bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fabrication of an Atomic Resolution Low Cost STM-SNOM Hybrid Probe
Authors: Micheletto Ruggero , Yokokawa Masatoshi , Okazakaki Satoshi , Kawakami Yoichi
Published: December 2005

We derived a simple method to fabricate STM-SNOM hybrid probes obtained from commercial cheap communication optical fibers. The tips are fabricated by a methodology that combines two well-known techniques: the selective attack by a buffered solution and the protected layer chemical
etching, in a single new one-step technique. The tailored probes are then sputtered by metal and mounted on a STM setup. The usual difficulties of integrating the optical fiber in the STM head are solved originally with a particular home made mount described in details. We will show that the
resulting probes reach atomic resolution on both vertical and horizontal scale, and that the optical imaging is free of artifacts and satisfactory with a lateral resolution in the order of λ/20, as far as we know the finest resolution obtained with a system based on a hybrid fiber probe.
We believe that our methodology is very interesting for its simplicity of realization and for the good resolving power in both SNOM and STM modes.
China and the North Korean Nuclear Issue
Authors: Wang Yiwei
Published: December 2005

The North Korean nuclear issue has received a great deal of international attention, especially in the context of the role that China can play in diffusing the crisis. China's role in the six-party talks has been grossly overstated or misunderstood. To have a realistic assessment, one needs to understand China's diplomacy in a broad perspective. Again, China's approach to the problem fits into its new strategic thinking—the peaceful rise. As regards the means, China could use economic incentives, political dialogue and/or military pressure to encourage North Korea to give up its nuclear programme.
US-India Strategic Partnership
Authors: Guihong Zhang
Published: December 2005

The dramatic development of the bilateral relationship between India and the United States after the end of the Cold War, through strategic dialogues following Pokhran II and reciprocal visits of two top leaders, along with post-11 September 2001 transformation, reached a new height when the two declared and implemented the Next Steps in Strategic Partner-ship (NSSP) in 2004. Based on common values and interests, the US-India strategic partner-ship demonstrates in the realms of both security and economic fields. The strategic partnership between Washington and New Delhi has significant implications for China's relations with the two countries, each of which has played an increasingly important role in China's ties with the other. After reviewing some convergences and divergences that China has with one country as regards the other, the paper proposes some strategic alternatives and policy options for Beijing with a view to helping the strategic triangle among China, the United States and India emerge.
Prospects for Sino-Indian Trans-border Economic Linkages
Authors: Kurian Nimmi
Published: December 2005

The political thrust given to integrating southwestern China with the extended regional eco-nomy marks the latest shift in the country's regional development policy. China's develop-mental priorities have swung from a focus on inland development during the Mao years to Deng's coast-led strategy and most recently back again to the inland provinces under the Western development programme. Noteworthy in this context are the imperatives driving China's sub-regional initiatives in the region, particularly the Kunming Initiative, which seeks to strengthen regional economic cooperation between the contiguous regions of India's Northeast, China's Southwest, Myanmar and Bangladesh. There is clearly a strong case for fully exploring potential for trans-border linkages in trade, tourism and transport within this quadrant. Further, China's southern thrust coincides with India's own domestic impera-tive of strengthening the external orientation of the Northeast. These developments present opportunities as also challenges to India while it is willing to engage China bilaterally but not sub-regionally.
Science and Technology Cooperation between India and China
Authors: Sekhar D. Varaprasad
Published: December 2005

While India and China have been cooperating in a number of science and technology (S&T) fields such as information technology, biotechnology, agricultural machinery, space tech-nology and energy related technologies, there is enormous scope for further cooperation. Private initiatives from the two countries are making S&T cooperation much more plausible. MNCs from India and China are the major players in this evolving S&T cooperation while the governments and university systems have yet to catch up. A few problems that persist need immediate attention. To begin with the two countries do not have adequate information about each other's S&T system. Moreover, the border dispute between the two as well as apprehensions about a negative fall out of each other's peaceful rise need to be addressed.
Service Sector in China After its Accession to the WTO
Authors: Kanungo Anil K.
Published: December 2005

China's membership to the World Trade Organization (WTO) has given a new dimension to the conduct of world business. With this, China has made a radical departure from its past and brought in a whole range of changes as far as the processes of opening up and liber-alization are concerned. Its services sector is presently experiencing a radical reforms programme in accordance with China's commitments under the General Agreement in Trade and Services (GATS). It is set to eliminate restrictions of all kinds in a couple of years. How-ever, the slow reform process coupled with a continuation of restrictions with regard to some specific sectors are delaying the gains, which could have otherwise been realized. Yet China's services sector yields good results. The geographical restrictions on services liberalization, for instance, have allowed economic activities to get concentrated in specific areas resulting in regional disparity. On the whole, services liberalization affirms that putting a proper regulatory framework in place and appropriate sequencing of reforms may yield good results for China.
China and Asia-Europe Cooperation
Authors: Baoyun Yang
Published: December 2005

