bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Seasonal relative influence of food quantity, quality, and feeding behaviour on zooplankton growth regulation in coastal food webs
Authors: Vargas C.A. , Martínez R.A. , Escribano R. , Lagos N.A.
Published: October 2009

In aquatic food webs zooplankton constitutes an important link between primary producers and higher trophic levels. Copepods often dominate the zooplankton in coastal oceans and are the prey of the majority of planktivorous fish. Feeding behaviour, as well as the food quantity and quality are recognized factors that affect copepod growth, and therefore, the energy transfer efficiency throughout food webs. The natural occurrence and magnitude of these growth factors and their combined effects on marine copepods, as keystone grazers in the pelagic marine realm, are poorly understood. Here, we assessed how these different factors vary throughout the year, and then examine their relative influence upon copepods maximal growth rates. A multiple regression model, including all variables previously selected, and the inclusion of the sea temperature allowed us to estimate the pure influence of the studied factors, and the environmental effect on copepod growth rates. The results imply that ingestion of diatoms may induce a positive effect on specific growth rates of copepods, and the quality of this food item (high PUFA and HUFA availability) might explain such effect. Therefore, seasonal variability in diatom abundance, possibly driven by changes in the oceanographic regime, should be considered a critical factor controlling copepod growth in productive coastal ecosystems.
Recruitment variation in subtidal macrofouling assemblages of a Patagonian harbour (Argentina, south-western Atlantic)
Authors: Rico Alicia , Peralta Roxana , Gappa Juan López
Published: October 2009

The recruitment of subtidal macrofouling organisms was studied in the Patagonian harbour of Comodoro Rivadavia (Argentina, 45°51′35″S 67°27′23″W). Changes in coverage and density were analysed in the central 100 cm2of upper and lower surfaces which were replaced monthly from January to December 2004. The fouling assemblage consisted of algae, spirorbid polychaetes, compound ascidians, hydrozoans, bryozoans and egg masses spawned by the small fishHelcogrammoides cunninghami. Monthly changes in richness and diversity of taxa on upper and lower surfaces were significantly correlated with sea surface temperature. Fouling assemblage structure differed significantly between upper and lower surfaces. Filamentous algae were dominant on upper surfaces, while filter-feeding invertebrates were more abundant on the lower surfaces of the experimental panels. The density of the spirorbidRomanchella scoresbyiwas two orders of magnitude higher on lower than on upper surfaces. Its recruitment began in late winter, reaching maximum values in spring.
Sedentary behaviour establishment in O-group common soleSolea solea: a laboratory video-tracking study
Authors: Durieux Eric D.H. , Le Duigou Mathieu , Millot Sandie , Sasal Pierre , Begout Marie-Laure
Published: October 2009

Spontaneous swimming activity of O-group common sole (Solea solea) was evaluated using a video-tracking system under laboratory conditions. An experiment was conducted during two consecutive days on individuals sampled in June, July, September and November (2004) in a coastal nursery ground (Pertuis Charentais, Bay of Biscay, France). The measured behavioural variables were: distance travelled and frequency of occurrence of burying, swimming and immobility. O-group sole showed a relatively clear circadian activity in line with the artificial light conditions (day, twilight and night). Swimming activity of O-group sole decreased drastically from June to July, thereafter remaining at a very low level in September and November. Such important changes reflect the transition between the exploratory behaviour of the post-colonization period and a well established sedentary behaviour remaining until the onset of winter. These results highlight the potential limitation in habitat use capacities of O-group sole once settled in coastal nursery grounds.
Escherichia coli – an overview
Authors: Cooke E. Mary
Published: October 2009

The isolation and description of Bacillus coli commune by Escherich a hundred years ago marked the start of a series of scientific investigations which have led to some of the most important discoveries in microbial pathogenicity and genetics that have been made since that time. It is not difficult to find the reasons why so much effort has been concentrated on this organism. Escherichia coli is present in the gut of all warm-blooded animals generally forming the predominant aerobic flora; it is of medical and veterinary importance being responsible for a variety of infections in the human and animal populations and it has provided a useful tool for geneticists.
Literacy in Monolingual Societies
Authors: Bhatia Tej K.
Published: October 2009

The multidimensional and interdisciplinary research on literacy has progressed so rapidly that researchers have responded to its growth in a number of ways which includes the occasional production of bibliographies. The most recent book-length bibliography by Graff stresses the multifaceted aspect of the research, admitting at the same time that approaches to literacy are too ubiquitous to enumerate (1981b:8). Among the important approaches to literacy, the following are noteworthy: historical, anthropological, sociological, economic, demographic, developmental, psychological, and linguistic. All of these approaches have two properties in common: first, they directly or indirectly address themselves to the questions of acquisition of reading and writing skills in pre-literate and semi-illiterate societies; and second, they study literacy without any significant reference to the monolingual (henceforth, ML) or multilingual structure of a speech community. The second reason thus explains the dearth of studies. Literature focusing on literacy in ML or multilingual societies is negligible. With advances in the field of sociolinguistics, this aspect of literacy research is no longer virgin territory.
Literacy in South Asia
Authors: Srivastava R. N.
Published: October 2009

