bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Freedman Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Every Day During My Fourteen Years in New Haven-six in graduate school, eight on the faculty-I trudged across a large thoroughfare on my way from breakfast at Naples Pizza to Linsly-Chittenden Hall, home of Yale’s famous English department. On Fridays, the corner was occupied-there is no other word-by a group of Lubavitcher Hasidim who sought out Jewish-looking folk like myself, walked up to us, and shouted in our ears, “Excuse me, sir, are you Jewish?” Needless to say, they presented me with so ething of a dilemma. Had I answered yes-I never did-they would have escorted me into the back of their mitzvah-mobile, taught me a prayer or two, and helped me on the path toward Jewish enlightenment. I had no interest in this, since my own Jewishness consists of a passionate belief in voting the straight Democratic ticket, fasting on Yorn Kippur, eating bagels and lox-and doing no more. Had I answered no, however, I would have been disavowing not only my own Jewishness but also that of my family who after all, certain Europeans had tried to stick in ovens a generation earlier and who had only escaped their fates by a series of flukes too fortuitous to be believable.
The Mania of the Middlebrow: Trilby, the Jew, and the Middlebrow Imaginary
Authors: Freedman Jonathan
Published: November 2023

IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTER, I attempted to suggest that writers of the high Victorian period inflected the figure of the Jew so as to articulate their own tangled structure of affects about marketplace culture and to negotiate a new place for themselves in that culture-ironically enough, as a version of precisely that problematic figure, “the Jew.” But this argument raises in its wake another question: what about the audience-those readers Trollope confutes and confuses so vigorously at the end of The Way We Live Now and who responded to their own indictment with such startling indifference? There is no hard and fast way of answering the question. Despite the very fine efforts of critics like Norman Holland and Janice Radway, the empirical phenomenology of reader response-of what actually happens when people read and how their reading practices enter into their daily lives-remains conjectural and murky. Despite the excellent work of Richard Altick, Martha Vicinius, and Regenia Gagnier on the constitution of working- and middle-class readerships, the question of how readers of the past actually responded to texts on a quotidian basis remains murkier still.
“Illustrious Sienese Women Worthy Of Remembrance”
Authors: Reardon Colleen
Published: November 2023

The science Female monastic tradition is reputed to have begun in 801, when Pepin, son of Charlemagne, ordered the construction of a conventt. I to honor the Roman martyrs Abbondio and Abbondanzio. Angelic intervention determined the very location of the nunnery. It is said that the laborers began to build in a valley near the Tressa river, but on returning to work the next day, they found that the entire foundation had been miraculously transported to a nearby hill. In subsequent centuries, the devout Benedictine nuns of “Santa Bonda” garnered many admirers, among them Blessed Giovanni Colombini (1304-67), the Sienese founder of the Gesuati, and his “companion in poverty,” Francesco Vincenti. Both men entrusted their daughters to the care of the nuns and left the convent substantial bequests in their wills. Colombini also specified his wish to be buried in the nuns’ cloister. In 1575, the apostolic visitor Francesco Bossi found only fifty-one women at SS. Abbondio e Abbondanzio, but seventy or so nuns are recorded by the turn of the seventeenth century, making it one of the city’s most populous convents1.
Veni, Veni Soror Nostra
Authors: Reardon Colleen
Published: November 2023

Thus read the penultimate decree in the series of thirty-six that Francesco Bossi issued in the aftermath of his visit to Sienese convents in 1575. emonies: Bossi ordered that the expenses for food were not to exceed 10 scudi1. These decrees, so similar in content to those emanating from prelates in Rome, Bologna, Venice, and Piacenza, testify to the customs the ecclesiastical hierarchy wanted observed when a girl entered a nunnery or took her vows2. The family invited a large number of friends and relatives to accompany their daughter to the convent and to witness her performance in the solemn ceremonies that marked her admission to and acceptance of life in the cloister. Afterward, family, friends, and nuns were treated to a banquet. Since Bossi was critical of nuns’ theater-he issued another decree forbidding that practice-he was doubtless discomfited by the idea that the already dramatic religious rituals could be embellished in such a way that they played out on an even larger stage, with the participation of the public.
Alla Citta’Ritorna
Authors: Reardon Colleen
Published: November 2023

The Palazzo Pubblico is one of Siena’s most impressive buildings. It dominates the Campo, the lovely fan-shaped piazza that lies at the city’s heart. For centuries, Sienese leaders convened inside its walls to deliberate the governance of the city. After the fall of the republic in 1555, when the magistracies that met there had little power, the Public Palace came to be exploited for a new purpose: entertainment. In 1560, on the occasion of Cosimo I de’ Medici’s first visit to his newly acquired dominion, the Great Counsel Hall (“Sala grande del Consiglio”) was transformed into a theater by the construction of a stage for performers and of galleries for an audience1. Eighty years later, Prince Mattias de’ Medici, then governor of Siena and a great fan of the new genre of opera, ordered the theater in the Public Palace renovated, possibly along the lines of SS. Giovanni e Paolo in Venice. In 1647, the refurbished venue served as the site of the first operatic performance in Siena. Among the attendees were the English tourists John Raymond and Robert Bargrave, who were especially taken with the elaborate scenery and the machines2. Despite the apparent success of the work, over twenty years would pass before another opera was mounted in Siena.
Weeping and Rejoicing
Authors: Reardon Colleen
Published: November 2023

