bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Afterword
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by briefly reviewing the two standard approaches to religion often regarded as the most widely discussed alternative perspectives on the relationship between religion and society: secularization theory and rational choice theory. It then discusses how practice theory and an emphasis on lived religion have focused attention on the intricacies of religious practice both outside and inside of religious institutions at the micro level of individual and small-group behavior and yet have failed to provide strong linkages with the macrolevel social structures and processes that interested scholars in earlier studies. The third section draws on studies of race and ethnicity to emphasize how the concept of symbolic boundaries serves as a useful way of thinking about religious categories and identities. The fourth section outlines the processes through which the identities defined by symbolic boundaries change over time and suggests how to bring in consideration of the influences on these processes of political arrangements, demographic factors, and social institutions. Finally, it suggests applications of this multilevel perspective to the analysis of religious actors' strategies of institution building, the dynamics of church and state relations, connections of religion to racial and ethnic politics, and the restructuring of religion.
Political Economics and Possibilism
Authors: Hirschman Albert O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter contains the introduction to Hirschman's collection of essays on development at the close of the 1960s, A Bias for Hope: Essays on Development in Latin America. Here, Hirschman points to the importance of the interplay between economic and political forces: not just the economic theories of politics, nor simply the political dimensions of economic phenomena, but the interactions between two fields that can open up spaces for alternatives. Hence, this chapter urges more flexibility and realism and less reliance on general laws to explain social phenomena. Freedom and creativity—in short, “a passion for the possible”—were Hirschman's watchwords in this piece.
Exit, Voice, and the State
Authors: Hirschman Albert O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter contains Hirschman's reflections on how citizens' exit and voice affect state power and expands his thinking to include a range of political possibilities, from stateless societies and small states to the ones that behave like global hegemons. The arguments in this chapter build upon those set forth in a previously published work, which had argued that economists, with their emphasis on the virtues of competition (i.e., exit), had disregarded the possible contributions of voice just as political scientists, with their interest in political participation and protest, had neglected the possible role of exit in the analysis of political behavior. This chapter is a more extensive survey on these previous arguments. In particular, it explores the importance of exit in relation to the state.
From Imperium to Imperialism
Authors: Mattingly David J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the traditional understandings of the Roman Empire and reflects on how recent developments in the study of imperialism more generally could influence the future of Roman studies. It explores problems with the orthodox paradigm of Romanization and highlights the need for alternative interpretative frameworks. It presents a case for applying the concept of creolization to the Roman Empire, despite its connotations primarily with the New World and slave society. Creole language and creole material culture are built up by the integration of the language and traditions of the underclass with elements of language and culture of the dominant colonial society, resulting in a “highly ambiguous material culture, in the sense that it is imbued with different meanings in different contexts.” In principle, these approaches adopted in North American historical archaeology to understand the material culture and social behavior of the slaves and underprivileged classes can also be applied to the archaeological record of the Roman world.
From One Colonialism to Another
Authors: Mattingly David J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how theories of modern and ancient colonialism have become interwoven and how this has affected the development of Roman archaeology in the independent countries of the Maghreb. Morocco (1956), Algeria (1963), and Tunisia (1957) gained their independence from France. The Italians held Libya (or parts of it) from 1911 until 1942, when the country fell under the British Military Administration until independence was achieved in 1951. There are inevitably “discrepant experiences” of imperialism and colonialism in the modern context, far from positive for the indigenous people (though nationalist movements grew out of resistance), while some of the old colons still peddle the myth about a lost golden age. It is inevitable in these circumstances that the modern experience should have an impact on the debate about the more remote past. The essential point made in this chapter is that all these different viewpoints must be understood in their modern as well as ancient contexts and that however wrongheaded some theories now appear we should not exclude them from debate.
Power, Sex, and Empire
Authors: Mattingly David J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the workings of power on the body and the centrality of power as a sociological and historical theme. It explores the dynamics of power in imperial situations and assesses the value of comparative studies in colonial discourse by examining aspects of sex in the Roman world and more recent colonial societies. The chapter is also written in reaction to much recent scholarship on the concept of power in the Roman world. While the specific subject is sexual power and its effect on shaping Roman sexual attitudes, the broader aim is to refocus interest on the distorting influence of power on social development and change in the Roman world.
Landscapes of Imperialism
Authors: Mattingly David J.
