bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Kim Steven
Published: November 2020

The world around us abounds with problems requiring creative solutions. Some of these are naturally induced, as when an earthquake levels a city or an epidemic decimates a population. Others are products of our own creation, as in the “need” to curb pollution, to develop a theory of intelligence, or to compose works of art. Still others are a combination of both, as in the development of high-yield grains to feed an overpopulated planet, or the maintenance of health in the face of ravaging diseases. The word problem is used in a general sense to refer to any mental activity having some recognizable goal. The goal itself may not be apparent beforehand. Problems may be characterized by three dimensions relating to domain, difficulty, and size. These attributes are depicted in Figure 1.1. The domain refers to the realm of application. These realms may relate to the sciences, technology, arts, or social crafts. The dimension of difficulty pertains to the conceptual challenge involved in identifying an acceptable solution to the problem. A difficult problem, then, is one that admits no obvious solution, nor even a well-defined approach to seeking it. The size denotes the magnitude of work or resources required to develop a solution and implement it. This attribute differs from the notion of difficulty in that it applies to the stage that comes after a solution has been identified. In other words, difficulty refers to the prior burden in defining a problem or identifying a solution, while size describes the amount of work required to implement or realize the solution once it has jelled conceptually. For convenience in representation on a 2-dimensional page, the domain axis may be compressed into the plane of other attributes. The result is Figure 1.2, which presents sample problems to illustrate the two dimensions of difficulty and size. Cleaning up spilled milk is a trivial problem having numerous simple solutions. In contrast, refacing the subway trains in New York City with a fresh coat of paint is a formidable task that could require hundreds of workyears of effort.
Strategies for Research
Authors: Kim Steven
Published: November 2020

The purpose of research is to acquire knowledge. In pure fields such as philosophy or science, the pursuit of knowledge is ideally an open-minded affair engaged in for its own sake. In other activities such as applied research or industrial development, the inquiring mind seeks out new knowledge to support specific objectives. The open-ended nature of research endeavors and their lack of obvious solutions and promising avenues usually qualify them as difficult problems. This chapter explores a number of domain-independent issues and techniques for pursuing research in various disciplines. For the sake of concreteness, much of our discussion in this chapter focuses on the academic environment of graduate research. However, most of the topics and approaches pertain as well to research in other settings, whether a government laboratory or a corporate marketing office. The newcomer to the research enterprise tends to have a simple view of what research entails. He initially believes that following a few suggestions from the advisor will lead to demonstrable results, a series of advances that can be measured by the hour or week. He has a tacit belief that progress will ensue automatically over time, much like attending a hamburger stand, raking autumn leaves, or solving homework problems. How could he believe otherwise? He has little or no prior experience with difficult problems of the magnitude that now face him. Perhaps the most important thing he will learn in the first year or so is the environment of research. Addressing difficult problems requires a new mind-set, a willingness to explore new horizons, maintain an open mind, appreciate small insights, and even enjoy the steady stream of failures as well as successes. Learning to conduct research systematically will be the most important aspect of his education in the first year. If the research effort spans a planning horizon of about two years, the indoctrination will occur in conjunction with an orientation phase during the first half-year, a period for defining the problem and gathering relevant information.
Supervising the Researcher
Authors: Kim Steven
Published: November 2020

In the first sixteen years or more of our formal education, there is little to prepare us for the rigors of research or the demands of life in general. In lectures we are taught facts and techniques; in homework we develop skills by applying those techniques. Even in project-based courses such as those sometimes found in engineering and business curricula, the experience is relatively structured. In general, the goals are precisely defined as are the alternative paths to the solution. Although more helpful than lectures, such project-based experiences still provide an inadequate preview of the rigors of earnest research. There are courses in logic offered by the philosophy department, cognitive processes in psychology, and artificial intelligence in computer science. But they are not usually core requirements in the college curriculum. Further, even these courses generally deal with facts, figures, and straightforward deductive procedures. These analytical and deductive methods are necessary but insufficient for solving difficult problems. The most challenging problems are, by definition, not straightforward. We are not taught in school how to grope intelligently, to stumble with style. Our educational system, like society at large, discourages creative behavior which necessarily deviates from the norm. The forces of convergence, including the need for group identification and the fear of ostracism, are more numerous and powerful than those of divergence. Teachers, parents, and peers tend to encourage standardized rather than unexpected behaviors. The creative person must have a healthy dose of confidence and self-respect, since risk and creativity go hand in hand. If we learn to think effectively and address difficult problems systematically, our skills spring from personal experience rather than formal education. For our educational system teaches advanced thinking skills in spotty fashion, at best. If we learn to think effectively, it is usually a by-product rather than a keystone of the course work. Studies of 301 historical figures born since 1450 indicate the dubious impact of education on eminence. The sample included 109 leaders, ranging from the American general Philip Henry Sheridan as the most obscure to Napoleon Bonaparte as the most renowned; and 192 creators ranging from the English novelist Harriet Martineau to the French writer Voltaire.
Beginning to Spell
Authors: Treiman Rebecca
Published: November 2020

