bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Selective hydrogenation of soybean oil: IV. Fatty acid isomers formed with copper catalysts
Authors: Koritala S. , Dutton H. J.
Published: January 2007

Two samples of soybean oil hydrogenated with copper‐containing catalysts at 170 and 200 C were analyzed for their natural and isomeric fatty acids. Methyl esters of the hydrogenated oils were separated into saturates, monoenes, dienes and trienes by countercurrent distribution between acetonitrile and pentane‐hexane. Monoenes were further separated intocis‐ andtrans‐isomers on a silver‐saturated resin column. Double bond location in these fractions was determined by a microozonolysis‐pyrolysis technique. The diene fraction was separated with an argentation countercurrent distribution method, and linoleate was identified by infrared, ozonolysis and alkaliisomerization data. The double bonds in thecis‐monoenes were located in the 9‐position almost exclusively. However, the double bonds in thetrans‐monoene were quite scattered with 10‐ and 11‐isomers predominating. About 86% to 92% of the dienes consisted of linoleate as measured by alkali isomerization. Other isomers identified as minor components includecis,trans andtrans, trans conjugated dienes and dienes whose double bonds are separated by more than one methylene group.
Homogeneous catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated fats: Group VIB metal carbonyl complexes
Authors: Frankel E. N. , Little F. L.
Published: January 2007

Carbonyl complexes of Cr, Mo and W have been studied as soluble catalysts for the hydrogenation of methyl sorbate and of methyl esters from soybean oil. With methyl sorbate, relative catalytic activity decreased in the approximate order: mesitylene‐Mo(CO)3, cycloheptatriene‐Mo(CO)3, cycloheptatriene‐Cr(CO)3, bicyclo (2,2,1) hepta‐2,5‐diene‐Mo(CO)4, chlorobenzene‐Cr(CO)3, methyl benzoate‐Cr(CO)3, mesitylene‐W(CO)3, benzene‐Cr(CO)3, toluene‐Cr(CO)3, mesitylene‐Cr(CO)3, and hexamethylbenzene‐Cr(CO)3. Order of catalytic activity was related to thermal stability of the complexes during hydrogenation. With mesitylene‐M(CO)3 complexes, selectivity varied in the order Cr>Mo>W. Under certain conditions the mesitylene complexes of W, Cr and Mo reduced methyl sorbate respectively to methyl 2‐, 3‐, and 4‐hexenoates as main products.

The more active and thermally stable Cr(CO)3 complexes catalyzed effectively the hydrogenation of linoleate and linolenate in soybean oil esters with little or no stearate formation. The hydrogenated products formed with the benzoate complex at 165–175 C contained 50–67% monoene, 18–30% diene, 2–7% conjugated diene, and only 3–7%trans unsaturation. Linolenate‐linoleate selectivity values varied from 3 to 5 and linoleate‐oleate selectivity from 7 to 80. Monoene fractions had 40–50% of the double bond in the C‐9 position; the rest of the unsaturation was distributed mainly between the C‐10 and C‐12 positions. Conjugation is apparently an intermediate step in the hydrogenation of linoleate and linolenate. The Cr(CO)3 complexes are unique in catalyzing the hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty esters to monounsaturated fatty esters of lowtrans content.
Microaerophilic biodegradation of tallow‐based anionic detergents in river water
Authors: Maurer E. W. , Cordon T. C. , Stirton A. J.
Published: January 2007

Nine anionic detergents from five general classes (alcohol sulfates, ether alcohol sulfates, sulfated alkanolamides, α‐sulfo esters and alkylbenzenesul‐fonates) were rapidly screened for biodegradability under aerobic and microaerophilic conditions in river water at 25 and 35 C. In decreasing order, the ease of biodegradation under microaerophilic conditions at 35 C was as follows: alcohol sulfates, sulfated alkanolamides, α‐sulfo fatty acid esters and ether alcohol sulfates. Linear alkylbenzenesulfonate did not degrade.
Suspension stability of solid particles in the presence of various types of electrolytes
Authors: Tokiwa Fumikatsu , Imamura Tetsuya
Published: January 2007

Stabilities of titanium dioxide and ferric oxide suspensions in the presence of various types of electrolytes have been studied by measuring their sedimentation volume, rate of sedimentation and optical absorption as a measure of the degree of suspension. The stabilizing ability in suspensions with condensed phosphates is relatively high as compared with that with electrolytes other than the phosphates. This would indicate strong adsorption of phosphate ions onto the surface of the particle. A correlation is found between the extent of stability of a suspension and the electrophoretic mobility of the particle suspended in electrolyte solution, except with silicates. With polyphosphates (Nan+2PnO3n+1) the stabilizing effect is noticeable at n≥2, while with metaphosphates (NanPnO3n) it becomes noticeable and constant at n≥4. The stabilities of titanium dioxide and ferric oxide suspensions containing silicates are high in spite of low electrophoretic mobilities of their suspended particles, which are comparable with the stability operated by tripolyphosphate or a typical dispersing agent. The suspension stability data of acid and neutral condensed phosphates and of the electrolytes used commonly as builders in the presence of a surfactant have also been included.
Anionic and nonionic surfactant sorption and degradation by algae cultures
Authors: Davis Ernst M. , Gloyna Earnest F.
Published: January 2007

