bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Death beliefs, superstitious beliefs and health anxiety
Authors: James Abigail , Wells Adrian
Published: February 2003

Objectives. The present study explored the association between beliefs about death, superstitious beliefs, and health anxiety. It was hypothesized that negative beliefs about death and superstitious beliefs would be positively correlated with health anxiety. Conversely, positive beliefs about death were hypothesized to be negatively correlated with health anxiety.

Design. A cross‐sectional, correlational and multiple regression design was adopted.

Method. A sample of 106 Roman Catholics and 197 Atheists completed a questionnaire measuring aspects of health anxiety, spiritual beliefs, and control variables consisting of demographics.

Results. Negative beliefs about death and superstitious beliefs were related to health anxiety within both the Roman Catholic and Atheist samples. The expected negative relationship between positive beliefs about death and health anxiety was not supported in either sample. Multiple regression analyses indicated that death beliefs and superstitious beliefs, in combination with background variables, significantly predicted health anxiety in the Roman Catholic sample. For Atheists, although death and superstitious beliefs were identified as significant predictors, when considered with other variables, the additional variance accounted for was not significant.

Conclusions. Negative beliefs about death and superstitious beliefs appear to be positively associated with health anxiety. These types of beliefs may have the potential to offer a useful addition to cognitive‐behavioural models of health anxiety.
The observed impact of training on competence in clinical supervision
Authors: Milne Derek L. , James Ian A.
Published: February 2003

Objectives. The present study analysed the impact and relative effectiveness of routine training (consultancy) versus routine training plus feedback on clinical supervision.

Design. The behaviours of one supervisor and six supervisees were observed longitudinally, and comparisons made between a baseline condition and two subsequent experimental training conditions (with and without feedback) and a maintenance period.

Method. An observational instrument was used to code N = 1387 interactions between the supervisor and the supervisees. Supervisees' satisfaction with supervision was also recorded longitudinally.

Results. The inter‐observer reliability was very good initially (K ≥ 0.81) and did not ‘drift’. Supervision improved during the experimental phase, but most markedly during the maintenance phase. The results appear to reflect a lag effect for the interventions, which can be most readily explained in terms of a socialization period during which both supervisor and supervisee adapted their styles of interaction.

Conclusion. Competence in supervision appears to require training. The present methodology affords a promising approach to developing and analysing the effectiveness of supervision.
Memory bias against threat in social phobia
Authors: Wenzel Amy , Holt Craig S.
Published: February 2003

Objectives. The present study examined whether social phobia is an anxiety disorder associated with a memory bias toward threat.

Design. Social phobic (N = 16) and non‐anxious (N = 17) individuals were compared on their recall of evaluative threat and neutral prose passage content.

Method. Participants were presented with two evaluative threat and two neutral prose passages and completed an immediate free recall task after each trial.

Results. Contrary to expectation, individuals with social phobia recalled a smaller percentage of units from the evaluative threat passages than non‐anxious individuals.

Conclusion. Consistent with the vigilance‐avoidance theory, it is suggested that social phobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by the avoidance of elaborate processing of threatening material.
A comparison of auditory hallucinations in a psychiatric and non‐psychiatric group
Authors: Johns Louise C. , Hemsley David , Kuipers Elizabeth
Published: February 2003

Objectives. To compare auditory hallucinations in a psychiatric and non‐psychiatric sample.

Design. Between‐participants group design: a psychiatric group of 14 patients with schizophrenia, and a non‐psychiatric group of 16 participants with tinnitus.

Method. Participants were interviewed using the Mental Health Research Institute Unusual Perceptions Scale (MUPS).

Results. The type of hallucinations differed: participants with tinnitus predominately heard music, whereas the patients with schizophrenia heard voices speaking. The groups also differed in their explanations of the hallucinations. However, there were similarities in contributory factors, emotional responses and coping strategies.

Conclusions. The study highlights the multi‐dimensional nature of the auditory hallucinatory experience, and opportunities for intervention.
The impact of current media events on hallucinatory content: The experience of the intensive care unit (ICU) patient
Authors: Skirrow Paul , Jones Christina , Griffiths Richard D. , Kaney Sue
Published: February 2003

Objectives. To investigate the influence of current media events on hallucinatory content in ICU patients.

Design and methods. Patients were interviewed over a one‐year period, and their descriptions of hallucinatory experiences, together with weekly media stories, were assessed for themes of war.

Results. Media coverage for war‐related stories rose significantly during the period of war in Kosovo (24/3/99‐20/6/99). Patients whose ICU stays coincided with this conflict were more likely to have hallucinatory experiences involving themes of war or the military. Older adults (> 70) were also more susceptible to this effect.

