bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Medicine in Cuba
Authors: Thorning Joseph F.
Published: July 2006

There is probably no more controversial issue in the United States today than that which is being debated, quite inaccurately, under the heading of “socialized medicine.” Public interest in the question has been crystallized by the introduction in the Congress of the United States of the Wagner-Murray-Dingell bill. At the same time, the champions of State sovereignty have prepared legislation aiming to provide medical care as well as hospitalization for low-income groups, without excessive extension of Federal power in a domain that touches intimately upon personal rights and local liberties.
Catholicism in Argentina as Viewed by Early Nineteenth-Century British Travelers
Authors: Trifilo S. Samuel
Published: July 2006

British interest in the region of the River Plate developed relatively early, but, due to Spain's monopolistic trade policies regarding her American possessions, few Englishmen were allowed to visit that area during the colonial period. It was not until after 1810, with the declaration of independence of Argentina, that trade barriers were lifted, and countless Englishmen sailed to the port of Buenos Aires with adventure and profit in mind. This little known part of the globe attracted the most diverse personalities—unemployed soldiers, tradesmen, mining engineers, scientists, missionaries, diplomats, and just plain adventurers. The great majority seemed to have one characteristic in common, however—the English mania for keeping extensive diaries and journals.
I. The Cortes of Castile
Authors: Simpson Lesley Byrd
Published: July 2006

This will be a short account of the origin, growth, and death of the great parliament of Castile, the Cortes. That sounds a bit dramatic, but there’s nothing to be done about it, for the history of the Cortes of Castile has the elements of a proper tragedy: the self-destruction of a nation by pride, parochialism, and arrogance. One of my colleagues, now deceased, used to account for the aberrations of Spanish collective behavior by ascribing them to “Spanish individualism.” I can only guess that what he had in mind was that Spaniards, when they act in groups, act differently from the rest of us—in which he was certainly correct. Now, when group actions become consistent, formalized, and ritualistic, I call that pattern of conduct an institution, regardless of whether or not someone has taken the trouble to codify it. Institutions, then, have their origin and their being in the minds of men acting collectively.
Father Gonzalo Tenorio, O.F.M., and his Providentialist Eschatological Theories on the Spanish Indies
Authors: Eguiluz Antonio
Published: July 2006

At the present time there is much interest both in factual history and in the history of the ideas which motivated these facts. This might be the justification, for instance, of so many monographs which are now appearing in many countries about the religious motives which gave impulse to great reforms.

The Spanish enterprise of the Indies has already been the subject of such studies, both from the point of view of Spanish thinkers and writers or from the standpoint—much less frequent—of the “Indianos” or Americans themselves.
The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua, 1913–1921
Authors: Baker George W.
Published: July 2006

In latin american relations, Woodrow Wilson sought to revolutionize United States policy by supplanting the “Big Stick ”diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt and the “Dollar Diplomacy ”of William H. Taft with a new Pan Americanism. He not only reiterated his desire to be a good neighbor in numerous speeches, particularly his famous Mobile address of October, 1913, but he even formulated a Pan American Pact to promote hemispheric unity by providing for mutual sovereign and territorial respect. His pact failed largely because of the nationalistic opposition of Chile, and his grand design, though cropping up later in the League of Nations idea, ultimately went the way of all Utopian dreams. Then, since Wilson turned his attention to European and domestic affairs, it remained for his three successive secretaries of state, William Jennings Bryan, Robert Lansing, and Bainbridge Colby, to face the realities of Latin American relations and to apply their own policies in dealing with the immediate problems, especially of the smaller republics. Though each man predicated his policies upon Wilson’s promises of friendship as far as possible, and referred critical problems to the president, each generally left the imprint of his own beliefs and personality on hemispheric relations.

Bryan was sympathetic with the president’s goal of the brotherhood of nations, but he conceived his own plan for resolving international conflicts by proposing that all nations sign bilateral arbitration treaties and then submit their differences for at least a year’s consideration to an international arbitral board. He believed that if nations could be deterred from a hasty resort to arms, they would either “cool off ”while awaiting the decision or have their problem solved. But, Bryan, like Wilson, was not to achieve his larger objective because of nationalistic opposition, and he had to do what he could as a “Good Samaritan ”to help all nations become, like the United States, constitutionally sound republics.
Mexico City Cathedral Music: 1600-1750
Authors: Stevenson Robert
Published: July 2006

