bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prosodic templates
Authors: Inkelas Sharon
Published: December 2014

Prosodic templates are morphological constructions, sometimes stem-forming and in other cases associated with derivational or inflectional morphological categories, which directly constrain the phonological shape of the derived stem. Templates have played a highly significant role in theories of phonology and morphology. From the perspective of phonology, templatic shape contraints have played an important role in illuminating the nature of phonological representations. On the morphology side, templates have been cited as evidence that morphology is not strictly concatenative. Templatic effects challenge the boundary between morphologically conditioned phonology and process phonology. This chapter surveys a variety of templates from the familiar root and pattern morphology of Semitic to lesser known cases, and poses the question of whether templates are units of phonological representation or the emergent effect of a cluster of morphologically conditioned phonological patterns in the same morphological context.
Reduplication
Authors: Inkelas Sharon
Published: December 2014

Reduplication is the doubling of some part of a morphological constituent (root, stem, word) for some morphological purpose. Reduplication has long been a topic of intense interest for morphological and phonological theory alike. From the morphological perspective, reduplication poses a challenge for item‑based theories of morphology because of its process‑like phonological character. From the phonological perspective, reduplication has provided evidence outside phonology proper for phonological constituents like the mora, syllable, and foot. This chapter surveys reduplication phenomena as well as the leading theories of reduplication, exploring theoretical issues such as whether reduplication is phonological copying or morphological doubling, and whether reduplicative templates are atomic units of phonological representation or the emergent effect of morphologically conditioned phonological restrictions on output shape.
Conclusion
Authors: Inkelas Sharon
Published: December 2014

Phonology-morphology interaction is very different from syntax-phonology interaction. It sheds light on word-internal structure and on the ability for relatively unnatural phonological alternations to be productive, at least within a given morphological niche. Morphophonological patterns are crucial for theories of phonological universals, and must be taken seriously by morphologists and phonologists, especially those seeking to reduce all synchronic morphological patterns to syntax, or all synchronic phonological patterns to universal phonetic motivations.
Framing the Divide
Authors: Agrell Wilhelm , Treverton Gregory F.
Published: December 2014

This chapter frames the divide between science and intelligence by looking at how wartime exigencies drove intelligence and science together, more of necessity than choice, and how they drifted apart during the Cold War. It asks whether the two are moving back together again, especially as science becomes more entwined with policy. Is the difference between the two thus more one of context, or are they fundamentally different ways of seeing and creating knowledge?
Food Security and the Supermarket Transition in the Middle East
Authors: Seyfert Karin , Chaaban Jad , Ghattas Hala
Published: December 2014

Over the past decade, developing countries have witnessed two food system transitions affecting their food security. The first, known as the ‘nutrition transition’, is a shift from so-called ‘traditional diets’ — based on the consumption of foods high in fibre such as cereals, legumes, fruit and vegetables — to so-called ‘modern’ diets — which feature larger proportions of saturated fats, sugar and processed foods. This dietary shift has been facilitated by the second transition, in food procurement, known as the ‘supermarket transition’ or the ‘third food regime’. This chapter focuses on changes in national procurement channels in two case study countries of Lebanon and Qatar. The supermarket transition involves a shift from food production and processing in small units — whose output is sold to small retailers at wholesale spot markets — to larger retail outlets trading with dedicated or contracted specialised wholesalers and food producers.
Detention of Combatants and the War on Terror
Authors: Schoettler James A.
Published: December 2014

The right of States to detain enemy combatants in armed conflict to prevent their return to the field of combat has been described by the U.S. Supreme Court as a “fundamental incident of waging war.” This chapter looks at this fundamental belligerent right of States as it has been applied by the United States in its armed conflict with al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The chapter looks closely at the law applicable to the determination of a person’s status as a combatant, the U.S. government’s approach to these status determinations in the armed conflict against al-Qaeda and associated terrorist groups, the principal U.S. court decisions scrutinizing that approach, and the response of presidential administrations and Congress to those decisions, including by developing requirements for periodic review of the basis for detention at U.S. facilities in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and in Afghanistan.
Battlefield Perspectives on the Laws of War
Authors: Lewis Michael W.
Published: December 2014

This chapter addresses the challenges of communicating the laws of war to the combatants who are required to abide by them. It describes the process by which law has been brought ever closer to the battlefield and the life-or-death decisions that are made there every day. It describes specific legal developments relating to the use of air power, drones, and artillery. In so doing it uncovers the challenges that law faces in competing for bandwidth against the many other considerations that influence the actions of soldiers in combat. By describing the process by which combatants internalize the laws of armed conflict, it offers suggestions about how law is best injected into the battlefield.
Pharmacodynamic studies of nitrofurantoin against common uropathogens
Authors: Komp Lindgren P. , Klockars O. , Malmberg C. , Cars O.
Published: December 2014

Objectives

To determine the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic index that best correlates to nitrofurantoin's antibacterial effect, we studied nitrofurantoin activity against common causative pathogens in uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI).

