bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Wreccum Maris
Authors: Cressy David
Published: September 2022

Rooted in early modern legal commentary and the records of legal process, this chapter also engages with recent scholarship on law-mindedness, legal culture, and legal pluralism to show how seafarers and shore folk became entangled in disputes over shipwrecks. It asks questions that historians always find useful: cui bono? to whose benefit? and ‘who is saying what to whom?’. It was axiomatic in England that the goods and materials of shipwrecks belonged by prerogative to the crown, which could assign those rights to proprietors, corporations, or individuals. A statute of Edward I, however, enshrined the complication that, ‘where a man, a dog, or a cat escape quick out the ship’, neither that ship, nor anything on it, should be judged wreck. The original owners would have a year and a day to reclaim their property, subject to payment of droits, fees, and rewards. Endless enquiries, suits, and arguments followed about the circumstances of shipwreck, whether all aboard had perished or abandoned their vessel, whether ‘true wreck’ was proved, and how the spoils should be divided. Different views coexisted about the legality and propriety of shoreline activities, whether salvagers worked with or against established authority, whether wrecking constituted a service, a custom, or a crime, and whether common lawyers or the civil lawyers of the Admiralty had jurisdiction.
Aristotle on Comparison
Authors: Junco Elena Comay Del
Published: September 2022

Many contemporary philosophers hold that comparison requires a common, monistic ‘covering value’, and Aristotle is often described as a forerunner of this view. This paper reconsiders that claim. First, its textual warrant is substantially weaker than has been thought. Philosophically, moreover, Aristotle’s theory of non-synonymous predication allows for comparisons to be made using the special kind of non-synonymous terms that he calls pros hen legomenon, literally those ‘said with reference to a single thing.’ His favourite example is ‘healthy’ as said of food, organisms, and medical procedures: these various senses are not entirely synonymous, yet are not simply unconnected. This has significant implications. Aristotle famously holds that goodness is species-specific, and it would then seem that species cannot be ranked according to how good they are. Yet Aristotle does—frequently—rank species. The paper shows us that he is not, pace other scholars, thereby caught in a contradiction.
Aristotelian Continence Reconsidered
Authors: Price A. W.
Published: September 2022

For Aristotle, continence (enkrateia) falls short of practical wisdom in two ways: the continent agent is not fully dependable in action (being liable occasionally to act contrary to judgement) and lacks a full understanding of the goals of action (which would require his desires to be united and well directed). Hence he may most often do what he should, but he never acts as he should, since he does not act dependably and with a full grasp of the value of his action.
The Wireless World
Authors: Potter Simon J. , Clayton David , Kind-Kovacs Friederike , Kuitenbrouwer Vincent , Ribeiro Nelson , Scales Rebecca , Stanton Andrea
Published: September 2022

This book sets out a new research agenda for the history of international broadcasting, and for radio history more generally. It examines global and transnational histories of long-distance wireless broadcasting, combining perspectives from international history, media and cultural history, the history of technology, and sound studies. It is a genuinely co-written book, the result of more than five years of collaboration. Bringing together their knowledge of a wide range of different countries, languages, and archives, the co-authors show how broadcasters and states deployed international broadcasting as a tool of international communication and persuasion. They also demonstrate that by paying more attention to audiences, programmes, and soundscapes, historians of international broadcasting can make important contributions to wider debates in social and cultural history. Exploring the idea of a ‘wireless world’, a globe connected, both in imagination and reality, by radio, this book sheds new light on the transnational connections created by international broadcasting. Bringing together all periods of international broadcasting within a single analytical frame, including the pioneering days of wireless, the Second World War, the Cold War, and the decades since the fall of the Berlin Wall, it reveals key continuities and transformations. It looks at how wireless was shaped by internationalist ideas about the use of broadcasting to promote world peace and understanding, at how empires used broadcasting to perpetuate colonialism, and at how anti-colonial movements harnessed radio as a weapon of decolonization.
Tuning-in to the World
Authors: Scales Rebecca
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the audiences for international broadcasting, and the efforts of international broadcasters and governments to understand the impact on audiences of radio programmes transmitted across national borders. Drawing on historians’ investigations of audience reception, it focuses on qualitative, rather than just quantitative, evaluations of audience responses and listening. It surveys audiences for imperial and fascist propaganda in the 1930s and ‘occupied’ listening during the Second World War, as well as European efforts to reinforce colonial power during the era of decolonization. It also examines Cold War attempts to understand audiences, showing how many of the claims made by broadcasters about their audiences need to be understood in terms of their need to maintain state funding. A case study then looks at audiences for international broadcasting in neutral Portugal during the Second World War, while another examines audiences for the Cold-War era US station broadcasting from West Germany, RIAS.
John Zonaras' Epitome of Histories
Authors: Kampianaki Theofili
Published: September 2022