Conclusions. Contextual variables such as current media events can have a significant impact upon the contents of hallucinatory experiences.
Brief cognitive screening and self concepts for children with low intellectual functioning
Authors: Russell Lesley , Bornholt Laurel , Ouvrier Robert
Published: February 2003

Objectives. To evaluate the use of brief assessments for children with low intellectual functioning.

Methods. Assessments used the SYSTEMS cognitive screening test and ASK‐KIDS self‐concept inventory. Participants were children recruited through the hospital and special education classes (N = 39).

Results. Results showed that cognitive screening accurately classified children, and their scores correlated closely with full cognitive assessment and achievement. Most children could respond to the self‐concept inventory, scales were internally consistent, and profiles were similar to those for children in the normative sample.

Conclusions. Findings support the use of brief assessments of cognitive functioning and self concepts, and suggest further studies with children in clinical settings.
Beck's cognitive theory of depression: A test of the diathesis‐stress and causal mediation components
Authors: Abela John R. Z. , D'Alessandro David U.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: This prospective study tested the diathesis‐stress and causal mediation components of Beck's (1967, 1983) cognitive theory of depression.

Design: In order to allow for a stringent test of the aetiological component of Beck's theory, we used a short‐term longitudinal design in which participants' dysfunctional attitudes were assessed prior to the occurrence of a negative event.

Methods: In all, 136 high school seniors applying to the University of Pennsylvania completed measures of depressed mood and dysfunctional attitudes 1‐8 weeks before receiving their admissions decision (Time 1). The assessment of dysfunctional attitudes was preceded by a priming task designed to activate latent depressogenic schemata. Participants also completed measures of depressed mood, negative views of the self, and negative views of the future shortly after they received their admissions decision (Time 2) and four days later (Time 3).

Results: Consistent with the diathesis‐stress component of Beck's theory, dysfunctional attitudes predicted increases in depressed mood immediately following a negative admissions outcome (Time 2). In addition, consistent with the causal mediation component of the theory, in negative outcome students, the relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and increases in depressed mood was mediated by negative views of the future. Contrary to predictions, however, this relationship was not mediated by negative views of the self. In addition, contrary to predictions, dysfunctional attitudes did not predict enduring depressed mood after a negative outcome (Time 3).

Conclusions: Individuals with dysfunctional attitudes are likely to show increases in depressed mood following the occurrence of negative events. The relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and increases in depressed mood following the occurrence of negative events is mediated by negative views of the future.
Autobiographical memory and emotion in a non‐clinical sample of women with and without a reported history of childhood sexual abuse
Authors: Henderson Dawn , Hargreaves Isabel , Gregory Sarah , Williams J. M. G.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: This study focused on the relationship between reported CSA history, subsequent autobiographical memory retrieval, intrusive and dysfunctional thoughts, and mood in a non‐clinical sample. The main hypothesis was that specificity in autobiographical memory recall would differentiate between women with a reported history of CSA and those without, and that this finding would be independent of current mood.

Design: A between‐group comparison of women (female undergraduates) with and without a reported history of CSA. Within group correlations were also examined for the reported CSA group.

Method: Participants were 79 female students, of whom 22 (28%) reported a history of CSA. All participants completed questionnaires requesting information on a history of CSA, a questionnaire version of the autobiographical memory test, the profile of mood states, the dysfunctional attitude scale, and the impact of events scale.

Results: The reported CSA group gave significantly fewer specific autobiographical memories, were significantly more anxious, depressed and angry, and held more dysfunctional beliefs than the comparison group. However, specificity of memory was not correlated with the degree of this mood disturbance or with the impact of event scale or extent of dysfunctional beliefs.

Conclusions: Models of the long‐term effects of CSA should incorporate the effects CSA may have on subsequent retrieval for memory of non‐abuse events. To improve treatment outcome, clinicians may have to directly address these deficits in therapy.
Distractor cueing effects on choice reaction time and their relationship with schizotypal personality
Authors: Steel C. , Hemsley D. R. , Pickering A. D.
Published: February 2003

Background and objectives: Although usually displaying increased distractibility, schizophrenic patients sometimes show a reduced influence of distractors during selective attention tasks. This study explored whether reduced distractor processing effects can also occur in healthy individuals with high levels of schizotypal personality traits.

Design and method: In all, 36 healthy volunteers completed schizotypal personality scales and a choice reaction time (RT) task in which they responded to the central letter of triads (XMX, YCY), ignoring the flanking distractors. RT increases on low‐probability probe trials (YMY, XCX) measured distractor processing (‘the distractor cueing effect’). Correlations between schizotypy scores and distractor cueing were evaluated.

Results: Healthy participants with high positive schizotypy scores (i.e. those reporting more hallucination‐like experiences and delusion‐like beliefs) showed smaller distractor cueing effects than those with lower scores. This association was independent of the influence of other schizotypal personality traits (disorganized, negative or asocial schizotypy) and was significant only for right‐hand responses. These findings closely parallel the previously reported reduced distractor cueing effect, for right‐hand responses, among acute‐phase schizophrenic patients.

