bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paris Accord and China’s Climate Change Strategy: Drivers and Outcomes
Authors: Godbole Avinash
Published: July 2017

From the UNFCCC Copenhagen Climate Summit to the Paris Climate Summit, China has changed its position in global climate change talks in a substantive manner. There are three distinct drivers behind this change of strategy: domestic challenges of pollution, China’s search for an international leadership position on emerging issues and the US–China climate cooperation. This article looks at these three issues in detail.
Mongolia'S Foreign Policy: New Challenges and Trends
Authors: Chuluundorj By D.
Published: July 2017

Mongolia, one of the ancient nations of Asia, lies in between the two great nations of the world—the Soviet Union and China—in the heart of East Asia. Like many other nations of the world Mongolia has traversed a long and difficult journey to its independence; genuine independence was secured as a result of the crucial revolution of the Mongolian people in 1921. In 1924 it was proclaimed a Republic, which brought its sovereign existence among the nations of the world, although it could fully exercise its sovereign rights in international relations only after the Second World War.
Learning to be the church: The value of learning theory for discipleship and mission
Authors: Saines Don
Published: July 2017

This article draws on the findings of recent learning theory in adult education and describes possible ecclesial dispositions that better enable parish churches to be learning communities within the mission of God for the world. Once we understand our educational philosophy and our goals then we are better served to inform and shape the way we plan and go about the process of teaching and learning, and so develop the church’s sense of mission. The article argues that, deep approaches to learning offer a vision for ecclesial learning that will draw from the many and varied contexts where diversity is increasingly our experience. Creative but transformative learning that is ‘world involving’ precisely because it is ‘God involving’ and vice versa, can help the church mirror approaches to mission that reflect discipleship and mission in the name of the Triune God.
The creation of Australia’s first ‘University of Specialisation’
Authors: McMullen Gabrielle , Beirne Paul , Carpenter Peter
Published: July 2017

In the Australian context, the Melbourne College of Divinity (MCD) – since 2012 the University of Divinity – is a unique and successful ecumenical endeavour. 1 With over 100 years as a leading provider of theological education and of service to its member churches, the MCD has also made history in progressing to become Australia’s first specialized university. This article traces the MCD’s historic transition to specialized university status.
Enhancing Fidelity in Adventure Education and Adventure Therapy
Authors: Tucker Anita R. , Rheingold Alison
Published: July 2017

Although the importance of addressing and evaluating treatment and program fidelity is clearly emphasized in the literature on psychology, education, and health, little attention has been given to fidelity in adventure literature or research. Program fidelity refers to whether or not, and how well, a specific intervention or program was implemented as planned. This article provides a background on fidelity, including program adherence and competence, factors that affect fidelity, and ways that adventure practitioners as well as evaluators can be intentional in addressing and measuring fidelity in adventure programming and research.
Controller Situation Awareness in Free Flight
Authors: Endsley Mica R. , Mogford Richard H. , Stein Earl
Published: July 2017

Free flight represents a major change in the way that aircraft are handled in the National Airspace System. It has the potential to significantly increase airspace utilization and, by doing so, improve aircraft throughput. The degree to which these objectives can be met without compromising aircraft safety will depend on appropriate changes in the air traffic control system. This study provides an objective evaluation of some of the possible effects of free flight on controllers' ability to maintain an accurate and complete picture of the traffic situation. This picture or mental representation is essential for monitoring and separation functions. The study revealed that, using current technology, some aspects of free flight might adversely influence the situation awareness and performance of controllers. The results of this study provided information for better defining how free flight should be implemented and for determining needed design and procedural modifications to support the concept.
Symposium on Cognitive Compatibility of Aircraft Displays: A New Approach to an Old Problem
Authors: Selcon S.J. , Andre A.D. , Banbury S.J. , Jordan C.S. , Tlauka M. , Walters H. , Wickens C.
Published: July 2017

Although the design of the interface in aircraft cockpits has long been recognised as an area requiring the application of Human Factors knowledge, relatively little progress has been made in the development of formal methods to support such a design process. The design cycle has tended to be based around the iterative prototyping and testing of candidate solutions, rather than the application of a priori design rules. Such an approach is sub-optimal since it relies on the utility of the initial candidate designs being correct. The approach can be likened to chamfering the corners of a square wheel, rather than specifying in advance that wheels should be round. It is also a relatively expensive and time consuming method of design since for each new display the whole process needs to be repeated, with little transfer from previous displays. This symposium presents an alternative approach to interface design through the generation of a priori design rules that will specify the cognitive compatibility (i.e. the compatibility of display representations and organisations with the inherent cognitive abilities and skills of the user) of display solutions. The papers in the symposium will describe a number of studies where the results were used to generate empirical design rules relevant to aviation displays. The viability and utility of integrating such rules into a tool to support the design of aircraft interfaces will be discussed.
Status of Human Factors and Ergonomics Education: Are Universities Providing the Skills Required for Consumer Product Design?
Authors: Miller Michael E. , Morrison H. Boyd
Published: July 2017

