bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ART, SCIENCE, AND POWER IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY DUTCH CARTOGRAPHY
Authors: HARLEY J B , ZANDVLIET KEES
Published: April 2007

The history of Dutch cartography in the sixteenth century is often explained in terms of the opposition between cartography as Art and cartography as Science. It is our contention that this polarization is flawed, based as it is an artificial divide fully established only in the nineteenth century. Between these extremes lies a conceptual vacuum which hides the ideological meaning of the map. Our alternative is to see maps as a form of power-knowledge. Cartography, like painting, is the record of a subjective domain. Map-makers classify and select knowledge to be presented or to be omitted; they state their own involvement in a complex world. Our contention is that maps can also become active agents, helping to impose a reality they pretend merely to mirror.
GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS IN JUDGMENT AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO THE SCALING OF GRADUATED CIRCLES
Authors: GRIFFIN TLC
Published: April 2007

Widely disparate opinions have been expressed about the need for and value of the perceptual scaling of graduated (proportional) circles. This continuing debate has concentrated on the measurement of the power law exponent derived from the average estimates of subject groups, with the implicit assumption that the identification of the 'correct' value for this exponent would ensure effective cartographic communication. Average exponents derived from a range of experiments have exhibited wide variety. The analysis of experimental data indicates that this variation is also a characteristic of individual subjects. The character and dimension of inter-subject and intra-subject variation are such that the employment of perceptual rescaling for graduated circles appears to provide little overall benefit. Indeed, it appears to prejudice the performance of the most consistent judges.
Does One Size Fit All? The CPI and Canadian Seniors
Authors: Brzozowski Matthew
Published: April 2007

The paper shows that the consumer price index (CPI) is often a very poor measure of inflation rates relevant to individual senior households. A high proportion of the inflation rates measured by household-specific price indexes falls more than one percentage point above or below the CPI inflation rate. Moreover, I use the Engel method proposed by Hamilton and Costa and demonstrate that the CPI inflation rate overestimated the average inflation rate faced by Canadian senior households during the 1970s and the 1980s but has accurately measured average inflation for such households during the 1990s. Finally, I estimate costs of overstating inflation adjustments to Canada Pension Plan.
Women and GIS: Geospatial Technologies and Feminist Geographies
Authors: McLafferty Sara
Published: April 2007

This article explores the emerging intersections between feminism and GIS in relation to changes in GIS technologies and the impacts of such technologies on women's lives. I argue that the past decade has seen an increasing “feminization” of GIS that involves innovations in GIS technologies and research practices, growing critical self-awareness among GIS researchers, and the development of feminist visualization as a research tool. At the same time, GIS and related geospatial technologies have become more embedded and pervasive in everyday life. The effects of new geospatial technologies on the gendered spaces of social and political life at a variety of spatial scales are discussed, with particular attention to gendered identities, geographical dimensions of everyday life, and women's activism.
Visual Search Processes and the Multivariate Point Symbol
Authors: Nelson Elisabeth , Dow David , Lukinbeal Christopher , Farley Ray
Published: April 2007

This study reviews the major theories of visual search processes and applies some of their concepts to searching for multivariate point symbols in a map environment. The act of searching a map for information is a primary activity undertaken during map-reading. The complexity of this process will vary, of course, with symbol design and map content. Multivariate symbols, for example, will be more difficult to search for efficiently than univariate symbols. The purpose of this research was to examine the cognitive processes used by map readers when searching for multivariate point symbols on a map. The experiment used Chernoff Faces as the test symbol, and a symbol-detection task to assess how accurately and how efficiently target symbols composed of different combinations of facial features could be detected. Of particular interest was assessing the role that different combinations of symbol dimensions and different combinations of symbol parts played in moderating search efficiency. Subject reaction times and error rates were used to evaluate the efficiency of the searches. Results suggested all searches employed serial search processes, although feature searches (those in which a target symbol consists of a unique feature) were by far the easiest for subjects to complete. It was also demonstrated that hierarchical relationships could be manipulated within symbols to increase search efficiency for searches in which the target does not have a unique features (conjunctive search).
Exact Transformation Equations for Fuller's World Map
Authors: GRAY ROBERT W.
Published: April 2007

A brief overview of R. Buckminster Fuller's world maps is presented. Exact transformation equations for Fuller's icosahedron-based world map are derived. These equations are differentiable and therefore suitable for standard area distortion analysis. Such distortion analysis has been carried out, and the results are compared to the familiar gnomonic projection onto an icosahedron. In addition to the exact forward unit sphere to XY-plane transformation equations, a relation in one parameter, which must be satisfied by the inverse transformation, is given.
(Un)folding the Map of Early Modern Ireland: Spenser, Moryson, Bartlett, and Ortelius
Authors: Camino Mercedes
Published: April 2007