Recent literature on literacy reveals that the ways people perceive and experience its nature and relevance differ fundamentally across time as well as across different societies (cf., Heath 1980, Graff 1982, Pattison 1982, Raymond 1982). It has been argued by scholars that the way societies view literacy and its benefits is circumscribed mainly by the characteristics of their socio-economic types (cf., Cressy 1980, Slaughter 1982, Neustupný forthcoming). Literacy, thus, by no means is a unified concept. What adds to the baffling complexity of literacy education is that it means different things to different people. Consequently, linguists, educationists, policymakers, etc. differ widely in their approach towards defining the form, function, and use of literacy.
Assessment
Authors: Hall William C.
Published: October 2009

Literacy (i.e., the state of being literate) produces change both in individuals and in social groups (Akinnaso 1981, Ong 1982). Change through literacy may be realized in incresased skills and reasoning abilities, may be called improvement, and may be measured against established norms, or it many be measured by changed attitudes, belief systems, and cultural patterns (cf., Bendor-Samuel 1980).
Adult Literacy
Authors: Crandall JoAnn
Published: October 2009

The topic of adult literacy has a vast literature around the world of both a theoretical and practical nature. Thus, this review is, of necessity, very selective. The principal focus is upon literacy in the United States, although attemps were made to include selected Australian, British, and Canadian items. In addition, a few unannotated entries which report the results of literacy campaigns or deal with literacy and language policy in other countries have also been included. In general, though, this is a bibliography of adult literacy in the United States.
Language policy—Australia
Authors: Walsh Michael
Published: October 2009

Because there is a separate section in this volume devoted to the language in education policy, little attention has been focused here on education. Nevertheless, many of the issues raised in such a general coverage of language policy must inevitably have implications for education even though they are not taken up here.
Language-in-Education in the Arab Middle East
Authors: Abu Absi Samir
Published: October 2009

The conflict between traditional and Western values is the key to understanding official language policies as well as popular attitudes regarding language in the Arab world. Traditional values are associated with the Arabic language and Islam, the two major pillars of Arab nationalism. Western values represent colonialism and oppression on the one hand and modernity and technology on the other. The issues dominating language policy in the period following World War II, during which most Arab countries became independent, are treated by Altoma (1970). Since many of these issues continue to be the subject of discussion, I will limit my coverage to the literature which appeared since 1970.
Language Teaching and Literacy in South Asia
Authors: Sridhar S. N.
Published: October 2009

The complexity of South Asian multilingualism, the functional allocation of roles, and the policies governing the use of languages in spheres such as education, administration, and others have been discussed in Kachru's contribution to the present volume. The following discussion of the problems and research in language teaching and literacy should be read in that context.
Bilingualism
Authors: Kachru Braj B.
Published: October 2009

The area of bilingualism is essentially interdisciplinary; therefore, it has been studied from linguistic, educational, psychological, and sociological perspective. In defining the term various classificatory, normative, and methological criteria have been used (see, e. g., Beziers and Van Overbeke 1968:112–131; Haugen 1953; Weinerich 1953), and no one defintion of the term is generally accepted. Bloomfield (1933:56) defines bilingualism as “native–like control of two languages” ––a very high goal indeed. For Haugen (1953:6) a bilingual produces “complete and meaningful utterances in other languages.” Weinreich (1953:1) considers bilingualism “the practice of alternately using two languages.”
Pidginization and Creolization
Authors: Todd Loreto
Published: October 2009

Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs when people who do not speak the same language come into contact. It involves the simplification of the contacting language and the exploitation of linguistic common denominators. It is essentially an oral process and limited communication. Pidiginization seems to involve the use of base forms, a reduction in or elimination of case endings, inflections and prepositions, a simple and unified method of indicating temporal deistinctions, negation and interrogation, and the meaning of verbal communication is often reinforced by intonation, gestures and, on some occasions, mime.
Second Language Acquisition/Learning: Psycholinguistic Factors
Authors: Brown H. Douglas
Published: October 2009

