bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Direct transmission of Escherichia coli from poultry to humans
Authors: Ojeniyi A. A.
Published: May 2009

Eight hundred and sixty-four Escherichia coli isolates from workers at the University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Poultry Farm, and 216 isolates from poultry attendants at a commercial poultry farm in the city were found to be resistant to streptomycin, sulphafurazole and tetracycline. In contrast, all 576 and 288 E. coli isolates from village fowls and from villagers respectively were sensitive to these drugs. Isolates from birds in a modern university poultry unit (3744) exhibited the same resistance patterns as those isolated from workers who were in direct contact with the birds. No nalidixic acid-resistant E. coli was isolated from farm workers prior to their assignment to the experimental pen. Following experimental oral infection of birds with E. coli K12 J5 NA Lac, the organism was recovered from the workers who manned the experimental pen. Neither before nor after the experimental infection was any nalidixic acid resistant E. coli isolated from workers who manned the pen from which birds used in the experiment were selected. Similarly, no drug resistant organisms were isolated from workers outside the poultry unit of the university or commercial farm. The MIC of the drugs against the avian and human E. coli isolates at the university and commercial poultry farms were similar.
The survival patterns of selected faecal bacteria in tropical fresh waters
Authors: Wright R. C.
Published: May 2009

The survival of various faecal bacteria used as indicators of the faecal contamination of water supplies has been investigated in a tropical environment (Sierra Leone). Isolates representing the thermotolerant coliform (TtC) and faecal streptococcus (FS) groups,Clostridium perfringensandSalmonellaspp. were studied over a 48 h period of immersion in water from three different sources. Survival patterns varied according to source type, but some general observations were made: a portion of the TtC group was apparently capable of substantial regrowth; FS organisms died off at a faster rate than TtC organisms initially, but survived longer; vegetative cells ofC. perfringensdied off rapidly; andSalmonellaspp. could survive for as long as the other faecal organisms tested. The implications of results for the analysis of tropical waters for faecal contamination are discussed.
Laboratory diagnosis and clinical significance of rubella in children with cancer
Authors: Morris D. J. , Morgan-Capner P. , Wood D. J. , Dalton M. , Wright J. , Thomas H. I. J. , Stevens R.F.
Published: May 2009

Virus-specific antibody responses were studied in 12 children with cancer in whom rubella was diagnosed by seroconversion or a rising titre (≥ fourfold) of haemagglutination inhibiting (HI) antibody. Our results confirmed the difficulties of making a diagnosis of rubella infection in immunocompromised children using criteria for interpreting antibody assays established in immunocompetent patients. Specific IgM antibody persisted for more than 2 months in 7 of 10 children with probable primary rubella, 3 of whom had high concentrations of such antibody 6, 7 and 11 months after the rash. Radial haemolysis and specific IgG1and IgG3antibody responses were low in 4, 2, and 4 patients, respectively. One child apparently had a rubella reinfection and, in another, rubella antibody passively acquired from blood transfusions was probably responsible for the HI seroconversion. Nonetheless, the benign clinical course of rubella in immunocompromised children was confirmed.
Bancroftian filariasis in Pondicherry, South India: 1. Pre-control epidemiological observations
Authors: Rajagopalan P. K. , Das P. K. , Subramanian S. , Vanamail P. , Ramaiah K. D.
Published: May 2009

A 5-year Integrated Vector Management (IVM) project was implemented in Pondicherry, South India, for the control of Bancroftian filariasis. The efficacy of the IVM strategy was compared with routine control strategy under the national programme. The present paper describes the pre-control epidemiological features of filariasis as determined by a mass blood survey in 1981. Of 24946 persons examined 8·41%; were microfilaraemic. Microfilaraemia prevalence was homogeneous throughout the study area. The prevalence and intensity of microfilaraemia were age dependent, and increased monotonically until about 20 years, following which there was a decline until about 40 years to become relatively stable in older age classes. The gender profiles of both prevalence and intensity of microfilaraemia showed no difference between the sexes until about 15 years of age, following which both were higher in males compared to females. The distribution of microfilarial counts was overdispersed, indicating aggregation of adult worms.
The Stafford outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease
Authors: O'Mahony M. C. , Stanwell-Smith R. E. , Tillett H. E. , Harper D. , Hutchison J. G. P. , Farrell I. D. , Hutchinson D. N. , Lee J. V. , Dennis P. J. , Duggal H. V. , Scully J. A. , Denne C.
Published: May 2009

A large outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease was associated with Stafford District General Hospital. A total of 68 confirmed cases was treated in hospital and 22 of these patients died. A further 35 patients, 14 of whom were treated at home, were suspected cases of Legionnaires’ disease. All these patients had visited the hospital during April 1985. Epidemiological investigations demonstrated that there had been a high risk of acquiring the disease in the out patient department (OPD), but no risk in other parts of the hospital. The epidemic strain ofLegionella pneumophila, serogroup 1, subgroup Pontiac la was isolated from the cooling water system of one of the air conditioning plants. This plant served several departments of the hospital including the OPD. The water in the cooling tower and a chiller unit which cooled the air entering the OPD were contaminated with legionellae. Bacteriological and engineering investigations showed how the chiller unit could have been contaminated and how an aerosol containing legionellae could have been generated in the U–trap below the chiller unit. These results, together with the epidemiological evidence, suggest that the chiller unit was most likely to have been the major source of the outbreak.

