bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Competition Can Enhance Motivation—But Typically Undermines It
Authors: Reeve Johnmarshall
Published: January 2023

Competition means “beat the other.” As an environmental event, competition offers a curious mix of attractive and exciting versus pressuring and demoralizing aspects. In competition, there is something to gain, such as an optimal challenge and a goal to strive for, but also something to fear, such as evaluative pressure, poor sportspersonship, and ruptured relationships. Thus, competition is a complex social event that features numerous motivational crosscurrents. Competition can be motivationally constructive—when offered in an informational, needs-supportive, and intrinsic motivation-friendly way, but competition can also be motivationally destructive—when offered in a pressuring, needs-thwarting, ego-involving, and extrinsic motivation-promoting way.
The Unconscious Sources of Motivation and Goals
Authors: Bargh John A. , Gollwitzer Peter M.
Published: January 2023

Motivational systems are present in all animals, even in the tiniest one-cell paramecia. With few exceptions, these systems operate largely unconsciously and mechanically in response to external threats and opportunities and to internal need states such as food and warmth. People possess these unconscious motivational guides, but we also possess the marvelous capacity to consciously choose and plan behavior in strategic ways. Goals and motives operate in both conscious and unconscious modes, and they use the same underlying brain regions and produce the same behavioral effects. Contemporary research on planning, implementation intentions, and the development of habits shows how people gain greater control over their often unconscious motivational states.
The Uneasy Relationship Between Conscious and Non-Conscious Motivation
Authors: Urdan Tim
Published: January 2023

We all want to believe that we are in control of our decisions and behaviors, but psychologists have long understood that non-conscious processes have a strong influence on our behavior. As we learn more about how the brain works, we gain a better understanding about how unconscious neural processes often motivate our behavior. This essay explores how these two different kinds of motivation—conscious and non-conscious—work together to affect our behavior and our explanations for our behavior. Conscious constructs like goals, beliefs, and attitudes sometimes complement neural process to motivate behavior. At other times, conscious and non-conscious processes contradict each other (e.g., some addictive behaviors). Awareness of non-conscious processes allows for greater understanding and control over our behavior.
Are Cognition, Motivation, and Emotion the Same or Different?
Authors: Murayama Kou
Published: January 2023

It is a popular idea to divide psychological processes into cognition, emotion, and motivation. However, these categorizations existed long before researchers started scientific investigations. As such, there is no logical reason to believe that these categories exist a priori. Instead, researchers should focus on the psychological and neural processes that underlie human decision-making without being constrained by these naïve categories. A reward-learning framework of autonomous knowledge acquisition illustrates such a new direction. The categories of cognition, emotion, and motivation are useful and have some practical values, but to reach a comprehensive and integrative understanding of human functioning, researchers should forget about these categories.
Understanding Motivation
Authors: Urdan Tim
Published: January 2023

Four big questions in motivation science have yet to be adequately answered. First, what are some of the cultural and ethnic differences in the meaning and function of motivation constructs? Second, how do characteristics of individuals (e.g., personality, beliefs, attitudes, abilities) combine with factors in the environment to affect motivation? Third, how will advances in brain imaging technology influence our understanding of the neurological influences on motivated behavior? And, fourth, how can we take advantage of all of the data being collected from people to gain a better understanding of how what people say (i.e., their beliefs) relates to what people actually do (i.e., their behavior)?
Is There a Need for Psychological Needs in Theories of Achievement Motivation?
Authors: Wigfield Allan , Koenka Alison C.
Published: January 2023

Some motivation theories consider psychological needs to be central explanatory constructs. Two current need-based theories of motivation include self-determination theory and the unified theory of motivation, personality, and development. However, other motivation theories do not include psychological needs, and it is not clear if these motivation theories would gain greater explanatory power by adding the need construct to their frameworks. As the authors of this essay explain, this disagreement raises key questions, such as whether needs are universal, how many needs there are, and does the inclusion of these needs actually improve our understanding of human motivation and action?
You Can Motivate Others by Nurturing Five Experiences That Satisfy Their Need for Autonomy
Authors: Assor Avi , Benita Moti , Geifman Yael
Published: January 2023

Autonomy is a meta-need for authentic self-direction. With autonomy, people self-direct their behavior via voluntary and intrinsic, explicit, and articulable preferences. These authentic preferences enable people to do what they truly want to do, thereby promoting a sense of volitional engagement, well-being, meaning, and resistance to antisocial peer pressure. This meta-need for autonomy has five facets: freedom from coercion; having voluntary and explicit action-intentions; a sense of having an authentic inner compass; realization of authentic preferences; and attempts to realize authentic preferences. One important way to motivate others is by cultivating these five experiences that satisfy their need for autonomy. The authors focus on one recently conceptualized experience of autonomy—having an authentic inner compass—and present important motivational, coping, and well-being correlates and outcomes of this experience.
Infatuation with Constructs and Losing Sight of the Motivational Phenomenon
Authors: Kaplan Avi
Published: January 2023

