bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Examination of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale with a Sample of Academically Talented Children
Authors: Parker Wayne D. , Stumpf Heinrich
Published: March 2007

The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) was constructed and normed on an all-female college student sample. The present study is a psychometric examination of the instrument for use with a mixed-gender sample of 855 academically talented children who were participating in the longitudinal Developmental Study of Talented Youth conducted by the Center for Talented Youth of Johns Hopkins University. The internal consistency of the MPS total score was .87; coefficient alphas for the subscales ranged from .67 to .90. The matrix of intercorrelations of MPS subscales was consistent with that obtained with the college sample used to develop the instrument. A confirmatory item factor analysis demonstrated an acceptable degree of fit. A factor analysis of raw scores on the MPS subscales yielded two factors. The first factor appears to represent dysfunctional perfectionism, the second factor reflects healthy perfectionism. The scores on these factors were correlated with the five-factor domain scores obtained on the NEO-FFI. The first factor correlated most strongly with N (Neuroticism); the second factor correlated most strongly with C (Conscientiousness).
Evaluating Abridged Versions of the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices for Identifying Students with Academic Talent
Authors: Ablard Karen E. , Mills Carol J.
Published: March 2007

The Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) has been recommended as a useful measure for identifying academic potential. Several abridged versions of the test, including Set I, have been developed as shorter screening instruments, but they await systematic evaluation. Two hundred twenty-one academically talented students (62% males), who ranged from fifth to ninth grades, completed the APM Set I and Set II. In addition, two short forms of the APM were derived using a technique described by Arthur and Day (1994). Both of these short forms had psychometric properties that were superior to those of Set I of the APM and were correlated more strongly with the full APM than Set I. The psychometric properties of the derived short forms were examined with an independent sample of students (n = 247) and found to be comparable. In addition, scores from these short forms were correlated significantly (but moderately) with independent reasoning assessments used to identify academic talent. With appropriate caution, short forms of the APM may be a reasonable alternative to the full test as a quick screening measure for identifying potentially talented students.
Validity of Temperament Constructs Using the Student Styles Questionnaire: Comparisons for Three Racial-Ethnic Groups
Authors: Stafford Mary E. , Oakland Thomas D.
Published: March 2007

Studies establishing the validity of a test used with persons from different ethnic groups are necessary for understanding the extent to which the test adequately and consistently reflects the qualities it is designed to measure. The present study examined the construct and content validity of the Student Styles Questionnaire (SSQ) for three racial-ethnic groups (i.e., African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Anglo Americans). The SSQ is a temperament measure for students aged 8 through 17. Comparative construct validity results indicate that a high degree of factor similarity exists across racial-ethnic groups; factor similarity is less strong when Hispanic Americans living in New York and Texas are compared. Differential item functioning studies reveal similar response patterns for Hispanic Americans when compared to both African Americans and Anglo Americans; however, differences occur on 25% of items when African and Anglo Americans are compared.
Phonological Awareness Skills in Children: Examining Performance across Tasks and Ages
Authors: Chafouleas Sandra M. , Lewandowski Lawrence J. , Smith Corinne R. , Blachman Benita A.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the performances of 171 children in kindergarten through second grade on 11 tasks of phonological awareness. The purpose was to assess phonological awareness skill acquisition across age and type of task. Results provided support for an ordering of tasks by difficulty, or age of mastery, as follows: rhyme, alliteration, blending, segmentation, manipulation. Performance on all of the tasks demonstrated rapid growth in 6-year-old children (first grade), and most tasks were mastered (90% correct) by the age of 7 years. The study also supports previous work indicating certain variables (i.e., age, verbal ability, letter-sound knowledge, reading skill) that are significantly related to performance on the phonological measures. Knowing the age at which students typically master these tasks and the order in which they acquire these skills should enhance our ability to assess both normal and delayed phonological awareness performance and help to inform instructional practices.
Thematic Apperception Tests for Child and Adolescent Assessment: A Practitioner's Consumer Guide
Authors: Kroon Nicky , Goudena Paul P. , Rispens Jan
Published: March 2007

This article reviews the thematic apperception tests that are currently available to the practitioner for child and adolescent assessment. Besides the well-established CAT and TAT, various new tests have been developed to address contemporary issues relevant to young children and adolescents. The discussion of the comparative strengths and weaknesses of these instruments' is related to issues of test validity and reliability
Upholstered Furniture Heat Release Rates: Measurements and Estimation
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis
Published: March 2007

A new instrument, termed a furniture calorimeter, has been constructed and placed into operation for measuring furniture heat release rates based on oxygen consumption. Using the furniture calorimeter, burning rate information has been obtained on a series of 13 chairs, loveseats, and sofas, most of them specially built to permit direct comparisons of construction features. A quantitative assessment is made of the effect of fabric types, padding types (cotton batting, ordinary polyurethane foam, and California-requirements foam), and frame types. The advantages of furniture calorimeter testing over normal room fire testing are discussed. Based on these measurements, a rule is presented for estimating the heat release rate based on design factors. Finally, implications for achieving both good flame resistance and good cigarette ignition resistance are discussed.
Large Scale Fire Tests of Building Riser Cables
Authors: Kaufman S. , Williams J.L. , Smith E.E. , Przybyla L.J.
Published: March 2007