Nearly one third of hospital staff had legionella antibodies. These staff were likely to have worked in areas of the hospital ventilated by the contaminated air conditioning plant, but not necessarily the OPD. There was evidence that a small proportion of these staff had a mild legionellosis and that these ‘influenza–like’ illnesses had been spread over a 5–month period. A possible explanation of this finding is that small amounts of aerosol from cooling tower sources could have entered the air–intake and been distributed throughout the areas of the hospital served by this ventilation system. Legionellae, subsequently found to be of the epidemic strain, had been found in the cooling tower pond in November 1984 and thus it is possible that staff were exposed to low doses of contaminated aerosol over several months.

Control measures are described, but it was later apparent that the outbreak had ended before these interventions were introduced. The investigations revealed faults in the design of the ventilation system.
Comparison of clinical acinetobacter strains using a carbon source growth assay
Authors: Dijkshoorn L. , Ooyen A. Van , Hop W. C. J. , Theuns M. , Michel M. F.
Published: May 2009

A quantitative carbon source growth assay, comprising ten carbon sources, was used to compare acinetobacter strains from three hospitals. The strains had been obtained during episodes of increased prevalence of isolations and were, for each hospital, assumed to be epidemiologically related. This assumption was supported by the electrophoretic protein profiles of the strains. Univariate analysis of growth data showed significant differences between strains from the three hospitals. Moreover, cluster analysis revealed that the major pattern in the data was related to the epidemiological origin of the strains. Exceptions to the epidemic-related pattern were observed. Thus, apart from epidemiological factors, other factors might contribute to carbon source growth profiles of the strains. It is concluded that the carbon growth assay may be useful to distinguish roughly between acinetobacter strains from different sites of origin. Further studies are required to analyse additional factors which influence carbon source growth of strains.
Comparison of SDS–PAGE protein patterns with other typing methods for investigating the epidemiology of ‘Klebsiella aerogenes’
Authors: Costas M. , Holmes B. , Sloss L. L.
Published: May 2009

Twenty–four cultures comprising 20 clinical isolates of ‘Klebsiella aerogenes’ from two hospitals, a reference strain of ‘K. aerogenes’ and the type strains of three otherKlebsiellaspecies, were characterized by one–dimensional sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) of whole–cell proteins. The protein patterns were highly reproducible and were used as the basis of a numerical analysis which divided the clinical isolates into 12 protein types. Comparison with established typing methods indicated that the level of discrimination of SDS–PAGE was similar to that achieved with conventional typing methods but the strains were grouped differently. Protein typing sub–divided five serotype K3 isolates that could also be distinguished by phage typing. Conversely, three strains of protein type 11 were clearly distinguishable by both serotyping and phage typing. We conclude that high–resolution SDS–PAGE of proteins provides an effective adjunct to other methods for typing isolates of ‘K. aerogenes’.
An epidemiological study of an outbreak of Q fever in a secondary school
Authors: Jorm L. R , Lightfoot N. F , Morgan K. L
Published: May 2009

Five cases of clinical Q fever were identified amongst students and staff of a Somerset secondary school between 23 October 1987 and 21 December 1987. Five goats which were kept at the school were found to have antibodies toCoxiella burnetiiphase II.

A cross-sectional study was conducted at the school in July 1988. A single CF test was used to identify evidence of prior infection, and a self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on exposure variables and illness during 1987.

Four hundred and ninety-nine eligible subjects took part in the study, and serological information was obtained from 461 of these. Eighty-seven subjects (18·9%) had CF titres of 20 or greater. It was estimated that only 1 in every 30 individuals with evidence of pastC. burnetiiinfection had been recognized as a clinical case of Q fever.

Antibody positive subjects were more likely to have been off school sick and to report having suffered chest pain than negative subjects.

Contact with school animals, specifically cleaning the school poultry, collecting their eggs and visiting a school goat on the day of kidding, was associated with the presence of antibodies toC. burnetii. However a large proportion of the antibody positives (24·2%) had no known contact with the school animals. Spread of organisms, either wind-borne or in straw or manure, may have been responsible for the high prevalence of unexplained infection.
Typing tools for the investigation of epidemic fungal infection
Authors: Howell S. A. , Noble W. C.
Published: May 2009

The epidemiology of bacterial infection is investigated by the use of identification procedures at a sub-species level by such techniques as serotyping, phage typing, various antigen recognition tests, plasmid profiling and DNA probes. Fungal epidemiology has tended to lag behind in the use of this technology, particularly with the filamentous fungi, though several techniques have been developed for yeasts and especially forCandida albicans. This review will briefly describe the application of these methods to outbreaks ofC. albicansinfection, describe the limited methods available for the investigation of filamentous fungal infection and indicate the necessity for increased research in this area.
Plasmid profiles of antibiotic-resistantShigella dysenteriaetypes 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 isolated in Ethiopia during 1976–85
Authors: Gebre-Yohannes A. , Drasar B. S.
Published: May 2009

Plasmid profile analysis by agarose gel electrophoresis was carried out on 37 drug-resistant strains ofShigella dysenteriaetypes 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. These strains were collected between 1976 and 1985 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

