bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Ethical Review Process in the UK and Australia: The Australian Experience of Improved Dialogue and Communication
Authors: Bradshaw R H
Published: January 2023

A study was carried out in Australia and the UK of the legislation and procedures relating to the welfare and use of animals in scientific research. In Australia, a National Code of Practice for the Care and Treatment of Laboratory Animals has been adopted and it is a legal obligation for all Institutions to adhere to the Code. Each institution has an Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) responsible for ethical review and animal welfare which must include, within certain stipulated parameters, a veterinarian, a research scientist, a member of a rights/welfare organisation and an additional lay member. In the UK the situation is different, as the Home Office directly administers the law regarding the use of animals in research. In April 1999 the Ethical Review Process (ERP) was introduced; every Institution must establish an ERP which must include a named veterinarian and representatives from the Animal Care and Welfare Officers and others. In both countries great emphasis is placed on the principles of replacement, reduction and refinement in experimental research. Substantial differences in culture and ethical review structure between the two countries are identified. However, various recommendations are outlined, based on the Australian experience, to build on existing structures and further develop the UK ERP. These recommendations should be seen as long-term aims and seek to further improve animal welfare through facilitating communication, increasing accountability and creating an environment conducive to open discussion.
Behavioural Responses to Castration in Lambs
Authors: Thornton P D , Waterman-Pearson A E
Published: January 2023

We examined the effects of two different methods of castration on the behaviour of lambs of two age groups. Rubber ring castration and combined rubber ring and Burdizzo clamp castration were compared in groups of one-week-old lambs and four-to six-week-old lambs. Behaviour was assessed by examining time-lapse video recordings made continuously over four days. Postures and behavioural states were instantaneously sampled and the mean daily frequencies of these behaviours calculated. Behaviours were assigned to different groups: standing still, moving, eating, lying, playing and abnormal postures. The times spent performing each group of behaviours on the days following castration (days 2, 3 and 4) were compared to those on the day preceding castration (day 1). Castration resulted in significant reductions in the times spent performing play behaviour in one-week-old lambs and lying behaviour in four-to six-week-old lambs. There was also a significant increase in abnormal postures following castration in four- to six-week-old lambs. There were no detectable differences between castration methods. The results show that lambs exhibit changes in behaviour over the three-day observation period that are suggestive of the presence of prolonged acute pain. These results have important implications regarding the sheep welfare recommendations of the Farm Animal Welfare Council, which propose to extend the maximum legal age for rubber ring castration from one week to six weeks of age.
A Comparison of the Activity Budgets of Wild and Captive Sulawesi Crested Black Macaques(Macaca Nigra)
Authors: Melfi V A , Feistner A T C
Published: January 2023

One aim of environmental enrichment techniques is to replicate ‘wild-like’ behaviour in captivity. In this study, three captive troops of Sulawesi crested black macaques(Macaca nigra)were each observed for 100 h in large naturalistic enclosures. Activity budgets constructed from these observations were compared with published data collected from wild troops in the DuaSudara Nature Reserve, Sulawesi (O ‘Brien & Kinnaird 1997). No significant difference was found between the activity budgets of the wild and the captive macaques, although social, resting and feeding behaviours were significantly different between zoos. There was more rest and less movement and feeding in captivity, although these differences were not significant. The relatively large number of individuals, the wide variety of age-sex classes and the large and complex naturalistic enclosures provided for them may have been important factors in promoting wild-like behaviour. This study shows that captive primates can exhibit wild-type activity budgets.
Foraging enrichment for laboratory rats
Authors: Johnson SR , Patterson-Kane EG , Niel L
Published: January 2023

The provision of foraging opportunities may be a simple way of improving an animal's welfare, but this approach has been neglected for laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus). Standard housing contains little enrichment, and food is often providedad libitum, which may result in inactivity and obesity, especially in mature males. Foraging enrichments may offer a way to correct these deficiencies. This study compared three potential enrichments — a limited-access hopper, gnawing sticks and a foraging device — to standard housing and feeding conditions, in order to examine their effects on rat body weight, food consumption, behaviour and preferences. The subjects were 12 mature male Wistar rats. Effects were assessed from daily weighing and from video records of the rats' behaviour over 24 h periods. The rats' preferences were determined using a four-way test system in which they could choose between a standard cage and cages offering the three potential enrichments. Compared to the standard housing and feeding, the limited-access hopper had a tendency to reduce food consumption, but the time spent feeding increased. The gnawing sticks provided the rats with the opportunity to gnaw, but did not affect other behaviours or body weight. The foraging device had the benefits of reducing aggression and allowing the rats to search for and manipulate food, but resulted in significant gains in body weight. Additionally, the foraging device was the preferred feeding source. Of the four possible feeding locations, the rats spent the least amount of time in the standard cage. The foraging device provided the most benefits but requires further modification to address problems of obesity.
Time course of changes in egg-shell quality, faecal corticosteroids and behaviour as welfare measures in laying hens
Authors: Dawkins MS , Edmond A , Lord A , Solomon S , Bain M
Published: January 2023

