bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Definite expression and degrees of definiteness
Authors: Kyriakaki Maria
Published: November 2020

This chapter studies definite determiners formerly treated as semantic expletives and challenges the view that they can be uniformly treated as such. Assuming that definiteness consists of two features, uniqueness (iota) and familiarity (Fam), and depending on the features spelled out by the determiner, it proposes that definite articles can be fully specified for definiteness spelling out both features (full definiteness), partially specified, spelling out Fam (partial definiteness), or, in the case of true expletives, not specified at all (zero definiteness). Fully definite expressions cannot be modified by other definite nominals. In contrast, partially definite expressions form predicative FamPs, which can be modified by other definite nominals. Fam can also introduce proper names and generic kind-denoting nouns. Finally, true expletives appear even in non-definite contexts. An explanatory and descriptive account is offered that provides new insights on the properties of definiteness.
Cross-linguistic contrasts in the structure of causatives in clausal nominalizations
Authors: McGinnis Martha
Published: November 2020

It is usually assumed that the causee ‘subject’ of a causativized transitive predicate merges below the causativizer, within the causativized clause. However, gerundive nominalizations (masdars) in Georgian provide evidence for a different structure. It is proposed that, in Georgian, this causee is projected by an applicative phrase that merges outside the causative vP, below the Voice projection that introduces the causer/external argument. Key evidence involves masdars in which causative meaning can be expressed, but a causee cannot. While the causee of a causativized transitive predicate can be expressed in a verbal context, it cannot be expressed in a masdar, even though the masdar can be based on a causative of a transitive. It is proposed that the Georgian masdar involves a nominalizing head that selects a vP complement, and that both causers and causees are excluded from the masdar because they can only merge outside this causative vP.
Contrast in syntax and contrast in phonology
Authors: Hall Daniel Currie
Published: November 2020

This chapter investigates the parallels and asymmetries between contrastive features in phonology and syntax, with particular reference to the notion of a contrastive hierarchy. In phonology, contrastive features can be assigned to segments by a recursive procedure that applies to the underlying phonemic inventory of a language. To apply such a procedure to morphosyntactic features, it is necessary to identify the inventory of items that the features serve to distinguish. This chapter argues that the relevant morphosyntactic inventory is the inventory of functional lexical items (in the sense used in Distributed Morphology), and not the inventory of vocabulary items. It further proposes that contrastive specification of functional lexical items is done separately on different dimensions of contrast—for example, that person features are specified separately from number features. This approach is illustrated by application to phi-features in Mi’gmaq, where it is shown to be consistent with patterns of agreement.
The Eminence Grise
Authors: Boraud Thomas
Published: November 2020

This chapter demonstrates how the cortex communicates with the basal ganglia and the thalamus progressively during the evolution of vertebrates. The telencephalic loop is involved in social behaviour and cognitive processes. In mammals, the telencephalic loop, in which the cortex now replaces the pallium, takes a leading role in controlling behaviour. Thus, the telencephalon, a very minor input of the basal ganglia in anamniots, gradually becomes the main input as evolution progresses. Ultimately, the resulting neural network possesses the same dynamic properties as those described in Chapter 5. The neural network is also able to perform reinforcement learning through the subcortical loop, and also to automatize some skills at the cortical level.
Theory of Macroeconomic Policy
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

The book reviews the theoretical foundations of macroeconomic, fiscal, and monetary policy. It offers a panoramic view of macroeconomic theory, covering a wide range of topics that are not customarily dealt with in macroeconomics texts, as well as more standard material. The style is intuitive and accessible, relying on basic calculus, but explained discursively and using diagrams. Advanced theory is bridged with more elementary/intermediate material. Established models are reviewed alongside current research. There is an extensive review of empirical evidence on virtually every topic, supplemented by narrative accounts for various episodes. The policy implications of the various theories are emphasized throughout. The chapters are largely self-contained so that different courses can focus at different places. A ‘Guidance for Further Study’ section and extensive bibliography give plenty of ideas for all levels of independent study, from UG Projects to M.Sc. dissertations to Ph.D. theses. The book should be seen as an affirmation that there is a well-developed body of theory that is invaluable for an in-depth understanding of the macroeconomy and policy; equally, there is much scope for critical discussion and debate. Thus, the key feature is a balance between: breadth as well as depth; analytical treatment and intuition; theory and evidence; vintage theories and current directions; theory and policy; (established) theory and debate. As such, the book should appeal to a variety of instructors and students of macroeconomics at advanced undergraduate or graduate level, as well as those in related fields such as political economy.
From AD-AS to Advanced Macroeconomics
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

