bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Law, Convention, Prerogative: Reflections Prompted by the Canadian Constitutional Case
Authors: Allan T. R. S.
Published: January 2009

The recent patriation of the Canadian Constitution has been a fascinating process for constitutional lawyers. The role of the Canadian Supreme Court, in adjudicating on the legality and the constitutional propriety of the proceedings, has raised issues of great interest and importance. In accepting jurisdiction to pronounce on the existence of convention, the court removed a traditional barrier between law and convention: the former being applied and articulated in the courts, the latter being a matter of political practice, without authoritative definition. The majority judgments nevertheless place great weight on the orthodox distinction between law and convention, and the separation of legal and political principle which that distinction assumes. My purpose here is to question the court's reasoning as regards both law and convention. I shall argue that recent developments in public law cast doubt, even if only indirectly, on the utility of the orthodox distinction. The view that courts do not “enforce” conventions, though adequate for some purposes, may frustrate constructive thought. In any particular case in which convention is pleaded in aid of law, there are more useful and important questions to ask.
Habeas Corpus, Extradition and the Burden of Proof: The Case of the Man who Escaped from Devil's Island
Authors: Sharpe Robert J.
Published: January 2009

The decision in 1907 to grant habeas corpus in favour of Eddie Guerin, a notorious criminal widely known as the man who escaped from Devil's Island, attracted attention at the time in the popular press but has been largely ignored by lawyers. The judgment of the court was brief and the issue decided appeared to be entirely factual. Yet the case was a remarkable one from a legal perspective which merits further attention. It deals with a difficult and crucially important legal point—the burden of proof and the resolution of issues of disputed fact on habeas corpus—in a most unusual and intriguing way.
Public Meetings and Processions
Authors: Goodhart A. L.
Published: January 2009

The events which gave rise to the Public Order Act, 1936,1 and the debates in Parliament2 on that subject have drawn attention to the uncertainty concerning the law of public meetings and processions. This uncertainty is due in part to the fact that there is only a limited number of cases directly in point, some of which have not been reported in a satisfactory manner, and in part to an over-simplification in the books of what is an exceedingly complicated matter.
Some Footnotes to Salmond's Jurisprudence
Authors: Campbell A. H.
Published: January 2009

The following notes are offered in the hope that they may be of some use to teachers and students who are using (as the writer has for some years used) Salmond's Jurisprudence as a text-book for the subject of the Nature and Classification of Rights. They do not pretend to be systematic, and they are meant to be supplementary to the excellent and informative notes of Mr. J. L. Parker to the ninth edition. The page references are to the ninth edition; the section references (§§) will serve for earlier editions as well.
The King's Prerogative
Authors: Caldecote Viscount
Published: January 2009

I may, I hope not inappropriately, begin by recalling a story told by our Chairman's distinguished predecessor, Sir William Anson, about Mr. Gladstone. While he was out of office, in 1890 Mr. Gladstone accepted an invitation to visit All Souls. The invitation included a request that he would give some kind of an address to the members of the Union Society, which had been the scene of his triumphs as an undergraduate sixty years ago. He agreed to do so and in a discussion with his host, the Warden of All Souls, as to a choice of subject Mr. Gladstone said that the subject did not very much matter provided it was one of general interest. He was thereupon persuaded to choose his own topic, and in due course he gave an eloquent address to a large undergraduate audience on ‘The Connexion of Homer with recent Assyriological Discovery’.
The Measure of Damages in Contract and Tort
Authors: Porter S. L.
Published: January 2009

The determination of the true measure of damage in any individual case is seldom easy. It depends upon considerations of causation, and causation is primarily a matter for philosophic rather than legal inquiry. Hume was not prepared to adopt the ordinary conception of causation. ‘It were infinite for the law to judge the causes of causes and their impulsion one of another,’ said Bacon. In a modern case the same thought has been expressed in the words ‘Causation is not a chain but a net.’ Faced with metaphysical uncertainty the lawyer must find some base on which to build his structure, and he does it by following the course of the pragmatist and asking of any particular decision: Does it work ? If it does he has to fit it into a scheme which should be consistent with a number of other decisions which also work, but are not always governed by the strict rules of logic.
The Doctrine of Unjustified Enrichment
Authors: Gutteridge H. C. , David R. J. A.
Published: January 2009

The origin and growth in continental law of the doctrine of unjustified enrichment is not merely an object lesson of the greatest importance to comparative lawyers. It is also of peculiar interest to English lawyers because it affords an admirable illustration of the working of the system of precedent in the continental countries. Moreover, it furnishes abundant proof—if any be needed—of the fact that an elaborate system of rules based on judicial precedent can, and does, exist side by side with the provisions of codes which in their inception were designed to prevent case law from coming into existence.
Conflicts of Law in Matters of Unjustifiable Enrichment
Authors: Gutteridge H. C. , Lipstein K.
Published: January 2009

