bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Long-Term Care Policy Issues: Alternatives to Institutional Care
Authors: Abdellah Faye G.
Published: March 2007

Americans are living longer today than ever before in history. There will be about 31.8 million elderly people by the year 2000. The basic issue facing government today is how to provide or pay for quality care at an afford able price. It is recognized that institutionalization of the elderly is essential for some but inappropriate for others. Doc umentation is available to show that deterioration of patients' conditions can be linked directly to institutionalization and prolonged bed rest.

Of the one million elderly persons in long-term care fa cilities, 17 to 25 percent are placed there because there are no alternative care services available to them. The Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare has undertaken a major effort to include home health and social services as part of a broad cost containment effort to prevent inappropri ate institutionalization. Home health and community services need to be linked with the total health care delivery system. There must also be an assessment system to assure that ap propriate and effective services are delivered to the right individuals. The Patient Appraisal, Care-Planning, and Eval uation (PACE) program, developed and tested by the Depart ment, provides such a system.

In order to provide effective and quality services for the elderly, a partnership is required that will involve federal, state, and local governments, and providers and consumers of health services.
Assessment of Functional Status in a Program Evaluation and Resource Allocation Model
Authors: Maddox George L. , Dellinger David C.
Published: March 2007

Concern about the efficiency and effectiveness of increasingly costly health and welfare services for older persons stimulates interest in systematic evaluation of alterna tive programs. While a single, optimal system for program evaluation and resource allocation does not exist, a strategy developed at Duke University is promising. This strategy, which meets the conditions of a quasi-experiment, has three elements: (1) a reliable, valid procedure for assessing five dimensions of individual functioning; (2) a procedure for disaggregating complex service programs into standard generic units; and (3) a matrix which relates changes in func tioning over time to exposure to identified aggregates of generic services. Partial and complete applications of the strategy in two communities are illustrated.
Origins and Evolution of the European Communities
Authors: Willis F. Roy
Published: March 2007

Although its historical antecedents have been traced back as far as the Roman Empire, the movement to integrate Europe politically and economically took con temporary form during the second World War when resistance groups proposed plans to avoid future wars by federating Europe. Early postwar efforts at consultative federation, like the Council of Europe, failed to create a supranational authority. In 1950, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman pro posed the formation of the European Coal and Steel Com munity, which was the predecessor of the European Eco nomic Community, or Common Market, and Euratom. By 1968 the Common Market had achieved its goal of creating a customs union of its six members, protected by a common external tariff, and common policies for such sectors as agri culture were introduced. Many Communitywide organiza tions helped create widespread commitment to cooperative action in the economic sphere. Great increases in produc tion and trade were recorded by all six members during the 1960s and early 1970s. Moves toward closer political integra tion were not successful, however, largely due to the pressure of French President Charles de Gaulle who, in 1965-66, blocked plans for increasing the powers of the E.E.C. Com mission and the European Parliament. As a result, European public opinion, while respecting the economic benefits gained from E.E.C., became increasingly disinterested in the possibility that the Community might eventually become a United States of Europe.
The Parliament and the Commission
Authors: Schwed Jean-Joseph
Published: March 2007

In the European Community, relations between the Institutions—Parliament, Council, Commission, Court of Justice, Court of Auditors—are determined by the treaties which established the European Communities. Relations between the Commission and the European Parliament have developed considerably over the last 20 years and are coming increasingly to resemble those between a national govern ment and its Parliament. The election of the European Parliament by direct universal suffrage in June 1979 will give a new dimension to these essentially political rela tions. The Institutions will continue to evolve during the coming decade and relations between the Commission and the Parliament will undoubtedly be strengthened. Similarly, the Council will probably change shape in ways that cannot yet be foreseen.
The Community in Perspective: Public Policy and Political Structure
Authors: Scheingold Stuart A.
Published: March 2007

It is now clear that the original integrative goals are beyond the reach of the European Community. At the same time it is equally clear that the Community has been playing an increasingly important part in relations among the member states and has been functioning as a bloc in an imposing range of international negotiations. The Community's policy role varies, however, within and among sectors in ways which resist generalization and explanation. This article traces patterns in the Community's policy record and relates those patterns to discontinuities in the political structure of the European Community—in particular, to weak linkages between Community institutions and grass roots and elite politics at the national level. The result is a Community which can be expected to play a prominent but decidedly derivative role in the political, economic, and social problems facing Western Europe in the years immediately ahead.
Occupational Safety and Health
Authors: Berkowitz Monroe
Published: March 2007