Conclusion: Finding reduced distractor cueing effects in healthy participants with high levels of positive schizotypy increases confidence that reduced distractor cueing is a specific feature, rather than a non‐specific consequence, of acute‐phase schizophrenia.
Psychological stress, distress and disability in patients with psoriasis: Consensus and variation in the contribution of illness perceptions, coping and alexithymia
Authors: Fortune Dónal G. , Richards Helen L. , Griffiths Christopher E.M. , Main Chris J.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the relative contribution of medical variables, illness perceptions, coping and alexithymia to the variance in stress, distress and disability in patients with psoriasis.

Design: Cross‐sectional study.

Method: A group of 225 patients with psoriasis completed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ), the COPE, the Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ), Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS‐20), and two measures specific to psoriasis, the Psoriasis Disability Index (PDI), and the Psoriasis Life Stress Inventory (PLSI). The severity of patients' psoriasis was clinically assessed by dermatologists on the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI).

Results: In general, demographic variables, clinical history and extent of disease were consistently the least useful variables in terms of explaining variance in stress, distress or disability. Their utility was limited to accounting for small but significant variations in disability, but even in this case, they accounted for just over half as much variance as illness perceptions. Illness perceptions were uniformly the most important variables in terms of the variance accounted for in outcome. Coping varied widely in its explanatory power; its effects were negligible in both disability (PDI) and everyday stress (PLSI), and it was moderately important in accounting for additional variance in depression and anxiety. However, coping was important in explaining the variance in pathological worrying. Alexithymia accounted for significant additional variance chiefly for anxiety and to a lesser extent for depression, worrying and psoriasis‐related life stress.

Conclusion: The observed importance of cognitive factors in stress, distress and disability invite us to consider the utility of multivariate models of outcome in psoriasis.
The relationship between behaviour motivation and social functioning in persons with intellectual impairment
Authors: Matson Johnny L. , Mayville Erik A. , Lott Julia D.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: To assess the social functioning of individuals with severe and profound intellectual impairment who displayed maladaptive behaviour for one particular reason, as assessed by a functional analysis checklist.

Design: The social skills of 100 persons with severe and profound intellectual impairment were studied. The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills for the Individuals with Severe Retardation (MESSIER) was used to assess social functioning. Participants were placed into one of four groups according to function of maladaptive behaviour as assessed by the Questions About Behaviour Function Scale (QABF).

Methods: A multivariate analysis of variance and follow‐up univariate F‐tests were conducted using MESSIER subscales as the dependent variables and QABF function as the independent variable. To identify specific social skill strengths and weaknesses associated with each function group, the means of MESSIER items were calculated for each function group, and the 10 most frequently endorsed items were displayed.

Results: Significant differences were found for all the MESSIER subscales except one. A list of most commonly displayed behaviours for each function group was identified.

Discussion: This research represents the first attempt to systematically identify social strengths and weaknesses associated with behaviour function. Results revealed a pattern of social behaviours among groups, indicating that positive and negative social behaviour varies somewhat with behaviour motivation. The implications of these findings for clinical utility are discussed.
Development of the Children's Body Image Scale
Authors: Truby Helen , Paxton Susan J.
Published: February 2003

Objective: The aim of this study was to develop a gender‐appropriate pictorial scale to measure body image in young children based on a measurable index of adiposity.

Method: Pictorial scales for boys and girls containing seven body pictures representing standard percentile curves for body mass index (BMI) for healthy children were developed. The Children's Body Image Scale (CBIS) was administered to 312 children aged between 7 and 12 years.

Results: Accuracy of body size perception, indicated by the correlation between actual and perceived BMI category figure, developed with age, girls acquiring accuracy earlier than boys. Whereas girls developed a good accuracy (r = .60, p < .001, 10‐12 years), in boys, the correlation, though significant, was not strong (r = .35, p < .01, 10‐12 years). There was a consistent bias towards underestimation of body size using this technique. There was a high frequency of body size dissatisfaction across all the age ranges, 48% girls and 36% boys wished to have a smaller body figure than their own, and only 10% of girls and 20% boys wished to have a larger body figure. Construct validity was assessed in a subset of 153 children in which additional measures of restrained eating (DEBQ‐R) and body esteem were available. From the age of 8 years, the CBIS provides a good measure of body dissatisfaction.