Explaining motivational phenomena involves explaining why a person chooses one particular action over another, persists or quits the action, engages in that action in a particular way and with a particular level of intensity, and the proximal and distal consequences of that action. To do this, much of motivation science focuses on defining constructs, numerically and statistically measuring them, and investigating their unique correlates. These efforts offer precision, but they also produce a literature that is detached from authentic motivational phenomena. Motivational researchers’ infatuation with constructs and with aggregate linear statistical analyses has led to losing sight of the nature of the authentic motivational phenomena that comprise the numerous and overlapping factors and processes that are intertwined in ways that are contextual, complex, dynamic, and not fully predictable. Addressing this foundational limitation has ontological, epistemological, methodological, practical, and even moral implications.
Digitization Will Bring Profound Changes in Educational Practice and Research on Motivation
Authors: Trautwein Ulrich , Nagengast Benjamin
Published: January 2023

Digitization has the potential to change the way students learn in fundamental ways. However, basic and applied research is required to make digital learning (more) effective. In the meantime, research on digital learning can contribute to progress in theories of learning and instruction. For instance, the integrated use of digital media as classroom instruction and research tools allows researchers to “zoom in” at the moment in which learning takes place in the real world in an unprecedented way. To be more successful, motivation science needs to embrace digitization and expand its traditional scope to focus more strongly on learning sequences, fully embrace the important role of teachers, and pay increased attention to ethical questions.
Motivation in the Wild
Authors: Skinner Ellen A. , Kindermann Thomas A. , Vollet Justin W. , Rickert Nicolette P.
Published: January 2023

Among the many factors that shape academic motivation and engagement, the interpersonal relationships that students share with their parents, teachers, and peers are central. The contributions of each of these social partners have been clearly documented, but they tend to be studied separately. The growing view is that students are operating within a changing multilevel social world in which peer, teacher, and parent relationships work together to create a complex social ecology. Over the next 10 years, such a paradigm shift to highlight relationships would enrich the study of motivational development and guide interventions designed to foster social systems that better support student motivation and development.
Where and Why Liberalism and Nativism Have Become Entwined
Authors: Duyvendak Jan Willem , Kešić Josip , Stacey Timothy
Published: January 2023

This chapter deals with two questions: In what sense has nativism returned to liberal settings? and why? It is argued that notwithstanding the oft assumed polarity in theory, in practice nativism and liberalism have become complexly entwined. The chapter mostly focuses on the Netherlands as an improbable case of nativism, given its assumed multicultural (no), tolerant (not anymore), progressive (yes) character. It is shown that in this “liberal” country par excellence, nativism has returned to public discourse in full force. Two more national contexts figure prominently because they are also considered improbable settings for the rise of nativism: the United States and France. What can be learned from these improbable cases? Why are the jus soli tradition in both France and the United States and the additional dimension in the United States of being an immigration country not safeguards against the rise of nativism?
Introduction
Authors: Cain Emily R.
Published: January 2023

The introduction establishes that vision is subjective, and writings on vision reveal some of the most self-conscious ways that authors think about themselves, their worlds, and their God. It sets up the four late ancient authors at the center of this book’s study—Tertullian of Carthage, Clement of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, and Augustine of Hippo—to show how they employ language of vision and of mirrors in their discursive struggles to construct Christian agency, identity, and epistemology. Drawing from metaphor theory and discourse analysis, the introduction argues that these texts do not offer clear views into historical realities; rather, they offer a glance into the rhetorically constructed worlds of their authors, and these rhetorical worlds assert their definitions of Christian identity against other communities or offer their unique claims on knowledge.
“Now We See”
Authors: Cain Emily R.
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines the historical background of vision through early philosophical, medical, mathematical, and scriptural texts, showing that ancient writing about vision is tied to epistemological debates about the nature of knowledge and agency. Furthermore, the earliest roots of the scriptural traditions tie vision to spiritual identity, offering a link between vision and one’s relationship to the divine. It is precisely because we all see the world differently that vision becomes a locus for epistemological debate, and it is also this subjective nature of vision that, in turn, becomes a way to describe the subjective experience of the divine.
Tertullian of Carthage
Authors: Cain Emily R.
Published: January 2023