The plasmid profile ofS. dysenteriaetype 2 strains with R-type CSSuT did not show middle-sized plasmids likely to code for CSSuT resistance. All strains contained a large plasmid of about 120 megadaltons (MDa), and a cryptic plasmid of about 2·2 MDa. The plasmid profiles ofS. dysenteriaetype 3 with R-types ACSSuT, SSuT and SSu showed a 4·2 MDa SSu-determinant, which was demonstrated inEscherichia coliK12 recipients resulting from triparental crosses. The ACT determinant inS. dysenteriaetype 3 with R-type ACSSuT is probably chromosomally mediated. Cryptic plasmids of about 3·0 and 2·2 MDa were found in allS. dysenteriaetype 3 isolates. The 4·2 MDa plasmid featured prominently in the plasmid profiles ofS. dysenteriaetypes 4, 6 and 7 with R-types SSuT and SSu. However, this plasmid was not mobilizable by triparental crosses. There was a relative paucity of transferable plasmids in non-Shiga bacillus isolates. However, incompatibility group N plasmids, coding for tetracycline resistance, were detected.
Incidence of campylobacter infection in infants in western Algeria and the possible protective role of breast feeding
Authors: Mégraud F. , Boudraa G. , Bessaoud K. , Bensid S. , Dabis F. , Soltana R. , Touhami M.
Published: May 2009

A case-control study aimed at comparing the incidence of campylobacter infection with that of other enteropathogens in infants was performed in Oran, Western Algeria. During a one-year period, infants consulting in a health centre were included if they had acute diarrhoea. The controls comprised infants going to the same centre for vaccination. Butzler medium Virion was used to look for thermophilic campylobacters. Campylobacters were isolated in 17·7% of the 411 patients and in 14·9% of the 247 controls. No statistically significant difference was found after stratification by age. In contrast, other enteropathogenic bacteria were rarely present. Among the potential factors of clinical expression of infection, breast feeding appeared to have a protective effect which was higher for campylobacter diarrhoea than that observed for other causes of diarrhoea. These data contrast with those previously published in Bangladesh and could be an incentive for promoting breast feeding in this country, where the tradition is decreasing far below the standard which is generally accepted.
Serological grouping ofTreponema hyodysenteriae
Authors: Hampson D. J. , Mhoma J. R. L. , Combs B. G. , Lee J. I.
Published: May 2009

Two Australian isolates ofTreponema hyodysenteriaewhich did not fit within the current serological grouping system for these bacteria wrere examined by agarose gel double immunodiffusion tests (AGDP). Isolate Vic1 was serologically unique, and we propose that it becomes the type organism for a new sixth serological group ofT. hyodysenteriae(Group F). Isolate Q1 was unusual in that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) extracted from it reacted strongly in AGDP with serum raised against the type organism for serogroup D (A1), and also weakly with serum raised against the type organism for serogroup B (WA1). The nature of this cross-reactivity was examined by using cross-absorbed antisera in AGDP, and by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Western blot analysis.

The pattern of serological cross-reactivity between Q1, A1 and WA1 was complex and was not fully defined, but the isolate Q1 apparently shared low molecular weight ‘serogroup’ LPS antigens with A1, and shared higher molecular weight LPS antigens with WA1. On this basis Q1 was designated as belonging to serogroup D, although it was recommended that this be qualified as D (B) to indicate the presence of weak cross-reactivity with serogroup B. Such serological cross-reactivity may have significance in relation to the development of immunity toT. hyodysenteriae. Isolate Q1 may be a potentially useful organism for vaccine development because of its ability to induce a good serological response to LPS of treponemes from both serogroups D and B.
A comparative study of clinical and food isolates ofListeria monocytogenesand related species
Authors: Szabo E. A. , Desmarchelier P. M.
Published: May 2009

Ninety-six isolates of presumptive or confirmedListeria monocytogeneswere obtained from local clinical (30 isolates) or food laboratories (66 isolates). Minimal biochemical analysis identified only 80% of these isolates asL. monocytogenesthe remaining includedL. seeligeri, 1%, or the non-haemolyticL. innocua, 19%. The 27 clinical and 50 food isolates, mainly from meat products, frozen confectionaries, and cheeses, confirmed asL. monocytogeneswere compared biochemically and serologically. Twenty-one isolates, including some strains ofL. innocuaandL. seeligeri, were examined for pathogenicity in immunocompromized mice and 44 typed using bacterial restriction endonuclease DNA analysis (BRENDA). Only isolates ofL. monocytogeneswere found to be pathogenic. Biovar-typing of the isolates was unreliable and provided poor discrimination. Serogroups 1/2 and 4 predominated among clinical and food isolates and BRENDA provided better discrimination among isolates. Ten stable and reproducible restriction patterns were observed among theListeriasp. isolates studied. Overall, a combination of techniques gave the best discrimination and indicated their potential for use as epidemiological tools.
Faecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faeco-oral disease transmission. I. A case study in rural north-east Thailand
Authors: Pinfold J. V.
Published: May 2009

