bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of Moringa oleifera Leaves Methanolic Extract on Alloxan- Induced Diabetic Albino Rats
Authors: Udeogu C. , Ejiofor C. C. , Nwakulite A.
Published: June 2019

Moringa oleifera, popularly known as “miracle tree” belongs to the family, Moringaceae. It is a medicinal plant in which the leaves are the most nutritious part, being a significant source of vitamins and protein among others. This study was conceived and designed based on the gaps in the research that has been performed and what is known about the plant. In this study, the effect of Moringa oleifera leaves extract on alloxan induced diabetes in Wistar albino rats was investigated. A total of forty five (45) rats were acclimatized for a period of two weeks, then randomly divided into five (5) groups (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) of  nine (9) rats each and fed with standard feed and water. Group 1 which is the control was fed with just water and standard feed while Hyperglycemia was induced in groups 2, 3, 4, & 5 intra-peritoneally after an over-night fasting using alloxan at a concentration of 130 mg/kg b.w. and allowed for 48hours which resulted in a high blood glucose level between 300 mg/dl and 600 mg/dl. Group 2 was not given any treatment while Groups 3, 4, & 5 were treated with doses 100 mg/kg b.w., 200 mg/kg bw, and 400 mg/kgbw of Moringa oleifera leaf extract respectively for a period of four weeks. A glucometer was used to check the blood glucose level of the animals before and after treatment. The results of Groups 3, 4, & 5 (172.0±4.75 mg/dl, 142.9±47.25 mg/dl, 70.6±24.46 mg/dl respectively) showed a significant decrease (p< 0.05) in blood glucose level of the induced rats when compared with Group 2 (316±47.17 mg/dl) which was induced only alloxan. It can therefore be concluded that this study has shown that the extract of Moringa oleifera leaves offers an anti-diabetic effect in Wistar albino rats.
Screening Winged Bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L) DC) Accessions Using Agronomic Characters
Authors: Akeem Lawal Babatunde , Azeez M. A. , Godfrey Egedegbe , Akintunde Raji Ibrahim , Omogoye A. M. , Kayode Akintola Ezekiel
Published: June 2019

Aim:This research aimed at screening winged bean accessions using morphological characters.

Study Design: The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design and replicated three times.

Place and Duration of Study: The experiment was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso situated on longitude 8°7' N, latitude 4°14' E, and at altitude of 323.5 m above sea level.       

Methodology: Seeds of thirty-eight accessions of winged bean were obtained from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan and were evaluated. Data were collected on germination count at 2, 3 and 4 weeks after planting (WAP), days to first and 50% flowering, days to first and 50% podding, top leaflet length, petiole length, secondary vine lengths at 8 and 9 WAP, pod length, and number of seeds per pod and were subjected to analyses variance.

Results: Accessions exhibited significant (P≤0.05) variation for flowering and podding dates, petiole length and top leaflet length. Days to first flowering varied from 68 to 114 days after planting (DAP) with an average of 76 days while days to 50% flowering ranged between 78 and 121 days with a mean of 83 days. Number of seeds per pod varied from 7 to 15 seeds per pod among the accessions with a mean of 12.5 seeds per pod while pod length varied from 12.3 cm to 25.6 cm with a mean pod length of 22.2 cm. Accessions TPT 26 and TPT 32 were consistent for early flowering and high seed yield and are therefore recommended for further adaptation and nutritional trials.
Effect of Sorghum-tigernut Ibyer (A Traditional Gruel) on the Fasting Blood Glucose Levels of Alloxan-induced Diabetic Rats
Authors: Shiekuma Shalem , Ukeyima Moses , Ahuah Msendoo, Janet , Blessing Idoko , Tughgba Terzungwe
Published: June 2019

Background: There is growing interest in the use of natural foods in the management of chronic diseases like diabetes. Ibyer is a fibre rich gruel consumed amongst the Tiv people of Benue State made from whole sorghum or millet flours.

Aim: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of sorghum-tigernut ibyer on the fasting blood glucose levels and body weight of alloxan monohydrate-induced diabetic rats.

Methods: Sorghum flour (SF) and tigernut flour (TNF) were blended at different proportions (100:00; 90:10; 80:20; 70:30) for the purpose of ibyer production. The flour samples were subjected to proximate analysis using standard analytical procedures, the sensory attributes of ibyer produced from the different flour samples was evaluated on a 9-point hedonic scale. Thirty (30) male Wistar rats (100–180 g body weight) were grouped into five (1-5) each group containing six rats. They were induced with diabetes by injecting them with 150ml/kg of body weight with alloxan monohydrate dissolved in saline water (0.9% NaCl) except for group 1. Blood samples were collected from the tail of the rats, prior to induction, 48hrs after induction and 72 hrs after three days of continuous feeding with test diet. Fasting blood glucose was measured using a standard glucometer and test strips.

Results: The sensory attributes indicated that ibyer produced from the flour samples were generally acceptable. Fasting blood glucose levels after 72 hrs of feeding were found to be lowered more in groups giving flours with a higher proportion of Tigernut.

