bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE: A PARTIAL REPLICATION WITH SCOTTISH CHILDREN OF GETZELS‘ AND JACKSON'S STUDY
Authors: HASAN PARWEEN , BUTCHER H. J.
Published: April 2011

Getzels & Jackson (1962) found that, when two contrasting groups of children were formed, one of high scorers on tests of divergent thinking or ‘creativity’, the other of high i.q., (a) both groups scored equally on tests of attainment, (b) teachers rated the ‘high creativity’ group rather lower on desirability as pupils. In the whole sample (mean i.q. 132) from which the groups were drawn correlations between i.q. and measures of creativity were relatively low. Similar tests were given to 175 Scottish children (mean i.q. 102). Correlations between i.q. and measures of creativity were much higher, in spite of a smaller range of ability. When contrasting ‘high creativity’ and ‘high i.q.’ groups, it was found that the ‘high i.q.’ group was preferred by teachers, as in Getzels and Jackson's study. Contrary to their findings, the ‘high creativity’ group was lower in attainment. Results are also presented for children who were high scorers in both ‘creativity’ and ‘intelligence’. Possible reasons for the discrepancies are discussed.
THE GENETIC DETERMINATION OF DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE: A STUDY OF MONOZYGOTIC TWINS REARED TOGETHER AND APART
Authors: BURT CYRIL
Published: April 2011

In the course of a series of investigations into various aspects of mental inheritance an intensive study has been made of so‐called ‘identical’ twins. The cases examined fall into two main groups: first, those reared together in their parents' homes; secondly, those separated in early infancy, and brought up apart. With the latter, despite wide differences in environmental conditions, the correlations for intelligence, unlike those for school attainments, prove to be surprisingly high. It is argued that this implies that ‘intelligence’, when adequately assessed, is largely dependent on genetic constitution. Supplementary correlations from other groups (dizygotic twins, siblings reared together and apart, first and second cousins, and other related pairs) confirm this conclusion.
PERSONALITY AND JUDGEMENTS OF TEMPORAL INTERVALS
Authors: BELL C. R. , WATTS ANNE N.
Published: April 2011

The ways in which subjects performed a number of time‐estimation tasks were examined for associations with normal pulse rate, normal oral temperature, age, sex, intelligence and personality characteristics. No universal relations were found in the data, though there was evidence to suggest that age, pulse rate, oral temperature and some aspects of personality possibly are worthy of further research to determine whether they might be related to some types of time estimation.
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY IN INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE ON THIRTEEN MMPI SCALES
Authors: BOE ERLING E. , KOGAN WILLIAM S.
Published: April 2011

The degree to which individual subjects tend to give socially desirable responses in self‐description on each of thirteen MMPI scales was determined by computing, for each subject, a point–biserial correlation between his true/false responses and the social desirability (SD) scale values of the items. The results indicated that, on the average, from 10% to 20% of the variance in individual self‐descriptions was associated with SD scale values. In comparison with these results, individual differences in the tendency to give SD responses, as measured by (a) these point–biserial correlations and (b) Edwards's SD scale, account for much more of the variance in raw scores on many of the MMPI scales. The differences between these methods of appraising SD aspects of test performance and implications for constructing SD‐free scales were considered.
THE BROOK REACTION TEST OF INTERESTS
Authors: HEIM A. W. , WATTS K. P.
Published: April 2011

A test of interests is described which is open‐ended yet objectively scorable and which yields validatory evidence for 20 of the 22 relevant interests. There is some suggestion too that the test may be useful in estimating degree of stability and social adjustment. A number of experiments have been conducted, using as subjects university and other students, naval ratings, secretaries and graduates. The test appears to be suitable for such subjects and also for senior schoolchildren.
PREDICTION OF GRID SCORES
Authors: MAIR J. M. M.
Published: April 2011

The grid method, developed by Kelly (1955), is supposed to provide meaningful measurements of the relations between the constructs that any individual uses. In this study an attempt has been made to assess the validity of this claim within the area of public constructs (or dictionary meaning) rather than within the more complex domain of personal or private constructs. The adequacy of the grid method in objectifying meaningful construct relations, changes and stability is examined. Thirteen medical students acted as subjects. From a total of 61 predictions, all but 4 were fully confirmed. The results therefore tend to support claims for the grid's possible usefulness in relation to each of the three functions examined.
TWO TYPES OF SET AND THE GENERALIZATION OF PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE
Authors: TAYLOR ANN , FORREST DEREK W.
Published: April 2011

The present paper takes as its starting point the view that the apparent generalization of perceptual defence is to be attributed to an interruption of the observer's set. Two possibilities with regard to the nature of this set are examined, and the experimental results clearly support one of them: the view that ‘a set to see neutral words' is operative. Difficulties in understanding this formulation are discussed.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A KEYBOARD TRAINING SITUATION IN MINIATURE
Authors: LEONARD J. A.
Published: April 2011

