bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Authors: Siev Joseph J. , Williams Sydney , Petty Richard E.
Published: September 2022

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is a general persuasion theory that can help health communicators anticipate how their messages will affect recipients' attitudes and behavior. The ELM proposes that the degree to which people think carefully about (or elaborate on) a persuasive message determines its effectiveness. When people process information carefully, resulting attitudes reflect assessments of the central merits of the evidence presented in light of existing knowledge rather than simple cues. Furthermore, attitudes based on extensive thought are more impactful (e.g., predictive of behavior) than those based on little thought. One way to encourage elaboration is to match the message, source, or setting to the recipient in some way. Although this often enhances persuasion, the ELM states that persuasion variables like matching can have different effects depending on the recipient's degree of elaboration and the presumed meaning of the variable. Thus, communicators should consider these factors in designing health messages.
Resistance
Authors: Fransen Marieke L.
Published: September 2022

Resistance toward persuasion has received more and more attention in the past decades to explain the ineffectiveness of (threatening) health messages. In the literature, several motivations for resistance and strategies to resist health messages (i.e., defensive responses) have been identified and studied. Moreover, research on persuasive strategies like self‐affirmation, entertainment‐education, and empathy arousal have found positive results on decreasing or overcoming resistance. New lines of research on these topics should focus on the relationships between resistance motivations, resistance strategies, and resistance‐overcoming persuasion strategies.
Self‐Affirmation Theory
Authors: van Koningsbruggen Guido M.
Published: September 2022

Health communication campaigns and messages often contain information that makes people aware that they engage in unhealthy behaviors and therefore can be perceived as threatening by people. As a result, people often respond defensively to such information and do not change their unhealthy behaviors. Self‐affirmation theory suggests that people respond defensively because the health information poses a threat to people's self‐integrity, that is, their view of themselves as being a good and adequate person. Importantly, self‐affirmation theory further proposes that defensive responses to health information can be reduced by giving people an alternative opportunity to maintain self‐integrity before exposing them to the health information. This alternative opportunity is called self‐affirmation (i.e., an act that demonstrates one's adequacy). Empirical studies and meta‐analyses suggest that self‐affirmation can have small but positive effects on reducing defensive responses and can positively influence health message acceptance, intention formation, and health behavior. Important areas for future health communication research are to investigate the mechanisms through which self‐affirmation reduces defensive responses to health information, how self‐affirmation works in combination with typical communication variables (e.g., message and source factors, medium and audience characteristics), and how self‐affirmation can be used in real‐world health communication settings.
Adherence (Medication)
Authors: Cusanno Brianna R.
Published: September 2022

Medication (non)adherence refers to the extent to which patients ingest medications as prescribed by their clinician. Most (non)adherence research is based on the premise that raising adherence rates will improve health outcomes and reduce healthcare spending. Health communication researchers have added to our understanding of medication (non)adherence by (i) examining patient characteristics and behaviors that correlate with adherence rates; (ii) exploring connections between clinician–patient communication and adherence; and (iii) designing and evaluating interventions to raise adherence rates. However, dominant approaches to medication (non)adherence research have been critiqued for excluding patient perspectives and obscuring injustices within healthcare systems that make medication taking challenging, particularly for marginalized patients. Future communication research on medication‐taking behaviors may focus less on the extent to which patients do (not) adhere, and more on how meanings of medication taking are communicatively constructed in healthcare interactions.
Empathic Communication and Emotions
Authors: Iannarino Nicholas T.
Published: September 2022

The communication of empathy between patients and clinicians in healthcare interactions is an important, learnable skill. Empathy occurs when interactants understand one another's perspectives and emotions, and communicate that understanding to one another. Health communication researchers have highlighted empathy's benefits in patient–clinician interaction, the healthcare contexts in which empathy is and is not expressed, and the barriers clinicians and patients can face in communicating empathy with one another. Researchers have also developed training programs to help clinicians respond to patients' emotional expressions with empathy, which can elicit benefits for patients, clinicians, and the patient–clinician relationship.
Question Prompt Lists
Authors: Eggly Susan , Hamel Lauren M.
Published: September 2022

