bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Oil Absorption of Pigments
Authors: Sward GG
Published: March 2009

A common preliminary test applied to a pigment is mixing it into a paste with linseed oil. The test gives a rough idea of color and texture and, if done quantitatively, tells how much oil is needed to make a stiff paste. According to some authorities the oil absorption (OA) test predicts consistency of ready-mixed paint. Mills [1] writes “When equal volumes of paste (oil absorption paste) are thinned with equal volumes of thinners, the resulting paints have equal consistencies.” Stieg [2] shows that OA by the rubout method, expressed on a volume basis, is proportional to critical pigment volume, judged by uniformity of flat alkyd paints made with varying percentages of pigment, or determined by the Asbeck-Van Loo method.
Drying Time
Authors: Sward GG
Published: March 2009

Probably no test on coatings has given as much trouble as drying time, unless it is hardness. One reason is the subjective nature of the tests. Another is the unawareness of the influence of environment and of the mechanical details of instrumental aids.
Fire Retardance and Heat Resistance
Authors: Van Heuckeroth AW
Published: March 2009

The primary function of fire-retardant coatings is to reduce the flammability of substrates to which they are applied. To do this, the coating itself must be nonflammable. It is also desirable that the coating insulate to some degree against the heat generated by the fire, thereby extending the time required for the substrate to reach the ignition temperature, or the time for the heat to pass through a noncombustible substrate to combustible matter on the other side.
Artificial Weathering
Authors: Garlock NB , Sward GG
Published: March 2009

Artificial weathering is the exposure of materials to laboratory controlled conditions of light, heat, and moisture. The purpose is to accelerate deterioration by radiation that is more intense than the natural radiation of the sun, and also by applying this radiation over periods longer than those normally received from the sun, especially during winter. Hence, during its early use and to some extent, currently, the term “accelerated” is often applied. However, ince the procedure is actually artificial or simulated, it should be referred to as such. Intensified testing, such as ozonation and photochemical embrittlement, also treated in this chapter, are not artificial weathering because the weather factor is not present.
Atmospheric Pollutants
Authors: Scofield F
Published: March 2009

The contribution of the paint industry to air pollution has been a matter of some concern for many years. Objectionable odors and, occasionally, emissions at a toxic level from the evaporation of solvents and from the high-temperature processing of oils and resins have infrequently given rise to complaints. These “nuisance” typesof pollution are a continuing problem but, in general, can be dealt with by dilution and dispersion of the objectionable materials to bring the concentration below a level that can be detected by the neighboring citizenry. Fortunately, most of the materials used by the paint industry are not toxic at concentrations significantly below the range at which they can be detected by the human nose, and sophisticated analytical procedures are rarely needed to deal with these “nuisance” problems.
Tests on Varnishes
Authors: Montague LG
Published: March 2009

Tests described in this chapter apply to oleoresinous and catalytic-cured varnishes, such as exterior, interior, floor, and rubbing varnishes; to nonoxidizing types, formerly known as spirit varnishes, such as cellulosic, vinylic, and acrylic lacquers; shellac; and floor sealer. Most of the tests are listed in ASTM Methods of Testing D 154, Varnishes, and D 333 Clear Lacquers and Lacquer Enamels. Many appear in both documents.
Paint for Marine Environment
Authors: Lohr RF , Barry H
Published: March 2009

Paints exposed to a marine environment are subjected to some of the most severe conditions imposed upon coatings. Relatively thin films of paint are required to protect ships, buildings, piers, as well as numerous other structures from corrosion and fouling. In general, paints used in this environment are functional as compared with paints used for aesthetic purposes. Therefore, test procedures, for the most part, are conducted over a long period of time to achieve reasonably accurate results.
Sampling, Separations, and Identification of Binder and Solvent
Authors: McGinness JD
Published: March 2009

Analysis of coatings can begin only after representative samples of suitable size are available in the laboratory. When an original container cannot be sent to the laboratory, someone must obtain a sample or samples for the laboratory. The sampler must either be generally well-trained in sampling procedures and be familiar with the special properties of various paints and precautions in handling paints or be given explicit instructions and equipment by the laboratory each time he is sent for a sample.
Microscopy
Authors: Lind WK
Published: March 2009

Microscopy of coatings is carried out by the use of light or electron microscopes. Each type has its advantages and Hmitations, and their field of applications overlaps in many cases. Because of the physical properties of electromagnetic radiation, a microscope using visible light can not show clear details of particles smaller than about 0.2 μm diameter. For particles smaller than this, the electron microscope must be used. Ultraviolet light can extend the range of a conventional microscope if it is equipped with quartz optics, but this is not used much since the development of electron microscopy.
Polarography
Authors: Berger HW
Published: March 2009