In 1650, the Sienese composer Alessandro Della Ciaia allowed his second volume of music to be published under the title Sacred Lamentations and Motets for one voice with basso continuo  1. The use of the verb “allowed” is intentional here, for Della Ciaia appears to have left the painstaking work of seeing the compositions through the press to a certain Bastiano Arditi. It was Arditi who inscribed the volume to Giacomo Carissimi and signed the dedication.
The Trial of Socrates
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: November 2023

In 399 B.C., Socrates was condemned and put to death on a charge of impiety, having declined to suggest that counter-penalty of exile which the jury would doubtless have preferred to impose. Around that bizarre and tragic event cluster a series of quite fundamental questions about the character of Athenian society, and the historical development of Greek religion.
A New Assessment of Socratic Philosophy of Religion
Authors: Gocer Asli
Published: November 2023

As the recent literature shows, there continue to be non-complementary lines of thinking on the nature of Socrates’ religious views and the extent to which they brought about the fatal charges of” corrupting the young” and impiety. On the one hand, there is the view that Socrates’ heteredox religious views are central to evaluating the charges against him; on the other, there is the view that Socrates’ religious convictions are ultimately peripheral to his indictment, conviction and execution.
Comparative Psychopharmacology of Methylphenidate and Related Drugs in Human Volunteers, Patients with ADHD, and Experimental Animals
Authors: Mehta Mitul A , Sahakian Barbara J , Robbins Trevor W
Published: November 2023

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with deficits in functions commonly seen following frontal lobe damage (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Kempton et al., 1999). Many of these impairments are improved after administration of stimulant medication (see Chapter 11 by Denney & Rapport,). Psycho motor stimulants boost catecholaminergic function by indirectly increasing synaptic levels of dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine(NE). The precise mechanisms and substrates of action of psychomotor stimulants, such as methylphenidate, on cognitive functions are, however, little understood.
Beauty and Ideal Citizenship Inventing Asian America in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Flower Drurn Song (1961)
Authors: Cheng Anne Anlin
Published: November 2023

No genre is more familiar with, or more sympathetic to, the expression of pathological euphoria than the musical, and no musical more attached to the pathological euphoria of being “Asian American”1 than Rodgers and Hammerstein’s musical film extravaganza Flower Drum Song (1961). Directed by the Hollywood veteran Henry Koster and produced by the master of visual spectacles Ross Hunter, Flower Drum Song is a work that everyone who has seen it remembers. It is astounding how many people of various backgrounds and both genders can and do immediately launch into their renditions of “I Enjoy Being a Girl” whenever Flower Drum Song is mentioned. The very mention of this movie elicits response—song even—which is then usually followed by a gentle shake of the head or a roll of the eyes. What is this pleasure of identification and its immediate renunciation? Why is embarrassed irony used to counter the seduction of that tune? One might say that Flower Drum Song itself, as a public memory, symptomatically exhibits a form of excessive euphoria—an involuntary delight that finds itself slightly unseemly.
The School of Names: Linguistic Analysis in China
Authors: Hansen Chad
Published: November 2023

Theory of language was a key focus in all the early Chinese schools. Their theory of philosophical dispute focused on names. So, unsurprisingly, adherents of different views began to defend their positions by claiming to have more analytically adequate theories of naming. I will argue that the school of names had Confucian, Daoist, and Mohist versions. The Mohist theories of naming moved the study of language from a pragmatic to a more semantic focus. They embed their semantics in the larger project of Chinese philosophy—getting constant guidance from a dao. They tried to describe a realistic base of naming. They sought a reality-based answer to the question, “What is the right way to project distinctions in new settings?” The right way, they thought, responded to real similarities and differences in the world.
The Nature of Inalienable Rights
Authors: McConnell Terrance
Published: November 2023

The task of this chapter is principally conceptual; the goal is to explain the notion of an inalienable right. In carrying out this task, it will help to explain other notions, including the idea of an absolute right and the idea of a forfeitable right. Various distinctions will be drawn along the way and alternative accounts will be critically examined. But in the end the hope is to arrive at a reasonably clear account of the nature of inalienable rights.
The Moral Foundations of Inalienable Rights
Authors: McConnell Terrance
Published: November 2023

