bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Inquisition Brotherhood: Cofradía de San Pedro Martir of Colonial Mexico
Authors: Greenleaf Richard E.
Published: July 2006

As part of its religious, social and political mission, personnel of Mexico's Holy Office of the Inquisition were organized into a brotherhood, the Cofradía de San Pedro Martir, patron saint of the Inquisition. Although the Inquisition had functioned in New Spain from 1522, the brotherhood was not formally established until 1656. San Pedro Martir differed in many respects from other urban and rural confraternities in the viceroyalty. An outgrowth of Cruce-signati in the medieval inquisition, the Cofradía founded by Pope Innocent IV in 1252 after the murder of Inquisitor Peter Martir of Verona, came to Spain in the late fifteenth century. In the Iberian peninsula “Colegios de Familiares” formed and later developed into Cofradías whose membership was drawn from the Familiatura, a body of non-salaried Inquisition police known as Familiares.
Broken Traditions: Mexican Revolutionaries and Protestant Allegiances
Authors: Baldwin Deborah
Published: July 2006

Scholarly, as well as popular, literature focused on the interaction of the Catholic Church and the Mexican Revolution of 1910 has frequently advanced the contention that the Revolution had “Protestant overtones.” The vagueness of the accusation and its ambiguous implications have thus far eluded clarification. Some of these accusations, particularly those made in the 1920's when memories of the Cristero Revolt were fresh, represent the opinions of the Revolution's detractors and thus their comments have often been dismissed as mudslinging. However, writers of the 1960's in more dispassionate terms have also alluded to this theme. Jean Meyer, for example, includes as a part of his explanation of Cristero dissatisfaction the incompatible juxtaposition of the traditional Roman Catholic Cristero and the Protestant attitude adopted by the revolutionaries. Few investigations have explored the extent or role of non-Catholic religious institutions in Mexico during the revolutionary era. Despite these accusations, systematic research on Protestants has been overshadowed by investigations of Catholics to such an extent that the accuracy and seriousness of accusations of “Protestant overtones” cannot be evaluated.
Carranza and The Decision to Revolt, 1913: A Problem in Historical Interpretation
Authors: Gilderhus Mark T.
Published: July 2006

Venustiano Carranza occupied a place of conspicuous importance in Mexican history. He achieved ascendancy in the crusade against Victoriano Huerta in 1913 and maintained it against all challengers until the spring of 1920. During this time he also resisted efforts by the United States to influence the course of events and undertook to reconstruct Mexico after years of devastation and turmoil. Yet in spite of his prominence, surprisingly few scholars have attempted a sustained or systematic examination of his role in the Mexican Revolution. No altogether satisfactory biography exists. He has appeared as a principal protagonist in several studies of factional disputes and diplomatic controversies during the Constitutionalist period, but often such accounts have projected an opaque, contradictory image of him. He has seemed either larger than life or lifeless and has been portrayed alternatively as a selfness champion of progressive reform or as a self-serving traditionalist who stood against the forces of meaningful change.
Mexico's Rurales: Reputation Versus Reality
Authors: Vanderwood Paul J.
Published: July 2006

ON show throughout the world, Mexico's rural police force, the famous Rurales, nearly always got top billing and an enthusiastic press. For example, after reviewing a contingent of Rurales at the World Exposition of 1901 in Buffalo, New York, an American newspaper reporter wrote that the Rurales were “somewhat similar to the old Texas Rangers, but even tougher than the Rangers. Bred from infancy among the hills and valleys of old Mexico and accustomed not only to the saddle but the most meager rations, well does the robber know that with these troops in pursuit, his game is up. It's due to the Rurales that interior Mexico is so free of crime. Rurales are all over Mexico.”
Spanish Envoy to the United States (1796-1809): Marques de Casa Irujo and His Philadelphia Wife Sally Mckean
Authors: Beerman Eric
Published: July 2006

Carlos Martínez de Irujo y Tacón was first secretary of the Spanish Embassy in London, when he received a promotion and transfer as minister plenipotentiary of the Spanish legation in Philadelphia, replacing the chargé d'affaires, José Jáudenes y Nebot, who returned to Spain for a new assignment. Carlos Martínez de Irujo arrived in Philadelphia in the summer of 1796 and assumed his duties. Soon after arrival, the diplomat met, and apparently was captivated by, Sally McKean, the vivacious sixteen-year old daughter of Pennsylvania's chief justice and one of the state's most respected citizens—Thomas McKean. Two years later the couple married at St. Augustine Parochial Church in Philadelphia. Sally McKean, being from an influential American family, along with her own charm, grace, intelligence and beauty, contributed greatly to the success of her husband's mission in the United States. In 1802, as a result of his diplomatic services in Philadelphia, Martínez de Irujo received the Spanish aristocratic title of Marquis of Casa Irujo, with his Philadelphia-born wife becoming the first Marquise of Casa Irujo. He served as Spanish minister in Philadelphia and Washington, D.C., until 1808, when he was reassigned to Spain, accompanied by his wife and their six year old son. This Spanish diplomat culminated a brilliant professional career when he was named Secretary of State in 1819.
Venezuelan “Libranzas”, 1788-1807: From Economic Nostrum to Fiscal Imperative
Authors: Barbier Jacques A.
Published: July 2006