Conclusions: The CBIS provides a good measure of body size perception in girls and an adequate measure in boys aged 8 years and older. It also provides a good measure of body size dissatisfaction in children. Internalization of a thin body ideal takes place at a young age, many children desiring a BMI below the average norm.
Childhood social arena and cognitive sets in eating disorders
Authors: Troop Nicholas A. , Bifulco Antonia
Published: February 2003

Objective: While there is much evidence to suggest that women with eating disorders experience difficulties in the social domain, little has been done to establish whether such difficulties play a causal role or the extent to which these involve cognitive factors. The purpose of this report is to determine whether difficulties in certain aspects of the childhood social arena are reported as existing prior to developing an eating disorder.

Method: A sample of 43 women with a history of eating disorders and 20 women with no such history were interviewed retrospectively about their feelings and experiences of loneliness, shyness and inferiority in childhood and adolescence.

Results: Women with a history of anorexia nervosa of the binge/purge subtype reported higher levels of loneliness, shyness and feelings of inferiority in adolescence than did women with no history of an eating disorder, and women with a history of bulimia nervosa reported higher levels of shyness. However, this was not true for earlier childhood where such feelings did not differ significantly between groups. This difference could not be accounted for by current depressive disorder, recovery from the eating disorder or level of victimization in adolescence.

Conclusion: There are a number of differences in the aetiology of subtypes of eating disorder. The present results suggest that cognitive styles pertaining to the social arena in adolescence, and prior to the onset of any eating disorders, may play a causal role in the development of anorexia nervosa of the binge/purge subtype, but not anorexia nervosa of the restricting subtype.
Maternal expressed emotion, attributions and depression and entry into therapy for children with behaviour problems
Authors: Calam Rachel , Bolton Catherine , Roberts Janine
Published: February 2003

Objectives: Maternal expressed emotion (EE), attributions, depression and parenting stress in mothers of children with behaviour problems referred for therapy were tested for associations with entry to therapy.

Method: In all, 57 mothers were assessed prior to first appointment using the Camberwell Family Interview coded for EE and attributions (LACS), and completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Parenting Stress Index (PSI).

Results: Mothers who did not attend scored higher on EE dimensions of critical comments, hostility or emotional over‐involvement, BDI or PSI.

Conclusions: Some of the most distressed families referred may not attend, and need a different approach to engagement.
Cognitive and emotional predictors of predisposition to hallucinations in non‐patients
Authors: Morrison Anthony P. , Wells Adrian , Nothard Sarah
Published: February 2003

Background: This study reports the development of a self‐report measure to assess interpretations of voices (Interpretations of Voices Inventory: IVI) and a revision of the Launay‐Slade Hallucination Scale (RHS) to measure predisposition to hallucinations in non‐patients. We aimed to test the specific hypothesis that positive interpretations of voices would predict frequency of hallucinatory experiences.

Method: There were 132 non‐clinical participants who were asked to complete questionnaires assessing interpretations of voices, predisposition to hallucinations, meta‐cognitive beliefs, anxiety and delusional ideation.

Results: The results showed that three empirically distinct subscales were measured by the IVI (meta‐physical beliefs about voices, positive beliefs about voices and interpretations of loss of control). The RHS was also found to have three subscales (vividness of imagination and daydreaming, tendency towards experiencing visual disturbances and hallucinations, and tendency towards experiencing auditory hallucinations). The scales possessed acceptable internal consistency and were moderately stable over a period of 4‐6 weeks. Consistent with predictions, it was found that positive beliefs about voices were significantly associated with predisposition to auditory hallucinations, and negative interpretations of voices were associated with endorsing the item assessing troublesome voices.

Conclusions: The theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.
Which schizotypal dimensions abolish latent inhibition?
Authors: Gray Nicola S. , Fernandez Michelle , Williams Jayne , Ruddle Roy A. , Snowden Robert J.
Published: February 2003

Objective: To evaluate which dimensions of schizotypy are associated with a reduction in latent inhibition (LI), akin to that seen in schizophrenia.

Design: LI was compared in low and high scorers on the four dimensions of the OLIFE questionnaire (Mason, Claridge, & Jackson, 1995), with the predictions that the unusual experiences and impulsive non‐conformity subscales would be associated with loss of LI, while the introvertive anhedonia subscale would not be.

Methods: A total of 80 healthy volunteers completed a visual LI task. Half of these participants were pre‐exposed to the conditioning stimulus; the others were not. The primary outcome measure was the number of trials taken to learn the task.

Results: LI was reduced for the dimensions of unusual experiences, impulsive non‐conformity and cognitive disorganization. There was no effect of introvertive anhedonia. The effect of unusual experiences and impulsive non‐conformity upon LI was mediated via changes in the pre‐exposure group and not in the non‐pre‐exposed group. Conversely, high scorers on the cognitive disorganization scale showed slower learning in non‐pre‐exposure, but with no effect upon stimulus pre‐exposure. As the unusual experiences and implusive non‐conformity scales were correlated, we examined if either of these was primary. Analysis showed unusual experiences to be primary, with impulsive non‐conformity not contributing significant additional independent variance.

