bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Side Friction Mobilization Rates for Laterally Loaded Piles from the Pressuremeter
Authors: Smith TD , Slyh R
Published: December 2008

Pile foundations in the offshore environment are frequently called upon to resist high horizontal load. Many pressuremeter methods have recently been developed to design piles, including techniques to formulate soil spring P-y curves directly from pressuremeter test results. Lateral soil resistance is now recognized to arise from two components: side shear and front resistance. The field measurement of mobilization rates and prediction of lateral side shear has never been made. This paper reports the attempts to measure lateral friction rates in sand and clay by employing torsion testing as a “yardstick” method. Pure lateral shears are mobilized and the effects of depth and installation method can be studied qualatively. It is suggested that since the soil shear modulus, G, is the controlling variable, the pressuremeter is a suitable insitu tool to duplicate pile installation disturbance and predict side shear mobilization rates.
The Relative Phytotoxicity of Selected Hydrocarbon and Oxygenated Solvents and Oils
Authors: Krenek MR , King DN
Published: December 2008

Phytotoxicity is a significant factor in the selection of solvents or oils for a pesticide formulation. This project was undertaken to develop relative data on the phytotoxicity of 20 solvents and oils for four major agricultural crops: corn, soybeans, wheat, and cotton. The solvents and oils were applied neat at a 32.7-L/ha (3.5-gal/acre) rate in a spray booth to approximately two-week-old postemergent plants grown in a greenhouse.

All the solvents and oils were rated by crop for relative phytotoxicity and assigned a relative rating. None of the plants died. No solvent or oil was found to be significantly more phytotoxic than the “industry standard” xylene range aromatic solvent, and the paraffinic and narrow-cut aliphatic solvents were observed to be nonphytotoxic at the 32.7-L/ha rate. Phytotoxicity was shown to be related to polarity, solvency, and the aromatics content of hydrocarbons. Surface tension was seen to be a contributing factor. Volatility did not show up as a major phytotoxicity determinant. The two grasses were seen to be more resistant to solvent-induced phytotoxicity than the two broadleafs.
Nonionic Surfactants as Associative Thickeners in Aqueous Flowable Pesticide Formulations
Authors: Mente DC
Published: December 2008

A class of nonionic surfactants has been observed to function as associative thickeners, dispersants, and wetting agents in aqueous flowable pesticide formulations at use levels of 1 to 3%. This phenomenon provides an alternative to conventional thickeners such as gums and minerals. These surfactant/thickeners require a finely ground substrate, such as a pesticide active ingredient for rheology modification. Combinations of these surfactants with other nonionic and anionic surfactants permit the formulator to control the rheology or suspensibility, or both, in a wide range of water hardnesses.

This phenomenon has been demonstrated with several pesticide active ingredients including atrazine, linuron, chloroneb, and carbaryl. The viscosity, viscous yield, suspensibility foaming behavior, and product stability of several prototype atrazine formulations are described.
Selection of Wetting Adjuvants
Authors: McKay BM , Koch R , Herbert RM
Published: December 2008

Wetting of crop foliage by aqueous emulsion sprays can be quantitatively described, and the conditions for perfect wetting can be predicted. An empirical relationship from the literature for wetting of high-energy organic surfaces has been found to be applicable to wetting of both broad leaves and grasses. A graph of the cosine of the spray droplet contact angle against the surface tension can be extrapolated to predict the surface tension necessary to achieve a zero contact angle (perfect wetting). Surfactants and emulsifiers typically used in pesticide formulations cannot reduce aqueous surface tension sufficiently to achieve a zero contact angle. Certain silicone and fluorocarbon surfactants were found to reduce aqueous surface tension sufficiently to produce a zero or near-zero contact angle.
Pesticide Concentrated Emulsion Formulations
Authors: Chasin DG
Published: December 2008

Pesticides that are (1) hydrolytically stable, (2) water insoluble, and (3) liquid or have melting points too low for milling into conventional aqueous flowables may be formulated as concentrated oil-in-water emulsions (CEs). High-poundage CEs resemble conventional flowables from a formulation perspective as well as physically. The principal advantages include (1) the lower cost of inerts of these less-solvent-dependent formulations, (2) excellent tank-mix and liquid fertilizer compatibility, (3) ease of incorporation of adjuvants, (4) utility in multiple pesticide blend flowables, and (5) lower phytotoxicity.

