bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perception of Performance in Group Brainstorming: The Illusion of Group Productivity
Authors: Paulus Paul B. , Dzindolet Mary T. , Poletes George , Camacho L. Mabel
Published: March 2007

Research has shown that individuals produce fewer ideas in interactive brainstorming groups than when brainstorming alone. However, group brainstorming remains a popular technique in organizations and industry. One basis for this popularity may be the perceived productivity of group brainstorming. A survey of expected performance in group brainstorming revealed that most individuals believed they would generate more ideas in groups than alone. Individuals who, in a second experiment, actually performed in brainstorming groups also perceived their performance more favorably than individuals who brainstormed alone. The results of a third experiment indicate that the illusion of group productivity may derive in part from the opportunity for social comparison that is available in group brainstorming. It also appears that individuals tend to take credit for a disproportionate amount of the brainstorming activity in groups.
Global-Specific Incongruencies in Self-Worth and the Search for Self-Knowledge
Authors: Woike Barbara A. , Baumgardner Ann H.
Published: March 2007

This investigation examined the effect of an incongruent self-concept on interest in acquiring self-knowledge. Congruent (high global self-esteem/positive specific self-worth and low global self-esteem/negative specific self-worth) and incongruent (low global/positive specific and high global/negative specific) participants who varied in how certain they were of their self-worth were given the opportunity to express an interest in information about their personalities. Those whose global and specific self-worth were incongruent expressed greater interest in learning more about themselves than those whose self-worths were congruent. This effect was qualified by self-certainty: Interest was especially high among incongruent subjects certain of specific self-worth. Evidently, global-specific incongruency and certainty of it are motivating factors in the search for self-knowledge. The findings suggest specific processes that may allow individuals to cope with such incongruency.
The Role of Summary and Specific Behavioral Memories in Trait Judgments about the Self
Authors: Klein Stanley B. , Loftus Judith , Sherman Jeffrey W.
Published: March 2007

In a recent series of studies, Klein and Loftus and their colleagues have shown that trait judgments about the self are uninfluenced by the prior retrieval of trait-relevant behavioral memories. In this article, two types of behavioral memories are distinguished-specific and summary. A study is reported that, in contrast to the authors' earlier studies examining the effect of specific behavioral memories, shows that retrieval of summary behavioral memories does affect subsequent judgments of a trait's self-descriptiveness. The implications of the distinction between spears and summary behavioral memories for models of trait self-knowledge are discussed.
Storytelling in Close Relationships: The Construction of Confidence
Authors: Murray Sandra L. , Holmes John G.
Published: March 2007

This article explores the narratives that individuals construct about their romantic partners. The authors believe that individuals weave stories that encapsulate or defuse negativity, such as evidence of an intimate's faults. Such storytelling essentially masks feelings of uncertainty engendered by the specter of negativity and thus bolsters felt confidence. The paradigm used for examining narrative construction is described and the postulates or principles guiding the storytelling process are outlined. A discussion follows of how individuals integrate and defuse negativity within positive stories about their partners. The article concludes by exploring the content and structure of confidence-instilling narratives.
The Undoing of Traumatic Life Events
Authors: Davis Christopher G. , Lehman Darrin R. , Wortman Camille B. , Silver Roxane Cohen , Thompson Suzanne C.
Published: March 2007

Counterfactuals generated by victims of traumatic events were examined to elucidate their significance for the coping process. In Study 1, respondents were interviewed 4-7 years after the loss of their spouse or child in a motor vehicle accident. In Study 2, respondents were interviewed at 3 weeks and 18 months following the death of their child from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Across both studies, (a) counterfactuals were commonly reported; (b) the focus of counterfactuals was typically on one's own (in)actions, rather than on the behavior of others; (c) the more frequently respondents were undoing the event, the more distress they reported; and (d) this relation held after controlling for more general ruminations. These field studies demonstrate that even in situations that lack the highly mutable circumstances described in scenario research, people coping with traumatic events appear unhindered in their ability to generate counterfactuals. Theoretical implications, with an emphasis on field studies of undoing, are discussed.
Moral Overtones of Food: Judgments of Others Based on What they Eat
Authors: Steim Richard I. , Nemeroff Carol J.
Published: March 2007

Previous research found that meal size can affect judgments of eaters' attractiveness and femininity. The present study investigates whether eating specific types of foods-namely, healthy, nonfattening foods versus unhealthy, fattening ones-gives rise to moral judgments about the eaters. Subjects were presented with one of four bogus profiles of a person, which differed only in gender and foods consumed. Subjects rated the target on morality; potential mechanisms of effects were also explored. Results confirmed the hypothesis that moral judgments of others differ depending on the foods they eat. This result was not simply due to a halo effect but was explained by two mediational mechanisms: the Puritan ethic and the "you are what you eat" principle. However, the effect did not show predicted moderation by subject or target gender or restrained-eating status. Foods also seemed to influence subjects' perceptions of fitness and weight information about the target. Moral Aspects of Diet
The Perceived Funniness of Humorous Stimuli
Authors: Olson James M. , Roese Neal J.
Published: March 2007

