bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Task Based Evaluation in Error Analysis and Accident Prevention
Authors: Resnick Marc L.
Published: January 2012

After a system failure that is attributed to human error, an accurate accounting of the factors that led to the error is critical for redesign efforts and any resulting litigation. Without data on the design components or environmental factors that contributed to the error, the human is indicted, either legally or in the press, no system redesign is conducted and the failure will be repeated at the cost of additional damage and/or lives. However, rarely is the human at fault because of intentional negligence. There are always design or environmental factors that interacted with the person's training, knowledge, motivation and other factors that can be affected by the system. Accident investigations must be conducted to identify these factors and guide redesign efforts. An even better situation would be if this same testing occurred before the system was released to the market. This requires prediction and simulation of the people who will use the system, the tasks that will be attempted, the motivations of system users, and the environmental factors that will interact with the system. Testing systems under controlled laboratory conditions is generally insufficient to identify potential sources of human error. This paper describes the critical components of task-based evaluation and presents a case study to illustrate the consequences of failure to use TBE.
Comparing Traditional and Computerized Data Collection Methods: Applications for Warning Research
Authors: Whitney Dylan D. , Braun Curt C.
Published: January 2012

Despite the benefits of the technology, adoption of computerized data collection has been slow. Application development costs and a potential loss of experimental control have both worked to inhibit the advancement of this technology. This study compared a low-cost, Web-based, survey development tool with the traditional paper and pencil method. 91 undergraduates completed a simple warnings experiment using either a paper survey or a Web-based computer survey. Results from these studies were compared to evaluate possible differences associated with delivery method. Analysis of the data found no significant main effect for delivery method and no significant interactions involving method. The lack of differences and similarities in the collected data are encouraging. Web-based data collection methods can enhance existing warnings research methods and participant populations.
Multiple Notifications in Desktop Computing
Authors: Boring Ronald Laurids
Published: January 2012

This paper describes current research on the attentional effects and usability of multiple notifications. An experiment is described in which 25 participants encountered one, two, or four simultaneous onscreen notifications during cognitively effortful or simple computer tasks. The time participants attended to the notifications vs. the primary computer task served as a measure of the distraction caused by the notifications. Multiple notifications were found to be significantly more distracting than single notifications. While there was a large difference in distraction time between one and two notifications, there was minimal difference in the distraction caused by two vs. four notifications. There was also a significant difference in distraction time for cognitively effortful vs. cognitively simple tasks, but there were no significant interactions. It is concluded that in order to mitigate user disruption, software designers should restrict the number of notifications that are presented on a computer display simultaneously.
Development of a Test Protocol to Demonstrate the Effects of Secondary Tasks on Closed-Course Driving Performance
Authors: Ranney Thomas A. , Mazzae Elizabeth N. , Garrott W. Riley , Barickman Frank S.
Published: January 2012

To assess the relative distraction potential associated with a variety of in-vehicle tasks, we developed a test protocol that provides an objective basis for demonstrating the tradeoffs between primary and secondary task performance in driving. The protocol includes two summary scores, one representing driving performance and one representing secondary-task performance. Driving performance was evaluated on a 1.3-mile test course, which included straight and curved road segments, a signalized intersection, a simulated work zone, two changeable-message signs, and six unexpected events. Secondary tasks included mental arithmetic, reading, writing, phone dialing, CD changing, route-guidance destination entry, eating, drinking and grooming. Twelve subjects drove an instrumented vehicle for 9 or 10 timed laps of the test course, each while performing a different secondary task or none (baseline). On average, we found a 15% decrement in driving performance scores on laps in which subjects engaged in a secondary task. Driving performance decrements were observed on 88% of these trials. Differences were observed between different secondary tasks. The pilot test results demonstrate the potential usefulness of the test protocol for assessing tradeoffs between primary and secondary tasks in driving.
History and Future of a Human Factors Laboratory (Summary)
Authors: Ward N.
Published: January 2012

This paper provides a summary for a symposium comprised of a variety of presentation to illustrate the historical factors that may influence the f development of a Human Factors laboratory and a Human Factors research agenda in surface transportation. This symposium will not only present research that is specifically relevant to surface transportation safety, but also highlights some general principles of Human Factors research methodology.
Driver Choice of Headway with Auditory Warnings
Authors: Hurwitz Joshua B. , Wheatley David J.
Published: January 2012

