bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
R
ubens, Sir
P
eter
P
aul (1577–1640)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Flemish artist, the foremost painter of the grand Counter‐Reformation. He went as a court painter to the Duke of Mantua in 1600. In 1606 he painted the altarpiece of the Sta Maria in Vallicella in Rome. On his return to Antwerp he was appointed court painter to the Spanish governors of the Netherlands. His first great commissions were for Antwerp Cathedral,
The Raising of the Cross
(1610), and the
Descent from the Cross
(1611–1614). For the church at Malines he produced the
Miraculous Draught of Fishes
. For the Medici series he designed the tapestry
Triumph of the Eucharist
, which found a home in the Spanish convent Descalzas Reales. A series of religious paintings followed:
St. Ignatius of Loyola Healing the Possessed
(1619),
Martyrdom of St. Livinus
(1633),
Adoration of the Mag
i (1624), the
Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine
showing the fourteen auxiliary saints (1628),
Assumption
(1626), and
Last Judgment
(1616). He also painted smaller religious works, including
Christ and the Doubting Thomas
(1613),
Flight into Egypt
(1614), and
Lamentation over the Dead Christ
(1614). His decoration for the Jesuit Church in Antwerp consisted of 39 ceiling paintings commissioned in 1620. All but three were burned along with the church in 1718. Many of his compositions were engraved. The series of 15 engravings known as the
Images of the Holy Apostles
was published between 1646 and 1650. Earlier versions of the
Holy Face
,
Mater Dolorosa
, and
Christ as Salvator Mundi
were also engraved. Toward the end of his life he was knighted by King Charles I of Great Britain.
Russian Christianity
Authors: Steeves Paul D.
Published: January 2012

The roots of Russian Christianity coincide with those of Ukrainian Christianity. The area of 10th century Kievan Rus, corresponding approximately to modern Ukraine, was the seedbed from which both national forms of Christianity grew.
Sacraments, Sacramentals, and Rituals
Authors: Macy Gary
Published: January 2012

The English word “sacrament” is a transliteration of the Latin word,
sacramentum
, best translated as “symbol” or “ritual.” More particularly in early Christian usage,
sacramentum
indicates a religious symbol or ritual.
Sacramentum
, then, in Western Christianity, has referred throughout most of its history to any religious symbol or ritual, including the Jewish rituals that preceded the Christian era. In the 12th century, however, the custom grew up of referring to the seven most important Christian rituals as “the sacraments,” although the older usage of the Latin word persisted alongside this newer usage. Those symbols and rituals of lesser importance became know as “sacramentals,” or “little sacraments.” By the 16th century, debates erupted over which rituals should be considered “sacraments” and which should not. In general, Roman Catholics retained the late medieval practice of considering seven, and only seven, rituals as sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation Eucharist, Penance, Marriage, Orders, and Last Anointing. Reformation churches accepted at least two of these rituals as founded in Scripture and therefore true sacraments: Baptism, and Eucharist or Communion.
Saints
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Contrary to common thought, the word “saints” in Holy Scripture does not refer to individuals who are perceived to be virtually sinless or perfect. The word occurs in both the Old and the New Testament where it commonly refers to God's people here on earth, rather than to departed believers in heaven. Thus, Psalm 30:4 says, “Sing praise to the Lord, you saints of his.” In Psalm 34:9 the Psalmist writes, “Oh, fear the Lord, you his saints.” And the first book of Samuel states, “He will guard the feet of his saints” (1 Samuel 2:9).
Salieri, Antonio (1750–1825)
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin
Published: January 2012

Antonio Salieri was born on August 18, 1750, at Legnago in Italy, and died in Vienna on May 7, 1825. A composer who achieved fame through his more than 40 operas, Salieri turned to sacred music primarily after he became
Hofkapellmeister
(director of the court chapel) in 1788 to the Habsburg court, the highest official position in music in Vienna. The last Italian to hold this position, Salieri owes his importance in the history of church music to his association with and artistic administration of the
Hofmusikkapelle
. During his 36 year tenure (the longest in the history of this institution), he controlled the repertoire, selected and trained members of the ensemble, including choirboys, influenced the appointment of other musical workers (e.g. organ builder), and the acquisition of instruments. He set standards of performance that obtained for decades. His influence extended through his students (Joseph Eybler, Simon Sechter, Joseph Weigl, Ignaz Assmayr, Benedikt Randhartinger), who occupied leading positions in the
Hofmusikkapelle
well into the 19th century. The best‐known of his some 60 students is Franz Schubert, a choirboy and composition pupil under Salieri's tutelage for eight years, whose early Masses reflect his teacher's style.
Salvation
Authors: Bertone John A.
Published: January 2012

The termsalvation(Greek sōtēria) is directly associated with the verbsave(sōzō) and also with the nounsavior(sōtēr). In both the Septuagint (LXX) and secular Greek the first two terms express the general meaning of rescue from danger (i.e. from peril, illness, or death). However, they have been widely used in Christian theology to express the provision of God for salvation from sin, deliverance from God's wrath in the future, and incorporation into God's kingdom. This is the sense in which the concept of salvation is most often understood in the New Testament. The termsaviorissues from the Greco‐Roman world, where the individual gods or emperors, on whose rule and intervention people are dependent, are called “saviors.” In the New Testament the titlesavioris applied to both God and Jesus in that God acted in Jesus to bring salvation.
Salvation Army
Authors: DuPree Sherry Sherrod
Published: January 2012

