bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Current Developments and Extraction Techniques
Authors: Weatherley L R
Published: November 2023

The evolution and development of new liquid-liquid extraction processes has been strongly dependent in the recent past upon the structural changes which have occurred within the chemical industry as a whole. The early l980s have seen significant changes in distribution of chemicals manufacture and product mix which have resulted from important fluctuations in feedstock patterns and market demand for various products. These changes have given rise to much new process development including major reexamination of separation processes and have also stimulated a new demand for more elegant and complex separation techniques in areas like biotechnology and in the hydrometallurgical industry.
The Evaporative, Tubular Thermosyphon
Authors: Lock G S H
Published: November 2023

Above the critical pressure, the tubular thermosyphon behaves as a singlephase system. The same is often true below the critical pressure provided that the fluid specific volume is very much different from the critical value. As Fig. 3.1 indicates, v≪vcr corresponds to a liquid-filled device while v≫vcr corresponds to a gas-filled device unless the pressure is very low, that is P≪Pcr Under such single-phase conditions, the descriptions presented in the previous chapter continue to apply. If the critical point is approached in these circumstances, the behaviour of the system changes but not in any fundamental way. The thermal expansion coefficient increases and the circulation becomes more vigorous, but it is still driven by thermal buoyancy forces, directly or indirectly. In the vicinity of the critical point, however, a discontinuity appears in the fluid density if the pressure falls beneath the critical value; a less-ordered vapour phase then coexists with a more-ordered liquid phase at the same pressure and temperature. This molecular-based alteration of fluid properties produces a different type of thermosyphon behaviour, the upper boundary of which is therefore marked by the critical point; the lower boundary is found at the triple point.
Temperature
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we briefly introduce and discuss the fundamental definition of temperature and the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium and describe both the macroscopic and microscopic points of view. Measurements of transient temperature in engineering and science require a thorough understanding of the principles, so that a short introduction on the basic concept of temperature is justified. Neglect of fundamentals is a chief cause of error in practical temperature studies. However, we have omitted many derivations of thermodynamic laws and formulae; the interested reader can find these in some of the standard texts on thermodynamics and temperature listed in the references.
Application To High-Pressure Combustion In Engines
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

Transient temperature and heat Aux measurements have been, and continue to be, a topic of great interest and pertinence in the design and development of reciprocating internal combustion engines. The need to measure the transient gas temperature in the combustion chamber is driven by the need to gain insight into the complex problems of combustion for both spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines. These problems include the phenomenon of knock or self-ignition, droplet evaporation, heat transfer between the gas and the combustion chamber walls, and chemical reaction rates. The latter are of importance in determining the rate of heat release and the donation of exhaust emission products such as soot, oxides of nitrogen, and hydrocarbons. The need to measure an engine’s transient exhaust gas temperature has been driven by problems related to the transient and steady-state performance of turbochargers and catalytic convertors.
Anvils
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

Maximal static pressures have now been achieved with the diamond anvil cell (DAC). From the mechanical point of view it is a Bridgman anvil cell, Fig. 1.1, made of the strongest material: diamond. There is also a broad class of apparatus based on the same principle. The Bridgman anvil cell itself is traditionally made of tungsten carbide and works up to 20 GP a (Yoneda et al. 1984).
Diamond Anvil Cell
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

A general consideration of generation of pressure with anvils and a gasket between them was presented in Chapter 2. Here the particular case of diamond anvils is described.
Shear-Deformation Cells
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to methods studying of matter at high pressures in combination with large shear stresses and large deformations, i.e. far from the perfect hydrostatic conditions typically needed for good physical experiments. However, there are physical and chemical phenomena where the presence of shear stresses and plastic deformations is favorable and needs to be studied, in particular the kinetics and hysteresis of phase transformations. This is also a field of study in the compaction of powders and geophysical processes.
High Temperatures
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

ln this method electrical current is used to heat a sample placed in the DAC chamber. Liu and Bassett (1975) first studied melting of iron wire which was resistively heated in an ungasketed DAG. The phase diagram of iron was studied to pressures up to 43 GP a by Boehler et al. (1986) and up to 36 GP a by Mao et al. (1987) at temperatures up to 2000 K. They isolated the electrical leads from the gasket with the aid of alumina or Mg , Fig.10.1.
Nano-measuring systems of sub-namometre accuracy and resolution
Authors: Taniguchi Norio
Published: November 2023