Surfactant usage in CEs is an economical 4 to 8%. Surfactant selection follows the established procedure for emulsifiable concentrates (that is, optimum hydrophilic-lipophilic balance, anionic/nonionic balance, different chemical types), although dispersants, suspending agents, and preservatives are usually also required in these aqueous systems. Manufacture involves high shear agitation but not necessarily homogenization. Testing is almost identical to that employed in aqueous flowable formulation development and quality control.
Intermolecular Interactions in Aqueous Pesticide Formulations from Viscosity-Temperature, Viscosity-Volatility, and Viscosity-Shear Rate Relationships
Authors: Sundaram A
Published: December 2008

A study of viscosity-temperature, viscosity-volatility, and viscosity-shear rate relationships was carried out for aqueous formulations of pesticides and adjuvants, in order to understand the influence of intermolecular interactions on physical properties. The data showed a general trend that highly viscous formulations exhibit high viscosity-activation energy, low volatility, and high pseudoplasticity, although there were many exceptions to this trend. The volatility data indicated that the mechanism of evaporation of water from the medium involves intermolecular forces that are different from those encountered in pseudoplastic behavior and viscosity changes with temperature. Among the four surfactants studied—Triton X-114, Triton X-100, Atlox 3409F, and Tween 80—Triton X-114 was unique in providing highly viscous and pseudoplastic formulations. The study also indicated that a highly viscous formulation with low pseudoplasticity may pose problems in flowability and fine atomization in the nozzle systems. A high evaporation rate implies rapid evaporation of water from the fine droplets emitted in ultralow-volume (ULV) applications, indicating the potential for off-target drift problems.
Spray Triode Electrostatic Agricultural Atomizer: Development Update
Authors: Simmons HC , Kelly AJ
Published: December 2008

A new method for the electrostatic atomization of oil-based agricultural products was introduced in ASTM's Fifth Symposium on Pesticide Formulations and Application Systems. This atomization method involves the direct injection of charge (electrons) into the flowing spray fluid within the spray head and immediately prior to the exit port. The highly charged fluid, on exiting, forms a self-dispersive charged droplet plume. Preliminary test data obtained using a prototype charge injection device, the Spray Triode atomizer, have shown that this method offers promise for the effective, precise, and predictable dispersal of oil-based agricultural fluids.

As a result of additional test characteristics, coupled with an available analytic, predictive model of Spray Triode atomizer operation, a number of design improvements have been instituted. Operational characteristics, including droplet size distribution data, are presented for various hydrocarbon oils. The data indicate that Spray Triode devices have a range of inherent capabilities that meet some agricultural product application needs. The assistance of formulators and applicators in defining these needs is solicited.
Slurry Erosion and Abrasion of Metal-Ceramic Coatings
Authors: Alberto AS , Diane KS , Vijay KS , Gordon AS
Published: December 2008

Four coatings, including tungsten carbide wear-resistant and cobalt-base corrosion-resistant materials, were tested for abrasion and erosion performance in silica sand and in Alundum slurries. A 1018 carbon steel sample was also tested for comparison. The abrasion tests were conducted with a wet sand rubber wheel device, whereas a slurry jet impingement apparatus was used in the erosion tests. The results revealed that the abrasive wear performance improves dramatically as the coating hardness increases. By contrast, the erosion performance was not clearly related to the hardness of the materials tested. The wear mechanisms and the suitability of the test methods to evaluate coatings are discussed.
Experience with the Wet Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test
Authors: Saltzman GA , Merediz TO , Subramanyam DK , Avery HS
Published: December 2008

Slurry abrasion tests utilizing a rotating wheel to slide the abrasive medium across the surface of a wear specimen have been in use for many years. One form of this test used by a wide variety of laboratories consists of a rubber-rimmed steel wheel rotating in a silica sand, slurry-filled chamber. The historical development of this Wet Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test, including the results of round-robin testing conducted by Division 18 of the Society of Automotive Engineers' (SAE's) Iron and Steel Technical Committee, is discussed. Test variables that must be controlled and their effects on test results are given in terms of guidelines for future work aimed at standardization.
Photometric Considerations in the Design and Use of Infrared Microscope Accessories
Authors: Messerschmidt RG
Published: December 2008

The field of infrared microspectrometry has become, over the past three years, an important analytical technique, used in conjunction with Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry (FT-IR). The theoretical limitations of the technique have not before been published. Proper application of the theory can have a significant impact on the attainment of optimal performance from infrared microscope systems. The major limiting issue for the successful application of this technique is the diffraction theorem. This theorem as manifested in the infrared region is explained in detail in this paper, insofar as it is relevant to infrared microsampling.

Several other issues pertinent to the design and use of infrared microspectrometers are also discussed. Specifically, the choice of on-axis mirrors as opposed to lenses or off-axis mirrors in the critical areas of the instrument is explained. Also, specimen-based optical effects are identified and discussed.

Finally, two schemes to deal with the adverse effects of diffraction are presented—ultramicroscopy and redundant aperturing. These have the effect of improving the spatial resolution of the instrument. A spectrum obtained from a 5-µm spot of a polystryrene film is included to demonstrate this improvement.
Fourier Transform Infrared Microspectrophotometry as a Failure Analysis Tool
Authors: Shearer JC , Peters DC
Published: December 2008

Recent enhancements to Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microsampling accessories allow sampling sizes to become vanishingly small. Using a high throughput FT-IR spectrophotometer equipped with an infrared microspectrometer accessory, we can now routinely measure specimens smaller than 10 µm in size.

