bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The new German educational law for medical schools: the Hamburg concept in dermatology and venereology
Authors: Neuber Karsten , Weidtmann Katja , Coors Esther , Harendza Sigrid
Published: March 2006

Medical school graduates are required to deal with complex situations in their future work which require profound theoretical knowledge as well as many practical skills. The University of Hamburg used a new educational law (ÄappO 2002) as catalyst to define learning objectives relevant for practice and to guarantee a close connection between theory and practice. A newly founded curriculum committee with twelve members developed a strategy and structure for the new clinical curriculum (KliniCuM) in weekly sessions. The subject dermatology and venereology is taught in the thematic block “The Internal and External Human Being” in integrated courses with the subjects internal medicine, pathology and pharmacology. The teaching modules (introductory lectures, symptom‐oriented lectures, problem‐based tutorials and bedside‐teaching) are practice oriented and teach diseases and skills of dermatology which are important for “general medicine”. Written and practical exams take place at the end of the block. Although there is more required attendance and increased demands on students' time, dermatology has received very positive evaluation results. Students consider their gain in knowledge and skills as very high. The new curriculum in Hamburg could provide helpful orientation for other medical faculties in changing their curricula for the subject “dermatology and venerology” according to the new educational law.
A trip through the signaling pathways of melanoma
Authors: Fensterle Joachim
Published: March 2006

Many cellular signaling pathways are involved in the development of cancer. Depending on the tumor entity, the nature as well as the mode of activation can differ. Some signaling pathways frequently show changes as all tumor cells have to fulfill some basic requirements such as independence from growth factors or insensitivity against apoptosis. In this review, the possibilities of a tumor to manipulate signaling pathways to reach these goals are exemplified based on an archetypical melanoma cell. In addition, new therapeutic options based on the knowledge of signaling pathways will be discussed.
Hard TeV spectra of blazars and the constraints to the infrared intergalactic background
Authors: Katarzyński K. , Ghisellini G. , Tavecchio F. , Gracia J. , Maraschi L.
Published: March 2006

Recent gamma-ray observations of the blazar 1ES 1101−232 (redshift z= 0.186) reveal that the unabsorbed TeV spectrum is hard, with spectral index α≲ 0.5 [F(ν) ∝ν−α]. We show that simple one-zone synchrotron self-Compton model can explain such hard spectra if we assume a power law energy distribution of the emitting electrons with a relatively high minimum energy. In this case the intrinsic TeV spectrum can be as hard as F(ν) ∝ν1/3, while the predicted X-ray spectrum can still be much softer. The observations of 1ES 1101−232 can therefore be reconciled with relatively high intensities of the infrared background, even if some extreme background levels can indeed be excluded. We show that the other TeV sources (Mrk 421, Mrk 501 and PKS 2155−304) can be interpreted in the same framework, with a somewhat larger minimum energy.
Research Quality Assessment and Geography in Australia: Can Anything be Learned from the UK Experience?1
Authors: JOHNSTON RON
Published: February 2006

The assessment of research activity in universities is now undertaken regularly in a number of countries, with resources then being allocated according to the results of those evaluations. Such an exercise (a Research Quality Framework – RQF) has recently been proposed for Australia. This paper suggests likely consequences of such an exercise for geography in Australian universities, given its current situation there, on the basis of experience with the Research Assessment Exercises undertaken in the UK since 1986.
Mid‐Holocene Development of Mangrove Communities Featuring Rhizophoraceae and Geomorphic Change in the Richmond River Estuary, New South Wales, Australia
Authors: HASHIMOTO TAKEHIKO R. , SAINTILAN NEIL , HABERLE SIMON G.
Published: February 2006

This paper describes the hitherto unreported occurrence of mid‐Holocene mangrove deposits in the Richmond River estuary, southeastern Australia, thereby providing evidence for changes in the distribution and composition of mangrove communities within a subtropical estuarine system during the Holocene. Stratigraphic, radiocarbon and palynological evidence indicates that widespread development of mangrove communities took place in the upstream reaches of the Richmond River estuary during the period 7000 to 6000 years BP. These communities maintained their habitat through substrate aggradation under the conditions of a moderate sea‐level rise, in contrast to other estuaries within the region, which generally experienced the submergence of intertidal substrates. Mangrove species belonging to the family Rhizophoraceae, most likely Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora stylosa, dominated these communities, in strong contrast to contemporary communities, which are dominated by Avicennia marina. Moreover, these mid‐Holocene communities were located a considerable distance upstream of the contemporary occurrences of Rhizophoraceae species within the estuary. The changes in the spatial distribution and composition of mangrove communities parallel the large‐scale evolution of the estuary driven by sea‐level variation. Shallow, buried Pleistocene terraces probably contributed to the regionally unique aggradational response of the mangrove communities and their substrates to a sea‐level rise during mid‐Holocene times.
Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Recreational Angling Effort in a Warm‐Temperate Australian Estuary
Authors: BUCHER DANIEL J.
Published: February 2006

Among the critical issues for the management of estuarine fish resources is the need to adequately identify the extent of use by recreational fishers, and the allocation of the resource between recreational and commercial users.

