bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Political Entrepreneurs
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

Challenger parties are on the rise in Europe, exemplified by the likes of Podemos in Spain, the National Rally in France, the Alternative for Germany, or the Brexit Party in Great Britain. Like disruptive entrepreneurs, these parties offer new policies and defy the dominance of established party brands. In the face of these challenges and a more volatile electorate, mainstream parties are losing their grip on power. This book explores why some challenger parties are so successful and what mainstream parties can do to confront these political entrepreneurs. Drawing analogies with how firms compete, the book demonstrates that political change is as much about the ability of challenger parties to innovate as it is about the inability of dominant parties to respond. Challenger parties employ two types of innovation to break established party dominance: they mobilize new issues, such as immigration, the environment, and Euroscepticism, and they employ antiestablishment rhetoric to undermine mainstream party appeal. Unencumbered by government experience, challenger parties adapt more quickly to shifting voter tastes and harness voter disenchantment. Delving into strategies of dominance versus innovation, the authors explain why European party systems have remained stable for decades, but also why they are now increasingly under strain. As challenger parties continue to seek to disrupt the existing order, the book shows that their ascendency fundamentally alters government stability and democratic politics.
The Present Chapel and its Predecessors
Authors: Stillwell Richard
Published: January 2021

This chapter provides an overview of the Princeton University Chapel. The architects of the Chapel were the firm of Cram and Ferguson of Boston, while the builders were the Matthews Construction Company of Princeton. The general plan of the Princeton Chapel does not differ much from the large parish church or small cathedral typical of the Middle Ages. It consists of a nave of six bays, crossing, transepts, and choir. It recalls the English chapel or abbey tradition in that the choir is unusually large and without aisles. However, any English church of the same size would be certain to have a tower at the west end, or the crossing, or both. Here, the roof runs in an unbroken line from end to end. Another difference is that in a mediaeval building, the architectural aisles would be much wider than at Princeton, where they are used not for seating but merely for passage. The chapter then details the material and dimensions of the Chapel, as well as the interior and exterior sculpture.
The Stained-Glass Windows
Authors: Stillwell Richard
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at the stained-glass windows of the crossing and the choir clerestory of the Princeton University Chapel. On the east side of the two transepts and in the choir above the organ cases are four windows which together illustrate aspects of the great themes in the Book of the Psalms. The windows are composed of numerous little scenes that are literal illustrations of verses from the Psalms, or are scenes from the life of Christ suggested by the verses. The four lancets in each window are to be read from left to right, and the three panels in each lancet from top to bottom. The north transept features Psalms 147, 148 and 150, while the south transept shows Psalm 107. In the north side of the choir are Psalms 22 and 23, and in the south side is Psalm 91.
Introduction
Authors: Green Jeremy
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the close postwar association between the United Kingdom and the United States, which is known by a single mnemonic: the “Special Relationship.” It refers to an unusually close and cooperative partnership between two independent states, encompassing diplomatic, military-strategic, political, economic, and cultural spheres. For the UK, the Special Relationship has offered a means to preserve great-power status even though its capacity for unilateral action in pursuit of foreign policy objectives is greatly diminished. For the US, the UK's possession of nuclear weapons, access to political and military intelligence, and position on the United Nations Security Council are valuable appendages. Despite the occasional spat and periods of cooling, diplomatic relations between the two states have remained extraordinarily close. But for all that the concept of the Special Relationship has illuminated, it has also obscured much—for example, the political economy of Anglo-America, buried beneath more fashionable scholarly preoccupations with diplomacy, grand strategy, and the cultural and sentimental linkages between the two states. Thus, this book examines the political economy of the relationship between the UK and the US.
Between Petersburg and Paris, 1905–11
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter narrates Natalia Ilyinichna Tcherniak's time in St. Petersburg with her mother, Polina Osipovna and her lover Kolya after spending the summer with her father, Ilya Evseevich Tcherniak. It describes Natalia's stay in an apartment at No. 8 Ulitsa Bolshaya Grebietskaya in an up-and-coming new neighbourhood on the Petrograd Side. It also reviews Polina and Kolya's return to Russia during a time of increased political unrest that was triggered in January 1905 by the Bloody Sunday incident. The chapter recounts Natalia's annual visits to her father in Paris after her Uncle Yasha's association with the Fonarny raid. It also talks about how Ilya rebuilt his life in Paris and acquired a new personal life after marrying Vera Sheremetievskaya.
