bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Enthusiasts, Invaders, and Custodians: Media Characterizations of Foreign Owners in Barclays Premier League
Authors: Osborne Anne C. , Coombs Danielle Sarver
Published: August 2016

By the end of the 2007–8 season, non-Britons owned 9 of the 20 teams competing in England’s Barclays Premier League. Of these, 3—Manchester United, Aston Villa, and Liverpool—were purchased by Americans. This article examines how the British press covered foreign takeovers between the July 2003 purchase of Chelsea and the January 2008 sale of Derby County. The thematic analysis of articles written around the times of each takeover identified 3 dominant media characterizations of incoming foreign owners: the rich enthusiast, the foreign invader, and the savvy custodian. Each characterization is explored in terms of four key dimensions: commitment, authenticity, finances, and character myths. The study suggests that in addition to media making globalization possible insofar as they actually carry sports across the globe, media, particularly sports journalism, might facilitate globalization simply by not questioning it.
Sports Coverage: “Toy Department” or Public-Service Journalism? The Relationship Between Reporters’ Ethics and Attitudes Toward the Profession
Authors: Hardin Marie , Zhong Bu , Whiteside Erin
Published: August 2016

U.S. sports operations have been described as newsroom “toy departments,” at least partly because of their deviation from journalistic norms. Recently, however, more attention has focused on issues of ethics and professionalism; the failure of sports journalists to adequately cover steroid use in Major League Baseball has also directed critical attention to their roles and motives. This study, through a telephone survey of journalists in U.S. newsrooms, examines sports reporters’ practices, beliefs, and attitudes in regard to ethics and professionalism and how their ethics and practice relate. Results indicate that reporters’ attitudes toward issues such as voting in polls, taking free tickets, gambling, and becoming friends with sources are related to their views of public-service or investigative journalism. In addition, friendships with sources are linked to values stereotypically associated with sports as a toy-department occupation. These results suggest that adherence to ethical standards is linked to an outlook that embraces sports coverage as public service.
Assessment On and Off the Field: Examining Athletic Directors’ Perceptions of Public Relations in College Athletics
Authors: Ruihley Brody J. , Fall Lisa T.
Published: August 2016

Public relations (PR) activities in college athletics are concerned with many types of people, organizations, and businesses. The success of a program depends on support from these constituents. The purpose of this research was to determine the perception of PR roles in a college athletic environment. One goal was to determine how many athletic directors (ADs) occupy PR positions in their department or what position they perceive to be most involved with PR. A second goal was to examine attitudes held by ADs regarding the importance, benefits, and responsibilities of PR officers. A final goal was to determine what role behaviors PR practitioners are exhibiting. This study provides empirical research in the area of PR, specifically in college athletics. The findings provide a benchmark for the PR literature in relation to the sports industry, how PR fits into the sports structure, and what roles PR plays in college athletics.
Nigeria, Football, and the Return of Lord Lugard
Authors: Onwumechili Chuka
Published: August 2016

This qualitative research investigated the meaning of the European football leagues’ domination of the Nigerian football market. It finds that the media use a frame of “Nigeria as colony” to report football. In essence, the media interpret Europe as center of modern football and Nigeria as periphery. The study uses 2 methods: (a) a frame analysis of 2 daily sports newspapers, 1 national daily newspaper, and a satellite television sports channel and (b) in-depth interviews of 10 Nigerian football fans. Each complementary method helps confirm results obtained by the other. The frame analysis discovers 4 themes and the interviews found 5 related themes. Each theme logically links to the archetype frame of Nigeria as colony. The results of the study confirm valence framing, demonstrating the impact of the frame on Nigerian sports fans.
Integrating Communication and Marketing Efforts to Influence Governmental Sport Funding: An Analysis of an Innovative Sport-Financing Program in Hungary
Authors: Vaczi Janos , Berkes Peter
Published: August 2016

In Hungary, sports do not appropriately act as a social and economic catalyst in the key market segments—leisure sports and spectator sports. To date, despite the media’s increasing role in sports sponsorships, no coherent model has been presented to improve Hungary’s chronically underfunded sport industry by raising extra funds. The reviewed international literature fails to provide a consistent and uniform model. The first part of the study describes the history of Hungary’s sport industry in the past 20 years. An examination of the background of sports funding is followed by a description of key directions in funding practices. The focus is on providing a high-level introduction to the various funding systems. The conclusion is that with the necessary communication and media support, a new gambling-related, government-controlled sport-marketing program can provide extra funds for Olympic sports federations and the sport industry in general.
Examining Television Consumers of Mixed Martial Arts: The Relationship Among Risk Taking, Emotion, Attitude, and Actual Sport-Media-Consumption Behavior
Authors: Lim Choong Hoon , Martin Tywan G. , Kwak Dae Hee
Published: August 2016