An inalienable right may neither be waived nor transferred by its possessor. Waiver is a unilateral activity in which the possessor of the right suspends for others the obligation not to infringe the right in question. Transfer is a bilateral activity in which the possessor transfers the right (or the object protected by the right) and the accompanying normative advantages to another. If a right is alienable, valid waiver or transfer changes the normative landscape; infringing a person’s right is rendered permissible because of his consent. If a right is inalienable, the consent of the possessor alone does not justify infringing that right.
The Inalienable Right of Conscience: A Madisonian/Jeffersonian Argument
Authors: McConnell Terrance
Published: November 2023

Some might construe this as endorsing the subjective claim that a person’s only real obligation is to do what he believes is right. Such a position is paradoxical because it implies that wrongdoing occurs only when agents act against their considered moral judgments. Perhaps this is Thoreau’s view; but another thesis may be at work here— that the right of conscience is inalienable. Indeed, some of Thoreau’s predecessors, in particular, writers of the late eighteenth century, held that the right of conscience is inalienable. Here I shall explore this thesis, ignoring whether or not Thoreau endorsed it.
Human Organs and Inalienability
Authors: McConnell Terrance
Published: November 2023

There are some things that the law allows one to give away but does not permit one to sell. I know, you’re thinking of sex. And, indeed, that is an apt example given the law in many states in the United States. But in this chapter the focus will be on a different case, that of human organs for transplatation—organs that are procured from one human and transplanted into another. Section 274c of the U.S. Public Health Code makes it illegal for anyone to acquire, receive, or otherwise transfer human organs for valuable consideration. Anyone who violates this statute may be fined up to $50,000 and incarcerated for as long as five years. And the National Organ Transplant Act of 1984 makes it a federal crime “for any person to knowingly acquire, receive, or otherwise transfer any human organ for valuable consideration for use in human transplantation if the transfer affects interstate commerce.”
Women Writers, Gothic Novels, Romantic Poets
Authors: Mudg Bradford K
Published: November 2023

Will you permit the Ladies to exhibit themselves in a Magazine allotted to the Gentlemen, during the cessation of the important political debates? Surely the Antiquaries will not disdain us as a relief to old tombstones and inscriptions; besides, some of our works have the genuine rust of age. Mrs. Macaulay will entertain the Politician; Madame Dacier and Mrs. Carter, the Critick; and for the Poet there is abundance.
Virgins, Whores, and Devils,
Authors: Mudg Bradford K
Published: November 2023

Nothing offers these Days but Squabblings between Mrs. Jewkes and me. She grows worse and worse to me. I vexed her yesterday, because she talked nastily, and told her she talk’d more like a vile London Prostitute, than a Gentleman’s Housekeeper; and she cannot use me bad enough for it. Bless me! She curses and storms at me like a Trooper, and can hardly keep her Hands off me.. , . she is a Disgrace to her Sex.
Molecular Logic
Authors: Harold Franklin M
Published: November 2023

When biochemists set out to tackle a problem, our first step is commonly to grind the intricate fabric of cells and tissues into a pulp (a homogenate, as we say in the trade). This is a significant act, representing a drastic reduction in the level of organization. It allows us to treat living matter as a mixture of chemicals, and encourages one to isolate and purify individual constituents; every graduate student is warned not to squander clean thinking on dirty enzymes! To be sure, something is sacrificed by this violent procedure—not only life itself, but all the spatial order that impresses anyone who inspects a photomicrograph.
So What Is Life?
Authors: Harold Franklin M
Published: November 2023

Fifty years after Schrödinger wrote his little book, his challenge still hangs in the air. What is life? Having learned so much about molecules and mechanisms, structures and functions, physiology and ecology and ontogeny and phylogeny, why are we still at a loss for a satisfying answer? Schrödinger himself posed the riddle with a flourish, but wisely refrained from offering a solution; today we are quick to deflect the mystery with a wry smile, a parable, or a joke (2). The reason has much to do with the difference between explanation and understanding. We are quickly learning to explain the workings of the biological machinery and even how organisms came to be as we find them, but we have no persuasive answer to the question why life exists in the first place.
Realism Regained
Authors: Koons Robert C
Published: November 2023

In this wide-ranging philosophical work, Koons takes on two powerful dogmas: anti-realism and materialism. In doing so, Koons develops an efficient metaphysical system that accounts for such phenomena as information, mental representation, our knowledge of logic, mathematics and science, the structure of spacetime, the identity of physical objects, and the objectivity of values and moral norms.
A Deterministic Model
Authors: Koons Robert C
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I will employ the logic of situations (including the partial modal logic laid out in appendix A) in developing definitions for a family of causal notions. The atomic formulas of the language, or — to use the material rather than the formal mode — the basic situation types, consist of types of the following forms:
Higher-Order Causation: Modal Facts as Causes
Authors: Koons Robert C
Published: November 2023

I have two reasons for being interested in a theory of higher-order causation, that is, a theory of how modal and causal facts can themselves cause concrete situations. First, my account of teleological or functional causation and explanation will be explicitly higher order. Second, I want to build a causal theory of modal and mathematical knowledge, which obviously depends on the possibility that modal facts can be part of the cause of mental states and processes.
Teleosemantics of Mental Representations
Authors: Koons Robert C
Published: November 2023

There are a variety of mental states in humans and animals that clearly have representational content: perceptions, actions and attempted actions, memories, thoughts, opinions, doubts, wishes, etc. In this chapter, I will sketch, in a very programmatic way, how my accounts of tele of unctionality and information can be used to account for mental representation.
A Teleological Theory of the Mind
Authors: Koons Robert C
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I want to look at a number of problems in the philosophy of mind, and discuss briefly the relevance of a teleological theory of mental representation to these problems, including downward causation, qualia, and free will.