Berlin, 1921–22
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter narrates Natalia Ilyinichna Tcherniak's studies in Berlin, where she improved her command of German. It talks about Natalia's studies at the Friedrich Wilhelm University for the academic year 1921–22 in which she cryptically commented that it was a “period of emotional disarray.” It also describes the unpleasant emotional tenor of Berlin in Nathalia's memory, reminding her of painful separation and abandonment by her mother in 1909. The chapter recounts Natalia's discovery of Thomas Mann's 1905 novella “Tonio Kröger” as the literary experience that marked her stay in Berlin and gave her a first intimation of the possibility that she might herself write. It analyzes Natalia's sense of self-recognition in Thomas Mann's novella as the revelation of a kindred sensibility.
Coming of Age with Modernism, 1923–27
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter recalls Nathalie Sarraute's meeting with Raymond Sarraute that launched her into a renewed engagement with literature. It talks about Raymond's introduction of a number works of André Gide to Nathalie, such as “Fruits of the Earth.” The chapter explains how the 1920s, a decade of Europe-wide artistic experimentation, questioning, and creation, were the years of Nathalie's most decisive literary formation. It explains how the influence of the 1920s remained with Nathalie throughout her creative life, even when, for the rest of the literary world, the decade had become a distant memory she had not previously read. It also discloses how Nathalie later dismissed Gide's novels as “artificial” and “cold-blooded” and became more interested with his critical essays and reflections.
Publication, 1938–39
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter marks the completion of Nathalie Sarraute's tropisms by the summer of 1938, in which she had written nineteen short texts. It explains how the word “tropisms” became a phenomenon with which her work would become permanently associated. It also mentions the writer Hector Bianciotti who once said that to say tropism is to name Nathalie Sarraute. The chapter recounts how the tropisms' publication in the “Mesures” was turned down by the editor Jean Paulhan, criticizing it as a little unclear, a little too slow and lacklustre. It talks about Georges Pelorson, who provided Nathalie with an alternative opening and accepted her texts in the Volontés, the monthly literary review he had founded in December 1937.
A Gallimard Author, 1953–56
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses Nathalie Sarraute's completion of her manuscript on her novel “Martereau” at the end of November 1952. It details Nathalie's submission to Marcel Arland at Gallimard, which was her third attempt to find a home with the publishing house from which she continued to seek consecration. It also notes how Nathalie's chances of acceptance had much improved after meeting Arland at Royaumont, when he encouraged her to send him “Martereau” once it was finished. The chapter discloses how Nathalie remained with Gallimard for all her subsequent writing. It reveals that Nathalie's books never sold in sufficient numbers to justify a regular retainer, as shown in her engagement diaries, which contain notes of sums received from the publisher that suggests money continued to be an object of concern.
“One of the Great Novelists of Our Time,” 1959–62
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about the publication of Nathalie Sarraute's “The Planetarium” in May 1959, which was heralded by advance publicity in the form of two published extracts from the novel and three interviews with Nathalie. It details the publication of the first extract in 1957 in the October and November numbers of Maurice Nadeau's journal Les Lettres nouvelles, followed a year later in October 1958 by the second extract under the title “La rencontre.” It also mentions Denise Bourdet, who published an interview in the Revue de Paris in June 1958, when Nathalie was still suffering from tuberculosis (TB). The chapter looks into the second interview with Nathalie's friend and fellow novelist Clarisse Francillon, which was published in the Gazette de Lausanne in November 1958. It retraces the history of Nathalie's writing from Tropisms onwards and looks into her explanation of her literary aims.
Revolution and May 68
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about the word “revolution” that brought a distant echo of the ambitions of the Socialist Revolutionary refugees of Nathalie Sarraute's childhood and applied to the literary domain. It looks into Nathalie's statement in the New York Times Book Review, where she stated that the idea of revolution in literature is a happy and reassuring symptom. It also discloses Nathalie's initial involvement in the growing protests against the American war in Vietnam as the political climate took a revolutionary turn. The chapter draws attention to the publication of Nathalie's novel “Do You Hear Them?,” which captures the spirit of May 68. It summarizes the depiction of the clash of artistic cultures mentioned in “Do You Hear Them?,” which completes the triptych dealing with literary and aesthetic issues.