Conclusions: Our results support the proposition that the cognitive processes underlying the mediation of LI are related to the genesis of unusual experiences in schizotypy and, by extension, the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
Practice improvement methods: Conceptual base, evidence‐based research, and practice‐based recommendations
Authors: Cape John , Barkham Michael
Published: February 2003

Objectives: To provide (1) an overview of the purpose of practice improvement methods and a conceptual base for the relationship between the various practice improvement methods; (2) an evidence‐based review of the range of practice improvement methods; and (3) practice‐based recommendations.

Design and method: Secondary research design using electronic literature search of PsycINFO database was carried out on eight practice improvement methods (PIMs) and the evidence for effectiveness presented.

Results: There is evidence of effectiveness in changing practice for each of the PIMs reviewed, and for some, there is also evidence of effects on patient outcomes. Each has strengths and weaknesses. However, the stronger conclusion from reviews is that use of multiple PIMs is more likely to impact clinical practice and patient outcomes than use of a single PIM.

Conclusion: The development of PIMs should concentrate on combination and integration between methods to maximize their effectiveness.
Hypomanic traits and response styles to depression
Authors: Thomas Justin , Bentall Richard P.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: To test the hypothesis that the manic defence involves specific response styles to depression, namely distraction and indulging in dangerous activities.

Design: A correlational study was conducted with undergraduate participants assessed for hypomanic traits using Eckblad and Chapman's Hypomanic Personality Scale.

Method: Participants also completed the Beck Depression Inventory, and an expanded version of Nolen‐Hoeksema's Response Styles Questionnaire.

Results: Depression was strongly associated with a ruminative response style. Hypomanic traits were associated with rumination, a distraction response style and with indulging in dangerous activities. However, as only 17% of the variance in hypomania scores was accounted for, other factors must play an important role in determining this trait.

Conclusions: Hypomania (and possibly mania) may be products of ineffective styles of coping with negative emotions.
People with an intellectual disability in the criminal justice system: Developing an assessment tool for measuring prevalence
Authors: Mason Jonathan , Murphy Glynis
Published: February 2003

Objectives: To develop a screening tool to detect those who may have intellectual disabilities or borderline intellectual disabilities in the criminal justice system (CJS).

Design: The items for the assessment tool were based on data from an earlier study. The assessment tool was piloted on 80 participants, who also completed a short form of the WAIS‐R.

Method: Items for the screening tool were derived using a discriminant analysis procedure with data from a previous study (measuring IQ and other factors in people on probation). A sample of 40 participants with an intellectual disability and 40 with an IQ in the normal range then completed the screening measure and the WAIS‐R.

Results: The screening measure showed good concurrent validity, and correctly classified 87% of participants.

Conclusions: The screening measure is a useful tool for people working in the CJS to use in the identification of those who may be in need of further support owing to an intellectual disability or borderline intellectual disability.
Food deprivation fails to affect preoccupation with thoughts of food in anorectic patients
Authors: Pietrowsky Reinhard , Krug Rosemarie , Fehm Horst L. , Born Jan
Published: February 2003

Objectives: Memory for food words was used to investigate effects of hunger and satiety on information processing in acute and recovered anorectics.

Design: In Expt 1, recall of words related to food and unrelated to food was compared between anorectics and controls. In Expt 2, the same procedure was undertaken in recovered anorectics and controls.

Methods: Tests were performed in each subject after starvation and after food intake.

Results: When hungry, recall of food words did not differ between anorectics and controls. During satiety, however, anorectics recalled significantly more food words than controls. Recall of food unrelated words did not differ between both groups. Recall in recovered anorectics was comparable with that in acute anorectics.

Conclusions: Results indicate that cognitive processing of food stimuli does not depend on food deprivation in anorectics.
Cognitions and post‐stroke depression
Authors: Nicholl Catherine R. , Lincoln Nadina B. , Muncaster Katie , Thomas Shirley
Published: February 2003

Objectives: Studies investigating the efficacy of cognitive‐behavioural treatment for post‐stroke depression have produced contradictory results (Flannaghan, 2000; Lincoln, Flannaghan, Sutcliffe, & Rother, 1997). This study aimed to assess whether depressed stroke patients experienced more negative and less positive cognitions than non‐depressed stroke patients in order to ascertain whether post‐stroke depression is suitable for cognitive‐behavioural therapy.

Design: A questionnaire‐based study compared stroke patients who were assessed as depressed or not depressed.

Methods: A Cognitions scale was developed from transcripts of cognitive‐behavioural therapy sessions with depressed stroke patients. A total of 50 stroke patients, the majority of whom were still in hospital, were assessed on the Beck and Wakefield Depression Inventories and the Cognitions scale.

