bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Methods of Theorizing
Authors: Chambers Simone
Published: November 2022

What is normative theory and how is it done? This chapter introduces a typology of five types of normative theory found within the deliberative democracy tradition. The first category is called theories of the ideal and these lay out the core values and aspirations of deliberative democracy. The second type, critical reflective theory, questions, probes, and interrogates the first-order theories of the ideal in order to correct and improve normative theory through criticism. The third category is called constructive reflective theory and here theorists interpret, elaborate, and extend theories of the ideal by applying them in new ways or to new circumstances. The fourth and fifth categories engage the empirical world more directly, but like the reflective type, either critically or constructively. Critical applied theories engage normativity by criticizing existing arrangements for failing to live up to normative ideals. This can also be called the yardstick model of normative theory. Constructive applied theories engage normativity by suggesting, proposing, and designing innovative institutions and real-world practices to make democracy more deliberative.
Big Data Analysis
Authors: Franco-Guillén Núria , Laile Sebastian De , Parkinson John
Published: November 2022

This chapter defines big data and sets out methodological decisions to be made in big data analysis. It offers ways of researching millions of instances of ‘everyday talk’ in the public sphere, on a scale that is impossible using other methods, and thus especially useful for deliberative systems research. The chapter discusses some of the challenges in data gathering, sources, data cleaning, and tool selection and contextualize these challenges in two case studies featuring large-scale, national conversations around constitutional change: the Scottish independence referendum campaign of 2012–2014, and an Australian campaign to recognize First Nations in its constitution. The results illustrate the value of big data tools in inductively revealing patterns of communication at scale that may not be obvious using tools that rely on human or even automated coding.
Dramaturgical Analysis
Authors: Ercan Selen A. , Hendriks Carolyn M.
Published: November 2022

This chapter introduces Dramaturgical Analysis as a way of analysing the performative aspects of public deliberation. It outlines the key dimensions of dramaturgical analysis including scripting, setting, staging and performance, and shows how these dimensions can be used to analyse public deliberation in structured forums, the broader public sphere and in policymaking processes. Dramaturgical analysis directs the researcher’s attention to often-overlooked aspects of public deliberation, such as the performative styles of the actors involved in deliberation, the symbols and artefacts they use to stage their arguments, to reach out and persuade diverse audiences. The chapter illustrates the application of dramaturgical analysis in deliberative democracy research and presents this analysis as a particularly promising way of investigating non-verbal practices and performances in public deliberation.
Denmark and the Netherlands
Authors: Rynning Sten , van Ham Peter
Published: November 2022

The chapter examines the drivers, constraints, and specific policies of Denmark and the Netherlands. For the past three decades, both countries have developed traditions of activism, of putting their forces behind political priorities also when it comes to high-end NATO operations, not least to secure transatlantic bonds and thus continued US leadership in Europe. At the same time, both countries find it increasingly difficult to uphold past reservations regarding the European Union and past limits to defence spending. Both Denmark and the Netherlands seek to render new developments in European and global security compatible with the traditional privileging of NATO as the supreme security guarantee of Europe. The chapter also offers a comprehensive overview of the domestic debates on NATO in both countries and makes use of opinion poll data indicating a continued support for NATO and its missions. Looking forward, the chapter looks at how ensuring effective transatlantic consultations on European and US security interests and a more equitable burden-sharing on defence will be a driving force in Danish and Dutch diplomacy. Such consultations have faltered in important respects (including under President Biden), as illustrated in the context of the Western withdrawal from Afghanistan in the summer of 2021. For both Denmark and the Netherlands, this underscores further the need for agile Atlanticist countries working for a renewed Alliance’s cohesion and relevance.
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
Authors: Raik Kristi , Šešelgytė Margarita
Published: November 2022

The chapter examines the policies of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania towards NATO. For the three Baltic States, the Alliance is a cornerstone of their security and an essential element in managing the existential threat posed by Russia. Their NATO membership, achieved in 2004, is based on broad political consensus and a high level of public backing. The chapter shows how the three Baltic States support NATO as a US-centred Alliance that anchors the United States to European security. NATO takes priority over any other defence cooperation framework, notably the European Union (EU). In the deteriorated security environment of the post-Ukraine crisis of 2014, the Baltic States have emphasized collective defence and deterrence as a core task of the Alliance and advocated for an enhanced presence of NATO in the Eastern flank. At the same time, both NATO and the EU are seen as essential to resilience in the face of hybrid threats such as disinformation and cyber activities; inter-institutional cooperation is supported as a consequence. The chapter also examines the contribution of the three states, individually and in cooperation, to NATO activities and analyses their political preferences and public attitudes regarding the Alliance. Looking forward, the chapter reviews challenges that the three Baltic States will be facing as NATO Allies, in particular in relation to maintaining the Alliance’s focus on Russia.
The Fossil Fuel Fa(u)lkners
Authors: Watson Jay
Published: November 2022