This debate explored the state-of-the-art in human factors education and the skills that are desired as professionals enter industry to design consumer products. This debate addressed the specific needs of consumer product design, where a consumer product was defined as a product that is purchased by the end user and used by this person. Inherent in this definition is the fact that both the purchase and use of this product are left to the discretion of the user. Therefore, this product must not only facilitate the efficient completion of a task but also satisfy a basic user need.

This debate attempted to arrive at a consensus on potential improvements to the training of individuals within the university environment, and to identify potential industry contributions to improve the quality of education of human factors and ergonomics professionals in consumer product design. This consensus was obtained by bringing together industry representatives from Fortune 500 companies and design firms with professors from prominent universities. University representatives provided a short overview of their human factors curriculum, the skills that this curriculum provides their students and views on how additional industry involvement could improve the quality of education. Industry representatives provided an overview of their organizations and the skills that are expected of new employees as they enter the work force. The debate occurred as differences were identified between the views expressed during these presentations.

Among the topics debated were: 1) the importance of student internships versus additional course work, 2) the importance of general human factors principles versus extensive course work within specialized areas, 3) the need for education of theoretical knowledge versus applied training where students learn to make tradeoffs when the ideal cannot be achieved, 4) training involving communication within multidisciplinary teams versus relatively homogeneous human factors programs, 5) a focus on methods for determining consumer needs versus historical methods for determining needs of trained operators of large systems, and 6) training the human factors graduate as an evaluator of consumer products versus a creator/generator of new product concepts.
An Analytical Framework for Organizing Human Factors in Environmental Design and Research
Authors: Popov Lubomir
Published: July 2017

The framework proposed is based on the idea that a model of the human individual could provide a basis for organizing human factors in environmental design and research. Several levels of structure are defined: anthropometric, physiological, psychological, social-psychological, social, and cultural. Such a framework will provide a conceptual background that will assist in navigating within the diverse domain of human factors and will allow for more adequate conceptualization of design situations. The framework is intended to guide research design, interpretation of information, and decision-making in Human Factors studies.
Studies in the History of Human Factors Ergonomics
Authors: Meister David
Published: July 2017

This is continuation of studies of the history and characteristics of human factors ergonomics (HFE). Earlier studies had analyzed the annual meeting programs of the Human Factors Society from 1959 to 1970 and empirical papers (those that tested subjects) that were published in Human Factors and in the Proceedings of the annual meetings of the Society. Every discipline has a history, and it is important to examine that history in terms of what its professionals publish and consider, because this enables one to see how and in which direction the discipline is moving. A historical analysis serves as a sort of feedback, if one thinks of the discipline as a special type of conceptual system.
Performance on an Adaptive Automated Team Tracking Task with Human and Computer Teammates
Authors: Krahl Kristin , Scerbo Mark W.
Published: July 2017

The present study examined team performance on an adaptive pursuit tracking task with human-human and human-computer teams. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three team conditions where their partner was either a computer novice, computer expert, or human. Participants began the experiment with control over either the horizontal or vertical axis, but had the option of taking control of their teammate's axis if they achieved superior performance on the previous trial. A control condition was also run where a single participant controlled both axes. Performance was assessed by RMSE scores over 100 trials. The results showed that performance along the horizontal axis improved over the session regardless of the experimental condition, but the degree of improvement was dependent upon group assignment. Individuals working alone or paired with an expert computer maintained a high level of performance throughout the experiment. Those paired with a computer-novice or another human performed poorly initially, but eventually reached the level of those in the other conditions. The results showed that team training can be as effective as individual training, but that the quality of training is moderated by the skill level of one's teammate. Moreover, these findings suggest that task partitioning of high performance skills between a human and a computer is not only possible but may be considered a viable option in the design of adaptive systems.
Individual Differences in Performance Accuracy as a Function of Work Load Manipulation
Authors: Ippel Martin J.
Published: July 2017

