bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Revenue Sharing: Citizen Participation and Social Service Aspects
Authors: Cole Richard L.
Published: March 2007

For those concerned with the opportunities of citizen participation in local politics and with the propor tion of federal assistance monies allocated to social service needs, general revenue sharing often is viewed as a double threat. Not only does the revenue sharing legislation fail to require any specific proportion of the returned money to be spent on social needs, but it also fails to include any provisions for the mandatory participation of local citizens in the expenditure of the funds. Thus, revenue sharing, and the entire concept of "New Federalism," marks a dramatic and potentially profound change from the categorical grant programs of the 1960s. This article reviews the citizen participation and social service issues of revenue sharing and examines the available empirical evidence concerning these matters. It finds that, while the fears of some revenue sharing critics cannot be dismissed lightly, the program has not led to a complete demise of participation opportunities, nor can it be said to have ignored totally social service concerns. It suggests that those interested in receiving greater proportions of revenue sharing funds organize and compete with other groups at the local level. In the final analysis, the most important and lasting contribution of revenue sharing may be the stimulation and encouragement of increased interest and involvement of previously ignored groups in the urban decision making process.
Revenue Sharing and Structural Features of American Federalism
Authors: Wright Deil S.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the impact of general revenue sharing on three structural features of American federalism: (1) governmental entities (number and employ ment) ; (2) institutions and actors' roles; and (3) behavioral perspectives. Revenue sharing will probably inhibit the further proliferation of special districts, sustain some town ships that might atrophy, increase public employment levels, and foster or accentuate the secular shift of state govern ment toward a service-oriented component of the federal system. General revenue sharing is both a cause and an effect of pluralistic power patterns. It is an important resource for political-administrative generalists in counteracting the influence of functional or program specialists. The generalist coalition, however, exhibits fragile features when compared with the strengths of policy making subsystems in Washing ton. Existing competitive, taut, and tension-laden inter governmental relationships are in part the product of partic ipants' perceptions. General revenue sharing appears to have relaxed tense relations by altering behavioral perspectives.
Population and Scarcity of Food
Authors: Lee Everett S.
Published: March 2007

The world's population is growing at a rate which cannot be sustained. Rapid growth, however, is seldom found outside developing countries, while developed coun tries are close to zero population growth. Since World War II there have been impressive gains in agricultural pro ductivity in developed countries, but in underdeveloped countries there has been little or no improvement in per capita production. Western methods of agriculture, though highly productive in yield per acre or yield per man-hour, are so extravagant in the use of energy that these methods are not transferable. Agricultural methods which are sparing in the use of energy must be developed for all countries, but particularly for underdeveloped countries. Still, no fore seeable improvements in agricultural production will permit long term growth of population in underdeveloped countries. The time remaining to make the necessary adjustments be tween population and natural resources is short, and there is no time for social and economic developments to bring down the birth rate in developing countries in the gradual fashion of developed countries.
Scarcity: Prerequisite to Abundance
Authors: Malenbaum Wilfred
Published: March 2007

"Adjust to current world scarcities and to limits imposed by Planet Earth's fixed endowment of non renewable resources: learn to live with less." Such counsel reflects not a shortage of material endowment, but a short age of the quality of man—his state of indifference, inept ness or incompetence. "Adjust to current scarcities and threats of limits by resuming economic expansion so that output continues to increase more rapidly than popula tion." This course assumes no cornucopia of material abun dance in the world. It reflects the conviction that man has the power to assure continuous improvement in the quality of life. These alternative views are assessed in the light of existing doctrines of economic and societal change and in the light of the actual scarcities of 1974 and 1975. The article argues that today's food, energy, materials and over all national product scarcities are not caused by limitations of the earth's material endowments, but rather follow from man's limited horizons and limited performance. There is ample scope for continuous progress, particularly in the poor lands of the world. The real problem is the political will of man, operating through his private and public institutions, to create economic, legal and social conditions that encour age the expansion of individual participation in produc tive activity and that enhance each individual's capacity to contribute to national progress.
The Urban-Suburban Investment-Disinvestment Process: Consequences for Older Neighborhoods
Authors: Bradford Calvin P. , Rubinowitz Leonard S.
Published: March 2007