The introduction provides a brief overview of the energy humanities, focusing on key scholars and methodologies that have defined the field. It then turns to Faulkner’s biography to detail the contributions of the novelist’s paternal ancestors to the modernization of north Mississippi’s energy regimes, before offering a brief history of petroleum exploration and production in the state of Mississippi. It details the author’s own decision to lease Greenfield Farm, his 320-acre property in rural Lafayette County, to oil prospectors in 1938 and again in 1942. After modeling a petrocritical methodology with an analysis of the energy unconscious at work in Faulkner’s 1954 short story “Sepulture South: Gaslight,” the introduction concludes with a chapter overview of the remainder of the book.
William Faulkner in Modernity’s Basement
Authors: Watson Jay
Published: November 2022

Chapter one takes us on a career-long tour of the author’s imaginative engagements with coal and oil, the most important fossil fuels of his era. The discussion builds on Bob Johnson’s argument in Carbon Nation that the boilers, furnaces, dynamos, and internal combustion engines of US modernity functioned as its infrastructural foundation, the “basement” where fossil energy was converted to mechanical energy to propel and indeed accelerate twentieth-century life. Faulkner’s fiction lingers over and in such sites—and moreover imagines an attic for energy modernity in one memorable short story, “Carcassonne”—to interrogate their ongoing work, which turns out to be thoroughly entwined with the racializing work of the Jim Crow modernity that was also front and center in the author’s writings and his world.
Essays on Ethics and Culture
Authors: Lovibond Sabina
Published: November 2022

These essays discuss various ontological and epistemological questions in moral philosophy, drawing on ideas from Platonic-Aristotelian ethics, the later Wittgenstein, and Iris Murdoch, though without seeking to weave these into any unified system. The general approach is realist or objectivist, paying some attention to the role of imaginative literature (especially the novel) in ethical formation. The method used can be broadly described as phenomenological; the phenomena in question extend to value-perception on the one hand and to practical reason, including political deliberation, on the other. A common theme is the lived experience of the socially situated subject, including our capacity for engagement with the values present in an inherited tradition or ‘form of life’. Such engagement, once raised to consciousness, may contain elements both of affirmation and of cultural critique. In the book as a whole, the critical theme predominates, with a certain emphasis on discourses of social disruption. But it is always assumed that the right place to stand as an observer of the domain of value is within that domain, and that moral critique will be immanent with respect to the culture addressed—that is, it will make do with just the conceptual and linguistic resources available to ordinary participants in moral, political, or aesthetic conversation.
Introduction
Authors: Davies Ben , Lupton Christina , Gormsen Schmidt Johanne
Published: November 2022

This chapter discusses the context for the ethnographic work underlying the study: the assembly of the research team, the surveys and interviews collected, the practicalities of reaching readers during the pandemic, and the precedents for this kind of sociology of reading. It differentiates this ethnographic approach from those more focused on capturing a reaction of a universal reader to a text, regardless of the context for that interaction. But it also defines an approach more closely attentive than most sociological studies of reading to literary content, suggesting that the interpretation of novels is crucial to understanding what readers have to say about their importance in a moment of crisis.
Plague Literature and the Question of Allegory
Authors: Davies Ben , Lupton Christina , Gormsen Schmidt Johanne
Published: November 2022

Chapter 2 turns to the book’s first case study: the reading of Camus’s The Plague in 2020. This is a way to introduce the phenomenon of readers seeking accounts of past plagues, but it also offers a discussion of how the status of texts, often understood as either realist or allegorical, can change when they are read under conditions of crisis. Intradisciplinary debates about the virtues of postcritical reading can, indeed, make it seem as if there are choices to be made between the study of books in their everyday use and the cultivation of reading as an academic endeavour. Taking the responses of real readers more seriously might allow us to see where fiction’s capacity to solicit investment and attachment depends upon circumstance. Like many objects of significance, books emerge in this light as mattering differently in certain constellations than in others: no book means anything except in the situated conditions of its reception. On the other hand, literary critics retort, novels have their own history and their own significance; to read The Plague as informative about plague history or to peg it too closely to our own moment is, in this light, to miss the point of its allegory. Reading Camus’s famous novel as a limit-case for the idea that allegorical reading is always opposed to literal reading, this chapter offers an exploration of what can happen when dystopian fiction aligns unexpectedly with its reading situation.
Old Books in New Times
Authors: Davies Ben , Lupton Christina , Gormsen Schmidt Johanne
Published: November 2022

