bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ion Exchange for the Removal of Nitrate Prom Well Water
Authors: Lauch Richard P. , Guter Gerald A.
Published: February 2018

A l‐mgd (3.8‐ML/d) ion exchange plant was built in McFarland, Calif., to remove excess concentrations of nitrate from one of the city's supply wells. Data are reported for the semiautomatic mode of operation, during which time the plant has performed satisfactorily. Nitrate has been reduced to less than 10 mg as nitrogen/L and brine has been eliminated from the product water.
Viewpoint – Granting Variances: A Postmortem Approach
Authors: Waters Lawrence W.
Published: February 2018

Lawrence W. Waters is a district engineer with the water supply and waste section of the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services, Seattle, Wash.
Reducing the Cost of Water
Authors: Regnier John E. , Waldrup Edgar H. , Garrett John A.
Published: February 2018

Water utilities—especially those serving populations of fewer than 10 000 people—can achieve both energy and monetary savings through electrical demand reduction and leak detection programs. A study of 80 rural Alabama utilities that used these techniques showed that more than 2.6 × 105 kW · h and $550 000 were saved per year.
Penal Sums of Performance Bonds: The Illusion of Certainty
Authors: Gill John P. , Paul David G.
Published: February 2018

When a contractor defaults, a battle usually ensues among the contractor's creditors over the limited funds generated by a performance bond. Often, creditors attempt to hold the insurance company (surety) liable for total completion—usually an amount beyond that predetermined in the penal sum of the bond. Under certain circumstances, courts have ignored the penal sum and held the surety liable for completion of a project.
The French Connection: Cuisine and Water Treatment
Authors: Sayre Ida M.
Published: February 2018

During a one‐week tour of water treatment plants in France, the author observed several small, simple water systems as well as some of the largest and most sophisticated installations in France. Cultural expectations that affect water treatment practices were of special interest, as were the professional resources provided by privatization.
Upland Watershed Management in Rural Pakistan
Authors: Dixon Robert K. , Perry James A.
Published: February 2018

The authors offer several suggestions for ameliorating the watershed management problem in Pakistan and caution that understanding technological structures will not ensure success. A clear realization of the social, political, economic, and religious factors must also be achieved.
Automating Water Consumption Data Manipulation
Authors: Hirrel Timothy D.
Published: February 2018

Water consumption data is the most variable and uncertain parameter in water distribution system analyses. Establishing a reasonable distribution of consumption within a water system model is a tedious and time‐consuming task that is essential for the success of any analysis or modeling effort. At the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission in Hyattsville, Md., the process of water consumption data manipulation was automated by a series of computer programs and data sets referred to as the water demand software.
Simulating Water System Operation During Periods of Drought
Authors: Randall Dean , Houck Mark H. , Wright Jeff R.
Published: February 2018

A multiobjective optimization model that describes the water supply system of the Indianapolis (Ind.) Water Company has been formulated and tested. This linear program is proposed as a tool for studying the operation of the system during periods of drought. Four conflicting objectives, eight supply sources, three reservoirs, and twelve pressure districts are included in the model, which was used to study both long‐term and real‐time operations.
Leak Detector Undetected
Authors: Nelson Robert B.
Published: February 2018

This letter briefly describes the use of the leak correlator for detecting leaks in pipelines.
Stand on Chlorine Castigated
Authors: Wanless Dennis R.
Published: February 2018

The author of this letter criticizes the American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF) for not considering chlorine to be a contaminant in its survey “Public Attitudes Toward Water Utilities (Journal AWWA, June 1986). James Manwaring, Executive Director of the AWWARF, responds that chlorine is not considered a harmful contaminant of the same classification as industrial solvents, lead, or pesticides and that chlorine has proven to be a beneficial additive to drinking water.
Surface Chemistry in Water Treatment: Reactions at the Solid‐Liquid Interface
Authors: Bales Roger C.
Published: February 2018

Recent work in surface chemistry gives fresh insight into the rate of many processes in water treatment that are subject to chemical control and offers a clearer framework for predicting behavioral differences resulting from changes in master variables such as pH. Processes of interest in water treatment involving surface‐chemical reactions that can be treated in this manner include dissolution, precipitation, coagulation, deposition, and surface catalysis. A common chemical step in these processes is complexation at the solid‐liquid interface—attachment of a specific chemical species onto a surface of defined composition.
Regulating Organics
Authors: Cook Michael , Zeilig Nancy
Published: February 2018

A combination of factors. A major influence has been findings from the Superfund program that organics are present in underground sources of drinking water and in surface water supplies. Another factor is the development of more subtle methods for detecting organics. More general concern has been stimulated by problems with hazardous waste sites like Love Canal and the hazardous waste regulatory program for synthetic substances.
Preventing the Formation of Trihalomethanes in Florida Groundwater
Authors: Thompson John C. , Ameno Jules J.
Published: February 2018

