bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Negating Conditionals
Authors: Willer Malte
Published: March 2022

A recurring narrative in the literature is that the empirical facts about negated conditionals provide compelling evidence for the principle of Conditional Excluded Middle and sit uncomfortably with a large family of analyses of conditionals as universal quantifiers over possible worlds. I show that both parts of the narrative are in need of a rewrite by articulating an innovative conditional analysis in a bilateral semantic setting that takes inspiration from the Ramsey test for conditionals but distinguishes the classical Ramseyan question of what it takes to accept a conditional from the one of what it takes to reject a conditional. The resulting framework disentangles the empirical facts about negated conditionals from the validity of Conditional Excluded Middle but also shows how the principle can live happily in a strict analysis of conditionals, and how it can co-exist with other non-classical principles such as Simplification of Disjunctive Antecedents without negative side-effects.
The Physics of computing and computing with Physics
Authors: Di Ventra Massimiliano
Published: March 2022

This Chapter shows that any physical system performs some type of computation, with the observers providing meaning (semantics) to such a computation. It then introduces an equivalence principle between physical (semantic) information and computation. Finally, it discusses the general criteria shared by all MemComputing machines.
‘The Lands Conquered and Settled by Their Ancestors’
Authors: Adak Mustafa , Thonemann Peter
Published: March 2022

This chapter draws together the archaeological, literary, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence for Archaic Teos, and considers the character and chronology of Teos’ colonizing activities in the Black Sea and Aegean Thrace. The early history of the settlement at Abdera is analysed in detail, beginning with the mid-seventh-century Klazomenian colony on the site, subsequently reinforced or replaced by a new group of Teian settlers in the mid-sixth century. The early development of the urban settlement at Abdera is sketched, with a detailed discussion of the important but complex and ambiguous evidence deriving from Pindar’s fragmentary second Paean. The chapter concludes with a short account of conditions at Teos and Abdera in the aftermath of the Persian Wars.
Teos in the Second Century BC (Documents 4–5)
Authors: Adak Mustafa , Thonemann Peter
Published: March 2022

This chapter offers a new synthesis of the history and culture of Teos in the late third and early second century BC, a period of Teian history for which sources, both epigraphic and archaeological, are unusually rich. The great Teian temple of Dionysos, designed by the architect Hermogenes, was built during this period, and relations between Teos and the Hellenistic monarchs (particularly the Seleukid king Antiochos III, and subsequently Eumenes II of Pergamon) are illuminated by a series of extraordinarily rich and complex epigraphic texts. A particular focus of the chapter is the stormy residency of the Artists of Dionysos at Teos, and the authors publish a new decree of the Artists in honour of a benefactor, recently discovered in the Teian sanctuary of Dionysos.
Formal Results of Constructive Logicism
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

We prove in the metalanguage, by induction on natural numbers n, that derivations can be given in free Core Logic of all instances of Schema N (#xΦ‎x = n ⊣⊢ ∇nxΦ‎x). We also prove all of the Dedekind‒Peano postulates for successor arithmetic, including the Principle of Mathematical Induction. To this end one needs only the rules of free Core Logic itself, the rules for 0, s and # set out in Chapter 10, and certain logical rules about one-one mappings that are clearly stated. Among the lemmas proved along the way to the Dedekind‒Peano postulates is the result known as ‘Frege’s trick’: any natural number is the number of naturals preceding it. All derivations are given with complete formal rigor, but with additional commentary in ‘logician’s English’ to convey the gist of the formal work.
What Would a Gifted Child Need in Order to Grasp Fractions? The Case of Edwin
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

After the austerely formal work that, one hopes, has been edifying thus far for readers who have reached the end of Part II, the author owes them some entertainment and levity. The reader is introduced to Edwin the Fractionator. Edwin is able to attain ontologi cal commitment to rational numbers on the basis only of his grasp of the naturals. He does this without having learned anything about addition or multiplication or division on the naturals. Not only does he recognize the existence of fractions; he also understands their applicability in our thought and talk about the wider world. It is gratifying that his kindness and commitment to egalitarian sharing, in conjunction with his lessons as a Constructive Logicist, afford him this intellectual achievement.
Digital Genetic Editing and Computer-Assisted Genetic Criticism
Authors: Van Hulle Dirk
Published: March 2022

Instead of focusing on a single ‘work in progress’, this chapter discusses the need for genetic criticism on the level of the author’s complete works, the ‘oeuvre in motion’. It suggests ways of modelling genetic Complete Works editions, especially in a digital paradigm, and it discusses forms of close and distant reading of writing processes. Not all traditional forms of literary studies are microscopic or focused on close reading, and vice versa, not all digital forms of literary study are macroscopic or panoramic. Distant reading can even be reductive in some ways: it usually limits its ‘reading’ to only one version of a text. Instead of working with this dichotomy between microanalysis and macroanalysis, it might be more useful to think in terms of a spectrum, and to expand it to even include nanoanalysis and mega-analysis on either side. This expanded spectrum defines the structure of this chapter, which also discusses the genesis of born-digital works and techniques of capturing that process, such as keystroke logging.
Changes in Aggregate Risk Aversion
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

