bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Three Musics, Four Genres: Rap, Bluegrass, and Bebop Jazz
Authors: Lena Jennifer C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the progression of three musics through the four genre types, focusing on the hanging mix of the resources they use. These resources include organizational form, scale, and locus; the sources of income and press coverage for artists; the codification of genre ideal, performance, and technological conventions; boundary work; styles of dress, adornment, drugs, politics, and argot; and the invention of a name for the style. In order to focus on the attributes that characterize genre forms, the chapter selectively presents examples from three musical styles: bluegrass, old school rap, and bebop jazz. It hopes that focusing on examples from a sample of musics will highlight the features of genre types and their attributes without producing unnecessary confusion.
Henry Mayers Hyndman
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on H. M. Hyndman, who built what there was of a Marxist movement in Britain. He founded and long dominated the Social Democratic Federation, which was the first socialist society of the 1880s, for many years the largest and most famous Marxist organization in Britain, and the most prominent forerunner of the Communist Party of Great Britain. Hyndman's discovery of Marx provided a scientific basis for his Tory historiography and politics, suggesting that they reflected both the economic laws governing capitalism and the dialectic of history. His Tory inheritance still lingered in his Marxism, inspiring a medievalist historiography, a fear of anarchy, a commitment to statesmanship, and a belief in peaceful social change.
Theories of Rent
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the Fabians' rejection of Marxist economics for theories arising in the wake of the collapse of classical economics. Far too many historians have caricatured the Fabians as bureaucratic elitists who were inspired by utilitarianism and classical political economy. Even when historians look more seriously at the beliefs of the Fabians, they generally argue that the Fabians adopted a reformist socialism based on a shared theory of rent derived from the classical liberalism of David Ricardo. In their view, this theory of rent blurred the distinction between classes, making it possible, first, to equate socialism not with ending capitalism but with taxation of unearned increment for the benefit of society and, second, to reject a revolutionary politics in favor of parliamentary gradualism and the permeation of bourgeois parties. However, the leading Fabians actually held different economic theories. They owed less to utilitarianism and classical political economy than to ethical positivism and neoclassical and marginal economic theories. Insofar as there is a distinctive Fabian socialism, it derives not from a shared theory of rent but from a shared endeavor by ethical positivists and liberal radicals to respond to the crisis of faith and especially the collapse of classical economics.
American Romanticism and British Socialism
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights some of the themes that distinguish ethical socialism from welfare liberalism as well as other strands of socialism. Several ethical socialists owed a distinctive debt to American romantics such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Walt Whit man. American romanticism initially entered British socialism through the wandering scholar Thomas Davidson, who inspired the Fellowship of the New Life. When Davidson continued on his travels, several of the socialists associated with the Fellowship took their ideals out of London and into the provinces. The most notable example was the libertarian poet Edward Carpenter, who set up the Sheffield Socialist Society and inspired numerous other local groups all across Britain, from Bristol to Nottingham and on to Bolton.
The Classical Figures of Sociology and the Great Seminal Catastrophe of the Twentieth Century
Authors: Joas Hans , Knöbl Wolfgang
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the intellectual prehistory and history of the First World War. Toward the end of the nineteenth and in the early twentieth centuries, German social scientists in particular had already attempted to theorize the connection between war and capitalism, or war and democracy, with authors such as Werner Sombart and Otto Hintze leading the way. Many European and American intellectuals, including most of the classical figures of sociology, did feel called to give their views on the question of war. In many cases, however, their writings did them little credit. How easily social theory can be led astray is plain for all to see in many of the statements made at the time, in that the bellicist arguments already to be found in the nineteenth century were often shamelessly deployed to denounce the enemy.
Sociology and Social Theory from the End of the First World War to the 1970s
Authors: Joas Hans , Knöbl Wolfgang
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows that social theory's engagement with the phenomenon of war, which had already begun before the First World War, did not continue in any substantial way after 1918. War quickly vanished from the radar of those subjects in which social theories find their home. In Germany between the world wars, it was Carl Schmitt who provided the most provocative ideas on the problem of war; in France, it was Roger Caillois; and in the United States, it was initially political émigrés, like Hans Speier, who produced the first significant studies of militarism and “total war.” The chapter considers how the establishment of military sociology caused sociology in general, and sociological theory in particular, to turn away from war once again.