The pattern of suburban growth and decline of older neighborhoods within metropolitan areas is often seen as inevitable. However, these processes are shaped, in a significant way, by a relatively small number of private sector actors, including institutional investors, developers and mortgage bankers. Because of their ideologies and their perception of the economic realities, these interests invest increasingly in large scale developments on the suburban fringe and choose not to invest in older urban and suburban neighborhoods. These investment decisions have significant negative impacts on these older, middle class neighborhoods which are struggling to remain viable. With the withdrawal of these traditional sources of real estate investment capital, such neighborhoods face a concentration of foreclosures and abandonment of housing. Because these investment decisions are so important to the future of older neighborhoods, it is appropriate that there be public intervention to assure that there is an adequate flow of capital into these neighborhoods. The approaches which might be used include regulation—that is, requiring the industry to change invest ment patterns without rewarding them for doing so—and subsidy—providing incentives for investors to provide capital for older neighborhoods.
Suburbanization of Ethnics of Color
Authors: Siembieda William J.
Published: March 2007

The suburbanization of ethnics of color made slow progress during the 1960s. The nation continued its long term trend towards dual societies. Only one major metro politan area, Los Angeles, was able to double the number of ethnics of color (blacks and Mexican-Americans) living outside the central city. However, the central city still became blacker, browner and poorer. The ethnics of color who migrated to the suburbs were middle class and had a high propensity toward homeownership. Rises in real income, an available housing supply, a lessening of dis crimination practices and an economically differentiated metropolitan area are variables that help explain the Los Angeles experience. Ethnics of color did not suburbanize in a random manner. They tended to locate in selected sub urban communities, forming flows to the southern and eastern sections of Los Angeles County. Most lived in segregated suburban neighborhoods. The goal of an integrated society is still far in the future.
The Press and the Pollster
Authors: Cantril Albert H.
Published: March 2007

The polling of public opinion has taken firm hold in our political process. It is seductive in its seeming ability to capture elusive and complex public attitudes in a few percentages. Yet, the results of polls can obscure as well as clarify the mood of the populace. Most of the visible polling activity is an extension of journalism. At the same time, however, polling has its intellectual roots in social science. A tension is inherent in the relationship. The press has certain requirements which have conse quences for the kind of polling that is undertaken. Grow ing sophistication, however, is being manifest by the press, which is the best omen for a more felicitous relationship be tween polling and the mass media.
"Equal Opportunities" and "Fairness" in Broadcast Coverage of Politics
Authors: Petrick Michael J.
Published: March 2007

Government regulation of political broadcasting is grounded in the laudable goals of providing candidates for office with "equal opportunities" to inform the citizenry via the public airwaves and of promoting general "fair ness" in broadcast coverage of controversial political issues. Congress has mandated these principles, and the courts have played some role in interpreting them. But day-to-day problems of implementation and clarification fall on the Federal Communications Commission. A review of FCC de cisions suggests that enforcement and interpretation of the "equal opportunities" requirements has created uncertainty among candidates and broadcasters alike and has discouraged bold and controversial political broadcasting. In attempts to apply the "fairness" principle to broadcast coverage of poli tics, the FCC's piecemeal approach has resulted in charges of partisan decision making, of over-deference to broad casters, and of interfering with broadcast journalism.
The Press and the Voter
Authors: Robinson John P.
Published: March 2007

Whatever improvements have taken place in political reporting, the voting public has become increasingly critical of press performance. Primarily because of the lack of adequate feedback mechanisms, reporters still fail to rec ognize how their views of politics differ from those of the voter. Greatest use of the media is made by the portion of the public most attentive to politics, and the newspaper rather than television seems to be the most effective of the political media. While the research literature has tradition ally indicated that media serve a reinforcement function rather than a change agent function, instances of the polit ical impact of the media are being documented with increas ing frequency. The more significant role that the media play at the elite levels of politics has received little systematic research attention. Such research attention might well allow reporters to be more resistant to manipulation by public officials and also to bring voters more closely into the re alities of the political process.
American Politics and the Press: A View from Abroad
Authors: Midgley John
Published: March 2007

Among several peculiarities of the American political system, that of popular participation in the selection of candidates offers a safeguard against, or remedy for, estrangement between the political establishment and the electorate that European countries generally do not enjoy. It also adds length and complexity to the political cam paigns and affects the mode of press coverage. Estrange ment is not rendered impossible, it is made capable of being corrected without an overturning or reconstruction of the entire system. The discovery that such an estrangement had begun to arise led to the recognition of the "Washing ton issue" as an element in the campaign of 1976. In that discovery, the press was impelled to play a part by its realization, beginning in 1968, that the press itself had become dangerously out of touch with the state of mind of a substantial section of the American public. Its attempts to get back in touch led it to identify "Washington" as an issue. The system of attaching political reporters for extended periods to particular campaign beats, a response to the singular characteristics of American political cam paigns, carries dangers of undue dependence on political per sonages, on the one hand, and of avoidable isolation from the general public mind, on the other. A more flexible arrangement is suggested.
The Changing American Farm
Authors: Breimyer Harold F.
Published: March 2007

