bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Developments in the New Millennium
Authors: Peng-Keller Simon , Winiger Fabian , Rauch Raphael
Published: August 2022

This chapter takes a brief look at developments in the new millennium. Both internal and external processes continued to shape the WHO’s approach to the ‘spiritual dimension’ of health. The chapter examines this in three sections. The first section focuses on the WHO’s efforts in the field of mental health. The second section investigates the growing recognition of the contribution of faith-based organizations (FBOs) to global health and traces a process of cautious rapprochement that ultimately led to a controversy about the neutrality of the WHO. Finally, the third section concludes by summing up the main strands of historical discourse and emphasizing that the fate of the ‘spiritual dimension’ of health in the WHO was highly dependent on changing visions about the principal goals of global health.
How the English Reformation was Named
Authors: Guyer Benjamin M.
Published: August 2022

How the English Reformation was Named analyzes the shifting semantics of “reformation” in England between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. Originally denoting the intended aim of church councils, “reformation” was subsequently redefined to denote violent revolt, and ultimately a series of past episodes in religious history. But despite referring to sixteenth-century religious change, the proper noun “English Reformation” entered the historical lexicon only during the British civil wars of the 1640s. Anglican apologists coined this term to defend the Church of England against proponents of the Scottish Reformation, an event that contemporaries singled out for its violence and illegality. Using their neologism to denote select events from the mid-Tudor era, Anglicans crafted a historical narrative that enabled them to present a pristine vision of the English past, one that they endeavored to preserve amidst civil war, regicide, and political oppression. With the restoration of the monarchy and the Church of England in 1660, apologetic narrative became historiographical habit and, eventually, historical certainty.
Introduction
Authors: Millward Gareth
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the key concepts of the book. It explains what a ‘sick note’ is and why states feel the need to monitor sickness, before situating the book in the context of existing social and cultural histories of postwar Britain. It demonstrates that bureaucracies provide benefits on the basis of sickness, but that reliable diagnosis is difficult to obtain. Furthermore, different bureaucracies have different definitions of what is ‘sick enough’ to claim—definitions that can often conflict with ‘common sense’ definitions of ill health. These tensions form the basis of many of the issues experienced in the rest of the volume, especially around aggregate sickness data. The Introduction concludes with a chapter plan explaining the book’s core arguments and how these proceed thematically and chronologically throughout the rest of the volume.
Privatization?
Authors: Millward Gareth
Published: August 2022

The welfare state underwent significant reforms after the oil crises of the 1970 and Margaret Thatcher’s election in 1979. As this chapter demonstrates, however, such reforms had their origins in earlier decades—and some of the ideas underpinning so-called ‘neo-liberal’ reforms towards the end of the century were not new to the 1980s. This chapter uses the introduction of Statutory Sick Pay in 1983 to show how ideas about who should provide sickness benefit had changed by the 1980s. This made employers responsible for paying the first few weeks of sick pay and allowed the government to incrementally effectively ‘privatize’ National Insurance sickness benefit. One of the key changes in this new system was ‘self-certification’, or the ability for workers to declare themselves sick for short bouts of illness without the need for a doctors’ signature. This was the culmination of decades of pressure from the BMA to reform medical certification. Although there was resistance from the government, trades unions, and business groups, all eventually accepted that self-certification would save time and allow the remaining elements of the welfare state to deal more effectively with long-term sickness and disability. This provides important context to reforms that would come in the 1990s and 2000s; but it also cannot be understood without considering the evolution of sick note policy over the 1960s and 1970s that allowed the government to acquiesce to the BMA’s demands for less certification.
Chronicity and Capacity towards the New Millennium
Authors: Millward Gareth
Published: August 2022

Statutory Sick Pay had effectively removed the state’s responsibility for short-term sickness. The government therefore turned its sights on reducing the financial burden of long-term sickness and disability benefits. This chapter analyses attitudes towards sickness in the 1980s and 1990s to explain how and why the government was able to restrict access to incapacity benefit through new forms of testing. At the same time, the rise of ‘sick note’ as a rhetorical device in the national media reflected both the ubiquity of sick notes in everyday life and the concerns British people had about the adequacy of sickness systems. Using media coverage from the time, this chapter shows that attitudes towards ‘scroungers’ and potential malingerers played into a political rhetoric of ‘getting tough’ on people who were considered undeserving of state support. ‘Sicknotes’ like footballer Darren Anderton, Bert Quigley from London’s Burning, or actor Martine McCutcheon said something about Britain’s attitudes to providing help to people with mental or physical health conditions that affected their ability to work. The bureaucratic and medico-sociological justifications for the Conservative government’s approach informed New Labour’s reforms to disability benefits in the 2000s; but they must also be put into the wider context of changing attitudes to sickness and to paid employment since the 1940s.
Verbal nouns in Latin
Authors: Spevak Olga
Published: August 2022

