bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prevalence, Clinical Features, and Predictors of Adrenal Insufficiency in Adults With Tuberculosis or HIV: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Authors: Kibirige Davis , Owarwo Noela , Kyazze Andrew Peter , Morgan Bethan , Olum Ronald , Bongomin Felix , Andia-Biraro Irene
Published: February 2024

Background

Despite the high frequency of adrenal insufficiency (AI) in patients with tuberculosis or HIV, its diagnosis is often missed or delayed resulting in increased mortality. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to document the prevalence, significant clinical features, and predictors of AI in adult patients with tuberculosis or HIV.

Methods

We systematically searched databases (Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and Africa Journal Online) for published studies on AI in adult patients with tuberculosis or HIV. The pooled prevalence of AI was determined by a random-effect model meta-analysis. A narrative review was used to describe the significant clinical features and predictors of AI in adult patients with tuberculosis or HIV.

Results

A total of 46 studies involving 4044 adults were included: 1599 with tuberculosis and 2445 with HIV. The pooled prevalence of AI was 33% (95% CI, 22%–45%; I2 = 97.7%, P < .001) in participants with tuberculosis and 28% (95% CI, 18%–38%; I2 = 98.9%, P < .001) in those with HIV. Presentation with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, abdominal pain, salt craving, myalgia, increased severity and duration of tuberculosis disease, and the absence of nausea predicted AI in participants with tuberculosis in 4 studies. Cytomegalovirus antigenemia positivity, rifampicin therapy, and eosinophilia >3% predicted AI in participants with HIV in 2 studies.

Conclusions

AI is relatively common in adults with tuberculosis or HIV. Its timely screening, diagnosis, and management in patients with these 2 conditions should be encouraged to avert mortality.
The Ties that Will Always Bind: EU Competition Law and the Single Market
Authors: Albors-Llorens Albertina
Published: February 2024

This chapter argues that, in the aftermath of the Modernisation period, the single market imperative remains as alive as ever in the landscape of EU Competition law and continues to pervade current challenges such as those underlining recent legislative initiatives, the fight against cartels and the digitalization of the economy. As the European Union and its legal system evolved, criticism was voiced on account of the tensions between that objective and more traditional goals of competition law. An important question was whether, after market integration was largely achieved, competition law could—and should—begin to live a life independent from that objective. This contribution contends that the single market imperative continues to be an essential aspect of the identity of the EU Competition rules and that divesting these rules from it would devaluate the impact of one of the most successful areas of EU law and policy.
The Single Market, the Rule of Law, and Access to EU Courts: Vigilance of Individuals before the EU Courts
Authors: Perišin Tamara , Cambien Nathan
Published: February 2024

This chapter seeks to put the narrative of the building of the single market in the broader framework of the rule of law and the role of individuals in guarding it. It contains two parts. The first deals with CJEU cases dealing with the rule of law and highlights that such questions arise in different types of judicial proceedings including preliminary reference procedures, infringement actions against Member States, and direct actions against EU institutions or bodies, whereby each of these procedures can be initiated by more than one type of actor. It puts an emphasis on the jurisprudence which arises from actions brought by individual applicants to the General Court. The chapter illustrates the relevance of individual actions in ensuring effective judicial review of possible rule of law violations which could be occurring within one Member State, in a third country or even at the level of the EU itself, and which in the absence of the vigilance of individuals might not have been brought to the attention of EU courts. This section suggests that access of individuals to EU courts might be particularly relevant in situations of a rule of law failure potentially affecting other courts. The second part of the paper thus examines the possibilities for individuals to have access to the EU Courts in light of the most recent jurisprudence on standing in a number of important fields related to the internal market.
The Archaeology of an Examination Paper
Authors: Shaw Jo
Published: February 2024

Using the device of a recently discovered old examination paper, this chapter explores the intersection of the author’s career with that of Stephen Weatherill, placing these careers in the context of the evolution of the European Union as legal order and as polity. The chapter is more akin to a piece of life-writing than a traditional academic paper. None the less, the chapter examines a range of areas of EU law, including constitutional and internal market questions, highlighting the enduring nature of many of the questions about the EU as a polity as well as the changes that have occurred in the UK’s relationship with the EU, since the 2016 referendum on membership.
Introduction
Authors: Goodin Robert E.
Published: February 2024

