bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Television as Significant Other
Authors: Newton Barbara J. , Buck Elizabeth B.
Published: March 2007

The role of television as significant other was explored by looking at relationships between various self-concepts, perceived closeness of self to television and television exposure. Questionnaires consisting of paired comparisons, Likert-scale items, and demographics were administered to approximately 50 male and 50 female adults in each of five major metropolitan areas representing the five countries of Japan, Korea, the Philippines, the United States, and Great Britain. The following variables were then correlated with the concept pair, "TV and me," and with television exposure ("intelligence and me," "frustration and me," "satisfaction and me," "competence and me," "happiness and me," "obedience and me," "independence and me," "ideal man/ woman and me," "education and me," level of education, egalitarianism, and role flexibility). Results indicated higher correlations with TV and me compared to exposure. Highly statistically significant patterns were observed with all groups combined; several nonsignificant but consistent trends were noted between males and females. Overall, gender differences outnumbered cross-cultural differences. The discussion emphasized the role of television as significant other and the value of TV and me as an index of this parasocial process. The relative contributions of the factors affecting TV and me need to be assessed in further research.
Cross-Cultural Methods for the Study of Behavioral Decision Making
Authors: Jaccard James , Wan Choi K.
Published: March 2007

A framework for studying behavioral decision making in cross-cultural contexts is described. The approach is based upon a combined etic-emic methodology and circumvents scaling problems that have plagued past applications of decision theory in different cultures. The approach was applied empirically to career decisions of college students in the United States and Hong Kong. Overall, the data were supportive of the framework.
Value Orientations of English, French, and Italian Canadian Children
Authors: Lortie-Lussier Monique , Fellers Gloria L. , Kleinplatz Peggy J.
Published: March 2007

The value orientations of 118 8-and 9-year-old Canadian children from English (EC), French (FC), and Italian (IC) backgrounds were investigated relative to the constructs of self-image, ideal self, problem solving, and peer relations. Children were interviewed in their respective languages and their responses evaluated on 10 variables according to a system developed by the investigators. Individualistic and collectivistic value orientations for the EC and FC groups emerged as hypothesized for the self-image and ideal self constructs. ICs were more similar to ECs on these constructs. The significant interaction between sex and ethnicity on several variables underlying all constructs implies different standards of desirable behaviors for daughters and sons within the FC and IC groups. FC and IC parents seem to encourage idealized personal and social values in their daughters. FC girls displayed more interpersonal skills than FC boys, and IC boys demonstrated greater resourcefulness in problem solving. Results are discussed within the context of diminishing ethnic particularisms and distinctive gender-role socialization.
A Psychometric Theory of Evaluations of Item and Scale Translations
Authors: Hulin Charles L.
Published: March 2007

A psychometric theory of equivalence of meanings of items and item responses in original and target language versions of psychological scales is developed. Equivalence of translated items is defined in terms of probabilities of a specified response being evoked by two stimuli among individuals with the same amount of the latent trait assessed by the items. In the case of translated items that form psychological scales, the stimuli are the source and target language versions of the item. The specified responses are correct or positive responses to these measurement items. The extent to which items are equivalent across the different language versions can be evaluated within the framework of item response theory (Lord & Novick, 1968). Methods of equating scales containing culturally general, etic, items and culturally specific, emic, items are outlined. These techniques can be used to increase the cultural relevance of scales by generating and including emic concepts while permitting comparisons across cultures and languages on the basis of scales equated with reference to the common, etic items. Results of applications of these techniques to one instrument (the Job Descriptive Index; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969) translated into five languages and administered to approximately 3,000 employees in six countries are discussed briefly.
The Arms Acquisition Process
Authors: Bolks Sean , Stoll Richard J.
Published: March 2007

A new approach to address oversights in the traditional arms race literature is presented. It involves five factors that have not been previously applied to arms races. The focus of military capability is not expenditures but weapons counts. The entire set of major powers is modeled as a system. A factor controlling for the level of environmental threat faced by each state is included. Domestic factors are included in the decision-making calculus of the state. It is assumed that states use simple decision rules rather than a complex set of calculations to make their decisions. The authors use this approach to test a system of equations that model the number of capital ships of the major powers from 1860 to 1986 in different time periods. Results indicate that the overall approach has a good deal of validity.
Reevaluating Alliance Reliability
Authors: Leeds Brett Ashley , Long Andrew G. , Mitchell Sara McLaughlin
Published: March 2007