Degradation of three surfactants has been determined by organic extraction procedures and infrared spectroscopy. Axenic cultures of five species of blue‐green algae and three species of green algae which are common to waste stabilization ponds were test organisms. Analytical data are shown comparing the effects produced by the algae cultures and a heterogeneous microcosm. Linear alkyl sulfonate was the anionic surfactant compound tested. An alkyl polyethoxylate and an alkyl phenol polyethoxylate were the nonionic test surfactants. Sorption of the compounds by the algae usually was followed by release and degradation of up to 99% of some of the component parts of the surfactant molecule.
Cis‐Trans isomerization of oleic acid by nitrous acid
Authors: Litchfield Carter , Harlow R. D. , Isbell A. F. , Reiser Raymond
Published: January 2007

Oleic acid wascis‐trans isomerized by HNO2 generatedin situ by reacting NaNO2 with a mineral acid. The influence on the reaction of time, temp, agitation, solvent, amt of catalyst and type of mineral acid was investigated. Optimum reaction conditions were defined for achieving equilibrium isomerization in 30 min with minimum by‐product formation. After isomerization, nitrogenous by‐products were efficiently removed using silicic acid. The active species causingcis‐trans isomerization was tentatively identified as free radical nitrogen dioxide.
Soy processing: From beans to ingredients
Authors: Alden Don E.
Published: January 2007

Soybean processing does not end with the products oil and meal. To the food ingredient business, this is only the beginning. This presentation is a simplified general scheme to show the processing of soybeans from the whole bean to each of its end protein ingredients and to show where they might fit into the food business. It portrays bean preparation and oil extraction, meal handling, and conversion of the meal into food ingredients. Soy flour, soy concentrates, soy isolates, and modified protein products, such as spun fibers and textured vegetable protein products, are covered. Some values and applications of the ingredients also are discussed.
Mexican regulations and standards for use of soy protein for human feeding
Authors: Costabile Carlos A. Z.
Published: January 2007

A Sanitary Code, adopted in Mexico in March 1973, establishes a complete program of nutrition, including definitions for the use of soy products. Also a tax related to the social security system in the Republic of Mexico creates child care centers in which soy proteins will be included in the diets served.
Microdetermination of anionic and nonionic surfactants with aid of cholinesterase
Authors: Tsuji Kazuro , Tanaka Hironori , Konishi Kazuo
Published: January 2007

The potentiometric method for the microdetermination of anionic and nonionic surface‐active agents was studied by using the phenomena that anionics inhibit the enzyme system, cholinesterase‐butyrylthiocholine iodide, and nonionics apparently weaken the inhibitory effect of anionics. A constant current is applied across two platinum plate electrodes immersed in the solution containing butyrylthiocholine iodine and surfactant. A cholinesterase solution is added to cause enzymatic hydrolysis of substrate and a change in the electrode potential due to formation of thiol automatically recorded vs time. A decrease in the initial velocity of the enzymatic hydrolysis caused by inhibitor corresponds to the concentration of anionic surfactant. In the case of determining nonionic surfactant, a fixed amount of sodium linear pentadecylbenzenesulfonate is added as inhibitor. The degree of suppression of inhibitory effect is a direct measure of the concentration of the nonionic surfactant. By this method, 5–25 ppm sodium linear dodecylbenzenesulfonate and sodium branched dodecylbenzenesulfonate; 5–100 ppm sodium dodecyl sulate; 1–10 ppm polyoxyethylene dodecyl ether; 5–30 ppm polyoxyethylene sorbitan dodecanoate, and 5–40 ppm polyoxyethylene octylphenyl ether could be determined.
Evaluation of mettler automatic dropping point apparatus and statistical comparison with wiley melting point method
Authors: Doeden W. G.
Published: January 2007

The Mettler FP5/53 automatic thermal analysis system was used to obtain dropping point data on a series of soybean, cottonseed, palm, palm kernel, coconut, and rapeseed oils after conditioning for 30 min at freezer temperature. Wiley mp were determined simultaneously on the same samples. A linear correlation was observed between the dropping point and Wiley mp data over a temperature range of 33–50 C. Meaningful data also were obtained on various fat blends and on samples outside this temperature range. The dropping point technique was found to be more reproducible and less time consuming than the Wiley method, while offering the added advantage of automatic endpoint detection. The technique has been used successfully in our laboratories for quality control and as a means of monitoring hydrogenation studies. Although the dropping point method can be related to the Wiley mp determination, it has developed into a meaningful independent measure of the melting characteristics of fats and oils.
Oil content and composition of the seed in the world collection of sesame introductions
Authors: Yermanos D. M. , Hemstreet S. , Saleeb W. , Huszar C. K.
Published: January 2007

The quantity and quality of oil was studied in 721 introductions of sesame seed. The mean oil content was 53.1% and the iodine value 117.4. The mean per cent fatty acid composition was: palmitic 9.5, stearic 4.4, oleic 39.6 and linoleic 46.0. The oil was clear, colorless in 47.4% of the samples and light green in 37.2%. The remainder of the oil samples were dark green or brown. Short plants tended to have colorless oil while tall plants had light green oil. Early plants had a higher seed oil content. Earliness, yellow seed color and large seed size were associated with lower iodine value. A significant negative correlation was found between oleic and linoleic acid content. There was no correlation between oil content and iodine value of the oil.
Industrial application of microbial lipases: A review
Authors: Seitz Eugene W.
Published: January 2007