The Last Decade, 1990–99
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter recounts Nathalie Sarraute's return to Ivanovo in October 1990 as one of the happiest consequences of the publication of her autobiography Childhood. It details Nathalie's tour to the museumand the House of Literature, her interviews to the press, radio, and TV, and meetings with professors and students in the French department at Ivanovo State University as Ivanovo's most famous writer. It also mentions Nathalie's regular visits to the theatre and the cinema in the company of her granddaughter Nathalie Vierny, who notes her grandmother's attentiveness to the detail of the movies she had just seen. The chapter describes how Nathalie's body deteriorated, in which she experienced pulmonary congestion, difficulty breathing, pains in the chest, and symptoms of tuberculosis (TB). It concludes with Nathalie's death on 19 October 1999, who was then buried alongside her husband, Raymond Sarraute.
Bodies
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: January 2021

This chapter addresses the role of bodies, which has been the focus of increasing interest in studies of religion. It explains how bodies are involved in religious practices conducted by people in concrete situations. It analyzes the extent and varied ways bodies are involved in religion, such as in comparisons of Muslim prayers, clothing of Orthodox Jews, and postures involved in Buddhist meditation. The chapter also describes the kinds of somatic and kinesthetic imprint religious activities may have on the body and how people learn or unlearn these bodily sensations. It reviews the treatments of topics on bodies that have matured beyond the discussions a quarter century ago in which embodiment was advanced as an epistemological move from which to question the centrality of ideas, propositional knowledge, and beliefs.
Una’s Line
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the character of Una in Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene. For much of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Una was at the epicenter of The Faerie Queene, and the poem's ideal reader was one naturally impervious to any moralizing pretensions: a child, usually but not always a boy, old enough to read independently but not so grown as to have lost a taste for imaginary play or developed a sensitivity to allegory. Today, when nearly all readers of The Faerie Queene encounter the poem in the confines of a classroom or a footnoted scholarly edition, it is hard to appreciate the influence such actual and imagined young readers once had on its critical and popular reception. Far from requiring or fostering the hyperliteracy with which Spenser is now associated, The Faerie Queene was characterized by both admirers and detractors as quintessential children's fare: an almost too effective engine of readerly enchantment and a rich repository of adventures and images. Although this approach to The Faerie Queene ignored or occluded much of what scholarly readers now consider essential, it attended with useful closeness to parts of the poem that now get short shrift: its richly detailed fictive landscape and the characters who populate it, without necessarily having much to do with its meaning.
Blatant Beasts
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies the final book of the 1596 edition of Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene. Discovering the presence of other readers, whether in the archive, the critical tradition, the pages of a manuscript, or the margins of a printed text, can feel like a violation of the seemingly exclusive bond between reader and text. The realization that someone has already had the response one has to a particular poem or passage can bring a pleasing sense of community. By the same token, the discovery that someone else has read a poem or passage in an utterly different sense than oneself can yield exhilaration, amusement, delight, and fascination. Above all, the awareness that one is not alone with what one reads transforms the scene of reading into a space requiring careful displays of deference or sudden and self-preserving acts of aggression—a space, in short, much like the sixth and final book of the 1596 Faerie Queene. Dispensing both with the ideal of singular perfection and with many of its earlier anxieties about aimlessness and indirection, the final book of the 1596 Faerie Queene stages reading as an ongoing intersubjective encounter between readers, texts, and other readers: a conversation in the continual making.
Coda
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

This coda explains that Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene has never been read to the end, for the simple reason that no one can quite say where, or if, it ends at all. This peculiar fact—the joint product of biographical accident, editorial intervention, and what might or might not be poetic ingenuity—has consequences for the poem as a whole. To begin with, it makes it unusually difficult to speak of the poem as a whole. As Barbara Herrnstein Smith has written, poetic closure “is an effect that depends primarily upon the reader's experience of the structure of the entire poem.” Because it is dense, difficult, didactic, and strange; because it is an allegory; because its language is pseudoarchaic and its spelling weird; because it meanders and digresses, shedding characters and entire plotlines as it goes; above all, because it is so extraordinarily long, Spenser's poem tests one's readerly loyalties and often defeats one's instinct to see a story through.
Amnesty International
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: January 2021

This chapter centers on Amnesty International, the best-known and largest human rights organization in the world that was established in London in 1961. It highlights how the creation of Amnesty was a major milestone in the emergence of an enduring human rights movement. It also discusses the Cold War context that played a crucial role in shaping Amnesty. The chapter explores the intention of Amnesty to operate worldwide and address the abuses of rights committed by those on all sides of the global struggle. It also talks about the principal founder of Amnesty, Peter Benenson, who was active in the efforts to promote civil liberties several years prior to taking the lead in the formation of Amnesty.
