bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Quality of Produced Sand-Cast Engine Block Made from Elektron 21 Magnesium Alloy
Authors: Stopyra Michał , Jarosz Robert , Kiełbus Andrzej
Published: November 2013

The casting defects, microstructure and hardness of Elektron 21 Mg sand casting alloy was investigated. Visual and radiographic examination showed the presence of non-metallic inclusions and porosity. Quantitative analysis of microstructure was performed, no correlation between section thickness, grain size, volume fraction of eutectic areas and hardness was observed. Casting defects were responsible for cracking at magnesium casting/steel tube interface.
Investigation of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Magnesium Alloys
Authors: Chmiela Bartosz , Mościcki Adrian , Sozańska Maria
Published: November 2013

The paper organises the current state of knowledge concerning the effect of hydrogen on stress corrosion of magnesium alloys. This review describes phenomena and mechanisms connected with stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in commonly used magnesium alloys from Mg-Al-Zn system. In addition, some information about SCC in alloys from Mg-Y-RE-Zr and Mg-Al-RE systems is described. It seems that microstructural factors (e.g., matrix α-Mg and intermetallic phases) related to the presence of Y, Zr and rare earth elements (RE) plays an essential role in hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC).
Calibrated high-precision 17Oexcess measurements using laser-current tuned cavity ring-down spectroscopy
Authors: Steig E. J. , Gkinis V. , Schauer A. J. , Schoenemann S. W. , Samek K. , Hoffnagle J. , Dennis K. J. , Tan S. M.
Published: November 2013

Abstract. High precision analysis of the 17O/16O isotope ratio in water and water vapor is of interest in hydrological, paleoclimate, and atmospheric science applications. Of specific interest is the parameter 17Oexcess, a measure of the deviation from a linear relationship between 17O/16O and 18O/16O ratios. Conventional analyses of 17Oexcess are obtained by fluorination of H2O to O2 that is analyzed by dual-inlet isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). We describe a new laser spectroscopy instrument for high-precision 17Oexcess measurements. The new instrument uses cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) with laser-current tuning to achieve reduced measurement drift compared with previous-generation instruments. Liquid water and water vapor samples can be analyzed with better than 8 per meg precision for 17Oexcess using integration times of less than 30 min. Calibration with respect to accepted water standards demonstrates that both the precision and the accuracy are competitive with conventional IRMS methods. The new instrument also achieves simultaneous measurements of δ18O, 17Oand δD with precision < 0.03‰, < 0.02‰ and < 0.2‰, respectively.
Evaluating CaCO3-cycle modules in coupled global biogeochemical ocean models
Authors: Koeve W. , Duteil O. , Oschlies A. , Kähler P. , Segschneider J.
Published: November 2013

Abstract. The marine CaCO3 cycle is an important component of the oceanic carbon system and directly affects the cycling of natural and the uptake of anthropogenic carbon. In numerical models of the marine carbon cycle, the CaCO3 cycle component is often evaluated against the observed distribution of alkalinity. Alkalinity varies in response to the formation and remineralisation of CaCO3 and organic matter. However, it also has a large conservative component, which may strongly be affected by a deficient representation of ocean physics (circulation, evaporation, and precipitation) in models. Here we apply a global ocean biogeochemical model run into preindustrial steady state featuring a number of idealized tracers, explicitly capturing the model's CaCO3 dissolution, organic matter remineralisation, and various preformed properties (alkalinity, oxygen, phosphate). We compare the suitability of a variety of measures related to the CaCO3 cycle, including alkalinity (TA), potential alkalinity and TA*, the latter being a measure of the time-integrated imprint of CaCO3 dissolution in the ocean. It can be diagnosed from any data set of TA, temperature, salinity, oxygen and phosphate. We demonstrate the sensitivity of total and potential alkalinity to the differences in model and ocean physics, which disqualifies them as accurate measures of biogeochemical processes. We show that an explicit treatment of preformed alkalinity (TA0) is necessary and possible. In our model simulations we implement explicit model tracers of TA0 and TA*. We find that the difference between modeled true TA* and diagnosed TA* was below 10% (25%) in 73% (81%) of the ocean's volume. In the Pacific (and Indian) Oceans the RMS error of TA* is below 3 (4) mmol TA m−3, even when using a global rather than regional algorithms to estimate preformed alkalinity. Errors in the Atlantic Ocean are significantly larger and potential improvements of TA0 estimation are discussed. Applying the TA* approach to the output of three state-of-the-art ocean carbon cycle models we demonstrate the advantage of explicitly taking preformed alkalinity into account for separating the effects of biogeochemical processes and circulation on the distribution of alkalinity. In particular, we suggest to use the TA* approach for CaCO3-cycle model evaluation.
Assessing the CAM5 physics suite in the WRF-Chem model: implementation, evaluation, and resolution sensitivity
Authors: Ma P.-L. , Rasch P. J. , Fast J. D. , Easter R. C. , Gustafson Jr. W. I. , Liu X. , Ghan S. J. , Singh B.
Published: November 2013

