bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rupture dynamics and ground motions from earthquakes in 2‐D heterogeneous media
Authors: Bydlon Samuel A. , Dunham Eric M.
Published: February 2015

We perform 2‐D simulations of earthquakes on rough faults in media with random heterogeneities (with von Karman distribution) to study the effects of geometric and material heterogeneity on the rupture process and resulting high‐frequency ground motions in the near‐fault region (out to ∼20 km). Variations in slip and rupture velocity can arise from material heterogeneity alone but are dominantly controlled by fault roughness. Scattering effects become appreciable beyond ∼3 km from the fault. Near‐fault scattering extends the duration of incoherent, high‐frequency ground motions and, at least in our 2‐D simulations, elevates root‐mean‐square accelerations (i.e., Arias intensity) with negligible reduction in peak velocities. We also demonstrate that near‐fault scattering typically occurs in the power law tail of the power spectral density function, quantified by the Hurst exponent and another parameter combining standard deviation and correlation length.
Identification of frequent La Niña events during the early 1800s in the east equatorial Pacific
Authors: Druffel Ellen R.M. , Griffin Sheila , Vetter Desiree , Dunbar Robert B. , Mucciarone David M.
Published: February 2015

We report measurements of near monthly Δ14C and δ18O during selected decades from an east equatorial Pacific coral that grew during the past four centuries. We find that El Niño events occurred regularly during the late 1700s. During the early 1800s, El Niño events occurred less often, and La Niña conditions prevailed, which were accompanied by unprecedented, low cool season Δ14C values and high cool season δ18O values. These results indicate that shallow overturning water (e.g., Central Mode Water) from the North Pacific was likely an important source of water to the Galapagos area during the early 1800s.
Application of τc*Pd in earthquake early warning
Authors: Huang Po‐Lun , Lin Ting‐Li , Wu Yih‐Min
Published: February 2015

Rapid assessment of damage potential and size of an earthquake at the station is highly demanded for onsite earthquake early warning. We study the application of τc*Pd for its estimation on the earthquake size using 123 events recorded by the borehole stations of KiK‐net in Japan. The new type of earthquake size determined by τc*Pd is more related to the damage potential. We find that τc*Pd provides another parameter to measure the size of earthquake and the threshold to warn strong ground motion.
A comprehensive analysis of the occurrence and characteristics of midperiod ULF waves at low latitude
Authors: Villante Umberto , Tiberi Pietro
Published: February 2015

A long‐term analysis (1985–2012) allowed to investigate the occurrence and characteristics of clearly defined ULF events (f ≈ 10–100 mHz) detected during daytime at low‐latitude (L'Aquila, Italy; L ≈ 1.6) during quiet and moderately perturbed magnetospheric conditions. Selected events (≈30,000 on each component) typically have much greater amplitude on the H component with respect to D. They often reveal two prominent spectral peaks, one in band A (f < ≈ 45 mHz), mostly related to the transmission of upstream waves, and the other one in band B (f > ≈ 55 mHz), including resonances of local field lines and higher‐frequency upstream waves. The occurrence of resonant phenomena on the D component is also clearly evidenced. The solar wind speed is confirmed as the key element for the manifestation of events; by contrast, their appearance is inhibited during extremely low solar wind densities. The events mostly manifest between dawn and early afternoon, with highest occurrence at ≈08:00–10:00 LT, as might be expected for the usual distribution of the interplanetary magnetic field orientation determining more or less favorable conditions for a foreshock region on the morning flank of the bow shock. No evidence is found for a favorite occurrence for low cone angles (θXB < ≈ 10°); rather, they preferentially manifest for θXB ≈ 25°–40°. The polarization pattern, much more definite in the afternoon, is consistent with the expected antisunward propagation; in the morning sector, it also suggests the possible occurrence of sunward propagating modes, mostly at f < ≈ 22 mHz. The tilt angle of the major axis of the polarization ellipses during daytime hours is oriented in the NW/SE quadrant and experiences remarkable changes at sunrise and sunset; it also shows a seasonal modulation with larger angles in the winter.
The equatorial electrojet during geomagnetic storms and substorms
Authors: Yamazaki Yosuke , Kosch Michael J.
Published: February 2015

The climatology of the equatorial electrojet during periods of enhanced geomagnetic activity is examined using long‐term records of ground‐based magnetometers in the Indian and Peruvian regions. Equatorial electrojet perturbations due to geomagnetic storms and substorms are evaluated using the disturbance storm time (Dst) index and auroral electrojet (AE) index, respectively. The response of the equatorial electrojet to rapid changes in the AE index indicates effects of both prompt penetration electric field and disturbance dynamo electric field, consistent with previous studies based on F region equatorial vertical plasma drift measurements at Jicamarca. The average response of the equatorial electrojet to geomagnetic storms (Dst<−50 nT) reveals persistent disturbances during the recovery phase, which can last for approximately 24 h after the Dst index reaches its minimum value. This “after‐storm” effect is found to depend on the magnitude of the storm, solar EUV activity, season, and longitude.
Strain accumulation across the Prince William Sound asperity, Southcentral Alaska
Authors: Savage J. C. , Svarc J. L. , Lisowski M.
Published: February 2015

