bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Muslim Identity in Maritime Trade: General Observations and Some Evidence from the 18th-Century Persian Gulf / Indian Ocean Region
Authors: Risso Patricia
Published: December 2011

Trade is often discussed in an Islamic context with reference made to Muslim merchants. However, the significance of Islam in specific commercial circumstances is difficult to assess. Some historians label trade as “Muslim” because it was conducted by Muslims; others do so because the trade originated and/or concluded with the boundaries of an Islamic state. The label Muslim may also suggest networking, a process more familiar in relation to Armenians or Jews. We can ask if the operative principles of Muslim networks were at all the same as those for the minority groups.
Textual Intentions: A Reading Of Adonis' Poem “Unintended Workship Ritual”
Authors: Boullata Issa J.
Published: December 2011

In his long poem entitled “Quddās bi-lā qasd” (Unintended Worship Ritual), the well-known Syrian–Lebanese poet Adonis (Dr. 'Ali Ahmad Sa'īd) celebrates a love relationship with a young woman he came to know while he was a professor at the Syrian University in Damascus. He mentions two dates and two cities at the end of the poem, suggesting perhaps that he began writing the poem in Damascus in January of 1976 and that he finished it in Beirut in August of 1978. He had moved to Damascus from Beirut during the early years of the Lebanese Civil War and accepted a teaching position at the Syrian University, but he later returned to Beirut, where his home had been since he had left his native Syria to become a Lebanese citizen in 1956. The same young woman also inspired him to write a much shorter undated poem entitled “Awwal al-ijtiya” (The Beginning of Sweeping Annihilation) in which his passionate love is expressed in terms of a deep desire to be natural, to give vent to the powers within the self, and to remove what he considers to be the constraints of hypocritical, repressive sociocultural conventions in Arab society.
International Affinities in Modern Egypt: Results From a Social Distance Survey of Elite Students
Authors: Sell Ralph R.
Published: December 2011

The historical formation, contemporary scope, and future dynamics of national identity remain important concerns in Egyptian scholarship. While many aspects of national identity and the forces that shape it in each generation have been analyzed, a more complete understanding of the results of these often antagonistic influences suffers from the lack of descriptive information.
The Invention and Reinvention of the Egyptian Peasant
Authors: Mitchell Timothy
Published: December 2011

Among the figures in the scholarly imagining of the post-colonial world, “the peasant” is a strange kind of presence. With this abstraction, a category of human being has become a field of expertise, the subject of his own scholarly journals, and the object of a distinct body of theory and description. “What are villagers in India, in Egypt, in Mexico really like?” the anthropologist George Foster asks, as he begins a brief history of the field. “For nearly fifty years anthropologists (by no means to the exclusion of others) have searched for answers [to this question] …. living with villagers in order to question them and to observe their behavior, describing their findings in books and articles.” At first they called their research the study of “folk” societies, Foster says, but after World War II scholars “came to realize that ‘peasant’ is a more appropriate term, and thus was born the new subfield of ‘peasant studies’.”
Professional Syndicates in Egyptian Politics, 1952–1970
Authors: Springborg Robert
Published: December 2011

In recent years the political roles of the People's Assembly, the Arab Socialist Union, town and village councils, labor unions, and other Egyptian governmental structures have been analyzed. Interestingly enough, most observers would probably agree that the Egyptian parliament is for the most part a rubber stamp; that Egypt is a partyless and not a one-party state; that it lacks a viable system of local government as distinct from the prevailing system of provincial administration; and that labor unions are official but not truly behavioral entities. In short, the Egyptian policy is dissected with conceptual tools borrowed from traditional institutional analysis, while it generally is recognized that Egyptian politics are not institutionalized, or, to use Moore's term, are ‘unincorporated’. This contradiction merits comment.
Eternal Cosmos and the Womb of History: Time in Early Ismaili Thought
Authors: Walker Paul E.
Published: December 2011

One of the more serious and threatening, yet unsolved, problems in theology is uncertainty about the meaning of time. Clearly, the theologian of an omnipotent and absolute God must reconcile His transcendence with the human worshiper's graphic and personal particularity. To come to terms in the matter of spatial dimension is, moreover, relatively easy when compared with the problem of the temporal dimension. Compounding the woes of the theologian (or perhaps causing them) is the abject poverty of all languages in proper terms for time and aspects of time. In describing time, all theologians resort to the use of an artificial vocabulary – so unfortunate because it makes the communication of already unfamiliar ideas doubly difficult.
Modern Trends in Egyptian Historiography: A Review Article
Authors: Gran Peter
Published: December 2011

The graduate history program of ‘Ayn Shams University has produced some of the finest scholarly studies in the field of Egyptian history in recent years. The program has been particularly receptive to the shift toward a social and economic approach within the discipline of history. It is noteworthy that for a number of years this program has been directed by two historians who were not themselves trained in this specialization. Dr. Ahmad ‘Izzat ‘Abd al-Karīm (the founder of the program) is an institutional historian, and Dr. ‘Abd al-Raḥlm Muṣṭafa (the current chairman) is a political historian
The Tenants of Wadi Hawarith: Another View of the Land Question in Palestine
Authors: Adler (Cohen) Raya
Published: December 2011