Even though relations between Asia and Europe remained largely unexplored during most part of the period following the Second World War, the end of the Cold War has created con-ditions for better relations between the two. The Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) provides the most important basis for cooperation between the two continents. China is taking keen interest in this regard by initiating steps towards deepening the Asia-Europe partnership, thanks to globalization. From a Chinese perspective, the cooperation promotes its own economic reforms programme. Asia-Europe cooperation also facilitates the security dialogue between ASEAN-EU and China. That the US at times becomes a factor in affecting China-EU relations is a matter of concern for both the sides. An important area of cooperation relates to the estab-lishment of a new multipolar international order.
India's Border Dispute with China
Authors: Mehra Parshotam
Published: December 2005

Long before he assumed office, Jawaharlal Nehru envisioned the friendliest of ties between India and China working together for a resurgent Asia. Despite the Tibet issue, India did its best to rehabilitate Mao's China in the comity of nations. The early 1950s witnessed a shortlived euphoria of Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai and Panchsheel. Tibet apart, India's northern frontiers became a matter of unseemly controversy in the late 1950s. The 1962 war made matters worse. China insists that the border conflict with India was not of its making. Chinese leadership held that Nehru was determined to establish a greater Indian empire even as the Raj had done. Nehru's India was accused of harbouring the ambitions of a regional hegemon in order to block China's natural and rightful relations with its neighbours. India, for its part, has been equally clear that China's political culture admits no compromise on the use of military power to regain what it deemed its domain. No wonder that the border issue has, to date, remained unresolved.
Perceived Similarity of Exemplar Traits and Behavior
Authors: Andsager Julie L. , Bemker Victoria , Choi Hong-Lim , Torwel Vitalis
Published: December 2005

Communicators often seek effective messages for attempting to influence people’s behaviors, such as reducing college students’ drinking. Social cognitive theory suggests that identification with a character or example may increase the likelihood that audiences will model behavior presented in an anti-alcohol message. Exemplars such as those sometimes used in news stories may elicit desirable modeling. The purpose of this experiment was to examine the relationships among social desirability and social orientation, alcohol consumption, perceived similarity of exemplars, and message effectiveness. An experiment exposed 204 university students to magazine messages on tanning in which a demographically similar exemplar’s alcohol consumption and socializing were manipulated. Perceived similarity of exemplars was positively related to message effectiveness. Messages including alcohol consumption and social situations were most effective. Subjects’ drinking and social orientation were positively related to similarity. Gender and self-reported alcohol consumption were important variables in discerning perceived similarity and message effectiveness.
Chinese Evaluations of Emotional Support Skills, Goals, and Behaviors
Authors: Burleson Brant R. , Liu Meina , Liu Yan , Mortenson Steven T.
Published: December 2005

The present study assessed how people residing in China evaluate the emotional support they receive and provide, as well as whether gender-related influences on emotional support exhibited in American samples are also present among Chinese. Participants (253 native Chinese) responded to a questionnaire that assessed the value placed on emotional support skills, the importance of goals typically pursued in emotional support situations, the appropriateness of distinct coping strategies for providing emotional support, and the sensitivity of varied messages intended to provide comfort. Results indicated that whereas Chinese women rated emotional support skills as more important than Chinese men, women and men differed only slightly in their evaluations of the importance of different support goals, the appropriateness of different coping strategies, and the sensitivity of different messages. These results are compared to those obtained in previous research with samples of Americans and sojourning Chinese.
Group Communication During Resource Dilemmas
Authors: Pavitt Charles , Zingerman Vera , Towey Erin , McFeeters Courtney
Published: December 2005

A resource dilemma is a circumstance in which an aggregate of people share a slowly replenishing resource pool out of which each person can harvest a significant amount. Resource dilemmas normally make salient an allocation norm of equality in harvests among aggregate members. When asymmetry among aggregate members exists in terms of either access to the resource pool or reward for harvest, the equity allocation norm becomes equally relevant. In this study, groups experienced an experimental simulation of a resource dilemma under either symmetric, asymmetric harvest limit, or asymmetric reward conditions. Groups in the asymmetric conditions were more likely to choose explicitly to follow an allocation norm, and groups that chose to follow a norm had a far more task-oriented discussion and positive perceptions of their experience than groups that did not make an explicit choice. Neither experimental condition nor explicit norm choice revealed a discernible impact on harvesting.
Structural and Individual Determinants of Workplace Victimization: The Effects of Hierarchical Status and Conflict Management Style
Authors: Aquino Karl
Published: December 2005

