bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pediatric Adverse Drug Events in the Outpatient Setting: An 11-Year National Analysis
Authors: Bourgeois Florence T. , Mandl Kenneth D. , Valim Clarissa , Shannon Michael W.
Published: September 2009

OBJECTIVE: Adverse drug events (ADEs) are a common complication of medical care, but few pediatric data are available describing the frequency or epidemiology of these events. We estimated the national incidence of pediatric ADEs requiring medical treatment, described the pediatric population seeking care for ADEs, and characterized the events in terms of patient symptoms and medications implicated.

METHODS: Data were obtained from the National Center for Health Statistics, which collects information on patient visits to outpatient clinics and emergency departments throughout the United States. We analyzed data for children 0 to 18 years of age seeking medical treatment for an ADE between 1995 and 2005.

RESULTS: The mean annual number of ADE-related visits was 585922 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 503687–668156) of which 78% occurred in outpatient clinics and 12% occurred in emergency departments. Children 0 to 4 years of age had the highest incidence of ADE-related visits, accounting for 43.2% (95% CI: 35.6%–51.2%) of visits. The most common symptom manifestations were dermatologic conditions (45.4% [95% CI: 36.9%–54.1%]) and gastrointestinal symptoms (16.5% [95% CI: 11.1%–23.8%]). The medication classes most frequently implicated in an ADE were antimicrobial agents (27.5% [95% CI: 21.5%–34.5%]), central nervous system agents (6.5% [95% CI: 4.0%–10.5%]), and hormones (6.1% [95% CI: 3.1%–11.6%]). While ADEs related to antimicrobial agents were most common among children 0 to 4 years old and decreased in frequency among older children, ADEs resulting from central nervous system agents and hormones increased in frequency among children 5 to 11 and 12 to 18 years old.

CONCLUSIONS: ADEs result in a substantial number of health care visits, particularly in outpatient clinics. The incidence of ADEs and medications implicated vary by age, indicating that age-specific approaches for monitoring and preventing ADEs may be most effective.
Postnatal Diagnosis of Down Syndrome: Synthesis of the Evidence on How Best to Deliver the News
Authors: Skotko Brian G. , Capone George T. , Kishnani Priya S. ,   for the Down Syndrome Diagnosis Study Group
Published: September 2009

CONTEXT: Many parents of children with Down syndrome (DS) have expressed dissatisfaction with how they learned about their child's diagnosis. DS remains the most common chromosomal condition, occurring in 1 of every 733 births, with the majority of children still diagnosed postnatally.

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to review systematically all available evidence regarding how physicians should approach the conversation in which they explain DS for the first time to new parents.

METHODS: We searched online databases from 1960 to 2008, including Medline and PsychInfo, as well as Web sites maintained by academic organizations (eg, American Academy of Pediatrics) and other nonprofit or private organizations (eg, the National Down Syndrome Society), by using the terms “Down syndrome,” “trisomy 21,” “mongolism,” “prenatal diagnosis,” “postnatal care,” and “delivery of health care.” Articles were selected that answered ≥1 research question, established a priori: (1) Who is the best person to communicate the news? (2) When is the best time to share the news? (3) Where is the best place or setting to deliver the news? (4) What information should be delivered? and (5) How should the news be communicated? All studies were evaluated for quality according to the method outlined by the US Preventative Services Task Force. Final recommendations were based on the strength of evidence.

RESULTS: Parents prefer to receive the diagnosis together in a joint meeting with their obstetrician and pediatrician. The conversation should take place in a private setting as soon as a physician suspects a diagnosis of DS. Accurate and up-to-date information should be conveyed, including information about local support groups and resources.

CONCLUSION: By implementing a few cost-neutral measures, physicians can deliver a postnatal diagnosis of DS in a manner that will be deemed by new parents as sensitive and appropriate.
Speckle‐noise suppression due to a single ferroelectric liquid‐crystal cell
Authors: Andreev Alexander A. , Andreeva Tatiyana B. , Kompanets Igor N. , Minchenko Maxim V. , Pozhidaev Eugeny P.
Published: September 2009

Abstract— A novel principle and simple technique of suppressing the speckle noise in images displayed by a laser projection system is proposed. Wave coherence in a laser beam and speckles are destroyed in real time when the beam passes through a single FLC cell where spatially inhomogeneous phase light modulation takes place due to special FLC material and an electrical pulse regime.
A rugged display: Recent results of flexible cholesteric liquid‐crystal displays
Authors: Shiu Jyh‐Wen , Lee Kuo‐Chang , Liang Chao‐Chiun , Liao Yuan‐Chang , Tsai Chen‐Chu , Chen Janglin
Published: September 2009

Abstract— A 3‐m‐long rugged flexible display having a novel single‐plastic‐substrate structure has been demonstrated with a coated cholesteric liquid‐crystal mixture. The display is designed to be fabricated by a roll‐to‐roll process to increase productivity at a competitive cost. It has the advantage of having almost no limitation in display length. The high‐resolution (300‐dpi) monochrome cholesteric liquid‐crystal display (ChLCD) can be achieved by using a photo‐addressing method. A single‐layered 10.4‐in. color ChLCD also has been developed with good color and contrast.
Stochastic development in biologically structured population models
Authors: de Valpine Perry
Published: September 2009