In this paper, the author describes progressive changes which have taken place in a methodology for the study of keyboard tasks. The S–R relationships progressed from a laboratory abstraction to one having high face validity; practice was extended from a single session to programmes in which two sessions were given on each of ten days; and the relationship between the experimenter and the subjects became increasingly similar to that found in actual training situations. These changes are illustrated by examples drawn from the author's work. It is claimed that increasing the general face‐validity of the laboratory approach may enhance the possibilities of studying ‘pure’ problems.
VANISHING CUES IN PAIRED‐ASSOCIATE LEARNING
Authors: CHEYNE WILLIAM M.
Published: April 2011

The typical anticipation method of paired‐associate learning was compared with two other methods, where extra cueing was given on initial learning trials and vanished as trials proceeded. The technique of arranging the order of trials, so that successive trials with each pair were spaced progressively farther apart, was shown on two occasions to increase learning. The technique of supplying progressively fewer letters of the response terms as cues gave inconsistent results. Only when cueing was spread over a large number of trials and subjects had prior experience did facilitation occur, and in one case the cues had a detrimental effect on learning. An explanation in terms of ‘stimulus selection’ is suggested.
THE EFFECTS OF NOISE AND DOUBLING THE SIGNAL FREQUENCY ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN VISUAL VIGILANCE PERFORMANCE
Authors: DAVIES D. R. , HOCKEY G. R. J.
Published: April 2011

Four groups of 6 extraverts and 4 groups of 6 introverts, selected by the Maudsley Personality Inventory, performed a 32 min visual cancellation task under one of two conditions of signal frequency, high and low, and in either noise (95 db) or quiet (70 db). In quiet, at both levels of signal frequency, extraverts showed a steady decline in the number of signals detected correctly but introverts did not. Neither group showed a decrement under noise conditions. Noise, compared with quiet, significantly increased the number of correct detections made by extraverts under low signal frequency conditions but a similar increase under high signal frequency conditions was not significant. The addition of noise had no significant effect on the number of correct detections made by introverts. Doubling the signal frequency had no significant effect on the performance of introverts or extraverts in either noise or quiet. Introverts made significantly more errors of commission in quiet than in noise while extraverts made significantly more in noise than in quiet. Possible reasons for the findings are discussed.
DECODING A DECEPTIVE INSTRUCTION
Authors: JONES SHEILA
Published: April 2011

Equivalent forms of instruction for a task requiring response to one of two equal classes of items were investigated. The class of items requiring response was defined positively (by inclusion) in one form of instruction and negatively (by exclusion) in the other. It was hypothesized that preference for positive rather than negatively defined classes would lead subjects to transform (decode) the exclusion form of instruction into the equivalent inclusion form. Performance of subjects first given the ‘exclusion’ instruction and afterwards transferred to the ‘inclusion’ form was compared with a control group, using the latter form throughout. Less than half the subjects decoded the ‘exclusion’ instruction, and the remainder performed the task at a significantly slower speed both before and after transfer. The error pattern of these subjects indicated that an instruction of the form ‘Respond to all items except x and y’ generates a spurious set to make a response to the items x and y. The implicit nature of the negative in the qualifier ‘except’ appeared to be a contributing factor to the deceptive effect of this type of instruction.
SOME EXPERIMENTS RELATING TO BARTLETT'S THEORY OF REMEMBERING
Authors: GAULD ALAN , STEPHENSON GEOFFREY M.
Published: April 2011

Bartlett's theory that remembering is a ‘reconstructive’ process is based largely upon the ways in which subjects change and distort prose passages when reproducing them from memory. If such changes and distortions are to serve as the foundation for a theory of remembering it is clearly desirable to be quite certain that the persons who make them really are trying to remember, and are not deliberately inventing material to fill in gaps in their memories. Three experiments were carried out in an attempt to shed light on this question. In the first experiment it was ascertained that strict instructions to avoid errors markedly lessened the number of errors which subjects make in reproducing prose passages. In the second it was found that subjects are fairly adept at picking out their own errors. In the third it was shown that conscientious subjects make notably fewer errors than less conscientious ones. It is concluded that for various reasons subjects in Bartlett‐type experiments often do more or less consciously invent material to bridge gaps in their memories, and that Bartlett's claims that the occurrence and nature of such changes and distortions shed light on the mechanisms of remembering must be regarded with caution.
AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF WORDS AS A FACTOR IN FREE RECALL LEARNING
Authors: McNULTY JOHN A. , ISNOR CATHERINE J. E.
Published: April 2011

Studies concerned with the relation between affective connotation and memory have usually shown that pleasant words or experiences are recalled better than unpleasant or neutral ones. Differences are often small, however, and exceptions are common, perhaps because of the confounding effects of other variables such as familiarity, frequency, word length and context; these variables are known to affect learning, but have frequently been uncontrolled in these studies. The present experiment was an attempt to determine how affective connotation of the material influences free recall learning when the possible confounding effects of some of these other variables are eliminated. Students from a large class rated 120 words on a seven‐point pleasantness/unpleasantness scale. From these ratings, a pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral list of words were constructed and given to other subjects to learn. Rated familiarity of the words, frequency, word length, and context were also controlled. Results of the study showed that pleasant and neutral words were learned more easily than unpleasant ones, but, contrary to the results of some studies, there were no differences between pleasant and neutral words.
DIGRAM‐FREQUENCY AND IMMEDIATE MEMORY
Authors: HOWE M. J. A.
Published: April 2011

