bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
American Exceptionalism in Inequality and Poverty: A (Tentative) Historical Explanation
Authors: Lacey Nicola , Soskice David
Published: May 2021

The United States is a fascinating case study in the complex links between crime, punishment and inequality, standing out as it does in terms of inequality as measured by a number of economic standards; levels of serious violent crime; and rates of imprisonment, penal surveillance and post-conviction disqualifications. This chapter builds on the authors’ previous work arguing that the exceptional rise in violent crime and punishment in the US from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s can be explained by the interaction of four political and economic variables: ‘technological regime change’; ‘varieties of capitalism’ and ‘varieties of welfare state’; types of ‘political system’; and – critically and specifically – the US as a radical outlier in the degree of local democracy. Three further questions implied by the authors’ previous work are asked. First, why did such distinctive patterns of local democracy arise in America? And how is this political structure tied up with the history and politics of race? Second, what did the distinctive historical development of the US political economy in the 19th century imply for the structure of its criminal justice institutions? And third, why did the burden of crime and punishment come to fall so disproportionately on African Americans?
The Political Economy of Punishment and the Penal State in Latin America
Authors: Iturralde Manuel
Published: May 2021

In both criminology and the sociology of punishment there has been a rebirth of the political economy of crime and punishment, where the relationship between these phenomena and levels of inequality within a given society is a key aspect, to assess the transformation and features of the crime control fields of contemporary societies and to relate them to different typologies. This chapter will discuss and problematize this perspective through the analysis of Latin American crime control fields. Considering the flaws of general typologies, usually coming from the global north, the chapter will stress the need for a more detailed comparative analysis of the penal state and the institutional structures, dynamics and dispositions present in every jurisdiction, in both the global north and south, that have a direct impact on penal policy and its outcomes.
Afterword: Unequal Punishment
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: May 2021

This Afterword reflects on the scope, ambitions and achievements of this substantial volume of collected essays. It reflects on the interdisciplinary, cross-jurisdictional and temporal range of the contributing chapters. It seeks to situate them in the longer history of studies of the political economy of crime and punishment, and applauds their collective revitalisation of the field. It explores the ways in which the impressive, international group of contributors explore the complex interactions between inequality, crime and punishment. In particular, it addresses the conceptual and methodological choices made in determining how to measure comparative poverty and prosperity and how to gauge relative punitiveness. The Afterword concludes by exploring promising further areas of enquiry suggested by this remarkable collection.
Peacemaking, the SPLM/A’s Political Transition During the Comprehensive Peace Agreement Era and Conflict in the Sudans
Authors: De Alessi Benedetta
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on the flawed transformation of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army/Movement (SPLM/A) from a rebel movement into a political organisation during the years of implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in Sudan and how that contributed to delivering an unsustainable peace in Sudan and South Sudan. The chapter examines in particular how approaches to peacemaking ignited and then failed to support the war-to-peace transition, and the extent to which the drivers and factors within and outside the movement contributed to that failure. It argues that while the CPA mediators and the SPLM/A negotiators considered the SPLM to be the engine of Sudan’s democratic transition - after two decades of civil war - they did not adequately consider the movement’s structural weaknesses, namely a divisive ideology, a fractured and hierarchal military leadership and weak political institutionalisation that would affect the movement’s transformation into a national party and its ability to bring about the transformation of Sudan.
A Flawed Formula for Peacemaking and Continued Violence in Darfur
Authors: Moman Partha
Published: May 2021

This article seeks to contribute to understandings of peacemaking failure in Darfur, during the negotiations in Abuja from 2004-2006 that led to the 2006 Darfur Peace Agreement. It argues that a key factor in explaining peacemaking failure, was the reliance on a standard formula for peace negotiations used across the world. Peacemakers, in and around Abuja, worked by assuming the existence of a limited number of cohesive warring parties, enabling a comprehensive agreement and consensus between these groups, and ensuring that this result could be enshrined in a logical written document. The use of this formula, although seemingly logical, entrenched pathologies in the Abuja negotiations – exclusion of certain constituencies, the use of simplistic narratives to frame the conflict, coercive diplomacy, an overactive mediation – that in turn contributed to the continuation and even escalation of violent conflict in Darfur. The article concludes by suggesting potential pathways to decentering this dominant formula for conducting peace negotiations.
How Mediators Conceive of Peace
Authors: Verjee Aly
Published: May 2021

