bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ethnic and Cultural Pluralism in the Colonial Social Order
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

The colonial state represented a new type of polity, which emerged from the sixteenth century onwards. Colonial states, such as Spain, in the Americas, and Britain and France in Africa, differed fundamentally from patrimonial polities that had little interest in ‘civilizing’ and transforming their subjects, even if they thought them ‘barbarian’. Although extraction remained a fundamental objective, colonial states also sought to transform societies and cultures. In fulfilling this ‘dual mandate’ they anticipated and, in certain respects, epitomized modernity, as did French colonial policies of assimilation, grounded in the ideals of the Revolution and the Enlightenment. At the same time, opposition to the theory and practice of assimilation led both France and Britain towards the creation or retrenchment of ‘difference’, institutionalizing tribal identity, and tribalism, in the political process through forms of indirect rule.
‘Nation of Many Nations’? The United States and Immigration, 1880–1930
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

Between 1880 and 1930 a ‘new immigration’ of some 28 million people entered the US, mainly from southern and eastern Europe, posing serious questions for the body politic: could, should, the USA assimilate them, and what would their assimilation mean? A minority opposed their entry in the belief that their social, cultural, and racial background made them unassimilable. The prevailing view was that immigrants were required for the country's burgeoning industries, but should undergo ‘Americanization’. Despite policies that encouraged immigrants and their descendants to submerge their ethnic and cultural differences in the ‘melting pot’, a century later ethnicity remained a powerful force in urban America. The politics of the 1960s, the changing composition of urban populations, and the arrival of new waves of immigrants from Asia and Hispanic America combined with long‐term social and economic changes to create a framework within which ethnic and cultural pluralism continued to be significant in a post‐industrial society.
Multiculturalism and Beyond
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

In Britain and other countries with similar patterns of ethnic and cultural diversity, policy in the 1980s and 1990s stood within the messy middle of the spectrum from assimilation to separatism. British policy may have favoured what was called ‘integration’, but how much diversity, of what kind, and on what basis were still open questions. In Britain and elsewhere there were three emergent modes of cultural pluralism: ‘multiculturalism’, ‘institutional pluralism’ (or more simply ‘separatism’), and ‘hybridity’. In the 1990s, multicultural policies, which had supporters and critics from all parts of the political spectrum, were severely tested by demands by some Muslims for greater recognition of their claims for space in the public arena, and by events such as the ‘Rushdie Affair’, which posed the question of what room should contemporary societies allow for being French or British or American ‘differently’?
The Political Economy of the World Trading System
Authors: Hoekman Bernard , Kostecki Michel
Published: October 2003

This book analyses the multilateral trading system's principles, rules, and procedures. It is not a legal text. It aims instead to provide an accessible (non‐technical) description of the rules of the game and a policy‐oriented economic assessment of the disciplines that have been negotiated by WTO members. The book provides a brief historical overview of the evolution of the trading system; the organizational structure and functions of the WTO; the dispute settlement and enforcement provisions; and the role of the WTO as a forum for negotiations, with special attention given to the importance of reciprocity. The bulk of the book deals with the rules on trade policies, including regional integration and contingent protection (anti‐dumping and safeguards), agriculture, services and intellectual property, and discusses the political economy rationale underlying them. The rules are summarized and their economic policy rationale assessed in a non‐technical manner. The final part of the book discusses the evolving role of developing countries and economies in transition and the issues that are likely to be on the negotiating agenda for some time to come, including competition (anti‐trust) policy, labour standards, trade facilitation, investment, and environmental policies. An Annex summarizes the economics of major trade policy instruments and many of the issues discussed in the book.
The Trading System in Perspective
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

Chapter 1 makes up the first part of the book. It presents a brief historical overview of the evolution of the multilateral trading system and introduces the basic functions of the trade regime and the challenges that confront it. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Trade and global integration; Trade and trade agreements in history; Functions of the multilateral trading system; From GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) to WTO (World Trade Organization); and The challenge of global cooperation.
The World Trade Organization
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