Most studies of harmful workplace behavior have focused on the motives or characteristics of perpetrators. In contrast, the present study draws from theories of victimization to examine when employees are more likely to perceive themselves as targets of co-workers’ aggressive actions. Individual and organizational structural variables were related to perceived victimization based on prior theory and research. The individual variable was conflict management style; the structural variable was hierarchical status. Direct relationships between the conflict styles and perceived victimization were predicted. The moderating effect of hierarchical status was also tested. Results supported the direct effect of an obliging style on covert aggressive actions. An interaction involving both integrating and obliging styles and hierarchical status was supported for direct forms of interpersonal aggression.
Moderating Effects of Organization-Based Self-Esteem on Organizational Uncertainty: Employee Response Relationships
Authors: Hui Chun , Lee Cynthia
Published: December 2005

The present study examined the moderating effects of organization-based self-esteem on the relationship between two forms of organizational uncertainty perception and three outcome variables. The two forms of organizational uncertainty perception were job insecurity and anticipation of organizational changes, and the three outcomes were intrinsic motivation, organizational commitment, and absenteeism. Results supported the moderating effects of organization-based self-esteem. It was found that employees with high levels of organizationbased self-esteem were less responsive to the perception of organizational uncertainty. Moreover, it was found that the moderating effects of organization-based self-esteem differed across outcome variables.
How Much Does Performance Matter? A Meta-Analysis of CEO Pay Studies
Authors: Tosi Henry L. , Werner Steve , Katz Jeffrey P. , Gomez-Mejia Luis R.
Published: December 2005

Through a meta-analytic review of the empirical literature on the determinants of CEO pay, this study tests the hypothesized relationships between firm size, performance, and CEO pay. We show that firm size accounts for more than 40% of the variance in total CEO pay, while firm performance accounts for less than 5% of the variance. We also show that pay sensitivities are relatively similar for both changes in size (5% of the explained variance in pay) and changes in financial performance (4% of the explained variance in pay). The meta-analysis also suggests that moderator variables may play an important role, but we were unable to test for this.
Walking a Tightrope: Creating Value Through Interorganizational Relationships
Authors: Barringer Bruce R. , Harrison Jeffrey S.
Published: December 2005

This paper provides an overview of the literature on interorganizational relationships. Although the literature on interorganizational relationships is extensive, a pervasive theme that is either explicit or implicit in the majority of the articles is the simple notion of whether interorganizational relationships make sense and whether the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. This article reviews six widely used theoretical paradigms that explain interorganizational relationship formation, including transaction costs economics, resource dependency, strategic choice, stakeholder theory, organizational learning, and institutional theory. Although each paradigm alone is insufficient to capture the complexities of interorganizational relationship formation, the fact that interorganizational relationships can be justified from such diverse theoretical backgrounds is impressive. The paper also reviews the six forms of interorganizational relationships most commonly pursued in practice and discussed in the literature, including joint ventures, networks, consortia, alliances, trade associations, and interlocking directorates. Through these discussions, we elaborate on the potential advantages and disadvantages of participation in interorganizational relationships.
Proactive Behavior in Organizations
Authors: Crant J. Michael
Published: December 2005

Many practitioner-oriented publications argue that managers should be more proactive on the job, and that proactive behavior is an increasingly important component of job performance. Organizational research on the antecedents and consequences of proactive behavior has appeared in several different literatures and has taken different approaches toward defining, measuring, and understanding proactivity. In this article, I review a diverse set of literatures that directly address proactive behavior in organizational contexts. I describe four constructs related to proactive behavior: proactive personality, personal initiative, role breadth self-efficacy, and taking charge. Next, I review six research domains that have explicitly addressed proactive behaviors: socialization, feedback seeking, issue selling, innovation, career management, and certain kinds of stress management. After considering findings from these research streams, I offer an analysis of the different approaches to the study of proactive behavior and provide a set of suggestions for future research.
A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Correlates of Employee Turnover: Update, Moderator Tests, and Research Implications for the Next Millennium
Authors: Griffeth Rodger W. , Hom Peter W. , Gaertner Stefan
Published: December 2005

This article reports the results of a comprehensive meta-analysis of turnover antecedents, extending an earlier one by Hom and Griffeth (1995). As such, this updated meta-analysis represents the most wide-ranging quantitative review to date of the predictive strength of numerous turnover antecedents. Importantly, the present investigation identifies various moderators of antecedent-turnover correlations. The implications of these findings for both theory and practice are discussed.
Understanding Procedural Justice and Its Impact on Business Organizations
Authors: Konovsky Mary A.
Published: December 2005