This groundbreaking study on the psycholinguistics of spelling presents the author's original empirical research on spelling and supplies the theoretical framework necessary to understand how children's ability to write is related to their ability to speak a language. The author explores areas in a field dominated by work traditionally concerned with the psychodynamics of reading skills and, in so doing, highlights the importance of learning to spell for both psycholinguists and educators, since as they begin to spell, children attempt to represent the phonological, or sound form, of words. The study of children's spelling can shed light on the nature of phonological systems and can illuminate the way sounds are organized into larger units, such as syllables and words. Research on children's spelling leads directly to an understanding of the way phonological knowledge is acquired and how phonological systems change with the development of reading and writing ability. In addition to this insight concerning cognitive processes, the findings presented here have implications for how spelling should be taught and why some writing systems are easier to master than others. The work will interest a wide range of cognitive and developmental psychologists, psycholinguists, and educational psychologists, as well as linguists and educators interested in psycholinguistics.
Spatial Cognition as Events
Authors: Böök Anders
Published: November 2020

This chapter deals with the question of how adults process information about large-scale physical features and their spatial relations during navigation between places. The presentation is based on the presumption that single acts of cognition are comparatively unimportant in real-life travel. Accordingly, sequential relations between acts are emphasized, which is the reason for the term event in the title. In general, ways of seeing how spatial cognition is organized in time and space should further the search for connections between the fields of spatial cognition, environmental assessment and action. However, the latter prospect is beyond the scope of this chapter. The aim—to make explicit the sequence aspect of cognitive acts in several problem areas of spatial cognition—is pursued in a spirit of inductive analysis in that a number of act sequences are discussed as examples of important spatial cognition events. The approach is first described in broad outline. Processing of large-scale spatial information may entail different theoretical perspectives on levels of mental functioning. Basic mechanisms and operations that underlie the occurrence of cognitive acts represent one level, being the main focus of contemporary theory construction and model building. Further, cognitive acts are reflected in conscious activity and self-consciousness, which represent a second level. Finally, a third level emerges to the extent that cognitive acts are reliably ordered continuously in time and space. Common categories of acts in large-scale spatial cognition are perceptual identification, encoding, recognition, and recall of environmental information, judgments of topological, projective, and metric spatial relations, spatial inference, visual-spatial imagery, and spatial choice. Detailed processing underlying these cognitive acts is progressively unraveled by means of refined task paradigms, deductive reasoning, mathematics, and procedures for controlling subjects’ behavioral and mental activities. This kind of knowledge is sparse in the field of large-scale spatial cognition (Pick, 1985). Independent variables in experiments have been related as often to issues of development, the structure of location information in cognitive maps, methodology, or application as to the nature of processing per se (cf. Evans, 1980). In the long run, theory about underlying processing is indispensible for any of these concerns, including the event approach to be presented here.
When Old Technologies Were New
Authors: Marvin Carolyn
Published: November 2020

In the history of electronic communication, the last quarter of the nineteenth century holds a special place, for it was during this period that the telephone, phonograph, electric light, wireless, and cinema were all invented. In When old Technologies Were New, Carolyn Marvin explores how two of these new inventions--the telephone and the electric light--were publicly envisioned at the end of the nineteenth century, as seen in specialized engineering journals and popular media. Marvin pays particular attention to the telephone, describing how it disrupted established social relations, unsettling customary ways of dividing the private person and family from the more public setting of the community. On the lighter side, she describes how people spoke louder when calling long distance, and how they worried about catching contagious diseases over the phone. A particularly powerful chapter deals with telephonic precursors of radio broadcasting--the "Telephone Herald" in New York and the "Telefon Hirmondo" of Hungary--and the conflict between the technological development of broadcasting and the attempt to impose a homogenous, ethnocentric variant of Anglo-Saxon culture on the public. While focusing on the way professionals in the electronics field tried to control the new media, Marvin also illuminates the broader social impact, presenting a wide-ranging, informative, and entertaining account of the early years of electronic media.
Disequilibrium 3: Internal Variables
Authors: Bayly Brian
Published: November 2020