Question prompt lists (QPLs) are a communication tool provided to patients to prepare them for clinical interactions with clinicians in specific medical settings. They are designed to empower patients to gain the information they need to manage their own care by actively participating in patient–clinician interactions. They are generally provided in the hours or days prior to a clinic visit in a paper‐based or electronic format and consist of a structured list of questions patients can consider asking clinicians. QPLs are developed using qualitative and community‐engaged research and have been tested in a wide variety of oncology and other medical settings. Studies using self‐report and observational methods have consistently demonstrated that the use of QPLs increases patient active participation during medical consultations. Researchers have also investigated other outcomes, including clinician communication during consultations and patient psychological and medical outcomes following consultations. Questions remain about mechanisms through which QPLs may improve outcomes, whether and how they may benefit specific patient populations, and the extent to which prompting patients' companions may further improve outcomes. Given the demonstrated benefits of QPLs across many populations and medical settings, wider implementation using implementation science frameworks is warranted.
Patient Satisfaction
Authors: Venetis Maria K. , Brown Clinton L.
Published: September 2022

Patient satisfaction represents a measure of quality of patient healthcare. Patient satisfaction includes patients' evaluations of how expectations for their healthcare align with perceptions of their experiences. This variable can reflect interactions with single clinicians, medical teams, and/or healthcare organizations. Several variables can influence patient satisfaction. One of the most common and strongest predictors of patient satisfaction is clinician interpersonal communication. Specifically, clinician behaviors that reflect patient‐centered communication are evaluated with high satisfaction. These behaviors include communication that is perceived as kind, supportive, inclusive, and informative. Patients prefer being heard and achieving common ground with clinicians. Other common predictors of patient satisfaction are clinician medical knowledge and skill, logistics of scheduling appointments, waiting times, healthcare costs, and the healthcare environment. When ranking predictors of patient satisfaction, extant literature highlights how elements of hospitality rival considerations of medical knowledge and skill, treatment success, and patient safety. Patient and clinician demographics such as age, gender, and race also influence patient satisfaction.
Mixed Methods
Authors: Ginossar Tamar
Published: September 2022

Mixed methods research (MMR) is a methodology based on a systematic, rigorous collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data within a single study or research project. Rooted in pragmatism, it provides an important methodological option for health communication researchers who seek to study multidimensional and dynamic processes in applied settings. MMR facilitates integration of multiple ontological, epistemological, and axiological standpoints, and has been applied in different health communication research projects. Although a dearth of health communication articles report on MMR, there is a growing number of studies applying this methodology. Greater efforts should be dedicated to advance implementation of thoughtful MMR design and analysis in health communication. Such efforts should include dialogue between researchers and editors on modifying current publication guidelines to fit with the complexity of MMR. Enhancing the scope of published MMR has the potential to create synergy and advance the field of health communication.
Narrative Methods
Authors: Spradley Elizabeth L.
Published: September 2022

This entry introduces narrative methodology to study health communication. Health communication values narrative as a way of communicating about health and a way of studying health communication. As such, health communication has drawn on narrative methods within rhetorical and interpretive traditions demonstrating a wide range of narrative methodologies, including pentadic criticism, representative anecdote, narrative rationality, critical narrative analysis, structural analysis, thematic analysis, and multi‐genre analysis. This entry concludes with ways health communication scholarship can advance narrative methods and use narrative methods to advance health communication.
Health and Safety at Work
Authors: Barbour Joshua B.
Published: September 2022

The study of health and safety at work focuses on mitigating and managing the hazards of work and making workplaces more conducive to physical and mental health. Health communication scholarship in this domain can be clustered into research on (i) organized efforts such as workplace health promotion and employee assistance programs, (ii) the effectiveness of communication for influencing health and safety outcomes, and (iii) the implementation of communication processes to prevent errors and cultivate resilient, reliable, and safe organizing. Topics of health communication research focused on health and safety at work include persuasive and informative messaging, communication strategies, workplace health promotion, health and risk information seeking, hazardous occupations, and organizing for resilience and reliability.
Patient Safety and Quality
Authors: Carmack Heather J.
Published: September 2022

Patient safety and quality is concerned with organizational practices and policies that reduce patient harm. Patient safety and quality practices are designed to create an organizational culture of patient safety that emphasizes safety, equity, and a long‐term commitment to positive health outcomes. Patient safety is a popular topic in medicine and nursing, but has not been studied extensively in the communication discipline. Health communication research on patient safety and quality centers primarily on communication and medical errors, although there is limited health communication research on other elements of patient safety. Health communication research on medical errors examines the communication act of clinician disclosure and apology of medical errors, which is driven by interpersonal communication competence and organizational policies dictating disclosure and apology. A variety of strategies help to guide clinicians' patient safety communication, including handoff interactions with other clinicians. Communication training is needed for clinicians to become comfortable communicating about patient safety and to ultimately create organizational cultures of patient safety in healthcare organizations. Future health communication research is needed to explore all of the facets of patient safety and identify successful communication strategies to navigate structural issues that impact patient safety.
Social Network Health Interventions
Authors: Zimmerli Virginie , Pelletier Karen
Published: September 2022

