bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bats (Chiroptera)
Authors: Teeling Emma C
Published: November 2023

Bats are nocturnal mammals that have achieved the ability of true self-powered Pight and are members of the monophyletic Order Chiroptera (meaning “hand-wing”; Fig. 1). 7ey are the second most species-rich mammalian order (>1000 species) and account for 20% of all extant mammalian diversity (1). 7ey are found throughout the globe and are only absent from the extreme polar regions, but some bat lineages show high levels of endemism (1). Bats exploit many environmental niches and can feed on insects, Ash, fruit, pollen, nectar, mammals, birds, and blood. 7ey are important pollinators and play an important role in the tropical ecosystems (2).
Issues in quantification and DP/QP structure in Korean and Japanese*
Authors: Gil Kook-Hee , Tsoulas George
Published: November 2023

We have witnessed in recent years a blossoming of work on quantification and its consequences for the structure and interpretation of the DP. This kind of work, often based on lesser known or less well studied languages, is now taking shape and is becoming a major influence on the current thinking not only on the structure of the DP and QP but also on the proper analysis of the structural and semantic configurations underlying quantification.
Stability and variation in article choice: generic and non-generic contexts
Authors: Farkas Donka f. , wart henriëtte de s
Published: November 2023

In Farkas and de Swart (2007), we proposed an analysis of the cross-linguistic variation in article choice in plural generics. In this chapter we develop an extended version of the analysis which accounts for cross-linguistic stability in article choice in non-generic contexts and in singular generics in languages with definite and indefinite articles, such as English, Dutch, French, Spanish, Greek, and Hungarian.
The temporal degree adjectives früh(er)/spät(er) ‘early(er)’/’late(r)’ and the semantics of the positive
Authors: Stechow Arnim von
Published: November 2023

There is a rich literature about the temporal conjunctions before/after, but at the time I gave the talk that underlies this chapter I was not aware of any analysis of the temporal comparatives früher/später ‘earlier/later’, which may be used to express similar states of affairs, but are constructed differently.
Phases and Interfaces
Authors: Grohmann Kleanthes K
Published: November 2023

The present volume is a collection of carefully chosen contributions with particular attention paid to thematic coherence as well as broad coverage of topics. The overall goal is to present a unique mix of takes on interface properties within the phase-theoretic approach to the grammar. This collection addresses the fundamental issues in the phase-based approach to the mental computation of language that have arisen from recent developments in the Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1993 et seq.). Leading linguists and promising young scholars from all over the world focus on two themes that are at the centre of current theorizing in syntax—the interaction of the syntactic computation with the interpretive interfaces (commonly dubbed the conceptual-intentional system and the sensorimotor system) and current formulations of Phase Theory (capitalized to identify a particular strand of current minimalist theorizing).
The Argument from the Persistence of Moral Disagreement
Authors: Jackson Frank
Published: November 2023

1. Arthur and Martha disagree about what ought to be done. Arthur favours a course of action we will call Quantity. Martha favours an incompatible course of action we will call Quality. This disagreement occurs against a background of massive agreement on matters that can be expressed in non-moral (and non-normative) terms. They agree, for instance, on who will or would be made happy and to what extent, consequent on deciding between Quantity and Quality, and they agree on everything to do with the attitudes and thoughts of themselves and of others that can be given in non-moral and non-normative terms. There is literally nothing about how things are, specifiable in non-moral terms or a priori deducible from same, on which they differ. Indeed, we can go further and suppose that the explanation of their massive agreement is that they know all there is to know that can be captured in non-moral terms. How then is it that they differ on what ought to be done?
Particularism and Supervenience
Authors: Strandberg Caj
Published: November 2023

One of our most fundamental notions of morality is that in so far as objects have moral properties, they have non-moral properties that make them have moral properties. Similarly, objects have moral properties in virtue of or because of having non-moral properties, and moral properties depend on non-moral properties. In ethics it has generally been assumed that this relation can be accounted for by the supervenience of moral properties on non-moral properties. However, this assumption is put into doubt by an influential view in contemporary ethics: particularism. Thus, one of particularism’s most important implications is thought to be that supervenience is incapable of accounting for the notion that non-moral properties make objects have moral properties. At least, this is what Jonathan Dancy, the leading proponent of particularism, argues in his recent book Ethics Without Principles, and elsewhere.
Robust Ethical Realism,Non-Naturalism, and Normativity
Authors: FitzPatrick William J
Published: November 2023

Ethical realists have labored for the past thirty years now in the shadow of Mackie’s ‘‘argument from queerness.’’¹ The result has been a familiar retreat by many realists from any metaphysical and epistemological commitments not already endorsed by the sciences. For at least some of us who are attracted to ethical realism, however, there is a sense that we have often gone too far in that direction, losing sight of concerns or intuitions that ultimately drew us to the idea of ethical reality in the first place. Ambitions to capture the categoricity of moral requirements, for example, or the irreducibly evaluative or normative nature of ethical facts and properties have often been sidelined or renounced altogether in the rush to find safe metaphysical ground.
Confirming the diagnosiss
Authors: Emery Alan E H
Published: November 2023

Most essential in the diagnosis of muscular dystrophy is a careful clinical examination by an experienced doctor.