The authors tested the logic that perceivers infer the emotion-eliciting qualities of stimuli from (a) their emotional reactions and (b) information about environmental factors. A total of l50 men and women listened to a humorous monologue. Some subjects were instructed before listening to the monologue to inhibit their mirth; other subjects were told after listening to the monologue that the laboratory setting inhibits mirth; and control subjects were given no special instructions. Subjects who were instructed to inhibit their mirth smiled and laughed less often than control subjects, but their ratings of the monologue's funniness were similar to those of control subjects. Subjects who were told that the laboratory setting inhibited mirth smiled and laughed the same as control subjects, but they rated the monologue as funnier than did control subjects (an augmentation effect).
Mood Effects of Unsuccessful Helping: Another Test of the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Authors: Batson C. Daniel , Weeks Joy L.
Published: March 2007

The empathy-altruism hypothesis predicts that empathically aroused individuals will report negative mood change after an unsuccessful attempt to help, even if the failure is fully justified. Two experiments tested this prediction. In Experiment 1, subjects'failure at a helping task was either justified or not. As predicted, low-empathy subjects showed relatively little negative mood change when theirfailure was justified, whereas high-empathy subjects showed substantial negative mood change. In Experiment 2 a different manipulation of empathy was used, and mood change was assessed after success on a helping task failed to relieve the other's need. Again as predicted, low-empathy subjects showed little mood change, whereas high-empathy subjects showed substantial negative mood change. Results of each experiment, then, supported the empathy-altruism hypothesis.
Generalized Intergroup Contact Effects on Prejudice
Authors: Pettigrew Thomas F.
Published: March 2007

The intergroup contact hypothesis is tested with self-reports of 3,806 survey respondents in seven 1988 national probability samples of France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and West Germany. With seven key variables controlled, the hypothesis is confirmed-especially for intergroup friendships and affective prejudice. Nonrecursive models indicate that the predicted friends-to-less-prejudice causal path is larger than the prejudice to-fewer-intergroup friends path. These effects generalize in two ways: to immigration polity preferences and a wide variety of out-groups. To explain this generalization, three mediating processes are proposed that can override the many cognitive barriers to generalization: empathy and identification with the out-group and reappraisal of the in-group (deprovincialization). A situation's "friendship potential" is hence indicated as an essential condition for optimal intergroup contact.
Two-Dimensional Self-Esteem and Reactions to Success and Failure
Authors: Tafarodi Romin W. , Vu Carolyn
Published: March 2007

Past research has shown that those low in self-esteem tend to persist less after initial failure than do those high in self-esteem. It is not clear, however, whether this motivational vulnerability is attributable to low self-competence, low self-liking, or both. To address this question, the persistence and performance of students with distinct self-esteem composites were examined using an anagram task. The persistence results revealed that low self-liking was independently associated with decreased effort following performance failure, suggesting that it is this dimension of low self-esteem that is of primary importance in accounting for the previously demonstrated phenomenon. Differences in performance, although less pronounced, corresponded roughly with differences in persistence.
Professionally Responsible Communication with the Public: Giving Psychology a Way
Authors: Cialdini Robert B.
Published: March 2007

The larger society, which has paid for social science, deserves a fuller and more meaningful exposure to what social scientists have learned with its money. Moreovei; social science would benefit in financial support and prestige from such exposure. The popular media constitute the most powerful vehicle for and the most formidable barrier against the professionally responsible communication of social science to the public. An approach for communicating responsibly with the public through the media is described. A central component of that approach seens dishonest but is shown not to be upon close analysis. It advises scientists to respond to the poor questions they may be asked by media representatives with answers to the good questions they could have been asked. Booming About Big Issues
Collective Self-Esteem as a Mediator of the Relationship between Allocentrism and Subjective Well-Being
Authors: Bettencourt B. Ann , Dorr Nancy
Published: March 2007

The present studies examined the relationship between allocentrism and subjective well-being. In addition, the mediational role of collective self-esteem for ascribed and acquired groups was tested. Study 1 showed that the reliable relation between allocentrism and life satisfaction was mediated by private, public, and membership collective self-esteem. Study 2 showed that once personal self-esteem was controlled, only private and public collective self-esteem mediated the relation between allocentrism and subjective well-being.
Prejudice and Self-Categorization: The Variable Role of Authoritarianism and In-Group Stereotypes
Authors: Verkuyten Maykel , Hagendoorn Louk
Published: March 2007

