bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exceptional Qualities
Authors: Bhide Amar V
Published: November 2023

Building a firm requires different qualities from starting a new business because it involves different tasks. In Chapter 4 we discussed how starting a business in an uncertain niche through a process of opportunistic adaptation requires qualities and skills such as a tolerance for ambiguity, open mindedness, perceptiveness, tactical ingenuity, and a capacity for face-to-face selling. Adopting a strategic rather than an opportunistic approach to building a large, long-lived firm, we should expect, involves a different set of qualities. For instance, pursuing ambitious long-term strategies, we will see, requires considerably greater tolerance for risk than does starting a niche business.
The Nation as Action
Authors: Porter Brian
Published: November 2023

Before we begin the quest for the origins of the exclusionary rhetoric and authoritarian politics of”modern” nationalism, we must survey a very different style of thought: Polish romanticism. In this chapter we will explore the discursive framework that delineated conversations about the nation for most of the first half of the nineteenth century. Until the very end of the century, the “Polish question” concerned only a minority of those we might categorize as Polish, with few peasants demonstrating any interest in independence. The national lexicon described in this chapter, therefore, was restricted to a relatively small group of people.
The Return to Action
Authors: Porter Brian
Published: November 2023

In 1878 a tsarist official in Warsaw described the Polish Kingdom as “the most peaceful part” of an empire that was otherwise “undermined by nihilism.”1 At a time when the likes of Mikhail Bakunin, Nikolai Chernyshevsky, Petr Lavrov, and Nikolai Mikhailovsky were inspiring hundreds of young Russian intellectuals to “go to the people” and work for social change, and at a time when political assassinations threatened to undermine the stability of the autocracy, Poland looked like a refuge of quiescence. The positivist program of “work at the foundations” appeared to enjoy wide acceptance, and the cloud of 1863 continued to hang over the Kingdom, bringing passivity if not loyalty.
The Lud, the Naród, and Historical Time
Authors: Porter Brian
Published: November 2023

The novelist Stefan .Zeromski described the politically active students at Warsaw University as “an agglomeration of the most contradictory elements, as obstinately contradictory as you can only imagine.”1 Even as these “elements” argued with each other, however, they were perceived—and perceived themselves—to be united against enemies both “Polish” (loyalists, landed nobles, capitalists) and “foreign” (state officials). Feliks Perl described “a sense of unity,” supported by “an almost religious faith that a social revolution, a universal social transformation would at once solve all problems, remove in one blow all exploitation and all oppression.”2
Organization
Authors: Porter Brian
Published: November 2023

In the 1880s, while the young intellectuals of the Kingdom—the niepokorni—were trying to define the lud on the pages of their legal and illegal periodicals, the actual peasants and workers were raising their heads and voices. Their activities were particularly evident in the cities. Throughout the entire decade of the 1870s there were only eighteen strikes in the Kingdom, but during the 1880s there were more than forty, involving 27,000 workers (mainly in the textile center of Łódź, the mines of the Dąbrowa basin, and Warsaw).1 These had little to do with the agitation of the intelligentsia: after Waryński’ s group was broken up by the police in 1886, the number of strikes only increased (to seven in 1887 and eleven in 1888, including one in Łódź that mobilized 8,000 workers).
Thinking Battles-Winning and Losing
Authors: Altier William J
Published: November 2023

This client enjoyed worldwide dominance in its product niche. A major competitor had been acquired by a company with extremely deep pockets. The client felt that the acquiring company intended to supply its competitor with funds to mount attacks on their lucrative market positions and wanted help in developing a plan to counteract this probable competitive move.
Process Expertise-A Critical Managing Skill
Authors: Altier William J
Published: November 2023

Effective managers design workable actions or policies for specific change situations by applying the relevant thinking process or processes to the situations. Although this is important, there’s still more of a case to be made for applying thinking processes to managerial decisions.
Potential Future Change-Opportunities and Disasters
Authors: Altier William J
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 7, we discussed the micro application of Potential Problem Analysis used in analyzing Implementation Plans. This chapter describes the macro application of Potential Problem Analysis and Potential Opportunity Analysis. In the macro mode, these tools are used to examine the ongoing conduct of the organization’s affairs for undesirable or desirable Unplanned Future Change. The only differences between Potential Problem Analysis and Potential Opportunity Analysis are whether the searcher is casting a negative or a positive spin on Unplanned Future Change and trying to prevent or promote its occurrence.
On Creativity
Authors: Altier William J
Published: November 2023

