bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of Elastic Stresses in Thick, Polar–Orthotropic, C-Shaped Rings
Authors: Sharma Ambuj , Bakis Charles E.
Published: September 2004

The discrepancies observed in the measured strains and those calculated on the basis of a plane-stress elasticity solution for a thick, polar–orthotropic, C-shaped ring with end loading are investigated by finite element analysis (FEA). Thick C-rings are used as test specimens for determining the tensile radial strength of composite flywheel rotors. The C-ring is modeled in three dimensions and the strains predicted on the surface of the specimen are compared with the measured strains to validate the model. The discrepancies in the strains and stresses predicted by the planestress elasticity and 3-D finite element approaches are attributed to the Poisson’s effect, which gives rise to a significant variation of stresses and strains across the axial thickness. The discrepancies depend on the geometry of the specimen. Therefore, the effects of the geometric dimensions on the variation of stresses are studied using the 3-D FEA and a guideline is proposed for selecting a C-ring specimen geometry to have approximately uniform stresses through the axial thickness.
Going Private
Authors: Baum Matthew A.
Published: September 2004

This study investigates why, despite the potential credibility enhancement associated with generating domestic audience costs, leaders (in this instance, U.S. presidents) frequently opt to “go private” by conducting foreign policy out of the public spotlight. The author argues that they do so for two primary reasons: (1) public scrutiny disproportionately raises the potential political price of a bad outcome, and (2) leaders’ efforts to generate audience costs can sometimes backfire, as the reactions of the domestic “audience”—once engaged—are not entirely predictable. An analysis of U.S. behavior in all international crises between 1946 and 1994 shows that when national security interests in a crisis are modest, American presidents are indeed less likely to speak publicly about potential adversaries, unless they are quite confident of success if a fight ensues.
The Incredible Shrinking State
Authors: Lake David A. , O’mahony Angela
Published: September 2004

The effects of economies of scale in government, trade openness, preference heterogeneity, and regime type are used to explain why the average size of states within the international system nearly doubled between 1816 and 1876 and then contracted over the 20th century. No one variable appears to explain the trend fully. Results suggest that the rise in territorial size during the 19th century is the product of a growing number of federal democracies, which tend to be large, and that the decline in average size during the 20th century is the result of a growing number of unitary democracies, which tend to be small. Increasing economies of scale in the 19th century may have led to the rise of large federal democracies, whereas economic liberalism may have allowed unitary democracies to prosper in the 20th century.
Fear of Persecution
Authors: Moore Will H. , Shellman Stephen M.
Published: September 2004

Why would people abandon their homes in favor of an uncertain life elsewhere? The short answer, of course, is violence. More specifically, the authors contend that people monitor the violent behavior of both the government and dissidents and assess the threat such behavior poses to their lives, physical person, and liberty. The greater the threat posed by the behavior of the government and dissidents, the larger the number of forced migrants a country will produce. To test hypotheses drawn from this argument the authors use a global sample of countries over more than forty years. Their findings are held to be consistent with their argument, showing that violent behavior has a substantially larger impact on forced migration than variables such as the type of political institution or the average size of the economy.
Security Needs, Arms Exports, and the Structure of the Defense Industry
Authors: Golde Saar , Tishler Asher
Published: September 2004

A two-stage game theoretic model is developed in which firms in two producer blocs (the United States and Western Europe) produce a homogeneous defense good and sell it to their own governments and to the rest of the world. The security levels of the two producer blocs depend on their purchase of the defense good relative to the amount purchased by the rest of the world. Countries choose their security levels, such that their welfare, which depends on their security level and on government expenditure on other goods and services, is maximized. Results show that net defense costs of the United States and Europe are lower when the number of defense firms is small and that a further increase in world prices will crowd out developing countries from the market for modern weapon systems and may force them to develop and use “cheap and dirty” weapons.
A Very Sharp Sword
Authors: Fordham Benjamin O.
Published: September 2004

Many international relations theorists suggest that improved military capabilities will make the use or threat of military force a more attractive policy choice. Tests of this argument are complicated because policy makers’anticipation of their future needs for military capabilities could also produce a relationship between capabilities and policy choice. Results show that military capabilities indeed increase the frequency with which force is used, but although past uses of force influence the construction of military capabilities, evidence that decision makers can effectively anticipate their current needs is weak. The results also suggest that the recent trend in force structure toward a smaller number of high-value weapons and relatively well-paid personnel has mitigated the relationship between military spending and the use of force.
Are Soldiers Less War-Prone than Statesmen?
Authors: Sechser Todd S.
Published: September 2004

