bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Summary and Conclusions
Authors: Chung Young‐Iob
Published: September 2007

This chapter summarizes the path of economic development and capital formation during the half-century after the Korean War, and evaluates the means used for South Korea's success. The chapter also assesses the prospects for South Korea's future economic development and capital formation under a democratically elected government, still in its infancy. It speculates on South Korea's chances of attaining the levels reached by neighboring countries such as Taiwan, Singapore, China, and even Japan, and the challenges it faces to achieve this. Five major challenges faced by South Korea are discussed: improving the government's management ability, progress in technology, better labor-management relations, equitable income distribution, resolution of the so-called jaebeol problems, and the reunification of North Korea and South Korea.
Appendix 1
Authors: Biernacki Loriliai
Published: September 2007

This appendix presents background information and detail for a variety of Tantric texts to offer a more comprehensive picture of the texts used for this study as well as for other Tantric texts not used. This appendix offers a comparison with other Tantric texts specifically as they pertain to representations of women. Some prominent examples of other texts referenced here include for instance the Kulārṇava Tantra, Yoginī Tantra, Kaulajñānanirṇaya, Kālikā Purāṇa, Mahānirvāṇa Tantra. Also, looking at the history of the Northeast region of India, Assam in particular, and the wider cultural images of women for medieval Assam may help to explain some of the particular attitudes towards women found in the group of texts used for this study. Thus, after addressing the sources, the second part of this appendix addresses the historical context, particularly with a view to women and attitudes towards women.
God in a Suffering Cosmos
Authors: Schaab Gloria L.
Published: September 2007

Chapter 1 explores the state of the question of divine passibility in contemporary theology. After reviewing some of the contemporary critiques of a theology of the suffering of God, it recounts and analyzes several representative proposals toward a theology of the suffering of God that are distinct in their hermeneutical approaches: the biblical theology of Jürgen Moltmann, the liberation theology of Jon Sobrino, the process theology of Daniel Day Williams, and the feminist‐ecological theology of Sallie McFague. Despite the viability of each of these proposals within their specific hermeneutical perspectives, there are limitations in each of these proposals for a theology of divine suffering that is broader than biblical revelation, truly cosmocentric, consistent with the doctrine of God as Trinity, and able to preserve essential distinctions between the Creator and the creation. This chapter concludes by delineating why the evolutionary theology of Arthur Peacocke provides the basis for such an approach.
Introduction
Authors: Patterson John R.
Published: September 2007

Engaging with Fergus Millar’s observation that ‘Italy under the Empire has no history’, the introduction outlines the aims of the book, which is envisaged as a contribution to the history of imperial Italy. It focuses on the paradox that the ‘golden age’ of the Roman Empire has often been thought a time of decline or even crisis for the Italian peninsula. It also emphasizes the multiplicity of local situations emerging from the documentary and archaeological evidence, and outlines the themes of the following chapters.
7 The Eutychian Crisis
Authors: Clayton, Jr. Paul B.
Published: September 2007

Cyril of Alexandria died in 444 and was succeeded by his nephew Dioscorus. His intrigues with Eutyches and Chrysaphius in Constantinople soon led to the outbreak of the Eutychian crisis, Eutyches' deposition by the synod of Constantinople in 448, the so-called Latrocinium at Ephesus the following year, and finally the Council of Chalcedon in 451. This chapter explores the Christology in Theodoret's literary works during the crisis period. Firstly is the Eranistes, published originally in 447 or 448, then There is One Son, Our Lord Jesus Christ of 448, and a fairly large collection of letters that Theodoret wrote to defend himself against the charges of the opposing party. Finally, there are a few fragments of a letter written to John of Aegae after Chalcedon and the Haereticarum Fabularum Compendium.
Roman Ethnographies
Authors: Dench Emma
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses primarily on Roman literary accounts of the world and its peoples. The Romans, like other peoples of the Hellenistic Mediterranean world, from the end of the third century BC wrote themselves into the history of the ‘inhabited world’ in a literature that constantly engaged with the primarily Greek frameworks and images that had long been regarded as something of an international ‘language’ of memory and civilization. However, as they wrote themselves into this history, at the same time they frequently set Rome at an angle to it, one important signal of Roman claims to be both a master of Greek culture and to have a separable, remarkable character of their own. The chapter traces the development of some of the distinctive shapes of Roman conceptualization of their imperial world.
The Idea of Italy
Authors: Dench Emma
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the great importance of the idea of Italy in the crucial stages of the Roman imperial experience. There is no doubt that both ‘universal’ images of Italy and Italian particularism underwent dramatic changes between the middle Republic and the second century AD. This chapter shows that ideally, of course, such changes need to be mapped alongside changes in perceptions of, and self-perception within, the Roman imperial world more generally.
Competing Readings of Stoic Passions
Authors: Gill Christopher
Published: September 2007

