bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aqueous‐enzymatic extraction of plum kernel oil
Authors: Picuric‐Jovanovic Ksenija , Vrbaski Zarko , Milovanovic Mirjana
Published: November 2006

An aqueous‐enzymatic extraction process of plum kernel oil was investigated on a laboratory scale, varying several processing parameters, with main emphasis on the oil yield. Efficient recovery of oil was related to three operations: pretreatment, enzymatic reaction and separation of oil. Maximum oil yield of about 70% (estimated by the Soxhlet method) was obtained at an enzyme concentration of 0.5%, extraction temperature of 45°C, pH 4.5, treatment time of 1 h and dilution ratio of 1:4. The aqueous‐enzymatic extraction did not have any determining effect on the fatty acid composition, tocopherol composition, iodine value and saponification value. The free fatty acid content was higher, while the phosphatide content and peroxide value were lower in the oil extracted by the aqueous‐enzymatic process as compared to the Soxhlet extracted samples.
Alkyl halides reactions with cathodes or with magnesium. Grignard reagent studied with radical clocks. What is the step competing with the isomerisation of the intermediate radical?
Authors: Kanoufi Frédéric , Combellas Catherine , Hazimeh Hassan , Mattalia  , Marchi‐Delapierre Caroline , Chanon Michel
Published: November 2006

In the mechanism of reaction of Grignard reagent formation for alkyl halides (RX), it is generally assumed that the alkyl radical, formed by the electron transfer from the metal to this halide, reacts rapidly with the paramagnetic MgX• species. The previous comparisons of aryl halides reactivity toward magnesium and their reactivity toward a cathode strongly suggested that MgX• species are not, for the aryl halides, compulsory to rationalise the observed facts. The aryl radicals formed by electron transfer from the metal to the aryl halide would undergo a rapid second electron transfer to yield carbanions transformed into RMgX by reaction with MgX2. In contrast, for the alkyl halides, the reduction of the rapidly formed alkyl radicals into carbanions has seldom been discussed as a possible fate for these radicals, the main discussed fates being dimerisation, disproportionation, hydrogen abstraction from the solvent, rearrangement or coupling with MgX• radicals. Two main differences distinguish the reactivity of alkyl halides from their aryl halides counterpart. First, the radical anions of aryl halides may have a given lifetime whereas electron transfer to alkyl halides is concerted with the cleavage of the molecule. Second, the aryl radicals display far stronger oxidising properties than the alkyl radicals. The counterpart of this property is that aryl carbanions display weaker reducing properties than the alkyl ones. In this report, putting in perspective Grignard reaction and the experimental results obtained with identical radical clocks in electrochemistry, we tentatively provide an answer to the question raised in the title. The comparison of electrochemical patterns of reactivity of selected alkyl halides and the evolutions of yields in the preparation of Grignard reagent suggest a new explanation for the lower yields generally observed when alkyl iodides are the starting substrates. It involves an autocatalytic reaction where carbanionic species formed from the alkyl radicals and diffusing away from the metal surface, transfer one electron to the alkyl halide; the result would be the creation of two radicals leading to an increased amount of by‐products. If the carbanionic mechanism were to be retained for the formation of alkyl Grignard reagent one would have to admit that the magnesium surface behaves as a cathode displaying high current densities reminiscent of microelectrodes. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Influence of transport on gas loss from freight containers under fumigation. Part I: Experimental investigation
Authors: Banks H. Jonathan , Sharp Alister K. , Irving Arthur R.
Published: November 2006

The rate of gas interchange between the atmosphere within a freight container and the external air has an important influence on the effectiveness of in‐container fumigation. When a container is exposed to the wind or is in motion, the rate of gas interchange may be much greater than that under static conditions. The effect of motion or wind on gas interchange was studied by observing gas loss from freight containers, both empty and loaded with rice, while stationary and while being transported by rail. The gas interchange rate was determined by measuring the rate of loss from the containers of either a combination of a fumigant, methyl bromide, and a relatively inert tracer gas, carbon monoxide, or of carbon monoxide alone. In loaded containers the difference between the loss rate constants of methyl bromide and carbon monoxide (0.29.0.03d−1) was within the range expected for the reaction of methyl bromide with rice. After allowing for gas loss caused by changes in temperature and pressure, the component of the interchange rate constant attributable to air motion was found to be proportional to gas‐tightness as measured by a steady‐state pressure test, and also to the relative air speed over the container. Under conditions of varying wind and train speed, the fraction of the initial concentration of gas remaining was found to be an exponential function of wind run past the container. When wind effects were not important, it was found to be an exponential function of distance travelled.
Response of American sycamore seedlings to maleic hydrazide and sodium chloride
Authors: Domir Subhash C. , Townsend Alden M.
Published: November 2006

