bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Comprehensive Typology for Program Evaluation
Authors: Chen Huey-Tsyh
Published: March 2007

Chen begins his discussion by challenging the basic formative/ summative dichotomy introduced by Scriven, arguing that it has been confusing. He analyzes Scriven's 1991 paper, "Beyond ..." which, he feels, clarifies some of the prior confusions, but creates others. Based on what he sees as limitations in Scriven's dichotomy, Chen offers his own conceptual framework that he argues allows more complete classification of evaluation types. He proposes a typology formed by crossing two evaluation functions ("improvement" and "assessment") with two program stages ("process" and "outcome"), resulting in four basic types of evaluation that he sees as comprehensive enough to encompass the breadth of evaluations that practitioners encounter, while providing a framework that can accommodate mixed-type evaluations.
Evaluation as Advocacy
Authors: Greene Jennifer C.
Published: March 2007

The argument advanced in this article is that advocacy in evaluation is inevitable. This is so when advocacy is understood not as program partisanship or contaminating bias, but rather as a value commitment to a particular regulative ideal (of rational decision making, interpretive meaning, community activism). The regulative ideal for evaluation advanced in this discussion is a commitment to democratic pluralism. These ideas are illustrated and substantiated with three case examples.

The question is not whether we should take sides, since we inevitably will, but rather whose side are we on? (Becker, 1967, p. 239).
Mixed Method Evaluation: A Case Study
Authors: Waysman Mark , Savaya Riki
Published: March 2007

While there is growing interest in employing mixed methods in evaluation research, there are few documented examples describing how to implement this in practice. This article describes the use of a mixed method approach to evaluate a nonprofit agency that provides organizational consultation and other support services to nonprofit organizations in Israel. It uses conceptualizations proposed by Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (1989) and by Rossman and Wilson (1994) to discuss the unique benefits of such methodology and also addresses the limitations and disadvantages of mixed method evaluation.
The Collegiate Shield: Was the Movement Purely Academic?
Authors: Hawley Thomas J.
Published: March 2007

College education for police officers has been a noble experiment in the move to professionalize law enforcement. Although the educational level of police officers has increased, attempts to achieve professional status and provide society with law enforcement agencies employing only college- educated officers have failed. This paper explores the history and philoso phy of college education for police officers and examines the reasons why, to some degree, the movement has not succeeded. Results suggest that in their zeal, the various commission reports failed to identify and consider five factors: the autonomy of police administrators, that agencies should be representative of the communities they serve, education's effect on pro fessionalism, the necessity of higher education and motivational factors associated with educational attainment. More disturbing are officers' per ceptions that agencies do not support their educational pursuits.
Kangaroo Care Compared to Incubators in Maintaining Body Warmth in Preterm Infants
Authors: Ludington-Hoe Susan M. , Nguyen Nhuha , Swinth Joan Y. , Satyshur Rosemarie D.
Published: March 2007

Many preterm infants cared for in incubators do not experience Kangaroo Care (KC), skin-to-skin contact with their mothers, due to fear of body heat loss when being held outside the incubator. A randomized clinical trial of 16 KC and 13 control infants using a pretest-test-posttest design of three consecutive interfeeding intervals of 2.5 to 3.0 h duration each was conducted over 1 day. Infant abdominal and toe temperatures were measured in and out of the incubator; maternal breast temperature was measured during KC. Repeated measures ANOVA showed no change in abdominal temperature across all periods and between groups. Toe temperatures were significantly higher during KC than incubator periods, and maternal breast temperature met each infant’s neutral thermal zone requirements within 5 min of onset of KC. Preterm infants similar to those studied here will maintain body warmth with up to 3 h of KC.
Prevention of Birth Defects: Folic Acid
Authors: Williamson Roger
Published: March 2007

Neural tube defects (NTDs) comprise an important category contributing to infant mortality. While some NTDs may be due to identifiable inherited or specific environmental factors, most are multifactorial, with genetic and environmental factors contributing to their occurrence. Folic acid has been found to have a protective effect against the recurrence and occurrence of NTDs. In addition to natural dietary sources, in the United States, all enriched grain products now are fortified with folic acid. In addition, all women who could become pregnant are recommended to consume 0.4 mg of folic acid daily. Despite these measures, not all women of childbearing age have added sufficient folic acid to their diets or take a vitamin supplement. Challenges remain regarding educating women of childbearing age about the potential health benefits of adequate folic acid consumption.
The Return of the Excessive
Authors: Nielsen Tom
Published: March 2007