Tertullian of Carthage uses the Stoic and Epicurean theories of vision to construct a hierarchy in terms of bodily intactness and penetrability: God sees with Stoic rays and remains intact against harmful sights, while humans see by means of Epicurean intromission and are penetrated and transformed by harmful sights. The further up the hierarchy, the more intact and ray-like, but the further down the hierarchy, the more porous and penetrable. Tertullian proposes a prescription for Christian vision that is grounded in embodied difference along his understanding of gendered bodies. We see the world differently, and through these visual theories, Tertullian offers his rationale for that difference as well as his prescription for visual piety of beards and veils.
Clement of Alexandria
Authors: Cain Emily R.
Published: January 2023

Clement of Alexandria offers the metaphor that baptism is like cataract surgery that enables the recipient to see God, and he uses visual perception to describe the transformation and new identity of the baptized Christian. The ways that Clement describes sight, both physical and spiritual, demonstrates an embodied shift in identity and epistemology available through baptism, which he links to the medical metaphor of cataract surgery. Baptism unites the agency of the individual to undergo the physical baptism with the spiritual cataract surgery performed by the divine ophthalmologist to transform the individual from a state of spiritual blindness to one of clear sight. In doing so, Clement’s depiction of spiritual vision ties together conversion, baptism, and growth with the threads of agency, identity, and epistemology.
“Through a Mirror”
Authors: Cain Emily R.
Published: January 2023

Mirrors and reflection are fraught with meaning, splitting the gaze between the self and the other, and reflection is never neutral. On the positive side, mirrors reveal hidden things, filter images that are too strong, serve as a means of self-reflection and self-improvement, and offer a glimpse or a path into the other world. On the negative side, they offer distorted knowledge, serve as a means of self-corruption, function as weapons, and can even be traps. This chapter follows these twin paths through science, through literature, through scripture, and finally through Plotinus to show the development of this metaphorical mirror as it becomes the basis for the contemplative vision of God.
“In an Enigma”
Authors: Cain Emily R.
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines the patterns that have emerged from the study to reveal both the shared and the diverging assumptions about one’s relationship to the world and to God through vision’s link to the intersecting threads of agency, identity, and epistemology. Each author enters this discourse from a unique context and with a particular set of assumptions to describe the human in relation to the world and to the divine, but each engages the shared project of a discursive struggle over claims of Christian identity, authority, and epistemology through philosophical and theological speculations of vision of God. First, the visual metaphor develops chronologically, starting with literal vision and moving to metaphorical vision before branching into a more complicated collection of visual metaphors. Second, along similar lines, writing about vision shifts from direct vision (i.e., How can Christians see God?) to indirect or mirrored vision (i.e., In what kinds of reflections can Christians glimpse God?). Third, writing on vision begins by emphasizing one’s difference from the world and then moves to describing one’s connection to God. In each case, writing about vision and mirrors reveals deeper assumptions about the subjective nature of one’s location in the world and one’s relationship to God. Finally, another pattern emerges geographically, across Eastern and Western authors, which maps onto diverging assumptions about the nature of enigma.
Insecure Guardians
Authors: Waseem Zoha
Published: January 2023

The police force is one of the most distrusted institutions in Pakistan, notorious for its corruption and brutality. In both colonial and post-colonial contexts, directives to confront security threats have empowered law enforcement agents, while the lack of adequate reform has upheld institutional weaknesses. This exploration of policing in Karachi, Pakistan's largest city and financial capital, reveals many colonial continuities. Both civilian and military regimes continue to ensure the suppression of the policed via this institution, itself established to militarily subjugate and exploit in the interests of the ruling class. However, contemporary policing practice is not a simple product of its colonial heritage: it has also evolved to confront new challenges and political realities. Based on extensive fieldwork and around 200 interviews, this ethnographic study reveals a distinctly "post-colonial condition of policing". Mutually reinforcing phenomena of militarisation and informality have been exacerbated by an insecure state that routinely conflates combatting crime, maintaining public order, and ensuring national security. This is evident not only in spectacular displays of violence and malpractice, but also in police officers' routine work. Caught in the middle of the country's armed conflicts, their encounters with both state and society are a story of insecurity and uncertainty.
Introduction
Authors: Waseem Zoha
Published: January 2023

This chapter introduces the complex story of policing in Karachi and offers a unique framework of the "post-colonial condition of policing" for understanding policing and policework in Pakistan and beyond. It suggests that routine policework in cities such as Karachi is impacted by the post-colonial condition of policing, in which security threats by insecure regimes are framed in particular ways towards political and economic ends, leading everyday policing to be characterized by militarization and procedural informality. In this chapter, the characteristics of the post-colonial condition of policing are defined and assembled, connecting both the institution's colonial legacies and its contemporary socio-political relationships and realities. This chapter also reflects upon the book's methodological design and considerations.
Beyond the Grey Lines
Authors: Waseem Zoha
Published: January 2023