The need for creativity in today’s world is critical. We have seen how creativity is vital in the logical thought processes discussed throughout this book. When you are in the Decision Analysis develop mode creating ideas for new products, for example-or in the determine mode trying to come up with a new organization structure-certain fundamentals of creative thinking can make the difference between mediocre and outstanding solutions.
Introduction
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

If you apprehensively perused the table of contents, you might think that we will explore what seems like an awful lot of peripheral issues. You can rest assured that this book's principal function remains to explain how TIAA-CREF works and how participants can derive the maximum benefit from their accounts. However, one cannot view TIAA-CREF in isolation, and we will cover related matters only to the extent that they bear upon the central focus of this book. Without some technical background, the TIAA-CREF literature and this book will remain incomprehensible. They need to be understood in the con­text of the legal and other rules that govern and shape TIAA-CREF.
What is a Variable Annuity?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

As mentioned before, a variable annuity will pay you, the annuitant, a stream of payments, each of which will contain an equal number of annuity units. The number of units per payment remains constant. The dollars received by you will depend on the market value of the units. With the value of each unit subject to fluctuation, your periodic annuity payments will, of necessity, vary. We will first define annuity units, look at how they are valued, and then look at your options within the world of TIAA-CREF variable annuities.
How Portable is your TIAA-CREF Account?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

“Portable,” as defined in Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary, means “capable of being transported or conveyed.” A portable retirement account would allow you to move it from one employer to another without any discernible detriment to you. As a rule, employers in either the not-for-profit or the for-profit sector rarely permit employees to bring retirement plans from previous employers to their new positions. On occasion, Congress has debated enacting legislation that would allow for the creation of individual pension accounts that could be moved from one employer to another.
When and How Much Should You Contribute to Your TIAA-CREF Account?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

Given the time value of money, the answer boils down to early, often, and as much as you can. Remember that any contributions made to your retirement plan are deducted from your gross income for income tax purposes. The U.S. Treasury is subsidizing your accumulation of a pension account. Surprisingly, not all governmental largesse gets funneled into the pockets of large campaign contributors. Given enough affected voters, Congress will, from time to time, enact legislation with broad economic sweep. Separate from matters of politics and civics, of course, you want to leverage your contributions through your employer’s match, another form of governmental subsidization. We have dwelt on the time value of money. Inherent in that concept and what provides the driving engine is the power of compounding earnings and the exponential growth it can produce. You need to know the difference between compound and simple interest to become savvy about what is happening to your TIAA-CREF accounts. This may appear simplistic, but, in our experience, very few of our clients fully appreciate the difference in results that occur using the two different methods. So bear with us.
What is the Transfer Payout Annuity?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

We have alluded to the TPA from time to time, and now it gets the attention it clearly deserves. The TPA is literally an annuity, and it represents the mechanism by which funds are transferred from a TIAA accumulation to either one of the other investment choices in the TIAA-CREF family or as a taxable distribution after age 59112 to the participant.
What Happens to Your Statement if You Have a Transfer Payout Annuity?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

This also apparently routine topic produces its share of confusion, and we would like to dispel as much of it as we can.
How Should You Quantify Assets, Needs, and Income?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

First and foremost, this exercise does not occur two months before you plan to retire. Even when you are young and retirement seems decades away, you need to see how your account is doing and make sure that time remains your ally, permitting you to compound your accumulation.
What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Annuity Choices?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

As you consider the various options described in the previous chapter, you need to remember that your situation is unique. From experience, we know that you will probably bounce ideas off people whom you know well, who know you, and certainly whom you trust. Beware, however, advice from a well-meaning friend who may have just made a decision and whose situation may be slightly or even significantly different from yours, but who feels confident that her choice is by far the best. All too often those who may have made a choice, right or wrong, will defend it vigorously and seek confirmation through the conversion of others. Although we have not undertaken a scientific survey, empirical evidence suggests that the louder the defense, the likelier it is that the decision was wrong.
Should you Annuitize? The Pros and the Cons
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

The decision as to whether to annuitize has several dimensions. It does provide the highly desirable lifetime income, thereby alleviating the risk that you will run out of money in old age. In effect, you will have your pension or annuity and Social Security, along with whatever other income your assets produce, to live on. If you husband those other income sources well, then you will have three legs to your stool and, one hopes, a satisfactory amount of income for the balance of your days. Obviously, if you elect a joint annuity and the same assumptions are made, your annuity partner will benefit as well.
Should You Have an Annuity Partner?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

An annuity partner means an additional person whose life expectancy will be taken into account in determining the term over which payments will be made or the life expectancy upon which guaranteed periods will be computed.
What Should You Do if You Are Single?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