As the cities continue to grow, through the addition of more or less controlled enclaves, they develop into highly differentiated, heterogeneous urban fields of centers and that which lies in between. It seems like a mechanism or an unknown natural law is working against the homogenization and “in-formation” of the city for which the urban planning is working. The in-between spaces beyond the urban centers are made up by the part of the material structure of the city that cannot be defined positively and therefore is in excess. These backsides of the city are used and reappropriated as alternative public spaces, accommodating the rituals and meetings of people. As an alternative to the possibilities of a public appearance, offered by the increasingly staged and controlled primary public spaces of the urban centers, the alternative public exists at the backside of the spaces of the primary public and the way that people use the superfluous landscapes is a way of consuming them. These superfluous landscapes almost call for such consumption, just as they deny any idea of the disappearance of the urban heterogeneity. The article tries to understand and describe this through Bataillian ideas of heterogeneity and formlessness. The superfluous landscapes are seen as something that haunts not only the planners but the city itself, as unseen and undeveloped parts of the urban field that has to be understood as a part of an ongoing process of excretion and reappropriation. In the article, these ideas are related to observations of a concrete example—two hills of surplus soil.
Computer Mediated Conferencing for Management Learning at the Open University
Authors: Salmon Gilly
Published: March 2007

Computers and telecommunications are having a huge impact on businesses. They are also beginning to have some impact on the education and training of managers. The Open University's Business School recognizes that management learning has to keep up with changes in businesses, and is now using this technology for teaching. In particular, computer mediated conferencing is an important new way of sharing, constructing and transmitting knowledge among students taking the University s management courses. The Business School has undertaken large-scale online training for its management tutors as part of an action research study. This article presents some of the findings from the tutors' and students' points of view, and discusses the problems of online conferencing, as well as the potential benefits.
Critical Pedagogy in the `New Paradigm'
Authors: Dehler Gordon E. , Welsh M. Ann , Lewis Marianne W.
Published: March 2007

This article argues for the adoption of critical pedagogy by management educators. This change not only recognizes the Profound shifts in competitiveness that have already occurred in the business environment, but would also equip students as independent learners. Students become capable of a complicated understanding of the historical, social, political, and philosophical traditions underlying contemporary conceptions of organizations and management. Truly critical pedagogy necessitates changes in educational roles, curricular content, and classroom practices to create a learning space that supports and encourages students to engage in critical commentary. This space emerges when power in the classroom is de-centered, disciplinary borders become permeable, and issues are problematized. Two examples of implementing critical pedagogy in content (text selection) and process (paradoxical thinking) are presented to illustrate the potential for the transformation of organizational arrangements. Critical pedagogy in management education possesses the capacity for developing students with a greater sensitivity to the emancipatory and transformational possibilities in the future.
Watch Your Back
Authors: Case Peter , Selvester Ken
Published: March 2007

This article attempts a critical reappraisal of the part played by `trust' in management education. Our main contention is that trust is being perceptibly eroded by a range of factors that find their genesis in a wider set of social relations within contemporary capitalism. Accordingly, we set about trying to account for the diminution of trust in social theoretical terms. Having constructed an analytical matrix we then apply our reasoning to specific instances of mistrust in an educational context. Drawing on documented student reflections and other qualitative data we seek to demonstrate how broader social trends are being `holographically' rehearsed and reproduced in the micro-politics of the university classroom. Our `representative anecdotes' give the lie to the increasing regulation and legalization of educational relationships. The concluding section adopts a deliberately polemical tone and we end by asking some searching questions concerning the future of management education in universities.
Student Dogmatism in Business Administration: Concern for Open Mindedness in Decision Making, Course Success and Satisfaction
Authors: Polczynski J.J. , Shirland L.E.
Published: March 2007

A two-part study was completed. In part one, an introduction to business course was structured to enhance the open-mindedness of 86 college students. In part two, effects of dogmatic thinking with 57 business administration majors enrolled in a business policy course were analysed with respect to course success, and satisfaction with course structure and instructor directiveness. Results indicated that open-minded thinking can be fostered in a business course environment. Additionally, while it appeared that participation in a general business curriculum creates a climate tending toward more open-mindedness, effects of dogmatism hampers overall academic success. Implications for open-mindedness and decision making in the business environment are discussed.
How 'self' directed is self-directed learning?
Authors: Robertson Gill
Published: March 2007