This chapter looks at the external forces, variables, and institutions that influence policework and practice from the "outside", such as political interference, patronage, judicial oversight, the media, as well as private entities who partner with the police.
Epilogue
Authors: Charlton-Stevens Uther
Published: January 2023

Frank Anthony opposed Partition at the Sapru Committee, predicting fanaticism and war. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–8 erupted within months of independence. Although darker-skinned individuals were barred from Royal Air Force/RAF flight crews, many Anglo-Indians joined. Contrastingly, the nascent Indian Air Force/IAF offered flight training and entry at officer level. Therefore, pilots like Wing Commander Trevor Keelor, and his brother, future Air Marshal Denzil Keelor, were immediately ready for the First Kashmir War, being the first pair of brothers to receive the Vir Chakra, with Trevor having scored the first air kill (a Pakistani Sabre fighter) for independent India. Again in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 (the Second Kashmir War), Anglo-Indians engaged in the fiercest dogfights ever in the Indian subcontinent. While Chief Marshall La Fontaine and Admiral Pereira, rose to become heads of the Indian Air Force and Navy, Lieutenant Mervyn Leslie Middlecoat of the Pakistani Air Force/PAF, was twice awarded the Sitara-e-Jurat (Star of Courage), celebrated as the "Defender of Karachi" and with Middlecoat Shaheed Park, Islamabad. The Frank Anthony Public Schools provided increased employment opportunities while Anglo-Indian women added the emerging fields of travel and tourism, telecommunications, and retail to their existing roles as nurses and teachers.
Social Welfare Practices in Colonial America (c. 1620–1820)
Authors: Dybicz Phillip
Published: January 2023

Chapter 3 of A Genealogy of the Good and Critique of Hubris first examines the various social welfare practices of this era through the prism of the Colonial Discourse. The Poor Laws are discussed along with the various efforts to provide poverty relief. Criminal justice and the use of corporal punishment are then discussed. Second, the transition period between the Colonial Discourse and its successor, the Premodern Discourse, is described. This examination describes how insights arising from the emerging discourse, such as the notion of equality within a democracy, are co-opted by the currently dominant Discourse. Third, the moral blind spots of this era are described as consisting of the treatment of individuals who fell outside of the social hierarchy: slaves, heathens, and vagabonds. Lastly, reflections are offered as to how insights from this period can be applied today by social workers to improve their practice.
The Emerging Postmodern discourse (c. 1990–Present)
Authors: Dybicz Phillip
Published: January 2023

Chapter 8 of A Genealogy of the Good and Critique of Hubris describes the Postmodern discourse on social welfare and begins with quotes taken from works representing the three major movements comprising postmodern social work practice: the strengths perspective, solution-focused casework and therapy, and narrative therapy. As the Postmodern discourse represents an emerging discourse, it is noted that its many elements have yet to reveal themselves to a level of historical accuracy. Some—such as the intellectual thought and paradigm of understanding—have already taken root in academia and thus are offered with a high degree of confidence. Other elements—such as the urgent need and defining cultural feature—are less well established, and hence the descriptions are offered as educated guesses. Throughout, periodic reference is made to the quotes at the beginning of the chapter to inform how their meaning takes shape within the described elements.
Aesthetics of Equality
Authors: Shapiro Michael J.
Published: January 2023

Aesthetics of Equality is a theoretical and compositional intervention into the problem of equality. While some of the analysis is concerned with contemporary issues, the book is primarily a work of political theory and a guide to aesthetic methods, focused on how one can conceive equality issues critically through conceptual engagements with diverse artistic genres: literature, film, music, photography, and architecture. Beginning with the question of what one can contribute to equality issues by being attentive to aesthetic form in a variety of artistic genres that challenge institutionalized accounts of history, the book proceeds to implement answer by extracting political problematics with analyses of the compositional structures of the textual objects of analysis in the chapter’s diverse inquiries. While aesthetic strategies are a main concern in the investigation, it is also shaped by commitments to some substantive political concerns, particularly an attentiveness to persons and voices that tend to be civically invisible. The chapters demonstrate the way critical approaches to a variety of media genres make visible and audible the persons and groups that are excluded or disqualified from access to livable domestic space and civic participation. The subject matter is temporally extensive, ranging from ancient Israel and Egypt in the Old Testament’s Genesis chapter through the early and later ethno-histories of California and Texas, and geographically broad, with chapters on diverse cities: New York, Paris, Istanbul, Los Angeles, and fictional Texas and Mexican border cities.
A Right to the City
Authors: Shapiro Michael J.
Published: January 2023