The aim of this study was to assess the extent to which three non-invasive measures of welfare in laying hens (egg-shell quality, corticosteroid levels as measured from the birds' faeces, and behavioural preferences) were correlated over a period of five days in two groups of birds. One group had access to an enriched test area (bark chips on the floor and a tray of sprouted wheat); the other group had access to a comparably sized barren area (bare wire mesh floor). The measure of preference used was the amount of time hens spent in the test area as measured each day. It was predicted that birds with access to the less preferred environment would show higher levels of faecal corticosteroids and egg-shell anomalies. However, although the birds showed a preference for the enriched environment from Day 1, the other two measures did not follow the same pattern. Faecal corticosteroid metabolites showed an initial increase in both groups, which declined significantly by Day 4, with the ‘enriched’ birds in fact showing a trend for higher levels than the ‘barren’ birds. Shell thickness also showed a change over the five days, but with a different time course: declining to a minimal level on Day 3 and then rising again by Day 5. No measure of shell quality was significantly different between the two environments, but there was a trend for changes in shell thickness to be more pronounced in eggs from enriched birds. The results indicate the caution that needs to be exercised in using shell quality or corticosteroid measurements in isolation from assessments of what the animals themselves prefer.
Body weight change as a measure of stress: a practical test
Authors: McLaren GW , Mathews F , Fell R , Gelling M , Macdonald DW
Published: January 2023

We report on the efficacy of body weight change as a measure of trapping and handling stress in two species of wild small mammal: bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus). We tested two hypotheses: (1) that weight change after capture and handling is related to the intensity of the trapping and handling regime, and (2) that weight change after an intensive handling regime is related to an individual's current pattern of energy expenditure. Trapped wood mice that were subjected to intensive handling (intensive stressor) lost more weight than did animals that were handled minimally (less intensive stressor), but this was not the case for bank voles. Patterns and factors related to body weight change in response to intensive handling also differed between the two species: heavier and non-breeding bank voles were more likely to lose weight, but this was not true for wood mice, and none of the factors we measured was found to affect weight loss in this species. Our results were broadly consistent with the predictions of the biological cost hypothesis. We discuss the limitations and benefits of weight loss as a measure of stress.
Evaluation of the tranquilliser trap device (TTD) for improving the humaneness of dingo trapping
Authors: Marks CA , Allen L , Gigliotti F , Busana F , Gonzalez T , Lindeman M , Fisher PM
Published: January 2023

Predation of sheep and cattle by the dingo (Canis lupus dingo) is implicated in significant stock losses throughout much of mainland Australia. Leg-hold traps are commonly used for dingo control and ways are sought to improve the humaneness of these devices. We evaluated the performance of the tranquilliser trap device (TTD) attached to Victor Soft-Catch®traps for their ability to deliver a sedative and anxiolytic drug to trapped dingoes. A trapping programme was conducted in south-west Queensland where traps were set alternatively with a TTD containing either 800 mg of diazepam (drug TTD) or a placebo (placebo TTD). All TTDs included 20 mg of the bait marker iophenoxic acid (IPA) to ascertain dosing success. Each trap was fitted with an activity-monitoring data logger that recorded time of capture and subsequent dingo activity. In 41 out of 48 (85.4%) captures the TTD was ruptured and released its contents. No elevation in serum iodine levels above I mg ml-1resulting from the ingestion of IPA occurred in 8 out of 36 (22.2%) captures, which suggests a higher rate of dosage failure. Dingo activity was highest in both groups immediately after capture, but declined after the first hour in each. The activity of dingoes that accepted a drug TTD was significantly reduced compared to those that took the placebo. However, tooth and limb damage scores did not differ significantly between the drug and placebo group. Much of the physical trauma may have occurred within the first hour of capture when activity was intense and before drug onset in the TTD drug group. The use of TTDs containing sedative and anxiolytic drugs has the potential to reduce anxiety and distress associated with prolonged captivity, but the delivery of a lethal agent that is rapidly acting and humane may result in better welfare outcomes.
Influence of social status on the welfare of growing pigs housed in barren and enriched environments
Authors: O'Connell NE , Beattie VE , Moss BW
Published: January 2023