American sycamore (Platanus occidentals L.) seedlings grown in a hydroponics system were treated with a growth regulator, maleic hydrazide (MH) or sodium chloride, or a combination of the two. Application of maleic hydrazide or sodium chloride retarded plant growth, but combined application did not show significant interaction effects. Treatment with both sodium chloride and MH reduced the dry weight of plant tissue to a greater extent than sodium chloride application alone. Elemental analyses of various plant parts revealed that MH was generally without effect on the level of either sodium or chloride ions. In old stem tissue, however, treatment with MH had no effect in the absence of sodium chloride but was associated with lower chloride content in its presence.
Cytological studies on the mode of action of systemic fungicides on the host pathogen complex barley‐powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei marchal)
Authors: Smolka Silvia , Wolf Gerhard
Published: November 2006

The effects of systemic fungicides on the host‐pathogen interface between barley and powdery mildew were studied using cytological methods and specific staining procedures. Propiconazole, etaconazole, bitertanol, triforine, imazalil, nuarimol, tridemorph and fenpropimorph, which are all inhibitors of sterol biosynthesis, stopped growth of the fungus 2 days after application and led to deposits of plant origin around haustoria; these contained polysaccharides, especially callose. This encapsulation resembled the reaction often observed in resistant plants. In contrast, pyrazophos and ethirimol, applied at reduced concentrations, inhibited the fungus at the haustorial stage but did not induce encapsulation. These results suggest that encapsulation is not simply a reaction to the previously damaged fungus, but may be an indirect effect of sterol biosynthesis‐inhibiting fungicides on the host metabolism which is elicited by the fungus. The results are discussed in the context of previous observations on the modes of action of these fungicides.
Modelling the behaviour of organic chemicals in soil and ground water
Authors: Leistra Minze
Published: November 2006

The development, testing and application of computer models for the behaviour of organic chemicals, especially pesticides, in soil and ground water has been reviewed. Detailed data are needed on the structure and properties of the soil and ground‐water systems, and on the flow of water through these systems. Adsorption and transformation of organic chemicals can be studied in the laboratory and the results introduced into the models. The mathematical techniques most frequently used for the solution of the differential equations are briefly discussed. Some models for the behaviour of pesticides in the root zone have been tested against results of field trials and some interesting deviations between computations and measurements emerged. Techniques for the simulation of the behaviour of organic chemicals in the ground‐water zone are also available. However input data for the models are often lacking, as are also results of field studies for testing the models.
Hydrolytic stability of chemicals—a comparison of EPA and OECD protocols and suggestions for a combined universal method
Authors: Grayson B. Terence
Published: November 2006

Comparison of the most recent EPA and OECD guidelines shows that there are small but significant differences in the protocols recommended for determining the rates of hydrolysis of industrial chemicals for environmental hazard assessment. The detailed conditions given in these guidelines, such as purity and concentration of active ingredient, co‐solvent, pH, buffer type and concentration, temperature, sampling times, and methods of analysis, have been examined in relation to their effects on the accuracy of the measured rates of hydrolysis. It is suggested that the two protocols could be made more similar while still obtaining results that will be sufficiently accurate for estimations of abiotic environmental persistence.
Synthesis and antifungal activity of imidazole‐1‐carboxylates
Authors: Imai Tetsuya , Takao Hisashi , Yamaguchi Kunio , Uchida Toshiro , Goto Takeshi , Umetsu Noriharu
Published: November 2006

A series of imidazole‐1‐carboxylates was prepared by reacting various alcohols with trichloromethyl chloroformate and imidazole or N,N'‐carbonyl‐diimidazole. They were tested for fungitoxic activity in vitro against two phytopathogenic fungi, Botrytis cinerea (grey mould) and Gibberella fujikuroi, and for preventive efficacy against grey mould on cucumber leaves. 1‐(4‐Substituted phenoxymethyl)‐2,2‐dimethylpropylimidazole‐1‐carboxylates showed excellent in‐vitro activity against B. cinerea, and moderate activity against G. fujikuroi, and some of them also effectively controlled grey mould in vivo. A 1H‐1,2,4‐triazole derivative corresponding to an imidazole derivative did not have any activity, while a thiocarboxylate corresponding to an imidazole carboxylate showed excellent activity against both B. cinerea and G. fujikuroi.
Fungitoxicity of 5‐aminoisoxazole‐4‐thiocyanate derivatives
Authors: Vicentini Chiara B. , Brandolini Vincenzo , Poli Tiziana , Guarneri Mario , Giori Paolo
Published: November 2006

3‐Methyl‐5‐(acyl/alkyl)aminoisoxazole‐4‐thiocyanates were prepared by rhodanation of N‐acyl/alkyl‐3‐methyl‐5‐isoxazolamines. These products were tested for antifungal activity against a series of phytopathogenic fungi of different taxonomic classes. Some of the compounds showed interesting in‐vitro activity. The more active compound in the in‐vitro test displayed a moderate preventive activity against Plasmopara viticola, Alternaria solani and Pyricularia recondita.
Product fragility and damage boundary theory
Authors: Burgess Gary J.
Published: November 2006