Both contemporary and retrospective analyses of the 2013-15 regionally-led Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) mediation for South Sudan tend to overlook or oversimplify the multiple, overlapping, and competing conceptions of peace as held by the mediators who led the process until they stepped down after a peace deal was signed in August 2015. Far from an undifferentiated, homogenous entity, the mediation comprised multiple institutions, states, and officials, each with different values, goals, and understandings of peace, which also varied over time. This article identifies six conceptions of peace as held by the mediators, to help explain why the mediators were motivated and acted as they did. Such understandings and conceptions were often contradictory. To fully assess the 2013-15 process’s effectiveness such understandings can unpeel the layers of IGAD’s differentiated institutional structure and can supplement and better contextualise common critiques about the poor execution and implementation of mediation strategy, internecine regional politics, and a generalised lack of political will to resolve the conflict.
Desenvolvimento Econômico e Instituições Financeiras em Economias com Moeda Endógena
Authors: Passos Nikolas Peçanha Vieira
Published: May 2021

A relação entre sistema financeiro e desenvolvimento econômico remete aos estudos de Schumpeter e foi resgatada na década de 1990, com o objetivo de justificar a liberalização financeira das contas de capitais e dos mercados domésticos. A problemática ganhou especial relevância após a crise de 2008, quando a instabilidade do sistema financeiro exigiu a intervenção pública para a garantia do crescimento. Neste estudo, analisamos dois argumentos da teoria econômica tradicional: (i) o crescimento do sistema financeiro causa o crescimento econômico (ii) a alocação ótima de recursos financeiros pelo mercado é capaz de causar crescimento pela via da mudança estrutural. Em primeiro lugar, argumenta-se que quando consideramos a moeda endógena, os volumes de finança e moeda são condicionados pela demanda efetiva, portanto, não podem causar o crescimento. Em segundo lugar, os fluxos financeiros teriam um papel relevante para o desenvolvimento na medida em que transferissem recursos para atividades inovadoras, promovendo a mudança estrutural. Por outro lado, ao explicitar as especificidades de tais atividades inovadoras, podemos concluir que o mercado financeiro atuando livremente é insuficiente para alocar recursos na direção de atividades fundamentais para o desenvolvimento.Desenvolvimento Econômico e Instituições Financeiras em Economias com Moeda Endógena
A PROPOSTA DO PATRIOTISMO CONSTITUCIONAL EM HABERMAS E MÜLLER COMO SOLUÇÃO DE COESÃO SOCIAL EM SOCIEDADES MULTICULTURAIS E DEMOCRÁTICAS
Authors: Soares Josemar
Published: May 2021

O objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar a dialética do reconhecimento em visão hegeliana como condição epistemológica para efetivação da proposta de patriotismo constitucional, a partir das concepções de Habermas e Müller, tendo em vista realização de coesão social em sociedades multiculturais e democráticas. A pesquisa parte da premissa de que a fragmentação interna nas sociedades democráticas contemporâneas, sobretudo decorrente das migrações transnacionais, dificulta a unidade e a coesão a partir das ideias de etnia, nação, entre outras. Desse modo o patriotismo constitucional busca oferecer solução com a unidade sendo estabelecida pelo respeito à Constituição, e não mais por uma visão nacionalista. O constitucionalismo é capaz de tanto garantir a coesão social como a proteção dos direitos básicos e liberdades individuais dos membros da comunidade. O artigo discorre ainda sobre a dialética do reconhecimento, argumentando que esta é condição epistemológica para o patriotismo constitucional. A pesquisa utiliza método indutivo, por meio de abordagem bibliográfica.
De quem é esta tragédia? Traduzindo Arden of Faversham
Authors: Bars Closel Régis Augustus
Published: May 2021

Este artigo traz considerações sobre a tradução de Arden of Faversham para o português e o método de trabalho empregado em peças colaborativas, baseado no conceito de "Tradução Prismática", de Matthew Reynolds. A discussão recorre a exemplos de relevantes variações textuais encontradas nas três versões iniciais da obra e nas edições contemporâneas. Ao preservar as diferenças baseadas em diversas origens, o método de tradução permite que o resultado destaque a história do texto. O método empregado extrai possibilidades autorizadas pelas publicações do período. Variações apontam para a pergunta-título, cujas respostas podem ser buscadas na alternância existente entre palavras no título da peça, a composição dramática, os protagonistas e a autoria.
Um Veríssimo shakespeariano numa Noite de Reis
Authors: Ramos Elizabeth
Published: May 2021

