bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Understanding Global War
Authors: Modelski George , Morgan Patrick M.
Published: March 2007

While the problem of war in general deserves continuing scholarly attention, it seems appropriate to single out the systemwide—that is, global—war for intensive analysis as the kind of war that poses the gravest threat of catastrophe. Such a war can best be understood as an integral part of a long cycle, a recurring pattern in the development and operation of the global layer of the international system. From this perspective the design of a solution to the problem of global war requires either disruption of the long cycle or the development of a functional substitute for the leadership selection process that these wars have provided for the global system. The dominant contemporary solution to the problem, nuclear deterrence, ignores this perspective, and thereby overestimates the long-term utility and viability of deterrence. Deterrence theory also fails to provide a satisfactory explanation as to why and how deterrence works. Thus we must search for a creative alternative; and while its exact nature cannot be described, some relevant lines of inquiry can be identified.
Soviet Military and Civilian Resource Allocation 1951-1980
Authors: Johnson Paul M. , Wells Robert A.
Published: March 2007

The “guns versus butter” literature focuses mainly on the industrialized capitalist democracies and has reported little success in empirically substantiating the existence of durable trade-off relationships between military spending and particular civilian programs during peacetime. This article identifies structural features of Soviet-type politicoeconomic systems that make them more likely to display such durable trade-offs and then demonstrates the point by multiple regression time-series estimation of the effects of changing rates of growth in Soviet military spending on 13 major civilian programs during the period 1951-1980, controlling for demographic, economic growth, and leadership succession effects. Despite considerable noise in the Soviet military spending data, substantial and robust trade-off phenomena are demonstrated only for housing construction and the production of durable consumer goods, whereas ideologically favored programs for productive investment and social spending (except perhaps old-age pensions) appear to have been much less affected by marginal changes in military spending.
Perceptual Illusions and Military Realities
Authors: Plous S.
Published: March 2007

Traditionally, the most common game-theoretic model of the nuclear arms race has been the Prisoner's Dilemma, in which participants are bound in conflict by the structure of the situation. Recent evidence suggests, however, that the nuclear arms race may be better approximated by a “Perceptual Dilemma” arising from discrepant perceptions of various outcome utilities. The present experiment compared the effects of two strategies, a matching strategy (called Status Quo) and a matching strategy preceded by unconditional cooperation (called Disarmament Initiatives), within the context of a Prisoner's Dilemma or a Perceptual Dilemma. Results indicated that: (a) the Status Quo strategy sustained competitive behavior, attitudes, and emotions in both the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Perceptual Dilemma; and (b) the Disarmament Initiatives strategy induced significantly more cooperation among subjects locked in a Perceptual Dilemma than those in a Prisoner's Dilemma. The limitations, extensions, and implications of these findings are discussed in terms of political action and future research.
Preventive War and the Balance of Power
Authors: Niou Emerson M. S. , Ordeshook Peter C.
Published: March 2007

Preventive wars are commonly defined as wars initiated by a major power to preempt an anticipated disadvantageous position in terms of resources or military capabilities owing to the differential growth rates of countries. This essay extends a game-theoretic model of the balance of power to admit differential growth rates and also to permit countries to adjust their investments for the future. After establishing the conditions for equilibrium investment strategies, we then examine the properties of the nation-system that this equilibrium implies. Specifically, using a two-period model, we are interested in those first-period equilibria in which, because their sovereignty is subsequently threatened, countries will prefer to instigate a preventive war. We conclude by arguing that, although differential growth rates and the period 1 equilibria that initial resources imply can threaten the sovereignty of countries, there are a variety of coalitional strategies available to countries and that only some of them imply preventive war.
Territorial Changes and Militarized Conflict
Authors: Diehl Paul F. , Goertz Gary
Published: March 2007

Throughout history, conflict has more often been rooted in territorial concerns than abstract political goals. Drawing on new data, the article describes and classifies territorial changes involving at least one recognized nation-state over the period 1816-1980. Among the dimensions analyzed are the type and process of change, as well as the contiguity, area, and population of the territory involved. Analyses of violence and territorial change are also conducted. Territorial changes most likely to involve violence include those involving major powers and those regarded as more “important” (e.g., contiguous, large area, noncolonial).
On the Likely Magnitude, Extent, and Duration of an Iraq-UN War
Authors: Cioffi-Revilla Claudio
Published: March 2007

