bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Motivating the Academically Unmotivated: A Critical Issue for the 21st Century
Authors: Hidi Suzanne , Harackiewicz Judith M
Published: June 2007

Interests and goals have been identified as two important motivational variables that impact individuals' academic performances, yet little is known about how best to utilize these variables to enhance childrens' learning. We first review recent developments in the two areas and then examine the connection between interests and goals. We argue that the polarization of situational and individual interest, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and performance and mastery goals must be reconsidered. In addition, although we acknowledge the positive effects of individual interest, intrinsic motivation, and the adoption of mastery goals, we urge educators and researchers to recognize the potential additional benefits of externally triggered situational interest, extrinsic motivation, and performance goals. Only by dealing with the multidimensional nature of motivational forces will we be able to help our academically unmotivated children.
Learning from Examples: Instructional Principles from the Worked Examples Research
Authors: Atkinson Robert K. , Derry Sharon J. , Renkl Alexander , Wortham Donald
Published: June 2007

Worked examples are instructional devices that provide an expert's problem solution for a learner to study. Worked-examples research is a cognitive-experimental program that has relevance to classroom instruction and the broader educational research community. A frame- work for organizing the findings of this research is proposed, leading to instructional design principles. For instance, one instructional design principle suggests that effective examples have highly integrated components. They employ multiple modalities in presentation and emphasize conceptual structure by labeling or segmenting. At the lesson level, effective instruction employs multiple examples for each conceptual problem type, varies example formats within problem type, and employs surface features to signal deep structure. Also, examples should be presented in close proximity to matched practice problems. More- over, learners can be encouraged through direct training or by the structure of the worked example to actively self:explain examples. Worked examples are associated with early stages of skill development, but the design principles are relevant to constructivist research and teaching.
Teaching Freedom? Postmodern Perspectives
Authors: Schutz Aaron
Published: June 2007

Postmodern theory is often seen as a realm either of totally, free play– where anything goes and there are no rules at all–or of despair where all visions of equality, and democracy are equated with totalitarianism. Coherent ways of talking about “actors” or “responsibility” can appear to be entirely' repudiated. Further perceived as elitist, obscure, convoluted, and entirely removed from any kind of practical reality, postmodernism is often viewed as having nothing relevant to say to teachers or those interested in concretely improving education. This paper attempts to show that these visions are not entirely fair to the ways many “postmodern” theorists strive to explore carefully the myriad tensions invariably involved in politics and pedagogy or to the (perhaps surprising) egalitarian commitments that generally undergird their projects. Taking advantage of the fluid and ultimately undefinable character of the idea of the “postmodern,” this paper draws from an eclectic group of thinkers, teasing out a range of different perspectives that might inform, complicate, and contest efforts to “teach freedom”.
Valued Segregated Schools for African American Children in the South, 1935-1969: A Review of Common Themes and Characteristics
Authors: Walker Vanessa Siddle
Published: June 2007

For the last two decades, the published research on the history of education of African Americans in the south during the era of de jure segregation has shifted from a focus on the inequalities experienced by segregated schools to understanding the kind of education African American teachers, principals, and parents attempted to provide under externally restrictive circumstances. This review provides a synthesis of this line of research. Results indicate that exemplar), teachers, the curriculum and extracurricular activities, parental involvement, and the leadership of school principals were critical characteristics influencing the communities' perceptions of the schools. Additional research is needed that will explore student outcomes, variance within the characteristics, and external influences.
Research in the 90s: Implications for Urban Teacher Preparation
Authors: Weiner Lois
Published: June 2007

In this article I review scholarship in a number of disciplines within education, including psychological and social foundations, policy, instruction and curriculum and analyze implications for urban teacher preparation. I define the distinguishing characteristics of urban school systems, and analyze and synthesize relevant research about the diverse social and political contexts that have influenced urban schools and urban teacher preparation, paying particular attention to implications for the "ecological" paradigm of school reform. I suggest how the challenges in urban teacher preparation in the U.S. have changed in the past decade because of the linkage between education and the economy, as well as alterations in the knowledge base of teaching, especially data about cultural diversity. While a growing consensus has emerged among researchers that learning is enhanced when it occurs in contexts that are socioculturally, linguistically, and cognitively meaningful for the learner, policy has been driven by contradictory assumptions, most importantly the belief that educational outcomes can and must be standardized because of the demands of an increasingly global economy. This contradiction presents new and urgent challenges for urban teacher preparation.
The Pervasive Negative Effects of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation: Response to
Authors: Deci Edward L. , Ryan Richard M. , Koestner Richard
Published: June 2007