Human Rights Watch
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the Human Rights Watch as one of the two most important institutions for the protection of human rights worldwide in the late 1970s. It points out that the Human Rights Watch was established during the moment of burgeoning public concern on the cause of international human rights, particularly in the United States. It also highlights the radical political shift in the United States in 1981 from the Carter administration to the Reagan administration. The chapter describes the Human Rights Watch's development of reporting that entered into political combat with officials of the Reagan administration who were intent on co-opting the human rights cause for their own Cold War purposes. It discusses the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 and the emergence of Solidarity in Poland in August 1980 as part of the political developments that helped transform Helsinki Watch into Human Rights Watch.
Accountability
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the major goal of the international human rights movement has been in securing accountability for grave abuses. It talks about “truth commissions” in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, several countries of Asia, Morocco, and Canada, which deals with abuses against the country's indigenous population. It also highlights the establishment of several international criminal tribunals in order to prosecute and punish those accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. The chapter explores accountability, which has become a central concern of the international human rights movement for the recognition or official acknowledgment of the suffering of victims of human rights abuses. It also analyzes the purpose of deniability, which made it possible for military regimes in that commit abuses to maintain a facadeof legality.
Free Trade under Fire
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: January 2021

Free trade is always under attack, more than ever in recent years. The imposition of numerous U.S. tariffs in 2018, and the retaliation those tariffs have drawn, has thrust trade issues to the top of the policy agenda. Critics contend that free trade brings economic pain, including plant closings and worker layoffs, and that trade agreements serve corporate interests, undercut domestic environmental regulations, and erode national sovereignty. Why are global trade and agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership so controversial? Does free trade deserve its bad reputation? This book aside the misconceptions that run rampant in the debate over trade and gives readers a clear understanding of the issues involved. In its fifth edition, the book has been updated to address the sweeping new policy developments under the Trump administration and the latest research on the impact of trade.
Developing Countries and Open Markets
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: January 2021

This chapter takes a look at developing countries and confirms whether free trade is beneficial in promoting economic development. It analyzes whether countries such as Japan, Korea, and China grow rich by rejecting free trade and instead pursuing closed markets and industrial policies. The chapter addresses the issue of fairtrade and how rich-country agricultural subsidies and import tariffs harm developing countries. It also assesses how developing countries harm themselves with their own anti-trade policies. It discusses whether protectionist trade policies contributed to the East Asian growth miracle, whether labor standards should be used to address worker exploitation in sweatshops, and whether “fair trade” offers a satisfactory route to development.
The World Trading System
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the current controversies about the multilateral trading system, particularly the World Trade Organization (WTO). It provides an overview of how the WTO was criticized by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which attacked the WTO as an antidemocratic institution that has struck down environmental regulations by ruling them inconsistent with world trade laws. The chapter examines the WTO's rules and dispute settlement system and U.S.–China trade war. It analyzes the rise of regional trade arrangements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) agreement. It also points out the importance of unilateral trade policy changes that are rooted in domestic reforms.
Interlude
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This interlude imagines a sponsor-child connection through an elaboration of historical sources. Belinda Coles was a woman in upstate New York and “Belinda” was a girl she renamed after herself at Ann Wilkins’s Methodist school in the 1840s. I draw on extant letters that Wilkins sent to Coles and to Mary Garrettson (also in upstate New York) about two other girls at the school. While all the events discussed took place where the girls lived, I have imagined how they may have felt. I also make an educated guess that “Belinda” was from the Queah tribe and I call her Donyen, which means beautiful in Kru languages, a variant of which was likely her mother tongue. I hesitated about imagining a name for her, but ultimately I decided it was important to signal how her life exceeded the sponsor-donor relationship and the name conferred upon her in that context. My hope is that this interlude will spur readers’ thinking in a few respects. From a methodological perspective, it raises the possibility of experimental approaches to writing when globally dispersed sources are incomplete. From a narrative perspective, it offers a sense of the rhythm of child-sponsor relations forged through sporadic communication. In either case, the larger point is to foreground how absences constitute even the most intimate global projects—for scholars and for the people we study....