Introduction
Authors: Phillips Anne
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book considers what, if anything, is the difference between markets in sex or reproduction or human body parts and the other markets we commonly applaud. What—if anything—makes the body special? It argues that some things should not be for sale, and that it is not transparently obvious either why this is so or which these are. It considers not just markets and the body, but also the implications and consequences of thinking of the body as something that we own. It examines cases of body commodification, focusing on commercial surrogacy and markets in body parts. It also considers instances where thinking of the body as property has no obvious implications in terms of making it available for sale. This book addresses, therefore, two distinct though related questions. What, if anything, is wrong with thinking of oneself as the owner of one's body? What, if anything, is wrong with making our bodies available for rent or sale?
Spare Parts and Desperate Need
Authors: Phillips Anne
Published: November 2017

This chapter moves on to markets in body tissues and parts, focusing on the trade in live kidneys. Given the risks to vendors, and the significant number of patients dying each year while waiting for a transplant, why not make the transactions more open? Why not allow people to sell nonvital parts of their body while they are still alive? If we allow them to donate, we presumably do not consider the health risks prohibitive. Why not also allow them to sell? It is argued that the kidney trade relies on and undermines our status as equals. The chapter also returns to claims about property as protection, restating and developing reservations about those who favor more body property as a means to resist excessive marketization.
Sociological Congruence and the Puzzle of Early German Jazz
Authors: Phillips Damon J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines why the long-run appeal of jazz music worldwide was related to the city of origin's network position with the exception of Berlin in what was then Weimar Germany. Between 1923 and 1933, Berlin produced more early jazz than any other city in Europe as the center of Weimar culture. And yet the lasting appeal of jazz music recorded in Berlin was notably less than that of other European cities. To explain this puzzle, the chapter develops a sequential relational model for understanding the fate of German jazz in which the locations of musical reception and production correspond to schemas that affect the tastes and the ways in which cultural objects are interpreted. The example of German jazz suggests that the model of sociological congruence works best when the musical identity of a location is not so strong that its actual output is overwhelmed by the perceived output from a location.
Sociological Congruence and Record Company Comparative Advantage
Authors: Phillips Damon J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines why the firms that introduced a type of recorded jazz that was successful switched to champion another type of jazz that was less successful. Using both qualitative historical and quantitative analyses, the chapter explores record company comparative advantage in the context of sociological congruence. It also considers the relationship between jazz, race, and Victorian-era firms. In particular, the chapter considers a key source of jazz's illegitimacy with respect to cultural elites: its association with African Americans. It shows that incumbents, after releasing the earliest jazz recordings (in 1917–1918), reoriented the production of jazz music to align with their identities as producers of symphonic music amid mounting elite anti-jazz sentiments.
Bias and Democracy
Authors: McGinnis John O.
Published: November 2017

This chapter surveys the many kinds of political bias. These include special interest bias, “knowledge falsification” by the majority, innate majoritarian bias, status quo bias, cultural cognition and motivated reasoning, and framing. It then shows that democracy is often able to overcome biases within the citizenry, because it takes only a majority or a relatively modest supermajority of people to change ordinary legislative policy. Thus, if many, or even most, people are imprisoned by their own worldviews, misled by politicians' frames, or remain ignorant of all new information relevant to public policy, the shift of a relatively small portion of voters can often make a decisive difference.
Law Matters
Authors: Bailey Michael A. , Maltzman Forrest
Published: November 2017

Building on the theoretical model of Chapter 3, this chapter seeks to assess whether “law” affects judicial decisions independently of policy preferences. Numerous legal doctrines may shape judicial decision-making, including stare decisis, originalism, plain meaning, the promotion of democratic participation, and doctrines with regard to specific elements of the Constitution such as the Bill of Rights or the commerce clause. The chapter concentrates on three legal doctrines (stare decisis, strict interpretation of the Constitution, and judicial restraint) that are both prominent and clearly more likely to play a role in structuring decision-making on some cases than on others. These doctrines are not necessarily canons of jurisprudence that are universally shared; they are principles that are widely acknowledged in the legal world as appropriately influencing constitutional interpretation.
Political Parties in the Capital Economy of Modern Campaigns
Authors: Krasno Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes up two claims regarding political parties in American politics. First, the chapter contends with the conventional wisdom about the rise of candidate-centered campaigns sometime following 1950. The emphasis on candidate-centered campaigns obscures a much more fundamental transformation, especially for parties, from a campaign economy based mainly on labor to one based mainly on capital. Second, this chapter posits that parties' and candidates' goals, though overlapping, are distinct and separate. This has always been true, but the parties' transition from mobilizing election workers and volunteers to providing money or paid services exposes a fundamental conflict between the interests of parties and of candidates. This conflict has had immediate and serious ramifications for how parties allocate their resources, present themselves to the electorate, and mobilize voters, ultimately calling into question many of scholars' assumptions about parties.