The Broward County (Fla.) Utilities Department was faced with the problem of reducing color in water from the Biscayne Aquifer and simultaneously controlling the potential for the formation of excessive trihalomethanes (THMs). The solution was to provide a short coagulation period, using ferric chloride, followed by softening to remove color plus providing a chloramine residual by adding ammonia. The improved treatment processes resulted in color control and THM levels of less than half the maximum contaminant level.
Designing a Cost‐Efficient Air‐Stripping Process
Authors: Nirmalakhandan N. , Lee Y.H. , Speece R.E.
Published: February 2018

The air stripping of volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) from water was optimized by taking into account both capital and operating costs. By using Onda's correlation for mass transfer coefficient and computer simulations, optimal water loading rates and air‐to‐water ratios were established for five representative VOCs. The overall treatment cost appeared to be relatively insensitive to changes in the operating variables in the vicinity of the optimum region but increased rapidly as the conditions deviated from the optimum region. It was also observed that the overall treatment cost was very sensitive to capital cost but not significantly affected by power costs. The treatment cost dropped almost linearly as temperature increased.
Designing Water Treatment Facilities
Authors: Monk Robert D.G. , Willis John F.
Published: February 2018

Advances in the technology of water treatment allow significant cost savings in the construction and operation of treatment facilities. The cumulative effect of these progressive techniques has not yet been fully assimilated by all engineers, managers, operators, and officials of state regulatory agencies. The goal of modern design should be to optimize the complete water treatment system to take advantage of modern technology, such as flash mixing, flexible flocculation practices, improved inlet‐outlet designs for darifiers, optimized clarifier‐filter design, use of filter aids, air‐wash scour, and monitoring systems for filter head loss. Regulatory standards, particularly those that are technology‐based, should be reexamined to support cost‐effective design and to reflect modern engineering and operating practices.
Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Water Conservation in Southern Texas
Authors: Olsen Darryll , Highstreet Allan L.
Published: February 2018

The Edwards Underground Water District and the city of San Antonio, Texas, conducted a regionwide conservation program during the summer and fall of 1984. The program's goals were to educate the public about the potential water scarcity problem and to promote largely voluntary conservation measures. To evaluate acceptance of the program by the public, a regional survey was administered that included questions regarding knowledge about and attitudes toward water resources development and conservation, the types of information sources people use and prefer to use about conservation practices, and the conservation measures people actually implemented under the impetus of the program. Some considerations relevant to conservation programs throughout the state and elsewhere are discussed. Many institutional and economic factors affect water conservation policy in general, and it was concluded that water conservation must be assigned full resource status in order to implement effective institutional policy options.
Using Alternative Oxidants to Remove Dissolved Manganese From Waters Laden With Organics
Authors: Knocke William R. , Hoehn Robert C. , Sinsabaugh Robert L.
Published: February 2018

Water treatment facilities are faced with developing new strategies for removing dissolved manganese while optimizing organics removal to control trihalomethane formation. This article reviews the potential use of four oxidants for manganese removal. The effects of changes in the total organic carbon concentration of the raw water, temperature, and pH on oxidation efficiency were evaluated using three different water sources. Three of the oxidants (chlorine, potassium permanganate, and chlorine dioxide) were found to be effective for manganese oxidation—although each had advantages and disadvantages—but hydrogen peroxide was ineffective.
Radionuclides in Drinking Water: An Overview
Authors: Aieta E. Marco , Singley J. Edward , Trussell Albert R. , Thorbjarnarson Kathryn W. , McGuire Michael J.
Published: February 2018

Although this article discusses radionuclides in general, its focus is on radium, uranium, and radon, which are the radionuclides of most concern to drinking water suppliers. Developed as the result of literature searches and interviews with personnel from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the California Department of Health Services, the article covers radionuclide chemistry, the occurrence of radionuclides, current and future regulations, treatment technologies, and monitoring.
Occurrence, Significance, and Detection of Klebsiella in Water Systems
Authors: Geldreich Edwin E. , Rice Eugene W.
Published: February 2018

Widespread occurrences of Klebsiella in water distribution networks have resulted in much discussion about this organism's effect on public health and about action that should be taken when Klebsiella is detected in public water supplies. Results obtained during development and testing of an improved medium for detecting Klebsiella showed that the medium (M‐Kleb) has excellent differentiating characteristics and an average recovery rate of 94 percent for Klebsiella. This medium can also be used as a supplemental streak plate to demonstrate the presence of Klebsiella during membrane filter coliform verification or during the multipletube confirmation process.
Why Test and Approve Additives?
Authors: Gregorka David A. , Ford William C. , Olson Alan , Ficek Ken , DeBoer Jon , Perler Arthur , Neubauer Walter K. , Lee Ramon G.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses a new program to establish standards for all drinking water additives from a health effects point of view. The National Sanitation Foundation, the American Water Works Association Research Foundation, the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators, and the Conference of State Health and Environmental Managers have been involved in efforts to establish these standards. The goal is to develop standards for anything that comes in contact with drinking water, so that the drinking water industry and its suppliers can be assured that nothing harmful is delivered to consumers inadvertently.
Developing Models for Predicting Trihalomethane Formation Potential and Kinetics
Authors: Amy Gary L. , Chadik Paul A. , Chowdhury Zaid K.
Published: February 2018