Berkeley Lectures on p-adic Geometry
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This book presents an important breakthrough in arithmetic geometry. In 2014, this book's author delivered a series of lectures at the University of California, Berkeley, on new ideas in the theory of p-adic geometry. Building on his discovery of perfectoid spaces, the author introduced the concept of “diamonds,” which are to perfectoid spaces what algebraic spaces are to schemes. The introduction of diamonds, along with the development of a mixed-characteristic shtuka, set the stage for a critical advance in the discipline. This book shows that the moduli space of mixed-characteristic shtukas is a diamond, raising the possibility of using the cohomology of such spaces to attack the Langlands conjectures for a reductive group over a p-adic field. The book follows the informal style of the original Berkeley lectures, with one chapter per lecture. It explores p-adic and perfectoid spaces before laying out the newer theory of shtukas and their moduli spaces. Points of contact with other threads of the subject, including p-divisible groups, p-adic Hodge theory, and Rapoport-Zink spaces, are thoroughly explained.
Complements on adic spaces
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyzes a collection of complements in the theory of adic spaces. These complements include adic morphisms, analytic adic spaces, and Cartier divisors. It turns out that there is a very general criterion for sheafyness. In general, uniformity does not guarantee sheafyness, but a strengthening of the uniformity condition does. Moreover, sheafyness, without any extra assumptions, implies other good properties. Ultimately, it is not immediately clear how to get a good theory of coherent sheaves on adic spaces. The chapter then considers Cartier divisors on adic spaces. The term closed Cartier divisor is meant to evoke a closed immersion of adic spaces.
Diamonds II
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter evaluates the complements on the pro-étale topology. It addresses two issues raised in the previous lecture on the pro-étale topology. The first issue concerned descent, or more specifically pro-étale descent for perfectoid spaces. The other issue was that the property of being a pro-étale morphism is not local for the pro-étale topology on the target. The chapter then looks at quasi-pro-étale morphisms, as well as G-torsors. A morphism of perfectoid spaces is quasi-pro-étale if for any strictly totally disconnected perfectoid space with a map, the pullback is pro-étale. Using this definition, one can give an equivalent characterization of diamonds.
Diamonds associated with adic spaces
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on diamonds associated with adic spaces. The goal is to construct a functor which forgets the structure morphism to Spa Zp, but retains topological information. The chapter studies how much information is lost when applying this construction. The intuition is that only topological information is kept. A morphism of adic spaces is a universal homeomorphism if all pullbacks are homeomorphisms. As in the case of schemes, in characteristic 0 the map f is a universal homeomorphism if and only if it is a homeomorphism and induces isomorphisms on completed residue fields. In keeping with the intuition, universal homeomorphisms induce isomorphisms of diamonds. The chapter then considers the underlying topological space of diamonds, as well as the étale site of diamonds.
The v-topology
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the v-topology. It develops a powerful technique for proving results about diamonds. There is a topology even finer than the pro-étale topology, the v-topology, which is reminiscent of the fpqc topology on schemes but which is more “topological” in nature. The class of v-covers is extremely general, which will reduce many proofs to very simple base cases. The chapter provides a sample application of this philosophy by establishing a general classification of p-divisible groups over integral perfectoid rings in terms of Breuil-Kisin-Fargues modules. Another use of the v-topology is to prove that certain pro-étale sheaves on Perf are diamonds without finding an explicit pro-étale cover.
Families of affine Grassmannians
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies families of affine Grassmannians. In the geometric case, if X is a smooth curve over a field k, Beilinson-Drinfeld defined a family of affine Grassmannians whose fiber parametrizes G-torsors on X. If one fixes a coordinate at x, this gets identified with the affine Grassmannian considered previously. Over fibers with distinct points xi, one gets a product of n copies of the affine Grassmannian, while over fibers with all points xi = x equal, one gets just one copy of the affine Grassmannian: This is possible as the affine Grassmannian is infinite-dimensional. However, sometimes it is useful to remember more information when the points collide. The chapter then discusses the convolution affine Grassmannian in the setting of the previous lecture.
Vector bundles and G-torsors on the relative Fargues-Fontaine curve
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses vector bundles and G-torsors on the relative Fargues-Fontaine curve. This is in preparation for the examination of moduli spaces of shtukas. Kedlaya-Liu prove two important foundational theorems about vector bundles on the Fargues-Fontaine curve. The first is the semicontinuity of the Newton polygon. The second theorem of Kedlaya-Liu concerns the open locus where the Newton polygon is constant 0. For the applications to the moduli spaces of shtukas, one needs to generalize the results to the case of G-torsors for a general reductive group G. The chapter then identifies the classification of G-torsors. It also looks at the semicontinuity of the Newton point.