The situation which is created when rules of quasi-contract are in conflict has been neglected by English writers and has also received little attention on the Continent. It is possible, no doubt, to explain this lack of interest on the ground that the question is not one which occurs very often in practice. The various Continental rules relating to quasi-contract do not, in substance, differ widely from one another. Further, the somewhat narrow view of quasi-contractual liability hitherto taken by English law has probably discouraged foreign creditors from pressing claims of this type in our Courts.
The Attitude of the Continental Legal Systems
Authors: Lipstein K.
Published: January 2009

Every approach to the problems of private international law from a comparative point of view must of necessity envisage the differences of basic conceptions between English and Continental law. Quasi-contractual obligations in Continental law are based on a universally recognized principle of natural justice, and if they are often classified as being quasicontractual, this expression is used to distinguish them from obligations arising in contract or tort rather than for the purpose of assimilating them to contract.
The Foundation of Tortious Liability
Authors: Williams Glanville L.
Published: January 2009

In a recent article under this title, Professor Goodhart has added fresh fuel to a well-known controversy. What is the fundamental attitude of the Courts towards tortious liability?
A New Approach to Private International Law
Authors: Gutteridge H. C.
Published: January 2009

Our English system of Private International Law has for some time past lent itself to accusationsof insularity of conception and stagnation of thought. Dicey's famous work on the Conflict of Laws has threatened to develop into a comfortable niche in which our rules of jurisdiction and the choice of law would be able to dwell in cloistered seclusion undisturbed by criticism from within or by the infiltration of new ideas from without. English legal thought has, undeniably, been dominated for over a hundred years by two text-books. Story's Conflict of Laws reigned supreme until the beginning of this century when it was ousted by Dicey's treatise. Westlake's Private International Law, which in some respects is the most notable contribution which English writers have made to the development of Private International Law, never established itself in a like degree. The somewhat abstruse treatment of the subject by Westlake and his insistence on its comparative aspects involved a departure from current legal tradition which was not wellreceived by the English legal public. Foote's Private International Law which at one time was held in great favour by practitioners was avowedly confined to an analysis of the English casesand as such contained within itself the germs of the obsolescence which has overtaken it. In any event, Dicey's Conflict of Laws was elevated by the Bench and the Bar to a pinnacle of authority which has seldom been attained by a text-book, and the rules in which Dicey stated his propositions have acquired a character which is almost sacrosanct.
The Law Of Property Act, 1925, S. 130 (2)
Authors: Bailey S. J.
Published: January 2009

At the present day an entailed interest cannot arise in any kind of property unless an appropriate technical phrase (such as ‘in tail’ or ‘and the heirs of his body’) is used by the deed or will which seeks to create the entail. Prior to the Law of Property Act, 1925, entailed interests were impossible in personal property, but could be created in real property either by deed or by will. If created by deed, technical words of limitation were essential. In a will, however, technical phrases were unnecessary, provided that the will showed a sufficiently clear intention to confer an entailed interest upon the devisee.
Some Aspects of Blackstone and His Commentaries
Authors: Holdsworth W. S.
Published: January 2009

THE main facts of Blackstone's life are well known, and so are the qualities of his Commentaries. I do not intend to add to the number of Blackstone's biographers, nor to give an exhaustive account of his Commentaries. But I must begin by stating shortly some of the salient facts and dates in Black-stone's life in order that my remarks upon some aspects of his Commentaries may be the better understood. Then I shall say something, first, of Blackstone's intellectual characteristics; secondly, of the manner in which these intellectual characteristics have worked together to make the Commentaries a classical book; and, thirdly, of certain alleged defects in the Commentaries.
Nuisance as a Tort
Authors: Winfield P. H.
Published: January 2009

The aim of this article is to consider the relations of nuisance as a tort to three other branches of the law of tort:

(1) The rule in Rylands v. Fletcher.

(2) Negligence.

(3) Trespass to land.
The King's Peace, the Royal Prerogative and Public Order: the Roots and Early Development of Binding Over Powers
Authors: Feldman David
Published: January 2009

One of the most useful and most-used powers that criminal courts1 have is the power to bind people over to be of good behaviour or to keep the peace. Magistrates form the view that a person (“the principal”), who might be a person of previously unblemished reputation, is likely to breach the peace or commit criminal offences. They require him to enter into a recognisance, in form a voluntary covenant or agreement, to keep the peace, or to be of good behaviour, sometimes in a set sum (say £100) for a set period. If he refuses, he can be imprisoned, regardless of the seriousness or triviality, lawfulness or unlawfulness, of the behaviour that originally brought him to court, perhaps as a witness. He may also be required to find sureties, other people who are prepared to promise that they will forfeit a sum of money (say £50 each) if their principal fails to behave. If the principal misbehaves, debts to the Crown arise of £100 from the principal and £50 from each surety. The mechanics are therefore rather similar to bail. Binding over operates today in two ways. First, it can be used after conviction for an offence as an alternative to sentence. The accused enters into a recognisance to keep the peace or be of good behaviour. If he breaches his undertaking, he can be summoned back to court to be sentenced for the original offence. Secondly, it can be used after conviction for an offence as an alternative to sentence. The accused enters into a recognisance to keep the peace or be of good behaviour. If he breaches his undertaking, he can be summoned back to court to be sentenced for the original offence. Secondly, it can be used as a preventive measure to deal with people who are before the court but have not been convicted. This latter use provides a flexible way to deal with cases arising out of disputes between neighbours and minor public order problems without the need for a full hearing. It saves time and money.
The two schools of jurists in the early Roman Principate
Authors: Stein Peter
Published: January 2009

