bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Languages of Europe
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V
Published: November 2023

Before I launch into an enumeration of the various language families found in Europe, a few prefatory words are in order about the scope of the cover age, the sources on which the following presentations are based, and even the author’s handling of some genetic classifications which have caused a great deal of controversy in recent years.

First, the coverage is not intended to be encyclopedic and exhaustive be cause there exist many excellent reference sources which may be consulted by students wishing to know more details about classification of particular languages, geographical distribution of languages, and the number of speak ers of individual languages.
Learning Strategies and Learning Factories
Authors: Fruin W Mark
Published: November 2023

Making many different things with economy, speed, and integrity is Toshiba’s manufacturing strategy. To enact this strategy in an increasingly competitive world, Toshiba has advanced fundamentally new forms of manufacturing organization during the past quarter century, an especially turbulent era for high-technology industries. Knowledge Works, the most outstanding of these forms, fuses best practices from shop floor operations, production engineering, orga-nizational campaigning, and technology management with industrial R&D.
Prologue:‘You’ll Never Find a Better Constitution’
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: November 2023

The course of civil rights litigation in the 1940s and 1950s was not smooth. It was a version of the duality that W.E.B. Du Bois said described the lives of all African-Americans: “an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body.’ For civil rights lawyers like Thurgood Marshall, this duality went to the heart of their work. They were committed to enforcing a Constitution whose promises had been repeatedly be-trayed. In speeches and anecdotes, Marshall often expressed the ambiguities of civil rights litigation and the Constitution that ran through civil rights lawyers’ work.
’A Carefully Planned Program’Attacking Restrictive Covenants
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: November 2023

The NAACP’S litigation during the 1940s centered on restructuring the law so that courts could rely on the social and economic consequences of discrimination as a basis for invalidating state laws. This approach reached its first peak in the attack on racially restrictive covenants, and then was pursued even more fully in the education litigation that ended with Brown v. Board of Education. At the deepest intellectual level, the NAACP’s lawyers were convinced that social and economic consequences were relevant to the law; they accepted the arguments of the Ameri-can Legal Realists, expressed in the transformation of the Howard Law School, that constitutional law was a form of policy making and that understanding the consequences of legal rules was essential to developing sound constitutional law. This conviction led them to inject sociological evidence into the school segregation cases. The immediate source of attention to those consequences, however, was a problem of litigation strategy that the Supreme Court’s rulings on racial discrimi-nation in housing forced on the NAACP.1 The state-action doctrine shaped the overall outlines of the attack on discrimina-tion. States initially used government power to support racial discrimination. For example, Oklahoma adopted a ’grandfather clause’ restricting voting to those who passed a literacy test or who were descendants of people entitled to vote on January I, 1866, and Louisville adopted an ordinance barring whites from occupying a house in a block where the majority of houses were occupied by African-Americans, and vice versa. In two of the earliest cases handled by the NAACP, the Supreme Court had little difficulty finding these government actions unconstitu-tional.2 Advocates of racial discrimination then turned to other techniques of exclu-sion. Essentially the same residential patterns that the Louisville ordinance im-posed could be achieved by agreements among white home owners not to sell their houses to African-Americans. These agreements were embedded in provisions, called covenants, in the deeds and contracts made when a house was sold. Restric
’Interference with the Effective Choice of the Voters’Challenging the White Primary
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: November 2023

African-Americans challenged segregation in court because they knew that legisla-tures would not take Jim Crow laws off the books. After all, African-Americans were excluded from voting. Challenging disfranchisement in the courts directly attacked one part of the Jim Crow system, and if it succeeded it might provide African-Americans with enough political power to change the rest. Jim Crow’s defenders, though, found it easy to accomplish or sustain disfranchisement in ways protected by the state-action doctrine. The NAACP’s lawyers had to develop innovative theories to challenge these ’private’ systems of disfranchisement. In the end they succeeded, but the challenge took so long that the last case reached the Supreme Court at the same time as the direct challenge to segregated educa-tion.’ Even more, whites maintained political power in the South by means that the legal challenge could not reach, such as physical terror. In voting cases, then, successes were inevitably limited. During and after the 1890s, Southern legislators adopted two strategies to exclude African-Americans from voting. The first, embodied in Mississippi’s 1890 consti-tution, used poll taxes, literacy tests, and similar devices to define qualifications for voting. These devices did not, in terms, treat African-Americans differently from whites, but they were intended to exclude more African-Americans than whites from voting, and did. Because the Mississippi approach did bar some whites from voting, however, it could be politically controversial, particularly when the approach was aimed at disfranchising whites who supported the Populist and similar parties.1 The alternative strategy focused specifically on African-Americans. In some states like Maryland at the turn of the century, vigorous party competition made it politically impossible to propose programs that would disfranchise some whites * As later chapters show, the Court’s deliberations in Brown v. Board of Education were affected by the concerns the justices expressed in the voting cases.
Introduction
Authors: Oster Sharon M
Published: November 2023

