bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Sermon Repertory from Cambridge University
Authors: Wenzel Siegfried
Published: November 2023

Manuscript 356 (583) of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, has attracted attention from both the cataloguer of the college’s medieval manuscripts and the pioneer student of medieval preaching in England. M. R. James concluded his description of the fifteenth-century codex with the remark, ‘Though we have plenty of medieval sermons, few books occur in which the time and place of their preaching are given’; his preceding description included samples of such times and places given in the manuscript.1 Some years later, G. R. Owst ‘inspected’ the manuscript and repeated some of James’s information, but then ended, with an almost audible sigh, ‘So illegible is [the scribe’s] writing, unfortunately, that little or nothing can be deciphered at any casual examination of the work.’2 Why this record of fifteenth-century preaching has not been explored further is easy to see: to Owst’s complaint at the near illegibility of the handwriting and James’s earlier statement that the hand is ‘much contracted’ must be added the fact that the text itself is highly condensed and frequently incoherent. The combination of a rather poor script, fading ink, and highly abbreviated writing understandably discourages any ‘casual examination’.
The Early Middle Ages 700–1250
Authors: Fletcher Richard
Published: November 2023

In the early years of the eighth century the Iberian peninsula fell under Islamic domination. By the second half of the thirteenth it had been repossessed for Christendom, save only the little enclave of the amirate of Granada which clung on to a precarious independence until 1492. This 500-year epoch has long been known to historians of Spain as the age of the Reconquista or ‘Reconquest’. Organizing their medieval history round the drama of the Reconquista has traditionally been a cherished feature of the self-image of the Spanish people. A potent national mythology could be spun about the Catholic, crusading mission of their medieval forebears. Above all, the kaleidoscopically jumbled history of the Spanish Middle Ages could be rendered intelligible by this radical simplification. Moralizing followed hard on the heels of simplifying. If the Reconquista was the destiny and the duty of medieval Spaniards, then persons or processes which were deemed to have delayed or obstructed it could be criticized, marginalized, and vilified.
Law and Gospel: The Importance of Philosophy at Reformation Wittenberg
Authors: Kusukawa Sachiko
Published: November 2023

Everything the papacy has instituted and ordered serves only to increase sin and error. What else are the universities, unless they are utterly changed from what they have been hitherto, than what the book of Maccabees calls gymnasia epheborum et graecae gloriae? What are they but places where loose living is practised, where little is taught of the Holy Scriptures and Christian faith, and where only the blind, heathen teacher Aristotle rules far more than Christ? In this regard my advice would be that Aristotle’s Physics, Metaphysics, Concerning the Soul, and Ethics, which hitherto have been thought to be his best books, should he completely discarded along with all the rest of his books that boast about nature, although nothing can be learned from them either about nature or the Spirit....I dare say that any potter has more knowledge of nature than is written in these books. It grieves me to the quick that this damned, conceited, rascally heathen has deluded and made fools of so many of the best Christians with his misleading writings. God has sent him as a plague upon us on account of our sins.
The Teaching of Philosophy at Seventeenth-Century Zurich
Authors: Rother Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

By a decree of 29 September 1523 the Zurich City Council consented to the establishment of a school of theology according to the plans drawn up by the reformer Ulrich Zwingli. On 19 June 1525 the Prophezei—as Zwingli called the new school, though the name lectorium (or lectiones publicue) and later Carolinum became common—was inaugurated. The main purpose of Zwingli’s school was the instruction of reformed ministers. The teaching of the early professors was limited to a critical exegesis of the Bible, which mainly consisted in the comparison of the original text and the Latin translation. After Zwingli’s death (1531) the lessons ceased to be exclusively Biblical. The students were systematically taught Latin. Greek, and Hebrew. The Latin lessons were combined with an introduction to rhetoric and dialectic. The professor of Greek was not only entrusted with the explanation of the philological, but also the philosophical aspects of the texts he read with his students. In 1541 Konrad Gesner (1516-1564) was asked to give lessons on physics; in 1558 his lectureship was transformed into an ordinary professorship. From then on, there were five chairs in the Zurich lectorium: two for theology, one for Greek, one for Latin, rhetoric and dialectic, and one for physics; the professor of physics was also responsible for the teaching of ethics.
Philosophy in the Eighteenth-Century Dissenting Academies of England and Wales
Authors: Sell Alan P F
Published: November 2023

