bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
River restoration and geomorphology
Authors: Sear D. A.
Published: February 2007

The restoration or rehabilitation of rivers is currently an expanding area of investment by public water management bodies in the USA and EC. This position has developed from the rapid growth in environmental (and particularly water) awareness, the rise of accountability for environmental degradation within the legislative framework of water institutions and the move away from agricultural over‐production towards sustainable development.

The restoration process has been pioneered primarily by aquatic ecologists and landscape designers working in conjunction with civil engineers. Geomorphology, the science of landform development, has much to offer, but at present the contributions are often superficial, concentrating on the scaling and siting of instream fluvial features. This paper argues that it is essential to incorporate the broader geomorpho‐logical wisdom at the design stage so that restoration schemes will be sustainable in the longer term.
Living coastal resources of Southeast Asia: Management through continuing education by institutions of higher learning
Authors: Chou L. M.
Published: February 2007

Development pressures in Southeast Asia have been increasing rapidly over recent decades, much at the expense of living resources.

Living coastal resources play important biological, ecological and economic roles, but such values, particularly the first two, are difficult to quantify in simple cash terms. Development of built‐up infrastructure on the other hand, enables tangible and usually substantial projected economic gains to be calculated, and these often overshadow estimated benefits of natural habitats through traditional use.

This issue has to be addressed, and it can be done through continuing education for all sectors of the population. Institutions of higher learning have a great part to play by packaging research information on living coastal resources for different target groups.

Increasing scientific investigations have resulted in a vast amount of knowledge and understanding of the importance of these habitats. Further research can proceed along directions aimed at providing data that will enable better and reliable quantification of biological and ecological benefits.

Such information, when made widely available to all, will result in a society that is more appreciative and protective of living coastal resources, and also with a greater understanding of their long‐term significance.
Spatfalls of the non‐native Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in British waters
Authors: Spencer B. E. , Edwards D. B. , Kaiser M. J. , Richardson C. A.
Published: February 2007

Light spatfalls of the Pacific oyster,Crassostrea gigas, have occurred in the estuaries of the Rivers Exe, Teign and Dart (Devon) and in the Menai Strait (Gwynedd), near to sites of commercial cultivation of this species.

Comparisons of the sizes of the naturally settled oysters with hatchery oysters suggests that the spat from the River Teign and Menai Strait settled in 1989 and 1990. The springs and summers of these years were exceptionally warm with mean monthly air temperatures 0.8°‐1.3°C above the 1951–1980 average for the period April to August.

Although sitings of Pacific oyster spat were made in Loch Sween and Emsworth Harbour over 20 years ago, there is no evidence that self‐sustaining populations have developed.

The spatfalls which occurred in some coastal waters of Devon and Gwynedd in 1989 and 1990 are unlikely to sustain natural fisheries and are likely to die out as did the Portuguese oysters which occasionally settled in the River Blackwater, Essex.
Relationships between littoral microcrustacea and aquatic macrophyte communities on the Isle of Skye (Scotland), with implications for the conservation of standing waters
Authors: Duigan Catherine A. , Kovach Warren L.
Published: February 2007

Littoral microcrustacean (Ctenopoda, Anomopoda, Onchyopoda) samples, aquatic macrophyte data and chemical measurements were collected from 51 freshwater lochs in the Isle of Skye, Scotland, during the summer of 1989.

Canonical correspondence analysis was employed to investigate correlations between the environmental data, the microcrustacean assemblages, and the aquatic macrophyte community types used for floristic classification of standing waters. Cluster analysis was used to classify lochs based on their microcrustacean assemblages.

The major trends in microcrustacean distributions were related to pH, catchment area, macrophyte diversity and the distance from the sea.

There was little correlation between the plant community types and microcrustacean assemblages.

These results support the case for the development of an integrated approach to lake surveys so that correlations can be made between environmental variables and the distribution and abundance patterns of the plant and animal taxa of conservation interest.
Conserving marine biodiversity on the African coast: Implications of a terrestrial perspective
Authors: Hockey Philip A. R. , Branch George M.
Published: February 2007

Conservation principles developed for terrestrial habitats are frequently inapplicable in marine situations. This dichotomy arises because of different characteristics of the substratum and the existence of water as a ubiquitous marine dispersal medium. Physical differences are manifest in biological differences including reproductive mode, range requirements and levels of endemism. Marine systems differ further from terrestrial ones in that they have been subject to a very limited anthropogenic fragmentation, in contrast to land where many habitats have become highly fragmented. Estuaries and coral reefs, however, are naturally fragmented and particularly vulnerable because their substrata are strongly influenced by biological processes which are easily disrupted.

