bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
L
anka
S
ama
S
amaja
P
arty (
LSSP
) and
S
ri
L
ankan Radicalism
Authors: Wesley Ervin Charles
Published: September 2017

The Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), formed in 1935, was the first broad‐based anti‐imperialist and socialist political party in Ceylon, officially renamed Sri Lanka in 1972. During the colonial era, the LSSP was at the vanguard in the fight for independence from Britain. Starting in 1940, the LSSP was affiliated to the Fourth International, launched by Leon Trotsky as an alternative to the Soviet Third International (Comintern). At its pinnacle, in the late 1940s and 1950s, the LSSP had a mass following, a large trade union base, and led the opposition in parliament. For nearly a quarter‐century the LSSP was arguably the largest and most successful section of the Fourth International.
LatinAmerica,CatholicChurch and Liberation, 16th Century to Present
Authors: Brett Edward T.
Published: September 2017

The modern‐day progressive Catholic Church in Latin America came into full life in the 1960s, but to fully understand its nature and development one must briefly review the history of Catholicism in the southern region of the western hemisphere.
L
atin
A
merican Punk Rock and Protest
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Far from being a monolithic experience, scene, or movement, Latin American punk rock refers to a broad range of musical, aesthetic, and historical currents that emerged from the Spanish‐ and Portuguese‐speaking and indigenous communities of the Americas. The diversity of Latin American culture and history is reflected in the various forms of resistance that Latin American punks embraced, as well as the different conflicts that have inspired them: from struggles against dictatorships and involvement in guerilla movements, to class struggle, anarchism, Zapatismo, the anti‐globalization movement, immigration policy, and the multiplicity of narratives to be found in Latin American diaspora communities across the United States. Further, whereas white punks in the United States were largely politicized through political bands in the punk scene, in Latin American communities the youth were already politicized by their everyday realities and became involved in the punk scene specifically because of its political nature.
L
autaro (d. 1557)
Authors: González Arenas Mauricio
Published: September 2017

Lautaro was a Mapuche leader who fought against the Spaniards between 1553 and 1557. According to the most accepted historical tradition, Lautaro was born in the Araucania, between the Caram‐pangue and Tirúa rivers around the year 1535. In approximately IS SO he was imprisoned by the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Valdivia, who sentenced him to serving in the stables.
L
eeward
I
slands, Labor Protests
Authors: Richards Glen
Published: September 2017

Situated in the northeastern arc of the Caribbean archipelago, the Leeward Islands consist of Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Montserrat, Nevis and St. Christopher or St. Kitts, the British Leeward Islands, the British Virgin Islands, and the Dutch islands of St. Bartholomew, St. Eustatius, and St. Maarten. First occupied by the Taino and Carib aboriginal inhabitants, the islands were claimed for Spain by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1493, but actual conquest by Europeans did not occur until the seventeenth century when they were seized by the English, Dutch, and, briefly, in the case of St. Kitts, the French. By the late seventeenth century the Dutch islands had become trading posts, while the British islands had evolved as plantation colonies which produced first tobacco and, later, highly profitable sugar, utilizing imported African slaves as the main form of labor.
Lesbian, Gay, Transsexual, Bisexual Movements,Canada
Authors: Kinsman Gary
Published: September 2017

Indigenous peoples in what is now Canada lived under gender and sexual codes unfamiliar to European colonizing powers. Their social organization included three or four different groupings, most commonly the male, the female, and the male‐female, or “two spirited” person, who had characteristics of both sexes. Under this system, women often held important forms of political and social power, and there was widespread acceptance of same‐sex eroticism. Through missionary work and state repression, however, these norms were replaced with what became a normalized male‐dominated heterosexuality. These earlier practices of eroticism and gender diversity are now being reclaimed through the organizing efforts of two‐spirited people of the First Nations and the resistance of queer people.
Lesbian, Gay, Transsexual, Bisexual Movements,UnitedStates
Authors: Cabello Tristan
Published: September 2017

The lesbian, gay, transsexual, bisexual (LGBT) movement in the United States encompasses several lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender social organizations that took shape in the mid‐twentieth century. The Mattachine Society, the Daughters of Bilitis, the Gay Liberation Front, and Queer Nation were chronologically the most influential of these organizations.
Liberia, Protest and Revolution in the Modern Era
Authors: Kunnuji Michael O. N.
Published: September 2017

The uprisings that rocked the Republic of Liberia beginning in the last quarter of the twentieth century constitute a resounding case in point in studies of protest and revolution. Although it is easy to call attention to the proximate contributory factors in explaining the origin of what some have described as a complex political emergency in Liberia, the uprisings have their roots in the very foundation of the republic. The composition of the population of modern‐day Liberia is not unconnected with the transatlantic slave trade and its abolition, which resulted in the settlement of freed repatriated African slaves from the Americas – Americo‐Liberians – beginning on January 7, 1822. However, there are about 16 major indigenous ethnic groups in the area known as the Republic of Liberia.
Ligas Camponesas
Authors: Tahan Novaes Henrique
Published: September 2017

