bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OBESITY in childhood
Authors: Lloyd June K.
Published: March 2008

Obesity is now the most frequent nutritional disorder of childhood in the so‐called developed countries of the world. It is due to an increase in the amount of adipose tissue but, because it is technically difficult to measure the exact amount of adipose tissue, obesity is usually defined in terms of body weight. In general an individual who weighs 20% or more than the weight expected for his height and age can be regarded as being obese. By this criterion the incidence of obesity amongst schoolchildren in Britain is probably at least 3%, although accurate contemporary figures are not available. Studies in the United States of America have suggested that amongst adolescent girls between 10–15% can be expected to be overweight.
A question of TASTE
Authors: Heath H.B.
Published: March 2008

It was established way back in the middle of the last century that the sensory organs responsible for our appreciation of taste, as distinct from that of flavour, are located on the tongue. Since then considerable research has been carried out into the structure and mechanisms involved. It has long been recognised that the prime organs of taste are the taste buds. This name was originally applied to special cells which had been observed in the mouths of fishes. Early research soon established that certain raised portions, distributed over the surface of the tongue, the papillae as they became called, are the site of the receptor organs and that those areas of the tongue which do not bear the papillae are insensitive to the taste stimulus.
FISH AT TORRY
Authors: Yule P.A.A.
Published: March 2008

Torry Research Station, a branch of the Department of Trade and Industry, takes its name from the district of Aberdeen in which it is situated. It is concerned with all aspects of handling, processing and preservation of fish, from the time of catching until final distribution to the consumer. The prime aim at Torry is to assist the industry to supply fish and fish products of the highest quality, which will compete successfully with other foods. An outstation, the Humber Laboratory at Hull, provides close contacts with the industry in England. Activities in Torry range from basic and academic studies to the design and application of new processing equipment and techniques. The staff include bacteriologists, chemists, biochemists, physicists and engineers.
Getting the most out of Food
Authors: Helen Butler Mrs.
Published: March 2008

In November, 1970, an eminent panel of judges awarded the £250 Van den Bergh Nutrition Award to Mrs. Helen Butler, B.Sc., F.R.D., Senior Dietitian at Singleton Hospital, Swansea, for her paper Nutritional Problems of Some of Britain's Immigrants
skin deep
Authors: DUERDEN ANNE
Published: March 2008

A nutritionist looks at the relationship between diet and beauty culture. Are they related at all ? Some so‐called experts would have us believe that eating for beauty is all cider vinegar and black strap molasses, grated raw carrots and yogurt. But any well balanced diet will certainly play its part if we can equate good looks with good health, and undoubtedly the vitality which radiates from good health does more for the looks than any amount of beauty creams and lotions. Looking at it from another angle, a poor diet and bad eating habits will have disastrous effects on personal appearance — the teeth and the figure are likely to suffer most.
Honest to goodness food
Authors: Hanson L.G.
Published: March 2008

The recent public interest in date marking of food has focused attention on a small group of people whose activities are important to all of us, but who rarely come into the limelight. They are the members of the Food Standards Committee.
vit. D
Authors: Lawson Eric
Published: March 2008

It is now well established that vitamin D has direct action on bone, intestine, kidney, and clinicians would also include muscle. The function of vitamin D in bone is two‐fold. It is required for the mineralisation of bone, that is, in calcium acquisition, and also for the mobilisation of calcium into the blood. The balance of calcium between the plasma and bone is maintained by vitamin D, calcitonin and parathyroid hormone. This second hormone is able to act only in the presence of vitamin D. These two effects — mobilisation of calcium from bone tissue, and absorption of the mineral from ingested food, are quite different. This is clearly shown in histological lesions produced by calcium deficiency which are distinct from those of rickets. Conversely, calcium infusions to rachitic animals and osteomalacic patients do not fully lead to normal calcification of osteoid tissue.
THE CAMBRIDGE PLANT BREEDING INSTITUTE
Authors: Lupton F.G.H.
Published: March 2008

The Plant Breeding Institute was founded in 1912, as the Cambridge University Plant Breeding Institute, under the directorship of Sir Rowland Biffen, who had demonstrated by that time that Mendel's newly discovered laws of heredity were applicable to characters of agricultural importance and had proved this by the introduction of the winter wheat variety Little Joss. During the next forty years, the Institute was principally concerned with work on the improvement of the cereal crops and produced such varieties as the winter wheats Yeoman and Holdfast and the barleys Pioneer and Proctor. Shortly after the 1939/45 war, it was decided to expand the work of the Institute. As a result its official connection with the University of Cambridge was broken, and it was established as a grant‐aided institute under the Agricultural Research Council in new premises at Trumpington, two miles south of Cambridge. These were opened by the Minister of Agriculture in 1955.
TASTE
Authors: Heath Henry
Published: March 2008

