bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Psychological Perspectives on International Conflict and Cooperation
Authors: Tetlock Philip E
Published: November 2023

From Freud to Tolman to Maslow, psychologists who study politics have often fallen into a reductionist fallacy. The trapdoor to the fallacy is camouflaged by two truisms: (1) politics is the product of decisions by individual human beings who love or hate, cooperate or compete, trade or negotiate with each other; (2) psychology is the science that explores why individuals think, feel, and act as they do. It would seem to follow, as a matter of logical necessity, that insofar as psychologists succeed in achieving their explanatory goals, they will inevitably also shed light on the causes of political action.
Comprehension of Lies: A Russian View
Authors: Znakov Victor
Published: November 2023

Although the study of the psychology of lies is a firmly established area of research in the West, few readers will be surprised to learn that it is a new and poorly understood topic of academic inquiry in Russia. As former Soviets know and Westerns can probably guess, any scientific work that concerned untruthfulness among Russians could not be published in the Soviet Union, and consequently there was little interest in the topic. The psychology of lies is now a topic of great practical urgency as Russia leaps into a competitive economy with multiple political parties and a bewildering array of ideological and consumer choices affecting virtually every sphere of daily living.
A Life-Span Approach to the Study of Psychogerontology in Russia
Authors: Kol’tsova Vera A , Meshalkina Natasha B , Olegnik Yury N
Published: November 2023

A common theme in psychogerontology is that it is necessary to review salient events in the life history of an older person as a means of understanding that individual in his or her old age. So, too, we begin our analysis of the field of psychogerontology in contemporary Russia by taking a longitudinal look at its past. The use of a life-span approach to psychogerontology, as a field of study, illustrates both the philosophy and the methods used by developmental psychologists who specialize in aging.
Changing Ethnic and National Identities in Estonia
Authors: Kirch Aksel , Kirch Marika , Pettai Vello , Tuisk Tarmo
Published: November 2023

Then Western readers think about the former Soviet Union, they tend to think of Moscow, St. Petersburg, and the Russian majority. Except for experts or those with special interests, Westerners tend to forget or underestimate the critical differences among the peoples and republics that constituted the Soviet Union-differences that are so fundamental that they invalidate generalizations from the Russian portions of the Soviet Union to the other republics. The former Soviet republics that are now independent countries and those that are still struggling for their independence are made up of ethnically distinct groups with their own languages and cultural heritages. Estonia, like its Baltic neighbors, Lithuania and Latvia, was an independent country for several decades in the 20th century. It was under czarist rule at the turn of the century, enjoyed independent statehood during the period between World War I and World War II, then was forcibly annexed onto the Soviet Union. Most recently, Estonia declared its independence for the second time in this century in 1991. Older Estonians can still recall the takeover of their country by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II and, with it, the change to Russian as their official language and the loss of prestigious jobs and amenities to Russians who were sent to oversee the new Soviet Estonia. For many Estonians, the Russians who settled there at the end of the war were intruders who assumed privilege and status among the native Estonians.
Environmental Psychology: Evolution and Current Status
Authors: Bell Paul A , Sundstrom Eric D
Published: November 2023

C:nvironmental psychology has existed as a branch of psychology for approximately 30 years. It focuses on the ways in which features of the physical environment affect, and are molded by, individuals, groups, communities, and social entities as large as entire cultures. One definition depicts environmental psychology as the study of transactions between individuals and their physical settings (Gifford,1994), reflecting the premise that the relationship of people to their physical environment is one of mutual influence and exchange (Stokols & Altman, 1987).
Environmental and “Green” Psychology in the Former Soviet Union
Authors: Deryabo Sergei , Yasvin Vitold
Published: November 2023

There are more people alive today than ever before in history, yet the size of the planet that we inhabit remains unchanged and the earth’s non renewable natural resources are declining. At the same time, we have developed the potential to destroy or render uninhabitable huge portions of our planet. The possibility of a worldwide environmental crisis is real. How do people think and feel about the world in which they live, and how can psychologists understand how some people come to value their environment and others treat it with total disregard? Like any rapidly expanding area of interest, one of the barriers to communication and development in the field is the problem of defining new words and using labels for new concepts in a consistent manner so that people can communicate about developments in the field. The word ecology, for example, has taken on multiple meanings, and although the proliferation of meanings shows that an increasing number of academic disciplines are concerned with this field, it has also resulted in a peculiar version of the Tower of Babel, in which everyone is uttering the same word but meaning a different concept.
The Reagan Nuclear Buildup
Authors: Powaski Ronald E
Published: November 2023