Digram structure is a determinant of immediate memory for consonant lists. Its effects might operate either before or after recall is required, or both. If digram frequency affects the way sequences are stored, a distracting task may have unequal effects on lists containing digrams of high and low frequency. Two experiments were carried out, which produced evidence suggesting that digram frequency influences the way in which sequences are stored prior to recall being required. When letter sequences were presented between presentation and recall of consonant lists consisting of medium‐frequency digrams, recall of the latter was positively related to the digram frequency of the interfering sequences.
EFFECTS OF AROUSING STIMULATION UPON NOVELTY PREFERENCE IN RATS
Authors: HAYWOOD H. CARL , WACHS THEODORE D.
Published: April 2011

White rats were habituated to one arm (either black or white) of a Y‐maze, then exposed to conditions of intense white noise, electric shock, shock incongruity, or no arousing stimulation, and finally allowed free choice to enter the novel or familiar maze arm. Under all conditions of arousing stimulation, preference for novelty was reduced to a chance level (50%), while in the non‐arousing control conditions, preference for novelty in the two‐choice situation was 79%. The results indicated that strong arousal does cause a decrement in novelty preference, that this decrement occurs regardless of the type of stimulation used in the experiment, and that incongruity may also be sufficient to produce this decrement. A number of theoretical possibilities which might account for these results were explored.
CONDITIONED ORIENTING REACTIONS IN TWO‐MONTH‐OLD INFANTS
Authors: KOCH JAROSLAV
Published: April 2011

Visual orientation is one of the earliest and most basic responses of the young infant to the human adult (Ambrose, 1961; Brackbill, 1958; Kagan & Lewis, 1965; Wolff, 1963). At first the child fixates the adult, and later there are visual pursuit movements that follow a moving person and locate him among other objects. The human adult is the strongest stimulus influencing the behaviour of the child and its whole mental development. Whether this is so from the first day of life or whether the relationship develops as a result of repeated contacts between child and adult in biologically significant situations is a matter for investigation. One special aspect of this complex problem was selected for study: the development of conditioned head rotation in infants in an experimental situation. The aim was to study the conditions of reinforcement of orienting responses. For this purpose different kinds of reinforcer were used, the development of conditioned orienting responses was recorded, and conclusions were reached about the strength of each reinforcer.
A FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF CONTROLLED, CONTINUOUS WORD ASSOCIATION
Authors: MATTHEWS W. A.
Published: April 2011

The responses of subjects producing continued controlled associations to eighty‐seven stimuli were analysed in terms of the frequency of their occurrence as items in the language. The efficiency of hypotheses which relate word emission by subjects to frequency terms only was questioned in the light of the obtained results, and alternative proposals based on these findings are indicated.
ORDER OF RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION SIMULTANEOUSLY PRESENTED TO EAR AND FINGER
Authors: MADSEN MILLARD C. , SIMS LANNY
Published: April 2011

Pairs of letters of the alphabet were simultaneously presented to the ears and fingers of eight blind Braille readers. Order of retrieval following 0·5, 1·0 and 2·0 sec interpair intervals proceeded by modality of input. There was a greater, but not statistically significant, tendency for subjects to retrieve by order of input after a 4 sec interpair interval. The results are consistent with Broadbent's (1958) theory, but indicate a greater tendency to retrieve by modality after longer interpair intervals than has previously been indicated for other sensory combinations.
VISUAL IMAGERY AND THE ORGANIZATIONAL PROPERTIES OF PERCEIVED STIMULI
Authors: SHEEHAN PETER W.
Published: April 2011

Seventy‐two subjects constructed blocks to indicate their perceptions and imagery of geometrical patterns which varied in their meaningfulness and stimulus complexity. It was hypothesized that vivid and poor imagers process visual information differently and that their styles of perception lead to differences in retentive behaviour. Results supported the hypothesis that vivid imagers perceive literally while poor imagers use coding devices to organize their perceptions.
STEREOSCOPIC VISION AND ANISEIKONIC LENSES. I
Authors: SEAGRIM G. N.
Published: April 2011

A series of experiments was conducted in which aniseikonic lenses were used. The course of events occurring when a lens is worn was recorded and measured by means of a tracking task. The well‐known delay in effect was found but the occurrence of perceived distortions opposite in direction to those predicted was also revealed. The findings are discussed in relation to existing ideas concerning depth perception and a suggestion is made for additions to these ideas by means of which the obtained results might be understood.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF LETTER REVERSALS ON READING
Authors: ASSO DOREEN , WYKE MARIA
Published: April 2011

