcer. Ss in other groups which did not at first show a strong effect did so when switched to this condition.
Effect of Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS) on Extinction of an Approach Response
Authors: Madsen Millard C. , Luttges Marvin W.
Published: September 2011

Aversive effects of ECS were studied by comparing the effect of ECS on the extinction of a well developed approach response under two conditions. Rats pretrained to run a straight alley were given ECS immediately after (5 sec.), or 1 hr. after entering the goal box. No significant differences occurred until the fifth trial when the Immediate ECS group showed significantly longer approach latencies.
Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale in the Selection of Psychiatric Nursing Personnel
Authors: McCloud Kathryn , Kidd Aline H.
Published: September 2011

Twenty-three High-scorers and 18 Low-scorers on the Dogmatism Scale were observed in interactions with at least three groups of patients. Results showed that Low-scorers tended toward Independence Training and Communication with patients, while High-scorers tended toward Giving Orders and Doing-To-and-For the patients; and that Low-scorers were promoted and High-scorers were fired significantly more often. In spite of various uncontrolled variables, the results constitute a tentative indication that Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale might be a valuable addition to the battery commonly used to select psychiatric nursing personnel.
An Attempt to Establish a Secondary Drive Based upon a Primary Appetitional Drive
Authors: Brozovich Richard , Malony Newton , Wright Logan
Published: September 2011

Sixteen 150-day-old male albino rats were trained over a 30-day period. They experienced 15 14-hr. periods of food deprivation in a unique environment consisting of a striped box with sandpaper floor and blinking overhead lighting. During testing Ss ate significantly less during and after exposure to the distinctive cues. Although the results failed to demonstrate the establishment of the predicted secondary motivator, the experimental manipulations had an obvious effect on Ss' eating behavior. It was suggested that, when cues are associated with a strong drive state which is never reduced in the presence of the cues, these cues acquire a noxious quality which produces a type of avoidance behavior incompatible with eating.
Distribution of Practice and Level of Intelligence
Authors: Madsen Millard C.
Published: September 2011

Ss of high, average, and low IQ, matched for age and sex, learned 10 paired associates under two levels of distribution of practice. The results indicated that distribution of practice differentially affected learning by the three groups. The results were discussed in relation to reactive inhibition and consolidation-perseveration theory.
CS-US Interval in the Trace Conditioning of an Avoidance Response
Authors: Pearl Jack , Edwards Robert E.
Published: September 2011

To determine whether acquisition of an avoidance response with a trace conditioning procedure in the Skinner box could be facilitated by the use of long CS-US intervals, three groups of six rats each were trained at CS-US intervals of either 5, 20, or 60 sec. The CS was presented for 1 sec. unless it was ended beforehand by a lever press. The 5-sec. CS-US interval group made fewer avoidance responses and terminated the 1-sec. CS less often than each of the other groups. It was suggested that the differences in performance were due to initial differences in opportunity for making the appropriate response.