bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Atuot age categories and marriage
Authors: Burton John W.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

An obvious technique to employ in assessing the age of a non-literate individual among the Atuot is to pose the question, ‘how many years do you have’ (teke yin ruon na di) which invariably results in the simple response, ‘I've really no idea at all’ (cf. also Evans-Pritchard 1939). Age classification in Atuot society as in most others is a matter of social prescription and is evidenced in the course of daily life by divergent economic and symbolic attributes which accrue to distinct age classes. Often in Nilotic societies the factor of physiological maturity is self-evident (seeegFischer 1964). The literature includes excellent descriptions of the economic tasks which accompany growth toward adulthood in pastoral Nilotic societies of the Southern Sudan (egLienhardt 1963; Evans-Pritchard 1936, 1951; see also Santandrea 1977) so it is not the primary concern of this essay to contribute to an already rich body of ethnographic data. Rather, I wish to consider certain aspects of Atuot age categories and how these are related to processes leading to marriage. This discussion is prefaced by some brief comments regarding eastern-African age set systems and a synopsis of the ethnography on this topic for a number of the Nilotic speaking peoples of the Southern Sudan.
Ceux qui jouent avec le feu: la place du forgeron en Afrique centrale
Authors: de Maret Pierre
Published: April 2006

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La grande presse a fait assez largement écho à un article publié dans Science (Schmidt et Avery 1978) selon lequel on fondait il y a 2.000 ans de l'acier au coeur de l'Afrique. Grâce à une technique hautement sophistiquée, recourant notamment au préchauffage du vent, on obtenait un métal digne d'une aciérie moderne.
Re-defining pre-colonial Ewe polities: the case of Abutia
Authors: Verdon Michel
Published: April 2006

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The Abutia Ewe formed one of the colonial administrative ‘Divisions’ of Eweland under a so-called ‘traditional ruler’, the Divisional or Paramount Chief (fiagã). These Ewe Divisions are located in the southern half of the Volta Region (Ghana) and in southern Togo. Every Division is composed of a number of villages, each headed by a ‘Sub-divisional Chief’ (dufia). Only three villages are found in Abutia: Teti, Agove and Kloe. Thefiagãor Divisional Chief comes from Teti.
The King's Men in Madagascar: slavery, citizenship and Sakalava monarchy
Authors: Feeley-Harnik Gillian
Published: April 2006

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The ‘great songs’ (antsa maventy) with which Sakalava praise their royalty extol them as unique and precious beings in whom all wealth in persons and things is, or eventually will be, concentrated, causing them to grow enormously and inexhaustibly fat, yet ever greedy for more. Solely because of their ancestry, their houses will be royal residences, their hats will be royal headdresses with special names. Above all, their people will be human beings owing allegiance only to monarchy, labouring only for monarchy. There may be indifferent or unwilling ones, as well as those who are eager to pay homage to the royal ancestors, but ultimately royalty will possess them all: ‘Royalty enslaves, royalty enslaves, royalty enslaves . . .’.
Gift Exchange and Income Redistribution between Yombe Rural Wage-earners and their Kinsfolk in Western Zaïre
Authors: Lux André
Published: April 2006

Introduction

A Previous article (Lux, 1971) dealing with the network of visits between rural wage-earners and their kinsfolk in Western Congo, presented a first set of findings collected during field-work conducted in July 1966 among a stratified random sample of 268 workers in the territory of Lukula in central Mayombe. One-third of them are employed in the plantations, and two-thirds in the industrial, mainly wood-processing, sector of seven generally big enterprises. Some of these workers live in Lukula, a small town of 10,000 people, others in rural company camps. They are thus to a large extent rural industrial wage-earners. Many of them are fully committed to the modern wage economy, so that I have been forced in the previous article to question Southall's assertion that rural wage-earners are ‘still firmly embedded in the fuller kinship system of rural tribal communities’ (1961: 34). The degree of their commitment has been measured by their various occupational profiles, to which I shall turn later. Suffice it here to say that half of them are already second- or even third-generation workers.
Local Participation in National Politics: Ugogo, Tanzania
Authors: Rigby Peter
Published: April 2006

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Any analysis of the process of political change is fraught with the danger of being rapidly rendered ‘out of date’. This is particularly so if the analysis concerned relates to a decidedly dynamic and changing country such as Tanzania in which not only does a swift succession of historical events, both internal and external, alter the situation almost from day to day, but also where policy changes and new politico-economic orientations manifest themselves with sometimes astonishing rapidity. These elements conspire to create radical structural changes in the political system, even before prior organizational alterations have had a chance to become ‘fully institutionalized’.
Zig-Zag Change
Authors: Wilson Monica
Published: April 2006

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One problem that besets students of society is how best to combine a study of change through time, with emphasis on the flow of time, and the detailed analysis of relationships; how to write a social history with sufficient detail on all the aspects of relationships—economic, legal, ritual, ideological—to satisfy the anthropologist. Static models are too far from reality to be useful, but how can one create a model that moves? The difficulty consists first, in discovering the relevant facts and second, in integrating them into an intelligible account.
Nharo Bushman Medicine and Medicine Men
Authors: Barnard Alan
Published: April 2006