The chapter reviews basic building blocks of macroeconomic theory, such as the production function, labour supply and demand. It also reviews elementary models such the IS-LM, AD-AS, and the Phillips Curve. In doing so, it provides a bridge between standard elementary/intermediate material, that readers of this book will have typically been exposed to, and the more advanced macroeconomics that is its main subject. Alongside analytics, the chapter outlines the history of macroeconomics as a way of better appreciating the models and current theory. The policy implications of various theories and models are centrepieces. A brief detour into formal theory of policy-making offers additional policy perspectives. The chapter also summarizes six benchmark ‘policy ineffectiveness propositions’ developed in subsequent chapters, as a way of looking ahead.
Unemployment
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This chapter offers a wide-ranging review of the macroeconomics of unemployment and related issues. Setting the scene with definitions, motivation, and facts, the discussion proceeds to a baseline wage and price setting model, which offers some first key insights. Formal models of trade unions and efficiency wages, and of the less standard, but topical, dual labour markets, are developed next. Dynamic issues, such as hysteresis and its underpinning factors, are also discussed. A major subsequent theme is the flows and search-based recent theory, emphasizing job creation and destruction, hiring and firing costs, and the Beveridge Curve. Additionally, the effects of technical progress on unemployment, wage inequality, and job polarization are discussed. The chapter concludes with a review of the high European unemployment of the 1980s and 1990s and the ‘shocks versus institutions’ debates on its causes.
Introduction to Dynamic Macroeconomics
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This chapter offers an introduction to the methods and main models used in dynamic macroeconomics. After reviewing key concepts such as lifetime utility maximization and the period-by-period and intertemporal budget constraints, first-order conditions for intertemporal optimization (the Euler equation and the labour-leisure choice) are developed. These methods are applied in developing the workhorse Ramsey model, with discussion of related concepts such as dynamic efficiency and market equilibrium versus the command optimum. An extension of the Ramsey model incorporates adjustment costs in investment and develops the user cost of capital. Furthermore, the Sidrauski model, with its implications for monetary economies, is reviewed. Finally, the discussion turns to another workhorse dynamic model, the overlapping-generations model and its implications. As an application of this model, the properties of various methods of funding social insurance are discussed.
Business Cycles and Stabilization Policy
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews the theory related to business cycles. After outlining early approaches (including the multiplier-accelerator interaction and Goodwin cycles), it proceeds to discuss the modern debates between New Classical/Real Business Cycle (RBC) theorists and New Keynesians. This discussion is structured at various levels: more intuitive and discursive, then more analytical with the development of a formal RBC model and of a Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium model that synthesizes the two approaches. The chapter continues with a review of Vector Autoregressions. Finally, a narrative of a number of episodes is offered: the Great Depression, post-World War II cycles, Japan, effects of oil on business cycles, and the Great Recession (2007–9) and the subsequent slow recovery. The overarching philosophy is that a suite of models, old and new, and approaches, modelling, econometric, and narrative, are useful in offering complementary perspectives.
Fiscal Policy and Public Debt
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This chapter looks at fiscal policy, broadly interpreted to include its implications on deficits, debt, and fiscal solvency. It is informally divided in two parts, starting from the latter set of issues. After introducing the budget deficit, debt and the government budget constraint, and related issues, it proceeds to analyse fiscal solvency, deriving formal conditions and discussing extensively indicators and required policy rules. The role of growth in ensuring fiscal solvency is put in sharp relief. Additionally, the ‘dilemma of austerity’ is critically discussed, i.e. whether ‘fiscal consolidations’ can in fact damage public finances by being recessionary. We then turn to the effects of fiscal policy on economic activity: A ‘toolkit’ of static fiscal multipliers is discussed, as is the intertemporal approach to fiscal policy (including Ricardian Equivalence), complemented by empirical evidence.
Inequality
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