Two major causes of rear-end collisions are driver distraction and the tendency for some drivers to maintain insufficient headways with other vehicles. Previous research into in-vehicle collision avoidance systems has focused on warning drivers in near-collision situations with short headways (e.g., less than 1 second). The current study focused on mid-range headways and on warning distracted drivers to maintain safe following distances. Subjects performed a simulated car-following task in which the lead vehicle periodically decelerated. The lead vehicle was otherwise programmed to maintain a minimum following distance of 2 seconds—although the subjects could drive more slowly to leave a longer headway. On trips with an auditory headway warning, the subjects tended to leave larger headways, particularly on trips in which they performed a secondary task as well.
Application of Information Visualization Principles at Various Stages of System Development
Authors: Quill Laurie L. , Kancler David E. , Revels Allen R. , Batchelor Cheryl
Published: January 2012

Designing and developing effective information visualizations requires a systematic approach. This Practitioner Paper identifies how innovative information visualizations can be integrated into standard systems development processes. While information visualizations already exist for the design of user interfaces, new methods frequently offer further improvement in information displays. Designers should consider incorporating these advancements wherever possible. The Systems Development Process provides the structure necessary to integrate new information visualizations throughout the design process. This paper describes specific examples whereby innovative information visualization methods were integrated into a USAF R&D design effort during several phases of its development. Information visualization methods include use of micro/macro salience displays, visual language, and axiomatic designs. This approach not only improved the quality of the user displays through advancing information visualization techniques, it also minimized design modifications through use of the system development processes.
Panel on Complementary Methods of Modeling Team Performance
Authors: Pharmer James A. , Freeman Jared T. , Scott-Nash Shelly , Santoro Thomas P. , Kieras David
Published: January 2012

While computational team modeling techniques and tools have advanced significantly, relatively few efforts have incorporated several distinct approaches toward a common goal. The Office of Naval Research sponsored Manning Affordability Initiative has applied 3 modeling technologies to a single domain (air defense warfare), a common scenario, and watchstation technologies (current AEGIS technology and human-centered design prototypes). This has provided an unusual opportunity to investigate these tools, and ways in which they can be used together. Team Optimal Design (TOD) focuses on team modeling. Integrated Performance Modelling Environment (IPME) uses a general task modeling technique that applies well to individuals or teams. The GOMS Language Evaluation and Analysis Tool (GLEAN) combines individual models of users interacting as a team. This panel discussion focuses on these 3 methods and their combined uses. Further, a human-in-the-loop experiment conducted to provide data against which to validate the computational models will be summarized.
Including the Soldier in Military Simulations: Modeling the Psychological Effects of Anti-Personnel Landmines
Authors: Morgan Eugenia M. Kolasinski
Published: January 2012

Computer modeling and simulation is a valuable tool for warfare simulation and weapons analysis/evaluation. Although it is agreed that anti-personnel landmines (APLs) are very powerful psychological weapons, their psychological effects are not incorporated into current mine warfare simulations. This paper focuses on issues involved in the incorporation of APL psychological effects into computer models. Three basic approaches for incorporating fear into mine warfare models are presented. Within these approaches, issues about the experimental study, quantification, and use in the model of the effect of interest are discussed. Issues of the necessary level of fidelity for mine warfare simulation are also approached. Although the simulation of mine warfare presents unique challenges, a discussion of these issues may be relevant to developers of other types of simulations incorporating human representation.
A Consumer's Guide to Internet Questionnaire Development Tools
Authors: Linegang Michael P. , Rivard Jessica L. , Schoeling Scott E. , Williams Heather L.
Published: January 2012

Internet-based questionnaires are emerging as a source of information for human factors and ergonomics researchers. There are a variety of commercially available tools that can assist researchers in the production of the questionnaire and collection of data. Four commercially available tools for the construction of Internet-based questionnaires were selected and evaluated for their use in human factors research. This product review provides a comparison of relevant features and recommendations on the value and usefulness of these tools. The authors recommend 2 of the tools, Zoomerang.com and WebSurveyor.com , which offer a broad array of features for questionnaire creation, data collection, and analysis.
Handling Awkward Usability Testing Situations
Authors: Patel Mona , Loring Beth
Published: January 2012

You are half way through a usability test session, and the participant s cell phone rings. She answers it and says it s her child calling and she has to leave immediately, but she ll be back in 45 minutes to finish the test What should you do? In the course of running hundreds of product evaluations, we have encountered some awkward and unusual situations. These situations involve issues with participants, with the software or product being tested, and with the test protocol. Among the factors that we consider when resolving these issues include the participant s rights and psychological well-being, the cost to replace the participant s test session, the importance of adhering strictly to the recruiting criteria, and how eliminating the test session might affect the integrity of the protocol or data. In this paper, we describe some real-life sticky testing situations and discuss the factors we considered in resolving each issue.
Comparing Learning Curves of Experts and Novices: A Novel Approach to the Study of Simulator Effectiveness and Fidelity
Authors: Gopher Daniel , Sivan Roi , Iani Cristina
Published: January 2012