Work accidents became a matter of societal concern in the Progressive era of Woodrow Wilson. When other contingencies of modern life were brought under social security in the New Deal reforms of the 1930s, work accident legislation remained separate. One possible reason was that work accidents can be controlled within industrial and chance limits. But control does not imply elimination since a risk-free environment would paralyze production. In spite of imper fections caused by low benefits and imperfect insurance arrangements, the workers' compensation legislation does help internalize the costs of accidents, but internalization of costs is only one remedy. Regulation and a much broader community responsibility are others. It is argued that regulation poses greater problems and that broader com munity responsibility may evade the issues involved in choosing the appropriate tradeoff point between production and health which will maximize social welfare.
Expansion or Contraction of Social Security: Serious Side Effects
Authors: Myers Robert J.
Published: March 2007

During its first three decades of operation, the Social Security program was almost unanimously approved of by the populace and the press. The benefits were many times as large as actuarially purchasable from the contribu tions paid. The administration was efficient and prompt. How ever, in the 1970s, the situation considerably changed: finan cial problems arose—both over the short range and the long range—and the administration deteriorated. The press be came critical and cried "crisis." Many feared that the program was bankrupt and that benefit promises would not be kept. Accordingly, proposals were made to contract the system, despite considerable expansionist pressure for increasing benefits. Good and compelling reasons exist to maintain the program at about its present relative level, neither to expand or contract it. Further, its financing should continue to be solely through direct, visible payroll taxes, and not, as many propose, by designated, but unrelated, taxes or from general revenues. Financing the program indirectly is deceptive at best, because the American public would then believe that somebody other than themselves would be paying for a sub stantial portion of the cost. The simple facts of economic life are that all taxes are paid by people and that, although dif ferent taxes might appear to have different incidences, it is impossible to determine whether this is actually so.
Guarantees Against Loss to Transnational Corporations
Authors: Krogh Harold C.
Published: March 2007

Guarantees and funding to cope with possible losses to transnational corporations, alternatively referred to as multinational corporations, encompass risk management principles, theory, and applications. The paper analyzes the risks faced by multinational corporations in their overseas operations, including credit and political risks; the latter treat ing of such risks as currency devaluation, expropriation of plants, kidnapping of key executives, and ransom demands. Risks to property valuation receives emphasis, but often risks to persons reflect an intertwine in risk management by trans national enterprises. Various private and public insurance mechanisms are available to meet these problems, and the effects of these approaches on society are examined.
The Current State of the Law in the United States and the Separationist Agenda
Authors: Pfeffer Leo
Published: March 2007

The Religion Clauses of the First Amendment are aimed at securing both religious freedom and the separa tion of church and state. The former forbids limitation not shown to be justified by a compelling government interest; the latter prohibits laws failing to meet the purpose-effect-en tanglement test. On the whole the Supreme Court has been faithful to the mandate imposed by the clauses and interpreted and applied by the judiciary. Although it has been urged that there are or may be instances in which freedom might demand what church-state separation forbids or vice versa, the Court has not yet been faced with any case requiring it to make a choice.

While not fully satisfied with the Court's resolution of con flicts between church and state, particularly in the area of financing religious school operations or refusing to finance abortions for the economically underprivileged, the separa tionist agenda is basically the defense of present constitutional principles and the assurance of their faithful application by the executive and legislative branches of government.
Grand Jury Subpoenas and First Amendment Privileges
Authors: Scheiman Eugene R.
Published: March 2007

In recent years, the right of a witness to rely upon the religious clause of the First Amendment as a basis for refusing to answer questions put to him or her by a grand jury has become an increasingly urgent issue. The historical growth of the grand jury has resulted in the develop ment of a powerful investigative body with only the most minimal checks on its power. These checks have regrettably been insufficient to protect the fundamental First Amend ment rights of some witnesses subpoenaed to appear and testify before a grand jury. American churches have become increasingly involved in activities which have brought the churches and those involved in their missions into intimate contact with groups likely at one time or another to become targets of government investigation. Thus, churches are faced at this moment with the probability of an ever increasing wave of governmental subpoenas designed to tap the immense wealth of knowledge which has accrued and will continue to accrue to church personnel fulfilling their mission. This article proposes a three-part test to determine whether, when testimony is sought, it is little to ask that the government meet some minimal tests before being permitted to intrude on ground considered inviolate for as long as this nation has existed.
Children of Hippocrates: Doctors in Nazi Germany
Authors: Boozer Jack S.
Published: March 2007

