bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
V
ance,
C
yrus (1917–2002)
Authors: Zanchetta Barbara
Published: May 2018

Cyrus Robert Vance was born March 27, 1917, in Clarksburg, West Virginia and died January 12, 2002, in New York, New York. He was an American lawyer and public official, who served as the 57th secretary of state under President Jimmy Carter. He entered his position on January 23, 1977, and resigned on April 28, 1980, in protest over President Carter's decision to try a military rescue of the American hostages held in the US embassy in Iran.
Venetian Diplomacy
Authors: Shaw Christine
Published: May 2018

The reputation of the republic of Venice for skillful and astute diplomacy was based on an unrivaled capacity to gather intelligence and enhanced by the care taken by Venetian governments to keep their own policy‐making secret. Venetian diplomatic skills were initially developed dealing with the Byzantine emperors. In later centuries the protection of their extensive commercial interests in the eastern Mediterranean resulted in their being considered experts in dealing with the Ottoman Turks. They also played an important role in the development of diplomatic relations among the states of Italy. From the sixteenth century, as the republic's power declined, Venice generally tried to remain neutral, using diplomacy to try to play a role as an international power.
Waltz, Kenneth (1924–2013)
Authors: Viotti Paul R.
Published: May 2018

Heads of government, diplomats, and other individuals responsible for the making and implementation of foreign policy and engaging in diplomacy are facilitated or constrained by international systemic structure – the distribution of power among states. A state's relative power within an overall balance of power affects its ability to manage its diplomatic relations with other states. Still, “the balance of power is not so much imposed by statesmen on events as it is imposed by events on statesmen.” Both systemic and domestic structures also influence the norms, habits and patterns states manifest in their conduct of diplomacy.
ZhengHe (1371–c. 1433)
Authors: Clulow Adam
Published: May 2018

Between 1405 and 1433, Ming China dispatched seven huge fleets that traversed the Indian Ocean, calling at a string of major trading ports and reaching as far as the east coast of Africa. The first six of these expeditions were dispatched by the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–24), the seventh and last by his successor, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1425–35). They were placed under the overall command of Zheng He (1371–c. 1433), a Muslim eunuch, who died at sea in 1433. Together these seven expeditions expanded the reach of the Ming state while remaining a potent symbol for Chinese leaders today.
Aehrenthal,Aloisvon(1854–1912)
Authors: Menning Ralph
Published: May 2018

Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal (1854–1912) was concurrently Austro‐Hungarian foreign minister and minister of the imperial court from 1906 to 1912. Aehrenthal's ambition was to reinvigorate the Austro‐Hungarian Dual Monarchy by way of internal reform and an energetic foreign policy; his proposals provide a case study in the interdependence of domestic and foreign policy. Once in office, Aehrenthal was forced onto the defensive. At home, the struggle for the control of foreign policy pitted him against the advocates of preventive war; abroad, his foreign policy incurred the hostility of Russia.
Appeasement
Authors: Doerr Paul W.
Published: May 2018

Appeasement is a diplomatic strategy by which a state attempts to conciliate a potential aggressor by making concessions through negotiations. While appeasement is most strongly associated with British prime minister Neville Chamberlain and the Munich Conference of 1938, examples of appeasement can be found both before and after that event. As well, appeasement has certainly been practiced by states other than Britain. Appeasement has strongly negative moral connotations in modern memory. However, some historians argue that appeasement was conditioned by Britain's imperial over‐stretch in the 1930s, in addition to other political and economic factors that severely limited the range of action available to the British. Therefore, no viable alternatives presented themselves by 1938.
Austro‐PrussianWar (1866)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

The Austro‐Prussian War (1866) was a seven‐week conflict fought between Prussia and Italy on the one hand, and the Austrian Empire and a number of smaller German states on the other. The Prussian and Italian governments conspired to fight a war in order to increase their territorial possessions within Germany and Italy respectively, in both cases at the expense of their mutual rival Austria. The Prussians' victories secured the exclusion of Austria from Germany, which subsequently fell under Prussian domination. Similarly, although the Italians suffered defeats on both land and sea, they secured possession of Venetia and the exclusion of Austria from Italy, by virtue of being on the winning side. The war was therefore simultaneously one of a sequence of conflicts that brought about the unification of Germany, and one of a separate sequence of wars that secured Italian independence and unity. It was also important as a factor which contributed to the tipping of the balance of power in the Continent away from Paris, towards Berlin.
BosnianCrisis (1908–9)
Authors: Menning Ralph
Published: May 2018