Conclusion: The results indicated that sorghum-tigernut ibyer exerted hypoglycaemic effect on the experimental animals.
Effects of Poultry Manure on the Growth and Yield of Basil Plant (Ocimun gratissimum) in a Tropical Utilsol Soil
Authors: Agba O. A.
Published: June 2019

Ocimum gratissimum commonly called Basil plant or scent leaf   is one of the less known, neglected vegetable with high economic value as food, medicinal and industrial uses. Studies were therefore conducted to determine the effects of poultry manure on the growth and yield of Ocimum   gratissimum in the Teaching   and research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Cross River  University of Technology, Obubra , Cross River State, Nigeria. The experiment has nine (9) rates of poultry manure: 0, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 6.5 t/ha laid out in a randomized  complete  block design with three  replications. The application of poultry manure at 3- 4t/ha was more beneficial than higher rates. Results showed that poultry manure significantly (p>0.05) increased number of leaves, branches per plant and plant height. The highest Leaf index value plant height, leaves   and branches per plant was obtained at 16weeks after planting with 6.5 t/ha. Poultry manure.  While 4t/ha poultry manure gave the highest growth rate, Leaf fresh yield, dry matter of leaf, stem and seed yield per plant and per hectare. Farmers  are advise  to   apply 3-4t/ha of poultry manure to cultivate  Ocimum gratissimum  for optimum  growth and  seed yield  under  the utilsol  conditions .
An Overview on Common Organic Solvents and Their Toxicity
Authors: Joshi Dirgha Raj , Adhikari Nisha
Published: June 2019

Organic solvents are known as carbon-based solvents and their general property is primarily based on their volatility, boiling point, the molecular weight and color. Having enormous hazards associated with the organic solvents, they are used for millions of purposes which alert us to think more on its toxicity points. Almost all of the solvents are hazardous to health, if swallowed or inhaled more than the limit quantity and on contact to the skin most of them cause irritation. Some of the common solvents are acetone, ethyl acetate, hexane, heptane, dichloromethane, methanol, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran, acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, toluene, dimethylsulfoxide etc. Researchers, scientists, workers in the chemical industry and research institutes use these solvents on regular basis leading them to be affected in major aspects. But also, the nearby persons are affected by the contamination to the soil, water, air etc. If constantly exposed with solvents, it will badly affect the function of CNS and other body parts. The level of impact, sign and symptoms will depend on concentration, time, duration, frequency and nature of solvents, leading to common effects like headache, dizziness, tiredness, blurred vision, behavioral changes, unconsciousness, and even(Zimmermann, Mayer et al. 1985) death. To overcome it, the green chemistry concept is growing rapidly, and the solvent selection guide is in practice in many big company and research institute. A researcher or chemical worker is the primary person who works with solvents and they need to consider throughout these things while performing their activities for their own good health and for the sake of the world. The purpose of this review is to provide needed basic knowledge about common organic solvents and their potential toxicities which will alert researchers to think twice and always think for their health as well as for the environment via safe and green practice.
Biofilm, Antimicrobial & Reductive Ability of London Rocket S. irio
Authors: Chalabi Rawaa Nazar Al , Al-Ezzy Ruqaya M. , Al-Ani Nabeel K. , Bayati Shatha Al
Published: June 2019

Sisymbrium irio is a plant used in folk medicine in Asian peoples. In 79 samples collected from hospitals, 71 were infected with Gram-positive bacteria. Performing API 20 samples showed 17(23.94%) were S. pyrogens and 54(76.06%) were S. aureus. In an experiment for antibiotic sensitivity, the samples showed 100% sensitivity to penicillin, cephalexin, cefotaxime, tetracycline, Amoxicillin and methicillin. However, the sensitivity was less in Vancomycin, clindamycin, Rifampin. Moreover, it was resistance to ciprofloxacin. Test tube method used to detectability of pathogenic S. aureus isolates which isolated from the skin of children had impetigo for biofilm formation. The result illustrated the high per cent of S. aureus isolates were able to produce biofilm. 47 (87%)   S. aureus isolates produce biofilm with different degree of thickness and only 6 (13%) isolates unable to produce biofilm. The total flavonoids content was determined by spectrophotometer. The ethanol, metabolic and aqueous extract of S. irio as rutin the best standard substance for flavonoids. The best absorbance was methanol extract followed by water then, ethanol extracts. Reductive ability was carried out to know the effect of free radicals. The best extract was methanol followed by ethanol then, water extract.
Calixarene capture of partially unfolded cytochrome c
Authors: Engilberge Sylvain , Rennie Martin L. , Crowley Peter B.
Published: June 2019