The dominant (though contested) wisdom among international relations scholars is that military officers tend to be more cautious than their civilian counterparts about initiating the use of force. Sobered by the experience of combat, the theory holds, soldiers are hesitant to recommend military action except under the most favorable of circumstances. It might be the case, however, that military conservatism is simply a product of strong civilian oversight. Indeed, scholars have suggested that military officers actually have powerful incentives to promote the use of force, but these predilections may be muted when civilian leaders can punish officers for botched military adventures. In this article, the author details a quantitative, competitive test of these propositions, showing that states with strong civilian control are on average less prone to initiate military action than states without it. The results suggest that civilian control should play a central role in future models of conflict initiation.
Too Much of a Good Thing?
Authors: Rosendorff B. Peter , Sandler Todd
Published: September 2004

In a two-player proactive response game the level of proactive activity and the choice of terrorist target is endogenized. The targeted government first chooses its measures to weaken the terrorists, and the terrorists then choose the type of event—normal or spectacular. Unlike previous analyses, proactive policy has a downside by increasing grievances and, consequently, terrorist recruitment. If the government responds too harshly, its actions can empower the terrorists by providing a larger constituency. Aggressive antiterrorist actions, encouraged by a high perceived loss from terrorism and low marginal proactive costs, may result in spectacular events with dire consequences. If spectaculars are transferred abroad to soft targets, then proactive operations may be excessive from a global viewpoint as external costs are ignored. The analysis explains why some target nations engage in a modest level of offense but a prime target chooses a large level.
The Emergence of E-Scaped Medicine?
Authors: Nettleton Sarah
Published: September 2004

This article asks the question, is it possible to decipher a new ‘medical cosmology’ that possesses an elective affinity with contemporary socio-technological changes? It tentatively answers in the positive and attempts to identify the parameters of a new medical cosmology that it terms e-scaped medicine.To discern the conceptual underpinnings of e-scaped medicine the article draws on De Mul’s theorization of the ‘informatization of the worldview’.The article elaborates on this thesis in relation to medicine’s prime object - the body - and to a number of medical practices that surround it.
Racist Offending, Policing and Community Conflict
Authors: Ray Larry , Smith David
Published: September 2004

Since the Stephen Lawrence inquiry several initiatives have transformed the policing of racism, and have entailed significant changes in the criminal justice system. This article reviews these in the light of our research on racist offenders in Greater Manchester between 1998 and 2001. We argue that racist offending is not necessarily consistent with the assumptions underlying some of these initiatives. The conclusions from this work are then discussed in the context of the disturbances in Oldham and elsewhere in the UK during the summer of 2001. We suggest that constructions of racist offending have given excessive weight to individual motives and intentions, while much offending behaviour is grounded in wider cultural and social contexts. We present the background to these conflicts in terms of a vicious spiral of styles of policing, use of reported statistics and the involvement of racist organizations. We conclude that to explain racist violence we need to think in terms of not a single issue but of multiple issues of bias, and of cultures of violence, exclusions and marginalization.
‘Race’, Religion and Riots: The ‘Racialization’ of Communal Identity and Conflict in India
Authors: Baber Zaheer
Published: September 2004

This article offers an alternative framework for understanding ‘communal’ conflict in India. Largely because recurring sectarian conflicts involve groups whose boundaries are demarcated by religion, most scholars have focused their attention on either specific religious doctrines or the policy of secularism to explain the phenomenon. In this article it is argued that significance of religion, secularism or anti-secularism has been overemphasized in the interpretation of communal conflict in India. The concept of ‘racialization’ is deployed to argue that in India communal identities have in fact been ‘racialized’ and recurring conflicts share striking structural and ideological similarities with racial conflicts in other parts of the world. A historical narrative of the political process of ‘racialization’ of identities in India is offered with the aim of re-thinking existing explanations of such conflicts.
Organizations, Self-Identities and the New Economy
Authors: Webb Janette
Published: September 2004

The article examines the inter-relations between self-identity and organizational change in advanced capitalist societies characterized by deregulation of markets, privatization and globalizing economic relations. It compares two contrasting perspectives on selfhood: the reflexive self (Giddens, 1991) and the corroded self (Sennett, 1998). Giddens suggests that contemporary organizations, rather than eroding meaning, offer a greater degree of choice about self-identity, and enhance reflexivity and agency. Sennett suggests that new economic forms are corrosive of character and social relations. Using examples from predominantly British data, it is argued that both accounts offer relevant insights into the interplay between selfhood and organizations, but that each overstates their case. Giddens offers a persuasive account of the choice and voluntarism characterizing self-identity for at least a proportion of the population. His account of the ‘project of the self’, however, contributes to an ideology of the flexible, commodified self, and an overly inflated sense of the potential for individualized self-growth. Sennett over-emphasizes the extent of change in organization and employment relations, at least in the British case, but points to the damaging effects of an ideology of individualism, to which Giddens’ model of the self as project potentially contributes. The article argues that short-termism is not the most damaging element of contemporary organization practices. Instead increased instrumentalism on the part of employers results in the experience of increased responsibility without meaningful discretion and authority. The gap between employers’ promises to empower people at work and the experience of greater burdens and uncertain prospects has negative consequences for trust and morale. In conclusion, it is suggested that character is not necessarily undermined by such dynamics: encountering the limits of self-determination, reflexivity and individualism provides the material for critique of new economic forms, as evidenced by public concern with issues of care and mutual dependence.
Immigrant Entrepreneurship in the Swedish Welfare State
Authors: Hjerm Mikael
Published: September 2004