One of the greatest threats to life in the sea is resource exploitation by man. In Africa, marine conservation is secondary to terrestrial conservation—only four countries in sub‐Saharan Africa have marine reserves. Marine reserves are effective in increasing population sizes of exploited stocks and supplementing stocks in adjacent areas through emigration. They also have the potential to provide recruits to exploited areas.

Biogeographic patterns can be used to site marine reserves. We propose a middle/edge arrangement of ‘biodiversity reserves’, linked to biogeographical regions. Such reserves would achieve conservation of both representativeness (middle) and high diversity areas (edge). As a necessary corollary, we also suggest a second tier of reserves which has the specific purpose of improving local yields of exploited species.

The sizes of biodiversity reserves should be determined by local habitat heterogeneity. Second‐tier reserves should be designed to maximize their benefit to adjacent areas while minimizing their size.
Tenerife's freshwater macroinvertebrates: Status and threats (Canary Islands, Spain)
Authors: Malmqvist Björn , Nilsson Anders N. , Baez Marcos
Published: February 2007

This paper lists 171 freshwater macroinvertebrate taxa from Tenerife (excluding chironomids) based on this study and other published information. Canarian endemism and a Mediterranean origin are dominant features in the data set. At least 14 species are Tenerife endemics. Endemism is especially high in the Diptera, Trichoptera and Coleoptera.

Extensive investigations were carried out at 57 sites in six different habitat categories and from at least two seasons. The most species‐rich habitats were those with permanently running water, a biotope that is rare and diminishing in Tenerife.

The principal threat to freshwater environments is an increase in human exploitation of the water resources, which, if it is not moderated, will cause extinctions in the near future. Taxa that do not favour man‐made canals are especially at risk—a risk that is increased by the small number of populations. These include the Canarian endemics Wormaldia tagananana, Tinodes canariensis (Trichoptera), Dixa tetrica (Diptera) and Baetis pseudorhodani (Ephemeroptera). Thirty‐nine species were found at five or fewer sites.

Some species can survive in intermittent streams, although we found less than half of the taxa present in this habitat, indicating the extent of the diversity reductions that might be expected to follow the drying up of permanent streams.

Species living in the thin film of water in the madicolous habitats are similarly at risk. Three Canarian endemics were found exclusively in this habitat: Hydrotarsus pilosus, Limnebius punctatus (Coleoptera) and Satchelliella binunciolata (Diptera).

As a first step, protective measures are proposed for five of the most species‐rich streams. If these were to be implemented, they would make a significant contribution towards maintaining biodiversity in the fresh waters of Tenerife.
Monitoring progress towards Hong Kong's water quality objectives
Authors: Holmes Paul R. , Smith‐Evans And Marc
Published: February 2007

Hong Kong has suffered from gross water pollution, as a direct consequence of the territory's rapid growth in population and in industrial and commercial prosperity. In 1989, the government of Hong Kong adopted a comprehensive strategy for water pollution control. Water quality monitoring is essential to the success of this strategy.

The monitoring programme was designed rationally to provide the information required to detect progress towards (or away from) water quality objectives. Practical constraints have prevented the ideal implementation but the programme gives comprehensive coverage of marine waters, including bathing beaches and inland waters.

Sampling and analytical methods are an important part of programme design, to ensure that the programme yields accurate and consistent data. Presentation and interpretation also need to be taken into account. More effort on interpretation of a well‐designed survey can reduce the effort required for sampling and analysis.

Examples show how the monitoring programme has been used for practical environmental management purposes, including the control of dredging operations, the justification of new sewage disposal facilities, and the control of waste from the livestock industry.
Fate of lower Mississippi river habitats associated with river training dikes
Authors: Shields F. Douglas
Published: February 2007

Regions of reduced velocity adjacent to spur dikes along the Lower Mississippi River are valuable aquatic habitats. Similar zones along other large rivers have been converted to terrestrial habitats by sediment deposition.

Repetitive hydrographic surveys of 26 representative groups of dikes are examined to determine the direction and rates of change.

Since the dikes were constructed, the aquatic volume and area of associated low‐velocity habitats have been reduced by 38% and 17%, respectively. Examination of time series shows that most changes occur shortly after construction, and after initial adjustment, habitat area and volume fluctuate about a condition of dynamic equilibrium.

