bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Composite Riser Lifetime Prediction
Authors: Huybrechts Dirk G.
Published: October 2008

A background on phenomenological behavior of CRP laminates is given and the power of the superior laminate analysis theory by PUCK is outlined as a basis to build the confidence in the long-term performance of CRP materials for offshore tubular applications.

Special attention is drawn to the procedure for lifetime prediction of a riser with CRP load bearing structure. The importance of progressive laminate failure analysis is highlighted as the tool to tailor the design so that the component failure is fiber controlled. Based on this requirement the procedure for fatigue failure prediction developed by DNV and others is recommended.

As improvements to this procedure a unique fatigue test specimen is introduced and the basic idea of the remaining strength approach is implemented. Both contributes to the target to increase the level of consistency of the prediction theory compared to the real physical behavior of the product CRP laminate and therefore raise the reliability of lifetime predictions for composite offshore tubulars.

Introduction

ABB Vetco Gray and others have developed the technology to design and manufacture offshore composite tubulars. The present overall status of these technologies is probably best described in [1]. It is expected, that 2002 will become a major milestone with more field experience and initial commercial projects.

Regarding lifetime requirements the most challenging type of the composite tubulars are production risers for the reason, that a lifetime of 20-40 years needs to be guaranteed. Remaining reservations of potential oil industry customers seem to be focussed on concerns related to the long-term performance. This paper highlights ABB's efforts to address this key task.

Composite risers will essentially be made from carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CRP) for the load bearing tubular structure. This material in general has the reputation of very superior long-term, especially fatigue properties. Whereas the ratio of remaining strength after 107 load cycles to initial static strength for the first load cycle is about 0.3 for steel it is about 0.8 for unidirectional (UD) CRP. This superior property is a major driver for the usage of CRP for the application of production risers. However, the wall thickness needs to be tailored to given load cases and other requirements. A lifetime prediction resp. a long-term static and fatigue loading design procedure is needed. It may have some impact on necessary wall thickness and therefore on product weight and cost.

Since CRP composites have been used for commercial applications in other industries, especially aircraft for about 30 years one would expect to find long-term and fatigue design procedures in the public domain. This is, however, unfortunately not the case. Major sources like [2] are limited to very general information. A cause to this situation may have been that the use of CRP in most cases was motivated by stiffness requirements, leading to wall thicknesses that are very safe in terms of strength, which was excessively proven by testing.
Energy and the Environment - a Global View
Authors: Schroeder Art J. , Pena Emil
Published: October 2008

This set of speaker notes introduces the subject, which is the topic of a panel discussion for the 2002 Offshore Technology Conference. Participants include;Mr. Matthew R. Simmon's CEO Simmons & Co. an investment banking firm specializing in the energy sectorDr. Michael Economides, professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Houston, a noted author of more than 7 books and 150 articlesMr. Luis Giusti, Sr. Advisor for Strategic and International Studies, a Washington D.C. based think tank, and former CEO of PDVSA.Dr. Don Paul, Vice President of Technology for ChevronTexacoMs. Amy Jaffe, Sr. Analyst from The Baker Institute at Rice UniversityMr. Bruce Rauhe, Technical Director of the Fuel Cell Research and Application Center at the Houston Advanced Research CenterMs. Elena Melchert, Director, Offshore Technology Program, United States Department of Energy

Introduction

Cheap, plentiful and reliable energy has arguably been one of the main drivers of the United States', and indeed the developed world's economy for the 20th century. Between 1945 and 1973, consumption of oil products rose at a startling 4-1/2 percent average annual rate, well in excess of growth of real GDP. Many experts believe that maintaining this trend will be quite difficult considering both the growing demand and the rapid decline of many of the world's existing fields. New ‘elephant’ size fields seem to be few and far between, and generally located in harsh, remote, and increasingly politically unstable regions. Clearly, the industry will be fully challenged just to meet the needs of the ‘developed’ world, much less figuring out how to provide light, heat and mobility to the billions of the world who have no cars, no homes, and cook their food over wood, peat, and other substances.

An accompanying question of growing importance is, 'can we afford to continue down this path without adding ‘clean’ to the list of qualifiers'? Nearly all knowledgeable observers give the industry at least some credit for figuring out how to cleanly explore and produce fossil fuels. The issue is now being re-defined around pollution from using the fuels.

While the current U.S. administration walked away from the Kyoto Protocol, a firestorm of European protest caused Mr. Bush to setup a cabinet level task force to study the problem and possible remedies. When Lord Browne of the super-major BP recognizes there is not only a problem, but then states that he intends to take action to reduce emissions, it can only be a matter of time before others follow his lead. Unless technology quickly fills the gap, higher energy prices seem almost inevitable.

