bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Pereiro James
Published: May 2008

This Conlusion sums up the discussions in the preceeding chapters and analyses what the book has achieved in its discussions. Ethos played an important role in almost every aspect of the Oxford Movement. Its influence, though normally hidden below the surface, can be detected in a multitude of ways at all times. The present study has suggested that much. However, ethos did have a more universal dimension. The Conclusion considers this.
What Has Been Done
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This brief chapter summarizes what has been achieved in the previous three chapters, and compares the results to the internal Kleene-based Kripke theory, and also to the attempt to get a naïve truth theory for continuum-valued semantics.
Validity, Truth‐Preservation, and the Second Incompleteness Theorem
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This chapter begins with a survey of possible responses to the Curry paradox, and argues that the one offered by the theory of Chapters 15 through 18 is least disruptive of ordinary reasoning. Based on this discussion, it returns both to the relation between validity and necessary truth preservation, and to issues about the second incompleteness theorem.
Other Paradoxes
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

The chapter discusses several paradoxes of denotation, and returns to paradoxes about properties, relations, and propositions. It also considers whether the notion of validity is bivalent, and discusses some apparent paradoxes about validity that play a role in the next chapter.
Determinateness, Hyper‐Determinateness, and Super‐Determinateness
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This chapter is about whether we can make sense of a notion of hyper-determinacy that will transcend the hierarchy of iterations of the determinacy operators and restore paradox. To investigate this, we need to be more rigorous about how the transfinite iterations of the operator are defined. It turns out that one can in a sense define operators that ‘iterate beyond the allowable hierarchies’, but that they don't lead to new paradoxes because they don't behave like we would expect an iteration of a determinacy operator to behave. This is connected to König's paradox. It is argued that the use of higher order resources would not affect the conclusion.
Understanding Transatlantic Differences in Working HoursTito Boeri
Authors: Boeri Tito
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the reasons behind the major gap in labour productivity between the US and Europe. In Europe, there are both relatively fewer people at work (a lower employment to population ratio) and fewer hours worked per worker than in the US. It is shown that Europeans work less than Americans mainly because there are institutions inducing or actually forcing them to do so. Thus, Europeans can be induced to work more or less by reforming these institutions. An overview of the two parts of this book is presented.
1 Time Use and Work Timing Inside and Outside the Market
Authors: Burda Michael C. , Hamermesh Daniel S. , Weil Philippe
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines data describing the time that people spend in each of the many activities that make up their day. It focuses on data from the late 1980s and early 1990s, and from the early 2000s, for Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the USA. It considers patterns and changes in non-work activities that are classified into several major groups. It then raises questions such as: how do patterns of work activities differ over the week, and over the day, in the EU and USA? Would market work in the EU look the same as in the USA if Europeans had the same patterns of daily and weekly market activity as Americans?
3 Home Production, Setup Costs, and Welfare
Authors: Burda Michael C. , Hamermesh Daniel S. , Weil Philippe
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines how home production is chosen in the household context and explores the welfare implications of home production in the EU and USA. It begins by reviewing and extending the theory of home production. Empirical evidence presented in Chapter 1 showed not only that household work is a significant component of All Work, but also that it varies widely across households and across persons within households. It is shown that there are good theoretical reasons to suspect that the decision to move from no market work to some market work involves the expenditure of time and material resources. This suggests a natural econometric test, namely to see whether the decision to work changes the allocation of time in a smooth fashion or in fact ‘disrupts’ the allocation of time and material resources to other activities. The chapter concludes with some speculation as to what we can say about these EU-US differences in work and time use.
6 The Two French Work‐Sharing Experiments: Employment and Productivity Effects
Authors: Kramarz Francis , Cahuc Pierre , Crépon Bruno , Skans Oskar Nordstörm , Schank Thorsten , Lomwel Gijsbert van , Zylberberg André
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines workweek reductions experiments in France. Using the 1982 workweek reduction, it is shown that work-sharing policies, per se, do not work. Put differently, they are not apt to work as long as wage subsidies are not offered to the firms. Their impact of employment and production is then shown using the experience of the experiment conducted at the end of the 1990s. Payroll tax subsidies (as well as other types of subsidies) mitigated the negative effects on employment of this last experiment. In the short run, firms that went to thirty-five hours benefited from the policy, in particular low-productivity firms (because payroll tax subsidies were disproportionately directed to them) to the detriment of firms that stayed at thirty-nine hours. Hence, in the short run, employment was redirected to low-productivity firms adopting the policy. Then, in the medium run, the breath of air coming from the subsidies stopped working and the firms that had moved to thirty-five hours started to fail massively, while the survivors appear to have benefited from these deaths.
‘A Dynamical Form of Mechanical Effect’: Thomson's Thermodynamics
Authors: Morus Iwan Rhys
Published: May 2008