A marriage penalty may still exist in the income tax portions of the Code when this book reaches you, but, generally speaking, the Code favors married couples, and most tax analyses presume that the readership will consist entirely of married couples. The gift and estate tax provisions of the Code in particular tilt heavily in favor of the married couple. Nonetheless, the fact remains that a great many people are single, either unmarried, divorced, or widowed, and their needs require attention, even if they are not blessed with various tax breaks under the Code.
What Alternative Does TIAA-CREF Offer to Its Annuities?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

Although TIAA-CREF is oriented toward annuities, one significant alternative to the annuity does exist within the TIAA-CREF universe. It will dominate much of the discussion in part V. Mandated by Congress and called the Minimum Distribution Option by TIAA-CREF, this payment method tracks the legal requirements contained in Sec-tion 401(a)(9) of the Code and the Proposed Regulations thereunder. The Internal Revenue Service has indicated that one can treat these regulations as though they were final, and they play a critical role in formulating an estate plan where a TIAA-CREF and/or any other types of retirement account (treating multiple plans as though they were one) constitute the largest asset.
What are we Talking About?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

Up until now, all of the chapter titles have consisted of questions that you would theoretically ask yourself. This one poses a question from you to us, and we think that you are entitled to an answer as to the subject matter of this section of the book. We begin with the background against which our thinking has been formulated and our experience formed.
What are the Benefits of Estate Planning for Your Retirement Account?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

The only way to pass a TIAA-CREF account beyond the current generation requires that you elect not to annuitize. You must instead elect the Minimum Distribution Option, because that avoids the conversion of the account into a premium. The first benefit, assuming that this comports with your values and resources, is that you will have responsibility for your own financial destiny. To underline the point, you have rejected the safety net of a lifetime annuity and have chosen instead to take distributions at your own pace, subject to the governmentally prescribed minimum. You cannot decrease the amount of the MDO; but you can increase it, either through Systematic With-drawals from your TIAA-CREF account, if allowed by your employer’s plan, or by hitting other retirement or nonretirement assets.
What Effect Does Your or Your Spouse’s Not Being an American Citizen Have on Your Estate Plan?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

Up until this point, we have not differentiated between American citizens and noncitizens and their estate planning. And until 1988, neither did Congress. But for the last twelve years, the treatment of noncitizens for estate tax purposes has changed dramatically. You may find these rules to be, at the very least, discriminatory; in our minds, they border on the punitive.
How Should You Weigh These Factors?
Authors: Schloss Irving S , Abildsoe Deborah V
Published: November 2023

As the figures plainly indicate, the multigenerational approach can produce potentially enormous returns for a family. Unless your economic situation clearly precludes this alternative, you should consider this option and see if it works for you.
Perspective on Change and Development in Organizations
Authors: Poole Marshall Scott , Van de Ven Andrew H , Dooley Kevin , Holmes Michael E
Published: November 2023

Explaining organizational change has been an enduring quest of scholars in many disciplines. Change and development processes are central to such organizational phenomena as careers, group decision-making, organizational strategy formation, innovation, and interorganizational networks. Contemporary intellectual currents, exhibited in the rising interest in such topics as individual and organizational life cycles, structuration theory, and nonlinear systems thinking, echo Heraclitus’s claim that “nothing is permanent save change.” These positions view even seemingly stable phenomena such as industry structures, which appear to change slowly if at all, in terms of continuous processes that maintain stability under current conditions, but are capable of effecting broad, rapid change if circumstances change. They are consistent with Hernes’s (1976) stricture that an adequate theory should explain stability and change in terms of a common process theory.
A Typology of Process Theories
Authors: Poole Marshall Scott , Van de Ven Andrew H , Dooley Kevin , Holmes Michael E
Published: November 2023

Organizations change constantly on many different levels. The processes that we see unfolding in these changes—whether they pertain to transitions in individuals’ jobs and careers, group formation and development, or organizational innovation, growth, reorganization, and decline—have been exceedingly difficult to explain or predict. Kurt Lewin reminds us that in this buzzing, booming, confusing world of organizational change, “nothing is so practical as a good theory” (1945). Good theory is practical precisely because it provides a systematic way to understand complex phenomena in the real world. Moreover, good theory guides research toward crucial questions and issues, and in deciding what specific process or variance methods to use in a study. Hence, before going into a variety of data collection and analysis methods in the remainder of this book, this chapter will discuss alternative theories of organizational change and development that can guide researchers in conducting their studies.
Phasic Analysis
Authors: Poole Marshall Scott , Van de Ven Andrew H , Dooley Kevin , Holmes Michael E
Published: November 2023