Supramolecular receptors such as water‐soluble calixarenes are in development as ‘molecular glues’ for protein assembly. Here, we obtained cocrystals of sulfonato‐calix[6]arene (sclx6) and yeast cytochrome c (cytc) in the presence of imidazole. A crystal structure at 2.65 Å resolution reveals major structural rearrangement and disorder in imidazole‐bound cytc. The largest protein‐calixarene interface involves 440 Å2 of the protein surface with key contacts at Arg13, Lys73, and Lys79. These lysines participate in alkaline transitions of cytc and are part of Ω‐loop D, which is substantially restructured in the complex with sclx6. The structural modification also includes Ω‐loop C, which is disordered (residues 41–55 inclusive). These results suggest the possibility of using supramolecular scaffolds to trap partially disordered proteins.
Identification of a new Z‐DNA inducer using SYBR green 1 as a DNA conformation sensor
Authors: Hur Jeong Hwan , Lee Ae‐Ree , Yoo Wanki , Lee Joon‐Hwa , Kim Kyeong Kyu
Published: June 2019

Z‐DNA, which is left‐handed double‐stranded DNA, is involved in various cellular processes. However, its biological roles have not been fully evaluated due to the lack of tools available that can control the precise conformational change to Z‐DNA in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, the need for identifying new Z‐DNA inducers is high. We developed an assay system to monitor the conformational change in DNA utilizing the fluorescence of SYBR green I integrated into a double‐stranded oligonucleotide. By applying this assay to screen for compounds that induce the B‐DNA to Z‐DNA transition, we identified the natural compound aklavin as a novel Z‐DNA inducer.
MEF2C/miR‐133a‐3p.1 circuit‐stabilized AQP1 expression maintains endothelial water homeostasis
Authors: Jiang Yong , Ma Rui , Zhao Ying , Li Guo‐jie , Wang Ai‐kun , Lin Wen‐long , Lan Xin‐mei , Zhong Sheng‐yu , Cai Jian‐hui
Published: June 2019

Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) plays an important role in endothelial functions and is regulated by MEF2C. However, how AQP1 level is stabilized to maintain endothelial water homeostasis is still not clear. Here, we show that AQP1 expression is significantly upregulated by MEF2C transcriptionally and inhibited by miR‐133a‐3p.1 post‐transcriptionally. Meanwhile, MEF2C activates the expression of miR‐133a1. Simultaneous overexpression of MEF2C and miR‐133a‐3p.1 suppresses the aptitude of changes in AQP1 expression caused by either MEF2C or miR‐133a‐3p.1. Accordingly, the changes in migration and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) caused by MEF2C or miR133a‐3p.1 are blunted by coexpression of both of them. These data demonstrate that the homeostasis and physiological function of AQP1 in endothelial health are maintained by the MEF2C and miR‐133a‐3p.1 regulatory circuit.
Comprehensive analysis of a dipeptide library to identify ghrelin release‐modulating peptides
Authors: Nakato Junya , Aoki Hayato , Tokuyama Yuki , Yamamoto Yuta , Iwakura Hiroshi , Matsumura Shigenobu , Inoue Kazuo , Ohinata Kousaku
Published: June 2019

We performed a comprehensive analysis of ghrelin release‐modulating activity of a dipeptide library using MGN3‐1, a ghrelin‐producing cell line. We found that most dipeptides suppress ghrelin secretion, whereas the N‐terminal Ser‐containing dipeptides and a few others stimulate it. N‐terminal amino acid residues, but not C‐terminal residues, play a dominant role in the effects of dipeptides. Among dipeptides, Leu‐Ile (LI) and Ser‐Val (SV) most strongly suppress and stimulate ghrelin secretion, respectively. LI activates Gi signaling and SV acts via the MAPK pathway. Orally administered LI and SV reduce and increase plasma ghrelin levels and food intake in mice, respectively. In conclusion, LI and SV, found based on the comprehensive screening of a dipeptide library, modulate ghrelin secretion in vitro and in vivo.
Autonomy of Ethics
Authors: Jackson Frank
Published: June 2019

One question is how things are. Another question is how they ought to be, including what ought to be done. But the two questions are intimately connected. My judgment that I ought to support Oxfam is based on what I believe Oxfam would do with a donation. Your belief that you ought to vote for a certain candidate is based on what you believe the candidate would do if elected. The autonomy of ethics is a thesis about the nature of the passage from how things are to how things ought to be, including especially what ought to be done. As traditionally conceived, the thesis is that we cannot deduce how things ought to be or what ought to be done from how things are, or, as it is often put, we cannot deduce, in the sense ofa prioriinfer, an “ought” from an “is.”
Whistleblowing
Authors: Davis Michael
Published: June 2019

For the purposes of this entry, whistleblowing may be defined as: (a) an individual (currently or formerly) belonging to a legitimate organization, (b) going out of the organization's normal channels, (c) to report serious wrongdoing in the organization, (d) for morally permissible reasons. Whistleblowing is neither mere “tattling” (reporting trivial wrongdoing) nor industrial espionage (going out of normal channels for morally suspect reasons). There are two main theories of morally justified whistleblowing: whistleblowing as a kind of Good Samaritanism or rescue; and whistleblowing as an avoidance of complicity in wrongdoing.
Condorcet's Jury Theorem
Authors: Weirich Paul
Published: June 2019

Condorcet's jury theorem presents conditions under which a majority is more likely than an individual to be right about an issue. The theorem shows, in particular, that in favorable conditions a jury using majoritarian methods is more likely than a juror to be right about a defendant's guilt or innocence.
Children's Rights
Authors: Archard David
Published: June 2019