Published: November 2017

In recent years, a strong case has been made for identifying intensive economic growth in the provinces of Africa Proconsularis and Numidia—notably, between the second and fourth centuries AD. This thesis is supported by comparative studies of other preindustrial societies, since Roman Africa reveals virtually all the classic elements associated with this phenomenon. These include growth in agricultural production and rural population, an increase in exports of primary products, raised levels of import substitution, larger-scale units of production (farms to oileries, workshop to manufactory pottery production), the emergence of a society that was patently involved in risk taking, economic calculation, technological innovation, and other “rational” economic behavior. In this respect, Africa stands out from many other provinces of the Roman Empire, where growth of this sort did not occur. This chapter considers the factors that may account for this difference and suggests a few pointers for further work in this developing field of research.
Family Values
Authors: Mattingly David J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter concerns the intersection of art and power in the Roman world, as well as how we study Roman art. A common emphasis on the formal qualities of so-called Romanized art has created the perception of art as symbolic of the success of Rome and of the acquiescence of indigenous peoples to its rule. From this perspective, provincial art can easily be dismissed as an often inadequate imitation of Roman style and images. In turn, this tendency has also led to greatest emphasis being placed on recording and displaying those works that attained the highest technical and stylistic affinities with examples from Rome or Italy. The chapter suggests an alternative approach to the study of Roman provincial art, one that embraces a series of discreet perspectives and considers different underlying themes in the imperial dialogue (including resistance, imitation, and adoption). In this context, it focuses on ways in which the adoption of so-called Romanized style also facilitated the continuation of indigenous traditions. These and related issues are explored with a case study from the Libyan pre-desert in the fourth century AD.
The Wall Has Fallen
Authors: Reich Simon , Lebow Richard Ned
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates the glaring discrepancy between America's self-image and goals on the one hand, and others' perception of them, which may explain one of the principal anomalies of contemporary international relations: the extraordinary military and economic power of the United States and its increasing inability to get other states to do what it wants. It argues that the focus on power obscures the ways in which the international system has been evolving. Hegemony can nevertheless provide insight into these changes. The chapter unpacks the concept, arguing that by identifying the ways in which hegemony is thought to make global order possible, we can disaggregate these functions from the role and ask if it is possible to fill them in other ways. To conclude, the chapter closes by introducing the aims to this volume as well as providing a brief chapter overview.
The Vibrant Body of the Grimms’ Folk and Fairy Tales, Which Do Not Belong to the Grimms
Authors: Zipes Jack
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter describes the corpus of folk and fairy tales that the Brothers Grimm had passed on to the German people. It then asks what legacy means in this context, more specifically in how the Brothers Grimm had attempted to pass on a wealth of cultural legacy and memory which have, in the process, become so universally international. The Brothers were aware from the very beginning that they were bequeathing their collected tales to a growing literate Germanic public; they endeavored to make these people more aware of popular culture in the German principalities. By doing this—bequeathing a legacy that was not really theirs to bequeath—they helped to create a new tradition of folklore that had a nationalist tinge to it.
Hyping the Grimms’ Fairy Tales
Authors: Zipes Jack
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how the Grimms became involved in hyping their own tales to change their reception at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It first considers some of the theoretical aspects of hyping and the particular role hyping plays in the media paratexts of the culture industry. Hereafter the chapter reviews how the Brothers Grimm changed the format and scope of their tales, primarily under the influence of Taylor's 1823 translation, German Popular Stories, to make their tales more accessible to the general reading public in Germany. Lastly, the chapter examines some recent filmic adaptations of fairy tales and considers whether the hyping of these films detracts from the value of the fairy-tale genre and storytelling in general.
The Grimmness of Contemporary Fairy Tales: Exploring the Legacy of the Brothers Grimm in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Zipes Jack
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores some of the more salient contemporary Grimm variants, primarily in the fields of literature and poetry that have appeared in North and South America, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia during the twenty-first century. The chapter endeavors to choose and discuss works that represent, in the author's opinion, significant artistic contributions to our understanding of the Grimms' folk and fairy tales and are furthermore innovations that seek to alter our viewpoints on how these tales relate to current sociopolitical conditions. Alongside a discussion of these contemporary fairy tales, the chapter also touches upon its use of the terms “Grimmness” and “Grimm.”