Those who were nurtured philosophically at a time when that ancient discipline was straitjacketed by the conviction not only that philosophy was simply ‘talk about talk’. but that the most interesting kinds of talk should be proscribed; when the writings of all (especially the idealists) who had preceded Moore, Russell, and Wittgenstein were viewed by some with patronizing disbelief—people thus scarred in their youth whose wounds have yet to heal, will simply have to swallow hard when turning to eighteenth-century philosophy. For here almost anything goes; philosophers will turn their minds to all manner of questions—sometimes out of interest, frequently because they are spurred on by controversy and—not least in the Dissenting academies—because of a shortage of teachers. The more philosophically talented tutors would glide elegantly from logic to metaphysics to ethics to theology and back again, and even the less gifted were expected to familiarize students with all of these fields. Their efforts were generally worthy, their results sometimes unfortunate. Nor was the need of polymaths soon over. When at the end of our period—in 1804—John Pye Smith delivered his inaugural address at Homerton Academy (1730-1820), he listed the subjects he intended to cover: natural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, natural history, logic. ontology, philosophy of the human mind, composition and rhetoric, history, mathematics, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English.
An English Country House at War: Littlecote and the Pophams
Authors: Roy Ian
Published: November 2023

In the 1974 Neale lecture at the University of London, Michael Howard addressed the question of the ‘British Way’ in warfare. Was there, as some had argued, a specially British solution to the problems of conducting war effectively against continental rivals? Did a short cut to victory lie in a mainly maritime strategy and Britain's use of the navy? Howard neatly disposed of these arguments, and there is no need to reopen the question here. In his overview of British strategy since the time of the first Elizabeth, however, he touched on the policies pursued by Cromwell, who, for the first time for many years, possessed forces adequate enough to enter the Great Power rivalries of Europe. This was a crucial period in the development of the nation’s military potential, and it needs little excuse to give it further consideration.
Britain, Germany, and the Admiralty’s Plans for Attacking German Territory, 1906—1915
Authors: Hayes Paul
Published: November 2023

By the winter of 1914–15 an apparent inability to change the course of the war in the West encouraged a search for other strategic options. The ill-starred attempt to seize the Dardanelles, and the Salonika campaign represented the temporary victory of those who wished to break out of the strait-jacket of trench warfare and costly offensives in Flanders and northern France. The failure of these campaigns contributed to a decline in the attractiveness of side-shows even amongst those who, like Lloyd George, had never been whole-hearted supporters of the policy of a war of attrition. By 1916 these sceptics reluctantly agreed they had no plausible alternative to offer to the strategy of killing more Germans.
Being Friends: The Combined Chiefs of Staff and the Making of Allied Strategy in the Second World War
Authors: Danchev Alex
Published: November 2023

It was, after all, a remarkable way to run a war. Out of a frenzy of unreadiness a committee was conjured—a committee whose principals, truly an ocean apart, hardly knew each other and rarely met. They were brought together only in the most artificial circumstances—in such outlandish places as Casablanca, Cairo, Tehran, Yalta—in tense, adversarial encounters for high stakes. They laboured under a degree of mutual suspicion never dispelled, exacerbated by some unintelligibility and even at times plain dislike. They represented sharply different experiences of war, strategic thinking, global dispositions, states of mobilization, available resources, and central co-ordination of defence. They controlled an intricate fretwork of specialist Anglo-American committees, to say nothing of the vast integrated theatre commands.
Grand Strategies and Less-than-Grand Strategies: A Twentieth-Century Critique
Authors: Kennedy Paul
Published: November 2023

One of the characteristics of a great (as opposed to a merely competent) scholar is an ability to transcend the normal limitations of a discipline, to produce writings which attract the attention both of academics in other fields and of non-academics, and thus to address some of the larger issues of society, culture, and politics. For obvious reasons, each discipline’s ‘pool’ of scholars who can play that transcending role is very limited, and often embarrassingly thin, so that it has always been a great comfort to historians of international and strategic affairs to be able to advance the name of Michael Howard as at least one among us who fits into that special category. While possessed of all of the credentials of a classically trained military historian, he has in addition repeatedly addressed contemporary issues such as deterrence and military ethics, bringing to the attention of policy-makers and their publics the importance of having historical perspective and balance in grappling with the affairs of state. From arms control to civil–military relations, Michael Howard has added mightily to the public debates which are the hallmark of all democratic societies seeking to order their policy priorities.
Ovidius Methodizatus: the Metamorphoses of Ovid in a Sixteenth-Century Paris College
Authors: Blair Ann
Published: November 2023