Nonprofit organizations earn more than $100 billion in revenue in the United States each year, in more than 1 million different organizations.1 In some sectors-like religion and the arts-nonprofits are the dominant organizational form. In other areas, nonprofits share the market with for profit corporations and public agencies. In almost all markets, however, nonprofits face increasing competition, competition that has intensified the pressure these organizations face to find effective management methods) In this book, we explore strategic management in the nonprofit. In the last several decades, the management of nonprofit organizations has become an increasingly rich terrain for academic work in the social sciences.
The Mission of the Nonprofit Organization
Authors: Oster Sharon M
Published: November 2023

It is difficult even to begin to discuss nonprofit organizations without almost immediately ending up in a discussion of the mission of that organization. Consider the following description of the process of reorganization at the Girl Scouts of America from Frances Hesselbein, former executive director: We kept asking ourselves very simple questions. What is our business? Who is the customer: And what does the customer consider value? If you’re the Girl Scouts, IBM, or AT&T, you have to manage for a mission. While Hesselbein is doubtless correct that for-profit companies must ultimately manage with some mission in mind, for a nonprofit, the role of the mission and its articulation is typically larger than it is for the for-profit corporation. This augmented role comes from the particular nature of nonprofit operations. In this chapter, we examine the function of nonprofits in the economy and the way in which nonprofit structure and function enlarge the role of the mission statement. We then turn to a more detailed discussion of how nonprofits develop and change their missions.
Structural Analysis of a Nonprofit Industry
Authors: Oster Sharon M
Published: November 2023

Nonprofit organizations often begin with a vision. To survive, however, organizations must also understand the economic and political markets in which they operate. The importance of hard-headed. market analysis and good management in running a nonprofit is made well by Franklin Thomas, president of the Ford Foundation, the largest philanthropic foundation in the world: “People think of (nonprofits) as soft, imprecise, and touchy-feely. That’s just malarkey. Invariably when businessmen come over to this side, they say they never imagined it to be so hard.”
Product Mix and Pricing
Authors: Oster Sharon M
Published: November 2023

The typical large museum has a number of products and services that it provides. It maintains a core collection, often runs film and lecture series, hosts special exhibits and school projects, runs a museum store and restaurant, and rents out its facilities for private functions. Small social service agencies often run counseling services, recreational programs, employment related activities, and general community services. Universities provide education for undergraduates as well as specialized professional students and continuing education for adults. In addition, they run food concessions, athletic programs, dramatic and musical shows, and a wide range of other activities. In each of these cases, some of these activities are financed through fees, while others are supported through fundraising efforts. In this chapter, we look at two related questions in the marketing of nonprofits: how do nonprofits decide what range of products and services to provide, and how do they decide whether and how to charge fees for these products and services. In this context, we will discuss a number of important topics in the nonprofit area: the relationship between core businesses and the organization as a whole, the role of for-profit activities in a nonprofit organization, and the importance of cross-subsidization of programs in nonprofits.
Clinical And Research Implications For Developmental Interventions In The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
Authors: Sostek Anita Miller , Goldson Edward
Published: November 2023

One of the purposes of this volume was to bring together, under one cover, the major developmental interventions that have been proposed for the very sick infant. These interventions include the individualized care of the preterm infant, kangaroo care, massage, water beds, and autonomic entrainment. Because many of these interventions remain controversial, the authors have provided theoretical rationales and experimental data to support the efficacy of each such intervention. As presented, it would seem that each intervention should stand on its own. However, this may not necessarily be the case. For example, once the infant is physiologically stable, combinations of interventions could be employed to facilitate optimal state organization and physiological stability.
The Emerging Concept of an Enterprise
Authors: Ackoff Russell L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I consider how and why the concept of an enterprise has evolved since the Renaissance-from the enterprise conceptualized as a machine, then as an organism, and now as a social system. Then I consider the implications of looking at an enterprise as a system, what doing so should mean to management and the way work is organized. In this chapter and in Chapter 2 I will consider the implication of looking at enterprises as social systems.
The Enterprise and Its Stakeholders
Authors: Ackoff Russell L
Published: November 2023