Zionist historiography of the Mandatory period accords a considerable place to the problem of land purchase and colonization. In the early 1930s, the Zionists feared that Britain would put restrictions on land purchase and that great difficulties would ensue from ordinances designed to protect the tenantcultivators in the event of eviction. The historian's eye has also been caught by the ambivalent position of the Arab national leadership which, while publicly demanding an end to Zionist expansion, privately continued to sell land to the Jews. But the literature hardly deals with the tenants themselves—the human center of the land debates and the subjects of considerable social interest in themselves.
The Sultan and the Bureaucracy: The Anti-Tanzimat Concepts of Garnd Vizier Mahmud Nedim Paşa
Authors: Abu-Manneh Butrus
Published: December 2011

Mahmud Nedim Paşa was appointed grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire for the first time in September 1871 following the death of his predecessor in that office, Mehmed Amin Ali Paşa. His first tenure lasted until the end of July 1872. His rise to power represented the rise of a current in Ottoman politics that had been suppressed in the 1860s, when Ali and Fuad dominated the Porte.
Socioeconomic Dimensions of Reconquista and Jihad in Morocco: Portuguese Dukkala and the Sa ʿdid sus 1450–1557
Authors: Cornell Vincent J.
Published: December 2011

Among the results of recent scholarly interest in the “World-Systems” perspective has been a revival of the debate concerning the origins of capitalism and the modern world economy. Despite the fact that the World-Systems approach at times seems as Eurocentric as some of the theories it purports to oppose, since the origins and “core” developments of both mercantilism and capitalism are considered to have been uniquely rooted in the socioeconomic experience of early modern Europe, it nonetheless offers historians the promise of studying social structural and economic changes in non-Western societies without recourse to the value judgments and prejudices implicit in models of development that employ such terms as “traditional society,” “underdevelopment,” or “modernization.” By demonstrating that market and productive forces external to a particular regional economy and social system can intrude upon that system, dominate it, and eventually stimulate its transformation, thus creating wider changes in intrasocietal social relations, the World-Systems model has the potential of offering a conceptual point of departure of great value to students of social change in regions other than Europe during the early modern era.
Tegüder's Ultimatum to Qalawun
Authors: Allouche Adel
Published: December 2011

The Ilkhan Tegüder (r. 1282–84), who took the name Ahmad when he converted to Islam, is widely credited with having interrupted—for the duration of his brief reign—the Mamluk-Ilkhanid conflict which had continued unabated since the battle of 'Ayn Jalut (1260). He is also credited with sending two embassies to Qalawun (r. 1280–90), his Mamluk counterpart: the first in 1282 and the second at the end of 1284.
Race and the Issue of National Indentity in Israel
Authors: Tekiner Roselle
Published: December 2011

For more than century, race was a major interest in anthropology. Buildingon Johan Blumenbach's 1795 color classificaiton dividing humanity into white, black, brown, yellow and red, anthropologists further subdivided the people of the world into finer taxonomic categories. Hair form, shape of the nose, pigmentation of the eyes and the hair, stature, and the shaps of the head were among the many characteristics race classifiers added to skin color to enable them to fit populations into the typologies they designed. By the end of the 19th century, numerous races and subraces had been described, laying the groundwork for the direction the discipline would follow until the mid-20th century. It was expected that the development and refinement of a racial typology would lead to a framework for tracing lines of human evolution and routes of human migration.
Islamic History as World History: Marshall Hodgson, ‘The Venture of Islam’
Authors: Burke Edmund
Published: December 2011

At a time when orientalism is under attack both from within and without the profession, the publication of Marshall G. S. Hodgson's three-volume work, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization1 is an event of major importance. So rich is its subject, so complex and ambitious its analytic scheme and serious its moral purpose that it is difficult in brief compass to give an idea of the book. In the following pages, I discuss those aspects of the work that seem to me most important for an understanding of its achievement and significance. In the end, I shall argue, The Venture of Islam must be seen as the most ambitious and successful effort to salvage the orientalist tradition to date.
Is There an Islamic city? The Making of a Quarter in a Moroccan Town
Authors: Eickelman Dale F.
Published: December 2011

Max Weber's brief remarks on the nature of the Muslim city constitute a poignant example of what Bernard Lewis describes as the unfortunate division of labor which has pervaded the study of Islam: the ‘founding fathers’ of sociology and their successors have framed theoretical statements which were either elaborated or refuted by scholars more directly concerned with the Muslim world.
The Municipal Council of Tunis, 1858–1870: A Study in Urban Institutional Change
Authors: Cleveland William L.
Published: December 2011

Throughout the nineteenth century, the cities on the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean, Tunis, Alexandria, Beirut, Smyrna, and Istanbul among them, experienced an influx of foreign communities which, combined with an increase in the indigenous populations and new urban policies on the part of certain rulers, tended to disrupt customary patterns of urban relationships. Although the scholarship of recent years has provided a new awareness of the network of interrelationships which held together the segments of medieval Islamic urban society, studies on the nineteenth-century changes in those relationships as represented by the policies of Muhammad ῾Alī, Aḥmad Bey, and the Ottoman Tanzimat reformers, have tended to focus more on aspects of state and government than on cities as such. Yet cities, especially capital cities, reflect most intensely periods of social and institutional transition.
Morocco: Anatomy of A Palace Revolution that Failed
Authors: Braun Frank H.
Published: December 2011