This paper presents a theoretical analysis of how manipulation of work load effects task performance as measured by accuracy scores. The analysis is based on a central assumption of human performance theory: the assumption of limited cognitive resources. It is shown that the addition of an individual differences postulate to this theory makes it possible to derive a class of mathematical models that allows precise predictions of response accuracy as a function of cognitive work load (task parameter) and available resources (subject parameter).
A New Force-Displacement Metrology for Keyboards
Authors: Olacsi Gary S. , Beaton Robert J.
Published: July 2017

The ergonomic design of computer keyboards has been a popular topic of research during the past decade. Much work has focused on assessing design attributes of keyboards that affect their subjective “feel” during typing tasks. One common measure used for this purpose has been the force-displacement function, which characterizes the force required to displace a key to various positions within its travel range. Unfortunately, keyboard manufacturers and researchers have used stepped force-displacement techniques that quantify the holding force needed to maintain a key in a selected displacement position, but it does not assess the dynamic forces experienced at a user's fingertips while typing. This paper introduces a continuous force-displacement technique that measures dynamic force components.
A Comparison of Four Methods Commonly Used to Determine Low-Back Disorder Risk in a Manufacturing Environment
Authors: Lavender S.A. , Oleske D.M. , Nicholson L. , Andersson G.B.J. , Hahn J.
Published: July 2017

Manual material lifting is a major risk factor for work-related low back disorders (LBD's). Several methods for quantifying the specific aspects of lifting which are believed to contribute to LBD's have been developed and are beginning to be used in industry for job evaluation and re-design. The optimal method for determining the risk of occupational LBD on a population basis has not been determined. This study compared four evaluation methods used to assess occupational LBD risk in manual material handling tasks. The job evaluation methods examined were: the 1993 NIOSH model, the UAW-GM Ergonomic Risk Factor Checklist, the Static Strength Prediction Model, and the Lumbar Motion Monitor (LMM) model. The four methods were selected because they represent either common practice within the automotive industry, the result of governmental efforts to protect the work force, or models thought to be the most scientifically advanced. The analysis presented here was based on a random sample of production jobs in an automotive metal fabricating plant. The study population was comprised of automotive workers who perform materials handling operations. The sixty two jobs were all performed by three or more full time employees. Inter-correlations between measures were computed. In general, the inter-correlations while statistically significant (p<.05) were low (r < .42). This indicates that the different measures are most likely assessing different aspects of the work process.
Effects of Matching Cognitive and Perceptual-Motor Training to Task Components on Complex Task Performance by Older and Younger Adults
Authors: Mead Sherry E. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: July 2017

The present study investigated the type of information that should be presented during training in order to maximize the performance of older and younger adults on complex, realistic tasks. This study compares the effects of emphasizing concepts or actions during training on both immediate performance and performance after a one-month delay. Participants completed one of two tutorials for operating a computer-simulated automatic teller machine. One tutorial presented conceptual information at each system state (Concept Training). The other indicated the target object on-screen and required activation of the correct ATM simulator control (Action Training). Participants performed 20 transactions following training and 20 transactions following a one-month retention interval. Older Action trainees showed higher accuracy on perceptual-motor task components than did older Concept trainees. Older Concept trainees showed higher accuracy on cognitive task components than did older Action trainees. Younger adults showed no training group differences. Results suggest that matching type of training to task components may be especially important for older adults and that qualitatively different recommendations may result from testing older and younger adults.
The Influence of Age and Experience on the Performance of a Data Entry Task
Authors: Czaja Sara J. , Sharit Joseph
Published: July 2017

Findings from research examining age and computer task performance indicate that older people perform less well than younger people on these types of tasks. The present study examined whether age-related performance differences are maintained with task experience. To address this issue one hundred and ten subjects, ranging in age from 20—75 yrs., performed a data entry task over a three day period. The task represented a simulation of a real world job. The data indicated significant age differences in work output (amount of data entered). Further, although there were significant improvements in performance with increased task experience across subjects, age group differences were maintained over time. With respect to errors there were no age effects and there was a significant reduction in errors across the three days. However, the pattern of change varied across age groups. These results are consistent with other studies which suggest that experience does not compensate for age effects for tasks which emphasize speed of processing.
Age-Related Differences in Remote Pointing Performance
Authors: Hsu Shang H. , Huang Chien C. , Tsuang Yang H. , Sun Jui S.
Published: July 2017