Figure (Available in full paper)

Abundant marine life is typically found thriving around offshore platforms. Sport fishermen, diving enthusiasts, and nature lovers have strongly supported coastal state's rigs to reefs programs.
Saturation Diving - A Tool for Offshore Pipelining
Authors: Warren B.J. , Angel Thomas M. , Gray Roy
Published: October 2008

Saturation diving has been developed over the past several years as a useful method to allow divers to spend a significant amount of working time in deep water.

It is now practical for divers to work 6 to 8 hour shifts each day on the bottom in order to complete difficult and time consuming tasks. When the job is completed they can decompress slowly and return to the surface.

In a recent application six (6) divers accomplished the task of connecting five small flanged pipelines to a subsea wellhead in water over 340 feet deep. The job required 42 hours bottom time and was completed in five (5) days. Conventional techniques would have cost approximately four times as much, considering the cost of both diving and floating support equipment, and would have involved considerably greater risk to the safety of the divers.

Underwater pipeline welding is another excellent application of saturation diving due to the amount of time required for joint line-up, joint preparation and weld metal deposition.

In most diving projects which require several consecutive hours of working time in fairly deep water, saturation diving should be considered as a potentially economical method of performing the work.

Although somewhat sophisticated, saturation diving should no longer be considered as experimental. Saturation diving is a practical and economical commercial tool which is available NOW.

INTRODUCTION

As the oil industry ventures into deeper waters, there is an ever increasing need for man to perform useful work under the sea. Utilizing conventional, surface oriented diving techniques, divers must remain on the bottom shorter and shorter times as the depths increase. In addition to this shorter time, the deeper water makes each dive more expensive. It is apparent, therefore, that each minute spent on the bottom is costing the customer more money.

Since today's offshore diving industry exists primarily to service the oil and gas industry, competition, along with new technology, has brought us saturation diving. It is the intent of this paper to describe the general principles of saturation diving and to demonstrate that saturation diving is a proven, useful, and economical tool for the offshore oil and gas industry.

WHAT IS "SATURATION DIVING"?

The following is a brief explanation of the principles o£ saturation diving for those who are not familiar with the techniques:

Under normal atmospheric conditions, a man's system has certain amounts of inert gas absorbed his blood and tissues. This seldom causes problems as long as the surrounding pressure does not change appreciably.
Remote Sensing Techniques Used in Determining Changes In Coastlines
Authors: Herbich John B. , Hales Z. Lyndell
Published: October 2008

The capability of remote sensing techniques to detect the changes that occur incoastlines as a result of long-term climatologi cal phenomena or short-term events of meteorological significance such as hurricanes or other wave attack of-intense nature is examined.

The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey is changed with the responsibility of providing nautical charts and other navigational aids pertaining to the coast zone, but the tremendous amount of coastal area to be and the great expense involved. prohibits resurveys which would reveal all pertinent changes in the coastline and the coastal zone.

The use of remote sensing techniques activated from either the orbiting satellite or low-level aircraft offers possibilities for frequent, synoptic data collection which will reveal all significant changes which occur in the coastal area. This eliminates the need of waiting for regularly scheduled resurveys and also reveals all coastal literations at their occurrence.

Low-level aerial photography of the San Luis Pass area of the Texas Gulf Coast was used to supplement the configurations as revealed by the nautical charts. The periodic nautical charts obviously do not indicate all the changes that are shown by the photographs, and the addition of frequent coverage greatly enhances one's understanding of the phenomena.

Conventional aerial photography, either color or black and white, is shown to be an adequate sensor for detecting coastline changes. It is felt that the declassification of pertinent satellite coverage would eliminate dual surveys and provide for a more coordinated system for the use of remote sensing data.

INTRODUCTION

A nation's coastline is continuously subjected to the forces caused by ocean waves expending their energy on the beaches and shores. The concept of the "significant wave" is used in this study. This is a statistical term used to denote waves with the average height and period of the highest one-third of the waves in a given group. It has been found to approximate the number an experienced observer would report as the dominant wave after observing the sea surface. The significant wave height is also frequently used as a "design" wave in engineering problems.

The coastline, which is composed of definite size particles arranged in a predetermined distribution, will experience either destructive forces or rebuilding for depending on whether or not specific meterologicalconditions exist. Beach particle size must be considered, of course, but in general, material will be carried in the onshore direction if the deep-water wave steepness, Ho/Lo, is less than 0.025, where Ho is the deep-water height and Lo is the deep-water wave length. Material will be moved to an offshore position when Ho/Lo is greater than 0.025.
Resource Utilization and Coastal Zone Management
Authors: Moore J. Jamison
Published: October 2008

INTRODUCTION

The kaleidoscopic nature of the diversity of problems which we must face in the management of our national resources is readily apparent within the coastal zone. It is within this geographic area that we are focusing our efforts to gain some semblance of control over the rapidity of demographic and technological change which characterizes our present society.