In order to confirm a case of dystrophy a blood test (for serum creatine kinase levels and in rare forms resort may have to be made to DNA studies as well), electromyography, and muscle biopsy are important.
On Two Problems of Divine Simplicity
Authors: Pruss Alexander R
Published: November 2023

The doctrine of divine simplicity claims that there is no ontological composition in God of any sort, whether of matter and form, or of essence and accident, or of this attribute and that attribute considered as ontologically distinct. The doctrine is a traditional part of Christianity and Judaism, and can be argued to be a reasonable development of the monotheistic ideal of seeing a single entity at the root of reality. Thus Maimonedes (1956: Part I, Chapter 50) wrote that h#x2018;[t]hose who believe that God is One, and has many attributes, declare the unity with their lips, and assume plurality in their thoughts’, which he said was as bad as the case of Christians with their doctrine of the Trinity. While I disagree that the doctrine of the Trinity would violate the basic ideals of monotheism, Maimonedes may be right that the denial of the doctrine of simplicity would. However it is not my point here to argue for the doctrine of divine simplicity, but to defend it against two major objections.
Nominalism
Authors: Quine Willard Van Orman
Published: November 2023

Quine ‘s lecture ‘ ‘Nominalism ‘ ‘, transcribed below, was made available by his son, Dr Douglas Boynton Quine. The manuscript was listed as one of a series of lectures in Dr Quine ‘s website dedicated to his father (<>). I happened to peruse the site at some point in 2006 while doing work on Quine ‘s nominalism. The title of the lecture obviously piqued my curiosity and I then got in touch with Dr Quine. Once in possession of a pdf of the original lecture, I quickly convinced myself that the lecture contained the most systematic exposition of Quine ‘s views on nominalism I had ever seen and asked for permission to publish a transcription of the lecture, which Dr Quine generously granted.
Quine ‘s 1946 Lecture on Nominalism
Authors: Inwagen Peter van
Published: November 2023

Quine has endorsed several closely related theses that I have referred to, collectively, as his ‘ ‘meta-ontology ‘ ‘. These are, roughly speaking, those of his theses that pertain to the topic ‘ ‘ontological commitment ‘ ‘ or ‘ ‘ontic commitment ‘ ‘. The locus classicus among Quine ‘s early (that is, prior to the publication of Word and Object) statements of his meta-ontology is his 1948 essay ‘ ‘On What There Is ‘ ‘. Hilary Putnam has said of this essay, ‘ ‘[I was bowled over] when I read it as a first-year graduate student in 1948 – 49, and I think my reaction was not untypical. ‘ ‘ Indeed his reaction was not untypical, at least if I may judge by my own reaction to the essay as a new graduate student twenty years later.
Shaftesbury
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Shaftesbury is the first to use the terms ‘moral sense’ and ‘moral realist’. Since later believers in a moral sense, Hume and Hutcheson, reject moral realism, we may be surprised that Shaftesbury uses both terms to describe his own position. His philosophical allegiances also seem to lead him in different directions. On many points he agrees with Locke, but he also draws extensively on Platonic and Stoic sources. We may wonder whether he combines these different influences into a consistent position. These different strands in Shaftesbury have led to different views about where he stands, and about which of his moral doctrines are the most significant or fundamental. Some later critics treat him as the first sentimentalist.
Balguy: A Defence Of Rationalism
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Hutcheson’s Inquiry provoked intelligent criticisms from rationalists who agreed with Clarke. An exchange of letters between Hutcheson and Gilbert Burnet in 1725 encouraged Hutcheson to write the Illustrations (published in 1728). Balguy published his criticism of the Inquiry in his Foundation of Moral Goodness, in 1728. His further thoughts appear in Part II of the Foundations (1729). Balguy not only criticizes Hutcheson, but also tries to defend Clarke’s rationalism against criticisms. Hutcheson argues for his sentimentalism partly by presenting it as the only plausible alternative to Clarke’s rationalism, and by claiming that the rationalist can give only false or uninformative answers to the main questions that concern the moralist.
Butler: Implications Of Naturalism
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Now that we have examined Butler’s claims about nature and morality, we can consider their implications for the moral controversies that form the background for the Sermons. Butler intends his naturalism as a normative and as a meta-ethical doctrine. We saw earlier that he does not align himself with sentimentalists or rationalists, but claims to defend a naturalist position that is not exposed to the criticisms that, in his view, undermine a sentimentalist version of naturalism. How far does he describe and defend this version of naturalism? Different critics have taken surprisingly different views of Butler’s eventual position and of its relations to other views.
Smith
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Smith recognizes two main topics of inquiry in moral philosophy: (1) An inquiry into the character of virtue. (2) An inquiry into the faculty that ‘recommends’ virtue to us. The first topic is the primary concern of ancient moralists; the second is the concern of the moderns. In Smith’s view, only the first is of practical importance; the second is a purely theoretical question that makes no difference to practice. This attitude to the second question agrees with Hume’s attitude to the epistemology and metaphysics of morals. Hume takes the conception of moral properties as secondary qualities to be ‘a considerable advancement of the speculative sciences; though . . . it has little or no influence on practice’ (T iii 1.1.26). To show that the second question has no practical importance, Smith argues it makes no difference to our judgment about what is right and wrong in particular cases.
Individual differences in processing complex grammatical structures
Authors: Chipere Ngoni
Published: November 2023