This article puts into question the taken-for-granted view that immigrant entrepreneurship is a fast track towards integration in civil society. It does so by examining income and disposable income for immigrant entrepreneurs in Sweden in relation to immigrants that are not entrepreneurs. Data is drawn from the LOUISE database, which is a longitudinal register database covering all individuals above 16 years of age living in Sweden and includes income variables, age, sex, education, employment status and so on. It is shown that immigrant entrepreneurs have substantially lower incomes than employed immigrants and only marginally higher levels of disposable incomes compared to the unemployed when other background variables are held constant. The relationship between the two groups did not change between 1992 and 1998 suggesting that, contrary to what was expected, differences in the state of the economy are not decisive in explaining income differences between the different groups of immigrants. It is suggested that entrepreneurship for immigrants may or may not be positive for the individual, but it is clear that it is not a successful way to fight economic marginalization and segregation. It puts into question the effectiveness of the whole social democratic welfare state when it comes to integrating immigrants into society.
Commanding Materials: (Re)Legitimating Authority in the Context of Multi-Disciplinary Work
Authors: Latimer Joanna
Published: September 2004

The article explores some specific consequences of a ‘crisis of legitimation’ for relations of power. Drawing together sociological concerns over power/knowledge with anthropological understandings about the place of materials in the ordering of relations, the article analyses how authority is legitimated in the context of multiple possibilities for interpretation and conduct. The site of exploration is an ethnography of multi-disciplinary work in a British hospital trust. Developing the notion of ‘extension’ the article describes how hospital consultants align social practices and cultural materials to (re)accomplish asymmetrical power relations. The article revisits Lyotard’s (1984) ideas about ‘strong moves’ and ends by arguing for greater sociological attention to the place of materials in the ordering of relations.
Working at Webboyz: An Analysis of Control Over the Software Development Labour Process
Authors: Barrett Rowena
Published: September 2004

This article explores how management constructs strategies to control the labour process of software development, through a case study of a small Australian software development company, Webboyz Pty Ltd.1 This firm employs mainly young, male software developers to develop internet tools and e-commerce software and solutions for different segments of the local and international software market. Distinguishing between primary and secondary software products, and their associated production processes, provides a way of analysing the organization and control of software development work. The case study of Webboyz reveals how management strategies to control the labour process of software development are influenced by the type of product being developed and the timing in the product’s development lifecycle as well as the type of workers developing the software product.
The Future of Regional Cities in the Information Age: The Impact of Information Technology on Manchester’s Financial and Business Services Sector
Authors: Britton Nadia Joanne , Halfpenny Peter , Devine Fiona , Mellor Rosemary
Published: September 2004

Castells identifies two potential consequences of the introduction of information technology into the workplace: dispersal of the workforce and individualization of work, including the spread of teleworking. Such tendencies would undermine one of the rationales for cities: bringing large numbers of people together in order to choreograph their work. Has information technology had the impact that Castells suggests? Evidence from interviews with members of the financial and business services sector in central Manchester is used to test Castells’ claim about the effects of information technology on work and workers.The interviewees reveal that, despite changes in working practices resulting from heavy investment in information technologies, the potency of formal and informal face-to-face interaction to generate cohesion and trust, and maintain competitiveness, encourages firms to locate in the city centre and curtails the attraction of teleworking.
We Went Looking for an Organization but Could Find Only the Metaphysics of its Presence
Authors: Ford Jackie , Harding Nancy
Published: September 2004