Ten years ago, research in second language acquisition manifested an array of doubts about the potential of major disciplinary paradigms for providing a comprehensive theory of second language acquisition. Linguistic theory and psychological theory alike were viewed as only marginally useful either for stimulating fruitful research or for undergirding classroom practices in second language teaching. But the skepticism of the 70s had its virtues. We had outgrown the childishness of seeking clear-cut distinctions and final answers. Consequently, we probed deeper and wider, beyond the confines of “established” disciplinary models to seek new worlds of possibilities, yet with philosophical lifelines firmly secured in the collective expertise of centuries of the study of human behaviour.
Sign Language
Authors: Mayberry Rachel I.
Published: October 2009

Most of what we know about sign language we have learned over the past ten years, although the phenomenon of communicating with the hands and eyes rather than with the mouth and ears has existed, no doubt, throughout history whenever and wherever there have been groups of deaf adults and/or children. The reasons why sign language has been so neglected are intimately connected with the attitudes and beliefs society has evolved about the nature of language, both in terms of what language is and what it signifies, such as the beliefs that language is the hallmark of human evolution, language is thinking, language is an auditory and oral phenomenon. Within this context, sign language is not language, and communicating with sign language rather than spoken language comes replete with a host of negative implications. It comes as no surprise, then, that the people throughout history who have been in the best position to study and describe sign language––deaf people and people whose profession is deafness––have devoted most of their time and energy to defending sign language rather than analyzing and describing it.
Microsociolinguistics
Authors: Haynes Lilith M.
Published: October 2009

Quite contrary to the presuppositions of the editors of this review, I approached the production of this chapter without the feeling of beingau fait, having spent the past year on a small-is-beautiful campus with limited access to the literature, with this period having been preceded by three years in the Middle East, which is surely not a hotbed of applied microsociolinguistic research or dissemination. Additionally disabled with a shattered writing hand, I resorted to sending off thirty mimeographed requests for assitance in turning up seminal items for 1979 to sociolinguists the world over. This salvo netted thirteen replies (43% response-rate) with the following variation in content: one person telephoned from Washington, D.C. for clarification and then promptly mailed me some references; three others––one in Nigeria and two on opposite coasts of the USA––wrote back to ask what I meant by microsociolinguistics; three––one each from Israel, Jordan, and the USA––replied with friendly notes that neither mentioned my request nor responded to it; three others––from England, Tunisia, and the USA respectively––wrote to say that they had seen nothing that I would not have seen myself; and only three––one each from Guyana, Poland, and the southwest USA––provided references at first shy! Of the items mentioned by this last group, the Guyana reference fit the section in this volume on Pidginization and Creolization, and those from the southwest USA fit the section on Second-Language Acquisition/Learning, leaving my Polish correspondent as the sole collaborator––pending translation, his language being one of those more uncommonly taught abroad. I was clearly as handicapped as when I had begun, but was there really nothing to report about microsociolinguistics?
An Introduction to the Study of Written Texts: The “Discourse Compact”
Authors: Kaplan Robert B.
Published: October 2009

About seventeen years ago when my eldest daughter was a student in the third grade of elementary school, she came home one day with a grade of “D” on an English assignment. Because I have been, in part at least, a language teacher most of my adult life, and because my daughter was a particularly verbal child, I was a bit distressed at the grade. I looked over her paper and was unable, in my ignorance, to detect what in it had induced her teacher to give her a grad of “D”.
Acquisition of Phonology
Authors: Hammarberg Björn
Published: October 2009

It is quite evident that the study of phonological issues within second language acquisition [SLA] research has been vitalized in recent years and is attracting wider interest today than it did a decade ago. This can be seen in the major journals in the field, and also in the fact that compensive anthologies solely devoted to the phonological domain of SLA research have begun to appear (Ioup and Weinberger 1987, James and Leather 1987). Since this review is intended to concentrate on works from the last few years (mostly from 1986 on), it is worth pointing out that this period does not in itself mark a radical shift or reorientation towards new research issues. Rather, it is mainly a continuation of topics that originated a few years back, and a consolidation of a field of research which is gradually becoming more established.
Communicative processes and strategies
Authors: DeKeyser Robert M.
Published: October 2009

When the learner of a non-native language actually uses this language for communication, he draws on the L2 skills acquired so far, and on various other sources of knowledge and skill that are relevant to the communicative task. The more advanced the learner is, the more s/he will be able to rely on his/her L2 skills in a way that is analogous to the L1 speaker's use fo his/her individual linguistic competence. The less advanced learner will have to rely more on his/her metalinguistic knowledge (to the extent that it is available) and on a variety of ways to reduce the gap between, on the one hand, the L2 knowledge and skills available to him/her and, on the other hand, the means necessary to convey the intended message, either by using additional resources (L1, gestures, and so on) or by reducing the message to be conveyed. The term communicative processes [hereafter CP] will be used for the reliance on L2 knowledge and skills, and the term communicative strategies or communication strategies [hereafter CS] for the learner's attempts at bridging the gap between these resources and the message to be conveyed. (There is no clear-cut separation between these two mental activities, of course, as the use of CS encompasses the incorporation of whatever relevant fragments of L2 knowledge and skill happen to be available.)
Effects of Instruction on Sla: Issues and Evidence
Authors: Harley Birgit
Published: October 2009