After outlining the importance of determining whether children have rights and, if so, which, the entry considers such rights as a test case for the two major accounts of what it means to be a rights holder. Possible views on whether children have rights are reviewed – from a liberationist affirmation of the entitlement of children to all the rights of an adult, through views that children have some adult rights, to the claim that children do not and cannot have rights. Different versions of skepticism about children as rights holders are outlined: that obligations to them suffice, that ascribing rights to children subverts valued institutions such as the family, and that denying children rights ensures that individuals grow into competent rights‐holding adults. The idea that having rights requires a qualifying competence or set of powers is considered. Recent work on the intrinsic goods of childhood is cited as an important addition to our understanding of what is owed to children. If children cannot themselves have rights to choose, the question arises of who may choose for them and on what terms; therefore, the rights of parents merit evaluation. Finally, the right of a child to express views on matters affecting its interests and to have these weighted is evaluated. The entry concludes that satisfactorily answering the question of how exactly we should understand the moral status of children is critical but as yet not achieved.
Religion, Freedom of
Authors: Trigg Roger
Published: June 2019

Two different strands in Enlightenment thought, influencing France and the United States respectively, have seen religion either as opposed to reason or allied to it, as the enemy of freedom or itself a guarantor of human freedom. Such issues come up against wider judgments about the role and importance of religion in society. Should it play its full part in the public square or be confined to the private realm? Should there be a wide freedom of religious practice or is freedom of religion merely the right to worship in private? Research in the cognitive science of religion suggests that dispositions to religious belief are deeply rooted in human nature. States will always find it difficult to repress religion permanently. Religious freedom is not only a basic human right, springing from our basic needs, as humans with a common human nature, but will always prove to be an insistent demand. Yet no state can allow all freedom of religion to go unchecked. It may clash with other human rights. How far rights are to be balanced against each other will always be difficult, and there will be arguments about how special the right to religious freedom should be. Because religion points to an authority beyond the state, it will be regarded with suspicion by those who see the state as ultimately sovereign. Yet a free society will only flourish if individuals and institutions are free to promote their own visions of the common good.
Overcriminalization
Authors: Husak Douglas
Published: June 2019

This entry addresses four questions: (1) How should we decide whether and to what extent a state overcriminalizes? I contend that no simple, single test can be applied to decide whether a country overcriminalizes. (2) Why is overcriminalization undesirable? I conclude that overcriminalization inevitably produces too much punishment and jeopardizes the rule of law. (3) Why might a country overcriminalize? I discuss the theoretical and political factors that and contribute to the phenomenon. (4) What principles might combat the phenomenon? I argue that a theory of criminalization is needed if the tendency to overcriminalize is to be reversed.
Deterrence
Authors: Ellis Anthony
Published: June 2019

To deter is to discourage an action – or an inaction – by threatening or warning about retaliation in the event of noncompliance. The use of deterrents does not actually prevent an action; it leaves it up to the threatened person whether to comply with the threat or accept the consequences of noncompliance. Although the use of deterrents seems in itself morally neutral, it raises two moral problems. One is whether, if the deterrent fails to deter, it is morally acceptable to carry out the threat. The other is the question of what level of threat is acceptable in a deterrent. Two familiar uses of deterrence are in international diplomacy and in the theory of punishment. In international affairs, the threat to use nuclear weapons, in particular, seems morally unacceptable to some by reason of their scale and of the effect they would have on noncombatants. In the theory of punishment, deterrence has been one of the most widely accepted justifications of punishment. However, it raises moral problems. In particular, if the threat fails to deter, it seems unclear what the justification would be for carrying it out. The most commonly accepted view is that carrying it out is then justifiable in the name of the principle of deterring others. But, on the surface at least, this looks like inflicting violence on the offender in order to affect the behavior of others; and such an action may seem to contravene the Kantian principle that one may not use others merely as a means to one's ends.
Declaration of Helsinki
Authors: Holm Søren
Published: June 2019

“The Declaration of Helsinki” and “The Helsinki Declaration” are short titles frequently used for the World Medical Association's “Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects.” The Declaration which was first issued in 1964 is one of the foundational documents in medical research ethics. This entry outlines the history of the Declaration and its main principles. It then provides an analysis of three major areas of controversy in relation to the Declaration its scope and reach, its provisions for research in groups of vulnerable participants, and its provisions for placebo‐controlled clinical trials in circumstances where there already is a standard treatment for the condition in question.
Husserl, Edmund
Authors: Nenon Thomas
Published: June 2019

This entry describes the key elements in Husserl's thinking on ethics.
Rape
Authors: McGregor Joan
Published: June 2019

Although rape is universally deemed a grievous sexual wrong, there are disagreements about its meaning, occasional uncertainty about determining whether an act of rape has occurred, confusions about why it is so wrong, and debates about its relation with broader issues of social justice.
Ortega y Gasset, José
Authors: Ilundáin‐Agurruza Jesús
Published: June 2019

