bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cuba: immigration and emigration
Authors: Moya José C.
Published: January 2013

Immigration has been the single most important element in the historical formation of Cuba, and the island represents one of the most extreme examples of a global population crossroads in the history of human mobility. Amerindians from the mainland, Spanish conquerors and colonizers, African slaves, Chinese coolies, Maya Indians deported from Yucatan, laborers from Haiti and the British West Indies, and immigrants from Spain, other European countries, the Middle East, and North America have arrived in the island, often in the hundreds of thousands, throughout its history. Emigration also has a long tradition. The conquistadors of the Aztec Empire departed from Cuba. Cigar workers, merchants, and political refugees began settling in Key West, Tampa, and New York around the middle of the 19th century. More than a million exiles and emigrants have left the island since the Cuban Revolution of 1959, mainly for the United States, but also for Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Mexico, and Spain, among other destinations.
Cuba: migration to United States, 1957 to present
Authors: Masud‐Piloto Felix R.
Published: January 2013

Migration has always been an important and constant factor in modern Cuban history. The United States has historically been the destination of choice for Cuban migrants and exiles during times of economic hardship and political repression on the island. During the 1950s Cubans who opposed the military government sought political asylum in New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Even Fidel Castro, while in exile in Mexico, visited the United States several times to recruit fighters and raise funds for his struggle against Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista.
Czech Republic and Slovakia, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Szczepanikova Alice
Published: January 2013

Up until the early 1990s today's Czech and Slovak Republics were countries of emigration rather than immigration. The 19th and the early 20th centuries witnessed large‐scale emigrations from Czech and Slovak lands – then still part of the Austro‐Hungarian empire – due to primarily economic deprivation but also religious and political persecution. The main destinations of these emigrants were other parts of the empire as well as the United States, southeast Europe, Germany, and Russia. In the interwar period immigration restrictions imposed by the United States shifted emigration toward new destinations such as Canada, Latin America, and France. Smaller immigration flows in that period consisted mostly of return migration in reaction to the foundation of the independent Czechoslovak state in 1918 and the entry of Russian post‐revolutionary exiles (Drbohlav et al. 2009).
Demographic deficit and migration
Authors: Tosun Mehmet Serkan
Published: January 2013

Demographic deficit refers to an imbalance or shortage, in the human population of a country, province, or any other regional or local jurisdiction that arises mainly from differences in age, sexes, and geographic concentration of that population, such as rural–urban or suburban population differences. While different forms of demographic imbalances have been present throughout human history, recent focus has been on the significant shift in the age distribution towards an older population, which is also referred to as population aging. Migration as a response to demographic deficit has received particular attention recently, where replacement migration has been examined as one possible solution to demographic deficit.
Demographics and migration: an overview
Authors: Jun Kwang‐Hee
Published: January 2013

The field of demography (often referred to as population studies) studies various aspects of human populations – their size, composition, and distribution across place – and the process through which populations change. Births, deaths, and migration are the “big three” elements of demography, jointly producing population stability or change. The first aspect of a population's demographics or structural composition may be described in terms of basic demographic features – age, sex, family, and household status – and by features of the population's social and economic context – ethnicity, religion, language, education, occupation, income, and wealth. On the other hand, the second aspect of a population's demographics can be defined spatially at multiple levels (local, regional, national, global) and with different types of boundaries (political, economic, and geographic).
Denmark, migration 16th century to present
Authors: Andreassen Rikke
Published: January 2013

This essay focuses on recent – 20th‐century – migration to Denmark. However, migration to Denmark is not a new phenomenon, and therefore the essay briefly describes older historical migration as well as emigration. Migration is intertwined with the regulations of migration movements as well as with debates about migrants, border regulations, and citizenship rights, and so the article also touches upon regulations of migration and debates about migration.
Development and underdevelopment
Authors: Shankman Paul
Published: January 2013

Development and underdevelopment are macroeconomic rubrics that have influenced the study of migration for the past sixty years. After World War II, during the movement for independence by former colonies, theories of economic development were popular in Western academic, government, and policy circles. These theories usually focused on stages of growth within nations and processes of modernization that would follow Western models of economic transformation with appropriate injections of capital, entrepreneurial expertise, and removal of traditional barriers to modernity, and free trade.
Development partnership, diaspora and subnational development institutions
Authors: Mohamoud Awil
Published: January 2013