Results from this study conducted in November 1990 at the Long-Range Analysis of War Project, University of Colorado, predict that the magnitude μ of a war between Iraq and the United Nations collective security coalition will be between 5 (hundred thousand combatant fatalities) and 6- (low million). War magnitude is defined as the common logarithm of total combatant fatalities. This falsifiable forecast (“an event 5 ≤μ≤ 6- will occur”) was derived using mathematical models for fatalities, extent, and duration, estimated on historical populations of Correlates of War Project data on interstate wars involving great powers. The forecast will be wrong if and only if 5 > μ > 6-. However, failure is scientifically unlikely in this case, because the models are parsimonious, they show strong empirical fit, and extensive tests prove that they are largely insensitive to historical evolution - unlike Lanchester-type models.
Research Note
Authors: Murray Shoon
Published: March 2007

A procedure is described for turning an elite cross-sectional survey into a panel study — even when no records exist that link individuals to their original questionnaires — and that also protects the respondents' anonymity. This method is used to add a second wave onto the Foreign Policy Leadership Project's 1988 cross-sectional survey. The procedure allows researchers to gather panel data after an unexpected and momentous event, so that they can document how individuals responded to the event.
The Effects of Resource Distribution, Voice, and Decision Framing on the Provision of Public Goods
Authors: Aquino Karl , Steisel Victoria , Kay Avi
Published: March 2007

This research examined the effects of resource distribution, voice, and decision framing on cooperative behavior in a social dilemma. It was hypothesized that high resource inequality would lead to less cooperation, whereas a more equal distribution of resources would lead to greater cooperation. It was further hypothesized that there would be more cooperation when people were given an opportunity to express voice, and when the decision was framed positively rather than negatively. This research also examined whether the salience, or strength, of two different motives for defection varied with the situation. When there was high resource inequality, it was hypothesized that the salience of each motive would depend on the amount of resources a person could contribute to a public good. The results strongly supported the hypothesis that inequality leads to decreased cooperation, but provided no support for the effects of framing and voice. There was evidence that under high inequality, different motives for defection were salient for those with more and less resources, respectively.
The Role of Rewards in Conflictual International Interactions
Authors: Sorokin Gerald L.
Published: March 2007

Models of international conflict often omit the option of offering rewards as a means of exerting influence. The author has developed a revised version of Bueno de Mesquita and Lalman's (1992) international interaction game that allows states either to offer rewards or threaten military force once they have made political demands and their adversary has rejected them. After laying out the game's logic, the author derives predictions about the conditions under which war occurs and rewards are offered and accepted with complete information. The costs of using force, relative military capabilities (i.e., the probability of victory in war), and the value of the rewards drive these predictions. The author also relaxes the complete information assumption and shows how uncertainty can affect the choices of both the maker of the demand and the recipient. Finally, the model is illustrated by applying it to two crises: the United States-Japan crisis leading to the Pearl Harbor attack and the Cuban missile crisis. The variables in the model help to explain both the outbreak of war in the first case and the avoidance of war in the second.
International Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution
Authors: Diehl Paul F. , Druckman Daniel , Wall James
Published: March 2007

International peacekeeping has undergone some dramatic changes in the past decade. This study represents what is one of the few systematic attempts to classify peacekeeping missions according to function. Yet the authors do not stop their investigation at this juncture. Using a theoretical framework derived from the scholarly literature on conflict management and resolution, the authors are able to scale different peacekeeping functions along two dimensions (primary vs. third-party roles and integrative vs. distributive processes) and understand their interrelationships. For example, how compatible might be the functions of traditional peacekeeping with newer roles such as nation building? From these results, implications for building theory in peacekeeping studies as well as more practical concerns, such as how peacekeeping soldiers might be trained for different missions, are discussed.
Culture-Dependent Assimilation and Differentiation of the Self
Authors: Aaker Jennifer , Schmitt Bernd
Published: March 2007

In two studies, we investigate how differences in self-construal patterns affect preferences for consumption symbols through the process of self-expression. The results of Study 1 demonstrate that individuals with a dominant independent self-construal hold attitudes that allow them to express that they are distinct from others. In contrast, individuals with a dominant interdependent self-construal are more likely to hold attitudes that demonstrate points of similarity with their peers. Study 2 provides additional evidence for the mechanism presumed to underlie the results by identifying differential schematic processes as the driver of expressed preferences. We find that differential levels of recall for similar and distinct items exist across culturally-encouraged selves, documenting higher recall for schema-inconsistent information. We discuss the results and encourage future research that expands the framework to group decisions and social preferences.
Some Crossand Intracultural Comparisons of Expressed Values of Arab and American College Students
Authors: Consalvi Conrad
Published: March 2007