Stoics and Epicureans, while holding that all human beings are constitutively capable of achieving a fully coherent state of character, also maintain that failure to realize this capacity results in a radically un-structured and incoherent state of personality. This chapter examines the Stoic theory of the passions (which are seen as expressing this un-structured state) and explores the relationship between this theory and their view that human beings function as psychological wholes. It shows how an intense debate emerged in Hellenistic-Roman thought between Stoic (holistic) and Platonic-Aristotelian (part-based) ways of conceiving emotions. It shows how this controversy underlies the critical presentation of the Stoic theory by Plutarch and Galen, and how it leads Galen to give a misleading account of the ideas about passions held by the Stoic thinkers Chrysippus and Posidonius.
2 The Politics of the Babylon Settlement
Authors: Bosworth A. B.
Published: September 2007

No previous event in Macedonian history was anything like as turbulant as the Babylon Settlement. There had been succession crises aplenty, but all had been significantly different. Reigning kings left living sons. They may have been immature boys (like Archelaus' son, Orestes), but at least they were there — there was a plethora of males of the Argead house. So problems arose from an oversupply of potential kings. What is more, the succession to the throne was played out within the boundaries of Macedon, in the traditional heartland of the kingdom. Alexander himself came to power in the old capital of Aegae, with the entire nobility around him and the armed forces united in Macedonia. His accession may have been bloody, but the circumstances did not favour a protracted crisis. Rivals and potential rivals who were close at hand were quickly eliminated, and he was able to achieve recognition in Macedon and stamp his authority on the League of Corinth within a matter of weeks.
4 The Campaign in Iran: Turbulent Satraps and Frozen Elephants
Authors: Bosworth A. B.
Published: September 2007

The winter of 317/16 BC witnessed what is arguably the most momentous campaign in the entire period after the death of Alexander the Great. Two massive coalition armies led by Eumenes and Antigonus the One-Eyed manoeuvred delicately and skilfully in the desolate terrain of central Iran, and the two great battles they fought were recorded by a participant (Hieronymus of Cardia) who was an intimate both of Eumenes and the Antigonids. That account was used by Diodorus, and his narrative of the campaign is one of the most detailed and colourful in his entire encyclopaedic history. This chapter revisits the campaign in Iran and addresses some of the critical issues which determined the strategy and outcome.
7 Hellenistic Monarchy: Success and Legitimation
Authors: Bosworth A. B.
Published: September 2007

The Hellenistic period could be said to have arrived in a big bang. In 306 BC, four years after the sordid death of the last Argead king, Antigonus the One-Eyed declared himself and his son Demetrius kings, and assumed the diadem as the regalia of royalty. His example was followed almost immediately by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander, not to mention Agathocles in Sicily. There was now a plethora of Macedonian kings who (with the exception of Cassander) held sway outside Macedon. Traditional scholarship has concentrated on the supposed contrast between Antigonus and the other kings; Antigonus was attempting to recreate the universal monarchy of Alexander, while the other dynasts had strictly regional bases of power. This chapter examines the nature of Hellenistic monarchy and the mutual expectations of ruler and subject.
Women and Latin Poetry in Late Antiquity
Authors: Stevenson Jane
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the extent to which the Christianization of the Roman empire made a difference to women's access to public life: as heiresses, benefactors, martyrs, and teachers. Christian women scholars in the circle of St Jerome and elsewhere are mentioned. The literacy of post-Constantinian empresses and women of the senatorial aristocracy, and their expanding role in public life are discussed. Proba's Cento is examined in its social and political context, and the comparable Greek cento of the augusta Eudocia. The Christian hostility to classical learning is also discussed. The chapter ends with a consideration of the last pagan poets, notably the Pervigilium Veneris, and the first Christian nuns and their verse production.
The New World
Authors: Stevenson Jane
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the history of Latin in North America: Anne Bradstreet's learning, Phyllis Wheatley. It considers the much greater commitment to Latin in South America, and also to printing and universities. Gentry-level women went to South America in significant numbers from the 16th century, and consequently, convents were built. Nuns had a high commitment to literacy, many wrote, and some studied Latin. The most distinguished example is Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, but some Mexican and Peruvian women were taught Latin as late as the 18th century.
Language as a Mental Phenomenon
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

Language is instantiated in the minds and therefore the brains of language users, so that linguistics can be regarded as a branch of psychology. This chapter asks what it means to say that linguists are modeling the mind, and reinterprets in a more tractable light the important distinction between competence and performance, i.e., between speakers' knowledge of a language and their ability to put that knowledge to use. Topics discussed include the meaning of ‘mental’, how to interpret linguistic notation mentally, knowledge of language, competence versus performance, and language in a social context.
Universal Grammar
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