With such a device, specimen presentations to the infrared (IR) beam is greatly simplified over microbeam/fixed aperture accessories. Little or no specimen preparation is required. The chemist simply places his small specimen on a small potassium bromide (KBr) window, which acts as a substrate. He then locates the region of interest in the specimen, apertures down, and analyzes the exact region in the IR as was viewed in the visible.

This paper presents recent applications of the fXA-515 FT-IR microscope accessory to industrial problems. This accessory, attached to an fX-6260 FT-IR system, was used to analyze contaminate on floppy and hard disk media. Other applications to be discussed include the analysis of defects in epoxy matrices and polarization studies of fibers.
Applications of Microscopic Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometry Sampling Techniques for the Analysis of Polymer Systems
Authors: Mirabella FM
Published: December 2008

The packaging industry is in the midst of a revolution in which plastics are replacing other materials. The form of such plastic packaging is often complex multilayer films. Analytical techniques are described for the characterization of such multilayer structures. These techniques include internal reflection spectroscopy and microsampling/Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry (FT-IR). The composition of polymeric films is shown to be amenable to characterization by these techniques.

A technique to simultaneously measure thermal property response and infrared spectra on specimens of microscopic dimensions has been demonstrated. The apparatus consists of a microscopic differential scanning calorimetric cell and infrared microsampling accessory mounted in a FT-IR. The technique was demonstrated through the study of the melting of polypropylene. The technique is expected to have a wide range of applications in many areas of science, including chemistry, physics, and biology.
Risk Factors for Ski Injuries: A Crash Course of Epidemiologic Methods with Emphasis on Comparability in Experiments and Case-Control Studies
Authors: Knipschild PG , Bouter LM
Published: December 2008

The incidence rate of ski injuries should be studied as a function of its risk factors. Epidemiologic studies into this matter are very complicated. Central issues are comparability of baseline prognosis, comparability of measurements (effects in cohort studies and risk factors in case-control studies), and comparability of external circumstances. In experimental studies this may be achieved by randomization, blinding, and placebo intervention. The main tools in nonexperimental studies to prevent incomparability are deliberate selection and multivariate analysis. An outline is given of the design of experimental studies with increased efficiency. As for case-control studies, special attention is paid to the definition of the source population and possible ways to reduce measurement incomparability. The text provides many examples related to putative ski injury risk factors.
Skier Injury Trends
Authors: Johnson RJ , Ettlinger CF , Shealy JE
Published: December 2008

Between 1972 and 1987, the authors evaluated prospectively all 5701 injuries reported to the injury clinic operating in the base lodge of a moderate sized ski area in northern Vermont. During that time approximately 1 690 000 skier visits occurred at the ski area. The total injury population was divided into 28 groups and subgroups and examined by regression analysis for long-term trends.

Among upper body injuries, only lacerations showed a positive improvement. Among lower extremity injuries, virtually all injuries below the knee improved dramatically, some groups by more than 80%. Knee injuries, although improved as a group, showed a marked 2.7-fold increase in serious (third-degree) sprains, usually involving the anterior cruciate ligament.
A Five-Year Survey of Skiing Injuries in Hemsedal, Norway
Authors: Lystad H
Published: December 2008

During the 1982–1986 ski seasons 883 injured skiers from Hemsedal Skicenter were recorded and compared to a control group of 379 uninjured skiers.

The injury rate was 0.90/1000 skier days.

The knee was the most common injury site (23%) followed by the head (17%) and the shoulder (10%). Only about 9% suffered a lower leg fracture, but 40% of these skiers were children under 15 years of age.

Every third injury was binding/boot related, and those skiers who had performed a self binding release test were less at risk than those who had not performed this test. The number of skiers who had performed the self-test declined during the recording time.

Eighteen percent of the injuries were due to collision with other skiers or with fixed objects, but the collision injury rate declined dramatically during the last two seasons of this study.

Beginners had a higher injury risk than more experienced skiers, especially in the binding-related injury group.