In order to process a workpiece to namometre-order accuracy, measuring and control techniques of nanometre accuracy or better are essential. Nanotechnology must therefore be considered as an integrated technology of processing, measurement, and control. The measurement techniques used in connection with precision processing measure many characteristics of machined workpieces and machine tool components. The quantities measured are length, displacement, vibration, runout, figure, surface roughness, etc. The phenomena detected are sound, temperature, mechanical force, light, electromagnetic field, etc. Because of its widespread applications and present status, optical detection is the main theme here.
Nano-positioning systems of nanometre accuracy and repeatability
Authors: Taniguchi Norio
Published: November 2023

For positioning of moving elements at nanometre accuracy, it is necessary to provide guide systems with sub-nanometre scattering error for the transfer mechanism.
Fabrication systems for nano-assemblies composed of nanometre-accuracy parts
Authors: Taniguchi Norio
Published: November 2023

The integrated circuits (IC) is a product which involves very precise microtechnology in itself and is also fabricated with very precise microtechnology. The IC has been improved with the progress of precision technology in the field of optics, mechanics, control, and so on. Recently, IC technology has entered nanometre technology, i.e. nanotechnology. A sectional view of the most advanced IC observed by SEM is shown in Fig. 7.1.1. The complex structure may not be resolved, but the sizes of microstructures can be estimated from the scale of 0.25 µm.
Removal Of Inclusions
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle
Published: November 2023

The solubility of dissolved impurities in molten metals was seen in Chapter 2 to decrease with decreasing temperature. During solidification as the temperature drops and solubility decreases, impurities are precipitated as a second phase (non-metallic inclusions or intermetallic phases) in the metal. Oxides and sulphides in steel are examples of inclusions. Such particles are usually very harmful to the mechanical and other properties of the metal (Chapter 1). Therefore one attempts to keep the amount of impurities at low levels so that inclusions are not produced. Partly the approach is to employ stable refractories and a suitable protective slag. For instance, in steelmaking a basic reducing slag prevents the pick-up of oxygen from the atmosphere. Furthermore, allloy additions should be chosen that contain low levels of impurities and inclusions. Combined with these preventative measures dissolved impurity levels may be suppressed by the addition of elements with a high affinity for the impurity. An example of this is precipitation.
Mixing, Mass Transfer, And Numerical Models
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle
Published: November 2023

Mixing and stirring are terms widely used when discussing melt treatment. These terms are useful in that they have an immediate intuitive meaning. However, a worker in refining metallurgy very early finds it necessary to give them more substance. In the following section an attempt is made to explain and clarify the meaning of these terms.
Addition Of Alloy Components
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle
Published: November 2023

There are innumerable ways in which the properties of a metal can be modified and improved by the addition of alloy components. This is especially the case for steel, and for aluminium and copper a vast array of alloys have also been developed. To achieve alloys with specific engineering characteristics with regard to strength, fatigue, ductility, and other physical properties, common practice is to start out with a ‘pure’ solvent metal and introduce alloying elements at very precise, predesigned levels. Thus addition of alloys, melting, and dissolution is a necessary operation in the handling of melts before casting. The thermal requirements and the rate of solution need to be understood precisely to develop good alloying practices. Also dissolution and melting rates may limit productivity in a number of steelmaking and other processes.
Two-Phase Flows, Gas Mixtures, And Compressible Flows
Authors: Bruun H H
Published: November 2023

This chapter covers measurements in two-phase flow, in gas mixtures, and in flows with significant compressibility effects. Two-phase flows have been studied extensively, with many investigations devoted to air/water or steam/water flows due to their common occurrence in engineering machinery and plants. However, many of the phenomena observed in gas/liquid flows are also observed in the flow of two immiscible liquids, and the following HWA measurement techniques for two-phase flow can be applied to both flow situations.
Vorticity Measurements
Authors: Bruun H H
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the measurement of the components of the vorticity vector. The vorticity vector at a point is defined as the curl of the velocity vector. Using tensor notation this relationship can be expressed as where wi (i = 1-3) are the components of the vorticity vector, are the components of the velocity vector, and eijk is the alternating tensor. As discussed by Wallace (1986), at each point in the flow field a spherical fluid particle can be imagined the motion of which can be decom posed into translation, expansion, and rotation. The vorticity can be inter preted as being twice the instantaneous solid-body rotation rate of particles along the principal axis in the fluid, where there is no shear deformation.
Non-linear interfaces in optical systems
Authors: Shvartsburg A B
Published: November 2023

