bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Metabolic Synthesis
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a general background on the synthesis of chemical biomarkers and their association with key metabolic pathways in organisms, as related to differences in cellular structure and function across the three domains of life. It discusses photosynthesis, the dominant pathway by which biomass is synthesized. It also presents information about chemoautotrophic and microbial heterotrophic processes. The holistic view of biosynthetic pathways of chemical biomarkers provides a roadmap for other chapters in the book, where more specific details on chemical pathways are presented for each of the respective biomarker groups. While other organic geochemistry books have generally introduced the concepts of chemical biomarkers in the context of physical and chemical gradients found in natural ecosystems (e.g., anaerobic, aerobic), this book begins by examining biosynthetic pathways at the cellular level of differentiation.
Chemical Biomarker Applications to Ecology and Paleoecology
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a brief historical account of the success and limitations of using chemical biomarkers in aquatic ecosystems. It also introduces the general concepts of chemical biomarkers as they relate to global biogeochemical cycling. The application of chemical biomarkers in modern and/or ancient ecosystems is largely a function of the inherent structure and stability of the molecule, as well as the physicochemical environment of the system wherein it exists. In some cases, redox changes in sediments have allowed for greater preservation of biomarker compounds; in well-defined laminated sediments; for example, a strong case can be made for paleo-reconstruction of past organic matter composition sources. However, many of the labile chemical biomarkers may be lost or transformed within minutes to hours of being released from the cell from processes such as bacterial and/or metazoan grazing, cell lysis, and photochemical breakdown. The role of trophic effects versus large-scale physiochemical gradients in preserving or destroying the integrity of chemical biomarkers varies greatly across different ecosystems. These effects are discussed as they relate to aquatic systems such as lakes, estuaries, and oceans.
Nucleic Acids and Molecular Tools
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines nucleic acids, polymers of RNA and DNA, which act as the templates for protein synthesis. High levels of nucleic acids in microbes contribute to their elevated nitrogen and phosphorus contents. In recent years, isotopic signatures of nucleic acids have provided new insights about the sources of carbon-supporting bacterial activity. The chapter discusses recent efforts to bridge the fields of organic geochemistry and molecular ecology. The coupling of biomarker information to molecular (genetic) data has the potential to provide new insights about specific sediment microbial communities and their effects on sediment organic matter. Recent studies have provided information about the evolutionary basis of biosynthetic pathways, which influence the capabilities of microorganisms to utilize specific substrates and the synthesis of unique biomarkers. Such efforts demonstrate the impact that microorganisms have on organic geochemistry.
Lipids: Fatty Acids
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses fatty acids, the building blocks of lipids, which represent a significant fraction of the total lipid pool in aquatic organisms. It explores how chain length and levels of unsaturation (number of double bonds) have been shown to be correlated to decomposition, indicating a pre- and postdepositional selective loss of short-chain and polyunsaturated fatty acids. In contrast, saturated fatty acids are more stable and typically increase in relative proportion to total fatty acids with increasing sediment depth. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are predominantly used as proxies for the presence of “fresh” algal sources, although some PUFAs also occur in vascular plants and deep-sea bacteria. Thus, these biomarkers represent a very diverse group of compounds present in aquatic systems. The numerous applications of fatty acid biomarkers to identifying the sources of organic matter in lakes, rivers, estuaries, and marine ecosystems are discussed.
Lignins, Cutins, and Suberins
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines lignin, which has proven to be a useful chemical biomarker for tracing vascular-plant inputs to aquatic systems. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin generally make up >75% of the biomass of woody plant materials. Lignins are a group of macromolecular heteropolymers found in the cell wall of vascular plants that are made up of phenylpropanoid units. The shikimic acid pathway, which is common in plants, bacteria, and fungi, is the pathway for synthesis of aromatic amino acids (e.g., tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine), thereby providing the parent compounds for the synthesis of the phenylpropanoid units in lignins. The chapter also examines cutins and suberins, which are lipid polymers in vascular plant tissues and serve as a protective layer (cuticle) and as cell wall components of cork cells, respectively. It describes how cutins have been shown to be an effective biomarker for vascular plants in aquatic systems.