The American farm has never been as homoge neous or as stable as it appears in nostalgic recollection. Its historic emphasis on fee simple ownership by operating proprietors was nevertheless a marked departure from its feudal antecedent and remains relevant today. Farmers' desires for status and for managerial independence have not mitigated. They are subject to (1) changes, such as increase in size, that have no deep significance; and (2) other changes, such as increased dependence on nonfarm inputs, that bring more specialization of enterprise, including growing detach ment of livestock (and poultry) farming from crop farming, and that make farming more sensitive to the terms of relation ship with input-supplying as well as market industries. En croachment of those industries via vertical integration (ownership or contract) along with internal growth of some farms to larger than family size gradually shrink the domi nance of the traditional family farm. Even so, the most viable unit may be the part-time or retirement farm, which does not depend heavily on farm income. The ultimate question re lates to what national policy is to be. Past policy has been ambivalent, and no clear direction for the future is to be seen.
Rural-Urban Differences in Attitudes and Behavior in the United States
Authors: Glenn Norval D. , Hill Lester
Published: March 2007

Recent American data reveal moderate to sub stantial farm-nonfarm differences on a few kinds of attitudes and behavior, but since farm people now are only about 4 percent of the population, the farm-nonfarm distinction can not account for much of the total variation of any kind of attitudes or behavior. The kinds of attitudes and behavior which differ substantially between farm and nonfarm people usually differ monotonically by community size; hence, "ruralism" seems to some extent to characterize residents of the smaller dense settlements and, to a lesser extent, those of intermediate-sized cities. Furthermore, city residents with rural backgrounds tend to retain rural attitudes and be havior characteristics, size of community of origin being a stronger predictor of some attitudes than size of com munity of current residence. Although the association of community size with a more or less representative list of attitudinal variables is weak, such correlates of community size as age and socioeconomic status do not largely ac count for the larger associations, which probably reflect a tendency for social and cultural change to occur earlier in the larger communities. The explanatory utility of size of community of origin and of residence seems less than that of age and education but at least as great as that of several other explanatory variables favored by social scientists, such as family income and occupational prestige.
The Rural Aged
Authors: Youmans E. Grant
Published: March 2007

Available data suggest that the rural aged, com pared with urban older people, have substantially smaller incomes, are restricted in mobility because of inadequate transportation facilities, report poorer physical health, and reveal a more negative outlook on life. Evidence suggests that the industrialization of rural communities may have a negative impact upon the rural elderly. Periodic longitudinal studies of rural older persons in strategic locations of the nation are needed to provide guidance for programs and services.
Farmer Cooperatives
Authors: Torgerson Randall E.
Published: March 2007

Farmer cooperatives are voluntarily owned business organizations controlled by their member patrons and operated for and by them on a nonprofit or cost basis. These organizations are an integral part of the economic organization of agriculture. They are organizational tools that enable farm families to have access to markets and achieve a degree of marketing power so that farmers can compete and survive in an increasingly concentrated food and fiber economy. Cooperatives also represent an alternative organiza tional form to carry out business activities and are distin guished from other types of businesses because they represent economic democracy in action. Growth in their use, as a dimension of market structure, has been limited by the prevailing school of thought on cooperation in the U.S. A conflict exists between cooperatives' perceived role in this school and the hard realities of fundamental changes in market structure. Expanded use of cooperatives is also influenced by the external environment, such as the legal climate for growth, sources of finance, and public attitude toward collective action by farmers in an era of a close balance between supply and demand for .food and relatively higher food prices. The ultimate measure of cooperative success, however, is performance in enhancing the economic well-being of members and rural communities.
Why States Go—And Don't Go—Nuclear
Authors: Epstein William
Published: March 2007

The incentives and disincentives for countries to go nuclear comprise a combination of military, political, and economic concerns and motivations. These vary over time for different countries. For countries allied to one of the two nuclear superpowers, concern about their military security is not a predominant factor, while it is the decisive one for the non-nuclear countries who are not under the nuclear umbrella of a superpower and who perceive serious threats to their security. For countries without acute security problems, the political and economic motivations are the predominant ones and these include such incentives as strengthening their independence and increasing their status and prestige in the world. The disincentives are largely potential, ranging from effective security guarantees through adequate supplies of conventional armaments to assurances concerning future supplies of fissile materials. Incentives to go nuclear appear to outweigh the disincentives. Only drastic measures by the nuclear powers in the way of security assurances, nuclear disarmament, and the creation of a more just political and economic world order can serve to prevent the emergence of a proliferated world.
The United States in a World of Nuclear Powers
Authors: Nacht Michael
Published: March 2007