It is generally accepted that the Bourbon Reforms were designed to reestablish Peninsular vigor through colonial renewal. What is often unappreciated is that this pristinely simple goal obscures an underlying tangle. The essential thrust was to recolonize the Indies, and to this end economic life was reordered so as to accentuate the New World's role as supplier of precious and exotic products and as consumer of Spanish manufactures. Equally important, however, was the fiscal dimension. The crown wished to generate enough revenues to be able to bear the increasing burden of colonial defense, but beyond this it also wanted the overseas dominions to aid the mother country in defraying European expenses judged essential to a great power.
Xenophobia and Economic Decline: The Haitian Case, 1820-1843
Authors: Lacerte Robert K.
Published: July 2006

The international situation in which the early Haitian republic found itself between 1820 and 1843 aggravated its internal problems and precipitated its economic decline. The economic structure of the new country had been weakened by the destruction of the colonial sugar plantations during the war of liberation against France (1791-1804). It proved impossible to resurrect these in the republican era, because of the lack of capital and the unwillingness of the ex-slaves to return to plantation life. They wanted property of their own, and this insistence forced successive governments to distribute land to them. Only Henri Christophe, who ruled the North as a kingdom (1806-1820), succeeded in maintaining the old system through forced labor; an experiment which died with him. Dramatic as these changes were, however, they were not sufficient to prevent the resurgence of a new economy based on coffee; a crop which was well suited to peasant cultivation. The shift towards coffee exports had begun in the last years of the colonial era and accelerated in the years after 1804. An economy of smallholders engaged in the cultivation of coffee and provisions existing alongside the remaining plantations could have provided a modest foundation for economic growth. Alexandre Pétion, the first president of Haiti (1806-1818), had envisioned this possibility and it was one of the reasons which he gave for carrying out the first land reform in Latin America. Haiti was a major exporter of coffee in the first half of the nineteenth century, and there were a number of foreign merchants already present in the country to purchase the crop. Instead of economic prosperity, the years after 1820 witnessed an economic decline which made the first black nation virtually ungovernable after 1843 save by the rule of caudillos.
The Impact of Federalism on Mexican Church-State Relations, 1824-1835: The Case of the State of Mexico
Authors: Macune Charles W.
Published: July 2006

A number of first-rate scholarly studies in recent years have considerably enhanced our understanding of the troubled, sometimes tumultuous, relationship between the state and the Mexican Church in the century stretching from the reign of Charles III (1759-1788) to the era of Benito Juárez (1855-1876). Nancy Farriss, for example, has detailed the Bourbon drive to exert royal authority over the conduct and activities of the powerful and influential clergy and the latter's claim to exemption from that authority. Farriss, Karl Schmitt, and James Breedlove have demonstrated the connection between the state ecclesiastical reforms and the clergy's decisive role in the Mexican independence movement culminating in 1821. Ann Staples has ably ventured an overview of Church-state relations in the crucial but long-neglected early independence period of the first federal republic, 1824-1835. Michael Costeloe, Asunción Lavrin, Jan Bazant, Brian Hamnet, and Robert Knowlton have examined some of the Church's key economic activities and the impact of state reforms upon each. State policy toward the Church in the northern Mexican borderlands has received the attention of C. Alan Hutchinson, Manuel P. Servín, David J. Weber, John L. Kessell, Lawrence and Lucia Kinnaird, and others. Together with earlier works, these studies have documented a drama which began with the absolutistinspired reforms by the Crown, which regarded ecclesiastical privilege and power as incompatible with its own interests, and ended violently with the political and economic power of the Church and its clergy severely reduced and subordinated to the secular state.
Price Regulation in Hispanic California
Authors: Archibald Robert R.
Published: July 2006

In the eighteenth century the Spanish Crown regarded the setting of maximum prices as a legitimate function. Price fixing was intended to guarantee a just price to producers and consumers. Underlying the entire scheme was a desire by the monarchy to insure the adequacy of the fixed incomes of government employees. Hispanic California provides a case study of price fixing. Fixed prices in California were of two varieties. Prices were limited on those goods coming from San Bias with a view to keeping the cost of living within the limits of military salaries in Alta California. In the late 1770’s, mission agriculture began to produce surpluses. For a number of years the only significant outlet for this excess was the military establishment. Because it removed the burden of providing staples from the Naval Department of San Bias, the Crown willingly turned to the missions as a source of supply. The missions gradually assumed the monopoly of provisioning the military, which had belonged to San Bias. In order to ensure that military salaries would suffice to keep body and soul together and to protect them from price gouging the government determined that price regulation was essential.
The Indigenista Novel and the Mexican Revolution
Authors: Schmidt Donald L.
Published: July 2006

Of all the issues raised by the Mexican Revolution, none has stimulated artistic creativity more than that of the Indian, his past, his culture and his exclusion from the mainstream of national life. At the same time, no artistic form provides so thorough a treatment of these issues as the indigenista novel.

