bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fuzzy concepts in translators’ minds
Authors: Griebel Cornelia
Published: May 2017

Legal texts place particular demands on the reader owing to the institutionalized communication situation, their abstract content and language, and the indirect connection of the utterances with the extralinguistic and extralegal world. Most legal translators are not legal experts. Therefore, accessing the meaning of legal argumentation represents a major challenge, especially as legal translators mainly have to comprehend and translate texts issuing from a foreign legal system with its own legal language and terminology. With the aim of explaining the particular difficulties of legal text understanding and translation, this article takes up some general theoretical approaches of mental organization of word knowledge and speech comprehension developed in cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics. These general models are adapted to the understanding of legal text comprehension, focusing on the mental representation of highly abstract legal language and legal arguing. On that basis, a cognitive-translational model of legal text understanding is developed. Finally the use of the model is discussed as a theoretical contribution to legal translator training and with regard to the particular position of the legal translator within the communication process.
La revisión de traducciones jurídicas y la evaluación de su calidad en el ámbito profesional
Authors: Pontrandolfo Gianluca
Published: May 2017

Abstracto

Este artículo presenta los resultados de un análisis empírico de un encargo de revisión profesional de una traducción jurídica en la combinación español-italiano.

Siguiendo la metodología empleada por Künzli (2007), el material objeto de análisis se basa en las revisiones bilingües, comparativas y pragmáticas (Parra 2005, 13–26), comentadas y justificadas mediante un cuestionario, de una sentencia dictada por un órgano judicial español.

Los grupos de profesionales, todos italianos nativos, que participaron en el estudio fueron: a) juristas lingüistas; b) traductores profesionales con una especialización en traducción jurídica; c) traductores con una sólida experiencia en el ámbito profesional, pero mínima en el campo jurídico; d) juristas.

Los resultados consideran los siguientes elementos: tiempo, aceptabilidad y calidad de la revisión; cantidad y tipologías de errores; intervenciones de revisión; acciones de revisión; recursos y herramientas; comentarios acerca del proceso de revisión.
Response of Fish Population Dynamics to Mitigation Activities in a Large Regulated River
Authors: Watkins Carson J. , Ross Tyler J. , Quist Michael C. , Hardy Ryan S.
Published: May 2017

Extensive water development in large rivers has precipitated many negative ecological effects on native fish populations. Mitigation for such development often focuses on restoring biological integrity through remediation of the physical and chemical properties of regulated rivers. However, evaluating and defining the success of those programs can be difficult. We modeled the influence of mitigation‐related environmental factors on growth and recruitment of two ecologically important native fish species (Largescale Sucker Catostomus macrocheilus and Mountain Whitefish Prosopium williamsoni) in the Kootenai River, Idaho. Artificial nutrient (phosphorus) addition best predicted the variability in annual growth of both species. Nutrient addition was positively related to Largescale Sucker growth but negatively related to Mountain Whitefish growth. The best model explained 82% of the annual variability in incremental growth for Largescale Suckers and 61% of the annual variability for Mountain Whitefish. Year‐class strength of Largescale Suckers was not closely related to any of the environmental variables evaluated; however, year‐class strength of Mountain Whitefish was closely associated with nutrient addition, discharge, and temperature. Most research has focused on biotic assemblages to evaluate the effects of mitigation activities on fishes, but there is an increased need to identify the influence of rehabilitation activities on fish population dynamics within those assemblages. Here, we demonstrate how fish growth can serve as an indicator of rehabilitation success in a highly regulated large river. Future fish restoration projects can likely benefit from a change in scope and from consideration of an evaluation framework involving the response of population rate functions to mitigation.

Received October 31, 2016; accepted March 13, 2017 Published online May 11, 2017
Study on photocatalytic performance of TiO2 and Fe3+/TiO2 coatings
Authors: Zhang Y. , Fan W. , Du H. Q. , Zhao Y. W.
Published: May 2017

The TiO2 coatings were fabricated in phosphate-based electrolyte on pure titanium by micro-arc oxidation (MAO); then, they were impregnated with Fe3+-containing electrolyte to produce the Fe3+/TiO2 composite coatings. The physical and chemical properties of two coatings were investigated by SEM, XRD, AFM, XPS and EDS. A UV–vis spectrophotometer was also used to study photocatalytic properties of the coatings. It is indicated that the coating formed in phosphate-based electrolyte were composed of anatase and rutile phase with varying fraction depending on the applied frequency. XPS results revealed that Ti 2p spin-orbit components of Fe3+/TiO2 composite coatings are shifted towards higher binding energy, with respect to TiO2 coatings, suggesting that some of the Fe3+ ions are incorporated into TiO2 lattice. The Fe3+/TiO2 composite coatings showed an obvious enhanced photocatalytic activity than that of the TiO2 coating under irradiation.
The work of Jerry Harvey on student cheating
Authors: Stavrou Eleni T.
Published: May 2017