After the Moroccan Crisis of 1905/6, the Bosnian Crisis of 1908/9 was the second in a series of major diplomatic crises that narrowed the Great Powers' room for maneuver in the pre‐World War I decade. The crisis deepened the Austro‐Russian antagonism, hastened Russia's resolve to speed up its armaments, and in some ways foreshadowed the July 1914 crisis which led to the First World War.
Bunche,Ralph (1903/4–71)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Ralph Bunche (1903/4–71) played a key part in the development of the preventive diplomacy role under the United Nations (UN) secretary‐general, Dag Hammarskjöld from 1953 onwards. Before that he had served in the United States State Department working on plans for the UN Charter prior to joining the UN's Trusteeship Division. From September 1948 to August 1949 he negotiated the armistice agreements that ended the first Arab–Israel War and for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950. His contribution to the formation and deployment of the first United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) at Suez was crucial to its success and he played a key role with Dag Hammarskjöld and Lester Pearson in laying down the foundations of the principles of UN peacekeeping. During the UN Congo operation from 1960–64 he was constantly involved in the day‐to‐day activities of the UN force. He was a tireless public servant, working for peace and to uphold the reputation of the UN. His dedication and hard work brought about ill health and he died, a highly respected international civil servant, in 1971.
CyprusCrisis of 1974
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The Cyprus Crisis was triggered by the Greek engineeredcoup d'étatagainst the Cypriot president, Archbishop Makarios in July 1974. The constitution of Cyprus and its independence was guaranteed by Britain, Greece, and Turkey and the overthrow of Makarios was seen by the Turkish government as a movement towards uniting Cyprus with Greece under the goal ofénosis. In response to this change in the position of Cyprus, and to protect the Turkish minority population on the island, Turkey invaded and in two short military campaigns occupied over one‐third of the island thereby partitioning it. The standard interpretation of thecoup d'étatand the subsequent invasion has been challenged by rival versions which see Cyprus's strategic significance increasing to such levels of importance that the crisis was the result of a private Greek–Turkish agreement which went wrong or even one where the United States and Britain orchestrated the situation to remove Makarios and force Cyprus intoNATO.
Franco‐PrussianWar (1870–71)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

The Franco‐Prussian War was a conflict fought between France and Prussia in 1870–71. It resulted directly from a dispute between Paris and Berlin over the candidacy of a German prince for the succession to the Spanish throne, although it occurred in a climate of increasing rivalry between the two most powerful states on the European continent. As the third and final of a series of wars, including the Prusso‐Danish War of 1864 and the Austro‐Prussian War of 1866, it marked the final chapter in Otto von Bismarck's campaign to establish Prussian dominance over Germany. Prussia's quick and unexpected victory enabled Bismarck to unite Germany into a single empire under Prussian leadership in 1871, and tipped the balance of power in Europe very much in Berlin's favor. The Franco‐Prussian War was, therefore, the conclusive stage in a sequence of events back to the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853, which gradually destroyed the Vienna Settlement of 1815. The resentment that it caused in France can be considered a contributing factor to the outbreak of the two world wars of the twentieth century.
Neutrality
Authors: Abbenhuis Maartje
Published: May 2018

Neutrality is the status assigned to non‐belligerent states in time of war. Since classical times (500BCEto 600CE), neutrality has featured in the international system. It is a contested and complex subject affected by a range of essential state concerns including: maritime affairs relating to shipping, trade, and the open seas; the conduct of warfare on sea, land, and in the air; the limits of territorial sovereignty; impartiality; and the conduct of states and their subjects in time of war. Over time, neutrality's applicability altered with changes in the international system and in response to the needs of governments. In the early modern period (1400–1800CE), neutrality featured as an important field in international law, but it was not until the turn of the nineteenth century, at the two Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907, that neutrality became formally codified. Through the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries neutrality accommodated contradictory definitions in international relations.
Preventive Diplomacy
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Preventive diplomacy is an approach to peace which arose with the development of the United Nations during the period of the Cold War and is most associated with the second UN secretary‐general, Dag Hammarskjöld. In seeking to rescue the organization from the functional and institutional lethargy which had characterized it after 1946, he sought to use it to insulate conflicts from Cold War tensions. The result was the creation and development of UN peacekeeping which experienced a period of relative success to the end of the Cold War. After 1989, while still seeking to isolate and contain disputes, the UN expanded its peacekeeping role to take on more tasks but with mixed results, often the consequence of being engaged in a range of unconventional and complex conflicts while lacking the political, financial, and logistic foundations seen as necessary by Hammarskjöld for the successful performance of preventive diplomacy.
Truman,HarryS. (1884–1972)
Authors: Hopkins Michael F.
Published: May 2018

Harry Truman (1884–1972) was the unexpected president in 1945 but by the end of his two terms he had made a massive impact on the role of the United States in the world. Despite his limited experience in international affairs, his administration oversaw a transformation in American foreign policy.
BaghdadPact (1955–79)
Authors: Lefebvre Jeffrey A.
Published: May 2018

The Baghdad Pact (1955–79) grew out of a Mutual Cooperation Pact signed between Turkey and Iraq on February 24, 1955. Subsequently, the United Kingdom would adhere to the pact on April 5, Pakistan joined on September 23, followed by Iran on November 3. Concerned that Congress would not approve the treaty owing to the influence of the “pro‐Israel lobby” and so to avoid provoking Egypt's Gamal Nasser, the United States decided against formally joining the alliance. Nonetheless, under the guise of containing the growth of Soviet influence in the region the United States provided military assistance to the member‐states. The July 1958 revolution in Iraq that overthrew the pro‐West Hashemite monarchy led to Iraq's formal withdrawal from the pact in March 1959 and resulted in the relocation of the renamed Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) to Ankara, Turkey. CENTO was disbanded following the overthrow of the shah of Iran in January 1979.
Confessional (Reformation) Diplomacy
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