While the Revolution was not launched by Indians, nor were their interests initially central to it, as it developed their problems became a natural and important issue in the reorganization of Mexican society. As one writer observes: “in attempting to organize Mexican society, the mestizo revolutionary has had no other choice but to take into consideration the indigenous factor, so that although the Revolution was not the work of the Indian, in certain ways it has been for his benefit.”2
Education in New Granada: Lorenzo María Lleras and the Colegio del Espíritu Santo, 1846–1853
Authors: Davis Robert H.
Published: July 2006

Educational facilities in nineteenth-century New Granada were woefully inadequate. School systems were unable to accommodate more than a small percentage of the population, and the existing curricula were largely speculative or theoretical rather than empirical or pragmatic in nature. These deficiencies were openly recognized by many contemporary observers. Nevertheless, it appears that political animosities, conflicting educational philosophies, and financial difficulties hampered any attempt to improve the situation, as the experience of Doctor Lorenzo María Lleras and the Colegio del Espíritu Santo clearly illustrates.
Bibliographical Essay: The Coleccion SepSetentas
Authors: Velázquez María Del Carmen
Published: July 2006

The Coleccion SepSetentas which was published by the Departamento de Divulgación de la Secretaría de Educación Pública during the recent presidential term of Lic. Luis Echeverria (1970-1976), contains many volumes of interest to historians. However, it should be noted that of the 315 volumes, which form this Colección, some are readily identifiable as historical while there are some which were not written by historians or not written explicitly to narrate past events. In great measure this style of writing corresponds to the modern tendency (as Alejandra Moreno Toscano asserts vol. 143) to supplement historical research with the findings of anthropologists, sociologists, economists, geographers and urbanists. On the other hand, some authors in SepSetentas state that they will study human groups or anthropological problems, systems and structures, but since they use the historical method, their volumes are useful also to the historian.
Bernardo Ibáñez de Echavarri and the Image of the Jesuit Missions of Paraguay
Authors: Bacigalupo Mario Ford
Published: July 2006

The expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and her possessions represents a historical question mark, in so far as the decisive factors which led to that event are still far from being clear. Ludwig von Pastor's dictum that the whole affair was a most secretive one remains the one conclusion beyond doubt. Historians have presented various hypotheses on the causes for expulsion, but none of them are conclusive or definitive. Among the more probable and plausible of these hypotheses, that of the regalist policies of the Spanish Crown appears to be the most convincing. In effect, regalism as an antithetical force to the organization and activities of the order has been implied by nineteenth and twentieth-century Spanish historians, although they tended to view the “Cloaks and Hats” riot of 1766 as the essential cause of the Jesuits' expulsion.
From a Prison in Brazil—1774
Authors: Chyet Stanley F.
Published: July 2006

Edmund Burke was much troubled in 1775 by the deteriorating relations between Great Britain and her North American dependencies. Even so grave a crisis, however, did not prevent him from noting and extolling “the manner in which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale fishery.” New England whalers were sailing to places as remote as the South Atlantic Falkland Islands “in the progress of their victorious industry.”
The Socialist Press in Turn-of-the-Century Argentina
Authors: Walter Richard J.
Published: July 2006

Socialism, as expressed by political parties professing that ideology, has had only minimal impact on Argentina's twentieth-century political history. On the other hand socialist ideas, broadly defined, have had considerable influence, although often in an indirect manner. In the political realm, for example, popular presidents Hipólito Yrigoyen (1916-1922; 1928-1930) and Juan Perón (1946-1955; 1973-1974) sought to pre-empt and co-opt socialism's appeal to the working class by proposing and implementing socialist-inspired reforms wrapped in nationalist rhetoric. Conversely, after the fall of Perón in 1955 various military governments have based their intervention into national politics largely on the need to stem the flow of Marxist ideas, to prevent the growth of socialist organizations—especially those which would repeat the Cuban revolutionary experience on Argentine soil—and to protect the principles of free enterprise capitalism.
The Entrepreneurial Reorganization of an Artisan Trade: The Bakers of Buenos Aires, 1770-1820
Authors: Johnson Lyman L.
Published: July 2006

Although there have been numerous important contributions to the social history of colonial Spanish America published in recent years, these studies have generally ignored the artisan and semi-skilled working classes that were, numerically, the largest urban components of these societies. This article will examine one colonial artisan group, the bakers of Buenos Aires, during a period when the city and its hinterland experienced significant economic and political change, 1770-1820. At the beginning of the period, Buenos Aires was little more than a large village with a population of approximately 20,000 and an economy dominated by contraband trade. As part of a major reform of Spanish strategic and economic policy, Buenos Aires was selected in 1776 as the political capital of a new viceroyalty that included the vast region bordered by the Andes, the Atlantic and Brazil. The city's new political importance with a viceregal court, enlarged military garrisons and augmented bureaucracy stimulated both urban and regional economies and attracted large numbers of immigrants from the interior and from Europe. It is increasingly clear that these alterations in the city's economic life and social structure contributed to the political crisis that culminated in the independence period. Although this study will concentrate on a single occupational group, it is hoped that this effort to measure the responses of the bakers to the altered opportunities and challenges of the late colonial and early independence periods will also provide some new insights into the economic and political history of the region during this crucial period.
Genesis of Mexican-United States Diplomacy: A Critical Analysis of the Alaman-Poinsett Confrontation, 1825
Authors: Lamar Curt
Published: July 2006