This chapter investigates properties of verbal nouns in Latin, which usually go under the label of ‘abstract nouns’. It briefly reviews previous research, with a focus on nouns in -tio and -tus. It provides a description of the syntactic and semantic properties of verbal nouns. Verbal nouns show nominal syntax—argument marking is in the genitive—but they retain some verbal properties: they can express or imply their arguments, they can be interpreted for their tense or voice value, and they allow the reflexive pronoun se and the ab phrase expressing the agent. Special attention is paid to the identification of nouns with a verbal meaning and those with a concrete meaning. Collocation or co-occurrence with other constituents in the same clause is an important criterion for this distinction. It is argued that verbal nouns typically occur with verbs meaning existence and happening; concrete nouns with action verbs.
Competitors of verbal nouns
Authors: Spevak Olga
Published: August 2022

Chapter 5 discusses competitors of verbal nouns: gerunds and gerundives, participles, and infinitives, in order to determine which properties they share with verbal nouns, in which contexts they are interchangeable, and what restrictions apply to their use. Gerunds and gerundives are largely interchangeable with verbal nouns, especially in the ablative and the prepositional accusative with the semantic functions of means and purpose adjuncts. Competition between gerunds, gerundives, and verbal nouns is strongest at the noun phrase level. They are used in similar contexts, but gerunds and gerundives allow a greater complexity than verbal nouns. The gerunds and gerundives compensate for the lack of verbal nouns only in the case of semantically weak verbs, verbs that do not form verbal nouns, and strongly polysemous verbs. Participial clauses, which situate an action in time, compete with verbal nouns in the functions of subject, object, and adjuncts of means.
Conclusions
Authors: Spevak Olga
Published: August 2022

In this book it is argued that verbal nouns, defined as nouns that have a correspondence with a clause structure, retain some verbal properties, namely expression or implication of arguments (obligatory constituents), inherent temporality or relationship with time, and voice value. They must be distinguished from the use of these nouns with concrete reference because they behave in a different way. Functions fulfilled by verbal nouns are examined in various text types (narrative texts, treatises on rhetoric and architecture, and legal texts). The distinction between a verbal meaning and a concrete meaning is especially important in technical treatises. Verbal nouns compete with non-finite verb forms (gerunds, gerundives, participial clauses, and infinitives). Their interchangeability can be observed in particular at the noun phrase level.
BUILDING FREE SOCIETIES IN THE COSMOS
Authors: Cockell Charles S.
Published: August 2022

Faced with the tyranny-prone conditions of space we can consider how to minimise despotism and maximise the chance for liberty to take hold in extraterrestrial settlements. Largely this involves institution building, including the development of constitutions and checks and balances within government branches, even in the smallest space settlements. However, it also involves encouraging the development of culture and customs that are conducive to open societies, while recognising that societies in space will necessarily be more collectivist than many communities on Earth. All aspects of the extraterrestrial society, but especially political and economic institutional arrangements, are considered in this light and suggestions made on how to construct a polity that tends towards the preservation of liberty in space.
DISSENT AND WELFARE
Authors: Cockell Charles S.
Published: August 2022

For liberty to succeed in space, there must be the capacity for people to dissent. The encouragement of dissent is critical to revealing political and economic arrangements that can lead to danger, even existential risks, in an inherently lethal environment. But how can people dissent in an instantaneously lethal environment where disruption such as a depressurisation event could threaten many lives? What types of dissent can work in the lethal conditions surrounding extraterrestrial settlements? Can strike action and revolution be accommodated in confined and economically limited extraterrestrial conditions? Both physical infrastructure and social conditions must be engineered to allow the conditions for dissent and disobedience and the means to channel these disagreements into peaceful and productive ends.
ART AND LIBERTY
Authors: Cockell Charles S.
Published: August 2022

The free expression of artistic capacities in writing, music, painting, etc., is an essential part of constructing the conditions for liberty in space settlements. Although the direction of art is always open to misuse, there are forms of art that could be encouraged, and roles of artists that can be recognised, that would enhance the chances of successfully developing freedoms in space settlements. By identifying the roles of artists in society, such as the historian, the traveller, or the norm-breaker, positive efforts can be made to encourage these functions in society. This effort becomes of special importance in the extraterrestrial environment, where artists can play an important part in breaking down conformity and building up culture in otherwise physically monotonous environments.
JUSTICE AND CRIMINALITY IN THE FREE SOCIETY
Authors: Cockell Charles S.
Published: August 2022