It’s inevitable that a discussion of the mind/body problem begin with Descartes. It was Descartes who crystallized the mind/body problem as it exists for the modern mind. Descartes’s view, of course, is radically dualistic: the mind and body are two separate substances, with radically different essences (the one, thought, and the other, extension).
The Ancient Quarrel Between Ph1losophy And Poetry Revisited
Authors: Levin Susan B
Published: November 2023

In this study, Levin explores Plato's engagement with the Greek literary tradition in his treatment of key linguistic issues. This investigation, conjoined with a new interpretation of the Republic's familiar critique of poets, supports the view that Plato's work represents a valuable precedent for contemporary reflections on ways in which philosophy might benefit from appeals to literature.
The Structure And Outcome Of The Cratylus ‘ Inquiry
Authors: Levin Susan B
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, the literary tradition makes extensive use of etymology to articulate the semantic constitution of onomata, largely proper names, with the goal of shedding light on bearers’ natures—the existence of which is assumed. Moreover, authors make numerous judgments of the appropriateness of onomata to their referents. At the outset of the Cratylus, Plato “invests” naming qua etymolo gizing with techne status, providing a laudatory description of the sort one would expect based on those criteria put forth in the Gorgias to distinguish genuine technai from empeiriai. As the dialogue unfolds, however, Plato rejects the lofty claims he had Socrates make for this activity and its practitioners. As in the Gorgias, where Plato’s focus is on rhetoric, here too what is identified at the outset as a techne later has that distinctive status challenged decisively. In the Cratylus, the literary tradition provides Plato with key material used in formulating this challenge; in the course of his investigation, however, Plato rejects that tradition’s procedure, along with the chief assumption on which its use rests. Far from being limited in its pertinence to the dialogue’s early analogy between shuttle construction and naming, the techne issue, construed in the manner indicated above, governs much of the discussion and is crucial to its unity.
Rationality and the Justification of Democracy
Authors: Coleman Jules
Published: November 2023

This is an essay about the justification of democracy in which democracy is understood as a way of making coercively enforceable collective decisions. The problem of justifying democracy arises once a group perceives a need for collective action, that is, a need to construct principles specifying the terms of cooperation. One’s theory of democracy, then, is likely to depend on one’s views about the reasons for collective action. Let us distinguish two such views. In one, collective action is thought necessary to resolve coordination, externality, and Prisoner’s Dilemma problems. We might loosely refer to this view as the “market failure theory of collective action.” In this account, cooperation is necessary only because markets are imperfectly competitive. Market failure creates a need for individuals to abandon rational self-interested strategies over specifiable domains in favor of compliance with jointly maximizing ones. Over some domains individuals must abandon competition in favor of cooperation; and the question they must ask is, By what rules or principles are the terms of cooperation to be determined?
Philosophy and Democracy
Authors: Walzer Michael
Published: November 2023

The prestige of political philosophy is very high these days. It commands the attention of economists and lawyers, the two groups of academics most closely connected to the shaping of public policy, as it has not done in a long time. And it claims the attention of political leaders, bureaucrats, and judges, most especially judges, with a new and radical forcefulness. The command and the claim follow not so much from the fact that philosophers are doing creative work, but from the fact that they are doing creative work of a special sort—which raises again, after a long hiatus, the possibility of finding objective truths, “true meaning” “right answers,” “the philosopher’s stone,” and so on. I want to accept this possibility (without saying very much about it) and then ask what it means for democratic politics. What is the standing of the philosopher in a democratic society? This is an old question; there are old tensions at work here: between truth and opinion, reason and will, value and preference, the one and the many. These antipodal pairs differ from one another, and none of them quite matches the pair “philosophy and democracy.” But they do hang together; they point to a central problem. Philosophers claim a certain sort of authority for their conclusions; the people claim a different sort of authority for their decisions. What is the relation between the two?
The Velvet Corporation
Authors: Fort Timothy L
Published: November 2023