Previously reported empirical evidence suggests that when conflict arises, military alliances are not reliable; state leaders should only expect their alliance partners to join them in war about 25% of the time. Yet, theoretical arguments explaining the choices of leaders to form cooperative agreements are at odds with such empirical evidence. This puzzling gap between theory and evidence motivates a reconsideration of previous measures of alliance reliability. Many alliance treaties include specific language regarding the circumstances under which the alliance comes into effect, often limiting obligations to disputes with specific target states or in specific geographic areas, and many treaties do not go so far as to require states to join in active fighting. Considering the specific obligations included in alliance agreements provides an improved estimate of the propensity of states to honor their commitments. Results show that alliances are reliable 74.5% of the time.
The Macrotechnology of Conflict
Authors: Hirshleifer Jack
Published: March 2007

Decision makers must balance between two classes of economic activities: production and conflict. Analogous to the familiar technology of production and exchange is the technology of conflict and struggle, applicable not only to military combat but also in domains such as redistributive politics, strikes and lockouts, litigation, and crime. The conflict success function (CSF) takes as inputs the fighting efforts on the two sides and generates as outputs the respective degrees of success achieved. A crucial determinant of the outcome is the decisiveness parameter, which scales the degree to which force preponderance translates into differential success. Because success feeds on success, in the long run a hegemonic outcome is likely unless the decisiveness parameter is relatively low. The CSF can be adjusted to distinguish between offense and defense, allow for geography and organization, or even display how intangible considerations such as truth or morality can promote success.
Conflict-Carrying Capacity, Political Crisis, and Reconstruction
Authors: Jenkins J. Craig , Bond Doug
Published: March 2007

The early warning of protracted political violence needs firm empirical footing in dynamic indicators of the political processes leading to political crises. This study provides a conceptual framework for the analysis of conflict-carrying capacity (or CCC) defined as the ability of political systems to regulate intense internal conflicts. CCC is indexed by the multiplicative interaction between the proportions of civil contention, state repression, and violence. The PANDA Project (1983-1994) is used to illustrate the usefulness of this CCC index in capturing system stability in an institutionalized democracy (the United States), a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime (Mexico), an institutionalized Communist regime (China), and a peaceful democratic transition (Poland). It provides early warning signals of civil war (Algeria, Sri Lanka) and moves toward political stability (Peru). Civil contention and state repression are not destabilizing per se. Rather it is the simultaneous combination of these with violent contention that leads to internal political crises and, alternatively, to political stabilization.
The Study of Interdependence and Conflict
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Pollins Brian M.
Published: March 2007

A burgeoning literature has emerged on the relationship between economic interdependence and political conflict. This literature is evaluated, and three issues are raised for future research. First, there is a need to improve the theoretical basis of claims about the influence of interdependence on conflict and to specify more clearly the causal mechanisms underlying any such relationship. Second, future research should identify the boundary conditions of the effects of interdependence on conflict. Third, much more attention must be paid to the definition and measurement of interdependence and conflict.
The Regulation of Warfare
Authors: Frei Daniel
Published: March 2007

The regulation of warfare as envisaged by the Hague and Geneva Conventions may be seen as a paradigm for the legal control of international conflict in general. This article suggests two complementary theoretical frameworks to explain the creation and application of norms regarding restraints in war: (a) a framework based on the theory of bargaining and (b) a framework based on the theory of integration. Each framework is described by a set of interrelated hypotheses. So far, they have the status of pre theory only.
Rioting in Northern Ireland
Authors: Peroff Kathleen , Hewitt Christopher
Published: March 2007

This article addresses empirically the effects of three different policy approachesreformist, repressive, and constitutional-to reducing the level of rioting in Northern Ireland over the 1968-1973 period. The analysis shows that none of these policy approaches is singularly successful in decreasing monthly levels of rioting. Furthermore, a given policy's effects on violent activity is shown to vary depending on the group involved in the rioting, be it Catholics, Protestants, or both.
Historians, Social Scientists, and Crisis Management
Authors: Holsti Ole R.
Published: March 2007

Because diplomatic historians Gilbert and Lauren are enthusiastic and effective exponents of interdisciplinary collaboration, it is fitting that they should assess the current state of theory on international crises. This essay evaluates four major charges in their critique: conceptual confusion, theoretical difficulties, prescriptive inadequacies, and historical insensitivity. The essay supports their premise that communication and collaboration between diplomatic historians and social scientists are essential if we are to develop empirical, policy-relevant theories of crisis. But it concludes that their interesting essay is flawed in two respects. Gilbert and Lauren aim a rather poorly calibrated shotgun at a large and diverse literature, whereas the situation would appear to call for carefully aimed rifle shots; thus, some of their shots hit the mark, but many others fly rather wide of the target. They have also missed an excellent opportunity to instruct us in ways that crisis research might be improved.
Military Spending in the United States, Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China
Authors: Cusack Thomas R. , Don Ward Michael
Published: March 2007

