bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Dialectics of Equality
Authors: Weisskopf Walter A.
Published: March 2007

Equality and inequality are discussed from the philosophical and socio-psychological, rather than from the economic, point of view. Social inequalities are bearable only if they are felt to be legitimate and justifiable in terms of the predominant hierarchy of values. Movements for equality are caused by doubts about the legitimacy of existing inequalities. Modern individualism, libertarianism and equalitarianism were a rebellion against the existing order. In premodern times, inequalities were justified by ascription and were derived from inherent characteristics, such as birth and caste. Industrial society justified inequalities by achievement of economic suc cess. This orientation is reflected in the labor theory of value, as well as in marginalist value theory. In the American creed, equalitarianism was combined with the acceptance of inequal ities through the principle of equality of opportunity which justifies inequalities by the assumption of an equal start for everyone. Under the impact of the great depression and of the organizational revolution, economic achievement was re placed by intellectual merit, knowledge and academic creden tials as justification for inequalities. Under the impact of growing doubts about this kind of achievement, a new equali tarian trend is under way, supported by the antigrowth and the environmental protection movements, as well as by the tradition of protection for the underprivileged which was al ways an intrinsic part of the market economy.
Between Party Battalions and Committee Suzerainty
Authors: Jones Charles O.
Published: March 2007

President Nixon's challenge to congressional authority in the early months of 1973 stimulated critical review of how Congress does its work. As Lord Bryce observed long ago, of the three methods to facilitate the operation of large assemblies, the United States has emphasized development of a strong committee system. While providing many advantages, Bryce noted that the system also tends to lessen cohesion, reduce responsibility and lower public interest in legislative proceedings. This article questions whether the committee system accommodates the new political realities of frequently split party control between Congress and the White House. It argues that changes should be made to increase the authority and visibility of party leaders so that presidential programs might be challenged more coherently in Congress. Specific changes are suggested to that end—changes which seek to maintain the advantages of the committee system, while reducing its disadvantages.
Report of Committee IV
Authors: Schulhofer Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

The committee took the view that bridges are needed to permit more effective cooperation between the two branches of government in foreign affairs. Three areas for change were considered. The first involves decisions to use military force. Concern was expressed that the War Powers Resolution does not go far enough. The committee also saw a need for legal restraints upon the use of nuclear weapons. Members of the committee endorsed ex ploration of mechanisms to involve Congress in decision- making on this particularly momentous problem. The second area of change concerns, specifically, state secrets and the problem of executive privilege. It was felt that confidentiality and secrecy are invoked too often by the Executive branch, though some confidentiality is necessary. The third area con cerns legislative oversight after the event. The committee would endorse constitutional amendment, if necessary, to per mit sharing of authority in foreign affairs.
Social Indicators and Social Reporting
Authors: Parke Robert , Seidman David
Published: March 2007

Doubts about the easy equation of economic growth and social progress led, in the 1960s, to a renewed interest in social measurement and to the birth of the "social indicators movement." Social Indicators, 1976, a product of that interest, can be read as both a report on social conditions and trends in the United States and a progress report on social indicators research. The volume is best understood against the background of the social indicators movement and of the research it has stimulated. Several research traditions are joined together in the social indicators movement, but they share a concern for measurement, analysis, and the reporting to a general audience of aspects of social conditions. The tradition best reflected in Social Indicators, 1976 stresses the monitoring and reporting of social change. Research work in this tradition emphasizes conceptual and methodological development of measures, improvements in the available data base, the development of social indicator models, and social reporting. In its data selection, treatment of data, organization, and commentary, Social Indicators, 1976 is an improvement over its predecessor, Social Indicators, 1973, though the analysis it contains is notably insufficient. Most of the improvements which should be found in future editions depend upon continued progress in the development of social indicators.
Changing Work Life Patterns: A Twenty-five Year Review
Authors: Miller Ann R.
Published: March 2007

Over the past 25 years there have been substantial changes in the proportion of population engaged in market work and in the age and sex composition of the work force. The nonworker-worker ratio has fluctuated widely, primarily as a reflection of the dramatic fluctuations in birth rates, while the long-term trends of increasing participation by women and declining years of work by men have accelerated. Recent developments indicate that this acceleration of long-term trends has taken on certain new characteristics: young women appear to be returning to the labor market much more quickly after the birth of children, with a consequent reduction of time out of the work force; and the customary retirement age of men is falling. As a result, work life patterns are becoming increasingly similar for men and women and much higher proportions of the population in the age range 20-54 are working than has been true in the past. In a broader context, it is suggested that the rapid decline in average annual worker hours characteristic of the first part of the twentieth century may be transformed into a decline in average worker years in the last part.
Land, Water, and the Environment
Authors: Sallee William J.
Published: March 2007