As he settled into his position as Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow, Thomson would spend much of his time over the subsequent years pondering over the problem of heat and the difficulty of reconciling Joule's experimental determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat with Carnot's theory that seemed to demand that there could be no such figure. The eventual result of his ruminations was a series of papers presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1851 and published in their Transactions a few years later on the dynamical theory of heat. In these papers, Thomson outlined the basic principles of the new science of thermodynamics that had emerged from his attempts at making sense of Carnot and Joule's apparently contradictory positions. Over the next few decades, Thomson, Joule, and others would succeed in placing this new thermodynamic science at the very heart of 19th-century physics. To make sense of this achievement, it is important to start by going back to the 1820s and Carnot's essay Reflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu. This chapter begins with a careful look at Carnot's essay and responses to it, followed by an account of Joule's experiments during the first half of the 1840s that led him to the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Kelvin and Engineering
Authors: Crossland Bernard
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the achievements of Lord Kelvin as one of the great engineers of the 19th century. Topics discussed include his interest in laying a transatlantic telegraph cable, his contributions to marine technology, and his invention of the heat pump.
Thomson and Tait: The Treatise on Natural Philosophy
Authors: Flood Raymond
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on Lord Kelvin's collaboration with Peter Guthrie Tait. Probably the most influential legacy of their collaboration on ‘heavy mathematical work’ was the production in 1867 of The Treatise on Natural Philosophy, which became universally known as ‘T&T’. It was Tait's concern to have adequate textbooks for his students to support his lectures that led to the project that resulted in ‘T&T’.
Kelvin, Maxwell, Einstein and the Ether: Who was Right about What?
Authors: Everitt C. W. Francis
Published: May 2008

Ether theory (according to the myth) requires that as the Earth moves through space, the measured velocity of light parallel and perpendicular to its motion will vary. Two American physicists, A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley devised a test of ‘ether drift’. To their and everyone's surprise, it didn't exist. In desperation, two new explorers, G. F. FitzGerald and H. A. Lorentz, separately advanced the weird ad hoc hypothesis that as Michelson's apparatus traversed the ether, it somehow shrank lengthwise by just the right amount to hide the effect. Various physicists devised further experiments to see the shrinkage. All failed. This chapter argues that Kelvin's insight into ether theory was outstanding, far superior to that of any of his famed predecessors, Poisson, Cauchy, MacCullagh, etc., and that most of the criticisms of him by 20th century writers were merely silly.
Disjunctivism, Indistinguishability, and the Nature of Hallucination
Authors: Fish William
Published: May 2008

Critics of disjunctivism have argued that the disjunctivist needs to provide a plausible explanation of just how two distinct mental states might be indistinguishable for their subject without simply taking the fact of indistinguishability for granted. This chapter examines the everyday notion of indistinguishability alongside relevant empirical findings. It offers an account of hallucinatory indistinguishability which suggests that the indistinguishability of hallucination from veridical perception is grounded in the similarity of their effects, rather than in any phenomenal similarities between the two states. This analysis is then elaborated to show how it can account for the first-person aspects of hallucinations, to show how it is possible for conceptually unsophisticated creatures — such as animals and infants — to hallucinate, and to show how a subject may suffer from hallucinations whilst being aware that their experiences are non-veridical.
Disjunctive Theories of Perception and Action
Authors: Ruben David‐Hillel
Published: May 2008

In order to state a disjunctive theory of action, one needs two terms of art: ‘intrinsic event’ and ‘mere event’. One also needs two senses of ‘event’: a wide sense and a narrow sense. In the wide sense, all actions are events by classificatory fiat. In the narrow sense, mere events and intrinsic events are events, but basic actions are events only if they are identical to their intrinsic events. If basic actions were events in the narrow sense, it would not be true by classificatory fiat but by the expenditure of honest philosophical labour. This chapter argues that if a basic physical action occurs, no event in the narrow sense occurs, either one with which the action is identical, or one which the action causes, or one which is a part of the action. A disjunctive theory of action claims that if an item i is an event in the broad sense, either i is a mere event in the narrow sense, or i is an intrinsic event in the narrow sense, or i is an action.
A Disjunctive Conception of Acting for Reasons
Authors: Hornsby Jennifer
Published: May 2008