The Peasant Leagues (Ligas Camponesas) that appeared in 1955 are organizations that have come to symbolize the struggle for land reform in Brazil. Before the coup of 1964, Pernambuco, a state in Brazil's northeast, witnessed a process of modernization in the countryside that expelled small property owners and tenants from their subsistence cultures, seizing the land they once used and employing it in the single‐crop cultivation of sugar cane, a product which has been cultivated in Brazil for more than four centuries.
Lilburne, John (1615–1657)
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

John Lilburne, a Protestant dissenter and leader of the Levelers, was born in Sunderland to a noble family. After studying the Bible, Foxe's
Book of Martyrs
, and the writings of the Puritan divines, he met the Puritan physician John Bastwick, who, with William Prynne and Henry Burton, was persecuted by Archbishop Laud of Canterbury in a famous case in 1637 for their anti‐Episcopal positions. Involved in the printing and distribution of unlicensed Puritan books and pamphlets, Lilburne was arrested in December 1637 and brought before the Court of Star Chamber where he was sentenced to a £500 fine, whipping through the streets from prison to the pillory, punishment in the pillory, and imprisonment until he conformed. Instead of breaking down, he spoke out and distributed pamphlets concealed in his clothes, even as he was bleeding from the whipping. This courageous gesture won him the epithet “Free‐Born John,” as well as further imprisonment.
Lin Biao (1907–1971)
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Lin Biao or Lin Piao was, along with Zhu De and Peng Dehuai, one of the foremost military leaders in the Chinese communist movement in the 1930s and 1940s. A prominent figure in the People's Republic of China after the revolutionary victory, and leader of the People's Liberation Army throughout the 1960s, he was for a time closely aligned with Mao Zedong and was a central figure in launching the Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution (1966–76). He seems to have broken with Mao in 1971, however, and died under mysterious circumstances in that year.
Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865) and African Americans
Authors: Vernon Burton Orville , Burton Beatrice
Published: September 2017

In 1863, after his first meeting with Abraham Lincoln, the African American activist Frederick Douglass described the president as “the first great man that I talked with in the United States freely, who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color.” Years later, at the 1876 dedication of an emancipation monument in Washington, DC, Douglass spoke of Lincoln as “a white man” who “shared the prejudices common to his countrymen toward the colored race.” He continued, “[White men] are the children of Abraham Lincoln. We are at best only his stepchildren; children by adoption, children by forces of circumstances and necessity.” Still, even in this speech, which is often cited by those who tar Lincoln with racism, Douglass was using a nineteenth‐century rhetorical device. The second half of the speech praised Lincoln as the liberator of enslaved people. Later, in 1883, Douglass again referred to Lincoln as “the greatest statesman that ever presided over the destinies of this Republic.” He was “the one man of all the millions of our countrymen to whom we are more indebted … than to any other.” Douglass's conflicting descriptions of Lincoln provide a succinct summation of African Americans' changing relationship with Lincoln, but Lincoln's views of African Americans also evolved and changed over the course of his political career.
M‐19 of
C
olombia
Authors: Zimmering Raina
Published: September 2017

The Movimiento 19 de Abril (Movement 19 April) was a left‐wing urban guerilla movement which converted to a political party in 1991. The ex‐FARC member Jaime Bateman founded the movement after the fraudulent presidential elections of April 19, 1970.
Madera Uprising, Chihuahua, 1965
Authors: González Benjamín Anaya
Published: September 2017

September 23, 1965 marks an important date in the rise of guerilla movements in Mexico. On that day, Arturo Gámiz García and Pablo Gómez Ramírez, original members of the Mexican General Union of Farmers and Peasants (Unión General de Obreros y Campesinos de México, UGOCM), launched an assault against the military facilities of Madera City, a large village located on the shores of the Sierra Tarahumara in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. The attack, carried out in the early morning, was the first guerilla operation of the 1960s. The Mexican government responded with repression, with the support of the CIA, during the so‐called “Dirty War.”
Mahdist Revolt
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

The Mahdist Revolt is also known as the Mahdist War, the Anglo‐Sudan War, the Sudanese Mahdist Revolt or, by the British, as the Sudan Campaign. For the Mahdists, it was a war to free Sudan from Turkish, Egyptian, and ultimately British control. The war began in the 1880s as the British Empire was nearing its zenith. In 1882 the British intervened in Egypt to suppress the Urabi (Arabi) Revolt (1879–82). British intervention in Egypt meant that it also assumed some of the military and governing problems of Egypt, including its problems in Sudan.
Mahdist Revolt
Authors: Kurt Andrew
Published: September 2017

From 1881 to 1898 a popular Muslim revolt in certain parts of Sudan successfully challenged Turco‐Egyptian rule and reordered society within its territory. This was called the Mahdiya after its charismatic leader, Sheikh Muhammad Ahmad ibn ‘Abdallah (1844–85), who began the movement when he proclaimed himself to be the Mahdi, the divinely guided one whose coming as a savior was expected in Islam. Muhammad Ahmad inspired a major following of Muslims, some sharing his zeal to restore Islam to its original purity and others with political‐economic objectives.
Marat, Jean‐Paul (1743–1793)
Authors: Takeda Junko
Published: September 2017