The jurists of the early Principate were divided into two groups, the Proculians and the Sabinians, but the nature of the division has proved to be a perennial problem of Roman legal history. Pomponius tells us that the Proculians regarded Labeo as their founder and the Sabinians Capito, and he gives lists of their respective leaders for more than a century. Furthermore, we know of more than two dozen particular problems which provoked disputes between the two groups. But the sources provide little express evidence as to the underlying opposing principles, if indeed there were any, which were espoused by them. Pomponius says that Labeo and Capito “first made, as it were, two sects: for Ateius Capito held fast to what had been handed down to him, whereas Labeo, a genius, with confidence in his own scholarship, a man who had studied several other branches of knowledge, set out to make many innovations” (D.1.2.2.47). Yet, when the various controversies are considered, the school of Labeo does not seem to champion doctrines which are especially progressive and that of Capito does not seem particularly conservative.
Covenants—“a broad and reasonable view”
Authors: Wade H. W. R.
Published: January 2009

Thelaw about covenants running with land is once again behind the times. It is undoubtedly in need of statutory reform. It is also, perhaps, an apt subject for this jubilee issue. For among the articles published in the earlier years of this Journal few can be better known, and none can have given more needed help, than Professor Bailey'sThe Benefit of a Restrictive Covenant, in which the complexities of an excessively intricate topic of real property law were analysed and expounded with great care and clarity. Published in 1938, it remains a source of valuable guidance to-day. In the meantime there have been many decisions, and there are now proposals for legislation. But in the following pages the reader will not find an objective and comprehensive survey comparable to Professor Bailey's. It is proposed to discuss only one or two controversial aspects and the questions of legal policy bound up with them.
Empirical Investigations of the MMPI-2 Gender-Masculine and Gender-Feminine Scales 1Dr Matthew Woo, Principal Psychologist, is now at the Department of Psychology, Institute of Mental Health, 10 Buangkok View, Singapore 539 747.
Authors: Woo Matthew , Oei Tian P.S.
Published: January 2009

Abstract. The present study examined the validity of two Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) scales - Gender Masculine (GM) and Gender Feminine (GF) - in discriminating between the gender types - Masculine (High GM/Low GF); Feminine (Low GM/High GF); Androgynous (High GM/High GF) and Undifferentiated (Low GM/Low GF), in cross-national clinical samples. The study consisted of 70 Singaporean and 107 Australian psychiatric patients. Significant pairwise comparisons were found for Undifferentiated-Stereotyped Masculinity, Undifferentiated-Androgynous, Stereotyped Femininity-Stereotyped Masculinity, and Stereotyped Femininity-Androgynous on both measures of psychological well-being for both countries, but not for comparisons between the Stereotyped Masculinity-Androgynous and Undifferentiated-Stereotyped Femininity categories. Independent dimensions of masculinity and femininity - the GM and GF scales - were, therefore, found to distinguish between two of the four sex-type categories on measures of psychological well-being. The current findings indicate that the GM and GF scales seem effective in differentiating between Masculine and Feminine traits, however they seem less effective in differentiating between the four gender types.
Residual stress measurements on a quartz vein: A constraint on paleostress magnitude
Authors: Sekine Kotaro , Hayashi Kazuo
Published: January 2009

The residual stress in a quartz vein from a metamorphic province is evaluated by an X‐ray diffraction technique. Diffraction analyses at multiple incident angles yield residual stress magnitudes for the specified directions on the plane parallel to the sample surface. Residual stress formation in the vein is found to be determined by the platy geometry with respect to the host rock. The results indicate a compressive residual stress of −15 to −20 MPa parallel to the long axis of the vein. The compressive stress magnitude parallel to the quartz vein is found to increase with sample temperature, indicating that the quartz vein has a greater thermal expansion coefficient than that of the host rock. A two‐dimensional model explaining residual stress formation in the vein in response to tectonic exhumation is proposed, and the paleostress magnitude at the time of vein formation is estimated from the residual stress magnitude and fluid inclusion microthermometric data. The quartz vein is concluded to have formed under a horizontal compressive stress of 550–660 MPa in the direction parallel to the long axis of the vein.
Patterns of water and heat flux across a biome gradient from tropical forest to savanna in Brazil
Authors: da Rocha Humberto R. , Manzi Antonio O. , Cabral Osvaldo M. , Miller Scott D. , Goulden Michael L. , Saleska Scott R. , R.‐Coupe Natalia , Wofsy Steven C. , Borma Laura S. , Artaxo P. , Vourlitis George , Nogueira José S. , Cardoso Fernando L. , Nobre Antonio D. , Kruijt Bart , Freitas Helber C. , von Randow Celso , Aguiar Renata G. , Maia Jair F.
Published: January 2009