This paper departs from the assumption that Spenser's View of the Present State of Ireland and other contemporary works related to the conquest and colonization or to Ireland, including Fynes Moryson's Itinerary and Richard Bartlett's bird's-eye views, map the secrets of the Irish land and its peoples so as to facilitate and stimulate their conquest. Moryson's and Spenser's texts, like Bartlett's views and the frontispiece of Ortelius's Theatrum, can be read as cartographic narratives to be folded and unfolded in a process of discovery and possession designed to implicate readers and viewers. They can thus be classed, using Tom Conley's formulation, as "cartographic writings" that exploit the geographical overtones of their titles, and rely on a particular way of seeing, the aim of which is to own, subject, and control. However different, these written and visual representations foreground the prominence of the eye/I in the processes of conquest and domination. Travel narrative, dialogue, and map, that is, become interchangeable weapons in a destructive visual and discursive unveiling of cultural and geographical "secrets."
Mapping The Great Lakes / The Period Of Exploration, 1603–1700
Authors: HEIDENREICH CONRAD E
Published: April 2007

The exploration and mapping of the Great Lakes began with the work of Champlain and continued to the late 1680s. By the end of that decade the lakes and surrounding drainage basin had been explored and mapped in at least manuscript form. Towards the end of the century the manuscript maps had been assembled and disseminated in printed form. This paper is a review of most of the maps that were produced during the 17th century and the manner in which they reflect the course of exploration. Some attention has been paid to the methods used by explorers to gather data for maps and the motives that inspired exploration.
The Design Of Choropleth Shadings For Maps On 2-And 4-Bit Color Graphics Monitors
Authors: GILMARTIN PATRICIA p
Published: April 2007

Guidelines for the design of shading sequences for quantitative choropleth maps are fairly well established, having been the subject of a number of empirical studies. The most effective designs comprise monochrome shadings which vary in value from light to dark and part-spectral combinations which also incorporate a gradient of values. Neither of these alternatives are available on most moderately-priced microcomputer systems due to the very limited range of hues and brightnesses available on 2- and 4-bit CRTS. A study is reported here which evaluated three sets of choropleth shadings that would be available with such monitors. The sets consisted of two or three solid hues and tile patterns made up of the same hues. Subjects were asked to identify regions on choropleth maps where the mapped phenomenon was concentrated, and the accuracy and time required for them to answer was analyzed. Two of the shading methods proved to be acceptable, but the third was not.
The Interpretation Of The Potential Representation Of Thematic Maps In Terms Of Filtering Theory
Authors: LIVIERATOS E
Published: April 2007

A commonly used derived map in thematic cartography or in computational geography is the map illustrating the potential representation of a phenomenon in space. In order to do this the law of gravitational attraction is applied in an abstract way. It is shown in this paper how the classical potential expression is equivalent to a two-dimensional filtering operation in the frequency domain which implies as well a faster computational process. Les cartes représentant le potentiel d'un phénomène sont d'un usage fréquent en cartographie thématique ou en géographie quantitative. Dans ce but, la loi de l'attraction gravitationnelle est appliquée de façon abstraite. Cet article montre comment l'expression classique du potentiel revient a un processus de filtrage bi-dimensionnel; cette approche implique des calculs plus rapides.
Geo-ethnography: Coupling Geographic Information Analysis Techniques with Ethnographic Methods in Urban Research
Authors: Matthews Stephen A. , Detwiler James E. , Burton Linda M.
Published: April 2007

This research article focuses on the coupling of geographic information system (GIS) technologies with ethnographic data, an approach we refer to as geo-ethnography. The data used here were gathered in an ongoing, multi-site study of low-income families and their children. Throughout our work, the goals have been to think creatively about how GIS can be used in welfare research, to stretch the technology, and to revise the methodologies we currently use. We specifically discuss the ways in which the ethnographic data on families and neighbourhoods have been integrated within a GIS and how these two methods, alone and in combination, help situate families’ actions and experiences in time and space and enhance data analysis and interpretation. More specifically, we focus on conceptual and methodological issues we have faced in the process of this integration and on practical strategies for combining qualitative and quantitative research.
Geography and Cassini IV: Witness and Victim of Social and Disciplinary Change
Authors: GODLEWSKA ANNE
Published: April 2007

This essay explores the meaning of the demise of the scientific career of Jacques-Dominique, Comte de Cassini (Cassini IV). Cassini, astronomer, cartographer, poet, and political reactionary in Revolutionary and post-Revolutionary France, was cast out of science in the course of the French Revolution. Cassini, unlike many colleagues, publicly fought his academic exile. Partly as a result of that resistance, Cassini's life and writings provide insight into the changing role and status of large-scale cartography in eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century France, both in geography and as "science."
Representing Data Quality
Authors: BUTTENFIELD BARBARA P
Published: April 2007

