bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Autopsy Prevalence of Coronary Atherosclerosis in Patients With Fatal Stroke
Authors: Gongora-Rivera Fernando , Labreuche Julien , Jaramillo Arturo , Steg Philippe Gabriel , Hauw Jean-Jacques , Amarenco Pierre
Published: March 2007

Background and Purpose—

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the leading cause of long-term mortality in patients with stroke, yet the prevalence of coronary atherosclerosis in these individuals is unknown. The objective of the study was to establish the prevalence of coronary atherosclerosis and MI after fatal stroke.

Methods—

Using an autopsy data bank, we studied the prevalence of coronary plaques and coronary stenoses >50% and pathologic evidence of MI in 803 consecutive autopsies of neurologic patients.

Results—

Coronary plaques, coronary stenoses, and MI were present in 72.4%, 37.5%, and 40.8%, respectively, of the 341 patients with stroke and in 26.8%, 10.1%, and 12.8%, respectively, of the 462 patients with other neurologic diseases (
P
<0.001). Two-thirds of cases of MI were clinically silent and found at autopsy. Compared with other neurologic diseases, and after adjusting for age, gender, and heart weight, the odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) of the presence of coronary plaques, coronary stenosis, and MI in stroke patients were 3.81 (2.66 to 5.46), 2.80 (1.85 to 4.25), and 2.34 (1.58 to 3.46), respectively. The frequency of coronary atherosclerosis and MI was similar between stroke subtypes. The prevalence of coronary plaques, coronary stenosis, and MI was 79.0%, 42.9%, and 46.0%, respectively, in the presence of plaques in any segment of the extracranial and intracranial brain arteries, and 50.8%, 17.9%, and 23.9%, respectively, in the absence of plaques (adjusted
P
<0.01). Coronary atherosclerosis was also related to the severity of atherosclerosis in any segment of the cerebral arteries (adjusted probability value for linear trend <.005).

Conclusions—

Coronary atherosclerosis and MI are highly prevalent in patients who died from a stroke regardless of the etiology. They are more frequent when atherosclerosis is present in the carotid and cerebral arteries. They are also common in stroke patients with no evidence of carotid or cerebral atherosclerosis.
Life Expectancy After Perimesencephalic Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Authors: Greebe Paut , Rinkel Gabriël J.E.
Published: March 2007

Background and Purpose—

Patients with a perimesencephalic nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage are not at risk for rebleeding in the initial years after the hemorrhage. Nevertheless, uncertainty remains on the long-term prognosis after perimesencephalic hemorrhage, and former patients are often considered high-risk cases for health insurance or are denied life insurance. We performed a very long-term follow-up study of a large consecutive series of such patients and compared mortality in this cohort with that in the general population.

Methods—

All patients with a perimesencephalic hemorrhage (defined by pattern of hemorrhage on computed tomography within 72 hours after onset and absence of aneurysm) admitted between 1983 and 2005 to our service were followed-up by telephone. For patients who had died, we retrieved age and cause of death. We compared the age- and sex-specific mortality of this cohort with that of the general population by means of standardized mortality ratios with corresponding 95% confidence intervals.

Results—

The cohort consisted of 160 patients, with a total number of patient-years of 1213. No new episodes of subarachnoid hemorrhage had occurred. During follow-up 11 patients had died; the expected number of deaths based on mortality rates in the general population (adjusted for age and gender) was 18.1. The standardized mortality ratio was 0.61 (95% confidence interval, 0.34 to 1.1).

Conclusions—

Patients with perimesencephalic hemorrhage have a normal life expectancy and are not at risk for rebleeding. No restrictions should be imposed on these patients by physicians or health or life insurance companies.
Incidence and Risk Factors for Stroke in Type 2 Diabetic Patients
Authors: Giorda Carlo Bruno , Avogaro Angelo , Maggini Marina , Lombardo Flavia , Mannucci Edoardo , Turco Salvatore , Alegiani Stefania Spila , Raschetti Roberto , Velussi Mario , Ferrannini Ele ,   The DAI Study Group
Published: March 2007

Background and Purpose—

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a strong predictor of cerebrovascular disease, yet few studies have assessed the incidence of stroke and the role of other risk factors in unselected type 2 diabetes mellitus populations.

Methods—

We prospectively followed-up 14 432 type 2 diabetes mellitus patients, aged 40 to 97 years, with and without a history of cardiovascular disease at enrollment, and we estimated the incidence of stroke and the hazards ratios with respect to clinical variables.