This paper reviews the procedural justice literature published since 1990. The distinction between procedural justice and distributive justice, with few exceptions, is well accepted in the literature. Four theories exploring procedural justice are presented. The antecedents, consequences and contexts for procedural justice effects are reviewed. Two additional issues discussed are the relationship between procedural justice and distributive justice and higher-order procedural justice effects. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research.
Applicants’ Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions: A Critical Review and Agenda for the Future
Authors: Ryan Ann Marie , Ployhart Robert E.
Published: December 2005

This review critically examines the literature from 1985 to 1999 on applicant perceptions of selection procedures. We organize our review around several key questions: What perceptions have been studied? What are determinants of perceptions? What are the consequences or outcomes associated with perceptions applicants hold? What theoretical frameworks are most useful in examining these perceptions? For each of these questions, we provide suggestions for key research directions. We conclude with a discussion of the practical implications of this line of research for those who design and administer selection processes.
Antitakeover Provisions and Shareholder Value Implications: A Review and a Contingency Framework
Authors: Sundaramurthy Chamu
Published: December 2005

This paper reviews literatures on the two competing theoretical views of the antitakeover provisions–shareholder value relationship — managerial entrenchment and shareholder interests — and offers a contingency framework to reconcile these views. This framework, based on a broader agency theory perspective and the organizational literatures on power, incorporates two key moderators: corporate board and shareholder monitoring, and draws attention to when rather than on whether antitakeover provisions enhance or erode shareholder value.
Work–Family Conflict in the Organization: Do Life Role Values make a Difference?
Authors: Carlson Dawn S. , Kacmar K. Michele
Published: December 2005

The values an individual places on various life roles may have implications for experienced work–family conflict. Using an integrative model of work–family conflict, comparisons between 314 state government employees who highly valued work and those who highly valued family (measured by centrality, priorities, and importance) revealed a variety of differences with respect to the antecedents and consequences of experienced work–family conflict. These differences suggest that the addition of life role values to the study of work–family conflict offers a unique and potentially important contribution.
Influences on Strategic Decision-making in the Dutch Financial Services Industry
Authors: Brouthers Keith D. , Brouthers Lance Eliot , Werner Steve
Published: December 2005

Following recommendations by Rajagopalan, Rasheed, and Datta (1993) and Schwenk (1995), this study attempts to extend what is known about integrative models of strategic decision-making by examining decision-making variable interactions in a field study of non-North American managers. We find some evidence to support the use of integrative models and variable interaction. We also find that some previous results seem to generalize to our Dutch setting, whereas others do not. The study concludes by noting that: (1) integrating multiple perspectives (environmental-based decision-making and managerial characteristics) and including variable interactions enhances what we know about the strategic decision-making process; and (2) much more research is needed before knowing which aspects of strategic decisionmaking can be generalized and which cannot.
Convergence Versus Strategic Reorientation: The Antecedents of Fast-paced Organizational Change
Authors: Gordon Shelley S. , Stewart Wayne H. , Sweo Robert , Luker William A.
Published: December 2005

We reexamine and extend the antecedents of strategic reorientation, a change in strategy combined with change in at least two of organization structure, power distribution and control systems, presented by Lant, Milliken, and Batra (1992) by using archival data (1987–1993) for firms in the stable furniture and turbulent computer software industries. While enabling direct comparability of results from the two studies, we specify an extended, integrated model of change forces, and test the hypotheses with a more robust data analytic technique, hierarchical regression analysis. The results support industry turbulence and CEO turnover as precursors to strategic reorientation, and suggest that industry turbulence conditions managers’ external attributions for negative financial performance in influencing strategic reorientation. Alternatively, the results indicate that top management team turnover is negatively related to strategic reorientation. The results do not support the Lant et al. (1992) conclusions that low past financial performance, top management team heterogeneity, awareness of environmental changes, and external attributions for negative financial performance outcomes are significantly associated with strategic reorientation. Structural equation analysis indicated the predictive superiority of the respecified model, and we offer suggestions for theoretical refinement and development of strategic reorientation.
Determinants of Voluntary Turnover and Layoffs in an Environment of Repeated Downsizing Following a Merger: An Event History Analysis
Authors: Iverson Roderick D. , Pullman Jacqueline A.
Published: December 2005