In conclusion, self-test of bindings and skiing experience protect against skiing injuries.
More on the Lesions of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Their Prevention in Skiers
Authors: Figueras JM , Vidal A , Escalas F , Merino JA , Espadaler-Gamisans JM , Castanyer F
Published: December 2008

The authors further their research studies presented at the International Society for Skiing Safety (ISSS) Keystone and Naeba Congresses on the isolated anterior cruciate ligament lesions and those associated with meniscus injuries through arthroscopic control. This study considers the mechanisms of production of the injuries and the stresses to which the knee is submitted in some cases in alpine skiing, since the anterior cruciate ligament rupture can occur without the skier falling. Possible means to prevent these increasingly common alpine skiing injuries are also searched for in this paper.
Influences on the Foot Pressure Pattern in Ski Boots
Authors: Schaff PS , Schattner R , Kulot M , Hauser W
Published: December 2008

The determination of pressure patterns underneath the footsole inside ski boots may reveal reasons for foot pain and injury risk. In our study a newly developed 72-point measuring mat was used in 5 different ski boots. Data were collected on 10 subjects in different forward flexion positions. In addition, a determination of the pressure distribution over the instep was done by means of single measuring points.

The results prove that a proper adaptation along the dorsum of the foot does lower the forefoot load during flexion. A tightly closed and well-adapted boot will lead to a significant reduction of the total load on the footsole. High shaft models show similar pressure patterns even at earlier forward flexion angles. A pressure-related discrimination between rear entry and traditional boots that was found along the tibia was not the case underneath the footsole. The force transmission is mainly performed along the shaft of the boot. The effect of orthotics designed mainly to support steerability of the ski is therefore doubtful. The results may help to improve our knowledge of the interaction between boot and skier and lead, together with future field research, to a reduction of equipment-related injuries.
Problems Encountered in Flex Measurements on Alpine Ski Boots
Authors: Bonjour F , Delouche G
Published: December 2008

The alpine boot shaft stiffness is an often discussed parameter. Nevertheless, academics and people from the industry still lack an indisputable method of measurement.

This research investigates some parameters that could influence the measuring of boot shaft stiffness.

The preliminary conclusion is that the boot/foot system, as a whole, should be considered the same way as the boot/binding system is considered for the release of the leg during a fall, and, therefore, the stiffness of the boot cannot be described without considering the foot.
The Effect of Ankle Motion on Ski Binding Release Tests Using an Anthropometric Dummy
Authors: Bahniuk E , Schneider R , Tompkin E
Published: December 2008

A series of tests were conducted on an anthropometric dummy used for simulating skier impacts. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of the amount of ankle plantar-dorsiflexion motion on the moments experienced by the dummy skier at impact.

Two types of binding systems were used for these tests. One type was a classical ski boot-binding system. The second type of system used a unique, very soft boot that incorporates a binding mechanism. Boot bindings were set to release at approximately the same values. The dummy skier impacted a barrier to simulate a mogul impact. In other tests, the dummy skier impacted a pole simulating a slalom pole. One hundred tests were conducted at impact velocities of 19 km/h (12 miles per hour). The maximum moments acting on the dummy skiers tibia (distal third) were recorded.

It was concluded that a change in allowable ankle motion: 1. had more effect on the classical ski boot binding system than on the soft boot system and 2. had more effect on barrier tests (mogul tests) than on the pole tests.
Three-Dimensional Loading of the Knee During Internal-External Rotation: The Effect of Ankle Constraint
Authors: Quinn TP , Mote CD , Skinner HB
Published: December 2008

Torsional laxity and stiffness of the knee joint are often determined by rotating the foot with a torque measuring instrument and then measuring the rotations generated across the knee with a goniometer. However, when an internal-external rotation is applied to the foot, significant three-dimensional forces and moments are produced at the knee. These forces and moments depend on the external constraint of the ankle complex, and, as a result, the laxity of the knee also depends on the ankle constraint. Tests are conducted with the foot of a subject in a shoe, with and without the ankle taped, and in a buckled and unbuckled (ski) boot. The average laxity of the primary (linear) region of the axial moment versus internal-external rotation is 36% greater when the ankle is constrained by the buckled boot than it is in the other cases of lesser ankle constraint.
Axial Rotation of the Lower Limb Under Torsional Loading: I. Static and Dynamic Measurements in Vivo
Authors: Hull ML , Johnson C
Published: December 2008

The relations between the torsional loading applied at the foot and the axial rotations of the three leg joints (that is, ankle/boot, knee, hip) have been determined experimentally for three male test subjects of comparable height, age, and weight (1.83 m, 25 years, 90 kg). Experiments examined these relations under both quasi-static and dynamic loadings. The quasistatic loading was applied manually while the dynamic loading was provided by means of a computer-controlled pneumatic system, which applied single haversine axial moment pulses of variable amplitude (0 to 100 Nm) and duration (60 to 600 ms). Potentiometers measured the absolute rotations of the three leg segments.

Quasi-static loading experiments explored the effects of weight bearing, flexion, and muscle resistance on stiffness, particularly of the knee joint. Experiments were conducted up to the torque limit that subjects felt they could withstand. The results indicate nonlinear stiffness for all three joints with the direction of rotation having a marked effect on overall stiffness especially for the ankle/boot and knee. Both weight bearing and muscle resistance lead to increased overall knee stiffness with muscle resistance having a more pronounced effect. Stiffness increases are accompanied both by a decrease in laxity and by an increase in the torque limit. Although the torque limit changes by as much as a factor of two depending on the test conditions, both the ankle and knee maximum rotations at the torque limit are relatively constant.