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the many topics to be addressed in the book, drawing (in a preliminary way) key distinctions and staking out positions to be defended in detail in subsequent chapters. It first establishes a ‘presumption of non-consent’—consent must be given (in any of many ways), it cannot be presumed. Consent is an act, an intrapersonal mental act in the first instance and an interpersonal performative act in the second. To serve its social function, consent must also be communicated. Consent is morally transformative, rendering permissible actions that would otherwise have been impermissible. Someone who receives another’s consent may reasonably rely upon those permissions. That is why consent cannot ordinarily be revoked without compensation. That is also why compensation is ordinarily owed to someone to whom you have conveyed conventional indicators of consent, even in innocent error and all the more through culpable ignorance. People who intentionally fraudulently misrepresented themselves as consenting, however, thereby forfeit the rights that they purported themselves to be waiving with their false consent.
Consenting Without Knowing
Authors: Goodin Robert E.
Published: February 2024

Since consent must be intentional, you arguably cannot consent without knowing that you are consenting. But if you do something that you could and should know that others will reasonably regard as signalling your consent, you may be treated in the same way as if you had consented. Likewise, you can consent without knowing fully to what you are consenting. Almost invariably consent contains ‘gaps’ to be filled in by conventions about what is implicit in the ‘nature of the business’. If you could and should have known those conventions, and you did not explicitly repudiate them when consenting, you can be treated as (or anyway ‘as if’) having consented to their application. When on notice that ‘silence will be taken as consent’, silence genuinely constitutes consent.
Introduction
Authors: Bryant Joan L.
Published: February 2024

The introduction explains the contexts and impetus for opposition to race and introduces some of the individuals who questioned the concept in reform initiatives. It situates the rise of race challenges in the expansion of antebellum freedom and the culture of reform that fostered Black organizational efforts to shape public opinion. It links questions about the validity, logic, and ethics of race to reformers’ sense that they possessed the moral authority and responsibility to shape the terms of free manhood and citizenship.
“That Odious Distinction”
Authors: Bryant Joan L.
Published: February 2024

Race challenges expanded in the wake of the first national conventions. The chapter explores this development in debates surrounding the American Moral Reform Society. Conflicts stemmed from its stand on the language that should define obligations among citizens and Christians. The idea that reform was a sacred undertaking grounded in rational judgments shaped conflicts over rejecting racial designations. Ministers such as Samuel Cornish and Lewis Woodson and “unchurched” moral reform advocates Robert Purvis and William Whipper were at the forefront of contentious exchanges that curtailed implementation of Reform Society initiatives but set the terms for ongoing race challenges. Although moral reformers and their critics withstood conflicts and persisted in the face of colonizationists’ challenges to their American nationality, disenfranchisement in northern states threatened the viability of efforts to function as American reformers. It heightened the stakes surrounding claims that moral elevation could earn citizenship rights and freedom for colored people.
“Humanology”
Authors: Bryant Joan L.
Published: February 2024

This chapter analyzes how reformers moved beyond political and moral discourse to refute mid-nineteenth-century scientific arguments from the American School of ethnology, which advanced a theory of polygenesis that conceived of people of African descent as a non-human species. Without dismissing human variation, reformers devised alternate explanations for differences that race categories allegedly signified. The analysis traces the historical, religious, political, and scientific ideas they formulated to validate their claims about the unity of the human species and causes of physical and intellectual differences and attainments. Race science raised the stakes associated with notions of human difference and hierarchy. Its theories and empirical methods created purportedly natural foundations and physical warrants for myriad forms of domination and exclusion. Esteem for knowledge led reformers to confront American School justifications for inequality within parameters governing scientific methods.
“The Whole Question of Race”
Authors: Bryant Joan L.
Published: February 2024

The chapter maps divergent forms of race challenges that flourished amid competing social and political forces at the turn of the century. Although the racial hierarchy of Jim Crow was an obvious target to attack, the notion that humans could be grouped into discrete races continued to provoke scorn even as race men promoted race consciousness. Their efforts to promote a collective identity founded on race became another phenomenon for reformers to question and interrogate. Proposals for a race names for people of African descent also created an occasion to scrutinize phenomena that comprised races. Legal claims, literature, religious pamphlets, political speeches, and philosophical essays display the divergent perspectives that framed race challenges as reformers continued to seek stable ethical foundations for collective endeavors.
Unreason
Authors: Hannan Jason
Published: February 2024

This chapter opens with a contrast between “moderate” conservatives and right-wing trolls, asking whether they belong to the same political family. The chapter then reviews the animating ideas of Edmund Burke and the defining sentiments of the early conservative movement. It argues that political conservatism is inherently oriented toward unreason and political trolling. Burke celebrates “veils,” “illusions,” “prejudice,” and “ignorance,” some of the core elements of political trolling today. Conceptualizing conservatism as a reaction against equality and democracy, the chapter then explores the place of paranoia, fear, and conspiracy in conservative ideology. Finally, it looks at Rush Limbaugh and Ann Coulter, two political shock artists who pioneered the art of scandalizing the liberal enemy. Limbaugh and Coulter were “trolling the libs” before “trolling the libs” became an everyday feature of social media
Loyalty and the Selves We Are as Friends
Authors: Jeske Diane
Published: February 2024