Military expenditures of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China are examined from two perspectives: (1) a modification of the traditional Richardson arms race formulation and (2) the notion that the military budget is used by decision makers, in part, to respond to the domestic political and economic environment. These competing formulations are juxtaposed in an empirical analysis of their relevance for understanding contemporary arms allocation decisions. The empirical evaluation of these processes is informed by a critical appraisal of alternative assessments of military allocations, as reflected in data provided by the Stockholm Institute for Peace Research International, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and William T. Lee, a noted defense analyst. The findings suggest that the arms race formulation is empirically deficient in accounting for the spending patterns of the United States, Soviet Union, and People's Republic of China in the period from 1949 to 1978. For both the U.S. and the Soviet Union, the use of the military allocation process to influence domestic political and economic conditions receives considerable support. It is also clear from the analysis conducted that the choice of data, especially with regard to Soviet spending, plays a significant role in these findings.
Bargaining Costs and Rational Behavior
Authors: Hessel Marek
Published: March 2007

This article presents a discussion of the effects of bargaining costs on the behavior of rational bargainers. Rationality is defined so as to reflect the bargainers' recognition of cooperative as well as conflictual aspects of bargaining. Bargaining is viewed as a sequential non-zero-sum game, which allows the bargainers to communicate through exchanges of their demands. It is shown that if the communication process were entirely costless, no need for communication would arise. The presence of bargaining costs makes each bargainer's behavior vulnerable to his opponent's actions, and thus opens the way for bargaining. As a result, a rational bargainer may make demands deviating from his expectations of the final terms of agreement. Rational behavior becomes, in a sense, unpredictable and may not suffice to reach an agreement. Some implications of the analysis are discussed.
The Bargaining Problem Revisited
Authors: Felsenthal Dan S. , Diskin Abraham
Published: March 2007

On the basis of the results obtained by different experiments testing two-person bargaining situations, it is reasonable to assume that under certain circumstances bargainers are more likely to refer to a “minimum utility point” in forming their strategies, and hence reach different agreements than as hitherto suggested in the literature, e.g., the Nash or the Kalai-Smorodinsky solution. The employment of such a minimum utility point is not merely descriptive, but normative, and should be viewed as a modification of the Pareto-optimum axiom, as well as other axioms, applicable in certain bargaining situations. It is also argued that such a modification is more reasonable than Kalai and Smorodinsky's axiom of monotonicity, which they suggested should replace Nash's axiom of independence of irrelevant alternatives. It is suggested that many real-life, as well as laboratory, two-person bargaining situations differ from the two-person bargaining problem characterized by Nash, and hence the employment of a probabilistic model is advocated in order to predict the bargainers' expected utility.
Negotiating Strategic Arms Control, 1969-1979
Authors: Jensen Lloyd
Published: March 2007

In a replication of earlier disarmament studies, a positive correlation of .49 ( p < .01) was found between United States and Soviet concessions during the 23 rounds of the Strategic Arms Limitation talks covering the period 1969-79. It was also found that the United States tended to make concessions earlier in the negotiations than the Soviet Union. Such a strategy might not have been the wisest, for some evidence was produced suggesting that the Soviet Union has reacted in a conciliatory fashion to a hard-line U.S. position in the previous round as measured by the imbalance in concession scores. But since reciprocity remains important to success, rigidly holding a hard-line position may delay agreement. In the case of SALT, such delays worked against U.S. strategic interests.
Mirror, Mirror on the Wall...
Authors: Chan Steve
Published: March 2007

This analysis compares the incidence of war involvement by countries with comparatively more and less political freedom. It examines the proposition that political freedom promotes peace, as suggested by R. J. Rummel, in its monadic form. Its results indicate that this proposition tends to be contradicted or unsupported, if we focus only on monadic relationships, if we refer to wars from a more distant past, if we include wars of an extrasystemic nature (i.e., colonial and imperialist wars) or if we assess political freedom cross-sectionally (i.e., comparing a country's political conditions with those of its contemporaries). On the other hand, it is suggested that this proposition tends to be confirmed, if we focus only on dyadic relationships, if we refer to the more recent past, if we exclude extrasystemic wars, or if we assess political freedom longitudinally for each country (i.e., comparing a country's freedom status in terms of its own present or past political conditions). Thus some of the discrepant findings in the literature can be explained by these different analytic choices.
Behavioral Differences between Structures with Rank-Order Equivalence
Authors: Schellenberg James A.
Published: March 2007

Primitive measures of utility—identified simply as positive (+), neutral (0), or negative (-)—were used in experimental work to show important differences in two-person co-operation between different structures, even though these structures have an identical rank-ordering of possible choices. Interpersonal comparisons and considerations of equity appear to account for the differences in results. It is suggested that further experimental use of primitive measures might be helpful in clarifying how interpersonal comparisons may affect emergent processes of cooperation in two-party situations.
Some Cognitive Dimensions of the Israeli-Arab Conflict
Authors: Inbar Michael , Yuchtman-Yaar Ephraim
Published: March 2007

