bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Allah Temple of Islam Families
Authors: Taylor Ula Yvette
Published: January 2018

This chapter discusses the Dillon Report, a detailed investigation into the lives of the pioneers of the Allah Temple of Islam in Detroit during the Great Depression. Written by Miriam S. Dillon, the report explores the University of Islam, a primary school for the convert’s children and why they were committed to Fard’s teachings.
Controlling the Black Body
Authors: Taylor Ula Yvette
Published: January 2018

This chapter introduces Burnsteen Sharrieff, W.D. Fard’s secretary, and the Final Call to Islam, a newspaper edited by Elijah Mohammad. Obsessed with maintaining a slim body, Allah Temple of Islam member’s critiqued obesity as evidence of self-indulgence. Willing to defend Fard’s teachings at any cost, black women converts were jailed in Chicago’s Cook County Jail during the Great Depression.
World War II
Authors: Taylor Ula Yvette
Published: January 2018

This chapter details how the Allah Temple of Islam shifts to the Nation of Islam under the leadership of Elijah Mohammad, Sister Clara Mohammed and Sister Pauline Bahar. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) critique of the movement as un-American due to its subversive teachings, incites raids on the Temple by Chicago police and the arrest of it members.
Flexing a New Womanhood
Authors: Taylor Ula Yvette
Published: January 2018

This chapter details the Muslim Girls Training and General Civilization Class (MGT-GCC) instruction for women. The role of Sister Captain Burnsteen Sharrieff is highlighted along with Lottie and Ethel Muhammad, the daughters of Clara and Elijah Muhammad. Sister Thelma X, a vocal member of the Nation of Islam and her publication, Truth, are examined for both its pro-black and anti-Jewish rhetoric. Sisters Louise Dunlap and Ernestine Scott, two Nation women who defied Jim Crow laws by sitting in a “White Only” section of a railroad station, bring Minister Malcolm X and his future wife, Sister Betty X into the narrative.
The Royal Family
Authors: Taylor Ula Yvette
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines the complicated Royal Family, Elijah and Clara Muhammad and their daughters, Ethel Sharrieff and Lottie Muhammad. By the 1960s the Nation of Islam had blossomed into a financially rich organization with an expansive membership. Elijah Muhammad secretaries were central to the organizations communication efforts. Some of the secretaries, Evelyn Williams, Lucile Rosary and Tynnetta Deanar, for example, were also the secret wives of Elijah Muhammad. The tensions produced by these relationships and Minister Malcolm X’s role in exposing Elijah Muhammad’s personal life beyond the membership signal the difficulties in maintaining a patriarchal movement. How polygamy impacted rank and file women, and Mrs. Clara Muhammad, conclude the chapter.
The Appeal of Black Nationalism and the Promise of Prosperity
Authors: Taylor Ula Yvette
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the Nation of Islam conversion of activists Sonia Sanchez and Gwendolyn Simmons, after the assassination of Minister Malcolm X. Why political activists found a political home in the Nation post-1965 underscores how the Nation filled a vacuum as a Black Power alternative. Believers wanted the promises of wealth and protection, and the University of Islam evidenced the building of an independent Nation and it served to ground the movement’s teachings to children. Sonsyrea Tate’s schooling underscores how girls and teenagers were made into Muslim women for a Black Nation. The remaking of women into an Islamic womanhood at times clashed with revolutionary change.
The Battle of Peach Tree Creek
Authors: Hess Earl J.
Published: January 2018

On July 20, 1864, the Civil War struggle for Atlanta reached a pivotal moment. As William T. Sherman's Union forces came ever nearer the city, Confederate President Jefferson Davis replaced the defending Confederate Army of Tennessee's commander, Joseph E. Johnston, and elevated John Bell Hood to replace him. This decision stunned and demoralized Confederate troops just when Hood was compelled to take the offensive against the approaching Federals. Attacking northward from Atlanta's defences, Hood's men struck George H. Thomas's Army of the Cumberland just after it crossed Peach Tree Creek on July 20. Initially taken by surprise, the Federals fought back with spirit and nullified all the advantages the Confederates first enjoyed. As a result, the Federals achieved a remarkable defensive victory. This book offers new and definitive interpretations of the battle's place within the Atlanta campaign. It demonstrated that several Confederate regiments and brigades made a show of advancing but then stopped partway to the objective and took cover for the rest of the afternoon on July 20. Morale played an unusually important role in determining the outcome of the battle at Peach Tree Creek. A soured mood among the Confederates and overwhelming confidence among the Federals spelled disaster for one side and victory for the other.
Hardee versus Newton
Authors: Hess Earl J.
Published: January 2018

William J. Hardee's Corps attacked along the Buck Head and Atlanta Road at about 3 p.m., July 20, with about 15,000 troops. The only force standing in the war was John Newton's division of the Fourth Corps, about 3,000 strong, which was partially fortified in a good position. Hardee handled his attack poorly; one of his divisions never even found the enemy, another nearly outflanked Newton's left but was repulsed, and another only advanced part way to Newton's right wing then stopped in a ravine and fired for the rest of the day. Hardee's reserve division, commanded by Patrick R. Cleburne, was about to renew the attack when Hood called on Hardee to send a division to the east side of Atlanta to oppose McPherson's approach to the city. Hardee Cleburne's Division. Hardee's officers and men generally did not press their attacks vigorously and Hood had some degree of justification in later blaming him for a lack of faith in his plan. The Confederates never discovered that a gap of a mile and a half existed between Newton's division and the rest of the Fourth Corps which was operating with Schofield's Army of the Ohio.
Rest of Day, July 20
Authors: Hess Earl J.
Published: January 2018