This entry provides an overview of the different health interventions that rely on social networks by analyzing their structure, functionalities, and data. It first presents a brief history of the origins of social network analysis (SNA) and its applications to understand and manage human health. Different types of health interventions on social networks are also explored. The entry deals with the structure of social networks and their impact on disseminating health information, the effectiveness of prevention or awareness campaigns, and the interventions on health behaviors. Finally, considering that digital social networks have brought new possibilities to health interventions on social networks, particular attention is paid to the benefits and risks that emerge from health interventions taking place on these platforms.
Channels and Formats
Authors: Flood‐Grady Elizabeth
Published: September 2022

This entry provides a brief introduction to health communication channels and formats. Channel is the platform or context (e.g., in‐person/face‐to‐face, television, e‐mail) used to communicate and disseminate health information to a target audience. Format refers to how health information is presented. Interpersonal, mass media, and computer‐mediated or Internet channels represent three categories of channels for communicating health information. Categories include several channel types (e.g., mass includes television, radio). In addition, there are multiple formats (e.g., numbers, text; facts, narratives; static, interactive) for disseminating and presenting health information to target audiences. Implications for selecting channels and formats for communicating and disseminating health information and interventions to different target audiences are also discussed.
Chatbots and Health: General
Authors: Krahmer Emiel , Bosse Tibor , de Bruijn Gert‐Jan
Published: September 2022

People increasingly use digital technologies for health communication. One particularly promising technology is offered by so‐called “digital conversational agents,” sometimes also referred to as “embodied conversational agents” (when they have a virtual body or face), “virtual humans,” or “conversational interfaces.” When the communication is primarily based on language and takes place through the exchange of written (or spoken) messages via messaging applications, websites, or apps on a smartphone, the term “chatbot” is often used, and this is also the umbrella term we use in this entry. Chatbots rely on artificial intelligence (AI) methods and natural language processing (NLP) techniques to interpret speech and/or text input from a human user, and to produce adequate responses to that input. For health communication, chatbots hold several presumed advantages. However, despite their increasing popularity, the current generation has several key limitations. As a result, the promise of chatbots to act as human‐like conversation partners for health communication purposes has not yet materialized. Recent developments in AI and NLP suggest that this may be possible in the near future. In this entry we survey how a chatbot can be built and evaluated. We also highlight a number of broad challenges for chatbot deployment related to ethics, privacy, and other issues, which we frame in five broad recommendations for chatbot use in health communication.
Cyberbullying
Authors: Vandebosch Heidi , Pabian Sara
Published: September 2022

Cyberbullying is a form of online aggression that may have an important health impact, and thus needs to be addressed using evidence‐based interventions. Cyberbullying is most prevalent amongst young adolescents. They are in a developmental phase that is characterized by an increased importance of the peer group, high information and communication technology use for social purposes, and risk taking. These factors explain their higher odds of being involved in cyberbullying, either as a perpetrator, victim, or bystander. Because cyberbullying is often interwoven with traditional bullying in the school context, one way to tackle the problem is to integrate anti‐cyberbullying components into a whole‐school anti‐bullying approach. Such an approach not only considers the problem in different phases, but also involves different stakeholders (i.e., pupils, teachers, parents). Cyberbullying, however, can also be prevented, detected or reported, and addressed at the platforms (e.g., social networking sites) where the cyberbullying is actually taking place. These platforms can use reflective interfaces to make people think twice before they actually post a harassing message, support users with protecting their account, use reporting mechanisms to detect cyberbullying instances, and intervene. In addition, other technological solutions (e.g., helplines, serious games) might be used to address the problem. Tackling cyberbullying amongst young people is important as it impacts their mental and physical health, both in the short and the long term. Moreover, involvement in cyberbullying is also related to other externalizing problems (e.g., substance abuse and conduct problems) for perpetrators, and other internalizing problems (e.g., suicidal ideation and self‐harm) amongst victims.
Health Blogging
Authors: Rains Stephen A.
Published: September 2022