One of the more unexplored yet frightening aspects of the Nazi years in Germany, 1933-45, is the conduct of the doctors during those years. Many of them abandoned the traditional guiding norms for the practice of medicine, archaically expressed in the Hippocratic oath, and proposed, carried out, and cooperated with medical experiments without the consent of subjects and with little promise of any contribu tion to medical science. Many also participated in research and other medical activities, such as euthanasia and mass sterilization, whose purposes had nothing to do with a con tribution to medical knowledge that would eventually save or improve life, but were simply for the manipulation and killing of persons. These activities quickly fell under the control of Nazi ideology, with no protest on the basis of the norms of medical practice by societies of medical doctors and psychiatrists, and with little, albeit costly, protest by individuals. A brief survey of what the Medical case and the Auschwitz trial revealed about the conduct of the doctors raises the ques tion of the status and effectiveness of a professional standard like the Hippocratic oath against the power of the state. This, in turn, raises the question about the basis of the rights of man outside of what is enacted and secured by a nation-state. In facing this question, an appeal is made for the nurture of care about human rights, among professional groups with trans- national identities as well as among individuals and voluntary nonprofessional associations among the general citizenry. Finally, a claim is made for specific kinds of social-political responsibilities of doctors in modern society.
Failure to Rescue European Jewry: Wartime Britain and America
Authors: Feingold Henry L.
Published: March 2007

During the years of the Holocaust, British leadership was unable to perceive that the smoke of the chim neys of the death camps meant that their own world was also aflame. Bernard Wasserstein, in a superbly documented book, relates the disheartening story of the consequence of that failure of imagination and will. Britain's rescue policy fre quently tended to serve as an adjunct to Berlin's murderous plans for the Jews of Europe. It was a reflection of the low estate of British power and of an altered perception of Jewish influence in the world. Far more than Washington, London decision makers felt threatened by the Nazi ability to "dump" thousands, perhaps millions of Jews. That accounts for the 1939 White Paper and for the consistent failure to act on rescue opportunities. But Wasserstein is able to document how the reluctance of British decision makers to save Jewish lives often went beyond the question of wartime priorities and strategic needs. They rejected plans to send food pack ages to certain camps even while they fed occupied Greece throughout the war; they blocked the forming of a Jewish army, and the bombing of the death chambers was thwarted despite the approval of Churchill and Eden. Clearly the failure to seriously attempt the rescue of millions of Jewish lives went beyond the exigencies of war.
The Ecumenical Community and the Holocaust
Authors: Boyens Armin F.C.
Published: March 2007

The ecumenical fellowship of the churches be came manifest in a special way in the work of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and its members, not only for the Christian non-Aryans, but for all persecuted Jews in Europe. In almost all of the churches there were small minorities who took up the fight for the rights of the persecuted and who tried to help the refugees. In some instances whole churches protested publicly, and thereby resisted Hitler's policy of ex termination by their word and deed. In the work for the perse cuted Jews, cooperation between Protestant member churches of the WCC and the Roman Catholic church began to be devel oped on the regional level. This work for the rescue of the Jews also led to Christian-Jewish cooperation on the national and the international level. To rescue Jewish people, Christians had to act illegally. The cooperation of the churches and the WCC with the resistance movements in the occupied countries of Europe and with national liberation movements was not born out of the theory of an abstract theology of revolution but out of the daily practicing of Christian love of one's fellowman. Finally, the persecution of the Jews stimulated among Chris tians a new and deeper understanding and a theological re- examination of the role of the people of Israel, of God's revela tion, and of the nature of the Church itself.
The Holocaust and the Enigma of Uniqueness: A Philosophical Effort at Practical Clarification
Authors: Eckardt Alice L. , Ecoardt A. Roy
Published: March 2007

This philosophical analysis seeks to foster understanding between representatives of diverse disciplines in the study of the Holocaust. The article inquires whether there are ways to avoid the mystification of the Holocaust without losing its singularity. Three concepts of uniqueness are utilized: ordinary uniqueness, unique uniqueness, and transcending uniqueness. Eight propositions are submitted that concern: the salience of facticity, the challenge of the Holocaust to conventional tools of study, the relation of historic antisemitism and the Holocaust, the relevance of eschatological images, the bearing of the Holocaust upon soteriological expression, ideology as a weapon against the Holocaust's concreteness, the theft of the Holocaust for antisemitic and anti-Israeli purposes, and the jointure of nomothetic and idiographic interpretation as a possible aid to understanding. In conclusion, the category of transcending uniqueness is applied to the moral dimension of the encounter with the Holocaust in a way that links a social ethic and the sociology of knowledge.
Killing the Police: Myths and Motives
Authors: Margarita Mona
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes the situational motives of assailants who kill New York City police in the line of duty. Contrary to popular opinion, police are not often killed during domestic disturbances nor are they the seemingly senseless victims of madmen or lunatics. Rather, New York police are more likely to be killed by rational robbers fleeing the scene of a crime, who routinely use potentially lethal weapons as "tools of the trade."
Post-World War II Immigration to the United States: America's Latest Newcomers
Authors: Reimers David M.
Published: March 2007