Stochastic modeling derives structure from event sequence data based on event-to-event linkages. This approach yields an account of development in which each event is treated as meaningful in its own right. But it is often the case that there are broader patterns of development, phases or stages comprised of individual events. In this case, the events are meaningful not only in their own right, but also as constituents of a broader developmental sweep represented by the phase or stage. As we noted in chapter 5, events may vary widely in their temporal extension, and more macrolevel events (phases) may be comprised of microlevel events (individual events just one order above the incidents in the data file).
Medical Therapy for Prevention of Ischemic Stroke
Authors: Adams Harold P , Bachinski Vladimir , Norris John W
Published: November 2023

Prevention of ischemic stroke is the most cost-effective strategy for treatment of patients with cerebrovascular disease Economically, prevention of stroke eliminates the costs of acute hospital care and rehabilitation. Prevention is key in lowering mortality and morbidity from ischemic stroke. Effective therapies to forestall stroke also improve quality of life for both.
Toxic Neuropathies: Drugs, Metals, and Alcohol
Authors: Erdem Sevim , Kissel John T , Mendell Jerry R
Published: November 2023

Knowledge of the neurotoxicity of drugs has very practical application in the evaluation of patients with peripheral neuropathies of unknown etiology. It is not unusual to be asked to consult on patients with symptoms of peripheral neuropathy who are taking numerous drugs, many of which may have neurotoxic side effects. Information regarding the most important of these drugs is reviewed in this chapter.
Leprous Neuropathy
Authors: Said Gerard
Published: November 2023

The stigma of leprosy dates back to before the Middle Ages, yet the causative agent, Mycobacterium leprae, was not discovered until 1874 by G. A. Hansen in Bergen, Norway. At that time, leprosy was common in many parts of Europe, before it declined there and worldwide. The factors leading to the regression of leprosy are not fully understood but are presumed to be related to improved knowledge of its natural history and greater recognition of its clinical and pathological manifestations. Treatment may also have played some role in its decline; however, other factors are likely to have contributed more significantly. The prevalence of leprosy was waning long before the introduction of sulfone therapy in 1941.
Avoid Strength, Attack Weakness
Authors: McNeilly Mark
Published: November 2023

Prior to the Persian Gulf War Saddam Hussein, leader of the nation of Iraq, possessed the fourth largest army in the world. Its sixty-three di­ visions included eight elite Republican Guard units. Armed with the latest Soviet tanks, South African artillery, Chinese and French anti­ ship missiles, Soviet and French fighter planes, SCUD regional missiles, and chemical munitions capability, the Iraqi army had been tested in a decade-long war with Iran. It was thus no surprise that it was able to overrun its small neighbor Kuwait quite easily. This move in turn led a coalition of nations, led by the United States, whose purpose was to drive Iraq back and liberate Kuwait.

On February 24, r 99 I, the rest and 2nd Divisions of the U.S. Marine Corps launched their assault headlong into the Iraqi units blocking their way to Kuwait City. The attack landed exactly where Saddam Hussein expected it: along the most direct route the Americans could take to liberate Kuwait. It was there that the Iraqi dictator had positioned the majority of his million-man army.
Myopathy Related To HIV And Opportunistic Conditions
Authors: Brew Bruce James
Published: November 2023

The myopathies that may complicate human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease are different from other potential non-HIV– related neurologic complications. Importantly, they are less tightly linked to the stage of HIV disease. Therefore, in the following discussion it should be remembered that a particular myopathy (excluding that which might be related to an opportunistic condition) may occur at almost any stage of HIV disease. To complicate matters further, a clinically useful classification has not been widely accepted. This is largely because the existence of a well-defined myopathy directly related to HIV is contentious: some clinicians believe that HIV can lead to a distinctive myopathy, while others consider it to be associated with a range of myopathies. Some investigators have considered the HIV wasting syndrome as a separate entity, but, because it may be the end result of several myopathies or even systemically active HIV disease with cachexia, it is not discussed separately here.
Introduction
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