The National Electrical Code requires that riser cables have sufficient fire resistance so they will not spread fire from floor to floor in a shaft. Fire tests were conducted as the initial task in developing a test method for determining compliance with the Code. The tests provided data on the flame propagation characteristics of riser cables in a simulated riser shaft. The shaft design was based on information from a field survey. The data indicated that with a large ig nition source, simulating burning combustibles in a shaft without fire stops, some cables propagated fire from floor to floor; others utilizing newer fire resistive materials, did not exhibit the same propensity to promulgate fire.
Effect of Phosphorus and Halogen Compounds On the Quenching of Polymer Flames
Authors: Kishore K. , Mohandas K.
Published: March 2007

The exhaustive literature on polymer combustion shows only a few references to the quenching of polymer flames. In the present work, we have tried to simulate the quenching process in a laboratory scale test method. A study of the extinguishment of flames when the oxygen supply is stopped to burning poly styrene samples containing various additives has been attempted. The parameters measured are the quenching time and the weight-loss during quenching. The quenching behaviour is found to depend on the nature of burn ing of the samples. Two types of burning, viz, "melt flames" and "flames on solid samples," are identified and their quenching behaviour has been discussed. The extinguishment times after the stopping of oxygen supply are almost indepen dent of the initial oxygen flow rates. NH 4Br and organic bromine compounds are found to be very effective in quenching. This is presumed to be due to the gas- phase flame inhibition effect of HBr. The influence of char formation on quench ing is investigated. A correspondence between the rate of weight-loss during quenching and mass burning rate of the samples has been observed.
Thermal Degradation of Painted Wood. an Experimental Study
Authors: Vovelle C. , Akrich R. , Mellottee H.
Published: March 2007

A comparative study of thermal degradation of painted and unpainted parti cle board specimens has been carried out. Experiments based mainly on the measurements of piloted ignition delay, mass loss rate and temperature profile have been performed using a radiative heat flux equal to 2.4 W/cm2. Thermo gravimetric analysis has complemented these measurements. It has been shown that thermal degradation of paints produces a solid residue which strongly affects exchange phenomena at the wood surface and consequently the thermal behavior of wood.
A Computer Model To Stimulate Fire Testing of Non-Combustible Materials
Authors: Calhoun Philip R.
Published: March 2007

A brief explanation of a finite element heat transfer method which can simulate fire testing of noncombustible materials is presented in this paper. This type of computer modeling can aid in obtaining more fire test information with less effort. Three computer models using this numerical technique are compared with actual fire tests. The models simulated fire tests on U.S. Navy bulkhead systems and non-load bearing wall systems.
Study On Combustibility of Urethane-Modified Polyisocyanurate Foam
Authors: Imai Yoshio , Inukai Takao , Tamashima Masato
Published: March 2007

The relation between components of urethane-modified polyisocyanurate foams and their combustion behavior was observed to compare with rigid poly urethane foams, using the specially designed burning test apparatuses. Accord ing to the vertical smoke-weight determination for chipped samples, almost all foams lost their weight at about 650 °C. The amount of generated smoke became maximum at about 500 °C for polyurethane foams and at about 600 °C for polyisocyanurate foams. According to the horizontal smoke-concentration deter mination for small plate samples, fires occurred with much amount of generated smoke at about 600 °C. Through both the testings, adoption of higher functional isocyanate, secondary polyol, lower molecular weight polyol, or amine catalyst brought much smoke generation. Polyisocyanurate foams showed little smoke as compared with polyurethane foams.
A Bioassay Model for Testing the Incapacitating Effects of Exposure To Combustion Product Atmospheres Using Cynomolgus Monkeys
Authors: Purser David A.
Published: March 2007

A bioassay model has been developed to test the time course and degree of in capacitation produced by exposures to thermal decomposition products from polymeric materials. A battery of physiological tests was used during separate exposures to atmospheres of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hypoxia, hypercapnia and heated air. Each atmosphere was designed to simulate one aspect of the conditions commonly encountered in fires. Measurements were made of the animals' respiration, cardiac function and respiratory blood gases. Neurological function was monitored by measurements of the elec troencephalogram, auditory cortical evoked potentials and peripheral nerve con duction velocity. Hypoxia (10% oxygen) caused muscle weakness, a decrease in nerve conduction velocity, abnormal cardiac function accompanied by a fall in blood pressure and central nervous system depression. At 1000 ppm carbon monoxide, venous carboxyhaemoglobin levels reached 30%. There was a reduc tion of nerve conduction velocity and in some cases severe central nervous system depression. At 60 ppm hydrogen cyanide had a slight depressive effect on the central nervous system, while at 80-150 ppm severe central nervous system depression and incapacitation occurred. The main result of 5% carbon dioxide exposure was a three-fold increase in respiratory minute volume. It is concluded that the model is capable of detecting early physiological signs of in capacitation induced by fire conditions. It is suggested that exposures to a com bination of hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide with accompanying changes in cerebral blood flow during attempts to escape from fires may be a cause of col lapse and subsequent death.
Polyacrylates in Flame Retardant Treatments of Textile Fabrics
Authors: Beninate John V. , Trask Brenda J. , Drake George L.
Published: March 2007