A fundamental premise of action and experiential learning is that the learners set their own goals, and plan and evaluate their progress towards them. But where does self-direction end, and direction by the facilitator begin?
The Strategic Role of Management Development
Authors: Buckley John , Kemp Nigel
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the strategic role of management development and the forms this strategic role can take. These include initiatives at the Corporate, Strategic Business Unit, and Functional Levels within an organisation. Each form of management development as strategy is explored by reference to recent theoretical and empirical accounts, and illustrated and grounded in experiences gained from THORN-EMI Home Electronics. It is concluded that management development as strategy has an important role to play in promoting organisational success, in developing individual and organisational effectiveness, and in differentiating the quality of a company and its people from competing organisations.
Beyond the Tangible in Management Education and Development
Authors: Snell Robin , James Kim
Published: March 2007

We call for the fostering of a genuine plurality of outlooks and approaches among providers of management education and development. We note that, despite a considerable amount of criticism, one particular system of thought about appropriate subject-matter has predominated in the major business schools, and as a consequence there has been a tendency for the range of acceptable teaching approaches to be restricted. Although we acknowledge that there is plurality of provision in some locations, we note that in others there is a reining back towards more conventional forms of provision. We look to psychological theory for clues regarding why there is resistance to pluralism in many institutions providing management education, and to second-stage feminism for a vision of institutional politics that can challenge as appropriate, but also negotiate and work with the managerial and professional development of management educators.
Competence-Based Management Awards in Higher Education?
Authors: Boddy David , Paton Robert , MacDonald Sylvia
Published: March 2007

This paper reports on a project set up to assess the feasibility of introducing a competence-based management award in a university business school. The school has a long-established Executive MBA programme-could it be adapted to use the potential benefits of competence-based development and what issues would need to be dealt with? To find out, we worked with an advisory group of major employers, and designed and ran a pilot competence-based Certificate equivalent to Year 1 of the 3-year part-time MBA programme. The lessons of this pilot, and the evidence arising from our work with members of the advisory group, are set out in this paper. They indicate that linking workbased learning with a recognized qualification is more difficult and costly than expected, and the paper shows how we now plan to overcome those difficulties.
The Learning Organization, Power, Politics and Ideology Introduction
Authors: Coopey John
Published: March 2007

Three main criticisms of the 'learning organization' are developed in this paper. First, it is argued that the concept is badly flawed because of its proponents' apolitical assumptions. This leads them to neglect the political activity likely to be encountered in a learning organization, activity which will tend to frustrate the learning aims. Second, while their model allows for greater employee empowerment the amount will probably be relatively modest in real terms. On the other hand, the power of managers, especially those at the apex of the organization, is likely to be enhanced by their privileged access to any extra informational and symbolic resources that are created by individual and collective learning processes. The third, and potentially the most damning, criticism is that the concept of the 'learning organization' is expressed in ways that provide raw material for managerial ideology, potentially constraining the meanings and actions of other employees so that they support the interests of the dominant coalition.
Scripts, Talk and Double Talk
Authors: Mangham Iain L.
Published: March 2007

This paper is about the role of talk in the creation, development and instating of a new script within an organization. For a long time I have been interested in how we recognize the patterns of behaviour that we have become accustomed to, how we sustain them and how, if we so choose, we modify them. Elsewhere I have made extensive use of the metaphor of the theatre in characterizing these processes, depicting the social world we inhabit as a place of settings, scenes, acts and scripts and ourselves as dramatists/dramaturges, performers, audiences and critics (Mangham, 1978, 1987, 1988; Mangham and Overington, 1986). In my work with members of organizations, I have utilized this frame to invite them to step back from their own performances, appraise them, rewrite them, try out the new scripts and work towards a long run of their new creations. Here I report on the role of talk in one such intervention.
Toward a Social Understanding of How People Learn in Organizations
Authors: Gherardi Silvia , Nicolini Davide , Odella Francesca
Published: March 2007

In this article we submit the view that learning in the workplace is to be understood both as a cognitive and a social activity. We support our claim by introducing and discussing the concept of `situated curriculum', a specific form of social order that instructs the socialization of novices within the context of ongoing work activities. We describe both the nature and features of the situated curriculum, discussing the factors that make it characteristic of a specific community of practice. Finally, after discussing some of the specific conceptual and practical problems related to the disclosure of the `situated curriculum', we shall illustrate some of the implications of the notion of the `situated curriculum' for the study of learning in organizations.
Making Sense of Managerial Work and Organizational Research Processes with Caroline and Terry
Authors: Watson Tony J.
Published: March 2007