Abstract. A suite of physical parameterizations (deep and shallow convection, turbulent boundary layer, aerosols, cloud microphysics, and cloud fraction) from the global climate model Community Atmosphere Model version 5.1 (CAM5) has been implemented in the regional model Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry (WRF-Chem). A downscaling modeling framework with consistent physics has also been established in which both global and regional simulations use the same emissions and surface fluxes. The WRF-Chem model with the CAM5 physics suite is run at multiple horizontal resolutions over a domain encompassing the northern Pacific Ocean, northeast Asia, and northwest North America for April 2008 when the ARCTAS, ARCPAC, and ISDAC field campaigns took place. These simulations are evaluated against field campaign measurements, satellite retrievals, and ground-based observations, and are compared with simulations that use a set of common WRF-Chem parameterizations. This manuscript describes the implementation of the CAM5 physics suite in WRF-Chem, provides an overview of the modeling framework and an initial evaluation of the simulated meteorology, clouds, and aerosols, and quantifies the resolution dependence of the cloud and aerosol parameterizations. We demonstrate that some of the CAM5 biases, such as high estimates of cloud susceptibility to aerosols and the underestimation of aerosol concentrations in the Arctic, can be reduced simply by increasing horizontal resolution. We also show that the CAM5 physics suite performs similarly to a set of parameterizations commonly used in WRF-Chem, but produces higher ice and liquid water condensate amounts and near-surface black carbon concentration. Further evaluations that use other mesoscale model parameterizations and perform other case studies are needed to infer whether one parameterization consistently produces results more consistent with observations.
Global isoscapes for δ18O and δ2H in precipitation: improved prediction using regionalized climatic regression models
Authors: Terzer S. , Wassenaar L. I. , Araguás-Araguás L. J. , Aggarwal P. K.
Published: November 2013

Abstract. A regionalized cluster-based water isotope prediction (RCWIP) approach, based on the Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP), was demonstrated for the purposes of predicting point- and large-scale spatio-temporal patterns of the stable isotope composition (δ2H, δ18O) of precipitation around the world. Unlike earlier global domain and fixed regressor models, RCWIP predefined 36 climatic cluster domains and tested all model combinations from an array of climatic and spatial regressor variables to obtain the best predictive approach to each cluster domain, as indicated by root-mean-squared error (RMSE) and variogram analysis. Fuzzy membership fractions were thereafter used as the weights to seamlessly amalgamate results of the optimized climatic zone prediction models into a single predictive mapping product, such as global or regional amount-weighted mean annual, mean monthly, or growing-season δ18O/δ2H in precipitation. Comparative tests revealed the RCWIP approach outperformed classical global-fixed regression–interpolation-based models more than 67% of the time, and clearly improved upon predictive accuracy and precision. All RCWIP isotope mapping products are available as gridded GeoTIFF files from the IAEA website (www.iaea.org/water) and are for use in hydrology, climatology, food authenticity, ecology, and forensics.
A Fair Value Model for Bearer Biological Assets in Promoting Corporate Governance: A Proposal
Authors: Muhammad Kamaruzzaman , Ghani Erlane K
Published: November 2013

This paper discusses IAS 41 Agriculture with specific focus on accounting for bearer biological assets in Malaysia. It presents the concerns raised by various parties on the applicability of IAS 41 on bearer biological assets particularly on the use of present value of future net cash flows model to determine the fair value of certain category of biological assets. This paper posits that there is a way to develop a fair value model through identifying factors that influence the fair value of bearer biological assets. The results of the proposed study would hopefully assist in the development of an alternative fair value model in valuing bearer biological assets and subsequently lead to good corporate governance specifically on the improving the qualitative characteristic of financial information.
Optical Interference Substrates for Nanoparticles and Two-Dimensional Materials
Authors: Bacsa Wolfgang S , Pavlenko Ekaterina , Tishkova Victoria
Published: November 2013

Interference substrates are useful in enhancing Raman and luminescence signals and in increasing the optical contrast of nanoparticles and atomically thin layers. Interference substrates played a crucial role in the discovery of the electric field effect on electronic conduction in graphene a few years ago. They are now used for a wide range of two-dimensional materials and recently for the heterostructures of atomically thin films. The same or similar substrates can be employed for the exploration of a large variety of nanoparticles. Although optical interference has been known to occur within the proximity of surfaces for more than one century, optical interference has been only gradually used over the last two decades to enhance the optical response of nanoparticles and layered materials. We review the different forms of interference substrates used over time. While multiple interference effects are frequently put forward to explain the enhancement in interference substrates, we show here that the formation of optical surface standing waves near strongly reflecting surfaces is the main cause of field enhancement. In addition, we demonstrate how a metal layer improves optical field enhancement.
Prévenir l’exurbanisation : le Plan Gréber de 1950 pour Montréal
Authors: M’Bala José
Published: November 2013