This chapter argues that disloyalty to a friend constitutes a loss for both friends that differs in kind from that involved in other kinds of disloyalty, such as disloyalty to one’s country. The intimacy constitutive of friendship creates a space in which the friends can be their ‘authentic’ selves together. Within a friendship, we are specific selves that we are only able to be within the private space of that relationship, selves that play a crucial role in the narratives of our lives. Disloyalty, then, poses a threat to the private space of the friendship, and, thus, to the self that is party to that friendship. Although disloyalty to a friend can be more costly than disloyalty to one’s country, the cost to the self of the betrayal of a friend does not in itself settle how one ought to act in such cases of conflict.
Loyalty to the Constitution
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: February 2024

The United States Constitution requires that those persons who occupy public office take an oath of loyalty to the document. So routinized has the practice become that we rarely pause to consider just what such oaths mean or to ask about the broader dimensions and ramifications of those practices. But is it a good idea to require such an oath in order to occupy public office? Is it reasonable to take such an oath, if we happen to have complicated or ambivalent feelings about the object of the oath (here, the U.S. Constitution), either in its current form or in forms it might come to take in the future? What, precisely, is this Constitution to which many people are required to pledge loyalty? Such inquiries gesture toward—though by no means settle—deeper, more foundational questions, including, ultimately, what requiring oaths might tell us about the nature of loyalty itself.
Love and Loyalty
Authors: Krishek Sharon
Published: February 2024

This chapter examines the nature of loyalty within the context of love; it maintains that loyalty is a necessary condition for love’s endurance and flourishing. Understood as a position of wholehearted assent to commitments, loyalty involves both self-denial and self-affirmation; these, in turn, are necessary to yield a clear-sighted perception of the beloved. Delineating a particular conception of love as rooted in a correspondence between the lovers, the chapter demonstrates how a clear-sighted perception of the beloved, enabled by loyalty, is essential for love to succeed. In the absence of loyalty, love can neither endure nor flourish. To deepen and illustrate the points about love and its relation to loyalty, and about the ways in which failures of loyalty can lead to unsuccessful love, the chapter offers a reading of Ian McEwan’s novel Black Dogs, which centers on a description of an unhappy marriage.
Decolonizing Maternal Health Research: An Introduction to Indigenous Research Methods and a Decolonial Framework for Indigenous Maternal Health Research
Authors: Johnson-Jennings Alayah
Published: February 2024

The commitment to decolonize research requires more than just the use of the phrase: it also requires an understanding of the history of research and how its structure has been used to marginalize and oppress Indigenous people. Researchers who want to better understand maternal and child health outcomes of Indigenous populations must use Indigenous research methods. This includes a collaboration with Tribal communities and ethics review boards, and ensuring that the community is involved with the collection and analysis of data. Using a decolonial framework, researchers should consider if the research is wanted and recognize biases about Indigenous people’s health. Investigators need to acknowledge the history of oppression and trauma (both past and present), celebrate Indigenous people’s strengths, and articulate the potential impacts of research. These methods can be used to work with other historically marginalized and racialized populations.
Maternal Health and Gathering Evidence of Structural Racism
Authors: Andress Lauri
Published: February 2024

This chapter examines the benefits of, and reasons for, the use of qualitative methods to explore how structural racism shapes persistent disparities in maternal health outcomes in the United States. Key sections of the chapter highlight mechanisms, theories, and pathways that ground racism as a social process and describe data-collection methodologies that allow public health researchers to understand the impact of structural racism on racial disparities in maternal health outcomes. The chapter asserts that by using broader theories, models, and frameworks, and collecting other forms of data, health interventions avoid reifying outdated ideas and missing out on newer explanatory variables that can better account for structural racism as a driver of inequities in maternal health outcomes.
Ideology and the Microfoundations of Conflict
Authors: Müller Veronika , Gries Thomas
Published: February 2024