Information on data quality is important for effective use of GIS data. It impacts the credibility of data representation and the confidence that is attached to data interpretations. It impacts the reliability of interpretations and thus decision making based on GIS modeling and data exploration. A number of impediments to representing data quality can be cited, including impediments to definition and assessment, to attribution in a database, and to graphical depiction. This paper elaborates on impediments to representing data quality. The discussion provides a window through which the complexity of representing data quality may be viewed, and to introduce current research efforts and avenues for further research addressing each impediment.
THE 1:50,000 MONOCHROME SERIES OF THE NATIONAL TOPOGRAPHIC SYSTEM
Authors: SEBERT L M
Published: April 2007

In 1972 the Surveys and Mapping Branch in Ottawa decided to expedite the production of northern topographical maps by publishing a monochrome version of the standard 1:50,000 map. This paper examines the specifications of this new series. One aspect of the production of the monochrome series was the necessity to re-design certain symbols. No diminution of accuracy or content has been allowed, but some loss of readability has resulted from the lack of colour.
In Favour of Teaching Theory in Cartography Suggestions for an Academic Program
Authors: Cauvin Colette
Published: April 2007

This paper attempts to demonstrate the need to combine research and lectures so as to present students with a program that takes today's numerous innovations in cartography into account. Three progressive levels are proposed, allowing the students to acquire the knowledge needed to proceed from cartography to GIS, combining their studies with other subjects or tools such as statistics, mathematics, remote sensing, and computers. A fourth advanced level emphasizes cartographic constructions, rather than the graphic solutions commonly in use. Finally, the importance is underlined of teaching theoretical cartography, regardless of the area of concentration.
EARLY GEOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTS OF THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE
Authors: LAYNG THEODORE E.
Published: April 2007

Jean Cabot croyait, quand il appareilla de Bristol en 1497, que s'il naviguait droit vers le nord-ouest il rencontrerait une grande péninsule asiatique s'étendant vers les îles britanniques. Quand Jean Cabot et ceux qui survirent ses traces eurent découvert inopinément de grandes terres dans l'Atlantique occidental, ils crurent qu'il s'agissait d'îles ou d'une terre ferme gisant peu au large de la côte asiatique, et qu'ils n'avaient qu'à voguer vers le nord, ou à trouver un passage à travers ces îles pour atteindre la Chine. A la suite du périple de Magellan, quelques cartographes furent persuadés de nouveau que les Amériques étaient bien un gigantesque prolongement de l'Asie. En 1566, toutefois, l'existence d'un passage au nord des Amériques, par le détroit d'Anian (maintenant détroit de Béring) fut clairement établie. Sur certaines cartes, le passage fut tracé normalement dans une direction est-ouest; sur d'autres, parfois, il se dirigeait de façon plus invitante vers le sud-ouest. Ce tracé fait au seizième siècle est demeuré hypothétique, mais il, a aiguillonné tous les premiers explorateurs du Nord-Ouest.
THE VISUAL PERCEPTION OF THE CIRCLE IN THEMATIC MAPS/EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Authors: MEIHOEFER HANS-JOACHIM
Published: April 2007

The circle is a valuable and useful map symbol. However, traditional and popular methods of designing and using the circle to show quantitative data in thematic maps create erroneous impressions in the minds of map readers in two ways. First, the map reader is unable to discern small variations in circle sizes and second, viewers have difficulties in making quantitatively accurate comparisons of the areas of different size circles. This results in a universal and inherent inaccuracy in the visual perception of relative quantities. These shortcomings can be rectified by employing at all times range-graded circles, varying in size according to an experimentally derived key, and by incorporating within the map an appropriate legend, including as many circle size differences as are found in the map environment. This is true for open, black, or gray circles, regardless of selected variations in base maps. These findings provide guidelines for those who seek to use most effectively circles in thematic maps.
The Role Of The User In The Map Communication Process: The Topographic Map And The Map User
Authors: St-Arnaud Robert
Published: April 2007

In the systematic production of topographic maps, it is the government alone that has the capability of controlling the quality of the production of the work right to the printed map; and it is also the government itself that constitutes the principal user of its own production. Again it is the government which, in defining the specifications of its maps, makes the major decisions regarding the progress of its mapping. Why then does this actual production often disappoint the map user? Although the means at the disposal of the cartographer of today are powerful, even if the quality of map production is improved, the maps produced very often remain old-fashioned in many respects. The arrival of automation brings to the cartographer the opportunity of researching a new form of cartography which will answer new requirements of the map user. Dans une production systématique de la carte topographique, non seulement l'Etat seul a les possibilités d'assurer le bon acheminement de l'oeuvre vers sa fin, mais encore constitue-t-il le principal usager de sa propre production; et c'est encore l'Etat qui, en définissant sa politique, fixe les grandes lignes de l'oeuvre. D'ou vient alors que la production actuelle decoive si souvent l'usager de la carte? D'une part, les moyens dont dispose aujourd'hui le cartographe sont puissants mais d'autre part, même si la qualité de facture de la carte s'est améliorée, cette carte produite actuellement demeure trop sou - vent vieillotte sous bien des aspects. L'automatisation naissante apporte au cartographe l'occasion de rechercher un genre cartographique nouveau correspondant a des besoins nouveaux.
An Equal-Area Map Projection For Polyhedral Globes
Authors: SNYDER JOHN P
Published: April 2007