The former Secretary‐General Kofi Annan initiated the first high‐level UN Dialogue on Migration and Development, held in New York on September 14 and 15, 2006. This recognized that if constructively and creatively harnessed, migration can contribute to a better social, political, and economic transformation in both adopted and native countries. This is partly the result of the growing economic and human‐resources potential of the diaspora communities that need to be tapped for maximum benefit with respect to the overall development of their countries of origin.
Development and receiving countries
Authors: Vu Thomas Straubhaar and Manh‐Cuong
Published: January 2013

The ongoing free market globalization processes have stimulated the increase of the intensity of migration from economically less‐developed to higher‐developed regions of the world. Migration has become a phenomenon that is controversially debated in the receiving countries. This entry examines the economic consequences of migration and immigration, the challenge of successfully integrating people with different cultural and social backgrounds and that of managing efficiently the increasing diversity of host societies. Consequently, the evaluation of the influences of migration is expanded from a purely economic benefit cost analysis for migration receiving countries to questions of political, social, and cultural transformations as well.
Disasters and migration
Authors: Fussell Elizabeth
Published: January 2013

Historical examples of 19th‐century Irish famine victims fleeing their country, 1930s‐era US farmers displaced by dust storms, and recent drought‐driven migrants in sub‐Saharan Africa all suggest that natural disasters are important causes of migration. Furthermore, how natural disasters produce migration is of growing interest given that climate change is likely to increase the number of disasters and disaster victims in coming decades (Van Aalst 2006). A recent review of the literature finds that the relationship between disasters and migration is complex, and they are not as likely to produce mass migrations as these notable examples may lead us to believe (Raleigh et al. n.d.).
Discrimination and migration: national and ethnic origin
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: January 2013

The philosophical concept of discrimination and the legal conception of discrimination should be distinguished from each other. Some authors trace the philosophical conception to Aristotle's doctrine that equals are entitled to equal things. Discrimination is then the unequal treatment of equals. This sets an abstract and universal standard against which behavior may be judged. The legal conception, by contrast, has to provide a practical standard. It is usually restricted to the prohibition of unequal treatment in specific relationships (such as those of public life) and to actions based on specific criteria (such as those of race).
Displaced persons
Authors: Maegi Bernard
Published: January 2013

Historically, “Displaced Persons” – also known as “DPs” – were European refugees uprooted by World War II, the Holocaust, and the Soviet occupation of Central and Eastern Europe. The term has subsequently been applied to many refugees across the world uprooted by persecution, political collapse, war, famine, or natural disaster, whether or not they cross an international border in their flight. Displaced persons are involuntary migrants, forced to move by extraordinary circumstances from their homes or countries of origin to what they hope will be a place of safety. At the time of their migration, some displaced persons may believe that their status will be temporary; only later may they come to realize that their displacement is permanent. Other displaced persons migrate assuming that they will never return to their homes or countries of origin, but instead will have to create a new life for themselves in another country. Given the involuntary nature of their migration and their shared and often traumatic experiences, many displaced persons form close‐knit communities and create cultures of exile that attempt to preserve the memories of their homelands before their uprooting.
Diversity and mobility, theoretical perspectives
Authors: Rocha‐Trindade Maria Beatriz
Published: January 2013

The concept of diversity first comes into being when people recognize the existence of an “other” in relation to an “I.” The assertion of the existence of that difference can only occur when the individual becomes aware that the “other” exists, and recognizes himself as different from that “other.”
Doctors and migration
Authors: Hawthorne Lesleyanne
Published: January 2013

In the early 21st century medical migration has become highly contentious in a context where OECD (Organization for Economic Co‐operation and Development) nations compete for the supply of global workers, including international medical graduates (IMGs) trained in Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and elsewhere, in addition to countries in the OECD region. Eight key factors are driving this process.
Domestic violence, abuse, and migration
Authors: Menjívar Cecilia
Published: January 2013

Domestic violence or intimate partner violence is believed to be a widespread problem among immigrants, as it is among the general population (Salcido 2011). However, exact figures are difficult to access due to underreporting. This is particularly the case among immigrant women living in the largest immigrant‐receiving countries, as their underreporting is further exacerbated by issues of language, unfamiliarity with a location, and legal status (Menjívar & Salcido 2002). In addition, there are multiple obstacles that arise in the data collection process itself beyond underreporting; often groups are lumped together, the already scant data that exist often do not differentiate by national origin, and existing measures sometimes fall short of capturing the specific experiences of immigrants in the area of domestic violence. As a result, data on instances of domestic violence among immigrant populations are limited in scope and what we know often comes from research based on case studies conducted in a variety of locations and immigrant groups. Nonetheless, there are important parallels across receiving countries in the experiences of domestic violence among immigrants that could set the stage for framing important theoretical questions and addressing policy concerns. An effort to identify common denominators among the various studies from different immigrant receiving countries (Menjívar & Salcido 2002) yielded some recommendations in this regard, which provide a point of departure for my presentation in this essay. One of the factors that emerged is laws in the receiving countries that can work either to protect or further hurt immigrants in domestic violence situations (Salcido 2011).
Domestic workers and migration
Authors: Lutz Helma
Published: January 2013