Confessional diplomacy is a term used by historians principally to characterize European diplomacy, especially in the Holy Roman Empire, in the wake of the Reformation, usually up to the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648. In a context where emerging Lutheran Protestant powers were seeking to protect themselves from the late 1520s onwards, alliances developed principally amongst Lutherans on the one hand, and Catholic powers on the other, and to a lesser degree, and further afield from the later sixteenth century, amongst Calvinist powers too as a third confessional grouping. Added to this, there was a persistent set of divisions between Christian powers and the Ottomans, bringing a broader set of religious issues to early modern diplomacy.
Dulles,JohnFoster (1888–1959)
Authors: Stanke Jaclyn
Published: May 2018

John Foster Dulles (1888–1959), President Dwight Eisenhower's secretary of state from 1953 to 1959, was a controversial and polarizing figure – abrasive, moralistic, uncompromising in his anti‐communism and apparent willingness to go to the brink of nuclear war. His control over American foreign policy concerned many. Recently, though, scholars have reevaluated Dulles's conduct and record as secretary of state. Now many find that he and Eisenhower shared a similar skepticism of the Soviet Union and that the two worked well together, with Eisenhower in the lead. Together, they navigated American foreign relations through the 1950s as the Cold War grew more nuclear and global. Though they averted hot war, a reliance on nuclear weapons, covert actions, and increasing American commitments worldwide to counter communist advances bequeathed problems for their successors.
Economic Diplomacy
Authors: Badel Laurence
Published: May 2018

Among the changes in the international system since 1990 is a revival of proactive economic diplomacy, which has meant a renewed commitment by nation‐states to sustain the commercial and financial expansion of national firms in foreign markets as well as to promote the attractiveness of the domestic market to foreign investors. The notion of economic diplomacy is an ambivalent one, suggesting both economic competition and economic cooperation. How do nations reconcile the national interest with the necessity of regulating the global market in order to ensure collective security and prosperity, on which a stable international system depends? This entry provides the historical background of the foundations of economic diplomacy, describes the diversity of actors and policies involved in economic diplomacy, and suggests that the economy has become a useful tool for small or emerging states to exert influence.
FrederickII(1194–1250)
Authors: Huffman Joseph P.
Published: May 2018

Holy Roman emperor, king of Germany, Burgundy, Italy, and Sicily, and titular king of Jerusalem, Frederick II (1194–1250) was bound to be extensively involved in diplomacy. Though his rule was not marked by great treaties or truces, he did have two signal diplomatic achievements. Though excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX for delaying his own crusade, Frederick II departed according to his own timing and there negotiated with Sultan al‐Kāmil of Egypt a settlement. al‐Kāmil conceded a remnant coastal strip of the old Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem including the pilgrimage cities of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth, which remained for fifteen years. Frederick II was vilified in Europe for compromising rather than waging war with Muslims, yet he was the only Western monarch to recover Jerusalem without violence. The emperor returned to Italy and after careful diplomacy extracted a reconciliation from Pope Gregory IX, which lifted his excommunication and removed this burdensome liability. The second half of his reign however saw the abandonment of diplomacy for war in Italy, which led to the decline of Hohenstaufen power in the empire in favor of the papal–Lombard League alliance.
Heusken, Henry (1832–61)
Authors: Hesselink Reinier H.
Published: May 2018

The assassination of Henry Heusken (1832–61), between 1856 and 1861 secretary and interpreter for the first American Consul in Japan, Townsend Harris, was one of the earliest and most daring attacks on foreigners in Japan. It shows how revolutionary radicals were about to overthrow a government that had been in place for more than 250 years. Heusken himself left a valuable diary describing the events leading up to his assassination.
H
irohito (
E
mperor
S
hōwa) (1901–89)
Authors: Boyd James
Published: May 2018

Hirohito (1901–89), the 124th emperor of Japan, remains a controversial figure, given the part he played in the lead up to, and Japan's conduct in, World War II. To some observers he was essentially a powerless figurehead who was unable to move outside of the political constraints of the time while, for others, he was an active participant in Japanese militarism and the decisions that led to war.
I
noue
M
asashige (1585–1661)
Authors: Hesselink Reinier H.
Published: May 2018

The lives of Inoue Masashige and his three brothers were dedicated to the service of the first three shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, which had established itself as the rulers of Japan since 1600. Masashige's career was the longest lasting of the four, and is therefore the most revealing about the policy‐making at the heart of the
bakufu
or military government of Japan in the first half of the seventeenth century.
International Relations Theory and Diplomacy
Authors: Jönsson Christer
Published: May 2018