In a world of burgeoning population, land and water—resources which are essential to survival—are seriously threatened. Water is being polluted and good productive farmland is being covered by buildings and roads or lost to erosion through poor management. Land use planning is a crucial step in the protection and preservation of people and their environment. Decisions about how to effect it are important for today and critical for the future.
The Third World: Changing Attitudes Toward Environmental Protection
Authors: Bassow Whitman
Published: March 2007

A revolution in Third World attitudes toward environmental protection has occurred since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. Before then, most Third World leaders were convinced that their countries had no environmental problems—problems which they associated with industrialization and "pollution." But the Conference accelerated a change in attitude already under way as the result of a pioneering report on environment and economic development prepared especially for the meeting. Subsequently, the growing involvement of the U.N. Environment Program with their concerns has helped change perceptions of environmental problems in developing countries. Political leaders now see that industrial and agricultural development, the unplanned growth of cities, and burgeoning populations can have an adverse effect on the environment and the quality of life. Many developing countries are now implementing national environmental policies. Protection of the planet's environment is no longer the exclusive concern of the industrialized countries alone.
Rediscovery of Death Since 1960
Authors: Vovelle Michel
Published: March 2007

Man has always been concerned with and has devised strategic attitudes toward death. Since 1960 there has been a burgeoning of interest, as evidenced by the increase in writings about death, and a distinct shift in conceptualization. The literature is surveyed indicating the loci of increased interest, exploring the concerns of different groups—physicians, family members, clergymen, historians—and discussing the effects of modern life such as the impact of advanced medical technology.
Changing Urban Structures in Europe
Authors: Drewett Roy
Published: March 2007

Centralization and subsequent decentralization of population and employment is a phenomenon that characterizes urban systems as they evolve over time. To observers of urban change in individual European nation-states, a significant gap exists between monitoring changes in spatial distributions and understanding the processes that steer patterns of urban growth, stagnation, and decline. This gap needs to be narrowed, especially since locational preferences of companies, households, governments, and other major sectors are changing rapidly. Such complex issues suggest a need to relate present knowledge to what is happening in city systems in other advanced economies. This is difficult because a cross-national comparison of urban systems within Europe itself does not exist. Such a ready-made perspective poses a practical and conceptual problem. However, attempts have been made to articulate the comtemporary organization of urban systems through inductive rules, theories, and theoretical frameworks. This article largely concerns such attempts.
Chapter 7
Authors: Chandrasekar Krishnamurti
Published: March 2007

This chapter discusses the relationship among changes in productivity, economic output, and significant aspects of societal welfare that are measured by social indicators. There are several conceptual and measurable limitations of productivity that result in the underestimation of real output in official data, although unmeasured output nevertheless increases consumer satisfaction. A flow diagram is used to describe the nature of the relationships among factor inputs, productivity, output, and various measures of well-being. Slightly more than three fifths of economic growth in the past three decades was accounted for by the growth in productivity. Relatively high economic growth during the sixties facilitated a rapid rise in social welfare expenditures, while a slowdown in economic growth in the seventies was accompanied by a slower rate of growth in such expenditures. Deceleration in economic growth in the seventies constrained consumer choice, including individual budget decisions, especially discretionary expenditures. Productivity type analytical ratios can be used to measure the efficiency of a variety of social indicators. Some outputs return to the production process as higher quality inputs in a continuous flow.
The District of Columbia's "Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975": The Toughest Handgun Control Law in the United States—Or Is It?
Authors: Jones Edward D.
Published: March 2007

The District of Columbia's Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 went into effect on 24 September 1976. It was the outgrowth of three more restrictive legislative proposals that had been introduced in 1975 and had two legislative objectives: (1) to reduce the potential of firearms- related crimes and (2) to monitor more effectively firearms' trafficking. In July 1980, the U.S. Conference of Mayors' study reported its evaluation of the effectiveness of this act and stated that the act significantly reduced firearm and handgun crime. This report met largely with opposition. This article, in addition to relating the provisions and legislative history of the Firearms Control Regulations Act, analyses the defi ciencies in the Conference of Mayors' research methods and assumptions and also discusses any beneficial effects and weaknesses of the act. However, it can only be concluded that further research on firearms control effectiveness in the District of Columbia is clearly needed to develop demon strably effective public policies against criminal misuse of handguns.
Making Ends Meet: How Families Cope with Inflation and Recession
Authors: Caplovitz David
Published: March 2007