Numerous polyhedral shapes have been proposed as approximations for globes, and the projection most often used is the Gnomonic, with considerable scale and area distortion. Complicated conformal projections have been designed, but an equal-area projection has been used only once, for the icosahedron. The Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection can be modified to provide an exactly fitting, perfectly equal-area projection for any polyhedral globe that has regular polygons, but is most satisfactory for the dodecahedron with 12 pentagons and for the truncated icosahedron with 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons. On the application to the truncated icosahedron, the angular deformation does not exceed 3.75°, and the scale variation is less than 3.3 percent. These advantages are at the expense of increased interruptions at the polygon edges when the polyhedral globe is unfolded. On a proposé de nombreuses formes polyédriques comme approximation de globes et la projection gnomonique est la plus souvent utilisée, avec de considérables distortions d'échelles et de superficies. On a conçu des projections conformes compliquées, mais on n'a utilisé qu'une seule fois une projection équivalente pour l'icosaèdre. La projection équivalente azimutale de Lambert peut être modifiée pour permettre un ajustement exact, parfaitement équivalent pour tout globe polyédrique dote de polygones réguliers, mais elle est plus que satisfaisante pour le dodécaèdre à douze pentagones et pour l'icosaèdre tronqué à vingt hexagones et douze pentagones. Dans l'application de l'icosaèdre tronqué, la déformation angulaire ne dépasse pas 3.75° et la variation d'échelle est inférieure à 3.3 pour cent. Ces avantages s'obtiennent aux dépens d'une augmentation des interruptions aux limites des polygones, lorsque l'on déplie le globe polyédrique.
THE MATHEMATICAL BASIS OF RUSSIAN MAPS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
Authors: MELNIKOVA T. N.
Published: April 2007

The author shows that in response to Peter the Great's policy of reorganization and modernization there were notable advances in Russian cartography during the 18th century, resulting in more accurate and more complete mapping of the country. She describes the procedures of district surveys, the methods, instruments, and expeditions for the astronomical determination of the coordinates of places, and the types of projections and scales used by general and particular maps and atlases. L'auteur expose comment, à la suite de la politique de réorganisation et de modernisation instaurée par Pierre le Grand, des progrès remarquables ont été accomplis dans la cartographie russe au cours du 18e siècle, ce qui a permis d'obtenir une représentation cartographique du pays beaucoup plus précise et complète. Elle décrit la manière dont sont effectués les levés régionaux, les méthodes et instruments employés et les expéditions entreprises pour la détermination astronomique des coordonnées des lieux, ainsi que les types de projections et d'échelles utilisées pour les cartes et atlas genéraux et particuliers.
Power, Participation, and Inflexible Institutions: An Examination of the Challenges to Community Empowerment in Participatory GIS Applications
Authors: KWAKU KYEM PETER A.
Published: April 2007

Participatory GIS (PGIS) applications provide tools that allow underprivileged groups to make a case for recognition, participation, and political access. These community-based applications have therefore become the focal point for claims about public participation and empowerment. However, empowerment is a difficult and complex process necessitating the transformation of bureaucratic organizations into flexible institutions that address the concerns of marginalized groups in society. This process involves shifts in power relations during which PGIS organizations confront deeply embedded structures and vested political interests. Opposition from local leaders, unfamiliar customs and rituals, and lack of infrastructure and skilled GIS personnel impede successful participation and empowerment. Additionally, reliance on external sources of funding and expertise for PGIS projects severely limits their long-term sustainability. To date, PGIS applications have produced case studies about attempts to empower communities, but few studies have focused on how the community-based organizations and the contexts of PGIS applications mediate the community empowerment process. This article explores ways in which the internal and external environments of a PGIS organization influence the community empowerment process. Experiences from PGIS studies in southern Ghana are used to illustrate the constraints that these factors impose on community empowerment.
Content and Design of Canadian Provincial Travel Maps
Authors: Grant Lesley , Keller C.
Published: April 2007

This paper reports a descriptive and systematic comparison of official provincial travel maps in Canada. The research method is introduced, followed by a systematic description of 24 maps. The paper aims to address two questions:

• What content and design features are accepted as standard on official provincial travel maps in Canada?

• Are there notable changes over time in content and the way information is displayed?