The present study investigated age-related differences in remote pointing performance. Three age groups (i.e., the Young adult. Middle-aged, and Elderly) performed cursor positioning tasks by using a remote pointing device. The time taken to reposition the cursor was collected. The result showed that age groups had differences in movement time. Further analysis on the submovement duration times showed that movement time for the Young-adult group was mostly travel time, while the Elderly subjects spent most of their movement time on fine adjustment. This study supports the proposition that different age groups exhibit different kinds of movement patterns.
Running in a Fog: Dynamic Decision Making under Uncertainty
Authors: Kirschenbaum Susan S. , Gray Wayne D.
Published: July 2017

Many highly technological and dynamic environments require decision making without full knowledge. This symposium presents research from four disparate environments that fit this description: nuclear power plant operations; locating an enemy submarine from onboard a nuclear attack submarine; emergency room, trauma patient resuscitation; and operator teams onboard AWACS aircraft. The four papers also illustrate different ways of investigating and analyzing these situations and point to design guidelines for decision support in each domain.
Uncertainty in Trauma Patient Resuscitation
Authors: Xiao Yan , Mackenzie Colin F.
Published: July 2017

Case segments during trauma patient resuscitation, as primarily captured by videotaping, were analyzed to understand how various types of uncertainty arise during the initial stages of resuscitative efforts. Over 40 case segments were analyzed, with the objective of answering the question of “What is uncertain to the team specifically related to this case segment?” Findings were summarized as a list of categories of uncertain items. Although some of the items have been traditionally considered in decision making, such as patient's prior medical history, others were related to team and organizational factors, and still others to activities of other team members. Given that satisfactory, robust performance requires a team to resolve these uncertainties, studies of decisionmaking in naturalistic settings should be directed at how various uncertainties arise and how they are resolved and tackled.
A Comparison of Alternatives for Automated Decision Support in a Multi-Task Environment
Authors: MacMillan Jean , Deutsch Stephen E. , Young Michael J.
Published: July 2017

Complex, multi-task work environments that require humans to “juggle” many simultaneous tasks are becoming more widespread. How can automated capabilities best support the operator in these environments? We grouped the cognitive workload associated with multi-task management into two broad areas: 1) creating, maintaining, and updating an awareness of the status of all of the active tasks, and 2) choosing actions from among these active tasks based on overall goals. We then developed automated decision support for each of these aspects of workload and assessed which type of support was more effective in improving performance. Our findings indicate that, in a simulated air traffic control environment, the effort associated with creating and maintaining situation awareness was overwhelmingly responsible for the operator's workload. The results suggest that effective decision support in this environment should focus on helping the operator maintain awareness of the changing status of the active tasks, not on setting priorities or choosing among alternative tasks.
Operator Specific Modeling of Identification Judgments in a Complex Dynamic Task
Authors: Gay Paul , Phipps Donita A. , Bisantz Ann M. , Walker Neff , Kirlik Alex , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: July 2017

In this paper, we consider the problem of training operators to make identification judgments from multidimensional, possibly probabilistic, information sources. We used models of the environment and the operator to measure the causes of lack of fit of the operator to the environment. Linear regression was used to model the relationship between cues and identifications. Cues in the environment were regressed on the correct identification to obtain the environmental model. These same cues were regressed on the operators' identity judgments to obtain the operator models. Individual environmental models were necessary in order to properly represent the environment when operator decisions and timing shaped the environment dynamically. High agreement between environmental and operator models were linked to top performance on the task. Implications for training are discussed.
Shift Changes, Updates, and the On-Call Model in Space Shuttle Mission Control
Authors: Patterson Emily S. , Woods David D.
Published: July 2017

There has been a transition in many supervisory control domains from continuous monitoring to minimizing staffing until a problem arises. The key to making this “on-call” model effective is to understand how to bring practitioners up to speed quickly when they are called in. A field study was conducted to investigate what it means to update a supervisory controller on the status of a continuous, anomaly-driven process in a complex, distributed environment. Sixteen shift changes, or handovers, were observed during an anomalous space shuttle mission. Handover updates included descriptions of events that had occurred, ongoing activities, results of data analyses, and changes to mission plans. The controllers engaged in intense, interactive briefings that highlighted what the incoming controller needed to review more deeply following the update. Interrogation strategies were employed by the incoming controllers. Implications for organizational investments and the design of tools to support updates are discussed.
Assessing Cognitive Workload Metrics for Evaluating Telecommunication Tasks
Authors: Whitaker Leslie A. , Hohne Jennifer , Birkmire-Peters Deborah P.
Published: July 2017