Although Mexico City was the foremost cultural center in North America before 1800, the musical history of this capital has been strangely neglected. Not until 1946, when Lota M. Spell published a pioneer article on music in the Conquest century, was a first attempt made at bringing the viceregal music to international attention. Four years later Francisco Curt Lange translated her article into Spanish. In 1952 Jesús Bal y Gay handsomely edited what he hoped would be but the first in a series to matchMonumentos de la Música Española.As unique source for the transcriptions of Mexican colonial chefs-d’oeuvres in this luxurious 235-page volume, Bal y Gay availed himself of a filmed codex. In April, 1961 Roger Wagner recorded approximately half of the Bal y Gay volume—including Juan de Lienas’ splendidMissa super fa re ut fa sol la(the identical cantus firmus used in Morales’sMissa cortillaand in Masses by Melchor Robledo and Ginés de Boluda), Francisco López [y] Capillas’Magnificat secundi toni, Hernando Franco’sPeccantem me quotidie, Memento met Deus, and the Spanish Masses transcribed by Bal y Gay because they were in the source codex.
Language as a Key to Latin American Historiography
Authors: Morse Richard M.
Published: July 2006

Latin americanists have in recent years become increasingly concerned with constructing the basis for a unified history of Latin America. Frequently this enterprise leads them to contemplate the even larger design of a history of the Americas. While the New World may still be, in Hegel’s words, “a land of desire for all those who are weary of the historical lumber-room of old Europe,” it is now recognized as having an independent heritage; its history is no longer experienced as “only an echo of the Old World.”
“ War by Fire and Blood ” The Church and the Chichimecas 1585
Authors: Poole Stafford
Published: July 2006

“The Justice of warring against the notorious Chichimeca Indians of Mexico was a burning issue throughout the sixteenth century.” This simple statement covers more than half a century of theological, canonical, legal, and philosophical debate over whether or not the Spanish government was justified in waging total war a fuego y a sangre against the wild Indian tribes to the north of the capital. Should these Indians continue to be regarded, as they had been in the past, as wards of the Spanish Crown and so be punished as errant children, “ delincuentes,” or should they all, men, women, and children, be declared enemies of the Spanish nation and the Christian religion and so be punished by being pursued, hunted down, subjugated, and either enslaved or exterminated? This debate went to the heart of the question of the nature and justice of Spanish rule in the Indies and it vexed the consciences of viceroys, audiencias, colonists, and churchmen. It was only natural, then, that the question should be submitted to the most important ecclesiastical gathering of colonial Mexico—the Third Mexican Provincial Council of 1585. Though passing references are sometimes made to the consideration given to the Chichimecan question by the Council, no serious study has ever been made of the discussions and arguments nor of the official stand taken by the Mexican Church. This is particularly to be regretted since such a study casts some interesting light on the mentality of the second generation of Spanish settlers in Mexico.
Marquis of Pombal to George III
Authors: Alden Dauril
Published: July 2006

Exmo. Sr.

1. A carta de V. S.a que trouxe o n.° 44, e a data de 7 do corrente chegou aqui no dia de hoje depois de haverem partido os despachos que dirigi a V. S.a na data de 18 e 25 do mesmo mez que corre.

2. Em continuação e supplemento d'elles, não posso deixar de significar a V. S.a que o seu referido despacho fez subir ao maior ponto a justa perplexidade, que me tinham causado os inesperados termos com que mylord Rocheford se havia explicado com V. S.a nas conferencias que fizeram os objectos da minha instrução de 20 de outubro proximo precedente: vendo que o referido lord insistia ainda em mostrar que se não tinha feito algum cargo, de que a situação em que actualmente se acha este côrte, mettida entre as concussões das de Madrid e Paris, não émais critica a respeito de Portugal do que o é a respeito da Inglaterra, pelas obvias razões que no meu officio de 25 do corrente foram recopiladas.
The Franciscan Doctrinero versus the Franciscan Misionero in Seventeenth-Century Peru
Authors: Tibesar Antonine
Published: July 2006

Many studies have been written concerning the mission. Generally, these choose the areas where the mission was relatively successful. This article is interested in one area, where the mission was not successful: eastern Peru. Neither Spain nor the Catholic Church was able to gain the permanent allegiance of the natives of that region. Certainly the failure cannot be totally ascribed to a lack of effort. Members of every religious order, Augustinian, Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit, and Mercedarian, were employed by the crown. None reported more than the most modest and temporary successes. The Franciscans tried most of all and lost more than seventy-eight priests at the hands of the natives. For that reason, they are singled out in this study. Failures sometimes can teach as much as successes.
Alien Labor on the Gulf Coast of Mexico, 1880–1900
Authors: Dahl Victor C.
Published: July 2006

Economic activity on Mexico's Gulf coast steadily increased during the last two decades of the nineteenth century partially as a result of improved means of transportation and the enforced peace of Porfirio Díaz. The Mexican government modernized that area's communication facilities by letting out several highly profitable construction contracts to foreigners for building or improving harbor and port facilities at Tampico, Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, and Campeche. Alien contractors and investors were responsible for railway connections from Verácruz to the interior which had been completed in 1873, and other Gulf ports were similarly linked to the hinterland during the next two decades. A Mexican-built interoceanic line spanned the Tehuantepec Isthmus in 1894, but it was so poorly erected that in 1898 an English construction firm, S. Pearson and Sons, contracted to rebuild the line. Subsequently the same company leased and operated that railroad. These material improvements served to enliven the growing Mexican economy.
Don Yo in America: Domingo Faustino Sarmiento's Second Visit to the United States
Authors: Brandt Nancy
Published: July 2006