Since an enterprise conceptualized as a social system involves three major sets of purposes-those of its containing system, its own, and those of its parts-it can be viewed from each of these perspectives. These views are different but compatible. First, I consider the role of the corporation in the larger system of which it is a part, society. What societal purposes do corporations have the function of furthering? Then I consider the nature of the overriding purpose of corporations conceptualized as social systems, development, and what is required of an organization for continuous development.
The Circular Organization
Authors: Ackoff Russell L
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to two very important and fundamental issues raised in earlier chapters. The first concerns improvement of the quality of work life of an increasingly educated work force and by so doing to serve better both their purposes and those of the organization as a whole. The second concerns the types of organizational changes required to facilitate the management of the way the parts of an organization interact, and the way the organization as a whole interacts with parts of its environment. In this chapter I present an organizational design that addresses these two issues. First, however, I review and amplify the issues.
Adding Value
Authors: Kay John
Published: November 2023

What is corporate success, and how is it measured? In this chapter I explore the strengths and weaknesses of common performance measures by comparing the performance of America’s leading retailers—Wal-Mart, Kmart, and Sears-Roebuck. Some people judge success by size. They look at a firm’s sales, its market share, and its stock exchange value. Sometimes performance is assessed by referring to the rate of return, which can be measured as the return on equity, on investment, or on sales. And sometimes success is measured by growth, reflected in an increase in output, movements in earnings per share, or, prospectively, the firm’s price-earnings ratio.
Relationships and Contracts
Authors: Kay John
Published: November 2023

As it was in Chapter 3, my purpose here is to develop concepts that are applied in later chapters. Firms establish many different kinds of commercial relationships, the most common of which is the spot contract, an agreement for an immediate exchange. But many important relationships are made as classical contracts—long-term legal agreements containing provisions specifying how dealings between the parties will evolve as events unfold. A relational contract also is a long-term relationship. But its provisions are often only partly specified, and it is enforced not by legal process but by the parties’ need to continue doing business with each other.
Sustainability
Authors: Kay John
Published: November 2023

Distinctive capabilities will continue to add value only if both the capability and the distinctiveness can be sustained. In this chapter, I use case studies and statistical evidence to show that many companies are indeed successful in building sustainable competitive advantages from their distinctive capabilities. Of the principal distinctive capabilities, reputation is generally the easiest to sustain, and innovation is the most difficult, but each poses its own problems. Strategic assets can often be defended over very lengthy periods but may be suddenly at risk when regulations or market conditions change. For a firm with strategic assets, skills in handling public policy may be as important as those of business management.
The Value of Competitive Advantage
Authors: Kay John
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I explain how competitive advantage is quantified, how it is turned into added value, and how added value is reflected in conventional measures of financial performance, such as cash flow, profits, and returns to shareholders.

Competitive advantage is, necessarily, relative-a competitive advantage is something that one firm has over another. When I talk of competitive advantage without making a specific comparison, the implicit comparison is with a normal or representative firm-perhaps the weakest competitor or a hypothetical entrant to the market in which the firm concerned holds its competitive advantage.
Conclusions
Authors: Kay John
Published: November 2023

It is easy to see why the military analogy continues to exercise such a powerful hold on thinking about corporate strategy. CEOs like to identify with the great field generals of history, alone with their troops, placing divisions here, battalions there, and inspiring their men to heroic feats with a few well-chosen words of encouragement and inspiration.
Double Case Marking in Kanyara and Mantharta Languages, Western Australia
Authors: Austin Peter
Published: November 2023

It has been known for some time that Australian Aboriginal languages have what has been termed “Suffixaufnahme” (Finck 1910, Plank 1990)-i.e., agreement of case-marked attributive nominals with their head by a second layer of case affixation-but it was not until the important work of Dench and Evans (1988) that a solid descriptive foundation was established for discussing the phenomenon. Dench and Evans catalogue the full extent of Suffixaufnahme in Australia, and the ways it is formally expressed. A recent survey covering the whole of the Australian continent is Schweiger’s chapter in this volume.
Introduction
Authors: Briggs Charles L
Published: November 2023

Conflict is a common feature of social life, and representations of conflict frequently form central foci of expressive economies. A number of researchers have suggested that verbal disputing constitutes a crucial means by which children and adolescents learn to construct their identities and to position themselves vis-a-vis their peers. Gossip narratives similarly play a prominent role in everyday talk among adults in shaping everyday understandings of social conflict.
Conflict, Language Ideologies, and Privileged Arenas of Discursive Authority in Warao Dispute Mediation
Authors: Briggs Charles L
Published: November 2023

