bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
World's Fairs as Mega‐Events
Authors: Gotham Kevin Fox
Published: September 2017

World's fairs or international expositions are short term attractions officially organized by a nation‐state, with exhibits, pavilions, tourist venues, and other spectacular displays of socioeconomic progress, technological development, and cultural advancement. World's Fairs are exemplary mega‐events that have a spectacular character, mass popular appeal, and global significance. As Hiller (2000: 449) notes: “Mega‐events are short‐term high‐profile events like Olympics and World Fairs that always have a significant urban impact. They re‐prioritize urban agendas, create post‐event usage debates, often stimulate urban redevelopment, and are instruments of boosterist ideologies promoting economic growth.” Unlike local festivals or small scale tourist attractions, mega‐events like the Olympics, the World Cup, and world's fairs are associated with costly investments in infrastructure development, extensive and intensive formal planning, and the use of sophisticated revitalization strategies for urban reimaging. The first World's Fair took place in 1851, in London, and other nations followed with expositions that left lasting residual products – for example the Eiffel Tower, which was created for the Paris Exhibition of 1889.
Youth/Adolescence
Authors: Heath Sue
Published: September 2017

Youth and adolescence are terms which are often used interchangeably to refer to a phase of the life course between childhood and adulthood, yet are often positioned as contrasting approaches within academic discourse. Sociologists use the term youth to refer to a socially constructed life phase which is not only culturally specific, but which is also the product of particular historical conjunctures. Within this approach, youth is broadly construed as a collective experience which is shaped by social structures, age‐specific institutions, and societal expectations. In contrast, the term adolescence emphasizes processes of individual social and/or physiological and psychological development and as such is much more closely associated with the disciplines of developmental psychology and clinical medicine. Within this approach the phase between childhood and adulthood is often equated with puberty, and is represented as a time marked by experimentation and emotional storm and stress. Classic theorists of adolescence include G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) and Erik H. Erikson (1902–94).
Z
naniecki,
F
lorian (1882–1958)
Authors: Stebbins Robert A.
Published: September 2017

Florian Znaniecki was born to a well‐to‐do Polish family living in Russian‐occupied territory. His active support of Polish nationalism resulted in his dismissal from the University of Warsaw and an extended stay abroad. He studied at the University of Geneva and the Sorbonne. He later returned, this time to the University of Cracow, receiving his doctorate there in 1910. While helping Poles to migrate he met W. I. Thomas, who in 1914 invited Znaniecki to join him at the University of Chicago. Shortly thereafter the two began work on the famous five‐volume study
The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
, published between 1918 and 1920. Znaniecki taught at Columbia University (1916–17), at the University of Chicago (1917–19), and in 1920 following Polish independence, became professor of philosophy at the new University of Pozna'n. Here he helped establish sociology, founded the Polish Institute of Sociology, and in 1929 launched a Polish sociological journal. Following the conquest of Poland in World War II, he was invited to Columbia University (1939). In 1941 he went as professor of sociology to the University of Illinois, retiring from there in 1951. Before his death in 1958, he was elected president of the American Sociological Society (1955).
Advertisement, Visual Characteristics of
Authors: Craig Robert L.
Published: September 2017

Advertisements organize typography and art (photographs, illustrations, and graphics) into designed layouts. Advertising's visual characteristics can be described historically by analyzing their style, or functionally by analyzing their role in advertising rhetoric (→ Advertising).
Advertising Effectiveness, Measurement of
Authors: Bronner Fred E.
Published: September 2017

In the 1990s, accountability of advertising came high on the agenda in the commercial communication world. As a result a growing need for knowledge about the way the media environment influenced advertising effectiveness emerged. Standardized tools and new media studies were developed. And after 2000, greater actionability for media planners even on a day‐to‐day basis was incorporated into these measurement tools. Nowadays there is little argument in the commercial as well as academic world that campaigns should be monitored to better manage them in the marketplace (→ Advertisement Campaign Management).
Argentina: Media System
Authors: Mastrini Guillermo
Published: September 2017

Argentina is located in the southernmost part of Latin America. It has more than 38 million inhabitants, the main language is Spanish, and the Catholic religion is predominant. Since 1983 it has had a democratic system of government which formally guarantees press freedom in its Constitution. Article 14 of Argentina's National Constitution sets the guarantees for
freedom of expression
. The legal framework limits itself to the regulation of citizens’ rights and journalists’ responsibilities. Since the return of democracy freedom of expression has been exercised, although it has sometimes faced legal challenges on interpretation (→ Freedom of Communication).
Austria: Media System
Authors: Steinmaurer Thomas
Published: September 2017