This article provides an analysis of Jerry Harvey’s seminal article on the ethics of encouraging students to cheat. The author draws from classic theories like McGregor’s Theory X and Y, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Merton’s self-fulfilling prophecy to argue for the underlying mechanisms based on which teachers view cheating as a negative and unethical act by students. Then, she relays Harvey’s argumentation on how the dominant view on cheating is unethical and counterproductive, turning this view around to promote cheating as an act of altruism, collaboration and dignity.
Social, cognitive, behavioural and neighbourhood characteristics associated with sedentary time in men and women living in deprived neighbourhoods
Authors: Watts Paul , Hayee Shahid Mahwish , Bertotti Marcello , Tobi Patrick
Published: May 2017

Multiple individual and neighbourhood characteristics are theorised to influence adult sedentary behaviour. The aim of this study was to examine associations between individual and neighbourhood‐level characteristics in 40 deprived neighbourhoods in London, UK. A cross‐sectional design was utilised with baseline data from the Well London Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial in 40 deprived neighbourhoods in London. Multilevel linear regression was used to examine associations between individual characteristics (measured by household survey), neighbourhood characteristics (neighbourhood audit, GIS and routinely available datasets) and sedentary behaviour (sitting time). Individual‐level positive mental well‐being and health behaviours were associated with sedentary time. Individual‐level social networks were associated with decreased sedentary time in men and increased sedentary time in women. Neighbourhood‐level measures of social networks and perceived neighbourhood quality were associated with reduced sedentary time. Fifteen per cent of the variance in sedentary time was attributable to differences at the neighbourhood level (intra‐class correlation coefficient = 0.15). These findings suggest that social networks at the individual and neighbourhood levels, collective perceptions of neighbourhood quality, individual‐level positive mental well‐being and other health behaviours may be important components of interventions developed to reduce sedentary time in deprived populations.
Usher syndrome type 1–associated cadherins shape the photoreceptor outer segment
Authors: Schietroma Cataldo , Parain Karine , Estivalet Amrit , Aghaie Asadollah , Boutet de Monvel Jacques , Picaud Serge , Sahel José-Alain , Perron Muriel , El-Amraoui Aziz , Petit Christine
Published: May 2017

Usher syndrome type 1 (USH1) causes combined hearing and sight defects, but how mutations in USH1 genes lead to retinal dystrophy in patients remains elusive. The USH1 protein complex is associated with calyceal processes, which are microvilli of unknown function surrounding the base of the photoreceptor outer segment. We show that in Xenopus tropicalis, these processes are connected to the outer-segment membrane by links composed of protocadherin-15 (USH1F protein). Protocadherin-15 deficiency, obtained by a knockdown approach, leads to impaired photoreceptor function and abnormally shaped photoreceptor outer segments. Rod basal outer disks displayed excessive outgrowth, and cone outer segments were curved, with lamellae of heterogeneous sizes, defects also observed upon knockdown of Cdh23, encoding cadherin-23 (USH1D protein). The calyceal processes were virtually absent in cones and displayed markedly reduced F-actin content in rods, suggesting that protocadherin-15–containing links are essential for their development and/or maintenance. We propose that calyceal processes, together with their associated links, control the sizing of rod disks and cone lamellae throughout their daily renewal.
Lynn Margulis and the endosymbiont hypothesis: 50 years later
Authors: Gray Michael W.
Published: May 2017

The 1967 article “On the Origin of Mitosing Cells” in the Journal of Theoretical Biology by Lynn Margulis (then Lynn Sagan) is widely regarded as stimulating renewed interest in the long-dormant endosymbiont hypothesis of organelle origins. In her article, not only did Margulis champion an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids from bacterial ancestors, but she also posited that the eukaryotic flagellum (undulipodium in her usage) and mitotic apparatus originated from an endosymbiotic, spirochete-like organism. In essence, she presented a comprehensive symbiotic view of eukaryotic cell evolution (eukaryogenesis). Not all of the ideas in her article have been accepted, for want of compelling evidence, but her vigorous promotion of the role of symbiosis in cell evolution unquestionably had a major influence on how subsequent investigators have viewed the origin and evolution of mitochondria and plastids and the eukaryotic cell per se.
DIRECTION: a machine learning framework for predicting and characterizing DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation in mammalian genomes
Authors: Pavlovic Milos , Ray Pradipta , Pavlovic Kristina , Kotamarti Aaron , Chen Min , Zhang Michael Q
Published: May 2017

Motivation

5-Methylcytosine and 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in DNA are major epigenetic modifications known to significantly alter mammalian gene expression. High-throughput assays to detect these modifications are expensive, labor-intensive, unfeasible in some contexts and leave a portion of the genome unqueried. Hence, we devised a novel, supervised, integrative learning framework to perform whole-genome methylation and hydroxymethylation predictions in CpG dinucleotides. Our framework can also perform imputation of missing or low quality data in existing sequencing datasets. Additionally, we developed infrastructure to perform in silico, high-throughput hypotheses testing on such predicted methylation or hydroxymethylation maps.