Durable phosphorus-based flame retardants containing polyacrylate emul sions were applied to cotton, cotton-polyester, and cotton-wool twill fabrics to study the effect of the added polyacrylates on the physical properties and flame retardancy. The Thps-urea-TMM flame retardant with added polyacrylate im parted better overall physical properties to 100% cotton fabric than to cotton blend fabrics. Treatments containing polyacrylates with low glass transition temperatures produced fabrics with the highest abrasion resistance, tearing strength and wrinkle recovery. The flame retardancy of treated fabrics was not adversely affected by the addition of polyacrylates to the flame retardant treatments.
Flamespread Variability of Candidate Wood-Based Reference Materials
Authors: Le Van Susan L.
Published: March 2007

We determined the flamespread variability of four wood composite panel products that were being considered as possible standard reference material. We examined the effect of density, moisture content, heating rate, thermal conduc tivity, and specific heat on this variability. Of these, density has the greatest ef fect on variability. Of the four types of materials tested, material C had one of the smallest density variabilities. We recommend that this material be used in ASTM E 84 tests to establish its use as a standard reference material for flame spread tests, and that material selection and statistical design procedures outlined in this paper be followed.
Flammability Limits of Hydrogen-Oxygen-Diluent Mixtures
Authors: Kumar R.K.
Published: March 2007

Flammability limits of hydrogen-oxygen-diluent mixtures were determined in a 5-cm diameter, 1.8-m long tube, for upward, downward and horizontal prop agation of the flame. It was found that for fuel-lean mixtures, upward limits were nearly independent of the diluent type and concentration; downward limits showed a slight dependence on diluent type and concentration. Limits for fuel- rich mixtures were independent of the direction of propagation of the flame. In all cases, to a good approximation, horizontal limits lay midway between the upward and downward limits. It was also found that limits for fuel-rich mixtures were dependent on the oxygen volume fraction. Empirical correlations are presented to estimate the limits.
Review of Progress Towards the Development of an Upholstered Furniture Flammability Standard
Authors: Colver C. Phillip , Colver John C.
Published: March 2007

Fires from upholstered furniture are the leading cause of residential fire deaths in the United States. The Amended Flammable Fabrics Act of 1967 allowed the federal government to evaluate and develop flammability stan dards in a number of fabric areas, including upholstered furniture. In 1973, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) began initial work towards a mandatory federal standard. Shortly thereafter, the furniture industry formed the Upholstered Furniture Action Council (UFAC). Several states have mean while adopted certain upholstered furniture flammability standards. In 1979, the CPSC postponed implementation of their proposed standard to allow the UFAC to develop their voluntary program. The CPSC and UFAC began a coop erative effort to find ways of improving the cigarette ignition resistance of upholstered furniture. Among those, the use of heat conducting welt cords has proven very promising. Although budgetary reasons forced the CPSC to end their upholstered furniture project in 1986, the UFAC remains committed to find ways for reducing cigarette ignition of upholstered furniture.
Smoke and CO Evolution from Cotton and Flame Retarded Cotton. Part 1: Behaviour of Single Layer Fabrics under LOI Conditions
Authors: Akalin M. , Horrocks A.R. , Price D.
Published: March 2007

The limiting oxygen indices of two different area densities of untreated and phosphorus-containing flame retardant cotton fabrics (Proban CC, Amgard TR, Amgard CD) have been determined at 20 and 100°C. Simultaneous smoke and CO evolutions from all the fabrics have been determined at respective LOI and (LOI + 0.010) oxygen concentration conditions at 20 and 100°C.

At 20 ° C, flame retardants present greatly increased smoke generation whilst little if any change in CO generation (except for the bromine-containing Amgard CD) occurred. Whilst increase in temperature to 100°C reduced fabric LOI and increased apparent and specific smoke optical densities its effect on CO generation was not straightforward. Lightweight, bromine-free flame retarded fabrics showed increased CO formation whilst for the heavier fabrics, increased area density and/or presence of bromine stabilised or reduced CO evolution.
Thermal Stability of Fire Retardants:* V. Decomposition of Haloalkyl Phosphates under Polyurethane Processing Conditions
Authors: Larsen Eric R. , Ecker Ernest L.
Published: March 2007

The thermal decomposition of a series of commercial FR agents used in polyurethane was studied in dilute solution in bibenzyl at temperatures com monly found in the center of large, slab stock buns. At 216°C all of the haloalkyl phosphates containing the XCH2CYHO- groups, where X is Cl or Br and Y is H or ClCH2-, decomposed at similar rates, i.e., they all gave first order rate constants between 1.0 and 5.8 x 10 -4 min-1. The addition of toluene diamine to the solution increased the rate of acid evolution from the reacting mixture by a factor of at least ten and in one case by a factor of sixty. The amine is postulated to attack the C-X bond to produce a secondary amine hydrohalide salt which releases hydrogen halide at elevated temperatures.