The theoretical basis for the widely accepted Damage Boundary Curve approach to product fragility and the applicability of its associated ASTM fragility assessment test procedure are first discussed. The basic assumption that the product can be modelled as a collection of linear spring/mass systems is shown to lead to specific characteristics of the product's damage boundary curve which are not borne out by the results of shock tests performed on some common consumer products. Discrepancies between theoretical predictions and experimental results are attributed to the inability of the model to account for progressive failure due to plastic deformation accumulated as a result of repeated shocks. An alternative damage boundary curve for a rigid/perfectly‐plastic model is then developed and shown to be a better estimate of fragility for a broader class of products based on the results of shock tests. Modifications to the standard ASTM test procedure required to obtain the damage boundary curve for this type of product are suggested. Finally, the damage boundary theory for a generalized model which incorporates both elastic and plastic properties is developed. The feature of the damage boundary curve which are shown to survive regardless of the choice of model for the product are the critical velocity change and critical acceleration parameters. Those which do not are the shape of the damage region and the associated test procedures.
Converting cracks in corrugated board. Effect of liner and fluting properties
Authors: Cavlin S. I. , Edholm B.
Published: November 2006

The crack propagation that occurs in corrugated board in connection with die cutting is analysed in order to identify the most crucial liner and fluting parameters and clarify their relative importance.

Based on an energy approach and the brittleness concept — Lc‐1(m‐1) — for the liner, a formula is derived. This formula is then verified exeprimentally for a large number of corrugated board qualities of different thicknesses and flat crush strengths as well as for liners with widely differing mechanical properties. The correlation can be regarded as very good.

The analysis shows that crack propagation is dependent on three material parameters —the brittleness of the liner, the compression strength of the fluting in relation to the tensile strength of the liner and the breaking strain of the liner. It is shown that crack propagation increases proportionally with increasing liner brittleness, provided that the other material parameters remain unchanged. The compression strength of the fluting layer contributes somewhat more than proportionally — by a power of 1.33. The crack propagation decreases with increased breaking strain, the relation is almost inversely proportional.

In practice, none of the above mentioned liner parameters car. be chosen independently of the others. The same applies to the fluting parameters. When estimating the expected crack propagation in a particular corrugated board quality, it is necessary to consider the contribution from all the mentioned parameters according to the formula.
The tightness of retail packaging: A selection of test methods to be used for a wide range of packed products
Authors: Camus Pierrick , Mullot Patrice , Veaux Michel
Published: November 2006

The tightness of retail packagings and of their closures is of primary importance both for domestic and industrial products. For this reason, a research programme designed to establish proper testing methods for a wide range of ‘packaging + product’ combinations, in order to check their tightness or permeability, was set up.

All the available testing methods were reviewed, the most reliable ones selected and their sensitivity determined. More than 200 combinations of ‘packaging + product’ belonging to five families of consumer products were examined and their tightness/permeability problems noted.

Finally, specific testing methods were assigned to each combination of ‘packaging + product’. All these examples are currently in use in the packaging laboratory as a guideline for the testing of every kind of packaging.
The effect of relative humidity on the permeability of toluene vapour through a multi‐layer coextruded film containing hydrophilic layers
Authors: Liu K. J. , Giacin J. R. , Hernandez R. J.
Published: November 2006

The effect of relative humidity on the diffusion of toluene vapour through a multi‐layer coextrusion film structure containing moisture sensitive hydrophilic barrier layers (nylon and EVAL) was evaluated. Two experimental test methods were employed. In Method I, the effect of relative humidity on the diffusion of toluene vapour was evaluated, where the test film was preconditioned to a fixed water activity prior to test. In Method II, the effect of water vapour as a co‐permeant was evaluated. Studies carried out by Method I showed the concentration dependency of the diffusion process and the importance of relative humidity on the diffusion of organic vapour through barrier structures. Water vapour was found to exhibit strong interactive effects with the moisture sensitive polymer layers of the laminate, which resulted in an increase in the diffusion of toluene vapour through the barrier structure. When the effect of water vapour as a co‐permeant was evaluated (Method II), the direction of permeation (i.e. surface exposed to high relative humidity and vapour concentration) markedly influenced the resultant barrier properties.
Assuring successful bonding to carton boards
Authors: Shires D. A.
Published: November 2006

This paper considers the factors that will influence successful adhesive bonding to carton‐boards. Although the paper assumes the use of carton‐board within the packaging industry, the majority of the arguments may be applied to other bonding applications.

The commonest adhesive types used within the packaging industry for carton‐boards are PVA‐type emulsion and hot‐melts. Other adhesives used will include animal glues, starches and dextrines, acrylics etc. Although these adhesives vary considerably in properties they share the majority of requirements for successful bonding.

The paper firstly considers bond structure and the basic modes of bond failure. It is surprising how often these are misunderstood or ignored when bonding problems occur. An inspection of the precise nature of a bond failure often suggests the cause of the problem, and at least eliminates a number of possible causes.