The process of modernization in Morocco is dramatically symptomized by the decline of traditional authority. Postindependence politics have been in a state of permanent crisis, and the monarchy could only survive as any other political alternative promised imminent chaos. The abortive military coup of Skhirat in July 1971 was only another link in the chain of events that have perpetuated internal crisis. The army's massive interference in national politics was, however, a novelty. It had the effect of greatly accelerating the latent process of disintegration of traditional society and politics.
Setting The Stage: American Policy Toward The Middle East, 1961–1966
Authors: Nadelmann Ethan
Published: December 2011

In viewing American relations with the middle East since the Second World War, scholars have focused on the more dramatic events: Israel's independence in 1948, the Suez affair of 1956, and the post-1967 amalgam of conflicts and diplomacies. This, however, has resulted in a dearth of research on the inter vening periods, particularly the first half of the 1960s, when admittedly American leaders were preoccupied with events and crises elsewhere. Yet this period witnessed a substantive transformation in the American-Israeli relationship, complemented by a revealing twist in American relations with the Egyptian leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser. Relying primarliy on recently declassified documents, this paper seeks to explain both the course of American realtions with Israel and Egypt, as well as the reasons for the Middle East's relegation to the sidelines by American foreign policy decisionmakers. More specifically, two developments require explanation: Israel's emergence as an acknowledged ally of the Unisted States and recipient of offensive weapons; and the determination of American decisionmakers to pursue closer realtions wiht Nasser's Egypt despite numerous conflicting interests.
Hotz versus Muḥammad Shafīʿ A Case Study in Commercial Litigation in Qājār Iran, 1888–1894
Authors: Floor Willem
Published: December 2011

With the growth of the volume of foreign trade in nineteenth-century Iran, as well as the direct participation of European merchants, the use of bills of exchange, promissary notes, and drafts increased. In fact, toward the end of the nineteenth century, trade in Iran would have been greatly hampered without trade bills, due to the fact that all the flow of capital was to Tehran.
Ethnic Ineqality in Iran: An Overview
Authors: Aghajanian Akbar
Published: December 2011

In this paper we discussed socioeconomic inequality among ethnic communities in Iran. There were significant clues to the widening gap between Persian and non-Persian communities. That is, contrary to the existing theories, modernization and industrialization have not been accompanied with improvement in the distribution of the resources among ethnic communities; rather they have increased inequality. Thus, we looked into the particular nature of Iranian modernization for causes of interethnic inequality. Political centralization, domination of Persian language and culture, and centralization of early industrialization contributed much to the development of the interethnic inequality at early stage of the Iranian modernization. In the new area, the 1960s–1970s, the existing gap was further widened by centralized and urban-biased economic growth. This was possible only because of the government's unique access to the increasing oil revenues which were generated with very little help from the domestic means of production.
The “Westoxication” of Iran: Depictions and Reactions of Behrangi, Āl-e Ahmad, and Shariʿati
Authors: Hanson Brad
Published: December 2011

Samad Behrangi (1939–1968), Jalāl Āl-e Ahmad (1923–1969), and ⊂Ali Shari⊂ati (1933–1977) were perhaps the three most influential lay Iranian intellectuals among dissatisfied, anti-regime Iranians during the 1960s and the 1970s. Each hailed from a different province of Iran: Behrangi from Azerbaijan, Āl-e Ahmad from Tehran, and Shari⊂ati from Khorasan. Each developed loyal followings during his lifetime. Each became a “martyr” to his devotees and developed a wider popularity after death than he had enjoyed in his lifetime. And each formulated an extensive societal critique fortifying, inspiring, and galvanizing adherents for the final assault on the shah's regime.
Becoming “Urban” or Remaining “Rural”: The Views of Turkish Rural-to-Urban Migrants on the “Integration” Question
Authors: Erman Tahire
Published: December 2011

The mass migration from rural areas to larger cities in the Third World and the rapid social changes entailed by this transformation have attracted the attention of social and political scientists since the 1950s. The problematic issue of the “integration” of rural migrants into the urban society and the changes this transformation has brought about have long been among the most studied questions. Yet they still call for more research to increase our understanding of the phenomenon, particularly in our era, which is witnessing radical shifts from earlier times in terms of social, economic, and technological characteristics. The question of “integration to what?” becomes important in political and practical terms. In the 1950s, when mass migration to cities started, the answer to this question seemed quite clear. The cities were the places of the modernizing elites, especially in the case of Ankara, the capital of the modern Turkish Republic. As in other Third World countries, the modernizing bureaucratic and military elites of the early republic, who had assumed the role of transforming the society into a modern, Western one, regarded the city as an effective means for the acculturation of its inhabitants to modern–Western values and ways of life. The modernization theory, which maintains a dichotomy between rural and urban, supported this idea.
Arab Trade and Free Trade: A Preliminary Analysis
Authors: Bolbol Ali A.
Published: December 2011

