Sex Differences in Long COVID
Authors: Shah Dimpy P. , Thaweethai Tanayott , Karlson Elizabeth W. , Bonilla Hector , Horne Benjamin D. , Mullington Janet M. , Wisnivesky Juan P. , Hornig Mady , Shinnick Daniel J. , Klein Jonathan D. , Erdmann Nathaniel B. , Brosnahan Shari B. , Lee-Iannotti Joyce K. , Metz Torri D. , Maughan Christine , Ofotokun Ighovwerha , Reeder Harrison T. , Stiles Lauren E. , Shaukat Aasma , Hess Rachel , Ashktorab Hassan , Bartram Logan , Bassett Ingrid V. , Becker Jacqueline H. , Brim Hassan , Charney Alexander W. , Chopra Tananshi , Clifton Rebecca G. , Deeks Steven G. , Erlandson Kristine M. , Fierer Daniel S. , Flaherman Valerie J. , Fonseca Vivian , Gander Jennifer C. , Hodder Sally L. , Jacoby Vanessa L. , Kotini-Shah Pavitra , Krishnan Jerry A. , Kumar Andre , Levy Bruce D. , Lieberman David , Lin Jenny J. , Martin Jeffrey N. , McComsey Grace A. , Moukabary Talal , Okumura Megumi J. , Peluso Michael J. , Rosen Clifford J. , Saade George , Shah Pankil K. , Sherif Zaki A. , Taylor Barbara S. , Tuttle Katherine R. , Urdaneta Alfredo E. , Wallick Julie A. , Wiley Zanthia , Zhang David , Horwitz Leora I. , Foulkes Andrea S. , Singer Nora G. ,   RECOVER Consortium, Cribbs Sushma K. , Francis Anyssa G. , Hang Tina P. , Ingram Ketteria D. , Lainez Jordi , Wiley Zanthia , Lewis Kennedy C. , Ager Arijan , Atha Mary , Gray Natalie , Grimes Ash , Hewitt Lauren N. , Huerta Christopher , Johnson Brandi , Khalil Lana , Kleinhenz Dean , Koumanelis Alexandra , Kozoman Rebecca , Lee Matthew A. , Litvack Matthew , Panganiban Bernadine , Rahman Kazi , Smith Veronica E. , Stringer Andre , Tolbert Maliya , Traenkner Jessica , Unterberger Kristen , Wimberly Erika , Han Jenny E. , Marconi Vincent C. , Ofotokun Ighovwerha , Patzer Rachel E. , Walker Tiffany A. , Abraham Rachael , Aguilar Franchesca A. , Ahmadi-Izad Ghazal , Ahmed Dilshad R. , Alvarez Alicarmen , Anderson Blake , Anwar Faisal , Asencios Walter D. , Beaty Casey L. , Bedi Brahmchetna , Berry Jasmine A. , Boone Donchel , Bower Mary , Bremner James D. , Brent Corbin , Brown-Smith Ke'Ara , Bull Rachel , Capo Gustavo , Carl-Igwe Kelechi , Chitadze Calista , Chukwumerije Nachi , Clyburn Erna , Collins Shelby , Costello Julie , Couture Grace , Craft Angel , Cui Xiangqin , del Rio Carlos , Detelich Joshua F. , Dixon Cartia , Dow Jeanne , Doyle D'Andrea , Elchommali Jannah , Elsey Imani , Franks Nicole , Gallini Julia , Gutter Evan , Harding Jess , Hernandez Liliana , Holloway Carla , Ifejika Cynthia , Jasarevic Rijalda , Javia Vidhi N. , Jeter Mykayla , Joseph Yasha , Juarez Monica , Kirkpatrick Caitlin M. , Koumanelis Athena , Krishnan Shilpa , Leon Jose D. , Lew Valerie , Maier Cheryl L. , Makkaoui Nour , Maroney Mara , Martin Christopher F. , Mbogo Loice , McCaslin Atuarra , McIntyre Jerrod , Moanna Abeer , Montoya Miranda , Morales Elena , Moran Caitlin A. , Murray Calista , Nelson Roslin , Nguyen Tran , Ojoawo Bukkie , Osinski Eileen , Oviedo Sofia , Paredes-Gaitan Yolanda , Prude Michael , Ramakrishnan Grace , Rebolledo Paulina A. , Roberts Marjorie , Robinson Keysha , Rogers Chantrice , Rouphael Nadine G. , Searles Charles , Segall Marni , Shah Anand , Silva Ruvina , Simpson Cheryl , Simpson-Derrell Krystal , Sirajud-Deen Talib , Stroud Jacob , Suthar Mehul S. , Sylber Cory , Sylvera Ashley , Teunis Larissa J. , Thomas Kodasha M. , Titanji Kehmia , Toy Christopher , Truong Alex , Vaccarino Viola , Varney Kris , Vyas Kartavya , Vyas Kurt , Walkow Max , Wesley Tamara , Winston Juton R. , Winter Terra J. , Wongtrakool Cherry , Gander Jennifer C. , Neuman Robert B. , Bush Patricia A. , Hudgins Alex F. , Kolailat Imanii , Martinez Monica , Thompson Sierra G. , Agu Chiagoziem , Pemu Priscilla , Dandy Annette , Ibeawuchi Carmel , Lawrence Brianna , Morgan-Billingslea Jan , Ojemakinde Elizabeth I. , Mullington Janet M. , Collier Ai-Ris , Fong Tamara , Haack Monika , Hauser Kristine S. , Maley Jason H. , Quintana Yuri , Shaughnessy Lynn , Stephenson Kathryn , Thomas Robert J. , Torres Robert , Marathe Jai G. , Duffy Elizabeth , Hamburg Naomi , Kobayashi Misaki . , O'Connor George T. , Shepherd Fitzgerald M. , Williams Charles T. , Zhang Haihua , Levy Bruce D. , Aikawa Masanori , Baden Lindsey , Baslet Gaston , Bennett Lindsey , Bhattacharyya Shamik , Buring Julie , Cagnina Rebecca E. , Chen Li Qing , Clark Cheryl R. , Cohen Pieter , Czeisler Charles , Estill Peter , Gay Elizabeth , Hong Jessica , Lamas Daniela , Lay Sarina , Levy-Carrick Nomi , Manson JoAnn , Monafrared Tobasom , Redline Susan , Remis Elijah J. , Schilkrut Daniel , Sesso Howard D. , Solomon Scott , Sparks Jeffrey A. , Spencer Lia L. , Systrom David , Thu Phyo Phyo Min , Walt David , Washko George , Whittelsey Maureen , Wiener Rebecca , John Janice , Ticotsky Amberly , Bassett Ingrid V. , Alba George A. , Aung Taing N. , Ginns Leo C. , Haas Jennifer , Hu Yanxiang , Juelg Boris D. , Kanjilal Diane G. , Kim Arthur Y. , Klerman Elizabeth B. , Lewis Gregory , Ojikutu Bisola , Perlis Roy , Rosand Jonathan , Wallace Zachary S. , Xerras Dean , Zionts Danielle , Ward Honorine D. , Blazey-Martin Deborah , Ghamloush Maher , Jordan Michael , Kogelman Laura , Carton Thomas W. , Miele Lucio , Brown Todd , Sutherland Erica , Fuloria Jyotsna , Datri Paula , Hagensee Michael , Leggio Cathryn , Perkins Allen , Trauth Amber , Trotter Siobhan , Van Deerlin Alexander , Weiser Sharon , Young Madeline , Erdmann Nathaniel , Levitan Emily B. , Tita Alan T. , Armstrong Donna , Binkley Susan E. , Blackwell Kenneth , Causey Annalia , Cook Felice , Domingo Julio , Donahue Conner , Eady Maitlyn , Edberg Jeffrey , Frazier Patrick , Garcia-McClaney Noah , Garner Melissa , Gray Brandon , Hall Wanda , Hart Cady , Hebson Camden L. , Hidalgo Bertha , Holtzapfel Kaylen , Jinright Alexis , Judd Suzanne E. , Kennedy Teri , Kirkwood Leigh , Maier Megan , McCormack Patricia , Mitchell Kevin , Montgomery Aoyjai , Peralta-Carcelen Myriam , Pilco Juan P. , Powell Leigh , Royster Jacob , Shevin Rachael , Skipworth Sidney , Spurgeon Leah , Steele Courtney , Ware Gregory , Wilson Rosanne , Woodruff Dana , Young Brandon , Gillespie Mark , Daniel Casey L. , Hansel Jamie , Wu Jing , Ashktorab Hassan , Brim Hassan , Laiyemo Adeyinka O. , Sherif Zaki A. , Durrani Saima , Nezamloo Ali , Ngwa Julius , Njoku Noelle , Gentil Monique P. , Mehari Alem , Solemani Akbar , Chang Linda , Thuluvath Paul , Alemu Mhret , Anderson Jordan , Chauhan Mahak , Cho Sung , Goodman Karli , Lanke Gandi , Lebron Ralph , Maheshwari Anurag , Ok Jina , To Chau , Shellito Judd , Greenway Frank L. , Kirwan John P. , Rosen Clifford J. , Arruda Abigail , Emery Ivette F. , Roelke Theresa , Berger Paul , Hoover Susan E. , Black Lora , Tjarks Brian , Fonseca Vivian , Gupta Shaveeta , Longo Michele , Yang Mei , Shikuma Cecilia M. , Chow Dominic C. , MarGangcuangco Louis , Castro Mario , Bengtson Charles , Howard Theresa , Koontz Brandon , Spikes Leslie A. , Simmons Christopher , Whiteheart Sidney W. , Garvy Beth , Wood Jeremy P. , Marshall Gailen D. , Garla Vishnu , Kuebler Joy , Nandi Utsav , Vasey Andrew , Warren David E. , Dickinson John D. , VanWagoner Timothy M. , Bogie Amanda , James Judith A. , Scott James , Sukhera Fatima I. , Luciano Roman Carlos A. , Perez Frontera Sigrid , Santana Bagur Jorge , Hodder Sally L. , Bardes James M. , Dominique-Villanueva Daphne , Juskowich Joy , Reece Rebecca , Sarwari Arif , Certa Marta , Chessier Erica , Everett Emily , Kindred Elijah , Harris Pastor C. , Sudhindra Praveen , Olds Lela , Aponte-Soto Lisa , Del Rios Marina , Diaz Maya Z. , Ibanez Alejandra L. , Rolon Cesar , Cranford Savannah , Brown Daniel , Dixon Jennifer , Gale Lisa , Hammerl Savannah , Hartwig Kimberly , Madineni Abhigna , Swearingen Peyton , Hendrickson Monica , Noland Seth , Terlinde Tracy , Hobbs Brianna , Klein Jonathan D. , Krishnan Jerry A. , Lin Janet Y. , Muramatsu Naoko , Prabhakar Bellur S. , Prendergast Heather M. , Vanden Hoek Terry L. , Adams Dara , Baker Aileen , Barbera Sunni , Basu Sanjib , Bleasdale Susan , Boyd Andrew D. , Breiter Taylor , Buhimschi Irina A. , Carrithers Michael D. , Chalamalla Rashmika , Chestek David , Cook Judith A. , Darbar Dawood , Dasgupta Raktima , Davis Blakley Felicia , DeLisa Julie A. , Diviak Kathleen R. , Donlon Meghan F. , Dworkin Mark S. , Ellison Angela , Flanigan Clarie , Freedman Michael B. , Gerald Lynn B. , Giles Wayne H. , Gordon Howard S. , Hammad Bayan , Hasek Sharon , Hasse Wendy , Hryniewicka Martyna , Illendula Sai D. , Ismail Nahed , Jain Akash , Jennette Kyle J. , Kadubek Grace , Kent Denise , Kent Denise A. , Kim Keri S. , Kotini-Shah Pavitra , Large Lucia , Lash James . , Lu Jun , Mahamed Abeer M. , Malchenko Sergey , Martinez Miriam , Mauntel-Medici Cammeo , McCauley Mark , Menchaca Martha , Mermelstein Robin , Moreno David J. , Morrissy Liam , Musick Hugh , Norwick Lourdes , Novak Richard M. , Ortiz Marilyn , Patel Khushboo , Perez Nicolas L. , Pliskin Neil H. , Pope Sam , Prasad Bharati , Predki Barbara , Quigley John G. , Ramchandran Ramaswamy , Ramirez Ana , Rappe Sarah , Rehman Jalees , Rowley Matthew , Rudraraju Gowrisree , Rutherfoord Melissa , Sculley Jennifer A. , Smith-Mack Jerisha , Sun Jun , Tartt Nancy , Villanueva Laura , Warfield Kelly Sara , Yazici Cemal , Stewart de Ramirez Sarah A. , Bolliger Dawn , Boyineni Jerusha , Chebrolu Praneeth , Curry Hannah L. , Donohue Sarah E. , Edmonds Sherrie , Kelly Sara W. , Maholovich Phoebe , Sader Samer