Consumer-Resource Dynamics: Building Consumptive Food Webs
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the dynamics of consumer–resource interaction, one of the fundamental building blocks of food webs. In particular, it considers how consumer–resource systems that are nonexcitable and excitable respond to changes in interaction strength. The chapter begins with a discussion of two classes of interaction-strength metrics: the first focuses on instantaneous rates of change in one species with respect to another species; the second follows the longer-term influence of the removal of (or change in) one species on the density of another focal species. Continuous consumer–resource models are then described, after which two underlying mechanisms that are behind the stabilization of consumer–resource interactions are analyzed. The chapter concludes with a review of microcosm experiments and empirical data that show consistency with the proposed consumer–resource theory.
Food Webs as Complex Adaptive Systems
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines some of the potential empirical signatures of instability in complex adaptive food webs. It first considers the role of adaptive behavior on food web topology, ecosystem size, and interaction strength before discussing the implications of this behavior for ecosystem dynamics and stability. It then analyzes the results of empirical investigations of Canadian Shield lake trout food webs and how human influences and ecosystems coupled in space may drive biomass pyramids, potentially leading to species loss. It also explores the tendency of subsidies, through human impacts, to homogenize natural ecosytems and concludes by assessing some of the changing conditions that are being driven by humans and how these may change ecosystems.
What Touches All
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the horizontal biases of coordination: the ability of those holding government office to systematically favor some over others in the distribution of public goods or even of legal protection. It argues that the main guarantor of equality, in the face of the inequality that governing elites would otherwise prefer, is parliaments: legislative assemblies, grounded on a franchise that became more equal over time. A Humean approach to horizontal bias most productively starts by modernizing the medieval roots of parliamentary theory. According to this theory, legislative assemblies exist to demand that state officials ask the people's representatives what shall be done before doing it. Legislatures exist to discuss not whether the benefits of authority are greater than zero but how they are, and ought to be, distributed.
The Ideal of “Great Unity”
Authors: Pines Yuri
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how China has maintained the sustainability of a unified empire, and more importantly, its regeneration after periods of division. It proposes that the answer should be sought primarily in the realm of ideology. The idea that “All-under-Heaven” (tianxia) should be unified under the aegis of the single monarch predated the imperial unification of 221 BCE and directly contributed to it. As this chapter demonstrates, it became the true cornerstone of traditional Chinese political culture, and decisively shaped political dynamics during ages of unity and fragmentation alike. Although in the course of imperial history the quest for unity had to be qualified to accommodate domestic and foreign political realities, it was never essentially compromised. Indeed, it may be argued that this belief remains the single most important legacy of the traditional political culture well into present day.
Turnout
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on voter participation, perhaps the most well-known anomaly for rational choice theory. The problem goes like this: in large electorates, the chance that any single voter will be pivotal is very small. Consequently, the cost of voting will outweigh the expected gains from turning out and few citizens will vote. This prediction is not consistent with some of the most easily observed facts about elections. The chapter introduces a basic model of electoral participation that focuses on voters’ turnout decisions under fixed candidate platforms. Contrary to the “paradox of turnout” raised by game-theoretic models of turnout, the model consistently generates realistically high levels of turnout. It also produces comparative statics, including those for voting cost, population size, and faction size, that are intuitive and empirically supported.
An Integrated Model of Two-Party Elections
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a model of two-party elections that integrates the focused models of party competition, turnout, and voter choice. To address the complexity of this synthetic model, computation is used as the main way to generate results (predictions). The model yields a “general equilibrium” of the election game. It also allows for greater heterogeneity within each coalition while taking into account the link between payoffs and aspirations. The chapter first describes the proposed computational model for two parties before discussing some results of the basic integrated model. It also considers several new questions that the model can address, such as: who votes and who votes correctly. Finally, it examines the dynamics that lead to equilibrium behavior.
Elections with Multiple Parties
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter extends the model used for two-party elections to multiparty democracies. It first considers the module models for party competition and voter turnout to see what modifications are required in order to extend the framework to multiple candidates and to identify what analytical results carry over to this context. It then discusses game-theoretic models of the bandwagon effect before presenting a computational model for one of the most well-known problems in the study of multiparty elections: voter coordination in plurality-rule elections and Duverger’s Law. The model leads to the selection of Condorcet winners yet allows significant vote shares for all candidates. It also does a good job of accounting for the partial coordination seen in election data from the United Kingdom. In addition, the simulation results show that the majority factions successfully coordinate as long as the incentives for coordination are sufficiently high.