Jean‐Paul Marat was the most influential of the radical journalists of the French Revolution. Before the Revolution he had been a member of the medical profession and had gained a reputation as a maverick scientist for his experiments with heat, light, and electricity and his critique of Newtonian physics. When the political challenge to the monarchy arose in the late 1780s, however, he immediately abandoned his scientific pursuits and threw himself wholeheartedly into agitating on behalf of the interests of the Parisian sans‐culottes. His historical significance has been disputed by biographers and historians, with some dismissing him as an accidental figure on the stage of history and others portraying him as second only to Robespierre in his influence on the earth‐shaking events of the Revolution.
Martov, Julius (1873–1923)
Authors: Vesela Pavla
Published: September 2017

In their biography of Martov, historians Savelev and Tiutiukin (2006) argued that “Martov had in his own way become a symbol of protest against social injustice, political falsehood, and demagogy, the personification of a splendid dream of a world without violence and war.” Martov, who entertained himself as a boy by imagining a utopian city called Prilichensk, became the leader of the Mensheviks, the non‐Leninist faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). Martov's Marxism was generally marked by internationalism, moderation, and revolutionary pacifism.
Masini, Pier Carlo (1923–1998)
Authors: Bertolucci Franco
Published: September 2017

Pier Carlo Masini was one of the most important intellectuals and activists of the socialist and anarchist movement in Italy after World War II. He was born on March 26, 1923 in Cerbaia (San Casciano Val di Pesa), near Florence. He began his political activities in the liberal‐socialist movement of Tristano Codignola at a very young age and was arrested for anti‐fascist activities at the beginning of 1942 and condemned to three years of confinement. When free again, in May 1943, he entered the Communist Party. But, a dissenter from Palmiro Togliatti's policies, he left the Communist Party and approached the anarchist movement.
Mathews, Tom (1866–1915)
Authors: Visser Wessel P.
Published: September 2017

Tom Mathews was the fifth general secretary of the original Transvaal Miners' Association (TMA), which was founded in 1902 and renamed the South African Mine Workers' Union (SAMWU) in 1913. Typical of the first generation of early white South African unionists, Mathews was born in Britain – in his case, Newlyn, Cornwall – and had a wide experience of labor activity before coming to South Africa.
Maurín, Joaquín (1896–1973)
Authors: Durgan Andrew
Published: September 2017

Joaquín Maurín, along with his friend and fellow POUM leader Andreu Nin, was one of the outstanding Marxists in Spain in the years leading up to the Civil War. Maurín was born in the village of Bonansa in the Aragonese Pyrenees in 1896. Trained as a teacher, like many of his contemporaries, he sympathized with working‐class republicanism and advanced pedagogic methods. Radicalized by the Russian Revolution he joined the CNT and became one of the union's leaders in the city of Lleida where he lived and worked. Such was his impact on the small local workers' movement that his anarchist rivals would later refer to Lleida as Mauríngrad.
M
ayekiso,
M
oses (b. 1948)
Authors: Ulrich Nicole
Published: September 2017

Moses Mayekiso (Moses Jongizizwe Mayekiso, Moss Mayekiso) was born on October 21, 1948 in Askeaton, Cala District, Transkei, South Africa. He was the eldest of 12 children. His father, Betwell Mayekiso, worked as a migrant miner, and later as a general laborer. His mother, Nokudama Mayekiso, ran the household in her husband's absence. Mayekiso left school early to find work, and in 1973 made his way to Alexandra Township, Johannesburg. After three years of working as a general laborer for a number of construction companies, Mayekiso eventually secured a job at the Toyota factory, where he joined the Metal Allied Workers' Union (MAWU), linked to the Trade Union Advisory Coordinating Council, and later the Federation of South African Unions (FOSATU), formed in 1979.
Mboya, Tom (1930–1969) and the
K
enya Labor Movement
Authors: Gichuru Andrew Kiiru
Published: September 2017

Tom Odhiambo Mboya was Kenya's consummate politician. First as a labor leader, then as a member of the legislative council, and finally as the minister for economic planning and development, Mboya was a diligent advocate for the rights of the Kenyan people in pre‐ and post‐colonial Kenya.
Michel, Louise (1830–1905)
Authors: Kuhn Gabriel
Published: September 2017

Louise Michel, a French educator and writer, was internationally known as an anarchist agitator. Born to the maid of a French estate and fathered by one of the family's members, Michel had a privileged upbringing. She was trained to become a teacher but her outspoken opposition to Napoleon III and the Bonapartist regime rendered official employment impossible. She became engaged in alternative education projects and revolutionary politics instead.
M
irabeau,
C
omte de (1749–1791)
Authors: Takeda Junko
Published: September 2017

Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau, was an influential revolutionary during the early stages of the French Revolution. Although an aristocrat, Mirabeau sided with the bourgeoisie and common people against the French monarchy and the system of privileges that characterized French society during the old regime.
Modernismo
Authors: Schroeder‐Arce Roxanne
Published: September 2017