This book combines theoretical and empirical research across various academic disciplines, including economics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, and political science, to describe why individuals adopt political ideologies and how this choice can potentially exacerbate conflict and violence. Ideology is particularly important to conflict. Data on intra- and international conflict shows that the number of ideologically driven conflicts has increased tremendously in recent decades. Although some researchers have started to investigate extensively the link between ideology and conflict, they struggle to find holistic explanations through which ideologies might shape conflict. This book addresses this effort by providing an interrelated multidisciplinary framework to explain the multidimensional functions of ideology. It illustrates that ideologies are not only capable of shaping conflictual behavior or mobilizing political actors, but also of addressing human needs, desires, and preferences. Hence, this book seeks to explain how individuals adopt ideologies that match their underlying needs and preferences; that ideologies have the capacity to reconcile deprived psychological human needs; and that radical groups and organizations use ideologies to recruit individuals and pursue their objectives. To understand these relationships better and to apply the theoretical background to real-world situations, we include real-life cases that describe how depriving individuals of resources that satisfy their underlying needs and preferences can lead them to adopt particular ideologies that are disseminated by radical groups or organizations. These radical groups or organizations then make decisions, which can potentially lead to conflict onset and continuous long-term struggles.
Real-life Cases and the Link between Needs, Ideology, and Conflict
Authors: Müller Veronika , Gries Thomas
Published: February 2024

In the final chapter we will apply our framework to analyze and explain in a compact manner real-life ideological conflicts that happened in the past. We will first consider the socioeconomic and political conditions in a country that may deprive individuals from resources and opportunities to serve their human needs. Next, we focus on a group or organization and its leader, who disseminates particular beliefs and narratives to address the deprived needs of individuals. Here we shortly portray the ideology and the goals of the organization, and move on, in the next step, to its recruitment and mobilization techniques. This approach allows us to explain within each case how radical organizations were able to address the needs, emotions, and desires of the deprived.
The Contest for Japan's Economic Future
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

Social, economic, and technological megatrends are giving Japan its best chance at economic recovery in a generation. Just as entrepreneurship created Japan’s postwar economic miracle, it will take a new generation of entrepreneurs (nicknamed gazelles) to propel revival. At present, Japan suffers one of the lowest rates of innovative, high-growth entrepreneurship among rich countries. Fortunately, six socioeconomic megatrends are breaking down the ability of incumbent corporate giants (nicknamed elephants) and their political allies to block new challengers. For example, so-called lifetime employment has traditionally made it very hard for newcomers to recruit needed staff. Banks, often allied with the big incumbents, lend less to new companies. A distribution system dominated by incumbents has made it hard for newcomers to get their products on store shelves. This is being changed by the megatrends. Generational changes in attitudes about work and gender relations are leading more talented people to create new innovative firms and others to work for them. The latter includes ambitious women who are regularly denied promotions at traditional companies. In the form of e-commerce, technology enables tens of thousands of newcomers to bypass the distribution system and reach tens of millions of customers. Three decades of low growth and the consequences of aging have increased political demands for a solution. While progress remains difficult due to resistance by powerful forces, fissures are emerging within the government and business community. Some factions try to promote more startups, while others resist making the needed changes in regulations, taxes, and budgets. The contention among these forces will determine the outcome.
The Need for a Productivity Revolution
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

Large parts of Japan’s population are suffering from declining living standards, in large part because of flagging productivity, that is, output per worker. A nation can consume a certain amount of goods and services per person only by producing that amount per person. Productivity, in turn, depends on not only how much it invests in modern technology, but also how well its companies use it. Japanese companies get less economic payoff from every dollar they invest in so-called knowledge-based capital than do most other rich countries. As a result, per capita GDP has fallen from 83% of the US level in 1990 to just 63% by 2020. The consequences for people are dire. Nearly 40% of Japan’s employees are non-regulars (part-timers or temporaries) who are paid a third less per hour than regular workers, or even less. Real wages for the typical worker have stagnated. Seniors have faced two decades of cuts in social security and healthcare per elderly person.
Abenomics
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

Had Prime Minister Shinzo Abe implemented his famous three arrows of Abenomics—monetary stimulus, initial fiscal stimulus, and structural reform—Japan would have been on the road to recovery. None of the three arrows can work without the other two. Yet Abe only really tried monetary stimulus. Consequently, instead of annual growth returning to 2%, as he had promised, it averaged just 0.8% per year during his tenure, no better than the average rate since 1991. By contrast, he largely ignored structural reform. Yes, he repeatedly announced lofty goals, but he rarely even proposed the practical measures needed to reach them. In other cases, he made claims of achievements that did not hold up to scrutiny. For example, he boasted of creating lots of new jobs, but almost all of them were low-paying non-regular jobs. With the slogan of “womenomics,” he promised to increase the share of female managers but, upon failing, just postponed the goal for another decade.
Risk-Averse Culture or Risk versus Reward?
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