In the first issue of this journal Anthony Grafton introduced a novel approach to the study of humanist education by analysing the manuscript annotations entered in the margins of a Sammelband of schooltexts used in the final form of a late-sixteenth-century Paris college. He found that the notes taken by one Gerald de Mayres on Horace ‘s Odes among other texts at the lectures of Claude Mignault, although conventional in offering short moral lessons and information on ancient realia of different kinds, distinctively avoided parallels with Greek literature, readily available from the great commentaries of Lambin, and instead focused on the formal structure of the poems and on the different types of arguments used by Horace. But Claude Mignault was not just any obscure teacher of the ‘first class ‘ at the College de Reims in 1572-3. In addition to a commentary on Alciato ‘s emblem-book, he published in 1577 a commentary on Omer Talon ‘s Rhetoric and argued in support of its Ramist theses. Mignault even drew material for his lectures at Reims from Ramus ‘s own commentary on the Odes ‘. Mignault can thus be identified as a fairly explicit follower of Ramus ‘s ‘single method ‘ in his years at the College de Reims and this commitment alone might account for his predominant concern with the argumentative structure of all the texts that he assigned. It is with especially good reason then that Grafton wonders whether Mignault was a ‘typical regent master ‘.
Noetics, Tractarians, and the Reform of the University of Oxford in the Nineteenth Century*
Authors: Matthew H C G
Published: November 2023

The University of Oxford in the first half of the nineteenth century faced in micro the challenge which the British governing class faced in macro ‘, was it possible both to preserve Anglican hegemony and to remain ‘National ‘? That hegemony was profoundly entrenched by law and by custom both in the national parliament and in the senior university, though, significantly as we shall find, at the national level annual Acts of Parliament gave a degree of civic accommodation to those who did not attend the established church.
The Life-Cycle Hypothesis in Models of Income Distribution and Wealth Accumulation
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

In the traditional comparative-static model aggregate saving is normally postulated as a constant fraction for the whole economy in the case of a one-class model, or as a constant ratio for each group in the case of two-or multi-class society. This assumption, which at least in the recent literature goes back to Keynes’s and Kalecki’s saving functions, is a simple formulation which can be, from a statistical point of view, estimated with common data: it is hence simple and realistic at the same time.
The Accumulation of Capital in a Two-Class Life-Cycle Model in Continuous Time
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter we considered a two-class life-cycle model in which we explicity derived the value of the equilibrium variables of the model, namely the optimal interest rate and rate of profit by which both a steady growth and individuals’ utility maximization are achieved. In order to obtain explicit analytical solutions we considered a very simple two-period model based on some restrictive assumptions which we proceed now to relax in order to observe the effects of the various parameters on a few relevant variables (like initial consumption-, saving-, and accumulation-rates) in a more generalized life-cycle model of income and wealth distribution. Additionally this analysis, with particular reference to the saving- and consumption-rates, will allow us to compare the results obtained in a deterministic life-cycle model with those valid for a corresponding stochastic model (see Chapter 7) in order to observe the effects of uncertainty in a life-cycle model under optimality.
The Dynamic of Capital Accumulation in a Stochastic World
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

The topic of this short chapter is only partially connected with the main argument of this volume, since it does not deal with the issue of profit determination and income distribution in a macro-economic framework. It is however connected with the issue of the dynamic of capital accumulation at the micro-level in a stochastic world. More precisely we shall be concerned with: the dynamics of capital accumulation in a stochastic world where individuals or families have the choice between consumption and saving over a given time-horizon; the choice of individuals or families with respect to the kind of financial investment chosen, i.e. risky or safe assets; the conditions under which uncertainty, via the portfolio choice, may give rise to class differences, thus reinforcing the hypothesis of a society characterized by the presence of different socio-economic classes as in the case of the classical, post-Keynesian (as well as neoclassical) models of growth and income distribution analysed in the earlier chapters.
Niels Banke, 1955. On Adam Smith’s Connections to Norway and Denmark
Authors: Johansen Hans
Published: November 2023

Hans Degen stresses in his article “On the Danish translation of Adam Smith and contemporary opinion concerning it”2 that Dra-.bye was attached to the Christiania (Oslo) merchant James Collett. The importance of the Norwegians has also been emphasized by professor Axel Nielsen in some comments he gave to the Glasgow professor W R. Scott in connection with two letters from Adam Smith to two Norwegians, Peter Anker and Andreas Holt, about the Danish translation of the Wealth of Nations. These letters, which will be referred to later, and Axel Nielsen’s comments have given rise to this investigation into Adam Smith’s relations with .”Jonvegian merchant families and Denmark.
Steel to Stone
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