Pentabromodiphenyl oxide was found to be stable under both sets of condi tions. Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, in contrast, undergoes decomposition via a free radical mechanism similar to that of vicinal dibromoalkanes.

Tribromoneopentyl phosphate was stable at 216°C, though it decomposed slowly at 234 °C. In the presence of the amine, TBNPP decomposed with the liberation of tribromoneopentyl alcohol and minor amounts of HBr.
The Mechanism and Performance of Combustion Modified Flexible Foams in Small Scale Fire Tests
Authors: Batt A.M. , Appleyard P.
Published: March 2007

The subject of the behaviour of flexible polyurethane foams in a "fire situation" has always been a controversial issue. The introduction in March 1989 of legislation in the United Kingdom requiring all furniture and bedding sold to contain filling materials meeting BS 5852 has led to a complete new grade range of flexible foams. Currently these Combustion Modified High Resilience (CMHR) Foams are, in the main, based on "polymer polyols" or "grafted polyols" and contain Melamine as the major fire retardant additive. Some conventional fire retardant of the phosphorus-halogen type is also in cluded in the formulation.

Samples of CMHR foams typical of those available on the European market have been evaluated in small scale fire tests, and their performance used to ob tain "targets" or "yardsticks" for further work. A Limiting Oxygen Index of 25% vol. O2 appears to be typical for these CMHR foams of density 25 kg/m3.

We have shown that the combination of melamine and a phosphorus-halogen fire retardant is superior to that of either additive used singly and that the choice of the base polymer polyol also appears to have an influence on the per formance of the final foam. Both the PHD and PIPA polyols require less fire retardant additive than the SAN polyol, Polyurax U.1408, to achieve the same performance in the particular tests used. However these advantages are less obvious at higher fire retardant loadings.

Of the potential alternatives to melamine screened in this evaluation urea appears to be the most obvious candidate. Foams containing urea were superior to those based on melamine in all the fire tests used. As an example an increase of about 2% vol. O 2 requirement in the LOI test was obtained.

Additives such as alumina trihydrate, magnesium hydroxide, ammonium polyphosphate and ammonium borates were not as effective as melamine in im proving the fire properties of the CMHR-foams. They did not interact benefi cially with the polymer, nor did they volatilise/decompose over the required temperature range.
Relative Inhalation Toxicity in Rats of Pyrolysis Products from Polymeric Materials
Authors: Raje Ravindra R. , Greenberg Leo
Published: March 2007

Twenty-eight polymeric materials used in the manufacture of transit equipment were evaluated for relative inhalation toxicity. 10 g of each were pyrolysed at 450, 550, 650, 750, and 850°C and the pyrolysis products were allowed to enter a 225 L cylindrical plexiglass chamber containing a cir cular, chambered unit rotating at 3 rpm. The system was semi-closed with con stant fresh air intake and recirculation of pyrolysis products. From initial py rolysis experiments without rats, using gas chromatographic analysis at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 30 minutes, toxicity experiments were carried out at three temperatures for all the polymeric materials. For each toxicity study, four S/D rats, two males and two females, weighing 150 ± 15 g were used. 10 g of test material were used and chamber air analysed for toxic gases at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 30 minutes of the exposure period. Amber fog lights enabled obser vation of time to incapacitation (Ti). The number of animals dying in the cham ber, or within the following week was noted and dead animals autopsied. All the samples were ranked according to (Ti) at different temperatures, and an at tempt made to determine the rank order correlation between (Ti) and carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide.
Combustion Characteristics of Polyurethane Foams Covered with Fabrics*—An SPI Research Project
Authors: Gallagher J.A. , Zirk W.E.
Published: March 2007

Combustion-modified polyurethane flexible foams can exhibit different flammability characteristics when covered with a fabric than when the foam alone is exposed to the same conditions. Recognizing this, regulatory and advisory agencies have turned to composite testing rather than component testing (e.g., the Boston Chair Test, California Technical Bulletin 133). It is doubtful that a small scale test could supplant the full scale tests; however, a method of screening composites would be very desirable.

The Society of the Plastics Industry's Flexible Foam Combustibility Commit tee previously reported a classification system for foams alone using ASTM E 906 as the test procedure. Using piloted ignition and an imposed flux of 1.75 Watts/cm2, the foams could be partially classified. When the self-propagating flux values were added to the prior data, a classification system was developed.

As a continuation of this project, five laboratories participated in a round robin wherein four generic classes of fabric were tested in triplicate over seven different types of foam at 1.75 Watts/cm2. The cumulative heat release at one minute intervals, the maximum rate of heat release, the time at which this oc curred and the percentage weight loss were the parameters studied.

The variability of the inter-laboratory data averages was too large to permit the development of a definitive classification system. If the wool/nylon fabric group (which gave the largest inter-laboratory variation but the lowest heat release results) is eliminated from consideration, the remaining composites (save one) could be classified into three categories based on the heat release at both three and four minutes.