The surface velocities predicted by the conventional subduction model are compared to velocities measured in a GPS array (surveyed in 1993, 1995, 1997, 2000, and 2004) spanning the Prince William Sound asperity. The observed velocities in the comparison have been corrected to remove the contributions from postseismic (1964 Alaska earthquake) mantle relaxation. Except at the most seaward monument (located on Middleton Island at the seaward edge of the continental shelf, just 50 km landward of the deformation front in the Aleutian Trench), the corrected velocities qualitatively agree with those predicted by an improved, two‐dimensional, back slip, subduction model in which the locked megathrust coincides with the plate interface identified by seismic refraction surveys, and the back slip rate is equal to the plate convergence rate. A better fit to the corrected velocities is furnished by either a back slip rate 20% greater than the plate convergence rate or a 30% shallower megathrust. The shallow megathrust in the latter fit may be an artifact of the uniform half‐space Earth model used in the inversion. Backslip at the plate convergence rate on the megathrust mapped by refraction surveys would fit the data as well if the rigidity of the underthrust plate was twice that of the overlying plate, a rigidity contrast higher than expected. The anomalous motion at Middleton Island is attributed to continuous slip at near the plate convergence rate on a postulated, listric fault that splays off the megathrust at depth of about 12 km and outcrops on the continental slope south‐southeast of Middleton Island.
ASCAT observations of downdrafts from mesoscale convective systems
Authors: Kilpatrick Thomas J. , Xie Shang‐Ping
Published: February 2015

Downdrafts of air cooled by evaporating raindrops are an essential component of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs). Here we use surface wind observations from the Advanced SCATterometer (ASCAT) to identify MCS downdrafts over the western equatorial Pacific Ocean as regions of horizontal wind divergence exceeding 10−4 s−1. More than 1300 downdrafts are identified over the observation period (2009–2014). The downdraft signal in the surface winds is validated with satellite measurements of brightness temperature and rainfall rate, and surface buoy measurements of air temperature; composite analysis with these measurements indicates that ASCAT detects downdrafts that lag the peak convection by 8–12h. While ASCAT resolves mesoscale downdrafts in regions of light rain, a composite against buoy air temperature indicates that ASCAT fails to resolve the stronger convective‐scale downdrafts associated with heavy rainfall at squall fronts. Nevertheless, the global observations by the satellite scatterometer open a new avenue for studying MCSs.
Virus Structure
Authors: Cann Alan J
Published: February 2015

Viruses are infectious obligate intracellular parasites consisting of anRNAorDNAgenome in a protective coat. Virus particles cannot increase in size but are assembled from pre‐formed components in susceptible host cells. The assembly of virus particles is achieved by the information contained within the components of the particle, a process driven by the rules of symmetry and by the most thermodynamically stable configuration. Once formed, virus particles vary in stability, some being very fragile while others are extremely stable, enabling some viruses to maintain the infectivity of their genome for extended periods of time outside a host cell, a feature required by viruses which are transmitted environmentally rather than directly from host to host. The outer surface of the virus particle must be able to interact with a suitable host cell to enable the process of infection to occur.

Key Concepts

Virus particles (virions) are assembled from pre‐formed components and do not grow or divide.

The virus coat protects the virus genome from degradation and helps maintain infectivity.

The assembly of virus particles is driven by the components making up the particle and is driven by symmetry and thermodynamics. In some cases, temporary “scaffolding proteins” are used to help direct the assembly of the particle into the mature form.

Virus particles must interact with the host cell to establish the process of infection.

Virus particles vary in stability, some being very fragile while others are very tough and able to persist in the environment for extended periods of time.
Glycolipids: Distribution and Biological Function
Authors: Brandenburg Klaus , Holst Otto
Published: February 2015

Glycolipids are amphiphilic components of cell membranes, composed of a hydrophilic polar sugar headgroup (backbone) and a hydrophobic apolar lipid moiety anchoring the molecule in the membrane. The sugar part may vary from small saccharide units to very large polysaccharide chains. According to their detailed chemical structure, in particular of the sugar part, these compounds may fulfil a variety of biological functions important for many processes in life. To these functions belong processes of recognition, adhesion and cell signalling as well as influence on membrane parameters such as fluidity and domain formation (lipid rafts). Furthermore, particular mammalian glycolipids may serve as transmitter and storage element of information, and others from bacterial origin belong to the strongest activators of the human immune system.

Key Concepts

Glycolipids are membrane‐bound compounds found in all living organisms.

In most Gram‐negative species, lipopolysaccharides form the outer leaflet of the outer membrane.

Complete lipopolysaccharides comprise the lipid A, core region and the O‐specific polysaccharide (O‐antigen).

Several Gram‐negative bacterial genera do not contain any LPS.

Major mycobacterial classes of glycolipids are glycopeptidolipids, trehalose‐containing lipooligosaccharides and phenolic glycolipids.