Polarography is an instrumental method of qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis. It is based on the interpretation and evaluation of current-voltage curves called polarograms. These curves are obtained during the electroreduction or electrooxidation of an electroactive substance at a dropping mercury or other microelectrode.
Sources of Specifications
Authors: Sward GG , Weaver JC
Published: March 2009

Some railroads, utility companies, oil refineries, and the like, buy a portion of their maintenance paints according to specifications. Makers of automobiles, furniture, household appliances, farm machinery, and other merchandise, occasionally use specifications for the finishes that they apply to their products. But the most important users of paint specifications are tax-supported institutions. The best known specifications are those of the Federal agencies. Specifications of individual states and municipalities are not so well known, but, more often than not, their technical requirements agree with those of the Federal agencies.
Introduction
Authors: Bartnikas R , Eichhorn RM
Published: March 2009

The present volume in this monograph series on Engineering Dielectrics is devoted to the subject of dielectric solids. The editors have decided to bifurcate Volume II into two parts, A and B, thereby taking into account the wide range of material encompassed by the subject. Herein, we present the contents of Volume IIA, which deals with the molecular structure and electrical behavior of solid insulating materials and systems. Volume IIB, which, hopefully, will appear within a year of the present volume, will treat the subject matter of measurement techniques that are used to evaluate and characterize insulating solids.
Dielectric Loss in Solids
Authors: Bartnikas R
Published: March 2009

Efficient utilization of electrical insulating materials in electrical apparatus, devices, and cables requires knowledge of the dielectric loss behavior of materials under specific voltage, frequency, and temperature conditions. The appearance of significant dielectric losses may not only represent an unnecessary energy loss but could possibly lead to failure due to thermal instability. Also at higher frequencies, losses will give rise to attenuation and, hence, a loss in transmitted signal information. Because of the large number of available insulating materials, it is not practically feasible in a chapter of acceptable size to present a greatly detailed description of the loss mechanisms in every important insulating material or system. It is much more helpful as well as expedient in an introductory chapter to discuss and compare the loss processes in different generic materials such as polymers, glasses, and ceramics. This will help to delineate the differences in the loss processes as a function of the material type and molecular structure and thus provide the insulation engineer and scientist with a general idea of how molecular structure and associated impurity content influence the dielectric behavior of certain groups of materials. In addition, the treatment of fundamental concepts in dielectric theory will serve as a useful preamble for the reader to the specialized topics to be dealt with in subsequent chapters of this volume.
Composition and Structure of Dielectric Solids
Authors: Tanaka J , Wolter K
Published: March 2009

The basis for understanding the nature of any material is understanding the atomic-molecular picture of that material. For any substance, the chemical and physical properties can only be appreciated when the arrangement of the atoms, the nature of the chemical bonds, and the relative size and shape of the arrays are understood. The reactivity of a compound can only be explained on the basis of structure. Thus thermal aging may becaused by oxidation, hydrolysis, cross-linking, or some other chemical process. These phenomena are ultimately understood when a chemical reaction with the standard chemical structural representations is written for the process. Physical properties such as dielectric constant, dielectric strength, tensile strength, and compressive strength are correlated with structure at the atomic level.
A Study of Thermal Ratchetting Using Closed-Loop, Servo-Controlled Test Machines
Authors: Stentz RH
Published: March 2009

A new testing technique has been devised for studying thermal ratchetting behavior. It employs low-cycle fatigue-type specimens (hourglass shape) in conjunction with two closed-loop, servo-controlled testing machines operating in unison to provide an exact simulation of the familiar three-bar assembly.

Diametral extensometers are employed in conjunction with an analog strain computer to provide instantaneous values for the total axial strain and to isolate the mechanical and thermal strain components. Stress-strain measurements are recorded continuously throughout each cycle to provide an extensive evaluation of the response to initial load level, maximum and minimum cycle temperatures, hold-time effects, different specimen diameters, and rate of temperature cycling. Demonstration tests are described which employ 304 and 316 stainless steel specimens subjected to an initial stress level of 10 000 psi and a temperature cycle from 1100 to 800 F.
The Effect of Load Interaction and Sequence on the Fatigue Behavior of Notched Coupons
Authors: Potter JM
Published: March 2009

Constant amplitude fatigue tests with various conditions of overloads were conducted to understand the effects of load interaction and sequence in notched coupons. The results were analyzed with particular emphasis on the local residual stresses at notches. Fatigue life results from the tests having a variation in the number of cycles between the periodic overloads which reinforce the concept of a fading residual stress. Other fatigue life trends could be predicted by assuming a stable residual stress. Conditions which could cause cycle-dependent overload residual stresses are discussed. An exponential analysis form is suggested for calculating the cycle-dependent local stresses for application to cumulative damage predictions.
Cyclic Inelastic Deformation and the Fatigue Notch Factor
Authors: Leis BN , Gowda CVB , Topper TH
Published: March 2009

Cyclic inelastic deformation response and the fatigue notch factor are presented and discussed for two metals of contrasting stress-strain behavior (2024-T351 aluminum alloy and SAE 1015 mild steel). Thin circular or elliptical notch plates fabricated from these metals were subjected to cyclic straining in a servo-controlled testing machine.