In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, the usefulness of the concept chemical potential has been explored for describing and predicting movement of material from point to point in space—from a location where a component's potential is high to a location where its potential is lower. But chemical potential influences another type of material behavior as well, as in the example at the end of Chapter 2, the polymerization of vinyl chloride. The polymerization is a process that runs at a certain rate, like diffusion of salt, and the rate depends on the potential difference between the starting state and the end state; but unlike diffusion of salt, there is no overall movement from one location to a new location—the vinyl chloride simply polymerizes where it is. There are movements, of course, on the scale of the interatomic distances, but nothing corresponding to the 4 m of travel that appears in the discussion of the dike. If no travel is involved, it is not so easy to calculate a potential gradient along the travel path and go on to predict a rate of response. Yet there definitely is a rate of response, even with PVC polymerizing. The purpose of this chapter is to consider this matter; we shall then be equipped to begin considering nonhydrostatic conditions. The essential idea is to represent all possible degrees of polymerization along an axis, as in Figure 5.1. The figure is drawn to represent a condition where the chemical potential per kilogram is greater in the monomer form than in the dimer form, i.e., a condition where the material polymerizes spontaneously. Suppose we know the chemical potential per kilogram for all degrees of polymerization and also, at some temperature, the rates at which 2 forms from 1, 3 forms from 2, etc. (per kg of the starting form in a pure state). Then we arbitrarily pick a distance on the horizontal axis to separate point 1 from point 2.
Optical Effects of Large Particles
Authors: Carder Kendall L. , Costello David K.
Published: November 2020

Two important problems facing the ocean optics research community in the coming decade concern optical model closure and inversion (see Chapter 3). We obtain model closure if we can describe the measured light environment by combining elementary measurements of the optical properties of the medium with radiative transfer theory. If we can accurately deduce the concentration of various constituents from a combination of measures of the submarine light field and inverse model calculations, we term this process model inversion. The most elementary measurements of the optical properties of the sea are those that are independent of the geometry of the light field, the inherent optical properties (Preisendorfer, 1961). Optical properties that are dependent on the geometry of the light field are termed apparent optical properties (AOP). Models of the submarine light field typically relate apparent optical properties to inherent optical properties (see Chapter 2). Examples include the relationship between the AOP irradiance reflectance R and a combination of inherent optical properties (backscattering coefficient bb and absorption coefficient a), and the relationship between the AOP downwelling diffuse attenuation coefficient kd and a combination of the absorption coefficient, backscattering coefficient, and downwelling average cosine μd (e.g., Gordon et al., 1975; Morel and Prieur, 1977; Smith and Baker, 1981; Morel, 1988; Kirk, 1984a). Under some circumstances these relationships work well enough that the absorption coefficient can be derived indirectly. This is important since measurement of the absorption coefficient by direct means has been difficult. Derived values for the absorption coefficient by model inversion methods are not easily verified by independent measurements, however, because of the difficulty of measuring the absorption coefficient. Model closure and model inversion both become more tenuous when the following phenomena are present: 1. Transpectral or inelastic scattering such as fluorescence (e.g., Gordon, 1979; Carder and Steward, 1985; Mitchell and Kiefer, 1988a; Spitzer and Dirks, 1985; Hawes and Carder, 1990) or water Raman scattering (Marshall and Smith, 1990; Stavn, 1990; Stavn and Weidemann, 1988a,b; Peacock et al, 1990; Chapter 12 this volume). 2. Particles that are large relative to the measurement volume for inherent optical property meters such as beam transmissometers, light-scattering photometers, fluorometers, and absorption meters.
Closed-Cycle OTEC Systems
Authors: Avery William H. , Wu Chih
Published: November 2020