A Curious Legacy: Ernst Bloch’s Enlightened View of the Fairy Tale and Utopian Longing, or Why the Grimms’ Tales Will Always Be Relevant
Authors: Zipes Jack
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter examines the explorations of Ernst Bloch (1885–1977), the great philosopher of hope, and Theodor Adorno (1903–69), the foremost critical thinker of the Frankfurt School, concerning the profound ramifications of the fairy tale. In doing so they made a significant contribution to the Grimms' cultural legacy. The chapter reveals that, not long after Bloch escaped the dystopian realm of East Germany in 1961, he held a radio discussion with Adorno about the contradictions of utopian longing. Both displayed an unusual interest in fairy tales and were very familiar with the Grimms' tales, which they considered to be utopian.
Whole
Authors: Levine Caroline
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes its lead from the long traditions of thought that seek to link aesthetic, philosophical, and political domains by way of the bounded whole. It explores the claim that aesthetic objects share the formal property of unity with exclusive political communities and grounding philosophical concepts, but along the way, it poses a question that is not familiar in this tradition, a question about the affordances of bounded wholes. Most critics have attended to one crucial set of affordances, focusing their attention on the fact that totalities exclude and imprison. In the process, they have not stopped to ask whether they might lay claim to other, more progressive affordances as well. Paying attention to the full range of affordances of literary and political wholes will challenge the assumption that all totalities must be disrupted or broken. In fact, we cannot do without bounded wholes: their power to hold things together is what makes some of the most valuable kinds of political action possible at all.
The Wire
Authors: Levine Caroline
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers a surprising, even counterintuitive, paradigm for bringing all four major forms together. HBO's recent television series, The Wire (2002–2008), conceptualizes social life as both structured and rendered radically unpredictable by large numbers of colliding social forms, including bounded wholes, rhythms, hierarchies, and networks. Dependent on a narrative logic that traces the effects of each formal encounter on the next, it refuses to posit a deep, prior, metaphysical model of causality to explain its world. By tracking vast numbers of social patterns as they meet, reroute, and disrupt one another, The Wire examines the world that results from a plurality of forms at work. It is argued that this series could provide a new model for literary and cultural studies scholarship.
Introduction
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter considers the scope of the history of thinking about genius. It first traces the etymology and definitions of the word “genius.” Etymologically and culturally speaking, the term is hugely overdetermined while remaining strangely underspecified in its actual applications. The chapter explores the ambiguities of the term, before outlining the history of such a discourse on genius in Europe. This history has been extensively documented and explored in ways that lend credence to the view that genius is the topic of a single, pan-European conversation to which the French, the English, and the Germans are the major contributors over the course of the eighteenth century.
Genius Obscured
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how a link was established between genius and genius in a manner that sidelines the public. It explores arguments which claims that the public—now deemed “vulgar”—lacks the requisite sensibility to respond to genius, and is bracketed out of a relation that now goes exclusively from genius to genius. Genius remains self-evident, but only to the man who is already endowed with it: he alone is equipped to recognize it, whether in himself or another. As the burden of recognition is shifted from reader-spectator to genius itself, the continuity between reader-spectator and genius is broken, and the self-evidence of genius begins to wane.
Genius under Observation
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This chapter details the emergence of a new medicine of the mind in France. The philosophical component of the new medicine was based in large part on the principles of eighteenth-century sensualist philosophy. This tradition held out to the practitioners of mental medicine the presumption of a connection between the body and the mind, which had particular importance for their growing interest in genius. The broad consensus that had existed in the eighteenth century between aesthetics and a philosophy of the mind is mostly lost in the nineteenth century as two opposing models of mental functioning emerge. The powers of observation widely attributed to genius in the eighteenth century were now claimed as the prerogative of (medical) science, and contrasted with imagination, which was predominantly associated with genius and the arts.
Genius Restored to Health
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents arguments for a model of genius defined as the optimal expression of the human mind. This view dominated discussion in the last twenty years of the century, when the medical profession mounted a challenge to its previous pathologizing of genius, and devoted its energies and insights to bringing it back within the bounds of normal mental functioning. The theme was taken up by the philosopher Gabriel Séailles in his Essai sur le génie dans l' art (An essay on genius in art, 1883), where he argues for a view of genius as a manifestation of the healthy human mind. The chapter studies other echoes of this theme in such individuals as Édouard Toulouse and Maurice de Fleury, among others.