Experimental results obtained from the deformation studies indicate that for small scale confined plasticity, the transient notch response had little effect on nominal deformation resistance. However, as the size of the zone increased or the degree of confinement decreased, transient notch response was reflected in the overall deformation response. These results are discussed in terms of cyclic stress and strain concentration factors and related to notch plate deformation through Neuber's rule. In the low endurance region, the results indicate that the deformation analysis employed, rather than a material “size effect,” is responsible for values of Kf less than Kt.
On The Physical Justification of the Term “State of Fatigue of Materials Under Cyclic Loading”
Authors: Burbach J
Published: March 2009

In the quest for a physical justification of the term “state of fatigue of materials subjected to cyclic loading,” the present paper first investigates the question what conclusions must be drawn, if states of fatigue (Ω) exist that can be characterized by a single number (0 ≤Ω ≤ 1). It was found that, if such states of fatigue do in fact exist, they can be determined experimentally, and the mathematical relationships of cumulative damage with regard to irregular loading are then fixed and can be stated: no additional model assumption, for example, the arbitrary assumption of an analytical function for Ω, will then be necessary and would be wrong.

If it is not possible for states of fatigue to be characterized by a single number, not even for a limited selection of types of loading, then it is likewise impossible to give any simple or closely accurate mathematical relationship for the actual cumulative damage. Nevertheless, it is possible in such cases to make safe life estimates, but it is only by experiment that the degree of certainty of such estimates can be determined in any particular case.
The Role of Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior on Fatigue Damage Under Varying Load
Authors: Koibuchi K , Kotani S
Published: March 2009

The stress-strain response for a complex varying load was analysed on the basis of a cyclic stress-strain curve obtained by incremental step stress tests. A new cumulative fatigue damage law was proposed, considering the fact that the cyclic stress-strain curve for complex varying load differs from that for constant amplitude cyclic load. Assuming that local stress-strain behavior at a stress concentration or a crack tip is similar to that of the bulk material, the law was extended to the case of notched specimen, and the extension was verified by experiment.
Engineering Analysis of the Inelastic Stress Response of a Structural Metal Under Variable Cyclic Strains
Authors: Jhansale HR , Topper TH
Published: March 2009

Inelastic stress response under strain cycling conditions is analyzed in terms of the three important governing phenomena, namely, memory of prior history, cyclic hardening or softening, and cyclic mean stress relaxation. Independent formulations to describe these respective features consist of a set of hysteresis rules, a set of transient stress-strain relations, and an empirical exponential model. A new approach to accurately describe the hysteresis loop shape characteristics is also presented. while strain amplitude and number of cycles are used as the primary variables influencing cyclic hardening, softening, and relaxation, the effect of other variables on these features and hence their mutual interactions are observed to be small. Therefore, as a first approximation it is postulated that independent formulations based on constant amplitude test data are applicable to spectrum loading situations. Computer based models resulting from this analysis are suitable for predicting the cyclic stress-strain and fatigue response of ductile structural metals and also provide a basis for developing general flexural response models.
Fracture Toughness Testing and its Applications
Authors: ASTM Committee E-24
Published: March 2009

Description

The development of various new high-strength alloys and the broadening range of their applications, particularly in aerospace and in cryogenics, has brought about increased emphasis on the study of fracture characteristics. As a result, the technology of testing for fracture toughness and crack propagation has grown rapidly in recent years. So, too, has understanding of how to apply this testing technology to design problems such as selection of materials, heat treatment, welding procedures, structural shape and size, and effects of environment.
Composition and Rheology of Roofing Asphalt
Authors: Brown AB , Sparks JW
Published: March 2009

A survey of twenty two roofing-grade asphalts of wide commercial distribution in the United States and Canada and derived from a number of different domestic and foreign crude oils shows that they differ widely in sulfur content, less widely in oxygen content, but are quite similar in type composition, in susceptibilities, and in softening point, penetration, and ductility.

One of these asphalts, considered as representative, was studied with respect to its deformation response in time to low and unidirectionally applied stresses, similar to those encountered in service under forces of gravity and of thermal expansion and contraction. This asphalt behaved as a linear viscoelastic material. Its response pattern could be analyzed in terms of pure Hookean elasticity and pure Newtonian viscosity with interactions in the form of Kelvin and Maxwell compound elements. It was characterized by a high degree of damped or Kelvin elasticity, operative over a wide range of retardation or relaxation times, and a minimum of instantaneous (Hookean) elasticity and of nonrecoverable viscous (Newtonian) flow. Such rheological measures are the basic units of mechanical behavior. It is hoped that eventually they may provide solutions, in fundamental engineering terms, to problems of strength and failure in asphaltic structures.
Some Qualitative Effects of Composition and Processing on Weatherability of Coating-Grade Asphalts
Authors: Mertens EW , Greenfeld SH
Published: March 2009

The weathering characteristics of coating-grade asphalts cannot be associated with the crude-oil source of the asphalt alone because fluxing stocks, catalysts, fillers, and added materials can affect the weatherability markedly. The results are not general, however, but vary with different asphalts.