 Recreational anglers in estuaries often target a similar range of estuarine fish species to commercial fishers. Prior to the declaration of ‘recreational fishing havens’ (estuarine waters closed to commercial netting but remaining open to recreational angling) in many New South Wales (NSW) estuaries in May 2002, the estuary of the Manning River on the central NSW coast supported the tenth most productive commercial estuarine net fishery in the State. To quantify the recreational angling effort in the Manning River estuary, progressive counts were made of shore‐based and boat‐based anglers from a small power boat from June 2001 to May 2002. Sample days (eight per month) were chosen in a stratified random fashion, taking into account the proportions of weekends, public holidays and school holidays in each month. The total recreational angling effort exerted on the estuary for the 12‐month period was 144 892 ± 3248 angler‐hours, indicating a low to medium effort compared to other NSW estuaries of similar size. Over half of the effort was exerted in the section nearest the northern entrance at Harrington. There was relatively little variation in shore‐based angling effort throughout the year, whereas boat‐based fishing increased markedly in summer. Months that coincided with NSW school holidays were most popular, especially January. More recreational fishing effort was exerted in the afternoons than in the mornings during winter, but this trend was reversed in summer. Although daily effort was much higher on weekends than weekdays, the total cumulative effort was generally similar, due to the greater number of weekdays in the year.

 Pilot studies of catch per unit effort indicate that the recreational catch in the Manning River estuary is probably small compared to the pre‐closure commercial catch. Therefore management strategies aimed at limiting the recreational catch are likely to have minimal impact on fish stocks in the estuary when compared with regulation of the commercial sector.
SOCIAL CLASS, SCHOOL EXPERIENCE, AND DELINQUENCY
Authors: POLK KENNETH , FREASE DEAN , RICHMOND F. LYNN
Published: March 2006

Albert Cohen's delinquency theory is vulnerable to demonstrations of similar qualities, as well as similar quantities, of delinquency between middle and working‐class groups. In analyses of questionnaire data from a high school male population, no significant differences in incidence of delinquency emerge between classes. No significant differences obtain between classes of delinquents on items tapping the peer or subcultural dimensions Cohen considers particularly characteristic of working‐class delinquency. Finally, delinquency is shown to be related to academic performance regardless of class.
DELINQUENCY AMONG WIND RIVER INDIAN RESERVATION YOUTH
Authors: FORSLUND MORRIS A. , MEYERS RALPH E.
Published: March 2006

Little research has been conducted on delinquency among American Indian youth. The present study reports the results of an intensive investigation of the officially recognized and recorded delinquency involvement of Indian youth living on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. Findings indicate: (1) a relatively high rate of official delinquency involvement; (2) that a high percentage of charges were for rather minor offenses; and (3) that a high percentage of charges were for alcohol‐related offenses
WHO SHOULD GO AND WHO SHOULD STAY
Authors: NEIL THOMAS C.
Published: March 2006

The need for more efficient use of probation services is widely accepted. Indeed, many offenders are being incarcerated who might have been better served on probation. However, the percentage of incarcerated offenders who perhaps should have been retained in the community has been open to question The purpose of this study was to provide a bench mark as to the percentage of incarcerated offenders who might be better served on probation.
THE POLICE AND HIGHER EDUCATION The Challenge of the Times
Authors: BROWN LEE P.
Published: March 2006

Abstracts

As law enforcement agencies continue to increase their educational standards, it is incumbent upon colleges and universities to offer curricula that prepare policemen to meet the challenge of modern times Criminal justice programs should pave the way for innovation and change in the police establishment by producing well‐educated men, with a strong liberal arts background, capable of understanding self, community, and the role of the police in modem society.
POST‐PRISON SUCCESS PREDICTION A Preliminary Florida Study
Authors: SAMPSON ALLAN
Published: March 2006

This preliminary study attempts to prepare the foundations for obtaining a valid predictive measure for the chance of “success” for a prisoner leaving the Florida penal system. A random sample of 200 Florida prison system releases is analyzed from several vantage points Parolee versus expvee popubtion differences are studied and a variant of the California Base Expectancy Scale is constructed for Florida. To overcome the weakness of utilizing the same predictive model for a broad spectrum of prisoners, an attempt is made to describe homo geneous subpopulations. Through the use of cluster analysis, one such subpopulation is identified and predictive ability for this group is shown to be greatly increamd.
UNIONIZATlON BEHIND THE WALLS
Authors: HUFF C. RONALD
Published: March 2006