The current study employs the hedonic paradigm model (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982) to investigate the interceding function of emotions on the relationship between personality (i.e., risk taking) and attitude toward mixed martial arts. This study also examines sport-media (e.g., television) consumption of a nontraditional sport. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the proposed model incorporating risk taking, pleasure, arousal, attitude, and actual consumption behavior. The study found a significant mediation effect of emotion (pleasure and arousal) in the relationship between risk taking and attitude. In addition, attitude showed a direct and significant influence on actual media-consumption behavior. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed, along with future directions for research.
Stadium Alcohol Policies: A Comparison of Policies Available on College Athletic Department Web Sites
Authors: Menaker Brian E. , Connaughton Daniel P.
Published: August 2016

Alcohol consumption at college football games concerns stadium and university administrators because of the risk of alcohol-related crime, injury, and other potential problems. The purpose of this study was to determine how many of the 120 NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision athletic department Web sites posted their stadium alcohol policies, what their alcohol policies contained, and how they differed. An analysis of information about the availability of alcohol, restrictions on alcohol consumption, and the enforcement of the policies on their official university-sponsored athletic department stadium Web sites was conducted. Results of the study suggested that alcohol policy information is often unavailable or difficult to locate. College athletic department Web sites are typically filled with varying information about their sport teams, but because of the layout and busy nature of such sites, it is often difficult to find certain information on them.
Interview With David S. Kraft, Senior Director of News Operations, ESPN Digital Media
Authors: Zimmerman Matthew
Published: August 2016

David Kraft has been with ESPN’s online operation since 1996, when it was known as ESPNetSportsZone. That year, Kraft helped design ESPN’s online coverage of the bombing at the Summer Olympics in Atlanta. For 4 years he has headed the news operation at espn.com and since 2009 has also managed the copy desk. Prior to joining ESPN, Kraft spent 6 years as the managing editor of Volleyball magazine, immediately preceded by 3 years as a newspaper reporter at the San Luis Obispo Telegram-Tribune.
Exploring Sports Television Viewers’ Judgments of Athletes’ Antisocial Behaviors
Authors: Earnheardt Adam C.
Published: August 2016

The extent to which television viewers are fans of sports and their motivation for viewing sports may affect their judgments of athletes’ antisocial behaviors. The uses and gratifications theoretical framework guided exploration of possible predictors of judgments. The sample (N = 347) consisted of sports television viewers. Fandom correlated significantly with motives for viewing televised sports, parasocial interaction, and identification. Fandom was negatively related to judgments of violent crime behaviors and uncharitable/dishonest behaviors. Women who were engaged in other activities while viewing televised sports were more likely to judge violent crime behaviors as most wrong, or negatively. Additional analyses suggested that women who reported lower degrees of fandom, weaker affinity for televised sports, weaker intention to watch sports, weaker self-esteem/achievement and entertaining relaxation motives, and paying less attention to televised sports were the viewers who tended to judge athletes’ violent crime behaviors, uncharitable behaviors, and drug- and steroid-use behaviors as most wrong.
Perceptions and Attitudes of University Students in Beijing Toward the International Media’s Coverage of the 2008 Olympic Games
Authors: Song Charlie , Zhang Jianhua , Ryan Stu
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the perceptions and attitudes of university students in Beijing toward the international media’s coverage of the 2008 Olympics and of China during the Games. A total of 1,000 students were randomly surveyed immediately after the Games’ Closing Ceremony. Descriptive analysis of the data indicated that most survey respondents were pleased with the international media’s coverage of the Olympics and of China in general. One-way multivariate analysis of variance and Scheffé’s post hoc test results revealed that the respondents’ attitudes toward the international media’s coverage differed significantly among categories of the classified variables of age, class, academic major, and political preference. The study also found that a large portion of the respondents would be pleased to see the Chinese government permanently adopt a national policy to permit foreign media to report unrestrictedly in China after the Olympics, as the policy was implemented during the Olympics.
An Exploratory Study of How Twitter Is Affecting Sports Journalism
Authors: Schultz Brad , Sheffer Mary Lou
Published: August 2016

A theoretical perspective of technological determinism was used to assess what, if any, changes Twitter is causing in journalism news work. This change was assessed based on the responses of sports journalists around the country. Results indicated very little change in terms of the journalists’ perceptions, but different groups were using the new technology differently. Younger and broadcast journalists were more likely to see Twitter as having stand-alone value and use it in forward-thinking ways. Older and print journalists were more likely to use Twitter for traditional purposes such as promoting printed work on other platforms.
Student Athletes’ Sports-Program Viewing: Motives and Preferences
Authors: Kang Seok , Lee Soonhwan , Lee Seungbum
Published: August 2016

The current study examined student athletes’ motives for viewing sports programs on television and their relationships with various viewing behaviors. Employing uses and gratifications theory and social differentiation theory, the study investigated whether student athletes’ motives for sports-program viewing would predict their preference of program selection and amount of viewing. An on-site survey of 225 Division I athletes from 3 Midwestern universities found that student athletes had entertainment, social-facilitation, and integration motives for sports-program viewing. Ritual use of sports programs (entertainment) was their primary motive, followed by instrumental use (social facilitation and integration). Results showed that student athletes’ main goal of watching sports programs on television was escape from their daily problems. Additional results showed that there was no gender difference in student athletes’ motives and sports-program preferences. Both male and female student athletes preferred male sports such as football and men’s college basketball.
Paradigm Shift or Passing Fad? Twitter and Sports Journalism
Authors: Sheffer Mary Lou , Schultz Brad
Published: August 2016