A study of the effect of letter reversals (mirror reversals) on the direction of reading words exposed tachistoscopically was carried out. The subjects were twenty experienced readers, and the test material consisted of words which could be read meaningfully in the right—left as well as in the left‐right direction. The words were presented with and without letter reversals. The results show that, under these conditions, subjects read from right to left the words containing the reversed letters. The effect of word frequency, as well as the position within the word of reversed letters, has also been analysed. Some theoretical interpretations of the findings are discussed.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SHORT‐TERM MEMORY
Authors: MURDOCK BENNET B.
Published: April 2011

This paper reviews some recent developments in the area of short‐term memory. The methodological innovations include the distractor technique and the probe technique. The main empirical phenomena discussed are recency effects, input and output interference, the length—difficulty relationship, inter‐item interference, proactive interference effects, the distribution of practice interaction, associative symmetry, modality effect, acoustic confusions, and transpositions. A ‘modal model’ is presented which attempts to synthesize some recent theoretical conceptions; the components include sensory, short‐term and long‐term stores with three different forgetting mechanisms (decay, displacement and interference, respectively).
A NOTE ON TRENDS IN ANSWERS TO CATTELL PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRES BY SCOTTISH SUBJECTS
Authors: McQUAID JOHN
Published: April 2011

Answers to personality questionnaires by eight groups totalling 1733 subjects from south and south‐west Scotland show marked trends towards ‘anxiety’ and less definite tendencies towards ‘introversion’ by comparison with American norms for the tests. The result for introversion confirms that of a previous study of British subjects by Cattell & Warburton (1961), but the result for anxiety is idiosyncratic and requires confirmation by other studies on large samples. Cattell's ‘children's’, ‘high school’ and ‘16 PF’ personality questionnaires were used.
THE CHOICE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE IN A COMMUNICATIVE TASK
Authors: JOHNSON‐LAIRD P. N.
Published: April 2011

Subjects had to rank‐order four logically equivalent but syntactically different sentences in terms of their appropriateness as descriptions of one diagram in contrast to another. A prediction of this rank order was derived on the assumption that subjects would attempt to emphasize the larger areas of colour in the stimuli, and that passive sentences emphasize the logical object to a greater extent than active sentences. Four groups were run in a 2 times 2 design. One variable was whether the stimulus to be described was symmetrically or asymmetrically divided into two colours. When one type of stimulus was to be described the other type served as a contrast. The other variable was whether the larger area of the asymmetrical stimulus was denoted by the logical subject or the logical object of the sentences. These two variables gave rise to a subsidiary prediction concerning the degree of correlation between the predicted rank orders and the actual performance of the groups. Both predictions were confirmed.
BODY‐SWAY SUGGESTIBILITY AND SEMANTIC SATIATION
Authors: DAS J. P.
Published: April 2011

Two tests of semantic satiation and a body‐sway test were administered to fifty post‐graduate students. Satiation scores for words in subjects' native language were found to be highly correlated with body‐sway (r = 0·801), while satiation for words in English were not so related. The correlation between satiation and body‐sway was consonant with similar relationships observed between hypnosis and satiation. Some hypotheses regarding the nature of semantic satiation and primary suggestibility are advanced.
APPARENT SIZE AND DISTANCE IN VISION THROUGH A MAGNIFYING SYSTEM
Authors: THOULESS ROBERT H.
Published: April 2011

An approaching car, seen through binoculars, appears to be travelling very slowly. Experiments with seven subjects on the phenomenal size and distance of a test object looked at through binoculars (x 8 diameters) showed that the general effect was (as earlier reported by Helmholtz) to decrease the apparent distance of the object without increase of its apparent size. This effect could be expressed as a contraction of phenomenal space in the direction between object and percipient. The result of such a contraction would be to produce the illusion of decreased velocity in this direction which is, in fact, observed.
VISUAL AND AUDITORY PRESENTATION, PRESENTATION RATE, AND SHORT‐TERM MEMORY IN CHILDREN
Authors: MURRAY D. J. , ROBERTS BEVERLEY
Published: April 2011

Lists of six digits were presented either auditorially or visually at rates of 1, 2 or 3 digits/sec to groups of 7‐, 8‐, 9‐ and 10‐year‐old girls. Immediate recall improved with age under all conditions, but the recall of visually presented slow lists improved with age at a steeper rate than did the recall of visually presented fast lists or of auditorially presented lists. The results are related to the findings of previous studies on STM as a function of presentation rate, and in particular to the hypothesis that when slow rates give superior recall as compared with fast, it is because subjects can more fluently read and rehearse the items at the time of perception.
CLOSURE AND RESPONSE BIAS IN SHORT‐TERM MEMORY FOR FORM
Authors: BADDELEY A. D.
Published: April 2011