In two experimental questionnaire studies among ethnic Dutch participants (N= 99 and N= 206), it was found that the factors predicting prejudice depend on the level of self-categorization: personal identity or national identity. In the personal-identity condition, it appeared that individual differences in authoritarianism were related to prejudice toward Turkish migrants living in the Netherlands and toward Germans, but there was no effect of in-group stereotypes. In the national-identity condition, in-group stereotypes appeared to be related to prejudice but not authoritarianism. These results suggest that individual attitudes affect evaluations of out-groups if a personal perspective is activated, whereas a representation of the typical characteristics of in-group members affects the out-group evaluations if a collective perspective is activated. These results are consistent with predictions derived from self-categorization theory and show that self-categorization affects the relative importance of individual and group factors for prejudice.
Effects of Power Imbalance and the Presence of Third Parties on Reactions to Harm: Upward and Downward Revenge
Authors: Kim Sung Hee , Smith Richard H. , Brigham Nancy L.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the effect of power imbalance and the presence of third parties on vengeful reactions to harm. At the onset of their interaction, participants were unjustly harmed by a confederate who had either more or less power than they had. As predicted, in the presence of a justice-concerned third party, upward revenge (people of low power taking revenge against those of high power) was greater than downward revenge (people of high power taking revenge against those of low power). However, in the absence of a third party, downward revenge was greater than upward revenge. These findings highlight the important role of third parties in determining vengeful behavior in situations of power imbalance and add additional evidence for the importance of justice concerns in revenge.
Extending the Concept of Stereotype Threat to Social Class: The Intellectual Underperformance of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds
Authors: Croizet Jean-Claude , Claire Theresa
Published: March 2007

Students from poorer families perform worse on intellectual tasks than do other students. The authors tested the stereotype threat hypothesis as a possible explanation for this difference. Students from relatively poor backgrounds, such as members of other stereotyped groups, risk confirming a negative reputation of low intellectual ability. The authors predicted that, on a stereotype-relevant test, members of this group would experience apprehension about confirming their negative reputation and that this susceptibility to the stereotype would impair their performance. The study varied stereotype threat by manipulating the instructions accompanying the test that each participant completed. When described as a measure of intellectual ability, low socioeconomic status (SES) participants performed worse than high SES participants. However, when the test was presented as nondiagnostic of intellectual ability, low SES participants' performances did not suffer, contesting claims of SES differences in intellectual ability.
Measures for the Study of Maternal Teaching Strategies
Authors: Laosa Luis M.
Published: March 2007

A technique to measure maternal teaching strat egies was developed for possible use in research and evaluation studies. Scores derived from the technique describe both quality and quantity of be haviors used by mothers to teach cognitive-percep tual tasks to their own young children. The mater nal teaching observation technique (MTOT) yields scores on the following teaching strategy dimen sions : inquiry, directive, praise, negative verbal feedback or disapproval, modeling, visual cue, physical affection, positive physical control, and negative physical control. English and Spanish ver sions of the technique were developed. The tech nique was administered to 83 different mother-child dyads of two sociocultural and language groups, Anglo-American and Chicano. The tasks and procedures were sufficiently engaging and ap pealing, in terms of difficulty level and ability to elicit and to maintain the subjects' attention, for mothers and their 5-year-old children in both groups. Interobserver reliabilities and parallel-form consistency were adequate for both groups, indi cating that each MTOT scale measures a mod erately stable attribute of maternal behavior. Group differences in intercorrelations suggest that con struct invariance might not exist across sociocul tural or language groups.
A Comparison of Item- and Person-Fit Methods of Assessing Model-Data Fit in IRT
Authors: Reise Steven P.
Published: March 2007

Many item-fit statistics have been proposed for assessing whether the responses to test items ag gregated across examinees conform to IRT test models. Conversely, person-fit statistics have been proposed for assessing whether an examinee's re sponses aggregated across items are congruent with a specified IRT model. Statistical procedures to as sess item fit have differed from those to assess per son fit. This research compared a χ 2 item-fit index with a likelihood-based person-fit index. Eight 0,1 data matrices were simulated under the three- parameter logistic test model. Both the likelihood- based and χ2 fit statistics were then computed for examinees and items, and Type I and Type II error rates were analyzed. With data simulated to fit the IRT model, the χ 2 test overidentified examinees and items as being misfitting, while the likelihood- based fit index held closer to the specified α levels. The two fit indices gave consistent (mis)fit-to- model results in 94 and 97 percent of cases for items and examinees, respectively, across simula tions. Under simulated conditions of data misfit, the χ2 statistic detected misfit at a higher rate than the likelihood-based statistic, indicating that the χ2 statistic was slightly more sensitive to response pat tern aberrancy. However, other considerations led to a recommendation for employing the likelihood- based index in applied fit analyses to evaluate both examinee and item model-data (mis)fit.
Test Construction by Means of Linear Programming
Authors: de Gruijter Dato N. M.
Published: March 2007