Inverstigating the effects of classroom instruction on second language acquisition is a fascinating, but formidable, task: fascinating, because it addresses fundamental issues concerning the nature of the mental processes underlying SLA and how they are affected by different learning conditions; formidable, because of the complex, multifaceted nature of both SLA and instruction, the difficulty of establishing valid and reliable profiles of each, and the interacting effects of social context and individual variables. In this brief survey, empiricial research on the effects of L2 instruction is outlined in relation to a few basic issues. For more detailed reviews of the literature, the reader is referred to Long (1983; 1988), Pica (1983a), Ellis (1984a; 1985), and Chaudron (1988).
The Development of Instructional Models in Second Language Education
Authors: Allen J. P. B.
Published: October 2009

In an influential paper published in the late seventies, H. H. Stern distinguished between learning a language through a process of conscious study and practice (i.e., formally), or through use in the environment (i.e., functionally). According to Stern (1981), this aspect of language behavior can be characterized as a psycholinguistic/pedagogic continuum, or ‘P-scale.’ There is nothing inherently good or bad about activities at either end of the scale, and in organized language teaching one often finds an interplay between formal and functional approaches.
Writing in a Second Language
Authors: Hudelson Sarah
Published: October 2009

In an cited essay, Hairston (1982) asserts that a revolution is taking place in the teaching of compostition, a revolution she characterizes as involving a basic shift in paradigms with regard to the act of composition. Hairston describes the prevailing view of writing, a view that had its orgins in traditional theories of rhetoric, as one that considers writing a linear process in which writers know what they want to say before they begin to write. The major task of the attends to editing concerns in order to perfect the manuscript. Thus the focus of composition instruction in this paradigm is the product that the writer produces.
SLA and Classroom Instruction: Reading
Authors: Carrell Patricia L.
Published: October 2009

Theories and models of seond language acquisition have tended to focus on the role of oral language. While some acknowledgement is given to the role of reading (andwriting) in SLA (e.g., by Krashen 1984; 1985), the relative inattention given to reading in SLA had resulted in a dearth to reading research which is explicitly tied to the most popular theories and models of SLA or which is expressly designed to deal with issues commonly addressed in SLA. Although there is no simple explanation as to why SLAresearch has focused almost exclusively on oral language, to the neglect of written language, it is interesting to speculate about why the “canonical” theories of SLA do not to any significant extent deal with reading and writing, especially when there seems to be broad consensus that language has to be considered from a textual point of view, and when written as well as oral language may be a substantial source of language input. One possibility is that SLA, while in some sense part of the backlash against the structuralism of the audiolingual approach, has nonetheless simply maintained the focus on oral-aural language of audiolingualism (which itself originated as a reaction against earlier grammartranslation models relying heavily on reading and writing).
Syllabus Design: An Overview of Theoretical Issues and Practical Implications
Authors: Yalden Janice
Published: October 2009

It is not a simple matter to determine the contours of syllabus design for second/foreign languages in the late 1980s. Definitions are disparate, the field diffuse. For example, in the abstracrs in Language Teaching over the last five years, the area which was traditionally thought of as syllabus design (cf., Shaw 1982:78) is treated under Theory and Principles, Curriculum Planning, Syllabus/Course Design, Materials Design, and even Teaching Methods. This is not surprising, for there is no longer a standard definition of syllabus Accordingly, I shall begin this survey of the state of syllabus design in the late 1980s with the question of definition, then look at the growing literature on syllabus types, their implementation and evaluation, and conclude with some notes on applications of theory.
Becoming a competent communicator: Communicative Competence and the Young School Learner
Authors: Czerniewska Pam
Published: October 2009

Language continues to play a central role in discussion about education and is still offered as a key to understanding educational success and failure. Its importance can be seen in the current publisher's catalogues, each with its offereings on language and education, in the many language courses and conferences attended by teachers, and in the recent government initiatives focusing attention on the requirments of language (specifically, English) teaching.
Communicative Language Teaching and Related Approaches
Authors: Parkinson Brian , Maher John
Published: October 2009

In this section we shall look at ‘movements’ or ‘approaches,’ other than the communicative approach, which have influenced language teaching at the same time as the communicative approach has been dominant. Some definitions of the communicative approach include some of the concerns discussed here, while others exclude them, but an understanding of these alternative response to perceived deficiencies in earlier language teaching practices should clarify the context of the communicative movement.
Bilingualism, Language Contact, and Immigrant Languages
Authors: Macías Reynaldo F.
Published: October 2009