Toni Morrison’s Jazz is a novelistic realization of the way modern jazz—a free, improvisation version—articulates the African America urban experience. Chapter 2 reviews the political significance of jazz as a cultural genre in which African Americans have been already abundantly present, and emphasizes the way Morrison makes the city of New York a player in the novel’s ensemble of characters. Adding her own and other narrative voices to the novel’s ensemble, Morrison’s jazz-imitating text refigures a people whose existence has been disfigured in a white-dominated racial-spatial order. Focused thematically on the right to the city, Morrison has her characters achieve a measure of public citizenship as they renegotiate relationships within the Black community and struggle within the space of a white-dominated city that is, in Henri Lefevre’s term, “programmatic,” alternatively inviting and recalcitrant, controlling and acquiescing.
Apartheid
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

Following its successful crusade against Nazism and fascism, South Africa itself became an international pariah in the postwar period owing to its racial policies. In 1946, South African Indians led a new passive resistance campaign that mobilized the support of the Indian government, but it also broke with Gandhian precedent by forging a united front with the African population. This unity formed the basis of what later became known as the Congress Alliance. South Africa's attempts to incorporate South-West Africa as a province were decisively checked owing to international opposition. The chapter also considers the 1948 elections that saw D.F. Malan's National Party win power. The Nationalists implemented apartheid, claiming it as a solution for the country's racial problems. At its 1949 conference, the ANC adopted its Programme of Action, which called for mass action, and set it on a collision course with the government.
Charterists and Africanists
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

The state responded to the Congress of the People with mass arrests in December 1956, heralding the "Treason Trial". The state also introduced measures extending the pass laws, and allowing for the imposition of state appointed chiefs. The implementation of the Bantu Authorities Act fostered revolt in areas such as Zeerust and Sekhukhuneland. The ANC also faced internal strains, with the multi-racial nature of the Congress Alliance being targeted by an "Africanist" opposition that was inspired partly by the advance of nationalist movements elsewhere in the continent at the time. The opposition broke away to form the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) in 1959. The chapter considers the tour of Africa by Britain's Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, during which he delivered his "wind of change" speech, and it concludes with the Sharpeville massacre of 21 March 1960.
Silent Sixties
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

The chapter begins by considering the contradictions of the grand apartheid policy pursued by Hendrik Verwoerd. Also discussed are attempts at armed infiltration by the exiled liberation movements. This includes the efforts of the South West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO), which resulted in its base in Ongulumbashe in Namibia being destroyed in 1966. It also includes the ANC's reconstitution abroad after the failure of efforts by the likes of Wilton Mkwayi and Bram Fischer to rebuild the internal underground. The attempts of the ANC's External Mission to infiltrate South Africa involved joint operations with the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO). The most determined effort was with ZAPU, with the unsuccessful Wankie and Sipolilo Campaigns of 1967–8 resulting.
Homeland
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

Following Dmitri Tsafendas's assassination of Hendrik Verwoerd in 1966, the new prime minister John Vorster sought to limit some of the rigidities of apartheid, so as to improve South Africa's international position. Sports became a battlefield: the country failed to gain readmission to the Olympics, while attempts to maintain traditional rivalries in rugby and cricket provoked the initiation of direct action to scupper Springbok tours to Britain, Australia, and New Zealand, from 1969 onwards. The chapter also considers the economic impact of inflation, and how it undermined the industrial color bar. The chapter finally discusses the contract workers' strike in Namibia in 1971–2, the Durban strikes of 1973, and the rise of the Black Consciousness Movement under Steve Biko's leadership.
Ungovernable
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

The homelands and the Bantu Local Authorities were the two mechanisms developed by the state to accommodate Africans politically. But in September 1984, the month that the Tricameral constitution came into force, South Africa's townships exploded in the largest insurrection in the country's history. The African labor movement continued to flourish, resulting in the formation of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). At the same time, rocked by the state's counterinsurgency policy, the ANC met in Kabwe, Zambia, to reconsider its strategy. The conference decided that bolstering the insurrection in South Africa would require senior leaders being sent to the country. With the state also facing increased pressure, President P.W. Botha offered Nelson Mandela conditional release, which Mandela rejected. Botha's attempts at reform led to the "Rubicon" speech of August 1985, in which he drew the curtain on segregation, but baulked at releasing Mandela and negotiating with the ANC.
Liberators
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

The finale of South Africa's Border War in Angola saw Pretoria intervene in 1987 to shield UNITA against an MPLA drive into southeastern Angola. South Africa's military successes led Cuba to escalate its support to the Angolan government. Havana's effort involved reinforcing Angolan troops defending Cuito Cuanavale, and sending a larger force to the Namibian border. The chapter also considers the war between ANC supporters and the Inkatha movement in the Natal Midlands, which became a festering sore in South Africa's transition. Following a final flurry of military clashes between Cuba and South Africa in June 1988 there was a breakthrough in the deadlocked Namibian peace process, which concluded with the New York Accords of December 1988. The accords involved a US mediated pact for Namibian independence, and a bilateral Cuban-Angolan accord for Cuban troop withdrawal.
The Settlement
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