Inmate militancy has evolved from rioting to nonviolent forms of protest and, more recently, to union organizing activities. Prisoners' unions have been opposed by state officials. and a number of tactics have been employed to weaken them Although no constitutional or statutory provisions deal specifically with the right of prisoners to unionize, that right probably depends upon the union's ability to demonstrate that it does not threaten institutional security and would not significantly alter the existing power structure. Prisoners' unions could represent a more participatory and open form of bargaining than currently exists in prisons
STYLES OF COMMUNITY POLICING
Authors: KUYKENDALL JACK L.
Published: March 2006

Police agencies have distinctive philosophies, or styles, of policing. James Q. Wilson identified three policing styles by analyzing the approach of police in order‐maintenance and law enforcement situations Styles can also be developed by considering policing methods in relation to their impact upon the general community. The reactive‐procrctive emphasis given to wrious combinations of positive and negative methods, or counselor and enforcer roles, is the basis for the four policing styles discussed.
TOWARD A MACRO‐SOCIOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF GENERAL DETERRENCE
Authors: BANKSTON WILLIAM B. , CRAMER JAMES A.
Published: March 2006

This paper is focused on the problem of general deterrence as a macro‐sociological phenomenon. An attempt has been made to integrate existing literature into a set of testable hypotheses Three perspectives on general deterrence are examined, including the classical school of criminology and the positions of Durkheim and Sumner. The variables of certainty and seventy, type of threatened behavior, latent deterrent functions of legal threats, and normative structure are discussed. It is suggested that compliance rates may be used as an empirical index of general deterrence.
ASSAULTIVENESS AND ALCOHOL USE IN FAMILY DISPUTES
Authors: BARD MORTON , ZACKER JOSEPH
Published: March 2006

Systematic naturalistic observation often contradicts experimental laboratory findings and idiosyncratic personal perceptions. In this study, family disputes managed by police officers trained in interpersonal conflict management yielded uniform observational data on 1,388 cases. The view shared by police and by social scientists that family disputes are likely to involve assaultiveness and that such behavior is typically caused by alcohol use was not supported by these data. Instead, the findings suggest that: assaults do not usually precede arrival of police; disputes are not usually influenced by alcohol use; and, indeed, assaults are less common when alcohol has been used.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF POLICE AND CRIME
Authors: SWIMMER GENE
Published: March 2006

This study develops a model to measure the impact of police expenditure on crime rates across cities. It specifically allows for the two‐way relationship between police and crime. Other things being equal, cities with more police per capita should have lower crime rates, if police reduce crime. Simultaneously, the higher the crime rate, the greater the public demand for police. In its final formations, the model contains two identifiable equations with two endogenous variables, police expenditure per capita and the crime rate.

Following a discussion of the reliability of crime statistics, the model is estimated by two‐stage least squares, using FBI crime data for 119 cities in 1960. These two‐stage results are compared with ordinary least‐square estimation results and are found to be clearly superior.
A FOUR‐DIMENSIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON POLICE TYPOLOGIES
Authors: SUNDEEN RICHARD A.
Published: March 2006

Using factor analysis with variables previously assumed to be conceptually bipolar, four dimensions of police juvenile bureaus are suggested: juvenile specialist, community service, local, and organizational orientations. Further analysis shows these four types to have different relationships with legalism, community satisfaction, and personalized treatment of juveniles.
THE REASSURANCE FACTOR IN POLICE PATROL
Authors: BAHN CHARLES
Published: March 2006

In addition to its more obvious functions, police patrol also has the function of citizen reassurance‐providing feelings of safety that a citizen experiences when he knows that a police officer or patrol car is nearby. Since this function is highly related to both visibility and awareness, it is svggested that in locations of both cognitive centrality and high density, fixed posts be established that would both serve the reassurance function and provide another communication link between the police and the public. Recent studies by Milgram. Sommer, Hall, and Lynch have all contributed to our understanding of what Milgram calls “the congnitive map of the city,” and this concept can be utilized in the pursuit of safety.
MIDDLE MANAGEMENT AND POLICE DEMOCRATIZATION: A Reply to John E. Angell
Authors: SHERMAN LAWRENCE W.
Published: March 2006

This article responds to John Angell's (1971) proposal to abolish police middle management. With use of the data from a seven‐city study of team policing (Sherman et al., 1973) and Tannenbaum's (1968) framework of control in organizations, the past obstructions and potential uses of middle management to police change are discussed. Rather than abolish or neutralize mid‐management, I propose to expand their support functions as a positive aid to change.
POLITICAL CRIME, POLITICAL JUST1CE, AND POLITICAL PRISONERS
Authors: MINOR W. WILLIAM
Published: March 2006

Few attempts have previously been made systematically to define or interrelate the concepts of political crime, political criminal, political justice, and political prisoner. To establish a more adequate conceptual base for research, political crime and political criminals are herein defined in terms of motiwtions underlying criminal acts, regardless of the nature of the acts themselves; political justice is defined in terms of the state's reaction to perceived threat; and political prisoners are defined as those incarcerated because of either political crime (politico1 criminals) or political justice (victims of repression). Dimensions for a taxonomy of political crime are suggested.
PRISONERS' FAMILIES A Study of Some Social and Psychological Effects of Incarceration on the Families of Negro Prisoners
Authors: SCHNELLER DONALD P.
Published: March 2006