This essay covers the literature on bilingualism over the last decade with emphasis on those publications issued between 1985 and 1989. Since this essay must be very selective, it concentrates on English language publications. There has been quite a growth in the descriptive literature of different multilingual areas of the world. This literature has been published in many of the major languages. The selection of publications in English somewhat distorts the distrigution of the literature by region and language, especially the growth of multilingualism-related publications in countries like the Soviet Union and East Germany. Access to some of these works, however, can best be obtained throughLinguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts.
Language Pathology
Authors: Fletcher Paul
Published: October 2009

Language pathology is a broad term, used to refer to the symptoms of speech and language speech and language disorders, the aetiologies of these disorders, and the methods and results of the disciplines which study them. The major disciplines involved are medicine, psychology, and linguistics (including speech science). It is neither possible nore desirable, in an inter-disciplinary field, to ignore the contribution of other sciences. Here, however, the concentration will be, so far as is feasible, on the distincitve role of linguistics in the investigation of language disorders. The term language disorder is used as a general label for any persistent non-normal linguistic behaivor in children or adults.
Literacy
Authors: Srivastava R. N.
Published: October 2009

Before discussing the nature and function of literacy, it is necessary to say something about the diverse perspectives with people view literacy practices across different cultures. This is a more vital and more complicated matter than may initially appear. Theories developed about literacy within different academic disciplines and development campaigns have been built around premises that are essentially contradictory and which conflict with each other. For example, UNESCO's campaign to wipe out world illiteracy (in place since 1965) is based on the assumption that economic progress follows upon a change in an individual from illiterate to literate. Furthermore, UNESCO projected a view that directly correlated illiteracy with poverty, disease, and backwardness (UNESCO 1982). As it considered literacy to be a critical factor in the development of man and society, it claimed literacy as a “fundamental human right” (Coulmas 1984, Bamgbose 1984).
Changing Directions in Language Curriculum Design
Authors: Olshtain Elite
Published: October 2009

Language syllabus or curriculum design is a constantly changing and continuously expanding sub-field of applied linguistics, as pointed out by Yalden (1987). In its historical development it has drawn, on the one hand, upon general syllabus design, and on the other hand upon relevant fields in applid linguistics such as: language teaching methodology, second language acquisition research, and language planning and policy making. The interaction with these fields of specialization has enriched the process of curriculum design and made it senstive and responsive to needs on the one hand and to research and evaluation on the other.
Assessment and Evaluation
Authors: Bachman Lyle F.
Published: October 2009

Research and development in the assessment of language abilities in the past decade have been concerned both with achieving a better understanding of the nature of language abilities and other factors that affect performance on language tests and with developing methods of assessment that are consistent with the way applied linguists view language use. The way language testers conceptualize language abilities has been strongly influenced by the broadened view of language proficiency as communicative competence that has emerged in applied linguistics. And while this view of language proficiency provides a much richer conceptual basis for characterizing the language abilities to be measured, it has presented language testers with a major challenge in defining these abilities and the interactions among them with sufficient precision to permit their measurement. Language testing researchers have also been influenced by developments in second language acquisition, investigating the effects on test performance of other factors such as background knowledge, cognitive style, native language, ethnicity, and sex. Finally, language testing research and practice have been influenced by advances in psychometrics, in that more sophisticated analytic tools are being used both to unravel the tangled web of language abilities and to assure thhat the measures of these abilities are reliable, valid, efficient, and appropriate for the uses for which they are intended.
Summary
Authors: Richard Tucker G.
Published: October 2009

During the past decade, since the inception of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, work in the field has been exciting, socially relevant, and expanding. This trend will likely continue throughout the 1990s and into the 21st Century. A variety of factors—attitudinal, demographic, economic, and sociological to mention but a few—will converge and lend urgency to the need for language educators to broaden their work. From a vantage point at the Center for Applied Linguistics, I have been repeatedly amazed during the past several years at the increasing attention focused on language issues—notice, for example, the concern with the workplace literacy crisis, the under-representation of language minority individuals in science and mathematics education and in technical fields; the continuing monolinguality of the American population, and with the credibility of young children as witnesses in sexual abuse trials. A discussion of the importance of language and literacy issues may be found today in such formerly unlikely sources as the newest book by the renowned management consultant Peter Drucker (1989). Indeed, during the past 18 months five major reports have appeared—Science for All Americans (American Association for the Advancement of Science 1989), Everybody Counts (National Research Council 1989), Workforce 2000 (Johnston 1987), Jump Start (Chisman 1989), and Turning Points (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development 1989)—each of which presents and discusses in vivid detail the looming/educational/workplace crisis.
Language and Literacy: what writing does to Language and Mind
Authors: Olson David R.
Published: October 2009