A Novel of Female Genius
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the links between women and genius in the figure of Mme De Staël's Corinne (from her 1807 of the same name). At the time of its publication women there seemed to be no place for women in genius or for genius in women. At the same time, however, the novel, which was traditionally associated with a female readership, was gaining status as a literary genre. Mme de Staël, as one of the rare women commentators on genius, curiously made no explicit attempt to counter the arguments of those who denied genius to her sex and even echoed many of their assumptions. Yet she would eventually come to portray the heroine of her second novel, Corinne, as an unambiguous incarnation of female genius.
Minou Drouet
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the controversies surrounding the Minou Drouet affair, with Minou being a previously unknown eight-year-old child poet who had captured public interest. The publisher René Julliard had distributed a selection of her letters and poems in the form of a little pamphlet sent to critics, writers, and friends “to put down a marker” and provide advance publicity for the first commercial edition of Minou's poetry, Arbre, mon ami (Tree, my friend), which was scheduled to appear in January 1956, whereafter it sold forty-five thousand copies. In the meantime, and in the absence of any book publication, the affair took off and developed into a full-scale controversy as the authenticity of Minou's talent was called into question. This chapter considers Minou's story in light of the public perception on child prodigies—initially as objects of collective curiosity, and hereafter as the target of suspicion.
The Return of Genius
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: November 2017

This chapter chronicles the return of genius as a viable object of thought, this time in the context of madness. It first turns to the conjunction between neurosis and full-blown psychosis where genius commands greatest attention in the latter half of the twentieth century. This is explored in the case of Friedrich Hölderlin, who becomes the object of theoretical attention in the early 1950s. The chapter shows how, in the early years of theory Pierre Jean Jouve (a poet-essayist, more than a theorist in the late twentieth-century style) and Maurice Blanchot have examined the case of Hölderlin, with supporting illustration from other examples.
Analytic Philosophy in America
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the development of analytic philosophy in the United States, starting with the pragmatism of Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and (later) Clarence Irving Lewis, and continuing through the great immigration of philosophers of science, philosophical logicians, and logical positivists from the turn of the twentieth century to the outbreak of World War II. It also provides broad-brush overviews of some of the most important philosophical debates that occupied American analytic philosophers during the last half of the twentieth century, including the Quine–Carnap debate about meaning and analyticity, the struggle over modality, the rise of philosophical logic and its application to the study of natural language, the Davidsonian program, Saul Kripke and the end of the linguistic turn, John Rawls and the resuscitation of normative theory, and a smattering of other, more specialized topics.
What Are Natural Kinds?
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter approaches the ontological question, “What are natural kinds?” through another, partially linguistic, question. “What must natural kinds be like if the conventional wisdom about natural kind terms is correct?” Although answering this question will not tell us everything we want to know, it will, be useful in narrowing the range of feasible ontological alternatives. The chapter summarizes the contemporary linguistic wisdom and then tests different proposals about kinds against it. It takes simple natural kind terms—like “green,” “gold,” “water,” “tiger,” and “light”—to be Millian terms that rigidly designate properties typically determined by a reference-fixing stipulation to the effect that the general term is to designate whatever property provides the explanation of why, at actual world-state, all, or nearly all, the samples of items associated with the term by speakers who introduce it have the observational properties they do.
Rationalizability and Common Knowledge of Rationality
Authors: Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the implications of rationality in normal form games. It first explores the ramifications of the rationalizability assumption and shows that in many cases rational individuals will not play rationalizable strategies. It argues that the informal reasoning supporting rationalizability must be replaced by a more rigorous analytical framework. This framework is known as epistemic game theory. Using epistemic game theory, it presents the argument that not rationality, but rather common knowledge of rationality, implies that players will only use rationalizable strategies. The chapter concludes by showing that there is no justification of the common knowledge of rationality assumption, and hence there is no reason to believe that in general rational players will choose rationalizable strategies. It strengthens this conclusion by showing that even assuming common knowledge of rationality, there is no reason for a rational player to conform to the iterated elimination of strongly dominated strategies.
The Logical Antinomies of Knowledge
Authors: Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

The critique of common knowledge of rationality (CKR) developed in the preceding chapters should convince researchers interested in explaining social reality to simply avoid the concept. The actual cost of abandoning CKR in terms of explaining social behavior is minimal because the Nash equilibrium concept itself is problematic when the recursive nature of interagent beliefs is important and the correlated equilibrium is by far the more cogent equilibrium concept. Nevertheless, it may seem curious that we must reject CKR even in situations where all players are in fact rational. What, after all, is the problem with assuming agents know something that is in fact true? This chapter discusses the pitfalls of naïve epistemic logic, the common knowledge of logicality paradox, the Surprise Examination problem, the modal logic of knowledge, and a solution to the Surprise Examination conundrum.