The relationship between International Relations (IR) theory and diplomacy has largely been one of mutual neglect. Diplomacy has not figured prominently in inter‐paradigm debates. The first debate concerned the realist challenge to idealism. Whereas idealism put more trust in international law and international organization than in diplomacy as vehicles to achieve lasting peace, in realism diplomacy is included among, and is dependent on, other, more material state capabilities. Diplomacy figured marginally, if at all, in the behavioralism vs. traditionalism debate or in the discussion about grand theory between neorealism, neoliberalism, and Marxism. The English School has laid a theoretical foundation for the study of diplomacy. Post‐positivist theorists, often drawing on the legacy of the English School, have opened up for new perspectives on diplomacy. Negotiation, an essential element of diplomacy, is the subject of middle‐range theorizing.
KoreanWar (1950–53)
Authors: Qing Simei
Published: May 2018

On June 25, 1950, North Korea launched an offensive campaign against the south, a civil war took place between North and South Korea. On October 1, 1950, South Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel. On October 2, Mao Zedong informed Stalin that Beijing was not to dispatch troops for now. On October 3, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai informed the Truman administration that should American, rather than South Korean, troops cross the 38th parallel, China would join the war. On October 7, American troops crossed the 38th parallel and on October 19, Chinese troops crossed the Yalu River. The Korean War was transformed into a military confrontation between China and the United States in Korea. The fighting lasted for almost three years, until July 27, 1953, when an armistice was signed with the truce line approximately at the 38th parallel. The Armistice Agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea. The impact of the Korean War on the Vietnam War is twofold: on one hand, the American public's misperception of Chinese intentions deeply shaped the Kennedy and Johnson administrations' Vietnam War policy. On the other, as a result of Zhou Enlai's and General MacArthur's warnings, American troops did not cross the 17th parallel in the war. The latter eased the path for US–China rapprochement in the early 1970s.
KuwaitCrisis of 1961
Authors: Ashton Nigel
Published: May 2018

The Kuwait crisis of 1961 resulted from a challenge mounted by the Iraqi regime of Brigadier Abd al‐Karim Qasim to the Exchange of Notes between Britain and Kuwait of June 19, 1961, which granted Kuwait independence. Qasim asserted that Kuwait was part of Iraq and that Iraq did not recognize its independence. In response to this perceived threat the British government sent forces to protect the emirate. The British move was supported by the United States and Qasim's isolation was confirmed when the Arab League moved to admit Kuwait to membership as an independent state. There was no Iraqi military move against Kuwait and British forces were subsequently withdrawn and replaced by an Arab Deterrent Force.
LouisXIV(1638–1715)
Authors: Onnekink David
Published: May 2018

Louis XIV (1638–1715) was the longest‐reigning monarch in European history. Under his rule – marked by internal reforms as well as harsh methods against religious minorities and by conquest and diplomacy – France evolved into a stronger and relatively stable kingdom. Bureaucratic reforms turned the French diplomatic service into the foremost in Europe and established French as the leading language in diplomatic intercourse. His policy of expansion created several coalitions, in the process of which a balance of power emerged within the European international system.
Mosul Dispute
Authors: Fisher John
Published: May 2018

The upsurge in Turkish nationalism after the First World War upset Allied plans for the settlement of the Middle East. When a treaty of peace was concluded, in July 1923, it left unresolved the frontier between the Iraqi mandate, under British control, and Turkey. The issue centered on control of the Mosul Vilayet (province), occupied by British forces in late 1918, and was complicated by the presence of ethnic and religious minorities within that province and beyond, as well as by the existence of oil. Unable to reach agreement with Turkey, the British government referred the issue to the League of Nations. The league investigated the issue and awarded Mosul to Iraq.
Oxenstierna,AxelGustafsson (1583–1654)
Authors: Thomson Erik
Published: May 2018

Axel Gustafsson Oxenstierna (June 16, 1583–August 28, 1654) was Swedish chancellor from January 1612 until his death. He was the central statesman in Sweden during the reign of King Gustavus Adolphus and Queen Christina, with great influence over the kingdom's diplomacy during the Thirty Years' War.
Peace of Cateau‐Cambrésis (1559)
Authors: Watkins John
Published: May 2018

The 1559 Peace of Cateau‐Cambrésis ended over fifty years of war between France, Spain, and their allies over the territories in Italy, the Low Countries, and the Franco‐Spanish borderlands. It conceded the duchy of Milan and the kingdom of Sicily to Spain, restored an independent duchy of Savoy, and provided for the exchange and demilitarization of numerous border towns and fortresses. It also provided for a reversion of Calais from France to England after a period of eight years. A classic Renaissance marriage treaty, the settlement was sealed by a marriage between Philip II of Spain and Henry II of France's eldest daughter, Elisabeth de Valois. It also provided for a second marriage between Henry's sister Marguerite and Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy.
Treaty ofVerdun (843)
Authors: Benham Jenny
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Verdun, agreed in August 843, divided the Frankish Empire into three kingdoms among the surviving sons of the emperor Louis the Pious, the son and successor of Charlemagne. The treaty was concluded following almost three years of civil war and was the culmination of negotiations lasting more than a year. It was the first in a series of partitions contributing to the dissolution of the empire created by Charlemagne and has been seen as foreshadowing the formation of many of the modern countries of western Europe.
US–Japanese Naval Race
Authors: Folly Martin H.
Published: May 2018