Commercial microbial lipases have been used in dairy and other food processes, and lipases produced in situ by microorganisms are important in making foods palatable and acceptable. Microbial lipases have been used in detergents, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, leather processing, production of aliphatic acids, and in the treatment of domestic and industrial wastes. Manufacturers offer lipolytic enzymes in powder form free of other enzymes, and sometimes they are microencapsulated for specialized applications.
Oxidation and quality of soybean oil: A preliminary study of the anisidine test
Authors: List G. R. , Evans C. D. , Kwolek W. F. , Warner K. , Boundy B. K. , Cowan J. C.
Published: January 2007

The anisidine test, a measure of secondary oxidation products in glyceride oils, was applied to a number of soybean salad oils processed from sound and damaged soybeans. A highly significant correlation (−0.68) was found between the anisidine values of salad oils from sound soybeans and their flavor scores. Multiple correlations between flavor scores, anisidine, and peroxide values yielded a correlation of 0.81 and provided a method for predicting the initial flavor scores of sound soybean salad oils. Similar data for oils from damaged beans gave a highly significant, but lower, correlation (−0.65). Comparative studies indicated that sound crude oils usually contain lower levels of oxidation products than damaged crude. Oxidation in both sound and damaged crudes increased roughly in proportion to iron content. Reproducibility of the test and the effects of hydrogenation, accelerated storage, and fluorescent light on anisidine values were studied. Analysis of damaged oils before and after deodorization showed that little, if any, reduction of anisidine value occurred. Deodorization of sound oils, however, lowered anisidine values. In comparison with damaged oils, the anisidine values of sound oils were lower at comparable stages of processing. The poor quality of damaged soybean oil was substantiated by organoleptic evaluations. Flavor scores of oils given special processing treatments increased as anisidine values decreased.
An autoanalyzer method for determining hexachlorophene in soap
Authors: Hoover W. E. , Ginn M. E. , Jungermann Eric
Published: January 2007

An AutoAnalyzer method has been developed for determining hexachlorophene in soap. The free phenol group is condensed with 4‐amino‐antipyrine, and after oxidizing with alkaline potassium ferricyanide, the resulting quinonetype dye is colorimetrically measured at 480 mƁ. Internal standards are employed having known amounts of hexachlorophene. The method is applicable to the range that would be expected in a germicide soap, i.e. from 0‐2%. The overall precision was found to be ŷ0.022% (95% confidence limits) at the 1.00% level of hexachlorophene in soap. The presence of other germicide types such as for example, carbanilides or salicylanilides, should not interfere with the determination. This routinized method should prove useful in operations where numerous repetitive measurements are made.
The autoxidative contraction of monolayers of linoleic acid at a gas‐water interface
Authors: Porter W. L. , Henick A. S. , Clifford M.
Published: January 2007

A monolayer of linoleic acid spread at an airwater interface was found to undergo an immediate oxygen‐dependent contraction when compressed at a constant high film pressure. This is in contrast to the expansion of monolayers of other unsaturated acids at lower film pressures as reported by other workers. The process shows quasi‐first‐order kinetics, and there is little evidence for an induction period, in contrast to bulk‐phase autoxidation.

Initial rate of contraction is a function of pH between 6 and 9. This and other data suggest that contraction is due to the titration of the packed adjacent carboxyl groups in the monolayer and to the solution of short‐chain soaps resulting from the oxidative scission of linoleic acid.

Although complete anaerobiasis prevented film contraction, neitherdl‐alpha‐tocopherol deposited in the film, nor hydroquinone in the substrate solution were inhibitory alone. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) present in an aerobic gas phase produced inhibition of contraction of linoleic acid films spread on completely deaerated substrates. Inhibition was released upon removal of the BHA vapor, the restored rate in air approaching that before the BHA treatment. A method of specific testing of antioxidants is thus provided, which will differentiate between those presented in the vapor, the lipid, or the solution phases.
Degradation of lipids and glucosinolates in dehulled crambe seed during storage
Authors: Baker E. C. , Mustakas G. C. , McGhee J. E.
Published: January 2007

Crambe as harvested contains seed accompanied by ca. one‐third hull, a fraction of little commercial value that can be removed during processing. If the hull were removed before shipping, considerable transportation costs could be saved. Because little was known about the quality of crambe seed after dehulling and storage, decomposition of the glucosinolates in dehulled seed after storage was studied, as well as changes in color, free fatty acids, peroxide value, and ease of hydrogenation of the oil fraction. While not so stable as seed plus pericarp (hull), dehulled crambe seed can be stored for at least 3 months at temperatures up to 110F at ambient moisture (6.3%). However, at 14% moisture, decomposition was significant after storage for 2 weeks at both ambient (77 F) and elevated (110 F) temperatures. Inactiviation of the endogenous enzyme after dehulling extends storage life to 3 months at either moisture level at ambient temperatures.
Chlorophyll adsorption by alumina‐pillared acid‐activated clays
Authors: Mokaya Robert , Jones William , Davies Mary E. , Whittle Mavis E.
Published: January 2007

Clays, acid‐activated to an optimum level, have been pillared with alumina to give semi‐crystalline expanded materials with surface acidities, pore volumes and average pore diameters generally higher than those of the corresponding pillared materials derived from a clay matrix not previously acid‐activated. The chlorophyll adsorption capacity of the pillared acid‐activated materials is significantly greater than that of pillared, nonactivated clays.