Variation in organismal development is ubiquitous in nature but omitted from most age‐ and stage‐structured population models. I give a general approach for formulating and analyzing its role in density‐independent population models using the framework of integral projection models. The approach allows flexible assumptions, including correlated development times among multiple life stages. I give a new Monte Carlo numerical integration approach to calculate long‐term growth rate, its sensitivities, stable age–stage distributions and reproductive value. This method requires only simulations of individual life schedules, rather than iteration of full population dynamics, and has practical and theoretical appeal because it ties easily implemented simulations to numerical solution of demographic equations. I show that stochastic development is demographically important using two examples. For a desert cactus, many stochastic development models, with independent or correlated stage durations, can generate the same stable stage distribution (SSD) as the real data, but stable age‐within‐stage distributions and sensitivities of growth rate to demographic rates differ greatly among stochastic development scenarios. For Mediterranean fruit flies, empirical variation in maturation time has a large impact on population growth. The systematic model formulation and analysis approach given here should make consideration of variable development models widely accessible and readily extendible.
Population density estimated from locations of individuals on a passive detector array
Authors: Efford Murray G. , Dawson Deanna K. , Borchers David L.
Published: September 2009

The density of a closed population of animals occupying stable home ranges may be estimated from detections of individuals on an array of detectors, using newly developed methods for spatially explicit capture–recapture. Likelihood‐based methods provide estimates for data from multi‐catch traps or from devices that record presence without restricting animal movement (“proximity” detectors such as camera traps and hair snags). As originally proposed, these methods require multiple sampling intervals. We show that equally precise and unbiased estimates may be obtained from a single sampling interval, using only the spatial pattern of detections. This considerably extends the range of possible applications, and we illustrate the potential by estimating density from simulated detections of bird vocalizations on a microphone array. Acoustic detection can be defined as occurring when received signal strength exceeds a threshold. We suggest detection models for binary acoustic data, and for continuous data comprising measurements of all signals above the threshold. While binary data are often sufficient for density estimation, modeling signal strength improves precision when the microphone array is small.
Access to mycorrhizal networks and roots of trees: importance for seedling survival and resource transfer
Authors: Teste François P. , Simard Suzanne W. , Durall Daniel M. , Guy Robert D. , Jones Melanie D. , Schoonmaker Amanda L.
Published: September 2009

Mycorrhizal networks (MNs) are fungal hyphae that connect roots of at least two plants. It has been suggested that these networks are ecologically relevant because they may facilitate interplant resource transfer and improve regeneration dynamics. This study investigated the effects of MNs on seedling survival, growth and physiological responses, interplant resource (carbon and nitrogen) transfer, and ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal colonization of seedlings by trees in dry interior Douglas‐fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) forests. On a large, recently harvested site that retained some older trees, we established 160 isolated plots containing pairs of older Douglas‐fir “donor” trees and either manually sown seed or planted Douglas‐fir “receiver” seedlings. Seed‐ and greenhouse‐grown seedlings were sown and planted into four mesh treatments that served to restrict MN access (i.e., planted into mesh bags with 0.5‐, 35‐, 250‐μm pores, or without mesh). Older trees were pulse labeled with carbon (13CO2) and nitrogen (15NH415NO3) to quantify resource transfer. After two years, seedlings grown from seed in the field had the greatest survival and received the greatest amounts of transferred carbon (0.0063% of donor photo‐assimilates) and nitrogen (0.0018%) where they were grown without mesh; however, planted seedlings were not affected by access to tree roots and hyphae. Size of “donor” trees was inversely related to the amount of carbon transferred to seedlings. The potential for MNs to form was high (based on high similarity of EM communities between hosts), and MN‐mediated colonization appeared only to be important for seedlings grown from seed in the field. These results demonstrate that MNs and mycorrhizal roots of trees may be ecologically important for natural regeneration in dry forests, but it is still uncertain whether resource transfer is an important mechanism underlying seedling establishment.
Disturbance alters local–regional richness relationships in Appalachian forests
Authors: Belote R. Travis , Sanders Nathan J. , Jones Robert H.
Published: September 2009

Whether biological diversity within communities is limited by local interactions or regional species pools remains an important question in ecology. In this paper, we investigate how an experimentally applied tree‐harvesting disturbance gradient influenced local–regional richness relationships. Plant species richness was measured at three spatial scales (2 ha = regional; 576 m2and 1 m2= local) on three occasions (one year pre‐disturbance, one year post‐disturbance, and 10 years post‐disturbance) across five disturbance treatments (uncut control through clearcut) replicated throughout the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA. We investigated whether species richness in 576‐m2plots and 1‐m2subplots depended on species richness in 2‐ha experimental units and whether this relationship changed through time before and after canopy disturbance. We found that, before disturbance, the relationship between local and regional richness was weak or nonexistent. One year after disturbance local richness was a positive function of regional richness, because local sites were colonized from the regional species pool. Ten years after disturbance, the positive relationship persisted, but the slope had decreased by half. These results suggest that disturbance can set the stage for strong influences of regional species pools on local community assembly in temperate forests. However, as time since disturbance increases, local controls on community assembly decouple the relationships between regional and local diversity.
Use of the Beta Distribution To Determine Well-Log Shale Parameters
Authors: Gullco Robert , Anderson Malcolm
Published: September 2009