In this book the late Jeffrey Clark subjects the history of colonialism among the Wiru of Papua New Guinea to a fresh and subtle examination. He reflects upon his own fieldwork as an anthropologist as he scrutinizes the cultural construction of encounters and exchanges between New Guineans and Australians from the 1930s on. Colonized and colonizers alike are the focus of an analysis that draws upon theories of culture, temporality, discursive representation, and anthropology in the postcolonial era. Steel to Stone offers an original critique of several different theories and perspectives and, in its ensemble of frameworks, constitutes a highly innovative contribution to anthropological thinking about history and culture. Of especial interest is Clark’s application, in a New Guinean context, of Foucault’s analysis of ‘the way in which new regimes of power and knowledge are inscribed on the body’. The Wiru, faced with the impact of a colonizing culture, are shown to inscribe their own history on the body, and to read in it their understanding of particular events. Overall, Clark provides a compelling picture of a contemporary Melanesian culture, at the critical point at which the Wiru people are interpreting, invoking, and reinventing their history in the context of a developing nation state.
Tangenemo and Other Stories
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

It may seem unusual to start a chronicle of colonialism with Wiru tangenemo, stories of origin, migration, and settlement in Pangia, but I do this deliberately to evoke a contrast with narratives of colonialism and European exploration, them selves providing other kinds of myths for dealing with time, space, and the ‘other’.
The Present in the Past
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

When I returned to Pangia in 1989 I brought with me a pair of small but powerful binoculars whose purchase I could not resist in the duty-free shop. Much of my time was spent in walking between settlements, as much for pleasure as for any incidental data collection, usually in the presence of young men with varying degrees of education and experience of the world.
The Genesis of the Learner’s Dictionary
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

At various times during its sixty-year history the learner’s dictionary has been strengthened and enriched by programmes of lexical research with an applied linguistic focus. This chapter traces the multiple connections between research carried out from the late 1920s onwards — chiefly in the Far East — and four pioneering English dictionaries compiled specifically for foreign learners a decade or so later. Significantly, the three sole or principal authors of those dictionaries— Michael West, Harold E. Palmer, and A. S. Hornby — were all centrally involved in major research activity, but the projects mounted by the Tokyo Institute for Research in English Teaching (IRET), of which, as we have seen, Palmer was director from 1923 till 1936, and where Hornby succeeded him as head of research, addressed so many issues of crucial importance to language teaching and dictionary development, that they will have pride of place in this critical survey.
The Third Generation of Learners’ Dictionaries
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

The 1980s were a major watershed in learner lexicography. It was clear early in the decade that the next phase in dictionary development would be dominated by the computer, and that it would be affected by the increasing professionalism of lexicography, with its own specialist publications and conferences, and influenced by the growing body of research into dictionary users and dictionary use (Tomaszczyk 1979; Bejoint 1981; Hartmann 1987). ⊥ Furthermore, the opportunities of an expanding, worldwide market, especially for general-purpose learners’ dictionaries, were sharpening competition between the two major publishers already involved (Oxford University Press and Longman), and would lead to the entry of a third (Collins), significantly in collaboration with a research team at the University of Birmingham (Cowie 1989d).
Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

Understanding any communication depends on the listener or reader recognizing that some words refer to what has already been said or written (his, its, he, there, etc.). This mode of reference, anaphora, involves complicated cognitive and syntactic processes, which people usually perform unerringly, but which present formidable problems for the linguist and cognitive scientist trying to explain precisely how comprehension is achieved. Anaphora is thus a central research focus in syntactic and semantic theory, while understanding and modelling its operation in discourse are important targets in computational linguistics and cognitive science. Yan Huang provides an extensive and accessible overview of the major contemporary issues surrounding anaphora and gives a critical survey of the many and diverse contemporary approaches to it. He provides by far the fullest cross-linguistic account yet published: Dr Huang's survey and analysis are based on a rich collection of data drawn from around 550 of the world's languages. Topics covered include binding and control, null subjects and objects, long distance reflexivisation, logophoricity, bridging-cross reference, switch-reference, and discourse anaphora. Written by a leading expert on anaphora, the book will be the standard point of reference for all those interested in this important topic in theoretical linguistics. It will be a vital reference for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, on the interfaces between them, on linguistic typology, and on computational linguistics.
Pragmatic Approaches to Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

One of the most encouraging developments in the study of anaphora in the last decade has been the increasing awareness of the important role played by pragmatics in regulating anaphora. The main aim of this chapter is twofold. In the first place, I shall reinforce the two important arguments I have made in Huang (1987, 1989, 1991a, 1991b, 1994, 1995, 1997), namely, (i) syntax, semantics, and pragmatics are interconnected to determine many of the processes of anaphora that are thought to fall within the province of grammar, and (ii) the extent to which syntax, semantics, and pragmatics interact varies typologically. Secondly, I shall advance the neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora I have constructed in Huang (1987, 1989, 1991a, 1991b, 1994, 1995, 1997) against a wide variety of genetically unrelated and structurally diverse languages. In addition, I shall survey a number of other pragmatic/cognitive/ functional analyses of anaphora.
Markup Systems
Authors: Nelson Gerald
Published: November 2023