Blogs are a form of social media that has been used as a resource for digital coping by people facing illness. Blogs offer a platform for people to self‐disclose about their illness‐related experiences. After first defining the term blog and providing some context about the meaning of illness, the affordances of health blogs are considered. Motivations for health blogging are next reviewed and a summary of health blog content is then provided. The entry concludes with a discussion of the positive and negative outcomes of health blogging.
Social Media: General
Authors: Holtz Bree , Kanthawala Shaheen
Published: September 2022

The rise of social media has been meteoric over the past two decades, connecting people from across the world to share information regardless of geography and time. This entry provides a general breadth of understanding of how social media has been utilized in health communication. It begins with a brief examination of the differences between online health communities, which have traditionally been spaces for health discussions online, and health communities on social media platforms. Next, it briefly discusses each of the major social media platforms, including a short description, and presents examples of how these have been used in the health communication context. The entry then reviews the different theories that have been used in the social media/health communication space. It further considers “rules of thumb” when thinking about using social media for health communication promotion or campaign and trends. Finally, the entry concludes by examining health‐related misinformation and disinformation on social media platforms, and ends with a brief discussion regarding the future of social media and health communication.
Social Media: Twitter
Authors: Mao Yuping
Published: September 2022

This entry provides the background of Twitter's popularity and different functions. With Twitter's wide reach to a large number of users, government officials and medical professionals are aware of and have used Twitter in public health crisis management, doctor–patient interaction, and health campaigns. However, misinformation on Twitter poses a threat to public health communication. The current literature on Twitter focuses on content of tweets and specific health issues, and more future research on health communication processes and effectiveness could provide useful suggestions for practitioners to use Twitter as a public health communication platform.
Advertising: Alcohol
Authors: Hendriks Hanneke , van Hoof Joris J. , Noort Peter D. , van Remmerden Lukas , Voogt Carmen V. , van Reijmersdal Eva A.
Published: September 2022

Alcohol advertising is widespread and has increased over the past years. The exposure to and effects of alcohol marketing have been the focus of much research. Based on several systematic reviews and meta‐analyses, there is consensus that alcohol marketing has a causal effect on increased drinking behavior. Some issues, however, still deserve more scientific attention. First, although some studies suggest that certain risk groups may be especially vulnerable to alcohol marketing, the number of studies focusing on risk groups other than young people (e.g., adults with alcohol dependence or in recovery, pregnant women) is still limited. Therefore, we advise future researchers to provide further insight into the effects of alcohol marketing among these vulnerable groups. Second, although research has shown an association between social media alcohol marketing and drinking behavior as well as affective and cognitive responses, there are still several areas that need to be explored more in this context (e.g., the role of social media influencers). Furthermore, the effect of marketing for new products (e.g., nonalcoholic drinks or hard seltzers) on drinking behavior is still unknown. It is essential that these new forms of alcohol marketing are researched thoroughly.
Appeals: Social
Authors: Reifegerste Doreen
Published: September 2022

Social appeals are a form of messages that aim to promote public health by referring to the social consequences of health behavior. That means they refer to: (i) the appreciation of individuals' health by others; (ii) the influence of health behavior on affiliation to others; or (iii) the responsibility for others' health. This entry provides an overview of definitions, various forms, theories, and existing research studies. It ends with implications for researchers and health practitioners. Social appeals can be employed by various other persuasion strategies or be combined with them. They offer multiple opportunities to reach target groups who are hard to reach with other forms of appeals. Although systematic research about social appeals is scarce, one can conclude for researchers and health advertising practitioners that social appeals can be effective for target groups. However, an analysis of the underlying motives for the specific health behavior is needed. If social motives (such as social norms, affiliation needs, or caring motives) are a main determinant for a specific behavior and/or a certain target group, then the respective social appeals might be an effective persuasion strategy to promote public health.
Source Credibility
Authors: Spates Stephen A.
Published: September 2022

This entry provides an introduction to how source credibility is used within health communication. Source credibility refers to a measure of a person's characteristics that makes the information they send more or less believable. Components of source credibility, as a research measure, are discussed. Examples of source credibility's relationship to opinion changes and persuasion are identified along with key research studies and theory. Source credibility's establishment in the communication field is explained. Emerging research in online environments is explained and connections to health messages discussed.
Identification/Parasocial Interaction Theory
Authors: Hedrick Mckenzie Ashley , Kresovich Alex
Published: September 2022

This entry provides a brief introduction to health communication theory on parasocial interaction, parasocial relationships, and identification. Each of these phenomena constitutes a type of cognitive involvement with a media character or celebrity. Health communication practitioners can harness people's parasocial interactions, parasocial relationships, and identification with media characters and celebrities to achieve desirable health‐related outcomes, including decreased stigma for health issues, health‐related information seeking, and increased intentions to seek out specialized health services. However, each of these phenomena has been defined and operationalized inconsistently throughout health communication research, creating a need for improved conceptual clarity in future research.
Language and Social Interaction
Authors: Denvir Paul M.
Published: September 2022