We describe a new approach to the study of simulator fidelity and training efficiency. It is based on comparing learning curves of novice trainees and domain experts in a simulator. The major claim is that if a simulator represents a relevant environment for the training of the operational task, domain experts performance should show a major advantage over novice trainees. Two measures of domain expert performance are important in the evaluation of the simulator. One is the distance (in training hours or sessions) between performance levels of novices and domain experts. It reflects the difficulty of the measured ability and the predicted amount of training required by novices to reach expert levels. A second measure, which represents simulator fidelity, is the distance between expert performance and performance asymptote in the simulator. The approach has been successfully applied in the study of a desktop, partial task flight simulator.
Tenor - Architecture and Software for Advanced Distributed Learning
Authors: Tibaudo Cheryl , Schroeder John , Kristl Joseph , Sorensen H. Barbara , MacCuish Donald
Published: January 2012

Rapid deployment of competent military teams worldwide requires operationally trained personnel to be prepared to manage all threats and employ all contingencies. Currently, these force protector teams are comprised of individuals differing in competency skill levels in fields of medicine, intelligence, communication, and security. Additionally, these force protectors assigned to a team originate from different geographical locations with varied operational backgrounds. Further hindering the force protector team mission, individual team members likely are unfamiliar with each other, have no detailed knowledge of the deployment location, and are not trained in the specifics of the tasks to be performed. It is essential that training begin at the initiation of the assignment through arrival at the theater of operation. However, traditional training methodologies and strategies deter the force protectors' development of mission capabilities. The paper describes the design and development of an ADL training system utilizing Web technology and hand-held deployable computers and cell phones.
Computational Model of Recognition-Primed Decisions (RPD): Improving Realism in Computer-Generated Forces (CGF)
Authors: Hutton Robert J. B. , Warwick Walter , Stanard Terry , McDermott Patricia L. , McIlwaine Stacey
Published: January 2012

Modeling an intelligent adversary has provided great challenges to simulated training realism. Traditional approaches to modeling have relied on rule-based and analytical decision-making models in an attempt to optimize the decision making of an intelligent computer-generated adversary. In order to promote realistic transfer of training in the realm of command and control, the trainee must experience realistic decision-making behavior in the enemy. This means that the enemy must make realistic decisions based on environmental constraints, goals, and intent. The enemy's decisions must then be reflected by the simulated agents. The Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) Model is a descriptive model of expert decision making in real-world settings. We have several related projects where the goal is to translate the conceptual RPD Model into a computer model that can simulate realistic expert decision making. In attempting this feat, we have discovered many valuable lessons about modeling cognition and decision making, and about the assumptions and mechanisms underlying the RPD Model. The purpose of this paper is to report those findings.
Investigation of Surface Characteristic Effects on Real-Virtual Object Alignment in Stereoscopic Augmented Reality Images
Authors: Hou Ming , Milgram Paul
Published: January 2012

This paper reports a virtual pointer alignment experiment carried out in a stereoscopic augmented reality environment, in which the known conflict between binocular fusion and object interposition cues is expected to play a major role. The object was to evaluate subjects' perceptual sensitivity to target position at designated probe points on a cylindrical real object surface, visual texture of that surface, virtual pointer geometrical properties, and degree of binocular disparity. The results confirmed the primary findings from previous experiments: that both surface texture and target position have significant influences. Subjective evaluation of form of the virtual pointer revealed that the three dimensional pointer was preferred over the one and two-dimensional pointers.
Head-Up vs. Head-Down: Effects of Precision on Cue Effectiveness and Display Signaling
Authors: Yeh Michelle , Wickens Christopher D. , Merlo MAJ James L. , Brandenburg David L.
Published: January 2012

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the attentional effects in the presentation of cueing symbology with the use of a helmet-mounted display (HMD) relative to a handheld display, and how reduced cue precision (experiment 1) and increased clutter (experiment 2) might modulate these effects. Participants were asked to detect, identify, and give azimuth information for targets hidden in terrain presented in the far domain (i.e., the world) while performing a monitoring task in the near domain (i.e., the display) using either a HMD or hand-held display. The results revealed overall cueing benefits in target detection performance, with slight decrements when cue imprecision was greater than 7.5°. More importantly, undertrust of the cueing data, induced by decreased precision, widened attentional breadth on trials after the automation unexpectedly failed.
Extreme Responses to Virtual Environment Exposure
Authors: Kingdon Kelly S. , Stanney Kay M. , Kennedy Robert S.
Published: January 2012