This project indicates that it is possible to rank foam/fabric composites ac cording to their ability to resist combustion using ASTM E 906. However, fur ther work is necessary to define the causes of poor inter-laboratory agreement. Perhaps some other parameter not previously studied could aid in classifying foam/fabric composites.
Ignitability Comparisons between the ISO Ignitability Test and the Cone Calorimeter
Authors: Mikkola Esko
Published: March 2007

Ignitability tests were completed on three materials using the ISO ignitability apparatus and the Cone Calorimeter. A large number of repli cate tests were made at each heat flux level to obtain reliable standard devia tion values for the results. The possible errors in results were minimized using the very same external conditions. Both methods can be used to measure ignit ability, although there is some systematic difference in the measured ignition times. The ISO ignitability tests give slightly shorter ignition times caused by difference in convective heat flow. These results show, however, that it is possi ble to find a simple relation between the results of the two test methods.
The Corrosivity of Fire Gases
Authors: Drysdale D.D. , Macmillan A.J.R.
Published: March 2007

A series of small scale experiments has been carried out to in vestigate how the corrosivity of fire gases is affected by changes in fire ventila tion. It has been shown that corrosivity increases with decreasing ventilation.
Fire and Smoke Corrosivity of Structural Materials
Authors: Patton Joel S.
Published: March 2007

The deleterious effects that combustion products generated dur ing fires can have on normal construction materials have been well-docu mented. The combined effects of fire, corrosive smoke and particulate have been defined as fire corrosivity. While the effects of fire corrosivity are well-known, little quantitative information is available concerning the mechanisms in volved and the degree to which materials, particularly metals, are susceptible. Consequently, a study which was conducted to begin examining the effects of fire and smoke corrosivity on metals is described and the results are presented. Various metal targets were exposed to corrosive smoke and fire particulate pro duced from polyvinylchloride (PVC) samples burned in a cone calorimeter. The target materials consisted of 304 stainless steel, 1010 carbon steel and 70-30 CuNi alloy. In addition to metal targets, electrical resistance probes were also utilized in the testing to monitor in-situ corrosion rates. The probe materials corresponded to the metal targets so that a comparison could be conducted. After testing, both the metal targets and corrosion probes were sectioned and prepared for analysis using standard metallographic techniques. The targets and probes were analyzed for corrosion products and depth of attack. Results from this testing show that all the metal targets proved highly susceptible to the effects of fire and smoke corrosivity attributed to the burning of PVC samples. These results are presented and compared by corrosion rates. In addi tion, the performance of the corrosion probes in terms of their ability to produce accurate corrosion measurements was evaluated by comparing their corrosion depth measurements to those of the metal targets. It can be concluded from these observations that the testing of structural metals for their resistance to fire corrosivity must be done over a wide range of combustion environments us ing a large number of targets in order to generate a statistical basis before any predictions can be made concerning a particular alloy's resistance.
Toxicity of the Atmosphere in an Upstairs Room Caused by Inflow of Fire Effluent Gases Rising from a Burn Room
Authors: Morikawa Tokio , Yanai Eiji , Okadaa Takeo , Sato Kisen
Published: March 2007

Fire experiments were repeatedly conducted in a fire-resistant 2-story house to investigate the toxicity of atmosphere in its second floor room, using one of the first floor rooms as a burn room, which was fully equipped with construction materials and house contents. In each fire experiment only the size of the opening of the doorway to the second floor room was varied. The tox icity was found to become sufficiently high to cause death to rabbits exposed to cooled gases taken from any location in the second floor room, even when the doorway to the second floor room was almost completely closed. Major toxicants were limited to CO and HCN, as in our earlier study [1]. Although the blood cyanide level was always below 2.0 μg/mL, HCN must have had an important role in causing death to the rabbits, because the COHb level mostly remained below 50%.
Zone Model Simulation of Fires in Chinese Restaurants in Hong Kong
Authors: Chow W.K.
Published: March 2007

The fire risk in Chinese restaurants in Hong Kong is studied in this paper. The local regulation, the existing design for fire safety and the past fire record are discussed. Surveys on the fire load in fifteen Chinese restaurants of different sizes are made and reported. The fire equivalent duration period, which is related to the surveyed fire load density is calculated. Since smoke is a key factor in discussions of fire safety, the time required to fill the restaurants with smoke had to be calculated. In this case, fire models have to be used and the zone model CFAST developed at the Building and Fire Research Labora tory, NIST, U.S.A. is used to study the fire environment. Correlations are derived between the equivalent duration period and the predicted maximum hot gas temperature and the corresponding smoke layer interface height.
The Smoldering Potential of Used Upholstery Fabrics: Unsoiled vs. Soiled
Authors: Wanna Joseph T. , Polo Adriano , Schettino Dundee
Published: March 2007