The twelfth-century chronicle of John Zonaras, which begins with the biblical Creation and ends in 1118, is one of the longest historical accounts written in Greek that has come down to us. It is also one of the most popular historical works of the Greek-speaking world during the Middle Ages, with a remarkably large number of manuscripts preserving the entire text or parts of it. This book analyses Zonaras’ chronicle as both a literary composition and a historical account. It concentrates on its composition, sources, and political, ideological, and literary background. It also includes discussions that go beyond the text, such as on the intellectual networks surrounding Zonaras, and the anticipated audience and the reception of the chronicle. By examining such issues, Theofili Kampianaki aims to present Zonaras’ chronicle as a product which emerged from a milieu characterized by the increased contacts with Western people and the Komnenian style of rulership in the imperial bureaucracy, and as a work which seamlessly merges the traditions of chronicle writing and classicizing historiography.
John Zonaras
Authors: Kampianaki Theofili
Published: September 2022

Chapter 1 is dedicated to John Zonaras and his oeuvre. The first half of the chapter summarizes the biographical data about Zonaras and his family which is supported by solid evidence, and explores the serious dating issues concerning the period in which he lived and wrote. It is shown that the Epitome was completed in or after 1143 and that the terminus ante quem for the completion of the work is approximately the year 1150. The second half of this chapter is dedicated to Zonaras’ varied literary production, looking at the works he composed in addition to the Epitome (commentaries on canon law, hagiographical and homiletic works, exegeses of ecclesiastical poetry, the Lexicon). This survey of his oeuvre shows Zonaras to have been an author who exhibited broader interests and tastes, and had a dual focus on both secular and ecclesiastical literature.
International Trade
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter is about Japan’s foreign trade. It begins by considering the monetary value of Japan’s gain from trade based on the effect on import and export prices of Japan’s opening to trade in the nineteenth century. It then turns attention to the composition of Japan’s foreign trade and finds that Ricardian comparative advantage explains much of it. Newer trade theories based on scale economies are invoked to explain Japan’s intra-industry trade. Foreign direct investment too is a form of trade, much of it the domain of multinational enterprises. The basis for FDI and Japan’s relative lack of inward FDI are explored. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to Japan’s trade policy since its entry into the GATT in 1955. It details Japan’s 1980s trade friction, with particular attention to the protectionist response in the US to the rise of imports from Japan. Since the conclusion of the Uruguay Round that established the WTO in 1995, Japan–US trade friction has dissipated, partly owing to the rise of China. Recent Japanese trade policy is aimed at concluding free-trade agreements with individual trading partners and regional groups of trading partners. Japan, like other countries, enters trade agreements to overcome domestic obstacles to free trade, not foreign ones. The remaining pockets of protectionism in Japan are in agriculture, and their burden on Japanese consumers is significant. The drive within Japan to relax its protection of agriculture is the hidden force behind Japanese trade policy in the twenty-first century.
Politics
Authors: Colla Marcus
Published: September 2022

This chapter addresses the political meanings attached to Prussian history in the GDR during the era of the ‘Prussia-Renaissance’. It argues that the political ‘rehabilitation’ of Prussian history in the GDR from the 1970s onwards must in part be understood within a specifically German Cold War context, as each German state sought to make an exclusive claim over the pan-German historical inheritance. Not only were acts such as the restoration of the Frederick the Great equestrian statue in East Berlin, or the ‘Prussia-Exhibition’ in West Berlin, symbolic statements made within the specific political conditions of the German Cold War, they also assumed new meanings and interpretations in the eyes of domestic and international observers alike. Because of this, the East German ‘Prussia-Renaissance’ followed its own logic, as the GDR’s political and cultural elites sought to refashion their historical policy into a form that meaningfully distinguished it from that of the Federal Republic.
Society and Culture
Authors: Colla Marcus
Published: September 2022

This chapter analyses the relationship between the ‘Prussia-Renaissance’ and ‘popular culture’. The historians of the GDR, much like the political figures they directly and indirectly served, were motivated and sustained by a popular culture that, through new forms of media, was becoming increasingly saturated by Prussia-fascination. They fed the East German public’s increasing appetite for history, but were ultimately consumed by it in turn, as the new set of popular historical and heritage practices they helped generate came to undermine their privileged interpretative sovereignty over the past. The chapter accordingly documents the distorting impact that the pursuit of ‘popular history’ had upon the state’s Marxist-Leninist historical dogmas. Furthermore, the chapter also documents how the ‘Prussia-Renaissance’—and especially the figure of Frederick the Great—stimulated a surge of subversive creative energies, as authors, playwrights, artists, and satirists increasingly began to turn to the GDR’s historical culture as a space for artistic exploration.
Food Security in India
Authors: Narang Harpreet Kaur
Published: September 2022