The point is that capitalism, albeit on another level and not in such trivial forms, is struggling with the same problems [as communism].... [I]t is well-known, for instance, that enormous private multinational corporations are curiously like socialist states; with industrialization, centralization, specialization, monopolization, and finally with automation and computerization, the elements of depersonalization and the loss of meaning in work become more and more profound everywhere. . . . IBM certainly works better than the Skoda plant, but that doesn’t alter the fact that both companies have long since lost their human dimension and have turned man into a little cog in their machinery, utterly separated from what, and for whom, that machinery is working, and what the impact of its product is on the world.
Business as Community
Authors: Fort Timothy L
Published: November 2023

This chapter argues that one of the more promising fields of ethical inquiry in business, virtue theory, requires an understanding of human nature derived from the natural world, so that community-based virtues are neither too weak nor too strong, but just right. By focusing their attention on the common good of large megastructures, communitarians can undermine individual autonomy. Such a “strong” version of communitarianism is, as Goldilocks would say, “too hot.” Those advocating an autonomy-based moral theory of business, however, threaten to leave the individual disconnected from the relationships that fulfill life and that form moral identity. Although there is some commitment to community, this “weak” form of communitarianism is, as Goldilocks would say, “too cold.”
Theological Naturalism
Authors: Fort Timothy L
Published: November 2023

Let me begin by proposing an integration of William Frederick’s naturalism with theology. I would like to take Frederick up on an invitation he first implied in his book Values, Nature and Culture in the American Corporation and then explicitly extended in his address to the Social Issues of Management Section of the Academy of Management (SIM), revised and published in the journal Business and Society. In his book, Frederick notes convergence among world religions around central moral principles. The implication is that dialogue with and among world religions may produce insights for moral principles in business.
Blood Gas Transport and Tissue Gas Exchange
Authors: Hlastala Michael P , Berger Albert J
Published: November 2023

Storage and transport of 02 and CO2 in blood are accomplished by special mechanisms. Hemoglobin is instrumental to the storage of both O2 and CO2 in a way that is interactive, a feature that enhances the exchange of each gas and provides a reserve when 02 demand increases. Like inert gases, 02 dissolves in blood in direct proportion to its partial pressure. This relationship is described by Henry’s law: The proportionality constant relating 02 content (C0,) to 02 partial pressure (P02) isb02, the blood solubility coefficient, commonly expressed as ml gas (STPD) dissolved in 100 ml (1 dl) blood for every mm Hg of partial pressure. The value of bb differs for each gas (02 and CO2) and varies with temperature. More gas dissolves in liquid as temperature decreases. For blood at 37°C,b02 is approximately equal to 0.003 ml · dl-1 • mm Hg-1• This low solubility allows only a small portion of 02 to be dissolved in blood at physiological partial pressures (80 to 100 mm Hg). At a normal arterial P02 of 100 mm Hg, only 0.3 ml 02 can be stored as dissolved gas in each dl of blood. This does not, however, meet normal metabolic demands. This requirement is met by hemoglobin with its high O2 storage capability.
On the basic one-agent achievement-stit theory
Authors: Belnap Nuel , Perloff Michael , Xu Ming
Published: November 2023

It turns out that this equivalence is valid for every BT+ AC structure for dstit, and it is valid for every BT+ I+ AC structure for astit iff the structure contains no busy choice sequences, and is therefore a BT+ I+ AC+ nbc structure; see chapter 15 and chapter 18 for details. (BT+ AC, BT+ I+ AC, and BT+ I+ AC+ nbc structures are defined in §2.) We showed in chapter 15 that the astit theory with a single agent and the refref equivalence (i.e., the set of all sentences, with a single agent term, valid for all BT+ I+ AC+ nbc structures) is decidable. The purpose of this chapter is to remove the no-busy-choice-sequence restriction and give an axiomatization for the resulting basic logic of astit.
The Aesthetic Life
Authors: Eaton Marcia Muelder
Published: November 2023

Aesthetic experience, as I have defined it, involves attending to—perceiving and reflecting upon—an object or event’s intrinsic properties considered worthy of that attention within a community into which one has been socialized. These experiences, I have argued, are not necessarily—indeed, are rarely—“pure” in the sense that one’s attention is aimed only at aesthetic properties. One can look at a painting or landscape, listen to a song or poem and, while paying due attention to shapes or rhythms or repetitions, also think about grandma, sex, oppression, or anything else. As long as one continues to perceive or reflect on aesthetic properties, one is having a genuine aesthetic experience. Aesthetic values are different than, but they are not necessarily separate from, other values. Still, some people’s lives include more occasions of aesthetic attention than do the lives of some other people. Stated simply, “the aesthetic life” is one in which at tending to intrinsic properties valued in one’s culture because they repay that attention plays a significant role in one’s life, both quantitatively and qualitatively. In this chapter, I shall look at a literary depiction of someone who leads such a life. I shall show in detail what it entails and suggest how even those whose lives are what we might call “very aesthetic” still lead lives in which the aesthetic is integrated with other values, in particular, with ethical values1.
Enrique Granados
Authors: Clark Walter Aaron
Published: November 2023