The Rankine closed cycle is a process in which beat is used to evaporate a fluid at constant pressure in a “boiler” or evaporator, from which the vapor enters a piston engine or turbine and expands doing work. The vapor exhaust then enters a vessel where heat is transferred from the vapor to a cooling fluid, causing the vapor to condense to a liquid, which is pumped back to the evaporator to complete the cycle. A layout of the plantship shown in Fig. 1-2. The basic cycle comprises four steps, as shown in the pressure-volume (p—V) diagram of Fig. 4-1. 1. Starting at point a, heat is added to the working fluid in the boiler until the temperature reaches the boiling point at the design pressure, represented by point b. 2. With further heat addition, the liquid vaporizes at constant temperature and pressure, increasing in volume to point c. 3. The high-pressure vapor enters the piston or turbine and expands adiabatically to point d. 4. The low-pressure vapor enters the condenser and, with heat removal at constant pressure, is cooled and liquefied, returning to its original volume at point a. The work done by the cycle is the area enclosed by the points a,b,c,d,a. This is equal to Hc–Hd, where H is the enthalpy of the fluid at the indicated point. The heat transferred in the process is Hc–Ha Thus the efficiency, defined as the ratio of work to heat used, is: . . . efficiency(η)=Hc–Hd/Hc–Ha (4.1.1) . . . Carnot showed that if the heat-engine cycle was conducted so that equilibrium conditions were maintained in the process, that the efficiency was determined solely by the ratio of the temperatures of the working fluid in the evaporator and the condenser. . . . η=TE–Tc/TE (4.1.2) . . . The maximum Carnot efficiency can be attained only for a cycle in which thermal equilibrium exists in each phase of the process; however, for power to be generated a temperature difference must exist between the working fluid in the evaporator and the warm-water heat source, and between the working fluid in the condenser and the cold-water heat sink.
Purposes and Methods
Authors: Crouch Dora P.
Published: November 2020

Water has been a persistent and consistent factor in urban development and history. One advantage in studying water as it relates to the process of urbanization is that the behavior of water, and therefore to a large extent the management of water, are “culture free.” As Mendelssohn (1974) has shown with respect to the physics of pyramid construction and collapse, some aspects of the ancient world—religion, marriage customs—are culture bound but others—behavior of construction materials, water—are much less conditioned by human preferences. Thus, insights from modern hydraulic engineering can have “chronology-free” validity. We can confidently turn to hydraulic engineers for insight into ancient water management, since water still behaves as it always has and is to be managed as it always was. For instance, modern engineers looking for locations for bridges and dams to be built anew as part of Rome’s modern water system, again and again find ancient ruins of bridges and dams just where they have determined are the best locations for new ones. Also, at Pergamon, the long-distance waterlines that supplied the Hellenistic and Roman city have been studied by professional hydraulic engineers, who followed each line through the countryside. When puzzled by a missing segment of the ancient line, they asked, “Where would I put the line next, if I were designing it?” and most often they found fragments of the missing segment just in that place, because the behavior of flowing water and the concepts for controlling it remain constant. Comprehensive treatment of the topic of ancient Greek water management and its close relation to the process of urbanization in the Greek world of the eighth to first centuries B.C. would involve the work of many scholars. To cite one name only of many for each subtopic, one could mention the following authors who have studied or are currently studying aspects of the question: Brinker on cisterns Camp on pipe classification (in progress); Camp has already studied the water system of Athens Doxiadis et al. on urban location Eck on legal and administrative aspects (in progress) Fahlbusch on long-distance water supply lines Garbrecht on the water supply of Pergamon Ginouves on baths Glaser on fountainhouses Grewe on the surveying of ancient waterlines and tunnels Gunay and his students on karst geology in southern Turkey Martin on urban form
Urban Location Determinants: Argos, Gela, and Pergamon
Authors: Crouch Dora P.
Published: November 2020

A city is the locus of both sociocultural and physical-technical elements in a society. To begin to understand the importance of both kinds of factors, ancient cities are convenient examples to study, especially dead ones that do not “wiggle” under the microscope. By isolating one urban system (water management) we can begin to understand the complication and variability that characterize these early cities, and hence gain insight into the development of other urban systems, as well as the role that water management plays in the evolution of all cities. The received wisdom about the placement of cities usually rates defense as the primary factor, with access to arable land and concentration of trade activities being the other two important factors. A hill top, a protruding ridge, a peninsula or an isthmus between two rivers—all were sites easily defended by walls and hand weapons. Even a broad plain could be utilized if there were a slight rise that could be fortified, such as at the Mycenaean city of Tiryns in Greece. A city on a slight rise in the midst of broad fields of arable and irrigable soil was ideal. Such a formulation leaves out the possibility of deliberately choosing as a site a port city that tapped directly into grazing lands, or the importance of a balance of either fish or meat complementing cereals in the diet. It is more accurate to say that two kinds of food were necessary, either crops and fish or crops and meat. This concept broadens the number and kinds of “ideal” sites. Trade routes, the third factor, also are more complex in form and have more varied effects on urban location than early theories would admit. There are at least three kinds: 1. Overland routes (e.g., the Santa Fe Trail, with its two terminals at Independence, Mo., and Santa Fe., N.M., with Santa Fe being a crossroads where routes from Los Angeles and Mexico City also converged) 2. Land and water interchanges (the north-south land route through France crossing at Paris the east-west river route along the Seine) 3. Water-water interchanges such as New Orleans (Gulf of Mexico and Mississippi River) or Amsterdam (Rhine River and Atlantic Ocean)
Questions and Considerations
Authors: Schwehn Mark R.
Published: November 2020