Individuals’ risk aversion will, considered in total, fluctuate in the short-term around a stable long-term average, but in aggregate will vary with changes in demography. Because of the relative elasticities of corporate leverage and portfolio preferences, a change in the aggregate risk aversion of households has no impact on the required return on equity thus allowing the return on equity to remain constant over time. The adjustment to changes in aggregate risk thus takes place through changes in the long bond yield, either through changes in the short-term rate with an unchanged yield curve or through the stability of the former and a change in the steepness of the curve. The total ex post levels of savings and investment must be equal, but their level is partly determined by the decision over the combination of fiscal and monetary policy used to keep ex ante net savings at zero. At least two equilibria are thus needed for a stable economy; one is for ex ante net savings to be zero, the other is that the portfolio preference of households must match the desired level of corporate leverage. This avoids the criticism levelled about the neoclassical synthesis by George Akerlof.
Corporate Investment and the Miller-Modigliani Theorem
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The Miller-Modigliani Theorem is generally accepted in the neoclassical synthesis. It holds that the value of companies, defined as their net worth, are not altered by changes in leverage. This must be correct unless net worth changes with leverage. The assumption that it does not rests on the observation that the cost of debt rises for individual companies if they increase their leverage. This appears reasonable when individual companies are considered in isolation, but it implicitly assumes that the level of the risk-free long bond yield is unchanged by rising leverage and therefore that the additional cost attributed to the risk of above-average leverage would be common to all companies if leverage were to rise for the sector as a whole. The data for the corporate sector as a whole clearly show that the theorem is wrong. Debt has been consistently cheaper than equity, even without its tax advantage, so that rising leverage has lowered the cost of capital and this raises the value of the produced capital stock. Leverage cannot, however, rise in aggregate unless it is matched by changes in the portfolio preference of owners of capital, including foreigners, or the supply of government debt. The assumption that a rise in the debt level of an individual company does not increase its net worth could therefore be correct but it is a fallacy of composition to assume that this applies to the corporate sector in aggregate.
How the Market Returns to Fair Value
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The stock market rotates around fair value, which is when corporate net worth and the market valuation of corporate equity are, when correctly valued, equal—the q ratio is mean reverting. This could occur through changes in net worth or in value or in some combination of both. To fit the assumptions of the neoclassical synthesis the adjustment must come from rises in net worth in response to changes in investment. It doesn’t and attempts to explain the incompatibility of the data on q with the neoclassical synthesis by allowing for tax effects have not succeeded. The mean reversion of equity q must therefore come from that of share prices and this is the natural effect of the stationarity of equity returns. When the market is cheap the returns from it are high and when overpriced low, so the risk of loss increases as share prices rise and declines as they fall. The rewards from holding equities thus rise and fall in a way that serves to restrict their swings.
Inflation, Leverage, Growth, and Financial Stability
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

Companies’ debt levels are determined by the ratio of interest payments to profits. Corporate leverage is important for financial stability and so therefore is its level in terms of assets as well as profits. When asset prices fall, borrowers become nervous of their ability to obtain new debt and lenders reluctant to extend it, thus causing a recession. For any given fall in asset prices the higher will be the loss to debtors and the depth of the recession. Since the speed of asset price declines will vary with the level of debt, the risks of financial crisis are likely to rise with leverage on a more than linear relationship. The likely size of recessions is thus leveraged by leverage, and it is therefore often proposed that interest payments should cease to be a deductible expense for corporation tax. This would be ineffective in lowering leverage without matching changes in portfolio preferences through alterations in the way in which retirement incomes are funded. If successful it would also lower investment by raising the cost of capital, unless the revenue from this tax falls. If we seek to reduce corporate leverage we must therefore be prepared for a fall in the tax rate sufficient to produce a fall in tax revenue. This will also be needed to avoid a reduction in investment, as without some offsetting change the opportunities where the expected return on equity exceeds the hurdle rate will be fewer, due to the rise in the equity proportion needed to finance new investment.
Tax
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The data confirm the presumption that companies prefer to borrow bonds rather than employ short-term debt. The risk of default varies with the specific risk of the individual borrower and the systemic risk which ebbs and flows with the general risk of bankruptcy and thus with the depth and duration of recessions. Despite the large rise in leverage post-war, the cost of debt has been dominated by changes in the long bond yield rather than by those in lending margins. As inflation affects interest rates, profits, and net worth, the relationship between interest rates and leverage needs to use comparable data, which are provided by current values for interest rates and leverage; there is as expected no observable relationship between the level of debt and real interest rates.
Depreciation, Capital Consumption, and Maintenance
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The model has some similarities and many differences with the life cycle savings hypothesis (LCSH). The major similarity is that both models assume that the young will save in order not to starve when elderly and that the old will often dissave either directly by spending more than their income or indirectly though annuities or final-salary pension schemes. Its major difference is that Modigliani implicitly assumes that the way companies behave has no bearing on savings. His model has no corporate veil. The major concern of the LCSH is to explain the level of savings, while this book’s model explains the stationarity of the equity return and, by examining the trade-off between the risks and returns of bonds and equities, to explain how this affects the leverage of companies and the ratio of debt assets to equities in household portfolios. Both models are consistent with the evidence that saving rates are higher where growth is higher, but the explanations differ. Modigliani assumes that it follows from the behaviour of individuals, while this model demonstrates the importance of corporate savings. In other respects, the LCSH fails when tested; for instance the claim that the ratio of wealth to income rises and falls with the rate of growth of the economy is inconsistent with the evidence.
The Efficient Market Hypothesis
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