Austria is a parliamentary democratic federal republic with a population of 8.26 million. The official language is German; regional official languages are Croatian, Slovenian, and Hungarian. The historical development of its media system can be divided into the following phases: the period 1621–1848 under the influence of censorship; the abolishment of censorship in the year of the revolution (1848); and the adoption of freedom of opinion and press freedom in the constitution of 1867, which facilitated the development of a modern press in Austria. The elimination of the parliament in 1933 brought measures to regulate the press again, and Austria's annexation by the Third Reich (1938–1945) led to a phase when the press was controlled by a totalitarian regime. After this there was a time of prosperous development with increasing modernization (Schmolke 1966).
Celebrity Journalists
Authors: Marshall David
Published: September 2017

Celebrity journalists are news workers who become prominent or famous in their own right and thus objects of media attention. Journalists are a means of chronicling fame and infamy, and stars and leaders depend on journalism to maintain a public profile. Under economic pressures, media industries have tended to associate public personalities with their chroniclers. Repeated contact with the renowned has led journalists to become closely identified with those whose stories they report, resulting in their being elevated to celebrity status themselves and joining the A‐list of popular culture celebrities from film, television, and music (→ Popular Culture and the News Media).
Child Art
Authors: Pariser David
Published: September 2017

The generic term
child art
often refers to graphic and even three‐dimensional work done by children. The term was first made popular by a leading art educator of the last century, Victor Lowenfeld (1947). It is occasionally used to refer to “real” artworks produced by “wunderkinder” such as Alexandra Nechita (Plagens 1996) who paints only in Picasso's Cubist style or Wang Yani (Winner 1993) who produced traditional Chinese brush paintings to global acclaim. Two aspects of child art have been studied: the aesthetic, i.e., how good, or expressive, or authentic the image created by the child is; and the developmental, i.e., how best to describe a child's acquisition of graphic fluency (Golomb 1993; Kindler & Darras 1997; Kindler et al. 2002; → Art as Communication; Media Use and Child Development; Media Use by Children; Visual Representation).
Classroom Instructional Technology
Authors: Lane Derek R.
Published: September 2017

Classroom instructional technology (CIT) includes the pedagogical tools and methods that allow educators to communicate instructional messages that achieve instructional goals and facilitate learning outcomes at all educational levels in classrooms around the world (→ Learning and Communication; Pedagogy, Communication in). Over the past three decades, researchers have studied both the challenges and the opportunities associated with the potential of CIT to enhance effective delivery of instruction in the classroom. Researchers have also aimed to understand how pedagogical tools are used to enhance student learning. When integrated appropriately into the teaching and learning process, CIT functions to enhance knowledge sharing, student engagement and collaboration, and classroom interaction, and ultimately to support learning (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction). Studies also demonstrate, however, that CIT is least effective and can be detrimental to student learning when it is not intentionally integrated into a meaningful instructional strategy, and when it does not further a specific educational goal (Kadiyala & Crynes 2000).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Authors: Donsbach Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

Cognitive dissonance is a theory developed in the late 1950s by US psychologist → Leon Festinger, which claims that people tend to avoid information and situations that are likely to increase a dissonance with their existing cognitions, such as beliefs, attitudes, or other value judgments. The author proposed the following basic hypotheses: “(1) The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance. (2) When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the dissonance” (Festinger 1957, 3). For him, “two elements are in a dissonant relationship if, considering these two alone, the obverse of one element would follow from the other” (Festinger 1957, 13).
Collective Action and Communication
Authors: Reid Scott A.
Published: September 2017

Collective action may be defined as any behavior that is directed at fulfilling a goal shared by two or more people. Examples of collective action include the chants and audience waves of sports crowds, race riots, language revival movements, political election campaigns, military action, and political protests. In essence, communication scholars have been concerned with the ways in which communication can serve to enable, or in fact stifle, collective action.
Communication as an Academic Field: Africa
Authors: de Beer Arnold S.
Published: September 2017

Present‐day communication education in Africa has not been able to build on a rich tradition of a longstanding university system. Widespread university education in Africa is a postcolonial phenomenon, with North Africa and South Africa being the main exceptions. Like other academic disciplines, communication studies suffers much of this postcolonial legacy, be it the effect of the general education system, the role of universities in general, or the media and other communication systems, which have to struggle against oppressive state regimes and survive in a globalizing world (Bourgault 1995; Barratt & Berger 2007; → Globalization of the Media; Globalization Theories).
Communication as an Academic Field: USA and Canada
Authors: Eadie William F.
Published: September 2017