The Crash of the Gulag: Releases and Uprisings in the Post-Stalin Era
Authors: Barnes Steven A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the period after Stalin's death. It looks at the explosive uprisings in the Gulag with a particular focus on the forty-day revolt at the Kengir division of Steplag. It also examines the new leadership's policy that largely emptied the camp and exile systems of all those charged with either petty or political offenses. Before Stalin's death, no level of economic loss or amount of systemic crisis could cause a serious reevaluation of the need for this mass social institution. Yet his death almost immediately ushered in a radical change in the size of the system. The Gulag's decline was marked by fits and starts, resulted in a paroxysm of mass disobedience throughout the system, and finally the system's almost total collapse.
Conclusion
Authors: Barnes Steven A.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter summarizes the preceding discussions, covering the Gulag's emergence as a mass social phenomenon in the 1920s to its collapse by the end of the 1950s. The system took a terrible toll on Soviet society, with victims numbering into the millions, and even those who survived often crushed by the experience. After Stalin, the Soviet state decisively moved away from the use of mass terror as a normal, permanent feature of the political system. However, it also engaged in numerous incidents of violence and political repression in its final thirty-five years, from the bloody suppression of uprisings within its borders and the countries of the Warsaw Pact, to the use of labor camps and psychoprisons to devastate the small but vocal human rights dissident movements of the Brezhnev years. Nonetheless, the Gulag never reemerged as the mammoth complex of its heyday.
Conclusion
Authors: Knight Jack , Johnson James
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter assesses the ways in which this study's pragmatist account might answer the practical question about the acceptance of democratic politics. Unlike most normative arguments, this study's pragmatist account directly incorporates the inevitability of disagreement and conflict. In doing so, it provides an argument for the central role of ongoing political debate in establishing and maintaining the bases of legitimacy and obligation. And, through an analysis of the effects of democratic decision making on the collective outcomes that it produces, the study makes a case for the superiority of a democratic institutional framework as the forum for undertaking such debates. It argues that when there is persistent conflict and disagreement, making collective decisions democratically is the best means of creating an institutional environmental in which both individual and collective life plans can be effectively pursued.
Social Preferences
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how social preferences contribute to human cooperation. It considers experimental and other evidence showing that even in one-shot interactions many individuals, most in some settings, willingly cooperate with strangers even at a cost to themselves. Moreover, they enthusiastically punish shirkers who seek to exploit the cooperation of others. These findings pose the evolutionary puzzle: how did humans come to have these social preferences? The chapter begins with a discussion of strong reciprocity and how free-riders undermine cooperation, followed by an analysis of how altruistic punishment enhances cooperation among members of a group. It then explores the tendency of people to punish those who hurt others, the rationality of social preferences, and the influence of culture and institutions on social preferences. It also explains how behavior is conditioned on group membership and concludes with an assessment of competing explanations about the importance of social preferences.
Ancestral Human Society
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the notion that humans became cooperative because in our ancestral environments we interacted frequently with the same group of close kin, among whom tit-for-tat and other strategies consistent with reciprocal altruism were sufficient to support cooperative outcomes. To this end, the chapter reviews the available archaeological and ethnographic evidence suggesting that most humans had frequent contact with a substantial number of individuals beyond the immediate family despite the existence of isolated groups. This conclusion is consistent with data on the extent of genetic differentiation among ethnographic foragers. The chapter then considers evidence that ancestral humans engaged in frequent and exceptionally lethal intergroup conflicts, as well as data implying that social order in prestate small-scale societies was sustained by a process of coordinated peer pressures and punishment. It shows that prehistoric human society was a social and natural environment in which group competition could have given rise to altruistic behaviors.
Socialization
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines socialization and the process by which social norms become internalized, how this capacity for internalization could have evolved, and why the norms internalized tend to be group-beneficial. It begins with a discussion of cultural transmission and how it overrides fitness by taking account of two facts. First, the phenotypic expression of an individual's genetic inheritance depends on a developmental process that is plastic and open-ended. Second, this developmental process is deliberately structured—by elders, teachers, political leaders, and religious figures—to foster certain kinds of development and to thwart others. The chapter then introduces a purely phenotypic model in which, as a result of the effectiveness of socialization, a fitness-reducing norm may be maintained in a population. It also describes the gene-culture coevolution of a fitness-reducing norm before concluding with an analysis of the link between internalization of norms and altruism.