Cet article présente un projet allant à contre-courant de la tendance de fond qui, sous la poussée des forces centrifuges, allait engendrer une forme urbaine éclatée comme modèle de croissance dans la région de Montréal Dans son projet, Jacques Gréher privilégie la consolidation du tissu urbain, en suggérant une urbanisation continue et centrée qui rappelle le design d’une agglomération fonctionnant sous l’impulsion d’une force centripète dominante, ici le port de Montréal et les activités connexes de l’industrie. En enfermant les zones desservies dans des périmètres d’agglomération, une pratique codifiée par la loi à la fin des années 1970 (LAU), Jacques Gréber voulait protéger les espaces libres et les terres agricoles contre un envahissement incontrôlé. Même si ses propositions semblaient être venues tard pour empêcher la saignée démographique de Montréal, la ville-centre, elles arrivaient cependant à point pour l’île de Montréal et ses environs où l’urbanisation était encore très limitée. En l’absence du rapport explicatif du plan Gréber pour Montréal (1950), son interprétation est faite sur le plan théorique, en référence aux principes de la Charte d’Athènes; et sur le plan méthodologique, par rapport aux autres plans de Jacques Gréber pour les régions d’Ottawa et de Québec. Le caractère détaillé des plan et rapport d’Ottawa (1950) et la précision du rapport du plan manquant de Québec (1956), tous deux contemporains au projet de Montréal, justifient leur utilisation comme base d’analyse de celui-ci.
Mapping Quaternary alluvial fans in the southwestern United States based on multiparameter surface roughness of lidar topographic data
Authors: Regmi Netra R. , McDonald Eric V. , Bacon Steven N.
Published: November 2013

Quaternary alluvial fans have diverse surface morphologies related to both depositional and weathering processes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the surface expression and morphometry of alluvial fans can be used as an indicator of their relative age of deposition, but only recently has there been an effort to utilize high‐resolution topographic data to differentiate alluvial fans by surface age with automated and quantifiable routines. We developed a quantitative model for mapping the relative age of alluvial fan surfaces based on multiparameter surface roughness values computed from 1 m resolution lidar topographic data. Roughness is defined as a function of observational scale and integration of slope, curvature, and aspect topographic parameters. Alluvial fan roughness values were computed across multiple observation scales (3 × 3 m to 150 × 150 m) based on the standard deviation (SD) of slope, curvature (tangential), and aspect topographic parameters. Plots of roughness value versus size of observation scale suggest that the SD of each parameter over a 7 × 7 m observation window best identified the signature of surface roughness elements. Roughness maps derived from slope, curvature, and aspect at this scale were integrated using fuzzy logic. The integrated roughness map was then classified into five relative morphostratigraphic surface age categories (active wash to ~400 ka) and statistically compared with a similar fivefold surface age map of alluvial fans developed using traditional field surveys and aerial photographic interpretation. The model correctly predicted the distribution and relative surface age of ~61% of alluvial fan landforms based on traditional mapping techniques.
Multicycle ensemble forecasting of sea surface temperature
Authors: Brassington Gary B.
Published: November 2013

A novel extension to time‐lagged ensemble forecasting called multicycle ensemble forecasting improves the independent sampling of forecast model errors. Multicycle is defined such that each forecast cycle is independent of the previous forecast cycle. For an M cycle system the background field for each cycle is from a model hindcast M cycles earlier. The model errors have a factor M longer period to grow compared with a sequential system; however, the increased independence in the forecast model errors provide weighted ensemble averages with greater skill and reliability over the 0 lag forecast and a good spread‐error relationship. This cost‐efficient technique is relevant to global ocean forecasting where an ensemble method is computationally prohibitive.
Diurnal variations of midlatitude NLC parameters observed by daylight‐capable lidar and their relation to ambient parameters
Authors: Gerding M. , Kopp M. , Hoffmann P. , Höffner J. , Lübken F.‐J.
Published: November 2013

Noctilucent Clouds (NLCs) are an important phenomenon of the summer mesopause region. While relatively common in high latitudes, NLCs are sparse (≤10% occurrence rate) below 60°latitude. We present the first study of diurnal variations of midlatitude NLCs based on lidar observations with full diurnal coverage at Kühlungsborn since 2010 independent from solar elevation. Overall, ∼100h of NLCs with a backscatter coefficient of βmax,532nm>0.5·10−10m−1sr−1are observed within ∼1800h. Occurrence rates decrease regularly from 12% at 5local solar time (LST) to ∼2% at 19LST. The mean NLC brightness varies between ∼1 and ∼3·10−10m−1sr−1with maxima at 4 and 18LST. The simultaneously observed temperatures show a systematic (tidal) variation, but we do not find a direct relation to NLC rates. Comparing NLCs and ambient winds, we find strong indications for the meridional wind (advection) being the main driver for NLC occurrence above our site.
Earthquake magnitude scaling using seismogeodetic data
Authors: Crowell Brendan W. , Melgar Diego , Bock Yehuda , Haase Jennifer S. , Geng Jianghui
Published: November 2013