A non-linear interface is an important optical element for spatial and temporal modulation of wave beams. This element consists of the interface between two dielectric materials, one of which has an intensitydependent refractive index. The interest in non-linear surface wave phenomena is twofold: firstly, these phenomena can provide subsurface localization of powerful wave fields. On the other hand the reflection of light from the electrically-driven interface is an effective tool for tuning the parameters of reflected light waves. The latter effect results in optically controlled tuning of wave refraction also. Puting aside the numerous problems connected with generation of new harmonics at the non-linear boundary, which was the subject of classical research work at the outset of the laser era (Bloembergen et al. 1962), we shall analyse the novel possibilities of wave governing beams using power-dependent reflection effects.
Vector Control and Dynamics of AC Drives
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A
Published: November 2023

This book presents a detailed but easily understood development of the complex variable form of the equations describing AC machines. These equations are then extended to incorporate inverter models and a number of examples of inverter-machine dynamics are presented. A section on constant speed behaviour includes development of the conventional equivalent circuits and an extensive treatment of the constant speed eigenvalues and switching transients. Vector control and field orientation concepts are first introduced in terms of their steady state properties. This allows anyone with a basic understanding of steady state machine behaviour to understand and appreciate the potential of field orientation and to actually start using the book immediately. This is followed by a full dynamic analysis of vector controlled systems including conventional indirect and direct field orientation and less conventional systems that orient to air gap or stator flux rather than rotor flux. A chapter on the important types of current regulators is also included. The final two chapters deal with vector control and field orientation system performance in relation to tuning errors, saturation effects, selection of flux levels to optimize performance and the question of optimization in the field weakening mode.
Complex Vector Analysis of Induction Machines
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A
Published: November 2023

The development of the complex vector model of an induction machine presented in Chapter 2 clearly demonstrates the utility of the complex vector concept in simplifying and manipulating the differential equations describing the machine. The resulting model can be interpreted as a set of ordinary, real variable differential equations which can be used to represent an induction machine in specific situations. For each application a set of external constraint relations describing the specific situation is developed and imposed on the general model to obtain the application specific model.
Dynamics of Vector Control and Field Orientation
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A
Published: November 2023

The steady state analysis in Chapter 5 has been used to demonstrate the basic concepts of vector control and field orientation in both synchronous and induction machines. The underlying motivation in Chapter 5 was to obtain torque (and flux) control independent of motor speed. Although the steady state arguments of Chapter 5 cannot provide information concerning the dynamic (transient) response, it was suggested that the same basic concepts as developed from steady state theory also produce dynamic decoupling and torque control in the dynamic state (l,2,3]. For high performance systems the dynamic response characteristics are as important as the steady state performance and this chapter is devoted to extending the concepts introduced in Chapter 5 to the dynamic state.
Solitons in Optical Communications
Authors: Hasegawa Akira , Kodama Yuji
Published: November 2023

Solitons are a fascinating topic for study and a major source of interest for potential application in optical communication. Possibly the first observation of a soliton occurred in 1838 and was made by a clerical gentleman riding a horse along a canal towpath. When a barge under tow came to a stop alongside him the bow wave did not stop, but continued to travel on its own for several miles with no change in shape. At the time this unusual phenomenon was not understood and remained unexplained. Interest was revived with the development of optical fibres and the realisation that at the high intensities possible in their very small cores the onset of non-linear effects could modify the propagation characteristics in a significant way. In a seminal paper in 1973 Hasegawa and Tappert solved a non-linear Schrodinger equation for fibre propagation and found solutions for solitary waves, i.e. solitons. Since then advances have been very rapid resulting in a much better understanding of a wide variety of soliton effects, and, crucially, the realisation that soliton propagation can be used to potentially great advantage in practical long-distance systems. There is, as a result, a wealth of theoretical and experimental research in progress all over the world. At NTT (Japan) a pule-code-modulated soliton train has been transmitted at 10Gbit/s over one million kilometres with zero error! Perhaps all long-distance, large bandwidth communication problems have been solved for ever. This book gives a clear account of the theory and mathematics of solitons travelling in optical fibres. It is written by the authority on the subject.
Electric Properties Of The Dielectric Fibre
Authors: Hasegawa Akira , Kodama Yuji
Published: November 2023

Optical solitons, considered in this book, are stable nonlinear pulse envelopes of a coherent light wave in a dielectric fibre. As will be derived in Chapter 3, the spatial evolution of a complex envelope function of the effective electric field amplitude E(z,t) having a single polarization satisfies the equation,