The universally recognised “salty” taste is that given by sodium chloride, although the chlorides of potassium, ammonium and calcium all have what can broadly be described as a well‐defined salty taste. Other salts such as bromides, iodides, nitrates and sulphates are also somewhat salty. However, these may have more or less bitter tastes in addition to the salty effect.
Canning
Authors: Herbert D.A.
Published: March 2008

New developments in any activity are best seen in the context of what went before; it is also useful to find the reasons leading to innovation since these may also point the way to future developments. The present state of canning technology may be looked at in this way. Why do we eat canned foods? There must be important reasons, since the average person in the United Kingdom (man, woman, child) consumes the contents of over 100 cans each year. The simplest of course is that our increasingly urbanised population has no option but to eat preserved foods to keep alive and canning is one of the most efficient methods of food preservation. But it is obviously not merely the provision of nutritious, safe preserved foods that has caused the tremendous growth in the canning industry — although without these features it could not have happened. The main reasons lie in the variety and convenience provided by canned foods. Not only has the industry made our own fruits and vegetables available evenly throughout the year, without reference to their season, but foods harvested in distant lands are made equally accessible. Apart from the variety added to the diet in this way, the convenience of having food prepared ready to eat becomes steadily more important as housewives have, or are prepared to spend, less time in the kitchen and while caterers find labour hard to get. Increasingly we look to the food manufacturer to invest the time and labour of preparing and cooking and to employ skilled chefs for blending ingredients so that our twin objectives of variety and convenience are met by the foods we buy, soups, patés and ready meals, for example. In addition, canned foods are offered at a price which is competitive with fresh and other preserved foods. If we look more closely at what has been said it is evident that quality, convenience and price should be the spurs to developing technology. They should also be the yardsticks against which we measure its success.
A HISTORY LESSON IN FOOD
Authors: Pullar Phillipa
Published: March 2008

What people eat depends mainly upon two things. First, quite simply, the products their land can yield. Secondly, and more diffused, the measure of civilization they have achieved. This affects not only their practical techniques of cookery and agriculture but also their superstitions, for the more primitive a race is the more superstitious it is likely to be and the more taboos are likely to be imposed on the diet. Primarily, then, man eats to survive. A primitive man's idea of enjoyment is surfeit of food and drink, indulged euphorically until satiation. It is only when a certain measure of civilization has been achieved that pleasure in food becomes of a subtler, more fastidious kind through the refinements of its cooking and variety of dishes.
SCHOOL MEALS
Authors: Simpson Smith C.
Published: March 2008

“Million fewer buy school meals”, “School meals fall angers M.P.s”, “School meals shock for Minister” — these are some of the headlines in the national press in recent months as a result of the increase in price of school meals from 1st April, 1971. Some claim that the lower numbers taking meals are partially seasonal but one must accept the fact that there has been a significant reduction varying in extent over the country. In my own authority from April to June, 1971 there was a decrease of 17 per cent in paid meals with a slight increase in free meals issued. Adjacent authorities quote a decrease of over 30 per cent.
AGRIBUSINESS
Authors: Richardson D.P.
Published: March 2008

Factory farming, artificial fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides and more recently antibiotics have all added fuel to the great emotional fire that is fanned when scientists are seen to interfere with nature. There is no doubt that some aspects of the present day use of chemicals in agriculture do give cause for concern but if the aims of the farmers are to be realised we must view the situation objectively and assess the risks involved. The aims of the farmer are to provide more food, better food, cheaper food and a wider range of food. The problem of adequate food supplies has plagued the whole history of mankind and the situation is likely to deteriorate in the near future unless modern technology can be applied to alleviate the poverty and hunger found in many of the developing countries today.
EEC
Authors: McLaughlin Patricia
Published: March 2008

The pattern of modern life in the Common Market countries is changing so rapidly that what I thought I knew of France over many years of visiting and serving on the Council of Europe and Western European Union proved to be completely out of date inside the three years since last I took a considered look at that ‘enfant terrible’ of the E.E.C. This fast changing pattern is obvious in all the other five Common Market countries too.
SMELL
Authors: Heath Henry
Published: March 2008

In nature the siting of the organs responsible for picking up odours is very variable. In vertebrate animals such as man, the forward part of the head, usually just above the mouth is the invariable site. In the invertebrates this is far from the case. In the insects, odours are sensed by the antennae or feelers which project forward from the head. In the various worms the sensory cells are sited in pits on the side of the head and in flies they are even found on the feet. In each case, however, nature has contrived to locate these sensory organs in the most appropriate place where they can provide the maximum of information. Basically, in man the receptor area for smell is an off‐shoot of the respiratory system. (Fig. 1) A smell, odour, aroma — call it what you will — consists essentially of particles of gas and vapour and, as such, one cannot be aware of its presence until some of it enters the nasal cavity either via the nose, or, alternatively, by the back of the mouth.
NEW PROTEINS FOR OLD?
Authors: Bender David
Published: March 2008