The focus of this article is the perceived importance for Egyptians and Israelis, and subgroups within these populations, of factors influencing the outcome of the Middle East conflict. The cognitive orientations underlying these perceptions are also examined for their relevance to various attitudes related to the conflict and its potential resolution. The article is based on personal interviews of samples drawn from cross-sections of the two nationalities. The findings are discussed in terms of the sociocultural context of the two peoples.
Measuring Cooperation, Conflict, and the Social Network of Nations
Authors: Faber Jan
Published: March 2007

The measurement of cooperation and/or conflict among nations differs greatly among several empirical studies of international relations. Therefore research has been done into the multidimensionality of both behavioral concepts and their relationship on the basis of data available in COPDAB. First, cooperation and conflict among nations proved to be positively related to each other. This result turned out to be very reliable over time as well as across space, for instance, in different groups of nations. Secondly, it was found that there exists a highly connected social network among nine major groups of nations showing homogenous behavior with respect to each other and other nations. Both results suggest that within this social network a high degree of responsiveness to escalatory behavior of any group of nations has a negative feedback effect upon further escalation.
Bureaucratic Competition and Agenda Control
Authors: Eavey Cheryl L.
Published: March 2007

Competition among bureaus is often advanced as a solution to overproduction by monopoly bureaus. Further, competition tends to be viewed as some kind of natural state which bureaus will willingly gravitate to if given the opportunity. Beginning with the theoretical extensions of Niskanen to multiple bureaus, this article examines experimentally the effect of a competitive agenda proposal process on the outcomes of three-person committee games. The results suggest that simply duplicating the functions of a bureau is insufficient to generate increased efficiency. The success or failure of competitive reforms depends on the structure these reforms take, both in terms of the number of agenda setters and the level of communication between agenda setters and committee members.
Defense Burdens, Capital Formation, and Economic Growth
Authors: Rasler Karen , Thompson William R.
Published: March 2007

One of the factors thought to explain the relative decline of system leaders is the high military overhead costs assumed by leaders. High defense burdens, however, may be achieved at the expense of investment, capital formation, and future economic growth. By evading the high defense burdens, rivals and competitors are able to improve their relative economic positions while the system leader's economic position is decaying. Focusing on Smith's (1977) earlier analysis of this phenomenon, we examine the empirical record for two system leaders (Great Britain in the nineteenth century and the United States in the twentieth century) and several other major powers. Longitudinal evidence for a defense burden-investment tradeoff is restricted to the cases of France (1872-1913) and the United States (1946-1978). These findings suggest that the tradeoff explanation may contribute to explaining some cases of leadership decline but that it will not necessarily fit all cases.
What Strategies Can Support the Evolutionary Emergence of Cooperation?
Authors: Hirshleifer Jack , Coll Juan Carlos Martinez
Published: March 2007

Axelrod found TIT-FOR-TAT to be a highly successful strategy in the Prisoners' Dilemma payoff environment. He concluded that a natural selection process in favor of TIT-FOR-TAT explains the evolutionary emergence of cooperation. This article shows that, contrary to Axelrod, TIT-FOR-TAT does not approach 100% fixation in the population. More generally, TIT-FOR-TAT is not a robustly successful strategy if Axelrod's exact assumptions do not apply—for example, if there is a cost of complexity or a probability of error, or when players compete in an elimination contest rather than a round-robin tournament. In fact, it is unreasonable to expect any single strategy to win out in evolutionary competition. Constructively, we show that the presence of a PUNISHER strategy typically generates, consistent with observation, an interior equilibrium in which more and less cooperative strategies simultaneously coexist.
Patterns of Crisis Management
Authors: Brecher Michael , James Patrick
Published: March 2007

This study focuses on the management of international crises from 1945 to 1979, with an emphasis on cases in the Arab-Israel conflict. A Protracted Conflict-Crisis Model is presented and tested. The findings indicate that Arab-Israel crises are distinctive, but not because of the their geographic location. Instead, as predicted by the model, patterns of crisis management appear to depend on whether or not a crisis occurs within a protracted conflict. This discovery suggests that the profile of an international crisis, notably the extent of violent behavior and superpower activity, can be anticipated more reliably in terms of the concept of protracted conflict.
Japan in the World
Authors: Bobrow Davis B.
Published: March 2007