This article explores the ‘lifeworld theories’ of organizations held by organizational actors, gathered from staff and managers of two ‘organizations’ as they went through a process of merger. Using Henri Lefebvre’s theories of place and space read through a postmodernist lens to interrogate the data, we discovered amongst staff theories of the organization as place, arising out of the material territory in which they worked. Amongst managers and those whom we call directors/chief executives there was a contrasting theory of organization as space, based upon a sense of an immaterial space occupied by a metaphysical organization. Rather than finding a dualistic distinction between organization and agents, we found the organization and organizational members collapsed in upon each other, with managerial identities fused with and inseparable from that of ‘the organization’; chief executives requiring the existence of an impossible organization that could exist only in their minds; and non-managerial employees refusing to identify anything called ‘an organization’.
Relationships – Musical and Personal: Theme and Variations
Authors: Best David
Published: September 2004

Recognizing similarities between our relationship to music and to other people reveals significant educational implications. Emotional responses are inseparable from the understanding which is a necessary condition for any fully educational activity. This brings out the importance of reasoning in music education. Such importance is usually obscured by a prevalent but distorting assumption about the character of reasoning. With respect to emotions generally, as to music, the notion of the particular is crucial. Too often, emotional feelings are characterized in broad, general terms which overlook the vital particular details of the object of the emotion. Such generality is implied by the common misconception that meaning is symbolic. As in so much discussion of the arts, most of the misapprehension stems from deeply ingrained and unquestioned subjectivism. These issues lead to a consideration of sincerity, in responses both to music and to other people.
Leo Kestenberg 1882-1962
Authors: Gruhn Wilfried
Published: September 2004

Kestenberg’s life history reflects the dramatic political situation of Europe in the 20th century, when the shifting geographical borders changed the nationality of whole populations several times. In these circumstances, cultural identity became more significant than national allegiance. This article is an introduction to Kestenberg’s life history; it reflects the many facets of his personality and highlights his achievements in music education. Kestenberg started his musical career as a concert pianist; he then became involved with the social democratic movement, worked for radical changes in music education in Prussia and initiated the most important reforms of school music education in Germany. Very early on, he introduced internationalism into music education, organized international conferences and, to some extent, anticipated the concept of globalization. As an enthusiastic music educator, he was the visionary creator and practical administrator of the first international organization for music education - ISME. He was therefore ISME’s first Honorary President.
Zoltán Kodály 1882-1967
Authors: Ittzés Mihály
Published: September 2004

Zoltán Kodály’s ideas are rooted in various sources which he integrated into his own thinking - a combination that produced his own special philosophy on music education. He believed that music should have an essential cultural function and significant social status. The four most important points of his philosophy are: (i) music education should be provided in school for all children; (ii) the basis for music education should be singing; (iii) singing is most effectively taught by a value-centered selection of materials based on the music of the mother-tongue (folk music); and (iv) reading and writing of music should be based on relative solmization (movable doh).
Work at the Uddevalla Volvo Plant from the Perspective of the Demand-Control Model
Authors: Lottridge Danielle
Published: September 2004

The Uddevalla Volvo plant represents a different paradigm for automotive assembly. In parallel-flow work, self-managed work groups assemble entire automobiles with comparable productivity as conventional series-flow assembly lines. From the perspective of the demand-control model, operators at the Uddevalla plant have low physical and timing demands, high psychological demands because of increased duties and high-decision latitude due to varied and complex skills utilized, the two latter characterizing active work. Operators at standard assembly lines have higher levels of physical and timing demands, lower levels of psychological demand, and lower control, characterizing high-strain work. Active work is related to lower incidence of heart disease than high-strain work.
The Story of Semco: The Company that Humanized Work
Authors: Vanderburg David
Published: September 2004

This article examines and analyzes Semco, a company that changed the way it viewed and treated its workers for the better. It is the contention of Semco’s CEO, that at most large corporations “everyone is part of a gigantic, impersonal machine, and it is impossible to feel motivated when you feel you are just another cog. Human nature demands recognition. Without it, people lose their sense of purpose and become dissatisfied, restless, and unproductive” (Semler, 1993, p. 109). At Semco, employees were no longer just faceless drones acting as machines would. By putting more power and decision making in the hands of their employees, the company became very successful, as it was more efficient and flexible. Workers also reaped the rewards of significantly increased control and decision-making power. This improved their lives financially and personally, as they were better able to deal with stress.
The Social Behaviors in Conducive Production and Exchange
Authors: Karasek Robert A.
Published: September 2004

Conducive production (the concept developed in the first article of this issue) is a process of creative coordination in production, which also contributes to the development of the social fabric. To understand how, this article looks inside the conducive production process and examines how producer and consumer activities link together in collaborative dialogues. The conventional views of economic man are contrasted with this new view of productive human beings in the jazz economy. Jazz is used as a metaphor for the interactive processes of creation and coordination in the conducive economy.
An Alternative Economic Vision for Healthy Work: Conducive Economy
Authors: Karasek Robert A.
Published: September 2004