One important aspect of the world food problem is the shortage of protein foods. While energy yielding foods can readily be raised in large amounts (for example, cassava, which is almost pure starch, can be grown in very large yield with very little work), proteins are at a premium.
The state of their teeth
Authors: Hobson Pamela
Published: March 2008

It is probably true to say that the general health of children in this country is better today than it has ever been. Unfortunately, however, the health of one part of our childrens bodies — their mouths — gives cause for grave concern.
A loaf by any other colour
Authors: Watson Ralph H.J.
Published: March 2008

We all take it for granted that bread may be purchased either as a white or as a brown loaf. But what if it could be red or blue? You might say that such a colour would have to be artificial and would therefore be unacceptable. On the other hand we constantly demand that the food manufacturer puts colouring into foods before we will buy them. For example, the yellow of smoked fish, the additional orange colour added to many orange squashes, or the reintroduction of artificial colour to make good that lost during processing, such as the loss of colour due to the use of sulphur dioxide as a preservative. Since we not only accept but demand the colouring of foods, why should we be limited to only those colours that may be considered as exaggerating or restoring an existing colour?
SUPERMARKETOLOGY
Authors: Cameron A.G.
Published: March 2008

What a terrible word for a title; but its intentional horribleness emphasises the fact that the arrival and proliferation of supermarkets in every High Street constitutes nothing less than a revolution in our way of life. A whole new technology — food technology — has been harnessed to the concept of mass selling to produce a completely new technique of food retailing. The extent of this revolution can be gauged from the estimate that soon three‐quarters of all food sales will be from self‐service stores and supermarkets.
The psychology of eating
Authors: SILVERSTONE TREVOR
Published: March 2008

We eat, as we all know, to keep body and soul together. If we don't eat we starve, and eventually die. But what is it that, at particular times during the day, initiates the highly complex and organised behaviour which is eating? A possible answer might be: ‘We eat when we feel hungry’. But what determines ‘hunger’? Is it a sensation determined by purely physical means, or can it be controlled by other, psychological factors? Both are true.
Byword of mouth …
Authors: Galli Eric
Published: March 2008

‘To illiterate people especially, the proverb is precious. Without the luxury of a library, wisdom has to be stored mentally and must be concise. Hence in proverbs the words are very rich in meaning and the concepts expressed are a good starting point for conversation.’ Michael Church
Radioactivity in Food
Authors: Russell R. Scott
Published: March 2008

Eight or ten years ago the risks which the population might experience from the contamination of foodstuffs with radioactivity were frequently mentioned in the press. Lately there has been little comment on this subject. This is due partly, but by no means entirely, to the suspension of nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere which led to a reduction in environmental contamination. Another, and important, reason is that many of the earlier fears were excessive. A discussion of this question may help us to see in better perspective the true nature of the problems which the peaceful uses of atomic energy might create and the attention they deserve if we are to safeguard our environment while at the same time meeting the needs of an increasing world population.
Protein from petroleum
Authors: Walker Thomas
Published: March 2008

The first published report that hydrocarbons were subject to microbial degradation appears to be that of the Japanese botanist Miyoshi in 1895. He observed that certain alkanes were attacked by the fungus Botrytis Cinerea. The first reports of microbial oxidation of methane, the simplest alkane, were made about 10 years later by Kaserer (1905), and Sohngen (1905). According to the recent review of Quayle (1967), the ability to utilise hydrocarbons is widespread amongst micro‐organisms. The ability to grow on methane appears to be a more restricted property although Whittenbury, Phillips and Wilkinson (1970) have recently isolated more than 100 strains of methane utilising bacteria.
COUNTING THE CALORIES, OR JUGGLING WITH JOULES
Authors: Greaves PhD J. Peter
Published: March 2008

What's in a name? What we're doing is Estimating Energy. And every school‐boy knows at least two things about energy: that it is conserved, and that it is interconvertible. The first law of thermo‐dynamics, as enunciated by Flanders and Swann, sets this out very plainly: ‘Heat is Work and Work is Heat’.
Helping to feed the undernourished under‐fives in developing countries
Authors: Montague Joel , Higgins Margot , Helfenbein Saul
Published: March 2008

Current research indicates that early protein‐calorie malnutrition, which in some developing countries may affect 20% of all pre‐schoolers, is a serious deterrent to social and economic development because of its deleterious effect on the health, education, and productivity of the adult. Chronic undernourishment, though its manifestations are less apparent, may be equally damaging. Benefits expected from the ‘Green Revolution’ certainly cannot reach most of the world's population at need soon enough to prevent the erosion of human resources, and the existence of malnutrition must be recognized as a threat to national development, not merely a moral problem whose solution is thought of in medical or public health terms. Unfortunately however, national nutrition programmes undertaken in developing countries have thus far, by and large, shown disappointing results.
Long Ashton Research Station
Authors: Cutting C.V.
Published: March 2008