If liberty is to be preserved in space, then a settlement must construct a successful justice system that recognises the basic precepts of free societies, such as equality before the law and the presumption of innocence, but that also administers justice fairly. This includes the design of extraterrestrial prisons and a prison system that is humane. In particular, we can consider the way in which extreme conditions and the need to prevent potentially dangerous crimes might shape the nature of an emergent police force and system of law enforcement. It is possible to consider a series of principles, institutions, and social designs that allow for a functioning extraterrestrial judiciary and justice system that can nurture the conditions for extraterrestrial liberty.
Physical subsystem of moral metaphors
Authors: Yu Ning
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents a descriptive and analytical study of the physical subsystem of the moral metaphor system. This subsystem, consisting of moral-physical metaphors, can be summarized by a generic conceptual metaphor morality is physicality. The chapter starts with an initial analysis of the source concepts, i.e., beautiful and ugly, strong and weak, sound and rotten, whole and broken, healthy and ill, with respect to their relations with one another and a general source frame that applies to all of them for their metaphorical mappings onto the target concepts moral and immoral within the subsystem. The five conceptual metaphors are morality is beauty, morality is strength, morality is soundness, morality is wholeness, and morality is health. Then studies of their linguistic manifestations are conducted separately in English and Chinese.
The moral metaphor system and beyond
Authors: Yu Ning
Published: August 2022

This chapter puts the complete moral metaphor system into a holistic perspective, examining the moral metaphor system as a whole, constructing a general model for the analysis of both source and target frame structures of the conceptual metaphors in the moral metaphor system. This model displays the core elements and relations in the frame structures, with constants and variables specified. This chapter also examines the relationship between bodily, cultural, and linguistic experience and analyzes how they interact with metaphorical conceptualization, citing some linguistic evidence, both qualitative and quantitative, and multimodal evidence, showing the possible impact of linguistic experience on conceptual system and cultural experience. In particular, two general issues are discussed concerning the relations between language and thought, and between language and culture, emphasizing the possible impact of the former on the latter. The chapter wraps up with some closing remarks summarizing the findings and conclusions.
Introduction
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: August 2022

A brief introduction to the re-emergence of China as a global economic power emphasizing the role played by changes in the global economy from the 1970s and the internal reforms in China from the end of the 1970s. The chapter briefly describes the importance of economic relations with China for SSA and LAC and introduces contrasting views of the impact of China on SSA and LAC. Emphasizes a framework which highlights the indirect as well as the direct impacts of China on the two regions, and identifies both positive and negative effects. Provides an outline of the main parts and chapters of the book.
Social, Political, and Environmental Impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: August 2022

Some of the most controversial aspects of China’s economic presence in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) relate to the social, political, and environmental impacts. The chapter finds that many of the claims that are made are based on anecdotal evidence and that there is a need for more systematic research on these aspects. In terms of social impacts, the chapter discusses employment, wages, working conditions, and labour rights. Political claims addressed include claims that China’s involvement supports authoritarian regimes, encourages corruption and leads to conflict and political instability. These claims are not generally supported and SSA countries have also benefitted from the increased policy space that Chinese involvement gives them. The environmental effects of both increased exports to China and the activities of Chinese firms in SSA are analysed. Contrasting case studies illustrate the negative impacts of China on forestry and the positive effects of Chinese support for wind and solar power.
Preliminaries
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei
Published: August 2022

This chapter contains concepts and facts from the areas of set theory, topology, universal algebra, model theory, and computability theory that will be used in the book later. Each section in this chapter has the reference list related to the topics outlined in the section.
Sentential Formal Languages and Their Interpretation
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the type of schematic formal language that is used in Chapters 2–6 and 10 of the book. This sentential schematic language is illustrated by a number of examples. Also in this chapter, we define the operation of uniform (or simultaneous) substitution and the semantics for this language by introducing the concept of a logical matrix. The latter concept is also illustrated by a number of examples.
Unital Abstract Logics
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the concept of unital abstract logic. We illustrate this concept with a number of well-known examples of logical consequence, as well as some classes of logical consequence, such as implicative logics and Fregean logics. The quintessence of this chapter is the concept of a Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra. Also in this chapter, we are developing a technique that allows us to consider the Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra as a separating tool, or at least as a starting point for creating such a means. As illustrative examples, we give a detailed description of the Lindenbaum-Tarski algebras with one and two variables of the classical propositional calculus and the Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra with one variable of the intuitionistic propositional calculus, the so-called Rieger-Nishimura algebra. We also include some applications of Lindenbaum-Tarski algebras.
Q-Consequence
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei
Published: August 2022