Em fins do século XVI, William Shakespeare escreveu, além de outros textosdramáticos, três comédias que giram em torno da inebriante e complicada experiênciade se estar apaixonado – Much ado about nothing (1598), As you like it (1599-1600) e Twelfth Night (1601). Nas três, personagens femininas ocupam papel de destaque e se tornam a força motriz da trama, superando desafios. Em 2006, a Editora Objetiva publicou o romance A décima segunda noite, do escritor, cronista, cartunista, tradutor, roteirista e dramaturgo Luís Fernando Verissimo (1936-), uma releitura bem humorada da comédia shakespeariana, Twelfth Night or What you Will. O novo texto confirma a relevância das  personagens femininas da comédia inglesa e possibilita que o leitor se divirta com as identidades trocadas por meio dos disfarces de gênero. Este quinto romance do escritor gaúcho é o segundo da coleção ‘Devorando Shakespeare’, que pretendia publicar recriações do dramaturgo inglês. Aqui, num movimento de convergência de duas de suas paixões – a capital francesa e a produção do dramaturgo inglês – o escritor gaúcho desloca o lócus dramático da Ilíria balcânica, para a Paris dos anos 70, lócus onde se constrói o híbrido, onde se cruzam os lugares realmente vividos por diferentes sujeitos oriundos dediversos estratos sociais que se unem através do sentimento de solidariedade de grupo, próprio da condição do exílio. De maneira sensível e inteligente, o romancista insere em seu texto um narrador particular: o papagaio Henri, que constrói sua narrativa a partir do poleiro onde o colocam, no salão de cabelereiros Ilíria, de propriedade de Orsino.
Filosofia transcendental como ética e como metafísica, de Marco Ivaldo
Authors: Moraes Dax
Published: May 2021

A relação entre ética e metafísica e a própria determinação do que se entende por ética e por metafísica, como bem se sabe, são flexionadas de múltiplas maneiras, frequentemente conflitantes, na tradição que denominamos filosófica. Penso que seja produtivo empregar a perspectiva de uma filosofia transcendental que tem Kant e Fichte como os seus interlocutores fundamentais.
Absenteeism-disease in university employees: a cross-sectional study of the reasons for leave from 2013 to 2018
Authors: Pinto Carolina de Mendonça Brandão , Moreira Tiago Ricardo , Ferreira Débora Carvalho , Franceschini Sylvia do Carmo Castro , Henriques Bruno David
Published: May 2021

The Server's Integrated Health Subsystem is used to register health treatment licenses in the Federal Public Service, enabling knowledge about absenteeism-illness. To subsidize health promotion actions, it is intended to know its motivating causes in a Federal Education Institution in Minas Gerais. A cross-sectional study on leave between 2013 and 2018 was carried out. The variables were: position, sex, number of days off and the motivating code of the leave. Descriptive and inferential analyzes were performed using Poisson Regression. The main motivations found were: musculoskeletal disorders, followed by mental health in the group of professors and respiratory disorders in the group of administrative technicians, among whom, technicians up to 50 years old are associated with sick leave due to respiratory tract disorders and civil servants over 50 years old for musculoskeletal reasons. There was no difference in age with regard to mental disorder in this group. The static ergonomic risk associated with respiratory and psychic outcomes, and the risk due to dynamic activities in the absence of musculoskeletal disorders. Based on the data presented, it is possible to propose measures for Health Policy, aimed at improving the environment and work process, minimizing its risks and protecting the health of the employee.
Factors associated with drug use among adolescents
Authors: Peloso Mirene , Freitas Brunnella Alcantara Chagas de , Henriques Bruno David , Marques Samuel de Souza Magalhães , Lima Luciana Moreira
Published: May 2021

The study aimed to identify factors associated to drug use in adolescents. For this purpose, it has been observed 133 adolescents registred in ninth grade in two municipal schools in Viçosa, who answered an individual questionnaire validated by PAHO / WHO, applied by members of the Uncensored Extension Project of the Federal University of Viçosa (UFV). Substance use and family structure were evaluated. Statistical tools were: Epi-Info 7.0 StatCalc, Pearson's chi-square test, Poisson regression and SPSS version 23.0 and Stata 9.0 programs. The sample had an average of 15 years old, that 26.3% reported drug use, thus, 65,4% related family history of drug use and low education. Other aspects of family structure included: good family perception, absence of violence and family mental disorder by 78.2%, 82.7% and 75.9% of adolescents, respectively. Only males persisted as a factor associated with drug use, with 2.4 times higher use (PR 2.39; 95% IC 1.19-4.78; p = 0.014). Therefore, only the male gender showed a higher risk for drug use, and further studies are needed to evaluate factors associated with drug use, aiming to promote public health.
Editorial
Authors: Gomes Cristina Marques , Monguilhott Michele , Prigol Rosi
Published: May 2021

Editorial Dossiê Adoção
CULTURA E MEMÓRIA EM PERSPECTIVA: REFLEXÕES SOBRE OS ACERVOS HISTÓRICO-CULTURAIS NO MUNICÍPIO DE SÃO BORJA-RS
Authors: Conceição dos Santos Larissa , Pereira Machado Anna Clara , Amorim Catarina Maria
Published: May 2021