This chapter introduces a disjunctivist conception of acting for reasons by showing that an account of acting for reasons should give a place to knowledge. This disjunctive conception is claimed to have a role analogous to that of the disjunctive conception that John McDowell recommends in thinking about perception; and it is shown that the two conceptions have work to do in combination when they are treated as counterparts. It is also claimed that the disjunctive conception of acting for reasons safeguards the connection between what moves us to act (sometimes called ‘motivating reasons’) and what favours our acting (sometimes called ‘normative reasons’).
Starting Afresh Disjunctively: Perceptual Engagement with the World
Authors: Sedivy Sonia
Published: May 2008

It is claimed that a non-objectifying explanatory approach to perception shows how the disjunctive insight works together with conceptualist direct realism to give the best explanation of perception. This emphasizes the role of the disjunctive insight as an integral component within a conceptualist approach that emphasizes non-objectifying explanation. Taking an explanatory approach highlights the sui generis nature of perceptual content: determinate and object and property involving, or genuinely singular, and conceptual. It shows that perception is a mode of engagement because perceptual content is determinate and such content involves its objects and properties, and that disengaged states such as dreams or hallucinations are peripheral and limiting conditions of the central condition. Developing this explanation addresses three principal concerns regarding disjunctive, direct realism. Firstly a new argument from the fact that perceptual content cannot be retained in its original determinate detail shows that the fabric of perceptual consciousness is relational. Secondly to explain how it is that the mind-independent individuals we perceive have the properties that we perceive — even though the scientific picture might be taken as suggesting otherwise — broadly interpretivist and Wittgensteinian resources are deployed and argued to be tenable alongside scientific explanations of sub-personal perceptual processes. Finally, the explanatory approach taken in this chapter also addresses the fundamental worry that disjunctive approaches simply side-step the fundamental sceptical challenge that perceptual experiences might be indistinguishable from veridical experiences.
Conclusion
Authors: Brown David
Published: May 2008

This concluding chapter presents the author's final thoughts. It argues that the art, music, architecture, and literature referred to are essentially illustrative of a more fundamental thesis: that both natural and revealed theology are in crisis, and that the only way out is to give proper attention to the cultural embeddedness of both. Religion does not operate in isolation, and so theology and philosophy as it reflects on religion is equally incapable of escaping that wider influence, however much it may pretend otherwise.
‘Leges dare’ and ‘Constituere’: Municipal Charters
Authors: Bispham Edward
Published: May 2008

This chapter begins with a discussion of the shape and content of the lex then considers the mechanisms for granting charters. It argues that for the municipia enfranchised after the Social War, their leges were not meant to be seen as an earnest of good behaviour or a token of civilization to come; they were however symbolically important, a public and judicial marker of the political ‘Romanization’ of the community. At the same time, the charter not only displayed Rome's expectations and the aspirations of the municipes, but was a vital means of balancing those aspirations against affective bonds between municipes and municipium, ties of sentiment, tradition, and loyalty.
The Ambivalence of Nature: Poetry for the New Greek State
Authors: Güthenke Constanze
Published: May 2008

This chapter introduces the context for evaluating Greek Romantic poetry of the first decade of statehood, especially in the so-called Athenian School. It offers readings of works by Alexandros Rizos Rangavis and Panagiotis Soutsos, whose vision of a new literature betrayed a highly ambivalent attitude towards the repertoire of Romantic images, not least because here are writers ‘on the ground’ in Greece. Their use of some of the philhellenic, Romantic motives, especially those pertaining to folk literature, is complex, but they, too, cannot avoid the necessary split into Greek antiquity and European modernity, which leaves contemporary Greece in a limbo, trying to stake a claim to both sides. Their poetry is presented with reference to little-studied material from prefaces to their first editions.
The ‘in virtue of’ Relation
Authors: Russell Gillian
Published: May 2008

In Carnap and Logical Truth, Quine argued that it was always either trivial or absurd to say that a sentence was true in virtue of meaning, and his argument has been revived in recent times by Boghossian. This chapter responds to these arguments by proposing a particular disambiguation of the ‘in virtue of’ expression. It is also argued that it would be a mistake to equate analytic sentences with those that express necessary truths.
Meaning
Authors: Russell Gillian
Published: May 2008

The traditional account of the analytic/synthetic distinction is based on a naive folk theory of language. This chapter explains how that folk theory supported a particular version of the analytic/synthetic distinction. It then provides alternatives to the folk picture and argues that we should distinguish four different kinds of meaning: character, content, reference determiner, and referent. This more fine-grained picture allows us to reconstruct analyticity as truth in virtue of reference determiner, which is more easily defended against the old arguments against analyticity. This move also solves the worry about equating analytic sentences with those that express necessary truths, and allows us to account for the status of the contingent analytic and the necessary a posteriori.
The Spectre of “Two Dogmas”
Authors: Russell Gillian
Published: May 2008