Results—

During a 4-year follow-up, 296 incident stroke events were recorded. In persons with no history of cardiovascular disease, the age-standardized incidence of stroke (per 1000 person-years) was 5.5 (95% confidence interval, 4.2 to 6.8) in men and 6.3 (95% confidence interval, 4.5 to 8.2) in women. In persons with a history of cardiovascular disease, it was 13.7 (95% confidence interval, 7.5 to 19.8) in men and 10.8 (95% confidence interval, 7.3 to 14.4) in women. The hazards ratios of stroke incidence varied according to age, sex, and history of cardiovascular disease. Among men with no history, HbA1c and smoking were predictors of stroke. Among patients with a history, the risk factors were, in men, therapy with insulin plus oral agents, treated high total cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol, whereas in women microvascular complications were a risk factor. Previous stroke was a strong predictor of stroke in both sexes.

Conclusions—

Age and previous stroke are the main predictors of stroke in diabetes. The combined role of Hba1c, microvascular complications, low HDL cholesterol, and treatment with insulin plus oral agents highlights the importance of diabetic history and clinical background in the development of stroke.
How Diagnosis-Related Group 559 Will Change the US Medicare Cost Reimbursement Ratio for Stroke Centers
Authors: Demaerschalk Bart M. , Durocher Donna L.
Published: March 2007

Background and Purpose—

Thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke saves societal costs, but hospitals that practice acute stroke care appear to shoulder the burden of the cost, which exceeds reimbursement. With creation of the diagnosis-related group (DRG) 559, the US Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services pays hospitals approximately US $6000 more per case when thrombolysis is administered. We sought to determine the total cost of, and reimbursement for, acute stroke treatment with thrombolysis at a single stroke center and the economic impact of DRG 559.

Methods—

Between September 2001 and December 2004, we collected data on all patients with acute stroke who received thrombolysis. We identified all hospital costs and reimbursement per patient. Financial results were expressed as a cost-reimbursement ratio: average total cost to average total reimbursement per patient. We then reanalyzed data using the projected Medicare hospital reimbursement with DRG 559.

Results—

Sixty-seven patients with stroke (mean age, 72 years) were treated (mean length of stay, 4.4 days; mean stroke severity, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score of 15; and symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage rate, 7%). The cost-reimbursement ratio was 1.41 (95% CI=0.98 to 2.28) before DRG 559 and estimated to be 0.82 (95% CI=0.66 to 0.97) after DRG 559.

Conclusions—

Our hospital costs have traditionally exceeded Medicare reimbursement for the acute care of thrombolyzed patients with ischemic stroke, but with DRG 559, a new economically favorable cost-reimbursement ratio for hospitals will be established.
Seeing Fearful Body Language Overcomes Attentional Deficits in Patients with Neglect
Authors: Tamietto Marco , Geminiani Giuliano , Genero Rosanna , de Gelder Beatrice
Published: March 2007

Survival depends to some extent on the ability to detect salient signals and prepare an appropriate response even when attention is engaged elsewhere. Fearful body language is a salient signal of imminent danger, easily observable from a distance and indicating to the observer which adaptive action to prepare for. Here we investigated for the first time whether fearful body language modulates the spatial distribution of attention and enhances visual awareness in neurological patients with severe attentional disorders. Patients with visual extinction and hemispatial neglect following right parietal injury have a rightward attentional bias accompanied by loss of awareness for contralesional left stimuli, especially when competing stimuli appear to the right. Three such patients were tested with pictures of fearful, happy, and neutral bodily expressions briefly presented either unilaterally in the left or right visual field, or to both fields simultaneously. On bilateral trials, unattended and task-irrelevant fearful bodily expressions modulated attentional selection and visual awareness. Fearful bodily expressions presented in the contralesional unattended visual field simultaneously with neutral bodies in the ipsilesional field were detected more often than left-side neutral or happy bodies. This demonstrates that despite pathological inattention and parietal damage, emotion and action-related information in fearful body language may be extracted automatically, biasing attentional selection and visual awareness. Our findings open new perspectives on the role of bodily expressions in attentional selection and suggest that a neural network in intact fronto-limbic and visual areas may still mediate reorienting of attention and preparation for action upon perceiving fear in others.
Experience-dependent Plasticity of Conceptual Representations in Human Sensory-Motor Areas
Authors: Kiefer Markus , Sim Eun-Jin , Liebich Sarah , Hauk Olaf , Tanaka James
Published: March 2007