With the ascendance of new information technologies, the significance of writing has, it seems, slipped from view, in spite of the fact that the conceptual and cognitive implications of the newer technologies is a matter of enthusiastic speculation rather that serious research. On the other hand, it is now reasonably well established that the invention of the first “information” technology, namely writing, has had a profound effect on the ways in which we think about language, the mind, and the world, effects which have taken millenia to unfold. “Effects” is perhaps too strong a term as it is less a matter of how technology affects people than a matter of the ways in which people in different cultures have used and applied the technology and the ways they have altered the technology to suit their purposes. In the West, some of these uses have involved institutional change; thus, to make use of a technology such as writing requires the development of monasteries, schools, and other institutions. Indeed, some of the cognitive effects we usually attribute to schooling are better thought of as consequences or implications of literacy.
Literacy Online
Authors: Tuman Myron C.
Published: October 2009

As the opening quotation suggests, a shift in the practice of literacy such as is suggested by the term, literacy online, has epochal significance: The death of one world (that of print) and its replacement by something else (the online world) signals not just a change in communication or technology but a change in civilization itself. Just what is this new world of literacy online that seems to await us, and how should we approach it—with open arms or poised for battle? Behind such questions lies a host of definitional difficulties. Surely the temptation is here for a kind of simplicity: “Online literacy” means reading and writing with a computer. But reading and writing what and how? In theory, we can read a dense, complex novel like Henry James' Golden Bowl—a work created in and designed for the privacy, solitude, and deep interiority of print culture—sitting in front of a computer terminal. Of central importance, however, is not the theoretical possibility of being able to read anything from a computer screen but whether or not readers and writers fully acclimated to the computer screen as the primary source of literacy would ever think to read, much less produce, such a work in the first place.
Machine Translation and other Translation Technologies
Authors: Melby Alan
Published: October 2009

Computers have become much more widely used in translation since the early 1980s but in unexpected ways. From the beginnings of machine translation research in the 1950s until recently, it was expected that computers would be in direct competition with human translators for the same work. Instead, it has turned out that most translation done by computers fills latent needs that do not reduce the amount of work available to professional translators. Computers have also turned out to be useful as productivity tools for human translators who still perform the central translation task. Today, the relationship between computers and human translators is often seen as synergistic rather than competitive.
Linguistic Corpora And Lexicography
Authors: Meijs Willem
Published: October 2009

Over the past ten to fifteen years, the discipline of lexicography has changed almost beyond recognition. This change is due to the technological revolution which has computerized the lexicographers' working environment to a very high degree and which has permitted a veritable quantum leap in the amount and variety of resources that can be brought to bear on the lexicographical process. The most important of these resources are computerized corpora of real, mostly written, but now increasingly also spoken, running text. When the first entirely corpus-based dictionary—COBUILD1—came out in 1987, it was on the basis of a corpus of around 20 million words of connected text. Now all major British dictionary publishers use corpora of at least one hundred million words of text. Harrap/Chambers, Longman, and Oxford University Press have built the 100 million word British National Corpus (BNC), HarperCollins has the 200 million-plus word Cobuild Bank of English (BoE), and Cambridge University Press has compiled the 100 million word Cambridge Language Survey corpus (CLS).
Call–English as a Second Language
Authors: Chapelle Carol A.
Published: October 2009

CALL for English as a second language1is an interdisciplinary area of inquiry which has been influenced primarily by educational technology (Reiser, 1987) but also by fields such as computational linguistics2and recently by applied linguistics as well. These related fields contribute diverse epistemologies which shape CALL research questions and methods. The diversity in CALL research can also be explained in party be the current variety of approaches to CALL development and use. Through the 1970s and early 1980s, pedagogical objectives in CALL were focused primarily, although not exclusively, on improving specified areas of learner's grammatical knowledge through approaches borrowed from educational technology (Hart 1981, Hope, Taylor and Pusack 1984, Wyatt 1984). Today, in contrast, CALL is used for a variety of pedagogical objectives through many different types of software such as microworlds (Coleman 1985, Papert 1980), grammar checkers (Hull, Ball, Fox, Levin and McCutchen 1987), pronunciation feedback systems (Anderson-Hseih 1994, Pennington 1991), intelligent tutoring systems (Chanier, Pengelly, Twidale and Self 1992), concordancer programs (Johns 1986, Tribble and Jones 1990), word processing (Pennington 1993), and software for computer-mediated communication (Kaye 1992). These diverse approaches to CALL are predicated on different beliefs about teaching and learning (Higgins 1995, Kenning and Kenning 1990, Sanders and Kenner 1983, Stevens 1992). Rather than reviewing these “CALL philosophies,” this article will focus on the evolution of research traditions dedicated to the empirical study of CALL use for ESL. Accordingly, the termCALL researchis employed to refer to empirical research on the use of CALL.
Technologies for Language Assessment
Authors: Burstein Jill , Frase Lawrence T. , Ginther April , Grant Leslie
Published: October 2009