The Salvation Army began in 1865 when the Rev. William Booth, a London minister, gave up his pulpit and decided to take his message into the streets, where it would reach the poor, the homeless, the hungry, and the destitute. Booth's original aim was to send converts to established churches, but he soon realized the poor did not feel comfortable or welcome in the pews and chapels of many English churches. The Salvation Army program was directed toward social problems, aiming to aid those hurting because of poverty, illness, or temporary disasters. Booth developed his Holiness church in stages, using a military model, with its ministers designated by titles from the army. The ministers began as lieutenants and rose in rank and responsibility. The name of the organization was the East London Christian Mission.
Sanctification of Intuition,
P
entecostals and
Authors: Rybarczyk Edmund J.
Published: January 2012

Whereas many different Christian traditions emphasize that believers should become attuned morally to the claims of the gospel, Pentecostals maintain that a believer can and should follow the leading of the Holy Spirit on all moral issues. They take as their model for this both Jesus and his apostles. Confronted by unbelieving scribes, Jesus discerned their thoughts and responded with a particular and fitting word (Matt. 9:4). In his writings Paul both listed words of wisdom and words of knowledge as charismatic gifts and prayed that the Ephesians would have a spirit of wisdom and of revelation (Eph. 1:17). Using a rather straightforward and literal biblical hermeneutic, Pentecostals maintain that believers today can similarly discern the voice of the Holy Spirit speaking into specific contexts and situations.
Senses and Sanctification, the
Authors: Harvey Thomas Alan
Published: January 2012

Enfolded within a good physical creation, it is not surprising that biblical faith is profoundly sensual and moral. The fecund relation between the senses, knowledge, and virtue is captured by the Psalmist's claim, “taste and see that the Lord is good” in Psalm 34:8 or later, in Psalm 119:66, “teach me goodtastefor I believe in your commands.” For the Psalmist, knowing and loving God and the pursuit of Godly wisdom are not unlike tasting a fine wine. They require refined senses and sound judgment if one is to recognize and enjoy the goodness, wisdom, and presence of God.
v
on Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph (1775–1854)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

Schelling is, along with J. G. Fichte and G. W. F. Hegel, one of the greatest of the German Idealist philosophers, although accounts vary concerning the precise nature of Schelling's significance. One interpretation, frequently repeated in histories of philosophy, sees Schelling as a crucial intermediate stage of post‐Kantian Idealism, a bridge between the Subjective Idealism of Fichte and the Absolute Idealism of Hegel, usually regarded as the culmination of German Idealism. This account, while not false, is rather a halftruth, overlooking as it does the importance of Schelling's later philosophy, which in many ways goes beyond Idealism, and represents a bridge to the various anti‐Idealistic philosophies of the late 19th and 20th centuries. Schelling's later philosophy is highly religious in character – taking up in an original way problems such as the nature of God, the essence of human freedom, the problem of evil, and the uniqueness and significance of the Christian revelation and its relation to philosophy – and had a wide influence on 19th and 20th century Christian theology.
Schism
Authors: Laing Jacqueline
Published: January 2012

Schism comes from the Greek meaning “fragmentation,” “separation,” or “division” and refers to the act by which a member of the faithful breaks away from the mystical body of Christ, the church. Whereas heresy involves a denial of a fundamental doctrine of the faith, schism involves a separation from the body of the church. In the Roman Catholic tradition an act of schism, like an act of apostasy or heresy, triggers the penalty of excommunication.
S
chlatter,
A
dolf (1852–1938)
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

Adolf Schlatter was born on August 16, 1852, in St. Gallen, Switzerland, as the seventh of nine children, son of a Lutheran mother and a baptistic father who had left the Swiss state church. After receiving his education in Basle and Tübingen, he served in the pastorate (1875–1880) before lecturing in Bern (1881–1888), Greifswald (1888–1893), Berlin (1893–1898), and Tübingen (1898–1922). During his time in Tübingen Schlatter suffered the death of his beloved wife (1907) and of his youngest son on the battlefield (1914). Schlatter never remarried. After his mandatory retirement in 1922 at age 70, Schlatter continued to lecture and write. Two of his daughters who remained unmarried cared for their father until his death on May 19, 1938, in Tübingen.
Schleiermacher,FriedrichDanielErnst (1768–1834)
Authors: Hector Kevin W.
Published: January 2012

One way of understanding Schleiermacher's intellectual contribution to Christian civilization is to consider his two most famous works,On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers(1799), andThe Christian Faith, also known as theGlaubenslehre(1820–1821; 1830–1831).
S
chmemann,
A
lexander (1921–1983)
Authors: Kenworthy Scott M.
Published: January 2012