Results: The prevalence rate for depression was similar to that found in previous studies. The internal reliability and construct validity of the scale were found to be acceptable. Significantly more negative cognitions and less positive cognitions were found in stroke patients who were depressed as compared with stroke patients who were not depressed.

Conclusions: The study suggests that post‐stroke depression does not differ qualitatively from general depression and that general theories and thus treatments for depression may be valid within this population.
Hopelessness and the anticipation of positive and negative future experiences in older parasuicidal adults
Authors: Conaghan Susan , Davidson Kate M.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: This study examined whether older people who were depressed or had engaged in parasuicidal behaviour could be identified by a decrease in positive future‐directed thinking in the absence of any increase in negative future‐directed thinking, in comparison with a community control group.

Design: A mixed design was used that compared three groups (community controls, depressed controls and parasuicidal participants) in terms of future‐directed thinking (positive and negative), in relation to three future time periods (one week, one year and 5‐10 years).

Methods: In all, 22 participants over 65 years of age, who had been admitted to hospital following a non‐fatal suicidal act, were compared with 22 older people being treated for depression and 22 older community volunteers who were not experiencing any significant psychological symptoms. The main measure was an adaptation of the traditional verbal fluency paradigm and attempted to quantify future‐directed thinking.

Results: Parasuicidal and depressed participants showed decreased positive future thinking, but no increase in negative future thinking, in comparison with the community control group.

Conclusions: The results confirm that older parasuicidal and older depressed participants are characterized by a reduction in positive anticipation and that this may be accounted for by depression rather than hopelessness.
A cognitive model of persecutory delusions
Authors: Freeman Daniel , Garety Philippa A. , Kuipers Elizabeth , Fowler David , Bebbington Paul E.
Published: February 2003

A multifactorial model of the formation and maintenance of persecutory delusions is presented. Persecutory delusions are conceptualized as threat beliefs. The beliefs are hypothesized to arise from a search for meaning for internal or external experiences that are unusual, anomalous, or emotionally significant for the individual. The persecutory explanations formed reflect an interaction between psychotic processes, pre‐existing beliefs and personality (particularly emotion), and the environment. It is proposed that the delusions are maintained by processes that lead to the receipt of confirmatory evidence and processes that prevent the processing of disconfirmatory evidence. Novel features of the model include the (non‐defended) direct roles given to emotion in delusion formation, the detailed consideration of both the content and form of delusions, and the hypotheses concerning the associated emotional distress. The clinical and research implications of the model are outlined.
Independence of ‘reaction to hypothetical contradiction’ from other measures of delusional ideation
Authors: Hurn Catherine , Gray Nicola S. , Hughes Ian
Published: February 2003

Background: Given the increasing pressure on Community Mental Health Teams to provide effective services for people with serious mental health problems and the relative scarcity of clinicians working therapeutically with this group, the ongoing search for reliable prognostic factors has both economic and clinical implications. Although previously somewhat overlooked, ‘reaction to hypothetical contradiction’ (RTHC) has been described as a potential predictor of amenability to psychological treatment for people holding delusional beliefs.

Method: A one‐way between‐groups design was used to explore the independence of RTHC (accepting vs. non‐accepting) from a range of other clinical variables, using a mixed‐diagnosis group of 50 people holding delusional beliefs.

Results: Associations were found between RTHC and a range of other clinical variables, including the existence of perceptual experiences and the impact and extent of delusional beliefs. These factors can be difficult to measure, and it is argued that RTHC may be easier to assess than these other variables. RTHC was found to be independent from other variables such as insight, degree of conviction, degree of preoccupation anxiety and depression.

Implications: Previous research has shown that RTHC is a potential predictor of both spontaneous recovery and response to treatment for people holding delusional beliefs and that assessment of RTHC should be incorporated into initial screening procedures for cognitive‐behaviour therapy. The current research found that RTHC was associated with the extent to which delusional beliefs influence thoughts, behaviour and distress levels. One of the major implications of this study is that evaluation of RTHC at initial screening assessments may be important as it provides information not available from mental‐state assessments and assessment of insight.
Behavioural inhibition and symptoms of anxiety and depression: Is there a specific relationship with social phobia?
Authors: Neal Jo Anne , Edelmann Robert J. , Glachan Martin
Published: February 2003

Objectives: The aim of the study was to examine the relationships between tendencies towards different mental health problems assessed via questionnaires (social phobia, agoraphobia, general anxiety/panic, depression), the two latent dimensions of behavioural inhibition (childhood social/school fears, non‐social fears/ illness), and sensory‐processing sensitivity.

Design: A cross‐sectional design was employed.

Method: Volunteer participants (N = 234) from anxiety and depression self‐help organizations completed five mailed questionnaires. These were the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory II and Beck Anxiety Inventory; the Highly Sensitive Person Scale, a measure of trait sensitivity to environmental stimuli; and the Retrospective Self‐Report of Inhibition.