Prior to the financial crisis most economists, though happily not all, believed in a version of the Efficient Market Hypothesis (“EMH”) which held that financial markets were efficiently and thus always correctly priced. The financial crisis resulted in the EMH being discredited as, despite many warnings, it led central bankers to ignore the threat posed by excess debt and overpriced assets, which believers in the EMH held to be impossible. The original, random walk, form of this hypothesis had been shown to be wrong by the stationarity of stock market returns, but many economists continued to adhere to some version of the EMH. The difficulty in persuading them to discard it was due to a significant degree to the fact that it was seldom enunciated as a well-defined and refutable hypothesis. But value, as generally understood, depends on relative returns and on this basis the EMH, when defined as holding that price and value are the same, is demonstrably wrong. While the EMH was generally understood to be making this claim the imprecision with which it was defined meant that other interpretations were possible, and some economists remain reluctant to drop the idea of efficiency. Continued claims that the market is efficient have produced no hypotheses which are sufficiently well defined to be refutable and they therefore fall on the wrong side of Karl Popper’s famous demarcation between science and nonscience.
From Biopolitics to Biopoetics and Back Again
Authors: Prozorov Sergei
Published: March 2022

The chapter addresses the relation between Michel Foucault’s studies of biopolitics and his work on the ancient techniques of the self in the 1980s. It argues that Foucault’s distinction between biopoetics and biopolitics in his 1980–1 lectures serves as the articulation of these research projects into a meaningful whole. The argument proceeds in two steps. The chapter first reconstitutes Foucault’s analysis of the Stoic discourse on marriage in his Subjectivity and Truth lectures as a paradigm for the articulation of biopolitics and biopoetics that opens governmental rationalities to various forms of reception, readjustment, or resistance by the subject. It then proceeds to Foucault’s study of the Cynics in his lecture course The Courage of Truth, in which biopoetics is in turn submitted to a politicization that consists in the constitution of a form of life through the confrontation with the existing order. Finally, the conclusion addresses the implications of this reading for contemporary discussions of affirmative biopolitics.
Rural Women in Egypt
Authors: Keo Caitlyn , Krafft Caroline , Fedi Luca
Published: March 2022

This chapter investigates the lives and livelihoods of rural women in Egypt. Rural women have lower economic participation, by standard measures, than urban women or men. This chapter introduced additional measures of economic participation and found that standard measures vastly underestimated the economic engagement of rural women. These additional measures also allowed us to better delineate the nature of women’s contributions to the economy and society. Rural women were frequently engaged in tending livestock, in household non-farm enterprises, and domestic work. Rural women had distinct patterns of family formation, with higher rates of early marriage than urban women and higher fertility rates. Although gender role attitudes were equitable in some respects, such as gender equality in education, other aspects, such as attitudes towards work and domestic violence, showed rural women were particularly vulnerable.
Aristotle and Bolzano on Grounding
Authors: Malink Marko
Published: March 2022

This paper examines Aristotle’s conception of scientific proofs as the historical roots of Bolzano’s conception of grounding and compares the two philosophers’ views on infinite grounding chains, on the role that generality plays in ground-revealing proofs, and on scientific knowledge. It begins by observing some key similarities between Aristotle’s account of demonstration in the Posterior Analytics and the account of grounding developed by Bolzano in the Theory of Science. Despite these similarities, Bolzano differs from Aristotle in that he accepts infinite regresses of grounds. Next, it considers how Bolzano adapts Aristotle’s principle that the premises of a demonstration should be of maximal generality. Finally, it discusses the role played by the relation of grounding in the broader logical theory developed by Bolzano in the Theory of Science.
The Grounds of Moral ‘Truths’
Authors: Morscher Edgar
Published: March 2022