Japanese public opinion on foreign and defense policy warrants longitudinal analysis as an extreme case of change and lack of interest in international diplomatic and military activism. Data for the post-Occupation period through 1984 are examined for the effects of age, generation, and situation; more recent aggregate poll data are used to check for recent changes. Little support appears for strong, ongoing shifts from international passivism to activism, alignment to equidistance, dependence to autonomy, military minimization to effort, or lack of guiding principles. Generational effects are very modest after the early 1970s; age-group differences have more continuing importance. Majority opinion is sceptical about the merits of departures from the status quo, buttressed by countervailing minorities that support opposed directions of change.
Modeling Strategic Threats
Authors: Sakurai Melvin M.
Published: March 2007

This study evaluates the importance of accurately modeling strategic threats in complex multilateral conflict-of-interest decision problems. The objective is to improve prescriptive accuracy when cooperative n-person game theory is applied to the analysis of such problems. A competitive experiment compares the von Neumann-Morgenstern characteristic function v and Harsanyi function H in terms of descriptive accuracy. Results indicate that H is significantly more accurate than v. This suggests that strategic threats may be an important factor in modeling cooperative games.
The Effects of the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field
Authors: Orme-Johnson David W. , Alexander Charles N. , Davies John L.
Published: March 2007

This article replies to a methodological criticism of Orme-Johnson et al., (1988). The original study reported that participants in the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi program located in Jerusalem significantly reduced tension in “collective consciousness” and behavior as measured by decreased conflict in Lebanon and improvement on several social indicators in Israel. Specification of the independent variable on the basis of political boundaries rather than geographical distance alone was shown to be consistent with both theory and forty other studies. It is explained how “reverse causation” cannot account for observed effects. Also, reanalyses show that the results are robust across fourteen alternative transfer function models. Using a purely objective criterion for model selection, the Akaike Information Criterion, the optimal model yields the most significant result ( t=5, p <.0001). Liu's linear transfer function approach yields similar results. Other robustness checks (substituting “pseudo” independent or dependent variables) do not yield spurious results.
Principles of Distributive Justice
Authors: Lissowski Grzegorz , Tyszka Tadeusz , Okrasa Wlodzimierz
Published: March 2007

In his famous book on a theory of justice, John Rawls argues that under some special conditions, referred to as an “original position,” people would unanimously choose as a principle of distributive justice, the principle of maximizing the welfare of the worst-off individual in the society. An experiment was conducted under conditions approximating Rawls's “veil of ignorance.” It was a replication of Frohlich, Oppenheimer, and Eavy's experiment, using Polish instead of American students. In accordance with Rawls's prediction, most of experimental groups in both samples reached the consensus. However, the chosen principle was not the Rawlsian principle of maximizing the floor income, but the principle of maximizing the average income with the floor constraint. Moreover, in individual rankings and choices, the principle of maximizing the average income with a floor constraint received the highest ranks, while the Rawlsian principle received the lowest ranks. Our interpretation of these results is that the notion of distributive justice should not be reduced to considering only the welfare of the poorest.
The First Conflict Resolution Movement, 1956-1971
Authors: Harty Martha , Modell John
Published: March 2007

From 1956 to 1971 a group of conflict resolution researchers centered at the University of Michigan attempted to develop a comprehensive scientific theory of human conflict and to establish a new profession that would be available to advise national policymakers. The movement's pioneers founded the Journal of Conflict Resolution and an interdisciplinary research center and took part in the 1960s expansion of peace studies and activism. The promised theoretical developments failed to materialize, and financial, institutional, and political problems led to the movement's dissolution. The present study analyzes the movement as a profession and employs quantitative studies of the movement's participants, their published materials, and their citation networks to document its development and dissolution.
The Prevalence of Free Riding
Authors: Molander Per
Published: March 2007

The prospects for the spontaneous emergence of cooperation in n-person prisoner's dilemmas are studied within an evolutionary framework. Both purely cooperative regimes and states representing a mix of conditionally cooperative with noncooperative strategies turn out to be possible outcomes of the selection process, but only the latter correspond to evolutionarily stable strategies. Two-person games differ qualitatively from games with three or more players in that they are more propitious to cooperative regimes. Spontaneous cooperation in general collective-action games therefore appears less likely than much of the recent literature seems to indicate.
The Logic of Two-Level Games with Endogenous Domestic Coalitions
Authors: Mo Jongryn
Published: March 2007

This article attempts to formalize and extend Putnam's conjecture that greater domestic constraints can be a bargaining advantage in international negotiations by means of a more realistic model of negotiator behavior. Unlike her counterpart in Putnam, the negotiator in my model has a direct interest, not coincident with those of her domestic constituents, in the bargaining outcome. She also has more leeway in domestic bargaining in that not all domestic constituents have veto power. The results of the analysis show that the relationship between the negotiator's domestic constraints and the bargaining outcome is more complex than Putnam's analysis suggests. The negotiator can be either better or worse off under greater domestic constraints. The conditions under which these different outcomes result depend on the distribution of political power between the negotiator and domestic constituents.
Action-Reaction or Rational Expectations?
Authors: Moore Will H.
Published: March 2007