In January 1981 Ronald Reagan, like the overwhelming majority of his Cold War predecessors, entered the White House with almost no background in national security affairs. Before entering the political arena in the early 1960s and then serving as governor of California from 1966 to 1974, he had been in movies and television. His only military experience consisted of making training and documentary films during World War II. Reagan’s knowledge of communism and the Soviet Union was also limited. It was based almost entirely on personal experience rather than study. In the late1940s, as president of the Screen Actors Guild, he fought what he believed was a communist effort to take over the motion picture industry. The experience made him deeply suspicious of communism and the Soviet Union, in particular. In 1983 he called the Soviet Union “the focus of evil in the modern world.”1
Departures from the Core
Authors: Battistella Edwin L
Published: November 2023

As noted in the previous chapter, Chomsky himself has not developed a detailed, comprehensive theory of markedness in syntax and has moved away from markedness of parameters in his most recent work. Others, however, have attempted to flesh out how a theory of marked and unmarked options in Universal Grammar might work and to examine its consequences. The questions that arise in such discussions revolve around four issues: (1) the nature of core grammar, (2) the existence of marked and unmarked parameters within core grammar, (3) the triggering evidence required to set parameters, and (4) the determination of markedness relations.
Is the Startle Reaction an Emotion?
Authors: Ekman Paul , Friesen Wallace V , Simons Ronald C
Published: November 2023

Despite the wealth of information provided by Landis and Hunt’s (1939) pioneering study, emotion theorists have disagreed about whether the startle reaction is a reflex or an emotion. Bull (1951), Lindsley (1951), Plutchik (1962, later Plutchik, 1980, reserved judgment), Tomkins (1962), Wenger, F. N. Jones, and M. H. Jones (1956), and Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954), all considered startle to be an emotion, related to the emotion of surprise. Kemper (1978), Leventhal (1980), Mandler (1975), and Schacter and Singer (1962) all ignored the startle reaction. Averill (1980) and Lazarus (1982) were explicit about their decision to consider a startle a reflex rather than an emotion because cognition does not play a causal role in eliciting it. Landis and Hunt took an intermediate position, considering it to be “preemotional” because a startle is simpler in organization and expression than “true” emotions.
Will the Real Relationship Between Facial Expression and Affective Experience Please Stand Up: The Case of Exhilaration
Authors: Ruch Willibald
Published: November 2023

Emotions, like other concepts in psychology, are hypothetical constructs which are not directly observable, but are inferred from several indicators. The inference is typically based on behaviour, physiological changes, or reports of subjective experience. Emotions vary in intensity and these intensity differences can be observed at all three levels. At least for the levels behaviour and experience it is commonly assumed that intensity of the emotion is reflected equally well in these domains, e.g. parameters of facial expression and affective experience are expected to show a high positive intercorrelation.
Signs of Appeasement: Evidence for the Distinct Displays of Embarrassment, Amusement, and Shame
Authors: Keltner Dacher
Published: November 2023

Since universal facial expressions of a limited set of emotions were first documented (Ekman & Friesen, 1971; Ekman, Sorenson, & Friesen, 1969; Izard, 1971), sparse attention has been given to facial expressions of other emotions. The resulting lacuna in the field-that the emotions with identified displays are fewer (7 to 10) than the states that lay people (Fehr & Russell, 1984) and emotion theorists (Ekman, 1992; Izard, 1977; Tomkins, 1963, 1984) label as emotions-presents intriguing possibilities. Displays of other emotions may be blends of other emotional displays, unidentifiable, or may await discovery.
Differential Facial Responses to Four Basic Tastes in Newborns
Authors: Rosenstein Diana , Oster Harriet
Published: November 2023

The study of taste-elicited facial expressions in newborns can help to resolve three interrelated questions: (1) How finely can newborns discriminate among various taste stimuli? Do they merely distinguish between sweet and all other substances, or can they also discriminate among sour, salty, and bitter stimuli? Differential facial responses to these stimuli would indicate that they each had a distinctive taste to the infants. (2) Do newborn infants display preferences and aversions indicating innate hedonic responses to particular tastes? Inferences about the hedonics of infants’ facial responses can be based on the biologically adaptive functions of particular facial muscle actions (e.g., actions either facilitating or blocking access to stimulation and ingestion) as well as on the presence of facial components seen in adult expressions of pleasure or disgust. (3) Do infants’ taste-elicited facial expressions serve as social signals, informing observers about the nature of the substances ingested or about the infant’s hedonic responses to them? Such signals would have indirect survival value if adults reliably responded to them in an appropriate fashion, for example, by removing potentially harmful substances from the baby’s mouth.
Prototypical Affective Microsequences in Psychotherapeutic Interaction
Authors: Banninger-Huber Eva
Published: November 2023