By whatever indicator it is assessed, inequality has been rising in recent years. This book considers it a macroeconomic issue and innovates by including it among its topics. The chapter begins by reviewing evidence and facts on inequality, measurement issues, and the relation with poverty. The macroeconomic models of income distribution reviewed next include vintage models, endogenous growth models, and whether inequality can be accommodated in ‘representative-agent’ models. Attention then turns to ‘factor’ (labour-capital) income shares, which have also been changing recently, reviewing both the relevant analytics and the possible processes that underlie this change. The chapter concludes with recent debates on determinants of inequality, the evolution of the labour share (the ‘r-g’ question), and the future of income distribution.
Sectoral Analyses
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This wide-ranging chapter reviews a number of models that underpin aggregate analyses (‘sectoral’ models). It begins with the profusion of work on consumption (Permanent Income Hypothesis, the Life-Cycle Model, and the modern analyses that sprang from the ‘random walk’ model). Saving, durable consumption, demographics, and behavioural elements are among the many topics reviewed. The chapter continues with investment, including issues such as: the accelerator, neoclassical model, user cost of capital, Tobin’s q, effects of financial imperfections, uncertainty, state-contingent (‘S-s’) models, vintages, technical progress, and inventories. Housing is reviewed next, another innovation of the book. Finally, the models of consumption are a stepping-stone towards the macroeconomics of finance. The topics reviewed here include the CCAPM and CAPM models, the equity premium puzzle, and the term structure of interest rates, as well as developments in stock markets and the growth of finance (‘financialization’).
Introduction Part II
Authors: Primavesi Oliver
Published: November 2020

Recentiores, non deteriores

According to the Philosopher, the bodily instrument by means of which desire produces animal self-motion—a subject central to MA—is to be examined within the treatment of the ‘activities common to body and soul’,1 i.e. in his so-called ‘Parva Naturalia...
Aristotle and the Mechanics of Desire
Authors: Hankinson R.J.
Published: November 2020

This contribution comments on Aristotle’s De Motu Animalium 7 (second half) and 8 (MA 7, from 701b2 – MA 8). In this part of the treatise Aristotle focuses on the initiation and transformation of movement within the animal’s body; he presents a sequence of psycho-physical alterations, starting from sense perception, via thermic alterations (connected with episodes of desire) and expansions and contractions down the movement of the animal’s limbs. In doing so, Aristotle compares the animal to automatic theatres (automata) and points to the mechanic preconditions of animal self-movement. The contribution discusses to what extent animals are really thought to be like automata and whether this comparison provides an obstacle for the agent’s autonomy.
Voluntary or Not? The Physiological Perspective
Authors: Morel Pierre-Marie
Published: November 2020

This contribution comments on Aristotle’s De Motu Animalium 11 (MA 11). While the rest of the treatise was concerned with voluntary or intentional actions and movements of animals, in this final chapter Aristotle discusses the case of involuntary and non-voluntary movements. The contribution discusses whether and how the standard account of animal self-motion that was developed through the previous chapters is also applicable to these non-standard cases.
Big Tech and the Digital Economy
Authors: Petit Nicolas
Published: November 2020

To date, world antitrust and regulatory agencies have invariably described large technology companies—such as Google, Amazon, Microsoft, Apple, and Facebook—as dominant, bottleneck or gatekeeping companies comparable to the textbook monopolists of the early twentieth century. They have proceeded on this basis to discipline their business activities with unprecedented financial penalties and other regulatory obligations. This “techlash” is the subject of this book. Proceeding from the observation that big tech firms engage in both monopoly and oligopoly competition across digital markets, the book introduces a theory of moligopoly competition. It suggests that rivalry-spirited antitrust and regulatory laws are both conceptually and methodologically impervious to the competitive pressure that bears on big tech firms, resulting in a risk of well-intended but irrelevant policy intervention. The book proposes a refocusing of competition policy towards certain types of tipped markets where digital firms extract monopoly rents, and careful adoption of regulation toward other social harms generated by big tech’s business models.
The Time-Based Resource-Sharing Model of Working Memory
Authors: Barrouillet Pierre , Camos Valérie
Published: November 2020

The time-based resource-sharing model considers working memory as the workspace in which mental representations are built, maintained, and transformed for completing goal-oriented tasks. Its main component is made of an episodic buffer and a procedural system that form an executive loop in which processing and storage share domain-general attentional resources on a temporal basis. Because working memory representations decay with time when attention is diverted, the cognitive load of a given activity is the proportion of time during which it occupies attention and prevents it from counteracting this decay through attentional refreshing. Consequently, recall in working memory tasks is an inverse function of the cognitive load of concurrent processing. Besides this system, an independent domain-specific maintenance system exists for verbal, but not visuospatial, information. Within this framework, working memory development mainly results from increasing processing speed that affects both the duration of the distraction of attention by concurrent tasks and refreshing efficiency.
Towards a Theory of Working Memory
Authors: Oberauer Klaus
Published: November 2020