COASTAL ZONE LEGISLATION

Current legislation, creating coastal zone authorities, is before Congress following the recommendations of the Marine Commission in its January, 1969, report "0ur Nati on and the Sea" (Chapter 3, pages 49 - 81 and 269 -270). Senators Magnusoh and Hart proposed that "itis the policy of Congress to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore the resources of the Nation's coastal zone through comprehensive and coordinated long-range planning and management ... II (Senate Bill No. 2802, 91st Congress, First Session.)

Federal programs are intended to empower and fund State commissions, agencies, or other governmental entities in an effort. designed to promote balanced development and produce the maximum benefit for society from such coastal areas." (ibid) Several States are structuring organizations to implement these programs and 'accommodate a wide variety of beneficial uses" through coastal land acquisition, master plans, zoning regulations, and development projects.

DIFFERENT NEEDS

The scope and nature of our coastal zone problems are different for each of the several States. In Alaska, the coastal zone provides logistical support for the interior development of the region. In certain other States, as in most underdeveloped countries of the world, the coastal zone may also contribute logistical support for the recovery or processing of offshore resources. The motivation is economic. The emphasis is on development. In California, there are internal, demographic, pressures against the coastal zone. Current emphasis is on conservation. Preservation of social amenities is the incentive.

However, this is too broad a generalization. California is also ranked seventh among the major powers in the world in gross national product. Some degree of industrial development within the coastal zone is inevitable and logistical support must be provided to maintain water-borne commerce. California has also taken a leading position in oceanography. The technology which permits recovery of offshore resources effectively extends California's economic potential beyond its geographic borders. Prohibitions or excessive taxes on the coastal investment marshalled to recover or process these resources, would redirect the value added or created to other jurisdictions - perhaps in closer proximity to the resource. The oceans lend themselves to this diverting approach more than does a similar form of operation on land.

It is also deceptive to think of the California coast line as a linear extension of a problem that is primarily centered within areas of metropolitan concentration.
Managing a Program of Drugs from the Sea
Authors: Abel Robert B.
Published: October 2008

Propositions for developing ocean resources have been advanced from many functional angles, including living and mineral resources, marine transportation, and aquatic recreation. None of these, however, possesses the potential for dramatic representation as does marine pharmacology, or, as it sometimes phrased, drugs from the sea.

The reason for this is fairly obvious. We live today in the era of "hard sell". Further, sales are made to a public which has shown itself to possess an astonishingly short span of attention. This means that the American buyer must constantly confront something new and different or his purchase impulse wanders.

Our marine science program competes for public attention with a NASA, which can keep 40 million eyes glued to a television set while someone opens a box of rocks. In this perspective marine science could double the world's food intake from the ocean, could discover new mineral lodes throughout all of the seven seas, and could develop techniques for restoring beaches quickly from offshore deposits. Allthis might rate a polite ho-hum in the press.

But let someone announce a sure-fire human tumor arrestor derived from the extract of a sea cucumber's stomach and he will achieve national prominence overnight. Under the circumstances, it :is probably a credit to the oceanographic community that everyone is not busy grinding up invertebrates in quest of some utopian elixer that will mark his name forever on the tablets of history.

In fact, as Ara Der Marderosian points out, the history of preparation of drugs from marine organisms goes back to biblical times which would indicate that more than a few people have worked in this area. He also mentions that thousands of marine organisms are known or thought to contain biotoxic substances; yet fewer than 1 percent of these have been examined for biological activity. Of even these few dozens, fewer than six had been evaluated at the time of Der Marderosian's writing to the point where the chemical and biological characteristics were completely determined.

Based on these few simple determinants, it would seem likely that this country is ripe for. a great new surge of experimental effort in marine pharmacology a fascinating area of science. What this small but vociferous community of scientists must understand, however, is that marine pharmacology occupies but a small sector of marine science and a small. sector of pharmacology. In turn, pharmacology and marine science are but small sections in the frontiers of American science. What is needed, therefore, is some new form of collective promotion and of scientific. effort to provide a sort of technological acceleration to this field.
A Telemetry System for Data Acquisition and Computation of Offshore Well Logs
Authors: Williams J.A. , Gunter J.M.
Published: October 2008

Abstract The entire offshore oil province of Louisiana is now within reliable FM radio coverage of a time proven system for digital log-data acquisition at the well site, transmission of these data to a 24-hour facility in New Orleans, and their conversion by a computer into a Synergetic Log. Duplicates of the basic logs are available immediately. This system offers to the offshore operator the obvious advantage of not having to send professional personnel to the rig to examine the logs for the purpose of making decisions on the well. It enables every level of management to participate in vital decisions regarding future well operations, testing, or further evaluation of the prospect. It has proved to be particularly beneficial in allowing partners to examine basic logs or computed results before making a commitment.