This was an extension of research by the same authors (2010) that investigated sports reporters’ perception of their use of Twitter as part of their professional journalistic duties. Using content-analysis methodology (N = 1,008), the authors investigated how sports reporters actually used Twitter. Analysis showed a discrepancy between journalist responses and measured content. Although journalists said they were using Twitter for breaking news and promotion, the dominant result of the content analysis was commentary and opinion. There were also differences related to print and smaller media outlets. The implications of such differences are discussed, including a possible paradigmatic shift in journalists’ approaches.
Look Who’s Talking—Athletes on Twitter: A Case Study
Authors: Pegoraro Ann
Published: August 2016

This case study investigated athletes’ use of a specific social-media platform—Twitter. Social media are a rising force in marketing and have been fully embraced by the sport industry, with teams, leagues, coaches, athletes, and managers establishing presences. Primarily these presences have been focused on Twitter, a microblogging site that allows users to post their personal thoughts in 140 characters or less. Athletes, in particular, have engaged in tweeting at a fast pace, which raises the question, What are they saying? This case study investigated the tweets of athletes over a 7-d period in an attempt to answer that question. The findings indicate that athletes are talking predominantly about their personal lives and responding to fans’ queries through Twitter. The results indicate that Twitter is a powerful tool for increasing fan–athlete interaction.
World Wrestling Entertainment Responds to the Chris Benoit Tragedy: A Case Study
Authors: Walton Laura Richardson , Williams Kevin D.
Published: August 2016

An organization’s initial response to a crisis can dictate the tone of its sustained response throughout the crisis, as well as stakeholders’ reactions to the incident. When news of the deaths of professional wrestler Chris Benoit, his wife, and their 7-yr-old son broke, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) immediately paid tribute to the superstar. A memorial show to Benoit’s career aired as investigators searched the family’s home. The investigation revealed that Benoit murdered his wife and son before taking his own life, resulting in WWE’s retraction of its earlier tributes. Furthermore, the organization had to respond to the swarm of speculation that steroids—and WWE’s lax policy on their use—were to blame. This case study analyzes WWE’s immediate response strategies to their employee’s family’s deaths and the subsequent strategies used on learning that the employee was implicated. Qualitative analysis of corporate documents and official statements seeks to provide direction regarding how similar organizations should respond in the days immediately after tragic events when employees may be implicated.
Replacing Athleticism With Sexuality: Athlete Models in Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issues
Authors: Kim Kayoung , Sagas Michael , Walker Nefertiti A.
Published: August 2016

This study was intended to provide analysis of print-media portrayals of athletes in Sports Illustrated swimsuit issues from 1997 through 2009. Drawing on the theoretical framework from Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity (2005), the authors performed a content analysis of photographic images (N = 141) and associated captions in athlete-related content in Sports Illustrated swimsuit issues. Two major issues emerged from the content analysis: gender differences and sexualized images in athlete content. Findings of this study indicated that Sports Illustrated alternates athleticism with sexuality by continuously placing athlete models in positions that are unrelated to sport. In addition, the female athletes were extremely sexualized. These findings support the concept of hegemonic masculinity at work in Sports Illustrated swimsuit issues.
Advocacy From the Liberal Feminist Playbook: The Framing of Title IX and Women’s Sports in News Releases From the Women’s Sports Foundation
Authors: Barnett Barbara , Hardin Marie C.
Published: August 2016

Since Title IX was enacted in 1972, women’s advocates have considered how the law has affected female participation in sports, and critics have suggested that the law has unfairly denied opportunities to men. Studies have examined how journalists have covered Title IX and its consequences, yet few have looked at how advocacy groups have sought to influence coverage of the law. This textual analysis examines press statements published by the Women’s Sports Foundation from 2004 through 2009 and concludes that the organization used frames of community and transcendence in discussing women’s athletic participation. The foundation characterized community as essential to the support of women’s participation in sports and suggested that participation and achievement in sports were symbolic of women’s accomplishments in the larger society. The foundation also focused on fairness and equality as rationales for equitable distribution of resources and opportunities. Title IX was rarely mentioned in press statements.
Sexist Acts in Sports: Media Reactions and Forms of Apologia
Authors: Fink Janet S. , Borland John F. , Fields Sarah K.
Published: August 2016

Critical analysis of media coverage is vital as scholars have long suggested that what the media choose to cover and how they choose to cover it have incredible influence on audience perceptions. Therefore, how the media cover negative incidents and sexist comments relative to women in sport can illuminate the manner in which they reinforce or challenge the hegemonic nature of sport. This study critically examined the media’s reaction to 5 specific sexist incidents in sport from 2004 to 2007 and the reactions of the perpetrators themselves and their defenders as represented in the media. Articles (N = 278) covering the incidents from 5 large newspapers representing different areas of the United States were analyzed. Results indicated that there were 4 strategies of apologia (i.e., denial, bolstering, transcendence, and differentiation), and 2 other themes, silence and marginalized sexism, emerged. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.
Sport on the Screen: A Look at Sport Films Featured at Sundance 2011
Authors: Waldburger Adia
Published: August 2016