The procedures used in the preparation of these pillared acid‐activated clays (i.e., temperature of pillaring, method of drying and calcination temperature) have a significant influence on chlorophyll adsorption capacity because they influence both the physical and the chemical properties of the final pillared material. This variation provides a useful means of relating the various properties of the pillared materials to the chlorophyll adsorption capacity. As a result, a correlation has been demonstrated between adsorption capacity and a combination of pore volume and number of strong acid sites (of strength pKa < −1.5) present in the pillared material. Optimal adsorbents were obtained from freeze‐dried samples prepared by exchange at 20°C and calcination in air at 500°C.
Identification and quantitation of γ‐oryzanol components and simultaneous assessment of tocols in rice bran oil
Authors: Rogers E. J. , Rice S. M. , Nicolosi R. J. , Carpenter D. R. , McClelland C. A. , Romanczyk L. J.
Published: January 2007

A reverse‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography method was developed for the simultaneous separation and quantitation of tocopherols, tocotrienols and oryzanols present in rice bran oil. Tocopherols and tocotrienols were quantitated by fluorescence detection and oryzanols (ferulic acid esters of sterols and triterpene alcohols) by photodiode array detection. Chemical ionization mass spectrometry was used to identify cycloartenyl ferulate, 24‐methylene cycloartanyl ferulate, campesteryl ferulate, β‐sitosteryl ferulate and cycloartanyl ferulate as the major oryzanols separated by this procedure. The levels of these nutritionally significant components were found to vary in fully processed, edible rice bran oils from different manufacturers.
Oxidative decomposition of cholesterol in fish products
Authors: Ohshima Toshiaki , Li Nan , Koizumi Chiaki
Published: January 2007

Cholesterol oxides in fish products popular in Japan, including salted and dried, boiled and dried and smoked products, were qualitatively and quantitatively determined as trimethylsilyl ether derivatives by gas‐liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The level of total cholesterol oxides ranged widely between 8.3 ppm in boiled and dried shrimp and 188.0 ppm in boiled and dried anchovy. 7β‐Hydroxycholesterol and 7‐ketocholesterol were the most prominent oxidative decomposition products of cholesterol. The levels of epimeric epoxides, cholestane triol and 25‐hydroxycholesterol were relatively low. To elucidate a mechanism of cholesterol oxidation proceeding during fish processing and subsequent preservation, four model systems, consisting of a mixture of purified cod liver triglycerides plus cholesterol, of a mixture of authentic triolein plus cholesterol, of triolein alone and of cholesterol alone, were stored separately at 25°C in dry air for up to 104 d. The residual fatty acids of the triglycerides, and the cholesterol oxides produced, were recovered and determined. Oxygen uptake remained almost unchanged for the mixture of triolein plus cholesterol. No detectable amount of cholesterol oxides was produced, and the fatty acid content of the residual oleic acid, measured by an internal standard, remained almost unchanged. For the mixture of cod liver triglycerides plus cholesterol, a remarkable increase in oxygen uptake was observed. A continuous increase in the amount of cholesterol oxides was observed, accompanied by a remarkable concurrent decrease in polyunsaturated fatty acid residues, as well as of the oleic acid naturally present. These results strongly suggest that cholesterol oxidation in fish products proceeds in conjunction with oxidative decomposition of the coexisting polyunsaturated fatty acids of fish oils.
Environmental life‐cycle inventory of detergent‐grade surfactant sourcing and production
Authors: Pittinger Charles A. , Sellers Jere S. , Janzen Daniel C. , Koch Dianne G. , Rothgeb T. Michael , Hunnicutt Michael L.
Published: January 2007

Life‐cycle inventories were compiled to characterize natural resource requirements and environmental emissions associated with the sourcing and production of selected, detergent‐grade surfactants and surfactant feedstocks. Petrochemical surfactant types examined were linear alkylbenzene sulfonate, alcohol sulfate (AS), alcohol ethoxylate (AE) and alcohol ethoxylate sulfate (AES). Oleochemical surfactants derived from palm oil, palm kernel oil and inedible tallow were AS, AE, AES and (for palm oil and tallow) methyl ester sulfonate. It was determined that natural resource requirements were primarily related to the source of feedstock and secondarily to surfactant type. Likewise, the composition and mass of atmospheric, aqueous and solid emissions were principally determined by feedstock source. Energy requirements varied as a function of both feedstock and surfactant type. The inventories do not support fundamental shifts in surfactant usage or feedstock sourcing on the basis of environmental concerns, as no single surfactant or feedstock was identified as superior across all resource and emissions criteria examined. The data provide baselines for evaluating opportunities for resource optimization, pollution prevention and waste minimization within each production technology surveyed.
Design and performance of a dynamic interfacial tension spinning‐drop tensiometer
Authors: Borchardt John K. , Yates Craig W.
Published: January 2007