A survey of almost 2000 families in 1976 found that 59 percent had fallen behind rising prices and almost as many, 52 percent, were hurting because of inflation. The families most affected by inflation and recession were the less privileged ones, those of low income, the retired, the semiskilled and unskilled, and members of minority groups, the Blacks and Spanish speaking. A variety of coping mechanisms were identified, ranging from income-raising strategies such as taking second jobs, having additional family members go to work, and working more overtime, to lowering consumption, greater self-reliance, bargain hunting, and sharing with others. Lowering consumption was almost the universal response to inflation as families in all walks of life reported cutting back on food, clothing, and entertainment expenditures. About one third of the respondents reported that financial pressures from inflation and recession were causing problems for their marriages, and more than one fourth said that financial pressures had damaged their mental health. The pressures of inflation and recession generated considerable hostility toward government and politicians, who were blamed for the economic ills. Confidence in government was virtually nonexistent among those hard hit by inflation and recession.
Appropriate Industrial Technology: Benefits and Obstacles
Authors: Pack Howard
Published: March 2007

The systematic adoption of appropriate rather than advanced industrial technology in the modern manufacturing sector of less-developed countries could increase output and employment by substantial amounts. Calculations of the rough order of magnitude of these gains are presented. It is argued that among the factors inhibiting the realization of these benefits are large information costs incurred in learning about technical options as well as the difficulties governments perceive in altering current economic policies that discourage the use of appropriate technology.
Taxation and Economic Management in the Western Nations
Authors: HANNEMAN ROBERT A.
Published: March 2007

Trends in the tax revenues of five Western nations from 1900 to 1978 are examined. As tax revenues have increased from 10 to 40 percent of gross national product (GNP), indirect taxes have proportionately declined, displaced by social insurance and direct taxes. More of the tax burden is being paid by employers; sales and value-added taxes have become more important among indirect taxes; income taxes have displaced wealth taxes among the direct tax forms. Changes in tax administration, economic impact, and the politics of taxation are examined as possible limitations on the further growth of taxation and economic management by taxation. It is argued that the marked increase in the tax/GNP ratio cannot be regarded as having a proportionate impact on the ability of governments to manage economic performance by taxes.
Trade and the Structure of American Industry
Authors: FINGER J. MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

In the past two decades the proportion of U.S. gross national product that enters international trade has increased from four percent to over eight percent. This rapid growth of international trade, particularly U.S. trade with the more rapidly developing countries, has been an important source of vitality for the U.S. industrial sector. The growth of trade has necessitated some transfer of resources from one industry to another. The availability of foreign goods has also reduced the market power of U.S. industries and with it the power of resources in these industries to command rates of return higher than those earned in more competitive sectors. The magnitude of the former sort of adjustment has generally been overstated and the need for the latter sort strenuously resisted. Government policy has tended more to reduce the flexibility of the industrial structure than to enhance it. Administrative mechanisms that deal with trade matters reflect the mercantilist presumption that exports are the gains from trade and imports the costs. Because there is no administrative mechanism through which consumers or users of imports may put forward their interests, trade disputes very quickly become political issues.
Parents' Choice of Day Care Services
Authors: MOORE JOHN C.
Published: March 2007

In this article, findings are summarized from a multivariate analysis of types and amount of child care used by a national sample of parents with children under 14. Findings and policy implications are presented in four areas: a comparison of type versus hours used as alternative indicators of child care need, an analysis of the importance of location versus caregiver relatedness among users of home arrangements, the relationship between household structure and use of care, and the importance of household income as related to cost of child care. Based on the results of the study, it is concluded that the traditional link between employment status and use of formal group care is misleading, since being employed is critical to the amoung of care used, but not to the type chosen. It is emphasized that the complexities observed among the several household characteristics and the use of care strongly suggest that parents are in the best position to judge the amount or type of child care arrangements needed by their families. Based on this conclusion, public policy that rationalizes involvement in day care on the basis of support for family child rearing and economic functioning should permit maximum latitude to the range of choices available to parents.
America's Persistent Housing Crises: Errors in Analysis and Policy
Authors: KAIN JOHN F.
Published: March 2007