A model of production and exchange is proposed as an alternative to both market-oriented policy and social welfare policy. New patterns of social coordination at work form the basis for a new form of production output value: conducive value. This value is developed in both workers and consumers, activates skills and capabilities, and transforms customers from passive recipients to active users. It broadens the definition of economically valid social activity and it will help to resolve the unemployment dilemma arising with globalization. The article observes that the flexibility demanded by neoliberal, market-oriented policy is antithetical to the flexibility of creative production, which builds on horizontal interaction at work and in exchange, thereby facilitating the creation of social relationships and social capital. In that, it constructs bridges between the new policy and models of social policy which form its platform and enhances the chances for effective democracy in society.
Working Economics: Labor Policy and Conducive Economy in the Netherlands
Authors: Korver Ton
Published: September 2004

The conducive economy challenges both the conceptual foundations and the practices of present-day economies. In the Netherlands, a few initiatives during the 1980s and early 1990s looked promising, in particular, as these initiatives focused on work quality as one major precondition for reducing disability and enhancing labor participation. Prospects are less bright today. Ever larger slices of governmental monetary, financial, economic, and social policies become market oriented, as distinct from conducivity oriented. The instrument of the covenant, nonetheless, may prove worthwhile in further promoting the banner of work quality.
The Conducivity Model and Pragmatic Work-Change Programs
Authors: Hvid Helge
Published: September 2004

The Scandinavian working-life tradition is founded on ideas and values similar to the model of conductivity. However, although the Scandinavian working-life tradition is pragmatic and consensus seeking the model of conductivity is stringent following its principles. The pragmatic approach, here represented by the Danish program of “the developmental work,” has made it difficult to follow the vision of the program (to improve working conditions and at the same time meet social and environmental needs). Instead, the program has mainly targeted organizational development in established companies, accepting the existing principles of wealth creation. The model of conductivity can strength the visions behind the pragmatic approach by its conceptualization of an alternative creation of wealth related to opportunities in current working life: a creation of wealth based on skill, creativity and networking among employees across the borders of the organizations and released from the language of management.
Environmental Benefits: Clean and Conducive Production
Authors: Karasek Robert A.
Published: September 2004

After a brief description of the concept of clean production, its commonalities with the concept of conducive production (discussed in the first article of this issue) are outlined. By integrating clean production goals into the conducive economy, a healthier environment can be realized along with healthier workplaces and a healthier economy.
A Tool for Creating Healthier Workplaces: The Conducivity Process
Authors: Karasek Robert A.
Published: September 2004

The conducivity process, a methodology for creating healthier workplaces by promoting conducive production, is illustrated through the use of the “conducivity game” developed in the NordNet Project in Sweden, which was an action research project to test a job redesign methodology. The project combined the “conducivity” hypotheses about a combination of employees’ skills and the Scandanavian “dialogue-based” participatory practice. The goal of the conducivity game is to develop a flexible division of labor that enhances employees’ skills and facilitates development of customer-adaptable products. The game develops “local languages” of worker coordination using visual images of a multiworker skill integration based on “skill plates.” Usage of the game in the companies activated shop-floor workers and companies to engage in self-managed work reorganization activities.
An Analysis of 19 International Case Studies of Stress Prevention Through Work Reorganization Using the Demand/Control Model
Authors: Karasek Robert A.
Published: September 2004

Nineteen international case studies of workplace stress prevention initiatives are analyzed. The focus of these cases, which span a variety of workplaces and locations, is on preventing stress through work reorganization rather than remedial approaches for stress relief. It is found that the majority of the occupations represented in the case studies can be categorized as high-strain jobs according to the demand/control model. Common trends in terms of why the interventions were initiated and by whom, the type of intervention chosen, and the results are analyzed. It is found that in general, worker participation, open communication between labor and management, and a learning approach to stress are keys to preventing stress at work and also tend to increase productivity.
The Urban Scale of Science and the Enlargement of Madrid (1851-1936)
Authors: Lafuente Antonio , Saraiva Tiago
Published: September 2004

During the Enlightenment, Madrid’s scientific institutions, such as the Botanical Garden or the Natural History Museum, served the demands of court ornamentation as well as colonial efficiency. They were landmarks of new urbanism and new science. In the 19th century engineers and hygienists shifted their focus from empire to city. The relevance of their know-how was now certified by their capacity to solve the city’s problems. They had to bring water, design urban expansion and fight epidemics. Once again the sites from which these new actors reformed the city were heterotopias, symbols of the promised metropolis: new monuments both by their architecture and their noble function as scientific institutions. All these local concerns were to be set aside by a new scientific community emerging in Madrid in the first decade of the 20th century. A group of physicists, chemists and biologists in search of international recognition formed a new scientific campus on the outskirts of the city. The rationalism of their buildings was the best symbol of the new scientific culture of precision. The change of architecture also meant a change of culture. Our aim is to recover a lost sense of the city by placing ourselves at the beginning of the process of urban production. We hope that such a focus will reveal the fundamental role of scientific activity in the definition of urban spaces.
Rule-Scepticism and the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge
Authors: Kusch Martin
Published: September 2004