Two standard spinning‐drop tensiometers (SDT) have been modified by the addition of video equipment and an interface to a personal computer. (Since two tensiometers were available in our laboratory, both were modified. There is no reason why the system can’t be set up with only one tensiometer). The computer has been fitted with a special video board and a menu‐driven image enhancement and analysis program. A date‐time generator accurately measures the age of the aqueous‐organic interface. The operator can record droplet images for later analysis. Alternatively, the video board can “capture” a droplet image for immediate analysis. Analysis usually consists of measurement of drop length and drop width. However, interesting emulsification and solubilization phenomena can also be recorded for later study. These modifications greatly enhance the capabilities of the SDT. This new system is referred to as the tensiometer image analysis apparatus. Similar procedures can be used with air droplets to determine surface tension values. The operator can determine equilibrium interfacial tension (IFT) values with greater accuracy and in less time than is possible with the conventional SDT. Rapidly changing IFT values can be accurately determined at intervals of as little as one second. These capabilities have been used in studies of detergency, deresination of wood pulp, and deinking of waste paper. The video capture and analysis capabilities of this system are also useful in other applications.
Enhancement of wetting properties of water‐insoluble surfactantsvia solubilization
Authors: Rosen Milton J. , Zhu Zhen Huo
Published: January 2007

Water‐insoluble surfactants generally show poor wetting behavior in the Draves skein wetting test. This does not appear to be due to high equilibrium or dynamic surface tension values, but to the presence of insoluble surfactant in the system. The replacement of a small percentage of the insoluble surfactant by a water‐soluble one capable of solubilizing the former can produce a dramatic improvement in wetting behavior, even when the equilibrium or dynamic surface tension of the system is not significantly changed. Increase in the strength of the attractive interaction between the two surfactants generally improves the clarity of the system and decreases its wetting time.
Analysis of pentasodium triphosphate hydration kinetics
Authors: Rodríguez Patino J. M.
Published: January 2007

The present work analyzes the effect of various factors on the hydration of pentasodium triphosphate. The experimental method is based on application of the hydration test. Technical‐quality products with different proportions of phase I and phase II have been used. The variables studied are phase I/phase II ratio, initial temperature, particle size, stirring rate and composition of the slurry (presence of hexahydrate crystals and water hardness). The results have been discussed according to a kinetics model that includes a series of stages of a physical nature (dissolution of anhydrous salt and the crystallization of the hexahydrate), as well as of a chemical nature (solvation of the ions in solution). Crystallization of the hexahydrate may be the controlling stage in the process.
The use of thiobarbituric acid as a measure of fat oxidation
Authors: Sidwell C. G. , Salwin Harold , Benca Milada , Mitchell J. H.
Published: January 2007

An evaluation of thiobarbituric acid (TBA) as an agent for the measurement of fat oxidation was made by the application of several empirical procedures to animal and vegetable fats. An extraction procedure was used for removing the products of oxidation. The reaction with TBA was conducted in a boiling water bath to produce a red color, which was then estimated spectrophotometrically.

Fats stored at −20, 0, 72, and 100°F. (−29, −18, 22, and 38°C.) and fats oxidized by the active oxygen method (A.O.M.) and by ultraviolet irradiation were examined. It was found that the TBA test might be of value in following the course of oxidation of cottonseed oil and soybean oil in the A.O.M. apparatus. Higher TBA values were obtained for soybean oil than cottonseed oil at comparable peroxide values. This is of interest because of the greater tendency of soybean oil to develop oxidized flavors. The volatile reaction products of oxidation were collected in toluene, and a comparison of the TBA values at comparable peroxide values of lard, cottonseed and soybean oils showed that the soybean oil volatiles developed the greatest intensity of color.
Detoxification of cottonseed by salts and alkalies
Authors: Eagle Edward , Bialek H. F. , Davies D. L. , Bremer J. W.
Published: January 2007

In a series of four tests in which three deliberately chosen toxic cottonseed meals were treated with aqueous solutions of salts and alkalies, it was found that the best detoxifying effect was obtained with sodium hydroxide, followed very closely by potassium and ammonium hydroxides.

Dry heat treatment alone did not detoxify, and mortality was high. Treatment with moisture plus heat gave partial detoxification. Of the 22 chemically‐treated cottonseed meal samples tested, those treated with alkalies showed the best weight gains, the order of decreasing effectiveness being
urn:x-wiley:0003021X:media:aocs0121:equation:aocs0121-math-0001

The residual toxicity of treated cottonseed meals cannot be explained on the basis of their free gossypol content as analyzed for meals with high values gave better growth performance than some with lower levels of free gossypol. There were also very marked differences in final body weight after 8 weeks of feeding six different treated cottonseed meal samples having practically the same free gossypol content.
Nomographs for calculating the fatty acid composition of oils and fats from iodine values and either extinction coefficients or thiocyanogen values
Authors: Narayan K. Ananth , Kulkarni B. S.
Published: January 2007

Very few alignment charts are available which can be used for routine calculations in fat analysis and processing. Three alignment charts are presented in this communication for determining the fatty acid composition of a fatty acid mixture consisting variously of linolenic, linoleic, oleic, and saturated fatty acids or glycerides, incorporating for accuracy, data based on ultraviolet extinction coefficients. In two of the charts triangular diagrams have been used as a novel feature in nomography to give directly the fatty acid composition.
Determining the density of triglycerides and esters by the falling drop method
Authors: Sims R. P. A.
Published: January 2007

The densities of triglyceride oils and their esters have been determined by the Falling Drop Method to within ±0.0003 when the behavior of two drops is compared and to ±0.0002 when only one drop is employed. Triolein and methyl erucate have been used as reference materials and solutions of ethanol in water as media. Errors due to variation in temperature have been analyzed for the systems and apparatus employed.
Reactions of fatty acid chlorides. I. Preparation of fatty acid anhydrides
Authors: Sonntag N. O. V. , Trowbridge J. R. , Krems I. J.
Published: January 2007