Sedimentation rates were most rapid for dike fields constructed on the inside of bends to prevent chute development. Dike fields built to force or maintain thalweg crossings exhibited erosion rather than deposition.
Geomorphological stream channel classification in aquatic habitat restoration: Uses and limitations
Authors: Kondolf G. Mathias
Published: February 2007

Land managers in western North America have embraced classification of stream channels based on geomorphological characteristics as the importance of channel stability in successful restoration of aquatic and riparian habitat has become widely recognized.

Classification can permit rapid inventory of large regions, provide a stratified geomorphological framework within which more detailed observations can be organized, and provide an initial basis for selecting restoration strategies.

Existing classifications are arbitrary, developed by creating classes out of a continuum of channel form. Moreover, stream channels are dynamic, and the existing condition does not necessarily reflect former, long‐term, or future conditions.

The user should not confuse the classification exercise with a complete understanding of the channel. Before any channel works are actually undertaken, site‐specific studies are essential, including historical studies to determine former channel conditions and to shed light on underlying causes for degradation of aquatic or riparian resources.

When applying a classification system, the raw data collected should be reported, not simply the resultant channel classes. Channels that do not fit neatly within pre‐existing classes should be reported as such and not lumped in classes where they ‚should’︁ be.
Is the crown‐of‐thorns starfish a threat to the reefs of Lord Howe Island?
Authors: Harriott Vicki J.
Published: February 2007

Lord Howe Island, a World Heritage Area which lies in the southern Pacific Ocean, has the most southern true coral reefs in the world.

In the past decade, populations of Acanthaster planci, the crown‐of‐thorns starfish, have significantly reduced coral cover at Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, approximately 200 km to the north of Lord Howe Island, and a small population has been reported from Lord Howe Island.

The abundance and distribution of A. planci was evaluated using surveys by the local recreational diving industry and video‐transects, and the potential rate of recovery of the coral community following predation was assessed by analysing coral recruitment patterns.

The starfish population at Lord Howe Island remained relatively small and localized between 1984 and 1993.

Coral recruitment was dominated by the juveniles of brooding corals, and these same species dominated the established coral community. There was limited recruitment of broadcast‐spawning coral species during the study period, suggesting that southern dispersal of coral larvae from more northern sites may be a rare or sporadic event.

The results indicate that there is only a small probability that the present starfish population will result in a major starfish outbreak. However, the recovery of the coral community from a major outbreak would be slow because of the apparently low rate of input of coral larvae from sources external to the reef.

Management agencies need to consider whether the present small and localized starfish population should be removed, given the likely ramifications of an infestation and the economic importance of the reef to tourism.
The current status of a sample of english sites of special scientific interest subject to eutrophication
Authors: Carvalho Laurence , Moss Brian
Published: February 2007

Records for 102 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) in England were examined for eutrophic status and for symptoms of eutrophication using criteria established by the Department of the Environment (DoE). Seventy‐eight were found to be eutrophic or hyper‐eutrophic using total phosphorus criteria. Of the 102 sites, 85 cases (84%) showed symptoms of eutrophication. This had changed overtly the nature conservation interest in 69 cases.

The 102 sites were contracted to 96 by listing together eight adjacent SSSIs in the Somerset Levels and treating another split‐site SSSI with separate catchments within it as two sites. Within these 96, 17 did not show symptoms of eutrophication and 79 (84%) did. Of the 79 cases, a major cause of the eutrophication in 35 (44%) was sewage effluent with a further five possible cases of effluent problems. The second most important cause (15 sites (19%) and potentially a further six, of the 79 sites) was attributed to the effects of common carp (Cyprinus carpio), and to a lesser extent common bream (Abramis brama), in mobilizing nutrients and increasing turbidity within the water body.

Symptoms of deterioration were most frequently recorded in the aquatic plant communities, probably because these are most readily observed. Comparable changes should be expected in animal communities but these are infrequently monitored. There may have been unrecorded changes in some sites that had nonetheless suffered damage. It is likely that detailed studies of sites where there is clear evidence of eutrophication will reveal some deterioration in conservation interest.

The primary management required to help restore the conservation interest in the 79 sites involves phosphorus removal from, or diversion of, sewage effluent in at least 30 cases. Of these two‐thirds (20) will fall outside the current arrangements being made by the DoE for the application of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive. Removal of carp and additional biomanipulative measures are suggested for at least 18 cases (23%) and fishery modifications in a further six, giving a total of 30% of sites where fish are a part of the problem. Further investigation is needed in nearly half of all cases where the situation is not entirely clear.