There is general agreement that the communication discipline, as we know it today, began in the US. There is, however, a degree of disagreement as to how to trace the origins of the discipline. Arguably, the organizational roots of the communication discipline could be divided into
two traditions
: the “speech” tradition and the “journalism” tradition. Both can be linked to the development of academic departments in US universities as they began to turn away from a single approach to higher education and to diversify and specialize. The development of land‐grant public institutions after 1862 opened up higher education to students from a much wider range of economic backgrounds than before. This, along with a commitment to serve agricultural and technological interests, created a demand for specialized areas of study and thus spurred the creation of academic departments.
Communication Education, Goals of
Authors: Sprague Jo
Published: September 2017

Because the ability to communicate is considered a major – perhaps even the primary – defining characteristic of humanity, people assume that, throughout human history, elders have taught the young this essential survival skill. Despite agreement on the importance of learning to communicate, there is no consensus about the particular goals of communication education or even about how people learn. People in many parts of the world and for long stretches of history have assumed that communicative competence emerges almost naturally through innate predispositions and imitation. In other cultural and historical settings, communication abilities have been fostered through informal forms of coaching or apprenticeships that were specific to the context of use. Yet others have believed that communication skills and knowledge were subjects that could and should be taught formally or at least explicitly in educational institutions.
Communication and Law
Authors: Reynolds Amy
Published: September 2017

The phrase “communication and law” is used in this entry to refer broadly to the general field of speech and press law. It is also used to denote multidisciplinary research done at the intersection of two distinctly separate disciplines of study (communicationandlaw).
Communication Law and Policy: Asia
Authors: Weisenhaus Doreen
Published: September 2017

Communication law and policy in Asia covers a spectrum of issues involving widely varying political, cultural, and legal contexts across dozens of countries in the world's largest and most populous continent. While it can be difficult to generalize legal trends in the region because of a lack of conformity of interests and laws, or of agreement on what even constitutes Asia, several observations about the more significant developments at both the public level of media–government conflict and the private level involving civil litigation can be made.
Communication Law and Policy: Europe
Authors: Azurmendi Ana
Published: September 2017

The first newspapers were published in Europe in 1605:
Nieuwe Tijdinghen
in Antwerp and
Relation
in Strasbourg, both published as weeklies (→ Newspaper, Antecedents of; Newspaper, History of). Soon afterwards, more newspapers appeared in several European cities, until in 1650 the first daily newspaper was printed in Leipzig, Germany. Censorship and license were the key legal restraints on newspapers under the absolute monarchies of Europe (→ Censorship). The 1662 Licensing of the Press Act in England was the first media regulation. In the nineteenth century, dynamic movements of ideas, the consequent political changes, and technological improvements contributed to the emergence of the European press as we know it today (Chapman 2005), with precedents such as the
Daily Telegraph
in Britain (1855),
Le Petit Journal
in France (1863), and the news agencies Havas in France (1835), Wolff in Germany (1849), and Reuters in Britain (1851).
Communication Law and Policy: South America
Authors: Vittadini Andrés Susana N.
Published: September 2017

South America comprises 13 countries with a vast array of cultural backgrounds. Its cultural diversity stems from Spanish, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and a myriad of indigenous languages (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication), which is reflected in South American communication law and policy. Néstor García Canclini (2005) has called South American culture a hybrid variety of influence and patterns (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968
Authors: Simonson Peter , Peters John Durham
Published: September 2017

The international history of communication and media studies has yet to be written. To this point, most histories have been national, with disproportionate attention devoted to North America and western Europe. These emphases are not unwarranted, for the field established itself first on either side of the North Atlantic, was disseminated outward from there, and with a few exceptions remains best established in those regions today.
Communication Networks
Authors: Monge Peter , Margolin Drew
Published: September 2017

Communication and other → social networks have been the subject of considerable scholarship since the eighteenth century (Mattelart 2000), but the past two decades have produced unprecedented growth in network theorizing and research. Further, this interest in communication and information networks now spans the social sciences, including sociology, psychology, history, political science, organization science, and economics, as well as the physical and life sciences. As Castells (2000) has so comprehensively elucidated, we are now living in the age of the network society.
Communication Skills across the Life‐Span
Authors: Samter Wendy
Published: September 2017