A fluxing oil added to the base residuum doubled the weatherability of one asphalt but reduced the life of another asphalt to less than half of the unfluxed asphalt. Similarly, a catalyst doubled the durability of one asphalt system but reduced that of another by one third.

Asphalts responded differently to the addition of polymers. Of the three asphalts tested, the weatherability of one was unaffected, another was improved, and the third was made poorer. The response to the addition of limestone dust stabilizer varied among the several asphalts. The improvement in weatherability ranged from only 20 per cent to as high as 140 per cent. The weatherability of products produced from crude oils obtained from different areas of the same field can also vary. Such differences were observed for asphalts derived from different areas in three different fields. The difference was as large as 100 per cent in one field.
Manufacture and Application of Asphalt Roofing
Authors: Haack LC
Published: March 2009

Asphalt is first mentioned as being used about 3800 B.C. as a waterproofing and preserving medium. The asphaltic materials of early times were natural occurring materials. The asphalt used today is produced almost entirely by the refining of petroleum.
Industrial Pitches
Authors: Pittman CU , Donegan JW
Published: March 2009

Industrial pitches comprise those coal-tar pitches that are used in the manufacture of other products, principally as saturants, plasticizers, or binders. They are produced by distillation from high-temperature coke-oven tars selected and blended to give the properties required in the finished product. To insure uniform performance under any of the widely diversified conditions of use, industrial pitches are rigidly specified and controlled.

The manufacture of the principal products in which industrial pitches are used are briefly described. In addition, the requirements for the pitches used in these products are given. Empirical tests that can vary in their procedure and thus produce variable results are now used to determine the commonly specified properties. A uniform code of nomenclature and evaluation procedures is needed to permit industry-wide standardization in specification writing.
Coal-Tar Flat-Roof Pitch
Authors: Fair WF , Chamberlain MD
Published: March 2009

Raw materials and production methods for coal-tar flat-roof pitch and specifications for fiat-roof bituminous materials are discussed. The importance of satisfactory long-term service as a basis for specifications of basic types is emphasized. Properties of bitumens determined by long-term basic fundamental studies which govern the success or failure of roofing binders are described. Particular reference is made to the chemical, water absorption, rheological, and adhesion properties; the resistance to light, water, and oxidation; and the results of accelerated and atmospheric exposure. Investigations of the properties of currently available bituminous materials for flat-roof construction are described and data presented. The authors recommend coal-tar pitch for dead level and low slope roofs and non-Newtonian asphalts for higher slope built-up roofing structures.
X-Ray Energy Spectrometry in the 0.1 to 10 Å Range
Authors: Fitzgerald R , Gantzel P
Published: March 2009

Energy spectrometry utilizing a solid-state detector (silicon) for X-ray elemental analysis is described, and compared with wavelength spectrometry.

Parameters which influence the spectrometers energy resolution, energy detection range, and countrate capabilities are reviewed. Measured performance of a spectrometer (200 eV FWHM resolution for 6.404 keV radiation) is demonstrated for both X-ray and electron specimen excitation.
Energy Dispersion X-Ray Analysis with Electron and Isotope Excitation
Authors: Sandborg AO
Published: March 2009

The components of the energy dispersion X-ray analysis system are discussed, and the electronic noise of peak broadening due to each is identified. Data on count rates and sensitivity are listed for various elements to enable the prospective user to determine whether the technique is applicable to his specimens. Specific comparison is made between the use of electron beams, radioactive isotopes, and X-ray tubes to excite the characteristic X-ray lines of interest. The ability to distinguish small peaks when Bremsstrahlung (white radiation) is present due to the use of direct electron excitation, or when scattering of incident X-rays or gamma rays occurs is discussed.
Energy Dispersion X-ray Analysis with the Transmission Electron Microscope
Authors: Bender SL , Duff RH
Published: March 2009

The addition of X-ray emission analysis capabilities to a conventional transmission electron microscope offers a new analytical dimension to the microscopist.

The availability of Si(Li) solid-state X-ray detectors with energy resolutions superior to any previous type of X-ray detector provides the microscopist with an efficient system for elemental analysis that does not interfere with normal microscope operation.