The Analytics of Human Sociality
Authors: Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

The folk theorem requires that each action taken by each player carry a signal that is conveyed to the other players. A signal is imperfect if all players receive the same signal; the signal is perfect if it accurately reports the player's action. The question of the signal quality required to obtain efficient cooperation is especially critical when the size of the game is considered. Generally, the folk theorem does not even mention the number of players, but in most situations in real life, the larger the number of players participating in a cooperative endeavor, the lower the average quality of the cooperation vs. defection signal because generally a player observes only a small number of other players with a high degree of accuracy, however large the group involved. This chapter explores this issue and illustrates the problem by applying the Fudenberg et al. (1994) framework to the Public Goods Game, which in many respects is representative of contexts for cooperation in humans.
Concernment
Authors: Strawson Galen
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines John Locke's notion of concernment, which for him is more fundamental than the notion of responsibility when it comes to the question of personal identity. It begins with the argument that the being or extent of a subject of experience's personhood or personal identity is not simply identical with the being or extent of its field of responsibility, because the notion of a person is not an exclusively moral or forensic term, as it might be if it concerned only a set of actions. Instead, one's personhood or personal identity also comprises one's substantial constitution, that is, a whole human material body plus an immaterial soul. The chapter considers Locke's view that Concernment entails a capacity for pleasure and pain and shows that that the field of responsibility lies completely inside the field of consciousness, which in turn lies wholly inside the field of concernment.
The Distinction between [P] and [S]
Authors: Strawson Galen
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the difference between John Locke's definition of a person [P], considered as a kind of thing, and his definition of a subject of experience of a certain sophisticated sort [S]. It first discusses the equation [P] = [S], where [S] is assumed to be a continuing thing that is able to survive radical change of substantial realization, as well as Locke's position about consciousness in relation to [P]'s identity or existence over time as [S]. It argues that Locke is not guilty of circularity because he is not proposing consciousness as the determinant of [S]'s identity over time, but only of [S]'s moral and legal responsibility over time. Finally, it suggests that the terms “Person” and “Personal identity” pull apart, in Locke's scheme of things, but in a perfectly coherent way.
Concernment and Repentance
Authors: Strawson Galen
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines John Locke's position regarding concernment and repentance. It first considers various possibilities for past events to become part of present consciousness before discussing guilt as a form of concernment in relation to consciousness, personhood, accountability, and punishability. It then explores the idea that one's overall forensic condition, or fundamental moral standing, at any time, either now or on the Day of Judgment, lies in his overall moral character or moral being at that time. It also analyzes the possibility that repentance—metanoia—can cancel out or detach one from a past wrongdoing in such a way that he won't be punished for it on the Day of Judgment, or indeed on some earlier, sublunary occasion, even though he remembers perfectly well what he did.
Masters of the Universe
Authors: Stedman Jones Daniel
Published: November 2017

Based on archival research and interviews with leading participants in the movement, this book traces the ascendancy of neoliberalism from the academy of interwar Europe to supremacy under Reagan and Thatcher and in the decades since. The book argues that there was nothing inevitable about the victory of free-market politics. Far from being the story of the simple triumph of right-wing ideas, the neoliberal breakthrough was contingent on the economic crises of the 1970s and the acceptance of the need for new policies by the political left. This edition includes a new foreword which addresses the relationship between intellectual history and the history of politics and policy. Fascinating, important, and timely, this is a book for anyone who wants to understand the history behind the Anglo-American love affair with the free market, as well as the origins of the current economic crisis.
Introduction
Authors: Stedman Jones Daniel
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses how the nuances of postwar neoliberalism, the relationship of its political and organizational character to the thought of its main academic representatives, and the way such ideas were mediated through an ideological infrastructure and international network have yet to be fully explored by historians. The transatlantic character of neoliberalism has often been taken for granted without its origins and development being properly excavated. The degree to which neoliberalism is seen as the ideology of a malevolent globalization by critics has prevented an understanding of the sources of its broad popularity, as it was dressed up in the rhetoric of the Republican and Conservative Parties, among electorates in the United States and Great Britain.