An emetic response (a.k.a. vomiting) is certainly one of the most extreme responses to virtual environment (VE) exposure. This unpleasant response is thankfully quite rare (approximately 1–2%) but when it does occur, the individuals afflicted are generally quite distraught that something that looks akin to watching television can have such adverse consequences. This paper examines the experiences of individuals who have had an emetic response during or after VE exposure. An effort is made to both identify factors that may predict who vomits and characterize the extent of symptoms they experience. Results indicate that VE system designers may be able to reduce emetic response rates by streamlining user movement control and simplifying visual scene content. The results also indicate it may prove difficult with current measures to predict who will experience an emetic response.
Use of Force-Feedback Joysticks to Promote Teamwork in Virtual Teleoperation
Authors: Glynn Steven J. , Fekieta Renee , Henning Robert A.
Published: January 2012

Force feedback about fellow team-member control actions was evaluated as a means to improve team coordination and performance in virtual teleoperation. Each member of a two-person team received continuous force feedback about the other team- member's joystick control movements. In Study 1 (N=22 teams), participants worked in parallel to control vertical and horizontal forces exerted on a simulated inertial object. Although force feedback improved joystick coordination between participants, teleoperation performance worsened. In Study 2 (N=24 teams) where participants instead had direct control over horizontal and vertical position of a cursor, force feedback improved both joystick coordination and teleoperation performance. Performance impairment in Study 1 may be explained by the visual feedback of inertial movements being asynchronous to the social force feedback. These findings suggest force feedback about team member control actions can benefit team coordination and performance during virtual teleoperation only if it is synchronous with feedback about system response.
Investigating Communication as a Possible Mediator of Team Performance in Distributed Environments
Authors: Commarford Patrick M. , Kring Jason P. , Singer Michael J.
Published: January 2012

The U.S. Army Research Institute is investigating the use of virtual environment (VE) technologies to train personnel in distributed simulations. As part of this endeavor, we compared the communication activities of 2 team types as they completed a series of missions in a common VE. Local teams were comprised of 2 members situated in the same physical location, whereas distributed team members were separated geographically and had no opportunity for face-to-face communication. Following the first 7 (of 8 total) missions, communications were recorded as each team completed an after action review of their performance. Analyses of the amount and type of communication acts revealed no significant differences between local and distributed teams, even though significant performance differences were found for these team types during the VE missions. Results suggest that nonverbal communication likely mediated the relationship between networking condition and team performance.
A Flight Simulator Usability Assessment of a Multi-function Flight-planning and Navigation Display for General Aviation
Authors: Beringer Dennis B. , Ball Jerry D.
Published: January 2012

A human-factors and usability evaluation was performed on a beta version of a major manufacturer's flight-planning and in-flight navigation multifunction display in the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute's (CAMI's) Advanced General Aviation Research Simulator (AGARS), configured as a Piper Malibu (single-engine, complex aircraft). The evaluation was an open-ended process wherein data collection continued until consistent response patterns were uncovered. Data indicated general acceptance of the software package by the participating pilots. However, several recommendations for improvement arose from pilot consensus in the posttest questionnaire and interview that matched design criteria listed in a multi-function-display certification pocket guide being developed at CAMI. Changes to menu structure and data-entry logic were mentioned by nearly all of the participants, and included: navigation and route editing should occur on the same display page; a “back” or “undo” key is needed; and keys should be consistently placed across different pages. Findings are discussed in terms of cognitive loading, pilot expectations (stereotypes), and internal consistency.
International Space Station Robotic Systems Operations - a Human Factors Perspective
Authors: Currie Nancy J. , Peacock Brian
Published: January 2012

Assembly and maintenance of the International Space Station (ISS) relies heavily on the use of extravehicular robotic systems. When fully assembled the ISS robotics complement will include three main manipulators, two small dexterous arms, and a mobile base and transporter system. The complexity and mobility of the systems and limited opportunities for direct viewing of the Space Station's exterior makes telerobotic operations an especially challenging task. Although fundamental manipulator design, control systems, and strategies for autonomous versus manual control vary greatly between the systems, commonality in the design of workstation controls and displays is considered essential to enhance operator performance and reduce the possibility of errors. Principal human factors opportunities are associated with workstation layout, human-computer interface considerations, adequacy of alignment cues for maintenance of safe approach corridors during mating tasks, spatial awareness challenges, integration of supplemental computer graphic displays to enhance operator global situational awareness, and training methodologies for preservation of critical skills during long-duration missions.
Space Human Factors Advanced Development Projects
Authors: Woolford B. , Rathjen T. , Whitmore M. , Rajulu S. , Novak J. Blume , McCandless J. , Peacock B.
Published: January 2012

