bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability: Concurrent Validity with the WISC-R
Authors: Reeve Ronald E. , Hall Robert J. , Zakreski Richard S.
Published: April 2006

The Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery (WJ) is gaining in use in the assessment of youngsters with suspected learning disabilities. This study reports on the Tests of Cognitive Ability of the battery, which are intended to be the equivalent of an intelligence test. The correlation between full scale scores on the WISC-R and the WJ was found to be .79, suggesting considerable overlap. However, differences in mean full scale scores of approximately one standard deviation were found. Possible explanations and implications for the findings are discussed.
Naturalistic Memory in Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Swanson H. Lee , Trahan Marcy
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the generalizability of LD children's working memory deficits to naturalistic tasks. Tasks included questionnaire items about recall strategies and the recall of everyday features, early school information, consequential events, and misleading information; the working memory measure was Daneman and Carpenter's (1980) sentence span test. Results indicate that LD children are deficient on working memory and naturalistic measures, but their naturalistic memory deficits do not appear to relate to consequential or suggestible recall tasks. Weak intercorrelations were found between the memory measures, suggesting that working and naturalistic memory reflects independent memory systems. It was concluded that disabled children's deficient memory performance in a natural context is somewhat independent of working memory problems, except when the naturalistic measures (i.e., questionnaire items) assess intentional recall. Deficits in naturalistic memory were less apparent for salient and contextually meaningful information
Learning Disabilities and Presumed Central Nervous System Dysfunction
Authors: Hynd George W. , Marshall Richard , Gonzalez Jose
Published: April 2006

Although learning disabilities have historically been presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, it has only been within the past decade that this origin has been acknowledged in a consensus definition. Based on the 1981 National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) definition, a modified definition proposed by the National Institute of Health (NIH) Interagency Committee in 1987 included the statement that learning disabilities are “… presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction …”

This article provides an overview of the literature in support of this notion and focuses on the postmortem and neuroimaging studies that provide the most provocative evidence of a neurological conceptualization of learning disabilities. Although relatively few in number, these studies suggest that significant advances may be forthcoming in integrating neuropsychological evidence of the deficits that characterize various subtypes of learning disabilities with technological advances in brain research such that a more accurate understanding of the neurological basis of learning disabilities may emerge.
Issues in the Assessment of Language and Reading Disorders in Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Harber Jean R.
Published: April 2006

The procedures currently used in the identification of children with specific learning disabilities rely heavily on the measurement of a discrepancy between expected potential and actual achievement. The accurate assessment of language and reading disorders is extremely important to the overall identification process. This paper explores several issues which effect the accurate assessment of language and reading disorders and, thus, of discrepancy. These issues are: the overall adequacy of available assessment instruments, the appropriateness of available instruments for use with specific groups of youngsters, and the interpretation and utilization of assessment data in the decision-making process. Specific emphasis is placed on the assessment of language and reading disorders in the culturally different learning disabled population.
The Reasoning Abilities of Normal and Learning Disabled Readers on Measures of Reading Comprehension
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A.
Published: April 2006

Standardized measures were used to identify and compare the reasoning abilities of normal and learning disabled readers. The study employed techniques modeled from protocol-analysis methods used in problem-solving research. Obtained protocols indicated that reasoning abilities could be operationally defined as identifiable sequences representing reasoning strategies. Group comparisons revealed significant differences in the magnitude and variety of reasoning strategies used. The responses of normal readers revealed more applications and successes with the most often used efficient strategies overall and for individual question types. Learning disabled readers revealed greater variability in reasoning-strategy use and more often applied either no strategy or less efficient strategies resulting in more incorrect responses. Further analysis revealed that learning disabled readers' failures were associated with a greater number of word recognition and vocabulary errors suggesting that learning disabled readers were unable to extract enough relevant information to apply a successful line of reasoning.
Direct Instruction: Effects on Oral and Written Language Comprehension
Authors: Lloyd John , Cullinan Douglas , Heins Elizabeth D. , Epstein Michael H.
Published: April 2006

Twenty-three learning disabled children were randomly assigned to three different classrooms, one of which served as a control condition. The two experimental classrooms consisted of homogeneous groups of students who were provided behaviorally based instruction, including direct instruction in language skills such as vocabulary, statement repetition, literal and inferential comprehension, and basic facts (e.g., names of months). At posttesting on the Slosson Intelligence and Gilmore Oral Reading tests the mean score of the experimental classes were found to be approximately three-fourths of a standard deviation higher that the means for the control group, a directionally significant difference in both cases. The results are discussed as support for the proposition that use of direct instruction procedures is a successful means of overcoming the learning difficulties of children considered learning disabled.
Cognitive-Behavioral Training in Spelling for Learning Handicapped Students
Authors: Gerber Michael M. , Hall Robert J.
Published: April 2006