This article describes the overall development, including formulation and calibration, of linear and nonlinear multiple regression models for predicting total trihalomethane formation potential and kinetics during the chlorination of natural waters. The rationale behind each model formulation is discussed, and statistics relating to the calibration of each model are presented. The testing and attempted validation of these models are also addressed. Each model is subjected to a sensitivity analysis and a validation analysis using data derived from the literature.
Effects of the 1986 Tax Law on Water Utilities
Authors: Limbach Edward W. , Potochney Andrew J. , Shaw Lawrence G. , Hardten Ronald D. , Richard C. Oshlo , Massarelli Stanley M.
Published: February 2018

The participants in this roundtable discuss the key elements of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 and its major effects on water utilities.
Using Reverse Osmosis to Remove Agricultural Chemicals From Groundwater
Authors: Baier Joseph H. , Benjamin W. Lykins , Fronk Carol A. , Kramer Steven J.
Published: February 2018

Suffolk County, N.Y., has examined its groundwater for agricultural and organic contaminants since 1978. Recent discoveries of specific chemicals in private wells increased the concern over contamination and spurred a study to determine a cost‐effective system for removing agricultural chemicals from groundwater. Tests of cellulose acetate; spiral‐wound, thin‐film composite; and hollow fiber membranes showed that reverse osmosis should be considered for pesticide and organics removal. Pilot tests should be conducted on in situ water to assure proper process design.
Applying Membrane Processes to Groundwater Sources for Trihalomethane Precursor Control
Authors: Taylor James S. , Thompson D.M. , Carswell J. Keith
Published: February 2018

The use of membrane processes for controlling trihalomethanes (THMs) was investigated for Florida groundwater sources and one surface water source. All of the sources were used for public supply and had excessive THMs (>300 μg/L) in the finished water. The performance and projected cost of the membrane system using groundwater sources are reported in this article.
More About Micronesia
Authors: Geselbracht Jim
Published: February 2018

The author of this letter expands upon Jeffrey Fontaine's article summarizing public water supply in Micronesia, which appeared in the July Journal American Water Works Association. He states that the early 1900's vintage water mains and the post‐World War II iron system have been abandoned. The majority of the pipe on the islands is less than 15 years old. A concerted effort to monitor unaccounted‐for water, and to install house meters resulted in 24‐hour water service for most of 1984. As of February 1987, 75 percent of the service is metered, and the average consumption was about 100 gpcd (379 L/d per capita). Political and management issues, however, make it difficult to reduce consumption to a realistic level. Because of these issues, and growth in the system, the system must once again be shut down at night.
Home Water Treatment: Is It Feasible?
Authors: DeBoer Jon , Wicks Floyd , Frey Michelle , Lee Rozelle , Stone Kenneth , Cirolia Donna , Wicks Floyd , Frey Michelle , Cotruvo Joseph , Stone Kenneth , Cirolia Donna
Published: February 2018

The distinction is made between point‐of‐use and point‐of‐entry water treatment devices. Because many small water systems will have difficulty meeting the new Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) requirements, home water treatment units have emerged as an alternative means of treatment for small systems. Currently the USEPA does not accept pointof‐use devices as an available technology for complying with drinking water regulations, although it does accept point‐of‐entry devices. However, a recent provision by the USEPA gives states the authority to require point‐of‐use treatment and bottled water as interim measures if exemptions to meeting regulations are given, provided that is the most inexpensive possibility for coping with an unreasonable health risk. To judge whether the public is being protected by one means of control or another the specific contaminant must be considered. The article also discusses liability, financing of equipment purchases for small systems, disinfection, monitoring of units, public control and licensing of units and personnel, and standards. AWWA does not have a standard for point‐of‐use and point‐of‐entry devices because such a standard would go beyond the current definition of what AWWA standards address. Specifically, AWWA standards address performance and function, not installation and application.
Responding to Customer Concerns About Home Treatment Devices
Authors: Yoo R. Scott
Published: February 2018

Although most vendors of home water treatment devices use ethical sales methods, a few unscrupulous salespeople can cause serious public relations problems for water utilities. To be effective in responding to customer concerns, utilities should be proactive in providing information about tap water quality. Utilities should also be prepared to take action against fraudulent advertisers in their service areas.
Testing and Evaluating Point‐of‐Use Treatment Devices in Canada
Authors: Tobin Richard S.
Published: February 2018