The topic of this chapter is the treatment of a consequence relation in the framework of predicate languages with generalized quantifiers, which is called in this book Q-consequence. We discuss two patterns of Q-consequence: one is defined by Q-structures and the other, for specified languages, through deductive systems. Since the former is largely related to matrix consequence, we employ the Lindenbaum method for its characterization. Then, this method is used to consider models of the three kinds of Q-consequence given deductively. Completeness results are given for three Q-consequence relations, but only for a limited case, which, however, includes the subcase of all formal theorems.
How do children tell right from wrong?
Authors: Harris Paul L.
Published: August 2022

Early studies of children’s moral behavior revealed a lot of inconsistency in their behavior from one situation to the next. Children appeared to lack a steady or consistent moral compass. Subsequent research with adults by Milgram highlighted the critical role of the external situation—rather than personality factors—in pushing individuals to immoral or moral behavior. Research with children turned away from the study of moral behavior to the study of their moral judgment, probing the ability to articulate good moral reasons for an action. Later work with preschool children and even infants has revealed a surprisingly early ability to differentiate between good and bad actions. Moreover, some children act on these moral intuitions even when it goes against family practices—for example, they choose to become vegetarian and honor that commitment.
The Perils of International Regime Complexity in Shadow Banking
Authors: Quaglia Lucia
Published: August 2022

Despite the role of shadow banking in the building up of the 2008 international financial crisis, the massive size of this sector, its cross-border nature, and the risks it entails for financial stability, the post-crisis regulation of shadow banking has remained rather feeble. Why? This book identifies a ‘game of shadows’, which unfolded recursively concerning the definition, monitoring, and regulation of shadow banking internationally. Thus, states, regulators, and private actors tended to cast light away from various parts of the shadow banking system—shadow banking was (re)fined over time, its measurement was narrowed down, lessening the (perceived) need for regulation. The playing out of such a game was facilitated by the international architecture for shadow banking governance, which is a ‘regime complex’ characterized by the presence of multiple institutions and elemental regimes governing a set of related issues. Indeed, shadow banking is a quintessential case for demonstrating the perils of international regime complexity, which magnifies problems that are endemic in governing global finance—namely, interstate competition, disagreement between technocratic bodies, and the power of the financial industry—while splintering solutions, due to the fragmentation of regulatory authority. Empirically, this book examines various elemental regimes concerning different aspects of shadow banking, namely: international standards for defining, measuring, and monitoring global shadow banking; international standards for shadow banking entities, including money market funds, hedge funds, and investment funds; international standards for shadow banking activities, such as securitization, securities lending, and repos; international standards for bank capital exposures to shadow banking.
Understanding the Politics of Regulating Global Finance
Authors: Quaglia Lucia
Published: August 2022

The first part of this chapter reviews several bodies of scholarly works that are relevant to this research, which brings together the international political economy literature on regulating global finance, and the international relations literature on regime complexity. Building on the first body of works, this chapter discusses the main actors—states, regulators, and private actors—that affect the governance of global finance, teasing out the pathways through which they exert their influence. Then, building on the second body of works, regime complexity is considered as a contextual factor that affects global governance in a given policy area, in this case, shadow banking, by compounding problems, while splintering solutions. The second part of the chapter spells out the research design, the analytical framework, the methodology, and the sources used. Empirically, this book examines the definition, measurement, and monitoring of global shadow banking as well as international standards for shadow banking entities and activities.
The International Architecture for Shadow Banking Governance
Authors: Quaglia Lucia
Published: August 2022

This chapter sets the context for the rest of the book—after explaining what is shadow banking, it outlines the shadow banking regime complex and the multi-dimensional chessboard it generates. Three institutional features of the complex have profound implications for the global governance of shadow banking. First, a variety of international standard-setting bodies that have different memberships, remits, tasks, and epistemic views are involved in the definition, monitoring, and regulation of shadow banking entities and activities. Second, there is not a focal institution in the shadow banking regime complex. Third, international bodies bring together domestic regulators that oversee different parts of the financial sector and have distinctive mandates, competences, and regulatory outlooks. Finally, this chapter outlines the post-crisis international standards concerning various aspects of shadow banking, arguing that they have limited stringency, precision, and consistency (bar some exceptions).
Bank Exposure to Shadow Banking
Authors: Quaglia Lucia
Published: August 2022

