bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Carbon sequestration
Authors: Wilkinson David M.
Published: September 2007

While traditionally ecology textbooks only discuss the short term carbon cycle, the role of life has been crucial in the geological long term carbon cycle through processes such as silicate weathering. Arguments have been put forward for the co-evolution of CO2 levels and terrestrial plants — with adaptations to lower CO2 levels allowing large leaves to evolve. It seems clear that on Earth without the effect of life our planet would currently have a temperature which would rule out he survival of eukaryotic life. This suggests that carbon sequestration has a positive Gaian effect. However, this is probably a local conclusion which cannot be generalized to all other planets. More generally, these ideas illustrate the importance of biomass as a key feature of global ecologies. The effects of vegetation (or plankton) on carbon cycles are more directly linked to available biomass than species richness.
Nutrient cycling as an emergent property
Authors: Wilkinson David M.
Published: September 2007

Arguments based on both in vitro and in silico models suggest that biogeochemical cycles will readily evolve on planets with life, along with many of the putative fundamental processes described in this book. Artificial life models illustrate the potential for these emergent cycling systems to have a positive Gaian effect. The well-known potential for exponential growth in unconstrained ecological systems suggests that these emergent systems will often regulate their environments around low nutrient states (biotic plunder), rather than at states which optimize productivity. In this context, it makes sense to define Gaia in relation to prolonged habitability of a planet, but not as a process which maximises biological productivity.
STRING FIELD THEORY AND GAUGE THEORIES
Authors: Mariño Marcos
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows that both Chern-Simons gauge theories and matrix models with polynomial potentials can be realized as open string theories. To show that Chern-Simons theory and matrix models with polynomial potentials are open string theories the strategy is to prove that these gauge theories describe the spacetime dynamics of topological open strings on certain backgrounds. To do this, string field theory is used. Some basic ingredients of the cubic string field theory introduced by Witten (1986) to describe the spacetime dynamics of open bosonic strings are described. The same model is used to describe topological strings. In bosonic open string field theory, the worldsheet of the string is considered to be an infinite strip parameterized by a spatial coordinate and a time coordinate.
THE DIRICHLET PROBLEM I. WEAK SOLUTIONS
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a systematic study of the questions of existence, uniqueness, and main properties of the solutions of the PME by concentrating on the first boundary-value problem posed in a spatial domain Ω, which is a bounded subdomain of ℝd, d ≥ 1. It focuses on homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions, u = 0 on ∂Ω, in order to obtain a simple problem for which a fairly complete theory can be easily developed as a first stage in understanding the theory of the PME. This is called the homogeneous Cauchy-Dirichlet problem, or more simply, the homogeneous Dirichlet problem.
THE DIRICHLET PROBLEM II. LIMIT SOLUTIONS, VERY WEAK SOLUTIONS AND SOME OTHER VARIANTS
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter continues the analysis of the initial and boundary value problem. Topics covered include limit solutions, theory of very weak solutions, problems in different domains, limit solutions to build a semigroup, weak solutions with bounded forcing, and more general initial data.
CONTINUITY OF LOCAL SOLUTIONS
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter addresses a main issue of the theory, namely, the continuity of the solutions for times t > 0. The equation treated in this chapter is a generalized version of the GPME. The question of continuity is introduced in Section 7.1. The precise problem and conditions are stated in Section 7.2; the main result, Theorem 7.1, asserts the uniform equicontinuity of bounded solutions with a definite modulus of continuity that depends only on the bounds on the data and the structural conditions of the equation. The proofs are organized in Sections 7.3 and 7.4. The continuity result is a major component of the theory, and the proof is rather long and difficult. The application to the weak solutions constructed in Chapter 5 and the questions of initial and boundary regularity are discussed in Section 7.5. Once continuity is proved, the natural question is to know how regular the solutions of the PME and related equations are. A first step in that direction is Hölder continuity which is proved for the PME in Section 7.6. A much simpler proof of continuity in the case of one space dimension is presented in Section 7.7. The existence of classical positive solutions is briefly discussed in Section 7.8. Continuity is a typical property of parabolic equations, linear or nonlinear, and even degenerate equations like the PME enjoy this property. But there are limits in the direction of so-called singular coefficients. Examples of those limits are given in Section 7.9.