In many parts of the world domestic work was never and still is not considered “real work.” As Hannah Arendt 1958 demonstrates, in ancient times activities performed in the private (domestic) sphere of the household were carried out unpaid by women or slaves. During long periods in history domestic work was a (poorly) paid form of gainful employment. However, modern times have brought about drastic changes in its evaluation: economists such as Adam Smith and Karl Marx introduced the asymmetric distinction between “productive” and “unproductive” labor, branding work in the household as unproductive. In modern societies, work in this sphere is defined as unskilled and menial; moreover, it is mostly considered as feminine‐gendered family work, either freely performed by female spouses or as gainful employment by non‐members of the household, in particular by women, performed for a wage that is always lower than that paid for “productive” labor.
Dual citizenship and nationality
Authors: Kerwin Donald M.
Published: January 2013

Citizenship can be defined as full, legal membership in a polity with the attendant rights and responsibilities. The notion of citizenship as a juridical status is rooted in ancient Roman law. The term comes from the Latincivis, meaning “free inhabitant of a city” (Klusmeyer 1996: 17). The Romanius civile(“citizen” law) initially applied only to Roman citizens (Klusmeyer 1996: 17). Modern nations confer citizenship by birth within the nation's territory (jus soli) and by ancestry or blood (jus sanguinis). They also naturalize immigrants based on factors like time in permanent legal status, good conduct or character, language proficiency, passing a citizenship test, and taking an integration course. Marriage and adoption can provide additional paths to citizenship.
Dublin system
Authors: Vink Maarten Peter
Published: January 2013

The “Dublin system” is a collection of European regulations that aims to determine which state is responsible for examining an asylum application. The system has evolved against the background of a European area without internal frontiers that has progressively developed since the Schengen agreement of 1985. The original Dublin Convention was signed in June 1990 in conjunction with the Schengen Implementation Convention (see Hailbronner & Thiery 1997). The reasoning behind the Dublin Convention was that without compensatory measures, such as rules about responsibility for asylum applications, states would not have ceded the competence to control their own borders.
Dutch colonization and settlement
Authors: Laarman Charlotte
Published: January 2013

In the 17th century the Dutch emerged as a colonial nation. Administration of the colonies was the responsibility of the Dutch East India Company (VOC, 1602–1798) in Southeast Asia and the West Indian Company (WIC, 1621–1792) in North and South America and the west African coastal area. The VOC governed several colonies in Southeast Asia including Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), the coast of the Coromandel (now part of India), Dutch Formosa (now Taiwan), the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and also the Cape Colony (now South Africa). Ceylon and the Cape Colony became British in the 18th century, and the Coromandel in 1815. Only the Dutch East Indies became a settler colony and remained under Dutch rule until 1949.
East Africa: slave migrations
Authors: Vernet Thomas
Published: January 2013

East Africa and its Indian Ocean shore, comprising the region of present‐day states of Kenya, Tanzania, southern Somalia, and Mozambique; the Lake Malawi region; the Great Lakes region (Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, eastern Congo [DRC]); and Comoros and Madagascar were the site of a large‐scale slave trade from the 16th to early 20th century, effecting massive forced migration. Since earlier times people of these regions had interacted through voluntary human migration and trading networks. Among these interactions, slave routes had connected several of these areas from medieval times.
Eastern Europe: medieval era colonizations and reclamation of land
Authors: Lübke Christian
Published: January 2013

While medieval colonization was controversial in Eastern Europe for a long time, it also built a rich heritage. It was rather a question of national pride concerning the cultural improvements that revolutionized social and economic life from the second half of the 12th century. The main reason for the national struggles of the 19th and 20th centuries is related to the seemingly dominating role of the Germans in these processes, which were frequently traced to the immigration of settlers from the west and to the import and spread of the German law (ius Teutonicum). This historic phenomenon was frequently used – and abused – as an argument in fights amongst the Germans for political ascendancy over lands which were populated mostly by Slavs from the early Middle Ages, and then predominantly by Poles in modern times. The debates began in the middle of the 19th century and soon seized the public's attention (Hackmann & Lübke 2002). Generally speaking, the Germans staked a claim for their ancestors having acted as the transmitters of culture, and the Slavs (and other ethnicities) were compelled to accept the beneficial effects of their arrival. But neighbors of the Germans, like the Poles and the Czechs, rejected their assertions and minimized or totally ignored their alleged merits. As a result, autochthonous development became the basis of regional colonization.
Ecology and migration
Authors: Sanderson Matthew R.
Published: January 2013