After the 2008 crisis, the indirect regulation of shadow banking was pursued by tightening up international banking regulation, which is the topic of this chapter. Whereas post-crisis bank capital and liquidity rules were tightened up building on pre-existing international standards (the Basel accords), other banking rules, notably, those on large exposures, equity investment in funds, and step-in risk, lacked any real bite. Eventually, bank capital rules for ‘safe’ securitization were also revised downwards. This pattern is explained by the preferences of the main jurisdictions and the mobilization of the financial industry. To begin with, the US and the UK, which were eager to sponsor stringent international bank capital and liquidity rules in the wake of the crisis, acted as pace-setters. Other banking rules lacked major ‘sponsor’ jurisdictions. There was also lobbying by the financial industry, which sought to forge an alliance with non-financial firms in the real economy.
Mothers and Fathers
Authors: Gibson Kate
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines parents’ attitudes towards their children, using letters, diaries, and poor relief records. It argues that legitimate and illegitimate parenthood were viewed differently, but that the gap between the two was often only a matter of degree. A positive parental relationship with illegitimate children was possible and could fit within wider ideals of parenthood in this period. Unmarried parents could, and did, act as tender fathers and anxious mothers to illegitimate children. This chapter emphasizes the importance of socio-economic class in parental experience. By contrasting the experience of poor, middling, and elite parents, it argues that the poor law created an atmosphere of antagonistic filiation, which was primarily responsible for fathers refusing to acknowledge children. Fathers made judgements over the likelihood of their paternity and the trustworthiness of women which were dependent on the mother’s class and the type of parental relationship. Limitations on maternal acknowledgement were primarily practical, reflecting women’s limited economic agency, and parents did not generally associate their children with shame.
The Problem of Georgian Oxford
Authors: Darwall-Smith Robin
Published: August 2022

Georgian Oxford is generally dismissed as an undistinguished a time of decline and intellectual inactivity. This chapter sets out some of the issues covered in this book as part of a reappraisal of this period, in particular to ask whether one is necessarily asking the right questions of the Georgian university. A portrait of the structure of the Georgian university is given, and then four themes, religion, politics, education, and statutes, examined, to reveal a university which could and did show signs of intellectual life. The role of Georgian Oxford as an Anglican seminary is reconsidered, with fresh evidence suggesting that more Oxford alumni took holy orders than has been thought; there is fresh discussion of education and study, and of the issues relating to the difficulty of accommodating medieval statutes to the eighteenth century, and some of the problems faced by such Colleges as All Souls and Magdalen relating to controversial reinterpretations of them by their Visitors. The chapter ends by comparing Oxford with universities elsewhere in Britain and the rest of Europe, and discussing what challenges were faced elsewhere, be it how much autonomy different universities were permitted, or their comparative reputations, good or bad.
In the Centre and on the Periphery
Authors: Darwall-Smith Robin
Published: August 2022

Georgian members of Oxford generally had an excellent command of Latin, and their knowledge of Greek improved during the century. However, this linguistic skill is not the same as a command of classical scholarship, be it in textual criticism or other fields. Case studies of some undergraduates’ reading matter shows how classics was one among several subjects studied by the more intellectually adventurous. In particular, science professors, for all that their subjects lay outside the curriculum, were regularly able to attract undergraduates to their lectures, because their subjects were not taught in Colleges. Oxford classical scholarship had its share of successes and failures, the former from Thomas Burgess, Samuel Musgrave, Peter Elmsley and others, the latter from John Shaw and Thomas Falconer. The University Press, meanwhile, was attracting classicists from abroad like Daniel Wyttenbach to publish with them. Contrasts are drawn with universities elsewhere, showing that in France and Italy the classics were much less studied than in Dutch and German universities. Another difference is that, whereas a scholar like Daniel Wyttenbach would devote his whole career to classics, in Oxford the study to classics was seen as a prelude to the higher study of theology, and many promising scholars at Oxford chose to give up classics in favour of theology.
Undergraduate Studies and the Collections Books at Christ Church
Authors: Curthoys Judith
Published: August 2022

Undergraduate studies at Oxford in the eighteenth century have traditionally been considered negligible. At two or three colleges, including Christ Church, this was most definitely not the case. From the end of the seventeenth century and particularly during the deanery of George Smalridge (1713–1719), teaching and the monitoring of teaching were overhauled with the setting of texts for each year-group, or Classis, and the introduction of termly Collections, internal viva voce examinations designed to assess understanding and interpretation of those texts. This paper examines these changes and shows how they set Christ Church on an upward academic trajectory that reached a peak under Dean Cyril Jackson at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Arabic Studies in Eighteenth-Century Oxford
Authors: Hamilton Alastair
Published: August 2022