One of the most influential Orthodox theologians and churchmen in the West during the 20th century, particularly in the field of liturgical theology, Alexander Schmemann was born in Tallinn, Estonia, in 1921 to a family of Russified Baltic Germans. His family moved to Paris, and Schmemann was educated in both French and Russian schools. From 1940 to 1945 he studied at the St. Sergius Theological Institute in Paris, which was the intellectual center for many prominent Russian émigré theologians, such as Sergius Bulgakov. He married Juliana Osorguine in 1943 and in 1946 he was ordained a priest and began teaching church history at St. Sergius. During this formative period he was also profoundly influenced by the liturgical renewal movement of French Roman Catholic theologians such as Louis Boyer and Jean Daniélou. In 1951 he moved to St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in New York; he became dean of the Seminary in 1962 and remained in that office until his death on December 13, 1983.
Scholasticism
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

Scholasticism properly understood is neither a set of beliefs nor a period of time but is, instead, a rigorous method employed principally, but by no means exclusively, by the newly established universities in Western Europe in the High Middle Ages (in the 11th through the 13th centuries). Scholasticism is thus not the admixture of Christian piety and Aristotelian metaphysics its detractors claim. Instead, scholasticism is a method whereby philosophical and theological questions are answered through careful analysis and argumentation. Nor is scholasticism situated exclusively in the High Middle Ages; for example, Francis Turretin's impeccably scholastic
Institutes of Elenctic Theology
was published in the late 17th century. Nevertheless, the most widely known scholastics are from this period: Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Lombard were born in the 11th century, and Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham were all born in the 13th.
S
chütz‐
M
arsauche,
R
oger‐
L
ouis (1915–2005) and
T
aizé
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Founder and prior of the Taizé Community in France, an international and ecumenical monastic community. Born in 1915 in Provence to a Swiss father and a French mother, his father was a Swiss‐Refomed Calvinist but his grandmother was a Roman Catholic and both traditions left a deep imprint on his life. Roger studied theology in Lausanne and Strasbourg. He bought a home in 1940 in the village of Taizé, near the celebrated monastery in Cluny, which he used as a refuge for Jews fleeing Nazi Germany until 1942 when a Nazi raid forced him to find safety in Geneva. When the war ended, he used the same house as a home for German prisoners. In 1949 he converted the place to a monastery with seven brothers committed to a life of contemplation, austerity, and celibacy. All of his initial “monks” were Protestants, but gradually he accepted Roman Catholics and others from Eastern Orthodox backgrounds as well. Within a few years the number of brothers passed 100, from 20 countries. The community supports itself by the brothers' work alone. Some brothers go abroad and establish small groups of Christians separated from the world. Brother Roger himself lived on all continents, especially in countries undergoing civil war and stress. Since 1958 Taizé has welcomed young adults. Summer meetings of young adults draw up to 6,000 participants at a time. During these meetings, members share three communal prayers in the Chapel of Reconciliation. Songs from Taizé are used in churches and parishes around the world. These meetings are replicated in eastern and western Europe as well as Asia and the Americas. Brother Roger was invited to the Second Vatican Council and he also visited the Ecumenical Patriarch at Constantinople. Three archbishops of Canterbury have visited Taizé, and Pope John Paul II visited Taizé as a “pilgrim and a friend of the Community.” Brother Roger received the Templeton Prize and the German Peace Prize in 1974 and Karlspreis in 1989. Brother Roger died tragically on August 16, 2005, during the evening prayer service at Taizé, after an attack in which he was stabbed by a mentally disturbed woman.
S
chwärmerei
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

This concept was frequently used by theologians during the Reformation in Germany, especially by Lutherans. The concept comes from the German word
Schwarm
(swarm in English), as a swarm of bees. When bees swarm, they are engaged in excessive behavior. Thus, theologians used the term
Schwärmerei
to describe excessive sentiment or beliefs on the part of given individuals or groups in regard to some of their theological beliefs. Those who engaged in
Schärmerei
were called
Schwärmer
; the former is commonly translated as “enthusiasm” and the latter as “enthusiasts” or “fanatics” in English. During the Reformation those referred to as
Schwärmer
(enthusiasts) were individuals who said that the Holy Ghost spoke to them directly, a part from the written Word of Holy Scripture.
S
cott,
S
ir
G
eorge
G
ilbert (1811–1878)
Authors: Whytock Jack C.
Published: January 2012

Sir George Gilbert Scott, born in 1811 in Gawcott, Buckinghamshire, and died in 1878 in London, was one of Britain's most noted Victorian architects, a strong advocate of the Gothic Revival style and often remembered for his Gothicization renovations. Scott came from a strong Anglican family; his father was a clergyman and his grandfather was the noted Bible commentator Thomas Scott, a founder together with John Newton of the Church Missionary Society. Scott's father and grandfather represented the evangelical tradition of the Church of England, yet Scott moved into the broad church tradition of Anglicanism, although he was not a true high churchman. He was condemned by the Cambridge Camden Society's journal,
The Ecclesiologist
, for designing a Lutheran church, the St. Nikolaikirche in Hamburg. Thus his Gothic architectural style did not turn him liturgically to Anglo‐Catholicism. His love of architecture began in childhood while sketching medieval churches.
Scottish
C
hristianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Christianity was introduced into Scotland in the 5th and 6th centuries. There are Christian monuments in Kirkmadrine and Whithorn (associated with St. Ninian). St. Columba was one of the many saints active in Argyll in the kingdom of Dalriada settled by Irish immigrants. The community of St. Columba established many churches in east Scotland. The famous mission at Iona was instrumental in the conversion of the Northumbrian kingdom of Bernicia where St. Aidan founded Lindisfarne. From here bishops traveled to Whithorn and Abercorn. The Columban Church lost its influence after the Synod of Whitby in 664 at which the Roman Church gained ascendancy.
Secularism and Secularization
Authors: Sharp Douglas R.
Published: January 2012