Social Emotions
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role of social emotions such as guilt and shame in supporting human cooperation, and how these could have evolved. It first models the process by which an emotion such as shame may affect social behavior in a simple public goods game before discussing how shame and guilt along with internalized ethical norms foster cooperation to be sustained with minimal levels of costly punishment, resulting in mutually beneficial interactions at limited cost. It also explains how the internalization of norms and the expression of these norms in a social emotion such as guilt and shame induce the individual to place a contemporaneous value on the future consequences of present behavior, rather than relying upon an appropriately discounted accounting of its probable payoffs in the distant future. The chapter suggests that shame, guilt, and other social emotions may function like pain by providing personally beneficial guides for action that bypass the explicit cognitive optimizing process.
Clifford and Heisenberg algebras
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter recalls various results on Clifford algebras and Heisenberg algebras. It first introduces the Clifford algebra of a vector space V equipped with a symmetric bilinear form B and then specializes the construction of the Clifford algebra to the case of V ⊕ V*. Next, the chapter argues that, if (V,ω‎) is a symplectic vector space, then the associated Heisenberg algebra is constructed and then specialized to the case of V ⊕ V*. Hereafter, the chapter considers the combination of the Clifford and Heisenberg algebras for V ⊕ V*, and constructs the complex Λ‎· (V*) ⊗ S· (V*), ̄ƌ) which is the subcomplex of polynomial forms in the de Rham complex. Finally, when V is equipped with a scalar product, this complex is related to a Witten complex over V.
The hypoelliptic Laplacian on X = G/K
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter constructs the hypoelliptic Laplacian ℒbX > 0 acting on the total space of a vector bundle TX ⊕ N ≃ g over the symmetric space X = G/K. The operator ℒbX is obtained using general constructions involving Clifford algebras and Heisenberg algebras, and also the Dirac operator of Kostant. The end result is the elliptic Laplacian 𝓛
X on X as well as the hypoelliptic Laplacian ℒbX, which is a second order hypoelliptic operator acting on X^. Among other things, this chapter gives a key formula relating 𝓛
XℒbX, as well as various formulas involving the operator ℒbX+La.
The displacement function and the return map
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies the displacement function dᵧ on X that is associated with a semisimple element γ‎ ∈ G. If φ‎″, t ∈ R denotes the geodesic flow on the total space X of the tangent bundle of X, the critical set X(γ‎) ⊂ X of dᵧ can be easily related to the fixed point set Fᵧ ⊂ X of the symplectic transformation γ‎⁻¹φ‎₁ of X. The chapter studies the nondegeneracy of γ‎⁻¹φ‎₁ − 1 along Fᵧ. More fundamentally, this chapter gives important quantitative estimates on how much φ‎
½ differs from φ‎
˗½γ‎ away from Fᵧ. These quantitative estimates are based on Toponogov's theorem.
Elliptic and hypoelliptic orbital integrals
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter constructs semisimple orbital integrals associated with the heat kernel for the hypoelliptic Laplacian ℒbX. By making b → 0, the chapter shows that the corresponding supertrace coincides with the orbital integral associated with the standard elliptic heat kernel. Throughout this chapter, the same assumptions as in chapters 2 and 3 will be made, and this chapter uses corresponding notation. Also if V = V₊ ⊕ V₋ is a finite dimensional Z₂-graded vector space, if τ‎ = ±1 is the involution of V that defines the Z₂-grading, if A ∈ End(V), the chapter defines its supertrace Tr″[A] by Tr″[A] = Tr[τ‎A].
An application to local index theory
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter verifies the compatibility of the formula for the orbital integrals of heat kernels introduced in the previous chapter to the index formula of Atiyah-Singer, to the fixed point formulas of Atiyah-Bott, and to the index formula for orbifolds of Kawasaki. Given that the McKean-Singer formula expresses the index of a Dirac operator over a compact manifold Z as the supertrace of a heat kernel, if Z is the quotient of X by a cocompact torsion free group, this supertrace can be evaluated explicitly by the formulas provided in the previous chapter. This chapter directly checks these formulas to be compatible with the index formulas.
The case where [k(γ),p0]=0
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter explicitly evaluates the Gaussian integral that appears in the right-hand side of a formula in Chapter 6 for the orbital integrals of the heat kernel, when γ‎ is nonelliptic and [t(γ‎),p₀] = 0. The computations here can be easily extended to the more general kernels considered in Chapter 6; the index formulas of Chapter 7 also play a key role here. This chapter begins by considering the case where G = K. It then computes explicitly the Gaussian integral when γ‎ is nonelliptic and [t(γ‎),p₀] = 0. Finally, the chapter works out the case where G = SL₂(R).