Results

We test our approach on H1 human embryonic stem cells and H1-derived neural progenitor cells. Our predictive model is comparable in accuracy to other state-of-the-art DNA methylation prediction algorithms. We are the first to predict hydroxymethylation in silico with high whole-genome accuracy, paving the way for large-scale reconstruction of hydroxymethylation maps in mammalian model systems. We designed a novel, beam-search driven feature selection algorithm to identify the most discriminative predictor variables, and developed a platform for performing integrative analysis and reconstruction of the epigenome. Our toolkit DIRECTION provides predictions at single nucleotide resolution and identifies relevant features based on resource availability. This offers enhanced biological interpretability of results potentially leading to a better understanding of epigenetic gene regulation.

Availability and implementation

http://www.pradiptaray.com/direction, under CC-by-SA license.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Complexity analysis in the sport of boxing
Authors: Tennant Adam G , Ahmad Nasir , Derrible Sybil
Published: May 2017

A general model of the complexity of the sport of boxing has yet to be produced exploring the match play that goes on between combatants. The sport has a long history that dates back to the eighth century before common era (BCE) to the time of ancient Greece. Also known as the ‘sweet science’, most research work has legitimately focused on the combat sport’s long-term health affects concerning brain trauma. This present study seeks to explore the complexity of the sport by utilizing a data set of welterweights (63.5–67 kg). This data set was used to build a contact network with the boxers as nodes and the actual fights as the links. Additionally a PageRank algorithm was used to rank the boxers from the contact network. Devon Alexander was calculated as the top welterweight from data set. This was compared with the rankings of the sport’s notoriously corrupt sanctioning bodies, journalistic rankings, and a more standard non-network based ranking system. The network visualization displayed features typical of many others seen in the literature. A closer look was taken on several of the boxers by the visualization technique known as the rank clock. This allowed for the boxer’s rank history to be tracked and allowed for insight on their career trajectory. Timothy Bradley and Vyacheslav Senchenko had rank clocks that displayed them to be the most consistent boxers in the 2004–2014 decade. These research findings supply further confirmation of value of the network based approach in athletic match play.
Splicing in immune cells—mechanistic insights and emerging topics
Authors: Schaub Annalisa , Glasmacher Elke
Published: May 2017

Differential splicing of mRNAs not only enables regulation of gene expression levels, but also ensures a high degree of gene-product diversity. The extent to which splicing of mRNAs is utilized as a mechanism in immune cells has become evident within the last few years. Still, only a few of these mechanisms have been well studied. In this review, we discuss some of the best-understood mechanisms, for instance the differential splicing of CD45 in T cells, as well as immunoglobulin genes in B cells. Beyond that we provide general mechanistic insights on how, when and where this process takes place and discuss the current knowledge regarding these topics in immune cells. We also highlight some of the reported links to immune-related diseases, genome-wide sequencing studies that revealed thousands of differentially spliced transcripts, as well as splicing studies on immune cells that remain mechanistically not fully understood. We thereby display potential emerging topics for future studies centered on splicing mechanisms in immune cells.
Workplace Discrimination, Equal Pay, and Sexual Harassment
Authors: Boris Eileen , Elias Allison Louise
Published: May 2017

This chapter traces the changing status of women in the workplace by focusing on the individual and collective battles of the 1960s and 1970s that resulted in legal protections for working women. It considers new names for old problems—like sexual harassment—as well as new remedies for workplace discrimination that drew on equal employment law, unionization, and other organizational forms. Race, motherhood, age, and citizenship status distinguished women’s experiences in paid work, and thus this chapter takes an intersectional approach to understanding workplace developments based on women’s diverse identities. Anti-discrimination law has generated single-axis frameworks, which fail to address harms experienced by women of color that stem from their racialized gender and their holding low-paying, sex segregated jobs excluded from many labor standards. After providing an overview of these developments, the chapter ends with some directions for future research.
Welfare, Poverty, and Low-Wage Employment
Authors: Ernst Rose , Luft Rachel E.
Published: May 2017