Children learn language through exposure to the environment. However, Chomsky's most famous and controversial hypothesis is that the child brings resources to language learning beyond those used for other sorts of learning: he claims that the ability to learn language is in part a cognitive specialization of our species, a ‘Universal Grammar’ that is ‘wired into’ children's brains. This chapter is devoted to a fairly careful exegesis of the Universal Grammar hypothesis, the evidence for it, the arguments against it, and the tensions and challenges it presents to linguistic theory and the other disciplines on which it impinges. It is argued that a suitably nuanced version of the Universal Grammar hypothesis is supportable, and that it should continue to play the central role in linguistic investigation that it has enjoyed since Aspects.
The Parallel Architecture
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

Traditional generative grammar assumes without argument that only syntax is ‘generative’, that is, that the combinatorial complexity of language arises entirely by virtue of its syntactic organization. This chapter presents a framework in which phonology, syntax, and semantics are equally generative. Syntax is thus only one of several parallel sources of grammatical organization. The generative components communicate with each other through ‘interface’ components; it is shown that these interfaces are of nontrivial complexity. It is also shown that many of the alternative frameworks for generative grammar share this sort of parallel organization.
Lexical Semantics
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses a potpourri of issues concerning the concepts associated with words. It addresses the issue of lexical decomposition, showing that although traditional decomposition into necessary and sufficient conditions is not viable, the evidence warrants a far richer notion of lexical decomposition.
Phrasal Semantics
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter develops a theory of phrasal composition, again much richer than usually assumed. In particular, the theory states that the meaning of a sentence consists of more than the meanings of its words combined according to syntactic structure. It separates phrasal and sentential semantics into a number of tiers, along the lines of phonological tiers, each of which contributes a different sort of information to the meaning.
Clausal Syntactic Roles (“Grammatical Relations”)
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

The syntactic roles (grammatical relations) of subject and object are semantically irregular but their syntactic behavior is claimed to be syntactically unified, thereby justifying the existence of formal syntactic roles independent of meaning. Subject and object are certainly polysemous categories semantically, but syntactically they are no simpler. Ergativity shows that syntactic roles can vary across languages. Ergativity has been discounted in most syntactic theories by selectively ignoring certain constructions such as case marking and agreement (methodological opportunism). But the variation across and even within languages conforms to a universal implicational hierarchy, the Subject Construction Hierarchy: coordination < purpose clauses < relative clauses < agreement < case marking. If a construction patterns ergatively at some point on the hierarchy, then all constructions to the right also pattern ergatively. Language-specific syntactic roles can be mapped onto a conceptual space whose structure represents the semantic participant roles and the Subject Construction Hierarchy.
Dependency, Constituency, and Linear Order
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

Syntactic structures or constructions are assumed to contain units belonging to syntactic categories and syntactic relations linking the units together. These syntactic relations are justified on the basis of a variety of linguistic evidence. This chapter and the following one critically analyse the linguistic evidence used to support syntactic relations. Following Nunberg et al. on idioms, it argues that idiomatic combinations and collocations provide evidence of semantic relations between the denotations of syntactic units, not syntactic relations. This leaves evidence of constituency, linear order, and dependencies coded by case marking and agreement, inter alia. The rest of the chapter demonstrates that various tests for constituency are either not crosslinguistically valid, or do not match; that head-marking and dependent-marking are better analysed in terms of functional differences; and that the putative syntactic relations implied by dependencies such as agreement or case marking do not match those implied by formal grouping.
Syntactic Theory and the Theory of Language
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

Radical Construction Grammar is a construction grammar, in which syntactic representation is a pairing of form and meaning. Constructions are the basic, primitive units of syntactic representation; syntactic categories are roles in constructions. The only type of syntactic relation is the role of a syntactic unit in its construction. Constructions are language-specific, though their structural properties can be mapped onto a syntactic space. Categories are mapped onto conceptual space, which represents the constraints of typological universals and reflects properties of the human mind. Radical Construction Grammar is embedded in an evolutionary theory of language. Utterances are instantiations of constructions in communicative interaction. But communication is imperfect, since we cannot read each other’s minds. Speakers are constantly reanalysing the form-meaning mapping in constructions, and this process leads to grammatical change, which can be propagated through a speech community. Grammar is thus constantly evolving as it is continually replicated in language use.
Harmonic morphisms from compact 3-manifolds
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows that a non-constant harmonic morphism with compact fibres from a 3-manifold endows it with the structure of a Seifert fibre space — a 3-manifold with a certain type of one-dimensional foliation with leaf space an orbifold. Conversely, any Seifert fibre space can be obtained from a harmonic morphism by smoothing the orbifold leaf space. A global version of the factorization theorem is provided, then the metrics on a 3-manifold which support a harmonic morphism to a surface are described locally and globally. It is shown how fundamental invariants of a one-dimensional foliation propagate along its leaves. The necessary curvature conditions where a Riemannian 3-manifold supports a non-constant harmonic morphism to a surface are given. These show that there are never more than two such harmonic morphisms up to equivalence, even locally, unless it is a space form.
Complexity of Marine Fisheries Dynamics and Climate Interactions in the Northeast Pacific Ocean
Authors: Bailey Kevin M. , Hollowed Anne B. , Wooster Warren S.
Published: September 2007