During the 1920s, Congress drastically curtailed immigration from Europe and barred Asians. The Johnson- Reed Act of 1924 completed the restictions and established the national origins system. After World War II, Congress reaffirmed that system with the enactment of the McCarran- Walter Act in 1952. But Congress also began to liberalize im migration policy, largely on a piecemeal basis. In 1965, Con gress repealed the national origins quotas and restrictions against Asians and substituted a preference system based upon family unification, occupations, and refugee status. Still other changes in the 1970s modified the immigration laws further and permitted additional immigrants to enter. The changes in policy led to an increase in the number of immi grants arriving and also led to shifting patterns of immigration. Immigrants coming after 1945 were more apt to be refugees and to be of higher skills than before. And the majority were now female. From 1945 to 1965, most European immigrants were from northern and western European countries, but by the 1970s, southern and eastern European nations supplied the bulk of European immigrants to America. After 1965 another important shift was apparent: Third World nations re placed Europe as the major sending regions, and by the late 1970s, the vast majority of America's latest newcomers were from the Third World.
The Twilight of Ethnicity Among American Catholics of European Ancestry
Authors: Alba Richard D.
Published: March 2007

The Catholic ethnic groups of European origins are essential to any assessment of ethnicity in the United States. Their ethnicity is believed widely to remain vigorous many decades after their immigration. Indeed, by the measure of some important characteristics, such as rates of college attendance and interethnic marriage, they seem distinct from American core groups, specifically Protestants of British ancestry. However, the trends of these characteristics among the Catholic groups, indicated by differences between birth cohorts, reveal their growing similarity to the American core. The Catholic groups appear to be assimilating rapidly, and it is argued that their ethnicity is entering a twilight stage.
Native Americans: The American Indian Today
Authors: Deloria Vine
Published: March 2007

American Indians have finally emerged into public consciousness as a distinct minority group. Both government policies in the postwar decades and personal choices have produced a large urban Indian population and have increased economic and political opportunities for reser vation Indians. The social welfare programs of the sixties were in general ill-conceived because they were amendments to larger pieces of national legislation and were often unsuited to the needs and capabilities of reservation Indians. Edu cation in particular has become a mixture of programs that serves few Indians well. Higher education has become a routine and badly administered field that produces little of value for American Indians. Recent political slogans such as tribal sovereignty have made some inroads into the traditional federal relationship, but in general the term has been mis understood and misused. Energy needs have made Indian natural resources an important area for Indian concern. Two basic philosophies compete to attract Indian allegiance: development according to traditional means with royalty income and futuristic agricultural projects that create mini mum disruption and exploitation. Indians stand at the cross roads in identifying and establishing their relationship to the institutions of the larger society.
The Harold Wilson Government, Airwork Services Limited, and the Saudi Arabian Air Defence Scheme, 1965—73
Authors: Gardner Nikolas
Published: March 2007

This article examines the role of Airwork Services Limited in the Saudi Arabian Air Defence Scheme, a package of military aircraft, air defences and support services provided by a consortium of British companies to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from 1966 to 1973. It argues that Harold Wilson's government saw the scheme as a means of boosting British exports while maintaining good relations with Saudi Arabia, in the context of growing limitations to Britain's military presence East of Suez. Ultimately, however, Airwork, the principal service provider, proved unable to meet Saudi demands, necessitating the intervention of the British government on a scale it had originally hoped to avoid. In addition to shedding light on Anglo-Saudi relations, the article provides insights into the benefits and limitations of private military companies as tools of foreign policy.
Backstage with the Knowledge Boys and Girls: Goffman and Distributed Agency in an Organic Online Community
Authors: Ross Drew A.R.
Published: March 2007

An institutionally independent organic online learning community (OOLC) founded and populated by London cabbies-in-training, more commonly known to the world and to themselves as `Knowledge Boys and Girls', is described here. Qualitative discourse analysis of message board transcripts and interviews with members was undertaken in an effort to elucidate benefits that accrue to OOLC members. Goffman's theory of region behaviour is enlisted to explain why frank, collegial and sometimes confessional interactions with peers might take place in such an online venue. This article suggests that through such candid interactions among peers, learners create a back-region that allows participants to compare themselves with one another, cultivate friendships and practise for high-stakes assessments. OOLC members take advantage of the pseudonymity provided by their electronic social space to engage in behaviours that, if they occurred in a front-region, might invite damage to a learner's reputation as a pre-service cabbie. The online community BR becomes a sanctuary of sorts for taking social and academic risks, one where potential adverse consequences are few and benefits are legion.
What Place for Controversy?
Authors: Glatthorn Allan A.
Published: March 2007