Modernismo is a Spanish‐language literary movement which spanned the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries and transformed poetic expression by opponents of despotism and colonialism. Originated by Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío, the movement stemmed from a desire to break away from the conservative structures and literary influences of the French Symbolists, the Parnassians, and even the Catholic Church, and advanced an idea of poetry rooted in the material world. The poets who formed part of the Modernismo movement in Spain and Latin America opposed autocratic rule and advocated liberal political ideals. In Latin America, José Martí, the late nineteenth‐century Cuban revolutionary leader, was among the first leading Modernismo poets, whose ideas of freedom and justice are clearly found in his writings.
M
ontseny,
F
ederica (1905–1994)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

Federica Montseny Mañé, a Spanish novelist and propagandist who was an important force in both the anarchosyndicalist Confederación Nacional de Trabajo (National Labor Confederation) (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (Iberian Anarchist Federation) (FAI), was the only child of two important Spanish individualist anarchists, Federico Urales (neé Juan Montseny) and Soledad Gustavo (neé Teresa Mañé), who raised and educated her on a farm in the Madrid suburbs, moving to Barcelona when her father was banished from Madrid.
M
orais,
C
lodomir de (b. 1928)
Authors: Minto Lalo Watanabe
Published: September 2017

Brazilian communist militant Clodomir Santos de Morais was born in Bahia. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s he was an important Peasant Leagues' leader and a Brazilian Communist Party (PCB) militant. In 1955, he was elected deputy in Pernambuco. As a member of a group that defended the centrality of the agrarian question, Morais was expelled from the PCB in 1962. His position in favor of armed struggle also led him to a rupture with Francisco Julião in 1962.
MorantBayRebellion: Overview and Assessment
Authors: Wilmot Swithin
Published: September 2017

The Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865 in Jamaica represented a clash between a decaying white plantocracy and the black freed people who were assertive of their new rights and opportunities in the post‐slavery period from 1838. By 1865, several of black people's expectations and initiatives had been frustrated and undermined by strong continuities between the period of enslavement and the decades after emancipation. Whites maintained their near monopoly of the island's economic resources and dominated local political arrangements. Furthermore, the “aristocracy” of white skin buttressed their social privileges and the first generation of black adults in freedom was returned to dependence on the plantation and to a standard of living that was not far removed from their experiences of enslavement.
M
orocco, Protests, 1600s–1990s
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

At the time of the fall of Granada, the Wattasid dynasty that controlled northern Morocco saw its power challenged by the Portuguese who had taken the port of Ceuta in 1415, and were capturing other ports along Morocco's coast, such as Ksar‐es‐Seghir, which they held from 1458 until 1550. Portuguese power continued to grow, capturing Tangier in 1471 and the Atlantic port city of Asilah (or Arzila), both major strongholds in Morocco. In 1478 the Portuguese sacked the city of Casablanca, building a new city on the same site a hundred years later, calling it Casabranca; and nine years later they established a castle at Larache but only managed to hold it for one year. They also managed to take Mogador (modern‐day Essaouira), where the Portuguese fort was built in 1506; the ports of Safi which was captured in 1508, Mazagan (modern‐day El Jadida) which was taken in 1513; and Agadir, captured in 1515, in which year they also attacked Marrakesh but failed to take the city.
M
orones,
L
uis
N
apoleon (1890–1946)
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

Luis Napoleon Morones was born in Tlapán, a section of Mexico City. In Mexico City he worked at the Telephone Company of Mexico (now Telmex – Telefonos de México), where he remained until he became involved in politics in 1923. Unlike most anarchosyndicalists, who focused on direct action, Morones put his faith in the reform process.
MOVE/Move Bombing
Authors: Bennett Hans
Published: September 2017

Founded in 1972 by John Africa (born Vincent Leaphart), MOVE is a mostly black, anti‐authoritarian, religious, and family based political organization that works “to stop industry from poisoning the air, the water, the soil, and to put an end to the enslavement of life – people, animals, any form of life.” Along with neighborhood activism, MOVE also organized non‐violent protests at zoos, animal testing facilities, public forums, and corporate media outlets. As staunch advocates of self‐defense, MOVE clashed with Mayor Frank Rizzo's notoriously racist and violent police force, “meeting fist with fist” when police attacked their protests.
Movimento Sem Terra (MST)
Authors: Amador Zulma
Published: September 2017

The agrarian question in Brazil became a social and political problem in the middle of the twentieth century. Two important factors helped to make this question visible: the revitalization of the Peasant Leagues (Ligas Camponesas) in the northeast in the 1950s, and several conflicts between the indigenous people and the tenant farmers in the Amazon region in the 1960s. These events marked contemporary Brazilian history. They disrupted four centuries of the peasantry's oppression and silence. First, the historical make‐up of the country and the distribution of land had become an urgent national issue on the social and political agenda. Second, the movements forced the state to recognize and deal with these social and agrarian demands.
MPLA (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola)
Authors: Florescu Madalina
Published: September 2017