The combination of GPS and strong‐motion data to estimate seismogeodetic waveforms creates a data set that is sensitive to the entire spectrum of ground displacement and the full extent of coseismic slip. In this study we derive earthquake magnitude scaling relationships using seismogeodetic observations of either P wave amplitude or peak ground displacements from five earthquakes in Japan and California ranging in magnitude from 5.3 to 9.0. The addition of the low‐frequency component allows rapid distinction of earthquake size for large magnitude events with high precision, unlike accelerometer data that saturate for earthquakes greater than M 7 to 8, and is available well before the coseismic displacements are emplaced. These results, though based on a limited seismogeodetic data set, support earlier studies that propose it may be possible to estimate the final magnitude of an earthquake well before the rupture is complete.
Correlated measurements of ozone and particulates in the Ross Island region, Antarctica
Authors: Kalnajs Lars E. , Avallone Linnea M. , Toohey Darin W.
Published: November 2013

Trace gases, submicron particle size distributions, and bulk filterable halogen content were measured on Ross Island, Antarctica, in austral spring 2007. During several surface level, partial ozone depletion events, enhanced submicron particle concentrations, and changes in filterable halogens were observed. These events were characterized by ozone depletions of 5–15 ppbv for durations between 6 and 48 h and associated with threefold‐to‐fourfold increases in submicron particle mass (PM1.0) over backgrounds of approximately 100 ng m−3. Peak particle number densities were centered on a mode at 500–600 nm in diameter, which is consistent with wintertime sea‐salt aerosol size distributions. Filterable chloride also increased during these events, consistent with aerosol being of oceanic origin. Ozone depletion and particle enhancement events were accompanied by increasing temperatures and winds, suggesting that halogen‐containing aerosol is generated from windblown snow and brine from the snow pack or sea ice near the ice edge.
Estimating the location of a tunnel using correlation and inversion of Rayleigh wave scattering
Authors: Kaslilar A. , Harmankaya U. , Wapenaar K. , Draganov D.
Published: November 2013

The investigation of near‐surface scatterers, such as cavities, tunnels, abandoned mine shafts, and buried objects, is important to mitigate geohazards and environmental hazards. By inversion of travel times of cross‐correlated scattered waves, due to the incident Rayleigh waves, we estimate the location of a near‐surface tunnel from seismic field data. The cross correlation eliminates the travel path between a source and a scatterer, thus eliminating the need to know the position of the source, making the estimation of the scatterers' locations dependent only on properties between the receivers and the scatterer. First time using a numerically verified method on seismic field data, we show the potential of the method for estimating the location of a buried scatterer.
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation slowdown cooled the subtropical ocean
Authors: Cunningham Stuart A. , Roberts Christopher D. , Frajka‐Williams Eleanor , Johns William E. , Hobbs Will , Palmer Matthew D. , Rayner Darren , Smeed David A. , McCarthy Gerard
Published: November 2013

Observations show that the upper 2 km of the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean cooled throughout 2010 and remained cold until at least December 2011. We show that these cold anomalies are partly driven by anomalous air‐sea exchange during the cold winters of 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 and, more surprisingly, by extreme interannual variability in the ocean's northward heat transport at 26.5°N. This cooling driven by the ocean's meridional heat transport affects deeper layers isolated from the atmosphere on annual timescales and water that is entrained into the winter mixed layer thus lowering winter sea surface temperatures. Here we connect, for the first time, variability in the northward heat transport carried by the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation to widespread sustained cooling of the subtropical North Atlantic, challenging the prevailing view that the ocean plays a passive role in the coupled ocean‐atmosphere system on monthly‐to‐seasonal timescales.
High‐accuracy measurements of the vapor pressure of ice referenced to the triple point
Authors: Bielska Katarzyna , Havey Daniel K. , Scace Gregory E. , Lisak Daniel , Harvey Allan H. , Hodges Joseph T.
Published: November 2013

The vapor pressure of hexagonal (Ih) water ice was measured over the temperature range 175 K to 253.4 K and referenced to the value at the triple point of water. This experiment combined a highly accurate humidity generation system containing an ice‐coated saturator (millikelvin‐level temperature control) to provide humidified streams of nitrogen to a cavity‐enhanced laser absorption spectrometer. The measured ice vapor pressures had relative standard uncertainties ranging from 0.4% to 0.7% over the entire temperature range. We demonstrate that these measurements validate thermodynamic correlations for ice vapor pressure based on integration of the Clapeyron equation. Moreover, they also indicate that some commonly used vapor pressure correlations are inaccurate and should be avoided.
Intermediate and deep water formation in the Okinawa Trough
Authors: Nakamura Hirohiko , Nishina Ayako , Liu Zhaojun , Tanaka Fumiyo , Wimbush Mark , Park Jae‐Hun
Published: November 2013