The Beta distribution in n-dimensions is introduced to describe the proportions of the mineralogical components existing in a certain stratigraphie interval (the porosity is included as a "mineralogical component"). The justification for doing so is empirical. The model allows the calculation of well-logging parameters, such as GRma, GRsh, and shale density, without having to introduce them by "eye." It also allows the probabilistic calculation of the rock composition at each depth when there are more mineralogical components than logs: that is, there is a shortage of equations. In addition to this, the Beta model can be used to test the hypothesis that the relationship between any two components can be regarded as random, which should have applications in reservoir characterization.
Influence of Oscillating Flow on LDL Transport and Wall Shear Stress in the Normal Aortic Arch
Authors: Soulis J , Giannoglou G , Dimitrakopoulou M , Papaioannou V , Logothetides S , Mikhailidis D
Published: September 2009

Lipid accumulation in the aortic wall is an important factor in the development of atherosclerosis. The Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) at the surface of the endothelium in relation to Wall Shear Stress (WSS) in the normal human aortic arch under unsteady, normal flow and mass conditions was computationally analysed. Concave sides of the aortic arch exhibit, relatively to the convex ones, elevated LDL levels at the surface of the endothelium for all time steps. At the peak systolic velocity, the LDL level reaches a value 23.0% higher than that at entrance in the ascending-descending aorta region. The corresponding LDL levels at the surface of the endothelium for the near minimum entrance velocity instant reaches 26.0%. During the cardiac cycle, the highest area averaged normalized LDL taken up as compared to the lowest one is 0.69%. WSS plays an important role in the lipid accumulation. Low WSS regions are exposed to high LDL levels at the surface of the endothelium. Regions of elevated LDL levels do not necessarily co-locate to the sites of lowest WSS. The near wall paths of the velocities might be the most important factor for the elevated LDL levels at the surface of the endothelium.
Representations and Identities for Homogeneous Technologies
Authors: Espinosa Miguel , Bonaldi Pietro , Vallejo Hernán
Published: September 2009

Using up to nine different ways to represent homogeneous technologies with decreasing returns to scale, this article presents and proves identities between those different representations of such technologies, outlining the homogeneity properties of each representation. These identities, which allow to shift from one representation of a technology to another -- and which are summarized in a matrix of identities -- can be useful since they provide a tool to obtain explicit functional forms for homogeneous technologies. They can also be useful to simplify computational procedures when different representations of a technology are needed. Finally, the article also refers explicitly to some aspects of producer theory that are often neglected or treated in a marginal way in the literature, such as the inverse supply, the non conditional cost and the inverse input demands functions.
Validation of QSAR models for legislative purposes
Authors: Tichý Miloň , Rucki Marián
Published: September 2009

Validation of QSAR models for legislative purposes

OECD principles of validation of Quantitative Structure - Activity Relationships (QSAR) models for legislative purposes are given and explained. Reasons of their origination and development, like system REACH, are described. A basic impulse has come from some OECD countries followed by all (almost) other countries of the world.
Surgical treatment of adult degenerative spondylolisthesis by instrumented transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion in the Han nationality
Authors: Xu Hao , Tang Hao , Li Zhonghai
Published: September 2009

Object

The transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) procedure was developed to provide the surgeon with a fusion procedure that may reduce many of the risks and limitations associated with posterior lumbar interbody fusion, yet produce similar stability in the spine. There are few large series with long-term follow-up data regarding instrumented TLIF and placement of 1 diagonal polyetheretherketone (PEEK) cage. The authors performed a prospective study to evaluate the outcome and safety of instrumented TLIF with 1 diagonal PEEK cage for degenerative spondylolisthesis in the Han nationality in China.

Methods

Between May 2001 and April 2006, 60 patients (35 men and 25 women; mean age 55.5 years, range 45–70 years) with symptomatic degenerative spondylolisthesis underwent the TLIF procedure with 1 diagonal PEEK cage and additional pedicle screw internal fixation at the authors' institution. The inclusion criteria involved degenerative spondylolisthesis (Grades I and II) in patients with chronic low-back pain with or without leg pain.