The Department of National Health and Welfare is the agency responsible for the testing and evaluation of point‐of‐use water treatment devices in Canada. Although there is no specific legislation regulating these devices, voluntary compliance with departmental recommendations has been at least partially responsible for improving the correspondence between claims made and performance of devices on the market. Many types of water treatment devices have been tested and some of the advantages and disadvantages of each are described. A series of publications on these devices has helped to inform the scientific and lay population of the correct application of these devices.
Modeling Point‐of‐Entry Radon Removal by GAC
Authors: Lowry Jerry D. , Lowry Sylvia B.
Published: February 2018

Results of a study which showed that an adsorption‐decay steady state is established within a granular activated carbon (GAC) bed, allowing it to be maintenance‐free for long periods of time, led to field research to develop a design model for point‐of‐entry application and the installation and monitoring of GAC technology in more than 100 homes across the United States. The research showed that with an effective GAC better than 99 percent removal of radon can be achieved.
Effects of Waste Discharges on Mississippi River Sediments
Authors: Lin Shun Dar , Evans Ralph
Published: February 2018

This study assessed the impacts of waste discharges from a large water treatment plant on Mississippi River sediments. During the cleaning of two basins, the waste discharge increased the iron, aluminum, moisture, and organics content and changed the particle size distribution of the sediments. The influence of the discharge was confined to an area 100 ft (30 m) offshore and within 3,300 ft (990 m) downstream of the waste outfall. No measurable effects from the discharge were found one week after cleaning of the basins.
Seattle's Experience With Distribution System Sampling
Authors: Donner Richard G.
Published: February 2018

The literature contains considerable discussion about distribution system monitoring in regard to analytical techniques and the number and the types of samples (e.g., coliform density versus presence–absence) to be collected. There is little information, however, on which locations should be selected for monitoring, particularly whether samples should be collected from customer plumbing or directly from distribution mains. This article discusses various aspects of this issue and describes how the Seattle (Wash.) Water Department's monitoring program addresses these concerns.
Cryptosporidium
Authors: Sterling Charles R. , Juranek Dennis , Rose Joan B. , Logsdon Gary S. , Ongerth Jerry E. , Mason Lewis , Ungar Beth L.P.
Published: February 2018

This roundtable gives an overview of Cryptosporidium and its relationship to public water supplies. It discusses the parasite's life cycle, where it is found in the environment, how it differs from Giardia, how it gets into drinking water supplies, its health effects on humans, and treatment technologies used to remove the parasite from water supplies.
Occurrence and Significance of Cryptosporidium in Water
Authors: Rose Joan B.
Published: February 2018

Three outbreaks of waterborne disease have been attributed to Cryptosporidium—two linked to drinking water and a third to surface water—yet the risk of waterborne disease is unknown because many factors may contribute to transmission. Of 107 surface water samples collected in six western states, 77 were positive for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts. A high count was found in raw sewage (1,732 oocysts/L), whereas low counts were found in waters without waste discharges (0.04 oocysts/L). Cryptosporidium has also been detected in drinking water. Little information is available, however, on oocyst survival in the environment or during sewage and drinking water treatment processes. Further research is necessary to define the variables that will influence the possible presence of infectious oocysts in water. It has been suggested that the epidemiology and transmission of Cryptosporidium are similar to Giardia. Based on environmental occurrence, the risk of Cryptosporidium transmission by the water route may be equal to or greater than that of Giardia.
Environmental Aspects of Legionnaires’ Disease
Authors: Muraca Paul W. , Yu Victor L. , Stout Janet E.
Published: February 2018

This article reviews the clinical symptoms of legionnaires’ disease, describes the natural and man‐made habitats of Legionella pneumophila, and evaluates various disinfection methods. Although heat rejection devices (cooling towers and evaporative condensers) have been linked to outbreaks of legionnaires’ disease, recent evidence suggests that potable water distribution systems are the primary reservoirs of L. pneumophila. Inhalation of aerosols containing the organism, instillation of the organism into the lung via medical maneuvers of the respiratory tract, and aspiration of contaminated water into the lung are the most likely modes of transmission of L. pneumophila. Treatment methodologies include hyperchlorination, thermal eradication, ozonation, and ultraviolet light irradiation.
Dealing for Water in the West: Water Rights as Commodities
Authors: Bush David B.
Published: February 2018

Because few water resources in the western portions of the United States remain undeveloped, increasing demand for new uses for water has created a need for transfers. Although today's “free market” for water in the West is more an ideal than a reality, privately negotiated water transfers are increasing in frequency and volume. This article describes how and why different markets are formed, outlines characteristics of several types of such markets, explains the types of water rights for which buyers and sellers are dealing, and reports examples of sales, lease, option, and negotiated arrangements for the transfer of water rights.
Concepts of Well Cleaning
Authors: Gottlieb Oren J. , Blattert Robert E.
Published: February 2018