The NASA Space Human Factors community engages in activities that range from basic research through advanced development projects to applications associated with ongoing programs such as the International Space Station and the Shuttle. This panel of NASA human factors specialists will present information relating to advanced development projects aimed at the creation of tools that can be applied to the analysis, design and evaluation of space vehicles and operations, and future space vehicle design concepts. The projects are: “The voice of the customer” - a description of the multiple pathways used to obtain astronaut information and opinion; International Space Station emergency medical procedure evaluation and redesign; the “magic windows” project which provides a multifunctional display system for operations and personal use on space vehicles and analogs; analytical approaches to digitally scanned crew member anthropometric data; crew member activity measurement, modeling and scheduling; evaluation of the upgraded displays of the Space Shuttle cockpit; and finally a description of the updated, electronic version of the space human factors engineering database.
Tactical vs. Strategic Behavior: General Aviation Piloting in Convective Weather Scenarios
Authors: Latorella Kara A. , Chamberlain James P.
Published: January 2012

We commonly describe environments and behavioral responses to environmental conditions as “tactical” and “strategic.” However theoretical research defining relevant environmental characteristics is rare, as are empirical investigations that would inform such theory. This paper discusses General Aviation (GA) pilots' descriptions of tactical/strategic conditions with respect to weather flying, and evaluates their ratings along a tactical/strategic scale in response to real convective weather scenarios experienced during a flight experiment with different weather information cues. Perceived risk was significantly associated with ratings for all experimental conditions. In addition, environmental characteristics were found to be predictive of ratings for Traditional IMC (instrument meteorological conditions), i.e., aural weather information only, and Traditional VMC (visual meteorological conditions), i.e., aural information and an external view. The paper also presents subjects' comments regarding use of Graphical Weather Information Systems (GWISs) to support tactical and strategic weather flying decisions and concludes with implications for the design and use of GWISs.
The Effects of an Airborne Inter-Arrival Spacing Tool on Pilot Workload and Acceptability
Authors: Helbing Katrin G. , Eischeid Todd , Oseguera-Lohr Rosa M.
Published: January 2012

An airborne inter-arrival spacing tool was developed by NASA Langley Research Center to aid pilots in maintaining a time-based spacing interval behind another aircraft in the arrival sequence. A number of display features, including numeric speed commands, a speed pointer on the Fast/Slow Indicator, and graphical depiction of the desired aircraft position on the navigation display, were developed to assist pilots in maintaining the proper speed to achieve the required spacing interval. Because the use of such automated tools requires the acceptance of the user population, a study was conducted to assess the impact on user workload and acceptability. The tool was tested in a full-task simulation in a Boeing-757 full-mission, fixed-base simulator. Subject pilots were paired with a confederate pilot to complete tasks in both the pilot flying and pilot not flying positions. This paper presents the subjective evaluations of the inter-arrival spacing tool. The qualitative workload data from eight current B-757 airline pilots are compared from the perspectives of tool usability and acceptability, and the ability to attain and maintain the appropriate time interval spacing. Results of the study indicate that the pilots who participated in the study were comfortable using the Advanced Terminal Area Approach Spacing (ATAAS) tool and were confident in the automated spacing guidance that the tool provided. The ATAAS tool did not increase perceived pilot workload as compared to an approach conducted under standard (current-day) conditions.
Peripheral Arterial Tone as an On-Line Measure of Flight Load
Authors: Iani Cristina , Gopher Daniel , Grunwald Arthur J. , Lavie Peretz
Published: January 2012

We investigated variations in continuous and discrete flight demands in a simulated flight mission employing a novel physiological measure of invested effort, Peripheral Arterial Tone (PAT).

Twelve male subjects performed a computer-simulated agricultural flight task. They were required to fly over a specific lane of a field (continuous task) and change lanes in response to flags, which were presented at varying intervals (discrete task). The difficulty of the flight task was manipulated by changing the plane control (single-vs. dual-axis control), while the difficulty associated with the discrete events was manipulated by varying the amount of lateral change signalled by the flag (no change vs. 1.5 or 3 lanes of change).