The use of linear programming in the selection of test items entails setting a target information value for several ability levels, then constructing a test of mini mum length that satisfies the constraints given by the target values. In the present paper the case of the uni form target is reconsidered. The dependency of item selection on item pool characteristics is demonstrated, and the relevance of uniform targets for test construc tion and the applicability of linear programming for test construction are discussed.
Using the Circular Equating Paradigm for Comparison of Linear Equating Models
Authors: Gafni Naomi , Melamed Estela
Published: March 2007

Equating error was estimated using the same test by three linear equating methods in three paradigms: (1) single-link equating of a test to itself, in which a test was administered on two different dates and the later administration was equated to the earlier adminis tration ; (2) circular equating through a chain, start ing and ending at the same test; and (3) pseudo-circular equating, in which a test was equated to itself as in the first approach through equating chains contain ing a different number of links as in the second ap proach. The mean difference between the actual scores and the equated scores, as well as the root mean square of this difference, were used as the criterion measures for equating error. The results suggested a superiority of the Tucker method for the conventional circular equating chain, and the Levine and vci methods yielded smaller errors in about half the equating chains for the pseudo-circular chain. Unexpectedly, there was not found to be a clear relationship between the num ber of links in the equating chain and the resulting error.
Complex Composites: Issues That Arise in Combining Different Modes of Assessment
Authors: Wilson Mark , Wang Wen-chung
Published: March 2007

Data from the California Learning Assessment System are used to examine certain characteristics of tests designed as the composites of items of different modes. The characteristics include rater severity, test information, and definition of the latent variable. Three different assessment modes-multiple-choice, open-ended, and investigation items (the latter two are referred to as performance-based modes)-were combined in a test across three different test forms. Rater severity was investigated by incorporating a rater parameter for each rater in an item response model that then was used to analyze the data. Some rater severities were found to be quite extreme, and the impact of this variation in rater severities on both total scores and trait level estimates was examined. Within-rater variation in rater severity also was examined and was found to have significant variation. The information contribution of the three modes was compared. Performance-based items provided more information than multiple-choice items and also provided greatest precision for higher levels of the latent variable. A projection-like method was applied to investigate the effects of assessment mode on the definition of the latent variable. The multiple-choice items added information to the performance-based variable. The results of the analysis also showed that the projection-like method did not practically differ from the results when the latent trait was defined jointly by both the multiple-choice and the performance-based items. Index terms: equating, linking, multiple assessment modes, polytomous item response models, rater effects.
A Nominal Response Model Approach for Detecting Answer Copying
Authors: Wollack James A.
Published: March 2007

When examinees copy answers to test questions from other examinees, the validity of the test is compromised. Most available statistical procedures for detecting copying were developed out of classical test theory (CrT); hence, they suffer from sampledependent score and item statistics, and biased estimates of the expected number of answer matches between a pair of examinees. Item response theory (IRT) based procedures alleviate these problems; however, because they fail to compare the similarity of responses between neighboring examinees, they have relatively poor power for detecting copiers. A new IRT-based test statistic, wo, was compared with the best CUT-based index g2 under various copying conditions, amounts of copying, test lengths, and sample sizes. w consistently held the Type I error rate at or below the nominal level; g2 yielded substantially inflated Type I error rates. The power of w varied as a function of both test length and the percentage of items copied. w demonstrated good power to detect copiers, provided that at least 20% of the items were copied on an 80-item test and at least 30% were copied on a 40-item test. Based on these results, with regard to both Tbype I error rate and power, c appears to be more useful than g2 as a copying index.
The Past and Future of Multidimensional Item Response Theory
Authors: Reckase Mark D.
Published: March 2007

Multidimensional item response theory (MIRT) is a relatively new methodology for modeling the relationships in a matrix of responses to a set of test items. MIRT has been used to help understand the skills required to successfully respond to test items, the extraneous examinee characteristics that affect the probability of response to items (DIF), and the complexities behind equating test forms, among other applications. This paper provides a short introduction to the historical antecedents of MIRT, the initial development of MIRT procedures, the similarities of MIRT procedures to other analysis techniques, and potential future directions for MIRT.
Item Parameter Estimation for a Continuous Response Model Using an EM Algorithm
Authors: Wang Tianyou , Zeng Lingjia
Published: March 2007