A commercially available Si(Li) detector has been installed on a transmission electron microscope capable of forming a 1.6-µm-diameter spot at the specimen plane with the following characteristics of operation (a) X-radiation from the specimen, the specimen holder, the mounting grid, and the objective aperture (if in place) are the only signals detected; (b) no degradation of detector resolution by the magnetic fields of the microscope lenses or the proximity of the incident electron beam to the detector (a few millimeters) is observed; and (c) X-ray signals from particles 1000 Å in diameter are detectable with peak-to-background ratios of about two.
Role of the Gas Flow Proportional Counter in Energy Dispersive Analysis
Authors: Sutfin LV , Ogilvie RE
Published: March 2009

A comparison of the gas flow proportional counter and the Si(Li) solid-state detector is made. Currently the flow proportional counter provides a means of extending the range of energy dispersive analysis to the region below 1 keV. It also can be used where the rigid environmental requirements of solid-state detectors cannot be met. The inherent statistical fluctuations of the ionization processes involved determine the ultimate resolution of gas counters, and this is inferior to that of the Si(Li) detector. Since energy analysis in the low energy region is more difficult than in the region above 1 keV, the solid-state detector appears to be worth developing for operation over the entire energy range.
Light Element Analysis Using the Semiconductor X-ray Energy Spectrometer with Electron Excitation
Authors: Russ JC
Published: March 2009

Limitations on light element analysis include the low fluorescent yield of low atomic number elements and the interference of closely spaced K-lines and the L- and M-lines of heavier elements. The paper discusses the relative contributions of electronic noise and statistical line width for low-energy X-rays and the effect of detector window thickness, along with the possibility of reducing or eliminating the window. Optimum accelerating voltages for light elements are calculated, and the importance of takeoff angle is stressed. Examples are given of the minimum detectable limits obtainable at the present state of the art; the possibilities for development in the near future are discussed.
Rapid Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis with a Nondiffractive Detector System
Authors: Myklebust RL , Heinrich KFJ
Published: March 2009

Nondiffractive detector systems on electron probe microanalyzers have decreased the time required for a qualitative analysis from 30 or 40 min to 1 or 2 min. The nondiffractive technique may be extended to the quantitative determination of an element by comparing either the peak height or the area beneath the peak of the signal from the specimen with that from the pure chemical element or a standard of known composition run under identical conditions. Results are given for quantitative analyses of several materials with a lithium-drifted silicon detector, used for X-ray lines above 1 keV, and a gas flow proportional detector, for X-ray lines from 0.16 to 1.5 keV. Quantitative analyses can be accomplished only when the experimental conditions are carefully selected and maintained throughout the measurement. They are then sufficiently precise to warrant the use of a “matrix” correction procedure to obtain concentrations. An analog curve analyzer is useful for resolving overlapping peaks and for integrating the areas beneath the peaks.
Design and Application of X-ray Emission Analyzers Using Radioisotope X-ray or Gamma Ray Sources
Authors: Rhodes JR
Published: March 2009

This paper reviews the present state of development and application of X-ray emission spectrometry using radioisotope X-ray and gamma ray sources for excitation, and energy discrimination and dispersion techniques for spectrum analysis.

The design and use of instrumentation is characterized by the choice of one of the two main methods of energy selection now employed. The balanced filter method is simple but restricted to sequential determinations of single elements and so finds its main use in small, hand-portable, battery-operated analyzers for field, laboratory, or industrial use. Energy dispersion with high resolution silicon or germanium detectors permits simultaneous collection of the whole excited spectrum and so promises rapid multielement analysis. Available equipment is more suited to laboratory conditions.

Relevant components of radioisotope X-ray spectrometers are described. Emphasis is placed on source-specimen-detector configurations, sources, source-target assemblies, absorption edge filters, and relevant properties of detectors. Equations for estimating the feasibility of a given analysis are derived, and interferences due to absorption, enhancement, and heterogeneity effects are discussed.

A major portion of the paper is devoted to a review of published applications and covers elemental analysis from aluminum to uranium, and measurement of coating thickness. References are made where appropriate to available portable, industrial, and laboratory instruments.
Progress Report on the ZACA-Wigmore Experimental Asphalt Test Project
Authors: Hveem FN , Zube E , Skog J
Published: March 2009

During 1954 the California Division of Highways (CDH) introduced improved specifications for paving grade asphalts. As part of a program to determine performance under field conditions ten different asphalts were placed on a major construction project consisting of entirely new construction and an overlay over an old portland cement concrete pavement. The test sections were constructed under nearly identical procedures and have been subjected to common climatic and traffic conditions.

All of the asphalts were of the 200 to 300 penetration grade and represented different crude sources and methods of production as found in California with one exception. The exception is a mid-continent crude source asphalt produced in a refinery in Arkansas.

Of the nine California asphalts two complied with the 1954 Standard Specifications but not with the new Special Provision Specifications and seven complied with both the old and new proposed specifications, which since that date have been used by CDH for the purchase of paving grade asphalts.