This entry focuses on communication skills associated with success in same‐sex friendship across the life‐span. The ability to maintain a variety of relationships throughout life is important to people's well‐being, of which friendship is among the most significant. Individuals who lack friends experience myriad adjustment problems including drug and alcohol abuse, academic failure, antisocial conduct, depression, loneliness, anxiety, and fatigue. The relationship between friendship and communication has been studied in a variety of ways. One particularly promising approach involves analysis of individuals' conceptions and expectations of friendship, as well as the daily activities in which they engage (Zarbatany et al. 1990). Understanding what people think of and do with their friends tells us something about the duties and obligations of being a friend, the standards to which friends are held, and the kinds of skills through which such duties and standards are met (→ Developmental Communication).
Community Integration
Authors: Friedland Lewis A.
Published: September 2017

Community integration is a compound concept derived from sociology that addresses the two central questions of (1) how communities are formed, reproduce, grow, and change; and (2) what continually integrates or binds them together. The field of communications adds a third dimension, asking (3) what role communication plays in forming, sustaining, and integrating communities. Through much of the twentieth century, scholarship on community integration was primarily concerned with communities in geographic space. But, as virtual communities began to grow at the turn of the millennium, a fourth dimension of scholarship began to inquire about (4) the relationship between place‐based and virtual communities.
Compliance Gaining
Authors: Wilson Steven R.
Published: September 2017

The termcompliance gainingrefers to interactions during which one participant attempts to convince a second to perform some desired behavior that the second otherwise might not perform. Seeking and resisting compliance are common within personal relationships: an adolescent asks her parents if she can borrow the family automobile; a husband ignores his wife's hints to take out the garbage; a young man suggests to the person he has been dating that they see each other exclusively. Compliance‐gaining episodes also occur within professional relationships: A mid‐level manager asks her boss to reorganize which employees report directly to her; a dentist emphasizes the need for a patient to floss regularly; college students assigned to work together on a class project pressure a wayward member to complete his part of the project.
Computer Games and Reality Perception
Authors: Eastin Matthew S.
Published: September 2017

Immediately following the debut of Nintendo in 1995, researchers questioned what effects games likeSuper Mario Brothershad on those who played them (→ Computer Games and Child Development). Early → video games consisted primarily of objects or unidentifiable characters such asPac‐Man. Now, through several technological advancements, game play is more complex and has begun to visually mimic real life. For instance, within games and gaming communities of players, both male and female human forms of all races make up many of the characters.
Conflict as Media Content
Authors: Cottle Simon
Published: September 2017

Conflicts are endemic to the known social world and can be defined straightforwardly as struggles between opposing interests and outlooks. How the media report and represent conflicts have been questions throughout the history of media and communications research. From early studies of propaganda in World War I to the latest research into the media's role in propagating, post‐9/11, the US‐led “global war on terror,” media researchers have analyzed and theorized the multiple roles, dimensions, determinants, and impacts of media conflict reporting. In addition to studies of war reporting, countless others have examined, for example, how minority groups and protesters have been labeled and stereotyped in the media and how new social movements and cultural identities seek media access and symbolic recognition; how moral panics, public crises, and political scandals are performed and conditioned on the media stage (→ Scandalization in the News); how some conflicts become forgotten or hidden in dominant news agendas and how in others the media become involved in forwarding peace processes; how natural disasters and humanitarian emergencies are signaled around the world and how global risks, such as the fallout from nuclear accidents, migrating health pandemics, or climate change, become periodically symbolized and dramatized, discussed and debated (→ Agenda Building; Cottle 2006; in press).
Convergence of Media Systems
Authors: Kleinsteuber Hans J.
Published: September 2017

A system is an assemblage of individual elements that together constitute a whole, with each component interacting with the others and with the outer world (→ Cybernetics; Systems Theory). Using this approach, a media system may be seen as consisting of different publishing entities, such as → news agencies, the press, or → television, which relate to each other. To give an example, agencies provide news for the different media, such as the press and electronic media, which compete and cross‐promote at the same time. There are also links between the media system or its entities and the outer world of other systems, like politics (e.g., broadcasting legislation and regulation), economics (e.g., conglomerate companies or advertising), society (e.g., as readership or audience), or culture (e.g., popular culture and entertainment).
Corporate Design
Authors: Jevnaker Birgit H.
Published: September 2017

Corporate design is an umbrella term for all of a company's design‐oriented approaches to creating and projecting products/services, messages, brands, and other business or cultural propositions to external or internal audiences. Corporate design points to a potentially value creating, integrating business function. It deals with many design matters, embracing much more than the company logo (→ Corporate Communication).
Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Bartlett Jennifer L.
Published: September 2017