Our meta-analysis (this issue) clarified when rewards undermine, leave unchanged, and enhance intrinsic motivation and pointed out flaws in Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analysis. Cameron’s (2001) commentary did not reveal any problems with our meta-analysis, nor did it defend the validity of Cameron and Pierce’s. Instead, Cameron referred to a fourth meta-analysis by her group; little detail was presented about the new meta-analysis, but it appears to have the same types of errors as the first three. Cameron also presented a new theoretical account of reward effects—the fourth by her group, which sequentially abandoned the previous ones as they were found wanting. Cameron concluded again that there is no reason to avoid using performance-contingent rewards in educational settings, yet her application of the research results to education lacks ecological validity.
Genres of Research in Multicultural Education
Authors: Bennett Christine
Published: June 2007

This article develops a conceptual framework of research genres that illustrate the complex multidisciplinary roots of multicultural education. The primary objective is to provide educational researchers and teacher educators with a lens as they design new (or rethink existing) inquiry and teacher preparation programs in the meta-disciplinary field of multicultural education. Other objectives are to encourage multicultural theoreticians to consult a range of original research (as opposed to other theoreticians and secondary or tertiary sources in the field), and to underscore hopeful possibilities for practice. The framework also invites a rethinking of the genres as conceptualized in this paper. The proposed genres originate from the author’s immersion in multi-cultural theory, research, and practice spanning over three decades. Examples of research are included to clarify the nature of the genres, as well as the interactive connections across genres within the framework as a whole and implications for practice.
Teaching Reading Comprehension Strategies to Students With Learning Disabilities: A Review of Research
Authors: Gersten Russell , Fuchs Lynn S. , Williams Joanna P. , Baker Scott
Published: June 2007

We review the body of research on reading comprehension for students with learning disabilities. First, we describe the factors that lead to the comprehension difficulties of these students. Next we describe our procedures for reviewing the literature on effective instructional methods for this population. Next we review the body of studies involving instructional methods for improving the comprehension of narrative text. This is followed by the research on techniques for improving the comprehension of expository text. We conclude with a discussion of ongoing issues in the field—in particular, (a) the increased use of socially mediated instruction, (b) the need to teach multiple strategies to students to improve comprehension, and (c) controversies in how important it is to explicitly teach specific strategies versus merely providing flexible frameworks to structure dialogue on texts read.
A Selective Synthesis of the Experimental Literature on Dynamic Assessment
Authors: Swanson H. Lee , Lussier Catherine M.
Published: June 2007

Dynamic assessment is a procedure that determines whether substantive changes occur in examinee behavior if feedback is provided across an array of increasingly complex or challenging tasks. This procedure contrasts with traditional models of assessment in which there is no feedback from the examiner on student performance. This article summarizes a meta-analysis of published studies on dynamic assessment. Thirty studies, which yielded 170 effect sizes (ESs), were reviewed. An analysis of main effects showed that ESs varied significantly as a function of ability group (underachievers yielded higher and children with learning disabilities yielded lower ESs than average, hearing-impaired, and mentally retarded participants did), chronological age (younger students yield higher ESs than older students do), sample size (studies with moderate sample sizes yielded larger ESs than did studies with small or large sample sizes), and type of assessment procedure (scaffolding and general strategies yielded larger ESs than did coaching). Mixed regression modeling indicated that the magnitude of the ES was best predicted by the type of assessment (ESs are higher for general strategies than for scaffolding, and scaffolding yields higher ESs than coaching does) and assessment domain (ESs are higher on visual-spatial than on verbal measures). None of the ability group classifications predicted ES in the complete regression model. These results were discussed within the context of the assumptions related to dynamic assessment and its current limitations.
Literacy and Learning Out of School: A Review of Theory and Research
Authors: Hull Glynda , Schultz Katherine
Published: June 2007

In this article we review research on literacy in out-of-school settings. Our first purpose is to identify the conceptual advances in theories of literacy that have arisen from non-school-based research and to trace their evolution. We are especially interested in clarifying the historical roots of current theories. A second purpose is to highlight recent research on literacy in out-of-school settings that exemplifies the range and dimensions of current work. Finally, we call for an examination of the relationships between school and nonschool contexts as a new direction for theory and research. We ask, How can research on literacy and out-of-school learning help us to think anew about literacy teaching and learning across a range of contexts, including school?
Gender Equity and Information Technology in Education: The Second Decade
Authors: Volman Monique , van Eck Edith
Published: June 2007