We investigated the seasonal patterns of water vapor and sensible heat flux along a tropical biome gradient from forest to savanna. We analyzed data from a network of flux towers in Brazil that were operated within the Large‐Scale Biosphere‐Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA). These tower sites included tropical humid and semideciduous forest, transitional forest, floodplain (with physiognomies of cerrado), and cerrado sensu stricto. The mean annual sensible heat flux at all sites ranged from 20 to 38 Wm−2, and was generally reduced in the wet season and increased in the late dry season, coincident with seasonal variations of net radiation and soil moisture. The sites were easily divisible into two functional groups based on the seasonality of evaporation: tropical forest and savanna. At sites with an annual precipitation above 1900 mm and a dry season length less than 4 months (Manaus, Santarem and Rondonia), evaporation rates increased in the dry season, coincident with increased radiation. Evaporation rates were as high as 4.0 mm d−1 in these evergreen or semidecidous forests. In contrast, ecosystems with precipitation less than 1700 mm and a longer dry season (Mato Grosso, Tocantins and São Paulo) showed clear evidence of reduced evaporation in the dry season. Evaporation rates were as low as 2.5 mm d−1 in the transitional forests and 1 mm d−1 in the cerrado. The controls on evapotranspiration seasonality changed along the biome gradient, with evaporative demand (especially net radiation) playing a more important role in the wetter forests, and soil moisture playing a more important role in the drier savannah sites.
Hysteretic dynamics of seasonal snow depth distribution in the Swiss Alps
Authors: Egli L. , Jonas T.
Published: January 2009

The dynamics of the spatial snow distribution is a key feature when investigating a seasonal snow cover on the catchment scale. This study explores the spatial variability of snow depth during the course of snow accumulation and depletion, based on daily data from 77 weather stations in the Swiss Alps during 6 consecutive seasons. We derive a statistical description of the snow cover dynamics by analyzing temporal trajectories in plots of the standard deviation σ() over mean , where xi is a set of snow depth measurements on one particular day. The analysis reveals that the evolution of σ() closely follows a power law σ() = 0.84±0.01 during the accumulation period for all 6 winters. However, during snowmelt, the trajectory of σ() displays a clearly different path as with classical hysteresis phenomena. Surprisingly, a simplistic model of uniform melting describes this path reasonably well. We believe that the conceptual framework outlined in this study is helpful in describing important characteristics of the dynamics of seasonal snow depth spatial variability. Future studies could apply the methodology introduced here to incorporate stochastic means in modeling snow distribution, even for a broader range of length scales and different alpine terrain.
Sensitivity of the total anthropogenic aerosol effect to the treatment of rain in a global climate model
Authors: Posselt Rebekka , Lohmann Ulrike
Published: January 2009

This study investigates the sensitivity of the total anthropogenic aerosol effect to the treatment of rain within the global climate model (GCM) ECHAM5. A comparison between a prognostic (rain is stored within the atmosphere) and a diagnostic rain scheme (rain is precipitated out within one model time step) is conducted. Furthermore, the shape of the rain drop distribution within the prognostic rain scheme is varied. The prognostic rain scheme shifts the emphasis of the rain production process from autoconversion to accretion in better agreement with observations. Since the parameterization of the accretion process is independent of the cloud droplet number concentration, the total anthropogenic aerosol effect decreased by 0.5 to 0.9 Wm−2. Varying the rain drop distribution has a smaller influence on the total anthropogenic aerosol effect, changing it by 0.2 to 0.3 Wm−2.
Study of water vapor vertical variability and possible cloud formation with a small network of GPS stations
Authors: Van Baelen Joël , Penide Guillaume
Published: January 2009

During a short experiment we have investigated the vertical variability of water vapor in the lower part of the atmosphere with the help of small network of GPS stations positioned on the eastern slopes of the Puy de Dôme in central France. We have found out that the urban layer exhibits somewhat constant water vapor content. In contrast, the major IWV variations arise in the upper troposphere level, in particular in the presence of westerly flows that bring elevated water vapor content over the mountain ridge. Finally, the transition layer situated between these lower and upper levels presents quite variable water vapor content, acting as a buffer zone for the boundary layer. Comparing two episodes of higher water vapor contents, one being associated with a sharp frontal passage, we have shown that the contrasted behavior of the different layers revealed the possible formation of clouds before the advent of rain.
MESSENGER observations of Mercury's magnetosphere during northward IMF
Authors: Slavin James A. , Anderson Brian J. , Zurbuchen Thomas H. , Baker Daniel N. , Krimigis Stamatios M. , Acuña Mario H. , Benna Mehdi , Boardsen Scott A. , Gloeckler George , Gold Robert E. , Ho George C. , Korth Haje , McNutt Ralph L. , Raines Jim M. , Sarantos Menelaos , Schriver David , Solomon Sean C. , Trávníček Pavel
Published: January 2009