THE PME AS AN ABSTRACT EVOLUTION EQUATION. SEMIGROUP APPROACH
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter addresses the problem of the construction of solutions of the GPME by viewing it as an abstract evolution equation, or more precisely as an ordinary differential equation with values in a Hilbert or Banach space. The outline of the chapter is as follows. Section 10.1 deals with the theory of maximal monotone operators in Hilbert spaces. Section 10.2 introduces time discretizations and the concepts of mild solutions and the accretive operators in Banach spaces. Section 10.3 applies the theory of accretive operators to the filtration equation. The chapter ends with some new ideas of mass transportation and gradient flows and a review of different extensions to more general equations where new concepts of solution are needed.
ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR II. DIRICHLET AND NEUMANN PROBLEMS
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter contains a complete study of the large-time behaviour of solutions of the porous medium equation, ut = Δum with m > 1, posed in a bounded domain of the n-dimensional space with homogeneous boundary conditions. Asymptotic profiles are obtained and full proofs of the convergence results are given. Section 20.1 looks at the theory for non-negative solutions, while Section 20.2 covers the general theory without a sign restriction. This study is used to exhibit some of the most common concepts and techniques used in establishing the asymptotic behaviour as t → ∞ of solutions of nonlinear evolution equations. The main ideas involved are rescaling, the existence of special solutions, a priori estimates, ω-limits, and Lyapunov functionals.
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the theory of atoms and molecules, which is at the heart of chemistry. The concepts of matter and motion, gas pressure, temperature, the equipartition principle, molecular reality and determination of Avogadro's number, and other molecular magnitudes are discussed.
DESCRIPTION OF STATES BY WAVE FUNCTIONS
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses rules for the description of microscopic phenomena. Topics covered include Pauli principle in terms of wave functions, evidence from the helium spectrum, quantum statistics, evidence from rotational specific heats, transitions and the symmetry of states, and electron distributions from wave functions.
INTERATOMIC FORCES AND MOLECULAR PROPERTIES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the relationship between interatomic forces and certain other molecular characteristics that are more or less connected. Topics covered include vibration frequencies and force constants, normal modes of vibration, dissociation energies and related quantities, resonance, and bond lengths.
DISPOSAL OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMIC ASSEMBLAGES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the concept of electron disposal in atomic assemblages. Topics covered include forms of matter, metals, Fermi-Dirac statistics, the quantum-mechanical theory of metals, specific properties of metals and non-conductors, and ferromagnetism.
SOME TYPICAL REACTION MECHANISMS
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses mechanisms of chemical reactions. Topics covered include first-order reactions, second-order reactions, reactions with fractional orders, third-order reactions, unimolecular reactions, thermal decomposition of nitrous oxide, reaction of oxygen with hydrogen, and hydrocarbon oxidation.
PROPAGATION OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the propagation of chemical reactions. Topics covered include attack by a gas on a solid, the kinetics of crystal growth, polycondensation reactions, periodic precipitation, and flames and explosions.
Words That Burn: Why Did the Buddha Say What He Did?
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the idea that the Buddha's teachings are protreptic, in the sense that they aim to transform the listener. The metaphor of philosophy as a medicine is explored in detail, and the ideas of two leading Mādhyamika Buddhists are discussed.
The Imperfect Reality of Persons
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the claim of early Buddhists, especially Vasubandhu and Abhidharma, to espouse reductionism as a theory of personal identity. A comparison of the Buddhist no-self theory with Hume and Parfit is explored. Various criticisms of reductionism from within the Indian tradition are mentioned.
2 Investor Engagement
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M.
Published: September 2007