There is little consistency in American policy toward those states that have obtained independent nuclear weapons capabilities. Bilateral relations between the United States and the new nuclear state prior to weapons acquisi tion have proven to be far more accurate indicators of future trends in U.S. policy than the acquisition by the state of nuclear weapons per se. In the future, five basic options con front the United States: malign neglect, nuclear realignment, confrontation politics, equality promotion, and adaptive con tinuity. The last option, which involves the implementation of a variety of political-military and energy-related strategies, is the most likely one to be adopted. Major shocks to the international system, however, will drive the United States toward greater use of sanctions against the new nuclear states.
Toward the Participatory Enterprise: A European Trend
Authors: Walker Kenneth F.
Published: March 2007

Workers' participation in management has been extending in various forms in Europe during the third quarter of the twentieth century, and in the last quarter the business enterprise in Europe will evolve into a pattern of organization that may best be designated "the participatory enterprise." This evolution will involve changes in conceptual models of the enterprise and continued effort to resolve certain practical problems that appear to be inherent in participation. Unlike classical models of organization, the participatory enterprise is a coalition of conflicting and cooperative interests. Further progress is required in clarifying the causal relations involved in participation, which the small research effort to date reveals to be more complex than is often assumed. Experience shows that participation does not remove problems of human inter action and relations, but changes their character. It is time to abandon global thinking about participation and move to a more discriminating approach which does not seek final solu tions but recognizes that participation is a living, evolving process, the outcome of which cannot be predicted in detail.
Industrial Democracy in Scandinavia
Authors: Schiller Bernt
Published: March 2007

In the 1930s industrial relations in the Scandina vian countries changed from conflict to cooperation. This change laid the basis for the negotiated establishment after World War II of consultative plant committees. The limita tions inherent to the operation of such committees led, in the 1960s, to demands for more sweeping changes in industrial decision making, including demands for employee codeter mination. All three Scandinavian countries have granted to their employees legal representation on company boards, but the unions have stressed that such representation will have only limited value if it is not simultaneously accom panied by the introduction of democracy on the shop floor. To that end experiments with semi-autonomous work groups have been carried out in Norway. In Sweden a law on codetermination in 1976 has made decision making at all company levels subject to collective bargaining. Moreover, in Denmark and Sweden labor has demanded a share in future corporate capital growth through employee stock ownership, and bills designed to achieve this objective have been drafted but not yet enacted in Denmark and Sweden. In general, these developments point to an increasing inte gration of trade union leaders in management functions and more government intervention in economic policy and labor relations.
Collective Bargaining: The American Approach to Industrial Democracy
Authors: Derber Milton
Published: March 2007

Collective bargaining is the American route to industrial democracy. Some unionists and others, however, have advocated a widening and deepening of the participa tive role of workers and unions in managerial decision mak ing. Examples of union-management cooperation outside of the conventional collective bargaining boundaries can be found as far back as the 1920s. But only a small number of cases have survived to the present day. Since 1970 the federal government has encouraged joint union-management committees and autonomous work group experiments to im prove productivity and the quality of working life. A National Center for Productivity and Quality of Working Life has been established by Congress. A number of companies have, independently or in cooperation with unions, introduced job enrichment programs, flexible work schedules, and semi- autonomous work groups. Many companies have taken ad vantage of tax law benefits to adopt profit-sharing and em ployee stock ownership plans. Union leaders have generally been suspicious of such management schemes as well as productivity plans unless safeguards are provided for worker job security and employment conditions. They have rejected the German codetermination system of worker-directors. There appears to be little prospect of dramatic change during the foreseeable future although collective bargaining may gradually extend worker participation in managerial de cision making.
Worker Participation in Israel: Experience and Lessons
Authors: Rosenstein Eliezer
Published: March 2007