This article presents a review on gender differences and information and communication technology (ICT) in primary and secondary education. First the rapid development of the use of ICT in education is outlined. Then the topics of access to computers, computer-related learning processes, and educational outcomes are discussed. The review also provides insight into the background of gender differences in participation in computer activities and performance in relation to ICT. The research reviewed focused on the role of teachers and fellow classmates, on the different approaches of girls and boys to ICT, and on the preferences of girls regarding the structure and design of software. The research also analyzed the complex meaning of computer attitudes as both a cause and a consequence of differences in the participation and performance of girls and boys. The extent and nature of these differences vary from application to application.
The State of Cost-Benefit and Cost-Effectiveness Analyses in Education
Authors: Hummel-Rossi Barbara , Ashdown Jane
Published: June 2007

National and local pressures to improve student achievement, to implement educational reforms, to increase services to “at risk” students, and to monitor the size of education budgets all function as motivators for educators to consider the use of cost analysis in decisions about resource allocation. Yet the application of cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses in education is limited. The authors explore the advances in cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses that have been made in the human services, health, and medical fields, and they identify the difficulties and analyze the issues involved in applying these analyses in education. They make recommendations for assessing costs and measuring effectiveness in educational evaluations, discuss the strengths and weaknesses of several exemplar cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness educational studies, and provide a protocol to guide future analyses.
Telling Half the Story: A Critical Review of Research on the Teaching Beliefs and Practices of University Academics
Authors: Kane Ruth , Sandretto Susan , Heath Chris
Published: June 2007

A critical review of research on teaching beliefs and practices of university academics revealed that the espoused theories of action of academics have not been distinguished from their theories-in-use in some studies. It is our contention that research that examines only what university teachers say about their practice and does not directly observe what they do is at risk of telling half the story. Our review revealed several unsupported claims about university academics’ teaching practice, raised concerns about data gathering and analysis methods, and found that research on primary and secondary teachers’ beliefs has been used infrequently to inform research in tertiary settings. The review identifies implications for understanding university academics’ development as teachers and provides direction for further research.
The Effects of Competition Between Schools on Educational Outcomes: A Review for the United States
Authors: Belfield Clive R. , Levin Henry M.
Published: June 2007

This article systematically reviews U.S. evidence from cross-sectional research on educational outcomes when schools must compete with each other. Competition typically is measured by using either the Herfindahl Index or the enrollment rate at an alternative school choice. Outcomes are academic test scores, graduation/attainment, expenditures/efficiency, teacher quality, students’ post-school wages, and local housing prices. The sampling strategy identified more than 41 relevant empirical studies. A sizable majority report beneficial effects of competition, and many report statistically significant correlations. For each study, the effect size of an increase of competition by one standard deviation is reported. The positive gains from competition are modest in scope with respect to realistic changes in levels of competition. The review also notes several methodological challenges and recommends caution in reasoning from point estimates to public policy.
Models and Methods for Examining Standards-Based Reforms and Accountability Initiatives: Have the Tools of Inquiry Answered Pressing Questions on Improving Schools?
Authors: Chatterji Madhabi
Published: June 2007

This article synthesizes research on standards-based reforms and accountability, with specific attention to purposes, models, and methods of inquiry. Starting with the premise that the reforms were meant to be systemic, the article examines the extent to which studies were guided by designs that explicitly or implicitly acknowledge a system, and evaluates the utility of the designs in generating information to support large-scale systemic changes in education. The article concludes that research efforts on reforms have been largely non-systemic in design and have thereby failed to adequately help individual schools, school systems, and statewide systems to develop in directions that are consistent with the mission of the reform movement.
Policy Implementation and Cognition: Reframing and Refocusing Implementation Research
Authors: Spillane James P , Reiser Brian J , Reimer Todd
Published: June 2007

Education policy faces a familiar public policy challenge: Local implementation is difficult. In this article we develop a cognitive framework to characterize sense-making in the implementation process that is especially relevant for recent education policy initiatives, such as standards-based reforms that press for tremendous changes in classroom instruction. From a cognitive perspective, a key dimension of the implementation process is whether, and in what ways, implementing agents come to understand their practice, potentially changing their beliefs and attitudes in the process. We draw on theoretical and empirical literature to develop a cognitive perspective on implementation. We review the contribution of cognitive science frames to implementation research and identify areas where cognitive science can make additional contributions.
How Can Comprehensive School Reform Models Be Successfully Implemented?
Authors: Desimone Laura
Published: June 2007