José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955) is Spain's foremost philosopher of the twentieth century. His presence went well beyond the walls of the ivory tower: in addition to his strictly academic work, he published profusely in newspapers, founded cultural magazines, published dozens of books and innumerable essays, gave conferences, and established distinctively intellectual political organizations. His main goal was to educate his contemporaries, that is, to bring out the best in them, first in Spain, then in Europe, and later in the Americas. Ortega endorsed an
ethos
, a canon of conduct whereby we seek our own perfection, rather than an ethics conventionally and narrowly defined as a system of moral principles. Among Ortega's signature concepts, three are particularly pertinent ethically: circumstance, perspectivism, and love. If the former two develop his core ethical, metaphysical, and epistemological views (he did not draw sharp boundaries between them), the latter set him apart from other existential phenomenologists. His philosophical and ethical development can be divided into three stages: rejection of rationalism, promotion of vital reason, and development of historical reason.
Functionalism, Moral
Authors: Jackson Frank
Published: June 2019

Sometimes we infer the moral status of an action from its nonmoral properties. Perhaps we discover that an action would lead to many deaths and conclude that it would be morally wrong. Sometimes we infer the moral status of an action from information that is itself couched in moral terms. Perhaps we know which action available to a person is morally best, and from this we infer that the person ought to perform it. Finally, we sometimes infer what someone will do, or is inclined to do, from what they believe they ought to do. These kinds of transitions – from the nonmoral to the moral, from the moral to the moral, and from the moral to the nonmoral – are familiar to everyone who considers and debates important moral questions. Moral functionalism holds that they are the heart and soul of ethical theory; they define our subject.
Malebranche, Nicolas
Authors: Walsh Julie
Published: June 2019

The French Oratorian Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715) was one of the most famous philosophers of his time. While his status as an important intellectual figure declined after his death, a resurrection of his works began in the latter half of the twentieth century. This renewed interest in Malebranche's thought was certainly promoted by the publication and, subsequently, wide availability of his complete works in the original French (20 volumes published between 1958 and 1984) and by the existence of several translations, most notably of Malebranche's magnum opus
The Search after Truth
, which served to make the philosopher more accessible to the English‐speaking world. The push to establish Malebranche as a valuable figure in the history of philosophy is well motivated. His collected works illustrate a careful and unorthodox synthesis of the philosophies of Saint Augustine and René Descartes that exercised many of Malebranche's contemporaries, whose reactions (often in the form of zealous objections) are found in correspondence and in volumes of published works. Malebranche's influence on eighteenth‐century British philosophy in particular has been well chronicled. Given his range of influence and his unique system, it is no longer idiosyncratic to affirm that a familiarity with Malebranche's views is critical for understanding the evolution of philosophical thought throughout the early modern period and beyond.
Risk
Authors: Hansson Sven Ove
Published: June 2019

Issues of risk are important in many fields of applied ethics. Risk assessments tend to have implicit value assumptions, which need to be identified so that they can be subject to discussions and deliberations. Important ethical issues, for instance about distributional and procedural justice, are often left out in standard (probabilistic) risk analysis, which means that there is a need for a supplementary ethical risk analysis. Furthermore, since the common moral theories have difficulties in dealing with risk, issues of risk also have to be discussed in relation to the foundations of ethical theory.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb
Authors: Moyar Dean
Published: June 2019

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814) is one of the founders of the philosophical movement known as German idealism. He is most often discussed as a transitional figure between Immanuel Kant and G. W. F. Hegel, but he deserves to stand in his own right as one of the greatest innovators in modern ethical philosophy. Fichte can be considered the first existentialist philosopher on account of his emphasis on the individual's free act of self‐creation. His theory of conscience as an absolute criterion for moral action makes him look like an advocate of an ethical subjectivism in which the individual has the last word on what is right and wrong. Yet Fichte is also the originator of a political philosophy that reaches fruition in Hegel, Marx, and a host of twentieth‐century thinkers who focus on the social conditions of agency. With his theory of mutual recognition in particular, Fichte invented a conceptual tool through which freedom could be treated as a social category. One of his main claims is that an individual can be free, and therefore can be human, only through interactions with other individuals under determinate social conditions.
Libertarianism
Authors: Hunt Lester H.
Published: June 2019

Though libertarianism in its purest form may be a fairly recent phenomenon, it has historical roots and antecedents that reach back at least as far as the seventeenth century. Contemporary philosophers who have defended this idea have taken a wide variety of approaches, including not only the natural rights‐based argument of Robert Nozick, but also common‐sense intuitionism, social contract theory, at least two quasi‐contractual approaches, and naturalistic egoism.
Amoralist
Authors: Merli David
Published: June 2019

An amoralist is an agent who seems to make real moral judgments without having the typical motivation toward right acts and away from wrong acts. The amoralist is important for debates about whether or not moral judgments necessarily or intrinsically motivate, and for broader debates about the nature of moral judgment, in particular whether moral judgments are motivationally inert belief‐like states or motivationally potent desire‐like states. This entry surveys recent empirical work on ordinary speakers’ responses to amoralist scenarios, arguments that deny the possibility of amoralists at the level of individual speakers and speech communities, and attempts to make sense of amoralists in ways that are compatible with a necessary connection between moral judgment and motivation. It concludes with two different approaches to the nature of that purported necessity.
Solidarity
Authors: Scholz Sally J.
Published: June 2019