An account is given of the organizational structure of the WTO (World Trade Organization), which was established as a multilateral trade organization on 1 January 1995 to encompass a modified GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), its sister bodies on services (GATS) and intellectual property (TRIPS), as well as all other agreements and arrangements concluded under the auspices of the Uruguay Round. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Scope, functions and structure of the WTO; Decision‐making; Transparency: notification and surveillance; Accession; The WTO and other international organizations; Nongovernmental actors and the WTO; and Conclusion.
Dispute Settlement and Enforcement of Rules
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses WTO (World Trade Organization) dispute settlement and enforcement provisions. The mechanism used by the WTO is unique to that institution, and the procedures are formal and binding rather than by diplomatic means. The sections of the chapter are as follows: The WTO dispute settlement procedures; Operation of the system; Systemic issues; The domestic dimensions of enforcement; and Conclusion.
Negotiating Forum
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

An analysis is made of the role of the WTO (World Trade Organization) as a forum for negotiations. Special attention is given to the concept of reciprocity, since this is a central element of multilateral trade negotiations (MTNs). The chapter centres on the problems that confront negotiators seeking to obtain agreements, the techniques that are used, and the reasons MTNs tend to have outcomes that do not maximize national welfare. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Overview of negotiating rounds [held since 1948, when GATT was founded]; Multilateral trade liberalization; Interest groups and lobbying activity; Reciprocity and the mechanics of negotiations; and A typology of key aspects of trade negotiations.
Sector‐Specific Multilateral Trade Agreements
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter looks at the major sector‐specific agreements that have been negotiated under the auspices of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), and in particular at agriculture, and textiles and clothing. Both of these are sectors that have a long history of protectionism in many countries, and much remains to be done to lower barriers to trade to levels that approach the average prevailing in other sectors. Over time, both sectors were gradually removed from the GATT 1947 disciplines, and it was only during the Uruguay Round that they were re‐integrated into the trading system; the Uruguay Round agreements reached on the sectors are due to be fully implemented in 2005. The chapter also discusses the Information Technology Agreement (ITA), which was negotiated amongst a subset of WTO members during 1996, although it is applied on an MFN (most favoured nation) basis. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Agriculture; Textiles and clothing; The Information Technology Agreement; and Conclusion.
Safeguards and Exceptions
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

The various mechanisms allowing for the re‐imposition of trade barriers are discussed in this chapter, which summarizes the rules on––and the economics of––the use of instruments of contingent protection. These have been very important in dealing with domestic political pressures and allowing the pursuit of non‐economic objectives. In practice, they have often been abused, to the detriment of both national and global welfare. The chapter focuses mainly on the safeguards and exceptions embodied in GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade); those of the GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) are very similar or still in development. The different sections are as follows: Renegotiation of concessions; Waivers; Emergency protection and VERs (voluntary export restraints); Antidumping actions; Measures to countervail subsidized imports; Trade restrictions for balance of payments purposes; Infant industry protection; General exceptions; and Conclusion.
Regional Integration
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter deals with one of the most important exceptions to the most‐favoured‐nation (MFN) rule allowed by the WTO (World Trade Organization): regional integration agreements (RIAs). Almost all WTO members are participants in one or more RIA, thus raising serious questions about the relevance of the WTO's non‐discrimination principle. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Motivations for regional economic integration; GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) Article XXIV: Preferential trade agreements; GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) Article V: Economic integration; Trading blocs and the trading system; and Conclusion.
Integrating Developing Countries and Economies in Transition
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

A brief review is presented of the history of developing country involvement in GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and the experience of the first five years of the WTO (World Trade Organization), including efforts to negotiate the accession of China and Russia. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Special and differential treatment; Changing attitudes towards the trading system; Developing country participation in the WTO; Implementation of multilateral agreements; Expanding membership; and Conclusion.
Legitimacy, Coherence and Governance
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the role of industry groups and NGOs in the formulation of trade policies at the national and global level, and the importance of transparency and openness in policy formation in ensuring that governments are accountable. Information is a necessary condition for the ‘contestability’ of policy in national political markets, which in turn is a necessary condition for the ‘coherence’ of such policies, as well as the legitimacy of whatever multilateral rules are negotiated. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Industry and trade policy formation; NGOs and civil society; Governance of the WTO (World Trade Organization); Coherence of national policies; and Conclusion.
A Description of the Greek Higher Civil Service
Authors: Sotiropoulos Dimitri A.
Published: October 2003

Formally, the higher civil service of Greece is a powerful group, but it also has a legitimate claim to relative powerlessness. Its subservient role is correlated with the perennial and problematic features of the organizational structure of the Greek public administration, which, in certain respects, is pre‐modern. Starts by distinguishing the main features of the top management level of the Greek civil service, pointing out the minor role played by Greek civil servants compared with their counterparts in other European countries. Goes on to describe the ranks of civil servants, the methods of recruitment and promotion to the Greek higher civil service, and the interdepartmental mobility of civil servants. Further sections discuss status in the civil service, the social background characteristics and social status of top officials, organizations and informal contacts across ministries, and political party policies towards the higher civil service.
Senior Officials in Austria
Authors: Liegl Barbara , Müller Wolfgang C.
Published: October 2003