The terms
secularism
and
secularization
are related to each other at some social and conceptual levels, but it is important to distinguish between them because they do not refer to the same thing. Both terms can be construed as identifying perspectives, beliefs, and values that are characteristic of a particular society and its cultural history, and each term draws its meaning in part by juxtaposition with the phenomenon of
religion
. Practically everything about secularism and secularization is a matter of dispute among scholars who investigate such matters; hardly any position or perspective passes as uncontested.
Secularization ofEuropean Society
Authors: Green Todd
Published: January 2012

Until the mid 19th century, the term “secularization” referred either to the transfer of ecclesiastical property from the church to secular authorities (as was the case during the Reformation or the French Revolution) or to the relinquishing of orders by monks or nuns. In its contemporary usage, the term generally indicates a decline in the influence of religion in a given society. This decline is usually studied on one of two levels – the decline in religious beliefs and practices, or the decline in the public role of religion. The study of secularization has been a particular concern for scholars seeking to understand the changing role of religion, especially Christianity, in European society from the Enlightenment to the present. This entry provides an overview of the scholarship on the secularization of European society since the 1960s, with particular attention given to contributions from sociologists and historians.
M
cPherson,
A
imee
S
emple (1890–1944)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Flamboyant preacher and founder of the Foursquare Gospel Church. Aimee Kennedy was born in Ingersoll (Ontario), Canada, on October 9, 1890, the only child of James and Minnie Kennedy. Her mother was an active member of the Salvation Army and Aimee followed in her mother's footsteps. Aimee was converted under the preaching of evangelist Robert Semple, whom she married at the age of 17. Within two years they had left for China to serve as missionaries. Less than three months after their arrival, Robert was stricken by a fatal illness, leaving Aimee a widow with a 1 month old daughter, Roberta.
Serbian Christianity
Authors: Murdzhev Pavel
Published: January 2012

The first encounters of the Serbian tribes with Christianity, brought by missionaries ordained by Emperor Heraclius of Byzantium in the 7th century, did not have lasting results. Most of the tribes, especially from the Upper Moesia inland, remained connected with the traditional Slavic polytheism. The second attempt at Christianizing the Serbs took place during the reign of Basil I (867–886) and did not have very different results. The process paralleled the first Serbian attempts at political consolidation under the supremacy of Constantinople in the course of the second half of the 9th century, which again had only limited success. Serbian historiography attributes the completion of the Christianization process to St. Sava (1173–1236), the most venerated and celebrated of Serbian saints. Prior to this point, Christian church organization in the lands inhabited by Serbs — Duklja or Zeta (today's Montenegro), Zahumlje (today's Hercegovina, with the city of Dubrovnik), Travunija (Trebinje, part of today's Bosnia and Croatia), Pagania (today's eastern Dalmatia with the islands), Bosna (Bosnia), and Rascia (today's Sandžak) — was part of either Byzantine, Roman, or Bulgarian church organization. The spread of Christianity among the Serbs, as well as other Slav nations, was crucially affected by the invention of the Slavonic script, i.e. Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabet, around the middle of the 9th century and the liturgical literature created in Bulgaria. The first dioceses in Serbian lands after the crisis of the 7th century were centered within the ancient towns of Naisus, Belgrade, Sirmium, and Branichevo, as well as the bishoprics of Ras, Ston, Lipljan (Ulpiana), Prizren, and Velic, reestablished and consolidated by the Bulgarian emperors Peter I (927–970) and Samuel (997–1014).
Serbian Orthodox Church
Authors: Teasdale Mark
Published: January 2012

The Serbian people and the various incarnations of the Serbian state have existed in a complex relationship with the Christian faith throughout history. Ultimately, this relationship would come to be dominated by the Serbian Orthodox Church, which came to be seen as the repository of a uniquely Serbian identity.
Seventeenth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

Seventeenth century Christianity is less well known, and much less studied, than the century of the Reformation preceding it, or the century of Enlightenment following it. The 17th century is rightly characterized as a century of war and of cultural upheaval. Yet the century's violent pangs saw the birth of the modern world, with new and lasting approaches to science, philosophy, politics, and the arts.
Seventh‐Day Adventism
Authors: Braun Mark
Published: January 2012

Seventh‐Day Adventism (SDA) is a Protestant Christian denomination with a worldwide membership of over 14 million. The two chief features of its doctrinal system are evident in its name: the observance of a Saturday Sabbath and a focus on the imminent Second Coming or Advent of Christ.
Shahapivan, Council Of
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan
Published: January 2012