MESSENGER's January 14, 2008, flyby of Mercury has provided new observations of the planet's magnetosphere for northward interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). The dusk magnetopause was located inward from the mean magnetopause surface, possibly due to reduced tail magnetic flux content for IMF Bz > 0 and/or the pressure of planetary pickup ions as they respond to the dawnward – v × B electric field in the magnetosheath. Within the plasma sheet rotations of the magnetic field are observed consistent with, Kelvin–Helmholtz vortices ∼1 RM in diameter (RM is Mercury's radius). MESSENGER exited through a 1,000 km‐wide boundary layer bordered by inner and outer current sheets that resemble rotational and tangential discontinuities, respectively. The total magnetic field change across this layer is consistent with the predicted solar wind ram pressure at Mercury during the MESSENGER flyby.
Estimating the 27‐day and 11‐year solar cycle variations in tropical upper stratospheric ozone
Authors: Fioletov V. E.
Published: January 2009

Spectral analysis of the solar backscatter ultraviolet (SBUV) satellite instrument ozone and solar flux time series was used to estimate the ozone response in the tropical upper stratosphere to the solar flux harmonics of the 27‐day Sun rotation cycle with periods of 9, 13.5, and 27 days. Solar UV flux at 205 nm, Mg II index, composite solar Lyman alpha, and 10.7 cm solar flux data sets were tested as proxies for the solar signal. The Mg II index has the highest coherency with tropical ozone in the upper stratosphere among all solar proxies. The analysis shows that during the periods of high solar activity, about half of the ozone variance for periods of 13.5 and 27 days near 40 km can be attributed to the fluctuations of the Mg II index. During the periods of low solar activity, the 27‐day signal is below the 90% statistical significance level, while the 13.5‐day signal is usually significant. Also, a 9‐day period can be seen in ozone data during the time of low solar activity. The ozone response to solar variations with a 27‐day period was used to estimate the 11‐year solar cycle amplitude in tropical ozone. Biases in individual SBUV instrument data were included as a part of the statistical model. In that case, the estimate from the 27‐day period minimum to maximum range of the 11‐year cycle is about 2%. This agrees with the data in layers 8–9 (38–43 km) derived from the SBUV data set. Below these layers, the amplitude of the 11‐year cycle is only about one third of the one estimated from the 27‐day cycle. Above these layers, the amplitude of the 11‐year cycle is larger than that estimated from the 27‐day cycle, but it is primarily due to the high amplitude of the 11‐year cycle in the Nimbus 7 SBUV data.
PLIC proteins or ubiquilins regulate autophagy‐dependent cell survival during nutrient starvation
Authors: N'Diaye Elsa‐Noah , Kajihara Kimberly K , Hsieh Ivy , Morisaki Hiroshi , Debnath Jayanta , Brown Eric J
Published: January 2009

Ubiquilins (UBQLNs) are adaptor proteins thought to deliver ubiquitinated substrates to proteasomes. Here, we show a role for UBQLN in autophagy: enforced expression of UBQLN protects cells from starvation‐induced death, whereas depletion of UBQLN renders cells more susceptible. The UBQLN protective effect requires the autophagy‐related genes ATG5 and ATG7, two essential components of autophagy. The ubiquitin‐associated domain of UBQLN mediates both its association with autophagosomes and its protective effect against starvation. Depletion of UBQLN delays the delivery of autophagosomes to lysosomes. This study identifies a new role for UBQLN in regulating the maturation of autophagy, expanding the involvement of ubiquitin‐related proteins in this process.
The privilege of being a physicist
Authors: Weisskopf Victor F.
Published: January 2009

THERE ARE CERTAIN obvious privileges that a physicist enjoys in our society. He is reasonably paid; he is given instruments, laboratories, complicated and expensive machines, and he is asked not to make money with these tools, like most other people, but to spend money. Furthermore he is supposed to do what he himself finds most interesting, and he accounts for what he spends to the money givers in the form of progress reports and scientific papers that are much too specialized to be understood or evaluated by those who give the money—the federal authorities and, in the last analysis, the taxpayer. Still, we believe that the pursuit of science by the physicist is important and should be supported by the public. In order to prove this point, we will have to look deeper into the question of the relevance of science to society as a whole. We will not restrict ourselves to physics only; we will consider the relevance of all the natural sciences, but we will focus our attention on basic sciences, that is to those scientific activities that are performed without a clear practical application in mind.
Weber Reports 1660-Hz Gravitational Waves from Outer Space
Authors: Lubkin Gloria B.
Published: January 2009

Joseph Weber of the University of Maryland believes he has observed gravitational waves from extraterrestrial sources (Phys. Rev. Letters 22, 1320, 1969). The gravitational-wave detectors, sensitive to 1660 Hz, were stretched over a 1000-km baseline between the Maryland campus and Argonne National Laboratory; they showed 17 significant coincidences during the first three months of this year. The signals imply a mean gravitational-radiation energy density of about 10−32 gram/cm3 over a bandwidth of about 0.1 rad/sec.
Where do we go from here?
Authors: Ruark Arthur E.
Published: January 2009