A proof of the main identity
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter proves the formula that was stated in Chapter 6. It first states various estimates on the hypoelliptic heat kernels, which are valid for b ≥ 1 and then makes a natural rescaling on the coordinates parametrizing ̂X. Next, the chapter introduces a conjugation on the Clifford variables and shows that the norm of the term defining the conjugation can be adequately controlled. The chapter then introduces a conjugate ℒA,bX of another ℒA,bX and its associated heat kernel. Afterward, the chapter obtains the limit as b → +∞ of the rescaled heat kernel, thus establishing the formula in Chapter 6. After further computations, this chapter states a result on convergence of heat kernels.
The action functional and the harmonic oscillator
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter solves explicitly certain natural variational problems associated with a scalar hypoelliptic Laplacian, in the case where the underlying Riemannian manifold is an Euclidean vector space. It depends on the parameter b > 0. The behavior of the minimum values as well as of the minimizing trajectories is studied when b → 0 and when b → +∞. Finally, certain heat kernels are computed in terms of the minimum value of the action. The aforementioned variational problem has already been considered previously as a warm up to the more general problem on Riemannian manifolds, in order to study in detail the small time asymptotics of the hypoelliptic heat kernel.
Rough estimates on the scalar heat kernel
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter establishes rough estimates on the heat kernel rb,tX for the scalar hypoelliptic operator AbX on X defined in the preceding chapter. By rough estimates, this chapter refers to just the uniform bounds on the heat kernel. The chapter also obtains corresponding bounds for the heat kernels associated with operators AbX and another AbX over ̂X. Moreover, it gives a probabilistic construction of the heat kernels. This chapter also explains the relation of the heat equation for the hypoelliptic Laplacian on X to the wave equation on X and proves that as b → 0, the heat kernel rb,tX converges to the standard heat kernel of X.
Refined estimates on the scalar heat kernel for bounded b
Authors: Bismut Jean-Michel
Published: November 2017

This chapter obtains uniform bounds for the kernels rb,tX and another rb,tX for bounded b > 0, with the proper decay at infinity on X or ̂X. These bounds will be used to obtain corresponding bounds for the kernel qb,tX in the next chapter. Furthermore, the arguments developed in Chapter 12, which connect the hypoelliptic heat kernel with the wave equation, play an important role in proving the required estimates. Hence, this chapter first establishes estimates on the Hessian of the distance function on X. Then, the chapter obtains bounds on the first heat kernel rb,tX and establishes the bounds on another heat kernel rb,tX.
The Blockade
Authors: Gibson David R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines talk about how to enforce the blockade, in terms of which ships to stop and which to allow through. Because the blockade was, from the start, ill suited for the purpose of forcing the Soviets to withdraw their missiles, storytelling about the consequences of stopping various ships rarely connected those actions to the larger objective. Furthermore, stories about the future were largely supplanted by elaborate justifications for not acting, one peculiarity of which was that the ExComm sometimes seemed to lose sight of whom it primarily had to convince. Moreover, the ExComm did not so much decide not to intercept the Bucharest, a tanker which was Kennedy's best chance to set an early example, as it failed to decide anything at all, but this indecision was transformed into a decision by the course of events.
Intervention on Behalf of Ottoman Greeks (1821–33)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the politics of European powers' military intervention in Ottoman Greece during the period 1821–1833. It first considers the international and local context of the European powers' intervention in Ottoman Greece before discussing the European governments' nonintervention on behalf of Muslim civilian populations of Greece and of Christian civilian populations at Smyrna (Izmir) and Chios. It then explores how the British and French Philhellenes addressed the question of intervention on behalf of the Greeks and goes on to explain how various massacres that did not lead to a humanitarian intervention and other events eventually triggered the Battle of Navarino in 1827. It also describes the occupation of the Morea, first by Egypt and then by France. It argues that humanitarian as well as self- and collective interests converged to make the intervention at Ottoman Greece possible.
Intermezzo—The International Context (1878–1908)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the international context of the European powers' humanitarian interventions during the period 1878–1908. It begins with a discussion of three major changes that took place simultaneously in the late 1870s and directly affected relations between the Ottoman Empire and the European powers. It then considers interventions outside Europe, including the United States's intervention in Cuba against Spain and the British and American intervention against the king of Belgium in the so-called Congo Free State. It also explores three ideological branches of Great Britain's humanitarianism that influenced the reform campaign in Congo: trusteeship, evangelical philanthropy, and the proponents of human rights. The chapter argues that the increased tensions and rivalries, continental and imperial, and new alignments among European powers increased the risk related to armed interventions, which hampered their occurrence.