Cleaning wells to restore or improve production requires an evaluation of the probable causes of clogging, which includes a chemical analysis of the groundwater and a mechanical analysis of subsurface soils. Once the probable cause or causes of clogging are determined, the most appropriate treatment can be prescribed. The authors discuss the principles involved in making such determinations for wells in unconsolidated formations and describe a case history of restoring a production well in Terre Haute, Ind.
Organic Contaminant Removal by Coagulation and Related Process Combinations
Authors: Randtke Stephen J.
Published: February 2018

This article synthesizes work done over the past few decades to better understand the removal of organic contaminants by the coagulation process, alone and in combination with other processes. Published data demonstrate that coagulation can substantially reduce the concentration of certain organic contaminants found in drinking water supplies, and that an understanding of the fundamental mechanisms by which coagulation removes organic contaminants facilitates qualitative prediction of the types of contaminants likely to be removed and the effects of process control variables. Data also demonstrate that removal of organic contaminants by coagulation can be influenced by other processes, such as preozonation, and that coagulation can influence the removal of organic contaminants by subsequent treatment processes, such as filtration and activated carbon adsorption.
Granular Activated Carbon for Controlling THMs
Authors: Benjamin W. Lykins , Clark Robert M. , Adams Jeffrey Q.
Published: February 2018

Suggested reduction of the maximum contaminant level for trihalomethanes (THMs) could force many utilities to change disinfectants or to alter treatment processes. Faced with this possibility, more utilities are considering granular activated carbon for trace organics removal. This article presents performance and cost data, collected from five sites, for the removal of THMs, their precursors, and surrogates.
Improving Water Supply in Thailand
Authors: Orvichian Sawasdi , Chuaphanich Prasert , Kawamura Susumu
Published: February 2018

Recognizing the clear relationship between a clean water supply and the prevention of waterborne disease, the government of Thailand is stressing the need for safe water in its current economic and social development plan. One of the two major water supply agencies in Thailand, the Provincial Waterworks Authority, is handling the task of improving water quality and doubling plant output with minimum capital expenditure. This article describes how existing plant capacities were doubled without the addition of new basins and filters and evaluates the performance of the plants after modification.
Development and Management of Groundwater Resources on Diego Garcia
Authors: Surface Stephen W. , Lau Edward F. C.
Published: February 2018

The remote atoll of Diego Garcia provides vital support to the United States missions in the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and Africa. Population on the atoll ranges from 4,000 to 5,000 people, with average daily potable water demand approaching 800,000 gpd (3,000 ML/d). Development of a potable water supply has evolved since 1971 from temporary dug wells, to distillation, to brackish water desalination by electrodialysis, and finally to development of fresh groundwater by more than 100 low‐yield, shallow, skimming wells that provide a reliable, cost effective, and operationally simple freshwater supply system. The lessons learned indicate that the development of water resources on atolls should begin with an investigation of fresh groundwater, which could be the least costly to develop and easiest to operate. The monitoring system that was developed affords a practical method to explore, understand, and manage groundwater resources on an atoll.
Methods for Removing Uranium From Drinking Water
Authors: Sorg Thomas J.
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency has both sponsored several extramural research projects and conducted in‐house research on uranium removal treatment. This article summarizes recent information on the effectiveness of various treatment methods to remove uranium from drinking water supplies. Because uranium is found in both surface water and groundwater, a variety of methods has been studied. Most of the information presented here, however, was developed from either laboratory or pilot‐plant studies because only limited data exist on full‐scale treatment systems.
Rural Community Assistance Program
Authors: French William , Ytell Elizabeth
Published: February 2018

The Rural Community Assistance Program comprises six regional agencies whose goal is to develop the capability of rural community officials to solve their own local water and wastewater problems. Funded for more than nine years by various federal, state, and private sources, the program agencies offer region‐specific technical assistance and training and work to improve federal and state government response to the needs of rural communities.
Using Headspace Sampling With Capillary Column GC‐MS to Analyze Trace Volatile Organics in Water and Wastewater
Authors: Gryder‐Boutet Donna E. , Kennish John M.
Published: February 2018

Headspace sampling combined with capillary column gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis was evaluated for use in the investigation of priority pollutants in water and wastewater. A 3 mL sample loop and cryogenic trapping at ‐80°C were employed to increase the sensitivity into the nanogram‐per‐litre range, and excellent reproducibility was found in the low microgram‐per‐litre range. Separations were accomplished with a coated 30‐m × 0. 32‐mm fused silica capillary column. Mass spectral data were acquired by selective ion monitoring from 50 to 500 amu. The method was applied to water and wastewater samples with good results.
Monitoring at the Tap
Authors: Miller William H. , Cook Michael B. , Tenny Edward , Packham Ron F. , Schock Michael R. , Frey Michelle , Burke Michael E.
Published: February 2018

This discussion on monitoring drinking water quality at residential taps took place June 19, 1988, at the American Water Works Association annual conference in Orlando, Florida.
Predicting Internal Roughness in Water Mains
Authors: Sharp Wayne W. , Walski Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