The human population is embedded within an ecological context that supports, but also constrains, human action. As one type of human action, migration is an expression of the relationship between humans and the ecological context. Indeed, throughout recorded history, human population movements have been closely associated with ecological changes, both accumulative and acute. For example, human populations have been situated in the Nile River delta in Egypt for more than 5,000 years, waxing and waning in size and composition as a result of earthquakes, droughts, floods, and land erosion. However, acute environmental change has also caused population movements, as in the case of Hurricane Katrina in the US, which forced tens of thousands of people to emigrate from the city of New Orleans.
Ecuador, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Torres Alicia P.
Published: January 2013

During the 20th and 21st centuries, Ecuador's migration flows consisted of (sometimes simultaneous) processes of emigration, immigration, and internal migration at different scales and in varying intensities. This article describes those processes since the beginning of the 19th century, and especially at the beginning of this century when the number of emigrants increased considerably, establishing a landmark in Ecuador's migratory history. Migratory movements have coincided with the cycles of an economic model based primarily on agro‐exports and, subsequently, oil exports. The fluctuations in the economy produced by the application of this model could be linked to migratory movements in Ecuador showing that these have been related to global socioeconomic processes and dynamics and, at the same time, that the model and its global insertion is reconfigured by the sociohistorical and political dynamics of individual countries.
Europe: gender and migration
Authors: Schrover Marlou
Published: January 2013

The essay first addresses the literature on gender and migration as it relates to Europe, and then examines the differences between migrant men and women in historical practice.
Europe: immigrant legislation and laws
Authors: Thränhardt Dietrich
Published: January 2013

Since the Treaty of Rome in 1957 proclaimed “an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe,” the European Union has been deepened and enlarged. The EU now covers 27 states – almost all of Western and Central Europe. Borders between member countries are open under the Schengen system, including nonmembers Norway, Iceland, and Switzerland. Britain, Ireland, and Cyprus stay outside; Romania and Bulgaria are poised to join.
Europe: migration and development, 1650 to present
Authors: Moch Leslie Page
Published: January 2013

Migration is often associated with economic development, and stasis with societies that do not experience economic growth. We will see that the history of European migration includes periods of high rates of migration and economic development, but that these are by no means uniform, and, on the other hand, that massive human mobility is not necessarily connected with economic growth or development.
European imperialism and migration to Asia
Authors: Bosma Ulbe
Published: January 2013

Military veterans contributed to the rapid growth of some European colonial settlements decades before substantial European civilian migration. This was the case in Asia as well as in the New World and parts of Africa. The emergence of civilian colonial migration circuits became part of European colonial expansion only in its later phase. In Asia, for example, the early 20th century was the heyday of the colonial migration circuit, when colonial economies and administrations required the skills of many thousands of Europeans. A substantial number of these Europeans were, however, the children or grandchildren of other Europeans who had made the journey to the East in previous generations. This circuit was as much a product of Asian‐born as of metropolitan Europeans. This essay focuses on a comparison of the migration circuits connecting Great Britain and the Netherlands with Asia.
European labor migration, 19th century
Authors: Oltmer Jochen
Published: January 2013

Industrialization, agrarian modernization, and urbanization changed the European economic and social status quo fundamentally during the 19th century, and led at the same time to a far‐reaching shift in migration patterns. Individuals, families, and groups resorted to moving between different geographical and social environments in their efforts to improve their earning prospects or labor market access, or to provide themselves with new opportunities. In the 19th century it was above all in the thrusting industrial/urban centers that such new earning potential became available. Millions of intra‐ and interregional and transnational individual labor migrations were the consequence (for further details and considerations here and following, see Oltmer 2010).
European Union: expansion and migration
Authors: Kureková Martin Kahanec and Lucia
Published: January 2013