Concepts are composed of features related to different sensory and motor modalities such as vision, sound, and action. It is a matter of controversy whether conceptual features are represented in sensory-motor areas reflecting the specific learning experience during acquisition. In order to address this issue, we assessed the plasticity of conceptual representations by training human participants with novel objects under different training conditions. These objects were assigned to categories such that for one class of categories, the overall shape was diagnostic for category membership, whereas for the other class, a detail feature affording a particular action was diagnostic. During training, participants were asked to either make an action pantomime toward the detail feature of the novel object or point to it. In a categorization task at test, we assessed the neural correlates of the acquired conceptual representations by measuring electrical brain activity. Here, we show that the same object is differentially processed depending on the sensory-motor interactions during knowledge acquisition. Only in the pantomime group did we find early activation in frontal motor regions and later activation in occipito-parietal visual-motor regions. In the pointing training group, these effects were absent. These results show that action information contributes to conceptual processing depending on the specific learning experience. In line with modality-specific theories of conceptual memory, our study suggests that conceptual representations are established by the learning-based formation of cell assemblies in sensory-motor areas.
Gaze-Contingent Visual Presentation Based on Remote Saccade Detection
Authors: Watanabe Junji , Ando Hideyuki , Maeda Taro , Tachi Susumu
Published: March 2007

Pursuing new display techniques based on insights into human visual perception can reveal new possibilities for visual information devices. Here, we propose a novel information presentation technique that exploits the perceptional features during rapid eye movements called saccades by using a fast remote eye-measuring method. When light sources are fixed on a vertical line, and the flashing pattern is changed quickly during a horizontal saccade, 2D images can be perceived due to spatio-temporal integration in the human vision system. We use this phenomenon to present 2D images with only one-dimensional light sources, and to show these images even in midair. The flashing cycle and flash timing of light sources are important elements in developing the design theory for this display technique. The flashing cycle determines the maximum resolution of a perceived 2D image. The flash timing is a crucial issue for our purpose because 2D images are perceived only when the timing of the saccade coincides with the flash timing. Therefore, in this paper, we describe the relationship between a flashing cycle and the maximum resolution of a perceived 2D image, and then propose a concise saccade detection method. By using this method, saccades can be detected and the light sources can be flashed within the saccade interval as it occurs in real time, and 2D images can be successfully presented.
Selective Service Without a Draft
Authors: Jacobs James B. , McNamara Dennis
Published: March 2007

More than one million young men have failed to register for the draft, thereby committing a felony which carries a maximum five-year prison sentence and $10,000 fine. Unless a vigorous enforcement program is implemented soon, draft registration may evolve into a de facto voluntary program. Yet vigorous enforcement implies significant social, economic, and political costs. Would the costs be worth shouldering or is it more sensible to abandon draft registration, or at least the current face-to-face program? This article examines the history of the draft registration law to illuminate how we have arrived at the present dilemma.
Officer Recruitment For the All-Volunteer Force: Trends and Prospects
Authors: Snyder William P.
Published: March 2007

This article examines officer recruiting policies in the U. S. armed forces during the 1970s and assesses recruiting prospects in the 1980s. Incremental policy adjustments in ROTC and other accession programs enabled the services to meet quantitative goals during the past decade. Officer accessions improved in quality, and the services refined procedures in recruitment of minority and female officers. Expansion of the ROTC scholarship programs is expected to provide further gains in quality during the 1980s. The officer recruiting system does not display any pronounced bias toward any geographic regions. Further, the major recruiting source, ROTC, is firmly based at civilian educational institutions of average and above-average quality.
The U.S. and Soviet Navies: Missions and Forces
Authors: Williams John Allen
Published: March 2007

The United States Navy is structured to carry out its most demanding potential assignment: confrontation with the Soviet navy in waters near the Soviet Union. The result is an emphasis on battle groups centered around large aircraft carriers, including sophisticated systems for fleet defense. The Soviet navy is increasingly capable of extended operations far from home waters, in support of growing Soviet interests worldwide. Nevertheless, it does not yet match the U.S. Navy in offensive or defensive capabilities, and in time of war is most likely to pull back into waters nearer the Soviet Union to defend the homeland. These trends are likely to continue into the next century, barring the intervention of political or technological developments.
West Point: Critica Incident Of Leadership
Authors: Adams Jerome , Prince Howard T. , Instonea Debra , Rice Robert W.
Published: March 2007

Usable critical incident descriptions of leadership were collected from followers who were freshmen cadets in basic training (n = 400) at the U. S. Military Academy. A content analysis revealed several situational and behavior categories, both typifying and discriminating between "good" and "bad" leadership descriptions. The most notable findings were (1) the concordance between results obtained from the critical incident technique and from rating scales of leadership, and (2) the high correspondence between behaviors identified in good leadership descriptions and lacking (or absent) in bad leadership descriptions. The results support the notion of setting specific leadership typologies; future research using this technique is also proposed.
Sub-Saharan Africa's Changing Military Environment
Authors: Thom William G.
Published: March 2007

The conventional wisdom about the African military is becoming outdated. Many African armies have reached a watershed in transition from the internal securityoriented forces of their colonial origins, becoming national armed forces with serious defense responsibilities. Available data indicate that African forces are growing in size, sophistication, and combat capability. Their capacity for waging war is improving, and this will have a significant impact on the frequency, scope, and character of African wars of the future. African armies are becoming more externally oriented, and regional military powers are developing. All these trends are changing the continent's military environment.
Bureaucracy Planning and War: The Royal Navy, 1880 to 1918
Authors: Dandeker Christopher
Published: March 2007