First provides an overview of the formal structure of the civil service in post‐war Austria and the position of senior officials within it. Includes a discussion of recent changes aimed at making the civil service more flexible and effective and their impact on the top layer of the permanent bureaucracy. The following two main sections look at the incumbents in these positions, and provide information on the demographic and educational background and career patterns (duration in office and inter‐ministerial mobility) of the top civil servants and members of the cabinets ministériels who served in the 1970–1995 period. The next section turns to the political role of senior officials, and the penultimate section discusses the impact of party politics on the civil service. The concluding section summarizes the main points of the chapter.
The British Senior Civil Service
Authors: Dargie Charlotte , Locke Rachel
Published: October 2003

The aim is to describe the current senior civil service in Britain; in order to do this, recent changes instigated by the Thatcher and Major governments have to be addressed. To explain these developments, four analytical themes are used that run through the different reforms of the senior civil service that are to be discussed. These themes are managerialism (private‐sector management styles in the civil service), marketization (introducing markets into civil service operations), agencification (‘hiving off’ civil service functions to separate agencies), and politicization (breaking down the barriers between political and non‐partisan tasks in government). The introduction to the chapter characterizes these four themes. The second section defines the British senior civil service, and further sections assess change through various aspects of the senior civil service: recruitment and promotion; mobility; sociological characteristics of senior officials; and the relationship with the political machinery of government.
Senior Officials in the Danish Central Administration: From Bureaucrats to Policy Professionals and Managers
Authors: Jensen Hanne Nexø , Knudsen Tim
Published: October 2003

The Danish senior civil service has a mixture of older and newer traditions, in which history and tradition are very important. Accordingly, this chapter starts by summarizing the historical background to the Danish central public administration and the historical role of Danish civil servants. Further sections then introduce the common organizational principles governing the central public administration. The different sections discuss: ranks and numbers of senior civil servants at the top levels; methods of recruitment and promotion; inter‐ministerial mobility; pay; party membership and the senior civil service; the status in the civil service of high status ministries; the social and educational background of top officials; women at the top; interaction and formal contacts within and between ministries; and political party policies towards the senior civil service.
Welfare in the Kantian State
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

Kant's theory of justice continues to exert a powerful influence on contemporary discussions of justice and equality. Modern theorists disagree, however, regarding the implications of Kant's theory for the state's responsibility for public welfare. A traditional interpretation holds that Kant's political theory simply involves an investigation of the constraints that reason places on the state's authority to regulate external action. This ‘standard interpretation’ of Kant's thought has remained influential, and has grounded a reinterpretation of the classic liberal state by theorists such as Humboldt and Hayek. Kaufman argues that the standard interpretation neither succeeds as a faithful reading of Kant's texts nor as a plausible, philosophically sound reconstruction of a ‘Kantian’ political theory. Rather, Kaufman argues, Kant's political theory articulates a positive conception of the state's role. In particular, Kantian justice requires that each member of society must be guaranteed the opportunity to realize his or her purposive capacities. In order to secure this guarantee, Kantian justice requires interventions to secure equality of capabilities.
A Kantian Model for Social Welfare Theory
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

Kant's explicit account of the state's responsibility for welfare, in the Rechtslehre, is cryptic and incomplete. Kant does suggest, however, that: (1) provision for those unable to provide for themselves is implicit in the idea of a social contract; and (2) the sovereign, as ‘proprietor of the land’, possesses authority to intervene in civil society to guarantee the necessary conditions for the exercise of their purposive faculties. These elements of Kant's argument seem most plausibly justified by the teleological judgement that the sovereign must strive to realize a ‘rightful condition’ in which members of society are ensured equal opportunity to realize their purposive faculties. In order to secure such a condition, the Kantian sovereign must intervene to guarantee conditions assuring that agents are equal in their ability to pursue their individual ends. Such a Kantian egalitarian policy, Chapter 6 argues, should focus on the equalization of capabilities rather than of: (1) welfare, or (2) resources.
Political Science: The History of the Discipline
Authors: Almond Gabriel A.
Published: October 2003