On May 5, 1865, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento returned to the United States as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from the Argentine Republic. A more accurate title would have been Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Peripatetic, for no other minister or ambassador has ever spent as much time traveling through the United States, talking to its people, and studying its institutions. He was fifty-four years old now, an aging man whose clothes were formal but untidy, whose manner was truculent and conceited, a passionately opinionated man who stated his beliefs with fire and vigor and was rude to the point of insolence to those who sought to waste his time with frivolity—and yet who managed to form many warm friendships and to arouse in many Americans a personal liking for himself and an interest in his country. He was to spend three years and four months in the United States, and they were to be years crammed with work—studying, collecting information to send to Argentina, traveling, and writing. He wrote constantly. Dozens of letters came to him every day, and he wrote dozens himself. He reported often to Argentina's Minister of Foreign Relations, and he wrote constantly to friends and advisers in the United States. During his stay in America he wrote numerous newspaper articles, on topics as varied as grape culture, votes for women, and export laws. He started a periodical, Ambas Américas, whose mission was to draw the United States and all Latin American countries closer together. He wrote and published two books: Vida de Abrán Lincoln, the first biography of Lincoln in Spanish, and Las escuelas: base de la prosperidad y la república en los Estados Unidos. He translated a book on school architecture and a biography of Horace Mann into Spanish.
Thoughts on Church Architecture in Mexico
Authors: Bodenwein Gordon
Published: July 2006

Nowhere in the western hemisphere is the wealth of monumental architecture of the period of colonization still extant as great as it is in Mexico. Spanish in its derivation, transplanted at first almost bodily from the mother country and modified only in certain details by indigenous labor and by the exigencies of distance and circumstances, it remained for two centuries essentially and romantically Spanish.
New Light on the Career of Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán
Authors: Chipman Donald E.
Published: July 2006

It is a notable fact that Nuño Beltrán de Guzman, whom many regard as second only in importance to Hernán Cortés in the early history of New Spain, should have escaped for so long the detailed attention of historians. Because of this neglect several false notions have gained currency. For instance, it has been customarily assumed that a Nuño de Guzmán, encomendero of Puerto Plata, Española, was the man who became governor of Panuco, president of the First Audiencia of New Spain, and governor of New Galicia; and wide acceptance has been given to the belief that the man who held these important positions in New Spain died a lonely, despised man in the royal prison of Torrejón de Velasco. Recent investigations by the author in the Spanish archives of Sevilla, Madrid, Guadalajara, and Simancas strongly suggest that the Nuño de Guzmán of Puerto Plata was not the same as the more famous Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán of Guadalajara, Spain, who held three important positions in sixteenth-century New Spain. This research has also lent new insights into the life of Nuño de Guzmán of Guadalajara before and after his career in the Indies.
The Failure of Spanish Florida
Authors: Arnade Charles W.
Published: July 2006

Hispanic Florida was characterized by one truth: it was a failure, from whatever angle you look at its history. Spain's efforts in Florida were unsuccessful. She pursued a policy of bankruptcy with regard to that land. In 1763 she readily turned Florida over to the English to get back Havana. Today's Cuban capital was worth the whole of Florida. When she came back in 1783 new ideas could not stem the tide of failure of Spain's first period and a half century later she again gave up Florida, this time to the United States.
Miguel de Unamuno
Authors: Masur Gerhard
Published: July 2006

THE history of Ideas is stillterra incognitaon our map of the Latin American world. We are aware of certain European influences on the Hispanic American people, such as the Spanish mystics, Rousseau and the French romanticists, or Comte and his school of thought. But few comprehensive studies of Latin American thought exist. Not even the impact of Spanish philosophy has been fully evaluated. Although we know that the representative thinkers of the generation of 1898, Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset, Luis de Zulueta and others were widely read, we know little of their effect on the writings of Alfonso Reyes, B. Sanin Cano, Francisco Romero and Jose Carlos Mariategui, to mention only some outstanding examples. Yet Unamuno was deeply interested in Latin American problems and his comments on Bolivar, Sarmiento and Latin American literature command our attention. Many critics recognize this significant relationship. Rafael Heliodoro Valle, for instance, remarks: “No cabe duda de que Unamuno ha sido el escritor espanol que mas curiosidad intelectual ha tenido hacia nosotros.”
James Redpath and American Negro Colonization in Haiti, 1860–1862
Authors: Boyd Willis D.
Published: July 2006