Introduction
Authors: Gordon Peter E. , McCormick John P.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter first sets out the book's purpose, which is to bring together a broad range of papers on diverse themes pertaining to the intellectual and cultural history of the Weimar Republic. It includes a great variety of contributions by scholars affiliated with manifold disciplines, including, but not limited to, history, political theory, philosophy, sociology, history of science, film theory, art history, and literary criticism. Few if any single-volume works have succeeded at offering a unified portrait of the rich developments of Weimar thought, and the authors believe the time is right to offer a guidebook to the German interwar era, a compendium focused primarily on the major intellectual trends of the time. The chapter then discusses the unity and diversity of Weimar thought followed by an overview of the subsequent chapters.
Legal Theory and the Weimar Crisis of Law and Social Change
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: November 2017

Public lawyers in the Weimar Republic conceptualized the law as a novel means of performing the following pressing tasks that confronted state and society in the twentieth century: the regulation of an industrial economy, the amelioration of economic inequality, and the negotiation of cultural disagreement. During the Kaiserreich, monarchically legitimated elites unilaterally executed comparable tasks. However, in the Weimar Republic, previously excluded social groups—for instance, those represented by the Catholic, Social Democratic, Communist and National Socialist parties—now vied with traditionally represented social forces in electoral and parliamentary fora to formulate and direct regulatory, redistributive, and socially integrative policy. This chapter focuses on the fraught but not necessarily hopeless relationship of law and the welfare state or Sozialstaat. It traces the way liberal and social democratic lawyers like Richard Thoma and Hermann Heller attempted to constitutionally legitimize novel efforts at political regulation, economic redistribution and social integration while avoiding the intellectual either/or's insisted upon by the dominant legal theorists of the epoch, Hans Kelsen and Carl Schmitt.
Kulturphilosophie in Weimar Modernism
Authors: Krois John Michael
Published: November 2017

The Weimar Republic was one of the most fertile epochs in German philosophy, and its effects are still being felt today. The call for “new thinking” was shared by otherwise disparate approaches. The phenomenologists sought to find the “beginnings” of knowing in pre-scientific phenomena, while thinkers at the forefront of what would later be known as analytic philosophy found a new approach to philosophy in the analysis of language. A third approach took its starting point from the fact of culture and sought to find a new orientation for philosophy in the study of the historical world. This movement, known as “Kulturphilosophie” (the philosophy of culture), was often regarded as a more conservative approach to philosophy. This chapter highlights the characteristics of Kulturphilosophie. The discipline was pioneered by the sociologist Georg Simmel and perfected by the philosopher Ernst Cassirer especially in his monumental, three-volume masterpiece, The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms.
Writers and Politics in the Weimar Republic
Authors: Gunnemann Karin
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a literary and historical glimpse into the political fortunes of the great writers and novelists of the Weimar era, focusing on Kurt Tucholsky, Alfred Döblin, and the brothers Thomas and Heinrich Mann. Tucholsky (1890–1935) was foremost a polemical political journalist, a humorist, and a writer of satiric poetry for the cabarets of Berlin. No ills of the Republic escaped his witty scrutiny, but when the Republic failed he ended his life in despair. Heinrich Mann (1871–1950) was both a prolific writer of fiction and one of Germany's leading political essayists. In response to the cultural changes of the twenties, he developed a new aesthetic for fiction that helped him preserve his utopian ideal of a democratic Germany. Döblin (1878–1957) expressed his criticism of post-war German society with greatest success in Berlin Alexanderplatz. Thomas Mann (1875–1955) is a representative of those writers who had great difficulty in moving away from their aesthetic and autonomous view of literature to a more “democratic” way of writing.
What Are Rights?
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how, among those engaged in the promotion of human rights, there is general agreement that rights are an aspect of humanity. They are not dependent on such characteristics as race, nationality, or gender, nor do they depend on a person's presence within the territory of a particular political entity. Rights, most proponents agree, are ethical norms with a legal content that requires that they should be honored and enforced by public institutions. Some rights, it is generally conceded, may be temporarily abridged by the state because of exigent circumstances; others may never be violated, no matter the context or the purported justification. In the view of many of their proponents, the rights set forth in the Universal Declaration of Rights are indivisible.