The story of Caroline and Terry is a tale of a manager and a participant-observer researcher. It is also a tale of organizational politics, gender relations and the relationships between human resource managers and other managers. The story is in part a fiction. But, at the same time, it is a piece of social-science writing. It is `made up' but it is also `true'. It uses imagination but is also theoretically informed and draws upon research fieldwork. The story demonstrates how ethnographic research accounts can be written in a way that bridges the genres of creative writing and social science. This `ethnographic fiction science' has eight characteristics, four of which give it a fictional dimension and four of which make it social scientific.
Organization: The Relevance and the Limitations of Elias
Authors: Newton Tim
Published: March 2007

In this introductory paper, I use a quotation from Elias's (1992) essay on time in order to introduce some key Eliasian concepts. I then explore the relation between power, interdependency and subjectivity through reference to Elias's oft-cited studies of court society as well as his less known analyses of time. Drawing on these referents, I discuss the relation of Elias to current organization theory focusing on Foucauldian work, Marx and labour process theory and, especially, actor-network theory. Eliasian argument has a number of points of contact with current fields of organizational analysis such as organizational strategy, violence in organizations, emotion in organizations, knowledge and discourse, globalization, organizations and the natural environment, etc. The paper briefly reviews such examples before considering certain limitations in Elias's conceptualization of interdependency and subjectivity.
Macintyre and the Manager
Authors: Mangham Lain L.
Published: March 2007

Alasdair MacIntyre is generally regarded as the most interesting, influential, and provocative figure in moral philosophy today. He is a strong critic of the cruder forms of liberalism which he takes to be responsible for confusion of contemporary moral and political culture. MacIntyre focuses upon three `characters', each of which he takes to be emblematic of our age: the Aesthete, the Therapist and the Manager. A `character' is a fusion of a specific role with a specific personality type in such a way that it emphasizes and celebrates the moral ideas of a particular culture. MacIntyre takes modern `characters' to reflect the doctrine of emotivism which holds that moral discussions are no more than attempts by one party to alter the preferences and feelings of another party so that they accord with their own. Emotivism removes the possibility of treating people as ends, as rational beings; moral debate, from this perspective, is fundamentally manipulative. The Aesthete treats other people as a means to achieve his/her own ends—the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of boredom; the Therapist is concerned with the technique of the treatment of individuals, not the values of the goals they pursue; and the Manager—the focus of this article—is exclusively concerned with the pursuit of efficiency and effectiveness, leaving the task of fixing purpose and evaluating goals to others. All three `characters' eschew moral debate regarding questions of ends as beyond systematic rational assessment. It is this notion of `character' that is the starting point for this article. If MacIntyre is correct and the Manager is one of the key `characters' of our times, there ought to be more debate amongst those of us concerned with organizations. The purpose of this article is to outline MacIntyre's argument, to indicate some of the support it commands in the literature of organizational behaviour and to pass comment upon both the ideas and the literature.
Organizations and Citizenship
Authors: Parker Martin
Published: March 2007

This speculative article will attempt to employ contemporary debates around the politics of citizenship to theorize the problems and opportunities of new style management. Mission statements, post-bureaucratic organizations and excellent cultures have all been sponsored by business gurus as solutions to the problems of order and efficiency in complex organizations by capturing the hearts and minds of employees. I will suggest that some of these ideas contain formulations of the rights and obligations of `organizational citizens' which give a particular primacy to organizational affiliation. These notions may have particular resonance in states and societies in which it is suggested that the legitimacy of other communal attachments is weakening. I do not suggest that employees are uncritical about such attempts at normative manipulation, rather that the idea of working for an organization that is collectively believed in is a very seductive one. Indeed, this article suggests that some of the new management rhetoric and practice may have emancipatory possibilities. I would not deny that, in many organizations, its use is oriented to enhancing control strategies. Yet, if management are taking these ideas seriously, then this might require a radically different way of organizing that has the potential to restructure power relationships within the organization.
From `Real' to `Virtual' States?
Authors: BERNAUER THOMAS , ACHINI CHRISTOPH
Published: March 2007

This analysis shows that claims about the coming of the `virtual' state, a popular proposition in the globalization debate, have no empirical foundation. Our findings, based on more comprehensive testing than in most previous studies, support a proposition originally put forward by Cameron — countries more open to international trade have a larger public sector. We also show that economic globalization has not led to convergence of public sector size across countries. Nevertheless, sweeping claims that economic integration leads to bigger government are premature, and perhaps wrong. Rodrik, Garrett and others have argued that a risk-reduction logic causes the positive trade-public sector relationship. We did not find empirical evidence for this assertion. In contrast to Rodrik, Quinn and Garrett we show that growing capital mobility has no impact on the size of government. Also, capital mobility has not undermined the fact that bigger traders have larger public sectors. We outline some arguments for the different impact of trade and financial integration.
The `English School' in China: a Travelogue of Ideas and their Diffusion
Authors: ZHANG YONGJIN
Published: March 2007