Audiences had the opportunity to applaud for sport films at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival in Park City, UT. Two sport-themed documentary films won audience awards. The U.S. winner, Buck, follows the life of horse trainer Buck Brannaman, and Senna, a look at the life of Formula One hero Ayrton Senna, won in the international category. Other sport films screened this year included Win Win, in which Paul Giamatti stars as a volunteer high school wrestling coach; Benevides Born, about a teen female wrestler trying win a scholarship; and two short movie entries, Bike Race, an animated film about a race and a love triangle, and Skateistan: To Live and Skate Kabul, a documentary about skaters in war-torn Afghanistan. This review provides an examination of the sport films at this year’s festival and discusses the impact that this form of sport communication has on the entertainment industry.
Good for Society or Good for Business? Division I Sports Information Directors’ Attitudes Toward the Commercialization of Sports
Authors: Whiteside Erin , Hardin Marie , Ash Erin
Published: August 2016

Through increased visibility in the mass media, collegiate sports have grown at an astounding rate over the past 50 years, leading critics to charge that they are often governed from a standpoint that does not protect academic priorities but instead emphasizes business interests. In light of this trend, the authors used a survey to examine the attitudes of sports information directors (SIDS)—the individuals who are charged with furthering institutional agendas in sport—at the NCAA Division I level. The findings suggest that SIDs generally identify with the belief that sports are inherently good for society but are mixed in their attitudes toward college sport’s biggest revenue generator, football. The results are considered in context with research on SIDs and on media produced by athletic departments.
Characteristics of Users of a Mixed- Martial-Arts Blog: A Case Study of Demographics and Usage Trends
Authors: Frederick Evan L. , Clavio Galen E. , Burch Lauren M. , Zimmerman Matthew H.
Published: August 2016

For this case study, an Internet-based survey was posted on a popular mixed-martial- arts (MMA) blog to ascertain its users’ demographics and usage trends. Data analysis revealed that users were predominantly White men between the ages of 23 and 39, with some college education and an annual income of $40,000–59,999. An exploratory factor analysis revealed 6 dimensions of gratification: evaluation, community, information gathering, knowledge demonstration, argumentation, and diversion. The most salient motivation statements were related to the speed of information access, the depth of information and coverage, and the availability of information not typically found through traditional media outlets. Most users spent 1–5 hr/wk watching MMA programming and 1–10 hr/wk on MMA blogs, making 1–20 comments per week. Findings indicated that users used this particular blog for both interactive and information-gathering purposes.
“Patriots at Play”: Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of the Gold Medal Contenders in Men’s and Women’s Ice Hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games
Authors: Vincent John , Crossman Jane
Published: August 2016

This study compared how The Globe and Mail and The New York Times covered the Canadian and U.S. women’s and men’s ice hockey teams competing in the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. A content-analysis methodology compared the amount and prominence of coverage devoted to the women’s and men’s teams. Each newspaper provided more coverage of the men’s teams and to its own national teams, particularly in prominent locations. Textual analysis was used to analyze how the gendered themes intersected with national identity in the narratives. Theoretical insight was drawn from Connell’s theory of gender–power relations, Anderson’s concept of the imagined community, and Hobsbawm’s theory of invented traditions. Four themes emerged: the future of hockey at the Winter Olympic Games, postgame celebrations, gendered discourses, and the importance of the gold-medal games. A discussion of each theme is presented.
Inside the Vortex of Sport Celebrification: A Textual Analysis of Jessica Simpson, Tony Romo, and Traditionally Constructed Gender Roles
Authors: Eliopulos Lindsey M. , Johnson Jay
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to examine the sport–celebrity relationship of singer–actress Jessica Simpson and Dallas Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo. This qualitative analysis of 100 magazine and 100 newspaper articles that coincided with the first publicized notion of the “Jessica [Simpson] Jinx” reveals the prevailing dominant ideologies of patriarchal structures, traditional gender roles, hegemonic masculinity, and deviance. This study uncovers typologies that mirror the archetypal sporting partnership, for example, Simpson’s feminine position as a “supporter” and her function as an “antagonist” (e.g., the femme fatale, Yoko Ono) and Romo’s position as a hegemonic male (the new-laddist, maverick sporting star) and victim. Through developing these themes, the researchers illustrate the concepts of villainization and victimization in the mass media, where Simpson was portrayed unfavorably. Romo, conversely, was portrayed favorably in the press, suggesting the need to maintain the patriarchal order while restraining female dominance.
Revisiting Image-Restoration Strategies: An Integrated Case Study of Three Athlete Sex Scandals in Sports News
Authors: Meng Juan , Pan Po-Lin
Published: August 2016