The US–Japan naval race began after World War I. The United States embarked on a large naval building program in 1919 and Japan followed suit. Japan sought to build eight battleships and eight battlecruisers. This race was suspended by the Five‐Power Treaty of 1922 that set capital ship allocations at a ratio of 5:3. A further race developed in heavy cruisers. These were restricted in the London Treaty (1930), but opponents to restriction in Japan prevented any further limitations. Japan withdrew from the treaties in 1936. It developed successive programs of warship building known as “circles.” The United States itself began building up its fleet. In 1940 two Naval Expansion acts meant that the United States would have superiority by 1943. This was a strong influence on the Japanese navy's preference for war in 1941, when Circle 3 was complete, but the US program was not.
Vattel,Emerichde(1714–67)
Authors: Frey Linda S. , Frey Marsha L.
Published: May 2018

Emerich de Vattel (1714–67) was a Swiss jurist, whose masterpiece,Le Droit des gens,was one of the most respected juridical treatises of early modern Europe. As late as the early twentieth century this treatise was second in circulation only to Hugo Grotius'sDe Jure Belli ac Pacis. The elegance as well as simplicity of his style appealed to many, as did its ambiguity, for diplomats could turn to his book and find different answers. His stress on natural law and his application of principles directly to the conduct of government made his work both popular and influential. This pragmatic natural law approach had an unquestionable resonance because of its reliance on reason and stress on absolute moral standards. Equally appealing was Vattel's stress on the equality of men which found its counterpart in nations.
Vitoria,Franciscode(1483–1546)
Authors: Frey Linda S. , Frey Marsha L.
Published: May 2018

Francisco de Vitoria (1483–1546), the most distinguished theorist on international law in the sixteenth century, is regarded by many as the father of international law. After studying in Paris, he taught at universities in Paris, Valladolid, and Salamanca, where he influenced a number of students and subsequently two generations of Spanish jurists known as the Salamanca School. A Spanish Dominican, preeminently a theologian, Vitoria saw theology as the mother of sciences which covered everything including jurisprudence. The emperor Charles V often relied on his legal expertise and consulted him on some of the most contentious issues of the day, such as Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon. For Vitoria, positive law was derived from natural law. Vitoria based his arguments on the greater good of the community and on the necessity for international relations. He discussed the theory of just war and defended the Indians against the Spanish conquerors. For Vitoria the international community was not exclusively Christian; it was coextensive with humanity.
Yalta Conference (1945)
Authors: Folly Martin H.
Published: May 2018

The Yalta Conference between Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, took place in the Crimea between February 4 and 11, 1945, during the final year of the Second World War. It is often seen as producing the postwar division of Europe, because of Western concessions to Stalin. In fact each leader bargained hard, and each achieved some of his goals. Eastern Europe was not discussed much at the conference, with the exception of Poland. Stalin did sign the Declaration on Liberated Europe, and later tensions developed because he failed to keep to the terms of the liberal democratic peace that he had apparently agreed to. But in the short term the conference kept the alliance together for the final push to victory.
Religious Freedom and Diplomacy
Authors: Fedele Dante
Published: May 2018

This entry examines the relationship between diplomacy and religious freedom in the modern and contemporary eras. It considers in particular the development of the “right of chapel” from the time of the Wars of Religion in Europe, and the way in which the existence of this right contributed to the accommodation of religious dissent. This analysis throws light on one of the lesser‐known chapters in the history of religious freedom and allows us to assess the role that diplomacy has played, and can continue to play, in the promotion of this freedom. Some of the historical conditions which led to the recognition of the “extraterritoriality” of the embassy are also considered.
Nesselrode,Karl (1780–1862)
Authors: Cahen Raphaël
Published: May 2018

Karl Nesselrode (1780–1862) was the leading Russian diplomatist at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Originally from the Rhine region, he started his long career in St. Petersburg and continued in Berlin, The Hague, and Paris. He became a key player in Russian diplomacy during the first phase of the Concert of Europe which enabled him to achieve the rank of vice‐chancellor of the Russian Empire in 1826 and then chancellor in 1845. After the revolution of 1848 and the Crimean War he resigned but remained a powerful politician until his death in 1862.
Adachi Mineichirō (1869–1934)
Authors: Mimaki Seiko
Published: May 2018

Mineichirō Adachi (Adatci) (1869–1934) was one of the leading professional diplomats and international jurists in prewar Japan, who served as the first Asian president of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) at the Hague in 1931–34. Adachi was also well known as a skillful diplomat who served as ambassador to Belgium and then to France, and as a representative of Japan at the General Assembly of the League of Nations. Though Adachi did not publish any scholarly books in the field of international law, he contributed to the development of international law through articles and lectures.
Spanish Non‐Intervention Committee (1936–39)
Authors: Stone Glyn
Published: May 2018

The Spanish Non‐Intervention Committee was formed in late August/early September 1936 to uphold the Non‐Intervention Agreement first proposed by the French government in early August. Located in London the committee and its Chairman's Sub‐Committee met regularly for the first eighteen months of the Spanish Civil War and intermittently thereafter. The committee was intended to confine the civil war to the two contending parties and to limit external intervention as far as possible. The main focus was on prohibiting the transportation of arms and munitions to the Spanish arena through naval patrol and frontier land observation and the prohibition and withdrawal of foreign combatants. Despite agreeing various schemes the committee by and large failed to achieve these objectives but the civil war was confined to Spain and did not escalate into a Europe‐wide conflagration. The fact that the key representatives on the committee did not withdraw their membership indicates that in one way or another it suited their countries' purposes.
Talleyrand,CharlesMauricede(1754–1838)
Authors: Fronczak Joseph
Published: May 2018