The equations presented provide a quick method for predicting C‐factors (internal roughness) in unlined metal pipes. The equations are based on the hypothesis that roughness height in such pipes grows approximately linearly over time and are verified with field data from numerous water distribution systems.
Field Experience With Point‐of‐Use Treatment Systems for Arsenic Removal
Authors: Fox Kim R.
Published: February 2018

Point‐of‐use (POU) treatment devices can be effective for removing inorganic contaminants. This article describes the investigation of POU treatment systems used for arsenic removal in four homes in Alaska and Oregon. Small systems utilizing activated alumina, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis techniques were field‐tested on waters naturally contaminated with arsenic. The waters contained arsenic in concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L, which were successfully lowered to below the 0.05‐mg/L maximum contaminant level.
Cost‐Benefit Analysis of Conservation Programs
Authors: Macy Peter P. , Maddaus William O.
Published: February 2018

A carefully planned and implemented conservation program can reduce water consumption by 10–30 percent. This reduction will help meet demand, may postpone the construction of capital facilities, and can also help alleviate problems such as overburdened wastewater treatment facilities. For a conservation program to gain acceptance and support, it must be thoroughly analyzed. This article describes a technique to calculate the water savings, benefits, and costs of water conservation programs.
New Massachusetts Toilet Standard Sets Water Conservation Precedent
Authors: Vickers Amy
Published: February 2018

A new plumbing code in Massachusetts requires all two‐piece tank‐type and floor‐mounted flush‐valve toilets installed during new construction or as replacements of existing toilets to use no more than 1.6 gal/flush. The previous requirement allowed toilets to use no more than 3.5 gal/flush. The code change, made to help mitigate immediate as well as long‐term water supply problems, is the first of its kind on a statewide basis and has served as an incentive for proposed federal legislation to establish conservation‐oriented water use standards for plumbing fixtures. The use of low‐volume toilets could lower a typical household's annual indoor water use by thousands of gallons a year as well as decrease its overall water and sewer costs. Performance of low‐volume toilets is equal to or better than that of conventional toilets in most respects. Low‐volume toilets have the potential to be a significant factor in water demand management.
The Performance of Ultra‐Low‐Volume Flush Toilets in Phoenix
Authors: Anderson Damann L. , Siegrist Robert L.
Published: February 2018

The performance of ultra‐low‐volume (ULV) toilet fixtures was studied under field conditions in Phoenix, Ariz. Two residential subdivisions were compared, one utilizing conventional toilet fixtures (≥3.5 gal/flush) and one using ULV fixtures (0.8 gal/flush). The study evaluated the water savings and wastewater flow reduction provided by the ULV fixtures, their effect on drainage and sewer transport, and their in‐house performance and acceptance by users compared with their conventional counterparts.
Using Streaming Current Detectors in Water Treatment
Authors: Dentel Steven K. , Kingery Kristine M.
Published: February 2018

An independent assessment of streaming current detectors (SCDs) was carried out, including laboratory studies, a survey of SCD users, and on‐site studies at water treatment plants. In accordance with theory, streaming current was found to be proportional to zeta potential, although a reading offset was observed. Users rated the SCD highly in most respects. The most commonly reported difficulty was clogging of the instrument or of sample lines. An analysis of periods before and after SCD installation at 10 treatment plants showed significant reductions in chemical expenses, particularly during times of changing raw water conditions. Water quality was not significantly improved, but this may have been because plant flows had increased between the periods being compared. Practical aspects of SCD use are discussed.
Initiation of Micropollutant Biodegradation in Virgin GAC Columns
Authors: Gerald E. Speitel , Turakhia Mukesh H. , Lu Chih‐Jen
Published: February 2018

Experiments were conducted in virgin granular activated carbon (GAC) columns supplied with treated surface water and the synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) phenol and 2,4‐dichlorophenol (DCP). The surface water was subjected to one of three chemical treatments: chlorination, no oxidant addition, or ozonation. The GAC columns were seeded only with microorganisms that passed through conventional treatment. The main objective was a determination of the time required to initiate significant biodegradation of trace concentrations of SOCs. The impact of naturally occurring organic compounds and the type of pretreatment on biodegradation were also of interest, as was biodegradation of sorbed SOCs. Significant biodegradation of phenol and DCP in the liquid phase commenced after one month of operation in columns with contact times of <1 min. Sorbed phenol was biodegraded to a large extent, whereas biodegradation of sorbed DCP was negligible. Total organic carbon removal across the GAC columns was dependent on chemical pretreatment. Ozonation caused an increase in microbial activity in comparison to no oxidant addition, but this did not provide improved removal of DCP.
Raw Water Characteristics and the Selection of Treatment Configurations for Particle Removal
Authors: Wiesner Mark R. , Mazounie Pierre
Published: February 2018