Introduction
Authors: Inman Robert P. , Rubinfeld Daniel L.
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of federalism. It first defines the key institutional features of federal governance and presents evidence as to the relative importance of federal states among the nations of the world. The chapter then offers an empirical evaluation of the ability of Democratic Federalism to advance the three objectives embraced by its supporters: economic efficiency, political participation and democratic stability, and the protection of individual rights and liberties. Causation is always a question in such exercises, but the correlations are clear. Societies governed by the principles of Democratic Federalism are richer, safer for personal rights and liberties, and democratically more engaged.
Nationality and Responsibility
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores the argument that it cannot be anyone's responsibility to fulfill the rights of strangers on the other side of the globe, however much responsibility one may have to the deprived within one's own country. The core of this view can be called the thesis that compatriots take priority—take it at least in the case of duties to aid. The view need not completely deny that there are universal subsistence rights, but it does deny that any correlative duties to aid are universal, or even transnational. The view that compatriots take priority might accept the priority principle but restrict its application to the nation of the bearer of the duty. The chapter then surveys some of the major kinds of reasons offered for taking national boundaries so very seriously in what is fundamentally a moral issue, and indicates very briefly some reasons for doubt about each kind.
Predictor Feedback for Uncertainty-Free Systems
Authors: Zhu Yang , Krstic Miroslav
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses predictor feedback for uncertainty-free systems. The previous chapters investigated predictor control problems of uncertain single-input or multi-input LTI systems with discrete input delays. This chapter extends the predictor method to compensate for another big family of delays — distributed input delays. The control designs for unknown discrete input delays in the previous chapters are not applicable to the case of unknown distributed input delays, as the plant and actuator states are not in the strict feedback form. The chapter then presents a new systematic method to stabilize uncertain LTI systems with distributed input delays. First of all, in order to lay a foundation for adaptive and robust control for uncertain systems in later chapters, it contributes to a predictor framework in rescaled unity-interval notation for uncertainty-free systems.
Ghana: Part 2
Authors: Tignor Robert L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at how W. Arthur Lewis left Ghana as a member of the Ghanaian delegation to the all-African conference meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He did not return. In Addis, he announced his intention to take up a new post at the United Nations. He did not, however, sever his ties with Ghana, and he was to return briefly in 1963 to offer advice on the Seven-Year Development Plan. Because he had not had time to train a replacement, his departure left the Ghanaians without a fulltime economic adviser. The responsibility for drafting the budget and overseeing the five-year plan devolved on a variety of outside consultants and Ghanaian ministers themselves. At first Ghana drifted in the direction of more state controls over the economy and greater suspicion of the free market; but by 1960 and 1961 the drift had become a full-scale push as the state began to replace the Lewis programs that had featured a mixed economy with ones that looked exclusively to the state. The early pressures to scrap the Lewis economic policies and move to the left came as much in response to problems that had haunted the Ghanaian economy throughout the late 1950s as to ideology, notably trade and budgetary deficits.
Figuring America
Authors: Flint Kate
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses the place of the Native American in the British cultural imagination from the time of American independence up to the early decades of the twentieth century. The iconic image of the Indian is not only inseparable from the expansion and the internal policies of the new nation during the nineteenth century, and from the country's reflections concerning its history and its national identity, but is also central to Britain's conceptualization of the whole American continent. Additionally, the Indian is a figure charged with significance when it comes to Britain's interpretation of her whole imperial role and her responsibility toward indigenous peoples. In other words, the Indian is a touchstone for a whole range of British perceptions concerning America during the long nineteenth century and plays a pivotal role in the understanding and imagining of cultural difference. But transatlantic crossings were not limited to visual and textual representations. A significant number of Native Americans visited Britain in the long nineteenth century, and this book explores their engagement with that country, its people and institutions, and these visitors' perceptions of the development of modern, urban, industrialized life. Their reactions—whether curiosity, shock, resistance, or enthusiasm—show them to have been far from the declining and often degenerate race that popular culture frequently made them out to be.