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The Nharo (also known as Naron or //Aikwe) are a Khoe- (or ‘Hottentot-’) speaking people who live in the western Ghanzi district of Botswana, in the central-western Kalahari. They number about 5000 and live in small bands of eight to 40 people each. Traditionally they were hunter-gatherers, and among their closest linguistic relatives are the G/wikhwe and G//anakhwe Bushmen (or San) of Botswana's Central Kalahari Game Reserve, who speak dialects mutually intelligible with Nharo. The Nharo are not linguistically related to the !Kung, who live to the immediate north, but a great many aspects of their medico-religious belief system resemble those of the !Kung, and the ‘superiority’ of !Kung medicine is recognised by the Nharo and indeed by other Bushman peoples as well. The Nharo come second, with a greater spiritual and medical knowledge that the G/wikhwe and G//anakhwe, or the !Kõ, who live to the south (cf. Heinz 1975: 28-9).
Ambiguous animals: Two theriomorphic metaphors in Kaguru folklore
Authors: Beidelman T. O.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

This paper deals with certain metaphorical uses of animals in the folklore of the Kaguru, a Bantu language speaking people of east-central Tanzania, East Africa. I have published elsewhere on Kaguru social structure (Beidelman, 1971b) and discuss this here only as it bears directly on the problems at hand. I have published many Kaguru folk-tales as well as various legends, riddles, and other texts (cf. bibliographies, Beidelman, 1967a, 1969, 1974c); it is difficult to publish textual material so that much of my data is still unavailable. In this paper I use published and unpublished texts.
The national languages of Sierra Leone: a decade of policy experimentation
Authors: Sengova Joko
Published: April 2006

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This article deals with the national languages of Sierra Leone and their use in education since 1978. Language information relevant to the period under review as well as language policy and its implementation are focal parts of our discussion.

There exists in practice if not in theory a formal mother-tongue education programme at primary school level in specially selected pilot schools of all four geographical regions of Sierra Leone. This programme was initiated in 1978 within the framework of a national language policy later spelt out in a working UNESCO study of 1981. Similarly, adult literacy education has gained rapid expansion over the same period although this sector of indigenous language education is mostly handled by so-called nongovernmental agencies such as CUSO Sierra Leone, the People's Educational Association (PEA), and similar bodies. To this extent the recommendations and proposals of the Dalby report concerning the implementation of a national language policy for Sierra Leone have seen practical implementation as well as some degree of experimentation in formal and non-formal education. In short, the bare bones of this experimental framework are illuminated by practice.
Social Relations and Witch Beliefs among the Ibibio
Authors: Offiong Daniel
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

The Ibibio live in the south-eastern part of Nigeria and according to the 1963 census number more than two million. They are patrilineal and patrilocal (Forde and Jones 1950). They are mainly agrarian and petty traders and their main export, palm oil and kernels, is seriously declining, especially as more attention is focused on drilling for crude oil in the area.
Diviners, seers and spirits in eastern Africa: towards an historical anthropology
Authors: Anderson David M. , Johnson Douglas H.
Published: April 2006

Anthropologists and historians of eastern African societies have long shared a common interest in the description and analysis of African religions and beliefs. Spirit possession, mediumship, witchcraft beliefs, diviners and divinatory techniques, the role of prophets and the nature of prophetic traditions are all subjects for which there is now an extensive, and still growing, body of literature. For virtually no group of the present ethnographic map of eastern Africa do these topics remain unstudied. Yet the sheer diversity of the material has contributed to a degree of confusion i n the analytical categories and labels that have been employed in describing such religious phenomena.
Your terroir and my ‘action space’: implications of differentiation, mobility and diversification for the approche terroir in Sahelian West Africa
Authors: Painter Thomas , Sumberg James , Price Thomas
Published: April 2006

This article addresses the question of whether the aménagement/gestion de terroir approach, as it is currently being promoted by government, and. development organisations in the French-speaking countries of Sahelian West Africa, is compatible with the realties that agro-pastoralists in those countries face day-to-day. It is particularly concerned with three characteristics of life in the Sahel that have important implications for how agrarian populations manage resources, and whether the terroir approach, which, aims ostensibly to increase the effectiveness of local-level natural resource management, addresses or fails to address these characteristics. First, the Sahel is characterised by considerable agro-ecological diversity and socio-economic differentiation. Second, Sahelan populations are often very mobile as a result, of their efforts to deal with changing opportunities and constraints that affect their pursuit of a livelihood. And, third, Sahelian populations commonly use multiple strategies for risk management, including, but. certainly not limited to, those which focus on the terroir villageois.