Working memory provides a medium for building and manipulating new representations that control our thoughts and actions. To fulfil this function, a working memory system needs to meet six requirements: (1) it must have a mechanism for rapidly forming temporary bindings to combine elements into new structures; (2) it needs a focus of attention for selectively accessing individual elements for processing; (3) it must hold both declarative representations of what is the case, and procedural representations of how to act on the current situation; (4) it needs a process for rapid updating, including rapid removal of outdated contents. Moreover, contents of working memory (5) need to be shielded from interference from long-term memory, while (6) working memory should be able to use information in long-term memory when it is useful. This chapter summarizes evidence in support of these mechanisms and processes. It presents three computational models that each implement some of these mechanisms, and explains different subsets of empirical findings about working memory: the SOB-CS model accounts for behaviour in tests of immediate serial recall, including complex-span tasks. The interference model explains data from a common test of visual working memory, the continuous-reproduction task. The set-selection model explains how people learn memory sets and task sets, how these sets are retrieved from long-term memory, and how these mechanisms enable switching between memory sets and task sets.
Working Memory and Expertise
Authors: Hambrick David Z. , Burgoyne Alexander P. , Araujo Duarte
Published: November 2020

The question of what individual differences in working memory capacity reflect has been a topic of intensive interest in research for several decades. This research has shed light on mechanisms underlying working memory performance. At the same time, the chapter authors argue this research has been myopic in two respects. First, it has largely ignored the influence of other predictor variables on complex task performance. Second, it has overlooked the importance of the environment as a co-determinant of performance. In this chapter, answering the seven questions put to contributors of this volume, the authors discuss their own research on working memory capacity and describe an ecological view of the working memory system that they believe will advance both research on working memory and the usefulness of findings from this research.
Manifold Visual Working Memory
Authors: Hakim Nicole , Awh Edward , Vogel Edward K.
Published: November 2020

Visual working memory allows us to maintain information in mind for use in ongoing cognition. Research on visual working memory often characterizes it within the context of its interaction with long-term memory (LTM). These embedded-processes models describe memory representations as existing in three potential states: inactivated LTM, including all representations stored in LTM; activated LTM, latent representations that can quickly be brought into an active state due to contextual priming or recency; and the focus of attention, an active but sharply limited state in which only a small number of items can be represented simultaneously. This chapter extends the embedded-processes framework of working memory. It proposes that working memory should be defined operationally based on neural activity. By defining working memory in this way, the important theoretical distinction between working memory and LTM is maintained, while still acknowledging that they operate together. It is additionally proposed that active working memory should be further subdivided into at least two subcomponent processes that index item-based storage and currently prioritized spatial locations. This fractionation of working memory is based on recent research that has found that the maintenance of information distinctly relies on item-based representations as well as prioritization of spatial locations. It is hoped that this updated framework of the definition of working memory within the embedded-processes model provides further traction for understanding how we maintain information in mind.
Connective Practices
Authors: Hendriks Carolyn M. , Ercan Selen A. , Boswell John
Published: November 2020

Chapter 6 draws together common insights from the three preceding empirical chapters to better understand the everyday practical work of democratic mending. The chapter introduces the concept of ‘connective practices’ to capture the individual and collective efforts of actors to mend their democratic systems, and discusses the different features of connective practices that make them especially effective for mending democratic disconnects. Drawing insights from the empirical cases presented throughout the book, the chapter identifies the relational, creative, adaptive, co-constituted, and iterative characteristics of connective practices, and considers their democratic implications.
Advancing a Connective Approach to Democratic Reform
Authors: Hendriks Carolyn M. , Ercan Selen A. , Boswell John
Published: November 2020

Chapter 8 presents the key take-home messages for advancing the work of democratic reform in disconnected times. The chapter makes the case for expanding democratic repair beyond institutional proposals and towards a more emergent and systemic approach aimed at building connections across democratic systems. The analysis encourages democratic reformers to learn from the creative connective practices of everyday actors who seek to mend disconnects and make democracy work in context. The final section of the chapter presents key principles of democratic mending, urging advocates and practitioners of democratic reform to think more creatively about how to ‘make do’ with the materials at their disposal.
Idealismex Nihilo
Authors: Lebens Samuel
Published: November 2020

This chapter makes a radical claim: theism entails a robust form of idealism. The chapter then goes on to use that claim to make sense of a central tradition of Jewish mysticism—tzimtzum, or divine contraction. The tradition in question is an idealistic solution to a problem concerning belief in creation; a problem that, this chapter ends with claiming, Gersonides may have been sensitive to.
“Discourse on Metaphysics”
Authors: Strickland Lloyd
Published: November 2020