This chapter describes women’s social movement activity for economic justice, with an emphasis on race and gender intersectionality. The chapter begins with a case study of the welfare rights movement. It then describes tensions between issue and identity frames in the literature on poor women’s mobilization. This discussion links the intersectional politics of the movements to the intersectional dynamics of social movement scholarship. The chapter then homes in on two overlapping sectors of women’s labor organizing—child care and domestic work—in order to highlight the emergent themes more empirically. The intersectional politics and scope of women’s organizing for economic justice challenge scholars to develop new frameworks for understanding social movement activity.
The Swells between the “Waves”
Authors: Goss Kristin A.
Published: May 2017

American women’s history is often understood as unfolding in two movement “waves”: the movement for political equality (suffrage) in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the movement for social and economic equality a half-century later. In the period between these two waves, women supposedly retreated from the public sphere. This chapter argues that the inter-wave era was actually a politically vibrant time for American women. Millions of middle-class White women joined membership organizations to lobby for a wide array of foreign and domestic policy changes. Working-class women built up unions and labor auxiliaries and gained political experience that would feed the feminist movement of the 1960s–1970s. Women of color created thriving advocacy organizations that simultaneously represented intersectional perspectives and connected local service organizations to nation-spanning political movements. Conservative women formed their own organizations to push back against the progressive, internationalist bent of their more liberal counterparts.
U.S. Women’s Legal Activism in the Judicial Arena
Authors: McCammon Holly J. , Hearne Brittany N.
Published: May 2017

Women’s activism in the judicial arena has a long history. This chapter reviews the scholarly literature to provide core insights into women’s struggles and their legal successes in the courts. It begins with a broad definition of women’s legal activism and describes barriers that historically prevented women from fully participating in the courts. Women’s legal activism has played a significant role in removing these barriers. The chapter also discusses key events in feminist law, including the Roe v. Wade decision, congressional passage of the 1963 Equal Pay and 1964 Civil Rights Acts, and the 1971 Reed v. Reed decision. These legal developments erected important legal platforms for pursuing further rights and equality for women, for instance, in the areas of sexual harassment and pregnancy discrimination. In recent years, women have continued their legal efforts to expand the reach of the Fourteenth Amendment and Title VII and to protect reproductive rights.
Women’s Activism and Educational Institutions
Authors: Crossley Alison Dahl
Published: May 2017

Mobilized women have indelibly changed educational institutions, their activism creating equality in many spheres of higher education. This chapter draws on literature on women’s movements and movements within institutions to argue that women’s activists have successfully organized for educational accessibility and resources, the legal rights of women and girls in educational institutions, and the presence of women and incorporation of scholarship about women in the academy. I first address the history of women’s entry into U.S. educational institutions, and then activists’ successes and challenges with developing women’s studies, Title IX, and women’s athletics. I then turn to an examination of contemporary women’s student activism. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the broader connections between movements and institutions.
The Equal Rights Amendment Campaign and Its Opponents
Authors: Kretschmer Kelsy , Mansbridge Jane
Published: May 2017

This chapter traces the history of the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and its relationship to the women’s movement. The ERA has both mobilized and divided the American feminist movement from its inception in the 1920s, backed by the National Woman’s Party, through its defeat in the 1980s. A broad coalition of feminist groups fought for the ERA, yet also were divided on issues of race, class, and political ideology. Some radical feminists, socialist feminists, women of color, and working-class women publicly questioned what impact the ERA would have on women’s everyday lives, suspected its formal equality, and criticized the National Organization for Women and liberal feminists for allocating significant resources to a seemingly single-minded pursuit of the ERA. The conservative countermovement finally blocked the amendment’s ratification. The ERA today faces a revival, prompted by a legally innovative “three-state strategy.”
Women in the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Movement
Authors: Rupp Leila J. , Roth Benita , Taylor Verta
Published: May 2017

This chapter explores the history of women’s participation in the LGBT movement, from the homophile phase in the 1950s–1960s through gay liberation, lesbian feminism, anti-AIDS activism in the 1980s–1990s, to contemporary queer activism and the marriage equality movement. The chapter points to shifts in women’s participation, ranging from fighting for women’s issues within male-dominated organizations to creating separatist groups to collaborating with gay men in mixed-gender organizations. In addition, the chapter focuses on changes in collective identities adopted by women in the LGBT movement, sometimes emphasizing commonalities across the lines of sex and sexual identity and sometimes emphasizing difference. The analysis makes clear the ways that social movement spillover from the Old Left, civil rights, women’s, anti-war, New Left, and other movements had an impact on women’s organizing in the LGBT movement, and, in turn, how women’s participation in the movement spilled over to new forms of activism.
The Turn toward Socialist, Radical, and Lesbian Feminisms
Authors: Schneider Beth E. , Pham Janelle M.
Published: May 2017