The anhydrides of decanoic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids have been prepared in better than 90% yields through the corresponding acid chlorides with acetic anhydride. Oleic anhydride could only be prepared satisfactorily when oleoyl chloride was prepared, in turn, with oxalyl chloride. A comparison has been made of the various synthetic methods.
Determination of the extent of rancidity of soybean oil by gas chromatography compared with peroxide value
Authors: Jarvi P. K. , Lee G. D. , Erickson D. R. , Butkus E. A.
Published: January 2007

The development of rancidity in soybean oil has been studied by gas chromatography (GC), peroxide value (PV) and sensory evaluation. The GC method has been adapted from previous methodology and another type of column packing has been used for the purpose. The GC peaks have been treated as one whole group, and and oxidation value (OV) has been computed by means of an internal standard (n‐octanol). The OV’ have been correlated with the PV’s. The flavor of soybean oil and a blend of 50% soybean oil and 50% hydrogenated soybean oil, both kept at 60 C for varying lengths of time, was evaluated by a panel and the results have been presented in a new graphical form. A relationship between the OV and the flavor of the fat has been demonstrated. The merits of the method are discussed.
Antioxidant effects of chlorophyll and pheophytin on the autoxidation of oils in the dark. II. The mechanism of antioxidative action of chlorophyll
Authors: Endo Yasushi , Usuki Riichiro , Kaneda Takashi
Published: January 2007

To understand the mechanism of the antioxidant effect of chlorophyll on the autoxidation of oils in the dark, antioxidant activities of several derivatives of chlorophyll were compared. Antioxidant activities were observed in chlorophyll derivatives such as protopor‐phyrin methyl ester and its magnesium chelated compound. Porphyrin seems to be an essential chemical structure for the antioxidant activity of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll did not decompose the hydroperoxides, but reduced free radicals such as 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl. Electron spin resonance spectrum of the π‐cation radical was recorded during the oxidation of chlorophyll in methyl linoleate solution. These observations suggest that chlorophyll may act as a hydrogen donor to break the chain reaction.
Production of 9‐hydroperoxy‐γ‐linolenic acid by soybean lipoxygenase in a two‐phase system
Authors: Hiruta Osamu , Nakahara Toro , Yokochi Toshihiro , Kamisaka Yashushi , Suzuki Osamu
Published: January 2007

9‐Hydroperoxy‐γ‐linolenic acid (9‐GOOH) was produced selectively by soybean lipoxygenase (LG) from γ‐linolenic acid (GLA) using a two‐phase (borate buffer, pH 6.5/hexane) system at a low temperature (10°C) with some anionic surfactants that showed little inhibitory effect on the enzyme at pH 6.5. The system avoided the inhibitory effect of a higher substrate concentration and of hydroperoxide as well as low substrate solubility in an aqueous system. Not lipoxygenase‐2 (LG2) but lipoxygenase‐1 (LG1) was indicated to be responsible for the production of 9‐GOOH. Among the anionic surfactants examined, acetate and sarcosinate were shown to be suitable, but phosphate was not. Ca2+ increased the 9‐GOOH productivity. The LG1 fraction gave the maximum yield of 35% with 0.5 mM Ca2+, ECT‐3N (anionic surfactant, acetate) at 10°C and at 4.8 mM GLA in an emulsion.
Modified butyrometric method for rapid determination of fat in seeds
Authors: Ali Rashda , Khan M. Nasir
Published: January 2007

Butyrometers, the specific tubes for fat determination in dairy products, were used successfully in estimation of fats in commercially important seeds such as soybean, peanut, coconut, pinenut, walnut, sesame, almond and poppy seeds. The method is simple, rapid and economical; the results are reproducible and comparable to the standard methods for fat estimation such as the Soxhlet and solvent extraction.
Quality of nigerian palm oil after bleaching with local treated clays
Authors: Nkpa Nnadozie N. , Arowolo T. A. , Akpan H. J.
Published: January 2007

Laboratory investigations into the possibility of using local Nigerian clays in refining the Nigerian crude palm oil revealed that the Okija clay may possess some potential as an adsorptive cleanser in the refining process. Activated bentonite was used as the standard clay of comparison, and the performance of two local natural clays, leached with various concentrations of sulfuric acid, was evaluated for their use as alternative adsorptive cleansers in refining Nigerian crude palm oil. Measurements of peroxide values, para‐anisidine values, carotene content and stabilities of the oils using the active oxygen method were used in assessing the relative performance of the clays.