A limited number of studies have examined the effectiveness of apology techniques in image restoration of athletes involved in sex scandals. This case study used Benoit’s (1995) image-restoration strategies to examine the apology techniques 3 athletes used to negotiate their sex scandals and attempted to encourage further discussion of these techniques. Three athletes’ sex scandals were comparatively analyzed, including those of golfer Tiger Woods, National Football League quarterback Ben Roethlisberger, and the National Basketball Association’s Kobe Bryant. This case study integrated the apology statements made by each athlete and examined sports-news coverage of the scandals from The New York Times, USA Today, and The Washington Post. This case study offers important insights on how these athletes restored their images and handled the crises surrounded their sex scandals.
The Influence of Sport Sponsorship Communication on Sport Fans’ Rating of Retail Service Quality
Authors: Lee Sanghak , Lee Seung-Chang
Published: August 2016

Sport sponsorship has grown tremendously as the development of sport media, and popular companies such as Coca-Cola, Nike, Toyota, and Samsung have used sport sponsorship as one of their marketing communication channels. In addition, retailers (e.g., Home Depot, Target, Lotte Department Store) have become involved in sponsorship to achieve their marketing communication goals. Although many retail companies have invested in sponsorship, no retailer-specific sponsorship study has been suggested. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to propose a new sponsorship-effect measure using retail service quality (R-SERVQUAL). This study hypothesized that brand recall and team identification would influence R-SERVQUAL. The 2-way ANOVA revealed that the mean scores of R-SERVQUAL were high when sport fans’ brand recall (F = 12.58, p < .001) and team identification (F = 65.88, p < .001) were high, and R-SERVQUAL is suggested as a tool to evaluate the effects of sponsorship communication on the retail industry.
Cleaning Up After Te’o: Writers, Routines, and Repair
Authors: Liebler Carol M. , Moritz Brian P.
Published: August 2016

This study focuses on how sportswriters and other writers engaged in news paradigm repair via the explanations they provided for the failure to catch the Manti Te’o hoax in January 2013. The Te’o story is a particularly provocative context in which to examine such paradigm repair, because the transgression did not lie with a single journalist or news organization but with an entire profession failing to get the story. Reporters, columnists, and bloggers all engaged in repair, although the repair tended to appear most frequently in traditional media and run in nonsport sections. Writers rarely engaged in self-reflexivity, instead assigning blame to others, although they did suggest possible repairs. Nearly all writers pointed to news routines to explain how they had been duped, with particular attention to fact-checking and sources.
Physiological Considerations of Ultraendurance Performance
Authors: Kreider Richard B.
Published: August 2016

The physiological effects of endurance exercise have been a primary area of research in exercise science for many years. This research has led not only to a greater understanding of human physiology but also the limits of human performance. This is especially true regarding the effects of endurance exercise on energy metabolism and nutrition. However, as science has attempted to understand the physiological and nutritional demands of endurance exercise lasting 1 to 3 hours, an increasing number of athletes have begun participating in ultraendurance events lasting 4 to 24 hours. Consequently some research groups are now investigating the physiological responses to ultraendurance training and performance. This paper reviews the literature on ultraendurance performance and discusses nutritional factors that may affect bioenergetic, thermoregulatory, endocrinological, and hematological responses to ultraendurance performance.
Gastrointestinal Complaints in Relation to Dietary Intake in Triathletes
Authors: Rehrer Nancy J. , van Kemenade Monique , Meester Wineke , Brouns Fred , Saris Wim H.M.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and dietary intake in triathletes. Fifty-five male triathletes (age 31 ±6 yrs) were surveyed regarding the most recently completed half Iron Man triathlon. Questions were asked regarding GI symptoms and dietary intake. Fifty-two percent complained of eructation and 48% of flatulence. Other symptoms were abdominal bloating, vomiting urge, vomiting, nausea, stomachache, intestinal cramps, and diarrhea. More symptoms occurred while running than at other times. All individuals who had eaten within 30 min of the start vomited while swimming. Fat and protein intake was greater in those who vomited or had the urge to vomit than in those without these symptoms. Of the former, 93% had consumed a hypertonic beverage. Forty percent of those who drank a hypertonic beverage and only 11% of those who drank an iso-or hypotonic beverage had severe complaints. Four of five individuals with stomachache had consumed a strongly hypertonic beverage. All subjects with intestinal cramps had eaten fiber-rich foods in the pre race meal; only 10% of those without cramps had done so.
Iron Status of Female Runners
Authors: Pate Russell R. , Miller Bonnie J. , Davis J. Mark , Slentz Chris A. , Klingshirn Lisa A.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to observe iron status and prevalence of iron deficient conditions in adult female habitual runners (n=111) and inactive females of comparable age (n=65). The runners were significantly lower (p<.05) than the reference group in mean serum ferritin (SF), total iron binding capacity, and red blood cell count, but significantly higher (p<.05) in mean corpuscular hemoglobin. The groups did not differ significantly in hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, serum iron, percent saturation of transfenin, or red cell protoporphyrin. Chi square analysis indicated that iron depletion (SF <20 ng·ml-1) was significantly more prevalent (p<.005) in the runners than in the controls. Anemia was extremely rare in both groups. A multiple regression analysis revealed significant negative associations between serum ferritin and coffeeltea intake (p<.001) and running activity (p<.05). These results indicate that habitual runners, as compared with inactive women, are at increased risk for iron deficient states but that full-blown anemia is a rare consequence of this deficient iron status.
Micronutrients (Magnesium, Zinc, and Copper): Are Mineral Supplements Needed for Athletes?
Authors: Lukaski Henry C.
Published: August 2016