Central to Bolzano’s ethics is his supreme moral law, i.e. an ethical truth that grounds all other ethical truths. While Bolzano considers this law to be fundamental in the realm of ethics, he also claims that it is not an ungrounded, basic truth. This paper discusses Bolzano’s view in the context of a succinct reconstruction of his views on grounding, his ethics, and his deontic logic. A specific problem that is addressed concerns the is–ought dichotomy: Bolzano is well known for accepting it for deducibility (Ableitbarkeit); the question, however, is whether he also accepts it for grounding (as he states in an early diary entry but denies in Wissenschaftslehre).
Grounding in PracticeBolzano’sPurely Analytic Proofin Light of theContributions
Authors: Rusnock Paul
Published: March 2022

Bolzano’s best-known and arguably best mathematical work, the Rein analytischer Beweis of 1817, promises to deliver a ground-revealing proof of an important theorem from the theory of equations, which Bolzano shows to follow from a generalization of the Intermediate Value Theorem. This paper explains and assesses this promise against the background of Bolzano’s early account of mathematical method, in which the idea of grounding plays a central role. In addition, it shows how Bolzano’s early views on proof, though still in an early stage of development, provided the basis for decisive criticisms of previous attempts to prove the theorem. Finally, Bolzano’s early views on proof and grounding are briefly considered in light of the later development of his thought.
A Fundamental Being
Authors: Schnieder Benjamin
Published: March 2022

In his ontology Bolzano uses the notion of grounding to make claims about the dependent and independent existence of entities. In particular, he argues that there must be a fundamental object (in Bolzano’s terminology: an unconditioned object) whose existence is not grounded in the existence of any other object. The argument is a philosophical gem, whether or not one endorses it in its entirety. Since the conception of grounding Bolzano works with is remarkably modern in spirit, his argument can be treated and discussed like a contribution to the contemporary debate about grounding and fundamentality. This paper reconstructs Bolzano’s argument, explains its Leibnizian roots, and puts the argument under scrutiny.
The Legal Complex in Struggles for Political Liberalism in Sweden
Authors: Schaffer Johan Karlsson
Published: March 2022

This chapter analyzes the role lawyers and judges played in political liberalism in Sweden. It covers the struggles for political liberalism in Sweden from the constitutional revolution in 1809 to the rights revolution in the late nineteenth century. It also looks at previous research on the legal complex that focused on legal professionals acting through courts or arising as public spokespersons for political liberalism. The chapter cites examples of political lawyering in the Swedish case, such as the time of the wartime press freedom trials. It highlights the extent legal professionals have shaped the expansion or contraction of political liberalism in Sweden, particularly achievements that have occurred through the slow and less theatrical work in governmental committees.
Finland
Authors: Konttinen Esa
Published: March 2022

This chapter reviews the theory of legal complex, wherein the lawyers' actions that favor or resist political liberalism are closely connected with the positions, cultural character, and roles of their core institutions in society. It talks about liberal action, which implies the autonomy of the bar and the judicial system, even amid a general cleavage in political society, pitting the state against society. It also examines the alliance of the various parts of lawyers' collectives that can improve the possibility that efforts to advance political liberalism succeed. The chapter emphasizes that the relationships between lawyers and political liberalism are quite complex and specific to Finnish society. It studies how lawyers' sociocultural character, their institutions, and their positions in Finnish society influence their orientations and activities around issues of political liberalism.
SDG 4 – Global Education Unfolding: Concepts, Emergence, Objectives
Authors: Fuchs Eckhardt
Published: March 2022

This chapter provides an overview of the history of education based on the key themes laid out in the Sustainable Development Goals 4 “Quality Education.” The first part traces the development of education since the beginning of the nineteenth century, paying particular attention to the main trends and actors that shaped the international discourses and practices of education. The second part focuses on SDG 4 goals such as compulsory education, peace education and global citizenship education, children’s rights, gender equality, inclusive education, human rights education, and education for sustainable development, sketching the history of each. It argues that the internationalization of the semantics and practices of education that had been perceptible since the mid nineteenth century initially remained primarily confined to Western Europe and North America. After 1945 this internationalization reached a new level, both in terms of the areas of education and the actors themselves—particularly with the establishment of international state educational organizations—and also in terms of their geographical scope.
SDG 5 – A Long, Short, and Unfinished History of the Journey to Gender Equality
Authors: Somerville Claire , Pesantes Maria Amalia
Published: March 2022