Plant glycolipids comprise esters of glucose and sucrose, steryl glycosides, glycosphingolipids and glycosyl diacylglycerols.
Drosophila
Oogenesis
Authors: de Cuevas Margaret
Published: February 2015

Oogenesis is the process by which germ cells develop into eggs. Insect ovaries are classified into different types based on the morphology of the mature ovary, but in most insects they follow a common general pattern of development. In the fruitfly
Drosophila
, oogenesis begins with the formation of a 16‐cell cyst of interconnected germ cells, one of which will become an oocyte and mature into an egg. Cysts are produced by germline stem cells that remain active throughout the lifetime of the fly. The entire process of oogenesis, from germline stem cell to mature egg, takes about a week and depends on complex interactions between the different germ cells in a cyst and between the germ cells and the many different types of somatic cells that surround them. Given here is an overview of the morphology and development of the
Drosophila
ovary and cyst.

Key Concepts

Insect ovaries are classified on the basis of the morphology of the mature ovary.

Pole cells, the precursors of germ cells, are formed early in embryogenesis.

Germ cell formation depends on pole plasm, a specialised cytoplasm containing proteins that regulate the translation of specific mRNAs.

Drosophila
oocytes develop in egg chambers, which are cysts of 16 interconnected germ cells enveloped by somatic follicle cells.

Oocyte differentiation depends on the fusome, a germ‐cell‐specific organelle.

Most of the oocyte's cytoplasm is made in the nurse cells and transported into the oocyte, which allows the oocyte's nucleus to remain quiescent.
Placodermi (Armoured Fishes)
Authors: Goujet Daniel F
Published: February 2015

Placoderms are a group of fossil true jawed fishes restricted to the Middle Palaeozoic period (Silurian and Devonian). Their head and body are covered with an assemblage of bony plates in a box‐like manner up to the anal region. They were the dominant forms in the seas of the time, with more than 300 species present in all continents. Nine groups have been presently distinguished within the whole ensemble, considered according to different specialists either as a monophyletic or a paraphyletic group. They retain in their anatomy some features that are present in their most closely related agnathan precursors. They show specific adaptations to various modes of life, including the first active vertebrate predators and numerous bottom‐feeders. Most recent discoveries have shown that some of them had an internal fertilisation and viviparous reproduction has been demonstrated with the discovery of embryos within the body of presumed female individuals.

Key Concepts

Placoderms were the dominant group in the Devonian waters. They are the earliest true jawed vertebrates that show a number of anatomical features, illustrating the primitive condition in forthcoming other vertebrates. They also retain some features present in fossil agnaths. They are the first fish to adapt to different modes of life and to various reproductive strategies.
Straminipile “Fungi” – Taxonomy
Authors: Beakes Gordon W , Thines Marco , Honda Daiske
Published: February 2015

The phylogeny and taxonomy of the mastigonate ‘fungal‐like’ organisms (stramenopiles) are described. The marine Labyrinthulomycota occur in the same stramenopile clade as the bioecids and opalinids, whilst the hyphochytrids and biflagellate oomycetes occur in a sister clade, together with the ochrophyte algae. The uniflagellate hyphochytrids are a small group whose closest relative appears to be the phagotrophic flagellate
Pirsonia
. The largest and best documented of the straminipile fungi are the oomycetes. There are a number of early diverging oomycete clades (Classes incertae sedis) consisting of mostly holocarpic marine species that are parasites of algae and invertebrates. The more advanced, largely freshwater and terrestrial fungal‐like oomycetes, fall into two main classes, the Saprolegniomycetes and Peronosporomycetes. The former largely encompasses the saprotrophic water moulds, whilst the latter contains the majority of the economically important plant pathogens, including the white blister rusts (Albuginales),
Pythium, Phytophthora
and the downy mildews (Peronosporales).

Key Concepts

Molecular phylogenetics reveals most bioflagellate fungal‐like organisms traditionally studied by mycologists and occur in the stramenopile (heterokont) clade within the SAR (formerly chromalveolate) superkingdom.

These fungal‐like organisms have probably evolved from a photosynthetic flagellate ancestor and there have been several independent plastid loss events.

The traditional taxonomy of all of these organisms has had to be substantially re‐evaluated in the light of recent molecular studies.
Intracellular p
H
Measurement
Authors: Malhotra Darpan , Casey Joseph R
Published: February 2015

p
H
is a profound regulator of cellular function. It is, therefore, often important to assess intracellular p
H
. Given the small size of individual cells and their sensitivity to perturbation, measurement of intracellular p
H
requires sensitive, indirect measurement approaches. These include equilibration of weak acids/bases, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, p
H
microelectrodes, fluorescent p
H
indicator dyes and p
H
‐sensitive fluorescent proteins. Presently, the use of fluorescence techniques predominates, as these permit sensitive detection and the possibility to discretely measure p
H
in different cellular compartments. The selection of intracellular p
H
measurement technique is guided by consideration of their strengths and weaknesses, in addition to technical considerations. Cells resist changes of p
H
through p
H
buffering molecules, including proteins and bicarbonate, which together are called the cell's buffer capacity.

Key Concepts

Cellular processes are highly sensitive to pH, so cells have redundant mechanisms to control their pH.