Long Ashton's origins were related to early interests in food science, for in the 19th Century when Somerset was a wheat‐producing county, each farm made its own cider as an incentive for the hand reapers. But cider quality varied greatly and, in 1893, the Bath and West Society initiated experiments into cider making. On the basis of ten years' results, reported to the Board of Agriculture, the National Fruit and Cider Institute was established on a 14‐acre site at Long Ashton in 1903. Under the Agricultural Development Act of 1909, Long Ashton received further support to widen its activities as one of the new National Agricultural Research Institutes. Since 1912, the Station has been a Department of the University of Bristol, and is also one of the thirty institutes under the aegis of the Agricultural Research Council.
Nutrition education in the Netherlands
Authors: van Schaik Ir. Th. F.S.M.
Published: March 2008

The drawings on this page have been taken from some of the very attractive leaflets issued by the Dutch Bureau for Food and Nutrition
food to run
Authors: Sharman Ivan M.
Published: March 2008

So it was that St Paul, who knew a great deal about athletics, advised his correspondents in Corinth nineteen hundred years ago but the advice might equally well be given to‐day. Every athlete knows the importance of exercising his body in training but may overlook the contribution that an appropriate diet may make to his performance.
Body weight‐fat and energy balance
Authors: Hervey G.R.
Published: March 2008

It is characteristic of living organisms that they maintain a specific structure, composition and physical state, although they are continuously losing and gaining the substances of which they are made by exchanges with the outside world. This process is known as homoeostasis, and much of physiology is concerned with it. So well does it work that in the ordinary affairs of life we seldom have to give it much thought. This could at one time have been said of an example of homoeostasis, the maintenance of normal body weight. Recently, however, our community has become more concerned about this.
Nutrition Education in Western Germany
Authors: Trurnit Gisela
Published: March 2008

The German Society of Nutrition has two main objectives. Firstly, to collect the findings of all disciplines in the field of nutrition, to co‐ordinate and evaluate this material in order to make recommendations, and to prepare scientific knowledge which is to be passed on to the general public. Secondly, to contribute to the health and well being of the people by educating them and advising them on the importance of good nutrition, both theoretically and practically.
Feeding the undernourished under‐fives, part two
Authors: Montague Joel , Higgins Margot , Helfenbein Saul
Published: March 2008

The operational, economic, and cultural obstacles to pre‐school nutrition programs outlined in the first half of this paper have arisen largely because few nationwide programs have as yet gone beyond the thinking of a nutrition program as being more than the mere distribution of food. Reaching the pre‐school child is often perceived only as a logistic exercise in delivery and distribution, and the success of the program is thus judged solely on the basis of the speed, economy and efficiency of distributive systems. Under those circumstances, available resources are not used to their fullest potential and program effectiveness, in terms of demonstrable nutritional benefits to the recipient and institution building, continues to be disappointing when weighed against the cost and effort involved. The per capita cost of reaching the pre‐school child, given the difficulty of distribution via an inadequate number of scattered and ill‐attended centers, will probably continue to be exorbitant in most places as long as pre‐school feeding programs are regarded as exactly comparable with school feeding in all respects except the age of the beneficiary.
Body weight—fat and energy
Authors: Hervey G.R.
Published: March 2008

In this extract from his paper, Professor Hervey discusses some of the mechanisms which may be responsible for maintaining energy balance and normal body weight.
Manufactured milk
Authors: Waite R.
Published: March 2008

From time to time items in newspapers predict that the dairy cow will soon become obsolete and that a bright new idea is to make milk without her help. They usually claim that the artificial milk has a higher nutritive value and more health promoting properties. Most of these write‐ups are nonsense and die a natural death but there is, in fact, an industry devoted to producing what may be loosely termed ‘manufactured milk’. But these factories still rely largely on our old friend the cow for much of their raw material.
Keeping a sense of proportion
Authors: Elton G.A.H.
Published: March 2008

In 1970 there were 8,088 cases of food poisoning notified and ascertained in England, and 38 people died, due mainly or in part to food poisoning or infection with food poisoning organisms. Nowadays nearly all food poisoning is due to contamination of food with disease‐producing bacteria, usually due to faulty hygiene or bad handling practices — but food may be inherently poisonous or poisons may find their way into it. Poisoning from inherently poisonous food is rare in England, although people do occasionally eat toadstools instead of mushrooms, and chemical food poisoning, although relatively common 50 years ago, is very rare now. Interest in chemical poisons in food has revived, however, because of concern over food additives and contaminants such as pesticide residues, although it is the long‐term effect over many years rather than acute poisoning incidents which is the main object of study now.
Nutrition Education in Italy
Authors: Fidanza Flaminio
Published: March 2008

The most active work on nutrition education in the ‘compulsory’ (primary and lower secondary) schools of Italy is carried out by the AAI (Amministrazione per le Attivita Assistenziali Italiene ed Internazionali — Administration for Italian and International Welfare Activities). When it was first formed, this body was merely a Delegation of the Italian Government working in liaison with UNRRA, but it is now controlled by the Ministry of the Interior.
Some food customs and beliefs — in South Africa
Authors: Galli Eric
Published: March 2008