This paper proposes that development of effective cognitive-behavioral training (CBT) approaches in academic domains, such as spelling, requires greater appreciation of the instructional character of such interventions. Teaching in its purest form, we argue, is cognitive-behavioral training. Therefore, design of CBT interventions needs to be imbued with greater concern for trainers' (i.e., teachers') knowledge of the academic domain as well as their pedagogical expertise in finely and precisely adjusting their instructional use of language to communicate that knowledge. Learning handicapped students, more than normally achieving peers, require such expertise if they are to learn even basic skills.
Concurrent Validity of the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts
Authors: Beech Martha C.
Published: April 2006

The concurrent validity of the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC) was investigated by comparing it to two tests of linguistic abilities (TACL and CELI) and five tests of cognitive abilities (Piagetian tasks). Sixty kindergarten children were tested. The strongest correlation of the BTBC was with the test of receptive language. Correlations with Piagetian tests were moderate. Findings were interpreted to mean that the BTBC can be used as a general estimate of cognitive ability. Canonical analysis of all variables revealed the presence of one common factor, language comprehension.
Learning Disabled and Nondisabled College Students' Use of Structure in Recall of Stories and Text
Authors: Bacon Ellen H. , Carpenter Dale
Published: April 2006

This study compared LD and average college students' use of expository text structure and story grammar to recall social studies text passages. Students simultaneously read and listened to three passages with different structures: story grammar, comparison, and causation. Results were analyzed for structure use in immediate oral recall. No difference was found between the groups on the use of story grammar and comparison structure. However, the LD students scored significantly lower than their average peers on the causation structure. The results support research showing that LD students use story structure as well as nondisabled students and suggest that structure use is developmental, with use of comparison structures preceding use of causation.
Learning Disability Research: How Far Have We Progressed?
Authors: Harber Jean R.
Published: April 2006

This article presents an analysis of the 229 research reports which have appeared in two major learning disability journals since 1978. Findings indicate that (1) the vast majority of these studies are quasi-experimental in nature; (2) control of extraneous variables (e.g., intelligence) was not appropriately demonstrated in many studies; (3) comparability between experimental and control groups was not adequately established in numerous reports; (4) fewer than half of the studies utilized subjects classified as learning disabled; (5) in more than two-fifths of the studies involving learning disabled subjects, the criteria for such classification were not provided; (6) studies which did operationally define learning disabilities utilized a wide range of criteria. The ethical limitations of conducting experimental learning disability research are discussed and suggestions for enhancing such research are offered. Finally, the importance of focusing research efforts on homogeneous populations (e.g., the severely learning disabled) is illustrated.
Alternative Reading Strategies: A Case Study
Authors: Stockdale Betsy S. , Crump W. Donald
Published: April 2006

Reading research is usually conducted on large groups of students making generalization to individual cases difficult. A useful alternative to traditional research strategies is found in case studies. This study reports the reading progress of a learning disabled student over a four-year period. The reading instruction program initially chosen employed a skills approach; later this was changed to a modified holistic approach. Differences in outcomes of the two approaches are reported along with implications for reading instruction.
Self-Recording during Group Instruction: Effects on Attention to Task
Authors: Hallahan Daniel P. , Marshall Kathleen J. , Lloyd John Wills
Published: April 2006

The effects of self-monitoring on attention to task during small-group instruction were investigated. Three learning disabled (LD) boys with severe attentional problems were taught to self-monitor their on-task behavior while participating in oral reading tasks. A reversal design demonstrated marked increases in attention to task for all three students. The higher levels of on-task behavior were maintained during two subsequent phases in which external components of the self-monitoring procedure were withdrawn. The results indicate that self-monitoring procedures can be effectively employed during oral, small-group instruction, and that positive behavioral changes can be maintained over a period of time following the gradual fading of external, procedural components.
Instructional Practices for Promoting Skill Acquisition and Generalization in Severely Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Deshler Donald D. , Alley Gordon R. , Warner Michael M. , Schumaker Jean B.
Published: April 2006