Other contributions in this volume have addressed the widespread assumption that all natural languages possess uniform grammatical complexity. My contribution addresses the equally widespread assumption that all native speakers possess a uniform underlying competence to process complex grammatical structures. I argue that this assumption is false. I develop the argument over three sections. In the first section, I present empirical evidence, drawn from fifty years of experimental research, that shows that native speakers vary extensively in grammatical ability. In the second section I note, however, that it has been argued that native speakers do not vary in grammatical competence but in the performance factor of working memory. Variations in working memory capacity, so the argument goes, lead to variable expression of an otherwise uniform underlying grammatical competence.
An efficiency theory of complexity and related phenomena
Authors: Hawkins John A
Published: November 2023

Theories of complexity in language share the guiding intuition that “ more [structural units/rules/representations] means more complexity ”. Despite its plausibility, this intuition has proved hard to define. See, for example, the lively debate in the papers of Plank (2001) responding to McWhorter (2001a). The discussion went to the heart of the fundamental question: what exactly is complexity? and how do we define it?
On What Grounds What
Authors: Schaffer Jonathan
Published: November 2023

On the now dominant Quinean view, metaphysics is about what there is. Metaphysics so conceived is concerned with such questions as whether properties exist, whether meanings exist, and whether numbers exist. I will argue for the revival of a more traditional Aristotelian view, on which metaphysics is about what grounds what. Metaphysics so revived does not bother asking whether properties, meanings, and numbers exist. Of course they do! The question is whether or not they are fundamental.
Evidence and risk: The sociology of health care grappling with knowledge and uncertainty
Authors: Rapley Tim , May Carl
Published: November 2023

This chapter argues that decisions are not only to be understood as cognitive acts and interactional exchanges that are confined to the consultation, but that they are extended and distributed beyond its boundaries. We are, therefore, concerned with how patients and practitioners work with and manage the diverse sources of knowledge, uncertainty, and risk and mobilise these in the consultation. In this chapter, we offer a conceptual framework to understand the distributed nature of decisions (Rapley, 2008).
Professionalism and Medical Education in the Developing World
Authors: Pallangyo Kisali
Published: November 2023

Dr. Robert Martensen, I believe, was trained, practices, and teaches in the USA and therefore understands very well American medical education and practice. I have a very different background from that of Dr. Martensen, in that most of my medical training took place in a developing country, Tanzania; except for a few years of postgraduate training in the industrialized world, I have been practicing and teaching in Tanzania for almost three decades. I would therefore take the advantage of my different background and experiences to expand the scope of the discussions to include medical education in developing countries in order to enrich discussions on the subject.
Spatial Conservation Prioritization: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Moilanen Atte , Possingham Hugh P , Wilson Kerrie A
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter, we first briefly review the development of spatial conservation prioritization and related scientific fields (Section 19.1). Then, we summarize the present state of the art by drawing on the chapters of this volume (Section 19.2). Based on a questionnaire distributed to the authors of chapters, we also outline expected future research trends (Section 19.3). Over the past decade, researchers have harnessed mathematical techniques, GIS and immense increases in the capacity of computers to facilitate rapid and diverse conceptual and practical advances in conservation prioritization, and we expect such rapid development to continue.
The Amazon Of The East
Authors: Turvey Samuel
Published: November 2023

The Yangtze is one of the world’s most important freshwater ecosystems. It is the longest river in Asia and the third longest in the world; its headwaters rise high on the Tibetan Plateau, and 6,300 kilometres downstream almost a thousand billion cubic metres of water finally flow into the East China Sea every year. Its English name derives from a local term meaning ‘son of the sea’ used for the lower reaches of the river near Zhenjiang, and which may be derived from the name of the nearby ancient city of Yangzhou, which is mentioned as being close to a once more westerly situated delta in the earliest Chinese records. But in China it is more commonly called the Chang Jiang, which simply means ‘long river’.
East Meets West
Authors: Turvey Samuel
Published: November 2023