This chapter responds to the two main arguments of Quine's paper ‘Two Dogmas of Empiricism’. It argues that Chapter 2's rejection of the language myth makes it easier to understand what is good or plausible in the infamous argument from circularity, but that it ultimately also allows us to reject the conclusion of that argument. Similarly, the argument from confirmation holism is presented and rejected.
Definitions
Authors: Russell Gillian
Published: May 2008

Definitions have often thought to be crucial to the debate over the analytic/synthetic distinction. They have seemed to provide clear examples of synonymy which are well-entrenched in scientific and mathematical practice. This chapter re-examines the properties of definitions in the light of our rejection of the Language Myth. The resulting account allows us both to explain Quine's sometimes puzzling views on definition, and to defend the analytic/synthetic distinction against his doctrine of the transience of definition.
More Arguments Against Analyticity
Authors: Russell Gillian
Published: May 2008

This chapter responds to some further arguments against analyticity, including the Regress Argument, arguments based on the widespread phenomenon of vagueness, arguments from semantic externalism and scepticism about meaning and arguments based on individual sentences, such as ‘all cats are animals’ and ‘gold is yellow’.
1 Industrial Policy and the Chinese Telecommunications Industry
Authors: Harwit Eric
Published: May 2008

This chapter outlines the book's analytical framework, and sets the stage for the empirical work that follows. It begins with a discussion of the theoretical literature on industrial policy in general, and on work specific to China. It puts the theories in a comparative context, and considers the ways nations such as Japan and South Korea used industrial policy with some success. It considers both positive and negative features of government economic intervention. It also argues that a focus on key economic sectors can shed useful empirical light on the how a government can successfully develop important industries such as telecommunications. It outlines the text's thesis that the rapid growth of telephones and the Internet in China may be attributed to successful government industrial policies.
3 Telecommunications Competition in the 1990s and 2000s
Authors: Harwit Eric
Published: May 2008

This chapter asks whether companies owned by the state actually effectively compete with each other. A major potential problem with the shielding effect of industrial policy is that state-owned or protected corporations have no reason to strive for greater efficiency, better service, or a larger market share when they are essentially all part of the same family. However, it is shown that giant public Chinese telecommunications service companies like China Telecom, China Unicom, and others actually became fiercely competitive. This chapter examines reasons for this competitive nature and assesses the positive benefits for the Chinese economy and for consumers. It concludes that there was a high degree of competition between Chinese ministries and their state-owned corporations, and that even within the state, sector organizations can generate the kind of dynamic that spurs both price competition and the rapid expansion of services.
6 Telecommunications in Shanghai: A Case Focus on the Municipal Government's Role
Authors: Harwit Eric
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the ways a key city in China, namely Shanghai, built both its telecommunications infrastructure and operations services. It highlights the policy process at the municipal level and indicates how city officials can work to develop this key sector. The chapter first briefly presents patterns of local government policies to build communications networks. It then focuses on the city of Shanghai to see how the regional government acted to build the industry. It probes for ways officials outside of the central system have contributed to building the sector on a regional basis. In doing so, it includes case study focus on several key companies, including Shanghai Unicom, AT&T, Eastday.com, and several key municipal corporations. It concludes that a scrupulous municipal government, working with a supportive national government and foreign investors that remained under control, could bring about effective economic growth in a key sector such as telecommunications.
Introduction: Democratic transformations in Europe and America
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the political development and institutional transformation of Europe and America. It discusses European and American compoundness, and then compares the two. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
Different structuring of partisan politics in America and Europe: the role of parties in the political process
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses the different forms of structuring of partisan politics in America and the European nation-states. Regarding the party systems, American politics has been traditionally organized around different types of sectional cleavages. The inter-state features of the compound polity have influenced the politics at the supra-states level. In the European nation-states, sectional cleavages have never imposed themselves as the inspiring principle of party systems' logic. However, in certain European nation-states (such as Spain or Italy), territorial divisions emerged periodically.
American compound democracy and its challenges: the domestic implications of global power
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses challenges to the compound nature of American democracy raised by the global role the country has played since the end of World War II. Topics covered include the justifications and implications of America as a compound democracy, the role of President in the Cold War ear, presidential power in the era of divided government, and the rise and fall of presidential power.
Conclusion: The puzzle of compound democracy: a comparative perspective
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses the structural problems faced by a compound democracy. Topics covered include decision making patterns in compound and non-compound democracies, crisis management in America and European nation-states, and accountability in compound and non-compound democracies.
3 Measures of Food Insecurity at the Household Level
Authors: Dutta Indranil , Gundersen Craig
Published: May 2008