Buffer capacity is the ability of cells to control pH by absorbing or releasing H
+
from chemical pH buffering molecules.

Cell membranes contain embedded transport proteins able to move H
+
, or pH‐buffering HCO
3
−
in order to tightly control cytosolic and organellar pH.

pH of the cytosol and other intracellular compartments can be measured.

Certain molecules will absorb light and release a photon of light at a longer wavelength, a process known as fluorescence.

Fluorescent dyes and proteins are the most common means to report on intracellular pH.
Bütschli,O
Authors: Fokin Sergei I
Published: February 2015

Otto Bütschli (1848–1920) – professor of zoology and palaeontology at Heidelberg University, made fundamental contributions to cytology and the investigation of unicellular organisms, first of all ciliates. Bütschli was the first to recognise and to demonstrate that conjugation of ciliates was not a reproductive process but a sexual reorganisation of the cell similar to cross‐fertilisation. His protozoan studies culminated in a three‐volume monograph (Bütschli, 1880–1882, 1883–1887, 1887–1889), which also contained many of his own original works. This 2000‐page critical review of contemporary knowledge actually established protozoology as an autonomous discipline. Moreover, in 1875, Bütschli was the first to identify and determine the sequence of the stages of nuclear division (mitosis) in several types of animal cells. He provided excellent descriptions of dividing cells.
Weller, Thomas Huckle
Authors: Mawdsley Stephen E
Published: February 2015

Dr. Thomas H. Weller, MD, was an American virologist and paediatrician who was jointly awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Dr. John F. Enders and Dr. Frederick C. Robbins for discovering a method to culture poliovirus in various tissues. The method transformed the field of virology and led to the discovery of many vaccines.
History of Classical Anatomy
Authors: Cosans Christopher E
Published: February 2015

Anatomy was developed in ancient Greece by physicians and natural philosophers who used dissection and vivisection to investigate the nature of the body. The earliest medical texts are written by Hippocratic authors that make reference to the location of parts within the body but do not describe them on a level of detail that indicates dissection. Writing in the fourth century
bce
, Plato advanced a detailed account of how the bodies' various parts might be interconnected and organised in his
Timaeus
. After him, Aristotle began the first systematic dissections and offered an extensive study of how the parts of animals are interconnected within the body and vary between different life forms. In Alexandria Egypt, Herophilus and Erasistratus applied anatomical methods to medicine with the dissection of human bodies. Anatomical practice continued to be refined throughout antiquity until it reached its pinnacle with Galen's monkey dissections and vivisection experiments (
c
. 129–
c
. 216
ce
).

Key Concepts

Analogismos
is a mode of reasoning used by rationalists in which conclusions about theoretical entities were made from observable appearances.

Anatome
is a transliteration of Greek term
anatome
that means a cutting up and refers to both dissection and vivisection.

Epilogismos
is a type of reasoning advocated by empiricists in response to the rationalists in which the physician reasons from one experience to another without considering theoretical entities.

Nous
is a term used by Plato to refer to a principle of intelligence that he saw as underlying the order within the body, as well as within the universe as a whole.

Pneuma
is a subtle substance believed to be taken into the lungs with breathing and passed on into the arteries. Often translated into English as breath or spirit. Galen believed that the vital pneuma delivered to the brain by the arteries was concocted into psychic pneuma important for the function of the nervous system.

Sinews are strands within the body that were associated with locomotion by early physicians and natural philosophers. In the third century
bc,
distinctions were made among sinews between nerves, tendons and ligaments.

Soul is an aspect of the living being that distinguishes it from inanimate objects and dead bodies. In ancient biology, the soul was regarded as a natural entity that could be studied.

Vessels are long tubes within the body that were distinguished as arteries and veins during the early third century
bc
.
The History of Anaesthetics
Authors: Wilkinson David J
Published: February 2015

The history of the development of anaesthesia can be traced back for many centuries and is closely linked with the development of surgery. Most current descriptions of this history tend to focus on the affluent Western World from the mid‐nineteenth century onwards. Although rich in stories about many aspects of anaesthesia development, this provides a very narrow viewpoint and ignores the contributions made by early civilisations that are difficult to quantify due to inadequate translations of original documents and persistent repetition of inaccurate myths. The history of anaesthesia varies from country to country and should always be considered in relation to who has written the document. It is a process that is still continuing and there is much still to be learnt and recorded from the past and present.

Key Concepts

Anaesthesia history varies according to the culture from which it is written.

Anaesthesia history varies from country to country as historians tend to emphasise their own cultural contributions to the exclusion of others.

Much in anaesthesia history can be traced back for centuries as an understanding of human physiology slowly evolved.

It is likely that there are many written documents, particularly in Arabic and Indian languages, that could augment current understanding of anaesthesia history significantly.

Many anaesthesia historians continue to repeat previously published stories without any attempt to verify their accuracy.

The development of modern anaesthesia has allowed the anaesthetist increasing control over a patient's physiology that has in turn permitted surgery to expand and develop.