The impact of climate on fisheries is highly variable, indirect, and complex. Several dominant themes related to climate change and fisheries are considered in some of the chapters in this volume (Chapters 2, 3, and 6), including: complex interactions, formation of patterns over large-scales, high variability over small-scales, and the desirability of forecasting tools. This chapter discusses how these themes are focal issues in many of the world's seas, including the northeast Pacific Ocean. The chapter identifies how established climate-fish links often deteriorate with time, and underscore the role of regime shifts and switches of climatic controlling factors.
NEW CONCEPTS AND METHODS—PRE-BAYESIAN ERA
Authors: Chatterjee Shoutir Kishore
Published: September 2007

After James Bernoulli, the main contributors to probability theory and its applications in the 18th century worked either to solve more intricate problems of games of chance (De Moivre), or to build new probability models (De Moivre, Daniel Bernoulli). Further, some of them used probabilistic arguments to test hypotheses about or to estimate parameters involved in probability models for real life phenomena in the fields of demography, astronomy, and theory of errors. The concept of continuous variables, the tool of generating functions, the normal model approximation to the binomial, and ‘the rational expectation principle’ (in the context of the St. Petersburg Paradox) emerged out of these studies.
BEGINNING OF THE PRO-SUBJECTIVE APPROACH
Authors: Chatterjee Shoutir Kishore
Published: September 2007

Around the middle of the 18th century, Bayes conceived the idea of treating an unknown parameter as a subjective random variable distributed according to a prior, and inferring about it from its conditional (posterior) distribution given the observations. He considered the particular case of a binomial parameter subject to a uniform prior, and following the pro-subjective approach used the posterior to derive an interval estimate. Later, Laplace stated the result in its general form and employed it extensively for pro-subjective inference of various types in different situations, often basing his computation on the asymptotic normality of the posterior distribution. In a novel application, Laplace used pro-subjective reasoning and the data from a sample survey to estimate the size of the population of France.
MODERN ERA: THE SUPERSTRUCTURE BUILDS UP
Authors: Chatterjee Shoutir Kishore
Published: September 2007

In the modern era, the methods of statistics were further abstracted from particular practical problems and the subject gained a distinct identity. In the first phase, Edgeworth and Karl Pearson worked vigorously on model-selecting induction, leading to the formulation of the famous Pearsonian chi-squared test. In the second phase, ‘Student’ started the small-sample theory for model-specific induction with his pioneering work, and Fisher, following up, developed a variety of sampling theory procedures and laid the foundations of the general theory of estimation, multivariate analysis, and the theory of design of experiments. All these areas were subsequently enriched by the contributions of a galaxy of workers. The logic of the behavioural approach to induction was consolidated by Neyman and E. S. Pearson, and was later extended and generalized by Wald. After the emergence of a rigorous theory of subjective probability, there was a revival of interest in the pro-subjective Bayesian and the purely subjective approach in the second half of the 20th century. Work on model-free induction covering large sample procedures, nonparametric methods, and the theory and practice of finite population sampling also progressed steadily during this period.
Time-harmonic fields
Authors: Fabrizio Mauro , Angelo Morro
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews balance laws and relevant solutions to Maxwell’s equations in connection with the time-harmonic dependence. The wave equation becomes the Helmholtz equation and, for it, Green’s functions and Poynting’s theorem are considered. Wave solutions are investigated by letting the material be dissipative. Huyghens principle is re-examined and the properties of radiating solutions are established. Superposition of waves, dispersion effects, the Doppler effect, and group and signal velocity are reviewed.
Thermodynamics of simple electromagnetic systems
Authors: Fabrizio Mauro , Angelo Morro
Published: September 2007