Comparisons of expressed values were made between Arab and American university students, and between groups within the Arab sample. The values expressed consisted of ratings of 55 statements representing situations commonly thought to involve morality. The Arab-American comparisons yielded significant differences between the median ratings on 21 of the 55 items. The large differences occurred in unexpected areas, whereas the expected differences tended to be small. Overall, the obtained expressed values of the Eastern and Western students were similar both in terms of general level of severity and the rankings of the situations presented. The intra-Arab (Moslem-Christian and malefemale) comparisons produced few significant differences. A systematic interpretation of the obtained differences between Moslems and Christians was not evident, while the males and females differed primarily on questions involving sexual behavior. The purpose of this study was to compare the expressed values of Arab and American college students, and to make some comparisons within the Arab sample. The Arab students were attending the American University of Beirut in Lebanon, and the Americans were obtained from Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee. Both samples were secured primarily from undergraduate psychology courses. Among the topics discussed by Pittel and Mendelsohn (1966) in their review of the measurement of moral values was that of the intention of the investigator in measuring values. They listed individual assessment, prediction of moral behavior, development of moral values and the comparison of groups with respect to position on various moral issues. It was the last of these aims wxhi ch m ot iv ated thi s study.
Preference for Specific Orientation of Abstract Shapes among Zambian Children
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: March 2007

Experiment I replicates and extends among Grade 3 and Grade 5 urban Zambian schoolchildren findings obtained by Ghent (1961) among U. S. A. pre-school children. The Ss showed consistent preferences for specific orientations of abstract, geometrical shapes, including some of the designs used in the Bender-Gestalt and Koh's Blocks tests. Three hypothetical determinants of these preferences are discussed: (1) location of focal part," (2) "stability," and (3) 'familiarity." Experiment II attempts to assess directly the relative importance of (1) and (3) as well as to examine age-trends among rural and urban Zambian schoolchildren and urban "Western-educated" expatriate children. In both experiments, only limited support was found for the "familiarity" hypothesis. It is concluded that intrinsic perceptual features of abstract shapes give rise, independently of cultural background, to consistent preferences for certain specific spatial orientations of those shapes. A tentative theoretical integration of this phenomenon is made with other results showing crosscultural differences in the difficulty of copying orientation.
Characteristics of Peace Corps Host Countries and The Behavior of Volunteers
Authors: Jones Richard R. , Popper Roger
Published: March 2007

To test the hypothesis that intercountry variability in the average performance of Volunteers is associated with characteristics of Peace Corps countries, 10 overseas criterion measures of Volunteer behavior were correlated with nine socio-economic and linguistic indices for 44 host countries. Of several correlations supporting the behavior-environment hypothesis, the relationships between completion-of-service rates and linguistic standardization indices were most striking. By interpreting the linguistic standardization index as reflecting the extent to which intercultural communication may have affected host country nationals' perceptions of foreigners, a cultural exposure hypothesis was derived. It was argued that in countries characterized by relatively little cultural exposure, Volunteers may be more successful since their credibility as agents-of-change is enhanced by their cultural unusualness, as perceived both by themselves and by the country nationals.
Differential Cognitive Cues in Pictorial Depth Perception
Authors: Omari Issa M. , Cook Harold
Published: March 2007

Forty predominantly Black third grade children were randomly assigned to eight groups and were asked a question regarding the relationship of elements in Hudson'-s pictorial depth perception task. The question varied in terms of "which (looks or is), (nearer or farther) to (you or man), the elephant or the antelope?" Performance in terms of ability to perceive depth was statistically significantly higher when Ss were asked "which looks/is farther... rather than nearer." No other effects were significant. Results are discussed in terms of the effects of lexical marking and attentional factors inherent in the relational words used in the question.
Correlates of Birth Control Practices in India
Authors: Carment David W. , Paliwal T. R.
Published: March 2007

Scores on Rotter's I-E scale, attitudes regarding contraception, and other personal and familial data were obtained from vasectomized and nonvasectomized factory workers in urban North India. It was found that those in favor of contraception were more internal than those against. I-E scores did not differentiate between the vasectomized and nonvasectomized, but the vasectomized, as compared to the nonvasectomized, had more living children and more male than female children. There was some suggestion as well that those who had alone made the decision to be vasectomized were more likely to perceive the outcome as negative than were those who had made a joint decision with their wives. Finally, it was noted that a greater proportion of Sikhs than Hindus supported contraception.
Parental Machiavellianism and Children's Cheating in Japan
Authors: Dien Dora Shu-Fang
Published: March 2007