The second chapter is a general one. It investigates food security in India by assessing India’s position at the global level and her progress in tackling the problem of hunger and malnutrition with reference to the targets set by the two major UN commitments to tackle hunger—the Rome Declaration at the World Food Summit, 1996 and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2000. It also provides the international ranking of the countries in terms of the Global Hunger Index, a tool designed by the International Food Policy Research Institute to measure and track global hunger. In the end a brief summary of India’s nutrition profile is presented along with an assessment of India’s progress with regards to the MDGs and their intricate relationship with deprivations of all kinds.
Nutritional Security I
Authors: Narang Harpreet Kaur
Published: September 2022

This section of the book addresses the issue of ‘absorption of food’ or nutritional security. The aim is to analyse the various manifestations of chronic and hidden hunger in Punjab and the underlying factors that affect food absorption or nutritional security, especially amongst the vulnerable sections of Punjab’s population. Maternal health care and child health care are of utmost importance for the nutritional well-being and productivities of the future generations. Hence in chapter 5, a presentation of the key demographic indicators of health is followed by a focus on the extent of under nutrition among children and women in Punjab. Food absorption problems manifest in the form of an unhealthy population consisting of malnourished adults with low body mass index (BMI) and suffering from diseases. The chapter ends with an investigation of the nutritional status of adults in Punjab in terms of BMI to measure the chronic energy deficiency, followed by a look at the micronutrient deficiencies at the state and district level.
Epilogue
Authors: Kirichenko Alexander
Published: September 2022

The brief Epilogue highlights some of the ways in which the spatial pragmatics of archaic, classical, and Hellenistic literature influenced the subsequent development of classical culture—from the emergence of Roman literature to the rise of Christianity.
Appearance and Reality II
Authors: Hill Christopher S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 3 begins by clarifying and further defending the doctrine that visual experience is concerned with Thouless properties. It then turns to consider whether this doctrine can be extended to other perceptual modalities. It argues that counterparts of Thouless properties are involved in hearing and touch, but that this seems not to be true of the chemical senses of smell and taste. On the positive side, however, it maintains that smell and taste do involve appearance properties—just not appearance properties that have the characteristic Thouless stamp, which involves the effects of partial constancy transformations. This view is defended by an inquiry into olfactory perception, which also suggests that taste pervasively involves appearances. The chapter concludes by claiming that at the most fundamental level, perceptual experience is concerned with the appearances of things, not with their objective properties. It follows that naïve realism, which maintains that objective properties are directly presented in perceptual experience, must be rejected.
Perceptual Phenomenology
Authors: Hill Christopher S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 5 is concerned with the phenomenological dimensions of perceptual experience. Building on the idea that all awareness is constitutively representational, it infers that awareness is always governed by a Kantian appearance/reality distinction—there is the way that awareness represents entities as being, and the way that represented entities are in themselves. It follows that awareness of perceptual phenomenology is governed by an appearance/reality distinction. The chapter points out that the main arguments for dualism presuppose that this is not the case—they assume that awareness of phenomenal properties gives us full and unerring access to their essential natures. Hence, the Kantian appearance/reality distinction undercuts the arguments for dualism. The chapter also adds to the arguments for representationalism that are presented in Chapter 1, and maintains that its representationalist account of perceptual phenomenology can be extended so as to apply to cognitive phenomenology and the phenomenology of moods and emotions.
A Quasi-Perceptualist Account of Pain Experience
Authors: Hill Christopher S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 6 proposes a representationalist theory of pain experience. It begins by pointing out that pain normally has several prominent components, including a bodily disturbance, a high-level representation of that disturbance, which has much in common with perceptual representations, and an affective response to the disturbance. Although these elements are normally tightly bound together, recent clinical and experimental studies show that they are dissociable. The most striking finding in this area is that the sensation of pain becomes unstuck from hurting in the disorder known as pain asymbolia. The chapter proposes a theory of sensory pain that analyzes its phenomenology in terms of the higher-level, quasi-perceptual representations of bodily disturbances, thereby assimilating the phenomenology to the other forms of phenomenology studied in Chapter 5. It also explains hurting in terms of an attitude toward the bodily disturbances that constitute sensory pain—specifically, the attitude of dislike.
Introduction
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: September 2022