Governing the Urban in China and India
Authors: Ren Xuefei
Published: January 2021

Urbanization is rapidly overtaking China and India, the two most populous countries in the world. One-sixth of humanity now lives in either a Chinese or Indian city. This transformation has unleashed enormous pressures on land use, housing, and the environment. Despite the stakes, the workings of urban governance in China and India remain obscure and poorly understood. This book explores how China and India govern their cities and how their different styles of governance produce inequality and exclusion. Drawing upon historical comparative analyses and extensive fieldwork (in Beijing, Guangzhou, Wukan, Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata), the book investigates the ways that Chinese and Indian cities manage land acquisition, slum clearance, and air pollution. It discovers that the two countries address these issues through radically different approaches. In China, urban governance centers on territorial institutions, such as hukou and the cadre evaluation system. In India, urban governance centers on associational politics, encompassing contingent alliances formed among state actors, the private sector, and civil society groups. The book traces the origins of territorial and associational forms of governance to late imperial China and precolonial India. It then shows how these forms have evolved to shape urban growth and residents' struggles today. As the number of urban residents in China and India reaches beyond a billion, this book makes clear that the development of cities in these two nations will have profound consequences well beyond their borders.
Land Grabs and Protests From Wukan to Singur
Authors: Ren Xuefei
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the territorial and associational forms of governance through the case of land acquisition and citizens' protests. It talks about the rural protesters at Wukan in China that targeted the bottom-level village authorities and made strong claims of land ownership. It also looks at the case in India where rural protesters at Singur targeted the regional state government and investigates the success of their resistance that depended not on land ownership claims but on the intervention of political parties. The chapter discusses rural collective land ownership that lent a strong territorial logic to the residents' mobilization in Wukan. It also analyzes the involvement of political parties that marked the associational character of mobilizations in Singur.
Robert Browning’s Bad Habit
Authors: McAlpine Erica
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines a rather embarrassing error in the closing section of Robert Browning's Pippa Passes (1841), where he casually uses a slang word for female genitalia when meaning to refer to part of a nun's clothing. Like Wordsworth, Browning comes by his mistake honestly, having drawn his definition for the word from his memory of it in a seventeenth-century satirical ballad. Browning's error turns out to be a case of misreading: his source poem actually uses the word correctly—but Browning misses the joke. By exploring his mistake in context, the chapter raises the question of how interpretive mistakes relate to broader questions of meaning and its duplicity, not least in poems that are dramatic. Browning's mistake in reading thus serves as a proxy for the kinds of misinterpretations to which all readers of poetry are susceptible, especially when treating mistakes like his.
Wondering about John Clare
Authors: McAlpine Erica
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on a word used wrongly by a poet who often took pride in his own wrongness. Unlike Browning and Wordsworth, John Clare paid little attention to details like spelling and punctuation: he depended on editors for clean copy. So what should readers make of his writing “wander” with an “o” in one poem and an “a” in another? Or of his invoking both meanings—wondering and wandering—in a single poem, but spelling them the same? Resisting the urge to gloss over this mistake, either by shrugging it off as a careless misspelling or by treating the words as yoked, the chapter disentangles the idea of mistake from carelessness on the one hand and lack of knowledge or education on the other. It calls for the possibility of blundering even amid competing editorial concerns over what constitutes a draft and when to edit for consistency, suggesting that readers have much to gain by distinguishing Clare's feigned errors from his unwilling mistakes.
Fact-Checking Elizabeth Bishop
Authors: McAlpine Erica
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at historical and factual mistakes in Elizabeth Bishop's poetry. Elizabeth Bishop was a writer dedicated to a sense of accuracy; her poem “In the Waiting Room” bears the markers of a specific place and time—“Worcester, Massachusetts” and “the fifth / of February, 1918.” Descriptive specificity is one of her specialties, and this poem, which refers to real stories in that month's National Geographic magazine, gives the impression of combining specificity with objective truth. And yet its facts are muddled: much of the material in the poem actually comes from a different issue of the magazine. Does Bishop's inaccuracy matter given her own adherence to the facts, or is it possible for descriptive poetry to offer its own aesthetic narrative? Focusing on her use and misuse of historical detail in this and other autobiographical poems, the chapter highlights what Bishop's readers have to gain by separating her poetry's fictionalized facts from its literal and empirical truths.
Violence by Nonstate Actors
Authors: Birch Sarah
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses nonstate electoral violence, exploring the circumstances under which nonstate actors resort to violent means to achieve their ends, how state-initiated violence and nonstate violence interact, and also how nonstate electoral violence is produced. It demonstrates a strong and consistent empirical association between violence committed by nonstate actors and corruption, together with a link between this form of violence and vote buying suggestive of carrot-and-stick tactics. The chapter then explores the use made by nonstate actors of violent electoral protest as a mobilizational device, and the techniques whereby politicians enlist vigilante groups and proxies to carry out high-risk forms of violence. Analytically, mobilizational violence can be understood as taking two principal forms: protests against state electoral manipulation and violence between competing informal groupings seeking to secure the loyalty of their clients. Case studies of Pakistan, Ghana, Kyrgyzstan, and Côte d'Ivoire help to probe these casual mechanisms and to analyze the production of electoral violence.