Language and social interaction (LSI) is both a subject matter within the field of communication and a multidisciplinary confederation of scholarly communities. LSI research is primarily concerned with the ways in which people use language and other practical communicative resources to construct and navigate their social and cultural worlds. LSI scholars share an interest in both “everyday” and institutional interaction, and in the last 30 years the latter has included increased emphasis on health settings. This entry includes an overview of some shared theoretical and methodological premises in LSI research, as well as a closer look at several LSI subdisciplines (conversation analysis; ethnography of communication; discourse analysis) and their contributions in health communication.
Digital Media Use, Impact on Well‐Being
Authors: Nguyen Minh Hao , Büchi Moritz
Published: September 2022

Digital devices (e.g., smartphones, computers) and online services (e.g., news platforms, social media) have become an integral part of everyday life and thus their impact on people's well‐being has come under scrutiny. This entry reviews the conceptualization and measurement of digital media use and subjective well‐being, as well as the relationship between these concepts. Research focusing on specific uses and well‐being indicators has shown positive as well as negative relationships, whereas studies with generalized concepts and meta‐studies suggest that overall digital media use is not inherently beneficial or detrimental to subjective well‐being. Rather, digital media use interacts with myriad moderators and mediators that shape the benefits that people derive from it in terms of their subjective well‐being. In general, links between digital media use and subjective well‐being are found to be small, inconsistent, and likely affected by measurement and analytical decisions. Thus, in theorizing and examining relationships between digital media use and well‐being, the conceptualization and measurement of digital media use and well‐being variables, as well as analytical approaches, need to be carefully considered.
Mobile Health
Authors: Van Stee Stephanie K.
Published: September 2022

Mobile health (mHealth) involves the use of wireless technology with the goal of enhancing health behavior and/or health outcomes. With the growth of mHealth research, the variety of health topics and conditions addressed via mobile technologies has greatly increased. Although some mHealth interventions seem to lack theory, there are a wide variety of theories that have been applied to the mHealth interventions that use them. Similar to theories, there are various behavior change techniques and other strategies employed in mHealth, which may differ greatly from one mHealth intervention to the next. Overall, mHealth interventions seem to be effective, although their effectiveness can vary according to the targeted health goal, behavior change techniques and strategies, and other factors. Future research needs to further address the roles of behavioral change techniques, technological strategies/functions, and theoretical frameworks in mHealth effectiveness.
Personalized Medicine
Authors: Ratcliff Chelsea L.
Published: September 2022

“Personalized medicine” and the related concepts of “precision medicine” and “precision health” refer to the idea that healthcare approaches should not be one‐size‐fits‐all but instead tailored to a person's unique biological, behavioral, and environmental factors. A central focus of personalized medicine is genomic testing to generate more accurate disease risk profiles and to guide gene‐targeted therapies (i.e., pharmacogenomics). Personalized medicine also relies on individuals' digital health engagement and on healthcare informatics to generate personalized guidance. Health communication scholars have an important role to play in the success of personalized medicine. From research to clinical implementation, effective communication is key to enabling and implementing the discoveries that support a personalized approach to health. Important areas for communication research include research participant recruitment, digital health engagement and bioinformatics, conveying complex health information to patients and consumers, and the portrayal of personalized medicine in the media.
Cancer: Fears and Recurrence
Authors: Beach Wayne A.
Published: September 2022

Cancer is one of the most feared diseases worldwide. In the United States cancer is the second leading cause of death (after cardiovascular disease), and impacts three out of every four families. Cancer fears are critically important for health communication research, intervention, education, and behavioral change. For the general population as well as previously diagnosed cancer survivors fearing recurrence, excessive fears can threaten health by promoting adverse consequences such as anxiety, stress, delays of important clinical visitations, and avoidance of screenings. Manageable fears may also motivate routine check‐ups and healthy lifestyle choices. A close examination of research methods employed to investigate cancer fears, and successful interventions designed to alleviate fearful orientations, reveals a predominant focus on individuals' psychological and emotional burdens. These approaches could be enhanced by integrating close examinations of naturally occurring health communication events, and their impacts on social relationships, across a myriad of daily health scenarios. By focusing on natural histories of interactions in both casual (e.g., home) and clinical settings, more comprehensive and multi‐methodological approaches to cancer fears and care can be designed. A grounded understanding of how cancer fears get interactionally managed, and their social consequences, can facilitate the creation of innovative and effective strategies for designing, implementing, and evaluating health communication campaigns. Two video‐based exemplars are provided of longitudinal health communication research translated into media campaigns for the public good: family cancer journeys from diagnosis through death of a loved one, and throughout breast cancer diagnosis, treatment, surgery, breast reconstruction, and remission.
Eating Disorders: Media
Authors: Skubisz Christine , Blancher Emma
Published: September 2022