One hundred and twenty-eight pigs were reared in barren or enriched environments from birth to slaughter at 21 weeks of age. Pigs remained as litter-mate groups until 8 weeks of age when they were mixed into groups of eight animals. These groups were balanced for gender and weight and contained two pigs from each of four different litters. Each pig was assigned high or low social status on the basis of relative success in aggressive interactions at mixing. Injury levels were assessed on a weekly basis from 8 to 21 weeks of age. Pigs were exposed to two group food competition tests after a period of food restriction at 10 weeks of age, and to an individual novel pen test at 11 weeks of age. Behavioural and plasma cortisol responses to both types of test were recorded. Low social status was associated with increased injuries to the head, neck and ears, and therefore reduced welfare. Pigs with low social status showed reduced resource-holding ability in the food competition test, and greater avoidance of a novel object during the novel pen test It is suggested that avoidance of the novel object reflected ‘learned’ fearfulness in these individuals. Environmental enrichment did not negate the effect of low social status on injury levels, but did appear to reduce the negative influence of low social status on stress during food restriction, and led to a reduction in fearfulness in response to the novel pen test. These results suggest that environmental enrichment may improve the welfare of growing pigs with low social status.
Group size and space allocation in farmed juvenile blue foxes (Alopex lagopus)
Authors: Ahola L , Mononen J , Pyykönen T , Mohaibes M , Hänninen S
Published: January 2023

Farmed juvenile blue foxes were housed either singly, in pairs, or in quartets at a stocking density of either 0.6 m2or 1.2 m2per animal. The effects of group size and space allocation on physiological, behavioural and production-related parameters were assessed. The results showed that the larger space allocation, although having only minor effects on the measured parameters, allowed the foxes to maintain their individual space even in the larger group sizes. Social tension within the groups affected the behavioural and production-related parameters to a greater extent than did space allocation. The sex-related dominance order, with males having easier access to feed than females, and females having more bite scars and higher serum cortisol levels than males, appears to be the major factor affecting the general performance of mixed-sex group-housed farmed blue foxes. These results suggest that group housing of farmed juvenile blue foxes could be considered as an alternative, socially enriched way of housing these animals.
Welfare of badgers(Meles meles)subjected to culling: patterns of trap-related injury
Authors: Woodroffe R , Bourne FJ , Cox DR , Donnelly CA , Gettinby G , McInerney JP , Morrison WI
Published: January 2023

For over 25 years, European badgers (Meles meles) have been subject to culling in Britain in attempts to limit the spread of tuberculosis (TB) to cattle. As part of a far-reaching evaluation of the effectiveness and acceptability of badger culling as a TB control measure, this paper assesses one aspect of the welfare of badger populations subjected to culling: the risk of badgers confined to cage traps prior to despatch becoming injured as a result of rubbing or biting on the cage. In a large-scale field trial, 88% of badgers received no detectable injuries as a result of being confined in the trap. Of those that were injured, 72% received only minor skin abrasions. A minority (1.8% of the total) acquired damage to the teeth or jaws that may have caused serious pain. Although trap rounds were commenced in the early morning, badgers were no more likely to sustain injuries when they remained in traps until later in the day. Coating of cage traps, intended to give the wire mesh a smoother surface, was associated with a reduction in the incidence of minor skin abrasions, although it may have slightly increased the frequency of less common but more serious abrasions. Modification of the door design reduced tooth damage. Traps will be further modified if appropriate. However, all aspects of the conduct of trapping operations must balance badger welfare with concerns for the health and safety of field staff.
The effect of breeding schemes on the genetic response of canine hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, behaviour traits and appearance
Authors: Mäki K , Liinamo A-E , Groen AF , Bijma P , Ojala M
Published: January 2023

Current dog breeding programmes must be changed if genetic improvement in health and behaviour traits is to be achieved. A computer simulation programme was used to assess the possible genetic improvement in hip dysplasia (HD), elbow dysplasia (ED) and behaviour (BE) traits in a dog population whilst simultaneously selecting for appearance (AP). The structure of the Finnish Rottweiler population was used in the simulation. Over a ten-year period (1989–1998), the realised genetic response to selection in the Finnish Rottweiler population was 0.03 genetic standard deviations (SD) for both HD and ED. The relative selection index weights were iterated in the simulation, accordingly, as 0.4 for both traits. In the current breeding strategies, AP dominates other traits. Present index weights for BE and AP were therefore assumed to be 0.5 and 2.0, respectively. With these assumed current index weights, using best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) breeding values, neither an increase in the number of breeding candidates nor an increase in the number of screened relatives of the candidates resulted in further genetic response for HD, ED or BE. The desired genetic responses for HD, ED and BE over a period of 10 years could only be attained by changing the relative selection index weights dramatically in favour of these traits. As long as the index weights clearly favoured HD, ED and BE, the increase in the number of breeding candidates, ie in the number of screened dogs, resulted in a further response in these traits. To preserve desired behaviour and to improve health in dog breeds, systematic breeding programmes favouring these traits should be developed, and a greater number of dogs should be screened for health and behaviour. Breeders should stop breeding exhaustively for appearance and place more emphasis on health and behaviour traits.
Infrared thermography as a non-invasive tool to study animal welfare
Authors: Stewart M , Webster JR , Schaefer AL , Cook NJ , Scott SL
Published: January 2023