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar os resultados preliminares do projeto de pesquisa Memória Pública e Memória Cultural: um estudo histórico comunicacional, no que diz respeito à problemática do registro, conservação e acesso aos acervos histórico-culturais no município de São Borja-RS. Em sua primeira fase a pesquisa buscou realizar análises em Atos, decretos e leis ordinárias municipais relacionadas às políticas culturais do município. Posteriormente, diante da dificuldade de acesso aos materiais, descaso e evidente falta de conservação arquivística ampliou-se o escopo da pesquisa para a conservação da memória, especificamente da memória pública e cultural. O estudo fundamenta-se teoricamente na abordagem da Semiótica cultural (LOTMAN, 1998) e desenvolve-se metodologicamente a partir de pesquisa exploratória de campo, entrevistas exploratórias e pesquisa bibliográfica com base em dados primários e secundários. Apresentam-se aqui os resultados preliminares referentes ao levantamento inicial sobre os acervos histórico-culturais existentes no município de São Borja, bem como as possibilidades e limitações para a sua preservação.
Número Completo out./dez. 2019.‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬ (PDF com Capa e Artigos)
Authors: Rural Extensão
Published: May 2021

Número Completo out./dez. 2019.‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬ (PDF com Capa e Artigos)
Participação de cooperativas em licitações na perspectiva da política de compras governamentais
Authors: Sales Kalina Donato , Faria Felicia Borges Carvalho de
Published: May 2021

Este artigo trata da caracterização da participação das sociedades cooperativas em licitações promovidas pela Administração Pública. Seu objetivo principal é verificar a utilização da política de compras governamentais no cumprimento do mandamento constitucional de apoio e estímulo ao cooperativismo. A pesquisa teve como referência o histórico de vedações, limitações, estímulos e possibilidades da participação de cooperativas nas contratações públicas, considerando preceitos legais que envolvem as licitações como instrumento de promoção do desenvolvimento nacional sustentável. Trata-se de pesquisa qualitativa, com utilização de procedimento de análise de conteúdo nos dados referentes aos pregões realizados no período de 2013 a 2018. Como resultado, verificou-se que as sociedades cooperativas possuem pouca representatividade quantitativa e financeira nas contratações públicas realizadas no período analisado.
Pension expenditure analysis: Empirical study of a Serbian local self-government
Authors: Đurović-Todorović Jadranka , Đorđević Marina , Ristić-Cakić Milica
Published: May 2021

The problem of pension financing in the system of mandatory pension insurance in the Republic of Serbia became actual after the great economic crisis of the 1990s, although this problem had been present before. Accordingly, considerable attention has been paid to the analysis of determinants of pension expenditures. Considering the fact that in the Republic of Serbia the possibilities for reducing expenditures in the system of mandatory state pension and disability insurance have already been exhausted by reforms so far, it is necessary to consider other measures and possibilities for changing the design of the pension disability system. Therefore, the subject of this paper is the analysis of the relationship between pension beneficiaries, the type and amount of pensions. The aim of the paper is to analyze the influence of the pension beneficiary and the type of pension on the amount of the pension, based on the analysis of the collected data.
Free citizens, democracy: Assumptions of the application of Roman law
Authors: Radovanović Snežana
Published: May 2021

Majority of the nowdays societies consider that spreding of democracy, rather than limitation of state power, preserves freedom. This idea is in the contrary to antic idea of freedom as the essence of human being and its highest value. By such an idea, the society will be preserved from negative tendencies like democratic despotism (glorifiing power and authority as well as concetration of power in the hands of the leader), and decline of the highest values in global society. In antic polis ius civile used to be applied to free citizens only, rather than strangers, being slaves. As slaves, strangers had no any right recognised, and were acquisited like any other property. Slavery in Roman empire was considered as normal phenomena and was also approved mostly by social and biologic reasons. Ius gentium was, however, by spreading Empire to provncies, apllied to both citizens and strangers. Antic polis produced direct democracy, being ruling of the people, which was duty as well as the priviledge of the free citizens, thus, the priority were public obligations. Nowdays, however, democracy is considered individually, as a protection of individual, its property and private life.
Onomastics of the village Velika Kruševica near Rekovac
Authors: Jašović Golub
Published: May 2021

The paper presents the onomastics recorded in Levač village Velika Kruševica which is situated in the Levač municipality. We have registered toponyms, personal and family nicknames, personal names and surnames of all the residents who have been in the village during our visit (some have been working in the fields). A short analysis of lexical and semantic units has been done as well as the classification of the registered onyms. Integral part of the paper is also a dictionary with an alphabetical list of the recorded onyms.
Lexical-semantic abilities in children with developmental dysgraphia
Authors: Ćalasan Slađana , Vuković Mile , Arsić Radomir
Published: May 2021