The Council of Shahapivan was the first Armenian Church council of which the minutes were recorded in Classical Armenian and they are preserved in many manuscripts. This council was convened in the year 444, in a time of political and social turmoil in Armenia. For centuries, Armenia had been a buffer zone between two super‐powers, the Roman and Persian Empires. This allowed these two powers to exercise tremendous influence on the political and social life of the Armenians. In 387, Armenia was divided into two semi‐autonomous kingdoms – Byzantine Armenia and Persarmenia – with the major part of Armenia falling under Persian rule. Disagreements between the local princes and the king of Armenia, during the late 4th and early 5th centuries, further aggravated the political situation, thus enabling the Persians to exercise stronger influence over affairs in Armenia. Furthermore, Persian pressures to impose Zoroastrianism on the Armenians and the persistence of immoral and pagan practices were just a few of the many serious concerns that the Armenian Church had to face during this time.
S
hakarian,
D
emos (1913–1993)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Demos Shakarian was a wealthy California dairy farmer who founded the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International (FGBMFI), an organization of Christian businessmen with chapters in 132 nations. In 1905 Shakarian's parents left their homeland of Armenia and migrated to America, settling on the edge of Los Angeles where other Armenians had put down roots. The Shakarians, who were Presbyterians, were greatly influenced by the fledgling Pentecostal movement, which had its beginnings at the Los Angeles Azusa Street revival of 1906. They, along with many other Armenian believers, fully embraced Pentecostalism.
Shakers
Authors: Baker Dwight P.
Published: January 2012

The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, or Shakers as they were commonly called, was an early and long‐lived flowering of the wave of utopian communities, some religiously based and others not, that flourished in the new United States during its first century. In the mid 19th century, Shaker communities spread widely from Maine through New England, New York, Ohio, and Indiana, to Kentucky. Only one Shaker community remains active today.
Shepherding Movement
Authors: Musch Leslyn
Published: January 2012

The Shepherding or Discipleship Movement was a fast‐growing, controversial movement birthed in the early 1970s. The counterculture of the 1960s produced a generation that came of age under the influence of communal “hippie” living, mind‐altering drugs, and rejection of responsibility, authority, and moral norms. Concurrently, many mainline denominations had begun to embrace the rationalism of modernity that rejected much of the supernatural nature of Christianity, thus creating a spiritual hunger satisfied by the Charismatic Renewal. While many within this renewal stayed in their denominational churches, many others adopted a vagabond approach to Christianity, wandering from church to church and conference to conference, never committing to a local church. This, combined with the masses of new Christians coming out of the morally bankrupt counterculture, created an enormous number of unchurched, biblically illiterate, immature Christians who desperately needed biblical teaching and even the most basic life‐skills training. It was this need that led to the rise of the Shepherding Movement.
Shroud of Turin
Authors: Habermas Gary R.
Published: January 2012

This linen cloth located in Turin, Italy, measures 14 feet 3 inches by 3 feet 7 inches, revealing both the front and back image of a crucified male. Whipping wounds cover virtually the entire body, along with major punctures in the wrists, feet, and a larger wound in the right side.
Signs and Wonders
Authors: Lee‐Barnewall Michelle
Published: January 2012

The phrase “signs and wonders” (Hebrew ‘ôtôt ûmôp
e
tîm) first appears in Exodus 7:3 in reference to the plagues that God brings upon Egypt to free the Israelites. A “sign” carries a significance beyond the sign itself. In the Hebrew Bible the combination of “signs and wonders” often refers to the spectacular displays of God's power in the plagues and the Exodus, and is intimately tied to God's redemption of his people (Deut. 4:34, 6:22, 7:19, 26:8, 29:3, 34:11; Neh. 9:10; Ps. 135:9; Jer. 32:20–21). The phrase also appears in Isaiah and Daniel (Isa. 8:18; Dan. 4:2; 6:27).
Sin
Authors: Doyle Dominic
Published: January 2012

The deliberate refusal of God's grace and the willful choosing of moral evil that separates the person from God and thus damages human life and community; more briefly, disordered love of self that prevents love of God. Dubbed the only empirically verifiable doctrine in Christianity, with its central symbol of the cross, the Christian notion of sin names humanity's self‐inflicted suffering, both personally and collectively, and its profound alienation from the source of all being and goodness.
S
ingh,
S
adhu
S
undar (1889–
c
.1929)
Authors: Ridington Morgan Thomas
Published: January 2012

While Thomas is the apostle most associated with India, the most prominent Christian of Indian birth, Sundar Singh, more closely mirrors the life of the Apostle Paul. Born in 1889 into a devoutly religious family, Sundar Singh pleased his parents by becoming well versed in the Sikh and Hindu religions. His mother's death, however, threw the studious young man into a spiritual crisis. A planned suicide was only averted by a personal visitation by Jesus, in which he received the peace he previously lacked. Though fulfilling his late mother's wishes to become a sadhu (holy man), Singh's pursuit of Jesus Christ and adoption of a life of holiness and asceticism permanently alienated him from his family. Like Paul, Singh spent most of his life traveling. He made three significant missionary journeys beyond southern Asia, including China, Malaysia, and Japan in 1919, Australia, England, and the United States in 1920, and Europe in 1922.
Sistine Chapel
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

The Sistine Chapel is located in the Vatican Palace and named for Pope Sixtus IV. Baccio Pontelli drafted the architectural plans. From 1473 to 1481, Florentine architect Giovanni dei Dolci supervised its construction. The chapel is rectangular in shape, and the measurements correspond to the dimensions of the Solomonic Temple. Vasari indicated that Sixtus IV summoned Sandro Botticelli to Rome in 1481, and commissioned him with the responsibility of leading the artists who would fresco the walls. Botticelli enlisted the assistance of prominent Cortonan, Florentine, and Umbrian artists. Cosimo Roselli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino (Vannucci), and Luca Signorelli assisted Botticelli in completing the wall paintings.
Sixteenth Century Christianity
Authors: Whitford David M.
Published: January 2012