In this article, the author makes a case for expanding our focus from national-attribute studies of intranational conflict toward strategic behavior studies of intranational conflict. One payoff of such a move is that it enables us to specify a linkage between the strategic behavior of both domestic and international actors and thus address the often theorized, but rarely established, intranational-international conflict nexus. Further, the author takes a synthetic approach to the recent debate between action-reaction and rational expectations models of international conflict behavior and derives hypotheses concerning the behavior of both domestic and international parties to an armed intranational conflict. The hypotheses are then tested in a time-series case study design using the Rhodesian/Zimbabwean case for the period from 1957 to 1979. The results demonstrate that there existed an intranational-international conflict nexus in this case and highlight the utility of adopting a strategic behavior approach to studying armed intranational conflict.
Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth, and The “Peace Dividend”
Authors: Mintz Alex , Stevenson Randolph T.
Published: March 2007

Despite the proliferation of studies on the impact of military spending on economic growth, it is still not known whether defense spending hinders or promotes growth. Most analysts attribute the lack of consistent/robust findings to three problems: the lack of a sound theory of defense-growth trade-offs, an inadequate research design, and a failure to account for the externality effects that defense spending might have on other parts of the economy. In this study, the authors try to remedy these problems by (1) relying on a model of the defense-growth trade-off that is grounded in the neoclassic theory of growth, (2) estimating this model using time-series data on 103 countries, and (3) explicitly accounting for the externality effects of defense spending by the use of a multisectorial model. The results show that, regardless of the specification of the models, and contrary to most cross-national studies, military expenditures have a significant positive effect on growth in only about 10% of the cases.
Antecedents of Groupthink
Authors: Schafer Mark , Crichlow Scott
Published: March 2007

This article reports results of a quantitative analysis of I. L. Janis's (1982) original specification of the groupthink model. The study builds on the earlier work on 19 cold war crises conducted by Herek, Janis, and Huth (1987), who found that information-processing errors in group decision making were directly related to unfavorable outcomes. The present research looks further back in Janis's casual story to investigate the factors that give rise to the information-processing errors. This data identify five key antecedent conditions: lack of tradition of impartial leadership, lack of tradition of methodical procedures, overestimation of the group, closed-mindedness, and pressures toward uniformity. Several factors that Janis anticipated as important antecedent conditions do not correlate with faulty decision making, such as group homogeneity and a recent failure. The results indicate that faulty decision making has its roots in leadership style, traditional group procedures, and patterns of group behavior.
Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe
Authors: Heo Uk
Published: March 2007

One of the most important questions stemming from the end of the cold war is how reductions in defense spending will affect economic performance. This question has significant policy implications for countries facing public demands for defense cutbacks and countries still maintaining high levels of military spending for security. However, previous studies on the defense-growth relationship have reported mixed findings. Thus, this study investigates how the changes in defense burden will affect economic growth by testing the economic effects of defense spending on growth in 80 countries using a nonlinear defense-growth model that includes technological progress. The results reveal that two thirds of the countries under investigation may expect a “peace dividend” due to the negative relationship between defense spending and economic growth.
Parental Values and Practices Relevant to Young Children’s Social Development in Taiwan and the United States
Authors: Jose Paul E. , Huntsinger Carol S. , Huntsinger Phillip R. , Liaw Fong-Ruey
Published: March 2007

Self-reported parental values and child-rearing practices, and teacher-reported and observed children’s social skills, were compared among families of 40 preschool and kindergarten children in each of three cultural groups: Chinese in Taiwan, first-generation Chinese in the United States, and European Americans in the United States. As expected, both samples of Chinese parents more strongly endorsed traditional Chinese values and exerted more parental control over their children than did American parents. Observations of child social competence during a videotaped family interaction revealed no significant differences among the three ethnic groups. Ratings of parental directiveness and warmth during the videotaped family interaction showed that Chinese American parents, as compared to European American parents, were rated as significantly more directive but equally warm.
Integrative Cognitive Style in Middle Eastern and Western Groups
Authors: Zebian Samar , Denny J. Peter
Published: March 2007