Investor engagement ranges across a spectrum, from indirect/laissez-faire relations to direct investor involvement in specific areas of management practice. The methods of engagement range from informal discussion, the preferred mode of engagement, through to formal methods, such as shareholder resolutions. Investor engagement is placed in the context of other influences on management behaviour. Strategy and innovation are two areas of management practice where investors have especially high incentives to intervene.
3 Institutional Investor Engagement Propensity
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M.
Published: September 2007

Different types of institutional investors have different propensities to engage, influenced by the regulatory environment, the size and distribution of their portfolios, their time horizons, and the financial incentives of fund managers, as well as by corporate performance. The chapter identifies the costs and benefits of engagement. USS Limited is examined as a case study of a major pension fund, with an articulated investment philosophy.
Coping with Crime
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the different options available to victims of crime towards the end of the old regime — personal retribution, community justice, infrajudicial methods, the assistance of a cunning man/woman and sorcery, or recourse to the emergent formal systems of police and policing. It moves on to challenge traditional notions of a distinction between the French and English models of 18th-century police. The English had no militarized police like the French maréchaussée, but while the English liked to stress their liberty and freedom from despotic European police, in London and Paris there were significant similarities.
Measuring a Problem
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

There had been some piecemeal collection of criminal statistics at least as early as the late 17th century, but the early 19th century was a golden age for various forms of social statistics. From the 1830s men like Adolphe Quetelet began publishing analyses of criminal behaviour and patterns of crime across Europe. The early statisticians were not blind to some of the problems, particularly the ‘dark figure’ of unreported crime. The police were able to use the figures to demonstrate police efficiencies and problems; but for many contemporaries, the statistics served primarily to generate concerns by identifying crime as a broad and growing problem. The chapter also notes how historians have used and interpreted the statistics, and have heatedly debated their value for assessing patterns of murder, theft, and violence.
National Paths: Common Patterns
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

This chapter draws together the key arguments of the book. It stresses how across the period studied, experts exchanged ideas and governments looked at what seemed to work elsewhere and sought to adapt policing and penal institutions and practices to their own use. It rehearses the role of media representation and of moral entrepreneurs in the changing perceptions of crime and criminals, and what to do about them. It critically revisits the theoretical work of Elias and Foucault, and concludes with the warning that the concepts, practices, and structures of the criminal justice systems developed in Europe since the Enlightenment are enormously powerful; they are not neutral, and they can be used for good or ill.
Preliminaries
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides necessary preliminaries on functional analysis, comparison results, and the fundamentals of the PME. Section 1.2 provides the basic information on the equation that will serve as background material for the book. The some comparison results are presented. These results are discussed in more detail and the main facts are recalled in Section 1.3, since they are essential in the derivation of the estimates. Additional information is supplied in the appendices at the end.
Smoothing effect and time decay fromLporMp
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter addresses the question of boundedness for the same equation when the initial data are chosen in the Lebesgue space Lp, p Ɛ (1, ∞). It is assumed that m > mc. The results are based on a very delicate phase-plane analysis of the existence of certain types of self-similar solutions. This technique will play a big role in later chapters and the analysis is presented in Section 3.2. The technique allows us to extend the functional setting in a natural way from the Lebesgue spaces into the Marcinkiewicz spaces Mp(R  n). Using this machinery, a special solution is developed in Section 3.3 that replaces the ZKB in the present context and allows us to establish the smoothing effect from Mp into L  ∞ in Section 3.4. This effect is easily extended into a similar effect that takes place.
Subcritical range of the FDE. Critical line. Extinction. Backward effect
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter studies the smoothing effect and decay rates for the FDE in the subcritical range m < mc, and also for the critical exponent mc = (n - 2)/n. While advancing some of the results, which are valid for the whole subcritical range m < mc, it focuses on the case m > 0. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 5.2 contains the proof of extinction of solutions in the Marcinkiewicz space Mp* (R  n), that is characterized as the natural extinction space among all the spaces Mp (R  n) and Lp (R  n). Section 5.3 considers the question of necessary conditions and the continuity of the extinction time T as a function of u0. Section 5.4 deals with the construction of the global self-similar solutions that increase their space decay rate for positive time. Section 5.5 explains how and where whole mass is lost in the process of extinction. Section 5.6 studies forward effects when dealing with the critical exponent m = mc with starting space L1. Finally, Section 5.7 discusses extinction as a form of blow-up after a suitable change of variables.
10 Bacchylides 10. 11–35
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter deals with the central part of Bacchylides' ode, in which the poet is concerned with the achievements of his Athenian victor. No account is given of the severely damaged beginning, with the problem of the victor's name, or of the sententious end. The chapter focuses on fitting supplements into the lacunae in 20-35.
14 Dactylo-epitrites in Bacchylides
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines two questions of Bacchylides' metrical practice in his dactylo-epitrites: the admission of short anceps and the observance of the lex Maasiana. It excludes from consideration the ten minor fragments preserved in quotation as being unreliable material; the fragmenta dubia; and conjectural supplements, except for a very few which appear inevitable. It also excludes all ancipitia which are the last syllable of a period.
Introduction: Generic Groundwork
Authors: Harrison S.J.
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter presents an account of ancient genre theory (basically Aristotelian ideas about appropriate form matching appropriate content) and surveys modern genre theory to find models for the idea of generic enrichment, looking at the question of generic complexity and interaction in the work of Conte, Cairns, Fowler, and other genre theorists. It proposes a set of generic signposts or repertoire which signal the presence of a genre in a work, either as its generic base (‘host’) or as an episodic modal (‘guest’) from another literary kind.
3 Cicero's ‘Stomach’: Political Indignation and the Use of Repeated Allusive Expressions in Cicero's Correspondence
Authors: Hoffer Stanley E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the Ciceronian letter collection, a rare and precious example of an informal and almost spontaneous writing style among the Roman elite, and how much Cicero's epistolary style reflects casual spoken Latin among the elite. In some of Cicero's letters to Atticus, his thoughts and manner of expression from day to day, even hour to hour, can sometimes be tracked. The degree to which the collection is still only a formalized literary representation of actual conversation is discussed by focusing on a prominent feature of Cicero's letters — the use of repeated allusive expressions — paying special attention to expressions that refer to resentment and suppressed indignation (often involving the word stomachus). Such features are analysed as their tendency to cluster together, their tendency to be used at rhetorical turning-points and in connection with epistolary content and style, and, most notably, their tendency to have loaded political significance in expressing resentment at the despotism of Julius Caesar and other dynasts. The chapter aims to show how one can simultaneously analyse Cicero's intimate letters both as rare windows into casual Latin conversation and as masterpieces of literary construction in the epistolary genre.
9 The Epistula in Ancient Scientific and Technical Literature, with Special Reference to Medicine
Authors: Langslow D. R.
Published: September 2007