As Hardee's Corps and Stewart's Army of Mississippi assailed Thomas's Army of the Cumberland north of Atlanta, the rest of Sherman's army group continued to inch forward to the east and northeast of Atlanta. Schofield's Army of the Ohio and two divisions of Oliver O. Howard's Fourth Corps worked through tangled vegetation in their effort to link Thomas with McPherson's Army of the Tennessee. They made limited progress, essentially coming up to the developing Confederate position known as the Peach Tree Creek Line (which faced north) and the Confederate Outer Line (which faced east). Elements of Howard's and Schofield's commands skirmished with troops from Benjamin F. Cheatham's Corps (formerly commanded by Hood), which was responsible for holing the far right of the Peach Tree Creek Line and all of the Outer Line. But a gap continued to exist between Howard and John Newton's division. Fortunately for the Federals, the Confederates never became aware of this potentially dangerous hole in Sherman's formation. McPherson continued to move along the Georgia Railroad toward Atlanta, allowing a small force of Confederate cavalry under Joseph Wheeler to slow his pace. By July 20, he came within striking distance of the Outer Line.
Cleaning Up
Authors: Hess Earl J.
Published: January 2018

With 2,500 Confederates and 1,900 Federals killed, wounded, and missing in the Battle of Peach Tree Creek, the first task for the victorious Unionists was to clean up the battlefield. Details collected the wounded of both sides, finding at least one woman soldier who had been disguised as a man lying injured on the field and wearing a Confederate uniform. Details also buried the dead of both sides either in single graves or in communal trenches. All manner of debris from discarded clothing to abandoned battle flags, small arms, and personal equipment littered the field. Several Federal surgeons described in detail the process of taking care of both Union and Confederate wounded for days following the battle at Peach Tree Creek and many personal stories of survival can be found in the letters, diaries, memoirs, and unit histories of the men and regiments engaged in the fight. The deaths of soldiers affected entire families back home in the North and South, and many wounded men who survived the battle carried the effects of their injuries for the rest of their lives, sometimes perishing of the after effects of a battlefield wound decades later.
Conclusion
Authors: Hess Earl J.
Published: January 2018

The battle of Peach Tree Creek was the largest tactical offensive mounted by the Army of Tennessee since the battle of Chickamauga ten months before. Soldier morale was depressed by the loss of their beloved commander, Joseph E. Johnson. While most men had no real opinion of John Bell Hood, they knew that the army would now take the offensive. Many Confederates were reluctant to close with the enemy on July 20. Hardee's Corps failed to press home its advantage of manpower over John Newton's division. At least one third of Winfield S. Featherston's Brigade refused to accompany their comrades in pressing home the assault against William T. Ward's division. More or the less the same was true along the rest of the battle line. In contrast, most Federals fought with determination that day. Hood also developed an attack plan that was too complicated as he struggled to master the complexities of army level command. Efforts to preserve and mark the battlefield for posterity were mounted after the war, especially in the 1930s, but they mostly failed and the battlefield largely has been consumed by the explosive growth of Atlanta in the twentieth century.
Game of Privilege
Authors: Demas Lane
Published: January 2018

This groundbreaking history of African Americans and golf explores the role of race, class, and public space in golf course development, the stories of individual black golfers during the age of segregation, the legal battle to integrate public golf courses, and the little-known history of the United Golfers Association (UGA) – a black golf tour that operated from 1925-1975. Lane Demas charts how African Americans nationwide organized social campaigns, filed lawsuits, and went to jail in order to desegregate courses; he also provides little-known, dramatic stories of golfers who boldly confronted wider segregation more broadly in their local communities. As national civil rights organizations debated golf’s symbolism and whether or not to pursue the game’s integration, black players and caddies took matters into their own hands and helped shape its subculture, while UGA participants forged one of the most durable black sporting organizations in American history as they fought to join the white Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA). From George F. Grant’s invention of the golf tee in 1899, to the dominance of superstar Tiger Woods in the 1990s, this accessible and comprehensive work challenges stereotypes and indeed the fundamental story of race and golf in American culture.
One Hears of Negro Country Clubs
Authors: Demas Lane
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the development of golf clubs in black communities during and after the Great Migration surrounding World War I. By the 1920s, golf had become a frequent pastime in many black communities as well as a symbol of northern possibility and the promise of economic mobility for southern migrants. While some intellectuals associated with the Harlem Renaissance (like W. E. B. Du Bois) struggled to detach the game from its deep ties to white colonialism and racial exclusion, others saw the growth of predominately black golf courses and country clubs as embodying the Jazz Age and a new era of black respectability. The narrative explores certain regions and cities—such as Chicago, Cleveland, or New York City—where golf’s popularity grew in black communities because the game was more “open” to black players, as well as other hot spots for black golf—Atlanta, Jacksonville (Fla.), Baltimore, Washington, DC, and New Orleans— that flourished in the heart of segregation.
Guns in their Golf Bags
Authors: Demas Lane
Published: January 2018