Since the DART system's inception several years ago, all equipment involved has been completely reengineered. The hardware consists of well site incremental tape recorder and transmitting equipment capable of modulating a FM radio link direct to a shore based receiver. Transmissions from the more distant locations are sent via an offshore repeater link which keys one of the shore-based stations. These radio towers are connected via a conventional leased telephone line to receiving equipment in downtown New Orleans where a duplicate magnetic tape is produced within minutes after the logging run in the Gulf of Mexico. This tape can be used to generate a duplicate optical log, or it can be transmitted via phone to another station (such as Houston), or it can be used by the Computing Center to produce a Synergetic Log.

The system has a reliability factor to date of 98%. This is based on 575 transmissions of both open- and cased-hole operations.

Introduction

Since the first system to transmit well logs by radio from offshore platforms became operation in the latter part of 19641, the entire telemetry system and the data acquisition components have been completely re-engineered. An acronym "DART" (Digital Automatic Receiving and Transmitting) is used to designate the system.

During the active offshore development phase of the late sixties, oil companies were faced with a critical shortage of trained personnel to witness logging runs in the Gulf and to recommend decisions on the well based on their observations. Often, their geologists or engineers were tied up for much as a week due to weather, transportation problems, or adverse hole conditions. A more efficient system was needed to make vital well logs available at decision making points at the company's office in New Orleans or other cities.

Basically, the method employed to solve the problem was to expand an existing data transmission system by which well logs recorded offshore on magnetic tape could be transmitted to a receiver on shore.
A Low-Cost, True General-Purpose Telemetry System
Authors: Larson Roy
Published: October 2008

The following discussion will detail a new development in radio frequency telemetry systems. Rather than attempt to modify any existing aerospace-type high-speed telemetry systems to meet the typical requirements of industrial and offshore data transmission, it was decided by R-c Associates that a complete re-evaluation of the needs of these industries would result in a far less costly, and better suited type of system. It is felt that the results of these efforts offer an important and attractive method of data gathering and telemetering for monitoring and control functions than has been available previously.

Introduction

For a great variety of reasons, increased information on many of the aspects of industrial and offshore operations is suddenly becoming highly significant. Among these reasons are increased economy of operation, ecological and pollution control considerations, and tightening governmental regulations concerning the ability of these sites to leave the environment unaffected by their presence. In most cases, these functions can be handled by either on-site personnel, or, if the facility is reasonably close, through the use of wires or cables. However, as these sites become more remote, the cost of wire and cable installation becomes high, and RF telemetry begins to offer itself as an attractive alternative.

R-CAssociates has recognized this need and also the corresponding fact that very few, if any, low-cost RF systems have been available to fulfill these functions. It was with these facts that the family of systems here described was developed. The basic requirement was to design and produce a system inherently flexible as to the types of inputs and number of channels that could be accommodated, RF frequency allocations and regulations, and packaging for less than ideal environments. Following is a brief synopsis of the development of RF telemetry. It is felt that this will assist in showing how the need for the present system developed.

A Brief Review Of Telemetry

In order to define the present need for the system under discussion, it will be helpful to take a brief historical look at the over-all development of RF telemetry. It can be safely stated that the prime mover behind almost all telemetry development has been the aerospace industry and the military. Starting in the late 1940's and early 1950's with the early missile programs, it. became obvious that some means of transmitting data on the internal functions of a missile or rocket was necessary. Without some type of information on the internal behavior of these missiles, no orderly development would have been possible.

The first systems were crude by present day standards, primarily because of the fact that the transistor had not yet made its appearance.
Development of Dynamic Positioning for IHC Drill Ship
Authors: Sjouke John , Lagers George
Published: October 2008

This paper deals with the development of the dynamic positioning equipment for the drillship which is now under construction at a yard of I.H.C. Holland and which is expected to enter world-wide service by December 1971. The paper describes the philosophy of the design, the main components of the system and the results of model tests and their impact on the development of the control system.

Preliminary conclusions are given with respect to performance in relation to water-depth.

Introduction

The constantly increasing demand for oil has for a considerable time now focussed the attention of oil companies and contractors to offshore exploration and exploitation.