Dynamic loading experiments recorded the transient rotational response under long (∼ 600-ms), medium (∼ 250-ms), and short (∼ 60-ms) duration pulses. The leg responds quasi-statically to the long duration pulse, transitionally to the medium duration pulse, and impulsively to the short duration pulse. These results emphasize the potential importance of system dynamics as a mechanism of lower limb injury.
Organization of Skiing Safety in Norway
Authors: Ekeland A , Larsen SR , Tuxen AG , Nygaard P
Published: December 2008

Many of the papers about skiing injuries in Norway have been epidemiological with identification of groups of skiers at risk. Other papers have studied adjustment and testing of release bindings and evaluated specific brands and types of bindings. The disclosed injury data called for preventive measures, and an Alpine Skiing Safety Council was established in 1984 with representatives from the main skiing-related organizations and the state authorities.

The council has worked to promote and coordinate the work for skiing safety in each organization, and plans of action have been made for five target areas (skiing equipment, skiing injuries, skiing ability and behavior, ski slopes, and rescue service). Parts of these plans have already been implemented.

An improved economy has generated more common initiatives from the council, and a second national conference on skiing safety was arranged in Oslo in November 1987.
Biomedical Tests during a High Mountain Ski Touring Competition (Raid Blanc)
Authors: Zucco P , Bonvecchio A , Casati A , Minelli R
Published: December 2008

The School of Sport Medicine of the University of Pavia, Italy, provided medical assistance and trauma care during a winter ski touring competition named “Raid Blanc.” This 5-day endurance competition, in the French, Italian, and Swiss Monte Bianco region, included 14 timed trials, with a total vertical drop of about 18 000 m, and a final ski speed contest.

Seven athletes were subjected to biomedical tests to study muscular fatigue (muscular enzymes and lactic acid changes) and hydration problems during a long-term competition at low temperatures.

The medical team evaluated the athletes' condition before the competition, immediately after two of the special laps, and after the speed contest.

Useful information evolved from every observation. The hematocrit level and variations of muscular enzymes have a significant increase when comparing the basic conditions to those following the special lap or the flying kilometre (average: lactate dehydrogenase [LDH]: 199.17, 405.14, 315.25; creatine phosphokinase [CPK]: 172.57, 382.00, 205.50). There is also an increase of the same enzyme in the cardiac fraction (average: LDH1: 106.83, 194.00, 153.00). These data are in contrast with the lactic acid levels, which remained normal. The lack of correlation between the two indexes of muscular fatigue led to the hypothesis that the amount of effort (in trained athletes) does not involve the lactigenetic mechanism.
Hitting the Target More Frequently: A Systematic Approach to Research-Guidance Tests
Authors: Hlavacek D , Finn JP
Published: December 2008

One pitfall in product development is a tendency for developers to expend significant amounts of time, effort, and money on the technical aspects of the project, but leave to informal evaluation the selection of products that will be evaluated in business decision-making marketing research tests. The poor record of success of such an approach necessitates the development of a better system. Research-guidance testing has two primary goals, to provide (1) information concerning how acceptable prototypes are, and (2) direction concerning “next steps.” A systematic approach is needed that provides developers with frequent, inexpensive, quickly executed, and accurate (that is, predictive of business decision-making test criteria) evaluations of prototypes. A rationale and program for obtaining consumer feedback and of integrating this information in a systematic fashion with product development from early concept/product screening stages through early development to the product-optimization stage are described, along with several examples of how the system operates.
Research Guidance: Not Giving It Your “Best Shot”
Authors: Baxter NE
Published: December 2008

Research guidance testing can use experimental design and statistical analysis to assure Product Development of success with the consumers. There are two testing approaches for developing a product: the “best shot” approach and the multiple-sample experimental design approach. The advantages of the multiple-sample design approach and its benefits are presented using a series of research guidance tests on salad dressing as examples. The use of sample presentation designs and experimental designs (screening designs, optimizing designs, and factorial designs) enables us to obtain the maximum amount of information from our tests. In addition to the discussion of these designs, data analysis techniques for both normal theory and nonparametric procedures are considered. While multiple-sample experimental designs generally require more planning and initial capital investment than the “best shot” approach, the information gained and total cost savings are greater.
Using Sensory Testing to Evaluate Product Value, Perceived Quality, and Preference: An Intermediate Market Study
Authors: Wolter JF , Wilson RD , Duhan DF , Bacon FR
Published: December 2008