The emergence of socialist, radical, and lesbian feminisms during the 1960s was a reaction to, and critique of, liberal feminism. Activists in this women’s liberation branch of the second wave strongly agreed that liberal feminism, with its focus on rights, choice, and personal achievement, was insufficient in its analysis of women’s status and condition. Each of the three strands differed in their analysis of the roots of the problem and in their approaches to social change. This chapter details “the turn” to socialist, radical, and lesbian feminism during the 1960s and 1970s with a focus on the ideological underpinnings, strategies, and organizations, examining the differences between and within each strand. Each of these strands faced varying levels of criticism for their lack of attentiveness to the diversity of women’s experience beyond the interests of a mostly White, middle-class constituency. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research on these feminisms.
Introduction
Authors: McCammon Holly J. , Taylor Verta , Reger Jo , Einwohner Rachel L.
Published: May 2017

The introduction to The Oxford Handbook of U.S. Women’s Social Movement Activism, begins with an “aerial” view of the history of scholarship on U.S. women’s collective action, tracing the roots of this body of research to the early nineteenth century and following its trajectory to the present. In recent decades, the scholarly study of U.S. women’s activism has increased dramatically, with a wide range of investigations that reveal both the broad diversity of women’s politicized collective action and the theoretical sophistication in our understanding of the causes, processes, and consequences of women’s collective struggles. The introduction concludes with an overview of the Handbook’s five sections, which explore the history of women’s activism, the issues mobilizing women, the strategies and tactics women have employed, the targets and forums of women’s activism, and women’s participation in a variety of social movements, in addition to those concerned with women’s issues.
Redefining the Contexts of Acculturation Related Stress Among Latino Adults
Authors: Cervantes Richard C. , Bui Thuy
Published: May 2017

The scientific and clinical need to advance understanding of the processes related to Hispanic acculturation and its impacts is pressing. This chapter articulates how acculturation stress and related specific stressor events occur within distinct life domains or contexts. New research is juxtaposed to previous research that demonstrated how acculturation stressors cluster in unique, orthogonal, and independent life domains among both adult and adolescent Hispanics. This chapter refers to contexts of acculturation stress as spheres of life or domains that entail social and psychological interactions with the dominant, receiving culture. New research is presented on the relationship between acculturation stress context among adult Hispanics and mental health indicators. Understanding the contexts in which acculturation-related stress can impact Latinos is critical to health and behavioral health programming, where such information can assist in the development, adaptation, and tailoring of prevention and interventions that are more acceptable and relevant for this growing population.
Democracy and Cooperative Networks
Authors: Maoz Zeev
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the role of democracy and other characteristics that affect cooperation and conflict in the traditional literature. It assesses the more recent contribution of network analytic studies to the understanding of conflict and cooperation processes. Key contributions of network studies include controlling for network effects on dyadic conflict and cooperation, corroborating some of the key results of non-network studies, and clarifying important debates in the literature on cooperation and conflict. Most of the contributions of the network analytic studies of conflict and cooperation are dyadic in nature. The few systemic or group-level analyses of international cooperation show significant promise, but until recently there has been little effort to extend traditional units of analysis to some of the more important units derived from network analysis. The chapter demonstrates some of the potential of such approaches via an analysis of democracy’s role in the emergence of cooperative international communities.
Election Data and Levels of Analysis
Authors: Kollman Ken
Published: May 2017

This chapter discusses the advantages, but also challenges, of having election data at various levels of analysis. Fortunately, election results across the world are being collected and organized into useable datasets at various levels of analysis, including voting machines, polling stations, precincts, villages, constituencies, provinces or states, regions, and countries. The author uses the literature on Duverger’s law as an example of a research area that has benefited from new sources of data and from research drawing upon those data at multiple levels of analysis. The chapter concludes that data science and new sources of data will continue to transform political science, including the study of elections.
Trust and the Welfare State
Authors: Kumlin Staffan , Stadelmann-Steffen Isabelle , Haugsgjerd Atle
Published: May 2017

This chapter considers if and how social and political trust are affected by policy outputs and outcomes related to the welfare state. We survey how (dis)similar explanatory variables, causal mechanisms, and methodology are across four accumulations of studies. Specifically, we discuss contextual factors in “normal times” as well as effects of economic crises. We also assess individual-level factors focusing on “performance evaluations” and “personal experiences” of welfare state aspects and institutions. Overall, we find evidence for relationships between welfare state related variables and both types of trust. However, the evidence currently seems somewhat stronger and broader for political trust, suggesting that welfare state consequences for trust may well be “more political than social.”
Dialectical Behavior Therapy and Emotion-Focused Therapies for Eating Disorders
Authors: Chen Eunice , Yiu Angelina , Safer Debra
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides a description and review of the research evidence for the adaptation of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and emotion-focused therapies for eating disorders (EDs). First, the chapter briefly describes the standard DBT program as originally developed for women with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and the evidence for standard DBT with BPD. Second, the rationale for the adaptation of DBT for EDs is given and preliminary evidence for DBT and other emotion-focused treatments is described. Finally, the Stanford DBT program for EDs is outlined. Given the promise of alternative treatments for eating disorders, further development, adaptation, and testing of transdiagnostic emotion regulation treatments is warranted.
Cognitive Remediation Therapy for Eating Disorders
Authors: Harrison Amy
Published: May 2017