Most villagers in north-east Thailand carry water to their homes and store it in separate containers depending on its subsequent use. In one village, information on water use was collated with the bacteriological quality of stored water, water sources and fingertip-rinses. Stored water quality was a function of water-related activities rather than quality at source (P<0·0001). Specifically water used for toilet, washing dishes and cooking-related activities was much more contaminated with faecal bacteria than that used for drinking and cooking.Salmonellaspp. was significantly more common in water used for washing dishes than drinking (P<0·05).Escherichia colicontamination of fingertip-rinses was strongly associated with the individual's activity prior to testing (P<0·0001); child care, food and water-related activities produced much higher levels of fingertip contamination than others. Dirty utensils used for cooking and eating were usually left to soak and faecal bacterial growth occurred in this grossly contaminated soak-water. Cross-contamination via water handling was the main mechanism of stored water pollution. These results were used to develop a hygiene intervention study presented in a companion paper.
The time course of the immune response to experimental coronavirus infection of man
Authors: Callow K. A. , Parry H. F. , Sergeant M. , Tyrrell D. A. J.
Published: May 2009

After preliminary trials, the detailed changes in the concentration of specific circulating and local antibodies were followed in 15 volunteers inoculated with coronavirus 229E. Ten of them, who had significantly lower concentrations of pre-existing antibody than the rest, became infected and eight of these developed colds. A limited investigation of circulating lymphocyte populations showed some lymphocytopenia in infected volunteers. In this group, antibody concentrations started to increase 1 week after inoculation and reached a maximum about 1 week later. Thereafter antibody titres slowly declined. Although concentrations were still slightly raised 1 year later, this did not always prevent reinfection when volunteers were then challenged with the homologous virus. However, the period of virus shedding was shorter than before and none developed a cold. All of the uninfected group were infected on re-challenge although they also appeared to show some resistance to disease and in the extent of infection. These results are discussed with reference to natural infections with coronavirus and with other infections, such as rhinovirus infections.
Zoonotic infections in Northern Ireland farmers
Authors: Stanford C. F. , Connolly J. H. , Ellis W. A. , Smyth E. T. M. , Coyle P. V. , Montgomery W. I. , Simpson D. I. H.
Published: May 2009

Evidence of past zoonotic infection was investigated serologically in randomly selected Northern Ireland farmers. The percentage of farmers with antibody was: Brucella abortus (0·7), Leptospira interrogans serovars (8·1), Borrelia burgdorferi (14·3), Toxoplasma gondii (73·5), Coxiella burnetii (28·0), Chlamydia psittaci (11·1) and Hantavirus (1·2).

The results show that Northern Ireland farmers have been exposed in the past to zoonotic infections. It is not known if these infections contributed to ill health in farmers but it is now time for the health of farm workers and their medical services to be reassessed.
Antibodies to some pathogenic agents in free-living wild species in Tanzania
Authors: Hamblin C. , Anderson E. C. , Jago M. , Mlengeya T. , Hirji K.
Published: May 2009

A total of 535 sera from eight species of wildlife were collected from different game areas in Tanzania between 1987 and 1989. These sera were tested for antibodies against foot-and-mouth disease, bovine herpes virus types 1 and 2, lumpy skin disease, bovine viral diarrhoea, Akabane, bovine ephemeral fever, bluetongue, enzootic bovine leucosis, African horse sickness and African swine fever viruses andBrucella abortusbased on the expected species susceptibility. Sera from buffaloSyncerus caffer, wildebeestConnochaetes taurinusand topiDamaliscus korrigumcontained antibodies against the majority of the pathogens tested. Antibodies to fewer pathogens were detected in sera from the other species. No antibodies to lumpy skin disease virus were detected in any of the sera examined. African horse sickness antibodies were detected in sera from Zebra and African swine fever antibodies were detected in wart hog. The occurrence of antibodies to these agents suggests that wild species act as reservoirs of infection for some of these pathogens. However, until the susceptibility of individual species is proven by isolation of the aetiological agents their role must remain speculative.
ABO blood group, secretor status and detection ofHelicobacter pyloriamong patients with gastric or duodenal ulcers
Authors: Mentis A. , Blackwell C. C. , Weir D. M. , Spiliadis C. , Dailianas A. , Skandalis N.
Published: May 2009

Patients (454) referred for gastroscopy to the General Hospital of Athens were examined to determine (1) if non-secretors were over-represented among patients with ulcers and (2) is there was an association with ABO blood group or secretor status and carriage ofHelicobacter pylori.

Compared with the local population, among patients with either gastric ulcer (51) or duodenal ulcer (96) there was a significant increase in the proportion of those who were blood group O (P< 0·025); however, there were no significant differences in the proportions of non-secretors.H. pyloriwas identified in 62 % of the 454 patients: 59·5 % of those without evidence of ulcers; 62·5 % of those with gastric ulcer; 88% of those with duodenal ulcer (P< 0·0005). These bacteria were cultured more often and in higher numbers from patients with duodenal ulcer (P< 0·025). There was no association between ABO blood group and prevalence ofH. pylori. The prevalence ofH. pyloriamong non-secretors with gastric ulcer (12·5%) was significantly lower than that for non-secretors with duodenal ulcer (100%) (P< 0·0005). This was not observed for secretors.
Rapid inter-strain comparison by pyrolysis mass spectrometry of coagulase-negative staphylococci from persistent CAPD peritonitis
Authors: Freeman R. , Gould F. K. , Wilkinson R. , Ward A. C. , Lightfoot N. F. , Sisson P. R.
Published: May 2009