Methods

Five isolates [two Escherichia coli (one isolate producing the ESBL CTX-M-15), two Enterococcus faecium (including one that was vancomycin resistant) and one Staphylococcus saprophyticus] were used. The MICs of nitrofurantoin were determined by Etest. Time–kill curves with different concentrations of nitrofurantoin (based on multiples of isolate-specific MICs) were followed over 24 h. An in vitro kinetic model was used to simulate different time–concentration profiles, exposing E. coli to nitrofurantoin for varying proportions of the dosing interval. The outcome parameters reduction in cfu 0–24 h (Δcfu0–24) and the area under the bactericidal curve (AUBC), were correlated with time over MIC (T>MIC) and area under the antibiotic concentration curve divided by the MIC (AUC/MIC).

Results

A bactericidal effect at varying static drug concentrations was achieved for all isolates. All isolates showed similar kill curve profiles. In the kinetic model, the effect of nitrofurantoin on E. coli displayed a 4 log reduction in cfu/mL within 6 h at 8 × MIC. The outcome parameters Δcfu0–24 and AUBC had a good correlation with T>MIC (R ≈ 0.83 and R ≈ 0.67, respectively), whereas log(AUC/MIC) was significantly poorer (R ≈ 0.39 and R ≈ 0.53, respectively).

Conclusions

Nitrofurantoin was highly effective against E. coli and S. saprophyticus isolates; the killing effect against E. faecium was not as rapid, but still significant. Against E. coli, nitrofurantoin was mainly associated with a concentration-dependent action; this was confirmed in the kinetic model, in which T>MIC displayed the best correlation.
Apparent power-law distributions in animal movements can arise from intraspecific interactions
Authors: Breed Greg A. , Severns Paul M. , Edwards Andrew M.
Published: December 2014

Lévy flights have gained prominence for analysis of animal movement. In a Lévy flight, step-lengths are drawn from a heavy-tailed distribution such as a power law (PL), and a large number of empirical demonstrations have been published. Others, however, have suggested that animal movement is ill fit by PL distributions or contend a state-switching process better explains apparent Lévy flight movement patterns. We used a mix of direct behavioural observations and GPS tracking to understand step-length patterns in females of two related butterflies. We initially found movement in one species (
Euphydryas editha taylori
) was best fit by a bounded PL, evidence of a Lévy flight, while the other (
Euphydryas phaeton
) was best fit by an exponential distribution. Subsequent analyses introduced additional candidate models and used behavioural observations to sort steps based on intraspecific interactions (interactions were rare in
E. phaeton
but common in
E. e. taylori
). These analyses showed a mixed-exponential is favoured over the bounded PL for
E. e. taylori
and that when step-lengths were sorted into states based on the influence of harassing conspecific males, both states were best fit by simple exponential distributions. The direct behavioural observations allowed us to infer the underlying behavioural mechanism is a state-switching process driven by intraspecific interactions rather than a Lévy flight.
Indication of family-specific DNA methylation patterns in developing oysters
Authors: Olson Claire E. , Roberts Steven B.
Published: December 2014

Background

DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that is ubiquitous across many eukaryotes, with variable patterns and functions across taxa. The roles of DNA methylation during invertebrate development remain enigmatic, especially regarding the inheritance and ontogenetic dynamics of methylation. In order to better understand to what degree DNA methylation patterns are heritable, variable between individuals, and changing duringCrassostrea gigasdevelopment, we characterized the genome-wide methylome ofCrassostrea gigassperm and larvae from two full-sib families nested within a maternal half-sib family across developmental stages.

Results

Bisulfite treated DNA sequencing ofCrassostrea gigassperm and larvae at 72 hours post fertilization and 120 hours post fertilization revealed DNA methylation ranges from 15-18%. Our data suggest that DNA methylation patterns are inherited, as methylation patterns were more similar between the two sires and their offspring compared to methylations pattern differences among developmental stages. Loci differing between the two paternal full-sib families (189) were found throughout the genome but were concentrated in transposable elements. The proportion of differentially methylated loci among developmental stages was not significantly greater in any genomic region.

Conclusions

This study provides the first single-base pair resolution DNA methylomes for both oyster sperm and larval samples from multiple crosses. Assuming DNA methylation is introduced randomly, the predominance of differentially methylated loci between families within transposable elements could be associated with selection against altering methylation in gene bodies. For instance, differentially methylated loci in gene bodies could be lethal or deleterious, as they would alter gene expression. Another possibility is that differentially methylated loci may provide advantageous phenotypic variation by increasing transposable element mobility. Future research should focus on the relationship between epigenetic and genetic variation, and explore the possible relationship of DNA methylation and transposable element activity.
Interpretation of two-dimensional real-space functions obtained from small-angle scattering data of oriented microstructures
Authors: Fritz-Popovski Gerhard
Published: December 2014

The new two-dimensional indirect Fourier transformation converts small-angle scattering patterns obtained by means of area detectors into two-dimensional real-space functions. These functions contain identical information to the scattering patterns, but many parameters related to the microstructure can be obtained directly from them. The size and shape of the microstructures are mainly reflected in the contours of the real-space functions. Their height can be used to get information on the internal architecture of the microstructures. The principles are demonstrated on nanostructured silica biotemplated by spruce wood.
Large loop versus straight‐wire excision of the transformation zone for treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a randomised controlled trial of electrosurgical techniques
Authors: Camargo MJ , Russomano FB , Tristão MA , Huf G , Prendiville W
Published: December 2014

Objective

To compare two electrosurgical techniques, straight‐wire excision of transformation zone (SWETZ) with large loop excision of transformation zone, as a cone procedure (LLETZ‐cone), for the treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), when disease is present at the cervical canal.