Most of the asphalts were placed in 2500-ft test sections on both the new and blanket pavements. Complete field studies were carried on during construction and Abson recovery tests were made on the paving mixtures. Observation and test results confirm the fact that asphalts manufactured by different methods and from different crude sources, although placed under virtually identical conditions, exhibit varying degrees of hardening during the mixing process.

A description of tests performed on field cores during the past three years of service life is provided. These results indicate quite marked differences in the weathering rates of the various asphalts when compared under equivalent construction, traffic and climatic conditions.

Field performance evaluations of the test sections to date are provided together with a short description and analysis of the failure of three test sections.
Correlation of the Microfilm Durability Test with Field Hardening Observed in the Zaca-Wigmore Experimental Project
Authors: Simpson WC , Griffin RL , Miles TK
Published: March 2009

Examination of the asphalts used in the Zaca-Wigmore project by means of the microfilm durability test gave ratings of the relative durability to be expected of the asphalts when all are used under the same conditions. The actual order of occurrence of failures in the test road to date is in agreement with the predictions of this relatively simple and rapid laboratory test.

Viscosity measurements show that hardening during the asphalt-aggregate mixing operation was about twice as great during period 1 of this construction as during period 2 and this difference in hardening in the mix plant is still evident after several years in the road.

Progressive hardening of the asphalts in the road over a period of several years was found to parallel that found in the microfilm durability test in a few hours. In the first test road (period 1) construction, where pavement deflections are about 0.015 to 0.025 in. under a 15,000-lb axle load, failures developed when the asphalt viscosity at 77 F entered the range 107 to 108 poises. In the other test road (period 2) construction where deflections are about 0.010 in. under the same load, the first distress was noted in an asphalt which reached a viscosity at 77 F of about 108 poises.

Recovery of asphalt from slices of pavement cores showed that hardening of the asphalt is greatest at the top and decreases with increasing depth in the pavement. Pavements with high air void content were found to harden more rapidly than those with low air voids.

Hardening by loss of volatile matter is an important fraction of the total hardening observed in these asphalts. It is shown that this can be controlled by proper selection of crude oil or by application of distillation and blending techniques so as to keep the 10 per cent distilled point of the asphalt at or above 400 C (converted to atmospheric pressure).
Influence of Chemical Composition of Asphalts on Performance, Particularly Durability
Authors: Rostler FS , White RM
Published: March 2009

It is generally recognized that failures of asphalt pavements caused by embrittlement and other changes in physical properties during the aging process are due to chemical reactions of all or some of the asphalt components. This paper attempts to correlate chemical composition of asphalts with their performance as a binder and to demonstrate that changes in chemical composition parallel changes in performance.

The chemical analysis used in this investigation is the precipitation method by Rostler and Sternberg (1)2 which defines asphalts as consisting of five groups of components which can be isolated and tested as to performance, individually and as blends. The analytical method used is contrasted with four other methods proposed for chemical identification of asphalts. The laboratory tests used in studying performance are (1) abrasion resistance of Ottawa sand-asphalt mixtures before weathering and during various stages of weathering, and (2) cohesion of Ottawa sand-asphalt mixtures. Some conventional data such as used for specification purposes are also shown.

The data reported indicate (1) that chemical composition of asphalts is better defined by a precipitation method than by analytical procedures based on solution and adsorption equilibria, and (2) that physical, including rheological, properties of asphalts and changes of these properties during weathering can be correlated with changes in chemical composition. Laboratory prepared asphalts, commercially available asphalts, and asphalts extracted from cores from roads of known history were used in these tests.
Twenty-Year Atmospheric Corrosion Investigation of Metallic-Coated and Uncoated Wire and Wire Products
Authors: Reinhart FM
Published: March 2009

The scope of Committee A-5 on Corrosion of Iron and Steel is given as “The collection of engineering information relating to the serviceability of both bare and metallic-coated iron and steel products when subject to corrosion and the formulation of methods of tests and specifications, and work on related subjects.” Subcommittee XV of Committee A-5 is responsible for the atmospheric corrosion of wire and wire products, both bare and with metallic coatings.
Chemical Analytical Results—How Accurate?
Authors: Penkrot J , Byrne FP
Published: March 2009

Twenty-two heats of low alloy steel were made to definite chemical compositions in order to study the effects of certain elements on temper embrittlement. It was necessary to confirm the composition of these heats by chemical or spectrochemical analysis by at least two different laboratories. This paper describes the chemical analytical procedures used for the analysis, the problems encountered in obtaining accurate and consistent results, and the solutions found for these problems.
Effect of Solute Elements on Temper Embrittlement of Low Alloy Steels
Authors: Marcus HL , Hackett LH , Palmberg PW
Published: March 2009

Extensive studies on alloy steels have correlated temper embrittlement with the presence of electronegative elements such as Sb, P, Sn, and As. This paper studies the relationship of impurity grain boundary segregation to several of the steps involved in the embrittling process through Auger electron spectroscopic analysis of the fracture surfaces of several steels that are distinguished by a ductile-brittle transition.
Alloy Effects in Temper Embrittlement
Authors: Schulz BJ , McMahon CJ
Published: March 2009

Ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures obtained from notched bar bend tests were used in conjunction with fracture surface analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study various aspects of temper embrittlement in a series of 3.5Ni-1.7Cr-0.4C base steels. Addition of Mo was found to eliminate embrittlement due to step cooling for Sb, Sn, As, and Mn, but not for P. Mn as well as Si, Bi, Se, Ge, and Te are shown to be embrittling elements. The phenomenon of intergranular dimpled rupture was common in these steels. Steels exhibit intergranular embrittlement after quenching from austenite, to an extent determined by the quenching rate.
An Analysis of Piston Coring through Corehead Camera Photography
Authors: McCoy FW
Published: March 2009

Cameras were mounted within the corehead of a piston sampler to photograph coring operations at 35 stations in the North Atlantic ocean. Through the analysis of these photographs, the operation of the corer during descent, tripping, impact with the bottom, and ascent has been studied, providing information on its effectiveness in obtaining a representative sample of submarine soil and its influence on the surrounding sea floor. Direct determinations of the amount of penetration were possible, allowing comparisons to be made with the indirect methods of determining penetration and with the length of core recovered. These comparisons indicated that the piston cores were shortened and disturbed, often with as much as a meter of surface material missing. No consistent relationship was found between the length of core recovered and the amount of penetration. Dips of layers within the core evidently had been produced by the coring processs. Problems in piston immobilization are discussed relative to these results and a number of recommendations made for decreasing core disturbances.
Obtaining Strength Profiles with Depth for Marine Soil Deposits Using Disturbed Samples
Authors: Sangrey DA
Published: March 2009

Three methods are presented for predicting the undrained shear strength of marine soils using parameters obtained from tests on disturbed samples. The predictions are developed from (a) a rational approach using critical state soil mechanics, (b) an empirical relationship with plasticity index, and (c) an association with the liquidity index. A series of case studies are reviewed leading to the conclusion that the rational critical state approach leads to a conservative estimate of peak strength for all cases except the underconsolidated soil; the empirical method provides a reasonable prediction of peak strength for normally consolidated soils; and the use of liquidity index provides a close estimate of remolded strength.
Construction beyond the Continental Shelf
Authors: Brown PP
Published: March 2009

The deeper parts of the ocean have been referred to as exotic in the sense that they are strange and unknown. Perhaps a more definitive word is hostile, because what is dealt with is in many ways an adverse environment. For the civil engineer or the construction engineer or, more specifically, the soils engineer, it is an area in which many of his conventional and familiar (and comfortable) tools and techniques are denied.
Control of Underwater Earthwork at Hugh Keenleyside (Arrow) Dam
Authors: Bazett DJ , Foxall RG
Published: March 2009

The Hugh Keenleyside Dam was constructed to a large extent by placing earthwork below the water surface using barge dumping and other underwater techniques Construction of the underwater earthwork was controlled largely by divers' observations and various sampling methods carried out from the water surface. Equipment and methods tended to be more successful when rugged and simple. Rapid survey control was essential. Large scale field tests were a major means of relating construction and design.
Incorporating Fatigue Test Results into Pavement Design Processes
Authors: Barenberg EJ
Published: March 2009

The paper evaluates some of the methods for incorporating results from fatigue tests on asphalt materials into a pavement design process. Some of the proposed design procedures are summarized and the significant strengths and weaknesses are discussed. Although this presentation is not an exhaustive treatise on the subject, an attempt is made to evaluate most of the design procedures in the literature. The design approaches discussed range from a conceptual approach suggested by Moavenzadeh [2] to the applied techniques suggested by Kasianchuk, Monismith, and Garrison [3]. The equivalent wheel load concept, in which the equivalency is based on a fatigue mode of distress, as presented by Deacon [4] and Witczak [5] for aircraft loadings, are also summarized and discussed. The limiting deflection and the “fail-safe” approaches, are discussed for historical reasons. For this discussion fatigue failure is taken to mean failure in a structural sense as opposed to a functional failure.
Influence of Dimensions of the Center-cracked Tension Specimen on Kc
Authors: Freed CN , Sullivan AM , Stoop J
Published: March 2009

The fracture resistance of three high strength aluminum alloys, two titanium, and one steel alloy has been investigated with a center-cracked tension specimen. Specimen geometric dimensions such as width, thickness, and crack length, together with yield strength were studied to ascertain their influence on the Kc parameter. The specimen thicknesses ranged from 1/16 to 1/18 in., width from 3 to 12 in., and crack length from 0.5 to 7 in.