The goat which will be divided up and each portion distributed according to tradition serves two purposes: it has been ritually sacrificed to appease the ancestral spirits who guard the destiny of the living, and it will be consumed at a feast to celebrate the arrival of the baby. Among most of our African people, there exist strong beliefs, fears and respect for the spirits of the ancestors. If the ritual goat sacrifice were omitted, the anger of the ancestors would become apparent by their “burning” the child and its subsequent failure to grow and thrive. We would describe the condition of the child as a case of kwashiorkor, but our Nguni people would attribute the poor condition and skin breakdown to the anger and punishment of displeased ancestral spirits. To restore the equilibrium would call for elaborate rituals, animal sacrifices and the expensive services of the traditional practitioners, the diagnostician — sangoma, and the therapist — inyanga. These beliefs are handed down through the ages and pass from generation to generation. These beliefs transcend education or social status. They have become deeply ingrained and are resistant to change. They are embedded in a semi‐magico‐religious belief and taboo system.
The Home Food Preservation Section at Long Ashton Research Station
Authors: Leach Margaret
Published: March 2008

“Home Preservation of Fruit and Vegetables”, Bulletin No. 21 of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, published by HMSO, is undoubtedly the most widely known of the Section's publications. It made its first appearance in 1929 — 72 pages in quarter bound hard covers for 1/6d (7½p) and the 13th edition has recently appeared (65p). The subject of home food freezing made its debut in the 8th edition (1954) and for over twenty years much of the Section's work has been directed to the improvement of home food freezing techniques.
Chemical changes during cooking, processing and storage of food
Authors: Spencer M.
Published: March 2008

Most foods are complex mixtures of some or all of the following classes of chemical substances: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals or inorganic compounds, vitamins, colours, flavouring substances, water, and miscellaneous substances. Since foods are mixtures of chemical compounds, the effects of cooking, processing and storage involve chemical changes in these components, and it is therefore desirable to look at these in turn.
HOUGHTON POULTRY RESEARCH STATION
Authors: Gordon Director R.F.
Published: March 2008

Diseases affecting animals grown for human nutrition may have a direct and serious influence on the purchasing power and standard of nourishment of a household. Diseases of poultry are estimated to cost this country not less than £50,000,000 per annum — a figure which takes into account not only mortality, but also indirect losses arising from adverse effects on production and reproduction, food conversion and body weight, and the cost of disease control and prevention. Since the consumption of poultry meat and eggs is now higher in this country than it has ever been, it is obviously good national economy to try to reduce the cost of the poultry product whilst retaining a reasonable return for the producer.
the place of SUGAR in the balanced diet
Authors: Hollingsworth Dorothy
Published: March 2008

In most diets in the world some 10–12% of the energy value is supplied by protein, but there is great variation in the proportions provided by fats and carbohydrates. If alcoholic drinks are excluded from the calculations, in Britain in 1971 42% of the energy value of the total food supply was derived from fat and 47% from carbohydrate: 17% was supplied by sucrose. In the first quarter of the century and in World War II about one‐third came from fat and about 55% from carbohydrate: in the first quarter of the century sucrose provided 14–15% of the total energy value of the food supply and in World War II about 11%.
Dental Caries
Authors: Syrrist A.
Published: March 2008

In the Scandinavian countries, as in several other countries, the discussion about the general supplementation of fluoride by the consumption of water has been intensive and sometimes inflamed. The situation in Sweden at present does not permit this possibility of rational caries prophylaxis to be utilised. Thus it has been necessary to take advantage of topical application of fluorides. It is therefore natural that a large number of clinical tests in this field have been carried out in Scandinavia. The experience of these clinical tests have been put to practical use with the result that today most children take part in one or other form of mass prophylactic measures, including the use of topical fluoride application.
FOOD SHOPPING
Authors: Sainsbury Hon. John D.
Published: March 2008

During the first half of the eighteenth century the number of food shops in towns and cities had increased greatly as gradually a more varied range of foods became available for sale. According to Maitland (History and Survey of London, published 1756) nearly a quarter of all the houses in London in 1732 were shops or taverns selling some form of food or drink. This is remarkable, particularly as he was not including shops selling anything other than food. A quarter of all the houses in London! It is hardly surprising that Napoleon made his all too frequently quoted remark. London and most larger towns of the country had a multitude of very small shops, each concerned with only a small range of products. This position remained with little change until the beginning of the nineteenth century.
An experiment in teaching nutrition
Authors: Hillman C.M. , Bagley W.K.
Published: March 2008

At Peterborough, we have for some time produced our own 35mm slides for our teaching, and used tapes recorded from a variety of different sources. It seemed a natural extension to consider the production of both our own slides and tapes, and to use them in conjunction as a tape slide sequence. There seemed to be some benefits to be derived from this type of presentation.
VITAMIN C
Authors: Sharman Ivan M.
Published: March 2008