Amnesty International
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes Amnesty International, the best known and by far the largest human rights organization in the world, which was established in London in 1961. Its creation was a major milestone in the emergence of an enduring human rights movement. From the start it was intended to be a global organization. That is, those who would participate in its efforts would come from all over the world, and those on whose behalf it campaigned would be persons everywhere who suffered abuses of human rights. Today, Amnesty International is probably somewhat less influential, both in the United States and globally, than it was at its high point in the 1970s and the 1980s. Some would argue that this reflects the extension or dilution of its mandate to cover the full range of human rights issues, including economic and social rights.
Introduction
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Milner Helen V.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of what preferential trading arrangements (PTAs) are and why they are important. It covers the economic effects of PTAs, political and security effects of PTAs, PTAs in historical perspective, and the effects of domestic politics on PTAs. It then sets out the book's central argument, that trade agreements are often motivated by domestic political conditions. The book seeks to explain why leaders choose to enter these agreements. The next section discusses how the present analysis of the domestic sources of PTA formation bears on a host of important theoretical issues in the fields of international relations and political economy. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Systemic Influences on PTA Formation
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Milner Helen V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines international influences on preferential trading arrangements (PTAs). Both the incidence of PTA formation and the frequency with which states have entered such arrangements have varied over time. After World War II, few agreements were established until the 1960s, at which time there was an uptick in the creation of PTAs that lasted until the mid-1970s. For the next fifteen years or so, relatively few PTAs were formed. During the 1990s, however, states flocked to join these agreements, a trend that has continued into the twenty-first century. The chapter examines four systemic factors that previous studies have linked to these outcomes: hegemony, strategic interaction among both states and PTAs, the global business cycle, and changes in the global balance of power. It also addresses whether the number of democracies worldwide has affected PTA formation and accession. Finally, it considers the effects of features of the GATT/WTO on these outcomes.
Auxiliary Hypotheses about Domestic Politics and Trade Agreements
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Milner Helen V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines three auxiliary hypotheses that flow from the main argument. First, in countries with more veto players it is less likely that political leaders will be able to form deeper integration agreements. As trade agreements become more constraining, they will prompt greater resistance from more groups. Hence, countries marked by a large number of veto players are unlikely to accede to agreements that aim to achieve more extensive integration. Second, in the same vein, political leaders are also unlikely to enter preferential trading arrangements that include more constraints, such as a dispute settlement mechanism. Finally, in countries with more veto players, we expect greater delays between signing and ratifying agreements. As the number of veto players rises, so does the time needed for the government to convince these groups of the agreement's value and to design ways of compensating those that will be harmed by it.
Conclusions
Authors: Mansfield Edward D. , Milner Helen V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes the key findings and discusses the implications of the results for the study of international relations and international trade. It argues that that the decision to enter a preferential trading arrangement (PTA) owes much to domestic politics. Although there are other sources of trade agreements, the domestic political factors uncovered in this study have been vastly neglected. Moreover, the linkages between domestic politics and international institutions, like PTAs, have been underappreciated. Political leaders are highly attuned to their domestic political situation; they take few actions without considering the consequences for domestic politics and their longevity in office. Combining an understanding of their domestic political calculations and their foreign policy behavior may better illuminate the sources of their actions.
Phylloxera and the Development of Scientific Viti-Viniculture
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the growth in wine consumption in the second half of the nineteenth century and shows the impact of phylloxera on the French market, and how the stimulus of higher international prices led to a wine boom in Spain. At the time, Europe's growers, winemakers, and merchants had to adapt to some important changes. On the demand side, the decline in transport costs produced by the railways, rapid urbanization, and rising incomes led to per capita wine consumption in France reaching more than 160 liters in the 1900s, and there were significant increases in other countries. The growth in consumption was all the more impressive given that the vine disease phylloxera vastatrix destroyed large areas of Europe's vineyards. In addition, the chapter discusses the development of scientific viticulture and wine making, and the appearance of large-scale wineries in the Midi and Algeria.
Champagne
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks briefly at the early history of champagne and the dramatic increase in production in the late nineteenth century. Champagne producers were the most successful of all producers in establishing brand names, informing consumers of wine quality, and associating the drink with the needs of the rapidly changing lifestyles of the middle and upper classes in rich urban societies during the nineteenth century. The chapter also considers the organization of the commodity chain favoring the champagne houses over British retailers, the response of the champagne houses and small growers to the phylloxera crisis, and the collapse of local production and importation of large quantities of outside wines after 1906. In the end, despite the crisis, the champagne producers were still more successful than those in other wine regions in controlling the quality of their product.