Empirical data indicate that children with developmental dysgraphia may exhibit various disorders in the field of linguistic structure. However, it has not yet been determined whether linguistic impairment contributes to difficulties in mastering writing skills or whether they are a joint expression. The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the relation between the development of lexical-semantic structure and the ability to write by identifying lexical-semantic abilities in children with dysgraphia. The sample included 84 students, 42 students with developmental dysgraphia, and 42 students without disabilities. The lexical-semantic abilities were assessed by means of the Semantic Test and the Test for Speech Development. The survey was conducted in three primary schools in 2016-17 in Eastern Herzegovina. The results of the study showed that children with dysgraphia achieved significantly worse results on the Semantic Test compared to children without disabilities. Lower achievement in children with developmental dysgraphia was observed in all lexical categories examined, as well as in the overall score of the Semantic Test. The results of the Speech Development Test show that children with dysgraphia have significantly lower definitions of given terms compared to their peers of typical development. It was concluded that children with dysgraphia have significantly less developed lexical-semantic abilities than children of typical development. These findings highlight the need for additional support for vocabulary development and vocabulary enhancement in children with disabilities.
New words in Serbian public discourse as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic
Authors: Nikolić Marina , Slijepčević-Bjelivuk Svetlana , Novokmet Slobodan
Published: May 2021

The aim of this work is to present the lexical changes in the Serbian language caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper analyses new words that appeared in the Serbian language which very quickly expanded the domain of their use from specific medical terminology and became part of everyday spoken Serbian language, including new words motivated by them. Types of neologisms emergence are presented (borrowing from the English language, changing or developing new meanings of the existing words, exploiting the derivative potential of the Serbian language, etc.), as well as their stylistic, orthographic, and pragmatic features. After a detailed analysis, we included a dictionary of neologisms followed by the indispensable comments.
The problem of the location of the Gabuleum and Theranda road stops on the Lissus-Naissus Roman road (Upper Moesia)
Authors: Samardžić Gligor
Published: May 2021

The paper presents data on the problem related to the location of Gabuleum and Theranda road stops on the Lisus-Naisus Roman road (Upper Moesia). The Lisus-Naisus Roman road intersected modern-day Kosova and Metohija stretching from the southwest to the northeast. The road, being the main road, connected the seaside to the inland. Not a considerable number of milestones, i.e. their fragments, was found on this part of the road. They are of significant historic value due to the fact that they represent genuine evidence of the existence of the Roman road in Kosovo and Metohija. During the research of ancient road stops and roads in the south of the province of Upper Moesia (Kosovo and Metohija), we used written sources and material remains on the terrain for which the data from Tabula Peutingeriana and Ptolemy's Geography were highly significant. The epigraph statues are equally important, i.e. milestones, road remains, settlements and other material remains.Their more detailed study and research can provide researchers with the opportunity to point to the main road routes, road stops and settlements in this area. The question of the location of Gabuleum road stop stays open due to the fact that the researchers have not reached a consensus till today on its location because, as previously mentioned, there have been many opinions. The prevalent opinion in the contemporary scientific circles, being based on Tabula Peutingeriana, is that Gabulem should be looked for near the place called Kukës in Albania where the White and Black Drim converge. By quoting Tabula Peutingeriana, the traces of the Roman presence as well as the unsafe road route to the North, the location of Therande is linked to the territory of Metohija, near the places such as Suva Reka or Ljubižda, in the valley of the Miruša river, not far from Prizren.
Development of Proposed ISO 12217 Single Stability Index for Mono-Hull Sailing Craft
Authors: van Oossanen Peter
Published: May 2021

For more than 5 years now, Working Group 22 of Technical Committee 188 of the International Stan­dards Organization (ISO) has been developing a standard for the assessment and categorization of the stability of pleasure craft with a length up to 24 m. This work became necessary when the European Union decided to issue a Directive on Pleasure Craft, facilitating the export and import of pleasure craft to and from the various countries comprising the European Union. All newly-built pleasure craft up to 24 m in length, to be marketed in the Euro­pean Union, must comply with the stability standard being developed, and some 50 other ISO standards, covering all aspects of structure, materials, equipment, etc, as of June 1998.

To support the work of Working Group 22, The Netherlands carried out a comprehensive study for Part 2 of ISO 12217, covering the stability of mono-hull sailing craft. Together with the French, Swedish and UK delegates, this work finally lead to the development of a single stability index. Wor­king Group 22, in September 1996, unanimously agreed to adopt this concept for the assessment and categorization of the stability of mono-hull sailing vessels. This paper gives a description of some of the work that was carried out by the Netherlands in this regard and gives a description of the single STability Index (STIX) concept and the way the STIX value is determined from the various stability and buoyancy properties of sailing vessels.
Big data e inteligencia artificial en la Administración tributaria
Authors: Oliver Cuello Rafael
Published: May 2021