Water mass formation in the intermediate and deep layers of the Okinawa Trough is investigated using two distinct data sets: a quasi‐climatological data set of the water properties of the minimum salinity surface produced from Argo float profiles and historical CTD data, and a velocity data set in the Kerama Gap measured by moored current meters during June 2009 to June 2011. The formation process of Okinawa Trough Intermediate Water is explained on the basis of horizontal advection and mixing of North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) and South China Sea Intermediate Water (SCSIW). The salinity‐minimum water intruding into the Okinawa Trough through the channel east of Taiwan is approximately composed of 45% NPIW and 55% SCSIW, while that through the Kerama Gap is 75% NPIW and 25% SCSIW. Salinities of these water masses increase in the Okinawa Trough due to strong diapycnal diffusion; its coefficient is estimated as 6.8–21.5 × 10−4 m2 s−1 based on a simple advection‐diffusion equation. On the other hand, deep water in the Okinawa Trough, below the sill depth of the Kerama Gap (∼1100 m), is ventilated by overflow in the bottom layer of the Kerama Gap down to the deepest layer (∼2000 m) in the southern Okinawa Trough. A simple box model predicts that this bottom overflow (0.18–0.35 Sv) causes strong upwelling (3.8–7.6 × 10−6 m s−1) in the southern Okinawa Trough, which must be maintained by buoyancy gain of the deep water due to strong diapycnal diffusion (4.8–9.5 × 10−4 m2 s−1).
Long‐term variations of North Atlantic tropical cyclone activity downscaled from a coupled model simulation of the last millennium
Authors: Kozar Michael E. , Mann Michael E. , Emanuel Kerry A. , Evans Jenni L.
Published: November 2013

The observed historical record of North Atlantic tropical cyclones (TCs) is relatively short and is subject to potential biases owing to a lack of observation platforms such as aircraft reconnaissance and satellite imagery in earlier decades. Therefore, studies of long‐term variability in TC activity are hindered by the limitations and uncertainty within the historical data. An alternative approach is to study long‐term Atlantic TC variability within the framework of a coupled ocean‐atmosphere climate model simulation. We have taken such an approach using a simulation of the National Center for Atmospheric Research Climate System Model 1.4 forced with estimated natural and anthropogenic forcing over the past millennium. Atmospheric variables from the long‐term model simulation are used to drive a recently developed downscaling relationship that simulates TC genesis and tracking over the course of the 1150 year model simulation. This downscaling process generates a long‐term synthetic TC track data set, free of observational biases, though subject to limitations in the model climatology. The synthetic TC data are used to perform an analysis of long‐term variability in Atlantic TCs, specifically focusing on TC landfalls, within the context of the coupled model simulation. Ultimately, analysis of various TC time series reveals that counts of landfalling TCs and even landfalling hurricanes track relatively well with the total basin‐wide TC activity on multidecadal and longer timescales.
Linking channel hydrology with riparian wetland accretion in tidal rivers
Authors: Ensign Scott H. , Noe Gregory B. , Hupp Cliff R.
Published: November 2013

The hydrologic processes by which tide affects river channel and riparian morphology within the tidal freshwater zone are poorly understood yet are fundamental to predicting the fate of coastal rivers and wetlands as sea level rises. We investigated patterns of sediment accretion in riparian wetlands along the nontidal through oligohaline portion of two coastal plain rivers in Maryland, U.S., and how flow velocity, water level, and suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in the channel may have contributed to those patterns. Sediment accretion was measured over a 1 year period using artificial marker horizons, channel hydrology was measured over a 1 month period using acoustic Doppler current profilers, and SSC was predicted from acoustic backscatter. Riparian sediment accretion was lowest at the nontidal sites (mean and standard deviation = 8 ± 8 mm yr−1), highest at the upstream tidal freshwater forested wetlands (TFFW) (33 ± 28 mm yr−1), low at the midstream TFFW (12 ± 9 mm yr−1), and high at the oligohaline (fresh‐to‐brackish) marshes (19 ± 8 mm yr−1). Channel maximum flood and ebb velocity was twofold faster at the oligohaline than tidal freshwater zone on both tidal rivers, corresponding with the differences in in‐channel SSC: The oligohaline zone's SSC was more than double the tidal freshwater zone's and was greater than historical SSC at the nontidal gages. The tidal wave characteristics differed between rivers, leading to significantly greater in‐channel SSC during floodplain inundation in the weakly convergent than the strongly convergent tidal river. High sediment accretion at the upstream TFFW was likely due to high river discharge following a hurricane.
Unprecedented wind erosion and perturbation of surface geochemistry marks the Anthropocene in Australia
Authors: Marx Samuel K. , McGowan Hamish A. , Kamber Balz S. , Knight Jon M. , Denholm John , Zawadzki Atun
Published: November 2013