During the 1970s, the media headlined one housing crisis after another. Concern about these alleged crises tended to disappear as more dispassionate and less well-publicized follow-up studies demonstrated that the claims had been exaggerated. Nearly all comprehensive government and academic evaluations of housing problems and policies during the decade reached the same conclusions about the nature of the nation's housing problems and offered identical recommendations about desirable changes in housing policy. All found that housing conditions improved steadily in the postwar period, that the improvement was largely caused by a rapid growth in per capita and household incomes, that government programs made a minor contribution at best, and that existing housing programs and policies were both inequitable and inefficient. As the fraction of households living in substandard housing declined, moreover, the housing problems of poor persons were increasingly recognized as problems of poverty. All evaluations argued in favor of a reduction in housing subsidies for middle-and low-income households, a shift away from production programs, and greater reliance on cash grants that would provide assistance to low-income households in acquiring standard housing. In spite of this near unanimity of findings and policy recommendations, the nation's housing policy has consistently followed a different course.
The Context of Public Opinion: How our Belief Systems can Affect Poll Results
Authors: MILBRATH LESTER W.
Published: March 2007

Public opinion is embedded in underlying societal beliefs—a social paradigm—and these organize the way that people perceive and interpret the functioning of the world around them. Paradigms are so fundamental as to be taken for granted, but they do change. Evidence is presented that modern industrial societies now are undergoing a paradigm shift; substantial proportions of the public are now operating on the basis of one or more new paradigms. Public opinion analysts no longer can take for granted the belief paradigm that had been our context for opinion. Instead they must investigate paradigms and take them into account in the design and analysis of opinion studies.
Public Opinion, Polling, and Political Behavior
Authors: MARGOLIS MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

The advent of scientific public opinion polling gave democratic governance a new dimension. For the first time representatives could discern people's opinions on virtually any public issue. Despite this ability, three important questions remain. Are people adequately informed to consider the complex problems of modern government? Will they give their true opinions to a pollster? And even if these two conditions are satisfied, do representatives have to be bound by popular opinion? This article argues that modern public opinion analysts who use polling data tend to ignore these questions and instead focus on patterns of attitudes among various groups in the population. Before scientific polling became common, those who studied public opinion directed their efforts to the connection between behavioral manifestations of public opinion and the development of public policy. They worried more about the role of public opinion in the formulation of public policy. It turns out that much of the public opinion literature preceding scientific polling remains relevant, and we ignore it at our peril.
The Impact of Polls on Public Opinion
Authors: LANG KURT , LANG GLADYS ENGEL
Published: March 2007

There are three ways in which polls can influence the public opinion they purport merely to measure. Just being interviewed tends to arouse interest and to encourage some respondents to inform themselves and to clarify their views on the subject. It may even increase electoral participation. Second, there is little evidence that knowledge of where the majority stands has anything like the much feared bandwagon effect. Although many people are aware of poll findings, they react to these in more diverse ways, including tactical voting, than the bandwagon hypothesis implies. These reactions may in turn produce a third effect. Feeling that there is little support for one's viewpoint can discourage and even intimidate the advocates of a minority viewpoint, keeping that issue from being raised. Here polls can either act as a corrective or put a damper on discussion, making the minority view appear even less popular than it actually is.
Ford and the UAW have a Better Idea: A Joint Labor-Management Approach to Plant Closings and Worker Retraining
Authors: HANSEN GARY B.
Published: March 2007

Responding to the severe recession in the U.S. automobile industry in the late 1970s, Ford Motor Company and the United Automobile Workers negotiated, as part of their 1982 national agreement, innovative provisions to deal with the problems faced by redundant workers. This article outlines the basic components of the UAW-Ford model for plant closings and describes the implementation of the model at a San Jose site. The UAW-Ford approach is an example of best practice in the area of joint labor-management cooperation when dealing with the human resource problems of a plant closure. Among the lessons learned from the San Jose experience are the value of early advance notice; the importance of an external catalyst and source of technical assistance in getting the program under way and moving in the right direction; the necessity of good union and management leadership; the importance of on-site delivery of services to the displaced workers; the importance of frequent communication with the workers; the value of having a flexible, readily available resource base to underpin the readjustment program; and the employer's sense of responsibility in discharging obligations to the dislocated work force.
U.S.-China Relations: From Hostility to Euphoria to Realism
Authors: CHANG PARRIS H.
Published: March 2007

For the leaders in Beijing, the People's Republic of China has no eternal allies or perpetual enemies; only its interests are permanent. This principle has guided China's external relations in the past three decades and has shaped its alignments with the USSR, the United States, and other major powers. Foreign policy of the People's Republic will be influenced by these objectives: containment of Soviet expansionism; acquisition of foreign capital and technology to accelerate China's program of modernization; and Taiwan's reunification with the mainland. The United States is a crucial factor in each of these national objectives; hence Beijing seeks good relations with Washington. For domestic reasons, Beijing has inflated the importance of Taiwan in Sino-U.S. relations, but an agreement in August 1982 has provided a framework to manage Sino-U.S. disagreement about Taiwan. Sino-U.S. relations have improved markedly, as attested by the Zhao-Reagan exchange of visits and increasing economic cooperation.
Abolition of the Insanity Plea in Idaho: A Case Study
Authors: GEIS GILBERT , MEIER ROBERT F.
Published: March 2007