An attempt was made to clarify the developmental aspect of Machiavellianism. Two different types of social learning were considered, one involving "competition" and the other, "transmission" via modeling and teaching. With cheating in a game as a measure of the preschooler's manipulative tendency, two hypotheses were tested: (1) first and only children of low Mach mothers from simple nuclear families will cheat more than those of high Mach mothers; and (2) first and only children of parents who are both high Machs in simple nuclear families will show the least amount of cheating. Both hypotheses were confirmed. The study raised a very interesting suggestion that the nonobvious process of "competition" may override the often overly emphasized process of "transmission."
Extreme Response Style in Cross-Cultural Research
Authors: Chun Kl-Taek , Campbell John B. , Yoo Jong Hae
Published: March 2007

The neglect of the consequences of the Extreme Response Style (ERS) phenomenon in cross-cultural research is documented through a selective literature review. Consideration of ERS differences permitted derivation of three logical consequences that pertain to (a) differences in group means, (b) the internal consistency of measures and the correlation among measures, and (c) results of dimensional analyses. Comparison of U.S. and Korean student samples on a 1 30-item questionnaire revealed stronger ERS in the U.S. sample. Furthermore, the predictions derived from ERS differences were confirmed, thus demonstrating the credibility of the ERS argument. General implications of ERS for cross-cultural research are discussed.
Concrete Operational Development in Three Cultures
Authors: Dasen Pierre R.
Published: March 2007

Berry's (1971) model of ecological functionalism is extended to Piagetian developmental psychology. It is predicted that the rate of development of concrete operations may be partly determined by ecological and cultural factors. In particular, if three subsistence-economy populations are placed on an ecocultural scale, with low food-accumulating, nomadic, hunting groups at one extreme, and high food-accumulating, sedentary, agricultur-alist groups at the other extreme, the former are expected to develop spatial concepts more rapidly than will the latter, whereas the sedentary group is expected to attain concepts of conservation of quantity, weight, and volume more rapidly than nomadic groups will. The model is largely supported by the results of a study involving 190 children (aged six to fourteen from three cultural groups: Canadian Eskimos, Australian Aborigines, and Ebrie Africans. The discussion centers on ambiguous results obtained in the age range eight to eleven years for the conservation tasks.
Age Change in Time Perception in Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and Anglo-Americans
Authors: Shannon Lael
Published: March 2007

Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and Anglo-Americans estimated equal intervals of idle time and time spent working at meaningful tasks. Younger Anglo-Americans and all older groups perceived idle time as longer. Younger minority culture groups perceived no difference in the two times. These findings suggest a perception of idle time as wasted and thus appearing long as contrasted with the perception of time spent achieving. It is proposed that cultural differences in the strength of the tendency to view achievement as occurring in sequences of time. The temporal problems of minority cultures in majority cultures schools are related to this aspect of time.
Job Enlargement, Individual Differences, and Worker Responses
Authors: Orpen Christopher
Published: March 2007

To test the Hulin-Blood hypothesis that job enlargement is only positively associated with job satisfaction among workers who are "involved" in their jobs, three groups of black workers in South Africa performing jobs of different sizes or degrees of enlargement were given a measure of individual urbanization and a Xhosa version of the Brayfield-Rothe index of job satisfaction. On the basis of their scores on the measure of urbanization and the length of time they had spent in a city or town of "white" South Africa, the subjects in each group were divided into Western and tribal subgroups. The level of job satisfaction of the three Western subgroups increased significantly as their jobs became larger or more enlarged, whereas those of the tribal subgroups remained the same-supporting the hypothesis.
Directional Scanning as a Function of Stimulus Characteristics, Reading Habits, and Directional Set
Authors: Nachshon Israel , Shefler Gabriel E. , Samocha Dalia
Published: March 2007

Direction of scanning of horizontally presented visual stimuli was studied as a function of directional stimulus characteristics, subject's acquired reading habits, and experimentally manipulated directional set. Thirty-two English readers and 32 Hebrew readers were shown stimuli with directional characteristics (English and Hebrew letters) and stimuli with no directional characteristics (arrays of different circles, bars, colors, and geometric figures) for scanning. The results showed that, while directional stimulus characteristics affected the direction of scanning of letter stimuli, reading habits affected the strength of these directional scanning tendencies. Nonletter stimuli were found to be differentially affected by reading habits. Experimentally manipulated conditions affected performance, but specific set effect was found for Hebrew readers only. Finally, Takala's finding of subjects' tendency to attend to stimuli in the left visual field was reconfirmed and extended in the present study.
A Comparison of Sensorimotor Development among Infants in India and the United States
Authors: Kopp Claire B. , Khoka Ellen W. , Sigman Marian
Published: March 2007