The history of anaesthesia in the less affluent world may well be limited to a few decades and bear no relationship to that seen in the affluent world.
Informed Consent: Ethical and Legal Issues
Authors: Holm Søren
Published: February 2015

Informed consent from research participants is a necessary legal and ethical requirement for research involving human subjects. Valid informed consent relies on giving full information and on the capacity of research participants to consent.

The article describes the historical development of the concept of informed consent in biomedical research and explores its current embedding in international legal documents. It discusses the specific problems of informed consent in fast‐moving research areas and possible solutions in ‘broad’ or ‘dynamic’ consent. The specific issues raised in relation to consent from minors and other incompetent persons are discussed, as are the secondary research use of routine clinical data and the research use of old tissue samples and other historical materials and data obtained without consent.

Key Concepts

Informed consent is a central concept in modern research ethics and law.

Valid consent can only be obtained if the prospective research participant is fully informed, is competent to consent and not subject to coercion or undue pressure. In fast‐moving research fields where future research use is difficult to predict, ‘broad’ or ‘dynamic’ consent may be used in certain circumstances.

For persons who are incompetent to consent, researchers must often rely on proxy consent (e.g. parents consenting for small children).

A proxy must make a decision to consent based solely on considerations of the best interest of the incompetent person.
Intelligence, Heredity and Genes: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Goodey CF
Published: February 2015

The idea of an intelligence specific to humans has not always existed but grew from pre‐modern ideas of cultural and religious status, becoming fully established at the end of the seventeenth century as part of the application of logic to natural history categories. John Locke, seeing empirical learning as the route towards human reason, also helped establish modern notions of intellectual disability and deficiency. The late nineteenth century began to see these as hereditary traits, capable of moulding by eugenics. Its attachment of ‘intelligence’ to an existing statistical abstraction (the Gaussian curve) enabled this metaphysical concept to be correlated with the physical phenomenon of genetic material, as both were now apparently measurable. The ‘nature/nurture’ and ‘normal/abnormal’ frameworks dominating today's cognitive genetics are not trans‐historical but outcomes of this eugenic mind‐set.

Key Concepts

The idea that there is a peculiarly human intelligence defining and circumscribing the species dates only from the early modern period.

Intelligence denotes primarily a status group, which has evolved from earlier categories of status that were social and religious in character.

Definitions of intelligence, including current ones, are historically contingent.

Definitions of intelligence in the last resort have no common denominator.

Theories of heredity and genetic explanations of cause are the product of social anxieties around status.

Theories aligning intelligence with heredity can only be understood in relation to theories of intellectual disability that are equally historically contingent.
Macrophage Foam Cells
Authors: Valledor Annabel F , Lloberas Jorge , Celada Antonio
Published: February 2015

Foam cells are lipid‐loaded macrophages that are generated from the massive uptake of modified low‐density lipoproteins and the intracytoplasmatic accumulation of cholesteryl esters. Foam cells are present in all stages of atherosclerosis and participate in inflammatory responses and tissue remodelling within the arterial intima. Foam cells can also be generated as a consequence of infection by persistent pathogens, such as
Mycobacterium
,
Chlamydia
and
Toxoplasma
. These pathogens meet nutritional advantages by residing within cells that accumulate lipids. When the immune system is unable to eliminate substances perceived as foreign, it produces a granuloma, composed mostly of macrophages, attempting to wall off the non‐self material. This article reviews the processes that lead to the regulation of foam cell formation in atherosclerosis and infection.

Key Concepts

Foam cells are lipid‐loaded macrophages.

Foam cells are generated upon massive uptake of modified low‐density lipoproteins and the intracellular accumulation of cholesteryl esters.

Foam cells form during development of atherosclerosis and as a result of different infections.

Foam cells participate in inflammatory responses and tissue remodelling.

Endothelial transmigration of monocytes is the first step in the development of atherosclerosis.

Once monocytes reach the arterial wall intima, they undergo phenotypic transformation into macrophages, internalise large amounts of modified LDLs and become foam cells.

Heterodimers of liver X receptors (LXR) and retinoid X receptors (RXR) directly upregulate the expression of several genes involved in lipid and lipoprotein homeostasis.

When the immune system is unable to eliminate substances perceived as foreign, it produces a granuloma, composed mostly of macrophages, that attempts to wall off the non‐self material.
Membrane Insertion of Tail‐anchored Proteins
Authors: Borgese Nica
Published: February 2015

Tail‐anchored proteins are a special class of transmembrane proteins, consisting of a cytosolic domain anchored to the phospholipid bilayer by a single hydrophobic segment adjacent to their most C‐terminus. Because of their particular topology, the C‐terminal anchor must be inserted into membranes post‐translationally by mechanisms that differ from the well‐known targeting/translocation co‐translational pathway. Recently, several advances have created a new understanding of the tail‐anchored protein insertion machinery. Because of the essential cellular roles carried out by tail‐anchored proteins, including vesicle fusion, regulation of apoptosis and formation of interorganellar contact sites, uncovering the machinery responsible for their biogenesis should further our ability to understand a wide variety of diseases such as forms of cancer caused by activation of the tail‐anchored protein oncogene BCL2.

Key Concepts

Tail‐anchored proteins have C‐terminal hydrophobic domains.