The widely believed notion that a risk-averse, conformist culture is the primary obstacle to entrepreneurship is a myth. If it were true, how does one explain the bursts of entrepreneurship that propelled the late 19th-century modernization as well as the post–World War II era of high-growth that earned the label “economic miracle”? Far more important than culture are economic institutions, the risk:reward ratio of founding a company, and promotion practices. Beginning in the 1970s, some companies changed their promotion criteria so that mistakes were heavily penalized, while successes brought no added credit. In essence, people were being trained to avoid risk. Companies that abandoned these criteria improved their performance. Before World War II, Confucianism was blamed for Japan’s economic backwardness. Then, Confucianism was credited for the postwar economic miracle. Finally, when the last decades emerged, Confucianism was blamed again. The most widely cited academic study linking culture to economics, conducted by Geert Hofstede, is based entirely on the global employees of IBM. Studies of non-IBM Japanese show very different results.
Overcoming the Digital Divide and R&D Gap
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

Part of why Japan’s small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) grow so much less than those elsewhere is a big technological shortfall. SMEs employ 70% of Japan’s labor force but conduct just 5% of spending on R&D. The SMEs that do invest earn more profits and grow faster. This shortfall could be greatly reduced if the government devoted more of its financial aid for R&D to SMEs, particularly startups. At present, almost 90% goes to firms with at least 500 employees, those with less need. Meanwhile, Japanese SMEs are woefully inefficient, partly because they invest so little in the latest digital technology. When asked why, many SME owners say they’re not sure how they’d benefit and there are not enough affordable private consultants to help them. Japan could help remedy this problem if it followed Europe, which in 2020 invested $300 million in training SMEs how to exploit modern software. Japan spends a miserly sum.
Finance for New Firms
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

The dearth of external finance is Japan’s single biggest hurdle to having more innovative, high-growth startups. Most potential founders lack the personal financial assets to start a firm at an adequate scale and fund its growth. Elsewhere, new companies get seed money from business angels, and well-designed tax incentives have stimulated more angel investment. In Japan, by contrast, angels are rare, and the tax incentives are poorly designed and ineffectual. At a later stage, when growth capital is needed, Japanese banks are reluctant to lend to new companies or youngish founders, especially to women. When they do lend, then, more than elsewhere, they demand a personal guarantee, in which the borrower must pledge his house and savings if the firm fails. The government worsens the situation by supplying loan guarantees and outright loans to zombie firms, adding up to 11% of GDP each year. Shoring up the zombies makes it harder for newcomers to gain market share and profitability.
Flexicurity
Authors: Katz Richard
Published: February 2024

Some Japanese reformers claim the only alternative to economic corrosion is a harsh Anglo-American style of neoliberalism. But there is a third choice: the Nordic system of “flexicurity” (flexibility and security). Market-led creative destruction creates wealth which helps fund measures promoting equality and security. The latter, in turn, creates political support for creative destruction. For example, so-called active labor measures are used to help those who lose jobs find new ones at good pay via training and matchmaking. This approach has produced results superior to both neoliberalism and the growth-harming form of social safety net seen in southern Europe. The Nordics have generally done better on issues of wage growth, unemployment, income equality and security, GDP growth, and productivity. The cost is higher taxes. In Japan, voters resist tax hikes because they don’t trust Tokyo to use the money well. On the other hand, Japan’s universal healthcare and social security rely on government spending.
From Peril to Partnership
Authors: Angelo Paul J.
Published: February 2024

Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative are the two most significant US security assistance efforts in Latin America in the twenty-first century. At a time of flagging US objectives in the Middle East and Central Asia, Colombia was a rare US foreign policy victory—a showcase for stabilization and security sector reform. Conversely, Mexico struggled to turn the tide on the country’s scourge of crime and violence, despite an influx of resources for professionalizing the country’s security, defense, and judicial institutions. As Washington reconsiders its approach to stabilizing crisis countries after a challenging withdrawal from Afghanistan, From Peril to Partnership’s comparative analysis of Colombia and Mexico offers lessons for scholars and policymakers alike, providing insights into the efficacy of US security assistance and the necessary conditions and stakeholders in partner nations that facilitate success. Crucially, private-sector support, interparty consensus on security policies, and the centralization of the security bureaucracy underpinned Colombia’s success. The absence of these features in Mexico contributed to its descent into chaos, culminating in its highest-ever homicide rate by the end of the 2010s. Drawing on extensive fieldwork, this book evaluates the extent to which security assistance programs helped improve the operational effectiveness and democratic accountability of Washington’s partners—Colombian and Mexican security forces. It reveals why Plan Colombia achieved its objectives and the Mérida Initiative underdelivered in Mexico. Most important, it transcends drug war theatrics and the one-size-fits-all approach to US-led stabilization—restoring agency to the institutions receiving US security assistance, and helping chart a course toward more nuanced, effective US policy.
Evaluating Security Sector Reform in Colombia and Mexico
Authors: Angelo Paul J.
Published: February 2024