Chapter 4 focuses on the reception of older works that at first glance seem less directly related to lockdown or the pandemic. Many of the readers interviewed in this study picked up timeworn titles simply because they were there on their shelves at home. The use of material that lies around, both in the cultural imagination, as part of the canon, and more literally on domestic bookshelves, can be difficult for book historians to register. It leaves fewer traces than other kinds of reading, shows up less markedly as downloads or purchase records. Old books are not generally the focus of reviews or the events that greet new publications. Yet scholars recognize how significant the consumption of one period’s literature in another can be to later readers. Analysing this difficult-to-trace type of reading or rereading, we see, for instance, in this chapter how the term ‘classic’ is used by readers to indicate familiarity, permanence, and security, as well as how this kind of reading involves a mixing of past and contemporary experience, with older books picked up or rediscovered under new conditions. Focusing on what the interviewees said about the reading of Jane Eyre under lockdown, the chapter pursues the ways in which the meaning and relevance of this text is refracted through the current moment.
Overview
Authors: Dixon R. M. W.
Published: November 2022

This first chapter provides background for the study. It mentions Jalnguy, the avoidance style (nicknamed ‘mother-in-law language’ by Chloe Grant) and the basic phonology, including phonotactics. The syntactic matrix is then outlined—word classes, split systems of marking, serial verb constructions, complementation strategies, etc. There is a full account of 1st and 2nd person pronouns, of gender, of time words, and of response words and interjections. Other topics are briefly introduced here and dealt with in more detail in a later chapter. These include possession and the two genitives, nominal morphology, verbal morphology, noun markers, demonstratives, and verb markers.
Relative clauses
Authors: Dixon R. M. W.
Published: November 2022

This chapter has a wide scope. It begins with a survey of the syntactic techniques for clause linking, cross-linguistically. These are: restrictive relative clause constructions, non-restrictive relative clause constructions, complement clause constructions, linking words (conjunctions, etc.), and nominalisations. There is then consideration of thirteen types of semantic relations between clauses, and the varied syntactic means which English and Dyirbal employ for expressing them. The grammar of the two varieties of relative clauses in Dyirbal is then described. And the nine kinds of meaning which they express. The final section deals with a relative clause being used as an independent sentence.
Clitics
Authors: Dixon R. M. W.
Published: November 2022

An affix is a term in a morphological system which is applied to lexical stems from one (or perhaps a small number of) word classes. In contrast, a clitic is an independent element which can attach to lexical stems from a wide range of word classes (often from every one). It cannot occur alone but must be linked to a lexical element (with which it may or may not be grammatically associated). Dyirbal has two varieties of enclitic. There are six ‘second position clitics’, which attach to the end of the first phonological word of a clause. One marks a question, another that a statement is definitely true, a third that there is an element of doubt. And there are three ‘floating clitics’, which may follow any word at any position in the sentence. Two indicate ‘only, just’ and ‘as well, too’. The final section of the chapter considers the enigmatic form - (a)rru, which has ten roles. Examining these, we suggest that four of them are homonymous affixes: ergative/instrumental allomorph, perlative case, etc. The remaining six are treated as instances of a floating enclitic =(a)rru meaning ‘another’ or ‘again’ or ‘too’.
The City Multiple
Authors: Singh Ravi Nandan
Published: November 2022

Funeral travelling involves coming close to the pyres but also turning away from them to be back amongst the living. Taking cue, the chapter moves from the cremation ghats to the city of Banaras. In this movement towards the city, we encounter the surface of the many names of the city. Adapting from Annemarie Mol’s ‘The body multiple’, it is shown how the different names of the city, Benares, Banaras, Varanasi, and Kashi create a dynamic multiplicity. In the chapter the different place-names are substantively evoked in their literary, ethnographic, and historiographical usages alongside the everyday spoken form of the language in Banaras. The chapter further shows how the different usages of the place-names create a ‘side-shadowing’ (to borrow from Alf Hiltebeitel) instead of producing a unilateral referentiality of the place, thus creating a form of sliding reference where one name might do the work of referencing while others play dead in the ‘side-shadow’. This playing dead of the names becomes a complex ethical register through which the city is enacted as one’s own amongst different Banarasi people.
Diasporic Diplomacy
Authors: Stecopoulos Harilaos
Published: November 2022

Focusing on the US government’s use of Black literary ambassadors during the late 1950s and 1960s, this chapter examines how Langston Hughes used his cultural diplomatic missions to Africa as a way of redefining Black internationalism. The first portion of the chapter describes how the US State Department and two CIA-subsidized cultural fronts, the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the American Society of African Culture attempted to influence newly independent African nations. The second section analyses Hughes’s carefully negotiations of anti-Communism and Black nationalism in his ambassadorial work for these three institutions. The third portion of the chapter interprets Hughes’ poem “Cultural Exchange” (1961) as a self-conscious engagement with the problems and opportunities that informed Black cultural diplomacy during the cold war. A coda examines Hughes’s performance of “Cultural Exchange” at the first National Poetry Conference (1962) in Washington, DC.
Republic of Letters, Cockpit of Controversy
Authors: Stecopoulos Harilaos
Published: November 2022