Results

One patient had a postoperative temporary motor and sensory deficit of the adjacent nerve root. Reoperation was required in 1 patient because of pedicle screw migration. One patient developed a pseudarthrosis and had increasing complaints of low-back pain 1 year postoperatively and underwent a subsequent revision surgery. Two patients had nerve root symptomatic compression resulting from cage migration and insufficient decompression after surgery, and they underwent revision. Two patients had a dural tear that required fibrin glue application during surgery. No implant fracture or subsidence occurred in any patient. Clinically, the pain index and Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) score improved significantly from before surgery to the 2-year follow-up. In the TLIF group, the pain index improved from 69 to 25 (p < 0.001). The postoperative ODI showed a significant postoperative reduction of disability during the whole period of follow-up (p < 0.001). The preoperative mean ODI score was 32.3 (16–80), and postoperative 13.1 (0–28). Disc space height and foraminal height were restored by the surgery and maintained at the latest follow-up time.

Conclusions

In the authors' experience, instrumented TLIF with 1 diagonal PEEK cage can be a surgical option for treatment of degenerative spondylolisthesis in the Han nationality in China.
The Quantum Noise of Ferromagnetic π-Bloch Domain Walls
Authors: Crompton Peter  R.
Published: September 2009

We quantify the probability per unit Euclidean-time of reversing the magnetization of a π-Bloch vector, which describes the Ferromagnetic Domain Walls of a Ferromagnetic Nanowire at finite-temperatures. Our approach, based on Langer’s Theory, treats the double sine-Gordon model that defines the π-Bloch vectors via a procedure of nonperturbative renormalization, and uses importance sampling methods to minimise the free energy of the system and identify the saddlepoint solution corresponding to the reversal probability. We identify that whilst the general solution for the free energy minima cannot be expressed in closed form, we can obtain a closed expression for the saddlepoint by maximizing the entanglement entropy of the system as a polynomial ring. We use this approach to quantify the geometric and non-geometric contributions to the entanglement entropy of the Ferromagnetic Nanowire, defined between entangled Ferromagnetic Domain Walls, and evaluate the Euclidean-time dependence of the domain wall width and angular momentum transfer at the domain walls, which has been recently proposed as a mechanism for Quantum Memory Storage.
The Effect of Dye Density on the Efficiency of Photosensitization of TiO2 Films: Light-Harvesting by Phenothiazine-Labelled Dendritic Ruthenium Complexes
Authors: Fox Marye Anne , Whitesell James K. , Magde Douglas , Zhu Lin-Yong
Published: September 2009

A family of dendritic tris-bipyridyl ruthenium coordination complexes incorporating two or four carboxylate groups for binding to a TiO2 surface site and another dendritic linker between the metal complex and highly absorptive dyes were formulated as thin films on TiO2 coated glass. The family included phenothiazine-substituted dendrons of increasing structural complexity and higher optical density. The dye-loaded films were characterized by steady-state emission and absorption measurements and by kinetic studies of luminescence and transient absorption. Upon photoexcitation of the bound dyes, rapid electron injection into the metal oxide film was the dominant observed process, producing oxidized dye that persisted for hundreds of milliseconds. Complex decay profiles for emission, transient absorption, and optical bleaching of the dendritic dyes point to highly heterogeneous behavior for the films, with observed persistence lifetimes related directly to structurally enhance electronic coupling between the metal oxide support and the dendritic dyes.
Connectivity, Coverage and Placement in Wireless Sensor Networks
Authors: Li Ji , Andrew Lachlan L.H. , Foh Chuan Heng , Zukerman Moshe , Chen Hsiao-Hwa
Published: September 2009

Wireless communication between sensors allows the formation of flexible sensor networks, which can be deployed rapidly over wide or inaccessible areas. However, the need to gather data from all sensors in the network imposes constraints on the distances between sensors. This survey describes the state of the art in techniques for determining the minimum density and optimal locations of relay nodes and ordinary sensors to ensure connectivity, subject to various degrees of uncertainty in the locations of the nodes.
Structure and Sensor Properties of Thin Ordered Solid Films
Authors: Sołoducho Jadwiga , Cabaj Joanna , Świst Agnieszka
Published: September 2009

Miniaturized gas sensors and biosensors based on nanostructured sensing elements have attracted considerable interest because these nanostructured materials can be used to significantly improve sensor sensitivity and the response time. We report here on a generic, reversible sensing platform based on hybrid nanofilms. Thin ordered Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films built of fluorene derivatives were used as effective gas sensors for both oxidative and reductive analytes. A novel immobilization method based on thin LB films as a matrix has been developed for construction of sensing protein layers. Biomolecules can often be incorporated into and immobilized on Langmuir-Blodgett films using adsorption methods or by covalent immobilization of proteins. The sensor sensitisation was achieved by an amphiphilic N-alkyl-bis(thiophene)arylenes admixed into the film. The interlaced derivative was expected to facilitate the electron transfer, thereby enhancing the sensor sensitivity. The results suggest that this may be very promising approach for exploring the interactions between proteins and high throughput detection of phenol derivatives in wastewater.
Specialization clines in the pollination systems of agaves (Agavaceae) and columnar cacti (Cactaceae): A phylogenetically controlled meta‐analysis
Authors: Munguía‐Rosas Miguel A. , Sosa Vinicio J. , Ojeda Mario M. , De‐Nova J. Arturo
Published: September 2009