This paper presents the results of research in an intermediate market setting which uses direct sensory testing methods to evaluate emotive responses to tangible physical product characteristics. The focus of this research is on important subjective decisions made by functional intermediaries (acting as surrogate decision makers for ultimate consumers) regarding perceived value, quality, and preference for various product configurations. Emotive characteristics are seen as a unique measurement problem in this research because they are subjective and nonlinear.
An Integrated System for Consumer-Guided Product Optimization
Authors: Carr BT
Published: December 2008

An efficient, systematic, and comprehensive system for developing products with maximum consumer acceptability is presented. The three major components of the system, factor screening, optimization, and sensitivity analysis, are presented in detail. Statistical designs and data analysis procedures appropriate for each of the three components are explained and illustrated through the use of examples. How the three components interrelate is also explained, leading to a clear understanding of the integrated nature of the product optimization system. The use of consumer attribute data is an integral part of the system. Incorporating consumer attribute information provides the means for identifying why, in the eyes of the consumers, the optimum product is the “best.” Simple correlation methods for relating attribute data to overall acceptability are recommended, and the appropriate interpretation of the resulting relationships is presented. The system is based on the time-proven class of statistically designed optimization experiments called response surface methodology. This class of designed experiments includes: Plackett-Burman designs for screening ingredients or processing conditions or both for their impacts on acceptability; central composite and Box-Behnken designs, among others, for identifying the optimum product and the stability of the optimum under minor perturbations of the factor levels about the optimum conditions. Practical issues such as the total number of test products required, the number of test products a respondent can evaluate in one session, and the number of respondents required to obtain stable and reliable estimates of the acceptability rating for each test product are addressed. Practical limits, based on experience, are recommended.
The Flexible Focus Group: Designing and Implementing Effective and Creative Research
Authors: Hayes TJ
Published: December 2008

Focus groups are rarely successful unless the researcher has thought through the research plan and design of the study along with the needed moderator qualifications. The proper use and misuse of focus groups are developed with emphasis on creative and alternative designs of the traditional group structure. The abuses of focus groups are divided into categories based upon the researcher's experience with the technique.
ICP Source Optical Emission Spectroscopy Analysis of Radioactive Materials: A View of the United Kingdom Scene
Authors: McMillan JW
Published: December 2008

The limitations placed on the use of inductively coupled plasma source optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) for the examination of radioactive materials are discussed, particularly the influence of radiation and contamination hazards on facility design. The design of safe facilities can be ensured by careful attention to containment, shielding, and methodology. Removal of active aerosols, generated by the plasma source, from exhaust gases can be achieved by the use of high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters. Containment of plasma sources in fume hoods can be satisfactory, but special precautions should be adopted to avoid the consequences of exhaust failure. Glove box containment is highly desirable when analyzing solutions containing plutonium-239 at concentrations >1 μg mL−1. Radiation hazards can be lowered, waste production reduced, and the need for heavy shielding lessened by adopting a small-sample approach with transient signal measurement. Many desirable design features have been incorporated into an upgraded ICP-OES system at Harwell, which should allow the safe, efficient analysis of the wide range of radioactive samples generated in a nuclear energy research establishment. Elsewhere in the United Kingdom, a number of other facilities for analysis of radioactive materials are in the course of design, installation, and commissioning, including two aimed at supporting reprocessing activities.
Design for a Contained Inductively Coupled Plasma/D-C Arc Atomic Emission Spectrometer at the Savannah River Plant
Authors: Coleman JT
Published: December 2008

The atomic emission spectroscopy laboratory of the Savannah River Plant, in Aiken, South Carolina, has been in operation for over 30 years. Routine analytical methods and instrumentation are being replaced with current technology. Laboratory renovation will include the installation of contained dual-excitation sources (inductively coupled plasma and D-C arc) with a direct-reading spectrometer. The instrument will be used to provide impurity analyses of plutonium, uranium, and other nuclear fuel cycle materials.
The Future as a Reflection of the Past
Authors: Fitzgerald JH
Published: December 2008

This symposium will deal with the various parameters that affect soil corrosivity and the methods used to measure those parameters. Each soil characteristic has been used at some time in the past to indicate corrosivity, and methods were developed for its measurement. This talk will delve into the background of these parameters and measurements methods and show how past studies affect future understanding. Where did the 10 000 ohm centimeter plateau come from? What was the contribution of the National Bureau of Standards? How did Starkey and Wight affect modern thinking on bacteriological corrosion? What did we learn from the Shepard cane, Columbia rod, and Putman's apparatus? Who was Wenner, anyway?
Corrosion of Steel and Metal-Coated Steel in Swedish Soils—Effects of Soil Parameters
Authors: Camitz G , Vinka T-G
Published: December 2008