Tail‐anchored proteins are inserted post‐translationally into the membrane.

The GET complex inserts tail‐anchored proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane in yeast.

The TRC complex chaperones tail‐anchored proteins into endoplasmic reticulum membranes in mammals.

The mitochondrial outer membrane appears to be the preferred destination of tail‐anchored proteins that fail to engage the GET/TRC complex.

Functions of the GET/TRC pathway additional to tail‐anchored protein targeting are presently under intense investigation.
Bioscience Policies
Authors: Dickenson Donna L
Published: February 2015

The rapid pace of change in the biosciences makes setting biotechnology policies and regulating the life sciences difficult for governments, but no less necessary. Although government policies around the globe are sometimes classed as ‘pro‐science’ or ‘anti‐science’, that is a misleading oversimplification. Nurturing the ‘bioeconomy’ is a key goal for most national governments, leading in the United Kingdom to a comparatively loose regulatory policy, for example, in relation to mitochondrial transfer and germline genetic modification. But in genetic patenting, a recentUScourt decision has reversed the trend towards privatisation of the human genome, which many scientists perceived as impeding their research. Opposition to permissive regulatory policies thus often comes not only from civic or religious groups but also from within bioscience itself. In the area of vaccination against infectious disease, governments face an additional challenge from pandemics at the same time that financial austerity has prompted cutbacks in public health funding.

Key Concepts

It is an oversimplification to divide government policies into ‘pro‐science’ or ‘anti‐science’ categories.

Governments are under pressure to promote the ‘bioeconomy’ but must not ignore ethical dilemmas or permit new developments uncritically.

Scientists and the general public have formed surprising alliances in favour of greater transparency in intellectual property and against permissive patent laws that may actually impede rather than benefit science.

In addition to government, civic bodies and individual researchers, we need to examine the role of the private biosciences sector in lobbying for particular policies.

Religious groups are not the only source of opposition to some new scientific developments, and the so‐called ‘war’ between science and religion diverts our attention from other more important issues such as the commodification of bioscience.

Government bioscience policy on vaccination needs to address social issues of public safety and equality, not just individual autonomy to choose or reject immunisation.
On Human Brain Networks in Health and Disease
Authors: Braun Urs , Muldoon Sarah F , Bassett Danielle S
Published: February 2015

The brain is a complex system whose function relies on a diverse set of connections or interactions between brain regions. Using the mathematical framework of complex networks, these interaction patterns can be parsimoniously represented as brain graphs: each brain area is represented as a network node and each connection is represented as a network edge. These methods have been used to demonstrate that human brain networks display properties such as a small‐world architecture that may directly facilitate cognitive processes. Moreover, mounting evidence suggests that these properties are altered in disease states, potentially providing important biomarkers for psychiatric and neurological disorders and informing our understanding of the mechanisms of altered cognitive function. Here, the basic concepts in network science are reviewed, and the properties of healthy and diseased brain networks discussed. Relationships between network diagnostics and alterations in behavioural or cognitive variables associated with Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia and epilepsy are highlighted.

Key Concepts

The brain is a complex system that can be represented by a graph.

In a graph, nodes represent brain regions and edges represent the links or connections between those areas, forming a complex network.

Brain networks display properties such as a small‐world architecture or a hierarchical modular organisation that may directly facilitate cognitive processes.

These properties are altered in disease states, potentially providing important biomarkers for psychiatric and neurological disorders.
Cilia on the Brain: Primary Cilia and Their Roles in Brain Function
Authors: Guadiana Sarah M , Grove Elizabeth A
Published: February 2015

The primary cilium was first discovered over 100 years ago but only relatively recently has it been widely regarded as an integral cellular organelle for brain development, maturation and function. Defects in primary cilia contribute to a set of human disorders, ciliopathies, which are multi‐systemic in pathology and often include abnormalCNSarchitecture and intellectual deficits. The intricate structure of the cilium and the molecules that localise to the axoneme all contribute to elegantly orchestrated signalling pathways that influence the whole cell. From their role in neural tube development, neuronal migration and differentiation, to their putative role in adult cognition, primary cilia are critical for diverse aspects of brain function. Yet our current understanding is still very limited: much remains to be discovered about primary cilia biology and ciliary function in the mammalian brain.

Key Concepts

Primary cilia are unusual cell organelles that look similar to antennae protruding from the cell.

Almost all brain cell types have primary cilia, which transduce signals from the milieu.

Ciliopathies in humans result from primary cilia defects and often include cognitive impairments and cortical malformations.