To end the negotiations impasse and isolate De Klerk, the ANC targeted the homelands, but this resulted in a massacre of protesters in the Ciskei, highlighting the limitations of mass action as a tool for the movement. A sobered ANC instead developed the idea of "sunset clauses", i.e. offering state officials job guarantees and reassurances against persecution, in return for a smooth transition to majority rule. Negotiations resumed amid increased efforts by white right-wingers to scupper the process. The violence included actions by the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, which occupied the negotiating chamber at the World Trade Centre on 25 June 1993. The chapter recounts the successful completion of the negotiations process, and the ensuing 1994 election campaign in which the ANC triumphed and Nelson Mandela became president.
Transformation
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

The first major scandals of the post-apartheid period are discussed in this chapter. This includes the arms deal of the late 1990s, and the ensuing cover-up. It also includes President Thabo Mbeki's handling of HIV-AIDS, which according to a team of Harvard University School of Public Health experts, cost some 335,000 lives. The chapter also discusses the emergence of the phenomenon of service delivery protests from 2004 onwards. One outcome of the arms deal was the spotlight that it cast on Jacob Zuma, the Deputy President, especially after his financial advisor Schabir Shaik's fraud conviction. The chapter ends with the Polokwane Conference in 2007 in which Zuma defeated Thabo Mbeki to become ANC president.
The Second Transition
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

The chapter discusses the end of the post-apartheid economic boom as a consequence both of the global "Great Recession" of 2008, and an energy crisis occasioned by the ANC's mismanagement of the country's power provider, ESKOM. The chapter also deals with the growth of xenophobia within South Africa, as exemplified by nationwide riots in 2008. The chapter also considers Jacob Zuma's legal travails and the obstacle they posed to his candidacy in the 2009 national elections. The complex legal processes that enabled him to avoid trial are discussed. The chapter also considers the 2010 Football World Cup that South Africa hosted. It concludes with a discussion of the early scandals of the Zuma presidency, including the use of taxpayer money to build his homestead at Nkandla, and his relationship with the Gupta family, as was first exposed by the landing at Waterkloof Air Force base in 2013.
Into the Whirlwind
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the Marikana massacre of 2012, and South Africa's involvement in peacekeeping missions across Africa during the Mbeki and Zuma administrations. The latter included operations in the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2013 and 2014, which witnessed the largest military battles undertaken by South African forces in the post-apartheid period. The ongoing controversy over the Nkandla affair is considered, including Zuma's attempts to avoid implementing the remedial action mandated by the Public Protector, Thuli Madonsela, namely reimbursing the money spent that exceeded security needs. This was an issue that the Economic Freedom Fighters--a breakaway party from the ANC--was able to exploit in the 2014 elections. Finally, the chapter deals with the student ferment that began in March 2015 at the University of Cape Town over the statue of Cecil Rhodes, and which spread nationwide, morphing into nationwide fees protests later that year.
False Dawn
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: January 2023

This chapter deals with early policy missteps by the Ramaphosa administration, which ensured the failure of his stated objective of placing the country on an economic growth path. The consequences of the Zuma presidency also came into clearer view, with the collapse of administrative structures in parts of South Africa including the North West Province. Also considered is the Zondo Commission, which was established as a consequence of Thuli Madonsela's State Capture report. The Commission revealed that corruption within the ruling party was endemic and not limited to any particular faction. The chapter also discusses South Africa's 2019 Rugby World Cup victory, which was offset by the continued economic decline in 2019/20.
Introduction
Authors: Bergen Peter , Rondeaux Candace , Rothenberg Daniel , Sterman David
Published: January 2023

Proxy warfare is shaping twenty-first century conflicts. Yet U.S. policy regarding proxy warfare remains bound to outdated understandings. This chapter introduces the volume’s approach to studying proxy warfare.
Syria 2011–19
Authors: Rosenblatt Nate , Kilcullen David
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines U.S. proxy warfare through the lens of the U.S. intervention in Syria. It compares U.S. support for rebels prior to the rise of ISIS and support for the SDF against ISIS. In doing so, it provides a theoretical framework of what factors shape a successful proxy warfare strategy.
Overcoming the Oppressors
Authors: Rotberg Robert I.
Published: January 2023