Why does International Relations (IR) still remain `a not so international discipline'? What promotes/constrains the diffusion of non-American ideas to national IR epistemic communities beyond the trans-Atlantic community as well as Europe? In this article, I tell the story of how the English School (ES) as a non-mainstream approach to theorizing about IR has travelled to China. I examine the way in which the transmission of ideas associated with the ES has influenced the IR theoretical discourse in China to date. Borrowing insights from recent constructivist theorization on how norms and ideas diffuse, I offer sociologically informed explanations of how and why the American intellectual hegemony in IR has been reproduced in a national IR academic community. They suggest that the enduring dominance of the American scholarship in peripheral IR epistemic communities has less to do with either the power or the persuasiveness of ideas than with the American entrepreneurship in promoting international studies. The lessons learned from this story argue strongly for an additional agenda for the reconvened ES.
Democracies and War Participation:
Authors: SIVERSON RANDOLPH M.
Published: March 2007

Two explanations have been advanced for the `democratic peace'; one is built on shared values and norms of democratic political systems, the other focuses on the constraints under which democratic political leaders make decisions or hold office. Constraints theory implies that democracies should be generally more peaceful, while previous analyses indicate they are as warlike as other states, except in their dealings with each other. However, constraints theory cannot be dismissed on this basis because extant empirical research has not distinguished between (1) various levels of war participation and (2) the different latitudes of choice available to leaders. An empirical analysis of international wars in the period 1816-1974 supports the expectations and strengthens the argument about the effects of institutional constraints in relation to expected losses in war. The article concludes with the suggestion that the shared values and norms explanation might be weakened if analysis was extended to include colonial wars.
Mutual Interests, Normative Continuities, and Regime Theory:
Authors: ZACHER MARK W. , SUTTON BRENT A.
Published: March 2007

An important issue in the study of international cooperation is whether regimes are grounded centrally on mutual interests among states or on power relations. This article presents the basic neorealist and neoliberal perspectives on this issue. It notes, however, that neorealists have failed to recognize that some regimes based on mutual interest in the protection of state political autonomy are consistent with neorealist assumptions. The article analyzes the international regimes for the shipping, air transport, telecommunications and postal service industries and focuses on the mutual interests that supported the regime norms. The analysis indicates that mutual interests in facilitating the flow of international commerce and protecting states' policy autonomy in strategic economic sectors have sustained very strong regimes since the late 19th century. The key exception to this evaluation is the crumbling of those aspects of the regimes governing prices and market shares since the late 1970s.
Insecurity and State Formation in the Global Military Order:
Authors: KRAUSE KEITH
Published: March 2007

This article argues that within the European state system, the struggle to control the institutions and instruments of organized violence produced an externally-oriented conception of security that rested upon the unconditional legitimacy of the state, a societal consensus over basic values and the near-elimination of violence from political life, which permitted a strong identification of the security of the state with the security of its citizens. The conditions for such identification do not hold in many parts of the world, and hence this conception cannot address either the threats to state structures or regimes that do not emerge from other states, or the threats that states and regimes can pose to their own citizens or societies.

A more historically-sensitive three-dimensional matrix for studying security on regional/interstate, state/regime and societal/individual levels possesses greater explanatory power, while remaining true to the traditional concerns of security studies with the role and influence of institutions and instruments of organized violence. Such an approach, which is rooted in an account of the role of institutions of organized violence in state formation processes, is used to present a more nuanced account of the processes of `military development' in the modern Middle East.
Environmental NGOs and Regime Change:
Authors: RINGIUS LASSE
Published: March 2007

This article deals with the recent change of the global regime controlling ocean dumping of low-level radioactive waste. Why did this regime, which originally permitted ocean dumping of low-level radioactive waste, undergo a regime change that resulted in this activity being outlawed? It is concluded that the actions of a global environmental non-governmental organization (ENGO) were decisive in the regime change process, independent of state interests or epistemic communities. Four primary roles for ENGOs in environmental regimes are suggested — mobilizing international public opinion, transnational coalition building, monitoring of states' environmental commitments and advocating precaution and protection of the environment. It is concluded that regime studies should pay more attention to ENGOs and interaction between ENGOs, states and epistemic communities.
Reconstituting Security?
Authors: MUTIMER DAVID
Published: March 2007