While the first author of this book was in Vienna as a fellow at the International Center for Research in the Social Sciences, he was invited by the director of the Vienna Circle, Frederich Stadler, to present a paper on the development of scientific communication of the Vienna Academy in its earliest years, the decade that succeeded its founding in 1847. Present also were a sociologist, Ulrike Fell, a historian, Mitchell Asch, and a number of graduate students. After the talk. Professor Asch criticized the paper for its stereotyped view of Austrian science, the result of neglecting the contribution of the polytechnics. Professor Fell criticized the paper for its neglect of the social system of the early Academy, especially its silence on the matter of peer review. As the host, Professor Stadler, a philosopher of science, was perhaps too polite to point out that the author of the paper had made no contribution to his discipline. This is a representative anecdote in Kenneth Burke’s sense: it seems the fate of studies in the communication and argumentation of science that they should be frequently misunderstood as defective contributions to the history, sociology, or philosophy of science, rather than independent contributions to our understanding of an essential, but otherwise neglected, aspect of what it was and what it is to do science.
Communicative and Argumentative Development Illustrated
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we present in their most dramatic form the changes in style, presentation, and argumentation that scientific articles underwent in their journey from the 17th to the 21st century. We compare the style, presentation, and argumentation of two biological articles written nearly 300 years apart: a 17th-century article on the behavior of juices in different plant species and a 20th-century article on the origin and development of soluble ribonucleic acid, a building block in protein synthesis. We have purposely selected articles so far apart in time to give readers the firmest sense possible of the scientific article as a developing textual entity, characterized by continuities and discontinuities in style, presentation, and argument. It is these developments that we will describe in detail in the pairs of chapters that follow, developments we will try to explain in our final chapter.
Style and Presentation in the 18th Century
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

The 80th issue of Philosophical Transactions features a 12-page article by an up-and-coming young scientist, Isaac Newton—his first scientific publication and the first major scientific article in English. The Transactions editor received this article on 6 February 1672 and published it with minor revisions less than two weeks later. The initial reception of Newton’s article was largely positive: it had an early impact on thinking about light and color in England and on the Continent, and though hotly contested on many fronts (see Bazerman 1988, pp. 80-127; Gross 1990, pp. 111-128; Westfall 1993, pp. 85-109), it was taken seriously by the prominent natural philosophers in England and Europe. Newton’s main contention was that white light, far from being simple, as previously believed, was a compound of all the colors of the spectrum, a compound that could be decomposed by passing white light through a prism and recomposed through reversing that passage in a second prism.
Behavioral Neuroanatomy Large-Scale Networks, Association Cortex, Frontal Syndromes, the Limbic System, and Hemispheric Specializations
Authors: Mesulam M -Marsel
Published: November 2023

The human brain displays marked regional variations in architecture, connectivity, neurochemistry, and physiology. This chapter explores the relevance of these regional variations to cognition and behavior. Some topics have been included mostly for the sake of completeness and continuity. Their coverage is brief, either because the available information is limited or because its relevance to behavior and cognition is tangential. Other subjects, such as the processing of visual information, are reviewed in extensive detail, both because a lot is known and also because the information helps to articulate general principles relevant to all other domains of behavior.
Community, Media, and Government Relations
Authors: Hall Robert T
Published: November 2023

The computer has changed the daily work of public relations professionals as much as it has affected accountants and engineers. Press releases and annual reports may look much the same, but desktop published newsletters and graphics-designed brochures have proliferated, and every organization now needs a Website. The scope of community relations activities has also expanded. Many public relations people run speakers’ bureaus, some coordinate volunteer services, and others facilitate self-help groups. Along with the expansion of activities, public relations professionals in healthcare organizations are now expected to assess the social and political environments in which the organization operates for the purpose of guiding activities that affect the community in many ways. Publicity concerning community health programs offered by the organization, for example, has developed into a wide range of networking activities with community organizations to identify needs and implement the delivery of these programs. Healthcare organizations are major property holders, and community relations professionals have found themselves involved in zoning and city planning. Healthcare organizations are major users of public services such as fire and police protection, and public relations professionals may play a role in addressing security problems in their communities. Community relations professionals are now at the forefront of a wide range of organizational activities.
Inner Hygiene in the Nineteenth Century: The Consequences of Constipation
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

Constipation (from the Latin constipo, to press or crowd together) is defined by Dorland’s Medical Dictionary as “infrequent or difficult evacuation of the feces.” Dorland’s is a standard source of medical definitions, but if the story that follows is to be clear, the nonmedical reader needs a more thorough explanation of constipation than that. The condition is the result of a complex physiological process being disrupted by any of several interfering factors, and both the process and the factors play leading roles in the evolution of physicians’ and lay persons’ thinking about constipation.
Restorative Justice & Responsive Regulation
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

Braithwaite’s argument against punitive justice systems and for restorative justice systems establishes that there are good theoretical and empirical grounds for anticipating that well designed restorative justice processes will restore victims, offenders, and communities better than existing criminal justice practices. Counterintuitively, he also shows that a restorative justice system may deter, incapacitate, and rehabilitate more effectively than a punitive system. This is particularly true when the restorative justice system is embedded in a responsive regulatory framework that opts for deterrence only after restoration repeatedly fails, and incapacitation only after escalated deterrence fails. Braithwaite’s empirical research demonstrates that active deterrence under the dynamic regulatory pyramid that is a hallmark of the restorative justice system he supports, is far more effective than the passive deterrence that is notable in the stricter "sentencing grid" of current criminal justice systems.
Sustainable Development
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