Results: Higher levels of anxiety, but not depression, were associated with increased self‐reported sensitivity to environmental stimuli. Recalled childhood social/school fears were related to elevated scores on measures of social phobia and depression, while recalled non‐social fears/illness were not associated with any index of psychopathology.

Conclusion: These results extend those of previous research by suggesting specific patterns of relationships of both sensitivity to environmental stimuli and behavioural inhibition with symptoms of anxiety and depression. It is suggested that in investigating long‐term outcome, prospective behavioural inhibition studies would benefit from examining the temporal corollaries of the underlying social and non‐social dimensions. Sample and design limitations are discussed.
Parasuicidal behaviour and interpersonal problem solving performance in older adults
Authors: Howat Susie , Davidson Kate
Published: February 2003

Objectives: To test the hypothesis that interpersonal problem‐solving performance in older adults with a recent episode of parasuicide is poorer than that of depressed patients and community controls.

Design: A cross‐sectional design was used to assess differences between older parasuicidal patients, depressed patients, and community controls in interpersonal problem solving performance.

Method: An existing outcome measure of interpersonal problem‐solving, the Means End Problem‐Solving (MEPS) procedure, was modified in order to make it more suitable for older adults. It was then administered to 18 older adults with an episode of parasuicide in the previous 14 days, 18 older adults who were being treated for clinical depression, and 22 older adults attending community groups. Comparisons between the groups in terms of performance on the MEPS were made.

Results: When level of depression was controlled for, parasuicidal patients were poorer at generating relevant means of reaching given outcomes to interpersonal problems than community controls. There was no difference between the parasuicidal and depressed groups in terms of relevancy scores. There were no significant differences between groups in terms of other MEPS outcome variables.

Conclusions: Parasuicide in older adults is related to a deficit in interpersonal problem solving performance that cannot be completely explained in terms of depression. Further investigation of interpersonal problem‐solving in relation to parasuicide and depression in older adults is required, perhaps using process measures of interpersonal problem solving to clarify the nature of the difficulties. The modified MEPS is acceptable to older adults and can be easily administered.
Assessing caregiving distress: A conceptual analysis and a brief scale
Authors: Cousins Rosanna , Davies Ann D. M. , Turnbull Christopher J. , Playfer Jeremy R.
Published: February 2003

Objectives: Although it is well known that informal caregiving can have negative outcomes, and is an important factor in institutionalization, there is currently no common model to assess psychological distress in caregivers. In this study, we considered the conceptualization of caregiving distress, and present a five‐dimension, 17‐item Caregiving Distress Scale (CDS).

Design: The CDS was developed by administering several scales from the caregiving literature to a sample of 80 Parkinson's disease caregivers longitudinally.

Method: A total of 58 items from published questionnaires were reduced initially by a hierarchical cluster analysis, then by factor analysis.

Results: This procedure produced five distinctive subscales ‐ relationship distress, emotional burden, care‐receiver demands, social impact, and personal cost ‐ that also had high internal reliability.

Conclusion: The CDS is quick to administer and score, and has the potential to be used to profile an individual caregiving situation. Of critical importance for the application of findings from the caregiving literature, the scale can be used to target the type of intervention for the amelioration of caregiving distress.
A brief psycho‐educational group intervention for postnatal depression
Authors: Honey Kyla L. , Bennett Paul , Morgan Michelle
Published: February 2003

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of a controlled psycho‐educational group (PEG) intervention for postnatal depression, compared with Routine Primary Care (RPC).

Design and method: The participants were 45 women scoring above 12 on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale who were allocated to the study conditions using block randomization procedures. Short‐ and long‐term changes in mood and psychosocial measures were assessed.

Results: Compared with RPC, the PEG significantly reduced the level of depressive symptoms, but had no impact on psychosocial outcome.

Conclusion: A brief PEG is an effective form of treatment for women with low post‐partum mood.
Specificity of autobiographical memories in depression: An analysis of retrieval processes in a think‐aloud task
Authors: Barnhofer Thorsten , de Jong‐Meyer Renate , Kleinpaß Almut , Nikesch Sandra
Published: February 2003

Objectives: According to J. M. G. Williams' (1996) concept of mnemonic interlock, the autobiographical memory retrieval of depressed patients tends to become deadlocked in a process characterized by iterative retrievals of overgeneral categoric memories. Following this concept, the study investigated whether depressed patients show consecutive retrievals of categoric memories.

Design: Depressed and control participants were compared regarding the temporal progression of memory retrievals in a think‐aloud cued autobiographical memory task.

Method: Depressed out‐patients (N = 15) and control participants (N = 15) were given cue words and asked to verbalize all thoughts while remembering details of an autobiographical event during a period of 2 min. Streams‐of‐consciousness were analysed regarding the number of different events. Event descriptions were judged as categoric, extended or specific.