The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) comprises stakeholder expectations of the social, ethical, legal, and economic impacts of an organization. These expectations and the perceptions stakeholders have of an organization's corporate social responsibility are central outcomes of business planning, management and operations, → Marketing, → advertising, → corporate communication, and → public relations. Organizations seek to be perceived to be meeting their obligations to society, thereby gaining and maintaining a license to operate. Legitimacy is a major driver of corporate social responsibility (Sethi 1979). Increasing their attractiveness to potential and existing employees, investors and investment fund managers, and consumers is another motivation for organizations to adopt CSR principles. As such, CSR forms a central charter for public relations in communicating and creating mutual understanding, managing potential conflicts, and to achieving organizational legitimacy (→ Corporate Reputation; Organizational Image).
Co‐Viewing
Authors: McDonald Daniel G.
Published: September 2017

Co‐viewing is the viewing of media content in groups. Typically, the co‐viewing group is a dyad, but the term can also refer to groups of three or more. Most of the research has been conducted in regard to television viewing, but the concept has been a part of communication research since the investigation of silent motion pictures in the early 1900s (→ Exposure to Film). Generally, studies of co‐viewing fall into
three areas
: co‐viewing configurations (who views with whom and with what frequency), co‐viewing as a socialization aspect of the family decision‐making process (who controls the TV and decides what to watch), and – making up the bulk of current research on co‐viewing – parent–child co‐viewing as a mediation process (→ Audience).
Crime and Communication Technology
Authors: Ekblom Paul
Published: September 2017

Crime and communications are perennial and pervasive features of society, while equally subject to dramatic change. They have a complex and evolving relationship, covering both the communications function or service and its realization through communication technology (→ Technology and Communication). Attempts to control crime involve both conventional law enforcement/criminal justice and broader, more “scientific” approaches to prevention.
Cross‐Media Marketing
Authors: Bates Benjamin J.
Published: September 2017

Marketing refers to activities that promote and organize the distribution and sales of products to consumers (→ Marketing). Specifying “cross‐media” focuses on those activities that involve multiple media. As such, the term “cross‐media marketing” can be used to describe two somewhat related phenomena: general marketing and promotion activities that cross media boundaries (→ Advertising Strategies; Markets of the Media; Media Management); and efforts to increase sales of content by distributing them in a variety of media forms (→ Convergence of Media Systems; Distribution). Increasing competition and the rise of new media forms have fragmented audiences and markets (→ Audience Segmentation; Consumers in Media Markets; Digitization and Media Convergence), making cross‐media marketing more critical to comprehensive marketing strategies. The changing production and distribution cost structures brought about by technological developments have made selling content in multiple formats, for multiple devices, and across multiple outlets more viable (→ Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media; Information and Communication Technology, Economics of; Media Economics).
Cultural Topoi in Public Relations
Authors: Leichty Greg B.
Published: September 2017

A topos is a line of argument that can be adapted to a variety of subjects and audiences. Since Aristotle's time, communicators have used lists of topoi to generate arguments relevant to their persuasive tasks (→ Argumentative Discourse; Persuasion). In addition to introducing the cultural topoi perspective, this entry describes a set of topoi that are widely used: cultural premises about the social world and how human relationships should be organized (see Leichty & Warner 2001 for a detailed description).
Cultural Discourse Analysis
Authors: Carbaugh Donal
Published: September 2017

Cultural → discourse analysis (CuDA) is a theory and methodology for the study of communication. The approach treats communication as a socially situated practice which involves a rich semantic web of presumed or taken‐for‐granted knowledge. As such, social practices are heard to include for participants an implicit commentary which typically goes beyond the current topic of explicit concern. An understanding of both the practice and the commentary activated through it is at the heart of CuDA. As a theory, it treats communication as formative of social life and as culturally meaningful. As a methodology, it is based upon five distinctive modes of analysis (Carbaugh 1996, 2005; Scollo 2011; → Cultural Patterns and Communication; Interpersonal Communication; Language and Social Interaction; Research Methods).
Dance
Authors: Kaeppler Adrienne L.
Published: September 2017

Dance is a complex visual form that communicates through movement in time and space, often in conjunction with music and poetry. Dances convey → meaning through culturally understood conventions within social contexts (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts; Symbolic Interaction; Visual Communication).
Dating Relationships
Authors: Stafford Laura
Published: September 2017

Dating relationships have no uniform defining characteristics. They have romantic or sexual overtones, occur between two people who are not married to each other or to anyone else, typically do not share a residence, have not formally acknowledged plans to marry, and may or may not expect continued involvement. These relationships vary in expectations for and level of commitment, intimacy, exclusivity, and sexual activity. Dating relationships have often been equated with “premarital” relationships or are considered part of “courtship,” though it is recognized that most “premarital” relationships do not result in marriage, nor are they intended to. Dating as a relational form emerged in the US and has received limited research attention in nonwestern countries.
Death, Dying, and Communication
Authors: Bosticco Cecilia , Thompson Teresa L.
Published: September 2017