This article examines the record of experience with a succession of worker participation programs in Israel over the past 50 years. Collective bargaining has been the universal form of industrial democracy, but it has been accompanied and supplemented at various times by joint productivity councils, plant councils, and joint management boards. The latter have been limited so far to enterprises owned by the General Federation of Labor in Israel, the Histadrut. Profit sharing as a form of participation is presently in the process of being instituted in that sector of the economy known as the Labor Economy. Self-management and self-government have always constituted the basic prin ciples of Kibbutz and Moshav movements as well as the cooperative enterprises. However, the introduction of industrial enterprises into the once purely agricultural Kib butz settlements has brought with it a substantial amount of hired labor, and consequently the integration of hired labor into the self-management structure has raised substan tial difficulties. Evaluation of Israeli experience must pay special attention to the problems of integrating representa tive participation with direct shop-floor participation.
Crime and Development in Africa
Authors: Sesay Lamin
Published: March 2007

By itself, development seems to have nothing to do with crime. But when considered as a dynamic process of change, development and deviant behavior become in separable. As the move away from traditional society gains momentum, the traditional institutions and way of life give way to new ideas of social organization, behavior, and author ity, and many see this change as an opportunity to discard old values. The situation is further complicated by the rapidity of change which leaves little time to adjust to development problems. Industrialization accompanied by population redis tribution, dissipation of traditional forms of social control, social mobility and technological changes, and improved mass communication are some of the factors of development which tend to increase opportunities for deviant behavior. Poor housing, disorientation of family life, unemployment, rapid population growth, and special labor needs of some enter prises also are conducive to crime and delinquincy. There is a need for a determined effort to correct or remove the socio-economic imbalances that are known to be detrimental to development through systematic planning and programming.
Organization of African Unity and Decolonization: Present and Future Trends
Authors: Binaisa Godfrey L.
Published: March 2007

Although colonialism is now buried in most parts of Africa, its ghost still haunts us in the un necessarily large number of states. The drive for independence in Africa was first propounded by blacks in America in the philosophies of Pan-Africanism, African personality, and négritude in the early part of this century. Africans derived moral support from the Atlantic Charter and the weakening by WW II of the 2 European empires. The demise of the Indian Empire was the final nail in the coffin of British Imperialism. The most important meeting leading to the formation of the OAU was the Conference of Independent African States in April 1958. In the same year, an East African group (PAFMECA) was formed, and by 1963 membership in cluded 18 countries. Between 1960-62, 23 states achieved independence. On May 25,1963, the OAU charter was signed, uniting 47 independent black and Arab nations to promote solidarity among member states. One of the most important objectives of the OAU has been decolonization of Africa, but even after this is achieved, the OAU will still be united in facing the numerous problems of political, economic, and social development in Africa.
Quebec and the Canadian Political Crisis
Authors: McRoberts Kenneth
Published: March 2007

For the first 90 years of Canada's existence, political conflict between the French-Canadian minority and the English-Canadian majority embraced electoral politics, government policies, and federal-provincial relations, but there was no major challenge to the Canadian political community itself. At the same time, there was only limited accommodation of French Canadians in federal institutions and virtually none in provinces other than Quebec. Appar ently, the existence of a Quebec provincial government sufficed to prevent the rise of a strong secessionist movement. With the modernization of Quebec, however, such a move ment has now emerged. The large difference in size between the English-speaking majority and the French-speaking minority appears to preclude mutual veto arrangements or general parity of representation in federal institutions. It has even hindered the attainment of proportional representa tion in federal power structures. Attempts to reinforce the French-Canadian presence outside Quebec have also been frustrated by demographic factors. Meanwhile, intensification of ethnic conflict within Quebec and preference for French- Canadian controlled institutions have strengthened demands by French Canadians to make Quebec their primary political community.
Managing Ethnic Conflict in Belgium
Authors: Heisler Martin O.
Published: March 2007

Belgium is one of several small European democracies that succeeded in fashioning a stable, progres sive regime in a society deeply divided by religious and socioeconomic differences. Not until recently did a massive ethno-cultural cleavage between Flemings, Walloons, and the French-speaking majority of the residents of the country's capital, Brussels, become politically salient. Long experi ence in managing societal divisions is not directly applicable to the ethnic cleavage. The response to the religious and ideological divisions had been to form cohesive institutions and practices among the leaders of the segments. The re sponse to the ethnic cleavage has been, in contrast, to de centralize: Belgium has moved from a unitary to a federal regime in the past decade. While this has constituted a peaceful and rational response to the ethnic cleavage until now, serious residual problems abound. Further, the rela tively favorable conditions under which decentralization was launched no longer obtain, clouding prospects for the achievement of a stable, mutually acceptable arrangement between the major contending groups.
Conflict and Cleavage in Northern Ireland
Authors: Terchek Ronald J.
Published: March 2007