To investigate the influence of differential experiences on sensorimotor development, 154 full-term infants reared in urban settings (83 Indian, 71 United States) between 7 and 12 months of age were administered portions of the Casati-Lezine sensorimotor series. Results indicated small but significant group differences at 9 to 10 and 11 to 12 months of age on hidden object and intermediaries tasks. Differences noted on the hidden object task were attributed more to care-giver behavior in the test situation than to infant capability. The intermediaries task, object and support, was the major group differentiator according to discriminant analyses. These differences were attributed to a subtle task demand which may be more difficult for infants whose gross motor explorations are temporarily limited by care-giving practices.
Cultural Differences in Probabilistic Thinking
Authors: Wright George N. , Phillips Lawrence D. , Whalley Peter C. , Choo Gerry T. , Ng Kee-Ong , Tan Irene , Wisudha Aylene
Published: March 2007

Cultural differences in three aspects of "probabilistic thinking" were studied. The study re-presents part of earlier work in Hong Kong and Britain and combines it with the results from a further study in Indonesia and Malaysia. The largest cultural difference was found between Asian and British student groups. The British adopted a more finely differentiated view of uncertainty, both verbally and numerically, than the Asians in response to uncertain situations. These differences are predictable neither on the basis of the relative abundance of probability expressions in the Indonesian language nor by the Malay samples' ability to discriminate English probability words on a meaningful probability discrimination dimension. For numerical probabilities assigned to almanac questions, the British were less extreme and better calibrated than the Asian students. Potential cultural influences which could account for the cultural differences were examined, and the possibility that Asian ways of dealing with uncertainty do not involve the verbal or numeric response modes studied is presented.
Social Schemata for Relations between the Generations
Authors: Edwards David J.A.
Published: March 2007

Four groups of 30 women from South Africa placed doll pairs to represent the 8 relationships obtained by pairing each of young wife and young husband with each of wife's mother, wife's father, husband's mother, and husband's father. The groups were: (1) whites, (2) Xhosa nurses, urban born, (3) urban born poorly educated Xhosas, and (4) traditionalist rural Xhosas. Interdoll distances were larger in the rural traditionalist group than in the other groups. The rural traditionalist group used very large distance for pairings involving the opposite-sex parent-in-law. All Xhosa groups tended to put the older generation figure in a more direct orientation than the younger. Results are discussed in terms of traditional Xhosa means of expressing respect through avoidance of proximity and eye-contact.
An Adjective Check List Scale to Predict Military Leadership
Authors: Gough Harrison G. , Lazzari Renato , Fioravanti Mario , Stracca Massimiliano
Published: March 2007

The 300-item Adjective Check List is proposed as a useful device for cross-cultural research. This study evaluated the ACL as a predictor of leadership ratings in two Italian officer training programs and the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. Ns were 244, 415, and 523. A 50-item `Military Leadership Scale" (MLS) was developed from protocols gathered at the time of application or entry. Its correlations with the leadership criteria, available from one year to four years later, were .25, .19, and .22. High scorers described themselves as conscientious, self-disciplined, and goal-directed. Low scorers described themselves as less well-organized and as having more varied and less socially desirable dispositions. In a sample of 100 Air Force officers, MLS correlated .24 with a composite criterion of performance. For 61 males and 61 females rated on leadership in experimental leaderless group discussions, correlations between ratings and MLS were .39 and .30. Psychodiagnostic implications of the scale included self-confidence, ambition, initiative, and industriousness for persons with high scores, and awkwardness, lack of ambition, and narrowness of interests for those scoring low.
Giving in the Kibbutz
Authors: Nadler Arie , Romek Elana , Shapira-Friedman Ariella
Published: March 2007

Attitudes of social responsibility and pro-social behavior of Israeli city and kibbutz children were assessed. Additionally, the effects of "altruistic" and "egotistic" social pressures were studies. Children were asked to donate some or all of a valued reward they had earned earlier in favor of poor children. As hypothesized, it was found that kibbutz children had higher scores on the social responsibility scale and were more generous than city children. Also, females had higher social responsibility scores, and gave more than males. City boys appeared to be least helpful relative to all other groups. Regarding social pressure, only the egotistic pressure manipulation affected pro-social behavior. The findings and their implications are discussed.
Modernization among Cakchiquel Maya
Authors: Sexton James D.
Published: March 2007

Modernization among Cakchiquel Maya on Panajachel, a Guatemalan town, is analyzed by combining a line drawing test with standardized interview schedules and field observations. A strong relationship was found between specific attitudes and behaviors, which also correlate significantly with general modernization and traditional variables. In these correlations there are two significant patterns: social and psychological variables are both the best and most frequent predictors of specific attitudes and behaviors. These patterns support the theory that there is a hierarchy of best predictors toward individual modernization in which economic variables are the best predictors until a threshold of development is reached at which time social and psychological variables become the best predictors. These patterns also suggest that specific attitudes and behaviors have idiosyncratic correlates depending on both the attitude or behavior and the situation in which it is found.
Research in Multicultural Societies
Authors: Berry John W.
Published: March 2007