An organization's effectiveness depends on a successful integration of strategyplanning long-term goals and monitoring performance-and structure: allocating resources, installing lines of authority, and information flow. This article shows how the Royal Navy responded to a serious disjuncture between strategy and structure, stemming from its preoccupation with adjusting to rapid technological change and a consequent neglect of war planning, by forming a naval war staff. One of the difficulties encountered in establishing the war staff was a shortage of suitable officers to man it, which was caused by an overly centralized hierarchy of command.
The AVF: Outlook For the Eighties And Nineties
Authors: Lockman Robert F. , Quester Aline O.
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the outlook for manpower procurement by the AVF for the next 15 years-the probable numbers of male youth, their representativeness and their projected mental abilities. Approaching the problem from a historical perspective, the authors are optimistic about the viability of continued voluntary recruitment. They expect wage costs to rise, however; it is estimated that wage equity for the smaller youth cohorts of the nineties implies real recruit wage increases of 10 percent to 12 percent.
Civil-Military Relations: Perspectives From the Third World
Authors: Welch Claude E.
Published: March 2007

Theories of civil-military relations have been drawn largely from societies that are both industrialized and Western. Study of civil-milit relations in ird World societies illustrates the significance of both "'ltfcafcultiireand participai in politics as key factors determining the arm al role T p s are discussed with reference to Confucian ideals, to Latin American concepts of the legitimacy of military participation in decision-making, and to guerrilla warfare and mass mobilization.
The "New" Military Professionalism
Authors: Gates John M.
Published: March 2007

Data from an analysis of the Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States during its first decade of publication (in the 1880s) and from a number of more traditional historical studies challenge the belief that a new military professionalism of heightened political concern emerged in the U.S. Army after World War II. In the last third of the nineteenth century, American army officers frequently performed tasks of a civilian nature demanding considerable political skill. Other aspects of twentieth century "new professionalism" were apparent in their writing. Although the late nineteenth century was a period of significant professional development within the Army officer corps, it was neither a time of isolation for the officers nor an era in which their professional concerns were exclusively military.
Commitment and Obedience in the Military: An Israeli Case Study
Authors: Gal Reuven
Published: March 2007

Two types of military compliance-commitment and obedience-are analyzed in this paper. Commitment is described as a more complicated, internal, and multifaceted motivating factor, compared to obedience. The former is also presented as more dependent on the perceived legitimacy of military decisions. To illustrate the importance that the distinction between the two might have for the military professional, a case study is detailed. It involves an Israeli senior combat commander who openly protested against a critical decision made during the recent Lebanon war. His actions ultimately resulted in his release from the military. Several postulates regarding the possible interrelationships between commitment and obedience are proposed for future research.
Military-Industrial Linkages In Israel
Authors: Mintz Alex
Published: March 2007

Israel's military-industrial sector has undergone rapid expansion. This empirical study of military-industrial linkages in Israel posits the following hypotheses:

• Israel's industrial sector is highly dependent on military production;

• Israel's industrial sector is flooded with numerous former highranking military officers placed in key decision-making posts.

Analysis is based on comprehensive data on Israeli governmental defense concerns and ancillary units, Histadrut (Labor Federation) defense companies, and private defense industries. The study reveals that Israel is indeed highly dependent on military production, noting differential extents of dependence among the major components of the industrial sector. It also confirms the second hypothesis, describing the distribution of senior officers in Israeli industry and its principal characteristics.
The National Service League And Mandatory Service In Edwardian Britain
Authors: Adams R. J.Q.
Published: March 2007

There existed in Great Britain in the years 1900 to 1914 an energetic and well-connected movement dedicated to the implementation of mandatory military service. The most significant of its components was the National Service League, led by the septuagenarian Field-Marshal Lord Roberts. The movement was fostered by the fear and sense of failure resulting from the Boer War. While it failed in its goal of peacetime conscription, the league prepared the way for the political struggle to bring about the first modern compulsory service law in 1916. Despite support within the army, the political parties, and from advocates of "National Efficiency," the movement failed primarily because the electorate would not tolerate consideration of mandatory service. This is perhaps the most important lesson of the entire episode and one which national service enthusiasts in the modern voluntarist democracies must understand.
Are Smart Tankers Better? AFQT and Military A Productivity
Authors: Scribner Barry L. , Smith D. Alton , Baldwin Robert H. , Phillips Robert L.
Published: March 2007