The paper then discusses the properties required of boards, board surfaces (be they printed, varnished, coated or otherwise) and adhesives for the successful manufacture of bonds. Techniques for evaluating trial bond performance and, finally, the need for good 'housekeeping' are considered.
The unique convertibility of paperboard
Authors: Cavlin S. I.
Published: November 2006

Although the tensile strength or bending stiffness of paperboard is high, in general the material possesses good fold, creasing or scoring properties. Both crease and fold resistance are surprisingly low, as is the rate of crack propagation along the deformation lines. The background to this characteristic is explained.

It is shown experimentally that the folding resistance before and after creasing, MB and M' respectively, are strongly correlated with the (in plane) compression strength of the material, approximately according to MB ˜τBC · τ2 and M'/MB ˜ ϵBc, where t is the board thickness, τBC and ϵBc are the compression breaking stress and strain respectively.

The strength in compression is several times lower than in tension, both in terms of stress and strain. Consequently, the manner in which the material yields, both in folding and in creasing fracture, originates from the compression regions, i.e. the concave parts of the deformation zone. The tension level at this time may only be 30–50% of its maximum. The breaking limit in tension is reached far later than in compression, and can effectively be ignored.

Combined shear stresses (out of plane) of various magnitudes, applied during folding, do not change the relationships found. The material is insensitive to shear stress at least up to folding angles of 90°.

Crack propagation along the cut, folded or creased lines is directly related to the in‐plane compression strength of the material, approximately according to l˜Lc−1(τBC/T87‐)2, where /is the crack length, τer is the tension breaking stress and τc‐1 is the brittleness characterized by the critical tensile span of the material, Lc.

The rate of crack propagation is greatly reduced in comparison to materials with more equal compression and tension strength and can be as little as 75 or 90%, due to the actual strength ratio. Additionally, paperboard has a relatively high critical span length, Lc, of the same order as that of various synthetic fibre composites, which reduces crack propagation even further.

It is necessary to keep the compression strength as low as possible in the development of paperboard; if compression strength needs to be raised, e.g. for end‐usability, tensile strength also needs to be increased, or brittleness reduced, at least in the outer layers of the material. If these adjustments are not made, the properties that make for good convertibility are degraded, according to the results presented.
Release of components from a plastic container during microwave heating
Authors: Dixon‐Anderson L , Hernandez R. J. , Gray I. , Harte B.
Published: November 2006

A thermoformed, microwavable container made from a polypropylene/Saran®/polypropylene coextruded material was selected as the test container. Samples of the specimen were microwaved in sealed glass vials for periods ranging from 3 to 7 min. After heating, the head space of the vials was sampled and analysed.

The microwaving process was carried out in an Amana Radarange® microwave oven on full power. Sample surface temperature as a function of microwaving time and the quantitative identification of volatile compounds released by the polymer during microwaving were determined. Five major components were detected and quantified in the head space of the vial using gas chromatography. The quantity of each component increased with increased microwaving time. Using mass spectrometry, the five components were identified; four were hydrocarbons and the fifth was butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Release of organic components during brief microwaving of polymers may be a near‐the‐surface phenomenon.
Browning and crisping theory: Could microwaves brown food?
Authors: Sheppard R. J.
Published: November 2006

It is well known that the microwave oven has the ability to cook food quickly but unfortunately it tends not to produce the crisp and brown surface often required by the consumer. The present paper describes some of the scientific principles behind browning and crisping. The way in which microwaves cook food is explained and compared with the behaviour of the conventional oven.

The paper concludes by considering the possibility that future microwave ovens could cook food with a brown and crisp surface similar to that achieved in the conventional oven.
Mechanical stresses on cargo during ground operations in air transport
Authors: Trost Thomas
Published: November 2006

Mechanical stresses from the shocks and vibrations to which air cargo is exposed during transport and handling at airports have been investigated. Field trials were carried out at Arlanda Airport, Stockholm, and John F. Kennedy Airport, New York.

It was found that when products are transported in the airport area, they are exposed to much higher stresses than during actual flight. Especially severe conditions were registered during transport at John F. Kennedy Airport.

Measured stresses are related to the ground and mode of driving within the airport area, as well as to location on the pallet wagon.

Guidelines as regards design of realistic, simulating test programs for product and package design are reported.

Future development possibilities and suggestions for further research within the area are discussed.
Folding ratio and erection of folding boxes under production conditions
Authors: Hohmann H. J.
Published: November 2006

The bending ratio describes the technical quality of creased cartons. In comparison with the fold‐ratio of Grebe and Grohmann it has practical advantages, moreover it is physically clearly defined. The applicability of the bending ratio under production conditions has been tested by erecting experiments in a Rovema cartoning machine. The frequency of failure during the machine erecting tests and the bowing of the side walls of the boxes were compared with the bending ratio for different creased cartons. An optimum condition during the tests could be realized for a ratio of 0.6. It could be proved that the bending ratio is useful to describe the technical quality of crease of folding boxes.
The importance of the compression test procedure for plastic drums for dangerous goods
Authors: Andre P. , Veaux M. , Victor J.
Published: November 2006

Packagings for the transport of dangerous goods are tested by four tests:‐ free fall, leakproofness, hydraulic pressure and stacking. However, the test procedures can be interpreted in different ways, particularly the stacking test. Some test authorities apply a guided load to the top of the package and others, including the LNE in France, use non‐guided loads.