Australia, the last continent to undergo industrial development, is an ideal environment in which to quantify the magnitude of human‐induced environmental change during the Anthropocene because its entire agricultural and industrial history has occurred within this period. Analysis of an alpine peat mire showed that rapid industrial and agricultural development (both pastoral and cropping) over the past 200 years has resulted in significant environmental change in Australia. Beginning in the 1880s, rates of wind erosion and metal enrichment were up to 10 and 30 times that of background natural conditions, respectively. Increased dust deposition and an expansion in dust source areas were found to map the progression of European farming across the continent, while dust deposition pulses in the mire matched known land degradation events. After 1990 dust deposition decreased, returning to pre‐1880 rates. This was attributed to three factors: net soil loss following more than a century of agricultural activity, increased environmental awareness and soil conservation, and changing windiness. Metal enrichment in the mire reached approximately 2 times natural background accumulation rates by the 1980s as Australia's mining industry expanded. However, metal enrichment continued to increase after the 1980s reaching an average of ~5 times background rates by 2006 and reflecting increased mineral resource development in Australia. Collectively, the results show that changes to Australia's geochemical and sedimentary systems, as a result of agricultural and industrial development, have profoundly changed the Australian environment during the past two centuries.
Exposure Techniques
Authors: Vorstenbosch Valerie , Newman Leorra , Antony Martin M.
Published: November 2013

Exposure‐based strategies are effective treatments for many psychological disorders, yet there have been mixed findings regarding the processes underlying fear reduction during exposure. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of exposure techniques and to discuss the current evidence regarding their effectiveness and the mechanisms by which exposure leads to fear reduction. The historical roots of exposure, as well as contemporary methods of exposure, are discussed. Possible mechanisms underlying exposure are reviewed, with the goal of understanding how and why fear reduction occurs during exposure. Guidelines for conducting exposure practices are discussed in the context of current empirical research.
Emotion Regulation Strategies
Authors: Clen Shauna L. , Mennin Douglas S. , Fresco David M.
Published: November 2013

Targeting emotion regulatory processes through skills‐based interventions has the potential to enhance traditional cognitive behavioral therapy, especially for disorders that tend to be resistant to long‐term remission. In this chapter, we (a) briefly review an affect science approach to emotional functioning, (b) present an argument for utilizing an emotion regulation framework to improve upon traditional cognitive behavioral therapy, (c) provide a rationale for targeting specific emotion regulatory mechanisms in treatment, and (d) outline and briefly review relevant research and interventions regarding four important emotion regulatory mechanisms, including directed attention (i.e., the ability to focus, sustain, and flexibly move attention), emotional acceptance (i.e., the ability to turn openly toward, allow, and remain in personal contact with an emotional experience), cognitive distancing (i.e., the ability to identify, observe, and generate psychological perspective from inner experiences), and cognitive change (i.e., the ability to change one's evaluation of an event such that the event is altered in its emotional significance). Utilizing an emotion regulation framework in conceptualization, intervention, and therapeutic process may facilitate the development of regulatory abilities that will alleviate suffering and enhance clients' capacities to navigate difficult life challenges and pursue meaningful goals.
Mindfulness and Acceptance Techniques
Authors: Herbert James D. , Forman Evan M.
Published: November 2013

The past decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in interest in models of cognitive behavioral therapy that incorporate principles and techniques involving mindfulness and psychological acceptance. Several novel models of cognitive behavioral therapy have been developed, and many established models have likewise begun to incorporate these ideas and procedures. Although a great deal more research is needed, the research to date is largely supportive not only of the broad effectiveness of these approaches, but also of their specific theoretical mechanisms.
Social Skills and Problem‐Solving Training
Authors: Mueser Kim T. , Gottlieb Jennifer D. , Gingerich Susan
Published: November 2013

Social skills training is an approach to improving interpersonal functioning, based on the principles of social learning theory and the shaping of behavior through successive approximations to the desired goal. The primary emphasis in social skills training is on the clinician's use of modeling (demonstrating) specific social skills in simulated role plays, behavioral rehearsal of the targeted skills by the client in role plays, providing positive and corrective feedback following each role play to shape more effective skills, and developing home assignments for clients to practice the skills on their own. Problem‐solving training is teaching an approach to solving personal or interpersonal problems by following a standard sequence of steps: defining the problem, brainstorming solutions, evaluating the solutions, choosing the best solution(s), making a plan to implement the solution(s), and evaluating the success of the solution(s). Social skills and problem‐solving training are conducted together, and may be either the primary focus of group or individual intervention, or combined with other therapeutic techniques. These skills training methods have a strong evidence base supporting their effectiveness in a wide range of child, adolescent, and adult disorders, including developmental disorders (e.g., autism), schizophrenia, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse. These skills training approaches are also widely used in health and mental health prevention programs, improving relationships in the general population, and teaching employees effective interpersonal skills.
Using Motivational Interviewing to Manage Resistance
Authors: Westra Henny A.
Published: November 2013