In this study we formulate and test models of voluntary turnover and downsizing in a hospital undergoing workforce reduction following a merger. Targeted separation packages were primarily employed by the hospital in selecting departments and units as having surplus staff, as well as identifying individual employees. Determinants for the models were derived from the disparate disciplines of economics, sociology, and psychology, as well as demographic and reactions to change variables. Applying event history analysis to data from a sample of 415 hospital employees over a five year period, the results indicate that older, full-time employees, who were less absent, and had an acceptable workload, yet experienced lower co-worker support and responded negatively to the amalgamation of the hospital were more likely to be downsized. Conversely, employees who were younger, white-collar, intended to leave, and predisposed to the amalgamation were more likely to resign. In addition, the differential effects (based on discriminant function analysis) of the five categories of variables found that age, blue-collar, co-worker support, full-time, amalgamation, and work overload discriminated between the two forms of turnover. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Escalation of commitment: a comparison of differences between Mexican and U.S. decision-makers
Authors: Greer Charles R. , Stephens Gregory K.
Published: December 2005

Differences in tendencies toward escalation of commitment are examined in a comparative study of Mexican and US decision-makers. Results show that Mexican subjects were significantly more inclined toward escalation. Mexican subjects also reported significantly greater confidence in their escalatory decisions, and subjects from both countries escalated their commitment when bad news about the investment came from subordinates. Furthermore, Mexican subjects made relatively smaller additional investments when they were personally responsible for the initial investment decision.
Performance improvement efforts in response to negative feedback: the roles of source power and recipient self-esteem
Authors: Fedor Donald B. , Davis Walter D. , Maslyn John M. , Mathieson Kieran
Published: December 2005

This study investigates dimensions of supervisor power and recipient self-esteem as predictors of performance improvement efforts following negative performance feedback. The study employs two stimuli (recall and scenario) administered at two different points in time with full-time employees. Results point to the importance of differentiating the types of supervisor power and assessing the extent to which different types of power moderate the self-esteem - performance improvement relationship.
Struggling for balance amid turbulence on international assignments: work–family conflict, support and commitment
Authors: Shaffer Margaret A. , Harrison David A. , Gilley K. Matthew , Luk Dora M.
Published: December 2005

Using human capital theory, we develop hypotheses about the impact of perceived organizational support and two forms of work–family conflict on the psychological withdrawal of expatriates. We also consider the exacerbating effects of commitment to either domain. To test these hypotheses, we collected multisource data from 324 expatriates in 46 countries. Results indicate that perceived organizational support and the interplay between work and family domains have direct and unique influences on expatriates’ intentions to quit.
Gender and Managerial Stereotypes: Have the Times Changed?
Authors: Powell Gary N. , Butterfield D. Anthony , Parent Jane D.
Published: December 2005

There has been a considerable increase in the proportion of women managers in recent years, from 21% in 1976 to 46% in 1999, and a call for “feminine leadership” to capitalize on this increase. The present study examines whether there has been a corresponding change in men’s and women’s stereotypes of managers such that less emphasis is placed on managers’ possessing masculine characteristics. Data from 348 undergraduate and part-time graduate business students indicate that although managerial stereotypes place less emphasis on masculine characteristics than in earlier studies [Academy of Management Journal 22 (1979) 395; Group and Organization Studies 14 (2) (1989) 216], a good manager is still perceived as predominantly masculine.
Diversity and Emotion: The New Frontiers in Organizational Behavior Research
Authors: Ashkanasy Neal M. , Härtel Charmine E.J. , Daus Catherine S.
Published: December 2005

This article provides a review of recent developments in two topical areas of research in contemporary organizational behavior: diversity and emotions. In the section called “Diversity,” we trace the history of diversity research, explore the definitions and paradigms used in treatments of diversity, and signal new areas of interest. We conclude that organizational behavior in the 21st century is evolving to embrace a more eclectic and holistic view of humans at work. In the section called “Emotions,” we turn our attention to recent developments in the study of emotions in organizations. We identify four major topics: mood theory, emotional labor, affective events theory (AET), and emotional intelligence, and argue that developments in the four domains have significant implications for organizational research, and the progression of the study of organizational behavior. As with the study of diversity, the topic of emotions in the workplace is shaping up as one of the principal areas of development in management thought and practice for the next decade. Finally, we discuss in our conclusion how these two areas are being conceptually integrated, and the implications for management scholarship and research in the contemporary world.
Managing Service Organizations: Does Having a “Thing” Make a Difference?
Authors: Bowen John , Ford Robert C.
Published: December 2005

The authors conducted an extensive review of literature to see if there was evidence indicating there are differences in the management of services and manufacturing organizations. The literature identified differences that related to measurements used to assess effectiveness and efficiency, differences in production strategies and differences in production processes between organizations producing tangible goods and those producing intangible services. The results of the review indicate that there are a number of important and defendable differences between managing a manufacturing firm and a service. The authors also provide tables summarizing the differences and provide research implication for each difference. The review serves as a foundation for future academic efforts to better understand the unique challenges of managing organizations in the services sector.
From Management as a Vocation to Management as a Scientific Activity: An Institutional Account of a Paradigm Shift
Authors: Goodrick Elizabeth
Published: December 2005