The objective of recent research carried out at LNE was to evaluate the risk (in terms of stack stability for dangerous goods packagings) if the stacking tests are performed with guided loads rather than non‐guided loads.

The stacking tests were carried out on a limited number of plastic drums (200 of four types) submitted for qualification testing using the above four tests, with either guided or non‐guided loads. From the results we conclude that:

for the transport of dangerous goods of Danger Group I, the field of use is not altered when tested by either procedure.

with goods of Danger Groups II and III, the use of either procedure does not alter the position as far as transport is concerned. However, there is a risk in warehousing: the non‐guided procedure being preferred.
Stability criteria for column stacks
Authors: Löschau Gerhard
Published: November 2006

Today, column stacks in the warehouse usually consists of unit loads and are regarded generally as being sufficiently stable. But the stability of such stacks may vary according to the compression resistance of an individual unit or by the toppling stability of the complete column. To evaluate the stability of a given column, or to calculate the critical stack dimensions, different methods are described and compared on the basis of the elastic modulus in compression, the inclination angle of an individual unit under a central test load, or the natural frequency of a freely oscillating complete stack after a previous lateral deviation. This results in a variety of useful procedures to give an approximate estimate of the toppling stability of stacked unit loads and packages.
Knife‐edge life in packaging machinery for cross‐cutting plastic films
Authors: Hülsmann Th.
Published: November 2006

In the cross‐cutting of plastic films, the edge life of knives ends when the cutting‐edge geometry in the transition zones is deformed to such an extent that a complete separation of the packaging material web is no longer possible. In nine long‐term tests under almost field conditions, those knife and machine parameters were investigated that determine the development of these zones. It is shown that longer knife‐edge lives can be obtained with high contact pressures, high angles of mesh, low dihedral angles and low cutting speeds. Lateral relative movements of the packaging material web proved to be a distinct improvement. The knife‐edge life criterion was determined by the presence of transitional zones of ‘wear’ at the extremes of the cutting zone. The quality of cutting edge and value of cutting pressures do not provide reliable information on the wearing condition of the knives.
Vibration simulation of transportation environment to predict failure in portable tanks
Authors: Singh S. Paul , Larson W. A.
Published: November 2006

The purpose of this study was to simulate transport vibrations and to develop a technique to evaluate the performance of chemical tanks that had been approved by existing US Department of Transportation test methods. The containers tested were six different types of portable tanks used to ship chemicals. The tanks had a capacity of 250–300 gallons (USA) and contained liquids with a specific gravity of 1.1–1.2. Fractures were seen in some of these tanks as a result of transportation. These were attributed to high vibration magnification factors developed during transport by truck. The bottom panels were stiffened by providing added thickness to the plate and also by welding the elbow to the bottom plate. This reduced the magnification factors and increased trip life.
Interaction between packaging materials and foods
Authors: Mannheim Chaim H. , Passy Nehama
Published: November 2006

Most food products can interact to some degree with their packaging. Migration, permeation and absorption are the mechanisms that determine the extent of this interaction, which is affected by temperature, storage time and other environmental parameters.

The major challenge facing food and packaging manufacturers is to ensure the wholesomeness and safety of their products, so that the package‐related factors, including chemical and physical integrity, will be controlled, ensuring that a safe product reaches the consumer in optimal condition.
Evaluations of abrasion resistance in transport packagings
Authors: Teshima Tadashi , Kawachi Yoshiteru , Kobayashi Kanehiro
Published: November 2006

In order to examine the equivalency of package abrasion caused by loading and vibration during actual transport and that generated by laboratory vibration testing, the results of transport trials were compared with horizontal vibration tests in the laboratory using sample packages made of white corrugated f ibreboard printed with checkered patterns. The following results were obtained.

(i) The relationship between the abrasion occurring in the transport trials and that generated in the horizontal vibration tests at an acceleration of 1 G is that the average transport trial is equivalent to a 5 min laboratory vibration test. The maximum abrasion found in the transport trials was almost equivalent to a vibration test performed for 20 min. Thus we conclude that a 20 min laboratory vibration test can be used as a reference for package abrasion in transport.

(ii) The vibration variables of frequency and contact surface pressure were also analysed at a low horizontal vibration frequency, and an acceleration of 0.5 G (i.e. a high speed of rubbing). An abnormally high abrasion ratio was found with the high contact surface pressure.