This paper revisits the 1992 debate between David Bloor and Michael Lynch over the importance of Wittgenstein’s rule-following considerations for social studies of science. Lynch defended four points: (1) Bloor is committed to a rule-sceptical reading of Wittgenstein; (2) this reading is similar to that proposed by Kripke in 1982; (3) the criticism levelled previously against Kripke also applies to Bloor; (4) the problems besetting Bloor’s rule-scepticism undermine his project of a causal-explanatory sociology of scientific knowledge. This paper takes issue with all four points. Concerning (1) and (2) this paper emphasizes that Bloor explicitly rejects Kripke’s rule-scepticism in his 1997 book on Wittgenstein and rule-following. It is argued here that Bloor was wrong to do so. Bloor’s meaning-finitism is an unsatisfactory answer to the meaning-sceptical challenge posed in Kripke’s work. As concerns (3), this paper answers the criticism that Gordon Baker and Peter Hacker have directed against Kripke. This is important since Baker and Hacker’s criticism is given a particularly prominent position in Lynch’s attack on Bloor. Finally, regarding (4), it is shown that Bloor’s unsatisfactory treatment of rule-scepticism does not undermine his project for a causal-explanatory sociology of scientific knowledge.
Interrogating the Civic Epistemology of American Democracy
Authors: Miller Clark A.
Published: September 2004

Transitions of power are fragile, anxious moments for political systems. This paper explores how electoral machinery - the material and social technologies of casting, counting, and contesting votes - dynamically stabilizes democratic transitions. The paper analyzes the controversy surrounding the 2000 US Presidential election. For 36 days political stability in the USA hung on uncertainty over a seemingly simple matter of fact: which candidate won the most votes in the state of Florida. Interrogating the civic epistemology of US elections - the processes by which elections produce, validate, and put knowledge to use - the paper contends that electoral machinery functions to contain common uncertainties, contingencies, and conflicts that might otherwise destabilize democratic political order. The paper develops a model of electoral machinery as a loosely integrated network of sites including polling places, election administration, the courts, the media, and the American public. This network constructs credible knowledge in a distributed fashion and helps form an intermediate layer in US politics, integrating geography, state, and civil society. This network model of electoral machinery implicates both democratic theory and practical electoral reform.
The Emergence of the Silent Witness
Authors: Golan Tal
Published: September 2004

The late 19th-century discovery of X-rays befuddled not only the scientific world but also the medical and legal worlds. The possibility of looking into the human body as if through an open window challenged the time-honored medical monopoly over the inner cavities of the human body. Likewise, the possibility of visualizing objects unavailable to the naked eye challenged the established legal theories and practices of illustration and proof. This paper describes the reactions to those challenges by the medical and the legal professions in the USA. The two professions are treated as connected social institutions, producing ongoing negotiations through which legal doctrines affect medicine no less than scientific discoveries and medical applications affect the law. This joint analysis rewards us with a rich story about an early and overlooked chapter in X-ray history on the professionalization of radiology, the origins of defensive medicine, and the evolution of the legal theory and practice of visual evidence.
Speciation of Lipids and Humus-Like Colloidal Compounds in a Forest Soil Reclaimed with Municipal Solid Waste Compost
Authors: Zancada M. Cristina , Almendros Gonzalo , Sanz Jesús , Román Román
Published: September 2004

The progressive transformations of lipid and humus-like fractions in soil after massive input (400 Mg ha-1) of urban waste have been studied during an 87-week experiment in field plots of a degraded Calcic Regosol in Central Spain.

Structural changes in the macromolecular fractions were small when compared with the qualitative and quantitative changes in lipid composition. The intense depletion of the lipid fraction with time and the decrease of the humic acid to fulvic acid ratio were the most significant quantitative indices of the compost transformation in soil. Changes in soil lipid fractions were especially noted in relation to their speciation status and distribution patterns (carbon preference index and relative chain length). Three subfractions were considered: (I) direct extraction with petroleum ether, (II) liquid-liquid extraction after soil treatment with 2 M H3PO4 and (III) after soil treatment with 0.1 M NaOH.