The biogeography of plant–animal interactions is a novel topic on which many disciplines converge (e.g., reproductive biology, biogeography, and evolutionary biology). Narrative reviews have indicated that tropical columnar cacti and agaves have highly specialized pollination systems, while extratropical species have generalized systems. However, this dichotomy has never been quantitatively tested. We tested this hypothesis using traditional and phylogenetically informed meta‐analysis. Three effect sizes were estimated from the literature: diurnal, nocturnal, and hand cross‐pollination (an indicator of pollen limitation). Columnar cactus pollination systems ranged from purely bat‐pollinated in the tropics to generalized pollination, with diurnal visitors as effective as nocturnal visitors in extratropical regions; even when phylogenetic relatedness among species is taken into account. Metaregressions identified a latitudinal increase in pollen limitation in columnar cacti, but this increase was not significant after correcting for phylogeny. The currently available data for agaves do not support any latitudinal trend. Nectar production of columnar cacti varied with latitude. Although this variation is positively correlated with pollination by diurnal visitors, it is influenced by phylogeny. The degree of specificity in the pollination systems of columnar cacti is heavily influenced by ecological factors and has a predictable geographic pattern.
Validation of the CDC-RTI Diabetes Cost-Effectiveness Model
Authors: Hoerger Thomas , Segel Joel , Zhang Ping , Sorensen Stephen
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of the CDC-RTI Diabetes Cost-Effectiveness Model by comparing rates of diabetes incidence and complications to existing published results. We performed 47 internal and external validation exercises comparing the model simulated outcomes with the outcomes from 24 published trials. To simulate the outcomes for each published study, we input a cohort with similar baseline characteristics and treatment and then modeled the development of diabetes and its complications for the same follow-up duration as in the trial. Outcomes measured included diabetes incidence, renal disease, neuropathy, retinopathy, cardiovascular disease, and mortality. The results of our model simulations were generally close to published outcomes. To determine how well our model was able to simulate the published outcomes, we ran three sets of simple regressions (actual outcome = b0 + b1 × simulated outcome)— one for the internal validation studies, one for the external validation studies, and one for the external validation studies of diabetes incidence. For the 17 internal validation analyses, the R2 value was 0.992 and the slope of the regression line was 1.001. For the 24 external validation analyses that did not include diabetes incidence, the R2 value was 0.969 and the slope of the regression line was 0.991; the six external validation analyses of diabetes incidence had an R2 value of 0.913. In conclusion, the CDC-RTI Diabetes Cost-Effectiveness Model accurately models the development and progression of diabetes and can be used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of potential diabetes prevention and treatment programs.
CD11chigh Dendritic Cells Are Essential for Activation of CD4+ T Cells and Generation of Specific Antibodies following Mucosal Immunization
Authors: Fahlén-Yrlid Linda , Gustafsson Tobias , Westlund Jessica , Holmberg Anna , Strömbeck Anna , Blomquist Margareta , MacPherson Gordon G. , Holmgren Jan , Yrlid Ulf
Published: September 2009

To generate vaccines that protect mucosal surfaces, a better understanding of the cells required in vivo for activation of the adaptive immune response following mucosal immunization is required. CD11chigh conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) have been shown to be necessary for activation of naive CD8+ T cells in vivo, but the role of cDCs in CD4+ T cell activation is still unclear, especially at mucosal surfaces. The activation of naive Ag-specific CD4+ T cells and the generation of Abs following mucosal administration of Ag with or without the potent mucosal adjuvant cholera toxin were therefore analyzed in mice depleted of CD11chigh cDCs. Our results show that cDCs are absolutely required for activation of CD4+ T cells after oral and nasal immunization. Ag-specific IgG titers in serum, as well as Ag-specific intestinal IgA, were completely abrogated after feeding mice OVA and cholera toxin. However, giving a very high dose of Ag, 30-fold more than required to detect T cell proliferation, to cDC-ablated mice resulted in proliferation of Ag-specific CD4+ T cells. This proliferation was not inhibited by additional depletion of plasmacytoid DCs or in cDC-depleted mice whose B cells were MHC-II deficient. This study therefore demonstrates that cDCs are required for successful mucosal immunization, unless a very high dose of Ag is administered.
CD8+ Cell Depletion of SHIV89.6P-Infected Macaques Induces CD4+ T Cell Proliferation that Contributes to Increased Viral Loads
Authors: Mueller Yvonne M. , Do Duc H. , Boyer Jean D. , Kader Muhamuda , Mattapallil Joseph J. , Lewis Mark G. , Weiner David B. , Katsikis Peter D.
Published: September 2009