Are controversial materials and activities man ageable in a secondary school setting without depleting their vitality? At least one principal thinks so.
Questions in Search of Answers
Authors: Wilhelms Fred T.
Published: March 2007

Questions have long been a favorite tool of the teacher. But many of the most searching ques tions about teachers and their teaching are seldom asked, and even less frequently an swered solidly. Wilhelms asks a few.
Toward Human Relations in Supervision
Authors: Moskowitz Gertrude
Published: March 2007

Differences in personality or varying viewpoints between student teachers and their supervising teachers often lead to unprofitable learning experiences. The research presented here ex amines a technique which can improve these relationships.
Flopping, Klapping and Gene Doping
Authors: van Hilvoorde Ivo , Vos Rein , de Wert Guido
Published: March 2007

The application of genetic technology seems to threaten what is considered natural in elite sport. This paper explores the role of genetic technology in elite sport and questions the significance of dichotomizing between the natural and artificial element. How do shifts in technology affect the attribution of the human element in athletic performance? To explore the attribution of human agency we compare the genetic enhancement of athletes with two other shifts of the ‘natural performance’ in sport: first, the introduction of a revolutionary high jump technique, the Fosbury flop, in 1968; and, second, the introduction of the klapskate in speed skating in 1997. The three cases show that artificiality as such can hardly be a criterion for evaluating processes of innovation. The context of elite sport is itself highly artificial. Boundaries between the natural body and the enhanced body are the outcome of institutional processes of boundary work. When discussing new technologies in sport it is better to ask if athletes are still playing the same game and whether or not there are equal opportunities and an equal distribution of means for playing the game. The introduction of gene technology may result in inequalities, with great impact on the outcome of the game. This outcome may be considered irrelevant for the inequalities that the game is supposed to produce and measure. Genetic enhancement may also threaten the public view of athletes as moral agents and possibly change the appreciation for human performance.
The Great Forestry Survey of 1669-1671
Authors: Mukerji Chandra
Published: March 2007

A program of forestry surveys and reform conducted in France during the 17th century has been accused of rationalizing the landscape and suppressing peasant culture; tools of cartography were said to have made rural lands both more legible to the state and alien to locals. On closer inspection, it seems that the surveys did not produce abstract rationalizations of the forests that made them ‘readable’ at a distance or more orderly on the ground; mainly the reformers developed databases or archives of misuses of the forests by nobles who were supposed to be managing them for the crown. This paper follows one reformer, Louis de Froidour, as he moved through the Midi-Pyrenees, using a set of letters he wrote while doing forest surveys for the reform. He described and explained noble opposition to his entering ‘their forests’, and how he nonetheless conducted the required surveys and acquired the necessary documents. Froidour not only did not target peasant villages, but also sometimes even protected forests that he said locals needed more than the crown. He had no romantic affection for mountain inhabitants (quite the opposite). He protected their interests because villagers rather than nobles paid taxes, and so disrupting their economies would not benefit the state. This case study, while only focusing on a small area of France, provides valuable insight into the logic of the reform, and its political consequences.
Global Software and its Provenance
Authors: Pollock Neil , Williams Robin , D’Adderio Luciana
Published: March 2007

This paper addresses the seemingly implausible project of establishing a ‘generic’ organizational information system. This is an apparent contradiction: on the one hand, we are told of the diversity of specific organizational contexts and on the other, we often find the same standardized software solutions being applied across those settings. How do generic software packages work in so many different contexts? Science and Technology Studies provides contrasting accounts of how this contradiction is resolved: either stressing the unwanted organizational change that standardized systems may bring; or, alternatively, insisting these technologies can only be made to work through processes of ‘localization’. We argue that the focus on specificity versus localization of application contexts draws attention away from enquiring into the origins and characteristics of generic solutions. Through comparing the design and evolution of two software packages we shift the debate from understanding how technologies are made to work within particular settings to how they are built to work across a diverse range of organizational contexts. Our question is ‘How do software packages achieve the mobility that allows them to bridge the heterogeneity within organizations and between organizations in different sectors and cultures?’ We describe a set of revealed strategies through which suppliers produce software that embodies characteristics common across many users; what we term generification work. One aspect of this process of generification is the configuring of users within ‘managed communities’, but it also includes ‘smoothing’ the contents of the package and, at times, reverting to ‘social authority’. Our argument is that generic systems do exist but that they are brought into being through an intricately managed process, involving the broader extension of a particularized software application and, at the same time, the management of the user community attached to that solution.
Adaptation of Traditional Society To Modern Mass Society
Authors: Venkatappiah Burra
Published: March 2007