In 1981, shortly after Qi Qi had taken up residence with the River Dolphin Research Group in Wuhan, Professor Chen Peixun was invited to attend a conference on marine mammals in the United States. In order to repay the favour, she provided her host, Bill Perrin, with a reciprocal invitation to visit Wuhan. Although he didn’t manage to spot any wild baiji during the brief boat trip he took along the Yangtze, his experiences in China and discussions with Professor Chen alerted him to the huge gap in Western scientific knowledge about the river system and its dolphins—unstudied by outside researchers for sixty years—and also to the major limitations to understanding cetacean biology in China only a few years after the end of the Cultural Revolution. As chairman of the Cetacean Specialist Group for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Perrin was well placed to try to rectify this mutual shortfall.
The Hunting Of The Snark
Authors: Turvey Samuel
Published: November 2023

The two stags, their heads down, paced warily around each other. Grey steam stood frozen for a moment around their wet muzzles. Behind them, a herd of female deer stood motionless, long faces watching from the safety of the yellow reeds. Suddenly the males pushed into each other, their hooves slipping on the mud as they tried to maintain their grip. The clash of antlers drifted towards us over the marsh.
So Long, And Thanks For All The Fishing
Authors: Turvey Samuel
Published: November 2023

Over the next few weeks, the survey slipped quietly into the past and became consigned to memory, the daily grind of life on the river ossifying around the story told by a handful of photographs. I had no desire to relive the experience and tried to avoid my work colleagues, who wanted to hear all the details. They were sympathetic, but asked whether maybe I was being too pessimistic, unable to separate the cumulative failures I had experienced throughout the whole sorry baiji saga from the ecological reality out there in the Yangtze. Surely, as Wang Ding had told the Chinese press at the end of the survey, there must still be a chance that a few animals might survive?
Before the Dawn
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

By the middle of the nineteenth century the lineaments of chemistry had been well enough defined. Many of the chemical elements of which all matter is made, and all of the most abundant ones, had been identified, and their atomic weights had been determined. These atomic weights were expressed relative to that of the lightest element, hydrogen, which was allocated a weight of 1. On this basis the weight of carbon was 12, nitrogen was 14, oxygen was 16, sulphur was 32, and so on. It was recognized that atoms of these elements combined with each other in defined proportions to make molecules, and that each element had a characteristic valence; its atoms, in other words, could unite with a fixed number of other atoms of the same or another kind.
The Modal Strength of Leibniz’s Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles
Authors: Jauernig Anja
Published: November 2023

Anja Jauernig[AU]

The principle of the identity of indiscernibles (hereafter ‘PII’) is one of Leibniz’s most discussed principles.In Leibniz’s words, it says: ‘to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names’,or, similarly, ‘all substances are different in nature, and there are no two things in nature, which differ in number alone’.In its most general form, the principle can be formulated as stating that things are identical if, and only if, they are indiscernible in the sense that they agree with respect to all of their properties.
Plotinus On Astrology
Authors: Adamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Plotinus’ own writings also testify to this interest. One of the first works he wrote, Enneads 3. 1 [6], is a treatise on fate which criticizes astrologers’ claims alongside other deterministic systems. Some time later, he devoted a lengthy section of a long treatise on the soul, Enneads 4. 4 [28]. 30–9, to a discussion of astral causation. And one of the last works he wrote, Enneads 2. 3 [52], is devoted entirely to the question of whether the stars cause things to happen in the sublunary world. These texts show a sustained engagement on Plotinus’ part, not just with the question of how the stars relate to the sublunary world, but also with the more specific question of whether it is possible for there to be a science that predicts particular events by observing the heavens.
The Oestrus that Never was
Authors: Dixson Alan F
Published: November 2023

A recurrent theme in discussions about the origins of human sexual behaviour concerns the concept of oestrus, as it applies to female mammals, and to the presumptive loss of oestrus during human evolution. Oestrus, as originally defined by Walter Heape (1900), denotes a period of heightened sexual activity in female mammals, in association with the likelihood that ovulation will occur and that mating will result in conception. Heape noted that ‘it is during oestrus, and only at that time, that the female is willing to receive the male.’ The term derives from the Greek word for the gadfly, whose bite drives animals into a frenzy; the implication being that females are in a state of sexual frenzy or in heat during oestrus. Ovarian hormones (and especially oestrogen and progesterone) control the onset and duration of oestrus, so that ovariectomy is usually associated with loss of the female capacity to display sexual receptivity in many mammals. This is the case, for example, in rodents such as the rat, in carnivores (e.g. the cat and ferret), in rabbits, ungulates (such as cattle and sheep), and in many others. It is not, however, a universal attribute, applicable to all mammalian groups or species.
Human Sexual Dimorphism: Opposites Attract
Authors: Dixson Alan F
Published: November 2023