El empleo de los macrodatos o big data por parte de las Administraciones tributarias, junto con el uso de las herramientas de inteligencia artificial, tiene una enorme relevancia en la actual aplicación de los tributos, con indudables consecuencias jurídicas tanto para los derechos y garantías de los obligados tributarios como para la actuación de la Hacienda pública. Las Administraciones tributarias emplean el big data y la inteligencia artificial, entre otras cosas, en la selección de contribuyentes para iniciar un procedimiento de inspección tributaria, en los modelos predictivos del riesgo de incumplimiento del obligado tributario, en los asistentes virtuales, en la confección de borradores de declaraciones tributarias, en la actuación administrativa automatizada y en los actos resolutorios automatizados. La utilización de estas herramientas tecnológicas debe caracterizarse por un cumplimiento estricto de los principios jurídicos que rigen la aplicación de los tributos y debe ser respetuosa con los derechos y garantías del contribuyente.
Specificity of work of private military companies in the XXI century (on the example of Near East)
Authors: Rogozhina Evgeniya Mikhailovna , Ryzhov Igor' Valer'evich , Sokolov Roman Nikolaevich
Published: May 2021

  This article is dedicated to examination of the phenomenon of private military companies as a regional actor of security. Leaning on the analysis of international normative legal documents, the authors derive the definition of private military companies due to the fact that neither academic nor applied spheres have precise understanding of this phenomenon. The key research method is the structural and functional analysis, which allows authors considering the object of study from the perspective of various systems of actors. With the increased demand for private military services, private military companies gradually shift from the category of organizations serving military operations to the category of full-fledged independent military organizations that are capable of fulfilling the functions of regular army. For the past two decades, the market for private military services has grown from $ 55 billion to over $200 billion in 2010. The scientific novelty consists in comprehensive overview of various aspects and trends that take place in the market of private military services, as well as in classification of motives and consequences of usage of private military companies in armed missions. The authors discuss the question of international legal status of private military companies, provide practical examples of their activity with the prolonged consequences for regional systems of international relations, analyze the mechanisms of use of these companies in the current context, as well as synthesize the key factors of the increased demand for their services. The absence of regulation of the work of private military companies and ambiguous status of their employees in international law make it virtually impossible to impose international responsibility upon them.  
Security systems of the European Union and Europe: difficulties of identification, transformation prospects, postnational context
Authors: Alekseev Nikolai Nikolaevich
Published: May 2021

This article discusses a number of questions associated with security systems of the European Union and Europe. Special attention is given to the problem of identification of boundaries of functionality of these systems under the influence of various regional and global processes. The author examines the peculiarities and prospects of transformation of the EU security system and its elements, as well as the potential impact of these transformations upon the relations with other interested actors of international relations (United States and Russia). The article describes the key defense initiatives of the European Union that can contribute to intensification of integration processes in the union and propel the European Union to the whole new level of integration. The novelty of this work consists in the analysis of integration processes in the area of defense and security within the framework of postnationalism and postnational identity of the European Union, and this, based on the EU citizenship. The author reveals the factors promoting the creation of a new type of defense institution, as well as the factors impeding this process. Based on the studied materials, the author anticipates the possibility of establishment of the autonomous EU defense agency. This research is conducted in the period of political instability caused by a number of regional and global challenges for the European Union, namely the major challenge of 2019 – 2020 COVID-19 pandemic.
Examination of institutions in social sciences: to articulation of the problem of philosophical analysis
Authors: Ravochkin Nikita Nikolaevich
Published: May 2021

In recent decades, the problematic of social institutions has come to the forefront in foreign and national social science. It is justified by the fact that namely the institutional environment determines the success of social interactions and utilization of resources for moving towards the evolutionary scenario of development. The author gives close attention to the existing within national and foreign discourse definition of the basic object, and critically assesses the overall state of institutional research in social sciences. The discovered disciplinary narrowness and penchant for field-specific interests despite ambitious demands advance by, for example, economic sciences, substantiate the need for detailed philosophical analysis of social institutions. The author's special contribution lies in critical assessment of the available range of theoretical material in the area of sociological, economic, legal and political sciences. The article demonstrates the continuity and overall dynamics of disciplinary research of the institutions within the discourse of social sciences. The importance of interdisciplinary consideration of problematic areas in the institutional research is emphasized. Link between the effectiveness of functionality of the institutions and cognitive characteristics is traced. The value of constructivist approach is evident due to the increasing role of ideas in social sciences. In conclusion, the author conflates the strong and weak sides of disciplinary works, anticipating future research on the development of the ultimate grounds of institutions.
Factors affecting the establishment of the size and limits of an administrative area supervised by a local police officer
Authors: Zheltobryukh Aleksandr Vasil'evich , Vinokurov Vitalii Nikolaevich
Published: May 2021

The research subject is social relations in the field of public order protection, ensuring social security and combating crime in an administrative area and the implementation of preventive measures by a local police officer. The authors focus on the factors and peculiarities of the supervised area and its population affecting the establishment and revisioning of the size and limits of an administrative area supervised by a local police officer, and on the amendments to the decree of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of March 29, 2019 No205 “On a local police officer service in an administrative area and organization of this service”. Based on the conducted analysis, the authors suggest, when defining the size and limits of an administrative area, taking into account the population density in the area in question, economic, geographic, national and demographic peculiarities on the territory, the criminological characteristics of the citizens, the number of citizens having a police record, the current operative situation, and the peculiarities of administrative organization of municipal entities. In the authors’ opinion, the resolution of this problem will have a positive effect on the work of police officers, and will help to equally and rationally distribute workload on local police officers thus raising the effectiveness of their service and improving the quality of preventive measures.   
Criminal investigation in Irkutsk province: the peculiarities of specialization of police structures in the late 19th century
Authors: Sysoev Aleksei Aleksandrovich
Published: May 2021