Design

Randomised controlled trial.

Setting

Two public hospitals, one in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and one in Dublin, Ireland.

Population

One hundred and three women with indication to treat CIN located at cervical canal.

Methods

Women were randomised to receive LLETZ‐cone or SWETZ.

Outcomes

Main outcome was the incidence of complete excision of disease at endocervical margin of the surgical specimen. Secondary outcomes were complete excision at ectocervical and stromal margins, time to complete the procedure, specimen fragmentation, blood loss and death after 1 year.

Results

Fifty‐two women were allocated to LLETZ‐cone and 51 to SWETZ. Ten women were lost for main outcome because of damaged specimens. Forty‐two women in the LLETZ‐cone group had free endocervical margin versus 43 women in the SWETZ group (relative risk 1.04, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.87–1.25; P = 0.64). For secondary outcomes related to margins, we observed a relative risk of 1.15 (95% CI 0.95–1.39; P = 0.15) for ectocervical free margin. For free stromal margin, the relative risk was 1.07 (95% CI 0.89–1.29; P = 0.47). No death was observed.

Conclusions

This study was inconclusive; SWETZ and LLETZ‐cone were equally effective to treat endocervical disease, with no difference in protecting against margin involvement. Higher, but not severe, blood loss and longer surgical time were observed in the SWETZ group.
Value of allohaemagglutinins in the diagnosis of a polysaccharide antibody deficiency
Authors: Schaballie H , Vermeulen F , Verbinnen B , Frans G , Vermeulen E , Proesmans M , De Vreese K , Emonds M P , De Boeck K , Moens L , Picard C , Bossuyt X , Meyts I
Published: December 2014

Polysaccharide antibody deficiency is characterized by a poor or absent antibody response after vaccination with an unconjugated pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Allohaemagglutinins (AHA) are antibodies to A or B polysaccharide antigens on the red blood cells, and are often used as an additional or alternative measure to assess the polysaccharide antibody response. However, few studies have been conducted to establish the clinical significance of AHA. To investigate the value of AHA to diagnose a polysaccharide antibody deficiency, pneumococcal polysaccharide antibody titres and AHA were studied retrospectively in 180 subjects in whom both tests had been performed. Receiver operating characteristic curves for AHA versus the pneumococcal vaccine response as a marker for the anti-polysaccharide immune response revealed an area under the curve between 0·5 and 0·573. Sensitivity and specificity of AHA to detect a polysaccharide antibody deficiency, as diagnosed by vaccination response, were low (calculated for cut-off 1/4–1/32). In subjects with only low pneumococcal antibody response, the prevalence of bronchiectasis was significantly higher than in subjects with only low AHA (45·5 and 1·3%, respectively) or normal pneumococcal antibody response and AHA (2·4%). A logistic regression model showed that low pneumococcal antibody response but not AHA was associated with bronchiectasis (odds ratio 46·2). The results of this study do not support the routine use of AHA to assess the polysaccharide antibody response in patients with suspected immunodeficiency, but more studies are warranted to clarify the subject further.
Squamous cell carcinoma presenting as a refilled thin‐walled cavity in lung: a case report
Authors: Lu Ming , Zhu Xiang , Liu Chen , Cao Baoshan , Yao Wanzhen , Chen Yahong
Published: December 2014

Thin‐walled cavity with air‐fluid level is often considered radiographically benign‐looking lesion. We recently encountered a patient with a rare lung cavity. A 58‐year‐old male presented with intermittent fever, chest pain and hemoptysis. A large thin‐walled cavity, with a smooth inner surface and a clear air‐fluid level, occupied the left upper lobe on the chest computerized tomography (CT) scan. After intravenous antibiotics was administrated, the air‐fluid level in the cavity disappeared, and the cavity was gradually fluid refilled unexpectedly. However, the cavitary lesion kept the previous contour. Then CT‐guided percutaneous needle lung biopsy was performed, revealing a squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Although it is rare, a refilled thin‐walled cavity in lung may be malignant, which should be kept in mind by clinician.
Wiring the preterm brain: contribution of new meta‐analytic approaches
Authors: Conti Eugenia , Guzzetta Andrea
Published: December 2014

This commentary is on the review by Li et al. on pages 328–338 of this issue.
Effects of fire on vegetation and arthropods in a coastal heath, south‐east Queensland
Authors: Manwaring Mathew , Eliott Martyn , Barton Philip , Weaver Haylee
Published: December 2014