The abolition of the insanity defense in Idaho in 1982 was the first time in recent years that an American jurisdiction had eliminated that traditional, common-law defense. Drawing upon questionnaire responses from legislators, prosecuting attorneys, and psychiatrists, we examine the circumstances surrounding this precedent-setting legislation. We conclude that the conservative ethic stressing personal responsibility for conduct, legal and illegal, seems to have been influential in bringing about the new law, although future constitutional challenges may raise issues about extension of the doctrine of strict liability in criminal cases.
Prison Crowding and the Evolution of Public Policy
Authors: MULLEN JOAN
Published: March 2007

While crowding has been a persistent feature of the American prison since its invention in the nineteenth century, the last decade of crisis has brought more outspoken media investigations of prison conditions, higher levels of political and managerial turmoil, and a judiciary increasingly willing to bring the conditions of confinement under the scope of Eighth Amendment review. With the added incentive of severe budget constraints, liberals and conservatives alike now question whether this is any way to do business. Although crowding cannot be defined by quantitative measures alone, many institutions have far exceeded their limits of density according to minimum standards promulgated by the corrections profession. Some fall far below any reasonable standard of human decency. The results are costly, dangerous, and offensive to the public interest. Breaking the cycle of recurrent crisis requires considered efforts to address the decentralized, discretionary nature of sentence decision making and to link sentencing policies to the resources available to the corrections function. The demand to match policy with resources is simply a call for more rational policymaking. To ask for less is to allow the future of corrections to resemble its troubled past.
Changing Actors and Leadership among the Shiites of Lebanon
Authors: NORTON AUGUSTUS RICHARD
Published: March 2007

Scarcely three years ago there was little scholarly or policy interest in the Shiite community of Lebanon. Long irrelevant politically within Lebanon, the Shiites languished under the firm control of traditional leaders who were not seriously challenged until the 1960s. By the mid-1960s, however, the Shiites were becoming politicized. The most important role in mobilizing them was played by a charismatic Iranian cleric of Lebanese descent, Sayyid Musa al-Sadr. His efforts were disrupted by the war of 1975-76, and it was not until 1978 that the movement he started enjoyed a revival, in part because of his mysterious disappearance. By the eve of the Israeli invasion of 1982, al-Sadr's organization, Amal, was the most important political grouping among the Shiites. However, since the events of 1982, the Amal movement—an essentially moderate formation—has been challenged by a number of more extreme organizations, including Hezbollah, which seeks an Islamic solution to the plight of the Shiites. As of mid-1985, Amal was arguably the leading Shiite organization, but the ravages of further frustration and radicalization may shift the balance of power.
How Did Tarasoff Affect Clinical Practice?
Authors: BOWERS WILLIAM J. , GIVELBER DANIEL J. , BLITCH CAROLYN L.
Published: March 2007

The Tarasoff decisions of the California Supreme Court in 1974 and 1976 held that psychotherapists could be held liable for failing to protect the victims of their potentially violent patients. Our survey of psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers in eight metropolitan areas showed that Californians were more likely to have heard of the case, to believe it required warning the likely victim, and actually to issue warnings in such cases than were psychotherapists from other jurisdictions. Therapists were more willing to take steps to protect victims in 1980 than in 1975, but willingness to warn increased more among Californians than among those in other states. We conclude that although Tarasoff has influenced therapists' attitudes and behavior more in California than elsewhere, the case has also affected psychotherapeutic practice nationally.
Post-1965 Asian Immigrants: Where Do They Come From, Where Are They Now, and Where Are They Going?
Authors: WONG MORRISON G.
Published: March 2007

During the past two decades, immigrants of Asian ancestry have been arriving to the United States in phenomenal numbers, currently constituting 43 percent of the total immigrant stream. Asian immigrants from the traditional sending countries of China—including Taiwan and Hong Kong—Japan, Korea, and the Philippines are well represented. Refugees-turned-immigrants from Vietnam, Kampuchea, and Laos, however, represent a new and significant proportion of the Asian immigrant stream. This article will present an overview of the extent and magnitude of Asian immigration to the United States since 1965. The demographic, social, and economic characteristics, as well as adjustment indicators, of these recent immigrants will be analyzed. Finally, policy implications of this influx of new Asian immigrants will be suggested.
Foreign Language Teacher Education: Current Practices and an Assessment of Needs
Authors: OMAGGIO ALICE C. , SHINALL STANLEY L.
Published: March 2007