Scurvy is probably one of the oldest recorded diseases encountered by man. When Magellan circumnavigated the world in 1522 the majority of his men were stricken with the disease. In 1535 Cartier noted that it could be cured by a decoction of spruce tips. Even so the disease continued to be a formidable problem on long voyages for many years to come. Thus during Anson's voyage from 1740 to 1744 a total of 626 men are reported to have died of scurvy whilst rounding Cape Horn. Dr. James Lind, Physician to the Fleet in the seven‐teenth century, was largely instrumental in overcoming the problem. He rediscovered the cure by pine needles, and by citrus fruits, and greatly extended their use for preventing the disease.
The Hannah Research Institute
Authors: CRAWFORD JEAN
Published: March 2008

The Hannah Research Institute, founded in 1928 to undertake research into milk production and milk utilisation, is situated close to the town of Ayr, Scotland. It is administered through the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland, Edinburgh, and the Agricultural Research Council advises on the programme of work. There are currently three main areas of research: (i) the efficient production and utilization of feed nutrients for milk production, (ii) the chemistry and physical chemistry of milk constituents, especially protein, in relation to the nutritive role and processing characteristics of milk, and (iii) the effect of environment on the physiology of cattle.
Teach‐in No. 4
Authors: Spencer M.
Published: March 2008

The natural colour of green vegetables is due to a mixture of chlorophylls. Under conditions of moist heat, the chlorophyll is converted to an olive green compound, phaeophytin, as a result of the replacement of an atom of magnesium in the centre of the chlorophyll molecule by two hydrogen atoms. The magnesium attaches itself to one of the natural acids in the vegetable. Hence the colour change is favoured by acid conditions and the addition of sodium bicarbonate can reduce it. This is not altogether desirable since raising the pH accelerates the destruction of vitamin C. However it has recently been shown that if magnesium carbonate and calcium acetate are added to green beans sufficiently to raise the pH by only 0–3 of a unit, the canning process results in twenty per cent less conversion of chlorophyll to phaeophytin than the untreated vegetable. Losses of the green colour are increased with time and temperature, and the conditions necessary to sterilize canned peas produce this colour change. For this reason it is normal in Britain to add artificial green colour to canned peas to give them an attractive appearance.
Goodbye to the English breakfast?
Authors: Hanson L.G.
Published: March 2008

Goodbye to the English breakfast if we join. That was the message in the headlines one morning early in our negotiations to join the European Economic Community. Well here we are six months after joining still eating the same so what was it all about and will our food be different in the years to come?
POULTRY MATTERS
Authors: Richardson David P.
Published: March 2008

At the present time, with ever increasing food prices and the recent public outrage over the cost of beef, it is certainly timely to review the nutritional importance of poultry products and the contribution they make to the housewife's budget.
VITAMIN E
Authors: Sharman Ivan M.
Published: March 2008

Professor H. M. Evans, when making a study of the reproductive capacity of rats at the University of California in 1922, found that animals given a diet containing all the then known vitamins failed to produce normal litters. This observation indicated that another vitamin was required for fertility and subsequently led to the recognition of vitamin E. The vitamin was known to be present in lettuce and wheat germ, since when either of these were added to the rats' feed their fertility was restored. Subsequently, in 1936, by a lengthy procedure for concentrating the vitamin, Evans was successful in isolating the pure substance from wheat germ oil. It was identified as an alcohol with the chemical formula G29H50O2 and found to be fat soluble. At the suggestion of Professor G. Calhoun, Evans introduced the name “a‐toco‐pherol” for the pure compound (from the Greek tokos = childbirth, phero = to bear, and “‐ol” indicating that the substance is an alcohol).
ANAEMIA
Authors: Callender Sheila T.
Published: March 2008

Iron deficiency is a common condition even in countries with a high economic standard. The presence of iron deficiency implies a lack of balance between the iron which can be absorbed from the diet and the daily iron requirement. This is particularly likely to occur at those ages where the physiological needs are greatest, i.e. during the times of rapid growth, and in women during reproductive life due to the extra demands of menstruation and pregnancy. Iron deficiency is also likely to occur in any circumstance in which there is pathological blood loss, for example from bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract from causes such as piles, peptic ulcers and so on. In the tropics one of the commonest causes of iron deficiency is blood loss due to hookworm infestation.
TEACH‐IN NO. 5 Healthy is as healthy does
Authors: Morton Ian
Published: March 2008

Health foods have become big business in the UK and the market is dominated by four companies. Sales of health foods have risen from £11 million in 1965 to £18 million in 1970 and are still increasing with over 600 health food shops. These foods have been given considerable publicity in the popular press yet any consideration of them should be inseparable from food chemicals, food additives and processed foods. The nutritional merits of health foods are still being argued and many of the claims for their advantages have yet to be objectively proved.
UNDER GLASS
Authors: Deen J.L.W.
Published: March 2008