The United Nations 2015 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for Gender Equality is an example of more than a century of global-level codification and commitment to the rights of women and equality of the sexes. Feminist activism and women’s movements of the past 150 years have contributed to ensuring issues around the position, conditions, and status of all women, men, and non-binary persons have remained present and on the agenda throughout the international system, from its margins to the center. The journey is far from over and this chapter adds a historical lens to contemporary concern around gender and decolonization, grassroots activism, and Black Lives Matter, and finally the gendered impact of the global pandemic.
SDG 11 – The Past, Present, and Future of Sustainable Cities
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L. , Owens Cameron E.
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores the historical conditions that gave rise to SDG 11—that is, the unsustainable growth and development of cities and urban populations over the past two centuries. It is structured thematically and provides high-level overviews of transportation, food systems, the built environment, consumption and waste, and key methods for evaluating urban impacts. Cities exist at the intersection of the great crises of the twenty-first century: soaring populations, social inequality, slums, and lack of affordable housing; high levels of consumption, waste, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; land-use impacts, lack of access to fresh water, and the predominance of car culture. This chapter both historicizes these current conditions and, looking ahead, assesses some of the positive trends in urbanism that could help meet the lofty goals of SDG 11.
Introduction
Authors: Higgins Ben
Published: March 2022

This introduction reviews the production of the First Folio from the perspective of its publishers. It treats the book’s imprint and colophon as neglected sites of rhetorical significance and cultural conditioning and argues that we can use these brief texts––together with the personalities they name––as interpretive keys to learn more about the ways in which Shakespeare’s books were made. It introduces the four book-trade businesses that financed Shakespeare’s collected works and provides an overview of how the Folio was made. Methodologically, the introduction argues that we need new ways of working with early modern stationers. Rather than limiting ourselves to the riveting but isolated case study, books like the Folio urge us to think about communities of stationers in relation to one another. Bringing these stationers together allows their individual tactics and strategies to emerge in sharper relief, and encourages us to consider the interpretive life of a networked model of literary production.
‘Master William Shakesperes workes’
Authors: Higgins Ben
Published: March 2022

This chapter focuses on Edward Blount, one of the leading figures in the First Folio venture. Partly because of his connections to Shakespeare, Blount is often described as a ‘literary’ stationer. This chapter asks what we mean when call any stationer a ‘literary publisher’ and turns to the early modern bookshop to historicize the slippery language of literariness. The chapter argues that Blount himself––through his bookish strategies and investment habits––helped to constitute the category of ‘literariness’ for Shakespeare in ways that do not rely on authorship. The chapter examines Blount’s investment habits and introduces new evidence about the financial health of his business during the production of the Folio; it shows that Blount used the prefaces of his books to frame the reading experience; and it examines the social relations that clustered around his bookshop and are represented in the Folio’s preliminary pages.
A Minor Shakespearean
Authors: Higgins Ben
Published: March 2022

William Aspley’s name appears in just one place in association with the Folio: in the book’s colophon on the final page. Chapter three explores the significance of a stationer who owned two Shakespeare plays through an accident of biography and was only marginally interested in them. The chapter argues that the process by which Shakespeare’s theatrical manuscripts leaked in ones and twos out of the theatre and into the hands of many different ‘minor Shakespeareans’ like Aspley underpins the bibliographic creativity and fertility of Shakespeare’s printed work and was a crucial influence on the construction of the First Folio. The model of literary authority established for Shakespeare’s writing in its earliest stages and eventually by the Folio itself was enabled by many stationers like Aspley owning a small part of the playwright’s literary estate.
The Reluctant Genre
Authors: Ullyot Michael
Published: March 2022

When we historicize exemplary rhetoric, its cautionary lessons outweigh its positive exhortations. Henry’s death in November 1612 foreclosed hopes for his future reign, naturally, but for his admirers it also posed the awkward rhetorical problem of turning disappointment into inspiration. Observers of his heraldic funeral recorded their reactions as a succession of feelings: first confirmation of their unwilling knowledge; and then lamentations, consolations, and rationalizations. Henry’s elegists compared him to a panoply of exemplary forebears. Another task of elegy was to offer an allegorical explanation for the unthinkable, as evidenced by those of Edmund Spenser (for Sidney) and of Arthur Gorges and George Chapman (for Henry). The only genres to address Henry’s cautionary legacy were epitaphs and sermons, which bluntly addressed his frailty and vulnerability.
Recipe Time
Authors: Bower Hannah
Published: March 2022

This chapter uses the theme of time to show how the patchwork and piecemeal nature of remedy book compilation could facilitate shifting and metamorphic ways of envisaging human bodies. Remedy collections offer multiple ways of situating sick and healing persons in time, which oscillate between appearing marvellous and mundane and which sometimes exist in tension with one another. Modern scholars do not often associate this kind of imaginative flexibility with practical texts but medieval readers and poets seem to have understood that imaginative potential: the chapter shows that some writers of romances, a self-consciously literary and fantastical text-type, used the language and form of medical recipes within their narratives to imagine bodies transitioning in marvellous ways between health and sickness. The final section of this chapter explores how manuscript compilations that place recipes in conversation with other text-types can open up even more intersecting and overlapping temporal horizons.
The History and Functions of the UN Security Council
Authors: Hannah Allen Susan , Yuen Amy
Published: March 2022