Although lipid concentration tends to decrease with time, lipids in the fraction tightly bonded to soil (III) remained qualitatively and quantitatively constant in the course of the field experiment. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analyses showed that the more stable the association of lipid to the soil matrix, the fewer the changes observed in the distribution pattern of the fatty acids during the progressive transformation stages.
Thermal Treatment of Stabilized Air Pollution Control Residues in a Waste Incinerator Pilot Plant. Part 2: Leaching Characteristics of Bottom Ashes
Authors: Baun Dorthe L. , Christensen Thomas H. , Bergfeldt Brita , Vehlow Jürgen , Mogensen Erhardt P. B.
Published: September 2004

With the perspective of generating only one solid residue from waste incineration, co-feeding of municipal solid waste and air pollution control residues stabilized by the Ferrox process was investigated in the TAMARA pilot plant incinerator as described in Bergfeldt et al. (Waste Management Research, 22, 49-57, 2004). This paper reports on leaching from the combined bottom ashes. Batch leaching test, pH- static leaching tests, availability tests and column leaching tests were used to characterize the leaching properties. The leaching properties are key information in the context of reuse in construction or in landfilling of the combined residue. In general, the combined bottom ashes had leaching characteristics similar to the reference bottom ash, which contained no APC residue. However, As and Pb showed slightly elevated leaching from the combined bottom ashes, while Cr showed less leaching. The investigated combined bottom ashes had contents of metals comparable to what is expected at steady state after continuous co-feeding of APC residues. Only Cd and Pb were partly volatilized (30-40%) during the incineration process and thus the combined bottom ashes had lower contents of Cd and Pb than expected at steady state. Furthermore, a major loss of Hg was, not surprisingly, seen and co-feeding of Ferrox-products together with municipal solid waste will require dedicated removal of Hg in the flue gas to prevent a build up of Hg in the system. In spite of this, a combined single solid residue from waste incineration seems to be a significant environmental improvement to current technology.
Soil Reinforcement with Recycled Carpet Wastes
Authors: Ghiassian Hossein , Poorebrahim Gholamreza , Gray Donald H.
Published: September 2004

A root or fibre-reinforced soil behaves as a composite material in which fibres of relatively high tensile strength are embedded in a matrix of relatively plastic soil. Shear stresses in the soil mobilize tensile resistance in the fibres, which in turn impart greater strength to the soil. A research project has been undertaken to study the influence of synthetic fibrous materials for improving the strength characteristics of a fine sandy soil. One of the main objectives of the project is to explore the conversion of fibrous carpet waste into a valueadded product for soil reinforcement. Drained triaxial tests were conducted on specimens, which were prepared in a cylindrical mould and compacted at their optimum water contents. The main test variables included the aspect ratio and the weight percentage of the fibrous strips. The results clearly show that fibrous inclusions derived from carpet wastes improve the shear strength of silty sands. A model developed to simulate the effect of the fibrous inclusions accurately predicts the influence of strip content, aspect ratio and confining pressure on the shear strength of reinforced sand.
A Historical Context of Municipal Solid Waste Management in the United States
Authors: Louis Garrick E.
Published: September 2004

Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in the United States is a system comprised of regulatory, administrative, market, technology, and social subcomponents, and can only be understood in the context of its historical evolution. American cities lacked organized public works for street cleaning, refuse collection, water treatment, and human waste removal until the early 1800s. Recurrent epidemics forced efforts to improve public health and the environment. The belief in anticontagionism led to the construction of water treatment and sewerage works during the nineteenth century, by sanitary engineers working for regional public health authorities. This infrastructure was capital intensive and required regional institutions to finance and administer it. By the time attention turned to solid waste management in the 1880s, funding was not available for a regional infrastructure. Thus, solid waste management was established as a local responsibility, centred on nearby municipal dumps. George Waring of New York City organized solid waste management around engineering unit operations; including street sweeping, refuse collection, transportation, resource recovery and disposal. This approach was adopted nationwide, and was managed by City Departments of Sanitation. Innovations such as the introduction of trucks, motorized street sweepers, incineration, and sanitary landfill were developed in the following decades. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA), is the defining legislation for MSWM practice in America today. It forced the closure of open dumps nationwide, and required regional planning for MSWM. The closure of municipal dumps caused a ‘garbage crisis’ in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Private companies assumed an expanded role in MSWM through regional facilities that required the transportation of MSW across state lines. These transboundary movements of MSW created the issue of flow control, in which the US Supreme Court affirmed the protection of garbage under the Commerce Clause of the Constitution. Thus MSWM in America today is largely managed by municipalities, and operated by a relatively small number of private companies. It consists of a mixture of landfill, incineration, recycling, and composting, and is regulated under RCRA, the Clean Air Act and other related federal and state laws.
Effect of Sintering Temperature on the Properties and Leaching of Incinerator Bottom Ash
Authors: Bethanis Sophia , Cheeseman Christopher R. , Sollars Christopher J.
Published: September 2004