It would not have been wrong to argue twenty years ago that a united Arab economy would most likely be represented by the economies of Algeria and Iraq. Such an economy would have been characterized as having a promising industrial base, a viable agriculture, and a wealth of oil and mineral resources. From today';s viewpoint, of course, choosing these two countries could not have been more unfortunate. Algeria is in a state of siege that is keeping its economy hostage to political-military considerations, and Iraq's economy, after two wars and an embargo, is in a state of meltdown, to say the least. As a result, today's unqualified image of the Arab economy in general is that of wasted oil wealth, poverty, and political instability.
Misconceptions Regarding the Juridical Status of the Iranian ‘Ulamā’
Authors: Eliash Joseph
Published: December 2011

Since the reign of the Qājārs in Iran (1779–1925) and aslate as the early sixties of the present century, Iranian ‘ulamā’ proved, repeatedly, their ability and appeal to spearhead political opposition against the national government. Seeking the sources ofthe ‘ulamā’'s effective political power, several students ofmodern Iranian history and politics have attempted to determine the doctrinal status accorded to the ‘ulamā’ in Twelver Shi‘i Islam, the religion of Iran since the sixteenth century.Even though substantial research has been devoted in the West to Sunni juridical thought, the field of Twelver Shi'i jurisprudence has remained all but unknown. In the absence of systematic studies of Twelver Shi'i juridical sources, Twelver Shi'i theology and political theory, Western scholars have thus drawn on opinions expressed, sometimes orally, by contemporary Iranian learned men, mostly ‘ulamā’, to define the status of the ‘ulamā’. Lacking the advantage of scholarly collation provided by a firsthand acquaintance with the primary sources, they have accepted notions as Twelver Shi'i tenets that bestow on the ‘ulamā’ certain statutory privileges. Under scrutiny, though, these prove to be in contradiction with the spirit as well as the letter of Twelver Shi'i legal and theological doctrines.
The Role of the ‘Rebels’ in the Constitutional Movement in Iran
Authors: Fathi Asghar
Published: December 2011

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the role of a group of‘rebels’ (in Iran they are called looties) who made significant contributions to the Iranian Constitutional Movement in 1908–1909. A discussion of the norms and values of this group and the way they fit the social situationand events of that period in Iran, serves to explain their involvement in the Constitutional Movement.
The Genoese in Galata: 1453–1682
Authors: Mitler Louis
Published: December 2011

On the morning of Tuesday, 29 May 1453, the warriors of Mehmet II poured through the shattered walls of Constantinople. Later in the day their commanding general, Zaǵanos Pasha, accepted the keys of Galata, the walled town standingon a promontory on the shore opposite the Golden Horn, signaling the end of Genoese domination.
The Nationalization of the Iraqi Petroleum Company
Authors: Brown Michael E.
Published: December 2011

One of the more important developments in Iraq since the 1958 overthrow of the Hashemite monarchy was the nationalization of the Iraqi Petroleum Company on 1 June 1972. The nationalization of the IPC was the culmination of a long-standing power struggle between the IPC and the Iraqi government. This analysis is concerned with that power struggle and the consequent nationalization of the IPC.
Sh. Al-Amin B. Ali Mazrui and Islamic Modernizm in East Africa, 1875–1947
Authors: Pouwels Randhall L.
Published: December 2011

Throughout its history, Islam was influenced by the nature and extent of its contacts with other religions. It began as a relatively simple set of beliefs and practices fully circumscribed by Quranic injunctions and the example (sunna) of the Prophet Muhammad. But because it was cast into an adversary position with Byzantine Christianity, many of its institutions were developed from early times on in response to the intellectual confrontation thus generated. Consequently, by the tenth century Islam had evolved a highly refined theological foundation.
British Policy Toward Egyptian Labour Activism, 1882–1936
Authors: Lockman Zachary
Published: December 2011

In May 1896 Lord Cromer, the British Agent and Consul-General in Egypt and that country's de facto ruler, received a “very numerously signed petition” from the coalheavers of Port Said. These workers, most of them migrants from Upper Egypt, were employed through labor contractors by several English and other foreign-owned companies to carry coal onto ships transiting the Suez Canal. The coalheavers complained of ill-treatment by the contractors (shuyuūkh), who “buy and sell us like slaves”, stealing part of their wages and forcing them to buy all they needed at stores owned by the contractors. Cromer acknowledged receipt of the petition in a letter to the coaling companies, commenting that the workers “seem to have some real grievances, notably in connection with the truck system”. Suggesting that the employers seek to avoid a strike, he expressed the opinion that the government “should deal with a strike at Port Said on the same lines as a strike in England, that is to say, that they should preserve order and not interfere to any serious extent between employers and labourers.”
The Stamboul Alphabet Of Shemseddin Sami Bey: Precursor To Turkish Script Reform
Authors: Trix Frances
Published: December 2011