In recent years there has been a dramatic rise in the number of comparative studies of groups within culturally plural nation states. There are two models which may serve as frameworks for guiding such research-the unicultural and the cross-cultural. An argument is advanced that research in plural societies requires a new model, one which draws primarily upon the cross-cultural model, reflecting an ideology of cultural pluralism, so that the independence and uniqueness of each group in the comparison may be respected. A trans. ethnic model is proposed for conducting comparative studies of ethunits in polyethnic societies. Guidelines for assessing issues of comparability, group independence, and the number of groups in the comparison and their cultural characteristics are discussed.
Experienced and Inexperienced Model Makers
Authors: Deregowski Jan B.
Published: March 2007

Samples of Rhodesian rural and urban schoolboys who make wire toys were compared with a sample of urban schoolgirls who do not make such toys. No significant differences in the ability to abstract the essential features of simple geometric models were observed when the children were asked to make such models of wire, although girls appeared to be less dextrous. On a drawing task, on the other hand, the rural sample performed less well than the urban sample. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Old-Age Security Value of Children
Authors: Kağitçibaşi Çiğdem
Published: March 2007

Some of the findings of the nine-country "Value of Children Study" pertaining to the perceived value of children in providing old-age security to their parents are presented. To what extent this value is attributed by parents to their children and what benefits are expected from children were assessed in the context of socioeconomic development. Specifically, it was found that with development, the old-age security value of the child decreases, which appears to be a key process contributing to lower fertility as well as to the modification of values concerning the place of the child and the care of the aged in society. Thus, the value attributed to the child forms an explanatory link at the individual level between development and declining fertility.
Stereotypes of Mexican Descent Persons
Authors: Buriel Raymond , Vasquez Richard
Published: March 2007

Three generations of Mexican American adolescents and Anglo Americans rated persons of Mexican descent living in the United States in terms of both positive and negative stereotypes. In general, Anglo American subjects held significantly less favorable stereotypes of Mexican descent persons than any of the three Mexican American groups. However, a significant linear trend for both positive and negative group stereotypes indicated that with each successive generation (first through third), the stereotypes of Mexican Americans approached the less favorable image held by Anglo Americans. Results are discussed in terms of a two-dimensional model that includes the dual effects of Anglo American prejudice and the degree to which Mexican Americans retain an identification with their traditional culture.
Measurement of Family Involvement
Authors: Misra Sasi , Ghosh Ratna , Kanungo Rabindra N.
Published: March 2007

This article reports on the development of a cross-culturally validated standardized measure of family involvement. Family involvement is operationalized on the basis of the motivational formulation of involvement and alienation (Kanungo, 1979) and studied in a bi-national setting. Data from heterogeneous samples of 269 Indian and 168 Canadian employees reveal that the eight-item family involvement scale has satisfactory psychometric properties. The scale passes the tests of internal consistency, unidimensionality, and construct validity in samples from both the countries. The usefulness of the scale for research and professional work is discussed.
A Method for Determining Cultural, Demographic, and Personal Constructs
Authors: Triandis Harry C. , Bontempo Robert , Leung Kwok , Hui C. Harry
Published: March 2007

A theoretical distinction is made between cultural, demographic, and personal constructs. The utility of the distinction is illustrated. Taking advantage of the shared aspect of culture, a method is presented that extracts a shared element of subjective culture from cultural samples. The method is illustrated with data concerning values obtained in Illinois and Hong Kong. The method converges with other methods of measurement of values, but has distinct advantages they do not possess. The illustration shows considerable agreement between Illinois and Hong Kong on most values, but also a few large discrepancies indicating extreme modernity in Hong Kong.
A Cross-Cultural Examination of Semantic Relations
Authors: Raybeck Douglas , Herrmann Douglas
Published: March 2007

This article reports on a cross-cultural investigation of semantic relations that examines the responses of subjects from 8 different cultures to 15 semantic relations. The semantic relations include antonyms, synonyms, class inclusion, and part-whole inclusion. These were chosen due to their use in prior research, and because linguists and cognitive psychologists regard them as linguistically important. Findings reveal significant cross-cultural agreement on the nature of antonymity, which suggests an argument for a property of language use innate to humans.
American-Japanese Cultural Differences in the Recognition of Universal Facial Expressions
Authors: Matsumoto David
Published: March 2007