This article discusses three aspects of Arabic studies at Oxford – the actual teaching of the language, the use of the Bodleian library, and the publications of the university press. At a time when fewer and fewer prospective Arabists endeavoured to learn the language at a university, the teaching of Arabic at Oxford was directed at a decreasing number of students and made no progress with respect to the achievements of the seventeenth century. Although a number of the Oxford professors of Oriental languages were esteemed members of the Republic of Letters, the greatest contributions to the teaching was made by scholars such as the Hungarian Joannes Uri who was employed by the Bodleian and was never part of the university staff. With one of the finest collections of Arabic manuscripts in the West, the Bodleian offered scholars immense possibilities, drawing Arabists from all over Protestant Europe and leading to major publications of Arabic texts and works on Islam and the Arab world. Many of these publications appeared thanks to the university press. Clearly in decline in the first half of the eighteenth century, it experienced a revival which allowed it to retrieve much of its former importance in the second.
Eighteenth-Century Antecedents and Rivals of Blackstone’s Institutionalism
Authors: Macnair Mike
Published: August 2022

William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England is probably the most celebrated product of legal study in Georgian Oxford, so much so that for many non-specialist authors and even some specialists it has radically overshadowed all the other introductory legal writing that went before (apart from the thirteenth-century treatise called Bracton); authors imagine that all that existed in English legal writing before Blackstone, was alphabetised texts. This chapter argues, by contrast, that if we look back over the issue of the alternative approaches available to analysis of the law, and compare it with the issue of Blackstone’s antecedents, the result seems to be that Blackstone was more specifically an ‘Oxford product’ than it appeared at first sight and in the light of the eventual success of this approach. Oxford seems to have been, well before Blackstone, supplying ‘institutional’ analysis of law as a propaedeutic to the more rebarbative study of the common law. The Georgian University thus probably contributed significantly to ‘classicism’ in English legal thought more generally.
‘Keeping’ Natural Philosophy Alive in Eighteenth-Century Oxford
Authors: Roos Anna Marie
Published: August 2022

This essay focusses upon two keepers of the Ashmolean Museum that were important to promoting natural philosophy, and promoting it well in Oxford in the unloved eighteenth century: John Whiteside (1679–1729) and William Huddesford (1732–1772). Whiteside, elected keeper on 14 December 1714, was a member of Christ Church and clergyman, a keen and talented astronomer, an FRS, and Edmond Halley communicated two of his astronomical observations to the Royal Society. Huddesford was also not only a significant natural historian, but an antiquary whom we have to thank for preserving the early modern archives in the natural sciences. An analysis of the work of Whiteside and Huddesford demonstrates that we need to think more about Georgian keepers of the Ashmolean as proper natural philosophers and antiquaries beyond the usual narratives of the ‘Scientific Revolution’, which premise an eighteenth-century decline. This chapter also analyses the significant interconnections between antiquarianism and early modern natural philosophy which were often part of the same intellectual endeavour.
‘Gothick’ and ‘Sollid’
Authors: Geraghty Anthony
Published: August 2022

This chapter looks afresh at Nicholas Hawksmoor’s additions to All Souls College, Oxford, built in 1716–35. I show how the North Quadrangle of the College was conceived within a tradition of Gothic buildings instituted by Sir Christopher Wren after the Great Fire of London, and within a body of thought that judged architectural style in relation to Euclidean geometry. Through an extended analysis of the building, I argue that Hawksmoor tempered the fifteenth-century forms of the Old Quadrangle to bring them into line with the Vitruvian values of strength, beauty and convenience. Finally, I suggest that this reformation of architectural style was encouraged and understood in relation to the post-Reformation function and composition of All Souls itself.
The Great Survivor
Authors: Aston Nigel
Published: August 2022

Charles Butler, 1st Earl of Arran (1671–1758) was the third successive head of the Butler family to be Chancellor of Oxford and held the post for longer than anyone either before or after him from 1715 but has barely been noticed by posterity except as a ‘Jacobite’. And yet it was Arran who led the University safely through the troubled times of the early Hanoverian era. His office conferred on its holder important patronage rights including the vice-chancellorship, several Hall principalships, and many professorships. Many of these were given to Tories during decades when they were largely excluded from office in the state and from major positions in the established Church but, after involvement in the Atterbury Plot in the early 1720s had brought him close to disaster, Arran was careful to cultivate a wider spectrum of opinion within the University. This unrecognised pragmatism in conjunction with his own modest and appealing character played no small part in easing the University’s relations with successive Whig ministries. Arran learnt to tread adroitly and responsibly and offered a modest, low-key form of institutional leadership indicative of personal skill as well as good fortune.
Robust Rights and Harmless Wronging
Authors: Bowen Joseph
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines a range of cases in which it appears one’s rights against harm are violated by another’s behaviour, even though this behaviour has done one no harm. These cases raise a serious problem for most theories of rights, though the problem is most pronounced on the Interest Theory of Rights. According to that theory, rights necessarily protect their holder’s wellbeing. At first glance, one might think that the person’s wellbeing cannot be said to be protected by the right in cases of harmless wronging because they are not harmed in such cases—so, the necessary condition set for the ascription of a right is not satisfied. This chapter puts forward a novel solution to this problem, the Safety Condition. The Safety Condition looks beyond what happens in the actual world to close worlds in order that individuals’ wellbeing is robustly protected across circumstances that could easily come about.
Solidarity in Kantian Moral Theory
Authors: Cureton Adam
Published: August 2022