Here z is the axial distance, t is the time, Wt is the angular frequency of the coherent light wave carrier, kt’ is 8k/8w evaluated at w = Wt, similar for kt” and k1”‘, n2 (= 1.3 x 10-22 m2/V2 for a silica fibre) is the Kerr coefficient of the dielectric material, ‘Y is the spatial damping rate which originates from the fibre loss, {3 is the coefficient representing the nonlinear dispersion which originates from the dispersive property of n2, 8nif 8w, aR is the coefficient representing the Raman gain dispersion 8gR/8(Aw), gR being the coefficient of the Raman gain, Aw the frequency separation between the pump and the Stokes modes, and g 1/2 is the reduction factor of the nonlinear effect due to variation of the electric field in the fibre cross section. In considering the evolution of the wave packet, we must note the fact that the distance of propagation measured by the foot step size of the wave, that is the light wavelength, is extremely large although the physical distance does not appear to be large. For a light wave with one micrometre wavelength, one kilometre of distance corresponds to 109 step sizes! This is the reason why all these small coefficients in (2.0.l) become important.
The Recognition Architecture: Algebraic Invariants: Lewisi
Authors: Rothwell Charles A
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the LEWIS recognition system built around the three-phase selection-indexing-correspondence paradigm. In particular, the indexes are constructed from the plane algebraic invariants discussed in the previous chapter, and so the details given in this chapter are most relevant to a specific implementation called LEWIS1 that recognizes objects containing sets of coplanar lines and conics. The emphasis is very much on the value of the indexing stage, that is whether it is beneficial to the efficiency of the entire recognition process in contrast to a linear search through the model base. However, all of the different steps of the recognition process from edge detection through to verification are described in detail.
Criteria for Representation of Shape
Authors: Rothwell Charles A
Published: November 2023

During the development of the LEWIS systems it became apparent that there are a number of basic properties that a shape descriptor should possess for recognition. In this chapter these have been converted into criteria that should be appreciated whenever a new object description is developed; the criteria are therefore reported in light of the work in building the systems of the earlier chapters in this book. The descriptors of interest are always invariant indexes as these are essential for fast recognition: however, as each criterion is reviewed there will occasionally be comparison with other cues to highlight why indexes must be formed from invariants. Similar criteria have previously been suggested by other researchers as being important for other approaches to object recognition; the most notable of these are by Marr (78) and Brady (15).
From Coherence To Confusion: A Conservative Sar View
Authors: Raney R Keith
Published: November 2023

Resolution is a measure of image sharpness, whereby two closely spaced objects yield echoes that are separable. Imaging radars are distinguished one from another primarily by the means used to achieve resolution in the azimuth (cross-range) direction, for which the available data consist of receptions from many transmitted pulses. A real aperture radar (RAR), or side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) in some references, has access only to the power of the received signals. Processing strategies cannot materially enhance their azimuth resolution. Therefore a real aperture radar’s azimuth resolution is bounded below by the azimuth width of the antenna pattern, which is proportional co range. On the other hand, a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) preserves the inter-pulse phase structure of the received signals. The SAR (image) processor uses this phase information to enhance azimuth resolution, a process known as focusing. The resultant resolution is much smaller than the antenna pattern width.
Counting Of Single Flux And Single Charge Quanta For Metrology
Authors: Niemeyer Jürgen
Published: November 2023

In the last few decades, many efforts have been made to C the physical units by quantum devices instead of material artifacts. The latter ones imply a great number of drawbacks: they might be damaged by improper handling the realized unit depends on external parameters, often in a non-reproducible way intercomparisons are difficult because of transport problems they age they are available only in a central laboratory.
High-Frequency Methods In Electromagnetics
Authors: Tiberio Roberto , Maci Stefano , Toccafondi Alberto
Published: November 2023

There are certain similarities as well as significant differences in the background of these two theories. Both of them make use of solutions of local canonical problems. In most practical instances, the relevant reference canonical problems have an infinite, uniform cylindrical configuration. On one hand, in a GTD scheme the canonical problem is used to provide an estimate of a diffracted ray field contribution. On the other hand, in a PTO scheme the same canonical problems are used to find an estimate of the currents that should be introduced to correct those predicted by the Physical Optics (PO).
Impact Of Numerical Methods On Propagation Modelling
Authors: Craig Kenneth H
Published: November 2023

Recent years have seen a growth in the development of numerical tools for radiowave propagation. This chapter considers some of the reasons for this development, the benefits of simulation in radiowave propagation, and gives specific examples. Numerical models are of course being applied in many electromagnetic wave propagation problems. However the scope of this paper will be limited to tropospheric applications dominated by refraction, diffraction and scatter mechanisms. This includes several practical problems in radio system design; for example mobile and personal communications, microwave radar design and operation, and the design of millimetre wave systems in the urban environment.
Radio Emission From Instabilities In Space Plasmas: Marginal Stability, Stochastic Growth And Fine Structures
Authors: Melrose Donald B
Published: November 2023