Results: Compared to control participants, depressed participants produced significantly higher total numbers of categoric memories. Depressed participants differed from control participants regarding the number of consecutive categoric memories following an initial categoric memory but not following an initial specific memory.

Conclusion: Consistent with the concept of mnemonic interlock, results show that, instead of retrieving specific memories, depressed patients tend to produce sequences of consecutive categoric memories. This process may contribute to the maintenance of an overgeneral retrieval style.
The concurrent validity of the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)
Authors: Startup Mike , Jackson Mike C. , Bendix Sue
Published: February 2003

Background: Few studies of the validity of the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) have been published and none has shown how GAF ratings are associated with concurrent ratings of symptoms and social functioning. This article provides such data.

Method: Patients suffering from schizophrenia were assessed at admission to hospital and at six‐ and 12‐month follow‐up, using the GAF, the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) and the Social Behaviour Schedule.

Results: GAF ratings were highly correlated with ratings of symptoms and social behaviour at both follow‐ups but not at initial assessment, although the inter‐rater reliabilities for the measures were good.

Conclusions: The GAF can be rated reliably after minimal training. It provides a valid summary of symptoms and social functioning among schizophrenic patients provided they are not assessed when suffering from acute psychotic episodes.
Relationship between fluid intelligence and ability to benefit from cognitive‐behavioural therapy in older adults: A preliminary investigation
Authors: Doubleday Elizabeth K. , King Paul , Papageorgiou Costas
Published: February 2003

Objective: The aim of this study was to conduct a preliminary evaluation of the hypothesis that fluid intelligence in older adults is associated with the ability to benefit from cognitive‐behavioural therapy (CBT), but unrelated to the ability to benefit from non‐directive supportive counselling (SC).

Method: A sample of 32 older adults who had completed a randomized controlled trial course of either CBT (N = 16) or SC (N = 16) for anxiety disorders took part in the study. The Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM) test was used to assess fluid intelligence. The Beck Anxiety Inventory change scores between pre‐treatment and post‐treatment were used as an index of ability to benefit from therapy. A measure of depressive symptomatology was also administered to control statistically for the effects of depression on intellectual functioning.

Results: The results for the SC group showed a significant and positive association between fluid intelligence scores and anxiety change scores, such that older adults with higher levels of fluid intelligence demonstrated the most benefit from this intervention. In contrast, there was no significant association between level of fluid intelligence and ability to benefit from therapy in the CBT group.

Conclusion: CBT for anxiety disorders is suitable for older adults, irrespective of their fluid intelligence, while the nature of SC may render it more sensitive to level of fluid intelligence.
A screening test of auditory comprehension for individuals with severe physical disability (PACST)
Authors: Beaumont J. Graham , Marjoribanks Julia , Flury Sarah , Lintern Tracey
Published: February 2003

Tests of auditory comprehension are frequently unsuitable for patients with physically disabling conditions as they require abilities such as good vision or physical manipulation of test materials. A suitable test is required to assess patients who can only indicate ‘yes’ or ‘no’. This has implications for enabling patients to make decisions about their care. A test consisting of 60 Yes‐No questions was developed from a larger set tested on normals. A clinical trial was completed and the test found to be a useful tool. It allocates patients to three groups: normal, impaired and chance performance.
Coping effectiveness training for people with spinal cord injury: Preliminary results of a controlled trial
Authors: King Charles , Kennedy Paul
Published: February 2003

Objectives. To develop and evaluate a brief group‐based psychological intervention for improving psychological adjustment and enhancing adaptive coping following spinal cord injury. The Coping Effectiveness Training (CET) programme is grounded on the cognitive theory of stress and coping of Lazarus & Folkman (1984), and represents an original adaptation of the theory to the needs of this client group.

Design. A controlled trial comparing patients receiving the CET intervention to matched controls in measures of psychological adjustment and coping was used.

Methods. Nineteen intervention group participants and 19 matched controls were selected from in‐patients at a hospital‐based spinal injury rehabilitation centre. Outcome measures of depression, anxiety and coping were collected before, immediately after and six weeks after the intervention.

Results. Intervention group participants showed significantly greater reductions in levels of depression (p<.01) and anxiety (p<.05) compared to matched controls immediately after the intervention and at six weeks follow‐up. There was no evidence of a significantly greater change in the coping strategies used by the intervention group. Participants highlighted their interactions with other group members as the most helpful aspect of the intervention.

Conclusions. This evidence suggests that the CET intervention facilitated a significant improvement in psychological adjustment to spinal cord injury. It is proposed this may be understood in terms of changes in participants appraisal of the implications of spinal cord injury and of the coping skills needed to continue living meaningful and satisfying lives.