This paper is confined to Indian, more specifically Hindu, society. It tries to assess the process of change going on in this society from the point of view of new needs and old values. In doing so, it draws on an unscholarly but inside acquaintance with the situation and makes no claim to completeness either of analysis or treatment.
Oral Tradition and the Study of Peasant Society
Authors: Deva Indra
Published: March 2007

This article attempts to bring out the value of oral tradition as a source of data regarding peasant society and culture. Many subtle aspects of social interaction and attitudes that may be left out or distorted by the more formal and expensive techniques of data collection can be made accessible through a careful analysis of oral tradition. This useful source has scarcely been tapped so far. Its proper utilization for scientific purposes would, however, require the development of adequate techniques of analysis and interpretation. Methodological problems involved in the analysis of oral sources as found in peasant societies have also been raised, therefore, in this paper. Analysis of oral tradition is especially valuable for the study of peasant society. Its large volume and pervasive proximity to all aspects of peasant life makes it specially valuable as a source of data about peasant social structure and culture.
Anthropological Criteria for a Notion of Progress
Authors: Papadopoullos Theodore
Published: March 2007

The idea of progress is essentially socio-historical. I mean by that that the idea and its meaningful content are the outcome of socio-historical processes in connection with the socio-cultural development of mankind, with which the idea of progress is inextricably linked. Before proceeding to any investigation of its nature it is necessary to dissociate its meaning from two fundamental concepts of modern natural and social science, evolution and change. Evolution is here taken in its strict biological connotation, not in its metaphysical implications. This point is made clear by Bradley who distinguishes between Darwinism as a theory of natural evolution and Darwinism as a metaphysics of existence. From the standpoint of the social universe, within which the idea of progress acquires its meaningfulness, natural evolution is not indeed indifferent, but amoral, and has to be accounted for as an external condition. The same applies to cosmic evolution or changes occurring within the physical universe. Although not indifferent to man, these are devoid of moral content and have to be taken as objectively given conditions.
A New Enlightenment
Authors: Buzzati-Traverso Adriano A.
Published: March 2007

Perhaps modern man's major mistake was that of considering science as the quintessence of reason and of believing, accordingly, that scientific progress is synonymous with human progress.
Some Distinctive Features of the Literary History of the East
Authors: Pomerantz G.S.
Published: March 2007

In the course of the last few centuries the evolution of literature has been marked by the entry of Eastern countries into the system of social and spiritual relationships which came into being in the West at the beginning of the 17th century. This evolution is linked with the changes which have been grouped together as “modernization.” The content of this modernization coincides, more or less, with what Marx and Engels described, in the first chapter of the Communist Manifesto, as the expansion of the bourgeoisie. However, in the 20th century, the possibility of a non-capitalist path has become apparent, and therefore the theory of modernization gives a wider sense to the character of the ruling class (which, in the 19th century, was the European bourgeoisie), and emphasizes changes of a general nature: the differentiation of the social structure, the birth of new institutions and new roles, economic differentiation, industrialization, urbanization, increased vertical and horizontal mobility, cultural differentiation, the birth of a science independent of religion, the substitution of a businesslike, rational attitude to life for a religious one, the development of civic awareness and of civil rights. The cradle of modernization (England, Holland, France) is conventionally called “the West.” Other countries, including those situated to the west of France (e.g. Spain, Portugal) are considered as “the non-West.”
New Logics of Progress
Authors: Berque Jacques
Published: March 2007

A primary image suggests itself to anyone who wishes to assert that every society exfoliates in several ways, such as in technics, organization, the sacred, the recreational, the beautiful, etc. all in one movement which is simultaneously both differentiated and integral. This image is of a fan, whose stems diverge from a center and are linked in the one unfolding; but another assertion immediately intervenes, claiming that this picture is over-optimistic: it is the assertion of the disparities between these ways, or domains, which disrupt the pattern of the whole by modifying its aspect and which can alter its meaning. If one wishes, one may call these the contradictions.
Ideology: Public and Private
Authors: Rodinson Maxime
Published: March 2007

Men are living in the midst of a world pervaded by ideas.* Ideas, which provide men with help in their will to act and to think according to rules, which offer them guidance in their lives, are mustered into systems which are called ideologies.