Fire is an important part of many Australian ecosystems, and determining how it affects different vegetation communities and associated fauna is of particular interest to land managers. Here, we report on a study that used sites established during a 39‐year fire experiment in coastal heathland in southeastern Queensland to compare arthropod abundance and vegetation in 1.5–2.6 ha sites that were (i) long unburnt, (ii) burnt every 5 years and (iii) burnt every 3 years. We found that the abundance of ants was more than four times higher in the frequently burnt sites compared to long unburnt sits. Moreover, long unburnt sites had greater dominance of Xanthorrhoea johnsonii and Caustis recurvata, whereas burnt sites had greater cover of Lomandra filiformis, Leucopogon margarodes and Leucopogon leptospermoides. Our findings show that frequent fire can alter vegetation structure and composition, and this is matched by an increase in the relative dominance of ants in the arthropod community.
Neurobrucellosis in children: Case series from Turkey
Authors: Aydın Teke Türkan , Koyuncu Hilal , Oz Fatma Nur , Metin Ozge , Bayhan Gülsüm Iclal , Gayretli Aydın Zeynep Gökçe , Kaman Ayşe , Tanır Gönül
Published: December 2014

Background

Brucellosis is a multisystem disease that may present with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations and complications. Neurobrucellosis is an uncommon and serious complication of pediatric brucellosis.

Methods

We describe seven cases of neurobrucellosis.

Results

Ataxia (one patient), diplopia (one patient) and hearing loss (one patient) were among the neurological signs and symptoms. The most common diagnoses were acute meningitis and meningoencephalitis. Five of the patients fully recovered, one was lost to follow up and the other had hearing loss as a sequela.

Conclusion

Neurobrucellosis should be kept in mind in patients with any neurological or neuropsychiatric diseases who live in endemic areas of brucellosis.
Class‐Based Storage with a Finite Number of Items: Using More Classes is not Always Better
Authors: Yu Yugang , deKoster René B.M. , Guo Xiaolong
Published: December 2014

Class‐based storage is widely studied in the literature and applied in practice. It divides all stored items into a number of classes according to their turnover. A class of items with higher turnover is allocated to a region closer to the warehouse depot. In the literature, it has been shown that the use of more storage classes leads to a shorter travel time for storing and retrieving items. A basic assumption in this literature is that the required storage space for all items equals their average inventory level, which is valid only if an infinite number of items can be stored in each storage region. This study revisits class‐based storage by considering each storage space to contain only a finite number of items. We develop a travel time model and an algorithm that can be used for determining the optimal number and boundaries of storage classes in warehouses. Different from the conventional research, our findings illustrate that commonly a small number of classes is optimal. In addition, we find the travel time is fairly insensitive to the number of storage classes in a wide range around the optimum. This suggests that a manager can select a near‐optimal number of storage classes in an easy way and need not be worried about the impact of storage‐class reconfigurations. We validate our findings for various cases, including different ABC‐demand curves, space‐sharing factors, number of items, storage rack shapes, discrete storage locations, and stochastic item demand.
Antipsychotic polypharmacy among elderly patients with schizophrenia and dementia during hospitalization at a Taiwanese psychiatric hospital
Authors: Wu Yu‐Hsuan , Lai Chun‐Yang , Chang Yu‐San
Published: December 2014

Background

This study was to investigate the prescribing patterns for antipsychotic drugs in elderly hospitalized patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or dementia at a psychiatric hospital in Taiwan from 2007 to 2012. This study also explored the predictors of antipsychotic polypharmacy (APP).

Methods

We collected patients' demographic data, including year of admission, age, gender, and length of hospital stay, and drug‐related information.

Results

Second‐generation antipsychotic (SGA) monotherapy was the most common type of therapy in both those with dementia and with schizophrenia, and quetiapine and risperidone were the most commonly prescribed drugs for these conditions, respectively. In late‐life schizophrenia, 33.8% of the patients used first‐generation antipsychotics (FGA) alone. Regarding APP, a combination of FGA and SGA and combinations of SGA were most commonly noted in schizophrenia patients and dementia patients, respectively. Overall, APP increased from 2007 to 2012. It was significantly more common in patients with dementia (odds ratio: 3.49, 95% confidence interval: 1.29–9.39, P = 0.014), less concurrent use of hypnotics and sedatives (odds ratio: 0.41, 95% confidence interval: 0.17–0.99, P = 0.046), and a higher‐than‐recommended dose of antipsychotic drugs (odds ratio: 4.98, 95% confidence interval: 2.75–9.02, P < 0.001).