The research is intended to offer a base of information for future studies of overall format and design. The paper does not describe or contrast individual cartographic symbols. Results reported in the paper should be of interest to those responsible for the design of future travel and tourism maps in paper or digital multimedia format.
A Cartographic View of Spatial Data Quality
Authors: McGRANAGHAN MATTHEW
Published: April 2007

Visualization of spatial data quality is fundamentally like the display of any other cartographic information. However, the demands of simultaneously symbolizing geographic entities and multiple measures of data quality have considerable potential of overwhelming the map graphic. Uses of conventional cartographic symbology for data quality displays are examined.
Cartographic Sources For The History Of Russian Geographical Discoveries In The Pacific Ocean In The Second Half Of The 18th Century
Authors: MEDUSHEVSKAYA O M
Published: April 2007

The author, a specialist in the use of cartographic sources for Russian history, discusses various maps resulting from Russian exploration of the coasts and islands of the Bering Sea region during the second and third quarters of the 18th century. Her purpose is to demonstrate the priority of Russian discoveries, as well as the accuracy of the resultant maps, in the face of their underappreciation and even falsification by contemporary non-Russian scholars both within and without the country. L'auteur, specialiste de l'application des cartes a l'étude de l'histoire de la Russie, traite de diverses cartes etablies a la suite d'expeditions d'exploration faites le long du rivage et dans les iles de la mer de Bering entre 1725 et 1775, environ. Son but est de demontrer que les decouvertes russes furent bien les premieres et que les cartes qui en resulterent etaient exactes, en depit du fait qu'elles aient ete sous-estimees et mem falsifiees par des specialistes etrangers contemporains tant en Russie meme qu'a l'exterieur.
RUSSIAN CARTOGRAPHY OF THE 18TH CENTURY AS A SYNTHESIS OF ASTRONOMIC-GEODETIC AND GRAPHIC PROCESSES
Authors: FEL S YE
Published: April 2007

The author, a specialist in Russian cartography of the 18th century, discusses the causes, dimensions, and results of cartographic and geodetic progress from the pre-Petrine to the post-Petrine era. He cites the inauguration of scientific expeditions and systematic research, the circulation of geographical questionnaires, the scientific training of cadres, the development of an accurate mathematical foundation with astronomically-determined control points, the transition from "sketch and interview" surveying to instrument surveying with triangulation, levelling, and traversing, the devising of new projections, the tackling of the problem of generalization, the introduction of non-perspective symbols and hachures, the gradual simplification of the maps external design, the transition from manuscript maps of small areas to copper-engraved maps of the whole country, the publication of numerous maps and atlases with diverse content and various uses, and the enlistment of cartographic science to solve practical state tasks and to promote economic development.
Instructions For A Military Survey In 1779
Authors: Marshall Douglas W
Published: April 2007

The essay of Charles Vallancey advocates and prefigures modern developments of national survey, military reports to accompany maps, and topographic education for officers. It represents an important source for assessing contemporary attitudes about cartography as well as yielding insight into the reading matter of one ambitious officer. Vallancey's experience in mapping Ireland in the late-eighteenth century doubtless encouraged this contribution, and it remains the only theoretical effort of military cartography in English from this period.
Evaluating the Perception of Uncertainty in Alternative Visualization Strategies
Authors: Blenkinsop Steve , Fisher Pete , Bastin Lucy , Wood Jo
Published: April 2007

Although a number of methods have been proposed for representing uncertainty in spatial information, there has been relatively little testing of how users interpret uncertainty from those methods. Using results of a fuzzy classification of satellite imagery, this study looks at users’ perceptions of a number of different methods for visualization of uncertainty. Both relatively expert and novice users are highly successful at determining classification uncertainty among pixels when shown in greyscale images and histograms, as well as having moderate success with random animations. Viewers considered that although random animation is a good method of showing overall classification uncertainty, greyscale images are a better way to extract specific information. Serial animation was not widely appreciated. In general, the accuracy of answers to specific questions was greatly improved when linked views and ancillary graphic information were available. All the methods examined in this study, in short, were relatively successful, with the exception of serial animation.
The Cartographic Work of the General Statistics Board of Spain, 1856–1870
Authors: NADAL FRANCESC , URTEAGA LUIS , MURO J. IGNACIO
Published: April 2007

This article presents a general description of Spanish official cartography between 1856 and 1870, emphasizing its institutional and organizational aspects. During those years, responsibility for both map production and statistical information was allocated to a single institution, the General Statistics Board, which laid the foundations for contemporary cadastral and topographical cartography in Spain.
A Vector-GIS Extension for Generalization of Binary Polygon Patterns
Authors: Millward Hugh
Published: April 2007

This article presents a vector shape generalization extension for the ArcView GIS called VECTORGEN. The user specifies a shape file of "black" polygons and selects one of two complementary routines for generalization of the black-white pattern. The Alpha routine (A-GEN) deletes islands of both black and white smaller than a threshold of alpha units, while the Epsilon routine (E-GEN), a more complex procedure, is the focus of this article.

Epsilon generalization performs a variety of tasks simultaneously, although its main purposes are deleting narrow areas (of both black and white) and smoothing the bounding line. In addition, it deletes smaller areas and aggregates nearby like-coloured areas. It employs a new algorithm (Vector ESSE) that marries Perkal's rolling disk concept with the operational simplicity of raster extend-shrink blankets. The user specifies a buffer width epsilon (ε), and the technique ensures that all turning radii on the smoothed bounding line are at least 1ε in radius, all black or white patches are at least 2ε wide, and all patches are large enough to contain a circle of radius 1ε.