B. , Thompson Tiffany , Welter Hannah , Woolley Brittany , Hafner John , Hanson Keith A. , Hutton Robert , Charney Alexander W. , Kovatch Patricia , Merad Miriam , Nadkarni Girish N. , Wisnivesky Juan P. , Aberg Judith A. , Ascolillo Steven , Bagiella Emilia , Bartram Logan , Becker Jacqueline , Beckmann Noam D. , Bendl Ashley , Chen Benjamin K. , Civil Alyssa , Crawford Ginger Y. , Dhar Kaberi , Evo-Ortega Lorraine , Fierer Daniel , Gallagher Emily J. , Garcia-Sastre Adolfo , Gnjatic Sacha , Gray Ian , Guliyeva Sabina , Harvey-Ingram Lori , Herrera-Moreno Julia , Hill Matthew , Horowitz Carol R. , Jackson Rachel , Kastrat Din , Lala-Trindade Anu , Lin Jenny , Macaluso Nick , Marcon Kathryn , Meyer Dara , Morinigo Janice , Natelson Benjamin H. , Nussenzweig Maya , Padua Tiffani , Putrino David , Richardson Lynne , Russo Scott , Seifert Alan C. , Serri Abdullah , Walker Jordan , Yee Michell , Bateman Lucinda , Vernon Suzanne D. , Deakyne Davies Sara J. , Gardner Edward M. , Bryan Tanner W. , Buck Kaitlin E. , Hawkins Kellie L. , Oakes Judy L. , Horne Benjamin D. , Knowlton Kirk , Woller Scott C. , Aguirre Bailee , Anderson Jeff , Bair Tami , Bosh Lindsay , Evans Lorlie , Garrett Chase , Harris Dixie , Herrera Katherine , Iverson Leslie , Jensen McKenna M. , Juan James , Knight Stacey , Leither Lindsay , Maestas Heather , May Heidi T. , Najarian Gabriel , Webb Tiaura , Zubal Shyanne , Erlandson Kristine M. , Sokol Ron J. , Brightman Marisa , Davis Debra , Feuerriegel Elen M. , Fudge Harrison Z. , Garg Lohit , Graham Paige , Higgins Janine , Johnson Brandon M. , Jolley Sarah E. , Lockie Tim , McCandless Sean A. , Molden Joie , Owen Megan , Pitch Chloe , Reid Kayleigh M. , Reusch Jane E. , Thurman Brook , Tran Huong , West Shelby C. , Wodushek Thomas , Friedman Naomi P. , Ludwig Katelyn R. , Decker Lauren A. , Raissy Hengameh , Adolphi Natalie L. , Archuleta David A. , Bradfute Steven B. , Brito Rebecca , Elifritz Jamie , Garcia-Soberanez Noella D. , Gentry Frederick D. , Harkins Michelle S. , Martinez Noah I. , Montoya Lorenzo A. , Parada Alisha N. , Quinn Davin K. , Ramos Alfredo , Sheehan Elyce B. , Treacher Irena S. , Hess Rachel , Truong Dongngan T. , Alekhina Natalya , Barlocker Jackson , Brown Jeanette P. , Cortez Melissa , Donohue Dagny K , Facelli Julio C. , Ford Isaac , Gouripeddi Ramkiran , Hermansen Jessica A. , Johnny Jace D. , Lindsay Ashton M. , Ling Leah , Lloyd Jennifer , Lu Yue , Medina Juliemar C. , Morimoto Sarah Shizuko , Pace Laura A. , Powell Jenny M. , Scholand Mary Beth , Shah Kevin S. , Sharareh Nasser , Spivak Adam M. , Stringham Caitlyn , Trinity Joel D. , Velinder Matt , Weaver Lisa J. , McComsey Grace , Adams Cara , Andrefsky John , Atieh Ornina , Baissary Jhonny , Boldt Nicholas , Conrad Ann , D’Anza Brian , Daher Ziad , Daher Jovianne , Dawson Sarah , DiFrancesco Kathryn , Durieux Jared , Foster (Rodgers) Theresa , Gallagher Michelle , Gupta Amit , Harrill Jami , Harris Paul , Hernandez Carla , Ialacci Sarah , Jacono Frank , Kelly Jordyn , Kumar Rohini , Labbato Danielle , Lesco Elizabeth , Lim Joaquin , Pettinato Kimberly , Rodgers Michael , Rosolia Breandan , Roy Arnab , Scott Sarah , Smith Beth , Tejani Viral , Tribout Megan , Yendewa George , Zhang David , Singer Nora , Ayache Mirna , Barnboym Emma , Brown Alexis , Chesnick Hailey , Edminston Marissa , Greenwood Carla , Haghiac Maricela , Kaufman Elizabeth , Lengu Ketrin , Lowenthal Rebecca , Malakooti Shahdi , Oleson Christine , Pearman Ann , Rizea Allison , Smith Cheryl , Washington Maggie , Weinberger Elisheva , Chen Peter , Caudill Antonina , Chopra Tananshi , Contreras Fatima , Dahlke Lea , Gudipudi Lasya , Jackman Susan , Modes Matthew , Muttera Nicole , Parimon Tanyalak , Salinas Nancy , Tadeo Josie , Torbati Sam , Heath James R. , Brennan Conor , Edmark Rick , Gutierrez Vanessa , Hadlock Jennifer , Li Sarah , Magis Andrew T. , McDonald Connor , Murray Kim M. , Rowen Lee , Yuan Dan , Tuttle Katherine R. , Alicic Radica , Baxter Joni , Emerson Sarah , Hood Susan , Kuykendall Kelli , White Shane , Wilcox Lauren E. , Goldman Jason D. , Algren Heather A. , Del Alcazar James , Duven Alexandria M. , Kaneko John , Kim Christina , Manner Paula , Mason Carly , Poussier Rachel , Satira Richard , Wallick Julie A. , Chu Helen Y. , Elias-Warren Anna , Harteloo Alex , Logue Jennifer K. , McCaffrey Kathryn , Nguyen Helen , Hasbani Keren , Nambiar Anoop M. , Patterson Thomas F. , Potter Jennifer S. , Salehi Marzieh , Sharma Kumar , Verduzco-Gutierrez Monica , Anderson Reed , Arellanes Azaneth , Barajas Rose A. , Chauhan Suneet P. , Clarke Geoffrey D. , Farner Cheryl E. , Fischer Melinda S. , Goldberg Mark P. , Hastings Gabrielyd , Heard Patricia , Hernandez Jessica , Herrera Italia , Infante Edgar , Johnson Hillary , Jones Johnnie , Kellogg Dean L. , Kraig Ellen , Longoria Lisa , Okafor Emeka , Patterson Jan E. , Pinones Alexis , Reeves W. B. , Scholler Irma , Seshadri Sudha , Shah Pankil , Shah Dimpy P. , Soileau Bridgette , Solis Pamela , Stoebner Carmen , Sullivan Michael , Taylor Barbara S. , Tragus Robin , Tsevat Joel , Saade George R. , Sharma Kavita , Paredes Claudia C. , Alvarado Stephanie , Kumar Andre , Maldonado Yvonne , Utz Paul J. , Blish Catherine A. , Go Minjoung , Jagannathan Prasanna , Singh Upinder , Ahuja Neera , Blomkalns Andra L. , Bonilla Hector , Brotherton Richard , Clinton Kimberly , Dingankar Vaidehi , Geng Linda N. , Haddad Francois , Jamero Christopher , Jee Kathryn , Jia Xiaolin K. , Khurana Naresh , Miglis Mitchell G. , O'Conor Ellen , Olszewski Kelly , Pathak Divya , Quintero Orlando , Saperia Corey , Scott Jake , Urdaneta Alfredo E. , Varkey Mary R. , Reiman Eric M. , Bime Christian , Hansen Lillian , Hughes Trina , Lieberman David , Soto Francisco , Wilson Cathleen , Zapien Alyssa , Lee-Iannotti Joyce K. , Autry Lynn , Beydoun Hassan , Borwege Sabine , Copeland Jacquelynn , DiLise-Russo Marjorie , Fadden Susan , Gomez Isaias , Grischo Garrett , Hartley William , Hillier Leah , Ismail Hira , Iusim Stephanie , James Michelle , Kala Mrinalini , Kim Daniel , Murthy Ganesh , Unzek Samuel , Vadovicky Sheila , Veres Sharry , Nikolich Janko Z. , Parthasarathy Sairam , Ernst Kacey C. , Esquivel Denise R. , Harris David T. , Harris Stefanie , Hernandez Michael , Hsu Harvey , Karnafel Maria , Knox