Introduction
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers what drives differences in political and legal institutions across countries, narrowing the focus to the evolution of legislatures and courts in the American states. The American states have relatively diverse geographic and colonial initial conditions, well-documented historical experiences, and rich data on politics and courts going back to the 1860s, making it ideal for the study methods this chapter introduces. Hence, to document how and why geography and other historical factors have had a persistent influence on political and legal institutions, this chapter plots out the structure of an argument to be used in the remainder of this volume, and argues that initial conditions played early and enduring roles in shaping political and legal institutions in the American states.
Auden in “Atlantis”
Authors: Wasley Aidan
Published: November 2017

This chapter first details W. H. Auden's arrival in New York in January 1939. His emigration from England, and his arrival in America marked a crucial moment in twentieth-century literary history, when the heir apparent to T. S. Eliot as the dominant presence in British poetry abandoned his English career and retraced Eliot's own path back across the Atlantic to start anew. The impact of that moment, and Auden's subsequent American career, are still being felt in American poetry seven decades later. The chapter then discusses his poem “Atlantis,” where he invokes the myth of the lost utopia, to illustrate what he calls “a poetic vision” of art's capacity for moral instruction, even as it recognizes its limitations.
The Old Sources
Authors: Wasley Aidan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses Auden's influence on Adrienne Rich. It argues that from her early emulation through her mature repudiation of his example, Auden's place in Rich's work and thought has persisted. As both an individual influence and as a representative of an entire range of poetic concerns which she has inherited and adapted, Auden comes to stand for poetic tradition itself—the tradition that gave her birth, and through and against which she has striven to define herself. For Rich, Auden sets the poetic terms—not always positively—out of which she constructs her own poetic identity. Like poetry itself, the figure of Auden and what he represents have been, throughout her career, ineluctable.
Concepts of Niches
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes a formal and operational definition of a particular niche concept, introduces approaches for characterizing and measuring it, and uses it as a conceptual and terminological basis for describing and understanding much of the related practices of ecological niche modeling and species distribution modeling. It begins with a discussion of the themes that are most important in understanding niche concepts, focusing on three interrelated points: the meaning of “exist indefinitely”; what kinds of variables constitute the hypervolume; and the nature of feedback loops between a species and the variables composing the hypervolume. The chapter then considers the Grinnellian and Eltonian niches as well as the practicalities of estimating Grinnellian niches. It also considers two important interpretations of the niche concept, one of which is concerned with geographic and environmental spaces, and the other emphasizes the Eltonian niche.
The Geography of Disease Transmission
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses various applications of ecological niche modeling in the study of the geography and ecology of disease transmission. Niche modeling approaches have many applications in the field of public health and epidemiology. Among the most common spatial epidemiological applications are mapping geographic patterns of disease transmission risk, identification of risk factors, and assessment of populations at risk of infection. The chapter describes a number of applications of ecological niche modeling in the realm of disease transmission, such as characterizing disease ecology, disease distributions and risk mapping, and potential distributions of pathogens or other individual component species in transmission systems, as well as forecasting disease transmission patterns in the face of ongoing global climate change. It also reviews practical considerations to keep in mind when exploring such applications and outlines some caveats, limitations, and challenges involved. Finally, it suggests future directions for research.
Linguistic Policies, Disenfranchisement, and Standardization
Authors: Ginsburgh Victor , Weber Shlomo
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes how linguistic policies have led to the alienation and disenfranchisement of various groups or individuals restricted in their linguistic rights. It starts with a brief tour of linguistic challenges faced by mankind since what is known as the curse of the Tower of Babel. To guarantee cohesiveness and efficiency in a society, some compromising on language standardization, rooted in Max Weber's rationalization theory, becomes an essential part of public policies. Though standardization is appealing, it may have the undesirable consequence of disenfranchising various groups in a society. The chapter discusses both facets and describes various examples of standardization policies, as well as their intended and unintended consequences. It argues that economic advantages of standardization are important, but the threat of survival and the feeling of disenfranchisement by those who face restrictions of their linguistic privileges, deemed to be rights, have to be taken into account. Respecting the will of the people is a necessary condition for any sustainable success of long-range policies in a democratic setting.