Eating disorders (EDs) have been described as among the most difficult psychiatric disorders to treat. Intervening early appears to be associated with better prognosis, although a subgroup of 20% of individuals may develop a more severe and enduring form of illness, which is associated with higher rates of mortality. Many patients with EDs who come into contact with clinical services may have extreme ambivalence toward change, which is often observed through high treatment dropout rates and difficulties engaging in treatment. This chapter outlines cognitive remediation therapy (CRT) for eating disorders, a treatment enhancer designed to support individuals with severe and complex forms of illness. This chapter explores how CRT has been used, examines its efficacy, reflects on its place as part of an overall treatment package for patients with EDs, and finally, explores options for future research in the field.
Eating Disorders and Problematic Eating Behaviors After Bariatric Surgery
Authors: Orcutt Molly , Steffen Kristine , Mitchell James E.
Published: May 2017

Bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment for severe obesity and its weight-related comorbidities. As the use of bariatric surgery has increased, concerns have arisen about problematic eating behaviors (EBs) and eating disorders (EDs) in this population. This chapter describes the current literature detailing EDs and problematic EBs and weight control practices (WCPs) in the post-bariatric-surgery population. It begins with a description of EDs in this population. Next, it describes problematic EBs, followed by a review of postoperative gastrointestinal problems that influence EBs. Third, it reviews the WCPs that can evolve. Finally, it describes models of “food addiction” as they apply to eating-related pathology in the post-bariatric-surgery population.
Organization and Plasticity of Cortical Inhibition
Authors: Kripkee Bernard , Froemke Robert C.
Published: May 2017

Plasticity of inhibitory synapses keeps inhibition in balance and in register with excitation when changes occur in excitatory synapses. Inhibition has many functions to perform, and there are many kinds of inhibitory neurons to perform various computations and regulate network activity. Different forms of long-term changes in inhibitory synapses have been demonstrated that depend on neural activity. Inhibitory plasticity appears to be partly responsible for the specificity of the inhibitory connections needed to carry out some inhibitory functions. The evolving story of cortical inhibitory plasticity shows that different types of inhibitory interneurons play different roles in a variety of inhibitory functions, that several types of inhibitory plasticity have been attested, and that different forms of plasticity can be expected to have different effects on the organization and specificity of inhibitory connections.
The Emergence and Development of Intellectual Property Law in Canada
Authors: Gervais Daniel
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews the emergence of intellectual property (IP) norms in the areas of copyright, trademarks, patents, and designs in Canadian law from the early days of the Dominion’s complex relationship with British IP statutes and policy to a time of progressive independence from those statutes. It then reviews more recent changes, some of which were made to bring Canada’s laws into line with major international registration systems. Canada has also been ready to experiment with variations on IP themes. This is visible both in statutes and in decisions by the Supreme Court of Canada. The impact of the bijural nature of Canada’s legal system and its proximity to the United States are also discussed: Canada has integrated civil law notions into an edifice constructed mostly of common law bricks, and must confront demands from its most important trading partner in adapting its intellectual property framework.
Visual Impressions of Causality
Authors: White Peter A.
Published: May 2017

A simple animation in which a moving object contacts a stationary one and the latter then moves off gives rise to a visual impression in which the first object makes the second one move. There are several other kinds of visual causal impressions; they are perceptual interpretations that go beyond, and disambiguate, the information in the stimulus. It has been argued that visual causal impressions result from the activation of innate perceptual structures or mechanisms. It has also been argued that visual causal impressions result from the activation of memorial information based on past experience. These past experiences may be of actions on objects or of other things acting on a passive actor. Whichever of these hypotheses turns out to be correct, the visual world as experienced is already interpreted in terms of causality before causal reasoning processes begin to operate.
Causal Reasoning in Non-Human Animals
Authors: Schloegl Christian , Fischer Julia
Published: May 2017