In the following article I shall present a new approach to the microanalytic study of cognitive-affective regulatory processes in psychotherapeutic interaction. In this approach the examination of the expressive component of emotions communicated through facial expressions is of central importance. The approach is based on the assumption, shared by many psychotherapists, that the interaction between client and therapist contributes essentially to therapeutic change (Caspar & Grawe, 1989; Elliott, 1984; Gill & Hoffman, 1982; Grawe, 1987; Greenberg & Safran, 1987; Horowitz, 1979; Krause, 1982, 1984; Moser, 1985; Rice & Greenberg, 1984; Safran, 1990a, 1990b; Schneider, 1989; Stem, 1985; Strupp, 1987; Sullivan, 1953; Thoma & Kiichele, 1985, 1988; Weiss, Sampson et al., 1986). However, little is known about how these processes of change work. It is true that there is a considerable amount of clinical knowledge about emotions in therapeutic interactions at a macrolevel, but we still know too little about what is happening at a microlevel of affective processes within therapy. It is thus important to develop methods to examine the therapeutic interaction, along with the cognitive-affective processes involved.
Type A Behavior Pattern: Facial Behavior and Speech Components
Authors: Chesney Margaret A , Ekman Paul , Friesen Wallace V , Hecker George W Black & Michael H L
Published: November 2023

The behavioral components comprising the Type A coronary-prone pattern have been receiving increased attention in recent years. For the most part, these studies have concentrated on such components conveyed in speech reflecting competitive, aggressive, or hostile attitudes, and a sense of time urgency. However, as originally described by Rosenman et al. (1964), Type A behavior is also marked by nonverbal or motoric signs including “facial grimaces, scowls, teeth-clenching, and tic in which teeth are clenched and masseter muscles are tensed” (p. 2). The purpose of this study was to examine facial behaviors as components of the Type A behavior pattern.
The Flute Today
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

“A flute,” wrote an early nineteenth century British critic, “is a musical weed which springs up everywhere.” It’s still true today. The same lament could as easily be expressed by a high school band director trying to balance eighteen flutes, twelve trumpets, six clarinets, and a lone bassoon, or by one of the legion of young flutists now swelling those ranks. But why the popularity of the flute? Another British critic wrote in 1834, “The preference of our amateurs for this instrument, can only be accounted for by the easiness of attaining to a certain point of proficiency upon it.” Indeed, it is among the easiest of instruments to master at a rudimentary level. But, as the second critic cautioned, “to play well, and in tune, even a simple melody, is a degree of merit not reached by one out of twenty who attempt it.” The current situation differs from that described by our British friend, for within the last twenty-five years performance standards have risen to an unparalleled extent.
Care and Maintenance of the Flute
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

Your instrument is your voice, and how you feel about making music should be expressed in how you care for and handle your instrument. The logic is simple: keep your instrument in the best possible working order, and it will yield the best results that you can coax from it. A clean and welladjusted instrument will respond best to your technique, no matter what the level of your playing. It is a machine, and like any machine it must have proper maintenance.
Vibrato
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

Vibrato is a measured fluctuation in the sound or tone effected by a change in air pressure. The effect is of pulsation or vibration, but because what we hear is not exactly what actually happens, it is not easy to define. For one thing, many people find it difficult if not impossible to distinguish the vibrato component from the tone as a whole. (This is actually a good sign, because the vibrato should be an integral, though not omnipresent, part of the sound.) There are three basic types of vibrato: pitch, intensity (dynamic), and timbre. In pitch vibrato, the pitch fluctuates both above and below the starting note; on A-440, for instance, it varies between 438 and 442 frequencies per second. (Some players, however, advise that the pitch should vary upward only, to avoid the impression of flatness. Also, the higher the pitch, the more brilliant the sound.) Intensity vibrato is a fluctuation in the dynamic level or strength of a note; as a practical matter, it is not totally separable from pitch vibrato. The combination of pitch vibrato and intensity vibrato result in timbre vibrato. The reason is that when the dynamic level of a tone changes, the overtone composition of the tone changes correspondingly; and it is the overtone composition that determines timbre.
Technique
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

Technique is the control and coordination of all the muscular actions that flute playing comprises. While tone is the first prerequisite for good flute playing, technique, as the vehicle of melodic motion, is also of great importance. Louis Moyse sums this up well: “As a teacher, my main concern is to bring the adequate tools and devices to my pupils, namely-technique. One can have technique without music (all too often, unfortunately), but one cannot express the music without technique.”‘ Keeping in mind Moyse’s caveat regarding over-emphasis on technique-because it is a means to an end, not an end in itself-let’s examine the elements that make up the flutist’s technique.
Recordings
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

The flutists of the late twentieth century enjoy a tremendous advantage over their predecessors of even a generation ago: access to recordings and recording technology. Recordings can give you new ideas of interpretation and can widen your knowledge of the repertoire. The availability of inexpensive and easy-tooperate home-recording equipment also enables the student to analyze his own performance and to track his progress.
The Baroque Era
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