Markup is the first level of annotation applied to the component corpora in ICE. It may be divided into two distinct types: textual markup, which is added to the texts themselves, and bibliographical and biographical markup, which is stored extern ally in the form of a file header for each text. The system for textual markup is based on a proposal by Rosta (1990) and is fully described in two manuals, one each for spoken and written texts (Nelson, 1991a, 1991b). The system for encoding bibliographical and biographical information is described in Nelson (1991c). In this paper I will discuss both markup types in tum, giving examples from the British ICE corpus (ICE-GB). Finally, I will discuss some of the ways in which markup is used in text retrieval.
Second-Language Corpora
Authors: Schmied Josef
Published: November 2023

Although the number of corpus-linguistic publications has increased dramatically in the last few years (e.g. Svartvik, 1992), the special problems and the potential of second-language corpora have not been given adequate systematic treatment. In sociolinguistic textbooks or in overviews of English as a world language the distinction between English as a Native Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL), English as an International Language (BIL), and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) has been widely recognized as one of the special assets of English (cf. Asher, 1994 s.v.), but the implications of this have not penetrated to the heart of corpus linguistics. Corpus linguistics began in the ENL context. The Survey of English Usage Corpus, the Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (LOB) Corpus, and the Brown Corpus were the pioneering models of the first generation, combining a strong empirical data-based approach with a sensitivity for systematic (socio-)stylistic contextualism and variationism. In the EFL context (and its modem expansion the BIL context) the data based approach has been used since the heyday of error and contrastive analyses in the 1960s. The International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE, cf. Ch. 2 this volume) is a logical continuation of these approaches, providing a more systematic account than individual collections by schoolteachers or publishers. ENL and EFL corpora are linked rather closely: in the development of ENL corpora the direct applications in target-language grammars (such as the Oxford English Grammar, 1996) and dictionaries (such as the COBUILD Dictionary, 1987) have played a driving role, as EFL texts are measured against these models.
The Corpus as a Research Domain
Authors: Kennedy Graeme
Published: November 2023

The design and development of machine-readable corpora and tools for their analysis has been a major preoccupation of corpus linguistics for more than three decades. During this period there have been massive changes in the capacity and speed of computers, an increasing use of microcomputers with CD-ROM as the basis for storage, the development of new and faster means of text capture through optical scanning, and the development of more sophisticated software packages for the analysis of corpora. At the same time there have been continuing issues in the design and use of corpora. How big should a corpus be to provide a valid and reliable picture of how a language is structured and used? What aspects of a language can be validly and reliably described using a corpus of a particular size? Can a corpus be designed to be a representative sample of a language ‘as a whole’? Should particular genres be represented in a corpus and, if so, which genres? What are the respective roles of automatic and manual analysis in corpus-based research?As Quirk (1992) has noted, machine-readable corpora have grown in size from the one-million-word standard of the Survey of English Usage (SEU) Corpus and the Brown Corpus of the early 1960s to the 100-million-word British National Corpus (BNC) of the 1990s. The most recent developments, including vast monitor corpora of potentially unlimited size and the International Corpus of English (ICE), promise to open up new directions in the use of corpora. Although there have been numerous corpus-based studies of English completed since 1960, the changes in technology mentioned above and issues in the design and development of corpora have in a sense been necessary prerequisites for systematic corpus-based research. It is just such systematic research, involving comprehensive lexical and grammatical description and comparisons across genres, registers, and major regional varieties which the ICE project will encourage and facilitate. The purpose of this paper is to outline some matters which might be considered part of a research agenda for the ICE corpus.
Introduction
Authors: Müller Nicole
Published: November 2023

This book is written with readers from a variety of linguistic, philological, and literary backgrounds in mind, sharing an interest in the texts of medieval Ireland and Wales. Among its aims are the presentation of specific data sets in their context, and the analysis of specific syntactic and semantic structures within their textual environments. What ties data from texts of various genres and two languages together are two closely linked common concerns: the types and use of constructions in which the participant most usually expressed by the subject of an active, finite clause is expressed by other means —for example, a prepositional phrase.
Welsh
Authors: Müller Nicole
Published: November 2023

Section 1.3 briefly introduced the various Welsh constructions that involve the expression of P1 and P2 by means other than the subject and object, respectively, of a finite verb. The greater part of this chapter is devoted to verbal noun constructions, their structure and behaviour in context. As pointed out above, verbal noun constructions can be said to replace finite verb clauses, in that constructions that contain a verbal noun as process element, but no finite verbal element, are grammatical. In the following discussion, such constructions will be referred to as verbal noun clauses (or VN clauses), a clause being defined for the present purposes as a construction that contains a verbal (i.e. a process) element, either finite or nonfinite. The first section (2.1) of this chapter analyses VN clauses with overt P1 in Welsh fictional narrative texts. Welsh legal material forms the basis of Section 2.2. In Section 2.3 we shall consider the question whether we can speak of a productive passive construction with overt P1 in medieval Welsh. Finally, Section 2.4 examines the expression of the categories IAG, INST, and CAUSE in medieval Welsh.
Collocation and Chunking
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