This entry offers an overview of the concept “solidarity.” After a brief description of the chief sociological accounts, the article turns to examine solidarity as it is used in movements for social change. Included is a discussion of solidarity as a commitment made by the powerful to aid the powerless in struggles for justice. Solidarity as welfare state obligations and as a human right are also presented. The article ends with mention of the normative justifications for solidarity and two possible challenges to solidarity relations.
Euthanasia
Authors: Lindsay Ronald A.
Published: June 2019

Euthanasia is commonly understood as bringing about another's death to end that person's suffering. There is substantial controversy over whether euthanasia is morally permissible, and, if so, under what circumstances. Similarly, there is controversy over whether euthanasia should be legalized even if it may be morally permissible in some cases. Voluntary euthanasia – that is, euthanasia carried out with the consent of the person euthanized – is the form that is most widely considered morally permissible, although it is certainly far from universally accepted. Many believe that intentionally bringing about the death of another person (as well as suicide) is intrinsically wrong. Resolving the issue of intrinsic immorality ultimately requires appeal to a background theory of ethics. A few nations, and some states in the United States, have legalized voluntary euthanasia, or its close cousin, physician‐assisted suicide, in certain circumstances, typically when the person euthanized is terminally ill or severely disabled. Leaving aside the issue of intrinsic immorality, debate rages over whether the legal procedures in place in these jurisdictions are sufficient to prevent abuses, such as euthanasia without the consent of the person euthanized.
Accounting Ethics
Authors: Cowton Christopher J.
Published: June 2019

Some well‐publicized financial reporting “scandals” have markedly increased interest in accounting ethics in recent years. This article is constructed around two principal themes: truth and professionalism. First, it might be thought that the issues surrounding the quality of accounting numbers amount to no more than a question of whether those numbers are true; that they accurately correspond with relevant aspects of the world that the financial statements are purported to describe. However, under conventional “accruals” accounting, the basic idea of which is eminently sensible, there are two crucial sorts of judgment involved. First, although the scope for choice is more restricted than it once was, different methods can be used to combine and process the “brute facts” of transactions data. Second, accounting for the past entails myriad assumptions about the future. Therefore, there are many possible profit figures (for example), and talk of “measuring” profit is misleading. Given the discretion inherent in the process, it is better to talk of “truthfulness” than truth, which leads to the second main theme of the article: the professionalism of the accountants who prepare and review the numbers. An example of a major international code of ethics is introduced and its five “fundamental principles” briefly discussed, before a “first approximation” of the virtuous accountant derived from them is presented.
Self‐Plagiarism
Authors: Andreescu Liviu
Published: June 2019

Self‐plagiarism, an umbrella term for a variety of forms of reusing one's own scholarly works, has become an important topic within the scientific community only relatively recently. Numerous journal editorials have highlighted this type of academic misconduct, usually stressing the misunderstandings to which it is prone. University writing guidelines have placed self‐plagiarism right next to plagiarism among academic practices deemed inexcusable. Professional associations such as the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) have assembled an interesting docket of self‐plagiarism cases with illuminating remarks. Nevertheless, as the concept itself has become more established, it has also generated critical commentary, pointing to the unfortunate choice of terminology, the simplistic treatment of gray areas, or the imposition of a one‐size‐fits‐all approach to reuse on different disciplines. This entry seeks to clarify self‐plagiarism by examining both illegitimate and legitimate forms of reuse and emphasizing the many contextual details that matter in distinguishing between the two.
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Authors: Hardman Doug
Published: June 2019

Although a number of people advocate and use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), serious thinkers have doubts about its efficacy and the morality of its use. CAM is, in any case, difficult to define since many people use the term to refer to a diverse group of healthcare practices. This entry considers the ethical justification of CAM through a balanced assessment of the four principles of modern bioethics: autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. As with conventional medicine, informed ethical debates in CAM are intrinsically linked to evidential‐epistemological issues. Some claim that CAM practices do not meet the standards of evidence‐based medicine and, thus, that their use is unethical. Others claim the principles of evidence‐based medicine are misguided. This dispute is best evaluated in a broader debate about the appropriate evidential standards for the use of all healthcare practices. Inasmuch as this is true, a careful investigation of ethical issues concerning CAM can inform other ethical and evidential debates about conventional medicine.
Cybersecurity
Authors: Henschke Adam
Published: June 2019

Cybersecurity presents numerous points for ethical inquiry. This entry looks at cybersecurity through a number of layers of analysis. Starting with cyberspace's nonphysical and nongeographic nature, it looks at international norms to show that there are norms in cyberspace. It then covers particular ethical issues around cyberwar and matters of state–state conflict in cyberspace that fall short of war. State–citizen relations are explored; and, finally, some of the ethical issues concerning individuals and cybersecurity.
Public Philosophy
Authors: Lam Barry
Published: June 2019