The laws of thermodynamics play a central role in two respects: they characterize the admissible constitutive equations and single out function spaces where the mathematical problems find a natural setting. This chapter gives an overview of the laws of thermodynamics for thermoelectromagnetic processes. A detailed derivation is provided of the restrictions placed by the second law on linear electromagnetic systems with memory. Motivated by the intrinsic nonuniqueness, specific forms are also determined for free enthalpies and free energies of dielectrics and conductors (with memory). A model and the thermodynamic restrictions are given for dissipative interfaces.
SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES
Authors: Bini D. A. , Latouche G. , Meini B.
Published: September 2007

Some specialized structures are investigated in this chapter and some of the algorithms in previous chapters are adapted to the specific cases. Markov chains with limited displacement (non-skip-free processes) are solved by means of functional iterations and cyclic reduction. Markov chains of M/G/1-type are reduced to a special QBD process with infinite blocks and treated with cyclic reduction. Finally, three different algorithms for tree-like stochastic processes, relying on fixed point iterations, Newton’s iteration, and cyclic reduction, are introduced and analysed.
DOS AND TUNNELING
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

The chapter starts with a discussion of the density of states renormalization in the normal state of a superconductor caused by fluctuation pairing which occurs close to the transition temperature. The manifestation of this fluctuation renormalization in the tunnel current of the N(S)-I-S (S) junction is then discussed. In order to derive the general formula for the current in an arbitrary tunnel structure, the effective boundary Hamiltonian is introduced, which allows for the study of fluctuation phenomena in N(S)-I-S junction. The fluctuation tunneling anomaly in a superconductor above the paramagnetic limit is discussed. The effect of quantum fluctuations on magnetoresistance of a granular superconducting metal is considered.
FLUCTUATIONS IN NANOGRAINS, NANODROPS AND GRANULAR SUPERCONDUCTORS
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

This chapter starts off with a discussion of the specifics of superconductivity in ultrasmall superconducting grains. The method of optimal fluctuations in the vicinity of Tc is then introduced, and applied to the study of the formation of superconducting drops in a system with quenched disorder or in strong magnetic fields. The exponential DOS tail in a superconductor with quenched disorder is calculated. Properties of Josephson coupled superconducting grains and drops are discussed. The XY-model for granular superconductor and the GL description of the granular superconductor are formulated. The broadening of superconducting transition by the quenched disorder is found. The final part of the chapter focuses on the specifics of the quantum phase transition in granular superconductors. It discusses Coulomb suppression of superconductivity in the array of tunnel coupled granules, properties of superconducting grains in the normal metal matrix, and phase transition in disordered superconducting film in strong magnetic field.
THE MATHEMATICAL SETTING
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

The basic mathematical notation is introduced, including formal definitions of images and digital images, midpoint and meshpoint grids. Local and global interpolation techniques such as next-neighbour, d-linear, spline, sinc, and wavelet interpolations are discussed. For the functional setting, the square-integrable functions, point evaluation functionals, and various derivative operators are formally introduced. A general setting for image transformations is presented. Using this setting, a formal description of the image registration problem in continuous space is given. Restricted transformations like rigid, affine-linear, polynomial, and B-spline transformations are examined, and the Lagrangian and Eulerian frames for template transformations are discussed.
REPRINT A NEW METHOD FOR THE EVALUATION OF ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS
Authors: Edwards S. F.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a paper which develops a method allowing for the evaluation of closed formal expressions for electrical conductivity which have recently been developed. The case of a random set of scatterers is treated in detail and a formal solution is made to yield directly the solution to the Boltzmann equation. A brief mention of the application of this method to liquids and alloys is made.
REPRINT THE STATISTICAL DYNAMICS OF HOMOGENEOUS TURBULENCE
Authors: Edwards S. F.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a paper which examines the problem of steady homogeneous isotropic turbulence under idealized conditions, allowing the for the exact form of the correlation functions to be determined. Liouville's equation, and its generalization when a random input of energy is presented, is a useful starting point for the derivation of the steady distribution function of velocities, but it is inadequate for the study of the correlation functions when the velocities are taken at different points in time and a more general equation is derived to handle this problem. After an intuitive discussion of the problem, a general method is given for solving both Liouville's equation and the new extended equation. The solutions are then discussed in detail and it is shown that for a certain class of input behaviours, exact solutions can be given for the structure of the velocity correlation function. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the validity of the method of solution.
REPRINT THE STATISTICAL MECHANICS OF POLYMERS WITH EXCLUDED VOLUME
Authors: Edwards S. F.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a paper that studies the probability distribution of the configurations of a polymer consisting of freely hinged links of length l and excluded volume v. It is shown that the interaction of the polymer with itself can be represented by considering the polymer under the influence of a self-consistent field which reduces the problem to an equation like the Hartree equation for an atom. The theory is extended to polymers of finite length, to the excluded random walk problem, and to n dimensions.
REPRINT STATISTICAL MECHANICS WITH TOPOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS: II
Authors: Edwards S. F.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a paper showing that the full specification of an assembly of long flexible molecules, needed for a statistical-mechanical study, requires an infinite set of topological invariants. The first two of these are derived in detail. These invariants provide a better description of the topology of the system than a more intuitively obvious one would do, for example, to state the condition that a molecule contains a single knot is very complicated requiring an infinite number of invariants, just as the specification of a function at a point requires an infinite number of Fourier coefficients. It is shown that the probability of molecules taking up configurations with given values for the invariants is a problem in quantum field theory. The transition from a real polymer to its representation by a continuous curve leads to divergences, but these can be absorbed by renormalizing the step length and entropy per monomer; within these two changes the topological properties are independent of monomer structure.
Background matching
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on how potential prey might avoid being detected by predators by matching their coloration, patterning, and movement to that of the local environment — a mechanism called crypsis or camouflage. The costs and benefits of this mechanism are identified. Consideration is also given to the conditions whereby this mechanism drives population-level polymorphism in the appearance of individuals within a single population. This mechanism is contrasted with masquerade, whereby the potential prey aims to avoid being identified for what it is, rather than avoid being detected as an entity at all.
Transparency and silvering
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers why only aquatic organisms can sometimes make themselves difficult to detect by allowing light to pass through them (transparency) or be reflected from them (reflective silvering). The physics of these phenomena are discussed to explain the taxonomic and ecological prevalences of these anti-predatory tactics. The importance of absorption of light by water, ultra-violet radiation, and polarization in this context is discussed.
The form and function of warning displays
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