The rise of the modern pharmaceutical industry shaped many aspects of life in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Europe, including the relationships between the large industrial powers and Scandinavian economies. As Scandinavian nations developed their own pharmaceutical firms and innovations, they provide an excellent opportunity to describe and analyze the factors shaping the spread of the global industry and its impact on smaller nations with medium-sized economies. The focus of this book will be primarily upon Norway, and particular attention will be paid to one innovative firm and the institutional and economic context that shaped its success. This chapter charts the beginnings of the “pharmaceutical revolution” and the peculiarities of the Norwegian case, then outlines the structure of the book.
Breakthrough, 1967–1969
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: September 2022

This chapter revolves around the remarkable swift success that the contrast media team used to bring forward a breakthrough principle, which subsequently became known as non-ionic contrast media but was also characterized by chemical properties that were highly benign to the body. These new products were the first that could be used in the full spinal canal and the brain’s liquid-filled rooms (myelographic), as well as being much better than older contrast media in the circulatory system (vascular). The success has to be explained in terms of the long-term experience since the 1950s with the old product Isopaque and the input from the international network established. Nyegaard deliberately sought a niche use of the product and succeeded where larger corporations had not thought it possible to go. To a large degree, head of research Hugo Holtermann formulated the agenda, and the company’s efforts were also facilitated by the spirit of the Swedish radiologist Torsten Almén.
Conclusion
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: September 2022

How did innovation happen and what were its consequences? Nyegaard & Co.’s success formulae was original to Scandinavia and gives some interesting insights into what it actually entails to “come from behind” as a small nation not at the forefront of medical science and with a regulatory system ignorant of domestic pharmaceutical innovation. The formula is a four-stage model: first came the establishment of a strong corporate scientific research culture; then came insight from specialization of research; then came a shift to a kind of collectivization of the company organization; then, through alliances with doctors and other companies, inventive molecules and subsequent innovative products found significant roles in global markets. There is also a fifth stage, although that is not part of the success formula: in the 1990s, once the company achieved independence as a fully fledged innovative multinational corporation, it lost its ability to navigate in a confident and forward-looking manner.
Becoming a Worker: Industrialization and Textile Labour in Mekelle
Authors: Chinigò Davide
Published: September 2022

The chapter discusses the labour dynamics that have been emerging within a rapidly growing textile global value chain in Tigray’s capital city Mekelle since the mid-2010s. In the context of an ambitious industrialization policy urged to sustain export-led economic growth, reduce dependency on agriculture and services, and to address pressing political problems such as rising urban unemployment, the Ethiopian government managed to attract global production networks around newly established industrial poles, primarily geared towards manufacturing. Due to a number of historical, political, and geographical factors, by the mid-2010s Tigray was at the forefront of this development. The rapid consolidation of the textile industry in the area around Mekelle generated a new labour question: the coexistence of labour shortage around the textile industrial hub and a large population seeking employment. Empirically the chapter discusses the stories of young workers and trainees navigating textile work against the contrast between significant expectations about industrialization and wages well below reproduction. Workers enacted a number of practices, including absenteeism, turnover, and tardiness when the incomplete transition to industrial labour forced them to seek reproduction through a combination of scarce and poorly remunerated wage employment, self-employment, and other survival activities at the intersection between the formal and informal economy. While some of them managed to make the most of the opportunities generated by industrialization, many others remained dependent on their household of origin for their social and economic reproduction.
Animal behavior and parasitism: Where have we been, where are we going?
Authors: Ezenwa Vanessa O. , Altizer Sonia , Hall Richard J.
Published: September 2022

This chapter introduces the volume Animal Behavior and Parasitism with a series of case studies tied to key research themes. The chapter describes the objectives of the book, its scope and target audience, and provides important background on the fundamental ways in which animal behavior and parasitism are connected. Examples briefly illustrate the role parasites play in shaping the behavior of animals on both ecological and evolutionary timescales. The chapter also emphasizes a common theme running across the entire volume, which is that reciprocal interactions often characterize the relationships between animal behavior and parasitism.
Parasites, host behavior, and their feedbacks
Authors: Hawley Dana M. , Ezenwa Vanessa O.
Published: September 2022