PAT amplitude values were lower in the difficult level of the continuous task and was further attenuated following the appearance of the flag when a change in the flight position was required.
Age and Perceptions of Usability on Telephone Menu Systems
Authors: Reynolds Christopher , Czaja Sara J. , Sharit Joseph
Published: January 2012

The objectives of this study were to determine if older adults encounter difficulty using real-world telephone menu system applications and to gather data on the usability features of these systems. Six real-world telephone menu systems, which varied in complexity and function, were examined. The sample included 32 community dwelling adults ranging in age from 18–80 years. Participants interacted with the menu systems to perform a sample set of tasks. They were also asked to rate the usability features of the system in terms of their goodness and their relative importance. The data indicated that in addition to taking longer, the older adults tended to have more difficulty performing the tasks. The findings also indicated that memorability was an important usability feature, and that the ratings of overall usability and overall satisfaction were significantly worse for the older adults.
Promoting Successful Computer use by Older Adults: Input Devices and Experienced Users
Authors: Holley Patricia , Charness Neil
Published: January 2012

This experiment looked at the use of two input devices (mouse and light pen) for younger, middle-aged, and older adults who were experienced mouse users. We asked participants to use both their preferred and non-preferred hand to perform a pure pointing task and then to rate the ease of use and acceptability of the device they were using in the hand they were using it as well as their perceived work load across trials. We found that using a light pen minimized age differences, that differences between the preferred and non-preferred hand became more apparent with age so that older adults were less efficient using their non-preferred hand than were younger adults, and that older adults gained more from practice. Overall, the mouse was rated as more acceptable than the light pen across trials even though the light pen was more efficient. Finally, recommendations are made for ease of use, acceptability, and performance.
Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? Investigating Structural Knowledge with Textual and Pictorial Stimuli
Authors: Evans A. William , Hoeft Raegan M. , Jentsch Florian G. , Bowers Clint A.
Published: January 2012

The differences between the processing of textual and pictorial information have been a topic of research for some time now. Previous research concerning the modality of information has often concentrated on the speed of processing rather than the organizational differences that may exist. This experiment utilized card sorting to evaluate the changes in knowledge organization that occur when information is presented in text and picture formats. In addition to this, the structure of the elicitation task was manipulated to evaluate its effects on sharedness. It was found that textual stimuli produced a greater sharedness among participants in a free sorting task. However, for a structured sorting task, results reversed, and pictorial stimuli created a greater level of sharedness. Overall, structured sorting tasks produced a greater level of sharedness than the free sorting condition, regardless of modality.
Examining a Possible Triangle Effect: Risk Perception, Sensation Seeking and Focused Attention
Authors: Samms Charneta , Johnson Kayenda
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between risk perception, sensation seeking, and focused attention. Participants were given a set of colors and symbols to rate using a nine point Likert-type risk perception rating scale. A measure of sensation seeking and focused attention was administered using the Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Experience Seeking subscales of the Sensation Seeking Scale and the Expanded Tellegan Absorption Scale respectively. Through the analysis of MANOVA results, the colors red, orange and yellow were identified consistently among all groups as colors of higher warning; however blue differed significantly between groups. These findings signify a potential problem if colors other than those in current standards are under consideration for use in warning designs.
Behind the Curtain: The Cognitive Tasks behind the Visualizations
Authors: Elm William C. , Woods David D. , Bennett Kevin , Bisantz Ann , Eggleston Robert , Mitchell Christine
Published: January 2012

This panel includes participants from academia and industry who have each made significant contributions to the design of effective visualizations to support decision making in a variety of domains. Panel members will offer an example of an innovative decision support visualization concept and discuss the underlying cognitive demands it is meant to support as well as any artifacts they used in its development. Both the nature of the visualization itself, and the linkage to the processes ‘behind the curtain’ will be presented. Panelists will discuss the various techniques used and the pro's and con's of each.
A Graph Theoretic Model of Human Cognition in Chess
Authors: Burns Catherine M. , Dodig Marko
Published: January 2012

Although advances in computing power have greatly improved computer chess playing, human chess players still rival their computer counter-parts. Computer algorithms typically use a strategy of exhaustive search, which is unlikely to be used by human players. We hypothesized that human chess players recognize higher order properties of the game and use these properties to limit their need for exhaustive move searching. We used graph theoretic modeling to quantitatively determine three possible higher order properties. We then conducted an experiment by using the higher order properties to preselect moves for a typical exhaustive search chess engine. We played the enhanced chess engine against its unenhanced version in six games. The enhanced version won all six games, regardless of color played, suggesting that pre-selection of moves based on higher order properties of the game is indeed a viable strategy.
Model-Based Assessment of Situation Awareness
Authors: Glenn Floyd , McNamara Jennifer , Hicinbothom Jim , Wischusen Derek
Published: January 2012