The “Discourse on Metaphysics” is widely considered to be Leibniz’s most important philosophical work from his so-called “middle period”. Written early in 1686, when Leibniz was 39 years old, it consolidates a number of philosophical ideas that he had developed and sketched out in the years beforehand in a host of short private essays, fragments, and letters. This chapter guides the reader through the key themes of the “Discourse”, such as God’s choice of the best, the nature of substance, final causes, and the relationship between soul and body. The essay concludes with a consideration of what prompted Leibniz to write the “Discourse”; I suggest that the “Discourse” is likely to have been conceived as an attempt to reach supporters of Descartes and Malebranche, not only to challenge key tenets of their respective philosophies but also to present a viable alternative.
The Correspondence with Arnauld
Authors: Jorati Julia
Published: November 2020

Leibniz’s correspondence with Antoine Arnauld took place in his so-called “middle period”: it began in February 1686 and ended in March 1690, when Leibniz wrote his final letter to Arnauld. The exchange was initiated by Leibniz, who sent Arnauld a short summary of his most recent philosophical composition, the “Discourse on Metaphysics”, and asked Arnauld for his opinion. The ensuing correspondence is an excellent source of information about Leibniz’s views in the middle period: it contains a thorough, clear, and surprisingly systematic presentation of many of his most important philosophical doctrines. This chapter focuses on what we can learn from these letters about Leibniz’s theory of complete concepts, his account of body and substance, his doctrines about causation, and finally his theory that minds have a special status in God’s plan.
Language or Dialect?
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

‘What is the difference between a language and a dialect?’ is one of the questions most frequently asked of linguists. A notorious and oft-repeated answer is ‘A language is a dialect with an army and navy’, wrongly attributed to Max Weinreich. Linguists have mostly used this witticism as a handy way to end the discussion and dismiss the distinction between language and dialect as a political question irrelevant to their discipline. This book does not attempt to answer this seemingly unsolvable puzzle either but aims to shed light on a simple fact usually overlooked by linguists and laypeople alike: the conceptual pair is not a timeless given but has a history, and a much shorter one than one might assume. It starts not in Greek antiquity, as the origin of the word dialect may suggest, but in the sixteenth century. Taking the Weinreich witticism as its starting point, this book guides the reader on the remarkable journey which the conceptual pair has made. It begins with the prehistory of the language/dialect distinction in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The core of the book surveys the emergence, establishment, and elaboration of the conceptual pair during the early modern period, from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, when linguistic diversity first became an object of intense study. Finally, the much-contested and ambiguous fate of the language / dialect distinction in modern linguistics is outlined, with special reference to the persistence of earlier ideas and the rise to prominence of the political interpretation crystallized in the Weinreich quip.
Introduction
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

‘A language is a dialect with an army and navy.’ This witticism, associated with Max Weinreich, constitutes the starting point of both the entire book and this first chapter. The distinction between language and dialect implicit in the witticism, the chapter argues, is not a self-evident and timeless given, as is widely assumed, but has had a complex history. In this history, the early modern period played a pivotal role, as linguistic diversity was problematized for the first time during this era. Earlier and later developments cannot, however, be overlooked. The chapter also outlines the focus on Western scholarship, with a slight West-Germanic tilt, as well as the main approach and structure of the book. Presented as a history of ideas, it falls into five parts, which coincide with the main episodes in the history of the conceptual pair. Finally, this chapter briefly surveys the contents of all subsequent chapters.
A dive into the prehistory of the conceptual pair
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 starts at the ultimate origin of the English term dialect, ancient Greece, contending that it was never customary in Greek scholarship to contrast this term to a word referring to a superordinate concept of language. In order to substantiate this view, the chapter treats both passing references to the Greek dialects in a wide variety of texts and influential definitions of the Greek word diálektos (διάλεκτος). It also frames these definition attempts in their philological context, as the phenomenon of dialect was predominantly studied for its literary relevance. Finally, this chapter briefly discusses the Latin tradition up to about 1500, arguing that an obvious opposition of dialect to language cannot be discovered there either.
From dogs and hounds to languages and dialects
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 4 illustrates the way in which the Swiss humanist Conrad Gessner, an important language scholar, bibliographer, and zoologist, conceived of the Latin term dialectus in opposition to lingua. Renaissance intellectuals were confronted with a major information explosion, also on the languages of the world, and Gessner was one of the first to try and classify human speech in all its diversity. He did so in his Mithridates of 1555, the first ever language catalogue, in which the term dialectus frequently appeared. The word served to bring more nuance into the relationships between speech forms and is, as it was not in ancient and medieval times, clearly taken to be a variety of a language. For this interpretation, Gessner was inspired not only by ancient sources but also by the works of his contemporaries. Unlike Roger Bacon, the Swiss humanist was not an isolated pioneer, but the exponent of an early sixteenth-century trend.
Lingua and dialectus
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 5 traces the emergence of the language / dialect distinction through its main symptoms. Most tellingly, the early sixteenth century witnessed an increasing contrasting of the Latin terms dialectus and lingua, after Greek diálektos had been definitively borrowed into Neo-Latin. Another symptom was the creation of the concept of common language (lingua communis), which humanists often contrasted with dialectus. In addition, dialectus definitions were updated by means of determiners suggesting the hierarchical subordination of the term vis-à-vis lingua. In the 1540s, a new Latin phrase moreover appeared, ‘to differ only in dialect(s)’, which implied that related dialects differed from one another only superficially, whereas distinct languages exhibited substantial variation. Dialectus and lingua were, however, not contrasted in a very clear fashion from the start, since the former term especially was not yet delimited semantically. Instead, it was part of an intricate conceptual web, including also concepts like idiom and style.
A subjective touch
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