Food insecurity and hunger have traditionally been measured by aggregate food supplies or by variables correlated with food insecurity. Because these measures often poorly reflect individuals' true deprivation, economists have turned to surveys with direct questions about food insecurity. This chapter proposes food insecurity measures — along the lines of the well established poverty measures — which allow us to reflect on the depth and severity, in addition to the incidence of food insecurity. Along with giving a richer picture of food insecurity in the US, these measures demonstrate that the ordering of various demographic categories differs depends on the choice of measure.
7 Food Security in Vietnam During the 1990s: The Empirical Evidence
Authors: Molini Vasco
Published: May 2008

This chapter finds that food security in Vietnam showed improvements that were concentrated among the richer households, although there was some improvement among the poorer strata as well. It focuses on the calorie/expenditure elasticity and compares results for the years 1993 and 1998. It shows that this link is strong and that calorie income elasticity changed in the expected direction. In general, food security improved in Vietnam during 1990s although considerable differences still remain among expenditure deciles and among regions due to the accentuated spatial difference.
Introduction
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

This chapter serves as an introduction to the Macedonian Question from the 1870s to the 1930s. It consists of three sections: the first section discusses the ‘national identity’ of the peasants in Ottoman Macedonia, and argues that they did not have a clear-cut national identity as they were still locked into pre-modern, and mainly religious, forms of belonging. The second section offers a narrative of the main political events in the region, and covers the emergence and role of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO) as well as political developments in Greece, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria with relation to Macedonia. The third section investigates the policy of the Balkan communist movement towards Macedonia, and shows that the Communists were no less divided over the issue than their respective governments.
The Difficult Withdrawal: Britain and the Bulgarian Army in Yugoslav and Greek Macedonia, September–December 1944
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

After the Fatherland Front came to power in Bulgaria following the coup of 9th September 1944, the Bulgarian army in Greek and Yugoslav Macedonia was metamorphosed overnight from an occupying force into an allied one. This chapter focuses on the role of the Bulgarian army in these areas (both before and after the 9th of September) and investigates Britain's intense efforts to secure their early withdrawal against Bulgarian temporizing tactics (in Greek Macedonia) and Russian plans for the use of the Bulgarian army (in Yugoslav Macedonia). The fact that the Bulgarians eventually withdrew their forces from Greece but not from Yugoslavia demonstrated Russia's intention to honour only the Greek component of the ‘Percentages Agreement’ of October, 1944.
Between Centralism and Separatism: The Emergence of the Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 1944–1948
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

The single most important feature of the Macedonian Question in the 1940s was the emergence in Tito's Yugoslavia of Macedonia as a federal unit. This chapter aims at offering a new perspective on this subject with the use of British sources. After an analysis of the political and national problems and challenges that the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia faced — including the battle between centralism (imposed by Belgrade) and separatism (emanating from political forces within Macedonia) — the chapter explores the function of the Macedonian national ideology. It is argued that the main purpose of that ideology (and the principal reason behind its acceptance by the local population) was to serve as a legitimate vehicle for anti-Serbianism, which was the only sentiment shared by the overwhelming majority of the Macedonians.
Britain and the Macedonian Question, 1945–1949
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

The first post-war years witnessed the rapid consolidation of the Cold War camps in the Balkans, and further Yugoslav attempts to absorb Bulgarian Macedonia and bring about a Bulgar-Yugoslav federation. For the British, whose main interest in the region remained the protection of Greece from her communist neighbours, these were ominous signs. This chapter covers British views of the new shape of Bulgar-Yugoslav relations, their assessments of the Bled Agreement — concluded between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia in 1947 — and the impact of the Tito-Stalin split. It argues that although Britain's ability to intervene had diminished, her determination to protect Greece (and to rally the United States to the cause) had not.
Reference and Reasons
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the link between reference and reasons. It argues that if the hypothesis linking reference and reasons is correct, the norms distinctive of a particular concept cannot be elucidated solely at the level of sense independently of considerations at the level of reference. The hypothesis also bears upon what is thought to be a rivalry between use theories of content and meaning on the one hand, and truth-conditional theories on the other. A full defence of the main thesis needs to contain both a positive part and a negative part. The chapter focuses just on the positive part of the task, and simply acknowledges that the negative part must be carried out too.
Representing Thoughts
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: May 2008