Primary cilia contribute to brain development and function.
Children's Requests for Clarification in Investigative Interviews About Suspected Sexual Abuse
Authors: Malloy Lindsay C. , Katz Carmit , Lamb Michael E. , Mugno Allison P.
Published: February 2015

In investigative interviews, it is vital that children request clarification when necessary so that crucial legal decisions can take into account the most accurate and detailed information. In the present study, 91 investigative interview transcripts about suspected child sexual abuse were coded to answer these research questions: (i) How often and how do children request clarification in investigative interviews? (ii) What factors (age, alleged abuse frequency, interviewer prompt type) are associated with children's requests? and (iii) How do interviewers respond to clarification requests, and are these interventions associated with relevant responses from children? Children rarely requested clarification, although, as expected, older children made more requests. Most requests were explicit (e.g., What do you mean?) and in response to invitation prompts. Question ‘rephrasing’ was the most common interviewer intervention regardless of child age. Results have implications for interviewing children in various contexts and for advancing our understanding of children's cognitive and communicative development. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Effect of Pre‐Deformation and Subsequent Aging on the Damping Capacity of Mn‐20 at.%Cu‐5 at.%Ni‐2 at.%Fe alloy
Authors: Jiazhen Yan , Ning﻿ Li , Xu Fu , Wenbo Liu , Ying Liu , Xiuchen Zhao
Published: February 2015

In the paper, the effect of pre‐deformation and subsequent aging treatment on the damping capacity and microstructure of Mn‐20 at.%Cu‐5 at.%Ni‐2 at.%Fe (M2052) alloy is investigated. The logarithmic decrement (δ) of the specimens with various pre‐deformation degrees is determined to discuss the change of damping capacity before and after aging process. Meanwhile, the martensite and twinning structures with different deformation degree are comparatively studied. The results suggest that the δ of the alloy decreases rapidly and the martensite plates are rearranged and become thinner with increase in deformation degree. Reasons accounting for the decrease are discussed and attributed to the internal stress field introduced during the deformation process which hinders the motion of the twin and phase boundaries. In addition, aging at 435 °C for 20 min leads to a recovery of the damping capacity of the pre‐deformed M2052 alloy. However, the recovery is highly dependent on the pre‐deformation degree. The damping capacity of the specimens with a deformation less than 5% can be completely recovered after aging, while the others with a deformation exceeds 5% can be just partly recovered.
Electrical Characteristics of Field‐Effect Transistors based on Chemically Synthesized Graphene Nanoribbons
Authors: Zschieschang Ute , Klauk Hagen , Müeller Imke B. , Strudwick Andrew J. , Hintermann Tobias , Schwab Matthias G. , Narita Akimitsu , Feng Xinliang , Müellen Klaus , Weitz R. Thomas
Published: February 2015

The electronic properties of chemically synthesized graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) are investigated in a field‐effect transistor (FET) configuration. The FETs are fabricated by dispersing GNRs into an aqueous dispersion, depo­siting the GNRs onto an insulating substrate, and patterning of metal contacts by electron‐beam lithography. At room temperature, the GNR FET shows a large drain current of 70 μA, very good charge injection from the contacts, saturation of the drain current at larger drain‐source voltages, and an on/off current ratio of 2. The small on/off current ratio can be explained by either the unfavorable transistor geometry or by the unintentional agglomeration of two or more GNRs in the channel. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that, by quantum‐chemical calculations, the bandgap of a GNR dimer can be as small as 30% of the bandgap of a GNR monomer.
Multistream heat exchangers: Equation‐oriented modeling and flowsheet optimization
Authors: Pattison Richard C. , Baldea Michael
Published: February 2015

Multistream heat exchangers (MHEXs), typically of the plate‐fin or spiral‐wound type, are a key enabler of heat integration in cryogenic processes. Equation‐oriented modeling of MHEXs for flowsheet optimization purposes is challenging, especially when streams undergo phase transformations. Boolean variables are typically used to capture the effect of phase changes, adding considerable difficulty to solving the flowsheet optimization problem. A novel optimization‐oriented MHEX modeling approach that uses a pseudo‐transient approach to rapidly compute stream temperatures without requiring Boolean variables is presented. The model also computes an approximate required heat exchange area to determine the optimal tradeoff between operating and capital expenses. Subsequently, this model is seamlessly integrated in a previously‐introduced pseudo‐transient process modeling and flowsheet optimization framework. Our developments are illustrated with two optimal design case studies, an MHEX representative of air separation operation and a natural gas liquefaction process. © 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 61: 1856–1866, 2015
Total Syntheses and Biological Evaluation of Miuraenamides
Authors: Karmann Lisa , Schultz Katharina , Herrmann Jennifer , Müller Rolf , Kazmaier Uli
Published: February 2015

The miuraenamides, relatively simple representatives of a class of cyclodepsipeptides with high antitumor activity, can be easily and flexibly obtained by the concept of peptide modification. A reaction sequence consisting of an aldol reaction, oxidation, and methylation of the glycine subunit of the cyclodepsipeptides allows the incorporation of the unusual α,β‐unsaturated dehydroamino acid in one of the last steps of the synthesis.
A Separation‐Integrated Cascade Reaction to Overcome Thermodynamic Limitations in Rare‐Sugar Synthesis
Authors: Wagner Nina , Bosshart Andreas , Failmezger Jurek , Bechtold Matthias , Panke Sven
Published: February 2015