This book is about southern Africa’s long walk to freedom, about the overturning of colonial rule in the northern territories and the dissolution of backs-to-the-wall white settler suzerainty first in what became Zimbabwe and then in South Africa. Chapters on the individual countries detail the stages along their sometimes complicated and tortuous road to attain the political New Zion. We learn how and why the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland failed, how and why apartheid eventually collapsed, and exactly how the various components of this heavily white conquered and later white oppressed domain transitioned via diverse fits and starts into today’s assemblage of proud, politically charged, and still mostly fragmented nation-states. But what did the new republics make of their hard-won freedoms? That is the subject of more than half of this book. Having liberated themselves successfully, several soon dismantled democratic safeguards, established effective single-party states, closed their economies, deprived citizens of human rights and civil liberties, and exchanged economic progress for varieties of central planning experiments and stunted forms of protected economic endeavors. Only Botswana, of the new entities, embraced full democracy and good governance. The others, even South Africa, at first tightly regimented their economies and attempted severely to limit the degrees of economic freedom and social progress that citizens could enjoy. Corruption prevailed everywhere except Botswana. Today, as the chapters on contemporary southern Africa reveal, most of the southern half of the African continent is returning, if sometimes struggling, to return to the patterns of probity and good governance that many countries abandoned in the decades after independence. Now there is a resurgence of high performance, which this book celebrates.
King Cobra and Other Menaces
Authors: Rotberg Robert I.
Published: January 2023

When Kaunda was ousted from power in 1991, President Frederick Chiluba, his successor, talked big, but walked small. Soon Zambia was awash with nefarious forms of corruption, the new president himself eventually being found guilty of massive peculation. The country’s economy suffered, too, as it did under his several successors. Some were less corrupt, some more, but until the eventual election in 2021 of President Hakainde Hichilema, Zambia endured interludes of prosperity amid an overall steady decline of good governance, managerial efficiency, and opportunity for its peoples. The Chinese came, and have been reviled. Copper production and prices have fluctuated, but until 2021, Zambians enjoyed few freedoms and little social and educational progress. That doleful period may now be over.
Surviving State Capture
Authors: Rotberg Robert I.
Published: January 2023

This chapter begins with Mandela trying to fashion a multiracial success and continues with his good work being undone by two powerful successors—Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma—and by the African National Congress, in which Mandela so fervently believed. As in most of the other countries of southern Africa, corruption prevailed over integrity—despite Mandela’s efforts and warnings. This chapter is about the pandemics of HIV/AIDS and Covid-19 as well as about the struggle of South Africans to improve their standards of living and prospects for their children, But the chapter is also about how corruption spread until today, when President Cyril Ramaphosa is attempting to roll back the errors of his predecessors and to return South Africa to the promising days of Mandela.
Introduction
Authors: Hahn Judith
Published: January 2023

The introduction sheds some light on the fundamental role of language for the church and its law. It identifies studies on the language of canon law as part of the broader law and language debate. It opens up the field of research on the language of canon law and presents the current state of research. While some studies do already exist on canon law terminology and on interpreting the law of the church, canon law has yet to receive the interdisciplinary findings which the law and language debate has generated over recent decades. There is a need to discuss what canonists can learn about canon law from linguistic findings on the language of the law.
A Global Law and Its Language
Authors: Hahn Judith
Published: January 2023

If Latin as the language of canon law gives way to a multi-language law, it will be necessary to address doubts about whether legal communications across cultural and language borders are even possible. Theorists who believe language fully determines our thought doubt whether it is realistic to hope for true communication across cultural borders. Representatives of weak language theories deem this possible albeit difficult. The study discusses several lawmaking models for multi-language communities with regard to their use of canon law: accepting one model law in one language from which translations are fabricated; working with a limited number of official legal languages; or publishing legal documents in all official languages. For canon law, the last model might give ample expression to the idea that the church is a unity of plural churches.
The Language of Legal Action
Authors: Hahn Judith
Published: January 2023

As canonical procedures are heavily textual, spoken language plays a reduced role. However, speech is key in the hearings, the only context in which most parties are confronted with ecclesiastical tribunal staff in person. The language of hearings is therefore of vital importance in a twofold sense: it provides the tribunal with evidence and influences public opinion about ecclesiastical judicature. As the tribunals mostly depend on the voluntary participation of the parties and witnesses, a good reputation is one precondition for their work. In addition, forensic communication is also about silence as an instrument of communication, as suggested by the Latin saying “Qui tacet consentire videtur” (“she or he who is silent is taken to agree”). In some contexts, silence is suggested or requested by law, for instance, when the law allows a suspect to remain silent when faced with a charge.
Conclusion
Authors: Hahn Judith
Published: January 2023