European economic integration began in 1952 when Belgium, France, (West) Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands founded the European Steel and Coal Community which, with the Treaty on the European Union in 1993, became the European Union (EU). The “free movement of workers” stipulated in Article 45 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU represents one of the key pillars of economic integration within the EU, complementing freedom of movement of goods, services, and capital. The principle of free labor mobility enables citizens of an EU member state to enter the territory and labor market of other member states to seek and accept employment and, in effect, to gain access to employment‐attached social benefits. The Treaty on the European Union, Directive 2004/38/EC, and the Case Law of the European Court of Justice extend the right of free movement to all citizens of the EU, as well as to their close family members, provided that they do not pose an undue burden for the host country's public funds and that they possess comprehensive health insurance. In 2008, about 2.59 percent of the EU population was born in another EU country (own calculations / EU SILC 2008).
European Union: migration and social charter
Authors: Bahna Miloslav
Published: January 2013

European Union migration is the migration of citizens of the European Union (EU) within the territory of the member states. The right of free movement and employment is one of the rights granted to the citizens of the EU by the treaty establishing the European Economic Community (often referred to as the Treaty of Rome), signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany in Rome in 1957.
Exploitation and migration
Authors: Smith John C.
Published: January 2013

The proclaimed free movement of capital and commodities must also be applied to that which must be above all else: human beings. No more blood‐stained walls like the one being constructed along the American–Mexican border, which costs hundreds of lives each year. The persecution of immigrants must cease! Xenophobia must end, not solidarity! (Castro 1998)
Famine and migration
Authors: Hugo Graeme
Published: January 2013

Famines in both historical and contemporary times have been both a scourge and a significant process in the development of society. Famines are crises where a region or country experiences a prolonged per‐capita decline in food intake which directly and indirectly gives rise to excess death (Alamgir 1978). However, its causes are complex, involving not only drought and ecological degradation (Kumar 1990) but also a complex interaction between food supply, distribution, and demand factors (Ezra 2001). There are theoretical formulations regarding how such stimuli as socioeconomic crises – famines, for instance – produce a range of responses (Ezra 2001). Among demographers the work of Davis 1963, Bongaarts and Cain 1981, and Dyson 1989 has been especially important.
Farming, corporate control, cash crops, and migration
Authors: Waters Tony
Published: January 2013

Since the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, a huge number of the world's farms have come under the control of large landowners, many of them owned by corporations. These corporations make profits selling cash crops demanded by global markets in fruit, vegetables, grains, coffee, tea, fiber crops, and a host of other agricultural commodities. In the United States, such corporations are typically owned by a group of investors, or a family corporation. Each corporate farm typically specializes in a small number of crops – or even only one crop – in order to maximize production efficiency and cash profits. Such corporations are typically large enough to own expensive capital equipment, and also own enough land to make production profitable. To do this they often hire large seasonal agricultural labor forces that are paid wages to do the planting, weeding, pruning, harvesting, and other specialized agricultural tasks. Fruit trees, vegetable crops, and other commodities that require intensive semi‐skilled labor to cultivate are most likely to require such migrant labor.
Feminism and migration
Authors: Ferres Kay
Published: January 2013

Feminism emerged in revolutionary and emancipation movements in Europe and the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries. First‐wave feminists sought to secure women's place in the family and in public life, so that they could act in their own interests, influence opinion, and participate in democratic decision making. Recognition of their independent legal status, their rights to property, and to custody of children preceded the achievement of political rights. Though women were active in politics and social reform, suffrage was not easily won. It was achieved first in new immigrant societies. Women in New Zealand were accorded the right to vote in 1893. The colony of South Australia, established in 1836 and settled by a labor force of young adult poor from Britain and Lutherans from Germany, extended the right to vote and to stand for election to women in 1894.
Film and migration, Africa
Authors: Bâ Saër Maty
Published: January 2013

This essay begins by explaining concisely the key concepts of film, migration and Africa, and, where applicable, cognate terms, and then discusses eight themes related to African migrations through analysis of eight films that were made between 1938 and 2007. Each film is selected for the way it informs and frames connections between film and migration in African contexts. Films are approached thought‐provokingly, and without jargon, so as to achieve two main goals: first, a critical introduction to film and migration in Africa and its diaspora; second, suggestions as to possible ways of crafting new critical readings of film and migration in African contexts. Furthermore, due to the complex and vast issues at play in a single work, no claim is made to be fully comprehensive.
Film and migration, Australasia
Authors: French Lisa
Published: January 2013

This essay examines migration as represented in Australasian film. Beginning with an introduction describing the advent of film in the region, the essay then examines film and migration in Australia, followed by New Zealand, New Guinea, and Fiji.
Film and migration, East Asia
Authors: Cheung Ruby
Published: January 2013