The Kc parameter has been found to be unaffected by specimen width and crack length provided the width dimension is sufficient and the crack length/width ratio is within the range of 0.15 to 0.5. The fracture resistance is dependent upon sheet thickness and inversely proportional to yield strength.
Relationship Between Charpy V and Fracture Mechanics KIc Assessments of A533-B Class 2 Pressure Vessel Steel
Authors: Hawthorne JR , Mager TR
Published: March 2009

A cooperative program between the Naval Research Laboratory and the Westinghouse Nuclear Energy Systems Division was established to explore possible relationships between postirradiation Charpy-V and fracture mechanics (KIc) data. Initial efforts centered on a 6 ⅜-in. AS33 grade B Class 2 steel plate for which the preirradiation condition had been well characterized by Charpy-V (Cv), tension, dynamic tear, and fracture mechanics tests. Low (<250 F, 121 C) temperature-high fluence exposure conditions were utilized to obtain large Cv, tensile and plane strain fracture toughness (KIc) property changes over the preirradiation condition.

The simultaneous exposure of Cv and 1-in.-thick compact tension (CT) specimens produced comparable increases in Cv 30 ft ∙ lb transition temperature and KIc 65,000 psi √in. temperature. The Cv shelf energy was reduced from 74 to 46 ft ∙ lb. The postirradiation 75 F (24 C) yield strength was 127.3 ksi compared to a preirradiation value of 74.2 ksi; however, postirradiation yield strength decreased markedly with increasing temperature.

The test capacity of the 1-in. CT specimen was found insufficient for ASTM valid KIc determinations at the Cv shelf level temperature for pre- or postirradiation conditions. The estimate of postirradiation KIc at Cv shelf temperatures would require a CT specimen thickness of at least 5 in. The data suggest that, if power reactor surveillance programs restrict test specimen size to a maximum of 1-in. thickness, and if the measuring capacity of CT specimens is the function of thickness described by ASTM, an empirical or correlation-projection approach would be required to utilize fracture mechanics specimens in such programs.
The Matrix Effect in Excitation
Authors: Hurwitz JK
Published: March 2009

The matrix effect in emission spectrometry has been treated in the literature as several separate problems. These problems are here considered in two general classifications: (1) prior to excitation, the matrix effect resulting from differences in composition and history between standards and samples, and (2) during excitation, the matrix effect resulting from changes in composition caused by preferential vaporization from the sample.

In the first classification, different working curves are frequently obtained for the analysis of a given element in a broad group of materials. These differences in matrix produce two effects: (1) changes in volatilization, and (2) changes in excitation temperature. These effects may be eliminated by using standards that are similar to the samples to be analyzed, by fusing or mixing every sample, regardless of matrix, with a buffer to produce a common matrix, and by proper choice of source conditions.

In the second classification, the composition may change by preferential evaporation of volatile elements and compounds when the sample is heated by the discharge. Hence, the composition of the vapors available in the discharge column changes with time. If the sample is a powder, several methods have been used to control the evaporation process, namely, the Stallwood air-jet method, Danielsson's tape machine, and the method of Rusanov and Khitrov of introducing the sample into the discharge by a stream of air.
Effects of Gaseous Atmospheres on Excitation
Authors: Andermann G , Kemp JW
Published: March 2009

It is not always realized that the gaseous atmospheres surrounding a discharge used for spectrochemical analysis may be the principal constituent of that analysis. The usual gaseous atmosphere is air at atmospheric pressure, but several variations are possible. The air may be replaced by either monatomic or molecular gases. The pressure may be varied and the flow pattern around the discharge may be changed. Often the flow is simply left to convection. It is also possible to blow the gaseous atmosphere at, or around, the gap in some manner.
Some Properties of New or Modified Excitation Sources
Authors: Margoshes M
Published: March 2009

The error in spectrographic analysis is often larger than can be tolerated in the determination of the major constituents of a sample. Some causes of error in spectroscopic sources are considered, and possible methods for improvement of the precision of spectrographic analysis are discussed. Flames are among the most precise sources, but many substances affect the emission of light by elements in the flame. High-temperature flames may reduce the effect of some of these interferences in addition to providing better sensitivity, but adequate data on their properties are not yet available. Errors in arc and spark sources arise from instability of the discharge and variable sampling. Some newer types of arcs provide stable, high-temperature conditions and controlled atmospheres. To adapt these discharges for use as high-precision spectroscopic sources, it will be necessary to devise methods for the controlled introduction of samples. This has been attempted so far only with the plasma jet.
Radioactive Ring Wear Testing in Railroad Diesel Locomotives
Authors: Jursch CF , Pinotti PL , Jones DR
Published: March 2009

The Southern Pacific Co. in cooperation with the Standard Oil Co. of California initiated a program in August, 1957, to study the factors that influence wear in diesel locomotives. Because a large number of variables were involved in the study, the irradiated ring test technique was chosen.4 It is the purpose of this paper to describe the test procedure used on locomotives, to discuss the radiation hazards involved, and to present a statistical study of test precision.