On September 27, 1821, Mexico achieved its de facto independence from Spain when Agustín de Iturbide led his 16,000-man “Trigarante” Army into Ciudad México, thus culminating the revolution inaugurated by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Castillo in 1810. In December 1822, the United States gave official diplomatic recognition to Mexico, followed shortly thereafter by Great Britain in 1823. Despite such action on the part of the United States government, however, no official minister was dispatched to Mexico until May 1825. Based upon the circumstances of this delay and upon conditions in Mexico, when a United States minister did arrive in Ciudad México to meet with Mexican officials, the stage was set for a significant confrontation which would determine the tenor of Mexican-United States relations until the twentieth century. This was the confrontation between Joel R. Poinsett and Lucas Alamán.
Professional Artisans in the Hispanic Southwest: The Churches of San Antonio, Texas
Authors: Schuetz Mardith
Published: July 2006

The rediscovery of classical civilization and the rapid spread of Humanism through the writings of Erasmus, ushered in the Renaissance. The reawakening turned people outward from the involuted, mystically oriented outlook of the Medieval era. It was a time of rapid change, the period of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The new philosophic outlook was manifested in the arts, and the Gutenberg press and copperplate engraving disseminated new ideas along with classicism. The discovery and publication in 1511 of the Roman builder, Vitruvius, was the catalyst to the renewed interest in Greco-Roman forms. These classical forms, however, were for the most part, an external expression of classic Roman “orders” (Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite) imposed upon structural innovations formulated in the Gothic period. Since highly skilled craftsmen such as Cellini, Ghiberti, Donatello and Brunelleschi worked as painters and sculptors as well as architects, buildings tended to be treated as surfaces and backdrops for embellishment.
Sweet Success: Some Notes on the Founding of a Brazilian Sugar Dynasty, The Pais Barreto Family of Pernambuco
Authors: Petersen Dwight E.
Published: July 2006

Although the Albuquerque Coelhos, lords-proprietor of late sixteenth and early seventeenth-century Pernambuco, have been carefully studied, there has been relatively little archival research on other principal families in that captaincy during this period. This paper presents an account of the Pais Barreto family, especially of the father, João Pais, and to a lesser extent, his son, João Pais Barreto, who were respective heads of the family from its founding in Pernambuco until about 1657. Because the Pais Barretos were not closely tied to the family of the lords-proprietor and at the same time were, by most reports, the richest senhores de engenhos in Brazil, their concerns and activities may be taken as archetypical of the affairs and aspirations of a rising colonial planter elite.
The Images of Simón Bolívar as Reflected in Ten Leading British Periodicals, 1816-1830
Authors: Jones Calvin P.
Published: July 2006

Simón Bolívar has sometimes been called “The George Washington of South America.” Certainly his achievements are so well known as to deserve the apt appelation “El Libertador” by which he is known by many of the neighbors of the United States of America south of the border.

One of the most important propaganda influences in Bolívar's success was the achievement of a good press in nations sympathetic to his cause. He was quite reticent to see the United States in a dominant role in the future regarding the areas he was trying to free from Spanish rule. Because he believed that Britain was “ruler of the world” during this period of world history, he was particularly interested that favorable images of him should appear in the British press.
Foreign Investment in Mexico, 1876-1910: A Case Study of the Role of Regional Elites
Authors: Wasserman Mark
Published: July 2006

FOREIGN investment, mostly from the United States, fueled the rapid growth of the Mexican economy under the regime of Porfirio Díaz. By 1910, foreigners had invested well over a billion dollars in Mexico's railroads, mines, and a variety of other undertakings. At the core of the expansion and development of foreign investment was the connection between foreign entrepreneurs and the native elite. This association, worked out over three decades, greatly affected the economic, political, and social development of the nation.