Although the universal recognition of facial expressions of emotion is well documented, few studies have examined how cultures differ in the degree to which they perceive the universal emotions accurately. In this study, American and Japanese judges viewed expressions of six universal emotions posed by both Caucasian and Japanese males and females. In addition, all photos met external criteria for validly and reliably portraying the emotions. Subjects judged which emotions were portrayed and how intensely they were expressed. Results indicated substantial and consistent differences according to the culture of the judges and the emotion portrayed. These findings are discussed in terms of stable cultural dimensions that may influence the perception of emotion.
The Protestant Work Ethic in Great Britain and Uganda
Authors: Baguma Peter , Furnham Adrian
Published: March 2007

This study examined Protestant work ethic (PWE) beliefs in Great Britain and Uganda. University students completed seven PWE scales that had been used in many countries both from the developing and developed world. A two-way (Sex x Nationality) ANOVA showed many highly significant main effects particularly that for nationality, but few significant interactions. Those who endorsed the PWE were generally females more than males and Ugandans more than Britons. Possible experimental artifacts and moderator variables are considered along with the possibility that genuine cultural differences were found. These results are discussed in terms of the relevant literature on cross-culture studies of the PWE.
A Study of Japanese and Australian Children's Respect for Others
Authors: Mann Leon , Mitsui Hirotaka , Beswick Gery , Harmoni Rosslyn V.
Published: March 2007

A comparison was made between Japanese and Australian children, aged 11-12 years, in endorsement of rules governing respect for others. The children completed two versions of a questionnaire: prescriptive and self-descriptive. They indicated for six target persons-father, mother, teacher, best friend, adult neighbor, and same-age neighbor-their endorsement of seven rules, including greet (the person) respectfully, do what (the person) tells you, and stick up for (the person). Contrary to prediction, Australian children endorsed and reported greater respect for all target persons than did Japanese children. However, Japanese children showed greater correspondence between endorsed and self-reported respect than did Australian children, with the exception of teacher. Japanese children also differentiated more than Australian children in their respect for parents and teacher compared with friends and neighbors. These findings suggest that Japanese social rules governing respect are highly person and situation related, consistent with the strong distinction between in group and out group relations in collectivist cultures. The strength and salience of family in group relations, in which lapses in politeness are tolerated, may explain the lower levels of respect endorsed and reported by Japanese children.
Chronic Illness Beliefs and the Role of Social Networks among Chinese, Indian, and Angloceltic Canadians
Authors: Cook Philip
Published: March 2007

Members of three cultural groups (Indian, Chinese, and Angloceltic Canadians) in the greater Kingston area (total N= 182) completed a questionnaire concerning their illness beliefs and treatment intents for long-term illness (i.e., of more than one month duration).Items were grouped into scales on the basis of their affinity with either a biomedical, a psychosocial, or a phenomenological conception of long-term illness. Results indicated the existence of three culturally specific patterns of belief, and support was found for theories linking a person's illness beliefs to the treatment sought.
Toward the Cross-Cultural Validation of a Western Model of Student Approaches to Learning
Authors: Watkins David , Regmi Murari
Published: March 2007

The cross-cultural validity of the Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) was supported in an investigation of 302 first-year undergraduates enrolled at a Nepalese university. Evidence of a meaningful learning process model underlying ASI responses was found. As predicted, self-esteem correlated significancy with a more versatile approach to learning. Differences were found between the responses of Australian and Nepalese students to the ASI, but these were not easy to interpret.
Social Decision-Making Strategies in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Authors: Keltikangas-Jarvinen Liisa , Terav Tuuli
Published: March 2007

Social decision-making strategies among adolescents who grew up in Finland and experienced Western individualistic educational practices (n = 1,123) were compared with adolescents who grew up in Estonia (n = 428) during the period of Soviet collectivist culture. Subjects were provided three everyday social problems, namely mobbing, teasing, and stealing. The fixed alternative solutions for these problems assessed aggressiveness, prosociality, social responsibility, and withdrawing. The findings showed that Estonian adolescents were more aggressive and showed lower levels of social responsibility than their Finnish peers. In contrast to the official Soviet educational goal, withdrawing was shown to be the most typical way of solving social problems among Estonian students. We discuss the role of the nuclear family in the collectivist society. The results also support the claim that personal responsibility is not likely to be engendered if collective identity is expected to be present before the personal identity has developed.
Causal Attribution in an Intercultural Interaction
Authors: Thomas David C. , Meglino Bruce M.
Published: March 2007