Just as restorative practices and the values of restorative justice have a useful contribution to make to peace in the world, so they have something to offer the sustainable development that is one of the conditions for that peace. Sustainable development is crucial to peace if we frame it as giving priority to those who have been left behind in the economic struggle—the poor of the developing world. Conceived in this way, sustainable development is a political objective that advances social justice.
Economic, Behavioral, and Cognitive Contributions to Strategy Theory
Authors: Sigismund Anne , Huff Huff James Oran , Barr Pamela S
Published: November 2023

This book is written with several partially overlapping audiences in mind. Most broadly, our argument to the strategy field is that cognitive theories should be placed alongside economic and behavioral theories as a foundation for the field. This chapter summarizes major contributions from each of these theoretic perspectives as alternative theories of the firm.
Group Effects That Make Second Order Change Less and More Likely
Authors: Sigismund Anne , Huff Huff James Oran , Barr Pamela S
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines how individual inertia and perceptions of stress are affected by group context but can also affect that context. Our basic argument is that organizational subgroups, both formal and informal, tend to support the status quo and strongly suppress individually perceived stress, as long as the group is producing generally sat isfactory outcomes for its members. However, conversations about unsatisfactory aspects of the current way of doing things are inevitable to some degree in a changing world. If those who raise such issues find a significant audience, we believe the group is in creasingly likely to explore and reframe stressors identified by individuals. The shared (or at least group-informed) ideas that emerge are an important source of strategic change, or lack of change. The outcome of sharing questions about the current way of operating may or may not lead to changes in the triggering individual’s assessment, changes in group activities, or impacts on the larger organization. Whatever the out comes, just considering significant change within a group is of critical importance be cause conversation about change adds to and alters more widely shared cognitions.
The Pharmaceutical Industry, 1970-1995
Authors: Sigismund Anne , Huff Huff James Oran , Barr Pamela S
Published: November 2023

The industry remained relatively stable over the period examined in this book, though by the end of the period the industry was beginning to respond to the cumulative effect of changes in the environment. Until the late 1980s, the industry maintained a strong product orientation, selling to an increasingly global market that was generally inelastic with regard to price Qames, 1994, 49). Companies within the industry competed largely on the basis of their R&D efforts, marketing their patented products at a premium price in a growing market. Due to the cumulative changes in the environment, that seance is being challenged. By the early 1990s, James observes: The simple model of pharmaceutical industry competition anchored in the ability to develop a stream of patent-protected new products is beginning to degrade in the face of a decline in exclusivity, a reduction in differentiation, increasing consumer sophistication, rising operating costs, the blurring of the market, and sharply increased levels of competition.
Understanding Diversity m the Timing of Strategic Response
Authors: Sigismund Anne , Huff Huff James Oran , Barr Pamela S
Published: November 2023

This chapter’ draws on the concepts of cognitive schema found in chapter 2 to under stand timing differences in U.S. pharmaceutical company responses to significant changes in the Food and Drug Cosmetic Act. While the amendment passed in 1962, our data trace strategic responses throughout the decade-changes that inaugurate the study period more intensely covered in chapter 8.
Setting the Stage: The Miraculous Rebirth of Private Enterprise in China
Authors: Schlevogt Kai-Alexander
Published: November 2023

Napoleon’s warning has become reality. The sleeping giant, one of the oldest civilizations on the surface of the planet, dating back more than five thousand years and having written records for nearly three thousand years, has reawakened.1 The titan, comparable in size to the whole of Europe, has finished the long period of hibernation, stretches his legs, and is ready to walk tall again. Due to the success of its economic reforms, the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C.) has become strategically important in both political and economic terms.
Influencing Factors of Structure and Management in China
Authors: Schlevogt Kai-Alexander
Published: November 2023

This chapter aims to answer the second research question: “Do the distinctive features of private Chinese management result from an emphasis on traditional Chinese cultural values?” To recapitulate, I have found empirical evidence that private Chinese enterprises have readopted the distinctive web-based Chinese management style practiced in overseas Chinese family businesses. Supporting evidence and illustrations from the survey and case studies showed that structural and managerial mean levels differed significantly between private and state enterprises.
Organizational Effectiveness of Chinese Companies
Authors: Schlevogt Kai-Alexander
Published: November 2023