This chapter discusses golf and black militant movements in the late 1960s and 1970s, exploring how American black nationalist leaders and anticolonial movements in the Caribbean and Africa appropriated the symbolism of black golfers. Popular magazines like Jet and Ebony celebrated black players, organizations sponsored black golf tours throughout the African Diaspora, and a new generation of professionals—led by Lee Elder—more directly confronted racism in the PGA and sought access to its most exclusive enclaves. Meanwhile, the ongoing internationalization of the civil rights movement placed golf squarely within global debates over race and racial discrimination. The game’s popularity in South Africa and Rhodesia made it a target of the antiapartheid movement, especially as more African-born white professionals—like star Gary Player—traveled to play in PGA events. While fans have long been interested in Muhammad Ali’s popularity in Africa or the black protests surrounding the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, they have overlooked golf as a cite of militancy. Coinciding with Ali’s famous 1974 trip to Zaire, Elder’s trips to Africa—including his confrontations with apartheid at South African golf tournaments—and his integration of the Masters Golf Tournament in 1975 are just two examples.
Migratory Movements between Mexico and the United States, 1880–1934
Authors: Fernando Saúl Alanís Enciso , Davidson Russ
Published: January 2018

This chapter presents an overview of the flow of Mexican immigration to the United States between the years of 1880 and 1934. It notes that two main factors were responsible for the influx of Mexican immigrants to the United States over this period of time, these being: 1) the expansion of the U.S. economy and integration of the southwestern states into the union, and 2) the difficult social and economic conditions that Mexico faced as a result of the expropriation of village communal lands and a decrease in wages on rural estates. This chapter also outlines the timeline of Mexican immigration throughout this period, from the late 19th to the middle of the 20th century, and analyses how momentous events, such as World War I and the Great Depression, spurred or deterred Mexican migration to the U.S., as well as the Mexican government’s various attempts to both encourage and curb repatriation.
The Repatriation Project, 1938–1939
Authors: Fernando Saúl Alanís Enciso , Davidson Russ
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines how Mexican nationals living abroad reacted to the Cardenas administration’s proposed repatriation plans; it notes that the majority of Mexican citizens in the U.S. expressed little interest in returning to Mexico, as well as scepticism about the government’s ability to deliver on its promises. Chapter 5 also details Ramon Beteta’s canvassing of the Mexican population living abroad, and his subsequent plan to focus exclusively on repatriating families living in Texas, who faced harsher conditions than those living elsewhere. Finally, this chapter examines the Cardenas administration’s continued exploration of Mexican territory in their efforts to select a site on which to found an agricultural settlement for newly repatriated nationals.
Spanish Refugees, the Repatriated, and the Lower Rio Grande Valley
Authors: Fernando Saúl Alanís Enciso , Davidson Russ
Published: January 2018

Chapter 6 explores the impact of the Spanish Civil War on Mexico, as well as Mexico’s decision to become a refuge state for thousands of Spanish exiles. This chapter chronicles how this action elicited a polarized response from Mexican citizens, some of whom welcomed the refugees, others of whom denounced them, citing their government’s responsibility to repatriate its own citizens first. Chapter 6 notes that this negative reaction contributed to the Cardenas administration’s expedited efforts to repatriate its Mexican nationals living in the U.S.; the official repatriation project took place over the course of only three months, from April to June 1939, and resettled some 3,750 people. Lastly, Chapter 6 discusses the hardships faced by repatriated Mexicans at these settlements, including a lack of irrigation and insufficient supplies.
Introduction
Authors: Buckley Eve E.
Published: January 2018

This introductory section provides a history of Brazil’s semi-arid sertão in relation to the northeast region and the country as a whole, with a central focus on drought and the establishment of federal agencies to address that recurrent crisis—most notably the Departamento Nacional de Obras Contra as Secas (DNOCS). The chapter encapsulates the book’s central argument regarding the assumptions and shortcomings of scientific and technological development during the twentieth century. It outlines the primary intellectual influences on this book, both in terms of academic fields and the work of specific scholars. It briefly situates technocratic development efforts in the sertão in relation to similarly vexed regional development efforts elsewhere in the world during the twentieth century, on which Brazil’s efforts to end drought and famine in the northeast were often modelled.
Climate and Culture
Authors: Buckley Eve E.
Published: January 2018

This chapter emphasizes the intersection of natural (environmental) and social factors that made droughts calamitous for the poorest sertanejos. It traces the construction of the northeast (nordeste) as an identifiable region within modern Brazil, perceived as a challenge to modernization efforts due to its environment and its citizens’ mixed racial heritage. The chapter introduces central aspects of the sertão’s geography and economy, briefly outlining changes from the colonial period to the twentieth century. The role of the Great Drought (1877-1879) in shaping landholding patterns is emphasized, along with the impact that the Canudos rebellion had on other Brazilians’ views of sertanejos. Brazilian racial ideologies of the late nineteenth century are analysed in relation to the marginalization of sertanejos. The dynamics of political patronage by Brazil’s rural coronéis are introduced to explain how drought aid was often funnelled to wealthy landowners rather than to the poor. Finally, popular views of twentieth century drought works are accessed through reference to folk poems known as cordéis.
Civilizing the Sertão
Authors: Buckley Eve E.
Published: January 2018