Plasma instabilities can lead to radiation from a space or an astrophysical plasma either indirectly or directly. Two specific such processes are discussed here: plasma emission, which is an indirect emission process first discussed by Ginzburg and Zheleznyakov [1958), and electron cyclotron maser emission (ECME), which is a direct emission process first discussed in the presently favored form by Wu and Lee {1979]. Plasma emission is the accepted emission mechanism for most solar radio bursts, notably type III bursts, for analogous emissions from planetary bow shocks and from the auroral ionosphere. ECME is the accepted emission mechanism for the Earth’s auroral kilometric radiation (AKR) for Jupiter’s decametric radiation (DAM) and for analogous radiation from the other giant planets. It is also favored for solar microwave spike bursts and for the very bright emission from some flare scars.
Designing a steam locomotive
Authors: Semmens P W B , Goldfinch A J
Published: November 2023

Most steam locomotives were designed by the organization that operated them, and, during the twentieth century in Britain, the railway companies also constructed the majority of those used on their own main lines. This contrasted fundamentally with the situation in some other countries, where the state railway was specifically barred from building its own locomotives. Between 1923 and 1948 in Britain, all the four Grouping companies constructed the vast majority of the locomotives they required, continuing the practice adopted by the larger pre-grouping railways during the nineteenth century.
Heterogeneous dielectrics
Authors: Scaife B K P
Published: November 2023

The calculation of the dielectric properties of a medium formed from a mixture of different dielectric materials is a problem of recurring interest and one of considerable theoretical and practical importance.The determination of the response to an electric field of a spatial region, filled in some arbitrary way with a variety of dielectrics, is in general an impossible task, even if detailed information were available about the dielectric behaviour and spatial distribution of each constituent.
Equilibrium polarization fluctuations
Authors: Scaife B K P
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 2 and 3 we have considered, in some detail, the linear response of dielectric systems subjected to static and time-dependent electric fields. We now turn our attention to the microscopic properties of dielectric bodies in so far as these properties manifest themselves macroscopically. Any dielectric body consists of a huge number of molecules (N ∼1023) seething with movement. This movement, or thermal agitation, results in observable fluctuations in various physical parameters. For example, the volume of a body will undergo very small thermal fluctuations due to continual irregular movements of the constituent molecules.
Dielectric saturation in dipolar liquids
Authors: Scaife B K P
Published: November 2023

So far we have taken the electric flux-density, or displacement, d, in a dielectric medium to be directly proportional to the gradient of the macroscopic potential.
The epidemiology of obesity: a global perspective
Authors: Seidell Jacob C
Published: November 2023

Over the last two to three decades, overnutrition and obesity have been transformed from relatively minor public health issues that primarily affect the most affluent societies to a major threat to public health that is being increasingly seen throughout the world. The plight of the most affected populations, like the US, has been well publicized. However, less recognized has been increases in population obesity elsewhere in the world that are now increasingly being monitored. In this chapter we focus on the prevalence of overweight and obesity, as indicated by the body mass index, in a variety of populations world wide.
Evolving environmental factors in the obesity epidemic
Authors: Jeffery Robert W , Linde Jennifer A
Published: November 2023

In the last 20 to 30 years, much of the world has experienced a remarkable increase in the prevalence of obesity. Obesity rates have long varied significantly between and within populations, primarily along dimensions of relative population affluence and demographics. However, starting in about 1980, steady increases have been observed in many populations around the world that have made overweight and obesity a serious threat to world health. The seriousness of the phenomenon is underscored by the situation in the US, where average body mass index (BMI) has increased nearly 15 per cent since 1980 and the prevalence of clinical obesity has more than doubled (1). Obesity rates are not uniformly distributed in the US, being concentrated especially in lower income populations and some ethnic minority groups. The upward trend in body weights has been virtually universal, however.
As Fast as Light*
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim
Published: November 2023

Galileo repudiated the view held in his time that light propagates instantaneously, proposing the now famous experiment for measuring its velocity, based on the use of two lighted lamps placed atop separate hills. This method, necessarily refined to permit measurement of the very short times involved, is essentially the one which, a few centuries later, was to enable the velocity of light to be determined over terrestrial distances.
Conviction and Abjuration
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim
Published: November 2023

In February 1632, with ecclesiastical authorization, the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems was published. But as early as August of the same year it was rumored that there existed some “considerations regarding the said book whether to correct or suspend it, or perhaps prohibit it”.404 In August, its circulation was, in fact, forbidden, and the Pope appointed a special commission to examine it. In September, the Dialogue was submitted to the Congregation of the Holy Office and in October Galileo, under severe suspicion of heresy, was summoned to Rome to defend him-self.
First and Second Quantization
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten
Published: November 2023