Comprehensive school reform, or CSR, a currently a popular approach to school improvement, is intended to foster schoolwide change that affects all aspects of schooling (e.g., curriculum, instruction, organization, professional development, and parent involvement). Federal, state, and local legislation and funding have supported CSR implementation, and in 1997 Congress enacted the Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration program, which gives financial support to schools adopting such reforms. This article reviews and synthesizes the literature that documents CSR implementation, positing that the more specific, consistent, authoritative, powerful, and stable a policy is, the stronger its implementation will be. It finds that all five policy attributes contribute to implementation; in particular, specificity is related to implementation fidelity, power to immediate implementation effects, and consistency, authority, and stability to long-lasting change.
Mentored Learning to Teach According to Standards-Based Reform: A Critical Review
Authors: Wang Jian , Odell Sandra J.
Published: June 2007

This article analyzes literature on mentored learning to teach in ways consistent with the standards reform movement. It suggests that although reformers encourage mentoring for standards-based teaching, the assumptions underlying mentoring programs are often focused not on standards but on emotional and technical support. Mentoring practices are consistent with program assumptions rather than with the assumptions underlying standards-based teaching. Mentoring practices promote novices’ retention but may not support their learning to teach. Although mentoring practices alone cannot be expected to reform teaching, case studies can illustrate practices for novices learning to teach in reform-minded ways. We argue that policymakers need to find effective ways to educate mentoring program developers and that mentors and researchers need to explore the content and process of reform-minded mentoring.
The Effects of Modified School Calendars on Student Achievement and on School and Community Attitudes
Authors: Cooper Harris , Valentine Jeffrey C. , Charlton Kelly , Melson April
Published: June 2007

This review synthesizes studies of the effects of modifying the academic calendar in Grades K–12 to do away with the long summer break while not increasing the length of the school year. The synthesis indicated that the quality of evidence on modified calendars is poor. Within this weak inferential framework, the average effect size for 39 school districts was quite small, d = .06, favoring modified calendars. Studies that used statistical or matching controls revealed an effect size of d = . 11. Modified calendars were associated with higher achievement for economically disadvantaged students. Students, parents, and staffs who participated in modified calendar programs were positive about their experiences. Policymakers can improve acceptance of modified calendars by involving communities in the planning and by providing quality inter-session activities.
Workplace Learning and Flexible Delivery
Authors: Smith Peter J.
Published: June 2007

Workplace learning has developed as a field both of practice and of research over the past decade. The increase in interest is due in part to heightened awareness that workplace knowledge and skills contribute to enterprise and national competitiveness, but it is also due to an increased focus on the connections to be made between theory and practice as part of an education or training experience. At the same time, new learning technologies have enhanced delivery of instruction and learning materials in workplaces. This article reviews some of the conceptualizations of workplace learning and its cognitive bases. It also examines workplaces as learning environments and considers the special challenges involved in the flexible delivery of training to workplaces.
Teacher Characteristics and Student Achievement Gains: A Review
Authors: Wayne Andrew J. , Youngs Peter
Published: June 2007

A large body of studies exists that examines the relationship between student achievement gains and the characteristics of teachers. To help policymakers and researchers use and build on this body of studies, this article reviews the studies systematically and synthesizes their results with deliberate consideration of each study’s qualities. Determinate relationships are described for four categories of teacher characteristics: college ratings, test scores, degrees and coursework, and certification status. The review details the implications of these relationships in light of study limitations and proposes directions for future research.
Comprehensive School Reform and Achievement: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Borman Geoffrey D. , Hewes Gina M. , Overman Laura T. , Brown Shelly
Published: June 2007

This meta-analysis reviews research on the achievement effects of comprehensive school reform (CSR) and summarizes the specific effects of 29 widely implemented models. There are limitations on the overall quantity and quality of the research base, but the overall effects of CSR appear promising. The combined quantity, quality, and statistical significance of evidence from three models, in particular, set them apart. Whether evaluations are conducted by developers or by third-party evaluators and whether evaluators use one-group pre-post designs or control groups are important factors for understanding differences in CSR effects. Schools that implemented CSR models for 5 years or more showed particularly strong effects, and the benefits were consistent across schools of varying poverty levels. A long-term commitment to research-proven educational reform is needed to establish a strong marketplace of scientifically based CSR models.
Help Seeking and Help Design in Interactive Learning Environments
Authors: Aleven Vincent , Stahl Elmar , Schworm Silke , Fischer Frank , Wallace Raven
Published: June 2007