The objective of this research was to determine the effect of soil ing, through wear, on the smoldering potential of upholstery fabrics. This research was done to test the supposition that smolder resistant fabrics on new furniture will become more susceptible to smoldering with soiling and age. This is shown not to be the case. Sixty used upholstery fabrics were collected from eight upholstery shops, and areas of each fabric were determined to be either "soiled" or "unsoiled." A soiled area is an exposed surface of the upholstery fabric, whereas an unsoiled area is not exposed. Each fabric's compo sition, e.g., cellulose or synthetic, was determined, and soiled and unsoiled samples from each fabric were analyzed for pertinent chemical and physical characteristics. For the majority of fabrics, the smoldering potential of the soiled areas did not increase with respect to the unsoiled areas. In fact, more fabrics exhibited a reduced (versus increased) tendency to smolder upon soiling. Of the 27 cellulosic fabrics, only 2 fabrics changed from non-smoldering in the unsoiled area to smoldering in the soiled area. But, 6 fabrics that smoldered in the unsoiled area did not smolder in the soiled area. Two ions that play a major catalytic role in smoldering ignitions, sodium and potassium, showed increased levels in soiled areas by approximately 800 ppm and 480 ppm, respectively. These increases did not account for the observed changes in smolder potential. The increase in sodium and potassium ion levels for the synthetic fabrics was equivalent to those of the cellulosic fabrics. Calcium and magnesium did not in crease between soiled and unsoiled fabric areas. Of the six anions analyzed for unsoiled and soiled areas of the 60 fabrics, levels of chloride and sulfate anions increased in the soiled samples compared to the unsoiled.
Multi-Cell Concept for Simulating Fires in Big Enclosures Using a Zone Model
Authors: Chow W.K.
Published: March 2007

The multi-cell concept is applied to simulate fire in a big com partment with the zone model CFAST. The predicted physical properties of the smoke layer are used to justify the results, including the smoke layer tempera ture, smoke layer thickness and flows between each cell. Microscopic pictures of the flow pattern and smoke temperature distribution similar to the results pre dicted by the Computational Fluid Dynamics technique can be obtained. This idea is recommended to study fires in big enclosures.
Self-Heating Tests to Establish the Shipping Safety of Solid Materials: The Case for Briquetted Peat
Authors: Jones J.C.
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among fire experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be refereed in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however, are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Com pany, Incorporated.
Toxicity Classification of Thermal Degradation Products of Chemical Materials Used in Construction
Authors: Czerczak Sławomir , Stetkiewicz Jan
Published: March 2007

A classification of acute toxicity of smoke from combustion of chemical materials used in the construction industry is presented. In the classification, the amount of polymer required to produce sufficient smoke resulting in 50% mortality (LC50) is taken into account. The classification will be useful for the selection of materials to be used in construction.
Thermal Decomposition Products of Fiberglass Composites: A Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis
Authors: Kinsella Karen , Markham James R. , Nelson Chad M. , Burkholder Thomas R.
Published: March 2007

Decomposition products of fiberglass composites used in construc tion were identified using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. This bench-scale study concentrated on identification and quantification of toxic species. Identifying compounds evolved during thermal decomposition provides data to develop early fire detection systems as well as evaluate product fire safety performance. Material fire behavior depends on many factors. Ventila tion, radiant heat flux, and chemical composition are three factors that can be modeled. Physical observations of composites during thermal decomposition with simultaneous identification and quantification of evolved gases offer re searchers in both material development and fire safety an advancement in the state-of-the-art for material testing. Gas analysis by FT-IR spectroscopy iden tified toxic effluent species over a wide range of composite exposure tempera tures (100 to 1000 ° C), during pyrolysis and combustion. Fiberglass composites with melamine, epoxy, and silicone resins were profiled. Formaldehyde, meth anol, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, methane, and benzene were identified by the spectral analysis prior to physical evidence of decomposition. Toxic concen trations of formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, and hydro gen cyanide were observed as thermal decomposition progressed.
Light Extinction by Fire Smokes
Authors: Coppa Paolo , La Malfa Antonio
Published: March 2007

Visibility of escape routes is most important to guarantee the safety of people indoors during fires. In the case of a fire, visibility is strongly in fluenced by the smoke present in the room. In the present work, the extinction co efficient of the visible light has been experimentally measured in the presence of the smoke produced by four different test fires, named TF2, TF3, TF4, and TF5. Tests have been carried out in a specially suited test room in the Italian Fire De partment Research Center, provided with instruments to measure the optical density of smoke and the spectral extinction coefficient.
Effects of Radiation on Temperature Measurement in a Fire Environment
Authors: Mingchun Luo
Published: March 2007

Thermocouples have been widely used to measure temperature in research and industry. For the purpose of building fire experiments, the thermo couple has been and will be a major instrument to obtain the temperature field of the fire environment, and hence to quantify the intensity of building fire. It has been found that the radiation error significantly affects the measured tempera ture using thermocouples. However, this issue has not been carefully investigated in the area of building fire research.

A suction pyrometer was designed and applied to a series of fire experiments in a full-scale experimental building-fire facility to avoid the effect of radiation on the measured temperature. It was found that the reading from a bare thermocou ple could be more than 100°C higher than the gas temperature obtained from the suction pyrometer during the flaming fire stage and more than 200°C higher dur ing the flashover stage.