To insist, as I have, that conversation is central to the life of the mind and then to fail to act upon this claim would be at best a serious lapse in judgment. I have accordingly framed a series of questions that my friends and colleagues, all of them named in the Acknowledgments, have actually raised about the analysis and arguments I have thus far advanced. Most of these questions involve practical matters, and they arise from doubts about the desirability of some consequences of my general recommendations or about the feasibility of realizing any one of them. Other questions, however, pose difficulties for some of my basic assumptions. None of them invites an easy “answer”; I have therefore responded to all of them with a set of considerations designed to advance our thinking, not to settle the issues that they raise once and for all. However well intended and even persuasive the alternative account of the academic vocation might be, its effect is likely to be unfortunate. Will it not give aid and comfort to the mediocrities on all college and university faculties, since it will seem to warrant their lack of scholarly publication by legitimating all sorts of other activities as worthy of academic respect? The inadvertent promotion of mediocrity would indeed be unfortunate, but so too would be the acceptance of the implicit equation that the question draws between academic mediocrity and lack of scholarly publication. There may well be an empirical correlation between these two things, but there should not be, for that reason, a strong conceptual link presumed between them. The explanation for the often alleged statistical correlation between mediocrity and low scholarly “productivity” has less relation to the intrinsic connections between scholarship and teaching than to sloth, the vice that leads both to poor teaching and to a lack of publication. It may be that the apprehension that gives rise to the present question involves the conflation of two sets of distinctions into one. One set is qualitative, the other generic; one embraces the excellent, the good, the mediocre, and the bad; the other embraces the academic monograph, the book review, the essay, the textbook, the critique of a colleague’s manuscript, the written lecture, in brief all inscribed instances of pedagogy.
Unimolecular Reaction Dynamics
Authors: Baer Tomas , Hase William L.
Published: November 2020

This book provides a penetrating and comprehensive description of energy selected reactions from a theoretical as well as experimental view. Three major aspects of unimolecular reactions involving the preparation of the reactants in selected energy states, the rate of dissociation of the activated molecule, and the partitioning of the excess energy among the final products, are fully discussed with the aid of 175 illustrations and over 1,000 references, most from the recent literature. Examples of both neutral and ionic reactions are presented. Many of the difficult topics are discussed at several levels of sophistication to allow access by novices as well as experts. Among the topics covered for the first time in monograph form is a discussion of highly excited vibrational/rotational states and intramolecular vibrational energy redistribution. Problems associated with the application of RRKM theory are discussed with the aid of experimental examples. Detailed comparisons are also made between different statistical models of unimolecular decomposition. Both quantum and classical models not based on statistical assumptions are described. Finally, a chapter devoted to the theory of product energy distribution includes the application of phase space theory to the dissociation of small and large clusters. The work will be welcomed as a valuable resource by practicing researchers and graduate students in physical chemistry, and those involved in the study of chemical reaction dynamics.
Cognitive Issues in Virtual Reality
Authors: Wickens Christopher D. , Baker Polly
Published: November 2020

Virtual reality involves the creation of multisensory experience of an environment (its space and events) through artificial, electronic means; but that environment incorporates a sufficient number of features of the non-artificial world that it is experienced as “reality.” The cognitive issues of virtual reality are those that are involved in knowing and understanding about the virtual environment (cognitive: to perceive and to know). The knowledge we are concerned with in this chapter is both short term (Where am I in the environment? What do I see? Where do I go and how do I get there?), and long term (What can and do I learn about the environment as I see and explore it?). Given the recent interest in virtual reality as a concept (Rheingold, 1991; Wexelblat, 1993; Durlach and Mavor, 1994), it is important to consider that virtual reality is not, in fact, a unified thing, but can be broken down into a set of five features, any one of which can be present or absent to create a greater sense of reality. These features consist of the following five points. 1. Three-dimensional (perspective and/or stereoscopic) viewing vs. two-dimensional planar viewing. (Sedgwick, 1986; Wickens et al., 1989). Thus, the geography student who views a 3D representation of the environment has a more realistic view than one who views a 2D contour map. 2. Dynamic vs. static display. A video or movie is more real than a series of static images of the same material. 3. Closed-loop (interactive or learner-centered) vs. open-loop interaction. A more realistic closed-loop mode is one in which the learner has control over what aspect of the learning “world” is viewed or visited. That is, the learner is an active navigator as well as an observer. 4. Inside-out (ego-referenced) vs. outside-in (world-referenced) frame-of-reference. The more realistic inside-out frame-of-reference is one in which the image of the world on the display is viewed from the perspective of the point of ego-reference of the user (that point which is being manipulated by the control). This is often characterized as the property of “immersion.” Thus, the explorer of a virtual undersea environment will view that world from a perspective akin to that of a camera placed on the explorer’s head;
Overpopulation: Escape to the Stars?
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