Using an institutional perspective, I analyze the historic circumstances surrounding the shift from a management as a vocation model to one that is scientifically based. I argue that prior to World War II, the management education field was fragmented but dominated by a vocational model in which specific trade practices and skills were taught. I trace how the institutional field shifted to embrace a model of management education that was tightly linked to empirical research. Using the Academy of Management Journal articles as a marker for this paradigm shift, I test hypotheses about the diffusion pattern of science-based concepts of management education.
The Multidimensional View of Commitment and the Theory of Reasoned Action: A Comparative Evaluation
Authors: Becker Thomas E. , Randall Donna M. , Riegel Carl D.
Published: December 2005

This study examined the relative ability of the multidimensional view of commitment and the theory of reasoned action to explain employee intentions and predict work behavior. Variables within the theory of reasoned action were superior to commitment in explaining employee intentions to be punctual and to engage in altruistic acts. However, the theory of reasoned action did not explain unique variance in either volitional behavior (altruism) or in less volitional behavior (tardiness). Finally, foci and bases of employee commitment accounted for significant variance in both altruism and tardiness, and explained variance in both behaviors over and above variables contained within the theory of reasoned action. Implications of these findings for the usefulness of the approaches are discussed.
Culture and High Reliability Organizations: The Case of the Nuclear Submarine
Authors: Bierly Paul E. , Spender J. -C.
Published: December 2005

Pet-row defined as ‘high risk’ those organizations that combine complexity and tight coupling with the potential for catastrophic failure. He concluded that accidents are ‘normal’ for such organizations because their managers face irreconcilable structural paradoxes. Centralization, the method of dealing with the tight coupling, must be combined with delegation, the method of dealing with the complexity. Weick, researching the complex and tightly coupled systems found in air traffic control and carrier flight-deck operations, saw these problems differently. He argued that strong organizational cultures provide a centralized and focused cognitive system within which delegated and loosely coupled systems can function effectively. High risk organizations thereby become transformed into high reliability organizations (HROs).

Drawing on their personal experiences, the paper's authors focus on one type of HRO, the nuclear submarine. We argue for a multi-level model in which culture interacts with and supports formal structure and thereby produces high reliability. In effective organizations culture and formality co-exist. The nuclear submarine service is also the intersection of several different cultures. Rickover created a new culture for the nuclear Navy which is clearly a crucial source of reliability, but it is also in tension with the older naval and submarine traditions.
Procedural Justice in Performance Evaluation: The Role of Instrumental and Non-Instrumental Voice in Performance Appraisal Discussions
Authors: Korsgaard M. Audrey , Roberson Loriann
Published: December 2005

This study examined the role of subordinate voice in creating positive attitudes in the performance appraisal context. Two aspects of voice, instrumental and non-instrumental, were assessed. Both aspects of voice were related to satisfaction with the appraisal, while only non-instrumental voice had an impact on attitudes toward the manager. Implications for procedural justice and performance appraisal are discussed.
Managing in the International Context: Testing Cultural Generality of Sources of Commitment to Multinational Enterprises
Authors: Palich Leslie E. , Horn Peter W. , Griffeth Rodger W.
Published: December 2005

The globalization of American business has reactivated a longstanding debate over international exportability of American management theory and practice. This controversy prompted an investigation into factors binding foreign employees to an American multinational enterprise and the consistency of those effects across the firm’s culturally diverse subsidiaries. In a survey, 1,859 managers from 15 European and Canadian affiliates of a U.S. multinational firm described their organizational commitment and bases for that commitment-namely, job scope, role clarity, extrinsic rewards, and participative management. Applying structural equations modeling, we determined whether or not commitment sources similarly developed company attachment across offshore operations. The findings disclosed that these antecedents strongly predicted commitment but displayed no meaningful cultural moderation. Implications for etiology of employee loyalty to global corporations are discussed.
Human Resource Management and Firm Performance: Testing a Contingency Model of Executive Controls
Authors: Snell Scott A. , Youndt Mark A.
Published: December 2005