An item parameter estimation procedure is cedure was pro-developed using an EM algorithm for Samejima's (1973) continuous item response model. The potential usefulness of this model is examined, including the density function and the practical meaning of the item parameters and statistical properties of the model. The expected a posteriori and maximum likelihood estimates of the person (0) parameters and their associated standard errors are also described. The item parameter estimation pro grammed and evaluated using simulated data. The results show that the estimation procedure performs well in estimating item and 0 parameters. These estimation procedures should permit the application of the continuous response model to many measurement problems.
The Impact of Skill Learnability on the Effectiveness of Managerial Training and Development
Authors: Brush Donald H. , Licata Betty Jo
Published: March 2007

Skill learnability, the degree to which a particular managerial skill can be acquired or modified by training and development, is de scribed and discussed. It is argued that those managerial skills com prised of large sociallinteractive components and affected by under lying noncognitive attributes are more difficult to learn than skills which can be articulated through a common body of knowledge or technology. Implications for organization resource allocation be tween selection and training strategies and future research directions are discussed.
Embodied Energy Trade Balances among Regions
Authors: Bourque Philip J.
Published: March 2007

The embodied energy trade flows concept is advanced as a useful technique for analyzing energy interdependence among regional economies. An analysis of the energy trade balances of Washington State is used to illustrate the theory. The embodied energy trade flow concept provides a broader perspective than alternative techniques for studying relationships between energy-producing and energy-consuming regions.
The Interregional Structure of the U.S. Economy
Authors: Beyers William B.
Published: March 2007

Regional input-output models demonstrate that state economies in the United States have strong interdependence of final demands, income payments, and intermediate product, but there are no explicit, spatially detailed estimates of the structure of this interdependence. Building on survey data which document the spatial structure of interregional trade for a sample of Washington State firms, this paper develops a 51-region model of the U.S. economy for the year 1980. Characteristics of the interindustry structure of this model are described, and probable qualities of its evolution are discussed.
Reform and Paternalism in China: Some Theoretical Concerns
Authors: Péter Sándor
Published: March 2007

The Chinese reforms are assessed on the basis of theoretical considerations and East European experience. The probable characteristics of a successful comprehensive reform are presented. The Chinese reform does not appear any closer to this ideal type than previous socialist reforms. In essence, no reform can work if it is not concerned with fundamental resource allocation and interrelation between economic activities and the political sphere. Without such a comprehensive approach, the reformed sectors are incompatible with other sectors which can limit the success of the reforms and may lead to the emergence of new problems.
Migration Reversals in Perspective: The Long-Wave Evidence
Authors: Berry Brian J. L.
Published: March 2007

Although the pattern of polarization reversal reported by Vining and Pallone in the 1970s and the re-emergence of core-ward net migration that they now report for the 1980s are problematic if viewed from the perspective of a short-term time horizon, they are easily understandable in a long-wave context. Evidence is provided for 55-year waves of urbanward migration, each of which reached its nadir during the nation's major stagflation crises. The periodic repetitions of the phenomena described by Vining and Pallone suggest the relevance of the interpretations provided by long-wave theory.
Congestion, Changing Metropolitan Structure, and City Size in the United States
Authors: Gordon Peter , Kumar Ajay , Richardson Harry W.
Published: March 2007

Using the Nationwide Personal Transportation Study surveys of 1977 and 1983-84, this article demonstrates that there is no discernible relationship between city size class and trip lengths, times, and speeds, and that commuting speeds did not decline between 1977 and 1983. The most convincing explanation of why congestion did not become more severe is the continued spatial decentralization of both firms and households, which permitted travel economies, especially for suburban residents in larger cities. The continued competitiveness of the large metropolitan areas is mainly attributable to this adjustment process.
Computers, Personal Data, and Theories of Technology: Comparative Approaches to Privacy Protection in the 1990s
Authors: Bennett Colin J.
Published: March 2007

Public policies designed to regulate the use of information technology to protect personal data have been based on different theoretical assumptions in different states, depending on whether the problem is defined in technological, civil libertarian, or bureaucratic terms. However, the rapid development, dispersal, and decentralization of information technology have facilitated a range of new surveillance practices that have in turn rendered the approaches of the 1960s and 1970s obsolete. The networking of the postindustrial state will require a reconceptualization of the dynamic relationship between organizational practices and information technology and a more comprehensive appreciation of the privacy problem. With the call for the development of a more coherent information policy in a number of countries, there is evidence that policymakers have been taking this more holistic view.
The Impact of Activist Pressures on Recombinant DNA Research
Authors: Rabino Isaac
Published: March 2007