The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola, MPLA) was created in 1956 in Luanda by a group of
mestiços
and Catholic intellectuals who claimed responsibility for the attacks of February 4, 1961, on the prisons in Luanda. Other versions of its history deny that in 1961 the MPLA existed as a movement capable of organizing such action, insisting the MPLA was created in 1962 by Agostinho Neto in Leopoldville. In December 1962 the MPLA acquired its first political structure at a party conference in Leopoldville, creating a political and military committee and a steering committee and nominating Neto as leader. One year later, at the United Nations General Assembly in New York, where Holden Roberto represented the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), Jose Edoardo dos Santos declared the MPLA “the only authentic Angolan movement.”
M
ugabe,
R
obert (b. 1924)
Authors: Sibanda Eliakim M.
Published: September 2017

Born in 1924 at Kutama Mission in Zvimba Reserve, west of the Rhodesian capital of Salisbury (Harare), Robert Mugabe spent his formative years under the tutelage of an Irish Jesuit, Father Jerome O'Hea, founder of a teacher training center and hospital at the mission. Mugabe graduated from Kutama with a teaching diploma in 1945, and in 1951 earned a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Fort Hare in South Africa. In 1958, while at Takoradi Teacher Training College in Ghana, Mugabe was a witness to that country's independence from Britain. Under Kwame Nkrumah's leadership, Ghana was an exemplar of radical African nationalism, anti‐colonialism, and liberation. Ghana reinforced Mugabe's view that liberation for Africa under Marxist principles was a necessity, and he emerged as a leading nationalist figure on his return to Rhodesia in 1960.
Muhammad‘Ali (1769–1849)
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

Muhammad‘Ali Pasha (Mehmet Ali) was born in Kavala, a fishing village on the Macedonia coast. Probably of Albanian ethnic origin, he was reared by the governor of Kavala after his father Ibrahim Agha died. He entered the Greek tobacco trade, which taught him the importance of commerce for financing the development of an army and a political system. His growing success opened the way for him to marry one of the daughters of the governor. She eventually because the mother of five of his 95 children.
M
ujeres
L
ibres
Authors: Geoghegan‐Clements Charlie
Published: September 2017

Mujeres Libres (Free Women) was an anarchist organization dedicated to the education and greater participation of women in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. The group was founded in Madrid in September 1936 by Lucía Sánchez Saornil, Mercedes Comaposada, and Amparo Poch y Gascón in response to the way in which many women during the Spanish Revolution felt relegated to the sidelines by mainstream anarchist groups. At the time of the group's peak activity in August 1937 there were approximately 30,000 members throughout Spain.
Multitude
Authors: Hardt Michael , Virno Paolo
Published: September 2017

Multitude describes an internally heterogeneous social subject that is capable of political action. The term has been used since the 1990s to refer to the new conditions and strategies of political organizing and political action, particularly those involved in the global justice movements.
M
undey,
J
ack (b. 1929)
Authors: Burgmann Verity
Published: September 2017

Jack Mundey, environmentalist and trade union activist, achieved prominence as principal leader of the green bans movement in Sydney from 1971 to 1974. Mundey has remained a public figure, identified with working‐class action in defense of the environment and progressive social movements. His dream is to achieve a socialist and sustainable society “with a human face, an ecological heart and an egalitarian body” (Mundey 1981: 148).
Music and Protest, Latin
A
merica
Authors: Pontes Paula Rodrigues , Pinheiro Diogo L.
Published: September 2017

From the mid‐1950s to the mid‐1970s much of Latin America was marked by intense political and social instability. This instability had a profound impact on the arts and culture of the region, and nowhere was this impact more visible than in the music composed at the time.
Naidu, Sarojini (1879–1949)
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

Sarojini Naidu was born in Hyderabad City on February 13, 1879. Her father, Aghorenath Chattopadhyay, was an eminent educationalist and scientist, and her mother, Varada Sundari Devi, was involved in women's education. Her brother Virendranath Chattopadhyay was a revolutionary nationalist who became a communist and died during the Moscow purges. Sarojini went to school in Hyderabad, and after matriculation studied at King's College, London, and Girton, Cambridge. But she fell ill and returned to India in 1898. In the same year she married Dr. Muthyala Govindarajulu Naidu. At that time this was very unusual, since it meant an intercommunity as well as intercaste marriage (the Chattopadhyays were Bengali Brahmins, while Naidu was a non‐Brahmin from Andhra Pradesh).
NAP
(Nuclei Armati Proletari)
Authors: Quadrelli Emilio
Published: September 2017

In the late 1960s, European mass social movements had achieved a remarkable moral victory over the ruling state and corporate establishment through street demonstrations, strikes and factory seizures, student occupations, and random dissent. To a large extent, resistance to state policies of repression against workers and students was through civil disobedience and protest within the confines of the rule of law.
Narayan, Jayaprakash (1902–1979)
Authors: Chatterjee Debi
Published: September 2017