Motivational interviewing is increasingly being integrated into existing treatments for major mental health problems in order to enhance client engagement with treatment. This chapter outlines the critical importance of resistance in therapy and discusses two forms of it: intrapsychic resistance (fear of change) and interpersonal resistance (opposition to the therapy/therapist). Motivational interviewing can be thought about as a way of managing and working with resistance (either type) to enhance client intrinsic motivation and collaboration in the therapy process. Thus, it is argued that a major contribution of motivational interviewing is in the provision of a framework for viewing and responding effectively to resistance. The basic philosophy and principles of motivational interviewing are discussed in this context and clinical examples of using motivational interviewing to work with resistance are detailed.
Dealing with Difficult Cases
Authors: Sokol Leslie , Fox Marci G. , Becker‐Weidman Emily
Published: November 2013

This chapter provides a useful map around roadblocks that therapists may encounter in everyday practice. Each section addresses a different stumbling block, with a review of relevant literature, as well as case examples and practical advice on overcoming various problems. Case conceptualization is recommended for understanding and navigating roadblocks. Sections also address concerns related to “difficult‐to‐treat” patients, application of session structure, resistance, and hopelessness. The chapter considers how therapist factors, patient factors, their interaction, and the patient's environment and psychopathology all influence treatment outcome. Emphasis is placed on helping patients to succeed at homework, since homework completion correlates with success in cognitive behavioral therapy. The goal of the chapter is to provide clinicians with practical strategies to overcome difficulties encountered in therapy.
A Cognitive Behavioral Road Map for Relapse Prevention in Depression
Authors: Beshai Shadi , Dobson Keith S.
Published: November 2013

This chapter discusses the concepts and issues related to tertiary prevention for recurrent depression. The chapter begins with a review of variables that have been identified through research as moderators of risk, vulnerability, and resiliency for recurrent depression. Different models that have been presented to account for the chronic nature of the condition are discussed. Based on this conceptual review of the chronic nature of depression, both extant and potential cognitive behavioral treatments for recurrent depression are reviewed. Throughout, there is an attempt to forge a strong evidence‐based linkage between scientific investigations and clinical practice in this area.
Somatization and Conversion Disorders
Authors: Allen Lesley A. , Woolfolk Robert L.
Published: November 2013

Patients presenting with somatization and conversion disorders often incur excessive health care charges and fail to respond to standard treatment. The purpose of this chapter is to examine cognitive behavioral therapy for somatization and conversion disorders. Also provided are summaries of the historical background, the diagnostic criteria, and demographic and clinical characteristics of the disorders. A review of the published literature supports the use of cognitive behavioral therapy for somatization. However, there are few data on the impact of treatment on health care utilization, especially when the cost of cognitive behavioral therapy is factored in to the equation. Too few methodologically sound studies have been published on the treatment of conversion disorder to draw any conclusions.
Obesity
Authors: Munsch Simone , Jansen Anita
Published: November 2013

In brief, obesity is the result of energy intake exceeding energy expenditure. Obesity in children and adults has severe psychological and somatic consequences and represents a major health problem. Prevalence rates are high and still increasing. The genetic contribution to obesity is strongly related to the regulation of eating behavior. A successful therapy for obesity therefore focuses on the regulation of eating behavior. This chapter offers an overview of psychological mechanisms determining food intake and body weight such as emotion and impulse regulation as well as cognitive factors. It is underlined that in children as well as in adults, the maintenance of obesity is predominantly a behavioral problem and that insights from clinical psychology could contribute to the development of more effective interventions.
Male Sexual Dysfunctions
Authors: Nobre Pedro
Published: November 2013

Sexual dysfunctions are among the most prevalent health problems in both men and women. Epidemiological studies conducted in different geographical and cultural settings have suggested that approximately 20–30% of men suffer from sexual difficulties. Additionally, studies have shown the negative impact of sexual problems on men's global health, well‐being, and life satisfaction, suggesting that this is a public health concern. This chapter reviews the updated literature on male sexual dysfunction and its treatment. An overview of the classification, prevalence, and comorbidity of men's sexual dysfunctions is presented, followed by a thorough review of the role of psychological factors and cognitive conceptual models of sexual dysfunction. Finally, a detailed description of cognitive behavioral assessment and treatment of male sexual dysfunctions, including clinical examples, is offered.
Couple Therapy
Authors: Fischer Melanie S. , Baucom Donald H. , Hahlweg Kurt , Epstein Norman B.
Published: November 2013