This study examined the relationship between human resource management (HRM) controls used by executives and changes in the financial performance of their firms (ROA and sales growth). Results from 102 single product firms indicate that, as hypothesized, when the approach to HRM was based on behavior control, firm performance was higher when executives had complete knowledge of cause-effect relations. HRM based on output control had neither a direct nor a moderating effect on firm performance. When the approach to HRM was based on input control, performance was higher when standards of desirability were ambiguous. From a practical standpoint, these findings suggest that executives should be cognizant of several contingencies that might guide their choice among various approaches to HRM, as well as the effects these choices have on the performance of their firms. From a research standpoint, there are several issues raised in this study that suggest avenues for future investigation on HRM, control, and performance.
An Examination of the Relationship Between Upward Influence Tactics and Assessments of Promotability
Authors: Thacker Rebecca A. , Wayne Sandy J.
Published: December 2005

The study investigates the importance of subordinate influence tactics and individual differences on supervisors’ perceptions of promotability. Influence tactics were assessed by supervisors’ perceptions of subordinate use of three influence tactics (ingratiation, reasoning, and assertiveness), as well as subordinates ’self-reports. The four individual difference variables examined were education, organizational tenure, race, and gender. Results indicated the importance of both influence tactics and individual differences on assessments of promotability.
The Differential Effects of Software Training Previews on Training Outcomes
Authors: Webster Jane , Martocchio Joseph J.
Published: December 2005

A field experiment of 143 employees explored the effects of realistic versus optimistic computer training previews on trainee learning, satisfaction, and post-training reactions. We argued that optimistic previews would result in enhanced outcomes during the training program, while realistic previews would result in enhanced post-training reactions. The effects of relevant individual differences (i.e., cognitive playfulness and software efficacy beliefs), and mediating factors (i.e., attention to ones performance evaluation and flow) were also examined. The results showed some support for our expectations.
The Small Sample Performance of Four Tests of the Difference Between Pairs of Meta-Analytically Derived Effect Sizes
Authors: Alliger George M.
Published: December 2005

Four tests for the difference between pooled estimators of effect size from separate meta-analyses are discussed, and small sample performance compared via Monte Carlo simulation. In terms of Type I error and power, a z-test based on the difference between pooled estimators appears most accurate, while a confidence interval approach modified to permit testing between two mean effect sizes and Hedges and Olkin’s (1985) chi-square test with one degree of freedom appear roughly equivalent, and each of these is superior to a z-test based on an r-transformation. The modified confidence interval approach has particular promise for graphical examination of presumed moderators in meta-analyses.
Meta-Analytic Procedures for Estimation of Effect Sizes in Experiments Using Complex Analysis of Variance
Authors: Nouri Hossein , Greenberg Ralph H.
Published: December 2005

This paper presents techniques for use in meta-analytic research to estimate effect sizes when studies involve complex ANOVA, ANOVA with repeated measures, and complex ANOVA with repeated measures. Real examples are also provided to show the application of the techniques.
Business Failure Path ways: Environmental Stress and Organizational Response
Authors: Moulton Wilbur N. , Thomas Howard , Pruett Mark
Published: December 2005

This paper compares the failure of 73 firms that declared bankruptcy from 1980 to 1986 with the behavior of 73 matching firms that had not failed over the same period. We contrast the relative importance of environmental stress, measured by industry growth/decline, with organizational response, measured by asset and debt growth/decline. Firm effects dominate industry effects in explaining failure. Four distinctive business failure pathways based on firm and industry growth patterns are described. In particular, we conclude that debt-funded, forced-growth strategies create a high risk of failure regardless of industry growth rate.
Workplace Characteristics and Health Care Cost Containment Practices
Authors: Blum Terry C. , Milne Stuart H. , Spell Chester S.
Published: December 2005

Working from an institutional perspective, this study tested hypotheses about the relationships between workplace characteristics and health care cost containment practices. The analyses show that urban location of the workplace, number of employees, and education level of the workforce are related to three different cost containment strategies: the management of utilization with traditional indemnity insurance plans; offering of alternative health insurance plans (HMOs); and employee development relative to health care consumption. Workplaces with greater proportions of black or female employees were less likely and those with older workers were more likely to engage in employee development practices. The race, gender, and age variables were not significantly related to the other strategies. Unionization was not significantly related to any of the three strategies in the multivariate model. These findings are proposed to have implications for human resource management, as well as for health care policy and reform efforts.
Differences in Achieving Person-Organization Fit among Diverse Groups of Managers
Authors: Lovelace Kay , Rosen Benson
Published: December 2005

A comparison of the perceptions about organizational fit of white female, African-American, and Hispanic managers to those of white male managers revealed that African-American managers reported achieving significantly poorer organizational fit compared to other subgroups. However, race and sex explained a relatively small amount of the variance in perceived fit. Poor organizational fit was associated with job dissatisfaction, intentions to leave, and greater levels of stress. The results suggest that more research is needed to explicate the differences in organizational experiences faced by female and minority managers (e.g., African-Americans and Hispanics) and those faced by white male managers.
Acquisition Decision-Making Processes: The Central Role of Risk
Authors: Pablo Amy L. , Sitkin Sim B. , Jemison David B.
Published: December 2005