This chapter offers a critical survey of a selection of ancient letters which form part of scientific and technical literature, and considers certain particular questions under the following four, interrelated, headings: the content of the letter, with regard to its ostensible purpose, and its subject-matter, length, and degree of technicality; the identity and standing of the letter's professed author and recipient; the function of the letter-form; and the style of the letter. Both Greek and Latin letters are examined, along with testimonia and surviving examples. The emphasis throughout is on epistulae relating in some way to (human) medicine or medical texts, but comparisons and contrasts are drawn with letters transmitted in the context of other technical disciplines and with letters of other types altogether.
11 Alciphron's Epistolarity
Authors: König Jason
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines Alciphron's Letters, which portray a world of longing and loss, a world of fragile happiness and comic disillusionment. There are four books: Letters from Fishermen, Farmers, Parasites, and Courtesans. Each of those four groups reveals through its letters its own desires and sufferings, its own extravagant dreams and bathetic failures. Two themes (as far as they can be separated) are particularly prominent: precarious or failed aspiration to material gain, love, or physical comfort; and precarious or failed aspiration to social advancement or role-swapping. The second of those preoccupations leads to an impression of interconnection between the different parts of the work, in the many letters where characters express their desire to cross from membership of one group to another. The unrealistic character of the characters' dreams is matched by the inaccessibility and unreality of Alciphron's world for its readers. This chapter asks how far the text's epistolary form works to intensify its thematic obsessions, with a particular emphasis on formal issues using the work of Janet Altman as a starting-point.
Lavinia's Blush: Vergil, Aeneid 12. 64–70 (1983)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper provides close and detailed analysis of this famous scene in the Aeneid, arguing that the blush suggests that Lavinia is in love with Turnus.
Introductory Poems in Propertius: 1. 1 and 2. 12 (1998)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper looks at these two poems, classifying them together as introductions to collections (Book 2 being a composite of two books).
15 Propertius and Tibullus: Early Exchanges (1998)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper presents Tibullus and Propertius in more straightforward antagonism in their books 1 and 2, Tibullus parodying Propertius, Propertius mocking and outdoing Tibullus.
2 How do Papyrologists Read Ancient Texts?
Authors: Terras Melissa M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides an overview of research that questions how papyrologists may read ancient documents, and presents the knowledge elicitation methodology used with the experts who read the Vindolanda texts to ascertain their thought processes when approaching a text. The process of reading and making sense of an ancient text is resolved into defined units, with characteristics about each being documented. General procedural information about the ‘papyrology process’ is also presented. Particular issues regarding problems in reading the Vindolanda stylus texts are highlighted, indicating areas in which computational tools may be able to aid the papyrologists in reading such texts. This results in a proposed model of how experts read ancient documents, which is used in subsequent chapters as a basis for the development of a computer system.
Kantian Apperception and the Non‐Cartesian Subject
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter offers an apologetic interpretation of the most basic features of Kant's central doctrine of apperception, and argues that this doctrine reveals that Kant's view of the self is in fact largely the opposite of the so-called Cartesian subjectivism that has been so often ascribed to him. For Kant, the subject of apperception is ‘non-Cartesian’ in key epistemological as well as ontological senses: its determinate knowledge of itself, as of all other things, depends basically on spatial intuition, and it has no theoretically demonstrable existence as a pure spirit. The project of clarifying Kant's position in this way has much more than a merely exegetical significance, for it also reveals that his ultimate Critical doctrine of the self remains in many ways as worthy of consideration as the best contemporary theories.
The future of agriculture and humanity
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