Technology continues to move forward with smaller and faster hardware, more efficient software, multimedia capabilities, and universal reach through advanced telecommunications. Evidence for the successful use of technology in education is overwhelming (Kulik 1994, Snow and Mandinach 1991) given that there are reasoned use of that technology—uses that reflect an understanding of what is to be taught and tested. With the above in mind, this paper reviews current and developing technology uses that are relevant to language assessment and discusses examples of recent liguistic applications from our own laboratory at Educational Testing Service. Below, we describe the processes of language test development and the functions that they serve from the perspective of a large testing organization. We encourage readers to think of technology broadly, to include not only hardware, software, and telecommunications, but other technologies as well, such as job analysis, Item Response Theory (IRT) scaling, standards-setting, and group assessments. Only in this way can the broad activities of language testing, and the relevance of new technologies, be assessed.
Language in the Classroom
Authors: Cazden Courtney B.
Published: October 2009

This review discusses only research on the discourse structure of classroom activities—lessons and other activities in which the teacher is a participant— with special attention to assumptions underlying alternative models (in the non-technical sense of that word). Two other reviews (Cazden 1986a; in press) also discuss the register of teachers and students (considered as the paradigmatic complement to syntagmatic structure); discourse among student peers (in contrast to talk with the teacher who has greater ascribed power as well as knowledge), and relationships between discourse and learning.
Language and Science
Authors: van Naerssen Margaret , Kaplan Robert B.
Published: October 2009

Teaching English [or any language] as a medium for science and technologymust involve us in the teaching of how scientists and technologistsuse the system of language to communicate, and not just what linguistic elements are most commonly used (1979:12–23).

In this comment, he implies the definition of the problem underlying any discussion of “language and science.” Such a discussion must deal with the language(s) used to communicate science, with the varieties scientists use to communicate with each other, and with the ways in which those varieties (as differentiated from the “general variety” of the language) may be taught to someone else. These different issues assume quite different underlying questions. This brief review will try to address some of the complex questions involved.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Kress Gunther
Published: October 2009

The label Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is used by a significant number of scholars with a diverse set of concerns in a number of disciplines. It is well-exemplified by the editorial statement of the journal Discourse and Society, which defines its envisaged domain of enquiry as follows: “the reproduction of sexism and racism through discourse; the legitimation of power; the manufacture of consent; the role of politics, education and the media; the discursive reproduction of dominance relation between groups; the imbalances in international communication and information.” While some practitioners of Critical Discourse Analysis might want to amend this list here or there, the set of concerns sketched here well describes the field of CDA. The only comment I would make, a comment crucial for many practitioners of CDA, is to insist that these phenomena are to be found in the most unremarkable and everyday of texts—and not only in texts which declare their special status in some way. This scope, and the overtly political agenda, serves to set CDA off on the one hand from other kinds of discourse analysis, and from textlinguistics (as well as from pragmatics and sociolinguistics) on the other.
Discourse analysis in professional contexts
Authors: Swales John M.
Published: October 2009

This bibliographic essay will only consider work published after 1986 in the belief that Volume VII of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (ARAL VII, Language in Professional Contexts, 1987) adequately covers earlier material. Professions will be understood in a non-elitist sense which includes service and other occupations )(c.f., Coleman 1989) as well as the more prototypical categories of medicine, law, etc. This essay will also cover those areas of academic discourse that can be reasonably viewed as professional; for example, the publishing of research papers (Myers 1990), the giving of research presentations (Dubois 1987), or the providing of instruction (Briggs, et al. 1990).
Discourse Analysis In Language Testing
Authors: Shohamy Elana
Published: October 2009

Language testing is concerned with the measurement of language. Language is the trait, and how we go about measuring it is the method. Trait involves the what, and method the how of testing. This paper will focus on the interaction between the what and the how, where the perspective of the what is the domain of discourse analysis. The paper will also review studies and tests that illustrate the degree to which the domain of discourse analysis has contributed to the theory, research, and development of language testing.
Concluding Essay: On Applied Linguistics and Discourse Analysis
Authors: Kaplan Robert B.
Published: October 2009