Several attempts to test the Gestalt hypothesis of autonomous change in the memory trace have shown trends which, though mutually consistent, do not fit the Gestalt hypothesis. Expt I aimed to reproduce these effects. Two figures were used (circles with gaps of 15° or 60°), one retention interval (15 sec) and two methods of testing: reproduction, in which the subject first copies the figure and then draws it from memory; and recognition, using the method of identical stimuli. In the recognition test, subjects tended to judge an identical 60° gap as ‘larger’ after 15 sec, implying closure of the gap in the memory trace, but the 15° gap showed no effect. No reliable changes in gap size occurred using the method of reproduction. Expt II tried to increase the sensitivity of this method by stressing the importance of reproducing the gap accurately. Again results were negative. Expt III tested the hypothesis that the recognition effect found was due to guessing habits. The initial stimulus was presented as before, but the recognition stimulus was replaced by the momentary illumination of a blank card purporting to be a brief presentation of the recognition figure. Subjects were thus forced to guess. The pattern of responses was almost identical with that found in the previous recognition study. Conclusions are: (1) the consistent trends previously found using the method of identical stimuli are probably due to guessing habits; (2) there is no evidence for autonomous change in the short‐term retention of form.
ECOLOGY, PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE MÜLLER‐LYER ILLUSION
Authors: BERRY J. W.
Published: April 2011

Two separate traditions of research into the Müller‐Lyer illusion have existed for at least 70 years: the ecological and the developmental. To assess the ecological hypothesis, a sufficient range in visual ecology typically has been sought in cross‐cultural comparisons; however, many of these comparisons have been inconclusive, especially when other ethnic variables have been held constant. These insignificant findings are considered to result from a confounding of the ecological and developmental variables. Appropriate sampling from Temne and Eskimo populations (enabling, in turn, one variable to be matched while the other is varied) demonstrates this confounding within cultures and, when eliminated, the significant influence of each variable on susceptibility to the Müller‐Lyer illusion. Further work, however, is needed to discover other factors which will account for variance in susceptibility between cultures.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN SOME COMPONENTS OF A MOTOR SKILL
Authors: CONNOLLY KEVIN , BROWN KATHLEEN , BASSETT ERYL
Published: April 2011

Sixty children, aged 6, 8 and 10 yr., performed a target task 12 times. The results were analysed in terms of speed, accuracy and scatter. In each of the three age‐groups the girls performed significantly faster than the boys. Older children were faster than younger ones. No reliable age or sex differences were found in the accuracy component. Speed improved with practice, accuracy did not. The effect of practice was different in the 6 yr. group compared with the 8 and 10 yr. groups. The scatter of shots around the target was found to differ progressively with age and was interpreted as evidence of a change in strategy reflecting the development of a fine motor skill.
THE ILLUSIONS AND GANZ'S THEORY OF CONTOUR DISPLACEMENTS
Authors: WAGNER H. L.
Published: April 2011

Ganz's theory of contour displacements is summarized, and it is pointed out that its success or failure in explaining the illusions depends upon establishing the identity of the illusions and figural after‐effects. Evidence is quoted which casts doubt on Ganz's claims for such an identity. Moreover, it is shown that predictions from Ganz's theory about some common illusions do not correspond with observed phenomena.
RESPONSE LATENCIES IN JUDGEMENTS OF SPATIAL LOCATION
Authors: SEYMOUR PHILIP H. K.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were presented with the printed word above or below and a configuration consisting of a reference shape (a square) and a smaller shape of variable location (a blacked‐in circle) which might appear above or below the square. The instruction was to report ‘yes’ if the word and the location of the circle relative to the square were congruent, and ‘no’ if they were not. The latency of this judgement was measured from the simultaneous onset of the displays to the initiation of the verbal response. The pair above/above was classified as congruent significantly more rapidly than the pair below/below or either of the mismatched pairs. The order in which word and configuration were fixated was a significant factor, response times being faster where the word was fixated first.
SOME VARIABLES AFFECTING THE VIVIDNESS OF IMAGERY IN RECALL
Authors: SHEEHAN PETER W. , NEISSER ULRIC
Published: April 2011

Several variables were studied as they relate to vividness of imagery in recall. Thirty‐two subjects, pre‐selected for high and low imagery, worked with two types of block designs. With one type they were repeatedly asked either to summon up visual images and copy them, or else to recall the designs with the aid of imagery and other resources of memory. The results showed no differences in accuracy between the two groups of subjects, but the better recalled designs were generally described as being accompanied by more vivid imagery. Reported vividness (but not accuracy) increased after an introspective inquiry. There was a small experimenter effect. The second type of design was presented under incidental learning conditions. The images reported in the subsequent (unexpected) recall were much more vivid than those in the remainder of the experiment. These findings point to the effects of procedural variables on vividness of imagery, and suggest that imagery may play a special role in the recall of incidentally presented material.
AFTER‐EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Authors: VOGEL‐SPROTT M.
Published: April 2011

Six groups of humans were employed to examine the effect of two different training schedules—continuous or partial (50 per cent) reward—on a response which subsequently received one of three treatments (continuous or partial punishment, or no punishment control). Treatments continued until the response met a criterion of inhibition, and post‐treatment after‐effects were assessed by trials which administered no reward or punishment. Punishment condition (P < 0·001) and training (P < 0·001) effects were evident during the treatment period. The response trained via partial reward was more resistant to suppression, and treatments administering more frequent punishments achieved faster suppression. Evidence from the after‐effects period indicated a single main effect of training (P < 0·0001). In spite of the fact that subjects were identical in performance at the conclusion of treatment, those previously trained under partial reward displayed a much stronger response. This finding appears to pose problems for the traditional learning theory view that habits are strengthened by reward and weakened by punishment. An alternative interpretation, employing the notion of feedback or information about behaviour conveyed to the subject by reward, non‐reward and punishment, is discussed.
SIGNAL PROBABILITY AND VIGILANCE: A REAPPRAISAL OF THE ‘SIGNAL‐RATE’ EFFECT
Authors: BADDELEY A. D. , COLQUHOUN W. P.
Published: April 2011