The particle‐removal performance of several full‐scale water treatment plants is evaluated using a systems analysis approach. Sources of particle‐volume concentration in raw water are discussed, and it is suggested that “dissolved” organic materials in raw water may be an important source of particle volume when coagulation precedes liquid–solid separation. Different inorganic coagulants were found to produce different solid phases when added to water. After distribution of particle sizes in raw water was adjusted for changes resulting from dissolved organic carbon in the water, configurations of the unit processes chosen in practice were found in most cases to correspond to configurations calculated to be cost‐optimal.
Cook Further Explains USEPA lead Rule
Authors: Cook Michael B.
Published: February 2018

This letter was written in response to an item in the Update section of the June 1989 JOURNAL discussing possible changes in the EPA rule to control lead in drinking water including a tap‐sampling provision. That provision was established to trigger a treatment technique requirement rather than an MCL violation. While reviewing comments on the proposal, EPA has not yet made a decision as to whether the final rule will retain a treatment technique similar to the one proposed or whether it will establish an MCL at consumers' taps. To the extent that the final lead rule contains a monitoring protocol–and most certainly it will‐EPA still envisions requiring tap sampling to determine: (1) whether a water system has a lead problem and (2) whether that system has applied optimal corrosion control so as to reduce the contribution of lead corrosion by‐products.
WaterTech USA: A Program for Helping Developing Nations
Authors: Kalbermatten John
Published: February 2018

The author describes the need for and proposes a plan to organize an AWWA‐sponsored program that would provide technical assistance and training to help less developed countries improve their drinking water supply and sanitation services. This program proposal was prepared for the AWWA International Affairs Committee at the request of Steven Bonk, immediate past‐president of AWWA, and approved in principle by the AWWA Board of Directors at the 1989 annual conference in Los Angeles. A special presidential committee is currently assessing how such a program could be financed and organized, with a final report due to the Executive Committee in December.
Committee Report: Coagulation as an Integrated Water Treatment Process
Authors:   AWWA Coagulation Committee
Published: February 2018

This report presents current knowledge of the physics of coagulation (rapid mixing and flocculation) and addresses the chemistry of coagulants—particularly aluminum coagulants—and methods for determining optimum coagulant dosages. Coagulation as a process for removing organic contaminants is examined. The selection of water treatment schemes for removing particles is considered with respect to raw water quality and coagulant types. Research needs are presented.
Cost Estimates for GAC Treatment Systems
Authors: Adams Jeffrey Q. , Clark Robert M.
Published: February 2018

Operators of several drinking water systems that are vulnerable to contamination by synthetic and volatile organic chemicals have shown interest in modifying existing treatment plants to include granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption. An important consideration in the evaluation of GAC treatment alternatives is the examination of cost factors. This article presents preliminary cost estimates for various applications over a range of system sizes and carbon bed lives. Costs related to postfilter adsorbers using steel pressure and concrete gravity contactors are examined, as well as costs associated with fluid‐bed, infrared, and multihearth reactivation technologies.
Predicting the Multicomponent Removal of Surrogate Compounds by a Fixed‐Bed Adsorber
Authors: Kuennen Roy W. , Van Dyke Karl , Crittenden John C. , Hand David W.
Published: February 2018

Pore and surface diffusion mass transfer models were used to predict the breakthrough profiles of a 14‐component mixture eluting from a point‐of‐use fixed‐bed adsorber. The 14 compounds were surrogates, representing a variety of organics from different classes and groups commonly found in contaminated drinking water. Adsorption isotherms were done for all 14 compounds. Polanyi adsorption potential theory was used to correlate single‐solute isotherm parameters at 21°C and predict isotherm parameters at 6°C. Ideal adsorbed solution theory was used in the mass transfer models to correlate the single‐solute predicted isotherms at 6°C and calculate competitive interactions at the surface of the activated carbon.
Effect of Particle Size and Background Natural Organics on the Adsorption Efficiency of PAC
Authors: Najm Issam N. , Snoeyink Vernon L. , Suidan Makram T. , Lee Chung H. , Richard Yves
Published: February 2018

The objectives of this study were to determine the efficiency of adsorption of powdered activated carbon (PAC) for a typical synthetic organic chemical, to evaluate the importance of particle size and background organics, and to develop a procedure to predict the performance of PAC. Results showed that performance can be significantly improved by using smaller‐size PAC but that the rate of adsorption and PAC capacity are markedly reduced when naturally occurring humic substances are present in the groundwater. Accurate predictions of the removal of trace organics by PAC in a continuously stirred tank reactor were made by running equilibrium and closed‐batch kinetic tests, determining equilibrium and kinetic constants, and using an equation to determine the removal efficiency of the PAC for any contact time.
AWWA Two Forks Testimony Questioned
Authors: Carney Joseph T.
Published: February 2018