In the context of modern transformation of Russian statehood, attention to the problems of law enforcement activities improvement has strengthened. The problems of specialization of police structures have become of a key importance. It’s no coincidence that during the recent decade, the process of formation and development of criminal investigation has been actively studied. The topicality of the problem determines the object, subject and purpose of the research. The research object is the process of formation and development of criminal investigation service in Irkutsk province, the research subject is the implementation of this process in the work of Irkutsk police. The purpose of the research is to define the sense, tendencies, patterns and contradictions of this process. The scientific novelty of the research consists in the analysis of the process of formation of criminal investigation service in Irkutsk province. The specificity of organization of criminals detection in Irkutsk province was determined by the specificity of local law enforcement activity. To the extent possible, local administration was trying to carry out criminal investigation in the region using the standard organization of the police work. But such an organization was in contradiction with the requirements imposed on it. Police were not able to organize proper criminal investigation due to the variety of tasks they faced. It turned out to be impossible to organize criminal investigation by independent units in Irkutsk province. Experience proved that the system of financial support for criminal investigation of that time didn’t allow creating special investigative units. This factor determined the appearance of “private detectives” under the jurisdiction of Irkutsk police. However, the insufficient financial support resulted in the poor quality of investigative activity which usually erupted into illegal activities. Remarkably, the necessity to create organizational structures of criminal investigation was much more urgent than in other regions of the country, which is proved by persistent actions of the province administration.   
Economic Ideas of the Renaissance era: philosophical analysis
Authors: Avakyan-Forer Armina Genrikhovna
Published: May 2021

This article examines the economic views of the Renaissance philosophers. The socio-philosophical thought of this period raises the value and moral-ethical problems in economic sphere, as well as attempts to solve them. The subject of this research is the attitude towards the economic wealth of an individual and society. The goal is to reveal and structurize the economic ideas of the Renaissance philosophers. The relevance of this work lies in the overview of the philosophical concepts that reflect the economic ideas and value peculiarities of that time. Special attention is given to the development of foreign trade, which was accelerated by the Age of Discovery. The Renaissance era is complex phenomenon of human culture, where opens a new perspective upon articulation and solution of the old problems. For example, in discussing wealth and poverty, the philosophers raised the problem of social inequality, claiming the many people are poor not because they do not want to work, but because they were born to be poor. In this era, the bourgeois class, feudal lords and the highest royal nobility owned almost all lands, making it extremely difficult for ordinary people to become wealthy. This marked the “revolution” within the system of values, as well as in sociopolitical and economic spheres. Among the factors affecting the evolution of economic thought, the author indicates the problems of the development of economic activity and change in the subject area of economic tasks, both of which required a theoretical reflection. The author explores the solution of these tasks by different philosophers, as well as follows the evolution of the internal logic of economic views.
Clock synchronization error compensation algorithm based on BP neural network model
Authors: Wei Lian-Suo , Li Hua , Wu Di , Guo Yuan ,   School of Computer and Control Engineering, Qiqihar University, Qiqihar 161000, China
Published: May 2021

Error compensation is an important guarantee method to ensure the accuracy of clock synchronization in underwater sensor networks. Existing research methods mainly use linear fitting and least square method to compensate for clock synchronization parameters. Underwater wireless sensor network nodes are mobile, which leads the network nodes to be always in a time-varying state. In the process of synchronous forwarding, the position where the node sends and receives data packets will change, resulting in a relative moving distance, leading the dynamic delay to an increase in. In this way, as the number of forwarding nodes increases, the error of the clock gradually increases, causing the synchronization accuracy of the underwater sensor wireless network to gradually decrease. The existing underwater wireless sensor network clock synchronization algorithm does not fully consider the dynamic time delay caused by the movement of the node with the ocean current. It only uses the time stamp mechanism to solve the clock synchronization parameters, and then uses the traditional linear fitting to refine the synchronization parameters. The accurate solution of dynamic time delay is a key factor of synchronization accuracy. The use of traditional optimization algorithms to refine the synchronization parameters can easily fall into a local optimum, which makes the synchronization accuracy not high. Therefore, the existing traditional research on clock synchronization algorithms cannot well solve the problem of clock synchronization accuracy caused by node mobility. However this type of method does not consider the clock synchronization accuracy of node movement affected by ocean currents. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a clock synchronization error compensation algorithm based on BP neural network model. First, the deep-sea Lagrangian ocean current model is used to describe the movement of underwater nodes and simulate the movement speed of underwater nodes, and then a clock synchronization parameter model is established, and finally a BP neural network clock synchronization error compensation model is build, which conforms to the underwater environment, and the excitation function is defined, and regular term factor and compensatory factor are introduced to avoid model over-fitting. The BP neural network model clock synchronization error compensation algorithm is established for error back propagation. Simulation experiments show that compared with the comparison algorithm TSHL, MM-sync, and MU-sync, the accuracy of clock synchronization, namely the error between clock synchronization time and standard time, increased by 37.42%, 17.29% and 21.86%, and the mean square error is significantly reduced.
The Limits of Americanism
Authors: Hart D. G.
Published: May 2021