Programming options for learning disabled (LD) adolescents have received increased attention over the past decade. In addition to curriculum-related issues, efforts must also be aimed at solving the basic question of how to instruct LD adolescents to ensure maximum skill acquisition and generalization. Results of research conducted with a wide range of LD adolescents have shown that severely learning disabled (SLD) students need very stringent and systematic instructional procedures in order to acquire and apply learning strategies. Using a learning strategies approach, this article outlines specific procedures designed to promote acquisition and generalization of learning strategies in LD adolescents. First students are taught a specific strategy in isolation before being asked to apply it to controlled materials, and later to transfer the strategy to regular-class content. Unless sound instructional practices are implemented, the performance of SLD students is adversely affected.
Influence of Irrelevant Information in Addition Word Problems on Problem Solving
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Culatta Barbara E. , Horn Donna G.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the problem-solving performance of learning disabled students and their peers. Irrelevant linguistic and numerical information embedded within addition word problems was presented to matched groups of subjects. Whereas irrelevant numerical information negatively affected pupil performance, irrelevant linguistic information did not affect performance. Learning disabled students exhibited lower accuracy levels and problem-solving rates than grade-age peers. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of students' problem-solving processes as well as educational programming for learning disabled pupils.
Improving Speed and Accuracy of Word Recognition in Reading Disabled Children: An Evaluation of Two Computer Program Variations
Authors: Cohen Andrew L. , Torgesen Joseph K. , Torgesen Jeffrey L.
Published: April 2006

The present study investigated the relative effectiveness of two versions of a computer program designed to increase the sight-word reading vocabulary of reading disabled children. One version required children to type words into the computer as part of the practice activity; in the other no typing was involved. Subjects were nine reading disabled students, average age 10 years, 7 months. A repeated-measures design was used to expose all subjects three times to two treatment conditions and a no-practice control condition. Accuracy and speed of reading, as well as spelling accuracy for multisyllable words were measured in pre- and posttests. Both versions of the program proved to be equally effective in improving speed and accuracy of reading words, but the typing version was more effective in increasing spelling accuracy. However, students enjoyed the no-typing version better, and they were able to attain mastery levels for new words on this version faster than on the typing version. Implications of these results for reading software design are considered.
Behavior and Attention in LD Children
Authors: Eliason Michele J. , Richman Lynn C.
Published: April 2006

The performance of 90 learning disabled (LD) children on two measures of behavior and attentional skills was examined: (a) the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist (RBPC, Quay & Peterson, 1987) is a parent-rated multivariate behavior scale; and (b) the Continuous Performance Test (CPT, Lindgren & Lyon, 1983) is a laboratory vigilance / impulsivity measure. As a group, the LD subjects exceeded normative standards on every measure of both scales. However, when the data were examined individually, approximately 30% of the children accounted for the majority of behavioral problems. The most common difficulties were noted on attention, cognitive processing, anxiety, and excessive motor activity.
An Evaluation of the Identification of Learning Disabled Students in Colorado
Authors: Shepard Lorrie A. , Smith Mary Lee
Published: April 2006

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the process whereby children are identified as learning disabled (LD) and the validity of subsequent educational placements: (a) a representative sample of 1,000 cases were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively; (b) extensive questionnaires were administered to professionals involved in LD identification; (c) definitions and assessment procedures were evaluated. Only 28% of the LD cases met strict criteria for LD; another 15% showed weak signs of the handicap. The remaining 57% currently in1 LD programs were better described by other indicators such as non-English dominant (7%), other handicaps (10%), slow learners (11%), minor behavior problems (4%), etc. The costs of LD identification were found to be excessive; each year almost half of the resources available for LD pupils was spent on assessment and staffing. Policy implications are discussed.
The Effect of Word- and Comprehension-Emphasis Instruction on Reading Performance
Authors: Fleisher Lisa S. , Jenkins Joseph R.
Published: April 2006

Three instructional procedures were compared to assess their effects on reading comprehension and word recognition. One approach emphasized comprehension, i.e., students were regularly questioned about the reading content and were not corrected when they made oral reading errors. A second approach consisted of word emphasis, whereby subjects were corrected for all reading errors and received error-word drills each day. They were not questioned about the content of their reading selection. The third approach combined aspects of the other two, including error-word corrections and drill along with comprehension questions. No differences were found among treatment effects on comprehension and oral reading; however, on an isolated word-recognition measure the approaches which included error-word drill produced higher scores.
Syntactic Development in the Oral Language of Learning Disabled and Normal Students at the Intermediate and Secondary Level
Authors: Simms Rochelle B. , Crump W. Donald
Published: April 2006