This entry provides an introduction to eating disorders and reviews research examining the relationship between media and disordered eating. Clinically diagnosed eating disorders as well as disordered eating behaviors and cognitions affect millions of people worldwide. Content analyses, self‐report surveys, correlational studies, and experimental studies suggest that media trends may indeed be linked to the idealization of thinness and, subsequently, to the development of body image disturbance and eating disorders. More research has examined mass media effects on disordered eating (magazine print photos and television specifically), compared to social media. The effect of media on disordered eating cognitions and behaviors is moderated by gender, age, race, prior body image disturbance, and social support.
Mental Illness: Stigma
Authors: Imai Tatsuya
Published: September 2022

This entry not only offers various conceptualizations of mental illness stigma mainly based on theoretical ideas developed by Corrigan and Kleinlein, but also delineates how mental illness stigma influences communication by those with and without mental illness. Public stigma refers to the reaction that the general public has to individuals with mental illness. Specifically, negative stereotypes about mentally ill individuals cause people to evaluate those with mental illness negatively and that negative evaluation leads to discrimination. Self‐stigma refers to the internalization of negative stereotypes within stigmatized individuals. Those with mental illness also have negative stereotypes about mentally ill people, so when they endorse the stereotypes, self‐discrimination occurs. The two types of mental illness stigma impact face‐to‐face and online communication by those with mental illness and people they come into contact with. Even though mental illness stigma discourages mentally ill individuals from disclosing their illness, when they do, positive consequences such as improved well‐being could follow. However, the effectiveness of the disclosure depends on to whom they disclose and how they disclose. Limitations and future directions of this area of research are considered.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Authors: Dai Minhao , Wright LaNita S. , Chen Tianen , Calabrese Christopher
Published: September 2022

This entry offers an introduction to different sexually transmitted infections (STIs). It discusses four viral STIs, including HIV, HPV, hepatitis B, and genital herpes, and their incidence rates and associated risk factors. It further examines the current social science research and the roles of health communication research on each viral STI. Lastly, it discusses four curable STIs with the highest infection rates worldwide: chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and trichomoniasis. As social science literature rarely examines these curable STIs individually, we discuss the social science research and the roles of health communication research in these curable STIs together.
Suicide: Nonsuicidal Self‐Injury
Authors: Markiewitz Antonia
Published: September 2022

This entry introduces the complex and theoretically diverse concept of nonsuicidal self‐injury (NSSI). NSSI is defined as a form of self‐harm that does not aim for fatal outcome and must therefore be delimited from suicidal behavior with fatal intentions. Nevertheless, NSSI is considered a strong predictor for actual suicidal behavior. As a public health concern which affects adolescents in particular, NSSI is subject to efforts that aim at prevention and provision of help resources. Importantly, the media plays an integral role in the context of self‐harming behavior as it can have both detrimental and beneficial effects: on a continuum of effects, the media can (i) serve as a negative reinforcer promoting harmful behavior or (ii) act as a positive contributor by supporting favorable coping strategies and prevention. Among other determinants, such as intraindividual predisposition or susceptibility, the respective outcome largely depends on how NSSI is portrayed in the media. Thus, attention should be drawn to the role of the media in regard to NSSI – in terms of both research efforts and practical handling of NSSI content. In this, the focus is now largely on social media in particular, and algorithms and machine learning seem to be promising approaches.
Digital Divide (Global)
Authors: Arendt Florian , Karsay Kathrin
Published: September 2022