This article describes current practice in foreign language teacher education programs—middle-school through post-secondary levels—and provides recommendations for change that might be facilitated through the development of a national foreign language pedagogical research agenda. Discussion of teacher education practices centers around the following concerns: (1) policies regarding the admission and retention of students; (2) the content of teacher education programs, including core courses in the subject-matter specialization or major, professional education courses, and instruction in methodology; (3) preservice teaching experiences; (4) certification standards; and (5) in-service opportunities and maintenance of professional skills. The qualifications of teacher-training personnel, for both secondary and post-secondary settings, are also discussed. Recommendations for the development of a national agenda are grouped into three categories: (1) research and development activities; (2) in-service development opportunities; and (3) opportunities for leadership training. Such an agenda should aid the profession in its efforts to bring about needed change in the education and development of the nation's foreign language teachers.
Academic Exchange and the Founding of New Universities
Authors: ILCHMAN WARREN F. , ILCHMAN ALICE STONE
Published: March 2007

A major aspect of the Third World's higher education scene in the post-1945 period has been the expansion of the number and size of universities. Often approaching a tenfold growth, this development was also marked by a remarkable worldwide similarity of curriculum and structures of governance. A factor in the growth and character of these institutions has been the Fulbright program, in concert with the role of the United States as the educator of choice for Third World academic personnel. The contributions of the Fulbright program have been both direct and programmatic, and indirect and incidental, to the process of academic exchange.
A Host Country's View: The Federal Republic of Germany
Authors: LITTMANN ULRICH
Published: March 2007

The Fulbright program is evaluated from a host country's perspective. The transition from a program in occupied Germany in 1952 to a truly binational program with sharing of funding and supervision since 1964 is shown in the historical setting, added responsibilities, and the Fulbright Commission's contributions in four areas: cultural foreign relations, academic cooperation, educational reforms, and bilateral cultural consultations. The dual goal of the Fulbright design—to advance academic knowledge and to promote mutual understanding—is pursued in binational and regional cooperation. The role of the Commission, the Board of Foreign Scholarships and the contracting governments places emphasis upon true partnership rather than the image of the Fulbright as being an American government program.
Multiple Cost Sharing: The Japan Experience
Authors: YANG CAROLINE A. MATANO
Published: March 2007

Among the approximately 120 countries with Fulbright programs, Japan's Fulbright program is the only Fulbright program where cost sharing by the United States and the host society is on a fifty-fifty basis and where the Fulbright alumni contribute approximately 15 percent of the program's budget. This article analyzes the factors behind this unique multiple cost-sharing of the Fulbright program, particularly the strong support from the Japanese alumni. Among the contributing elements are the historical relationship between Japan and the United States, the rapid economic development of Japan, cultural factors peculiar to Japan, timing, and the right leader. These factors converged in 1982, the thirtieth anniversary year of the Japan program, and resulted in the organization of nine regional alumni associations within a period of two months and the launching of a fund-raising campaign to invite more Americans to Japan. The campaign developed a momentum of its own and evolved into the establishment of a permanent alumni Fulbright Foundation in 1986 through which contributions to the regular program are made. The entire alumni movement has served as a catalyst to the expansion and dynamism of the Fulbright program in Japan and may offer some lessons for other programs.
The Fulbright Program in Africa, 1946 to 1986
Authors: CROMWELL ADELAIDE M.
Published: March 2007

The history of the Fulbright program in Africa is one of slowly growing political and economic interest in the continent and an ongoing adjustment to radical political and social changes. The program has followed the directive of avoiding all appearances of cultural imperialism and keeping apart from political or bureaucratic interference. Responding to the growth of universities in Africa and the expanding interest and expertise of American students and scholars, the program grew rapidly in the 1970s and was strengthened in 1978 with the addition of the Hubert H. Humphrey North/South Fellowships for midcareer civil servants and in 1980 by the University Affiliation Program and the African-American Issues Center Program. The Fulbright has been largest in the largest countries or those of greatest interest geopolitically to the United States—Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, and Liberia. The Republic of South Africa presents the greatest challenge to an exchange program founded on academic excellence and free intellectual inquiry.
The Internationalization of Global Labor Markets
Authors: GRAY H. PETER
Published: March 2007