A historical overview of the discipline, from its foundations in ancient theorists to contemporary political scientists. Traces the contributions––philosophical, theoretical, and methodological––across the discipline's history. Challenges a view of the discipline's development as being built on methodological dissent, offering a picture of its development on the basis of pluralist interaction.
Political Institutions: An Overview
Authors: Rothstein Bo
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of institutional analysis, which comprises all questions in political science. Discusses issues in political theory and the normative role of institutions, and traces the decline and re‐emergence of institutions in political science. Reviews methodological and theoretical issues in institutional analysis, such as the ontology of institutions, agency and causation, their stability, and change. The future of institutional political science is in the combination of knowledge and whether it can be applied to normative institutional goals.
Political Institutions: Rational Choice Perspectives
Authors: Weingast Barry R.
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of rational choice perspectives in the discipline of political science. Reviews rational choice models and provides examples of their application, in both their broad and narrow forms, in which this relates to the level of preference specification. Considers the relationship of rational choice analysis to institutions and institutional change. Predicts future boundary developments in the application of rational choice perspectives, by extending the range and assumptions built into rational choice models.
Political Institutions: Legal Perspectives
Authors: Drewry Gavin
Published: October 2003

Questions the omission of law and legal perspectives in political science and advocates its relevance and overlap in two country examples: the USA and the UK. Legal politics, the role of the judiciary, public law and administration, and the constitutional politics of America are provided as examples, intended to generate future relationships in the areas of law and political science.
Political Behavior: An Overview
Authors: Carmines Edward G. , Huckfeldt Robert
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of the ways political scientists have explained political behaviour. Traces the development of approaches from the early electoral studies to economic models, to combinations of context and political agency in a political sociological response, and finally to a return to the individual voter in the form of political psychology. The politics of race is discussed as an example of the interaction of individual and social effects, representing the direction in which the broader political behaviour sub‐discipline is heading.
Political Behavior: Institutional and Experiential Approaches
Authors: Dunleavy Patrick
Published: October 2003

Traces political behaviour research as a gradual shift from modernism to post‐modernism, reflected in the use of positivist methodologies in institutional approaches to methodological pluralism and experimental methods. Following this underlying shift from parsimony to complexity, a current stagnation in political behaviour research is highlighted. Urges the integration and combination of insights from theoretical approaches, rather than a shift towards the wholesale relativism of post‐modern critiques.
Comparative Politics: An Overview
Authors: Mair Peter
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of the field of comparative politics, tracing changes from abstraction and generalization to mid‐level analysis caused by changes in methodological techniques. Restriction in scope has led to institutional specificities and the analysis of the political as an independent variable. Key questions now relate to what politics does rather than what politics is. Specialization, internationalization, and professionalism are the new watchwords of comparative politics. Methodological consequences and issues are discussed.
Comparative Politics: Micro‐Behavioral Perspectives
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: October 2003

Political events and democratization have created emerging questions for the analysis of comparative politics. This provides opportunities to test the role of political culture, voting preferences, and the link between political norms and behaviour prior to stable democracies in equilibrium, on which formerly research has focused. Major advances in comparative political behaviour reflect the individualization of electoral behaviour in value change and modernization, and the contribution of political culture due to patterns of democratization.
Comparative Politics, Old and New
Authors: Apter David E.
Published: October 2003

Traces the development of intellectual traditions in comparative politics from the ‘old’ to the ‘new’. ‘Old’ comparative politics reflects a focus on institutionalism and ‘new’ comparative politics has arisen in part because of the end of the Cold War, devolution of powers, the rise of social democracy in Europe, decolonization, and democratization. We are now witnessing ‘neo‐institutionalism’, characterized by a restoration of the political to centre stage, the use of rational choice perspectives, and economic analysis due to the importance of market forces and globalization.
International Relations, Old and New
Authors: Keohane Robert O.
Published: October 2003

Provides a broad discussion of the methodological, conceptual, and theoretical issues faced by international relations and accounts for its main debates and transitions from the ‘old’ to the ‘new’. Old international relations, in realism, faced a changing global order. However, limitations can be transcended if modifications are made, liberal institutions analysed, the impact of international institutions considered, and subjectivity acknowledged. Although international relations has been humbled with the inability to predict complex events, theories with reduced expectations can successfully transcend the limitations of realism.
Political Theory, Old and New
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: October 2003