Death is considered a taboo topic in most cultures. The lack of willingness to talk about the issue reflects discomfort with the subject and attempts to deny the reality of death. Instead of talking openly about death, most people use euphemisms and metaphors to maintain distance from it. This communicative avoidance then defines death as an even more taboo issue. The topic of death was not even studied extensively by scholars until the 1970s.
Deception Detection Accuracy
Authors: Levine Timothy R.
Published: September 2017

Much research attention has been devoted to identifying the factors that affect people's ability to detect others' deceptive acts. Communication researchers typically have focused on the accuracy of judgments based on the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of a message source, unaided by technological devices or extra‐interaction information. In general, results show that people are not very good at detecting deception, that people overestimate their ability to detect deception, and that people are more likely to believe that others are honest than deceptive, independent of the other person's actual honesty.
Digital Media, History of
Authors: Chun Wendy Hui Kyong
Published: September 2017

Digital media, also known as “new media,” comprise content created, disseminated, and/or stored using digital computers or mobile devices (video games, blogs, etc.), as well as their physical embodiment (DVDs, flash memory sticks, etc.). Digital media are often defined in contrast to “analog media,” new media in contrast to “mass media.” The history of digital media documents the move of computers from glorified calculators to devices for human communications, entertainment, and creative production, linking digital media to earlier interactive machines and media.
Discourse, Cognitive Approaches to
Authors: Sanders Robert E.
Published: September 2017

Most Language and Social Interaction (LSI) researchers would agree that their findings about the social functionality of details of language use and social interaction have potential value for cognitive science. Schegloff (2006) cites evidence that people have cognitive capabilities for managing, detecting, and processing the socially consequential details of expressive acts whose complexity exceeds what cognitive science has recognized to date (→ Information Processing; Cognition).
Discourse Markers
Authors: Maschler Yael
Published: September 2017

Using language – “languaging” (Becker 1988) – is possible at two levels of discourse. Generally, when we use language, we look through it at a world we believe to exist beyond language. However, we can also use language for
metalanguaging
, i.e., in order to look through it at the process of using language itself (→ Linguistics; Conversation Analysis). Discourse markers can be viewed as linguistic elements employed for metalanguaging – languaging about the interaction, as opposed to languaging about the extralingual world. In other words, rather than referring to the world perceived by speakers to exist
beyond
language, discourse markers refer to the text itself, to the interaction among its speakers, or to the cognitive processes taking place in their minds during verbalization (Maschler 1994).
Diversification of Media Markets
Authors: Kunz William M.
Published: September 2017

Diversification is a defining characteristic of media firms and products in the new millennium. There was a time when media companies concentrated on their core business, whether through management decision‐making or government mandate, and when there were fewer distribution channels available to media producers. Time and innovation altered both of these to dramatic degrees. The parent corporations of the major motion picture production and distribution companies in → Hollywood, for example, are now part of diversified conglomerates with holdings in broadcast, cable and → satellite television, and → newspaper, → magazine, and → book publishing, and other media industries, as well as many others unrelated to their core businesses (→ Media Conglomerates; Film Production; Cable Television). These same corporations, moreover, distribute their products through countless channels, as the films that once headlined theaters around the world are also now viewed via satellite and cable television, home video, video‐on‐demand, iPods, and other new technologies.
Dual Coding Theory
Authors: David Prabu
Published: September 2017

In the typical demonstration of dual coding, a list consisting of an equal number of pictures and words is presented to study participants. On encountering an item in the list, the study participant is asked to read the word or name the picture. Later, when the items are recalled, twice as many pictures than words are recalled. This picture‐superiority effect, or the better recall of pictures over words, can be attributed to dual coding, which is the activation of traces in visual and verbal memory systems. While the verbal system is dedicated to processing of linguistic information, such as words and sentences, which are represented as discrete units or “logogens” and processed sequentially, the visual or imagistic system is dedicated to the processing of images, which are processed more holistically and represented through units referred to as “imagens” (Paivio 2006). The complementary role of two distinct, but interconnected, visual and verbal systems is at the heart of dual coding theory (DCT).
E‐Government
Authors: Margetts Helen
Published: September 2017

E‐government may be defined as the use by government of information and communication technologies, internally and to interact with citizens, firms, nongovernmental organizations, and other governments (→ Information and Communication Technology, Development of). E‐government in practice, therefore, consists of both complex networks of information systems within government organizations and a huge range of websites with which citizens can communicate, interact, and transact.
Election Campaign Communication
Authors: Semetko Holli A.
Published: September 2017