Animal behavior and parasite dynamics are often tightly intertwined, each exerting influence on the other via both ecological and evolutionary processes. Thus, links between host behaviors and parasitism are frequently characterized by feedbacks. Characterizing these feedbacks, including when they occur, over what timescales, and their potential role as drivers of variation in both host behavior and parasite traits, is key for our understanding of host behavior–parasite interactions more broadly. Here the chapter reviews the basic requirements for behavior–parasite feedbacks, their common functional outcomes, current evidence for behavior–parasite feedbacks in nature, and the way in which the strength and nature of these feedbacks may vary with environmental context. The chapter ends by highlighting potential approaches for studying behavior–parasite feedbacks and outstanding questions in the field, such as the relative importance of feedbacks to novelty and stability in host or parasite traits.
Collective behavior and parasite transmission
Authors: Keiser Carl N.
Published: September 2022

The collective outcomes of animal societies are driven by processes at multiple levels of biological organization. Individuals’ traits influence the frequency and nature of social interactions that generate emergent properties like collective behavior and disease dynamics, perhaps simultaneously. Therefore, the composition of individual phenotypes in a group will influence the ability to execute collective behaviors and the concomitant risk of disease outbreaks. This may be especially true when considering the presence of keystone individuals which exert inordinate influence over social processes. However, the phenotypic compositions that lead to success in one context may be detrimental in other contexts. For example, groups containing individuals that are more aggressive may excel in collective foraging but also spread pathogens at a faster rate. Therefore, group composition may shift towards mixtures of phenotypes which resolve this trade-off. This chapter reviews the interrelatedness between collective behavior and parasite transmission, including mechanisms by which groups can optimally balance conflicting collective demands, and proposes some future directions in collective behavior-parasitism research.
Seasonal human movement and the consequences for infectious disease transmission
Authors: Meredith Hannah R. , Wesolowski Amy
Published: September 2022

Seasonal variation in human movement is globally ubiquitous and driven by a range of social, economic, and environmental factors. This temporal variability may also impact the spatial spread of infectious diseases by varying the likelihood of an introduction event in susceptible populations or the demographics of a population. In turn, infection (or infection risk) could modify individual behavior, creating heterogeneity in mobility patterns. Unfortunately, quantifying seasonal differences in travel patterns has largely been limited by data availability, particularly in low- and middle-income settings which have the greatest burden of many infectious diseases. This chapter reviews challenges and opportunities associated with quantifying, characterizing, and modeling seasonal mobility patterns. It then focuses on the need to integrate time-resolved mobility, demographic, and disease transmission data in infectious disease modeling frameworks to better inform epidemiological questions of interest and inform public health strategies.
Infection avoidance behaviors across vertebrate taxa: Patterns, processes, and future directions
Authors: Lopes Patricia C. , French Susannah S. , Woodhams Douglas C. , Binning Sandra A.
Published: September 2022

An infected animal can behave, smell, sound, and look very different from a healthy version of itself. The same is true when comparing habitats, food, or water sources contaminated with parasite infectious stages to their uncontaminated counterparts. All these differences provide cues or indications of disease risk and thus allow uninfected animals to modify their behaviors in ways that alter disease transmission. This chapter focuses on prophylactic behaviors: host behaviors that reduce the risk of infection. It provides an overview of how infection avoidance behaviors are triggered, then summarizes the avoidance behaviors known to occur in vertebrates, giving special attention to non-mammalian taxa, which are less represented in the literature. Repercussions of avoidance behaviors can include fitness trade-offs under some circumstances where predation risk is increased, or opportunities for nutrition, growth, or reproduction are diminished. Thus, like balanced immune responses, optimal behaviors may not be those that provide the greatest pathogen avoidance. The chapter outlines knowledge gaps and future priorities for research in the study of behavioral avoidance across taxa and discusses how trade-offs associated with behavioral avoidance may be altered under global change.
The Defence of Mistake of Law in International Criminal Law
Authors: Coco Antonio
Published: September 2022