For a steady-state fire environment obtained from a propane gas burner fire, the radiation error was negligible in the hot upper level near the ceiling. However, the thermocouple significantly overestimated the gas temperature by more than 80°C in the cool lower level near the floor because of the radiation error. The tem perature predicted by the computational fluid dynamics model, CESARE-CFD fire model, was in good agreement with the measured temperature after the ra diation correction in the lower level and deviated slightly in the upper level.
A Comparative Study of Bench-Scale Flammability Properties of Electric Cables with Different Covering Materials
Authors: Nakagawa Yuichi
Published: March 2007

Cone calorimeter tests were conducted on eight different elec tric cable samples at four different external heat flux levels between 20 and 50 kW/m2. Four of the cable samples were sheathed with PVC-based materi als and four with polyolefin-based materials. Some of the cone calorimeter test results were compared with those of the horizontally ventilated laboratory-scale gallery fire test and the oxygen index test which had been previously conducted on these samples. From the ignitability data in the cone calorimeter test, these cable samples were considered to be thermally thick materials. The ignition times of the cables sheathed with a PVC-based mate rial were shorter than those of the cables sheathed with a halogen-free poly olefin. In addition, the heat and smoke release properties of the cable samples also depended mostly on the type of the main base polymer of the sheath ma terial. The correlations between the flame propagation property in the duct fire test and the peak heat release rate in the cone calorimeter test were un clear. On the other hand, there appeared to be relatively good correlations be tween the minimum O2 and maximum CO2 concentrations in the exhaust gas in the duct fire test and the peak heat release rate in the cone calorimeter test. Moreover, a considerably good nonlinear correlation between the limiting oxygen index and the peak heat release rate in the cone calorimeter test on the cable samples, particularly at the relatively low external heat flux level of 20 kW/m2, was shown.
Fire Retardant Action of Resorcinol Bis(Diphenyl Phosphate) in a PPO/HIPS Blend
Authors: Murashko E.A. , Levchik G.F. , Levchik S.V. , Bright D.A. , Dashevsky S.
Published: March 2007

The combustion performance of polyphenylene oxide (PPO), high impact polystyrene (HIPS), or PPO/HIPS blend fire retarded by resorcinol bis(di phenyl phosphate) (RDP) was studied by OI and UL94 tests. RDP is an efficient fire retardant additive in PPO/HIPS because of its very high efficacy in PPO. In HIPS, RDP shows moderate fire retardant activity. Thermogravimetry carried out either in inert atmosphere or in air reveals that RDP increases char yield from the plastics. Chemical analysis and infrared indicate that very little phosphorus volatilizes from the PPO/HIPS blend either during thermal decomposition or in combustion. The fire retardant action of RDP is discussed in terms of chemical in teraction between PPO and RDP and the catalytic effect of RDP.
A Cone Calorimetric Study of Flame Retardant Elastomeric Polyurethanes Modified with Siloxanes and Commercial Flame Retardant Additives
Authors: Jayakody Chandrasiri , Nelson Gordon L. , Sorathia Usman , Lewandowski Stephen
Published: March 2007

Polyurethanes are the single most versatile family of polymers with a wide range of applications. There is a substantial need for the development of polyurethane materials with low heat release rate and low smoke release rate. In this study, an extensive series of elastomeric polyurethanes based on diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate (MDI) prepolymers were prepared and fur ther modified with fluid and powered siloxanes and conventional flame retardant additives. The flame retardant behavior of these polymers was studied using the Cone Calorimeter (ASTM E-1354), the instrument that has emerged as an impor tant tool for the analytical testing of materials for their fire properties. ** All pow dered siloxane additives used in this study, even at 5% loading level, gave a 70-80% reduction in peak heat release rates compared to standard materials.The reductions of peak HRR of fluid siloxane-modified materials compared to the base material were in the range of 49-78%. The conventional flame retardant addi tives used in this study also reduced peak heat release rate dramatically. The syn ergistic effect of conventional flame retardant additives with siloxane powders is discussed.
Study of Flame Spread Over JP8 Using 2-D Holographic Interferometry
Authors: Tashtoush Ghassan , Saito Kozo , Cremers Clifford , Gritzo Louis
Published: March 2007

Despite the widespread use of JP8 as a transportation fuel, and hence its importance to fire safety in the event of an accident, the characteristics of flame spread over JP8 are not well known. In order to better estimate fire growth rates, flame spread rates over JP8 and n-butanol were measured in this study as functions of initial liquid temperature. A Holographic Interferometry (HI) technique was employed in conjunction with a photographic recording sys tem to rapidly detect small temperature changes over an area including the liquid and gas phases. The laboratory-scale experiments were performed using the same apparatus employed in previous studies of flame spread over alcohol to al low comparison of the two sets of results. Flame spread data were obtained for JP8 fuel as a function of initial fuel temperatures between 15°C and 40°C. The four common spread patterns (pseudo-uniform, pulsating, uniform, and superflash) observed for alcohol by Akita [1] were also observed for flame spread over JP8. In order to estimate the heat flux carried by the subsurface convective flow, an energy balance in the liquid phase was performed by considering a con trol volume of the liquid ahead of the flame. From this analysis, the liquid-phase convection (Qcv) was found to be larger than both the gas-phase convection ( Qg) and the heat loss (QL). This trend indicates that (Qcv) is the main mode of heat transfer for flame spread over liquid in the uniform regime of these experiments. It was also observed that JP8 requires a much higher ignition energy, in compari son with butanol, to initiate the flame spread, although both JP8 and butanol have approximately equal closed-cup flash point ( Tf ~37°C). The difference is partly due to the low viscosity and relatively large surface-tension force of JP8 which generate a liquid convection flow more effectively than butanol.
Smolder of Cellulosic Fabrics. II. Water, Alkali and Inner Oxygen as Variables
Authors: Dyakonov Alexander J. , Grider David A.
Published: March 2007