Step by step the operations are moving farther and farther offshore, entering deeper water. In this progress the designers of equipment have to work in close co-operation with the people in the field arid the theorists, for optimum adaptation of their equipment to the state of art and the demands of the operators. One very specific requirement for all offshore drilling equipment is that the equipment, ship or platform, barge or semi-submersible, should be capable of retaining a stationary position at sea. This requirement is often supplemented by the requirement of great mobility, so as to minimize the loss of time between two drillings.

These two requirements, coupled with the requirement of world-wide service in water-depths ranging between 50 and 300 metres and over, have led to the design of the drill-ship "PELICAN", which is at present under construction at one of the yards of I.H.C. Holland in the Netherlands.

The ship is being built for the French offshore contractor Somaser, a company which was founded 1t years ago by Foramer, CNP and Doris. The principal dimensions of the ship are as follows:Overall length149.32mBreadth21.35mDraught7.32mDepth 12.50mDisplacement 15420 tonTrial speed14 knotsInstalled power17000 h.p.

The outline of the ship is given in fig. 1.

Among the numerous applications of modern developments on board of this ship, the most outstanding feature is the dynamic positioning system.

What is Dynamic Positioning?

Dynamic Positioning is the technique of maintaining the position of a vessel, barge or floating platform by means of thrust.

A craft equipped with a D.P. system is independent of anchors or other conventional aids for remaining stationary in open water. Instead, it employs -in addition to apparatus for measuring its position with a high degree of accuracy-propellers capable of exerting thrust in controlled directions and a system for activating propellers to rectify deviations from a predetermined position. The underlying principle is not new of course. It has earlier counterparts in automatic pilots which maintain course as opposed to P9sition, and in the depth keeping systems of submarines.
Challenges Facing Contractors in the Brazil Offshore Market
Authors: Bobb Francis J. , Veirano Ronaldo Camargo
Published: October 2008

This paper identifies and presents some of the key challenges facing established contractors providing hardware to the Brazil offshore market. The list of challenges or issues was developed by a survey and follow up interviews with established leading companies in this market. While some issues are not new, the arrival of approximately forty (40) new players in a market historically dominated by one customer, has raised additional challenges. The paper will provide a brief overview of the challenges, and offer some feedback to mitigate costs and / or time loss. The offshore Brazil market continues to offer great opportunities for local industry, and an awareness of potential issues along with pre-planning will help improve the chance of success. In summary, all respondents identified the complexity and interpretation of the tax codes as the biggest challenge. At the center is the current imbalance of ICMS tax that local industry must charge in the range of 8.8 % to 18 % versus foreign imported goods at 0%. As of this writing new law (Law Edmilson) will go into effect on June 30, 2003, and will apply ICMS on all assets imported to the State of Rio de Janeiro.

Introduction

The Brazil market continues to present good opportunities for contractors with Petrobras planning capital expenditures of U.S. ﹩31.7 billion from 2001 to 2005. Forty Seven percent (47%) of that is directed to E&P. Sourcing between seventy five percent (75%) and eighty percent (80%) locally, Petrobras has been the key driver behind developing a local industry with a support network of universities, engineering houses, and CENPES (Petrobras' Research and Development Center). Together, the local industry and Petrobras have gained a wealth of offshore experience as witnessed by both the number of subsea tree completions and the series of world record water depths. Since installing the first Wet Christmas Tree (subsea tree) in 1978, Petrobras has installed four hundred and twenty six (426) through mid 2002. Looking ahead, they plan to install one hundred and thirty seven (137) subsea trees over 2002 and 2003. In addition the new entrants into the offshore Brazil market are at various stages of their blocks from round 0 (1998) to round 4 (2002). A lot of activity and change have occurred in a very short time. With that in mind, a survey of established local companies was taken to identify the key challenges they face in the Brazil offshore market. Respondents were asked to list the top challenges they face in ranked order. Following are challenges they listed in order of frequency:Table of Challenge/Issue and % issue appeared on responses (available in full paper)

The purpose of this paper is to provide some background onthe key challenges local contractors face. What is important to note is the issues can be mitigated with some thoughtful preplanning. Not covered in the paper are other issues raised by some of the respondents that fell below the average above:Other issues (available in full paper)
Technology Commercialization; Trends and Strategies for Funding E&P Technology
Authors: Schroeder Art J. , Warga Arthur
Published: October 2008

This set of speaker notes introduces the subject, which is the topic of a panel discussion for the 2003 Offshore Technology Conference. Participants include:Mr. Matt Simons; CEO, Simmons InternationalMr. Allen Parks; Executive Director, Oilfield Service Investment Banking, CIBC World MarketsMr. Satish Pai, Vice President, Oilfield Technology, SchlumbergerMr. Ricardo Rodriguez, Director of Investments, Shell Technology Ventures, Inc.Ms. Elena Melchert, Offshore Technology Development Program Manager, United States Department of Energy (DOE)Dr. Gérard Friès; Executive Vice President, Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP)Mr. Morten Wiencke; Program Director, Demo 2000