Examples of the use of both alpha and epsilon routines are provided, with a discussion of their advantages and disadvantages.
QUANTITATIVE PHYSIOGRAPHIC METHOD OF LANDFORM PORTRAYAL
Authors: ALPHA TAU RHO , WINTER ROBERT E
Published: April 2007

A new cartographic technique, superimposing planimetrically adjusted contours on Mock diagrams prepared by the physiographic method, permits more quantitative use of three-dimensional drawings of landforms than heretofore possible. The framework of adjusted contours provides the easiest means of three dimensionally positioning a landform. The physiographic diagram is frequently the most satisfactory method of representing a landform because the landform is represented as it looks in nature. Comparisons, using a landform model, show this new technique to be considerably more effective than conventional methods of illustrating landforms because it combines on the same diagram useful features of the qualitative physiographic method with the quantitative aspects of the contour map. The new technique has been used effectively in the preparation of diagrams of various ocean floor and borderland regions. Une nouvelle technique de cartographie par laquelle des courbes de niveau compensées planimétriquement sont surimposées a des blocs-diagrammes établis selon la méthode physiographique permet de multiplier les applications quantitatives des représentations topographiques tridimensionnelles. Le réseau de courbes compensées constitue la meilleure manière de situer les accidents du terrain dans une représentation tridimensionnelle. Le diagramme physiographique est souvent préférable lorsqu'il faut représenter les accidents du terrain car il offre plus de similitude avec la nature. Des comparaisons faites à l'aide d'un modèle de terrain ont révélé que la technique en question est supérieure aux méthodes classiques d'illustration de la topographie parce qu'elle permet de réunir en un seul diagramme les éléments utiles de la méthode physiographique qualitative et les aspects quantitatifs de la carte en relief. La nouvelle technique a été appliquée avec succès a la preparation de diagrammes représentant les fonds marins et certaines régions frontalières.
G.I.S. A VIEW FROM THE OTHER (DARK?) SIDE: THE PERSPECTIVE OF AN INSTRUCTOR OF INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY COURSES AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL
Authors: Thompson Derek
Published: April 2007

A review of available software for geographic information systems GIS suggests that they have little current value for teaching fundamental geographic concepts. Modelling and analysis capabilities are limited; multi-media data are not well supported; pedagogic motivations or goals are not addressed; and service delivery components such as user interfaces have been addressed very infrequently. A review of introductory and advanced geography texts provides a basis for identifying concepts that could be taught with the aid of GIS. A survey of a sample of college geography teachers provides a framework for beginning to establish needs for GIS functionality for pedagogic purposes. Supply and demand characteristics are compared qualitatively; and some thoughts are offered on priorities for the future
The User’s Influence in Specific Design Problems: A Recreation Map Of The Central Cairngorms
Authors: Keates J.S.
Published: April 2007

The development of special maps for recreational purposes is briefly examined, with particular reference to tourist and recreational use of the Highlands of Scotland. The balance of interests in this area requires a careful assessment of recreational development in relation to conservation and private land interests. Existing special-purpose maps are critically appraised and it is concluded that more satisfactory maps must involve special topographic survey at a larger scale. The concept of such a map, currently under production experimentally in the Department of Geography, University of Glasgow, is reviewed in relation to potential user demand, and particular questions are considered such as scale, orientation, place names and relief representation. L'auteur traite brièvement de l'établissement de cartes spéciales aux fins des loisirs et notamment de l'exploitation touristique et récréative des Highlands de l'Ecosse. La diversité des intérêts dans cette région exige que l'aménagement en vue des activités récréatives soit étudié en rapport avec les impératifs de la conservation et de la propriété privée. L'auteur fait la critique des cartes spécialisées existantes et conclut que toute amélioration dans la cartographie nécessiterait des levés topographiques spéciaux à plus grande échelle. Le concept d'une carte de ce genre, dont le département de géographie de l'Université de Glasgow a entrepris la production à titre expérimental, est discuté à la lumière de la demande éventuelle; l'auteur se penche sur des questions particulières telles que l'orientation, l'échelle, la toponymie et l'illustration du relief.
Young Children's Use of Spatial Relationships in Tasks with Maps and Models
Authors: BLADES MARK , SOWDEN STEVE , SPENCER CHRISTOPHER
Published: April 2007