Some prey that have secondary defences warn potential predators of these defences by means of conspicuous signals. Such aposematic signals are generally considered to aid in predators learning to avoid prey that utilise this signal. This chapter examines how the sensory and psychological properties of the predators are likely to influence signal decision in terms of ease of learning, memorability of signals, and recognizability and identification of signals. It also considers the importance of unlearned wariness of dangerous or otherwise unattractive prey.
Spatial structure and dynamics in a marine food web
Authors: Melián Carlos J. , Bascompte Jordi , Jordano Pedro
Published: September 2007

Trophic interactions, as many other relevant ecological processes, are spatially extended. Previous work has pointed out the importance of the spatial domain for understanding food webs. This chapter builds on this body of work by considering how space shapes food web structure. It considers two case studies. First, it studies whether the global structure of Doñana's food web (south-eastern Spain) is homogeneous on each habitat type, or whether different habitat types have subwebs with different structure. Second, it considers in several geographic locations in southern Spain the food web formed by the genera Turdus and the plants whose fruits they consume. It looks at how food web structure at each spatial location is related to structure at other locations.
Analysis of size and complexity of randomly constructed food webs by information theoretic metrics
Authors: Morris James T. , Christian Robert R. , Ulanowicz Robert E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter studies random, steady state food webs of varying size and complexity (up to 2,000 species and 1.3 million connections) which were generated with and without ecologically realistic constraints. This chapter analyses trends in network metrics, such as ascendancy, developmental capacity, and throughput as functions of size and complexity while holding constant the total annual gross primary production. It shows that total system biomass declined as the number of nodes representing biodiversity increased, or as the connectivity of the network increased. Total consumer biomass was not affected by the number of nodes or connections, and was not correlated with primary producer biomass. Therefore, loss of total biomass was more associated with decreased NPP and a decrease in the efficiency of primary production than a loss of consumer biomass. The ratio of tertiary consumer to detritivore biomass, an indicator of the direction of energy flow, was positively correlated to taxonomic diversity, but negatively correlated with the number of connections. The ratio of ascendancy to capacity was negatively correlated with network size, and complexity was within the range of those of real aquatic ecosystems of similar size. The trends indicate that more energy is dissipated as the density of network connections increases.
Climate forcing, food web structure, and community dynamics in pelagic marine ecosystems
Authors: Ciannelli L. , Hjermann D. Ø. , Lehodey P. , Ottersen G. , Duffy-Anderson J. T. , Stenseth N. C.
Published: September 2007