This report presents a systematic long-term field study of corrosion in soil of carbon steel and steel coated with zinc and an aluminium-zinc alloy (55% Al/Zn). Exposure is taking place in seven localities with different types of soil. In the report, the effects on corrosion of the groundwater table, embedment in sandfill, soil pH, type of soil, specimen size, and time of exposure are evaluated. The results are based on up to four years of exposure.
Soil Characteristics as Criteria for Cathodic Protection of a Nuclear Fuel Production Facility
Authors: Corbett RA , Jenkins CF
Published: December 2008

The fact that buried metallic structures corrode is well documented. It has been postulated that the extent and rate of attack is controlled predominantly by the characteristics of the surrounding soil. Therefore, prior to constructing a new facility designed to process accumulated nuclear waste, consideration was given to protecting its underground pipelines against corrosion. Leak frequency curves from other nearby plant sites, extensive soil resistivity surveys, and geochemical analysis were used to evaluate the on-site soil characteristics for corrosion susceptibility.

Analysis of the data collected over a three-year period indicated that although the soil is not overly aggressive, substantial heterogeneity existed so as to establish galvanic cells along pipe lengths passing through the soil. To limit the extent of corrosion on underground piping, the application of an impressed current cathodic protection system was recommended to supplement a high-integrity, corrosion-resistant coating and wrap system.
Corrosion and Corrosion Evaluation of Superficial Sediments on the Norwegian Continental Shelf
Authors: Fischer KP , Bryhn OR
Published: December 2008

In-situ corrosion tests and laboratory corrosion studies have been performed on superficial marine sediments from water depths down to 500 m. The corrosivity of the superficial sediments on the Norwegian continental shelf is generally low, being in the range 1 to 50 μm/year. For most sediments which have a glacial or glaciomarine origin and have a low organic content, the corrosion rate will be in the range of 1 to 20 μm/year. However, in some limited areas where the sediments contain a high amount of partly decomposed organic material, the corrosion rate can be as high as 360 μm/year. It is considered that the sulfide environment created by the reduction of the biogenous material will decide the corrosivity of these marine sediments. Based on the studies performed on the various marine sediments found on the shelf, a reasonable evaluation of the corrosivity can now be based on the soil description and the geotechnical properties. However, more detailed electrochemical studies are necessary for an accurate determination of the corrosivity rate. A methodology for the evaluation of the corrosivity of steel in marine sediments is presented.
A Method for Corrosion Testing of Cable-Shielding Materials in Soils
Authors: Haynes G , Hessler G , Gerdes R , Bow K , Baboian R
Published: December 2008

A method for testing shielding materials for corrosion resistance is presented. Techniques for preparing specimens and evaluating the effects of alternating current on corrosion are described. Analytic methods are discussed for determining soil constituents which impact corrosion. The results of a six-year burial program for cable-shielding materials are listed.
Using the Multidepth Deflectometer to Verify Modulus Backcalculation Procedures
Authors: Scullion T , Briggs RC , Lytton RL
Published: December 2008

This paper describes the use of a multidepth deflectometer (MDD) for determining the resilient modulus of pavement layers. The MDDs are installed in specially drilled holes, and up to six modules may be placed in a single hole. This device measures the relative deflection of each layer with respect to an anchor point located approximately 2.1 m (7 ft)4 below the pavement surface. In this paper are results obtained from two instrumented pavement sections at the Texas Transportation Institute's Research Annex. By obtaining MDD deflections under falling weight deflectometer (FWD) loadings, two independent procedures are available for estimating layer moduli.

A procedure for automatically calculating layer moduli from MDD measurements is described, and the results obtained are compared with those obtained from three backcalculation schemes using FWD surface deflection data. When a semi-infinite depth subgrade was specified, all three procedures predicted subgrade moduli approximately 50% higher than those estimated from MDD measurements. When a finite depth was specified, a rock layer at 6 m (20 ft), all three procedures calculated subgrade moduli values very similar to the MDD values. The ELSDEF program with finite subgrade also produced comparable values for the moduli of base and subbase layers.
Nondestructive Evaluation of Pavements by Surface Wave Method
Authors: Nazarian S , Stokoe KH
Published: December 2008

The spectra-analysis of surface waves (SASW) method is a seismic method that can be used to determine elastic modulus profiles of pavement sections nondestructively. This method is based upon the theory of stress wave propagation in layered media. The dispersive characteristics of measured surface waves are used for determining the elastic modulus and thickness of each layer in the profile. This paper contains a description of the in situ testing technique and the in-house data reduction procedure used in conducting SASW tests. Emphasis is placed on demonstrating situations where SASW tests can be utilized more effectively than other nondestructive tests. For example, when bedrock is present at shallow depths or when the pavement layers are thin, use of the SASW method may be preferred. Two case studies illustrating the accuracy, sensitivity, and limitations of the method are also included.
Ground Penetrating Radar Supplements Deflection Testing to Improve Airport Pavement Evaluations
Authors: Eckrose RA
Published: December 2008

Deflection testing is a common nondestructive test procedure used by pavement engineers to evaluate the structural properties of the pavement structure and the loadbearing capacity of the underlying soil system. In dynamic deflection testing, the most common analytical models are based on linear elastic layer theory. While pavement systems are neither linear nor elastic, these models have been shown to adequately simulate in-situ response of pavement structures.