Manfred Bukofzer’s often-used chronology divides the baroque into three periods: early, I 580-1630; middle, 1630-80; and late, 1680-1730. In discussing flute literature, however, Bukofzer’s first two periods are largely irrelevant. The one-keyed flute was not even invented until the middle of his second period, and did not achieve prominence until nearly twenty years into the third. His colleague Jens Peter Larsen chose 1750, the year of J. S. Bach’s death, as a convenient endpoint. For purposes of discussing flute literature, I shall define the baroque era as that period corresponding with the exclusive prominence of the one-keyed flute, from approximately 1660 to 1760, though this definition is not without caveats: pre-1700 flute music is nearly nonexistent. The end of the era is particularly difficult to quantify, more so since the transformations of style occurring in the mid-eighteenth century were not consistent from nation to nation.
The Classic Era
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

The mid-eighteenth century was a period of transition for the flute and for music as a whole; It was a time of sweeping social change, as cities replaced courts and palaces as centers of musical activity. The professional composer began to depend on a larger public, through concert attendance and the purchase of sheet music, for financial livelihood. The rise of the orchestra and the pianoforte reversed the flute’s proportional roles in orchestra and chamber music. As with any transformation, the process was gradual; the contrasts of beginning and end are obvious, but setting chronological ends is more difficult.
The Modern Era
Authors: Toff Nancy
Published: November 2023

The physical evolution of the flute since the turn of the twentieth century has had a direct effect on the music written for the flute ever since. Perhaps the most important factor is stability, for the absence of mechanical change is evidence of the Boehm system’s proven excellence and reliability. The stabilization of the flute mechanism has permitted all manner of experimentation with music for the instrument because composers are able to deal with a known quantity. In other ways, too, the histories of instrument and music are closely related. First, mechanization, which began with methods of manufacture, later influenced the musical employment of the flute. This is reflected not only in the high technical standards of the modern literature but also in such avant-garde techniques as key percussion. Second, just as there is international cross-fertilization in the flute manufacturing industry, there is cross-cultural interchange in musical composition and in music education. Third, composers’ interest in smaller and variable pitch intervals parallels manufacturers’ interest in microdimensions. Similarly, musical interest in tone and timbre is largely a result of flute makers’ earlier attention to this subject. And both groups are concerned with economy. Just as manufacturers aim to maximize production efficiency and cost effectiveness, composers have scaled down instrumental forces, resulting in a renaissance both of small chamber music and the use of the chamber orchestra for concerted accompaniment.
Morphology
Authors: Enk Gerrit J Van , Vries Lourens De
Published: November 2023

In the following outline of Korowai word classes, each section discusses a word category that seems relevant to the grammar of Korowai. The word classes are first characterised by where and how they function in phrases and clauses and by the morphological categories they express. After this characterisation, derivational processes, if any, are discussed, followed by the inflectional aspects of that category.
Endocrine Control of Development
Authors: McNabb F M Anne , Scanes Colin G , Zeman Michal
Published: November 2023

A consideration of developmental endocrinology must take into account both the ontogeny of chemical control systems and the ways in which those systems affect other aspects of the organism’s development. Traditionally, endocrine control was considered to be exerted by hormones, the chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream and distributed throughout the body. Hormones exert their effects on specific target tissues, which often are some distance away from the hormone source. Current endocrinology takes a much larger view of chemical control and includes not only control substances that are delivered to their target organs by the circulation but also paracrine factors (in which the chemical secretion diffuses short distances through extracellular fluids to its target organ) and autocrine factors (in which the chemical secretion affects the cell that produces it). Neuroendocrine secretions produced by neurons are part of both the endocrine and the nervous systems, and some neurotransmitter substances are chemically identical to some hormones.
Developmental Plasticity
Authors: Schew William A , Ricklefs Robert E
Published: November 2023

As chicks grow from neonate to adult, they may encounter periods of food restriction that can affect their development. Poor feeding conditions can suppress normal growth and may even affect adult morphology (chapter 15). To maximize its survival, a chick should manage its resources so that tissue growth and maintenance can be supported adequately if there is variation in resource supply. Furthermore, the pattern of resource and energy management must be optimized within the context of time-dependent mortality and other mortality factors such as sibling competition. Thus, variation in food availability to a growing chick should select behavioral, morphological, and physiological adaptations that reduce the impact of poor feeding conditions on the chick’s survival. Developmental patterns, and the degree of plasticity in these patterns, should include such adaptations; furthermore, their study should engender a broader interpretation of growth and development as life history adaptations. In this chapter, we provide a framework for understanding certain variations in growth and development as adaptive responses to suboptimal feeding conditions, and we examine the developmental and physiological pathways that underlie these responses.
‘Che neading Uailroad Cakes Control
Authors: Kenny Kevin
Published: November 2023