Syntax is a crucial component of oral language development. Frequently, learning disabled children's oral language development is characterized by syntax problems. Hence, since deviations in oral language development may form the basis for identification of learning disabilities, adequate indices of oral language development are needed. The purpose of this study was to explore two indices of syntactic development in oral language, the T-unit and the Syntactic Density Score. Learning disabled students and a matched group of normally achieving peers were compared on these indices at four age levels. Results are reported for each measure along with a discussion and implications.
Rate of Visual Information Pick-Up in Learning Disabled and Normal Boys
Authors: Bryant Susan K. , McIntyren Curtis W. , Murray Michael E. , Blackwell Scott L.
Published: April 2006

A span-of-apprehension task and a backward masking technique were combined to allow measurement of the apprehension span of learning disabled and normal boys at various time intervals following stimulus presentation. A comparison of subjects' rate of information pick-up revealed a slower rate for learning disabled boys. Results indicate that most visual information is processed between 10 to 50 msec, after presentation of the stimulus. The implications for eye movement training programs as being detrimental for learning disabled students are discussed.
Effects of Ethnic Membership, Socioeconomic Status, and Home Language on LD, EMR, and EH Placements
Authors: Argulewicz Ed N.
Published: April 2006

Proportions of special education placements for Anglos, Blacks, and Hispanics were compiled for a large elementary school district in the Southwest. Also, types of placements were examined for each group within the context of socioeconomic status (low or mid-high) and home language (Spanish or English). Results showed significant ethnicity x socioeconomic status interaction effects, with mid-high Spanish-speaking Hispanics being placed at the highest rate and mid-high Blacks being placed least frequently. Further examination of the data revealed that the learning disability category was by far the most frequently assigned placement. The article contains a discussion of the factors which may have influenced the results and implications for placement decision making.
Effects of Subvocal Suppression on Learning Disabled Readers' Sentence Comprehension
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

The present experiment investigated the role of subvocalization in learning disabled readers' comprehension difficulties. Nondisabled and learning disabled readers were compared on silent reading and listening comprehension of noun lexical, verb lexical, semantic and inferential sentences under conditions of suppressed and nonsuppressed subvocalization. Compared to nondisabled readers learning disabled readers were inferior in comprehension when required to combine concepts and integrate ideas. However, the two groups were comparable in comprehension of noun and verb lexical sentences when allowed to subvocalize. For both reading groups subvocalization was found to be necessary for comprehension of individual words; however, suppression of subvocalization did not interfere with the integration of ideas. Three hypotheses were offered to account for disabled readers' comprehension performance. The results are best interpreted as an extended working-memory hypothesis supporting the theory that learning disabled readers' deficient semantic knowledge impairs their use of subvocalization strategies.
Objective Analysis of Achievement-Aptitude Discrepancies in LD Classification
Authors: Hanna Gerald S. , Dyck Norma J. , Holen Michael C.
Published: April 2006

A critical review of the literature dealing with quantification of aptitude-achievement differences revealed that methods developed to date are fraught with numerous and grave inadequacies. Based upon this evaluation of past methods, this article outlines and discusses criteria of new and more adequate procedures. Finally, step-by-step procedures that can be routinely followed are presented.
The Home Environment in the Assessment of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Freund Judith H. , Bradley Robert H. , Caldwell Bettye M.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of the present article is to advocate that in view of the difficulty involved in predicting learning disability by looking at the early behavior of the child, serious consideration must be given to early assessment of home environmental processes as a supplement to child-focused preschool screening and research. The article contains a review of home environmental issues, findings, and instruments as they have arisen in the field of general cognitive development and as they are applicable to preschool prediction of learning disabilities. The authors conclude that in the area of learning disabilities, ‘environmental disadvantage’ should not be conceptualized in gross, structural terms. Within some middle- and upper-class homes, children with actual or potential learning disabilities may be ‘environmentally disadvantaged’ as regards interactions with their parents. During the early childhood period, there is a special need to look within the traditional LD exclusion category of low socioeconomic status for potential subgroups of inefficient learners who are at risk for subsequent learning and social disabilities. When not appropriately identified and intervened with in early childhood, these subgroups may later be misdiagnosed as cultural familial retardates.
Learning Time and Retention Differences between Nondisabled Students and Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Gettinger Maribeth
Published: April 2006