Performance on a 40 min. visual task was studied as a function of signal probability. A separate group was tested at each of five levels of signal probability (0·02, 0·06, 0·18, 0·24 and 0·36). Percent detections increased with signal probability. This increase was accompanied by a rise in the false report rate, and analysis in terms of signal detection theory suggested that signal probability affects the subject's criterion (β) rather than his ability to discriminate (d′).
SUBJECTIVE ESTIMATES OF SLEEP: AN EEG EVALUATION
Authors: LEWIS S. A.
Published: April 2011

Although there has been a considerable amount of research into sleep using either subjective estimates or objective (EEG) estimates, there has been no attempt to validate the accuracy of subjective estimates of sleep. The present study investigates the relation between subjective estimates of total sleep time, delay to sleep onset and the number of awakenings in eight normal subjects over 116 subject‐nights. They were studied before taking drugs, during drug administration and in withdrawal. It was found that they underestimated total sleep time but overestimated the delay to sleep onset and the number of awakenings. There was a significant withdrawal effect. The implications of this withdrawal effect are discussed in relation to the design of hypnotic drug trials. The reliability of norms for sleep are also discussed.
AGE AND INTELLIGENCE DIFFERENCES IN CODING AND RETRIEVAL OF WORD LISTS
Authors: CRAIK F. I. M. , MASANI P. A.
Published: April 2011

Word lists of several orders of approximation to English were presented for immediate free recall to young and old adult subjects. The total recall scores were broken down into ‘number of chunks recalled’ and ‘number of words per chunk’. The ‘chunks recalled’ measure is taken here to reflect retrieval efficiency: scores were lower in older subjects but were unaffected by Mill Hill Vocabulary level. The ‘words per chunk’ score is interpreted as a measure of coding efficiency: age had no effect on this measure, but scores were poorer for subjects of lower vocabulary level. The conclusion drawn from a previous study that there is an age decrement in coding efficiency was thus not supported by this analysis. It was concluded, rather, that the main effect of age is on retrieval, while coding is affected by verbal intelligence.
CATEGORIES OF INTERFERENCE: VERBAL MEDIATION AND CONFLICT IN CARD SORTING
Authors: MORTON JOHN
Published: April 2011

When subjects sort cards by the number of symbols on the cards, the nature of the symbols interferes with the sorting in ways which are similar to those shown by Klein (1964) using a variant of the Stroop test. When the symbols have names, such as letters and words, there is a decrement in performance; when the symbols are digits the decrement is increased. These and related results form the basis of a functional model in which different types of interference between stimuli can be enumerated, and those operating in the sorting task isolated.

The features of the final model are: (1) sorting proceeds via a verbal mediation; (2) the process of recognition of familiar named symbols is autonomous and results in the availability of the name of the symbol; (3) this name enters the same store as the mediating response and so can delay it; (4) in the present range of tasks there is no interference prior to the availability of the symbol name; (5) learning to reduce interference does result in a change prior to this stage; (6) the interference effects are analogous to word recognition phenomena.
POST‐REST UPSWING AND DOWNSWING IN PURSUIT ROTOR LEARNING AFTER DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE AS A FUNCTION OF LENGTH OF PRACTICE
Authors: EYSENCK H. J. , ISELER A. , STAR K. , WILLETT R. A.
Published: April 2011

An experiment is reported to investigate some determinants of post‐rest upswing (PRU; ‘warm up’) and post‐rest downswing (PRD) in pursuit rotor learning. Seven groups of subjects were tested under high drive conditions, and another seven under low drive conditions; all were given five periods of practice (either 20, 30, 40, 60, 80 100, or 120 sec.), separated by 1 min. rest periods. Finally all groups were given 15 min. of massed practice, preceded by a 1 min. rest period. Practice periods were kept short in order to make possible a micro‐genetic investigation of the very beginning of PRU; it is known that this occurs strongly with longer periods, but it seemed of interest to observe the phenomenon during an earlier stage of growth. Theories regarding both PRU and PRD had been put forward by Ammons and Eysenck; it was hoped that the experiment would confirm or disconfirm predictions made from these theories. Results on the whole were more in line with the more recent theories, but neither theory was able to account for all the observed results. Thus while the Eysenck theory could account for the fact that amount of PRD during the massed practice was a function of the length of pre‐test practice, duration of PRD was not; this effect was not predicted. Other findings were that PRD increases over successive trials, and that longer practice periods produce more PRU. Drive was found to interact with other variables.
SOCIAL FACILITATION OF LOCOMOTION AND EXPLORATION IN RATS
Authors: HUGHES R. N.
Published: April 2011