Telecommunication technology provides the potential for teamwork across distances. In this way, geographically separated team members can communicate electronically to solve problems. An experiment was conducted to test the sensitivity of three cognitive workload metrics to tasks performed under conditions of telecommunication vs. face-to-face communication. Twenty-three teams participated as subjects. A block puzzle pattern task was tested at four levels of puzzle difficulty under the two communication conditions. Task performance (time to complete and errors), as well as cognitive workload ratings were measured. Three workload metrics [Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT), NASA-TLX, and Modified Cooper Harper (MCH)] were compared. Each person's spatial ability was assessed using the Cognitive Laterality Battery. Both performance and workload varied as a function of puzzle difficulty. While all workload metrics were able to discriminate amongst some of the puzzle difficulty levels, SWAT had the two advantages of providing the most sensitive measure of difficulty plus a wider range of workload ratings.
Reducing the Interaction Burden of Complex Systems
Authors: Coury Bruce G. , Sadowsky John , Schuster Paul R. , Kurnow Michael , Huber Marcus J. , Durfee Edmund H.
Published: July 2017

Reducing the burden of interacting with complex systems has been a long standing goal of user interface design. In our approach to this problem, we have been developing user interfaces that allow users to interact with complex systems in a natural way and in high-level, task-related terms. These capabilities help users concentrate on making important decisions without the distractions of manipulating systems and user interfaces. To attain such a goal, our approach uses a unique combination of multi-modal interaction and interaction planning. In this paper, we motivate the basis for our approach, we describe the user interface technologies we have developed, and briefly discuss the relevant research and development issues.
The Effect of Multimedia Components on Learning
Authors: Lee Adrienne Y. , Bowers Alexia N.
Published: July 2017

Multimedia is composed of various components: text, graphics/animation, and audio. These components can contribute differentially to the learning of material. The Dual Coding Theory, where the learning of material is enhanced by the simultaneous development and activation of modality specific structures (verbal and non-verbal), can be applied to multimedia learning (Mayer & Gallini, 1990). However most empirical work to examine this theory has focused on graphics and text. In addition research in multimedia has assumed that audio components would enhance learning. Therefore, the studies described in this paper focus on all three components of multimedia with the goal of determining the contribution that these components have on learning. Results did not uniformly support the Dual Coding Theory. In addition, the audio component for this multimedia training did not play as large a role in improving learning as the graphics and animations.
A Pair of Techniques for Effective Interface Evaluation: Cognitive Walkthroughs and Think-Aloud Evaluations
Authors: Beer Tyra , Anodenko Tatyana , Sears Andrew
Published: July 2017

Developing effective user interfaces is an iterative process. Early evaluations tend to focus on finding severe problems that need to be fixed as early as possible. As the design evolves, attention shifts toward smaller details so less severe problems are also of interest. To succeed, it is important to apply the most effective evaluation techniques at each stage. In this paper, we explain why cognitive walkthrough and think-aloud evaluations complement each other and report the results of a study that compares these techniques for use late in the development process. Our study shows that cognitive walkthroughs find the most severe usability problems along with desirable new features and functionality, while think-aloud evaluations find all types of usability problems. This paper adds to our understanding of interface evaluation techniques and provides practical advice for developers searching for techniques that are effective throughout the development process.
Effect of Container Shape on Hazard Perceptions
Authors: Wogalter Michael S. , Laughery Kenneth R. , Barfield David A.
Published: July 2017

People may make assumptions about the hazard levels of products based on the physical characteristics of the container. One primary physical characteristic of a container is its shape (configuration). For example a container appearing similar to a carton of milk might be assumed to hold a less hazardous substance than would a paint can. The present study examined 17 container shapes, presented to participants as line drawings, on various dimensions including perceptions of hazard, likelihood of reading the label, ease of dispensing, and familiarity. The results showed that different container shapes evoke different levels of hazard perception. Container shapes connoting higher hazard were also those that people reported greater willingness to read the label and represented containers that were more difficult to dispense. Hazard perception and container familiarity significantly contributed to the prediction of likelihood of reading the label. Implications for further research and hazard control are discussed.
Selection and Classification of the Usability Attributes for Evaluating Consumer Electronic Products
Authors: Kwahk Jiyoung , Han Sung H. , Yun Myung Hwan , Hong Sang W. , Chung Min K. , Lee Kwan S.
Published: July 2017

Although the concept of usability has been well defined in the software usability engineering area, it is not appropriate to apply the same concept directly to the consumer electronic products. A new concept of usability appropriate for evaluating consumer electronic products was suggested in this study. It is characterized by integrating both the performance and impression factors. Based on the concept developed, specific usability attributes were defined and classified. In addition, the usability measures along with appropriate measurement techniques were also developed and classified to evaluate the usability attributes in an efficient and systematic manner. The results of this study can be used to evaluate the usability of consumer electronic products.
Design Challenges to the Use of Child Resistance as a Safety Strategy
Authors: Wood Christine T.
Published: July 2017