Chapter 4 evaluates the extent to which security sector reform, enabled by Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative, resulted in improved effectiveness and accountability among security forces. In Colombia, military and police forces demonstrated an enhanced ability to provide for citizen security, but their tenuous accountability under the law for human rights abuses and corruption, albeit improved, remained a major challenge to democratic governance. The false positives scandal is emblematic of the ongoing difficulty to deliver expeditious justice for abuses committed by state agents. In Mexico, the security sector was barely more effective at delivering citizen security or more accountable to civilian authorities and the judicial and legislative branches after ten years of reform and reorganization. This lack of efficacy reflected the overall limits of security assistance at improving security sector governance.
Bringing in Big Business
Authors: Angelo Paul J.
Published: February 2024

Chapter 5 underscores the importance of private-sector support for government security strategies, as such support tends to boost local ownership of security sector reform and enhance accountability of security and defense institutions. In Colombia, the failure of peace talks with the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, or FARC) insurgents in 2002 prompted business and political elites alike to support institutional modernization of the security forces as the solution to the country’s armed conflict. The introduction of a Democratic Security Tax complemented Plan Colombia, financed security sector reform, and incentivized public oversight of the government’s security strategy. In Mexico, state and municipal security taxes levied in consultation with local businesses in Ciudad Juárez and Monterrey resulted in similarly auspicious results. However, at the federal level in Mexico, historic distrust between financial and political elites rendered private sector leaders reluctant to back federal security strategies, diminishing opportunities for the business sector to help set the security agenda and shape outcomes.
Conclusion: Security Assistance and Local Preferences and Power Relations
Authors: Angelo Paul J.
Published: February 2024

The conclusion highlights the principal lessons of US security assistance to Colombia and Mexico, underscoring the policy implications and providing recommendations for further research. It emphasizes private-sector contributions, legislative consultations, and whole-of-government agenda setting as top facilitators of security sector reform. It argues that conditions traditionally seen as unfavorable for security sector reform—economic depression, armed conflict, and clientelism, for example—did not impede progress in Colombia. However, security assistance stands its best change of improving security sector governance when it avoids disrupting existing balances of power in recipient countries, even if that means accepting hybrid security governance rather than governance that aligns more closely with liberal democratic principles. It finally offers broad observations about citizen security in Colombia and Mexico.
#SayHerName, #MeToo, me too, and Prince Harry
Authors: Zack Naomi
Published: February 2024

Crenshaw applied intersectionality to black female victims of police violence, who are not known or recognized by the public. This current ignorance about the suffering of black women has a long history of oppression backed up by negative stereotypes. Since colonial times, black women have occupied the lowest status in society and have been denied protections accorded to white women. Female slaves were bred against their will, and contemporary black female victims of intimate partner violence are not helped because they lack credibility and are believed to be mannish and combative. While #MeToo has received outsized attention because those who step forward are rich and glamourous, its predecessor, me too, founded by Tarana Burke in the Bronx in 2006, is obscure. Cases of privileged people, such as Prince Harry, who are multiply oppressed, continue to receive media attention, but they do not fulfil the requirements for intersectionality subjects.
Women and Racial/Ethnic Minorities during COVID-19*
Authors: Zack Naomi
Published: February 2024

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people with disabilities and homeless people were especially vulnerable. Among the rest of the population, age was a disadvantage intersection, affecting the elderly and sometimes children. Women suffered most from lockdowns, although after vaccination, their employment returned to prepandemic levels. All minorities were vulnerable due to preexisting, socially constructed comorbidities such as heart disease, diabetes, and asthma. But the racial/ethnic group most severely affected turned out to be Hispanic/Latino Americans. Overall, although the COVID-19 pandemic has been regarded as over and in the past, like other disasters, it has entered normal society as a form of constant risk.
Minorities and Higher Education
Authors: Zack Naomi
Published: February 2024

Intersectional analyses can include liberatory factors for minorities in higher education. There have been disputes among intersectionality theorists over its geographical and racial extension, leading to questions of who may practice it. But intersectionality is not property that can be owned beyond standards for citations and respect for copyright laws. As part of intellectual culture, intersectionality belongs to everyone. Still, appropriation must be guarded against, because black women have a history of being stereotyped as intellectually deficient, as well as previous exclusion from higher education. College education is a white middle-class practice supported by institutional ideals of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. Minorities may continue to experience barriers to success within higher education, but there are also new opportunities for identity development, as well as advancement.
Motivational Interviewing
Authors: Butt Lester , Wegener Stephen T.
Published: February 2024