This final chapter looks back at the impact of agriculture on human populations, and looks forward to a highly uncertain future for both farming and humanity. The relatively stable Holocene climate enabled the development of farming and a forty-fold increase in human numbers by 2,000 BP. The recent dramatic increases in crop yields due to science-based agriculture have led to a further ten-fold population rise over the past two centuries. The world is now overwhelmingly dominated by complex techno-urban civilizations sustained by high-input farming regimes that rely on cheap and plentiful energy sources and a relatively stable climate. As energy becomes more expensive and the current period of climatic stability draws to a close, it will be increasingly difficult to maintain present levels of population and complex urban societies. As in previous eras, human populations may fall and undergo cultural simplification in response to such climatic uncertainties.
The Coevolution of Technologies and Institutions: Silicon Valley as the Iconic High-Technology Cluster
Authors: Kenney Martin , Patton Donald
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers the world's most iconic cluster: Silicon Valley. The emergence of Silicon Valley shares some features with the motion picture industry; both places experienced an inflow of entrepreneurs from other parts of the country and also saw a novel business model emerge. The environment that existed in the late 1950s, later known as Silicon Valley, was not unique; similar conditions existed in Boston and New York, for example. Both places were also influenced by policies — institutions in the motion picture case and governmental spending on defence in the Silicon Valley case. The partially random nature of the process is evidenced by the fact that William Shockley, one of the co-inventors of the transistor at Bell Labs in New Jersey and the founder of the first semiconductor firm, wanted to be near his mother.
3 ‘A Widowed Land’
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the growing resentment in Catalonia towards the ruling Trastámar dynasty. The tone of Alfonso's relations with the Catalans was set in his first encounter with their Corts at the outset of his reign. Fired by visions of glory in the Mediterranean, the young monarch hoped to enlist support in a campaign to wrest Corsica and Sardinia definitively from the Genoese, secular opponents of Catalan mercantile and territorial expansion. Instead he found an assembly determined to put domestic affairs at the top of its agenda. Frustrated and furious, Alfonso turned instead to the Corts of the Valencian kingdom which, by contrast, proved amenable and financially forthcoming in backing active preparations for an expedition to Sardinia and Corsica. This forced the Catalans, fearing they would be outflanked by their burgeoning southern neighbour, to offer grudging aid, but they failed again to make any progress towards their goal of tight control over the crown and its agents.
12 Catalonia at Bay: Enter Castile
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the struggle for an independent Catalonia. Having rejected all compromise with its erstwhile monarch, Catalonia struggled with the question of how to seek its salvation. A large majority saw the opportunity to replace a hostile sovereign with one ready to defend Catalonia and its newfound liberties, but also one able and willing to counter-balance the formidable weight of France in the opposing camp. A committee of five appointed by the Council was charged with the task of finding such a saviour. The obvious candidate was Enrique IV the king of Castile, even though such a choice fitted ill with the anti-Castilian rhetoric which had hitherto marked Catalonia's propaganda against its current Castilian monarch.
13 Diplomacy, or War by Other Means
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter details Enrique's acceptance of the Catalans as his subjects. He received their oath of fealty through his representatives on November 13, 1462 in the cathedral of Barcelona. Juan attempted to thwart the Catalans' approaches by approaching Enrique with offers of negotiation and offering his illegitimate daughter Juana as a hostage in a pledge of good faith; a move that failed. French sovereign, Louis XI was also surprised by Enrique's behaviour. The prize he counted upon plucking from the Catalan embroilment, Cerdagne and Roussillon, would be put at risk should Catalonia become subject to Castile.
18 The Lost Lands
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on Juan's readiness to forgive and forget his enemies, fueled by his desire to unite all Catalans against the detested king of France, usurper of Roussillon and Cerdagne. Never one to relinquish a title or territory, Juan would not rest until he had won back lost provinces. It was a cause equally dear to his Catalan subjects; none could accept an outcome that left their principality dismembered.
8 Gilbert Murray and A. E. Housman
Authors: Davies Malcolm
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores Murray's relationship with men who were in many ways very different from him, but who, like him combined academic distinction with a wider public reputation. Housman can be compared to Murray, who like him was a professional classical scholar who engaged with a wider public through poetry; but was unlike him both in his austere textual criticism and in his often savage reviewing of other scholars. Similarly Russell, who moved in social and intellectual circles which overlapped Murray's, and like Murray he was a liberal in politics, but had a very different mindset. In both cases, the maintenance of the relationship involved a continuing tension between distinct emotional patterns and world-views.
Gilbert Murray and International Politics
Authors: Ceadel Martin
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores Murray's activity and thinking in international relations. It traces the development of what was always an aristocratic Liberalism, one which included a disdain for ‘small dark races’. It shows how Murray, the apologist for British foreign policy in World War I, slowly transmuted into Murray the internationalist in the late 1910s and 1920s, and how his liberalism turned to conservatism in his later years.
Asset allocation
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