The data available from statutory bodies to assess the trophic states of the sites examined were generally inadequate. Total phosphorus, a key variable in the currently recommended DoE scheme, and widely recognized as very important by the limnological community, is not routinely monitored by the National Rivers Authority (NRA), and methods used for soluble reactive phosphorus are not generally used with a sufficiently low detection limit.
Environmental effects of marine fishing
Authors: Dayton Paul K. , Thrush Simon F. , Agardy M. Tundi , Hofman Robert J.
Published: February 2007

Some effects of fisheries on the associated biological systems are reviewed and management options and their inherent risks are considered.

In addition to the effects on target species, other sensitive groups impacted by fishing are considered including marine mammals, turtles, sea birds, elasmobranchs and some invertebrates with low reproductive rates.

Other impacts discussed include the destruction of benthic habitat, the provision of unnatural sources of food and the generation of debris.

Management options are considered including the designation of marine protected areas, risk aversion, and the burden of proof.

A balanced consideration of the risks and consequences of ‚Type 1’︁ and ‚Type II’︁ errors is advocated.
Long-term follow-up of a randomized clinical trial of non-mesh versus mesh repair of primary inguinal hernia
Authors: van Veen R N , Wijsmuller A R , Vrijland W W , Hop W C , Lange J F , Jeekel J
Published: February 2007

Background

Prospective studies and meta-analyses have indicated that non-mesh repair is inferior to mesh repair based on recurrence rates in inguinal hernia. The only reliable way to evaluate recurrence rates after hernia surgery is by long-term follow-up.

Methods

Between September 1993 and January 1996, a multicentre clinical trial was performed, in which 300 patients with unilateral primary inguinal hernia were randomized to non-mesh or mesh repair. Long-term follow-up was carried out from June 2005 to January 2006.

Results

Median follow-up was 128 months for non-mesh and 129 months for mesh repair. The 10-year cumulative hernia recurrence rates were 17 and 1 per cent respectively (P = 0·005). Half of the recurrences developed after 3 years' follow-up. There was no significant correlation between hernia recurrence and age, level of expertise of the surgeon, contralateral hernia, obesity, history of pulmonary disease, constipation or prostate disease.

Conclusion

After 10 years mesh repair is still superior to non-mesh hernia repair. Recurrence rates may be underestimated as recurrences continue to develop for up to 10 years after surgery.
Influence of surgical and postoperative treatment on survival in differentiated thyroid cancer
Authors: Lundgren C I , Hall P , Dickman P W , Zedenius J
Published: February 2007

Background

The extent of thyroidectomy in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) remains controversial. The aim of this study was to identify how surgical technique and postoperative treatments influence survival and locoregional recurrence in DTC.

Methods

A nested case-control study was conducted in a cohort of 5123 patients diagnosed with DTC in Sweden between 1958 and 1987. One matched control subject was selected randomly for each patient who died from DTC. Details regarding surgery and postoperative treatments were obtained from medical records. The effect of treatment on survival was estimated by conditional logistic regression.

Results

Patients not treated surgically had a poorer prognosis, but the risk of death from DTC was not affected by the choice of surgical technique. The extent of surgery influenced survival only in patients with TNM stage III disease. Locoregional recurrence resulted in a fivefold increased risk of death. Postoperative treatment was not associated with improved survival.

Conclusion

In operated patients, the most important prognostic factor was complete removal of the tumour. The extent of removal of remaining thyroid tissue was of prognostic importance in stage III disease only. Adjuvant postoperative treatment did not influence the prognosis favourably.
Collective strategies for improving environmental performance: A case study of the biotechnology industry
Authors: Peridis Theodore , Newell Stephanie
Published: February 2007

This paper examines the potential contributions of institutional theory and the collective strategies framework to assist managers in emerging industries in developing better means of addressing societal concerns. Lack of understanding and difficulties in communication between companies in the forefront of new technology developments and a society that is concerned about the environment have led to many of the problems facing the biotechnology industry. Measures intended to protect the environment from potential adverse effects have frequently restricted activities in the new biotechnology field, even though scientists are themselves convinced of the safety and control they exert over their new technologies. Collective strategies can be instrumental in stabilising certain aspects of the environment. Proper selection of issues and coordinated action can be helpful to all industry participants by informing public perceptions and government regulations and help insure that major environmental trends will evolve in a manner beneficial to all concerned.
Environment versus industry: A case study of how the pulp and paper industry is responding to changing attitudes to the environment
Authors: Collins Lyndhurst
Published: February 2007

‘Environment Friendly’ has become one of the most popular catchphrases of the 1990s and its implications are causing problems for many industries (The Economist, 1991a). The problems and response strategies vary from industry to industry and probably from country to country. In this study attention is focused on the pulp and paper sector in Europe. Pulp and paper is selected because for a long time it has been regarded as one of the most damaging industrial activities (Zavatta, 1988). The increasingly popular desire for a greener environment has exposed three particular problem areas for the pulp and paper industry: the production process; its supply of raw materials; and marketing strategy (Brown, 1991). Technology and consumer demand are the important variables that are dictating how fast, and to what extent the pulp and paper industry can respond and become more environment friendly.