This study examined differences between LD and NLD students in terms of time needed for learning (TNL) and time spent in learning (TSL) on short reading passages and 10-item criterion tests. TNL refers to the number of learning trials, or exposures to a passage, needed to obtain 100% accuracy on a criterion test covering the passage content; TSL refers to the number of self-determined trials spent on an alternate task form. Retention of material learned under both conditions was assessed one day later. Overall, students needed close to five learning trials to achieve mastery (TNL), but self-determined only three learning trials (TSL). As predicted, retention dropped when subjects self-determined fewer trials than necessary. Differences were observed between LD and NLD students. Compared to NLD Ss, LD Ss exhibited significantly higher TNL, equal TSL, and greater TNL-TSL discrepancy. Retention was also consistently lower for students with LD. Results are discussed in the context of theory and research on learning time as well as instructional implications for students with LD.
Development and Validation of Feedback Routines for Instructing Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Kline Frank M. , Schumaker Jean B. , Deshler Donald D.
Published: April 2006

This investigation focused on validating two feedback routines for use by special education teachers to enhance the performance of students with learning disabilities. One routine (the Feedback Routine) involved teacher-delivered elaborated feedback, the other (the Feedback-Plus-Assistance Routine) consisted of elaborated feedback plus a student-acceptance routine, which included setting goals for the next practice trial. Two experimental designs were employed: one to determine whether teachers could learn the routines, the other to determine the effects on student learning. Dependent measures were (a) teacher and student performance of the routines, (b) student trials to mastery, and (c) student errors across trials. Measures of teacher and student satisfaction and teacher maintenance were also gathered. Results indicated that the special education teachers effectively integrated the routines into their teaching repertoires. Further, the routines significantly reduced the number of student trials to mastery and the number of student errors in practice attempts following feedback sessions. The two routines appeared equally powerful in terms of teacher and student learning; however, the teachers continued to maintain the routine requiring student involvement in goal setting for a longer period.
A Sociometric Analysis of Between-Group Differences and Within-Group Status Variability of Hispanic Learning Disabled and Nonhandicapped Pupils in Academic and Play Contexts
Authors: Ochoa Salvador Hector , Palmer Douglas J.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to assess the sociometric status of mainstreamed Hispanic learning disabled (LD) and nonhandicapped pupils. Fourth- and fifth-grade pupils from a small metropolitan school district in the Southwest participated. Sociometric data were collected from 35 classrooms across 10 schools. Hispanic LD pupils received lower sociometric peer ratings than their nonhandicapped peers. However, a peer rating/nomination classification procedure resulted in considerable variability in sociometric status for both LD and nonhandicapped children. Although 30% of the LD sample were in the rejected status group, almost 50% of the LD pupils attained average sociometric status. Sociometric context (i.e., academic and play) also influenced membership in status groups.
Improving Learning Disabled Students' Composition Skills: Self-Control Strategy Training
Authors: Harris Karen R. , Graham Steve
Published: April 2006

The present study was conducted to determine whether a self-control strategy training procedure was effective in improving learning disabled students' compositions. Training effects on three objective aspects of compositions (number of different action words, action helpers, and describing words) were investigated using a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors nested within a multiple-baseline-across-subjects design. Results indicated that students' use of the selected parts of speech increased substantially above baseline as did mean number of words per story. Additionally, stories written after training received substantially higher quality ratings than those composed during baseline. Generalization and maintenance probes taken up to 14 weeks after training continued to yield positive results.
Mnemonic Vocabulary Instruction for Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Mastropieri Margo A. , Scruggs Thomas E. , Levin Joel R. , Gaffney Jan , McLoone Barbara
Published: April 2006

In two experiments, learning disabled junior-high school students learned the definitions of 14 vocabulary words either according to a pictorial mnemonic strategy (the “keyword method”) or via the principles of direct instruction. Results of the first experiment showed that when specially constructed mnemonic illustrations were provided, the keyword method was substantially more effective than direct instruction. The keyword method continued to surpass direct instruction in the second experiment, even when keyword students were required to generate their own mnemonic images. The potential benefits of mnemonic vocabulary instruction for learning disabled populations are considered.
Story Retelling Used with Average and Learning Disabled Readers as a Measure of Reading Comprehension
Authors: Hansen Cheryl L.
Published: April 2006

While a considerable amount of research has been conducted on learning disabled populations to determine their ability to decode and learn words in isolation, limited research has addressed the reading comprehension of LD populations. Hansen used a method for quantifying story retells, called proposition analysis, to study the comprehension performances of learning disabled and average readers. Proposition analysis is presented as an alternative to questioning students when evaluating their reading comprehension.
Learning Disabled Children's Conversational Skills — The ‘TV Talk Show’
Authors: Bryan Tanis , Donahue Mavis , Pearl Ruth , Sturm Carol
Published: April 2006