The Postwar Settlement
Authors: Stedman Jones Daniel
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the contours and limits of the political settlement in Great Britain and the United States in the middle of the twentieth century. It shows how at the heart of both New Deal liberalism and the British Liberal and Labour reforms was a happy conception of the state so long as its power was in the hands of an enlightened and expert policy elite. The famous Brain Trust around Franklin Roosevelt and the progressive liberal civil service personified by Beveridge and Keynes fit exactly this notion of top-down reform for the benefit of society as a whole. The progressive liberal project was not revolutionary; it was born of a desire to preserve and defend liberal democracy and the capitalist system.
Keynesianism and the Emergence of Monetarism, 1945–1971
Authors: Stedman Jones Daniel
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the neoliberal breakthrough came in the seemingly unlikely realm of technical economic policy. The long postwar boom, often dubbed the Golden Age of capitalism, continued through the 1950s and 1960s, when politicians and publics alike believed they understood how to effectively manage capitalism using the tools of demand management developed by John Maynard Keynes, and especially as expanded by the next generation of Keynesian economists. Moreover, an important set of ideas emerged from the transatlantic neoliberal network during the 1950s and 1960s that would pave the way for a much larger challenge to the dominance of New Deal liberalism and social democracy. This body of thought centered on the restatement of the quantity theory of money by Milton Friedman.
Economic Strategy
Authors: Stedman Jones Daniel
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how economic crises led to the breakthrough of transatlantic neoliberal politics in the 1970s. As Great Britain and the United States experienced stagflation—the combination of high unemployment, high inflation, and low or no growth—political leaders and policymakers cast around for serious alternative economic policies to Keynesian demand management. The end of the Bretton Woods international monetary system, two oil price shocks in 1973 and 1979, the Vietnam War, the Watergate break-in at the Democratic Party headquarters in Washington, D.C., Great Britain's International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan of 1976, the virtual collapse of British industrial relations, and the failure of the prices and income policies that were supposed to fight inflation in both countries all created a policy vacuum into which neoliberal ideas flowed.
The Wanderer
Authors: Garland Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the centrality of wandering to the experience of being Greek. From earliest times, the Greeks were in restless movement, propelled from their familiar habitat either by human force or by the exigencies of their environment. Wanderer refers to the tens of thousands of men, women, and children who left their homes without a settled route or fixed destination. A wanderer in this sense was not only apolis (without a city-state), but also aphrêtôr (without a phratry), and anestios (without a hearth). In other words, he or she was stripped not only of civic and political identity, but also, even more fundamentally, of social and familial identity. Without attachment to a phratry, a Greek was denied membership of one of the primary divisions of Greek society, and without attachment to a hearth, he or she was estranged from that most basic unit of Greek life, namely the oikos or oikia (home, household).
The Evacuee
Authors: Garland Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the logistics of evacuation. The logistics of evacuating thousands of people in the lead-up to the outbreak of hostilities was one of the most challenging exercises a polis could undertake. Very often the decision would have been taken only in the teeth of great resistance by the inhabitants, many of whom would have found it impossible, at least initially, to conceive of a life elsewhere. Many families, faced with the need to make an immediate decision, must have found themselves riven by discord. Rarely, too, would an entire population have made it to safety. However, Greek historians give little attention to wartime evacuations, even though they must have been commonplace. Indeed, it may well be because they were so frequent that they provide only the briefest commentary.
The Fugitive
Authors: Garland Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at fugitives. In Athenian law, and in the laws of other city-states, exile was used to punish those guilty of voluntary and involuntary homicide, politicians who had committed treason, and generals who had suffered a military defeat. Depending on the circumstances of the crime, it might be imposed either for life or for a fixed term of years. It frequently involved loss of civic rights and/or confiscation of property. However, when one reads the word phugê in a literary text or inscription, it is often unclear whether it signifies a sentence that has been passed in a court of law, or the voluntary flight of an accused individual engendered by fear of prosecution or violence at the hands of the murder victim's enraged countrymen.
The Economic Migrant
Authors: Garland Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the reasons for becoming an economic migrant. In the modern world, economic migrants tend to be both entrepreneurial and dynamic, having demonstrated their willingness to take risks and leave their homes in order to create opportunities for themselves and their families. There is every reason to suppose that economic migrants in the ancient world would have been equally entrepreneurial and dynamic. A primary motivation for the movement of people in the modern world is the desire to escape financial destitution and starvation, though distress caused by political upheavals runs a close second. In the ancient world by contrast, where servile labor was readily available, merchants and craftsmen were the ones most likely to better their economic circumstances by migration.