The December 1989 JOURNAL noted that AWWA testified in the public hearing on the Denver Water Department's controversial Two Forks Reservoir proposal which has been vetoed by the USEPA. While Mr. Carney is in agreement with the USEPA action, he is concerned that AWWA member opinion was not solicited before the organization testified. Mr. Carney agrees with the policy that AWWA rarely takes positions on local water issues. AWWA's testimony, in Mr. Carney's opinion, created the public perception that AWWA is a pro‐development, self‐serving advocate of water projects (at the expense of the environment, if necessary) instead of an objective, professional organization.
Reader Responds to POU Criticisms
Authors: Carlyle Stephen L.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Carlyle responds to W. W. Windham's letter (December 1989 JOURNAL) on the POU [point‐of‐use] treatment industry. He is disappointed that each side of the water industry has such a defensive posture toward the other and that each often chooses to stereotype the other in a negative light. He states that within every group of individuals there will always be people at the extremes and hopes that each group will endeavor to make certain that those among their own ranks live up to their own high standards and then afford each other the same respect each group seeks.
Removing Radium by Adding Preformed Hydrous Manganese Oxides
Authors: Valentine Richard L. , Spangler Karen M. , Meyer John
Published: February 2018

Batch and pilot‐scale studies demonstrated that the addition of preformed hydrous manganese oxides (HMOs) appears to be a feasible approach to removing radium from drinking water. Major advantages of this process include use of existing treatment facilities and simplicity of operation. Furthermore, no irreversible effects are expected if the HMOs are under‐ or overdosed, other than possible inadequate radium removal or shortened filter runs.
Chlorination By‐products in Drinking Waters: From Formation Potentials to Finished Water Concentrations
Authors: Reckhow David A. , Singer Philip C.
Published: February 2018

The objective of the research described in this article was to partially bridge the gap between formation potentials in model systems, e.g., humic substances, and by‐product concentrations likely to be encountered in finished waters. The chlorination by‐products chosen for study were trihalomethanes, total organic halide, trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetone, and dichloroacetonitrile. By‐product formation from colored raw waters was found to be similar to that observed for aquatic humic and fulvic acids. Alum coagulation of a moderately colored surface water resulted in the removal of 50–90 percent of all by‐product precursors tested.
Conservation in the Arabian Gulf Countries
Authors: Akkad Adnan A.
Published: February 2018

In the Arabian Gulf region in general, and in Saudi Arabia in particular, demand for water in the agricultural, domestic, and industrial sectors has increased dramatically as a result of rapid development, an improved standard of living, and diversification of economic activity in agriculture and industry. This article presents an overview of supply and demand situations prevailing in the Arabian Gulf region and discusses various conventional and unconventional alternatives for meeting the growing demand for water. It also describes conservation measures and their socioeconomic effects.
Operating the Seattle Water System During the 1987 Drought
Authors: Lettenmaier Dennis P. , Wood Eric F. , Parkinson David B.
Published: February 2018

The Seattle Water Department receives its supply from reservoirs on the Cedar and Tolt rivers, which drain the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains. Most droughts in the Northwest are the result of deficient winter snowfall. The 1987 drought was unusual in that the previous winter's precipitation was close to normal, but the summer dry period extended into the late fall, causing a severe water shortage. For this reason, a medium‐term forecast model was developed to assist in the evaluation of management alternatives during a critical 16‐week period from late summer to late fall 1987. A key feature of the model was that it predicted a best forecast at each of four inflow points, as well as the probability distribution of the forecasts.
Slow Sand Filtration: Design, Operation, and Maintenance
Authors: Visscher Jan Teun
Published: February 2018

Because of their simplicity, efficiency, and economy, slow sand filters are appropriate means of water treatment for community water supply in developing countries and for small water systems in other areas of the world, including the United States. The basic elements of a slow sand filter are described, as are planning, design, and construction aspects, with special emphasis on maintenance. Some cost figures for systems in India and Colombia are included. Operational procedures for maintenance and resanding are set out.
A Nice Safe Place to Work
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

For the past three decades or so, water utilities have had an accident rate about three times higher than gas and electric utilities. Bituminous coal, lignite mining, police departments, and a number of manufacturing industries have better safety records. One explanation is that safety is not an enforced management priority. AWWA's safety program is a way to help utility staffs achieve a good safety record. In this era of technological change, the health and welfare of the workforce remains a fundamental priority and a weighty management responsibility. The record shows that utilities must do better.
A Peek at a Proud Past
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Mannion reviews some of the literature published by the association over the past 100 years and is struck by the founding fathers' overwhelming dedication and support to the youthful AWWA. He discovers that the drinking water industry's commitment to providing safe drinking water thrives even today. He encourages water professionals not to take professional standards for granted.
Measuring the Productivity of Construction Maintenance Operations
Authors: Luxhoj James T. , Tao Pen‐Chih
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the development of a measurement system for evaluating and controlling a water utility's maintenance activities. The system involves the development of models to graphically describe and measure the work content of the various jobs. The first set of models, which focuses on task descriptions, comprises the construction measurement system. The second set of models comprises the performance measurement system and is developed at the department level to measure labor productivity.