BECAUSE ALL SCIENCE feeds on unsolved problems, it is our privilege, from time to time, to make some forecast of the future. Naturally, the forecaster can do nothing about some great surprise that may come, with sudden force, to change the course of a whole science. Nevertheless, in a well developed science such as physics, one can see some invariant driving forces. There are tides in the affairs of physics that drive us onward without cease. The greatest tide of all appears to be explicit faith in the unity and consistency of natural behavior. This faith implies that parts of our subject that develop in relative isolation will come together to form a broader, more perfect structure.
Mapping and imaging for rapid atom discrimination: A study of frequency modulation atomic force microscopy
Authors: Sugimoto Yoshiaki , Namikawa Takashi , Abe Masayuki , Morita Seizo
Published: January 2009

We present, using frequency modulation atomic force microscopy, two methods for rapid atom discrimination. Both methods visualize chemical difference on difference atom sites. Signals corresponding to absolute minimum values of the obtainable frequency shift are used. In the first method, two-dimensional force mapping, quantitative force analysis for atom discrimination was demonstrated on a surface with three different surface atoms present. In the second method, we succeeded in imaging atom differences of the three atom species. Both methods enable rapid observations of differences in surface atoms compared to force spectroscopic measurements for atom discrimination in data acquisition and analysis.
Atomic lifetimes and electron excitation
Authors: Stroke H. Henry
Published: January 2009

PRECISE STUDIES of atomic lifetimes have intensified during the past few years, undoubtedly with the impetus of the increasing interest of astrophysicists and laser researchers. It had previously been all too common that extensive transition-probability data were not available; one could only rely on calculations. The ensuing progress, however, has not been limited simply to expansion of the more “classical” types of experimentation, which in fact only give the product of the transition probability and the atom density. Experiments now measure the lifetime τ directly by some techniques that will be quite familiar to the nuclear physicist. They also measure its Fourier transform, the linewidth Δω = 1/τ.
Thirty years of mesons
Authors: Oppenheimer Robert
Published: January 2009

LET ME OPEN this account by reminding you that by now many mesons have been recognized, ordered and sorted out, their properties in part established, in some limited measure understood.
Electrons in liquid metals
Authors: Ziman John M.
Published: January 2009

EXCELLENT DETERMINATIONS of the electrical conductivity of liquid mercury were made by Matthiessen, Siemens and others in the early 1860's; it is a measure of the vitality of this branch of science that the explanation of the magnitude of this familiar physical constant is still controversial; until five years ago, we could not even explain its order of magnitude.
College science improvement
Authors: Hodes Bernard
Published: January 2009

The new College Science Improvement Program (COSIP) of the National Science Foundation has been welcomed enthusiastically by many but not all of those concerned with strengthening college physics departments. Designed primarily to help improve science education at predominantly undergraduate institutions, the program has $10 million during this year with which to provide grants of up to $100 000 per year for a period of up to three years. “Strong preference,” says the foundation, “will be given during the first year to those colleges, which, during the most recent three-year period…granted 100 or more baccalaureates in the sciences.”
The government makes plans
Authors: Knox William T.
Published: January 2009

In discussing information-system development, I feel, in a way, like a missionary. I don't mean in the sense of propagating the faith some of us have that progress in science and technology can result from better information handling. I mean, rather, in advocating a partnership of the government and the private sector in fashioning the tools—the information systems—that will meet our present and future needs. I stress the word partnership because I sincerely believe that although federal-information-system improvement is a vital ingredient, the larger need is national-information-system improvement. In this positive sense, then, I describe myself as a missionary seeking to convert your curiosity into interest and your interest into action. Without your participation in the planning and execution of national systems, progress will continue to be slower than it need be.
Consideration of a physics information system
Authors: Williams Van Zandt , Hutchisson Elmer , Wolfe Hugh C.
Published: January 2009

This article represents an attempt to achieve two objectives. The first is a response to William T. Knox's invitation, directed to some scientific disciplines, for each discipline to present a concept of its information system and discuss the compatibility of that system with the proposed national networks. The second objective is to present this same concept to the physics community since it will have major bearing on future physics research and education. The first portion of this article serves this dual purpose. The second portion is intended to tell physicists about current developments in areas of interest to them.
The electron dipole moment—A case history
Authors: Kusch Polykarp
Published: January 2009

THE ELECTRON is one of the fundamental particles in the universe and is likely to remain one. It is as abundant as any other particle with the possible exception of the neutrino. There may be more neutrinos around, but I am not expert on that question. The electron has a definite charge and a definite rest mass.
Fracture
Authors: Hsiao C. C.
Published: January 2009

ANALYSIS OF THE BREAKING STRENGTH of a solid body was based, in the remote past, on the belief that the body would break instantly under a critical threshold tensile force. Below that threshold, it was thought, the body would last without failure for a long time, if not indefinitely.
Is journal publication obsolescent?
Authors: Pasternack Simon
Published: January 2009

STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL of information is currently a subject of considerable urgency and one that affects all branches of science. I know that PHYSICS TODAY readers are concerned about the problem, and I suspect that they are, as I am, rather uneasy about many trends in journal publication. I want to discuss some of them in detail, but first I would like very briefly to present some background information.
The anti-Brownian movement
Authors: Mayfield Melburn R.
Published: January 2009

IN 1844 SAMUEL F. B. MORSE sent the first telegram. I believe it went from Washington to Baltimore and the message was, “What hath God wrought?” This was one of the exciting ways of announcing a breakthrough in science and technology. The entire history of science is filled with similar pronouncements. You may recall that there was a Babylonian monarch of some biblical notoriety who once called his a-go-go dancers to a halt and exclaimed, while peering anxiously at the wall, “What hath God wrote?” This, of course, is not very good English but it is very good Babylonian and certainly appropriate for that particular occasion. The scientific message that is contained in this paper will undoubtedly be greeted with many kinds of pronouncements, denouncements and other types of nastiness. I believe almost all of us are well acquainted with the familiar pattern of criticism that follows any philomathic paper regardless of its intellectual and literary merit. For that reason, as well as certain other reasons, I will admit at this point that I did not write this paper, I found this paper. I am willing to admit that it took a good bit of ingenuity to find it. I feel, however, that it took a good deal more ingenuity to write it. Therefore I must regretfully refuse to accept credit for it.
Relativistic quantum field theory
Authors: Schwinger Julian
Published: January 2009

THE RELATIVISTIC QUANTUM theory of fields was born some 35 years ago through the paternal efforts of Dirac, Heisenberg, Pauli and others. It was a somewhat retarded youngster, however, and first reached adolescence 17 years later, an event which we are gathered here to celebrate. But it is the subsequent development and more mature phase of the subject that I wish to discuss briefly today.
Confessions of an ex-physicist
Authors: Brown Harold
Published: January 2009

My Title indicates that my vantage point is that provided by a scientific education, with most, if not all, of the attitudes that that encourages. Following my graduate work I participated in several scientific and technical enterprises, both as a working scientist and as a manager. As Secretary of the Air Force, I now find myself in quite a different kind of situation.
Instrumentation for radio astronomy
Authors: Wild J. P.
Published: January 2009

T HE WORLD'S FIRST radiotelescope designed specifically for astronomical observations was built in 1937, a few years after Karl Jansky's pioneering discovery of radio waves from the Milky Way. The radiotelescope was conceived by Grote Reber who built the instrument practically unaided in his own back yard at Wheatstone, Illinois. It consisted (figure 1) of a 31-ft parabolic reflector which focused the radio waves arriving from a small region of the sky onto a focal dipole. The signals were then amplified and detected in a high-frequency receiver and the output registered on a pen recorder. Reber's radio telescope (preserved at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank, W. Va.) stands as the prototype of the giant instruments that exist today.
Instrumentation for fission studies
Authors: Britt Harold C. , Stein William E.
Published: January 2009

N UCLEAR FISSION forms the basis of a large and expanding nuclear technology. At the same time, it is one of the most complex processes currently being investigated in the general field of low-energy nuclear physics. Since a comprehensive theory does not exist, the burden of supplying the necessary fundamental information rests primarily with the experimentalist.
Instrumentation for gamma-ray spectroscopy
Authors: Kennett Terence J.
Published: January 2009

D URING the past decade and a half gamma-ray spectroscopy has increased by orders of magnitude in its ability to reveal information. At present the high resolution of lithium-activated germanium detectors justifies 4000-channel analysis, and computer programs speed interpretation. The result is a system that does in days what used to take months even with fairly sophisticated computers. Today's methods are a considerable advance over methods that started with the introduction of thallium-activated sodium-iodide crystals and 256-channel analyzers, just as those, in their turn, were a great advance over devices that preceded them.
The development of the space-time view of quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Feynman Richard P.
Published: January 2009

We have a habit in writing articles published in scientific journals to make the work as finished as possible, to cover up all the tracks, to not worry about the blind alleys or to describe how you had the wrong idea first, and so on. So there isn't any place to publish, in a dignified manner, what you actually did in order to get to do the work although there has been in these days some interest in this kind of thing. Since winning the prize is a personal thing, I thought I could be excused in this particular situation if I were to talk personally about my relationship to quantum electrodynamics, rather than to discuss the subject itself in a refined and finished fashion. Furthermore, since there are three people who have won the prize in physics, if they are all going to be talking about quantum electrodynamics itself, one might become bored with the subject. So what I would like to tell you about today is the sequence of events, really the sequence of ideas, which occurred, and by which I finally came out the other end with an unsolved problem for which I ultimately received a prize.
The scientist as legislator—a talk with Weston Vivian
Authors: Hodes Bernard
Published: January 2009

Weston E. Vivian, Democratic Congressman from the second district of Michigan and former teacher and industrial scientist, enjoys a perspective on political events that few other scientists or lawmakers possess.
Protostars
Authors: Thomsen Dietrick E.
Published: January 2009