The rapid industrialization of labor-surplus countries will present serious problems for the achievement of high levels of employment in the industrialized world. The employment consequences of a flood of imports from developing countries is jeopardizing the liberal international trading system that has contributed to the world's prosperity since World War II. The argument for free trade and a liberal system of world trade is based on a static analysis that does not countenance the rate of change imposed on the importing nation. Some intermediate stance that avoids the employment costs of unimpeded imports and the rigidities that permanent, die-hard protection will inflict on an industrialized economy may prove desirable as an aid to the process of economic adjustment.
Intervening on the Supply Side of the Labor Market
Authors: EMMERIJ LOUIS
Published: March 2007

Several policy measures that have been proposed to unclog the labor markets in advanced industrial countries, such as early retirement, extension of compulsory education, shorter working weeks, or work sharing, are ineffective. Therefore a more comprehensive approach is required to reduce the amount of time that individuals spend in the labor market during their life span. Such an approach would aim at combining or alternating periods of education, work, and retirement throughout a person's adult life. Elements of the approach are recurrent education, flexibility of labor supply in accordance with the need of the labor market, discriminatory application for the sake of income distribution, and harmonization of the social security system. The scheme could be financed by money now invested in social security schemes of all kinds as well as out of existing educational budgets.
The Politics of Full Employment in Western Democracies
Authors: SCHMIDT MANFRED G.
Published: March 2007

While the majority of the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development have been plagued by mass unemployment in the 1970s and 1980s, rates of unemployment have remained low in Austria, Japan, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. The basic question addressed in this article is the extent to which structural-economic and political variables account for the full-employment record of these nations. It will be argued that these countries, due to a variety of political processes, institutions, strategies, and policies, have managed to maintain too much employment, relative to the structural-economic circumstances that have prevailed in their national economies.
Public Policy, Crime, and the Hispanic Community
Authors: YZAGUIRRE RAUL
Published: March 2007

Hispanics in America have experienced the greatest rise in poverty of any minority group during the 1980s. As a result, Hispanics also have experienced an increase in crime in their communities. Many of the federal government's opportunity-creating programs have been abolished or drastically cut back since 1981, even though the best way to fight crime is to provide jobs. It is more cost-effective in the long term to provide funding for job-training programs as a crime prevention strategy than to pay $30,000 per year to incarcerate an individual after being convicted of a crime that was committed because that individual had no money.
The United States Constitution as an Incomplete Text
Authors: LUTZ DONALD S.
Published: March 2007

Viewing the Constitution of the United States of America as a political text leads to the application of techniques of textual analysis when reading it. Textual analysis shows the Constitution to be incomplete, both as a constitution and as a founding instrument of the federal union. A complete text of a constitution for the United States requires inclusion of the state constitutions, and a complete text of a founding instrument for the United States requires inclusion of the Declaration of Independence. Any meaning to be derived from the U.S. Constitution, including the intentions of the Founders, requires taking into account the purpose for which the Constitution is being read, what constitutes a complete text for that purpose, and the context in which the document was written.
Private Security: A Retrospective
Authors: LIPSON MILTON
Published: March 2007

The short review of the little-known and little-understood history of private security covers the highlights of the development of police, both public and private, from the beginning—when shepherds were used to guard flocks and warn of raids by other tribes—to the modern period in the United States. Highlighted are the vestigial use of mercenaries by small principalities; the decision by the American Constitutional Convention not to use the French or Continental police system; as well as the manner in which private security, especially as spearheaded by Allan Pinkerton, filled the void in law enforcement in the second half of the nineteenth century.
The U.S. Military and Higher Education: A Brief History
Authors: ABRAMS RICHARD M.
Published: March 2007

From almost unnoticed beginnings in the Morrill Land-Grant College Act of 1862, the military-university relationship has, since 1940, become a major feature of American society. Putting higher education to the service of public priorities has longer and stronger roots in the American tradition than does the ideal of the university as a sanctuary for independent, critical scholarship and disinterested pursuit of learning for its own sake. Ironically, the university gained its principal claim to eminence in the American mainstream only in the early twentieth century when much of the nation's elite came to respect the ideal of autonomous, disinterested research and teaching within an academic sanctuary. Although the ideal continued to be honored as worthy, its approximation to reality faded egregiously after 1940. Its very importance for the achievement of public priorities, most conspicuously for national defense, led the university to accept inducements and constraints that pulled it notably away from its briefly assumed mission as a protected refuge for the dispassionate and critical study of science and society.
Tigers in Latin America?
Authors: WHITEHEAD LAURENCE
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the contrasting trade orientations of the East Asian newly industrializing economies — the four tigers — and Latin America. It questions some myths about the ingredients of East Asian policy success and draws attention to the underlying geopolitical factors that help to account for the contrasting trade performance of the two regions. It concludes that the East Asian experience is at least as aberrant as that of Latin America and that to call the former a model is a misnomer since the most essential ingredients are not transferable.
Perestroika, Socialism, and the Constitution
Authors: CHALIDZE VALERY
Published: March 2007