The 16th century was an era of tremendous upheaval, change, and renewal within the church. While the church in the West in 1500 had broad diversity in both worship style and theological expression, it was also one church following the Bishop of Rome. In 1600, Lutherans, Calvinists, followers of Menno Simons, the Church of England, and many others all competed with, and against, Rome for adherents. The ramifications of the events of the 16th century are still felt in the Church today.
Sixth Century Christianity
Authors: Maschke Timothy
Published: January 2012

Vibrant expansion of Christianity was experienced in the 6th century. In spite of the conflicts and controversies which swirled around the major centers of Christianity, there was a deep awareness that others needed to know Christ.
S
mith,
C
harles
W
ard “Chuck” (
b
. 1927)
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf
Published: January 2012

Chuck Smith was born in 1927 to Charles and Maude Smith in Ventura, California. He is the pastor of Calvary Chapel, Costa Mesa, California, and founder of the Calvary Chapel church movement. In 2007 some 1,400 churches are affiliated in the Calvary Chapel Outreach Fellowships (CCOF). Of these, 350 are outside the United States. Church affiliation requires adherence to the “Calvary Chapel Distinctives.”
Snake Handling
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Snake handling is an aberrant practice, which is a by‐product of the 1906 Pentecostal outbreak on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. After reading the words, “They shall take up serpents … and it shall not hurt them” (Mark 16:18), former bootlegger‐turned‐preacher, George Went Hensley, aka “Little George,” carried a rattle‐snake box into his pulpit. By faith, he reached in and lifted out the venomous rattlesnake, proving that he literally believed God's Word. He then challenged his congregation to do the same. The year was 1910. News of the event spread throughout the hills of Grasshopper Valley in southeastern Tennessee, and before long, others were also picking up serpents. The practice continued for ten years until one of the faithful died of a snakebite. Feeling pressure from both neighbors and law enforcement, Hensley moved to Harlan, Kentucky.
Sobornost
Authors: Higgins Paul
Published: January 2012

Sobornost
— which has been translated into English as “community,” “catholicity,” “harmony,” “organic unity,” and “togetherness,” among other things — first appears as a theological term in the writings of Alexei Khomiakov and Ivan Kireevsky, the founders of the Slavophile movement, though its origins can be found in the 9th century. SS Cyril and Methodius and their disciples translated the Greek words for “Catholic church” in the Nicene‐Constantinopolitan Creed as the Slavonic “subornaia tsruki,” where the adjective “suborna(ia)” signified “conciliar,” derived from the noun “subor” — council, church — and was related to the verbs “subrati,” “beru,” and “sobirat” — gather, gathering, to bring together. In old Slavonic literature, the word “subor” connoted various kinds of councils, but was also often used as identical with the church (
ecclesia
) of Christ or with a particular assembly of believers or their meeting place (Sabev 1993: 263–266).
Sociology of Religion
Authors: Sharp Douglas R.
Published: January 2012

The disciplines associated with the social sciences are generally identified as anthropology, history, geography, psychology, sociology, economics, political science, law, and education, in short, those disciplines that investigate the subjective and objective aspects of human life and interaction, the structures and settings in relation to which such interaction takes place, and the mutual influence occurring among actors and between actors and their environment. The sociology
of religion
is a subfield within the larger field of sociology.
S
oloviev,
V
ladimir (1853–1900)
Authors: Kenworthy Scott M.
Published: January 2012

Russian philosopher and poet Vladimir S. Soloviev (also transliterated Solovyov or Solov'ev) was born in Moscow. His father Sergei, one of the foremost Russian historians, was professor at Moscow University. After finishing Moscow University, Vladimir studied at the Moscow Theological Academy (a fairly unusual move for someone not from a clergy family). While researching in the British Museum he had a vision of Sophia (divine wisdom), which led him to Egypt where he had another vision (and nearly died at the hands of Bedouins). In 1878 he delivered a series of lectures on “divine humanity” (alternately translated as “God‐manhood” or “the humanity of God”) to an audience that included Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. He received his doctorate in philosophy from St. Petersburg University in 1880 with a thesis on
The Critique of Abstract Principles
. He was deeply influenced by German Idealism, particularly Schelling.
S
olzhenitsyn,
A
leksandr (1918–2008)
Authors: Werntz Myles
Published: January 2012

Best known for his criticism of Soviet ideology. He was born in Kislovodsk, Russia, in the wake of the Russian Civil War. Following World War II, he was imprisoned in Siberia for criticism of Stalin in personal correspondence, followed by nearly a decade of internal exile. His continued outspokenness against communism resulted in his deportation in 1974, although he was allowed to return in 1994.
Sophia, Sophiology
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