This chapter introduces two research questions at the center of the book: Why does the United Nations Security Council take up some issues for discussion and not others? What factors shape the Council’s actions? This book makes the case that traditional approaches to the study of security institutions have left gaps in answering these questions because they assume decisions are driven only by the powerful states or because they engage in debates on the operational effectiveness of Council actions. These approaches neglect to consider the political process inside the institution and 1 the bargaining that occurs within the institutional rules. The chapter makes the case for using a legislative bargaining framework to unpack how the Council decides what to do to explain why they only act on some issues and not others.
Introduction—Taming the Tiger
Authors: Hall Kersten T.
Published: March 2022

This brief chapter introduces the book Insulin—The Crooked Timber. It recounts the author’s experience of the then-undiagnosed symptoms of diabetes. The chapter starts by telling the story of the initial reaction of his GP to various tests run by the GP at his local surgery, and the need for precise and urgent diagnosis and management by endocrine specialists at St James’s Hospital in London. The author recounts his diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes, the seriousness of the condition, comorbidities of the disease, and what happens to the body without insulin. Finally, the author introduces the subject matter of the book and explains the science behind the discover of insulin.
A Greek Tragedy
Authors: Hall Kersten T.
Published: March 2022

John Murlin was not the only researcher who claimed the discovery of insulin. In Berlin, German physician Georg Zuelzer was dismayed to hear that Banting and Macleod had been awarded the Nobel Prize. Zuelzer claimed he had first discovered a pancreatic extract with anti-diabetic properties in 1908 upon which he had filed a patent. This chapter tells Zuelzer’s story and his struggle to overcome problems of supply, resources, funding, and recognition to eventually win support from the Swiss company Hoffman-La Roche. Working with the chemist Camille Reuter, he discovered an effective anti-diabetic preparation by August 1914. His success was overshadowed by the outbreak of the First World War.
The Clone ‘Wars’
Authors: Hall Kersten T.
Published: March 2022

The discovery of bacterial restriction enzymes in the late 1960s and early 1970s raised the possibility that a specific fragment of DNA could be excised from the genome of one organism and physically joined with that from another, unrelated, organism to create a hybrid, or recombinant DNA molecule. This technology promised new understanding of how genes worked but it also raised fears amongst the public and media. What if, for example, a section of DNA known to be oncogenic in humans was inserted into the genome of a common bacterium? It was against this backdrop of fear and suspicion that two rival teams of researchers, one led by Walter Gilbert at Harvard, and the other by Bill Rutter at the University of California San Francisco raced to be the first to insert the DNA sequence encoding human insulin into the genome of a bacterium to produce functional human protein.
Introduction: The neoliberal value of citizenship
Authors: Mavelli Luca
Published: March 2022

This chapter introduces the neoliberal transformation of citizenship by drawing some initial connections between seemingly disparate events concerning the securitization of European borders, the Greek debt crisis, and the COVID pandemic. It contends that these events are epiphenomenal of a pervasive transformation of citizenship that subordinates inclusion, protection, and belonging to the economic and emotional value of individuals and populations. As such, neoliberal citizenship transcends traditional distinctions between members and strangers and inside and outside. It reconfigures value as a totalizing rationality that transcends the economic domain and invests social relations, affects, dispositions, and spheres of existence—like humanitarianism—by rewriting them in neoliberal terms. Neoliberal citizenship, the chapter contends, is sustained by a three-dimensional regime of governance whose axes are constituted by biopolitics, scarcity, and the sacred. The biopolitical separation of the valuable from the valueless is actively pursued by establishing regimes of artificial scarcity (of welfare provisions, of solidarity) that require the sacrifice of surplus populations (debased citizens of austerity, undocumented migrants). This sacrificial violence is the product of a remarkable inversion performed by neoliberal citizenship which enthrones the market as a sacred entity that dictates who must live (and how) and who must die.
The creative destruction of citizenship
Authors: Mavelli Luca
Published: March 2022

This chapter argues that neoliberalism is a crisis-driven mode of governance and explores the mutually constitutive nature of neoliberalism and crisis through the prism of Joseph Schumpeter’s notion of ‘creative destruction’. It introduces the Eurozone, refugee, and Brexit crises and explores how Europe’s multiple crises have been seized and exploited to advance the creative destruction of citizenship and its neoliberal reconstruction. It then discusses two crucial features of this process: the ‘mystique of complexity’—a fundamental neoliberal technology of crisis management that establishes the market as a transcendent domain partially beyond human understanding and criticism—and the politics of scapegoating—instrumental to deflect responsibility from the market to the most vulnerable groups. Finally, the chapter considers two distinctive requirements of neoliberal citizenship: resilience and sacrifice. The latter is the simultaneous willingness to sacrifice and proactively demand the sacrifice of certain individuals and groups that fail to comply with the requirements of neoliberal citizenship.
Sacred market, sacrificial lives (II)
Authors: Mavelli Luca
Published: March 2022