The ethnic strife in Northern Ireland is more than a repetition of ancient native-Catholic/Protestant-settler conflicts. One of the major contemporary issues, partition, dates back to 1921 and is the basis of the declaration of war by the Irish Republican Army on Great Britain. The other conflict is of more recent origin and involves the inclusion of the Catholic third of the population in the government and an end to institutionalized discrimination against the minority. Protestants have uniformly opposed any unification with the Irish Republic, but intense internal disagreements characterize the Protestant reaction to the other conflict. Moderate Protestant elites have been unable to bind their loyalist constituents to a compromise with the Catholic politicians, but neither Protestant nor Catholic paramilitary groups have been able to impose a military solution on the province. The roots of the first conflict are traced primarily to the historical ethnic cleavage separat ing the two communities while the second conflict is best explained by the volatile mixture of ethnicity and the strains of modernization. Any solution to the current troubles will have to be addressed to the nature and causes of each conflict.
Institution Design and the Separatist Impulse: Quebec and the Antebellum American South
Authors: Levine Marc V.
Published: March 2007

Regional autonomy and separatist movements severely test the conflict management capacities of a nation's political system. Following Calhoun, a series of institutional arrangements and political practices which depart from majority rule decision making have been identified in the literature as contributing to the peaceful management of subcultural cleavages. Such arrangements provide minority subcultures with institutionalized means of self-protection and guarantees against stable unrepresentation and official cultural stigmatization. But, as Schattsneider pointed out, conflicts are best regulated before they start and institutional arrangements such as those above must be made before regional cleavages become too politicized. At a certain stage of conflict, peaceable partition may be the only solution. In Canada and the antebellum U.S., failure to set up "formal modes of sectional self protection" led to conflict regulation failure and the emergence of separatist movements in Quebec and the South. Without mechanisms of the type noted above and in the context of mass s politics, the machinery of national political parties and intersubcultural elite accommodation which had held regional cleavages in check simply proved inadequate.
Nation, Region, and Welfare: Ethnicity, Regionalism, and Development Politics in South Asia
Authors: Das Gupta Jyotirindra
Published: March 2007

Problems of mass poverty in multi-ethnic poor countries require more complex understanding than conven tional economic description. Given the importance of the distributive issues for development, political demands for the removal of social and economic disadvantage may find expression in regional movements based on ethnic ties. The social outcome of regional movements in south Asia suggests that the developmental worth of ethnic politics needs more careful assessment than the kind of theoretical prejudgment which has dominated studies of development.
Police and Military in the Resolution of Ethnic Conflict
Authors: Enloe Cynthia H.
Published: March 2007

Militaries and police forces are rarely neutral actors in ethnic conflicts. They are typically ethnically imbalanced as a result both of historical socioeconomic maldistributions of opportunities and of deliberate recruit ment strategies pursued by central government elites. The modernization and professionalization of security forces is no guarantee of their communal or political neutrality. Lasting resolution of inter-ethnic and ethnic-state conflicts require a reorganization of police and militaries thorough enough so that vulnerable communities' security is substantially enhanced.
Legislation and Litigation Concerning American Indians
Authors: Deloria Vine
Published: March 2007

The period 1957-77 witnessed an increasing tendency to include Indians in programs and legislation that affected all Americans, particularly in the field of social wel fare and development. Indians, as a whole, made good use of their eligibility for these new opportunities, and entered the mainstream of public social concern. Legislation dealing specifically with Indian rights and legal status was generally trivial because no administration made more than a perfunc tory effort to define the larger philosophical issues that might have clarified and modernized the Indian legal status. In liti gation Indians were unusually successful in some of their efforts, although, again, truly definitive cases that might have proved a fertile ground for long-term gains in the development of contemporary understanding were sparse. Generally, those cases which might have produced landmark theories or doc trines, the Supreme Court refused to take and the decisions, remaining on the federal circuit level, are not sufficiently strong or clear to provide a basis for further development. The era ended with a state of benign confusion, in which Indians seemed more concerned with funding programs than sketching out in broader and more comprehensive terms the ideologies and theories that are necessary for sustained growth. It was, basically, an undistinguished era, but one of maturing and awareness.
Human Experimentation and the Convergence of Medical Research and Patient Care
Authors: Reiser Stanley Joel
Published: March 2007