Introduction

A secure world economy depends upon reliable access to reasonably priced energy. Achieving this objective requires a consistent and steady amount of slight 'over-supply'. Considering the world's seemingly insatiable and growing thirst for energy, a clear challenge exists. Global oil consumption in 1970 was 46 million barrels per day. In 2001 according to the United States Department of Energy's Energy Information Agency it was 76 million per day. According to results published by Cambridge Energy Research Associates in their -Global Oil Trends 2002- report, by 2031 the demand will exceed 120 million per day. From where will these barrels come? While alternate energy sources may hold hope for the future, clearly fossil fuels will be important for many years.

Technology innovation and application has played a critical role in not only finding these additional resources, but for the last several decades has been doing so in an ever more efficient manner. However, the industry structure and corporate strategies that delivered these past results has changed markedly, with budgets for both funds and people being slashed. Duplication and overlap in research programs and piece-meal projects that don't provide end - to - end solutions continue to hamper efficiencies. Prolonged product development cycles (from innovation to meaningful market penetration) for ExP technologies significantly lag other industries. Reports by Simmons & Company, International and others show that investors in both energy operating companies as well as services companies have not in most cases even earned their cost of capital.

Generally these technologies are conceived, implemented and funded within the private sector. However, some governments are working in partnership with the private sector to ensure there are real opportunities for technologies to make the difficult transition from laboratory to market. Governments are motivated to assist not only because they have a responsibility for the pursuit of long-term societal stability and stewardship of the environment, but also because they understand that their policies help to determine whether markets develop and operate efficiently.

The panel will examine these issues and discuss strategies and new models of cooperation to help fund and commercialize technologies that can make a difference.
Calculating a -Rule of Thumb- - Unloading a Well
Authors: Watson Robert , Graham Reuben
Published: October 2008

For many years, air drillers have unloaded liquids from the hole prior to drilling out on air or gas. Generally, the operation takes place after cementing the casing and before using air or gas (dry, mist or foam) as a drilling media. This operation normally takes place using "seat of the pants" practices and/or experience.

The technique consists of injecting a small amount of air/gas into the liquid to lighten the hydrostatic liquid column. As the lighter fluid goes around the bit and starts up the annulus, the bottom hole pressure decreases. As the bottom hole pressure decreases, increase the air/gas injection and reduce the liquid injection until pumping only air/gas and the well is unloaded. Because of the compressible nature of the gaseous fraction, calculations are involved that are generally not adaptable for use with hand held calculators.

Recently, the efforts of Dr. Robert Watson (Penn StateUniversity) and the author, Reuben Graham (Reuben L, Graham, Inc.), yielded an engineered-process that enables these calculations without resorting to a -Black Box Calculation- approach. Fundamental to the calculation is a compressible fluid drilling program, which takes into consideration temperature, pressure, friction, and the compressibility -Z- factors for circulating fluids in turbulent flow. The authorâ??s model utilizes a -timed- macro and an approximating technique to generate the standpipe pressure, segregates the fluid slugs into five discrete intervals by depth (#1 through #5) and generates a bottom hole pressure versus time chart and table.

Included, are examples of wells (ranging in depth from 10,000 to 20,000-feet) that utilize various liquid-pump rates and methods (i.e. mud pump, mist pump and pump truck). The reader can reproduce the starting point calculation for any well using the examples provided.

Objective

The purpose of this paper is to give a methodology that can be used to unload any well from bottom. This process should save considerable time and money as compared to other ways of achieving the result. While the proprietary equations used in the authorâ??s model are not disclosed, the standard equations for making such a calculation are shown below:Basic correction for temperature and pressure to gas VolumesBasic equation for volume of gas to run at startBasic calculation of friction from flow in compressible gasified systems

The "U" tube principle (different densities plus applied pressure equates to equilibrium) and the resultant frictional effects are the main mathematics involved. Intuitively, given enough pressure, wells full of liquid could be unloaded by simply applying gas pressure and displacing the liquid. The downside of this approach includes handling the kick at surface and the cost of the pressure source. Typically, for underbalanced wells, the compressors and mist pump are on site and consequentially, there is no incremental cost for their use.
Development Program for Ekofisk Field - Offshore Norway
Authors: Jobin T.J.
Published: October 2008

The Phillips Group discovered the Ekofisk field on the Norwegian Continental Shelf of the North Sea with the drilling of the Ekofisk IAX late 1969. Three step out wells were drilled for confirmation and further geophysical, geological and reservoir information. Concurrent with the drilling of the later wells, plans were formulated and augmented for the development of the field.