This study examines the effects of imprisonment on the families of inmates. Likert scaling procedures were used to meaaire three components of change occurring in 93 families subsequent to the incarceration of the family head. These are: change in sociol acceptance, change in economic status, and change in the degree of sexual and emotional frustration of the wife. Findings indicate that finances and sexual‐emotional frustrations underwent significant change and became problematic for a majority of families. Contrary to expectations, changes in social acceptance of the families were neither significant nor problematic except for a small minority.
JUVENILE COURT INTAKE An Analysis of Discretionary Decision‐Making
Authors: THOMAS CHARLES W. , SIEVERDES CHRISTOPHER M.
Published: March 2006

An increasing amount of pressure has been directed toward juvenile court operations, much of which has focused on the hypothesized abuse of the broad discretionary decision‐making power that has traditionally been vested in the court. In this paper, we attempt to examine the extent to which factors not directly associated with the nature of the alleged offense may alter the probability that a juvenile w.11 be referred for a formal hearing in the juvenile court, a step which many analysts feel may have the unintended function of promoting rather than inhibiting subsequent involvement in delinquent behavior. Based on an analysis of 346 cases, our findings show that a number of variables that are not of direct legal relevance do exert a significant influence on the dispositional process, but the magnitude of this influence is not as great as many have been led to expect given the orientation of some explanatory models, particularly those based on the propositions of the labeling school.
Certainty, Severity, and Skyjacking
Authors: CHAUNCEY ROBERT
Published: March 2006

A central issue in the controversy surrounding the death penalty is the question of deterrence. Specifically, does the additional severity of capital punishment over life imprisonment serve to deter potential criminals? I attempt to deal with this question by separating the effects of severity of punishment from those of certainty of punishment by examining various woys in which these factors have been manipulated in the attempt to curb the incidence of skyjacking. I conclude that increasing the certainty of punishment results in a decrease in crime, whereas increasing the severity does not, in effect arguing against the necessity of the death penulty.
NARCOTIC ADDICTS AND CRIME Analysis of Recent Trends
Authors: STEPHENS RICHARD C. , ELLIS ROSALIND D.
Published: March 2006

This study attempts to shed light on the types of crime committed by drug addicts and the possible changes in criminal behavior over time. The study revealed that arrests for crimes against the person are becoming more prominent among addicts although acquisition of property appeared to be the prime motive in these offenses Over the four‐year period analyzed, arrests for crimes against property and drug offenses remained the more numerically important categories even though arrests for crimes against the person increased. It was also found that, for each type of offense, more persons were arrested after than before they initiated thew drug abuse patterns.
PRICING SYSTEM AND THE ALLOCATION OF CONTRACTUAL METROPOLITAN POLICE SERVICES
Authors: GYLYS JULIUS A.
Published: March 2006

The paper's main objective is to show that a market pricing system will, up to a certain output level, permit an economically efficient solution to the problem of allocating contractor's police services among the metropolitan political areas. But once additional police inputs succeed in establishing relatively low levels of criminal activity, the market mechanism will have a tendency to break down. A market dysfunction takes place because further increases of police services will not be able to elicit the expected decreases in crime. Failure of the market pricing system gives rise to an ancillary conclusion that other inputs besides police are needed to wage a successful battle against the rising levels of criminality.
POLICE CYNICISM RECONSIDERED An Application of Smallest Space Analysis
Authors: RAFKY DAVID M.
Published: March 2006

Niederhoffer, following Durkheim, proposed a linear causal model to explain police anomia. Using data from an availability sample of New York City police, he breaks into the chain of variables at frustration and terminates the analysis with cynicism measured by a twenty‐item scale. This study replicates Niederhoffer's research with a population of urban police, examines the nature and incidence of cynicism, and tests the relationships between various indices of frustration, cynicism, and anomia. Contrary to Niederhoffer's expectations, cynicism is not prevalent among police outside New York City; cynicism my be described adequately only with reference to three dimensions; most indices of frustration do not significantly correlate with two subscales of cynicism; and cynicism does not intervene in the relationships between a number of independent variables and anornh. An alternate model based on Merton's conceptualization of anomin as the result of a discrepancy in cultural values and institutionalized means for attaining such goals was tested. It was found that perceived means‐goals discrepancy vis‐à‐vis legal norms and goals intervened in the relationships between rank and anomia and years on force and anomia.
A SELF‐REPORT COMPARISON OF INDIAN AND ANGLO DELINQUENCY IN WYOMING
Authors: FORSLUND MORRIS A. , CRANSTON VIRGINIA A.
Published: March 2006