This essay discusses the growth of experimen tation on human subjects in the United States and Great Brit ain in the twentieth century and focuses on a linkage that developed in medicine between research and patient care. It examines circumstances that helped to forge this linkage: a notion that the uncertainty of outcome common to activi ties in medical research and practice basically joins the two; a concept of medical education that research training creates analytic skills essential in providing good patient care; gov ernment policies which fiscally link medical research to med ical education; and the view that patient care and research can be simultaneously and ethically pursued by a given doctor on a given patient.
Ethics in Epidemiology
Authors: Susser Mervyn , Stein Zena , Kline Jennie
Published: March 2007

There is almost no step in the research process in epidemiology in which ethical issues do not exist. In this paper we follow the thread of our own experience in balancing values of scientific rigor against values concerning the interests of the people under study. Ethical issues in epidemiology are illustrated in the choice of research ques tions ; in the choice of study designs to explore the ques tions; in the maintenance of confidentiality; in obtaining the participation of populations; in experimental studies; and the giving or withdrawing of treatment.
The Issue of Mandatory Retirement
Authors: Sheppard Harold L.
Published: March 2007

The issue of mandatory retirement is com plicated, not as easily resolved as it may first appear. Part of the issue has to do with whether there ought to be any age at which employees must retire; another is, given mandatory retirement, is there an appropriate age for it? The newest federal legislation addresses the issue by using age 70 (with some exceptions) as the earliest age at which employers may legitimately require their employees to retire. This paper investigates whether a problem actually exists with respect to a mandatory retirement age. It discusses evidence from a national survey dealing with hiring and firing practices and points out the need to distinguish between functional and chronological age. Some research and policy issues are discussed, and, finally, the relationship of mandatory retire ment to the young in the work force is considered. The paper concludes by noting that the emerging issue will center on costs to the total economy of early retirement for a growing population whose life expectancy is continuing to rise and what the alternative solutions to those costs might be, includ ing the alternative of reversing the trend toward early retirement.
An Evaluation of Mandatory Retirement
Authors: Givens Harrison
Published: March 2007

This paper discusses the issues raised by mandatory retirement, the meaning of the new law, the law's specifics, and the uncertainties still ahead. The new law, prohibiting mandatory retirement before age 70 in the private sector, and altogether for most federal employment, is in form an amendment to the Age Discrimination in Employ ment Act of 1967, or ADEA.

The pros and cons of mandatory retirement at any fixed age are reviewed, including the changing financial and demo graphic considerations affecting the retirement decision. The paper then discusses the likely effects of mandatory retire ment on employees and employers and on the composition of the work force. About 90 percent of both men and women have in recent years retired before age 65, and those few working to age 65 have generally stopped well before 70. Nevertheless, the sure opportunity to work to 70, and a developing perception of the great erosion of financial security caused by continuing substantial inflation, may well lead to significant shifts in retirement decisions. Uncertainties arise from the independent operation of state laws and the likelihood of extensive dispute requiring judicial resolution.
Leisure Activities for the Aged
Authors: Lawton M. Powell
Published: March 2007

Leisure-time activities are discussed within the broader context of use of time, where both discretionary and obligatory uses are seen as meaningful to the individual. Comparisons of time use among people of different ages and the content of older people's days are discussed. Older people's choices of activities are seen as determined by the social values prevalent in their earlier years, their practice over a lifetime in various pursuits, changes in biologically and socially determined competence, changes in personal needs, and the impeding and facilitating effects of the external environment. Glorification of high activity level and of tra ditional leisure-time activities is seen as being strongly deter mined by a middle-life and middle-class bias, which is not always appropriate to today's cohort of elderly. On the other hand, many activities that are chosen primarily by the more educated and higher-income elderly of today will no doubt be more accessible to future older generations. For the present, creative programming and interventions to enlarge environ mental opportunities, particularly in the instrumental sphere, are required to bridge the gap between needs for meaningful pursuits and the possibility of their attainment.
Police Service Delivery to the Elderly
Authors: Schack Steven , Frank Robert S.
Published: March 2007

This article presents some preliminary findings from a major study of police service delivery to the elderly. It begins with a discussion of the need for special police attention by the elderly; then it moves on to an analysis of the findings from a survey of older persons in two major Ameri can cities and a consideration of the survey's implications for police operations. The survey data indicate that most older persons have positive attitudes toward the police. How ever, when examined in detail the data revealed that those elderly citizens who have either called the police or report a higher willingness to call (for crime and for noncrime reasons) demonstrate a higher degree of dissatisfaction with the police than the elderly population at large. The paper explores the reasons for the dissatisfaction of that segment of the elderly population which tends to rely most heavily upon the police. A prominent source of dissatisfaction is the normative expecta tions of what police service should be like outrun the elderly's anticipations of the quality of the police services that would be provided. The glamorized role of television police is singled out as a significant source of increased unrealistic normative expectations. The attitudes of the elderly toward themselves and toward their role in society also contribute to increased dissatisfaction with the police. Recommendations are proposed to improve police service delivery to the elderly.
The Aging of America: Questions for the Four-Generation Society
Authors: Califano Joseph A.
Published: March 2007