From the late sixteenth century onwards, dialect was conceptualized as an anomalous deviation from the analogical language under which it resorted. Chapter 9 suggests that this interpretation may have had its roots in Greek ideas. The analogy / anomaly conception was additionally grounded in early modern linguistic realities, since the advancing standardization led to a stronger contrast between the prescribed norm and everything deviating from it. Out of this normative interpretation, the highly subjective idea that language was superior to dialect developed almost naturally during the seventeenth century. Whereas theorizing on dialect had remained neutral in the sixteenth century because of the close link it had with the esteemed Ancient Greek dialects, it was detached from it during the seventeenth century. In addition, local elites gradually turned their back on their native dialects, embracing the upcoming standard languages. This social evolution likewise enhanced the severe degradation of the dialect concept.
The conceptual pair in transition
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 12 presents the book’s third case study, the Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm, a transitional figure. Driven by language-historical interests, Stiernhielm defined the conceptual pair in terms of substantial versus accidental differences. This Aristotelian interpretation he made very explicit, tying it to specific linguistic domains such as the lexicon and pronunciation. He moreover invoked mutual intelligibility in his definitions. As he was concerned in the first place with language history, his usage of the terms lingua and dialectus was also steeped in the diachronic interpretation. In the margin, the analogy / anomaly opposition and geography likewise shaped his conception of the distinction. The case of Stiernhielm, who probably did not know much Greek, confirms the tendency towards emancipation discussed in Chapter 11. It is, finally, no coincidence that his interest in the conceptual pair surfaced around 1650, just after he had met two erudite philologists: Christian Ravis and Claude de Saumaise.
Lexicostatistics avant la lettre
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 14 presents a case study from an angle different from that of philology, taking the historian Johann Christoph Gatterer’s ideas on linguistic diversity as its object. It not only serves as another telling example of the tendency towards systematization, but also, and especially, represents a climax in eighteenth-century attempts at rationalizing the language / dialect distinction. Proposing an embryonic lexicostatistic method, Gatterer tried to find an objective way to use linguistic data in writing an encompassing history of tribes and nations, in particular their prehistory. Starting from a basic vocabulary set, Gatterer attempted to quantify linguistic distance. In doing so, he divided the kinship continuum into four sections: unrelated languages, related languages, dialects, and closely related dialects. His innovative methodology, prefiguring modern lexicostatistic approaches, had only limited success, however. Gatterer failed to put it into practice, and the historian was criticized for his ahistorical method by the grammarian Johann Christoph Adelung.
From Jones to Gabelentz
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 17 illustrates the nineteenth-century fate of the language / dialect distinction, during and after the establishment of linguistics as an autonomous field of study. Since at this stage the study of language roughly coincided with historical-comparative grammar, it is no surprise that the language-historical interpretation prevailed. In the 1870s, the spatial conception was foregrounded when dialect geography emerged. Other criteria lived on, too, especially mutual intelligibility and the Aristotelian interpretation. In the first half of the nineteenth century, only a few scholars bothered to discuss the conceptual pair at length, notable among them the now forgotten comparative linguist Albert Giese. In the 1860s, suspicion about the validity of the language / dialect contrast grew, perceptible in the work of August Schleicher and the neogrammarians, but not to such an extent that it was extensively questioned. Perhaps linguists were afraid that this debate would mean the premature end of their young discipline.
Schuchardt the iconoclast
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