Institutional portfolios with long-term investment horizons, such as endowments, are best invested in assets capable of generating equity-like returns, including those with private equity and absolute return strategies. To mitigate equity risks, portfolios also include fixed income, real estate, and other assets such as commodities or natural resources. Compared to larger US educational endowments, institutions in Oxford and Cambridge had less exposure to alternative assets and strategies. They have invested significantly more in direct property assets, and for the colleges it often appeared that their real estate was a counterpart to US holdings of fixed interest securities.
Investing in property
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

Like absolute return strategies, property or real estate assets serve not only as a powerful diversifier, but they also protect the portfolio by generating returns that are not typically correlated with other traditional assets such as publicly traded equities. Colleges in Oxford and Cambridge historically owned significant property assets in their endowment portfolios. Their decision to maintain a relatively high proportion of property assets today is driven by the desire to diversify risk as well as to secure a steady source of income.
Issues in portfolio management
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

Colleges in Oxford and Cambridge have invested in property, bonds, and equity-like assets including private equity; they also own original works of art, rare books, vintage wine, and other such assets that would typically have been bequeathed to them. The range of assets may not have been significantly enlarged recently, but financial innovation has created more options whereby traditional assets can be accessed in a more efficient manner. This chapter examines issues that relate to overall asset allocation, primarily because it is this that shapes the individual portfolio.
Portfolio risk
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

Experienced investors recognize that understanding the risk profile of the overall portfolio lies at the heart of any assessment of investment alternatives. Attempting to identify the risks to college endowment portfolios (on a scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being not very important and 5 very important), with reference to various aspects of portfolio risk (such as market risk, risk relative to benchmark, liquidity risk, fiduciary risk, and ‘other’ risk factors), provides clues to the risk framework within which colleges in Oxford and Cambridge invest. A majority (85%) of colleges consider their investment committees as being responsible for risk management of endowment assets, with about half reporting that the job is done internally without the assistance of any expert external guidance. The involvement of investment consultants in managing portfolio risk, is minimal. Even in Oxford, where more institutions reported using the services of investment consultants, only 15% of Colleges used a consultant in risk management.
Performance measurement
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

An integral aspect of asset management is measuring the overall investment performance of the endowment portfolio. The efficient management of relationships between the sponsoring institution and their appointed asset managers is critical. Once managers are appointed, monitoring their performance assists in ensuring that the endowment's investment objectives are met. As institutions in Oxford and Cambridge do not rely on external, independent evaluation of their performance or of their managers, the overall question of performance measurement in the context of total return investing remains a major concern. Given the orientation towards property, lack of consultants in the investment process, institutional fragmentation and lack of a common model, the whole issue of performance measurement remains controversial.
Endowment management cost
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

One important area for periodic review for all investors is the overall cost incurred in investment management. At first glance, costs associated with endowment management for Oxford and Cambridge institutions appear to be broadly aligned with that of industry globally, with Oxford reporting greater efficiency in managing such expenditures. Average costs, however, do not reflect asset allocation decisions, the nature of strategies implemented, the level of risk, Sharpe (i.e., reward-to-risk) ratios achieved, or other services delivered to the client. Taking into account the more traditional approaches to investing within Oxford and Cambridge institutions, a higher level of pooling and/or indexing could reduce costs further; or a higher level of investment service could be secured at the same expense.
Concluding observations
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