In exploring; this question the term ‘action space’ Is used to describe the geographical and temporal distribution of the combination of more or Jess viable options that, smallholder agriculturalists and pastoralists exploit, as they pursue their livelihood. The concept of action space is more inclusive and more flexible than the concept of terroir villageois; and, as such, offers greater promise for understanding and addressing empirical realities in. the Sahel.
II. Up Till Now
Authors: Gore Walter
Published: April 2006

A couple of years before his death, Walter Gore set down his memories of his earliest days, as a child reared in a “fit up” theatre; as a young dance student with Leonid Massine, and as an early member of the Marie Rambert's company at the Mercury Theatre, Notting Hill Gate. Through the courtesy of his widow, Paula Hinton Gore, we have been given the opportunity of reproducing these memoirs, which have been edited for publication by Clement Crisp.
On the probability in the tail of a binomial distribution
Authors: Littlewood J. E.
Published: April 2006

Suppose that, e.g., in a guessing experiment, the chance of a ‘hit’ at each ‘attempt’ is the constant p, 0 < p < 1. Let q = 1 - p. In a large number n of attempts the ‘average’ number of hits is pn. Let m = (1 + k)pn.
Vegetation fluctuation in mediterranean dune ponds in relation to rainfall variation and water extraction
Authors: Zunzunegui M. , Diaz Barradas M.C. , Garcia Novo F.
Published: April 2006

Abstract. The structure of dune ponds hygrophytic vegetation has a spatial organisation in belts around the pond basin, closely related to water level and flooding regime. Doñana National Park has an important representation of temporal dune ponds, which are subjected to rainfall fluctuations and may be suffering the impact of water extraction from the neighbouring tourist resort.

Permanent transects in a vegetation complex of five dune ponds have been monitored during a eight year period (1990‐1997). This period was characterised by a number of dry years (annual rainfall around 300 mm), located between two wet cycles (800‐900 mm). Transects were analysed in 1990 (wet period), 1994 (dry) and 1997 (wet) by hierarchical agglomera‐tive clustering.

During the dry period hygrophytic species showed regression, with a high mortality of some species like Ulex minor, while the xerophytic species advanced to lower areas. Seedlings of some xerophytic species colonised the dry surface of the pond basin. The lowering of the water table varied in the different ponds, ranging from 312 to 190 cm depending on topography and the distance to the pumping area. The new period of flooding during 1995‐96 and 1996‐97 cycles provided the opportunity for hygrophytic spe cies to re‐establish themselves in their original places.

This study suggest that changes in vegetation are caused by the interaction between weather conditions and human disturbance (water extractions). In our example man‐made disturbance is more marked during the dry periods while wet periods tend to obscure the effects of water extractions. From a management perspective, long‐term monitoring of water table and vegetation structure is revealed as a key procedure to the management of land‐water ecotones on pressured areas and threatened habitats.
Application of Herbivore Optimization Theory to Rangelands of the Western United States
Authors: Bartolome James W.
Published: April 2006

The central assumption for management of range condition–that plant response to selective grazing drives changes in plant community structure–is only weakly supported by evidence from semi—arid rangelands. Most of the vegetation changes attributed to selective grazing can instead be explained through proper interpretation of grazing intensity. Specialized livestock grazing systems, which assume that selective seasonal grazing controls ecosystem function, work poorly on semi—arid rangelands when compared to simpler grazing methods based on managing grazing intensity. Compensatory growth has been well linked to ecosystem processes in highly productive and intensively managed pastures, but not on semi—arid rangelands.
Impacts of a Severe Drought on Grassland Birds in Western North Dakota
Authors: George T. Luke , Fowler Ada C. , Knight Richard L. , McEwen Lowell C.
Published: April 2006

We studied the effect of a severe drought on the population dynamics and community structure of grassland birds in western North Dakota. During the spring and summer of 1988 the northern Great Plains suffered one of the warmest, driest periods in its recorded history. We compared the changes in bird populations and nesting productivity over a 3—yr period before, during, and after the drought. Total grassland bird density declined 61% (P < .05) between June 1987 and June 1988. Densities of six of eight common species declined significantly during the drought. Populations of all but two species recovered in 1989 and total bird density in June 1989 did not differ significantly from June 1987. Species richness and species diversity both declined significantly during the drought and recovered to predrought levels in 1989. Species richness declined more on fair condition than on good condition range during the drought. Vesper Sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus) hatching success, number of young fledged per successful nest, and nesting success were significantly lower in 1988 than either 1987 or 1989. Clutch size did not differ among the three years. The decline in nesting success in 1988 was primarily due to nest abandonment during incubation. Nesting of Vesper Sparrows, Horned Larks (Eremophila alpestris), and Western Meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta) ended abruptly in mid—June 1988 during a period of extremely hot weather. In 1987 and 1989, nesting continued into July. Despite substantial reductions in bird density and productivity during the drought, many species recovered to predrought levels 1 yr following the drought. This suggests that year—to—year fluctuations in densities of some of these species may not be tightly linked to short—term changes in local productivity. However, sequential years of low productivity may have more substantial effects on these short—lived species. Thus, if drought conditions in North American grasslands become more frequent, as some climate models predict, there could be related changes in the avifauna of the region.
Air‐Pollution‐Mediated Changes in Alpine Ecosystems and Ecotones
Authors: Rusek Josef
Published: April 2006