Many interactive learning environments (ILEs) offer on-demand help, intended to positively influence learning. Recent studies report evidence that although effective help-seeking behavior in ILEs is related to better learning outcomes, learners are not using help facilities effectively. This selective review (a) examines theoretical perspectives on the role of on-demand help in ILEs, (b) reviews literature on the relations between help seeking and learning in ILEs, and (c) identifies reasons for the lack of effective help use. We review the effect of system-related factors, of student-related factors, and of interactions between these factors. The interaction between metacognitive skills and cognitive factors is important for appropriate help seeking, as are a potentially large space of system-related factors as well as interactions among learner- and system-related factors. We suggest directions for future research.
The “Why’s” of Class Size: Student Behavior in Small Classes
Authors: Finn Jeremy D. , Pannozzo Gina M. , Achilles Charles M.
Published: June 2007

Small classes in the elementary grades have been shown to boost students’ academic performance. However, researchers continue to seek a consistent, integrated explanation of “why” small classes have positive effects. This article forwards the hypothesis that when class sizes are reduced, major changes occur in students’ engagement in the classroom. Engagement is composed of “learning behavior” and pro- and antisocial behavior. Both are highly related to academic performance. We first review research on the relationship between class size and student engagement. Second, we review sociological and psychological theory about the behavior of individuals in groups to explain how student behavior can be affected by changes in class size. Both theory and empirical findings support our hypothesis, although additional research is required. High-priority questions needing further research are identified in the conclusion.
Economic Benefits of the GED: Lessons From Recent Research
Authors: Tyler John H.
Published: June 2007

In 1998, the U.S. Department of Education published a comprehensive synthesis of the General Educational Development certificate (GED). Since that time, additional research has shed light on the economic benefits of the GED. This review of that research highlights four lessons. First, the presence of the GED option may encourage some students to drop out of school. Second, economic benefits associated with a GED accrue only to dropouts who leave school with very low skills. Third, economic benefits associated with a GED appear over time rather than immediately upon receipt of the credential. Fourth, the returns to postsecondary education and training are as large for GED holders as for regular high school graduates, but GED holders obtain very little postsecondary education or on-the-job training.
The “Boy Turn” in Research on Gender and Education
Authors: Weaver-Hightower Marcus
Published: June 2007

Although the majority of research in gender and education has rightly focused on girls, recent research in the United States and elsewhere has focused much more on the learning, social outcomes, and schooling experiences of boys. This “boy turn” has produced a large corpus of theoretically oriented and practice-oriented research alongside popular and rhetorical works and feminist and pro-feminist responses, each of which this article reviews. To answer why boys have become such a concern at this time, this article explores the origins and motivations of the boy turn, examines major critiques of the distress about boys, and suggests possible directions for debates and research.
Assessment Accommodations for English Language Learners: Implications for Policy-Based Empirical Research
Authors: Abedi Jamal , Hofstetter Carolyn Huie , Lord Carol
Published: June 2007

Increased attention to large-scale assessments, the growing number of English language learners in schools, and recent inclusionary policies have collectively made assessment accommodations a hotly debated issue, especially regarding the validity of test results for English language learners. Decisions about which accommodations to use, for whom, and under what conditions, are based on limited empirical evidence for their effectiveness and validity. Given the potential consequences of test results, it is important that policy-makers and educators understand the empirical base underlying their use. This article reviews test accommodation strategies for English learners, derived from “scientifically based research.” The results caution against a one-size-fits-all approach. The more promising approaches include modified English and customized dictionaries, which can be used for all students, not just English language learners
The Effects of School-Based Writing-to-Learn Interventions on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Bangert-Drowns Robert L , Hurley Marlene M , Wilkinson Barbara
Published: June 2007

Since the early 1970s, many educators have touted writing as a means of enhancing learning. Several reasons have been suggested for this purported enhancement: that writing is a form of learning, that writing approximates human speech, that writing supports learning strategies. Alternatively, some researchers have cautioned that the educative effects of writing may be contingent on the contexts in which it occurs. The research on writing’s effects on learning is ambiguous. This meta-analysis of 48 school-based writing-to-learn programs shows that writing can have a small, positive impact on conventional measures of academic achievement. Two factors predicted enhanced effects: the use of metacognitive prompts and increased treatment length. Two factors predicted reduced effects: implementation in Grades 6–8 and longer writing assignments
School Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the Evidence
Authors: Fredricks Jennifer A , Blumenfeld Phyllis C , Paris Alison H
Published: June 2007