Foreign minister of revolutionary and post‐revolutionary France, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (1754–1838) was pivotal in the rise of Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte), and in his fall. Possessed of a shrewd intelligence and caustic wit, Talleyrand personified diplomacy as a dangerous art of ambiguity and duplicity, offstage indirection and court intrigue, self‐interest and national ambition. Though a sober review of his foreign ministry would be enough to ensure his place in diplomatic history, Talleyrand's enduring historical prominence relies more on his outsized, inscrutable personality. Talleyrand's finest diplomatic performance took place at the 1815 Congress of Vienna – meant to establish a balance of powers, or a lasting European equilibrium, after the Napoleonic Wars. At Vienna, Talleyrand limited the damage inflicted upon weakened France, and he articulated the theoretical principles of legitimacy and the rule of law that established the Congress of Vienna's system for lasting stability in Europe, the Concert of Europe.
ShideharaKijuro (1872–1951)
Authors: Sugawara Takeshi
Published: May 2018

Shidehara Kijuro (1872–1951) was a leading Japanese diplomat and statesman who served as foreign minister in 1924–27 and 1929–31 and as prime minister in 1945–46. His diplomacy of the 1920s, which was often referred to as “Shidehara diplomacy,” had three distinctive principles: advancing Japan economically, non‐intervention in China, and cooperation with Britain and the United States. These principles sometimes clashed with one another, but Shidehara's diplomacy before World War II was important and highly regarded. After the war he played an important role in creating Article 9 of Japan's Constitution, which renounced war. Shidehara Kijuro embodied liberal diplomacy in Japan.
Promoting Charge Separation in Semiconductor Nanocrystal Superstructures for Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity
Authors: Wang Lu , Cai Mujin , Sun Wei , He Le , Zhang Xiaohong
Published: May 2018

Increasing the lifetime of photoexcited charge carriers in metal oxide semiconductor nanocrystals is essential for the promotion of their photocatalytic efficiency. In this context, different strategies are developed for tailoring the structural and electronic properties of semiconductors at the single nanocrystal level, mainly including band‐structure engineering, doping, catalyst‐support interaction tuning, and cocatalysts decoration. Recently, an alternative strategy for prolonging the lifetime of photoexcited charge carriers is discovered at the nanocrystal superstructure level. By assembling semiconductor nanocrystals into ordered superstructures, a new pathway is created for the spatial separation of charge carriers between neighboring nanocrystals within the superstructure network. The inter‐nanocrystal charge transfer in the superstructures enables the increased charge separation efficiency of photogenerated electron–hole pairs, prolongs their lifetime and, in turn, improves the photocatalytic activity. In this review, recent developments of nanocrystal‐superstructure‐based photocatalysts and their applications in catalyzing different reactions are summarized. Several perspectives in terms of challenges and future research in this area are highlighted.
Indium(III)‐Catalyzed Hydration and Hydroalkoxylation of α,β‐Unsaturated Ketones in Aqueous Media
Authors: Yun Jin‐Jin , Zhi Man‐Ling , Shi Wen‐Xiao , Chu Xue‐Qiang , Shen Zhi‐Liang , Loh Teck‐Peng
Published: May 2018

The hydration of α,β‐unsaturated ketones with water proceeded efficiently in the presence of In(OTf)3 (20 mol%) in aqueous media to afford synthetically versatile β‐hydroxyketones in moderate to good yields with good functional group compatibility. The method also can be extended to the hydroalkoxylation of α,β‐unsaturated ketones with various alcohols for the efficient synthesis of β‐alkoxyketones as well as tetrahydrofuran derivatives.

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Controllable Phase Stabilities in Transition Metal Dichalcogenides through Curvature Engineering: First‐Principles Calculations and Continuum Prediction
Authors: Ouyang Bin , Ou Pengfei , Song Jun
Published: May 2018

A controllable phase transition between the semiconducting 2H phase and metallic/semimetallic T (1T, 1T′, and 1T″) isomorphs provides an effective route to tune and even switch physical and electronic properties within 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs). In this study, the feasibility of curvature engineering in manipulating the structural phase is investigated employing first‐principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations and continuum mechanics analysis. With WSe2 and MoTe2 as TMD representatives, it is found that bending deformation can not only energetically induce 2H → T (1T, 1T′, or 1T″) phase transformation, but also kinetically facilitate the phase transition by lowering transition activation barriers. Moreover, a phase stability diagram is constructed which suggests ways of achieving both uniformly 2H → T phase transition and programming printing of T phases in 2H‐TMD membranes. The theoretical results not only suggest a new feasible experimental design strategy of phase engineering, but also sheds light on novel device design with the patterning of T phases on the 2H‐TMD membrane.
Cold Vapor Generation beyond the Input Solar Energy Limit
Authors: Song Haomin , Liu Youhai , Liu Zhejun , Singer Matthew H. , Li Chenyu , Cheney Alec R. , Ji Dengxin , Zhou Lyu , Zhang Nan , Zeng Xie , Bei Zongmin , Yu Zongfu , Jiang Suhua , Gan Qiaoqiang
Published: May 2018