The ability to think about Thoughts was presupposed in the discussions of self-ascription and in the discussion of other-ascriptions of actions, judgements, and other events and states with conceptual intentional content. In making such self- and other-ascriptions, a thinker is engaged in thinking about Thoughts. This chapter offers some elucidation of this capacity, and proposes a solution to a puzzle about the classical Fregean hierarchy of the senses. It argues that a good elucidation of this capacity puts us in a position to answer the doubts, still present in some distinguished contemporary writers, about the reconcilability of privileged self-knowledge with externalism about intentional content.
The Nature of Normativity
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This book presents a complete theory about the nature of normative thought, that is, the sort of thought that is concerned with what ought to be the case, or what we ought to do or think. This theory implies a kind of metanormative realism, according to which normative truths or facts are genuinely part of reality. At the same time, the theory aims to provide a substantive account of the nature of these normative facts, and a substantive explanation of how it is possible for us to know these facts and to refer to them in language or thought. In providing these explanations, the theory relies on a version of the idea (which has been much discussed in recent work in the philosophy of mind) of the normativity of the intentional. This is the idea that there is no way to explain the nature of the various sorts of mental states that have intentionality or representational content (such as beliefs, judgments, desires, decisions, and so on) without stating normative facts. This idea provides the basis for a systematic theory that deals with the following three areas: the semantics of normative statements (which investigates the meaning of statements about what ought to be); the metaphysics of normative facts (about the nature of the facts stated by these statements); and the epistemology of normative belief (about what justifies us in holding beliefs that these statements express).
The Status of Normative Intuitions
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

Part III of the book is devoted to epistemological issues. If there are objective normative truths, then how could we ever know them? How could we even have any rational or justified beliefs in normative propositions? This chapter argues that the idea that the ‘intentional is normative’ supports a new solution to these epistemological problems: it allows us to give a new account of where a thinker's so-called ‘normative intuitions’ come from, and why (and under what conditions) it is rational for the thinker to trust them. It is argued that this account is preferable both to the rival versions of intuitionism about normative beliefs, and to those epistemological accounts that are incompatible with intuitionism.
Conclusion
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: May 2008

This concluding chapter gives a final overview of the whole theory that has been outlined in the previous chapters, by outlining the theory's implications for various other branches of philosophy. Specifically, it outlines the theory's implications for the following four branches of philosophy: (i) the philosophy of mind and language; (ii) the theory of rational belief and rational decision; (iii) first-order normative ethical theory; and (iv) the philosophy of religion.
3 Christology in Coptic Pilgrimage and the Cult of the Saints
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: May 2008

Christian pilgrimage can be described as a set of practices oriented towards the Incarnation as an accessible event that — when imaginatively and physically claimed by imitation or re-enactment — helps facilitate for the participant a proleptic transformation in status from the earthly to the heavenly. In this way, pilgrimage, as a form of ritual, reaffirms the differences or boundaries between the sacred and the profane (the divine and the human), while at the same time allowing these boundaries ‘for a few careful minutes’ to break down. Re-enactments of the Incarnation took place in various locales, and in the process, not only the participants, but also the places themselves became sacralized; bodies and territory transformed into ritual sites where the earthly and heavenly came into creative contact. This chapter highlights how the late antique and early medieval landscape of Upper Egypt served as a setting for ritual re-enactment in Christian pilgrimage practice.
5 Incarnation and Christian–Muslim Apologetics in the Tenth‐Century Writings of Sāwīrus ibn al‐Muqaffaʿ
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: May 2008

This chapter traces key developments in Copto-Arabic Christology and Christopraxis from the 10th to the 13th century, beginning with the so-called ‘father’ of Copto-Arabic literature, Sāwīrus ibn al-Muqaffa. Topics covered include the emergence of a Copto-Arabic theological tradition; the textual and historical construction of a Copto-Arabic Christological Canon; Sāwīrus ibn al-Muqaffa's addressing of authority and identity in relation to his contemporary medieval context; and biblical, sacramental-liturgical, and social dimensions of Christological mimesis.
6 From Alexandria to Cairo: The Medieval Golden Age of Copto–Arabic Christology
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: May 2008