Child-resistant containers and other child-resistant mechanisms have been a child-safety strategy for years. Research is reviewed concerning the difficulty of designing a child-resistant mechanism that is also acceptable to adult users.
Sustaining Safety and Profitability through Macroergonomics in a Shipping Operation
Authors: Azevedo Glenn , Zande Peter , Imada Andrew S.
Published: July 2017

This study describes a series of interventions that began in 1991 to improve occupational safety and health. The interventions included: ergonomic analysis, training, job rotation, a stretching program, team building and a continuous improvement process. Dramatic improvements were realized in reducing CTD injuries (84%), OSHA recordable injuries (78% improvement), and total injuries (76% improvement) for this work unit. While the specific interventions are common to ergonomics and contemporary management practices, it is argued that taken together, in a macroergonomic approach, the total effect is greater than any of the independent interventions.
Could Mental Practice and Imagery Be Techniques for Enhancing Aviation Performance?
Authors: Jentsch Florian , Bowers Clint , Salas Eduardo
Published: July 2017

The aviation industry is experiencing an increased demand for training. Unfortunately, however, training in aviation has become equated with the use of expensive, high fidelity simulations. Therefore, the expense of training may preclude some aviators from receiving sufficient practice in the many critical skills required for safe flight. In response to this problem, training professionals must identify approaches that allow for effective practice in the absence of expensive simulation. One candidate approach is mental practice. However, the efficacy of mental practice might be limited by aviators' acceptance of the technique or their ability to use it for flight situations. Therefore, to test the feasibility of mental practice for aviators, the present study sought to assess the degree to which pilots already use mental practice and imagery. Sixty pilots of varying experience levels were surveyed regarding the frequency, vividness, and content of mental practice they use. The results indicate that pilots use mental practice and imagery quite often and report a degree of vividness of mental imagery that is significantly higher than in the general population. Differences between novices and experts in the use of imagery are also presented. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for aviation training.
Landmark Direction and Distance Estimation in Large Scale Virtual Environments
Authors: Allen Robert C. , McDonald Daniel P. , Singer Michael J.
Published: July 2017

The current paper describes our classification of errors participants made when estimating direction and distances in a large scale (2000 m × 2000 m) Virtual Environment (VE). Two VE configuration groups (Low or High Interactivity) traversed a 400 m route through one of two Virtual Terrain's (Distinctive or Non-Distinctive or Terrain 1 and 2, respectively) in 100 m increments. The High VE group used a treadmill to move through the VE with head tracked visual displays; the Low VE group used a joystick for movement and visual display control. Results indicate that as experience within either terrain increased, participants demonstrated an improved ability to directionally locate landmarks. Experience in the environment did not affect distance estimation accuracy. Terrain 1 participants were more accurate in locating proximal, as opposed to distal, landmarks. They also overestimated distances to near landmarks and underestimated distances to far landmarks. In Terrain 2, the Low VE group gave more accurate distance estimations. We believe this result can be explained in terms of increased task demands placed on the High VE Group.
Empirical Modeling of Perceived Presence in Virtual Environments Using Sequential Experimentation Techniques
Authors: Snow Michael P. , Williges Robert C.
Published: July 2017

Investigations of perceived presence in a virtual environment (VE) consist primarily of single studies examining only a few independent variables at once. A series of three studies was conducted to test a ratio-scale measure of presence and to examine the first- and second-order effects of eleven VE system parameters on perceived presence. Sequential experimentation techniques were used to build an integrated empirical model using polynomial regression. The resulting primary predictors of perceived presence using a head-mounted display included field of view, sound, and head-tracking. Secondary predictors included visual display resolution, texture-mapping, stereopsis, and scene update rate. The procedures and limitations of sequential experimentation, and its application to the examination of perceived presence in a VE are discussed. It is concluded that sequential experimentation is a useful tool for examining perceived presence, but the subjective nature of this phenomenon and individual differences can make data bridging across sequential studies problematic.
Perceptual Effects in Aligning Virtual and Real Objects in Augmented Reality Displays
Authors: Milgram Paul , Drascic David
Published: July 2017