He also stressed that, as well as inter-male competition: ‘there is another and more peaceful kind of contest, in which the males endeavour to excite and allure the females by various charms.’ Darwin’s emphasis upon the effects of sexual selection on masculine body size, weaponry, attractive adornments and displays is consistent with the fact that females usually represent a limiting resource for males. Females invest a huge amount physiologically in reproduction and in the care of their offspring, so they are expected to be more ‘choosy’, whilst males may be expected to compete among themselves and to invest more in attempts to attract and control prospective mates. This is not to imply, however, that sexual selection does not act upon females. In the last chapter, the importance of female sexual skin swellings in mandrills, talapoins, chimpanzees, and other Old World anthropoids was discussed in relation to changes in female sexual attractiveness during the menstrual cycle. These extraordinary oestrogen-dependent swellings are prime examples of the effects of sexual selection acting upon females, to enhance their ‘charms’ during the ‘more peaceful kind of contest’ required to attract members of the opposite sex (Figure 6.6). Darwin (1876) was intrigued by these structures, and he recalled that ‘in my Descent of Man no case interested and perplexed me so much as the brightly-coloured hinder ends and adjoining parts of certain monkeys’. Even in this context, however, he emphasized the functions of brightly coloured areas of skin in male monkeys (notably in the male mandrill) rather than exploring the effects of sexual selection in relation to female sexual attractiveness.
Changes in sleep with age
Authors: Stores Gregory
Published: November 2023

The nature of our sleep, and how much sleep we need, changes considerably during the course of our lives. Table 4.1 shows the average amount of sleep needed at different ages. However, it is important to realize that, at any age, people differ somewhat from each other in this respect. As part of their biological make-up, a few can function perfectly well on less than the average; others may need more without having a sleep disorder. The biggest changes occur during childhood (see Table 4.1). An understanding of children’s sleep is important for adults because their own sleep may be affected as part of being a parent (see Chapter 11). Children’s sleep problems can disrupt their parents’ sleep in various ways, which partly reflect the changes that occur in sleep during the course of early development. Studies of premature babies show that sleep begins well before birth. A fetus spends up to 20 hours a day asleep. This very high amount of sleep persists during infancy, with at least 50% of it taking the form of REM-type (‘active’) sleep. This compares with about 25% of REM sleep in early adult life, perhaps reducing somewhat in old age. Also, infants can pass directly into REM sleep when they fall asleep.
Treatments for insomnia
Authors: Stores Gregory
Published: November 2023

The choice of treatment for insomnia should be based on the cause of the problem, i.e. the underlying sleep disorder. Principles of good sleep hygiene are important for helping anyone to sleep well, but they are also valuable in combination with more specific treatments, depending on the cause of your insomnia. Sleeping tablets have a very limited part to play in the treatment of insomnia and can be harmful. They are no substitute for treating the underlying cause of not sleeping well. Coming off sleeping tablets can be troublesome and needs careful supervision. Sleeping aids bought over the counter are of doubtful value and can cause daytime problems. With professional supervision, psychological and behavioural treatments can be very effective. As already stressed, it is essential that the basic cause of insomnia is identified and treated, whenever possible. However, you probably do not need to see your doctor if your sleep problem has lasted for only a short time and is a normal understandable reaction to your circumstances—such as those mentioned earlier as causes of transient insomnia. Jet lag is one of the few exceptions to this rule where prescribed medication in the form of a short course of sleeping tablets (or possibly melatonin) can be justified (see Chapter 11).
Particular groups at special risk of sleep problems and their consequences
Authors: Stores Gregory
Published: November 2023

Sleep problems can affect anyone, but certain groups of people, for particular reasons, are at special risk of disturbed sleep and its harmful effects. Parents’ sleep may well suffer if their child’s sleep is a problem. The nature of their child’s sleep disturbance, and ways in which it can be prevented or treated, vary with the child’s stage of development. Women may suffer sleeping difficulties related to pregnancy, menstruation, child care, and the menopause, but can often be helped during these times. Your bed partner’s own sleep disorder can also seriously disturb your sleep. Sleep problems are particularly common in elderly people, often because of a combination of social, medical, and psychiatric factors, although these can normally be corrected to some extent. Sleeping tablets are particularly hazardous at this age. Profound changes in sleep patterns often occur in people with dementia, causing much difficulty for carers.
Getting help with your sleep problem
Authors: Stores Gregory
Published: November 2023

Satisfactory sleep is very important for various aspects of living, and for general health and well-being. Many of us may know that we have a sleep problem, but we might not always be fully aware of its possible consequences. You may overlook the fact that your sleep is unsatisfactory and that it is likely to be at least partly responsible for making you feel below your best and unable to function properly during the day. It is important, therefore, to consider whether you, or any members of your family (or even friends), are showing the signs of unsatisfactory sleep described in Chapter 5. If you suffer from insomnia and (possibly as a result) you are very sleepy during the day or affected in other ways, rather than treating yourself with over-the-counter products from the chemist or health food shop, see if you find it more helpful to try and improve your sleep hygiene (see Chapter 8). This may be all that is needed.
Mysteria
Authors: Scull Andrew
Published: November 2023