Arthur Miller never worked as a US cultural diplomat; however, he did become president of PEN International thanks to the machinations of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, a CIA-funded front. This chapter examines Miller’s ambitious attempt to use his new position to publicize and oppose the Communist persecution of literary dissidents, thus contributing to US propaganda, and, more surprisingly, to highlight the way in which US writers were, for all their freedom, treated far more dismissively than their Communist counterparts. For the playwright, the two goals proved mutually constitutive. By working to protect their counterparts behind the Iron Curtain, US writers could also demonstrate their importance to a US public that had lost interest in the civic value of literature. Reading Miller’s journalism, plays, speeches, and other public pronouncements of the era, the chapter focuses mainly on his travel book In Russia (1969) and his play The Archbishop’s Ceiling (1977).
“A Harvest of Conversations Among Multitudes”
Authors: Stecopoulos Harilaos
Published: November 2022

The last full chapter begins with a brief history of the US-China Conferences (1982–1988) organized by long-time internationalist Norman Cousins. These conferences included such US literary giants as Maxine Hong Kingston, Allen Ginsberg, Toni Morrison, and Lesley Marmon Silko. I devote the bulk of the chapter to an examination of how Kingston, the only writer involved with the conferences from beginning to end, drew upon these cultural diplomatic experiences to reimagine US literature as world literature. Kingston’s international vision first emerges in Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book (1989), a novel she completed while attending the 1988 conference. After closely examining the representation of national and global literary transmission in Tripmaster Monkey, the chapter ends with a brief examination of how Kingston’s new internationalism informed her creation of the Veterans’ Writing Workshop.
Introduction
Authors: Andry Aurélie Dianara
Published: November 2022

This introductory chapter outlines the theme, research objectives, main arguments, methodology, and structure of the book. By investigating, in a transnational perspective, the forgotten struggle of the European Left for a ‘social Europe’ favouring the lower and middle classes in the long 1970s—as well as the reasons for its defeat—this book ambitions to shed new light on a critical turning point in the recent history of European integration, the history of European socialism, and by extension the history of capitalism. The main argument of this work is that the years stretching from the late 1960s until the 1980s saw a political struggle of conflicting social forces over the European order, and that the defeat of the Left’s ‘social Europe’ project was crucial in determining the progression of European integration on the neoliberal road, the Left’s forced acceptance of the ‘neoliberal consensus’, and the shift between welfare capitalism and neoliberal capitalism.
Epilogue
Authors: Andry Aurélie Dianara
Published: November 2022

This epilogue gives an overview of the road taken by European integration after the battle for a ‘social Europe’ was lost, from the mid-1980s until today; it then draws some conclusions regarding the reasons for this defeat. Some of its main causes were internal divergences within the European Left, its inability to truly unite and to consolidate an ‘alliance of the Left’ at European level, its failure to organize an efficient multilevel lobbying force against transnational capitalism, and problems of timing for its proposals, which often arrived late when free-market ideology was already on the rise and when the window of opportunity of the 1970s was closing. Above all, there was a lack of grassroots thrust, as European socialists and trade unions never managed to mobilize mass popular support to radically impose change at the European level.
Familiarize the Unthinkable
Authors: Mariani Maria Anna
Published: November 2022

This chapter explores how Italian intellectuals dealt with the post-war nuclear threat focusing on the writer Alberto Moravia and on his “conversion to politics.” This was provoked by a 1982 visit to Hiroshima, which pushed Moravia—who for a lifetime had openly rejected any active political commitment—to present his candidacy to the European Parliament in order to bring forward the question of disarmament. The chapter investigates Moravia’s rhetorical strategies in his journalistic and fictional production related to the years in Parliament, especially his so-called “oversimplification.” Critics tend to dismiss Moravia’s consistent stylistic and conceptual simplification as a product of naiveté and lack of sophistication. Instead, the chapter contends that this was a precise rhetorical choice through which Moravia tried to tame the nuclear problem and make it a familiar reality, thus preventing it from being distanced to the phantasmal sphere of the “unthinkable.”
Sabotage Logic
Authors: Mariani Maria Anna
Published: November 2022

This chapter takes its start from the lecture “For or Against the Atomic Bomb” by Elsa Morante. In this piece, Morante frames in her own terms the Frankfurt School’s idea of the entangled relationship between rationality and barbarism. Morante denounces the bond between the cultural legacy of Italy and the most aberrant deviations of instrumental reasoning, calling out the nation as a fully responsible partner in the extermination camps and the atomic bomb. Sealed by a Zen koan, which keeps in check a now perverted rationality, Morante’s lecture serves as a declaration of poetics for her most powerful novel, History. In it, fiction is assigned the task of telling the truth about twentieth-century events that official history would likely represent in a distorted and partial way. The chapter probes an ethical ban that erects armor-plated fencing around the Hiroshima and Nagasaki events, making them incompatible with Morante’s historical novel and effectively intractable.
Cultural Identity in Hindi Plays
Authors: Dimitrova Diana
Published: November 2022