This survey of 430 recombinant DNA scientists currently engaged in research assesses the impact of public attention, political advocacy, and litigation on their work. The findings show that most researchers feel they have benefited from public attention to the field, but 34% feel they have been negatively affected. Sixty-one percent agree that as a result of litigation by activists, greater social responsibility on the part of scientists working in the field is required. Considerable concern is expressed regarding public ignorance, uninformed controversy, and the future impact of activist-inspired litigation, especially on the possible loss of the U.S. competitive edge. Recommendations are made for a public education campaign focused on priority-target audiences (i.e., regulatory decision makers, other scientists, members of the media, and environmentalists).
The Social Warp of Science: Writing the History of Genetic Engineering Policy
Authors: Wright Susan
Published: March 2007

Traditional empiricism, although largely abandoned, has marked the social studies of science through the persistent division between macrolevel analysis of the institutions promoting and regulating science and microlevel analysis of the laboratory, theories, and experiments. Further traces appear in the largely separate methodologies used in social studies of science, which do not draw from political theory, and studies in political theory, which are silent with respect to the expression of power in the development of science. Poststructuralist conceptions of science have reinforced this divcsion by encour aging a turn away from explanations that assume human agency and accountability . This article attempts to bridge the present methodological gulf between political theory and the social studies of science through methods that are sensitive to the nature and operation of power and to its expression in discourse. The application of these methods in the study of genetic engineering policy m the United States and the United Kingdom is outlined.
The Emergence of a Competitiveness Research and Development Policy Coalition and the Commercialization of Academic Science and Technology
Authors: Slaughter Sheila , Rhoades Gary
Published: March 2007

This article describes the emerging bipartisan political coalition supporting commercial competitiveness as a rationale for research and development (R&D), points to selected changes in legal and funding structures in the 1980s that stem from the success of the new political coalition and suggests some of the connections between these changes and academic science and technology, and examines the consequences of these changes for universities. The study uses longitudinal secondary data on changes in business strategies and corporate structures that made business elites in the defense and health industries consider supporting competitiveness R&D policies. The article identifies and assesses an array of national R&D legislation concerned with competitiveness that was passed in the 1980s and 1990s and that has implications for academic R&D. The effects of competitiveness R&D policies on universities and academic science and technology are appraised by analyzing changes in time-series data (1983-1993) on science and technology indicators compiled by the National Science Foundation.
Applications of Science and Technology Studies: Effecting Change in Science Education
Authors: Roth Wolff-Michael , McGinn Michelle K. , Bowen G.Michael
Published: March 2007

Researchers in science and technology studies appear to be more concerned with descriptions and explanations of social phenomena than with the potential applications of their findings. Science and technology studies should strive to change society by contributing to the design of learning environments that form future generations of producers and consumers of scientific and technological knowledge. In this article, the authors (a) illustrate how they used research findings from science and technology studies to design alternative learning environments and (b) summarize their principal findings from six years of ethnographic research in these learning environments. They conclude by pointing out some of the caveats inherent in theirapproach and by suggesting areas in science education of interest to science and technology studies.
Public Concerns in the United Kingdom about General and Specific Applications of Genetic Engineering: Risk, Benefit, and Ethics
Authors: Frewer Lynn J. , Howard Chaya , Shepherd Richard
Published: March 2007

The repertory grid method was used to determine what terminology respondents use to distinguish between different applications of genetic engineering drawn from food- related, agricultural, and medical applications. Respondents were asked to react to fifteen applications phrased in general terms, and results compared with a second study where fifteen more specific applications were used as stimuli. Both sets of data were submitted to generalized Procrustes analysis. Applications associated with animals or human genetic material were described as causing ethical concern, being unnatural, harmful, and dangerous. Those involving plants or microorganisms were described as beneficial, progressive, and necessary. The results were validated in survey research, which indicated that general applications ofgenetic engineering were perceived as either positive or negative, whereas specific applications were more highly differentiated in perceptual terms. The results imply that the public debate about genetic engineering must take due account of the complexity of public concerns.
Refusing Prenatal Diagnosis: The Meanings of Bioscience in a Multicultural World
Authors: Rapp Rayna
Published: March 2007

This article explores the reasons women of diverse class, racial ethnic, national, and religious backgrounds give for their decisions not to accept an amniocentesis or, having accepted one, not to pursue an abortion after diagnosis of serious fetal disability. The narratives of refusers reveal conflicts and tensions between the universalizing rationality of biomedical interventions into pregnancy and the wider heterogeneous social frame work to which women respond in their decision-making processes.
Modeling Intervention Efficacy for High-Risk Women
Authors: Greenberg Judith , Hennessy Michael , MacGowan Robin , Celentano David , Gonzales Virginia , van Devanter Nancy , Lifshay Julie
Published: March 2007