In order to evaluate situation awareness (SA) in a Navy shipboard command and control environment, a model-based framework is being developed based on the foundation of an established technique. An executable cognitive model is used to generate interruption points and probe questions by executing in realtime in parallel with the evaluated individual. The model identifies when critical events occur (or could occur) and also determines what information is critical to identifying these situations and making required decisions. The model instigates interruptions of performance in the simulation environment and presents appropriate probe questions. An empirical exercise was undertaken in order to provide data on the design of this SA assessment instrument for the target command and control application. Subject matter experts (SMEs) were employed to identify critical events and information in simulation scenarios and those specifications were used to provide guidance for the development of the model-based SA assessment technique.
Scenario Development for Decision Support System Evaluation
Authors: Roth Emilie M. , Gualtieri James W. , Elm William C. , Potter Scott S.
Published: January 2012

This paper introduces a methodology for developing scenarios representative of the cognitive and collaborative challenges inherent in a domain of practice for evaluating Decision Support Systems (DSS). Explicit links are made between particular aspects of the DSS and specific cognitive and collaborative demands they are intended to support. The effectiveness of the DSS in supporting performance can then be systematically probed by creating scenarios that are informed by an understanding of individual and team cognitive processing factors, fundamental relationships within the domain, and known complicating factors that can arise in the domain to challenge cognitive and collaborative performance. This paper introduces a set of explicit artifacts to systematically create such scenarios to provide feedback on the viability of the DSS design concepts (e.g., are the hypothesized positive impacts of the DSS realized?), as well as feedback on additional unanticipated requirements for support.
Addressing Limitations of the Measurement of Team Cognition
Authors: Cooke Nancy , Kiekel Preston A. , Bell Brian , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Team cognition is more than the sum of the cognition of the individual team members. Instead, it emerges from the interplay of individual cognition and team process behaviors. Team cognition has been implicated as a major factor underlying team performance and thus, its measurement is critical for team training and design. Measures of team cognition, however, are limited in a number of ways. For instance, measures are taken at an individual level and aggregated, rather than pursuing data collection at the more holistic level of the team. Further, measures do not capture the heterogeneous knowledge backgrounds of team members. We have begun to address these and other limitations by developing new measures and applying them in four studies of team performance in military synthetic task environments. We highlight the results of these studies, which support the validity of our measures of taskwork knowledge, teamwork knowledge, and team situation awareness.
From Team Structure to Team Performance: A Framework
Authors: MacMillan Jean , Entin Elliot E. , Serfaty Daniel
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a theoretical framework that links the organizational structure of a team to the team's performance through intervening factors such as the need for coordination, the need for communication, the extent to which the team's mission can be pre-planned, and the team's mutual awareness of each other's tasks. We suggest that the organizational structure of a team interacts with the nature of the team's mission (in particular, the interdependence among the tasks to be performed) to generate the need for coordination in order to successfully accomplish the mission. The need for coordination and the extent to which the mission can be pre-planned drive the need for communication during the mission. The efficiency of that communication is, in turn, affected by factors such as the team's level of mutual awareness. The paper presents several innovative measures for components of the suggested framework, and summarizes empirical evidence for the framework.
Integrating Agents into Human Teams
Authors: Sycara Katia
Published: January 2012

Software agents represent a radical departure from earlier monolithic approaches to artificial intelligence by introducing intelligence in small packages in many different places. For each instance of potential aiding there are two questions: 1- can a software agent perform the task? and 2- can the agent's assistance contribute to team performance? Our research addresses these two issues by demonstrating the feasibility of sophisticated agent assistance in scenario-based technology demonstrations and investigating the contribution of agent assistance to human team performance using simplified, controllable laboratory experiments.
Using Software Agents in a Work Centered Support System for Weather Forecasting and Monitoring
Authors: Scott Ron , Deutsch Stephen E. , Kazmierczak Tom , Kuper Samuel R. , Roth Emilie M. , Malchiodi Erika , Eggleston Robert G. , Whitaker Randall
Published: January 2012

There has been a growing interest in developing system architectures and human-software agent interaction paradigms that deploy software agents in the service of effective support for human task performance. This paper describes an agent-based system for a weather forecasting and monitoring application, called Work Centered Support System for Global Weather Management (WCSS-GWM), that takes this approach. WCSS-GWM exemplifies and extends Cognitive Engineering (CE) principles for effecting human-software agent interaction and Work Centered Support System (WCSS) concepts. Two fundamental CE principles are observability and directability. Users need to be able to ‘see’ what the software agents are doing and be able to re-direct the software agents as task demands change. The WCSS brings an additional, complementary perspective, emphasizing the need to support the multiple facets involved in individual cognitive and collaborative work (decision-making, product development, collaboration, and work management). The WCSS-GWM agent-based architecture is explicitly designed with these objectives in mind.
Power Tool for Countering Cyberwar: Visualizations for Information Assurance and Computer Network Defense
Authors: Gualtieri James W. , Elm William C.
Published: January 2012