Integrative cognitive style among Middle Eastern immigrants to Canada and native-born Euro-Canadians was assessed by looking at their performance on a multidimensional classification task and an object sorting task. Results showed high levels of integrative thinking in Middle Eastern immigrants compared with Euro-Canadians. The contrasting differentiative cognitive style was avoided by the Middle Eastern group, whereas a higher level of differentiation was observed in the Euro-Canadian groups. These results are congruent with previous studies showing higher levels of integrative style in Middle Eastern groups than in Euro-Canadian groups. A secondary finding revealed higher levels of integrative thinking among Middle Easterners with comparatively low levels of Western education. In sum, findings show preferences for integrative thinking in Middle Eastern groups, and through new measures of cognitive style, qualitative aspects of integrative thinking, which have traditionally been viewed indirectly as the opposite of differentiative thinking, are revealed.
Cultural Transitions in First-Generation Immigrants
Authors: Birman Dina , Trickett Edison J.
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on the process of acculturation for first-generation Soviet Jewish refugee adolescents and their parents who have resettled in the United States. First, the extent of acculturation to the new and the old culture is assessed independently. Second, acculturation is assessed multidimensionally, including the constructs of language competence, behavioral acculturation, and cultural identity. Third, the extent to which life stage differences at immigration affect the acculturation process is assessed. Overall, the data suggest that acculturation appears to occur in a linear pattern over time for most dimensions of acculturation, with acculturation to the American culture increasing and acculturation to the Russian culture decreasing. However, Russian language competence for the parents did not diminish with length of residence in the country. Furthermore, an unexpected acculturative gap was observed between parents and children with respect to Russian identity, with adolescents being more identified with the Russian culture than their parents.
Cultural Variations in Social Sharing of Emotions
Authors: Singh-Manoux Archana , Finkenauer Catrin
Published: March 2007

Prior research has established that the “social sharing” of emotions is an integral part of an emotional experience. Whereas earlier studies have focused on universal features of sharing (e.g., rate, frequency, delay), this study investigates social and relational aspects of sharing hypothesized to be more open to cultural variation. A total of 555 adolescents from the Indian, immigrant Indian, and the English culture recalled episodes of fear, shame, and sadness, and answered questions related to the sharing of these experiences. Results revealed that each of these emotions is associated with sharing patterns that are unique to them. The cross- cultural differences in sharing evidenced related to a greater importance and implication of the ingroup in the emotional lives of adolescents in the Indian and immigrant Indian adolescent groups, as compared to the English adolescents.
Burnout and Engagement in University Students
Authors: Schaufeli Wilmar B. , Martínez Isabel M. , Pinto Alexandra Marques , Salanova Marisa , Bakker Arnold B.
Published: March 2007

This study examines burnout and engagement—the hypothesized opposite of burnout—in university students from Spain ( n = 623), Portugal ( n = 727), and the Netherlands ( n = 311). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the expected three-factor structures of the adapted versions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) for students (including Exhaustion, Cynicism, and Reduced Efficacy) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) for students (including Vigor, Dedication, and Absorption) fitted to the data of each sample. However, a rigorous test revealed that most factor loadings of the MBI were not invariant across all samples. Results with the UWES were slightly better, indicating invariance of factor loadings of Absorption in all samples and of Vigor in two of the three samples. Furthermore, as hypothesized, the burnout and engagement subscales were negatively correlated. Finally, irrespective of country, Efficacy and Vigor were positively related to academic performance, that is, the number of passed exams relative to the total number of exams in the previous term.
Scaling Chinese Traditional-Modern Attitudes and the GSR Measurement of "Important" Versus "Un-Important" Chinese Concepts
Authors: Dawson John L. M. , Law Henry , Leung Andrew , Whitney Richard E.
Published: March 2007

This paper is concerned with theoretical and scaling problems involved in the development and research application of the Chinese T-M Scale, used to test the Traditional-Modern consistency theory of attitude change. T-M theory considers that individuals exposed to conflicting traditional and modern cognitions resolve traditional-modern conflict either by the development of compromise attitudes or by alternate modes of inconsistency reduction. The compromise attitudes formed as a result of this process, are held to be more adaptive for the satisfactory adjustment of individuals in situations of rapid biological and social change. A model of susceptibility to T-M attitude change is also presented, together with a GSR experiment designed to test certain aspects of T-M theory in the laboratory. In the GSR experiment it was found as expected that more "important" Chinese traditional-modern concepts elicited a significantly higher level of GSR arousal in response to attitude change in the direction of ieer-group pressure, while a high degree of unresolved attitudinal conflict was also found among these more "important" concepts. These peer-group pressures also resulted in significantly greater change occurring among these more "important" Confucian concepts in a traditional direction, while the "un-important' concupts changed in a modern direction.
Cultural Values in Latin and North American Cities
Authors: Manaster Guy J. , Ahumada Isa
Published: March 2007