Conclusions

FGA are still commonly used for the late‐life schizophrenia at our hospital. Given their potentially hazardous side effects, FGA must be employed with caution. The use of APP involving SGA increased over the 6 years of the study period, especially among patients with dementia. However, the use of SGA in dementia began to decline after the US Food and Drug Administration's 2005 warning about SGA being associated with increased mortality in dementia patients, which contrasts with the trends examined in this study. Further controlled trials exploring the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of APP in this population are warranted to gain an additional insight into this practice.
Relationship between education and age‐related cognitive decline: a review of recent research
Authors: Lenehan Megan Elizabeth , Summers Mathew James , Saunders Nichole Louise , Summers Jeffery Joseph , Vickers James C.
Published: December 2014

The association between level of educational attainment and cognitive performance is well studied. People with higher education perform better across a broad range of cognitive tasks. However, there is uncertainty as to whether education moderates the trajectory of age‐related cognitive decline. This review paper addresses the potential link between education and age‐related cognitive decline by evaluating relevant research published since 2000. Studies reporting data on education and its association with the rate of cognitive decline across various cognitive domains were reviewed. A total of 10 studies were identified with a mean follow‐up period of 7.6 years; each contained a population‐based, non‐demented sample. In the majority of studies, results showed that education did not moderate age‐associated cognitive decline. The few studies that did find an association between education and decline in specific cognitive functions should be interpreted with caution because of methodological issues. The literature reveals little consistent evidence that normal age‐related cognitive decline is moderated by education attainment. This supports a passive theory of cognitive reserve: people with a higher level of education will continue to perform at a higher level of cognitive functioning than their lower educated peers, which may delay the onset of impairment in the future.
ON PROTAGON: ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ITS BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS ALCOHOL, AND ITS INDIVIDUALITY
Authors: Wilson R. A. , Cramer W.
Published: December 2014

1. Protagon is a substance of a definite chemical composition, retaining this composition after repeated recrystallisation.

2. Protagon is a substance with definite and constant physical properties. The specific rotatory power and the refractive index of several samples of protagon have been determined.

3. Protagon is identified by its chemical composition and by its physical constants. Many substances to which the name protagon has been given on account of their method of preparation, do not conform to these conditions, and therefore have no claim to the name protagon. Couerbe's cerebrote is not identical with protagon, but probably a mixture of substances of which protagon is one.

4. Protagon is decomposed by a prolonged treatment with warm alcohol. The so‐called process of fractional crystallisation is therefore in reality a process of partial decomposition. The conclusions which have been drawn on the assumption that it is a process of recrystallisation are not valid. There is, consequently, no evidence for the view that protagon is a mixture f cerebrosides and phosphatids.

5. The constancy of the physical and chemical properties of protagon support the view that protagon is a definite compound. The substances isolated from protagon after prolonged treatment with warm alcohol, and formerly held to exist as such in the mixture protagon, must now be considered to be the constituents of the protagon molecule. They are the intermediate decomposition products of protagon.

6. Details of a method for the preparation of protagon are given, by means of which a prolonged contact with warm or boiling alcohol can be avoided as much as possible.
ON THE RESULTS OF HETEROPLASTIC OVARIAN TRANSPLANTATION AS COMPARED WITH THOSE PRODUCED BY TRANSPLANTATION IN THE SAME INDIVIDUAL
Authors: Marshall F. H. A. , Jolly W. A.
Published: December 2014

As a result of these experiments, taken in conjunction with those described in our former paper, the following conclusions may be drawn:—

(1) Greater success attends transplantation of the ovaries into the kidney than on to the peritoneum, probably on account of the greater vascularity of the kidney.

(2) Homoplastic transplantation of ovaries is very considerably easier to perform successfully than heteroplastic transplantation. This fact can scarcely be ascribed to differences in the technique of the two operations, since this was identical in each experiment, the two animals being operated upon simultaneously in the case of the heteroplastic transplantations.

(3) Heteroplastic transplantation of ovaries is apparently easier to perform successfully when the two animals employed in the experiment are near relatives of each other. In our experiments there were few exceptions to this rule.

(4) The presence of an animal's own ovaries does not seem to exert any inhibitory influence on the successful attachment and growth of additional ovaries obtained from another individual.

(5) The presence of a successfully grafted ovary in an abnormal position in the body, whether obtained from the same or from another individual, is sufficient to arrest the degenerative changes which habitually take place in the uterus after the complete extirpation of the ovaries, as other experiments have shown. It may be concluded, therefore, that the ovarian influence on the uterus is chemical rather than nervous in nature.
THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON THE OSMOTIC PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
Authors: De Souza D. H.
Published: December 2014

1. A solution of sodium chloride isotonic for a muscle at one temperature is isotonic for that muscle at other temperatures, provided coagulation does not occur.

2. Apparent exceptions to this rule are due to injury to the muscle or to hypotonicity of the solution.

3. Both the gain and loss in weight of a muscle in hypotonic or hypertonic solution are increased in rapidity by rise in temperature.
THE TOXIC ACTION OF COMPOUNDS ON ISOLATED MUSCLE REGARDED AS A CHEMICAL CHANGE
Authors: Veley V. H.
Published: December 2014

An attempt has been made in this communication to show that living muscular tissue behaves as if it contained not only proteins, as such, but even their products of decomposition or hydrolysis; or, to put the matter otherwise, the living muscle behaves as a lifeless chemical reagent. The author and his co‐workers have been surprised that the action of a drug upon muscle, when excited by induction shocks, should have yielded results not greatly inferior in accuracy to those obtained in the case of reactions between chemical compounds, highly refined, when under physical conditions rigidly exact. It is, of course, true that there are certain manifest difficulties, but this equally applies to other reactions and other theories in the domain of pure or applied chemistry.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE PROTOPLASM OF THE WHITE BLOOD‐CELL
Authors: Schäfer E. A.
Published: December 2014

1. The protoplasm of the amœboid leucocyte of Triton and Salamandra is not homogeneous throughout, but exhibits even in the living condition a structural differentiation, although a part may, to all appearance, be homogeneous.