Male white rats engaged in more locomotion and less defaecation and freezing in an open field when in the company of another male rat than when alone. They also exhibited proportionally more sniffling and less tooth grinding and chattering when in the same square of the aparatus as their partners than when in different squares. It was concluded that the presence of a second rat somehow reduced the aversive nature of the experimental environment.
RESPONSE LATENCIES IN CLASSIFICATION OF WORD—SHAPE PAIRS
Authors: SEYMOUR PHILIP H. K.
Published: April 2011

The experiment examined classification times for the four word—shape pairs produced by combining the labels square and circle with the shapes square and circle. Times were obtained for each of the three possible 2:1 mappings of the four display pairs to the verbal responses ‘yes’ and ‘no’. These define three conditions in which the basis of the classification is respectively the shape, the label, or both the label and the shape. Classification times were significantly slower where both component displays were relevant for selection of the response. Moreover, under this condition, classification times for circle/circle and square/square were faster for the response ‘yes’ than for the response ‘no’, whereas this effect was reversed for the pairs square/circle and circle/square. The implications of these findings are discussed.
EFFECTS OF IMAGING ON SIGNAL‐TO‐NOISE RATIO, WITH VARYING SIGNAL CONDITIONS
Authors: SEGAL SYDNEY J. , FUSELLA VINCENT
Published: April 2011

Perky's finding, that an observer confuses his internal imagery with a normally supraliminal stimulus, has been reinterpreted in signal detection language. Two experiments compared a task where the subject was asked concurrently to image items and discriminate signals from noise to a task where the subject only discriminated signals. The subject's criterion was slightly higher in the imaging task and sensitivity (d′) was significantly lower, whether the imaging task was given before or after the discrimination task. As d′ measures signal‐to‐noise ratio, it was suggested that imaging alters d′ because it is a source of neural activity. This activity can be conceptualized as internal noise or as another signal.

For some subjects, stimuli were gradually brightened; for others, they were presented briefly at full brightness. Mode of onset did not affect d′, rather d′ depended on brightness summed over time.
REGRESSION IN REASONING?
Authors: WASON P. C.
Published: April 2011

This investigation is concerned with the effects of two kinds of contradiction on the correction of errors in a structurally simple but deceptively difficult logical problem. The task was to choose from partially concealed material those stimuli which were necessary to evaluate the truth or falsity of a general statement. Hypothetical contradiction is assumed to occur when the subject makes an inference which is inconsistent with a previous incorrect choice. Concrete contradiction is assumed to occur when the subject's current choice is shown to be inconsistent with the fully revealed material. Of the 32 subjects, two were substantially correct in their initial choices, 14 were correct after encountering two hypothetical contradictions, 12 were correct after encountering a concrete contradiction, and four failed altogether. The results suggest either that Piaget's theory of ‘formal operations’ requires modification, or that some of the subjects may have temporarily regressed to more primitive modes of thinking.
THE GIBSON SPIRAL MAZE TEST: RETEST DATA IN RELATION TO BEHAVIOURAL DISTURBANCE, PERSONALITY AND PHYSICAL MEASURES
Authors: GIBSON H. B.
Published: April 2011

The Gibson Spiral Maze was re‐administered to 202 schoolboys approximately 3 yr. after a first test at the age of 8+ yr. The results were examined with respect to: (i) test—retest relationships, (ii) discrimination of disturbed and delinquent individuals by a new system of score interpretation, (iii) the relationship between personal tempo and personality as shown on the New Junior Maudsley Inventory, (iv) arm development related to speed. Scores at the two age levels were significantly related, and the new system of score interpretation was shown to be valid. Predictions by Eysenck about psychomotor performance and personality were supported, but some of the speed variance could be attributed to physical development of the arm.
SHORT‐TERM MEMORY PROCESSES IN THE DEAF
Authors: CONRAD R.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported. In the first, profoundly deaf schoolboys read consonant sequences for immediate written recall, reading, according to instruction, either silently or aloud. Detailed error analysis suggested a dichotomous classification of subjects into those primarily relying on artioulatory coding (A group) and those relying on some other mediating code which could depend on shape (non‐A group). This classification correlated significantly with teachers' ratings of speech quality.

The A group showed no effect of reading mode on total number of errors. But the non‐A group were significantly worse when reading aloud. Errors were distributed across serial positions effectively identically, regardless both of coding behaviour and reading mode. A recency effect was found of an order somewhere between that for hearing subjects reading this kind of material silently and reading it aloud.

A test of the reliability of the classification into A group and non‐A group was made in the second experiment. In this the same subjects silently read word lists for immediate written recall. Lists were drawn from one of two vocabularies: one consisting of five pairs of common homophones, the other of five pairs of common words assumed to look similar. The A group recalled significantly more words of the latter lists, while the non‐A group recalled both lists equally well.