Kenneth S. , Koleski Alison , LaFleur Bonnie , Lambert Brenda , LaRue Sicily , Lutrick Karen , Merchant Nirav , Morton Christopher , Mosier Jarrod M. , Olorunnisola Toluwanimi , Peralta Jeanette , Pilling William (. , Pogreba-Brown Kristen , Rischard Franz P. , Ryan Lee T. , Smith Terry , Snyder Manuel , Subbian Vignesh , Suhr Kyle , Velarde Deanna , Deeks Steven G. , Kelly John D. , Martin Jeffrey N. , Peluso Michael J. , Anderson Grace , Anglin Khamal , Argueta Urania , Asare Kofi , Buitrago Melissa , Chang Song Celina , Clark Alexus , Conway Emily , Del Castillo Nicole , Deswal Monika , Durstenfeld Matthew S. , Eilkhani Elnaz , Eun Avery , Fehrman Emily , Figueroa Tony , Flores Diana , Grebe Halle , Henrich Timothy J. , Hoh Rebecca , Hsue Priscilla , Huang Beatrice , Ibrahim Rania , Kerbleski Marian , Kirtikar Raushun , Lew Megan T. , Lombardo James , Lopez Monica , Luna Michael , Marquez Carina , Munter Sadie , Ngo Lynn , Pineda-Ramirez Jesus , Prather Aric , Rhoads Kim , Rodriguez Antonio , Romero Justin , Ryder Dylan , So Matthew , Somsouk Ma , Tai Viva , Tran Brandon , Uy Julian , Valdivieso Daisy , Verma Deepshika , Williams Meghann , Zamora Andhy , Newman Lisa T. , Abella Julie , Barnette Quinn , Bevc Christine , Beverly Jennifer , Ceger Patricia , Croxford Julie , Enger Mike , Fain Katie , Farris Tonya , Hanlon Sean , Hines David , Johnson-Lawrence Vicki , Jordan Kevin , Lefebvre Craig , Linas Beth , Luukinen Bryan , Mandal Meisha , McKoy Nikki J. , Nance Susan , Pasquarelli Demian , Quiner Claire , Sembajwe Rita , Shaw Gwendolyn , Thornburg Vanessa , Tosco Kendall , Wright Hannah , Gross Rachel S. , Hochman Judith S. , Horwitz Leora I. , Katz Stuart D. , Troxel Andrea B. , Adler Lenard , Akinbo Precious , Almenana Ramona , Aschalew Malate , Balick Lara , Bello Ola , Bhuiyan Sultana , Blachman Nina , Branski Ryan , Briscoe Jasmine , Brosnahan Shari , Bueler Elliott , Burgos Yvette , Caplin Nina , Chaplin Domonique N. , Chen Yu , Cheng Shen , Choe Peter , Choi Jess , Chung Alicia , Church Richard , Cobos Stanley , Croft Nakia , Cruz Irving Angelique , Del Boccio Phoebe , Díaz Iván , Divers Jasmin , Doshi Vishal , Dreyer Benard , Ebel Samantha , Esquenazi-Karonika Shari , Faustin Arline , Febres Elias , Fine Jeffrey , Fink Sandra , Freeland Catherine , Frontera Jennifer , Gallagher Richard , Gonzalez-Duarte Alejandra , Hasson Denise , Hill Sophia , Hossain Jennifer , Islam Shahidul , Johnson Stephen , Kansal Neha , Kenney Rachel , Kershner Tammy , Kewlani Deepshikha , Kwak Judy , Lamendola-Essel Michelle F. , Laury Sarah , Laynor Gregory , Lei Lei , Leon Terry , Lewczak Zoe A. , Linton Janelle , Logan Max , Malik Nadia , Mamistvalova Lia , Mandel Hannah , Maranga Gabrielle , Mathews Patenne D. , Mattoo Aprajita , Mei Tony , Mendelsohn Alan , Mercier Emmanuelle , Millar Vernetti Patricio , Miller Marc , Mitchell Maika , Moreira Andre , Mudumbi Praveen C. , Nahin Erica , Nair Nandini , Nekulak Joseph , Owens Kellie , Parent Brendan , Patibandla Nandan , Petrov Peter , Postelnicu Radu , Pratt Francesca , Randall Isabelle , Rao Priyatha , Rapkiewicz Amy , Rizzo JohnRoss , Rosas Johana , Rose