The potential of rational choice theory to political theory is elaborated and developed. In opposition to Parekh, Rawls's Theory of Justice was a turning point in political philosophy because it is disconnected from the thought of the 1950s and 60s. Responds to Young's and Parekh's criticism that liberalism cannot accommodate diversity in beliefs and ways of life. Admits that equality of opportunity is likely to disadvantage some ways of life over others, but points out that the liberal individualistic principle is preferable to a politics of group identity and difference.
Public Policy and Administration, Old and New
Authors: Peters B. Guy , Wright Vincent
Published: October 2003

Public administration research and theory has undergone a fundamental change, unlike any other area in political science. Six fundamental assumptions of public administration have been challenged during this transformation: the assumptions of bureaucratic self‐sufficiency, direct control, uniformity, accountability, standardization of procedure, and an apolitical service. These assumptions have been challenged as ‘new managerialism’, ‘new patrimonalism’, and ‘new fragmentation’ have superseded thinking about public administration.
Political Economy: Sociological Perspectives
Authors: Offe Claus
Published: October 2003

As paradigms conflict, so the fields of political economy and sociology conflict, yet they also cross‐fertilize. Reviews the contribution of political economy to sociology and vice versa, pointing to the social determinants and contextualization of rational utility maximizers and the contribution of sociology to political economy. While some social phenomena may be explained by rational choice, the marriage is uncomfortable, most specifically in the areas yet untouched by rational theory, and by the potential for the detrimental impact of rational utility maximizers upon the social.
Political Economy: Downsian Perspectives
Authors: Grofman Bernard
Published: October 2003

Defends Down's three main arguments in An Economic Theory of Democracy. These three arguments relate to the costs associated with voting and rational non‐voting, party competition costs of attempting to attract votes away from the median voter, and the costs associated with obtaining political knowledge. These arguments can be maintained if we do not overestimate what we can expect from a theory, and consequently the contribution of rational choice and of Downs should not be minimized.
Political Methodology: An Overview
Authors: Jackson John E.
Published: October 2003

Reviews methodological techniques available across the discipline of political science. Econometrics and political science methods include structural equation estimations, time‐series analysis, and non‐linear models. Alternative approaches analyse public preferences, political institutions, and path dependence political economy modelling. The drawbacks of these methods are examined by questioning their underlying assumptions and examining their consequences. While there is cause for concern, solace lies in the fact that these problems are also faced across other disciplines.
The Scope of Government
Authors: Borre Ole , Goldsmith Michael
Published: October 2003

This introductory chapter sets out the book's objective and clarifies the basic concepts relating to the relationships between government and governed, and their implications for democratic legitimation and governability. It explains the type of statistical data used to study these relationships, and briefly summarizes the structure of the book.
Political Agendas and Beliefs About the Scope of Government
Authors: Roller Edeltraud
Published: October 2003

Focuses on public expectations and demand for government services, at the specific level at which general expectations and desires are converted into specific political demands. The conversion of wants into demands—the politicization process—is the crucial point which determines whether such public input is relevant to the political process. The analysis involves two aspects of public perception: first, the issue of value changes that determine priorities on the political agenda; second, the evolving public consensus about the proper scope of government responsibility. These translate into two key theoretical dimensions of public concern—the range of issues over which government should exercise control, and the degree of control it should exercise over them.
Attitudes Towards the Size of Government
Authors: Huseby Beate M.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on public attitudes to the size and sphere of competence of governments, rather than on government policies per se, and on the factors determining whether such attitudes are expansionist or contractionist, i.e. calling for a wider or narrower scope for government responsibility. It presents statistics on public opinion on this question, and finds that, across Western Europe generally, it is ambivalent and inconclusive. It concludes with a discussion of variations between specific countries.
Taxing and Spending: Tax Revolt or Tax Protest?
Authors: Confalonieri Maria A. , Newton Kenneth
Published: October 2003

As the scale of government expenditures increased across post‐war Western Europe, so did levels of public disquiet at the increases in the rate of taxation required to pay for such expenditure. This chapter estimates the strength and nature of this ‘tax revolt’. Was it a reversion to usual grumbling about high taxes, or was it part of a more serious and fundamental re‐appraisal of the basic redistributive aims of the welfare state? Three basic issues are addressed here: first, the nature of the evidence provided by surveys of mass opinion regarding the tax revolt; second, whether evidence exists that the tax revolt is related to a more general backlash against the welfare state; third, whether the survey data support the view that the citizens of the modern state ‘want something for nothing’ out of the welfare and tax systems in their countries.
Politics, Economics, Class, and Taxation
Authors: Newton Kenneth , Confalonieri Maria A.
Published: October 2003