Franklin B. Gowen, the president of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad, has aptly been described as “one of the great architects of industrial capitalism in America.”1 The rise of the Reading under Gowen’s presidency provides the essential background for understanding the reemergence of the Molly Maguires in the 1870s. In his struggle to win control of the Schuylkill anthracite industry, Gowen faced two main sources of opposition, independent coal operators and organized labor. By defeating the small operators, the trade union, and the Molly Maguires, he eventually secured control of the coal industry of the lower anthracite region for the Reading Railroad.
The Stamp of Peter Stuyvesant
Authors: Kammen Michael
Published: November 2023

Some fifteen men tried to govern New Netherland and New York during the course of the seventeenth century. They were not, on the whole, an impressive lot. A considerable number, including Minuit, Van Twiller, Kieft, Lovelace in 1673, and Andros in 1680, were recalled in disgrace and required to defend themselves against charges of maladministration. Several of them, certainly, did serve as scapegoats for the sins of others or for circumstances beyond anyone’s control. But by and large, the early governors were not especially able. The exceptions were Stuyvesant, Nicolls, and Dongan. Stuyvesant ruled for seventeen years—the longest tenure of any governor in the history of colonial New York—and he most certainly left h1s stamp upon the province.
The Sins of The Body
Authors: Lankton Larry
Published: November 2023

Those who settled the Keweenaw and Isle Royale found more than copper, trees, water, and snow. With too frequent regularity, they found broken legs, fractured skulls, or crushed hands. They discovered floating bodies and frozen corpses. They had come to a new place but had not escaped old problems: contagious diseases and epidemics, mysterious fevers and influenza. They ate some bad meat and suffered gut aches and “a turn of the back door trot or ‘Dictionary’ [dysentery).” They creaked with rheumatism and lumbago. They endured venereal sores, impotence, piles, gout, and rotten teeth. They had complicated and deadly pregnancies, unwanted pregnacies, stillborn babies, and many dead infants and young children.

In the first decades of settlement the Lake Superior population was young. The mines wanted men in their prime years to tackle the arduous labor they offered, and women of child-bearing age accompanied the men. Relative youth, however, by no means protected the population from physical and emotional trauma, from illness, disease, and death. Threats to a person’s sense of comfort, security, and well-being were never far removed from everyday life.
Shattered Hopes and Broken Prospects
Authors: Lankton Larry
Published: November 2023

Those who joined the ranks of the earliest pioneers on Lake Superior risked life, limb, and security. At first, “beyond the boundaries appointed for the residence of man,” virtually no social safety net existed to catch the victims of misfortune. The tales of woe coming from the 1840s and early 1850s were particularly poignant, because sufferers endured so much while so alone in the wilderness.

The coming of more settlers, the pushing away of the wilderness, and the planting of villages did not bring an end to stories of agony and mourning. These stories in fact multiplied as the years passed and more men, women, and children took up lives on the Keweenaw or Isle Royale. It was axiomatic: the more people lived there, the more people were exposed to myriad sources of harm: physical, mental, social, and economic. But one thing was quite different: later settlers, when beset with troubles, weren’t so alone anymore.

This new industrial society, as it matured, knitted together means of coping with misfortune. It offered measures of protection and restoration to individuals and families jeopardized by all sorts of problems. These measures ran the gamut from simple acts of kindness, tendered from neighbor to neighbor; to charitable assistance provided by mutual aid societies, mining companies, and other groups; to government programs at the local and state level.
Intertidal Wetlands
Authors: Ruwa R K
Published: November 2023

Intertidal wetlands (Fig. 5.1) are an ecotone or transitional zone between marine, estuarine and terrestrial ecosystems. The transitional nature of the environment from land to saltwater creates gradients or zones in which the species composition and ecological processes change (15,25,26). Ecotones often allow numerous species to coexist along resource or environmental stress gradients. Consequently, the intertidal zones of tropical regions are well endowed with numerous forms of marine life of different evolutionary origins. This rich biological diversity increases from sandy shores to rocky shores to mangrove and seagrass ecosystems. Various biotic and abiotic factors have been used to explain the presence, absence or abundance of species in the intertidal zone (25). The following attributes have significance to the uniqueness of the intertidal ecology in the East African region.
Rivers and Streams
Authors: Cooper Scott D
Published: November 2023