The results are discussed in relation to current models for short‐term memory and to their implications for the education of the deaf. In the former connexion, the presence of recency with subjects who have no auditory feedback would be an embarrassment to ‘echo‐box’‐type accounts of recall. With respect to the latter, two main points are made: (1) Deaf school children do not all memorize in the same code, and for some it may be different from that used by teachers. (2) If memorizing names of things is impaired by reciting them aloud, a hitherto concealed weakness of a common instructional procedure is exposed.
COMMUNICATION OVER NOISY CHANNELS: APPLICATIONS TO THE STATISTICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
Authors: SMITH PHILIP TWITCHELL
Published: April 2011

A new method is developed for measuring the efficiency of a system of phonemes for communication in noise. This measure is called the code score, which increases with increasing efficiency. An experiment where pairs of English subjects attempted to communicate in noise is reported, and analysis of this experiment shows that subjects are able to adjust the statistical distribution of the consonants they use in such a way as to render this system more appropriate for use in a noisy channel; moreover, infrequent words, monosyllabic words and nouns used by subjects in this experiment show higher code scores than frequent words, polysyllabic words and function words. There is a practice effect whereby selection of vocabulary appears chiefly responsible for the results in the early part of the experiment, and gross frequency of usage appears more important in the later part of the experiment. In choosing their vocabulary, subjects appear sensitive to the initial consonants of words, and not to the final consonants.
THE DOCTRINE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANCES
Authors: COHEN JOHN , CHESNICK E. I.
Published: April 2011

A study was made of choice in a situation, the outcome of which depended entirely on chance. The subjects were offered the possibility of winning a prize either by drawing a ticket with the value of p = 0·1 or by drawing a ticket from an urn several times, without replacement, where each ticket had the value of p = 0·01. 150 subjects, of mean age 17 yr., took part in the experiment. They were subdivided into groups so as to control the initial value of the multiple choice, the magnitude of successive p‐values of the multiple choice and the order of presentation. The results suggest that some 40 per cent of the subjects make their choice on the basis of a mathematical appreciation of the alternatives. The remaining 60 per cent either overvalue or undervalue the multiple choice, as judged by a mathematical criterion. An attempt is made to identify the elements which enter into this over‐ and undervaluation. It seems possible to make a clear distinction between the idea of chance as interpreted subjectively, on the one hand, and as defined mathematically, on the other.
A CONFLICT BETWEEN SELECTING AND EVALUATING INFORMATION IN AN INFERENTIAL TASK
Authors: WASON P. C. , JOHNSON‐LAIRD P. N.
Published: April 2011

An inferential task was investigated in which the subjects had to select which of four cards they needed to inspect in order to determine whether a rule was true or false. In one condition crucial information was concealed on the other side of the cards, and in another condition it was on the same side of the cards, but covered by a mask. A previous experiment suggested that subjects sometimes confused the notion of ‘the other side of the card’. But no difference was found between these two conditions. Only two out of the 36 subjects initially made the correct selection.

An attempt was made subsequently to enable the subjects to correct their errors by asking them to evaluate the cards in relation to the rule. When a conflict occurred between the selection of the cards and their evaluation, some insight was gained. In other cases these two processes passed one another by, in spite of the fact that this involved self‐contradiction.
SOME SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE USE OF THE PROJECTIVE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF MORAL JUDGEMENT
Authors: MAGOWAN S. A. , LEE TERENCE
Published: April 2011

Research on moral development has relied almost exclusively on the projective method of story completion. Although occasional doubts have been expressed, no systematic investigation of the technique has been reported. In the present study, scores on a test of ‘projective facility’ are found to be associated with maturity of moral judgement. Children aged 9–12 are formed into 2 × 2 groups by age and sex and matched on projective facility. Each child completes 12 stories and the number of immanent justice responses is used as a measure of moral maturity. The main independent variable is type of story, half depicting familiar situations and half originating from foreign cultures. Multiple‐choice v. open‐ended forms and the sex of the central figure in the story are also systematically varied. All three story variables give significantly different measures of moral maturity. Of the subject variables, age is significant but sex shows no difference. It is concluded that the projective method is liable to serious imperfections and more stringent controls are urged for its future use.
THE EFFECTS OF SHORT‐TERM FAMILIARIZATION ON INFANTS' PERCEPTUAL‐MOTOR CO‐ORDINATION IN A SIMULTANEOUS DISCRIMINATION SITUATION
Authors: SCHAFFER H. R. , PARRY M. H.
Published: April 2011

This study set out to demonstrate that around six months of age the infant's ability visually to categorize stimuli in terms of their familiarity‐unfamiliarity is not yet associated with manipulative approach‐avoidance responses and that such responses come under visual control only some time in the course of the second half‐year of life. A short‐term familiarization period was administered to infants aged 5–7 months, 8–10 months and 11–13 months, followed by a simultaneous discrimination test involving the familiar and a novel stimulus. Results indicate that the ability visually to discriminate between the stimuli occurred at all three age levels, but that manipulative discrimination took place only in the two older groups. In addition, the effects on discrimination of some parameters defining the experimental procedure, namely the colour of the familiarized stimulus and the nature of the familiarization condition (visual‐tactual or visual‐only), were also investigated.