By the end of the nineteenth century, many prominent linguists had realized the arbitrariness of the language / dialect distinction, and linguists were forcibly confronted with its problematic nature from within, as Chapter 18 argues. This last case study of the book outlines the ideas of Hugo Schuchardt, who dared to face the full consequences of critically reflecting on the conceptual pair. Considering the nature of linguistic diversity, Schuchardt noticed that there were no strict divisions such as Schleicher’s family tree model presupposed. Instead, he proposed a wave model, thus prefiguring Johannes Schmidt’s image. Language and dialect were merely fictional abstractions from actual linguistic facts and for this reason useless. Schuchardt was not alone in his suspicion. Some of his colleagues likewise acknowledged the abstract nature of the language / dialect distinction but preferred to keep on using it for practical reasons, whereas others, like Jules Gilliéron, dismissed its validity and concentrated on linguistic features instead.
From Saussure to 1954
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 19 discusses the fate of the language / dialect distinction in structuralism. Ferdinand de Saussure’s conception of it was fairly traditional. In Saussure’s wake, mainstream structural linguists usually focused on homogeneous language systems, the langue, rather than the parole, with scant attention to the conceptual pair. In the 1950s, a dialectological turn occurred. The year 1954 in particular was a breaking point, when three structuralist papers devoted to the concept of dialect appeared. Uriel Weinreich suggested the concept of diasystem to capture variation within one language. André Martinet, in turn, tried to redefine dialect scientifically by excluding sociopolitical factors. Václav Polák, finally, argued that substantial morphosyntactic variation was required to speak of distinct languages. Phonological and lexical differences resulted in dialects only. Structuralist discussions of the language / dialect pair remained uncoordinated, however, and had relatively limited impact on subsequent debates, except for Weinreich’s diasystem concept.
Mutual intelligibility
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 20 treats the success of the criterion of mutual intelligibility since the 1950s, when American linguists interested in Amerindian tongues started to actively test this feature. Pioneers were Carl Voegelin and Zellig Harris, who suggested four methods for answering language / dialect questions, including mutual intelligibility testing. Even though scholars immediately faced numerous problems, the method enjoyed considerable success and is the primary criterion used by language catalogues such as Ethnologue and Glottolog. The criterion was criticized by, among others, Frederick Agard, who proposed nine postulates for determining language / dialect status. Others followed Morris Swadesh’s lexicostatistic lead and tried to quantify the distances between speech forms. According to one of the most recent representatives of this strand, linguistic distance is bimodally distributed, and the language / dialect distinction is, by consequence, backed by the majority of the linguistic evidence. Rather artificially, a strict cut-off point is proposed in this recent contribution.
Between two extremes
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 21 confronts two opposite perspectives on language and the language / dialect pair with roots in the 1950s and 1960s. On the one hand, it treats generative approaches to linguistic diversity. In general, generative linguists have assumed that dialect-level variation is produced by minor differences in rules, parameters, or constraints and their ordering or ranking, depending on the generative framework which they follow, whereas distinct languages are characterized by major divergences in the same. On the other hand, sociolinguists have focused on linguistic variables rather than systems. As they correlate linguistic phenomena to language-external attributes, their conceptions of the language / dialect distinction tend to be rather hybrid, being shaped by linguistic as well as sociopolitical parameters. This externalist approach has been fiercely criticized by Noam Chomsky. Other linguists have adopted more constructive attitudes, either by supplementing the language / dialect distinction or by supplanting it with an entirely new conception of language.
A gentle goodbye?
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 22 illustrates that even though many linguists nowadays tend to avoid the term dialect, it has been a major resource for new terminology, especially through -lect derivations. The recent terms doculect and languoid are particularly interesting as they are derived from (dia)lect and language, respectively. Terminology linked to the language / dialect distinction is still widely used and has been incorporated into conceptual constellations tailored to specific national contexts. It is, moreover, striking how noncommittal recent definitions of dialect are, as if linguists want to keep a safe distance from this tarnished term. The chapter’s final section draws the balance of the modern love-hate relationship with the conceptual pair. Five main attitudes can be distinguished, ranging from tacit preservation through explicit redefinition and supplementation to a quest for alternatives and downright dismissal. The unorganized nature of the debate on the subject is remarkable, as is the persistence of centuries-old interpretations.
Language, dialect, and the general public—or how not to popularize knowledge
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 23 explores the modern popularization of the language / dialect distinction, gathering steam in the last decades of the nineteenth century, when the standard language ideologies of nation-states spread to nearly all classes of society, primarily through mass education. This popularization involved a sharp divide between standard language and dialect, which became widely known among the general public. In the process, the conceptual pair was excessively politicized and even politically activated, as suggested by some notorious episodes in recent history, including the Oakland Ebonics controversy. The Internet has, moreover, provided laypeople with a forum to debate the language / dialect distinction and its applications, which tend to have a strong political colour. It remains to be seen whether and how linguists and others, both laypeople and academics, have exchanged ideas on the subject. It is tentatively suggested that there indeed has been a conceptual cross-fertilization, a phenomenon requiring further investigation.
Language and dialect between past and future
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 24 surveys the book’s main arguments, which include especially the emergence of the modern language / dialect distinction during the early sixteenth century and the subsequent formulation of its main interpretations. Above all, however, this chapter emphasizes that the language / dialect distinction unmistakably has a history, for too long neglected, and that it is not a timeless and self-evident given. Having established its historicity, Chapter 24 fields the question of whether the conceptual pair has a future, to which an answer, both tentative and brief, is offered. On the one hand, it is suggested that a reconceptualization of the distinction can be a viable option. On the other hand, the fact that the conceptual pair has become common knowledge gives linguists not only the opportunity but also, and especially, the responsibility to take on a more prominent societal role in language / dialect disputes.
Introduction
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