(iii) The average height and number of drops caused by handling during transport were: flat drops from 6 cm on nine occasions; edge drops from 20 cm on 12 occasions; and corner drops from 29 cm on three occasions. At heights over 30 cm, where damage to packages can be anticipated, three drops occurred, from 40 cm including a maximum drop of 72 cm. These levels can be considered as equivalent to Level III, a standard load, of the JIS X 0200 Distribution Classification.
Aseptic integrity and microhole determination of packages by gas leakage detection
Authors: Axelson Lena , Cavlin Sören
Published: November 2006

In principle, an aseptic package should protect against any type of microbe penetration. It means that each microhole must be less than about 0.5μm in diameter. In practice this critical limit may be much higher, owing to various factors, and consequently a controlling system does not necessarily have to have such a sensitivity.

Controlling systems based on gas leakage detection have been suggested. In this report the basic validity range of such systems, including either mass spectrometer detection or an infra‐red spectrometer, is analysed and various crucial factors are clarified as a basis for technical development.

The actual control principle assumes that transmission of gases through the package originates only from microholes and cracks and that gas permeation through the packaging material is negligible.

However, in practice the gas permeation may be considerable. For example, a package having a polyethylene (LDPE) barrier layer of 50μm in thickness has a gas permeation comparable to what is coming out through a pinhole of 10μm in diameter, and accordingly only much bigger microholes can be determined, with reference to calculations presented. If the barrier is improved by a Saran® layer (PVDC) of 25μm the gas permeation is still disturbing and only holes bigger than about 5μm in diameter may be detected. If instead the barrier is improved by an aluminium layer, gas permeation is negligible in most cases, and the basic principle of the gas leak detection systems is valid.

Infra‐red spectrometer based systems theoretically need at least a test time of 0.5 min and in practice much more to detect a microhole of 10μm in diameter‐to collect a sufficient quantity of trace gas. Mass spectrometer based systems are in principle not testing time limited assuming a rapid enough vacuum pump can be arranged and that moisture interferences do not arise from the packaging material or from the packaged contents.

Further, some aspects on the necessity of introduction a 100% control system, vis‐a‐ vis a statistical control system, are given in terms of producer's and consumer's risks. About 100 packagings/h must be tested at ordinary production speed (1000–3000 packagingslh−1) to check accepted quality levels of 0.1% defectives. At higher quality levels, i.e. less than 0.1% defectives, the sample size needed increases rapidly towards 100% of the total production.
Measurement of permeability for packaging films to d‐limonene vapour at low levels
Authors: Apostolopoulos Dimitrios , Winters Nick
Published: November 2006

A method that utilizes permeation cells in conjunction with gas chromatography was developed to measure permeation of d‐limonene vapour through packaging materials at very low gradient concentrations. The same method, when properly adjusted, can be used to determine the effect of temperature and relative humidity on permeation.

The suitability of the method for its intended use was demonstrated by generating permeation data for polyester (Mylar) and oriented polypropylene (OPP) films at d‐limonene vapour concentration gradients as low as 0.54 ppm. The ability to measure permeability at such low concentration levels, where the permeability coefficient approaches a virtually constant value, is of considerable importance. The permeation behaviour of packaging materials at even lower concentrations, most typical of foods, can be obtained by extrapolation. Thus, flavour loss through the package and shelf‐life can be estimated in a more reliable manner.
Study of static cushioning properties and construction of a database for static cushioning properties
Authors: Teragishi Yoshiharu , Takada Toshio , Nogami Ryosuke
Published: November 2006

The rapid advance of computerization in industrial package design has led to a strong tendency toward CAD/CAM systems using personal computers for quick design and trial manufacturing.

New tools based on a database of the cushioning properties of packaging materials will be needed for the design of package cushioning.

Using a compression testing machine with computer control, an attempt has been made to construct such a database with registered characteristics for 47 samples of foamed polyethylene, foamed polypropylene and foamed polyethylene‐polystyrene.

This database offers the following functions and is recorded on floppy disk:

(i) calculation of static cushioning properties (value);

(ii) print‐out of the computed results;

(iii) drawing characteristic figures for designing package cushioning;

(iv) indicating optimum value of static cushioning properties;

(v) additional registration of new samples.
Effect of sampling method on the level of styrene monomer migrated from polystyrene packaging material
Authors: Linssen J. P. H. , Reitsma J. C. E. , Roozen J. P.
Published: November 2006

Different types of polystyrene packaging material were tested for styrene monomer migration into corn oil using three sampling methods: immersion sampling, vapour phase sampling and utilization of sampling cells. For high‐impact‐grade polystyrene, immersion sampling resulted in the highest level of migrated styrene monomer. Vapour phase sampling was of considerable interest, because migration was only slightly lower than with immersion sampling. Sampling cells gave the lowest levels of styrene monomer in oil. However, when clear crystal polystyrene was tested, little difference was found between the three sampling methods.
Microbiological quality of aseptic packaging and the effect of pin‐holes on sterility of aseptic products
Authors: Kamei Toshiro , Sato Jun , Nakai Yoshie , Natsume Akemi , Noda Katsuhiko
Published: November 2006