Divergent Contexts and Patterns of Violent Elections
Authors: Birch Sarah
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the strategic dynamics inherent in different geographic contexts and different time periods. It considers variations in electoral violence across the electoral cycle, over time, and across regions within countries. The analysis of strategic interactions between actors over the course of the electoral cycle suggests that retaliation can be a factor in the use of physical force, especially in the two months leading up to polling day. Case studies of the Philippines, Tanzania, Jamaica, and Ukraine demonstrate that uneven state capacity and the geography of partisanship help to account for geographic variations within countries in levels of electoral violence. The Tanzanian and Jamaican case studies also show how the way in which leaders and citizenries respond to each other's behavior over time can generate cycles of violence that reforms often fail to fully break.
Conclusion
Authors: Birch Sarah
Published: January 2021

This concluding chapter summarizes the main findings of the book and draws out their implications for political science as well as for policies on institutional design, electoral administration, electoral assistance, and diplomacy. It considers the circumstances under which different strategies of electoral-violence prevention are likely to be successful and it provides a series of empirically grounded recommendations for the policy and practitioner communities. Though the previous chapters have sought to shed more systematic comparative light on electoral violence than has been available in previous work, the study of conflictual elections remains a relatively new area of research. Much exciting work will undoubtedly be carried out on this topic in the years to come. This emerging field may prove particularly relevant in the era of democratic backsliding that the world appears to be entering, and the role of violence in electoral processes throughout the modern history of democratic voting practices is a subject whose detailed analysis is long overdue.
Is Science Made by Communities?
Authors: Porter Theodore M.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the moral economy of scientific communities. Postwar American defenders of science posited a scientific community in order to make science self-regulating. In the event that scientific method failed to keep scientists from making errors, the community would step in to sift the good from the bad. Errors would be weeded out by reviewers or fail the test of replication and be expelled from the body of scientific knowledge. Also, the community was to judge what kind of work is worthwhile, and, with a soft touch if not an invisible hand, direct the available resources to those research areas where they would do the most good. It could do so much more effectively as a free community than would ever be possible under a centralized bureaucracy. The chapter then argues that the seemingly relentless push for objectivity and impersonality in science is not quite universal, and must be understood partly as an adaptation to institutional disunity and permeable disciplinary boundaries.
Social Law and Natural Science
Authors: Porter Theodore M.
Published: January 2021

This chapter details how Adolphe Quetelet's work on error law provided the inspiration for the most important writers on statistical mathematics of the late nineteenth century. While Quetelet interpreted his discovery as confirmation that variation could be neglected in favor of the study of mean values, James Clerk Maxwell and Francis Galton, among others, saw in it a convenient and valuable tool for analyzing with mathematical precision the nature and effects of natural variation. The mathematics of variation was instrumental for the impressive achievements of the nineteenth-century kinetic theory. It also provided the key in biology to the quantitative study of heredity, leading eventually to what is now the most purely statistical of the natural sciences, quantitative genetics. Beyond its importance for particular natural and social sciences, however, the new understanding of the error law that derived from Quetelet's work proved essential for mathematical statistics itself.
Statistical Law and Human Freedom
Authors: Porter Theodore M.
Published: January 2021

This chapter evaluates the criticism of statistics. Already in the early nineteenth century, the statistical approach was attacked on the ground that mere statistical tables cannot demonstrate causality, or that mathematical probability presupposes the occurrence of events wholly by chance. The intent of these early critics was not to suggest the inadequacy of causal laws in social science, but to reject the scientific validity of statistics. The new interpretation of statistics that emerged during the 1860s and 1870s was tied to a view of society in which variation was seen as much more vital. Statistical determinism became untenable precisely when social thinkers who used numbers became unwilling to overlook the diversity of the component individuals in society, and hence denied that regularities in the collective society could justify any particular conclusions about its members. These social discussions on natural science and philosophy bore fruit in the growing interest in the analysis of variation evinced by the late-century mathematical statisticians. To be sure, Francis Galton gave little attention to the debates on human freedom, but Francis Edgeworth was closely familiar with them, and Wilhelm Lexis's important work on dispersion can only be understood in the context of this tradition.