In this last findings chapter, I endeavor to answer the third research question: “Is the family-based Chinese model positively associated with organizational effectiveness?” To determine whether private Chinese management is an art, I will analyze whether Chinese management based on private family ownership leads to high performance. Some anecdotes alleged that private ownership is highly effective, but few empirical studies systematically tested such conjectures. Further, factors influencing performance may vary across regions.
Common-Law Larceny and Its Metamorphosis
Authors: Fletcher George P
Published: November 2023

Though we have developed some familiarity with larceny as interpreted in the nineteenth-century English and American courts, we have yet to assay the original conception of common-law larceny that prevailed until the late eighteenth century. This body of law consists of an array of puzzles that have baffled commentators and judges for the last 200 years. Justice Holmes and other distinguished writers have dismissed the rules of larceny as the imprints of historical “accidents.”1 Jerome Hall has written an influential book maintaining that social and economic forces can be summoned to explain the mysterious tracks of larceny in the legal sand.2 Somehow in the total confusion about the history of larceny, these two views have coexisted. Larceny is thought to be both the expression of freakish accidents and the predictable product of social and economic forces. An adequate theory would find a course between these extremes. It would neither succumb to the aimless currents of historical accidents nor founder on the simplistic shoals of historical determinism.
Two Patterns of Criminality
Authors: Fletcher George P
Published: November 2023

The metamorphosis of larceny permits us to abstract two general patterns of criminality that find expression in a variety of crimes in addition to larceny. The common law of larceny up to the time of Blackstone reflected what we may call the pattern of manifest criminality; the modem law of larceny, emerging in the late eighteenth century, stands for a pattern of subjective criminality. By generalizing the features of these two conflicting patterns of liability, we shall find that we have a powerful interpretative mechanism for understanding disputes in the law of burglary, attempts and other inchoate offenses, treason, and even a central dispute in the theory of constitutional arrests under the Fourth Amendment. The tension between the pattern of manifest criminality and the pattern of subjective criminality is one that pervades a wide field of the criminal law.
Homicide: Three Lines of Liability
Authors: Fletcher George P
Published: November 2023

As the first two patterns of liability crystallized in a detailed study of larceny, the third pattern will emerge from the details of the law of homicide. For the present, however, we shall stress the uniqueness of homicide as a crime and then, in the next chapter, move beyond homicide to a general pattern of harmful consequences, including arson, battery, and other crimes requiring concrete injuries to persons and property. What all these offenses have in common is that the starting point for analyzing liability is not an act manifesting danger, not an intent to harm, but the occurrence of the harm itself; once the harm is established, the inquiry centers on attributing that harm to particular actors and assessing whether they are accountable for bringing it about.
The Jurisprudence of Homicide
Authors: Fletcher George P
Published: November 2023

There are three prominent starting places for thinking about criminal liability. In the pattern of manifest criminality, the point of departure is an act that threatens the peace and order of community life. In the theory of subjective criminality, the starting place is the actor’s intent to violate a protected legal interest. In the law of homicide, the focal point is neither the act nor the intent, but the fact of death. This overpowering fact is the point at which the law begins to draw the radius of liability. From this central point, the perspective is: who can be held accountable, and in what way, for the desecration of the human and divine realms?1 The question is never where to place the point of the legal compass, but how far the arc should sweep in bringing in persons to stand responsible for the death that has already occurred.
The Structure of Wrongdoing
Authors: Fletcher George P
Published: November 2023

Chapter Six might well be read as an extended essay with one point in mind; to establish that there is at least one structural principle immanent in the criminal law, the distinction between wrongdoing and attribution. In this chapter our inquiry turns to the inner structure of wrongdoing. We shall attempt to show that wrongdoing consists of two dimensions, one that we shall call the “definition of the offense” and another that we familiarly call “justification.” A wrongful act is one that satisfies the definition of the offense and that is unjustified.
The Theory of Justification and Excuse
Authors: Fletcher George P
Published: November 2023

The notions of justification and excuse have, by now, become familiar figures in our structured analysis of criminal liability. Claims of justification concede that the definition of the offense is satisfied, but challenge whether the act is wrongful; claims of excuse concede that the act is wrongful, but seek to avoid the attribution of the act to the actor. A justification speaks to the rightness of the act; an excuse, to whether the actor is accountable for a concededly wrongful act. For all this apparent simplicity, the notions of justification and excuse lend themselves to considerably more refinement. In this concluding chapter we shall undertake to refine these basic components of our system and, in the process, discuss several specific claims of justification and excuse.
“God Save the !”: lnstitutionalizing, Appropriating, and Contesting Nationalism through Song, 1744-1798
Authors: Branham Robert James , Hartnett Stephen J
Published: November 2023