Oxford and Cambridge endowments comprise funds generally regarded as for the long term, and which fundamentally underpin and sustain the operation of the institutions at their desired level of activity. Oxbridge institutions have collectively embraced major change over the last few years by implementing total return investment strategies. They have simultaneously made the shift from spending policies that encouraged income generating investments towards establishing sensible spending rules that freed up asset allocation decisions. Such changes in investment approaches have consequences in terms of determining appropriate governance, choice of assets, identifying skilled managers, monitoring their performance, understanding the sources of value-addition and cost analysis, and setting many other aspects of endowment policy. As such transitions take a long time to implement, many of the institutions are in the process of managing that change.
LINEAR CAUCHY PROBLEM WITH VARIABLE COEFFICIENTS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

This chapter emphasizes energy estimates, that is, a priori estimates without loss of derivatives in Sobolev spaces. The appropriate tools are functional symmetrizers, obtained merely as Fourier multipliers for Friedrichs symmetrizable operators, and constructed by means of symbolic symmetrizers for more general operators. In particular, symbolic symmetrizers are shown to exist for constantly hyperbolic operators. Subsequently, well-posedness is proved in Sobolev spaces Hs, for any s in the case of infinitely smooth coefficients, and also for s large enough in the case of Hs coefficients. The existence of solutions relies on the Hahn-Banach and Riesz theorems, using energy estimates for the adjoint backward Cauchy problem. Uniqueness follows from energy estimates for the direct Cauchy problem. Regularity is shown by means of the weak equals strong argument, which is shown as the weak solutions obtained by the duality method are necessarily strong solutions, that is, suitable limits of infinitely smooth solutions of regularized problems.
FRIEDRICHS-SYMMETRIC DISSIPATIVE IBVPs
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides an elementary introduction to Initial Boundary Value Problems (IBVP). It introduces the notion of dissipative boundary condition, here in a classical sense. Such IBVPs can be treated with the Hille-Yosida Theorem. Maximal estimates are obtained that will be considered in subsequent chapters. Strict dissipativeness is crucial for obtaining boundary estimates.
THE CHARACTERISTIC IBVP
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

When the boundary is characteristic, maximal estimates must be understood in a restricted sense. The regularity theory is thus difficult, as is the construction of a dissipative symmetrizer. This is carried out under additional though natural assumptions. In particular, the chapter describes higher-order estimates under Ohkubo's assumptions.
VARIABLE-COEFFICIENTS INITIAL BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

This chapter turns to linear IBVPs with variable coefficients. The techniques mix those of Chapters 2 and 4. Dissipative boundary symmetrizers have now variable coefficients, and are viewed as symbolic symmetrizers, from which the chapter builds functional dissipative symmetrizers. The latter are used to establish a priori estimates. The duality method is then employed for proving well-posedness.
THE EULER EQUATIONS FOR REAL FLUIDS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses models for inviscid compressible fluids. It recalls the Euler equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy; the equation of state, the entropy, and the symmetrizability. The latter allows us to prove the local well-posedness of the Cauchy problem. The chapter investigates the Rankine-Hugoniot relations for shock waves and the admissibility criteria: entropy inequality, Lax and Liu conditions, and internal structure (viscous profiles).
A Prospective Introduction
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the emergence of a Received View, which holds that common-sense psychology has it right when it takes beliefs, desires, and other propositional attitudes to be the causes of behaviour. It identifies propositional attitudes with certain representational states of their possessor, holding that having a propositional attitude (e.g., believing that it's sunny outside today) is a matter of standing in a functional-computational relation to a mental representation. Specifically this is a mental sentence that expresses the propositional content of the attitude (in the example, a mental representation that expresses the proposition that it's sunny outside today). The chapter also offers an account of the nature of the molar cognitive capacities (e.g., language comprehension, spatial orientation, face recognition) that scientific cognitive psychology takes to be its task to explain. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
The Received View
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a discussion of the eight basic tenets of the Received View, which taken together firstly present reductive metaphysical claims about the nature of propositional attitudes, cognitive capacities, and cognition itself; and secondly a normative epistemological claim about the proper form of cognitive psychological explanations. What is distinctive and essential to the Received View, and serves to distinguish it from superficially similar views about how cognition is to be understood and explained, is the representational-computational construal of propositional attitudes and their role in cognition presented in tenets (v)-(vii) of the view. The three important entailments of the received view and the historical origins and development of the Received View are considered.
Troubles with the Received View
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2007