Mineral elements, including magnesium, zinc, and copper, are required by the body in modest amounts for the maintenance of health and for the development of optimal physiological function. For athletes, adequate amounts of these minerals are required for physical training and performance. Studies of athletes during training, as compared to nontraining control subjects, indicate the potential for increased losses of minerals in sweat and urine. Some studies report suboptimal intakes of minerals, particularly among athletes who are actively attempting to lose weight to meet standards for competition. However, most athletes consume diets that provide adequate amounts of minerals to meet population standards. Athletes should be counseled to consume foods with high nutrient density rather than to rely on mineral supplements. General use of mineral supplements can alter physiological function and impair health.
Inosine Supplementation Has No Effect on Aerobic or Anaerobic Cycling Performance
Authors: McNaughton Lars , Dalton Brad , Tarr Janine
Published: August 2016

The two basic aims of this study were to add to the limited literature concerning Inosine as an ergogenic aid, and to determine the effects of Inosine supplementation over a period of 5 and 10 days, at a dosage of 10,000 mg · d−1 on measures associated with aerobic and anaerobic performance. Seven trained, volunteer male subjects (body mass = 63.0 ± 8.7 kg, VO2max = 61.9 + 3.3 ml ⋅ kg−1 ⋅ min−1) participated in this study. The subjects completed three test sessions, each comprising three tests (5 × 6-s sprint, 30-s sprint, and 20-min time trial). Supplementation was carried out in a random, double-blind manner, and the test sessions were undertaken prior to (Baseline, B), on Day 6, and on Day 11. Blood was sampled prior to supplementation as well as on Days 6 and 11 and was analyzed for uric acid and 2,3 DPG. An analysis of the data indicated no performance benefit of supplementation and no improvement in 2,3 DPG concentration. Uric acid concentration increased significantly after both Days 6 and 11 (p < 0.03 and p < 0.004, respectively). It is concluded that Inosine has no ergogenic effects but may cause possible health problems if taken over long periods of time.
The Effect of Continuous Low Dose Creatine Supplementation on Force, Power, and Total Work
Authors: Burke Darren G. , Silver Shawn , Holt Laurence E. , Smith-Palmer Truis , Culligan Christopher J. , Chilibeck Philip D.
Published: August 2016

Dietary supplementation (SUP) has become a significant part of athletic training. Studies indicate that creatine (Cr) can enhance short-duration, high-intensity activities. This study examined the effect of 21 days of low dose Cr SUP (~7.7 g/day) and resistance training on force output, power output, duration of mean peak power output, and total work performed until fatigue. A double-blind protocol was used, where an individual, who was not part of any other aspect of the study, randomly assigned subjects to creatine and placebo groups. Forty-one male university athletes were randomly assigned to either Cr (n= 20) or placebo (n = 21) SUP. On the first and last day of the study, subjects were required to perform concentric bench press movements until exhaustion on an isokinetic dynamometer. The dynamometer was hard-wired to a personal computer, which provided force, velocity, and duration measures. Force and power output until fatigue, were used to determine total work, force-time, and power-time relationships. ANOVA results revealed that the Cr subjects performed more total work until fatigue, experienced significantly greater improvements in peak force and peak power, and maintained elevated mean peak power for a longer period of time. These results indicate that Cr SUP can significantly improve factors associated with short-duration, high-intensity activity.
Oral Creatine Supplementation and Upper Extremity Anaerobic Response in Females
Authors: Hamilton Karyn L. , Meyers Michael C. , Skelly William A. , Marley Robert J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of creatine monohydrate () on upper extremity anaerobic response in strength-trained females involved in overhand sports. Two movements were utilized in this evaluation: elbow flexion (EF) and shoulder internal rotation (IR). Subjects were pair-matched and assigned to receive placebo (n = 13) or 25 g (n = 11) for 7 days. Pre- and post-treatment measurements included peak concentric and eccentric isokinetic torque, isotonic 1RM, and fatigue (FAT) during EF; isotonic 1RM, FAT, and peak velocity during IR; and body weight. MANOVAs revealed significant interaction between treatment and trial for EF (p < .05) but not for IR or weight. Univariate analysis indicated a significantly greater change in following than following placebo. Thus, did not influence peak EF or IR strength, IR work to fatigue, or IR velocity, but was associated with greater work capacity during fatiguing EF. These data suggest that may enhance upper extremity work capacity, but this enhancement may not extend to the muscles primarily responsible for overhand sports performance.
Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation Enhances High-Intensity Exercise Performance in Males and Females.
Authors: Tarnopolsky Mark A. , MacLennan Dan P.
Published: August 2016