In this article the relationship between soldier productivity and individual characteristics is examined. Our measure of output is the score achieved on a live fire tank gunnery test administered to U.S. Army units in West Germany in early 1984. The crew members' characteristics for which we controlled include mental aptitude, educational and racial background, Army experience, and time served in current position. We also controlled for the type of tank: the 1960s vintage M-60 versus the new M4-. Our statistical results confirm that both soldiers who have higher mental aptitude and those who have been stabilized longer in their current position performed significantly better in tank gunnery. In addition, the M-1 tank greatly increases productivity of tank crews. We use our results to argue that educational assistance and other enlistment incentive programs designed to attract "high-quality" recruits are justified by the recruits' greater productivity.
What Price Survivability? Progress vs. Perfection
Authors: Cimbala Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Expectations for the survivability of U.S. strategic forces and command, control, and communications (C3) may exceed the requirements of political prudence and military necessity. U.S. forces and commanders need not be expected to survive improbable threats and extreme worst-case scenarios. Given technical limitations and political probabilities, the requirements for survivability should include allowing for evolutionary adjustment of capabilities and technologies. Imposing irrelevant survivability requirements may also be self-defeating for American strategy, as the case of MX illustrates.
Civil-Military Relations And Budgetary Politics In Latin America
Authors: Grindle Merilee S.
Published: March 2007

Scholars have devoted considerable effort to exploring the possible connection between regime type and patterns of military spending in Latin America. This research has failed to demonstrate a significant relationship between them, in part because identifying regimes by whether they are civilian or military is not a useful way to measure military influence over decisions about budgetary allocations. This article rejects the use of regime type as an independent variable. Instead, a general definition of regime is proposed, and a number of Latin American regimes are categorized in terms of dominant patterns of civil-military relations. Statistical analysis of military budget shares between 1967 and 1980 for 26 regimes suggests that regimes are a useful unit of analysis and that patterns of civil-military relations can shed some light in accounting for trends in military spending. The data and analysis are used to pose a number of hypotheses about how explicitly political variables influence decisions over public spending for military and nonmilitary purposes.
Carrots, Sticks, De-escalation: U.S.—Soviet and Arab—Israeli Relations
Authors: Kriesberg Louis
Published: March 2007

Various efforts to initiate and negotiate de-escalating agreements in the U.S.-Soviet and Arab-Israeli conflicts are examined. Theoretical approaches regarding the role of noncoercive and coercive inducements are compared and applied to the cases. Six generalizations are inferred from the analysis. First, noncoercive inducements are particularly useful in initiating de-escalation. Second, positive sanctions are more likely to be effective if preceded by communications about them. Third, major de-escalating gestures are difficult to make at the initiation of de-escalation because of constituency concerns. Fourth, both consistency and persistence are important in the effectiveness of de-escalation efforts. Fifth, positive sanctions are more easily made in the negotiation rather than initiating stage and are relatively frequent then. Sixth, sequencing of coercive and noncoercive inducements is important for effective de-escalation.
The Sudan: Military Economic Corporations
Authors: Bienen Henry , Moore Jonathan
Published: March 2007

Sudan's military corporations were established at the very time the regime claimed it was interested in privatization. The role of military corporations in the Sudan is examined to provide a case study that would address those issues of civil military relations that bear on privatization of economies; the accountability of armed forces as economic agents; and the impact on the armed forces of their own commercial activities. In the Sudan, actual control of military corporations by central military bodies was difficult to impose. Although accounting procedures were weak and personal profiteering rampant, the corporations were not dumping grounds for redundant soldiers. The corporations did lead to tensions among service branches and individual officers but it would be incorrect to exaggerate these aspects. There were differences among corporations with respect to efficiency and professionalism. In the Sudan, the armed forces' corporations acted according to established Sudanese business practices-seeking trade margins and protection and using personal connections.
Nuclear Arms, Moral Questions, And Religious Issues
Authors: Tellis Ashley J.
Published: March 2007

The morality of nuclear strategy is one of the most engaging issues in the U.S. political debate today. Among its more interesting facets is the unprecedented intervention of religious hierarchies and churches on issues traditionally considered extraecclesial. By and large, the religious response has been largely critical of U.S. nuclear policy. In being so, it has also triggered an intense search for a variety of "utopian" solutions aimed at securing "comprehensive and total nuclear disarmament." Rooted in the realist tradition, this article critiques this utopian quest by suggesting that any satisfactory solution to the nuclear dilemma must contain an ethic of both purity and responsibility. Toward that end, the pacifist and contextualist responses to the questions of justice and force are analyzed, and some policy recommendations in the pastoral letter The Challenge of Peace are examined in the light of the fundamental strategic problems confronting American defense policy.
Mobilizing Political Support For U.S. National Security
Authors: Rockman Bert A.
Published: March 2007