Elizabeth Jackson’s conviction for witchcraft was not the end of the story. As we shall soon see, a radically different interpretation of Mary Glover’s afflictions had been proffered at her trial. The judge rejected that testimony, as did the jury. But it was an alternative account that had a long pedigree, and its proponent was a respectable man with powerful political allies. Mary was not bewitched, but hysterical, or so it was alleged. Where had that term come from? What is that disorder, whose biography is our subject? Hysteria is a pathological condition with a fascinating and tortuous medical and cultural history. If the malady seems to change its shape and its form over the centuries, who can be surprised? For here is a disorder that even those who insist on its reality concede is a chameleon-like disease that can mimic the symptoms of any other, and one that somehow seems to mold itself to the culture in which it appears.
American Nervousness
Authors: Scull Andrew
Published: November 2023

War, as the bumper sticker would have it, is not good for children and other living things. For medics, though, it is another matter entirely. The wounds of warfare, it goes without saying, require much medical attention—to keep up the morale of the troops, if not actually to cure many of those treated. (Prior to the spread of aseptic surgery, battlefield mortality was frightful, and medicine’s weapons against infectious diseases, which regularly decimated the troops, were equally weak and unsatisfactory.) But beyond that, war allows army medics to observe the impact of all sorts of trauma on the human body, an array of naturalistic experiments from which much can potentially be learned, and which could never be replicated on a similar scale in normal times, even among such vulnerable populations as the mentally ill and the mentally retarded.
Freudian Hysterics
Authors: Scull Andrew
Published: November 2023

On October 13, 1885, the Orient Express, which had then been in operation a scant two years, pulled into the Gare de l’Est in Paris at the end of its long journey from Austria. A bearded 29-year-old man descended from his carriage and joined the crowds moving towards the Boulevard de Strasbourg. Poor but ambitious, he was making one last desperate throw of the dice before facing the grim prospect of exile, perhaps to the United States, a country he regarded as “a hopeless place for science” and one he would later dismiss as “gigantic, but a gigantic mistake.”
Ethical Neo-Expressivism
Authors: Bar-On Dorit , Chrisman Matthew
Published: November 2023

A standard way to explain the connection between ethical claims and motivation is to say that these claims express motivational attitudes. Unless this connection is taken to be merely a matter of contingent psychological regularity, it may seem that there are only two options for understanding it. Either we can treat ethical claims as expressing propositions that entail something about the speaker’s motivational attitudes (subjectivism), or we can treat ethical claims as nonpropositional and as having their semantic content constituted by the motivational attitudes they directly express (noncognitivism).
The Court Play
Authors: Chambers E K
Published: November 2023

THE foregoing chapters have illustrated the overflow of the Renaissance passion for drama, taking shape in the spectac11lar enrichment of elements in court life which were not originally mimetic in their intention ; the welcome, the exercise of arms, the dance. They are subordinate in their interest to us, as they were in fact subordinate by reason of their occasional character to the play itself, which formed, both in Elizabeth’s reign and in that of James, the staple amusement of the court winter. The ordinary season for plays was a comparatively restricted one. Traditionally it began with All Saints, but Elizabeth at least rarely reached her winter quarters by the beginning of November, and her revels began with the Christmas festival itself, the twelve days of ancient licence in Calends and Saturnalia that extended from Nativity to Epiphany.
The Struggle Of Court And City
Authors: Chambers E K
Published: November 2023

THE foregoing chapter has endeavoured to define the practical and spiritual forces which underlay the controversy between Puritanism and the stage ; it remains to study the working of the constitutional forms through which, as a result ant of those forces, the ‘ quality’ of the player ultimately established itself as a recognized constituent of the polity. And first, for the social status of the players. The wittier Puritans were fond of twitting them, on the ground that, if all men had their rights, they would count as no better than vagabonds. There is little more than a verbal truth in the taunt. No doubt, in certain circumstances, players, like minstrels before them, might fall within the danger of a series of statutes which, in the course of formulating the provisions of a nascent poor-law, attempted also to regulate the wandering elements of society. It was part of the mediaeval conception of things to assign to every individual a definite function in the social organism and to expect from him the regular fulfilment of that function.
The Qualitative Status of the Onkoi in Asclepiades’ Theory Of Matter
Authors: Leith David
Published: November 2023

The medical and philosophical system of Asclepiades of Bithynia ( fl. later second century BC) has been the subject of considerable controversy. His physical theory of anarmoi onkoi in particular has seen intense debate, and although many of its broader features appear to be fairly well established, many of its most fundamental details remain obscure. Perhaps somewhat paradoxically, some of the most important work carried out on Asclepiades has been explicitly focused instead on Heraclides of Pontus, the reconstruction of whose physical theory has often proceeded on the assumption that this was largely replicated by Asclepiades some two centuries later.
What causes lung cancer?
Authors: Falk Stephen , Williams Chris
Published: November 2023