A critical element in linear elastic layer analysis is accurate determination of individual layer thickness. Minor changes in layer thickness can produce significant changes in analytical results of materials properties.

Traditionally, determination of layer thickness has relied on either construction records or on destructive (coring) calibration. Either method has now been shown to be capable of significant error. Construction records have been shown to vary from actual conditions by an order of magnitude or more, and actual pavement thicknesses have been shown to vary by an order of magnitude within only 100 m, a rate of change not detectable by coring procedures.

Since variations of only about 25 mm (1 in.), in extreme conditions, can skew deflection testing results by 100%, these traditional methods are frequently no longer adequate, and extreme care must be taken to employ methods which assure that accurate layer thicknesses are obtained in order to optimize pavement rehabilitation design.

One nondestructive technique, ground-penetrating radar (GPR), has now been demonstrated to provide such layer thicknesses within tolerances of ±6 mm (1/4 in.), a level of accuracy which lends an increased level of confidence to deflection testing results. In addition, GPR can be used to locate reinforcing steel, dowel bars, and voids, and to evaluate the deterioration of joints and load transfer systems within rigid pavements.

Case histories for a number of airport projects will be used to show the value of coupling GPR to a deflection testing program. Projects included are Des Moines International Airport, El Paso International Airport, and Chicago-O'Hare International Airport.
Planning and Implementing a Nondestructive Pavement Testing Program
Authors: Pumphrey ND , Lindly JK , White TD
Published: December 2008

Planning and implementing a nondestructive testing (NDT) program for pavements is an interesting and often frustrating task. The authors of this paper perceived a need to summarize their experiences while using four NDT devices to test pavement sections on the federal-aid interstate and primary highway systems in Indiana. The lessons learned during the planning and execution of the project can be instructive to organizations planning similar studies. It will be of particular interest to those persons who have little experience conducting a project of this nature. Many of the basic concepts of planning, organizing, and conducting an NDT program are included. Personal experiences of the authors are given to help reinforce these concepts.
SASWOPR: A Program to Operate on Spectral Analysis of Surface Wave Data
Authors: Sayyedsadr M , Drnevich VP
Published: December 2008

The spectral-analysis-of-surface-waves (SASW) method is a nondestructive method for determining elastic properties and thicknesses of pavement systems as well as natural soil deposits.

This method consists of three phases: 1. Collecting data from field testing. 2. Converting these data to a dispersion curve. 3. Determining the shear wave velocity profile by inverting the dispersion curve.

The computer program SASWOPR, developed at the University of Kentucky, performs the second of these three phases.

SASWOPR is an easy-to-use interactive program that provides great flexibility to operate on field data in the process of generating a single dispersion curve (surface wave phase velocity versus frequency or wavelength). This graphics-oriented program is written in compiled BASIC and runs on a personal computer.
Using NDT to Calculate the 1986 AASHTO Guide Subgrade Effective Resilient Modulus
Authors: Lindly JK , White TD
Published: December 2008

The research reported assessed a major change in the 1986 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. The soil support value was replaced with subgrade effective resilient modulus (MR) in flexible pavement design. MR was introduced into the 1986 AASHTO Guide as part of an overall shift to the use of elastic modulus as the indicator of pavement layer structural capacity. Because subgrade modulus changes when the subgrade moisture content changes or when the subgrade freezes, MR must reflect the combined effect of the modulus values from all seasons of the year. AASHTO suggests that the spring thaw modulus may be as low as 20 to 50% of the summer modulus.

NDT testing was performed during the spring thaw and summer seasons of 1986 on 15 Indiana flexible pavements with subgrades ranging from high plasticity clays to sands. Deflections from sensors 5 ft (152 cm) and 7 ft (213 cm) from the load plate were recorded for use in seasonal subgrade resilient modulus determination as provided by AASHTO. MR for each of the 15 pavements was determined using the following seasonal moduli as inputs: spring thaw and summer moduli as calculated from NDT deflections, spring/fall wet modulus interpolated between spring thaw and summer moduli, and winter modulus estimated as recommended by AASHTO. The research yielded the following findings for the conditions present in Indiana in 1986: contrary to expectations, the typical spring thaw modulus value was not dramatically lower than the summer modulus value; and summer modulus values were close enough to MR values that they may be used to approximate MR if spring thaw, spring/fall wet, and winter data are not available.