The conclusion sums up the findings of this book. It then makes two suggestions what practical consequences one can draw from them: first, invest more effort in the analysis of canon law and language; second, change the language of canon law. In-depth linguistic studies of canon law are worthy academic endeavors in their own right. Adding to this, there is a need to study ecclesiastical legal language in the light of ecclesiological concerns. The church understands itself as promoting the Word of God, which has embodied itself in human culture and language. It is therefore confronted with the challenge of examining whether its message is communicated understandably and of correcting its language whenever it becomes difficult to comprehend. As the current language of canon law is provoking many legal subjects’ misunderstanding and resentment, it is in need of reform, including changing from Latin to local vernaculars.
The Cold-War Nuclear Force Balance
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: January 2023

Chapter 2 shows that, despite the fervor of Cold War–era nuclear debates, the key strategies of the period—assured destruction, soft warfighting, and hard warfighting—had fragile conceptual and theoretical underpinnings. Consequently, all three strategies exaggerated the consequences of failing to meet established capability standards. The most ardent warfighting proponents took their concerns to the extreme. They insisted that “victory” in nuclear war was possible or, at least, the Soviets believed that victory was possible. The United States was obliged, then, to pursue offsetting measures to deny the Soviets potential advantages. The concept of “superiority” lived in these warfighting claims and, more generally, in a preoccupation with asymmetries—force balances and imbalances—that supposedly favored one side or the other. Ideas drawn from these three strategies continue to stoke controversy over the role of defense in strategy, the utility of arms control, and the appropriate response to the Russian nuclear threat.
Commitment
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: January 2023

Through word and deed, leaders can arguably bolster their credibility to act, that is, their apparent capacity and willingness to meet potential challenges. Chapter 4 asserts, however, that both words and deeds involve risks that are frequently downplayed or ignored. Verbal and physical commitments each offer distinct benefits. Words allow a sender to convey messages quickly to deflect potential challenges. But deeds also hold advantages over words beyond the deficiencies of articulating a commitment. By acting, a person or other entity can strengthen its message in various ways that link adversary transgressions to specific retaliatory actions. Despite their relative advantages and disadvantages, commitments made through word or deed, are potentially ineffective and even counterproductive. Policymakers might reduce these accompanying risks with ambiguous commitments, though they arguably bring risks of their own.
Risk Manipulation
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: January 2023

To boost its credibility to act, the United States can arguably manipulate risk. That is, it can orchestrate conditions to convince the opponent that its probability of a costly loss is unacceptably great should it continue along a given course. By taking forceful action, the United States can hope, at least, that the increasing risk will convince the opponent to back down. As with commitments, however, risk manipulation can prove ineffective, even counterproductive. Chapter 5 develops its arguments by considering the nature of risk, US Cold War–era efforts to manipulate risk, “latent” risk ensuing from organizational practices, risk stemming from a “bad” US decision-maker, and risk involved in a potential military conflict with China or North Korea.
Resolve and Reputation
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: January 2023

Chapter 6 explores the notions of resolve and reputation. To establish its credibility to use nuclear force, a nuclear “superior” can arguably bolster its apparent “resolve” to convince the opponent that the cost of its transgressions will exceed any gains. Or else it can build—and then store—credibility for future use by establishing a “reputation” for standing by commitments or taking decisive action. A party can supposedly harness both mechanisms by establishing a “reputation for resolve.” The concepts of resolve and reputation are problematic, however, when employed to understand deterrence (or compellence) relationships. Outcomes that we often attribute to resolve, or reputations, owe to other plausible influences. Indeed, efforts to establish resolve or build a reputation for action might again prove ineffective or counterproductive.
The Case for Nuclear Superiority
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: January 2023

Contemporary strategies echo the logic of their Cold War–era predecessors. As before, the claims rest on compelling but indeterminate math—inconclusive ratios or differences of advantage—and ungrounded assumptions about the relative willingness of the combatants to absorb cost. No less problematically, they exaggerate US control over nuclear-crisis outcomes by downplaying the confounding influence of political, social, psychological, and organizational forces on all parties to the conflict. The deficiencies reflect the effects of a profound bias, rooted in “instrumental reasoning” and “linear thinking.” In response, Chapter 9 offers policy prescriptions that acknowledge the limits of our understanding, and the dangers that accrue from bold leaps into the unknown.
The Phenomenal Concept of Self and First-Person Epistemology
Authors: Guillot Marie
Published: January 2023

This chapter defends the view that the concept of self is a kind of phenomenal concept, anchored in self-experience. This approach sheds new light on the epistemic privileges traditionally attached to I-thoughts. Coliva (2003) argues that we should distinguish between immunity to error through misidentification and two other properties it is often confused with: the impossibility of a split between semantic and speaker’s reference, and the “Real Guarantee.” The phenomenal-concept model explains why each of these three properties arises in connection with I-thoughts, and with what frequency. It also makes sense of the fact that they are regularly conflated, given their common source in the nature of the concept of self, and in the properties of self-experience.