This study evaluates the effectiveness of two strategies—communication and condom skills training—for increasing condomprotected sex in a sample of 510 high-risk women ages 17 to 61. Baseline and 3- and 6-month postintervention interview data were gathered in three cities participating in a randomized trial of a six-session, group skill-building intervention. This analysis was conducted for the entire sample and for six subgroups categorized by age, single or multiple partners, and history of childhood sexual abuse. The dependent variable was the odds ratio of protected sex acts at each follow-up. Structural equation modeling was used to estimate effects for two intervention pathways. The pathway through condom skills increased the odds of protected sex for the intervention group (χ2 difference = 35, df = 2, p < .05) as well as for all subgroups. The pathways through communication were significant for the intervention group (χ2 difference = 23, df =3, p < .05) but fully effective only for participants under 30 and participants who reported childhood sexual abuse. The effectiveness of both pathways diminished at 6 months. WINGS demonstrates that condom skills training can increase protected sex for a heterogeneous group of women. Further research needs to examine how such skill training translates into use of condoms by male partners. To increase the duration of intervention effects, booster sessions may need to be incorporated.
Research Designs Appropriate for Service Agencies
Authors: Lange Brian
Published: March 2007

The intent of research is to inform coworkers in similar environments of new or varied approaches to problems assumed to be shared. However, narratives of reported studies neglect to identify vari ables necessary for reproducing environmental contigencies. If the proposition is accepted that service agencies occupy unique environments, then single organism research designs such as ABAB and multiple baseline designs may provide more valuable information than currently accepted research methodologies.
Effectivness of Continuing Medical Education
Authors: Lloyd John S. , Abrahamson Stephen
Published: March 2007

Evidence regarding the effectiveness of continuing medical education (CME) is reviewed in terms of three possible end- products : physician competence, physician performance, and patient health status. Results of this review are presented in the context of recent increases in mandatory CME policies and the corresponding cost of such policies to the nation. The number of CME activities is evidently on the increase. Yet, according to conventional wisdom, CME is not effective. To the contrary, about half of the 47 evaluation studies published since 1960 reported demonstrable improvement in at least one of the three end-products following CME. However, methodological shortcomings in many of these studies make it impossible to conclude that the improvements were caused by the CME. The authors discuss the need for more research surrounding the subject of CME and its effectiveness.
Analytic Procedures for Evaluating Health Care
Authors: Knapp Rebecca G. , Miller M. Clinton
Published: March 2007

The concern for quality of health care motivates evaluation programs designed to monitor the health care system, patient outcome, and provider expertise. An array of audit methods and instrumentsfor evaluatingprofessional and institutionalperformance has been developed. Although evaluation is viewed by many asthe basisforaccountability and improvement of health care, few are aware that most existingevaluation programs are really data-collecting systems. Very little, if any, analysis of the data is done with the objective of optimizing the system. The "sampling with intervention "procedures often used to monitor the health care delivery system are primarily directed toward the individual patient while the system and provider continue to operate in the established mode. This article outlines analytic proceduresfor interpreting evaluation data generated by quality control and audit systems. Five common univariate statistical quality control charts are described.
Physicians' Attitudes toward Breast Self-Examination
Authors: Marin Janice , Howe Holly L.
Published: March 2007

Recent case control studies suggest that breast self-examination (BSE) is efficacious in the early clinical diagnosis of breast cancer. Population studies also indicate that adoption of this behavior depends largely on physicians. This pilot study was designed to determine whether physicians' attitudes on this subject could be obtained through a mail questionnaire. The results show that a self-administered mail questionnaire can be used successfully in physician studies. Although questionnaire length does affect response rates (78% one page, 69% four page, and 57% eight page), it does not affect either respondent characteristics or question response.
Increasing Compliance to Medical Treatment Regimens
Authors: Posavac Emil J. , Sinacore James M. , Brotherton Sarah E. , Helford Michael C. , Turpin Robin S.
Published: March 2007

Research articles evaluating the effectiveness of programs to increase compliance with medical treatment regimens were quantitatively integrated to assess the impact of these programs on the behavior ofpatients. A total of58 studies involving two or more groups with 133 measures of compliance were identified and analyzed. The mean effect size was .47, indicating that the typicalprogram participant complied better than 68% of the members of the control groups. The advantage of the program groups dropped as the amount of lifestyle changes required by the treatment regimen increased. Overall, the most successful interventions involved improving the facility providing care and helping patients to incorporate the treatment regimen into their daily routine. It is suggested that publishedevaluationsofcomplianceprograms would be more useful and more likely to contribute to an accumulation of knowledge if more careful descriptions of the interventions, including costs estimates, were included in reports of the program evaluations.
Terminally Ill Patients' and Families' Responses to Participation in a Research Study
Authors: Masterson-Allen Susan , Laliberte Linda , Wright Susan M. , Hepburn Kenneth , Veale-Danner Winnifred , Mor Vincent , Morris John N.
Published: March 2007