Soil biological parameters (e.g., Collembola), soil types, soil chemical parameters (pH, humus substances), and plant communities were studied in different ecosystems and ecotones in alpine, subalpine, and spruce forest zones in the Tatra National Park, Slovak Republic. The preliminary, selected data, based on a long—term research program, showed a high sensitivity of some alpine ecotones and ecosystems to long—distance transported acid deposits. The changes in different ecosystem parameters since 1977 were more extensive in alpine grasslands on limestone than on granite. The greatest soil pH decrease was in the plant communities Festucetum versicoloris (—1.5 pH), Geranio—Alchemilletum crinitae (—1.32 pH), and Saxifragetum perdurantis (—1.25 pH), which are restricted to places with snow accumulation and water runoff gullies. In these ecosystems the greatest changes occurred in the leaching of humus substances. Some formerly less abundant and rare soil animals restricted to acid bedrock became dominant in some ecosystems on limestone as well as on granite; other formerly dominant species disappeared from the entire study area (e.g., Folsomia alpina). The aerial extent of some ecosystems changed substantially since 1977, and their surrounding ecotones moved into the space formerly occupied by one of the adjacent ecosystems. These changes are detectable by remote—sensing methods. In Central European mountains, strongly affected by global and regional industrial air pollution (e.g., Krusne Hory, Krkonose, Beskydy), spruce forests started to die back from higher to lower mountain elevations. The effects of air pollution on alpine and subalpine vegetation were not studied there. Strong alterations in alpine ecosystems and ecotones were detected by the author during long—term studies in the High Tatra Mountains, and I suggest that subalpine and mountain forest belts will be affected here in the near future as they were in the more polluted Central European mountains. The ecosystems and ecotones in higher alpine zones are likely to be affected earlier than the ecosystems at lower altitudes. Detection of ecosystem alteration in the alpine zone may be used for prediction of acidification processes and global change in ecosystems at lower altitudes. The consequences of global climate change are predictable by monitoring changes in the extent of some ecosystems located in discrete mountain geomorphological units (e.g., karstic sinkholes, water runoff gullies, wind shadows, ridges exposed to wind, etc.) and ecotones among them because of their dependence on duration of snow cover, water supply, wind and frost exposure, and other abiotic and biotic factors.
Rooting Volume, Nutrient Availability, and CO2‐Induced Growth Enhancements in Temperate Forest Tree Seedlings
Authors: McConnaughay K. D. M. , Nicotra A. B. , Bazzaz F. A.
Published: April 2006

We examined growth and allocation responses to CO2 enrichment for three species of co‐occurring temperate forest tree seedlings grown in pots of varying rooting volumes and nutrient supply. Under both current and projected future CO2 atmospheres, tree seedling growth was substantially greater with greater total nutrient supply (either due to increased nutrient addition rate or increased rooting volume) for all species. Increasing rooting volume alone, holding total nutrient supply constant, increased growth for gray and yellow birch and decreased growth for red maple. Root/shoot ratios were less and specific leaf masses were greater for plants grown in smaller pots, suggesting that the smaller pots did restrict root growth with consequences for whole‐plant carbon allocation. After 12 wk of growth at light levels simulating those found in small gaps in temperate forests, each species exhibited growth, allocational and/or architectural differences due to increased CO2. Of 11 traits measured, 9 were significantly altered by CO2 regime. Gray birch responded in architectural and allocational parameters only; total carbon accumulation after 12 wk of growth was not affected by CO2 regime. Red maple and especially yellow birch grew larger in elevated CO2, and were less responsive in architectural and allocational parameters than gray birch. Increasing N concentration did not increase CO2‐induced growth enhancements, except for increased leaf production in gray birch. In fact, CO2‐induced increases in branch production were greatest at low nutrient concentration. Pot size had no effect on CO2‐induced growth responses, except that CO2‐induced enhancement in branch production was greater in smaller pots. With few exceptions, conditions within pots did not influence responses to elevated CO2, despite the many growth and architectural responses manifested by these tree seedlings in response to CO2, nutrient regimen, and pot size.
Model of Transient Changes in Arctic and Boreal Vegetation in Response to Climate and Land Use Change
Authors: Starfield Anthony M. , Chapin F. Stuart
Published: April 2006