Examines the economic, political, and social bases of public support for, and opposition to, the tax regimes of Western Europe, finding that the political basis outweighs the other two. The chapter concentrates on the issue of progressive income tax and the related matter of income redistribution. Both progressive taxation and income redistribution are important principles of modern taxation systems and their underlying goals of equality and opportunity. Taxes are often a central issue in modern election campaigns. Most citizens pay income taxes, and most have clear and strong views about them. For these reasons, these two principles are important topics for political science research and are well suited to the surveys of mass opinion.
Government Intervention in the Economy
Authors: Borre Ole , Viegas Josè Manuel
Published: October 2003

Discusses the attitudes of Western European publics towards economic liberalism and economic interventionism during the past few decades. While beliefs about the desirability of state intervention in the economy, and of state ownership of public assets are central to modern political ideologies, there is scant evidence that interventionism and liberalism constitute opposite positions in the public mind. Questions of whether governments should practice economic interventionism, or whether assets should be removed into government ownership, tend to be answered not in terms of philosophical principle, but in terms of whether the government is felt to be worthy of the powers entrusted to it. Interventionism tends to be supported by those who lose out under laissez‐faire economies, by women, by young people, and by old people. These tendencies can be explained by the fact that, on the whole, it is middle‐aged men who tend to profit most from the liberal capitalist system.
Government, Communications, and the Media
Authors: Golding Peter , van Snippenburg Leo
Published: October 2003

Over recent years, communications and media infrastructures in Western Europe have been subjected to two conflicting pressures. On the one hand, there have been many factors conducing to deregulation and opening‐up to market competition. On the other hand, many countries have witnessed renewed demands for cultural regulation, restricting the free flow of objectionable material. The juggling act required of governments in meeting these demands reflects the considerable inconsistency in public opinion. This chapter presents survey data regarding the general characteristics of public opinion about the proper boundaries between private and public decision‐making in broadcasting, and about the appropriate levels and forms of government intervention in communications (censorship).
Protecting the Environment
Authors: Johansson Olof
Published: October 2003

Public concern over environmental protection, and the opinion regarding the proper scope of governmental control in support of it are bedevilled by variations is public understanding of highly complex issues, and in levels of public trust. This chapter examines the ways in which protection of the natural environment has come to be perceived as a government responsibility. The analysis is based on attitudinal surveys conducted in Western European countries during the 1970s and 1980s. It reveals that while public expectations of environmental protection are high, it is not easy to distinguish between concern based on moral principle about the ‘common good’, and concern based purely on self‐interest. Either way, the state of the environment has climbed high on the political agenda.
Beliefs and the Scope of Government
Authors: Borre Ole
Published: October 2003

Summarizes the research and findings of the earlier chapters, and outlines some implications for further research. First, it argues that attitudes about the scope of government are an important element of public opinion, with important implications for the functioning of democratic government. Second, it reviews the procedures and methods employed in analysing the data, and the research problems encountered. Finally, it assesses the book's findings on the various issues addressed.
Public Attitudes and Changes in Health Care Systems: A Confrontation and a Puzzle
Authors: Ardigó Achille
Published: October 2003

Considers what citizens perceive to be the responsibilities of their governments and the way they assess the activities of government concerning the management of the welfare state, with particular reference to health services. First, it draws conclusions from a secondary analysis of data from cross‐national sample surveys that contain questions on the role of national governments in providing health services. Second, it relates these findings to recent variations in health service expenditure. The scale of current and prospective changes in public health service funding offers a fruitful arena for future research on the relationship between public opinion and government policy on health care provision.
Secularization and Church Religiosity
Authors: Jagodzinski Wolfgang , Dobbelaere Karel
Published: October 2003

This chapter investigates statistical evidence regarding the fall‐off in church membership and attendance, which has taken place across Western Europe since World War II, and analyses variations between countries. It tentatively concludes that the pace of the process of church disengagement is linked to rationalization of society and the advance of Protestantism, which has led to a relegation of religion as an à la carte set of options, weakening its traditional guidelines on political questions. With religiously inspired deference fading away, political leaders may have more difficulty mustering support for the institutions of government.
Left–Right Materialist Value Orientations
Authors: Knutsen Oddbjørn
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the antithesis between right‐wing materialist beliefs, dominated by emphasis on market competition, personal freedom and private ownership, and left‐wing materialist beliefs, which espouse a range of regulatory mechanisms for achieving egalitarian socio‐economic objectives. It then reviews comparative statistical data on divergences between Western European countries on the left‐right materialist orientation spectrum.
Religious Cognitions and Beliefs
Authors: Dobbelaere Karel , Jagodzinski Wolfgang
Published: October 2003