In this paper, we consider two issues: first, the age when children can first understand that a map or a model is a representation of space; and second, how children's early map abilities can be encouraged and stimulated. There have been recent proposals that children can start to understand maps from 2Â½ years of age. The research supporting these proposals is discussed, and it is argued that there is little evidence that children can appreciate maps and models as spatial representations until, or just before, 4 years of age. It is pointed out that even at the age of 4 years, most children can only use maps and models when they are alignedâ€”children of that age have difficulty using rotated maps and models. The reasons for that difficulty are discussed, and it is suggested that using maps that are not aligned usually requires an understanding of spatial relationships (such as 'near to' and 'between'). Although 4-year-olds use such concepts in language and in some spatial tasks, they appear to be unaware of the appropriateness of using spatial relationships in tasks with rotated maps. It is suggested that one way to stimulate young children's map abilities is to encourage their awareness of spatial relationships by explicit teaching and training.
AUTOMATED CARTOGRAPHY IN FEDERAL MAPPING IN CANADA
Authors: HARRIS LEWIS J
Published: April 2007

The author discusses the Survey and Mapping Branch's tests with on-line and off-line graphic digitizers of various resolutions for automated map making. The more flexible on-line system, i.e., one linked to a central processing unit, has proven more advantageous (especially for a large production line) than off-line processing, which entails costlier operation and slower plotting. Attention then shifted from the processing system to the controller-computer and from the peripherals – digitizers, drafting tables, teletypes – to the interfaces and the software. By the spring of 1972 a pilot production line with three or four digitizing stations and a stereoplotter will have been completed for automated output of the 1:50,000 NTS maps.
THROUGH A MODEL DARKLY: AN EDUCATIONAL POSTSCRIPT
Authors: Jenkins Alan
Published: April 2007

The conference's concern for GIS education and training is seen from the perspective of an educationist. A model of the curriculum is presented which sees it is an interaction between aims and objectives, content, teaching methods and assessment. This model reveals a conference (and this collection of papers) much concerned with the content of GIS, purposefully discussing the objectives of GIS courses, but with only limited attention to how they should be taught and assessed. Nor is much revealed as to how students experience these courses.
THE MATHEMATICAL BASIS OF RUSSIAN MAPS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
Authors: MELNIKOVA T. N.
Published: April 2007

The author shows that in response to Peter the Great's policy of reorganization and modernization there were notable advances in Russian cartography during the 18th century, resulting in more accurate and more complete mapping of the country. She describes the procedures of district surveys, the methods, instruments, and expeditions for the astronomical determination of the coordinates of places, and the types of projections and scales used by general and particular maps and atlases.
Understanding through Structure: The Challenges of Information and Navigation Architecture in Cybercartography
Authors: Parush Avi , Pulsifer Peter , Philp Karen , Dunn Greg
Published: April 2007

The information-rich environments suggested by the concept of cybercartography present new challenges to the design and display of interactive geographically oriented information. These new challenges revolve around two basic issues: information architecture and information navigation models. A variety of information architectures are discussed in this article, along with an analysis of topologies such as the hierarchy (tree), linear sequence, matrix (grid), web-like, or hybrid. A three-tier information architecture model is proposed that varies in information granularity. The high-granularity level includes information units such as maps, articles, images, animations, video clips, and data graphs. The medium-granularity level includes integrated functional information units that are topical, task oriented, audience specific, or a hybrid. At such a level of information units, maps are no longer a stand-alone element. Finally, the low-granularity level includes top-level information architecture linking the various functional units. The advantage of these three granularity levels is that they enable an adaptable information architecture that can accommodate the addition of new content composed of the basic elements. While the way users navigate such an information architecture can be prescribed by the information structure, we demonstrate how navigation schemes can be independent of the information architecture and offer the user a greater diversity of interaction.
Cartographic Signs and Arbitrariness
Authors: Rød Jan
Published: April 2007

According to Ferdinand de Saussure's theory of the linguistic sign, the sign has two primordial characteristics, which he called the first and second principles: (1) the arbitrary nature of the sign and (2) the linear nature of the signifier. When outlining the second principle of the linear signifier, Saussure made a distinction between auditory and visual signifiers - a differentiation widely adopted by cartographers regarding cartographic signs. The first principle of the arbitrary nature of the sign has been discussed by some cartographers but is not recognized in Bertin's semiology of graphics (Bertin 1967, 1983a). Two alternative relationships constituting arbitrariness, sense versus reference, are discussed for cartographic signs. Both forms of arbitrariness are recognized as being present, and examples are given. Arbitrariness as reference is discussed, providing a theoretical argument for the use of unclassed choropleth maps in preference to classed choropleth maps.
How Institutional Cultures Affect Results: Comparing Two Old-Growth Forest Mapping Projects
Authors: NORHEIM ROBERT A.
Published: April 2007