Rivers and streams constitute a valuable resource for the people of East Africa. Rivers and streams are a major source of water for agricultural, industrial, and domestic use, produce fish, are important habitats for wildlife, and act as highways for commerce and trade. Rivers, streams, and their associated wetlands also harbor vectors of disease, and act as conduits for the disposal of waste generated by human beings. Population expansion and development projects have resulted in widespread land-use changes with far-reaching consequences for catchments and their drainage streams. Both direct use of, and indirect influences on, freshwater resources by human beings can result in the pollution of water making it unfit for domestic, agricultural, or industrial use. The management of riverine systems often requires balancing the goals of fish production, hydroelectric generation, wildlife habitat, drinking water, and irrigation use while controlling contamination and the spread of water-borne disease.
Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems
Authors: Swift David M , Coughenour Michael B , Atsedu Menwyelet
Published: November 2023

The ecology of the arid and semi-arid regions of East Africa is essentially the ecology of subsistence pastoralism. Pastoralists and their herds are ubiquitous in the drier parts of East Africa. Pastoralists need these areas for their survival and, in tum, significantly affect them. Pastoralists are participants in the dynamics of intact ecosystems in ways that agriculturists and most people living in moister ecosystems are not. Consequently, the ecology of arid ecosystems cannot be understood in isolation from an understanding of pastoral society and the management of their livestock. In tropical areas where annual precipitation is 600 millimeters or less, and is divided between two rainy seasons, crop agriculture is not possible. Nonetheless, these arid areas have been inhabited by people and their livestock for thousands of years. The result, in many cases, is a human-dominated ecosystem in which livestock have partially taken over the role of wildlife as consumers of grass and shrubs.
The Laser Stimulates the Emission of New Ideas (1960–1969)
Authors: Hecht Jeff
Published: November 2023

Eli Snitzer was not the only person distracted by the laser. Its invention was big news in 1960. Military planners and science-fiction fans saw it as the ray gun of their dreams, but engineers and physicists recognized it as the first optical oscillator, and the first practical source of coherent light. They immediately recognized its development as a milestone on the road to optical communications, although it was far from clear where the road was going.
Financial Incentives as a Cost-Control Mechanism in Managed Care
Authors: Rice Thomas
Published: November 2023

One of the principal ways in which managed-care plans have attempted to control costs is through the use of financial incentives aimed at affecting physicians’ behavior. Although widespread, the practice is highly controversial. This chapter discusses the purpose of such incentives, indicates the types and their prevalence, summarizes previous research on their effects, examines how patients and doctors view physicians’ financial incentives, and discusses two key policy issues—disclosure of financial incentives and the regulation of these incentives.
Should the Law Prefer Nonprofits?
Authors: Bloche M Gregg
Published: November 2023

Overtly profit-seeking firms are powerful players in the American medical marketplace. Investor-owned hospital chains, which have been around since the late 1960s, were joined in the 1980s and 1990s by a new generation of for-profit health care financing vehicles, including publicly-traded HMOs and reorganized Blue Cross plans. The rise of this vibrant, for-profit health sector has become a subject of bitter debate.
Dimensions of Oral Narrative
Authors: Berman Laine
Published: November 2023

In the previous two chapters we have begun to investigate some of the social, cultural, and political pressures that shape the macro-level contexts of Javanese women’s identity. We have explored the theories and expectations that heavily constrain how people speak in the Javanese language, and I have also discussed the ways in which society is stratified by the ideological forces of political control. In line with Mead’s 0934) theories on the self and community, all of these social constructions are taken to be language-based, whether they are located in the speech levels; styles of interacting; or the slogans, speeches, and mass media that make up public, power-laden discourses. As we have seen in chapter 2, many of these pressures to conform and to acquiesce are even heavier for Javanese women.
California & Theof Capital
Authors: Henderson George L
Published: November 2023

These essays on California’ s economy, culture, and literature between the 1880s and 1920s show how rural places were made over in the image of capital. The story told here is of the real and imaginary spaces that capital occupied, including its encounters with the realities and representations of race, gender, and class. Beginning with the geography and political economy of agrarian capitalism, Henderson moves on to examine the celebratory, if fretful, ruminations on economy in novels by Frank Norris, Mary Austin, and many other writers drawn to rural California before John Steinbeck redefined the scene in the 1930s.
Toward Rural Realism: Variable Capital, Variable Capitalists, and the Fictions of Capital
Authors: Henderson George L
Published: November 2023