Growing public concern regarding animal welfare and consumer demand for humanely produced products have placed pressure on the meat, wool and dairy industries to improve and confirm the welfare status of their animals. This has increased the need for reliable methods of assessing animal welfare during commercial farm practices. The measurement of the stress caused by commercial farm practices is a major component of animal welfare assessment. However, a major issue for animal welfare science is that many of the techniques used to measure stress involve invasive procedures, such as blood sampling, which may themselves cause a stress response and therefore affect the measurement of interest. To reduce this problem, a number of non-invasive or minimally invasive methods and devices have been developed to measure stress. These include the measurement of cortisol concentrations in saliva and faeces, and remote devices for recording body temperature, heart rate and the collection of blood samples. This review describes the benefits and limitations of some of these methods for measuring stress. In particular, the review focuses on recent advances and current research in the use of infrared thermography (IRT) for measuring stress. Specific applications for IRT in the dairy and beef industries are also described including an automated, non-invasive system for early diagnosis of infection in cattle. It is essential that non-invasive measures of acute and chronic stress are developed for reliable assessment of animal welfare during standard farm management practices and IRT may be a useful tool for this purpose. IRT may offer advantages over many other non-invasive systems as it appears to be capable of measuring different components of the stress axis, including acute sympathetic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical responses.
Harmonising the definition of refinement
Authors: Buchanan-Smith HM , Rennie AE , Vitale A , Pollo S , Prescott MJ , Morton DB
Published: January 2023

Russell and Burch's Three Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement) remain the cornerstone for principles guiding humane experimental research. However, the concept of refinement has evolved considerably since its first inception and there have been numerous interpretations, some of which are regressive from the original definition. In this paper we examine the interpretations of refinement, and propose a harmonised progressive definition that is in line with changes in animal ethics and animal welfare science. Our definition should be applied to all aspects of refinement: those related to housing, husbandry and care, techniques used in scientific procedures, periprocedural care, health and welfare monitoring, and experimental design. We argue not only that the concept should include the avoidance or minimisation of adverse effects experienced at any time during the life of an animal destined for use in a laboratory, but also that it should be applied to the founder animals. Furthermore, we take a proactive stance and argue that refinement should include enhancing well-being through environmental enrichment. The acceptance and application of this new definition by legislative authorities and in guidelines would represent a significant step forward for animal welfare.
Refinement of the use of non-human primates in scientific research. Part II: housing, husbandry and acquisition
Authors: Rennie AE , Buchanan-Smith HM
Published: January 2023

In order to safeguard the welfare of laboratory-housed non-human primates, refinement techniques should be applied to every aspect of the life of animals used in the laboratory, from birth to death, with the aim of both minimising harm and maximising well-being. In this second part of a three-part review we summarise published information on housing and husbandry practices, and describe ways to minimise contingent inhumanity associated with the use of primates in laboratories and their breeding and supply (where inhumanity is defined as the infliction of distress). We also discuss methods by which the welfare of these animals can be maximised on a day-to-day basis. The principles of enrichment, aspects of the housing environment, social and physical enrichment and acquisition are discussed. Refinement of the influence of humans and experimental procedures are discussed in Parts I and III of this review, respectively.
Influence of teeth resection on the skin temperature and acute phase response in newborn piglets
Authors: Moya S Llamas , Boyle LA , Lynch PB , Arkins S
Published: January 2023

Two experiments were carried out to determine the effect of different teeth resection methods on skin temperature, concentrations of the acute phase proteins C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid A (SAA), and cortisol in piglets. In Experiment 1, piglets from 60 litters were assigned to three treatments where the ‘needle’ teeth were clipped (CLIP), ground (GRIND) or left intact (INT) within 12 h of birth; skin temperature was measured immediately afterwards. Fourteen pigs were selected in each treatment for blood sampling at 1 day and 29 days-of-age for the determination of concentrations of CRP, SAA and cortisol. In Experiment 2, a 2 × 2 factorial design was used to determine the effect of teeth clipping and time spent out of the farrowing crate post-clipping on skin temperature. Piglets from 60 litters had their teeth clipped (CLIP) or left intact (INT) and were returned to the farrowing crate immediately or after 1 min. Skin temperature was measured after piglets were returned to the farrowing crate and after 10 min. In Experiment 1, CLIP and GRIND piglets had significantly lower skin temperatures than INT piglets; skin temperature was also significantly reduced in CLIP piglets in Experiment 2. Skin temperature did not differ between time-out groups. Plasma levels of CRP and SAA did not differ between treatments on day 1; however, concentrations of both proteins were significantly higher on day 29. CLIP pigs had significantly higher concentrations of CRP in comparison with GRIND pigs on day 29. Stress caused by teeth resection provoked a transient reduction in skin temperature. Furthermore, both resection methods caused infection and/or inflammation, but to a similar degree as that caused by leaving the teeth intact. These results indicate that the welfare of piglets is better in the short term if their teeth are left intact; however, if teeth resection is necessary grinding can be recommended in preference to clipping.
The effects of individual housing on mice and rats: a review
Authors: Krohn TC , Sørensen DB , Ottesen JL , Hansen AK
Published: January 2023