The Eastern Bering Sea (EBS), the Gulf of Alaska (GOA), and the Barents Sea (BS) share key features: they are dominated by gadoids populations, they are heavily fished, and they are under the influence of large-scale climatic fluctuations. Previous studies have shown that climate forcing can impact the species composition and the food webs in each of these ecosystems. However, food webs and species interactions can mediate the relative impact of climatic perturbation on community. For example, a relatively small increase in SST over the western GOA region during the mid-1970s led to a spectacular change in the local species community, but a reverse in climatic conditions that occurred during the late 1980s did not result in similar biological changes. This chapter reviews the food webs of the GOA, EBS, and BS, and relates them to prevailing large-scale climatic phases. The comparative approach adopted in this review is aimed at increasing the understanding of the mechanisms linking climate change and food web dynamics in marine ecosystems.
PRELIMINARIES AND AGREEMENTS
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces the basic mathematical formalism and discusses concepts used throughout the book. Among other things, it looks at decision problems vs optimization problems, Random Access Machines, big Oh notation, strings and graphs. It concludes by looking at the basics from computational complexity theory.
PARAMETERIZED COMPLEXITY THEORY
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter offers a closer look at parameterized computational complexity theory. Central concepts in this context are parameterized problems, parameterized reducibility, parameterized complexity classes, W[1], complete problems, and W[1]-hardness proofs. In addition, the chapter provides a survey of some recent developments concerning structural parameterized complexity theory.
CONNECTIONS TO APPROXIMATION ALGORITHMS
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter summarizes the currently known connections between fixed-parameter and polynomial-time approximation algorithmics. Important topics in this context are lower bound and impossibility results. In particular, polynomial-time approximation schemes are discussed in some detail, providing a link with parameterized complexity theory.
UNIVERSES IN TOPOSES
Authors: Streicher Thomas
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses a notion of universe in toposes, which from a logical point of view gives rise to an extension of Higher Order Intuitionistic Arithmetic (HAH). In this way, one can construct families of types in the universe by structural recursion and quantify over such families. Further, it shows that (hierarchies of) such universes do exist in all sheaf and realizability toposes. They do not exist instead either in the free topos or in the Vω+ω model of Zermelo set theory. Though universes in the category Set are necessarily of strongly inaccessible cardinality, it remains an open question as to whether toposes with a universe allow one to construct internal models of Intuitionistic Zermelo Fraenkel set theory (IZF).
SPACES AS COMONOIDS
Authors: Bucalo A. , Rosolini G.
Published: September 2007

The constructive approach to topology has produced a wealth of new insights about spaces, almost reaching the point of making these more elementary than sets. In particular, the point of view taken by the notion of the basic picture as developed in the context of formal topology brings forward the relevance of relations between sets as an elementary constituent for understanding topological spaces. The chapter employs the language and notions of category theory to put the concept of the basic pair under scrutiny. It gives a presentation of topological spaces, which exploits another monoidal structure on the category of complete sup-lattices compared with the one given by Galois connections as in the memoirs by Joyal and Tierney. In this modified context, this chapter characterizes the frames which are topologies.
CONSTRUCTIVE REVERSE MATHEMATICS: COMPACTNESS PROPERTIES
Authors: Ishihara Hajime
Published: September 2007

This chapter proposes a base formal system for constructive reverse mathematics to classify various theorems in intuitionistic, constructive recursive, and classical mathematics by logical principles, function existence axioms, and their combinations. The system is weak enough to allow for a comparison of the results obtained in it with those obtained within classical reverse mathematics as well as to prove theorems in Bishop's constructive mathematics. The chapter also formalizes results on compactness properties, such as the Heine-Borel theorem, the Cantor intersection theorem, the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, and sequential compactness, in the base formal system as test cases of its adequacy and faithfulness for the purpose of constructive reverse mathematics. The computability of function existence axioms and their combination with logical principles are also investigated, identifying them with closure conditions on a class of functions.
Musculature
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

The cooperation of actin and myosin is a characteristic of metazoan musculature. Actin and myosin can be traced far back in evolution and functional changes can be detected. Among metazoan animals, the acto-myosin complex was present first in isolated myocytes, then it was present within epidermal cells (as epitheliomuscle cells), and finally it separated as fibre muscle cells to form muscles. Within muscle cells, myofilaments can have different arrangements: smooth, oblique, or cross-striated musculature. These patterns have functional importance and give restricted phylogenetic signals. A grid of longitudinal and circular musculature below the epidermis appears to be characteristic for bilaterian animals; this arrangement has been altered several times.
Circulatory systems
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Fluids are transported in different ways through animal bodies, but several animals possess a specific system for this purpose: the circulatory system. This can be an open system of clefts and interstities, a closed system of tubelike structures (vessels), or a combination of the two. In most cases, circulatory vessels are limited and formed by coelom epithelia of adjacent coelomic compartments. They are lined by extracellular matrix and represent the primary body cavity (the blood vascular system). In only a few cases do circulatory vessels have an epithelium, and are then coelomic circulatory systems. The occurrence, shape, and extension of circulatory systems among animals are very diverse and this chapter concludes that their multiple parallel evolution has to be assumed.
Predicting the impacts of global environmental changes on tropical forests
Authors: Lewis Simon L. , Malhi Yadvinder , Phillips Oliver L.
Published: September 2007