Previous studies have shown that depletion of CD8+ cells during acute and chronic simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection leads to increased viral replication, morbidity, and mortality, which have been attributed to loss of CD8+ T cell-mediated control of SIV. However, these studies did not exclude that CD8+ cell depletion increased homeostatic proliferation of CD4+ T cells, resulting in increased viral targets and, therefore, viral rebound. Chronically SHIV89.6P-infected cynomolgus macaques were CD8+ cell-depleted, and the frequency, cell number, and phenotype of CD4+ T cells and viral infection were examined using flow cytometry and quantitative real-time PCR. The frequency and number of Ki-67-expressing CD4+ T cells were increased with CD8+ cell depletion. This proliferation of CD4+ T cells occurred even in animals with no rebound of viral loads. Most of the proliferating cells were effector memory CD4+ T cells. Plasma simian HIV (SHIV) RNA copies positively correlated with proliferating CD4+ T cells and SHIV DNA copies in Ki-67+ CD4+ T cells. Although this study does not exclude an important role for virus-specific CD8+ T cells in SIV and SHIV infection, our data suggest that homeostatic proliferation is an important contributor to increases in plasma viremia that follow CD8+ cell depletion.
A theological reflection on the stories of police officers working under a new constitution
Authors: Burger Brian , Müller Julian
Published: September 2009

Fighting crime in the new South Africa has taken on new challenges under a new constitution. Using a narrative approach to research, the stories of police officers were listened to and reflected upon theologically. This process was carried out within a postfoundationalist and social constructionist paradigm that enabled further dialogue with other disciplines, seeking common ground as well as points of difference.
Fibers, Elastomeric
Authors: Boliek John E. , Jensen Arnold W.
Published: September 2009

Elastomeric fibers can be made from natural or synthetic polymeric materials that provide product with high elongation, low modulus, and good recovery from stretching. These fibers are made primarily from polyisoprenes (natural rubber) or polyurethanes and to a lesser extent, segmented polyesters. In the United States the generic designation spandex has been given to a manufactured fiber in which the fiber‐forming substance is a long‐chain synthetic polymer comprised of at least 85% of a segmented polyurethane. Manufacture of cut rubber and extruded latex thread are discussed. Spandex fiber can be produced by four processes: melt extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning (the most common method) and solution wet spinning. Uses for cut thread and extruded latex are as a covered rubber in narrow fabrics, braids, surgical hosiery, and strip lace. Spandex fibers are used extensively in sportswear and hosiery products.
Insulin and Other Antidiabetic Agents
Authors: Shoelson Steven E.
Published: September 2009

Diabetes mellitus is a pathologic condition characterized by chronic hyperglycemia (elevated blood glucose) and additional disturbances of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. Diabetes is divided into two forms: Insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) (Type 1) and non‐insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) (Type 2). Type 1 is juvenile‐onset diabetes and Type 2 is maturity‐onset diabetes. The goals of therapy include elimination of the clinical symptoms of hyperglycemia. Therapeutic regimens are usually tailored to the individual. Insulin is a peptide hormone produced in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas, which acts as the principal regulator of glucose homeostasis. Today most insulin for human use is produced by DNA recombinant methods, although some parts of the world still use porcine and bovine insulin. Insulin preparations are classified as rapid‐, regular‐, intermediate‐, and long‐acting injections. There are six classes of diabetes pills and several combinations of oral medications available for persons with Type 2 diabetes. They are classified as insulintropic, compounds, sensitizers, thiazolidinediones, inhibitors of α‐glucose, and DDP‐4 inhibitors. Newer developments are discussed such as insulin from herbal extracts and the search for insulin in an oral form.
Microwave Limiters
Authors: Kaul Roger
Published: September 2009

The sections in this article are

Solid‐State Limiters

Gaseous Limiters

Ferrite Limiters

Other Limiter Technologies

Future Activities
Movement Disorders
Authors: Houghton David J , Hurtig Howard I
Published: September 2009

Movement disorders comprise a wide group of neurologic conditions seen by the practicing physician. Abnormal movements are characterized by their phenomenology with much differentiation made by their speed (hypokinetic=‘too slow’ and hyperkinetic=‘too fast’). Such findings may be described as parkinsonism, tremor, dystonia, chorea, athetosis, ballism, myoclonus, tics and/or ataxia. Familiar movement disorder diagnoses include Parkinson disease, Huntington disease and Tourette syndrome. Most movement disorders arise from abnormalities within the basal ganglia and its connections. Symptomatic treatment is available for most conditions, but complete resolution or cure remains elusive.
Expert Opinion:
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

Under what conditions United States courts can admit expert opinion evidence is a topic that has been the subject of a number of important court decisions. Among the most important ones are,
Frye v. United States
(1923),
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
(1993), and
Kumho Tire v. Carmichael
(1999). These decisions and this article describe the path of the early approach of
Frye
, which suggested that novel scientific evidence was admissible if based on principles that were generally accepted in the relevant scientific field, to the more modern view discussed in the latter cases, that explained that admissibility depends, not on general acceptance, but on proof of reliability of the underlying principles.
Expert Opinion in Court: Civil Law Jurisdictions (
F
rance,
G
ermany,
I
taly, and
S
pain)
Authors: Turner Barry
Published: September 2009

Civil jurisdictions around the world have evolved from many very different legal philosophies and traditions. These lead in many ways to quite large differences in procedure and the use of evidence in trials. By examining a number of variant legal traditions, this article will attempt to illustrate the differences in approach and also to show that where expert evidence is concerned there is more often more a similarity or even a consensus in the assembly and application of expert testimony in litigation.
Cross‐Examination of Experts
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