100% efficiency is the ultimate goal for all energy harvesting and conversion applications. However, no energy conversion process is reported to reach this ideal limit before. Here, an example with near perfect energy conversion efficiency in the process of solar vapor generation below room temperature is reported. Remarkably, when the operational temperature of the system is below that of the surroundings (i.e., under low density solar illumination), the total vapor generation rate is higher than the upper limit that can be produced by the input solar energy because of extra energy taken from the warmer environment. Experimental results are provided to validate this intriguing strategy under 1 sun illumination. The best measured rate is ≈2.20 kg m−2 h−1 under 1 sun illumination, well beyond its corresponding upper limit of 1.68 kg m−2 h−1 and is even faster than the one reported by other systems under 2 sun illumination.
Ultrahigh Power Factor in Thermoelectric System Nb0.95M0.05FeSb (M = Hf, Zr, and Ti)
Authors: Ren Wuyang , Zhu Hangtian , Zhu Qing , Saparamadu Udara , He Ran , Liu Zihang , Mao Jun , Wang Chao , Nielsch Kornelius , Wang Zhiming , Ren Zhifeng
Published: May 2018

Conversion efficiency and output power are crucial parameters for thermoelectric power generation that highly rely on figure of merit ZT and power factor (PF), respectively. Therefore, the synergistic optimization of electrical and thermal properties is imperative instead of optimizing just ZT by thermal conductivity reduction or just PF by electron transport enhancement. Here, it is demonstrated that Nb0.95Hf0.05FeSb has not only ultrahigh PF over ≈100 µW cm−1 K−2 at room temperature but also the highest ZT in a material system Nb0.95M0.05FeSb (M = Hf, Zr, Ti). It is found that Hf dopant is capable to simultaneously supply carriers for mobility optimization and introduce atomic disorder for reducing lattice thermal conductivity. As a result, Nb0.95Hf0.05FeSb distinguishes itself from other outstanding NbFeSb‐based materials in both the PF and ZT. Additionally, a large output power density of ≈21.6 W cm−2 is achieved based on a single‐leg device under a temperature difference of ≈560 K, showing the realistic prospect of the ultrahigh PF for power generation.
Silver‐Promoted [3+1+1] Annulation of Isocyanoacetates with Nitrosoarenes
Authors: Fang Guichun , Wang Hongwei , Liu Qun , Cong Xuefeng , Bi Xihe
Published: May 2018

[3+1+1] annulation of isocyanoacetates with nitrosoarenes for the preparation of 1,4,5‐trisubstituted imidazoles or 4,5‐dihydro‐1H‐imidazoles has been disclosed. Isocyanoacetates serve as both a three‐atom component and a one‐carbon unit in the reaction. Specially, with catalytic amounts of Ag2CO3 and a reduced temperature this [3+1+1] annulation of isocyanoacetates enables the formation of trans‐imidazolines in good yield and with high diastereoselectivity. Silver plays a critical dual role: i) as the catalyst for the efficiency to activate the isocyanides and ii) the oxidant in aromatization process.
Beta‐2 transferrin is detectable for 14 days whether refrigerated or stored at room temperature
Authors: Zervos Thomas M. , Macki Mohamed , Cook Bernard , Schultz Lonnie R. , Rock Jack P. , Craig John R.
Published: May 2018

Background

The effect of time and temperature on beta‐2 transferrin stability in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is not well established. After collecting nasal CSF for testing, beta‐2 transferrin has been found to be stable and detectable for 1 week, whether being refrigerated or stored at room temperature. The purpose of this study was to determine if beta‐2 transferrin remained detectable longer than 1 week and whether refrigeration improved its detectability.

Methods

In patients undergoing therapeutic CSF diversion, 2‐mL CSF samples were collected from 18 patients. The samples were divided and stored either at room temperature, or at 4°C, and tested for beta‐2 transferrin at 7 and 14 days. CSF was collected from external ventricular drains (EVDs) (n = 15), lumbar drains (n = 2), and subdural drains (n = 1).

Results

Of the 18 CSF samples originally testing positive for beta‐2 transferrin, none turned negative at 7 or 14 days, in both the refrigerated and room temperature groups (95% confidence interval [CI], 0% to 18.5%).