The Second Intervention in Crete (1896–1900)
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the European powers' second military intervention in Crete, which lasted from 1896 to 1900. The intervention was not an instance of humanitarian intervention. It was designed to help the Ottoman government restore law and order in Crete after an insurgency and to avoid further threats to an increasingly fragile international order. The chapter begins with a discussion of the massacres and insurrections in Crete during the 1880s and 1890s, followed by an analysis of the international military occupation of the island during the period 1897–1899. It then considers the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 and its consequences for Crete, along with the appointment of Prince George of Greece as high commissioner in Crete and the end of the European-run blockade of the island. It also explores public opinion in France and Great Britain regarding the European powers' intervention in Crete.
Ethics in an Age of Terror and Genocide
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

What causes genocide? Why do some stand by, doing nothing, while others risk their lives to help the persecuted? This book analyzes riveting interviews with bystanders, Nazi supporters, and rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust to lay bare critical psychological forces operating during genocide. The book's examination of these moving—and disturbing—interviews underscores the significance of identity for moral choice. The book finds that self-image and identity—especially the sense of self in relation to others—determine and delineate our choice options, not just morally but cognitively. It introduces the concept of moral salience to explain how we establish a critical psychological relationship with others, classifying individuals in need as “people just like us” or reducing them to strangers perceived as different, threatening, or even beyond the boundaries of our concern. The book explicates the psychological dehumanization that is a prerequisite for genocide and uses knowledge of human behavior during the Holocaust to develop a broader theory of moral choice, one applicable to other forms of ethnic, religious, racial, and sectarian prejudice, aggression, and violence. It suggests that identity is more fundamental than reasoning in our treatment of others.
Kurt: Soldier for the Nazis
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to “Kurt,” a German soldier whose interview contains fascinating insights on how identity constrains choice. Kurt matched Tony in many background characteristics. Both Tony and Kurt were the only children of affluence, both were in the military, and both saw heavy fighting. Although he was never asked directly, and he never volunteered information about his personal participation in Nazi activities, he did express what seemed to be clearly racist views. Though Kurt is classified here only as a soldier who fought for the Nazis, his interview reflects so much ambiguity, dissembling, and perhaps even self-deception. This chapter is thus presented as reflective of the moral psychology of many Europeans whose support—implicit or militarily—kept the Nazis in power.
Fritz: Nazi Propagandist
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

This chapter showcases a Dutch collaborator named Fritz. Fritz shared many of Tony's prewar conservative opinions in favor of the monarchy and traditional Dutch values, although he was of working-class origins, unlike Tony and Beatrix, who were Dutch bourgeoisie. But unlike Beatrix or Tony, Fritz joined the Nazi Party, wrote propaganda for the Nazi cause, and married the daughter of a German Nazi. When he was interviewed in 1992, Fritz indicated he was appalled at what he later learned about Nazi treatment of Jews but that he still believed in many of the goals of the National Socialist movement and felt that Hitler had betrayed the movement. Fritz is thus classified as a disillusioned Nazi supporter who retains his faith in much of National Socialism, and this chapter is presented as illustrative of the psychology of those who once supported the Nazi regime but who were disillusioned after the war.
The Political Psychology of Genocide
Authors: Monroe Kristen Renwick
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on why all of the participants—rescuers, bystanders, or perpetrators—had claimed that they had no choice in how they treated others during World War II. It argues that self-image is the central psychological variable, with rescuers, bystanders, and Nazi supporters revealing dramatically different self-concepts. Identity constrains choice for all individuals, not just rescuers, though character and self-image are not all there is to it. The chapter further asserts that the ethical importance of values works through the fashion in which values are integrated into the speaker's sense of self and worldview. Personal suffering, in the form of past trauma, heightens awareness of the plight of others for rescuers; for bystanders and Nazis, however, it increases a sense of vulnerability manifesting itself in a defensive posture and heightened in-group/out-group distinctions. Finally, the chapter notes that the speakers' cognitive categorization systems carry strong ethical overtones.