The major cause of lung cancer is smoking. The chance of getting lung cancer is related to the total number of cigarettes consumed. Cigarette smoking can also result in other diseases often affecting the lungs and heart. On average smokers die 10 years younger than non-smokers. Lung cancer is a disease of the twentieth century. Indeed, in 1912 a well-known US doctor wrote: ‘primary cancers of the lung are among the rarest forms of the disease’. Medical students of that day hardly saw a single case during their training; unfortunately this is far from the case now. Lung cancer is now the most common tumour in the developed world. Any explanation of the cause of lung cancer must, therefore, take into account the huge increase, and latterly decrease, in the incidence of this cancer this century (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). The geographical distributions of the tumour must also be considered. These factors strongly suggest environmental causes and rule out genetic factors, because the genetic make-up of the population could not change so quickly. Lung cancer has been blamed on many factors and, although there are some who continue to believe otherwise, the close match to cigarette smoking trends shown in Figure 2.1 is inescapable.
How lung cancer is diagnosed
Authors: Falk Stephen , Williams Chris
Published: November 2023

Lung cancer can cause symptoms within the chest such as cough and breathlessness and general non-specific effects such as tiredness and ill-health. Lung cancer can cause symptoms such as pains in the bones if it spreads. A biopsy is taken to confirm that lung cancer is present and also to determine the type of lung cancer so treatment can be planned.
Future prospects in lung cancer
Authors: Falk Stephen , Williams Chris
Published: November 2023

Prevention by reducing smoking offers the best prospect of improving cure rates. Screening is promising using new molecular techniques. Treatment will become more individualized, dependent on the molecular make-up of each cancer. New treatments will exploit our better understanding of the biology of lung cancer.
Sidgwick: The Examination of Methods
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

Sidgwick’s first method of ethics is hedonistic egoism. He rejects hedonism as an account of motives (psychological hedonism), but accepts it as an account of one’s own interest (prudential hedonism). The version of egoism that includes prudential hedonism is a method of ethics in Sidgwick’s view, because it claims that it is ultimately reasonable of me to pursue my own pleasure. Sidgwick disagrees with utilitarians, including Mill, whose prudential hedonist doctrine rests on psychological hedonism (iv 4). He therefore rejects Green’s criticism of utilitarianism, because Green combines attacks on psychological hedonism with attacks on the ethical doctrines that Sidgwick separates from it (see EGSM 104–5).
Logical Empiricism and Emotivism
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

Moore believes that his arguments against naturalism support an intuitionist account of our knowledge of moral properties. Ross agrees with him on this point, and tries to develop an intuitionist conception of moral judgment. But we may find it difficult to believe in simple, non-natural properties that are grasped by some (allegedly) mysterious form of intuition. Our other knowledge of objective facts does not seem to require these (allegedly) strange properties and this strange cognitive condition. If, then, we believe that Moore’s argument from non-naturalism and objectivism to intuitionism is valid, but we do not accept his conclusion, we may reasonably re-examine his premisses. If we accept the premisses that support non-naturalism, we may question his acceptance of cognitivism and objectivism.
Hare: A Defence of Non-Cognitivism
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

One might regard Hare as a successor to emotivism who offers an improved version of non-cognitivism, in opposition to both naturalism and the non-naturalist cognitivism of Moore and Ross. A critic may ask whether and in what ways Hare’s prescriptivism improves on emotivism, and whether the improvements allow Hare to answer the objections to emotivism without raising further objections. Though this approach to Hare captures part of his position, it does not do justice to his main aims. In particular, it overlooks some differences between his attitude and Stevenson’s attitude to the task of the moral philosopher.
Revivals of Non-Cognitivism
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

We have now examined the main statements of non-cognitivism. This chapter mentions some re-statements and defences that try to answer objections to Stevenson’s and Hare’s arguments. After a period of declining interest, the study of meta-ethical questions revived in the last quarter of the twentieth century, and a short treatment can hardly do justice to the complex and sophisticated work that has already appeared. Some of the most important work has emerged from fruitful reflexion on meta-ethical questions in relation to contemporary epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of science, and philosophy of language.
Objectivity and its Critics
Authors: Rwin Terence I
Published: November 2023

Non-cognitivism has seemed appealing partly because the other options have seemed unappealing. If we agree that Moore has refuted naturalism, and we do not accept the non-naturalist realism of Moore and Ross, non-cognitivism may appear to be the only option. But some reasonable alternatives to non-cognitivism and non-naturalist realism have been defended. In this chapter we will confine ourselves to a survey of some of these positions, and indicate their connexion to earlier debates in meta-ethics.
Lotteries and Miracles
Authors: Sobel Jordan Howard
Published: November 2023