The concept of Augmented Reality (AR) displays is defined, in relation to the amount of real (unmodelled) and virtual (modelled) data presented in an image, as those displays in which real images, such as video, are enhanced with computer generated graphics. For the important class of stereoscopic AR displays, several factors may cause potential perceptual ambiguities, however, which manifest themselves in terms of decreased accuracy and precision whenever virtual objects must be aligned with real ones. A review is given of research conducted to assess both the magnitude of these perceptual effects and the effectiveness of a computer assisted Virtual Tape Measure (VTM), which has been developed for performing quantitative 3D measurements on real-world stereo images.
Virtual Visual and Auditory Display Aids for a Peg Insertion Task
Authors: Nemire Kenneth
Published: July 2017

Effects of visual and auditory display enhancements to a pick-and-place task performed in an immersive virtual environment were evaluated to determine whether the enhancements may replace depth information provided by stereoscopic visual displays. Participants used a commercial head-mounted display, spatial trackers on the head and hand, and a control wand. Independent variables included biocular or stereo viewing, movement amplitude, target diameter, and audio or visual enhancements. Dependent variables were movement time and number of discrete movements required to complete the task. Results indicated the stereo display and the display enhancements provided no performance advantages over the biocular display for the easier task conditions. Further, visual and auditory enhancements to the biocular display were found that resulted in performance that was not different from using stereoscopic displays. Implications of the results are discussed.
Ocular Dominance Effects on the Application of Monocular, Occluding Head-Mounted Displays
Authors: Kancler David E. , Quill Laurie L.
Published: July 2017

This study investigates the effects of ocular dominance when maintenance procedures are presented on a monocular, occluding head-mounted display (HMD). While previous research has not revealed significant effects associated with ocular dominance and the use of a monocular, occluding HMD, most of this research has occurred in the cockpit environment. By nature, this setting involves continually changing (or dynamic) environmental information, such as target location or altitude. By contrast, the aircraft maintenance environment is static; the technician is not required to process dynamic environmental information. As the Air Force studies the feasibility of presenting maintenance procedures on HMDs, research efforts must thoroughly address questions pertaining to the use of these devices, such as potential effects of ocular dominance. The current study addresses the effect of ocular dominance on performance times, subjective workload ratings, self reports, and preference rankings. Consistent with previous research, ocular dominance did not have a significant effect on any of the dependent measures. However, order of presentation (dominant eye before non-dominant eye vs. dominant eye after non-dominant eye) did provide some differences in performance times and workload scores. Explanations for these differences are discussed.
Message Repetition Improves Older and Younger Adult Memory for Appointment Information: Implications for Automated Telephone Messaging
Authors: Morrow Daniel G. , Leirer Von O. , Carver Lisa M. , Tanke Elizabeth Decker
Published: July 2017

Automated telephone messaging systems have dramatically expanded communication about health services. However, few studies have investigated the design of these messages. Our earlier research examined the impact of organization and length on age differences in memory for appointment messages delivered by an automated telephone messaging system. The present study investigated if message repetition (0, 1, 2 repetitions) improved older (mean age=71) and younger (mean age=19) adult memory for appointment messages that varied in length. One message repetition reduced age differences for answering questions about the messages, but did not reduce age differences for a free recall measure, suggesting that older adults only took differential advantage of increased presentation time when they were also provided additional retrieval support. Younger but not older participants also benefitted from a second repetition of the messages. Younger adults may better monitor ongoing comprehension and gauge what additional processing is needed to take advantage of repeated presentations. The present findings show that older as well as younger adults benefit from at least one repetition of appointment messages delivered by an automated message system, suggesting that repetition can be an important feature of automated telephone messaging systems for both older and younger clients.
Design of Telephone Answering Machines for Older Adults
Authors: Lee Chin Chin , D'Agostini Jessica , Czaja Sara J. , Sharit Joseph
Published: July 2017

Older adults frequently have difficulty when attempting to use various forms of technology such as computers or automatic teller machines. This study evaluated the usability of telephone answering machines for older adults. Initially, a task analysis of four commonly used answering machines was performed to identify the subtasks involved in using an answering machine. A questionnaire was then developed which assessed usage patterns and usability issues associated with answering machines. This questionnaire was administered to a sample of 68 people aged 65+ yrs. and 50 people aged 20 — 30 yrs. The data indicated that most older people own answering machines and perceive them as useful. There were, however, some age differences in aspects of usability. The older adults were more likely to have difficulty understanding messages than the younger people and to perceive the messages as distorted. Further, the older people reported that they have difficulty replaying messages and accessing messages remotely. The results also indicated that older people with hearing impairments were more likely to have problems with message distortion than those without hearing impairments. Overall, the data suggest features of answering machines which affect the usability of this technology for older age groups. Data is currently being collected regarding the ability of a sample of older people to perform a common set of tasks using two different answering machines. The results from the research are being used to develop recommendations for improving the design of telephone answering machines for people of all age groups.
The Relevance of Cognitive Aging Research to Warning Label Design
Authors: Rousseau Gabriel K. , Lamson Nina , Rogers Wendy A.
Published: July 2017