Chelsea , Saint-Jean Christina , Santacatterina Michelle , Shah Binita , Shaukat Aasma , Simon Naomi , Simsir Aylin , Stinson Miranda , Tang Wenfei , Tatapudi Vasishta , Thawani Sujata , Thomas Mary , Thorpe Lorna , Tom MeeLee , Treiha Ethan , Truong Jennifer , Udosen Mmekom , Valencia Carlos , Velazquez-Perez Jessica , Vernetti Patricio M. , Vidal Crystal , Viswanathan Anand , Willerford Amy , Williams Natasha , Wong Crystal , Wood Marion J. , Wuller Shannon W. , Yin Shonna H. , Young Chloe , Zaretsky Jonah , Zavlunova Susanna , Foulkes Andrea , Karlson Elizabeth W. , Murphy Shawn , Ahirwar Shreya , Ahmed Shifa , Ainsworth Layne L. , Atchley-Challenner Rachel , Avilach Paul , Balan Trisha T. , Benik Nicholas , Benoit Barbara , Bind Marie-Abèle C. , Bonaventura William J. , Boutin Natalie , Brion Beverly , Cagan Andrew , Cai Tianrun , Cao Tingyi , Castro Victor M. , Cerretani Xander R. , Chan James G. , Cheng David , Chibnik Lori B. , Ciriello Mark , Costenbader Karen , Dimitrov Dimitar S. , Estiri Hossein , Fayad Maria , Feldman Candace H. , Gainer Vivian , Ghosh Bhaswati , Gollub Randy , Guan Zoe , Harris Alan , Helmer Karl , Hendrix Andrew , Holzbach Ana , Huang Weixing , Kaufman Daniel , Keogh Diane , Kerr James D. , Klann Jeffrey G. , Krishnamoorthy Aparna , Lasky-Su Jessica A. , Liao Katherine P. , MacFadden Doug , Maram Anupama , Martel Megan W. , Mendis Michael , Metta Reeta , Monteiro Jonathan , Morales Eduardo , Morse Richard E. , Nazaire Marc-Danie , Neils Gregory , Nguyen Amber N. , Norman James , Paik Henry H. , Pant Deepti , Park Heekyong , Rabideau Dustin J. , Reeder Harrison T. , Rossi-Roh Kathleen , Santacroce Leah M. , Schlepphorst Katherine , Schulte Carolin , Selvaggi Caitlin A. , Shinnick Daniel J. , Simons William , Simpson Lynn A. , St. Jean Flanders Mary L. , Strasser Zachary , Thakrar Mansi R. , Thaweethai Tanayott , Thorn Madeleine , Trewett Philip , Van Fleet Dustin , Wagholikar Kavishwar B. , Wang Taowei D. , Wattanasin Nich , Weber Griffin , Williams Michael A. , Zhang Ren Zhe , Cerda Marta , Clash Victor H. , Taylor Brittany , Zissis Mike , Akintonwa Teresa , Blancero Frank , Brown Heather-Elizabeth , Carmilani Megan , Copeland Debra , Hall Yvonka , kondo kevin , Lerma Lydia , Lindsay Jacqui , Marti Heather , Maughan Christine , Minor Tony , Vincent Hyatt , Anderson Brett , Bardhan Sujata , Castro-Baucom Leah , Chisolm Deena , Corchado Claudia , Dehority Walter , Dinwiddie Gniesha , Goldman Rosas Lisa , Thomas Gelise L. , Lopez Keila , MacDonald Pinkett Shelly , Regino Lidia , Vangeepuram Nita , Walden Anita , Williams Neely A. , Burton Phoebe , Catallozzi Marina , Dworetzky Beth , Edwards Belinda , Ferrer Robert L. , Pearson Gail , Rothman Russell , Wagner Laura , Wallace Ann , Aragon Leyna , Bander Bryan , Bishof Karyn , Carignan Etienne , Castro Baucom Leah , Clash Victor , Coombs Krista , Corchado Claudia G. , Davis Hannah , Diggs Marissa , Dunn Matthew , Fisher Liza , Fitzgerald Megan , Gage Witvliet Margot , Gustafson Tyler , Holmes Verna , Hornig Mady , Hornig Maxwell , Jain Nita , Lam Julie , Letts Rebecca , Lewis Juan , Martinez Thomas , McCorkell Lisa , McGrath Rebecca , Nguyen Kian , Nichols Lauren , O'Brien Lisa , Peddie Aimee , Perlowski Alice , Phillips-Lorenzo Elizabeth , Prentiss Lisa , Raytselis Nadia , Rockwell Megan , Rutter Jacqueline , Seibert Elle , Sekar Anisha , Taylor Emily , Wilensky Rochelle , Williams Melissa , Williams Neely , Williams-Dawson Kay , Wylam Andrew 