Critics of Kantian moral theory worry that it denies, downplays, or misrepresents the role of friendship, community, and other loving relationships in the moral life. The aim of this chapter is to describe a new and unorthodox way for such theories to incorporate and justify the status of certain relationships as permissible, obligation-generating, and worthy of promotion, protection, and respect. Contrary to what most defenders and critics of Kant usually believe, the chapter argues that one theme in his thinking is that human persons have intrinsic rational interests in forming, maintaining, perfecting, respecting, and promoting relationships of solidarity. Attributing these “interests of reason,” which are ends, drives, concerns, dispositions, or needs of reason itself, to human persons provides us with rational grounds for what is justifiable to persons, what we could rationally will as universal law, or what we would agree to as rational legislators in a kingdom of ends.
Blessed Lives, Bright Prospects, Incomplete Orderings
Authors: Dreier Jamie
Published: August 2022

Separability principles allow us to explain why one complex arrangement of value is better than another on the basis of how much value is present at various locations. For example, the Principle of Personal Good tells us that one distribution is better than a second if it is at least as good for everyone and better for someone, and the Sure-Thing Principle tells us that one prospect is better than a second if it is at least as good in each way the world could turn out to be, and better in some. But sometimes goods are apparently incomparable, and when they are, classical separability is useless. This chapter examines the prospects for extended, strengthened versions of separability, and finds that they tend to clash with other plausible principles, especially with permutation principles. It also considers whether permutation and the separability extensions vary in plausibility depending on what interpretation of apparent incomparability we think is right.
Putting Human Rights to Work
Authors: Collins Philippa
Published: August 2022

The very existence of an employment relationship places the human rights of a worker at risk. Employers can, and frequently do, exercise their managerial and disciplinary powers in a manner that interferes with the most fundamental rights of the individual worker. Adequate safeguards against such infringements are necessary if individuals are to receive full protection of their rights. This book examines how far the labour laws of England and Wales offer such guarantees, with a particular focus on dismissal law. The chapters reflect on the relationship between employment, labour, and human rights before conducting a detailed and critical analysis of the scope, shape, and application of domestic employment law. The framework for evaluation is drawn from the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, as it develops a principled and tailored approach to how the rights contained in the European Convention on Human Rights should be enforced in working relationships. Statutory mechanisms, such as the law of unfair dismissal, and common law causes of action are examined and found to be lacking in their capacity to vindicate and enforce the human rights of workers. The book culminates in the proposal and elaboration on an innovative solution, the Bill of Rights for Workers, that would draw on the successes of human rights and labour law instruments to render the Convention rights directly enforceable in the relationship between a worker and their employer.
Why Must We Protect the Human Rights of Workers?
Authors: Collins Philippa
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that employers should be subject to a duty to respect the human rights of their workers. This position runs contrary to the centrality of state actors in human rights discourse, which will be outlined first. The imposition of such a duty will be justified by reference to the status of employers within modern society and the distinctive features of employment relationships. Employers can be distinguished from other private actors on the grounds that they are gatekeepers to an opportunity that is crucial to people in their enjoyment of a decent and fulfilling life–work balance. In addition, several important characteristics of employer–worker relations generate the potential for human rights infringements in the workplace. The dependence of an individual worker upon their job for a range of needs, the inequality of bargaining power between the parties, and the worker’s subordination to the rules and hierarchy of the organization will be highlighted. These features combine to generate an inherent conflict between the worker’s free exercise of their human rights and the existence of a relationship of employment.
Labour Law, the European Convention on Human Rights, and the States’ Positive Obligations
Authors: Collins Philippa
Published: August 2022