This chapter presents the theoretical foundation, clinical application, and empirical basis of cognitive behavioral couple therapy, a contextual approach that allows clinicians to address behaviors, cognitions, and emotions as they relate to relationship functioning. Individual, dyadic, and environmental factors are taken into account in the treatment of relationship distress. A cognitive behavioral conceptualization of relationship functioning is discussed. The process of therapy is described, including assessment, treatment planning, common interventions, and termination. Interventions frequently used in cognitive behavioral couple therapy are presented. Although each may target several domains, interventions are distinguished by their main focus. Interventions to modify behaviors include guided behavior change and skills‐based interventions (e.g., communication skills training). Cognitive interventions include Socratic questioning and guided discovery techniques to address cognitions that are relevant to relationship functioning. Interventions focused on emotion are used to heighten restricted emotions, or to contain problematic emotional expression. Treatment applicability, empirical support, and dissemination are discussed.
Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Authors: Villodas Miguel T. , Hinshaw Stephen P. , Pfiffner Linda J.
Published: November 2013

Psychiatric medications for the treatment of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder have received substantial attention in recent years. However, considerably less attention has been focused on psychosocial intervention strategies for attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This chapter provides a review of cognitive and behavioral intervention strategies that have been developed for children and adolescents with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder, emphasizing more recent innovative approaches to the implementation of these strategies. Cognitive and behavioral intervention strategies have been developed to target parents and teachers of children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder, as well as specific child skills deficits. However, the evidence presented in this chapter most strongly supports the use of multicomponent treatments that are coordinated across contexts (i.e., school and home). In addition, moderators and mediators of intervention effects and evidence for interventions that have been adapted to improve feasibility and sustainability are discussed.
Social Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Bruce Laura C. , Heimberg Richard G.
Published: November 2013

Social anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia, is highly prevalent and is associated with significant impairment. This chapter reviews theoretical models of the disorder, as well as empirically supported cognitive behavioral strategies, in an effort to inform evidence‐based practice. Treatments reviewed include group and individual cognitive behavioral therapy, Internet‐delivered and brief cognitive behavioral therapy, mindfulness‐ and acceptance‐based therapies, attention bias modification programs, and combinations of cognitive behavioral therapy and medication treatments. In addition, this chapter highlights factors influencing treatment outcome.
Agoraphobia
Authors: Telch Michael J. , Cobb Adam R. , Lancaster Cynthia L.
Published: November 2013

Agoraphobia is among the most disabling of phobias and is one of the most challenging to treat. This chapter reviews historical and modern approaches to the treatment of agoraphobia, with a generational delineation based on progressive methodological advances. It examines early, first generation treatment studies of systematic desensitization, imaginal flooding, self‐observation, guided mastery, and self‐directed exposure. It then provides an overview of second and third generation studies, which focus primarily on cognitive behavioral treatment approaches and employ the gold standard guidelines of modern, randomized controlled trials. Parameters of exposure therapy (e.g., group vs. individual), exposure augmentation strategies, innovative treatment delivery systems, alternative psychotherapies (e.g., psychodynamic and acceptance‐based therapies), and predictors of treatment outcome are also discussed. The chapter ends by presenting several high priority areas for future agoraphobia treatment research. Paramount among these is the development and evaluation of cognitive behavioral treatments for agoraphobia patients displaying significant situational avoidance in the absence of panic disorder/panic attacks.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Szkodny Lauren E. , Newman Michelle G.
Published: November 2013

The uncontrollability and pervasiveness of worry central to generalized anxiety disorder, its degree of comorbidity and chronic and fluctuating course, and its associated psychosocial impairment underscore the need for highly effective treatments for generalized anxiety disorder. Accordingly, cognitive behavioral therapy packages have been designed to target cognitive, affective, behavioral, and somatic responses to perceived future threat that are characteristic of individuals diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder, and have typically included interventions such as self‐monitoring, relaxation techniques, stimulus control, self‐control desensitization, and cognitive therapy. The efficacy of these methods has been documented in a series of randomized controlled trials; however, recent research has centered on enhancing treatment of generalized anxiety disorder given its severity and chronicity. Therapeutic advancement for generalized anxiety disorder has been made in the areas of interpersonal and emotional processing therapy, emotional contrast exposure therapy, metacognitive therapy, treatment of intolerance of uncertainty, integration of acceptance and mindfulness techniques with cognitive behavioral therapy, and emotion regulation therapy.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Schmertz Stefan K. , Gerardi and Barbara O. Rothbaum Maryrose
Published: November 2013

This chapter provides an overview of cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. The current diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder are presented along with a brief discussion of expected changes to be implemented in the upcomingDSM‐5. The primary goal of the chapter is to outline the cognitive behavioral conceptualization of posttraumatic stress disorder and to illustrate how this has informed current treatments. Emotional processing and social cognitive theories are discussed, and treatments with significant empirical support are reviewed, including prolonged exposure therapy, virtual reality exposure therapy, cognitive processing therapy, stress inoculation treatment, and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy. In addition, some emerging treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder are presented, including mindfulness, couples and family interventions, and interpersonal therapy. The inclusion of pharmacological interventions is briefly discussed, including the augmentation of exposure therapy with D‐cycloserine.