This study examined the conversational competence of learning disabled children when placed in a dominant social position. Learning disabled and nondisabled children were videotaped as they played the role of a talk show host interviewing a nondisabled child. The conversational strategies of the learning disabled and nondisabled children were analyzed for discourse and turn-taking behaviors. The results indicated that although the learning disabled children were cooperative conversational partners, their strategies for initiating and sustaining the interaction differed from those of nondisabled children. Learning disabled children asked fewer questions and were less likely to produce open-ended questions than nondisabled children. In turn, their conversational partners were less likely to provide elaborative responses to their questions. The results are discussed in terms of current hypotheses about learning disabled children's linguistic deficits and their difficulties in establishing positive peer relations.
Increasing the Oral Reading Performance of a Learning Disabled Adult
Authors: Idol-Maestas Lorna
Published: April 2006

This research project was designed to increase a male adult's oral reading performance. A direct instruction approach was used to teach lacking phonic skills previously determined through a detailed performance analysis. As a result of highly specific phonic lessons, reading performance was increased by three years over a three-month period. A multiple-baseline design was used to compare acquisition and maintenance of each phonic concept.
Educating the Learning Disabled Adolescent: Some Assumptions
Authors: Wiederholt J. Lee
Published: April 2006

Educational practices for learning disabled adolescents exhibit considerable variance. Much of this variance stems from differing assumptions made about learner, assessment, and instructional factors related to the learning disabled adolescent. Wiederholt specifies three assumptions which he considers significant for effective assessment and instructional practice for older learning disabled students. First, the role of meaning in written language should be emphasized. Second, curricula should be related to skills and knowledge needed for functional competency as an adult in society. Third, the needs of handicapped adolescents should be evaluated in several natural environments. Instructional implications and cautions are discussed for each assumption.
Teaching Secondary Learning Disabled Students to the Mainstream
Authors: Laurie Theresa E. , Buchwach Lorie , Silverman Rita , Zigmond Naomi
Published: April 2006

Without effective cooperative planning between the learning disabilities teacher and the regular classroom teacher, the probability of successfully mainstreaming an LD adolescent into the regular classroom is greatly reduced. Cooperative planning is an educational programming and monitoring arrangement between special and regular educators on behalf of LD students. This article presents the thesis that a major part of the learning disabilities teacher's role is to assist the mainstream teacher in developing and implementing instructional alternatives. The authors delineate prerequisites for bringing about educational change in the mainstream and specify a sequence of steps for systematically creating change in the regular class on behalf of LD adolescents.
BEH Final Regulations for Learning Disabilities: Implications for the Secondary School
Authors: Goodman Libby , Price Marianne
Published: April 2006

The final regulations for learning disabilities under PL 94–142 were published in December, 1977. As school districts have attempted to comply with these regulations, questions have been raised regarding their impact on assessment and instructional planning for learning disabled populations. So far, most of the literature on the LD regulations has focused on the preschool- and elementary-aged child. Goodman and Price, however, have analyzed the regulations as they relate to the evaluation of specific learning disabilities and to instructional planning for LD adolescents. This article raises several concerns on behalf of the learning disabled adolescent about the application of the regulations within secondary school settings.
Examination of Problem Solving in Learning Disabled Adolescents through Verbalized Self-Instructions
Authors: Havertape John F. , Kass Corrine E.
Published: April 2006

Problem solving is receiving increased attention from professionals working with learning disabled adolescents because of its obvious relation to success within the secondary school curriculum and life adjustment in the post-school environment. This study examines the problem-solving characteristics of learning disabled adolescents through a paradigm that uses verbalized self-instructions. Havertape and Kass delineate specific characteristics of learning disabled adolescents which differentiate their problem-solving skills from those of their normal peers. Implications for intervention are discussed.
A Hierarchy of “Confusable” High-Frequency Words in Isolation and Context
Authors: Krieger Veronica K.
Published: April 2006

This study assessed the degree to which disabled readers commonly and identically confuse high-frequency sight words in isolation and context. Disabled readers from a university reading clinic and from fourth-grade classrooms were tested for their ability to recognize 22 target words in word lists and in a story. Series of analyses of variance indicated that both groups recognized more words in context than in isolation, and that the clinic and natural school groups did not differ in the number of errors produced in isolation or in context. A Spearman rank-correlation coefficient yielded a very low, statistically significant correlation between the number of errors in isolation and context for the 22 target words. Hierarchical arrangements of words confused in both conditions and words frequently confused in isolation, but rarely in context, are presented. Inspection of these errors suggests that readers relied on visual characteristics of words for isolated word recognition, whereas errors on these words in context were generally regulated by semantic and syntactic constraints of the story. Findings are discussed in terms of diagnosis and instruction through the use of context materials. Suggestions are given for futher research with learning disabled students in natural school settings to identify specific reversal problems with high-frequency words.
Strategies for Improving the Status and Social Behavior of Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Gable Robert A. , Strain Phillip S. , Hendrickson Jo M.
Published: April 2006