The adage ‘ignorance of the law is no excuse’ is significantly inaccurate. Ignorance and mistake of law do, under certain circumstances, exclude responsibility both in national and international criminal law. This book updates the existing reviews of law and practice on the topic and aims to go a step further, taking the analysis of mistake of law as a starting point for systematic observations about international criminal law in general. First, the book defines the contours of the defence of mistake of law in general theory of criminal law, distinguishing it from cognate defences and highlighting, most notably, its connection with superior orders. Secondly, it gives an overview of the possible approaches to the defence, offering examples from national law as terms of reference for the subsequent analysis of international criminal law. Thirdly, it surveys the relevant law and practice of international criminal tribunals, with a focus on the International Criminal Court, and it contemplates offences for which a defence of mistake of law may potentially succeed. Fourthly, the book tries to interpret the message that the rules on mistake of law applicable before international criminal tribunals send about the purpose of punishing individuals and the legitimacy of such punishment. Whilst the discourse on international criminal law is more and more concerned with global politics, this book brings the focus back to the appropriateness of imposing a guilty verdict on the individual defendant, a human being who remains a member of society.
Introduction
Authors: Coco Antonio
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter sets the scope of the book’s inquiry, the reasons for the study of mistake of law, the research question it tries to answer, the methodology followed, and the terminology employed. In particular, the Introduction defines the concept of ‘mistake of law’, that is, a defendant’s claim that they did not know or they misunderstood a certain legal rule, and that therefore they should not be criminally responsible. The chapter describes this notion’s relationship with the pluralism and complexity of international criminal law, which make it difficult for individuals to acquire knowledge of this body of rules. The chapter also sets out the book’s objective of clarifying the theoretical underpinnings of the choice to give or deny exonerating value to claims of mistake of law, in international criminal law.
Mistakes of Law Excluding Criminal Responsibility in Domestic Criminal Law
Authors: Coco Antonio
Published: September 2022

Several alternatives exist to regulate and/or limit resort to the defence of mistake of law. National systems of criminal law show how these alternatives work in practice—establishing valuable lessons for international criminal tribunals. National law makes clear that the fact itself of having incurred a mistake of law is never sufficient, alone, to exonerate a defendant from criminal responsibility. The chapter establishes the situations in which a mistake of law may, instead, be invoked to exclude that responsibility, focusing on the notions of honesty, reasonableness, and unavoidability of the mistake, and highlighting that—at times—crime definitions contain elements requiring knowledge of the law. Special attention is devoted to mistakes relating to the lawfulness of superior orders, often drawing from national proceedings for international crimes conducted between the two World Wars and after the Second World War.
Conclusion
Authors: Coco Antonio
Published: September 2022

This short ending summarizes the findings of the whole study and draws conclusions to be used to spark debate and open up new inquiries. It reaffirms that the current rules on the defence of mistake of law applicable before international criminal tribunals are indicative of a message about the purposes and legitimacy of international criminal punishment. Considering the discourse on international criminal law as more and more concerned with global politics, sovereignty, states, and victims, this chapter signals the objective to bring attention back to the original focus of a criminal trial: the appropriateness of imposing a guilty verdict on the individual defendant.
Bound by Convention
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2022

How should we assess the social structures that govern human conduct and settle whether we are bound by their rules? One approach is to ask whether those social arrangements (e.g. our family structures) reflect pre-conventional facts about our nature. If they do, compliance will serve our interests because these rules are not just conventions. Another approach is to ask whether following a convention has desirable consequences. For example, the rule which makes the dollar bill legal tender is a convention and the great usefulness of having a medium of exchange ensures that we should follow that convention by accepting paper money in return for things of real value. This work argues that being bound by a convention can also be valuable for its own sake. People need meaning in their lives, and conventions infuse our acts and attitudes with normative significance, rendering them right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, required or forbidden. Such rules bind us not just in virtue of their usefulness but also because their absence would impoverish our social world. Appreciating this point is essential to a proper understanding of our cultures of neighbourliness and hospitality, family structures, systems of property rights, conventions around speech, the norms governing how we deport ourselves in public, and even the rules of a game.
Truthfulness
Authors: Owens David
Published: September 2022

To speak untruthfully is to make an assertion that you do not believe to be true. This chapter argues that the wrong of untruthfulness is not the wrong of deceiving or misleading. First, you can do wrong in speaking untruthfully even when there is no danger of your misleading anyone. Second, where you set out to mislead your audience, it makes a difference whether you do so by speaking untruthfully. These facts make sense once we acknowledge the existence of a binding impersonal convention requiring speech to be truthful, one distinct from the pre-conventional interpersonal principle that forbids misleading speech and action. I draw a parallel between the conventions that govern assertion and those around money. Just as the efficacy of money presupposes the recognition of social rules requiring us both to respect the integrity of money (by not counterfeiting, etc.) and to trust money by accepting it in exchange for valuable goods and services, so the efficacy of testimony presupposes the recognition of social rules requiring us both to speak truthfully and trust the assertions of others unless we have specific grounds for doubt. These rules are all impersonal conventions which serve a collective interest by ensuring that any money we come across has exchange value and any assertion we come across has informational value.
Introduction
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St.
Published: September 2022