Pressures on the pulp and paper industry to improve its environmental performance are shown to emanate from three distinct groups. These environmental pressures have encouraged and are encouraging the industry to adopt new technology to improve both its production processes and the quality of its product. Environmental pressures also, have encouraged the industry, (armed with improved technology), to search for new sources of raw materials. Two of the most important developments have been the more widespread substitution of hardwoods for traditional coniferous softwoods, and the increasing trend towards the recycling of waste paper; wastepaper is now recycled more than any other commodity. Recycling of waste paper has further promoted new layers of industrial activity in the form of collection agencies, international trade and deinking installations. The combined result of all these developments is shown to influence the spatial and structural dynamics of the pulp and paper‐industry in Europe.
Corporate accountability and the physical environment: Social responsibility and accounting beyond profit
Authors: Bebbington Jan , Gray Rob
Published: February 2007

The social responsibility debates of the last thirty years have resolved little and have had only peripheral effects on traditional business behaviour. Social responsibility issues are re‐emerging in the light of the environmental crisis and are far too important to be once again marginalised by traditional business thinking. Economic and environmental criteria will, increasingly, be in conflict and accountants ‐ like all business professionals ‐ are implicated in this, not least because it is accounting that defines the rules, keeps the score, announces the results and determines who shall see them. The paper attempts to re‐examine social responsibility and accountability in the light of the re‐emerging environmental concern and suggests some ways in which accounting might contribute towards an organisation's attempts to become less unsustainable.
Environmental factors in the management of new product development: Theoretical framework and some empirical evidence from the white goods industry
Authors: Roome Dr Nigel , Hinnells Mark
Published: February 2007

Concern about the nature and consequences of industrial progress has had an increasing impact on industry. Some commentators have suggested that environmental pressures will advance to the point where they cease to be one of the many strategic issues facing industry and become the very framework within which all other business issues are considered.

This paper aims to address the implications of evolving environmental concern over the management of product development. It develops a conceptual framework to analyse the process of managing product development while taking into account the environmental attributes of products. The paper moves on to consider the implications of such a conceptual framework against the empirical evidence emerging about product development in the white goods industry. Finally, conclusions are drawn about the nature of organisational change in business as it adjusts to the environmental agenda and suggestions are made about the significance of the findings of this research to product development in other industries.
The seven sisters: Snow whites, dwarfs or evil queens? A comparison of the official environmental policies of the largest oil corporations in the world
Authors: Ketola Tarja
Published: February 2007

While environmental management of companies has become a topical issue both in theory and practice, the role of environmental policies in strategic environmental management has received little attention. The purpose of this paper is to study the environmental policies of the world's largest oil corporations in the context of general business goals and strategies, Ansoff's strategic posture analysis and Porter's competitive moves.

Although there is some integration and coordination between the environmental policies and general business goals and strategies of oil companies, strategic environmental management is different from other strategic management. It seems to lag behind its business environment and does not utilise radical competitive moves. Further empirical research is needed to support these initial results and to find out reasons for this potential isolation.
Environmental performance and competitive advantage in Canada's paper industry
Authors: Norcia Vincent Di , Cotton Barry , Dodge John
Published: February 2007

A new environmental performance model is developed, explained and subsequently applied to a study of the Canadian recycled paper industry. The strategic position of the industry is explored as it takes the progressive steps needed to improve its environmental performance and competitive advantage in response to this rising regulatory agenda. Three policy options facing the Canadian pulp and paper industry are examined: the status quo, process technology innovation and product development. The strategic position of the industry is also examined using measurement of stance, attitude, government response, values, planning horizon and environmental integration. The supplier‐consumer relationship, capital‐technology and locational factors are also used to further discuss the links between competitive advantage and environmental performance. From this discussion, conclusions are drawn on competitive environmentalism: ethics and profit are compatible; newsprint mills must improve their locational, technology and market actions; the industry must proactively seek out environmental market and stakeholder opportunities and; further management research is needed to demonstrate the links between environmental performance, innovation and competitiveness.
Environmental performance: Quality, measurement and improvement
Authors: Hocking Roland W. D. , Power Shahed
Published: February 2007