This essay reflects on a series of puzzles posed by a particular convergence of conflict and narrative. It focuses on some angry conversations and actions that marked the breakup of a marriage and their transformation into a dispute mediation that involved an entire community. Why would community officials focus so much attention on a particular conflict, particularly since the relationship had already been severed? Why do collective senses of the fragility of social order become so closely associated with representations of particular social interactions? To ask this question in a different way, how do specific interactional features become powerful synecdoches of broader relations of social inequality? My focus is on meetings called to mediate conflict in indigenous communities in the Delta Amacuro of eastern Venezuela, but the issues they raise are not restricted to Warao dispute mediation.
Development and the Environment: Some Common Fallacies
Authors: Southgate Douglas , Whitaker Morris
Published: November 2023

This book’s analysis contrasts sharply with some widely circulated notions of why environmental quality is declining in places like Ecuador. Many believe that demographic growth is out of control and, as a result, the human population has already or will soon exceed what the environment can support. Others say that economic growth, pure and simple, needs to be kept in check because it puts too much pressure on natural resources. Still others view the unfettering of market forces in Latin America with concern. They concede that this departure from past economic policy is needed to stimulate development. However, they worry that the environment and poor people will suffer. Yet another perspective has nothing to do with Malthusian pessimism. Neither do its adherents necessarily question economic liberalization. Instead, they doubt that the investment in education and technological improvement required to achieve sustainable development is within poor countries’ reach. In particular, they point to the debt crisis and adverse terms of trade as reasons why fiscal capacity is unduly restricted in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Is There An Ideal Diet?
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

America is health conscious. Everyone, or so it seems, is attempting to follow a physical fitness program; everyone is “working out”; everyone is eating a special diet and trying to lose weight. We all want to eat a healthy diet. Yet we don’t really know whether there is an ideal diet we all should strive to attain. The problem is not lack of information. There is almost too much information. The daily newspapers, the radio and T.V. health programs, the weekly and monthly magazines not only are asking us if we are eating correctly, but advising us in detail what to eat and what to avoid.
The Gallbladder In The Modern Age
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

The upper intestinal tract is so well programmed that bile enters the duodenum just at the time it is needed to help digest the fats of our diet. Since the liver is manufacturing bile all the time, this exact timing is carried out by the gallbladder, which is the receptacle for the temporary storage of bile. When the fats in the diet enter the duodenum, they release the hormone known as cholecystokinin that causes the gallbladder to contract and empty its bile content just at the time and place where it is needed to facilitate the next step of fat digestion.
Cancer Of The Colon And Rectum
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

Cancer of the colon and rectum (colorectal cancer) is a first class world problem, especially in areas of North America and Europe and other industrialized countries where lifestyle and diet have been pointed to as causes of the rise in the incidence of this cancer. The rising incidence of colorectal cancer is front-page news in our newspapers and journals. It is the third most common cancer in the United States, just below breast and lung cancer.
Intestinal Gas
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

Many of the intestinal discomforts we complain about we blame on “gas.” We pass gas from either end of the gastrointestinal tract-we belch it out or pass gas through the rec tum. At times, we feel bloated and distended, and blame our symptoms on gas we cannot get rid of. We feel we are unable to pass or “break wind.” We complain we are embarrassed by passing gas in social situations.
Hebrew Noun Phrases: Generalized Noun Raising
Authors: Siloni Tal
Published: November 2023

One central issue in the investigation of noun phrases concerns their selectional properties, namely, their thematic representations (theta-grids). Putting Chomsky’s (1970) lexicalist hypothesis in modern terms, it states that verbs and their related derived nouns in principle share the same theta-grids. The selectional properties of derived nouns are, in effect, hardly captured otherwise. Advancing the parallelism between verbs and nouns, Cinque (1980, 1981), and more recently Giorgi and Longobardi (1991) argue that theta-grids of nouns are systematically mapped into hierarchical syntactic structures, just like those of verbs. Obviously, this configurational approach is theoretically desirable, as it reduces the need for specific stipulations with regard to the syntax of noun phrases.
Between Words and Deeds: Jews and Blacks in America, 1880–1935
Authors: Diner Hasia R
Published: November 2023

March 13, 1935, New York ‘s widely circulating Jewish Daily Forward wistfully eulogized the Black actor Richard Harrison, star of the play “The Green Pastures,” in which he had portrayed none other than “God, the Lawd.” The play had been staged, according to the Forward, at a truly propitious moment. In this present moment of upheaval and unrest, of world catastrophe and world storm, there was no greater pleasure than to be carried away to that far more naive, sinless world, which the play presented ... In this play... the souls of two nations are woven together ... the soul of the Jew and the soul of the Negro.
Affirmative Action: Jewish Ideals, Jewish Interests
Authors: Chanes Jerome A
Published: November 2023