"Why worry about too many people on earth when we have the whole universe to expand into? Europe solved its population problems earlier by shipping the excess off to the New World: why can't we continue this process? Already our space programs have pointed the way." This possibility is constantly raised in public meetings and should be taken seriously. So long as there is a glimmer of hope in sidestepping the problem of overpopulation by escaping to the stars, many people will refuse to grapple with the problem of adjusting to earthly limits. In the 1950s a Monsignor Irving A. DeBlanc deplored "an often expressed idea that birth control is the only answer to problems created by a fast-growing world population." Instead of trying to curb population growth, said DeBlanc, we should welcome it and make plans to ship off the excess. Thus we could continue humanity's millennia-old tradition of moving to a new home after making a mess of our old one. We can grant that DeBlanc's intentions were good. They fitted in with his value system: he was the director of the National Catholic Welfare Conference's Family Life Bureau, an organization committed to encouraging large families. Their publicity was addressed principally to Roman Catholics. Some Catholics endorse space migration because the church hierarchy opposes artificial methods of birth control. But we must not forget that science itself has become something of a religion to millions of people. The marvels of technology have brought many people to an uncritical worship of a god called "Progress," which is sometimes equated with perpetual growth. If this means that the control of population growth is immoral there remains only migration to the stars to correct for overpopulation on earth. Thus can theistic and atheistic religions meet at the crossroads of conception. In 1958, four years after the founding of NASA—the National Aeronautics and Space Administration—its congressional guardian, the Science and Astronautics Committee, supported the idea of space migration as an ultimate solution to the problem of a "bursting population." The hired technical staff of NASA no doubt thought poorly of proposals like DeBlanc's; but when an agency is fighting for the space that counts—space at the public trough—its administrators are in no hurry to correct statements that increase the size of their budget.
The Ambivalent Triumph of Optimism
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

To increase—even to live—human populations require exploitable resources. Concern for the future of our children makes us wonder how long resources will last. Attitudes toward conservation depend largely on information furnished by the press, radio, and television. How good is this information? Mostly it is not very good. We don't have to probe the shoddier representatives of the press to illustrate the fine art of warping attitudes. A single example from a quality source will do. How much petroleum is there in the world? This is not a simple question. Do we want to know the total amount of petroleum resources, both discovered and undiscovered? This is obviously debatable. A more useful base on which to lay plans for the near future is what is called proved reserves, which is defined as the supply "that can be economically produced with current technology at today's prices." Before proceeding further it would be well to call attention to the confusibility of the terms resources and reserves. A creative writer who turned out a novel in which the two principal characters were named Jean Robinson and Jan Robertson would be criticized for causing needless confusion. Unfortunately the analysts of the real world frequently burden the public with terms that, though definitively different, scarcely differ to the eye and ear. Such are resources and reserves. These terms have been used for so long that they can hardly be jettisoned now. When a feeling of imminent confusion sweeps over the reader, he is urged to review the definitions in the preceding paragraph. Even for reserves there is no precise and stable figure. A new technology may lower the cost of taking oil out of the ground. A rise in price will cause the ledger entry for some underground oil to be moved from the category of economically unrecoverable to that of economically recoverable. The scarcity that causes the price to rise "brings oil out of the ground," in the words of optimistic economists. Scarcity, in the mind of some economists, creates more oil. (Geologists know better.) The price of oil is very sensitive to proved reserves, but decidedly insensitive to estimates of ultimate resources.
A Guide to Phospholipid Chemistry
Authors: Hanahan Donald J.
Published: November 2020