This chapter highlights the emergence of the radicals, feminists, black separatists, free love advocates, and antiwar protesters who huddled under the banner of the New Left. It looks at the conflict that erupted during the 1960s, in which normative America stood for hard work, personal responsibility, individual merit, delayed gratification, social mobility, heterosexual marriage, well-defined gender roles, and national greatness. It also discusses Democrats, establishment Republicans, and conservatives that disagree about the responsibilities of the federal government and its programs. The chapter illustrates the protest culture that arose on college campuses during the 1960s and eventually found a home in the Democratic Party. It elaborates how the New Left embraced a transgressive outlook that challenged all sides of the American way.
Promoting Neighborhood Safety and Well-Being
Authors: Rakow Donald A. , Gough Meghan Z. , Lee Sharon A.
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines the approach, process, and outcomes of placemaking partnerships formed with public gardens to promote a sense of safety and well-being at the neighborhood scale. Cases in this chapter emphasize the intentional use of urban greening as a tool to empower residents to actively contribute to positive change, to elevate diverse cultures sharing common spaces, and to capitalize on existing assets in the community to manage vacant land. One such case is the greening of Brooklyn. The chapter discusses the efforts that the Brooklyn Botannical Garden (BBG) put into making Brooklyn green. The strategy of the BBG was to transform the neighborhood into a community of gardeners by initiating greening contests. It also talks about the efforts of the Queens Botannical Garden and how they took advantage of the diverse culture that can be found in Queens to make their area green by creating the ambassador program. In this program, they recruit twelve to fifteen ambassadors who speak in their native language to their communities on behalf of the botannical garden.
Words Are Not Enough
Authors: Walker Vanessa
Published: May 2021

This chapter analyzes the early development of the Carter administration's human rights agenda, built in tandem with a new approach to U.S.–Latin American relations during its first year in office. From the outset, the Carter administration envisioned a human rights policy that would simultaneously mitigate human rights violations abroad, build U.S. credibility and stature in the international sphere by reasserting a moral and ideological pole of attraction, and signify a move away from the excessive secrecy and power of the Cold War presidency at home. Although Carter largely shared the premises of the Movement's vision, differences over the implementation and signifiers of this policy in high-level diplomacy created rifts between like-minded advocates and policy makers. Carter found himself grappling with the legacies of both U.S. intervention in the region and also congressional and public distrust stemming from past excesses of the Cold War presidency. The administration's options in implementing its policy were bounded by both past regional relations and human rights advocacy itself.
The Golden Years of Human Rights?
Authors: Walker Vanessa
Published: May 2021

This concluding chapter explains that for Movement advocates, the human rights vision of the 1970s was intimately connected with a reckoning with the U.S. failures of Vietnam, Cold War national security strategy, and, of course, Chile. The Movement and the Carter administration shared a vision of human rights as a way to improve not only the world but also the U.S. government and its policies. This is not to say the Movement's views were universally shared, or that human rights faded away after the 1970s. Rather, human rights continued to serve as an instrument of its time, a powerful idea and language, flexible and indelible. The Carter administration's human rights policy was far from perfect or consistent. It was, however, a uniquely self-reflective policy that restrained U.S. intervention and addressed abuses taking place in areas where the United States was most directly complicit in empowering violators.
Philhellenes Clash with American Commerce
Authors: Santelli Maureen Connors
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines the internal conflict that emerged over popular support for the Greek cause. In 1815, after the War of 1812 and the Barbary Wars ended, American merchants hoped they had finally secured the ability to freely conduct business abroad. The goal had always been to advance an American perspective of commerce. National intervention had indeed secured a treaty, but popular intervention on the part of the philhellenes as well as European politics had prolonged the process. American officials not only had to navigate a geopolitical landscape, then dominated by less-than-friendly empires and monarchies, but they also struggled to explain to their Ottoman counterparts the nature of a republican society: some members of the American public may have supported Greek independence, but the United States government desired a friendly and lucrative relationship with the Sublime Porte. By the end of negotiations, the Greek Revolution had served as the backdrop for early American efforts at communicating their political identities to a larger world.