Published: January 2025

Importance

A substantial number of individuals worldwide experience long COVID, or post-COVID condition. Other postviral and autoimmune conditions have a female predominance, but whether the same is true for long COVID, especially within different subgroups, is uncertain.

Objective

To evaluate sex differences in the risk of developing long COVID among adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study used data from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery (RECOVER)–Adult cohort, which consists of individuals enrolled in and prospectively followed up at 83 sites in 33 US states plus Washington, DC, and Puerto Rico. Data were examined from all participants enrolled between October 29, 2021, and July 5, 2024, who had a qualifying study visit 6 months or more after their initial SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Exposure

Self-reported sex (male, female) assigned at birth.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Development of long COVID, measured using a self-reported symptom-based questionnaire and scoring guideline at the first study visit that occurred at least 6 months after infection. Propensity score matching was used to estimate risk ratios (RRs) and risk differences (95% CIs). The full model included demographic and clinical characteristics and social determinants of health, and the reduced model included only age, race, and ethnicity.

Results

Among 12 276 participants who had experienced SARS-CoV-2 infection (8969 [73%] female; mean [SD] age at infection, 46 [15] years), female sex was associated with higher risk of long COVID in the primary full (RR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.06-1.62) and reduced (RR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.17-1.77) models. This finding was observed across all age groups except 18 to 39 years (RR, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.72-1.49). Female sex was associated with significantly higher overall long COVID risk when the analysis was restricted to nonpregnant participants (RR, 1.50; 95%: CI, 1.27-1.77). Among participants aged 40 to 54 years, the risk ratio was 1.42 (95% CI, 0.99-2.03) in menopausal female participants and 1.45 (95% CI, 1.15-1.83) in nonmenopausal female participants compared with male participants.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this prospective cohort study of the NIH RECOVER-Adult cohort, female sex was associated with an increased risk of long COVID compared with male sex, and this association was age, pregnancy, and menopausal status dependent. These findings highlight the need to identify biological mechanisms contributing to sex specificity to facilitate risk stratification, targeted drug development, and improved management of long COVID.