This article discusses how the U.S. constitutional system affects the formulation of American national security policy. Recent writing on this subject emphasizes two ideas: (1) American institutions make it difficult to develop a coherent policy, and (2) a breakdown in national security policy consensus exacerbates the difficulties created by a system of divided powers. The notion of coherence, however, typically is used as a euphemism for presidential monopoly of national security policy-making. While there are now more actors who also are more intensely involved in influencing national security policy, the constitutional system of divided power often is overemphasized as an impediment to the promotion and implementation of policies that lack sufficient political support. Despite the argument also of a previous "golden era" of consensus in national security policy, it is not clear that one ever existed—at least for long. The role of the United States as a world power, with the commitments this entails, makes national security policy increasingly central. That also ensures that it will be a central part of the political process rather than mythologized as being above the political process.
"Vital Lampada": Preserving the Elite
Authors: Macdonald Keith M.
Published: March 2007

The element of traditionalism in British culture has for a century and a half received strong support from the "public school" system. A study of British army officer cadets shows that, despite public statements to the contrary, the proportion of cadets with a public school background has not changed substantially over the past 20 years. Indeed, the association between elite schools and elite regiments has become more pronounced. While the British army recruits a larger proportion of technically able cadets, the elite has protected its traditional preserves and thereby the route to senior command.
The Soviets m Afghanistan: Can the Red Army Fight A Counterinsurgency War?
Authors: Derleth J. William
Published: March 2007

After nine years of inconclusive combat, the Soviet Union has finally begun withdrawing their forces from Afghanistan. Their lack of military success initially forced them to adopt tactics that were not part of standard Soviet military doctrine and, ultimately, to disengage their forces. In an attempt to discover a more effective counterguerrilla strategy, the Soviets began to re-examine their experiences in crushing the Basmachi revolt, the Central Asian insurgency that lasted from 1918 to 1929. That conflict has been considered by some Soviet military analysts as a good example of how indigenous guerrilla forces could be defeated. However, unlike their campaign in Central Asia (which equally emphasized political, socioeconomic, and military policy tools), the Soviet campaign in Afghanistan emphasized primarily, although not exclusively, a military solution. Operationally, Soviet tactics were predicated upon the use of high-technology weapons (such as helicopter gunships and tactical aircraft) to give them mobility and firepower. In one of numerous parallels to the U.S. experience in Vietnam, the Soviet military discovered that superior technology has only limited application in a counterinsurgency campaign.
Military Social Science Research and the Law
Authors: Noone Michael F.
Published: March 2007

Federal courts are called upon to decide claims by individual members of the armed forces that they have been mistreated by their superiors. A court's decision will often depend on the judge's perception of the necessity of the action in maintaining morale and discipline. Recently, government lawyers have begun to justify commanders' actions on the grounds of unit cohesion. This article examines those justifications by applying models developed to evaluate the use of social science findings in law suits and concludes that cohesion arguments have no place in the courtroom.
Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard and Softline Themes
Authors: Pion-Berlin David
Published: March 2007

Conventional wisdom has it that the Latin American militaries of the 1960s and 1970s were under the strong influence of a single, cohesive, self-reinforcing, and conservative National Security Doctrine. This doctrine, once placed in the hands of military governments, provided them with a justification to stop progressive social and political change movements and to enforce their version of the national security state. This article contends that the NSD is multithematic, laced with both conservative and progressive ideology. Clear "hardline" as well as "softline" positions can be found with different assumptions and arguments about the state, national security, and strategy. Moreover, these positions are sufficiently coherent to suggest that there really are two distinct doctrines. Comparisons between the Southern Cone, on the one hand, and Brazil and Peru, on the other hand, will demonstrate how these views, in turn, gave shape to differing military perceptions and policies.
The Impact Of Arms Production In the Third World
Authors: Brzoska Michael
Published: March 2007

In the last 20 years or so, the production of conventional armaments in countries of the Third World has increased markedly. The main considerations are political; economically, there is only limited support for such investments. Over time, though, economic interests tend to become entrenched and to sustain domestic production. The predominant question of independence from foreign suppliers of weaponry has two aspects: first, short-run independence in ammunitions, in which Third World arms production has been rather successful; and, second, long-run independence from inflows of technology and know-how, in which only a few producers have made advances. While domestic arms production reduces a barrier for arms control in the Third World, so far the impact on international security has not been positive.
Telephone Use by Peacekeeping Troops in the Sinai
Authors: Applewhite Larry W. , Segal David R.
Published: March 2007