Corpus evidence demonstrates clearly that language is strongly patterned: many words occur repeatedly in certain lexicogrammatical patterns. This ties in with psycholinguistic research, which suggests that language is processed in chunks, at least part of the time, and with psycholinguistic–phonological arguments ‘that the tone-group is the usual unit of neurolinguistic pre-preparation’ (Laver 1970: 69), rather than individual sounds or words. The basic unit for encoding and decoding may therefore be the group, set phrase, or collocation, rather than the orthographic word. This is relevant to FEIs, as it may shed light on how they are processed and how they fossilize, as well as on their functions within discourse.
Cohesion and FEIs
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

Cohesion makes texts into text. It is the enabling system of ties or links within a text that makes it possible to interpret its elements as meaningful and relevant; it is both meaning-oriented and text-oriented. In Cohesion in English, Halliday and Hasan (1976) describe how first the grammatical system and then the lexical system provide the cohesive ties which enable text. Hasan presents reorganized models of cohesion in Hasan (1984) and in Halliday and Hasan (1989: 70–96). These later models blur the 1976 distinction between grammatical and lexical cohesion, and redefine the notion of lexical cohesion in terms of ‘general’ and ‘instantial’, and of ‘identity chains’ and ‘similarity chains’ (1984: 201 ff. and 1989: 84ff.).
Anaphora and discourse
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

In order to make sense of the complex functioning of discourse anaphora, we wilt need to introduce some important distinctions and concepts. This is the purpose of the present chapter, which will examine the complementary discourse procedures of deixis and anaphora(§ 2.2), argue in favour of a theoretical distinction between text and discourse and its relevance for the study of (discourse) anaphora and deixis (§ 2.3), introduce some basic concepts and distinctions for the analysis of instances of discourse anaphora (§ 2.4), and finally isolate the specific discourse-referential properties of a subset of different types of indexical expression in the two languages under study in this book(§ 2.5).
Background To Scottish Gaelic
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

Before tackling the substantive issues in the syntax and semantics of SGaelic, it is necessary to give some basic background as to the structure of the language, and the kinds of patterns and paradigms it exhibits.
Acquisition of the Lexicon
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we addressed the question of whether the developing bilin gual has one or two phonological systems. A similar question has been raised in relation to the lexicon of developing bilinguals-that is, whether they have one or two lexical systems from the beginning oflexical development. In practice, this question has involved establishing how early developing bilinguals are able to pro duce two words with the same meaning, one from each language. Or, in other words, how early are they able to produce translation equivalents? The answer to this question is also of theoretical interest in that it will help us to test a par ticular hypothesis about lexical acquisition, the idea that children avoid synonymy in the early stages of lexical development. One formulation of this idea is known as the Principle of Contrast. In this chapter we shall focus on M’s lexical acquisi tion from the first words until age 1;10, in order to determine at what point and to what extent M was able to produce translation equivalents.
The Emergence of Syntax
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 4 we showed that our data did not support the Principle of Contrast, or the idea that children avoid synonymous terms in early acquisition. We also discussed the difficulties involved in raising the question of whether a develop ing bilingual has one or two lexical systems from the beginning. In the case of syntax, a similar question is raised, but it has meant different things to different researchers. In this chapter we shall identify two versions of the question, Version and Version 2. Version 1 asks whether there are early mixed utterances, and, if so, attributes this to a single initial system. Version 2 asks whether the utterances containing words from one of the child’s languages exhibit the same syntax as the utterances containing words from the child’s other language.
Control and Event Structure: The View from the Center
Authors: Hudson-D’zmura Susan
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes some preliminary work on specifying the relation ship between lexical semantics and discourse structure in order to show how these types of linguistic representations restrict or control inference making (Joshi and Weinstein 1981; Chapter 2). Previously researchers have examined what features of surface utterances contribute to the prominence of entities within an utterance. The present chapter asks what is a plausible, pragmatic principle of organization and how would such a principle affect (1) the structure of lexical representations, and (2) what may be projected to surface structure and in what configuration.
Centering Theory and the Givenness Hierarchy: Towards a Synthesis
Authors: Gundel Jeanette K
Published: November 2023