Pyrolysis and oxidative decomposition of cellulosic fabric were studied. Alkali metal compounds were found to be essential for sustaining smol dering and to promote oxidative degradation of cellulose and assist cleavage of sugars only in the presence of water. Decomposition activity of cellulose de creased with dehydration. Study of temperature programmed reactions (TPR) in He suggested the production of COx via intermediate oxygen-containing com pounds. Intramolecular redox reactions below 300°C were suggested to explain the formation of a part of CO2. Peroxide groups were found in #6 cotton duck fab ric. They may be responsible for oxidative decomposition of cellulose around 200°C. Two peaks of COx formation rate, obtained from TPR experiments, were attributed to intramolecular redox reaction, followed by decarboxylation, and ox idation of carbohydrates by residual bound oxygen. Water washing may increase the fabric/gas permeability.
Synthesis of Vinyl Polymer by Fixing 5-Fluorouracils through Organosilicon Groups via Carbamoyl Bonds and Its Antitumor Activity
Authors: Ouchi Tatsuro , Hagita Kazuo , Kawashima Masatoshi , Inoi Takeshi , Tashiro Tazuko
Published: March 2007

Some vinyl polymers by fixing 5FUs via carbamoyl bonds on organosilicon groups were synthesized by means of ordinary radical polymerization of the corresponding monomers. These hybrid type vinyl polymers with 5FU and or ganosilicon amine units exhibited significant antitumor activities against p-388 lymphocytic leukemia in mice in vivo (i.p./i.p.). The effects of the molecu lar weight, the hydrophobicity of the polymer carrier, the number of methy lenes in the spacer group, and the presence of silicon on the antitumor activity were investigated. The low molecular weight homopolymer of 5-fluoro-3,4-dihy dro-2,4-dioxo-N-(4,4-dimethyl-4-silahex-5-enyl)-1-(2H)-pyrimidinecarboxamide (KY20), Poly(KY-20), and the copolymer of KY-20 with 2-hydroxyethylmeth acrylate, Poly(KY-20/HEMA), exhibited especially high antitumor activities. The polymers obtained did not display an acute toxicity in the dose range of 25-800 mg/kg. Thus, these polymers were suggested to act as macromolecular prodrugs of 5FU.
Extrasulfation of Heparin: Effects on Chemical Structures and Anticoagulant Activity
Authors: Braud Christian , Vert Michel , Petitou Maurice
Published: March 2007

A well-defined heparin fraction, H1080 82, which was obtained previously from a commercial heparin, has been extrasulfated by the triethylamine/SO 3 complex method in DMF. Two extrasulfated E1 and E20 samples were obtained after 1 h and 20 h reaction, respectively. Anticoagulant and anti- Xa activities, potentiometric titration, conductometric titration, 13 C NMR and CD spectra of the starting fraction and of the two extrasulfated samples are described. In spite of the rather important chemical modifications thus achieved, biological activities are retained to a great extent.
Airway Retention and Pulmonary Absorption of Poly-α,β-[N(2-hydroxyethyl)-D, L-aspartamide]
Authors: Byron Peter R. , Zhuang Sun  , Katayama Hirokazu , Rypacek Frantisek
Published: March 2007

Coarse aqueous sprays of the polymer, poly-α,β-[N(2-hydroxy ethyl)-D,L-aspartamide], (PHEA), containing a covalently bound fluorophore, ethyl carbonyl-6-aminofluorescein, were administered in doses ranging 2.2 through 3.6 mg to the airways of the isolated rat lung (IPRL). The polymer was characterized with number and weight averaged molecular weights of 5300 and 8600 Daltons, respectively. Transfer to the perfusate supplying the pul monary circulation was monitored with time in order to assess the polymer's systemic absorption potential and the transferred molecular weight distribu tions (MWD). The polymer was absorbed at an apparently constant rate during each experiment. The MWD of absorbed material was characterized by gel permeation chromatography and found to be shifted toward lower molecular weights when compared to that of the administered polymer. Two hours after dosing, absorbed material had mean values for weight mean molecular weight, Mw = 6670 ± 526 Daltons and number mean molecular weight, Mn = 4680 ± 640 Daltons where the ranges are standard deviations in 8 IPRL prep arations. PHEA was not metabolized in the 3 h duration of an experiment and there was some tendency for the median molecular weight of the absorbed material to increase with time after administration. Results are discussed in the context of macromolecular delivery to the systemic circulation via the lung.