Previous studies, including those of Wind River Indian Reservation youth, indicate that native American adolescents have a relatively high rate of official delinquency involvement, Official rates may reflect, however, not only the actual incidence of delinquent behavior, but also other factors such as the manner in which the law is enforced. The findings of the present study are based on a self‐report type questionnaire administered to students attending two high schools in the Wind River Indian Reservation area of Wyoming. The data point to little overall difference in the delinquent behavior of Indian and Anglo males, with the exception of a greater involvement of Indian males in delinquent activities centering around the school. The Indian female, however, appears to be considerably more involved than her Anglo counterpart in running away from home and in a variety of offenses centering around the school, theft, vandalism, and assault. When social class is controlled, there is a substantial reduction in the number of offenses for which there are significant differences between the two races, although a few differences are found on particular class levels which do not obtain for the sample as a whole.
SOCIAL WORK AND CORRECTIONS Comments on an Uneasy Partnership
Authors: HANDLER ELLEN
Published: March 2006

This paper offers a summary of social work contributions to correctional treatment and provides a refutation to charges that social work in corrections is ineffective and adds a therapeutic veneer that prolongs the life of an outmoded, deficient system. Fundamental theories and practices of social work are consistent with the shifting emphasis from punishment to rehabilitation and community integration through focusing on the client within a social framework, attempting to influence the functioning of the social system, and coordinating new resources to met emerging needs. Postponing access to social services until after discharge from prison prevents the most rootless and disorganized among the prison population, with the highest probability of recidivism, from receiving necessary services, which might help to break the vicious cycle.
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PLANNING
Authors: FRANK JAMES E. , FAUST FREDERIC L.
Published: March 2006

This paper outlines a conceptual scheme for systematic analysis of the criminal justice policy‐planning process. The major assumptions required to apply the concept of policy‐planning in the substantive area of criminal justice are examined. Specification of critical aspects of the criminal justice system/environment relationship and elaboration of the roles played by various classes of key actors in relation to the need for, demand for, production of, and utilization of policy‐planning analyses are central features of the analytic scheme.
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO TREATMENT IN THE CRIME AND DELINQUENCY FIELD
Authors: BRAUKMANN CURTIS J. , FIXSEN DEAN L. , PHILLIPS ELERY L. , WOLF MONTROSEM.
Published: March 2006

Empirical, practical, and ethical issues pertaining to the use of behavior modification approaches in the crime and delinquency area are discussed. In reviewing specific procedures and programs, we emphasize a number of critical components for behavior modification programs, including: (a) procedures for programming generalization of treatment effects to the natural environment, (b) self‐government due process systems, (c) safeguards for human and constitutional rights, (d) systematic procedures for teaching more socially adaptive skills, and (e) systematic consumer evaluations of the program's effectiveness and pleasantness
ASSESSING LENGTH OF INSTlTUTIONALIZATION IN RELATION TO PAROLE OUTCOME
Authors: BABST DEAN V. , MOSELEY WILLIAM H. , SCHMElDLER JAMES , NEITHERCUTT M. G. , KOVAL MARY
Published: March 2006

This study assesses the relative impact of different lengths of imprisonment upon parole outcome, for narcotic law violotors, while holding other factors constant. Three alternative procedures for measuring association (r, ø and rt) were each used in parallel base expectancy analyses on the same data base. The study group consists of 929 narcotic law violators who were paroled in 50 jurisdictions. Parole performance ws derived after a twe‐year follow‐up period The 1968 parolees were used to develop offender risk ratings. These ratings were applied to 1969 parolees to determine whether they would be associated with parole outcome in a new sample. The three methods worked about the same for developing offender risk ratings. Once personal characteristics of offenders were taken into considemtion, the number of months served had no consistent relationship to parole outcome. This remained true for all three parallel techniques used.
PLEA BARGAINING Bargain Justice?
Authors: BARBARA JOHN , MORRISON JUNE , CUNNINGHAM HORACE
Published: March 2006

An historical overview of the plea bargaining process through the past few centuries is presented. The advantages and disadvantages of the use of the legal mechanism are given. A research project conducted in Pima County, Arizona, covering 500 convicted persons who had been involved in plea bargaining is described, and the findings indicate that the majority of individuals included in the study willingly accepted the concept and felt that the practice should not be discontinued. A recommendation for modification of the misuse of the process is that cases should be reviewed for plea bargaining by an independent agency apart from the court and prosecutor. This would insure that the individual was aware that he was abrogating his rights of appeal, thereby eliminating any further investigation of his case.
THE SENSE OF INJUSTICE? An Analysis of Juveniles' Reactions to the Justice System
Authors: GIORDANO PEGGY C.
Published: March 2006

The paper analyzes three juvenile justice organizations‐ the police, Abstract juvenile probation, and juvenile court‐from the point of View of the clients of the justice system. While much of the delinquency literature (in particular David Matza's notion of the sense of injustice) suggests a rlegntive response by youths who have been in contact with the system, the present resenrch found that youths with greater system contact actually expressed more positive attitudes t o w d probation officers and court judges than did their less experienced counterparts At the same time. a negative correlation was found between experience in the system and youths' evaluations of these agencies in terms of their effectiveness in performing important agency tasks.
PUBLIC OPINION AND PENAL POLICY
Authors: SMITH DAVlD LEWIS , LIPSEY C. McCURDY
Published: March 2006