The relationship between native elite and foreign entrepreneurs was based on three sets of factors. First, the native elite controlled both the government which in Mexico, on all levels, played an important role in the success or failure of any enterprise and, through their ownership of much of the nation's land and mines, the rich natural resources which foreign enterpreneurs sought to develop. Second, the native elite was willing to permit foreigners to develop the nation's resources, to participate in a wide range of economic activities, and to dominate certain sectors of the economy, such as mining. The native elite allowed this, because on one hand, one group within the elite, the cientificos, was ideologically committed to the modernization of the country and saw foreign investment as the quickest and most efficient method to modernize and, on the other hand, the traditional groups within the elite saw foreign investment as a means to increase their own incomes (through bribes, commissions, and the sale of their property) and to preserve their traditional privileges. The only conceivable alternative to the development of the nation's economy through foreign investment would have been through the expansion of direct government participation in the economy, but this would have required (apart from an implausible ideological reorientation towards the discredited conservatism of an earlier era or the exotic doctrines of European socialism) a considerable redistribution of the nation's wealth (through taxation and other means of “forced” savings) to the disadvantage of the elite. The development of Mexico's economy through foreign investment did not disturb the political status quo. Third and finally, foreign entrepreneurs had both the capital and technological know-how to develop the nation's resources, neither of which was present in Mexico.
Enrique Dupuy De Lôme and the Spanish American War
Authors: Barrón Carlos García
Published: July 2006

WE know little in the United States about the man who, as Spain's Ambassador in 1898, dared to call President McKinley “a low politician catering to the rabble.” The purpose of this article is to shed light on Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, his views, and his hitherto unstudied role as Spain's envoy during the critical period leading up to the Spanish-American War.

The first striking characteristic about our subject is his very name, being French instead of Spanish. The genealogy of the Dupuy de Lôme family originated in France in the sixteenth century. There is record of a Jean Dupuy fighting against the Turks in one of the Crusades. The Spanish branch had, up to the nineteenth century, used only the Dupuy part of the surname. Then, as evidence of his great admiration of his French uncle, the designer of France's first cruiser, Dupuy chose to reestablish the full French surname by adding the de Lôme.
The Role of the Press in the Chilean Rebellion of 1851
Authors: Thomas Jack Ray
Published: July 2006

IN the 1840s Chile witnessed the ascendancy of a group of young liberal intellectuals and politicians who were determined to alter their nation politically, economically and socially. They wanted first to curb the conservative-dominated government that had directed the country from 1830 on, and, additionally, they hoped to create the kind of liberal democracy which they believed the wars for independence had promised but conservative governments had refused to implement. They also hoped to strengthen the economy by changing landholding patterns and increasing the wages of both rural and urban workers. Finally, they wanted to eliminate the most glaring social evils of their day, thereby making a better life available for all Chileans.
Huerta and Adachi: An Interpretation of Japanese-Mexican Relations, 1913-1914
Authors: Lyon Jessie Sanders
Published: July 2006

On May 9, 1913 the California State Legislature passed an alien land bill designed to prohibit Japanese ownership of land in California. Based on prejudice and clearly discriminatory, the California Alien Land Act embarrassed Washington and provoked a controversy with Japan. Relations with that country rapidly approached the point of tension verging on war because Japan viewed the act as an affront to her national dignity. Many notes passed between the two governments during the remainder of 1913 and the first half of 1914, however, Washington's efforts to conciliate the Japanese failed. From the California viewpoint the passage of the alien land bill was strictly a domestic issue but it caused a serious break in the friendly relations between Japan and America and just as important it had serious implications for American diplomatic relations with another country. That country was America's neighbor to the south, revolutionary Mexico.
The Genteel Tradition of Nineteenth Century Colombian Culture
Authors: Brown Jonathan C.
Published: July 2006

Economic progress of the late nineteenth century afforded the upper class of Colombian society the opportunities to pursue new business goals and to improve its standard of living. Exports of coffee, steam navigation on the Magdalena River, the fitful building of railways, growth of urban populations, and the heightened tempo of foreign and domestic commerce all converged to the economic and social benefit of Colombia's landed and educated elite. Economic progress supported not only new elite professions in commerce and engineering but also traditional pursuits in medicine, law, and notably literature. In fact, nineteenth century Colombia witnessed a proliferation of cultural affectation which, because it was so divorced from reality, may be described as “the genteel tradition.”
Draft Dodgers, War Resisters and Turbulent Gauchos: The War of the Triple Alliance Against Paraguay
Authors: Fornos Peñalba José Alfredo
Published: July 2006

The War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870), pitting Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay against Paraguay, continues to provoke debate over its causes and implications. No antique quarrel between battlefield historians, the historiography of the War revolves around the basic questions of nineteenth century economic colonialism, imperialism and dependency. My contribution to the continuance of the discussions is that the nature and outcome of the war were shaped significantly by the participation of the Triple Alliance's indispensible fourth ally, Great Britain—in some ways, the most implacable of all independent Paraguay's nineteenth century foes.
The Beginning of Industrialization in Northeast Mexico
Authors: Beato Guillermo , Sindico Domenico
Published: July 2006

In the Latin American context there are few regions which defy the commonly accepted idea of dependent development and the late start of the process of industrial growth following the great crisis of 1929. Among these few, Northeastern Mexico, with its industrial capital Monterrey, appears to offer the best example of a large industrial spurt occurring towards the end of the nineteenth century. During the two decades from 1890 to 1910 important industrial complexes, basically metallurgic and siderurgic factories, began to operate in this region, creating an impressive network of related activities and making possible considerable growth in the local demand for both consumption goods and semi-manufactured items. The statistics on industrial production reveal the importance of the process: during the years 1897,1898 and 1899 the metallurgic sector in Nuevo León produced goods worth 50,847,178 pesos. This represented 23.5% of total Mexican production, making it the most important state in the nation. By 1902, Nuevo León was also in first place as far as total industrial production was concerned, accounting for 13.5% of the national production.
The Plantations of St. Benedict: The Benedictine Sugar Mills of Colonial Brazil
Authors: Schwartz Stuart B.
Published: July 2006