The Procedure of Meta-analysis in a Nutshell
Authors: Côté Isabelle M. , Jennions Michael D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first presents two figures to summarize the entire meta-analytic process. The first covers Part I, the initial stage of formulating a question and systematically searching the primary literature for suitable studies. The second covers Part II, the stage at which you extract data from publications, run statistical tests, and present and interpret your results. The two figures explicitly link each step to the relevant chapters. However, readers must be aware that the exact content of the activities in each box in the figures can vary considerably among meta-analyses. The remainder of the chapter provides a short description of what each step involves and tips based on the authors' personal experiences.
Ontogenetic Niche Shifts, Predators, and Coexistence among Consumer Species
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how stage structure and ontogenetic niche shifts may affect the coexistence between two consumer species competing for two resources in the absence and presence of predators, and how ontogenetic niche shifts may give rise to alternative stable states. More specifically, the analysis will use techniques developed within the consumer-resource framework of Tilman (1982), including consumption and renewal vectors (Schellekens, de Roos, and Persson 2010). Tilman showed that stable coexistence between consumers feeding on the same two resources is possible if each consumer species feeds proportionally more on the resource that limits its own growth most. Stable coexistence is, however, also affected by the form of resource-dependent growth isoclines, which represent combinations of resource densities that lead to equal population growth of consumers. It is shown that ontogenetic niche shifts per se affect the form of resource-dependent growth isoclines, which in turn may lead to coexistence through niche partitioning. The chapter also discusses how predation may promote the performance of a species undergoing ontogenetic niche shifts even in the case where it is both the inferior competitor and the preferred prey of the predator.
After State-Socialism in Europe: Slovenia, Russia, and Romania
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines three East European states: Slovenia, a small country that has enjoyed a smooth transition to democracy and market economy; Russia, the world's largest state, which has failed to establish democratic rule; and Romania, a medium-sized Balkan country that, following some early stumbling, found its way into NATO and the European Union. The three postcommunist states suggest very different experiences of building democratic armies. No postcommunist country had fewer major problems in establishing democratic civil–military relations than Slovenia, even though it had to create a new army on the rather flimsy foundations of the Territorial Defense Force. Meanwhile, the specific shortcomings of Russian military politics reflect the power relations that have doomed Russia's democratization prospects. Romania's postcommunist record of building civil–military relations falls between the two others in terms of democratic performance, though it is much closer to Slovenia than to Russia.
Introduction
Authors: Litvin Margaret
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter summarizes the journey of Shakespeare's Hamlet through the post-1952 Arab world and discusses this study's contributions to Arab politics and literary studies in general. Here, the chapter shows how the character Hamlet's central concern is the problem of historical agency. He asks what it means “to be” rather than “not to be” in a world where “the time is out of joint” and one's very existence as a historical actor is threatened. He thus encapsulates a debate coeval with and largely constitutive of modern Arab identity: the problem of self-determination and authenticity. Following Hamlet's Arab journey, the chapter attempts to clarify one of the most central and widely misunderstood preoccupations of modern Arab politics.
The Global Kaleidoscope: How Egyptians Got Their Hamlet, 1901–64
Authors: Litvin Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the global kaleidoscope theory as a much-needed revision to the Prospero-and-Caliban model of postcolonial rewriting. To this end, the chapter summarizes the actual kaleidoscope of Hamlets available to Egyptian theatre professionals and audiences by 1964. It argues that the origins of Arab Shakespeare were varied; different sources gained importance in different periods. Nineteenth-century French sources helped plant the seeds of a decisive, heroic Hamlet in pursuit of justice. Direct-from-English translations, with a greater commitment to treating Shakespeare's plays as written texts, became part of the kaleidoscope by the 1930s, as did German-inspired Romantic readings of Hamlet's introspective depths. At the juncture of these competing approaches, the chapter considers a high-profile Egyptian production of Hamlet in 1964–65: an effort to mediate between the British and Soviet readings of Hamlet and a bid to claim Egypt's place on the world stage by showing mastery of the “world classics.”