This book deals with the interface between identity, culture, and literature. It aims at studying questions of cultural identity and gender in Hindi plays of the 19th and 20th centuries and the interplay of poetics and politics, as revealed in the work of several influential playwrights. The book explores questions related to the ways in which seven representative playwrights imagine India and its identity and the ways, in which this concept is revealed in the ‘narratives of the nation’, its postcolonial contentions, and the politics of identity, as revealed in the production of various cultural discourses. The chapters explore various aspects of the ongoing process of constructing and narrating culture, gender, the nation, and identity. There has been no monograph on the questions of cultural identity in Hindi drama. This is a pioneering project and a desideratum in the field of Hindi literature, South Asian Studies, and broadly, in the study of theatre of India and of South Asian cultures and literatures.
Rethinking Cultural Identity
Authors: Dimitrova Diana
Published: November 2022

Chapter 2 explores theoretical aspects related to the interface of cultural identity, discourse, gender, and myth. Cultural identities are those sides of our identities, which arise from our affiliation with a certain ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, and national culture. The concept of cultural identity also includes our gender and sexual identities. For a certain individual and at certain times of one’s life, different aspects of cultural identity would be prevailing—whether political, gender, linguistic, racial, and so on. While the concept of a collective cultural identity would be difficult to define without falling into the trappings of untrue and biased generalizations, a close and critical look at specific texts or narratives of literary and cultural productions of performative genres such as drama, theatre, and film could provide valuable insights into these interesting and timely questions.
Hindi Drama
Authors: Dimitrova Diana
Published: November 2022

Chapter 3 inquires into the history of Hindi drama and discusses major tendencies and schools. It also looks at the plurality of cultural traditions, identities, and influences that have shaped the playwrights’ worldviews throughout the centuries. Thus, we can identify influences from Western dramaturgy, from classical Urdu drama, from the Parsi theatre, from indigenous sources, such as the nauṭaṅkī-play, as well as classical Sanskrit drama. While the diversity and plurality of the dramatic and theatrical traditions should not be overlooked, Hindi theatre has come to be seen as a sort of a national theatre because of the status of Hindi as the national language of India, as most plays written in regional languages are staged in Hindi before they are staged in the original language. Therefore, in this chapter, Hindi theatre has been discussed as representative of developments in Indian theatre..
Cultural Identity in Hindi Plays of the 1940s–1970s
Authors: Dimitrova Diana
Published: November 2022

Chapter 5 examines the representation of cultural identity in the period 1940–1970, as revealed in the plays of several representative playwrights.
In Other Words
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: November 2022

J. M. Coetzee’s ‘Jesus’ trilogy extends and intensifies his long-term interest in engaging with a wide range of texts, themes, and assumptions that help constitute the history of Western European philosophy. In this commentary, Stephen Mulhall extends his own earlier work on Coetzee’s previous stagings of the ancient quarrel between philosophy and literature by identifying and following out various ways in which the ‘Jesus’ trilogy activates and interrogates themes drawn from Wittgenstein’s later philosophy. These themes include rival conceptions of counting and reading, the relation between concepts and wider forms of life, and the intertwined fate of philosophy, literature, and religion in a resolutely secular world. In these ways, Wittgenstein’s and so Coetzee’s visions of the world disclose their uncanny intimacy with issues and values central to the critique of modernity elaborated in the work of Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Sartre.
Novilla
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: November 2022

This chapter exposes the extent to which the work of Plato and Wittgenstein informs the world disclosed in the first volume of the ‘Jesus’ trilogy (The Childhood of Jesus), as well as the events and the character relationships that dominate it. Both philosophers interrogate the relation between ideas, ideals, and reality: Wittgenstein does so by exploring the phenomenon of rule-following, initially in mathematics, but more generally in language use, and thereby relates the normative to the natural in ways which influence Coetzee’s presentation of the role of literature and religion in a fictional world which appears to lack room for the very idea of either register of human forms of life.
Elizabeth Wiskemann
Authors: Field Geoffrey
Published: November 2022