This chapter contrasts the political interpretation of sertanejos’ endemic illnesses, promulgated by Brazilian sanitarians, with the approach to public health promoted by Rockefeller Foundation International Health Board (IHB) representatives who also worked in Brazil during the 1910s. These contrasting interpretations of the political and racial origins of endemic disease delineate two poles around which subsequent approaches to sertão development turned. Early in the chapter, public health infrastructure in the northeast region is evaluated in relation to states’ limited capacity to assist drought refugees or prevent epidemics in migrant camps, and the efforts of cearense physician Rodolfo Teófilo are emphasized. The remainder of the chapter focuses on a sanitary survey of the sertão undertaken by Belisário Penna and Arthur Neiva in 1912; subsequent public health projects engaged in by Penna (notably the Serviço de Profilaxia Rural, or Rural Sanitation Service) and the Rockefeller Foundation’s International Health Board in Brazil; and the establishment of a national department of public health stemming from these efforts. The analysis emphasizes the racism of IHB director Wickliffe Rose which led him to dismiss the modernizing potential of sertanejos and to attribute their diseases to racial weakness. This is contrasted with Penna’s rejection of racial and climatic determinism.
Conclusion
Authors: Buckley Eve E.
Published: January 2018

This concluding section briefly traces the shift in approaches to regional development that took place under Brazil’s military dictatorship during the late 1960s and 1970s, with increased focus on urban industrialization and reduced interest in smallholder irrigated farming. Critical perspectives on approaches to northeast development during and after the dictatorship, from Brazilian academics and intellectuals like Celso Furtado—first director of SUDENE (the Superintendencia de Desenvolvimento do Nordeste)—and others are emphasized. The book ends by evaluating the limits of technocratic solutions to problems rooted in social and political organization—of which drought in northeast Brazil is an exemplar—with reference to similar development projects elsewhere in the world.
Multiple Migrations
Authors: Hunter Douglas
Published: January 2018

Esotericism enters the Dighton Rock debate through the French mythographer Antoine Court de Gébelin and Monde Primitif (1781), who believes it to be Phoenician. Ezra Stiles also favours the Phoenician interpretation and incorporates it into his Gothicist-tinged Election Sermon (1783) which presents the United States as a place of White destiny. American westward expansion produces encounters with the mysterious earthworks of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and fuels the rise of American archaeology. Thomas Pennant in Arctic Zoology (1784) makes an influential case for the Bering Strait hypothesis of the Indigenous arrival in the Americas. Corneille de Pauw publishes Recherches philosophiques (1768-69) arguing the degenerative effect on all life of the climate of the Americas.The Anglo-Irish antiquarian Charles Vallancey argues Dighton Rock was the work of ancient migrants from Asia who were moved aside by the inferior Tartar ancestors of Native Americans. Vallancey’s theory finds near-simultaneous acceptance in a circle of theorists around Stiles as an explanation for the so-called Mound Builders. The author defines this interpretation of American prehistory as the multiple migration displacement scenario.
Stones of Power
Authors: Hunter Douglas
Published: January 2018

British writer and artist Edward Augustus Kendall visits Dighton Rock and other petroglyphs in a tour of New England in 1807-09. He writes an effective defense of Dighton Rock as the work of Indigenous people. His analysis is steeped in Masonic esotericism that Freemasonry arrived in North America long before colonizing Europeans did.
The Ten-Cent Treaty
Authors: Richotte Keith
Published: January 2018

Chapter four identifies how the negotiations for a treaty substitute exposed the cracks within the community and disrupted the leadership structure at Turtle Mountain, while the treaty substitute itself further established grounds for a claim against the federal government. In 1892 the federal government sent a commission to negotiate with the people of Turtle Mountain for unceded lands. This commission chose with whom to negotiate, stacking the deck for itself and disrupting the leadership structure within the community. The subsequent treaty substitute, derisively nicknamed the Ten-Cent Treaty, for its paltry payment, stalled in Washington D.C. for a dozen years before finally being ratified by Congress. Tribal discontent with the Ten-Cent Treaty was the next major step in the road to a claim against the federal government and the constitution.
Introduction
Authors: Wenger Tisa
Published: January 2018