Hamletizing the Arab Muslim Hero, 1964–67
Authors: Litvin Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a related bid for political agency (1964–67): the pursuit of interiorized subjectivity as proof of moral personhood. As the Egyptian theatre grew more ambitious, playwrights strove to create dramatic exemplars of authentic Arab political action. This in turn required characters who were “deep” enough to qualify as fully fledged moral subjects and hence modern political agents, such as Hamlet. Looking at two landmark plays in which critics have heard Hamletian echoes, Sulayman of Aleppo by Alfred Farag and The Tragedy of Al-Hallaj by Salah Abdel Sabur, the chapter argues that the “Hamletization” of their Muslim protagonists is neither subversive in spirit nor driven by any desire to seize mastery of a colonizer's text. Rather, Hamlet serves as a model and even an emblem of psychological interiority.
Six Plays in Search of a Protagonist, 1976–2002
Authors: Litvin Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines six Arab Hamlet offshoot plays performed between 1976 and 2002, describing how the Egyptian, Syrian, and Iraqi dramatists of the past thirty-five years have since deployed Hamlet for dramatic irony. The most recent of these plays, written in English, stands on the margins of the Arab Hamlet tradition. But the rest, aware of their predecessors' heroic Hamlet, turn him into a foil for their own pointedly inarticulate and ineffectual protagonists. These bitter, often hilarious plays criticize the political situation, but they are at their best in mocking allegorical political theatre. The only real political agency available, they suggest, is the power to set oneself above one's circumstances through ironic laughter.
The Case Studies: Policy Issue Substance and the Political Behavior of Members of Congress
Authors: Lapinski John S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how policy issue substance matters for studying political preferences at the micro level, while reconsidering Poole and Rosenthal's analysis of the 95th Congress (1977–78). In their analysis of the 95th Congress, they find evidence that they interpret to mean that issue scales do not vary. The chapter suggests that it is possible to agree wholeheartedly with the low-dimensionality findings of Poole and Rosenthal, but at the same time, members of Congress have distinct preferences across policy issue areas. Measuring the preferences of members of Congress correctly is absolutely vital for empirical testing of theories and hypotheses as well as for inductive-based work on lawmaking. The remainder of the chapter presents five case studies of lawmaking, which show in a more fine-grained manner the impact of policy preferences across time and issues.
Introduction
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, namely to provide a thick description of Athenian status, ultimately broaching larger questions about the relationship between Athenian citizenship and civic ideology. “Civic ideology” here refers to the conception that all Athenian citizens—and only Athenian citizens—were autochthonous (that is, descended from ancestors “born from the earth” of Attica) and engaged in the political and military life of the city. This survey of statuses will demonstrate, among other things, that Athenian democracy was both more closed and more open than civic ideology might lead us to think: on the one hand, only some citizen males exercised full citizen rights; on the other, even noncitizens and naturalized citizens were, to varying degrees, partial shareholders in the Athenian polis.
Privileged Chattel Slaves
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on a subcategory of chattel slave, known as “privileged” slaves. Privileged slaves were on the cusp of freedom: they held a number of rights, and manumission was actually attainable for them, given sufficient accumulated income. Socially, they possessed more honor than the basest chattel slaves, though as chattel, they were still in many ways “socially dead.” Moreover, the economic status of (at least some) privileged slaves clearly was a source of frustration for citizens. By possessing more wealth and privileges than poor, juridically free citizens, these slaves must have implicitly called into question the value of “freedom,” a concept assigned tremendous importance by the Greeks.
Introduction
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book focuses on two main facets of the philosophy of language: its contribution to the development of a theoretical framework for studying language; and the investigation of foundational concepts—truth, reference, meaning, possibility, propositions, assertion, and implicature—that are needed for this investigation, and important for philosophy as a whole. Part 1 traces major milestones in the development of the theoretical framework for studying the semantic structure of language. Part 2 explores new ways of thinking about what meaning is, and how it is distinguished from aspects of language use.
The Jewish Soldier between Memory and Reality
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the Jews' historic self-image as a people that shuns what the Hebrew writer S.Y. Agnon called “the craft of Esau, the waging of war.” The notion of Jews as wards of divine and state authority derives from both rabbinic tradition and the specific conditions of Jewish life in medieval Christian and Muslim civilizations. Committed to maintaining their faith and community, Jews had little reason to cross social boundaries or endanger their lives through military service. The historical memory of Russian and Polish Jewry is replete with images of harsh military service and tales of fleeing the country in order to avoid it. Like all historical memory, this narrative blends fact with fiction. Eastern European Jews engaged in a variety of paramilitary activities long before conscription into the tsar's army, and once the draft was implemented in the nineteenth century, their experiences were not uniformly miserable.