This paper explores the institutional and geographic factors that affected the outcome of two old-growth forest mapping efforts undertaken in 1989â€“1990 in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The projects mapped old-growth forest stands within US National Forests that support the endangered northern spotted owl. The projects, conducted by the US Forest Service (the land manager) and the Wilderness Society (a conservation organization), obtained old-growth acreage totals that differed by a factor of two. This difference was largely attributable to the organizational context of each project. Both were constrained by short time lines imposed by the US Congress and by impending litigation. Motivations for the two organizations, however, were very different: Congress compelled the Forest Service to do the mapping, whereas the Wilderness Society used the geographic information for conservation advocacy. The two organizations also varied by the level of financial resources allocated and the methods (remote sensing versus aerial photo interpretation) employed. In my comparison of the two projects, I examined the events leading up to the spotted owl controversy and investigated the nature of the institutions involved. To understand the methods of the projects, I obtained the published literature resulting from the two projects and interviewed the principals of each project. I then obtained the data sets, put them into a common format, performed a spatial overlay, and compared the results using confusion matrices and visual analysis. When the two data sets were compared directly, there was little pattern evident in the differences. This lack of pattern made it difficult to draw any conclusions about the relative accuracy of the studies. It is inappropriate to infer that the results of either project were better; however, it is critical to understand the causes of the disparate results. The research found that merely by providing an alternate set of maps of old growth, the Wilderness Society "won" by casting doubt on the maps produced by the Forest Service. I also identified several institutional factors that affected the projects' outputs, namely budget, technology, staffing, study area, and institutional agendas and requirements. It is hoped that an understanding of these factors and disparate project results will help users of the two data sets understand their inherent biases and appropriate usage.
The Patronage of Science and the Creation of Imperial Space: The British Mapping of India, 1799-1843
Authors: EDNEY MATTHEW H
Published: April 2007

The social and cultural contexts of the mapping of India by the British East India Company early in the nineteenth century are explored. The focus is on the privileging of the geodetic triangulation (the Great Trigonometrical Survey, or GTS) at the expense of the detailed topographic and cadastral surveys that provided the actual information necessary to run the Company's empire. The patronage of science, especially the GTS, by the Company's officials defined a conceptual image of British rule in India as rational and liberal, an image that included the social hierarchy of rational British above (supposedly) mystical and irrational Indians. Moreover, the GTS created an imperial space, a territorial uniformity that obscured the cultural and political diversity of India and allowed India to be reconstructed as a coherent and singular territorial entity. The mapping process defined the conceptual and graphic images of empire that not only allowed the British to legitimate and justify their rule, they also defined the very nature of the empire. On explore les contextes sociaux et culturels de la cartographie de l'Inde par la Compagnie anglaise des Indes orientales au début du dix-neuvième siècle. L'accent est mis sur la priorisation de la triangulation géodésique (les Grands levés trigonométriques, ou GLT) aux dépens des lévés détaillés de la topographie et du cadastre qui ont fourni l'information nécessaire pour mener l'empire de la Compagnie. L'appui à la science pour les dirigeants de la Compagnie, plus particulièrement dans les GLT, a défini une image conceptuelle rationnelle et libérale des règles britanniques en Inde, une image qui comprenait la hiérarchie sociale des Britanniques rationnels au-dessus des Indiens soi-disant mystiques et irrationels. De plus, les GLT ont créé un espace impérial, une uniformité territoriale qui a atténué la diversité culturelle et politique de l'Inde et qui a permis de reconstruire l'Inde en une entité territoriale cohérente et singulière. Le processus cartographique a défini les images conceptuelles et graphiques d'un empire qui, non seulement, ont permis aux Britanniques de légitimer et de justifier leurs règles, mais aussi de définir la nature même de l'empire.
MAPPING CANADA'S HISTORY
Authors: WILSON A V , MACKAY D S C
Published: April 2007

The Historical Unit of the National Geographical Mapping Division, Surveys and Mapping Branch, is at present preparing a number of historical maps of Canada for the 5th Edition of the National Atlas of Canada. This paper focuses on some of the problems experienced by the researchers involved in the historical map making process.
Can young children use maps to navigate?
Authors: FREUNDSCHUH SCOTT
Published: April 2007

There are opposing points of view as to what map tasks children can perform as well as understand. Some studies have indicated a low level of map skills ability in children up to 10 years old, whereas others indicate that children already possess a variety of map-use skills before the age of school entrance. This study examines the ability of preliterate children ages 4, 5, and 6 to use a map for navigation. An obstacle course was utilised which the child attempted to navigate on a predetermined path outlined on a map. It was demonstrated that all the children who participated in this study were capable of extracting the necessary information from a map to enable them to navigate a simple obstacle course.
THE DESIGN OF JOURNALISTIC MAPS / PURPOSES, PARAMETERS AND PROSPECTS
Authors: GILMARTIN PATRICIA
Published: April 2007

Journalistic maps are used extensively by the North American news media to show the locations of places featured in the news and to help explain spatial aspects of news stories. These maps are produced within a demanding set of conditions which often influences the effectiveness of their designs. A general model of map design factors is introduced here and used as a basis for discussing specific constraints on journalistic maps. Actual maps that accompanied news accounts of the 1983 Korean airliner shooting demonstrate the important role that the map designer plays in the look of journalistic maps.