Self-Monitoring and Political Attitudes
Authors: Berinsky Adam J. , Lavine Howard
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers self-monitoring, which assesses the extent to which people modify their behavior in response to the social context. In a climate governed by tolerant beliefs, analysts of public opinion face concerns about the accuracy with which attitudes and beliefs in sensitive domains (for example, race, sexuality) are measured. The chapter argues that self-monitoring can be useful in understanding which respondents are motivated to misrepresent their real preferences in surveys, and moreover presents several intriguing analyses that point to the value of self-monitoring in understanding responses to socially sensitive political topics. It proposes a question battery to account for how people's personality characteristics affect the answers they give to questions involving politically controversial topics.
Do Confident People Behave Differently?
Authors: Albarracín Julia , Wang Wei , Albarracín Dolores
Published: November 2017

This chapter reports analyses drawn from the 2006 American National Election Studies Pilot Study. It focuses on the extent to which defensive confidence influences partisan defection and affects other political behaviors. In addition, also considers several interrelated issues: whether or not the levels of defensive confidence differ across demographic and ethnic groups; what we can learn about citizens' attention to politics and government affairs and to the news and if these forms of attention are related to defensive confidence and partisan defection; and if people with higher levels of defensive confidence are more likely to participate in politics than people with lower levels of defensive confidence. The chapter first provides an overview of defensive confidence and its development in the literature. It then presents an analysis of the influence of defensive confidence on partisan defection, attention to government and politics, attention to the news, and political participation.
Generalized Trust Questions
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the issue of measuring trust and then compares the ANES and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) measures with each other as well as with the two new measures in the 2006 Pilot Study. It first examines the comparability of the four measures through the standard question—“Generally speaking, do you believe that most people can be trusted, or can't you be too careful in dealing with people?” The chapter also examines how well each performs with respect to theoretical expectations. If the ANES adopts a new trust question, the chapter considers if that measure shows patterns of association similar to those of the older indicator.
Measuring Political Interest
Authors: Shani Danielle
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the measurement of citizens' interest in politics. To make progress in understanding citizens' interest in politics, its causes, and its consequences, one must be equipped with an adequate measure of the underlying concept. The 2006 Pilot Study tested three new items that attempted to improve upon current ANES measures of interest in politics and attention to politics. The chapter compares these measures to determine whether the proposed items add anything distinctive to the study of political learning and participation, whether the magnitude of the differences are sizable, and whether they reflect prior hypotheses. Overall, the chapter concludes that the existing NES measures perform as well as the alternatives carried on the pilot, but nonetheless, it suggests how we might improve upon the current measures.
In Search of a Religious Left
Authors: Mockabee Stephen T. , Wald Kenneth D. , Leege David C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes several new religiosity items. While standard survey measures of religiosity typically are associated with right-leaning political orientations, this chapter argues that these measures are incapable of capturing the communitarian dimension of religiosity that may hold more meaning for liberal citizens. The 2006 ANES Pilot Study included questions to assess both the individualistic and communitarian elements of religiosity. Consistent with this chapter's expectations, these two dimensions of religiosity are distinct, exhibiting opposite relationships to partisan identification. The chapter's analyses further demonstrate that the two dimensions of religiosity have distinct, and substantial, influences on social policy attitudes and vote choice.
Intense Ambivalence
Authors: Zigerell L. J , Rice Heather Marie
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates a new set of measures of attitudes about abortion policy. It argues that the standard ANES battery violates several principles of good question wording and also fails to take into account the timing of abortion, which is a central element of American law and current discourse. Strikingly different conclusions about the electorate's views about abortion emerge in the comparison of the standard and new items: whereas the traditional item indicates that a majority of Americans are opposed to abortion in all circumstances, or support it only in the limited rape–incest–life options, the new items suggest a symmetry in abortion attitudes, with as many Americans supporting the extreme pro-choice as the extreme pro-life options.
Crime, Perceived Criminal Injustice, and Electoral Politics
Authors: Matsueda Ross L. , Drakulich Kevin , Hagan John , Krivo Lauren J. , Peterson Ruth D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the effects of perceived criminal injustice on voting behavior as well as on other important outcomes. Using data from the 2006 ANES Pilot Study, the chapter begins by examining the measurement properties of a set of survey items tapping perceptions of criminal injustice and then incorporates those items into a model of voting behaviors, controlling for demographic characteristics, political efficacy, political ideology, and political partisanship. It reveals that perceived criminal injustice has systematic and theoretically meaningful demographic and attitudinal correlates. In addition, these analyses demonstrate that perceived injustice has both direct and indirect effects on turnout and vote choice, above and beyond the expected standard predictors.