Election campaigns are among the most important events in the lives of democracies and societies in transition. Campaigns often constitute the high points in public debate about political issues (→ Political Discourse). Election campaign communication takes different forms in different national and regional contexts. It is shaped by both party and media systems and by the regulatory environment governing the campaign process (→ Political Communication Systems). Election communication is also influenced by the balance of party and media forces in shaping the news agenda, and that balance has been tipped by the increasing role played by citizens and interest groups in generating messages and news about parties, leaders, and issues.
Electronic Mail
Authors: Hassan Robert
Published: September 2017

Since the 1970s, electronic mail (email) has changed from being a rudimentary method of text‐based communication between a very few computer users in military research establishments, universities, and commercial telecommunications labs, to become a highly sophisticated and widespread media form. The growth of email has helped underpin not only the rise of the → Internet as a primary communicative technology of the early twenty‐first century, but has also been an important contributor to the ongoing expansion of the “network society” more generally (Castells 2000). Today, email has become a basic means of communication in the everyday life of hundreds of millions of people in the developed and developing economies of the world, linking and expanding their social, cultural, political, and economic realms in ways that continue to be unforeseen and innovative; bringing new issues, problems, and opportunities to the processes of institutions and to individual lives, which are increasingly shaped by digital technologies.
Emotion and Communication in Organizations
Authors: Tracy Sarah J.
Published: September 2017

Emotional communication is central to many jobs (→ Emotion). Stockbrokers express aggression, nurses communicate care, and emotions such as shame, pride, and fear are central in organizational evaluation. Until the early 1980s, organizational studies had traditionally written out emotion, treating it as a private issue, a barrier to effectiveness, or something that should be controlled (→ Organizational Communication). Organizations were assumed to be rational, scientific entities (→ Bureaucracy and Communication). If emotions were examined, they were measured as variables of job satisfaction, morale, or commitment. Furthermore, emotions were traditionally subjugated to the private, personal, feminine sphere (→ Feminist and Gender Studies).
Emotions, Media Effects on
Authors: Wirth Werner
Published: September 2017

Emotions are commonly understood as a complex of interactive entities encompassing subjective and objective factors and consisting of affective, cognitive, conative, and physiological components. The affective component includes the subjective experience of situations, which is connected to feelings of arousal (→ Excitation and Arousal), pleasure, or dissatisfaction (→ emotion). The cognitive component refers to how situations relevant to emotions are perceived and evaluated (→ Cognition). The conative component is related to expressive behavior, including facial and vocal expression and gestures (→ Facial Expressions; Gestures and Kinesics; Paralanguage). Also, emotions embed action tendencies such as approach (e.g., anger) or avoidance (e.g., anxiety; → Appraisal Theory). Finally, the physiological component encompasses peripheral reactions of the body that are mediated by the autonomous nervous system (physiological arousal).
Entertainment, Effects of
Authors: Bryant Jennings
Published: September 2017

One of the dominant functions of modern media is entertainment (Zillmann & Vorderer 2000). Moreover, entertainment offerings presented by virtually all mass media seem designed to provide immediate gratification of the diverse hedonic needs of modern media consumers.
Ethics in Journalism
Authors: Christians Clifford G.
Published: September 2017

Journalism ethics is a branch of applied philosophy in moral values and rules. Beginning with moral issues in medicine, the field expanded from the mid‐twentieth century to include such professions as law, business, journalism, and engineering. Applied ethics has developed over the decades from merely describing actual moral behavior to establishing principles that guide decision‐making. Journalism ethics retains an interest in the concrete, everyday challenges of professional practice, but considers it crucial to integrate those principles as well.
Excitation and Arousal
Authors: Bente Gary , Eschenburg Felix
Published: September 2017

Common sense holds that exposure to media content can be associated with different levels of excitement and arousal (→ Exposure to Communication Content). The specific case of a thrilling movie well describes the type of stimuli that come to our mind when using the terms arousal and excitation in everyday language. From a psychological point of view, arousal is conceptualized in more general terms, as a state of alertness and physical excitation elicited by external or internal stimuli, which challenge an adaptive response of the organism. The modern world is complex and rich in stimuli. It is in many respects different from the environment of our early ancestors, which required the organism to be physically prepared for immediate action, e.g., when possible threats entered the field of perception.
Excitation Transfer Theory
Authors: Zillmann Dolf
Published: September 2017