This chapter introduces the key concepts of “assemblage” and “religious freedom talk” and offers a brief history of religious freedom as it intersected with race and religion in colonial America—particularly through the figure of John Locke—and in the nineteenth century United States. It shows how this malleable ideal simultaneously forged the U.S. Protestant secular, bolstered U.S. imperialism, and provided colonized and minority populations with a means of resistance. In the process, religious freedom has shaped and reshaped the contours of race and religion across the cultural landscapes of U.S. empire.
Making the Imperial Subject
Authors: Wenger Tisa
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the role of religious freedom in the Spanish-American War and the subsequent U.S. decision to annex the Philippines. Surveying the views of imperialists and anti-imperialists among Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish leaders, it argues that religious freedom talk provided a powerful rationale for war and empire. While white Protestants used this ideal to reinforce their own cultural authority, Catholics used it to assert their own place as American patriots and imperial administrators. In so doing, they reinforced the claims of Catholic immigrants to the racial status of whiteness in American life.
Making Religion on the Reservation
Authors: Wenger Tisa
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the dilemmas of religious freedom for a very different colonized population: the indigenous people whose dispossession marked the very foundation of the United States as a settler-colonial society. It explores the limited utility of this ideal for Native Americans in the 1890 Ghost Dance, the Indian Shaker churches of the Pacific Northwest, and the Peyote movement that institutionalized as the Native American Church. While religious freedom claims sometimes served indigenous assertions of cultural and political self-determination, Native people often found their traditions transformed in the process. Across these movements, Indians found their religious freedom claims limited by the cultural biases and coercive structures of settler-colonial rule.
Feminism and Science
Authors: Johnson Joan Marie
Published: January 2018

While Sanger’s early focus was on increasing access to and information about birth control, one of her most loyal supporters, Katharine McCormick, consistently argued for the research and development of a new method of accessible, safe, reliable contraception controlled by women themselves, at a time when diaphragms, condoms, and withdrawal were common methods of birth control. Chapter 7 posits that McCormick’s feminism drove her to back development of the pill, correcting earlier historians who misunderstood her relationship with her husband. I also explain why Sanger and McCormick supported a prescription pill, which could be difficult for some women to obtain, while ostensibly trying to expand access to birth control. The chapter traces the way McCormick’s scientific interest in endocrinology, which developed from her intervention in her mentally ill husband’s medical care, and her feminist philosophy came together in her funding of the development of the birth control pill. At a time when Planned Parenthood was uninterested in research or concerned with developing a new contraceptive method that women could control, McCormick insisted that a pill was both possible and necessary, and she paid for its development by Gregory Pincus and John Rock. She then worked to ensure that women had access to the pill through its distribution at hospital clinics. McCormick single-handedly financed the expansion of reproductive rights for women through the development of the pill.
Goat Castle
Authors: Cox Karen L.
Published: January 2018

In 1932, the city of Natchez, Mississippi, reckoned with an unexpected influx of journalists and tourists as the lurid story of a local murder was splashed across headlines nationwide. Two eccentrics, Richard Dana and Octavia Dockery—known in the press as the “Wild Man” and the “Goat Woman”—enlisted an African American man named George Pearls to rob their reclusive neighbor, Jennie Merrill, at her estate. During the attempted robbery, Merrill was shot and killed. The crime drew national coverage when it came to light that Dana and Dockery, the alleged murderers, shared their huge, decaying antebellum mansion with their goats and other livestock, which prompted journalists to call the estate “Goat Castle.” Pearls was killed by an Arkansas policeman in an unrelated incident before he could face trial. However, as was all too typical in the Jim Crow South, the white community demanded “justice,” and an innocent black woman named Emily Burns was ultimately sent to prison for the murder of Merrill. Dana and Dockery not only avoided punishment but also lived to profit from the notoriety of the murder by opening their derelict home to tourists.
Strange, fascinating, and sobering, Goat Castle tells the story of this local feud, killing, investigation, and trial, showing how a true crime tale of fallen southern grandeur and murder obscured an all too familiar story of racial injustice.
Murder at Glenburnie
Authors: Cox Karen L.
Published: January 2018

This chapter brings all of the principals together and introduces law enforcement. It explains how George Pearls met Dick Dana and Octavia Dockery and the plan to rob Jennie Merrill. It details how Emily Burns came to be at Glenburnie the night of the robbery. The botched robbery ended in Jennie Merrill being shot and killed and then tossed in a thicket 100 yards from the house. Dana, Dockery, Pearls, Burns, and perhaps Poe were involved. All disbursed after Merrill was killed as word spread throughout Natchez that Jennie Merrill might have been murdered, although her body was missing. Sheriff Clarence Roberts puts out a call for deputies and head to Glenburnie to begin their investigation.
The Investigation
Authors: Cox Karen L.
Published: January 2018

Sheriff Clarence “Book” Roberts is fully introduced. He is in charge of the investigation and his work begins by calling for bloodhounds, scouring Glenburnie, and then going to speak with Dick Dana and Octavia Dockery. He’ll also arrest other whites as well as local blacks for questioning. He invites fingerprint expert, James Chancellor, to collect prints from Glenburnie. Soon, he invites Maurice O’Neill, chief detective from New Orleans Police Department to assist as the crime starts to get national attention. Dana and Dockery are charged with murder after their fingerprints were found inside Merrill’s home. Yet after ten days, the pair will be allowed to return home on their own recognizance to await the November grand jury. Merrill is buried and her cousin Duncan Minor speaks of a “strange negro” in Natchez.
Hollow Victory
Authors: Cox Karen L.
Published: January 2018