With the exception of the Franciscans pledged to poverty, the major religious orders of colonial Brazil, Carmelites, Benedictines, and Jesuits, all maintained their religious activities and establishments by means of bequests, stipends, loans, urban and rural properties. Any analysis of the economic role of the Church in Brazil normally and justifiably begins with the activities of the Society of Jesus whose extensive properties spread throughout Portuguese America. Unquestionably, their operations were the most extensive of any corporate group or institution in the colony. The other orders, however, were often regionally important and were always an integral part of the economic life of the colony, sharing in the good times and bad along with their secular counterparts. The following article is an attempt to examine the operations of the Benedictine sugar engenhos in Brazil by analyzing previously usused records. These materials not only reveal a great deal about the management of ecclesiastical estates, but also provide one of the few opportunities to analyze the expenses and income of a series of plantations over time, thus allowing us to examine some of the general economic trends in the colony's export history.
Giving Peru a Voice: Federico Larrañaga and El Canal de Panamá
Authors: Guice C. Norman
Published: July 2006

Although he lacked express authority to do so Federico Larrañaga used official funds to create, and then sustain, a newspaper in Panamá. He was then the Peruvian Consul General and his journal, named El Canal de Panamá in honor of the then-current effort of De Lessups and his company to open a route across the Isthmus, first appeared in early 1881 and continued to be published under his management until April 1883. Originally designed to be a tri-weekly, published in three languages (Spanish, English, and French), it offered, first in a tri-weekly form and then later in weekly and daily versions, a vigorous rivalry to the long-established Panama Star and Herald, at that time basically an English-language daily with a Spanish section.
John Wyclif and the Rights of the Infidels: The Requerimiento Re-Examined
Authors: Muldoon James
Published: July 2006

The Requerimiento was one of the most striking legal documents of the entire age of European overseas expansion. A long line of publicists and scholars from Bartholomew de Las Casas to Lewis Hanke have discussed, praised and condemned it. The Requerimiento appears to illustrate more clearly than any other single document the combination of high-sounding motives, legal chicanery and brute force that made the Spanish conquest of the Americas possible. In recent years, there has been increasing emphasis upon examining the conquest in terms of the brute force involved and a decreasing emphasis upon the motives and the legalisms which the Spanish employed. As one scholar has said, the Requerimiento was but a “useless legalism,” and, presumably, no longer worthy of serious attention. In addition, scholars have generally agreed that the Requerimiento is thoroughly understood. Following Las Casas, they have asserted that it contained the legal opinion of the thirteenth century canon lawyer known as Hostiensis that infidels had no right to property or political jurisdiction. In medieval terms, that infidels, such as the inhabitants of the Americas, did not possess dominium. In recent years, scholars have asserted that those who defended the Indians against the conquerors, such as Las Casas himself and Francisco Vitoria, drew upon the opinion of Hostiensis' teacher, the canonist-Pope Innocent IV. In this way, the Requerimiento and the related debate about the rights of the Indians has been placed within its proper position within the late medieval canonistic tradition.
Tradition and Reform in Bourbon Chile: Ambrosio O'higgins and Public Finances
Authors: Barbier Jacques A.
Published: July 2006

Some contemporary historians maintain that the administrative reforms of Charles III (1759-1788), bear a substantial part of the blame for the disruption of the Spanish empire. These reforms, they argue, alienated the American population. By ending the corrupt practices that had allowed Creoles to control their own affairs, the crown sowed the seeds of independence. Implicit in this view is the thesis that Charles' Minister of the Indies, José de Gálvez (1776-1787), carried out a “revolution in government” which permanently altered the behavior of the high colonial bureaucracy. Presumably, whereas Hapsburg administrators had been chiefly occupied with the pragmatic achievement of tasks, regardless of the means employed, Bourbon administrators became increasingly concerned with the mindless enforcement of rules devised in the Peninsula. In this fashion the autonomy of the bureaucracy was eroded, and the colonial population was deprived of its traditional means of influencing policy formation.
An Argument from Authority in the Indies Debate
Authors: Izbicki Thomas M.
Published: July 2006

At his trial Socrates described himself as attached to Athens “as a gadfly to a horse.” In Sixteenth Century Spain the Order of Preachers played a similar role. Dominican friars freely criticized royal officials, conquistadors and fellow churchmen. At times their meddling in affairs of state drew down on them the wrath of the authorities. Charles V, though favorably disposed toward the Indians, more than once angrily rebuked their defenders, the friars, for letting zeal outrun prudence. One of the most effective of these critics was Francisco de Vitoria. Vitoria was renowned as the founder of the Salamanca Thomist school. Not content with the elaboration of scholastic doctrines, he carried them into the political forum, delivering public lectures on the problems of his time.
Porfirian Commercial Propaganda: Mexico in the World Industrial Expositions
Authors: Yeager Gene
Published: July 2006