Comparative studies of writing systems and script conversion tend to emphasize the extent of cultural re-orientation and the rapidity of implementation of Turkey's shift from the Arabic to the Roman script, but they rarely mention the period that led up to this change. As early as 1863, the Azeri playwright Ahunzade Mirza Fethali presented a proposal for a Latin orthography for Turkish, before the Cemiyet-i ilmiye-i Osmaniye (Ottoman Society of Science) in Istanbul. A second event in Ottoman script reform, though less well known than Ahunzade's proposal, was the adoption by many former members of the Cemiyet-i ilmiye-i Arnavudiye (Albanian Society of Science), in Istanbul, in 1879, of a Latin-based alphabet for Albanian. This “Stamboul Alphabet” was designed by Shemseddin Sami Bey and, unlike Ahunzade's proposal, was immediately acted upon and subsequently adopted by the new Albanian presses in Bucharest and Sofia, from which it spread through southern and central Albanian lands, all still under Ottoman rule.
Political Recruitment and Socialization in Syria: The case of the Revolutionary Youth Federation
Authors: Hinnebusch Raymond A.
Published: December 2011

Over the last fifteen years the Syrian Ba'th Party has succeeded-in a country previously known for weak governments and military coups-not only in entrenching a strong relatively stable system of single party rule, but also in launching its own variety of socialist and modernizing revolution. The explanation of this transformation in the nature of Syrian political life is one of the interesting problems of contemporary Syrian and Middle Eastern politics. What accounts for it? This essay will explore one approach to a partial explanation: a study of party recruitment and socialization practices.
The Dollar Crisis, Oil Prices, and Foreign Exchange Risks: The Case for a Basket of Currencies as Numeraire
Authors: El-Beblawi Hazem
Published: December 2011

Since the quadrupling of oil prices in 1973–74, OPEC and oil prices have made front-page news and captured the public imagination. It is no secret that oil prices are administered prices, where an economic agent is a price maker; other participants in the market have to adjust their behavior to this price. It is not a new phenomenon. From its early history, the oil industry in the United States — by far the world's first oil province — was dominated by the Standard Oil Trust. On the international scene, the role of the Seven Sisters hardly needs mention. They continued to control oil export prices until the 1960s.
A Survey of Modernization of Muslim Family Law
Authors: Rahman Fazlur
Published: December 2011

Some strides have been taken to improve the status of women in Islam, but the weight of conservatism is still very strong. How strong it is may be gauged from the following illustration. In the introduction to his book published in 1926 describing the rise of trade unionism, Shaikh Tāhir al-Haddād, a pioneer of the trade union movement in Tunisia, interprets history in a fashion that comes very close to Marxism, although he rejects Marxist atheism and materialism. No opposition came to this work from the pen of an 'alim. But three years later, when he published Our Woman in the Sharî'a and in Society, arguing that the social status of woman in Muslim society was actually inferior to what Islamic teaching granted them and pleading for improvement in the social and legal positions of women, he was severely attacked by the conservatives, lost his job, and died a few years later, a forlorn man.
Islam and National Identity: The Case of Pakistan and Bangla Desh
Authors: Islam Nasir
Published: December 2011

Indian Muslims have always been keenly aware of the differences between their own communal group and the Hindus on the one hand, and between themselves and the Christian foreigners on the other. This awareness of a separate Muslim identity was much stronger at the level of the elite, however, than at the level of the masses. At times, these feelings erupted into calls for jihad against the British, for example, the Wahabi and Fraizia movements. They also manifested themselves in the creation of religious schools, like Deoband, to preserve the Muslim way of life. Finally they emerged as the reformist Aligarh Movement to promote modern education, reinterpret the teachings of Islam, and secure the rights of Muslims as a minority community. In the early twentieth century, various attempts were made to forge a united front with the Hindus for an India independent of Great Britain. These attempts met with repeated failure.
Reclamation of Memory, Fall, and the Death of the Creative Self: Three Moments in the Fiction of Intizār Ḥusain
Authors: Memon Muhammad Umar
Published: December 2011

Marcel Proust ends the first bookDu côte de chez Swannof his mammoth novelA la recherche du temps perduwith this sentence: “Le souvenir d'une certaine image n'est que le regret d'un certain instant; et les maisons, les routes, les avenues, sont fugitives, hélas, comme les années.” It would seem that a significant part of the early fiction of Intiℑār Husain, a Shī'ite Muslim and by far the most talented Urdu writer in Pakistan toäay, is devoted to the remembrance of things past, moments gone, and faces dissolved by time.
Fāṭimid Grain Policy and the Post of the Muḥtasib
Authors: Shoshan Boaz
Published: December 2011

Students of Islamic history more or less agree that the Fātimid regime conducted what may be loosely termed a liberal economic policy, and that the rulers of tenth- to twelfth-century Egypt intervened in the Egyptian economy to a minimal degree. Goitein, maintaining that the Fātimid period “was one of relative tolerance and liberalism, if compared with the preceding and, in particular, the following periods,” also stresses the x201C;comparatively little interference by the [Fātimid] governments in the trade of their subjects.” Ashtor tells us that “a striking feature of the Fātimid regime was freedom of enterprise,” and that “ all sectors of economic life were free — crafts, industry and trade.” Staffa asserts that “the [Fātimid] government made no attempt to impose strict control over the economy.” It may be suspected that the notion of Fātimid “liberalism,” as opposed, say, to Ayyūbid or Mamluk “conservatism,” had helped some decades ago to mole the thesis (now generally discarded) that the origins of guilds and professional organizations in the Islamic Near East are to be sought in the Fātmid state.
In Praise of the Caliphs: Re-Creating History from theManāqibLiterature
Authors: Afsaruddin Asma
Published: December 2011