Causal attribution for three different levels of adaptive behaviour by a foreign (Japanese) manager to the cultural expectations of host country (United States) subordinates was examined in an experimental setting. Two methods, written descriptions of the intercultural interaction (scripts) and direct observation (videotapes produced from the scripts), were used to present the behaviour. A main effect was found for the level of adaptive behaviour on attribution to internal causes. There was no significant difference in the accuracy of participants' memory of critical behaviours based on the method used to present the behaviours. However, participants' recognition memory was affected by the level of cultural adaptation to which they were exposed. Also, a significant interaction between method of stimulus presentation and level of cultural adaptation on causal attribution indicated that the mode of presentation may have affected the psychological process under investigation. Implications for the study of intercultural interactions are discussed.
Achievement Goals And Means
Authors: Niles Sushila
Published: March 2007

Recent research suggests that achievement-related behavior is culture specific and multifaceted. It is argued that achievement goals as well as means of achievement are oriented predominantly toward the individual in some cultures and toward the collective in others. A study was designed to examine achievement goals and means in two different cultures; one identified as individualist (consisting of a sample of 259 Anglo-Australians aged between 19 and 63) and the other identified as collectivist (consisting of 300 Sri Lankans ranging in age between 19 and 49). The results reflect an individualist orientation in preferred achievement goals among Australians, although a narrowly defined social concern is present. Sri Lankans, although predominantly more family and group oriented, also have important individual goals. In respect of preferred means for achieving goals, both groups are remarkably similar. Both seem to strongly endorse a work ethic and individual responsibility.
The Effect of Writing Chinese Characters on Success on the Water-Level Task
Authors: Li Chieh , Nuttall Ronald L. , Zhao Shuwen
Published: March 2007

This study examined why Chinese undergraduates performed better on an eight-item water-level task (WLT) than did American undergraduates. Based on cognitive developmental theory, it was hypothesized that ability to write Chinese characters may facilitate performance on the WLT. This hypothesis was tested along with an additional hypothesis that extensive training in mathematics, especially geometry, facilitates WLT performance. The participants were three groups of Chinese undergraduates: 295 native writers of Chinese from Beijing, China; 49 Chinese American writers of Chinese; and 129 Chinese Americans who could not write Chinese. Results suggest that the combined effect of writing Chinese and strong math training contribute significantly ( p < .01) to skills necessary to master WLT. Among Chinese Americans, the effect of writing Chinese is significant for males ( p < .05) but not for females. Scholastic Aptitude Test math score has a significant correlation ( p < .001) with success on WLT.
Patterns of the Attachment-Exploration Balance of 1-Year-Old Infants from the United States and Northern Germany
Authors: Zach Ulrike , Keller Heidi
Published: March 2007

In this study, the attachment-exploration balance of 1-year-old infants is analyzed with two cultural samples. Nineteen 12-month-old infants from northern Germany and 19 from the United States were observed in a novel and a familiar setting together with their mothers. The expected mutually exclusive regulation of attachment and exploration is demonstrated for both samples. Infants refer more to their mothers in novel situations and explore more in familiar situations. However, the balance between these two systems seems to be established differently in the two samples.
Self-Actualization and Counselor Interpersonal Functioning: a Replication
Authors: Rowe Wayne , Winborn Bob B.
Published: March 2007

Foulds reported earlier in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology a study investigating the relationship between counselor level of self-actualization and level of interpersonal functioning with clients. A significant positive relationship was found, particular personality characteristics involved were identified, and the implications were discussed. The contradictory results obtained in replication are reported in this study, and comment is made upon the suggestions originally advanced.
The Evaluation of Spiritual and Utopian Groups
Authors: Deikman Arthur J.
Published: March 2007

In the past two decades we have seen a proliferation of spiritual and utopian groups, many of which have been quite destructive to their members. There is a pressing need for a way to discriminate between the genuine and the spurious. In this article I show that we can make the necessary discrimination by paying attention to how well a group's activities are suited to its stated aims. The use of such functional criteria permits us to evaluate spiritual and utopian groups without resorting to biased standards.
Psychological Aspects of the Nuclear Arms Race
Authors: Chilstrom Glen A.
Published: March 2007

After examining some of the traditional explanations for the continuation of the nuclear arms race between the United States and USSR, the author discusses the psychological components that are believed to play a crucial role in maintaining the momentum of the nuclear arms race. Certain parallels are explored between the vicious circularity of the nuclear arms race and the cycle of neurosis. Psychic numbing, distorted perceptions of the enemy, psychological defensiveness, and illogical thinking are considered in relation to the relevance of each in understanding the current nuclear arns policies of the Reagan administration. It is suggested that new, more creative approaches are required to resolve the nuclear dilemma. There is a need for further awareness, the creative use of imagination, and global perspectives that recognize our common humanity.