Quantum theory is the most complete microscopic theory we have today describing the physics of energy and matter. It has successfully been applied to explain phenomena ranging over many orders of magnitude, from the study of elementary particles on the sub-nucleonic scale to the study of neutron stars and other astrophysical objects on the cosmological scale. Only the inclusion of gravitation stands out as an unsolved problem in fundamental quantum theory.
Superconductivity
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten
Published: November 2023

The Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory of superconductivity is a corner stone in theoretical physics. Since it appeared in 1957, its influence has reached far beyond its original scope, which was to give a coherent explanation at the microscopic level of a wide range of intricate and fascinating phenomena in metals at low temperature, known as, and related to, superconductivity. Besides metallic superconductivity BCSlike theories has been used to explain superfluid 3He, the motion of nucleons in nuclei, and the dynamics of fundamental matter fields in high energy physics.
Coherent states and squeezed light
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

In the preceding two chapters we have explored the consequences of quantizing the energy of a light beam in terms of the number of photons. This enabled us to classify light according to either the photon statistics or the second-order correlation function. In this chapter we shall consider the eﬀects of quantizing the electric and magnetic fields that comprise the light. We shall make use of our knowledge of the quantum harmonic oscillator, and adopt a predominantly intuitive approach, leaving the rigorous mathematics to the next chapter.
Photon number states
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

In the previous three chapters we have studied several diﬀerent ways in which the quantum states of light can be classified. In Chapter 5 we looked at the photon statistics and classified the light as being sub-Poissonian, Poissonian, or super-Poissonian. Then in Chapter 6 we studied the second-order correlation function, and classified the light as antibunched, coherent or bunched. Finally, in Chapter 7 we studied coherent states and several forms of squeezed light.
Atoms in cavities
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

Before studying the interaction between atoms and cavities, it is helpful to remind ourselves of some of the basic properties of optical cavities. We shall restrict our attention here to the simplest case, namely a planar cavity. This will be sufficient to illustrate the chief points, and the results can then be generalized to other types of cavity.
Entangled states and quantum teleportation
Authors: Fox Mark
Published: November 2023

The third branch of quantum information processing is quantum teleportation. This is a very new subject, and the aim of researchers working in the field at present is to achieve proof-of-principle demonstrations at the few-particle level. As we shall see, teleportation relies heavily on the properties of entangled states. We therefore begin by describing the concept of entangled photon states and explaining how they are generated in the laboratory.
Working With Children and Young People
Authors: Sclare Irene
Published: November 2023

All clinical psychologists undertake training to work with children and young people before qualifying. Currently, approximately 600 clinical psychologists in Britain work with children and young people. Psychological work with this client group requires approaches and methodologies that are tailored to young people ‘s developmental understanding and service needs. Clinical child psychologists work in a variety of child and family service settings, undertaking assessment, psychological therapy, work with parents, staff and carers, research and evaluation, and consultancy. They are trained to apply psycho- logical theory and clinical skills to address complex childhood problems such as anorexia, child abuse, deliberate self harm, and youth crime, as well as to less troubling problems, such as bed-wetting, school refusal, and specific fears and phobias. Applying developmental theory and knowledge of the course of developmental disorders, psychologists also work with children with autism, Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and chronic illnesses, such as diabetes or epilepsy.
Working With People With Intellectual Impairments
Authors: Cullen Chris , Combes Helen
Published: November 2023

Mr A has cerebral palsy. He uses a wheelchair and it is very difficult to understand him because his speech is indistinct. Care staff have to help him with his activities of daily living, including taking him to the toilet. It seemed to staff at the day service that Mr A was upset. He would hit members of staff, even those he trusted, when he was taken to the toilet. They asked for help to manage his behaviour. His sister had suggested that they should seek help from a psychologist, because his family had also noticed that his demeanour had changed. When first meeting Mr A, the psychologist thought that he looked sad. He would cry, particularly when his sister and carers talked about how worried they were about him.
Working With Others
Authors: Lavender Tony , Allcock Sarah
Published: November 2023

The ability to work effectively with others is an essential part of a clinical psychologist ‘s role. The focus of this chapter will be on working with other professionals, organizations, and communities rather than with clients themselves as this aspect of a clinical psychologist ‘s work has been covered more fully in earlier chapters. The tasks undertaken by the majority of health and social care services are complex and require that professionals are able to work together in a sophisticated manner in order to provide an effective service. This involves working with people from a diverse range of backgrounds, both in terms of professional and sociocultural factors. No one individual or profession has all the necessary skills to meet all of the needs of any client group or, in many cases, of an individual client.
Relativity
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