Creatine monohydrate supplementation has been shown to enhance high-intensity exercise performance in some but not all studies. Part of the controversy surrounding the ergogenic effect(s) of creatine monohydrate supplementation may relate to design issues that result in low statistical power. A further question that remains unresolved in the creatine literature is whether or not males and females respond in a similar manner to supplementation. We studied the effect of creatine supplementation upon high intensity exercise performance in 24 subjects (n = 12 males, n = 12 females). Creatine monohydrate (Cr; 5g, 4x/d × 4d) and placebo (PI; glucose polymer × 4d) were provided using a randomized. double-blind crossover design (7 week washout). Outcome measures included: 2 × 30-S anaerobic cycle lest, with plasma lactate pre- and post-test; dorsi-flexor: maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), 2-min fatigue test, and electrically stimulated peak and tetanic torque; isokinetic knee extension torque and I -min ischeniic handgrip strength. Significant main effects of Cr treatment included: increased peak and relative peak anaerobic cycling power (↑3.7%; p < .05), dorsi-flexion MVC torque (↑6.6% p < .05), and increased lactate (↑20.8%; p < .05) with no gender specific responses. We concluded that short-term Cr supplementation can increase indices of high-intensity exercise performance for both males and females.
Improved 2000-Meter Rowing Performance in Competitive Oarswomen after Caffeine Ingestion
Authors: Anderson Megan E. , Bruce Clinton R. , Fraser Steve F. , Stepto Nigel K. , Klein Rudi , Hopkins William G. , Hawley John A.
Published: August 2016

Eight competitive oarswomen (age, 22 ± 3 years; mass, 64.4 ± 3.8 kg) performed three simulated 2,000-m time trials on a rowing ergometer. The trials, which were preceded by a 24-hour dietary and training control and 72 hours of caffeine abstinence, were condueted 1 hour after ingesting caffeine (6 or 9 mg kg ’ body mass) or placebo. Plasma free fatty acid concentrations before exercise were higher with caffeine than placebo (0.67 ± 0.34 vs. 0.72 ± 0.36 vs. 0.30±0.10 mM for 6 and 9 mg · kg−1; caffeine and placebo, respectively; p <.05). Performance lime improved 0.7% (95% confidence interval [Cf] 0 to 1.5%) with 6 mg kg−1 caffeine and 1.3$ (95% CI 0.5 to 2.0%) with 9 mg · kg−1 caffeine. The first 500 m of the 2,000 m was faster with the higher caffeine dose compared with placebo or the lower dose (1.53 ± 0.52 vs. 1.55 ± 0.62 and 1.56 ± 0.43 min; p = .02). We concluded that caffeine produces a worthwhile enhancement of performance in a controlled laboratory setting, primarily by improving the first 500 m of a 2,000-m row.
Amino Acids and Endurance Exercise
Authors: Hargreaves Mark , Snow Rodney
Published: August 2016

Although skeletal muscle is capable of oxidizing selected amino acids, exercise in the fed and carbohydrate-replete condition results in only a small increase in amino acid utilization. Nevertheless, it may be important to increase the dietary protein requirements of active individuals. There is ongoing debate as to whether the amino acids for oxidation are derived from the free amino acid pool, from net protein breakdown, or a combination of both. There has been interest in the potential ergogenic benefits of amino acid ingestion; however, BCAA ingestion does not appear to affect fatigue during prolonged exercise, there is little support from controlled studies to recommend glutamine ingestion for enhanced immune function, and although glutamine stimulates muscle glycogen synthesis, its addition to carbohydrate supplements provides no additional benefit over ingestion of carbohydrate alone.
Nutritional Supplements as a Source for Positive Doping Cases?
Authors: Kamber Matthias , Baume Norbert , Saugy Martial , Rivier Laurent
Published: August 2016

We report the findings of the analysis of 75 different nutritional supplements bought through the internet. Seven products (all from the class of prohormones) contained other hormone substances than indicated on the labels, and two further products contained ephedrine and caffeine without a clear indication on the labels.
Acute Creatine Supplementation and Performance during a Field Test Simulating Match Play in Elite Female Soccer Players
Authors: Cox Greg , Mujika Iñigo , Tumilty Douglas , Burke Louise
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effects of acute creatine (Cr) supplementation on the performance of elite female soccer players undertaking an exercise protocol simulating match play. On two occasions, 7 days apart, 12 players performed 5 X 11-min exercise testing blocks interspersed with 1 min of rest. Each block consisted of 11 all-out 20-m running sprints, 2 agility runs, and 1 precision ball-kicking drill, separated by recovery 20-m walks, jogs, and runs. After the initial testing session, subjects were assigned to either a CREATINE (5 g of Cr, 4 times per day for 6 days) or a PLACEBO group (same dosage of a glucose polymer) using a double-blind research design. Body mass (BM) increased (61.7 ± 8.9 to 62.5 ± 8.9 kg, p < .01) in the CREATINE group; however, no change was observed in the PLACEBO group (63.4 ± 2.9 kg to 63.7 ± 2.5 kg). No overall change in 20-m sprint times and agility run times were observed, although the CREATINE group achieved faster post-supplementation times in sprints 11, 13, 14, 16, 21, 23, 25, 32, and 39 (p < .05), and agility runs3,5,and8 (p < .05). The accuracy of shooting was unaffected in both groups. In conclusion, acute Cr supplementation improved performance of some repeated sprint and agility tasks simulating soccer match play, despite an increase in BM.
Sweat Iron and Zinc Losses during Prolonged Exercise
Authors: DeRuisseau Keith C. , Cheuvront Samuel N. , Haymes Emily M. , Sharp Regina G.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 2-hour exercise bout on sweat iron and zinc concentrations and losses in males and females. Nine male and 9 female recreational cyclists exercised at ~50% V̇O2peak in a temperate environment (Ta = 23 °C, RH = 51%). Sweat samples were collected for 15 min during each of four 30-min exercise bouts. No significant differences were observed between males’ and females’ sweat iron or zinc concentrations or losses. Sweat iron concentrations decreased significantly between 60 and 90 min of exercise. Sweating rates increased significantly from 30 to 60 min and remained constant during the second hour. Sweat iron losses were significantly lower during the second hour (0.042 mg/m2/h) than the first hour of exercise (0.060 mg/m2/h). Sweat zinc concentrations also decreased significantly over the 2-hour exercise bout. Dietary intakes of iron and zinc were not significantly correlated to sweat iron and zinc concentrations. Sweat iron and zinc losses during 2 hours of exercise represented 3% and 1% of the RDA for iron and 9% and 8% of the RDA for zinc for men and women, respectively. These results suggest a possible iron conservation that prevents excessive iron loss during prolonged exercise.
Dietary Supplementation Practices of Singaporean Athletes
Authors: Slater Gary , Tan Benedict , Teh Kong Chuan
Published: August 2016