This chapter assesses the variances of socio‐political impact across Western European societies of the religious secularization effected by cultural rationalization, with particular regard to education and gender. The evidence indicates that the impact is more nuanced than trends in the behavioural component (the incidence of church‐going discussed in Ch. 4) would suggest.
Feminist Political Orientations
Authors: Lundmark Carina
Published: October 2003

This chapter proceeds from the argument that the emancipation of women and other societal changes are likely to have changed perceptions about the distribution of power between men and women. It examines the idea of a feminist political orientation from the perspective of feminist theories. It then proposes an operationalization of feminist political culture, which allows the possibility to be tested that a feminist orientation exists within a West European political context. After presenting and assessing some empirical data, it discusses the interaction between a feminist value orientation and beliefs in government.
Postmodernism
Authors: Gibbins John R. , Reimer Bo
Published: October 2003

This chapter has two aims: first, to show how post‐modern theory helps explain contemporary value changes in Western Europe, and their impact on beliefs about the role and legitimacy of government; second, to demonstrate how the concept of post‐modernism can be operationalized and put to empirical use. It hypothesizes the emergence of new ‘structures of feeling’ and new formations of values, which are united by little else than a common yearning for identity and self‐expression. This hypothesis implies that, rather than moving in patterns structured around socio‐economic groupings, people move in a multitude of both individual‐ and group‐based directions. They will thereby create new patterns of value orientation, which will affect beliefs about government behaviour and transcend traditional allegiances and interests.
Sustainable Development as a Contested Concept
Authors: Jacobs Michael
Published: October 2003

Here Michael Jacobs notes that sustainable development has come to mean all things to all people but argues this does not mean it has no theoretical or policy relevance. It is a ‘contested’ rather than an empty concept, and Jacobs identifies four ‘faultlines’ that produce two distinct conceptions of sustainable development which he calls ‘radical’ and ‘conservative’. The faultlines are: limits to growth, environmental protection, equity, and participation. Jacobs argues in favour of the radical conception.
Sustainability: Should We Start from Here?
Authors: Holland Alan
Published: October 2003

Alan Holland asks whether ‘sustainability’ will deliver the protection of nature. As long as it is taken to mean the extending of human welfare into the future, it may not, he argues, since this does not necessarily entail protecting nature. Holland argues against using ‘critical natural capital’ as a measure of sustainability since criticality is often regarded in anthropocentric terms. He argues instead for the protection of nature as ‘natural items themselves’, but recognizes that this objective may sometimes clash with satisfying human needs. Environmental sustainability and social justice, in other words, will not always pull in the same direction.
Sustainable Development and Our Obligations to Future Generations
Authors: Beckerman Wilfred
Published: October 2003

Wilfred Beckerman argues that the answer to the sustainability question, ‘what to sustain?’, should not be restricted to some category of the environment, but should refer to the political and social institutions and norms that will guarantee personal liberty and respect for human rights. He is sceptical of arguments in favour of inter‐generational egalitarianism, in part because he sees no reason to invest present levels of welfare with the normative significance that supporters of sustainable development claim for them. He argues, instead, for an ‘extended humanitarianism’ that would take the suffering of the present poor seriously and would entail concern for future generations and even for animals.
Sustainability and Intergenerational Justice
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: October 2003

Brian Barry argues that justice is an appropriate language in which to articulate our concern for future generations. He regards sustainability as an inescapably normative notion, and argues that disagreements over its meaning are disagreements about what should be sustained. His answer is ‘some notion of equal opportunity across generations’––and this will involve a protection of nature consistent with the provision of inter‐generational equality of opportunity. Barry believes that one of the biggest obstacles to realizing sustainability is population growth: any given generation cannot be responsible for population growth in the future, he argues.
Ecological Degradation: A Cause for Conflict, a Concern for Survival
Authors: Neefjes Koos
Published: October 2003