Isolating an animal refers to the situation where the animal is physically fully demarcated from conspecifics without physical, visual, olfactory and auditory contact. Animals housed in separate cages in the same room are, although deprived of physical and visual contact, still in olfactory and auditory contact, and thus not totally isolated. During the fifties and sixties several studies claimed to show physiological and behavioural differences between individually and group housed rats and mice. The so-called ‘Isolation Syndrome’ characterised by changes in corticosterone levels, metabolism, growth, and behaviour was introduced, rather as a model for psychoneurosis than through any concern for animal welfare. Today, it is often stated as common knowledge in laboratory animal science textbooks that individual housing as well as isolation of rats and mice has an effect on physiology and behaviour. It is, however, unclear whether this effect actually impairs animal welfare.

The aim of this paper is to analyse studies on individual housing of mice and rats to evaluate whether there is documented proof that individual housing affects welfare, and, alternatively whether it is possible to house these animals individually without negative impact on welfare, eg by providing special housing improvements.

A range of studies have shown that individual housing or isolation has effects on corticosterone, the open field behaviour, barbiturate sleeping time and the metabolism of different pharmaceuticals in the animals. However, this review of 37 studies in rats and 17 studies in mice showed divergence in test results difficult to explain, as many studies lacked basal information about the study, eg information on genetic strains and housing conditions, such as bedding, enrichment and cage sizes. Furthermore, test and control groups most frequently differed in cage sizes and stocking densities, and behavioural tests differed in ways which may very well explain the differences in results. Overall, there seemed to be an effect of individual housing, although it may be small, and it seems reasonable to assume that, through making small changes in the procedures and housing environments, the effects can be minimised or even eliminated. More well-controlled and standardised studies are needed to give more specific answers to the questions this issue poses.
The effect of housing and handling practices on the welfare, behaviour and selection of domestic cats (Felis sylvestris catus) by adopters in an animal shelter
Authors: Gourkow N , Fraser D
Published: January 2023

As adult cats can often be difficult to re-home, they may spend long periods in rescue shelters where barren housing and inconsistent handling can reduce their welfare. In this study, 165 adult cats in an animal shelter in Vancouver, Canada, were assigned to four treatments. The Basic Single treatment reflected typical conditions in that particular shelter, with cats handled in an inconsistent manner by various staff and housed singly in relatively barren cages. Three alternative treatments involved more consistent, positive handling by only the experimenter and research assistants, plus three housing conditions: Enriched Single (individual cages with opportunities to perch and hide), Basic Communal (group housing with opportunity for each cat to have personal space), and Enriched Communal (group housing enriched to encourage play and cat – cat interaction). The Basic Single treatment had the lowest percentage adopted in 21 days (45% versus 69-76% for other treatment, and higher stress scores than other treatments. The three alternative treatments did not differ significantly on any measure. Cats euthanised for poor health showed higher stress levels when alive than other cats. In a questionnaire, most adopters cited certain behavioural/emotional traits (‘friendly’, ‘playful’, ‘happy’) as reasons for selecting cats; these were generally associated with lower stress scores. The results suggest that consistent handling combined with a range of improved housing options can improve the chances of adoption for adult cats, perhaps by reducing fear-related behaviours that make cats less attractive to adopters.
Presence of a privacy divider increases proximity in pair-housed rhesus monkeys
Authors: Basile BM , Hampton RR , Chaudhry AM , Murray EA
Published: January 2023

Use of a privacy panel in the home cage of female pair-housed rhesus monkeys has been reported to increase time spent in close proximity and time spent in affiliative behaviours. In the current study we measured these behaviours in more diverse populations; including male-male and male-female pairs of monkeys actively participating in cognitive experiments. We observed twenty-five pairs of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) both with and without the presence of a privacy divider. Monkeys spent significantly more time in the same half of the pair-cage when the divider was in place. A significant increase in affiliative behaviour was not observed. The effects of privacy dividers previously reported for female monkeys partially extend to male pairs and mixed sex pairs under conditions typical of an active research setting.
Reliability of a subjective lameness scoring system for dairy cows
Authors: Brenninkmeyer C , Dippel S , March S , Brinkmann J , Winckler C , Knierim U
Published: January 2023