Pyrolysis mass spectrometry (PyMS) was used as a method of rapid inter-strain comparison of 19 isolates of coagulase-negative staphylococci from episodes of CAPD peritonitis. Thirteen isolates were from multiple, but distinct, episodes of peritonitis in 6 patients and the remaining 6 isolates were from 6 patients with single episodes. The results, expressed in terms of identity/non-identity of strains, were compared with those obtained using an established typing system comprising an extended antibiogram, determination of biotype and plasmid profile analysis. The PyMS results for inter-strain comparison were in agreement with the reference typing scheme results. PyMS can be used in this setting to rapidly obtain evidence that persistent infection is/is not likely to be due to the same organism, although it cannot be used for formal typing. The results by both methods showed that serial, apparently distinct, episodes of peritonitis over periods as long as 120 days may be due to the same strain of coagulase-negative staphylococcus. Clinically based distinctions between recurrence of infection (same strain) and re-infection (different strains) may not always be supported by the microbiological evidence.
Instability of multiple drug resistance plasmids inSalmonella typhimuriumisolated from poultry
Authors: Brown D. J. , Threlfall E. J. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

Plasmids in five strains ofSalmonella typhimuriumresistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, gentamicin, neomycin/kanamycin, streptomycin, sulphonamides, tetracyclines and trimethoprim (ACGKSSuTTm), CGKSSuTTm, ACSSuT or CSSuT which had been isolated from poultry in the first 3 months of 1989 have been characterized and compared with plasmids in two strains of R-types ACGKSSuTTm and ASSuTTm isolated from two patients later in the year. With the exception of the human isolate of R-type ASSuTTm, all strains carried two non-conjugative plasmids, one coding for SSu and belonging to incompatibility group Q, and a second coding for multiple resistance and belonging to the FImeincompatibility group. The human isolate of R-type ASSuTTm did not carry theIncQ, SSu plasmid but like the poultry isolates, carried a non-conjugative FImeplasmid.

Restriction endonuclease digestion with the enzymesEcoR I,PstI andHindIII demonstrated that the FImeplasmids from strains of different R-types showed a high degree of homology but exhibited numerous fragment size polymorphisms. The restriction digest fingerprint of plasmids in the human isolate of R-type ACGKSSuTTm was indistinguishable from a poultry isolate of the same R-type. Analysis of segregants of one of the poultry isolates of R-type ACGKSSuTTm demonstrated that resistance determinants could be rapidly lost from the FImeplasmid to give rise to a number of R-types and fingerprint patterns. Loss of tetracycline resistance from this plasmid appeared to be correlated with the integration of other plasmid-mediated resistances into the bacterial chromosome. Evidence is presented for the rapid loss of antimicrobial resistance determinants from a multiple resistance plasmid of the FImeincompatibility group in response to withdrawal of antibiotic selective pressure.
Effect of penicillin and chloramphenicol on the growth and endotoxin release by N. meningitidis
Authors: Mellado M. C. , Rodríguez-Contreras R. , Mariscal A. , Luna J. D. , Rodríguez M. Delgado , Galvez-Vargas R.
Published: May 2009

The action of two antibiotics, penicillin and chloramphenicol, on bacterial growth and endotoxin liberation was studied in 18 strains of Neissevia meningitidis isolated from blood and CSF of patients with meningococcal infections. The antibiotics were administered both separately and in combined form in doses equivalent to 1 MIC and 100 MIC. Penicillin was found to produce a faster and more intense bactericidal effect than chloramphenicol during the first hour, whereas at 12 h these differences were not significant. This could explain the initial worsening observed in some infected patients when large doses of penicillin are administered. An increased liberation of endotoxin after adding penicillin was observed in six of the strains studied, whereas the remaining 12 did not show significant increases. The six strains (belonging to serogroup B) were known to have an enhanced capacity for spontaneous endotoxin liberation.
Genetic relationship between the HA genes of type A influenza viruses isolated in off-seasons and later epidemic seasons
Authors: Nakajima S. , Nakamura K. , Nishikawa F. , Nakajima K.
Published: May 2009

From January 1985 to March 1989, off-season viruses of H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes of influenza A viruses were isolated on five occasions in Japan. The HA gene sequences of the influenza A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) viruses isolated in Japan from 1985–9 were analysed and the phylogenetic tree for each subtype virus was constructed to determine any genetic relationship between viruses isolated in off-seasons and the epidemic viruses of the following influenza seasons. In one instance with H1N1 viruses in 1986 and in two instances with H3N2 viruses in 1985 and 1987, the spring isolates were genetically close to some of the winter isolates and were considered to be the parental viruses of the following influenza seasons. However, even in these cases, influenza viruses of the same subtype with different lineages co-circulated in Japan.
Laboratory diagnosis of rubella: past, present and future
Authors: Cradock-Watson J. E.
Published: May 2009