This paper builds upon the work of organizational and strategic management scholars who have conceptualized acquisitions as decision-making processes, We suggest that behavioral concepts of risk, specifically decision-maker risk perceptions and propensities, are key to understanding the process by which acquisition candidates are selected, the characteristics of pre-acquisition evaluation and negotiations, and approaches to post-acquisition integration. By drawing upon past work concerning the effects of these risk-related variables in other decision-making contexts, we develop propositions that conceptualize their impact on acquisition decision processes. Incorporation of risk as a key variable in process theories of acquisitions provides a stronger theoretical grounding for these theories, and suggests some important practical implications for managers.
Explaining Variation in Rates of Entrepreneurship in the United States: 1899-1988
Authors: Shane Scott
Published: December 2005

This paper examines rates of entrepreneurship over time in the U.S. economy. It finds strong support for the argument that variations in rates of entrepreneurship follow a Schumpeterian model. Changes in rates of entrepreneurship appear to be driven by changes in technology. Some evidence is also found for the effects of the Protestant Ethic, interest rates, prior rates of entrepreneurship, risk-taking propensity, business failure rates, economic growth, immigration, and age distribution of the population.
Organizational Slack and Response to Environmental Shifts: The Impact of Resource Allocation Patterns
Authors: Cheng Joseph L.C. , Kesner Idalene F.
Published: December 2005

This study examines whether slack resources have differential effects on the extent of a firm’s response to environmental shifts. Using a sample of 30 airlines during the transitional period of industry deregulation, we found that the relationship between slack resources and the extent of a firm’s environmental response is contingent on the firm’s pattern of resource allocations. Specifically, our results show that as firms allocate more resources toward activities which enhance external market effectiveness, increases in slack increase the extent of their environmental response. Conversely, as firms allocate more resources to activities that enhance internal efficiency, increases in slack decrease the extent of their environmental response. The implications of these findings are discussed. In particular, we examine these findings relative to the ongoing debate concerning the role slack plays in organizational adaptation processes.
Comparative Tests of Multivariate Models of Recruiting Sources Effects
Authors: Griffeth Rodger W. , Hom Peter W. , Fink Lawrence S. , Cohen Debra J.
Published: December 2005

This study evaluated the prevailing explanations for why recruiting sources are differentially effective: realism and individual differences. Structural equations modeling analyses tested whether these psychological processes mediate source effects in a sample of 221 nurses. Results supported a model comprising both mediators, but showing that realism processes largely translate how recruiting sources influence job satisfaction, turnover, and absenteeism. However, the study also found direct effects of recruiting source on posthire outcomes, suggesting that unexplored mechanisms may be operating. Implications of these findings are identified and discussed.
Who is Publishing the Entrepreneurship Research?
Authors: Shane Scott A.
Published: December 2005

This research note examines the impact of individuals and institutions on research in entrepreneurship for the period since the Academy of Management accorded division status to entrepreneurship in 1987. It includes research in publications rated appropriate quality or above as entrepreneurship research outlets by MacMillan’s (1993) survey. Nineteen different publications, containing 472 entrepreneurship articles were reviewed, Rankings adjusted and unadjusted for journal quality are presented.
A Nother Ceiling? Can Males Compete for Traditionally Female Jobs?
Authors: Atwater Leanne E. , Van Fleet David D.
Published: December 2005

Subjects ranked hypothetical male and female job applicants for top- and mid-level management positions in a traditionally female job. Consistent with a “lack of fit” explanation, over one-fourth of the raters selected a less-qualified female over a more qualified male for both the top-level and mid-level jobs. Additionally, those subjects with management experience tended to make decisions favoring the less-qualified female more often than those without management experience. Results suggested that males may suffer from discrimination in traditionally female jobs similar to that faced by females in traditionally male jobs.
When Two Factors Don’t Reflect Two Constructs: How Item Characteristics Can Produce Artifactual Factors
Authors: Spector Paul E. , Van Katwyk Paul T. , Brannick Michael T. , Chen Peter Y.
Published: December 2005

Factor analyses of scales that contain items written in opposite directions sometimes show two factors, each of which contains items written in only one direction. Such item direction factors have been found in scales of affect and personality that have been used in organizational research. We discuss how patterns of subject responses to items that vary in direction and extremity can produce an arttfactual two factor structure in the absence of multiple constructs. Response patterns are demonstrated in Study 1 with job satisfaction data gathered from employed subjects. The production of two factors is illustrated in Study 2 with simulated data based on item response characteristic equations.