The glasshouse industry of Britain occupies a mere 0.05% of the total area of land under crops other than grass. On this basis it would seem disproportionate to devote the activities of a national research institute to this small area. The Glasshouse Crops Research Institute is, however, serving an economically extremely important sector of horticulture. The total annual value of crops grown under glass is approximately £60 million and the Institute also serves the needs of the mushroom industry valued at £16 million.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS The later years
Authors: Stephen Joan M.L.
Published: March 2008

In a recent article in Nature, it was asserted that we do not know how much food man requires. Although this statement was clearly intended to be provocative, it is probably more true for the elderly than for any other group of people.
Enzymes in food processing
Authors: Dewdney P.A.
Published: March 2008

Enzymes are produced by all living cells as catalysts for specific chemical reactions. Not surprisingly enzymes are present in all foods at some time, and play an increasingly important role in food processing techniques. Enzymes, although not recognised as such, have played an essential part in some food processes, notably the making of cheese, leavened bread, wine and beer, for thousands of years.
Maternal and infantile obesity
Authors: Naismith Donald J.
Published: March 2008

One of the earliest reports of the relationship between obesity and reproduction was a study of the circumstances under which 40 women became overweight as a result of pregnancy. No consistent pattern emerged from this study. Excessive gain in weight was recognised in some women during pregnancy, in others only some time after delivery. Furthermore, the response to successive pregnancies was varied, but all the patients had continued to gain weight over the years, and for this reason had sought medical advice. In this selected sample, abnormalities of pregnancy were common, with a high incidence of stillbirths and neonatal mortality.
FLOUR MILLING AMD BAKING RESEARCH ASSOCIATION
Authors: Kent N.L.
Published: March 2008

Co‐operative research for the flour milling and baking industries is carried out by the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association (FMBRA). The FMBRA started its existence under that name in January, 1967, by the merger of two forbears—the Research Association of British Flour‐Millers (RABFM), founded in 1923 at St Albans, and the British Baking Industries Research Association (BBIRA), founded in 1946 at Chorleywood.
Teach‐in No 6:Economics of good nutrition
Authors: Senior Johanna , Wells Dilys
Published: March 2008

Nowadays it is not particularly low‐income families that are obliged to consider economies, most families are involved. At a time when the food products on the supermarket shelves have never looked so appealing and the promise of the good life seemed within everyone's grasp, how can one strike a balance and keep the family well fed within one's means? The price rises have covered all types of food but when the same rate of increase is applied to the most expensive items, the protein foods, this is the area where it hurts most. This is where most economies are made and if the wrong economies are made it is the area where most dangers lie nutritionally speaking. At the present time, the main sources of protein in the diet, meat, fish, poultry, cheese, milk and eggs, which together provide about 60 per cent of our total protein intake, are also major sources of other nutrients, too. (This is just as well because on average we spend about two thirds of our total food allowance on these animal protein foods each week.) The average woman's protein requirements would be amply covered if she consumes daily one average serving of either meat, fish or poultry, half a pint of milk, 1 oz of cheese, one egg and three slices of bread. The same quantities of these foods would also give her most of the daily recommended intake of minerals, and B group vitamins, and will supply in addition about one half of the vitamin A and vitamin D she is thought to need daily. On the other hand, taking the country as a whole, we spend one third of our total food allowance on cereal foods, fruit and vegetables, and get for our money almost 40 per cent of our total protein intake, 50 per cent of our iron, more than one third of our calcium and almost all of our vitamin C.
Food science at work
Authors: Greenwood C.T.
Published: March 2008

Dr. Greenwood introduced his paper by defining food science as the application of the basic scientific disciplines, including biology, microbiology, chemistry, physics and engineering to problems of ensuring a plentiful supply of food of high quality and nutritive value in today's society.
Diverticular disease and fibre
Authors: Eastwood M.A. , Mitchell W.D. , McConnell A.A. , Findlay J.M.
Published: March 2008

Diverticular disease of the colon is an acquired disorder of bowel muscle which hypertrophies, that is, it thickens. The hypertrophied muscle causes an increase in pressure in the bowel and the mucosal lining is pushed out (herniates) through the inherently weak points of the muscle to form pockets (diverticulae). The process is rather similar to the egg‐like distortions seen in the side wall of a defective tyre. In most cases, these diverticulae cause no trouble whatsoever, but in a few they may lead to complications of bleeding, infection, abscess formation and even perforation.
Service to the vegetable industry
Authors: Page E.R. , Niendorf F.K.
Published: March 2008

In the mid‐1950s English watercress growers faced ruin. A disease known as crook root was spreading rapidly and threatened to infect all the watercress beds in Britain. The problem was brought to the attention of scientists at the National Vegetable Research Station, which had been established in 1949 by the Agricultural Research Council, at Wellesbourne, near Stratford‐upon‐Avon. In a relatively short time a cure was found and the organism causing the disease is now controlled by the addition of traces of zinc salts to the water. It is no exaggeration to say that NVRS saved British watercress production.
School meals and food education
Authors: Dudfield Phyllis
Published: March 2008