Enrique Granados (1867-1916) is one of the most compelling figures of the late-Romantic period in music. During his return voyage to Spain after the premiere of his opera Goyescas at New York’s Metropolitan Opera in 1916, a German submarine torpedoed the ship on which he and his wife were sailing, and they perished in the waters of the English Channel. His death was mourned on both sides of the Atlantic as a stunning loss to the music world, for he had died at the pinnacle of his career, and his late works held the promise of greater things to come. Granados was among the leading pianists of his time, and his eloquence at the keyboard inspired critics to dub him the “poet of the piano.” In Enrique Granados: Poet of the Piano, Walter Aaron Clark offers the first substantive study in English of this virtuoso pianist, composer, and music pedagogue. While providing detailed analyses of his major works for voice, piano, and the stage, Clark argues that Granados’s art represented a unifying presence on the cultural landscape of Spain during a period of imperial decline, political unrest, and economic transformation. Drawing on newly discovered documents, Clark explores the cultural spheres in which Granados moved, particularly of Castile and Catalonia. Granados’s best-known music was inspired by the art of Francisco Goya, especially the Goyescas suite for solo piano that became the basis for the opera. These pieces evoked the colorful and dramatic world that Goya inhabited and depicted in his art. Granados’s fascination with Goya’s Madrid set him apart from fellow nationalists Albéniz and Falla, who drew their principal inspiration from Andalusia. Though he was resolutely apolitical, Granados’s attraction to Castile antagonized some Catalan nationalists, who resented Castilian domination. Yet Granados also made important contributions to Catalan musical theater and was a prominent figure in the modernist movement in Barcelona. Clark also explores the personal pressures that shaped Granados’s music. His passionate affair with a wealthy socialite created domestic tensions, but it was also a source of inspiration for Goyescas. Persistent financial difficulties forced him to devote time to teaching at the expense of composition, though as a result Granados made considerable contributions to piano pedagogy and music education in Barcelona through the music academy he founded there. While Granados’s tragic and early demise casts a pall over his life story, Clark ultimately reveals an artist of remarkable versatility and individuality and sheds new light on his enduring significance.
From Medical Cultism to Alternative Medicine
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

The last three chapters have painted a picture of irregular medicine in the early twentieth century very different from the one that future historians will paint of the early twenty-first. Clearly an extraordinary transformation of unorthodox practice and of mainstream medicine’s view of unorthodoxy occurred over the course of the 1900s. The change became starkly apparent only during the last decade of the century, but progress toward the new order began in the 1930s and reached a first-stage culmination in the 1970s, the decade during which the term “alternative medicine” began to be used. Quietly but steadily unconventional medicine redefined itself during the middle decades of the twentieth century.
From Alternative Medicine to Complementary Medicine
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

Acupuncture Works,” proclaimed the headline of a 1997 article in Time magazine. That was the judgment, it was explained, of a panel of international experts appointed by the National Institutes of Health to evaluate the efficacy of acupuncture therapy in a range of complaints. The procedure was “clearly effective,” the panel had determined, in relieving post-operative pain and the nausea produced by anesthesia and chemotherapy, and it had been judged “may be effective” in treating the discomforts of migraine, arthritis, and several other common ailments. Best of all, the article suggested, was that acupuncture “has virtually no side effects.” Finally, the NIH Consensus Development Panel on Acupuncture had concluded that “further research is likely to uncover additional areas where acupuncture interventions will be useful.”
Metarepresentation in Linguistic Communication
Authors: Wilson Deirdre
Published: November 2023

Several strands of research on metarepresentation have a bearing on the study of linguistic communication. On the whole, there has been little interaction among them, and the possibility of integrating them with an empirically plausible pragmatic theory has not been much explored. This chapter has two main aims: to illustrate the depth and variety of metarepresentational abilities deployed in linguistic communication, and to argue that a pragmatic account of these abilities can both benefit from, and provide useful evidence for, the study of more general metarepresentational abilities.
The Law of Excluded Middle and the Axiom of Choice
Authors: Tait William
Published: November 2023

With the gradual introduction into mathematics of the notions of an arbitrary function and an arbitrary set in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, two principles of logic became subject to controversy, and the controversies concerning them are curiously related.
Nontextual Sonic Vocabularies
Authors: Mabry Sharon
Published: November 2023

These reactions and others like them have been uttered by singers when confronted with contemporary music built around the use of nontextual sonic vocabularies (texts based only on individual vowels, consonants, or non-language combinations of the two). As twentieth-century composers began to think of the voice as “just another instrument,” capable of creating a multitude of extraordinary and contrasting colors, textures, and articulations, they reorganized the realm of text settings into novel configurations.
The Abyss of Reason Rochester, Dryden, and the Skeptical Origins of Sublimity
Authors: Noggle James
Published: November 2023