This article discusses the issue of who should run the penal system 7he major assumption of penal administrators has been that the public was in favor of a punishment policy. This research indicates that the public is not as punishment‐oriented as expected, though older respondents gave greater approval to restrictive conjugal visitation policies. Age variations may indicate a change in public opinion. The evidence also indicates that the public is more willing to support such programs as conjugal visits and work release than was previously thought. A willingness for more favorable treatment of inmates was found for those who had some contact with inmates.
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR AND THE GAINS FROM CRIME
Authors: McPHETERS LEE R.
Published: March 2006

A number of economists recently have applied tools of economics to analysis of crime. The resulting models of criminal activity typically postulate that crime is positively related to gains porn crime and inversely related to the probability of punishment. While empirical studies have confirmed this latter effect, the relation between gains from crime and criminal activity has not been satisfactorily examined. This paper specifically tests the empirical relation between criminal behavior and the gains from crime. The unsettling possibility that decreases in the gains from crime my lead to increases in the number of crimes is discussed.
CONFLICT AND CONSENSUS IN THE LAW ENFORCEMENT PROCESS Urban Minorities and the Police
Authors: SPITZER STEVEN
Published: March 2006

The social psychological dimensions of intergroup consensus and conflict are explored as a framework for interpreting police‐minority group relations The limitations of the cultural systems model (cross cultural perspective) are discussed and an intercultural approach is proposed as an alternative. This model, which focuses on the interpenetration of perspectives in social relations, is applied to the analysis of intergroup relations in both interactional and organizational contexts The specks problems of social coordination presented by the enforcement process are examined as a basis for predicting police‐minority conflict. The implications of the analysis for social policy are outlined in both organizational and interactional terms.
HOMICIDE TRENDS IN ATLANTA
Authors: MUNFORD ROBERT S. , KAZER ROSS S. , FELDMAN ROGER A. , STIVERS ROBERT R.
Published: March 2006

In recent years in Atlanta, homicide has been the most common cause of death in males 20–40 years of age. To study homicide trends in this city we analyzed data for 591 resident victims of criminal homicide in two time perid. 1961–1962 and 1971–1972. Large increases occurred in the homicide rates for both black and white residents. In both races, these rate increases could be accounted for almost entirely by homicides involving firearms Homicide rates for black and whites in 1971–1972 were highest in census tracts with low indices of socioeconomic status; this association was found only for homicides in which the victim and assailant were relatives or acquaintances. There was little geographic overlap between areas with high rates of homicide in the home and high numbers of homicides in public. Using population‐based rates facilitates comparisons of homicide occurrence between time periods and/or places.
A COMPARISON OF DEFENSE STRATEGY AND RACE AS INFLUENCES IN DIFFERENTIAL SENTENCING
Authors: KELLY HENRY E.
Published: March 2006

This study compares the influence of defense strategy and the race of the defendant on the variance in felony sentence length for a sample of 2,090 convicts in a state penal system Defense strategy includes the subsequent plea of the defendant and the type of defense counsel. Control variables are age, marital status, urban‐rural childhood, education, prior criminal record, and type of crime. A comparison is made for both burglary and homicide. The findings for butglay show defense strategy explains 16.5% of the variance in sentence length (because of the type of plea), while race of the defendant explains only I% of the variance (due to the positive relationship between being black and sentence length). For homicide the unique explanation of the defense strategy model accounts for 3% of the variance (due more to type of attorney than plea), while the race of the defendant accounts for another 3% (because of the negative relationships between being Indian or Mexican‐American and sentence length).
FAMILY RELATIONS AND DELINQUENCY IN ISRAEL
Authors: RAHAV GlORA
Published: March 2006

Several theoretical approaches (e.g., psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, and social‐disorganization) have led criminologists to the belief that harmony in family life prevents delinquency, while disharmony promotes it. Moreover, several studies suggested that there is interaction between the functioning of the family and social class as causes of delinquency. The present study of 414 Israeli adolescents reveals neither interaction between family relationships and social class, nor any substantive main effect, suggesting that (1) Israel's social conditions render the family a relatively less important role as a crimogenic agent, and (2) that family life has previously been idealized. and their role exaggerated due to the theoreticians’ value bias
THE POTENTIAL FOR CRIME OVERREPORTING IN CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION SURVEYS
Authors: LEVINE JAMES P.
Published: March 2006

A critique is offered of’ the methodology of the criminal victimization survey and several sources of error that may result in artificially inflated crime rates based on such data are identified. It is argued that much information about crimes given by respondents may be incorrect due to misunderstandings about what transpired, ignorance about legal definitions, memory failures about when crimes occurred, and outright prefabrication. Organizational imperatives that may cause interviewers and coders to skew the data toward a showing of greater criminality are analyzed. Some ideas for measuring response error more precisely are presented.
HOMICIDE IN DETROIT The Role of Firearms
Authors: FISHER JOSEPH C.
Published: March 2006