Enzyme cascades combining epimerization and isomerization steps offer an attractive route for the generic production of rare sugars starting from accessible bulk sugars but suffer from the unfavorable position of the thermodynamic equilibrium, thus reducing the yield and requiring complex work‐up procedures to separate pure product from the reaction mixture. Presented herein is the integration of a multienzyme cascade reaction with continuous chromatography, realized as simulated moving bed chromatography, to overcome the intrinsic yield limitation. Efficient production of D‐psicose from sucrose in a three‐step cascade reaction using invertase, D‐xylose isomerase, and D‐tagatose epimerase, via the intermediates D‐glucose and D‐fructose, is described. This set‐up allowed the production of pure psicose (99.9 %) with very high yields (89 %) and high enzyme efficiency (300 g of D‐psicose per g of enzyme).
Rhodium(II) Metallopeptide Catalyst Design Enables Fine Control in Selective Functionalization of Natural SH3 Domains
Authors: Vohidov Farrukh , Coughlin Jane M. , Ball Zachary T.
Published: February 2015

Chemically modified proteins are increasingly important for use in fundamental biophysical studies, chemical biology, therapeutic protein development, and biomaterials. However, chemical methods typically produce heterogeneous labeling and cannot approach the exquisite selectivity of enzymatic reactions. While bioengineered methods are sometimes an option, selective reactions of natural proteins remain an unsolved problem. Here we show that rhodium(II) metallopeptides combine molecular recognition with promiscuous catalytic activity to allow covalent decoration of natural SH3 domains, depending on choice of catalyst but independent of the specific residue present. A metallopeptide catalyst succeeds in modifying a single SH3‐containing kinase at endogenous concentrations in prostate cancer (PC‐3) cell lysate.
Dipolar Rotors Orderly Aligned in Mesoporous Fluorinated Organosilica Architectures
Authors: Bracco Silvia , Beretta Mario , Cattaneo Alice , Comotti Angiolina , Falqui Andrea , Zhao Ke , Rogers Charles , Sozzani Piero
Published: February 2015

New mesoporous covalent frameworks, based on hybrid fluorinated organosilicas, were prepared to realize a periodic architecture of fast molecular rotors containing dynamic dipoles in their structure. The mobile elements, designed on the basis of fluorinated p‐divinylbenzene moieties, were integrated into the robust covalent structure through siloxane bonds, and showed not only the rapid dynamics of the aromatic rings (ca. 108 Hz at 325 K), as detected by solid‐state NMR spectroscopy, but also a dielectric response typical of a fast dipole reorientation under the stimuli of an applied electric field. Furthermore, the mesochannels are open and accessible to diffusing in gas molecules, and rotor mobility could be individually regulated by I2 vapors. The iodine enters the channels of the periodic structure and reacts with the pivotal double bonds of the divinyl‐fluoro‐phenylene rotors, affecting their motion and the dielectric properties.
High‐mechanical‐strength ferrohydrogels with a magnetically dispersed phase as multifunctional crosslinkers
Authors: Zhu Yanzhao , Wu Zhongkui , Lu Hanmin , Yue Zhi
Published: February 2015

In this article, we report a facile strategy for preparing high‐mechanical‐strength ferrohydrogels containing magnetic nanoparticles homodispersed by a thermodynamically stable Pickering emulsion (PE). After the monomers were mixed with the PE, including methacryloxy propyl trimethoxyl silane emulsified by ferric oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles as the dispersed phase, hydrogels were synthesized by free‐radical polymerization. In contrast to conventional hydrogels crosslinked by a molecular crosslinker, in our new approach, the magnetic PE particles served as individual, multifunctional crosslinkers. Characterizations of the swelling behavior, the mechanical properties, and other properties indicated that our ferrohydrogels exhibited outstanding physical performances that were superior to those of traditional hydrogels and magnetic responsiveness. These ferrohydrogels may have applications in soft and controllable actuators. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015, 132, 41950.
A poly(γ‐glutamic acid)‐based hydrogel loaded with superoxide dismutase for wound healing
Authors: Zhuang Huahong , Hong Yanhang , Gao Jingchen , Chen Siyuan , Ma Yina , Wang Shufang
Published: February 2015

The purpose of this study was to develop a poly(γ‐glutamic acid) (γ‐PGA)‐based hydrogel loaded with superoxide dismutase (SOD) to accelerate wound healing. First, γ‐PGA was modified with taurine (γ‐PGAS), and then the SOD‐loaded γ‐PGAS/γ‐PGA hydrogel (SOD‐PGAS/PGA‐H) was prepared by cross‐linking of ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether. The swelling behavior and water vapor transmission rate revealed that PGAS/PGA‐H could create a moist environment for wound surface.In vitrokinetics of SOD release showed that SOD released from PGAS/PGA‐H maintained high activity and SOD‐PGAS/PGA‐H effectively scavenged the superoxide anion. The results of our fibroblast proliferation experiments showed that PGAS/PGA‐H had good cytocompatibility. The effects of SOD‐PGAS/PGA‐H on wound healing were examined in a Type I diabetic rat model with full‐thickness wounds. Twenty‐one days after grafted to wounds, SOD‐PGAS/PGA‐H exhibited a higher rate of wound healing than control group and showed increased collagen deposition and epithelialization. SOD‐PGAS/PGA‐H seems to promote better wound healing and thus might be a promising candidate for wound healing management. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.2015,132, 42033.