Strangers No More
Authors: Alba Richard , Foner Nancy
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the challenges of immigrant integration in Western Europe and North America. A central question is how to integrate immigrants and their children so that they become full members of the societies where they now live. Full membership means having the same educational and work opportunities as long-term native-born citizens, and the same chances to better their own and their children's lot. It also means having a sense of dignity and belonging that comes with acceptance and inclusion in a broad range of societal institutions. The challenges of integration are complicated by the widespread resistance of natives to immigrants and their children. There are anxieties about whether the newcomers will fit in and fears that they will undermine the basic foundations of established ways of life.
Economic Well-being
Authors: Alba Richard , Foner Nancy
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the economic situations of the immigrants. They have uprooted themselves in the search for better economic prospects, but profound changes in the economic structures of the rich societies of the West in recent years raise serious doubts about whether their aspirations will be fulfilled and therefore about the starting point for the next generation. The chapter then explores the implications of growing labor market inequality and precarious work for the economic incorporation of immigrants, including rates of labor force participation, unemployment, and risks of poverty. The emphasis is on how immigrants are doing compared to natives in the countries where they live, with the emphasis on low-status immigrants.
Living Situations
Authors: Alba Richard , Foner Nancy
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the residential contexts of immigrant families, which also affect the starting point for the second generation. Fears that immigrants and their children will end up living in “parallel societies” like the black ghettoes of American cities are vastly overblown. Nevertheless, neighborhoods of immigrant concentration, at least for low-status groups, may create marked disadvantages. The chapter assesses the actual extent, and consequences, of residential segregation, and looks at the role of public policies in shaping these patterns. Neighborhoods are often the places where immigrant minorities and native majorities have initial contacts and thus where the impacts of immigration on the mainstream society are particularly salient. The chapter then considers the emergence of “super-diverse” neighborhoods.
The Problems and Paradoxes of Race
Authors: Alba Richard , Foner Nancy
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on race, with a stress on the special position of the United States. While color-coded race is a source of stigma in Canada and Western Europe, it is a more severe barrier in the United States, especially for immigrants of African ancestry and their children, owing to the legacy of slavery, legal segregation, and ghettoization. Yet, the paradox of racial dynamics in the United States is that they have also had some positive consequences for immigrants there, who are overwhelmingly people of color from Latin America, Asia, and the Caribbean. Ultimately, the heritage of the U.S. civil rights movement and legislation of the 1960s as well as the sheer presence and size of the native black population have provided immigrants in the United States with certain advantages that they lack in Europe and Canada.
Who Are the “We”? Identity and Mixed Unions
Authors: Alba Richard , Foner Nancy
Published: November 2017

This chapter further explores the second generation by examining a subjective topic: feelings of belonging. At the bottom, the issue is the extent to which the children of immigrants feel truly at home in the societies where they are living, and whether they are seen by others as perennial outsiders. In exploring identities, the key questions are how, and to what degree, a national identity is extended to those of immigrant background. A related subject concerns intermarriage or—more broadly, since family partnerships are increasingly formed without marriage ceremonies—mixed unions. The chapter then looks at the acceptability of the descendants of new immigrants by dominant majority groups through an analysis of mixed unions, examining both the frequency and consequences of these most intimate of relations.
Conclusion: The Changing Face of the West
Authors: Alba Richard , Foner Nancy
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter summarizes the lessons learned from this book's study. This book has analyzed the experiences of immigrants and their children in Europe and North America in the contemporary period, putting heavy emphasis on institutional factors shaping their successes as well as continued difficulties. Yet a consideration of potential remedies calls attention to the fact that the problems that have been discussed are not inevitable or unchangeable. In the years ahead, a wide range of social, economic, and political changes are likely to have positive effects on integration pathways, including: the transformation of population structures; educational and occupational gains made by many children and grandchildren of immigrants who may also live near, work with, and sometimes form families with longer-established natives; and growing political representation of immigrant minorities. Government policies as well as strategies and political struggles by those of immigrant origin themselves also have the potential to ameliorate or reduce difficulties they currently face.
American Big Business in Britain and Germany
Authors: Berghahn Volker R.