This book provides a concise introduction to phospholipid chemistry and is intended for a broad audience of biologists, biochemists, and graduate students. Developed as part of a graduate course on lipids, this book also serves as a reference for laboratory investigators on signal transduction and biological membranes. The first part of the text is devoted to an orientation to the chemical nature of lipids in general, how they are thought to be associated in the cell, and the methodology by which the cellular lipids (including the phospholipids) can be recovered from cells and subjected to an initial identification. Subsequent chapters characterize the choline-containing phospholipids, including the sphingolipids, the non-choline containing phospholipids, and finally, the so-called minor phospholipids. The latter compounds, which act as agonists or lipid chemical mediators on cells, form a vanguard of a new category of biologically active substances and have set the study of cellular phospholipids on a new and exiting course. Most importantly, this book provides a basis for further inquiry on these complicated molecules, showing that although the compounds are unique, with care and understanding, they can be studied with ease
Introduction to n-Widths and s-Numbers
Authors: Kowalski Marek A. , Sikorski Krzystof A. , Stenger Frank
Published: November 2020

n-Widths and s-numbers provide conceptual generalizations of the classical concepts of best approximation. These concepts give both a new idea of best approximation, and they also play an important role for better understanding of best approximation and complexity.
Applications
Authors: Kowalski Marek A. , Sikorski Krzystof A. , Stenger Frank
Published: November 2020

We shall now take time to demonstrate some applications of the foregoing material. We discuss here Burgers’ equation problem, the simplest fluid dynamics conservation law problem, as well as the approximation of band-limited signals, and the bisection method for nonlinear zero finding problems. In this section we illustrate the application of Sine approximation to the approximate solution of Burgers’ equation.
Recursion Theory for Metamathematics
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M
Published: November 2020

This work is a sequel to the author's Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems, though it can be read independently by anyone familiar with Gödel's incompleteness theorem for Peano arithmetic. The book deals mainly with those aspects of recursion theory that have applications to the metamathematics of incompleteness, undecidability, and related topics. It is both an introduction to the theory and a presentation of new results in the field.
Thoughts on Geographic Variation in Behavior
Authors: Foster Susan A. , Endler John A.
Published: November 2020

In the past, behavior was assumed to be largely invariant within species, particularly those elements of behavior used as criteria of mate choice or in species recognition (see Magurran this volume, Verrell this volume). As is obvious from this volume, geographic variation could well be the common condition rather than the exception, and this applies to the full spectrum of behavioral phenotypes. Not only must students of behavior avoid typological thinking (Mayr 1963), but those wishing to infer similarity of behavior among populations must demonstrate the similarity just as surely as those interested in exploring population differentiation must demonstrate the differences. Behavior is as much a phenotype as is morphology; it is the expression of the combined effects of genotype and environment. Like other traits, behavior varies geographically because it is subject to geographically varying conditions and, hence, to natural selection, gene flow, and genetic drift. The chapters in this book provide examples of this variation, of the underlying genetic bases for the differences, and in many cases, the causes of the geographic variation. The study of geographic variation in behavior is in very early stages and lags well behind research on geographic variation in other kinds of traits (Endler 1977, 1986, 1995). Consequently, we cannot answer with assurance many of the questions we would like to be able to answer. However, we can take a first step using the insights offered by the research presented in this book. Before doing so, we briefly address some of the methodological issues that emerged over the course of the research because many are specific to the study of behavior or of geographic variation. We hope this will help others avoid problems encountered in these early studies. Many of the methodological issues discussed in the chapters in this book are related to the difficulty of working with behavioral characteristics that are extremely labile and responsive to environmental conditions. The remainder are issues related to the interpretation of data collected to assess patterns and causes of geographic variation. We will examine them in turn.
Software by Design
Authors: Salzman Harold , Rosenthal Stephen R.
Published: November 2020

As computers become more and more integral to business and other organizational operations around the world, software design must increasingly meet the social demands of the workplace. This book provides an informative, cogent examination of how various social factors--such as organizational structure, workplace relations, and market conditions--together shape software developers' technical design decisions. Through a survey of major software companies and in-depth case studies of the banking, hospital, and equipment field service industries, the authors identify factors that influence specific design strategies and examine the significant consequences that engineering decisions have on users' work, workplace quality of life, and opportunities for autonomy and skill development. The book concludes with a chapter devoted to exploring how a progressive design approach can improve both the performance and working conditions of an organization. By providing an important empirical study of the social construction of technology, the authors offer an insightful understanding of the challenges inherent in effective software design. The book will appeal to professionals and students in software design, information systems management, computer science, and the sociology of work and technology.
The Structure of Software Design
Authors: Salzman Harold , Rosenthal Stephen R.
Published: November 2020