Rochester’s Satyr [Against Reason and Mankind] (before 23 March 1675–76)1 and Dryden’s opera The State of Innocence, and Fall of Man ‘ (written 1674[?], published with preface 1677)2 both demonstrate how the ambiguous epistemological conditions in England in the 1670s are poised to receive the idea of the sublime appearing with Boileau’s Longinus (1674) in that decade. Both Rochester and Dryden say, at least, that they are epistemological moderates: they distance themselves from rationalistic excesses, from overconfidence in the mind’s ability to reach transcendent truths, which they think will lead only to excessive confusion, a miserable uncertainty, and intellectual darkness. When Dryden declares later in his career that he is “naturally inclin’d to Scepticism in philosophy,”3 he means the mitigated skepticism, common in English intellectual society of the Restoration, that guards against more radical doubts inadvertently engendered by philosophers’ and enthusiasts’ dogmatic, self-exalting delusions.
Syracuse 415-413 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

The first Peloponnesian War pitted Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian League against Athens and its allies in the Delian League. Since the defeat of the Persian invaders at Salamis and Plataea in 480 and 479 B.C., Athens had risen to the top in Greek politics. As the leading naval power, Athens had made itself the strongest member of the Delian League, a grouping of Greek poleis (city-states) dedicated to stopping Persian expansion and carrying the war to Persian possessions in Asia Minor. No polis could challenge Athenian dominance, and Athens reached the point where it could demand virtually any dues to the League from the member poleis and did not have to account for the money sent to the League treasury. Rather than focus on defense spending, the Athenians spent much of that money turning their city into a cultural and architectural showplace. Not surprisingly, this did not please the poleis contributing the money.
Gaugamela (Arbela) I October 331 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

In the 350s B.C., Philip I assumed the throne of Macedon, a relatively poor province north of Greece. He developed a first-class army and, tak­ing advantage of the temporary weakness of Ath­ens (Greece’s dominant city-state) after the Social War (358-355), began conquering Athenian dominated provinces on the Greco-Macedonian frontier. While the Greek poleis continued their almost constant squabbling, Philip extended Macedonian control over areas to Macedon’s north, and then he attacked Greece itself In 338 B.C., Philip’s army defeated an Athenian-Theban alliance at Chaeronea, giving him mastery of the Greek peninsula. He established the Hellenic League the following year, uniting almost all the Greek poleis into an alliance aimed at defeating the Persian Empire. As the forces of the Hellenic League prepared to cross the Hellespont into Asia Minor in 336, Philip was assassinated and suc­ceeded by his son Alexander.
Teutoburger Wald (Teutoburg Forest) A.D. 9
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Although Julius Caesar conquered Gaul for Rome in the 50s B.C., he did little more than establish some garrisons along the eastern frontier to try to keep the German tribes at bay. The Germanic tribes were seminomadic and warlike, occasionally raiding across the Rhine River into Gaul. From the Marcommani in the area of modern Austria to the Frisians on the North Sea coast, the tribes called no one other than the strongest military leader master. This situation persisted until 12 B.C., when Caesar Augustus ordered forces across the Rhine to protect Gaul and establish Roman hegemony. Under the leadership of Tiberius, Romans managed to cross the Rhine and stay the winter in A.O. 4, but they were in no way secure.
Adrianople 9August 378
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

After the death of Constantine in 337, the Roman Empire saw the return of sibling struggles for total control. Constantine had hoped that his three surviving sons would be satisfied with one-third of the empire each (western Europe, southeastern Europe, and the east), but such was not to be. Who fought and killed whom, and who succeeded whom, in the three major regions of the Roman Empire istoo convoluted to follow. Suffice it to say that, as soon as his three sons were killed (none died of old age), they were followed not by blood relations but by generals from their armies. The general who finally rose to the top, in 364, was Valentian I, a man of humble birth but well above average military skill.
Tricameron Mid-December 533
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Justinian came to the throne of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire in 527. A soldier like his uncle Justin, whom he succeeded, he did not command in the field once he assumed the throne, but had the services of one of history’s outstanding generals, Belisarius. He first came to notice when, as a general of only 24 years of age, he carried out a successful campaign against the Persian Empire during 529-530. Belisarius was back in Constantinople in 532 when Justinian faced his greatest domestic challenge, the Nika riots, which perhaps were the original model of all successive public disorders concerned with sporting events.
Tours (Poitiers) October 732
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

During 717-718, Moslem forces tried and failed to capture Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. That was a major setback for the Moslems, whose forces (intent on spreading their faith) had been virtually unstoppable in conquests that spread Islam from India to Spain. Although that defeat kept the followers of Mohammed out of eastern Europe for another seven centuries, it must have motivated other Moslems to attempt to spread the faith into Europe via another route: North Africa into Spain into western Europe.
Orleans 12 October 1428-7 May 1429
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