This is the first biography of Elizabeth Wiskemann (1899–1971), journalist, historian, and distinguished commentator on European affairs. Based upon new archival sources, including Foreign Office and OSS files and private papers, as well as Wiskemann’s many publications, it examines her life from her youth and student years at Cambridge to her suicide. Disappointed in her hopes for an academic career, she reinvented herself as a foreign correspondent in Berlin, reporting on the final years of the Weimar Republic, Hitler’s ascent to power, and Nazism’s expansionist drive in Eastern Europe. Expelled from Germany by the Gestapo, she moved to Prague and in 1938 published a classic account of the Czech–German conflict over the Sudetenland. With the outbreak of the war that she had long foretold, Wiskemann put her investigative skills to good use as a secret agent in Switzerland, working closely with Allen Dulles, the OSS chief in Bern, and running agents into Axis-controlled Europe. She returned to journalism after the war, living for a time in Rome and focusing especially on the political birth of the Italian Republic and Adenauer’s West Germany. For Chatham House she also wrote the first (and for many years the only) English-language study of the expulsion of 12 million Germans from Eastern Europe in 1945–47. Aside from the intrinsic interest of Wiskemann’s career, the book situates her within a cohort of British women, pioneers in international affairs, whose careers were strongly influenced by Chatham House and war service in the intelligence and propaganda agencies. By the 1960s their expertise was widely recognized and some, like Wiskemann, gained positions in universities where degree programs in IR and contemporary history were slowly spreading and achieving legitimacy. Wiskemann got her first real academic job when she was fifty-nine years old as Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at Edinburgh. In her different roles she enjoyed a great deal of success but in none of the realms in which she operated—journalism, government service, and academia—did she enjoy the same opportunities as men, and she encountered barriers and sometimes outright obstruction. Blinded in one eye by a botched surgery, she became increasingly fearful of going completely blind; terrified of losing her autonomy and independence, she took her own life.
Introduction
Authors: Field Geoffrey
Published: November 2022

This introduces the reader to central themes of Wiskemann’s biography: her early associations with Bloomsbury circles, her aspirations for an academic career at Cambridge, her encounter with Nazism in Berlin, and its transformative effect on her life. It also situates her within a cohort of women who pursued careers in international affairs after graduating from university in the 1920s and 1930s. With few opportunities open in universities and the Foreign Service closed to women, they looked to journalism, broadcasting, and the agencies of the League of Nations. Their careers have common characteristics. They began as liberal internationalists, they were active in the anti-fascist and anti-Appeasement campaigns of the 1930s, and their trajectories were profoundly shaped by Chatham House and their Second World War service, especially in the propaganda, information, and intelligence agencies. Like Wiskemann, many spent most of their careers outside academia or on its margins. Wiskemann left no formal archive of papers and she presents challenges for a biographer; inevitably, there are gaps, silences, but her career as journalist, secret agent, and scholar illuminates larger historical issues as well as more individual themes such as her struggle to earn a living, define herself, and protect her independence.
Becoming a Journalist
Authors: Field Geoffrey
Published: November 2022

This chapter examines Wiskemann’s early life and her years as an undergraduate and doctoral student at Newnham College, Cambridge, where her social circle was the younger generation of Bloomsbury intellectuals, including Julian Bell, William Empson, and Julian Trevelyan. Her hopes for an academic career were thwarted by the downgrading of her doctoral thesis (the result, she believed, of her supervisor’s gender prejudice) and a scandal that resulted in Empson’s dismissal from Cambridge. She began traveling to Berlin, became part of a stellar group of foreign correspondents, and reinvented herself as a journalist. Reporting on the Weimar Republic’s final years and the rise of Nazism for the New Statesman and Nation and other periodicals and newspapers, she rapidly gained a national reputation. The chapter examines German politics 1930–35 and the milieu of foreign journalists in Central Europe, and suggests that she is a likely model for Christopher Isherwood’s hard-driving reporter Helen Pratt in Mr. Norris Changes Trains (1935).
Czechoslovakia and the Nazi ‘Drang nach Osten’
Authors: Field Geoffrey
Published: November 2022

By 1935 Wiskemann’s journalism focused increasingly on the danger Hitler posed to neighboring states and the Versailles order. Her position in Germany became increasingly precarious and in July 1936 she was arrested and expelled from the Reich. She then focused increasingly on Eastern Europe and was recruited by Chatham House to write Czechs and Germans (1938) about the growing crisis in the Sudetenland that resulted in the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia at the Munich Conference. A big success and still regarded as a classic, her book led to a lecture tour in Canada and the United States. She lectured and lobbied in an effort to publicize the nature of Nazi aims in Europe and, like Elizabeth Monroe, Shiela Grant Duff, Violet Bonham Carter, and other women, became a vehement opponent of Neville Chamberlain’s Appeasement policy. A second book, Undeclared War, examining Nazism’s political and economic destabilization policies in Eastern Europe, appeared just before the outbreak of war.
Secret Agent in Wartime Switzerland
Authors: Field Geoffrey
Published: November 2022