Roughly around the end of the 7th century, a distinct genre of Islamic literature began to develop under the rubricfadāʾil(“virtues” or “excellences”) that praised the merits, for example, of reciting the Qurʾan, of the Companions of the Prophet, of performing religious duties such as hajj and jihad, and of sacred cities such as Jerusalem. Thefadāʾilliterature initially was a part of the burgeoning hadith corpus, and thefadāʾ-Qurʾan traditions appear to be the oldest strand. A variant term for this type of tradition, especially with regard to the Companions of the Prophet, ismanāqib(and less frequently,khasāʾ is). A survey of this kind of “praise” literature indicates that the termsmanāqibandfadaāʾilcould be used fairly interchangeably.
From Odyssey to Empire: Mapping Sudan Through Egyptian Literature in the Mid-19th Century
Authors: Troutt Powell Eve M.
Published: December 2011

The medieval Arabic cartography of Africa outlined a paradoxical continent of facts, myth, and mystery. Ever since the great geographers such as al-Idrisi, al-ʿUmari, al-Masʿudi, and Ibn Battuta traveled to and wrote about Africa, the map of Black Africa became a combination of mystical and empirical knowledge, the result of, in the words of Paulo Fernando de Moraes Farias, “the interplay of the ideological and the cognitive.” These kinds of maps were very illustrative of certain classificatory categories in which Africans in general were known, and where cultural boundaries were drawn between more specific areas, such as Egypt and neighboring African kingdoms. Merchants and traders also contributed to the mapping of the frontier to Egypt's uppermost south, the vast territory known asbilāad al-sūdān.
The National Consultative Council of Jordan: A Study in Legislative Development
Authors: Khoury Nabeel A.
Published: December 2011

Studies of legislatures in developing countries have to contend with a great deal of cynicism owing, in part, to a political controversy concerning the role of the legislative institution in the Third World. The executive branch, which is generally dominant in developing nations, often uses the legislature to legitimize executive actions. Legislators who agree to serve the executive in this fashion often exaggerate or misrepresent the importance of the legislature in their political system. Conversely, opposition groups, who are frequently excluded from the political process in Third World countries, denigrate the role of legislatures and often exaggerate their ineffectiveness. Scholars have mostly ingnored the role of legislatures in the process of development.
Literary Representation and Social Legitimation: J. L. Burckhardt's Approach to “The Orient”
Authors: Sandbank Kenneth
Published: December 2011

As a field of study, the Middle East, like its predecessor the “Orient”, continues to exist more concretely within a vast realm of Western texts, both artistic and ethnographic, than it does on the ground. This ingrained disparity between representation and social reality has motivated some scholars to examine this literature as the manifestation of physical or ideological domination. In Edward Said's Orientalism the interpretation of this literature becomes a search for determining social and political forces, the evidence of which, like the nineteenth-century anthropological notion of “survivals”, resides in each text as an implicit network of unconscious images and metaphors. Similarly, Abdelkebir Khatibi, investigating the historical and ethnographic texts of Jacques Berque, views this literature as determined by the requirements of an exigent and compelling, but inherently flawed, Western metaphysic; an “onto-tháologie” which, in confronting questions of essence and existence, must formulate an “other” to realize its “self”.
The Quest of the Historical Muhammad
Authors: Peters F. E.
Published: December 2011

Writing in 1962 Stephen Neill listed twelve of what he regarded as “positive achievements of New Testament studies” over the past century.1 As an affirmation of progress in a notoriously difficult field of investigation, they make satisfying and even cheerful reading for the historian. Who was Jesus of Nazareth? What was his message? Why was he put to death? Why did his few followers become, in effect, the nucleus of the powerful and widespread community called Christianity? These were the enormously difficult questions that had begun to be posed in a critical-historical way in the mid-19th century, and some of the answers Bishop Neill discerned, though by no means final, represented ground gained and truths won. Neill's widely read book was revised in 1988, and though his optimism was here and there tempered by what had been said and thought in the twenty-five years since the first edition,2 there was still good reason to think that historians were by and large on the right track in pursuing what Albert Schweitzer described in 1906 as “the quest of the historical Jesus.”3
Legitimacy Structures in the Ottoman State: The Reign of Abdülhamid II (1876–1909)
Authors: Deringil Selim
Published: December 2011

For those who have, or once had it, power holds a strange fascination. For that very reason it waxes men inventive. It is almost invariably surrounded by ideologies of legitimacy, which adduce tradition, divine grace, or the law in order to support the establishment of those at the top. These ideologies are, strictly speaking, instruments of mystification; yet they are permissible weapons as long as they do not prevent the other side from returning them in kind.—Ralf Dahrendorf1
Zaydi Shiʿism and the Ḥasanid Sharifs of Mecca
Authors: Mortel Richard T.
Published: December 2011