The concept of school engagement has attracted increasing attention as representing a possible antidote to declining academic motivation and achievement. Engagement is presumed to be malleable, responsive to contextual features, and amenable to environmental change. Researchers describe behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement and recommend studying engagement as a multifaceted construct. This article reviews definitions, measures, precursors, and outcomes of engagement; discusses limitations in the existing research; and suggests improvements. The authors conclude that, although much has been learned, the potential contribution of the concept of school engagement to research on student experience has yet to be realized. They call for richer characterizations of how students behave, feel, and think—research that could aid in the development of finely tuned interventions
Effectiveness of Consultation on Student Ratings Feedback: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Penny Angela R. , Coe Robert
Published: June 2007

Consultation on student ratings is recognized as an important strategy to support university teachers in learning from student ratings feedback. However, there is little evidence to suggest which practices and strategies are most important for successful consultation. As the use of student ratings increases, such evidence becomes increasingly important. The authors of this article performed an exploratory meta-analysis to determine the effects of various consultation strategies and to identify the conditions under which consultative feedback is most effective in improving teaching effectiveness. The results indicated that the various approaches to consultation are not equally effective. The authors suggest that only with use of certain consultation strategies might the benefits of support with student ratings feedback be maximized.
The Validity of Self-Reported Grade Point Averages, Class Ranks, and Test Scores: A Meta-Analysis and Review of the Literature
Authors: Kuncel Nathan R. , Credé Marcus , Thomas Lisa L.
Published: June 2007

Self-reported grades are heavily used in research and applied settings because of the importance of grades and the convenience of obtaining self-reports. This study reviews and meta-analytically summarizes the literature on the accuracy of self-reported grades, class ranks, and test scores. Results based on a pairwise sample of 60,926 subjects indicate that self-reported grades are less construct valid than many scholars believe. Furthermore, self-reported grade validity was strongly moderated by actual levels of school performance and cognitive ability. These findings suggest that self-reported grades should be used with caution. Situations in which self-reported grades can be employed more safely are identified, and suggestions for their use in research are discussed.
Comparative Understanding of School Subjects: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Stevens Reed , Wineburg Sam , Herrenkohl Leslie Rupert , Bell Philip
Published: June 2007

Research has elevated the proposition of knowledge’s domain specificity from a working hypothesis to a de facto truth. The assumption of domain specificity structures handbooks, organizes branches of funding agencies, and provides headings for conference proceedings. Leading researchers often focus on a single slice of the school day despite the possibility that such segments swirl into a blur for children. The authors examine the domain-specific landscape, beginning with the recent past, when domain generality, not domain specificity, reigned supreme. They then examine the transition to domain-specific approaches. Next, they offer an alternative to both positions, a stance they call the comparative understanding of school subjects. A comparative understanding trains attention on how the same children understand multiple subjects in the curriculum. The authors argue that this approach represents a promising path for conceptualizing research on children, schooling, and thinking by raising new questions about children’s understandings.
Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research
Authors: Sirin Selcuk R.
Published: June 2007

This meta-analysis reviewed the literature on socioeconomic status (SES) and academic achievement in journal articles published between 1990 and 2000. The sample included 101,157 students, 6,871 schools, and 128 school districts gathered from 74 independent samples. The results showed a medium to strong SES–achievement relation. This relation, however, is moderated by the unit, the source, the range of SES variable, and the type of SES–achievement measure. The relation is also contingent upon school level, minority status, and school location. The author conducted a replica of White’s (1982) meta-analysis to see whether the SES–achievement correlation had changed since White’s initial review was published. The results showed a slight decrease in the average correlation. Practical implications for future research and policy are discussed.
Science Education With English Language Learners: Synthesis and Research Agenda
Authors: Lee Okhee
Published: June 2007

This review analyzes and synthesizes current research on science education with ELLs. Science learning outcomes with ELLs are considered in the context of equitable learning opportunities. Then, theoretical perspectives guiding the research studies reviewed here are explained, and the methodological and other criteria for inclusion of these research studies are described. Next, the literature on science education with ELLs is discussed with regard to science learning, science curriculum (including computer technology), science instruction, science assessment, and science teacher education. Science education initiatives, interventions, or programs that have been successful with ELLs are highlighted. The article summarizes the key features (e.g., theoretical perspectives and methodological orientations) and key findings in the literature, and concludes with a proposed research agenda and implications for educational practice.
Teaching Courses Online: A Review of the Research
Authors: Tallent-Runnels Mary K. , Thomas Julie A. , Lan William Y. , Cooper Sandi , Ahern Terence C. , Shaw Shana M. , Liu Xiaoming
Published: June 2007