Human mobility has a long history in East Asia, but migratory processes in the region have never been simple. In the recent past, internal migration has occurred within each East Asian territory as a consequence of war, natural disasters, and people's hopes for better living conditions. There is also growing archaeological evidence for a history of migration between East Asian countries that started thousands of years ago. For example, migrations from China to Japan took place as early as during ancient China's Han dynasty (206BCE–220CE). The mobility trajectories are further complicated by various trends of migrations, such as remigrations, return migrations from host countries back to source countries, and migrations in various directions in the East Asian region at different periods.
Film and migration, Europe
Authors: Berghahn Daniela
Published: January 2013

With European cinemas becoming increasingly determined by multicultural and multiethnic presences and themes, critical paradigms that examine these cinemas in terms of their national specificity do not adequately address the shift from the national to the transnational which has occurred during the past 30 years. This shift has been fueled by the ongoing process of European integration, the geopolitical changes following the collapse of communism and the arrival of labor migrants and asylum‐seekers desiring access to what they perceive to be the politically and economically stable heartland of the “old,” that is Western Europe. These various sociopolitical processes have meant that the concept of European identity and nationhood is becoming ever more contested and fluid. This is reflected in a growing number of films made by migrant and diasporic filmmakers that challenge traditional concepts of national identity, “Europeanness,” and ethnocentric myths.
Film and migration: excavating history and memory
Authors: Shin Chi‐Yun
Published: January 2013

Migration has been a frequent subject of feature films ever since the early years of cinema, perhaps not surprisingly considering that the Hollywood industry itself was established by a number of immigrant entrepreneurs, mainly of Jewish descent, who became major power brokers by the end of the 1910s. Charlie Chaplin provides a prominent early example that recounts the immigrant experience in a comic short aptly titledThe Immigrant(1917), which portrays a poignant, albeit comic, picture of the arduous journey to the “land of liberty” and the desperate situations many immigrants faced once they got there. Indeed, the character of the Tramp, played by an English actor working in Hollywood, with his ambivalent attitude toward the host society – he seeks to fit in and win its approval and acceptance, but is unable to conform to its rules and demands – still has a strong resonance.
Film and migration, Latin America
Authors: Canaparo Claudio
Published: January 2013

“Migration” in its modern sense encompasses a range of concepts, including immigration, emigration, exile, and refugees, terms that refer to all sort of movements, translations, and delocalizations of populations and individuals. This is why nowadays “migration” is broadly associated with mobility in sociological terms (see, e.g., Urry 2000, 2005, 2007; Elliott & Urry 2010). And, no less importantly, due to this sociological standpoint, the term migration is also associated with the question of how we approach population issues when societies no longer exist in the traditional sense. In Latin America, historically speaking, up to the 20th century the dominant concept was immigration, mainly because countries were trying to increase their populations and to establish their territory (Pellegrino 1995). This lead to the relevant “national narration” sought being determined by the fact that the country wasreceiving people. It was after World War II that the movement of populations and persons in Latin America acquired other forms, such as (1) of the generation of an increase in local populations (alto crecimiento) (Pellegrino 1995); (2) reversion in the direction of migration and an increase in internal migration; and/or (3) the internationalization of economic migration (locally calledtrabajador golondrina, or seasonal workers) (Pellegrino 2003; Pérez Brignoli 2010). During the period, the notion of an exile or a refugee also become more relevant, to refer to movements and changes in population rather than just indicating, as was the case historically, the situation of a group of politicians and/or intellectuals (see Naficy 2001; CEPAL 2006).
Film and migration: narrative, genre, spectatorship
Authors: Lykidis Alex
Published: January 2013

Human migration – the movement of people across political boundaries – has always been a significant factor in the production, distribution, and exhibition of films. In the United States, the non‐narrative silent films made in the early years of the medium (1895–1902) appealed primarily to working‐class immigrants. These early films adopted the shocking and spectacular style of fairground attractions, sporting events, and magic acts popular with non‐English‐speaking audiences. In later periods, film production houses such as the Ufa studio in Germany and the Hollywood studios in the United States benefited greatly from the creative contributions of immigrant workers. In the 1940s and 1950s, for instance, Fritz Lang, Michael Curtiz, Billy Wilder, Robert Siodmak, and other European
émigrés
helped to usher in a greater realism to American screens and were instrumental in the development of the film noir style. The postwar period also saw the emergence and proliferation of film festivals, which today function as nodes in a vast global network that enables the migration of film products, ideas, and technologies across borders. Film festivals constitute interstitial spaces of exchange that catalyze the global circulation and reproduction of film culture. The existence today of festivals devoted to films about migration is a testament to the increasing prominence of cinematic representations of the migrant experience. It is this engagement with migration at the textual level of narrative, genre, and spectatorial address that is the focus of this essay.
Film and migration, South Asia
Authors: Bhaumik Kaushik
Published: January 2013