In the year following the trial to convict Emily Burns, Octavia Dockery seethed with resentment for the sheriff of Adams County. One year to the day of her arrest and that of Dick Dana, she filed lawsuits for herself and on Dick’s behalf, seeking damages from Book Roberts for their unlawful arrest and humiliation. Roberts, who believed the pair was involved in the murder, re-arrested them on murder charges. During arguments among the attorneys it was revealed that the previous grand jury had voted to indict the pair for murder, but Adams County district attorney Clay Tucker would not prosecute. The case had exhausted the town of Natchez. A venire of more than 200 men was passed over so there were not enough to field a jury of 12. The judge declared a mistrial, but the murder charges against Dana and Dockery remained.
The Three Graces
Authors: Wilson Emily Herring
Published: January 2018

The Three Graces of Val-Kill changes the way we think about Eleanor Roosevelt. Emily Wilson examines what she calls the most formative period in Roosevelt's life, from 1922 to 1936, when she cultivated an intimate friendship with Marion Dickerman and Nancy Cook, who helped her build a cottage on the Val-Kill Creek in Hyde Park on the Roosevelt family land. In the early years, the three women--the "three graces," as Franklin Delano Roosevelt called them--were nearly inseparable and forged a female-centered community for each other, for family, and for New York's progressive women. Examining this network of close female friends gives readers a more comprehensive picture of the Roosevelts and Eleanor's burgeoning independence in the years that marked Franklin's rise to power in politics.
Wilson takes care to show all the nuances and complexities of the women's relationship, which blended the political with the personal. Val-Kill was not only home to Eleanor Roosevelt but also a crucial part of how she became one of the most admired American political figures of the twentieth century. In Wilson's telling, she emerges out of the shadows of monumental histories and documentaries as a woman in search of herself.
The Hudson River Valley
Authors: Wilson Emily Herring
Published: January 2018

This chapter describes the natural setting of the Hudson River Valley, Hyde Park and Poughkeepsie, St. James Episcopal Church, and a short history of the marriage of James Roosevelt and Sara Delano Roosevelt and their home at Springwood and the marriage of Franklin Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt.
New York City and the New Woman
Authors: Wilson Emily Herring
Published: January 2018

This chapter describes Eleanor Roosevelt's speech to the New York City Democratic women and her first meeting with Nancy Cook, which led to meeting Cook's partner, Marion Dickerman, their close friendship, and to their activities to organize the state's progressive Democratic women. Cook and Dickerman, life partners, are introduced to the reader.
Val-Kill as Refuge
Authors: Wilson Emily Herring
Published: January 2018

The chapter imagines a morning when Eleanor Roosevelt visits the grave of her infant son at nearby St. James Episcopal Church.
An Exchange of Letters
Authors: Wilson Emily Herring
Published: January 2018

After the talk in August 1937 Eleanor writes long letters laying out her sense of having been insulted by Nancy and falls out with Marion over an incident having to do with Eleanor's brother Hall Roosevelt, who had been drinking heavily at Val-Kill. Marion attempts to defend herself and Nancy but the friendship is shattered, and a lawyer has to draw up separation papers.
After the Storm
Authors: Wilson Emily Herring
Published: January 2018

The event that shook the world was FDR's death April 12, 1945. Eleanor hastily packed up and departed the White House, moving into her home at Val-Kill. On October 21 1947 Marion and Nancy sold their part of the cottage and moved to New Canaan Connecticut, where Marion took a job at present-day Mystic Seaport Museum and Nancy made a new house and garden. Springwood was gifted to the federal government, and the Roosevelt children divided up the Val-Kill properties.
Spark Plugs in Every Neighborhood: Clara Lemlich Shavelson and the Emergence of a Militant Working-Class Housewives’ Movement, 1913–1945
Authors: Orleck Annelise
Published: January 2018

From the early 20th century through World War II, labor activism and women’s subsistence activism around tenants’ rights, food prices and education was central to industrial feminism and working-class women’s activism. This chapter traces the career of Clara Lemlich Shavelson after the 1909 uprising as she became a Communist Party activist and a leader in decades of rent strikes, kosher meat boycotts and the creation of working-class women’s neighbourhood councils. By 1935 her work had helped to spark a nation-wide meat boycott to protest price gouging.
From the Russian Pale to the Lower East Side: The Cultural Roots of Four Jewish Women’s Radicalism
Authors: Orleck Annelise
Published: January 2018

This chapter traces the roots of East European Jewish women’s Socialism, feminism and labor radicalism in the Eastern European towns and cities where they were born during the late 19th century. It then follows Schendierman, Newman, Lemlich and Cohn as they moved to New York City and became involved in labor and women’s subsistence activism.
Dissident Communists
Authors: Wald Alan M.
Published: January 2018

The development of an anti-Stalinist Left among pro-Communist intellectuals is explored. Receiving special treatment are the pages of Menorah Journal and the activities of some of its contributors, along with intellectuals attracted to the American Workers Party and those involved in the National Committee for the Defense of Political Prisoners and League of Professionals. James Rorty and Charles Rumford Walker are among activists described A sustained analysis of Tess Slesinger’s novel The Unpossessed is presented in the context of this background.
Philosophers and Revolutionists
Authors: Wald Alan M.
Published: January 2018