This chapter traces key developments in Copto-Arabic Christology and Christopraxis from the 10th to the 13th century. The Christology of Būlus Al-Bushī, and Christology of Awlād Al-AssālBulus Al-Bushi Awlad Al-Assal are discussed.
On Self‐Defence and Utilitarian Calculations: Democritus of Abdera and Hermarchus of Mytilene
Authors: Osborne Catherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at the idea that some beasts threaten human well being, while others are conducive towards it. The views of Hermarchus on the need to wage war on the undesirable creatures, and to protect those that are useful are examined, along with his and other ancient attempts to analyse morality as based on rules drawn up on anthropocentric utilitarian lines. This utilitarian account of morality is compared with that of Socrates to indicate why Socrates' claim that it is beneficial to the agent to act morally well is not a utilitarian account, because for Socrates the benefit is explained by the moral goodness, whereas for the Utilitarian the moral goodness is explained by the benefit.
Military Educations
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter argues that even during its pre-war days, England was far better prepared to embark on a war than either contemporary studies have suggested. This pre-war preparation was of two kinds: the first was literary and intellectual, the second practical and professional. The literature of war and pre-war military education and training for Englishmen in the early 17th century are discussed.
Reciprocity, Negotiation, and Surrender
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on negotiation and surrender at the end of the siege of Colchester. It argues that the treatment of prisoners, methods of negotiation, and conceptions of honour retained their traditional character despite the strains the siege placed on conventional observance, and despite the animosities that had replaced the civilities of Boarstall. However, when the siege ended, a new severity seemed to threaten the bonds not only of civility but also of honour and professionalism that had hitherto moderated relations between enemies.
Colchester: The Aftermath
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the aftermath of the siege of Colchester. Parliament's victory at Colchester did not lead to immediate relaxation and reconstruction. To most parliamentarians, danger and instability still threatened; to some royalists, resistance and new ventures still beckoned. For the civilians of Colchester there was no happy return to their normal lives in the spring of 1648, while the thousands of prisoners, joining other prisoners of the second war, faced uncertain and varied futures.
IV ‘City is history incarnate’: writing the past of thepolis
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the fragments of Greek city-histories. It explores the relationship between ‘great’ historiography and local historiography, before examining how the configuration of time can contribute to these discussions, not least through the use of local and Panhellenic chronological systems. Although much attention has focused on Athens — partly because of the survival of evidence and the existence of Jacoby's Atthis, which has been fundamental in the study of local historiography — by considering the fragments of local histories from elsewhere in the Greek world, it is possible to see Atthidography as being typical of the attempts of many cities to formulate and present their pasts. On the other hand, the extant fragments of historiography from Attica and Sicily do have a different quality from those concerning other parts of the Greek world, and their status as bridges between local and universal is considered.
Persuasion and plausibility: history and rhetoric in thepolis
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on a different form of evidence for the creation of the Athenian past, namely its public oratory. Through the public speeches of Demosthenes, Aeschines, and Isocrates, as well as of fragmentary texts, it examines the parameters of plausibility within which the orator was free to construct history, both buying into a commonly shared past and moulding that past for his audience. It considers whether orators favoured particular exemplary moments in history and, if so, whether these were the same as those which were dominant in local historiography. The orator, like the historian or the dramatist, played a vital role in helping the polis to formulate a past which was relevant to the present through its inclusion both of exemplary figures and events and of characteristics, which remained constant across time.
3 On the Explanation of Typologically Unusual Structures
Authors: Harris Alice C.
Published: May 2008

This chapter argues that languages are ‘bundles of historical accidents’. It further argues that unusual or rare features are unusual or rare because they are the accidental result of many different circumstances or conditions that have been lined up in just the right way. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 3.2 discusses the structure of the argument and compares the explanation with other general approaches. Sections 3.3 and 3.4 describe a very rare structure in Georgian and in Udi, respectively, and show that each may be explained by the approach adopted here. Section 3.5 discusses the Uniformitarian Principle in this context, and Section 3.6 presents some conclusions.
8 Creating Economical Morphosyntactic Patterns in Language Change
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents five main points. First is that a very large number of morphosyntactic implicational universals can be explained by invoking economic motivation: more frequently used expressions are shorter than semantically similar, but more rarely used expressions, because they are more predictable. Second, all universal morphosyntactic asymmetries are economically motivated. Third, economical patterns are created by speakers in language use, and when innovative patterns spread through the community, they are manifested in the results of language change. Fourth, there are at least three different diachronic paths through which economical patterns arise: differential phonological reduction, differential expansion of a new construction, and selective analogical change. Fifth, one obvious possible diachronic path does not seem to be well attested: differential morphosyntactic reduction. However, this generalization is problematic, because morphosyntactic reduction is not easy to differentiate from phonological reduction, and counter-examples have been noted.
9 On the Explanatory Value of Grammaticalization
Authors: Kuteva Tania , Heine Bernd
Published: May 2008