Given that new digital technologies and the Internet have substantially influenced the media and communication landscape in recent years, research on digital health divides is of utmost importance to health communication scholarship. Individuals in today's media environments might benefit through facilitated access to health‐related information. However, concerns have been raised on how these new developments may reinforce existing social inequities in health. On a most basic level, mere access to health information can be different. For example, although about two‐thirds of the population worldwide use the Internet, fewer do in Africa and South Asia, a pattern that has been termed a “digital divide.” Thus, one aim is to reduce digital divides on the level of mere access, often termed “first‐level digital divide.” Digital connectivity should encompass all segments in a given society to ensure that all are able to reap benefits provided by new digital technologies and the Internet. However, provision of mere access is insufficient as there can be differences in terms of what kind of and how individuals use health‐related information (“second‐level digital divide”). In the present entry, we provide an overview of research on digital divides and highlight its importance for health communication. Based on the example from one specific topical area, the suicide prevention domain, we outline the substantial consequences of digital health divides. They may even include the ultimate health outcome, death, as the specific example from the suicide domain indicates.
Disability: Stigma
Authors: Lash Brittany N.
Published: September 2022

This entry introduces disability stigma as a barrier to health and healthcare for individuals with disabilities. It defines and explores stigma in the context of disability specifically. It also examines the impact that disability stigma can have on educational and employment opportunities, both of which are connected to health outcomes. Further, this entry highlights the ways in which disability stigma can influence healthcare interactions and act as a barrier to effective healthcare. Disability stigma contributes to the health disparities individuals with disabilities experience in a variety of ways as this population experiences poorer health outcomes when compared to the general population.
Culture, Race, Ethnicity: Definitions
Authors: Robinson Tomeka M. , Spieldenner Andrew
Published: September 2022

Culture, race, and ethnicity are integral to understanding health and health disparities. In health communication, these factors undergird how messages are produced and received, how people come to understand their health, and what policies are institutionalized and implemented that affect health. Research in health communication often does not engage these facets in meaningful ways, especially with college‐based population samples. Culture, race, and ethnicity are not neutral concepts: they have been constructed to have particular impacts. The contexts of patient, provider, community, researcher, and institutions all have bearing in health communication.
Vaccination: Controversy
Authors: Silva Vesta T. , Whidden Rachel Avon
Published: September 2022

Vaccination, as a technology, has been controversial since its invention by Jenner in 1796. Even as governments and other agencies have promoted or even mandated vaccinations for an increasing array of dangerous pathogens, anti‐vaccination groups and sentiments of vaccine hesitancy have continued to flourish. Vaccination controversies frequently revolve around key questions of social beliefs and values such as personal liberty, the public good, individual autonomy, and expert authority.
Vaccination:
HPV
Authors: Reno Jenna E.
Published: September 2022

While rates of cancers attributed to HPV are on the rise, HPV vaccines continue to be underutilized in many countries. Multiple barriers, including growing vaccine hesitancy, have hindered HPV vaccine promotion efforts. Health communicators stand at the forefront of cancer prevention efforts via increased HPV vaccination coverage. These efforts range from identifying media effects and the role of misinformation on vaccine hesitancy to designing interventions aimed at improving clinician–patient communication to organizing health campaigns that apply theory‐based messaging.
Environmental Health Communication
Authors: Mello Susan
Published: September 2022

Environmental health communication (EHC) focuses on promoting health and well‐being by examining the interrelationships between humans and their environment. To engage effectively in EHC research and practice, an understanding of the scope, significance, and science of environmental health as a multidisciplinary and highly complex subfield of public health is required. Health hazards are ubiquitous – they exist in the air we breathe, the water and food we consume, the everyday consumer products we use, and within our local communities and workplaces. Hundreds of chronic diseases, acute illnesses, and injuries that occur throughout the lifespan (e.g., neonatal conditions, cardiovascular disease, cancer) have been attributed to environmental factors that could reasonably be modified through cost‐effective interventions and better communication. Different types of evidence – derived from animal studies, exposure science, and epidemiology – are often triangulated in formal risk assessments of environmental hazards. The science of environmental health is dynamic, which complicates but also necessitates evidence‐based communication approaches. Opportunities for greater involvement in translation science and community‐based participatory research exist for communication scientists, and a wealth of theories and models commonly applied to health communication can and should be adopted for EHC research and practice. Scholarly attention specifically to communication about toxic chemicals, such as bisphenol A in plastic baby bottles, contaminants in our water supply, and chemicals in e‐cigarette vapors, continues to grow and inform how we communicate about these risks.
Bystander Communication
Authors: Danielson‐Byrnes Carly
Published: September 2022