Sophia is a Greek word commonly translated as “wisdom,” and in the Septuagint Old Testament it translates the Hebrew “Hochmah.” In the so‐called “Wisdom Books” of the Old Testament (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Sirach, The Wisdom of Solomon, and in some lists, Psalms and the Song of Songs), Sophia is the Divine Wisdom, sometimes personified as a beautiful woman (Prov. 8:1–9:6; Wisd. of Sol. 7:22–29). In these, and other books of the Old Testament, meanings of Sophia range from the skillfulness that yields practical success, to the precepts of virtuous living, to the deep principles of divine creation and governance that underlie and rule the cosmos, along with the human ability to apprehend these principles and live in accordance with them. But underlying all these senses is the insistence that true wisdom comes from God (Sir 1:1: “All wisdom comes from the Lord, and is with Him forever”), implying both that “the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom” (Ps. 111:10; Prov. 1:7, 9:10), and that this genuine wisdom makes foolish the wisdom of the world, even while it seems to the world itself like folly (1 Cor. 1:18–23). In the New Testament, St. Paul associates the divine wisdom with Christ (1 Cor. 1:24), who in the Prolog to the Gospel of St. John is said to be the eternal Logos, by whom all things were created, the source of light and life. Sophia is often discussed in patristic writings, where it begins to be associated not just with the Son, but with the Holy Spirit as well. Subsequently, some of Christendom's greatest churches, especially in the Greek East (e.g. in Constantinople and Thessalonica), were named Hagia Sophia, or The Holy Wisdom of God, and dedicated to Christ. Eventually, in Russia (e.g. in Novgorod and Kiev), churches of the Holy Sophia began to be dedicated to the Theotokos, the Mother of God, i.e. the Virgin Mary. Meanwhile, parallel to these developments, there arose Gnostic, hermetic, and kabbalistic traditions of speculation concerning Sophia, reemerging much later in Germany in the theosophical mysticism of Jacob Böhme, which was in turn taken up into the thought of Franz von Baader and F. W. J. Schelling.
Soteriology
Authors: Estes Douglas
Published: January 2012

Soteriology is the study of salvation; the term comes from the original Greek word for salvation found in the New Testament. Soteriology is one of the main subsets of systematic theology: while theology proper (the study of God) is the foundation, soteriology is the heart of theology since it explains how people can know and relate to God. Since the Christian view of salvation is wholly tied to the person and work of Jesus Christ, soteriology is strongly related to Christology (the study of the messiah). Soteriology is critical for theology in that salvation is a basic and fundamental need of all people.
Soul
Authors: Feser Edward
Published: January 2012

Two competing conceptions of the soul have influenced Christian thought, one tracing back to Plato (429–347bc) and the other to Aristotle (384–322bc). For Plato, soul and body are distinct substances. Strictly speaking, a person is identical with his soul, and the body is merely a temporary prison in which it is housed. Not only is the soul (or at least its rational part) immortal, but it existed before its union with the body. For Aristotle, by contrast, a soul is just the form of a living thing, and since only form and matter together constitute a substance, only the human soul and human body together constitute a complete person. A corollary of this is that when the body dies, the person dies as well.
S
outheast
A
sian Christianity
Authors: Hunt Robert
Published: January 2012

The history of Christianity in Southeast Asia can be characterized as a movement from Christianity as a colonial religion toward its emergence as a fully indigenous Southeast Asian religion related to Christianity worldwide. The principal features of this movement are the empowering of local church leaders, the emergence of indigenously initiated Christian movements, and most importantly the full engagement of the Christian community and its witness in the local cultures, societies, economies, and politics of Southeast Asia.
Spanish Christianity
Authors: Eaton Kent A.
Published: January 2012

Early Christian missionaries carried their faith to the Iberian Peninsula late in the first century. That the apostle Paul was among the first to arrive finds support in his intended itinerary (Rom. 15:24; 28) and is confirmed by other early Christian sources such as Clement (I Clem. 5), Chrysostom (Homily 2 Tim. 4:9–13), and the Muratorian Fragment. In contrast, stories of the apostle James' purported ministry in Spain appeared in the 12th century. For example, in Jacobus de Voragine's (c.1230–1298)Golden Legend, a medieval collection of nearly 200 saints' lives, the author citesJohn Beleth(1135–1182) as his source. The story mentions James' initial unsuccessful ministry in Hispania and the subsequent miraculous journey of his remains following martyrdom back to Santiago de Compostela in a ship guided by angels. The alleged relics of James did, however, establish this Galician city as an important pilgrimage destination.
S
peer,
R
obert
E
lliott (1867–1947)
Authors: Patterson James A.
Published: January 2012

American. Born September 10, 1867 and raised in Huntington, Pennsylvania, the son of Robert and Martha Speer. Following a two year pre‐paratory course at the Phillips Academy in Massachusetts, he enrolled in 1885 at the College of New Jersey in Princeton. In 1887 he signed the Student Volunteer Movement pledge during a campus visit by recruiters John Forman and Robert Wilder. During the following summer Speer met revivalist D. L. Moody at Northfield, Massachusetts, which heightened his interest in the SVM. After his graduation from Princeton in 1889, Speer spent a year itinerating as an SVM recruiter and saw 1,100 college students commit to become foreign missionaries. Along with Wilder and John R. Mott, he epitomized the spirit the early SVM and its optimistic watchword, “The Evangelization of the World in This Generation.”
S
pener,
P
hilip
J
acob (1635–1705)
Authors: Maschke Timothy
Published: January 2012