This chapter presents the philosophical underpinnings of motivational interviewing (MI) and the values and spirit that arise from these philosophies. The spirit of MI is marked by acceptance: unconditional positive regard, withholding judgment, and supporting autonomy; compassion: being mindful of the burdens patients carry; empowerment: seeking understanding and recognition of persons’ perspectives motivations, and strengths; and partnership: not “to” but “with,” combining the expertise of the professional with the person’s expertise of themselves. Communication styles may be classified into directing, following, or guiding based on the relative balance of asking, listening, and informing. The guiding style helps avoid traps and pitfalls that undermine the therapeutic alliance and prevent progress. MI can be conceptualized as “refined guiding” in that it involves a purposeful conversation, to elicit the patient’s own arguments for change and engagement. MI is not a set of techniques but a way of being with patients, families, and team members.
Self-Management
Authors: Lee Danbi , Gecht-Silver Maureen , Ehrlich-Jones Linda
Published: February 2024

This chapter presents how motivational interviewing (MI) can be incorporated to support patients in the process of self-management. Effective self-management, such as medical, emotional, and role management, is essential to optimizing health outcomes for people with chronic conditions. Although the need for self-management support in rehabilitation may be evident, it is not always clear what steps clinicians can take to enhance patient engagement in self-management. MI provides a set of skills and principles that guide clinicians to work in a collaborative relationship with their patients and promote self-management. MI spirit lays the foundation for self-management, helping clinicians share power and identify patient strengths. MI skills can facilitate self-management readiness by evoking the patient’s treatment priorities, values, and meaningful activities they aspire to return to. The four MI tasks guide clinicians in helping patients attain self-management skills. Case studies provide examples of how MI and self-management work together in rehabilitation.
Anxiety and Depression
Authors: Bombardier Charles H.
Published: February 2024

Rehabilitation patients may be unprepared or reluctant to have assessment and treatment of depression and anxiety as part of their medical rehabilitation program. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the use of motivational interviewing (MI) to facilitate acceptance of mental health screening, assessment, and treatment within rehabilitation. Open questions and reflections as well as normalizing can be used to smoothly transition from the patient’s chief concerns to standard mental health screening and assessment. When treatment is indicated, strategies such as affirmations, importance–confidence rulers, and ask-offer-ask can improve willingness to accept mental health interventions. Finally, MI strategies can be used to improve mental health treatment outcomes. Pretreatment with MI can prepare people to engage more actively in mental health treatment. These strategies can be used as needed during treatment when adherence wanes. A third option is to infuse standard mental health treatment protocols with MI principles to enhance treatment outcomes.
Explaining Crime Events and Criminal Careers
Authors: Wikström Per-Olof H. , Treiber Kyle , Roman Gabriela Diana
Published: February 2024

This chapter outlines in detail the foundation and key propositions of Situational Action Theory (SAT) and its Developmental Ecological Action (DEA) model , providing an up-to-date account addressing key questions and challenges that have been raised by other scholars. The DEA model is the application of SAT to the problem of explaining continuity and changes in people’s crime involvement, and will guide empirical analyses of criminal careers in subsequent chapters. This chapter details and discusses the basic concepts and assumptions underpinning the DEA model, including those relating to the nature of crime events, people, and societies. It presents the key entities (units of analysis), main causal elements, and basic causal processes the DEA model proposes involved in the explanation of crime and criminal careers, with particular attention to key psychoecological processes associated with the development of crime propensities—moral education and cognitive nurturing—and socioecological processes associated with the development of criminogenic activity fields—self and social selection. It also compares and contrasts SAT with a number of influential criminological theories to highlight and clarify distinctions between SAT’s theoretical propositions and common criminological assumptions, e.g. rational choice theory, social and self-control theories, differential association and social learning theory, and the theory of moral disengagement. This chapter concludes that SAT provides a dynamic explanation of crime events and patterns over time, an assertion that is tested in subsequent chapters.
Crime and Criminal Careers
Authors: Wikström Per-Olof H. , Treiber Kyle , Roman Gabriela Diana
Published: February 2024

Accurately measuring rare and often censored events like acts of crime poses many challenges, many of which are very difficult to overcome in practice. To resolve these difficulties, criminologists often rely on key assumptions about crime and its measurement. This chapter begins by examining these challenges and their implications, critiquing some commonly adopted solutions, and analysing which are most constructive; these include the challenge of accurately measuring rare events like crime events; accounting for the temporal ordering of crime events, crime propensities, and criminogenic exposure; and characterising people’s changing levels of crime involvement. Building on this analysis of and response to these challenges, the chapter then presents core findings regarding features of young people’s crime involvement and criminal careers, using both police-recorded and self-reported data, as a starting point for analysing crime trajectories in Chapter 5. This chapter underscores the importance of addressing these challenges for the effective study of crime, its causes, and how and why it changes over time.
Criminogenic Circumstances and Exposure
Authors: Wikström Per-Olof H. , Treiber Kyle , Roman Gabriela Diana
Published: February 2024