Koos Neefjes of Oxfam takes turmoil and instability as his starting point. How will carefully crafted sustainability and justice principles fare in zones of conflict? How can measurements of environmental stock and flow be made under conditions of war or even genocide? Neefjes implies that they cannot, and he focuses instead on the causes of conflicts and the role that environmental factors might play in them. After examining a number of cases drawn from Africa he concludes that environmental degradation and resource distribution play an increasingly important role in conflicts, and that supporting local use and management of resources is of paramount importance.
Environmental Politics and Distributive Justice
Authors: Dobson Andrew
Published: October 2003

Surveys the relationship between social justice and environmental sustainability through the lenses of the ‘environmental‐justice’ and ‘sustainable‐development’ movements. The objectives of these movements are used to show that we should not necessarily assume compatibility between the two social objectives. This produces ‘tensions of legitimation’. Can they be resolved?
Three Conceptions of Environmental Sustainability
Authors: Dobson Andrew
Published: October 2003

Three conceptions of environmental sustainability are described and assessed. These take the form of a typology produced by a survey of the different answers to the generic questions common to any conception of environmental sustainability. One way of characterizing these conceptions is in terms of a spectrum running from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism. Sustainable development is presented as an anthropocentric version of environmental sustainability.
‘Irreversibility’ and Social Justice
Authors: Dobson Andrew
Published: October 2003

Considers the second conception of environmental sustainability, in which ‘irreversible nature’ (such as species) is the thing to be sustained into the future. In Ch. 5, it was pointed out that social justice and sustainability are at odds over the issue of substitutability, and the same is increasingly true in this new context. In addition, theories of justice that are impartial as to views of the good for humans will probably be incompatible with the ‘irreversible‐nature’ conception of sustainability, as it seems to entail just such a view of the good.
The Retrieval of Civic Virtue: A Critical Appreciation of Sandel's Democracy's Discontent
Authors: Pangle Thomas L.
Published: October 2003

The civic republican public philosophy is rooted in Aristotle and Machiavelli. It stresses the civic virtues deliberative self-government requires in the citizenry, and makes the formation of character–that is, the fostering of the capacities for active citizenship–a chief and direct aim of legislation and public policy. There are severe unexplored tensions among some of the virtues that Sandel’s narrative evokes, and he appeals to Jeffersonian republicanism while hiding the aristocratic cornerstone of authentic Jeffersonianism in embarrassment. If Sandel were to reconsider Aristotle attentively, he would be forced to enlarge his conception of virtue, and of what Aristotle–and the entire classical tradition through Jonathan Swift–means by “virtue.”
Virtue En Masse
Authors: Waldron Jeremy
Published: October 2003

It is a pity that Sandel neglects the sociological side of John Stuart Mill’s argument in On Liberty–not just because he fails therefore to do justice to the liberal case for neutrality, but also because the question of how traditional moral ideals fare in modern circumstances of mass society (and also global society) is in fact supposed to be a dominant theme of Sandel’s book. Sandel suggests that the liberal ideals of freedom and autonomy are sociologically not availablein modern circumstances; however, under modern circumstances, the Aristotelian ideal of a polity devoted to the inculcation of genuine full-blooded virtue may not be sociologically available either. We cannot pretend that the United States has the population of quattrocento Florence. If the scale of political organization is so different as to enable only civic agency of a different sort, then it is likely that our thinking about “the qualities of character necessary to the common good of self-government” will have to be different too. If the premises of Benjamin Constant’s discussion of the reality and the phenomenology of politics in the modern world are taken seriously, they may necessitate a rethinking of civic virtue: both of what it is and how, more structurally, it is related to the agency conditions of collective action.
Reworking Sandel's Republicanism
Authors: Pettit Philip
Published: October 2003

Sandel’s claims are indeterminate about the precise nature of America’s lost republican ideals, about what those ideals would require of us as citizens, and about where they would lead governmental policy; reworking Sandel’s narrative around another account of republicanism removes the indeterminacies. Republican freedom–freedom as nondomination, which grows out of a neo-Roman tradition–is distinct both from liberty as noninterference and from liberty as democratic participation. The relationship between people’s freedom and the institutions that would support that freedom in the ideal republic is constitutive: if freedom is nondomination, then it is just the protected and empowered status enjoyed in the presence of the institutions. The price of liberty is eternal vigilance, in particular vigilance in looking at those in power and in challenging, where necessary, their claims and initiatives–and the foundation of this vigilance is civic virtue. While this reworking would make for changes in some central claims about republican freedom, republican virtue, and republican policy, it would sustain most of the themes that the book puts on parade.