Public philosophy is philosophy intended for public engagement. This entry talks about the recent history and need for public philosophy, its difference from peer‐facing research, and how there can be a plurality of goals associated with its production. The professional incentives and disincentives for producing public philosophy are discussed, and there is also a categorization of various genres of public philosophy by style and medium.
Rosemont Jr., Henry
Authors: Littlejohn Ronnie
Published: June 2019

Henry Rosemont Jr. was Professor of Philosophy at St. Mary's College of Maryland, USA, from 1977 to 2001, including his tenure as George B. & Willma Reeves Distinguished Professor of the Liberal Arts from 1997. His contributions to philosophy and ethics are specifically in the areas of Chinese and comparative philosophy. They generally fall into four categories: his work in Chinese linguistics and translation, his contribution to the theory of human nature, his political activism in progressive politics, and his interest in philosophy of religion and the spiritual paths of humanity. He is well known for his creation and application of the concept of “concept‐clusters” as a method of comparing moral vocabularies and, along with Roger T. Ames, for his delineation and use of the model known as “Confucian Role Ethics.” For Rosemont, a philosophic ethic begins from the uniqueness of each particular person, not as a discrete autonomous individual, but as a specific constitution of the roles and relationships of one's life. These relationships set the conditions and context for self‐formation and within them the quest and responsibility of a person to achieve moral and social virtuosity is lived out.
Measurement validation of treatment planning for a MR‐Linac
Authors: Chen Xinfeng , Paulson Eric S. , Ahunbay Ergun , Sanli Aydin , Klawikowski Slade , Li X. Allen
Published: June 2019

Purpose

The magnetic field can cause a nonnegligible dosimetric effect in an MR‐Linac system. This effect should be accurately accounted for by the beam models in treatment planning systems (TPS). The purpose of the study was to verify the beam model and the entire treatment planning and delivery process for a 1.5 T MR‐Linac based on comprehensive dosimetric measurements and end‐to‐end tests.

Material and methods

Dosimetry measurements and end‐to‐end tests were performed on a preclinical MR‐Linac (Elekta AB) using a multitude of detectors and were compared to the corresponding beam model calculations from the TPS for the MR‐Linac. Measurement devices included ion chambers (IC), diamond detector, radiochromic film, and MR‐compatible ion chamber array and diode array. The dose in inhomogeneous phantom was also verified. The end‐to‐end tests include the generation, delivery, and comparison of 3D and IMRT plan with measurement.

Results

For the depth dose measurements with Farmer IC, micro IC and diamond detector, the absolute difference between most measurement points and beam model calculation beyond the buildup region were <1%, at most 2% for a few measurement points. For the beam profile measurements, the absolute differences were no more than 1% outside the penumbra region and no more than 2.5% inside the penumbra region. Results of end‐to‐end tests demonstrated that three 3D static plans with single 5 × 10 cm2 fields (at gantry angle 0°, 90° and 270°) and two IMRT plans successfully passed gamma analysis with clinical criteria. The dose difference in the inhomogeneous phantom between the calculation and measurement was within 1.0%.

Conclusions

Both relative and absolute dosimetry measurements agreed well with the TPS calculation, indicating that the beam model for MR‐Linac properly accounts for the magnetic field effect. The end‐to‐end tests verified the entire treatment planning process.
Incorporation of Salivary Gland Ultrasonography Into the American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism Criteria for Primary Sjögren's Syndrome
Authors: van Nimwegen Jolien F. , Mossel Esther , Delli Konstantina , van Ginkel Martha S. , Stel Alja J. , Kroese Frans G. M. , Spijkervet Fred K. L. , Vissink Arjan , Arends Suzanne , Bootsma Hendrika
Published: June 2019

Objective

To assess whether the addition of salivary gland ultrasonography (SGUS) or replacement of current criteria items by SGUS influences the performance of the American College of Rheumatology (ACR)/European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) criteria for primary Sjögren's syndrome.

Methods

Included were consecutive patients with complete data on all ACR/EULAR items (n = 243) who underwent SGUS in our primary Sjögren's syndrome expertise center. Clinical diagnosis by the treating physician was used as the gold standard. Separate analyses were performed for patients who underwent labial or parotid gland biopsies. The average score for hypoechogenic areas in 1 parotid and 1 submandibular gland was determined (range 0–3). Next, performance of the ACR/EULAR criteria was evaluated after addition of SGUS or replacement of current items by SGUS.

Results

Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed an optimal cutoff value of ≥1.5 for SGUS. The optimal weight for SGUS positivity was 1. Cutoff for ACR/EULAR fulfilment remained ≥4. In patients who underwent a labial gland biopsy (n = 124), the original criteria showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.965, sensitivity of 95.9%, and specificity of 92.2%. After the addition of SGUS, the AUC was 0.966, with a sensitivity of 97.3% and specificity of 90.2%. In patients who underwent a parotid gland biopsy (n = 198), similar results were found. Sensitivity of the criteria decreased substantially when SGUS replaced salivary gland biopsy or anti‐SSA antibodies, while performance remained equal when SGUS replaced the ocular staining score, Schirmer's test, or unstimulated whole saliva flow.