Jayaprakash Narayan was born on October 11, 1902 in a middle‐caste Hindu family in Sitabdiara, a village in Balia District of Uttar Pradesh. He refused to attend a British‐style college in protest against the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and in response to the call issued by the nationalists to quit state institutions, he left college. In October 1920 Jayaprakash married Prabhavati Devi, a freedom fighter in her own right. Two years later, he went to the United States and studied political science and economics at the universities of California, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Ohio State.
N
asrallah,
S
ayed
H
assan (b. 1960)
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

Hassan Nasrallah is the current secretary general of Hezbollah, a Lebanese political party. Hezbollah's members are Shi'a Muslims. Its defining philosophy is Shi'a theology as applied to current political conditions.
Native American Protest, 20th Century
Authors: Silvern Steven E.
Published: September 2017

Native Americans form distinct political and cultural communities within the United States. Sometimes referred to as “nations within a nation,” native homelands or reservations are semi‐autonomous territorial enclaves located inside the United States. Today, many Native Americans have left reservations, living in nearby towns and large urban centers throughout the United States. Both on and off the reservation, Native Americans struggle to preserve their cultural identity and heritage, develop reservation economies, and maintain their semi‐autonomous sovereign political status. These struggles are set against an American society that historically has sought to eliminate native peoples as distinct political, cultural, and geographic communities. History shows us that Native Americans have engaged in armed resistance, protest occupations, demonstrations, legal activism, and political lobbying to avert the loss of land and natural resources, resist displacement from their homelands, and prevent the erosion of native cultures through government‐sponsored programs of reeducation and assimilation.
Nehru, Jawaharlal (1889–1964)
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Jawaharlal Nehru was an influential nationalist political leader during the freedom movement, who subsequently became the first prime minister of India. Often called Pandit Nehru or
chacha
(uncle) Nehru, he was also a writer whose historical writings influenced nationalist ideology.
Neoliberalism and Protest
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Neoliberalism refers to an economic model, a political methodology, and a socio‐ethical ideology that came to dominate capitalist market relations beginning in the 1970s. It is predicated on the neoclassical economic belief that the market is best regulated by itself, and that government intervention into national economies should be discouraged, save for the protection of property rights, the facilitation of capital flows, and the creation of new markets. Harvey (2005) argues that neoliberalism is a “politicalproject to re‐establish the conditions for capital accumulation and to restore the power of economic elites.” Normative usage of the term neoliberal tends toward the pejorative, and it is thus rarely used in a self‐referential way to affirm one's support for ostensibly neoliberal policies.
Netherlands, Protests, 1650–1800
Authors: Gretz Michael F.
Published: September 2017

Following the successful Dutch Revolt against Spain, the United Provinces of the Golden Age in the Netherlands continued. However, tension between the rising merchant class, whose political power was embodied by the States General, and the old military nobility, symbolized by the House of Orange, persisted and formed the basis for most of the unrest and protest from 1650 to 1800. While internal political and social conflict was far from absent, the Netherlands did not experience another major rebellion in the period from the 1650s to the 1740s. The foremost rebellion was the Patriot Revolt led by enlightened professional classes seeking to end the domination of the House of Orange. The Netherlands, like much of Western Europe, was influenced by the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and Napoleonic wars.
N
etherlands, Protests, 1800–2000
Authors: Gretz Michael F.
Published: September 2017

The Netherlands escaped most of the social upheavals that devastated much of Europe during the nineteenth century. The revolutionary wave of 1848, even though it came as close as Belgium, did not extensively disrupt the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Similarly, during the Paris Commune in 1871, Dutch cities remained relatively quiet, due in part to the substantial revolutionary process the country had endured centuries earlier. The republican form of government was already in place in the Netherlands, well before most other European countries. Moreover, while industrial development proceeded apace throughout much of Western Europe, the Dutch economy, predicated for centuries on commerce and finance, was slow to adopt manufacturing.
N
iger
D
elta, Protest Movements
Authors: Adeniran Adebusuyi I.
Published: September 2017

The Niger Delta – the heart of Nigeria's oil economy – is traditionally composed of six states (Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross‐River, Edo, Delta, and Rivers) comprising the South‐South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. In 2000 three other oil producing states of Abia, Imo, and Ondo were to be included as members of the newly established Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC). Paradoxically, however, with the region accounting for nearly 90 percent of Nigeria's gross export earnings, it is the least developed in Nigeria. Environmental degradation, air pollution, and general deprivation are highly prevalent.
N
ordic Revolts and Popular Protests, 1500‐Present
Authors: Katajala Kimmo
Published: September 2017

The five Nordic countries – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden – have a closely entwined history, with some major changes in the mutual combinations. From the end of the fourteenth century three Nordic kingdoms – Denmark, Norway (ruling Iceland), and Sweden (including the Finnish territory) – were united under the same king. In the collapse of this so‐called Kalmar Union (1397–1520) two separate states, Denmark‐Norway (and Iceland) and Sweden (sometimes called Sweden‐Finland in historical literature), were born. These two kingdoms lasted as states until the beginning of the nineteenth century.
N
ovembergruppe
Authors: Van Hoesen Brett M.
Published: September 2017