In this entry, bystander theories and applications are overviewed with a particular focus on bullying and aggressive behavior. Bystanders' goals during situations are examined, which directly influence behavioral responses. Likewise, the technological affordances for online compared with face‐to‐face (FTF) bystander interventions are discussed, in addition to how mass communication can inform media campaigns promoting prosocial bystanders. The bystander intervention model (BIM) has been widely applied to explicate the role of bystanders during emergency situations requiring aid. The BIM identifies five steps bystanders must undergo for intervention: (i) notice the situation; (ii) interpret the situation as requiring help; (iii) accept responsibility to help; (iv) know how to help; and (v) implement behavioral interventions. Factors influencing each step of the model are highlighted to demonstrate the opportunities and challenges bystanders experience when making intervention decisions. The entry concludes by identifying the roles bystanders adopt that associate with resulting communicative behavior during harmful situations, in the hope of cultivating prosocial bystander responses that reduce the negative health effects associated with victimization.
Social Movement and Change
Authors: Kaur‐Gill Satveer
Published: September 2022

With a focus on health communication scholarship, this entry provides an overview of social movement and change. First, the entry reviews social movements, collective identity and agency, and the role of social media in contemporary social movements. Next, the role of health communication in studying health social movements is examined. Health social movements require greater attention from health communication scholarship as these movements reshape the dominant assumptions of health and its accompanying frameworks. Health activism foregrounds the socioecological and structural aspects of poor health, holding accountable external actors such as corporations, states, and broader policies. Health social movements fundamentally challenge hegemonic health assumptions and the concomitant discourse. Therefore, health communication scholarship must pay greater attention to the role health social movements play in challenging the premise of health inequalities and inequity in society.
Academic Organizations: Academy of Communication in Healthcare
Authors: Chang Judy C. , Koenig Christopher J. , Davis Denise , Novack Dennis H. , Clark William D. , Singler Laura
Published: September 2022

Academy of Communication in Healthcare (ACH) is a nonprofit organization whose stated mission is to serve as “the professional home for all those who are committed to improving communication and relationships in healthcare.” ACH works collaboratively with its sister organization EACH: International Association for Communication in Healthcare to create space, programs, services, and resources to facilitate and promote work that intends to improve patient–clinician communication, relationship‐centered skills training, and health communication in general.
Clinical Trials Recruitment
Authors: McFarlane Soroya Julian
Published: September 2022

While significant progress has been made in the development of treatments and cures for various diseases, much work is yet to be done to enhance the participation of the general, and even more so, underserved populations, in clinical trial research. While recruiting, one must: first, communicate about the clinical trial opportunity, and second, seek to receive informed consent or informed refusal from potential study participants. In the first place, there are ethical questions about framing the clinical trial opportunity. Then, ensuring the “informed” part of the informed consent document is critically dependent on the quality of patient–clinician communication. The aim of this entry is to highlight the ethical challenges and opportunities for health communication scholarship in guiding the clinical trial recruitment process in areas such as: framing messages, aiding understanding for informed consent, and addressing mistrust, to improve outcomes for clinicians and communities.
Informed Consent
Authors: Brann Maria
Published: September 2022

This entry provides an overview of informed consent in healthcare interactions. By addressing what constitutes informed consent, taking a brief look at the historical significance of informed consent, and highlighting research that focuses on the informed consent process in health communication, readers gain a better understanding of this necessary communicative act for patient‐centered healthcare. The Western value of patient autonomy is noted as necessary for informed decision making, and the problems when respect for persons is overlooked by not engaging in informed consent are discussed. The act, and end result, of informed consent is a recognized right for patients during healthcare interactions.
Organ Donation
Authors: Reynolds‐Tylus Tobias
Published: September 2022

This entry provides an overview of organ donation and relevant communication research on the topic. First, a background on organ donation and transplantation is provided. Following this, three areas of communication research on organ donation are reviewed: (i) barriers/facilitators of organ donor registration; (ii) entertainment media portrayals of organ donation; and (iii) communication campaigns promoting organ donor registration. The entry concludes with a discussion of future directions for health communication research.
Advance Care Planning
Authors: Freytag Jennifer
Published: September 2022

This entry discusses advance care planning, a communication process that includes a number of communication activities that prepare for times when an individual is not able to make their own healthcare decisions. Although most adults have not participated in advance care planning, it is an important way for individuals to consider and express their preferences for care, including the extent to which they wish to receive life‐sustaining treatment. Race, religion, education, and culture are among the many individual attributes that inform an individual's willingness to participate in advance care planning and to express their care preferences. Additionally, advance care planning is influenced by the relationships among individuals, clinicians, and decision makers, who are often family members. Because of its benefits, a number of interventions provide education and communication training aimed at empowering individuals to participate in advance care planning.