This book focuses on four main questions: · How do university staff and students view Islam and Muslims? · How do Muslim staff and students experience their faith identities in different ways on campus?· Where do they get their information from? · What role do different kinds of campus context play in shaping such perceptions? · What does this mean for our understanding of how universities function, particularly their capacity to foster critical thinking and cultural inclusivity? It is based on new research undertaken within a wide range of UK universities, including a national, sector-wide survey of over 2,000 students attending 132 universities and in-depth case studies of six very different campuses, including two Islamic colleges of higher education (the first study to include such institutions). The qualitative research has included conversations involving 253 staff and students across these six institutions, focus groups with Muslims and non-Muslims, analysis of teaching materials, observation of classes, and a variety of events pertinent to understanding how Islam is presented on campus.
Diversity in the Muslim Student Experience
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses the experience that Muslim students have of higher education in the UK. It is divided into three main sections, the first focusing on the individual level of analysis, the second and third on the collective. First, survey data is used to paint a picture of how Muslim students experience university and relate it to their identities as Muslims. Second, a theoretical framework for situating this experience within broader contexts is proposed, based around a three-fold distinction between governing discourses, contexts of teaching and learning, and the campus interaction order as stratified dimensions of university life. Third, this framework is built upon in introducing the six case studies from which our qualitative data is drawn. The four universities are described and compared, before the two Muslim colleges are also introduced.
Islam and Religious Diversity on Campus
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

The higher education sector must facilitate discussions around inter-religious co-existence on campus and beyond. In our research, participants used different words to describe their relationships with others beyond their faith, often using ‘inter-cultural’ and ‘inter-religious’ interchangeably. For some religious people their religion may be a matter of cultural or habitual identity rather than a conviction—such as those who describe themselves as marginally, culturally, or nominally religious. Our focus on inter-religious relations repositions Islam and Muslims as equally valued collaborators in the cause of promoting ‘good’ inter-religious relations. We identified three modes of prejudice. Firstly, we identified subtle forms of discrimination and unfair treatment; secondly, a climate of prejudice against Muslims; thirdly, evidenced discrimination, where it is possible to legally prove an act of discrimination. Personal encounters are crucial. Four types of diversity can be found on campus: pluralist, incumbent, fragmented, and indifferent, of which the first two are more harmonious. We recommend that the higher education sector aim for the plural diversity model and that it learns from the incumbent diversity of the Muslim colleges.
‘Radicalization’
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the ways in which the policy language of radicalization contributes to the securitization of the university campus. It addresses the phenomenon of ‘radicalization,’ not as a process of identity transformation but as a discursive element of campus life that refracts wider perceptions of risk and risky identities. The chapter offers a critical engagement with the UK Government’s Prevent Strategy, building on previous scholarship in highlighting the importance of addressing the social contexts of policy implementation. The remainder of the chapter analyses evidence gathered from across our six case study campuses, tracing how perceptions of Islam and Muslims are framed by the idea of ‘radicalization’, particularly via a heightened anxiety and suspicion about extremism and a complex stigmatization of Muslims. It considers institutional variations of these patterns, including among Muslim colleges, before commenting on how the emergent picture speaks to current sociological debates about surveillance.