This chapter shows that grammaticalization theory can explain not only the regular patterns, the non-exceptions, but also the exceptions. For both of these, it is not only language-internal grammaticalization but also contact-induced grammaticalization that is important. It discusses two situations relating to the area of definiteness marking in European languages. Employing the theoretical apparatus of a so-called integrative grammaticalization theory — that is, a theory of grammaticalization taking into account both contact-related and non-contact-related situations — an explanation of these seeming ‘exceptions’ is proposed in terms of (i) a diachronic overlap stage in the course of language-internal grammaticalization and (ii) both a diachronic overlap stage and a synchronic Buffer Zone in the case of contact induced grammaticalization. In the latter case, the two explanations reinforce each other, and are fully in accordance with the insight gained from the study of areal grammaticalization: contact-induced grammaticalization simultaneously implies both external and internal language change.
Post-release movement of propagules
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses the main types of dispersal vector, the characteristics of their behaviour relevant to dispersal, their effects on the trajectory of single propagules, and the final distances moved under their influence. The development of models to predict the trajectories of individual propagules in air and water is reviewed: the key to success has been the development of a mechanistic understanding of the behaviour of the dispersal vector. This is contrasted with models of movement by animals, which are based largely on descriptive data from tracked animals. Approaches for achieving more mechanistic models of animal dispersal are discussed.
9 The International Mobility of Cultural Talent
Authors: Addison Tony
Published: May 2008

Artists, musicians, and writers have always been great travellers. Today, their talent circulates in new ways, and takes new forms, as the creative industries expand globally in a marriage of media technology and the traditional arts. The growing international market for cultural talent can do much to help countries diversify their economies, and improve quality of life more broadly. The creative industries are subject to strong clustering effects, with talent moving swiftly to the most vibrant clusters, not always to the advantage of the poorer countries which can lose talent to the richer world. Countries that protect intellectual property rights, educate and train their talent, and maintain politically open and liberal societies will have a head start in the global creative economy.
2 Legitimacy: The Caliphate and the State
Authors: Black Antony
Published: May 2008

In Europe, separate states acquired legitimacy; in Islam the universal caliphate and 'umma retained the fullest respect. Muslim philosophers, not unlike Augustine and Hobbes, derived the need for the Shari'a and caliph from the strife-prone nature of humans. Some Western thinkers adopted the view of Cicero (and later of Locke) that human society and the state develop by consensus. Marsilius of Padua's theory of the state in some ways resembled the Muslim theory of the caliphate; he was probably influenced by Ibn Rushd, but Marsilius was without influence. Muslims, drawing on Iranian monarchical theory, saw the ruler's responsibilities as extending to the social and economic infrastructure. Europeans saw the state, Muslims the caliphate, as impersonal offices.
4 Regimes: Europe, Islam, and Byzantium
Authors: Black Antony
Published: May 2008

The ideology of sacred monarchy prevailed in all three cultures, absolutism in Byzantium and Islam. Monarchs had a duty to rule justly, which in Islam meant according to the Shari'a. European views of justice derived partly from Roman law and Stoicism. In all three, justice included ruling according to the laws. Constitutionalism developed partly out of the separation of roles between rulers and clergy or 'ulama. The Sunni caliph and Byzantine emperor were, in theory, appointed by election. Both caliph and king were tied to their subjects by oath, but only in Europe were legal restraints made specific and formal. Islamic jurists preferred, on prudential grounds, non-resistance. In Europe, the king's power was balanced by parliaments claiming to represent the whole kingdom. There was no corporate representation in Byzantium or Islam. In Europe, city republics were ruled by elected officials.
6 Approaches to Political Thought
Authors: Black Antony
Published: May 2008

Despite their shared Abrahamic and Platonic legacies, Europe and Islam developed markedly different approaches to theology, philosophy, and political theory. Muslim philosophers used Plato and Aristotle to provide a rational understanding of the caliphate and the Shari'a. Even this attempt at rationalism did not take root. Muslim political thought became dominated by the ‘consensus’ established, solely on the basis of revealed texts, by orthodox jurists. Reason was a supreme value but it did not mean open-ended enquiry. Problems were to be solved by a more thorough application of religious norms. Philosophy, seen as a means of better understanding revealed truths, revived in Europe from the 12th century and developed continuously. Western thinkers developed a distinction between faith and reason. They saw Cicero and Aristotle as complementing scripture. This eventually made possible non-religious theories of the state and its constitution.
9 Epilogue: The West, Islam, Russia
Authors: Black Antony
Published: May 2008

After the Reformation, European political philosophy blossomed and produced a diversity of ideas. Meanwhile Islamic political thought stagnated. These two political thought-worlds were now completely different and no longer comparable. The Byzantine ideology of sacred monarchy was adopted by Russia. Western ideas influenced first Russia, then the Muslim-majority countries. The influence on Russia has so far been more extensive. Russia contributed to the Western dialogue. Western influence among Muslims is contested by fundamentalists such as Qutb. To a certain extent the West was transmitting the heritage of classical Greece.