The Novembergruppe (November Group) was founded on December 3, 1918 by the painter Max Pechstein (1881–1955) and the stage designer César Klein (1876–1954). It was an association of leftist, self‐proclaimed “radical artists” based in Berlin, Germany, who supported the ideals of the German Revolution which had ended just one month prior. One of the largest art associations of the Weimar Republic, the group's membership included visual artists, architects, writers, and composers such as Rudolf Belling, Heinrich Campendonk, Otto Müller, Bruno Taut, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Hanns Eisler, George Grosz, Hannah Höch, Raoul Hausmann, and Otto Dix. By 1933, with the rise to power of the National Socialists, the Novembergruppe, like many other German cultural institutions, was officially banned.
O
'
C
onnell,
D
aniel (1775–1847)
Authors: Mulligan William H.
Published: September 2017

Daniel O'Connell, a member of the traditional Gaelic aristocracy, was an Irish patriot and nationalist. He emerged as one of the leading Irish political leaders during the first half of the nineteenth century. O'Connell advocated non‐violent nationalism and furthered attempts to mobilize the Catholic community as a political force for independence.
O
'
C
onnor,
F
eargus (1796–1855)
Authors: Conner Clifford D.
Published: September 2017

Thomas Carlyle remarked that writing a biography of Cromwell required first of all removing a mountain of “dead dogs” that hostile writers had heaped upon his memory. The same is true of many of history's controversial revolutionaries, and Chartism's principal leader, Feargus O'Connor, is certainly among them. Most of the early historians of Chartism denounced O'Connor as an unprincipled demagogue, but more recent studies have produced a much more positive assessment of the quality of his leadership.
On‐to‐OttawaTrek
Authors: Ungar Molly Pulver
Published: September 2017

The On‐to‐Ottawa Trek began on June 3, 1935 and ended with the Regina Riot on July 1. It was one of the flashpoints of social discontent in Canada at the height of the economic and unemployment crisis during the Great Depression of 1929–39. Although the participants in the trek did not achieve their specific goals, this event is considered an important factor in the defeat of the Conservatives in the election of 1935. The legacy of the trek is also linked to the subsequent closing of federal relief camps and amendments to the Criminal Code. The experience of the trek heightened labor and left‐wing solidarity while showing that the most effective avenue for social action in the future would be representation in government.
Pankhurst, Emmeline (1858–1928), Christabel (1880–1958), and Sylvia (1882–1960)
Authors: Purvis June
Published: September 2017

The Pankhurst women, suffragettes and social reformers, are the most important feminist family in British history. Emmeline Goulden, the spirited eldest daughter of a cotton manufacturer, was born in Manchester, England, where she met and married Richard Marsden Pankhurst, a well‐known radical barrister. Their three daughters – Christabel Harriette Pankhurst, Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst, and Adela Constantia Mary Pankhurst (1885–1961) – were brought up in a household where their parents supported advanced causes of the day, especially women's suffrage and socialism. From an early age, the girls were taken to political meetings and encouraged to work for the good of the people.
Participatory Democracy, History of
Authors: Menser Michael
Published: September 2017

Participatory democracy (PD) is that view of politics which calls for the creation and proliferation of practices and institutions that enable individuals and groups to better determine the conditions in which they act and relate to others. Because it stresses the role of individuals as agents, PD is often contrasted with liberal democratic models of governance because of the latter's reliance on representation. In both theory and practice, the application of PD is not limited to the political sphere but potentially encompasses all areas of human activity, including the public and private, the sociocultural and economic – again in contrast to liberal democratic models. Although a minor tradition within political philosophy and democratic theory, PD has enjoyed a resurgence in both practice and theory since the 1990s, especially with the emergence of the Zapatistas in 1994, but also due to the successes of an array of municipality‐based projects in Latin America and India, and more broadly the innovations made by actors that identify with the global justice movement and/or participate in the World Social Forums. In the current period, PD approaches are most frequently found amongst anarchist, indigenous, feminist, ecological, and “solidarity economy” movements.
Paulus, Petrus Jacobus “Arrie” (b. 1930)
Authors: Visser Wessel P.
Published: September 2017

Petrus Paulus was a renowned leader of the segregationist South African Mineworkers' Union (SAMWU), and the personification of the union in apartheid South Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. Born in 1930 in Pretoria, he completed his high school education at Herculus High, in a white working‐class Pretoria suburb. After his studies, he worked as a clerk at the Herculus Municipality, and thereafter for seven years at ISCOR, the state steel company.
Peasant Movements, 19th and 20th Centuries
Authors: Henninger Max
Published: September 2017