The sharifs of Hasanid descent, commonly referred to as the Banū Hasan, who ruled Mecca and its dependencies from the middle of the fourth century A.H./tenth century A.D. until the early twentieth century, can be divided into three major dynastic branches, each of which bears the name of the first of its members to attain the office of emir of Mecca. Thus, the first dynasty of the Hasanid sharifs of Mecca, known as the Jaʿfarids, was founded by Jaʿfar b. Muhammad b. al-Husayn al-Amīr, a descendant in the ninth generation of al-Hasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, in about the year 357/968, shortly before the conquest of Egypt for the Fatimids of North Africa by their general, Jawhar, in 358/969. Control of Mecca remained in the hands of the Jaʿfarids until the last representative of the line, Shukr b. Abī'l-Futūḥ, died without leaving a male heir in 453/ 1061.
Foreign Exchange Gap, Structural Constraints, and the Political Economy of Exchange Rate Determination in Iran
Authors: Behdad Sohrab
Published: December 2011

Foreign currency transactions have come under stringent controls in postrevolutionary Iran. This is a relapse into the prevailing conditions in the years preceding 1974, before the increase in oil revenues eliminated the foreign currency gap. Initially, the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) imposed exchange controls to stop the postrevolutionary capital flight. Soon, however, exchange controls became an integral policy instrument of the government for rationing the existing supply of foreign currency in the face of a widening foreign exchange gap.
THE DECLINE OF JORDANIAN POLITICAL PARTIES: MYTH OR
REALITY?
Authors: Lust-Okar Ellen M.
Published: December 2011

Going back to the early beginnings of democracy in Jordan in the [1950s], the
Jordanian people, particularly the youth and the activist forces, were very enthusiastic about
political parties, despite the fact that the level of political awareness then was not as advanced as
it is now. Conditions on the domestic, Pan-Arab, and international levels were encouraging.
Pan-Arabism was on the rise. There were goals for the Arabs to achieve, and there was a
consensus that it was feasible to achieve those goals. Political parties at that time had a vast
popular base. They were large and effective due to the large-scale popular participation in these
parties. The situation at present is the opposite. When political parties were born again, they
looked as if they were parties in the stage of formation.
DEVELOPMENT IN WADI RUM? STATE BUREAUCRACY, EXTERNAL
FUNDERS, AND CIVIL SOCIETY
Authors: Brand Laurie A.
Published: December 2011

One of the most important lessons development agencies claim to have learned over the past
decades is that the absence of local participation at various stages of project planning and
implementation leads to what at best can be termed “inferior
results.”1 The conclusion that community participation is necessary (if not
sufficient) for project success has developed concomitantly with the belief in the halls of power
that the state is not the ideal executor of a variety of tasks previously deemed its proper realm.
Both of these changes in development thinking converged in practical terms beginning in the
1980s in the emergence of a greater stress on the role of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs). Not only were NGOs and other civil-society actors (including the private sector) seen as
untainted by the rent-seeking behavior attributed to state bureaucracies; they were also seen as
products of more local or community-based and -interested organizing, a critical vehicle for local
participation that so many development projects had lacked. Some of this literature also regarded
such institutions as the forerunners of and central to democratic transitions.2
OF ISLAMISTS AND BALLOT BOXES: RETHINKING THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ISLAMISMS AND ELECTORAL POLITICS
Authors: Langohr Vickie
Published: December 2011

As Islamist movements have gained strength across the Muslim world, their commitment to
democratic means of achieving and exercising power has been repeatedly analyzed. The question
of whether resort to violence to achieve its goals is inherent in the Islamist project (that what
some Islamists understand as a divine mandate to implement shariעa ultimately sanctions
the use of force against dissenters) or contingent (that the violent exclusion of Islamists from the
political arena has driven them to arms, best expressed by François Burgat's
contention that any Western political party could be turned into the Armed Islamic Group in
weeks if it were subjected to the same repression Islamists had endured1) looms
large in this debate. Where Islamist movements have not had the opportunity to participate in
elections for political office, analysts willing to give these movements the benefit of the
democratic doubt argue that their peaceful participation in the student body and syndicate
elections that they have been allowed to contest proves their intention to respect the results of
national-level elections.2 They also point to these groups' repeated public
commitment to play by the rules of the electoral game.3 The fact that the Muslim
Brotherhood in Egypt and Jordan and members of the Islah Party in Yemen have successfully
competed in not one but a series of parliamentary elections and evinced a tendency to wage their
battles through parliament and the courts rather than by force suggests to many that the question
of whether Islamists can ever be democrats has already been settled in the affirmative.
SCOTT PEGG, International Society and the De Facto State (Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate Publishers, 1988).
Authors: PALMER MONTE
Published: December 2011

The objective of Scott Pegg's book is to examine the role of the de facto state in the

international system. The book begins with a description of quasi-states, entities defined as

ineffective states that possess internationally recognized sovereignty as indicated by membership

in the United Nations. The de facto state, by contrast, is a political movement that possesses

substantial control over a specified territory and population but lacks recognition of its

sovereignty by the international community. As expressed by Pegg, “The quasi-state is

legitimate no matter how ineffective it is. . . . The de facto state, on the other hand, is a

functioning reality that is denied legitimacy by the rest of international society” (p. 5).
Auditory brainstem evoked responses in hyperlipidaemia: effect of various lipid fractions on auditory function
Authors: Thakur J S , Mohindroo N K , Vasanthalakshmi M S , Kashyap N , Azad R K , Sharma D R
Published: December 2011

Objective:

To evaluate the effect of different lipid fractions on auditory brainstem evoked responses in hyperlipidaemia.