Published: November 2017

While America's relationship with Britain has often been deemed unique, especially during the two world wars when Germany was a common enemy, the American business sector actually had a greater affinity with Germany for most of the twentieth century. This book examines the triangular relationship between the American, British, and German business communities and how the special relationship that Britain believed it had with the United States was supplanted by one between America and Germany. The book begins with the pre-1914 period and moves through the 1920s, when American investments supported German reconstruction rather than British industry. The Nazi seizure of power in 1933 led to a reversal in German–American relations, forcing American corporations to consider cutting their losses or collaborating with a regime that was inexorably moving toward war. Although Britain hoped that the wartime economic alliance with the United States would continue after World War II, the American business community reconnected with West Germany to rebuild Europe's economy. And while Britain thought they had established their special relationship with America once again in the 1980s and 1990s, in actuality it was the Germans who, with American help, had acquired an informal economic empire on the European continent. This book uncovers the surprising and differing relationships of the American business community with two major European trading partners from 1900 through the twentieth century.
Cooperation, Peaceful Competition, and the Specter of War, 1902–1914
Authors: Berghahn Volker R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces how American business relations with the two major industrial powers of Europe developed up to 1914. It shows how American economic ties with Britain had been weakening for several years, but then saw a restrengthening as the political threat of a major war loomed larger and larger on the horizon. The Anglo-American relationship became close and in this sense “special” at the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and Germany in August 1914. Meanwhile German–American economic relations, which, despite many political difficulties, had been intensifying after the turn of the century, became antagonistic in the summer of 1914, even if it took until April 1917 for Washington formally to enter the world conflict on the Allied side against Berlin and Vienna.
Nazi Germany, Appeasement, and Anglo-American Big Business, 1933–1941
Authors: Berghahn Volker R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter covers the years up to the official American entry into World War II on the side of Britain and the Soviet Union against Germany, Italy, and Japan. During the years 1933–41, strategies were developed by those six countries and then turned into actual policies that determined the shape of the relations of American big business with Britain and Germany during the subsequent wartime and postwar periods. And this decade was also decisive for the organization of both the world economy and world politics for the following fifty years until the collapse of the Soviet Bloc in 1989–90.
A Clash of Rights
Authors: Sniderman Paul M. , Petersen Michael Bang , Slothuus Rune , Stubager Rune
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains why, even in the cauldron of a crisis over the claims of Islam, fear of and anger toward Islamic fundamentalists did not spill over to Muslims in Denmark. It focuses on the support for the civil rights of Danish Muslims and advances a theory of group categorization and civil rights. The theoretical premise is that it is not possible to form individualized judgments about the civil rights to which each and every group is entitled. It is not possible for ordinary citizens or, for that matter, political theorists. All of us must simplify, and we simplify by organizing groups into a small number of categories—indeed, as an empirical matter, into two categories: Muslims and Islamic fundamentalists. The chapter shows that ordinary citizens drew a clear distinction between them. The public at large—routinely derided as so ill informed about politics and incoherent in their thinking as to be unable to discharge the duties of democratic citizenship—in fact treated Muslims as they would treat groups that are controversial but undeniably legitimate.
Flash Point
Authors: Sniderman Paul M. , Petersen Michael Bang , Slothuus Rune , Stubager Rune
Published: November 2017

This chapter aims to bring to light how—and why—the ideological foundations of party systems in western Europe pose a potentially explosive threat to the inclusion of immigrants. It has, of course, long been recognized that right-wing ideological values are a major force propelling anti-immigration politics. Though by no means the only symptom, the most florid expression is the rise of radical anti-immigration parties—among others, the National Front in France, Freedom Party in the Netherlands, Flemish Interest in Belgium, and Freedom Party of Austria. Rather than focus on such anti-immigration parties, the chapter looks at the political mainstream. It examines what is happening at the center of politics, not at its extremes. It shows that a large pool of voters predisposed to respond to the appeals of anti-immigration parties are gathering at the political center. They have not yet become adherents of extremist parties, and it is not preordained that they will. But they have a bent of mind—an ideological outlook—that makes them susceptible to extremist appeals. The real potential for change in the future rests with those who are presently centrists yet potential defectors to the political extremes.
Knowledge and Pleasure
Authors: Lampe Kurt
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the theoretical foundations of Cyrenaicism, which are the positive valuation of pleasure, the negative valuation of pain, and the impossibility of discerning any value independent of pleasure or pain. This is a good example of a topic where chronological analysis descends almost immediately into pure speculation: it is best to treat Cyrenaic epistemology as the shared intellectual property of almost all the philosophers studied in this chapter. Investigating how the Cyrenaics describe pleasure, how they argue for its preeminent choiceworthiness, and how this choiceworthiness is supposed to guide their actions and establish their horizon of care is a good way to begin exploring their ethics.