[The five permanent members of the Security Council] noted the threats to peace and stability posed by the proliferation of nuclear weapons, chemical and biological weapons, and missiles, and undertook to seek effective measures of non-proliferation and arms control in a fair, reasonable, comprehensive and balanced manner on a global as well as a regional basis. (Permanent Five Members of the UN Security Council, 1991)

The end of the Cold War creates an important moment both politically and analytically.... But if it turns out that despite the dissolution of the blocs, strategic practices remain largely intact, then this suggests another character to the nature of international life. It may turn out that the interpretive and discursive resources that animated the Cold War are more persistent and less amenable to restructuring than celebrants of a new world order might claim. (Klein, 1994: 121-2)
Dynamics of Negation in the Identity Politics of Cultural Other and Cultural Self
Authors: Penuel William R. , Wertsch James V.
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the findings of Shi-xu (1995) in terms of how texts that represent a cultural Other may be interpreted as a way of constructing a cultural self. Even when attempting to move beyond colonial and demeaning representations of the cultural Other, these western writers in fact construct a vision of the Other that signifies their own desires and values. Westerners construct their identity dialogically in the texts analyzed by Shi-xu, primarily by defining what the cultural Other is not. The frequency with which western writers define their identities through negations compounded with the demeaning images of the cultural Other points to the difficulty and challenge of constructing a post-colonial discourse and an affirming recognition of the cultural Other.
Cultural Psychology and the Problem of Exchange between Individual and Environment: Is There a Common Concept?
Authors: Kreppner Kurt
Published: March 2007

The holistic perspective on the person-context exchange conception present in so many current culture-oriented developmental theories has different roots in the history of European psychology. Here, one school assumed to have contributed to the widening of our understanding of the cultural or environmental influence on individual development is presented in some detail. This school of thinking is compared to another European conceptualization of an integrated view on person-culture exchange (discussed in this issue). Biological, cultural-philosophical and psychological aspects were linked together in a school established at the newly founded university at Hamburg, Germany, during the 1920s and early 1930s. Cooperation by three scientists from different disciplines pushed forward the idea of a holistic concept describing the process of development within context. William Stern, the psychologist, Ernst Cassirer, the cultural philosopher, and Jakob Johannes von Uexkull, the biologist, worked together and successfully developed an integrated perspective on the exchange between the individual and his or her environment. Although never manifest as a 'school' in its own right, it is maintained that the three scientists' interdisciplinary efforts to grasp a holistic explanation of the subject-environment relationship is found in many components remaining in contemporary theories exploring links between individual and environment.
Picturing Need: Images of Overseas Aid and Interpretations of Cultural Difference
Authors: Radley Alan , Kennedy Marie
Published: March 2007

The use of images by overseas aid agencies for the purpose of raising funds is common in the media in western societies. This paper reports a qualitative study of the ways that people in Britain view such photographs, how they interpret Jthem and how they respond tohthiem. The accounts given by respondents reveal that this involves individuals in making sense not just of visual material, but of a social world in which need is defined and met. That is, picturing need and articulating one's response to it is part of an imaginary (constructive) relationship through which the social world and the speaker are together made sensible. This is consistent with a theoretical position which holds that looking at photographs is both discursively and non-discursively ordered. Seeing is therefore understood as a cultural activity, through which social differences and moral imperatives are jointly and severally made to reappear.
Party System Development and Indigenous Populations in Latin America
Authors: Van Cott Donna Lee
Published: March 2007

The article links the relatively weaker institutionalization of political party systems in certain Latin American countries to the size of the country's indigenous population in order to explain a statistically significant inverse empirical relationship between the two variables. It argues that elites in countries with proportionally significant indigenous populations in the early 20th century organized political parties to dominate subordinate groups in ways that were distinct from those employed by elites in countries with far smaller indigenous populations. The geographic isolation and cultural distinctiveness of such populations provided elites with unique tools for exclusion and domination that enabled them to stall the political participation of indigenous peoples until the late 1980s. A case study of Bolivia's political party system is used to illustrate the hypothesis and to show how indigenous peoples were finally able in the 1990s to enter the formal political system, suggesting that entrenched practices are susceptible to change in response to shifts in the underlying incentive structure.
Size and Party System Fragmentation
Authors: Anckar Carsten
Published: March 2007