Fifty years ago in New South Wales the late Sir Norman Gregg [1] described congenital cataracts in 78 babies, 67 of whose mothers had had clinical rubella in early pregnancy; he concluded that the disease in the mother caused the abnormality in the baby. Gregg [1–3] and Swan [4, 5] and their colleagues reported that deafness, heart disease and microcephaly were also major components of the congenital rubella syndrome. The need to prevent this tragic outcome stimulated intensive work on laboratory diagnosis and vaccine development, leading to the isolation of rubella virus in 1962 and then to methods for antibody detection. These complementary advances established the two traditional pillars of virological diagnosis and opened the way to immunization, with the result that some countries are now on the verge of eliminating a disease which for over 100 years was regarded as no more than a mild and harmless exanthem of childhood.
A large outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with a small round structured virus among schoolchildren and teachers in Japan
Authors: Kobayashi S. , Morishita T. , Yamashita T. , Sakae K. , Nishio O. , Miyake T. , Ishihara Y. , Isomura S.
Published: May 2009

In March 1989 a large outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred simultaneously among schoolchildren and teachers at nine elementary schools in Toyota City, Japan. Illness was observed in 3236 (41·5%) of 7801 schoolchildren and 117 (39·4%) of 297 teachers. The main clinical symptoms were diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Gastroenteritis was significantly associated with the consumption of school lunch served by one particular lunch preparation centre. One food handler at the centre suffered from gastroenteritis during the outbreak.Small round structured virus (SRSV) was detected in 4 of 8 stool specimens from sick persons. The school lunch contaminated by the infected food handler is the most probable source of this outbreak due to SRSV.
A numerical analysis of ribosomal RNA gene patterns for typing clinical isolates ofCorynebacteriumgroup D2
Authors: Soto A. , Pitcher D. G. , Soriano F.
Published: May 2009

Restriction digest fragments of DNA from 46 clinical isolates identified asCorynebacteriumgroup D2, were separated by electrophoresis, Southern blotted onto nylon membranes and hybridized to a ribosomal RNA gene probe. The resulting band patterns were subjected to unweighed pair-group cluster analysis. Representative strains from the main clusters were compared with similarly prepared band patterns from type strains of humanCorynebacteriumspecies.

The results indicate that strains identified asCorynebacteriumgroup D2 represent a unique taxon and that computer-assisted analysis of rRNA gene restriction fragment polymorphism (ribotyping) could be a useful technique in epidemiological studies of these bacteria.
Application and evaluation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting for detection of antibodies toTreponema hyodysenteriaein swine
Authors: Smith S. C. , Barrett L. M. , Muir T. , Christopher W. L. , Coloe P. J.
Published: May 2009

An enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) has been developed to detect serum Immunoglobulin antibodies G and M toTreponema hyodysenteriaein vaccinated, experimentally infected and naturally infected swine. Naturally infected swine gave ELISA titres that were similar to experimentally infected swine, but were significantly less than the titres of vaccinated swine. When serum from naturally infected swine was used to probe nitrocellulose blots of sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresed whole cell proteins ofT. hyodysenteriae,the immunoblotting patterns showed IgG antibodies were produced against manyT. hyodysenteriaeprotein antigens and against lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The IgG antibodies directed against LPS were serotype-specific for that LPS and could be used to identify the serotype involved in theT. hyodysenteriaeinfection in that herd. IgM immunoblots also reacted with the many protein antigens but were less specific for LPS antigen, with a substantial degree of crossreaction between the LPS of all serotypes.

The data demonstrate that a microplate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, coupled with immunoblotting, is a very specific and sensitive test for detection of antibody toTreponema hyodysenteriaein swine.
Antigenic and genetic homogeneity ofStreptococcus uberisstrains from the bovine udder
Authors: Groschup M. H. , Hahn G. , Timoney J. F.
Published: May 2009

DNA- fingerprints (Hind III) ofStreptococcus uberisfield isolates from New York State and Europe showed substantial homogeneity, but were different to those of the type strain of the newly proposed psychrophilic speciesS. parauberis. S. uberisstrains had major SDS-heat extracted antigens of molecular masses (Mr) < 14, 40–41, 42–43, 59–61, 80–86 and 118–122 kDa following immunoblotting with rabbit hyperimmune sera. Bovine sera and milk reacted with the 40–41 and 118–122 kDa antigens. Variations in theMrof particular bands were too unevenly distributed to permit formation of subgroups. Although cross reactive, the sizes of the antigens ofS. parauberisstrain NCDO 2020 were substantially different to those ofS. uberis,the most prominent antigen having aMrof 50 kDa. The antigenic and genetic data therefore strongly support the introduction ofS. parauberisas a distinct species.S. uberisstrains reacted with antiserum to Lancefield groups B, E, G and P, their grouping reactions showing no correlation with DNA and immunoblot fingerprints. Lancefield grouping ofS. uberistherefore appears to have little value in identification.
Molecular epidemiology of plasmid patterns inShigella flexneritypes 1–6
Authors: Gebre-Yohannes A. , Drasar B. S.
Published: May 2009

A total of 123 drug-resistant and drug-sensitiveShigella flexneritypes 1–6, and theirEscherichia coliK12 transconjugants were used for plasmid profile analysis by agarose gel electrophoresis. Resistance factors (R-factors) were further characterized by incompatibility testing.