After an expert witness has come to court to testify, and has given testimony under direct examination, he may thereafter also be questioned by the opposing litigant. The principal purposes of cross‐examination are to explore the qualifications of the witness and to discover potential weaknesses in the evidence given during direct examination. When the cross‐examination is concluded, the litigant who conducted the initial direct examination has a further opportunity to question the expert again to clear up any ambiguities about what the expert said when responding to cross‐examination questions. This is called re‐direct examination. In some instances the opposing litigant may be permitted to again clarify what was said during re‐direct by engaging in a re‐cross examination. The article describes some salient points of the entire process.
D

aubert v.

M

errell

D

ow

P

harmaceuticals
Authors: Smith Ann C.
Published: September 2009

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
is the landmark US Supreme Court case dealing with the admissibility of forensic expert opinion testimony. The opinion was handed down in 1993. Despite the often noted comment that
Daubert
is to be considered the most important American Court decision dealing with forensic evidence ever decided, its ultimate impact on expert witnessing is also called in question [1]. The decision may be cited by referring to any of the following law reports:
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
, 509 U.S. 579, 113S.Ct. 2786, 125 L.Ed.2d 469 (1993).

In
Daubert
, the Court interpreted the Federal Rules of Evidence (hereinafter FRE) on expert testimony enacted in 1975.
Daubert
held that the trial judge is to act as a “gatekeeper” in determining whether proffered expert scientific evidence is reliable as well as relevant to the case being litigated. To achieve this result, the Court suggested that the trial judges use a multipart test to guide their reliability evaluation. These suggested guidelines are often referred to as the
Daubert
factors.

Although the decision is technically applicable only to US federal courts, all forensic experts should be familiar with it, because court decisions in other jurisdictions refer to and often rely on it [3]. In other countries, seminars at professional meetings also discuss the impact on forensic science of needing proof to satisfy the
Daubert
factors.

Subsequent court decisions such as General
Electric v. Joiner
and
Kumho Tire v. Carmichael
provide further clarification on the admissibility rules of forensic expert testimony.
Daubert
's impact on testifying as an expert is seen as revolutionary by many in the forensic sciences, though the decision is also controversial [2]. Some experts believe that its standards are too lenient and others that they are too strict. This article discusses the Court's holding, its influence, and its impact on forensic science.
Discovery of Expert Findings
Authors: Wheate Rhonda M.
Published: September 2009

The disclosure of expert findings to other parties in criminal trials and civil litigation is governed by legislation, codes, regulations, and case law, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the proceedings. This article sets out the general requirements for the discovery of expert findings in common law jurisdictions (excluding the United States) and civil law countries, with a focus on criminal procedure.
Discovery: Depositions
Authors: Wheate Rhonda M.
Published: September 2009

Depositions are a pretrial method of obtaining evidence in common law legal systems to assist in the preparation of a legal case. Deponents give evidence under oath and a transcript of the deposition is often relied upon and referred to in subsequent legal proceedings. Deponents are advised to prepare for a deposition in the same way as they would prepare for giving expert in a criminal trial or civil hearing.
F

rye v.

U

nited

S

tates
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

The decision of
Frye v. United States
is a key decisions that, despite its age, is still valid law today in many jurisdictions, and remains of importance in others. The case held that before a judge can admit expert opinion testimony of a novel nature, the principles on which the testimony is based must have obtained “general acceptance” in the scientific field in which it belongs. Even though it is an American court decision, it has been cited in cases worldwide.
Jury Instructions on Expert Testimony
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

In adversary system jurisdictions, the jury is the finder of the facts. Before the jury is asked to deliberate and determine what, in their view, happened in the case being litigated, the trial judge must instruct them in the legal requirements that the jury must consider when it seeks to resolve the factual issues. In those instructions, the jury will be told,
inter alia
, that they cannot give greater weight to expert testimony than to that of ordinary fact witnesses. Another instruction will tell jurors that they can ignore expert testimony they find not credible. To obviate having testimony ignored or disbelieved, it is that forensic scientists receive training on giving effective court testimony.
Asphyxia
Authors: Pollanen Michael S.
Published: September 2009

Asphyxial or rapid anoxial deaths are due to oxygen deprivation of the brain. The most common mechanisms of rapid anoxial deaths are mechanical, those that interfere with cerebral arterial perfusion, breathing, or airflow through the nose, mouth, or upper aerodigestive tract. Rapid anoxial deaths present technical challenges to the pathologist due to the nonspecificity of autopsy findings and the need to consider circumstantial information. Although some myths have been dispelled (e.g., the postmortem signs of asphyxia), there remain open questions that need to be addressed to provide a firmer evidence‐based foundation and a more scientific approach to the postmortem diagnosis of rapid anoxial death.
Odontology
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , De Angelis Danilo
Published: September 2009