It has been demonstrated repeatedly the LD children are often the targets of negative behavior and social rejection by age-peers. In this review paper, two primary areas of literature are examined: a) the social interactions typical of LD children; and b) peer-mediated strategies for enhancing LD children's social standing. In a final section, we examine the critical role to be played by classroom teachers in altering the social rejection experienced by LD children.
Mainstreaming: An Examination of the Attitudes and Needs of Regular Classroom Teachers
Authors: Hudson Floyd , Graham Steve , Warner Michael
Published: April 2006

A questionnaire was administered to elementary-school regular class teachers to determine their attitudes and needs in regard to mainstreaming the exceptional child. The questionnaire was designed to elicit teachers' attitudes and their perceptions of time, materials, skills, support services, and training needs in relation to teaching mainstreamed exceptional children in their classroom. The secondary purpose of the study was to determine whether locale, educational degree, or teaching level affect those perceptions. Results indicated that teachers evidenced unfavorable attitudes towards mainstreaming. They believed that they did not have the time, support services, or training necessary to teach exceptional children in their classroom effectively. It was speculated that with additional training, teachers would have the necessary skills to competently participate in a mainstreaming program. Locale, educational degree, and teaching level did not differentially affect teachers' attitudes and needs.
Cognitive Development in Learning Disabled Boys
Authors: Tarver Sara , Maggiore Ronald
Published: April 2006

To test the generalizability/specificity of a developmental lag in the learning disabled, measures of five cognitive processes — selective attention, verbal rehearsal, conceptual tempo, field articulation, and locus of control — were obtained for learning disabled boys at three age levels (8-, 11-, and 13-year-olds) and a normal control group at the oldest age level only. Trend analyses and correlational findings provided strong support for the developmental lag hypothesis for four of the variables, i.e., all except verbal rehearsal. Comparison of the oldest learning disabled boys with their normal control group revealed slight, but not significant, differences in favor of the normals on all variables. These findings provide evidence that the learning disabled develop most cognitive abilities in a manner similar to that of their non-learning disabled counterparts, though perhaps slightly delayed, and that by adolescence development in the learning disabled approaches that of normals.
Interpersonal Perception of Skill Efficacy and Behavioral Control of Adolescents with Learning Disabilities: A Social Relations Approach
Authors: Scarpati Stan , Malloy Thomas E. , Fleming Richard
Published: April 2006

A social relations approach was used to examine the way adolescents with learning disabilities (LD) rate their own and their peers' attributions toward skill efficacy and behavioral self-control in mainstream public school placements. LD students were analyzed while both viewers and active participants in the social context of academic learning. This approach is in contrast to paradigms where children are asked to report on their interpretations of factors that covary with the occurrence of a personal or situational event. The Social Relations Model was used to gather and analyze data in a round-robin fashion across perceivers and targets. Results indicated that LD students viewed themselves individually as less skilled than they viewed their LD peers as a group. This finding is contrary to data derived with typical populations of children and adults. The Social Relations Model is presented as a useful way to research how individuals with learning disabilities develop social knowledge while engaged with their peers and teachers in a natural learning environment.
Content Organization and Instructional Design Issues in the Development of History Texts
Authors: Harniss Mark K. , Hollenbeck Keith L. , Crawford Donald B. , Carnine Douglas
Published: April 2006

Designing effective content area texts requires attention to both organization of the content and the instructional strategies used to highlight important information. Content should be organized to show relationships among factual information, concepts, rules, and organizational structures at both the lesson and the curricular level. Instructional strategies should be organized to highlight, integrate, and apply critical concepts and to provide cumulative review of those concepts across the curriculum.
Self-Concept and Perceived Social Support among College Students with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Cosden Merith A. , McNamara Joanne
Published: April 2006

This study examined the self-perceptions of college students with and without LD. Fifty college students with LD and 50 college students without LD were individually administered the Self-Perception Profile for College Students and People in My Life. Students with LD had lower grades, test scores, and perceptions of their scholastic and intellectual abilities than students without disabilities. However, students did not differ in their perceptions of global self-worth, the importance they placed on academic competence, or their ratings of domain-specific competencies. Students with LD reported more social acceptance and support, and more support from campus organizations, than did students without LD. Support from campus organizations was related to self-esteem for students with LD, while support from instructors was associated with self-esteem for students without LD. Other factors related to self-esteem are discussed.
An Investigation of Spatial-Geometrical Understanding in Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Grobecker Betsey , De Lisi Richard
Published: April 2006