Conclusion

Beta‐2 transferrin remained detectable for 14 days in all CSF samples, regardless of being stored at 4°C or room temperature.
Asymmetric Covalent Triazine Framework for Enhanced Visible‐Light Photoredox Catalysis via Energy Transfer Cascade
Authors: Huang Wei , Byun Jeehye , Rörich Irina , Ramanan Charusheela , Blom Paul W. M. , Lu Hao , Wang Di , Caire da Silva Lucas , Li Run , Wang Lei , Landfester Katharina , Zhang Kai A. I.
Published: May 2018

Complex multiple‐component semiconductor photocatalysts can be constructed that display enhanced catalytic efficiency via multiple charge and energy transfer, mimicking photosystems in nature. In contrast, the efficiency of single‐component semiconductor photocatalysts is usually limited due to the fast recombination of the photogenerated excitons. Here, we report the design of an asymmetric covalent triazine framework as an efficient organic single‐component semiconductor photocatalyst. Four different molecular donor–acceptor domains are obtained within the network, leading to enhanced photogenerated charge separation via an intramolecular energy transfer cascade. The photocatalytic efficiency of the asymmetric covalent triazine framework is superior to that of its symmetric counterparts; this was demonstrated by the visible‐light‐driven formation of benzophosphole oxides from diphenylphosphine oxide and diphenylacetylene.
Successful treatment of pulmonary invasive fungal infection by Penicillium non‐marneffei in lymphoblastic lymphoma: case report and literature review
Authors: Ramírez Isabel , Hidrón Alicia , Cardona Ricardo
Published: May 2018

Key Clinical Message

Penicillium non‐marneffei species rarely cause disease in humans and are encountered most commonly in the clinical laboratory as culture contaminants; however, recently they have emerged as opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised hosts; therefore, it should not be routinely disregarded without a thorough investigation, especially if normally sterile sites are involved.
Polarization Resistance‐Free Mn3O4‐Based Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction
Authors: Fan Yafei , Wu Yanlin , Huang Xing , Clavel Guylhaine , Amsalem Patrick , Koch Norbert , Pinna Nicola
Published: May 2018

Transition metal oxides have been proposed as a possible replacement of platinum for the electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). However, as a result of the low intrinsic conductivity, an application in electrocatalysis is challenging. In this work, we demonstrate that atomic layer deposition (ALD) is capable to overcome this problem by coating conductive carbon nanotubes substrates with a conformal Mn3O4 layer of just few‐nm in thickness. The deposition parameters have been optimized in terms of thickness and crystallite sizes to produce a material exhibiting catalytic efficiency close to the one of carbon‐supported Pt particles and low polarization costs. The current densities recorded in linear sweep voltammetry prove that the Mn3O4 coating leads to a substantial increase of the catalytic efficiency, compared to uncoated carbon nanotubes, and was also higher than other manganese‐based catalysts reported so far. The sample prepared from only 50 ALD cycles (e. g. coating thickness of ∼2 nm) shows the best compromise between catalytic efficiency, with an onset potential at 0.867 V (vs. RHE), and good conductivity of the electrode materials minimizing polarization. Indeed, the Tafel plots exhibit a similar slope than Pt/C demonstrating that the Mn3O4/CNTs reduce oxygen in a one‐step four electrons mechanism and with a similar kinetics as Pt‐based electrocatalysts. Moreover, the current density keeps at 80 % even after 12 h at 0.58 V displaying a higher stability than Pt‐based catalysts. These findings are attributed to the few nm‐thick conformal and catalytic active coating obtained by atomic layer deposition, which also protects the underneath CNT substrate from corrosion.
Fuel Cell Measurements with Cathode Catalysts of Sputtered Pt3Y Thin Films
Authors: Lindahl Niklas , Eriksson Björn , Grönbeck Henrik , Lindström Rakel Wreland , Lindbergh Göran , Lagergren Carina , Wickman Björn
Published: May 2018

Invited for this month′s cover is the group of Björn Wickman at Chalmers University of Technology. In the image, the alloy thin film is sputtered onto the electrode and used to catalyze the oxygen reduction reaction in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. The Full Paper itself is available at 10.1002/cssc.201800023.
Genetic differentiation of Rubus chamaemorus populations in the Czech Republic and Norway after the last glacial period
Authors: Leišová‐Svobodová Leona , Phillips Jade , Martinussen Inger , Holubec Vojtěch
Published: May 2018

The population structure of cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.), collected from Krkonose Mountains (the Czech Republic), continental Norway and Spitsbergen, was examined using microsatellite analyses (SSR). Among 184 individuals, 162 different genotypes were identified. The overall unbiased gene diversity was high (). A high level of genetic differentiation among populations (FST = 0.45; p < .01) indicated restricted gene flow between populations. Using a Bayesian approach, six clusters were found which represented the genetic structure of the studied cloudberry populations. The value of correlation index between genetic and geographical distances (r = .44) indicates that gene flow, even over a long distance, could exist. An exact test of population differentiation showed that Rubus chamaemorus populations from regions (Krkonose Mountains, continental Norway and Spitsbergen) are differentiated although some individuals within populations share common alleles even among regions. These results were confirmed by AMOVA, where the highest level of diversity was found within populations (70.8%). There was no difference between 87 pairs of populations (18.7%) mostly within cloudberry populations from continental Norway and from Spitsbergen. Based on obtained results, it is possible to conclude that Czech and Norwegian cloudberry populations are undergoing differentiation, which preserves unique allele compositions most likely from original populations during the last glaciation period. This knowledge will be important for the creation and continuation of in situ and ex situ conservation of cloudberry populations within these areas.