How the ANES Used Online Commons Proposals and Pilot Study Reports to Develop Its 2008 Questionnaires
Authors: Krosnick Jon A. , Lupia Arthur
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the manner by which the ANES converted the insights of many people into strong and innovative questionnaires. This description is broken into two stages to reflect the nature of the decision-making processes. The first stage began in 2006, two years before the general election of 2008. The chapter describes how a large set of new questions were evaluated and which questions were to be included in the 2006 Pilot Study. The second stage began about six weeks after the pilot study, when the data was released to the public. This period started at the end of 2006 and continued into the early months of 2008. The chapter looks at how the Pilot Study Reports from the period were evaluated and how these evaluations affected choices of which questions would appear on one or more of the 2008 studies.
The Beneficent Sky God: Cultural History in the Qur’an
Authors: McCants William F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the Qur'an's interpretation of the origins of civilization. When the Arabs conquered the Near East, they shared with their subjects (mainly Jews and Christians) the notion that civilization had arisen as a consequence of Adam's fall. But in contrast to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an portrays the rise of civilization positively and makes God its prime mover, much like the gods of ancient Near Eastern myths. There are at least two reasons for this difference. First, Muhammad draws on noncanonical biblical scripture and storytelling that link God, angels, and chosen human interlocutors to the development of beneficial arts and sciences. Second, Muhammad draws on some version of these texts (perhaps oral) to prove his argument that God is the source of all civilization, an argument influenced by late-antique thought on divine providence. He makes this argument to justify either proselytizing among or conquest of non-Muslims, who have forgotten the source of civilization and thus deserve to lose it.
Inventing Nations: Postconquest Native Histories of Civilization’s Origins
Authors: McCants William F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines postconquest native histories of civilization. These histories are nationalistic in the sense that they place the origins of civilization locally and in the distant past and assert or imply that the cultures of other nations are inferior and derivative. Moreover, they make shared ancient culture, rather than kinship, the primary marker of ethnic belonging. In the postconquest periods considered, claims to have originated civilization were bolstered by citing ancient texts attesting to the same. Although this sometimes led to forgeries and frequently to exaggerated claims for the antiquity of a translated text, it also fueled the translation of preconquest histories. Where preconquest texts are available for comparison, the preconquest provenance of the translated material is usually borne out. Thus, the question is usually not whether the postconquest culture myths are authentic but rather why postconquest authors chose particular myths to translate and how they presented them to their multiple audiences to elevate the status of preconquest native civilization.
Conclusion
Authors: McCants William F.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. Throughout the millennia of culture myths surveyed in this book, the most contentious and frequently mentioned innovation has been ironsmithing, and attitudes toward it were indicative of attitudes toward civilization in general, since it was usually implicated in civilization's rise. But despite the pro- or anticivilization sentiment of the authors of these myths, their attitudes toward technological development did not necessarily dictate the attitudes of those who venerated their texts. Hesiod and the Yahwist wrote myths that decried civilization's dark side, particularly the violence wrought by iron weapons. But the nations that venerated their stories also celebrated civilization's benefits and strove to add to them and claim them as their own. They did so by altering their culture myths in the retelling, emphasizing some myths more than others, or by inventing new ones to complement the old. Muhammad, drawing on more positive scriptural assessments of civilization that grew out of this process, ignored negative culture myths, even crediting God with giving iron and ironsmithing to humans.
Prologue
Authors: Drelichman Mauricio , Voth Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2017

This prologue provides an overview of state debts and sovereign default in the sixteenth century, looking in particular at Philip II's defaults. The debts and defaults of Philip II suggest that there is another way for financing government borrowing: prearranged reduction in what a government owes and has to pay to creditors in bad times. Indeed, lenders agreed to forego interest or extend the maturity of loans if the king experienced a bad shock. This system exhibited remarkable stability, bringing essentially the same banking dynasties together with the monarch for over half a century, providing financing and insurance. Another remarkable feature of the debt issuance system evolved by Philip II and his financiers is the stability of the banking institutions, the main innovation of which was an effective “risk transfer” mechanism.
Lending to the Borrower from Hell
Authors: Drelichman Mauricio , Voth Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on repayment incentives. The question of why sovereign lending can exist can be divided into two broad approaches: sanctions and reputation. Papers in the reputation tradition argue that the need to smooth consumption is key: if a borrower fails to honor their contract, credit will dry up. The borrower will be markedly worse off, being unable to borrow in hard times. In contrast, the sanctions literature argues that without penalties above and beyond the mere exclusion from future borrowing, sovereign lending cannot exist. Sanctions range from trade embargoes to military intervention. Over the last 200 years, there are examples of both trade sanctions and armed intervention—but they are exceedingly rare.