This article takes a general view of perestroika and analyzes certain possible changes in the Soviet Constitution. The recent struggle in Soviet society is viewed as competition between a previous tendency to unify social relations and recent demands for democratic pluralism in society. Further, the author discusses possible changes in the Soviet Constitution that could be brought about by perestroika. The Soviet Constitution must provide a juridical definition of socialism if the Soviet Union is to continue development of a socialist democracy. Finally, the author formulates a model juridical definition of socialism, which sets forth a socialism of rights and not a socialism of restrictions.
The Linkage Between Economic and Political Reform in the Socialist Countries: A Supply-Side Explanation
Authors: WU YU-SHAN
Published: March 2007

Political reforms in the socialist countries cannot be understood with the traditional demand-side theories. The property-rights structure is a crucial element in deciding the level of social demand for democracy. But the institutionalization of political pluralism can only be explained by elite strategic thinking. Typically, Leninist elites do not opt for political reforms if they can successfully restructure the economic systems without making political changes. There are two primary reasons for the regime to take steps toward political pluralism: one is to stifle the conservative opponents in the regime who are against economic reform; the other is to strike a social contract with the society to make economic reform acceptable to the population. When the elites are forced to tinker with political reforms, the single-party multicandidate model usually precedes the multiparty solution. Democratization, however, may fail to bring about economic recovery and is vulnerable to the elite's change of mind and the pressure from more orthodox Leninist regimes.
The States as Polities: Reformed, Reinvigorated, Resourceful
Authors: REEVES MAVIS MANN
Published: March 2007

The states' role and condition are crucial in assessing intergovernmental relations. Although often overshadowed by the federal government, states are the primary domestic governors. They make major policy decisions, protect public health and safety, provide public education and highways, administer criminal justice, and regulate many aspects of business. The states' current prominence reflects responsibilities resulting from cutbacks in federal grants, from the federal government's inability to pursue new programs because of the deficit, and from efforts made to upgrade almost every aspect of state governance. As a result, states are most energetic, assertive, and innovative. They will have to continue this activism to maintain their position as full partners in the federal system.
From Cooperative to Coercive Federalism
Authors: KINCAID JOHN
Published: March 2007

Cooperative federalism, the reigning conception of American federalism from about 1954 to 1978, was a political response to the policy challenges of market failure, postwar affluence, racism, urban poverty, environmentalism, and individual rights. Having social equity as its primary objective, cooperative federalism significantly transformed American society, but when the conditions underlying cooperation changed during the 1970s, the pressure to expand national power inherent in cooperative federalism gave rise to coercive federalism, in which the federal government reduced its reliance on fiscal tools to stimulate intergovernmental policy cooperation and increased its reliance on regulatory tools to ensure the supremacy of federal policy. The erosion of federal fiscal power and of constitutional and political limits on federal regulatory power in the 1970s and 1980s has produced a more coercive system of federal preemptions of state and local authority and unfunded mandates on state and local governments. This system undermines governmental responsibility and public accountability; yet state and local governments may not possess sufficient constitutional or political leverage to alter the system. Thus cooperative federalism has not been replaced by a new consensus on federalism. In light of contemporary conditions, a new consensus may have to be forged from elements of cooperative equity, competitive efficiency, and dual accountability.
Foreign Language Needs in the U.S. Government
Authors: CLIFFORD RAY T. , FISCHER DONALD C.
Published: March 2007

The federal government has a great number of designated positions that require foreign language competence. The scope of these positions is quite broad and encompasses such diverse fields as intelligence collection, treaty and commercial negotiations, and individual survival skills. The language-competence levels required by these positions are just as varied, ranging from survival to professional skill levels. Many of these needs go unfilled. The government's foreign language jobs can be divided into two categories. The larger includes jobs where the foreign language skill is an adjunct to a professional skill or preparation. In the smaller, the foreign language ability is the critical skill. The number of federal agencies with foreign language requirements is great; the needs of the government's major foreign language employers are described briefly. Due to the significantly changing world and our growing economic interdependence, linguistic needs are growing tremendously. To meet these needs the education system would have to lengthen the instructional sequences and increase tenfold the number of languages taught. Foreign language instruction should move to a proficiency-based system at all levels. Better communication between the educational community and government agencies is also needed.