2. The differentiation takes the form of a fine reticulation. This implies the separation of the colloid constituents of the protoplasm into a less fluid portion (spongioplasm) which forms the reticulum and a more fluid homogeneous portion (hyaloplasm) which occupies the meshes of the reticulum.

3. The hyaloplasm may extend beyond the reticulum and form a superficial layer (ectoplasm) which tends to flow outwards to form the commencing pseudopodia. The reticular, often granular, part which constitutes the main portion of the protoplasm may then be distinguished as endoplasm; this distinction is similar to that met with in amœbæ.
THE EXCRETION OF CREATIN IN DIABETES
Authors: Krause R. A.
Published: December 2014

1. Typical diabetes mellitus is associated with the excretion of creatin in the urine.

This conclusion is confirmed by the observations of Krause and Cramer on the appearance of creatin in the urine in phloridzin diabetes. It is in agreement with the observations of Cathcart on the creatin excretion of normal persons living on a diet free from carbohydrates.

2. In each of the cases examined the excretion of creatinin was found to be below the normal.

3. Observations are recorded regarding the fallacies which are introduced in the estimation of creatin and creatinin by the presence of small quantities of acetone and its allies.

This work was carried out at the suggestion of Dr Cramer, to whom I desire to express my indebtedness for advice and assistance. I also wish to thank Professor Greenfield, Dr Gibson, and Dr Russell for their kindness in giving me facilities for the study of cases in their wards.
STUDIES IN THE REFLEXES OF THE GUINEA‐PIG. V.: SOME EXPERIMENTS ON THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY THE HIGHER CENTRES UPON THE SCRATCH‐REFLEX
Authors: Brown T. Graham
Published: December 2014

1. Removal of the cortex of one cerebral hemisphere depresses the excitability of the scratch‐reflex of the Brown‐Séquard phenomenon upon the contralateral side, or abolishes it completely. Where not completely abolished, the rhythm is slowed and the tonic flexion factor in the movement—as measured by the extent of the initial rise of the curve—is reduced. The extent of the clonic beats may also be diminished. In some cases this is more marked than the reduction of the tonic flexion, and in other cases the reverse is the case.

2. The effect of the removal upon the excitability of the reaction of the ipsilateral side is not one of depression. Although in some cases there may be little change, in others the excitability is increased and the rhythm of the response is quickened. A previously “incomplete” reaction may become “complete.”

3. Section of both crura cerebri in the normal guinea‐pig allows scratching movements, which may be mistaken for the movements of the scratch‐reflex, to be evoked on the application of mechanical stimulation to the skin of the neck and face. These movements are very irregular in rhythm; their rhythm is much slower than that of the scratch‐reflex; their extent is much greater; and the “tonic” factor is usually much smaller or entirely absent. These characteristics serve to distinguish the movements from those of the scratch‐reflex on careful examination.

4. Similar movements, but at first of greater regularity, are evoked after a transsection at the upper border of the pons Varolii.

5. The movements of the true scratch‐reflex persist after section of both crura cerebri. The rhythm is markedly slowed, but the extent of the beats remains the same or may be increased. The “complete reaction” of the Brown‐Séquard phenomenon may be present, but the passage of the scratching movements themselves to the opposite side has not been observed.

6. After section at the level of the upper border of the pons Varolii the scratching movements of the Brown‐Séquard phenomenon also persist, but the “complete reaction” has not been observed. The extent of the beats is increased, but the rhythm is not further altered. The “tonic” flexion factor, as measured by the rise of the curve, is decreased.
THE EFFECTS OF CERTAIN ANIMAL EXTRACTS UPON THE BLOOD‐VESSELS
Authors: Campbell J. Argyll
Published: December 2014

Suprarenal extract in the form of hemisine causes marked constriction of the vessels of all the organs, with the exception of those of the heart and lungs. In the heart it does occasionally produce slight constriction, but more often has no effect. In the lungs slight constriction is more frequently observed than is the case with the heart.

Pituitary Extract.—The evidence from the experiments indicates that there are at least two substances—one causing contraction and the other relaxation—in this extract. Each is capable of producing its characteristic effect (this varying with the composition of the Ringer solution) on all the arteries except the renal, where contraction is hardly ever obtained, the result being nearly always relaxation.