This study of adolescents in San Juan, Puerto Rico, replicated an investigation of the cultural values, as measured by the Uses Tests, of 13-and 16-year old upper-lower and upper-middle class adolescents in Buenos Aires and Chicago. The scoring categories provide a highly reliable system for classifying the adolescents' descriptions of uses for the 50 common objects listed in the instrument. The frequencies of the scoring categories instrumental, benevolent, malevolent, hedonistic, esthetic, religious, and status were analyzed by sex, age, and social class for San Juan in comparison to the two original samples. Implications are drawn from the pattern of frequencies of San Juan responses as compared to the typically Latin "passive" pattern in Buenos Aires and the typically North American "active" pattern in Chicago.
A Cross-Cultural Study of the Perception of Situational Causality
Authors: Walker Crane , Torrance E. P. , Walker Timothy S.
Published: March 2007

This study was designed to test developmental, cross-cultural, and sex differences in the perception of situational causality. Three hundred fifty-nine (359) Ss were divided by grade (third and sixth), culture (United States and Indian), and sex. It was hypothesized that developmental, cross-cultural, and sex differences would be found in the perception of situational causality. Ss were shown a picture depicting a Mother Goose nursery rhyme and were asked what might have caused the action shown in the picture. Responses were categorized as Causal, Phenomenistic, Consequential, Descriptive, or Other. Means were computed for each group and category and hypothesized differences were tested by means of the Student's t test. All cross-cultural differences were significant and developmental differences were found to be significant for United States children but not for children in the Indian culture.
Attribution of Responsibility by Japanese and Americans as a Function of Age
Authors: Shaw Marvin E. , Iwawaki Saburo
Published: March 2007

Two age groups of Japanese and Americans were experimentally compared in the attribution of responsibility. Forty Japanese and 40 Americans were administered the AR Questionnaire, which incorporates five levels of causality (Association, Commission, Foreseeability, Intentionality, and Justification), two outcome qualities (good and bad), and two outcome intensities (high and low). Half of each nationality were age 9-10 and half were age 11-13; half of each age group in each culture were male and half were female. The results replicated previous findings due to levels, outcome quality, and outcome intensity, and supported the following conclusions: 1) Americans attribute greater responsibility for negative than for positive outcomes, whereas Japanese attribute about the same for both negative and positive outcomes; 2) although both nationalities attribute more responsibility for high than for low intensity outcomes, this difference is greater for Japanese than for Americans; 3) Japanese attribute greater responsibility at levels I and II, and less at level V than Americans; 4) the magnitude of cultural differences varies with age of subjects, level of causality, quality of outcome, and intensity of outcome. The findings were interpreted in terms of cultural differences in values and parental reward patterns.
Extension of Color Bias Research to Young French and Italian Children
Authors: Best Deborah L. , Naylor Cecile E. , Williams John E.
Published: March 2007

Previous research has documented a pancultural tendency for positive evaluation to be associated with the color white and negative evaluation to be associated with black. This pro-white/anti-black bias has been demonstrated among both Euro-and Afro-American preschoolers using the Color Meaning Test (CMT) and other procedures. Translated versions of CMT and a companion measure, the Preschool Racial Attitude Measure (PRAM), were administered to samples of five-and six-year-old children in France and Italy. A tendency toward pro-white/anti-black bias was found in both groups; however, this bias was less pronounced in the French group than in the Italian group, or in previous Euro-American samples. The European children also displayed a tendency toward the positive evaluation of light-skinned figures relative to dark-skinned figures, but not to the degree usually found with Euro-American children. Theories of the development of color and race bias in young children are discussed.
Perceptual Articulation in Three Middle Eastern Cultures
Authors: Amir Yehuda
Published: March 2007

The level of perceptual articulation of two Israeli subgroups and two Moslem groups were compared, namely, Israeli males of Western and Middle Eastern ethnic origin, an Arab, and an Iranian group. Predictions regarding differences between these groups in respect to perceptual articulation were based on analyses of the diverse childrearing practices typical of these groups and on inference regarding the probable influence these practices exert on the individual's perceptual development. The results support the hypotheses that Israelis of Western ethnic origin would achieve a higher level of perceptual articulation than both Israeli and Moslem Middle Eastern groups, and that Israeli Jews originating from Moslem countries would achieve an intermediate level, between Western Israelis and Middle Eastern Moslems.
Flag Preference as an Indicator of Patriotism in Israeli Children
Authors: Lawson E. D.
Published: March 2007

To determine attitudes toward world powers as well as their own national/ethnic group, 960 boys and girls divided into Arab-Christian, Arab-Moslem, Jewish non-Orthodox, and Jewish Orthodox groups, in grades 2 through 12, gave responses to a projective test of flag preference. Factors of ethnicity, religion, sex, and grade level evaluated by analysis of variance indicated some similarities, but also important differences between the various groups. In ranking the flags non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews had very high agreement, Christians and Moslems had high agreement, but combined Arabs versus combined Jewish groups showed little agreement. Christians and Moslems showed some differences. Sex and grade level were not major factors in attitude differences.