This chapter begins with a discussion of the organizations in which dissident communists were active, such as the Non-Partisan Labor Defense Committee, the American Workers Party, and the early Trotskyist movement as it made its “entry” into the Socialist Party. This is followed by a review of the debates between Max Eastman and Sidney Hook over Marxist philosophy, especially the role of dialectics and pragmatism.
The Book of Mormon
Authors: Mueller Max Perry
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines the Book of Mormon's racial theology of “white universalism.” It explores the supposed pre-Columbian history that the Book of Mormon contains, notably the origins of Native Americans as a remnant of Israelites called the “Lamanites.” It also explores the future that the Book of Mormon prophesies in which the Lamanites unify with believing “Gentiles” to become one “white and a delightsome” people and together build a New Jerusalem in America before Christ’s return. The chapter also includes an examination of the Book of Mormon prophet, “Samuel, the Lamanite.” Samuel’s case, along with other marginalized early American religious leaders like William Apess and Jerana Lee, shows that non-white Americans have a “privileged sight” onto America and America’s religious communities that fail to live up to their own ideals of inclusion and equality. The views of marginalized figures are thus essential for an accurate accounting of America’s past.
From Gentile to Israelite
Authors: Mueller Max Perry
Published: January 2018

This chapter traces the racial implications of the Mormons’ forced removal in 1833 from Jackson County, Missouri, where the Mormons had hoped to build New Jerusalem. Non-Mormons in the county forced the Mormons out following accusations that the Mormons were “meddling” with black slaves and Indians in order to convert them and to foment racial violence. In exile, the Mormons’ practice of (relative) racial inclusion became more circumscribed, though one famous black convert, Elijah Abel, joined the church. Promising not to upset the nation’s racial hierarchy, early Mormon leaders focused on making white converts in America and in the first international missions to the British Isles. White Mormons also began to reexamine their own racial/genealogical identities. Through the ritual of the patriarchal blessing, Mormons discovered that most of them were not actually “gentiles,” but Israelites and natural born heirs to the sacred covenant that God made with Abraham.
Vertical distributions of N2O isotopocules in the equatorial stratosphere
Authors: Toyoda Sakae , Yoshida Naohiro , Morimoto Shinji , Aoki Shuji , Nakazawa Takakiyo , Sugawara Satoshi , Ishidoya Shigeyuki , Uematsu Mitsuo , Inai Yoichi , Hasebe Fumio , Ikeda Chusaku , Honda Hideyuki , Ishijima Kentaro
Published: January 2018

Abstract. Vertical profiles of nitrous oxide (N2O) and its
isotopocules, isotopically substituted molecules, were obtained over the
Equator at altitudes of 16–30 km. Whole air samples were collected using
newly developed balloon-borne compact cryogenic samplers over the eastern
equatorial Pacific in 2012 and Biak Island, Indonesia, in 2015. They were
examined in the laboratory using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.
The mixing ratio and isotopocule ratios of N2O in the equatorial
stratosphere showed a weaker vertical gradient than the previously reported
profiles in the subtropical and mid-latitude and high-latitude stratosphere.
From the relation between the mixing ratio and isotopocule ratios, further
distinct characteristics were found over the Equator: (1) observed
isotopocule fractionations (ε values) in the middle stratosphere
(25–30 km or [N2O] < ca. 260 nmol mol−1) are almost equal to
ε values reported from broadband photolysis experiments
conducted in the laboratory; (2) ε values in the lower
stratosphere (< ca. 25 km or [N2O] > ca. 260 nmol mol−1)
are about half of the experimentally obtained values, being slightly larger
than those observed in the mid-latitude and high-latitude lower stratosphere
([N2O] > ca. 170 nmol mol−1). These results from the deep
tropics suggest the following. (i) The timescale for quasi-horizontal mixing
between tropical and mid-latitude air in the tropical middle stratosphere is
sufficiently slow relative to the tropical upwelling rate that isotope
fractionation approaches the Rayleigh limit for N2O photolysis. (ii) The
air in the tropical lower stratosphere is exchanged with extratropical air on
a timescale that is shorter than that of photochemical decomposition of
N2O. Previously observed ε values, which are invariably
smaller than those of photolysis, can be explained qualitatively using a
three-dimensional chemical transport model and using a simple model that
assumes mixing of “aged” tropical air and extratropical air during residual
circulation. Results show that isotopocule ratios are useful to examine the
stratospheric transport scheme deduced from tracer–tracer relations.
An interactive ocean surface albedo scheme (OSAv1.0): formulation and evaluation in ARPEGE-Climat (V6.1) and LMDZ (V5A)
Authors: Séférian Roland , Baek Sunghye , Boucher Olivier , Dufresne Jean-Louis , Decharme Bertrand , Saint-Martin David , Roehrig Romain
Published: January 2018