Ideologies are issued by the inclusive society, by special, functional groups inside the society and, beginning with a given stage in the development of human society, by ideological movements which profess to provide men not only with guidance for special tasks or functions, but for life as a whole. So, individual men are faced with various sets of ideologies, more or less in agreement between themselves, more 'or less authoritative for them. They must choose between the suggestions, the rules, the orders given to them. As men are always in search of some degree of consistency in their ways of thinking and acting, they fit together the ideas they choose, unconsciously, into systems, into personal, private, individual ideologies.
Art, Science and Technique
Authors: Fourastié Jean
Published: March 2007

This article tries to provide elements of discussion and reflection rather than answers to the following question: for many centuries or even millennia, man, at least in so far as prehistory and history have recorded it, made a close connection between the beautiful, the true and the useful and he sought an aesthetic response in the minute manifestations of his daily existence as well as of his intellectual life. Today, and even more so for just the past fifty or one hundred years, art seems to be relegated to specific domains, expelled from the daily life of the average person. Yesterday, and for centuries and millennia, mankind was not satisfied with the fact that a house, a temple, a church, a fortification or a castle were lodgings, proper places to hold reunions, strong-holds built for a particular purpose, it was equally important that they be beautiful; a key did not only have to open a lock, a carriage had not only to run, a bit to control a horse, spurs to reassure the rider, a glass pane to close a window, a table to have a place setting, a chest of drawers to contain clothes, clothes to cover the body, a pen to write, a manuscript to transmit the signs of the alphabet—no, it was also necessary that these signs, that manuscript, the pen, the spurs, the bit, the key … be designed and decorated in such a way so as to evoke in the persons who merely saw them, without even using them, an affective emotion of beauty. Nor was it enough that science or a technique be true or useful, they had also to be beautiful.
Money as a Witness To History
Authors: Kiersnowski Ryszard
Published: March 2007

The special links between money and history transcend that routine course of events with which are associated the great - majority of the works of mankind. It is rare to come across articles that since their initial manufacture have preserved their form almost intact for twenty-five centuries, and thus for almost the entire historical span of the civilized world, while playing an identical role in the lives of societies as diverse as those of Europe and the whole of Asia. It is rare, furthermore, to find articles that are of such generalized use and interest, often even the source of common feelings. Finally, similar articles are rare, if they exist at all, which—as is the case with money—may be just as closely connected with the great currents of the political, economic and social history of entire nations and continents as with the personal fates of individuals and families: in other words, articles whose presence might equally well record the succession of epochs as the passage of days.
Ecology
Authors: Arénilla Louis
Published: March 2007

Today's industrial society is having an encounter with ecology: in April, 1976 the French government presented the National Assembly with documents on the dumping and burning of waste in the sea, as well as on the protection of nature. Electoral campaigns, discussions and demonstrations are centered about the theme of pollution and environment. In the last century the accumulation of waste had already become a problem : “ One of the most important duties of industry is to find a useful employment for waste,” wrote P. L. Simmons in 1875. The advice was heeded if we may believe what J. Gottmann wrote on the matter nearly a century later: “ If our era is to be defined by its most important raw material and one that is truly proper to it, as is done for the Bronze Age or the Iron Age, we may no longer speak of a Steel or Petroleum Age, nor of an Atomic Age (which may come in the future) but of the Garbage Age.” The extraordinary demographic expansion of humanity that has gone from a population of five million in the Paleolithic Age to four billion today gives rise to a monstrous abundance of refuse resulting as much from the natural mechanisms of living as from industrial activity (factory waste) or from the present attitude haunted by the idea of obsolescence (the throw-away society of Alvin Toffler). The outline of a universe submerged in waste matter appears, similar to that evoked by Italo Calvino in Città Invisibili apropos of the town of Leonia: “The refuse of Leonia would gradually invade the world if the interminable garbage heaps were not pressed upon, beyond the last crest, by the refuse of other towns that also push mountains of refuse far away from themselves. Perhaps the entire world beyond the borders of Leonia is covered with craters of trash, each with a continually erupting metropolis in its center. The borders between foreign or enemy towns are thus contaminated bastions in which the detritus of the one and the other serves as mutual support, menacing and mixing together.” The world of Metamorphosis is approaching in which man, transformed into an insect, covered with dust and remains of food, gnaws on the cores and parings of half-rotten vegetables. Science fiction invents a remedy to fit the problem : a planet specialized in storing all the garbage unloaded by an entire galaxy.
The Hellenization of Rome and the Question of Acculturations
Authors: Veyne Paul
Published: March 2007