Students of late nineteenth century history have long dismissed the world industrial expositions as glittering, but not highly significant reflections of the gilded age. What emerges from the literature of the period, however, is a sense of the overriding commercial importance of these exhibitions. Nineteenth-century observers consistently linked the fairs to the general growth of world trade and to the expanding commercial hegemony of the United States. More specifically, contemporaries agreed that the expositions served to develop trade and investment ties with Latin America. Among the Latin American countries represented in the expositions, Mexico was the most important and consistent participant.
Hydrodynamic‐analogy‐based model for efficiency of structured packing columns
Authors: Shilkin A. , Kenig E. Y. , Olujic Z.
Published: July 2006

A model based on the hydrodynamic analogy approach was developed for the prediction of temperature and composition profiles in structured packing distillation columns. Compared to the traditional models based on the film theory, the proposed model is more rigorous. It comprises Navier‐Stokes equations, convection‐diffusion and heat‐conduction equations to describe the transport phenomena under condition of two‐phase gas‐liquid flow in an entire separation column. As a result, modeling the column efficiency is accomplished without application of the mass‐transfer coefficients. For the model verification, total reflux distillation data for binary and multicomponent mixtures are used. Calculations with both the hydrodynamic‐analogy‐based, and the film model are performed for a wide range of operating conditions. The proposed model is shown to have a more stable performance than the traditional one. Therefore, it can be recommended for design, revamp and optimization of distillation columns equipped with corrugated sheet structured packings. © 2006 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2006
Modeling of tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 1A mutants associated with tumor necrosis factor receptor–associated periodic syndrome indicates misfolding consistent with abnormal function
Authors: Rebelo Susana L. , Bainbridge Susan E. , Amel‐Kashipaz Mohammad R. , Radford Paul M. , Powell Richard J. , Todd Ian , Tighe Patrick J.
Published: July 2006

Objective

To investigate the effect of mutations in the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 1A (TNFRSF1A) gene on the conformation and behavior of the TNFRSF1A protein. Mutations in TNFRSF1A cause the autosomal‐dominant, autoinflammatory TNFR‐associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS).

Methods

The expression of recombinant TNFRSF1A was compared in SK–HEp‐1 endothelial cells and HEK 293 epithelial cells stably transfected with full‐length R347A or Δsig constructs of wild‐type or TRAPS‐associated mutant TNFRSF1A. TNF binding was assessed in HEK 293 cell lines expressing R347A wild‐type or mutant TNFRSF1A. Homology modeling of the 3‐dimensional structure of the ectodomains of wild‐type and mutant TNFRSF1A was performed.

Results

TRAPS‐associated mutant and wild‐type TNFRSF1A behaved differently and had different localization properties within the cell, as a direct result of mutations in the ectodomains of TNFRSF1A. From a structural perspective, mutants with a predicted structure similar to that of the wild‐type protein (e.g., R92Q) behaved similarly to wild‐type TNFRSF1A, whereas forms of TNFRSF1A with mutations predicted to drastically destabilize the protein structure (e.g., cysteine mutations) showed defects in cell surface expression and TNF binding.

Conclusion

The results obtained from the in vitro experiments, in combination with the modeled structures, indicate that the phenotype and clinical differences between different TRAPS‐associated mutants of TNFRSF1A result from different conformations of the TNFRSF1A ectodomains.
Classification criteria for psoriatic arthritis: Development of new criteria from a large international study
Authors: Taylor William , Gladman Dafna , Helliwell Philip , Marchesoni Antonio , Mease Philip , Mielants Herman
Published: July 2006

Objective

To compare the accuracy of existing classification criteria for the diagnosis of psoriatic arthritis (PsA) and to construct new criteria from observed data.

Methods

Data were collected prospectively from consecutive clinic attendees with PsA and other inflammatory arthropathies. Subjects were classified by each of 7 criteria. Sensitivity and specificity were compared using conditional logistic regression analysis. Latent class analysis was used to calculate criteria accuracy in order to confirm the validity of clinical diagnosis as the gold standard definition of “case”‐ness. Classification and Regression Trees methodology and logistic regression were used to identify items for new criteria, which were then constructed using a receiver operating characteristic curve.

Results

Data were collected on 588 cases and 536 controls with rheumatoid arthritis (n = 384), ankylosing spondylitis (n = 72), undifferentiated arthritis (n = 38), connective tissue disorders (n = 14), and other diseases (n = 28). The specificity of each set of criteria was high. The sensitivity of the Vasey and Espinoza method (0.97) was similar to that of the method of McGonagle et al (0.98) and greater than that of the methods of Bennett (0.44), Moll and Wright (0.91), the European Spondylarthropathy Study Group (0.74), and Gladman et al (0.91). The CASPAR (ClASsification criteria for Psoriatic ARthritis) criteria consisted of established inflammatory articular disease with at least 3 points from the following features: current psoriasis (assigned a score of 2; all other features were assigned a score of 1), a history of psoriasis (unless current psoriasis was present), a family history of psoriasis (unless current psoriasis was present or there was a history of psoriasis), dactylitis, juxtaarticular new bone formation, rheumatoid factor negativity, and nail dystrophy. These criteria were more specific (0.987 versus 0.960) but less sensitive (0.914 versus 0.972) than those of Vasey and Espinoza.