Recent writing on South Asian cinema has begun to focus very prominently on the issue of migration as being substantially definitive of the manner in which the cinemas of South Asia have begun to imagine themselves in contemporary times. A number of distinct historical experiential axes have been invoked in examining South Asian cinemas through the prism of migration. For a long time the cultural dynamics of the South Asian region, consisting in the main of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, were seen by historians as being significantly defined by the large‐scale migrations of populations, first during the Partition of the Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947 and subsequently during the creation of the modern independent state of Bangladesh in 1971. Over time, a new axis of scholarly studies on the impact of migration on South Asian film culture was added with the consideration of the welter of films produced mainly in the UK about South Asian diasporic populations.
Film and migration: the problem of trauma
Authors: Petty Sheila J.
Published: January 2013

Since the birth of cinema at the end of the 19th century, there has been a fascination with discourses of migration, especially since its rise as a media technology coincided with the last phase of colonialism and the global wave of settlement associated with it. For example, in Canada, the United States, and Australia, film was recognized as early as the first part of the 20th century as a means of drawing settlers to desired areas or as a method for instructing newcomers on how to blend with the society. Certainly, in countries like the United States, many filmmakers, such as Ernst Lubitsch, Alfred Hitchcock, Fritz Lang, and Jean Renoir, were themselves immigrants who recognized the inherent dramatic potential of immigrant narratives, focused on individuals who have left the safety of home and family for strange lands where they must struggle to fit in with cultures often hostile to their presence. By the 1950s, film often played a major role globally in the liberation of countries from colonialism, as a tool of documentation and propaganda, and as a means of reestablishing pride in race and nation. Contemporary films on migration often depict the movement of peoples as a global phenomenon that not only blurs the boundaries between nations, but calls into question the very nature of those boundaries.
Film festivals and migration
Authors: de Valck Marijke
Published: January 2013

Film festivals have become a widespread phenomenon since their inception at the Venice Film Festival in 1932, the first festival to be organized on a regular basis. Film festivals proliferated in particular from the late 1960s onward. Today a film festival takes place every day somewhere: the estimated total number of film festivals varies from 700 to 1,500 annually. From studies on film festivals (e.g. Dayan 2000; Turan 2003; De Valck 2007) it is clear that they (can) serve various agendas or interests – geopolitical, economic, as well as cultural. However, their main function is cultural: to screen films that fall outside the circles of regular (commercial) distribution and exhibition. It is through film festivals that niche films – more commonly referred to by scholars as well as programmers and critics by terms like “world cinema,” various “national cinemas,” “art cinema,” and “auteur cinema” – reach global audiences. Moreover, with competition programs, prizes, and press coverage, festivals are able to add value (symbolic capital) to such films and, in this way, act as stepping stones to further distribution, for example via art‐house exhibition, TV broadcasting, video on demand (VOD), and DVD releases.
Foreign nationals and expatriate residents
Authors: Erima Ugbem Comfort
Published: January 2013

International migration appears to be a global trend that has exceeded record levels, as over an estimated 150 million nationals reside outside their countries of origin (Martin 2001). In addition, there are those who make short trips for research, business, and tourism. This trend owes its origin to the unequal social, political, educational, and economic development in the world, which has placed some countries at a much higher advantage in relation to others and therefore people migrate either in search of real or perceived greener pastures or to “develop” the countries that are disadvantaged.
France: immigration since 1945
Authors: Rygiel Philippe
Published: January 2013

In March 1945, Charles de Gaulle, then head of the French government, told the national assembly that France needed to “introduce, with care … , desirable immigrants into its midst,” in order to rebuild the country and rejuvenate an aging population. These words encapsulate some of the original traits of the French experience.
France: political economy of labor migration, early 21st century
Authors: Samers Michael
Published: January 2013

This essay is designed to explain the political economy of labor migration and immigration in France since the turn of the 21st century. In using the term “political economy,” the contribution seeks to move beyond simply a critical examination of politicaldiscourses, to encompass the interrelationship between the French government's perceived or calculated labor‐market demands,andthe politics and policies of the French government with respect to migration (entry) and immigration (settlement). The key argument is that that one cannot disentangle the political economy of labor migration (whether this is about “low‐skilled” or “highly skilled” labor migrants) from the politics surrounding other forms of migration (such as asylum‐seeking, student migration, family‐oriented movement, and so forth), not least because migrants entering through nonwork channels are likely to eventually search for work, sometimes illegally, and draw to one extent or another on social services, much to the worry of successive French administrations.
Freedom of movement
Authors: Pécoud Antoine
Published: January 2013