The microbiological quality of aseptic packaging (the board for long‐life milk) was good and viable counts were under 50cfu per package. The percentage of defective samples that had viable microorganisms after 7–14 days of pre‐incubation was 54% (one pin‐hole) and 54% (ten pin‐holes) for coffee beverage packed in board B and 17% (one pin‐hole) and 17% (10 pin‐holes) for milk packed in board A. The differences in the percentage of defective samples between milk and coffee beverage and between board A and board B were significant, but no difference was observed between one and ten pin‐holes. An increase in fat content or a decrease in protein content increased the permeation of milk components through the pin‐holes. The microorganisms isolated from the products with artificial pin‐holes were f actobacillus sp. (52%), Streptococcus sp. (48 %) and Enterobacteriaceae (34%).
System for cushion design and testing
Authors: Chapman Ray , Trost Thomas , Cavlin SöRen
Published: November 2006

A computerized system for cushion design, including material testing is presented. The system attempts to expand on the shortfalls of other cushion design programs available at present by allowing the input of data on protrusions (small parts protruding from the major surface) and more latitude on the design of cushion systems.

The system is most useful when the product is a regular six‐sided polygon, but it can be used also with non‐symmetrical products. It can be used to specify cushioning based on encapsulation, end caps, corner pads or face pads.
Comment—a note on expert systems packaging expertise on a disk
Authors: Twede Diana , Helferich Omar Keith , Young Steve
Published: November 2006

Many packaging decisions are routine, but require a high level of expertise. The research described in this paper explores the use of expert systems for automating routine package development tasks. It begins with a general discussion of expert systems and outlines some feasible packaging applications in design, prediction, problem diagnosis, and management control. A PC‐based prototype system is described, which is composed of six modules related to the following tasks: performance requirements, packaging solutions, testing specifications, testing results analysis, vendor specifications and procurement.
Studies on the behaviour of microorganisms in sponge cake during anaerobic storage (studies on protection against microbiological deterioration of packaged food part xx iv)
Authors: Naito Shigezo , Okada Yasuji , Yamaguchi Naohiko
Published: November 2006

The protective effect of an oxygen absorber (commercial names: Vitalon LH‐250, Vitalon GSA‐250, produced by Toa Kasei Industrial Co.) and an alcohol generating agent (commercial names: Antimold 102, Antimold E, produced by Froint Sangyo Co.) on the growth of microorganisms in sponge cake stored at 25 °C for 120 days was investigated. In the testing of the oxygen absorbers (oxygen‐free) and the alcohol generating agents (alcohol), each sponge cake was inoculated with 3.1 × 1010 cells of the yeast Hansenula anomola IFO 1760 and was preserved in an air‐tight bag (KET) with the oxygen absorbers and/or alcohol generating agent.

The results obtained were as follows. In the case of sponge cake without oxygen absorber or alcohol generating agent, bacteria and yeast (including inoculated yeast) in the sponge cake rapidly increased at 25 °C for 30 days. However, in the oxygen‐free and alcohol‐generating cases, the changes of bacteria and yeast in the sponge cake were slight. The growth of bacteria and yeast was reduced considerably by the use of carbon dioxide generating oxygen absorbers or alcohol generating oxygen absorbers.
New package system for fresh berries
Authors: Singh S. Paul
Published: November 2006

This paper presents the design criterion and evaluation of a new package system designed to ship fresh strawberries and raspberries. the study describes the evaluation of the new package systems for pre‐cooling after field picking. in addition data is presented describing damage to berries in the form of bruising and cutting owing to vibration in shipment. the paper compares this new concept to the traditional polyethylene injection moulded baskets used in the usa for the past 30 years.
A comparison of leaf‐spring with aircushion trailer suspensions in the transport environment
Authors: Pierce Charles D. , Singh S. Paul , Burgess Gary
Published: November 2006

Packaging engineers need to be able to accurately determine the forces present in the shipping environment in order to protect packaged goods. The purpose of this study was to determine the vertical vibration levels measured in three separate truck‐trailer suspension systems; conventional leaf‐spring, conventional air‐ride and damaged air‐ride. The main conclusion reached in this study is that the air‐ride suspension when maintained gives lower power density (PD) levels on all road surfaces studied. A damaged air‐ride suspension and leaf‐spring suspension are very similar in response frequencies, although the damaged air‐ride produces higher vibration levels at lower frequencies.
Accurate determination of the mean relative humidity in controlled climates at high humidities (new method)
Authors: De Koeijer A. J.
Published: November 2006

The measurement of the relative humidity (RH) at high levels to the desired accuracy is still a problem, especially for levels above 90% RH. The reasons for this are:

The accuracy of the standard apparatus is lower at high RH than at moderate and low RH;