The Military as a Jewish Occupation
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the social background of Jewish military officers, the financial implications of a military career upon marriage and the formation of broader social networks, and the interplay between finance and social capital in a family that could boast of one or more army officers. It also compares the high rates of Jewish military careerism in France, Italy, and Austria-Hungary with much lower rates in the post-Civil War United States and in the United Kingdom. This disparity suggests that Jewish military careerism was linked not only to levels of emancipation but also to the prestige of a military career in each national culture. The chapter then uses the life stories of Jewish soldiers to throw new light on the relationship between Jews, the military, and the broader societies in which they lived.
When May We Kill Our Brethren? Jews at War
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Jewish wartime sensibilities. As Jews began to serve in substantial numbers in the armies of Europe and North America, their patriotic inclinations clashed with their transnational attachments to Jews in the lands against which their country was fighting. This problem first emerged during the revolutions of 1848, when Jews fought both as rebels and as soldiers in the Habsburg armies, and it was the object of considerable discussion in the European-Jewish press. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 was far more traumatic as it sundered the French- and German-Jewish communities, which had long known close business and familial ties. Rabbinic sermons, fiction, and Jewish apologetic literature displayed a powerful transnationalist sensibility, a feeling of Jewish commonality even in times of war. As such, the willingness of Jews to fight each other was heralded as the ultimate proof of worthiness for equal rights.
Modeling Multiparty Competition
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of the need for a new approach to modeling party competition. It then makes a case for the use of agent-based modeling to study multiparty competition in an evolving dynamic party system, given the analytical intractability of the decision-making environment, and the resulting need for real politicians to rely on informal decision rules. Agent-based models (ABMs) are “bottom-up” models that typically assume settings with a fairly large number of autonomous decision-making agents. Each agent uses some well-specified decision rule to choose actions, and there may be considerable diversity in the decision rules used by different agents. Given the analytical intractability of the decision-making environment, the decision rules that are specified and investigated in ABMs are typically based on adaptive learning rather than forward-looking strategic analysis, and agents are assumed to have bounded rather than perfect rationality. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Party Leaders with Policy Preferences
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter adapts the dynamic model of multiparty competition to take into account the possibility that party leaders take their own preferences into account when they set party policy. If they do this, they must make trade-offs between satisfying their private policy preferences and some other objective, whether this is maximizing party vote share or pleasing current party supporters. Models that specify such trade-offs have often been found intractable using traditional analytical techniques. However, they are straightforward to specify and analyze using computational agent-based modeling, though this does require a rethinking of the types of decision rules that party leaders might use. The chapter finds an analogue of the earlier finding that insatiable party leaders may win fewer votes than satiable leaders. Leaders who care only about their party's vote share may win fewer votes over the long haul than leaders who also care about their own policy preferences.
A Piece of the Action
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on how Navajo nationalism attempted to alter the spatial dynamics that subordinated Navajo claims to control their land to metropolitan demands for inexpensive power. Metropolitan demand produced the notion that Navajos possessed massive mineral wealth, and this allowed young activists to imagine the Nation as space colonized by the greedy cities of the Southwest. It allowed Navajo leader Peter MacDonald to imagine the formation of a Navajo state powerful enough to control the distribution of power in the region. Moreover, all versions of Navajo nationalism recognized that metropolitan growth depended on the resources located on their land. As such, Navajo nationalists attempted to manipulate the Southwestern cities' dependence on Indian resources to produce meaningful power within the region.
The Lives behind Economic Lives
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter first sets out the book's purpose, namely to trace the author's intellectual journey through the obscure borderlands of culture and the economy. Although the chapters draw mainly on evidence from the United States since about 1850, they address issues of concern to anyone anywhere who wants to clarify how shared understandings and interpersonal relations infuse and shape the ostensibly impersonal worlds of production, consumption, distribution, and asset transfers. The chapter goes on to present a review of the author's personal itinerary through the study of economic phenomena; a sketch of how the field of economic sociology took shape from the 1980s onward, including her place within it; and reflections on current relations between the disciplines of economics and sociology.