Five- to 13-year-old children of average intelligence who had been identified as having learning disabilities (LD, n = 85) and not identified as having learning disabilities (NLD, n = 94) were individually tested for their ability to mentally anticipate and execute pegboard transformations of square and diamond figures, complete free-hand drawings of these figures, and draw figures on the Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration. For students with LD and NLD alike: (a) age-related improvements in transformational strategies and in drawing were evident; (b) diamond figures were easier than square figures to transform but more difficult to draw; and (c) significant intra- and intertask correlations were obtained on pegboard and free-hand drawing tasks. These findings are consistent with predictions derived from Piagetian theory and suggest that a general spatial-cognitive mechanism determined performance on the tasks administered. On most tasks, students with LD did not perform as well as same-aged students with NLD even though the effects of IQ were reduced via matching and statistically controlled. The LD-NLD group differences are interpreted as reflecting delayed development in this general spatial-cognitive mechanism in students with LD rather than a specific skill deficit in visual-perceptual processing. Diagnostic and remedial implications of the findings and interpretation are discussed.
Prevalence and Expression of Depressive Symptomatology in Students with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Heath Nancy Lee , Ross Shana
Published: April 2006

The present study compared girls and boys with and without learning disabilities (LD) on mean reports of depressive symptoms, prevalence of depression and type of depressive symptoms reported. One hundred children with LD (46 girls, 54 boys) ana 104 children without LD (50 girls, 54 boys) were compared on the Children's Depression Inventory's (Kovacs, 1992) overall score, percent meeting the cutoff for depression (19) and subscale factor scores indicating symptom patterns. Results revealed that (a) mean level of depressive symptoms between students with and without LD did not differ but prevalence of depression was marginally different; (b) girls with LD reported higher mean levels of depressive symptoms and higher prevalence of depression than girls without LD, whereas there was no difference in mean levels of depressive symptoms or prevalence of depression for boys with or without LD; (c) students with LD reported more symptoms of ineffectiveness; (d) girls reported more negative mood and less interpersonal problems than boys; and (e) girls with LD reported more symptoms indicative of a loss of pleasure, negative self-esteem and interpersonal problems relative to their peers without LD, while boys with or without LD did not differ in their symptom type reports. Implications and limitations of the results are discussed with reference to previous research and directions for future investigation.
Issues Facing the Field of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

Four issues facing the field of learning disabilities are discussed: (a) defining learning disabilities in terms of discrepancy scores, (b) delineating the boundaries of how specific a learning disability must be, (c) identifying treatments with scientific credibility, and (d) implementing instructional policy that is in the best interest of the child. Although these issues have been discussed in the literature for some time, some deeper conceptual issues lie below the surface. These issues are related to (a) a weak research foundation for operationalizing learning disabilities; (b) too narrow a research focus, thereby excluding work in other areas; (c) few answers to some practical instructional questions; and (d) implementation of policy independent of data. Illustrations and possible redresses are provided.
Developing a School-Based Discourse for Literacy Learning: A Principled Search for Understanding
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Raphael Taffy E. , Mariage Troy V.
Published: April 2006

In this article we present an integrated literacy curriculum for special education students that was designed to promote classroom discourse for negotiating and constructing meanings in reading and writing. Project principles and activities are discussed, with a focus both on how teachers lead their students' literacy development and on how such instruction affects their special education students' literacy knowledge and performance.
Emergence of Literacy in Preschool Children with Disabilities
Authors: Katims David S.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to explore and document ways in which behaviors indicative of emerging literacy may be promoted in a group of preschool children ( n=14; mean CA=5.2) with mild to moderate disabilities. Classroom procedures included immersing the children in a literature-rich environment with multiple daily readings by adults of a small number of familiar and predictable books. Structured techniques were used to encourage the children independently to interact with books. Results indicate that the literacy development of children with disabilities, like youngsters without disabilities, can be influenced through classroom curriculum and procedures.
Social and Individual Forces in Learning: Implications for Instruction of Children with Learning Difficulties
Authors: Stone C. Addison , Reid D. Kim
Published: April 2006

The role of individual knowledge construction in socially mediated instructional activities is examined. We argue that effective learning in social situations involves processes of communicational inference and knowledge consolidation. An analysis of these processes highlights the continuing need to incorporate individual learner characteristics in a full specification of the dynamics of effective socially mediated instruction.