Gundel, Hedberg, and Zacharski ( 1993) propose a theory which aims to explain the distribution and interpretation of noun phrase forms in natural language discourse. A major premise of this work is that different deter miners and pronominal forms signal different cognitive statuses (information about location in memory and attention state), thereby serving as processing signals which assist the addressee in restricting the set of possible referents. The present chapter attempts to integrate this framework (GHZ) with centering theory. GHZ and centering theory make similar predictions about the distribution and interpretation of pronouns and full NPs in naturally occurring discourse. The two theories also complement one another in that GHZ is more general, covering a broader range of forms and statuses.
Word Order, Information Structure, and Centering in Turkish
Authors: Hoffman Beryl
Published: November 2023

This chapter investigates the interaction between centering and word or der in a ‘free’ word order language, Turkish. Word order in Turkish is used to express the information structure of a sentence, i.e., pragmatic notions such as topic, focus, and backgrounding. In a corpus study, I show that the Cb is often placed in the sentence-initial topic position in Turkish regard less of whether this topic is the subject or a scrambled object. However, l argue that centering and information structure play different roles in dis course processing.
The Place of Centering in a General Theory of Anaphora Resolution
Authors: Roberts Craige
Published: November 2023

Centering presupposes some type of locality between utterances, and of firs principles for characterizing the preferred patterns of pronoun use which anaphorically relate utterances that are local in that sense. This chapter argues that integrating the theory of the structures of discourse of Grosz and Sidner with a dynamic theory of semantic interpretation related to those of Heim and Kamp makes possible a more precise characterization of the locality relevant for centering. and of the related notion of salience, than has heretofore been possible. while also capturing logical constraints on anaphora. The primitives of the resulting theory are dis course referents. not syntactic NPs, so that the focus is on information about discourse structure, not on syntactic structure or relations. Data involving definiteness and pronouns without linguistic antecedents are used to argue for the proposed integrated theory.
Derivations or Constraints, or Derivations and Constraints?
Authors: Roca Iggy
Published: November 2023

Revolutionary change appears to have moved in on phonology, the rule-and-derivation tradition of the past thirty-odd years now seemingly being discarded for constraint-based approaches, Optimality Theory notable among them. Indeed, both the speed of transmission of OT and the explosion in research it has triggered in a short time-span are remarkable by any standards in the field of phonology, and probably in the whole of linguistics.
Questions of Priorities: An Introductory Overview of Optimality Theory in Phonology
Authors: Sherrard Nicholas
Published: November 2023

Optimality Theory (OT—Prince and Smolensky (P&S) 1993, McCarthy and Prince (M&P) 1993a) is an approach to grammar, most notably phonology, based on the parallel evaluation of possible output forms with regard to a ranked system of violable constraints. This chapter aims to provide a brief working introduction to some of the leading current ideas and applications of phonological OT. Concepts and techniques are emphasized, rather than results or detailed argumentation. The structure of the article is as follows. Section 1 presents an overview of the essential architecture of OT. Section 2 introduces and classifies, for expository purposes, some of the major types of constraint commonly found in OT analyses. The following four sections delve further into constraints of each type, based upon this classification scheme: markedness, alignment, constituency and correspondence. Lastly, section 7 surveys some more advanced applications drawing on much of the earlier discussion, and poses some challenges for the future development of the theory.
Expressing Phonetic Naturalness in Phonology
Authors: Myers Scott
Published: November 2023

In comparing sound patterns across languages, a phonologist develops a sense of what patterns are ‘natural’, in that they occur frequently in the world’s languages, and what patterns are ‘unnatural’, in that they are unlikely to occur. In many cases, we would agree that what distinguishes a natural pattern from an unnatural one is that the former is phonetically natural, in that it corresponds to a phonetic pattern. In this chapter I will argue that Optimality Theory (OT: Prince and Smolensky 1993) is better able than traditional derivational models to express the correspondence between phonetically natural phonological patterns and their phonetic counterparts. This makes OT better suited than derivational models to distinguish natural phonological patterns from unnatural ones.
Berber Syllabification: Derivations or Constraints?
Authors: Clements G N
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses one of the central questions raised by the recent development of constraint-based approaches to phonology: is it possible to eliminate derivations from phonological analysis? As is well known, classical generative phonology and many of its offspring proposed to characterize the sound patterns of natural languages—understood both as static patterns of phoneme distribution and as regular patterns of alternation—in terms of grammars consisting of ordered (or in some versions, unordered) rewrite rules, applying one after the other to an input form to derive a sequence of lines, the last of which is the surface form. The ordered sequence of lines created in this way constitutes a derivation.
Correspondence and Compositionality: The Ga-gyo Variation in Japanese Phonology
Authors: Itô Junko , Mester Armin
Published: November 2023