Clinical observations by the mental health officer attached to a U.S. infantry battalion assigned to the Multinational Force and Observors in the Sinai seemed to confirm earlier suggestions regarding adverse consequences of telephone contact between forward-deployed troops and family members at home. A self-administered survey was conducted to measure soldiers' attitudes and perceptions regarding telephone availability. The results suggest that telephone availability is a mixed blessing. Although most soldiers view the telephone as a positive link to family members, a minority expressed strong negative responses. As telephones increasingly come to complement the mail as a means of maintaining contact between forward-deployed troops and the home front, the characteristics of these means of communication, which have implications for troop morale, will require increased attention.
Setup: Why and How the U.S. Air Force Lost in Vietnam
Authors: Tilford Earl H.
Published: March 2007

In terms of resources allocated, the Vietnam War was primarily an air war. Approximately half the $200 billion spent on the war supported aerial operations; 8 million tons of bombs fell and over 8,500 aircraft were lost between 1961 and 1975. For all that, while air power was occasionally pivotal, it was never decisive, and America's defeat in Vietnam can be construed as a defeat for air power. The failure of air power resulted from deficiencies inherent in doctrine and weaknesses in leadership. For a variety of reasons, the Air Force, which dropped over 6 million tons of bombs, has not faced up to the implications of its defeat.
Trends in Substance Use by U.S. Military Personnel
Authors: Ballweg John A. , Li Li
Published: March 2007

Changes in the use of illegal drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes by U.S. military personnel are followed through the decade of the 1980s. Using data reported for four worldwide surveys of military personnel during the decade, it was found that drug use declined dramatically while the percentage of military personnel who used alcohol remained about the same. Cigarette smoking declined but not to the level of the civilian population. Service and geographic distribution of substances are examined along with demographic characteristics of users.
India's "Strategic Enclave": Civilian Scientists and Military Technologies
Authors: Abraham Itty
Published: March 2007

The Indian security complex has become a diversified set of establishments, which have grown up around two models. The first model is based on a top-down system, less suited to technological innovation and development, which concentrates on licensed production and production for the civilian market. The second model is a flexible, project-oriented system, which has been able to produce both a nuclear device and ballistic missiles. This article examines some important factors driving the latter model, which is responsible for India's growing strategic capability. The focus is on the efforts of a civilian scientific elite, which entered the security sector due to its control of dual-use high technologies and the failure to fulfill its original mandate of cheap nuclear power.
The Impact of Decreased Defense Spending on Employment in the United States
Authors: Roth R. Theodore
Published: March 2007

The combined pressures of reduced East-West tensions and large budget deficits in the United States have led to the enactment of reduced defense budgets. Future reductions in spending could be 25 percent less in real terms from FY 1990 levels. These decreases will affect employment of active-duty military personnel, DoD civilians, and workers in private sector defense industries. If the reductions in force structure take place at a controlled rate, the necessary cuts among active-duty forces and DoD civilians should be manageable through attrition and reduced accessions. The backlog of authorizations and foreign sales will slow any industrial downturn in the defense sector. The rate and magnitude of the defense spending decreases are smaller than in previous postwar cutbacks, and much of the decrease has already taken place since the peak of authorizations in FY 1985. Although certain individuals will be affected by reductions in defense spending, the overall impact upon the economy will be similar to other structural unemployment. Current job training and economic recovery legislation is sufficient to handle this decrease in spending and the transfer of individuals to the private sector. This analysis concludes that these cutbacks will not significantly affect the macroeconomy of the United States, although certain localities, occupations, and industries may encounter short-term difficulties.
Progress Toward Eliminating Drug and Alcohol Abuse among U.S. Military Personnel
Authors: Bray Robert M. , Marsden Mary Ellen , Herbold John R. , Peterson Michael R.
Published: March 2007

Since 1970, the Department of Defense has set forth a series of policies and programs to combat drug and alcohol abuse among military personnel. The goal of the current policy is one of zero tolerance toward drug and alcohol abuse. Programmatic areas to help attain this goal are assessment, deterrence and detection, treatment and rehabilitation, and education and training. Progress toward eliminating drug and alcohol abuse among military personnel is traced by examining efforts in each of these programmatic areas. The authors conclude that the dramatic decreases in drug use and more stable patterns of alcohol use since 1980 indicate that military policy and programs to eliminate drug abuse have been highly successful, but that military efforts to eliminate alcohol abuse should be intensified.
Life Satisfaction Among Israeli Soldiers With Penetrating Head Wounds
Authors: Linn Shai , Linn Ruth , Segal David R. , Sheps Sam , Levi Lion , Revach Moshe
Published: March 2007