Forensic odontology deals with research and application of specific knowledge to forensic cases where teeth can provide any sort of evidence. Forensic odontology training depends on the country; however, the starting point is usually considered to be a degree in dentistry (DDS, MDS) that can be followed by further specialization in universities and private institutions or affiliation to national or international associations. This adds forensic skills to the medical background of the dentist (anatomical, physiological, pathological, and therapeutic knowledge of the oral and facial tissue). The role of the forensic odontologist often starts from the recovery of the material to be studied; therefore, their knowledge should include elements of scene investigation, photographic, and topographic survey. Computer knowledge allows the odontologist to operate with modern software, particularly image elaboration programs, absolutely necessary nowadays. Once training is completed, professional activity is usually performed in close contact with universities, police authorities, prosecutors, and attorneys. Main activities, besides research and training, consist of positive identification of human remains, aging the living, and bitemark analysis.
Injury: Burns, Scalds, and Chemical
Authors: Bohnert Michael
Published: September 2009

The purpose of the forensic investigation of deaths related to heat exposure is to determine the manner and cause of death, the vitality of the findings, and the identity of the victim. The basis of the assessment is a careful evaluation of the autopsy findings. Additional investigations, such as toxicological tests (e.g., determination of carbon monoxide concentration, cyanide concentration, and blood alcohol concentration) or histological examination (particularly of the airways), may help to complete the assessment of the case. The possible findings of burned bodies cover a broad spectrum. They can range from minor, local, superficial burns of the skin to calcined skeletal remains without any soft tissue left. The external as well as the internal findings in burned bodies depend on the temperature actually applied to the body, the time for which it is applied, the kind of transmission of the heat to the body, and other prevailing conditions. The consequences are burns of the exposed tissue, changes in the content and distribution of tissue fluid, fixation of the tissue, and shrinking processes. Only in very rare cases do the effects of the heat cease with the time of death. Consequently, many findings seen at autopsy may be of postmortem origin with fluent transitions between intravital, perimortal, and postmortem changes.
Time of Death Determinations
Authors: Madea Burkhard
Published: September 2009

Estimation of the time since death is a practical task in daily forensic case work. The main principle of determination of the time since death is the calculation of a measurable date along a time–dependent curve back to the start point. Current parameters used for estimating the time since death are completely different in nature (physical processes, physical–chemical processes, bacterial processes, and metabolic processes). The methods currently used for estimating the time since death and the practical application of different methods are outlined.
Wounds: Sharp Injury
Authors: Pollak Stefan , Saukko Pekka J.
Published: September 2009

Sharp‐force injuries are traditionally divided into stab, cut, and chop wounds. Stab wounds occur when a pointed object—usually a knife—penetrates into the body along its longitudinal axis. Cuts are caused by the slicing effect of a blade, and chop wounds are produced by blows with a sharp‐edged tool such as an axe or a machete. A morphological feature common to all wounds caused by sharp force is that the skin lesions have smooth, uncontused, more or less gaping margins. Fatal outcomes are mostly due to strong internal and/or external bleeding. Medicolegal investigations are performed for documentation of the injuries and interpretation as to how they came about and whether they were inflicted by the victims themselves or by another person. The group of self‐inflicted injuries includes completed and attempted suicides, dermal artifacts in patients with personality disorders, voluntary self‐damage among prisoners, those inflicted for the purpose of insurance fraud, and, finally, those for simulations of criminal offenses.

Characteristic findings help the forensic expert to differentiate between accident, suicide, and homicide. The presence of defense injuries is a certain indicator for an attack with a sharp instrument. The article gives a short overview of the circumstances, phenomena, and consequences of sharp‐force injuries. The text is illustrated by numerous photographs from forensic routine work.
Archaeology
Authors: Hunter John
Published: September 2009

Forensic archaeology is the application of archaeological theory within modern criminal investigation, typically in the search for and recovery of buried human remains. This can apply in both individual and mass graves. The topic is broken into several key elements: methodology and stratigraphy, search, recovery, and mass graves. The methodology considers the underlying principles of stratigraphy, which can allow remains to be interpreted in terms of buried context and chronology, and the importance of treating the burial itself as a crime scene. The search for buried remains can involve the use of aerial photography and imagery, geophysical survey, cadaver dogs, fieldcraft, probing, and trial excavation. The importance of noninvasive methods is highlighted, as is the need to use complementary methods, especially in geophysics. Stress is laid on the importance of creating records and on eliminating areas with confidence. Records are also important in the recovery of buried remains, given that archaeology is a nonrepeatable process. The importance of using half‐sections is stressed, as is the need to recognize stratigraphic boundaries and avoid contamination. The application of archaeology to mass graves is relatively new; it requires archaeologists to be familiar with manifestations of human rights abuse, torture, and machine excavation and to understand issues pertaining to primary and secondary graves.
Biological Stains
Authors: Laux Dale L.
Published: September 2009

Profiling a stain using DNA methods has been established as the gold standard in associating a stain to an individual. However, it remains critically important to establish the biological source of the DNA profile. This article discusses the methods of identifying body fluid stains.