There has been a growing need for military decision-makers to maintain the integrity of the information contained within their computer network. Tools to support Information Assurance and Computer Network Defense (IA-CND) are needed to defend their information infrastructure and conduct Computer Network Operations with a new level of insight and understanding. This paper describes one effort to develop visualizations to aid these decision-makers in the highly abstract, complex and dynamic mission of IA-CND. This paper describes the development of a IA-CND Communications Display. Using a Cognitive Systems Engineering methodology, this project transitioned from a broad description of a work domain, to the development of decision aiding concepts for a particular portion of that domain. This methodology also provided a means to develop breakthrough support for a decision difficult domain.
Using Goal Directed Task Analysis with Army Brigade Officer Teams
Authors: Bolstad Cheryl A. , Riley Jennifer M. , Jones Debra G. , Endsley Mica R.
Published: January 2012

A greater understanding of team cognitive processes can be facilitated by identifying the individual goals of the team members and their situation awareness (SA) requirements. In some environments, such as military operations, the shear complexity, size, and composition of the team make this research quite challenging. Using a form of cognitive task analysis, we have developed an approach to address some of these team issues. In this paper we discuss the use of goal directed cognitive task analysis (GDTA) to obtain an accurate depiction of the SA requirements and key goals for several brigade officers. We further discuss how this information is being used to address team issues such as designing systems for enhancing team performance and decision making with Army brigade officers.
Influence of Analytically and Intuitively Framed Instructions upon Multi-Attribute Decision Task Approach
Authors: White Rebecca J. , Nygren Thomas E.
Published: January 2012

Individuals may rely upon a number of decision making strategies in their approach to a complex decision making environment. For example, people may have a predisposition to rely upon intuitive and analytical decision making styles during task performance. These decision making styles, as measured by a Decision Making Styles Inventory (DMI), have been found to predict performance on a multi-attribute decision making task. It follows that manipulating the manner in which task instructions are framed, either analytically or intuitively, may have an influence upon task approach and performance as well. Influence of analytic and intuitive instructions for a multi-attribute decision making task are examined in this paper.
Validating Methods in Cognitive Engineering: A Comparison of Two Work Domain Models
Authors: Bisantz Ann M. , Burns Catherine M. , Roth Emilie
Published: January 2012

Work domain analysis (WDA) is becoming a popular technique for the analysis of complex systems. WDA is one of the frameworks of Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA; Vicente, 1999) and can be used to gather work domain constraints as part of a user centered design process. In this paper, we discuss issues of inter-modeler reliability with WDA. The authors of this paper performed, over similar time periods, cognitive engineering analyses, including work domain analyses using abstraction hierarchy models, of two similar systems: naval combat vessels. In this paper, we compare these models for similarities and differences. Comparison indicated similarities in model scope and content, which would be an expected result of the application of a reliable modeling technique to two similar systems. Differences between the models included the use of multi-part vs. a single model to represent components of the overall ship-seacontact system, the related decisions to include sensors explicitly in the model, and the descriptions of abstract functions and constraints included in the two models. Exploration of these differences illuminated methodological as well as theoretical considerations in applying work domain modeling techniques that can provide guidance to other modelers.
The Influence of Feedback on Automation Use, Misuse, and Disuse
Authors: Dzindolet Mary , Pierce Linda , Peterson Scott , Purcell Lori , Beck Hall , Beck Hall
Published: January 2012

The use of automated decision aids is increasing. Unfortunately, the productivity of human-automated work teams is not always superior to that of the human operator or the computer working alone (Parasuraman & Riley, 1997). In order to examine the effects of various kinds of feedback on appropriate automation use, 159 students provided with an automated aid determined whether a camouflaged soldier was present in 300 slides. A 2 (rationale why aid might err) X 2 (continuous feedback) X 2 (aid's relative performance) X 2 (aid's decision) ANOVA was performed with the transformed p(error) separately for the trials in which the target was present and for those in which the target was absent. Results indicated that participants were able to appropriately rely on the automated aid. For example, those paired with a superior aid were more likely to rely on the aid's decisions than ignore them; those paired with an inferior aid were more likely to ignore the aid than rely on it. A three way interaction indicated that this finding was most strong when participants were provided with information concerning why their aid might err, F(1, 51) = 3.27, p <. 08. Implications for future research are discussed.