The relationships between life satisfaction and the severity of the injuries were examined using interview data collected in a follow-up study of soldiers who received penetrating head wounds during the war in Lebanon in 1982-1985. Mean reported life satisfaction in the past was higher than that noted immediately after injury, following rehabilitation or for the future, while the lowest levels of satisfaction were reported around the time of injury. Post rehabilitation satisfaction was higher than that recorded immediately after the injury, and there was a consistent tendency for reporting aspirations for higher satisfaction in the future. Life satisfaction was highly correlated with education and being married but not with age or the patients' severity of injury. The residual disability was directly related to life satisfaction, with the more seriously affected having lower scores. Those who returned to service had higher satisfaction scores compared to those who could not or did not want to return to active military service. There were lower satisfaction scores for those with existential or aesthetic anxiety. Life satisfaction is suggested as an important measure of the success of rehabilitation
Changing Functions of the Party and Political Work System in the PTA and Civil-Military Relations in China
Authors: Li Nan
Published: March 2007

The predominant theories explaining civil-military relations in China are the interest group model and the factionalism model. Both assume politically significant conflict either between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leadership (and its commissars) and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) leadership, or within them. This study demonstrates that the factional tension triggered by the longstanding doctrinal debate between "lines" about "red" and "expert" in the PLA is on the way to resolution. This has happened because of the post-Cultural Revolution redefinition of the functions of the commissar system in the PLA, leading to its transformation from an instrument of doctrinal debate to one of PLA administration. The administrative role of commissars sharing values, interests and skills with commanders, on the other hand, invalidates the premises of the interest group model: contrasting values, interests and skills between the two, direct conflict as a result, and the need for one to "control" the other. This study proposes a bureaucratic behavior model, which assumes that political conflicts that arise from the horizontal boundaries separating superiors (including both commanders and commissars) and subordinates tend to diffuse the vertical tension between commanders and commissars, or within them.
From Counterrevolutionary Warfare To Political Awakening: The Uruguayan and Argentine Armed Forces in the 1970s
Authors: Perelli Carina
Published: March 2007

This article presents an alternative way of considering the role of military ideology in Uruguay and Argentina in the 1970's. Although it refers to two case studies in the Southern Cone, some of the conclusions emerging from an analysis of the effect of military intervention in politics upon the military itself have a general and universal character and could be extrapolated to and tested in other contexts.
Military Academies as Instruments of Value Change
Authors: Stevens Gwendolyn , Rosa Fred M. , Gardner Sheldon
Published: March 2007

The challenge of a military academy is to provide cadets with the best education possible, while simultaneously providing an intensive socialization experience that will influence their value systems. To assess the impact of this socialization process on value development, a longitudinal study of value change was undertaken at the U.S. Coast Guard Academy. One hundred cadets were administered the Survey of Personal Values and the Survey of Interpersonal Values both as freshmen and seniors, and the results indicated that there were significant changes in value strengths over the four years. These results are discussed in terms of the general effect of a college experience versus the unique education at a military academy. The overall conclusion is that military academy experience may be less a process of inculcating new and different values than of reinforcing the institutionally compatible values of those who voluntarily choose the military profession.
A Political-Warrior Model: The Combined Action Program
Authors: Seaton Jim
Published: March 2007

This article examines the Vietnam-era Marine Corps Combined Action Program from a context in which political activities at the junior Marine level arose from tactical considerations. It points out how at the junior soldier level, war and politics are often indistinct, or traditional relationships between the two are reversed. What emerges is a fusion of political and military considerations. It is significant that this political-military fusion occurs at not only the senior officer levels as is commonly outlined in civil-military relations theory, but also at the junior enlisted (E-1 through E-5) level. In using the Combined Action Program as an analytical framework, this article identifies a growing political function; one relevant to partially understanding the soldier's multidimensional role in contemporary low-intensity conflicts.
Demographic Trends and Personnel Policies as Determinants of the Racial Composition of the Volunteer Army
Authors: Segal David R. , Verdugo Naomi
Published: March 2007

Concerns have been raised that as the racial composition of the American labor force changes as we approach the 21st century, African-Americans may be increasingly over-represented in the army, particularly in combat units. However, labor force changes from year to year are very small, and analysis of the composition of army accessions and separations from 1973 to 1992 shows the racial composition of the force to be more sensitive to personnel management policies, as reflected in pay, educational benefits, and recruiting resources, than to changes in labor force composition. In particular, the over-representation of African-Americans in combat units is shown to have declined during the decade of the 1980s.
Proliferation and Peace: An Agnostic View
Authors: Cimbala Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Some experts contend that nuclear proliferation is fully compatible with international political stability, and others insist that the spread of nuclear weapons will undermine stability. Realists are optimistic about the implications of nuclear weapons spread because, in a rational world, nuclear weapons favor the defender over the attacker, making war less probable. Other schools of thought suggest that nuclear weapons are either irrelevant, because not actually useful in combat, or dangerous, in that they can be the instruments of inadvertent escalation to wars of unprecedented destruction. The perspective of nuclear agnosticism, admittedly characterized by diversity, offers a more plausible prospectus for the role of nuclear weapons in the new world order than does the realist view based on misreading of Cold War experience.