Recounting of history, like a Hindu god, takes many forms. I Nowhere is this more true than in the narrative of the Jewish encounter with affirmative action, and its implications for Black-Jewish relations. Since the early 1970s, few issues have been more salient on the Jewish community’s domestic public-affairs agenda. Clearly-almost tautologically, inasmuch as race-based affirmative action deals with race-the Jewish stance on affirmative action has had profound implications for the relationship between Blacks and Jews.
On Imagining Foes, Imagining Friendship
Authors: Williams Patricia J
Published: November 2023

Recent years, relations between American Blacks and Jews, as symbolized by the tragic tensions in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn, New York, have been relentlessly characterized as being in a state of distrust and precipitous decline. It is precisely this sort of broad, simplistic characterization, in the con text of infinitely more nuanced encounters, that is itself part of the cause of the breakdown. The term “Black-Jewish alliance” is on the one hand commonly used to invoke a specific history of shared struggles in the United States, from the turn of the century onward. These struggles, from the labor movement to the civil rights movement, were social settings in which the two groups worked shoulder to shoulder in many settings, shoring up and very nearly defining the Left in this nation. As was-and still is-appropriate and efficient in the face of the legalized monolith of U.S. apartheid laws, Blacks and Jews focused frequently on their similarities, on the commonalities of the Holocaust and the Middle Passage, so incomparable in one sense yet so filled with the same unbounded mandate of never forgetting.
Walking The Tightrope: Some Personal Reflections on Blacks and Jews
Authors: West Cornel
Published: November 2023

Grew up in a Black world without Jews. Yet my evolving worldview about life and love, faith and struggle was and is deeply shaped by the Jewish world be it the Bible, Marx, Durkheim, Freud, Kafka, Wittgenstein, or Lukacs. Most of the flesh-and-blood Jews I have encountered are descendants of Eastern European immigrants who arrived in America at the turn of the century. And the vast majority of my Jewish friends tend to be progressive intellectuals and activists. So my personal reflections on Black-Jewish relations preclude any broad generalizations or monolithic formulations.
Toward Sumter and Pearl: Comparing the Origins of the Civil War and World War II
Authors: Bruce Robert V
Published: November 2023

What has occurred in this case,” said Abraham Lincoln in 1864, must ever recur in similar cases. Human nature will not change. In any future great national trial, compared with the men of this, we shall have as weak, and as strong; as silly and as wise; as bad and good. Let us, therefore, study the incidents of this, as philosophy to learn wisdom from .... “1 A generation later, however, the English historian and political scientist James Bryce attached a reservation: “The chief practical use of history is to deliver us from plausible historical analo­gies.”2 Both were right. While comparing our two greatest national trials, we must weigh similarities against singularities.
War and the Constitution: Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt
Authors: Schlesinger Arthur M
Published: November 2023

Oddly, the Gettysburg Address made no great impression on November 19, 1863. Lincoln’s bright and devoted young secretary John Hay casually noted in his diary: “The President, in a fine, free way, with more grace than is his wont, said his half dozen words of consecration, and the music wailed, and we went home through crowded and cheering streets. And all the particulars are in the daily papers.”1 It took time for the Gettysburg Address to become a classic statement of the American creed. Today one sometimes feels that Lincoln’s crystalline words have grown so familiar that they are part of the mechanical ritual of our lives-words we hear and repeat but no longer attend to.
Language Variation and Language Change: Some More Answers
Authors: Ravid Dorit Diskin
Published: November 2023

It is time to return to the broad research questions that have occupied us in this work. Above I presented a number of questions about the relationship that holds between language-internal factors, such as Opacity, and sociolinguistic factors such as age and literacy, and the way they affect change. We are now in a position to answer these questions and others that constitute the underpinnings of this study. I will do this in the form of question and answer.
Social Dimensions of Global Economic Integration
Authors: Jacoby Sanford M
Published: November 2023

We live and work in a global economy; world trade is growing faster than world incomes. Trade can dissipate international tensions, but it is equally capable of intensifying them. Nations feel compelled to change their economic and social policies to conform to global patterns. This pressure is felt particularly by labor market institutions-wage structures, workplace practices, social insurance, and labor relations all of which have been undergoing major changes in the developed nations. The changes have been accelerated by regional trading pacts such as the European Com munity (EC) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Greater trade has been accompanied by greater mobility of capital. Every day billions of dollars, yen, and other currencies shuttle instantaneously across the planet. To attract and retain fickle investors, nations must rely on their physical infrastructure and their human talents. In the United States and the United Kingdom, both formerly world leaders, there is a painful awareness that neither talent nor infrastructure is globally competitive. Nations that organize work differently-Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and others-have tricks to teach the old leaders about deploying human talents more effectively to promote cooperation and competitiveness.
Quantified Structures: Russian versus Serbo-Croatian
Authors: Franks Steven
Published: November 2023