Relativistic cosmology has in recent years become one of the most exciting and active branches of current research. In conference after conference the view is expressed that cosmology today is where particle physics was forty years ago, with major discoveries just waiting to happen. Also gravitational wave detectors, presently under construction or in the testing phase, promise to open up an entirely novel field of physics. It is to take into account such recent developments, as well as to improve the basic text, that this second edition has been undertaken. The most affected is the last part on cosmology, but there are smaller additions, corrections, and additional exercises throughout. The books basic purpose is to make relativity come alive conceptually. Hence the emphasis on the foundations and the logical subtleties rather than on the mathematics or the detailed experiments per se. Aided by some 300 exercises, the book promotes a deep understanding and the confidence to tackle any fundamental relativistic problem.
Relativistic kinematics
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

We have seen how Einstein’s second postulate (the invariance of the speed of light) seems to violate common sense and certainly violates Newtonian kinematics. In this chapter we meet the new ‘relativistic’ kinematics that accommodates both of Einstein’s postulates. Its main ingredients are length contraction, time dilation, and the relativistic velocity addition law. This latter has the strange property that one can ‘add’ any subluminal velocity to the velocity of light and still get the velocity of light, and one can add any number of subluminal velocities and will always get another subluminal velocity.
Linearized general relativity
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

Although it seems that one cannot construct a satisfactory full theory of gravitation within special relativity (one that gives consistent results no matter how strong the field) we shall nevertheless see in this chapter how to construct a special-relativistic linear approximation to general relativity that is valid when the fields are weak. It is referred to as ‘linearized general relativity’. Although its results are approximations, these are often very good approximations, and the method has many applications in cases where the full equations of GR are too difficult to solve.
Introduction
Authors: Baker Gregory L , Blackburn James A
Published: November 2023

The pendulum is a familiar object. Its most common appearance is in old-fashioned clocks that, even in this day of quartz timepieces and atomic clocks, remain quite popular. Much of the pendulum’s fascination comes from the well known regularity of its swing and thus its link to the fundamental natural force of gravity. Older students of music are very familiar with the adjustable regularity of that inverted ticking pendulum known as a metronome. The pendulum’s inﬂuence has extended even to the arts where it appears as the title of at least one work of fiction—Umberto Eco’s Fourcault’s Pendulum, in the title of an award winning Belgian film Mrs. Foucault’s Pendulum, and as the object of terror in Edgar Allen Poe’s 1842 short story The Pit and the Pendulum.

The history of the physics of the pendulum stretches back to the early moments of modern science itself. We might begin with the story, perhaps apocryphal, of Galileo’s observation of the swinging chandeliers in the cathedral at Pisa. By using his own heart rate as a clock, Galileo presumably made the quantitative observation that, for a given pendulum, the time or period of a swing was independent of the amplitude of the pendulum’s displacement. Like many other seminal observations in science, this one was only an approximation of reality. Yet it had the main ingredients of the scientific enterprise; observation, analysis, and conclusion. Galileo was one of the first of the modern scientists, and the pendulum was among the first objects of scientific enquiry.
Continuum plasticity
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the fundamentals of time-independent and rate-dependent continuum, or phenomenological plasticity: multiaxial yield, normality hypothesis, consistency condition, isotropic and kinematic hardening, and simple constitutive equations for viscoplasticity and creep. We assume throughout the chapter that we are dealing with small strain problems in the absence of large rigid body rotations. The kinematics of large deformations are left until the following chapter.
Kinematics of large deformations and continuum mechanics
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

The strains, be they elastic or plastic, which most engineering components undergo in service are usually small, that is, <0.001 (or 0.1%). At yield, for example, a nickel alloy may have undergone a strain of about σy/E ∼ 0.002 and it is hoped that this occurs rarely in nickel-based alloy aero-engine components in service! During manufacture, however, the strains may be much bigger; the forging of an aero-engine compressor disc, for example, requires strains in excess of 2.0 (i.e. >200%). This is three orders of magnitude larger than the strain needed to cause yield. In manufacturing processes, another very important feature is material rotation. Deformation processing leading to large plastic strains often also leads to large rigid body rotations.
Implicit and explicit integration of von Mises plasticity
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we shall return to the constitutive equations for plasticity introduced in Chapter 2 and see how they may be integrated and how the Jacobian or tangent stiffness may be obtained from them. We shall explore both implicit and explicit schemes for the integration of the constitutive equations. To start, we shall consider small strain, time-independent, linear isotropic hardening plasticity before looking at kinematic hardening and viscoplasticity. First, we return to the determination of the plastic multiplier.
Superplasticity
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