Wiskemann spent the war years in Switzerland, ostensibly as an Assistant Press Attaché in the Bern Embassy, but in reality, working for British intelligence. She was tasked with gathering a wide range of non-military intelligence about Germany, Italy, and Axis-occupied Europe. Essentially working alone, she became a highly effective secret agent with a wide range of informants, running agents into enemy territory, and keeping London supplied with straight intelligence and information used for ‘white’ and ‘black’ propaganda. Having extensive trading connections across Europe and as a haven for refugees, Switzerland was an important espionage hub, especially after the defeat of France in the summer of 1940. The chapter examines Wiskemann’s connections to the exile community in Switzerland, the diverse information sources she cultivated, her day-to-day life as a spy, and the personal difficulties and rivalries she encountered within the British legation—some prompted by chauvinism towards an independent woman but also a reflection of internecine struggles between different British covert agencies.
“Dear Mr. Dulles”
Authors: Field Geoffrey
Published: November 2022

Allen Dulles arrived in Bern in November 1942 to become OSS station chief. He quickly established contact with British intelligence officers, including Wiskemann, whom he had met in New York in 1938. Facing difficulties with her British colleagues, Wiskemann soon developed a close and mutually beneficial working relationship with Dulles. OSS records and British Foreign office files are used to shed light on their partnership and the political differences between them. The chapter also examines Wiskemann’s close ties to the Italian exile community, especially after September 1943 when Hitler’s forces occupied much of Italy. The German resistance, including Adam von Trott zu Solz, contacted Wiskemann and Dulles, although she was more doubtful it could mount an effective coup against Hitler, Finally, the chapter discusses the arrival of the Vrba–Wetzler report in Switzerland, Wiskemann’s sending information about Auschwitz to London, and efforts in Switzerland to publicize and halt the deportation of Hungarian Jews.
Introduction
Authors: Loumagne Ulishney Megan
Published: November 2022

The introductory chapter provides a sense of the context and need for this work, as well as providing an overview of how the argument proceeds. It clarifies the methodological principles undergirding the project, particularly in terms of how the work presents the relationship between anthropology and Christology, theology and the natural sciences, and science and feminism. Understandings of original sin are ultimately derivative of Christological doctrines and are entangled with other Christian doctrines regarding soteriology and ecclesiology. The doctrine of original sin has been a place of heightened tension between evolutionary biology and theology since the publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species, and it is a complex process to develop this doctrine because of its nature as making both scientific (in some articulations) and theological claims. Finally, the relationship between science and feminism has been fraught at times because of the ways in which science has been a tool used to subjugate women and people of colour. This introduction clarifies the guiding principles shaping this work regarding these issues to lay the foundation for the development of the argument.
Augustine on Original Sin and Sexual Difference
Authors: Loumagne Ulishney Megan
Published: November 2022

Chapter 2 begins with an analysis of the relevant features of Augustine’s life that illuminate the context in which he elaborated his thinking about original sin and sexual difference. This is followed by an exposition of the set of interrelated doctrines that comprise Augustine’s teachings on original sin in the context of the broader range of his thought. Augustine has significantly shaped Christian thinking about sexual difference as well, so this chapter explores these aspects of his work, including the way in which the category of ‘woman’ serves as a key intersection for symbolic associations of scientia, concupiscentia, sexuality, sin, and salvation in his thought. While critiquing aspects of Augustine’s legacy in shaping Christian thinking about sex and sin, this chapter seeks a partial retrieval of Augustine, particularly his focus on the role of desire in human life and sin, his interest in the biological effects and propagation of sin, and his reliance on the motif of ‘unity’.
New Feminist Materialism and a Theology of Sex and Sin after #MeToo
Authors: Loumagne Ulishney Megan
Published: November 2022

Chapter 6 draws from the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis, John Paul II’s Theology of the Body, and New Feminist Materialism to articulate a renewed understanding of original sin and sexual difference that is informed by biology, gender theory, and theology. It begins by providing an overview of key themes expressed in New Feminist Materialism, followed by analyses of the contributions of two New Feminist Materialists who are particularly relevant for this project. After discussing New Feminist Materialism, the chapter integrates the insights of the New Feminist Materialists with insights from the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis and John Paul II’s Theology of the Body to construct a framework for a theology of original sin and sexual difference. This articulation of original sin avoids reducing the doctrine to biological imperfection, or conversely, abstracting it into the spiritual realm in a way that neglects attention to the material impacts of sin. It demonstrates that the effects of sin and its propagation involve every aspect of being human, all the way down to the biological. This view of the symbiosis of nature and culture that forms us as human beings allows for an understanding of original sin that sees humans as both victims and perpetrators of sin, and further, it embeds an understanding of human sinfulness in the context of the rest of the natural world, acknowledging the interdependence of creation. This chapter also addresses the possibility of embracing process theology, but ultimately argues that process theology does not provide an adequate metaphysical grounding for materialism.
Intervention and State Sovereignty in Central Europe, 1500-1780
Authors: Milton Patrick
Published: November 2022