Four observers were trained in lameness assessment using a subjective scoring system with five categories, and observer agreement was investigated four times at different stages of training and experience. Inter-observer reliability increased with time and reached acceptable levels in the last session. Retrospectively simplified versions of the scoring system were satisfactorily reliable already at a fairly low training level. For experienced raters, the original scoring system with five categories is suitable in terms of reliability for on-farm welfare assessment.
Effect of training on the inter-observer reliability of lameness scoring in dairy cattle
Authors: March S , Brinkmann J , Winkler C
Published: January 2023

In the present study, the effect of training on inter-observer reliability was studied for a 5-category lameness scoring system used for routine on-farm surveys of welfare in dairy cattle. The inter-observer agreement between an experienced and an initially inexperienced observer was determined during an initial training phase and at specific time points in the course of data collection in 46 herds. During the training phase on three farms, inter-observer reliability increased to an acceptable level for both the 5-category gait scoring system and the distinction between lame and non-lame cows.

The 4th testing after 17 on-farm visits revealed a considerable increase in inter-observer reliability which was further improved in the course of the on-farm visits.

In conclusion, acceptable inter-observer agreement for differentiating between non-lame and lame cows was achieved after only a brief introduction. In order to obtain high inter-observer repeatability with the 5-category gait scoring system used in this study, (more) intensive training procedures are required.
How to deal with complex data of skin lesions in weaner pigs
Authors: Baumgartner J
Published: January 2023

Skin lesions of pigs can be used as an indicator of their ability to adapt to the social and physical environment. A total of 315 weaner pigs were assigned to one of three treatments: groups of nine piglets from one litter (9s), mixed groups of nine piglets from three litters (9m) or mixed groups of 36 piglets from four litters (36m). The ear, neck/shoulder, rump, back, hindquarter, tail and belly of piglets were inspected for scratches, abrasions and signs of inflammation on days 0, 5 and 28 post mixing. Due to the large number of body regions, different types of injuries and data from three inspections, the results of explorative data analysis were very heterogeneous. Data preparation focusing on scratches and combination of corresponding regions using factor analysis resulted in a data set which was useful for further statistical procedure. Factor analysis identified corpus, ear and tail as factors. Using the Wilcoxon test different inspections within a treatment were compared. Differences between treatments were analysed using Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests. Mixed groups (9m, 36m) showed an increase of ‘many scratches’ on ear and corpus from day 0 to day 5 and a decrease on ear from day 5 to day 28. ‘Many scratches’ on corpus were more frequent in mixed groups than in single litter groups. This study suggests that skin lesion score can be used to analyse treatment effects on the aggression of pigs. However, it has to be focused on a precise hypothesis and should be based on behavioural observations.
Long-term consistency of selected animal-related welfare parameters in dairy farms
Authors: Winckler C , Brinkmann J , Glatz J
Published: January 2023

It was the purpose of this study to assess the consistency of selected animal-based welfare parameters for dairy cattle throughout a one-year period. Eight cubicle-housed dairy herds were visited five times, at two-monthly intervals. At each visit, lameness, injuries to the carpal and tarsal joints, cleanliness, social behaviour and the avoidance distance towards an unknown person were assessed by the same observer in a random sample.

At herd level, lesions of the carpal joints, udder cleanliness and frequencies of agonistic and cohesive behaviour showed low consistency. However, correlations between consecutive recordings as well as between single visits and the average were moderate to satisfactory for lameness prevalence, lesions of the tarsal joints, cleanliness of the hind leg and avoidance distances towards an unknown person in two different locations. The integration of these parameters into on-farm welfare assessment protocols seems to be justified.
Effects of fattening boars in mixed or single sex groups and split marketing on pig welfare
Authors: Boyle LA , Björklund L
Published: January 2023

Our aim was to evaluate the effects of single or mixed sex fattening of boars and split marketing (SM) on pig welfare. Female (n = 10), male (n = 10) and mixed sex (n = 10) groups were fattened to 105 kg. Two focal pigs per pen were selected for continuous behaviour observations and skin lesion inspections. Aggressive and sexual behaviours were recorded during feeding. One week prior to slaughter the three heaviest pigs in half of the pens were marketed. There was more sexual behaviour in mixed and male groups. However, there was less agonistic behaviour in mixed and female compared to male groups. SM male groups tended to have higher lesion scores than non-SM male groups. There was more mounting in non-SM mixed groups than in both SM and non-SM female groups. The welfare of boars was improved in mixed sex groups but females fared better in single sex groups. Split marketing reduced the welfare of pigs in male groups but improved pig welfare in mixed groups.
Quality of life means welfare: how is it related to other concepts and assessed?
Authors: Broom DM
Published: January 2023