Method:

We conducted a single institution (medical college), prospective, cross-sectional study of 25 hyperlipidaemic patients and 25 normolipidaemic controls, all with a normal hearing threshold on pure tone audiometry. Brainstem evoked response audiometry results were recorded in both groups. The hyperlipidaemic group were further divided into two subgroups, based on the serum value of each lipid fraction: those with less than and those with greater than the mean serum value. These two subgroups were further compared with the control group.

Results:

The hyperlipidaemic and normolipidaemic groups had statistically significant differences for all audiometry waves apart from the wave I and the III–V interpeak latencies. The subgroups had a statistically significant difference in brainstem evoked responses. We found a statistically significant association between low-density lipoproteins and many waveforms in the hyperlipidaemic group.

Conclusion:

We found that low-density lipoproteins were significantly associated with many waveforms in hyperlipidaemic patients. Thus, low-density lipoproteins may be important in auditory dysfunction.
The syntactic construction of two non-active Voices: Passive and middle
Authors: ALEXIADOU ARTEMIS , DORON EDIT
Published: December 2011

The paper offers a theoretical characterization of the middle Voice as distinct from the passive Voice, and addresses the cross-linguistic morphological variation in realizing these two non-active Voices in different classes of languages, represented by Hebrew, Greek and English. The two non-active Voices are the morphological realization of two distinct syntactic Voice heads generating middle and passive clauses respectively. The former are cross-linguistically interpreted as (i) anticausative, (ii) reflexive (and reciprocal), (iii) dispositional middle, and (iv) medio-passive, which is distinct from passive. This variation in the interpretation of the middle Voice reflects different properties of the root rather than the application of four different lexical rules postulated by lexicalist theories.
Dynamic Topography (ERS-1/2 and Seatruth) of Subtropical Ring (Storm 0) in the Storm Corridor (32–34°N, Eastern Basin, North Atlantic Ocean)
Authors: Pingree R.D. , Sinha B.
Published: December 2011

Hydrographic measurements were made on RRS ‘Charles Darwin’ Cruise CD97 of the structure of a Subtropical Ring called STORM discovered south-west of the Azores in October 1995 which moved westward along a latitude near 32·5°N. The results showed an elliptical ring structure with a ratio of minor to major axis of 0·6. The external Ring structure extended across a scale of ~400 km in an east-west direction along the major axis of the structure. The internal structure showed isotherms (isopycnals) that were domed upwards by ~200 m. The swirl transport in the Ring was 44 Sv with a negligible barotropic component and the cyclonic flow extended throughout the water column from the surface (maximum ~50cms-1, at a radial distance of ~100km) with reduced intensity to the sea-floor ~4km depth where the flow was effectively zero. The surface currents and dynamic height data showed that the STORM centre was associated with a ~38cm lowering of sea level. The ERS-1 and ERS-2 altimeter surface signature of STORM revealed a similar structure (~42cm sea level depression) but with a larger scale of influence ~500 km. The remote sensing surface elevation structure derived from altimetry also maps (~-600X) changes in the deeper ocean temperature structure and transport (1 cm change equivalent ~ 1 Sv) in the general region. A ~500 d record from a current meter mooring deployed in the region showed three STORM signatures, each separated by a mean of ~180 days. In June 1996, HMS ‘Hecla’ crossed the North Atlantic at a latitude near 33°N and found three STORM temperature signatures.
The Effects of Movement On Population Density Estimates of Mudflat Epifauna
Authors: Barnes R.S.K.
Published: December 2011

The soft-sediment marine benthos is well-known to be patchily distributed. To test whether this could be caused by individual epifaunal movement, spatial and temporal variation in numbers of adult mudsnails, Hydrobia ulvae, were analysed within an area of 40 m2 on an intertidal mudflat over periods of 4 or 6 d on three occasions, two of spring tides and one of neap. Significant spatial variation was always present, and significant temporal variation occurred during the spring tides. There was no variation dependent on the numbers of replicate samples taken from each station. Furthermore, movement of large, individually marked winkles, Littorina saxatilis, in the same habitat was measured and shown to be significantly directional over three series of spring tides, although the mean angle of movement varied widely between the different tidal series; storm-induced movement was particularly large. Such directional movement could account for the temporal and spatial variation seen in H. ulvae. Distances moved by winkles under permanently submerged conditions, however, did not display any directional component. Estimates of the population density and dispersion of potentially mobile or movable, intertidal epibenthos obtained on a series of individual, widely spaced days must therefore be treated with caution, however much replicated on any given occasion.