COLONIZATION of the Negro somewhere beyond the territorial limits of the United States had an irresistible appeal to many nineteenth-century Americans anxious to steer a middle course between abolitionist and pro-slavery extremists. Though united in believing the colored man to be an intruder impossible to assimilate into the predominant Anglo-Saxon culture, colonizationists could never agree on the methods or the agencies of removal, nor on the site for the new Negro homeland. Thomas Jefferson suggested the Louisiana Purchase; others spoke of Florida, Texas, the trans-Mississippi West. As the frontier pressed forward, Canada became a more favored spot, and Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. The American Colonization Society, a national philanthropic body with auxiliaries north and south, sent some twelve thousand Negroes to their protege state of Liberia on the west coast of Africa.
Some Franciscan Sources in the Archives and Libraries of America
Authors: Canedo Lino G.
Published: July 2006

IT is well-known that the Franciscans had a very considerable influence on the history of America. From the days of the conquest up to the present time, their labors have been outstanding in the sphere of American spiritual life by their extensiveness, their intensity, and their brilliance. In the missionary field, Franciscan activity was particularly conspicuous. Up to the end of the sixteenth century, the Franciscan missions were almost as numerous as those of all the rest of the religious orders together; Franciscan primacy was maintained in the seventeenth century, and from 1767 onwards nearly all the missions among the pagans, both in North and South America, remained in their hands, once the Society of Jesus had been suppressed.
The Church and the Repartimientos in the Light of the Third Mexican Council, 1585
Authors: Poole Stafford
Published: July 2006

If, as has been asserted, the Mexican Indian owes his daily wage to the Third Mexican Council, then the attitude of that Council toward the question of Indian labor must be of surpassing importance for Mexican history. The transition of the Indian from an economy in which the wage system was unknow to a totally European system was the aim of the Spanish crown, despite such aberrations as the encomienda and the repartimiento. Any influence exercised on this progress by the Church is deserving of special study, not only because of the positive accomplishments that resulted but also because of the light that it can shed on the labor system as actually practiced in colonial Mexico.
The Alternativa: A Study in Spanish-Creole Relations in Seventeenth-Century Peru
Authors: Tibesar Antonine
Published: July 2006

Within recent years there has been increasing interest in those aspects of Spanish American history which represent a growing political consciousness among the inhabitants of those lands especially during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Perhaps nowhere can the growth of this sentiment be studied with greater ease than in the religious orders. By their development, the religious orders, the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Mercedarians, came to consist almost exclusively of criollos (descendants of Europeans born in America) and Chapetones (friars born in Europe, in particular in Spain): the two groups which were to be the leaders of the two contending parties in the wars of independence. The ultimate estrangement of these two groups developed during the colonial period in the course of which the rising creole desire to manage their own affairs encountered increasing opposition from the Spanish Crown. The encounters were not always peaceful. The participants, on both sides, in good faith held to their principles with a deep conviction of which the incidental vehemence is perhaps the clearest proof. Neither side yielded readily. This is true also of the friars.
Fray Jose Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea, O.F.M. Y LA Philosophia Recentior del Siglo XVIII
Authors: Lamadrid Lázaro
Published: July 2006

He aquí una figura menos conocida, pero que es sin embargo un exponente más de la sabia y prudente conducta del Catolicismo en un terreno en que prejuicios sectarios quisieron y aun de vez en cuando tienden a querer representarlo como una fuerza retardataria del brillante desenvolvimiento científico-natural de nuestros días.

El gran predominio de las ciencias naturales en su amplio concepto que abraza también a las matemáticas en nuestros días ha producido un espejismo que lleva a las mayorías a reconocer ese campo como antono-másticamente la CIENCIA.

Más aun, como una resultante, para muchos las ciencias que pudiéramos llamar del espíritu como la teología, metafísica, derecho a historia han venido a ser para ellos como ciencias de segunda categoría y en gran parte se las considera como campo especial para inteligencias menos avanzadas o para personas que por profesión están más en conexión con esos estudios.
The “Lincolnshire Farmers” In Paraguay: An Abortive Emigration Scheme of 1872-1873
Authors: Warren Harris Gaylord
Published: July 2006

Paraguay after the War of the Triple Alliance was in a state of political and economic shock. Governmental institutions were shattered, their functions practically ceased, and the very basis of political life had to be reconstituted. Fertile fields lay uncultivated, livestock had all but disappeared, buildings were in ruins, orange groves were untended, and the remnant population survived on the bare edge of subsistence. Land titles, never very clear, became further tangled in a welter of conflicting claims. Well might a Buenos Aires editor observe: “The future of Paraguay is so dark that none can read it.”
Tucuman Sugar Politics and the Generation of Eighty
Authors: Guy Donna J.
Published: July 2006