Our view of which individuals should be the subjects of our moral actions is expanding to include more people and more species. Animal welfare is the subject of rapidly increasing concern in most countries in the world, and this concern is resulting in changes in the ways in which animal users keep and treat animals. Ethical decisions about whether the killing of an animal is justifiable should be considered separately from those about how poor welfare can be and still be acceptable. The term ‘euthanasia’ should be restricted to killing an animal for its own benefit. Quality of life (QoL) in humans is generally taken to include: physical condition and any impairment of this resulting from injury or disease; capacity to function; perception of functioning; and satisfaction with functioning in relation to what is believed possible. If the welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment, then welfare is essentially the same as QoL. Both include the state of the individual's coping systems, including those responding to pathology, various behavioural and physiological responses, and cognitive processes associated with suffering or pleasure. Hence, both welfare and QoL include health and the extent of positive and negative feelings. Many papers referring to animal welfare include objective quantification whilst few papers referring to QoL do so. Some human studies assess QoL by the less objective method of questions asked of subjects. Neither QoL nor welfare should be assessed using solely subjective measures. Assessment of welfare must take account of the wide variety of coping systems and coping strategies used. A range of measures including those of behaviour, physiology, brain function, immune system function, and damage is needed. The ease or difficulty of coping should be interpreted within the framework of the abilities of the animal. Animals with more sophisticated cognitive functioning may have the best abilities to cope with problems. The scheme presented here for assessing welfare over time facilitates ethical decisions regarding whether welfare is good or whether it is unacceptably poor.
Is quality of life a useful concept for companion animals?
Authors: Taylor KD , Mills DS
Published: January 2023

Although the term ‘quality of life’ (QoL) is not unfamiliar to veterinary surgeons, only recently has the scientific community attempted to measure it in farm and companion animals. Typically such studies have applied methodologies from the field of human health-related quality of life (HRQoL), without due consideration of the applicability of both the term and its measurement to animals. However, it is necessary to clarify the philosophical basis of QoL if it is to be defended as a rigorous and reliable aid to decision-making in animal welfare science. In this paper we review common concepts in human HRQoL and discuss the value of, and difficulties regarding, the transfer of the concept of human HRQoL to companion animals. Human definitions tend to focus on individuals and their assessment of the state of their life in terms of physical, social and psychological functioning. The use of the term ‘quality of life’ for animals may therefore expand on what is usually considered when using the term ‘welfare’, and thereby improve on current practice, which tends to focus on relatively few outcome measures that are largely indicative of poor welfare. However, failure in the human literature to properly define QoL and defend the choice of measures accordingly, together with the common use of objective indicators and proxies, has led to confusion over the relative roles of objective and subjective measures in the determination and constitution of QoL. A suggestion for an appropriate definition of animal QoL that clarifies these relationships is offered, together with a list of social/environmental and physical/psychological health-related domains that may be suitable for a generic companion animal QoL assessment tool. In the absence of knowledge on both basic needs and individual preferences, particularly for institutionalised animals, QoL tools may be more appropriately designed as outcome-based tools, focussing on observable signs of health and behaviour. The extent to which recent QoL assessment tools for companion animals have covered these domains, and the extent to which the psychometric properties of the tools have been addressed, is also briefly discussed.
Estimation of the value the public places on regulations to improve broiler welfare
Authors: Moran D , McVittie A
Published: January 2023

Animal welfare presents particular policy challenges. Good welfare provides private productivity benefits to producers and some level of positive external benefit to people who care about animal welfare status. But markets for welfare fail, meaning that private producers are unlikely to provide the correct level of external benefit and social welfare will not be maximised. Accordingly, there is a rationale for government to be involved in the provision of animal welfare. The public good nature of animal welfare supply presents policy challenges for government regulators. Specifically, in setting regulatory targets, Defra, as the regulator, aims to maximise social welfare by designing regulation that delivers benefits that are at least equal to regulatory costs at the margin. This means that regulatory targets must be informed by some assessment of benefits of welfare policies. This paper considers this problem in the context of the proposed EU Directive on broiler welfare. The paper describes the application of the contingent valuation method to measure the economic benefits of broiler welfare, and considers how the results inform welfare target setting.
Influence of indoor-cat group size and dominance rank on urinary cortisol levels
Authors: Lichtsteiner M , Turner DC
Published: January 2023

Domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) are often housed indoors both singly and in groups. However, there is a lack of studies dealing with cat-cat relationships, group composition and effects of environmental parameters on the well-being of privately-owned cats. One way to index the effects of stressful situations is to measure glucocorticoid levels, as glucocorticoids are released from the adrenal cortex in response to stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Therefore, we investigated the influence of single and group housing on basal urinary cortisol levels of indoor-only domestic cats in private households, taking into account dominance status and environmental parameters. Urine samples were collected non-invasively by owners from six single-housed cats and six alpha-omega animal pairs of multi-cat households. Dominance status in group-housed cats was determined by competition test series. Additionally, we compared cortisol levels of privately-owned cats with those of shelter cats. Results showed that basal urinary cortisol levels of cats in private households are neither influenced by housing style (single cat vs multi cat) nor by individuals' dominance status. Correlations indicated a positive influence of human density, number of persons per household, and number of m2available to cats on basal urinary cortisol levels, whereas cat-related parameters such as number of cats per household, number of m2per cat, and number of persons per cat, did not have any significant influence on basal urinary cortisol levels. A comparison of basal urinary cortisol levels of privately-owned and shelter cats revealed no influence of location (private household, shelter) and group type (single, group [dominant or subordinate]) on basal urinary cortisol levels. This study is the first to investigate basal urinary cortisol levels of domestic cats in private households and an animal shelter considering housing style, dominance status, and environmental parameters.
The Effect of a ‘Freedom Food’ Enrichment on the Behaviour of Broilers on Commercial Farms
Authors: Kells A , Dawkins M S , Cortina Borja M
Published: January 2023

The effect of an environmental enrichment — straw bales — on the behaviour of growing broiler chicks was investigated by comparing the behaviour of broilers kept in matched pairs of houses on commercial farms with and without bales. The birds provided with bales perched on them and clustered around them. The most striking result, however, was that, even away from the bales, birds in the enriched houses were more active (showing more walking and running and less sitting) than birds in unenriched houses. The study provides support for the ‘Freedom Food’ recommendation that activity in commercially kept indoor chickens can be increased by providing environmental enrichment in the form of straw bales.
The Effects of Elevated Platforms and Concealment Screens on the Welfare of Blue Foxes
Authors: Mononen J , Kasanen S , Harri M , Sepponen J , Rekilä T
Published: January 2023

Nowadays in Europe, farmed blue foxes are kept for most of the year in wire-mesh cages furnished with a platform for resting and observing the environment but without any opportunity for hiding from other foxes or from man. We studied the welfare effects of providing an elevated platform and two types of concealment screens in singly housed juvenile male blue foxes (n = 46) from August to December. The foxes were allocated to four experimental groups: group C had no furnishing in the cage, group P had a platform in the cage, group U had a platform and a concealment screen in the cage, and group O had a platform and a concealment screen on the outer wall of the cage. The blue foxes with platforms (groups P, U and O) spent the majority of their time on the platforms both when their cages were approached by man and as revealed by 24 h video recording. The 24 h recordings revealed that the foxes tended to avoid those locations in the cage where the screens obstructed their view (groups U and O); however, when the screens allowed the foxes to hide from an approaching man (group U), they were used for that purpose to some extent. There were no differences between the four groups in terms of growth, increase in rectal temperature after an acutely stressing situation, adrenal size, or fearfulness. The urinary cortisol: creatinine ratio showed that foxes in group U may have been less stressed than those in groups P and O in September, but no differences were observed in October. The concealment screens of group U may have improved the welfare of these blue foxes.
Vasospastic angina following COVID-19 vaccine-related myocarditis: an underlying cause of chest pain
Authors: Tanaka Atsushi , Fukuoka Shoji , Nagata Hazumu
Published: January 2023

We present a 13-year-old boy who had recurrent chest pain with elevated cardiac enzymes and abnormal ST segments in electrocardiogram 36 hours after the second dose of BNT162b2 vaccination. Cardiac MRI and coronary angiography with acetylcholine provocation confirmed myocarditis and vasospastic angina, respectively. Coronary vasospasm may play a pivotal role in the chest pain in COVID-19 vaccine-related myocarditis.
Formal and informal institutions: understanding the shadow economy in transition countries
Authors: Gërxhani Klarita , Cichocki Stanisław
Published: January 2023

This paper reviews work that tests (1) how formal and informal institutions, and especially their interaction, affect participation in the shadow economy in transition countries; and (2) how participating in these shadow economies affects individuals' well-being. The key findings are that a clash of individuals' perceptions of formal institutions with their informal institutions increases involvement in the shadow economy. Conversely, a trustworthy relationship with the government and other individuals makes people more inclined to comply. The importance of their social and institutional context also appears in how individuals' involvement in the shadow economy relates to their well-being. These findings complement insights from the rich literature on tax morale, on the exchange between public institutions and citizens and between culture and institutions more generally. The findings also contribute to the institutional economic literature by empirically showing that: (1) focusing on formal institutions alone, that is strengthening the rule of law, is a necessary but insufficient response to the shadow economy; (2) taking informal institutions, such as individuals' trust and tax morale, into account is of equal importance; and (3) most importantly, formal and informal institutions go hand in hand, and their interaction should be an essential part of the new institutional perspective.