The number and proportion of older people in the population of the United States is rising sharply as life expectancy increases. Meanwhile, in part because of trends toward earlier retirement, the proportion of active workers to retired citizens is diminishing. The result is increasing pressure on the federal budget, as programs of support and assistance for the aging claim an ever-increasing share of public outlays. In addition, many public and private employee pension funds appear to be seriously underfunded. If the nation is to keep its commitments to its aging population, its leaders and citizens must face these facts and the difficult policy choices they imply. Some of those choices may in volve, among other things, redefining "old age"; revising early retirement policies, and coordinating the present patch work of public and private employee pensions with the Social Security system. Finally, the nation's systems for delivering health and social services to older people are inadequate; they must be improved, or elderly people, their families, and the public treasury will end up paying more and more for less and less.
The Decade of Divergence and Development
Authors: Laurent Pierre-Henri
Published: March 2007

Economic events, particularly the energy crisis, inflation, and recession, have had an impact on both the successes and failures of the European Community in the seventies. Accomplishments, such as the 1973 enlargement and the evolution of a global development cooperation policy, cannot be cited without the mention of EC setbacks in forming joint economic, monetary, and energy policies. The record of contemporary Community policy, with its disagreements and inaction, reflects both worldwide economic disorder and growing divergent views within the Nine.

Europe has moved from a relatively insignificant status in international affairs to that of a global power, utilizing the partnership concept embodied in the pioneering Lomé agree ment, the world's largest regional economic organization. The European Community has furthermore devised extensive new lines of cooperation with two other zones of major interest through the creation of the Euro-Arab dialogue and the EC-Mediterranean grand design. These new "foreign policies" are the outgrowth of new German influence, Com mission initiative, and Third World global significance. Put in perspective, these achievements are limited by the recurrent inability to construct common Community policies and/or bring about structural reform. In order to liberate the Nine from a state of disunity, there has emerged a drive to make the European Parliament more powerful and directly elected. A democratic European legislature, with more competences, may break the deadlock but will not achieve the mandatory coherence between internal and external policies and pro cedures of the Community.
The Court of Justice—The Invisible Arm
Authors: Feld Werner J.
Published: March 2007

The Court of Justice of the European Com munities is an essential part in the equilibrium of powers among the major Community institutions. Over the years the Court has contributed significantly to the progress of economic, social, and perhaps political integration through its vigorous development of Community law. Its decisions have a truly supranational nature: they are directly binding on individuals, business enterprises, and governments in the Community member states, without the necessity of addi tional independent affirmative action by the national authori ties. One of the most significant jurisdictional assignments made to the Community Court is the responsibility for treaty interpretations. The extensive jurisprudence of the Court in this area has led to the gradual acceptance of the supremacy of Community Law over conflicting national law. Controversies between Community institutions and member governments about treaty violations have also led to repeated court intervention. In all cases the decisions of the Court have eventually been obeyed. Disputes between member states have up to now not resulted in any Court decisions. A large number of suits filed with the European Court involve matters of administrative law. As a consequence, the administrative law functions of the Court have assumed considerable importance, especially since complaints can be brought by individuals and enterprises regarding actions or inactions of the Commission. Although the power of the Court is consider able, the justices have always denied that the European Com munity has been subjected to a government by the judges.
Monetary Policy: Processes and Policies
Authors: Brenner Michael
Published: March 2007

Monetary integration has had an ill-starred journey throughout the twenty year life of the European Community. The issue has been raised most recently by Commission President Roy Jenkins. Its repeated revival, along with the recurrent failures to achieve a sustained success, reveal both its central place in Community affairs and the peculiar difficulties of harnessing monetary policy to the Community team of coordinated policy instruments. Whether the European Economic Community achieves more substantial integration in the future depends on whether it meets three conditions indicated by our account of past experiences: a political decision by members to accelerate progress toward unification; stable, roughly paral lel economic performance among member countries; and the abatement of present turbulence in the international mone tary system which, in turn, requires a recommitment of the United States to major reform.