The development program consists of a series of phases, each one being a continuation of the previous one, but with each phase having a definitive purpose in itself. Phase I is the test phase wherein the four original Ekofisk wells are produced by sub-sea wellhead equipment, temporary. producing facilities and S.P.M. tanker loading facilities. Its primary purpose is to obtain longer term production history, additional reservoir information and early operational experience. Phase II is the fabrication, erection and installation of permanent drilling and producing facilities. It consists of three drilling platforms, a production platform, compressor equipment for reservoir pressure maintenance, underwater storage and the repiping of loading facilities. Its purpose is the initiation and fulfilment of permanent producing facilities for the early and rapid build-up of production to the fields potential of 300,000 barrels of oil per day. Subsequent phases consist of a gas pipeline, a possible crude oil pipeline, onshore facilities, and the tying in of other fields in the vicinity of the Ekofisk field.

A number of problems have been encountered to date with respect to timing and scheduling. The most serious problem has been the weather.

Introduction

The Phillips Group, comprised of Phillips Petroleum Company Norway, Norske Fina, Norske AGIP and Elf Norge Group, discovered the Ekofisk field in September 1969. The Ekofisk No. lAX topped the Danian Limestone at about 10,000 feet. Continual drilling and accompanying excellent shows revealed an oil saturated section of about 700 feet. Definitive tests were incomplete because of the limited capacity of the test equipment on the rig. Also the weather was so adverse at the time that it would have been extremely hazardous to conduct the extensive testing that was necessary. However, enough information was obtained to indicate that the Phillips Group had an excellent discovery.

After this first well, three step out wells were drilled for additional reservoir, geological and geophysical information. These wells confirmed that the first important oil discovery in the North Sea had been made. Figure No.1 was taken during one of the early tests. Present indications are that it is the largest oil field found in Western Europe to date.

The Ekofisk field is located on the Norwegian Continental Shelf adjacent to the median line separating Norwegian and U.K. waters.
The Impact of Compressed Natural Gas Shipping upon Offshore Gas Development
Authors: White Charles , Grossweiler Phil , Ha Jae Keun , Naokawa Shigeru , McClure Scott
Published: October 2008

This paper introduces the marine gas transport technology under development by EnerSea Transport LLC as it is being incorporated in a new ship concept. The new Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) transport system and ship design have global applicability and allow a new perspective on remote offshore oil and gas development. The paper explains how key considerations and challenges have been reflected in the design of the new ship and how that new gas ship concept opens a new world of maritime and offshore field development opportunities.

Introduction

Industry is beginning to recognize that technology allowing marine transport of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) provides flexibility that changes the economics for marginal fields. This is especially true for gas fields in ultra-deep waters or locations remote from suitable markets. A new solution for handling, storing, and transporting gas is making many operators appreciate the breakthrough potential for marine CNG as a means to commercialize stranded gas in remote reservoirs around the world. A new class of ocean-going vessels and gas handling facilities will play key roles.

Through its Maritime Work Program, EnerSea Transport LLC and its strategic partners have developed an advanced ship design employing the proprietary Volume Optimized TRANsport and Storage (VOTRANS?) gas handling concepts. EnerSea Transport selected the world's leading maritime companies and a top energy company to form a team of unmatched engineering and project development capabilities. The leadership of EnerSea's team includes Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha, Ltd ("K"-Line) and Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI) with strong professional support from Paragon Engineering Services Inc., the naval architects of Alan C. McClure Associates Inc., and ABS Consulting. This team has worked together with the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) over the past year to create and verify a safe, practical ship design that provides the basis for launching the world's first fleet for CNG marine transport, opening the way for a new maritime energy transport industry.

CNG marine transport allows emerging, energy-hungry markets around the globe to access gas reserves that would otherwise remain stranded. As compared to other solutions for de-stranding of gas reserves (LNG & GTL technologies), the shipping of CNG offers a solution that significantly limits the wastage of gas resources that are needed in the emerging markets and the amount of captive investment required of operators. Such value-adding features make this breakthrough technology and the new class of ships attractive to gas and power players on a global scale.
Saipem 10000 - Deepwater Salvage Operation
Authors: Cesaroni R. , Potter P.A.
Published: October 2008

This paper provides a detailed account of the successful salvage operation aboard the Saipem 10000 through the months of September, October and November, 2001.