A variety of individual difference variables affect whether someone notices, encodes, comprehends, and complies with a product warning label. Failures at any of these stages reduce the effectiveness of warnings. Development of effective warnings must be based on understanding the characteristics of the product user. As the population grows older, consideration of age-related changes in perceptual and cognitive abilities becomes more relevant to the warning designer. Aging researchers have identified a variety of declines and changes in vision (e.g., acuity, contrast sensitivity, and color discrimination) and memory (e.g., working memory and prospective memory). By considering the abilities of the product user, the impact of age-related changes may be minimized. Based on cognitive aging research and theory, we will make recommendations about how designers can increase the effectiveness of warnings for older adults.
Human Factors behind the Improved ANSI Z535.3 Label Standard for Safety Symbols
Authors: Deppa Shelley Waters , Martin B. Jay
Published: July 2017

The 1997 revision to the ANSI Z535.3 Criteria for Safety Symbols standard refined and expanded the structure of the original 1991 version. The revision contains improved symbol creation guidelines, comprehension test procedures, symbol surround shape and color guidance, and symbol examples. This paper explains the revisions of interest, the role of human factors analyses in driving the standard's evolution, and the reasons why symbols created and tested according to the revised criteria are expected to be more effective in terms of consistency, legibility, and most importantly, comprehension. Research areas for future revisions are also identified.
Field Evaluation of Ultraviolet (UV)-Activated Fluorescent Roadway Delineation
Authors: Simmons Carole , Mahach Karen , Knoblauch Dick , Nitzburg Marsha , Tignor Sam , Wochinger Kathryn
Published: July 2017

A field test was conducted at the Federal Highway Administration's Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center to determine whether the use of UV headlamps in conjunction with fluorescent pavement markings could increase the visibility of roadway delineation. A passenger car was equipped with headlamps that supply UV radiation in a highbeam pattern, in addition to conventional halogen headlamps. Subjects rated the visibility of three types of pavement markings (standard paint, standard thermoplastic, and UV-activated fluorescent thermoplastic) as seen under conventional lowbeam headlamps with auxiliary UV headlamps either on or off. Results showed that UV-activated fluorescent pavement markings provided a significant increase in visibility when viewed with UV headlamps on vs. UV headlamps off, and also provided better visibility than the other marking types. This suggests that the use of UV-headlamps in combination with UV-activated fluorescent pavement markings and other traffic control devices could lead to improvements in nighttime driving visibility.
Perceived Risk Dilution with Multiple Warnings
Authors: Chen Jessie Y.C. , Gilson Richard D. , Mouloua Mustapha
Published: July 2017

The application of multiple warning labels on consumer products and household appliances is now commonplace with increased public attention on safety issues. In the present study, the number of on-product warning messages was manipulated to examine perceived risk. Risk assessment for individual warning messages associated with a product and the overall perceived risk level for the product were examined and compared. We hypothesized that the number and contents of warnings may influence the perceived risk level for both the individual warning message and the overall perception of danger. Warning messages were presented in the format of either discrete messages or as messages as part of a group, then compared with regard to their perceived risk. The results showed that the perceived risk declined in a stepwise manner as a function of the number of low-criticality warning messages, thereby producing a dilution effect. This dilution effect appeared to take place as the number of low-risk warnings increased beyond five messages. The implications for safety and product design are discussed.
Vehicle-Driver Communications to Reduce Rear-End Collisions: What Makes Sense and Why?
Authors: Mortimer Rudolf G.
Published: July 2017

Rear-end collisions are a common type of accident that involves two or more vehicles. But, during the last thirty years only modest changes have been introduced or required in the rear lighting and signaling system on motor vehicles in the U.S., such as the high-mounted brake lamp. Others have been proposed such as coasting, deceleration and speed signals, and are discussed and evaluated. Accident data are reviewed as are models of car-following and the perceptual limitations of drivers in making judgements of closure and relative velocity. These data are used to infer the information that should be displayed to drivers to reduce rear-end collisions primarily by aiding in detection of closure and estimation of relative velocity. Preliminary tests showed that drivers can readily interpret the signals from a lighting system which codes the needed information.