The present study tests the assumption that size affects party system fragmentation. Three dependent variables are used: the number of parties, the electoral support for the leading party, and the effective number of parties. The study operates on two levels. On the macro level, the research population consists of 77 countries with free party systems. On the micro level, local units in Great Britain and Finland constitute the object of research. The impact of the following intervening variables is controlled for: the effective threshold, presidentialism, socioeconomic diversification, and ethnic and religious diversity. On the macro level, the results show that size contains far more explanatory power than any other variable. This holds true for countries using a plurality electoral system as well as those using a proportional electoral system. On the micro level, there is a strong association between the size of the population and the number of parties, whereas the other dependent variables are insensitive to variations in size.
Dimensions of Retrospective Voting
Authors: Johnston Ron , Pattie Charles
Published: March 2007

Studies of retrospective voting in Great Britain largely focus on economic issues, and pay little attention to whether electors associate economic changes (both positive and negative) with government policy. This paper analyses voters' retrospective evaluations of nine separate policy areas (over three main policy domains) in 1997, showing that the more negative evaluations of government policy over the previous five years the less the likelihood of an elector voting for the incumbent party - especially if in addition the main opposition party is viewed favourably. This provides strong support for the reward-punish model.
Why European Integration Increases Leadership Autonomy within Political Parties
Authors: Raunio Tapio
Published: March 2007

Party scholars have been arguing, at least since the 1960s, that party leaders are becoming more autonomous of their parties in respect of decision-making. This article analyses the impact of European integration on the balance of power in the national parties of EU member states. A theoretical model explaining why European integration increases the autonomy of party leadership is presented together with preliminary evidence. The main argument is that European integration consolidates centralization of decision-making through strengthening the agenda-setting powers of party leaders. Centralization and leadership autonomy should be greater in countries with weak parliamentary scrutiny over EU affairs. The level of control by national legislatures is in turn explained by party cohesion on integration. The concluding section presents questions for future research and discusses some of the main challenges national parties face in adapting to European integration.
Economic Ideology and Political Success
Authors: Evans Geoffrey , Whitefield Stephen
Published: March 2007

The communist-successor parties in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia have experienced divergent electoral fortunes since 1990. The Hungarian Socialist Party is in government, the Slovak Party of the Democratic Left has a stable vote of around 15 percent, while the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia is in decline. This report seeks to explain this difference in performance using data derived from surveys of the population of each country in the spring of 1994. Consideration is given to the merits of two explanatory factors: the ideological extremeness of the parties, particularly in relation to the question of economic transformation; or, alternatively, national differences in the experience of economic transition. It is shown that in respect of economic issues, the positions of successor-party supporters are similar across the three countries, but that perceptions of the ideological position of those supporters vary considerably, from being extremist in the case of the Czech party, to centrist in the case of the Hungarian party. These differing perceptions themselves reflect national variations in economic preferences between the three countries, which are in turn shown to result from differing economic experiences. Support is thus offered for an account which stresses variations in experience of the economic transition rather than differences in the strategies adopted by the successor parties.
Organizing a Subcultural Party in Eastern Europe
Authors: Enyedi Zsolt
Published: March 2007

The fin de siècle political parties are claimed to have moved far from civil society, especially in the new democracies of Eastern Europe. Through the example of the Hungarian Christian Democratic People's Party the paper analyses a different pattern of development: a party that is deeply embedded in the subcultural network of organizations. Tracing the roots of the Catholic organizational bloc back to the end of the last century, the article establishes the factors that have effected the bloc's coherence and autonomy. Mapping the links between the Catholic-Christian organizations and analysing the party's inner life, the role of the party elite in rebuilding the subculture is assessed. The `subcultural party' is presented as one of the possible party types that might emerge in Eastern Europe.
`From Two into One'
Authors: Allum Percy
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the nature of Italy's major post-war government party, Christian Democracy (recently collapsed, after almost half a century in power), and its local power structures. Its main thesis is that, for a series of historical and socio-economic reasons, it was constituted initially of two types of party - a notables' party in southern Italy and a mass party in northern Italy - held together by generic anti-communism and state patronage. Moreover, as a result of a succession of crucial developments (party reorganization in the 1950s, Vatican II in the 1960s), it became a sort of catch-all party ante litteram, or more accurately a national `syndicate of political machines'. The second part of the article documents the various mechanisms employed to ensure political consensus in two contrasting regions (Naples and Vicenza) in the two major periods (1950s-1960s and 1970s-1980s). It concludes with an indictment of the party in the current Italian political crisis.
Modelling the Decision to Donate by Individual Party Members
Authors: Fisher Justin
Published: March 2007