This chapter analyses a second trajectory of sacralization of the market through an extensive engagement with neoliberal forefather Friedrich Hayek. This trajectory, which rests on the absolutization of the ‘mystique of complexity’ discussed in Chapter 2, ascribes to the market an unconquerable complexity and capacity of coordination that vastly exceed human comprehension. It entails a distinctive ‘leap of faith’ in the ultimate goodness of the market, even when the latter delivers suffering, crises, and shocks. The resulting regime of neoliberal citizenship is a rendering of Malthus’ theory of overpopulation that celebrates suffering and justifies the sacrifice of the less valuable as necessary for the reproduction of the market order. The chapter shows how the scarcity that underpins this regime is: (a) not natural, but socially instituted and instrumental to preserve and reproduce the neoliberal logic of value; (b) not confined to material resources, but also concerning values, which are seemingly threatened by the overabundance of migrants, the poor, and unwanted others. Neoliberal citizenship produces a race-to-the-bottom egalitarianism based on a mimetic fear of sameness, rather than difference, that ultimately asks us to sacrifice the very ones we could become.
The sacrificial citizenship of COVID-19
Authors: Mavelli Luca
Published: March 2022

This chapter focuses on the implications of the ongoing coronavirus pandemic for neoliberal citizenship. It explores how this crisis has been shaped by a neoliberal rationality of scarcity—of intensive care beds, ventilators, PPE, qualified and properly trained staff—which has materialized in years of underfunded public healthcare infrastructure and just-in-time managerial approaches aimed at saving costs at the expense of the capacity of saving lives. Indeed, saving the market or saving lives has been the fundamental neoliberal rationality governing the COVID crisis. This has prompted the further internalization of the categories of ‘sacrificial others’ to include nominal ‘normal’ citizens such as the elderly in care homes. Their sacrifice has been made imperative by a biopolitical ‘calculus of lives’ that increasingly subordinates the ‘right to have rights’ associated with citizenship to one’s individual perceived value. The coronavirus pandemic, the chapter discusses, has contributed to further strengthening the hold of neoliberal citizenship by normalizing the idea that lives are sacred only insofar as they can survive scarce health provisions without affecting the functioning of the neoliberal order.
Party Dominance in Democracy
Authors: Carty R. Kenneth
Published: March 2022

Long-term dominance by a single political party ought not to exist where healthy democratic electoral competition exists. How then to understand and explain those cases where it does? By identifying different faces of democratic dominance, the chapter identifies five cases that stand out as exceptions—the Liberal Party of Canada, Ireland’s Fianna Fáil, the Congress Party of India, Japan’s Liberal Democratic party, and the Christian Democratic Party of Italy. All became their country’s “natural party of government” for long decades. A framework for disciplined parallel cases studies, followed by a set of systematic comparative analyses, outlines the questions and methodological approach the book adopts to unveil the nature and operation of these “Government Parties” as distinctive democratic organizations deeply entwined with the essential nature of the political regimes they control.
A Family Business
Authors: Carty R. Kenneth
Published: March 2022

The Congress party was first a political movement dedicated to the creation of an independent Indian state and then a political instrument for the integration and development of a democratic politics in the world’s largest and most diverse electorate. So entrenched was the party that Indian politics came to be described in terms of the “Congress system.” As an organization it reached out from the centre into the peripheries through a network of decentralized, personalistic, and fluid linkages that embraced the crude arithmetic of communal and caste voter banks in the interest of assembling parliamentary majorities. Holding the party together at the centre was the Nehru-Gandhi family as dynastic succession across the generations provided the glue holding the diverse elements and ambitions of its parts together over time. The leadership failures of the fourth generation, and the appeal of a new opposition promising to abandon the vision of a secular state for a Hindu nationalism, eventually broke Congress dominance and led to the emergence of bipolar competition.
The Government Party
Authors: Carty R. Kenneth
Published: March 2022

Political parties that are able to dominate in systems of democratic electoral competition are often portrayed as particularly successful versions of Kirchheimer’s catch-all party type. Drawing on the record and experience of the most successful democratic dominant parties (in Canada, Ireland, India, Japan, and Italy) indicates that on critical defining features of party practice and organization—their origin, electoral target, expressive function, and structure and leadership—they constitute a distinctive type of “Government Party.” The politics of these national governing parties is tied to the fundamental purpose of the political regime in which they are embedded, generating a distinctive centrism, an electoral focus on power and office rather than ideology and policy, and leaving them vulnerable to scandal and corruption. As the regular party of national government much of the effective competition in the wider system, and its capacity for electoral accountability, are played out in intraparty dynamics in its organization.
Dominance and Decline over the Long Run
Authors: Carty R. Kenneth
Published: March 2022