Freedom of movement refers to the right of people to circulate without restrictions across the surface of the world. This may concern either internal or international mobility. In the first case, the issue is whether states allow their citizens to move freely throughout their territory. The second case derives from the Westphalian organization of the world into separate nation‐states, which raises the question of the rights and duties of states toward noncitizens and, correspondingly, of the rights and entitlements of human beings who wish or happen to be outside their state. Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) addresses both internal and international mobility and states that: (1) “Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state” and (2) “Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.”
Gender and migration
Authors: Gabaccia Donna R.
Published: January 2013

Beginning with the first demographic studies of international migration in the 19th century, scholars have documented differences in male and female migrations and have considered sex an important influence on the propensity to migrate. For thirty years, feminist scholars have differentiated between sex and gender, asserting that social and ideological relations of power (“gender relations”) are more important than biology in shaping migration patterns. Gender, they claim, influences who migrates, in which proportions (the “sex ratio”), and with which goals and motives. Gender shapes the paths and organization of migration streams, the ways states intervene to encourage or discourage migration, the outcomes of migration for areas of emigration and immigration and, finally, immigrants' integration or assimilation, identities and lives. Indeed, evidence has accumulated that every point in the migration process is gendered.
Gender, globalization, and eldercare work
Authors: Browne Colette V.
Published: January 2013

This article examines the eldercare work immigrant women provide to America's older adults and families. Population aging, globalization, and women's migration are three trends at the forefront of the eldercare debate in the United States. Key questions include: who should provide care, how should care be provided, and who should pay for such care? Individual and population aging are unprecedented global phenomena documenting the dramatic growth in both numbers and proportions of older adults worldwide. As a demographic trend documented in both developed and developing nations, population aging is widely recognized as having economic, cultural, political, legal, and familial implications. In the United States, families, particularly women, remain the primary provider of most care to elderly family members; but growing numbers are seeking out paid careers to assist them with meeting the social and health needs of their aging family members. Globalization has provided easier access for people to migrate where there are jobs; more and more families and program administrators are turning to immigrant women to provide this care.
Gender, labor, and migration
Authors: Morokvasic Mirjana
Published: January 2013

Migration patterns, migration discourse, migrants' experiences, obligations and duties as well as the expectations relative to their migration are gendered. Men and women not only engage in migrations and mobility differently, inducing differential impact on those who remain nonmigrants, but their movements are also linked to each other. Gender is a socially constructed category; it produces asymmetries and inequalities relative to positioning of women and men and to valuing and ordering what is considered as feminine or masculine. Gender can facilitate or jeopardize migration – it underlies decision‐making and migration work, it determines who and under which circumstances will be expected to move and who denied the opportunity to move. At the same time gender identities are constitutive elements of other identities, cross‐cutting other social relations, and gender processes cannot be understood independently of the class, race, immigrant status, sexuality, or generation with which they intersect.
Genocide and displacement
Authors: Berengaut Bridget Conley‐Zilkic and Ariana
Published: January 2013

The realities of genocide are as old as human history and intimately tied with mass displacement. Genocide, the intentional destruction of entire civilian populations, invariably produces large‐scale numbers of refugees. Flight occurs as an early warning sign for genocide when persecution prompts individuals to flee; as a component of the assaults, where direct forced expulsions – or what is now referred to as “ethnic cleansing” – are undertaken in concert with widespread killing; and as a long‐lasting legacy when groups fear returning to places where they might remain vulnerable to genocidal attacks.
Gentrification and displacement
Authors: Watt Paul
Published: January 2013

This essay provides an overview of the topic of gentrification with an emphasis on displacement. According to the urban geographer Tom Slater (2009: 294), gentrification means “the transformation of a working‐class or vacant area of a city into middle‐class residential and/or commercial use.” Incoming high‐income groups therefore colonize (gentrify) a previously working‐class urban neighborhood, as occurred in postwar Islington, north London, which prompted the sociologist Ruth Glass to coin the term “gentrification” back in 1964 (Lees et al. 2008: 4). However, contemporary gentrification occurs on a far larger scale than in previous decades and refers more broadly to the class remaking of cities which are being economically, physically, and culturally transformed via large‐scale property development – increasingly under the aegis of state‐driven urban regeneration programs – into living and leisure spaces for the affluent middle classes (Smith 2002; Lees et al. 2008).