This chapter is a contribution to the study of surface-to-surface, or output-output, correspondence constraints in Optimality Theory (see McCarthy and Prince, 1995 for an authoritative statement of the original proposal, as well as numerous other works cited there). The particular question to be investigated concerns the tension between two widely shared theoretical assumptions about the computation of phonological form, which, taken together, seem to lead to a contradiction. First, there is the central tenet of OT summarized in (1): phonological constraints are constraints on outputs.
Conjunctions as Heads
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I wll investigate the idea that conjunctions may be heads. The term head has been used a long time; Hudson (1987:109) dates it back to Henry Sweet (1891) (quoted in Matthews 198 I : 165), who used it to refer to any word to which other words are subordinate. In recent years, the term has had a renaissance, being used for the most prominent and super-ordinate word in endocentric constructions. The emergence of X-bar syntax (Chomsky 1970; Jackendoff 1977) has made its existence absolutely crucial, since the head is what projects into an X-bar phrase. Other modem, syntactic theories also rely on the notion head, e.g., Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (Gazdar et al. 1985), Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar (Pollard and Sag 1987), and dependency grammar (see references in Hudson 1987:109).
Extraction out of CoP
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

In Section 6.2, we shall investigate the principles themselves, and see that there have in fact been several examples in the literature which seem to violate them. In Section 6.3, it will become clear that there are two kinds of extraction, the acceptability of which is determined by different factors. Section 6.3.1 contains an analysis of what appears to be extraction of whole conjuncts. It is inspired by facts from unbalanced coordination, and is basically what was presented in Johannessen (1993b). In this analysis, the position of the extracted element within the CoP is of prime importance. Section 6.3.2 contains a revised analysis of the data in 6.3.1, arrived at because of some serious problems in the first analysis.
Semantic and Thematic Issues
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

In this chapter. we shall take a look at some semantic and thematic issues. The first part Section 7.2, deals with semantic issues. We shall discuss the difference between coordination and subordination, and show that the difference may not be as marked as one might have thought. Evidence is taken from a number of languages, in which the distinction between coordination and subordination is drawn at different places. Also, coordinating conjunctions have often developed from subordinating ones. We shaH also discuss issues that have been viewed as problematic for some theories of coordination. These issues are to a large extent not a problem for the present theory (or for other modem approaches), but they are still interesting, and well worth looking at.
On Sociolinguistic Change
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

Our basic knowledge of the linguistic structure of Arvanítika is primarily due to the scholarship of Eric Hamp (see above, Ch. 2 n. 2, and references throughout this book; also Sasse 1990). Significant early contributions were also made by the Arvanítika philologist Phourikis (1932: 28 –76, 1933: 49–181) who collected a large amount of material on lexicon, dialect problems, social customs, and the like (for wedding symbols see his early description, 1927: 3 –59). Phourikis represents a typical case of philological erudition and thorough scholarship combined with a prelinguistic understanding of certain issues. Thus, whereas Hamp (1961: 102) admires his work on Arvanítika, he finds Phourikis at times ‘excessively puristic’, particularly when the latter attempts to criticize Weigand’s (1926: 167–220) Arvanítika forms as non-conforming to the proper Arvanítika morphological shapes. It is, indeed, not unusual for philologically-minded theorists of an earlier period not to be sensitive fieldworkers (see Hamp 1974: 390–433, for a detailed discussion of Neogrammarians as fieldworkers with a special reference to Meyer, whose etymologicalphilological background made him a rather poor phonetician).
Plato’s Instrumental Notion of Signs
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

Symbols do not occur in nature. They are made; or, to express it less misleadingly, they emerge. As the American philosopher and sign theorist Charles Sanders Peirce wrote, “Symbols grow” (CP 2.302).1 In the social and cultural sciences of the nineteenth century, as well as in linguistics, the word growth had a particular meaning-the sense in which we use the word today when we say that a city “grew naturally” in order to convey that it was not “artificially” plotted out on a drawing board. This is one of the organismic metaphors so popular in the nineteenth century, and as long as it is allowed to stand unexplained, it explains little itself. One of the goals of this study is to decipher it. The metaphor of growth correctly suggests, at any rate, that symbols generally are not created by people according to plan or intent, and that their development is a process. This is just as true for the so-called status symbols examined in the Introduction as it is for linguistic symbols. Of course, there are also artificially and intentionally generated symbols, such as company logos or the terms of scientific definition. But it is exactly their artificial generation that makes such symbols relatively uninteresting for sign theory. One of the feeble myths of the linguistic disciplines is the belief that language’s history began with a phase of Urschöpfung, typically followed by one of decay (cf. Ehrismann 1986). The residue of this linguistic creation myth is still around today.