During the course of the Hundred Years’ War, the momentum shifted back and forth between the combatants. Edward Ill’s victories at Sluys and Crecy gave England the early advantage, but during the middle part of the fourteenth century the spread of the bubonic plague halted fighting and robbed either side of any advantage. For the several years that the Black Death ravaged France and England, major societal changes occurred. As farmers either died from the plague or fled the countryside for the cities, feudal lords saw their incomes fall rapidly. The cities, on the other hand, began to enjoy a blossoming economy. The fear of death encouraged many citizens to pay for extravagant sundries to enjoy their last days on earth, and merchants and artisans grew rich. As the cities gained in wealth and the manors declined, the king began courting the financial support of the townspeople for his royal projects, including warfare. Soldiers thus became paid employees rather than feudal pawns, and the aristocrats’ fortunes further waned.
Blenheim 13 August 1704
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Through the latter decades of the seventeenth century, King Louis XIV of France was che dominant figure in European political and military affairs. He created the best-organized and equipped army of its day and wielded it with brilliant insight, expanding France’s borders, slowly but surely, at the expense of Italy, the Holy Roman Empire (Austria), the United Provinces (Netherlands), and various German principalities. Blessed with vision, daring, and good generals, Louis’s France was the envy and bane of western Europe.
Plassey 23june 1757
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

The eighteenth century was an active time in India. Domestically, the Mughal Empire was disintegrating because of a succession of weak kings and stronger nobles. Although the capital at Delhi was the putative capital, local princes (nawabs) ruled their own lands and ignored or cooperated with the Delhi government as they saw fit. Arriving in this time of uncertain local rule were both the French and British. The Honorable East India Company represented British trading interests with trading centers, called factories, at Calcutta on the northeastern coast, Madras on the southeastern coast, and Bombay on the northwestern coast. The French operated the French East India Company out of Pondicherry, just down the coast from Madras. Both European powers entered into agreements with local nawabs, primarily for trade contacts, but also hoping to gain influence with whatever government may arise from the Mughal ashes. Not surprisingly, as England and France were rivals in Europe, they supported rival nawabs in India.
Saratoga September-17 October 1777
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

After George Washington’s stunning victories at Trenton and Princeton the previous winter, the revolutionary army was rebuilding in the spring of 1777. As was necessary with a force primarily comprised of militia, each spring the ranks had to be refilled because many had ended their short-term enlistments and spent the winter at home with their families. Washington remained in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, awaiting General Sir William Howe’s moves out of New York City.
Borodino 7 September 1812
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

By 1807, Emperor Napoleon had defeated every major power on the Continent at least once. His authority stretched from Spain to Poland, and only Great Britain remained untouchable. Russia was as yet unconquered, but Czar Alexander signed the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 and that made him an ally, albeit unwilling, of Napoleon’s France. Under the terms of the treaty, the Russian monarch was to have his country join Napoleon’s Continental System, which was designed to hurt Britain the only way France could, chat is, economically. By denying European markets to British merchants, Napoleon hoped to put economic pressure on the British government, much as the American colonists had done to Britain before the American Revolution. In place of British manufactured goods, Russians were to buy products from France, even though they were rather more expensive.
Waterloo 18 June 1815
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Although Napoleon fought brilliantly in defense of France after his defeat at Leipzig in 1814, he was too badly outnumbered to stay in power. The victorious allied powers of Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia restored the French monarchy by placing Louis XVIII on the throne and removed Napoleon from the scene by exiling him to the small island of Elba in the Mediterranean. Louis immediately began to undo many of the reforms instituted by the French Revolution and Napoleon, and that made him immediately unpopular with the French population.
Ayacucho 9 December 1824
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Since the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spain had enjoyed dominance over Central and South America. Other than the Portuguese colony of Brazil, all of Latin America was exploited by Spain for its natural wealth. Until the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the Spanish kings had grown amazingly wealthy on the riches of the Americas with no competition at all; after that time, they still maintained a stranglehold on the trade with the colonies. Not until the rise of British and French maritime power in the seventeenth century, displayed in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico via piracy, did any outside nation have the chance to enter Latin American markets. Although Spanish economic dominance remained, it dwindled through the eighteenth century, reflecting the relative shifts in international power displayed by Spain and Britain.
Tsushima 27 May 1905
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

During 1894-1895, Japan had made the world sit up and take notice when it easily defeated the nation of China in a war over Korea and the Liaotung Peninsula, which juts southward into the Sea of Japan west of Korea. Because of intense European diplomatic pressure, however, Japan was forced to give up almost all the territory it had conquered, including the strategic harbor at Port Arthur on the tip of the Liaotung Peninsula. Immediately after Japan was forced to cede the conquests, Russia leapt in and extorted from the Chinese government the right to build a railroad, the last extension of the Trans-Siberia Railway, through Manchuria to Port Arthur. Russia also gained control of Port Arthur as a naval base for the bulk of its Pacific Squadron, the remainder based farther north at Vladivostok. The Japanese government and population were humiliated by this treatment at European hands and held the greatest grudge against Russia.