This literature review summarizes research on online teaching and learning. It is organized into four topics: course environment, learners’ outcomes, learners’ characteristics, and institutional and administrative factors. The authors found little consistency of terminology, discovered some conclusive guidelines, and identified developing lines of inquiry. The conclusions overall suggest that most of the studies reviewed were descriptive and exploratory, that most online students are nontraditional and Anglo American, and that few universities have written policies, guidelines, or technical support for faculty members or students. Asynchronous communication seemed to facilitate in-depth communication (but not more than in traditional classes), students liked to move at their own pace, learning outcomes appeared to be the same as in traditional courses, and students with prior training in computers were more satisfied with online courses. Continued research is needed to inform learner outcomes, learner characteristics, course environment, and institutional factors related to delivery system variables in order to test learning theories and teaching models inherent in course design.
Teacher Recruitment and Retention: A Review of the Recent Empirical Literature
Authors: Guarino Cassandra M. , Santibañez Lucrecia , Daley Glenn A.
Published: June 2007

This article critically reviews the recent empirical literature on teacher recruitment and retention published in the United States. It examines the characteristics of individuals who enter and remain in the teaching profession, the characteristics of schools and districts that successfully recruit and retain teachers, and the types of policies that show evidence of efficacy in recruiting and retaining teachers. The goal of the article is to provide researchers and policymakers with a review that is comprehensive, evaluative, and up to date. The review of the empirical studies selected for discussion is intended to serve not only as a compendium of available recent research on teacher recruitment and retention but also as a guide to the merit and importance of these studies.
Math Disabilities: A Selective Meta-Analysis of the Literature
Authors: Swanson H. Lee , Jerman Olga
Published: June 2007

This article synthesizes published literature comparing the cognitive functioning of children who have math disabilities (MD) with that of (a) average-achieving children; (b) children who have reading disabilities (RD); and (c) children who have comorbid disabilities (MD+RD). Average achievers outperformed children with MD on measures of verbal problem solving, naming speed, verbal working memory (WM), visual-spatial WM, and long-term memory (LTM). Children with MD outperformed comorbid children on measures of literacy, visual-spatial problem solving, LTM, short-term memory (STM) for words, and verbal WM. Children with MD could be differentiated from children with RD only on naming speed and visual-spatial WM. Differences in cognitive functioning between children with MD and average achievers were related primarily to verbal WM when the effects of all other variables (e.g., age, IQ, and other domain categories) were partialed out.
Home Is a Prison in the Global City: The Tragic Failure of School-Based Community Engagement Strategies
Authors: Schutz Aaron
Published: June 2007

Historically, schools serving impoverished families trapped in America’s urban “ghettos” have been resistant to community participation. Enhanced participation is critically needed, however, if long-term urban school-reform projects and efforts to develop more empowering, community-supporting forms of pedagogy are to succeed. This article examines the most influential and/or promising efforts to foster more authentic engagement between schools and inner-city communities. The author finds that while efforts to develop school-based models have largely failed, a range of community-based efforts remain promising. If educators, scholars, and policymakers are truly interested in improving school–community relations, then they will need to become more deeply informed about community forces and structures and more directly involved in efforts to strengthen community organizations.
Supply and Demand of Minority Teachers in Texas: Problems and Prospects
Authors: Kirby Sheila Nataraj , Berends Mark , Naftel Scott
Published: June 2007

Teacher supply and demand issues are of critical importance as our society enters the 21st century. Over the next decade, there will be an increasing demand for new teachers––about two million––due in part to a dramatic increase in enrollments and high attrition rates as an aging teacher workforce becomes eligible for retirement. Where these teachers will come from and where they will teach is important to understand as our society faces increasing racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversity. Amid this diversity is a continuing concern that some racial-ethnic groups are disproportionately placed at risk. Thus, this article focuses on the supply and demand patterns of minority teachers, with special attention to teachers of students in high-risk districts. We analyze data on teachers from Texas between 1979 and 1996. We provide a variety of descriptive results––both univariate and multivariate––showing that while Texas has been successful in attracting minority teachers, it has a long way to go in attaining the goal of the Texas State Board of Education: to have a teacher workforce that reflects the racial-ethnic composition of the state.
Some Findings From an Independent Investigation of the Tennessee STAR Experiment and From Other Investigations of Class Size Effects
Authors: Hanushek Eric A.
Published: June 2007