It is 1917 ... or 1893 ... or 1921. No matter. So long as we understand that the social relations of the wage have gripped California agriculture, let us venture a few simple abstractions. In the act and time of labor, the bodies of wage workers circulate capital and momentarily trap it. Waged laborers, as variable capitals/quasi-commodities in farm production, become temporarily joined to the productive capital of the farm on all sorts of scales. During select portions of the year, a single grower might purchase dozens of other people’s body-time, directing labor power toward sowing seeds, coordinating irrigation flow, thinning crops, climbing ladders, or picking fruit. Over an entire crop region, thousands of these bodies will repeat these acts in uncounted combination. They will become extensions of thousands of farm tools and machines, while tools and machines will become extensions of thousands of bodies. In a single year, throughout the San Joaquin Valley, Southern California, the Imperial Valley, legions of bodies will tramp the ground that feeds the roots; they will temporarily interrupt sunlight as they lean over and work their fingers through stems or vines to find ripe berries, harvest grapes, or cut asparagus. Sometime during the heat of the day, these legions will pause for some food and drink. A portion of agrarian capital will come to a halt.
Romancing the Sand: Earth-Capital and Desire in the Imperial Valley
Authors: Henderson George L
Published: November 2023

Before the current era of water management in the American West reduced water flow at the mouth of the Colorado River to a trickle, there were two options for the river as it neared the end of its run: either proceed toward the Gulf of California or at the last minute reverse direction, swing north across its own delta, and plunge into a below-sea-level, exitless trough called the Salton Sink (Waters 1946; Kniffen 1931-32). Most often the river ran Gulf-ward, but periodically, under highwater conditions, it disgorged into the Sink, turning it into the inland Salton Sea. The last time of note that this happened was in 1905. This would not have been so much of a problem had not the American West’s largest private irrigation and land development venture to date been busy reclaiming the Salton Sink with Colorado River water in order to turn it into a vast inland, agricultural oasis, which the developers took to calling the Imperial Valley. Because of the flood, which required many months of Herculean effort to control and a sizable amount of capital from the Southern Pacific Railroad, the Imperial Valley became a lightning rod for debates over the ideals, practices, and intersections of capitalism and agrarianism as they were taking shape in the rural arid West.
Ernest Bloch
Authors: Prausnitz Frederik
Published: November 2023

In the fall of 1919, Roger Sessions first cracked the mold. Three centuries of New England were his birthright and his burden; a privileged upbringing and a first-class education had turned a bright and musically alert boy into an accomplished young musician; but an enduring notion that, for all his keen musical imagination and for all his dutifully acquired theoretical skills, some essential ingredient of compositional craft still eluded him drove him outside the inherited background in search of help. He needed a teacher. And with that search, undertaken on his own and for a purpose defined by himself, he took his first step toward personal and artistic independence. He found what he was looking for in the person of a wonderfully charismatic European Jew, recently arrived in New York and just then on the verge of his own meteoric American career.
The Challenges of Human Relations in Ethnographic Enquiry: Examples frorn Arctic and Subarctic Fieldwork
Authors: Beaudry Nicole
Published: November 2023

Once a journey is designed, equipped, and put in process, a new factor enters and takes over. A trip, a safari, an exploration, is an entity, different from all other journeys. It has personality, temperament, individuality, uniqueness. A journey is a per son in itself; no two are alike. And all plans, safeguards, policing and coercion are fruitless. We find after years of struggle that we do not take a trip; a trip takes us. John Steinbeck’s wonderfully witty and judicious remark could easily apply to most of my field experiences and probably to those of many other researchers. Although it is seldom stated clearly in our writings, fieldworkers in any of the social sciences frequently need to alter their research plans at the last minute. These changes are felt to be beyond their command. Despite belief in the value of our scientific goals, despite painstaking preparations and appropriate behavior, the fact that both researcher and research objects are human beings cannot be dismissed. When human beings of different cultural backgrounds are brought together, their inter action proves difficult to predict.
Chasing Shadows in the Field: An Epilogue
Authors: Barz Gregory
Published: November 2023

The goal of the year-long colloquium series sponsored by the graduate program in ethnomusicology at Brown University from which the majority of these essays emerged was to shift the focus of recent writing, research, and teaching in the discipline of ethnomusicology away from issues of representation toward matters of experience. The essays in Shadows in the Field suggest that a major paradigm shift in ethnomusicological thought has occurred, embracing a “new fieldwork,” as Titon suggests, that focuses more on the “doing” and “knowing” of fieldwork than on the representing of fieldwork. Each author in this volume identifies a need to enter into a dialogue with historical colleagues-both in and out of the field-but they all nevertheless respond to a call to acknowledge their individual being-ness in contemporary fieldwork. Ultimately, what ethnomusicologists do in the field is not totally separable from what they do out of the field, yet much of the focus in ethnomusicological writing and teaching until now has centered around analyses and ethnographic representations of musical cultures instead of on the rather personal world of the understanding, experience, knowing, and doing of fieldwork.
Fair and Warmer: Control of the Thermal Environment
Authors: Fitch James Marston , Bobenhausen William
Published: November 2023