All states that are signatories of the European Convention on Human Rights are subject to obligations to take positive steps to protect human rights in each jurisdiction. In order to assess whether a system of labour law protects Convention rights effectively, this chapter derives from the case law of the European Court of Human Rights a set of positive obligations that guide how human rights should be guaranteed and adjudicated at national level. Member states are subject to three key positive obligations that are relevant to labour law. Firstly, there is an obligation to extend any domestic right that enforces a fundamental right to all people, unless a restriction is justified under the Convention. In addition, national adjudicators must examine any interference with a Convention right seriously and assess whether it is justified in a manner that aligns with the European Court of Human Rights’ own case law. A victim of a human rights violation must also receive an effective remedy. Finally, this framework of positive obligations could be applied to any national system of labour rights to test the standard of protection that workers’ rights receive.
The Relational Scope of Labour Rights
Authors: Collins Philippa
Published: August 2022

The first challenge for any potential litigant seeking to enforce their human rights before an Employment Tribunal is demonstrating that they enjoy the requisite employment status. Dismissal law, for example, is available only to the most privileged group within the workforce: those with a contract of employment. This chapter dissects the battery of statutory and common law requirements that individuals must satisfy to vindicate their fundamental rights before the courts and tribunals, noting a sharp contrast between the restrictive availability of employment rights and the inclusivity of the European Convention on Human Rights. The need to be a party to a contract which underpins the provision of work, the common law tests that restrict the scope of some protections to a narrow group of individuals, and the additional statutory requirements such as the need for continuous period of service will be discussed. This chapter will note progress in specific instances where the European Convention on Human Rights have been relied upon to extend employment rights to particular claimants, but it also observes that these advances are far from universal. A comprehensive review of the relational scope of employment rights is urgently needed.
Human Rights and the Law of Unfair Dismissal
Authors: Collins Philippa
Published: August 2022

Both in terms of the values that underpin the jurisdiction and the structure of the enquiry, the law of unfair dismissal seems initially to be well suited to the enforcement of the qualified Convention rights of individuals at work. The Court of Appeal has even attempted to draw the standard of fairness into closer alignment with the Convention’s proportionality standard. Nevertheless, this chapter will observe significant disparities between the standard of fairness applied by the tribunals, which is deferential and leaves employers with a wide degree of managerial prerogative, and the way that the European Court of Human Rights examines whether an infringement is justified. Tribunals often decide cases without any reference to human rights that may be engaged by the facts and, if rights are considered, the examination of the proportionality of the interference is far from searching. The chapter concludes with consideration of the remedies available following an unfair dismissal, noting several scenarios in which the successful claimant may not receive an effective remedy.
Classical Stochastic Thermodynamics
Authors: Strasberg Philipp
Published: August 2022

After an introduction to the phenomenological theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, this theory is derived and extended forsmall systems described by a classical Markov process obeying local detailed balance. Thermodynamic definitions for internal energy, heat, work, entropy and entropy production are provided along a single stochastic trajectory. It is shown that the fluctuations in work and entropy production satisfy universal constraints, known as fluctuation theorems. By providing an independent derivation of them starting from microscopically reversible Hamiltonian dynamics in the full system-bath phase space, it is demonstrated that fluctuation theorems also hold in the non-Markovian regime. The theoretical framework established here is called (classical) stochastic thermodynamics. It has found widespread applications in biology and biochemistry, soft condensed matter physics as well as various artificial nanostructures down to the quantum regime. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the particularly relevant setting of single-molecule pulling experiments.
Quantum Thermodynamics Without Measurements
Authors: Strasberg Philipp
Published: August 2022

We derive the basic laws of phenomenological non-equilibrium thermodynamics for small open systems, whose quantum nature can no longer be neglected. Emphasis is put from the beginning on deriving them from an underlying microscopic system on deriving them from an underlying microscopic system–bath picture. Commonly considered approximation schemes (wea k coupling master equations) are reviewed and their thermodynamics is studied. The zeroth law is discussed for small systems and exact identities for the entropy production, valid at strong coupling and in the non non-Markovian regime, are introduced. We discu ss the effect of finite baths even out of equilibrium and use the framework of repeated interactions to study microscopic non-equilibrium resources. The chapter concludes with the study of particle transport and thermoelectric devices, which were realized in experiments. This chapter focuses entirely on the dynamics of a system coupled to a bath without any external interventions.
Quantum Fluctuation Theorems
Authors: Strasberg Philipp
Published: August 2022

We introduce a theoretical technique known as the two-point measurement scheme, which allows us to derive a variety of quantum fluctuation theorems with the same form as in classical stochastic thermodynamics. Alternatively, we show how to study fluctuations based on a quantum master equation approach combined with counting field or quantum jump trajectory methods. Although quantum fluctuation theorems have the same form as classical fluctuation theorems, they are more limited in their scope and practical applicability. Nevertheless, we study one important theoretical consequence of them, known as the thermodynamic uncertainty relation. This relation is used to discuss the impossibility of Carnot efficiency at finite power. The latter point also naturally connects to the third law of thermodynamics.