Environmental management is becoming a key business management concern. Effective management requires appropriate and timely data on which decisions can be based. In addition, there is increasing pressure to provide reports on the environmental probity of companies. This requires objective, factual data. This paper considers this aspect from the perspective of the quality of environmental performance. Measurement techniques are outlined and their use in on‐going performance appraisal and monitoring to show improvements is discussed. Potential pitfalls in taking reported environmental performance claims at their face value are also considered.
Measuring strategic environmental performance
Authors: Azzone Giovanni , Manzini Raffaella
Published: February 2007

It is now widely acknowledged that environmental issues will increasingly affect the performance of firms in western countries, both in the short and in the long run. Environmental issues can act on revenues and on costs. They can influence revenues when a firm follows a ‘green strategy’, i.e. it enhances the characteristics of environmental compatibility of its products or it promotes a credible image of a ‘green company’, that employs only clean technologies. They can influence costs as, on the one hand, more limiting environmental standards can result in higher manufacturing and non manufacturing costs and, on the other hand, programmes focused on improving environmental performances can result in less spoils and wastes, hence in lower costs.

Hence, environmental performance should be a structured part of the management control system of an industrial firm. Unfortunately, it is not completely clear how accounting information can be structured in order to obtain this result.

This paper is aimed at developing a set of information that can be used for a managerial control focused on the environmental performance of an industrial firm. This paper is organized in three main sections.

Section I describes the conceptual requirements of a management control system based on accounting information for monitoring the environmental performance of an industrial firm (completeness, long term orientation, external orientation, measurability and cost).

Section II analyses different classes of Environmental Performance Indicators (EPI) used in practice. Both accounting measures (prevention costs and investments; operating environmental costs; contingent environmental liabilities) and non financial measures (physical indicators; compliance) are considered.

Section III suggests an integrated approach to the design of a management control system focused on environmental issues, where different classes of indicators are used jointly. More specifically, two integrated systems, one mostly based on physical measures and aimed at external communication, the other focused on accounting measures and supporting managerial decision making, are suggested.
The setting of voluntary agreements between industry and government: Bargaining and efficiency
Authors: Glachant Matthieu
Published: February 2007

This paper aims at providing a preliminary economic analysis of the efficiency of an emerging environmental policy instrument: the so‐called voluntary agreement. The use of a data base we have built containing 75 existing agreements in 12 OECD countries allows us to stylise these empirical objects. They are mutually agreed contracts signed between a national administration and a coalition of firms. They include a set of physical pollution reduction objectives to be reached by the firms. According to classical economic categories, they are similar to a traditional policy instrument, i.e. direct regulation, but one which has been devised after an intense negotiation process. As regards efficiency, the key question lies in the impact of such negotiations.

In our analytical framework, we distinguish two subjects of negotiation: the collective environmental objective, i.e. the physical amount of pollution to be globally suppressed via the completion of the contract, and the means required to reach the collective objective, i.e. the allocation rule of private pollution reduction objectives. According to these categories a major asymmetry arises in the negotiation structure. When the dominant dimension of the negotiations concerns the environmental objective, firms are clearly opposed to the administration because of their eagerness to obtain as low an objective as possible. In that case, voluntary agreements do not seem to be an original policy approach. They can be compared with classical consultation processes of interested parties when designing new regulations and raise similar questions: the efficiency of information collection and the dangers of regulatory capture. But when the subject being bargained concerns the means to reach environmental objectives which have already been fixed, individual firms become rivals.

The logic of such negotiations lies in inter‐firm bargaining arbitrated by the administration. Voluntary agreements tend to be an original negotiation‐based policy instrument. Decentralised bargaining improves the allocative efficiency.
Prolonged gestation: Energy efficiency and renewable energy businesses
Authors: Marcus Alfred , Sutcliffe Kathleen , McEvily Susan
Published: February 2007

Life cycle theories suggest that businesses evolve through a number of stages: from an embryonic stage of introduction to growth, maturity, and decline. The force that propels their development is consumer acceptance. Industries pass through life cycles as well. However, not all industries pass through each stage of the life cycle, and the duration of stages varies across industries. Some industries skip the slow introductory phase; others avoid the decline stage and are continually revitalised through technological innovation. Still others continue to show substantial promise, but fail to take‐off. It is this industry condition, persistent promise without corresponding growth, that we characterise as extended gestation. We believe that energy efficiency and renewable energy (EERE) businesses in Minnesota face the challenge of extended gestation. In this paper, we review the literature on the traditional stages of industry development, explore some of the factors that may lead an industry to remain in a state of extended gestation, and report the results of a study undertaken to better understand the factors that affect the growth of EERE businesses.
Towards commercial and environmental excellence: A green portfolio matrix
Authors: Lee Byung Wook , Green Kenneth
Published: February 2007