The clays exhibited similar trend of effects on identical batches of alkali‐neutralized palm oil. In one set of experiments poor results were obtained when the degummed and alkali‐neutralized palm oil was treated with clays leached with sulfuric acid at concentrations of 1M and 4M. Better results were obtained at acid concentrations of 2M and 3M. Bentonite proved better than Okija clay when the leaching was performed with 2M H2SO4, but both clays had comparable effectiveness when 3M H2SO4 was used for leaching. The Nsu clay gave the least encouraging results. In another series of experiments the results showed that for various dosages of clay, up to 3% by weight of the oil to be refined, the oxidative stability of the processed oil was reasonably good for an oil which was neither deodorized nor treated with antioxidants.
Production of dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid byMortierella alpina 1S‐4
Authors: Shimizu Sakayu , Akimoto Kengo , Kawashima Hiroshi , Shinmen Yoshifumi , Yamada Hideaki
Published: January 2007

The mycelial dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid content of an arachidonic acid‐producing fungus,Mortierella alpina 1S‐4, was found to increase, with an accompanying marked decrease in its arachidonic acid content, on cultivation with sesame oil. The resultant mycelia were found to be a rich source of dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid. This unique phenomenon was suggested to be due to specific repression of the conversion of dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid to arachidonic acid by the oil. After fractionation of the oil with acetone into oil and non‐oil fractions, it was found that the effective factor(s) was present in the non‐oil fraction. In a study on optimization of the culture conditions for the production of dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid byM. alpina 1S‐4, a medium containing glucose, yeast extract and the non‐oil fraction was found to be suitable for the production. Under the optimal conditions in a 50‐1 fermentor, the fungus produced 107 mg of dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid/g dry mycelia (2.17 g/l of culture broth). This value accounted for 23.1% of the total fatty acids in the lipids extracted from the mycelia. The mycelia were also rich in arachidonic acid (53.5 mg/g dry mycelia, 11.2%). Other major fatty acids in the lipids were palmitic acid (24.1%), stearic acid (7.0), oleic acid (20.1), linoleic acid (6.6) and γ‐linolenic acid (4.1).
Lipase biocatalysis in the production of esters
Authors: Linko Y. ‐Y. , Lämsä M. , Huhtala A. , Rantanen O.
Published: January 2007

Lipase biocatalysis was investigated as a tool for the production of butyl oleate and rapeseed oil 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexyl ester by esterification and transesterification, respectively. We screened 25 commercially available lipases and found that butyl oleate was produced at high yields from oleic acid and 1‐butanol by lipases fromCandida rugosa, Chromobacterium viscosum, Rhizomucor miehei, and Pseudomonas fluorescens. The initial water content of the system, lipase quantity, and the molar ratio of 1‐butanol to oleic acid were important factors in influencing the ester yield. In general, no ester was formed without the addition of water. The exception wasCh. viscosum lipase, which yielded 98% of ester in 12 h with 1‐butanol excess without additional water. The addition of 3.2% water increased the initial rate of reaction. With an oleic acid excess and only 0.3% lipase,C. rugosa andR. miehei lipases yielded 94 and 100% esters with initial water contents of 3.2 and 14%, respectively. Lipase‐catalyzed alcoholysis of low‐erucic acid rapeseed oil and 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol without additional organic solvent also was studied in stirred batch reactors. In this case,C. rugosa lipase was the best biocatalyst with an optimal 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol to rapeseed oil molar ratio of 2.8, a minimum of 1.0% added water, and 37°C. An increase in temperature up to 55°C increased the rate of reaction but did not affect the final ester yield. The enzyme was inactivated at 60°C. Under optimal conditions, the ester yield increased from 88% in 7 h to nearly complete conversion in 1 h when the lipase content was increased from 0.3 to 14.6%. In a 2‐kg small pilot scale, up to 90% conversion (97% of theoretical) was obtained in 8 h at 37°C with 3.4% lipase in the presence of Amberlite XAD‐7 resin with 3% added water.
Biochemical and cytochemical transformations in germinating coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn.)
Authors: Balachandran C. , Arumughan C.
Published: January 2007

The mechanism of mobilization and utilization of lipids by the developing seedling and the involvement of different tissues in this process was examined in germinating coconut. The endosperm (lipid reserve) and haustorium (spongy tissue developed during germination) were separated from germinating coconuts at intervals of two weeks up to week 22, and assayed for lipase, isocitrate lyase, malate synthase, and catalase, as well as for lipids and sugars. Except for lipase, activities of all the other enzymes were absent in the endosperm during the entire period of germination. However, these enzymes were found to be activated after the tenth week after germination and plateaued at week 16. Induction of these enzymes indicated the operation of the glyoxylate cycle in the haustorial tissue. Glyoxysomes also were observed in the haustorium. The haustorium was shown to absorb triacylglycerol and free fatty acids from endosperm for subsequent conversion to sugars in this tissue. Haustorium therefore is a biochemically active tissue and is the site of operation of the glyoxylate cycle in germinating coconut.
Application of enzyme‐assisted aqueous fat extraction to cocoa fat
Authors: Tano‐Debrah Kwaku , Ohta Yoshiyuki
Published: January 2007

An enzyme‐assisted aqueous fat extraction method was used to extract fat from dry cocoa beans. The beans were dehulled and finely ground. Samples were mixed with water in predetermined ratios. A protease and an enzyme with high activities of both cellulase and hemicellulase were added at 1% of the sample weight, mixed, and incubated for about 6 h at 37°C. The treated samples were then extracted by a water flotation technique. The preextraction treatment with enzymes effectively increased fat yield by about 26%. The observation suggests that the enzyme‐assisted aqueous fat extraction method could improve the efficiency of rural fats and oils technologies currently in use in many developing countries.
Long‐term stability studies on stored glycerol monostearate (GMS)‐effects of relative humidity
Authors: Robbins S. James , Nicholson Sherry H.
Published: January 2007

The long‐term hydrolysis and isomerizations that occurred in commercial glycerol monostearate (GMS) have been studied under controlled low relative humidity (ca. 30%) and high relative humidity (ca. 90–100%). Acid number values increased 2–3 units over an 84‐day period in high relative humidity, and only 0.5 unit in low humidity.