Born on January 13, 1635, in the Alsatian village of Rappoltsweiler. As the father of Pietism, his most famous work,
Pia Desideria
, continues to influence Christians who deeply desire more than a formal approach to spirituality. His mother introduced him to Bible reading and his favorite book, his father's copy of Johann Arndt's
True Christianity
. He read Puritan writers who criticized traditional Christianity as being cerebral, lacking in true holiness, and genuine morality. His pastor, Joachim Stoll (1615–1678), was his lifelong mentor, becoming his brother‐in‐law after marrying Spener's oldest sister.
Spirituality
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief
Published: January 2012

The foundation of Christian spirituality is faith in the completed work of Jesus Christ; his sacrifice, death, and resurrection. The Christian's life is centered on the Person of Jesus Christ; expressing the beliefs and practices that evidence faith in Christ's completed work of salvation. Spirituality consists of both the inward understanding and the outward expression of beliefs and practices that evidence one's faith in Jesus Christ.
H
ilarion,
S
aint (
c
.291–371)
Authors: Heintz Michael
Published: January 2012

Hilarion was a Palestinian monk of the 4th century. Epiphanius of Salamis (d. 403
ce
), who had known him personally, had praised him in a letter that is no longer extant but was known to Jerome, whose
Vita Hilarionis
(composed c.391
ce
) is the principal source of information regarding Hilarion. Sozomen (d. 447/448
ce
), himself educated by monks in Palestine, mentions Hilarion in his multivolume
Historia
(at 3.14 and 5.10 and 15); while it is possible that he drew upon Jerome's earlier
Vita
, his own training by Palestinian monks might account for his knowledge of the traditions surrounding Hilarion.
J
ohn the Baptist,
S
aint
Authors: Gillman Florence Morgan
Published: January 2012

Details about the early years of John's life are known only from Luke 1:5–25; 39–80. The material is artfully embedded in Luke's infancy narrative in a diptych‐like fashion in which the evangelist parallels the unusual origins and predictions about both Jesus and John. Luke records that John was the son of an aging couple, Zechariah of the priestly order of Abijah and his hitherto barren wife, Elizabeth, also of Aaronic descent (Luke 1:5–6). Once, as Zechariah offered incense in the temple sanctuary, the angel Gabriel told him Elizabeth would bear a son. He was to be named John and, filled with the Holy Spirit even from his mother's womb, he was never to drink either wine or strong drink. With this apparent directive that John was to be consecrated to the Lord by a Nazirite vow, the angel also foretold that John, acting in the spirit and power of Elijah, would prepare a people fit for the Lord.
P
eter,
S
aint (
d
.
c
.64)
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

Simon (nicknamed Peter, “the Rock,” by Jesus) was a 1st century Galilean who, together with his brother Andrew, was working in his family fishing business when he was called by Jesus to follow him. Peter is mentioned first in all four apostolic lists in the New Testament (Matt. 10:2; Mark 3:16; Luke 6:13; Acts 1:13), which attests to his towering stature among Jesus' inner circle, the twelve disciples. Peter forged an especially close relationship with John, his former fishing partner (Luke 5:10), with whom he is linked during Jesus' ministry and in the days of the early church (Luke 5:10; 22:8; John 13:23–24; 18:15–16; 20:2–9; 21; Acts 1:13; 3–4; 8:14–25; Gal. 2:9). In the Gospels, he frequently serves as the spokesman for the twelve disciples (e.g. Matt. 14:28; 15:15; 18:21; 26:35, 40; Mark 8:29; 9:5; 10:28; John 6:68).
S
ava,
S
aint (1173–1236)
Authors: Teasdale Mark
Published: January 2012

St. Sava was the first Archbishop of Serbia, and is known as “the Enlightener” of the Serbian people. Sava's saint day is celebrated on January 27 according to the Serbian Orthodox calendar and is associated with schools.
State of Nature
Authors: Harold Philip J.
Published: January 2012

The “state of nature” refers to the imaginary descriptions of pre‐political life given by early modern political theorists. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1704), and Jean‐Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) all attempted to describe the state of social life prior to political society in order to be able to understand the sources of political authority. They each give different descriptions of the state of nature, and their conclusions revolve around different ideas of a “social contract.” The notion of the state of nature has its foundations, however, in the 16th century.
S
tewart,
J
ames
S
tuart (1896–1990)
Authors: Van Neste Ray
Published: January 2012

Arguably the preeminent modern Scottish preacher (
Preaching
magazine in 1999 ranked him as the best preacher of the 20th century), James Stuart Stewart was born in Dundee to a godly family. His father, William, was secretary of the YMCA and led an effective Bible class ministry for many years. James was educated at Dundee High School and the University of St. Andrews (1916; classics). He then served in the war as a code‐breaker on the western front and in Manchester. After the war he studied for the United Free Church (UFC) of Scotland ministry at New College Edinburgh (1918–1921), followed by one year at the University of Bonn (1921–1922) as Cunningham Fellow.
Stigmata
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

From the Greek word
stigma
meaning “sign,” stigmata — in the Christian sense — are the reproduction in a person of the wounds of Christ's Passion, either visibly or invisibly (the term is more commonly associated with the former, though examples of the latter are more common). The marks are most commonly those of the crucifixion (feet, hands, and side), though marks on the head and back (for crowning with thorns and carrying the cross, respectively) are also witnessed.