This article examines the strategic framework and options available for product strategy towards commercial and environmental excellence. It defines the environmental dimension as a ‘moving target’, explores a conceptual framework to integrate commercial and environmental dimensions and elaborates a ‘green portfolio matrix’. The proposed matrix is also empirically investigated as to its practical validity by using a set of secondary data including twelve product cases. Using the matrix, a company can diagnose its existing product mix from an environmental point of view, and furthermore can establish future ‘targets’ for an environmentally‐friendly product portfolio. In addition, the matrix can be used as a framework for comparative analyses between strategic business units or for longitudinal assessment of a specific business entity.
Tales in two countries: An insight into corporate environmental reporting in Denmark and the UK
Authors: Birkin Frank , Jørgensen Helle Bank
Published: February 2007

The 1992 EC Fifth Action Plan, ‘Towards Sustainability’, expresses the Commission's commitment to ‘sustainable growth’. Detailed in the plan are requirements and areas of improvement which relate, predominantly, to environmental management.

However, financial and environmental management conflict in important and fundamental areas. A failure of management practice and European policy to identify and address this conflict will not only prolong the ecological inefficiencies of industry but will isolate intent and action. This study examines this conflict with respect to training, operational time‐horizons, opportunity costs, corporate governance and growth.

The Annual Report is the authoritative statement of corporate performance, policy, objectives and culture. Although most reports do provide a broad if summary coverage of the main business activities, such reports are dominated by the needs of financial management. Extensive legislation and professional edicts dictate the contents of these financial reports. From the perspective of the Annual Report, it is a reasonable conclusion that financial performance is a part of whatever constitutes the core values of corporations. From this same perspective, it is also reasonable to infer that in many corporations environmental performance is not a part of corporate core values.

This study compares and contrasts the Annual Reports of six environmentally significant companies in Denmark and the UK. The British environmental reports studied are thorough but separate from the Annual Report. On the other hand, the Danish firms incorporate all their environmental reporting within their Annual Reports. Which gives a better expression of a change in corporate core values?.
Business, trust and environmental information: Perceptions from consumers and retailers
Authors: Eden Sally
Published: February 2007

This paper explores how business sees its role as a provider of information to the public about products marketed with environmental claims. This revolves around issues of depersonalised advice to customers, education of the wider public and, most crucially, justification of company activities. The author demonstrates how people criticise this information because of the way that they perceive the motives of business to colour it, rather than because of the facts it conveys. People distrust aspects of business, especially its environmental information, for these reasons but the perceived expertise of business in comparison with the lack of expertise of the public means that they have little choice but to trust the more general system of information provision. The balance of trust to doubt is precarious and an overall loss of public trust has implications for the regulation of business because self‐regulation will no longer be seen as accountable and pressure may build for increasing government intervention, e.g. in eco‐labelling. These issues are addressed through the use of qualitative data from in‐depth interviews with green consumers and retailers.
Pioneering descriptions of corporate greening: Notes and doubts on the emerging discussion
Authors: Räsänen Keijo , Meriläinen Susan , Lovio Raimo
Published: February 2007

This article reviews the emerging discussion on corporate greening. The pioneering authors are found to have drawn on a number of perspectives in their descriptions of the greening process. Their views emphasise the choice of an environmental strategy, reform in management systems, organisational change, cultural change and institutional change. In spite of this conceptual diversity, the first accounts almost unanimously assume that greening will be, and should be, a top‐down process starting from the top management and being implemented through formal measures. This article suggest that these assumptions should be relaxed and both empirical research and managerial practice should be receptive to other varieties of greening, too. In particular, informal and autonomous bottom‐up processes may be very important in such a fundamental transition which greening may in some cases prove to be. This argument is based conceptually on an institutional view on the logics of managerial action, and empirically on studies in other fields of managerial work and on a case study of environmental management in a Finnish chemicals company.
Corporate environmental commitment: Developing the operational concept
Authors: Zeffane Rachid M , Polonsky Michael J , Medley Patrick
Published: February 2007