One goal of comparative cognitive studies is to achieve a better understanding of the selective pressures and constraints that play a role in cognitive evolution. This chapter focuses on the question of causal reasoning in animals, which has mainly been investigated in tool-using and large-brained species. Our survey reveals that numerous animal species appear to be sensitive to violations of causality and may even be tuned to attend to causally relevant features. This, in turn, may facilitate causal learning. The ability to draw logical conclusions and make causal deductions, however, seems to be restricted to few species and limited to (ecologically) relevant contexts. It seems warranted to reject the traditional associationist view that non-human animals lack any understanding of causality, but convincing evidence for human-like abilities is lacking. For instance, animals do not appear to understand the causal structure of interventions.
The Early Modern New Found Land
Authors: Pope Peter
Published: May 2017

Some of the earliest traces of European transatlantic expansion have been excavated in Canada’s easternmost province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The medieval Norse site at L’Anse aux Meadows, the sixteenth-century Basque whaling station and ship at Red Bay, Labrador, and the seventeenth-century colonial sites at Cupids and Ferryland have been particularly significant for historical archaeology. These major projects have inspired work on the early St John’s waterfront and on the French colony of Plaisance, as well as research on the ethnohistory of the native Beothuk and on the early modern French migratory fishery. The chapter shows the role historical archaeology has played in revising traditional approaches to the history of early modern Newfoundland, fundamentally challenging narratives of colonial failure.
Regional and National Councils of Churches
Authors: Kinnamon Michael
Published: May 2017

Councils of Churches are perhaps the most important instruments of the modern ecumenical movement, which works for the visible unity of Christians. This chapter describes the nature and ecclesiological significance of councils of churches, arguing that the essence of any council is the growing relationship of the member churches to one another. The focus of the chapter is on councils at the national and regional levels. It briefly surveys the history of these councils, and considers the challenges they now face with regard to their membership, programme, finances, accountability, and also with regard to their relationships with other Christian movements and organizations.
Judge-Made Law and the Common Law Process
Authors: Depoorter Ben , Rubin Paul H.
Published: May 2017

One of the most illustrious normative claims in the law and economics literature, originating with Posner and supported by models of evolutionary legal change, posits that a system of judge-made law offers efficiency advantages over statute-based systems. In recent years, however, scholarship has identified aspects of common law systems that undermine the optimism about judge-made efficiency. This chapter reviews the original economic literature on the efficiency of the common law and then describes supply- and demand-side obstacles to efficient judge-made law. On the supply side, a rich body of literature on judicial decision-making and judicial attitudes casts doubt on the ability as well as the motivations of courts to bring about efficient precedent. Demand-side complications include interest group effects, plaintiff selection effects, information selection effects, settlement selection effects, and procedural factors.
Law and Economics of Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: Fisher Talia
Published: May 2017

Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) refers to a variety of private processes for resolving disputes, independent of trial before a court of law. Economists are interested in ADR for two main reasons. First, from an ex post perspective, the manner in which disputes are resolved or decided in society affects the operation of the legal system and its cost-efficiency. Second, from an ex ante perspective, the manner in which rights are vindicated impacts primary behavior and investments in prospective dispute avoidance. The literature relating to the economic analysis of ADR can be divided into two facets: one facet is dedicated to the interests of litigating parties to make use of ADR mechanisms; the other is directed at the social interest in ADR. This chapter identifies the conditions under which parties will be incentivized to enter into ADR proceedings, and then moves on to examine the social welfare implications of ADR.
Economics of Federalism
Authors: Inman Robert P. , Rubinfield Daniel L.
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the political economy of federalism. The core of the chapter focuses on the classic Tiebout framework and its support for a decentralized federal system. However, it goes beyond the Tiebout world in suggesting a framework that is expanded to take into account bargaining among governmental units. The chapter also describes political models of legislative and executive branch decision-making that suggest the potential benefits and costs associated with centralized government. Ultimately, the choice of an “optimal” level of decentralization depends on the relative importance one places upon economic efficiency and the potentially competing values of political participation, economic fairness, and personal rights and liberties.
Economics of Tax Law
Authors: Shaviro Daniel N.
Published: May 2017

This chapter considers the question of how tax law can be designed with an eye to maximizing economic efficiency. From the standpoint of efficiency, no lump-sum tax is better than any other—by definition all succeed equally in avoiding the creation of deadweight loss. This leads directly to two main questions. First, why are lump-sum taxes, or instruments that come as close to them as possible, so absent, not just in actual practice but even in theoretical debate about tax policy? The answer turns on the importance of distributional issues. Second, how do considerations of efficiency operate once we have accepted, for distributional reasons, the need for tax instruments that have the unfortunate side effect of discouraging productive activity?
Economics of Criminal Procedure
Authors: Hylton Keith N.
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews the economics of criminal procedure, proceeding through four topics in the literature. First, it reviews the implications of substantive criminal law theories for criminal procedure. The second part discusses the error cost model of criminal procedure, which is the dominant framework and posits that criminal procedure rules are designed to minimize the sum of error and administrative costs. The third part reviews the public choice model of criminal procedure. Under this model, criminal procedure rules are designed largely to regulate rent-seeking activity. The last part of this chapter discusses some of the empirical work on procedure that bears directly on deterrence and welfare effects.
Prosecutorial Strategies
Authors: Bowles Roger
Published: May 2017