This chapter highlights the ‘wicked’ problem of inequalities and its importance to policy and policymaking in EU states and regions. It identifies policymaking rescaling, in which approaches driven by the nation state are now under challenge from global, EU, and substate developments. It introduces the IMAJINE project, which focuses on researching spatial justice and reducing inequalities. We identify three tensions inherent to any such project. First, there is always a gap between policymaker expectations—to make an impact with policy and cooperate across policymaking scales—and actual practices and outcomes. Second, multi-level policymaking is a venue for contestation over defining problems and establishing the responsibility to address them. Third, there are many different ways to define and seek to solve inequalities, and these differences are just as apparent across policy sectors (such as health and education) as policymaking venues.
Mapping Responsibilities to Reduce Inequalities Across the EU
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 3 explores how to map policymaking responsibilities in relation to inequalities. Our aim is to identify key policy instruments to reduce inequalities to help identify which governments are responsible for their use. This work is essential to understanding how policymakers, at different levels and scales of government, take and share responsibility for the reduction of territorial inequalities across European Union states and regions. It is also essential to policy learning and transfer, since we expect different political systems to distribute those responsibilities in different ways. However, it is not possible to reduce this exercise to a technical report with a clear blueprint for policymakers. Rather, these exercises highlight scenarios in which joint action may be possible, but subject to high uncertainty about which mix of policy instruments to use, whom to hold responsible for their use, and how best to foster collaboration inside and outside of government.
Inequalities Policies in Practice
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St.
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores the scope for regional (or meso-level, sub-state) policymakers to redesign policy, and pursue differing priorities, within national systems of social welfare. Regional levels of government have increased powers to address inequalities, but their role is contested. There is no such thing as a typical division of responsibilities or one best way to address inequalities. Rather, we use examples from four countries—Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom—to explore how different regional-level governments make sense of inequalities policies. Examples include taxation and spending, social assistance, public service subsidies, minimum income guarantees, and charged, active labour market policies. From the available evidence, it would be an exaggeration to speak of distinct regional welfare regimes.
Strategies to Reduce Inequalities in Education
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines how governments define and pursue education equity. There is a broad consensus that reducing unfair education inequalities would be a good thing, but also the endurance of major inequalities, particularly in relation to a highly salient ‘attainment gap’ on leaving school. There is high contestation on the cause of inequalities and the balance between individual, school, and state responsibility, but also a tendency for a ‘neoliberal’ approach to overshadow ‘social justice’ approaches in national policy agendas. In that context, this chapter examines three key aspects. First, how policymakers define and pursue education equity policy. Second, what countries and regions can learn from allegedly leading countries. Third, the spatial dimension of education equity policy, in which there is a general tendency to decentralize policy delivery but centralize accountability, and scope for some regional governments to go their own way. The conclusion relates these findings to the idea of territorial cohesion.
British Colonization in North America
Authors: Clark David S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 2 describes the British colonial period, beginning with a review of the place of Roman, civil, and canon law in English legal history followed by a discussion of what impact those elements plus natural law, particularly through Scotsmen, might have had in America. Self-study and apprenticeship were the avenues to learn law in the colonies. Because the social and physical environment in America was so different from that in England, social factors were very important for the development of law, especially on lawyers and courts. In addition, the religious and cultural diversity that existed in the 13 North American British colonies was relevant to the view of law in different communities. For instance, Francis Pastorius, a Quaker, had studied law in Germany before he founded the first permanent German settlement in the colonies at Germantown, Pennsylvania. Finally, John Adams provides an exemplary legal comparatist in the pre-revolutionary period, as his law practice and political writings amply demonstrate.
The Formative Era: 1791–1865
Authors: Clark David S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 4 analyzes the period from 1791 to the end of the Civil War, what Roscoe Pound described as the formative era of American law. Lawyers with knowledge of Enlightenment legal philosophy and Roman and civil law shifted their attention primarily to the task of constructing a system of private law. Nevertheless, comparatists explored penal reform and adopted ideas from European criminology that made Pennsylvania and New York models that French and German jurists then studied. In addition, the expansion of the nation to absorb Louisiana as a territory and later a state provided an important instance of civil law influence, particularly on the matter of legal codification. These decades also saw the beginning of American comparative legal science, which legal education, a growing legal literature—James Kent and Joseph Story stood out—and law libraries amply illustrated. There were other legal comparatists who also made contributions to early comparative law, which is detailed. In particular, the codification and slavery questions had diverse important legal sources stemming from European and earlier Roman law.
Evidence
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: September 2022