Models of political participation frequently treat financial donations in the same way as other forms of political activity. This article argues that they should be examined in a different way since they may be regarded for some as the antithesis of conventional participation. Using data from the studies of Labour and Conservative party members, it tests the hypothesis that donations are a means of contracting out of other forms of participation. The model works well in the case of Labour party members and partially in the case of the Conservatives.
Campaign Communication and Strategic Responses to Change in the Electoral Environment
Authors: Holzhacker Ronald L.
Published: March 2007

This study presents a priming model of party competition which proposes that broad-based parties adapt their campaign communication to respond strategically to changes in their electoral environment. Party competition during election campaigns is seen as the struggle to `prime' the electorate; i.e. to set the electorate's agenda and the criteria for which the electorate will evaluate the parties. This model is used to analyze the strategic responses of the two broad-based parties in Germany - the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) - to the changes in their electoral environment after reunification. Survey data are used to analyze differences in the East and West German electorate after reunification and a content analysis of the television commercials broadcast by the two parties is used to discern the changing content (i.e. issue dimensions, candidate-orientated appeals) and form (i.e. degree of attack, issue differentiation technique and temporal reference) of campaign communication. This analysis indicates that the nature of party competition in a given party system is not fixed but changes as parties make strategic responses to their electoral environment.
Evaluation as Practical Hermeneutics
Authors: Schwandt Thomas A.
Published: March 2007

This paper challenges the view that the 'general logic' or 'logic of evaluation' is foundational for understanding what it means to do 'good' evaluation. It attempts to show that the general logic is indexed to the modernist paradigm of reason and that evaluation practice can be alternatively indexed to the discourse of practical hermeneutics. The paper aims to advance our understanding of practical hermeneutics by explaining several of its salient assumptions. It offers several suggestions for redefining evaluation as a dialogical as opposed to a monological practice.
Engendering Evaluation of European Regional Development
Authors: Horelli Lsa
Published: March 2007

Engendering evaluation refers here not only to the participants, but to the practice of urban and regional policy-making, planning, implementation, organization, and evaluation, which recognizes the different roles of women and men, their asymmetrical access to and control of resources as well as their varying practical and strategic gender interests. This approach may bring new groups into regional policy as well as enrich the current evaluation praxis and theory with innovative concepts, techniques, and indicators.
Fleshing out Gender: Crafting Gender Identity on Women's Bodies
Authors: FOURNIER VALÉRIE
Published: March 2007

The aim of this article is to flesh out gender by drawing connections between the experience of pain and the experience of womanhood. The article builds upon two themes in feminist work (the constitution of woman through her effacement, and the inscription of gender on the body) and proposes to analyse `effacement' in terms of an embodied sense of being `gutted out', or made `immaterial'. I use this imagery of `gutting out' to suggest that effacement is experienced through the body, and in terms of the presence of pain rather than merely in terms of lack or absence (of voice or subjectivity). Thus I share the view that gender is performed through inscriptions on the body, but I argue that this work of gendering involves hurting and injuring women's bodies; and it is this pain that I attend to in the article. I draw upon Scarry's analysis of the body in pain as a symbolic framework to discuss the pain of womanhood in terms of the annihilation of the self as it is engulfed in a mass of hurting flesh.
Sexing the Body: Representations of Sex Differences in Gray's Anatomy, 1858 to the Present
Authors: PETERSEN ALAN
Published: March 2007

Anatomy texts are seen as authoritative sources for knowledge about natural sex differences. The concepts of a natural, biological sex and of a natural difference are, however, increasingly difficult to sustain. A growing number of scholars have pointed to the fact that `sex' as much as `gender' is a historical and social construction. This article examines how the multiple-edition anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has portrayed the sexed body and male/female differences during the course of its publication, 1858 to the present, focusing on specific parts of the anatomy, namely the sex organs or `organs of generation', the pelvis, the skull and the brain. An analysis of textual descriptions and graphic illustrations reveals that the male body has been the stable norm or standard against which the female body has been compared and implicitly judged as underdeveloped, weak or faulty. Only rarely has the male body been compared with the female body. Reflecting long-standing views about sexual complementarity and natural differences between men and women, some comparisons emphasize the reproductive functioning of females or imply that females are intellectually inferior. It would appear that the discipline of anatomy has remained largely immune from broader public debates about sexual inequality and gender representations.