Single-party dominance in democracy is not forever. Although dominant parties may persist for decades, they are characterized by a long-term secular decline in their electoral support. The patterns of this decline are not common and are shaped by differences in the fragmentation of the wider system and the reduction in electoral turnout in some of the developed systems. The enduring success of government parties is bound up with their identification with and integration into the fundamental cast of the political order and its nation- and/or state-building challenges. The weakness of this relationship is the endemic corruption and political scandal that it invites and burdens a government party with. The ultimate erosion of dominance can have distinctive ends with parties “bust,” “broken,” “bent,” or in one case “rebuilt,” leaving their national politics bereft of a government party and their party systems forced to evolve new, competitive dynamics and mechanisms for government formation.
Does Working Longer Enhance Old Age?
Authors: Fitzpatrick Maria D.
Published: March 2022

Understanding the link between retirement and health is crucial for both improving people’s well-being and for designing optimal public policy around retirement. Yet, to date, the economics literature has been inconclusive about whether retirement causes improvements or deterioration in health. The lack of consensus is likely driven by differences in study design, population, the age of workers, and the set of health outcomes studied. In this chapter, I explain and distill the literature, highlight patterns in the highest quality studies, and discuss the implications of the findings for longevity risk management and worker and retiree health going forward.
The City and the Ship
Authors: Jiménez Aurelio Pérez
Published: March 2022

Chapter 14 argues that Plutarch managed to breathe new life into the metaphor of the ship-of-state, which by his time had become a trite image. It demonstrates that Plutarch, inspired by its use by Plato and other philosophers, developed every single aspect: the rigging, sails, helm, anchor, crew, subordinate commanders, and a ship-captain who either makes the right decisions for which he is praised or suffers criticism for shifting the responsibility of his command onto another person when a storm is coming. The city confronts the swelling dangers that await it from outside and from within, and sometimes bad news in times of good fortune is like a cloud that hangs over the city. Plutarch’s attention to and expansion of all aspects of the image of the ship and its natural environment shows his originality and a ‘baroque’ literary aesthetic.
The Place of the Polis in Plutarch’s Political Thinking
Authors: Roskam Geert
Published: March 2022

Chapter 15 brings out the tensions between Plutarch’s philosophical debts to Plato’s ideal polis and his own pragmatism. It argues for the advantages of going beyond Praecepta gerendae reipublicae and An seni respublica gerenda sit, which have so far monopolized scholars’ interest, to works such as the collections of apophthegmata, antiquarian works such as the Quaestiones Romanae, or rhetorical pieces such as De fortuna Romanorum. While acknowledging Plutarch’s ethical conception of the polis and its significance, it draws attention to the importance of the imperium Romanum, of international friendships, and of Plutarch’s belief in the philosopher’s duty to maximize his usefulness by benefiting many through the agency of one. It concludes that Plutarch’s pragmatism, shaped by his social and political experience, was as important as his debts to Plato.
Plutarch’s Civitas Dei
Authors: Stockt Luc Van der
Published: March 2022

Chapter 16 explores Plutarch’s concept of the ‘ideal’ city and suggests that it was deeply religious: as a Platonist, Plutarch believed in divine Providence and the manifestation of the divine in human affairs, but took the role of the divine a step further and developed an analogy between the organization of human society and that in heaven. In Against Colotes he expresses a belief in divine Providence, divine justice (1125a), and divine government and law as ‘the underpinning and base that holds all society and legislation together’ (1125e). Elsewhere he develops the analogy between the organization of human society with that in heaven and suggests that the politician’s task on earth should be modelled upon the role of Providence and Zeus in the cosmos. The discussion concludes with the reminder that Plutarch’s ideal city is not on earth, but in heaven.
Plutarch on Superstition, Atheism, and the City
Authors: Whitmarsh Tim
Published: March 2022

Chapter 17 re-examines On Superstition, compares it with other treatises (especially A Pleasant Life—the non posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum), and argues that it is a pointed, public-facing intervention into the civic culture of the early Empire, focusing on the ongoing debate over the relationship between religion and the city. Prima facie the treatise criticizes both the atheists, who denied the existence of gods, and the superstitious, who claimed that the gods are malevolent beings intent on destroying humans. Yet the real, underlying target of Plutarch’s criticism is the Epicurean critique of superstition, namely the view that conventional civic religion is superstition and nothing more. Plutarch attacks the Epicurean, non-providential view of religion on its own terms, and seeks to shore up (what he saw as) conventional religion. Plutarch emerges not as an abstract theorist but as an astute observer of the world around him, and as embedded in civic life and the arguments that dominated it.