The overall distribution of small plasmids inS. flexnerishowed that a cryptic plasmid of about 4·6 Kb was found in all serotypes, and a plasmid of about 4·2 Kb was found in serotypes 1–4.Shigella flexneritypes 2, 4 and 6 showed a 6·5 Kb plasmid which correlated with SSu-resistance. AllS. flexneriserotypes harboured large plasmids of about 217 Kb. Plasmid profile analysis ofS. flexneriin Ethiopia showed a high degree of uniformity within individual serotypes. However, there was a limited variability which, at times, could be useful for epidemiological investigation.Shigella flexneriserotypes 1–6 harboured resistance plasmids with diverse molecular weights but mostly belonging to incompatibility groups N and X.
Jackdaws and magpies as vectors of milkborne human campylobacter infection
Authors: Hudson S. J. , Lightfoot N. F. , Coulson J. C. , Russell K. , Sisson P. R. , Sobo A. O.
Published: May 2009

In 1990 we reported that milk bottles pecked by jackdaws and magpies were a probable source of human Campylobacter infection. During April to June 1990 an extended study of Campylobacter infections was carried out in the Gateshead area. Prior to the study a health education programme was undertaken in an attempt to reduce human infection. Fifty-nine cases of human infection were recorded and 52 were interviewed. Thirty were entered into a case control study which demonstrated a very strong association between consumption of pecked milk and human Campylobacter infection (X2= 12·6,P< 0·0004). It was estimated that between 500 and 1000 jackdaws(Corvus monedula)were present in the area where milk bottles were pecked and 63 isolates of Campylobacter were made from the bill and cloaca. Target bottles were put out in the early mornings and Campylobacters were isolated from 12 of 123 pecked bottles. Typing of the Campylobacters revealed a wide distribution of strains amongst birds, pecked milk and human infections. The health education programme had only limited success.
Morphometrical parameters of gut microflora in human volunteers
Authors: Meijer B. C. , Kootstra G. J. , Wilkinson M. H. F.
Published: May 2009

The morphology of faecal microflora of nine healthy human volunteers was studied by digital image analysis of microscopic slides. Weekly specimens were collected during an 8-week period. Seven morphometrical parameters were derived: the means and medians of components 1, 2 and 3, and morphometrical entropy. Statistically significant differences among subjects were found for means of components 1 and 2, medians of components 1, 2 and 3, and entropy. The stability in normal circumstances provides an excellent basis for the detection of pathological change in gut flora balance.
Development of standardized inspections in restaurants using visual assessments and microbiological sampling to quantify the risks
Authors: Tebbutt G. M.
Published: May 2009

The relationship between visual inspections carried out by environmental health officers and microbiological examination was studied in 89 restaurants. Using 30 variables a standardized inspection procedure was developed and each of the premises was assessed in six main areas – structure and design, cleaning and cleanliness, personal hygiene, risk of contamination, temperature control, and training and knowledge about food hygiene. Selected foods and specimens from hands, surfaces, and wiping cloths were examined. There were significant associations between all six areas of the inspections. The structure and design were significantly related to the combined score from all the other areas (P < 0·001). There were no highly significant associations between microbiological examination and visual assessments. The microbial contamination of wiping cloths, however, was related to the cleaning and cleanliness (P = 0·005). Microbial sampling provided additional information to inspections and was a valuable aid. Further development of this risk-assessment approach could provide an effective system for monitoring potential health risks in high-risk food premises.
Prevalence of cytomegalovirus infection in Italy
Authors: De Mattia D. , Stroffolini T. , Arista S. , Pistoia D. , Giammanco A. , Maggio M. , Chiaramonte M. , Moschen M. E. , Mura I. , Rigo G. , Scarpa B.
Published: May 2009

Between 1987 and 1989, the prevalence of antibody to cytomegalovirus (CMV) was determined, by the ELISA method, in serum samples from 1494 apparently healthy subjects, 3–18 years old. Subjects were selected by a systematic cluster sampling from five geographical areas in Italy. The overall prevalence of antibody was 64·2%, increasing from 54·4% in 4–6-year-olds to 73·3% in subjects 17–18 years old (P< 0·01). Prevalence of antibody was significantly higher in females (P< 0·05) and in subjects residing in the South of Italy (P< 0·01). A significant association was found with sociodemographic factors. Subjects belonging to a household with six or more persons had a 1·5-fold risk (C.I. 95% = 1·11–2·04) and subjects whose fathers had less than 6 years of schooling had a 1·4-fold risk (C.I. 95% = 1·1–1·87) of previous exposure to CMV infection. The high prevalence (74·4%) of young women who are naturally immune when entering childbearing years does not guarantee that there will be a low risk of fetal infection.
Changing trends of gonococcal infection in homosexual men in Edinburgh
Authors: Ross J. D. C. , McMillan A. , young H.
Published: May 2009