Recent observations of widespread changes in mature tropical forests such as a rise in tree growth, recruitment and mortality, and above-ground biomass, suggest that ‘global change’ agents may be affecting tropical forests far from the deforestation fronts. However, consensus has yet to emerge over the robustness of these changes and the environmental drivers that may be causing them. This chapter focuses on the second part of this debate. Ten potential widespread drivers of environmental change are identified: temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, climatic extremes (including El Niñno-Southern Oscillation events), atmospheric CO2 concentrations, nutrient deposition, O3/acid depositions, hunting, land-use change, and increasing liana numbers. Each is expected to leave a unique ‘fingerprint’ in tropical forests, as drivers directly force different processes, have different distributions in space and time and may affect some forests more than others (e.g., depending on soil fertility). Testable a priori predictions of forest responses are presented to help ecologists attribute particular changes in forests to particular causes. Finally, this chapter discusses how these drivers may change and the possible future consequences for tropical forests.
Late twentieth-century trends in the structure and dynamics of South American forests
Authors: Lewis Simon L. , Phillips Oliver L. , Baker Timothy R. , Lloyd Jon , Malhi Yadvinder , Almeida Samuel , Higuchi Niro , Laurance William F. , Neill David A. , Silva J. Natalino M. , Terborgh John , Lezama Armando Torres , Martínez Rodolfo Vásquez , Brown Sandra , Chave Jerome , Kuebler Caroline , Vargas Percy Núnez , Vinceti Barbara
Published: September 2007

Widespread recent changes in the ecology of old-growth tropical forests have been documented, in particular an increase in stem turnover (pan-tropical), and an increase in above-ground biomass (neotropical). Whether these changes are synchronous and whether changes in growth are also occurring is not known. This chapter reports assesses changes from fifty long-term plots from across South America spanning 1971-2002. The key findings are significant increases in: basal area (BA: sum of the cross-sectional areas of all trees in a plot) (by approximately 0.10 square meters per hectare per year); stand-level BA growth; stand-level BA mortality; stem density (about 0.94stems per hectare per year); stem recruitment; and stem mortality. The gain terms (BA growth, stem recruitment) consistently exceeded the loss terms (BA loss, stem mortality) throughout, suggesting that whatever process is driving these changes was already acting before the plot network was established. Long-term, simultaneous increases in growth, BA and stem density imply a continent-wide increase in resource availability which is affecting productivity and forest dynamics. Changes in incoming solar radiation, increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO2, and temperature increases, may all have increased resource supply over recent decades, accelerating growth and dynamics in the world's largest tropical forest.
Modelling the past and the future fate of the Amazonian forest
Authors: Cowling Sharon A. , Betts Richard A. , Cox Peter M. , Ettwein Virginia J. , Jones Chris D. , Maslin Mark A. , Spall Steven A.
Published: September 2007

This chapter contrasted HadCM3LC simulations of Amazonian forest at the Last Glacial Maximum (21 kya) and a Younger Dryas-like period (13-12 kya) with predicted responses of future warming to provide estimates of the climatic limits under which the Amazon forest remains relatively stable. Simulations indicate that despite lower atmospheric CO2 concentrations and increased aridity during the LGM, Amazonia remains mostly forested, and that the cooler climate of the Younger Dryas-like period in fact causes a trend towards increased above-ground carbon balance relative to today. The vegetation feedbacks responsible for maintaining forest integrity in past climates (i.e. decreased evapotranspiration and reduced photorespiration) cannot be maintained in the future. Although elevated atmospheric CO2 contributes to a positive enhancement of plant carbon and water balance, decreased stomatal conductance and increased plant and soil respiration cause a positive feedback that amplifies localised drying and climate warming. The Amazonian forest appears to be presently near its critical resiliency threshold, and even minor climate warming may be sufficient to promote deleterious feedbacks on forest integrity.
Ecological hypercycles—covering a planet with life
Authors: Wilkinson David M.
Published: September 2007

Ecological hypercycles are auto-catalytic processes by which different organisms (or guilds) improve each others environments. For example, autotrophs producing material of use to decomposers and the decomposers releasing nutrients which are reused by the autotrophs. Such an auto-catalytic process clearly has a positive Gaian effect, and is one of several reasons for expecting life to cover quickly most of a planet's surface once it has evolved. Environmental stochasticity makes it unlikely that ecologies restricted to a small area of a planet will survive for a geological period of time. However, once widespread, life may have a long drawn out end on a dying planet, with some cells surviving for at least millions of years after the biogeochemical cycles returned to being mere geochemical cycles.