One of the greatest challenges in global‐change research is to predict the future distribution of vegetation. Most models of vegetation change predict either the response of a patch of present vegetation to climatic change or the future equilibrium distribution of vegetation based on the present relationship between climate and vegetation. Here we present a model that is, to our knowledge, the first model of ecosystem change in response to transient changes in climate, disturbance regime, and recruitment over the next 50‐500 yr. The frame‐based model uses quantitative and qualitative variables to develop scenarios of vegetation change from arctic tundra to boreal forest in response to global changes in climate (as predicted by general circulation models [GCMs]), fire, and land use. Seed availability, tree growth rate, and probability of fire were the model parameters that most strongly influenced the balance between tundra and boreal forest in transitional climates. The rate of climatic warming strongly affected the time lag between the onset of climate change and the simulated ecosystem response but had relatively little effect on the rate or pattern of ecosystem change. The model calculated that, with a gradual ramped change of 3°C in the next century (corresponding to average rate of warming predicted by GCMs), any change from tundra to forest would take 150 yr, consistent with pollen records. The model suggested that tundra would first be invaded by conifer forests, but that the proportion of broad‐leaved deciduous forest would increase, reflecting increased fire frequency, as climatic warming continued. The change in fire frequency was determined more strongly by climatically driven changes in vegetation than by direct climatic effects on fire probability. The pattern of climatic warming was more important than the rate of warming or change in precipitation in determining the rate of conversion from tundra to forest. Increased climatic variability promoted ecosystem change, particularly when oscillations were long relative to the time required for tree maturation. Management policies related to logging and moose‐predator control affected vegetation as much or more than did changes in climate and must be included in future scenarios of global changes in ecosystem distribution. We suggest that frame‐based models provide a critical link between patch and equilibrium models in predicting ecosystem change in response to transient changes in climate over the coming decades to centuries.
The Influence of Dwarf Mistletoe on Bird Communities in Colorado Ponderosa Pine Forests
Authors: Bennetts Robert E. , White Gary C. , Hawksworth Frank G. , Severs Scott E.
Published: April 2006

Dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.) are parasitic plants that are widely distributed in coniferous forests of the northern hemisphere. Because the effects of dwarf mistletoes on their host trees include stunted growth, reduced seed production, and death, these mistletoes may have a substantial influence on forest structure. Studies of the effects of dwarf mistletoe on forest communities have focused primarily on their influence on timber production. We studied the effects of southwestern ponderosa pine dwarf mistletoe (A. vaginatum) on the abundance and diversity of bird communities in central Colorado. Four stands, which ranged in level of mistletoe infestation from none to heavy, were selected at each of two locations. Each stand was surveyed approximately once per week during the avian breeding seasons of 1989 and 1990 by spot mapping. The number of bird registrations and bird species richness were positively correlated with the level of dwarf mistletoe, and this pattern was consistent among 24 of 28 avian species. No species had a significant negative correlation with the level of dwarf mistletoe. The relative abundance of bird species (i.e., evenness) did not differ among stands. The number of cavity‐nesting birds detected also was positively correlated with both dwarf‐mistletoe levels and number of snags. The number of snags and dwarf‐mistletoe levels also were highly correlated. Most snags had been infected as live trees by dwarf mistletoe and the mistletoe probably contributed to their death. While dwarf mistletoe has traditionally been viewed as a forest pest because of reductions in timber volume, we suggest that in areas where management goals are not strictly focused on timber production, control of dwarf mistletoe may not be justified, practical, or even desirable. Our data suggest that dwarf mistletoes may have positive influence on wildlife habitat. Consequently, we suggest that eradication efforts be reconsidered given that dwarf mistletoes have been a part of these forest ecosystems for thousands, and possibly millions, of years.
Epiphytic Lichen Biomass in Managed and Old‐Growth Boreal Forests: Effect of Branch Quality
Authors: Esseen Per-Anders , Renhorn Karl-Erik , Pettersson Roger B.
Published: April 2006

To maintain biodiversity in managed forests we must understand the patterns and processes that regulate the occurrence and dynamics of species in undisturbed ecosystems. We compared biomass and species composition of canopy lichens on 180 lower branches of Norway spruce (Picea abies) in three pairs of old‐growth and managed (selectively logged) stands in northern Sweden (30 branches per stand). The purpose was to evaluate the effect of substrate quality (branch characteristics) on patterns of lichen biomass for two different growth forms (foliose and fruticose). Old‐growth stands had six times higher lichen mass per spruce branch, and two times higher expressed as percentage of branch mass, compared to mature stands of managed forest. Lichen mass was strongly related to mass, diameter, and age of branches. Fruticose, pendulous species (Alectoria sarmentosa and Bryoria spp.) were highly sensitive to forest practices. In contrast, type of forest had no significant effect on foliose species. Species number per stand was the same (15 species) in both types of forest, but there were marked differences in the relative abundance of different lichen groups. Results suggest that limited amount of substrate (i.e., small branches) available to lichens, and young branches, providing only a short time for lichen colonization and growth, are important factors limiting epiphytic lichen abundance in managed forests. Conversion of old‐growth forest into young, managed stands will lead to a significant reduction in epiphytic lichen mass. This in turn may probably affect nutrient cycling in forests and has negative consequences for animals that utilize canopy lichens as food, shelter, or nesting material.
Effect of Landscape Structure on Parasitoid Diversity and Parasitism in Agroecosystems
Authors: Marino Paul C. , Landis Douglas A.
Published: April 2006

The armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta) was used as a model host insect to explore the influence of agricultural landscape structure at two spatial scales on larval parasitoid species richness and rates of larval parasitism in southern Michigan. First, within fields, we compared parasitoid communities in maize fields near, and distant from, a hedgerow edge. Second, we replicated these studies within a complex landscape (agricultural fields of small size embedded in a landscape with abundant hedgerows and woodlots) vs. a simple landscape (agricultural fields of large size embedded in a landscape with few hedgerows and woodlots). The structural differences between the simple and complex agricultural landscapes were characterized by analysis of aerial photographs and digital land‐use data. After landscape analysis, three maize fields from each area were selected for the experimental studies. The complex landscape contained fields that were 75% smaller, had 63% more perimeter of wooded field edge per hectare of field area, and had 81% more field edge in wide hedgerow than fields in the simple landscape. Fields in the simple landscape had 74% and 53% more field edge in herbaceous roadside and crop‐to‐crop interfaces, respectively, than did fields in the complex landscape. In the six selected maize fields, third and fifth instar P. unipuncta were released individually onto maize plants 5 m and 90 m from a hedgerow edge. Larvae were recovered after 4‐5 d and reared in the laboratory to record parasitoid emergence. Parasitoid species diversity was similar in both landscape types (simple landscape: four species; complex landscape: five species). Mean percentage parasitism was significantly higher in the complex landscape than in the simple landscape (13.1% vs. 2.4%) but was not affected by the location within fields (near hedgerows vs. distant from hedgerows) in either landscape type.
Modelling Long‐Term Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics in an Arable Soil Receiving Organic Matter
Authors: Hyvonen Riitta , Agren Goran I. , Andren Olof
Published: April 2006

Predictions of a model based on a general theory of decomposition of organic matter were compared with measured changes in total soil C and N pools in a 35‐yr field experiment on clay loam in central Sweden with biannual additions of straw, peat, sawdust, farmyard manure, green manure, and sewage sludge in order to study which litter characteristics determine decomposition and accumulation rate of soil organic matter. The central concepts of the theory are a continuously changing substrate quality, a constant decomposer efficiency, and a climatically controlled decomposer growth rate. The model requires seven parameters to describe C dynamics and two more to describe N dynamics. Substrate qualities were estimated from measured decomposition rates, but no single characteristic of the examined substrates could be considered as a general key indicator on decomposition rate. Predicted values were within a few percent of the measured values for C and within 13% of the measured values for N, although the residual fractions of added C ranged from 14 to 69%, and the residual fractions of N varied from 24 to 400% (net immobilization). In agreement with the field observations, the model predicted that the accumulation of soil C would be highest in the plots receiving peat and lowest in the plots receiving straw and green manure. Intermediate accumulations were predicted in plots receiving sewage sludge, sawdust, and farmyard manure. The model also predicted that the net contribution of N to the crops from straw, peat, and sawdust would be small or negligible. By contrast, contributions of N from sewage sludge and from green and farmyard manure were predicted to be considerable.
Orthogonal families of real sequences
Authors: Miller Arnold W. , Steprans Juris
Published: April 2006

For x, y ϵ ℝω define the inner product

which may not be finite or even exist. We say that x and y are orthogonal if (x, y) converges and equals 0.

Define lp to be the set of all x ϵ ℝω such that

For Hilbert space, l2, any family of pairwise orthogonal sequences must be countable. For a good introduction to Hilbert space, see Retherford [4].

Theorem 1. There exists a pairwise orthogonal family F of size continuum such that F is a subset of lp for every p > 2.

It was already known that there exists a family of continuum many pairwise orthogonal elements of ℝω. A family F ⊆ ℝω∖0 of pairwise orthogonal sequences is orthogonally complete or a maximal orthogonal family iff the only element of ℝω orthogonal to every element of F is 0, the constant 0 sequence.

It is somewhat surprising that Kunen's perfect set of orthogonal elements is maximal (a fact first asserted by Abian). MAD families, nonprincipal ultrafilters, and many other such maximal objects cannot be even Borel.

Theorem 2. There exists a perfect maximal orthogonal family of elements of ℝω.

Abian raised the question of what are the possible cardinalities of maximal orthogonal families.

Theorem 3. In the Cohen real model there is a maximal orthogonal set in ℝω of cardinality ω1, but there is no maximal orthogonal set of cardinality κ with ω1 < κ < ϲ.

By the Cohen real model we mean any model obtained by forcing with finite partial functions from γ to 2, where the ground model satisfies GCH and γω = γ.
Uniformization and skolem functions in the class of trees
Authors: Lifsches Shmuel , Shelah Saharon
Published: April 2006

The monadic second-order theory of trees allows quantification over elements and over arbitrary subsets. We classify the class of trees with respect to the question: does a tree T have definable Skolem functions (by a monadic formula with parameters)? This continues [6] where the question was asked only with respect to choice functions. A natural subclass is defined and proved to be the class of trees with definable Skolem functions. Along the way we investigate the spectrum of definable well orderings of well ordered chains.
Ideals without ccc
Authors: Balcerzak Marek , RosŁanowski Andrzej , Shelah Saharon
Published: April 2006