The fine particle size fraction of municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash is often problematic because reuse applications for this material are limited. In these experiments incinerator bottom ash with a particle size of less than 8 mm was processed using conventional ceramic production techniques involving wet milling, drying, compacting and sintering. The effect of sintering temperature on the sintered density, microstructure, acid neutralization capacity (ANC) and the release of metal ions as a function of leachate pH are reported. Sintering at 1080 °C produced samples with maximum density. This material contained diopside (CaMgSi2O6), clinoenstatite (Mg2Si2O6) and wollastonite (CaSiO3) as the major crystalline phases. The acid neutralization capacity of sintered samples is significantly lower than milled bottom ash, and further reduces as the sintering temperature increases. This is associated with reduced leaching of Ca from sintered ash samples under all leachate pH conditions. Heavy metals present in the incinerator bottom ash included Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cd and Pb. Sintering under optimum conditions reduced the leachable fraction of these metals under aggressive acid conditions (leachate pH 3) by factors ranging from 90% for Ni to greater than 99% for Cr, Cd, Zn and Pb.
An Alternative Method for the Treatment of Waste Produced at a Dye and a Metal-Plating Industry Using Natural and/or Waste Materials
Authors: Fatta Despo , Papadopoulos Achilleas , Stefanakis Nikos , Loizidou Maria , Savvides Chrysanthos
Published: September 2004

The aim of this study was to develop cost-effective, appropriate solidification technologies for treating hazardous industrial wastes that are currently disposed of in ways that may threaten the quality of local groundwater. One major objective was to use materials other than cement, and preferably materials that are themselves wastes, as the solidification additives, namely using wastes to treat wastes or locally available natural material. This research examines the cement-based and lime-based stabilization/solidification (S/S) techniques applied for waste generated at a metal-plating industry and a dye industry. For the lime-based S/S process the following binder mixtures were used: cement kiln dust/lime, bentonite/lime and gypsum/lime. For the cement-based S/S process three binder mixtures were used: cement kiln dust/cement, bentonite/cement and gypsum/cement. The leachability of the wastes was evaluated using the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure. The applicability and optimum weight ratio of the binder mixtures were estimated using the unconfined compressive strength test. The optimum ratio mixtures were mixed with waste samples in different ratios and cured for 28 days in order to find the S/S products with the highest strength and lowest leachability at the same time. The results of this work showed that the cement- and lime-based S/S process, using cement kiln dust and bentonite as additives can be effectively used in order to treat industrial waste.
Noncoercive Sexual Contact with Similarly Aged Individuals
Authors: Friedrich William N. , Whiteside Stephen P. , Talley Nicholas J.
Published: September 2004

A community sample of 610 adults were grouped into those who reported no sexual abuse experience, others who reported noncoercive sexual contact with an individual that was at most 4 years older, and those who reported more severe sexual abuse. The first two groups did not differ from each other on current social support, trauma-specific symptomatology, and somatic complaints whereas the more severe sexual abuse group reported more problems on these dimensions. Further analyses suggested that of the two variables, coercion was more closely associated with problematic outcome than was the existence of an age difference.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Maltreated Youth
Authors: Linning Lisa M. , Kearney Christopher A.
Published: September 2004

The study of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in maltreated youth has received increased attention, though extensive comparisons to maltreated youth without PTSD and administrations of anxiety-based structured diagnostic interviews remain needed. We examined maltreated youth with or without PTSD using structured diagnostic interviews and standardized child self-report measures. We hypothesized that maltreated youth with PTSD, compared to their peers without PTSD, would experience significantly greater duration of abuse, diagnostic comorbidity, PTSD symptomatology, dysfunctional family environment, and avoidant coping styles. Results indicated that the group with PTSD did indeed experience significantly greater duration of abuse, diagnostic comorbidity, and PTSD symptomatology, though less so dysfunctional family environment or avoidant coping styles. The presence of a mood or anxiety disorder was highly predictive of PTSD in this sample. Results are discussed within the context of evolving etiological and maintenance models of PTSD in maltreated youth.
From Interpretation to Identification: a History of Facial Images in the Sciences of Emotion
Authors: Watson John Mcclain
Published: September 2004

Although images of faces have long been employed in the scientific study of emotion, the objectives and assumptions motivating their use have shifted according to the various fields and research programs within which they have been put to use. This article traces these shifts through three such fields – the social psychology of interwar America, cross-cultural research of the 1970s, and the contemporary neurosciences of emotion – in order to assess the recent use of facial images as a means of correlating particular emotions with particular locations in the brain.