How is it that in the second half of the twentieth century, a large proportion of the population is blissfully indifferent and totally unaware of the health hazards caused by faulty eating habits? How is it that so many people have to have remedial treatment to either increase, or more usually to decrease their weight? Does this reflect a lack of knowledge of nutrition by the public in general?
FOOD EMULSIFIERS
Authors: Wren John
Published: March 2008

So‐called emulsifiers do many things. Although the addition of an emulsifier to some mixtures does emulsify them, the emulsification of other mixtures may require other ingredients as well. Some existing emulsions may actually be broken by the same emulsifier; others may be broken and converted to a new emulsion; and some materials may be changed in firmness, viscosity, wettability or other properties even when no emulsion is involved. To make matters even more complicated, the effect of a given emulsifier in a given system may vary dramatically with temperature. For example, the most familiar of emulsifiers, egg yolk, causes most of the difference seen between a pastry dough and a cake batter or between pastry and cake: at mixing temperature it causes the difference between a plastic solid and a pourable liquid, whereas at baking temperature it causes the difference between a rigid, friable solid and an elastic solid. Emulsifiers are used in a very wide range of industrial processes, from oil‐drilling to paint‐making and printing. However their use in the manufacture of food and beverages clearly requires the most stringent standards of identity. Under current UK legislation, food emulsifiers are regulated by the same statutory instrument as the so‐called stabilisers. The difficult problem of definition is approached on the basis of function :—
Hormones and energy balance
Authors: Hervey G.R.
Published: March 2008

It has been known since at least 1905 that pregnant female mammals gain bodyweight, additionally to the fetus and structures involved in reproduction, mostly early in pregnancy. Much of the substance gained in rats and possibly nearly all of it in humans is fat; it represents substantial storage of energy—typically 30,000 kcal (125.5 MJ) in the human. In a ‘state of nature’ such storage in advance of a time of increased demand for energy must be valuable; a similar mechanism is seen in birds before migration. Dewar showed that in mice the hormone progesterone, the signal for many of the changes in the mother in pregnancy, is also responsible for the weight gain. This action of progesterone has been extensively investigated in the rat (paper gives further references). Rats and mice are very suitable for such work, for they are available in uniform strains, are easy to handle, and their bodies can be analysed accurately. Cynics, however, have observed that a high proportion of endocrinology refers to the rat; it must not be assumed that the findings are necessarily true for other species.
TRENDS IN FOOD PACKAGING
Authors: Paine F.A.
Published: March 2008

At its most fundamental, packaging does three major jobs: it preserves, it protects and it identifies. It is frequently the first thing that developing countries use to improve their food situation. Once they introduce better packaging into the system, they can reduce losses that occur, in food distribution in particular, by considerable amounts. As much as 25 or 30% of a crop can be saved by relatively simple improvements in packaging procedures. However, in the sophisticated countries of the world, packaging does a lot more than merely preserve, protect and identify.
Frozen vegetables
Authors: Mary Clegg K.
Published: March 2008

Excluding potato products, the most popular frozen vegetables available in the refrigerated cabinets at the grocers are peas, green beans and Brussels sprouts, in order of tons produced and sold. The Department of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Strathclyde, and Birds Eye Foods Ltd. have recently collaborated to investigate possible nutrient losses which may occur at various stages of processing these vegetables in the factory.
PROTEINS FOR THE NEW GENERATION
Authors: Crisp D.E.
Published: March 2008

World shortages of certain raw materials leading to appreciable price increases is currently a regular feature of our daily lives— and is likely to be so, unfortunately, for the next few years. Meat has been increasing in price owing to various shortages in animal feeding stuffs. The fact that the populations of developing countries rightly demand that home produced meat is made available for their home consumption rather than for export is also adding to the problem as far as developed nations are concerned. The obtaining of sufficient protein for everyone's dietary needs is as basic and important as the need to have sufficient supplies of energy to meet world requirements. The amount of protein to be found on this earth is in excess of our projected needs, but there could well be severe shortages of protein foods for humans in an acceptable or usable state, especially if we continue to rely so heavily upon animal protein. There is, therefore, a real and urgent need for scientists to develop ways and means of transforming basic protein raw materials into acceptable products.
TEACH‐IN NO. 8: Research on starch
Authors: Greenwood C.T.
Published: March 2008

Starch is the food‐reserve material of all higher plants, where it is stored in the form of characteristic, cold water‐insoluble particles known as starch granules. As starches are polymers of glucose, which are readily assimilated, they form an important source of nutritional energy in the human diet. Indeed, a very high proportion of the world's food energy‐intake is as starch, and cultivation of plant sources rich in this polysaccharide are widespread. 82% of all food crops are composed of cereals and starchy root‐crops.