Let I be an ideal of subsets of a Polish space X, containing all singletons and possessing a Borel basis. Assuming that I does not satisfy ccc, we consider the following conditions (B), (M) and (D). Condition (B) states that there is a disjoint family F ⊆ P(X) of size ϲ, consisting of Borel sets which are not in I. Condition (M) states that there is a Borel function f : X → X with f−1[{x}] ∉ I for each x ∈ X. Provided that X is a group and I is invariant, condition (D) states that there exist a Borel set B ∉ I and a perfect set P ⊆ X for which the family {B+x : x ∈ P} is disjoint. The aim of the paper is to study whether the reverse implications in the chain (D) ⇒ (M) ⇒ (B) ⇒ not-ccc can hold. We build a σ-ideal on the Cantor group witnessing (M) & ¬(D) (Section 2). A modified version of that σ-ideal contains the whole space (Section 3). Some consistency results on deriving (M) from (B) for “nicely” defined ideals are established (Sections 4 and 5). We show that both ccc and (M) can fail (Theorems 1.3 and 5.6). Finally, some sharp version's of (M) for invariant ideals on Polish groups are investigated (Section 6).
Shell Trumpet from Arizona
Authors: Boekelman Henry J.
Published: April 2006

Among the shells sent us for examination by Mr. Emil W. Haury, which were found in a Snaketown ruin of Hohokam culture (Gila River, Arizona), there is a partly-broken specimen of a west coast conch (Strombus galeatus Wood), No. 46,652. The only workmanship shown is the grinding down of the tip of the apex or spire of the shell, the hole thus formed permitting the blowing of the unbroken specimen (Figure 2). A slight sound still can be obtained upon blowing into the shell. The cracked condition of the porcelaneous texture of the shell with traces of blackened surface in places indicates its having passed through a conflagration. The pitted condition, due to sea-worm borings, clearly gives evidence that the shell was originally a “dead” or beach-worn specimen.
The Reducing Atmosphere and Oxidizing Atmosphere in Prehistoric Southwestern Ceramics
Authors: Colton Harold S.
Published: April 2006

It is a well known fact that the surface color of pottery made by the ancient inhabitants of the Southwest occurs (1) in shades of white and gray and also (2) in shades of red, yellow, and brown. That the differences in color between the white and gray pottery and the others are due to a difference in firing technique is not so widely known.
The Weeden Island Culture: A Preliminary Definition
Authors: Willey Gordon R.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents a major portion of the existing data concerning the Weeden Island complex of the Florida Gulf Coast. The most important sources of these data are the writings of the late Clarence B. Moore which deal with the results of several years of investigation of northwest and west Florida and adjacent regions. In the course of these investigations, Moore surveyed and excavated well over one hundred sites along this coast. Sources of secondary importance are various smaller exploration reports of S. T. Walker, F. H. Cushing, J. W. Fewkes, M. W. Stirling, and the present writer. In addition, available but unpublished notes and collections on Florida and reports dealing with geographically and culturally related areas of the Southeast were consulted.
An Hypothesis for the Identification of the Illinois Confederacy with the Middle Mississippi Culture in Illinois
Authors: Wray Donald E. , Smith Hale
Published: April 2006

The hypothesis presented in this paper is based upon the correlation of a set of archaeological data with a sequence of historic events. The ideas incorporated here developed from a series of discussions concerning the relationship of the Middle Mississippi cultural manifestation in central Illinois with the Upper Mississippi Oneota culture and with influences which seem to derive from the Missouri-Arkansas region. In the course of this exchange of data, the writers became aware of the fact that a number of recent developments in Southeastern and Middle Western archaeology point to the conclusion that the Middle Mississippi culture in the present state of Illinois represents the material culture of the tribes of the Illinawek Confederacy. Evidence leading to this identification comes from a number of sources, both archaeological and ethno-historical. It must be stressed that the historical reconstruction proposed here is entirely hypothetical and tentative, and is based on inference from a number of lines of reasoning.
Excavaciones en el Tepalcate, Chimalhuacan, Mexico
Authors: Noguera Eduardo
Published: April 2006

El Tepalcate, an archaeologic site on a low flat peninsula situated just off the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco and near the town of Chimalhuacan, is the site described by Ola Apenes in the preceding article.

The excavations made at the site consisted of fifteen separate pits and trenches by which an attempt was made to find stratified materials and to determine the nature of the circular heaps of stone and the alignments of stone forming large rectangles which are the only architectural features visible on the surface of the site.
Stone Mortars of Contra Costa County, California
Authors: Johnson Ernest N.
Published: April 2006

Contra Costa County lies east of San Francisco Bay, between the southern shores of San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Straits, Suisun Bay and the San Joaquin River, on the north, and Mount Diablo on the south. This peak, the highest of the many ranges of hills, reaches an altitude of 3800 feet. The terrain is very diversified. As to prehistoric inhabitants, Kroeber places the entire area in Costanoan territory, while Schenck mentions the Yachicomnes, etc., names, perhaps of Spanish invention, which mean nothing.
The De Luna Expedition and Southeastern Ceremonial
Authors: Waring Antonio J.
Published: April 2006

James B. Griffin, in his recent paper, “The De Luna Expedition and the Buzzard Cult in the Southeast,“ advances the hypothesis that the ceremonial material characteristic of such mound sites as Etowah, Georgia; Moundville, Alabama; and Spiro, Oklahoma, is the result of proselytizing efforts of escaped Mexican Indian servants ’ imported with the De Luna Expedition (1559–1561). He states that “the De Luna Expedition might well have furnished the impetus that resulted in the adoption in the Southeast of various Mexican art styles and concepts.“