The need for accurate measurement of the RH in moisture controlled rooms is greater at high RH than at lower RH, because for moisture sensitive products, such as fibreboard boxes and certain horticultural products, the influence of a minor deviation in RH on the properties of these products is considerably greater at high RH than at moderate and low RH.
Testing of aseptic machines for efficiency of sterilization of packaging materials by means of hydrogen peroxide
Authors: Cerny G.
Published: November 2006

Aseptic packaging machinery fills heat sterilized foods into sterilised packaging under aseptic conditions. One of the main components of the aseptic machinery is the means of sterilizing the packaging material and the efficiency of this is of paramount importance. A method of measuring this efficiency using Bacillus subtilis SA22 is described and evaluated.
The effect of microhole size and foodstuff on the microbial integrity of aseptic plastic cups
Authors: Ahvenainen R. , Mattila‐Sandholm T. , Axelson L. , Wirtanen G.
Published: November 2006

Penetration of a motile microbe, Enterobacter aerogenes, was investigated through aseptic packages filled with milk, meat soup, sausage gravy and soft agar. Penetration was dependent on the microhole diameter and on the viscosity of the foodstuff in the package. The smallest microhole diameter permitting the passage of E. aerogenes in this study was 5 μm when the packages were filled with milk and the microhole length was 40 μm. While the packages were filled with soft agar, meat soup and sausage gravy, the smallest penetrable microhole was 10, 20 and 25 μm in diameter, respectively. On the other hand, even the microholes of 100μm diameter were not penetrated by E. Aerogenes in every package tested. This may have been owing to blockage of the microholes by the test foodstuff thus hindering the penetration of bacteria.
Measurement of ethylene permeability of plastic films
Authors: Piergiovanni Luciano , Scolaro Mauro , Fava Patrizia
Published: November 2006

This work presents the development of a method to measure the ethylene permeability of plastic films used in vegetable packaging, by exploiting the adsorption and desorption properties of a synthetic sodium zeolite. In order to establish the best conditions and requirements for the procedure, the ethylene adsorption and desorption by the zeolite was studied at different temperatures and partial pressures. The method was used to study the ethylene permeability of two common cling films (EVA and plasticized PVC) and shown to be both economical and accurate.
Matching the proof to achieve quality‐recent developments
Authors: Scott‐Taggart Marcus
Published: November 2006

A few years ago it would have been difficult to justify the development of a digital proofing system without reference to a filmless environment.

To go from original to plate, or cylinder, is not viable commercially without a method of hard copy approval before the production run. However, the technologically sophisticated concept of direct‐to‐plate publishing is far from being the only example of the need for digital proofing.

Pre‐press companies have embraced electronic methods of working extensively and their adoption is growing rapidly in packaging production, advertising, graphic design and publishing. The demand for controlled, colour, hard copy is large enough to justify attention at several levels.
Oxygen permeability at high temperatures and relative humidities
Authors: Axelson‐Larsson Lena
Published: November 2006

It is a well‐known fact that the permeability of polymer materials increases as the temperature increases. As the temperature drops to its original level, the permeability in many instances does the same. When packages are processed in an autoclave, the material will be exposed to both high temperature and high relative humidity. This can strongly affect the barrier of some materials, e.g. ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and polyamide (PA), because the water will act as a plasticizer.

A current project is now studying the permeability of different materials after sterilization. The aim of the project is to determine the permeability of different materials during sterilization at autoclave conditions and during storage. Factors that can reduce the negative effect on the barrier are also examined.
Organoleptic and migrational properties of pp films produced with various amounts of scrap
Authors: Lox F. , Van Dael S. , Machiels V.
Published: November 2006

Many polymeric materials, e.g. polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE), are processed with 20% scrap added to the virgin material. Polypropylene (PP) scrap seems to be very susceptible to the generation of new odorous products during the thermoforming processes. This study is aimed at defining the highest possible reapplication rate of PP scrap. Films made of 20‐60% scrap plus virgin material and of 100% scrap were investigated; six different PP blends were used in this work. First of all the migrational behaviour was assessed in contact with various food simulants at 40 C for 10 days. Migration was followed using our spectrophotometric method and finally determined by measuring the residue left after evaporation of the simulant. The organoleptic properties were also evaluated following the NBN S29‐001 standard. The results show that organoleptic changes were detected at such an intensity as to eliminate plastic for food contact purposes, but as yet no changes in migrational behaviour have been found. The results show clearly that the addition of more than 30% regenerated PP is not acceptable. Investigations are continuing to detect and to determine the hazardous products.
Application of frequency domain analysis in the testing of packages
Authors: Sek M. A. , Rouillard V.
Published: November 2006

The sine sweep is a standard method of excitation used experimentally to evaluate the transmissibility characteristics of a package/product. This paper critically analyses this method, points out potential sources of error and shows the advantages of frequency domain analysis. The measurement of transmissibility of packages/products as the frequency response function (FRF) from auto‐ and cross‐spectra is demonstrated. Two ways of broadband excitation are investigated, namely white noise and impulse excitation.