One of the major obstacles preventing Argentine national unificacation in the 1870s was the hostility of the poor interior provinces, victims of the ravages of civil wars and economic stagnation, toward the richer and more powerful coastal area dominated by export-oriented merchants and cattlemen. From 1874 until the first decade of the twentieth century, a major attempt was made to resolve longstanding grievances. A definitive political compromise and program of economic integration emerged in 1880 when a group of politicians, representing both the interior and the littoral, joined together and made their slogan a reality: Peace and administration. This group, known as the Generation of Eighty, brought a national capital and a modicum of peace to Argentina in 1880. Eventually they helped create a new Argentina linked by networks of transportation, communication, banking facilities and other trappings of modernity. They courted regional industries with protective tariffs and political favors in hopes of providing an economic stimulus to the interior which would complement rapid growth in the littoral. But even though Buenos Aires and surrounding areas flourished, by the turn of the century most interior provinces remained as destitute as they had been thirty years earlier.
The Key to the Kingdom: The Defense of Veracruz, 1780-1810
Authors: Archer Christon I.
Published: July 2006

Veracruz was the most important strategic point in the defenses of New Spain throughout the three centuries of Spanish occupation. It was the only important commercial center which allowed easy access to the interior highlands of the viceroyalty and as such, attracted any potential invader who might wish either to carry out a raid on commerce or to undertake more ambitious conquests. This study will consider some of the major themes involved in the defense of Veracruz in the last three decades before 1810 to see how such a vital position affected military developments and to test a main theme of recent historical research on the period which has established the origins of praetorian-spirited, privilege-hungry soldiers in the period following the Seven Years War.
Floriano Peixoto, Brazil's “Iron Marshall”: A Re-Evaluation
Authors: Hahner June E.
Published: July 2006

Both the career and personality of Floriano Peixoto, Brazil's socalled “Iron Marshal,” have long been subjects of controversy and conflicting appraisal. In command of the nation from 1891 to 1894, Floriano proved a strong ruler whom few contemporaries regarded.with dispassion or disinterest. During his life time and for some years afterwards, Floriano Peixoto remained the focus of fierce emotions, until the actual man and his achievements were lost in a haze of adulation, condemnation, and facile stereotyping.
Agrarian Precursors of the Mexican Revolution: The Development of an Ideology
Authors: Hart John M.
Published: July 2006

During the second half of the nineteenth century, when Mexico was beginning a slowly drawn-out process of industrialization and urbanization, the seemingly quiet countryside was experiencing agrarian unrest of proportions unprecedented in the nation's history. Trapped between increasing population on diminishedejidalandpueblolandholdings and ever-growing estates and demands of large property owners, Mexicancampesinosin three states—eastern Morelos, southeastern Mexico, and northwestern Puebla— sought relief by means of insurrection. Because these agrarian uprisings during the last third of the nineteenth century were a prelude to similar and more famous occurrences during the fateful epoch 1910-1917, their causes, nature, and significance are essential for understanding an important aspect of the Mexican Revolution.
The Chaco War: A Tentative Bibliography of Its Diplomacy
Authors: Christman Calvin Lee
Published: July 2006

The destructive results of the Chaco War have left an indelible mark on Bolivia and Paraguay. This essay has been undertaken to explore the body of diplomatic material regarding the efforts both to prevent and to halt this useless blood-letting, for it is felt that such an essay would be helpful to any person studying the Chaco dispute in the future. It should be made clear, however, that this is not a definitive bibliography, for it has been limited both to material the author believes would be most useful and to material that can be studied in the United States. Since this essay is concerned mainly with diplomatic aspects, it generally has avoided comment on material dealing specifically with the military phases of the dispute. Such material has been discussed, however, when it also contained information relating to diplomatic matters. The military consideration of the Chaco War deserves a bibliography of its own, for there is a continually growing body of material concerning this subject.
Patterns of Spanish Emigration to the Indies 1579-1600
Authors: Boyd-Bowman Peter
Published: July 2006

This article examines the data contained in the last volume of our five-part index of 16th Century Spanish emigrants to the New World. Originally entitled the Indice geobiográfico de 40, 000 pobladores españoles de América en el siglo XVI, the series in fact now furnishes biographical data on a total of roughly 55,000 individual men, women, and children, known to have emigrated to the Indies before 1600, whose birthplace we have identified from contemporary records. So far we have found publishers only for the first two of these five useful reference volumes, however a series of articles in both Spanish and English have presented our findings on each of the roughly twenty-year periods into which we have divided that all-important century during which Spanish colonial society was first taking shape. Though in conducting this basic research our primary goal has always been a linguistic one, i.e., to shed light on the early dialect differentiation of New World Spanish, the work is designed to be of use to historians and sociologists also.
The Political Economy of Paraguay and the Impoverishment of the Missions
Authors: White Richard Alan
Published: July 2006

Located at the extreme periphery of the Spanish Empire, Paraguay suffered from its political role as a buffer state against the rival Portuguese colony of Brazil and the hostile Indian nations. Accordingly, during the late colonial period, extended tours of military duty contributed to the province's severe labor shortage. But of even greater consequence were the combined effects of Paraguay's monocrop economy and its economic dependency within the Imperial commercial capitalist system. Best described as a chain-like structure officially beginning in Spain and extending to the remote province via Panama, Lima, and Buenos Aires, this system served to depress Paraguay's economy and appropriate a great portion of its wealth, leaving the majority of the people in dire poverty.
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on the Nature of the American Indians
Authors: Fernández-Santamaria José A.
Published: July 2006