The theory of excitation transfer addresses sequential dependencies in emotional reactivity. Specifically, it predicts an enhancement of emotional reactions to immediately present emotion‐arousing situations by portions of excitation that are left over from preceding related or unrelated emotion‐arousing situations (→ emotion; Excitation and Arousal). The theory operationalizes excitation primarily as dominance of sympathetic activity in the autonomic nervous system and treats this activity as the main determinant of the intensity of emotional behavior and experience (Zillmann 1983, 1996). Excitation transfer theory was initially advanced and tested to explain emotional reactivity in immediate social interactions. It equally applies, however, to emotional reactivity evoked by exposure to communication. Excitation transfer may be created by emotions from message exposure and affect emotions in social interactions, be created by emotions from social interactions and affect emotions from message exposure, and be both created by and affect emotions from message exposure (Zillmann 2006).
Exposure to News
Authors: Unz Dagmar C.
Published: September 2017

In democratic societies, “being informed” is regarded as part of the citizen's duty in order to form a political opinion and to participate in political life. The media, on the one hand, play a major role in the transmission of information about current events, and they are thought to be very influential. To fulfill its democratic responsibilities, the audience, on the other hand, is expected to consume news with a high level of attention in order to get detailed information, to learn as much as possible. Corresponding to these expectations, television is the principal source of information about current events for most people, and getting the news belongs to their daily routines. The acceptance of the civic duty to be informed is correlated with the frequency of news consumption (Poindexter & McCombs 2001) and news consumption is positively related with civic participation (Ksiazek et al. 2010).
Exposure to Television
Authors: Hasebrink Uwe
Published: September 2017

Research on exposure to → television builds a large and heterogeneous field with one common denominator. Studies of television viewing try to provide evidence on the question: What do people do with television? Exposure to television has developed as a major research field since we cannot understand television as a medium of public communication without considering those who actually watch it. In particular, the television industry has an existential interest in finding out how many people watch its programs; it is exactly this kind of audience data that it can sell to the → advertising industry (→ Media Economics). But even beyond this economic interest, information on exposure to television is a necessary condition for any statement on the role of television in people's everyday lives and on potential social and individual consequences of television (→ Exposure to Communication Content; Audience Research).
Extended Parallel Process Model
Authors: Witte Kim
Published: September 2017

The goal of the extended parallel process model (EPPM) is to provide guidance on how to manage fear generated from communications about a threat. Fear is a powerful motivator, and the key to a successful communication about a threat is to channel this fear into a direction that promotes adaptive, self‐protective actions, and prevents maladaptive, inhibiting, or self‐defeating actions (→ Information Processing).
Fear Induction through Media Content
Authors: Sparks Glenn G.
Published: September 2017

The capacity for media messages to induce fear has been the object of scholarly inquiry since at least the 1930s when the Payne Fund Studies launched the first systematic effort to study the impact of media on children and adolescents. As part of that effort, Herbert Blumer (1933) found that 93 percent of the children who participated in his study reported that they had been scared by something seen in a motion picture. Some scholars maintain that, taken together, the Payne Fund Studies introduced the “legacy of fear,” a phrase used to describe the main attitude that audiences had to media content at that time. Despite the prevalence of fright reactions to media indicated by Blumer's finding, there was little research on this topic for nearly 50 years. Nevertheless, the phenomenon of media‐induced fear certainly manifested itself repeatedly over that 50‐year period (→ Media Effects, History of).
Femininity and Feminine Values
Authors: Macdonald Myra , Dolan Josephine
Published: September 2017

Femininity and feminine values refer to qualities of appearance, behavior, and practices conventionally attributed to women. Feminist thinking strongly endorses the view that these qualities are not innate, but exist as ideological constructs, defined in opposition to masculinity and masculine values (→ Masculinity and the Media; News Ideologies). The superiority ascribed to masculinity in patriarchal thinking devalues “femininity,” despite attributing some positive characteristics to it. As ideological constructs, femininity and feminine values are historically and culturally specific and are variously inflected through other formations, such as class, race, sexuality, and age, that produce hierarchies between women.
Feminist and Gender Studies
Authors: Carter Cynthia , Mendes Kaitlynn
Published: September 2017

Feminist and gender studies represent key fields of research within communication studies today. It is difficult to discuss their emergence and developments as two separate entities, as the two often overlap. However, it can be noted that mainstream forms of gender studies research tend to differ from feminist studies politically, theoretically, and methodologically. As Dow and Condit (2005, 449) argue, “The field of communication has come too far to categorize all research on women, or even gender, as feminist in its orientation. Rather, the moniker of ‘feminist’ is reserved for research that studies communication theories and practices from a perspective that ultimately is oriented toward the achievement of ‘gender justice,’ a goal that takes into account the ways that gender always already intersects with race, ethnicity, sexuality, and class.”