Changes in the totalα‐monoglyceride,β‐monoglyceride,α,α′‐andα,β‐diglyceride concentrations with time offered a method to observe the processes involved. Changes in monoglyceride and diglyceride concentrations of GMS were monitored using the BSTFA [(N,O)‐bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide] derivative and fused silica capillary gas chromatography. Isomerization was shown to occur before any substantial hydrolysis. Decreases in concentration ofα,β orα,α′‐diglyceride (after isomerization was essentially complete) corresponded to the acid number rises observed.
Pigment removal from canola oil using chlorophyllase
Authors: Levadoux W. L. , Kalmokoff M. L. , Pickard M. D. , GrootWassink J. W. D.
Published: January 2007

Frost‐damaged or prematurely harvested canola seed (rapeseed) may yield oil with a high chlorophyll content (50–60 µg/ml). Enzymatic hydrolysis of chlorophyll, added to buffer/surfactant, buffer/acetone or buffer/acetone/canola oil, to produce water‐soluble chlorophyllide (green pigment) was studied using a crude chlorophyllase preparation (acetone‐dried chloroplasts) from 15 to 20‐day‐old sugar beet seedlings. In buffer/surfactant, the optimum pH for enzyme activity was temperature dependent. At 30 C and 0.24% Triton X‐100 (or 30% acetone), chlorophyllase showed maximum activity toward a crude chlorophyll preparation over the range of pH 8–10. At 60 C, the activity was more than twofold higher, with a sharp maximum at ∼pH 8. Mg2+ enhanced the activity with an optimal concentration of 50 mM. At pH 7.5, 50 C and in the presence of only 6% acetone, the enzyme showed high affinity for chlorophyll (Km=15µM or 13.5 µg/ml), suggesting that the natural chlorophyll concentrations found in green canola oils might facilitate high enzymatic efficiencies. The crude enzyme was stable in buffer/acetone at pH 7.5 and 50 C for at least two hr.

With acetone concentrations as low as 6%, maximum enzyme activities in buffer and buffer/canola oil required intensive mixing (homogenization) of the various substrate, enzyme and liquid phases. In general, the rate and extent of chlorophyll hydrolysis were greater in buffer than in buffer/oil. In both reaction systems, chlorophyll hydrolysis slowed down with time due to accumulation of phytol, which proved to be a competitive inhibitor (Ki=11 µM or 3.3 µg/ml). The other hydrolysis product, chlorophyllide, did not affect enzymatic activity.

Crude canola oil used in the reconstitution of green oil did not support enzymatic chlorophyll hydrolysis without prior degumming and desoaping. The optimum buffer/oil ratio of the reaction mixtures was above 2/1 (v/v).
cis‐Vaccenic acid in pulp lipids of commonly available fruits
Authors: Shibahara Akira , Yamamoto Kohei , Nakayama Takao , Kajimoto Goro
Published: January 2007

Fatty acids of commonly available fruit pulps have been analyzed by capillary gas chromatography of their methyl esters and by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry as their dimethyl disulfide adducts. The gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric data proved that these fruits always containedcis‐vaccenic (cis‐11‐octadecenoic) acid as a component fatty acid of their pulp lipids. The concentration ofcis‐vaccenic acid in total octadecenoic acids ranged from 1.9% to 95.1% in the fruit pulps examined. The highest concentration of this acid was detected in pulp lipids of Japanese persimmon (Diospyros kaki). In fruit pulp lipids,cis‐vaccenic acid was a common octadecenoic acid as well as oleic acid.
Autoxidative rates of nonmethylene‐interrupted polyenoic fatty acids
Authors: Takagi Toru , Miyashita Kazuo
Published: January 2007

Autoxidative rates of free fatty acids and methyl esters increased in the following order: oleic (c9–18:1), c5, c9–18:2, linoleic (c9,c12–18:2), c5,c9,c12–18:3, t5,c9,c12–18:3, and linolenic (c9,c12,c15–18:3). The increase of the rates due to the Δ5‐olefinic bond was much lower than that due to an olefinic bond extension in a methylene‐interrupted sequence. Agreement of the oxidative rates obtained from conjugated diene content with those obtained from POV showed that oxygen attack did not occur at the isolated olefinic bond, but at the methylene‐interrupted diene in the oxidation of 5,9,12–18:3. The Δ5‐olefinic bond may promote the oxidation of the methylene‐interrupted diene intramolecularly.
Phase behavior and network formation in a cationic surfactant‐fatty alcohol‐water system
Authors: Benton William J. , Miller Clarence A. , Wells Robert L.
Published: January 2007

Optical microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry were used to study the behavior of dilute aqueous systems containing mixtures of a long‐chain cationic surfactant and long‐chain fatty alcohols. Both alcoholrich particles with a lamellar structure and crystalline fibers containing considerable surfactant were observed, the fibers becoming more prevalent with decreasing values of the alcohol‐to‐surfactant ratio r. For values of r exceeding about two, separate fibrous and particulate regions were seen, the latter forming continuous networks throughout individual samples and hence contributing to the viscoelastic properties known to characterize these formulations. Studies of system behavior as a function of temperature showed that melting temperatures of the fibers and particles were about 55 C and 60 C, respectively.