This question is of course a basic one in Southeastern archaeology. These Mexicanoid elements are graphic focalizations of a cult which swept over the Southeast from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and from the Plains to the Atlantic. Taken at face value, this hypothesis of Griffin's is a simple tool for explaining the otherwise puzzling stylistic resemblances between Southeastern ceremonial art and the Mixteca-Pueblo “culture” of Mexico.
Archaeological Theory and Anthropological Fact
Authors: Bullen Adelaide Kendall
Published: April 2006

As W. H. Holmes pointed out in 1905, our archaeological investigations need to be “supplemented by the rich materials derived from the study of the living peoples.“1 In accordance with this line of thought, I have tried to correlate some findings of archaeology and ethnology in relation to the small but controversial archaeological problem of fetishes and toys. The clay figurines and miniature pots illustrated in Plate XII were made as toys by contemporary Navaho children living in the region between the Chaco and Blanco Canyons, New Mexico. The toys represent two women with the characteristic Navaho skirts and headdresses, three miniature vessels (a handled mug, round-bottomed cooking vessel, and crude dish), and thirteen animals, including two dogs, a sheep, ram, mare, donkey, two horses, a cow, chicken, buck, and two goats. The faces of the women have been pinched to suggest a nose but otherwise they are featureless. One dog, the sheep, cow, two horses, and one of the goats have black glass beads for eyes.
Notes on Some Ceramic Techniques and Intrusions in Central Mexico
Authors: Griffin James B. , Krieger Alex D.
Published: April 2006

In this paper we wish to point out (1) certain occurrences of cord-marked and stamped pottery in Mexico which possibly bear relationship to similar decorative techniques in the eastern United States, and (2) a few instances of trade pottery in central Mexico which point to an origin in more northerly cultures. Neither author pretends to be intimately acquainted with ceramic problems in Middle America, and this account is incompletely documented. We are, however, quite sure that the material to be presented will prove important in any consideration of pre-Columbian contacts between the eastern United States and Middle America.
Yucatecan Chronological Systems
Authors: Weitzel R. B.
Published: April 2006

The natives of Yucatan employed successively three different chronological systems that had Maya nomenclature. These systems will be designated in the order of their appearance: the old Maya calendar, distinguished by a long count; the Mexicanized calendar, distinguished by a shift in the month coefficients; and the Europeanized calendar, distinguished by the fixation of 10 Chen on January 1 and of 1 Pop on July 16.

The old Maya calendar is a system with an ascending order of units based on twenty, except the tun where eighteen is used. The value of each order is expressed by a coefficient that may range from zero to nineteen, excepting the uinal where the range is from zero to seventeen.
Ecuadorean Figurines and the Ceramic Mold in the New World
Authors: Willey Gordon R.
Published: April 2006

In an issue of El Palacio, Mr. Edwin N. Ferdon presents an interesting discussion of a group of pottery figurines from the province of Esmeraldas on the coast of Ecuador. Most of these figurines were made entirely, or partially, with the use of the mold, and they are quite representative of the region. In attempting the assign approximate dates to the figurines Ferdon states (p. 225):

“Mould-made figurines made their appearance in the Valley of Mexico in Teotihuacan 3 times and in the Peten region of the Mayas in the Tepeu phase of Uaxactun Late 3 period, or about 900 A.D. Assuming that the mould-making technique spread southward from the Maya area, its arrival on the Ecuadorean coast must have been after 900 A.D. and possibly around 1000 or 1100 A.D. With the advent of the mould in Esmeraldas, new figurine types appeared, or else the earlier hand-modeled counterparts have not yet been found.“
Evidences of Early Man in Alaska
Authors: Hibben Frank C.
Published: April 2006

Ever since the general acceptance of the theory that Bering Strait served as the entrance of man into North America, Alaska has been suggested as the most likely area for additional discoveries adding to our knowledge of Early Man. In spite of the fact that the bulk of these discoveries has occurred in the Southwest or in the far west of the United States proper, increasing attention has been paid to northern regions. The Folsom and also the Yuma problem (or problems as the case might be) have been traced into the northern Plains regions of Saskatchewan, Canada.
Further Comment on the Finds at El Jobo, Venezuela
Authors: Rouse Ĭrving , Cruxent José M.
Published: April 2006

In the recent discussion of finds of paleo-Indian type at El Jobo, Venezuela, comparisons were made with other material in the Caribbean region and in North America (Cruxent and Rouse 1956). Turning in the opposite direction, to the rest of South America, we find that the El Jobo projectile points show a rather marked resemblance to those of the Ayampitín site in central Argentina, if we may judge from the drawings published by Rex González (1952, Pl. 13). The Ayampitín points, like those of El Jobo, are predominantly leaf shaped, but with a minority of stemmed forms. The two are relatively crudely rechipped on both surfaces, finely retouched along the edges, and in some cases serrated. The Ayampitín points are of quartz; the El Jobo specimens, of quartzite.