There are two general arguments in support of the Received View. First, it is argued that if propositional attitudes, cognitive capacities, and cognition were the sort of things (and processes) that the Received View claims they are, then that fact would explain their having the salient properties that they do. Second, it is argued that the Received View enjoys indirect but nevertheless strong empirical support from cognitive science. Such science, it is claimed, presupposes the Received View, and hence the former's successes provide support for the presupposed view. This chapter examines critically these two arguments in support of the Received View's account of the metaphysical nature of propositional attitudes. With respect to the first sort of argument, dubbed ‘abductive argument’, it is argued that the case made by these arguments is actually quite weak. With respect to the second sort of argument, dubbed the ‘indirect empirical support argument’, it is argued that the alleged empirical support is largely non-existent: either the computational theories that are claimed to provide indirect empirical support do not presume the Received View, or to the extent that they do, there is little or no empirical rationale.
Are Propositional Attitudes Relations?
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter challenges the presumption that the relational nature of propositional attitudes can simply be read off the logical form of the sentences by which we report propositional attitudes. It argues that while recent work in formal semantics provides good reason to think that the logical form of these sentences is indeed relational, that fact in itself is no reason to suppose that propositional attitudes are themselves relations. The relational logical form of belief sentences, problems with the relational conception of belief, semantic vs. psychological objects of belief, the problem for relationalists, and logical form are discussed.
The Basic Measurement‐Theoretic Account
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter develops a characterization of the empirical structure of the attitudes, using the conceptual resources developed in the previous chapter. It begins by developing a characterization of the ‘representing structure’ that is presumed to embed an image of the empirical structure of the attitudes. It then turns to the more difficult task of developing a characterization of this empirical structure itself. This is accomplished by bringing to bear both empirical considerations about the everyday use of attitude attributions and formal considerations about the sorts of mapping relations between representing and represented structures that would be necessary to support such use.
Atomic-Scale Imaging
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the imaging mechanism of STM and AFM at the atomic scale. Experimental facts show that at atomic resolution, tip electronic states play a key role. Analytic theoretical treatments provide quantitative explanation of the effect of the tip electronic states. On transition-metal tips, first-principle studies unanimously show that d-type tip electronic states dominate the Fermi-level DOS. First-principle studies of the combined tip-sample systems show that for both STM and AFM, the p- and d-type tip electronic states are the keys to understanding the atomic-scale images. The case of spin-polarized STM and the chemical identification of surface atoms are also discussed in terms of tip electronic structure. The chapter concludes with discussions of experimental verifications of the reciprocity principle: at atomic resolution, the role of tip electronic states and the sample electronic states are interchangeable.
Electronics and Control
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses electronics and computer interfaces for STM and AFM. For STM, the detection of the minute tunneling current is of paramount importance. Thus, the basic concepts and analysis of the current amplifier, or more accurately speaking, the transimpedence amplifier, is discussed. It includes the typical circuits and an analysis of the gain, noise, frequency response, microphone effect due to the coaxial cable, and the logarithmic amplifier to make the distance dependence of the output signal linear. the feedback system is then discussed, including a typical circuit, as well as the analyses of the steady-state response and the transient response. Finally, the architecture of the computer interface system with the algorithm of automatic approaching is discussed.
Mechanical design
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses various mechanical designs for STM and AFM. The central piece of the mechanical design of STM and AFM is the course positioner. Therefore, various types of course positioners are also discussed. The louse and the pocket-size STM are discussed first. It is of significant historical importance but no longer popular today. The single-tube STM has a very simple mechanical structure, and still the basis of the most popular commercial STM and AFM. The Besocke-type or the beetles is very popular among builders of special-purpose STM due its immunity to temperature variation and vibration. For STM requiring superb stability, the walker and the kangaroo are the preferred design. The commercial nanostepper, the Inchworm, is described. It has been successfully used by many designers of special-purpose STM.
Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses various aspects of scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS). It is an extension of the classical tunneling spectroscopy experiment to nanometer-scale or atomic-scale features on the sample surface. First, the electronics for STS is presented. The nature of STS as a convolution of tip DOS and sample DOS is discussed. Special tip treatment for the STS experiment, often different from the atomic-resolution STM, is described. The purpose is to produce tips with flat DOS, instead of special tip orbitals. A useful data process method, the Feenstra parameter, is presented. Experimental methods to determine tip DOS is discussed. A detailed account of the inelastic scanning tunneling spectroscopy, or STM-IETS, is then discussed. It includes the principles, the electronics, and the instrumental broadening of the features. This chapter concludes with the observation of the isotope effect in STM-IETS, a definitive signature of the vibrational spectra of molecules.