Quantified phrases in Russian and the other Slavic languages have long been a subject of linguistic investigation in both traditional and generative studies. Major contributions by linguists in the Russian tradition include Suprun (1959) and Mel’cuk (1985), and among important recent Western work is Pesetsky (1982), Corbett (1978, 1983a), Babby (1987), and Neidle (1988). In this chapter, specific proposals by Babby and Pesetsky about the syntax of Russian quantified phrases are examined and extended to Serbo-Croatian.1 It is argued that if aspects of each of these researchers’ models of Russian are adopted and modified slightly in order to accommodate minor parametric variation, then conflicting phenomena in SerboCroatian can receive an explanatorily satisfactory and conceptually unified account. The interaction of case, agreement, and numeric quantification is one of the most recalcitrant problems of Slavic grammar.
The Myth of the Police
Authors: Bayley David H
Published: November 2023

The police do not prevent crime. This is one of the best kept secrets of modern life. Experts know it, the police know it, but the public does not know it. Yet the police pretend that they are society’s best defense against crime and continually argue that if they are given more resources, especially personnel, they will be able to protect communities against crime. This is a myth. What is the evidence for this heretical and disturbing assertion? First, repeated analysis has consistently failed to find any connection between the number of police officers and crime rates. Second, the primary strategies adopted by modern police have been shown to have little or no effect on crime.
A Blueprint for the Future
Authors: Bayley David H
Published: November 2023

In modem democratic societies the police bear the primary responsibility for ensuring public safety because law enforcement is viewed as the primary solution to crime. For several reasons this total reliance on law enforcement is unwise and should not be allowed to continue. The standing of the police is being undermined because the public is beginning to realize that the police cannot deliver what they promise. The rise of the private security industry and efforts by communities to protect themselves attest to this. Dependence on law enforcement for crime control exposes the police, as well as the entire criminal justice system, to scapegoating. Inflated expectations lead to loss of trust and eventually to the loss of resources.
Preliminaries
Authors: Dikken Marcel den
Published: November 2023

The analyses to be presented have their roots in the principles-and-parameters theory of generative syntax, developed in Chomsky (1981, 1986). A key role throughout this study is played by the notion of a SMALL CLAUSE, a tenseless subject-predicate structure (cf. Stowell 1981; Kayne 1984; T. Hoekstra 1984, 1988a, 1991; and references cited there). Small clauses will be found to be pervasive in the analysis of the secondary predication constructions to be discussed in what follows. In section 1.2 of this introductory chapter, a number of theoretical assumptions which are instrumental to the analysis of particle constructions and related phenomena are spelled out and, wherever possible, supported on the basis of independent considerations. No general introduction to the principles-and parameters framework or the small clause analysis will be presented here. I refer to Chomsky (1981, 1986) for the overall structure of the former, and to T. Hoekstra (1988a, 1991) for a survey of the major arguments for the small clause analysis of secondary predications.
Affixal Particles in Applicatives and Causatives
Authors: Dikken Marcel den
Published: November 2023

In chapter 3 I discussed the analysis of triadic constructions and Dative Shift mainly on the basis of evidence from analytic languages like English. In poly synthetic languages such as Chichewa (a Bantu language spoken in Malawi), an alternation similar to the English dative alternation is found. Consider the Chichewa examples in (1) (taken from Baker 1988; cf. this work for the origin al provenance of these examples):In (la) the Goal NP is preceded by the dative preposition kwaand surfaces to the right of the Theme NP, just as in English. In the so-called applicative constructionin (lb), on the other hand, the Goal appears adjacent to the verb, which bears a special affix -ir-,the applicative or applied affix. Applicative constructions correspond in all relevant respects to double object constructions in languages like English. The only difference between English and Chichewa lies in the occurrence of a special morpheme in the double object construction of Chichewa.1Baker (1988) presents an analysis of applicative constructions in terms of preposition incorporation (also cf. my analysis of Dative Shift in chapter 3). According to Baker, the applicative morpheme is the spell-out of the incorporated dative preposition. The analysis of English Dative Shift is assimilated to that of applicative constructions, and likewise features preposition incorporation.
VP Ellipsis in English, French, and German Tensed Clauses
Authors: Lobeck Anne
Published: November 2023