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda epitomizes in many ways, both personally and intellectually, the cosmopolitanism of Spanish political thought in the sixteenth century. Educated in Italy, disciple of Pomponazzi, translator of Aristotle, chronicler of the Emperor and mentor of his son Philip, Sepúlveda is best known—and often misunderstood as the defender of the more unsavory aspects of the Spanish conquest and colonization in America—for his bitter controversy with Bartolomé de las Casas. To that debate Sepúlveda brought a humanist's training and outlook anchored in his devotion to Aristotle, but strongly tempered by his attachment to Saint Augustine. It is the purpose of this paper to examine Sepúlveda's ideas on the nature of the American natives, particularly the question of whether the Indians are natural slaves. Considerations of space, of course, rule out the possibility of undertaking here a detailed scrutiny of the foundations upon which those ideas rest. It can be said, however, that they are typically Renaissance views, a blend of traditions characteristic of the composite nature of the age's intellectual milieu.
The Impact of the Catavi Mine Massacre of 1942 on Bolivian Politics and Public Opinion
Authors: Knudson Jerry W.
Published: July 2006

On the windswept heights near the Bolivian mining camp of Catavi on December 21, 1942, in the center of a rocky lunar landscape which dwarfs man but enlarges his passions, a mass of Indian and mestizo tin miners and their families, some 8,000 strong, trudged stubbornly down a road toward an emplacement of 700 Bolivian Army troops and Carabineros watching them through the sights of machine guns, rifles and a trench mortar. Women and children marching in front, they came from the nearby mines of Llallagua and Siglo XX to support the striking Catavi workers. The newcomers were unarmed and carried a red banner in their front ranks.
The Spanish-American Works of Alexander von Humboldt as Viewed By Leading British Periodicals, 1800–1830
Authors: Jones Calvin P.
Published: July 2006

Perhaps the most significant scientific works published about Spanish-America during the entire era 1800–1830 were the botanical and zoological findings of the German scientist, Alexander von Humboldt. He had traveled in the Spanish colonies from 1799 to 1804. Humboldt has been acclaimed as the greatest naturalist that the world had seen since Aristotle and as the foremost man in Europe during his lifetime with the exception of Napoleon. He had taken a scientific education in several German universities and had once held an appointment in Berlin as a mining official for the Prussian government. On his way back to Europe in 1804 at the conclusion of his scientific survey in Spanish-America, he stopped in the United States to visit President Thomas Jefferson who asked him to fix the new boundaries of the United States following the purchase of Louisiana. This side trip probably saved Humboldt’s life because the ship which sailed from South America with his specimens was lost at sea.
The Unofficial Intervention of the United States in Mexico's Religious Crisis, 1926-1930
Authors: Berbusse Edward J.
Published: July 2006

Few Countries have so consistently captured the interest of writers as Mexico; and in the writing of their reflections and observations, historians and literary people have accentuated their own opinions of what the religious crisis of 1926-1930 was. The purpose of this article is to present the attitude of the United States government toward that internal conflict in Mexico; and to stress the policy of unofficial intervention that resulted. The period that we have selected is one of explosive relations between church and state. The figures who dominate the Mexican scene are Plutarco Elias Calles who was president of Mexico from 1924 to 1928; and Emilio Portes Gil, who was interim president of Mexico from 1928 to February 4, 1930, and completely under the policy determination of Calles. During this period we have two Secretaries of State who fashioned United States policy: Frank B. Kellogg (1925-1929) and Henry L. Stimson (1929-1933); but the designers of policy in the field were James Rockwell Sheffield (1924-1927) and Dwight W. Morrow (1927-1930).
The Railroad and Argentine National Development, 1852–1914
Authors: Pulley Raymond H.
Published: July 2006

Juan Bautista Alberdi belonged to a generation of Argentines fervently dedicated to the ideal of lifting the Río de la Plata out of the internal chaos which had delayed national consolidation and economic growth since the time of independence. In his Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la república argentina, published in 1852, Alberdi asserted that only the railroad could effect the long awaited unification of the Argentine people. He stated: “Without the railroad political unity cannot be had in a country where distance makes central political power impossible.” “Political unity,” Alberdi added, “can only be begun through territorial unity, and only the railroad can make places separated by five hundred leagues a unified country.”
The Foundation of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Morenos de Amapa
Authors: Taylor William B.
Published: July 2006

The relatively small degree of racial discrimination against the Negro in Latin America generally has been traced by North American historians to Spanish acceptance of the African Negro as a human being, not perpetually destined for slavery nor inferior to other races. In contrast to the status of the Negro slave in colonial North America, Spanish laws and attitudes are thought to have provided in colonial Spanish America a climate of opinion which promoted miscegenation and afforded the slave a variety of legal avenues to freedom. In support of this explanation of reduced racial discimination, notarial records of manumission from the colonial period and the thirteenth-century legal code, Las siete partidas , are prominently displayed as evidence of the Spaniards' belief in “equality among men” and the transformation of the principle of equality into practice.
The California Missions and their Visitors
Authors: Weber Francis J.
Published: July 2006