One of the stated objectives of this series, the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (ARAL), from its earliest apperance, has been to strive toward a gradual approximation of a functional definition for applied linguistics. Despite the fact that applied linguistics has existed as a field for more than thirty years, despite the fact that there are a few publications available which attempt to define the field (Kaplan 1980, Grabe and Kaplana in press, Bright, et al. in press), and despite the fact that there are in the world a number of universities offering graduate study in applied linguistics and rewarding such study with credentials and degrees carrying the specific desgination applied linguistics, the field remains constrained by the absence of a clear definition of its parameters and by the absence of a clear theoretical framework.
Socio-Cultural Approaches to Literacy (Literacies)
Authors: Gee James
Published: October 2009

There has emerged, over the last decade or so, a fairly cohesive body of work centered around a socio-cultural approach to literacy (e.g., Cazden 1988, Cook-Gumperz 1986, Gee 1990, Graff 1987, Heath 1983, Pattison 1982, Scollon and Scollon 1981, Street 1984). This work argues that the traditional view of literacy as a private mental possession which can be quantified and measured in terms of discrete decontextualized skills is deeply inadequate. To see why this is so, consider the following simple argument centered around the notion of ‘reading” (Gee 1989).
Educational Contexts of Literacy
Authors: Bloome David , Green Judith L.
Published: October 2009

Recent research on educational contexts of literacy has focused primarily on a set of central issues and debates: definitions of literacy; basic cognitive, social, and linguistic processes involved in reading and writing; the efficiency and value of various pedagogical approaches and instructional materials; assessment of reading and writing achievement; and access to literacy learning opportunities for students outside the dominant culture and language. These debates and issues have been discussed in previous reviews of research on literacy in theAnnual Review of Applied Linguistics(Grabe 1990, Kaplan, et al. 1984, Srivastava 1990), in recent handbooks of research (e.g., Barr, et al. 1991, Flood, et al. 1991, Pearson, et al. 1984), in major educational research journals (e.g., Applebee 1984, Clifford 1984, Dole, et al. 1991, Erickson 1984), in reviews commissioned by professional education and research organizations (e.g., Adams 1990, Anderson, et al. 1985, Goodman, et al. 1988, Hillocks 1986), and in other articles in this volume.
Literacy in Europe
Authors: Verhoeven Ludo T.
Published: October 2009

During the past decade literacy has gradually become a major concern throughout Europe. Though there is a great diversity in both the distribution and degree of (il)literacy in different countries, there has been an increasing general awareness of the numbers of illiterates and the consequences of being illiterate for personal life. Apart from local literacy campaigns, in 1984 the European Community initiated a broader program to combat illiteracy in member countries. The emphasis of the integrated policy was on prevention, stressing optimal access to literacy education, including opportunities for preschool education. Gradually, attention was also paid to the reduction of illiteracy among adults. Initiatives began to focus on the functional dimensions of, and the personal needs for, literacy. It was also acknowledged that literacy programs should recognize the different realities of diverse groups of learners.
Literacy in Australia
Authors: Christie Frances
Published: October 2009

This discussion will focus upon English literacy research which draws upon systemic functional linguistic theory. Over the last ten to fifteen years, a significant number of applied linguists and language educators have emerged in Australia who use systemic functional linguistic theory to address a wide range of research questions. Their effort has been stimulated by the scholarly leadership of Halliday (e.g., 1985a), who took up the Chair of Linguistics at Sydney University in the late 1970s, as well as that of colleagues and former students of his, including Hasan (e.g., Halliday and Hasan 1985) and Martin (e.g., 1985a). The group of scholars who have emerged have contributed to the development of a rich tradition of research and teaching in English literacy in both first and second language contexts. Such a tradition offers the prospect of an educational linguistics of value both to researchers and teachers. More than one tradition of linguistic research might well contribute to the development of an educational linguistics. However, it is the particular claims and contributions of systemic functional linguistic theory that are argued for here.
Literacy in Southern Africa
Authors: Bhola H. S.
Published: October 2009

A discourse on literacy in Southern Africa to be meaningful should answer the following questions: What is the status of languages and literacy in the countries of Southern Africa? What policies of literacy promotion are being pursued, and with what policy justifications and results? What is the nature of the emerging symbioses among spoken languages, and among literacies in the mother tongues, national or official languages, and the metropolitan languages?
Summary Comments
Authors: Kaplan Robert B.
Published: October 2009

Two ideas emerge very clearly from a reading of the 15 articles that constitute this volume of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics: The first idea emerges from virtually all of the articles herein included—the notion of what constitutes literacy has changed rather dramatically over the past decade. The second idea derives largely from the set of articles which examine literacy practices in various parts of the world—while there is a clearer understanding of what constitutes literacy, the implementation of literacy dissemination programs, even in the most advanced countries (let alone in the third world) is beset with possibly insolvable problems.