Evaluations of the effect of interventions on the terminally ill focus on outcomes such as patient satisfaction and quality of life. Due to the theoretical nature of these measures, researchers must rely on patients andfamily members asprimary data sources. Family members of terminally ill patients were queried concerning their motives for participation in the National Hospice Study and their reactions to an intensive interview schedule. Of those contacted, 94% agreed to the interview. The most frequently cited reasons for participating in the study were the desire to help other families facing a serious illness and the desire to help the hospice movement. Responses indicated a real enthusiasm for study participation in spite of the stressful nature of the terminally ill patient's situation.
Twenty Years of Research on the Quality of Medical Care
Authors: Donabedian Avedis
Published: March 2007

Since 1964 we have built on earlier work, with some refinements, particularly in the formulation of explicit criteria of process and outcome; the detailed standardization of case mix when outcomes signify quality; the prespecification of outcomes for follow-up, when adverse outcomes are only the occasion for later assessment of process; a greater emphasis on more subtle organizational characteristics in the study of structure; and the identification of the separate effects of structural attributes by multivariate analysis. We have also paid more systematic attention to questions of measurement, including the veracity and completeness of the record; the procedures of criteria formulation; and the reliability, validity, and screening efficiency of the criteria. A notable advance is the use of decision analysis to identify optimal strategies of care, including the introduction of patient preferences and monetary cost in the specification of such strategies, and the use of decisional algorithms to portray the criteria of quality.
Determinants of Small-Area Variation in Hospital Utilization
Authors: Demlo Linda K. , Curry James P. , Kuder John M. , Levey Samuel
Published: March 2007

Small-area differences in hospital use were examined using hospitaldischarge abstract data for the populations of seven small service areas in Iowa that exhibited substantial variation in admission rates during 1980. The results indicate (1) a marked difference in the age composition of the patient populations with older patients being more common among residents of high-use areas, (2) higher ageand sexadjusted discharge rates per 1000 in the high-use areas across many diagnostic categories, (3) frequently higher average lengths of stay in high-use areas, (4) a lack of conformity between discharge patterns for selected surgical procedures and diagnoses, and (5) more readmissions to the same hospital during a 12-month period for residents of high-use areas. This data set comprises one part of a study of smallarea differences that also employed household surveys, physician surveys, and other existing data sets. The findings illustrate the potential and limitations of hospital discharge abstracts as a data base for evaluating hospital discharge abstracts as a data base for evaluating hospital utilization differentials.
Behavioral Contracting in an Urban Health Promotion Project
Authors: Singleton Steven P. , Neale Anne Victoria , Hess Joseph W. , Dupuis Mary H.
Published: March 2007

A health promotion project involving 223 participants was conducted by the Department of Family Medicine at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan. Participants were screenedforfive cardiovascular riskfactors: blood lipids, obesity, smoking, blood pressure and physical fitness; they were reassessed at six-month and two-year intervals. Following the initial screening, participants were asked to meet with the project health educator to sign one or more "behavioral contracts" to make behavior or life-style changes designed to improve risk factor status. Individual and group interventions were provided to all interested clients. Of the individuals screened, 179 of the 223 returned for at least one health counseling session. Contractors were most successful in improving exercise habits and making dietary changes to reduce cholesterol. These changes were reflected in improved treadmill performance and significant reductions in serum cholesterol. Smokers and the overweight showed poor success rates, few smokers were willing to sign a smoking cessation contract, and there was a high dropout ratefrom weightcontrol counseling.
Evaluating Medical Student Clinical Skill Performance
Authors: Calhoun Judith G. , Woolliscroft James O. , Haken Jocelyn D. Ten , Wolf Fredric M. , Davis Wayne K.
Published: March 2007

Second-year medical students (N = 187) evaluated their own videotaped performances of one of eight randomly assigned physical assessment examinations. The videotaped performance was one component of an introduction to clinical sciences course evaluation. Performance ratings were also obtained from two peers-one who served as the patient and the other who served as the camera person for the evaluation-and one expert. All rater groups used the same behaviorally anchored evaluation checklist of the key techniques and sequences identifiedfor each examination. High Pearsonproduct-moment correlations were obtained between (1) the two peer ratings for four of the examinations and (2) self andpeer ratings for the other four examinations. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the four types of raters for all but one of the eight different examinations. Implications for future evaluation methodologies and curricular implementation of peer assessment are discussed.