Recent observations have placed a very narrow bound on the extent of the celestial x-ray source in the constellation Scorpio (hereinafter designated “Sco X-1”) and provoked a suggestion that it may represent a hitherto unseen class of objects, protostars. The observation, which placed a bound of 20 sec of arc on the angular diameter of Sco X-1, was made on 8 March with a rocket-borne experiment by Herbert Gursky, Riccardo Giacconi, Paul Gorenstein, John R. Waters of American Science and Engineering Corp.; Minoru Oda, Hale Bradt, Gordon Garmire and B. V. Sreekantan of MIT. It was published in the June issue of The Astrophysical Journal (144, 1249, 1966). The suggestion that Sco X-1 is a protostar is by Oscar P. Manley of American Science and Engineering and appeared in the same issue of The Astrophysical Journal as a companion letter to that of Gursky and his associates.
Development of quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Tomonaga Sin-itiro
Published: January 2009

IN 1932, when I started my research career as an assistant to Nishina, Dirac published a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, London. In this paper, he discussed the formulation of relativistic quantum mechanics, especially that of electrons interacting with the electromagnetic field. At that time a comprehensive theory of this interaction had been formally completed by Heisenberg and Pauli, but Dirac was not satisfied with this theory and tried to construct a new theory from a different point of view. Heisenberg and Pauli regarded the (electromagnetic) field itself as a dynamical system amenable to the Hamiltonian treatment; its interaction with particles could be described by an interaction energy, so that the usual method of Hamiltonian quantum mechanics could be applied. On the other hand, Dirac thought that the field and the particles should play essentially different roles. That is to say, according to him, “the role of the field is to provide a means for making observations of a system of particles” and therefore “we cannot suppose the field to be a dynamical system on the same footing as the particles and thus be something to be observed in the same way as the particles.”
Is the literature worth retrieving?
Authors: Goudsmit Samuel A.
Published: January 2009

A FEW YEARS AGO John Maddox, now editor of Nature, wrote an article seriously questioning whether the scientific literature was worth keeping. He complained that style and incorrect sentence construction often make scientific articles unintelligible, thus hastening their obsolescence.
Consistent scaling of thermal fluctuations in smoothed dissipative particle dynamics
Authors: Vázquez-Quesada Adolfo , Ellero Marco , Español Pep
Published: January 2009

Dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) as a model of fluid particles suffers from the problem that it has no physical scale associated with the particles. Therefore, a DPD simulation requires an ambiguous fine-tuning of the model parameters with the physical parameters. A corrected version of DPD that does not suffer from this problem is smoothed dissipative particle dynamics (SDPD) [P. Español and M. Revenga, Phys. Rev. E 67, 026705 (2003)]. SDPD is, in fact, a version of the well-known smoothed particle hydrodynamics method, albeit with the proper inclusion of thermal fluctuations. Here, we show that SDPD produces the proper scaling of the fluctuations as the resolution of the simulation is varied. This is investigated in two problems: the Brownian motion of a spherical colloidal particle and a polymer molecule in suspension.
Developments of concepts in superconductivity
Authors: Bardeen John
Published: January 2009

In this talk, I would like to trace the origins of some of the major theoretical and experimental advances which have led to the development of a successful microscopic theory of superconductivity and then to indicate briefly some of the current problems. Fritz London made extremely important contributions to the theory and laid the groundwork for our present understanding. He showed how the Meissner effect and other superconducting properties could be understood as a consequence of quantum effects operating on a macroscopic scale. A striking prediction of his, which only recently has been verified experimentally, is the quantization of flux in a superconducting ring. My own work on superconductivity theory has been influenced greatly by that of Fritz London.
Superconductivity and ferromagnetism
Authors: Matthias B. T.
Published: January 2009

Superconductivity and ferromagnetism were considered exclusive phenomena for many decades. Ever since Kamerlingh Onnes' discovery that strong magnetic fields will destroy superconductivity it had been assumed that the large internal, or Weiss field, in a ferromagnet would never permit the occurrence of superconductivity. In the case of the magnetic elements, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, and nickel, this point of view certainly seems justified, as none of them has as yet been shown to be superconducting. And yet, whenever two phenomena seem to exclude one another so entirely, it is frequently because similar, if not identical, mechanisms are responsible.
Interaction of acoustical waves and electrons
Authors: Morse R. W.
Published: January 2009

It might strike you as odd that a title which includes the words electron and acoustical wave could describe a frontier of physics. We have already heard at this meeting that the electron was discovered in the 19th century, and as everyone knows, acoustics is perhaps the oldest branch of physics. But, what I would like to discuss is something that is rather satisfying, not only because it is rather simple physics, but because it shows that old and honorable subjects still have aspects that are new. The electrons that I shall discuss are the same ones that J. J. Thomson discovered, but in this context they are somewhat “strange” particles since they move in the odd world within a metal. The sound waves, too, are not quite what the Greeks discussed; here they are ultrasonic ones.