The software industry really came of age in the 1970s and 1980s. This was a time of technological transformation in the workplace. The computer expanded from the backroom to the front office and evolved from simple data processing to integrated information systems. The growth of the independent software vendor led to an important change in software design. User firms began to purchase large, standard or semicustom systems from thirdparty vendors rather than purchasing software with hardware and having most applications software custom designed by an in-house programming staff. This added another dimension to the software design process: Software became the product of at least two organizations (the vendor and one or more user firms) and its design and production became mediated by the market. The organizational simplicity of software design occurring within one organization, as difficult a process as that may be, became relatively more complex organizationally. This chapter examines one part of the process of technology design and use: the activities internal to the software design firm. It concentrates on the structure and dynamics of the design process rather than on specific design decisions. The findings presented in this chapter are based on a survey of vendor firms and may represent a different perspective than findings on software developed within a user firm. By focusing on dynamics that transcend choices of particular individuals, we show how decisions are shaped and constrained by the structure of the design process itself. The three chapters following this one present case studies that describe specific choices of software features and functions and analyze the impacts of those choices on software users and customers. Taken together, this chapter and the case studies present the dual perspective necessary to appreciate how software is a socially constructed technology. The business applications software industry for mainframes and minicomputers is composed of hardware manufacturers such as IBM and Digital Equipment Corporation, several large vendors, and numbers of small specialty firms.
Land Degradation in the Peruvian Amazon: Applying GIS in Human Ecology Research
Authors: Loker William M.
Published: November 2020

Land degradation, a reduction in the productive capacity of land, is a process of increasing concern in the challenge to maintain and enhance global food production. It is an especially critical problem in developing countries faced with the need to increase food availability for growing populations. Billions of dollars are invested in agricultural research and development aimed at increasing the food supply. At the same time, land degradation threatens to reduce production in large areas of agricultural land. While estimates of the magnitude of the problem vary widely (see WCED 1987; WRI/IIED 1988; and Lal and Stewart 1990 for recent reviews), there is a growing consensus that land degradation is a serious and complex problem that merits increased attention from both natural and social scientists. A recent review of this topic by Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) highlights the role of the social sciences in studying land degradation problems. According to these authors, the term “land degradation” refers to a reduction in the actual or potential uses of land due to human activities (1987: 1). The costs of land degradation (“the product of work on degraded lands is less than that on the same land without degradation”) make it a serious social problem for millions of farmers around the world and thus a priority for social science inquiry. A central actor for understanding the causes and consequences of land degradation is the land manager—most often the farmer—who makes the landuse decisions for particular plots of land. Social science has a key role in understanding this process of decision making, including the social and ecological contexts in which decisions are carried out. Anthropology’s emphasis on working with peasants, small farmers, and indigenous people holds out the promise for important empirical and theoretical contributions in understanding land degradation. A human ecology approach that focuses on the adaptive strategies of individuals and groups and the environmental consequences of these behaviors seems particularly well placed to contribute to this topic.
A Formal Justification for the Application of GIS to the Cultural Ecological Analysis of Land-Use Intensification and Deforestation in the Amazon
Authors: Behrens Clifford A.
Published: November 2020

What is the process by which indigenous Amazonian people intensify their utilization of tropical forest resources, and what are the roles of population demography, settlement patterns, and resource degradation in this process? These are the central problems of this chapter. Over the last fifty years, ecologically oriented anthropologists have focused on these questions because of their significance for explaining the socioecological variability found among Amazonian Indians. A common theme in many attempts to account for socioecological variability in the Amazon is that large, sedentary populations necessitate increasing levels of social integration. Therefore, some explanations for this variability have sought factors that limit population density, such as the local availability of arable soils and protein-rich faunal foods. Simple single-factor frameworks have been criticized, yielding slightly more complex kinds of explanation, some based on evolutionary ecology and decision theory. Nevertheless, none of these approaches has successfully managed to relate population growth, village formation, resource degradation, and intensification of land use together in a single formalism that derives its first principles from a comparative analysis of the ethnographic literature. As a result, culture has not been assigned the central role it deserves in any theory purporting to characterize the process of land use intensification among indigenous Amazonians. This paper will review the ethnographic literature on the Amazon to (1) establish an empirical basis for the ingredients required to formulate cultural ecological theories of land-use intensification among indigenous Amazonians and (2) propose a developmental sequence based on increasing sedentism, intensification of land utilization, and growing market demand for production. Thus, this paper attempts to integrate seemingly disparate ideas from the past and present, each with some “ring of truth,” in the kind of mathematical framework advocated but never really achieved by Steward. The resulting paradigm converges on one very much resembling “land scape ecology,” but with greater emphasis on the role of culture and human decision making in a generative process. The need for detailed land-use data on a regional scale implicates the application of new technologies, such as remote sensing and geographical information systems, to test the proposed theories.