Interventions in other states on behalf of their subject populations is often portrayed as a novel phenomenon in state practice, one which breaches the old principle of sovereignty. But is this practice really so new? This book argues that such interventions for the protection of other rulers’ subjects occurred frequently as far back as the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. It is the first detailed study of interventions in the early modern period and focusses on central Europe, in particular the Holy Roman Empire. It therefore challenges the common view that in the period after the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the legal scope for and occurrence of intervention were reduced. The book sheds new light on the geopolitical and legal interconnections between the old German Reich and Europe, while also providing comparative insights. It investigates the norms inherent in central European interventions and thereby contributes to a better understanding of the political and legal culture of the Empire, while also assessing the relative importance of geopolitical considerations in such undertakings.
Legal Foundations
Authors: Milton Patrick
Published: November 2022

Intervention for the defence of other rulers’ subjects occurred both within the Holy Roman Empire—often in the form of enforcement mechanisms of its judicial system according to which every subject could sue their prince at a higher court—and it occurred ‘internationally’ across sovereign state borders. As today, there was a divide among legal thinkers between those arguing for the legality of interventions in some cases (Bodin, Gentili, Grotius), and those largely denying it (Hobbes, Vattel, Suarez). A discourse against tyrannical, arbitrary rule and a perceived responsibility to protect one’s own—and to a lesser extent, other rulers’—subjects persisted throughout the early modern period, and was by no means a new development in the nineteenth century, let alone the twentieth or twenty-first century.
Intervention in Small Principalities
Authors: Milton Patrick
Published: November 2022

This chapter provides the first detailed case-study of the series of military interventions in the principality of Nassau-Siegen in the early eighteenth century which resulted in the ruling prince being deposed from power, in part for the protection of his subjects. The conflict played out on several levels of the complex hierarchy of the Holy Roman Empire, including local and trans-regional networks of patronage and clientele and the Imperial district (Kreis) at the lower and intermediary levels, and the Emperor at the Imperial judiciary and the party of Protestant princes represented at the Reichstag at the higher level. It was an inner-dynastic conflict of sorts, between the different branches of the princely house of Nassau, and a marital dispute also played a part. It was related to a succession conflict over the Orange inheritance of William III. It was also a ruler-subjects conflict over excessive taxation and violent, arbitrary rule between the prince and his subjects. It was simultaneously a confessional conflict between the local Catholic authorities and the Protestant subjects of Catholic Nassau-Siegen along with their external supporters. Additionally, there was a three-way rivalry over competencies of intervention and capacities of enforced external administration, between the Kreis, the Emperor and the Imperial judiciary, and the Protestant princes of the Reichstag.
Intervention in Medium-Sized Principalities
Authors: Milton Patrick
Published: November 2022

This chapter provides a detailed case-study of the Hanoverian-led military intervention in the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin on behalf of the local nobility which was being oppressed by the tyrannical duke in alliance with Russian tsar Peter the Great. This gave the case a greater degree of diplomatic and geopolitical salience than the other cases investigated so far. This was largely due to the broader context of the Great Northern War, the related alliance between the duke of Mecklenburg and Russia, the fact that the elector of Hanover as the chief intervener was simultaneously King George I of Great Britain, and the rivalry of Hanover and Brandenburg-Prussia in northern Germany. The Emperor’s political stance towards developments in the north also affected Vienna’s approach to the crisis and added a further set of relationships which influenced the case. The analysis will try to discern the normative basis of the motivations, aims, perceptions, and reactions of the involved and uninvolved parties in the case.
The Idea of the Book and the Creation of Literature
Authors: Orgel Stephen
Published: November 2022

This book is about the intersection of literary history with the history of the book. Books have been, for several millennia, the material embodiment of knowledge and culture, an essential embodiment for any kind of knowledge involving texts. Texts, however, do not need to be books—they are not even necessarily written. The oldest poems were composed to be recited, and only written down centuries later. Much of the most famous poetry of the English Renaissance was composed to circulate in manuscript among a small social circle. Plays began as scripts for performance. What happens to a play when it becomes a book, to a collection of poems circulated among friends when it becomes a volume of sonnets? How do essays, plays, poems, stories, become Works? How is an author imagined?
Introduction
Authors: Orgel Stephen
Published: November 2022

Books have been, for several millennia, the material embodiment of knowledge and culture, an essential embodiment for any kind of knowledge involving texts. Texts, however, do not need to be books—they are not even necessarily written. The oldest poems were composed to be recited, and only written down centuries later. When texts become books they are material objects, manufactured at a particular time and, however subsequently mediated by interpretation, embedded within that time. Literary interpretation, unless it disregards history entirely (which it often does), is at least partly a form of archeology.