The thermal habitat of human metabolism is established by the play of solar radiation upon the surfaces that surround us and the oceans of air in which we are submerged. But this same solar radiation contains also those wave-lengths of energy that we call visible light, and hence establishes simultaneously our luminous environment. The temperature, movement, and humidity of the atmosphere of course operate on our metabolic function and must consequently be reckoned as integral factors of our thermal environment. But the oxygen of the atmosphere is also a chemical prerequisite of metabolism. Hence human beings exist in coextensive environments—thermal, atmospheric, and radiational—and any manipulation of one causes repercussions in the others.
“Oh, Say, Can You See …“: Control of the Luminous Environment
Authors: Fitch James Marston , Bobenhausen William
Published: November 2023

Of all the sensory means of perceiving the qualities and dimensions of the real world, the visual is by far the most comprehensive. Psychologists estimate that, for adults, as much as 90 percent of all information about the external world comes in the form of visually perceived data. Because, as Edward Hall says, “the optic nerve contains roughly eighteen times as many neurons as the cochlear nerve, we may assume that it transmits at least that much more information … the eyes may be as much as a thousand times as effective as the ears in sweeping up information.”2
The Integration of Environmental Control Systems
Authors: Fitch James Marston , Bobenhausen William
Published: November 2023

The optimal control of all environmental factors within a given building, in the interests of the persons and processes housed in that building, is today technically more feasible and socially more imperative than ever before. Yet by and large, contemporary architecture does not succeed in discharging this task. The reasons for this failure are to be found in many different domains. There is, first of all, the architect’s difficulty in formulating the program—in conceptualizing the exact behavioral topography that the building is supposed to elicit and support. Even when this part of the task is properly done, the architect faces the task of effectuating it—of reconciling the many contradictory requirements of the various control systems that must be employed. Thus a problem in acoustics may render more difficult an optimal solution of the illumination system. Or a mandatory requirement for ease of access or exit may complicate the design of wintertime weatherstripping and thermal insulation. Or some local condition, such as an earthquake or hurricane hazard, may dictate a structural system that is far from ideal for the plan suggested by the program. Finally, almost all buildings are expected to satisfy the often divergent environmental requirements of the people and the processes they shelter.
Prospects for the Democratic Esthetic
Authors: Fitch James Marston , Bobenhausen William
Published: November 2023

The pace of technological change that is being experienced in architecture is worldwide and profound, but it is fundamentally no different from that which invests other fields of activity, such as medicine or agriculture or art. Originally the pace seemed more rapid in the United States than elsewhere, but this is largely due to the historic process we loosely term the scientific technological revolution flowering here earlier and more extensively than elsewhere. But currently, on the international front, initiatives in other countries—particularly in Europe and Scandinavia—bear watching.
“Look Ma, the Real Aunt Jemima!” Consuming Identities under Capitalism
Authors: Witt Doris
Published: November 2023

On 27 April 1989, the Chicago-based Quaker Oats Company announced plans to update its Aunt Jemima trademark for the 1990s. The two-page news release begins as follows: Aunt Jemima, one of America’s oldest packaged food trademarks and a symbol of quality breakfast products for 100 years, will be given a new look this year. The facial appearance is unchanged. Noticeably different, however, is a new, stylish, grey- streaked hairdo, and her headband has been removed. Other changes include cosmetic touches such as a different style of collar and the addition of earrings.
Epilogue
Authors: Witt Doris
Published: November 2023

The same year my essay appeared, Claudia Tate edited a collection of Tillman's work, and the following year she discussed Tillman in a compelling study of African American women writers of the turn of the century. At the time I published “In Search of Our Mothers' Cookbooks,” though, I had no idea who Tillman was.
Emotion in Music
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2023

Though the word “emotion” is a late entrant into the English language, nevertheless it is already multivocal in its uses, not least among psychologists. Broadly speaking, there are two main ways of using the word, and so two main fields of studies of the emotional life of people and animals. Particularly in the United States, in both lay and professional discourse, “emotion” is taken to be a bodily condition, either a feeling (for example an abdominal tension), or—for some biologically oriented psychologists—a physiological state (for example a rise in the state of excitation of some part of the nervous system) (Izard 1977). However, this way of locating emotion sidelines most of what is important in the emotionality of human beings and animals, namely, the expressive function of the displays and feelings we label with such phrases as “being angry,” “feeling elated,” “raging at someone,” “envious of someone’s success,” and so on. From this point of view, an emotion display is an expression of a complex judgment, and, at the same time, is often the performance of a social act (Stearns and Stearns 1988). Both the biological and the discursive points of view allow that emotions can be both inherited and learned, though the bio logically oriented students of emotion tend to pay little attention to the huge cultural variations in the repertoires and occasioned uses of emotion displays