Because of its geographical separation from other Spanish colonies and the rigid mercantilistic policy of its mother country, Alta California was completely isolated from outside influence during its first sixteen years as a Spanish province. Gradually, however, as a result of the explorations of Captain James Cook (1728-1779), foreign vessels began to appear in the area. When the fur trade started flourishing in the Pacific Northwest, European and American ships as well as overland expeditions were attracted further south to the ports and population centers of California.
The Santiago Iglesias Case, 1901–1902: Origins of American Trade Union Involvement in Puerto Rico
Authors: Whittaker William George
Published: July 2006

In November of 1898, Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, lashed out at the expansionists and denied most emphatically that there was “justification for our enforced conquest and annexation ”of the “semi-nude people ”of Puerto Rico, living in a state of “peonage.” At large, the American trade union movement appears to have been caught up in the movement for Cuban independence—both political and economic. Puerto Rico, however, was a different matter. The trade union leadership had shown no special awareness of the island or of conditions prevailing there and, following the American occupation, adopted a strongly anti-imperialist stand. Yet, in February of 1901, the American Federationist (edited by Gompers) warmly applauded the Louisville conventions decision “. . .to organize the 15,000 skilled workers of the island of Puerto Rico on the unshakable basis of the trade union.” By the summer of 1902, trade union opinion had largely reversed itself and fraternal ties between the American Federation of Labor and the Federación Libre of Puerto Rico had been irrevocably forged.
Land in Spanish Enterprise: Colonial Morelos 1522-1547
Authors: Riley G. Micheal
Published: July 2006

THE state of Morelos in today's México comprised two rich and important provinces within the Aztec Confederacy when Spanish forces penetrated it for the first time in March of 1521. In that year of conflict, the Tlahuica and Xochimilca peoples who dominated the numerous settlements and fertile, well-watered, volcanic soils of its mountain-surrounded valleys were producing large quantities of valued agrarian and other goods. For generations, dating back 8,000 or more years, they and their predecessors had done so. The laborers among them—the commoners or macehuales, the serf-like, soil-bound mayeques, and the slaves—used valleys in the high-altitude, temperate to semitropical and semi-arid north and in the less-elevated, tropically hot and humid south to grow maize, beans, chile, tomatoes, peppers, squashes, some fruits, chía (a species of sage), huautli (amaranth), cotton and, perhaps, cacao.
Fray Jerónimo de Alcalá: Author of the Relación de Michoacán?
Authors: Warren J. Benedict
Published: July 2006

PERHAPS the most vexing problem in the historiography of Michoacán is the question of the authorship of the Relación de las ceremonias y ritos y población y gobernación de los indios de la Provincia de Michoacán, commonly known as the Relación de Michoacán. This small volume, conserved in the Library of the Escorial in Spain (MS. Ç. IV.5.), is our principal source of information regarding the pre-conquest history and culture of the Tarascan Indians of Michoacán and their first contacts with the Spaniards. It originally consisted of three parts, which the author described in his introductory letter as follows:

saqué … dónde vinieron sus dioses más principales y las fiestas que les hiacían, lo cual puse en la primera parte; en la segunda parta puse cómo poblaron y conquistaron esta provincia los antepasados del Cazonci, y en la tercera la gobernación que tenían entre sí hasta que vinieron los españoles a esta provincia y hace fin en la muerte del Cazonci.”
The Status of Biography in the Historiography of New Spain
Authors: Chipman Donald
Published: July 2006

IN the early fall of 1969, I agreed to write an article for a special issue ofThe Americashonoring France V. Scholes. My contribution would be an essay on the status of biography in the literature of New Spain. Within a week after the selection of a topic, I was invited, as a last-minute replacement, to attend the Third Meeting of United States and Mexican Historians in Oaxtepec, Morelos. I served as discussant in a session devoted to Mexican biography since 1800. Ideas brought out in the discussion and commentary at the Oaxtepec meeting are gratefully acknowledge in this essay. An additional source for this paper is a questionnaire mailed to leading scholars of the United States in the field of colonial Mexican history. Several friends and colleagues have been kind enough to offer positive encouragement for this project. I have made no attempt here to survey all biographies of colonial personalities in New Spain, nor will I inflict my judgment of each study on the scholarly community. Book reviewers, past and present, have done their work. Generally, emphasis is on New Spain proper rather than the peripheral areas of the viceroyalty. I shall approach the subject of biography in a rather broad and unorthodox context. Interpretations and conclusions are mine, not the responsibility of trusting colleagues who gave me permission to quote them.
Opposition to the Third Mexican Council
Authors: Poole Stafford
Published: July 2006