As is well-known, VP Ellipsis in English is possible when INFL is filled with an auxiliary verb, modal, or pleonastic do. Ellipsis is blocked, however, when introduced by a main verb. This is illustrated by the contrast between ( l) and (2). It has been argued that empty VP in (1) is constrained by the ECP (Zagona, 1982, 1988a, 1988b, Lobeck, 1987a, 1990, 1991a, 1993; Chao, 1987), and that INFL properly governs empty VP. Ellipted verb phrases have not yet been analyzed, however, within current government-binding analyses of tensed clauses as projections of AGR or Tense. For example, Chomsky (1992) argues that IP is AGRP, as illustrated in (3).
Introduction: The Leadership Triad
Authors: Zand Dale E
Published: November 2023

Effective leaders harness three forces—knowledge, trust, and power. Like three horses pulling a chariot, these forces, if coordinated and working together, provide a swift and exhilarating ride. But if one force is mismanaged or pulls against the others, the ride is bumpy and can end in disaster.

The first force in the triad of leadership is knowledge. Effective leaders know or can find out what should be done. In other words, they have vision, and they know how to fulfill that vision. They set clear, challenging goals, and they know what needs to be done to reach the goals. Triadic leaders are not omniscient—all-knowing or all-wise—but they know how to gain access to the knowledge of others, and they know how to work with people to convert that knowledge into action.

The second force in the triad is trust. People trust effective triadic leaders, giving them loyalty and commitment. Triadic leaders earn trust by disclosing relevant information, sharing influence, and competently using knowledge. They earn trust by fairness in their dealings with others—fulfilling the spirit of their agreements, sharing rewards and hard times and not abusing their power. Triadic leaders are not necessarily liked or loved although they may be. Some may be famous, such as Lee Iacocca of Chrysler or Jack Welch of GE, but they are not saints without human foibles and shortcomings. People, how ever, have confidence in how they will use knowledge and power.
Leadership: The New Conditions
Authors: Zand Dale E
Published: November 2023

Leadership has changed from the days when the United States was primarily a manufacturing society. Leaders face an emerging information age in which knowledge disperses to the far corners of organizations. The old directive factory approach to leadership is no longer effective. In the past, when a few top managers and staff specialists held the organization’s core knowledge, leadership could be simple and directive; leaders, working alone, could think through a problem, give orders, and expect compliance. Alone, or with the input of a few close advisers, leaders could make the decisions that governed the organization’s production, marketing, and finances.

The conditions of leadership in the late twentieth century have changed dramatically. To be effective, leaders need to understand the subtle but wrenching shift that has occurred in the leadership land scape. This chapter explores the characteristics of the new world of leadership. It examines knowledge, the heavy weapon of competition, and the ways in which the advent of knowledge is eclipsing the position power of leaders. It discusses distributed knowledge and the forces diffusing knowledge within organizations. It looks at the emerging knowledge society and the characteristics of knowledge organizations. It describes the unusual features of working with knowledge, as opposed to tangible products, and the special challenges this poses for leaders. Finally, it reviews the three key dimensions of leadership in this new world: knowledge, trust, and power.
Finding Knowledge
Authors: Zand Dale E
Published: November 2023

Organizations continuously generate new knowledge. Leaders draw on this knowledge, seeking new ideas for products, processes, and markets, sampling the best ideas, and combining them into strategies for solving problems. Leaders work on difficult problems by first finding and analyzing existing, relevant knowledge. They then turn competent thinkers loose, building relationships that smooth the flow of information. If existing knowledge does not solve a problem, then leaders must look further to locate or create new knowledge.

This chapter discusses how leaders go about finding and gaining access to useful knowledge. It looks at how the leader’s attitudes and behaviors affect the release of knowledge, discusses ways to tune up the organization to find worthwhile knowledge and to clarify assumptions, and explores the leader’s use of questions to illuminate knowledge. It then considers two costly diversions: the lure of synergy and of pseudo knowledge. It concludes by examining the search for new knowledge, contrasting knowledge “new only to us” with knowledge that is “new to everyone.”
Legitimate and Decision Process Power
Authors: Zand Dale E
Published: November 2023

Economic tides rise and fall, cross-currents of change ripple through organizations, but effective leaders know how to use power to navigate through the shoals of competition and set a course for opportunities. Power is the ability to influence people. It is the ability to get someone to do or not to do something, to persuade or dissuade. Leadership and power are almost synonymous. One might well ask if leadership can exist without the ability to affect the actions of others—that is, without power.