Conclusion

The CASPAR criteria are simple and highly specific but less sensitive than the Vasey and Espinoza criteria.
Attenuation of collagen production with small interfering RNA of SPARC in cultured fibroblasts from the skin of patients with scleroderma
Authors: Zhou Xiaodong , Tan Filemon K. , Guo Xinjian , Arnett Frank C.
Published: July 2006

Objective

Recently, it was observed that SPARC (secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine) is overexpressed in the fibroblasts of skin biopsy specimens obtained from patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc; scleroderma), and that specific inhibition of SPARC expression in normal human fibroblasts attenuated the profibrotic effect of transforming growth factor β (TGFβ). The purpose of this study was to examine whether inhibition of SPARC with small interfering RNA (siRNA) can be used to ameliorate the overproduction of major extracellular matrix components in SSc fibroblasts.

Methods

Fibroblasts obtained from biopsy specimens of the unaffected skin of 3 patients with diffuse SSc and 3 age‐ and sex‐matched healthy controls were cultured and transfected with SPARC siRNA. Before and after transfection, real‐time quantitative reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction, immunostaining, and Western blotting were used to examine the transcription and/or protein levels of SPARC, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), type I collagen, type II collagen, TGFβ receptor 1 (TGFβR1), and Smad3. Student's paired t‐tests were used to determine the significance of the results.

Results

SSc fibroblasts showed overexpression of SPARC, COL1A2, COL3A1, and CTGF, which is consistent with an activated fibroblast phenotype. Upon inhibition of SPARC with siRNA, these activated SSc fibroblasts showed decreased gene expression of COL1A2, COL3A1, and CTGF (43%, 54%, and 58%, respectively). In addition, the overproduction of type I collagen protein in SSc fibroblasts was inhibited and was shown to parallel levels of SPARC expression. In contrast, the expression of TGFBR1 and Smad3 did not change significantly nor was the level of phosphorylation of Smad3 reduced upon SPARC siRNA silencing in unstimulated cultured SSc fibroblasts.

Conclusion

Overproduction of collagens in SSc skin fibroblasts can be attenuated through SPARC silencing. This inhibition may be associated either with direct interaction between SPARC and collagens or with inhibition of CTGF, which is a downstream effector of TGFβ signaling. However, SPARC silencing in SSc fibroblasts appears not to be associated with TGFBR1‐ and Smad3‐dependent processes. Application of SPARC silencing represents a potential therapeutic approach to SSc.
Adenosine A2A receptors in diffuse dermal fibrosis: Pathogenic role in human dermal fibroblasts and in a murine model of scleroderma
Authors: Chan E. S. L. , Fernandez P. , Merchant A. A. , Montesinos M. C. , Trzaska S. , Desai A. , Tung C. F. , Khoa D. N. , Pillinger M. H. , Reiss A. B. , Tomic‐Canic M. , Chen J. F. , Schwarzschild M. A. , Cronstein B. N.
Published: July 2006

Objective

Adenosine regulates inflammation and tissue repair, and adenosine A2A receptors promote wound healing by stimulating collagen matrix production. We therefore examined whether adenosine A2A receptors contribute to the pathogenesis of dermal fibrosis.

Methods

Collagen production by primary human dermal fibroblasts was analyzed by real‐time polymerase chain reaction, 14C‐proline incorporation, and Sircol assay. Intracellular signaling for dermal collagen production was investigated using inhibitors of MEK‐1 and by demonstration of ERK phosphorylation. In vivo effects were studied in a bleomycin‐induced dermal fibrosis model using adenosine A2A receptor–deficient wild‐type littermate mice, C57BL/6 mice, and mice treated with adenosine A2A receptor antagonist. Morphometric features and levels of hydroxyproline were determined as measures of dermal fibrosis.

Results

Adenosine A2A receptor occupancy promoted collagen production by primary human dermal fibroblasts, which was blocked by adenosine A2A, but not A1 or A2B, receptor antagonism. Adenosine A2A receptor ligation stimulated ERK phosphorylation, and A2A receptor–mediated collagen production by dermal fibroblasts was blocked by MEK‐1 inhibitors. Adenosine A2A receptor–deficient and A2A receptor antagonist–treated mice were protected from developing bleomycin‐induced dermal fibrosis.

Conclusion

These results demonstrate that adenosine A2A receptors play an active role in the pathogenesis of dermal fibrosis and suggest a novel therapeutic target in the treatment and prevention of dermal fibrosis in diseases such as scleroderma.