The supplementation practices of elite athletes in Singapore were studied using an anonymous questionnaire. Information was sought on not only the type of supplements used but also dosage, rationale for use, and other factors that might influence supplement use including selected demographic parameters and sources of information relating to supplements. Data was collected from 160 athletes across a spectrum of 30 sports. Use of supplements was widespread, with 77% of respondents acknowledging use of at least 1 product. Respondents ingested a total of 59 different supplements, with each athlete using on average 3.6 ± 0.3 different products. Sports drinks, caffeine, vitamin C, multivitamin/mineral supplements, and essence of chicken were some of the most commonly ingested products, confirming that while vitamin/mineral supplements are popular, sports supplements and traditional/herbal preparations were also well accepted. Respondents preferred to source information pertaining to supplements from “significant others” and other readily accessible sources. A small number of respondents acknowledged the use of International Olympic Committee (IOC) banned or restricted substances, highlighting the need for athletes to consult sports medicine professionals with specialist knowledge of dietary supplements in advance of initiating any supplementation regime.
Antioxidant Supplementation Enhances Neutrophil Oxidative Burst in Trained Runners Following Prolonged Exercise
Authors: Robson Paula J. , Bouic Patrick J.D. , Myburgh Kathryn H.
Published: August 2016

The influence of an antioxidant vitamin supplement on immune cell response to prolonged exercise was determined using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Twelve healthy endurance subjects (n = 6 male, n = 6 female; mean ± SD for age, 30.1 ± 6.2 yr; height, 1.76 ± 7 m; body mass, 72.2 ± 10.2 kg; VO2max, 63.7 ± 12 ml · kg–1 · min–1) participated in the study. Following a 3-week period during which subjects ingested a multivitamin and -mineral complex sufficient to meet the recommended daily allowance, they took either a placebo or an antioxidant vitamin supplement (containing 18 mg β-carotene, 900 mg vitamin C, and 90 mg vitamin E) for 7 days prior to a 2-h treadmill run at 65% VO2max. Blood samples were drawn prior to and immediately following exercise. These were analyzed for neutrophil oxidative burst activity, cortisol and glucose concentrations, and white blood cell counts, as well as serum anti-oxidant vitamin concentrations. Plasma vitamin C, vitamin E, and β-carotene concentrations significantly increased following 7-day supplementation (p < .05). In comparison to the placebo group, neutrophil oxidative burst was significantly higher following exercise (p < .05), but no differences were found in any other parameter following the 7-day supplementation period. Although the impact of exercise on neutrophil function is multifactorial, our data suggest that antioxidant supplementation may be of benefit to endurance athletes for the maintenance of this particular function of the innate immune system following the 7-day supplementation period.
Palatability and Voluntary Intake of Sports Beverages, Diluted Orange Juice, and Water during Exercise
Authors: Passe Dennis H. , Horn Mary , Stofan John , Murray Robert
Published: August 2016

Palatability and voluntary intake of 4 beverages commonly available to athletes were compared in a laboratory exercise protocol designed to mimic aerobic training or competitive conditions in which limited time is available for drinking. Diluted orange juice (DOJ), homemade 6% carbohydrate-electrolyte sports beverage (HCE), commercially available 6% carbohydrate-electrolyte sports beverage (CCE), and water (W) were tested. Fifty adult triathletes and runners (34 males, 16 females) exercised for 75 min at 80–85% of age-predicted heart rate, during which time they were given brief access (60 s) to one of the beverages after 30 min and 60 min of exercise. Results indicated that for overall palatability, CCE > W, HCE, DOJ; W > DOJ, and for amount of beverage consumed, CCE > W, HCE, DOJ; HCE > W, DOJ. The palatability of these beverages varied substantially, as did their voluntary intakes during exercise.