This study attempts to determine the role of firearms in accounting for the rising homicide rate of one city. Firearms were examined in relation to other weapons and subsequently firearm availability was examined in relation to other variables that could affect the rate of homicides. A majority of the increase in the homicide rate could be attributed to an increase in handgun murders. Firearm availability accounted for one‐quarter of the rise in homicides.
DIFFERENTIAL LABELING OF JUVENILES A Multivariate Analysis
Authors: BLANKENSHIP RALPH L. , SINGH B. KRISHNA
Published: March 2006

Prior studies and commonsense definitions of the decision‐making process suggest that the ascriptive power of the commitment offense, gravity of the commitment offense, psychiatric characteristics of the offender, and the social identity given off by the offender's family would be causally related to variance in the deviance label, i.e., decisions to commit to a mental hospital rather than to a corrections institution. Case records from both settings were analyzed for traces of the decision. However, controlling for each of the alternative variables fails to eliminate the strong relationship between intensity of the offender's prior career of delinquent behavior and the formal deviance label qua type of commitment. The multivariate path model suggests that delinquency intensity and type of commitment are the two most important determinants of mental classification.
A REEXAMINATION OF THE ETIOLOGY OF URBAN CRIME
Authors: MLADENKA KENNETH R. , HILL KIM QUAILE
Published: March 2006

Ecological analysis of crime rates has been a traditionally important approach to analyzing the causes of crime. Over the years, this approach has profited from the use of increasingly sophisticated data analysis techniques. A recent article in this journal on intracity crime rates offered such an analytic refinement—with the discovery of similar curvilinear relationships between both personal and property crime and customary socioeconomic predictors Such a finding for both types of crime is quite different from the results indicated in previous research. The present article reexamines comparable data on urban crime, adding further statistical and theory‐based refinements to the analysis The results here show distinctive relationships for property and personal crime. This paper serves, then, to integrate careful empirical analysis into available criminogenic theory and into the conventional wisdom of ecological research.
CITIZEN REPORTING OF CRIME Some National Panel Data
Authors: SKOGAN WESLEY G.
Published: March 2006

The decision to report criminal victimizations to the police is an important determinant of the capacity of the criminal justice system to fulfill its mandate. This report analyzes the individual‐level determinants of crime reporting, using data generated by the 1973 National Crime Survey conducted by the Bureau of the Census. It examines the impact of three characteristics of victimizations upon their reporting probability: the attributes of their victims, the nature of victim‐offender relationships, and the seriousness of the offense. Only the latter appears to be of major significance, although youthful victims are substantially less likely than their elders to report their experiences to the police. The reasons that nonreporters give for their inaction appear to be quite rational, reflecting the probability that anything will come of their cooperation.
PRISONERS' ATTITUDES TOWARD COMPONENTS OF THE LEGAL AND JUDICIAL SYSTEMS
Authors: ALPERT GEOFFREY P. , HICKS DONALD A.
Published: March 2006

Prisoners' attitudes toward components of the legal and judicial systems are reviewed and analyzed with data collected from prisoners in their first several days of incarceration. These data are analyzed within subgroups of the prison population. In general, attitudes toward the police are negative, attitudes toward the law and the judicial system are mixed, and attitudes toward lawyers are positive. However, preprison and prison status factors influence the attitudes held by prisoners, and these different patterns of influence are discussed.
RESPONSES OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM TO LEGISLATION PROVIDING MORE SEVERE THREATENED SANCTIONS
Authors: SHOVER NEAL , BANKSTON WILLIAM B. , GURLEY J. WILLIAM
Published: March 2006

In 1971, the Tennessee legislature enacted legislation providing for mandatory jail sentences and driver's license revocations for anyone convicted of driving while intoxicated. This new law had no demonstrable impact on the highway traffic fatalities rate‐the intended objective. This paper explores the reasons for this apparent lack of impact. Data suggest that, while there was some increase in the severity of sanctions imposed on drunken drivers, there was still a consistent tendency to suspend the jail sentences and grant drivers restricted driving privileges. Nor is there any reason to believe that the police intensified their efforts to apprehend larger numbers of drunken drivers. Thus, the more severe sanctions threatened in the new law were generally mitigated in practice. Some possible interpretations for this are offered.
LABORATORY ORGANIZATIONAL EXPERIMENTS FOR CORRECTIONS An Alternative Method
Authors: CHOW ESTHER NGAN‐LING , HEMPLE WILLIAM E.
Published: March 2006