IN his 1895 essay “Music in America,” Antonin Dvorak wondered: “What songs, then, belong to the American and appeal more strongly to him than any others? What melody could stop him on the street if he were in a strange land and make the home feeling well up within him, no matter how hardened he might be or how wretchedly the tune were played?” Much to the dismay of Dvorak and others, the national song that Americans were most likely to hear abroad, although not necessarily in honor of their own nation, was ‘‘America” (“My Country ‘Tis of Thee”). Set to the highly recognizable melody of the unofficial British national anthem, no song more roused the wrath of those calling for a “true American” song. For example, Professor Thomas Lounsbury of Yale insisted that “there is nothing more impudent in the history of plagiarism than our appropriation of ‘God Save the King’ and calling it ‘America.’” In the same spirit, the New York Times editorialized in 1889 that “‘America’ should be ignored by all persons who do not wish to be classed as receivers of stolen goods.”2 A nation of distinction, they reasoned, should have a distinctive anthem. Indeed, ‘‘America”‘s borrowed melody-from the land of monarchy, no less-seemed to both Lounsbury and the New York Times to stand at odds with the emergence of the United States as a creative, self-generating, and democratic world power.
“Teach Us True Liberty”: ‘‘America” in the Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861-1869
Authors: Branham Robert James , Hartnett Stephen J
Published: November 2023

In the first month of the Civil War, a group of New York businessmen offered a prize of five hundred dollars for the best new national hymn “adapted to the existing condition of the country.” After the fall of Fort Sumter, members of the Committee for a National Hymn explained, “indignation flashed through the astonished land; and the loyal citizens of the Republic rose as one man to avenge the wrong and defend the national existence.” They observed that public places were crowded with people eager to discuss the war and its implications and that a resurgent patriotism “struck at once its roots to the very centre of the nation’s being, and in a single night blossomed into fruitfulness.” There was one problem, however: “A national hymn was lacking.”1 Existing American patriotic songs (including “America”) were mostly set to borrowed British melodies and rooted in past conflicts. Without a distinctive national song geared to the crisis at hand, the businessmen believed, loyal Americans were unable to express fully either their patriotism or the deeper issues involved in the struggle. Despite the ridicule of the Musical World and Music Review, whose editors insisted that great songs could not be composed on demand, the contest received over twelve hundred entries. Most “were consigned to the great rubbish bin (or clothes-basket) after reading the first three lines,” selection committee member George Templeton Strong recounted. “A few were put aside as meritorious and worth looking at, and a few others were brilliantly absurd and therefore worth saving.” The submissions were winnowed to thirty songs; all were ultimately rejected.
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated Abnormalities
Authors: Allanson Judith
Published: November 2023

In the first edition of this book, 10 hereditary deafness syndromes with external ear abnormalities were described. Two of those syndromesear malformations, cervical fistulas or nodules, and mixed hearing loss; and preauricular pits, branchial fistulas, and sensorineural hearing losshave been unified into the branchio-oto-renal syndrome. In the second edition, 30 distinctive hereditary syndromes of hearing loss with external ear changes were described. The external ear abnormalities ranged from anotia to large, cupped, simple auricles.
Locating Genes for Oral Clefts in Humans
Authors: Wyszynski Diego F
Published: November 2023

The identification of disease genes (genes whose aberrant alleles are responsible for defined clinical syndromes) has been a major focus of human genetics over the past 30 years as a natural consequence of significant improvements in DNA technology and genetic resources. To identify genes involved in inherited disease or predispositions, two general strategies are commonly applied: positional cloning and the candidate-gene approach. In the case of positional cloning, a physical map of the target region must be developed. All genes within the mapped region are considered candidates for the disease gene and are subject to screening for mutations in constitutional DNA from patients. In the candidate-gene approach, prior knowledge of specific genes is exploited by analyzing these genes for mutations (Groden and Albertsen, 1996). A subset of genes already shown to play an important role in the development of the head, with particular relevance to the development of the lip and palate, is listed in Table 21.1. Additional growth, signaling, and transcription factors that play a role in facial development include JAGGED1, sonic hedgehog, patched, cAMP response element (CRE)-binding protein, GLI3, fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFRl), calcium/calmodulindependent serine protein kinase (CASK), treacle, fibroblast grown factor receptor 2 (FGFR2), distalless homeo box (DLX)5/6, and paired box gene 3 (PAX3) (Schutte and Murray, 1999).