In an attempt to explain the recent resurgence of homosexually-acquired gonorrhoea in the Lothian region of Scotland the number of infections and pattern of infection (urethral, rectal and pharyngeal) of all gonococcal isolates from homosexual men attending the Department of Genitourinary Medicine at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary between 1985 and 1990 were analysed. Serovar typing data were available from infections acquired between January 1986 and December 1990. A correlation between one serovar, Bacejk/Brpyust, and the overall pattern of gonorrhoea was observed. The number of infections caused by minor serovars also correlated with rates of gonococcal infection. The number of minor serovars isolated, which may represent strains from other geographical locations, is related to the total incidence of gonorrhoea. It is possible that the incidence of Bacejk/Brpyust may be determined by the size of the infected pool of gonorrhoea. The most likely explanation for the recent increase in gonorrhoea is a change in sexual behaviour and/or an influx of strains from other geographical areas.
Control of endemic nosocomial Legionnaires' disease by using sterile potable water for high risk patients
Authors: Marrie T. J. , Haldane D. , Macdonald S. , Clarke K. , Fanning C. , Le Fort-Jost S. , Bezanson G. , Joly J.
Published: May 2009

In a setting where potable water is contaminated with Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1, we performed two case control studies. The first case control study consisted of 17 cases of nosocomial Legionnaires' disease (LD) and 33 control (the patients who were admitted to the ward where the case was admitted immediately before and after the case) subjects. Cases had a higher mortality rate 65% vs 12% (P < 0.004); were more likely to have received assisted ventilation (P < 0.00001); to have nasogastric tubes (P < 0.0004) and to be receiving corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive therapy (P < 0.0001). Based on the results of this study, sterile water was used to flush nasogastric tubes and to dilute nasogastric feeds. Only 3 cases of nosocomial LD occurred during the next year compared with 12 the previous year (P < 0.0001). Nine cases subsequently occurred and formed the basis for the second case-control study. Eighteen control subjects were those patients admitted to the same unit where the case developed LD, immediately before and after the case. The mortality rate for the cases was 89% vs 6% for controls (P < 0.00003). The only other significant difference was that cases were more likely to be receiving corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive therapy 89% vs 39% ( < 0.01). We hypothesized that microaspiration of contaminated potable water by immunocompromised patients was a risk factor for nosocomial Legionnaires' disease. From 17 March 1989 onwards such patients were given only sterile potable water. Only two cases of nosocomial LD occurred from June 1989 to September 1990 and both occurred on units where the sterile water policy was not in effect. We conclude that aspiration of contaminated potable water is a possible route for acquisition of nosocomial LD in our hospital and that provision of sterile potable water to high risk patients (those who are receiving corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive drugs; organ transplant recipients or hospitalized in an intensive care unit) should be mandatory.
An outbreak of serogroup B:15:P1.16 meningococcal disease, Frederiksborg county, Denmark, 1987–9
Authors: Samuelsson S. , Ege P. , Berthelsen L. , Lind I.
Published: May 2009

Epidemiological features of an outbreak of group B:15:P1.16 meningococcal disease (MD) in Frederiksborg country, Denmark, 1987–9, were investigated. The study comprised 149 cases notified during the outbreak and the two preceding years; 115 were confirmed by the isolation of Neisseria meningitidis. In 1989 the incidence had increased to 14·1 per 100 000 population. Among group B strains, B:15:P1.16 accounted for 80% (77/97). The overall mortality rate was 10% (15/149). Regarding cases due to group B:15:P1.16 strains a significant time-space clustering, which exclusively occurred within the 10–19 years age group, was demonstrated. The link between cases within clusters was indirect or unknown, except for ten patients with contact to one particular school. The prophylactic measures used included administration of rifampicin to household contacts. During the outbreak the proportion of secondary cases was high (6–15%). All secondary cases occurred outside the household indicating that the household had been protected.
Genetic relationships amongNeisseria gonorrhoeaeserovars analysed by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis
Authors: Poh C. L. , Ocampo J. C. , Loh G. K.
Published: May 2009

Multilocus enzyme electrophoretic analysis was employed to assess the genetic relatedness ofNeisseria gonorrhoeae. Based on the diversity of electromorphs at 9 enzyme loci, 16 electrophoretic types (ETs) were estabilished amongst the 65 isolates. The average number of alleles per enzyme locus was 1·7 and the mean genetic diversity per locus was 0·212. The majority of isolates belonged to either ET1 (32·3%) or ET2 (16·9%). No specific correlation of ETs was seen with serovars as the major types, ETs 1 and 2, were found distributed amongst the various serovars. Major serovars such as Bacjk (IB-1/2) and Bajk (IB-3/6) were each represented by 6 or 8 ETs respectively. Analysis of the genetic relationships of ETs to each other showed some clustering of subgroups that were more closely related than others.
Epidemiology and control of an outbreak of typhoid in a psychiatric institution
Authors: Goh K. T. , Teo S. H. , Tay L. , Monteiro E. H. A.
Published: May 2009

An outbreak of typhoid caused by Salmonella typhi of the same Vi-phage type (D1) and of the same antibiogram was reported in a large psychiatric institution in Singapore. A total of 95 (4·8%) of the 1965 inmates were infected, 47 with symptoms and 48 asymptomatic. Transmission was through close person-to-person contact and not through contaminated food or water. The source of infection could not be established. The outbreak was brought under control by maintaining a high standard of environmental sanitation, active search for fever and diarrhoeal cases, identification of asymptomatic cases by rectal swabbing, and isolation of those found to be infected. Mass immunization with two doses of heat-phenol inactivated typhoid vaccine was also carried out concurrently. The vaccine was found to have an efficacy of 65·8% in preventing clinical illness.