The target of this operation was the recovery of a Subsea Blowout Preventer Stack which was buried below the sedimentary mudline in 6673 feet of water depth. (2034 metres)

The salvage operation involved the Saipem 10000 for 56 days. The equipment and human resources used in the operation were predominantly belonging to the Saipem Group.

Wherever applicable, the contribution of external resources is acknowledged.

The loss of the Subsea system was the result of a hoist system failure and occurred at the completion of an exploratory well drilled by Total Fina Elf (TFE) offshore Equatorial Guinea. The hook weight at the time of the loss was 575 metric tonnes. The associated marine riser string was also lost to the sea.

Innovative techniques, many empirical by nature, were used during the salvage operation. The success of methods used was achieved thanks to repetitive trial and error. Persistence paid off and two separate world records were broken during the salvage operation.

One record was set for the water depth in which high torque hydraulic tooling was used to disconnect the joints of a marine drilling riser.

The other record, since then broken by 151 feet, was the water depth from which the Blowout Preventer Stack (BOP) was retrieved.

Introduction and Background

The Saipem 10000 is an ultra deepwater drillship which can operate in water depths of 10 000 feet, has a Class III Dynamic Positioning system which allows it to keep its position at all times and a drilling capability which extends to 30 000 feet from the Rotary Kelly Bushings (RKB)

Its functions include: Drilling Activities Extended Well Testing Early Production Crude Oil Storage (140 000 Bbls) Crude Oil Export Well Completion Activities Figure (Available in full paper) The topsides drilling equipment package is outfitted with the latest integrated control and management systems and two drill centres, configured 'A' and 'B' are installed within a single derrick structure with the following specifications:-

Type: Dynamic Base Dimensions: 80 × 60 feet Top Dimensions: 60 × 20 feet Height: 200 feet Static Hook Load: 2 000 000 lbs per rig. Rated Maximum: 5 000 000 lbs The supplementary rig centre, located foremost, provides facilities for riserless drilling and other activities that require a full hoist system without riser and diverter capabilities.

The main rig centre, located aft, is a fully equipped riser drill centre.

The simultaneous setback and hook load for the substructure of each rig floor is 2 600 000 lbs.

The mud system has been designed such that cross connections exist between the two drill centres to maximize flexibility of operations involving drilling fluids.
Overview of the Canyon Express project, business challenges and "industry firsts"
Authors: Rijkens Frederik , Allen Marcus , Hassold Thomas
Published: October 2008

The paper presents an overview of the Canyon Express project, with the "industry firsts" and some of the pitfalls encountered in project execution. The project is the first of a new kind of joint development that allows otherwise un-economic fields to be developed profitably, thanks to subsea multiphase metering and unprecedented cooperation between field owners. The paper then describes how the business challenges were met to create a novel business structure between the owners of the three fields that participate in the Canyon Express development.

Figure 1 depicts the progression in the deep water frontier immediately proceeding Canyon Express. Canyon Express is the world's deepest development at 7200 ft/2200 m. water depth, with a record flowrate for subsea tieback at 500 MMSCF/d, and takes commingled flow from three fields with different owners, Operators and royalty obligations.

Introduction:

By Fall of 1999, three neighboring and moderate size gas discoveries had been made in water depths up to 7200 ft. in the Mississippi and Desoto Canyon areas of the US Gulf of Mexico, located approximately 150 miles southeast of New Orleans.

These discoveries are owned by different joint ventures, operated by TotalFinaElf, BP and Marathon respectively for the Aconcagua, King's Peak and Camden Hills fields. The two remaining Working Interest Owners are Nippon with ownership in Aconcagua and Pioneer Natural Resources with ownership in Aconcagua and Camden Hills. All five Working Interest Owners (WIOs) became owners in the TotalFinaElf operated Canyon Express (CE).

The size of the fields did not justify stand-alone development, in view of the water depth and the distance of some 50 miles to existing facilities. If combined in one development, however, the sharing of costs and risks while combining the reserves of the three fields would allow favorable overall project economics. The success of the Project then became dependent on each component (Individually operated Fields, Shared Canyon Express subsea infrastructure and third party Canyon Station production processing) being incorporated physically and commercially into one venture, which has become known as the Canyon Express Project. Major challenges of the Project were:Agreement on a novel business structure to share in a subsea system infrastructure (common flowline and control system), while field Operators retained risk and responsibility for the wellsAgreement on the decline of system pressure over time and the sharing of declining system capacityThe need for deepwater multiphase wet gas metering for fiscal allocation, because of subsea comminglingThe technical challenges of installing and operating a long tieback in world record water depth of 7200 ft.The coordination and system integration of a third-party processing facility for Canyon Express production.The need for intelligent well technology for the completions to produce from two zones in record ater depth