The methodology of laboratory organizational experiments has seldom been applied to corrections. Its advantages of flexibility, experimental control, ability to replicate theoretically important but naturally rare occurrences, and its potential for cross‐validation of other research are shown to be of both practical and theoretical relevance to corrections. The problems of realism, generalizability, practicality, and ethics are examined and a remedy proposed: the sociodramatic simulation of correctional organizations to contrast the effects of theoretically important structural properties and correctional approaches, This remedy synthesizes the realistic and the symbolic approaches to organizational simulation. It is practical, and it resolves many of the ethical problems.
PRISONIZATION IN FIVE COUNTRIES Type of Prison and Inmate Characteristics
Authors: AKERS RONALD L. , HAYNER NORMAN S. , GRUNINGER WERNER
Published: March 2006

Interorganizational and cross‐cultural comparisons are made among different types of prisons located in five countries‐the United States, Mexico, England, West Germany, and Spain‐as a test of the relative importance of functional and importation variables in prisonization. A normative orientation among inmates which is in opposition to staff expectations is found in all prisons in all countries. Adherence to this orientation by individual inmates is most prevalent among American inmates and last among Mexican inmates. The functional theory of the inmate system receives more support than the importation theory with regard to the general orientation to the institution and its programs and to attitudes toward and interaction with staff; but the two models do about equally well in accounting for the extent to which prisoners adopt the inmate code. Theoretical and policy implications of the study are discussed.
AGE AND RULE‐BREAKING IN PRISON A Test of Sociocultural Interpretations
Authors: JENSEN GARY F.
Published: March 2006

Age differences in rule‐breaking have been widely noted and widely explained, but rarely if ever have sociological explanations been subjected to actual test. This study examines such age differences among women in prison and lends support to the notion that age differences are more characteristic of inmates with urban backgrounds than of inmates with rural or small town backgrounds. Moreover, among urban inmates age differences appear to be due to age‐related normative orientations and commitments rather than age “itself” or related losses of “energy,”“daring,” or “vigor.” Finally, the study supports recurring arguments that non‐constitutional characteristics of inmates can shape normative and behavioral conflict within the prison.
CHANGING CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PROFESSIONAL CRIMINALS Implications for Criminology Theory
Authors: STAATS GREGORY R.
Published: March 2006

This article examines both traditional and contemporary conceptualizations of professional criminals as viewed by criminologists. Traditionally, criminologists have viewed professional criminals as being involved in full‐time, nonviolent. highly skilled specialties. Contemporary conceptualizations stress professional criminals as being no specialized, less skilled, and involved in violent behavior. These conceptual changes reflect an emphasis upon observations rather than theoretical development among criminologists examining professional crime. As long as an observational emphasis persists, theories concerning professional criminals will not progress either rapidly or in an orderly fashion. Changing conceptualizations of professional criminals can be viewed as an example of insufficient theoretical development existing within the discipline.
ATTITUDES TOWARD THE POLICE AND THE LARGER ATTITUDE COMPLEX
Authors: ALBRECHT STAN L. , GREEN MILES
Published: March 2006

Growing concern with the effect of negative public attitudes toward the police on police‐community polarization and morale and effectiveness has led to numerous efforts to improve the image of the policeman and to facilitate more positive relationships with the community. It is proposed that the eflectiveness of such programs is hindered by their failure to consider that public attitudes toward the police do not exist in isolation, but are a part of a broader complex of attitudes toward the system of legal justice and its various representatives. Data from four different samples of residents of a western state provide some tentative support for this hypothesis. Implications of the data for programs designed to improve police‐community relationships are discussed.
GENDER ROLES AND FEMALE CRIMINALITY Some Critical Comments
Authors: NORLand STEPHEN , SHOVER NEAL
Published: March 2006

This paper investigates the recent claim that women are becoming increasingly involved in aggressive or serious criminal activities. On the basis of an a priori classification of aggressive crimes, a review of three different types of data reveals no unambiguous pattern of change in women's criminality. Several theoretical problems which hove inhibited the systematic development of the relationships between gender roles and criminality are discussed. Particular attention is paid to the lack of conceptual precision that characterizes the use of the terms gender and aggressive crime.
A NOTE ON THE EFFECTS OF POPULATION DENSITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT ON URBAN CRIME
Authors: KVALSETH JARALD O.
Published: March 2006

This note presents a brief review of reported studies analyzing the effects that population density and unemployment may have on urban crime rates. Very few such empirical studies have been conducted. and their Jindings have been quite contradictory and not entirely conclusive. However, for certain types of crimes, the evidence seems to indicate that the unemployment rate has a positive effect on the crime rate, while the effect of population density, if significant at all, is a negative one.
PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT Toward a Science of Correctional Management
Authors: BLOOMBERG SETH ALLAN
Published: March 2006

Participatory management as an intervention technique to effect change in the prison environment requires a restructuring of the prison Incision‐making process. Inmates must be given increased responsibility and be aUowed to participate meaningfully in decision‐making. The inmate subculture is posited as being one of the major impediments to successful interventions within the prison setting; participatory management neutralizes its effects, replacing the traditional oppositional character of staff/ inmate relationships with a coalition of staff and inmates.