Bridging the gap between the person and environment in the explanation of crime is a key facet of SAT, and bridging that gap in longitudinal research is a key aim of PADS+. Consequently, this chapter explores in detail people’s criminogenic exposure from early adolescence into early adulthood, including the time they spend in criminogenic settings and the crime-proneness of their peers. It discusses the challenges of measuring the environments that influence their development and action—settings and the activity fields they constitute—including their relevant features; and the specific features to which a particular person is exposed. It explains how the PADS+ space–time budget methodology addresses these challenges. It also discusses the challenges of measuring peer influences and empirically analyses the validity of the common critique that self-report measures of one’s peers’ deviance is another measure for one’s. The chapter goes on to explore patterns of stability and change in exposure over time in the PADS+ data, identifying two distinct trajectories. It explores how young people following these trajectories vary in their criminogenic exposure, characteristics of their time use (e.g., time spent with peers, parents, and in school), and demographic characteristics, to better understand how their distinct patterns of exposure relate to their social contexts, social relationships, and overall activity fields. It concludes that criminogenic exposure shows significant variation between participants as well as patterns of change during adolescence and into young adulthood, and that social relationships (e.g. peers and family) are a particularly important feature.
Do Changing Connections to Key Social Institutions Influence Crime Propensities, Criminogenic Exposure, and Crime Involvement through Adolescence and into Early Adulthood?
Authors: Wikström Per-Olof H. , Treiber Kyle , Roman Gabriela Diana
Published: February 2024

This chapter explores how changing social relationships from adolescence to young adulthood are associated with changes in crime propensity and criminogenic exposure, and subsequently crime involvement. This is analysed through participants’ connections to key social institutions—family, school, and work—which shape the social context in which they develop and act. The first part of the chapter explores how changing family and school relationships continue to influence crime propensity and criminogenic exposure up to age 16; while the second part captures the changes that occur, and differences that emerge, in people’s connections to key social institutions after age 16 and how these are associated with patterns of development in their crime propensity, criminogenic exposure, and crime involvement in late adolescence and early adulthood. Overall, these analyses illustrate the continuing association between contemporaneous social relationships and people’s crime propensities and criminogenic exposure, and consequent crime involvement, and how changes in those social relationships are linked to developmental trajectories of crime propensity, criminogenic exposure, and crime.
Creative Arts, Aesthetic Experience, and the Therapeutic Connection in Eating Disorders
Authors: Tan Jacinta , Nahman Carolyn , Chitale Kiran , Anderson Stephen
Published: February 2024

The treatment of eating disorders is often challenging. Clinicians may struggle to engage collaboratively with both patients and their family members. This is because eating disorders can lead to cognitive rigidity, changes of identity, a narrowing of focus, withdrawal inwards, and increasing difficulty in being flexible in thinking, behaving, and expressing oneself. The aesthetic domain of experience, by accessing emotion and making meaning with minimal language, can be immensely helpful in creating opportunities to enable non-judgemental discovery and exploration of meanings, experiences, and desires. It can also potentially help people who have eating disorders to express what is often a ‘felt’ disorder of embodiment, perception, and identity, rather than a ‘thought’ disorder of cognitions, beliefs, and rationality. In this chapter, the authors will focus on exploring how aesthetic experience as a component of engagement with the arts can be encountered in the experience of both living with and treating eating disorders. The authors will illustrate this with a range of examples from research and creative art and poetry. The authors suggest that understanding and acknowledging aesthetic experiences in eating disorders is important in understanding and exploring eating disorders, for both people who have eating disorders and those to seek to treat them.
Agrarian Justice and Environmental Justice
Authors: Martínez-Alier Joan
Published: February 2024

Environmental conflicts imply disputes over access to land, water, and breathable air. To increase their biomass production to sell to world markets, capitalists and governments appropriate land and water for irrigation or hydropower, and use pesticides to eliminate competitors. The ultimate causes of the conflicts over land, water, and clean air are growth and the changes in the social metabolism and the technologies used to expand or deepen the commodity extraction frontiers to get biomass or other forms of energy and materials. Those who are dispossessed or deprived of access can be peasants, pastoralists, and Indigenous peoples. Accordingly, they form countermovements of resistance, as registered, for instance, in the Global Atlas of Environmental Justice, the EJAtlas (www.ejatlas.org).