This article attempts to develop an operational measure of the notion of Corporate Environmental Commitment (CEC), through an examination of CEO's perceptions of their firms' behaviour regarding a number of environmental items. This is done by identifying a number of salient items in the literature and integrating them into a survey instrument. The mail survey was administered to the key informants of the 1000 largest organisations in Australia of which 306 responded. Iterative Factor‐Analysis of the data revealed that the questionnaire items (55 items in total) could be statistically collapsed into four factors representing the overall degree of ‘Corporate Environmental Commitment’. The four factors were (1) the degree to which environmental audits are emphasised as an environmental evaluation tool (Audit); (2) the existence and role of a clear and well disseminated environmental policy (Policy); (3) consideration of environmental impacts in assessing future corporate activities including investments & projects (Future Activities) and (4) incorporation of environmental issues in corporate appraisal systems (Appraisal Systems). Internal consistency within each of the four factors revealed significant reliability of all factors. It is suggested that the use of the four‐factor method uncovered in this study bears significant practical relevance, allowing firms to assess their environmental commitment (EC) at the corporate level.
Exploring the business benefits of environmental stewardship
Authors: Guimaraes Tor , Liska Kevin
Published: February 2007

Environmental sensitivity has gained much attention in business organizations; however, there is little empirical evidence on the business benefits from environment‐oriented measures. Some of the many promised benefits from environmental sensitivity are categorized and rated. The framework proposed by the Management Institute for Environment and Business is used to assess company environmental stewardship. A pre‐tested questionnaire was used to collect data from 133 business organizations known to have undertaken at least some ‘green business’ activities. The results from Pearson correlation analysis suggest that companies showing higher degrees of environmental stewardship will derive greater business benefits than organizations which aim at minimum compliance with government regulations in this area.
Environmental auditing: Management strategy
Authors: Carter S. J. , Ball D. F. , Baron P. J. , Elliott D.
Published: February 2007

A project was carried out to identify the external influences that affect participation in environmental audit programmes and the internal factors which may stimulate or modify reaction to these influences. The companies selected for the study were all in manufacturing or supply and with a potential to pollute the environment. The study was progressed by a questionnaire to the person responsible for environmental matters in 100 companies. There was a response rate of 48%. The questionnaire sought information on the company, the beliefs and experiences of the respondents, factors that had influenced the company and how the company had reacted to these. The responses to the questionnaire were analysed to try to determine areas where changes might profitably be made to the environmental management framework. Potential areas for change include a recommendation to establish environmental auditing as a fixed requirement to a fixed standard (BS 7750), with the company's policy and objectives being agreed with Her Majesty's Inspectors of Pollution on a regular basis and audited to achieve British Standard certification. The concept of the environmental crisis portfolio is introduced.
Managing responsiveness to pressures for change in environmental performance
Authors: Skidmore David
Published: February 2007

A rapid response to pressures resulting from environmental issues generally benefits the environment and assists the competitiveness of a company. A five‐point plan is outlined by which a company may accelerate its response through managing its organizational structure and the phases of its change programme.
From ‘start‐up’ to ‘re‐boot’: Product lifecycle strategies and competitive advantage in the computer industry
Authors: Rodgers Cheryl
Published: February 2007

The PC sector, following the packaging and car manufacturing industries, will increasingly be forced to acknowledge and account for its product base throughout the commodity's life, and beyond. The environmental problems being posed by electronic waste have been recognized and both the EU and the individual Member States are discussing solutions which may or may not include legislative action. In anticipation, product take‐back programmes are beginning to emerge within the industry and the economics and logistics of re‐use and recycling are at the forefront of this debate. The issues in store for this sector are examined and specific initiatives by organizations considered. It is asked whether a ‘closing of the product loop’ will generate a competitive advantage for these companies and what impact an industry‐led ‘consortia’ initiative may have.
Green virus: Exploring the environmental product concept
Authors: Hukkinen Janne
Published: February 2007

Environmental issues expose firms to numerous threats from their ecological and institutional surroundings. Many enterprises today react to these threats with technical innovations designed to improve the company's green image and performance. However, the critical test of corporate greening is how effectively the firm deals with the organizational relationships that can support or undermine the technically conceived green artifact. Successful firms comprehensively fuse ecological awareness and environmental management procedures into their raison d'etre, namely, the product. Environmental regulators, competitors, customers, the public and the press become key formulators of the new environmental product concept. This paper explores what these concepts are and how they are conceived. Using the concept of industrial ecology as a starting point, three key areas of green product innovation are identified: competitors, regulators and customers. Competitive pressures reorientate firms towards dematerialization and services. Novel regulatory arrangements such as covenants and environmental product profiles are information‐gathering devices and add value to the product.

Finally, the necessity to close material loops forces recycling firms to attract customers with reliable, long‐term input–output agreements.

vir.us n., pl. ‐rus.es. …having the ability to replicate only inside a living cell (The American Heritage Dictionary, 1982).