What evidence would allow the general theory of skeptical trust to be tested empirically? This chapter describes the data used to operationalize the book’s typology and analyze how far trust relationships are based on informed calculations, evidence, and logical reasoning, and the conditions most conducive to skeptical judgments. To start, Section I reviews alternative techniques and methods commonly used in previous research to understand trust. Section II outlines the research design at the heart of the book. Section III explains how the core concepts are operationalized from sources of macro- and micro-level data. The study draws on the pooled European Values Survey/World Values Survey, covering 120 societies around the world in the seven waves since the study was established in the early 1980s. Section IV tests the reliability of the survey data using an item-count survey experiment. Finally, the conclusion in Section V summarizes how the research design used in this study differs from many previous studies.
Competency
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: September 2022

Performance in the agent-principal social contract is conceptualized as involving competency, so that agents or agencies fulfill specific responsibilities to their clients, while procedural mechanisms concerning standards of integrity and impartiality hold agents accountable for any general failures to do so. Section I summarizes the thinking guiding the empirical analysis. Section II seeks to explore this issue in more depth, using individual-level survey data to establish how far a range of indicators about the pocketbook household economy predict trust in political authorities, and to determine whether this relationship varies in both open and closed societies. Section III goes on to compare cross-national evidence at the macro level in around eighty nations worldwide to test whether the public’s judgments of political trustworthiness are consistently related to objective indicators of the government’s policy performance. The conclusion in Section IV summarizes the overall results and considers their broader implications and the next steps in the process.
Integrity and Impartiality
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: September 2022

Above and beyond the competent delivery of specific policy outcomes, procedural indicators of performance are expected to be even more important for trustworthy principal-agent relationships, representing the “input” and “throughput” side of the policymaking process. To explore these issues, Section I of this chapter summarizes the theoretical argument. To identify the drivers of trust, Section II examines individual-level data to analyze how far confidence in political institutions is strengthened by subjective perceptions about the quality of governance. For a more rigorous test of the core theory, Section III compares objective performance indicators to see how far independent measures of the quality of government by monitoring agencies predict public judgments of the trustworthiness of core political institutions—and how far such relationships are conditioned by the type of information society and the predominant societal culture. Section IV illustrates the existential risks of excessive credulous public trust in untrustworthy leaders with a case study of the performance of countries in the Covid-19 pandemic. The conclusions in Section V highlight the key findings and considers their broader implications for trust and trustworthiness.
The Specter of Guantanamo
Authors: Herman Rebecca
Published: September 2022

This chapter surveys the problem of US basing in the Western Hemisphere in World War II from the perspectives of its various constituents. The United States’ existing military footprint on sovereign soil in Latin America when the war began consisted of the Guantanamo Naval Base situated in southeastern Cuba and various installations inside the Panama Canal Zone. As holdovers from the heyday of early twentieth-century US interventionism and hence lightning rods for anti-US sentiment, these spaces haunted wartime efforts to acquire defense installations in a purportedly new era in inter-American affairs.As US officials reimagined national security as a hemispheric undertaking, they had to confront the fact that two central objectives of US defense planning in the region on the eve of war – basing and goodwill – seemed to run at cross purposes.
Sex, Honor, and Moral Hygiene
Authors: Herman Rebecca
Published: September 2022

When US military personnel fanned out across the defense sites in Latin America, nearby residents encountered US power in the intimate spaces of everyday life, beyond the labor camps and construction sites, bringing inter-American relations squarely into the realm of the interpersonal. The newcomers forged new spaces and modes of sociability—at USO clubs, hotels, movie theaters, and beaches—that upset existing practices. Their arrival also fueled the growth of local sex industries, and US officials improvised new systems for regulating prostitution. The scope of the upheaval that the US presence precipitated varied from site to site, and country to country, but across these spaces, the influx of US personnel sparked concerns among local residents about the impact that the US presence would have on the social norms and moral health of their communities.
A Change in Tune at the White House—and at the Court?
Authors: Kalman Laura
Published: September 2022

Chapter 4 shows FDR and members of his administration beginning to speak frankly about why they needed more justices—to stanch the flow of conservative decisions, not to assist the superannuated. It also details the court’s public entrance into a fight that, up to this point, had featured the president versus the Senate. The chief justice released a letter showing that the court needed no help and that additional justices would only slow things down. At the same time, the court upheld minimum wage legislation similar to that which it had struck down in 1936. Whether it changed its tune and, if so, all the clamor over the bill caused it to do so has been debated since 1937. Yet as the chapter shows, the justices’ first dramatic “self-reversal” made little difference to the expectation of victory for the principle of court enlargement, and perhaps for FDR’s bill. As the wild card, however, the court made it difficult to predict the future, and everything would hinge on what it did next.