Peasants are small agricultural producers who produce mainly for their own consumption. Scott (1976) has argued peasant societies display specific moral standards that entail tolerance of exploitation for as long as subsistence is not threatened. Peasant movements have typically developed where market forces or action by landowners or the state have violated this expectation. Land enclosure, high rent, taxes, and fluctuating market prices have been central grievances addressed by such movements. The twentieth century has been characterized by several authors (e.g. Migdal 1974) as that of peasant revolutions.
P
eltier,
L
eonard (b. 1944)
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Leonard Peltier is an American Indian Movement (AIM) activist who was sentenced to two consecutive life sentences for the alleged murder of two FBI agents in 1975. During and since the trial, a number of inconsistencies in testimony and evidence have come to light; however, Leonard Peltier remains in prison as of 2008. Peltier is considered a political prisoner by Amnesty International, the National Congress of American Indians, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and other national and international groups.
Peru: Neoliberalism and Social Mobilization, 1990s–2000s
Authors: Rénique Gerardo
Published: September 2017

On May 19, 1987, ten years after the historical 1977 stoppage that opened the door to the return of the military to their barracks after 12 years of dictatorial government, Peru was once again paralyzed by a massive general strike spearheaded by the General Workers' Confederation of Peru (CGTP). Supported by a large number of popular organizations, including two peasant federations, shantytown associations, the recently created regional Popular Defense Fronts (FDIPs) and the left‐wing parties coordinated under the umbrella of the United Left (IU), the strike surpassed the sphere of organized labor. Road blockades, marches, and demonstrations took place in cities in each of the 24 departments in the country. In the southern department of Puno more than 200 indigenous communities took over almost 990,000 acres of land from several associative enterprises under the control of state functionaries to be reorganized as communal democratic enterprises.
Philippines, Protest During the US Era
Authors: Rousset Pierre
Published: September 2017

The United States ruled the Philippines for nearly 50 years from 1898 to 1946, one of the few American colonies. At the inception of the colonial era, for the US as for Spain, control of the Philippines was geographically and strategically linked to access to China and to the maritime commercial routes in the Pacific and Indian oceans. As the colonial status of the Philippine archipelago developed importance, the US government found itself in the contradictory position of responding to domestic economic interests seeking to open the region for capital investment and other domestic economic sectors seeking protection from global markets. To consolidate control over the Philippines, the US engaged in military suppression of popular resistance, co‐optation of social elites, and upon independence, providing ideological legitimacy for the new regime.
P
hilippines, Protests, 1972‐present
Authors: Rousset Pierre
Published: September 2017

The imposition of martial law in the Philippines on September 21, 1972 had very deep consequences quite different from those foreseen by its promoters. Far from being a one‐off measure, it was lifted formally only in 1981 – and only after the 1986 February Revolution brought to an end more than 13 years of what opponents called the “Marcos dictatorship.”
Poland, Revolutions, 1846–1863
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

The failure of the November Uprising in Congress Poland (1830–1) was by no means the end of Polish ambitions to unify the territories of the former Polish‐Lithuanian Commonwealth, partitioned among Russia, Prussia, and Austria‐Hungary at the turn of the nineteenth century. Russia's brutal reprisal in the wake of the 1830 Revolution resulted in a large émigré community – concentrated in Paris – that plotted from afar to recapture the partitioned territories through diplomatic, military, and conspiratorial action. Among the Polish democrats the previous revolt was widely regarded as having failed, not because of Russia's greater military power, but because the Poles did not free the serfs and thus lacked their support in the military campaign. Social reform therefore came to be seen as critical to the struggle for national independence.
Polish Revolution (Sejm), 1788–1792
Authors: Butterwick Richard
Published: September 2017

The “Polish Revolution,” also known as the Four Years' Sejm (Diet or parliament), refers to the period between October 1788 and May 1792 during which the Sejm transformed Poland's institutions of central and local government. The Constitution of May 3, 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe and the second in the world, coming between the American and French constitutions. The accompanying ferment in political culture affected metropolis and provinces, nobles and burghers, laity and clergy. The first “revolutionary” act of the Four Years' Sejm was to cast off Russian tutelage. The Sejm then governed the Commonwealth as the embodiment of its sovereignty until a Russian invasion installed a counterrevolutionary regime in the summer of 1792.
Polish Revolution of 1830
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

Also known as the November Insurrection, or the Cadet Revolution, a conspiracy to depose an unpopular agent of the tsar generated a year‐long campaign to restore Poland's independence. The uprising began with a group of cadets from the Imperial Russian military academy in Warsaw under the leadership of Piotr Wysocki, and quickly drew the support of all aspects of society. The Poles were ultimately defeated by the Russian forces, resulting in mass migration of political elites from the Polish territories.
P
ortugal, Carnation Revolution, 1974
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

The Carnation Revolution (
Revolução dos Cravos
) is a popular name for the almost peaceful revolution that began on April 25, 1974. It was the first step in transforming Portugal from a dictatorship to a democratic country.
Postcolonial Feminism and Protest in the Global South
Authors: Zukas Lorna Lueker
Published: September 2017

Postcolonial feminism is a theoretical and activist project for societal transformation. Through analysis of entrenched power structures in formerly colonized nations, postcolonial feminism explains how economic and political institutions and social practices in those nations often oppress and marginalize women. In addition, it demonstrates how women around the globe struggle for equality and independence for themselves, their families, and their nations. The terms postcolonial and feminism are not universally accepted.