While random-assignment experiments have considerable conceptual appeal, the validity and reliability of results depends crucially on a number of design and implementation issues. This paper reviews the major experiment in class size reduction-Tennessee’s Project STAR-and puts the results in the context of existing nonexperimental evidence about class size. The nonexperimental evidence uniformly indicates no consistent improvement in achievement with class size reductions. This evidence comes from very different sources and methodologies, making the consistency of results quite striking. The experimental evidence from the STAR experiment is typically cited as providing strong support of current policy proposals to reduce class size. Detailed review of the evidence, however uncovers a number of important design and implementation issues that suggest considerable uncertainty about the magnitude of any treatment effects. Moreover there is reason to believe that the commonly cited results are biased upwards. Ignoring consideration of the uncertainties and possible biases in the experiment, the results show effects that are limited to very large (and expensive) reductions in kindergarten or possibly first grade class sizes. No support for smaller reductions in class size (i.e., reductions resulting in class sizes greater than 13–17 students) or for reductions in later grades is found in the STAR results.
The Behavioral Effects of Variations in Class Size: The Case of Math Teachers
Authors: Betts Julian R. , Shkolnik Jamie L.
Published: June 2007

This paper tests whether variations in class size cause teachers to alter their teaching methods. Examination of 2,170 math classes suggests that when class size is reduced, teachers do not spend more time on new material, nor do they finish more of the assigned textbook. Rather, teachers shift time away from group instruction and towards individual instruction. Tune spent on student discipline and routine administration declines modestly, while time spent on review rises. Even large reductions in class size shift teachers' time allocation by only a few percentage points. Teachers react more strongly to class size changes when teaching below-average students.
The Impact of Class Size on Instructional Strategies and the Use of Time in High School Mathematics and Science Courses
Authors: Rice Jennifer King
Published: June 2007

This study estimated the impact of class size on instructional practices and the use of time in high school mathematics and science courses. More specifically, the analysis examined the influence of class size on two categories of variables that measure the use of time: (a) time devoted to instruction (e.g., working with small groups, using innovative instructional practices, leading whole-group discussion, amount of homework assigned) and (b) time committed to noninstructional activities (e.g., conducting administrative tasks, maintaining order). The analysis also explored the influence of other factors such as characteristics of the class and the teacher. Findings revealed that class size has an impact on the use of class time, both instructional and noninstructional. The effect varied by subject area, type of student, and amount of time teachers spend planning for class.
Approximations to Indicators of Student Outcomes
Authors: Kennedy Mary M.
Published: June 2007

Education policy researchers rely on a wide range of outcomes to gauge the influence of policies. Sometimes they use standardized achievement tests, and at other times they use classroom observations, teacher reports, or standardized or open-ended teacher interviews. Often, these different data collection devices are used to draw inferences about the intellectual quality of classroom events and, in turn, the quality of student learning. The purpose of this article is to examine and compare these various outcomes in terms of their potential to inform policymakers about policy influences on student outcomes.
The Puzzling Case of School Resources and Student Achievement
Authors: Ludwig Jens , Bassi Laurie J.
Published: June 2007

Whether additional school spending translates to overall improved student learning remains unclear. One explanation for the mixed findings in the literature is the possibility that studies confound the effects of school resources with those of unobserved variables. We show that commonly used "value-added" models are misspecified when estimated using the National Education Longitudinal Study, which raises questions about whether previous value-added studies are unbiased. We also review a more recent literature that uses instrumental variables (IV) methods to address omitted variables bias. Most IV studies suggest that additional resources typically translate to (modest) gains in test scores and that the biases associated with value-added models are large enough to be of practical importance.
Structural Influences on the Internal Allocation of School District Resources: Evidence From New York State
Authors: Monk David H. , Hussain Samid
Published: June 2007

By drawing an explicit distinction between “base” and “share” effects, this study examines the potential for inconsistent resource allocation decisions to be made at different administrative levels of school districts and schools. The work builds on the Consortium for Policy Research in Education's “What Dollars Buy” project and employs multivariate models to examine the influences of school district spending, wealth, poverty, and size on internal decisions about how to divide staffing resources across different areas of the curriculum. Results indicate that there is more internal variation across districts in how teacher resources are distributed than is commonly supposed. The study also reveals evidence of inconsistency across levels of decision making about the supply of resources into particular areas of the curriculum. Finally, there is evidence of stronger than expected relationships between spending levels and allocations of resources into administrative uses.