Superplasticity is the ability of some materials to undergo very large, irreversible, tensile elongations without necking and failing. Generally, a very fine grain structure is required (a typical grain size will be of the order of 1 μm) and a deformation temperature of about 0.5 Tm is necessary to enable the appropriate superplastic deformation mechanisms to operate. Two common superplastically formed classes of material are aluminium and titanium alloys, which are used extensively in the aerospace and aeroengine industry. Superplastic forming exploits the ability of the material to undergo very large tensile elongations in metal sheet stretch forming and blow moulding processes, and has many advantages for the manufacture of complex shapes in sheet metal using simple low pressure pneumatic forming equipment.
Porous plasticity
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

We have so far considered plasticity and viscoplasticity processes in which it has been assumed that the deforming material has been incompressible. There are some materials, however, for which this is not the case. An important example is in the processing of metal powders in which, generally at elevated temperature, the powder is consolidated by plastic deformation and the elimination of the porosity. During the process, significant volume changes occur because of the removal of the porosity. A further example of compressible or porous plasticity is that in which significant voiding develops in a material undergoing plastic deformation resulting from a damage process (e.g. creep cavitation). Again, while possibly small, volume changes occur during the deformation and the incompressibility condition no longer holds. A feature of the constitutive equations in porous plasticity is that there becomes a dependence on mean stress as we shall see shortly. In this chapter, we introduce the porous plasticity model of Duva and Crow and outline its implementation into ABAQUS using both a UMAT material subroutine and the simpler ABAQUS CREEP routine. For simplicity, within the UMAT, we use explicit integration of the constitutive equations and employ the initial stiffness as the material Jacobian.
Creep in an aero-engine combustor material
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik
Published: November 2023

Aero-engine components operating under in-service conditions are often subjected to a range of complex cyclic mechanical and thermal loading, leading to combined creep and cyclic plasticity. The polycrystalline nickel-base superalloy (C263) is a commercial alloy used for stationary components in aero-engines such as combustion chambers, casings, liners, exhaust ducting, and bearing housings. It is a fine-precipitate strengthened alloy at 800°C, with a precipitate solvus temperature of 925°C (Betteridge and Heslop, 1974). Combustion chamber applications require the material to undergo temperature fliuctuations between 20°C and 950°C, and the temperature range is therefore such that the precipitate solvus can be exceeded during in-service operation. significant microstructural change is therefore likely to occur during ordinary operation, leading to quite profound changes in the creep mechanisms in the material, controlling both deformation and component life.
The Mesoamericans and the ‘All-American Ball Game’
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

The oldest known sample of rubber was reputed to have been found in 1924, in Germany, fossilised in lignite deposits, and some sixty million years old. It is described by Schidrowitz and Dawson in History of the rubber industry (1952). This could be the same material described by Auleytner in 1953, which was again found in Germany and dated to the Eocene period, some thirty million years ago. The last-known location of this was the Jagiellonian University, Cracow in 1994, from whence it appears to have vanished. Apart from this, and one reference to very bouncy balls by Herodotus, who attributed their origins to the Lydians, the early history of rubber is solely a story of the ‘New World’, centred around the equatorial regions of South America and Mexico.
What’s in a Name?
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

At this point it is appropriate to consider what plants provide us with latex (hence rubber), the varieties which exist, and their relative merits to the rubber collectors of two centuries ago. Natural rubber, India rubber, or caoutchouc are all names for the solid elastic material isolated, one way or another, from the ‘milk’ or latex of various plants. Whilst these plants tend to occur in the tropics, there are many which grow in the temperate zones and also produce this material, although not in any commercial sense. Perhaps the most common sources in the UK are the dandelion and the goldenrod—snap their stalks and the white fluid is latex, which will dry to give rubber. Latex is therefore the white milk like fluid which is obtained by wounding the plant. In the case of the most common commercial source today, the tree Hevea braziliensis, a sloping incision is cut in the outer bark from which the latex will ‘bleed’ and the wound is refreshed by removing slivers from the surface of the cut on subsequent tapping days.
The Battles of the Giants—Charles Goodyear
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

The first of our giants is Charles Goodyear who was born at Oyster Point, close to New Haven, Connecticut, in December 1800. Five years later the family moved to Union City, which would eventually become Naugatuck, and here his father, Amasa, opened a mill which manufactured a range of agricultural implements.