The study of the opposition to the Third Mexican Council of 1585 provides a fascinating picture, not only of the determined efforts to undo the work of the most important ecclesiastical meeting of colonial New Spain but also of the various hostilities and animosities, intrigues and rivalries, that were at work in New Spain toward the end of the sixteenth century In the Third Council, the bickering of secular and religious priests, the opposition of bishops to the exorbitant privileges of the religious orders, the encroachments of the civil authority into the domain of the ecclesiastical, and the determination of clerics to defend their privileges and jurisdiction, all converged on the questions of (1) should the Council be permitted to publish its decrees and (2), once published, could they be put into execution?
Argentine Liberalism and the Church Under Julio Roca, 1880-1886
Authors: Kress Lee Bruce
Published: July 2006

Julio Roca and the Generation of 1880 are best characterized by their liberalism. Indeed Argentine politics ever since the fall of Juan Manuel de Rosas had adopted an increasing liberal tone. These beliefs included the encouragement of constitutionalism, federalism, freedom, and democracy. The last two points were rather vague; and democracy, especially, was interpreted in a more theoretical than practical way by the aristocracy that remained in charge of political, economic, and social affairs. However, efforts to stress the immigration of workers and capital from Europe, a relatively free trade policy, and public education for all were more clear and determined. On most of these points, the leaders of the nation seemed to agree. But on another point, that of the role of the Roman Catholic Church in Argentine life, there was sharp disagreement. At no time was this more evident than during Roca's first administration, 1880-1886.
The Changing Racial and Administrative Structure of the Peruvian Military under the Later Bourbons
Authors: Campbell Leon G.
Published: July 2006

Despite the fact that the conquest of Spanish America had been primarily a military undertaking, during two centuries of Hapsburg rule the army played a secondary role, with real power and authority being vested in a pervasive civil bureaucracy. The armed groups of adelantados who had initially conquered Peru lacked the objectives and organizational structure of true militaries. Fighters rather than soldiers, their social positions defined more through the possession of encomiendas than by military functions, they cannot be ragarded as constituting a true army. In 1615, Viceroy Montesclaros informed the Crown that in any other area these soldados would be regarded as dangerous vagabonds who posed a threat to public safety.
The Political Transformation of the Brazilian Catholic Church
Authors: Kiemen Mathias C.
Published: July 2006

Historians studying the Church in Latin American have recently been receiving excellent assistance from political scientists and sociologists such as Ivan Vallier and François Houtart, and now the present author, Thomas C. Bruneau. There certainly is a place for sociology in the study of the Catholic Church. Bruneau’s theses concerning Church development in Brazil are, therefore, vitally interesting to professional historians of this country.
Economic Experimentation in a Newly Independent Nation: Colombia Under Francisco
de Paula Santander, 1821-1840
Authors: Huck Eugene R.
Published: July 2006

Francisco de Paula Santander was Simón Bolívar's right arm in the formation of the state of Gran Colombia by the Liberator's own acknowledgement. While Bolívar, the President, was directing the winning of the last battles of the war Santander, the Vice President, was directing the government from Bogotá from 1821 until Bolivar returned from the wars in 1827. Although the control of the government was out of Santander's hands during Bolívar's dictatorship (1827-1830) and the turbulency following Bolívar's death in 1830, Santander took the helm again in October, 1832, as President. If one considers his three-year activity in Congress after his term as President ended in 1837, then, in a sense, Santander's influence in Colombia lasted for almost two decades when he died in 1840. Although much of his public life was concerned with other aspects of the nation, Santander gave considerable attention to the fiscal matters of the country. It was his guidance which helped Colombia through two decades of difficult economic experimentation.
Reform and Reaction in the Colombian Catholic Church
Authors: Schoultz Lars
Published: July 2006

In the autumn of 1509 the explorer Alonso de Ojeda landed on the northern coast of South America, near where is today the city of Cartagena, and claimed the region in the name of Spain. As some of the natives appeared inclined to question the acquisitive proclivities of the Crown, Ojeda had read to them the principal articles of the Christian faith, hoping to demonstrate the benign nature of his invasion. Apparently feeling that his obligation to the Church was not yet fulfilled, he then informed the local residents “ especially of the supreme jurisdiction of the pope ” and required that they embrace the Catholic religion. Ojeda barely escaped with his life.
Dissertations on Luso-Brazilian Topics; A Bibliography of Dissertations Completed in the United States, Great Britain and Canada, 1892-1970
Authors: Hanson Carl A.
Published: July 2006

After the first American doctoral dissertation related to Luso-Brazilian studies was completed in 1892, the output of dissertations in that area of scholarship grew slowly and unsteadily. In contrast, graduate student interest in Luso-Brazilian studies increased greatly during the twenty years after 1950. Students in British universities also contributed an increasing number of studies during the latter period (Table I). Unfortunately, few compilations of this accelerating scholarly production have been available to scholars interested in Luso-Brazilian studies.