Conclusion

Validity of the ACR/EULAR criteria remains high after incorporation of SGUS. With SGUS, clinicians are offered a larger array of tests to evaluate fulfillment of the ACR/EULAR criteria.
Switching Kinetics Control of W‐Based ReRAM Cells in Transient Operation by Interface Engineering
Authors: Shahrabi Elmira , Giovinazzo Cecilia , Hadad Mahmoud , LaGrange Thomas , Ramos Miguel , Ricciardi Carlo , Leblebici Yusuf
Published: July 2019

Tungsten (W) is one of the most promising materials to be used in resistive random‐access memory electrodes due to its low work function and compatibility with semiconductors, which raises the possibility of device integration, scalability, and low power consumption. However, W has multiple oxidation states that affect device reliability, due to the formation of semistable oxides at the switching interface. W chemical interaction is modulated through the insertion of Al2O3 or Ti interfacial layers. The time‐dependent switching kinetics are investigated in transient Set/Reset operations. It is observed that a compact and stoichiometric atomic‐layer‐deposited Al2O3 barrier layer completely prevents W oxidation, resulting in a sharp current transient. The use of a sputtered Ti buffer layer allows a partial W oxidation, defining a tunable high‐resistance state by pulse rise time control. Notable improvements in endurance, power consumption, resistance state stabilization, and cycle‐to‐cycle and device‐to‐device variability are reported. Switching kinetics and conductive nanofilament evolution are studied in detail to understand the microscopic effect of the interface modifications. The tunability of multi‐HRS states by pulse timing control in Pt/HfO2/Ti/W is in the interest of network and brain‐inspired computing applications, adding a degree of freedom in the modulation of its resistance.
High‐gravity‐assisted synthesis of aqueous nanodispersions of organic fluorescent dyes for counterfeit labeling
Authors: Yin Xiong , Sun Qian , Wang Dan , Routh Alexander F. , Le Yuan , Wang Jie‐Xin , Chen Jian‐Feng
Published: June 2019

Organic fluorescent dyes have attracted wide interest because of their high photoluminescence quantum efficiencies. However, there are several application limitations arising from their hydrophobicity, poor dispersity and large particle sizes. These problems can be improved by preparing nanoparticles with a small size. Herein, we present a continuous approach to efficiently prepare an aqueous nanodispersion of water‐insoluble organic fluorescent dye Nile red (NR) with monodispersed and uniform nanoparticles (35 nm) by high‐gravity antisolvent precipitation in a rotating packed bed (RPB). In contrast, NR nanodispersions prepared using a traditional batch stirred tank (ST) had a broad size distribution (20–150 nm). Due to its small size effect and good dispersity in water, the RPB nanodispersion displayed significantly increased saturation solubility and much stronger fluorescent intensity compared to raw NR, and was obviously superior to the ST counterpart. Furthermore, NR nanodispersions were mixed with ink to draw fluorescent patterns on paper for counterfeit labeling.
Gas‐Constructed Vesicles with Gas‐Moldable Membrane Architectures
Authors: Xu Miaomiao , Chen Liang , Yan Qiang
Published: June 2019

Integrating gas as a main building block into nanomaterial construction is a challenging mission that remains elusive. Herein, we report a gas‐constructed vesicular system formed by CO2 gas and frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs). Two molecular triads bearing three bulky borane and phosphine groups are designed as trivalent disc‐like FLP monomers. CO2, as a gas cross‐linker, can drive the two‐dimensional polymerization of these two FLP monomers, leading to the generation of planar FLP networks that further transform into a thermodynamically favored membranous vesicle structure. Gas‐guided vesicle formation is also applicable to other inert but FLP‐activatable gases. Different gas linkages can form vesicles with distinct architectures, sizes, and morphologies. We envisage that this study would suggest a new concept that exploits gases to fabricate tunable nanomaterials.
Removal of molybdate and vanadate ions by a copolymer adsorbent in a ultrafiltration system
Authors: Sánchez Julio , Riffo Lina , Salazar Paula , Rivas Bernabé L.
Published: June 2019

In this investigation, the removal of Mo and V oxyanions was carried out using the polymer‐assisted ultrafiltration technique with a poly(acrylamide‐co‐diallyldimethylammonium chloride) [P(AAm‐DDACl)]. As a result, 100% of the Mo and 80% of the V were removed at pH 9 with a polymer:metal molar ratio of 10:1 and an optimal metal concentration of 60 mg L−1. The presence of competitive ions such as phosphate, sulfate, and chloride affected the retention of Mo, decreasing its retention to 60% in all cases. For the V, all competitive ions behaved in a similar way, producing approximately 50% metal removal. The permeate flux was kept almost constant for all solutions (40 to 80 L hm−2), which indicates that the optimal retention conditions are stable over time. In addition, the characterization of the P(AAm‐DDACl) was carried out using infrared spectroscopy analysis (FTIR), and the morphology of the membrane before and after use was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, which showed significant changes in its morphology. The energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy analysis indicates the presence of Mo and P(AAm‐DDACl) in the membrane after use. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 48184.