The subject of this research was suggested by Professor Schäfer, to whom I have been indebted for advice. The work was performed during my tenure of the Vans Dunlop Research Scholarship. The expenses have been defrayed out of the Earl of Moray Fund of the University of Edinburgh.
THE INFLUENCE OF MUSCULAR RIGIDITY ON THE CARBON DIOXIDE OUTPUT OF DECEREBRATE CATS
Authors: Roaf H. E.
Published: December 2014

1. In decerebrate animals the muscles become rigid. This rigidity differs from ordinary tetanus as it does not readily become fatigued. Previous observers have suggested that the metabolism underlying the rigidity is different from that which accompanies ordinary contraction.

2. The carbon dioxide output has been measured in the cat after decerebration, and also after other treatment of the decerebrate preparation.

3. The temperature coefficient for carbon dioxide output is about 2·5±0·2.

4. By applying suitable corrections for the internal temperature and weight of the preparation, a fairly uniform carbon dioxide output can be calculated. The formula is Carbon dioxide output in grms. x (2·5)40−t/10/3√weight. = respiratory ratio.

5. The average of twenty‐three experiments gives a respiratory ratio of 1·705±0·026, and the median is 1·695, showing that the distribution is a portion of a normal curve.

6. Slight muscular movements increase the carbon dioxide output to an average of 1·930±0·054 for ten experiments. This is 0·225 above the ordinary decerebrate preparation, and the probable error of the difference is 0·060.

7. Abolition of decerebrate rigidity by curare does not cause any significant reduction in the carbon dioxide output, the average for eleven experiments being 1·669±0·047. This is less than the average of the ordinary decerebrate preparation by 0·036, and the probable error of the difference is 0·054.

8. Cutting the nerves to all four of the limbs abolishes the rigidity in the limbs, but does not diminish the carbon dioxide output.

9. By excluding the muscles of the limbs, the carbon dioxide output of these muscles was found to be of the same order as that of resting muscles.

10. It is therefore evident that the decerebrate rigidity differs from tetanus in that it does not cause an increase in carbon dioxide output.

11. Decapitation and cutting of the spinal cord both diminish the carbon dioxide output. This, as shown above, cannot be due to the abolition of the rigidity. It seems possible that the reduction is due to general circulatory disturbance, but decreasing the blood‐pressure by cutting the splanchnic nerves does not appear to produce so great a diminution as that which occurs as the result of cutting the spinal cord.

12. Removal of all the abdominal viscera diminishes the carbon dioxide output to 1·250±0·066 as the average of three experiments. This is 0·455 below the average of the ordinary decerebrate preparation, and the probable error of the difference is 0·071.

13. It appears that a large amount of the carbon dioxide output is furnished by some portion of the body other than abdominal organs or skeletal muscles.
ADRENIN‐LIKE ACTIONS OF COBRA VENOM
Authors: Gunn James A.
Published: December 2014

The effects produced by cobra venom on the heart and blood‐vessels, as described by Elliot, are comparable rather to an adrenin‐like action than to a strophanthin‐like action, to the latter of which they have been likened by Elliot.

Experimental evidence for an adrenin‐like action of cobra venom has been sought in the reaction to it of various kinds of involuntary muscle and of secreting glands. The following table summarises the results obtained, and serves to compare the effects of cobra venom and adrenin.

It is evident, therefore, that cobra venom causes contraction of some kinds of unstriated muscle and relaxation of others, and it is, consequently, unlikely that it acts on muscle directly. On the other hand, its action on the heart, on plain muscle, and on secreting glands corresponds so closely with that of adrenin that the presumption is it acts in a similar way, namely, by peripheral stimulation of some part of the sympathetic nerves.
THE DESTRUCTION OF ALKALOIDS BY THE BODY TISSUES
Authors: Clark A. J.
Published: December 2014

1. The liver of the frog and rabbit possesses the power of destroying atropine; this power persists when all living cells are destroyed, and is due to a soluble body, resembling a ferment in its action.

2. In the frog the liver has a marked power, and the heart and kidneys a slight power, to destroy atropine; no other tissues have any such power.

3. In the rabbit the liver has a marked power, and the blood a less marked power, to destroy atropine; no other tissues have any such power.

4. None of the tissues investigated in the cat, the rat, and the dog have any power to destroy atropine.

5. The minimal lethal dose per kilo of atropine, given subcutaneously, is highest in those animals whose livers can destroy atropine.

The writer holds a research scholarship from the British Medical Association; part of the expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society.

The writer holds a research scholarship from the British Medical Association ; part of the expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society.
ON AGE AND METABOLISM AND ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXCRETION OF CREATINE
Authors: Krause R. A.
Published: December 2014

1. From the analyses of the urines of children it is seen that the protein metabolism of the child exhibits differences from that of the male adult.

2. Creatine occurs in the urine of children. The creatinuria in boys ceases about the age of 5 or 6; in girls it persists longer than in boys: in some cases it may even perhaps go over to the intermittent creatinuria which characterises the female sexual cycle.

3. The creatinine‐nitrogen coefficient is much lower in children than in adult men. The creatinine‐nitrogen coefficient increases more rapidly during the first few years of life than in later childhood.

4. Even small quantities of creatine (about 0·3 gm.) are partly excreted by children. In other words, the power to assimilate creatine is very much weaker in children than in adult men.