The Hellenization of ancient Rome is not a rare kind of event in history; “outer” India or the Chinese world have offered several other different examples. Roman civilization was an important part of Hellenistic culture much like present day Japan participates in Western civilization. Our purpose is not to recall this evidence nor to argue for Roman originality. (Where has an acculturation ever been total?) We shall not allow either the forest or the trees to hide thi other and shall ask ourselves rather what “ acculturation” might mean in the case of Rome. For the question of acculturation, which describes so well the present condition of the Third World, is inapplicable to other historic situations. The richness of the past is such that our sociologies or our praxeologies are often nothing other than rationalizations of a particular case in history.
Oral Society and Its Language
Authors: Lohisse Jean
Published: March 2007

Spoken language was long thought to be mankind's earliest means of communication, with visual and gestural languages appearing only later. “ And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field;…” (Genesis II, 20). Today, with the most diverse hypotheses in circulation, the only point on which all scholars agree—in this case, a negative one— is that the question of the origins of language remains to be answered; this has little importance for the present study, and we will not dwell on the problem of origins.
Naming Things in a New World
Authors: Samaniego Filoteo
Published: March 2007

The distance, as the crow flies, between the two poles can be covered in twenty hours. Thanks to cartography, telecommunications and the precise measurement of distance, we have exhaustive knowledge of the globe. Nevertheless, we are still so removed from each other that everything, or almost everything, remains to be discovered. Just as the past is not clear to us when it takes the historical route, the present brings us no understanding of human ways. The more we advance in knowledge the more proof we have, as Pascal said, that we know nothing.
The Contribution of Pushkin To the History of Economic Thought
Authors: Anikin Andrei V.
Published: March 2007

Aleksandr Pushkin (1799-1837) occupies a special place in the development of Russian culture. He was at the same time a great poet, the reformer of Russian literary language, a historian and a political thinker. In the enormous mass of work devoted to Pushkin, a certain number of articles are concerned with his ideas on economics and the reflection of socio-economic problems in his writing. Until now, however, this theme has been studied in only a fragmentary way and less from the point of view of the professional economist than from that of a literary historian. In an attempt to enlarge and complete the idea we may have of Pushkin's economic views, I propose also to show the importance the politico-economic thought of Western Europe had for his work. One person comes to the fore when we study the subject from this angle: Nikolai Turgenev, a Decembrist, one of the “masters” of the poet's youth, who played an important role in the rapprochement of Russian and Western European cultures.
Will Philosophy Bury Its Undertakers?
Authors: De Lucca John
Published: March 2007

In what is undoubtedly his most famous essay, the late F.C.S. Schiller posed the deceptively simple query: “Must philosophers disagree?” To Schiller and, seemingly, the bulk of philosophers before and after him, the question should be answered in the negative. Yet, the dialogues among contemporaneous philosophers, past and present, as among the vast number of protagonists in the long, “unscripted” dialogue which constitutes the history of thought, reveal that the disagreements among philosophers justly may be said to define a central problem of philosophy, if not the root problem. Perhaps fearful lest the diversity of philosophical alternatives evidence the defeat of reason, many have striven to piece together a unified whole, to gloss over deep rifts in convictions among individuals, and even to institutionalize some contemporaneously acceptable explanation. But none of these moves has been successful to the present and none seem destined to gain the field in the future. Indeed, contrary to the end which the “heart” may desire, the “mind” drives us towards the conclusion that the ineluctable characteristic of reason is disagreement. Yet this in no way disparages reason or its usages, for no principle of logic has been violated when one chooses from among diverse basic convictions which form the foundation of alternative philosophic systems.
Colours and Their Symbolism in Jewish Tradition and Mysticism
Authors: Scholem Gersbom
Published: March 2007

With this area of the second triad contrasts above all the last sefirah, in which all these colours, as well as the various nuances of white-red, red-white, and a mixture of both, flash all together or one after the other, as they did already in Azriel and often in the Zohar. Since she represents the divine power closest to the created world—in part even immanent in it, she is the richest in symbolism, and in colour symbolism as well. Here the Kabbalah returns, in mystical correlations and transformations, to older motifs, some of which we have already discussed above.
Docility and Civilization in Ancient Greece
Authors: de Romilly Jacqueline
Published: March 2007

At a time when there is general speculation about civilization, or civilizations, as well as on what the relationships are between Western and other civilizations, it is logical to try to define precisely what the men of ancient Greece thought about the question, since Western civilization owes so much to them.

It may be that they did not think about it at all, or at least they thought nothing that could be expressed in modern terms. The fact is that ancient Greece did not have a word for civilization: the French and English words come from Latin, not from Greek, while the first examples given in French and English dictionaries are the privileged example of Greece, “the civilization of Greece.” Did the Greeks use a paraphrase? Or a different word? If we consult a English-Greek dictionary we are surprised to see that the word given for “civilized” is hèmeros) that is, “docile,” “tamed.”