Legitimate power is still the anchor of leadership. It is decision power—the right people give to leaders to make choices, set a direction, and resolve conflicts. In this chapter we discuss legitimate power, its scope, and its link to a position in an organization. We also discuss decision process power—the leader’s right to determine how a decision will be made—and analyze the effective leader’s use of four fundamental decision modes—commanding, consulting, concurring, and consigning.
Religious Factors in Language Spread
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

The distribution of major types of writing systems in the world correlates more closely with the distribution of the world’s major religions than with genetic or typological classifications of language, a fact which has often been noted by sociolinguis and others interested in the spread of writing systems. This correlation between religions and writing systems does not result from any inherent relationship between religious practices or beliefs and the processes of reading and writing. Rather, the present distribution of writing systems is largely a result of the fact that in many instances the spread of a major religion has simultaneously introduced the use of writing into a nonliterate speech community. So it has happened that wherever Westem Christianity has spread in nonliterate communities, it has introduced a variety of the Latin script for writing local, previously unwritten languages; and wherever Islam has spread to nonliterate communities, it has introduced a variety of the Arabic script for writing previously unwritten languages. Sometimes, when a major religion has spread to a literate community, the effect of the new religion has been to replace a local writing system without replacing the languages spoken in the community, as when the Arabic alphabet replaced the other ways of writing Persian or Malay, or when the Latin alphabet replaced other ways of writing Old Norse or Philippine languages. One of the most impressive associations of a writing system with a religion is the use of the Hebrew alphabet by the Jews.
Sports Announcer Talk: Syntactic Aspects of Register Variation
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

One or two sentences of a radio announcer’s report of a game in progress will usually be sufficient to identify the particular kind of talk being used, different from all other kinds of radio talk, such as straight news, sermons, soap operas, or talk shows. One clue to the identification is the subject matter and the specialized vocabulary of the sport, but the same topics and lexicon may also be used in afterthe-fact news broadcasts, editorials, or interviews on talk shows. A more distinctive clue is the prosodic pattern, i.e., the features of tempo, rhythm, loudness, intonation, and other characteristics of voice. This clue is so powerful2 that it can often serve to distinguish not only sports announcing from other radio talk but even baseball from football announcing when the segmental phonetic characteristics and, hence, the actual words of the broadcast are muffled or masked. In this paper, some attention will be paid to these lexical and prosodic clues, but the primary purpose is to explore a third clue, the syntactic differences between sports announcer talk (SAT) and other kinds of discourse, especially the mythical “normal” discourse variously referred to as vernacular, common core, unmarked, or ordinary adult conversation. The analytic approach adopted here is that of register variation, although it is recognized that other approaches might also be instructive for investigating the phenomena of SAT. For example, a structural analysis of the genre or form of discourse of sports announcing could provide an account of the sportscast, which is indeed a highly structured and well recognized genre of contemporary mass media discourse. Such broadcasts start with background information about the game, the occasion, the teams, and so forth; conclude with interviews of players and coaches; and include components of direct reportage, comment, advertising commercials, and other elements in relatively fixed proportions and relatively fixed sequence.
Individual and Social in Language Change: Diachronic Changes in Politeness Agreement in Forms of Address
Authors: Ferguson Charles A
Published: November 2023

Tying together findings from macro and micro-level research has been recognized as a major problem since the earliest days of explicitly sociolinguistic research, and Joshua Fishman’s has been one of the clearest voices calling attention to it (Fishman 1972). The present paper explores some aspects of this problem in one traditional area of sociolinguistic research-forms of address. It does so from the pragmatic perspective of politeness phenomena and in terms of a recognized area of linguistic theory-grammatical agreement. It describes some mismatch phenomena in politeness agreement with second person pronouns in two languages, Persian and Portuguese, for which both macro- and micro-studies are available. Finally, it offers some cross-language generalizations that can be tested from other languages.
Information Processing Limits
Authors: Kronenfeld David B
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will examine the implications of Miller’s “;Magical Number 7 ... “; article1 ( 1956) for semantic and decision structures of the sort studied by cognitive anthropology; in doing so, we will relate Miller’s work to Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin’s (1956:chap. 4) discussion of concept-formation strategies. We will be looking at limitations on our ability to process information, at the devices we utilize to get around such limitations, and on the relationship of these devices to the kinds of culturally standardized cognitive structures we have found within the semantics of natural language. I will suggest a cognitive structural explanation of a set of interre lated anthropological findings regarding the nature of complex semantic structures. We will see why early cognitive anthropologists (or ethnoscientists) kept finding one or the other of only two semantic structures: taxonomy-like tree structures (based on elaborated inclusion relations) and componential-like paradigmatic ones (based on elaborated contrast relations). We will explore the differences between the two structures in the relationship of attributes to categories, and we will explore the relative degree of foregrounding of the defining attributes versus the categories themselves in these alternative semantic structures. We will conclude by examining how the same explanation might apply to different kinds oflinguistic and anthropological structures, including syntactic structures and the structures cognitive anthropologists have found to underlie a variety of culturally standardized natural decision processes.