Abstract. Ocean surface represents roughly 70 % of the Earth's surface, playing a
large role in the partitioning of the energy flow within the climate system.
The ocean surface albedo (OSA) is an important parameter in this
partitioning because it governs the amount of energy penetrating into the
ocean or reflected towards space. The old OSA schemes in the ARPEGE-Climat
and LMDZ models only resolve the latitudinal dependence in an ad hoc way without
an accurate representation of the solar zenith angle dependence. Here, we
propose a new interactive OSA scheme suited for Earth system models, which
enables coupling between Earth system model components like surface ocean
waves and marine biogeochemistry. This scheme resolves spectrally the various
contributions of the surface for direct and diffuse solar radiation. The
implementation of this scheme in two Earth system models leads to
substantial improvements in simulated OSA. At the local scale, models using
the interactive OSA scheme better replicate the day-to-day distribution of
OSA derived from ground-based observations in contrast to old schemes. At
global scale, the improved representation of OSA for diffuse radiation
reduces model biases by up to 80 % over the tropical oceans, reducing
annual-mean model–data error in surface upwelling shortwave radiation by up
to 7 W m−2 over this domain. The spatial correlation coefficient
between modeled and observed OSA at monthly resolution has been increased
from 0.1 to 0.8. Despite its complexity, this interactive OSA scheme is
computationally efficient for enabling precise OSA calculation without
penalizing the elapsed model time.
The 1997 Kronotsky earthquake and tsunami and their predecessors, Kamchatka, Russia
Authors: Bourgeois Joanne , Pinegina Tatiana K.
Published: January 2018

Abstract. The northern part of the Kamchatka subduction zone (KSZ) experienced three tsunamigenic earthquakes in the 20th century – February 1923, April 1923, December 1997 – events that help us better understand the behavior of this segment. A particular focus of this study is the nature and location of the 5 December 1997 Kronotsky rupture (Mw ∼ 7.8) as elucidated by tsunami runup north of Kronotsky Peninsula in southern to central Kamchatsky Bay. Some studies have characterized the subduction zone off Kronotsky Peninsula as either more locked or more smoothly slipping than surrounding areas and have placed the 1997 rupture south of this promontory. However, 1997 tsunami runup north of the peninsula, as evidenced by our mapping of tsunami deposits, requires the rupture to extend farther north. Previously reported runup (1997 tsunami) on Kronotsky Peninsula was no more than 2–3 m, but our studies indicate tsunami heights for at least 50 km north of Kronotsky Peninsula in Kamchatsky Bay, ranging from 3.4 to 9.5 m (average 6.1 m), exceeding beach ridge heights of 5.3 to 8.3 m (average 7.1 m). For the two 1923 tsunamis, we cannot distinguish among their deposits in southern to central Kamchatsky Bay, but the deposits are more extensive than the 1997 deposit. A reevaluation of the April 1923 historical tsunami suggests that its moment magnitude could be revised upward, and that the 1997 earthquake filled a gap between the two 1923 earthquake ruptures. Characterizing these historical earthquakes and tsunamis in turn contributes to interpreting the prehistoric record, which is necessary to evaluate recurrence intervals for such events. Deeper in time, the prehistoric record back to ∼ AD 300 in southern to central Kamchatsky Bay indicates that during this interval, there were no local events significantly larger than those of the 20th century. Together, the historic and prehistoric tsunami record suggests a more northerly location of the 1997 rupture compared to most other analyses, a revision of the size of the April 1923 earthquake, and agreement with previous work suggesting the northern KSZ ruptures in smaller sections than the southern KSZ. The final suggestion should be considered with caution, however, as we continue to learn that our historic and even prehistoric records of earthquakes and tsunamis are limited, in particular as applied to hazard analysis. This study is a contribution to our continued efforts to understand tectonic behavior around the northern Pacific and in subduction zones, in general.
Hydrologic flow path development varies by aspect during spring snowmelt in complex subalpine terrain
Authors: Webb Ryan W. , Fassnacht Steven R. , Gooseff Michael N.
Published: January 2018

Abstract. In many mountainous regions around the world, snow and soil moisture are key components of the hydrologic cycle. Preferential flow paths of snowmelt water through snow have been known to occur for years with few studies observing the effect on soil moisture. In this study, statistical analysis of the topographical and hydrological controls on the spatiotemporal variability of snow water equivalent (SWE) and soil moisture during snowmelt was undertaken at a subalpine forested setting with north, south, and flat aspects as a seasonally persistent snowpack melts. We investigated if evidence of preferential flow paths in snow can be observed and the effect on soil moisture through measurements of snow water equivalent and near-surface soil moisture, observing how SWE and near-surface soil moisture vary on hillslopes relative to the toes of hillslopes and flat areas. We then compared snowmelt infiltration beyond the near-surface soil between flat and sloping terrain during the entire snowmelt season using soil moisture sensor profiles. This study was conducted during varying snowmelt seasons representing above-normal, relatively normal, and below-normal snow seasons in northern Colorado. Evidence is presented of preferential meltwater flow paths at the snow–soil interface on the north-facing slope causing increases in SWE downslope and less infiltration into the soil at 20 cm depth; less association is observed in the near-surface soil moisture (top 7 cm). We present a conceptualization of the meltwater flow paths that develop based on slope aspect and soil properties. The resulting flow paths are shown to divert at least 4 % of snowmelt laterally, accumulating along the length of the slope, to increase the snow water equivalent by as much as 170 % at the base of a north-facing hillslope. Results from this study show that snow acts as an extension of the vadose zone during spring snowmelt and future hydrologic investigations will benefit from studying the snow and soil together.