Prosecutors are central to the public enforcement of law. They play a key role in the criminal justice system and have primary responsibility for the preparation and presentation of cases against persons accused of breaking the criminal law, although they do not themselves have powers of arrest or imprisonment. Over the past forty years, economics literature on prosecution has made explicit some of the key trade-offs prosecution lawyers have to resolve and some of the key issues faced by policymakers in this field. This chapter reviews some of the key themes in the economics literature on prosecution and prosecutorial strategies. It sets out the basic model of prosecution developed by Landes (1971); explores some of the subsequent elaborations; and reviews some recent empirical evidence.
Economics of Legal History
Authors: Klerman Dan
Published: May 2017

In order to make sense of the field, this survey identifies and discusses five genres of scholarship that use economics to understand legal history: 1) Works that analyze law as the dependent variable try to explain why societies have the laws they do and why laws change over time. 2) Scholarship that views law as an independent variable looks at the effect of law and legal change on human behavior. 3) In bidirectional histories, law and society interact in dynamic ways over time. Laws change society, but change in society in turn leads to pressure to change the law, which starts the cycle over again. 4) Studies of private ordering investigate the ability of groups to develop norms and practices partly or wholly independently of the state. 5) Works on litigation and contracts in former times analyze these phenomena using modern tools and theories.
Economics of International Organizations
Authors: Trachtman Joel P.
Published: May 2017

The essence of an international organization is the delegation of decision-making authority from individual states to the organization, representing the collectivity of member states. In simple terms, international organizations are to international law as firms are to contracts: states form international organizations in order to reduce the transaction costs associated with cooperation, as compared to the entry into international legal rules without organizations. The core questions are the same: why are these institutions formed, what powers do they have, and how are they exercised? This chapter analyzes the reasons for the creation of international organizations, as well as the reasons why particular structures of international organizations are utilized. It assesses the relationship among assignment of subject matter authority, legislative capacity, adjudicative capacity, enforcement capacity, and membership. It examines how these features correspond to particular contexts of international cooperation.
Legal Fees and Lawyers’ Compensation
Authors: Emons Winand
Published: May 2017

This chapter analyzes and compares different forms of attorney compensation, namely contingent, conditional, and hourly fees. It focuses on the risk-sharing, screening, and incentive aspects these different contractual forms give rise to. It finds that each contractual form has its virtues, depending on the special circumstances of the relationship between the attorney and his client. In particular, the distribution of information turns out to be crucial. The message is, therefore, that there should be freedom of contract between the client and her lawyer: let them choose the contractual form that best suits their interests and the special circumstances of their relationship.
Economic Models of Law
Authors: Miceli Thomas J.
Published: May 2017

This article discusses the use of economic models for understanding law. It begins by describing the nature of economic models in general, and then turns to the specific application of economic models to law. It distinguishes between ‘economic analysis of law’, which concerns the use of economic theory for describing the incentive effects of legal rules (positive analysis) and for prescribing better rules (normative analysis); and ‘law and economics’, which concerns the relationship between law and markets as alternative institutions for organizing economic activity. The article concludes with some comments on the actual process of building economic models of law.
Empirical Law and Economics
Authors: Gelbach Jonah B. , Klick Jonathan
Published: May 2017

This article begins with a stylized history of empirical work in law and economics. It links the success of the empirical movement in law and economics with the so-called ‘credibility revolution’. The hallmark of this revolution has been a focus on research designs that helped overcome some of the impediments to empirical work in law schools. It then provides some methodological observations about a number of commonly used approaches to estimating policy effects. Next, it uses the literature on the economics of crime and criminal procedure to illustrate the ways in which many of these techniques have been used. It provides examples of fields — corporate law and economics and civil procedure — that would benefit from increased attention to modern empirical analysis and methods.
Public Choice Theory and Legal Institutions
Authors: Farber Daniel A.
Published: May 2017

This article asks what public choice can teach about legal institutions and their governing framework of public law. It begins with an overview and assessment of two important components of public choice: social choice theory (stemming from Arrow's Theorem) and interest group theory. It then considers the use of public choice models to explain the behaviour of legislatures, agencies, and courts. The core public choice insight is that institutional structures are responses to fundamental problems relating to collective action. However, the normative use of specific public choice models should be undertaken with caution. The models are likely to be most useful when they are informed by deep familiarity with specific institutional contexts; reforms are context-specific; and proposed changes are at the margin rather than involving major structural changes.