5. As the result of these observations and of previous investigations on the metabolism of normal women, the conclusion is drawn that creatine is constantly being formed as a product of normal metabolism, and that it is constantly being further metabolised. The excretion or non‐excretion of creatine in the urine depends upon the balance between these two processes of the formation and the destruction of creatine. The various far‐reaching conclusions which have been drawn by different authors on the significance of the excretion of creatine in pathological conditions are briefly discussed.

I wish to thank Dr Cramer for his valuable criticisms in connection with this work. My thanks are also due to Drs John Thompson, J. S. Fowler, and Harry Rainy for their kindness in allowing me to make use of the clinical material under their care.

The expenses of this research were defrayed by a grant from the Earl of Moray Fund for the Prosecution of Research in the University of Edinburgh.
THE EFFECT OF PITUITARY EXTRACT ON MILK SECRETION IN THE GOAT
Authors: Hill Reuben L. , Simpson Sutherland
Published: December 2014

1. Injection of the extract obtained from four ox pituitaries, intravenously or subcutaneously, produces a marked increase in the amount of secretion yielded by the mammary gland of the goat when milked fifteen minutes after the injection.

2. This increase is followed by a corresponding decrease below normal at the next milking several hours later.

3. As pointed out by Hammond, there is also a marked rise in the fat content of the milk secreted after injection, but there is no sudden fall in the percentage of fat at the next milking, as was observed by this investigator.

4. The solids‐not‐fat of the milk do not appear to be affected by the extract.
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF THE PARS INTERMEDIA AND PARS NERVOSA OF THE OX PITUITARY QUANTITATIVELY COMPARED
Authors: Herring P. T.
Published: December 2014

Both pars intermedia and pars nervosa of the ox pituitary contain an active principle which stimulates uterine muscle, but extracts of the two are not equally active. The pars nervosa is from two to five times more powerful than the pars intermedia in its action.

The pars intermedia, in extracts of ·5 per cent. and under of the dried material, has no specific action upon blood‐pressure, kidney volume, or urinary secretion. On the other hand, extracts of pars nervosa of a strength of ·005 per cent. of the dried material produce, in doses of 2 to 3 c.c. injected intravenously, the prolonged rise of blood‐pressure, increase of kidney volume and of urine, characteristic of extracts of the posterior lobe of the pituitary.

If the active principles producing uterine contraction, and the specific action upon blood‐pressure and kidney, are one and the same substance, one would expect that an extract of pars intermedia of from two to five times the strength of an extract of pars nervosa would have a similar action upon blood‐pressure and kidney as it has upon the isolated uterus. But this is not the case. An extract of pars intermedia of a hundred times the strength of that of the pars nervosa fails to give the typical action of extracts of pars nervosa upon the blood‐pressure and kidney. Dale and Laidlaw (op. cit.) state that they have never found an extract which was inferior in pressor action and had not a like inferiority as a diuretic and a uterine stimulant. This may be true of extracts of the pars nervosa, but does not hold in a comparison of the extracts of pars intermedia and pars nervosa.

The evidence is not sufficient to prove that there are two separate active principles in the posterior lobe of the pituitary body, but it is at least suggestive of that being the case.

The probability is that the active material of the posterior lobe of the pituitary is a product of the epithelial cells of the pars intermedia, and that there are stages in the breaking down of these cells in the pars nervosa. The substance acting upon the uterus is formed at an early stage in the cells of the pars intermedia, but the substance acting upon blood‐pressure and kidney is a later product resulting from the breaking down of the hyaline bodies or disintegrating pars intermedia cells in the pars nervosa.

The expenses of this research have been defrayed by a grant from the Carnegie Trust.
THE INFLUENCE OF ADRENALIN ON THE CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Authors: Takayasu S.
Published: December 2014

1. In solutions of physiological strength adrenalin has no perceptible influence on the contraction of the frog sartorius immersed in it (confirmation of Kuno). Even solutions of 1 in 1,000,000 show no distinct effect; if anything, the successive curves appear to be rather better maintained than in normal Ringer.

2. When immersed in stronger solutions—from 1 in 500,000 to 1 in 5000—the contractile power of skeletal muscle is diminished; the curves described show less height and duration than normal; the latency period is little affected.

3. The effect produced is not regularly proportioned to the strength of the adrenalin solution.

4. Muscle which has been poisoned by immersion in solutions of adrenalin rapidly recovers on being transferred to normal Ringer.

5. Injection of adrenalin solution into the dorsal lymph‐sac of the frog causes the muscular contractions to be diminished in amplitude as in the case of muscle immersed in adrenalin solution, and both the latency and duration of contraction are somewhat prolonged. Immersion of the muscle in normal Ringer is in this case not followed by rapid recovery.

6. The contractions resulting from stimulation of muscle immersed in adrenalin are not fatigue contractions, nor are they like the contractions produced under the influence of veratrine. They resemble to some extent those obtained under the influence of excess of potassium salts, but differ from these in the fact that the latency period is less prolonged, and that at an early stage of the action the duration of the contraction tends to be somewhat lengthened instead of being considerably shortened.