George Mavrodes seems to say that, as reasonable persons on reading reports of winners of really big lotteries believe these reports, so must reasonable persons, on hearing or reading testimony for what in their view would be miracles, believe this testimony. That a randomly selected entrant should win a big lottery is immensely improbable, and yet a single report can reverse this improbability. He says this shows “that there is nothing incredible, or even unusual, in the power of a single testimony to reverse an enormous initial improbability” (Mavrodes 2005: 317). Of miracles he says that “almost every afficiondo” (ibid.) of them holds that they are improbable in the same way, and, he seems to say, to the same effect:
Virtue of Character in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: November 2023

in the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle presents in considerable detail a conception of the virtues of character, such as justice, courage, and generosity, that I think is extremely attractive. It may well be the case, it seems to me, that he succeeds in articulating, in a fairly specific and detailed way, what at least many of the qualities are in whose possession having an outstandingly good character consists. But it also seems to me that before we are in a position to appreciate Aristotle’s mature theory of character-virtue fully and properly, a certain common, but mistaken, view about it needs to be cleared away. According to that view, the theory identifies the virtues of character with appropriately habituated conditions of the person’s capacities for experiencing feelings such as pleasure, distress, anger, and shame.
Receptor-G-protein complexes in solution
Authors: Poyner David
Published: November 2023

There is now clear evidence that many membrane receptors produce their effects on cellular regulation by coupling to a series of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding proteins known as G-proteins. These can be detected in a number of ways, including the promotion of high-affinity, GTP-sensitive agonist binding, agonist-stimulated GTPase activity, and agonist enhancement of the kinetics of GTP binding, and GDP dissociation (1). In an increasing number of systems it has been shown that it is possible to solubilize intact receptor-G-protein complexes (R-G complexes). The solubilization of receptor-G-protein com plexes is of interest for several reasons. It is of considerable importance to know what specificity is found in receptor-G-protein interactions. One approach to this is to solubilize and purify the complex, and then identify the G-protein(s).
Adherent lyrnphokine-activated killer cells (A-LAK cells): anti-tumour activity in vitro and in vivo
Authors: Hiserodt J C
Published: November 2023

Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells were initially described as cytotoxic lymphocytes capable of lysing fresh autologous solid tumour target cells in shortterm Cr-release assays. Cells exhibiting LAK activity could be generated from blood mononuclear cells obtained from normal individuals or from tumour bearing cancer patients in response to crude or recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2). Based on their efficient, non-MHC restricted cytolytic activity against a broad range of fresh autologous or cultured tumour cells, Rosenberg and others have employed LAK cells and IL-2 in the adoptive immunotherapy of established metastatic tumours in animal models and some cancer patients. To date, the cumulative results of clinical trials have indicated that the adoptive transfer of LAK cells and IL-2 is effective at reducing established metastatic disease for a variety of histological forms of cancer. In particular, renal cell carcinoma, melanoma and non-Hodgkins lymphomas have responded in a significantly high proportion (up to 25 per cent of these tumours are responsive) to warrant further investigations into this form of immunotherapy.
The regulation of protein kinase C in T lymphocytes
Authors: Graves J , Lucas S , Cantrell D
Published: November 2023

T lymphocyte activation involves a complex series of cellular responses, including the induction of the expression of cell surface receptors for various lymphokines and the production of lymphokines (e.g. interleukin 2 (IL-2) receptors and IL-2). An important characteristic of the T cell system is that quiescent cells neither produce IL-2 nor express IL-2 receptors. However, following immune activation there is rapid transcription of the genes that result in IL-2 synthesis and IL-2 receptor expression.1−7 The production oflL-2 and its receptor is both transient and are both maintained following removal of the immune stimulus.8 The ultimate ambition in T cell activation studies, therefore, is to determine both the positive and negative signals that regulate the T cell response, since these together ensure the homeostasis of the immune response.
The Synchronization Of Mammalian Cells
Authors: Johnson R T , Downes C S , Meyn R E
Published: November 2023

Once upon a time most cell biologists could synchronize mammalian cells in different stages of the cell cycle, albeit with different degrees of success. However, few molecular probes were then available. Now, with the great resurgence of interest in cell-cycle control and the beginnings of molecular understanding, many workers who have recently entered the field require tightly synchronized cells for their experiments. This chapter presents a selection of protocols which should provide synchronized cells in each cycle phase, and in most instances, cells from different parts of each phase. From the methods commonly used we have selected those which provide excellent synchrony with good reversibility, balanced growth, and high viability. We have also concentrated on methods which (except for centrifugal elutriation) can be carried out without expensive equipment, apart from the standard CO incubators, bench centrifuges, inverted microscopes, Coulter counters, and -70 °C freezers. A 37 °C hot room is a useful resource for synchronization, and a good workshop is needed to build equipment for high-pressure nitrous oxide arrest. A Cytospin cytocentrifuge (Shandon Scientific) for the rapid production of cell monolayers for microscopic inspection is strongly recommended. Details of methods involving high technology-separation of viable cells on the basis of DNA content by fluorescence activated cell sorting, or automated mechanical synchronization systems-can be found in refs 1 and 2, respectively.